Arnoldia Archive

[{"type":"arnoldia","title":"2022-79-4","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25794","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15e8527.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","arnoldia_cover":true},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Asian Longhorned Beetle Scouting","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25795","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15e856b.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"12","authors":"Lawlor, Rachel","start_page":"64","end_page":"64","article_content":"Every winter, teams of horticulture staff members scout a random assortment of our susceptible trees for the presence of the invasive Asian long-horned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). Maples, elms, willows, horse chestnuts, and poplars are some of their preferred hosts. We record the DBH of the tree, note the start time, and scan the trunk and each branch of a selected tree with binoculars, which is much easier when the trees are lacking foliage. We're looking for any egg-laying sites chewed into the bark by the females, or exit holes from emerging adults after tunneling and feeding on the tree's sapwood and heartwood. A single tree, tall enough and with a spreading crown, could take a group of three over an hour to scout, or a cumulative three work hours to check that specimen. Luckily, ALB has not been detected in the Arboretum. For the health and safety of our collections, we will continue to be vigilant in our yearly scour of the landscape for this destructive pest."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Grafting the Past to the Future","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25796","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15e896e.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"11","authors":"Kapplow, Heather","start_page":"61","end_page":"63","article_content":"Though raised on a Pennsylvanian farm, Syracuse-based artist Sam Van Aken was unfamiliar with fruit cultivation when he started working with trees as an art medium. Van Aken's most recent artwork, Open Orchard, is a distributed, site-specific fruit orchard, part of which exists as a long-term art installation on public parkland on Governor's Island in New York City, and the rest of which is scattered around the boroughs of the city, echoing the planting patterns of generations of immigrants that brought plants and seeds with them to New York from their respective homelands. The part of the orchard that is on the island is in an idyllic location, cascading down a gentle slope overlooking New York Harbor. Getting it there was a long journey, beginning in 2014. \\\"I had been shopping around for a place where I could plant one hundred trees in New York City, and people would kind of pat me on the back and say 'good luck!'\\\" Van Aken's lucky break came when he was introduced to curator Shane Brennan, who had just become Director of Public Programs on Governors Island. Brennan responded to the idea immediately, but it was such a drawn-out process that Brennan moved on before Open Orchard was realized. Even finding the right location on the island took several years. The final location was determined by topography. \\\"Fruit trees like to be on raised hills,\\\" Van Aken explains, \\\"so the cold can run off.\\\" But the location ends up also being very resonant with Open Orchard's theme of fruit cultivation as a portrait of the people who have migrated to and lived in New York. \\\"I still pinch myself, because I can't believe that the orchard is there,\\\" he admits. \\\"There's a view when you come from the back part over the hill, and you look down the road, and you see Ellis Island, and the whole project sort of comes together.\\\" The 102 trees on the island will be matched by a roughly equal number planted around New York City, through a collaboration with NYC Parks' community gardening program, Green Thumb (some of these are already in place, others are in a nursery on Governor's Island, in various stages of grafting). Each tree will bear four or five varieties of fruit (apple or stone fruit), all of which are native to or have been historically cultivated in New York. \\\"There are over 100 varieties [of fruit] that originated in New York,\\\" explains Van Aken. Only about two dozen of these are still actively (i.e., commercially) cultivated, but Van Aken was amazed by how much detail he could find about what has grown in New York over the past three hundred years. \\\"I tracked varieties down to intersections, street corners, and farms. And then I took that historical map of New York City, laid it on top of a current one, and realized that I could place these varieties back into the places they originated from. We're currently in the process of doing that. I think today, we've distributed about fifty trees.\\\" Van Aken worked with the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA), accessing their germplasm collection to work with varietals that have ceased to exist outside of their archive. \\\"With a fruit tree, you can't [just] store it as a seed, right? So they keep a living sample going. For apples, they store samples in Geneva, New York. For pears, in Corvallis, Oregon. For stone fruit I go to [University of California,] Davis. They'll keep a living example in each of these locations, but then they'll also maintain it as tissue culture.\\\" Trees matched with community gardens get paired with local caretakers, and Van Aken also offers comprehensive grafting workshops and tree-care training materials through Green Thumb as part of the long-term plan for maintaining the offisland part of the orchard. \\\"It's been amazing, distributing trees to people. If you're ever feeling low, just give somebody a tree. I get pictures from the community gardens with five people holding a potted tree and they're just beaming and I'm like, 'I'm doing something right,' you know?\\\" The fruit in Open Orchard spans from pre-contact (pre-colonial) times until about WWII, and includes many fruit varieties that hadn't been accessible for 150-200 years. The newest fruit variety in the orchard is the Stanley plum, developed in Geneva, New York in 1938. \\\"The oldest European variety\\\" says Van Aken, \\\"is the Damson plum. That's believed to date back to Damascus [11 BCE] and was brought into Europe, where it became naturalized and then brought here.\u2026 But, the beach plum, that's been in New York for 10,000 years!\\\" In fact, it may have always been on Governor's Island. \\\"Verrazano [1524] and Hudson [1609] both mentioned it when they sailed into New York Harbor. It's kind of crazy to think that the shoreline of New York was completely lined with these plums that would blossom in white in the spring. It's a far cry from what it [the shoreline] is now.\\\" \\\"When I was looking at all those [tree] placements for community gardens\\\" Van Aken shares, \\\"I realized I had to work with the Lenape Center on this.\\\" Van Aken cold-emailed The Lenape Center, and they enthusiastically invited him into a few of their own projects\u2014for example, an exhibition that the group curated for the Greenpoint branch of the Brooklyn Public Library, which includes a teaching garden composed of \\\"indigenous fruit trees\\\" cultivated by the Lenape in Manhattan, and meant to build \\\"continuity between ecological past and present.\\\" The Lenape Center helped Van Aken arrange for all of the native tree varieties to be planted in Prospect Park (including beach plum, American plum, black cherry, chokecherry, and American persimmon), and also has a future collaboration with Van Aken in the works. Open Orchard grew out of Van Aken's earlier fruit-tree-related work, Tree of 40 Fruit, where the artist pushed the orchardist's practice of grafting to its outer limits. Bearing a title that rings equally biblical and futuristic, Van Aken's Tree of 40 Fruit is a living artwork, with editions spread throughout the world, each producing blossoms and then fruit of 40 different stone fruit varieties. His motivations for constructing Tree of 40 Fruit were among the most traditional artistic drives: he wanted to create something impossible and unexpected\u2014to surprise and delight people when a normal looking tree in their fall\/winter environments burst into multi-colored flower in the spring and then a fruit basket in the summer. But as is often the case in art making, the process became at least as interesting a project as the outcome. In this case, the process brought up big questions about the sustainability of how fruit and knowledge about fruit gets shared. Van Aken's efforts to realize Tree of 40 Fruit raised the specter of varietal extinction. There were once thousands of varieties of stone fruit in the United States, but because of fruit industrialization, it was difficult for him to find and graft scions from enough different varieties for Tree of 40 Fruit to live up to its name. The work thus became an odyssey of archival research and relationship building, and ultimately transformed into a preservation project: purchasers of Tree of 40 Fruit don't just own a unique edition of an artwork. They own an entire cultural history\u2014a living collection of beloved fruits brought from one place to another via immigration\u2014along with some responsibility for keeping rare varieties of peaches, plums, apricots, and cherries present in the future. When searching for fruit varieties for Tree of 40 Fruit, Van Aken found himself welcomed at agricultural research stations and the USDA, but also felt keenly aware that his access to these resources was due to his institutional affiliation (Van Aken is an Associate Professor in the School of Art at Syracuse University). Open Orchard was conceived to make these rare varieties available again for everyone to pick, taste, and modify. He considered a title for the project based on the notion of orchards as commons in Medieval Europe. Then he learned about a philosophy in the Lenape culture \\\"Where essentially, a tree couldn't be owned. You could only come to be gifted the fruit off of the tree.\\\" Open Orchard, with its echo of open-source culture where nothing is proprietary, and anyone can sample and rearrange, clicked into place. \\\"Culture evolves out of agriculture,\\\" Aken says, \\\"and this idea of sharing is an essential component of that, whether that's seeds or knowledge or technology.\\\" The orchard on Governor's Island has been purposely planted with alternating rows\u2014apples every other row, stone fruit in between\u2014so that there can be a (free to the public) harvest within a few years, and so that the apples will be at their peak when the stone fruit trees age out of productivity. But if no one \\\"owns\\\" the trees, who looks out for them? With global warming in mind, irrigation has been installed in Open Orchard, even though orchards don't typically have irrigation. Being on a hill puts the orchard above the flood plains, and the orchard is planted with drought-resistant fescue grass. Van Aken and the island's horticultural team have been working closely on the project since he began grafting the trees for it in their greenhouse 2018, and this close relationship is contractually obligated for at least five years. Van Aken also sees his workshops and community garden tree placements through Green Thumb as part of the orchard's future-proofing process. \\\"Experiencing the fruit is one way of understanding it\u2014aesthetically. But then empowering people through teaching is another way.\\\" Van Aken also describes people becoming excited by reconnecting to their personal histories through caring for their local trees as a strategy for keeping fruit knowledge alive for another generation. Grafting, too, he sees as extremely motivating, almost a mystical experience\u2014a fall graft blossoming in spring still thrills him even though he does about 3,000 grafts a year. \\\"I can talk to people about grafting. I can show them how to graft. I can completely give away all the knowledge. But when that graft takes for that person and they have a thing that they grafted, all of a sudden the mysticism of it comes flooding in.\\\" When meandering among Open Orchard's young trees, imagining them coming into maturity as the view and landscape around them alters due to planned development and unplanned impacts of climate change, it feels as though Van Aken is also grafting in some deeper way\u2014binding forgotten knowledge and biodiversity in place now, to posit a surprising alternative future, branching off from the one we are barreling toward now."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"City Trees, City Seasons","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25797","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060a326.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"10","authors":"Walker, Kevin","start_page":"58","end_page":"60","article_content":"It is a curious fact that from any of the green public benches found throughout the city of Boston, you can see a tree. And there is no starker contrast to be found in the polarized city of Boston than between the trees of summer and the trees of winter. Throughout Boston's parks and streets, but particularly down along the granite banks of the Charles River, the dreaming trees of summer are as different from the hibernating trees of winter as sunlight is from moon light. The bench where I sit is the bench where I sleep: a green hardwood bench along the Charles River watershed in Boston. My green bench serves double duty as a place to sit and observe the seasons, and, come bedtime, a place for this \\\"rough sleeper\\\" to spend his homeless nights. My bench is in the vicinity of several river trees I've grown to know\u2014and by sleeping between the trees, I know it ain't skid row! I'm in good company with all the gallant elms, sycamores, lindens, mulberry, crabapple, and maple trees found lining the bicycle paths of the Emerald Necklace. And I've noticed over the years camping out that each of these species has a unique reaction to the environment. It's as if a tree could have a personality. It saddens me when a favorite tree loses a large limb due to a harsh winter wind; and I wince in the summer when a large, noble, fully-leaved tree snaps and gets knocked over on top of a footbridge, necessitating its destruction in a giant woodchipper. The occasional stump of a tree looks to me like a boarded up & closed business, reminding me that an important community asset has been lost. Branches stretching skywards towards the light with roots descending into the darkness, the tree is a sentinel of time, a living testament that cannot be recovered if the tree is destroyed by fire or simply knocked over by wind. Silent witnesses to so much Boston history, trees inspire further acts of wisdom: to plant as many trees as possible. Thus, \\\"arborist\\\" is a particularly sagacious vocation. Cheerfully greening and especially beautiful, the trees of summer stretch up towards the sun like so many cathedral spires. Tall and broad like a circus tent, sacred since time immemorial, summer trees are also companionable, providing protection against a sudden rainstorm or providing shade to enjoy a picnic, and glorious, no matter how insect ridden or gnarly they may be. Not all trees are treated equally, however. One particular tree from Asia, called The Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima), is classified as a noxious invasive species. Thought to have been brought to the U.S. in 1784, It is found throughout Boston today. Ailanthus altissima is notorious for producing a chemical that retards the growth of other plants (though other trees do this, too), while its roots can damage sidewalks, sewers, and the foundations of buildings (again, this happens with many other tree species, including natives). No tree is perfect, and I can understand that they sometimes need to be removed. My regret is lessened when I realize that more trees are being planted around Boston on a regular basis. The Charles River estuary is lined with trees, their shiny brass identification tags tinkling in the wind. The early evening darkness is pierced by soft moon glow, silhouetting branches against Boston's crenellated skyline, reminding me of the strange and disturbing paintings of Gustave Dor\u00e9, or an old Civil War daguerreotype, a bleak scene in shades of gray. All trees serve some purpose in the judgement of the arborists who plant them or the neighborhoods that demand them. There are approximately 125,000 trees in the entire city of Boston, and more than 35,000 of these are street trees. Healthy public trees provide much more than shade: they filter air pollution, contribute to climate control, store rainwater and reduce erosion, connect the city to various ecosystems, and provide stable habitat for beneficial insects, birds, and animals. As I limp around the city of Boston, pushing my shopping cart ahead of me in my homeless pilgrimage, the days of tree watching go by slowly, while the years feel quick. I make my way along the footpaths of the Charles River basin, noting the work done on trees. Most of the round brass tags nailed to the trunks have blown off in the winter, while those which remain show various I.D. numbers. Newly planted saplings have plastic tags snapped around their branches, identifying them by species: Northern Red Oak, Swamp White Oak, Little Leaf Linden. I have come to know the trees by the shapes they take, the pattern of their leaves, and the shade or protection they offer. My favorite trees provide deep shade in the searing sun, dense foliage against the down-pouring rain, or wide trunks to offer protection against the sudden winds of a violent squall. Those three types of trees I consider my friends."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Olmsted Trees","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25798","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060a36a.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"9","authors":"Greenberg, Stanley","start_page":"50","end_page":"57","article_content":"Much of Brooklyn-based photographer Stanley Greenberg's work explores infrastructure\u2014and as a lifelong New Yorker (and onetime city parksdepartment employee), he knows that parks are urban infrastructure as vital as any aqueduct or reservoir. Greenberg's recent book, Olmsted Trees, documents his hunt for trees surviving from Olmsted's time in parks from New York and Boston to Milwaukee, Wisconsin and Louisville, Kentucky. In a recent conversation, Greenberg reflected on the sometimes awe-inspiring, sometimes unsettling thoughts trees provoke about time and the nature of change. His remarks here are edited and condensed. I 'm in Brooklyn's Prospect Park almost every day. A few years ago I learned that the Prospect Park Alliance had surveyed all the trees in the park, and I realized that I could use it to find the largest and, probably, the oldest trees. With some help from parks staff and an old guidebook, I learned that some of them dated from Olmsted's time. I spent a few days photographing in the park, and then in Olmsted's Chicago parks. Olmsted always said he was designing his parks for how they would look one hundred years from now, and I wondered what the hundred-year-old trees looked like. And that made we wonder if we're thinking enough about one hundred years from our own time. I also realized that Olmsted's two hundredth birthday was coming soon. I decided to try to visit every Olmsted park where he had selected all the plantings. The pandemic slowed my work, but most parks were relatively easy to get to from New York. After many rejections I found a publisher, and my editor wanted a timeline of all the parks in the book, and when the trees were planted. In many parks there were some records, or historical surveys had been done, or arborists showed me their best candidates. I also made educated guesses based on old guidebooks and relative tree sizes. The Arboretum was the only place that had detailed planting records. But as for the timeline, it was almost impossible\u2014because, when is a park finished? Even as far as Olmsted was concerned, he'd work for a few years, and there were probably ten or twenty years of planting to do. So, who's to say when a park is \\\"done\\\"? This is the first project I've done that's been just about \\\"nature.\\\" Much of New York's water supply, which I've photographed extensively, is in somewhat- altered nature. And Olmsted's parks, of course, are mostly constructed (though there were places where he refused to touch what was there). I'm out in nature often, but tend not to photograph when I'm there. This project has shown me that there are things I want to photograph in that world, and has shifted my work in a new direction."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Catawba: Back to the Future of the American Wine Industry","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25799","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060a76d.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"8","authors":"Fine, Julia","start_page":"42","end_page":"49","article_content":"In the mid-nineteenth century, American wine drinkers found themselves obsessed with a particular grape, known for its fragrant, somewhat musky profile: 'Catawba', a spontaneously occurring cross between the wine grape Vitis vinifera traditionally cultivated in Europe and the Vitis labrusca grape indigenous to North America's eastern seaboard. By the 1850s, this hybrid had achieved vaunted status in the American wine industry. This was also the time when Ohio was the largest wine-producing state in the country, and approximately 19 out of every 20 vines cultivated there were 'Catawba' grapes.1 Illustrated catalogs of grapes often did not include this \\\"pionee[r] of American grapes\\\" as it was \\\"too generally known to require portrait or illustration by engraving.\\\"2 Even famed poets wrote odes to the grape; Henry Longfellow waxed that this cultivar \\\"has a taste more divine, \/ more dulcet, delicious and dream\\\" than any other, so much so that it \\\"has need of no sign, \/ No tavern-bush to proclaim it\\\" as it was so eminently popular.3 'Catawba'\u2014which American winemakers often argued distinguished their wine from European classics\u2014was thus the pi\u00e8ce de r\u00e9sistance of the early American wine industry. It may seem surprising, then, that this grape fell almost entirely out of favor in the post-Prohibition era, surpassed by classic V. vinifera grapes. Today, few Americans have heard of 'Catawba'. Those who have may associate it with saccharine pink fortified and unfortified wines and grape juices. Across the United States, many sommeliers who are familiar with 'Catawba' decry it as \\\"foxy,\\\" \\\"musky,\\\" or \\\"unidimensional,\\\" and eschew wines made with it.4 Why was a widely popular grape relegated to the realm of the outmoded, even unknown? Through seed catalogues, regional publications, and viticulturists' correspondence, we can trace the rise and fall of 'Catawba' and the Ohio wine industry which is often ignored in contemporary scholarship in favor of the later emergence of the California wine industry. But, as environmental historian Richard White reminds us, \\\"in paths forged and blocked, abandoned and resumed, history shows that things need not be the way they are.\\\"5 Once shunned by the American palate, the 'Catawba' has the potential to contribute to the reinvigoration of the American wine industry in the face of the climate crisis. Towards a Botanical History of 'Catawba' First, though, what exactly is 'Catawba'? The history of the grape, much like its parentage, is murky. There are many stories regarding how settler winemakers came across the grape in the nascent United States. Some historians (perhaps apocryphally) suggest that one \\\"General Davy\\\" living on the Catawba River brought the cultivar to Washington DC and distributed it among friends in that area, associating the cultivar with the river (which was itself named after the Catawba or Iswa Indigenous people).6 While the veracity of this story is unclear, we know that by 1823, 'Catawba' became more widespread, helmed by the \\\"Father of American Viticulture\\\" Major John Adlum who promoted indigenous grape varietals and attempted to create viticultural experiment stations. In an 1829 letter reprinted in the New England Farmer, and Horticultural Register, Adlum reported how he discovered a 'Catawba' vine in \\\"Mrs. Schell's garden,\\\" in Montgomery County, Maryland. While Mrs. Schell apparently had no information as to how the family acquired this vine, she informed Adlum that her husband had referred to it as the Catawba grape.7 Adlum, for his part, sent cuttings of the plant around the country, including to Ohio viticulturist Nicholas Longworth, who, as we will see, played a critical role in popularizing the cultivar. From its beginnings, viticulturists have argued over the exact botanical definition of 'Catawba', with some claiming it was entirely a variety of Vitis labrusca, some contending it was V. labrusca mixed with another indigenous American grape species, and others still arguing that it was a mix between V. labrusca and V. vinifera.8 Today, it seems as if the last hypothesis is correct, as most present-day viticulturists believe 'Catawba' is a spontaneously occurring hybrid between labrusca and vinifera that emerged after European settlers brought cuttings of V. vinifera to North America.9 In particular, Catawba is probably a hybrid between V. abrusca grapes and \\\"S\u00e9millon,\\\" a white V. vinifera grape commonly grown in the southern winemaking regions of France.10 As with other V. labrusca hybrids, winemakers prized 'Catawba' grapes for their versatility and hardiness.11 However, unlike many V. labrusca hybrids, 'Catawba' has less of a \\\"foxy\\\" or \\\"musky\\\" flavor, instead often described as a \\\"perfumey\\\" grape.12 The purple-lilac grapes, Adlum declared, were \\\"the most beautiful \u2026 to the eye, when they begin to ripen, that I know of.\\\"13 'Catawba' and the Ohio Wine Industry This \\\"most beautiful\\\" grape soon played a critical role in the expansion of the American wine industry and westward expansion more generally. Historians have long outlined the relationship between winemaking and imperialism. Erica Hannickel, in her book Empire of Vines, argues that grape culture in the nineteenth-century United States was distinctly expansionist, not only in terms of artistic and literary representations of the grapevine but also the physical space the vineyard occupied.14 As she argues, \\\"Americans believed if they could make good wine, everything else in terroir's web\\\"\u2014the \\\"totalizing ecology of the vineyard\u2014\\\" would be legitimated for their new country\u2014including its land, methods, farmers, and claim to international prestige.\\\"15 Here, Hannickel shows, \\\"grapes and the myth of terroir rooted the nation's imperial sense of itself\\\" during the period of westward expansionism. One man, Nicholas Longworth, argued in favor of Ohio's potential as an ideal location for grape-growing. Inspired by both the profit and potential improvements to the nation wrought by viticulture, Longworth began growing grapes as early as 1813 in his backyard.16 By 1823, Longworth was ready to set up a commercial endeavor. In that year, he began to cultivate his first vineyard, a four-acre plot.17 While Longworth began planting South African Cape grapes to make madeira, he soon transitioned to growing Vitis vinifera, which was already popular among American consumers. He went on to dedicate himself to V. vinifera grapes: in one letter to the editors of the Cincinnati Gazette, he writes that he worked for thirty years to cultivate V. vinifera grapes \\\"from all latitudes,\\\" to no success.18 Longworth's efforts reflect a broader preference for European wine grapes to the exclusion of wild American varieties, which stemmed from a belief in the superiority of V. vinifera. One nineteenth-century grape manual by viticulturist George Engelmann declared the European variety the \\\"only true\\\" wine grape and suggested that native American grapes were not worth cultivating due to their poor quality.19 However, Longworth soon found that Vitis vinifera was not easy to grow in the United States. In the thirty years Longworth attempted to cultivate European wine grapes, he claimed to \\\"have never found one worthy of cultivation in open air.\\\"20 This experience was not unique to Longworth but instead echoed throughout the nation. As one early American botanist claimed, despite the \\\"hundreds of thousands\\\" of European vines imported, they all failed due to the North American climate.21 Myriad horticultural manuals from the early nineteenth century confirmed that planting Vitis vinifera grapes in the United States was a herculean, if not impossible, task. winemaking and imperialism. Erica Hannickel, in her book Empire of Vines, argues that grape culture in the nineteenth-century United States was distinctly expansionist, not only in terms of artistic and literary representations of the grapevine but also the physical space the vineyard occupied.14 As she argues, \\\"Americans believed if they could make good wine, everything else in terroir's web\\\"\u2014the \\\"totalizing ecology of the vineyard\u2014\\\" would be legitimated for their new country\u2014including its land, methods, farmers, and claim to international prestige.\\\"15 Here, Hannickel shows, \\\"grapes and the myth of terroir rooted the nation's imperial sense of itself\\\" during the period of westward expansionism. One man, Nicholas Longworth, argued in favor of Ohio's potential as an ideal location for grape-growing. Inspired by both the profit and potential improvements to the nation wrought by viticulture, Longworth began growing grapes as early as 1813 in his backyard.16 By 1823, Longworth was ready to set up a commercial endeavor. In that year, he began to cultivate his first vineyard, a four-acre plot.17 While Longworth began planting South African Cape grapes to make madeira, he soon transitioned to growing Vitis vinifera, which was already popular among American consumers. He went on to dedicate himself to V. vinifera grapes: in one letter to the editors of the Cincinnati Gazette, he writes that he worked for thirty years to cultivate V. vinifera grapes \\\"from all latitudes,\\\" to no success.18 Longworth's efforts reflect a broader preference for European wine grapes to the exclusion of wild American varieties, which stemmed from a belief in the superiority of V. vinifera. One nineteenth-century grape manual by viticulturist George Engelmann declared the European variety the \\\"only true\\\" wine grape and suggested that native American grapes were not worth cultivating due to their poor quality.19 However, Longworth soon found that Vitis vinifera was not easy to grow in the United States. In the thirty years Longworth attempted to cultivate European wine grapes, he claimed to \\\"have never found one worthy of cultivation in open air.\\\"20 This experience was not unique to Longworth but instead echoed throughout the nation. As one early American botanist claimed, despite the \\\"hundreds of thousands\\\" of European vines imported, they all failed due to the North American climate.21 Myriad horticultural manuals from the early nineteenth century confirmed that planting Vitis vinifera grapes in the United States was a herculean, if not impossible, task. varieties are everywhere met with, springing up spontaneously in our woods and prairies, nature's own gift unaided by culture or by toil.\\\"25 For Prince, this underscores that the United States \\\"possess[es] not only all the advantages that France and other wine countries enjoy, from our having already introduced the choice varieties which those climes can boast, but this advantage is enhanced by the numerous varieties which our own country presents to us.\\\"26 Of the native grapes, Vitis labrusca emerged as the species of choice in Ohio for several reasons. For one, V. labrusca was indigenous to the American Northeast and could withstand dampness and cold\u2014 so much so that the grape allegedly failed when planted in the warmth of southern France.27 Further, \\\"the large size of the fruit, the vigor and productiveness of the vine, and its easy propagation from cuttings, made the varieties of this species preferable\\\" to others, according to one 1895 illustrated catalog on the American grapevine.28 These reasons transformed V. labrusca grapes into the grape of choice for early American viticulturists. As a result of a growing understanding of its qualities, 'Catawba' grape became a popular cultivar in the Northeast and Ohio regions. One 1871 article noted the widespread preference for the grape by both \\\"emigrants from the best wine districts of Europe, as well as those of American birth,\\\" based on \\\"careful analytical comparison with the best foreign wines, as well as upon taste, bouquet, &c.\\\"29 'Catawba' was also considered by some viticulturists to have a flavor superior to most indigenous grapes. In one letter to Adlum dated February 12th, 1827, a Dr. George Holcombe lauded the recipient for his role in popularizing 'Catawba': \\\"I congratulate you upon the success of your wines, particularly your Catawba, which is incomparably the best\u2014much the best sweet wine I have ever tasted.\\\"30 These reasons led viticulturists to declare that because of 'Catawba', America may someday become \\\"the vineyard of the west.\\\"31 Longworth, too, recognized the immense potential of the 'Catawba' in the Ohio context after Adlum sent him a sample in 1823. Longworth soon turned his focus to the 'Catawba' grape to establish the Cincinnati wine industry as the seat of wine production in the United States during the mid-nineteenth century. He wrote of 'Catawba', \\\"We have native grapes in most of our states, could a selection be made, which would leave us so little cause to regret that foreign grapes succeed so badly with us.\\\"32 And he began to note the advantages of the native grape over imported varieties, claiming in one profile that, unlike certain European wines, 'Catawba' does not \\\"run into the acetous fermentation, or become ropy.\\\"33 The few statistics we have from the 1830s suggest that Longworth's operation was initially small. In 1833, he owned nine vineyards which produced approximately 3,000 gallons of wine.34 By the 1840s, however, his scale of operations took off as he made a champagne-like \\\"sparkling Catawba\\\" which proved immensely popular throughout the nation and was immortalized in many poems. One Charles Hackay wrote an ode to the grape, ending with \\\"Catawba! Heart warmer! \/ Soul cheerer! life-zest! \/ Catawba, the nectar \/ And balm of the West.\\\" In 1850, Longworth produced 60,000 bottles of Catawba wine; that number rose to 75,000 by 1852.35 These bottles sold very quickly: one 1852 report noted that demand was \\\"much above the ability of Mr. L. to supply.\\\"36 Catawba had rapidly become one of the most popular\u2014and most quintessential\u2014 American wines. Historical Forces of Failure But even as 'Catawba' represented a successful departure from European wine grapes, most producers continued to employ European-style viticultural techniques. The 'Catawba' grape was raised in a highly regimented, monocrop culture typical of many European vineyards.37 Longworth also chose to use trellises to support his plants in the typical Rhineland style. Present-day viticulturists suggest a potential reason for this imitation of Rhine viticulture: whereas European vineyards in flat areas do not use trellises as the vines are able to support themselves, the younger vines of the United States could not stand alone, therefore requiring trellises like the grapes growing on the steep hills of the Rhine.38 Another potential reason was that most of Longworth's vineyards were run by German immigrants, many of whom came from the Rhine.39 Their experience growing grapes in Europe may have led them to adopt similar techniques upon arrival in Cincinnati, even though the topography of Ohio differed from that of their natal lands. This attempt to transform Cincinnati into the \\\"Rhineland of the West\\\" ultimately failed, in part due to this adherence to traditional European styles of viticulture. Because the 'Catawba' grape vines were planted so close to one another and monocropped, they were particularly susceptible to airborne fungal diseases and pests not initially found in Europe. The most destructive of these diseases originally found in America was black rot, which before the 1880s had only been observed in the Eastern United States. Black rot is a fungal disease that appears in the rainy season, as \\\"water activates the release of fungal spores.\\\"40 The spores cause the grapes to shrivel, making them unusable. By 1885, black rot was reported in France, most likely from the transfer of grape vines from the United States to Europe.41 However, this particular fungal disease had not been recorded on the European continent before that time. Because of the controlled, tight planting of the 'Catawba' grape, black rot deeply impacted the Ohio wine industry. According to a 1911 article on the wine industry in Ohio, \\\"From 1850 to 1880 it was difficult to get a bunch of any size and evenly ripened where it escaped the rot.\\\"42 Despite this problem, viticulturists like Longworth continued to praise 'Catawba' as the best of America's native grapes. It is unclear why Longworth remained so loyal to 'Catawba'; perhaps it was due to the popularity of sparkling 'Catawba' nationwide or fealty to the idea of producing wine from a grape native to America. By the 1860s, the tide began to turn against 'Catawba'. Viticulturist George Husmann, at a meeting of the Missouri Horticultural Society, allegedly tried to place 'Catawba' on the \\\"rejected list\\\" of vines, given its liability to various fungal diseases.43 And, just five years later, in 1865, one outlet lamented, \\\"We regret to learn that this variety of grape is nearly destroyed the present season by rot.\u2026 Every one having the Catawba in this vicinity, tell us a sad story about them in the present season.\\\"44 Here, then, we see a paradox of the early Ohio wine industry: even as producers like Longfellow opted for indigenous grapes rather than European vinifera, they stuck to traditional European cultivation mechanisms, leading to the industry's ultimate failure. Some wine producers recognized that the problems with 'Catawba' could be solved by departing from European viticultural methods. One \\\"E.P.C,\\\" writing in a popular Cincinnati newspaper in 1858, argued that the grape was sensitive to diseases only \\\"when not sufficiently aired and ventilated.\\\" The author underlines the failure of traditional planting techniques: \\\"That our old mode of close planting, heading-down, and crowding to the earth, with a view to get branches as near the ground as possible, is not calculated to remove this difficulty, is clear to all and self-evident.\\\"45 Anecdotal evidence suggests that he was correct: an 1888 contributor to a national agricultural journal notes that when he planted 'Catawba' with more room than normal, \\\"there has been no rot in twenty-eight years.\\\"46 Such alternatives demonstrate that 'Catawba''s proto-industrialized, regimented nature catalyzed the spread of black rot. However, vineyardists in Ohio, like Longworth, continued to plant 'Catawba' in the traditional Rhine style. It is unclear why this happened when national farming magazines and local papers printed information advising against monocropping 'Catawba' grapes so close together. Further, it is clear that alternative methods of grape-growing were present in other parts of the United States. Viticulturists in the Hudson Valley, for example, often practiced \\\"mixedfruit farming\\\" by planting red currants below the grapes and raspberries, strawberries, or a vegetable in between vineyard rows, with fruit trees at the end of every third row.47 The Ohio industry could have drawn upon these alternatives. Instead, perhaps due to attachment to European agricultural traditions, the monocultural cultivation of 'Catawba' pushed the Cincinnati wine industry towards its end. By the 1860s, the wine industry in Ohio folded in part due to fungal diseases.48 Its ravages, combined with the lack of laborers in vineyards due to the Civil War, as well as the death of Nicholas Longworth, meant that by 1870, grape-growing almost wholly vanished from Ohio.49 The Ohio wine industry\u2014and the 'Catawba' grape that undergirded it\u2014folded after just 50 years. Soon after, the behemoth we know today as the California wine industry took off in Ohio's stead. Other wine regions, like the Hudson Valley, also came into vogue as the cooler climate limited fungal pressures.50 The Catawba Wine Renaissance? But even as the Ohio wine industry failed, the 'Catawba' grape never totally disappeared, but is used in \\\"Pink Cats\\\" sweet wine as well as Kosher juice and wine.51 And today, Catawba wine is making a comeback. Skeleton Root, a popular Cincinnati winery, is \\\"focused on the revitalization of the local growing region,\\\" and makes delicious and unique Catawba wines that pay homage to Longworth's legacy. 52 As Skeleton Root winemaker Kate MacDonald noted, \\\"The West Coast is very forward about wine heritage, particularly in Sonoma where they have a lot of pre-prohibition wineries.\u2026 I became obsessed once I learned about Cincinnati's wine heritage.\\\" For MacDonald, using grapes like 'Catawba' is an opportunity \\\"to produce a wine that's uniquely American and uniquely Cincinnati.\\\"53 As MacDonald points out later in the interview, 'Catawba' offers more than a fascinating window into American agricultural and environmental history: it also offers a potential path forward in light of climate change. As the climate gets increasingly hotter and more unstable, fungal disease, which thrives on moisture, has the potential to impact grapes even more than normal. \\\"Instead of spraying [fungicides] like five times a year, which we would have done 15 or 20 years ago, we are having to spray 12 or 15 times a year,\\\" explains viticulturist and historian Stephen Casscles.54 \\\"I'm the one spraying these things, [so] I just would rather not use things that are highly toxic,\\\" Casscles says. \\\"Or, if I am, I'd rather use them three times a year rather than twelve.\\\"55 It is ironic that, despite the fact that 'Catawba' initially failed due to fungal disease, many winemakers are convinced that when grown in a more spaced out, polycultured manner, the grape can offer a potential antidote to frequent spraying. \\\"The labrusca varieties are marvels of biology\\\" says Phil Plummer, a winemaker at a Montezuma Winery in New York who works with 'Catawba' grapes. As he explains, V. labrusca grapes co-evolved with many of the fungal diseases and pests native to North America. \\\"If you can develop a hybrid,\\\" he notes, \\\"there are some of the characteristics and flavor and aroma of a V. vinifera, with some of the hardiness and disease resistance of the wild grapes that grow around here.\\\" This allows Plummer to successfully propagate grapes like 'Catawba' without \\\"breaking the bank or being out in the vineyard with the sprayer weekly.\\\"56 This is necessarily an important issue in environmental justice: Justine Belle Lambright, director of external business at the Kalch\u0113 Wine Cooperative in Vermont, points out, \\\"Although the majority of workers in a vineyard are Black and brown bodies, they only make up one percent of the ownership level.\\\" Hybrid grapes, which tend to require fewer chemical inputs, thus can improve health conditions for workers of color.57 While many historians have marked the Ohio wine industry as simply a failure, the long history of 'Catawba' suggests the vitality of the early American wine industry and a path forward for winemakers today. Hybrid grapes like 'Catawba', alongside other hybrids including 'Croton', 'Empire State', and more, allowed the industry to thrive for many decades. While 'Catawba' may have initially failed in the American wine industry, from its failure\u2014as well as its successes\u2014we might find new ways forward in cultivating crops during our current climate crisis. endnotes 1. Erica Hannickel, Empire of Vines: Wine Culture in America (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013), 105. 2. Bush, Son, and Meissner, Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of American Grape Vines: A Grape Growers' Manual (St. Louis: R. P. Studley & Co., 1895), 99. 3. Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, \\\"Catawba Wine,\\\" in Birds of Passage (London: Routledge, 1878), 62. 4. Phil Plummer, Personal Interview, Phone, April 7, 2022; \\\"Catawba Grape Juice,\\\" Sweetwater Cellars, accessed June 20, 2022, https:\/\/sweetwatercellars.com\/catawbawhite. html; Julia Fine, \\\"Will Climate Change Help Hybrid Grapes Take Root in the US Wine Industry?,\\\" Civil Eats, June 16, 2022, https:\/\/civileats.com\/2022\/06\/16\/willclimate- change-help-hybrid-grapes-take-root-in-theus- wine-industry\/. 5. Richard White, Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America (New York: W. W. Norton & Company, 2011), 28. 6. John Frederic von Daacke, \\\"'Sparkling Catawba': Grape Growing and Wine Making in Cincinnati, 1800-1870\\\" (MA Dissertation, University of Cincinnati, 1964), 10 7. S. Downer, \\\"Native Grapes: Catawba Grape,\\\" The New England Farmer, and Horticultural Register 8, no. 29 (February 5, 1830): 226-27. 8. J. Stephen Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley: And Other Cool Climate Regions of the United States and Canada (Coxsackie: Flint Mine Press, 2015), 70. 9. Ibid. 10. F. Huber et al., \\\"A View into American Grapevine History: Vitis Vinifera Cv. 'S\u00e9millon' Is an Ancestor of 'Catawba' and 'Concord,'\\\" VITIS - Journal of Grapevine Research 55, no. 2 (May 11, 2016): 53-56. 11. Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley, 69. 12. Ibid., 69-70. 13. Downer, \\\"Native Grapes,\\\" 227. 1 4. Hannickel, Empire of Vines, 8. 15. Ibid., 12. 16. Pinney, A History of Wine in America, 157. 17. Ibid. 18. Robert Buchanan, The Culture of the Grape, and Wine-Making (Cincinnati: Moore, Anderson & Company, 1854), 106. 19. George Engelmann, The True Grape-Vines of the United States (St. Louis: R. P. Studley & Co., 1875), 2. 20. Buchanan, The Culture of the Grape, and Wine-Making, 106. 21. Engelmann, The True Grape-Vines of the United States, 2. 22. For more on these indigenous grapes, see: J. Stephen Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley: And Other Cool Climate Regions of the United States and Canada (Coxsackie: Flint Mine Press, 2015). 23. Buchanan, The Culture of the Grape, and Wine-Making, 106. 24. William Robert Prince, A Treatise on the Vine: Embracing Its History from the Earliest Ages to the Present Day, with Descriptions of Above Two Hundred Foreign and Eighty American Varieties; Together with a Complete Dissertation on the Establishment, Culture, and Management of Vineyards \u2026 (New York: T. & J. Swords, 1830), v. 25. Ibid. 26. Ibid. 27. Paul Lukacs, American Vintage: The Rise of American Wine (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 2005), 126. 28. Bush, Son, and Meissner, Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of American Grape Vines: A Grape Growers' Manual, 27. 29. W. G, \\\"The Vineyard: The Catawba as a Wine Grape.\\\" Prairie Farmer (Chicago, February 11, 1871), 43. 30. John Adlum, A Memoir on the Cultivation of the Vine in America: And the Best Mode of Making Wine, 2nd ed. (Washington: Printed for the author, by William Greer, 1828), 150. 31. H. Shaw, \\\"The Catawba Grape,\\\" Prairie Farmer (Chicago, August 1849), 251. 32. Annual Report of the Ohio State Board of Agriculture: With an Abstract of the Proceedings of the County Agricultural Societies, to the General Assembly of Ohio \u2026 (Columbus: State Printers, 1860), 467. 33. Annual Report of the Commissioner of Patents (Washington: Wendell and Van Benthuysen, 1848), 463. 34. Pinney, A History of Wine in America, 161. 35. Ibid. 36. \\\"Grape Culture in the United States.,\\\" Valley Farmer (1849-1864) 4, no. 9 (September 1852): 314. 37. Hannickel, Empire of Vines, 105. 38. J. Stephen Casscles, Personal Interview, Phone, December 3, 2021. 39. Dann Woellert, Cincinnati Wine: An Effervescent History (Mount Pleasant: Arcadia Publishing, 2021). 40. Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley, 30. 41. F. Lamson Scribner and Pierre Viala, Black Rot (Washington DC: Government Printing Office, 1888), 5. 42. Lowell Roudebush, \\\"The Catawba Grape,\\\" National Stockman and Farmer (Pittsburgh: Center for Research Libraries, 1911), 880-881. 43. \\\"HORTICULTURAL NOTES: Who Wants Pruning Well Done Father Abraham Apple Iron Hot-Bed Sashes An Inquiry The Catawba Not a First-Rate Grape Ellwanger & Barry's Catalogue Cherry Solons The Apple Tree Borer,\\\" Michigan Farmer (Lansing, February 25, 1860), 59. 44. \\\"Catawba Grapes,\\\" Colman's Rural World (St. Louis: July 1, 1865), 102. 45. E. P. C, \\\"More About the Grape,\\\" The Cincinnatus (Cincinnati: Center for Research Libraries, September 1, 1858), 412-414. 46. M. Clay, \\\"Grape-Rot,\\\" National Stockman and Farmer (Pittsburgh: Center for Research Libraries, September 13, 1888), 432-433. 47. Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley, 10. 48. von Daacke, \\\"Grape-Growing and Wine-Making in Cincinnati\\\", 210. 49. Ibid. 50. See: Casscles, Grapes of the Hudson Valley. 51. Phil Plummer, Personal Interview, Phone, April 7, 2022; Dan Berger, \\\"The Feast of Unleavened Bread: Kosher Wine: A Buyer's Guide,\\\" Los Angeles Times, April 4, 1993. 52. \\\"Skeleton Root Winery,\\\" The Skeleton Root, urban winery and event space in Over the Rhine, Cincinnati, accessed July 1, 2022, http:\/\/www.skeletonroot.com\/about. 53. Karen Day, \\\"Interview: Winemaker Kate MacDonald, Skeleton Root Winery,\\\" Cool Hunting, January 8, 2018, https:\/\/coolhunting.com\/food-drink\/skeleton-root-winery\/. 54. Casscles, Personal Interview, Phone, December 3, 2021. 55. Julia Fine, \\\"Will Climate Change Help Hybrid Grapes Take Root in the US Wine Industry?,\\\" Civil Eats, June 16, 2022, https:\/\/civileats.com\/2022\/06\/16\/willclimate- change-help-hybrid-grapes-take-root-in-theus- wine-industry\/ 56. See ibid. 57. Ibid."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Trophic Cascade","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25801","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060af28.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"7","authors":"Dungy, Camille T.; Holten, Katie","start_page":"41","end_page":"41","article_content":"After the reintroduction of gray wolves to Yellowstone and, as anticipated, their culling of deer, trees grew beyond the deer stunt of the mid century. In their up reach songbirds nested, who scattered seed for underbrush, and in that cover warrened snowshoe hare. Weasel and water shrew returned, also vole, and came soon hawk and falcon, bald eagle, kestrel, and with them hawk shadow, falcon shadow. Eagle shade and kestrel shade haunted newly-berried runnels where mule deer no longer rummaged, cautious as they were, now, of being surprised by wolves. Berries brought bear, while undergrowth and willows, growing now right down to the river, brought beavers, who dam. Muskrats came to the dams, and tadpoles. Came, too, the night song of the fathers of tadpoles. With water striders, the dark gray American dipper bobbed in fresh pools of the river, and fish stayed, and the bear, who fished, also culled deer fawns and to their kill scraps came vulture and coyote, long gone in the region until now, and their scat scattered seed, and more trees, brush, and berries grew up along the river that had run straight and so flooded but thus dammed, compelled to meander, is less prone to overrun. Don't you tell me this is not the same as my story. All this life born from one hungry animal, this whole, new landscape, the course of the river changed, I know this. I reintroduced myself to myself, this time a mother. After which, nothing was ever the same. camille t. dungy is the author of the essay collection Guidebook to Relative Strangers: Journeys into Race, Motherhood, and History, and four collections of poetry, most recently Trophic Cascade. She has edited three anthologies, including Black Nature: Four Centuries of African American Nature Poetry. Her honors include the 2021 Academy of American Poets Fellowship, a Guggenheim Fellowship, an American Book Award, and fellowships from the NEA. She is a University Distinguished Professor at Colorado State University. katie holten is an artist and activist. In 2003, she represented Ireland at the Venice Biennale. Exhibiting internationally, she is the recipient of numerous grants and fellowships, including a Fulbright and a MacDowell Fellowship. In her book The Language of Trees (Tin House, April 2023), Holten uses a \\\"tree alphabet\\\" of her own design to interpret the work of more than fifty contributors, including Dungy's \\\"Trophic Cascade.\\\""},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Roots of Rejuvenation","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25802","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060af6c.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"6","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","start_page":"30","end_page":"40","article_content":"I've been studying how trees can rejuvenate themselves through sprouting since 1989, when I traveled to Tianmu Mountain in eastern China to study a wild population of Ginkgo biloba and discovered that many of the ancient specimens growing there had produced secondary trunks in response to storm damage, logging, or landslides. Twelve years later, I published a review article describing the morphological mechanisms that temperate trees have developed for generating basal shoots following traumatic disturbance, from root suckers and branch layers to stump sprouts and lignotubers. Essentially, sprouting is a form of clonal growth that not only allows woody plants to recover from damage but also to circumvent the ravages of aging, especially when they are able to produce new, adventitious roots to support their new shoots. In botanical sciences, the word adventitious is traditionally used to describe a plant structure that is somehow \\\"out of place,\\\" such as a shoot produced by a root, or a root produced by a stem. Within the field of plant propagation, the term is used to describe roots produced by detached stem cuttings treated with auxins under greenhouse conditions. Intact trees growing in natural habitats also produce adventitious roots from their stems, either as a genetically programmed part of their normal development\u2014such as the free-hanging aerial roots produced by tropical trees like strangler figs and mangroves\u2014or induced by changing environmental conditions such as partial uprooting or burial with silt following flooding. Regardless of whether they are programmed or induced, adventitious roots always develop from cells that neighbor vascular tissues located just below the bark (Bellini et al. 2014). Types of Adventitious Roots My research has shown that the trunks and branches of intact temperate trees can produce five different kinds of adventitious roots, the most common of which are those that develop on low-hanging lateral branches that come in contact with soil\u2014a process known as layering. The phenomenon has been documented in many different species of trees and is particularly common among conifers, both wild and cultivated. In many old estates, trees grown as widely spaced specimens often retained their lower horizontal branches that, under the influence of age and gravity, ended up resting on the ground and taking root. Once they take root, the branches change from a horizontal to a vertical orientation and, over time, can form a ring of new trees surrounding the original parent trunk. There is an extensive literature on layering, which David Orwig of the Harvard Forest and I reviewed in 2017 in our article about this behavior in the eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. Genera with species that commonly form layers include Chamaecyparis, Fagus, Picea, Platanus, and Thuja. Lateral branches high up in the tree canopy also produce adventitious roots when they are covered with moisture-trapping epiphytes. As ecologist Nalini Nadkarni has shown, such \\\"canopy roots\\\" play an important role in nutrient absorption and cycling in tropical rain forests and, as described by Dietrich Hertel, to a more limited extent in temperate forests among such genera as Acer, Alnus, Fagus, and Populus. In wetland habitats, the partially uprooted trunks of trees lying on the ground often produce adventitious roots that allow the prostrate stem to generate new vertical shoots, a phenomenon known as trunk layering. In a similar vein, the vertical trunks of trees that have been partially covered with soil, silt, or water after flooding often produce adventitious roots that allow them to adjust to the new conditions, as seen in species in the genera Alnus, Larix, Salix, Sequoia, and Taxodium. Many trees produce swollen root collars with the capacity to generate adventitious roots as well as secondary shoots following some form of traumatic disturbance. In some long-lived species, these basal swellings\u2014technically known as lignotubers\u2014are a genetically programmed part of normal seedling development. In others, the they are induced by repeated coppicing or some other type of environmental disturbance. Examples of the former include species in the genera Ginkgo, Eucalyptus, Olea, Sequoia, and Tilia while the latter include species in the genera Betula, Castanea, Morus, Platanus, and Quercus. As stated above, my interest in lignotuberproducing trees began with my studies of ginkgo trees in eastern China, where I observed that many of the ancient specimens growing on Tianmu Mountain had produced secondary stems in response to damage to their primary trunks. My research on lignotubers continued in California where the coast redwood produces massive underground lignotubers that, following logging, can generate \\\"fairy rings\\\" of new trunks that can extend the tree's lifespan for centuries (Del Tredici, 1992, 1998, 1999; Del Tredici et al. 1992). The fifth and final type of adventitious root\u2014and the focus of the remainder of this article\u2014are those that emerge from the woundwood that trees produce when their trunk is damaged and its xylem exposed. In response to this damage, trees generate undifferentiated callus tissue that gives rise to a new layer of vascular cambium that produces the woundwood that will eventually cover over the injury (Stobbe et al. 2002). During the healing process, woundwood typically grows inward from the edges of the damage and continues growing until its margins come together to seal off the exposed wood. If the wood to the interior of this callus tissue is firm, this is usually the end of the process. If the wood is rotten, however, it offers little resistance to the expanding woundwood which rolls inward on itself and continues growing inside the trunk. In response to the moist, dark conditions within the trunk, the vascular cambium of the woundwood can initiate adventitious roots that grow into its own rotten core. If the rot extends through the trunk down to the ground, these roots have the capacity to generate a new subterranean root system and develop into stout columns that can provide extra support for the hollow trunk. While many angiosperm trees have been reported to form internal trunk roots, it is a relatively uncommon phenomenon that occurs mainly in old, open-grown specimens that have experienced extensive branch loss. Internal Trunk Roots in the Literature Descriptions of internal trunk roots are rare in the botanical and horticultural literature. The earliest mentions of the phenomenon that I could locate were published in the British periodical Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette between 1853 and 1877. William Booth wrote the first article and reported finding them inside the trunks of sweet chestnut (Castania sativa) and Cornish elm (Ulmus minor 'Stricta'). In both cases, the roots originated from woundwood and reached down to the ground. A second article, authored by \\\"Vigilax,\\\" appeared a week later and described the same phenomenon in a specimen of Laburnum. The third reference to internal trunk roots is by Moggridge in 1870, who described four old pollarded pedunculate oaks (Quercus robur) growing in Richmond Park in Surrey, England, that had produced large internal, adventitious roots, two of which he illustrated. The final Gardeners' Chronicle article on the subject is from 1877 by W. G. S., who described a large internal trunk root in an ancient specimen of yew (Taxus baccata). In the modern scientific literature, the first reference to internal trunk roots is from 1908 by O. M. Ball, who reported their existence in an old specimen of the umbrella chinaberry, Melia azedarach 'Umbraculifera'. He called the process \\\"self-eating\\\" and described how \\\"roots descend through the decaying materials and often, upon reaching the harder, less decayed wood of the lower part of the stump, turn sharply back and grow upward even to the point of origin.\\\" He published a photograph of the specimen that shows the roots originating from woundwood. Such was the extent of the literature until 1954, when Czech botanist Jen Jenik published a short article describing internal trunk roots in European beech, Fagus sylvatica. In 1975, another Czech scientist, Jarmila Kubikov\u00e1, published an article that not only described their morphology in detail but also the amazing ecosystem inside the trunks of rotten linden trees (Tilia). To this day, Kubikov\u00e1's summary of his research remains the one of the best descriptions of internal trunk roots. Noting that the phenomenon is \\\"little known,\\\" he describes the \\\"specific ecosystem\\\" found within old trees, which includes \\\"saprophytic fungi and bacteria, together with numerous protozoa, snails and various groups of insects.\\\" Internal roots only develop when the living material of the cavity \\\"reaches the living peripheral tissues of the trunk whose meristems form the healing callus\\\" from which root primordia eventually develop. Kubikov\u00e1 described their significance in older trees as \\\"important regeneration phenomena which extend the number of absorption rootlets, improve the transport of water and nutrients, and thus enable the growth of new branches and photosynthetic apparatus. At the same time, these roots function as supplementary armature increasing the resistance of a tree to damage by wind and snow. Thus the ageing process can be retarded and the life span of the tree prolonged.\\\" Three years later, in 1978, Dickenson and Tanner reported the occurrence of roots inside the hollow trunks of several species of Jamaican trees that were cut down in an experimental logging operation. Ten of the thirty-nine cut trees were hollow and \\\"many\\\" of them contained roots. They examined four trees in detail and found that in only one case the roots were produced by the tree itself. In the other three individuals, the internal trunk roots were produced by epiphytes attached to the branches of the tree or by nearby fig trees (Ficus sp.) whose roots grew a meter and a half upwards into the rotten trunk from the mineral soil below. The authors concluded that they had found \\\"examples of a possible advantage gained from having a hollow trunk and examples of a possible disadvantage.\\\" Their observations are important because they remind us that the nutrients inside a tree's rotten core are fair game for any plant than can reach them from above or below. Remarkably, it was not until 1992 that internal trunk roots were given a proper scientific name by two Chinese scientists, Liu Qijing and Wang Zhan. Working on the windswept slopes of Changbai Mountain in northeast China\u2014which I visited in 1997\u2014they described their occurrence in numerous old specimens of Betula ermanii and called them \\\"endocaulous roots\\\" in the English abstract of their article (which was written in Chinese). The study site was between 1700 and 2000 meters elevation with abundant annual precipitation (967-1400 mm) and fog. Because of strong winds and heavy snow, many of the birch trees were growing diagonally rather than vertically as they did at lower elevations. The authors looked at a large number of specimens and determined that endocaulous roots were common in trees around two hundred years old and 20 cm DBH (diameter at breast height, 4.3 feet above ground), and that these roots were able to grow down into the soil because their trunks had been hollowed out by extensive heart-rot. In younger trees, those less than 10 cm DBH, endocaulous roots were not common, and rarely reached the soil as there was much less heart-rot than in larger trees. In the moist forests on the north side of the mountain, trees greater than three hundred years old commonly developed endocaulous roots that reached the soil\u2014up to five or more per trunk\u2014some of which were more than 15 cm across and over one hundred years old. The extreme weather on Changbai Mountain caused serious damage to the trunks and branches of older trees which, in turn, promoted the development of heart-rot on the inside and woundwood on the outside. When the woundwood came into contact with the soft, moist heart-rot, it generated adventitious roots that grew into it and eventually made their way down into the soil. Liu and Wang made the additional observation that, \\\"Such rotten trees will be blown down or broken during wind storms so that endocaulous roots become visible. However, these broken trees will not likely die. Rather, their vigor increases because of the rapid development of endocaulous roots following the disturbance\\\". Unaware of the work of Liu and Wang, Jenik proposed calling the internal trunk roots, \\\"endocormic roots\\\" in 1994 based on the work of Kubikov\u00e1 from 1975 as well as his own earlier research from 1954. Remarkably, literature and internet searches of both terms show that neither of them have had a significant impact on the botanical or horticultural literature, a situation I intend to remedy with this article. The prefix caul- comes from the Latin caulis meaning stem or stalk, and corm- from the Greek kormos meaning tree trunk. While both terms are appropriate, I prefer endocormic for three reasons: 1) it was proposed by Jenik, who published an early description of the phenomenon in 1954; 2) it is derived from the same root as the widely used term, epicormic shoots, which describes new branches that sprout from an old trunk; and 3) it suggests the use of a new term, epicormic roots, to describe those that are produced by the trunk or branches of a tree when they come in contact with the soil. Observations on Endocormic Roots I observed my first endocormic roots in 1986, in a storm-damaged red oak, Quercus rubra, at the Arnold Arboretum that was being cut up for removal. Midway through the process, a member of the grounds crew noticed an unusual structure inside the trunk and called me over to look at it. What I saw amazed me\u2014the woundwood that had initially covered an old branch scar had turned inward and continued growing inside the trunk where it formed a large mushroom-shaped structure that had proliferated adventitious roots. I have been on the lookout for endocormic roots ever since, and have observed them in various gardens and parks in a number of old trees growing as isolated specimens of various types, including: Acer platanoides, Cladrastis kentuckea, Cornus controversa, Fagus sylvatica, Ginkgo biloba, Gymnocladus dioicus, Liriodendron tulipifera, Malus sp., Morus alba, Prunus \u00a9 yedoensis, Tilia americana, and Tilia \u00a9 vulgaris. Several authors have published illustrations of endocormic roots, including Oldeman (1990) in Fagus grandifolia; Mattheck (1991) in Fagus sylvatica; Thomas (2000) in Ulmus \u00a9 hollandica; Fay (2002) in Carpinus betulus, and Bragg (2018) in Acer rubrum. Writing in Arnoldia in 2012, Tony Aiello described an unusual specimen of Prunus subhirtella 'Pendula' at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia, in which a large endocormic root morphed into the stem of a stand-alone tree. Taken together, these reports indicate that the woundwood of most angiosperm trees has the capacity to generate endocormic roots when it comes into contact with rotten heartwood. For some unknown reason, internal trunk roots seem to be less common among gymnosperms. In New England, I have observed endocormic roots on several species of wild-growing trees, including sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red oak (Quercus rubra), and gray birch (Betula populifolia). Mostly the roots were confined to the cavities filled with rotten heartwood, but in a few cases the roots extended all the way down into the ground and developed into thick columns that helped support the hollow trunk. It seems likely that upon reaching the soil, these roots produce tension wood that causes them to contract and thicken and, over time, provide an added measure of structural support for the hollow trunk. Assuming this is the case, these column roots are probably behaving similarly to the aerial roots of Ficus that produce reaction wood that contracts when they reach the ground (Gill & Tomlinson, 1975). On August 4, 2020, I had the rare opportunity to observe multiple cases of endocormic root formation after tropical storm Isaias passed near the town of Cornwall, Connecticut where I was spending the summer, and seriously damaged many of the trees growing along the roadways. While Isaias caused lots of problems for the people who lived there\u2014power was out for ten days\u2014it offered the opportunity to observe the condition of the trees that brought the power lines down, including several old specimens of sugar maple that had been planted over a century ago for syrup production. Most of these open-grown sugar maples that lined many of the roads possessed whorls of large, upright lateral branches about three meters up on their trunks, which showed an increasing tendency to brake off in storms as they got bigger. To my surprise, many of the large laterals that broke off the old sugar maples during Isaias revealed \\\"humus\\\" inside the trunks that was permeated with endocormic roots that had originated from woundwood produced in response to earlier limb loss. My observations on the morphology of opengrown sugar maples echoed the findings of Ranius and his colleagues who described hollow formation in the trunks of pedunculate oak (Quercus robur) growing in southwest Sweden in 2009. The authors found that among trees less than one hundred years old, fewer than one percent contained hollows, while fifty percent of trees between two and three hundred years old had hollows. They also observed that hollows formed at an earlier age in faster growing trees located in open pastures than in slower growing trees located in forests. The authors attributed this to the fact that most hollows were generated when large branches broke off and that such large branches formed sooner on open-grown trees than on forest-grown trees of the same age. Management of Ancient Trees There are long-standing questions in both the ecological and horticultural literature as to why so many trees have hollow cores and whether it compromises their stability. In 1976, Daniel Janzen was far ahead of his time in proposing that \\\"the rotten hollow core is often an adaptive trait, selected for as a mechanism of nitrogen and mineral trapping. A rotten core is a site of animal nests, animal defecation, and microbial metabolism that should result in a steady fertilization of the soil under the base of the tree.\\\" Graeme Ruxton in 2014 proposed an economic rather than a nutritional answer to the question, asserting \\\"the central wood of trees is allowed to decay because the costs of chemically defending it are not justified by the small reduction in structural stability that is likely to occur.\\\" To support his theory, he cited arboricultural research showing that if the radius of the inner hollow region of the trunk is less than seventy percent of the total radius, there is little cost to the tree in terms of reduced structural stability (Mattheck, 1994; Fink, 2009). Over the past twenty years, a considerable body of research has developed on the horticultural management of ancient and veteran trees. In particular, there is an extensive literature focusing on pruning techniques that promote the long-term survival of such trees while simultaneously creating habitat for the hollow-inhabiting (saproxylic) organisms that are dependent on them (Fay, 2002, Read et al., 2010, Gough et al., 2014, Fay & de Berker, 2016, Hirons & Thomas 2018, Bengtsson et al., 2021). One particularly interesting study by Pavel Sebek and his colleagues from 2013 looked at the incidence of hollows in pollard versus non-pollard white willow, Salix alba, in the Czech Republic. The authors sampled 1,126 trees across in four different areas and observed hollows in 83% of the pollarded trees and only 34% of the unpollarded trees. For trees of 50 cm DBH, they found that \\\"the probability of hollow occurrence was 75% in pollards, but only 30% in non-pollards.\\\" They concluded that actively managing trees via pollarding could speed up the creation of habitats for saproxylic organisms and contribute significantly to the conservation of rare, hollowdependent fauna. While the authors make no mention of endocormic roots, their research suggests that pollarding might well induce their development by virtue of the fact that it typically stimulates extensive woundwood formation. This modern approach to promoting the development of tree hollows for conservation purposes is a complete reversal of the once common practice of filling them with cement. In addition to promoting the development of tree hollows, pollarding is known to increase the lifespan of many trees. As Oliver Rackham noted in 1990, \\\"Trees whose function is not timber\u2014pollards and coppice stools\u2014may live much longer than timber trees. The cutting process prolongs their lives, and they go on doing their job of producing useful crops of poles despite old age or decay.\\\" Taking this into account, the repurposing of pollarding for conservation rather than production purposes is a \\\"winwin\\\" management strategy for both the trees and the organisms that live within their rotten hearts. In conclusion, the formation of endocormic roots by old trees is a manifestation of the senescent phase of their growth. Writing in 2013, Howard Thomas vividly describes senescence as a state in which the boundary between life and death is often blurred, as a tree seeks \\\"to control its own viability and integrity\\\" while confronting the \\\"thermodynamically unavoidable\\\" eventuality of death. From this perspective, a tree's ability to transform rotten heartwood into living tissue is an incredible example of how trees can navigate the ambiguity of their mortality by generating adventitious roots. acknowledgements The author expresses thanks to Jianhua Li of Hope College for help with Chinese translations and Michael Dosmann of the Arnold Arboretum for his support and thoughtful review of the manuscript. peter del tredici worked in a variety of capacities at the Arnold Arboretum for 35 years and taught at the Harvard Graduate School of Design and at MIT for over 20 years. His recent work is focused on urban ecology and climate change and he is the author of Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide (2nd ed. 2020). An expanded version of this article was published in June 2022 in Arboricultural Journal. roots references Aiello, A. S. (2012). Japanese flowering cherries\u2014a 100-year-long love affair. Arnoldia, 69(4), 2-14. Ball. O. M. (1908). Formation of adventitious roots in the umbrella China tree. Botanical Gazette, 46(4), 303-304. Bellini, C., D. I. Pacurur & I. Perrone. (2014). Adventitious roots and lateral roots: similarities and differences. Annual Review of Plant Biology, 64, 17.1-17.28. Bengtsson, V., C. P. Wheater, H. Read & R. Harris. (2021). Responses of oak pollards to pruning, Arboricultural Journal, 43(3), 156-170. Booth, W. B. (1853). Curious instances of the formation of roots. Gardeners' Chronicle & Agricultural Gazette, 13 (January 1), 4. Bragg, D. C. (2018). A woody chamber of secrets. Frontiers in Ecology & Environment, 16(10), 598. Del Tredici, P., & D. A. Orwig. (2017). Layering and rejuvenation in Tsuga canadensis (Pinaceae) on Wachusett Mountain, Massachusetts. Rhodora, 119, 16-32. Del Tredici, P., H. Ling, and G. Yang. 1992. The Ginkgos of Tian Mu Shan. Conservation Biology 6(2): 202-209. Del Tredici, P. (1992). Natural regeneration of Ginkgo biloba from downward growing cotyledonary buds (basal chichi) American Journal of Botany, 79, 522-530. Del Tredici, P. (1998). Lignotubers in Sequoia sempervirens: development and ecological significance. Madrono, 45, 255-260. Del Tredici, P. (1999). Redwood burls: immortality underground. Arnoldia, 59(3), 14-22. Del Tredici, P. (2001). Sprouting in temperate trees: a morphological and ecological review. Botanical Reviews, 67(2), 121-140. Del Tredici, P. 2022. Endocormic roots: transforming death into life. Arboricultural Journal, DOI: 10.1080\/03071375.2022.2085943 Dickinson, T. A., & E. V. J. Tanner. (1978). Exploitation of hollow trunks by tropical trees. Biotropica, 10(3), 231-233. Fay, N. (2002). Environmental arboriculture, tree ecology and veteran tree management. Arboriucultural Journal, 26, 213-238. Fay, N., & N. de Berker. (2016). Ancient trees and their value. In K. Witko\u015b-Gnach & P. Tyszko-Ghenienlowiec (Eds.), Trees\u2014a lifespan approach (pp. 103-131). Wroclaw: Fundacja EkoRozwoju. Fink, S. (2009). Hazard tree identification by visual assessment (VIA): scientifically solid and practically approved. Arboricultural Journal, 32, 139-155. Gill, A. M., & P. B. Tomlinson. (1975). Aerial roots: an array of forms and functions. In J. G. Torrey and D. T. Clarkson (Eds.), The development and function of roots (pp. 237-260). New York, NY: Academic Press. Gough, L. A., T. Birkemoe & A. Syerdrup-Thygeson. (2012). Reactive forest management can also be proactive for wood-living beetles in hollow oak trees. Biological Conservation, 180, 75-83. Hertel, D. (2011). Tree roots in canopy soils of old European beech trees\u2014an ecological reassessment of a forgotten phenomenon, Pedobiologia, 54, 119-125. Hirons, A. D., & P. A. Thomas. (2018). Applied tree biology. Oxford, UK: John Wiley & Sons. Janzen, D. H. (1976). Why tropical trees have rotten cores, Biotropica, 8, 110. Jenik, J. (1954). Ko\u0159enov\u00fd syst\u00e9m vo kmeni buku [The root system in the beech trunk]. Vesmir, 33, 350-351 [In Czech]. Jenik, J. (1994). Clonal growth in woody plants: a review. Folia Geobotanica & Phytotaxonomica, Praha, 29, 291-306. Kubikova, J. (1975). Adventivn\u00ed ko\u0159enov\u00fd syst\u00e9m v dutin\u00e1ch star\u00fdch strom\u016f a jeho v\u00fdznam [Adventitious root systems in the cavities of old trees and its significance]. Preslia, 47, 331-334 [In Czech with English summary]. Liu, Q., & Z. Wang. (1992). Root system inside heart-rot stem of Betula ermanii. Research Forest Ecosystems, 6, 68-71 [In Chinese with English summary]. Mattheck, C. (1991). Trees: The mechanical design. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Mattheck, C., & H. Breloer. (1994). The body language of trees. London: The Stationary Office. Moggridge, J. T. (1870). Pollard oaks. Gardeners' Chronicle & Agricultural Gazette, 30(Sept. 17), 1248-49. Nadkarni, N. M. (1994). Factors affecting the initiation and growth of above ground adventitious roots in a tropical cloud forest tree: an experimental approach. Oecologia, 100, 94-97. Nadkarni, N. M. (1981). Canopy roots: convergent evolution in rainforest nutrient cycles. Science, 214, 1023-1024. Oldeman, R. A. A. (1990). Forests: elements of silvology. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Rackham, O. (1990). Trees & woodland in the British landscape (revised ed.) London: Phoenix Giant. Ranius, T., M. Niklasson & N. Berg. (2009). Development of tree hollows in pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Forest Ecology & Management, 251, 303-310. Read, H. J., C. P. Wheater, V. Forbes & J. Young. (2010). The current status of ancient pollard beech trees at Burnham Beeches and evaluation of recent restoration techniques. Quarterly Journal of Forestry, 104(2), 109-120. Ruxton, G. D. (2014). Why are so many trees hollow? Biology Letters, 10: 20140555. Sebek, P., J. Altman, M. Platek & L. Cizek. (2013). Is active management the key to the conservation of saproxylic biodiversity? Pollarding promotes the formation of tree hollows. PLOS One, 8(3), e6045. Stobbe, H., U. Schmitt, D. Eckstein & D. Dujesiefken. (2002). Developmental stages of fine structure of surface callus formed after debarking of living lime trees. Annals of Botany, 89, 773-782. Thomas, P. (2000). Trees: their natural history. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press. Thomas, H. (2013). Senescence, aging and death of the whole plant. New Phytologist, 197, 696-711. Vigilax. (1853). Curious formation of roots above ground. Gardeners' Chronicle & Agricultural Gazette, 13(Jan. 8), 21. W. G. S. (1877). Ancient resuscitated yew at Bettws Newydd. Gardeners' Chronicle, 7(Feb. 17), 215."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Oak and Pine in Life and Death","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25803","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060b36f.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"5","authors":"Carlson, Robin Lee","start_page":"16","end_page":"29","article_content":"In The Cold Canyon Fire Journals: Green Shoots and Silver Linings in the Ashes, artist and naturalist Robin Lee Carlson shares the six years she spent learning from the wildfires that burned through Stebbins Cold Canyon Reserve near Davis, California twice in five years. This excerpt, drawn from the chapter \\\"The Relativity of Time,\\\" explores the tree-entangled life that returns in abundance after fire\u2014some of which emerges rapidly, and some of which takes longer to make itself known. \\\"It is tempting to immediately tally the living and the dead,\\\" notes Carlson. \\\"But trees exist on a very different time scale, and their lives and deaths caution against hasty conclusions.\\\" \\\"Look at this burned bay laurel. Do you see the way those branches are all pointing the same direction?\\\" Dead tree branches just over my head etch lines into the electric-blue sky, and I am transfixed. From the thicker supporting branches to the finest twigs, they all swirl in the same direction, performing a ghostly dance choreographed by the Wragg Fire's fierce, hot wind.* Even though the air around me is completely still, I can easily envision the wind whipping around these trees as the fire blazed and they were frozen in this shape. It has been a year-and-a-half since the fire, and a participant in a field sketching class I am leading at Cold Canyon has just pointed out these shapes in the trees to me. Miriam Morrill is a biologist and a specialist in fire and communications at the Bureau of Land Management (BLM). She is also an artist, and I see that she has been making notes and drawings in her sketchbook that capture some of the signs of fire behavior still legible in the landscape. This is not a language that I know, and we are excited to compare notes. She explains that she sees more trees and tree skeletons on Blue Ridge than she would expect had the fire advanced up that slope from the bottom of the canyon. She surmises that the fire instead came from the west, over the top of the ridge, and backed down into the canyon, burning less intensely moving downslope than it would have had it been charging upslope. I tell her that this is what I know to have been the case, based on Jeffrey Clary's descriptions of the fire's progress. Miriam says that she also notices that the branches of the leafless trees where we are standing near the creek are all pointing in different directions, as if different eddies of wind were whirling around each one. From this, Miriam concludes that the fire became more intense at the bottom of the canyon before racing up the slope on the other side. As the Wragg Fire paused here, the intensity of the fire created its own weather. Strong winds gusted and eddied among the folds and pockets of the hills. Where the fire did not fully burn the vegetation, its heat dried out the branches. Losing their moisture made them permanently inflexible, pointing in the direction of the last wind they would ever feel. This phenomenon is termed foliage freeze. Time stopped, arrested, and I am held there too, caught in this still, quiet day but also in the midst of the roaring frenzy of fire and wind of late July 2015. This could be the image of violence preserved, jarring me out of time on a peaceful day. I might see this as the life force of these trees sucked right out of them by the wind, with their macabre skeletons still here to remind me. If fire is only a catastrophe from which this ecosystem must recover, the brutality of that image is appropriate. But if fire's place in the ecosystem is subtler, then those frozen branches might equally be seen as a reminder of the continuity that underlies the fire, tying the seemingly singular event to the past and future of the landscape. Disturbance has a past and a future and blends more easily into both than it would seem. And now, as I stand here in the present, the frozen branches are important clues to the behavior of the fire. Fire leaves signs behind on the land that are often fleeting\u2014 erased by wind and rain and footsteps\u2014so it feels like a race to find and read them before they disappear. Patterns of ash and char, curled leaves, fallen tree trunks, and grass stems\u2014all are quickly obscured by the movement of animals, the fall of rain and rush of wind, and the growth of new vegetation. These twisted branches, though, remain. The fire's passage is frozen in the trees' bodies, and the trees' writhing limbs marking this path are emblazoned on my mind. Oaks: Anchors in time Growing up in California's Central Valley ensured that water worries indelibly marked my subconscious. I am a child of brown summers and green winters, of regular drought and water scarcity. I was a toddler during the 1976-77 drought and have vivid memories of my mother explaining to me why we couldn't flush the toilet every time we used it. Even as a child, I approached each winter with concern: Will there be enough rain this year? Will the rivers dry up? I find nothing more reassuring than rain and nothing more terrifying than the endless cloudless summer skies. As I got older, I began to understand the ways life here has adapted to make the most of the rain we do receive. I am reassured by the hardy species that get by on little water and conserve their moisture in ingenious ways, like the blue oaks standing tall in the woodlands and savannas that ring the Central Valley. These are important members of Cold Canyon habitats, the trees that Jeffrey was concerned about after the Wragg Fire. Blue oaks are of middling size for oaks, with the wildly crooking branches common among oaks that make their limbs look as though they are dancing ecstatically. Their leaves are compact, with only wavy margins, not the deep lobes of some of the other oak species. The waxiness of their leaves helps with moisture retention in their oftenarid habitats. Staunchly Californian, blue oaks are endemic here\u2014found nowhere else in the world. They live at lower elevations in the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada, as well as on the southern end of the Cascade and Klamath Mountains. A few grow in the Central Valley itself, but they mostly prefer to be up in the hills. Though I live in the flatlands of the valley, I am glad to be close to the hills and mountains, and it is to these foothill habitats that I turn for guidance in how to live in an often-parched land. Of all the deciduous oaks in California, blue oaks are the most able to withstand drought. Their taproot\u2014their main central root\u2014can grow deep into the ground to find the water table, to depths of eighty feet, though they can also focus their energy on growing shallower roots if water is available higher in the soil. They need soil that is relatively dry and well drained, and are found on soils that are poorer in nitrogen, phosphorous, organic matter, and other nutrients than the soils that support other California oaks. On these soils, they cultivate communities of other hardy species by holding the earth in place against erosion and using their taproots to bring water to the surface, incidentally making it available to other species as well. Before introduced annual species came to dominate California grasslands and savannas, blue oaks grew alongside bunchgrasses such as blue wildrye and purple needlegrass, similarly water-conserving species. The oaks and grasses mutually supported one another, sharing resources via fungal mycelial networks. Now, introduced annuals such as redstem filaree, cheatgrass, and wild oat have largely replaced the bunchgrasses. The introduced species compete with young oaks for space, water, and light, just as they outcompeted the native bunchgrasses for these resources. As in the rest of their range, blue oaks in Cold Canyon shelter quite a few introduced annual species, but they are also home and sustenance to many other creatures. Nuttall's woodpeckers rely on them for foraging and nesting. Dusky-footed woodrats build at their feet and eat their acorns. Fallen branches are important gathering places for western fence lizards. Oak titmice\u2014birds the soft mousy brown of their namesakes\u2014defend year-round territories in their canopies. It is easy to see the wildlife that depends on the oaks, but equally important to understand the less visible forces at work. Blue oaks are critical to the quality of the soil around them, increasing its nutrient content. This is thanks to the fall of leaf litter, which increases the nitrogen in the soil. It is also because trees capture moisture from the air that otherwise would have evaporated. Instead, the water droplets adhere to the leaves, eventually aggregate into larger drops and then fall to the ground. The drops bring along important nutrients\u2014 potassium, phosphorous, and magnesium, for example\u2014that were present in the air and are concentrated when the drops form. There are three kinds of oaks growing in Cold Canyon, two of which are trees\u2014blue oak and interior live oak\u2014and scrub oak, which takes a shrubbier form. Interior live oaks tend to be found in the bottoms of the canyons, as they prefer the wetter areas in the riparian zones, and these are often too wet for blue oaks. Blue oaks generally grow on the hillsides. The distinctions are not absolute: there are certainly blue oaks growing in the canyons and live oaks on the hills, but the general pattern holds. Over the five years of my visits, when I look closely at oaks, I try to decipher the puzzle of their health and survival. In a landscape of rapidly sprouting annual plants and fast-growing shrubs, trees are not as easy to assess. There are no immediate answers to how the oaks at Cold Canyon are faring. In the areas closest to the creek, some oaks did not burn at all and are doing fine\u2014these are mostly interior live oaks. A little further from the creek, there are more interior live oaks, and some of these burned. These that burned are sprouting, strong shoots growing up from their bases, from their root crowns. The brand-new leaves in their chartreuse skin are spiky and fresh. Further up the slopes, some of the blue oaks are sprouting. On the blue oaks I see, the sprouts are not at the bases of the trunks but higher on the tree, on the branches. These differences are characteristic of the two oak species: live oaks tend to regrow from their bases, blue oaks from their crowns. The oaks that are able to survive fires will benefit from them, especially if the fires were low intensity. Fire removes accumulated litter beneath the trees, which helps reduce the numbers of insect pests that feed on acorns, such as filbert worms and filbert weevils, two of the most common in California. Fire also helps remove some of the oaks' competitors for resources, such as annual grasses, though it can also open opportunities for other competitors\u2014thistles, filaree, and the like\u2014to gain a foothold and claim the open turf for themselves. The world underneath the blue oaks' canopy is much different now than it was before incursions of plowing, plants, and livestock. Fire can still be a healthy force, but that is no longer always the case, now that fires burn hotter and higher, and more often kill the crowns of trees, making it hard for trees to survive and resprout. The bark of mature blue oaks is thinner than other similar oaks, which increases the trees' susceptibility to fire as they age. It is more difficult for acorns to grow under competition from introduced plants and in our rapidly drying environment, with droughts becoming more and more common. All of this is to say that one year, three years, five years in, it is too early to tell how the oaks are doing at Cold Canyon. Trees challenge our impatient animal desire to know what is happening. Acorns take a very long time to make more acorns. Seedlings take a long time to become saplings, which take a long time to become mature trees. Time stopped for the branches frozen by the heat of the fire, but most of those trees are still alive and sprouting green at their bases. Trees live and die slowly, but it is difficult to remember this in the context of a disturbance like wildfire. The fire can feel like a catastrophe, and tallying the damage afterward feels so urgent. Trees move in their own time, and it is hard for me to comprehend when I am so quick, so mobile, so unrooted. Oak gall wasps Sometimes I go hunting for marvels, and sometimes they are sitting right in the middle of the trail, in shocking bright-pink glory. On a day when I arrive at Cold Canyon planning to focus on oak regrowth patterns, it is a strangely appropriate gift to find a crackly, dry blue oak leaf in front of me, covered in tiny galls. There two different kinds of gall on the leaf, both elaborately structured and very pink. I pick up the leaf and sit down on a rock beside the trail to wonder at the details of these tiny homes, nurseries to the microscopic babies within. The interaction that creates these intricate structures is an amazing tale of manipulation, and a relationship maybe even more strange than the complex interaction fostered by horntails, fungi, and the distressed trees in which they lay their eggs.* Once again, it is wasps that are responsible. This time, very much unlike the large, somewhat alarming horntails, however, gall wasps are no bigger than about a quarter of an inch. Some of the smallest gall wasps in the world are only one millimeter long, the size of a comma on this page. Female gall wasps lay their eggs in rapidly growing parts of trees, such as twigs or leaves like the one I am holding in my hand. Once the eggs hatch and the wasp larvae begin to eat the plant tissue, a chemical in their saliva, or perhaps the mechanical process of their feeding itself, stimulates the plant to redirect some of its own cells to produce a protective outer structure that surrounds the larvae. This is a defense response by the plant, sequestering the larvae so that they do not eat its other parts. But it has great benefits for the larvae as well. The gall is both shelter and, inside, more food for the ravenous larvae, which comfortably feed until they mature and chew their way out of the nursery as adults. It does not seem as though the wasps do any real harm to their host plants, though they do of course consume some resources that would otherwise be used to meet the plants' own needs. What is most amazing, and apparent even on the leaf I've just found, is that each species of gall wasp stimulates a very specific and unique structure of gall. One of the kinds of gall on the leaf has spines sticking out in all direction. This is the home of a batch of urchin gall wasp larvae. The other kind is almost furry, and is made by crystalline gall wasps. The gall shapes are even expressed in the wasps' scientific names. The urchin gall wasp is Cynips quercusechinus\u2014the species name means \\\"oak hedgehog,\\\" emphasizing its spikes. The crystalline gall wasp is Andricus crystallinus, inspired by the delicacy and translucence of its fine \\\"hairs.\\\" Two different species, with two characteristic gall shapes. And there are over a hundred different gall wasps known so far worldwide. How on earth do the chemicals in the saliva of the larvae dictate the shape of the gall that the plant cells will build? Most gall wasps are specific to a single type of tree, usually an oak. It turns out that blue oaks have the largest known number of different gall wasp species, at forty-one and counting. They also appear to have the greatest diversity of shape and color of galls. I am looking at the galls just a little after one year since the fire. I try to guess which of the blue oaks around me dropped this leaf. I wonder whether it was a tree that burned, and this was a new leaf since the fire, or one that survived the fire intact. Perhaps the wasps whose offspring were reared in these galls came to Cold Canyon after the fire, or perhaps they survived the fire as larvae themselves. The effects of fire on oak galls have not been extensively studied, but it appears that gall wasps need time after a fire to return. There must be oaks for them to return to, either newly grown oaks or ones that survived the fire. There must be sources near the burn for them to come from. And some wasp larvae surely survive the fire, sheltering in the oaks that did not burn and remained cool enough that their leaves were not all killed by the heat. Adult wasps are not likely to survive the fire themselves, but then, they generally live only about a week, so the wasp truly spends most of its life\u2014about a year\u2014as a larva. How funny it is that wasps have twice been my windows into the endlessly intricate webs of interactions that compose these ecosystems. First, the horntails, who rush to burned trees to lay their eggs and inject their symbiotic fungi. Now the gall wasps, who bend the oaks to their will but are dependent on their hosts for shelter and protection when the world around them burns. Without being present in these places\u2014burning and burned\u2014I would have remained ignorant of these beautiful mysteries. The wasps' relationships are just glimpses into vast silken webs of stories that humans have not yet even dreamed. Start traveling along just one exposed thread, and how many more nodes in the silk might we find? The ones we do see tantalize us with the many that are yet unknown. Gray pines: Waves of loss and return Gray pines, towering over the other trees at Cold Canyon, seem to me the embodiment of solidity and permanence after the fire. They have an underappreciated beauty, being arguably rather spindly and dull in comparison with some of the more majestic pine species. But I think their long, pale-green needles are pretty, especially in the bright summer sun. And while their needles are not densely packed enough to create a whole lot of shade, I find they create striking silhouettes against wintery overcast skies. In the early years after the canyon burned, I am anxious to count the survivors and the lost, to take inventory, even if anecdotal, of the fire's casualties. Studying the gray pines, I can see green needles on what look like two-thirds of them, so I assume they have survived fairly well. But on a winter hike with Jeffrey Clary and Sarah Oktay, the Reserve's current director, just over three years after the fire, I learn that the truth is likely more complicated. Gray pines, also known as foothill pines, are often found in the blue oak woodlands and savannas that are interspersed with chaparral habitats in the California foothills. Like blue oaks and chaparral shrubs, they are hardy and thrive in places with drier climates and less nutrient-rich soils. Unlike many other plants, they do not have root, trunk, or bark adaptations that allow them to survive fire. Gray pines are extremely pitchy, even for a pine. They are torches in a fire, thanks to the resin in their needles, cones, bark, and wood. Because they do not contain the burls or other root structures that allow many chaparral shrubs to regrow, a gray pine too damaged by fire will not grow back. Instead, gray pines must start all over again, growing from the seeds protected inside their enormous, spiny cones. I see cones, open and dry, with seeds long spilled, all over the canyon. Picking them up and turning them in my hands, I wonder whether their seeds are unfurling now, nestled underground where they landed after dispersing when the cone opened still high on its tree. The heat of fire stimulates germination by weakening or breaking the seed's coat and allowing it to begin development. Gray pine seeds are also able to germinate without fire, but there are other pine species, such as lodgepole and knobcone, that do require fire for germination, at least in some parts of their ranges. This all sounds reasonably straightforward: gray pines mostly die in fires and eventually return to the landscape as new sprouts. It is the timing of their dying that is a surprise. Jeffrey points out that even though many of the trees at Cold Canyon still have green needles in their crowns, they may already have been killed by the fire, either because part or all of them burned or because the heat of the fire was too great and killed their tissues. Set inexorably onto the path to their fate, they are continuing to function while slowly winding down. In their diminishment, they are now home to organisms that they would have easily fought off while healthy. The fire drew pine sawyer beetles\u2014a kind of longhorn beetle\u2014and their larvae are now tunneling through the pines' wood. Bark beetles, such as pine engravers, will also have come, finding nourishment in the wood of the dying trees. These wood-boring beetles and their relatives are usually healthy members of forest communities, consuming only trees that are already dead or dying and returning the trees' nutrients to the ecosystem. But in the increasingly stressed habitats of the western US, some species, such as the pine engravers, have become decidedly unhealthy. In the face of plentiful dead wood during years of drought and fire and excessive logging, the beetle populations explode. Voracious new generations feast on living trees too, making for even more fuel in wildfires and escalating the vicious cycle. While we are most familiar with large expanses of dead pines and firs in the Sierra, gray pines are not immune to these amplifying effects of climate and beetle. As I walk beneath a pine with silvery-green needles left on only a few of its higher branches, I see the fine line between health and disease, between beetles as beneficial recyclers and beetles as forest destroyers. I am learning that dying is a completely different phenomenon for a tree than for all of us more ephemeral creatures. It is not a single event in time but a very long process. How smooth is the continuum of living and dying and how hard to say where some organisms are on that spectrum.* There are no quick answers in assessing the results of upheavals like wildfire, at least for trees, as I watch the aftermath play out slowly over the years. Gray pines are common in chaparral habitats, but they require plenty of time to recolonize between wildfires, after the fires have mostly killed off the existing trees. On the one hand, if wildfires occur too frequently in chaparral, there will not be enough time for new gray pines to grow from seed. As the window for recolonizing closes, gray pines will slowly disappear from these habitats. On the other hand, if fire is completely absent from the chaparral ecosystem, gray pines will take over\u2014enough gray pines will eventually colonize that the blue oaks cannot compete for space and sunlight. Fire\u2014at least a healthy fire regime\u2014keeps the balance in these blue oak and gray pine foothill habitats. After my hike with Jeffrey and Sarah, before I head home to the valley flatlands, I stand next to a gray pine and put my hand on its bark. Time slows to a crawl as I deliberately calm my quick animal breaths. Time stops while I try to think in tree time. Here time is measured in roots creeping, tunneling, and connecting with fungal mycelia and other roots. Time passes in rings of wood expanding, thickening, drying, and cracking into bark. And time is the slow, slow pull of senescence, embarked on long before the tree's final end. Senescence is set to the tiny music of the jaws of beetle larvae scraping and gnawing their intricate way through the tree, just below the surface of the bark. This is a kind of sorrow, deep and abiding. There is nothing that will stop the onward pull of time and the tightening of death's grip. The last green needles will brown. The wood will fully dry. The tree will continue to stand for a long time, entirely dead, waiting for the gust of wind or shift of soil that will send it crashing to the ground. But I am also, just as deeply, moved by the cycles in which the pines and I are enveloped. As though my awareness of the process allows me into the rolling pattern. Nothing is what it once was, nothing in the view ahead of me can stay this way forever, and we are all senescing even as we are full of life. The gall wasps whose tiny homes I marvel at on blue oak leaves live only a week as adults. A blink of an eye. What would they make of my ponderously long and slow life, beyond the limits of comprehension? Just as I struggle to understand how a living tree can also already be dead. * For more on how trees blend of life and death, see Peter Del Tredici, \\\"The Roots of Rejuvenation,\\\" in this issue (page 30). robin lee carlson is a natural science writer and illustrator based in Davis, California. Visit her website at robinleecarlson.com"},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Morus rubra","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25876","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e3d25ebb6a.png","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"4","authors":"Jaikumar, Devika","start_page":"14","end_page":"15","article_content":"In the summer heat, mornings are blanketed by a mist that leaves the arboretum quiet and still. I softly make my way up Bussey Hill, my shoes soaked through by the morning dew that lies thick on the grass. A fawn suns itself on a patch of dirt while a family of turkeys take their morning stroll, all undeterred by my presence. It isn't these creatures I have come to see, however, but 787-85*A, a striking mulberry tree that every morning for the past two weeks had been picked clean of fruit by squirrels. Found all over the world, mulberries are known for their sweet fruits that resemble blackberries, and for their role as a key food source for silkworms. The tree I visited nearly every day for a month is a specimen of Morus rubra, a species native to North America. At the Arboretum it is surrounded by Morus alba trees, a species introduced from Asia. Despite their differences\u2014glossiness of leaves, presence of hair-like structures on the underside of leaves, colors of fruit\u2014these species are prone to hybridization, making positive identification of trees especially complex. My goal in the summer of 2021 was to acquire a cutting of the plant, with leaves and fruit, to press for an herbarium specimen. As I approached the tree that morning as I had so many times before, the squirrels leaped off, revealing that they had picked the branches clean of ripe fruit. I could not fault them for their behavior; the idea of explaining to the council of squirrels how I needed a handful of fruits for scientific study was enough to keep my spirits up until the day I was successful in my task. The specimens that I was finally able to collect were sent to Morris Arboretum, where researchers are engaged in long-term study of mulberry hybridity. Herbarium specimens have been crucial to research for centuries, and one of their primary uses is to identify species. While we believe our multi-stemmed Bussey Hill tree is correctly identified as Morus rubra, perhaps it is indeed a hybrid, the identity of which has taken years of growth to reveal itself. Herbarium specimens also fill gaps in our knowledge by creating a physical timeline for plants throughout their lifespans. When I collect a specimen to later mount onto paper and file into the Arnold Arboretum's Herbarium of Cultivated Plants, it's with the knowledge that this specimen is intended to last hundreds of years, to be used in ways that I can't even imagine. As for the squirrels, their interest in the mulberries is far less mysterious."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hidden Ice of Plants","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25805","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060b76a.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"3","authors":"Villouta, Camilo","start_page":"11","end_page":"12","article_content":"When studying how plants in winter deal with freezing temperatures, the observation of ice formation in their tissues is especially elusive. I addressed this topic in my dissertation, which challenged me to find new methods to answer them. At the time, I was a PhD student at the fruit crops lab at the University of Wisconsin-Madison, under the guidance of Dr. Amaya Atucha. Our goal was to understand the development of cold hardiness in the terminal buds of cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon). Most importantly, we wanted to know what strategy they used to withstand and survive ice formation. In woody perennial flowering species, buds are known to survive exposure to freezing temperatures by either of two freezing survival strategies. Both follow a similar principle: avoid the formation of ice crystals with their potential of causing lethal damage in the flower primordia, tissues that are the precursor of the mature flower. These strategies have extravagant names, which nonetheless describe their main characteristics very well. On one hand, we have \\\"deep supercooling,\\\" where buds avoid the propagation of ice into the flower primordia, keeping them ice-free even when they are at subfreezing temperatures. The other strategy is named \\\"extraorgan freezing,\\\" where the flower primordia dehydrate, pushing water away from themselves towards the ice-tolerant bud scales. In the case of cranberry terminal buds, we needed to determine which strategy was at work, both to interpret damage patterns more accurately and to know which techniques to use for assessing cold-hardiness levels at different times across the season. While designing the study to answer this question, we reviewed a range of current methods for imaging plant tissues, assessing them for their ability to capture freezing events inside an intact bud. Thermal video recording offers only a surface view of freezing progression, as do electric thermometers, or thermocouples, which only register temperature changes at a specific location. MicroCT (computed tomography) scans offer great resolution of internal tissues, but cannot track freezing, as the method does not detect a contrast difference between liquid water and ice. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), however, can detect this difference. Searching the UW campus for appropriately-sized MRI machines, I found one in use at the Small Animal Imaging Center. While a regular MRI has an entrance designed to fit a person, this apparatus was made for animals such as rats, with an entrance diameter of about 3 inches. Once we found the proper MRI machine, we needed to find a way to control the rate of decreasing temperature at which the buds would have been exposed\u2014a rate of vital importance. Studies have reported that a common rate of temperature change in nature is 1 \u00b0C\/hr (degrees Celsius per hour). Thus in laboratory conditions, we usually work with rates ranging from 1 to 4 \u00b0C\/hr, otherwise you risk creating artificial effects in non-realistic freezing conditions. To detect the progress of freezing in our plants, I needed a device to control temperature with great precision, which I set out to construct. The goal was to acquire MRI images corresponding to slices of our samples at room temperature, and then slowly decrease the temperature, capturing other images at just below freezing, and then two more times at colder temperatures, always of the same slices. In collaboration with the Morgridge Institute's Advanced Fabrication Laboratory,\u2014 a.k.a. the \\\"Fab Lab\\\"\u2014at UW Madison, we started to develop a prototype. It needed to follow several guidelines: it could not have any of its metallic implements close to the MRI apparatus, while at the same time it had to withstand freezing temperatures, exhibit chemical resistance, and not interact with the imaging process. The prototype needed to have three compartments: one for the flow of chilled glycol, a second for the addition of a chemical that helps with image contrast, and a third to surround the samples with all these compounds. Once the design was defined, we started testing the circulating system. We located the circulating bath and pump for the chilled glycol with their metallic parts outside the room, connecting the glycol via tubing with the prototype inside the MRI. With this circulation system exposed to air, frost formation was also a big concern, as this could damage the expensive MRI equipment. We ran trials in our lab just to see where frost was forming and find corrective measures. By this time, a year had passed, and finally, we were able to obtain our first images. After doing the official runs in late fall of 2019, I measured the signal intensity at different regions of the buds and compared them across the different imaged temperatures. Higher signal intensity translated into a higher presence of liquid water, and the opposite meant relocation or freezing of water. My analysis showed a gradual decrease in the amount of liquid water in the internal tissues of the bud. This was an important piece of evidence for our study. With the MRI, we observed a range of freezing events occurring at temperatures below -20 \u00b0C, while in visual damage evaluations for that same date, we found that damage did not start until reaching temperatures of -24 \u00b0C and lower. In the end, our study concluded that terminal buds of cranberry survive exposure to freezing temperatures by undergoing a process of freeze dehydration, a variant of the extraorgan freezing survival strategy. From here, we can direct our efforts on developing cold hardiness models with a greater understanding of the damage patterns, knowing what mechanisms need to be developed during the fall during the seasonal acclimation to winter. This knowledge will help farmers and horticulturists decide how to respond when fruit crops are exposed to the threat of unseasonably cold temperatures\u2014conditions likely to occur with greater frequency as climate change advances."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bud Morphology","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25806","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060bb6d.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"2","authors":"Moeglein, Morgan","start_page":"8","end_page":"10","article_content":"Every fall across the temperate latitudes, the leaves of woody plants complete development, reach their final form, and begin to senesce. Leaf senescence marks the end of a growth cycle that may seem to begin at bud break in the spring, but for many leaves actually began much earlier, during the previous growing season, hidden from view within a resting bud. Leaves that initiate and mature within a single growing season are known as neoformed leaves. Preformed leaves, by contrast, initiate during one summer, undergo one or more periods of winter dormancy, and complete their life cycle in the following summer. Botanists have long noted the presence of incipient leaves within dormant resting buds. Many unanswered questions about leaf preformation remain, however. When we look at a tree at the end of the summer, how many of those leaves were preformed? Do different species employ different strategies when they invest in preformed leaves for future seasons? I have spent the last year trying to characterize how plants invest resources in their overwintering buds and the leaves within. This work led me to the Arnold Arboretum, where I set out to investigate how preformation contributes to leaf development across woody taxa. The first step in this work was to look very closely at dormant buds in the field. Surveying buds across species in the depths of winter, without the obstruction of leaves, is the best time to appreciate how much bud morphology varies. Some overwintering buds are obvious, such as the long, shiny beech buds or the furry, gray magnolias. Then there are the minuscule and hard to find: the buttonbush bud barely raised from the surface of the twig, or the winterberry with its few, tiny, camouflaged bud scales. Walking through the collections sampling dormant buds for future microscopy, I easily snapped the bigger buds from their branches with my fingers, while smaller specimens had to be shaved from twigs with a razor blade back in the lab. Even more remarkable than the external bud morphology observed in the collections is what you find inside after dissections under the microscope: the large, showy buds usually contain mature-looking leaves in miniature. The morphological intricacies of an oak or sweetgum leaf are already apparent, intact in these preformed leaves, months before they expand to their mature size. Even in the smallest buds, many leaves are already initiated, their shape recognizable in its relation to the mature form. A tiny, flattened catalpa bud may contain ten leaf primordia, similar to the number of mature leaves that will be present at the end of the growing season. It's astonishing to realize, while looking at buds in the field, that the form and number of mature leaves could be determined so far ahead of time, within the tiny space of the smallest buds. By comparing preformed leaves dissected from within buds to mature, fully expanded leaves, I hope to deduce how much of the multi-seasonal cycle of leaf development occurs within buds relative to the end-of-season total. Looking at preformed leaf and bud measurements relative to mature leaf measurements allows us to measure relative investment in different leaf components, and begins to reveal patterns in preformed investment. These strategies can tell us something about how plants prepare for the future. Some species may preform more leaf tissue that is more fully developed in preparation for expected circumstances in the coming growing season, while others may wait and neoform the leaves they need in real time as a response to present growth conditions. There are also different ways to invest. One species might invest in many small leaves, while another might invest in fewer leaves that are larger and more completely developed. With so many different ways to invest in preformation, the range between preformation and neoformation begins to seem more like a spectrum than a dichotomy. Based on observations so far, I suspect the species surveyed will vary widely in the timing and extent of their investment in future leaves. Surveying the contents of overwintering buds can help us learn how plants invest in leaves from season to season\u2014but it may also better our understanding of the evolution of leaf form more broadly. Leaf shape varies massively across plants, but the variation within species or within individuals can be just as impressive. Leaf shape along a single growing tip can vary over the course of a season and this variation may correspond to preformed and neoformed trajectories arising from different developmental programs. Leaf-shape plasticity could provide standing variation for evolution to act upon, or it might open up different photosynthetic options as the season progresses. If the shape of preformed leaves is largely predetermined within the dormant bud, and if this shape is different from the shape of neoformed leaves later in the season, the confined nature of development within a bud may have some influence on leaf shape. The same may be true when comparing across species with different preformation strategies; a species that preforms more may be more likely to have certain leaf shapes than a species that produces more leaves through neoformation. There are many possibilities, but looking within dormant buds at the earliest stages of leaf development across species and environments may illuminate our understanding of the variation we see across mature leaves. IN MEMORIAM Karen Madsen 1942-2022 Karen Madsen edited Arnoldia from 1993 to 2007, leading the magazine through dramatic changes in publishing and printing. Perhaps no one at the Arnold worked with Karen more closely than Peter Del Tredici, who offers the following remembrance: I first met Karen in 1988 when she was a student in the Radcliffe Seminars program, working on her thesis on Woodlands, the famous garden of William Hamilton, who introduced the Ginkgo tree into North America in 1784. When I was appointed editor of Arnoldia in 1989, I asked Karen to contribute a short version of her thesis. We got along well during the editing process, which is not always a given, and I hired her part time to help me with copyediting. After I became Director of Living Collections in 1992, Karen was appointed to replace me as editor. Not only was Karen a good friend, a great writer, and a skilled editor, but she helped make landscape design history one of Arnoldia's specialty topics. BOOK BRIEF Older Than the World \\\"Trees,\\\" writes historian Jared Farmer, \\\"are plants that people call trees\u2014a term of dignity, not botany.\\\" And it is the largest and, especially, the eldest that have commanded the greatest dignity, from the the Buddha's Bodhi Tree to Methusaleh, the bristlecone pine in California's Inyo National Forest thought to be the oldest non-clonal tree in existence. Believers held that the Oak of Mamre in Jerusalem had been growing since the dawn of creation\u2014a tree older than the world itself. By the time this tree fi nally fell in the yard of a West Bank monastery, far older trees had been identifi ed by scientifi c means. And yet fascination for trees like the giant sequoia accompanied a rush to cut them, nearly leading to their disappearance. Farmer's book explores the mythmaking, veneration, and exploitation to which the oldest and largest trees have been subjected through time, and poses an urgent question: in the wake of the industrial era, under the cloud of climate change pushing them to the brink, do these elder fl ora have a future? We need them to survive, Farmer argues, if we are to make sense of changes we have set in motion in deep time."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Converging Paths","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25867","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e3d24e816d.png","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"4","article_sequence":"1","authors":"Battles, Matthew","start_page":"1","end_page":"2","article_content":"Two roads diverged in a yellow wood: Frost's words come to mind unbidden as I walk through the Arnold amid November's yellowing days, following forking paths that might take me to the Hunnewell Building and the workday, to Weld Hill for a lecture, or into the conifers for a quiet afternoon copyediting in the company of wild turkeys. It's worth remembering that intersections are also convergences, comings-together for travelers from different points of origin. The arboretum itself is such an intersection, where two grand ways of working with plants, the scientific and the horticultural, converge. How many other ways of knowing, feeling, and storying trees also meet at this crossroads? Some convergences come after long travel. Turning off Meadow Road, I approach the golden glow of the katsuras\u2014though even before I arrive, they've already announced themselves by their characteristic caramel fragrance. One of these specimens of Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 882*A, is among the oldest trees in the arboretum, accessioned in 1878. But katsura's path is far older: fossil evidence shows them thriving in forests of the northern hemisphere by the end of the Cretaceous, some seventy million years ago. We say that katsura smells like cotton candy\u2014 the German name for the tree is Kuchenbaum, or \\\"cake tree\\\"\u2014but isn't it properly the other way round? Cakes and cotton candy, those latecomers, smell like katsura, whose fragrance of toasted sugar, tens of millions of years in the making, likely wafted long before there were noses attached to humans with a propensity for naming, propagating, and choosing tree-convergent ways. So these converging paths through trees are generous, gregarious, inspiring. Richard Powers begins his 2018 novel The Overstory with a powerful invocation of trees as generous storytellers: A woman sits on the ground, leaning against a pine. Its bark presses hard against her back, as hard as life. Its needles scent the air and a force hums in the heart of the wood. Her ears tune down to the lowest frequencies. The tree is saying things, in words before words. It says: Sun and water are questions endlessly worth answering. It says: A good answer must be reinvented many times, from scratch. It says: Every piece of earth needs a new way to grip it. There are more ways to branch than any cedar pencil will ever find. A thing can travel everywhere, just by holding still. The woman does exactly that. Signals rain down around her like seeds. With this year's Spring issue, Arnoldia debuted a new design and editorial format; in the very same moment, I joined as editor. I can take no credit for this new vision for the magazine, which was brought forward by Michael Dosmann, and my predecessor, Jonathan Damery, in collaboration with members of Arnoldia's editorial committee and our consulting design studio, Point Five. I've been thrilled by all the new ways they have furnished me to know, story, and connect with trees\u2014not only through a profusion of new literary forms, including poetry and creative nonfiction, but drawing from the visual arts as well. We've welcomed verse from emerging and prizewinning poets, and book excerpts from provocative scholarly works like Rosetta Elkin's Plant Life (Fall), to Cold Canyon Fire Journals by Robin Lee Carlson, whose distinctive, lyrical art and storytelling about wildfire and place in California enriches this issue (page 16). Our editorial artist, Matt Huynh, provides each issue's Notes from the Field section with a fresh set of expressive illustrations, while our endpapers by Shyama Golden frame the magazine with sumptuous assemblages drawn from the shifting seasons. At the same time, this renewed Arnoldia also brings forth the scholarly and scientific research that have long been the magazine's mainstay, such as Peter Del Tredici's article in this issue on the fascinating phenomenon of endocormic roots (page 30). And most crucially, we're making space for authors whose voices historically have not been heard along the paths of science and the garden. Native voices, the voices of folks of color, the unhoused\u2014Arnoldia seeks to come into restorative relation with such authors, and to bring the knowledge they carry to our readers. Arnoldia's rebirth comes at a time of both richness and urgency, with an efflorescence of innovative writing about the natural world arriving from new directions, prompted by climate change, calls for environmental justice, and the enormity of the biodiversity crisis. And so now is a crucial time to bring forth this expanded editorial mission and toolkit for telling tree-entangled stories. Meanwhile, the Arnold's paths proliferate. The horticulture team has been laying new trails throughout the landscape, giving visitors more immediate access to our collections. And in the years to come, the Roslindale Gateway Path Project will connect Forest Hills to Roslindale Center, making even more of this living landscape into an equitable contact zone. As these paths intersect, new stories surely will emerge. Our former tagline was The Magazine of the Arnold Arboretum; now, it's The Nature of Trees. An intersection for more than science and horticulture, this nature is a gregarious convergence of lyric, memoir, storytelling, and scholarship. Who speaks to the nature of trees? Everyone. May Arnoldia continue to be as generous as the katsura, as message-bringing as Powers' fragrant pine. May it be a crossroads, a meeting place. And may it always be thronged with trees."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"2022-79-3","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25793","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15e816e.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","arnoldia_cover":true},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hardwood Cuttings","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25808","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d0608528.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"14","authors":"Halloran, Sean","start_page":"64","end_page":"64","article_content":"Plant propagation is both traditional art and applied science. Made from mature, dormant stems, hardwood cuttings are just one clonal propagation technique we use at the Arnold Arboretum to coax life from some of our most valuable accessions. In New England, we can root hemlock and many other genera via this technique. We collect hardwood material in late fall or early winter after plants enter dormancy and deciduous plants have lost their leaves, selecting younger, healthy stock for optimal results. Hormone is applied to the freshly prepared cuttings, which are usually \\\"stuck\\\" the same day they are collected, in benches filled with quick-draining growing media, tented with plastic to ensure high humidity, and heated from below to encourage rooting. Hormones and wounding treatments are taxon-specific, based upon the scientific literature as well as our own propagation records. Cuttings that survive and root will be potted up in the spring or early summer, eventually to serve as prized members of the next generation of our collections."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Among white pines, at the foot of them","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25809","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060856c.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"13","authors":"Lorsung, \u00c9ireann","start_page":"61","end_page":"63","article_content":"The largest city in the place I call Maine is called Portland, and it lies along the Atlantic coast in the northeast of the country called the United States. For as long as the city has existed its industries have been tied to the sea: fishing, lobstering, clamming, oystering, seaweed-picking\u2014though that is changing: wealth clusters along the seafront and the city's industry turns toward tourism. At low tide the horizon goes even further out than you'd think possible, and between the expensive houses and the drawn-back water, the seaweed pickers go, bent over, along the little strip of land that belongs to everyone. The coastline just north of the city becomes rocky, and small granite islands house wealthy summer residents and year-round island people who know the ferry schedule by heart. A map eye and a surveyor's eye, a deed eye; an insurance company's eye, a property investor's eye, a painter's eye; an art collector's eye beholding the paintings of the \\\"empty\\\" landscape that hang in the well-appointed houses in the best neighborhoods, in the white cool rooms of the city's art museum. We perceive the beauty of a map or painting in the manageable space between the object and ourselves, the gaze a place that holds the object still. In the map and the landscape painting\u2014 objects I feel such a fondness for\u2014the place that holds me is reduced to a place that I can hold. It becomes property and I am its arranger. The world goes on around the museum and the city records office, in infinite overlapping circles. The room and the building, the city and the state, are permeated by economies and public-health statuses and modes of transit and pollution, by taste and custom and the determining structures of US racial and class hierarchies. We work temporary jobs in Portland and pay two-thirds of our income to the landlord. It is a pandemic, so we don't go anywhere. We couldn't afford to go out in this city in any case. To occupy my time and thoughts, I take walks and ride my bicycle: watching the light change is free, noting down the seasonal appearance of weeds in the cracks is free. I am moving through a landscape that is unfamiliar to me, and I cannot see it from outside\u2014outside the drafty, unheated apartment, outside the exorbitant rent, outside the virus transmitted by breath. Nor from outside the sea air, the smell of the white pines, the sting of first snow on a stiff breeze. Only from inside, where I am: with you. I find my way, in copper October, along a causeway to an island that houses the state school for Deaf and Blind students, a cemetery where the dogs and horses of a former governor have long since turned into soil themselves, and a clearing in which visitors build structures out of twigs, leaves, shells, seaweed, rocks, pinecones, and a winking belief in fairies. (The children who visit to see the fairy village do not wink, and their houses are furnished with bright orange berries, mushrooms, moss carpets, colorful and smooth stones, the best shells.) The name I know for this island is Mackworth. Among the trees, the name I know falls away, insubstantial as a piece of Scotch tape. Its granite edges, its carpet of rust-orange pine needles, its non-local roses trimmed back by state park service employees, its sumac, its dulse. I have names for these, and yet the names cannot hold them. They exceed my ability to call them. In every season, the island's white pines establish the architecture of my passage there. I walk the circumference in autumn's fullness, then in the silence of winter as the wind stirs the ocean into gray slush, and in spring as a bright yellow haze passes through the deciduous trees of the understory. And in the summer, in the rich quick bright unbearable green of living things that know how soon they will be dying. The tall gray bodies of the pines set a rhythm for seeing. Their needles form paths and fields among the trees. The sunlight falling through them, I receive. The sky they orchestrate among their openings. They are an uncapturable color, a green that is not singular green but green-prismatic with all earth colors: chlorophyll, umber, ochre, iron oxide. Light and vision refracting in air. Among the white pines, at the foot of them, I find a distinct understanding of my proper proportion. The placedness that makes me among and with and makes my gaze through and in rather than at. From the edge of the city I see them, objects on a horizon: but among them, my sight is transformed and I am a subject among subjects. I would like to hold them in this withness and throughness. \\\"Landscape\\\" is an effect of an exterior position. I am wrestling with my love of landscape painting and my position as an outsider to that tradition, by virtue of gender, training, and class\u2014and I am wrestling with the fact of my being-settler in this place, with the history of ownership- as-land-relation I belong to. From a distance, the painter or surveyor perceives an interplay of light, shadow, form, movement. These are arranged as painting or as map, or, if in the mind rather than in material, as property. But this island is a freely offered immersion in color, perspective, time. Surrounded by white pines, it is impossible to take distance. I cannot stand back and see myself apart from them. They remind me we have always been involved in one another, whether I knew it or not. I was formed in a scientific and religious environment where human beings and other beings are unequal. But despite how my imagination or understanding was formed, the white pines' way of being requires, structurally, that I am among them, beneath them, between them, in their midst. It changes the kind of relationship I can have, and not just to the white pines. The withness they do to me extends limitlessly. They with me, and they with their understory. They with the greyness of the ground, scattered with their rust-orange needles, after long weeks without rain. They with the chipmunks who make holes at their feet. They with and are withed by the non-local roses and the local ferns, the lichen, the sound of the tide arriving, the bladderwrack, the smell of the mud on a hot afternoon coming through the closer sweetness of the needles that carpet the dry ground. They with the conditions of the air\u2014humidity, pollution\u2014and of the water, weather, the salt marshes, the bogs beyond, the fields beyond that. The way the white pines are makes me with, a with that exceeds them and far exceeds me\u2014and exceeds the pronoun \\\"me\\\". Here, among the trees, I find myself one among many, even unseen many, moving in a concert it is impossible to know in full. The island, the ocean, the iron streaks in granite, the yellow seaweed and its scent in the September air, the red hips of the roses spattering the afternoon: I don't want a painting I can own as soon as I see, that lets me say I know what you are. I want something that can do to me again what has been done here\u2014that amongs me. As color does to me, as scent does: throughs me. Withs me. Bewiths me. This human head and your lowest branches. The light held there, having fallen through you from the nearest brightest star. The air I expel from my lungs and take into my lungs. The words-failness of that light, air, open, up, around space. An experience closer to what I name preposition than noun: more than thing it is movement, direction, location, a totality of space and passage. The pines make this sense as they move through time and space. By the time I arrive where they are, they have ordained an entire way of being, and I enter it. This is true of almost all places I go: the city and its apartments, the museum and its rooms. They have been made in advance and they will outlast me. Among the white pines on this rocky island I am altered to fit the time and space of the pines. What is this alteration? It changes the I that I am, and the eyes that I have. The duringness and withinity of the pines are a grammar that refits me to an accompanied and accompanying multiple subjecthood. No longer the center of the sentence-shaped universe or the distant viewer of a landscape made to hold, I am here: with the pines, with the world they are."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants, Identity, and War in Ukraine","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25810","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d060896f.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"12","authors":"Keegan, Brendan","start_page":"58","end_page":"60","article_content":"From 2010-2012, I served as a U.S. Peace Corps Volunteer in a small Ukrainian town. In 2017, my wife (who also served in Ukraine) and I returned for a visit. We met with Natalia, a dear friend, and former colleague, at the school were I once worked. Together, we walked the old paths connecting nearby villages through the surrounding forest. It was a crisp, September day. The previous year's leaves, from towering old lindens, crunched beneath our feet. As we walked, I remembered the forest in seasons past. In March and April, millions of blooming white wood anemone and snow drops carpet the understory as far as the eye can see. A neighboring baba (granny) once asked if I would pick her a bouquet of those fragile, ephemeral flowers. As a child, she had plucked from those same woods. Giving them as gifts is a tradition common in the region for good luck and health. Last spring, I observed Arboretum visitors marveling at the same delicate snowdrops popping throughout our own collections. I thought of that friendly baba. As news images show the utter destruction of Ukrainian cities, towns, and villages, I often think of her, long since deceased, and her love for those simple flowers. Many readers will surely appreciate the Ukrainian custom of sharing snowdrops, of marking the seasons with walks through old forests. Indeed, Ukrainian identity as a whole is strongly associated with the natural world, and with plants in particular. The kalyna, better known in the U.S. as a guelder rose or snowball viburnum, is the most prominent example. Ukrainians believe planting one outside a home brings health and good fortune. Its red berries also serve as a metaphor for Ukrainian nationhood and independence. The plant prominently features in Ukrainian music, literature, and art. Its red berries adorn the bright embroidery of the vyshyvanka (Ukraine's national costume) as well as the modern-day insignia of Ukraine's armed forces. Plants play important roles in many other aspects of the culture. Wheat, the nation's economic lifeblood, is famously referenced in Ukraine's flag, golden under a bright blue summer sky. European aspen, found at the Arboretum on Peters Hill, features widely in Ukrainian poetry and literature, especially in the work of Ukraine's national poet, Taras Shevchenko. In Kyiv, Ukraine's capital, horse chestnuts adorn the various squares; at one point in its history, horse-chestnut leaves even graced this green city's official seal. Botanically inclined readers might even be envious of Ukraine's calendar, in which the names of months reference coinciding natural phenomena. For example, Berezen' (March) means \\\"birch,\\\" and indicates the time to tap the birches for their sweet sap. Kviten' (April) is \\\"flower,\\\" when the earliest blooms appear. Lypen' (July) is \\\"linden,\\\" marking the long summer evenings when this tree's sweet aroma bathes Ukrainian towns. My personal favorites mark the fall. Zhovten' (October) means \\\"yellowing,\\\" referring of course to changing leaves, while Lystopad (November) translates literally as \\\"leaf fall.\\\" Examples such as these abound in Ukrainian culture. In addition to sharing a general love for plants, the Arnold Arboretum also shares connections with Ukrainian botanical gardens and their staff. During the first year of the pandemic, our virtual lectures and educational presentations provided an opportunity for a truly global audience to attend and participate. Staff from Ukraine's M. M. Hyrshko National Botanic Garden in Kyiv were among them. After communicating first over social media, then directly, they sought advice from Arboretum staff on plant curation and exchanges. Of course, everything changed for our Ukrainian horticultural counterparts when Russia invaded on February 24, 2022. As the Russians advanced towards Kyiv, the M. M. Hryshko National Botanic Garden closed to all visitors. While many Kyivites fled the city in the face of bombardment, Arnold Arboretum staff kept in touch with our garden connections who remained. Throughout the months of fighting, horticulturist Olga Pokhlychenko updated us on the situation in city and garden alike. As many a gardener can surely relate, she feared for her plants as well as her colleagues, friends, and family. Of course, she was not alone; a select group of staff were allowed into the garden to keep their treasured greenhouses functioning during the bitter February cold. When the garden closed, Olga joined multitudes of other citizens volunteering in defense of their city and for each other. She spent much of her time gathering and dispersing medical supplies, and later served as a volunteer coordinator. At one point, she darkly joked that she had so many medical supplies in her house that she had retired as a horticulturist and become a pharmacist instead. When the Russians retreated from Kyiv in late March, Olga and others went to assist civilians living in the formerly occupied suburban towns and villages. Several towns, including Bucha and Irpin, were off limits as a result of mines and booby traps left behind. However, in the numerous surrounding villages, they delivered aid to the disproportionate number of elderly who remained during the fighting. Some volunteer aid deliveries included seeds for vegetable gardening, a popular pastime and food source for both urban and rural Ukrainians even before the war. Even after the Russian withdrawal, the danger of attack remained so high within Kyiv that the M. M. Hyrshko National Botanic Garden stayed closed for several months. As winter turned to spring, many loyal visitors mourned the inability to see their beloved plants. They inquired about the status of their favorite magnolias, cornelian cherries, and forsythia. Unfortunately, even the garden's renowned lilac festival was canceled for security concerns. Finally, after being closed for over ninety days, the M. M. Hyrshko National Botanic Garden reopened for staff and visitors on May 28. The opening day aligned with the weekend-long celebration of Kyiv's city day, marking its 1,540th anniversary. Olga, and those of her colleagues who remained in Kyiv, finally returned to their plants. At the Arnold Arboretum, our own Lilac Sunday returned in full after two years of muted festivities. In tribute to our Ukrainian colleagues, we highlighted a rare lilac cultivar in our collection, Syringa vulgaris 'Ukraina' (pronounced oo-kray-EE-na), named in honor of Ukraine. Although still a small plant, our Syringa vulgaris \\\"Ukraina\\\" bloomed beautifully this year. The cultivar was discovered in 1974 by Ukrainian horticulturist Valentina Zhogoleva. She worked at what is today Ukraine's National Botanic Garden, where Olga and her colleagues continue her care for the lilac collection. A woman in a field largely dominated by men, Valentina is also credited as a collaborator on many lilac cultivars. All of her credited lilacs are named after Ukrainian heroes, cities, and literary icons. The Arboretum plans to introduce several of these now rare Ukrainian cultivars into our collections over the coming years. We also hope to share acquired specimens with Ukrainian institutions, such as Harvard's Ukrainian Research Institute, which may not already have them. Our hope is to provide plants for memorial plantings, remembering Ukrainians who have died in the ongoing war, while also preserving unique cultivars of Ukraine's botanical heritage. In early spring, I connected again with my friend Natalia. She provided updates on the town, my colleagues, and both the strain and unusual rhythm of war. As a teacher, she described the difficulties of conducting lessons with periodic intermissions in the bomb cellar. Like many of us, she found solace working outside. \\\"(L)ife finds its balance even during war,\\\" she wrote in her message. \\\"We also have spring here\u2014it is still cold, but tulips have already blossomed, we have a lot of fruit trees, so I have enough work to do.\u2026 And a rose flower garden of 52 rose bushes. My hands are all in thorns\u2014but it's not so bad. The beauty of flowers is worth it.\\\" I am sure that many readers would sympathize with Natalia's words. Perhaps peace is like Natalia's roses, painfully, and painstakingly, cultivated. Until it is achieved, I hope the shared love of plants, such as the beautiful snowdrops in spring, the flowers of our Ukrainian lilac in May, and the red berries of the kalyna each fall, remain symbols of personal and institutional connection with the Ukrainian people."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Public Gardens and the Livable City","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25811","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070a327.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"11","authors":"Rakow, Donald A.; Gough, Megan Z.; Lee, Sharon A.","start_page":"54","end_page":"57","article_content":"Over the centuries, public gardens like the Arnold Arboretum have welcomed visitors to their grounds and enhanced those visits with opportunities to learn about the garden's plant collections and landscapes and to reflect and relax. In recent decades, many gardens have expanded the garden experience through art exhibits and performances of musical and theatrical groups on the grounds. However, most visitors to public gardens are those with the means to travel to the garden and the resources to pay for admission, when a gate fee is charged. For residents of underserved neighborhoods, even public gardens that offer free admission may be largely unknown due to a lack of public transportation, the absence of bilingual signs, or a perception of the institution as unwelcoming and catering only to higher- income or white members of the community. To thrive in the twenty-first century, public gardens must respond to their elitist reputations and invest in programs and policies that are inclusive, caring, and relevant to a wider audience. No matter their size or budget, it is time for public gardens to assume their responsibilities as community institutions and to focus on outreach to all community residents. As plant-based scientific and educational institutions, public gardens have the expertise and the experience that can help address challenges such as unsafe neighborhoods, poor quality science education, limited access to fresh and healthy foods, a lack of job training and job opportunities, and degraded environments. In support of the role that gardens can play in addressing these challenges, studies have shown that as streetscapes become greener, they attract more activity and engender more pride in public spaces. When young children are provided with hands-on science and nature instruction, they are more likely to succeed in school and see science as a possible career alternative. When previously incarcerated individuals are given training and offered jobs in the green industries, they are far less likely to return to prison. And when under-resourced residents are given the tools to build and grow community gardens, their diets and health also improve. The most successful initiatives arise through partnerships. As we demonstrate in our book, Public Gardens and Livable Cities (Cornell 2020, foreword by Scott Medbury), many initiatives to improve quality of life in our cities result from partnerships between gardens and other community organizations, neighborhood groups, municipal agencies, and private entities. There are a number of reasons why such partnerships make sense for public gardens. First, to be accessible to an increasingly diverse population, many programs need to be based where people reside or gather, rather than at the gardens themselves. Also, addressing environmental hazards in our poorest neighborhoods and connecting people with plants supports the priority that many public gardens now place on environmental stewardship. Through collaborations, gardens can be invaluable to initiatives that involve urban greening, while their partners contribute social capital and other organizational, financial, or logistical aspects. Public gardens can learn from organizations that have already entered into partnerships that resulted in successful initiatives. Our book provides multiple examples of partnerships that gardens have formed with school districts, municipal governments, community foundations, businesses, and neighborhood associations. Some of those partnerships are described below. In each example, partners have brought their particular strengths to the project, with the result that together they have had a far greater impact than any could have produced on their own. Community impact is possible across a variety of sectors, including public safety, food security, educational quality, and economic development: Promoting Neighborhood Safety and Well-Being Many underserved neighborhoods are still feeling the effects of the federally supported redlining initiated in the 1930s. Unequal access to mortgages, inadequate park development, and absence of street tree plantings are all manifestations of how discriminatory housing policies still impact low income and communities of color. To provide all communities within their borough with opportunities to reverse these trends, Brooklyn Botanic Garden created the Greenest Block in Brooklyn contest in partnership with multiple local block and civic associations, the Brooklyn Borough President's office, and engaged funders. The residents who plant and beautify their individual streets are not only improving the environmental quality of their surroundings, they are also building social ties, enabling them to better address neighborhood concerns related to crime prevention, economic development, and other quality of life issues. The prizes awarded to the \\\"greenest blocks\\\" also serve as points of pride for residents, encouraging them to sustain their beautification efforts in subsequent years. Access to Healthy Foods and Promoting Healthy Lives Underinvestment also strikes poor urban communities in the paucity of food choices. Neighborhoods that lack access to a full range of grocery items, especially fresh fruits and vegetables, have been termed \\\"food deserts\\\" and are often associated with high rates of obesity, high blood pressure, and diabetes, health issues that take a toll on our medical system. To address the negative impacts of food deserts throughout the Bronx, the New York Botanical Garden (NYBG) created Bronx Green-Up, a program that annually supports up to 75 community gardens and urban farms throughout the borough. While NYBG provides horticultural expertise and planting supplies to each growing site, the program's continued success depends on a range of local nonprofit and educational partners. Among these are Farm School NYC, NYC Parks Green Thumb, Butterfly Project NYC, and the Bronx Land Trust. Through its hands-on engagement with communities, NYBG, which was once seen as an elite institution, now feels like a welcoming space for many more of its neighbors. Training and Employment Programs Throughout our metropolitan regions, prisons are overcrowded, and sentencing is often long delayed. Many incarcerated individuals are likely to return to their past behavior, resulting in a continued cycle of recidivism. Some public gardens in partnership with other community institutions have created initiatives to help break this cycle, especially for non-violent offenders. Programs such as Roots to Re-Entry (R2R), administered by the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, treat young incarcerated men as individuals, rather than statistics. The R2R program depends on partnerships with the Bureau of Prisons, the District Attorney's Office, the Defender's Association of Philadelphia, and a web of local landscaping businesses and foundations. This synergy of participants allows the R2R program to train participants in horticultural and mechanical skills, and then helps to place them in green industry positions. Moving these young men into paying positions is enhanced by mentors who assist them as they re-enter the world. As a result, the recidivism rates for R2R participants is 30 percent compared to 65 percent for the general prison population in Philadelphia. Improving the Quality of Science Education Science education in U.S. public schools suffers from too little time devoted to the subject, a shortage of trained science teachers, and traditional curricula that focus on memorization rather than engaging students in interactive instruction. In many urban school districts, a high proportion of students also suffer from the negative impacts of poverty. These shortcomings come as the nation deals with the consequences of global climate change, loss of biodiversity, and polluted environments. The Chicago Botanic Garden (CBG) is addressing these challenges through their multi-stage Science Career Continuum. The initial stage, Science First, is an intensive, inquiry-based summer program designed to introduce middle schoolers to basic biological principles and applications. At the Garden, students are led by a team of public school science teachers and CBG staff in scientific inquiry, investigations, and observations. Those who excel are invited to participate in the College First program for eleventh and twelfth-grade that features a summer-long intensive immersion program at the Garden, including an environmental science practicum, an internship with a CBG scientist, and a monthly session with CBG staff mentors during the school year. Chicago Botanic Garden partners with a range of educational and social services organizations in the execution of these programs, including Northwestern University, City Colleges of Chicago, Chicago Scholars, Chicago Public Schools, and Hive Chicago, a network of nonprofits dedicated to connected learning. The impact of this continuum of programs is stunning: 100 percent of College First participants have graduated from high school, and 94 percent matriculated to two- or four-year colleges. These hardly exhaust the examples\u2014or the possibilities. The partnerships mentioned in this article and others described in more depth in Public Gardens and Livable Cities, will not, by themselves, solve all of the challenges of our cities. But such efforts are making a difference in creating cities that more livable for all residents. They succeed because they involve the collective expertise of both the gardens and their partners; they address real issues as identified by community members; and they reach out broadly to engage partners from across the municipal, not-for-profit, and business worlds. To learn about additional exciting collaborations between public gardens and their partners , visit our companion website at https:\/\/blogs.cornell.edu\/pglc."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Viburnum bracteatum 'Crimson Gem'","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25812","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070a36b.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"10","authors":"Enzenbacher, Tiffany","start_page":"50","end_page":"53","article_content":"'Crimson Gem' bracted viburnum (Viburnum bracteatum) is the first cultivar release from the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University's new plant introduction program, Arnold Selects. This bracted viburnum's one-of-a-flower was discovered over ten years ago by the Edwards Lab (then of Brown University, now of Yale) while conducting research in the Arboretum's collections, and noted by Keeper of the Living Collections, Michael Dosmann. Reading his May 2010 database field check note, one can still feel Dosmann's excitement: \\\"inflorescences have red centers!\\\" Indeed, blossoms have a rare sterile red floret in the center, resembling the herbaceous biennial Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota). The red floret is perched above the ivory ones, literally taking center stage. These unique flat-topped cymes are held on erect pubescent, 2-inch stems that are a whopping 1 \u00bd to 3 inches across. In fact, the red floret can be enjoyed even before the shrub comes into full flower, while its pearl-colored neighbors are still in bud. But the real show starts when the enchanting inflorescences open in their entirety in late May to early June, showering the shrub, and revealing the 'gem' in the center of practically every single inflorescence. Foliage is also appealing: emerging leaves have an ephemeral reddish hue, notably visible along the margins and between veins. Leaves are 2 to 4 inches long and 1 \u00bc to 2 \u00bd inches wide, and change to dark green as the season progresses. They are ovate with acuminate tips and serrate margins. Giving the plant its common name are the four persistent, bract-like stipules at each node (junction of leaf petiole and stem), as well as the two bracts below each inflorescence. Paired with leaf colors ranging bronze to maroon, the clusters of shiny oval to rounded fruits (drupes) are blue-black at maturity, providing autumn interest. 'Crimson Gem' was originally acquired as part of the Arboretum's commitment to plant conservation. The Arboretum is a participating member of the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), and has holdings of ten current indigenous North American species on the CPC threatened plant list. Founded in 1984 at the Arboretum, and with the national headquarters currently at the San Diego Zoo Safari Park in Escondido, California, CPC is unique partnership of conservationist organizations, such as botanical gardens and arboreta. Its aim is to preserve threatened North American plant taxa by ex situ conservation focused on acquisition and species stewardship. Bracted viburnum is considered critically imperiled (global conservation status G1) and is endangered in the wild\u2014mainly due to limestone quarrying, but also by clearing and logging operations. Only a few populations remain in the southeastern states of Alabama, Georgia, and Tennessee. In its current range, it is found selectively as an understory shrub growing in open deciduous woodlands and along rivers, particularly on the ledges of the Coosa River, which begins in Rome, Georgia before entering Alabama, and on the escarpment of the Cumberland Plateau (southern part of the Appalachian Mountain Plateau). With CPC collections at the forefront of Arboretum institutional priorities in the mid-1980s, assistant plant propagator Rob Nicholson embarked on multiple expeditions to facilitate ex situ conservation. \\\"I basically would go to the herbarium, compile a list of locales for the targeted species, and off I went,\\\" Nicholson recalls. \\\"Once in awhile I would connect with a botanist who knew a species and where to find it \u2026 but it was mostly solo hunting.\\\" (Nicholson was a prolific collector for the Arnold and other institutions; see his account of the expedition to collect Pinus krempfii beginning on page 32.) Nicholson's investigations led him to travel to Tennessee and Georgia in October 1987, where scarce native populations of bracted viburnum are present. Twenty-one acquisitions from the very full weeklong Southeast State Expedition were accessioned. The trip was characterized by \\\"long 16-hour days \u2026 and long miles.\\\" Other taxa of interest on the trip included Fraser fir (Abies fraseri), endangered due to the balsam wooly adelgid; southern bush honeysuckle (Diervilla sessilifolia), considered threatened in its native state of Tennessee; and longstalk holly (Ilex collina), vulnerable with only 4,000 individuals in the wild. With so many target taxa acquired, Nicholson's CPC expedition was a success, but not to the extent that he could ever have imagined. Nicholson found the 'Crimson Gem' parent plant growing in Franklin County, Tennessee. Flowering in late spring, this bracted viburnum's precious bloom could not have been observed when Nicholson made the collection on October 10th. Though it was in its fall fruiting phase, he recalls that no fruit was present, so he harvested a division\u2014the sole means of preserving this crucial imperiled taxon. To hedge his bet, Nicholson took three divisions, two of which remain in the collections. Three days later, Nicholson visited Floyd County, Georgia, and collected other bracted viburnum divisions on the bluffs overlooking the Coosa River. These are also planted in the living collections, but don't share their relatives' unusual attribute. Bracted viburnum divisions were cataloged upon receipt at the Arboretum, and 'Crimson Gem' was given the accession number of 1067-87. Plants were dutifully nurtured at the Dana Greenhouses at the Arboretum, and then aptly planted at the Viburnum Collection\/Greenhouse border (likely so Nicholson could keep tabs on his valuable acquisition accomplishment) in 1992. In 2005, stem cuttings were taken of this endangered (and extraordinary) plant to increase the Arboretum's ex situ holdings. The resulting clone, with the same ruby \\\"gem,\\\" was planted in the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden. With over thirty years in the Arboretum landscape, 'Crimson Gem' has stood the test of time. It has provided outstanding seasonal interest, and has been reliable year after year in a shrub border. It would also be well utilized if planted as a hedge, or in mass. 'Crimson Gem' is adaptable to different soil conditions\u2014it has certainly tolerated the Arboretum's acidic soils just fine, though it is native to the alkaline soil of limestone woods. 'Crimson Gem' cuttings were just provided to nursery partners, so it will be several years before this new cultivar is available in the trade. However, it will no doubt be the jewel of gardens someday, and we can all have that magical \\\"aha\\\" moment\u2014flowers have red centers!"},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Timber Culture Act","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25813","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070a76e.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"9","authors":"Elkin, Rosetta S.","start_page":"40","end_page":"49","article_content":"The Timber Culture Act (1873) was a radical means to secure resources in otherwise treeless environments. Its stated claim provided entry \\\"for the cultivation of timber which are prairie lands or other lands devoid of timber.\\\"1 Its passing mobilized the protocols and promises of affidavit to deed land across the prairie states. The act was followed by land entries and land patents, the final steps in securing land that had already been peopled for thousands of years by hundreds of Native American tribes.2 Nebraska\u2014a prairie state\u2014took the lead in land entry numbers, tallies, and acres, which frames the itinerary of tree planting as a form of land tenure predicated on afforestation because Nebraska is principally a dry prairie grassland.3 Therefore, the Timber Culture Act sanctioned the substitution and deletion of dryland ecology, in this case both the extant prairie biome and the skillful cultivation of its inhabitants. A quick review of the associated institutional language makes evident the use of authority, hinged on administrative tasks. It further implicates the individual farmer as a developer, invested in the act of swapping thick grassy cover for individual tree units in order to establish an enterprise. Where 160 acres are taken, at least five must be plowed within one year from date of entry. The following, or second year, said five acres must be actually cultivated to crops or otherwise, and another five acres must be plowed. The third year the first five acres must be planted to trees, tree seeds or cuttings, and the second five acres actually cultivated to crop or otherwise. The fourth year, the second five acres must be planted to trees, tree seeds or cuttings, making, at the end of the fourth year, ten acres thus planted to trees.4 A \\\"tree claim\\\" could be filled in by anyone, and in return no more than 160 acres was acquired, with the specification that 40 acres of the claim must be tree planted, an effective means to ensure settlement. According to one claimant, \\\"the section of land specified in my said application is composed exclusively of prairie lands, or other lands devoid of timber; that this filing and entry is made for the cultivation of timber and that I have made said application in good faith.\\\"5 Units coalesced local and regional affairs, advancing federal and legislative ambitions. But the cost was only refined in the fine print, which specified that no fewer than 2,700 tree units could be planted on any ten-acre block.6 It was a staggering number that led to copious tallies, monitoring programs, and the need for reportage. Each territorial procedure (survey, reportage) reinforced the hopelessness of the task: water was scarce, winds were strong, erosion seemed erratic, and the quantity of units could not be sustained. To plow and maintain 160 acres with a mix of crops and trees was a challenge that took hold for very few claims.7 Managing 675 living trees on each acre was akin to owning a product, and growing trees was the best way to hold onto your land and avoid the cancelation of your claim. The number of entries made under the Timber Culture Act records area in acres, although territory could only be claimed if individual tree units were calculated and submitted for approval. This kind of accounting leaves out more than it includes, marking both the beginning of afforestation- linked landscape management and the rise of incentive-based policy maladapted to drylands. In Nebraska alone almost nine million acres were claimed under the act, but final proof was only made for trees planted across two million acres.8 Since alterations to the land were less predictable than imagined, the gradual accumulation of expertise was necessary to further instill confidence in afforestation. The newly formed federal government certainly did not want western expansion to be deemed a failure. Not surprisingly, this tension between success and failure required expertise, which arrived in the form of technical manuals, suitable species lists, and machinery types: the index of expertise. In the radical ecology of afforestation projects, the concept of failure is critical to the vocabulary of management, whereby catastrophe becomes a claim made by a specialist rather than a circumstance of ill-aligned biotic and climatic association. From a different angle, this means that expertise reinforces ecological projections through a series of calculated procedures rather than distinguishes, decodes, and evolves through direct experience with plant life. In fact, the plant really had nothing to do with it. Thus, failures in tallying units set the stage for the assimilation of expertise, which was equally an opportunity for the emerging business of arboriculture to become the science of forestry. The Timber Culture Act mobilized substantial takings across drylands, revealing that trees were valued as an important natural resource before forestry emerged as a discipline. At the time, forestry was a colonial economy, a means to import and spread viable European plants across the American continent and send New World novelties back to Europe.9 The botanical studies and the natural sciences were far too remote from the actual efforts of farming, explicated by the disparity created between increasing knowledge of plant parts in botany and the transmission of their application into common use, through horticulture. The more practical \\\"cultures\\\"\u2014 including the planting of trees in cities, crops for a homestead, or flowers for public display\u2014were the domain of arboriculture, horticulture, or agriculture, for instance. Botanical studies were firmly indifferent to practical endeavors in much the same ways as farmers or ranchers are indifferent to scientific study. Botany's elevated status ensured that it did not labor, and its scientific status protected it from ever having to do so. So long as these two practices (botany and horticulture) remain entirely distinct and in organized separation, a summarized reading of plant life is multiplied into the space of physical, earthly matters. Imagine a world of individual farmers working across vastly differentiated territories. Each effort represents a struggle to hold boundaries across a landscape without trees. Consequently, the failure to establish trees compelled professionalization. Failure was pinned on individual farmers and expertly manipulated as a means to assert more control over territory.10 It was not attributed to the ill calibration of species, quantity or the insistence of inserting trees into a vast, treeless landscape. Rather, lands beyond the hundredth meridian look empty from the shady groves of the East Coast. Timber and crops were needed to support a growing population, and the prairies represented a blank canvas. As a result, tree culture across the Plains was predicated on the need for protection from the harsh climatic conditions, which offered a correspondingly reduced description of the grassland biome.11 In order to increase agricultural production by sheltering farmlands from strong winds, each belt, break, or wall represented more than local shelter, firewood, or fuel: it was an opportunity to nationalize timber. The replicable model of planting a shelterbelt catalyzes the farmer as an agent of the federal economy by suppressing indigenous practices and local acquaintance. The language of this authority eliminates conjecture through levels of survey, reportage, and authoritative lists that impress with calculation. Of the total area (Great Plains region), some 56 percent lends itself to shelterbelt planting, about 39 percent is difficult to plant, and 5 percent is entirely unfit for planting.12 According to this federal explanation, there is nothing essential, intermediary, or material to constrain the accumulation of units. This description instrumentalized efforts to liberate the vacant spaces between meridians. Settlement necessitated clearing and cutting forest to make space for cultivation, as the character of cheap nature ultimately supported expansion. Both tree planting and tree felling were exploitative regimes that consolidated control across the American continent. As we have seen, the difference was contextual; trees were cleared to make space for cultivation along the arborized East Coast, and trees were planted as pioneers moved west into the treeless prairies to cultivate land. In both cases, trees with clear human advantage were selected, while plants that grew of their own accord, or spontaneously, were overlooked and rarely stabilized in the procedures of index. It took decades of energy, planting, and felling before allegiance to the spontaneous plants was described by Charles Sprague Sargent: Many years ago, when I first realized the difficulty of obtaining any true knowledge of the trees in this country, I formed the plan of writing a Silva which should contain an account of all the species that grow spontaneously in the forests of North America.13 The study of trees as spontaneous organisms with indigenous characteristics was described in The Silva of North America (1891), a work of botanical inquiry that detailed 412 species, with reference to growth habit linked to illustrated maps that indicated distribution. 14 Most significantly, Sargent, the director of the At the time, Sargent held the position of professor of arboriculture, which ensured that his tenure at the arboretum would be focused on applied engagement with the landscape, with \\\"plants in a living state.\\\" Sargent valued the associations between the individual tree, and its necessary relationship with soil, climate, and human codependency. His treatise provided a careful account of spontaneous woody plants, distinguishing between rainfall patterns and elevation, factors that limit tree growth at the hundredth meridian. This is the boundary of aridity that reveals the prairies as dryland. The variable edge is endowed with a watercolor- like transparency that emulates this bond between climate and plant life. Armed with the notes on \\\"wood producing capacity,\\\" Sargent's treatise would go on to become the first technical forestry report of the newly created Division of Forestry in the Department of Agriculture in 1886. The Silva of North America elevates claims in drylands, as forestry reaches into scientific study to nurture its advance. Of note is that while the profession of forestry is confirmed in the United States in the European tradition, it expands to include planting in order to secure extractable resources. The varied institutional settings between botany as a science and forestry as a profession entangle the study of plant life in the discrepancies and difficulties reports, as forestry read gaps in the maps and botanists read their extents. Rather than carefully consider the findings of Sargent's botanical fieldwork, remote structures deployed the literal blank space of his mapping efforts as a means to recontextualize the prairies as a tree-planting endeavor, converting biomes and replacing thick, fibrous rhizomes with woody plant units. The appropriations of forestry transformed Silva into an operations manual\u2014or a masterplan\u2014which begins to explain how vast quantities of grassland expanse and ancient reserves of pastoral acreage become the jurisdiction of federal foresters. The map was \\\"empty,\\\" a curse of drylands the world over, but it was an opportunity for the industrious. The insertion of trees infused meaning into New World expansion in the prairie states, as demand for ownership lines and boundaries enabled land claims hinged on tree planting. Afforestation emerges as forestry (not botany) and disseminates plant life as a \\\"tree unit,\\\" transferring knowledge of resource management to each small-hold farmer. In this way, particularly profitable and predictable plant species are endorsed over others, superimposing units on extant plant life. New World Forest Problems 1891 published. The Silva of North America (Sargent) 1901 renamed. Division of Forestry becomes the Bureau of Forestry 1905 renamed. Bureau of Forestry becomes Forest Service 1910 published. The Fight for Conservation (Pinchot) In the American consciousness, the origins of environmentalism are tied to the ethics of conservation, first recognized as forest conservation. The lineage of conservation, like many historic accounts, is entirely dependent on the narrator. For instance, ecological thought in America was first affirmed as plant ecology, the study of plant life in the environment. What is worth bearing in mind is that despite its significance, plant ecology did not proceed as the science of consequence in the grassland biome. Rather, forestry administered and studied the prairie formation. The reasons for this odd fragmentation of knowledge are slippery to pin down, but it is worth noting the role of Gifford Pinchot (1865-1946). Pinchot was more of a politician than a forester, and he acted as the first head of the newly established Forest Service in 1905. Under his leadership, forestry progressed from a division within the Department of Agriculture (USDA) to a separate bureau responsible for forest policy across the whole land surface of the United States. The Forest Service emerged\u2014not coincidentally\u2014 as the nation demanded unprecedented quantities of timber for fuel and construction. Charged with a simplified problem statement, Pinchot pushed forest conservation into unchartered territory. The influence of George Perkins Marsh (1801-82) motivated Pinchot's interest in the debates of conservation. In Man and Nature (1864), Marsh determined that humans were a major geologic influence, famously asserting that \\\"man is everywhere a disturbing agent,\\\" a landmark statement in both ecological and conservation studies.16 Marsh was neither forester nor plant ecologist but articulated an unparalleled understanding of the role of plant life in preserving the landscape, in how a plant's connection to the soil maintains the substrate and prevents or reduces erosion. According to biographer David Lowenthal, the success of Marsh's rhetoric is found in his caution concerning impending disaster, by addressing what he termed \\\"New World\\\" forest problems. Marsh challenged the general belief that human impact on nature was generally negligible, explicating a global tendency toward wasted natural resources. Armed with Man and Nature, Pinchot adopts conservation as forest policy. In a sticky exchange of authority, conservation and forestry coalesce as both ethic and science, alternatively sanctioning felling and planting trees regardless of context. Despite Marsh's warning, the Forest Service appropriated conservation as a \\\"solution\\\" to forest devastation, seizing upon Marsh's warning of old-world forest decline as a motivation to enforce national policy. Conservation policy progressed through extant forests and forest plantations, as plant ecology evolved as a scientific discipline in the prairie states. Remarkably, the difference was not correlated, although ecology revealed the role of plants in forming the territory and conservation uncovered the role of human agency over the territory. Rather, conservation was annexed to the profession of forestry, authorizing the Forest Service to oversee the planting of grasslands, prairies, agricultural lots, deserts, urban centers, and high mountains, concealing their extractive procedures in the outlines of conservation. Tree-planting projects begin to materialize in the millions of acres as the soil is planted, replanted, aplanted, seeded, fenced, and labeled. The landscape is objectified, appearing and disappearing through measurement and calculation. In this way, felling and planting develop synonymously, rendering the environmental messages of Man and Nature were translated as generalized statements with gross ecological miscalculations. For instance, the notion that tree planting would bring rain to the arid West was appropriated to encourage settlers to move to ever-dryer lands.17 The assumed property that followed tree planting is a clever disguise for afforestation. As Lowenthal's biography verifies, Marsh's message was pillaged for such \\\"proof\\\" that rainfall and prosperity followed tree planting. This nexus between national forest policy and conservationist thought is repeatedly stressed in Pinchot's The Fight for Conservation (1910): \\\"As a forester I am glad to believe that conservation began with forestry, and that the principles which govern the Forest Service in particular and forestry in general are also the ideas that control conservation.\\\"18 The fight for conservation was taken up by the Forest Service, exploiting the growing concern over forest devastation in order to plant and thus control more federal land. Tree cover emerges in the lexicon of conservation. Land, absent \\\"cover,\\\" is manipulated into land that can potentially receive cover. Tree units add up, when acres of \\\"cover\\\" are procedurally converted by the practices of forestry, as tree planting is sanctioned in non-treed environments. Consider the following passage. The crown has more to do with the life of the tree than its other parts, for the most important processes in the reproduction of the tree and the digestion of its food take place in the crown. For this reason, and because we can control its shape and size more easily and directly than that of the roots or trunk, the crown is of special interest to the forester. It is almost exclusively with the crowns that he has to deal in tending a crop of trees and preparing the way for succeeding generations. As they stand together in the forest, the crowns of trees form a broken shelter, which is usually spoken of as the leaf canopy, but which may be better called the cover.19 Land, absent \\\"cover,\\\" represents millions of acres of potential federal territory. The conversion of \\\"crown\\\" or \\\"leaf canopy\\\" into \\\"cover\\\" had a number of spatial consequences that will be addressed further. For now, the consequences are especially poignant because the root system is set aside in the first pages. Regulators, policy makers, and the forest service administrators intentionally reduced the growing plant to standing timber. The consequence is that the federal government had no use for the nascent scholarship of grassland science or the complications of plant ecology. The hidden intelligence of rhizomatic formation could not reaffirm exploitation or capital return, one of the most fundamental reasons why canopy continues to prevail in carbon-capture calculations. This is what professional expertise does when it lays claim to fact and asserts the power of disqualification instead. Pinchot's use of the term cover not only left out the aliveness of plants; it delineated the absence or presence of trees. The social implications and the negligence toward practical knowledge or public intelligence were already a form of expert persuasion upon which the profession of forestry is established: treeless lands can be conserved by planting trees. This raises another question: What are the spatial\u2014 and thus social\u2014consequences of such abridged problem statements? If Marsh explicated the \\\"problems\\\" of human action, Pinchot clarified that forestry had solutions, a defense strategy that he claims as a \\\"virile evolution of the campaign for conservation of the nation's resources.\\\"20 Conveniently, the solution relies on the interrelated goals of national expansion and resource extraction. By associating tree planting with conservation, Pinchot appealed to President Teddy Roosevelt, who pioneered land conservation armed with Pinchot's treatises.21 Thus, a fragmented translation of Man and Nature is interpreted by statistical proof in Pinchot's The Fight for Conservation. At the time of Man and Nature's publication, federal regulations had already secured the first Forestry Service in the federal Department of Agriculture, established a forestry program at Yale University, and set aside more than 150 national forests as reserve areas. Such policy and regulatory potency have lasting spatial repercussions. Particular to the success of forestry was the reduction of national geography to manageable units, as conservation became a capital project.22 Thus, the terms of conservation mitigated the affiliation between planting and felling, but conservation was fortified by yield management, the precision of index. This is significant to the ways in which management and development continue to prosper through the invention of crisis. Specification in Units Afforestation hides in the manipulation of specifications, loudly advocating for tree planting while quietly converting biomes: cut here, fill there or fell here, plant there. The cyclical arrangement is wedged between industrial and ecological intentions, necessitating expertise in both analyzing extant lands and constructing entirely new ones. Not surprisingly, the interdependencies between forest and field mobilize the need for more and more units as a primary measure of converting biomes, or planting trees to secure timber. The forester does not deal in individual trees destined for a purpose but on masses of tree units, because the individual tree has value only as part of the whole. At the same time that Weaver was excavating earthy workshops and painstakingly detailing the depth and intricacy of the prairie formation, the character of American expansionism was emerging in tree units, as domesticated plants balanced settlement. The accumulation and distribution of homogenous units triumphed over the diverse, interconnected, spontaneous, and multiple, preventing any expression from unscientific worlds and erasing the intimate aspects of daily life where social, cultural, environmental, and plant life mingle. Armed with an antidote to treelessness, forest policy worked its way across 170 million acres of American dryland by stabilizing a sanctioned list of tree varieties, despite the warnings that cycles that transform forest to field to plow flatten diversity and destroy soil by field wash at both an unprecedented scale and an unprecedented speed due to plow and policy. The Timber Culture Act confirmed that only the most reliable, predictable plants could be confidently inserted, so these updated lists confirmed only trees that could persist in prairie soil. To facilitate planting, the specification of tree units was linear, and in the American context catalyzed the shelterbelt typology. Dryland shelterbelts are additive, unlike the shelterbelts in Europe or those found in the American East, which are primarily composed of remnant forest. Such belts are the residues of clearing, burning, or grading procedures. The plants that remain intact are often called hedgerows or windbreaks, and are registered vertically through a prolific, enduring accumulation of biota that remain deep in the rhizosphere. In other words, the trees, shrubs, and herbs of the former landscape are unbroken, and continue to thrive in diversity and habitat. As a network of accretive forces and biological activity, they are extremely effective at slowing erosive forces. The subtractive force of clearing land produces an increase in mounds and layers within the hedgerows, as branches and rocks are thrown into piles and endure. Each mature specimen also maintains vigorous seed banks and robust sprouting stumps. When a plant is inserted as an individual organism, copied and pasted in neat rows, it has limited ability to produce relations in the soil. This is due to the constitution of the rhizosphere, in which a process between microorganisms, fungus, and soil biota is stratified in cooperation with other neighboring organisms. Plants, left behind with their major root systems and mycorrhizal relationships intact, continue to provide reliable growth patterns. The connection of each remnant to the soil advances the entire network, an interdependent and persistent spatial structure, which pulses through the soil. In contrast, shelterbelt protocols in drylands insert plant units into flattened, cleared, turned, and exposed soil. Plants\u2014treated as objects\u2014are forced to instigate each belowground relationship anew before any achievement can be registered aboveground. A shelterbelt not only has behaviors, domains, and unknowns; it has a spatial geometry that often necessitates two landowners, as it straddles property lines. Further, this geometric configuration not only extends a thickened line and extrudes a height gradient; it extends the root zone in both the horizontal and vertical dimensions. The roots require irrigation, nutrition, and time in order to assert aboveground effects. As a result, local disputes escalate along with the behavior of any trees that display significant mobility, as some plants spread more quickly than others. While a shelterbelt is designed to grow in height and girth, it is certainly not expected to migrate or move. If a shelterbelt is \\\"successful,\\\" it is only because the plant evolved persistent root morphology and reproductive capacity, a feature that cannot be rendered visible or valuated economically. Yet conflict arises if the plant is successful enough to be found encroaching beyond property lines, or into productive farmland.23 For instance, the behavior of some woody roots will outcompete annual crops for resources such as moisture and nutrients, which makes them a nuisance to farmers. In shelterbelt culture, trees are deemed beneficial only if they provide undeviating protection, and are deemed a menace if they overcome specifications. The correlation between additive and subtracted spatial geometry illuminates the friction between developers and their environment during this period. Tree planting in the Plains exemplified this struggle, as failure to adapt was decidedly unacceptable and un-American.24 Resolve only increases in the space between dying and trying, a feature of most developers bent on return. But it was the lack of consensus between investments that finally led to the appeal for government support.25 Just as the American pioneers resisted treelessness, they could not cooperate on investment between property limits. Ownership is a personal discipline, as the contested fence and neighbor relationship suitably explicates. In a largescale planted system, these thresholds prove mutually beneficial. Yet the owner who initially broke ground, transplanted, or seeded the rows tended to be the one to water, manage, and maintain it, despite shared outcomes. Effort was the developer's investment, and resistance has the power to affect the system it endorses. Simultaneous to the decades when professional forestry, sedentary agriculture, and public acquisition were determining the American landscape, conservation collapsed neatly into agencies, services, institutes, and organizations. Political agendas merged with development strategies through the protection or abuse of natural resources, so that access and recreation became the most salient features of the vistas, lakes, peaks, and other wonders of natural beauty.26 Forestry lurks in the background as the landscape becomes a cultural and social construct, devoid of individual life-forms beyond the human. The symmetrical competition between growth and yield, or materializing and subtracting, currently calculates carbon credits through additive operations and timber volume in deductive increments. At once, local populations are led to believe that \\\"billion tree\\\" campaigns and \\\"great green walls\\\" are pronouncing progress, but growth statistics and depletion metrics are isolated from accountability and context. These flip-side tactics benefit from quick rotations that leverage tree planting as a means to elevate control through yield, in a world troubled by ongoing crisis. When dealing in units, the authority of forestation selectively neglects the less visible attributes of plant life, including individual plant behavior, symbiotic relationships, and the concealed roots and rhizomes that form and deform the soil within which biomes are produced. Because of aboveground visibility, development budgets, and technical encouragement, projects that eagerly plant trees under the rubric of afforestation continue to garner international funds and approval despite the haunting conspiracy of replacing biomes and commercializing plant life. The prowess of progress that celebrates biome conversion creates as it destroys, a central tenet of afforestation. rosetta s. elkin is associate professor and academic director of landscape architecture at Pratt Institute, principal of Practice Landscape, and research associate at the Arnold Arboretum. endnotes: 1. The full Timber Culture Act is available in Thomas Donaldson, The Public Domain: Its History, with Statistics (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1884), 1093. 2. Roxanne Dunbar-Ortiz, An Indigenous Peoples' History of the United States (Boston: Beacon, 2014). 3. For more on Nebraska as a \\\"tree-planting state,\\\" see John F. Freeman, \\\"Trees for High Plains,\\\" in High Plains Horticulture: A History (Boulder: University Press of Colorado, 2008), 19-32. 4. Donaldson, The Public Domain, 1092. 5. Donaldson, 1094; Timber Culture Act, application October 3, 1878, Individual Claimant, NB. 6. Benjamin H. Hibbard, A History of the Public Land Policies (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1965), 422. 7. Accounts of individual claims are covered in relation to the landscape in Charles Barron McIntosh, The Nebraska Sand Hills: The Human Landscape (Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press, 1996). 8. Everett Newfon Dick, Conquering the Great American Desert: Nebraska (Lincoln: Nebraska State Historical Society, 1975). 9. Philip J. Pauly, Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2007). 10. C. B. McIntosh, \\\"Use and Abuse of the Timber Culture Act,\\\" Annals of the Association of American Geographers 65, no. 3 (1975): 347-62. 11. In a description of the region, an introductory study by Raphael Zon of the Forest Service explains that \\\"the climatic conditions become less favorable for plant growth from east to west.\\\" Lake States Forest Experiment Station, U.S. Forest Service, Possibilities of Shelterbelt Planting in the Plains Region (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1935), 3. 12. Lake States Forest Experiment Station, 7. 13. Charles Sprague Sargent, The Silva of North America: A Description of the Trees Which Grow Naturally in North America Exclusive of Mexico (Boston: Houghton, Mifflin, 1891), v. 14. See also Charles Sprague Sargent, Sixteen Maps Accompanying Report on Forest Trees of North America (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Census Office, 1884). 15. Sargent, The Silva of North America, v. 16. George P. Marsh, Man and Nature (New York: Charles Scribner, 1864), 14. 17. On the embrace of Pinchot's policies by Americans, see Michael Williams, Americans and Their Forests: A Historical Geography (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), 393-411. 18. Gifford Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation (New York: Doubleday, Page, 1910). 19. Gifford Pinchot, A Primer of Forestry (Washington: Government Printing Office, 1903), 7. 20. Pinchot, The Fight for Conservation, iv. 21. David Lowenthal, George Perkins Marsh, Prophet of Conservation, Weyerhaeuser Environmental Book (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 2000), 9. 22. Lowenthal, 10-12. 23. Office of Information, U.S. Forest Service, Prairie-Plains Region Shelterbelt Project (Washington, D.C.: U.S. Forest Service, 1946). 24. Wilmon H. Droze, Trees, Prairies, and People (Denton: Texas Woman's University, 1977), 30. 25. Droze, 22. 26. There is tremendous literature on the history of conservation. See, for instance, George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature, ed. David Lowenthal (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1864); and Douglas Helms and Susan L. Flader, eds., The History of Soil and Water Co"},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Two Poems","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25814","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070ab26.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"8","authors":"Fjeld, Jessica","start_page":"39","end_page":"39","article_content":"Early Early I descend the stairs like a child's newly-acquired marionette No part in predictable relation to the others In the kitchen on the top shelf is a cardboard bankers box Full of boiling water Good The lilac's leaves all withered but for months it has had a hundred green little buds, firm little pregnancies at the tip of each branch I am watching them daily to gauge their intentions I think you should find it surprising that given the time we spend on our feet, it's so difficult to learn to stand on our hands How the ground presses up The cement is compromised, full of hope and sand I tell the children it's a bunker due to the bunk beds They want to show the beds to visitors but instead we teach them moral rectitude, screaming, subsisting on sugar and edible species of fungus Their teeth sink into cake like gravity sinks into the snow laying thick on the mountainside The mutinous avalanche turns the trees upside down but the trees are prepared Their roots and branches mirrored in all relevant respects jessica fjeld is the author of Redwork (2018) and the chapbooks The Tide (2010) and On animate life (2006), for which she received the Poetry Society of America's Chapbook Fellowship. Also an attorney and academic, Fjeld is the Assistant Director of the Harvard Law School Cyberlaw Clinic at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society, where she focuses on supporting the work of creatives, archivists, and human rights defenders as that work intersects with emerging technology. She lives with her family in Somerville, MA."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pinus krempfii Does Battle","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25815","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070ab6a.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"7","authors":"Nicholson, Rob","start_page":"32","end_page":"38","article_content":"All the plants of a given country are at war one with another. The first who establish themselves by chance in a particular spot tend, by the mere occupancy of space, to exclude other species\u2014the greater choke the smaller, the longest-lived replace those which last for a shorter period, the more prolific gradually make themselves masters of the ground, which species multiplying more slowly would otherwise fill. \u2014Augustin Pyramus de Candolle 1820 Writing more than a decade before Charles Darwin embarked on the Beagle, Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle (1778-1841) foreshadowed the idea of the survival of the fittest when he wrote of the ecological competition between plants, a competition with inevitable winners and losers. Over geological history, the groups of plants that cloak the earth have shifted dramatically with changes in climate, and as new groups of plants evolved and entered the battle for territorial supremacy. Between the Devonian and early Cretaceous periods (about 380 to 125 million years before present), the world's flora saw the rise and dominance of gymnosperms: conifers, cycads, ginkgos, and others. In the early Cretaceous, angiosperms, or flowering plants, began to evolve, proliferating into the hundreds of families, now some ninety percent of all plant species, which now dominate vast areas of the planet. Gymnosperms (roughly one percent of extant plant species) surrendered huge expanses of land and were pushed to high altitudes, the boreal region, or into cohabitation with the new \\\"masters of the ground,\\\" flowering plants. Modern ecologists shun the vivid language of \\\"the war between the plants,\\\" couching this battle in terms like \\\"sequential clade competition\\\" and the \\\"active displacement hypothesis.\\\" But with global warming, the shrinking of the boreal forest and mountaintop refuges will only accelerate the gymnosperms' loss of territory. This largely human-induced change may be more rapid than any yet withstood by the group. Ebb and Flow The largest family in the gymnosperms, Pinaceae, the Pine family, includes 232 species, with 119 described as pines in the genus Pinus. Of these true pines, the IUCN lists nineteen as falling in the most dire categories: vulnerable, endangered, or critically endangered. Pinus has one of the widest natural ranges of any genus of trees on the planet, both in terms of latitudinal distribution and altitudinal distribution, and is also one of the most widely planted of trees. Predominantly native to the Northern Hemisphere, pines grow from 72 degrees North latitude in Siberia to just below the equator in the mountains of Sumatra, and range in elevation from coastal species like Pinus rigida and Pinus banksiana to pines in Mexico and the Himalayas growing well above 10,000 feet elevation. Still one of the most poorly known pines, Pinus krempfii of Vietnam is also highly unusual. Its broad, flat leaves can measure 12 mm wide over a length of 10 cm, unlike the more familiar thin needles of species like white pine, Pinus strobus. In the tropical forests it inhabits, it grows to be a colossal tree, towering over the surrounding flora. The species was described in 1921 by the French botanist M. Krempf, in the Nha Trang vicinity, where it is no longer found. Never widely collected, its specimens in cultivation number in single digits outside of Vietnam. A tropical holdout in the war of the plants, P. krempfii isn't faring as well in the competition for collection. Prior to the discovery of Krempf's pine, paleobotanists had recorded finds of fossils of a broad-needled Pinaceae. The current climatic conditions where Pinus krempfii is found are warm, humid, and equitable. These conditions prevailed during the Paleocene Epoch (56-66 MYA), during which time a 'boreotropical flora' dominated much of the middle latitudes. Gymnosperms such as Glyptostrobus, Sequoia and Taxodium were components of this flora, and, since this epoch, their ranges have been severely contracted. This would have been a period in which P. krempfii or its precursors may have had a far wider range. A diminution of favorable conditions for the boreotropical flora during the Eocene (34-56 MYA), coupled with increasing competition from angiosperms, may have severely reduced the potential range for a conifer adapted to mild conditions. Two fossil discoveries in 2021 in Northern Thailand and Yunnan relate to P. krempfii, and show it once had a greater range. Like Metasequoia glyptostroboides (dawn redwood), it now exists in a highly restricted area. This perhaps adds P. krempfii to the list of \\\"living fossils,\\\" such as dawn redwood and Wollemi pine\u2014plants that were known as fossils before they were linked to extant populations. Dr. Tim Brodribb, a former Fellow at the Harvard Forest, has visited the wild stands of Pinus krempfii, and his 2008 report with Dr. Taylor Field is to my mind the best recent ecological paper. He argues that Krempf's pine behaves more like a tropical gymnosperm Podocarpus, noting that the tree \\\"shows photosynthetic, hydraulic and anatomical characteristics more akin to a southern hemisphere podocarp than a pine tree,\\\" with leaves that show a \\\"striking convergence with the flattened leaves of rainforest Podocarpaceae\\\" as well. But what really catches my eye is Brodribb's profoundly de Candollean view of the species. Krempf's pine, he notes, offers the first evidence that \\\"Pinus has the physiological (and anatomical) capabilities to invade equatorial evergreen forest. The question remains whether the evolution of broad leaves and shade tolerance is a recent development, representing a new southward invasion of the genus, or alternatively the remnant of an ancient and unsuccessful invasion.\\\" Whether recent or ancient, invasion is a constant. Collecting for the Smith College Conservatory in the autumn of 1998, I teamed with Dr. Shu-Miaw Chaw of Taipei's Academy of Sciences to collect rare conifers of Taiwan and Vietnam. We wished to bring into cultivation many rare and endangered species for future research purposes, and Dr. Chaw was to collect DNA samples of conifers for her work on the evolution and phylogeny of gymnosperms. Our research team was to have an extraordinarily successful trip, collecting such rarities as Amentotaxus formosana, Cephalotaxus wilsoniana, Cephalotaxus mannii, Calocedrus macrolepis, Taxus wallichiana, Keteleeria evelyniana, Podocarpus nerifolius\u2014and one of our primary goals, Pinus krempfii. Once in Hanoi, we began our journey with a courtesy call to Dr. Le Thi Xuan, the head of the Biotechnology Institute, whom we knew from prior collecting trips for Taxus\/Taxol research. She had been instrumental in linking us to Dr. Tran Ngoc Ninh, a capable field botanist and expert in the Rubiaceae. As time was tight due to our early flight, we only had time to maneuver quickly through local alleyways to her home and take tea. Our old friend was ill, struggled to move and speak, but insisted on extending hospitality to us. We socialized and exchanged gifts and then briskly headed to the airport for the flight south. As we were leaving, she pulled me aside. \\\"Be careful in the \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323t Forest,\\\" she whispered. \\\"It is full of danger.\\\" \\\"What kind of danger?\\\" I replied. \\\"Two-legged or four-legged?\\\" \\\"Danger of every kind,\\\" she replied, in a grace note worthy of Joseph Conrad. After two flights from Hanoi, we landed at \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323t airport and drove upward into the hills, where the city lay, at 4900 feet (1500 m), home to over 100,000 people. A balmy summer capital for many of the regimes that have ruled Vietnam, \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323 t boasts a miniature Eiffel Tower as a souvenir of occupation by the French, along with the fine French bread and French roast coffee that can be found in the cafes. At the southern terminus of the Annamite range of mountains, one of the southernmost pieces of high ground on the Asian landmass, a number of conifer genera reach the southernmost extent of their ranges. Isolated here for millions of years, they may possess unusual genetic characteristics. We stayed at the Biological Institute, located in a former Catholic monastery on the town's outskirts. It was built by Catholic monks in 1950 but lost to the Communist takeover in 1954. Despite the apparent low budget, the institute had a tissue culture lab and was involved in conserving the many endemic plant and animal species of the region. In the small nursery outside grew a number of conifer species we sought, including Taxus wallichiana, Dacrydium elatum, Fokenia hodginsii, and Podocarpus neriifolius. The former Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Peter Ashton, who had been to \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323 t, had informed me that a specimen of Pinus krempfii also grew nearby. In C\u00f4ng Ty Park on the outskirts of town, we found a Keteleeria evelyniana in cone, a member of the pine family, which grows well in our southern states but is poorly known horticulturally. No more than fifty feet from it, we found our prize: a specimen of Krempf's pine. Looking like a broad-leafed Podocarpus from only ten feet away, though on close examination it held its new \\\"candles\\\" like a pine, and smelled like a pine when crushed. We happily collected needles and herbarium sheets. The next day we drove to Xuan Tho, a section of \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323 t, to see a stand of native Taxus wallichiana, the Himalayan yew, and to collect cuttings for the Taxus collection at Smith College, a collection used extensively for anti-cancer research. It was the height of Vietnam's coffee boom, and the whole area showed a recent conversion to plantations, as Viet coffee gained in stature among gourmets. At 1420 meters, we walked down a slope toward a small stream bed. Nepenthes smilesii, a vinelike pitcher plant, was growing among the grassy understory of this pine forest. Only two yews remained, one a substantial specimen, eighty feet high with a basal diameter of four to five feet. On our return to the institute, we stopped at the home of a local plant collector, a forester, in whose lathe house grew numerous orchids alongside a locally-collected specimen of Cephalotaxus mannii, a gymnosperm within the Cephalotaxaceae, from which he generously provided us cuttings. After a hard night's rain, the dawn broke clear, and we loaded our war-vintage Russian jeep and headed out of town, driving past schoolchildren trudging down the road in neat blue uniforms. We wove through a quilt of grassy pinelands and carefully tended, productive family farms. Nine kilometers from the institute, we halted beside a roadside grove of Keteleeria evelyniana that had recently suffered through a forest fire. Plants from the collection we made there currently grow with Dr. Jason Smith of Florida State University. Another species, Keteleeria roulettii, had been reported as endemic to the \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323t area, based on the observation of longer needles. But from our observations of K. evelyniana, it was clear that fire had caused a series of new shoots to regenerate longer juvenile foliage, and this character was probably the basis of a false \\\"new\\\" species. It is no longer recognized. We continued on the muddy red-orange road upward through a pine savannah, very similar to the longleaf pine forests of southern Georgia, into an unpopulated and relatively undisturbed piece of geography. About twenty-eight kilometers from the institute, we stopped at 1700 meters altitude in the area known as L\u00e1n Chanh. Putting our packs to our backs, we marched to the crest of a small hill. Looking down into the valley, we could see a drastic change in the vegetation: the piney grassland became a primeval evergreen forest, moist, dark, and lush. Rising above it all, a towering example of the pine we had come so far to see and collect, Pinus krempfii. Rather than having a spire-like habit, this forest giant had a broad crown, more like an oak than any pine I could remember seeing. We eased downslope toward the sounds of birds trilling and a river's flow, crossing a transition zone so narrow we felt as though we had stepped through a glass wall into a terrarium. Suddenly we trod upon a soft spongy humus soil dotted with ferns and seedlings of the evergreen trees around us. So many primitive angiosperms were present\u2014Magnolia of the Magnoliaceae, Illicium of the Illiciaceae, Sacandra of the Chloranthaceae\u2014it seemed a forest undisturbed since the Cretaceous era. Orchids were common, having fallen from the branches above, species of Dendrobium, Bulbophyllum and Epigeneium that would be precious to any orchid fancier. We made our way to the large pine we had seen from the hilltop, which proved a tree of mythic proportions: about 120 feet high with a trunk circumference of eighteen feet, the first branch at a height of seventy-five feet. Climbing the tree to harvest cones would have been unreasonably risky without climbing equipment, so we had to forage for what we could find on the ground. Our party of five took to combing the forest floor, looking for fallen cones from prior years that might still harbor a seed or two, or for seedlings and saplings we might dig up. At one point I searched farther away from the party only to be cautioned by Dr. Tran to come back into the fold. \\\"There are tigers,\\\" he warned. We found 4 younger trees and about twenty seedlings to bring to our respective institutes. The leaves were so unlike any I had ever seen, curving blades 4 mm wide by 6 cm long, held in pairs. Cones that we found in the forest duff were easily recognized as pine. We also collected cuttings of Podocarpus neriifolius, along with some of the epiphytic orchids fallen from their perches above, and a smattering of ferns and seed. Our Vietnamese colleagues seemed intent on getting out of the forest as quickly as possible, and counseled against crossing the valley to look for more trees. I recollected Dr. Xuan's warning in Hanoi, and was relieved to think that we had avoided any peril beyond the usual rigors of the field. In any case, I already had collected a cache of rarities for our Smith College conservatory, and we had precious DNA samples for genetic work. We rose out of the ravine, over the grassy slopes and down to our waiting vehicle. We lunched at the side of the road, fine French-style baguettes, local fruit and imported soft cheese. Our success fueled our good mood and we sat on the side of the road, talking about our various plant specialties and favorite species. I glanced down at my feet and saw in the road's gutter a weathered bullet casing, American made, a probable relict from the war that once tore both nations apart. It was my final collection of the day. The few seedlings we brought out seemed to languish in the heat of our New England summer, and eventually died. Despite numerous hormone treatments, none of our cuttings rooted (though this is typical for pines). Other than the lonely plant at the Cong Ty Park in \u0110\u00e0 La\u0323 t, the only plant I could find in cultivation is held in the conservatory at Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Groves of Krempf's pine also are found within the boundaries of the Bidoup Nui Ba National Park, established in 2004, though their remoteness may make them susceptible to illegal timber poaching. Pinus krempfii remains aloof, distant and beckoning still. Given its great height, future collectors may need collection equipment like that used for Sequoiadendron: a bow and stringed arrow followed by ascension gear, with skilled arborists acquiring a supply of seed for ex-situ work. Growing ex-situ specimens outside native ranges requires a combination of factors: the correct climate conditions (whether in a conservatory or outside), a long-term infrastructure of skilled horticulturists, and institutional will. The correct climate conditions would seem to be the biggest stumbling block for Krempf's pine, as it grows in montane tropical or cloud-forest conditions without extremes of cold or heat. Its hardiness is not known. Some of the mildest areas of the California coast and upper altitudes in Puerto Rico may serve as potential US sites, though hurricanes would be a factor in Puerto Rico. But as was shown with Metasequoia, it can be a fool's game to make hardiness assumptions based on a current restricted population range. As elsewhere, the war of the trees continues in Vietnam, though thankfully the wars of the humans there have subsided. For all its rarity, Pinus krempfii is a magnificent holdout against angiosperm domination, one of the most amazing species I have ever seen in a long career collecting plants. In discussing local politics, Dr. Xuan had once told me, \\\"In Vietnam, nothing is possible but everything is possible\\\"; the latter part of that truism seems to apply to the flora as well."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Wild Hydrangeas of Mt. Cuba Center","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25816","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070af6d.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"6","authors":"Hoadley, Sam","start_page":"20","end_page":"31","article_content":"When I bought my house five years ago in Chester County, Pennsylvania, I inherited a landscape with a garden tradition dating back to the 1940s. Mature specimens of choice woody plants are bountiful and include a grove of mature dawn redwoods (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), three massive franklinia (Franklinia alatamaha), and one large and aged smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens). The identity of this smooth hydrangea cultivar is not known, but due to the age and the substantial sprawling nature of the planting I suspect it to be Hydrangea arborescens 'Grandiflora', formerly sold under the name 'Hills of Snow'. This cultivar was originally selected from a wild population of Hydrangea arborescens in the early twentieth century, and is still available from specialty growers today. Hydrangea arborescens 'Grandiflora,' along with the similar and more popular H. arborescens 'Annabelle', are staples of American horticulture that are readily recognized by expert and novice gardeners alike. Their oversized, dome-shaped inflorescences borne in June and July have classic ornamental appeal, but these cultivars are not without their shortcomings. Both 'Grandiflora' and 'Annabelle' have floppy habits, a flaw that is exacerbated by summer storms right when the blooms are at their peak. For this reason, I had always considered these cultivars to be horticultural relics and, admittedly, gave little consideration to the use of the species in modern landscapes. My insular outlook was quickly challenged, however, thanks to my inheritance of a comprehensive trial of smooth hydrangea when I was hired for my current role of Manager of Horticultural Research at Mt. Cuba Center in Hockessin, Delaware, in March of 2019. Mt. Cuba Center, situated in the rolling hills of New Castle County, Delaware, is the former estate of Pamela and Lammot du Pont Copeland. The Copelands envisioned that Mt. Cuba could be a place to inspire an appreciation for the beauty and value of native plants and spark a commitment to protect the habitats that sustain them. This original intention lives on as Mt. Cuba Center's core mission, and continues to guide the organization to this day. After Mrs. Copeland passed away in 2001, the transition from private estate to public garden began in earnest. In 2002, the Copelands' cut-flower plot was repurposed to serve as a trial garden. In this space, native species and cultivars were grown side by side to determine their horticultural qualities in a low-maintenance common garden setting. The first research report was published in 2005, describing findings from a threeyear trial on asters, including floral display, habit, cultural adaptability, winter hardiness in Zone 7a, and disease resistance. This publication highlighted and recommended the top-performing plants to gardeners and nurseries in the mid-Atlantic region, and served as a template for future research reports. A report on Echinacea was released in 2009, and in 2011, the trial garden was redesigned with a new perimeter fence, brick walkways, and a shade structure. The shade structure proved to be an invaluable tool, not just for trialing shade-loving species, but also for comparing the performance and adaptability of trialed plants when they are cultivated in both sun and shade. In 2013, Mt. Cuba Center opened its doors to regular public visitation for the first time, and the trial garden welcomed visitors to observe and interact with trials in progress. Under the deft management of George Coombs, publication of the trial garden's research reports became a highly anticipated resource valued by the public and nursery industry. Trials were established in a staggered rotation so that four trials run concurrently, with one trial concluding each year. In addition to promoting plants with excellent garden qualities, the Coreopsis, Monarda, and Phlox reports aspired to address the ecological services that these species and cultivars provide by collecting comparative pollinator data on the various species and cultivars in each trial. Pollinator studies quickly became an important component of Mt. Cuba's trial program, and have allowed consumers to make informed decisions about which plants have the most capacity for attracting and supporting pollinators in their home landscapes Quantitative and qualitative horticultural data are collected in the trial garden on a weekly basis between April and September. Scores are assigned that reflect habit, form, foliage, and other ornamental qualities that the plant may exhibit. For example, a weak plant with a floppy habit might receive a low score, while a vigorous plant with a robust and nonfloppy habit would receive a high score. A separate rating is assigned to the floral display when the plants are in bloom, and an additional rating assesses disease resistance, which becomes especially important when observing plants that have a known susceptibility to specific pathogens. At the end of each season an overall score is generated for each plant. At the conclusion of the three-to-five-year evaluation, the scores from each year are averaged to determine the final horticultural score. In the most recent trials of hydrangea and Echinacea, supplemental points were then awarded to plants that attracted the most pollinators. This supports our initiative of promoting plants that are both beautiful and also have wildlife value. The top performing plants are then featured in subsequent research reports. For some gardeners, selecting a native plant for its ornamental qualities is enough, but for others this is only part of the greater story of providing habitat and food sources for wildlife in their home landscape. Pollinator data are collected by a cadre of Mt. Cuba Center's citizen scientists, called the Pollinator Watch Team. On a near-daily basis, these volunteers observe plants in bloom for 60 seconds and collect information on insect visitors. Counts are made on one plant per accession, or single inflorescences if blooms are numerous or plants are prohibitively large. The number of pollinator visits is recorded, along with the time, weather data, and additional observations. In some trials, all pollinators that visit the plant or inflorescence are counted, while in others, only targeted groups such as butterflies or hummingbirds are recorded. The results of these studies help homeowners make informed decisions about which plants in our evaluations have the most capacity to attract and support insect pollinators. These data become particularly relevant as natural habitats face increasing threat of destruction. Home gardens are uniquely poised to temper those losses, and can help provide small oases for wildlife in the midst of food deserts comprised of the turfgrass and non-native foundation plantings that make up the majority of home and commercial landscapes today. By pointing people in the direction of beautiful and beneficial native plants, Mt. Cuba Center can help people become conservators. When I was hired as Manager of Horticultural Research in the early spring of 2019, I was greeted with four in-progress trials: Helenium, Echinacea (the second trial of this genus), smooth hydrangea (or \\\"wild\\\" hydrangea, as they are called at Mt. Cuba Center), and Carex. Smooth or \\\"wild\\\" hydrangea represented the first woody plant trial at Mt. Cuba and had just begun the third year of a five-year evaluation. While the study of woody plant material represented a step into new territory for the trial garden, it was a logical one. There is an increasing demand from homeowners for reliable information on alternatives to non-native woody landscape plants that are low maintenance, beautiful, and providers of wildlife value whenever possible. Included in the smooth hydrangea evaluation were three species of hydrangea native to the eastern United States: Hydrangea arborescens, Hydrangea cinerea, and Hydrangea radiata. Hydrangea arborescens was the primary species evaluated, and is the wild version of most of the twenty-six cultivars in the trial. Hydrangea arborescens, or smooth hydrangea, has the largest native range of the three species and can be found in much of the eastern and central United States, often on shaded moist slopes. Hydrangea cinerea, or ashy hydrangea, is exceedingly rare in cultivation and can be found primarily in the central and southeastern United States. The best identifying feature of ashy hydrangea is the concentration of white to grey pubescence on the stems and the backs of their leaves, which differs from the relatively hairless foliage of Hydrangea arborescens. Hydrangea radiata, or silver-leaf hydrangea, has the smallest native range compared to Hydrangea arborescens and Hydrangea cinerea and can only be found in a handful of states in the southern Appalachian Mountains. The most striking feature of Hydrangea radiata is the bright white undersides of the leaves making this perhaps the most easily identified and inherently ornamental species of the three in our trial. Silver-leaf hydrangea was also the first to bloom in our trial in mid- June while the other two species started blooming in early July each year. While the three species vary slightly in size, habit, and overall appearance, each flowers on new wood and produces superficially similar inflorescences. The three species, including two distinct accessions of Hydrangea radiata, were all propagated from wild collected stock from the collection at Mt. Cuba Center, and these plants acted as the controls against which all of the cultivars would be compared. Twenty-five cultivars were then sourced from various arboreta and nurseries, in most cases representing material available to homeowners at that time. All twenty-nine hydrangea accessions were grown in full sun and nineteen cultivars were also grown in shade for comparison. Since these shrubs bloom on new wood and flower buds are not produced until the start of the growing season, smooth hydrangea can be heavily pruned in late spring and flowers are still reliably produced in June and July. To assess response to pruning, one example of each hydrangea grown in full sun was cut back to approximately six to eight inches from the ground in late March 2019, 2020, and 2021. The remaining examples of each hydrangea served as the control group and were left unpruned for the duration of the evaluation. That first spring at Mt. Cuba, before the hydrangea had even leafed out, I was struck by the diversity of form, texture, and even stem color. Subtle variations between similar cultivars and species were readily apparent when the plants were grown side by side. It became obvious to me how short-sighted I had been when I had written off smooth hydrangea for my own garden use. There was clearly so much more to this group of plants than the old standbys, like Hydrangea arborescens 'Grandiflora' and 'Annabelle'. As spring progressed and data collection began, I looked forward to what I knew would be a spectacular floral display in June and July. When the time came, the flowers were indeed breathtaking, and included a concert of white and pink inflorescences that fell into two distinct categories: lacecaps and mopheads. Lacecap smooth hydrangea species and cultivars produce flat-topped, corymbose inflorescences that are primarily composed of masses of fertile flowers that number anywhere from 800 to 2,000 individual flowers. Around the perimeter of many lacecap flowerheads are a small number of sterile flowers that give the inflorescences their trademark lacy appearance. Lacecap inflorescences are the predominant flower form found in wild populations of Hydrangea arborescens, and offer visiting pollinators highly accessible nectar and pollen rewards. Hydrangea arborescens and Hydrangea radiata both produced lacecap inflorescences that averaged around 4.5 inches in diameter, although the sterile flowers of the silverleaf hydrangea were noticeably larger than those of the smooth hydrangeas. The fertile flowers of Hydrangea radiata were also less tightly clustered than those of Hydrangea arborescens. Hydrangea cinerea, on the other hand, produced the smallest diameter flower heads in the trial at around 3.5 inches on average, and also some of the smallest sterile flowers. Despite the smaller diameter, the inflorescences of the ashy hydrangeas were tightly packed with fertile flowers and were heavily visited by pollinators. In contrast, mophead hydrangea blooms are often more dome-shaped and produce a much higher number of sterile flowers per inflorescence, giving them their iconic billowy cloud-like appearance. In most cases, fertile flowers are still produced, but in much lower numbers than their lacecap counterparts. In addition, these fertile flowers are often sequestered within the inflorescences, reducing their accessibility for some insects. Some mophead smooth hydrangeas such as Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle' are selections made from naturally occurring anomalies found in nature. However, not all mophead smooth hydrangeas in cultivation are the products of simple selection. Wild-origin mutations form the genetic building blocks utilized by modern plant breeders to cross and further select smooth hydrangeas. The progeny of these breeding programs feature ornamental and horticultural improvements as well as novel garden traits. The trial at Mt. Cuba was planted with mophead cultivars concentrated on one end of the planting bed and lacecap cultivars and species planted on the other. As I walked through the blooming mophead cultivars, the inflorescences were beautiful, but the surroundings were quiet and relatively devoid of insect pollinators. As I continued down the path to the lacecap hydrangeas, this changed, and I was greeted with an immersive audible and visual experience composed of hundreds if not thousands of insects. Bumblebees, wasps, beetles, true bugs, and flies busily collected pollen and nectar from the fertile flowers of the lacecap inflorescences in a frenzy of activity. I was in awe, not just because of the huge number of insects I was witnessing, but also by the stark contrast between the two flower forms and the obvious preference that the various pollinators displayed for the lacecap smooth hydrangeas. One lacecap cultivar in particular, Hydrangea arborescens 'Haas' Halo', completely captivated me. Not only was it covered with pollinators but here was a robust plant with an incredible floral display that rivaled any of the mophead cultivars in the trial. This was an example of a plant that encapsulated Mt. Cuba's mission. This ornamentally superior and garden-worthy native plant inspired an appreciation for its beauty and for the ecological value that this plant was clearly providing to scores of insect pollinators. I was so taken by Hydrangea arborescens 'Haas' Halo' that I ordered one for my home garden that same day. This single experience in the trial garden constituted a personal paradigm shift in the way I looked at horticulture and my own gardening practice. There was room for beauty and ornamental interest, which had always been a priority, but ecological value did not have to be sacrificed. In fact, gardening for insects and other wildlife quickly became a focus for me, and has been a deciding factor for the vast majority of my home-garden additions ever since. This one plant has inspired me to take conservation action by planting a native shrub with high ecological value in my home landscape. And I was not alone. Over the next three years, I fielded countless questions about Hydrangea arborescens 'Haas' Halo' from visitors who had experienced this plant for the first time in the trial garden just as I had. They all wanted to know where they could buy one. This is exactly the kind of inspiration and conservation action that I imagine the Copelands envisioned when they first conceived of the idea to one day welcome the public into their home and gardens. In 2021, the five-year trial of smooth hydrangea was complete and the results were in. The top-performing hydrangeas were identified, and pollinator counts were tallied. The pollinator data confirmed what could be readily observed when the plants were in bloom each year. Insects overwhelmingly preferred lacecap hydrangeas over mopheads. That is not to say that all mopheads are completely devoid of pollinator value. In fact, some attracted a reasonable number of insects. The mophead that attracted the most insects in the trial was Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA2' (Invincibelle\u00ae Spirit II) which, maybe not surprisingly, produced a greater proportion of accessible fertile flowers than other mopheads. While some compromises exist where you can have both the mophead aesthetic as well as some pollinator value no mophead hydrangea received enough pollinator visits to be directly compared to any of the lacecaps. Interestingly, the hydrangea with the lowest number of pollinator visits was Hydrangea arborescens 'Hayes Starburst'. This cultivar exhibits mophead inflorescences but is an extreme case of genetic variation within the species. While most mophead smooth hydrangeas produce a reduced number of fertile flowers, Hydrangea arborescens 'Haye's Starburst' produced no observable fertile flowers. No fertile flowers mean no pollen or nectar and therefore no pollinator benefits. This lack of pollinator value was directly reflected in the low pollinator count. Interestingly, there were three exceptions that broke the rule that lacecaps are better than mopheads for pollinators: Hydrangea arborescens 'Riven Lace', Hydrangea arborescens 'Emerald Lace', and Hydrangea arborescens 'Green Dragon'. These are relatively compact plants with lacecap inflorescences and distinctive dissected foliage. These three cultivars are so similar that it is widely believed that they are actually the same, genetically identical plant that was named and introduced into the horticultural trade on three separate occasions. Their inability to attract insect pollinators remains a mystery, but could be attributed to several factors, including the possibility that these cultivars do not offer the same quality or abundance of nectar or pollen as other lacecaps hydrangeas in the trial. From a purely ornamental perspective, most of the nineteen smooth hydrangea cultivars grown in shade performed better than the specimens in full sun. The primary reason for this is that shade-grown plants avoided issues such as foliar and floral burn as well as premature defoliation. Inflorescences of the hydrangeas grown in shade retained their form for months after the fertile flowers had finished blooming in July, and aged from white to attractive shades of lime green. Hydrangea radiata and its cultivars struggled the most when grown in full sun, particularly during the heat of the summer. These were always the first to show signs of heat and drought stress and were the first to start dropping leaves. This species is best reserved for use in woodland edges and shade plantings in the mid-Atlantic region. At Mt. Cuba Center, Hydrangea radiata is grown to perfection in the shady naturalistic gardens where the silvery undersides of the leaves add movement and interest to the landscape and their lacecap inflorescences attract insect pollinators in droves. To my surprise, a handful of pink flowering hydrangeas performed exceptionally well in full sun, even better than in shade, including Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA2' (Invincibelle\u00ae Spirit II) and Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA4' (Incrediball\u00ae Blush). These two cultivars can be successfully sited in full sun locations (six or more hours of sun a day) in the region surrounding Mt. Cuba Center if they are planted in moisture-retentive but well-drained soils. Good soil moisture remains an essential component for successful cultivation of any of the smooth hydrangeas planted in full sun or near full sun conditions. The cutback comparison conducted over three seasons revealed some interesting trends. There was a slight delay in bloom (generally one to two weeks) in cutback plants and fewer but larger inflorescences. This increased diameter of the inflorescences can be attributed to a return to a more vigorous juvenile state in the cutback shrubs. On average the inflorescence increase was around thirty percent, while some examples increased between fifty to eighty percent in diameter. For some plants this effect was particularly noticeable especially if the inflorescences produced on a non-cutback plant were already of substantial size. For example, the cut back version of Hydrangea arborescens 'Haas' Halo', which produced the largest inflorescences (8\\\") of the trial on the control plants, produced a dramatic display of flower heads that were nearly a foot across. Cutback hydrangeas also formed a more compact habit in many cases. Some exceptions to this rule were compact cultivars such as Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA5' (Invincibelle\u00ae Wee White) and Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA3' (Invincibelle\u00ae Ruby) where there were few discernable differences between cutback and control plants. One unexpected effect of the cutback study was that cutback plants had improved sun tolerance. Not only might the cutback plants have had more efficient water-transporting stems, but their established root systems were supporting fewer water-demanding leaves compared to the controls. However, I would not recommend annual heavy pruning to increase sun tolerance over the long run or to make larger plants permanently more accessible to smaller planting spaces. The best practice is to select the right cultivar for the right garden location based on the ultimate size of the unpruned plants and the goals of the gardener. I recommend a more restrained approach to pruning, where only a handful of the oldest stems are removed on a yearly basis, to maintain some juvenile vigor in your hydrangeas. One unexpected but welcome benefit of hydrangea pruning in the trial garden was the observation of square-headed wasps (Crabronidae) using the pithy stems as a nesting site. On several occasions we observed adult wasps excavating the spongy, pith-filled cores of recently pruned stems. Once the cavity had been established, the adult wasp could be seen placing paralyzed flies in the hollowed-out stems for its larvae to feed on. The chambers were then sealed, protecting the developing larvae within. The larva eventually pupate, and emerge the following spring as adult wasps. Perhaps this observation would inspire people to tolerate and even embrace some dead wood in their shrubs if they knew what a benefit they could potentially be to wildlife. However, if spring pruning is required, it is still feasible to prune out full stems even if they have been colonized without interrupting wasp's life cycle. The discarded stems can be placed intact somewhere to allow emergence to occur later that year. In addition, there is an opportunity to further utilize the pruned stems by simply cutting them to lengths of eight inches to a foot and the bundling the stems together. These makeshift bee nesting sites will only further amplify the bee and wasp habitat in your landscape by using raw materials provided by your hydrangeas. In addition, Hydrangea arborescens is the larval host plant for the hydrangea sphinx moth and the hydrangea leaftier moth, although neither species was observed in the trial. Nine cultivars of smooth hydrangea were identified as top performers, and the highest rated plant of all was indeed Hydrangea arborescens 'Haas' Halo'. This cultivar, besides being my personal favorite smooth hydrangea, offers the perfect combination of horticultural merit and ecological value. This exemplary form of smooth hydrangea was originally selected by Frederick Ray in 2008, plantsman and former Delaware Valley College horticulture professor, from the Pennsylvania garden of Joan Haas. It was chosen for its upright, vigorous growth, and for its lacecap flower heads, upwards of eight inches in diameter, that display a greater number of sterile flowers around the perimeter than those of typical Hydrangea arborescens. A comparable, but decidedly more obscure, selection called Hydrangea arborescens 'Mary Nell' made the top performer list as well. It too produces abnormally large lacecap inflorescences, distinguished by a double ring of sterile flowers around the perimeter of each flower head. Hydrangea arborescens 'Mary Nell' was selected and named by Joseph McDaniel, who also introduced Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle' in the 1960s. Unfortunately, Hydrangea arborescens 'Mary Nell' is rarely commercially available despite its substantial garden and wildlife value. Two more lacecap cultivars made the top performer list. Hydrangea arborescens 'Dardom' (White Dome\u00ae) is an older cultivar originally selected in Belgium in 1997 and introduced by Proven Winners\u00ae in the early 2000s. It boasts large lacecap inflorescences and attracted the highest numbers of pollinators of any hydrangea in the trial. Hydrangea arborescens 'Total Eclipse' is a vigorous, slightly more compact, and earlier-blooming selection of the species made by Jim Pyler of Natural Landscapes Nursery in West Grove, Pennsylvania. This cultivar also attracted the third most pollinators of any hydrangea in the evaluation. The remaining five top-performing hydrangeas from the trial produce mophead inflorescences. While these plants may not have the pollinator value offered by the lacecap top performers, they are still highly recommended from an ornamental perspective for gardens of the mid-Atlantic. Hydrangea arborescens 'Abetwo' (Incrediball\u00ae) and Hydrangea arborescens 'Bounty' are two white-blooming mopheads that offer excellent alternatives to Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle' and Hydrangea arborescens 'Grandiflora'. Each features the classic hydrangea aesthetic that gardeners have valued for more than a century, but improve on their predecessors with sturdy stems that are resistant to flopping. Hydrangea 'SMNHALR' (Lime Rickey\u00ae), a unique mophead hydrangea from Spring Meadow Nursery, displays undeniably attractive, lime-green inflorescences in mid-June that are quickly followed by raspberry-colored fertile flowers later in the month. The sterile flowers rapidly fade to alabaster before reverting to their former green color as the fertile flowers complete their bloom. Last but not least are Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA4' (Incrediball\u00ae Blush) and Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA2' (Invincibelle\u00ae Spirit II). Both cultivars are some of the finest examples of the cutting-edge plant breeding that continues to push the boundaries of what is thought possible with hydrangea, redbuds, and dogwoods amongst many other woody plant genera coming from North Carolina State University and Thomas Ranney. These two cultivars feature attractive pink mophead inflorescences that are well supported by sturdy stems. Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA4' (Incrediball\u00ae Blush) is a great option for smaller landscapes thanks to its semi-compact habit of four to five feet in height and width, while Hydrangea arborescens 'NCHA2' (Invincibelle\u00ae Spirit II) eventually forms a much larger plant reaching six feet in height and eight feet in width. For more information on the top performing smooth hydrangeas from Mt. Cuba Center's latest trial, visit mtcubacenter.org\/research\/trial-garden\/. For me, the smooth hydrangea trial represents a turning point in my personal gardening journey which, just like the garden itself, is constantly evolving and is never truly complete. I went from largely looking at plants as a decoration for my home landscape, an admittedly narrow view, to choosing plants not just for me but for wildlife that I can support and provide refuge for in my garden. Seeing the surge in insects and birds and other wildlife at my home, a trend which I would like to think directly correlates to my native plant choices, has been an incredibly rewarding experience, and is so much more than just cultivating a place of objective beauty. It provides me with a purpose, the same purpose that the Copelands had when they envisioned the future of their property that would eventually become Mt. Cuba Center. Thanks to this trial, I have a newfound appreciation for the Hydrangea arborescens 'Grandiflora' that still resides at my home in Kennett Square, although my future hydrangea selections will be made for the benefit of pollinators. My personal journey into the world on native hydrangeas has not concluded with this trial, and in fact will only be expanded upon with Mt. Cuba Center's newly planted evaluation of oakleaf hydrangeas. This trial will be unique in that, for the first time, we are trialing a single species and comparing its many cultivated forms. Hydrangea quercifolia has many seasons of interest: it is well known for the oak-shaped leaves for which it is named, white to pink panicle inflorescences in summer, incredible burgundy fall color, and exfoliating cinnamon-colored bark that can be admired during winter months. The trial will assess cultivars that are tried-and-true garden classics as well as a handful of newcomers to the horticultural market. The oakleaf hydrangea trial will be sited in full sun; however, most of the subjects will also be grown under our shade structure for comparison. This will be an interesting trial for observing pollinator preference, because the percentage of fertile flowers per inflorescence in cultivated forms and selections of this species is quite variable. Oakleaf hydrangeas are one of my all-time favorite shrubs and I know I am in for more horticultural and ecological inspiration in the trial garden at Mt. Cuba Center before the results are of this latest trial are published in 2027."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Helwingia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25817","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070b325.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"5","authors":"Gapinski, Andrew","start_page":"18","end_page":"19","article_content":"As a student of horticulture in the Midwest of the US, I was fascinated by the floral characteristics of the eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis). The reddish-purple flowers and brown pea-like fruits are borne directly out of the bark of older wood of main trunks and stems rather than newly emerging growth. This phenomenon, known as cauliflory, is most prevalent in tropical species including coffee and cocoa. Although still intrigued every time I see it, I am even more enthralled by epiphylly, when flowers and fruits (as well as other structures) grow attached to leaves (often the midvein). At the Arnold Arboretum, epiphyllous flowering can be observed on a single specimen of Helwingia japonica (AA# 912*MASS) in the Explorers Garden, received in 1880, likely a propagule from the first introduction of the species into European cultivation. Alone in the Helwingiaceae, genus Helwingia contains four species occurring from the Himalayas to Japan. Either evergreen or deciduous, all are shrubby, epiphyllous, and dioecious (bearing male and female flowers on separate plants). The Arnold's 1880 specimen is male, and currently lacks a paired female plant for successful reproduction. In 2018, I traveled to the Shennongjia region of Hubei Province, China, as part of the North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium. Along with important germplasm for conservation, we collected seeds of two species of Helwingia: H. japonica and H. chinensis. Both were found growing on shaded rock outcrops in rich pockets of humus soil in association with the conifer Torreya fargesii. Helwingia japonica's broad, deciduous leaves sport umbels of tiny, four-petaled flowers in spring, developing into pea-sized black drupes in autumn. Helwingia chinensis, by contrast, is a semi-evergreen species with narrow leaves bearing purplish male flowers on long stalks (pedicels) in groups of 4-5; female flowers are nearly sessile (unstalked) and in groups of 1-3 with fruits ripening to a glossy cherry red. We now have one plant from each species in the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. The H. chinensis plant, a male, bloomed copiously this year. Over the past 150 years, we have made several attempts to cultivate this species in the collections\u2014each to no avail. If this collection is successful, we'll need to find it a mate by collecting it again."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Habitat of Childhood","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25818","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070b728.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"4","authors":"Caballero, Ana Maria","start_page":"14","end_page":"16","article_content":"Recently I took a small group of kindergartners on a forest walk atop an esker at the Arnold Arboretum. A treecovered, glacial ridge, it was a cool and shady spot on an otherwise sunny, hot, dry day. A red robin seemed to be leading the way, lowering its head while running and lifting it when stopped, keeping an eye on us as we observed it carefully. It disappeared behind a downed log covered in moss. The children were immediately drawn to it, touching the green velvet and looking for spiders and ants. Across the path, a child discovered the lower part of the downed log: a wide, hollowed-out snag that created a life size cocoon big enough for six children. They all quickly settled inside, perching on the damp decomposing wood continuing to look for spiders and other creatures. One child commented, \\\"Sometimes you can find salamanders in the woods,\\\" to which I replied that it's been so dry lately that most of them have gone deeper underground. \\\"That's because there is water underground, right?\\\" she asked. After a few silent moments she asked, \\\"Do you think we are walking on salamanders?\\\" I was so surprised by this insight and this moment: fearless children connecting to the natural world with curiosity and joy. Sharing such experiences of young children in nature, and how to promote more of them, is what prompted the convening of a panel of outdoor educators at Boston University this spring. As Outdoor Educator at the Arnold Arboretum, I support Boston Public School students who come for guided and self-guided field trips to learn in our landscape, as well as train our volunteers and offer professional development for educators throughout the year. As such, I have long followed research affirming the many benefits of nature to adults and children. Health benefits include lower blood pressure, reduced stress, a boost to the immune system, and increased anti-cancer proteins. Cognitive gains include improved focus and higher scores on standardized tests. Other benefits include fewer sleep difficulties, faster healing after illness, increased emotional resilience and stronger mental health. Recently, doctors have pegged Computer Vision Syndrome (CVS) as a direct consequence of too much screen time, and there is a documented increase in myopia (nearsightedness) in young children. Surprise! Being outdoors can alleviate these symptoms, as children look out in the distance and relax the eyes. But the benefits extend far beyond this, as I have seen with the children who attend our field study programs\u2014two-hour landscape explorations of specific life-science content, which happen in small groups led by trained volunteers. Unlike a snake-oil salesperson, I can say that we truly have the remedy for so much that ails us. I've noticed so many benefits; at the BU panel I discussed just five, which I share with you here. Active Agency in Learning Learning outdoors teaches children a sense of scale and perspective, reinforces the cyclical nature of time and space, and introduces children to experiences and words upon which later learning is built. This is how background knowledge is created. Children become the star when they experience the concept: seeing the seasons change, following the germination and growth of a plant outdoors, discovering the effects of a rainstorm on the earth, breaking apart stones, \\\"climbing\\\" the shadow of a tree limb or coming face to face with a snapping turtle for the first time. These experiences introduce vocabulary and demand that children narrate what they see, hear, and feel. In response, they use words in context, invent words creatively, and make connections between English and their first languages. This is learning that integrates physical, cognitive, emotional, and social domains; this is learning that puts the child in the driver's seat. Context Being in nature brings book and classroom learning to life by putting all that information in context. We begin with the premise that science is learning about the world around us, and the world around us is the natural world. Vocabulary and concepts make more sense when children can touch, smell, hear, and explore these same words and concepts in real life\u2014in context. It is here that we can see that a holly leaf has sharp prickles to prevent herbivory, or that a hawk does not always catch the snake, or that vines have tendrils that curl \\\"just like my hair!\\\" This story illustrates the need for context: An elementary age child confessed to one of our guides that she was afraid of squirrels, with their big front teeth, rat-looking faces, and size. When the guide asked this child \\\"how big do you think a squirrel is?\\\" the child indicated with her hand an animal about two feet tall! This child had never really seen or noticed a squirrel in context, perhaps, but only in books or movies. I have seen firsthand how being in natural context has helped children overcome perceived misconceptions and fears. Once the child catches their first bee or centipede in a bug box, all worry, fear, and disgust at the task goes away\u2014they can't get enough of digging through leaf litter looking for critters, or appreciating the pollen baskets on bees' legs. Messiness The outdoors is messy! Unexpected things happen to frustrate, delight, and surprise every day. The rain begins to fall. You come across a dead squirrel. The salamander you so very much wanted to see didn't make an appearance. Someone left their dogpoop bag on the path. A tree has to be cut down because of a storm. A coyote follows a dog on a leash. When children encounter unexpected events, they learn to manage disappointment, and perhaps fear or worry, in proportion with the encounter\u2014especially when they are involved in addressing and finding solutions for the situation. They learn to be flexible and to come up with alternatives. Tolerating discomfort that comes from unpredictable and messy nature leads children to develop a sense of personal competence. Part of growing up is learning how to release these negative TREE OF LIFE Mesozoic Mystery Our picture of the rise of the angiosperms, and the extent of plant diversity when they first arose some 140 million years ago, is far from complete. Sadly, many of the now extinct groups of non-flowering seed plants that might help reconstruct the evolutionary history of the rise of angiosperms remain undiscovered. A species of Mesozoic plant, newly described from fossil evidence in a recent issue of the American Journal of Botany, may shed light. The authors suggest possible affinities between early flowering plants and the new species, a gymnosperm, which they have named Xadzigacalix quatsinoensis (the genus name incorporates the word for \\\"plant resin\\\" [xa'dziga] in Kwak'wala, the language of the Kwakwaka'wakw nations of northwest coastal North America, on whose traditional territory the fossil was found). The case is far from resolved, however: is the plant indeed related to early angiosperms\u2014and if so, does it have anything to tell us about their origin? How are other cupulate seed-bearing groups of Mesozoic plants related to each other and to flowering plants? While such questions remain topics of palaeobotanical debate, this much is clear: the buried remnants of the Mesozoic still have many secrets yet to be revealed. Klymiuk, A. A., Rothwell, G. W., and Stockey, R. A.. 2022. A novel cupulate seed plant, Xadzigacalix quatsinoensis gen. et sp. nov., provides new insight into the Mesozoic radiation of gymnosperms. American Journal of Botany 109 (6): 966-985. Image: Crosssectional reconstruction of Xadzigacalix quatsinoensis, through apex (micropyle) of ovulate reproductive structure. Klymiuk, Rothwell, and Stockey (2022). UAPC-ALTA P15375 D. CC BY 4.0 emotions in the face of inevitable stress. If kids never figure out how to do that, they're more likely to experience severe anxiety as teenagers. These experiences outside are often the most memorable of unexpected wonders. An adult's job is to help children navigate these surprises with respect, simplicity, and empathy. Global Citizenship Children who are outdoors learn from a very young age that their actions and interactions with the natural world affect the natural world. It is one thing to be indoors and learn about trash or talk about how cutting trees is bad for the environment. It is quite another to see the effects of human activity on our world. When children see trash in the water stream, a tree branch broken under the weight of a climber, or dry, yellowing fields at the height of summer, they are primed for conversations that can center on activism and purpose. Young children who learn to love the outdoors are more likely to become adults who work to preserve it for future generations. Magic So often after a session, young children tell us that they don't want to leave, they want to live here forever, they see the Arboretum as a magical place. They are filled with possibility. Very quickly, many children come to feel a sense of belonging that comes from the peace, calm, and happiness that they experience in the outdoors. Joy. They want to share this place with their families, they want to come back. As educators, parents, and caregivers, we need to be intentional in letting children be children for as long as possible. Childhood and the natural world are wonderful spaces to be in. This habitat of childhood needs to be tended and protected. If we do it right, this magic stays with them throughout life."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Sweetest Legacy","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25819","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070b76c.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"3","authors":"Reese, Carol","start_page":"11","end_page":"13","article_content":"The Holsteins were gone, and watching our hayfields and pastures being reclaimed by the wild offered a sad reminder that dairy farming was no longer economically viable in north Mississippi. The land called for new purpose, which led to years of fruit growing experimentation, searching for a crop that had, as my mother put it, \\\"maximum profit for minimal sweat equity.\\\" Eventually we found that crop in Asian persimmons (Diospyros kaki), but for years, our quest was not always fruitful (and yes, the pun is intentional). Our running joke was that our most valuable lessons were learned by killing plants, usually because they were not suited to north Mississippi. Plant death was not always the issue, however, as sometimes failure comes by other means\u2014as it did with our first project, a blueberry U-Pick venture. The local extension service had suggested rabbiteye blueberries (Vaccinium virgatum) could supply huge profits with minimal inputs. They were right about little input. On some of our ideally acid soils, those rabbiteye blueberries planted some forty years ago still produce ample fruit with minimal care. Other factors denied profitability: while U-Pick blueberries were popular, locals usually only picked a few gallons and were done for the summer. And despite our efforts to acidify those places in the field that had unsuitably high pH, large swaths of the orchard simply did not prosper. Realizing that blueberries weren't the answer, we set off on a series of jaunts to investigate other fruits and learn from other growers. We joined the North American Fruit Explorers (NAFEX) organization, attending the annual meetings that moved each year to different regions of the country. This generous community provided lifelong friends and mentors, from whom we learned to become decent grafters, with only minimal blood loss. We also learned, the hard way, that Mississippi has the perfect climate for growing disease. Plants we saw thriving in California, Michigan, Oregon, and New York swooned in our heat and humidity. My father, however, was a civil engineer, and adept at finding solutions. When it became obvious that southerners needed their own group, a drawling band of commercial and amateur growers came together to form Southern Fruit Fellowship. Like NAFEX, the meetings moved around to different regions, but always in the south, and it was in Florida that my parents bit into their first Asian persimmons (Diospyros kaki). My father said it was love at first bite. They took a picture of the smiling moment. This fruit fit the bill for a U-Pick business: it ripened in mild, beautiful October, and customers filled five-gallon buckets in a matter of minutes. The trees required little maintenance beyond pruning to develop low spreading trees, shaped to accommodate strolling fruit-pickers. Mowing between the rows was a task maintained intensively only during harvest season. There was still a learning curve. Our farm lay in Zone 7, the hardiness limit for most Asian persimmon cultivars, with wildly fluctuating temperatures in seasons of transition. We learned to plant in spring, giving trees time to settle in well before a challenging winter. We also had survival issues with trees grafted onto Diospyros lotus rootstocks, so began using American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). They occurred naturally on our farm, so we collected and planted several seeds directly into the desired spot, selected the most vigorous of the seedlings to graft, and left a couple of ungrafted seedlings in place for a year or two alongside the newly grafted trees. These would serve as backup rootstocks, should the grafted plant come to ruin, and they helped shield the tender new graft from wind gusts or racing dogs. Later, these extras were transplanted into pots and grafted for orchard expansion or sold to local nurseries. Our first year of significant production found us in a new dilemma. Our delicious, beautiful Asian persimmons attracted very few customers! This was before the days of social media, and in an era of less cosmopolitan palates. Even more to the point, an aversion to persimmons was common among our usual clientele. As children, many had been tricked into biting into a firm American persimmon, which is astringent until it has softened. The memory of the lingering pucker caused by that unripe fruit made them understandably reluctant to be suckered (puckered?) again. Our first plantings were all non-astringent cultivars, however, and delicious even when hard as an apple. Could they be convinced to try one? Each fall, my parents set off for local farm markets and horticultural field days with cutting boards, sharp knives, and bushels of just-picked persimmons. For hours, they sliced the beautiful orange persimmons and challenged total strangers to try the crisp wedges. I helped occasionally and enjoyed seeing the expression of doubt change to delight as they gingerly bit into the crunchy sweetness. Converted! Faces went from wary to warm, and soon our booth would be buzzing with questions and conversations. Nearby Starkville had another customer base, eager and ready-made: its vibrant Asian communities. These excited new customers taught us proper pronunciation of the cultivar names, and the resulting friendships brought to our farm an unexpected and rewarding cultural exchange. Thanks to those early efforts, the crop now consistently sells out as fast as it ripens. The only advertising done is to announce opening day for picking season and hours of operation. My parents are buried not far from the orchard, and my little brother now runs the operation, but some of their early customers still come, as well as the children and grandchildren of those first customers. The tradition of picking brilliant orange fruit on a beautiful autumn day spans generations, and our farm's soil has become part of their growing families. Several years before their deaths, my parents told their seven children the only gifts they wanted were memories of time spent happily with family. I smile to think that Reese Orchard still provides that opportunity for so many, long after they are gone. It's a different measure of success, beyond an orchard's profitability, and is their enduring legacy. URBAN ECOLOGY Happy Bats, Healthy Cities COVID-19 was hard on the public image of bats, who already suffered a reputation as carriers of disease. In fact, they contribute to human health, checking populations of mosquitos and agricultural pests\u2014and many aid in pollination and seed dispersal, too. Since 2021, students supervised by Dr. Alison Robbins of Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University have studied bat populations in living laboratory of the Arnold Arboretum. This year, Conservation Medicine graduate student Christina DeJoseph (left, in the field) installed monitors to collect bat calls and the sounds of other species. Supported by the Arnold's Sinnott Award, DeJoseph is tracking acoustic biodiversity to map how bats contribute to public health and healthy ecosystems. With veterinary student Alex Debrindisi, DeJoseph also offered a series of public \\\"bat walks\\\" at the arboretum to foster public fascination. \\\"Taking interest in the other species we live with,\\\" DeJoseph points out, \\\"that's healthy, too.\\\" To learn more about the work of Cummings-School students in the arboretum's landscape, look for the bat \\\"wonder spots\\\" at arboretum.harvard.edu\/visit\/explore-with-us\/."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Incarnations of an Apple","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25820","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d070bb6f.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"2","authors":"Kaminsky, Matt","start_page":"8","end_page":"10","article_content":"It's fall in Massachusetts, and I'm traveling to a different apple orchard daily, making sure the fruit gets harvested on time from the different sites that I look after. Some days I find myself in the puckerbrush, tromping over blackberry and multiflora rose to reach piles of windfallen wild apples in abandoned pastures. Other days I spend my time with stately old trees laid out in rows. I love the variety of sites that I get to visit during this time of year. It's been very dry and mild this fall, so fruit is ripening nice and slowly. This allows plenty of time for making the rounds to the dozens of sites where I harvest. Starting with orchards located furthest south in my orbit, and ending with those furthest north, I will be busy during these twelve or so weeks ranging September to November. I've just stopped to visit to a few noteworthy, unique seedling apple trees on the side of the road, collected their offerings, and continued on. In my truck I have some ovate, crow's-egg-looking oddball apples from one tree, which tasted like pineapple, next to a crate of large, round, green, and sweet-tasting ones, and another crate of aromatic fruit from an old hollow beast just next to it, which might be an old grafted apple called Mother. But those are just the bonuses. Today, my real goal is to check on the hilltown Baldwins\u2014a very special instance of Malus domestica 'Baldwin'\u2014growing in one of my favorite places. Some years ago, I was introduced to this old orchard by a former professor of mine, located far up in the hills west of the Connecticut River, on a homestead site in Franklin County. This remote site experiences its own microclimate, a bit colder than the surrounding countryside, and the blossom and fruit development are always further behind the orchards down in the river valley. Last week, I helped the crew at an orchard seated down in the valley at the base of Mount Norwottuck cleanpick the remainder of their 'Baldwin' crop, which had been steadily dropping fruit for a couple of weeks already. I'd estimate that the 'Baldwin' orchard up in the hills hadn't dropped a single apple yet, but that they'd be coming along at their own pace, ready to harvest any day now. When I was first introduced to this special old orchard, it was in the middle of winter, and snow was falling. We couldn't tell what kind of apples the trees were. All I could see was perhaps two dozen hulking behemoths standing in the field, reveling in their dormancy. It also was apparent the trees hadn't been cared for in many, many years and badly needed pruning. My professor had described the fruit to me in rich detail, which made my imagination race with wonder and anticipation. Come the first harvest after pruning, we learned that all but just a couple of the trees were Baldwins. One of the most iconic Bay State apples, their intense fiery red skin, balanced, sharp, subacid flavor, and signature hardness (so hard it may register on the Mohs scale used by geologists) are unmistakable. However, these are not just any 'Baldwin' apples. Though they are grafted, and therefore genetically identical with all other 'Baldwin' trees, these ones hit different. They are ancient, massive trees. By counting the rings of limbs that I pruned off, and comparing to the size of the trunks, it is nearly certain that they pre-date WWII. History books and old timers alike hold that all the Baldwins in Massachusetts were killed by an unusually harsh winter in 1934, after which most growers gave up on the cultivar. Few intact 'Baldwin' orchards from that era remain. Some of the trees in this orchard have expressed the rootstock as multiple smaller trunks coming from the ground, producing different types of fruit than the main trunks, which produce Baldwin apples. Each individual tree's rootstock produces unique, intriguing apples, which don't resemble one another in any way. Their flavors are eccentric\u2014some are more interesting than the Baldwins! This signals to me that this orchard was originally grafted onto seedlings rather than a standardized rootstock. Of course, each of the seeds they planted wouldn't come true to its parent, but rather would produce a unique apple tree. This is due to the trait of extreme heterozygosity that Malus displays, hence why the auxiliary trunks produce such wildly odd fruit. Trees growing on seedling roots are generally known for their ability to thrive in adverse conditions, and indeed the soil here is somewhat inhospitable. From the fact that the main understory plant growing around the apple trees is lowbush blueberry, we can tell that it is very acidic. In most cases, soils that support prolific barrens of blueberries will prove too harsh for apple trees, which prefer a higher pH. Moreover, the extensive outcroppings of smooth, gray ledge throughout the orchard indicate that the topsoil layer is shallow. The roots have plunged through gaps and cracks in the stones to gain anchorage. It would be hard to imagine an apple more intensely flavored, saturated in color, and sound of form. Piquing, sparkling acidity is coupled with plentiful juice and lovely, lingering, winey notes of tart cherry and a full mouthfeel. The 'Baldwin' apples from these hilltown trees are smaller, firmer, redder, and more flavorful than the orchard down in the river valley, where the harvest is just finishing up. Those 'Baldwin' trees are grafted onto MM.111, a widely-established commercial rootstock common in the US since the 1950s, and are at least forty years younger than those in the hilltown orchard. The valley trees also have a leafier, more upright growing habit than the twisty, winding branches of their older counterparts. The fruit is more plentiful, larger in size, and less intense in color, with little bits of green showing through. The juicy, firm flesh is rich in flavor, with notes of cranberry, but doesn't linger and isn't as complex. They lack the intense phenolics present in the older hill Baldwins, which add texture and depth, though they're still enjoyable. The apples that I'm describing seem different from each other. In fact, if you didn't know that they were both 'Baldwin', you might not even be aware that they're the same type of apple, indeed genetically identical. How does the same scion, grafted and growing in two different locations, produce fruit so varied in appearance and flavor? An apple fruit represents the sum of all variables that are a part of the tree and its surroundings. The genetic material contained within an individual specimen is filtered through a set of environmental and cultural qualities, which can vary greatly from place to place. Nature is nurture, the marriage of genome and environment. It is subject to the influence of all life around it; the activity of other organisms interacting with the tree, the qualities of the soil it's growing in, the weather, the influence of humans, chemicals, the rootstock they are grafted on, and so on. What appearances of the fruit are caused by the interactions of insects or disease? What flavors of the fruit are imparted by a particular deficiency or nutrient surplus in the soil? What practical elements of using the fruit, such as storage quality or size, are impacted by the tree's environment? What factors are we unaware of? Once a variety like 'Baldwin' is widely established, the genetic blueprint, which is generally static and inextricable (except where mutations occur), is replicated many times via grafting. When it is grown over a wide geographic area and under cultural methods that differ greatly, we begin to see that many different incarnations of the same apple begin to appear. As with the valley Baldwins and the hilltown Baldwins, the differences, slight or significant as they may be, are immutable. When I consider that 'Baldwin', as well as most named apple varieties, originated as a seedling, it makes me wonder how different the apples I'm experiencing today might be from the original 'Baldwin' tree that was discovered in Wilmington, Massachusetts, in 1740. How did the fruit from that original 'Baldwin' tree taste? How many millions of 'Baldwin' trees have lived and died since 1740? How many incarnations of 'Baldwin' have apple growers experienced? These are the questions that run through my mind with all apples I am eating, whether some famed old heirloom like these Baldwins, or some as-yet-unknown seedling, from an old rootstock, a roadside wild apple, or a tree found growing in the woods. As seasons have come and gone, and I've had chances to taste the venerable 'Baldwin' apple from dozens of sites, from trees with different stories and different personalities, I can say with confidence that these oldest, most distinguished, and unique seedling trees produce my favorite incarnation. BOOK BRIEF Little Forest, Big Impact Mini-Forest Revolution Using the Miyawaki Method to Rapidly Rewild the World By Hannah Lewis Foreword by Paul Hawken Chelsea Green Publishing, 2022, 224 pages Protected from cutting for centuries, the forests that cluster around Japan's Shinto temples are refuges for endemic trees and the myriad creatures they support. Inspired by these biodiversity hotspots, botanist Akira Miyawaki (1928-2021) developed a method for intensive, site-specific cultivation of forest soil and cover, densely planting 30-40 regionally appropriate tree species to shelter seedlings and encourage rapid growth. As Hannah Lewis explains in Mini-Forest Revolution, the Miyawaki Method aims for big effects at hyperlocal scale, unlike most large-scale tree-planting efforts (for the fraught history and environmental impact of afforestation, read the excerpt from Rosetta Elkin's Plant Life in this issue, beginning on page 40). Author Hannah Lewis pairs case studies of Miyawaki projects from Europe to India with guidance on turning back lots into tiny forests. Editor at Biodiversity for a Living Climate, based in Cambridge, MA, Lewis first encountered the Miyawaki Method while living in France."},{"type":"arnoldia","title":"Being Green","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25821","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d0708127.jpg","year":"2022","series":null,"season":null,"volume":"79","issue_number":"3","article_sequence":"1","authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","start_page":"1","end_page":"2","article_content":"While singing Joe Raposo's \\\"Bein' Green,\\\" Kermit the Frog laments how he blends in\u2014and fails to stand out\u2014among more colorful and flashier things. Given how many plant species (including one third of trees) are threatened with extinction, \\\"it's not that easy bein' green\\\" should be their motto, too. In urban forests, tribulations trial our street trees to the point where we measure their lifespans in years not decades, leaving cities ever hotter and far less beautiful places. Plant blindness, the term coined by James Wandersee and Elisabeth Schussler, is at play. When people fail to see the plants around them, they do not notice their beauty. Worse, they undervalue their essential role in supporting all life on Earth. I wonder if some have become phytophobic, in their carelessness. As the world shifts from rural to urban and suburban living, we've become detached from plants, the very things that feed and oxygenate us. Even while many of us grow them, I fear we've also become alienated. To many, plants are just commodities, means to ends. I see it in the nursery catalogs we browse, the landscapes we design, the gardens we steward. We rush to buy the latest disease-resistant cultivar of elm, the hottest-off-the-press hydrangea, the newest, dazzling coneflower\u2014each a must-have due to superb pest-resistance, 5-season interest, drought tolerance, pollinator-friendliness, non-invasiveness, maximum winterhardiness, and a host of other traits folks claim the plants possess. We demand a lot from plants in our managed landscapes, and those qualities are essential for many to survive. Yet among the attributes of new garden plants, I see a glaring omission: a richly authentic connection to a human, something that makes each individual stem stand out among its green brethren. At the Arboretum, we do not grow trees: we jointly cultivate them and curate their narratives. Some of these are backstories that came with the plant; others emerge where they are growing. I may lecture to a class about Ernest Wilson's 1901 collection from China of the nowthreatened paperbark maple, Acer griseum; a docent may share with a visitor Connie Derderian's heroic efforts saving the bonsai and penjing collection while its curator from 1969 to 1984. This technique\u2014sharing their backstories\u2014 may be a surefire way to inspire others to see plants, but it still doesn't go far enough. The student returns home from the lecture hall; the visitor departs the Arboretum. Motivated as they may have been at the time, the moment can be fleeting. People need their own personal, authentic connections to plants, too. I'm lucky to have a garden at home, where I grow plants replete with backstories important to me. Don't get me wrong\u2014I grow quite a few eye-candy plants, too. Passersby from the sidewalk regularly ask the name of the shrub humming with bumblebees and awash with huge yellow blooms each July (Hypericum frondosum 'Sunburst'), and then follow-up wondering what that nearby mass of lacy, chartreuse vegetation is (Rhus typhina 'Bailtiger'). While they may be clickbait, these are not the real showstoppers. I get access to surplus seedlings from my own expeditions, and a dozen have found space at home. When I watch each bloom of Weigela decora shift from cream to rose, I recall that slightly rainy September day in 2018, collecting it with colleagues in Nikko, Japan. As I cut back the Hydrangea arborescens every spring, I harken back to 2014, gathering seeds in the Ozarks, shouting warnings to fellow collectors about the cottonmouths and rattlesnakes underfoot. I also grow a Stewartia rostrata collected by Peter Del Tredici in 2004, in Lushan, China. Every time I see it, I think of Peter and our friendship. None of these plants is the most glamorous of its kind, but I'd not trade them for the showiest of cultivars sold in fancy containers. I also grow plants passed down from family. A favorite is Rudbeckia laciniata 'Hortensia', often called golden glow, outhouse plant\u2014or its most colorful moniker, shithouse daisy. We called them \\\"grandpa's flowers,\\\" a name my mother grew up with, for her own grandfather dug them and other plants from the small farm in Hamlet, Indiana, loaded them in a horse-drawn wagon full of furniture, and drove the family to Sturgis, Michigan\u2014a three-day trip. Sure, the plant can be ratty, the leaves covered with mildew by the end of summer. But, when I see those bright yellow pompon blooms, I smile and think of generations of gardeners sharing the plant and the story. Plant lovers love to share plants. A decade ago, friends gave me fresh cuttings of a citronella-scented geranium (Pelargonium graveolens), which they in turn acquired as cuttings from a spontaneous plant sprawling on Mount Lycabettus, in Athens, Greece. My cuttings rooted and became houseplants that thrive under neglect. Last summer, I introduced the magic of plant propagation to one of the neighbor kids. Six-year-old Abe snipped a few stem cuttings, prepared and stuck them in a pot of basic soil (this geranium will root in anything!), and waited. They rooted, and a year later he has a lanky, smelly houseplant. Whether he tells the story of its Greek provenance matters little to me\u2014what does matter is that he has his own authentic backstory connecting him to the plant. By the end of his song, Kermit realizes that green is beautiful and exactly what he wants to be. Even when lacking fancy tradenames or cultivar epithets, the green beings in our gardens are beautiful when they have authentic backstories. As we grow the triedand- true (as well as novel-and-new) plants for ourselves, our clients, our cities, we must also make room for those with personal stories to learn, preserve, and share. If none come to mind, we write them by sowing a seed, rooting a cutting, or adopting a nearby street tree to call our own. In doing so, we will all better see the plants around us. They need this, and so do we."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"To Wander About","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":2,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25792","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15ebb6b.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Friedman, Ned","article_content":"To wander about among a vegetation which is new to one is pleasant and instructive. It is the same with familiar objects: in the end we cease to think about them at all. What is seeing without thinking?\nJohann Wolfgang von Goethe\nWe live in an age of ecosystems and genomes, where the scale of biology is usually presented at one of two extremes, global or genomic. There are good reasons for humanity's focus on the global scale of biology here and now in the Anthropocene. With human-induced climate change in the process of permanently altering the natural trajectories of nearly four billion years of evolution and ecological interactions between species, there is an intense focus on documenting and predicting what our single species has unleashed on the many millions of species of life with whom we have inherited and currently share the planet.\nAt the same time, the miracles of DNA sequencing technologies have allowed us to understand, in ways previously unimaginable, our own extraordinary evolutionary journey of becoming human, connecting us back in time to the first single celled forms of life. Reading the DNA has also provided amazing insights into everything from the genes responsible for making a flower to the genetic coding that maps out neural networks in fruit flies.\nIf one views the living natural world predominantly through the lenses of ecosystems and genomes, however, then something has been lost. I am an organismic biologist, a plant morphologist to be more precise. Simply put, this means that when I think of a 'unit' of biology, I am thinking about single organisms, just as you and I, as members of the human species, are single organisms. We are conceived as a zygote, develop into an embryo, are born, grow, learn to walk and speak, have interactions with other human organisms, and eventually complete an arc of life that returns our carbon to the earth. Of course, there is no such thing as a single organism all organisms depend on a web of myriad other species but I identify as an organism, knowing full well that there are roughly as many bacterial cells in my body as there are human cells. And the tree outside of my window, even though I know it has complex associations with mycorrhizal fungi and bacteria, is still a unit of biology that can powerfully be seen as an organism.\nI yearn to see organisms individual trees to meet them, witness them, learn from them, and indeed, to age with them. And this is the beautiful thing about the Arnold Arboretum and its roughly 16,000 accessioned woody plants. Each has provenance an organismic history with an origin story, and all that goes with siting, planting, and caring for an individual plant over decades and even centuries. I can reflect on the magnificent twisted European beech (14599*A) that was collected in the wild in France, transported to Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and then sent on a journey to the Arnold Arboretum in 1888. I can imagine a mere sapling being planted in the ground on the south flank of Bussey Hill in the beech collection. My mind reels in the magnitudes of time as I reflect on the generations of horticulturists who have cared for this one individual. And here, more than a century later, I can rejoice in its magnificent fall colors, its snow-covered spiraling branches, the light-green and delicate newly-flushed leaves in the spring, and the deep greens of summer. At the Arnold Arboretum, everything is truly about paying it forward.\nNot long after settling into the Arboretum, I resolved that I would never let a week go by without getting out onto the grounds to look at and photograph the woody plants that had beckoned me here. On every walk, I bring my small pocket camera and take pictures. Each night, I select the better ones, and spend additional time reflecting on what was revealed to me. By simply taking the time to observe, I feel as though I have gotten to know these non-sentient organisms on their terms: not as extensions of me, but rather as fellow living beings that can reveal their lives, history, complexity, beauty, architecture, and basic natural history.\nOver the years, from these meandering walks, I appear to have developed several of what I now refer to as (healthy) obsessions with phenomena which, once I observed them in the Arboretum, I became acutely interested in seeing in all of their manifestations. These obsessions include my ongoing annual spring quest to witness the brilliant hues of ovulate (seed-bearing) conifer cones; the exuberance of budbreak among the horsechestnuts and buckeyes; a fixation on the magical dispersal of pollen from rhododendron flowers; magnolias in fruit (and always, the bigleaf magnolia in flower); smooth bark (especially among snakebark maples in the winter); the startlingly bizarre naked resting buds of India quassiawood and the Arboretum's single specimen of Caucasian wingnut; looking straight up the trunks of large trees in all seasons; acorns in August (and the mad dash to finish filling up the fruit in the early fall); and the act of shattering birch infructescences to gaze upon their minute, delicately winged seeds, which immediately lift from my palm and are carried off by the wind.\nDiscovering plants as individuals, organisms to be reckoned with and reflected upon, is a journey worth taking, and one that never ends. It is a journey that enriches my life every day, in ways that I could not have imagined as I made my first focused perambulation on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum years ago. It is also a journey that will be unique (and uniquely rewarding) to each person who sets out to discover the essence of plants by meeting these magnificent organisms on their terms, simply by looking and reflecting.\nIf we are ever to save the planet from our destructive tendencies, of warring with nature and each other, I would like to suggest that it can start by regularly walking in a garden, a park, the woods, or one's backyard, and learning to rejoice in the extraordinary beauty of organisms that can't talk to us, and indeed are wholly indifferent to our very existence (although certainly not unaffected) but whose presence is a constant reminder of the nearly miraculous complexity and interconnectedeness of life."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hedging Our Bets","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25791","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15ebb27.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meyer, Mary H.; Kreevich, Nick","article_content":"Believe it or not, a hedge collection can be full of surprises. Take the row of 20-25 foot-tall Jack pines, Pinus banksiana, just one of the 73 taxa in the Hedge Collection at the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum (MLA). These tough natives have great cold and drought tolerance but what are they doing, unpruned, in this formal hedge collection? The historical documentation of the collection provided crucial clues: From early curatorial records, we learned the Jack pine hedge was made up of plants grown from seed collected by Al Johnson, an early MLA curator, from a witch's broom in Chittamo, Wisconsin. In slides, we found pictures of plant people with witch's brooms, from which they coveted seed in hopes of finding new dwarf plants. While the story of the Jack pines is clearer now, broad questions remain: What did record-keeping look like in 1967? Whose idea was it to start the collection? Was there an initial donor or collection goal?\nThese were some of our questions when we began to write our new ebook, Hedges: A Brief History and the Minnesota Hedges Collection (pressbooks.umn.edu\/hedges), and document the institutional knowledge of the collection. Although each plant had its own record with basic provenance information, our questions were not easy to answer. When we tell people (even horticulturists) that we wrote a book about hedges, they often look puzzled; when we ask if they grew up with a hedge, or if they ever pruned a hedge, however, most often the answer is yes. We ask them to think about why the hedge was there, and what it might have meant to their family and neighbors. And for many people, a light comes on as they connect their hedge to the landscape and its cultural meaning.\nEstablished in 1958, the MLA began as a horticultural research site for testing winter hardiness of plants (USDA hardiness zone 4), including plants commonly used in hedges. The MLA Hedge Collection is one of the oldest such assemblages, due in part to the boom in popularity that hedges saw throughout the 1960s, thanks to the postwar building boom and the growth of suburbia.\nSifting through thousands of more-than-60-year-old, 3 5-inch accession cards, filed in Steelmaster card cabinets, is like discovering an old journal or generational photo album at a yard sale: as soon as you start moving your fingers across the edges of the cards, musty whiffs of past time bring on a feeling of nostalgia. With each flip of a card, organized alphabetically by generic, specific, and cultivar epithets, you begin to build a historical portrait of the MLA collections dating from 1958. These index cards, also known as accession records, reveal that acquiring a plant and giving it a number did not necessarily coincide with when it was planted. Documentation on the cards also includes notes on fall color, winter injuries, fruit set, and overall growth habit all important considerations when assessing the ornamental value of a hedge. It is clear from the records that prior keepers prized foliage density, foliage color, and winter hardiness above all. We could even trace the impacts of weather on the hedge collection, with two of the coldest winters in recorded history (1978-9, with an average temperature of 9.4\u00a1F, and '77-8, with an average temperature of 10.5\u00a1F) apparent in plant-record notes on injury and severe dieback. Natural selection certainly took its course with those back-to-back weather events, but also provided the staff with critical knowledge of how particular hedge plants respond to extreme cold.\nWe also interviewed a number of employees, current and retired, to record their memories and discover the origins of some of the more unusual plants in the collection. Kathy Allen, Andersen Horticultural Librarian, assisted with locating the early Arboretum annual reports, which add critical details regarding scope of and support for the collection. 'The collection was planted to show which plants were the best for formal hedges,' recounts Director, Peter Moe, himself a longtime MLA employee. 'There were fewer compact forms of many species at that time and many people tended to try to keep large plants such as Amur maple as medium-sized hedges.' Height, density, and diversity could be shown in a planting a variety of hedges, which at the time were an extremely common and desirable landscape element.\nThree taxa of boxwood (Buxus 'Glencoe' Chicagoland Green\u00aa; B. microphylla var. koreana, and B. sempervirens) are the only broadleaved evergreens in the collection. Notes from early Arboretum newsletters express interest in this genus, though it was thought not to be winter hardy by many. Accession records and notes from the '60s to '70s document the overturning of this wisdom, with comments such as 'best in collection' and 'very good hedge material.' Although the plants show winter burn in the spring many years, the hardiness of boxwood hedges is no longer a question.\nGuided by prior documentation standards at the MLA, evaluating our current hedge collection for ornamental value sometimes felt like being a judge for the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show, looking at one favorite after another. Usually, the first concern when pondering a hedge is its performance as a barrier. Yet not all hedges intend to create a barrier, but may instead provide ornamental value to an existing landscape or garden. The latter is mostly a matter of opinion: some may be wowed by the texture or height of a hedge, while others are more interested in the seasonal changes such as flower, fruit, and fall color.\nOur Thuja occidentalis 'Wareana' (American arborvitae) was the clear winner in terms of privacy, reaching heights of up to ten feet at maturity, with very dense, evergreen foliage. On the opposite end of the density spectrum, a hedge like Hydrangea arborescens 'Annabelle' (smooth Hydrangea) needs consistent renewal pruning to provide what it is best known for: its large, rounded flower heads. While the 'Annabelle' hedge can reach heights that garner it semi-private status, there is no hiding behind this deciduous shrub come winter. Deciduous hedges vary greatly as the seasons change, and will react strongly to weather anomalies. Early in the growing season, Philadelphus coronarius 'Aureus' looks like a candidate for removal, but its charm and value for use in a hedge come to fruition in the summer, with its beautiful chartreuse foliage.\nSuch factors are boldly visible through the seasons at the MLA, when you drive over the crest of a small hill and 73 neat hedges suddenly spread before you. It is hard to not notice them! Our hedge collection is a document of human intervention in the landscape. While it is doubtful that we would plant a hedge collection in a public garden today, there is value in keeping historical horticultural garden elements intact for future study. This preservation effort encompasses both plants and the records we keep of them.\nAnd so a word of advice to anyone thinking of fleshing out historical documentation for a plant collection: much institutional knowledge exists only in the memory of long term staff. Documenting this tacit knowledge, with audio or video recordings if possible, as well as continuing to keep records beyond mere accession numbers, will help curators, horticulturists, and other Arboretum staff understand the goal and educational purpose of a collection. Rarely do we over-document the details of our plant collections. As authors on hedges, our perspective has become more complex, realizing that people subconsciously use hedges to take control of their property and show authority. Some may balk at using the word 'authority' in connection with a hedge. Our reaction to plants is often subconscious, however; we rarely realize how deeply they affect us. A well-pruned hedge subconsciously communicates human control, and implies a safe, managed landscape. Our species' role in the landscape is readily seen, but often not fully recognized, when we encounter a hedge."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Quest for Southern Red Oak-North of the Mason-Dixon Line","article_sequence":3,"start_page":11,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25790","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15eb76f.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Zale, Peter J.; Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"While plant collecting is often romanticized as occurring in pristine natural habitats, much of the most successful seed collecting is done in more prosaic locations. This is especially true when searching for tree species, where roadsides or power line rights-of-way provide light (for tree growth) and ease of access to fruiting branches (for collecting convenience). This certainly was the case in September 2020, as we searched for Quercus falcata (Spanish oak, or southern red oak) in southern Chester County (PA). After a fruitless morning at the Goat Hill Serpentine Barrens Preserve, we found much better success along local county roads.\nWhy Quercus falcata? Based on biological and climatic threats to tree species traditionally grown at Longwood Gardens, we have focused recent efforts on native species that combine ornamental traits with disease resistance and greater heat tolerance. For example, red oak (Quercus rubra), one of the more prominent shade trees at Longwood Gardens, in recent years has been among the most susceptible to bacterial leaf scorch (Xylella fastidiosa), which can weaken and eventually kill mature trees. As possible substitutes for this and other susceptible oaks, we targeted populations of Quercus phellos, Quercus michauxii, and Quercus falcata native to southeastern Pennsylvania. Maturing at approximately the same size as red oak, all three are potential substitutes as high-canopy, overstory shade trees. Each of these three species, which are widespread further south, reach the northern limits of their native ranges in southeastern Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and Long Island. Southern red oak barely extends its range into southeastern Pennsylvania, southern New Jersey, and possibly Staten Island and Long Island. In fact, due to its rarity in Pennsylvania (fewer than fifteen populations are known in the state), the Pennsylvania Natural Heritage Program lists it as a species of special concern (an S1, for those familiar with the coding).\nFaced with travel restrictions due to the COVID-19 pandemic, starting in the late summer and fall of 2020, we decided to look for local opportunities for collecting seed, pursuing a range of regional collecting objectives that we had previously not achieved. This included targeting the southern ranges of northern species (such as Larix laricina) and, vice-versa, the northern limits of southern species (for example Quercus virginiana), with the goal of growing plants suitable for changing climatic conditions in the Delaware Valley. For those southern species that reach into the mid-Atlantic, the extreme populations might possess traits, including cold tolerance, that provide opportunities to grow these beyond their traditional horticultural ranges. Conversely, for the northern species, the southernmost populations could possess greater heat tolerance, allowing us to continue to grow these as their native populations retreat northwards in the face of warming climates.\nIn September 2020, we focused our collecting on nearby populations of Quercus falcata, which occur on serpentine soils and their associated barrens. (Serpentine barrens, with thin, nutrient-poor soils, support high levels of unusual, rare, or endangered species, in contrast to adjacent areas.) We had targeted Goat Hill based on recent herbarium records from this location, but we did not find any southern red oaks there. Collecting was easy along the county roads, however, where we made three separate collections from trees whose acorns were within reach of our pole pruners. These three populations, within two miles of each other, were made up of large mature trees that were at least 50 feet tall. Quercus falcata stand out among other oaks, having coarsely lobed leaves with sickle-shaped (falcate) terminal lobes, and dense grey down (pubescence) beneath. For two of these collections, the southern red oaks were mixed among other native trees species in a dense forest; the third location was a grove of separate mature trees growing in a heavily grazed cow pasture, all within sight of the Herr's Snack Factory, a local landmark.\nSeeking additional Pennsylvanian locations of Quercus falcata, we pored through herbarium collections shared through the Mid-Atlantic Herbaria Consortium. Historical records from the late 1800s through the mid-1900s show a distribution in southeast Pennsylvania along much of the Piedmont-Coastal Plain boundaries, including southwest Philadelphia. But due to urbanization of much of this historic range (which includes Philadelphia International Airport), herbarium collections since the late 1980s center on three areas: southern Chester County near the Maryland border, southern Montgomery County along Militia Hill in Fort Washington State Park, and southern Bucks County along the Delaware River.\nWhile collecting southern red oak within a few square miles of West Nottingham Township (Chester County), we came across a remarkable diversity of eight oak species in addition to Quercus falcata, we also encountered Q. alba, Q. ilicifolia, Q. marilandica, Q. prinoides, Q. rubra, Q. stellata, and Q. velutina. Though familiar with the local diversity of oaks in southeast Pennsylvania, we rarely see this number of species in a single day's outing. Together, these represent a significant portion of the 11 oaks reported by Hugh Stone in his two-volume 1945 Flora of Chester County Pennsylvania, and nearly half of the approximately 20 oak species found in Pennsylvania. This wealth of oak species serves testament to the richness of the Chester County flora, historically the most botanically diverse in the state, though heavily impacted by human activities since the publication of Stone's Flora.\nWe returned in 2021 to make duplicate collections from the easily accessible roadside trees found in 2020. Oaks are famous for having years of heavy acorn production (mast years) followed by years of lower production. In 2020, we experienced a post-mast year when looking for Quercus phellos in southern Bucks County. Despite seeing a few dozen trees during a day in the field, we did not see a single acorn on any of these. Our luck was better with Quercus falcata: in 2020 we collected a total of approximately 250 acorns, and in 2021, just under 200 acorns.\nAs with seed collecting, patience is the main ingredient needed to grow oak seedlings. To germinate, acorns usually need a few months of cold treatment, followed by warm conditions and the increasing day lengths of spring. Ultimately the seedlings derived from these collections will be evaluated in our Research Nursery for growth rate and form, disease resistance, and fall color, before being introduced into public areas of Longwood Gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hybrids Hiding in Plain Sight","article_sequence":4,"start_page":14,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25789","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15eb36c.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connolly, Bryan","article_content":"Last summer, while working as a consulting botanist for the Environmental Protection Agency's National Wetland Condition Assessment project in Allamuchy Township, New Jersey, I found an unusual colony of shrubby dogwood in the genus Swida (previously known as Cornus). The research plot was in a seasonally flooded meadow, with broad-leaved cattail (Typha latifolia), ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis), and reed canary grass (Phalaris arundinacea) present. The site was previously cleared and looked to have a long history of human disturbance. The location is now set aside as town open space, and secondary succession is occurring, with woody plants increasing in dominance. Swida, or shrubby dogwoods, are known as old-field colonizers, and also as wetland species. There were two species present at this locality, S. racemosa, gray dogwood, and S. amomum, silky dogwood. In my experience, S. racemosa is more of an old-field colonizer, while S. amomum tends to favor wetlands. The area was both an old field and a wetland, and so it made sense that the species were co-occurring and abundant at the site.\nI noticed one Swida colony that did not cleanly fit into either S. racemosa or S. amomum. Swida racemosa generally has narrow (lanceolate) leaves, white fruit, gray bark, white pith, and upright growth habit; while S. amomum has broader (ovate) leaves, reddish-purple bark, brown twig pith, blue fruit, and a mounded growth form. The atypical plant I spotted had S. racemose characters, including narrow leaves 2.5\u00d03.8 cm wide and verrucose gray bark on the older stems, but also displayed the S. amomum traits of blue fruit and brown twig pith. Additionally, the growth form was unusual: it was a tall plant, about 2\u00d03 m in height, and somehow both upright and mounded, intermediate between the habits of S. racemosa and S. amomum. The pedicels or flower stalks were also reddish-maroon, not the typical bright red of S. racemosa. With this combination of characters, I thought it was likely to be a hybrid of the two species. From my experience working with coauthors on The Vascular Plants of Massachusetts: A County Checklist, I remembered a Swida hybrid, though I couldn't recall the parental species or if it was named. Additionally, from my wanderings and botanical work in the Northeastern US, I have published many new records of hybrid taxa and I could not place this plant among them.\nAfter a long day in the field I returned to my hotel room, fired up Go Botany (the online database of the Native Plant Trust), and confirmed that S. racemosa and S. amomum do in fact hybridize. On the account of my vague Swida hybrid recollection and my previous encounters with hybrid taxa, I wasn't surprised that a cross was known, but was glad that my hybrid hypothesis was supported by the literature. To my delight, the hybrid was listed as a nothospecies (a direct hybrid of two species) with the name Swida arnoldiana. The original description, by Alfred Rehder, was made in 1905 from a row of shrubs growing at the Arnold Arboretum.\nThis individual could just represent variation found within S. racemosa, which occasionally can have brown pith or light blue fruit. But I find it unlikely that a plant would exhibit both these traits while also co-occuring with plants that have the morphology of S. racemosa and S. amomum. I thus believe this plant to be S. arnoldiana. If I am correct, then it is a state record for New Jersey! According to Flora of North America, the hybrid has only been found in Massachusetts, Missouri, Ohio, and Pennsylvania.\nThe specimen voucher will be deposited at the Arnold Arboretum herbarium. This unique hybrid individual spotted in the field offered a nice little puzzle to solve and it was gratifying to learn that it is named after a wonderful arboretum I know and love!"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Somewhere in the Panhandle of Florida","article_sequence":5,"start_page":16,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25788","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15eb328.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Thomas, Elizabeth; Boland, Tim","article_content":"Somewhere in the panhandle of Florida, traveling for miles within a labyrinth of perfectly paved yet utterly empty roads, we blindly followed our guide, Bob, to a population of our target species, cracking jokes as we drove about the sinister fate awaiting us. We were in the ghost of a ghost town: the skeleton of a subdivision that was never built, planned for a population that never came. Every street is identical, save for the occasional cul-de-sac jutting into scrubby second-growth forest. Not only did the people never arrive, but the houses were never constructed; hundreds of miles of paved roads were laid here in the 1990s, only to be left abandoned, another suburban dystopia created by Florida's rich history of speculative development.\nBob pulled his Prius to the side of the road, and we parked behind him. We'd been put in touch with Bob, a local resident and active amateur botanist, by our contact in the Florida Forest Service; it had been Bob who discovered this population of Stewartia malacodendron, and he was eager to share it with trustworthy enthusiasts. Known commonly as 'silky stewartia' or 'silky camellia' due to its showy, camellia-like blooms, S. malacodendron is a small deciduous understory tree native to the southeastern coastal plain of the United States, from Virginia to the northeast and Texas to the southwest. Traveling from the Polly Hill Arboretum on Martha's Vineyard in the late summer of 2021, we had come to harvest fruits (and thus, seed) of this species to grow into plants for our ex-situ living collections. As co-holders of the Plant Collection Network's National Collection of the genus Stewartia with the Arnold Arboretum, we were hoping to collect from populations at the southernmost edge of its range, heretofore unrepresented in our living collections.\nGrabbing our gear, we ambled through the woody goldenrod and beautyberry, enjoying the fresh light of an early September morning pouring through the sparse canopy of southern magnolia and live oak. We were only about 100 feet from the road when we stumbled across our first stewartia tree, standing like a sentinel at the rim of a large, sunny slope dropping down to a sinkhole pond. Our satisfaction to find it fruiting quickly turned to excitement and then overwhelm as we spotted at least a dozen more of them spread across the face of the slope, each one dripping with plump, green fruits larger than we had ever seen before. Normally about an inch in diameter, these were more akin to fuzzy ping pong balls or small crabapples. Balancing on the scrubby slope and madly scribbling collection numbers on sandwich bags, we exchanged involuntary expletives as we took in the superlative bounty of fruits. Were we harvesting germplasm, or were we apple picking?\nOf conservation concern throughout most of its range, silky camellia is a protected endangered species in the state of Florida. Protected in theory, at least: as we began to stuff the plump green fruits into plastic bags, we gazed across the sinkhole, where a collage of zig-zagging tire tracks defaced the far slope all the way down to the shore of the pond. With its bleached, eroded sands, this local party spot is visible even from satellite images.\nLiz heard Bob holler from somewhere upslope to her left. Though she couldn't make out what he was saying, she knew he'd found yet another group of exceptionally fecund trees. This good news found her in a fluster of multitasking, as she scrambled to capture location coordinates on our GPS unit, measure and record specimen data and collection numbers by hand in our field book, label baggies and herbarium samples, take pictures, and collect fruit. Sharpie cap in mouth and hair sticking to her sweaty forehead, she wondered whether we'd be late to our next stop that morning, meeting our next guide at a site about three hours west. We'd expected this to be a quick roadside stop, not an absolute windfall.\nThis expedition is our most focused effort to collect this species since an Alabama excursion in 2007. Our founder, Polly Hill, was among the first private collectors to grow this plant, with our oldest tree dating back to 1962. The mild maritime climate and acidic soils of Martha's Vineyard happily support the cultivation of this stunning, small, flowering tree.\nMost of our expedition planning is done months ahead to arrange for a seasoned naturalist or professional botanist to lead us to target species. Admittedly, we get into some very wild places to collect the silky stewartia. Usually, we find them after rugged hikes into deep wilderness. Yet here on this fine morning, just off an intersection crossroad, we had found the most robust population of silky stewartia Tim has witnessed in 15 years of pursuing it. Slicing into the globose fruits, we found dark brown sclerified seeds that shone brightly in the late morning light.\nThis unexpected and surreal discovery was a vivid reminder that plants are both resilient and vulnerable. The silky stewartia is imperiled by habitat destruction, principally through logging or building development. On a previous scouting trip to Alabama in 2012, we bore witness to a new condominium development that destroyed a former thriving population. Somehow, this spectacular hillside of trees was spared the backhoe and bulldozer for now. With the same luck that brought us to this unique population of trees, we hope to return and see them in bloom someday. Perhaps the flower size will also be larger, or some of the petals streaked ruby red, as variants in the wild are known to do?\nWe looked at our watches to check our time; not surprisingly, we would be late to our next destination. However, the place, the trees, and the experience were worth it. As we gathered up our gear to move onto our next location, we did so in a suspended state of stewartia euphoria. The remainder of the trip was both productive and satisfying, but nothing would compare to this remarkable discovery in the unlikeliest of places."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rhododendron prunifolium","article_sequence":6,"start_page":18,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25787","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15eaf25.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"I have always been fond of Korean azalea (Rhododendron mucronulatum), that hardy shrub whose pink flowers crack open just as the snow recedes. At the other end of the season, and the last of our azaleas to flower, comes another personal favorite: Rhododendron prunifolium (plumleaf azalea).\nMost of the Arboretum's plumleaf azaleas grow along Meadow Road, amassed below towering black locusts in the Wolcott Bed. They escape notice until the middle of July, when their floral buds swell and burst open, when few woody plants bloom and temperatures are irrepressibly hot. Although it's not comprehensively accurate (color ranges from deep red to nearly pinkish-orange), in this portrait, I'll say the flowers are safety orange, that alarming shade reserved for prison jumpsuits and cautionary traffic cones.\nThis color should be taken as a warning, because Rhododendron prunifolium is rare in nature, limited to just a few dozen populations in the Chattahoochee River Valley and straddling the border of southern Alabama and Georgia. Neither disease nor insect is to blame; climate change (to date at least) is also not the culprit. Instead, the species totters on the brink simply because its preferred habitat mesic forests, stream sides, and ravines is disappearing due to logging and other development. In this respect, plumleaf azalea is like most other woody plants threatened with extinction: their natural homes are vanishing.\nShortly after the founding of the Center for Plant Conservation in 1984 (then based at the Arnold Arboretum), we began to collect the species in earnest. At present we grow thirty-four plants, mostly from Georgia's Dade, Harris, and Stewart Counties. Preserving wild populations remains the highest priority, but it is important to have a back-up; while they grow here, their story is shared with others, and scholars from around the world come here to study them.\nLet's not ignore the fact that Rhododendron prunifolium looks good in the garden. For endangered species, being charismatic and attracting attention is a gateway to its security (just look at the giant panda). This means we must equally care for species whose security is questionable simply because they are less charming, at least in appearance anyway. At the Arnold, we make room for these plants, too."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Beatrix Farrand on Mount Desert Island","article_sequence":7,"start_page":20,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25786","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15eab6d.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Eason, Rodney","article_content":"I first visited the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden, in Seal Harbor, Maine, on vacation with my then-fianc\u017de, now-wife, Carrie, in 1997. We were both young landscape architects practicing at different firms in Raleigh, North Carolina. The garden visit had been arranged by Carrie's college classmate, Sarah Richardson, who lived on Mount Desert Island. After days spent hiking through Acadia National Park's coniferous forests, granite peaks, and scattered blueberries and junipers, the refined curation of color within the borders of the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden was a beautiful and dramatic contrast.\nSarah informed us that the Rockefeller Garden was designed by Beatrix Farrand (June 19, 1872-February 28, 1959), who also had designed Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, DC. One of Carrie's classes at Penn State had made a trip to our nation's capital, where she had been awestruck by the beauty of that garden. The only images I had seen of Dumbarton Oaks came from books and slide lectures, and it would be roughly 18 years before I would encounter Farrand's work in depth, reading her biography by Judith Tankard, Beatrix Farrand : Private Gardens, Public Landscapes (2009).\nToday, through a set of fortunate circumstances, I get to live all year round on Mount Desert Island and have served as CEO since 2015 of the Mount Desert Land & Garden Preserve, which is entrusted with the care of three Farrand-influenced gardens, including the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden. In case you have never visited the coast of Maine, I should point out that the indigenous vegetation is not exactly floriferous. Coniferous forest predominates, largely composed of red spruce, black spruce, and white pine. There are some deciduous trees on the edges of the coniferous stands, including alders and moosewood maples. The dominant native ground-floor vegetation is largely composed of rhodoras, sweet ferns, huckleberries, blueberries, and northern bayberries. Underneath this typical plant community on Mount Desert Island are numerous ferns, mosses, lichens, and sedges. This plant community makes for a mix of greys and greens, all in contrast to the pink granite outcrops and glacial erratics that you would frequently encounter. Spectacular in its own right, this landscape inspired the formation of Acadia National Park in 1916.\nWith English-style, mixed-herbaceous borders set off within this landscape, the Rockefeller Garden makes an evocative juxtaposition. Designed by Farrand for Abby Aldrich and John D. Rockefeller Jr. from 1926 through the early 1930s, the garden is a sublime mixture of sophisticated design and a complex palette of plants. I was smitten from the outset with the combination of bold floral colors, statuary sourced from Asia, and Beaux-Arts symmetry, provided most prominently by two parallel axes that run the length of the garden and orchestrate the flow for the visitor. The entry axis, called the Spirit Path, is flanked by carved-stone warriors and priests from eighteenth-century Korea. The second axis, parallel to the Spirit Path, provides the central aspect of the garden and its colorful flower borders with a distant view of a round opening called the 'moon gate.' This gate frames the view of a eighteenth-century bronze Buddha in the Shakyamuni, or historical form, from China. As I studied Farrand's designs in more detail, I would learn how the use of such central orienting axes became a hallmark of her designs.\nMany years after visiting Mount Desert Island and the Rockefeller Garden for the first time, I was fortunate enough to visit Dumbarton Oaks. Like an unfolding, complex novel that you just cannot put down, the garden kept leading from one masterfully designed room to the next, with brilliantly placed plants and sublimely scaled spaces. I distinctly remember encountering the camouflage-print bark of a superb Chinese quince, Pseudocydonia sinensis, at the end of a pathway. Overwhelmed by the beauty of this gorgeous tree, I walked off the pathway and gave it a hug.\nWhat is now the Land & Garden Preserve, was conceived in 1970 as a way for Peggy and David Rockefeller to perpetuate the beauty of the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden. They co-inherited the garden with David's older brother, Nelson, after David's father, John D. Rockefeller Jr., passed away in 1960. Soon after Peggy and David formed the Preserve as a non-profit, then known as the 'Island Foundation,' they were asked to manage the nearby Asticou Azalea Garden. Asticou, or the Azalea Garden as it is known locally, had been built beginning in 1956 by Charles K. Savage, using mature plantings from Reef Point, Beatrix Farrand's Bar Harbor estate.\nAnother local garden, Thuya, joined the Preserve in 2000, after its trustees decided that the future of the garden would be in good hands with the growing organization. Thuya's origins date to 1912, when a Boston landscape architect and Northeast Harbor summer resident, Joseph Curtis, constructed his 'rusticator' lodge in Northeast Harbor, naming it for a prominent stand of eastern white cedar, Thuja occidentalis, growing nearby. Charles K. Savage became the trustee of Thuya after Curtis' death in 1929. In 1956, Savage began establishing gardens at both Thuya as well as Asticou, a story for which more detail will be provided below.\nTo celebrate his 100th birthday in 2015, David Rockefeller gifted the Preserve over 1,000 acres of land around Little Long Pond, including over 10 miles of carriage roads and 10 miles of hiking trails. This parcel, too, carried Farrand's legacy: When John D. Rockefeller Jr. was constructing the carriage road system from 1913 until 1940 on what is now both the Preserve and Acadia National Park, Farrand had provided pro-bono consulting on road layout and planting designs. When David Rockefeller passed away in 2017, the Farrand-designed Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden joined his gift to the Preserve. Beyond the beauty of the Rockefeller estate in Seal Harbor, Maine, she left an indelible mark within what is now Acadia National Park and the Preserve.\nHer ties to the place were deep. When Farrand was 10 years old, in 1882, her parents bought an ocean-front property called Reef Point in Bar Harbor, facing Frenchman Bay. Her childhood at Reef Point fostered a love of plants and landscapes, and for amusement she dug and transplanted native vegetation from the surrounding forests and combined these with cultivated ornamentals. Farrand's ethos of protecting the natural environment while cultivating intensive gardening spots of horticultural pleasure carries on today at the Preserve with over 1,200 acres of conserved, natural lands connecting our three ornamental gardens.\nAs her interest in landscape design and planting became more of a passion, she was introduced to Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum. Sargent agreed to guide Farrand in her self-education in horticulture and garden design from 1893 to 1894, since at that time, no formal training in landscape architecture existed. While studying at the Arnold, she worked with plants at the Arboretum, as well as at the Sargent family's estate, Holm Lea, in Brookline, Massachusetts. In addition to learning about the art and science of horticulture from Sargent, she learned to design landscapes to fit a site rather than change a site to fit a design.\nThe lessons she learned from Sargent carried over as well through the trialing of new plants at Reef Point and elsewhere. From 1946 to 1956, Farrand chronicled the evolution of her Bar Harbor garden along with the noteworthy characteristics of many plants in the 'Reef Point Gardens Bulletin.' Farrand found the climate of Mount Desert Island to be particularly hospitable to climbing vines and in the June 1954 bulletin, she describes some of her favorites. Among her descriptions of Aristolochia spp., Ampelopsis brevipedunculata, Vitis spp., and Lonicera spp., Farrand is particularly hopeful and enamored by a vine that 'Professor Sargent had scornfully described as a 'dud.' This Arnold Arboretum cast-off was Tripterygium regelii. I admittedly had never heard of this Celastraceae member until this mention in the Reef Point Bulletin.\nWhat began as a joint venture with her husband, Max, Farrand continued to develop, seeking to make Reef Point a public teaching garden after his passing in 1945. Max had been the first director of the Huntington Library and Gardens in San Marino, California. The Farrands divided their time between San Marino and Bar Harbor, with a dream of eventually making Reef Point a garden where aspiring horticulturists and garden designers could learn. In October 1947, two years after Max's passing, a massive wildfire burned almost a third of Mount Desert Island, including many grand, oceanside estates. These massive estates had provided the town with substantial tax revenues, now lost to fire. I mention this because Farrand had sought tax exemption of Reef Point as a public garden, and after these fires (which left Reef Point unscathed), the town had to increase tax assessments. With the burden required to keep her gardens afloat, Ms. Farrand ultimately decided to dissolve Reef Point as a lasting garden in 1955.\nBeatrix Farrand's article on 'The Azalea Border' in the April 15, 1949 edition of Arnoldia described the addition of azaleas and other acid-loving plants along Meadow Road by the Arnold Arboretum. Some of the azaleas mentioned in the article included: Rhododendron mucronulatum, R. dauricum, R. canadense, R. vaseyi, R. schlippenbachii, R. arborescens, R. viscosum, R. nudiflorum, R. roseum, and R. calendulaceum. After reading this article from 1949, I began to wonder if Farrand's interest in azaleas was in any way linked between her desire to see what would grow both in Jamaica Plain as well as at her Bar Harbor estate. As I will describe later, many of her plants were subsequently moved from Reef Point to the Asticou Azalea Garden and Thuya Garden by Charles K. Savage. Asticou Azalea has a substantial collection of azaleas, many of them species grown in the Arnold's Azalea Border. Farrand, along with her plant recorder, Marion Ida Spaulding, kept an herbarium of the Reef Point plants. Once Farrand decided to no longer keep Reef Point Gardens going, she sent their plant vouchers to the University of California, Berkeley's herbarium, where I have found 51 vouchers attributed to Reef Point.\nIn 1956, Farrand sold Reef Point to a Maine colleague, Reef Point board member and architect, Robert Patterson, who sold most of the plant collection to Northeast Harbor hotelier and fellow Reef Point board member Charles K. Savage. Lacking the $5,000 needed to purchase and move the collection, Savage was able to convince John D. Rockefeller Jr. to become a financial backer (that $5,000 in 1956 would be worth over $51,000 in 2022). Rockefeller and his wife, Abby, had worked with Farrand for over a decade on the design and construction of their Maine garden, what is now known as the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Garden. Documents in the Rockefeller family archives show that many of the drawings for the garden and planting designs were by Farrand. After a trip to China in 1921, Abby Rockefeller became enamored with the pink stucco wall around the Forbidden City in what is now Beijing. It served as the inspiration for the wall that surrounds the Abby Garden in Maine.\nOutside of her formal garden designs, Farrand often acted as a consultant to Rockefeller about aesthetic decisions regarding the carriage roads both during and after construction. In correspondence in the Rockefeller Archives Center in Pocantico, New York, Farrand commented that the engineers and tradesmen that Rockefeller had hired to landscape the carriage roads of Acadia National Park were lining trees up like soldiers. She urged Rockefeller toward a more natural arrangement, mixing conifers and deciduous trees of different species and sizes.\nFarrand understood that the natural character of the carriage roads through the park required a more relaxed style than was evident in her notable formal garden designs. In other writings and sketches to Rockefeller, Farrand suggested covering many of the stone bridges with vines such as Parthenocissus quinquefolia (Virginia creeper). In Acadia National Park today, you will find 16 stone bridges built by Rockefeller, none of them covered with vines. Last year I was hiking along Stanley Brook on the southeastern side of Acadia National Park, and I stopped to admire the Stanley Brook Bridge. I noticed that at both ends of the bridge, equally spaced, was a pair of sugar maples. Growing four sugar maples so symmetrically, on both sides of the bridge, would have been a profound work of art for Mother Nature, so I am going to put this down to Farrand at the very least, a reflection of her influence and love of symmetry.\nOnce Charles K. Savage, or 'C.K.' as he was known locally, was able to secure the $5,000 from John D. Rockefeller Jr. for moving the plants from Reef Point to Asticou Azalea and Thuya, he had to act quickly. Savage wrote a narrative to Rockefeller, describing the need for funding and urgency in the matter. The new owner of Reef Point, Robert Patterson, was now responsible for paying taxes on the property and wanted Savage to move the plants before the property would be sold again. The move was done quickly, and records for which and how many plants were relocated remain elusive. White & Franke Tree Service, of Brookline, Massachusetts, with the assistance of various local helpers including Savage's young daughter and son, moved as many plants as possible the 11 miles from Reef Point to Thuya in Northeast Harbor. The Preserve has several historical photos of these plant moves; we thus know that White & Franke assisted with the move, as their company name is on the door of the moving truck. These photographs show that the largest plants were hand-dug, balled and burlapped with drum-laced jute, and moved with what looked like a converted tow truck, the lift on the back of which acted like a small, mobile crane. The plants were healed in and surrounded by mulch at Thuya during the winter of 1956, while construction continued at Asticou with the hauling in of truckloads of soil and stones that would eventually form the framework for the garden. Construction continued at Asticou and plants were moved from their temporary locations at Thuya until the garden was completed in 1958. Savage had also selected plants from the Reef Point collection for Thuya, planted after the Asticou plantings were completed.\nI hoped there was a document to be uncovered in someone's basement, outlining all the plants purchased, moved, and planted by Savage. During research for this article I learned that even Farrand was unsure of what existed at Reef Point. As she was building the collections, she noted her continuous desire to correctly identify the plants in the garden, even bringing William Judd, the Arnold Arboretum's chief propagator, to Maine for help with inventorying the collection. Whether due to the rapid movement of the plants, the transfer of records and herbarium vouchers from Reef Point to Berkeley per Farrand's request, or the inadequate identification of the plants by their owner, the Preserve has never had a consolidated record of what was moved from Reef Point to Asticou and Thuya.\nThe current manager of Asticou Azalea Garden, Mary Roper, has worked to identify the plants under her care for over three decades, including some of the plants moved from Reef Point in 1956. Mary began working at Asticou in 1989, some thirty years after the moves were completed. Over the years, Mary, like Farrand before her, has assessed the nuanced details of flowers, leaves, and stems of the plants under her care to develop a proper identification. Beginning in late 2022, Grace Brown, the Preserve's plant recorder and lead gardener at Asticou, will begin sharing some of these plant records via our new plant records database, accessible at gardenpreserve.org.\nDespite the remaining mysteries, the spirit of what Beatrix Farrand envisioned at Reef Point lives on today at the Preserve, within the gardens of Asticou, Thuya, and Abby Aldrich Rockefeller, as well as in the forests and meadows of our natural lands. This is felt most powerfully at the Abby Garden, with its overall layout, plantings, and ornamentation preserved since the 1920s. Asticou and Thuya were designs of C.K. Savage, but it was the influence of Farrand's relocated plants that completed these garden arrangements. When I tell someone who has visited the Preserve that I work there, 'I just love (insert either Asticou Azalea, Thuya, or Rockefeller Garden here)!' is usually one of the first things I hear in response. When I ask why they love their garden of choice, the responses often embrace the spirit of these places. I felt that special spirit when I first visited the Abby Garden in 1997, and I still sense this every time I visit. When I walk through Thuya, as I brush up against the old Kalmia latifolia that came from Reef Point, a quiet, distinguished vibe seems to emanate from the plants that came from Farrand. Asticou Azalea's design and plant masses are calm and subdued, much like I assume Farrand was during her life. Yet during the spring when the azaleas and cherries burst forth with an explosion of blooms, I can see Farrand's love of beauty in plants and the art of arranging a garden for others to enjoy."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Transatlantic Arboretum in the Nineteenth Century","article_sequence":8,"start_page":32,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25785","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15ea76a.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Elliott, Paul","article_content":"In the summer of 1850, Andrew Jackson Downing embarked on a trip to England, where he toured gardens and rural estates. Downing was then thirty-four years old and had already emerged as a leading American landscape designer and horticultural writer. On the trip, he made a special stop in the midland town of Derby to see a garden known as the Derby Arboretum. The eleven-acre arboretum had been established ten years before, on land given for that purpose by a wealthy local cotton manufacturer, Joseph Strutt. Each tree was clearly labelled, and the arboretum, for two days a week, was completely free and open.\n'As a public garden'the gift of a single individual' it is certainly a most noble bequest,' Downing wrote. 'I met numbers of young people strolling about and enjoying the promenade, plenty of nurses and children gathering health and strength in the fresh air, and, now and then, saw an amateur carefully reading the labels of the various trees and shrubs, and making notes in his memorandums-book.'\nThe Derby Arboretum was distinct for its commitment to the public'even providing access to books so that interested visitors could learn more about the plants growing in the landscape. This commitment, Downing was sure, meant that the Derby Arboretum 'is, and will be, one of the most useful and instructive public gardens in the world.'\nOften considered the first public arboretum, it was designed by the Scottish landscape gardener John Claudius Loudon, who was most responsible for popularizing the term and concept of 'arboretum' during the nineteenth century. Yet public tree collections like those at Derby, and the Arnold Arboretum in the decades to come, did not arise de novo. Rather, the development of these institutions in Britain and the United States during the 'long' nineteenth century (encompassing the period from 1780 to 1919) is best understood as a global' and particularly transatlantic'phenomenon, arising at a time of large-scale immigration, industrialization, and botanical exploration. In that sense, public arboreta were products of changing relationships with the environment and, indeed, among people.\nOrigins of Transatlantic Arboreta\nThe Atlantic world was fertile ground for the formation of tree collections in the parks and gardens of Europe and North America. The vast forests of North America, with their seemingly boundless numbers of trees (many new to European science), inspired the formation of tree collections in those places beginning in the eighteenth century. The biodiversity of the North American forests spanned from subtropical to boreal, from coastal to montane. This diversity across the vast extent of the continent persists to this day, as exemplified by the ninety-nine native species of conifers now believed to exist north of modern Mexico. By contrast, Britain and Ireland have only three native species of conifers'and, in general, far fewer native trees.\nTransatlantic arboreta arose from a combination of tree collecting for gardens and parks and systematic planting in physic (i.e. medicinal) and botanical gardens. American trees themselves played a large part in this process, and were often collected in places known as 'American Gardens' between around 1700 and 1840. The enthusiasm for collecting American trees was encouraged by publications such as Mark Catesby's Hortus Britanno-Americanus, published in 1763, which emphasized the value of these plants for timber, shade, fragrancy, and beauty, holding them superior to British trees. Many American trees and plants were brought over to Britain and Ireland in the colonial period and early decades of the United States, especially through the botanist and explorer John Bartram, who, in the mid-eighteenth century, sent many examples to the English botanist and gardener Peter Collinson. Settlers in the New World also brought numerous trees from'and via'Europe with them, bringing these and trees from eastern North America with them as they moved westwards towards the Pacific during the nineteenth century.\nPlant collectors like Bartram were crucial to the creation of transatlantic arboreta, and came to be seen as heroic figures, making expeditions on behalf of wealthy collectors, nursery companies, governments, and scientific institutions. In his Dendrologia Britannica, published in 1825, the Hull merchant and botanist Peter William Watson praised the 'bold and scientific travellers' traveling throughout North and South America and other regions and identifying thousands of species. One of the most famous plant hunters of the era was the Scotsman David Douglas, who trained at the Glasgow Botanic Garden and made three separate collecting expeditions to North America in the first half of the nineteenth century. His introductions into Britain from the West Coast included the Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), red alder (Alnus rubra), and many others.\nNursery companies in America and Britain came to specialize in obtaining and selling American plants. The Loddiges company in Hackney, London, for example, had an American Garden, and featured many American trees in their collections and sales catalogues. Loudon used their collections for his research. Wealthy British aristocratic collectors such as the Duke of Devonshire at Chatsworth'a landscape designed by Joseph Paxton, a noted English designer'spared no expense in obtaining 'exotic' trees from America and across the globe for their parks and arboreta with the same eagerness that they acquired antiquities and works of art.\nMeanwhile, in North America, a series of private gardeners began to establish systematic tree collections, although they were not always designated as arboreta. For instance, William Hamilton, a neighbor of the Bartrams, developed his estate known as the Woodlands on the Schuylkill River, then outside of Philadelphia. In the decades following the Revolutionary War, he formed what was then one the largest American tree collections, arranged in the style of an 'English garden.' He toured gardens in Europe and obtained specimens from the Chelsea Physic Garden in London and other international sources. Private collections like this would inspire public institutions to come.\nLiving and Paper Arboreta\nOther inspirations for Atlantic world arboreta were the publication of arboriculture books, which were, in effect, 'paper arboreta.' The writing was informed by living tree collections. General studies of arboriculture grew from classic tree studies such as John Evelyn's Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest Trees, from 1662. The popularity of works such as Erasmus Darwin's epic poem The Botanic Garden, published in 1791, demonstrated how systematic plant collections were gateways to enchanting and exciting scientific worlds. The poem was initially inspired by a botanic garden Darwin established near Lichfield, England, which successfully united landscape beauty with Linnaean botany'and the book was much reprinted in British and American editions.\nHorticultural periodicals such as Loudon's Gardener's Magazine and Downing's The Horticulturist (first issued in 1826 and 1846, respectively) helped build public enthusiasm for trees and landscapes. Both men advocated for the development of arboreta as part of suburban gardens. The collections could be associated with park development or collectively give the appearance of a country park through combination of private gardens, especially in the United States, where there were fewer walls and fences in between plots. Though space for such collections was sometimes limited, especially in Britain, Loudon argued that arboreta were ideal for middle class gardens, even for small houses and gardens.\nMoreover, a series of books on regional and national arboriculture provided lists of hardy British and North American trees and shrubs, contributing to the acquisition and collection of trees. The plants delineated in these publications often came from all over the world, and they were only 'British' or 'American' to the extent that they had proven hardy enough to be grown outside in those places. Watson's Dendrologia Britannica, for example, provided 103 plates of North American trees imported to Britain, alongside others from Southern Europe and West Asia.\nOne of the most influential of these paper arboreta was Loudon's eight-volume Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, from 1838, which inspired the creation of many tree places, including the Derby Arboretum. It was, in many ways, a transatlantic work that drew on arboricultural literature and catalogues from across the Atlantic world to provide a detailed history of trees and shrubs from antiquity to the 1830s . According to William Jackson Hooker, director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, Loudon's study was a work of 'vast importance' not just to Britain and Europe, but also to 'the temperate parts of North America.' Loudon made full use of a transatlantic network of botanists, gardeners, nurserymen, landowners, and plant collectors who provided him with information and drawings, specimens, seeds, and other tree parts.\nThe first volume of the Arboretum Britannicum included a chapter on American arboriculture informed by American contacts such as the printer Colonel Robert Carr, in Philadelphia, who, with his wife Ann Bartram Carr, had taken over responsibility for maintaining Bartram's Garden. Loudon believed that although American trees and shrubs had been available in British nurseries for decades, many remained under-appreciated, and he hoped the Arboretum Britannicum and the living arboreta it inspired would increase the number and popularity of more public tree places showing off 'living specimens' and capturing imaginations in a way dried herbaria never could.\nPicturesque Naturalism, Tree Planting, and Arboreta\nTrees were also essential to transatlantic conceptions of landscape design, providing beauty, color, contrast, structure, variety, seasonal change, and much more. The dominant Atlantic-world landscape philosophy of the nineteenth century was known as 'English' picturesque naturalism. This style idealized the English landscape, and was widely invoked in garden, park, and arboretum designs. Downing, for example, believed that the style developed in Britain by the English landscape gardener Humphry Repton, Loudon, and others should be applied across North America. According to Downing's pupil and friend the Ohio landscape gardener Frank Jesup Scott, who published a popular book on suburban gardening in 1870, 'compared with the English' the Americans were still 'novices in the fine arts of gardening' and the 'exquisite rural taste' even shared by 'the poorer classes' of England.\nPicturesque naturalism encouraged the positioning of trees and shrubs to achieve effects of openness and simplicity, shelter, shade, and beauty, to obscure boundaries through screen plantings, and to offer the occasional pleasure and sublimity of distant views. The designs often emphasized varied sensory experiences: sloping and terraced ground, shifting light patterns, the sounds of leaves and water, and the changing colors and aromas of trees and floral displays. The movement of birds and wildlife added to this multivarious experience for visitors, especially to the extent that animals (like plants) had their own degree of controlled agency.\nFurther development of this transatlantic landscape gardening philosophy was encouraged by immigration and the movement of people across the Atlantic. British and Irish gardeners and landscape gardeners working in North America brought ideas and methods from home which they adapted to local conditions and contexts. Notably, while Downing was on his British tour in 1850, he met the architect Calvert Vaux and persuaded him to immigrate to America, joining Downing's practice in Newburgh, New York. In the decade to come, Vaux, a Londoner, would employ picturesque naturalism when planning of New York's Central Park, which he codesigned with Frederick Law Olmsted.\nThe careers of Vaux, Downing, and Olmsted, and their many other professional interconnections, illustrate how an international approach to designing with trees took root on both sides of the Atlantic. In the second half of the century, Olmsted became a leading practitioner of picturesque naturalism. Successful picturesque landscapes, according to Olmsted, worked by adapting and evoking nature to produce a 'higher impression of grace than nature minus the agency of man would have produced,' stimulating the 'simplest, purest and most primeval' actions of the poetical side of 'human nature,' offering relief from the overly elaborate but stressful 'sophisticated and artificial conditions of their ordinary civilised life.' In practice, of course, the features held to constitute this language or tradition underwent considerable variation, although it remained particularly important to many North American and British landscape gardeners to claim to be following this tradition. While there was some introduction of formalism and Italianate features from the 1850s and 1860s, the languages of picturesque naturalism remained highly influential throughout the century.19\nArboreta as Public Institutions\nThe appearance of nineteenth-century public parks and arboreta was associated with the development of modern urbanization across the Atlantic world with its new institutions, suburbs, transport systems, built environment, and cultural experiences. Travelers, books, and ideas crisscrossed the Atlantic, encouraged by more rapid and cheaper steam ship lines and technological improvements such as telegraphy and undersea cables. While immigration to North America brought immeasurable human resources, it also increased tensions, clashes of identity, and problems of health and sanitation in towns and cities. As the pattern of immigration changed, bringing new peoples from across the globe, the question of how to adapt British and European landscape gardening ideas and practices to American contexts became more contentious. However, public parks were promoted as rational recreational institutions which could help facilitate assimilation, intercourse between the classes, and American patriotism.\nIn the United States, some of the earliest tree collections in designed public landscapes were associated with suburban garden cemeteries or 'rural cemeteries.' Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, was established in 1831 and soon followed by others, including Laurel Hill Cemetery, in Philadelphia. The cemeteries represented the application of landscape gardening aesthetics and practices. In London, Abney Park opened in 1840 and included collections that were formally laid out, at least in part, as a labelled arboretum. The landscapes were portrayed as sacred places where family members and others could repose in quiet contemplation amidst appropriately somber planting, particularly yews (Taxus), Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris), and other evergreens and columnar trees associated with mourning.\nEncouraged by Loudon in particular, a series of public and semi-public arboreta were established in Britain from the 1830s, while many new public parks and botanical gardens also featured arboreta. Arboreta were opened at Derby (1840), Nottingham (1852), Ipswich (1853), Worcester (1859), Lincoln (1872), Walsall (1874), and other places, some by commercial companies such as the Walsall Arboretum and Lake Company but most increasingly by town councils. The picturesque arboretum in Nottingham was noteworthy for its integration within a larger parks system, which was made possible by a large-scale enclosure act in 1845, which freed up common land for housing and park development. The scheme included a network of tree-lined avenues and parks. However, the botanical aspirations of these institutions as systematic tree collections tended to decline as their role as public pleasure gardens increased.\nAs one of Loudon's few realized park designs, much notice was taken of the Derby Arboretum. Downing, of course, had visited while on his tour in 1850. At the time, he was designing extensive public grounds in Washington, which incorporated a garden of American trees and a living 'museum' of evergreens, and he was actively urging the creation of a large park in New York. His experience observing British and European parks undoubtedly informed his thinking about the role of planting systematic collections. Although it was not executed, his plans for a public park in Boston for the Massachusetts Horticultural Society included a scientifically arranged arboretum.\nThe public parks of Britain provided important inspiration for Olmsted as well. Like Downing, he embarked on a tour of Britain, Ireland, and other parts of Europe in 1850. While he did not visit the Derby Arboretum on that trip, he made an inspirational stop at a new public garden in Birkenhead, a suburb of Liverpool. Like the Derby Arboretum, the gates of Birkenhead Park were open to the public without a fee 'but in this case for the whole week. It had been laid out by Joseph Paxton, who had designed other noteworthy landscapes including the arboretum and pinetum in the Chatsworth House gardens' Downing's favorite. Olmsted described Birkenhead Park as the 'People's Garden.' He was delighted by the winding paths and avenues and clusters of trees, set within wide, rolling lawns.\n'All this magnificent pleasure-ground is entirely, unreservedly, and for ever the people's own,' Olmsted wrote of Birkenhead Park. 'The poorest British peasant is as free to enjoy it in all its parts as the British queen.' The design and public function of Birkenhead Park would later serve as inspiration for Central Park. Olmsted revisited it as part of his investigation on the development of Central Park for the New York commissioners in 1859. On the same trip, he also paid a visit to the Derby Arboretum.\nA Public Arboretum in North American\nDespite growing interest in arboreta on both sides of the Atlantic in the mid-nineteenth century, a public arboretum with intentionally designed, labelled collections had yet to be established in the United States. There were proposals to plant the National Mall in Washington as an arboretum associated with the Smithsonian Institution, focusing upon American natives of some two thousand trees, and about two hundred species and varieties and counterpart to indoor natural history museum. Downing surveyed the landscape and produced designs for this in 1850 and 1851, after returning from his tour of British and European parks and arboreta. Support for concept of a national botanical garden had grown during the 1840s, including from Asa Gray, the professor of botany at Harvard and the director of the Harvard Botanic Garden. He had called for a national arboretum in 1844, emphasizing the research on American trees that had already been conducted by Andre and Francois Michaux and others.\nDowning's plan was for a public arboretum of labelled hardy trees and shrubs laid out in the natural style for educational and botanical purposes, and it included a pinetum. He also designed a picturesque garden surrounding the Smithsonian Institution formed with rare trees and shrubs. Although Downing's Washington plans were not implemented and Downing died in a boat accident in 1852 the concept of a national arboretum was ultimately realized outside the capital with the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum in 1872.\nThe Arnold Arboretum was integrated within a broader park scheme developed in Boston by Olmsted and the landscape architect Charles Eliot from the 1880s. The system, now known as the Emerald Necklace, consisted of a series of public parks connected by tree-lined parkways. Olmsted had proposed a similar concept in his report to the Brooklyn park commissioners in 1868. The integration of urban public parks using planted parkways hastened the development of urban forestry across the Atlantic world, and there was growing recognition that this was a distinctive endeavor which required special methods and expertise. There was also increasing emphasis upon the psychological and physical health benefits of trees in modern urban environments, although pollution, traffic, and buildings presented problems for planters.\nPart of Harvard University, the Arnold Arboretum would be free to the public all day, every day of the year. It expanded in a remarkably short space of time into a leading global arboretum guided by a director, Charles Sprague Sargent, whose longevity was hardly to be paralleled. However, the success also arose from its combination of elements of arboreta established across the Atlantic world over the previous century and collective body of arboricultural wisdom and experience. It combined picturesque naturalism with systematic tree collection, offering a place of study, recreation, and changing seasonal beauty. It was this that informed Sargent and Olmsted's collaborative design for the Arnold Arboretum.\nEgalitarian Ideals\nAlthough Loudon, Downing, and other arboretum promoters in the early and mid-nineteenth century argued that arboreta (like public parks generally) had recreational as well as scientific and horticultural functions, arboreta often remained associated with aristocratic and wealthy landowners and institutions with enough land, staff, and resources to form comprehensive collections with exotic trees and shrubs from around the world, some rare and expensive. The Arnold Arboretum's position as a part of Harvard University is a case in point.\nGiven these realities, nineteenth-century arboreta, like botanical gardens and parks, were idealized and often rather controlled, artificial, and regulated places. However, Loudon was motivated to promote them assiduously because he believed in their egalitarian possibilities, as did Olmsted. Loudon's gardening and natural-history magazines were intended to be forums that could be used by all social classes, from landed elites to gardeners, nurserymen, and women, and he strongly believed that gardeners ought to have a much fuller scientific professional education and have greater social status. As part of national, regional, or urban civic culture, arboreta had the power to transcend social divisions such as those between different social and ethnic groups (for example immigrant communities in North America) and between town and countryside, metropolis and nation.\nWhile nineteenth-century botanical gardens and arboreta were associated with trade, empire, and colonial exploitation, Loudon believed that this exchange of plant material would lead to global 'equalisation' of tree species, to the benefit all nations. 'If it is desirable for us that we should assemble in our country the trees and shrubs of every other similar climate,Loudon pointed out, 'it must be equally desirable that the inhabitants of every other similar climate should possess all those species for which their climate is adapted.'\nConclusion\nIn 1868, Josiah Hoopes, a nurseryman from West Chester, Pennsylvania, wrote that he believed his fellow American citizens were 'vastly behind' their 'transatlantic brethren' in the provision of tree collections' specifically collections of conifers. Yet, with the onset of the First World War, the initial decades of the twentieth century presented significant challenges for arboreta and gardens in Britain. Many of the arboreta established on country parks and estates declined because of general problems faced by the wealthy landed classes and their country houses after the war. British public arboreta such as those at Derby, Nottingham, Lincoln, Ipswich, and Walsall effectively ceased to be maintained as systematic tree collections for educational and scientific purposes and became indistinguishable from other urban parks.\nOn the other hand, with the professional development of forestry, urban forestry, and municipal horticulture, new arboreta were developed by the mid-twentieth century on both sides of the Atlantic. The most resilient British arboreta were those that remained parts of wealthy landed estates or academic institutions. Other long-term successes were arboreta that were acquired or developed by organizations such as the Forestry Commission or National Trust, the leading English quasi-governmental heritage organization founded in 1895 to 'preserve historical and natural places.'\nIn 1925, more than half a century after the creation of the Arnold Arboretum, Ernest Henry Wilson, the British plant explorer who became the Arnold's first keeper of the living collections, wrote that the number of visitors who journeyed from around the world to the tree collections in Boston increased by the thousands each year. He described the institution as 'America's Greatest Garden,' reasoning that because its raison d\u0550tre focused 'solely' upon the 'acclimatization, cultivation and study of hardy trees and shrubs,' the institution was entirely unique, even among European peers. Certainly, it had grown in a relatively short space of time into a peerless global institution, guided by Sargent, with a clear mission and supportive organizational structure.\nWhile Loudon's belief in the ideal of tree equalization across the continents is complicated in today's world of looming environmental crisis, the arboriculture practiced at the Arnold Arboretum from Sargent's day to the present has taken on a new urgency as the need to understand how trees respond to climate change becomes crucial. While Wilson's argument that the Arnold Arboretum brought man nearer unto man without boundary of race and creed remained an ideal rather than reality in an age of imperialism, oppression of Native American peoples, and continuing racial tensions, it is now beginning to be realized, aided by the collective desire to face the climate threat together as a global community, and to celebrate the symbolic value of public arboreta uniting trees from around the world for all to study and enjoy."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Drawn to the Edges","article_sequence":9,"start_page":42,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25784","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15ea726.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Angell, Bobbi","article_content":"Living in southern Vermont, I am surrounded by lush forests and verdant fields. There is so much to observe while trying to decide what to draw! Hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides) has always been one of my favorite shrubs, with attractive winter buds, brilliant white flowers that light up the edge of woods in the early spring, and rich fruits in the fall, soon after eaten by birds. A single seedling, such as Pagoda dogwood (Cornus alternifolia) is far simpler to draw, but equally satisfying to find and turn into a copper etching.\nI have been drawing plants professionally for over forty years, and have always been obsessed with the precise detail that can be achieved with pen and ink. Several years ago, master printmaker Brian Cohen introduced me to the intricate art of copper etching, and I was immediately smitten. Accustomed to working within a defined space for publication, I appreciate the sharp boundaries of a copper plate. And since an etched copper plate is printed as a mirror image onto the paper, I work on my designs in reverse, checking it out on tracing paper and lightbox.\nThe final sketch is transferred onto a waxy ground application on a copper plate, and then I 'needle' it, scratching the wax with a sharp needle under my microscope, impressing fine lines and stipples, creating soft tones dot by dot. The plate is then etched with ferric chloric acid, printed as a test, and then reworked two, three, or more times to add more detail and depth. I use oil-based ink, rubbed onto the copper, cleaned first with fine cheesecloth-like fabric and then wiped with my hand. Each print is done, one by one, on water-soaked paper on my Ettan Press. I add watercolor to a select few of my editions. The editions are limited, usually 20 or 30 prints.\nPrimarily a scientific illustrator, I am attracted to unusual plants, reflecting my long history working with botanists and horticulturalists. I created a collection of such etchings for an exhibit with Beverly Duncan at The Arnold in 2018 (Impressions of Woody Plants: Disjunction, Two Artists and the Arnold Arboretum). As Beverly and I walked around the Arboretum with Michael Dosmann, planning the exhibit, I saw the gorgeous Chinese sweetbush (Calycanthus chinensis) in full bloom. Having learned it had been introduced into cultivation in the 1980s, I eagerly went out to purchase a shrub to grow, and draw, in my own garden. Also impressive is seven son flower (Heptacodium miconoides), the elegant, fall-blooming flowers and fruits of which I had seen at The New York Botanical Garden. Arnold Arboretum staff had collected seeds from a garden in China in 1980, raising plants for other institutions, including the NYBG. Within a few decades, seven son flower, too, had become commercially available, and so I was able to grow it and turn it into a copper etching. Tea viburnum (Viburnum setigerum), too, I first encountered at the NYBG, where I learned it had been introduced by the Arnold's E. H. Wilson in 1901. Corylus fargesii was commissioned for Curtis's Botanical Magazine, describing the introduction of a wonderful woody plant from China. The Arnold Arboretum has over a dozen plants in the collection. Magnolia loebneri 'Merrill', one of the finest hybrids ever released by the Arnold Arboretum, and named in honor of director Elmer Drew Merrill, was in full bloom during an early-spring visit to Smith College, stunning flowers displayed before the foliage leafed out. I was quite pleased when the Arnold Arboretum chose to use the resulting illustration for a logo for Arnold Selects (see page 7), a newly created program to bring exceptional plants from the living collections to gardeners around the world. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What in the World is a Species?","article_sequence":10,"start_page":48,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25783","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d15ea36e.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Donoghue, Michael J.","article_content":"Many people are aware that species have formal names with two parts a genus name combined with what's called a specific epithet. Homo sapiens is a well-known example; for botanists, Ginkgo biloba will do. In their fullest form, they also include the name (or abbreviation) of the person or people who originally described the species. Homo sapiens was described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, and in 1771 he named Ginkgo biloba, so you may see his initials after these names: Homo sapiens L., Ginkgo biloba L. There are very detailed (and ever-evolving) rules for how the description of a new species must be done for the name to be considered validly published. In botany, we refer to the International Code of Nomenclature for Algae, Fungi, and Plants for the exact procedures. It turns out that anyone yourself included can describe a new species if they follow these rules. You don't have to be certified as an authority to do this. Once you've published your new species, it generally would have one of two fates. Your new species could stand the test of time, in the sense that knowledgeable botanists would adopt it when they conduct their studies. However, unless you really know what you are doing, in 2022, it's likely you have named something that has previously been described. In this case, your proposed species name would be regarded as a synonym of the earlier one, and would henceforth be ignored.\nA key point is that you can validly publish a species name only to have it rejected by other botanists on the grounds that they don't consider it to be a 'real' species. This implies that there are some criteria being applied by scientists to judge whether something is a real species or not. It seems reasonable to assume that long ago there would have been agreement on what a species is on a species concept. This, however, is not the case. In fact, many different definitions of species have been published over the years, and to this day there are major camps of biologists who disagree (sometimes passionately) over which should be adopted as the universal standard.\nThe use of different species concepts by different scientists has a very important consequence: the various species that you are familiar with may not be equivalent to one another in ecological, evolutionary, or organismic terms. For the most part, however, we proceed as though they are. By 'we,' I mean not just the general public, but also the scientific community, who, despite knowing full well that multiple concepts are in use, still treat species as being somehow equal to one another. In reality, the only equivalence you can count on when you see species names is that they have been named according to some agreed-upon rules, and that they haven't been rejected by the scientific community. The potential non-comparability of species seems like a recipe for miscommunication. We proceed under the hope that species will somehow be 'equal enough' for most purposes, and that the differences among species won't interfere too much with scientific progress or public understanding.\nThe best-known definition, provided by ornithologist Ernst Mayr in 1942 and widely taught in introductory biology classes since the 1950s, is short and snappy: 'species are groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations, which are reproductively isolated from other such groups.' This is the so-called 'biological species concept,' which many biologists accept in theory, although information on which organisms can interbreed is almost always lacking in practice. So, one generally just assumes such gene flow based on similarities and differences in the visible characteristics of the organisms, hoping that actual interbreeding will be tested directly someday. It has long been pointed out, however, that interbreeding and reproductive isolation aren't relevant criteria for organisms that reproduce through asexual reproduction. Such is the case with many bacteria, for instance, and with some plants as well. And there's the associated question of whether any level of interbreeding could or should be tolerated. This has been a special concern for botanists, where hybridization is often possible between species that appear to be quite distantly related (consider all of the strange orchids that have been produced in this way).\nAlthough the biological species concept is the most widely known, there are a variety of alternatives that feature different criteria. One such alternative focuses on species as occupying particular ecological niches that differ from related species. Another one focuses on shared common ancestry, delimiting species based on evidence that certain organisms and populations share a common ancestor separate from related species.\nOne concept I find especially appealing is known as the 'evolutionary species concept,'proposed by the paleontologist George Gaylord Simpson in 1951. Working with fossils of long-dead mammals, he wanted to take the emphasis off of interbreeding (which he certainly couldn't test). Instead, he conceptualized species in terms of a full evolutionary life cycle, from inception to extinction. Simpson said a species is: 'a phyletic lineage (ancestral-descendant sequence of interbreeding populations) evolving independently of others, with its own separate and unitary evolutionary role and tendencies.' Under this view, the populations that we study today are time slices through an extended lineage evolving independently of other lineages. This concept provides a nice image of species, though for many people, 'role and tendencies' have seemed a bit squishy and difficult criteria to apply in practice.\nOne very nice 'solution' to the species problem was proposed by herpetologist Kevin de Queiroz in 1998, and reinforced in his subsequent work (e.g., de Queiroz, 2005). He noted that all of these concepts focus on populations or lineages extended through time and evolving independently of one another. In his view, reproductive isolation, ecological differentiation, and exclusive shared ancestry may arise in different temporal sequences as the process of speciation (the origin of independently-evolving lineages) proceeds. At any given point in the process, species might have some of these properties, and not others. For example, gene flow may be cut off early in the process, perhaps by the simple geographic separation of populations, as compared to, for example, ecological differentiation.\nUnder de Queiroz's so-called 'general lineage concept' of species, phenomena formally viewed as necessary and sufficient defining criteria for species-hood, are instead understood to bear on whether, in fact, two lineages are evolving separately. If we find, for example, that the organisms in two populations are unable to breed successfully with one another, this provides pretty good evidence that the populations are evolving separately. Likewise, the finding that populations are occupying different ecological niches provides evidence of independence, as do consistent differences in morphological characteristics. These things don't define species, but instead help us to discover them.\nThe general lineage concept of species has been steadily gaining popularity among evolutionary biologists, but it is still far from universally accepted. Personally, I like it very much, but would stress a few additional points. First, I think that the delimitation of a species is best viewed as putting forward a hypothesis to be tested with evidence of lineage independence coming from as many different angles as possible. By this I mean to include not only information on breeding, but on geography, morphology, DNA sequences, ecology, and a host of other criteria. Second, I would like to preserve Simpson's reference to the future and predicting the likely fate of a lineage. It seems reasonable to add into the decision-making process whether it seems likely that two lineages will continue to evolve independently into the future. Evidence bearing on fate may also come in different forms. For example, consider the two species of tulip tree: the familiar eastern North American Liriodendron tulipifera, and the eastern Asian Liriodendron chinense. These can readily be hybridized, and the offspring plants (L. tulipifera chinense) are fertile. Living proof of this can be found at the Arnold Arboretum, on the lawn in front of the Hunnewell Building. But, it seems reasonable to suppose, based on their very widely separated geographic ranges, that individuals of these two species will not naturally be exchanging genes any time in the foreseeable future. Finally, I also really like the reference to 'tendencies,' as this highlights the idea that a separately evolving lineage will often show a propensity to generate certain variants again and again as compared to another species. Mind you, I don't at all mean to suggest that such tendencies should define species; rather, in keeping with the general lineage concept, they can potentially serve as evidence of independent evolution.\nAllow me to end with a few observations about my own favorite plant group, Viburnum. When I was a graduate student at Harvard, in the late 1970s, I lived on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, at what used to be 383 South Street. Of course, I wandered the grounds often, and it was there that I became well acquainted with around 40 of the roughly 165 Viburnum species, many of them from eastern Asia, where Viburnum is the most diverse. You can learn a lot about species differences in an arboretum, but not nearly enough to critically assess their evolutionary independence from one another. For one thing, you don't see the species that can't be grown in the arboretum (e.g., Viburnum species from tropical forests in Borneo, or from high elevations in the Andes), or the many species that could potentially be grown but have never been brought into cultivation. And, you really need to study organisms in their natural surroundings to understand the range of variation that they exhibit, their ecological niches, and which species might encounter one another in the wild.\nI did, however, manage to observe something about Viburnum species that has turned out to be more important than I ever imagined. I went out on a regular basis to record the times when plants of different Viburnum species were flowering in the arboretum. I found that they were flowering each year in a consistent sequence, staggered through the spring and early summer. In fact, these observations were the basis of my very first publication, in 1980, which happened to be in Arnoldia, and was entitled 'Flowering times in Viburnum.'\nAs we have learned since that time, related species of Viburnum living in the same geographic area very often flower at different times, which means that they are reproductively isolated from one another in this temporal way. For example, as shown recently by my former graduate student Elizabeth Spriggs, the species of the Viburnum lentago complex in eastern North America (nannyberry and its relatives) bloom at different times, and this minimizes hybridization between them where their geographic ranges overlap (Spriggs et al., 2019a; Spriggs, 2019). We know that individuals of these different species can breed together successfully. In fact, Viburnum jackii, a hybrid between V. lentago and V. prunifolium, was described from a plant first noticed in 1908 at the Arnold Arboretum. However, in the wild these species rarely do hybridize, simply because they are flowering a week or so apart. Importantly, given the discussion above, I am not supporting the biological species concept with this observation. Instead, I am adopting the general lineage concept and using this flowering offset as one line of evidence that these are time-extended lineages evolving on their own.\nI hope that these few reflections will heighten your appreciation of species when you see your next specimen label in the Arnold Arboretum-- perhaps even a Viburnum lentago L. plant in the superb Viburnum collection near the Centre Street Gate!\nReferences\nde Queiroz, K. 1998. The general lineage concept of species, species criteria, and the process of speciation. In D. J.\nHoward and S. H. Berlocher, eds. Endless Forms: Species and Speciation. Oxford University Press. Pp. 57\u00d075.\nde Queiroz, K. 2005. Ernst Mayr and the modern concept of species. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 102: 6600\u00d06607.\nDonoghue, M. J. 1980. Flowering times in Viburnum. Arnoldia 40: 2\u00d022.\nMayr, E. 1942. Systematics and the Origin of Species. Columbia Univ. Press, New York.\nSimpson, G. G. 1951. The species concept. Evolution 5: 285\u00d0298.\nSpriggs, E. L. 2019. The Viburnum lentago clade: A continental radiation. Arnoldia 77: 10\u00d019.\nSpriggs, E. L., C. Schlutius, D. A. R. Eaton, B. Park, P. W. Sweeney, E. J. Edwards, and M. J. Donoghue. 2019a. Differences in flowering time maintain species boundaries in a continental radiation of Viburnum. Amer. J. Bot. 106: 833\u00d0849.\nSpriggs, E. L., D. A. R. Eaton, P. W. Sweeney, C. Schlutius, E. J. Edwards, and M. J. Donoghue. 2019b. Restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing reveals a cryptic Viburnum species on the North American coastal plain. Syst. Biol. 68: 187\u00d0203."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Way for the Norway Mapl","article_sequence":11,"start_page":54,"end_page":57,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25782","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14e896b.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Contreras, Ryan","article_content":"The summers of my youth in Eastern North Carolina smelled of Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica). As a kid, I loved playing with the tiny 'berries' of the privet and sucking the nectar from the honeysuckle flowers. Warm memories aside, these two species are landscape plants turned weeds, which escaped cultivation and invaded large areas across the Southeast. As someone who works with the nursery industry and specifically with this issue of weedy or invasive plants, it sometimes feels that folks believe all introduced plants are bad, and we should only grow natives to protect our ecosystems.\nWe should think, however, about what is it we are asking our landscape plants to do. In the city, we want them to survive stress, even to flourish. We want to punish them with drought, heat, pavement, and poor and compacted soils while still enjoying their shade, beautiful flowers, lovely scent, and fruit. Whether native or introduced, plants that thrive well enough to escape cultivation are doing exactly what we asked of them.\nI often hear that we should only plant native plants because they are best adapted to a site or region. If that is the case, how do the non-native and introduced species outcompete them? There also are 'native' plants that have become 'invasive': western juniper, for instance, now covers more than 2 million acres of grassland in Oregon, its spread aided by fire suppression. We need plants that do well in our cities. We should care less about their provenance and focus more on their behavior. The problem isn't trees that flourish, but trees that won't stay where we put them.\nTake the Amur and Norway maples, two resilient species commonly found in our cities. Easy for producers to grow, they thrive where other species may not survive. Amur maple is hardy to USDA Zone 2, fitting the bill for a small urban tree in regions short on options of plants from which to choose. Norway maple is hardy to USDA Zone 4, making it suitable as a medium to large tree in most of the US. Both are relatively free of major pest problems, and transplant well. Norway maple is also incredibly well-adapted to heavy clay and compacted soils, tolerates pollution, and holds up better to drought conditions than sugar maple. Unfortunately, both have done their job too well, and have escaped cultivation to invade native forests and cause real problems in several parts of the country. As an urban tree, however, they fit the bill incredibly well, helping to ameliorate the heat-island effect, manage stormwater, and beautify our paved metropolises. It is not surprising that such resilient trees can outcompete other species.\nOn Burnside Avenue in downtown Portland, Oregon, just down the street from Powell's City of Books, there is a planting of Norway maple that separates opposing lanes of traffic. The soil volume is tiny, and tall buildings loom on either side. Yet, these Norway maples are gorgeous; more than 35 feet tall and healthy, they cover most of the five-lane driving surface and cast shade on the sidewalks for pedestrians. Contrast this to urban instances of our native bigleaf maple, such as the large specimen near Valley Library here on the Corvallis Campus, or the majestic tree that greets you as you set out on the trail at Hoyt Arboretum in Portland. These are 'easy' sites for trees, with large soil volumes and little compaction. You will not find bigleaf maples adorning streets like Burnside Avenue, however.\nWe could alter conditions to suit bigleaf maple redeveloping our cities for more soil volume, less concrete, and less pollution but that does not seem likely. Alternatively, we could breed more resilient bigleaf maples a path that is being explored, but likely will take a very long time.\nMy research program is making great progress pursuing a third option: breeding Amur and Norway maples that stay put where we plant them. We want to provide growers, land managers, and the public the utility of resilient trees that are good for cities, but also do not reproduce in sufficient numbers to displace our native flora.\nHere, it's worth mentioning 'Bradford' pear. Perhaps the most numerous of the many cultivars of Pyrus calleryana, it has become the poster child for invasive plants. Smelly, weedy, fragile in ice storms, it's the tree people love to hate. 'Bradford' and other pears are self-incompatible, which means they need another genotype to fertilize their ovules and form seeds. Soon as new cultivars were introduced these genotypes started cross-pollinating and producing fruit, soon becoming the weed we know today. Pyrus 'NCPX2', the Chastity\u00a8 pear developed by Tom Ranney of North Carolina State University, by contrast, was recently tested for fertility compared to wild-type, and is not merely self-incompatible. Chastity\u00a8 is a triploid that is, it has three sets of chromosomes. This odd ploidy (number of chromosome sets) disrupts normal formation of pollen and eggs, resulting in a plant that infrequently or never produces viable seeds. The most famous triploid out there is banana. If you have enjoyed a 'Cavendish' dessert banana, then you have enjoyed a delicious fruit rendered seedless through triploidy.\nThough there are reported examples of Norway maple exhibiting reduced seed set or seed germination, in my experience these cultivars are perfectly fertile. It is unclear in what contexts the trees have set seed, but these cultivars are not sterile across environments thus my reluctance to use the word 'sterile' in context of seed set. As with most cases in nature, there is a gradient from perfectly fertile wild-type down to complete sterility. As such, I try to stick with 'reduced fertility' as the descriptor for cultivars that reproduce at such a low level as to pose no ecological threat.\nThe first step in the process was to induce chromosome doubling of standard diploid plants (containing two sets of chromosomes) to develop tetraploids (plants with four sets of chromosomes). We planted our tetraploids alongside diploid cultivars at our field in Corvallis and allowed them to open pollinate. We collected seed from the tetraploids, grew seedlings, and tested their ploidy level. Fortunately, most of these seedlings were triploid they received two sets of chromosomes from their tetraploid female parent and one set from their diploid male parent. Furthermore, these seedlings are not genetic composite (chimeras), but are triploid in all cell layers, and thus highly stable from one generation to the next.\nTen years after starting this project, I published the results of this work in 2020 in the journal Horticulturae. But the work in so many ways is just beginning. To produce the seedless trees we desire, they must be propagated clonally. Traditionally, Norway maples (and Amur, too, in some nurseries) have been chip budded, grafting the cultivar of interest to seedling rootstocks. While this production system speeds up the production and quantities of triploid clones, we need a new tactic. This is because we must avoid at all costs grafting our sterile triploids onto fertile diploid rootstocks rootstocks that can sometimes send up their own shoots and eventually produce seeds, which happened with callery pear. For Amur maple, this is not a major problem, as it readily roots from stem cuttings. For Norway maple, which does not, we have been working to optimize cutting propagation. We now have triploid genotypes of both species, which we are growing via micropropagation, using sterile culture in vitro to multiply plants in large numbers relatively quickly. This technique is used in many taxa that would otherwise be slow to increase using other methods, such as hazelnuts (Corylus avellana). It also is frequently used in red maple as a means to increase and distribute clean clonal material. Our triploid plants will be ready to come out of micropropagation and harden off to begin production trials during 2022.\nEvidence of reduced fertility gives us much reason to hope. Amur maple triploids in our plots have flowered in the presence of pollinators and fertile pollen donors and have produced no viable seeds to date. While this inspires confidence, I am not ready to bet the farm or rather, to have growers bet theirs. Our next step is to work with nurseries, universities, and public gardens around the country to install replicated tests of our trees to see how they perform in other environments. The stakes are too high not to verify.\nOf course, my title is Ornamental Plant Breeder, so the trees resulting from this work should have some aesthetic appeal. To that end, we are working with J. Frank Schmidt and Son Nursery along with Tom Ranney to evaluate seedlings of Amur maple selected at JFS in Boring, NC State in Mills River, and Corvallis, OR. Ten genotypes from each location were propagated during 2021 under production conditions to identify superior forms. Furthermore, the trees from micropropagation will be included in a parallel study. The end goal is to develop and test trees according to the best scientific methods we have, while working with growers to ensure that we are meeting their needs for trees that work in production.\nThere is no doubt of the need. Industry partners report more than 90% reduction in Norway maple sales, with steep declines in Amur maple as well. Certainly, overplanting of maples has reduced demand, but the invasive issue has also had an impact, and the industry is ready for cultivars of these species that could be sold in longstanding markets such as the upper Midwest and New England.\nEvidence indicates the trees I have developed (and those of my colleagues like Dr. Ranney) are 'sterile,' or close enough that they present no threat of invasion. The biological side of the problem is largely solved. What remains is the political aspect, which in many ways is more difficult. The story of 'Bradford,' damaging in its lack of nuance, has spread effectively, and plants like Norway maple may prove difficult to reintroduce as a result. Already it is illegal to plant A. platanoides in Massachusetts, and many other states a rule which leaves no room for reduced-fertility cultivar exemptions.\nWe need a national conversation on this topic in the Green Industry, to collectively establish the framework for reintroduction of sterile versions of weedy species. The specifics of individual plants are highly regional, and thresholds should be determined at a state level, but the issue is a national one. The shade of that tree you're enjoying on the east coast may have gotten its start here in Oregon. As such, the rules enacted in Massachusetts have wide-ranging impact. The need for education, collaboration, and nuanced regulation will only grow, so long as cities remain, and climate change increases the demand for resilient trees."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What Clings to the Roots","article_sequence":12,"start_page":58,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25781","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14e8927.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Battles, Matthew","article_content":"The morning we moved out of my childhood home, the new owner pulled up with a small tractor to uproot the Forsythia hedge, my mother's pride. It was late April, I think, as the bushes were in bloom; sprays of yellow blossoms shivered as the backhoe groaned and clawed at the plantings. I was shocked by how easily they came up, ungainly roots whipsawing as they shook loose from earth. My mother sobbed as we drove away. And yet soil clings to the roots; an ecology shifts intact. To uproot is an ambivalent move, metaphorically: is it about the fragility of attachments, or their stubbornness to endure?\nSalom\u017d Jashi's Taming the Garden opens with a tree shimmering on the horizon, rooted in the liquid tumble of the sea. Lashed to the deck of a barge, its headway is barely perceptible against the lowering sky. The barge sails under the orders of Georgian oligarch Bidzina Ivanishvili, whose minions search farm and forest for the prodigious trees he has uprooted and moved to his 'dendrological park' in Shekvetili, a resort town on Black Sea coast. We never see Ivanishvili; no agents or officials sit to offer apologies or explanations to the camera. The oligarch's name is only occasionally uttered by workmen and townspeople, and he remains a minor character, his motives a mystery to the people whose trees he takes. One man claims to have read that 'it prolongs his life' to collect trees, if their age is greater than one hundred years. Some praise his enterprise, while others boggle at the cost of the operation. 'No matter how much a villain he is,' another exclaims, 'at least he's doing something!'\nTownspeople gawk at their trees on the move. Their faces register the dappled play of emotions, from grief to wonder, as workers cut, dig, and lever at giant trees a towering tulip, goblet-shaped and elegant; a bounteous linden growing close by an old house; a chestnut with two splayed leaders that swing like the arms of a drunken giant. Their slow severance from the earth is both clumsy and precise, a kind of terrestrial surgery, at once an amputation and a deliverance of tender care. Jashi allows the sensuous overwhelm of these labors to fill her frame: a trench dug round the tree, the earth wrapped with sheets and shored up with boards, and a framework of pipes bored through below, driven home with rust-streaked drilling augers. The scale of the work matters to Jashi: we see men chopping, sawing, dragging brush, dwarfed by walls and mounds of foliage. A backhoe swings into view, framing the shot like a great mechanized tree; from another angle, viewed downslope through a colonnade of what look like hemlocks, the same machine looks minuscule. During a break, the crew sit around a fire of brush and reminisce. They agree that the trees are very beautiful. 'Life takes strange turns,' says one.\nJashi is a generous storyteller, and patient. Long takes invite us to ponder how a mature tree organizes its surrounding space: the way the earth bunches muscularly at the roots; how its shade selects and prunes the vegetation; above all, the way it pigments and concentrates the air in its branches. And then we watch the slow, uncanny spectacle of this composition deconstructed, as yet another great tree is carved out of the ground, jacked onto a carriage, and towed off, leaving a crumbling pit of soil to fill up with new vegetation.\nI think of those islands of earth cut and carried away, with their cryptic assemblages of fungi and invertebrates, to be installed in the oligarch's faraway estate, ferns and flowering plants bobbing in the shade of a tree transported over the sea. The trees' communities exceed grasses, forbs, and fungi, however, rooted as they are in the loam of family and village. Local people gather in the night to watch as a towed tree sways in spotlight gleam. 'It's so beautiful in the night,' one says. 'Like a fairytale.' 'It won't survive,' says another, 'it's shrunk so much.' An old woman confronts the cutters: 'she planted this tree,' her companion warns the foreman; 'what we do in this world will be judged in the next.' Elders embrace, young people shoot video on cellphones, the tree moving stately through pines as flashlights lance through the galleries of boughs, the lights of the trucks closing in, filling the frame, branches of roadside trees snapping as the tulip shoulders through. Jashi stays with these shots a long time, lingering in the strangeness of a tree swaying in the still of night.\nWhat are we to make of Ivanishvili's uprootings? How do we weigh the ecological and social costs; how does his project compare to the collecting practices of public gardens and arboreta? Jashi eschews such ready questions and contrasts, preferring to dwell patiently in the confusion of the more-than-human encounter. Resisting easy critique, her eye is anthropological, tracing the exertions of people and trees with equanimity and affection. Along with townspeople and workers, we're invited to boggle, mourn, and wonder. And the trees in the end are beautiful, settled in their new home amid sprinklers and curving paths.\nIn his lavish account of Kublai Khan's pleasure palace, Marco Polo describes a hill planted with mature evergreens collected throughout the empire and carried to the capital by elephants. Historically, Marco Polo arrives on the eve of modernity and the coming Anthropocene before the forests of North America travelled upright over the seas in the form of ships' masts; before the forests of Asia and South America were felled for tea and palm and rapeseed. The ecological impact of Ivanishvili's Dendrological Park pales by comparison to such depredations. It's even beautiful in its way. Like the green hill of the Khan, the oligarch's park is lush, verdant, well tended. The birdsong there is fluting and evocative. And yet the trees are still rigged with the cables, bound fast like wild beasts. The oligarch wants his country to behave like a well-loved garden. And yet, as Salom\u017d Jashi reminds us, the memory of living soil persists amid the roots."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Of Trees and the City","article_sequence":13,"start_page":60,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25780","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14e856f.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Stephens, Matthew","article_content":"Anyone who has planted and cared for a new tree knows that few things in life are as rewarding as this simple act. Planting day is unquestionably a stand back and be proud moment, but those of you who have planted one tree, or many, know that the real work (and appreciation) is just beginning. The watering, weeding, pruning, and care that is needed is an investment that will pay back dividends in seeing a tree grow bigger and bigger with each passing season.\nI happen to fall into a special category of tree planters: someone who can take credit for having played a significant role in planting over one million trees. This is becoming less of an incredible accomplishment given many places are now planting millions or billions of trees to combat climate change. However, there are few who can claim such a large bounty in an urban area, and specifically New York City. Prior to becoming the current President & CEO at Mount Auburn Cemetery, I helped to lead MillionTreesNYC, an effort to plant one million trees throughout all of New York City between 2007 and 2015. We planted trees along streets, in parks, and in cemeteries and botanical gardens work that will continue indefinitely, just as occurs in nature.\nOne question I have been asked about my work is, 'how do you plant a million trees in New York City?' The answer can be reduced to a simple instruction: one tree at a time! Further, New York City should be applauded for its efforts to use MillionTreesNYC as a springboard to further investment in pruning, permitting enforcement, and staffing tied to managing the urban forest.\nHaving landed at Mount Auburn in September 2021 as its new President & CEO, I was immediately entranced by the awe-inspiring collection of oaks and beeches. Without question, Mount Auburn has one of the best collections of mature trees anywhere in the United States, with nearly 4,700 trees of varying ages and over 650 taxa on its 175 acres. During a ten-minute walk on the grounds, you are sure to see specimens of multiple species of trees that will be some of the best you'll ever see! Our trees, some over 200 years old, have seen the world reinvent itself many times over, yet continue to reach for the skies with each passing year. For nearly 200 years our trees have received remarkable care in the form of watering, pruning, and other conscientious landscape maintenance techniques which have allowed them to thrive. Further, trees at Mount Auburn don't have the same competition as most urban trees.\nWhile tree planting traditionally gets the most fanfare and showy pictures, the years of effort and care leading up to a canopy-covered street tend to be overlooked. A few steps beyond our gates I am reminded of how tough it is to be an urban tree, especially a street tree. Between traffic, dogs, developers, climate change, and countless other variables, these trees face many stresses which shorten their lifespans. Struggling to keep up with necessary tree maintenance, cities worldwide have backed away from tree planting goals while also minting goals for canopy coverage. Ultimately, it is every urban forester's hope to invest resources, create policies, and develop stewardship to increase the canopy percentage over time.\nTrees happen to be quiet constituents. Rarely will an email, phone call, or press conference intervene when a community tree is suffering, unless an urban Lorax intervenes. Trees take time to grow; a future canopy doesn't develop on the schedule of politics and budget cycles. A tree planted today will take decades to equal the annual ecosystem services generated by the biggest and most beloved trees. This is a tough reality for trees in all our communities. However, the data that have been collected over the last three decades enunciate with extreme clarity: mature trees, and especially large shade trees, are exponentially much more significant providers of the ecosystem services. The math is simple: the larger the tree and more leaf surface area, the larger the benefits. For example, a newly planted tree, just a few inches in diameter, may sequester six pounds of carbon, or currently valued at about thirty cents; a mature tree greater than thirty inches in diameter, by contrast, will sequester over 6,000 pounds of carbon, worth some four hundred dollars. A thousand-fold increase! With that, how can trees continue to be overlooked?\nBeyond their value as carbon store, trees provide real and tangible benefits in the form of cleaner air, shade for buildings, or stormwater capture among many, many others. Many years ago I remember talking to Dr. David Novak with the US Forest Service who has dedicated his career to studying urban forests. Comparing the urban forest to other forms of infrastructure, he mentioned that we are just starting to fully realize the benefits of trees. Walk down the street where you live, and you will see some permutation of city infrastructure: fire hydrants to ensure buildings don't burn down, light poles to provide safety, or stop lights to allow traffic to be regulated, among others. Funded through local, state, or federal dollars, these investments improve the quality of life or safety of a given neighborhood. Compared to trees, however, light poles have lower dollar value in benefits and unlike trees, they decrease in value over time.\nWhy, then, have trees gone so overlooked as critical parts of urban infrastructure? Simple: trees are rarely considered a capital investment. But, if they were, it would provide urban foresters access to new and necessary sources of funding. Additional funding and pragmatic, focused local tree preservation legislation are long overdue. Trees should be funded, along with highly competent urban forestry managers to manage the urban forest which, like all critical urban infrastructure, is key to the safety and well-being of residents. In addition, many cities have a mechanism in place to raise capital monies through the selling of municipal bonds why couldn't trees be included along with other key infrastructure that elevates the quality of life of a locality?\nMany cities are making great strides, but there is still much work to be done. During my time in New York City, I would travel the country helping other cities figure out how to attract more funding for trees. Some cities were incredibly creative, but a clear thread emerged: urban forestry managers must scratch and claw for every dollar they get. And trees get pennies on the dollar compared to other urban infrastructure. In many cities, public\/private partnerships are aiming to fill the gaps. From Washington, DC, to San Francisco, to Portland, robust and sophisticated urban forestry nonprofits are filling the gaps left by public funding.\nOne irony of this struggle is that many cities or towns have left tree management\/urban forestry to a roads and sidewalks or public works department the areas of government that typically manage infrastructure. As a result, urban forestry programs have modest resources and\/or no meaningful political support given they are buried in large public works departments, and must compete against potholes or sidewalks for attention and funding. The reality, however, is that a well-sited tree likely will outlive all its infrastructure counterparts, outlasting sidewalks, stoplights, and even many buildings.\nFurther, local tree legislation that protects trees on public and private property is also lagging. Every city desires some level of development; however, it has also been the experience of many urban foresters that the impacts trees encounter from new construction, sidewalk\/driveway work, or other infrastructure projects lead to a significant number of removals or tree mortality after construction is completed. While a tree may not die immediately from construction impacts, my time working in New York suggests trees must be monitored for several years post construction to fully assess development impacts. When I met with developers in New York, they were quick to point out that they will likely spend more on doorknobs or cabinet handles than they will on trees even though the trees become part of infrastructure, and a community asset. When replacement is mandated by local legislation, it often merely requires a 1:1 planting ratio such that an old mature oak tree in its prime, for example, might be replaced with a newly planted red maple. We know from the data, however, that a newly planted tree can't replace a fully-grown tree in the urban infrastructure. There are few cities like New York City who are using a basal-area replacement methodology, which is a more appropriate way of calculating the true cost of removing healthy trees. That calculation not only more adequately accounts for loss, but protects trees by ensuring that any developer thinks twice before removing a tree.\nThe time for policy change is now. We need those who will speak for the trees, knowing they are a critical part of the urban infrastructure. Find fellow Loraxes, and organize. Approach your local elected officials and let them know how important the trees are to you and your community. Work with them to move forward thoughtful and pragmatic legislation. It will take time, steadfastness, and collective action by like-minded citizens who can speak and act civilly and passionately to make change change that will, that must, happen one tree at a time.\nIf you are in the Boston area, I encourage you to stop by Mount Auburn to check out our incredible canopy in a thriving metropolis. I guarantee you will leave feeling inspired by our one-of-a-kind landscape. Then, find a tree in your own neighborhood and start giving it some care. I am certain the time and energy you invest will be repaid in dividends. Enjoy your trees! "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Deadheading Lilacs","article_sequence":14,"start_page":64,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25779","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14e816c.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Guidarelli, Connor","article_content":"The Lilac Collection has been getting its very own special day of celebration, Lilac Sunday, every Mother's Day for the past 112 years. Flowering extends beyond this day, of course, running from the end of April to the beginning of June. Within 2 weeks of flower wilt, we begin preparation for next year's spectacle by deadheading the lilacs. This practice helps to ensure that the shrubs do not expend more energy in seed production, but rather use it to produce flower buds more prolifically.\nMany hands make quick work of this time-sensitive task, as interns, seasonal gardeners, and horticulturists make their way through over one hundred plants. Some shrubs are so large that we need our six-foot extendable pruners to reach many of the spent flowers. Orchard ladders extend our reach even further, making it easy to maneuver in and around a shrub. Between plants, we spray sterilizing solution on our snips to prevent the spread of pathogens like phytoplasmas, often called Lilac Yellows. All the cuttings are collected and composted, to return to the collection as a soil amendment come the fall."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25778","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14e8128.jpg","title":"2022-79-2","volume":79,"issue_number":"2","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold at 150","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25755","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170ab6e.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Friedman, Ned","article_content":"What is the Arnold Arboretum? This question has been at the center of my thinking for over a decade, especially now, as I enter the twelfth year of my directorship and the Arnold enters its 150th year. Of course, nothing should ever be static when it comes to the life of an institution. Founding nineteenth-century ideals need updating in the twenty-first century. Still, for all that has changed over the last century and a half, the core values of the Arnold Arboretum strike me as eternal.\nThe Arnold Arboretum has and will always serve as a crossroads for biodiversity and human diversity. Its founding was a testament to the enduring values of democratic spaces (free and open to all) and the belief that such places should uplift all who enter. The Arnold is also, from the outset, an institution defined by its association with Harvard University. Scholarship, born of a love of biodiversity and a desire to unlock its secrets, is central. An ethos of conservation and respect for the environment goes back to the founders and early leaders. The meanings of such an intermingling of sentient and nonsentient organisms (respectively, people and trees) can never be fully unpacked, even in a lifetime of pondering. Yet I will briefly reflect on my thinking.\nLet's begin with my definition of an arboretum: a collection of woody plants with provenance in a designed landscape. Here, provenance and designed landscape are essential characteristics that help us appreciate the varied and dynamic relationships that occur between people, uniquely identified botanical organisms, and arboretum landscapes. The concept of provenance is typically associated with museum objects (think artworks), and at the Arnold Arboretum, every organism has a documented and acknowledged history. Take, for example, a single specimen of the sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia, accession 7272*C) that has grown on the top of Bussey Hill for over a century.\nWe know that Ernest Henry Wilson and his collecting team encountered the parent of this sand pear growing west of Yichang, China, in the late summer of 1907. They collected fruit, removed its pulp (perhaps by eating it?), and separated, dried, and packed the seeds. The packet then passed as cargo down the Yangtze River to Shanghai, made its way by steamer to the west coast of North America, and took the transcontinental trains to Boston. On April 15, 1908, an Arboretum propagator formally accessioned the seeds. A few years later, a spot for a young sapling was chosen, and a hole was dug. This wonderful organism has lived in this location ever since, battling plant diseases and delighting visitors with its extraordinary clouds of white flowers every spring. This specimen is not any sand pear. It is an individual with its own life history and standing, not interchangeable with any other sand pear on Earth, just as no two human beings are interchangeable. Such provenance granular and unique distinguishes almost all the Arboretum's roughly sixteen thousand accessioned woody plants.\nA designed landscape is also central to my definition of an arboretum, and the Arnold Arboretum is fortunate to have been designed by a visionary Frederick Law Olmsted. His intentional design is reflected in every inch of the grounds, like the majestic reveal as you round the bend on Hemlock Hill Road and unexpectedly view the dramatic mixture of spruces and firs, with their blues and seemingly endless hues of green. The intentionality can be felt as you stand under the cathedral-like oak collection or take in a seemingly endless run of mountain laurels in flower in the spring. This landscape was designed to affect us and, indeed, to lift our spirits every day.\nThe impact of these experiences is profound. Olmsted spoke of the power of institutions like the Arnold Arboretum 'to make life in the city healthier and happier. But, surely Olmsted, despite his public health credentials (as general secretary of the US Sanitary Commission during the Civil War), would never have dreamed of the slew of well-documented health benefits of beautiful urban green spaces such as the Arnold Arboretum. Those who regularly walk these grounds may experience (on average) lower blood pressure, improved postoperative recovery, improved birth outcomes, improved outcomes associated with congestive heart failure, improved child development, reduced mortality, reduced stress, reduced symptoms of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder, reduced depression, and greater life satisfaction the list goes on. The Arnold Arboretum is literally interwoven into the healthcare system of Boston.\nOn a global scale, the research and conservation functions of the Arnold Arboretum have never been more critical. Fully three-quarters of the research now being conducted in the living collections is centered on understanding and combating human-induced global change, including climate change. How will trees and forested ecosystems function going forward, as climactic extremes mount by the year and invasive pests and pathogens circle the globe? The Arnold's working collection of woody plants is on the job providing essential insights into the coming biological Armageddon. Our plant expeditions throughout the temperate regions of the Northern Hemisphere emphasize the collection of germplasm from species and populations that are threatened with extinction. Ex situ conservation, the maintenance of living collections of endangered plants in botanical gardens and arboreta, has never been more critical to the Arnold's mission and to Earth's botanical biodiversity.\nI could go on but will finish by reflecting on the last two years of the Arnold Arboretum's existence. Through a raging and lethal pandemic, a reckoning over systemic racial injustice, an insurrection and serious challenge to American democracy, and the ever-more obvious extreme fires, floods, droughts, heat waves, and other threats to the world's four-billion-year evolution, the Arnold Arboretum did not close for a minute.\nThe Arnold Arboretum is not a mere amenity or simply a pleasure ground. It is an essential part of the public healthcare system, a place where the diverse population of Boston mixes, a bulwark for democracy, a leader in fighting global change and extinction, and a place where the next generation of ecologists, evolutionary biologists, and conservationists will launch their careers. And standing behind all of this are the magnificent plants with provenance in an Olmsted-designed landscape. What could possibly be more beautiful and meaningful as the Arnold Arboretum launches into its next century and a half?"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Planting the New Lions of Kew","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25760","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170b76a.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kirkham, Tony","article_content":"As head of the arboretum at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, I would walk the collection each day, choosing a different route and corner of the three-hundred-acre landscape. On the walks, I observed the growth of newly planted trees and built up a knowledge of the collection. I wanted to understand where gaps occurred and what we should plant to improve the wealth and diversity of the woody collections. I kept an eye out for important but ailing plants that should be repropagated. This daily practice remained valuable no matter how long I worked at Kew a tenure that spanned forty-three years in various roles.\nI describe the arboretum at Kew as a living reference library of woody plants from every corner of the temperate world that will grow outdoors (near London) without any form of protection during the winter. However, overseeing a collection like this isn't just about planting trees as they become available and looking after them. The collection is visited by two million people per year. It must meet the demands of a school educational program and remain one of the most diverse and authentic scientific collections of temperate trees in the world.\nThe age of Kew only adds to the challenge: how does a curator not only maintain but hopefully improve upon a tree collection that has been tended for more than 250 years? The gardens at Kew date to 1731, when King George II's son, Frederick Prince of Wales, leased the estate and began to develop the grounds. After his death, his wife, Princess Augusta, continued his work, and in 1759, on the advice of Lord Bute, her horticultural advisor, she created a nine-acre botanic garden with the planting of several newly introduced trees that we now know as the 'Old Lions.' Some of these are still growing today, including a maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba) and a black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). By 1768, the collection included almost five hundred hardy trees and shrubs, but it wasn't until 1840 that Kew Gardens was placed under direct government control and the first director, William Hooker, was appointed to restore and expand the arboretum.\nIt has been an amazing privilege to oversee such a collection, following in the footsteps of remarkable people like William Jackson Bean, the assistant curator of the arboretum between 1900 and 1922. He authored the monumental reference work Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, which is now online (with regular revisions) as Trees and Shrubs Online, courtesy of the International Dendrology Society. Even within such a storied landscape, the collections are ever-changing. Managing those changes is the essential work of a curator.\nA landmark turning point for the arboretum occurred on the night of October 16, 1987, when a hurricane struck the southeast of England, wreaking havoc to trees and woodlands, felling over fifteen million trees in its wake. At Kew, over seven hundred mature trees were lost that night. I remember waking up to loud bangs and crashes and my steel dustbin rolling down the road. I got up to retrieve it and was concerned by the strength of the winds. The following morning, all came to light with the news showing images and footage of devastation across the south of England. \nI was a young supervisor in the arboretum at the time, and when I finally made the journey into work, I immediately went out into the landscape to see how all my arboreal friends had fared through the night. As I picked my way through the limbs and uprooted trees, all I could think was 'doom and gloom.' It took us over three years to finally clear away the fallen, damaged trees. As I look back now, I consider this hurricane to be one of the best things that happened in the twentieth century for trees in the United Kingdom. It raised public awareness of the importance of trees nationally. At Kew, a new plant exploration program was started to replenish the gaps in the collections created by the storm, and new arboricultural practices were developed to improve the health of the remaining trees.\nI was fortunate to be a part of the team sent to collect new documented seed material to rebuild the tree collections. The species on the target lists and the parts of the world that would be visited were determined by an audit of what was still represented in the collections after the storm, looking at the taxonomic and geographic weaknesses. The first expeditions were to western China, South Korea, Taiwan, the Russian Far East, and Japan, and the material brought back over the past thirty-four years has greatly enriched the diversity and provenance of the tree collections. Much of this has not been done alone. Working with colleagues at other arboreta around the world has been important for sharing ideas, collections, and stories.\nI have never been one for pushing the boundaries of hardiness, especially as we increasingly experience unpredicted weather patterns. Still, I have been able to plant and establish species that we could not have grown outdoors forty years ago: for instance, the Taiwan coffin tree (Taiwania cryptomerioides), Kashmir cypress (Cupressus cashmeriana), and the paran\u2021 and bunya pines (Araucaria angustifolia and A. bidwillii), both from the Southern Hemisphere. On my daily walks through the arboretum, I would look for locations to position these and others. As curators, we all have our favorite areas and genera of trees, but we must ensure that other parts of the collection aren't neglected. I found that the wire cages used to protect our young trees provided a helpful visual cue. The cages are retained for five years, so I would stand in the arboretum and turn 360 degrees. If I failed to see one of the cages, this would signal to me a target area for succession planting.\nSeveral new introductions into the arboretum come to mind as highlights. In the autumn of 1996, on a collecting trip to China, I was fortunate to be granted permission to visit Jinfushan, a mountainous preserve in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River, to see the Chinese silver fir (Cathaya argyrophylla). This species, discovered in 1955 by Chinese scientists, was something we had only heard about but never seen. We found it growing on the limestone bluff but could not collect seed, owing to a national embargo. Two years later, the embargo was lifted, and seed was distributed to forestry institutes and botanic gardens. The Forestry Commission's Bedgebury Pinetum was the first to grow this tree in the United Kingdom, and its curator gave me a two-year-old plant for our collection. This can be a miffy species and finding the best planting position can be difficult. More by luck than judgement, I got it right. The plant at Kew is now a beautiful specimen about twenty feet high. It has produced viable seeds, and the first generation of ex situ propagated seedlings has now been planted out in the arboretum, helping conserve this rare tree.\nAnother successful introduction is the Chinese hickory (Carya cathayensis). In 2008, on a trip to China to follow in the footsteps of Ernest Henry Wilson, I visited a market in Shanghai and saw nuts of the rare species being cooked and sold as candied pecans. We bought a kilo of uncooked seeds, and the propagator in Kew's nursery, after much experimental work, successfully germinated the seed and grew over twenty plants that are now sited in various locations across the arboretum. These are now gorgeous trees. They are very well-behaved, needing little if any formative training and producing a straight tapered trunk with an even distribution of lateral branches. The species is perfectly hardy in the United Kingdom.\nFor me, one of the main criteria for a successful and healthy treescape and collection is continual succession planting, maintaining a healthy population with generations of individual species, like a family, ranging from the great grandparents (the Old Lions) to the great-grandchildren (the newly planted trees this year). It was so rewarding to walk the collections seeing new introductions like the delicate Taiwan beech (Fagus hayatae), which we introduced as seed to the West in 1992, growing into strong, attractive specimens and enhancing the conservation value of the arboretum. Some of these, we hope, will be the Old Lions of tomorrow."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Rescue on the Cliffs of O'ahu","article_sequence":3,"start_page":11,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25761","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170bb6d.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sugii, Nellie","article_content":"In 2004, the last remnants of an exceedingly rare Hawaiian species, Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana, bloomed and set fruit in the wild. Known only from the leeward slopes of the southern Ko'olau Mountains on the island of O'ahu, this shrub is one of seventy-eight species within an endemic Hawaiian genus commonly known as hh. The species could be found surrounded by koa (Acacia koa) and other common forest trees, and it has been rare since it was first documented in the wild in 1819. Significant surveys occurred in the 1990s, and by 2004, only two mature wild plants remained, with no evidence of recruitment or any significant ex situ collections. The situation became dire.\nAt the time, I was several years into my career as a researcher for the Lyon Arboretum's Hawaiian Rare Plant Program, where I'm now the program manager. Our work focuses on rescuing and recovering Hawai'i's most critically endangered plants, storing germplasm for ex situ conservation, and providing plants for in situ restoration. Our micropropagation laboratory is central to this effort a surreal indoor space where more than 170 of Hawai'i's rarest and endangered plant species are grown collectively in tens of thousands of test tubes. I often describe it as 'plant conservation through the looking glass.'\nWhen the hh remnants flowered, our team worked with collaborators, including the Plant Extinction Prevention Program, the US Fish and Wildlife Service, and the US Army's Natural Resource Program, to plan for protecting the species in the micropropagation facility. Field biologists monitored the two plants. The flowers emerged as white, arching tubes, streaked with vibrant purple. The fruits then ripened into orange, fleshy capsules. The biologists carefully collected the fruit and brought it to the micropropagation lab for germination. We knew it was a heavy responsibility when the precious seeds arrived, but excitement ran through the lab as we sorted, cleaned, and prepped the seeds for in vitro seed sowing.\nMicropropagation gained recognition as a viable propagation method for commercial applications in the 1960s, but the technique was initially viewed suspiciously due to associated terms and applied technologies such as cloning, anexic seed sowing, ovulo culture, and organogenesis. To some, even at the Lyon Arboretum, these technologies seemed contrary to conservation theologies of preservation and genetic integrity. Yet micropropagation has gradually proven itself as a useful rescue and recovery tool. It can be used to germinate immature seeds and rescue embryos from aborted fruit. It's also used for cloning wild plants at risk of extirpation in order to preserve genetic representation and establish clonal lines of its seedling progeny for restoration.\nAfter the hh germinated in our lab, we learned that the final wild remnants had altogether succumbed the species no longer existed in the wild. This knowledge brought bittersweet feelings as we watched the seeds germinate in the petri dishes and eventually grow into seedlings that we placed into individual test tubes. We knew that it was now our responsibility to establish perpetuity for this species by establishing clonal lines of the seedlings through microcuttings and maintaining the in vitro germplasm collection until a safe and secure restoration site free of threats became available.\nApproximately 88 percent of the native plants on the Hawaiian Archipelago naturally occur nowhere else in the world. This rich biodiversity serves as a unique example of insular evolution, but its fragility is evident by the scale of species on the brink of extinction. According to listings by the US Fish and Wildlife, about one-half of the nation's threatened and endangered plant taxa are from Hawai'i. Of the five hundred Hawaiian species assessed for the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List, about 87 percent are classified as endangered or threatened. Let us not mention the hundreds of rapidly declining species that are missing from either list but are at risk of extinction.\nOn August 23, 2013, over nine years after the eventful collection date, I gathered at a site in the Ko'olau Mountains with a group of individuals involved in the conservation of Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana. A festive mood spread among us. We had long awaited the moment when we would bring this species and a few associated plants back to its native habitat, within the Mnoa Cliff Forest Restoration site. Our small group of friends and family even a few children made our way through a forest of an invasive bamboo that had taken hold in the area. A few of our team wore backpacks containing plants, and most everyone else carried trays of plants or tools in our hands. A space opened in the bamboo, and a pocket (or kipuka) of near-intact native forest appeared before us. For those seeing it for the first time, the beauty of the area took our breath away. We all acknowledged that the enclosure represented a new beginning for this hh.\nBy 2021, the original Mnoa Cliff plantings had matured. The hh plants flower and produce fruit, and the seeds are collected and sowed for restoration purposes or stored in our program's seed conservation laboratory. We have now stored thousands of seeds from the different plants, and we continue to maintain the original clonal lines in the micropropagation lab, with long-term cryopreservation being our future and final ex situ storage goal. With many hands and great effort, we have brought Cyanea grimesiana ssp. grimesiana back home."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Thinking Outside the Quad","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25758","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170b36d.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Feldman, Carmia","article_content":"When Karyn Utsumi entered the University of California, Davis, majoring in environmental science and management in 2017, she didn't anticipate that she would eventually spend countless hours wearing waders and working with other students to restore a prominent water body on campus. Yet she knew that she wanted to turn her deep care for the environment into something that made a difference in her community. During her freshman year, she saw an announcement about the Waterway Stewardship internship with the UC Davis Arboretum and Public Garden. She applied and was thrilled to be selected.\nThe UC Davis Arboretum and Public Garden spans the entire 5,300-acre university campus, with a historic arboretum, founded in 1936, at the center. By applying the management and engagement principles of a public garden to the campus at large, the university aims to enhance how the entire Davis community views and interacts with its environment. Our student internship program, which Karyn joined, is our top initiative to do just that by developing the next generation of environmental leaders. The program is called Learning by Leading\u00aa. Students gain leadership and technical skills as they tackle critical environmental issues with real-world, hands-on projects. As students progress through the program, they take on more responsibility through our mentor-supported 'leadership ladder.' Students start as learners and then can work through a succession of leadership positions, including project leader, team leader, and apprentice.\nFor students in the Waterway Stewardship internship, their living laboratory is the Arboretum Waterway, a creek-like body of water that runs through the historic section of the arboretum. The waterway is part of the campus stormwater drainage system and is dammed at both ends. While it resembles a creek, the Arboretum Waterway is effectively a pond, which means that it comes with common pond issues: nutrient-rich water and unsightly algae formation. After Karyn was hired as her team's coleader during her junior year, she led her interns in developing a floating wetland with sedges and other native plants that take up nutrients from the water as they grow. From afar, the planting resembles a green island. She worked hard to create consequential experiences for her team, learning to see and celebrate each member's unique skills.\nOver seven hundred students have now gone through the Learning by Leading program since it began in 2008. Another student, Ricardo Black, transferred to Davis from Los Medanos College, a community college in Pittsburg, California, for his junior year in the fall of 2019. He became a student leader for our Habitat Horticulture team, which enhances the suitability of campus gardens for native pollinators and other wildlife. Ricardo and his team worked in the Pollinator GATEway Gardens in the arboretum proper. A series of GATEway Gardens have been designed collaboratively with academic departments to showcase their research and teaching to visitors. The Pollinator GATEway Gardens, highlighting plants important for native bees, butterflies, hummingbirds, and other pollinators, were created with the nearby School of Veterinary Medicine. The project aligns with the school's research on the interconnections between the health of people, animals (both domestic and wild), and their environment.\nRicardo's leadership skills were tested when the pandemic forced our normally hands-on, outdoor internships into a virtual format. He demonstrated fast, adaptive leadership as he navigated his team through the initial unpredictable months of the pandemic. He found that it became even more essential to develop peer-mentor relationships, which encouraged his growth as a communicator. Ricardo says, 'During the program, I was put in a position where leadership and innovation skills were needed to make things work in an environment that was unpredictable and always changing due to the pandemic.' Similarly, Karyn credits the Learning by Leading program for shaping her into the collaborative leader she is today. When she started the internship, she told herself, 'I need to work hard and figure everything out by myself.' Then, as she progressed through the program and gained leadership experience, she realized that strength comes through working together.\nKaryn also says that Learning by Leading helped her discover her twin passions for restoration and environmental education. She graduated in the spring of 2021 and immediately was hired by two local environmental organizations: the Putah Creek Council, where she organizes community volunteers to do creek restoration work, and the Solano Resource Conversation District, where she serves as an environmental educator. Karyn's growth as a leader and her impactful postgraduate jobs exemplify the power of reimagining the traditional university campus. All university campuses are more than lawns, sidewalks, and buildings they can be spaces where tomorrow's environmental change-makers learn to lead."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Water Comes First","article_sequence":5,"start_page":15,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25757","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170af6a.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bartlett Jr., Robert A.","article_content":"My decision to transform the R.A. Bartlett Research Laboratories and Arboretum into the living museum that exists today was centered on the need for water. My father, Robert Bartlett Sr., purchased the property in 1965, a few years after he became president of the family business, Bartlett Tree Experts. He intended for the 350-acre property, nestled in the rolling hills outside of Charlotte, North Carolina, to serve as a research laboratory and training center for the growing company.\nTo that end, the company established facilities and plots where staff scientists conducted experiments on plant care and pathology. Previously, this work had been performed in Stamford, Connecticut, where my grandfather had set up our first tree research laboratory and training facility in 1913. A portion of the original site still exists today as the Bartlett Arboretum and Gardens, although it has no affiliation with the company.\nPreviously, the Charlotte property had been a working horse farm with large fields and pastureland. When my father acquired the land, he planted azaleas (Rhododendron) and hollies (Ilex), along with other plants that form the basis of the collections we have today. In those early years, I remember seeing young trees begin to establish themselves and rise above the forage grasses.\nThe climate near Charlotte allowed the cultivation of species common in both northern and southern gardens, which was important since we had field offices throughout the United States (and now Canada, the United Kingdom, and Ireland). Still, the summers in Charlotte are hot and humid. To maintain the collections, we pumped water from one of three existing ponds to provide irrigation, but at first, the capabilities were technologically limited. The earliest systems consisted of gasoline-powered pumps sitting on the shore of the ponds and serving manually operated spigots. Remnants of those systems can still be found on the property, and portions of their piping are still in use today.\nDuring the first thirty years in our Charlotte location, it was apparent that some of the plants were beginning to suffer from our limited irrigation capabilities. In particular, the collection of azaleas that my father had started planting on an eighty-foot hill, now affectionately called Rhodie Hill, required extensive watering. In midsummer, it was challenging to stay ahead of the heat, especially because the water had to be manually hauled up the paths that wind around the hill.\nThe impact of a changing climate also became more apparent at this time. When my father bought the land, the property was categorized by the US Department of Agriculture as being in plant hardiness zone 7 (meaning the average minimum temperatures fell between 0 and 10\u00a1F); however, it is now considered zone 8 (averaging between 10 and 20\u00a1F). Due to changes in the weather patterns, longer dry periods developed, and more dramatic swings in rainfall became the new normal. It was clear that we could no longer sustain our collections without investing in a state-of-the-art irrigation system.\nAfter my father passed away in 1998, we began to make a significant investment to help maintain and develop the property. It would continue to serve as a research station and laboratory, complete with a training facility for clients and arborists and a diagnostic clinic where our researchers process thousands of plant and soil samples sent by our field offices. At the same time, we were determined to continue building the collections into a world-class arboretum. With this goal in mind, we decided to put in an irrigation system that could provide consistent water to the growing collections.\nWe installed a new distribution system to feed the early network of pipes and facilitate manual watering capability in adjoining areas. Most importantly, the system directed a large volume of water to one of our ponds. Now, with the ability to keep a single, large reservoir of water full at all times, the Research Lab and Arboretum was primed for much more extensive, and automated, irrigation operations. In 1999, we began installation of the first automated system. It allowed us to direct a precise amount of water overnight to specific areas on the property. The collections grew like never before. The system also made new locations available for dedicated research plots. Automatic irrigation was a game changer.\nAt that point, we began to strategically build our collections. We launched collaborations with other arboreta and research institutions across the globe and started adding to the diversity of our cultivated plants. Today, the collections are expansive, consisting of over twenty-six thousand accessioned plants in fourteen major groups. We have one of the largest collections of holly in the United States, along with extensive collections of elm (Ulmus), crape myrtle (Lagerstroemia), maple (Acer), witch-hazel (Hamamelis), linden (Tilia), and boxwood (Buxus). Seven collections are accredited through the Plant Collections Network, including the largest collection of Magnolia cultivars in the world. \nAmong the collections, those which were established early and added on to over the years continue to be among the most satisfying for me to watch through the year. Our main grouping of magnolias borders Youngblood Road, a two-lane highway that passes the arboretum. When you drive around the corner and see the magnolias in bloom, the sight of the different colors almost takes your breath away. There is just about every shade and hue of purple, pink, white, and yellow that you can imagine. Rhodie Hill is another favorite. The hill comes alive in a kaleidoscope of spring color, and with mature specimen trees overhead, the winding paths offer beautiful surprises around every corner.\nWe have now begun focusing on wild-collected plant material, especially prioritizing species of conservation concern. One of the plants that we are playing a role in conserving is a rare North American species known as the pyramid magnolia (Magnolia fraseri var. pyramidata). In an effort to understand the distribution of this species and increase documented holdings in cultivation, our arboretum has partnered with The Morton Arboretum, the University of Florida North Research and Education Center, the Chicago Botanic Garden, the Atlanta Botanical Garden, and the US National Arboretum to scout populations, assess their health, and collect seed (when present) for propagation and distribution. Through collaborative efforts like this, and with other strong networking partners such as the Arnold Arboretum, Longwood Gardens, and many others, we have made conservation of rare species a new part of our mission. \nLooking at all the natural beauty established here, visitors may find it easy to forget that this is a relatively young arboretum. We pride ourselves on the ability to adapt with the times and use our natural water resources to maintain the vitality and health of our collections. The key and catalyst to our success has been access to water and having the irrigation needed to help the plants thrive. Without it, we could not have created this botanical wonderland in such a short amount of time."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia glypotostroboides","article_sequence":6,"start_page":18,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25762","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d1708125.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jahren, Hope","article_content":"If you head north, far above the Arctic Circle, you will find yourself in a land of blue sky, white snow, and gray ice. There will be pockets, here and there a lonely island, a sloping valley that are dry, dusty, and desolate. Dig down, through a crust of lichens, take out the smooth stones underneath, and burrow into the shaley, ancient mud. When you get to layers no less than forty million years old, you will find conifer needles. Not only that, you will find twigs, branches, cones, and even whole trunks, dusted in ancient sap. I have seen this myself, during the odd, dream-like hours that are born of twenty-four-hour light.\nForty-five million years ago, at 79\u00a1 north latitude, an immense conifer forest stretched in every direction, across what is now Canada, Alaska, and Siberia, quite close to today's North Pole. The idea of a forest so far north is nothing short of fantastic: today, the tallest plant in the region is a pussy willow and a stunted specimen at that. The temperature and the rainfall above the Arctic Circle were certainly very different forty million years ago. Still, one thing has not changed: total light for three months, soon followed by three months of total darkness. No modern trees can tolerate these conditions, yet forests once thrived under this ridiculous annual regime. Foremost among the trees was Metasequoia. We recognize them from their needles fossilized but so loose that they fall through your fingers like confetti.\nUntil 1948, most scientists assumed that Metasequoia was extinct, based on fossils from lower latitudes. That was the year the Arnold Arboretum received a package from Hu Xiansu, who trained at the Arboretum and returned to China with his doctorate in 1925. Hu sent bushels of seeds and other botanical materials, and he documented that they had come from wait for it live Metasequoia glyptostroboides growing in central China! Some of these seeds became the full-grown, magnificent 'dawn redwoods' that now stand throughout the Arboretum (accessions 3-48 and 524-48).\nBecause of these seeds and the trees they became, I knew something about the fossils that we excavated in Canada that I would never have known otherwise: ancient Metasequoia trees were deciduous. Deciduousness is a special type of dormancy meant to decrease the stress of maintaining leaves through the winter. This trait, uncommon in conifers, would make all the difference as the trees prepared for the extended Arctic darkness."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Third Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":20,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25756","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170af26.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Round the bend on Hemlock Hill Road and look across Bussey Brook and Kent Field to the north. Your eyes will skim a patchwork of conifer textures, colors, and forms. Among the trees is an upright individual with a rather abrupt taper at the top, the Arnold Arboretum's largest giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum, accession 1320-72*A), now standing eighty-three feet tall. After crossing the brook and walking up the slope, you'll see that the wide bole (almost five feet in diameter) begs to be hugged. Shift your gaze up along the orange bark to the sky, and you'll see the tree's candelabra-like branching pattern. Most of the branches seem normal, erupting out of the main stem at right angles,\nbut if you step back and keep your eye on the crown, you'll see an odd conglomeration where one branch over another attempted to bend skyward.\nBack in 1948 (the same year that Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood, arrived in North America), a supporter of the Arboretum, Chandler Hovey, collected giant sequoia seedlings from California and planted several near his home in Brookline, Massachusetts, a stone's throw from the Boston College campus. In 1972, in honor of the Arboretum's centennial, Boston College which had recently acquired the Hovey property donated the tree. That spring, a twenty-four-year-old, forty-two-foot-tall, pointy-topped tree was dug, transported, and transplanted in its current spot in the conifer collection. The magnificent specimen survived, but its central leader died due to transplant shock, leaving an oval-shaped form for decades. A new leader eventually took over: a dog-legged branch that formed fifty years ago from the initial crown's tip, some forty-three feet above the ground. I'm certain that the wooden rings within that branch would reveal not just what was going on with that single tree but the surrounding Arboretum landscape as well.\nThe First Fifty Years\nJust as the sequoia's history is written within its rings, branches, and form, the Arboretum's landscape and collections reflect a history rich in dramatic events and subtle ripples. Much has been written about them, and Charles Sprague Sargent's 'The First Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum' describes the first five decades with aplomb. At the time of Sargent's writing in 1922, Harvard's tree museum (founded in 1872) had expanded from 125 to 250 acres. Frederick Law Olmsted had reimagined Benjamin Bussey's farm with carriageways and pathways, collection areas and viewsheds. Sargent and his team transformed the landscape into a composite of taxonomic tree groups and research plantings, including an intensely cultivated shrub and vine collection, all nestled among a few natural and naturalized woodlands.\nBy 1922, botanical exploration particularly of East Asia and North America and horticultural exchange yielded a living collection of over five thousand taxa growing at the Arboretum. The institution was well on its way to meeting its initial charge (a nascent collections policy, if you will) to cultivate every tree, shrub, and vine hardy in Boston. While many of the plants were botanical taxa, including wild-origin species newly cultivated in North America, there was no shortage of infraspecific forms and varieties that we would now call cultivars. The herbarium of two hundred thousand sheets complemented a thirty-five-thousand-volume library and archival collection of nearly ten thousand photographs. With these integrated living, preserved, and archival collections, the Arnold Arboretum had become an international destination for scholars of woody plants.\nYet Harvard's tree museum was not just for the botanical connoisseur. This gem in Boston's Emerald Necklace of parks provided open space to an expanding and diversifying city. Because of the 1882 arrangement where ownership of the land shifted from Harvard to the City of Boston (who then leased the property back to the university for at least one thousand years), the space would be secured in perpetuity as both a scientific enterprise and public open space, free for all to enjoy. Without this arrangement some 140 years ago, I doubt if the Arnold Arboretum would exist today, or if it did, if we would recognize it in its current form. Had it remained a nonpublic, university-owned research station, I can imagine acres by the dozen being peeled away and sold with each-and-every economic crisis. If purely a municipal park, even if well maintained, it would not house one of Earth's most notable collections of woody plants. Luckily, these are just what-if scenarios.\nPerhaps knowing his grip upon the Arboretum's helm would not last much longer (though it did, for another four years), Sargent ended his half-century assessment with a few bold charges for his successors. Global environmental change was apparent to him, particularly the challenges to trees and forests worldwide. Thus, Sargent called for continued and ambitious documentation of forests in Asia and the tropics, as well as rigorous scholarship in forest pathology, entomology, and genetics. Within the Arboretum landscape, Sargent felt that a rose and a rock garden would be essential additions, no doubt to provide space for new collections development while simultaneously enhancing the horticultural display. Despite the growth of the initial Arboretum endowment from $103,847 to $808,175, Sargent knew that additional resources would be required not just for these new initiatives but to maintain current operations. Thus, he curtly ended his fifty-year report with one sentence: 'Only a larger endowment is needed to make possible these Arboretum activities and extensions.' Following his death in 1927, the Sargent Memorial Fund would raise over a million dollars.\nThe Second Fifty Years \nThe Arboretum's second half-century was dramatic and dynamic. The institution weathered a global economic depression, multiple leadership changes (one supervisor and three directors), the catastrophic hurricane of 1938, as well as another World War. There was also the Controversy (as it was referred to), which amalgamated the university's herbarium and botanical library collections (including most of the Arboretum's) under one roof in Cambridge. This coincided with the cessation of the Bussey Institution, which had opened as Harvard's center for horticultural and agricultural education in 1871, on property adjacent to the Arboretum. The institute grew into a center for genetic and cellular research. By the 1930s, most of the on-site scholarship in the Arboretum's living collections had waned. Likewise, the Arboretum's fieldwork in temperate areas, particularly to acquire germplasm to grow in the living collections, ceased almost entirely. However, botanical exchange of seeds persisted, with the 1948 acquisition of the Chinese dawn redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, being one of the most celebrated feats even to this day.\nThe discipline of horticulture often considered the art and the science of growing plants matured in the mid-twentieth century. The genetic improvement of ornamentals hit a stride, as did advanced ways to propagate them clonally. As a result, cultivars (first given formal recognition in 1952) wantonly tumbled out of nursery catalogues and into gardens, parks, and other managed landscapes. The Arboretum's living collection was no exception.\nIn 1970, Donald Wyman, horticulturist in charge of the Arboretum from 1935 to 1970, wrote in these pages about the Arboretum's goal to improve the curation and care of the collections, and to use the collections as a living laboratory for horticultural introductions. Species plucked from the wilds in the Arboretum's first half-century would be assessed for their garden worthiness in the second. Novel hybrids, like crabapples (Malus) and forsythia (Forsythia) created by Karl Sax (a professor who then served as director from 1947 to 1954), were given growing space, with many introduced as cultivars after evaluation. Arboretum selections, and those from sister institutions and industry, were grown side-by-side, their performance recorded in Arnoldia and other publications.\nJust like there were changes to what the Arboretum grew in the collections and why, there were changes to where they were grown. The 1942 acquisition of the Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, provided a welcome relief valve for the space-cramped Boston collection. Shortly thereafter, several ornamental collections in Boston underwent redesigns: Landscape architect Beatrix Farrand's Azalea Border along Meadow Road added dramatic color and space for the deciduous Rhododendron that were performing poorly elsewhere. Crabapples, the dandy of mid- to late-twentieth-century landscapes, replaced most of the hawthorns (Crataegus) on Peters Hill during renovations from 1948 to 1952. The construction of the Dana Greenhouses in 1962 provided a sophisticated station where propagator Alfred Fordham could conduct his many experiments and publish them widely.\nCollections of the Third Fifty Years\nThe centennial in 1972 arrived with fanfare and excitement. Dick Howard, director since 1954, began his 1971 annual report to the Harvard University Provost by underscoring the Arnold Arboretum's essential service role to the City of Boston, particularly to local communities. Maintaining the Arboretum required considerable resources that were worth the expense and investment, and caring for the collections was his 'priority responsibility.' Thus, irrigation projects in both Boston and Weston would alleviate some of the growing and unmet demands for water. A bucket truck was added to the fleet, which made pruning or removing old, senescing 'stag-headed' trees easier. To replace some of the removals, horticulturists planted out nearly nine hundred specimens, completing a cycle of rejuvenation and renewal. Anticipating future databasing, Howard noted that the plant records office had wrapped up a major inventory campaign to assess and field-check every specimen in the collection.\nOver the Arboretum's third fifty years, the institution would be led by four directors: Richard Howard's tenure ended in 1978; Peter Ashton led from 1978 to 1987; Robert Cook from 1989 to 2009; and William (Ned) Friedman became director in 2011. During this time, the Arboretum experienced dramatic changes, as did the living collections. Staff actively contemplated what to cultivate, where to grow it, and how to do it better.\nMajor anniversaries like a centennial can elicit reflections and ambitions, so it is no surprise that shortly after Peter Ashton became the director in 1978, strategic planning was underway. One broad initiative, a restoration plan, included a substantial section for what should be in the collections. A formal living collections policy the first for this Arboretum and most botanic gardens was also published in 1979, remaining in force for almost thirty years. In this latter document, the Arboretum established and codified ambitious goals: to acquire all known woody species hardy in Boston (no different from the original charge of 1872); to have three individuals of each species; to prioritize wild-provenance plants above those of garden or nursery origin; and (assuming they met specific requirements) to continue to maintain taxa at infraspecific ranks (including cultivars, although these were considered lowest in any hierarchy).\nTo complete the collections, the 1979 restoration plan outlined the addition of over 2,900 taxa, spanning 90 families and 363 genera. These desiderata came almost exclusively from identifying which plants in the 1940 edition of Alfred Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America were missing from the collection. To launch the initiative, staff set an ambitious goal of acquiring 1,500 taxa in the first five years.\nEven before strategic planning of what to add, the Arboretum reconsidered where new material would come from and how to acquire it: collectors would return to the field. In 1977, the Arboretum embarked on its first major collecting trip in some forty years, sending taxonomists Stephen Spongberg and Richard Weaver to South Korea and Japan for six weeks. In 1980, following the heels of the restoration plan, Weaver botanized in the Soviet Union, while Spongberg participated in the three-month-long Sino-American Botanical Expedition, which involved a team of thirteen Chinese and American collaborators. (China had not been visited by Western botanists since before the revolution in 1949.) The era of fieldwork had returned.\nThrough the 1980s and early 1990s, the infusion of wild-collected material from some seventeen expeditions occurred at a scale not seen in fifty years. In some years, the Arboretum sponsored multiple collecting trips. Destinations included those known to yield hardy material such as northwestern Hubei Province, China, and the Appalachian Mountains of the American Southeast, as well as fringe regions like North Africa, Mexico, and Taiwan. Coincident with fieldwork, the Arboretum also received new material from sister institutions, often selected from their annual seed lists (known as index semina).\nAlthough the restoration plan advised against 'returning to what must have been almost a jungle by the end of Sargent's tenure as Director,' there was no discussion as to where some five thousand new plants (an increase by approximately 30 percent) would be sited in the collections. Thus, limitations in capacity and resources facilities, staffing, and space hindered the restoration's full success. For one, the Arboretum lacked the facilities to propagate and produce the sheer magnitude of material arriving in such a short period. The plant records database is replete with notations from index cards of whole flats of accessions that perished due to the lack of production space (many were placed in the shade below the benches). Gary Koller, Wyman's successor as the lead horticulturist, has told me how, due to severe space constraints in the collection in the 1980s, sibling plants of the same accession were planted together in tight triads, about five feet apart. Only a few of the triads remain today, primarily sited along the roads and perimeter of Bussey Hill. Deaccessioning plants was taboo, so there were few other alternatives. The 1979 restoration document was successful as an acquisitions plan yet perhaps too ambitious given practical considerations.\nA decade later, following changes in Arboretum leadership (Robert Cook became director in 1989), a Living Collections Long-Range Planning Committee returned to the process of thinking about the collections. In 1991, the committee completed a planning document, edited by Stephen Spongberg, which acknowledged that the 1979 restoration may have been na\u2022ve. The committee noted the challenges in adopting a comprehensive collection (meaning one of every taxon) versus a synoptic or broadly representative collection. They observed that it would be difficult to preserve the integrity of the Arboretum's historic landscape in light of the aggressive drive to acquire new material. Nevertheless, the plan ended with a reaffirmation of the same ambitious collection policy goals articulated in 1979.\nTo accommodate this expansion while remaining sensitive to the Olmsted design (by not transforming the collections into a dense forestry plantation), the 1991 plan called for the prudent review and deaccessioning of low-value and out-of-sequence material. The authors proposed a long-term review process that would finally deal with many of the growing pains that had affected the Arboretum since (and perhaps prior to) the death of Sargent. Although there were no estimates of how many plants could be deaccessioned, the authors stated that such subtractions would be insufficient to accommodate the necessary expansion. The 1991 plan estimated that all Arboretum property must be designated for the purpose of housing an expanded collection, including the entirety of Peters Hill, Bussey Brook Meadow (formerly called the South Street Tract or Stony Brook Marsh), Weld Hill (formerly Weld-Walter Street Tract), and the Case Estates. Space was not the only resource required: the plan identified new staff positions necessary for curation, horticulture, and the greenhouse and nursery.\nShortly after the 1991 plan was completed, it was put on hold following a reorganization of the Arboretum's administrative structure in early 1992. A new Living Collections Department was created, with Peter Del Tredici leading. The ambitious goal of the 1979 and 1991 plans to form a comprehensive collection was admittedly unrealistic and abandoned. Instead, as Del Tredici outlined in 1994, collections development would take a more focused or prioritized approach. During the early 1990s through the mid-2000s, special recognition was reserved for conservation-status species (particularly those maintained in collaboration with the Center for Plant Conservation). As a theme, the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America were given priority, particularly genera like Acer (maples) and Fagus (beeches), which became two of the initial five collections nationally accredited through the Plant Collections Network. (The Arboretum now has eight accredited collections.) The recently established North America China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) became a pipeline for novel germplasm from China. From 1991 to 2006, the Arboretum mounted six expeditions to China, two under the NACPEC flag, including the 1994 expedition to Hubei that infused the collections with new material like the paperbark maple (Acer griseum), which had most recently been collected by Ernest Henry Wilson in 1907.\nWithin a year of joining the staff in 2007, I organized a team to update collections goals and codify them in a new living collections policy. The scope of the collections would remain synoptic, with the highest priority assigned to core collections, such as the nationally accredited collections and conservation-status holdings. Historic lineages would be maintained through repropagation, while targeted acquisitions of cultivars would meet trialing, display, and research needs. The new policy (and its subtle revisions over the past fifteen years) prompted the review and subsequent deaccessioning of excessive or low-value accessions, as well as the repropagation of valuable lineages that had gone unnoticed.\nFieldwork continued, with another six expeditions occurring between 2007 and 2015, including a NACPEC expedition to the Qinling Mountains of China in 2010 and a more focused collecting of live oak (Quercus virginiana) from the northeastern edge of its range in Virginia in 2012. In 2015, the Arboretum launched the Campaign for the Living Collections, an initiative that followed several years of planning from the Living Collections Advisory Board. The campaign articulated a list of nearly four hundred target taxa, each linked to one or more priority themes found in the collections policy. Since the campaign launched, some twenty expeditions to destinations in the United States, China, Japan, and the country of Georgia have yielded over half of the desiderata. The COVID-19 pandemic paused expeditionary work for 2020 and 2021.\nWhile the Arboretum embarked on exactly fifty named expeditions over the past fifty years, plants of cultivated origin were added to the collections (or maintained) for their invaluable ornamental characteristics, stress tolerance, and other novel traits valued in managed landscapes. Cultivars of trees continued to grow alongside their wild-origin brethren particularly in the Rosaceous orchards of Peters Hill while new shrub cultivars appeared in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection (dedicated in 1985), the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden (dedicated in 2002), and other landscapes. In 1972, 14,058 plants grew in the Arboretum's collections in Boston, and only 14 percent were of wild origin. As of this writing, 44 percent of the 15,939 plants in the collections were derived from wild populations, and if one excludes over 2,700 accessioned plants in the natural areas (such as Hemlock Hill, which is a mix of wild and planted hemlocks), 53 percent of the collections are from the wild. That is quite the illustration of focused and deliberate collections development.\nDesigning the Collections\nPerhaps the most significant outcome from the 1979 restoration plan was the recognition of historical planting areas, as articulated loosely using the Bentham and Hooker linear sequence. Richard Weaver created maps for each family and major genus, using red colored pencil to illustrate where new plantings should go (or, in some cases, errant shrubs should be returned). This reordering was meant to fix what were perceived as random horticultural plantings, particularly those from the mid-twentieth century.\nAll gardens need redefinition from time to time, and many areas within the Arboretum received edits over the past fifty years. For instance, Rhodie Dell the collection of broadleaved Rhododendron along Bussey Brook at the base of Hemlock Hill was renovated in 1990 with the Davison Path laid out by Julie Moir Messervy. The landscape around the Hunnewell Visitor Center received a new look by Carol Johnson after the building was renovated in 1993. In 2007, Beatrix Farrand's Azalea Border along Meadow Road received an infusion of new material following the removal of declining individuals.\nOne of the major goals Sargent described in 1922 was the creation of a rose garden, and in 1985 the Arboretum made good on this promise. A gift by Eleanor Cabot Bradley and an innovative design by Gary Koller created the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. Located near the ponds and replacing the existing shrub collection (where many of the Rosaceous shrubs grew already), this semi-formal garden adjacent the Forest Hills Gate became and continues to be a public gathering space and programming site. Updates completed in 2011 (by Julie Moir Messervy) improved circulation and display potential, and two wrought-iron arbors designed by Peter Andruchow added spaces for climbing roses.\nWhile the Bradley created a significant destination for visitors, the diaspora of shrubs and vines from the earlier shrub garden led to a problem. Many of the vines were moved to chain-link fences on the perimeter, becoming challenges to maintain, while sun-requiring shrubs now grown in the shade under their arboreal cousins did not always fare well. To ameliorate this dilemma, the Arboretum needed a new shrub and vine collection, and with a gift from Frances Leventritt, the Victor M. and Frances Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden was created in 2002. Designed by Reed Hilderbrand, this formal garden would house sun-loving shrubs and vines on property to the north of the Dana Greenhouses, on space previously occupied by the old hedge and dwarf conifer collection. Unlike other areas of the Arboretum's collections, the shrubs and vines grown here were to receive intense horticultural care and inspire ideas for home landscapes.\nPeters Hill, often neglected due to a lack of resources and its distance from the hub of operations, began to receive attention starting with a curatorial review in 1993. Low-value plants were deaccessioned; new plantings (particularly crabapples and deciduous gymnosperms) followed; and a bus turnaround at the summit was removed and renovated to support plant collections in 1997. Another major change occurred in 1996 when the South Street Tract was combined with land owned by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority and the City of Boston, creating what is now known as the Bussey Brook Meadow, a twenty-six-acre urban wild with the Blackwell Path connecting Forest Hills Station to the South Street Gate.\nStewarding the Collections\nIn his 1971 report, Richard Howard noted that his highest priority was the maintenance of the living collections. His successors possessed the same agenda, mustering resources to support them as creativity and windfall allowed. Over time, work at the Case Estates waned to the point that by 1991 the horticultural staff in Weston shifted permanently to care for the collections in Boston. (The final sale of the Case Estates occurred in 2017.) Ongoing growth in the Arboretum's endowment, particularly during the capital campaign ending in 2000, allowed further staffing increases, and restricted endowments for areas like the Bradley Rosaceous Collection and the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden funded exclusive and dedicated horticulturists to care for each high-maintenance area.\nAnother major shift in resourcing occurred with the launch of the Landscape Management Plan in 2008, a charge led by Richard Schulhof (the deputy director) and implemented by Stephen Schneider (then the manager of horticulture). Recognizing the value of having already designated horticulturists in several areas, such as the Shrub and Vine Garden, the Landscape Management Plan expanded the perspective to all areas of the Arboretum landscape. The landscape was divided into zones, with individual horticulturists assigned to steward each according to goals specific to each area. The plan also directed the work of arborists as they rotated through the collections, and landscape staff as they maintained meadows, turf, and pathways.\nIn addition to performing the day-to-day care of the collections, horticulturists must contend with periodic natural disasters, pests, and diseases. Though not as cataclysmic as that infamous and unnamed hurricane that struck in 1938 (which destroyed some fifteen hundred trees), the 1997 April Fool's Day storm dumped over two and a half feet of snow on a collection previously plagued by past droughts. Over four hundred trees had to be removed that season, while another thirteen hundred remained but required arboricultural care. Pathogens and pests are a persistent threat to the collections. For instance, in the 1980s and 1990s, phytoplasmas plagued the lilac (Syringa) collection, and in 1997, hemlock woolly adelgid arrived at the Arboretum's doorstep to forever change the face of Hemlock Hill, a unique natural landscape where black birch (Betula lenta) are slowly replacing the hemlocks (Tsuga). And, in 2018, many old beeches (Fagus) were removed due to decline caused by the arrival of beech bark disease. All three of these collections the lilacs, hemlocks, and beeches are nationally accredited, so their stewardship in response to these outbreaks is especially significant. The Landscape Management Plan includes response plans for disaster and plant healthcare issues like these.\nIn late 2019, Andrew Gapinski, as manager of horticulture, transformed the third edition of the Landscape Management Plan into a dynamic, digital format known as the Landscape Management System. As part of the system, a smartphone and desktop application called ArbManager replaced the paper forms (the 'green cards') exchanged between horticultural and curatorial staff to communicate about work requests, while an internal website, ArbDashboard, synthesized horticultural and plant records data into a map-based system. Both of these tools provide living collections staff instant access to collections-care directives, whether they are in an office or fifty feet up a tree and accessing the information from a phone.\nRecording the Collections\nThe Arboretum is replete with uniquely accessioned plants, each richly documented with source histories, observations, photographs, herbarium specimens, and maps a tradition dating back to the institution's founding. In Howard's 1972 annual report, he noted how the card catalog entries the original paper database for the living collections, if you will were incorporated into the Plant Records Center of the American Horticultural Society. This initial digitization effort was championed by Howard when he was president of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. The shared database gave gardens the chance to store computerized records off-site (as a preservation initiative) and recall specialized lists of plants on demand (for instance, all plants in a given location within a garden).\nIn 1985, the Arboretum's plant records and systems (including definitions, workflows, and philosophies) seeded a new database eventually called BG-BASE. The Arboretum now had local access to its data, which revolutionized how the Arboretum and finally other gardens curated their collections. At first, the database only included living plants; however, funding from the Institute of Museum and Library Services (IMLS) in 2010 allowed staff to integrate legacy data from old index cards into BG-BASE, providing access to historic collections that had long ago perished. An earlier IMLS grant, in 2001, enabled the digitization of records for some fifty thousand vouchers from the herbarium of cultivated plants, adding even more data and research value to plants that grow or grew in the living collections.\nHand-drawn maps had recorded the locations of plants growing in the collections since 1938, and in 1987, cartography went digital due to support from IMLS. Initially, AutoCAD served as the digital platform; however, in 2010, the platform shifted into ESRI ArcGIS, a more robust geographic information system. This change was timely, as the IMLS grant in 2010 also allowed for the scanning and georeferencing of some two thousand hand-drawn maps, providing staff the ability to view like a digital flip-book the historic collections over time. Coincident with the legacy of mapping has been the annual inventory process, whereby all accessioned plants are field-checked on a five-year cycle. Whereas earlier field observations required paper cards, notebooks, and copies of maps, the current team led by Kyle Port, the manager of plant records, employs live connections to the database in the field using laptops and tablet computers. I wonder what Professor Sargent would think if he could witness such activities in action!\nWhile countless other initiatives over the past fifty years led to curatorial reviews and data acquisition, one final, and significant, venture was a multi-year verification project funded by the National Science Foundation in 1984. This project led to the vouchering (using herbarium specimens) of the living collections. The vouchers were then distributed to taxonomic specialists around the world who verified the identity of each plant. The effort yielded positive (as well as negative) identifications and fostered international research interest in the living collections.\nUsing the Collections\nWhile this article mostly reflects the living collections and their change over time, to leave out access and use would be a grave mistake. The Arboretum is not a private collection but is, in fact, very public. Due to the porous nature of the Arboretum, visitor counts have always been a rough guess. Until recently, estimates of annual visitors were in the 'hundreds of thousands,' which at the time may have been accurate. However, a people counter at the popular Arborway Gate one of more than a dozen entrances tallied some 825,000 hits from September 2020 to September 2021. This number includes ins-and-outs as well as pass-throughs, yet even with a conservative estimate of half this total (equal in and out hits) of 400,000 visitors at this single gate, it is safe to assume that well over a million people, and perhaps over twice that number, visit the Arboretum each year.\nAfter the Bussey Institution ceased to exist and much of the herbarium and library migrated to Cambridge, it had become more difficult for the living collections to readily serve scholars. However, engaging scholars to use the living collections has long been an area of interest of mine, even before joining the staff, and was one of the reasons I was hired into this role fifteen years ago. Luckily, much work had been initiated before my arrival. Five decades of field exploration yielded a collection rich in botanical diversity and wild provenance: research specimens little different from what a scholar could find in the natural environment. Year-over-year improvements in horticultural care provided healthier plants available for study. Ongoing vouchering, verification, and inventory initiatives add rich documentation to the plant records, all of which have been searchable online for over two decades.\nFunding also helped bring scholars to the collections. In 1988, initial support (and later an endowment) provided by George and Nancy Putnam created the Putnam Fellowship specifically for those conducting independent research and project work using the collections. These and other competitive awards have helped to remove financial barriers that might otherwise prevent research from occurring.\nLastly, in 2011, the Weld Hill research facility opened. While it was initiated and built during the administration of Bob Cook and opened and staffed shortly after Ned Friedman became director, the facility was inspired by Peter Ashton, who attempted to reinstall scholarship within the Arboretum landscape during his tenure. Now, after some seventy-five years since the Bussey Institution closed, research and its requisite facilities are unified with the Arboretum's living collections. As a result, visiting scholars from all over the world can work in state-of-the-art laboratories just footsteps from the living collections. Shortly after I began my work at the Arboretum, about a dozen projects occurred in the collections each year. Currently, some seventy-five to one hundred projects use the living collections, landscapes, and environments annually.\nThe Fourth Fifty Years\nThe year 2072 seems so far off. I doubt that I'll be above ground, or if I am, how well I will be able to peruse the collections as they celebrate their bicentennial. Still, if I am around at that time, just a few years shy of my own centennial year, I would like to see the trees from the 1977 expedition to Korea and Japan spreading their branches among the overstory of the collection. I would like to see plants from the Campaign for the Living Collections: some of those trees have recently been released from the nursery and are already taller than me. I'm confident that many will have become standouts the masterpieces of a new generation and subjects of research that we would find impossible to imagine in 2022.\nAnd of course, I would also make my way over to the giant sequoia that overlooks Bussey Brook, checking in to see how it had fared. No doubt, it will have weathered droughts and blizzards, perhaps even a lightning strike due to its ever-increasing height. But I like to imagine it will still be standing, a silent sentry watching over Harvard's tree museum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Saving the World's Threatened Trees","article_sequence":8,"start_page":34,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25754","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170a76b.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Alvarez-Clare, Silvia; Shaw, Kristy; Pocock, Sarah","article_content":"Hiking through the hot, dry canyons at the base of the Sierra La Laguna peaks in Baja California Sur, Mexico, it is impossible to miss the beautiful arroyo oaks (Quercus brandegeei). The trees border the banks of the seasonal streams (or arroyos) like kneeling giants washing their limbs in the refreshing water. What is less obvious is that these represent a relict species that can only be found here, along the riparian zones of the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve, a biodiversity hotspot with high levels of endemism and great beauty. Each November, the tree canopies fill with elongated acorns that cause a lively commotion as birds, beetles, and rodents frantically eat the fruit on the trees and underneath. Ranchers value the trees too, frequently building corrals under their merciful shade and collecting acorns to feed livestock. However, populations of the arroyo oak are declining. There is no evident seedling regeneration, and the remaining trees are all more than one hundred years old. Until recently, the cause for decline was mostly unknown.\nAcross the globe from the Sierra La Laguna, Mount Mulanje known as the 'island in the sky' rises from the plains of southeastern Malawi with such sheer contrast that it creates its own climate and flora. Best known and most impressive of the forest trees is the cedar that takes its name from these mountains. The Mulanje cedar (Widdringtonia whytei) is highly valued for its durable and fragrant timber, but due to overexploitation and illegal logging, the cedar has reached the point of near extinction. A similar fate is faced by a rare magnolia (Magnolia grandis) found only in the forested limestone mountains of southern China and northern Vietnam. With its large, leathery leaves growing to over a foot in length, this magnolia coexists in tiny forest fragments with other critically endangered species, including the strikingly unique Tonkin snub-nosed monkey. Recruitment of new seedlings is impaired by local agricultural practices in which farmers clear vegetation before planting cardamom and repeatedly weed out the magnolia to maintain their crop. Fewer than three hundred adult trees remain in small, isolated populations.\nThe loss of trees is a global problem. Evidence of declining populations, illegal logging, lack of regeneration, and new pests and diseases has been looming over our heads for decades. Until last fall, however, the complete picture of the status of the planet's tree diversity was unknown. The State of the World's Trees, published in September 2021, shares the results of the Global Tree Assessment the first conservation audit of most of the world's nearly sixty thousand species. The results show that 30 percent of all tree species more than 17,500 species are threatened with extinction. That's more than double the total combined number of globally threatened mammals, birds, reptiles, and amphibians.\nThe Global Tree Assessment also reveals that at least 142 tree species are recorded as extinct. Losing even a single species can have severe consequences for an ecosystem. As primary producers at the base of the food chain, plants, including trees, are the building blocks of ecosystems essential to all life on this planet. Myriad species of plants, animals, and fungi are intrinsically linked to trees, often interacting within complex and fascinating relationships that both parties depend on for survival. In addition, individual tree species play numerous economic, ecological, and cultural roles. We depend on trees in our everyday lives they provide us with food, timber, and medicine. According to the assessment, at least one in five tree species has a recorded human use, and many have a variety of different uses. While the challenges and scale of the problem in maintaining tree species diversity are significant, we can do something about it.\nA Global Campaign\nThe State of the World's Trees is a sobering reminder that trees need our help. The Global Trees Campaign is coled by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) and Fauna & Flora International (FFI). Through this effort, researchers, conservationists, and on-the-ground partners have been working together since 1999 to reduce threats and secure or recover target populations of threatened tree species through in situ action. Since its establishment, the campaign has worked to conserve over four hundred threatened tree species in more than fifty countries, and the team has trained more than ten thousand people in tree conservation skills.\nBotanic gardens and arboreta have been vital partners in this effort. Since 2017, for example, The Morton Arboretum, near Chicago, has led a Global Trees Campaign project that aims to safeguard the arroyo oak (Quercus brandegeei) of Baja California Sur. Researchers collected genetic, phenological, and ecological data on this endangered species to explore the causes of decline and identify conservation and management actions needed to save it from extinction. The team established fenced exclosures to quantify the effect of grazing and trampling by free-roaming livestock on seedling survival and growth. They found that cattle and goats eat the seedlings while pigs eat the acorns a combination that prevents any natural regeneration from occurring. To combat these threats, Mexican scientists, land managers, ranchers, and international experts are working together to implement a management plan for this species. Among their actions, the team has conducted plantings within fenced areas to boost population recovery; they have encouraged ranchers to adopt oak seedlings and plant them within their fenced gardens; and they have worked with land managers to establish larger grazing-free zones within the reserve.\nAs illustrated by the work safeguarding the arroyo oak, effective conservation should be informed by accurate baseline information, including a thorough understanding of the species biology, specific threats, and potential actions to mitigate and reverse the decline. Scientific research is one of the cornerstones of the Global Trees Campaign. Once the baseline information is gathered, tree conservationists must develop a plan to improve the success of the interventions. The planning can prioritize individual species, like the arroyo oak or the Mulanje cedar, or larger groups of tree species present in the same area or experiencing similar threats.\nIn Kenya, for instance, Global Trees Campaign partners collaborated with the Kenya Forest Service and the Conservation Planning Specialist Group (part of the International Union for Conservation of Nature) to organize a series of online workshops focused on planning conservation action for Kenya's threatened trees. The workshops brought together key stakeholders to evaluate the results of an analysis for Kenya's more than 140 threatened tree species. This effort helped prioritize sites for conservation by grouping threatened species that are likely to benefit from the same conservation activities. During these workshops, the participants developed a joint vision statement and goals, and they identified actions at national and regional levels. The Global Trees Campaign plans to continue using this larger-scale approach in the future, maximizing efforts and often achieving more cost-effective results than approaches focused on individual species.\nComprehensive Information\nBefore the State of the World's Trees was published, comprehensive information was lacking on which tree species are threatened with extinction and where conservation efforts should be directed. Some assessments were available on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species and national Red List publications. Still, the information was not easily accessible, and the scale of the problem was unknown. To produce a global overview of the conservation status of trees, the Global Trees Assessment team collated existing assessments, and each species was assigned one of six risk categories: extinct, threatened, possibly threatened, not threatened, data deficient, and not evaluated. Although this effort alone was an enormous task that took more than five years and five hundred contributors, it also revealed the information gaps regarding many tree species. In the report, well over seven thousand species were classified as data deficient, meaning there wasn't enough information for an assessment. Moreover, assessments for many little-known tree species are often based on historic herbarium records that may misrepresent recent changes in land use or loss of populations. Further survey work is therefore required.\nThe information from the Global Tree Assessment can be accessed online via a public web platform, the GlobalTree Portal. The portal highlights the scale of the problem and provides information on the numbers of species found in at least one protected area (as well as species not represented in any protected areas). The portal also shows which species are present in, or absent from, ex situ collections, such as botanical gardens and seed banks. According to the GlobalTree Portal, approximately 56 percent of threatened tree species occur in at least one protected area, and 21 percent are maintained in botanic gardens or seed banks. Another online tool, Conservation Tracker, provides real-time information on who is taking conservation action for which species. These tools will be updated regularly, helping to guide ongoing conservation efforts. The idea is that on-the-ground efforts, such as Global Tree Campaign projects, will use this information and contribute new data as they evolve, creating an information feedback loop that will result in effective conservation actions.\nTargeted Action\nAccording to the Global Tree Assessment report, agriculture and logging are the leading threats to trees globally. When managed effectively, protected areas can provide vital protection against this kind of habitat loss, but in some cases, ecological constraints and threats within protected areas can still prevent or limit regeneration. For instance, even though the arroyo oak occurs within the Sierra La Laguna Biosphere Reserve, natural regeneration has been impossible due to grazing. Tree conservationists must therefore identify and remove barriers to natural regeneration, although additional interventions may be necessary for many species, such as those with extremely small populations. In such cases, planting can be an essential strategy to increase population numbers or reintroduce a species.\nIn the case of Magnolia grandis, with a global population totaling fewer than three hundred adult trees, targeted action was needed to ensure the future of the species. Since 2013, as part of the Global Trees Campaign, FFI has developed an outreach program with local cardamom growers at Tung Vai Watershed Protection Area in Vietnam. These efforts are paying off, with local cardamom farmers now willingly maintaining M. grandis seedlings, indicating a shift in attitudes and behavior towards this species. Over the same period, regular community monitoring and patrolling to protect trees from logging was introduced, resulting in no felling or damage to M. grandis individuals at Tung Vai since 2017. In addition, local communities have adopted fuel-efficient stoves, reducing pressure for firewood. Given the low number of individual trees in the original populations, tree conservationists are conducting booster plantings using nursery-grown seedlings. Natural regeneration of M. grandis is now occurring in other areas of the forest where previously there was none, indicating that recovery work over the last eight years has been successful.\nFor the Mulanje cedar (Widdringtonia whytei) from Malawi, illegal logging was so intense that it removed the natural seed source from the mountain, and increased man-made fires impeded recruitment of remaining seedlings and young trees. As part of a campaign project led by Mulanje Mountain Conservation Trust, the Forestry Research Institute of Malawi, and BGCI, staff set up eight community nurseries around Mount Mulanje with more than eighty community members who had been taught to propagate the Mulanje cedar. Over four hundred thousand seedlings were purchased from community nurseries and planted by local people, providing employment opportunities and vital income. Restoration experts from the Ecological Restoration Alliance of Botanic Gardens are also helping to improve planting practices so that more trees survive and grow better. An extensive network of firebreaks is maintained on the mountain to protect planted seedlings.\nFurthermore, international trade of the Mulanje cedar was restricted when the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (a multinational agreement often known as CITES) included the cedar on its list of species that are potentially threatened with extinction. Alternative sustainable uses of cedar are being investigated that could provide additional benefits to local people. Essential oils can be produced from the tree's wood and leaves, and researchers have investigated the components of this oil to identify commercial uses, like soaps. Communities around Mount Mulanje have planted Mulanje cedar hedges from which essential oil can be extracted, and distillation equipment and training are currently being provided. This effort offers local communities alternative incomes from the Mulanje cedar that don't damage Mount Mulanje or its plant resources. The conservation team also planted ex situ trial plots and woodlots elsewhere in Malawi. These actions aim to ensure the planted trees on the mountain remain safe for the long term.\nWhatever approach is taken to reduce threats, improve natural regeneration, or restore populations of the tree species, the full engagement and participation of local stakeholders is key to the success of all tree conservation initiatives. This ensures that the approach is appropriate to the local context, has local ownership and support, and is more likely to achieve a lasting impact.\nThreatened Trees in Restoration\nTrees capture carbon from the atmosphere a fact that has drawn increasing interest given that runaway levels of carbon dioxide are a significant driver of climate change. And trees are also essential components of many habitat-restoration projects. As a result, governments and organizations around the world are investing in large-scale tree planting. These tree-planting pledges and restoration projects provide an opportunity to deliver on conservation goals by incorporating threatened species into the planting plan. However, this opportunity is often missed; many tree-planting projects focus only on exotic species or, even in the case of restoration plantings, only a small number of native species.\nAt Jardim Bot\u00e2nico Ararib\u00e1, in the State of S\u00e3o Paulo, Brazil, a team has been working on a forest restoration project since 1987, intending to restore not only specific plant species but also the entire ecosystem. The efforts at the garden are an exemplar of how threatened species can be incorporated into a successful restoration program. The garden is situated on one of the few remaining fragments of Atlantic Forest. Despite the status of the Atlantic Forest as an important biodiversity hotspot, this forest type is recognized as one of the most degraded ecosystems on the planet. So far, the garden staff has restored about fifty acres (two-thirds of the site). Due to this restoration, headwaters that supply water to Amparo, the closest city, have reappeared. The restored forest protects the riverbanks, preventing silt build-up and protecting the river water.\nThe restoration plantings at Jardim Bot\u00e2nico Ararib\u00e1 feature threatened species, including the endangered brazilwood (Paubrasilia echinata) and another critically endangered species in the legume family, Chloroleucon tortum. The plants for the restoration are grown in partnership with a commercial nursery that also supplies these native tree seedlings to customers for planting in their local area. As a result, the species are becoming part of the local supply chain of native tree species in S\u00e3o Paulo.\nScaling Up Conservation Action\nWith such a vast number of trees at risk of extinction worldwide, a significant scaling up of conservation action is urgently needed. To increase effectiveness and avoid duplication of effort, tree conservationists should mobilize at national levels. It's also crucial to coordinate efforts around specific taxonomic groups, especially genera or families with a high number of threatened species. Species within the same taxonomic group share many characteristics, and they may be subject to the same or similar threats. Therefore, related species are likely to benefit from the same conservation actions.\nBGCI and the botanic garden community have established groups known as Global Conservation Consortia, which are developing comprehensive conservation strategies for highly threatened taxonomic groups identified by the Global Trees Assessment. The consortia aim to coordinate in situ and ex situ conservation efforts and disseminate species recovery knowledge. For example, the Global Conservation Consortium for Oak, led by The Morton Arboretum, mobilizes experts and local partners to conserve oaks, a culturally and economically important taxonomic group that cannot be protected in seed banks. As part of these efforts, the team has organized educational webinars, provided training on seed collection and species propagation, and coordinated regional meetings and workshops focused on filling knowledge gaps for species of conservation concern. To date, Global Conservation Consortia have been developed for six tree groups: oaks (Quercus), magnolias (Magnolia), rhododendrons (Rhododendron), maples (Acer), southern beeches (Nothofagus), and the dipterocarp family (Dipterocarpaceae). These groups include more than eight hundred threatened species, and the model is now also being applied to highly threatened non-tree groups.\nNational coordination of tree conservation efforts is also a valuable approach, as the collaborations in Kenya have demonstrated. The GlobalTree Portal allows tree conservationists to identify countries with high numbers of threatened tree species, especially those with high numbers of threatened endemics. These countries must be priorities for coordinated conservation. Indonesia, for instance, has almost seven hundred threatened tree species, with ongoing habitat- and species-level threats providing little chance for their recovery without dedicated conservation action. While many large-scale conservation programs are dedicated to the country's flagship animals (such as elephants, orangutans, and tigers) or to large areas of high-carbon forest, few initiatives are specifically designed around the conservation needs of individual threatened tree species in situ.\nThrough the Global Trees Campaign, FFI has successfully engaged the Indonesian government in threatened tree conservation. As a first step, FFI established the Indonesian Forum for Threatened Trees, a group of more than seventy members from at least thirty different institutions. The forum convinced the Ministry of Environment and Forestry to consider adding twelve threatened tree species to their list of priority species. So far, one of these trees, a critically endangered dipterocarp known as Vatica javanica ssp. javanica has become legally designated as a National Protected Species. In 2019, the Forum for Threatened Trees and the Indonesian Institute of Sciences published a ten-year national conservation strategy for the twelve priority species. At the same time, FFI also seeks to build capacity for organizations working on threatened trees and inspire new action for priority species.\nMobilizing a Global Community\nIn contrast to the numerous well-known flagship animal species, threatened trees have gained little attention from governments, funders, conservation organizations, the corporate sector, and the public. With 30 percent of tree species shown to be at risk of extinction, this needs to change. Tree conservation requires a concerted response from the global community, with all different regions and sectors engaging and taking action. Botanic gardens and arboreta are in a strategic position at the intersection of research, outreach, and conservation and can play a critical role in safeguarding the world's tree species. The urgency of the situation, however, requires an 'all hands on deck' approach.\nPolicymakers at all levels (global, national, and local) need to incorporate and prioritize threatened trees within legislative frameworks. Intergovernmental and international organizations need to promote and share data from the Global Tree Assessment with their networks and integrate threatened tree conservation into their programs. The corporate sector has an expanded role to play, particularly companies engaged in timber, agriculture, and extractive industries. Land managers, including governments, are key actors in securing critical habitat. Members of the conservation organizations need to prioritize threatened trees within their programs, supporting action on the ground and generating a higher profile for this issue. The tree-planting and habitat-restoration sector have an unrivaled opportunity to integrate threatened trees within their work, contributing significantly to saving species while meeting their other goals. There is a role, too, for the research community. Researchers are necessary for filling information gaps on threatened species and demonstrating the role of tree species diversity in ecosystem resilience. Moreover, there is a need for committed individuals global citizens who advocate on behalf of threatened trees. Now is the time to act."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Making of Arboretum Wespelaar","article_sequence":9,"start_page":44,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25767","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14ea36a.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"De Spoelberch, Philippe","article_content":"Whether an arboretum has ten trees or thousands, many of the same management concepts hold true. Yet new collectors often progress through trial and error, as though no one else had gone through the same process. I began raising trees from seed in my garden in the late 1960s. As with many mad collectors (no matter what is being collected), I started the whole thing without much forethought it just began one day. But I kept going and expanded the collection into neighboring woods and meadows. In 2003, I established Arboretum Wespelaar as an independent institution in a small village north of Brussels, Belgium.\nMy family had operated the Artois brewery for generations, so I was fortunate to have the means and the space to begin such a collection. (Artois is now part of Anheuser-Bush InBev, and we are today just long-term family shareholders.) I also had the opportunity of starting early, having good advice from my father, who loved trees, and I was curious and determined to know more. I remember my father kidding me because I did not immediately see the difference between a young beech (Fagus) and hornbeam (Carpinus) or, worse, a spruce (Picea) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga). I would not get caught again.\nI returned to Belgium in 1969, after getting a graduate degree in business administration from Columbia University, with 150 seedlings in a big bag. In those days, you could carry about anything on a plane. Most of the seedlings had germinated in a wooden Borden milk box on the terrace of my apartment in New York. I had collected others during a trip to California just before my return. Fifty years later, the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) from that trip are the tallest and girthiest trees on the estate and arboretum.\nWhile working as a young brewery salesman in my late twenties, I visited dozens of gardens and arboreta around the world. I started buying plants at local nurseries and then European specialist nurseries. The collection spread from the garden around my house (twenty-five acres) into what was to become the arboretum (eventually fifty acres). For the first twenty-five years, I had the help of a single gardener. Now, five-full time gardeners manage the arboretum and the nearby garden at Herkenrode. Over the years, we learned by doing.\nPreparing the Ground\nWhen we began, two kinds of areas were used: meadows and woodlands. Both needed some kind of intervention. I learned this at my expense. Our first foray into the woodlands was done without concern for honey fungus (Armillaria mellea), which causes root rot. As trees were cut to open vistas, we left stumps, and the fungus soon got the best of many choice plants. We did not make this mistake when extending the collections into the old oak wood now in the arboretum: All shrubs and undergrowth were removed with a rotary cutter and uprooted. All deadwood was removed. We did not have additional honey fungus problems, but this exercise did little for the soil structure. It took years before moles arrived, finally suggesting improvements in soil structure and aeration (performed by millions of worms).\nThe old meadows required a different approach. Cattle had trampled and compacted the soils. As a result, it was necessary to plow these areas before planting. In one case, we even allowed a local farmer to grow corn for two seasons. Without soil preparation, the plants sulk, never sending roots beyond the planting hole and eventually drowning there, at least in a flat part of the world like Flanders. After plowing, we created mounds and planted the trees upon them, allowing the water to drain. Initially, it looked as if I was trying to create a minigolf course, but visitors were kind enough to say that the whole thing was not too ridiculous. By now, the result is spectacular. You can easily see that the trees planted on mounds are at an advantage, and the movement in the terrain provides some visual appeal.\nSourcing the Plants\nI have long enjoyed plant propagation. Like many kids, I was fascinated with seeing seeds burst into growth. I was even scolded in school for growing wheat in the inkpot of my desk. The arboretum and the nearby gardens currently contain almost eleven thousand living accessions of woody plants. Of these, 50 percent were raised by us from seed, cuttings, and collected seedlings. Many originated from expeditions to the wild. My first trip was to Nepal in 1975, and successive annual trips (often with the International Dendrology Society) have targeted every possible temperate locale, from California to Hokkaido.\nWhen seeds arrive throughout the autumn and winter, we place them straight into the refrigerator. A numbered label is added to the individual bag and accompanies the seed through subsequent steps. The label is essential. (It is embarrassing to admit that you do not remember the origin of a beautiful plant.) The seed lots accumulate until March, when they are sown in pots. Of course, many seeds could be sown outside when they arrive (the cold, moist winter conditions are generally suitable for this), but mice will always find them and have a feast. Ungerminated seed pots should be allowed to go through another winter, because belated surprises can always be expected. Seedlings are repotted when big enough to withstand the shock (two or four true leaves above the cotyledon) but basically when we have the time. Seedlings can stay crowded in a pot for many months.\nAs a precaution, always split a collection of rare seeds into several lots and treat each set differently. Some twenty years ago, I received a hundred seeds of a recently discovered species of magnolia (Magnolia decidua, then known as Manglietia decidua) from China. I kept fifty seeds and distributed the others in equal sets to five good propagators and magnolia enthusiasts. One morning, I had a look at my tray and realized that a fungus had killed all fifty seedlings. I was hoping that my five colleagues would have succeeded. One had died; one did not remember receiving the seeds. Of the others, Tom Hudson (of Tregrehan Garden in Cornwall) and Dick Figlar (of the Magnolia Society International) had managed to grow the seedlings and are responsible for all specimens of this species in cultivation, including the one at Arboretum Wespelaar.\nCuttings are collected between the end of May until mid-August. Every time we purchase a plant, we immediately take cuttings, given that cuttings from young plants often root more easily. For example, I took cuttings on a young Magnolia 'Elizabeth' three years in a row; out of five cuttings taken each time on the first, second, and fourth year, we succeeded at propagating five, two, and then none. The winter months are hard for the cuttings; even perfectly rooted cuttings will decay under the attack of fungi. Healthy white roots go brown, and the base of the unhardened cuttings does too; the cutting dries up. We have not been very good at keeping our cuttings growing, but these losses can be a relief. We still end up with too many plants: some five hundred cuttings and seedlings every year, which will have to be looked after for another three to ten years.\nSmall seedlings can be collected along roads and edges of woodlands. These will travel well if kept in relatively dry moss, packed in plastic bags or plastic water bottles. (Obviously, you must be respectful of rules and legal restrictions.) We also purchase plants, mainly in pots. The smaller, the better. I have had much disappointment with large plants. Small plants are, of course, cheaper and can be grown to a good size in one of our nurseries until ready for final planting in the arboretum.\nPlanting the Landscape\nWe have used three temporary nurseries around the garden and arboretum. Good woodland soil and shade from large trees provide the ideal growing conditions for our small plants and seedlings. It is ideal to observe your plants until they have suffered a bad winter. It gives you the time to decide where to plant them. They will transplant with a good lump of soil (unlike the miserable peat ball with circling roots that you find at the average garden center). We have seldom failed in transplanting a young tree or shrub raised in these woodland nurseries. On the other hand, we have lost many plants in the first few years in these sites. But better there than in the grounds after an expensive effort at planting!\nWe rarely place a plant directly into its final location. Most spend as long as five years in the nurseries. Few people like the idea; it seems like double work. But I consider not taking this intermediate step to be a grave mistake. Many recently acquired plants will die, and given this reality, I like them to die in the nursery. I have often thought it would have been much better to collect art of any kind and, like a dendrologist, throw two-thirds of the collection away and enjoy the remaining successes. At least, works of art generally gain value over time, whereas aging trees become an expensive problem.\nWhen it comes time for siting the plants, we use a homegrown method involving playing cards. I do not know who came up with the idea, but we have used it for fifty years. We staple two sets of plasticized playing cards (reds and blues) onto plants in the nursery. The identity of the plant and its card is written up on a special form. A corresponding set of playing cards is placed on 104 bamboo sticks, which are reused for several years. We then take a walk through the grounds, staking locations for each of the plants. We aim to get rid of all the bamboo stakes while trying to remain intelligent and effective and still get home in time for dinner. It takes us, in general, up to five hours to place two sets of cards. Of course, we could write the plant's name on the stick, but it is much easier to spot the cards from a distance.\nWe often situate the plants in taxonomic groupings. So, when we're placing the bamboo stakes, we first attempt to place a viburnum, for instance, within the viburnum section. If there is no space left, we find room elsewhere. Obviously, you must know what condition the plant enjoys, how big it will become, and so forth. One becomes better at this with time, but the proper planting distance is always a terrible illusion. Someone once pointed out that when there was a gap between two trees and you add a young tree between them, you end up with two additional gaps. I must admit that I have found myself planting two new trees in such spaces. Discipline is essential.\nLarge trees should be planted at least fifty feet apart, yet we have many at half that distance. We will remove one of them in due course. Trees should not be planted near the edge of a woodland, or they will grow slanted. Likewise, groups of three an arrangement beloved by landscape architects should be avoided as none of the three will end up as a balanced specimen. (This is not a problem for shrubs and small trees.) These conservative approaches will make your arboretum look rather dull for many years, so you have to suffer the irony of friends and guests. Most do not understand what is going on. I like to think that I do not need to see my trees in old age; I know what they will look like. Other plant collectors are more impatient.\nCataloguing and Labeling\nWhen beginning a catalogue for a plant collection, it is a good idea to think carefully over what software to use and then leverage its capabilities to the greatest extent. These days, you may want to consider using relational database software, but a single spreadsheet can be equally effective. Take some time to sit down and think over the structure. Some curators will suggest that at least twenty fields are necessary, but I recommend a minimum of six: accession number, name, landscape location, source, date planted, and condition. Most people will also want a field for any supplementary information. The printed catalogue at Arboretum Wespelaar presently uses nine fields, out of some twenty in our Access database.\nAccession numbers are a difficult concept for beginning dendrologists. I do not know why. An accession number is no more than a simple and unique sequential number given to each plant that comes into the collection. You can give the same number to several plants provided they are from the same source, same age, and in the same location. But otherwise, give them unique sequential numbers, or you will soon regret it. Further, there is no reason to include the date within the accession number.\nOf course, everyone will want to know the age of a plant. Most curators will include the date of planting on the label, which is a good idea. But we made the mistake of including the date as part of the accession number: Our first plant bears accession number 66001, which means it was the first accession in 1966. This system was useful until the year 1999. With the millennium, we got in trouble, as the first plant of the new millennium was 00001. And it shows up first in any numbered list. We had to add two digits for the sequential listing.\nWhen it comes to the name, it is best to refer to a single accepted list, thereby avoiding spelling errors and nomenclatural issues. The Royal Horticultural Society's Plant Finder is probably the only document to be sufficiently comprehensive and regularly updated. Synonyms and taxonomic changes of names are clearly indicated in annual updates. It even includes cultivated varieties. Still, if you specialize in a certain taxon (like magnolias), you may want to use a recent monograph on that group.\nOnce this record-keeping is complete, then comes labeling the curator's nightmare. I have always had an average memory and have not relied on it to know anything. This is probably why I have been so determined to make sure that our plants are properly labeled. Our labels include the name and accession number and are made on a thick ribbon of white PET plastic cut to length and engraved with an automatic engraving machine (a Gravograph). Labels are inexpensive: we estimate that it cost us one euro to make a label with a reasonably long name.\nLabeling problems, however, are never far away. I learned plants while visiting arboreta and botanical gardens all over the world. As I explored these collections on my own, I would go to a plant, take a picture, and then search for a name. I would be exasperated if I did not find a label and sometimes astonished at the number of wrongly labeled plants I encountered. Even so, at Arboretum Wespelaar, one of our members on a study day was surprised to find a label stating Abies rufinerve on a new maple accession. (Abies, of course, is the genus of fir trees the tag should have read Acer rufinerve.) So problems occur even in the best houses.\nChange in the Collection\nArboretum Wespelaar, like any plant collection, is in a constant state of evolution. Not only do plants grow and die, but interests and goals shift as well, changing the landscape over time. Although I fell in love with conifers initially (my first plant was a white fir, Abies concolor, accessioned in 1966), I soon switched to deciduous trees, particularly maples. Around 1969, I went to a local nursery that had a seemingly good catalogue and proudly ordered one of each maple on their list. I soon found that my collection of some twenty maples was far from what the world had to offer. Would I have given up if I had realized that there were more than 120 species, along with hundreds of hybrids and cultivars? My subsequent loves were rhododendrons, magnolias, and stewartias, as proven by the number of those plants in the collection. Today, the team at the arboretum aims to acquire all of the main species in all important genera and in particular plants from wild origin.\nIt is clear that gardens, if well-curated, can contribute to the maintenance of biodiversity. The Franklin tree (Franklinia alatamaha) is a memorable example: although it went extinct in the wild in the early 1800s, the species survived in Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia. While conservation is an additional objective of Arboretum Wespelaar, our primary purpose is to ensure that people can study and learn to love plants. We have no shop, no cafeteria, and nothing for children. Dogs and joggers are not welcome. The result is that our visitors actually look at labels and take notes. I have always intended that the garden and then the arboretum should be open to the public, recognizing that I have benefited from the generosity of botanists, plant collectors, and gardeners who have opened their collections to me. In turn, it's my pleasure to welcome others and inspire them to see and know plants.\nOnce a year, usually in November, we have a difficult day when we deaccession trees, removing them from the collection. This year, we will likely deaccession around fifty plants. These are painful choices but very necessary. We have planted too much with the knowledge that we would have failures and that others wouldn't last. I am adamant that as many as possible of our trees should have lower branches on half of the crown. In due course, aesthetic considerations will always rule above other imperatives. Within a changing collection, it is always nice to have too many good things."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Time for Trees, A Time for Arboreta","article_sequence":10,"start_page":54,"end_page":57,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25764","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170856b.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Donnelly, Gerard","article_content":"Planting and watching trees grow takes time. A long time. The lifespan of a tree may be the equivalent of multiple human generations. This is the good and patient work of arboreta, which requires considerable time horizons to achieve many of their purposes. At The Morton Arboretum, in Lisle, Illinois, we call this 'tree time.' The time required to establish, test, and evaluate tree collections and develop beautiful, planted landscapes that inspire people's interest and appreciation is such that only long-term, multigenerational organizations like arboreta can undertake them.\nGiven these timescales, I like to say that it is good to be old if you are an arboretum. This year, The Morton Arboretum is celebrating its centennial year, having been established by Joy Morton in 1922. Morton had been encouraged and advised by Charles Sprague Sargent of the then-fifty-year-old Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. The Arnold Arboretum is celebrating its sesquicentennial year, founded in 1872, the same year Morton's father, J. Sterling Morton, established Arbor Day in Nebraska. The Arbor Day Foundation, created fifty years ago, in 1972, upon the Morton-family legacy of planting trees, is advocating for tree planting on the occasion of its anniversary with a theme of 'A Time for Trees.'\nThe time for trees has arrived. There has never been a time when recognition of the value of trees and tree planting was greater than it is today. Trees are being planted globally at scale to sequester carbon and cool the planet. There is widespread appreciation for the ecosystem services that trees provide in urban areas by filtering air pollution, cooling hot cities, and mitigating stormwater pulses. Numerous scientific studies show how trees contribute to human health and well-being.\nYet time has not been good for trees over the past 50, 100, and 150 years. Burgeoning human activities have drastically reduced the size and health of the world's forests as well as the diversity of trees and myriad other organisms that depend on them. In addition, climate change is already impacting trees through altered weather patterns, violent storms and floods, drought, and ravaging forest fires. Trees long-lived, stationary organisms are highly susceptible to climate change because growing conditions are changing at rates that can stress and exceed tolerances and adaptability within their lifetime.\nHow serious is the threat? The recent State of the World's Trees report by Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) is alarming. Based on the organization's Global Trees Assessment involving contributions from arboreta across the globe, including The Morton Arboretum, the report documented that 30 percent of the 58,497 known tree species in the world are threatened with extinction.\nWith the majority of the world's population now living in cities, urban forests are recognized as key assets to ensure healthful, sustainable, and climate-resilient communities. However, urban centers are challenging settings for trees to grow in and survive, let alone flourish and contribute their full complement of benefits to people, communities, and the environment. Also, trees and their benefits are not equitably distributed across urban landscapes they often reflect the disparities of resources and human demographics.\nClimate change, tree extinction, tree planting, urban forestry, and environmental justice are significant challenges that all arboreta can play a key role in addressing. But the magnitude of these issues requires the power of coordinated collaboration to have a meaningful impact. No single arboretum can do it alone.\nFor this reason and others, ten years ago, The Morton Arboretum established ArbNet as a global network of arboreta. By working together, arboreta can be better equipped to champion the cause of trees. ArbNet has identified more than 2,100 arboreta in 133 countries, all of which have a common purpose of collecting and showcasing the diversity of trees and promoting their planting and conservation.\nArbNet offers an arboretum accreditation program that recognizes standards of professional practice at four different levels of institutional capacity, encouraging the achievement of higher levels of development over time. Lockerly Arboretum in Milledgeville, Georgia, provides a good example. Initially accredited at level two in 2017, Lockerly used ArbNet accreditation standards to set development goals, including the creation of a new horticultural internship program and expanding participation in scientific research. Upon meeting these goals, Lockerly achieved level-three accreditation in 2021. ArbNet helps member institutions exchange information, expertise, and models that others can use or adapt for their purposes.\nClimate change threatens trees as well as the arboreta that maintain living collections of them. Arboreta need to conduct tree performance evaluations and risk assessments to prepare for predicted changes in growing conditions. We also need adaptation strategies that include relocating species, varieties, or specimens to arboreta with more suitable future growing conditions. ArbNet can play a key role in this. Rather than have such exchanges handled variably on a case-by-case basis, an organized system and standardized process are needed to optimize these adaptive plans. The Morton Arboretum envisions a coordinated climate adaptation strategy and program for trees among the arboreta and tree-focused gardens in North America.\nArbNet's interactive network also provides an opportunity to test tree science questions using a 'common garden' approach at arboreta in different growing zones and environmental conditions. One example of this approach is a North Dakota State University study to evaluate adaptive variation among sets of genetically identical poplars (Populus) growing at eighteen arboretum and university sites across the United States (including the Lockerly Arboretum). Researchers are using whole-genome sequencing and climate modeling to predict how plants will respond to different climate conditions in the future and inform management approaches to build climate resiliency.\nTo halt the extinction of threatened tree species, arboreta must commit institutional resources and staff expertise. We must coordinate with one another on targeted tree conservation efforts, including through programs like the Global Conservation Consortia organized by BGCI. A prominent example is the Global Conservation Consortium for Oak led by The Morton Arboretum in collaboration with BGCI and dozens of arboreta and other partners involved in oak conservation. No single arboretum or garden can or should conserve all the world's threatened oak species, so a coordinated, global effort is needed. As part of these efforts, The Morton Arboretum is establishing conservation groves on-site for two threatened species from the southeastern United States: Georgia oak (Quercus georgiana) and maple-leaved oak (Quercus acerifolia). Over tree time in 50, 100, or 150 years curators will use these collections to ensure that the species are safeguarded from extinction risks, and researchers will study what can be done to help them survive in nature.\nTree planting has risen to the forefront as a solution to blunt global climate change, given the ability of trees to sequester carbon from the atmosphere. Yet large-scale tree plantings for carbon sequestration often take the form of low-diversity tree plantations or forestry plantings that do nothing to protect tree biodiversity; they may even diminish it. Arboreta must lend their expertise in tree diversity, planting, and horticulture to improve approaches for carbon-focused tree planting and reforestation efforts. A new global biodiversity standard for large-scale tree plantings being introduced by BGCI will position arboreta and other botanical gardens as key resources to achieve these essential outcomes, ensuring effective carbon capture in addition to not at the expense of biodiversity conservation.\nArboreta also have an important role to play in supporting objectives to plant trees in urban environments to ameliorate heat, filter pollutants, mitigate stormwater flooding, and lower energy costs. Urban forests also add beauty and improve social cohesion, human health, and well-being. Arboreta know how to cultivate trees in designed and managed landscapes, but they must assert their involvement and influence with municipal planners, engineers, and landscape architects to enhance opportunities to develop healthy and sustainable urban tree canopies.\nWhen arboreta partner with community organizations and local government agencies, they can play a meaningful role in addressing the disparities in people's access to the environmental and health-related benefits of a thriving urban forest. Although this issue was not at the forefront of efforts by arboreta or botanical gardens fifty or one hundred years ago, arboreta should now actively seek funding (or commit their own resources) for equity-focused tree plantings that engage residents in participatory planning and provide training for tree planting and care. Arboreta can partner with tree nurseries and growers to provide not only the diversity of suitable trees needed for urban conditions but also at the sizes that can be managed in community and volunteer planting efforts.\nFurthermore, and aligned with the goal to engage and serve a broader spectrum of the public, arboreta must actively foster and support career paths associated with the work of an arboretum to new and different groups of people. Only with a diversified pipeline of tree experts, curators, scientists, horticulturists, conservationists, and educators will arboreta fully serve the public good.\nArboreta, with their beautiful trees and landscapes, attract a substantial public audience and provide immersive experiences and learning moments about the value of trees and nature. These are opportunities to register tree time the time it takes for a tree to reach its full potential over 50, 100, or even 150 years. These long timelines require commitments to tree planting for future generations, sustained efforts to protect them and their growing environment, and actions to address climate change and other tree threats.\nThe grand challenges of our time related to trees require arboreta and tree-focused botanical gardens to collaborate actively. Together, these institutions can achieve more meaningful and successful impacts, engaging their vast collective audience to encourage people to plant and advocate for trees and a more sustainable world. The year 2022 is certainly a time for trees and for arboreta."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Strangeness of Trees","article_sequence":11,"start_page":58,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25763","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d1708528.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"The general form of a tree trunk, branches, twigs, leaves is so commonplace as to be completely unremarkable. Trees inhabit spaces that most of us experience daily, and, in fact, they often create those spaces. A low, widespread, and rather twisting elm stretches its branches over the patio of a cafe, not far from my apartment. It forms an enchanted ceiling, especially in the spring, when the samaras alight in the branches. Any tree we encounter is likewise defining its space. We move around them, beneath them, and sometimes even upon them. We're so familiar with trees that, for some of us, they feature in our earliest memories. In my case, it was a ten-foot-tall apple tree in a neighbor's backyard. (I filled a bucket with the forbidden fruit and was ordered to return it with an apology.) For Emanuele Coccia, an associate professor at the \u0192cole des Hautes \u0192tudes en Sciences Sociales, it was a trio of Italian umbrella pines viewed from the balcony of his childhood bedroom. He calls them his 'first image of the world.'\nCoccia recounts this memory in Trees, a book designed for an exhibit of the same name at Fondation Cartier, a contemporary art museum in Paris. The large-format book, published in an English translation, is the kind that you might see stacked on a coffee table in a furniture catalogue. It's filled with almost five hundred images, including field sketches, conceptual paintings, and film stills. Often, when parsing meaning from an artistic depiction of a tree, we turn to a standard suite of metaphors. We see the ancient oak, gnarled and twisted, as a symbol of endurance and solidity. We see a small tree growing from broken concrete as a reminder of perseverance. Scholars might examine specific depictions through the lens of post-colonial studies or otherwise. Yet many of the writers and artists who contribute to Trees suggest that, first and foremost, we must acknowledge trees' status as living beings, reconsidering the strangeness of their too-familiar forms.\nStefano Mancuso, the Italian biologist who is a prominent figure in the controversial field of 'plant intelligence,' leads this charge, pointing out the bizarro ingenuity of plant life. 'Like the negative of a photo, what is white in the animal world is black in the plant world,' he writes. 'Organisms that are so different from us that, as far as we are concerned, they may as well be aliens that evolved on a different planet.' Mancuso enumerates many of the differences between the lifestyles of plants and animals, including differences pertaining to movement, of course, and our inverse needs for carbon dioxide and oxygen. He emphasizes one difference as especially noteworthy: the distribution of specialized functions. While almost all animals have organs that cannot be separated from the rest of the body, plants spread these functions across their form in repeating modules. Plants, for instance, respire without organs that resemble lungs. They digest food without anything that resembles a stomach. Given this functional distribution, a Kentucky coffeetree can lose a large branch from a lightning strike (another one of my early childhood memories) yet retain its ability to produce the organic compounds needed to continue living.\nThis phenomenon of distribution, Mancuso suggests, can cause us to discount the liveliness of plants. We recognize that plants are living organisms, yet we see little of ourselves in their structure. Although we know that plants die, many of us aren't exactly sure what it means for them to be alive. Distribution, we come to recognize, is fundamental to the forms featured in Trees.\nAmong the most maximalist works in the book are Luiz Zerbini's large-scale paintings that situate trees within a jumble of urban textures. Zerbini's Mam\u00e3o Manilha shows a potted papaya (Carica papaya) growing alongside several bromeliads. Two papaya leaves sag along its trunk, preparing to join another that has already dropped to the ground. Above them, a bird opens one of several fruits, revealing the orange flesh and black seeds within, and above that, white flowers appear in large, loose clusters. The painting not only captures the modular form of the plant each leaf, each fruit, ultimately destined to be shed it also captures how this disposability becomes central to a web of other biotic interactions. The pot suggests that a human had grown the papaya in anticipation of the fruit, yet, in a war of attractions, a bird won the harvest. A series of leaf scars along the papaya's trunk also reminds us of the seasons of growth and disposal that have led to this moment. The painting is a composite an imagined place yet the plant seems to be a singular individual, forging an existence that is less than glamorous but nonetheless alive.\nThe book also includes works by Indigenous artists from several regions in South America, including the Gran Chaco, the semiarid plain that sprawls between the Paraguay River and the Andes. The works from this region are ink and paper drawings, and almost all capture interactions among trees and other organisms. A fascinating untitled work by Eurides Asque G\u2014mez shows lines of leafcutter ants trailing into their volcanic burrows carrying leaves of algarrobo trees (Prosopis nigra). The ants, in turn, are shown being picked off by partridges. According to the artist, who is quoted in an essay by Ursula and Verena Regehr, the partridges nest in grasses between the algarrobo, knowing that the ants are partial to the young leaves. Meanwhile, an ovenbird has built its nest in one tree, and birds perch on the branches of another. In this way, G\u2014mez showcases not only the modular, throw-away nature of the trees' emerging leaves a solution to being immobile targets for predators but the way that their modular structures become essential to other organisms.\nMoreover, Trees is a testament to the ways these omnipresent forms shape the lives of humans. G\u2014mez and other artists often include people in the web of arboreal interactions depicted in their art. An atmospheric scientist, Abigail Swann, describes how trees influence climate, choreographing weather patterns a fact among many in the book that reminds us that our disregard for the imperiled state of trees may precipitate our own demise. Yet, on a personal level, the artists and essayists are, themselves, residing among trees, sometimes building livelihoods around their forms. The ensemble of individuals includes landscape designers, a mathematician, the film director Agn\u008fs Varda, the American artist Charles Gaines, and many others.\nYet it is the botanist Francis Hall\u00e9 whose lifelong engagement with trees is most clearly documented in the pages. Hall\u00e9 offers forth drawings from field notebooks, prepared in rainforests around the world: Sri Lanka, C\u00f4te d'Ivoire, Peru, and elsewhere. In some sense, these field sketches represent the leaves of Hall\u00e9's career, collected and pressed within the covers of dozens of notebooks that he has labeled by date and location. 'You quickly realize that the shape of a tree, even when young is never random,' Hall\u00e9 says in an interview with Coccia. 'Each species has its own 'architectural model,' that is, a tree's growth and development follow a genetic program.'\nHall\u00e9's drawings endeavor to capture these unique forms. Among his most impressive works is a large drawing on tracing paper titled Forest Profile, which depicts dozens of trees growing in relationship with one another in French Guiana. He provides two views of the forest: from the side (a cross-section that shows the complex layering of tree canopies) and from above (showing the locations of the tree trunks and the spread of their branches). Even in this schematic form, Hall\u00e9 captures each individual's species-specific, non-random shape. His empirical approach seems like it would produce results that are more like traditional scientific illustrations, often beautiful but unsurprising. Yet through his careful attention to detail, and the disambiguation of these overlapping forms, Hall\u00e9 captures what many of the other artists in Trees likewise reveal: the strange reality of the still lives of trees."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gardens for All","article_sequence":12,"start_page":60,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25765","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170896e.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mack, MaryLynn","article_content":"As an African American woman who has worked in public gardens for the past eighteen years, I often experienced firsthand the need for greater diversity. The lack of inclusion in the workspace is not an issue exclusive to public gardens, but it should be noted that many public gardens in the United States were founded by white people and many are primarily staffed by white people, despite being located in communities of color. Like many of my friends and colleagues in other industries, I was often asked to be the representative for all people of color when discussing inclusion, diversity, equity, and access (a set of issues often known as IDEA). Being the 'only' in a room was disconcerting, but it also gave me access and opportunity to speak on important matters and empowered me to do my own self-reflection, do my own research, and do my best to connect and engage with as many communities as possible.\nOver my years working in gardens, I found myself having conversations with employees at other botanic gardens and arboreta who also served communities not reflected in their boards, staff, and volunteers. I may have been an 'only' in my workspace, but I was far from alone to bring forward the need for change. The American Public Gardens Association (APGA) also had conversations with its members and took the call to action to begin a more authentic discussion about the bias, barriers, and baggage in our industry. APGA is the leading professional organization for the field of public horticulture. Members include more than ten thousand individuals at over six hundred institutions, in all fifty states, the District of Columbia, Canada, and twenty other countries. The organization's primary goals are to encourage best practices, offer educational opportunities, and advocate for members, so this dialogue was a crucial step toward action for public gardens as a whole.\nIn 2016, a group of eleven truth-seekers scheduled a phone meeting to talk about diversity and inclusion. This group wasn't appointed, but we were individuals who had asked questions or nudged the association to 'do something.' We represented generational, ethnic, gender, racial, and sexual-orientation diversity and worked in gardens throughout the United States. Only a handful held a high-level leadership position in their respective gardens. This inaugural group spent the first twenty minutes dissecting the definition of diversity. Through that process of discovery, we unearthed the varying degrees of knowledge, the chasm of feelings and opinions, and a quick understanding of just how different we all felt on how to move forward. While at times uncomfortable, we realized that within that uncomfortable space, we could reflect on our own bias. Thus began a year-long exploration of reading diversity articles, untangling historical perspectives steeped in garden history, and having informal chats about our own experiences while serving public gardens. The work was difficult and sometimes frustrating, without a guidebook of boxes to check.\nIt is important to note that regardless of where gardens and their staff stand in their work towards inclusion and diversity, everyone must start by addressing what they do not know. Starting with a garden's history, for example, gardens should bring to light what the land was before, and who lived on it and cared for it. One resource that is especially helpful when exploring this issue is a book, edited by Duane Blue Spruce and Tanya Thrasher, titled The Land Has Memory: Indigenous Knowledge, Native Landscapes, and the National Museum of the American Indian. It speaks to the rich history and contribution of indigenous people to the land in the Americas and is a thoughtful representation of how traditional Indigenous ways should be put into practice by cultural institutions.\nIncreasing individual knowledge in these and other areas is crucial. This work helps combat the collective unawareness that exists when members of a group believe that others in their group hold comparably more or less extreme attitudes, beliefs, or behaviors. The term 'unawareness' is not meant to disparage the work currently happening in gardens but is a reminder that the work needs to start with recognizing that the struggles of communities of color are not new. Allies must take advantage of resources that include research reports, academic studies, and courageous conversations that bring to light past disparities.\nAfter a year of self and group discovery, the IDEA committee made plans to involve the membership at the APGA conference held in Hamilton, Ontario. Our inaugural session was scheduled for eight in the morning on Saturday, a tough time slot since it was the last day of a week-long conference and the morning after the traditional evening farewell celebration. We were nervous and truly had no idea how our stories and messages would be received. The agenda was informal: committee members had decided to simply introduce the topic of diversity and share personal experiences. With a mere five minutes before the session started, we had to request more chairs the room was already packed. What happened next showed us that public gardens were ready and eager for change.\nIn that crowded room, we had executive directors of large gardens, first-time attendees, educators, gardeners, and outreach coordinators who worked directly in their local communities. We listened, shared personal vulnerabilities, and publicly accepted a challenge to move forward in the work. Many conversations continued in the corridor after the session. We were all so excited, but we all had the question: What in the world needed to happen next?\nInclusion and diversity work is often slower than people might hope for. It takes time to develop authentic relationships, actively listen, and recognize that every public garden has different obstacles to overcome. It also takes time to build trust. Patrick Lencioni, author of Five Dysfunctions of a Team, writes about this, describing team-building steps that also work when creating a more inclusive environment. The fear of being vulnerable is often a barrier when speaking on matters of race, diversity, and equity, yet showing vulnerability builds trust in conversation and in relationships. Asking questions that allow people of color a safe space to share their experiences of microaggressions, gaslighting, and other forms of bias are first steps toward changes needed in the workspace and the garden.\nA few years ago, I had the opportunity to speak on diversity and inclusion at the Botanic Gardens Conservation International Congress in Warsaw, Poland. During the open time for questions, one attendee expressed his concern when broaching a conversation about race with someone in the workplace. This person was afraid of using the wrong words, saying the wrong thing, or inadvertently offending a colleague. We discussed the need to acknowledge your own bias and privilege, but then I ended by stating that you just need to 'step in it.' Not my most eloquent moment, especially since I was attempting to encourage this person to step bravely toward having the conversation rather than becoming immobilized and missing an opportunity to have an authentic exchange. Yet that became my tagline and the start of many meaningful conversations for the duration of the conference. This work is messy, imperfect, wonderful, and needed.\nMany public garden leaders have embraced this need for diversity and inclusion and entered into the work with vulnerability and passion. Brian Vogt has built a framework that infuses IDEA throughout every aspect of Denver Botanic Garden's operation, where he is the chief executive officer. For over ten years, the garden has devoted themselves to IDEA principles with board and staff committees, as well as extensive relationship development resulting in eighty partner organizations. When describing their approach at the garden, Vogt notes how they 'emphasize the power, not the pain, of IDEA work.' Today, their visitors reflect the diversity of their community as does the board itself, which is now 40 percent non-white. These changes have resulted in programming that lifts up diverse voices, exhibits, and communications.\u00caVogt further emphasizes, 'Don't get distracted authentic diversity and inclusion work makes\u00caeverything\u00cabetter.'\nOther gardens initially take an external approach and achieve sustainable results. Bruce Harkey, the president and chief executive officer of Franklin Park Conservatory and Botanical Gardens in Columbus, Ohio, led an effort to improve the quality of life in the community by creating neighborhood-based outreach and educational programming. One recent example is the conservatory's participation in the HeART of the Protest, where the King Arts Complex produced forty-six days of artistic projects to honor the forty-six years of George Floyd's life. Franklin Park Conservatory hosted performances by dancer Candice Igeleke and musician K. Daniel. These events presented new work that focused on telling the story of Black Americans, from slavery to present day. Franklin Park recently added an internal focus: the board, leadership team, and staff work in unison to honestly assess their diversity, equity, and inclusion status. They then set goals and objectives for measurable improvements.\nThese and countless other examples show that our gardens are embracing change. After APGA's initial group session in Hamilton, members expressed a growing interest to hear and do more when it came to IDEA principles and practices. The following year, in 2018, when the IDEA committee presented at the Southern California conference in a capacity-filled ballroom, it became apparent we were more than ready to make inclusion a collective goal. The next year, in Washington, DC, the entire conference theme was Diversity. This resulted in a week-long conference filled with panel discussions, lectures, and facilitated sessions surrounding topics about diversity, equity, accessibility, and inclusion in our gardens and beyond.\nOne key moment happened during our very first IDEA Caf\u017d, a keynote luncheon where a group of esteemed panelists talked about their own experiences in public gardens. One of the panelists was in a wheelchair and needed to use the elevator to get backstage. With mere moments before the group was to take center stage in front of an audience of hundreds, the hotel manager received a radio call that the elevator was stuck with our panelist inside! The situation was rectified but we decided to use what happened as a teaching moment. This was an example of how accessibility issues are always present and can impact a person's experience in significant ways. These shared experiences and conversations inspired us to build systems and best practices for the APGA sustainability index, gather feedback and success stories from gardens, and provide encouragement for those gardens who are just beginning to address these issues.\nI smile recalling Brian Vogt's charge to 'embrace the work of diversity and inclusion joyfully.' It is good advice. While our work with inclusion will never be done, the past two years have taught us that collective resilience and embracing change will sustain us along this journey. As I think about the diversity of plants in my garden, which experience stress and environmental adversity year after year, I'm amazed by how they somehow adapt and persevere through it all. They are resilient, and so are we."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Balling and Burlapping","article_sequence":13,"start_page":64,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25766","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d14ea326.jpg","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Copeland, Chris","article_content":"Transplanting is a delicate process that ideally occurs during dormancy, at the beginning or end of the growing season. In the Arnold Arboretum's nurseries, we use traditional methods to ball and burlap our field-grown trees. To preserve the proper ratio between roots and shoots, we measure the diameter of the trunk: for every inch, we need a minimum root-ball diameter of fifteen inches. Because we cannot input every factor into an equation, we also exercise judgment, accounting for the tree's height and the anatomy of its root system.\nOnce we have determined the diameter, we sever the roots with a sharp spade and excavate a trench. The root ball should be deep enough to ensure that taproots are retained at least 65 percent the diameter. We shave away excess soil to minimize transport weight. The exposed root ball is wrapped with burlap and secured with sisal, using a drum-lacing pattern. We carefully rock the tree, freeing it from the soil below. At this point, the tree is ready to go."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25759","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d170b726.jpg","title":"2022-79-1","volume":79,"issue_number":"1","year":2022,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reimagined","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25736","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25e856a.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"This issue of Arnoldia is devoted primarily to the world of nineteenthcentury horticulture and botany, the milieu that shaped the Arnold Arboretum upon its founding in 1872. Yet, in some sense, the issue also represents the culmination of a twentieth-century vision for the magazine itself. Next year, as part of the Arnold Arboretum's sesquicentennial celebration, Arnoldia will relaunch with a structure and approach that is dynamic and distinctly modern. The magazine will still appear in print every quarter and serve as a definitive source for novel and interdisciplinary research on trees, shrubs, and landscapes. Yet, an updated format will allow for new points of access\u2014new kinds of content. In the context of modern publishing, the production of a magazine like Gardener's Monthly, which began in Philadelphia in 1859, seems almost inconceivable. Its editor, Thomas Meehan, would have exchanged feedback with authors on handwritten manuscripts. That much can be expected. More miraculous was the printing. The final manuscript would have been typeset by hand, each page composed of thousands of individual lead characters. Once a page was complete, a proofreader would review a test copy, marking errors as an assistant read the original manuscript aloud. According to a detailed account of the process for producing Harper's Magazine, outlined in 1865, the initial proofs were often rife with errors. After all, the compositor prepared everything backward, in the inverse of the printed page. After corrections and additional proofing, the process would continue to the individuals responsible for operating the presses, folding machines, and so on\u2014an elaborate, labor-intensive coordination of both mechanical and human power.1 The Arnold Arboretum's first foray into magazine publishing was a monthly titled Garden and Forest. It debuted in 1888, weeks after Gardener's Monthly ended. Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arboretum, oversaw the magazine for its ten-year run, but the editorial offices were in New York, a few blocks from the printer: Harpers and Brothers. (Harper's Magazine was produced in the same building.) Arnoldia was born as The Bulletin of Popular Information in 1911, and for the next fifty-nine years, the periodical was typeset by hand, using the same basic method employed for Gardener's Monthly. The final person to perform the tedium of creating Arnoldia word by word, line by line was Howard Allgaier, the printer for the Harvard University Botanical Museum. Allgaier began producing the publication in 1933, at the behest of Oakes Ames, the supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum. Ames, a bibliophile, was known to say that \"a botanist's research should be a jewel worthy of a proper setting.\"2 Ames also widened the purview of the Bulletin. For its first two decades, the periodical had focused almost entirely on plants growing at the Arnold Arboretum, but in 1931, the format shifted to standalone, topical articles. Ames wrote several of these, including one on the botanical drawings of John Singer Sargent. Arnoldia Reimagined Jonathan Damery Facing page: In the early 1930s, when Arnoldia was still known as The Bulletin of Popular Information, an interdisciplinary spirit emerged that continues to inspire the magazine today. Blanche Ames provided its first contemporary illustrations. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM His wife, Blanche Ames, began supplying botanical artwork of her own. The following year, their son coauthored an article about searching for beach plums (Prunus maritima) from an airplane. Authors would follow their wide-ranging lead. The name of the publication changed to Arnoldia in 1941, but otherwise, the structure and general approach remained the same. In 1970, Arnoldia relaunched under the production of a new printer, the Harvard University Printing Office. At least through the end of the decade, Arnoldia was produced on \"hot type\" machines, which meant that the words were input on a keyboard and cast from lead on the spot.3 This mechanical process had emerged almost a century before, but perhaps owing to the relatively simple one-article format of Arnoldia, it had remained feasible for Allgaier to continue setting the type by hand. The change in printers coincided with a dramatic reimagining of Arnoldia\u2014a project overseen by Stephanne Sutton, who took over the publication upon the retirement of Donald Wyman, the editor for twenty-nine years.4 The 1970 redesign was more than a visual makeover; it also brought new storytelling approaches. The 1960s is often considered an era of innovation in magazine publishing. Large general-interest magazines experienced circulation declines, attributed to the rise of television. (For instance, Life, which once claimed to reach the hands of one in four American adults, ceased publication in 1972.) At the same time, special-interest magazines began to proliferate.5 The redesign of In 1970, Arnoldia was reimagined as a special-interest magazine with multiple features per issue. The current logotype of Arnoldia debuted at the end of 1982. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Arnoldia 5 Arnoldia firmly repositioned the magazine within this new publishing context. While Arnoldia had long hosted a diverse mix of subjects, authored mainly by horticultural professionals, it would thereafter contain multiple articles per issue and showcase a glossy image on the cover. Over the next five decades, Arnoldia went through several visual updates. Among those milestones: the current logotype and dimensions debuted in 1982, and the first color photographs appeared on the interior pages in 2001. Behind the scenes, the modes of production changed dramatically, but our graphic designer, Andrew Winther, skillfully maintained the visual continuity. He began working on the magazine in 1986, while in the art department at the Office of the University Publisher. At that point, the office used offset lithography, and the printing plates were created from photographic negatives of the text and images. By the early 1990s, Winther began designing the layouts on a computer, and ultimately, every aspect of prepress production has gone digital as well. Despite these changes, the basic architecture introduced in 1970 has endured, with each issue composed primarily of several long-form features. In 2022, when the redesigned Arnoldia launches, the feature articles that have long defined Arnoldia will remain central to each issue. But in the opening pages, we will provide a new, distinctive space for shorter narratives that capture behind-thescenes experiences of working with plants in the twenty-first century. We're also adding space for letters, to foster a public dialogue with you, our readers. In the back, we're creating a department composed of essays and opinions. We'll also incorporate contemporary artwork throughout the magazine, building on the legacy established by Blanche Ames ninety years ago. With the first issue of Garden and Forest, published on February 29, 1888, Sargent and the other creators described their commitment to sharing \"noteworthy discoveries\" in the realm of science and horticultural practice. They promised that the magazine would \"place scientific information clearly and simply before the public, and make available for the instruction of all persons interested in garden plants the conclusions reached by the most trustworthy investigators.\" Articles would cover landscape gardening, forest conservation, entomology, and more. The authors would deal both in history and news. Here, looking into 2022, we're doubling down on these longstanding commitments. Expect the first issue to arrive in March 2022. Notes 1 Guernsey, A. H. 1865, December. Making the magazine. Harper's New Monthly Magazine, 32(187): 1-31. 2 Allgaier, H. J. 1984. The printing shop. Botanical Museum Leaflets, Harvard University, 30(1): 48-50. 3 Ashton, P. S. 1980. The director's report: The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1980. Arnoldia, 40(6): 238-293. 4 Howard, R. A. 1970. The director's report: The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1970. Arnoldia, 30(6), 201-250. 5 Abrahamson, D. and Polsgrove, C. 2009. The right niche: Consumer magazines and advertisers. In D. P. Nord, J. S. Rubin, & M. Schudson (Eds.), A history of the book in America: Volume 5: The enduring book, print culture in postwar America (pp. 107-118). University of North Carolina Press. Jonathan Damery is the editor of Arnoldia."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Trees of the Silent Dell","article_sequence":2,"start_page":6,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25737","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25e896d.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Barnett, David","article_content":"A cemetery, by nature, is a place where the past is always present. On September 1, 2021, I retired from Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, on the twenty-eighth anniversary of the day I started employment there. I had arrived in 1993 as the director of horticulture, having a background in public garden management and degrees in horticulture and ecology. At first, I only noticed the natural landscape and the spectacular collection of trees. Mount Auburn, after all, occupies a unique space in the history of American landscape design: It served as inspiration for other pastoral cemeteries in the mid-nineteenth century and, subsequently, for urban green spaces like Central Park and the Emerald Necklace. I didn't initially focus on the monuments and the other \"cemetery\" aspects of Mount Auburn. About two years after my arrival, I gave a tour of Mount Auburn to Richard Harris, my major professor from graduate school at the University of California, Davis, who had authored a textbook on arboriculture. We stopped in Consecration Dell, a natural amphitheater in the center of the cemetery, where paths on the shaded slopes overlook a small pond. I explained that we had just initiated a project to restore this area to the woodland habitat that existed when the cemetery was founded in 1831. In fact, Mount Auburn's first president, Joseph Story, delivered his consecration address in this very location, noting the importance of natural beauty when mourning loved ones. \"What spot,\" he asked, \"can be more appropriate than this, for such a purpose.\" I described how the restoration would require a phased approach to remove all exotic plants, especially invasive species such as Norway maple (Acer platanoides), and replace them entirely with native species of trees, shrubs, and woodland groundcovers. I felt proud to describe to my mentor how the restoration plan would allow me to put into practice ecological management concepts that I had studied in graduate school. We happened to be standing next to a spectacular Japanese stewartia (Stewartia pseudocamellia) planted in 1939. I noted that we would not remove the stewartia just because it was an introduced species, but that, when the stewartia eventually died, we would replace it with a native. I also pointed out that the stewartia had a memorial plaque on it with the name and birth and death dates of a woman who had recently passed away. As we talked, a woman who had been walking nearby came up to introduce herself. She was the daughter of the woman memorialized on the tree plaque. She told me that the family had chosen to purchase the plaque because Consecration Dell was one of her mother's favorite spots. The woman said she visited frequently to think about her mother and thanked me for making Mount Auburn\u2014and Consecration Dell itself\u2014such a beautiful, uplifting, and inspirational place. From that day forward, my relationship with the landscape changed. Talking to the woman beneath the stewartia, I came to understand the significance of Mount Auburn as a cemetery and the importance of serving our \"clients\" with compassion and sensitivity. The entire staff understands this\u2014it is embedded in our culture. My colleagues have all had interactions with visiting family members similar to the one I experienced that day. These encounters motivate us to continue achieving the high standards of maintenance of the grounds\u2014from the trees and gardens to the monuments and other built structures\u2014in order to ensure that Mount Auburn Cemetery remains the beautiful and inspirational place that Joseph Story and the rest of our founders envisioned in 1831. The successful restoration of the native woodland in Consecration Dell over the twenty-five years since that memorable conversation has been one of the highlights of my career. In place The Trees of the Silent Dell David Barnett Consecration Dell represents a nearly two-hundred-year-old vision for the naturalistic landscape at Mount Auburn Cemetery. PHOTO BY THE AUTHOR; MAP FROM HARVARD MAP COLLECTION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY of the Norway maples and other invasive species that we removed, hundreds of native trees and shrubs and thousands of ferns and woodland groundcovers now provide a valuable habitat for the birds, salamanders, and other wildlife residents of Mount Auburn. And yes, the magnificent stewartia remains as well. I like to think that the landscape looks just like \"the hill and the valley, the still, silent dell, and the deep forest\" that Joseph Story described so long ago. David Barnett was appointed president and CEO of Mount Auburn Cemetery in 2008. He retired from that position in 2021 confident that the course has been charted for a bright and successful future as an active cemetery, a historically significant cultural landscape, and a model of environmental stewardship."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Nauvoo Rose on Temple Square","article_sequence":3,"start_page":8,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25738","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160a325.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Henrichsen, Esther Truitt","article_content":"\"She brought it from Nauvoo, Illinois, to Salt Lake City in a teapot,\" my boss, Peter Lassig, told me. It was the spring of 1980, and we were standing in a quiet corner of Temple Square, in the heart of Salt Lake City. Before us, a small, unglamorous rose was beginning to produce its small, deep-red flowers. Peter had asked me to transplant it to a historic home garden, two blocks away. The rose was growing within a collection of special plants protected by the warmth and shade of a fifteen-foot wall made of adobe and sandstone that surrounds the square. Peter explained that the rose came from a woman named Elizabeth Hubble. \"She walked the thirteen hundred miles from Nauvoo,\" he said, \"but her rose rode in the wagon and was most likely the only luxury she allowed herself.\" Elizabeth was one of seventy thousand Latter-day Saints who made the trek across the plains along the Mormon Trail from 1847 to 1869 before the railroad connected the West to the rest of the continent. Elizabeth was among those who were expelled from their homes in Nauvoo, a city they had built. She would have had little time to dig the plant from her garden, and she made a real commitment to keep it alive for the rest of her journey. She would have watered it from the Platte River in Nebraska, the Sweetwater River in Wyoming, and Emigration Creek as she traveled down into the Salt Lake Valley. As Peter told me about the storied rose that late spring afternoon, we were standing across from the south door of the Assembly Hall, a beautiful, Victorian Gothic building, completed in 1882, that was about to go through an extensive renovation\u2014the reason it was necessary to move the rose. Temple Square is the most visited site in Utah, which is impressive for a state boasting five national parks. Its ten acres are dominated by the large, domed Tabernacle and the Salt Lake Temple, divided by the Center Mall. With a cathedral of fabulous American and European elms (Ulmus americana and U. laevis) overhead, Temple Square has served as one of the great urban spaces in the United States for well over a hundred years. The perimeter wall was built as fortification when Salt Lake City was still wilderness and now provides a peaceful space amid the noise of growing urbanity. The next morning, I took a shovel and a pot to dig the little Nauvoo rose, becoming one more in a line of gardeners who had cared for the plant and its provenance since Elizabeth's family had given it to Temple Square in the 1880s. Peter had been introduced to the rose in 1953, when he was fifteen, by his boss Irvin Nelson. In turn, Irvin had been charged with caring for it by his predecessor, who had gardened at Temple Square since the late 1800s. This location was the second placement for the rose on Temple Square. I was taking it to its first new home in nearly a hundred years. Towering over the rose were three Japanese tree peonies (Paeonia suffruticosa) that were the most tree-like peonies I have ever seen. They had been a gift in the 1930s from Brown Floral, a family-run nursery that is still part of the horticultural fabric of Salt Lake City. Each plant had at least thirty mauve blooms, and they were dug and moved to the garden south of the Temple. Several other plant treasures in this space would also be transplanted. In the spirit of its century of being a repository of gift plants, this garden between the Assembly Hall and the Temple Square wall was where, six years later, I chose to plant the seven-son flower (Heptacodium miconioides). This plant was sent to subscribers of Arnoldia when the story of this newly introduced species was published in the Fall 1986 issue. That Heptacodium grew into a glorious tree that every few years bloomed at the same moment as the monarch butterfly migration from north to south. You could stroll past the tree and be amazed as hundreds of monarchs were startled into the air. It was cut down a few years ago by a gardener who had no knowledge of its history The Nauvoo Rose on Temple Square Esther Truitt Henrichsen HENRICHSEN, E. T. 2021. THE NAUVOO ROSE ON TEMPLE SQUARE. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 8-9 and was cavalier about not wanting to learn from those who had come before. In the process of digging the rose that morning in May 1980, I was horrified when it split in two. But, this became an opportunity. I carried the little plants across the two blocks to the Beehive House, where I was the summer gardener and weed-puller. I planted them on either side of a path that led to a gate in the cobblestone wall. Brigham Young had built the wall in the 1850s around his two side-by-side homes, the Beehive House and the Lion House. The roses flourished there for two decades, until the cobblestone wall suddenly collapsed, killing one of the pair. The other was moved to another part of the Beehive House garden while the wall was being rebuilt and was never moved back. I was concerned for the future of the Nauvoo rose because it was difficult to find anyone in the next generation who was interested, but I eventually took three cuttings and have grown them in my home garden for the past decade. By the time this map of Salt Lake City was published in 1870, the Nauvoo rose had been growing in the community for two decades. The rose can now be found in the gardens of the historic Beehive House, mapped with a number 5. PHOTO BY THE AUTHOR; MAP FROM LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, GEOGRAPHY AND MAP DIVISION I once keyed out the Nauvoo rose and believe it is a Rosa chinensis 'Minima', a variety (formerly known as Rosa indica minima) introduced into cultivation in the early 1800s. It grows about two feet high and two feet wide, and it blooms from spring to fall. In the intense high-desert sunlight of Utah, it prefers growing in a bit of shade. Compared to other roses, the Nauvoo rose may not seem very glamorous. Elizabeth, however, had the imagination to envision her little plant blooming in her new home in the Great Basin. Her descendants who donated the rose and the line of gardeners who cared for it since have all been connected by the love, care, and determination required to let it grow. Esther Truitt Henrichsen is the garden designer at Thanksgiving Point Institute in Lehi, Utah. Previously, after completing a master's in landscape history, she worked for many years as a landscape designer at Temple Square."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Five Generations of Russell's Garden Center","article_sequence":4,"start_page":10,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25739","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160a728.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Russell-Skehan, Elizabeth","article_content":"I felt the presence of the large video camera and mic over my right shoulder as I opened the photo album of Russell's Garden Center from the 1980s. \"There's the four of us,\" I said with a smile to my husband, Tim, who sat next to me. I was referring to a photograph of us with my mom and dad, wearing our teal Russell's shirts and sitting in front of our new sign on Route 20. The highway connects Wayland with Boston, about sixteen miles to the east. Our daughter Genevieve, the movie director, encouraged me to continue. \"Pretend there's no camera or mic here, and just tell me about the five generations of Russell's.\" I began my story, explaining how the business was established in 1876. \"My great-grandfather Samuel Lewis Russell was a butcher,\" I said, \"and his original store was called Russell's Provisions.\" He lived at the farm where Russell's is today, but his store was located about half a mile away, at the intersection of Route 20 and Pelham Island Road, in Wayland Center. It stood near a grocery store called the Collins Market, along with the library, post office, and several churches. Everything was within walking distance. \"There were no cars in 1876, for convenience,\" I said. Tim held up a picture of the Russell's Provisions storefront for the camera to capture. We were filming a documentary about our family business, aiming to tell the story of how our 144-year-operation\u2014one of the oldest garden centers in the country\u2014tackled the challenges of the pandemic by changing our business dramatically. For us, the family history was a central motivation for maintaining the garden center through the initial closures in March 2020, when we experienced more than a million dollars in losses. We worried that we might have to close the business altogether. Genevieve asked, \"Was your grandfather a butcher too?\" \"Not at all\" I replied. I explained how my grandfather, Lewis Samuel Russell, was a farmer. Like his father, he grew vegetables and cut flowers on the family farm, and he also raised chickens and sold the eggs. In 1920, he opened Russell's Market in the space where we now sell garden tools\u2014right next to his house. At that point, cars were becoming more common, which meant that my grandfather could close the original location in town. It wasn't just my grandfather running the market, I explained. \"My Grammy, Ruth Russell, would add up customers' purchases on a little pad of paper and collect cash and make change out of her apron pocket.\" Genevieve asked me to pause for a moment and instructed the cameraman to zoom in on my face. She then asked, \"What was it like growing up on a farm?\" I described how I would visit my grandparents almost every day. I would play in the fields with my sisters and cousins, while my grandfather and great uncle worked nearby planting, weeding, and picking crops. At that point, my parents were involved with the business, so we would often stop to see them in the office, before heading to Grammy's yellow house, which still stands along Route 20. She'd give us fresh bread and sweets that she'd cooked on the old black coal stove. In the evenings, when my grandparents babysat for us, we'd watch Lawrence Welk and Carol Burnett on the television as they counted the cash from the day at their kitchen table. Family and business were inseparable. \"They'd hide the cash in an oatmeal box in the cupboard,\" I said. \"Once it was full, my grandma would put it in her bra and ride the bus to deposit it in the bank.\" Tim flipped the page of an album from 1965 to reveal a picture of my dad, Lewis Samuel Russell Jr., watering rows of flowers growing in our greenhouses. The cameraman zoomed in with his lens. My dad joined the business after he returned from the Korean War. By then, a significant part of the business revolved around wholesaling Five Generations of Russell's Garden Center Elizabeth Russell-Skehan Facing page: Russell's Garden Center has been a family-owned fixture in Wayland, Massachusetts, for five generations. PHOTOS COURTESY THE AUTHOR; USGS MAP FROM HARVARD UNIVERSITY, HARVARD MAP COLLECTION RUSSELL-SKEHAN, E. 2021. FIVE GENERATIONS OF RUSSELL'S GARDEN CENTER. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 10-12 cut flowers to florists in the Boston area. My mom, Charlotte, worked as a bookkeeper and also managed the flower deliveries. Twice a week, she would load my sisters and me into the van and deliver flowers. We loved helping her carry the bunches of fresh flowers into the stores. After the energy crisis of the 1970s, we stopped growing cut flowers and closed our greenhouses every winter to conserve heat and save money. With specialization, airplanes and trucks could bring cut flowers from the southern regions of the United States and overseas, so Russell's stopped selling wholesale. My uncle had built several greenhouses, and my dad recommissioned them for growing annuals and vegetables. This transition was the start of the garden center as we know it today\u2014 and was yet another instance of the business evolving in response to changes in the market and technology. \"Because we were located on Route 20, we had plenty of customers driving by to stop in,\" I told the camera. \"We added houseplants, cactus, poinsettias, and potted mums and began selling more Christmas trees, wreaths, and fresh floral arrangements.\" At that point, my dad hired his best friend, Hugh McKenzie, who started the Garden Shop. Hugh added tools, fertilizers, and insecticides, along with garden statuary and supplies for birds. My mom worked long hours, too, and expanded the offerings to include vases, pots, silk flowers, candles, Christmas ornaments, and d\u00e9cor. At noon, Genevieve suggested we take a break. During the interview, her plan for structuring the film had shifted, and she wanted to run the idea past me. \"Mom,\" she said, \"I've decided to start with the history of Russell's before we go into the story of everything you all did to overcome the pandemic.\" I agreed that this was a great idea. We had already decided that the last thirty minutes of our movie would be about the remarkable response from our community once we were able to reopen the business in the spring of 2020, after more than a month of closure. We found that the community embraced gardening with newfound enthusiasm\u2014and in the end, Russell's not only survived 2020 but thrived. With the camera rolling again, Genevieve asked when Tim and I joined the company. Tim told the story of us joining in 1986. \"I'm a recovering mechanical engineer,\" he joked, \"and Elizabeth's expertise is in marketing and advertising. I quickly learned that this was a lot more fun than sitting in an office all day.\" I explained how, at this point, I'm delighted that our son, Dan Skehan, has joined us full time. He is the fifth generation to work at Russell's. With a background in accounting, human resources, and financial management, he was instrumental in helping us figure out how to stay in business through 2020. He secured payroll protection loans and helped us furlough and then rehire and train our employees. Moreover, he kept abreast with ever-changing guidelines from the Center for Disease Control and the State of Massachusetts. \"He remained calm and added a wealth of knowledge,\" I explained. \"I'm not sure we'd still be in business if we didn't know that Dan would be here to continue the legacy of Russell's Garden Center.\" Elizabeth Russell-Skehan is the president and vice president of marketing at Russell's Garden Center. They are now editing a full-length feature documentary film called Growing Through Covid- 19. To watch a trailer or to donate to the film, visit www.growingthroughcovid19.com. 12 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication number: 0004-2633. 3. Filing date: September 22, 2021. 4. Frequency: Quarterly. 5. Number of issues published annually: 4. 6. Annual subscription price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7-8. Address of offices of publication, publisher, and editor: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 9. Full names of publisher, editor, and managing editor: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, publisher; Jonathan Damery, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. 11. Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total: None. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue date for circulation data below: June 29, 2019. 15. Extent and nature of circulation. a. Average number copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 1,720. Actual number copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 1,750. b. Paid and\/or requested circulation: (1) Paid outside-county subscriptions: Average: 28. Actual nearest to filing date: 25. (2) Paid in-county subscriptions. Average: 1,181. Actual nearest to filing date: 1,193. (3) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales: None. (4) Other classes mailed through the USPS: None. c. Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average: 1,209. Actual nearest to filing date: 1,218. d. (1)(2) (3) Free distribution by mail. Average: 191. Actual nearest to filing date: 196. (4) Free distribution outside the mail: Average: 250. Actual nearest to filing date: 250. e. Total free distribution: Average: 441. Actual nearest to filing date: 446. f. Total distribution: Average: 1,650. Actual nearest to filing date: 1,664. g. Copies not distributed. Average: 70. Actual nearest to filing date: 86. h. Total. Average: 1,720. Actual nearest to filing date: 1,750. i. Percent paid and\/or requested circulation. Average: 73%. Actual nearest to filing date: 73%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Jonathan Damery, Editor."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Resilient Trees of Flower City","article_sequence":5,"start_page":13,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25740","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160a76c.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Quinn, Mark","article_content":"On March 4, 1991, I awoke to a knocking on my door. A coworker from the Monroe County Parks Department in Rochester, New York, planned to pick me up early to go to a trade show in Syracuse. When I glanced at the clock, however, I realized the power was out. The clockface was blank. I dressed quickly in the dark, and when I stepped out the front door, I found that the day's agenda was completely different than planned. My coworker had indeed arrived to pick me up, but looking down the street, I saw that ice covered everything. My twenty-five-foot-tall white birch (Betula papyrifera) was bent over, with the tip touching the ground. (This tree later sprang back, showing the amazing resilience of trees to crises.) We headed for Highland Park, the historic arboretum on the south side of Rochester, where we both worked as horticulturists. After multiple turnarounds due to trees blocking the road, we finally arrived at the Highland Park production greenhouses. The scene that met us was shocking. A huge limb from a one-hundred-year-old European beech (Fagus sylvatica) had fallen on our turn-of-the-century glass greenhouse. Like most of the largest trees in the park, this beech dated to the early 1890s and was planted by horticulturist John Dunbar according to plans drafted by Frederick Law Olmsted. We immediately set to work removing the limb and closing the hole in the damaged greenhouse, stapling poly film to the cypress bars in an attempt to save the delicate orchids inside. As we worked to keep the plants from freezing, we could hear the occasional snap of limbs breaking elsewhere in the park, but we still had not fully comprehended the scale of devastation around us. Rochester has a special affinity for trees. In the early 1800s, it was dubbed the Flour City, as waterpower of the Genesee River was used to grind enormous amounts of flour that was then shipped via the Erie Canal. By the second half of the century, however, Rochester became the Flower City, home to many of the country's largest and most prosperous nurseries. Two nurserymen played an especially pivotal role: George Ellwanger and Patrick Barry, owners of the successful Mount Hope Nursery, which they established around 1840. In 1888, Ellwanger and Barry donated land from their nursery grounds to the city to be used as a public park. Later named Highland Park, this land occupied a highpoint overlooking the city and the southern tier hills. Olmsted was enlisted to design a system of parks for Rochester, including North Park (now Seneca Park) and South Park (now Genesee Valley Park). Considering the interest that local nursery owners had invested in tree cultivation, Olmsted designed Highland Park as an arboretum. Many of the specimens to be planted were donated by Ellwanger and Barry. Park Superintendent Calvin Laney began acquiring additional plants for the park, but it soon became clear that more horticultural help was required. Dunbar was hired in 1891 to oversee the plant collections in the park. He quickly forged relationships with other prominent horticulturists, including Charles Sprague Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum. The similarities between Highland and the Arnold are not just superficial. Both arboreta were designed by Olmsted and were envisioned as features within larger park systems. Both have the distinct feel of an Olmsted design, with curving paths following the contours of the landscape. Dunbar and the horticulturists who followed him maintained an active relationship with Sargent and others at the Arnold. For many decades, The Resilient Trees of Flower City Mark Quinn QUINN, M. 2021. THE RESILIENT TREES OF FLOWER CITY. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 13-15 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, GEOGRAPHY AND MAP DIVISION Highland Park 15 the institutions exchanged plant material, supporting research at both sites. As time passed, the products of these efforts matured into beautiful collections. In Rochester, the public has come to expect these large, well-maintained trees throughout our arboretum and park system. Still, as a community of tree lovers, we often take for granted the tremendous asset left by our predecessors\u2014until crisis strikes. The ice storm of 1991 was one of these events. Having saved the orchids, staff turned their attention to assessing the damage to the arboretum. It seemed that almost everything in the collection was either damaged or destroyed. At first, opening roads and paths so people could get around was the priority. This effort to restore access took days. As the work progressed, we started to look at individual specimens and, to our dismay, found many of our most celebrated trees were no more. One public favorite, a katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum), looked like the last few feet of every branch was broken and hanging. The tree had been received in 1919 from the nursery of Leon Chenault, in Orleans, France. Once the forestry team addressed safety issues elsewhere in the landscape, they turned to the katsura, spending days expertly trimming off every broken limb. Today, three decades later, no evidence of the trauma remains. The katsura has returned bigger and better than ever. The saddest loss for me was a Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica), which had been received from Veitch Nursery, in England, in 1892. The specimen\u2014perhaps my favorite tree in the park\u2014was fascinating, forming an impenetrable maze of eight- to sixteen-inch trunks with gray-green mottled bark. It had been completely uprooted and was lying on the ground. I remember cutting up the branches and wondering if another specimen as impressive as this one existed anywhere. Yet, sometimes having too much to do can play in our favor: with thousands of trees down and in need of work, our team deferred grinding stumps until later. That spring, dozens of new shoots sprouted from the overturned Parrotia stump. Over time, our team thinned the shoots, allowing space for some to grow. Now thirty years have passed, and the plant is once again a tangle of trunks\u2014 again one of my favorites. While so many trees were damaged and lost, others weathered the storm with remarkable ease. Walking through the park, you come to an impressive pair of zelkovas (Zelkova serrata), found in the valley behind the historic Lamberton Conservatory. One of the trees was received in 1899 from Thomas Meehan & Sons, in Germantown, Pennsylvania, and the other arrived in 1919 from the Arnold Arboretum. These trees stood strong against the ice. Likewise, at the corner of Highland Avenue and Goodman Street, a dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) did the same. The tree was grown from seed distributed by the Arnold Arboretum in 1948, when this newly identified species was first introduced to North America. The dawn redwood flexed under the weight of the ice but bounced back with little damage. Despite the losses to the ice storm, Highland Park recovered. Every morning, I drive through the pinetum, which includes hundreds of varieties of mature evergreens\u2014an uncommon and, I think, underappreciated asset for a city park. The pinetum is particularly impressive in the winter with snow on the trees, giving the impression of being in an evergreen forest far north of Rochester. As I pull into my parking spot, I glance to a nearby hill where I see two magnificent fernleaf beech trees (Fagus sylvatica 'Asplenifolia') standing amongst a grouping of beech trees of other varieties. These two were donated from Ellwanger and Barry's Mount Hope Nursery in 1892. Looking to the left, I can see an American chestnut (Castanea dentata), about thirty feet tall and starting to succumb to blight, a remnant of a former crisis. Each of the trees stands as a living history\u2014a testament not only to their own resilience but to the commitment of the generations of horticulturists who have built and stewarded the plant collections in Flower City. Mark Quinn is the superintendent of horticulture for Monroe County Parks, in Rochester, New York. He oversees the cultivation and care of the botanical collection at Highland Park and all the parks throughout the County Parks System. Facing page: The author stands with one of the celebrated trees at Highland Park\u2014a katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum) received in 1919. PHOTO COURTESY THE AUTHOR"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Prince Family: Pioneers of American Horticulture","article_sequence":6,"start_page":16,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25741","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160ab6f.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Casscles, J. Stephen","article_content":"It was a beautiful day on August 1, 1782, when Prince William Henry, the third son of King George III, was received at the home and gardens of William Prince Sr. in Flushing Landing, New York. The American Revolutionary War had effectively ended the year before when the British surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown. Yet, the sixteen-year-old visitor, who would, in 1830, rise to the throne as King William IV, had come to present a stand of colors to the King's American Dragoons, encamped three miles to the east of the Princes. The British soldiers were invited for a barbecue of a whole roasted ox at the Prince home, not the kind of warm reception that an American patriot would have given to a future British monarch and his troops. Prince was a nursery owner, almost forty years older than William, and the visit suggests the prominence of both Prince and the nursery. During the visit, Prince and William discussed their shared interest in growing and breeding plums, a specialty of the nursery. Plums were a critical fruit crop because they could be dried and stored for long periods and used as a nutritious food by the British Navy. Prince had introduced new plum varieties to Long Island, observing the acclimatization of the green gage plum (a common form of Prunus domestica). He even developed new varieties of plums, including 'Yellow Gage', which he would officially introduce the year after William's visit. In 1789, another group of illustrious visitors stopped at Prince's nursery: the newly elected president of the United States, George Washington, and his entourage of vice president John Adams, New York governor George Clinton, and the president of the Continental Congress, John Jay. Washington was less impressed with the nursery than William had been. He noted a large number of young fruit trees but described the shrubs as \"trifling\" and the flowers as \"not numerous.\" Flushing had been under British military occupation for the past seven years, and little plant material could be shipped during those long years of hostility. Nonetheless, by the 1790s, the Prince Nursery was likely the largest propagator of grafted fruit trees in the United States. It would grow to become even more: a center of horticultural learning. The Prince family's horticultural enterprise originated with William Prince's father, Robert, who was born in the 1690s. (His birth year has been variously presented as 1692 and 1699.) By 1723, Robert had begun collecting, growing, and propagating trees for his fruit farm. The plants included varieties of apples, pears, plums, nectarines, peaches, cherries, and small fruits. Throughout Robert's life, the nursery slowly evolved into a vibrant commercial operation, occupying eight acres directly south of what is now Northern Boulevard. This first Prince homestead was a beautiful structure with rounded shingles, set in a bank of flowering shrubs on the western edge of his property, next to the Flushing Creek. Flushing\u2014in northern Queens County\u2014was an ideal location for a nursery that would grow to become national in scope. It sits on the Long Island Sound, where winters are milder than most other parts of the state and where summers are cooler and less humid than colonial centers to the south. Flushing boasted high-quality topsoil, rich and fertile, with few stones. An underlying subsoil provided good water drainage while retaining sufficient moisture to allow plants to grow quickly. Flushing's location relative to the Port of New York meant that plants could readily be shipped to other parts of the country and Europe. Moreover, Flushing benefited from the cultural and financial rise of New York City. These factors would, in the nineteenth century, induce many other prominent nurseries to establish operations in Flushing. Robert and his wife, Mary Burgess, had six children. Their oldest son, William, took over the nursery by 1745, the year before Robert's death. Under William's leadership, the nursery ultimately expanded to twenty-four acres. The diversity of plants increased, as did the total sales. At the time, the standard American practice for propagating fruit trees, especially peaches (Prunus persica), was to grow seedlings and not to graft a tree to a suitable rootstock. Because of this seed-grown method, the quality of orchard trees was unknown until they came to maturity. Prince realized the commercial value of predictability and often budded or grafted his fruit trees to keep the variety true. The nursery expanded quickly between 1750 and the beginning of the American Revolutionary War in 1776. William published his firstknown notice of advertisement on September 21, 1767, which stated, \"For sale at William Prince's nursery, Flushing, a great variety of fruit trees, such as apple, plum, peach, nectarine, cherry, apricot and pear. They may be put up so as to be sent to Europe. Capt. Jeremiah Mitchell and Daniel Clements go to New York in passage boats Tuesdays and Fridays.\" The nursery's first-known catalogue appeared in 1771, a single-page broadsheet. The list contained over 230 plant selections, which was sizable for a nursery in colonial America. In addition to fruit crops, the offerings included evergreen trees, timber trees, and shrubs. Among the ornamental selections, tulip trees (Liriodendron tulipifera) and lilacs (three varieties, presumably Syringa vulgaris) were among the most expensive. An advertisement published in the New York Mercury, dated March 14, 1774, stated that William Prince was selling more than one hundred Carolina magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) that were over four feet tall, raised from seed. He also advertised ninefoot- tall catalpas (Catalpa speciosa). The Revolutionary War halted the shipment of Prince's plants to most parts of the American colonies, except for areas under British control, such as Manhattan, Brooklyn, Long Island, and parts of the South. These wartime closures hurt the business. Reports variously state that somewhere between three thousand to thirty thousand grafted cherry trees were either purchased or confiscated by the British, to be used as hoops for making barrels. Yet, the Princes were likely British Loyalists and benefited from military protection. In fact, William's daughter Sarah married a British Army Major, Charles McNeill, who resigned from his military service after the war. And the British General Lord Howe ordered army units to guard the nursery, posting soldiers at the entrances. When George Washington visited the Princes with his entourage in 1789, his assessment of the poor quality and low diversity of the ornamental plants may suggest that nursery was still recovering from the war. Yet, by the summer of 1791, secretary of state Thomas Jefferson and his fellow Democratic-Republican James Madison of Virginia visited the nursery and reported more favorably. The men were touring New York and New England to study botanical curiosities, wildlife, and historic battlefields. They maintained that the tour was for health reasons and scientific exploration. Yet, those versed in politics noted that the trip was conducted through the country's Federalists strongholds of New York and New England instead of areas dominated by Jefferson's political base of Democratic-Republican support. Jefferson desired to improve domestic agriculture and arranged the nursery stop to discuss his ideas with William. Among the topics, they talked about Jefferson's vision for promoting the cultivation of sugar maples (Acer saccharum) for syrup production. Jefferson also took the opportunity to order plants for himself: sugar maples, highbush cranberries (Viburnum trilobum), balsam poplars (Populus balsamifera), and Beurre Gris pears (a variety of Pyrus communis). Later, he expanded his order to include stone fruits and nut trees, along with an array of ornamental trees, shrubs, and roses. As the United States grew towards the close of the century, so did the Prince Nursery. By 1793, William Prince, at the age of sixty-eight, turned over operations to his sons Benjamin and William Jr. Benjamin maintained the original family nursery for many years, calling it the Old American Nursery, but it was William Jr. who became the primary mover of the family business in the third generation. In 1793, he purchased twenty-four acres directly northeast of the original nursery. There, on the banks of \u222b Flushing Creek, he established his Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery. He designed it as a showplace to educate the public on botanical matters, including native plants, new varieties bred in the United States, and plants imported from Europe and farther afield. William Jr. and his son William Robert Prince took up the cause of identifying and describing plant material so that it could be offered to the public\u2014and they were highly invested in acquiring newly introduced species. In 1804, for instance, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark embarked upon the Missouri River to explore the recently acquired Louisiana Purchase. The expedition had been commissioned at Jefferson's request, and when the explorers returned east, they came bearing seeds and other botanical collections. The Princes were among the first nursery operators to grow and distribute plants from the expedition, and the Oregon grape holly (Mahonia aquifolium) became one of their most successful new products. The Princes were also among the first American nurseries to offer ornamental species from East Asia, like the golden rain tree (Koelreuteria paniculata), lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia), and Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis). By the mid-1830s, William Jr. had ten nursery outbuildings, of which several were greenhouses that contained tropical and subtropical plants from Africa and Asia. Visitors could pay an admission fee to experience the warmth and humidity of the greenhouse\u2014a rewarding respite to escape the dark, cold New York winter. The nursery catalogue listed ten tropical hibiscuses (Hibiscus) and two gardenias (Gardenia) that bloomed in their greenhouses. Prince grew tropical fruits and flowers specifically for winter viewing. For variety, they also exhibited insectivorous plants such as sundew (Drosera), pitcher plant (Sarracenia), and Venus flytrap (Dionaea). Moreover, in 1833, The New-York Annual Register reported that the gardens and nursery covered up to forty In 1793, William Prince Jr. purchased twenty-four acres alongside the original nursery, naming the new property the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery. In the decades to come, a cohort of nurseries would open in Flushing, including Parsons Nursery and Bloodgood Nursery, both mapped nearby in 1841. SMITH, 1841\/LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, GEOGRAPHY AND MAP DIVISION ies cultivated in America, other than apples. (While the father and son intended to treat apple cultivation with a third volume, the work was never published.) Like A Short Treatise on Horticulture, this book was widely read in America and became influential among aspiring horticulturalists. Moreover, the Princes paid particular attention to the nomenclature of the fruits covered in all of the publications, untangling confusion occurring in the field. This interest in the accurate classification of horticultural plants began with the work of William Sr., and it was among the family's most significant contributions to American horticulture. As a testament to William Jr.'s interest in classification, he displayed in his home a bust of Carl Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist who formalized the modern system of botanical nomenclature. William Jr. received the statue in a presentation by New York governor DeWitt Clinton at a meeting of European and American scientists to honor Linnaeus's birthday in 1823. A simultaneous celebration in Virginia was officiated by Thomas Jefferson, an honorary member of the Linnaean Society of Paris. By the time William Jr. died in 1842, Flushing had become a vibrant center for American horticulture. Bloodgood Nursery had been established there in 1798 and would become known as a specialist in maples. (A common Japanese maple even bears the name of the nursery: Acer palmatum 'Bloodgood'.) G. R. Garretson Nursery, a seed company specializing in flowers and vegetables, was established in 1836 and would grow to cover one hundred acres, supplying wholesale seeds to nurseries across the United States and offering retail via mail order. But the most famous of these newer operations was Parsons Nursery, established in 1838; the Parsons family would later play a central role in introducing plants from East Asia, especially Japan. Meanwhile, William Robert had been assuming increasing responsibility for the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries. In the 1820s, he expanded the nursery, purchasing three large parcels so that his land holdings may have totaled up to 113 acres. These properties were located adjacent to a house he bought for himself in 1827. The home had a wide center hall, \u222b 20 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 acres and contained approximately ten thousand species of trees and plants, with particular attention devoted to grapes and mulberry trees. Visitors had free access to the outdoor gardens every day, except for Sundays. At the same time, the commercial operations of the nursery expanded rapidly, as evidenced by William Jr.'s increasingly thicker plant catalogues. He also began to subdivide the products among smaller specialized catalogues. In addition to his standard Annual Catalogue for Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Plants, which covered his earlier offerings, he began to issue catalogues that focused on items such as bulbous flowers and tubers, greenhouse plants, chrysanthemums, and vegetable and flower seeds. William Jr. attracted additional attention in 1828 when he published one of the first strictly horticultural books to come from the United States: A Short Treatise on Horticulture: Embracing Descriptions of a Great Variety of Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Grape Vines, Bulbous Flowers, Green-House Trees and Plants, &c. The book described all the plant offerings at the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery, in some sense serving as an extended advertisement. The treatise also comprehensively covered horticultural topics, such as planting, pruning, and propagation. It even included information about soil preferences and methods for fungal disease control. Over the next three years, William Jr. worked with his son, William Robert, on two additional books, for which his son was the primary author. The first, A Treatise on the Vine, was published in 1830 and was the first significant book written in America on grape cultivation. The Princes had systematically tested scores of European grape varieties (Vitis vinifera), along with improved varieties of native North American grapes (like V. labrusca and V. riparia), and interspecific hybrids. The book described over two hundred European grape varieties and eighty American. This work helped to establish viticulture as a fullfledged branch of American horticulture, and for William Robert, grape breeding and cultivation remained a lifelong interest. The second book, The Pomological Manual, published in 1831, was a two-volume cyclopedia that attempted to catalogue all fruit varietwith two solid Dutch doors on either end and a bust of Linnaeus (likely from his father) on a bracket against the wall. The house's formal gardens contained two ginkgos (Ginkgo biloba), which were among the oldest in the country, and an old cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) that the Princes had imported from France. Under William Robert's leadership, however, the business began to struggle. In the 1830s, he speculated heavily in the domestic silk industry and may have been a key contributor to the skyrocketing prices for mulberry trees (Morus alba), the food source for silkworms. He imported more than one million mulberry trees from France in 1839, and shortly afterward, the price for mulberry trees crashed. When this venture failed, the Princes could not keep up with mortgage payments on the nursery, and by 1841, they lost the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries in foreclosure. These events spawned a bitter controversy with the property's new owner, Gabriel Winter, who was married to one of William Jr.'s cousins. Although William Robert continued to raise and sell plants from an adjacent nursery property, he and Winter competed in horticultural publications over the right to sell plants as the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries. Ultimately, the Princes kept the name, and Winter sold the remaining plant inventory and subdivided the original property for housing development. By 1846, the finances at the new Prince nursery began to stabilize, and William Robert published Prince's Manual of Roses, his third and final significant contribution to horticultural literature. At his new botanic garden, William Robert grew over seven hundred rose varieties, and the book provided detailed descriptions of varieties and featured many roses from China. He also included information about horticultural care and propagation. It was one of the very best works on this subject. Still, it was eclipsed in popularity by Samuel B. Parsons's book published the following year: The Rose: Its History, Poetry, Culture, and Classification. Parsons\u2014the proprietor of Parsons Nursery in Flushing\u2014ultimately revised his book as Parsons on the Rose: A Treatise on the Propagation, Culture, and History of the Rose. The competition between these books suggests the horticultural foment that was occurring in Flushing during this period. William Prince Jr. and his son William Robert Prince (above) authored seminal American horticultural manuals. In A Treatise on the Vine, published in 1830, they promoted new grape varieties, including 'Isabella', which became a favorite of American viticulturists. HEDRICK, 1908 AND 1911\/ARCHIVE OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 22 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Later, William Robert went on two extended botanical expeditions, to California (in 1849) and Mexico (in 1850). While these trips suggest that the business was doing reasonably well, William Robert began to gradually withdraw from the day-to-day management of the nursery around 1855, at the age of sixty. Instead, he devoted his energy to other botanical interests, including research on botanical medicinal remedies. He also continued to breed and evaluate new varieties of fruits and ornamental plants, especially grapes, strawberries, and roses. His oldest son, William III, meanwhile assumed increasing responsibility for the enterprise. William Robert's career reflected the changes that were going on in the American horticultural community. His father had been a founding member of the New York Horticultural Society in 1818 and joined the Massachusetts Horticultural Society after it was established in 1829, but he was also a member of the Linnaean Society of Paris, the Horticultural Society of London and Paris, and the Academy of Georgofili, based in Florence, Italy. William Robert invested his energy into the increasingly sophisticated American horticultural societies rather than those in Europe. He contributed many articles to the leading American agricultural magazines of the day, such as The Rural New Yorker and Gardener's Monthly. Moreover, he was a member of the American Institute of the City of New York and the American Pomological Society. On March 28, 1869, William Robert died at his home in Flushing, and as it turned out, the esteemed business died with him. William III had enlisted for the United States Army during the Civil War, and he chose to remain in the military. William Robert's second son, LeBaron Bradford, pursued a career in law and politics. Gardener's Monthly printed a two-page obituary for William Robert. It was a sad and respectful tribute to his horticultural brilliance while nonetheless remarking on his combative personality. Meanwhile, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society issued a full resolution commemorating his life as a \"pioneer in the field of horticulture,\" a title that seems equally appropriate for the three generations of Princes that came before him. In 1939, efforts were made to move William Robert's house to the site of the New York World's Fair, to demonstrate a historic colonial homestead, but the campaign came to no avail. Later, New York City park commissioner Robert Moses rejected a proposal to move the structure to Flushing Meadow Park. Moses's vision for a \"modern city\" had little space for old wooden buildings. In its last few years of use, the structure served as a rooming house and a club. The shabby, unpainted building was then boarded up and surrounded by billboards and a gas station. The house was torn down in 1942. Of course, by that point, the lush greenhouses that once welcomed winter visitors had long ago disappeared, and the nursery property had been subdivided and sold for development. Yet, the 150-year story of the Prince family lives on today. The family built a foundation for commercial horticulture in the United States. They championed the cultivation of plants from across the country and around the world, and their publications promoted best practices in horticulture. They even helped with establishing a more systematic approach for horticultural nomenclature. Moreover, the success of the Prince nurseries is inextricably linked to the subsequent generation of horticulturists who established businesses in Flushing. This expanding group of nursery owners became leaders in their own right. In this way, a horticultural legacy that began with one family who lived on the edge of Flushing Creek became a national and international story. Acknowledgment I'm grateful for the support of Susan Lacerte, who recently retired as executive director at the Queens Botanical Garden, located near the former Prince Nurseries. Susan's knowledge of horticulture in Flushing, both present and historical, has been an inspiration. References Cornett, P. 2004, January. Encounters with America's premier nursery and botanic garden. Twinleaf: 1-12. Downing, A. J. 1845. The fruits and fruit trees of America: Or the culture, propagation and management in the garden and orchard of fruit trees generally; with descriptions of all the finest varieties of fruit, native and foreign in this country. New York: Wiley and Putnam. \u222b The Prince Family 23 Gager, C. S. 1912, October. The first botanic garden on Long Island. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record, 1(4): 97-99. Hedrick, U. P. 1911. The plums of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U. P. 1908. The grapes of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U. P. 1925. The small fruits of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U.P. 1933. A history of agriculture in the State of New York. Printed for the New York State Agricultural Society, Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hotchkiss, T. W. 1934. Prince house, Lawrence Street & Northern Boulevard, photographs, written historical and descriptive data. Dist. No. 4, Southern New York State, Historic American Building Survey, HABS No. 4-19. Jacobsen, A. and Williams, J. D. 2009. Prince family nurseries (ca. 1737- post- 1851). Bulletin of the Hunt Institute of Botanical Documentation, 21(1): 4-7. Johnson, J. 1887. The village of Flushing, map of desirable building lots, Flushing: A historical sketch. New York: John P. Stock, Printer. Manks, D. S. 1967. How the American nursery trade began. Plants & Gardens, 23(2). McGourty, F. 1967. Long Island's famous nurseries. Plants & Gardens, 23(3). Munsell, W. W. 1882. History of Queens County, New York, with illustrations, portraits, & sketches of prominent families and individuals. New York: Press of George MacNamara. Prince, B. and Mills, S. F. 1823. A treatise and catalogue of fruit and ornamental trees, shrubs, &c., cultivated at the Old American Nursery. New York: Wm. Grattan. Prince, W. 1771. To be sold, by William Prince, at Flushing-Landing, on Long-Island, near New- York, a large collection of fruit trees, as follows. New York: H. Gaine. Prince, W. 1790. To be sold, by William Prince, at Flushing-Landing, on Long-Island, near New- York, a large collection, as follow, of fruit trees and shrubs. New York: H. Gaine. Prince, W. 1825. Annual catalogue of fruit and ornamental trees and plants, bulbous flower roots, green-house plants, &c. &c., cultivated at the Linnaean Botanic Garden, William Prince, proprietor. New York: T. and J. Swords. Prince, W. 1828. A short treatise on horticulture: Embracing descriptions of a great variety of fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs, grape vines, bulbous flowers, green-house trees and plants. New York: T. and J. Swords. Prince, W. R. and Prince, W. 1830. A treatise on the vine; Embracing it history from the earliest ages to the present day, with descriptions of above two hundred foreign, and eighty American varieties, together with a complete dissertation of the established culture, and management of vineyards. New York: T. & J. Swords. Prince, W. R. and Prince, W. 1831. The pomological manual; or a treatise on fruits: containing descriptions of a great number of the most valuable varieties for the orchard and garden. New York: T. & J. Swords. Prince, W. R. 1846. Princes' Manual of roses: Comprising the most complete history of the rose, including every class, and all the most admirable varieties that have appeared in Europe and America, together with ample information on their culture and propagation. New York: Clark & Austen, Saxton & Miles, Wiley & Putnam, and Stanford & Swords. Ross, P. 1902. A history of Long Island: From its earliest settlement to the present time. New York: Lewis Publishing Co. Smith, E. A. and Hayward, G. 1841. The village of Flushing, Queens County, L.I.: nine miles east of the city of New York: lat. 40\u00b0 45' 1\"N, lon. 73\u00b0 09' 58\"W. [Flushing?: s.n., ?] [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https:\/\/www.loc. gov\/item\/2008620796 St. George's Episcopal Church, Baptismal Records, 1800- 1840, Flushing, N.Y., 135-32 38th Avenue, Flushing, N.Y., Rev. Wilfredo Benitez, Rector. Trebor, H. (Ed.) 1938, October. Garden center: The four Princes\u2014William of America. So This is Flushing. Flushing, N.Y.: Halleran. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1976. The Prince family manuscript collection: A register of their papers, in the National Agricultural Library (Library list 101). Beltsville, MD: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library. Waldron, R. K. 1958. Prince's plants. The Call Number, 20(1). J. Stephen Casscles is an attorney, winemaker, and horticultural writer living in the Hudson Valley. His publications include Grapes of the Hudson Valley and Other Cool Climate Regions of the United States and Canada, published by Flint Mine Press."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Such a Fine Assemblage: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods","article_sequence":7,"start_page":24,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25742","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160af27.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mauz, Kathryn","article_content":"It was a beautiful day on August 1, 1782, when Prince William Henry, the third son of King George III, was received at the home and gardens of William Prince Sr. in Flushing Landing, New York. The American Revolutionary War had effectively ended the year before when the British surrendered at the Battle of Yorktown. Yet, the sixteen-year-old visitor, who would, in 1830, rise to the throne as King William IV, had come to present a stand of colors to the King's American Dragoons, encamped three miles to the east of the Princes. The British soldiers were invited for a barbecue of a whole roasted ox at the Prince home, not the kind of warm reception that an American patriot would have given to a future British monarch and his troops. Prince was a nursery owner, almost forty years older than William, and the visit suggests the prominence of both Prince and the nursery. During the visit, Prince and William discussed their shared interest in growing and breeding plums, a specialty of the nursery. Plums were a critical fruit crop because they could be dried and stored for long periods and used as a nutritious food by the British Navy. Prince had introduced new plum varieties to Long Island, observing the acclimatization of the green gage plum (a common form of Prunus domestica). He even developed new varieties of plums, including 'Yellow Gage', which he would officially introduce the year after William's visit. In 1789, another group of illustrious visitors stopped at Prince's nursery: the newly elected president of the United States, George Washington, and his entourage of vice president John Adams, New York governor George Clinton, and the president of the Continental Congress, John Jay. Washington was less impressed with the nursery than William had been. He noted a large number of young fruit trees but described the shrubs as \"trifling\" and the flowers as \"not numerous.\" Flushing had been under British military occupation for the past seven years, and little plant material could be shipped during those long years of hostility. Nonetheless, by the 1790s, the Prince Nursery was likely the largest propagator of grafted fruit trees in the United States. It would grow to become even more: a center of horticultural learning. The Prince family's horticultural enterprise originated with William Prince's father, Robert, who was born in the 1690s. (His birth year has been variously presented as 1692 and 1699.) By 1723, Robert had begun collecting, growing, and propagating trees for his fruit farm. The plants included varieties of apples, pears, plums, nectarines, peaches, cherries, and small fruits. Throughout Robert's life, the nursery slowly evolved into a vibrant commercial operation, occupying eight acres directly south of what is now Northern Boulevard. This first Prince homestead was a beautiful structure with rounded shingles, set in a bank of flowering shrubs on the western edge of his property, next to the Flushing Creek. Flushing\u2014in northern Queens County\u2014was an ideal location for a nursery that would grow to become national in scope. It sits on the Long Island Sound, where winters are milder than most other parts of the state and where summers are cooler and less humid than colonial centers to the south. Flushing boasted high-quality topsoil, rich and fertile, with few stones. An underlying subsoil provided good water drainage while retaining sufficient moisture to allow plants to grow quickly. Flushing's location relative to the Port of New York meant that plants could readily be shipped to other parts of the country and Europe. Moreover, Flushing benefited from the cultural and financial rise of New York City. These factors would, in the nineteenth century, induce many other prominent nurseries to establish operations in Flushing. Robert and his wife, Mary Burgess, had six children. Their oldest son, William, took over the nursery by 1745, the year before Robert's death. Under William's leadership, the nursery ultimately expanded to twenty-four acres. The diversity of plants increased, as did the total sales. At the time, the standard American practice for propagating fruit trees, especially peaches (Prunus persica), was to grow seedlings and not to graft a tree to a suitable rootstock. Because of this seed-grown method, the quality of orchard trees was unknown until they came to maturity. Prince realized the commercial value of predictability and often budded or grafted his fruit trees to keep the variety true. The nursery expanded quickly between 1750 and the beginning of the American Revolutionary War in 1776. William published his firstknown notice of advertisement on September 21, 1767, which stated, \"For sale at William Prince's nursery, Flushing, a great variety of fruit trees, such as apple, plum, peach, nectarine, cherry, apricot and pear. They may be put up so as to be sent to Europe. Capt. Jeremiah Mitchell and Daniel Clements go to New York in passage boats Tuesdays and Fridays.\" The nursery's first-known catalogue appeared in 1771, a single-page broadsheet. The list contained over 230 plant selections, which was sizable for a nursery in colonial America. In addition to fruit crops, the offerings included evergreen trees, timber trees, and shrubs. Among the ornamental selections, tulip trees (Liriodendron tulipifera) and lilacs (three varieties, presumably Syringa vulgaris) were among the most expensive. An advertisement published in the New York Mercury, dated March 14, 1774, stated that William Prince was selling more than one hundred Carolina magnolias (Magnolia grandiflora) that were over four feet tall, raised from seed. He also advertised ninefoot- tall catalpas (Catalpa speciosa). The Revolutionary War halted the shipment of Prince's plants to most parts of the American colonies, except for areas under British control, such as Manhattan, Brooklyn, Long Island, and parts of the South. These wartime closures hurt the business. Reports variously state that somewhere between three thousand to thirty thousand grafted cherry trees were either purchased or confiscated by the British, to be used as hoops for making barrels. Yet, the Princes were likely British Loyalists and benefited from military protection. In fact, William's daughter Sarah married a British Army Major, Charles McNeill, who resigned from his military service after the war. And the British General Lord Howe ordered army units to guard the nursery, posting soldiers at the entrances. When George Washington visited the Princes with his entourage in 1789, his assessment of the poor quality and low diversity of the ornamental plants may suggest that nursery was still recovering from the war. Yet, by the summer of 1791, secretary of state Thomas Jefferson and his fellow Democratic-Republican James Madison of Virginia visited the nursery and reported more favorably. The men were touring New York and New England to study botanical curiosities, wildlife, and historic battlefields. They maintained that the tour was for health reasons and scientific exploration. Yet, those versed in politics noted that the trip was conducted through the country's Federalists strongholds of New York and New England instead of areas dominated by Jefferson's political base of Democratic-Republican support. Jefferson desired to improve domestic agriculture and arranged the nursery stop to discuss his ideas with William. Among the topics, they talked about Jefferson's vision for promoting the cultivation of sugar maples (Acer saccharum) for syrup production. Jefferson also took the opportunity to order plants for himself: sugar maples, highbush cranberries (Viburnum trilobum), balsam poplars (Populus balsamifera), and Beurre Gris pears (a variety of Pyrus communis). Later, he expanded his order to include stone fruits and nut trees, along with an array of ornamental trees, shrubs, and roses. As the United States grew towards the close of the century, so did the Prince Nursery. By 1793, William Prince, at the age of sixty-eight, turned over operations to his sons Benjamin and William Jr. Benjamin maintained the original family nursery for many years, calling it the Old American Nursery, but it was William Jr. who became the primary mover of the family business in the third generation. In 1793, he purchased twenty-four acres directly northeast of the original nursery. There, on the banks of \u222b Flushing Creek, he established his Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery. He designed it as a showplace to educate the public on botanical matters, including native plants, new varieties bred in the United States, and pOn May 18, 1885, an important exhibition heralded as a \"noble gift to the city\"1 opened at the American Museum of Natural History in New York. Beneath the high ceilings of the exhibition hall, glass cases displayed 350 specimens as the Jesup Collection of North American Woods. Each was a whole log, about four and a half feet tall, still cloaked with bark as in life, with the upper half cut away to reveal the wood inside. Many of the specimens were accompanied by original watercolor illustrations of foliage, fruit, and flowers. A writer announced of the exhibit in Harper's Weekly, \"The average visitor will be impressed and surprised by the beauty of some and by the extreme oddity of others.\u2026 The various coloring of the woods, often rich and sometimes startling, and running into the most delicate shades, and the strength or grace or whimsicality of form, as traced in the divers[e] coursings of the grain, are matters to attract even the casual eye, and to stamp as absurd the hasty judgement which would say that a collection of logs can not be interesting.\"2 Over the coming years, the collection grew to include more than five hundred species. It represented the scientific and philanthropic vision of two noteworthy individuals: Morris Ketchum Jesup, one of the founders of the American Museum of Natural History, and Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arnold Arboretum. The collection remained a cornerstone of the museum's exhibits for more than six decades. The fact that an exhibition of this magnitude could almost entirely vanish from the public memory seems almost improbable. Yet, the story of its exile is as intriguing as that of its origins. A Generous Friend On the occasion of the Philadelphia Centennial Exhibition of 1876, William H. Brewer, a professor of agricultural science at Yale University, observed, \"America has long been described by geographers and naturalists as the wooded continent, distinguished for the luxuriance and extent of its forests and the number of its arboreal species.\"3 At that time, scientists were beginning to comprehend the vastness of North American forests, but popular appreciation of this forest wealth lagged behind. At the Exhibition, audiences were introduced to displays of American woods and wood products through exhibits mounted by individual states and by the United States Department of Agriculture, which showcased specimens representing four hundred tree species from around the country.4 Such exhibits distilled an abstract general abundance into the remarkable variety of trees that comprised the country's forests. The Exhibition's millions of visitors vastly exceeded the number of people who had ever traveled across the country or explored its forested lands, and early efforts to organize around the idea of forest conservation took root at that gathering. At the time, there was not a museum in the country that possessed a similar, permanent exhibit that could perpetuate the transient awe from the Centennial Exhibition into an enduring educational mission. In 1880, such an exhibit\u2014but one even more monumental\u2014 became Jesup's vision for the American Museum of Natural History. A forest lover himself, Jesup was also keenly interested in the uses of forests and, increasingly, in the roles forests played in the wider landscape of human settlement and industry. Jesup and the museum's director, Such a Fine Assemblage: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods Kathryn Mauz Facing page: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods revealed the wonder and scientific diversity of North American forests by showcasing wood samples from more than five hundred tree species. As one commentator later said, it was \"a perfectly unique collection which cannot anywhere be repeated.\" AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 31642 MAUZ, K. 2021. SUCH A FINE ASSEMBLAGE: THE JESUP COLLECTION OF NORTH AMERICAN WOODS. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 24-49 26 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Albert S. Bickmore, discussed the possibility of developing this exhibit at the museum for the expressed purpose of showcasing the contributions of American forests to industrial and artistic endeavors. In August 1880, while attending the annual meeting of the American Association for the Advancement of Science in Boston, Bickmore approached Harvard botany professor Asa Gray for advice. He described the museum's planned Department of Economic Botany, which was primarily to feature important products from the forests of the country. Gray directed him to interview Sargent, who at the time was in charge of the census of American forests for the Tenth Census of the United States. Bickmore spent an afternoon at Dwight House on Sargent's Holm Lea estate in the suburb of Brookline. Although Sargent was away conducting fieldwork, Bickmore toured the grounds and learned about the work Sargent was pursuing for the forest census. Bickmore soon wrote to Sargent in care of the Palace Hotel in San Francisco, where Sargent was briefly stopped along the last leg of his grand tour of western forests. As Bickmore explained, a \"generous friend\" of the museum wished to develop an \"instructive and attractive collection\" of the wood products of North American forests, \"placing it in a tangible, visual form before our citizens and our tide of visitors from all parts of the continent.\"5 Of course, that unspecified friend was Jesup, who would become the museum's president from 1881 until his death in 1908. His foresight had led him to Sargent, whose zeal and breadth of knowledge were positively suited to realizing this singular goal, and whose awareness of his own expertise prevented him from letting the opportunity pass to someone else. Jesup also sponsored other collections and many expeditions in varied fields of study during his tenure at the museum, and Sargent simultaneously expanded the Arnold Arboretum's living collection and pursued an astounding schedule of publication. Yet, the wood collection was seen as a crowning achievement during the lifetimes of both men. It was, according to one commentator, \"a perfectly unique collection which cannot anywhere be repeated.\"6 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 2A5200 The Jesup Collection emerged from the collaboration of Morris K. Jesup (right) and Charles Sprague Sargent. Jesup Collection 27 Unprecedented Activity Following his return from the west, Sargent met with Jesup and Bickmore in New York in the first week of November 1880. In response to the proposed project, he sent a seven-page letter describing his \"suggestions\" for the wood collection and its exhibition, which in effect were stipulations to guarantee his participation. Sargent believed that the collection should incorporate every tree species that grew naturally in the United States, even those that were of limited distribution or held little economic value. As a reflection of his recent and ongoing work on the forest census, he argued that only this approach would allow the collection's importance to be realized by both the public and scientists, who, he would later assert, \"will value it in proportion to its completeness.\"7 Further, Sargent insisted that the exhibit be arranged according to the botanical relationships of the species, following the organization of his report for the forest census, and that the labels should incorporate the data from his investigations as to each species' geographic distribution and the properties of its wood. He shared Jesup's interest in including foliage and fruit to illustrate the aspect of the living trees, as well as the products derived from the trees that were important to commerce and the trades.8 In essence, it would be a full-scale adjunct to his census report, one that Jesup hoped would also have popular appeal and that all concerned believed would be an asset to the museum.9 Sargent's primary role in the project was to direct and coordinate the field efforts and, later, to provide interpretation for the resulting specimens. By mid-December 1880, once a general plan for the collection was understood, he was becoming impatient to send collectors into the field.10 The first to be recruited were alumni of the forest census who were familiar with both the terrain and tree species they were to locate, as well as the rigors and routine of moving logs from the forests to the railroads for shipping. Some were in the field as early as January, and specimens began arriving at the museum in early March 1881. Charles Mohr, a physician and botanist who lived in Mobile, Alabama, was charged with finding trees in the Gulf Coast states. (Records show that the first specimen to be received may have been Yucca treculeana, or Spanish dagger, an arborescent species, if not precisely a tree, sent from Texas by Mohr.11) Samuel B. Buckley, a botanist and long-time resident near Austin, Texas, began collecting nearby and at points across the southern interior of the state. Allen H. Curtiss, a naturalist living in Jacksonville, Florida, was sent to explore southern Florida, the Florida Keys, and the interior Southeast; in his first season, Curtiss sent more than forty specimens, and he ultimately contributed more than any other collector. George W. Letterman, a schoolteacher and amateur botanist in Allenton, Missouri, began his work that spring in Arkansas, made numerous collections in southern and central Missouri, and later ventured as far as northeastern Texas and Louisiana. Henry W. Ravenel, an accomplished botanist of Aiken, South Carolina, sent specimens from the Piedmont and coast of South Carolina and Georgia that year. Starting in the fall of 1881, John H. Sears, a naturalist in Salem, Massachusetts, explored the \"Atlantic forests\" of northern New York state and eastern Massachusetts. For the first two years, Vermont botanist Cyrus G. Pringle traveled well beyond his home state to collect in Arizona, California, and the Pacific Northwest, and later sent logs of several species from Texas and northern Mexico, as well; second only to Curtiss in number of specimens sent, Pringle certainly traveled more extensively for the project than anyone else. The collecting corps came to include physicians, veterans of state geological surveys and departments of agriculture, itinerant botanists, horticulturists, foresters, several of Sargent's professional acquaintances in the lumbering and milling industries, Sargent himself, and even the collection's caretaker, Samuel D. Dill, at the museum. The majority of specimens were collected by a handful of men, but over time more than fifty individuals contributed material to the Jesup Collection. Sargent initially envisioned an ambitious schedule, entailing just one or two years to complete the explorations necessary to find and acquire the specimens.12 That, like the costs involved, turned out to be underestimated\u2014not 28 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 only were there unforeseen delays but more species in newly explored places were discovered over time, in part as a result of Sargent's own studies. As time went on, Jesup sometimes questioned the necessity for including extraneous, noneconomic species, noting to Sargent, \"Its completeness in a scientific or botanical sense, to my mind is secondary.\"13 To Bickmore privately, he observed that many tree species, \"while they may be rare and valuable in a scientific sense, are useless economically owing to the remote and inaccessible districts where they grow and the necessary cost of transportation to manufacturing centres.\"14 Sargent nonetheless continued to send collectors far afield and on special trips for newly discovered or rare species in the interest of amassing a comprehensive collection. He had taken on the project gratis, with an eye toward his own long-term interests in American forests. With the collection's scientific contributions as his priority, Sargent advised Jesup early in 1881, \"It is not too late for us both to retire altogether from the undertaking, which unless carried out largely will add neither reputation to the Museum, nor credit to the parties most interested.\"15 The project went on, and fifteen years later he emphasized the significance of the work to Jesup: \"The formation of your Collection, the publication of my book, and other causes have led to an unprecedented activity in dendrological exploration and study in all parts of the country and several new species of trees have been discovered.\"16 Sargent's aim was to represent the arboreal flora of the continent, and he wanted Jesup's vision to match his own. It Should Contain Every Tree As the sponsor of the collection, Jesup not only funded the collector's activities but organized logistics for travel and shipping. He was wealthy and generous, but disciplined and frugal in his philanthropy, interested to see that his money was well spent for the greatest benefit. To this end, he set as a goal keeping costs of travel and freight to a minimum, even zero, whenever possible. Nonetheless, the cost of transportation, shipping, and tracking the specimens across the country represented the majority of the project's expenses and occupied much of the correspondence between Sargent and the museum during these early years. In the early weeks of 1881, Jesup personally communicated with the officers of dozens of railroad and steamship companies in order to procure travel passes for the collectors and free shipping for the weighty specimens they were expecting to send to New York from points around the country. Because the favors granted were often specific to individual collectors, over certain routes, and good only for specified periods of time, this became for him a never-ending task that strained his ample reserves of tact and humility. Through Jesup's general success in securing waivers, Sargent could then assign collectors to regions where they could travel freely and ship at no or reduced cost. In practice, there were frequent misunderstandings on the part of station agents who were unaware of these unconventional arrangements or would not act on them. Specimens were sometimes shipped from points or by routes other than what had been agreed upon, exceeded the weights and dimensions originally anticipated, were delayed so long that they decayed in transit, or were occasionally even lost. The railroads, and Jesup, wanted definite parameters ahead of time, whereas Sargent better understood the idiosyncrasies and exigencies of field work and insisted that flexibility was necessary. It was Jesup's money, and indeed his reputation, at risk, and these overages and losses were routine points of contention between the two principals almost from the beginning.17 As the true scale of the task became apparent, Jesup questioned Sargent's early estimates about the cost of the project. He had initially thought that the collection could be completed for ten thousand dollars or possibly less,18 but that sum was exceeded before the end of the second year of work; total expenditures multiplied fivefold before the sixth field season and continued to grow from there.19 Although Sargent promised to proceed as economically as he could, he maintained his emphasis on the need for a complete and scientifically valuable set of specimens. Following one expensive expedition in 1885, for example, Sargent countered Jesup's objections, telling him, \"I hope you will not endeavor to separate practical value from Jesup Collection 29 scientific value in your mind when considering this collection. They cannot safely be separated. And it is because I have always refused to do this in the treatment of the matter that the collection is what it is, the best of its kind.\"20 Bickmore and Jesup at the museum recognized that ceding some control to Sargent (and absorbing additional expense) was necessary both to achieving that goal and to maintaining goodwill in general.21 Nearly two decades after the project's inception, as he and Jesup revisited this same familiar disagreement in 1899, Sargent argued, \"It should contain every tree described and illustrated in my Silva of North America.\"22 Although their differences in philosophy did not entirely fade over time, Jesup grudgingly found himself obligated to continue to subsidize these missions\u2014 well into the 1890s and, for a few species, even past the turn of the century\u2014rather than risk the appearance of incompleteness once so many others had been gathered. Early on he remarked to Sargent, \"To have our museum contain that which cannot be found at any other will fully compensate me for the cost.\"23 A Grand Showing Unlike the small blocks of wood Sargent prepared for his census investigations24 or the short logs cut lengthwise for display at the Centennial Exhibition, the museum's specimens were to be whole logs, over five feet long when collected, and of such diameters as necessary (from a few inches to three feet or more) to represent the best-grown examples of the trees. Collectors routinely shipped thousands of pounds of specimens at once, where certain individual logs could weigh hundreds of pounds when freshly cut. At the outset, Sargent anticipated that about four hundred species would need to be assembled, but that number increased by another one hundred or more over time. Within the year, Bickmore reported to Sargent, \"We have been frequently receiving the magnificent series of logs your agents have gathered until they make a grand showing in the cellar.\"25 After the first full year of fieldwork, nearly three hundred were in various states of preparation at the museum, with more arriving by the month.26 Incoming shipments were initially delivered to the museum's \"new building\" (opened in December 187727) on Manhattan Square, west of Central Park. When space became limited, the logs were directed instead to the historical Arsenal building, where the museum's collections were originally housed, near the eastern boundary of the park. When the logs were prepared in the field, collectors were careful to wrap each one in burlap or other \"bagging\" material, sometimes also in rawhide, and to construct crates in which the log could be shipped with ample padding to preserve the bark intact. Once at the museum's workshop, they underwent a lengthy process of preparation for eventual display. Because the logs were shipped \"green\" and were full of moisture, the primary concern was for drying them carefully to prevent \"checking\" or splitting that would ruin them for display. Bickmore himself devised a method of boring holes into the bottom of a log to allow the wood to \"season\" or dry out more evenly.28 Bickmore notified Sargent further, \"We have a fire under the boilers in the cellar constantly so that that is probably the driest room in the building, and the heat is gentle & slow and I believe particularly well adapted to preparing the fine logs that are now coming in, and I think there will be no necessity of having the specimens kiln dried, unless you have reason to suspect they contain destructive larvae.\"29 It was estimated that logs could lose up to half their weight in drying, and that thorough seasoning could sometimes require one or two years.30 Following the drying process, the logs were cut to a uniform fifty-six inches in height; the upper twenty-four inches was sawn longitudinally in half, and the top edge of the cut end was beveled, resulting in the grain of the wood being exposed in three directions. Finally, one half of the cut surface was finished with varnish to provide a clear view of the grain. Sargent requested that a diagram be made of each log to show the pattern of the bark, the widths of the sapwood and heartwood, and the growth rings apparent in cross-section;31 these data, as indicators of growth rate, were eventually reported for many species in Sargent's fourteen-volume Silva of North America, but the diagrams themselves have not survived. 30 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Jesup's initial hopes that the collection would be ready for public viewing by the autumn of 1882 were not realized, but both he and Sargent agreed that the collection's \"value and permanence,\" from a scientific standpoint, and its \"beauty and usefulness\" to the public would be favored by postponing until all the specimens were fully seasoned, prepared, and labeled.32 The exhibit space dedicated to the Jesup Collection was intended to be on the third floor of the Arsenal, an area the museum regarded as \"dangerous\" even when exhibits had been open to the public there a decade earlier.33 Almost immediately, there were concerns about the combined weight of the specimens.34 When the walls of the building were observed to have to spread slightly by October 1882, the Department of Public Parks architect, Calvert Vaux, insisted that the excess weight be removed to comply with his specifications: not to exceed thirty-eight and a half tons, evenly distributed in the halls and the octagonal alcoves at each corner.35 At that time, there were 388 logs onsite and in preparation, with 60 more expected to \"complete\" the collection.36 This circumstance hinted at another persistent theme that would follow the collection through time: housing it would always present substantial, even prohibitive infrastructural challenges. Soon, the allotted hall at the Arsenal became a workshop and storeroom for the log specimens rather than their exhibit space. By the spring of 1883, construction at the museum's new building included the installation of \"a large glass case, in two sections, extending along the middle of the Lower Hall,\" meant to accommodate the log collection but necessarily displacing an exhibit of shells to another floor.37 By that autumn, there were two large cases, each 135 feet long, with six additional cases along the side.38 The initial delay of six months had extended to a full year, and even then, opening by the following year was in doubt. In February 1884, Sargent estimated that just 105 specimens were \"finished and ready\";39 in April, he wrote to Jesup and Bickmore to suggest delaying until the spring of 1885, when he thought that as many as 350 specimens would be fully prepared for exhibition.40 A Credit to the City With a date finally fixed for the exhibit's opening, Bickmore promoted it as \"the first effort yet made in this country to gather the native woods together in one collection on a scale commensurate with the extent of the new continent and the importance of its forests.\"41 Sargent had been at work on a condensed version of his census report, enumerating 412 species as The Woods of the United States, which would serve as a guidebook to the collection.42 In April, he reassured Jesup, \"The geographical labels will be finished this week. They have cost me an immense amount of labor & bother, but I think they will be a great success, and are certainly the best things of the kind ever attempted. I shall be in N.Y. next week, long enough to see that everything is properly arranged.\"43 In his annual report to the trustees of the museum, Jesup hoped that the collection \"will prove another popular attraction to the museum, and be the means of largely increasing the knowledge and information of the people on the subject of our forests, now demanding so large a share of public attention.\"44 The exhibit opened to visitors on May 18, 1885, to popular acclaim. In addition to 350 logs with their labels, the new exhibit featured about eighty watercolor illustrations of the foliage, flowers, and fruit of tree species, prepared by Mary Robeson Sargent (Sargent's wife) at Jesup's request. These, in particular, met with high praise: \"The artist has been true to nature, without loss of refined and purely artistic method, a combination almost unknown in what is called a scientific treatment of natural objects. The result is delightful \u2026 many persons will appreciate for the first time the beauty and grace possessed by the flowers and fruits of many of our common forest trees.\"45 For the benefit of individuals wishing to study the woods from a botanical perspective, a corresponding herbarium had been prepared by Charles Faxon, the assistant director and herbarium curator at the Arnold Arboretum, and shipped to the museum that spring. The Jesup Collection was soon described in the press as \"a credit to the city, and a lasting testimonial to the wisdom and public spirit of Facing page: The press lauded the opening of the Jesup Collection in 1885. This engraving by C. Graham appeared in Harper's Weekly shortly after the exhibition opening. COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR 32 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 the gentleman who caused it to be created.\"46 It was a first step toward Jesup's original ideal, still awaiting not only more species but examples of economic products and additional illustrations to fully represent the American forests. As far as Sargent's objectives, there was also more to come, but scientific visitors had already found it as informative as it was popular. Worthily Housed In its first incarnation, the woods exhibit occupied the lower floor of the Museum, \"in the space between the rows of side cases,\" leading to the observation on opening day that the space \"is too contracted for this use, and the floor has a cluttered appearance which those who recall its original spaciousness and light will regret. Plainly the time has come when a new wing for the Museum is demanded, so that this collection, unique in its scientific and industrial importance, shall have the sweep of an entire floor.\"47 At the time, the logs shared the hall with the collection of mammals, whose curator was critical of the disruption to those displays.48 Sargent, naturally, weighed in, complaining that \"nothing can be worse than the present mixture of mammals & woods.\"49 While there were already long-term plans for additions to the museum's building, Sargent proposed an alternative idea to Jesup: the museum should construct a separate one-story building for the purpose of housing the wood collection and associated forestry resources, including a library and herbarium, and call it the Jesup Building. He wrote to Jesup, \"The whole thing could be put up in a couple of A large cross-section of a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) appears among cases in the American Museum of Natural History's Forestry Hall, shown in 1903. AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 42124 Jesup Collection 33 months and you could have your collection in safe quarters where it could never be interfered with by any one & arranged in such a manner that there never could be any danger of its becoming merged or mixed with the other collections.\"50 It is clear that Sargent wanted to resolve some of the fundamental curatorial problems that the collection was already experiencing, but it is also tempting to suppose that Sargent wanted his own museum of woods (and that Jesup would build it for him). That notion was never pursued, but the Jesup Collection did prevail in occupying the lower hall all to itself. A new display was opened to the public on November 15, 1890, revealing 425 species and almost 250 watercolors, arranged in family groups in the cases along each side of the hall.51 While this was seen as an improvement, and many visitors believed the collection actually was complete, Sargent advised Jesup not a year later, \"I don't think that we ought to consider the arrangement as final or that the collection is worthily housed or properly arranged until some radical change is made by which sufficient room for its display can be had.\"52 In 1893, planning began for the construction of the museum's southeast wing, part of the Seventy-Seventh Street facade, the ground floor of which would be dedicated to the wood collection when it was completed in 1895.53 As the new wing took shape and its opening drew closer, there ensued a paramount disagreement (most emphatic and least charitable on the part of Sargent) over plans for the new hall. In a two-page, typewritten response to Jesup's early scheme for cases and general arrangement, Sargent replied vehemently, and disproportionately: \"A good deal of additional work in connection with the Collection has been laid out for me but I confess I do not feel much like undertaking it if the results are to be as bad as you seem to be determined to make them.\" He asserted that his reputation among scientists could suffer if Jesup's plans were followed, concluding, \"This, from my point of view, is the unfortunate thing in the whole matter and why I believe that I have not been treated properly by you.\"54 Jesup wrote out a six-page reply (that he did not send) in which he recounted their previous discussions about the design. He concluded, \"It would be more agreeable to me in meeting with objections from yourself to have them presented to me in a spirit of help and friendliness \u2026 During the many years of our friendship I have exerted myself to please you, and shall continue to do so in any way I can, but I expect consideration at your hands also.\"55 In place of this letter, Jesup sent museum secretary John H. Winser to consult with Sargent in person about the central points of dispute, namely the design of the new cases and the placement of the immense cross-sections of coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum). In short, Jesup had wanted to include two or more round cases to break up the \"monotony\" of the exhibit, but doing so would have interrupted the botanical order to a degree that Sargent could not tolerate. At the same time, Jesup had arranged to place the cross-sections of the big trees just outside the main hall, on either side of the entrance, in part because of the architectural requirements for supporting them; Sargent was adamant that they should be placed in the center of the hall with the other logs, despite that this arrangement would require structural reinforcement of the floor. Jesup's proposal took into account the flow of visitors, the overall aesthetic, costs, and the physical constraints of the building; Sargent worried most about what other scientists would think of the exhibit and felt that those concerns had not been adequately considered.56 Citing engineering and safety factors, an Executive Committee of the museum resolved the practical question, temporarily, in favor of the original layout.57 Early in 1896, when the specimens were moved into the new hall and the watercolors were hung, the debate subsided, and Sargent's attention turned back to his usual curatorial concerns. Jesup assured the museum's trustees that the lower hall of the new East Wing had been designated for the \"permanent lodgment\" of the wood collection and concluded, \"It is thought that no better plan can be conceived whereby the effectiveness of the exhibit can be increased.\"58 Not surprisingly, however, even this latest arrangement would be revised again as specimens were added to the exhibit, at Sargent's urging, through the early 1900s.59 Cyrus Pringle \u2014 Pacirsc Northwest, Arizona, California, Texas, and Northern Mexico \u2014 \"He made for the Jesup Collection of North American Woods \u2026 a large collection of timber specimens from some of the most inaccessible and digscult regions \u2026 Becoming interested during this journey in the usora of Mexico, he has for the last twelve years devoted himself exclusively to its exploration. During his annual journeys, which have extended over many of the states, he has made large and unrivaled collections \u2026 and has discovered many undescribed genera and species.\" Samuel Buckley \u2014 Southern Texas \u2014 \"Buckleya, a remarkable Santalaceous genus, of which he discovered the usowers and fruit, and which is represented in the usora of America by a graceful shrub of the mountains of North Carolina \u2026 rstly commemorates Buckley's zealous and too little appreciated labors in the cause of science.\" Jesup Collectors \u2014 More than rsfty collectors helped with acquiring, packaging, and sending large wood specimens for the Jesup Collection of North American Woods. fse specimens originated from thirty-two states, along with four Mexican states and one Canadian province. Several collectors were especially prolrsc. fseir general collecting locales are shown on this map of coniferous and deciduous forests, prairies, and treeless regions, created for the 1880 Census of the United States. Charles Sargent often commemorated the careers of collectors in his Silva of North America. fsese excerpts suggest the nature of the collectors' accomplishments. State or province represented in the collection. Charles Mohr \u2014 Gulf Coast \u2014 \"He made his home at Mobile, Alabama. Here for many years he has been a successful manufacturing druggist, and has devoted his spare time to the study of the usora and the natural resources of the state.\" Allen Curtiss \u2014 Florida and Interior Southeast \u2014 \"He has found many plants, including a number of tropical trees, not known in the territory of the United States before his time.\" John Sears \u2014 Northern New York and Eastern Massachusetts George Letterman \u2014 Missouri, Arkansas, and Northeastern Texas \u2014 \"He rsnally in 1869 settled in Allenton, Missouri, a railroad hamlet about thirty miles west of St. Louis \u2026 fse distribution of the trees of this region before Mr. Letterman's travels was little known, and much useful information concerning them was rsrst gathered by him.\" Henry Ravenel \u2014 South Carolina and Georgia \u2014 \"No other American botanist, perhaps, has minutely studied so many forms of the vegetable kingdom as Ravenel, and none has been more respected or beloved.\" 36 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Practically Complete As Sargent's early work on the forest census had concluded in 1884, his focus shifted to taxonomically oriented investigations in support of his Silva of North America and other publications. For nearly two decades, the development of the Jesup Collection was synergistic with that work. Sargent never rested in his ambition to add species to the wood collection, even when his practice conflicted with Jesup's financial concerns and with the museum's pragmatic considerations for their curation. As early as April 1883, after more than two full years of collecting effort, Sargent had indicated that there were twenty-one species needed to complete the collection.60 Still, in February 1886, he reported that there were another \"18 or really 19,\" of which several had already been sent for.61 Just a year later, he wrote, \"I find that there are still a few species which must be added to the Jesup Collection in order to make it complete, and that, moreover, a few important species are not yet properly represented in the Collection.\"62 Sargent reflected in 1889, \"I consider that the collection is practically complete,\" 63 but that notion was short-lived. Sargent soon organized a special expedition to the West Coast and Arizona in 1891 for several unrepresented species. In January 1894, Jesup reported that Sargent had sent him \"the gratifying assurance\" that the collection \"is now complete\"64\u2014even as Sargent was preparing to leave on another collecting trip to Arizona to support his work on the Silva, resulting in at least one new specimen for the museum.65 In April 1898, another twenty-eight species were called for.66 In May 1900, Sargent wrote to museum secretary J. H. Winser, \"We have been finding a lot more trees in the United States during the last year. None of them are very large but all have a scientific interest.\u2026 Now what I want to know is whether I shall go ahead and use my discretion in obtaining such material as may be necessary to complete the Collection.\"67 A year later, Sargent ordered several more specimens from Arkansas, Texas, and Missouri, and noted, \"I understand there is still a good deal more work to do on the collection before it can be considered complete.\"68 Very late in this process, Sargent occasionally accompanied his requests with a lament, such as, \"If it is not continued, I shall be saved a lot of disagreeable bother and letter-writing.\"69 Jesup at times wondered at the necessity of so many very similar species, the number of duplicate specimens that had been sent, and the many that needed to be replaced over time because of damage or decay. He was also not na\u00efve to the fact that he was often financing Sargent's research by supporting new collecting trips for certain trees, and he once expressed frustration about this habit.70 In a note to himself on the back of one letter, Jesup wrote, \"I wonder when the getting of specimens is going to stop.\"71 Both men were clearly tiring of the work of supervising and organizing the collection, wanting it to be both comprehensive and finished, but Jesup's support continued. Still additional specimens were received at the museum late in 1901,72 but by July 1902, Sargent was again discussing sending a collector for more.73 In 1908, the year of Jesup's death, thirty-five specimens (possibly the last) were added to the exhibit.74 Intelligence, Technical Knowledge and Enthusiasm While Sargent continued to direct the collection of new specimens, the opening of the museum's public exhibit in 1885 had added an informal duty: the role of absentee curator. Although S. D. Dill, an experienced carpenter, had been hired specifically to oversee the preparation and installation of the logs and related materials, as well as to build the cases for them, Sargent had ideas of his own about how the collection should be handled and displayed. Beyond persistently lobbying for more space, he involved himself in the minutiae of how logs should be arranged, directly supervised the preparation of labels, and critiqued the display of illustrations following his occasional visits to New York. Only months into the exhibition, Sargent wrote to Jesup with concerns that some specimens housed in new cases were \"already suffering from extremes of temperature as I feared that they would.\" He added that he was \"very anxious & troubled\" that Dill's workroom in the Arsenal was inadequately heated and exposed the specimens to \"danger of destruction by fire or at the hands of outsiders.\"75 Nearly fifteen years later, he offered a similar assessment and insisted that Dill be provided with a workspace Jesup Collection 37 Cross-sections of giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum, left) and coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) flank the entrance to Forestry Hall. The giant sequoia is the only specimen from the Jesup Collection now displayed at the museum. AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 5299 that better protected the specimens, adding, \"The money value and cost of these specimens is small in proportion to the expenditure of intelligence, technical knowledge and enthusiasm necessary to procure them, and it is discouraging after all the labor which has been expended in getting them if they are allowed to go to ruin in the Museum.\"76 Although work remained to be done, and to Sargent's dismay, Dill, the collection's chief preparator, caretaker, and de facto on-site curator for twenty years, left the museum for his native Nova Scotia in 1902. To facilitate interpretation of the specimens, museum director Herman C. Bumpus began an inventory of the wood collection in 1903 77 and enlisted Roy W. Miner from the Department of Invertebrate Zoology for the task. Even at that time, the museum's growing bias toward other facets of natural history, to the neglect of botany, was apparent to Bumpus, who frankly acknowledged the economic entomology and wood collections as the entirety of the museum's botanical holdings.78 The \"Forestry Department\" (comprising essentially the collection itself) was without a dedicated curator until 1907, when Alfred C. Burrill, an entomologist by training, was appointed to oversee the exhibit of woods.79 In 1909, Mary C. Dickerson was hired as curator of the Department of Woods and Forestry and served in that capacity for a decade.80 During her editorship of the American Museum Journal, forestry was several times a featured topic. In her 1910 guide to \"Trees and Forestry,\" 38 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 which drew examples from the Jesup Collection, she expanded on themes of ecology and conservation that were not only current but had long been advocated by the collection's progenitors, Jesup and Sargent.81 Just two years after Jesup's death, museum president Henry F. Osborn reported, \"The Jesup Collection of North American Woods is being rearranged and installed in a way to bring out more clearly the classification of trees, their relationship and their economic uses.\"82 With the wood collection numbering 505 specimens on display, additions were made for several more years in the form of watercolors, photographs, and wax models of foliage, flowers, and fruit;83 Mary Sargent had continued to add to the watercolor series, until more than four hundred paintings were on display with the logs. Space continued to be a problem as time went on (there, and throughout the museum), and activity centered around rearranging specimens to avoid crowding to the extent that was possible.84 Aside from Sargent, who had contributed his knowledge during the collection's genesis, only an oversight committee\u2014chaired in absentia by Gifford Pinchot (cofounder of the Yale Forest School) and James W. Toumey (the school's first Morris K. Jesup Professor of Silviculture)\u2014 afforded forestry expertise after the turn of the century. It was not until 1917 that the department had the benefit of an in-house, credentialed forester. During an era of very limited departmental budget, Yale graduate and future forest ecologist Barrington Moore had been hired as assistant curator, and it was hoped that his experience would contribute to topical research and education at the institution.85 He was shortly called to service in the First World War, however, and by 1920 both he (for other opportunities) and Dickerson (for health reasons) had left the museum. This loss of expertise and energy only compounded the obstacles faced by the wood collection and related subjects that Jesup had promoted. As institutional memory of the collection's formation had been episodically lost since the turn of the century, and the collection's place of priority eroded after the death of its creator and benefactor, its fate became inexorably linked to that of the department going forward. An Old-Fashioned Systematic Arrangement Unlike other collections and exhibits prepared by the various dynamic and actively growing departments of the museum\u2014especially Mammalogy and Ornithology, Paleontology, and Anthropology\u2014the wood collection remained little changed from the 1910s through the 1930s. While the curatorship went unfilled, the Jesup Collection had a champion in museum director Frederic A. Lucas, who in 1922 wrote to President Osborn, \"It is extremely important that we should revive our forestry department, for its own sake and also in memory of Mr. Jesup.\"86 Following Lucas's death in 1929, George H. Sherwood, as museum director and curator of the Department of Education, became its defender. After his death eight years later, the scientific staff of the museum proposed that \"an attempt be made to place some one in charge of the wood collection.\"87 For another decade, the Department of Forestry and Conservation was again chaired and staffed by scientists borrowed from other departments, until a curator was hired for the position in 1946. In the meantime, the finished logs not only occupied an entire exhibit hall but myriad smaller duplicates and miscellaneous wood samples took up valuable storage space when lack of such space at the museum was a chronic problem. Discussions about disposing of the Jesup Collection began to stir at least as early as 1937, when museum director Roy C. Andrews (Sherwood's successor) had suggested that the collection be donated to the New York Botanical Garden \"or some other institution\" in order to create space for new exhibitions. In response, the museum's Council of the Scientific Staff resolved that the collection remained important scientifically as well as to the work of the Department of Education, and argued that to give away this \"superb gift\" could discourage other donations to the museum.88 When the question resurfaced in 1942 under the museum's new director, Albert E. Parr, calls to abandon the wood collection were again met with protest. Informal opinions attributed to the museum's Advisory Committee on Plan and Scope included regret \"that serious proposals have been made to burn up the collecJesup Collection 39 tion,\" and indicated a strong consensus that the museum had an obligation to find \"a satisfactory or a better home for it\" in order to avoid a \"gross\" breach of trust.89 Parr's plans for the museum were dampened during the ensuing years of the Second World War as the institution adjusted to extended absences among curatorial and administrative staff who had joined the armed forces, changes in visitation and patronage, curtailed research activity, and altered demands on the museum's technical and human resources.90 Following the war, Parr discussed the process of \"reconversion\" from the distorted wartime operations of the museum to a post-war vision for its future. He made it clear that he saw this process, both inevitable and necessary, as an opportunity to focus the museum's scope and actively integrate its research and educational activities across disciplines and into the wider landscape of public consciousness. He wanted to find alternatives to standard approaches to exhibition, where \"an old-fashioned systematic arrangement of specimens, unrelieved by an occasionally freer use of artistry, becomes dull and boring to the spectator.\"91 Abandoning staid practices was the foundation for planning the museum's \"program of modernization\" in the years to follow.92 In addition to its orphan status among the departments of the museum, there may have been no single display in the museum at that After more than sixty years on public display, the Jesup Collection was dismantled in Forestry Hall in 1948. AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 2A1316 40 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 time that so epitomized a nineteenth-centurystyle exhibit than the Jesup Collection of North American Woods. Shortly after Parr became the museum's director in 1942, he initiated discussions with botanist Bror E. Dahlgren, once an assistant curator in the Department of Invertebrate Zoology at the museum, who since the 1920s had been affiliated with the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Dahlgren was asked to reconsider how the subjects of forestry and conservation would be represented at the museum. Initially, his advice pertained to a rearrangement of the existing log specimens, \"to break up the single linear, traditional systematic arrangement,\" emphasizing instead the geographic distributions and associations of the many species represented. He envisioned this new scheme as representing the composition and structure of regional American forests, resulting in displays that were more like the dioramas familiar from the museum's zoological exhibits.93 Even with this new thinking toward repurposing the logs, however, the collection's future was not secure. In July 1946, botanist Henry K. Svenson became chair and curator of the reconstituted Department of Forestry and General Botany, which counted two other museum associates, Clarence Hay (anthropology) and Charles Russell (education), as its scientific staff. As a longtime consultant to the museum while a curator at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Svenson had AMNH RESEARCH LIBRARY DIGITAL SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, 322587 Artists create detailed replicas of trees for the Olympic Forest diorama during the renovation of the Forestry Hall in 1952. Jesup Collection 41 been designing a new forestry hall and began his tenure at the museum with a preliminary plan for the new exhibits. He recognized the historical importance of the wood collection as \"a heritage of the America that is past, and that our forests would no longer provide such a fine assemblage of material,\" and noted that it would \"become of greater and greater value as time goes on.\" At the same time, Svenson recognized that the future of the department would be a departure from its past. The emphasis of its work would not be on specimens, which would be kept \"behind the scenes,\" but on illustrating the integrated relationships and landscape processes represented by forest vegetation.94 Toward this end, the existing Hall of Forestry was closed on November 1, 1948, after which the exhibits were dismantled.95 As exhibits were revised, Parr explained in 1951 that the role of natural history museums in the progress of science had been evolving over the prior decade. There remained an abiding interest in individual organisms, which were the realm of basic research and a staple of the museum's scientific program. At the same time and increasingly, the museum identified new objectives for their work: understanding the interactions of organisms with their environment (their ecology) and recognizing the necessity for their conservation in nature. It was in these areas where Parr saw the museum's most critical educational mission.96 An early expression of this philosophy was the Felix M. Warburg Memorial Hall of Ecology. Occupying the space where the Jesup Collection had been exhibited, several new exhibits were intended to illustrate the ecosystems of New York State and how the human population influenced the landscape. Adjacent to this, in the southeast corner of the first floor (formerly known as Darwin Hall or the Hall of Invertebrate Zoology), the new Hall of North American Forests was unveiled on May 14, 1958, featuring life-sized dioramas of eleven forest types from across the continent. Where the hundreds of individual trunk segments, separate models of foliage and flowers, and illustrations that populated the former hall had left their forests of origin to the imagination of visitors, the new displays revealed integrated forest ecosystems, with characteristic herbaceous plants, animals, and physical elements (sunlight, water, soils) conspicuously represented in three dimensions. The focus of the new hall was on forests as habitats, the interrelationships among organisms that live in forested regions, and the importance of maintaining these ecosystems.97 Although the tree species themselves were no longer the raisons d'\u00eatre of the new exhibits, the new hall was, effectively, an embodiment of the ideals that its namesake had hoped to promote through the assembly of the original Jesup Collection. The new exhibits were met with admiration.98 Of all the pieces formerly on display, only the large cross-section of giant sequoia remained, as it does today. Meanwhile, as the penultimate step toward disposition, the woods had been officially designated a \"scientific storage collection\" in 1953, and the specimens were sequestered elsewhere in the museum.99 Ponderous and Not Easily Handled In September 1956, Parr ultimately succeeded in convincing the museum's Management Board that \"there was no probability of this material [the wood collection] ever being put to any real use by The American Museum of Natural History.\" He asked the board to approve the transfer of the Jesup Collection to the Smithsonian Institution, which he hoped \"would guarantee proper care and use of the material in accordance with the purposes for which it was collected.\"100 With the board's approval to pursue disposition, then-curator of the museum's Department of Vegetation Studies, Jack McCormick, initiated correspondence with the National Museum to effect this transfer. Because the Smithsonian was preoccupied with the construction of new buildings and other exhibits, these discussions proceeded intermittently over the next two years. The director of the Smithsonian's Museum of Natural History, Remington Kellogg, finally submitted a formal request to Parr in December 1957. His proposal outlined a dramatic new vision for the specimens: Our plans foresee the utilization of the collection in several ways. The large redwood, Sitka spruce, Douglas-fir, sugar pine, ponderosa pine, white pine, oak, walnut, and longleaf pine trunk 42 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 specimens are being considered in connection with exhibits, in the coming Museum of History and Technology, on early lumbering in the Northeast, the Lake States, the Central Hardwood Region, the Southern Pinery, the Pacific Northwest, and the California Redwood Region. A few of the other large specimens may possibly be halved lengthwise, one half being exhibited with tangentially and radially cut boards from the other half, and the remainder cut into study samples for distribution to educational institutions, colleges, universities, and museums. The remainder of the collection would eventually be cut into study samples for distribution as stated above. We would retain at least two specimens of each species that is cut.101 Parr expressed reticence toward the Smithsonian's plans to destroy the majority of the logs, but he was steadfast in his determination to relocate the huge collection.102 The museum's Board of Trustees approved the transfer at its April 1958 meeting.103 Despite this progress, the arrangements for the collection's transfer remained suspended for another two years. Parr retired, and James A. Oliver became the museum's new director in 1959. During this same time frame, both the directorship of the Smithsonian's Museum of Natural History and the curatorship of its Department of Botany (which included its wood collection) also changed. In 1960, William L. Stern became the Smithsonian's new curator of the Division of Woods. Stern, formerly the curator of the Samuel J. Record wood collection at Yale University, had earlier in that role declined the museum's offer of the Jesup Collection. He explained to McCormick, \"We refused on the grounds that the space needed for storage would be beyond our means, that many of the pieces were ponderous and not easily handled.\" At the Smithsonian, Stern was again faced with the prospect of acquiring the Jesup Collection. In January 1960, he noted to McCormick, \"If I had been Curator of the Division of Woods in the National Museum at the time the Jesup Collection was offered, I do not know how I would have reacted to the offer.\u2026 I just hope that there will be no restrictions on cutting the specimens and that there are no qualifications regarding the handling of the material once it is in the National Museum.\"104 Stern had expressed his opinion to the Smithsonian's new director of the Museum of Natural History, Albert C. Smith, that despite \"the historical importance and unique nature\" of the Jesup Collection, \"it would not greatly increase the usefulness of our present collections for anatomical study.\"105 In his correspondence with Oliver in June 1960, Smith explained, \"One of the problems that we both inherited, in connection with our new positions, concerns the Jesup Collection of Woods of the United States.\u2026 I am now in the embarrassing position of having to ask you to allow the Smithsonian Institution to reverse itself, as to acceptance of the Jesup Collection.\" 106 He indicated that although one or two of the monumental cross-sections might still be useful in their exhibits, the costs of relocation and the ever-present problem of storage were obstacles to their previously agreed-upon plans. Oliver, of course, was disappointed but acknowledged the Smithsonian's position.107 For the sake of the logs, it was certainly a fortuitous development: the very scope and volume of the collection that had inspired museum visitors had made it difficult to accommodate elsewhere, and just as onerous to cut up into tiny hand samples. These were only the first obstacles the museum encountered in its efforts to dispose of the Jesup Collection, but the reasons would not change going forward. McCormick next approached William C. Steere, director of the New York Botanical Garden. After initially suggesting that the garden could accept the Jesup Collection, however, the offer was declined later in 1961.108 Following McCormick's departure from the museum in August of that year, at which time the Department of Vegetation Studies disappeared forever, Oliver took up the cause himself. To an inquiry from Stanley A. Cain, of the University of Michigan School of Natural Resources, he wrote: \"This collection is really a very important one and it should be transferred to a single institution intact. The bulk of the collection is one of the big problems that hinders anyone from accepting it. However, there are no restrictions on it and the wood samples could easily be cut up for other institutions.\"109 This Jesup Collection 43 latest offer was not pursued. With essentially the same preamble, Oliver next approached the Field Museum of Natural History, but received no favorable reply.110 Happy to Turn it Over As Oliver's frustrated efforts began to resemble desperation, a promising inquiry arrived from the Pacific Northwest. Early in 1963, Oliver had spoken with a man named Lloyd S. Millegan, a retired public servant who lived in McMinnville, Oregon, and ran a small marquetry business, Lloyd's of Oregon, in nearby Portland. Millegan envisioned mounting a display of the logs at the New York World's Fair in 1964, then displaying the collection in Portland to generate publicity and business for his handicrafts. Having been unsuccessful in finding another museum to accept the collection, Oliver explained that the museum was \"eager\" and \"would be happy to turn it over to anyone who will undertake the cost of packing and transporting the entire collection from the museum to the new location.\" He emphasized that \"the entire collection be taken in its entirety because we have no personnel to dispose of it properly piecemeal.\" 111 When another group, coincidentally also in Portland, inquired about the collection later that year, Oliver asked Millegan to submit a formal offer indicating his intentions and to confirm that the collection would be removed by February 1964.112 While Oliver awaited word from Millegan, he continued to entertain correspondence with Aldred A. Heckman, director of the Louis W. and Maud Hill Family Foundation in St. Paul, Minnesota. Through the common acquaintance of William Steere at the New York Botanical Garden, the Hill Family Foundation had been in discussions with the Gallery of Trees Committee, a group of industry and civic leaders as well as forestry professionals, about assisting them in acquiring the Jesup Collection for their museum in Portland. Heckman explained, \"There is real interest in having the Collection in Portland.\" He emphasized that there was both local expertise available to prepare and interpret the proposed exhibit, as well as an audience already interested in trees and forestry attending the existing forestry museum. Further, the City of Portland and the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry had indicated willingness to participate in structuring the acquisition.113 Steere himself wrote to Heckman, \"Naturally I am deeply grateful to you for your personal interest in seeing that an exhibit of national importance is not reduced to veneer or small samples\u2014or ashes.\"114 At an early meeting in January 1964, the Gallery of Trees Committee proceeded to address questions about transportation of the collection and the siting, design, and construction of a new building to house it. The Hill Family Foundation offered to defray the costs of transporting the collection to Portland, provided that it be publicly owned and exhibited. The City of Portland's Park Bureau and the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry were identified as the preferred partners.115 Whether it had intended to or not, the meeting illustrated the contrast between the committee's plans, for which the organizers could demonstrate institutional, technical, intellectual, and financial support, and those of Millegan, whose intentions had not addressed any of the real practicalities involved with adopting these specimens. Both the Gallery of Trees Committee and the Hill Family Foundation had been surprised to learn of Millegan's prior claim, but their strong interest in obtaining the logs for Portland's museum compelled them to include him in their discussions. Millegan was asked to explain his relationship to the collection. The meeting minutes recorded: \"He asked for it not knowing then what could be done with it. His offer was accepted.\u2026 [He] said he had no deed for the collection, merely a letter saying he could have it.\"116 He was asked what conditions he would place on forfeiting his \"claim\" to the collection so that the committee could proceed. Millegan stipulated first that the collection should be freely accessible and well presented; beyond that, he wanted to use the exhibit to educate visitors about marquetry and its use of various woods, and to display his marquetry products alongside the exhibit.117 At this time, Heckman indicated to Oliver that there would be no further discussion among the foundation and the entities in Portland until Millegan's position was clarified. He concluded, \"It seemed 44 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 to me that we were rapidly getting to the point of having too many cooks as far as the North American Woods Collection is concerned.\"118 The chair of the Gallery of Trees Committee, Thornton T. Munger, addressed Oliver shortly after the meeting, indicating that the committee was \"impatient\" to understand where they stood in relation to Millegan's plans to acquire the collection.119 Heckman soon wrote to Oliver, as well, reinforcing the message of progress that had been made toward planning for the collection's move to Portland under the assumption that Millegan would cede the collection. He added, \"We thought that if funds were assured to cover the costs of transporting the Collection to Portland and preparing it for display, the decisions regarding these other matters would be made with reasonable speed. This is as far as we can go. The next steps will have to be taken in Portland.\"120 Millegan subsequently contacted the committee to revise his terms for relinquishing his claim to the collection, introducing the demand that he be allowed \"to operate in the exhibit area a concession where selected gift and educational items in wood could be purchased.\" The committee's chair, Munger, was a retired forester of long tenure in the U.S. Forest Service whose career and research had been devoted to developing methods for sustainable forestry and conservation. He and the Gallery of Trees Committee envisioned a much broader mission for the collection, that it would illustrate the forest resources of the country for the benefit of public education. Neither the committee, nor the City of Portland, nor the Hill Family Foundation approved of the idea of using the collection to support a commercial enterprise, which in terms of the proposed new building would also be prohibited by city ordinance.121 Although the committee was at an impasse as the negotiations stretched into April, May, and June, Munger had continued to plan as though a compromise would eventually be reached.122 After hearing again from Munger following a meeting in May, Oliver decided to finally draw the matter to a close. He informed Millegan in June, \"You have repeatedly stated that you were interested in acquiring this collection and were given several deadlines for the acquisition of the collection.\u2026 I think we have been exceedingly patient in waiting for you to fulfill your intentions. Therefore, your option to the collection has been withdrawn and we shall seek to dispose of the collection through other channels.\" 123 Oliver notified Munger of the transaction and renewed his offer to the Gallery of Trees Committee, with the only requirement being \"that we hope it will be exhibited for the benefit of the public and will be available to students for study.\" He urged that the collection be transferred by September 1.124 The Gallery of Trees Committee was relieved, the Hill Family Foundation was satisfied, and the City Council and Oregon Museum of Science and Industry all agreed that the collection would finally belong to Portland. In the meantime, the Gallery of Trees Committee had reached a consensus about the location for the new exhibit. Rather than constructing a new building, the Jesup Collection could be displayed on the unoccupied second story of the old Forestry Building, a stupendous log structure that had been built in northwest Portland for the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition of 1905. The main floor was already in use as a museum of forestry and the logging industry, and it was thought that the log specimens would complement these exhibits. Because the aging balconies required engineering changes to accommodate the collection, the committee intended to store the collection once it arrived in Portland while funding was raised for the renovations.125 Just a month after the final July meeting that approved of these plans, tragedy swept them all aside. A fire started in the office of the Forestry Building on the evening of August 17 and rapidly spread to the entire structure. The next morning, Munger observed the smoldering remains, which included the entire contents of the city's forestry museum that he had helped to oversee.126 By 1971, when the new Western Forestry Center building opened, the story of the calamity in the museum's own informational materials had come to include the Jesup Collection and its miraculous escape of this fate by having still been in storage in Portland.127 Twenty years after the fire, the story read: \"When the old log museum burned in August Jesup Collection 45 1964, two box cars full of the Jesup collection had just arrived. Sidetracked and waiting to be unloaded, the collection narrowly missed destruction in the fire. The exhibit then was stored by the city until the new forestry center opened in June 1971.\"128 In fact, the Jesup Collection had still been safely in New York. Munger wrote to Oliver just days after the fire, expressing the committee's sadness at the loss and explaining its plans to rebuild. He noted, \"It is very fortunate that the Jesup Collection was not there.\"129 At the museum, Oliver and his staff were solidifying plans for an early October moving day. The Santini Brothers moving company was contracted to pack and transport the collection.130 On October 6, 1964, the specimens departed the museum aboard three moving vans destined for Portland, Oregon (the surviving paperwork gives no indication that railroad cars were employed).131 How they were stored once they arrived there is not recorded, but it is possible that the Gallery of Trees Committee took advantage of one of the offers for local warehouse space that had been made during their planning process.132 The Jesup Collection would not be put on display for nearly seven more years while a new building was constructed, but that building promised to include dedicated space for the logs. At the new Western Forestry Center, which opened in June 1971 in Washington Park, west of downtown Portland, the Jesup Collection In 1971, the Jesup Collection of Woods reopened in a new home at the Western Forestry Center in Portland, Oregon. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 46 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 was \"the background theme that links together feature displays at the Forestry Center. Some of the largest logs are stationed at the entrance and around the outdoor covered walkway; inside, smaller specimens circle the first-floor display room. Other logs fill corners and file along corridors.\" 133 Following their move, the logs had been cleaned, refinished, and given new labels by local members of the Society of American Foresters and the International Wood Collectors Society. The historical value of the 505 logs said to be on display, representing trees of such stature that in many cases could no longer be observed in the United States, was well appreciated, and the collection remained a popular exhibit.134 As the Western Forestry Center expanded its educational mission and shifted its focus to forests at a global scale, taking on the name World Forestry Center in 1986, the collection's relevance was again eclipsed by its physical footprint. About January 1994, the collection was donated to Agricenter International in Memphis, Tennessee.135 Although exhibited there for several years, the logs have since spent more than two decades in storage. A Heritage Following Jesup's death, Sargent reflected, \"The formation of the Jesup collection of North American Woods \u2026 was a matter of national importance. The preparation of this collection enabled us to study the distribution of the economic value of many trees which, before Mr. Jesup's undertaking, were largely unknown. I think it can be said that this collection is the finest representation of forest wealth that exists in any country.\"136 In its time on exhibit, the collection was marveled at by audiences for more than eighty years altogether. It provided not only Jesup and Sargent but some early influencers of American forestry\u2014including Heinrich Mayr, Carl A. Schenck, Gifford Pinchot, Bernhard E. Fernow, Barrington Moore, and later even Thornton Munger\u2014with inspiration and a platform to promote a growing movement supporting the conservation of American forests. What the logs represent has not changed, and their historical significance has only grown. Apart from the varied circumstances leading to their assembly in New York from all across North America, as a group the collection has twice crossed the country; it has evaded annihilation more than once, each time saved by wellmeaning caretakers facing formidable logistical challenges. More than 120 years since the consolidation of the collection, although many of the logs are superficially weathered and show wear and tear from handling and the elements, their number is mainly intact. The wood itself has largely not suffered and will be restorable in some future, truly permanent, home. Research to document the geographic origins of individual logs is ongoing; these findings will enable many of them to retake their scientific potential, where study of the wood itself may contribute meaningfully to the knowledge of our environmental past. All of them may yet function as emissaries for their species and for the forested regions from which they came\u2014 possibly even more so today than at the time of the collection's unveiling, when many contemporaries believed that such trees would be lost from America's forests in time, even as forests generally were disappearing, and that such a collection could never again be made.137 Acknowledgments This research was supported in part by a 2019 Sargent Award for Visiting Scholars from the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. For their assistance, the author is grateful to the curators of the Harvard University Herbaria; Lisa Pearson at the Arnold Arboretum; Rebecca Morgan and Gregory Raml at the Archives of the American Museum of Natural History; Alex Wiedenhoeft and Regis Miller at the USDA Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin; John Butler and John Charles Wilson at Agricenter International, Memphis, Tennessee; and Mark Reed, Beavercreek, Oregon. Notes 1 A Noble Gift, Sun (New York), 17 May 1885, p.8. 2 American Woods, Harper's Weekly 29(30 May 1885), p.350. 3 Brewer, 1877: 4. 4 Norton, 1879: 110. 5 A. S. Bickmore to C. S. Sargent, 12 Sep 1880, Letterpress Books, 3a: 273, AMNH. 6 Joseph H. Choate, in Hovey 1907: 5. 7 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 2 Nov 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 8 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 11 Nov 1880, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 9 Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History 1881. 10 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 14 Dec 1880; C. S. Sargent to J. J. Bargin, 20 Apr 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. Jesup Collection 47 11 M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 12 Mar 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 19, AMNH. 12 A. S. Bickmore to C. S. Sargent, 29 Jun 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 55; C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 5 Jul 1882, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 13 M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 1 Sep 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 80, AMNH. 14 M. K. Jesup to A. S. Bickmore, 1 Sep 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 82, AMNH. 15 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 25 Apr 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 16 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 18 Feb 1896, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 17 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 20 Aug 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 18 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 25 Apr 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 19 M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 21 Jun 1882, Letterpress Books, 4: 277; J. J. Bargin to M. L. Saley, 3 Mar 1886, Letterpress Books, 9: 83, AMNH. 20 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 2 Nov 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 21 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 25 Apr 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I; A. S. Bickmore to C. S. Sargent, 17 Aug 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 73, AMNH. 22 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 17 Jun 1899, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 23 M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 28 Apr 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 35, AMNH. 24 Sargent, 1884. 25 A. S. Bickmore to C. S. Sargent, 3 Dec 1881, Letterpress Books, 5: 50, AMNH. 26 J. J. Bargin to C. S. Sargent, 10 Apr 1882, Letterpress Books, 4: 235, AMNH. 27 Osborn, 1911. 28 The Woods of America\u2014A Great Collection of 394 Specimens, New York Times, 22 Oct 1882, p.13. 29 A. S. Bickmore to C. S. Sargent, 17 Aug 1881, Letterpress Books, 4: 72, AMNH. 30 S. D. Dill to M. K. Jesup, 8 Nov 1882; C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 1 Jun 1884, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 31 J. H. Winser to M. K. Jesup, 26 Jan 1899, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 32 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 9 May 1882, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I; M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 16 May 1882, Letterpress Books, 4: 250, AMNH. 33 Osborn, 1911: 19. 34 S. D. Dill to J. J. Bargin, 24 Oct 1882, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 35 C. Vaux to Department of Public Parks, 13 Nov 1882, Early Admin Files, CN1739, AMNH. 36 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 1 Nov 1882, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 37 Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History 1883: 6. 38 American Wood Specimens: Mr. Jesup's Present to the Museum of Natural History, New York Times, 26 Dec 1883, p.8. 39 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 15 Feb 1884, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 40 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 30 Apr 1884; C. S. Sargent to A. S. Bickmore, 7 Jun 1884, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 41 Bickmore, 1885: 778-779. 42 Sargent, 1885. 43 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 26 Apr 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 44 Jesup, 1885: 6-7. 45 A Noble Gift, Sun (New York), 17 May 1885, p.8. 46 American Woods, Harper's Weekly 29(30 May 1885), p.350. 47 The Jesup Collection\u2014All the Woods of the United States, Formal Opening To-day at the Museum of Natural History, New York Times, 18 May 1885, p.1. 48 J. J. Bargin to M. K. Jesup, 9 Oct 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 49 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 13 Oct 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 50 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 13 Oct 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 51 An Interesting Collection\u2014Mr. Jesup's Gift to the American Museum of Natural History, New York Times, 16 Nov 1890, p.9; Sargent 1890b; Jesup 1891. 52 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 9 Jun 1891, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 53 Jesup, 1894. 54 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 2 Jan 1895, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 55 M. K. Jesup to C. S. Sargent, 17 Jan 1895, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 56 J. H. Winser to M. K. Jesup, 23 Jan 1895, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 57 Extract of Minutes, Regular Meeting of the Exectutive Committee, 20 Dec 1895, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 58 Jesup, 1896: 14. 59 Jesup, 1898, 1899, 1907. 60 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 6 Apr 1881, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 61 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 19 Feb 1886, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 62 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 11 May 1887, Early Admin Files, CN2169, AMNH. 63 C. S. Sargent to B. Strong, 12 Feb 1889, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 64 Extract of Minutes, Regular Meeting of the Exectutive Committee, 19 Jan 1894, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 65 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 13 Sep 1894, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 66 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 21 Apr 1898, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 67 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 29 May 1900, Early Admin Files, CN3540, AMNH. 68 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 26 Oct 1901, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 69 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 7 Jun 1899, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 70 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 7 May 1898, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 71 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 1 Nov 1898, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 72 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 4 Dec 1901, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 73 C. S. Sargent to J. H. Winser, 23 Jul 1902, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 74 Osborn, 1909. 48 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 75 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 6 Oct 1885, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 76 C. S. Sargent to M. K. Jesup, 7 Jan 1899, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 77 H. C. Bumpus to C. S. Sargent, 14 Oct 1903, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 78 H. C. Bumpus to H. H. Kopman, 28 Oct 1904, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. I, AMNH. 79 Osborn, 1908. 80 Osborn, 1910. 81 Dickerson, 1910. 82 Osborn, 1910: 41. 83 Osborn, 1911: 118. 84 Dickerson, 1912. 85 Dickerson, 1917. 86 H. F. Osborn to F.A. Lucas, 11 Dec 1922, Central Archives, 777, AMNH. 87 H. E. Anthony, Meeting Minutes, p.88, Council of the Scientific Staff, 4 Oct 1937, Departmental Records, 086, AMNH. 88 H. E. Anthony, Meeting Minutes, pp.88-89, Council of the Scientific Staff, 4 Oct 1937, Departmental Records, 086, AMNH. 89 Papers presented by the Advisory Committee on Plan and Scope, 6 May 1942, Central Archives, 1232, AMNH. 90 Parr, 1943. 91 Parr, 1946: 13. 92 Davison, 1946: 4. 93 B. E. Dahlgren to A. E. Parr, 6 Jul 1943, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 94 H. K. Svenson, Report: Department of Forestry and General Botany, 1947, Departmental Records, 091, Ser. IV, AMNH. 95 AMNH Department of Education Division of Publications 1949. 96 Parr, 1943, 1951. 97 Burns, 1958. 98 Museum Opening Hall of Forests, by S. Knox, New York Times, 14 May 1958, p.35. 99 A. E. Parr, Report of the Management Board, Special Meeting of the Board of Trustees, 20 Apr 1953, Central Archives, 1118, AMNH. 100 Extract of Minutes, Management Board Meeting, 27 Sep 1956, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 101 R. Kellogg to A. E. Parr, 19 Dec 1957, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 102 A. E. Parr to R. Kellogg, 26 Dec 1957, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 103 Extract of Minutes, Spring Meeting of the Board of Trustees, 28 Apr 1958, Central Archives, 1117, AMNH. 104 W. L. Stern to J. McCormick, 15 Jan 1960, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 105 A. C. Smith to J. A. Oliver, 24 Jun 1960, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 106 A. C. Smith to J. A. Oliver, 24 Jun 1960, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 107 J. A. Oliver to A. C. Smith, 5 Jul 1960, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 108 J. McCormick to J. A. Oliver, 20 Jun 1961, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 109 J. A. Oliver to S. A. Cain, 26 Dec 1961, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 110 J. A. Oliver to J. Millar, 26 Dec 1961, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 111 J. A. Oliver to L. S. Millegan, 19 Feb 1963, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 112 J. A. Oliver to L. S. Millegan, 15 Nov 1963, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 113 A. A. Heckman to J. A. Oliver, 15 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 114 W. C. Steere to A. A. Heckman, 17 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 115 Minutes of Meeting to Discuss Prospects of Getting for Portland the Jesup Collection of Woods, 15 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 116 Minutes of Meeting to Discuss Prospects of Getting for Portland the Jesup Collection of Woods, 15 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 117 Minutes of Meeting to Discuss Prospects of Getting for Portland the Jesup Collection of Woods, 15 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 118 A. A. Heckman to J. A. Oliver, 15 Jan 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 119 T. T. Munger to J. A. Oliver, 17 Feb 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 120 A. A. Heckman to J. A. Oliver, 20 Feb 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 121 T. T. Munger to J. A. Oliver, 14 Apr 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 122 Minutes of Meeting of Committee on the Jesup Collection of Wood, 29 May 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 123 J. A. Oliver to L. S. Millegan, 24 Jun 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 124 J. A. Oliver to T. T. Munger, 24 Jun 19","distinct_key":"arnoldia-2021-Such a Fine Assemblage: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Such a Fine Assemblage: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods","article_sequence":7,"start_page":24,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25742","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160af27.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mauz, Kathryn","article_content":"64, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 125 Statement to the City Council of Portland regarding transfer of the Jesup Collection to the Oregon Museum of Science and Industry, 14 Jul 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 126 Curator Watches as Embers of History Linger On\u2014 Oregon Logging Associates Consider Plans to Restore Forestry Building, Oregonian, 19 Aug 1964, p.1. 127 Press release: Jesup Wood Collection, Western Forestry Center, Portland, Ore., ca. 1971, I G 9.1 WUS: Woods of the United States Exhibit Records, AA. 128 Jesup Wood Collection historic, enduring exhibit, by J. Sansregret, Oregonian, 28 Sep 1984, p.D7. 129 T. T. Munger to J. A. Oliver, 22 Aug 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 130 P. H. Grouleff to J. A. Oliver, 29 Sep 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 131 Bill of Lading and Freight Bill, United Van Lines, 6 Oct 1964, Central Archives, 1203, AMNH. 132 T. T. Munger to J. A. Oliver, 2 Jul 1964, Departmental Records, 125, Ser. I, AMNH. 133 Sansregret, 1984: 50. 134 Reed, 1987. 135 Meeting minutes, 25 Jan 1994, Agricenter International (Memphis, Tennessee). 136 Brown, 1910: 165-166. 137 The Woods of America\u2014A Great Collection of 394 Specimens, New York Times, 22 Oct 1882, p.13; Sargent 1890a. Jesup Collection 49 Primary Sources Archival resources have been used with permission and are housed at the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Boston [AA]; the American Museum of Natural History Research Library Archives, New York [AMNH]; and elsewhere as indicated. Published Sources Cited AMNH Department of Education Division of Publications. 1949. General guide to the exhibition halls of the American Museum of Natural History. Science Guide 118 (5th ed.). American Museum of Natural History. Brewer, W. H. 1877. General report of the judges of Group VI and report on awards. Pages 1-50 in: Walker, F. A. (Ed.), Reports and awards, Group VI. United States Centennial Commission. J. B. Lippincott & Co. Brown, W. A. 1910. Morris Ketchum Jesup, a character sketch. Charles Scribner's Sons. Burns, W. A. (Ed.). 1958. General guide to the American Museum of Natural History. Science Guide 118 (revised ed.). American Museum of Natural History, Man and Nature Publications. Davison, F. T. 1946. Seventy-seventh report of the President. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 77: 1-6. Dickerson, M. C. 1910. Trees and forestry: An elementary treatment of the subject based on the Jesup Collection of North American Woods in the American Museum of Natural History. Guide Leaflet 32. American Museum of Natural History. Dickerson, M. C. (Ed.). 1912. Museum notes. American Museum Journal, 12: 35-40. Dickerson, M. C. (Ed.). 1917. Museum notes. American Museum Journal, 17: 76-80. Hovey, E. O. (Ed.). 1907. Introduction: Pioneers of American science: An account of the exercises held and the addresses delivered at the American Museum of Natural History, December 29, 1906. Guide Leaflet 25. American Museum Journal, 7(Supplement): 3-7. Jesup, M. K. 1891. Twenty-second annual report. Annual Report of the Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History ... for the Year 1890-91: 7-13. Jesup, M. K. 1894. Twenty-fifth annual report. Annual Report of the President of the American Museum of Natural History ... for the Year 1893: 7-15. Jesup, M. K. 1896. Twenty-seventh annual report. Annual Report of the President, Act of Incorporation, Contract with the Department of Public Parks, Constitution, By-laws and List of Members for the Year 1895: 7-23. Jesup, M. K. 1898. Twenty-ninth annual report. Annual Report of the President of the American Museum of Natural History ... for the Year 1897: 9-27. Jesup, M. K. 1899. Thirtieth annual report. Annual Report of the President of the American Museum of Natural History ... for the Year 1898: 9-26. Jesup, M. K. 1907. Thirty-eighth annual report. Annual Report of the President of the American Museum of Natural History ... for the Year 1906: 11-34. Norton, F. H. 1879. Illustrated historical register of the Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia, 1876, and the Exposition Universelle, Paris, 1878. The American News Co. Osborn, H. F. 1908. Thirty-ninth annual report. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 39: 15-48. Osborn, H. F. 1909. Fortieth annual report. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 40: 15-42. Osborn, H. F. 1910. Forty-first annual report. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 41: 15-51. Osborn, H. F. (Ed.). 1911. The American Museum of Natural History: Its origin, its history, the growth of its departments to December 31, 1909 (2nd ed.). New York: The Irving Press. Parr, A. E. 1943. The year's work. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 74: 5-21. Parr, A. E. 1946. In transition. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 77: 7-21. Parr, A. E. 1951. Purposes and progress report of the Director. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 82: 7-36. Reed, M. 1987. The Jesup Collection of Woods. Forest World Magazine, 3(1): 7-11. Sansregret, J. 1984. A history in wood. American Forests Magazine, 90(9): 50. Sargent, C. S. 1884. Report on the forests of North America (exclusive of Mexico). Tenth United States Census, vol. 9. Census Office, Department of the Interior. Government Printing Office. Sargent, C. S. 1885. American Museum of Natural History Jesup Collection: The woods of the United States. D. Appleton and Co. (John Wilson and Son). Sargent, C. S. 1890a. Recent publications: The forests of North America, I. Garden and Forest, 3: 193-194. Sargent, C. S. (Ed.). 1890b. The Jesup Collection of the Woods of the United States. Garden and Forest, 3: 570. Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History. 1881. Twelfth annual report. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 12: 5-12. Trustees of the American Museum of Natural History. 1883. Fourteenth annual report. Annual Report of the American Museum of Natural History, 14: 5-10. Kathryn Mauz writes from Colorado. Previous publications include a 2018 book on Jesup collector Cyrus Pringle: C. G. Pringle: Botanist, Traveler, and the \"Flora of the Pacific Slope\" (1881-1884).lants imported from Europe and farther afield. William Jr. and his son William Robert Prince took up the cause of identifying and describing plant material so that it could be offered to the public\u2014and they were highly invested in acquiring newly introduced species. In 1804, for instance, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark embarked upon the Missouri River to explore the recently acquired Louisiana Purchase. The expedition had been commissioned at Jefferson's request, and when the explorers returned east, they came bearing seeds and other botanical collections. The Princes were among the first nursery operators to grow and distribute plants from the expedition, and the Oregon grape holly (Mahonia aquifolium) became one of their most successful new products. The Princes were also among the first American nurseries to offer ornamental species from East Asia, like the golden rain tree (Koelreuteria paniculata), lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia), and Chinese wisteria (Wisteria sinensis). By the mid-1830s, William Jr. had ten nursery outbuildings, of which several were greenhouses that contained tropical and subtropical plants from Africa and Asia. Visitors could pay an admission fee to experience the warmth and humidity of the greenhouse\u2014a rewarding respite to escape the dark, cold New York winter. The nursery catalogue listed ten tropical hibiscuses (Hibiscus) and two gardenias (Gardenia) that bloomed in their greenhouses. Prince grew tropical fruits and flowers specifically for winter viewing. For variety, they also exhibited insectivorous plants such as sundew (Drosera), pitcher plant (Sarracenia), and Venus flytrap (Dionaea). Moreover, in 1833, The New-York Annual Register reported that the gardens and nursery covered up to forty In 1793, William Prince Jr. purchased twenty-four acres alongside the original nursery, naming the new property the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery. In the decades to come, a cohort of nurseries would open in Flushing, including Parsons Nursery and Bloodgood Nursery, both mapped nearby in 1841. SMITH, 1841\/LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, GEOGRAPHY AND MAP DIVISION ies cultivated in America, other than apples. (While the father and son intended to treat apple cultivation with a third volume, the work was never published.) Like A Short Treatise on Horticulture, this book was widely read in America and became influential among aspiring horticulturalists. Moreover, the Princes paid particular attention to the nomenclature of the fruits covered in all of the publications, untangling confusion occurring in the field. This interest in the accurate classification of horticultural plants began with the work of William Sr., and it was among the family's most significant contributions to American horticulture. As a testament to William Jr.'s interest in classification, he displayed in his home a bust of Carl Linnaeus, the Swedish botanist who formalized the modern system of botanical nomenclature. William Jr. received the statue in a presentation by New York governor DeWitt Clinton at a meeting of European and American scientists to honor Linnaeus's birthday in 1823. A simultaneous celebration in Virginia was officiated by Thomas Jefferson, an honorary member of the Linnaean Society of Paris. By the time William Jr. died in 1842, Flushing had become a vibrant center for American horticulture. Bloodgood Nursery had been established there in 1798 and would become known as a specialist in maples. (A common Japanese maple even bears the name of the nursery: Acer palmatum 'Bloodgood'.) G. R. Garretson Nursery, a seed company specializing in flowers and vegetables, was established in 1836 and would grow to cover one hundred acres, supplying wholesale seeds to nurseries across the United States and offering retail via mail order. But the most famous of these newer operations was Parsons Nursery, established in 1838; the Parsons family would later play a central role in introducing plants from East Asia, especially Japan. Meanwhile, William Robert had been assuming increasing responsibility for the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries. In the 1820s, he expanded the nursery, purchasing three large parcels so that his land holdings may have totaled up to 113 acres. These properties were located adjacent to a house he bought for himself in 1827. The home had a wide center hall, \u222b 20 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 acres and contained approximately ten thousand species of trees and plants, with particular attention devoted to grapes and mulberry trees. Visitors had free access to the outdoor gardens every day, except for Sundays. At the same time, the commercial operations of the nursery expanded rapidly, as evidenced by William Jr.'s increasingly thicker plant catalogues. He also began to subdivide the products among smaller specialized catalogues. In addition to his standard Annual Catalogue for Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Plants, which covered his earlier offerings, he began to issue catalogues that focused on items such as bulbous flowers and tubers, greenhouse plants, chrysanthemums, and vegetable and flower seeds. William Jr. attracted additional attention in 1828 when he published one of the first strictly horticultural books to come from the United States: A Short Treatise on Horticulture: Embracing Descriptions of a Great Variety of Fruit and Ornamental Trees and Shrubs, Grape Vines, Bulbous Flowers, Green-House Trees and Plants, &c. The book described all the plant offerings at the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nursery, in some sense serving as an extended advertisement. The treatise also comprehensively covered horticultural topics, such as planting, pruning, and propagation. It even included information about soil preferences and methods for fungal disease control. Over the next three years, William Jr. worked with his son, William Robert, on two additional books, for which his son was the primary author. The first, A Treatise on the Vine, was published in 1830 and was the first significant book written in America on grape cultivation. The Princes had systematically tested scores of European grape varieties (Vitis vinifera), along with improved varieties of native North American grapes (like V. labrusca and V. riparia), and interspecific hybrids. The book described over two hundred European grape varieties and eighty American. This work helped to establish viticulture as a fullfledged branch of American horticulture, and for William Robert, grape breeding and cultivation remained a lifelong interest. The second book, The Pomological Manual, published in 1831, was a two-volume cyclopedia that attempted to catalogue all fruit varietwith two solid Dutch doors on either end and a bust of Linnaeus (likely from his father) on a bracket against the wall. The house's formal gardens contained two ginkgos (Ginkgo biloba), which were among the oldest in the country, and an old cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani) that the Princes had imported from France. Under William Robert's leadership, however, the business began to struggle. In the 1830s, he speculated heavily in the domestic silk industry and may have been a key contributor to the skyrocketing prices for mulberry trees (Morus alba), the food source for silkworms. He imported more than one million mulberry trees from France in 1839, and shortly afterward, the price for mulberry trees crashed. When this venture failed, the Princes could not keep up with mortgage payments on the nursery, and by 1841, they lost the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries in foreclosure. These events spawned a bitter controversy with the property's new owner, Gabriel Winter, who was married to one of William Jr.'s cousins. Although William Robert continued to raise and sell plants from an adjacent nursery property, he and Winter competed in horticultural publications over the right to sell plants as the Linnaean Botanic Garden and Nurseries. Ultimately, the Princes kept the name, and Winter sold the remaining plant inventory and subdivided the original property for housing development. By 1846, the finances at the new Prince nursery began to stabilize, and William Robert published Prince's Manual of Roses, his third and final significant contribution to horticultural literature. At his new botanic garden, William Robert grew over seven hundred rose varieties, and the book provided detailed descriptions of varieties and featured many roses from China. He also included information about horticultural care and propagation. It was one of the very best works on this subject. Still, it was eclipsed in popularity by Samuel B. Parsons's book published the following year: The Rose: Its History, Poetry, Culture, and Classification. Parsons\u2014the proprietor of Parsons Nursery in Flushing\u2014ultimately revised his book as Parsons on the Rose: A Treatise on the Propagation, Culture, and History of the Rose. The competition between these books suggests the horticultural foment that was occurring in Flushing during this period. William Prince Jr. and his son William Robert Prince (above) authored seminal American horticultural manuals. In A Treatise on the Vine, published in 1830, they promoted new grape varieties, including 'Isabella', which became a favorite of American viticulturists. HEDRICK, 1908 AND 1911\/ARCHIVE OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 22 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Later, William Robert went on two extended botanical expeditions, to California (in 1849) and Mexico (in 1850). While these trips suggest that the business was doing reasonably well, William Robert began to gradually withdraw from the day-to-day management of the nursery around 1855, at the age of sixty. Instead, he devoted his energy to other botanical interests, including research on botanical medicinal remedies. He also continued to breed and evaluate new varieties of fruits and ornamental plants, especially grapes, strawberries, and roses. His oldest son, William III, meanwhile assumed increasing responsibility for the enterprise. William Robert's career reflected the changes that were going on in the American horticultural community. His father had been a founding member of the New York Horticultural Society in 1818 and joined the Massachusetts Horticultural Society after it was established in 1829, but he was also a member of the Linnaean Society of Paris, the Horticultural Society of London and Paris, and the Academy of Georgofili, based in Florence, Italy. William Robert invested his energy into the increasingly sophisticated American horticultural societies rather than those in Europe. He contributed many articles to the leading American agricultural magazines of the day, such as The Rural New Yorker and Gardener's Monthly. Moreover, he was a member of the American Institute of the City of New York and the American Pomological Society. On March 28, 1869, William Robert died at his home in Flushing, and as it turned out, the esteemed business died with him. William III had enlisted for the United States Army during the Civil War, and he chose to remain in the military. William Robert's second son, LeBaron Bradford, pursued a career in law and politics. Gardener's Monthly printed a two-page obituary for William Robert. It was a sad and respectful tribute to his horticultural brilliance while nonetheless remarking on his combative personality. Meanwhile, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society issued a full resolution commemorating his life as a \"pioneer in the field of horticulture,\" a title that seems equally appropriate for the three generations of Princes that came before him. In 1939, efforts were made to move William Robert's house to the site of the New York World's Fair, to demonstrate a historic colonial homestead, but the campaign came to no avail. Later, New York City park commissioner Robert Moses rejected a proposal to move the structure to Flushing Meadow Park. Moses's vision for a \"modern city\" had little space for old wooden buildings. In its last few years of use, the structure served as a rooming house and a club. The shabby, unpainted building was then boarded up and surrounded by billboards and a gas station. The house was torn down in 1942. Of course, by that point, the lush greenhouses that once welcomed winter visitors had long ago disappeared, and the nursery property had been subdivided and sold for development. Yet, the 150-year story of the Prince family lives on today. The family built a foundation for commercial horticulture in the United States. They championed the cultivation of plants from across the country and around the world, and their publications promoted best practices in horticulture. They even helped with establishing a more systematic approach for horticultural nomenclature. Moreover, the success of the Prince nurseries is inextricably linked to the subsequent generation of horticulturists who established businesses in Flushing. This expanding group of nursery owners became leaders in their own right. In this way, a horticultural legacy that began with one family who lived on the edge of Flushing Creek became a national and international story. Acknowledgment I'm grateful for the support of Susan Lacerte, who recently retired as executive director at the Queens Botanical Garden, located near the former Prince Nurseries. Susan's knowledge of horticulture in Flushing, both present and historical, has been an inspiration. References Cornett, P. 2004, January. Encounters with America's premier nursery and botanic garden. Twinleaf: 1-12. Downing, A. J. 1845. The fruits and fruit trees of America: Or the culture, propagation and management in the garden and orchard of fruit trees generally; with descriptions of all the finest varieties of fruit, native and foreign in this country. New York: Wiley and Putnam. \u222b The Prince Family 23 Gager, C. S. 1912, October. The first botanic garden on Long Island. Brooklyn Botanic Garden Record, 1(4): 97-99. Hedrick, U. P. 1911. The plums of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U. P. 1908. The grapes of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U. P. 1925. The small fruits of New York (Report of the New York Agricultural Experiment Station). Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U.P. 1933. A history of agriculture in the State of New York. Printed for the New York State Agricultural Society, Albany, N.Y.: J. B. Lyon Company. Hotchkiss, T. W. 1934. Prince house, Lawrence Street & Northern Boulevard, photographs, written historical and descriptive data. Dist. No. 4, Southern New York State, Historic American Building Survey, HABS No. 4-19. Jacobsen, A. and Williams, J. D. 2009. Prince family nurseries (ca. 1737- post- 1851). Bulletin of the Hunt Institute of Botanical Documentation, 21(1): 4-7. Johnson, J. 1887. The village of Flushing, map of desirable building lots, Flushing: A historical sketch. New York: John P. Stock, Printer. Manks, D. S. 1967. How the American nursery trade began. Plants & Gardens, 23(2). McGourty, F. 1967. Long Island's famous nurseries. Plants & Gardens, 23(3). Munsell, W. W. 1882. History of Queens County, New York, with illustrations, portraits, & sketches of prominent families and individuals. New York: Press of George MacNamara. Prince, B. and Mills, S. F. 1823. A treatise and catalogue of fruit and ornamental trees, shrubs, &c., cultivated at the Old American Nursery. New York: Wm. Grattan. Prince, W. 1771. To be sold, by William Prince, at Flushing-Landing, on Long-Island, near New- York, a large collection of fruit trees, as follows. New York: H. Gaine. Prince, W. 1790. To be sold, by William Prince, at Flushing-Landing, on Long-Island, near New- York, a large collection, as follow, of fruit trees and shrubs. New York: H. Gaine. Prince, W. 1825. Annual catalogue of fruit and ornamental trees and plants, bulbous flower roots, green-house plants, &c. &c., cultivated at the Linnaean Botanic Garden, William Prince, proprietor. New York: T. and J. Swords. Prince, W. 1828. A short treatise on horticulture: Embracing descriptions of a great variety of fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs, grape vines, bulbous flowers, green-house trees and plants. New York: T. and J. Swords. Prince, W. R. and Prince, W. 1830. A treatise on the vine; Embracing it history from the earliest ages to the present day, with descriptions of above two hundred foreign, and eighty American varieties, together with a complete dissertation of the established culture, and management of vineyards. New York: T. & J. Swords. Prince, W. R. and Prince, W. 1831. The pomological manual; or a treatise on fruits: containing descriptions of a great number of the most valuable varieties for the orchard and garden. New York: T. & J. Swords. Prince, W. R. 1846. Princes' Manual of roses: Comprising the most complete history of the rose, including every class, and all the most admirable varieties that have appeared in Europe and America, together with ample information on their culture and propagation. New York: Clark & Austen, Saxton & Miles, Wiley & Putnam, and Stanford & Swords. Ross, P. 1902. A history of Long Island: From its earliest settlement to the present time. New York: Lewis Publishing Co. Smith, E. A. and Hayward, G. 1841. The village of Flushing, Queens County, L.I.: nine miles east of the city of New York: lat. 40\u00b0 45' 1\"N, lon. 73\u00b0 09' 58\"W. [Flushing?: s.n., ?] [Map] Retrieved from the Library of Congress, https:\/\/www.loc. gov\/item\/2008620796 St. George's Episcopal Church, Baptismal Records, 1800- 1840, Flushing, N.Y., 135-32 38th Avenue, Flushing, N.Y., Rev. Wilfredo Benitez, Rector. Trebor, H. (Ed.) 1938, October. Garden center: The four Princes\u2014William of America. So This is Flushing. Flushing, N.Y.: Halleran. U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1976. The Prince family manuscript collection: A register of their papers, in the National Agricultural Library (Library list 101). Beltsville, MD: U.S. Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library. Waldron, R. K. 1958. Prince's plants. The Call Number, 20(1). J. Stephen Casscles is an attorney, winemaker, and horticultural writer living in the Hudson Valley. His publications include Grapes of the Hudson Valley and Other Cool Climate Regions of the United States and Canada, published by Flint Mine Press.","distinct_key":"arnoldia-2021-Such a Fine Assemblage: The Jesup Collection of North American Woods"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Thomas Meehan: The Horticultural Popularizer","article_sequence":8,"start_page":50,"end_page":61,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25743","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160af6b.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"Aside from details exchanged among horticultural history buffs or students of botanical Latin (who know Meehania, a genus in the mint family), little is widely known or remembered of the life and work of Thomas Meehan, a Philadelphia nurseryman, author, editor, and social reformer who rose to prominence in the second half of the nineteenth century.1 Meehan immigrated to Philadelphia when it was still a set of disparate and unincorporated townships on the cusp of transformation into a major industrial city. Upon his arrival, he inherited a horticultural mantle from the Philadelphia Quakers who had studied the flora of the eastern United States and built notable collections of plants in their gardens. Meehan looked to these established collections and assumed the role of the horticultural popularizer. During his long career, he used his nursery and publications to encourage the cultivation of an ever-widening palette of plants. Meehan's desire to engage a broad horticultural audience was clear from the start. In his first book, The American Handbook of Ornamental Trees, published in 1853, Meehan described his intention of creating something for \"extensive popular use.\"2 This goal persisted as he continued to write and edit a series of prominent horticultural magazines, and towards the end of Meehan's career, Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arnold Arboretum, described Meehan's accomplishments as \"a most important factor in increasing the cultivation of American trees and shrubs.\"3 In Philadelphia, Meehan led a remarkable life, contributing to a staggering array of fields. His work is hard to encapsulate, so this article will not offer a complete accounting; instead, to use Meehan's own words, it will present \"an anthology, and will not aim at anything further than to cull the most beautiful, interesting, and important.\"4 Thomas Meehan: The Horticultural Popularizer Anthony S. Aiello At Bartram's Garden Meehan was born in Potter's Bar near London, England, in 1826. From an early age, he was trained in horticulture by his father, himself a well-known gardener. Meehan held several prominent gardener positions as a teenager, before pursuing his formal education at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, graduating in 1848.5 Having been refused a gardening position in England based on religious grounds, Meehan saw the opportunities offered in the United States. By March of the same year, he arrived in Philadelphia, where he would spend the remaining fifty-three years of his life.6 Once in Philadelphia, Meehan quickly became acquainted with the leading horticulturists of the city. He began by working for Robert Buist, who was establishing Rosedale Nursery on what was then the rural edge of southwest Philadelphia. The nursery was famous for its seed business and its selections of fruit and ornamental trees. After one year with Buist, Meehan accepted an offer to work at Bartram's Garden.7 At that point, the garden was transitioning from ownership by the Bartram family to Andrew M. Eastwick, a railroad magnate, who had recognized the garden's importance and built an elaborate Victorian home there, preserving the original Bartram house and its famous plant collection. Until 1850, Bartram's Garden had been operated by the founding family. John Bartram, the patriarch, had been a royal botanist for the king of Great Britain. He and his son William explored the eastern United States, collecting seeds that they propagated for their garden and distributed to other respected horticulturists throughout America and Great Britain. William maintained the garden upon his father's death. In turn, William's niece Ann Bartram Carr and her husband, Robert, were the third generation AIELLO, A. S. 2021. THOMAS MEEHAN: THE HORTICULTURAL POPULARIZER. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 50-61 Facing page: Thomas Meehan was a central booster of American horticulture in the late nineteenth century. As a nursery owner, he promoted an ever-widening palette of plants, and as a horticultural writer and editor, he did the same. He is photographed here for the Centennial Exposition of 1876. PORTRAIT COURTESY OF THE FREE LIBRARY OF PHILADELPHIA, PRINT AND PICTURE COLLECTION Earth 51 52 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 to build the collection, continuing the family's international trade in seeds and plants. One can only imagine Meehan's fascination with this plant collection, undoubtedly one of the best in the United States at the time and one primed for study by a keen student of horticulture. While he was there, Meehan began collecting notes for his first book, The American Handbook of Ornamental Trees. He fitted out a place to write in the woodshed that John Bartram had used for potting and packing seed.8 It is difficult to imagine what Meehan's experience was like in that woodshed, but from a photograph that he published of the structure years later, it appears analogous to an artist's garret, cramped quarters but perhaps a place with little to distract the author from his work. In the garden, what would Meehan have experienced? From the Handbook, published in 1853, we get a sense of the diversity and size of the trees growing there. Fittingly, many of the trees that Meehan described would have been potted up in the very same building where he collected his observations as much as a century later. Meehan first intended for the book to list the trees growing at Bartram's Garden, but it evolved into a more comprehensive project that included all the trees (and some shrubs) cultivated throughout the Delaware Valley and presumably across the Northeast. In 1852, while he worked on the project, Meehan left Bartram's Garden to work for Caleb Cope, the former president of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society. Cope's Springbrook estate was located along the Delaware River in far northern Philadelphia.9 In presenting his authorial credentials, Meehan acknowledged his time at Kew and several \"superior establishments\" in Philadelphia. He added that \"nothing has been admitted into the body of the work that has not been the result of the personal experience of the author. No tree is described as being in cultivation which the author has not himself seen.\" Meehan's horticultural ambitions are evident from his ability to visit and bear first-hand witness to so many trees in such a short period. The pace is even more remarkable given that travel on unimproved roads among the surrounding counties was challenging. Yet, Meehan's inveterate field research not only allowed him to understand the regional horticultural diversity but also brought him into the gardens of prominent botanical collectors. The Handbook documented the gardens of the early Philadelphia Quaker botanists and described the transition from the local horticultural heritage to a broader palette of plants from Europe and Asia. Here we see Meehan serving as a bridge between two eras: from the horticultural legacy of the late 1700s and early 1800s to the broader and more outward-looking horticultural developments of the late nineteenth century. The Handbook provides glimpses into the most renowned collections of the time. Of course, Meehan describes numerous notable trees at Bartram's Garden, including an old Franklin tree (Franklinia alatamaha, listed as Gordonia pubescens), which was likely one of William Bartram's original eighteenth-century collections. Meehan also lists massive specimens like a ninety-three-foot-tall Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) and a fifteenfoot- tall cornelian-cherry (Cornus mas), a European species that would have been a collector's tree at that time. Meehan also describes plants at the home of Humphry Marshall\u2014author of Arbustrum Americanum: The American Grove, who lived near West Chester\u2014and the now-forgotten arboretum of John Evans, which was one of the most significant collections of its time, located in Radnor, about fifteen miles west of Philadelphia. The best extant example of a nineteenthcentury arboretum that Meehan visited is that of the Peirce family, which now comprises the core of Peirce's Park at Longwood Gardens. The Peirces began their collection in the early 1800s, creating one of the finest regional arboreta by building on their forerunners, the Bartrams and Marshalls. The collection became renowned for its scale and diversity. Meehan describes several notable trees at this location, some of which remain today. For example, in his description of eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), Meehan mentioned that he had \"seen fine specimens of this in Mr. Pierce's [sic] fine avenue.\" Similarly, he listed a cucumbertree magnolia (Magnolia acuminata var. subcordata, then M. cordata) with a four-foot circumference in Peirce's arboretum. In recent years, this tree was named as the cultivar 'Peirce's Park', and although the original tree was lost during a storm in April Thomas Meehan 53 2020, several young ones are planted throughout Longwood Gardens. Meehan's horticultural explorations were not limited to prestigious gardens. A favorite tree citation in the Handbook is of paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera), a curious species native to East Asia. Meehan wrote that it \"thrives on the sea-shore,\" growing in Cape May, New Jersey. Boat travel from Philadelphia to Cape May was then much easier than overland travel, and Cape May's geography led to its development as a Victorian-era resort. One can picture Meehan taking a busman's holiday to the beach, recording notes even during precious personal time. At the time, he would have been courting his future wife, Catherine (Kitty) Colflesh, and one can imagine her joining him on tree-hunting excursions. Meehan's appendix is equally informative for students of horticultural history because it lists tree species recently introduced but which he had not observed. This detail helps to date the introduction of these species into the United States, or specifically Philadelphia. For example, Meehan lists nine species of maple in the main text: six native to the eastern United States, along with two common European species, the hedge maple (Acer campestre) and Norway maple (A. platanoides). In his appendix, however, he listed maples that he was aware of but had not seen. These included the vine maple (A. circinatum) from the Pacific Northwest, and the Bosnian and Italian maples (A. obtusatum, and A. opalus, respectively), which were just appearing on the East Coast. Germantown Nurseries In 1854, Meehan started a nursery in partnership with William Saunders of Baltimore in the Germantown section of Philadelphia, well outside the developed portions of the city.10 While Saunders's involvement lasted only a year, the Germantown Nurseries quickly became one of the regional leaders in growing and selling trees, shrubs, and perennials. Meehan's brother Joseph joined the operation in 1859, and his Thomas Meehan compiled notes for his first book in John Bartram's woodshed\u2014a place where the Bartram family likely potted some of the very trees that Meehan described decades later. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM; MEEHAN'S MONTHLY (VOL. 6) 54 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 three sons (Thomas B., J. Franklin, and S. Mendelson) came on board in the decades to come. As evidence of the success of the operations, what had begun as a few acres of land in Germantown grew to 75 acres by the late 1800s and then to 150 acres by the turn of the twentieth century, encompassing property in Germantown and suburban Dresher, Pennsylvania.11 The nursery was especially known for its diverse offerings of North American trees. By 1893, a correspondent for Garden and Forest noted that \"Mr. Meehan early recognized that \u2026 American plants are the best for America\" and went on to say that \"in no other place are American trees and shrubs raised in such quantities.\" Their offerings included native species that were difficult to find at other nurseries. Yet, Meehan simultaneously offered and promoted non-natives species as they became available.12 This Janus-like approach to horticulture continued the link to Philadelphia's horticultural heritage while recognizing the changing demography and tastes of the city's gardeners. American nursery catalogues from the mid- 1800s reveal that most ornamental trees offered were from North America and Europe, with a smattering from Asia Minor and Asia.13 A watershed moment in the availability of greater plant diversity occurred at the Centennial Exposition, the first official world's fair held in the United States, which took place in Philadelphia from the spring to autumn of 1876. As a celebration of the one-hundredth anniversary of the signing of the Declaration of Independence, the event exposed a vast audience to a wide array of modern conveniences, inventions, and international cultures. Also, through various horticultural exhibits, the Exposition introduced Asian (particularly Japanese) plant species to a broad American audience. Prior to the Exposition, GERMANTOWN HISTORICAL SOCIETY\/HISTORIC GERMANTOWN Elms flank the entrance to Meehan's Nurseries, photographed around 1902. Thomas Meehan 55 Japanese species were slowly making their way into Boston and New York but had yet to see wider availability.14 Meehan created an arboretum of over seven hundred trees for the Exposition. Local newspapers described it as a \"grand miniature forest\" that was especially noteworthy for its collection of \"trees and shrubs of the United States.\"15 Other prominent nurserymen had displays nearby, including Josiah Hoopes (whose display included twelve hundred evergreens and forty varieties of ivies), Robert Buist (showcasing trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants), and S. B. Parson & Sons (who were reported to have \"remarkable Japanese plants, maples, evergreens, azalias [sic], new shrubs, and half hardy plants\").16 After the Exhibition, Meehan and the other nursery owners provided portions of their outdoor collections to Philadelphia's Fairmount Park. Therefore, the diversity of their displays is suggested in Joseph Rothrock's catalogue of the trees and shrubs in Fairmount Park, published in 1880. The catalogue documents early introductions of Asian species, including Japanese maple (Acer palmatum), Asian magnolias (like Magnolia campbellii and M. denudata), panicle hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata), and the lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana).17 After the event, the diversity of plant offerings from Japan rapidly increased, and by the end of the 1800s, many now-familiar plants, and many that we still think of as \"rare and unusual,\" were regularly offered for sale. Meehan was quick to recognize the importance of these introductions. When he wrote about the other nursery displays at the Exhibition in Gardener's Monthly, a magazine that he had edited since 1859, he remarked on the \"special bed\" of Japanese plants shown by S. B. Parsons & Sons. Among the most striking plants, he reported, was the red-leaved Japanese maple (now Acer palmatum forma atropurpureum).18 By 1882, Meehan's nursery catalogue offered one-foot-tall specimens of this for two dollars, then among his most expensive offerings. On the back cover of the same catalogue, he proudly advertised the \"Japan Snowball\" (Viburnum plicatum), claiming that his nursery had been first to introduce it into the United States. This claim was accompanied by the only illustration in the catalogue, suggesting that Meehan fully recognized the commercial importance of these newcomers.19 By the 1890s, Meehan's nurseries were offering a weeping Japanese cherry (what would now be considered Prunus subhirtella), Asian magnolias and maples, and even umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata) and Hiba falsearborvitae (Thujopsis dolabrata).20 In some sense, Meehan's nursery served as a laboratory for him to study plants. A perfect example of this is the daimyo oak (Quercus dentata). At a meeting of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1886, Meehan presented a short description of the floral structure of Quercus dentata, grown from seed that he had received from Japan at the time of the Centennial Exposition.21 By 1895, the daimyo oak was offered by his nursery, described as \"a rich addition to our list of oaks \u2026 in May the yellow flowers, in long aments, make it attractive in a way no other oak is.\"22 Despite his ever-increasing interest in nonnative species, Meehan maintained a strong affinity for native plants. In the same 1895 catalogue in which he advertised the daimyo oak, Meehan wrote that \"for twenty years or more we have been trying to impress upon American planters the importance of using Native Oaks in landscape works \u2026 and finally, after all these years, planters began to realize that we were right and to recognize in the American Oak, the 'King of Trees.'\"23 And while Meehan is often most associated with woody plants, his catalogues have a large diversity of native herbaceous perennials and hardy ferns\u2014many sought out by today's keen gardeners. Meehan's nursery distributed plants to botanical institutions, including the Arnold Arboretum where a few dozen specimens are still alive. The most historically significant are two Franklin trees (Franklinia alatamaha, accession 2428-3*A and *B), propagated in 1905 from a plant that Meehan provided about thirty years earlier. These are believed to be the oldest living representatives of the species.24 Other Meehan plants at the Arboretum include a group of five black oaks (Quercus velutina, accession 1237), acquired in 1873, when the Arboretum was only a year old, and a Southern red oak (Q. falcata, accession 3333*A). These North American oaks are now living reminders of Meehan's commitment to the \"King of Trees.\" 56 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Horticultural Writer and Editor Meehan was a prolific author throughout his career. He served as editor of the Gardener's Monthly until 1888, when its publisher, Charles Marot, died. A few years later, Meehan's Monthly was born and continued until 1902. Over his forty years as the editor of monthly publications, Meehan generated a vast amount of material to read. His prodigious output is hard to encapsulate or even anthologize. The tone of the publications was conversational and newsy, and his personal writing style was both informative and approachable. In a period before easy (not to mention instant) communication, these journals regularly shared information and current trends, mixed with a bit of human interest.25 In the initial issue of Garden and Forest, in 1888, an unsigned editorial (perhaps written by Charles Sargent, who \"conducted\" the magazine) commented on the loss of the Gardener's Monthly: \"Ever since we have been interested in the cultivation of flowers we have looked to the Monthly for inspiration and advice, and its pages have rarely been turned without finding the assistance we stood in need of.\" The editorial continued by celebrating Meehan's imprint on the publication. \"Fortunately, the Gardener's Monthly, and its modest and accomplished editor, Mr. Thomas Meehan, were one and the same thing. It is Mr. Meehan's long editorial experience, high character, great learning and varied practical knowledge, which made the Gardener's Monthly what it was. These, we are happy to know, are not lost to us, as Mr. Meehan will \u2026 continue to delight and instruct the horticultural public.\"26 In the late 1870s, Meehan had also begun a multivolume work titled The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States. The project is another testament to his long-standing love of North American plants. In the preface to the first volume, Meehan described how the project emerged from his desire to write a scientific treatment on the North American flora. Although he pitched this idea to a publisher, he ultimately decided, once again, to focus on engaging a more general audience. \"A purely scientific and systematic treatise \u2026 must necessarily be limited to a small circle of readers,\" he explained, \"and even in this small circle there would be but a few who would care to subscribe to a work, the end of which they might never live to see.\" Four volumes were produced, and Meehan's voice shines through them. He lushly described almost fifty species in each volume, often incorporating history, poetry, and horticultural information. The entry for each species included a lavish color illustration.27 The project was revived in 1891 when Meehan's Monthly was launched. While Meehan's Monthly was a newsy horticultural periodical, in keeping with the style and tone of the Gardener's Monthly, each issue began with a description of a native species and was accompanied with illustrations prepared for unpublished volumes of the Native Flowers and Ferns project. Garden and Forest celebrated the arrival of this new periodical: \"Mr. Meehan's return to horticultural journalism will be welcomed by many readers of the Gardeners' Monthly who felt something like a personal bereavement at the discontinuance of that excellent magazine.\"28 Along with these horticultural pursuits, Meehan maintained a long-running correspondence with many notable botanists of his time, including George Engelmann, Asa Gray, and Charles Darwin. Much of this correspondence concerns specific observations or botanical questions, often relating to articles that Meehan would eventually publish in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, where he long served as the vice president. Advocate for Urban Green Space In the later years of his life, Meehan became actively involved in urban improvement. In 1883, he accepted a role on the Philadelphia Common Council in order to ensure the creation of city parks and preservation of Bartram's Garden.29 Meehan was instrumental in forming the City Parks Association, creating lasting green space in the most urbanized neighborhoods. He is credited with introducing nature study and kindergarten to Philadelphia public schools, and he strived to improve the educational system for working-class families throughout the city.30 Among these accomplishments, it is the preservation of Bartram's Garden that is the most noteworthy. In 1879, Andrew Eastwick died, Thomas Meehan 57 Thomas Meehan's work on The Native Flowers and Ferns of the United States serves as one of the clearest examples of his lucid writing style. Each of his entries was accompanied by chromolithograph illustrations prepared by Louis Prang of Boston. The illustrations and excerpts here appeared in later installments of the project in Meehan's Monthly. Pinkshell Azalea (Rhododendron vaseyi) \" It is one of a number of beautiful plants missed by the early explorers of the Mountains of North Carolina, and which have been brought to light only in modern times.\" MEEHAN'S MONTHLY (VOL. 7) ILLUSTRATIONS FROM THE ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 58 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Coast Cholla (Cylindropuntia prolifera) \" Animals take the fruit to their haunts, use the fl esh, and scatter the undigested seeds in various directions,\u2014certainly many fruit-bearing plants are widely distributed in this manner. Those who think this feature a special adaptation will see in the absence of spines in the fruit of this species, strong confi rmation of this view. The plant would be spiny, it would be contended, in order to protect it against browsing creatures; while, when consumption instead of protection became useful to the plant, the production of spines would be arrested.\" MEEHAN'S MONTHLY (VOL. 3) Thomas Meehan 59 Rosebay Rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) \" In a state of nature the Rhododendron inhabits wild, rocky places, in uninhabited regions where the foot of the traveler is rarely seen \u2026 So far away are they generally in their gloomy homes that even the great traveler, John Bartram, had not met with them anywhere west of the Schuylkill river.\" MEEHAN'S MONTHLY (VOL. 1) 60 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens) \" It is remarkable that a plant so attractive in so many ways should not have become more attached to the public mind, or received more attention from polite writers, but the author can recall no instance in American poetry or general literature in which the Partridge berry plays a conspicuous part.\" MEEHAN'S MONTHLY (VOL. 3) and for nearly a decade, the resolution of his estate and the fate of Bartram's Garden remained unresolved.31 Shortly after Eastwick's death, Sargent, using his connections in Philadelphia, tried to organize a group of \"liberal gentlemen\" to purchase the property.32 This effort was unsuccessful because the owners of the estate believed that \"they could make more [profi t] by destroying its botanical associations, and turning the whole into building lots.\"33 Sargent continued to provide support on a national level through Garden and Forest, arguing in an unsigned editorial that \"the name of Bartram's Garden should be preserved and \u2026 should be maintained in as near the condition as its fi rst owner left it.\"34 Meanwhile, Meehan and members of the City Parks Association continued the local campaign. Ultimately, the City of Philadelphia appropriated funds to purchase Bartram's Garden in 1889, took ownership in 1891, and fi nalized the purchase in 1893.35 As a result, more than forty years after Meehan had fi rst worked at the historic garden, it became preserved in perpetuity. This achievement must have been remarkably gratifying for Meehan, seeing the preservation of the place that helped to launch his career and that had such horticultural signifi cance in his adopted city. Once the future of Bartram's Garden was settled, Meehan's foresight in creating open space throughout the city was acknowledged with another Garden and Forest editorial: \"The fact that the people of Philadelphia are securing a series of small parks is largely due to the publicspirited and tireless efforts of Mr. Thomas Meehan, the well-known horticulturist \u2026 Many generations of Philadelphians will have a good reason to remember with gratitude his disinterested efforts for the improvement and happiness of his fellow men.\"36 Meehan's Legacy As a coda to his life, Meehan was awarded the Veitch Memorial Medal in 1901, a few months before he died. He followed Sargent and Liberty Hyde Bailey as the third American to win this honor. In conferring it, the Royal Horticultural Society recognized his \"distinguished services in botany and horticulture.\" Seeing Meehan in the company of these two towering fi gures of late nineteenth and early twentieth-century Thomas Meehan 61 American horticulture affirms his stature among his peers: Sargent, one of the great dendrologists of his era, who brought the Arnold Arboretum to prominence, and Bailey, a man of astoundingly broad interests and accomplishments who combined the science of botany with the art of horticulture. Meehan pursued similar combinations and was interested not only in the world of horticulture but in using it for the betterment of his fellow citizens. It is worth pondering what Meehan would think if he were to see the state of contemporary horticulture. Certainly, many if not most of the trees that are commonly planted across the Northeast would be familiar to him. Having straddled the divide between native and nonnative plants, he might think that there would be no need for invidious comparisons between the two groups. And he might be bemused at the trends in \"new\" native plants, having promoted many of those species in his various publications and through his nursery. If nothing else, although his name may have faded, Thomas Meehan's impact as a promoter of modern horticulture has not. Endnotes 1 Oberle, S. G. 1997. The influence of Thomas Meehan on horticulture in the United States. University of Delaware, M. S. Thesis Dissertation 2 Meehan, T. 1853. The American handbook of ornamental trees. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, and Co. 3 Sargent, C. S. 1890. Silva of North America (vol. 9). New York: Peter Smith. 4 Meehan, T. 1878. The native flowers and ferns of the United States in their botanical, horticultural, and popular aspects (vol. 1). Boston: L. Prang. 5 Meehan, S. M. 1902. A brief sketch of the life of Thomas Meehan. Meehan's Monthly, 12: 13-19. 6 Harshberger, J. W. 1899. The botanists of Philadelphia and their work. Philadelphia: T. C. Davis. 7 Meehan, T. 1896a. Meehan letter to C. S. Sargent, 16 August 1896. Charles Sprague Sargent (1841-1927) papers, Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. 8 Meehan, T. 1896b. John Bartram's wood-shed. Meehan's Monthly, 6: 17. 9 Meehan, 1902. 10 Meehan, 1902. 11 Oberle, 1997. 12 S. 1893, September. The Meehan Nurseries and the trees of Germantown. Garden and Forest, 6(289): 377-378. 13 See, for instance: Hoopes, Bro. & Thomas. 1870. Annual trade list of the Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Chester, Pa.: Spring of 1870. West Chester, PA: Hoopes, Bro. & Thomas. 14 Del Tredici, P. 2017. The introduction of Japanese plants into North America. The Botanical Review, 83: 215-252. 15 Thomas Meehan of Germantown. 1876, April. Reading Times (Reading, PA), 37(22): 2; An interesting display. 1876, May. The Daily Evening Express (Lancaster, PA), 39(105): 2. 16 Burr, S. J. 1877. Memorial of the International exhibition. Hartford: L. Stebbins. 17 Rothrock, J. T. 1880. Catalogue of trees and shrubs native of and introduced in the horticultural gardens adjacent to Horticultural Hall in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. 18 Meehan, T. 1876. Horticulture at the Centennial. The Gardener's Monthly, 18(212): 254-256. 19 Germantown Nurseries. 1882. General price list for the fall of 1882. Germantown, PA: Germantown Nurseries. 20 Meehans' Nurseries. 1895. Catalogue. Germantown, PA: Thomas Meehan & Sons. 21 Meehan, T. 1886. Note on Quercus dentata. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. 38: 280-281. 22 Meehans' Nurseries, 1895. 23 Meehans' Nurseries, 1895. 24 Del Tredici, P. 2005. Against all odds: Growing Franklinia in Boston. Arnoldia, 63(4): 2-7. 25 Oberle, 1997. 26 The Gardener's Monthly. 1888, February. Garden and Forest, (1)1: 1. 27 Meehan, 1878. 28 Notes. 1891, March. Garden and Forest, 4(161): 144. 29 Meehan, T. 1897. In Bartram's Garden. Meehan's Monthly, 7: 50. 30 Harshberger, 1899; Meehan, 1902. 31 Fry, J. 2004. John Bartram House and Garden. Historic American Landscape Survey, (HALS) PA-1. 32 Fry, 2004; Meehan, T. 1885. The old botanic garden of Bartram. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist, 27: 26-27. 33 Meehan, 1885. 34 Notes. 1889, February. Garden and Forest, 2(52): 86. 35 Fry, 2004. 36 Notes. 1889, March. Garden and Forest, 2(54): 120. Anthony S. Aiello is the associate director of conservation, plant breeding, and collections at Longwood Gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Intertwined Attractions of Plants, Moths, and People","article_sequence":9,"start_page":62,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25744","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160b36e.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bawa, Kamaljit S.","article_content":"The Intertwined Attractions of Plants, Moths, and People Kamaljit S. Bawa It was a warm and humid night in September of 2003. In a tropical forest by the coast of Madagascar, Phil Devries, an entomologist and noted nature videographer, swatted mosquitoes hovering around his face. He had been waiting eagerly for a visitor since seven o'clock. As the night transitioned to early morning, without any signs of the visitor, the tension and anxiety in Phil's mind increased. For the visitor, Phil Devries was inconsequential; the desired object was Darwin's orchid near which Phil (or the Butterfly Man, as he is popularly known) had parked himself to photograph the orchid's pollinator. \"Good Heavens what insect can suck it,\" Charles Darwin is said to have remarked in reference to the nectar in the long floral tube of Angraecum sesquipedale, now known as the Darwin's orchid, native of Madagascar.1 Darwin had received the orchid on January 25, 1862, from James Bateman, a businessman, collector of plants, and horticulturist, who grew orchids. Darwin then famously predicted that A. sesquipedale must be pollinated by a hawkmoth with a proboscis that measured at least eleven inches in length.2 In 1903, almost forty years after Darwin intuited its existence, a hawkmoth with long mouth parts was described by Walter Rothschild and Karl Jordan. It was isolated from moth specimens collected on an earlier expedition to Madagascar by Jules Paul Mabille, a French naturalist. Rothschild and Jordan named the species Xanthopan morganii. However, it was not until 1992, a good ninety years later, that Lutz Wasserthal, a German biologist, observed X. morganii visiting the flowers of A. sesquipedale in real life. Only then was the connection between orchid flowers and moths finally confirmed.3 Visits of moths to flowers in the wild are hard to observe. And so, Wasserthal had to use large flight tents to photograph the two partners engaged in the mutually beneficial relationship. Finally, in 2003, after spending several nights in the Madagascar forest, Phil Devries was able to photograph the evasive moths visiting the flowers of A. sesquipedale in the wild\u2014at around three o'clock in the morning.4 The correlation between the length of the floral tube and the length of moth's proboscis led Darwin to infer the process of coevolution, in which natural selection favors reciprocal increases in the length of the floral tube and moth's proboscis. Heritable variation\u2014in this case, variation in floral tube and the length of proboscis in moths\u2014is the raw material on which natural selection acts. Between Darwin's original prediction and the eye-witness observation, 130 years had passed. Nothing in science comes easy. Not even for Darwin. It was Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, who proposed the principles of inheritance in 1865, based on his experiments with peas. From Darwin's orchids to Mendel's peas, plants have played an important role in the study of evolution. Curiously and coincidentally, both Darwin and Mendel were contemporaries, and although Mendel's work filled a critical gap in Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection, the two men did not know of each other's work! While Darwin is noted for his work on evolution, he is much less known as an ardent botanist. He was greatly interested in the reproduction of plants, particularly orchids. He wrote several books on plants: The Power of Movement in Plants, On the Various Contrivances by Which British and Foreign Orchids Are Fertilised by Insects, On the Good Effects of Intercrossing, The Different Forms of Flowers on Plants of the Same Species, and Insectivorous Plants. Plants were critical to the formulation of his ideas both about inherent variation and how natural selection acts on this variation to enable evolution. Facing page: Darwin's orchid (Angraecum sesquipedale) is one of thousands of night-flowering plants pollinated by moths. In this case, only one pollinator can accomplish the task\u2014Xanthopan morganii. SENCKENBERG COLLECTION \/ PHOTO: SAMMLUNGSFOTOGRAFEN.DE BAWA, K. S. 2021. THE INTERTWINED ATTRACTIONS OF PLANTS, MOTHS, AND PEOPLE. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 62-67 Moths and Sex Pheromones It is March 1974, and I am waiting, at evening time, under a large Luehea speciosa. The tree stands in a dry tropical forest in Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica. The previous day, I had seen its large white flowers start to bloom around eight o'clock in the evening. And so, the next day, under the tree and in the light of the moon, I staked a vantage point and started my watch. At exactly a quarter to eight, and almost like magic, the large white petals start to unfurl. In a quarter of an hour, almost a hundred flowers in my field of view have opened in near-perfect synchronicity. In my five decades of fieldwork in Costa Rica, that night was one of the most memorable and remains permanently etched in my memory. Plants depend on a wide variety of animals to get cross-pollinated. The diversity of these pollination systems is on full display in tropical evergreen forests, the world's most speciesrich ecological communities. On any given day, at any time during a short walk through the forest, one can encounter flowers of many sizes, shapes, and colors that are pollinated by insects\u2014largely bees, butterflies, and flies\u2014 and, at times, birds. For a different set of plant species that start to open their flowers around dusk and at night, insects (beetles and moths) and mammals (primarily bats) take over the role of major pollinators. All across the globe, but mostly in the tropics, tens of thousands of plant species are pollinated by an equally large number of moth species at night. Moth-pollinated flowers are almost always white and tubular, with nectar at the base of the tube. They blossom in the evening, soon after dusk, and the blooms last for one or two nights. During this time, the moths visit them frequently, making multiple forays throughout the hours of the night. Insect pollinators visit flowers for food, but, to them, flowers are more than a food source. They are also sites of mating and, often, a source of compounds that play an important role in facilitating these sexual encounters. Flowers produce a variety of volatile compounds to attract insects, such as moths. Smell plays an important role in attracting insects from afar, especially at night, when visual cues can only function once the pollinators approach the flower closely. Female moths use volatile compounds produced by flowers to synthesize sex pheromones, which they release to attract males. In some cases, the volatiles associated with the floral smell simply induce female moths to produce large amounts of sex pheromones, but in others, the female moths can absorb or ingest the volatiles and convert the compounds directly into pheromones. The males are not left behind. In some species of moths, males sequester pyrrolizidine alkaloids from flowers to use them as precursors for the synthesis of pheromones. Sometimes, the males even transfer the alkaloids to the female during mating, for the defense of eggs against predators.5 Thus, flowers play a critical role not only in the provision of food and nutrition but also in the mating and reproduction of pollinators. Evening Fragrances and Romantic Nights Thirty years later, I am in Bangalore, the techno-hub of South India. It is again late evening, and I am passing through a small market buzzing with people. Walking in front of vegetable and food stores, I am overpowered with fragrances emanating from buds and flowers of jasmine (Jasminum) strung together for hair adornments. And indeed, I see many women walking around with their long hair arranged in many different styles and adorned with strings of fragrant jasmine. Throughout remembered history, and for millennia, flowers have been a part of daily life in India, as adornments for gods and humans. The Hindu epic Ra\u02c9ma\u02c9 yana about the life of Ram, one of the most celebrated gods of Hindus, includes references to Sita, Ram's wife, decorating her hair with floral arrangements. And in a well-known epic poem written in the fourth century CE, the playwright Ka\u02c9 lida\u02c9 sa included a verse in which sensuality and pollination merge: Sensuous women in summer love weave flower earrings from fragile petals of mimosa 64 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 while wild bees kiss them gently 6 Anthologies of classical Tamil, written between 100 BCE and 250 CE, describe the flowers that women bear as those of jasmine. For men, too, flowers have been a bedtime adornment for ages, and the exchange of flowers between individuals has always carried unspoken and covert sexual connotations.7 From trees in Costa Rica that use flowers to attract moths to women in India who use flowers for adornment, the fundamental motives of life are the same irrespective of geographies, gender, or species. But the enchantment of union does not stop there. The collision of these seemingly different worlds gets closer and more intimate. Jasminium sumbac and other species of Jasminum are native to South India and other parts of tropical Asia. Jasmine flowers are highly fragrant, pollinated by moths, and here, too, the maximum production of aromatic compounds is between seven and eight o'clock in the evening!8 Moon and Sex Back in Costa Rica and on another moonlit night, I am driving to my campsite after a full day of fieldwork in the dry deciduous forest. Chains of white jasmine (Jasminum) are worn as a hair adornment in Tamil Nadu, India. The flowers become increasingly fragrant in the evening. MCKAY SAVAGE (CC BY 2.0) Intertwined Lives 65 There is little traffic on the Pan-American Highway, which means that I can easily observe the star-studded trees of Bombacopsis quinata, a relative of the silk cotton tree, on both sides of the road. Under the full moon, it is a beautiful sight, with a tree coming into view every few minutes. The \"stars,\" indeed, are large, white, moth-pollinated flowers, perched high in the leafless crowns of these very large trees. For the past several evenings, I have been passing by these trees in flower, but this time, the number of flowers on the trees appears to be unusually large. Flowers in this species last for a single night, but individual trees flower over many weeks, with a new batch opening every night. It seemed that the intensity of flowering was associated with lunar cycles, with the largest number of flowers opening on nights with the full moon. While, on this evening drive, I cannot confirm the correlation between the intensity of flowering and phases of the moon, researchers would later document such trends for other species. Moths are known to be more active on moonlit nights, and pollination can be more intense during a full moon for moth-pollinated species, as, for example, in Ephedra foeminea, a gymnosperm. In contrast to most gymnosperms, which are wind-pollinated, this species attracts moths by secreting a pollination drop from its cones. Individual plants produce their maximum amount of pollination drops during full moons. Meanwhile, a related species of Ephedra is wind-pollinated, and in that case, there is no connection between pollination and lunar cycles.9 Is there a general correlation between lunar cycles and pollination intensity for the thou- Flowers of Bombacopsis quinata open at sundown, seemingly more abundant in the treetops when the moon is full. REINALDO AGUILAR (CC BY-NC-SA 2.0) 66 Arnoldia 78\/5-6 \u2022 October 2021 sands of night-blooming plant species? We do not know. Recently, researchers have shown that a desert cactus (Cereus peruvianus), presumably pollinated by bats, puts on its largest display of flowers around the full moon. The species flowers over a few months with the number of flowers going up and down with the lunar cycles.10 The moon has always been associated with romance in our own human cultures. Surprisingly, there is insufficient data to establish a link between sexual activity with lunar cycles. Interestingly, though, research has shown that a larger proportion of females demonstrate ovulation during the full moon, and all genders experience higher aggression levels and less sleep.11 Intertwined in the Web of Life It is evening again, and the sex lives of plants, moths, and humans intertwine. All of these organisms use the same compounds to attract mates: smell is a main stimulant for each. Plants, indeed, cannot smell, yet floral volatiles are a major incentive for moths to visit flowers. Among the three partners, plants reign supreme. They seem to dictate the terms of the relationships. Moths, in fact, are held in bondage. They cannot attract mates without pheromones for which the plants hold the precursors. Humans also seem to be dependent on plants as intermediaries, although they, of course, can do without them. For those who study life on earth, the interconnections among plants, moths, and humans are not surprising. We are a part of the web of life that has celestial connections with other planets. These connections are vital for maintaining all lives, especially ours. We should celebrate and value these connections that enrich our lives by ceasing our assault on nature. Endnotes 1 Arditti, J., Elliott, J., Kitching I. J., and Wasserthal, L. T. 2012. \"Good Heavens what insect can suck it\"\u2014Charles Darwin, Angraecum sesquipedale and Xanthopan morganii praedicta. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 169: 403-432. https:\/\/doi. org\/10.1111\/j.1095-8339.2012.01250.x 2 Netz, C. and Renner, S. S. 2017. Long-spurred Angraecum orchids and long-tongued sphingid moths on Madagascar: A time frame for Darwin's predicted Xanthopan\/Angraecum coevolution. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 122(2): 469-478. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1093\/biolinnean\/blx086 3 Wasserthal, L. T. 1997. The pollinators of the Malagasy star orchids Angraecum sesquipedale, A. sororium and A. compactum and the evolution of extremely long spurs by pollinator shift. Botanica Acta, 110(5): 343-359. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1111\/j.1438-8677.1997. tb00650.x 4 See video in: Tartaglia, E. 2015. Year of the Sphingidae\u2014Co-evolution. National Moth Week. https:\/\/nationalmothweek.org\/2015\/07\/17\/year-ofthe- sphingidae-co-evolution\/ 5 St\u00f6kl, J. and Steiger, S. 2017. Evolutionary origin of insect pheromones. Current Opinion in Insect Science, 24: 36-42. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/j.cois.2017.09.004 6 Miller, B. S. 1984. Theater of memory: The plays of Ka\u02c9 lida\u02c9 sa. New York: Columbia University Press. 7 Goody, J. 1993. The culture of flowers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 323-324. 8 Braun, N. A. and Sim, S. 2012. Jasminum sambac flower absolutes from India and China\u2014Geographic variations. Natural Product Communications, 7(5): 645-650. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1177\/1934578x1200700526 9 Rydin, C. and Bolinder, K. 2015. Moonlight pollination in the gymnosperm Ephedra (Gnetales). Biology Letters, 11(4): 10-13. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1098\/ rsbl.2014.0993 10 Ben-Attia, M., Reinberg, A., Smolensky, M. H., Gadacha, W., Khedaier, A., Sani, M.,\u2026 Boughamni, N. G. 2016. Blooming rhythms of cactus Cereus peruvianus with nocturnal peak at full moon during seasons of prolonged daytime photoperiod. Chronobiology International, 33(4): 419-430. https:\/\/ doi.org\/10.3109\/07420528.2016.1157082 11 Moore, B. 2019. The effect of the lunar cycle on the female reproductive system. South Carolina Junior Academy of Science. https:\/\/scholarexchange.furman. edu\/scjas\/2019\/all\/242\/ Acknowledgments I thank my wife, Tshering Bawa, for encouraging me to write this manuscript when I first discussed the idea with her almost twenty-five years ago. A series of discussions with Rohini Nilekani about Brahma Kamal (Epiphyllum oxypetalum), a nocturnal blooming cactus from Mexico and South America, but widely naturalized in Asia, was another source of inspiration. Meena Narayanswamy suggested several improvements in the manuscript. Kamaljit S. Bawa is president of the Ashoka Trust for Research in Ecology and the Environment (ATREE), Bengaluru, India, and distinguished professor emeritus at the University of Massachusetts, Boston. Intertwined Lives 67"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Otherworldly Wingnuts: Pterocarya x rehderiana","article_sequence":10,"start_page":68,"end_page":69,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25745","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160b726.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rubinstein, Jared","article_content":"A rarely visited corner at the Arnold Arboretum is nestled beneath the tall stone wall that separates the hickory collection from traffic on Centre Street. In late summer, the area feels otherworldly. The heavy overstory filters the light and cools the air; the humidity seems to increase; and densely planted shrubs block out the surrounding views and noises. The corner is dominated by a planting of seemingly colossal hybrid wingnuts (Pterocarya x rehderiana), with their drooping Spanish moss-like fruits and twisted forms. Standing next to their large multistemmed trunks can make you feel miniature. Wingnuts are closely related to hickories (Carya) and walnuts (Juglans). There are six species of Pterocarya, with native ranges clustered in China, Japan, Southeast Asia, and the Caucuses. In addition to cultivating representatives of five of the six species, the Arnold Arboretum has eight specimens of this unusual hybrid, all of which grow in this out-of-the-way corner. The oldest of the eight originated at the Arboretum from seed sent, in 1879, by Pierre Alphonse Lavall\u00e9e of the Arboretum de Segrez, outside of Paris. At the time, the Arboretum de Segrez was one of the largest in the world (and a noteworthy landscape where Marcel Proust once suffered an asthma attack but still managed to write a poem about its beauty). Lavall\u00e9e collected the seeds from a Chinese wingnut (P. stenoptera) in his arboretum, and, once they germinated in Boston, the seedlings were planted along Centre Street. Two decades later, Alfred Rehder, an Arnold Arboretum taxonomist, noticed that the trees didn't look quite like the Chinese wingnut. \"The trees in the Arnold, known as Pterocarya stenoptera \u2026 I can no longer consider, after much study, as the real species of that name,\" Rehder wrote to the German Dendrological Society in 1903, \"but now consider [them] a cross between this and P. fraxinifolia [the Caucasian wingnut], which in its characteristics almost exactly stops between the two species.\" Rehder hypothesized that pollen from a Caucasian wingnut growing at the Arboretum de Segrez must have landed on the flowers of a Chinese wingnut growing nearby. We don't know who collected and brought the Chinese and Caucasian wingnuts to Paris, but it may well have been the first time that the two species, normally separated by the thousands of miles between the Caucasus Mountains and eastern China, were growing in the same place. Rehder conferred with Camillo Schneider, a taxonomist working at the Vienna Natural History Museum, who agreed with Rehder's assessment. Based on their correspondence, Schneider published the first botanical description of the new hybrid in 1906. Writing in German in the Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, he identified the unique characteristics of the buds and rachises of the \"Bastardes\" growing at the Arnold Arboretum and officially named the hybrid for his friend, choosing the Latin name Pterocarya x rehderiana. Four trees (accession 1191) from Lavall\u00e9e's 1879 shipment still grow along the Centre Street wall, hidden behind the hickory collection. In addition, four neighboring trees (23119) were accessioned as seedlings from the original trees. When the wingnuts fruit in midsummer, they offer a dazzling display of long, pendulous clusters of winged nutlets (hence the common name) that dangle from what seems like every branch. One particularly large specimen, accession 1191*E, has an incredible form, with leaders that shoot up more than 125 feet and droop over the Works Progress Administrationconstructed bus shelter on Centre Street. As with many hybrids, Pterocarya x rehderiana seems to display hybrid vigor and, according to Rehder, are \"much hardier and more satisfactory than their supposed parents.\" A windstorm in October 2020 took out one of the leaders from accession 1191*E, but overall, the hybrids don't seem terribly affected by the cold New England winter, even after more than 140 years growing at the Arboretum. While the hybrids are a product of a chance cross that would likely have never been possible in the wild, the trees have more than claimed their uncanny home. Jared Rubinstein is an associate project manager at the Arnold Arboretum. For more on the taxonomic history of the Rehder wingnut, see his 2020 article with Michael Dosmann in Novon, issue 28(4). Otherworldly Wingnuts: Pterocarya x rehderiana Jared Rubinstein RUBINSTEIN, J. 2021. OTHERWORLDLY WINGNUTS: PTEROCARYA x REHDERIANA. ARNOLDIA, 78(5-6): 68-69"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25699","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270af27.jpg","title":"2021-78-5-6","volume":78,"issue_number":"5-6","year":2021,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Field Botany in the Time of COVID-19","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25729","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25eb328.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Brown, Emma; Maynard, Brian","article_content":"The students in our University of Rhode Island field botany class exclaimed with surprise as they tried to balance atop lopsided hummocks of tussock sedge (Carex stricta). The mounds arose between expanses of boot-sucking sphagnum moss. Red cranberries (Vaccinium macrocarpon) dotted the shimmering surface around them. This was the first time most of the students had seen cranberries in the wild\u2014a powerful learning moment. Memories of the sour explosion of the cranberries would become associated with the comradery of learning how to differentiate this flowing fen from a typical bog\u2014or how to identify the three-way sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum) on the fen's edge and the delicate beaked sedge (Rhynchospora capitellata) breezily waving in the center of the scene. Six months later, in March 2020, the pandemic had hit. As university classes pivoted online, we, as instructors, were forced to figure out how the unique shared experiences of the previous fall's classes, held in the field, could be translated meaningfully into a remote format for the upcoming summer and fall offerings. Field Botany and Taxonomy has been taught at the University of Rhode Island since the late 1940s. Professor Elmer Palmatier, a local botanical legend, established the class and was known to say: \"There should be no monotony when studying your botany.\" His legacy\u2014 students quickly learning hundreds of wild plants\u2014has been maintained by a lineage of memorable naturalists. Today, it continues in summer and fall classes led by Professor Brian Maynard, botanist Robin Baranowski, and their teaching assistants. The summer is an intense marathon to identify every plant found between late May and the end of June\u2014over 300 plants in a typical term. The sessions are composed of fast-paced, four-hour meetings, held four days a week. In the more traditional fourteen-week fall semester, the class heads out together twice a week to explore natural habitats around Rhode Island and identify about 250 plant taxa using sight, scent, texture, and even taste. Students collect and bind samples in herbarium presses for both courses and are constantly quizzed on plant names in the field. The courses cover both native and naturalized plants, with detailed units on grasses and mosses. The fall session becomes a race against time, given the threat of frost, and attention turns to autumn colors and winter twig characteristics. The coronavirus pandemic forced virtually all college courses online, many for the first time. Higher education as we knew it would change dramatically. While adequate tools for online education have been around for nearly two decades, most professors and students of the natural sciences had little experience with online learning, as it had never been necessary before. Now we had just a few weeks to move our courses entirely online before students returned from an extended spring break. Our most significant concern\u2014other than fears about keeping ourselves and our students safe from COVID-19\u2014was that we would not be able to provide our students with the quintessential field botany course experience. After much deliberation, we settled on a progressive learning structure that involved \"flipping\" the course. Instead of loading students up with plants to memorize through the usual sage-on-the-stage approach, we would hold the students responsible for finding and identifying plants on their own. While the traditional field course had emphasized learning a shared list of plants, this version would prioritize the development of skills that students could employ to identify any plant they encountered. Using an online learning platform called Brightspace, we created a series of modular lessons about the major groups of plants: wildflowers, trees and shrubs, ferns, and grasses. Each module included daily activities to train students on identifying the plants that they Field Botany in the Time of COVID-19 Emma Brown and Brian Maynard When Field Botany and Taxonomy at the University of Rhode Island went remote during the pandemic, the authors found that online tools like iNaturalist supported independent and flexible learning. This iNaturalist map from the summer term shows the wide distribution of class observations. MAP COURTESY INATURALIST; PLANT PHOTO BY SARAH MCDONOUGH found on their own. We centered these activities around multimedia tutorials on how to navigate four different field manuals (one for each major plant group) and two of the online keying systems found on the Native Plant Trust's GoBotany website. This was the first time we had used online keys for the class. The students would identify plants using the field manual or online keying system taught each week and then document their observations with photographs and notes using iNaturalist, a citizen-scientist app and website. These digital herbarium vouchers, as we call them, were formated according to a template we developed and took the place of the herbarium collection the students would have created for the inperson class. The new keying and vouchering skills of our students culminated in a capstone project. Each student designed a vegetation survey in a nearby natural area safely accessible during the pandemic. Students used iNaturalist to record the plants found along a transect line, pacing step-by-step and pausing at regular intervals to document the plant species encountered. The integration of iNaturalist into the class and requiring a vegetation survey were other firsts for the course. The summer session began in late May 2020 with eighteen students enrolled. Instruction was entirely asynchronous, meaning students could watch presentations and complete assignments on their own schedule. Students communicated with us by email, text, phone, and video calls. Challenges included making sure students had the necessary technology and access to natural spaces. We also needed to ensure that students understood the language of botany and, perhaps most importantly, that they could distinguish between native or naturalized plants and those in managed landscapes (which might not be found in their field guides). Fortunately, most students had smartphones that automatically tagged the photos uploaded to iNaturalist with GPS data. After keying and identifying a plant, the student would create a voucher with three clear images taken in the field and a description of the plant's shape, foliage characteristics, and other identification features. We guided students through the process of taking clear images. As a set, the photos should zoom to capture the entire plant silhouette, the branch arrangement, and finally up-close details of foliage, twigs, and flowers. Vouchers also included the steps used to identify the plant in the specified field guide, a link for that plant to the Consortium of Northeast Herbaria (a digital collection of herbarium sheets from dozens of herbaria), and an image of the plant on a plain white background with a digital herbarium label. The students posted the photos and notes to the class iNaturalist page, where the instructors, teaching assistants, and other iNaturalist users confirmed or challenged their identification. As new observations popped up on the iNaturalist map for the class, the difference from the in-person course was apparent. Instead of everyone learning the same plant in the same location, all in Rhode Island, we now racked up twenty-three unique records of sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis) from southern Maine to Philadelphia. One student reported plants sighted in a Maine salt marsh. Another documented vegetation in Manhattan parks. Each week, the students expanded one voucher into a presentation and posted it to a discussion blog. The presentations included a range map and notes on plant family characteristics, habitat, ecological relationships, and historical human uses. Blog conversations around these presentations became surprisingly animated: students enjoyed finding similarities in their plant-hunting adventures and learning new facts about plants they had also discovered, as well as about plants they had never seen before. Our learners went above and beyond our expectations by sharing photographs of the habitats and wildlife surrounding their botanical entries. Pictures of herons flew back and forth in the discussion posts, along with wild tales of adventurous plant-hunting escapades. Even a cinnamon-colored housecat participated in the fun as a model to show the size of cinnamon fern (Osmundastrum cinnamomeum) fronds against a large enough white surface for the digital herbarium voucher. These blog entries fostered engagement and interactions that we had thought were only possible in person, when we could walk back to the vans afer foraging cranberries, with fen water sloshing in our boots and conversations gushing. As it turned out, the blogs still allowed 4 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 the students to share their experiences with excitement and passion. In the last week of the class, the vegetation survey capstone tested the students' plant identification skills. After proposing a study area (which ranged from vacant lots to pristine forests), each student walked their transect and identified every plant species they found, posted their findings on iNaturalist, and produced a final report that they shared with the class. As the course unfolded, we found that the switch to the online format had created new learning opportunities. Students continued hands-on learning with greater independence. Resources designed for the course could be reused by students time and again, and we improved accessibility by captioning videos and narrating PowerPoints. Several students completed classwork from out of state, adding to the diversity of plants that the class found. The asynchronous schedule allowed students with personal or work obligations to participate fully. While our students all reflected that the course was time-intensive, they enjoyed the motivation to spend more time outdoors each week. After our success with eighteen summer students, we took stock of what worked best and ramped up for a fall course of fifty students. We ended up using many of the same tools developed for the summer class, but the material was now spread out over ten weeks and focused on the vegetation we would encounter in New England in late summer and fall. An added challenge of the pandemic was that students were scattered far and wide\u2014from Maine to Philadelphia\u2014 and could be forced into lock-down or quarantine at any time. For quarantined students, we prepared contingency samples, which included collections of photos and descriptions of habitat and plant characteristics that we observed in the field. While many fall students still attended remotely, we were finally permitted to meet in person, in small recitation groups, if students could get to campus. Twice a week, we helped up to five in-person students at a time with their keying and plant vouchers. We were initially concerned that students would learn only a fraction of the usual number of plants, but these concerns were assuaged by the depth of knowledge the students acquired Students created \"digitial herbarium vouchers\" for the class. Each voucher included at least three photographs of the plant in the field and one photograph showing the plant against a white background. ROBIN BARANOWSKI 6 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 for each plant and the confidence they gained in keying on their own. Across the summer and fall classes, our students posted nearly three thousand individual observations to iNaturalist\u2014about 360 unique species in each class. This number far surpassed the 300 or so plants taught in the past. Moreover, our students can now apply their plant identification skills anywhere in the world. We foresee that these tech-savvy citizen scientists will continue to use iNaturalist, including for BioBlitzes, which are intense twenty-four-hour events in which groups find and identify as many species of life as possible in a specific area. In explaining to our students how to learn their plants, we always stress that the best way to learn is to teach. The act of teaching others is a higher-level step in the learning process. The same students who initially had shied at the prospect of the online format shared plans to use their new knowledge for future careers and reported passing along what they had learned to friends and family. A select few students admitted to not liking plants before this class but noted that they learned to appreciate and even love the plants they encountered. Even as we return to in-person instruction this summer, we will use many of the tools we developed in 2020. We have committed to teaching a blended (online and in-person) field botany course to thirty-six students this fall. Moving forward, we expect to keep several of the teaching strategies that encourage independence and foster flexibility: keying modules, digital plant vouchers, a vegetation survey capstone experience, and the integration of iNaturalist and GoBotany. We are growing with the plants we teach. While the format may be different, the class is definitely a new sport off an old tree that we will continue to cultivate. For more information Visit our class iNaturalist sites at https:\/\/www.inaturalist. org\/projects\/uri-bio-323-summer-2020 and https:\/\/www. inaturalist.org\/projects\/uri-bio-323-fall-2020. GoBotany\u2014the Native Plant Trust's online tool for plant identification\u2014can be accessed at https:\/\/ gobotany.nativeplanttrust.org\/. This provided a valuable complement to the four field manuals that we also taught: Newcomb's Wildflower Guide by Lawrence Newcomb and Gordon Morrison, A Field Guide to Trees and Shrubs by George Petrides and Roger Tory Peterson, Northeast Ferns by Steve Chadde, and Grasses, Sedges, and Rushes by Lauren Brown and Ted Elliman. Acknowledgment Thanks to iNatauralist for permission to republish the map in this article. iNaturalist is a joint initiative of the California Academy of Sciences and the National Geographic Society. Emma Brown is completing her master of science degree at the University of Rhode Island and writing a thesis analyzing the experience of taking field-based courses online during the pandemic. This summer, she will return to her native Delaware, where she practices horticulture and compiles the Delaware Native Plant Society newsletter. Brian Maynard is a professor in the Department of Plant Sciences and Entomology at the University of Rhode Island. He teaches courses in plant propagation and production, landscape management, arboriculture, and field botany. Brian received the Gold Medal Award from the Massachusetts Horticulture Society in 2009 and the Award of Merit from the International Plant Propagator's Society in 2016. Students also submitted detailed notes with each digital herbaruim voucher. This section describes the steps taken to identify periwinkle (Vinca minor) using Newcomb's Wildflower Guide and also includes a link to a digitized specimen of this species at an herbarium. ROBIN BARANOWSKI"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Conference Must Go On","article_sequence":2,"start_page":7,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25730","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25eb36c.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Iles, Jeff","article_content":"The Conference Must Go On Jeff Iles Like a shimmering mirage on some lonely two-lane blacktop, the end of our global pandemic remained out of reach during the last academic year. No backyard barbeque with humans from another pod. No hockey games or theatre. No going anywhere sans facial covering. In my circle of fellow plant nerds, in-person trade shows and educational conferences topped the list of favorite social events that vanished. Remember those days? Striding up to the registration desk, receiving your official conference name badge, pawing through a complimentary tote bag filled with an eclectic assortment of swag, and then rushing off to the opening plenary session and, without giving it a second thought, sitting next to, or even shaking hands with, your randomly chosen seatmate. As 2020 dragged on and the 2021 conference season loomed on the horizon, it became abundantly clear to conference planners that inperson, traditional educational events were not a possibility, at least not for events scheduled for prime conference season between January and March. But the show must go on, right? This was my challenge as I contemplated strategies for keeping the flame alive for an educational conference I've managed since 1995: the annual Iowa State University Shade Tree Short Course, held on the university campus in Ames, Iowa. The event, which was heralding its sixty-fifth year in 2021, was the brainchild of Harold \"Sande\" McNabb, a forest pathologist at Iowa State. As the story goes, Dutch elm disease and its assault on our American elm (Ulmus americana) provided the impetus for the first gathering, which occurred at the McNabb residence. Now, many years later, the short course has become the can't-miss event for arborists and allied industry professionals in Iowa and surrounding states, drawing well over six hundred participants annually and featuring notable presenters like the late Alex Shigo, who encouraged us to \"touch trees\" and learn about their biology, care, and responses to wounding via compartmentalization. The themes, points of emphasis, and methods of instruction (handson workshops are always popular) vary from year to year. So, too, does the number of presenters (approximately thirty). But we never stray too far from discussing the benefits and maintenance requirements of these large, lifebreathing, woody friends. Not to overstate the importance of this conference or my hand in bringing it to fruition, but there can be no denying that the Shade Tree Short Course has earned its reputation as a trusted platform for arboricultural and horticultural education in Iowa and the upper Midwest. As the new year dawned, I felt an almost parental responsibility for the conference\u2014in part to continue McNabb's steadfast tradition, but also, even more importantly, to continue serving our loyal audience, some having attended since the late 1970s. Of course, our short course was not alone in facing this dilemma. Seemingly every educational conference around the country (even the world) was simultaneously confronted with the same set of circumstances and arrived at the same conclusion: \"If we're gonna do this, we're gonna have to go online.\" The world of video conferencing is a frightening place\u2014or at least it was for me. My fear was born out of the personal experience of witnessing even the simplest of virtual meetings with a handful of participants devolve into realtime lessons in frustration and futility. Who hasn't experienced the same? Poor or indecipherable audio. Low bandwidth prompting the meeting host to switch faces and voices into muted squares with names. Video conference platforms requiring tedious and sometimes confusing downloads\u2014and yet another password. If the downloads had required social security numbers and bank account information, I wouldn't have been surprised. Of course, I'm exaggerating for effect, but for those who grew up using technological advances such as the telephone, fax machine, electric typewriter, and those cute little personal computers (a.k.a., word processing machines) from the mid-1980s, 8 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 The Iowa State University Shade Tree Short Course is an annual conference that draws well over six hundred participants. In 2021, the event went online. JEFF ISLES Shade Tree Short Course 9 receiving a link that, if it worked, would transform desktop computers into portals to another realm could be a bridge too far. But what other choice did I have? Enter my grand plan. Historically, the Shade Tree Short Course takes place over two full days, but I knew that convincing an audience accustomed to working outdoors to stare at a computer screen for two solid days was going to be a nonstarter and, by extension, could have a dampening effect on attendance. Instead, I reasoned smaller chunks of virtual interaction and educational content would be far more palatable. Therefore, with wise counsel and advice from a university conference coordinator, we devised a week-long event at the end of February. Presentations would begin at eight in the morning and wrap up most days by eleven. Next, we needed to determine a fair registration fee for a virtual conference. Because I no longer had to worry about transporting and feeding my presenters, nor feeding participants, and because the number of educational sessions was reduced from previous years, I knew the registration fee used in 2020 ($170 early and $220 late) had to be reduced. With the intent of covering my remaining expenses (conference management fee and speaker honoraria), we decided on $40 for early registration and $55 for those coming late to the party. We also offered a reduced fee for university staff and students. But had I gone too far? In my attempt to provide an affordable product that would maintain registration numbers at least at a break-even point, had I committed the unforgivable sin of devaluing my own conference? As it turns out, full value for conference attendees was never in doubt thanks to the impressive lineup of speakers who, to a person, agreed at once to participate. And, to their credit, many graciously reduced or declined to accept their standard speaker fee, an acknowledgment perhaps of the reduced time commitment for a virtual conference. As the first day of the Shade Tree Short Course approached, however, one problem continued to silently orbit my conference, and its threat was potentially devastating: we needed to find the right video-conferencing platform. My unease was validated during a preconference practice session when our chosen video-conferencing platform performed in a less-than-satisfactory way. Most of my presenters were unfamiliar with the platform and found it user-unfriendly. When the same old audio problems surfaced, I knew it was time for plan B. Much to my relief, equipped with an alternate and reliable virtual conferencing platform and even a dose of unseasonably good late-winter weather (a nice touch even though we didn't need it), everything went swimmingly. No, we weren't able to offer the traditional scope of topics and workshops (over forty-five concurrent sessions spread over two days), but the aforementioned cadre of top-quality speakers made up for any deficiency in quantity. In the end, we attracted an audience of over 370 participants, including many longtime attendees and a few who'd never attended the short course before. In fact, many first-timers remarked that they attended in 2021 only because the program was offered online. And therein lies my next problem. Now that we've explored the realm of virtual education and witnessed its many benefits (the chat room was incredibly popular), many attendees would like our short course to preserve and integrate aspects of virtual programming in all future conferences. Ideally, a hybrid version could allow attendees to select from in-person sessions that would either be livestreamed or recorded for viewing later. In the end, cost and practicality will dictate the feasibility of such a hybrid model. Honestly, my preference would be for a return to our triedand- tested in-person roots; however, I also must allow for and accept that, in so many ways, the world has changed. This not-so-sudden immersion into the world of virtual conferencing has transformed the thinking of this reluctant conference chair. I now possess a new set of skills and have thoughtfully reconsidered what an educational conference should be. Just the same, while I can freely agree that learning doesn't necessarily require in-person, face-to-face interaction, virtual conferencing will always fall short as a replacement for engaging conversation around the coffee dispenser, in the buffet line, or gathered inside the pub at day's end. Jeff Iles is professor and chair of the Department of Horticulture at Iowa State University, in Ames, Iowa."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Into the Valley of <i>Parrotia</i>","article_sequence":3,"start_page":10,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25731","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25eb76f.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Douglas, Phillip; Sj\u00f6man, Henrik","article_content":"The triumph and anguish of plant collectors can often be summed up with a single word: timing. No matter how well an expedition has been planned, collectors often confront either empty capsules or immature fruits. At other times, however, the fates align. In September of 2017, we embarked with colleagues on a collecting expedition to Azerbaijan, searching for multiple species poorly represented in botanical collections. The Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica) was our primary target, and for this species, our timing could hardly have been more auspicious. The Persian ironwood is an ornamental workhorse in the witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceae) and is one of two species in its genus. Documented collections of Parrotia persica in public gardens tend to be from nurseries, and plants of known wild provenance are mostly sourced from populations in Iran. Although descriptions of the species' range tend to focus on the Alborz Mountains in northern Iran, plants do not typically recognize geopolitical boundaries, and thriving populations of Parrotia also exist in areas of the Hyrcanian forest and the Talysh Mountains of southern Azerbaijan. The flora in these biomes is considered a relict of a forest type that was much more widespread before glaciation events in the Quaternary, starting around two and a half million years ago. The Talysh region, in particular, includes more than ninety endemic species.1 Herbarium vouchers for Parrotia indicate a disjunct population in the country of Georgia, but it is widely believed these specimens were planted. In mid-September, our team departed the Azeri capital city of Baku and drove southward along the coast towards Lankaran. The trip had been organized by the Plant Collecting Collaborative, an organization consisting of eighteen botanical institutions, and our collaborators on the trip included Peter Zale from Longwood Gardens, Matt Lobdell from the Morton Arboretum, and Vince Marrocco from the Morris Arboretum. Vast agricultural fields dominate this landscape along the Caspian Sea, irrigated with the waters of the Kura River, which flows throughout the Caucasus region. Cotton, tea, grapes, and various citrus trees are the primary crops. Along the drive, we saw roadside plantings of Quercus castaneifolia, the chestnutleaved oak, which was another one of our species of interest. These plantings were the first we saw of the species in the country. After a long and bumpy drive, we were met in Lankaran by Hajiaga Safarov, deputy director of science at Hirkan National Park. Hajiaga committed his career to exploring southern Azerbaijan, documenting the flora and fauna. He graciously agreed to guide us over the next three days and assured us that he knew of several populations of Parrotia persica in the area. Departing from our hotel the following morning, Hajiaga led our team southwest of the city to the rural farming village of Az Filial. As we gained elevation, the paved highway soon ended, and we continued driving on a hard-packed, single-lane road. Cresting the top of a small hill, we suddenly found ourselves in the middle of Parrotia-dominant forest. Scant herbaceous vegetation existed under the canopy of these magnificent trees, a result of intense grazing pressure from the surrounding farms. We parked under the shaded canopy of ironwoods and began to hear tapping on the car's roof, as though a light rain were passing over. The cloudless sky was not precipitating; the sound we heard was something much more miraculous. Plants in the witch-hazel family exhibit a unique form of seed dispersal. As the capsules of Parrotia persica begin to dry, the exterior walls (technically the exocarp) shrink in size and begin to apply pressure to the seed, causing its forceful ejection. This method of seed dispersal\u2014the so-called drying squeeze catapult2\u2014was the source of the light raining sound. When we exited our vehicle, we witnessed small, black seeds bouncing off the roof Into the Valley of Parrotia Phillip Douglas and Henrik Sj\u00f6man DOUGLAS, P. AND SJ\u00d6MAN, H. 2021. INTO THE VALLEY OF PARROTIA. ARNOLDIA, 78(4): 10-15 The Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica) fills a valley near Lerik, Azerbaijan. When the authors first encountered this overlook in 2017, the diversity of fall color and form was unmistakable. This photo was taken on a return trip in 2019. ALL PHOTOS BY PHILLIP DOUGLAS UNLESS NOTED and hood. In a marvelous turn of fate, we had timed our trip to document and collect Parrotia at the most advantageous time. Witnessing the forceful ejection of these seeds only added to the intrigue of the species. All hands worked quickly to obtain fruits that had not yet dehisced. We gathered several hundred capsules from throughout the population. Diversity in the Wild The Hyrcanian forests extend from southern Azerbaijan into Iran, wrapping around the southern coast of the Caspian Sea. In Azerbaijan, Parrotia occurs at elevations between sea level and around 1,600 feet (500 meters). Strong cultural influences of forest grazing, active felling of trees for firewood, and coppicing for fencing materials and winter feed have transformed the landscape. Farmers also coppice trees to minimize the shading of valuable meadow environments that provide winter fodder for sheep, cattle, and goats. The extensive coppicing in this region has made it difficult to see the natural habitat and variability of Parrotia. Examining the approximately fifty trees within the small population that we first encountered, it quickly became clear that an impressive amount of genetic variability was present. Bark characteristics alone were distinctly different, with variation including creamy, dappled camouflage mottling and golden, iridescent, paperthin flakes. It was far too early in autumn to see any fall color in this population, but we suspected that variation might exist for this trait as well. After making another collection from a heavily fruited Caucasian zelkova (Zelkova carpinifolia), we departed from the site and headed farther south towards the Hirkan National Park. Driving along the Lerik-Lankaran highway, we saw the Talysh Mountains begin to slowly build elevation as the forested areas became more dispersed between meadows and xeric terrain. Hajiaga was leading us to a historic cemetery and mosque outside the village of Babagil. In addition to Parrotia, our group was targeting several other unique woody species: the chestnut-leaved oak and a subspecies of the common boxwood that is endemic to southern Azerbaijan, Buxus sempervirens subsp. hyrcana. We encountered both species outside of the cemetery and mosque. This site dates to the sixteenth century and contains many enormous planted specimens of Caucasian zelkova and chestnut-leaved oak. Across the road from the cemetery is a remnant piece of the The first population of Parrotia persica that the authors visited in Azerbaijan revealed a typical, overgrazed understory. Yet the trees displayed variable and unique bark. Parrotia 13 Hyrcanian forest. Here, we discovered large boxwood growing in the heavy shade of Parrotia persica. Just beyond the roadway, we encountered our first large specimens of the chestnut-leaved oak. They created a towering forest canopy over 65 feet (20 meters) tall, with trunk diameters reaching over 3 feet (1 meter). Unfortunately, these two species develop seed at the opposite ends of autumn; the boxwood had already dehisced, and the oaks were not yet ripe enough for collection. We were able to make a large collection of intact seed capsules from the Parrotia on the property. This collection, at 1,510 feet (460 meters), marked the highest elevation at which we found Parrotia growing, and it should make for an interesting evaluation for cold hardiness. Departing westward, our group continued towards Lerik, a historic mountain town perched at 3,600 feet (1100 meters), overlooking the border with Iran. Gazing southward from the windows of our vehicles, we came across a magnificent sight: a sprawling forest of Parrotia persica filled the expansive valley beneath us. Towering velvet maple (Acer velutinum) dominated the upland areas, and enormous Caucasian alder (Alnus subcordata) were dotted along a slow-moving creek. Azerbaijan had been plagued in 2017 with a major drought, leaving the herbaceous layer completely dormant in autumn and adversely affecting the quality of autumn color. Despite this drought, the Parrotia in this valley showed deep hues of burgundy, red, orange, and yellow. Throughout this population, a diversity of form was also present. We noted many trees with dense conical crowns and a strong branching hierarchy. These structural characteristics would be well suited for trees selected for urban plantings. We were unable to access the forest because we had much more work ahead of us, but the memory of this valley remained with us after the trip. A Return to the Valley In late October 2019, the two of us traveled again to Azerbaijan to attempt collecting the chestnut-leaved oak from throughout its northern range. Similar to Parrotia persica, this species only occurs in the mountains of southern Azerbaijan and northern Iran. Its acorns don't fully ripen until late in the season, and we hoped to collect them before they fell to the ground, where insects and herbivores can render them useless. The drive south from Baku to Lankaran took half of the time during this trip, as construction of a multilane freeway had been completed, connecting Baku to Tehran, Iran. Our failure to collect acorns from this rare oak had haunted us for the past two years, and we were eager to determine if we had properly timed our trip. The landscape throughout southern Azerbaijan looked vastly different compared to 2017. Precipitation had fallen evenly through the year, and the previously dormant herbaceous layer was putting on an amazing show. The meadows surrounding the Babagil cemetery and mosque were filled with flowering geophytes. Two species of crocus (Crocus speciosus and C. caspius) carpeted the landscape and appeared almost as a monoculture lawn in areas that were heavily grazed. Pink-flowered cyclamen (Cyclamen coum) dotted the shaded understory of the endemic boxwood. The flowering spectacle was a wonderful sign of good seed development, and we were able to make three separate collections of chestnut-leaved oak at elevations ranging from 1,540 to 2,900 feet (470 to 900 meters). After finishing our oak collecting early, we had time to indulge in the forests of Parrotia persica. As we drove along the highway from Lerik, back to our accommodations outside of Lankaran, we made a familiar stop to gaze across the valley of Parrotia that we had discovered two years before. Our timing was once again rewarded with amazing views of the valley in full autumn colors. It is difficult to describe the array of colors. Individual trees within the canopy exhibited shades of deep burgundy, brick red, orange, and buttery yellow. We decided to use our remaining day of the trip to attempt to access and document this population. We collected GPS coordinates and headed back to our accommodations to plan the next day's work. After looking over various maps and satellite images, we were able to devise a way to drive as close as possible to the ridgeline across the valley, where several small houses stood. Our goal was to closely examine the trees in this population, taking photographs to document autumn color and differences in form. Trees The authors ventured into the valley of Parrotia in late October 2019. Fall color took on rich variation. Trees with dense, pyramidal habits (left) suggest exceptional potential for urban plantings. Phillip Douglas (bottom right) stands with a large Parrotia observed at another location earlier in the trip. HENRIK SJ\u00d6MAN Parrotia 15 with exceptional qualities would be geotagged so that we could return to them for propagation material in the coming years. The following morning, we departed the hotel and headed towards the valley, excited by the prospect of getting to walk beneath the canopy of the relict forest. The paved road quickly turned into a dirt path, and after crossing over a shallow creek, it became a deeply rutted, muddy quagmire. Our translator and driver, Ilgar Guliyev, guided us through the terrain with expert precision. We soon found ourselves parked outside of a small farmhouse, and Ilgar went in to inquire about accessing the valley below the property. After a short conversation with the owners, we were informed that the valley belonged to the state, and our collecting permits would allow us access to the site. Basing our navigation on several massive chestnut-leaved oaks and oriental beech (Fagus orientalis) along the top of the ridge and a group of towering Caucasian alder at the bottom, we began traversing towards several Parrotia we had photographed the day before. The first selection that we documented exhibited a uniform, brick-red autumn color throughout the canopy. We continued to traverse up and down the steep slopes of the hill, documenting selections with peachy-pink autumn color, dense and pyramidal habits, and even dappled burgundy and green foliage. The diversity of the species within this singular valley was amazing to see. We hope to return to the valley in late spring to obtain scion wood from these selections to begin growing and evaluating their performance in various climates and conditions. From the Wild, Into Cultivation The study and documentation of plants in situ is a valuable means of determining species that are well suited for urban horticulture and other specific uses. In Lankaran, we were also able to see how Parrotia persica has been used locally in extensive urban plantings. The species could be seen in park environments as well as in small curbside planter spaces. The hot, dry summers of Lankaran coupled with challenging site conditions of urban environments did not seem to affect this highly adaptable species. As a street tree, the species often becomes too wide, resulting in unflattering pruning efforts, but this issue could be solved with more intentional selection. As we had observed, an extensive variation in the size and expression of Parrotia occurs in the wild, suggesting the fantastic development potential of the species for public plantations in both Europe and North America. In cultivation, Parrotia is mainly represented by seed-propagated material, which results in large variations, making it difficult to predict mature size and habit. Presently, cultivars of Parrotia persica available on the market include 'Vanessa', 'Ruby Vase', and 'Persian Spire', which all represent narrow-growing forms. Based on our field observations, the species has significantly more expressions that deserve to be evaluated in cultivation. We hope to develop new cultivars of this species that will have uniform size and fall color characteristics. The species' adaptability to periods of intense heat and dry soil conditions, coupled with its tolerance for high pH soils, makes it a perfect candidate for further development as an urban tree. Hopefully, we will once again be blessed with perfect timing to collect from these populations and continue working with this relict species. Endnotes 1 Safarov, H. M. 2009. Rare and endangered plant species in Hirkan National Park and its environs. In N. Zazanashvili and D. Mallon (Eds.). Status and protection of globally threatened species in the Caucasus (pp. 193-198). Tbilisi: CEPF, WWF. 2 Poppinga, S., B\u00f6se, A. S., Seidel, R., Hesse, L., Leupold, J., Caliaro, S., and Speck, T. 2019. A seed flying like a bullet: Ballistic seed dispersal in Chinese witch-hazel (Hamamelis mollis Oliv., Hamamelidaceae). Journal of the Royal Society Interface, 16(157): 1-10. http:\/\/ doi.org\/10.1098\/rsif.2019.0327 Acknowledgment This work would not have been possible without the guidance and expertise of our partners at the Azerbaijan National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Botany and Central Botanical Garden of Azerbaijan, and the Hirkan National Park of the Ministry of Ecology and Natural Resources, Republic of Azerbaijan. Funding was generously provided by the Daniel F. and Ada L. Rice Foundation. Our work is dedicated in memoriam of Dr. Hajiaga Safarov (March 1, 1963-November 17, 2018). Phillip Douglas is the director of plant collections for the Chicago Botanic Garden and also serves as the chair of the Plant Collecting Collaborative. Henrik Sj\u00f6man is a senior researcher at the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences and the scientific curator at the Gothenburg Botanical Garden."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"","article_sequence":4,"start_page":16,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25732","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25ebb27.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Elkin, Rosetta S.","article_content":"Barrier islands are young landscapes. Although absolute dates are hard to pin down, the barrier islands that ring Florida's coast are only about five thousand years old and represent some of the most dynamic landscapes in the world. In the context of earthly timescales, the islands surfaced at the end of the Stone Age, around the same time that written language was developed in Ancient China and humans began to interact with yeast microorganisms for producing alcohol and bread. At the time, plant life was already well established for millions of years, taking root firmly and resolutely across landscapes that were only slightly more intact than not. Today, Florida's coastline extends 1,350 miles, of which 700 miles are structured by barrier islands that are characterized by urbanization rather than earthly formation. Development is intended to prevent the young landscape from further formation, arresting worth in property value while securing costly infrastructure projects. Young soils are paved and only tend to host disturbance-adapted plants that creep in along built lines, chain-link fences, beachfront terraces, and in the obvious cracks between sidewalks. The most iconic plants are the mangrove species (Rhizophora mangle, Laguncularia racemosa, Avicennia germinans) that silhouette the shoreline, while florific beach sunflowers (Helianthus debilis), green-fruited pond apples (Annona glabra), and sea grapes (Coccoloba uvifera) with dense crowns are commonly found inland. In this setting, few remnants of the barrier island ecology remain amidst the rich imported flora of the mixed tropical and temperate zones. If you consult a map of Florida on your handheld device, the string of thin barrier islands that contour the coast is barely legible. Zooming in yields more clarity between land and water. Each barrier island floats along the shore of the mainland, stitched together by a line of causeways and interstate roads that seem to pull the islands landward, or stop them from moving seaward. Now, zoom in on the west coast near Fort Myers. Here, the stitch is called the Sanibel Causeway, which starts at a small crossing known as Punta Rassa. The causeway is supported by a sandy spit that separates Pine Island Sound from the Gulf of Mexico. The route extends into Periwinkle Way and stretches the length of Sanibel until it turns into the next stitch line at Blind Pass, a managed inlet known for shelling and fishing. Blind Pass is the last stop before arriving on Captiva Island. Consider the same map, and zoom in again on Captiva Island: the gray asphalt of parking lots and sidewalks, the vectorized streets and alleys, and the blank fills of the private space around each foundation. If you search for directions, the route leads you past green golf courses and beige beaches, while the rest of the landscape is defined by different shades of gray. There is no public information beyond the built form, and certainly no recognition of plant life. The lack of public knowledge about plants always strikes me as unusual, although it comes up frequently in my work as a practicing landscape architect and as a professor and An Impermanent Inventory: Plant Collections for a Changing Climate Rosetta S. Elkin \"Permanence doesn't really interest me. My whole focus has been on the activity of my life. Out of the activity has come a mass of works, which are really just evidence that I'm still paying attention.\" \u2014Robert Rauschenberg Facing page: Captiva Island, on the southwestern coast of Florida, is especially vulnerable to the effects of climate change, including sea-level rise. In 2017, the author was commissioned to develop a landscape-adaptation plan for the former home of Robert Rauschenberg on Captiva. A dynamic plant inventory would be essential. ALL IMAGES COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR ELKIN, R. S. 2021. AN IMPERMANENT INVENTORY: PLANT COLLECTIONS FOR A CHANGING CLIMATE. ARNOLDIA, 78(4): 16-23 18 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 researcher, studying the interactions between human and plant life. Within landscape architecture, the prominence of pathways and built structures seems to resonate with the public more than careful attention to particular plants. Presumably, this is one reason why landscape architecture is losing plant knowledge.1 So when it comes to finding your way in a new landscape, it is no wonder that the only means of tracking distance and not getting lost are found in the gray surfaces that demarcate outward appearance and built materials. But, as streets are inundated, seawalls fail, and foundations erode, might the endurance of plant life be appreciated in new ways? Designing a Plant Inventory In 2017, I was commissioned to study the changing conditions at the home of Robert Rauschenberg on Captiva Island, in order to propose a landscape-based adaptation plan to the effects of a changing climate.2 These effects include, but are not limited to, sea-level rise. Across Florida, the effects cascade: warmer waters increase the velocity of hurricanes, increased salination threatens drinking water supplies, the blooms of red tide devastate sea life, while blue-green algae amalgamate with heavy erosion to suppress tourism. The risks brought on by our warmer climate are not singular, which is why there is no simple solution. Rauschenberg cared deeply for Captiva both in terms of creative inspiration and also because it appealed to his ideas of impermanence, so elegantly stated in an interview about his art process: \"Permanence doesn't really interest me.\" When we were guided through our first site visit, intricacies of the built landscape were prioritized, including workshops for printmaking and dance studios, a beach house, the main studio, and the historic Fish House\u2014a building perched in the bay.3 Yet, the grounds are most remarkable because they encompass twenty acres of uninterrupted barrier island, a landscape that bridges the bay and the beach sides. Most properties either enjoy views of the beach or the bay, but rarely both. The Rauschenberg campus is verdant and alive with a continuous canopy that distinguishes it from the rest of the island because Rauschenberg valued the dynamic landscape and never sought to arrest and define it. The grounds\u2014now used to host an internationally recognized artist residency program\u2014are so culturally rich and ecologically lively that there was no lack of inspiration, and I was eager to get started. At its widest, Captiva is two thousand feet wide; at its narrowest, only about four hundred feet. The Rauschenberg campus sits along the widest portion. Despite its verdant ecology, a standard map registers gray tones, presumably because private land is not rendered beyond building footprints. As the project began, I sought more detail from standard site plans and surveys, the basis of architectural traditions, anticipating more specificity because Rauschenberg himself was so committed to his plants. In particular, he was committed to maintaining an area that he called the jungle, a ramble of sprouting spontaneous plants that makes up almost half the site.4 Rather, we were handed a site plan that outlined the property lines and included the building footprints, connected by a path system. The rest of the site was white. A site plan without any indication of plants is not only blank; it creates the impression of a landscape devoid of life. As a result, our first act of design was to put the plants back on the map. Creating a plant inventory for a landscape architectural project is not a normative or established convention. But a plant inventory is a curatorial tradition that supports research within the living collections of arboreta and botanic gardens. An inventory charts long-term change and unlocks the puzzles of horticulture, so it is surprising that inventories are not more of a standard in professional practice. The objective of a plant inventory is to document and describe the current status of a collection. Over time, the inventory can be compared to past iterations, revealing landscape changes.5 In turn, this secures a plan for future plantings. A plant inventory must be updated in order to remain dynamic, which requires ongoing interaction in the field. This is especially true because plants move, die back, transform, and sometimes shift from their original locations. Captiva Island Inventory 19 Typically, an inventory is established at the same time as a garden and creates a baseline to determine future accessions and deaccessions. For instance, the first accession records at the Arnold Arboretum date to 1872, the year the institution was founded, although it took about a decade for the initial card-file system to be refined. In an account from 1881, Charles Sprague Sargent outlines the importance of the inventory but admits that accurate records are often abandoned because they are \"too expensive for practical working.\"6 He references the future value of recording each plant despite the challenge, suggesting that the effort must bear the test of time. At the Rauschenberg campus, our team believed that the strain of changing climates made the connection to time even more powerful. Establishing a curatorial tradition within an undocumented collection posed two important challenges to the inventory from the start: first, to establish what constituted a \"tree\" among a host of woody plants, and second, to assess a largely spontaneous collection. Both challenges forced us to make value judgments based on what to count, and thus what to omit, a puzzle that raised more questions than we could answer alone. The Inventory Process The Sanibel-Captiva Conservation Foundation (SCCF) was founded in 1974 by a group of Islanders committed to the preservation of the island ecosystem. At the time, SCCF successfully opposed development in Sanibel by incorporating as a city, enabling votes on dredge-and-fill policy, uprooted mangroves, seawall construction, and overscaled condominiums. 7 The same constituency hired the firm of Ian McHarg, the renowned landscape architect who wrote Design with Nature, an Initial site plans and surveys for the Rauschenberg campus emphasized the built infrastructure. Notably, the plants were unrepresented, even in the densely vegetated area known as the jungle. Captiva Island Inventory 21 influential ecological treatise.8 Captiva did not follow suit and has experienced the consequences of haphazard planning ever since. This is one of the main reasons that the Rauschenberg campus is so uniquely important: it is an anomaly in the landscape that might help inform Captiva's future. Our team, based in Massachusetts, worked with local horticulturist Jenny Evans from SCCF to initiate the process of developing a baseline for the plant inventory. Without a baseline, neither preservation nor conservation exists. It creates a reference for measuring and assessing disturbance. Although Jenny and her team had little experience establishing a plant inventory, she saw value in the challenge due to the extremities of change expressed by plant loss throughout the hurricane season. The baseline would help us chart the rapidity of change in both the loss of material in hurricane season and, hopefully, the regrowth of disturbance-adapted species. Collectively, we were motivated to tackle the questions raised about the process of gathering and digitizing the data because we saw the importance of creating publicly accessible plant knowledge. Our inventory would prioritize woody plants, but as we worked through our initial questions, we found that trying to define a \"tree\" at Captiva proved conceptually hazardous in itself.9 Many woody plants do not behave as trees with a single trunk, but clump or spread. To capture this distinction, we created two categories of data: rather than discriminating between trees and shrubs, we suggested points and areas. Points recorded the center of woody plants with single trunks. Areas recorded the total diameter of the woody plant\u2014the perimeter of all trunks and shoots. Each point was recorded in a discrete location using latitude and longitude, while areas were recorded by walking the perimeter of the plant and recording the path.10 The system of areas was especially useful for taking stock of the mangrove fringe on the bay side, yet flexible enough to allow us to indicate where specific points were noticeable as major trunks within the tangle. The points within the mangrove area are only one example of how the standards of defining a tree helped us standardize a method across a site full of exceptions. As trees were defined and included in the inventory, a workflow developed between the on-site project team and the data input team. First, the site was divided into 75-by-75-foot quadrants in order to work systematically across the landscape. The quadrants did not have to be delineated in physical space: they were charted by datasets of a handheld GPS device. The on-site team then recorded woody plants using the system of points and areas, and the data from each quadrant was shared with our team sitting at our studio in Massachusetts. This workflow enabled the field team to move from one quadrant to the next and continue to amass data.11 Our team uploaded their new field data to a global information system (GIS) and aligned this work with site surveys used in the original design documents.12 We checked the data, cleaned duplicates or errors, and assigned a unique catalog code in GIS, which was exported with labels and integrated into the site survey. The process raised questions about what type of data was most useful to contain on the map label and how the information could be read by those both familiar with and unfamiliar with plants. Therefore, we decided on two distinct categories: standard and custom. Standard data included common, Latin, and family names, along with trunk diameter (at breast height) in centimeters, height taken in meters, geospatial location (latitude, longitude), location on site (quadrant), and the year recorded. To include canopy cover in the standard category, Jenny came up with a novel expression\u2014a range from one to five\u2014that corresponded to how much of the sky could be seen when standing at the trunk. If 80 to 100 percent of the sky was obscured, she would give the canopy a five; 60 to 80 percent obscured would be a four, and so on. This might not seem relevant in the context of temperate trees, but in a tropical site that is largely overgrown by densely sprouting palms, the canopy can still lack density, which affects overall shade and comfort despite height and maturity. We also assigned a Florida Exotic Pest To develop the plant inventory at the Rauschenberg campus, a field team collected GPS points, measurements, and detailed observations for all woody plants growing on the twenty-acre property. The complete inventory can now be accessed on a handheld device. 22 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 Plant Council category to each plant. Finally, we created a unique identifying code for each woody plant in the inventory. The custom category necessitated the most creative collaboration as we imagined what future residents and stewards might wish to know about the plants of the present. The first section within the custom category includes descriptions of environmental influences (damaged or broken limbs, leaning habit, and so forth), notes about neighboring plants in relation to the spread (consider for instance Ficus aurea, the strangler fig, which envelops a host tree), and surveyor comments. The collaboration with SCCF was crucial to the comments section and includes remarks about character or significance that were personal, such as \"never seen it grow this way\" or \"covered in lianas,\" a crucial input to research in heavily urbanized landscapes that resist standards. The subsection also provides space for more nuanced assessments of the Florida Exotic Pest Plant Council criteria, with notes such as \"typically invasive, but not aggressive on this property\" that overcome the binaries of what typically counts and what doesn't count in a living collection. In the Context of Change Landscape design often implies stability and predictability. Yet, the dynamics of the landscape are changing, which invites practices to change in turn. This need is especially pronounced on the Florida coast. As we looked for models for our project, we consulted with curatorial staff at public gardens and found a range of concerns. At the Arnold Arboretum, for instance, staff pay especially close attention to evidence of infestations, as some of the most devastating losses to the living collection are brought on by foreign pathogens.13 While the rise of foreign pathogens is certainly not bound to the Northeast, Florida must first contend with the intensely localized effects of increased storm damage brought on by rising seas. A more apt comparison might be made to the inventory at Montgomery Botanical Center in Coral Gables, Florida, a historic collection specialized in the conservation of palms, cycads, and conifers from across the world. The garden is a coastal site vulnerable to episodes of increased storms and the very real effects of about one-third of an inch (nine millimeters) of rise in sea level per year.14 Thus, Montgomery is grappling with a concern common to all coastal living collections in a time of rapid climate change: How far into the future should we plan? While this is an enduring question in relation to living collections, it finds amplified resonance considering that Montgomery calculates an increased inundation of forty-three acres, or 36 percent of the entire garden.15 While this number is staggering, the plant inventory confirms that only 8 percent of the collection will be lost in this scenario. Although the figure does not include storm damage, salt intrusion, and other vulnerabilities, it does significantly change the answer to the question: planning can no longer occur in one-hundred-year increments. The status of any living collection is dependent on maintaining an inventory, which raises questions as to why plant inventories are not more commonly practiced beyond the world of public gardens. In the context of barrier islands, like Captiva, change is noticeable seasonally as hurricanes sweep across the surface of the land while fluctuating sea levels remake the coastline. But, of course, landscapes everywhere are increasingly in states of flux. The knowledge of how to create and maintain an inventory is critical to engendering a unique collaboration between plant and human life within our everyday landscapes. A plant inventory is a record of human and biotic adaptation, a neutral middle ground that accumulates experience and data. It helps visually connect the public to the effects of accelerated climate change, and in a practical sense, it inspires care and helps humans take notice of the plants in their environment. After the success of developing the plant inventory at the Rauschenberg campus, our team's ensuing idea is to adapt the same open-source technology into a handheld, userfriendly platform that could form the basis of a public inventory for landscapes anywhere, populating our blank site plans and challenging generic street views. We imagine citizen scientists learning to create a site history, as plants under their stewardship become a baseline for future generations. Plant inventories are cruCaptiva Island Inventory 23 cial to increasing an awareness of change, especially in the face of both chronic and episodic stresses of the twenty-first century. Perhaps we can shape an understanding of change by visualizing and valuing impermanence. Endnotes 1 A number of authors, myself included, write about the loss of plant knowledge in design. See, for instance: Raxworthy, J. and Harrisson, F. 2018. Overgrown. Cambridge: MIT Press. 2 Practice Landscape includes Emily Hicks and Joanna Lombard, and we were commissioned by the Robert Rauschenberg Foundation to work as part of a team in collaboration with WXY architects and eDD engineers. 3 Rauschenberg bought the Fish House from Jay Norwood \"Ding\" Darling, chief of the US Fish and Wildlife Service (formerly the Biological Survey). Ding Darling is best known for ushering in the Federal Duck Stamp Program to expand the federal purchase of wildlife habitat. See, for instance: Ding Darling Wildlife Society. n.d. Our namesake. https:\/\/ dingdarlingsociety.org\/articles\/our-namesake 4 The cultural history of the plantings is culled from various oral accounts and conversations, especially with Matt Hall, the site manager who worked closely with Rauschenberg on Captiva, until Rauschenberg's passing in 2008. 5 The Arnold Arboretum plant inventory claims that to meet objectives \"the Arboretum fields expert curatorial staff able to conduct inventories as well as troubleshoot an array of taxonomic, cartographic, and horticultural puzzles.\" See: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. 2011. Plant inventory operations manual (2nd ed.). http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/ wp-content\/uploads\/2020\/07\/plant_inventory_ operations_manual.pdf 6 Sargent, C. S. 1882. In Harvard University, Annual reports of the president and treasurer of Harvard College, 1881-82 (pp. 122-123). Cambridge, MA: University Press. 7 SCCF's mandate continues to advocate through education and outreach, supported by an intellectual generosity and a spirit of collaboration. For a short history of SCCF in the context of early development see: Davis, J. E. 2017. The Gulf: The making of an American sea (pp. 406-410). New York: Liveright Publishing Corporation. 8 McHarg, I. L. 1969. Design with nature. Garden City, NY: Published for the American Museum of Natural History [by] the Natural History Press. 9 We initially turned to a definition of trees provided by the Arnold Arboretum's Peter Del Tredici: \"A tree can be defined as a plant that, when undisturbed, develops a single, erect woody trunk. A shrub, on the other hand, is a woody plant that, when undisturbed, branches spontaneously at or below ground level to produce multiple stems. In general, a tree will develop secondary trunks in response to injury to its primary trunk or root system, to displacement of its primary stem out of the normal vertical orientation, or to a dramatic change in surrounding environmental conditions.\" Despite the usefulness of this definition, in practice, we found the distinction was difficult to apply at Captiva. Del Tredici, P. 2001. Sprouting in temperate trees: A morphological and ecological review. The Botanical View 67: 121-140. 10 Data was collected using a handheld Trimble, a GNSSbased data collector that is integrated with ArcMap GIS and is the standard in forestry surveys. This system allows for ease of data entry and storage that works well with our needs for both quantitative and qualitative data. Model: Trimble Geo 7X. 11 The field team received the initial GIS data for each quadrant as a CSV and shapefile. 12 This data alignment involves changing the coordinate system to a projected coordinate system. 13 Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) and hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) are of particular concern in eastern Massachusetts. Among numerous scientific studies on monitoring, see, for instance: Knight, K. S., Flash, B. P., Kappler, R. H., Throckmorton, J. A., Grafton, B., and Flower, C. E. 2014. Monitoring ash (Fraxinus spp.) decline and emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) symptoms in infested areas. General Technical Report NRS-139. Newtown Square, PA: United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Research Station. 14 Wdowinski, S., Bray, R., Kirtman, B. P., and Wu, Z. 2016. Increasing flooding hazard in coastal communities due to rising sea level: Case study of Miami Beach, Florida. Ocean & Coastal Management, 126: 1-8. 15 According to a one-hundred-year projection: Griffith, M. P., Barber, G., Tucker Lima, J., Barros, M., Calonje, C., Noblick, L. R., Calonje, M., Magellan, T., Dosmann, M., Thibault, T., and Gerlowski, N. Plant collection \"half-life:\" Can botanic gardens weather the climate? Curator: The Museum Journal, 60(4): 395-410. Rosetta S. Elkin is an associate professor at McGill University, an associate of the Arnold Arboretum at Harvard University, and the founder and principal of Practice Landscape. Rosetta's work considers living environments with a particular focus on plant life and climate change. She teaches planting design, fieldwork, and seminars that advance a theory of plant life between ecology and horticulture."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"William Purdom: The Forgotten Arnold Plant Hunter","article_sequence":5,"start_page":24,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25733","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25ebb6b.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gordon, Francois","article_content":"William Purdom spent three years collecting in northern China and Tibet on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum and the British nursery James Veitch & Sons. Here, Purdom passes through a gate in the Great Wall, in Shanxi Province, in the spring of 1910. PHOTO: \u00a9 BRITISH LIBRARY BOARD It was early March 1912, on the banks of the Yellow River, 450 miles south of Beijing. An Arnold Arboretum plant collector and his three-man escort had ridden more than five hundred miles east from Minxian, in Gansu Province, through a region devastated by the Xinhai Revolution. The revolution had toppled the last Qing emperor and replaced the centuries- old imperial system of government with a republic, which was struggling to establish its authority against a plethora of regional warlords. The roads were alive with bandits, and food and shelter hard to find, but the collector's journey to date had been uneventful. He and his escort were drawing near their destination, the railhead to Beijing in Honan (now Luoyang), the provincial capital of Henan Province. Suddenly, they were ambushed by a group of mounted men, who fired as they charged, killing two horses in the first moments of the attack. It's unlikely that the bandits knew what the travelers' saddlebags and packhorses' loads comprised, still less that they coveted the herbarium specimens and the seeds and tubers laboriously collected in Gansu and Tibet over the previous year. But a foreigner was sure to be carrying silver specie to pay his way on the road, and the surviving horses would fetch a good price. The botanist, however, had other ideas. He drew a lever-action rifle from the scabbard beside his saddle and, as he would later write, \"made a stand,\" shooting three of the attackers and several of their horses. His escort joined in, driving off the bandits, and the party galloped to the small city of Shenchow, from where they eventually continued their journey to Beijing, which passed without further incident.1 The plant collector was William Purdom, at the conclusion of a three-year expedition on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum and the British firm of James Veitch & Sons to northern and northwestern China and the Tibetan region of Amdo. In the course of his expedition, he sent to Boston 550 packages of seeds and well over one thousand herbarium specimens.2 Purdom, born in 1880, was a head gardener's son from the Lake District in northern England. He served an apprenticeship with his father before working for two distinguished London nurseries, then joining the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, as a student gardener. The Kew course of training for botanists and horticulturalists was internationally renowned and correspondingly demanding to join and to pursue. Purdom had done well and had proved a particularly skilled propagator, especially of woody plants. But Kew's director, Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, did not appreciate Purdom's activism as the secretary of the Kew Employees Union, and in 1905, Purdom was dismissed for \"agitation.\" Purdom promptly petitioned the Board of Agriculture, Kew's parent ministry, which agreed that he was perfectly entitled to join a trade union and ordered his immediate reinstatement. Thiselton-Dyer, unable to bear this humiliating public reversal, resigned. The new director, Colonel David Prain, then had to contend with the only strike there has ever been at Kew, efficiently organized by Purdom. All in all, it's perhaps not surprising that when, in 1908, Charles Sprague Sargent enquired whether Kew could recommend someone to undertake a three-year expedition to China, Prain enthusiastically recommended Purdom as the very man for the job!3 Sargent had come to Britain in August 1908 to engage a plant collector to travel to northwestern China to collect plants and seeds for the Arnold Arboretum. Ernest Wilson, whom Sargent had sent to China in 1907, had made it clear that he would not extend his two-year contract.4 In 1906, Sargent had also agreed William Purdom: The Forgotten Arnold Plant Hunter Francois Gordon GORDON, F. 2021. WILLIAM PURDOM: THE FORGOTTEN ARNOLD PLANT HUNTER. ARNOLDIA, 78(4): 24-37 \u222b with the United States Department of Agriculture that Wilson would work in partnership with Frank Meyer, the department's collector in China. Meyer, whose main interest was in plants of agricultural value, would also collect ornamentals in northern China, and Wilson would collect useful plants for the department in the southern zone. But Sargent was bitterly disappointed by how few ornamental specimens Meyer sent from Shanxi Province and was furious when these specimens were discovered to include several previously unknown species of larch (Larix), spruce (Picea), and pine (Pinus) from which Meyer, who had not recognized them as novelties, had not collected seed.5 Wilson, by contrast, was spectacularly successful, sending back thousands of herbarium specimens and large quantities of plant material, in the process enhancing the reputation of the Arboretum. Sargent, a man of strong opinions and personal self-confidence verging on arrogance, refused to accept Meyer's explanation that the north of China was \"an utterly barren region\"6 when it came to new ornamental woody plants and wanted to send a collector there to prove the contrary. Sargent also wanted this collector to harvest the botanical riches he was convinced were to be found in the high mountains of Shaanxi and Gansu Provinces in northwest- 26 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 Frank Meyer photographed larches (Larix gmelinii var. principis-rupprechtii) near Wutaishan, in Shanxi Province, in February 1908. Charles Sprague Sargent, suspecting these and other conifers in the region to be unique, wanted Purdom to revisit the site. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES cized (in Britain) record as a trade union activist\u2014 about which both Prain and Veitch appear to have maintained a discreet silence vis-\u00e0-vis Sargent\u2014meant that most potential employers saw him as a troublemaker, a label which would have made it very difficult for him to find employment in Britain. The first few weeks of 1909 passed in a blur, as Harry Veitch organized detailed briefings for Purdom on China. Purdom's instructors included Sir Robert Hart, recently retired after forty-eight years in China as inspector general of China's Imperial Maritime Customs Service, and Augustine Henry, the distinguished dendrologist who had spent nineteen years in China working for the Customs Service. The Kew-based photographer E. J. Wallis gave Purdom lessons in using a sophisticated glassplate camera.9 Purdom sailed on the Oceanic from Southampton to New York on February 3 and reached Boston four days later. Sargent immediately formed a favorable impression of Purdom,10 and he spent Purdom's second day in Boston writing an eight-page memorandum of guidance about where, when, and what to collect in China. Sargent told Purdom that, on arrival in China, he should seek out Ernest Wilson in either Shanghai or Yichang (in western Hubei Province) 11 before proceeding to Beijing. From there, he was to continue 120 miles north to Chengde (then often known as Jehol) and still farther north to the old imperial hunting ground at Weichang. In a characteristic display of wishful thinking, Sargent asserted that since Weichang \"has never been covered by a botanist, it is not impossible that you will find many interesting and possibly entirely new plants.\" Purdom was to leave Weichang in August so as to be in the Wutai mountain range, 180 miles southwest of Beijing in Shanxi Province, in mid-September, in time for the seed-drop of the conifers: obviously, Sargent especially desired seed from the new spruce, larch, and pine of which Meyer had sent herbarium specimens. Once the seeds had been collected, which Sargent thought \"ought not to take very long,\" he hoped that Purdom would return, via Beijing, to Weichang\u2014a round William Purdom 27 \u222b ern China. Sargent believed that, because the plants from that region endure harsh winters in their home range, they would be better able to stand the New England and north European winters than those from farther south. (The logic is seductive, and such plants will indeed withstand bitterly cold winters, but they are very vulnerable to late spring frosts, having evolved in a climate where spring is a brief prelude to a hot summer, a short transition from extreme cold to baking heat.) Sargent asked Isaac Bayley Balfour, the regius keeper of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, for advice in identifying a collector, and Balfour recommended George Forrest,7 who had, in the spring of 1907, returned from a very successful three-year plant-hunting expedition in Yunnan Province and whom Balfour knew wanted to return to China.8 Sargent suggested to his old friend Harry Veitch, whose family firm, James Veitch & Son, dominated the British horticultural trade, that they jointly engage Forrest and share the harvest he would send back from China. Harry Veitch was agreeable, but although Forrest came to London in September to meet Sargent and Veitch, he refused their offer. Forrest was not impressed with the salary offered by Sargent and was reluctant to collect outside Yunnan, where he believed, quite correctly, that much more remained to be discovered. Nor would he agree to travel to China in early 1909 because he wanted to be at home for the birth of his first child in April. Sargent had to return to Boston in October, leaving Veitch to find a collector. After two months during which Veitch failed to propose a candidate, Sargent wrote to him in early December reminding him of their agreement to send a collector in early 1909. After consulting Prain and the director of the Kew Arboretum, William Bean, Veitch offered Purdom the post at a salary of two hundred pounds a year plus expenses of four hundred pounds a year. Purdom asked for time to think about it before agreeing on January 7, 1909. Truth to tell, Purdom had little alternative but to accept Sargent and Veitch's offer; his contract at Kew had expired, and he knew that his well-publiBaoding Wutaishan Beijing Chengde (Jehol) Dolon Nor Zhuizishan Mudanshan Yan'an Luoyang Jon\u00ea (Honan) Minxian Lanzhou Taibaishan Xi'an Lotani Gubeikou Shanghai SHAANXI SHANXI HENAN SHANDONG INNER MONGOLIA OUTER MONGOLIA SICHUAN HUBEI ANHUI JIANGSU ZHEJIANG GANSU ZHILI WEICHANG QILIAN MOUNTAINS QIN MOUNTAINS SHENYANG A M D O KOKO NOR 100 miles 200 kilometers 28 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 Purdom spent his fi rst collecting season, in 1909, north and west of Beijing. His second year centered on Shaanxi Province. In the third year, he collected in Gansu Province and the Tibetan region of Amdo. trip of around six hundred miles\u2014to gather seeds and herbarium specimens there. The year 1910 was to be spent in Shaanxi Province, where Purdom was to seek \"the wild tree peony\" (Paeonia suffruticosa) before exploring the mountain range near Xi'an, the ancient former capital. This region is around fi ve hundred miles southwest of Beijing. Finally, the third and last year, 1911, was to be spent in Gansu Province, in the high mountains on the border with Tibet, over one thousand miles from Beijing. All this was spelled out by Sargent with admirable clarity, and he was equally clear about the principal object of the expedition, which was \"to investigate botanically unexplored territory [and] to increase the knowledge of the woody and other plants of the [Chinese] Empire.\" In pursuit of this last goal, Sargent expected Purdom to dry six sets of herbarium specimens for all woody plants, including specimens of the same species that might occur in different regions so as to show the extent of any variation. He also wanted Purdom to photograph \"as many trees as possible,\" including their fl owers and bark, and \"if time permits [\u2026] views of villages and other striking and interesting objects, as the world knows little of the appearance of those parts of China you are about to visit.\" These goals were not quite the same as those articulated by Harry Veitch, who had told Purdom \"the object of your mission [is] to collect seeds and plants of trees and shrubs, also any plants likely to have a commercial value, such as lilies,\" but there was sufficient overlap that Purdom felt he could satisfy both his sponsors. ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND GIS COMMUNITY 1911 SEASON 1910 SEASON 1909 SEASON William Purdom 29 Purdom must also have welcomed Sargent's brief acknowledgment that it might be impracticable to complete the ambitious itinerary he had sketched out in three collecting seasons and that Purdom might need, in the light of local advice or experience, to change it. Sargent had his legal adviser draw up a contract, which he and Purdom signed. This stipulated that \"all seeds of herbaceous, alpines and bulbous plants and all bulbs and other roots except those of woody plants\" collected by Purdom would be the property of the firm of James Veitch & Sons and would be sent directly to them from China. Collections of woody plants would be divided equally between Veitch and the Arnold Arboretum. Photographs and herbarium specimens would belong to the Arboretum. The Arboretum would pay his salary and expenses in January and July, after which Veitch would reimburse one-half of the total sum involved. Purdom spent a fortnight in Boston, mostly being taught how to prepare herbarium specimens. This involves pressing specimens of plants in blotting paper (also known as drying paper), including, as appropriate, the leaves, stems, flowers, fruit, and seeds. It is a long and laborious process, not least because of the need to change the absorbent paper every couple of days until the plants are thoroughly dried out. These specimens are subsequently mounted on cardstock with a note of the name of the plant, if known, the date and site of collection, and any details recorded by the collector that may be lost as a result of pressing and drying, such as color or scent. After his training in Boston, Purdom traveled by train to Vancouver, from where he sailed for China on the Empress of Japan. He arrived in Shanghai on March 16, 1909. Ernest Wilson had repeatedly made it clear that he would hold Sargent to their two-year contract and was not interested in extending it. Nonetheless, when Sargent wrote to him that he and Harry Veitch had engaged Purdom and hoped that Wilson would brief him before returning to London, Wilson expressed disappointment at being \"passed over.\" But he promised that he would do anything he could to help \"your new man,\"12 and his briefing of Purdom in Shanghai seems to have been reasonably cordial. What is, however, clear from Purdom's full account of his briefing from Wilson13 is that Wilson did not suggest to Purdom that it would be to his advantage to engage any of the eight trained Chinese collectors who had supported Wilson over the last three years. Their contract with Wilson would end as soon as they had finished packing the harvest of the last season's collecting for shipment to Sargent. If Purdom had hired some or all of them, he would have benefitted from their experience and expertise in, for example, preparing herbarium specimens rather than having to train collectors himself, starting from scratch. The men themselves would surely have welcomed the continuation of their employment. Wilson's reticence is all the more noteworthy when one recalls that when Wilson started on his first collecting expedition to China in 1899, he was briefed by Augustine Henry (who was leaving the country) and immediately thereafter hired Henry's entire team, who had been trained over the previous decade.14 But Purdom lacked the experience to suggest he might do the same thing, and Wilson, despite his promise to Sargent that he would do all he could to help Purdom, did not propose it. One wonders whether Wilson kept silent because he anticipated that he might return to China within the three-year period for which Purdom was contracted to collect for Sargent and Veitch. In fact, in June 1910, Wilson did return and promptly reconstituted his team of helpers. Obviously, this would have been impossible if the men had been in the field with Purdom. A less charitable alternative explanation is that Wilson was not especially keen to provide Purdom with assistants who might help Purdom challenge Wilson's burgeoning reputation as the greatest of the Western plant hunters active in China.15 Certainly, in later years, Wilson quite deliberately burnished his reputation, including by rewriting some of the history of his first two expeditions.16 Immediately on his arrival in Beijing, Purdom applied himself to learning Mandarin Chinese, a language that he mastered remark- \u222b Clockwise from top: In the spring of 1909, Purdom traveled north of Beijing and crossed the Great Wall at the gateway town of Gubeikou. He continued northward by river and spent the summer in the imperial hunting grounds of Weichang. Although the region was predominately treeless, Purdom documented pines (Pinus tabuliformis) among the scattered forests. That fall, he returned to Beijing and headed west to Wutaishan, where he photographed a collection of Khingan fir (Abies nephrolepis) near his tent. The year 1910 was spent primarily in Shaanxi Province. He sent the Arnold Arboretum few photographs that year, but one showed the landscape of Mudanshan, where there was no sign of the wild tree peony. ALL PHOTOS ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Clockwise from top: In 1911, Purdom collected primarily in Gansu Province and Amdo, an adjacent region of Tibet, where he photographed a temple perched above the Tao River at Jon\u00ea. Purdom took a considerable number of portraits of families and individuals in the region. He also documented the dramatic mountains near Jon\u00ea, which he labeled as the Peling Mountains. Before returning to England, Purdom collected seedlings of the Chinese horsechestnut (Aesculus chinensis) at a temple in Beijing's Western Hills. ALL PHOTOS ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 32 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 ably quickly. Unusually for a Westerner in China at this time, Purdom consistently treated local administrators and farmers in the areas where he collected as his social equals, among whom he sought to make friends. Partly as a result, he was allowed into areas of China foreign travelers were actively discouraged from visiting, not least for their own safety. Purdom spent the 1909 collecting season in northern China and Mongolia, including in Wutaishan. Sargent had specifically tasked Purdom with collecting seeds from spruce and larches found there, which were not in cultivation in the West, but the wet summer of 1909 meant that the trees did not set seed. Although Purdom sent cuttings and seedlings, Sargent complained that they had been poorly packed and that, as a result, many of them had died on the six-week journey to Boston.17 He was only partly mollified by seeds that were germinating in the Arboretum's greenhouses. In fact, Purdom had dispatched thirty parcels of seeds and bulbs from more than three hundred unique collections to Boston and London that year. These included rhododendrons and primulas, a fine blue anemone, several peonies, and three species of clematis, one of which, the downy clematis (Clematis macropetala), has particularly graceful deep blue bell-shaped flowers. It first flowered in Veitch's Coombe Wood nursery in 1912 and remains very popular today. For Sargent, there were several poplars (Populus), elms (Ulmus), larch, and herbarium specimens of a new form of bird cherry (later named Prunus padus var. pubescens forma purdomii), which is a small tree with copious white racemes, bright red berries, and fine foliage. In April 1910, after overwintering in Beijing, Purdom traveled to western China. Sargent had asked him to investigate Moutan-shan (or Mudanshan, which translates to \"peony mountain\") near the ancient city of Xi'an, where he hoped Purdom would find the original wild peony. When Purdom arrived, however, he found that the plants had long ago been harvested for traditional medicines and the mountain was stripped bare. Purdom took several photos of the mountain to leave Sargent in no possible doubt that there were no peonies (and few other plants) there. Purdom had better luck near Yan'an, where he found a wild population of the tree peony. He ultimately collected over five hundred seeds of this dark red peony, which was raised in both Boston and Coombe Wood. (Sargent would later write of this as a \"first-rate achievement.\"18) On Taibaishan, in southern Shaanxi, he found a fine rhododendron with dark pink buds shading into white flowers, subsequently named Rhododendron purdomii. He also found another wild population of the tree peony, but with no seed. The next year, Purdom continued westward to Gansu Province and the Amdo region of Tibet. He found, in a monastery garden, a lovely winter-flowering viburnum (Viburnum farreri, then known as V. fragrans). He sent seeds to Veitch, who grew them on and subsequently sold his stock to Gerald Loder, the owner of Wakehurst Place in Sussex, where, in 1920, they flowered for the first time in Britain. Purdom also sent seed of an edible honeysuckle, Lonicera caerula, whose curious cylindrical fruit is today sold in the West as \"honeyberry.\" He ended the season in Minxian, in Gansu Province, where he had no choice but to wait for order to be restored following the anarchic violence that followed the Xinhai Revolution in October. Fortunately, Purdom had more or less completed the season's collecting, which included several fine primulas and asters, and in December, he was able to persuade the Minxian authorities to provide (for a fee) an armed escort to enable him to return, via Honan, to Beijing. When Purdom told the political staff at the British Legation about the attempted ambush near Shenchow, they were horrified to hear that he had killed three of the attackers, whom they strongly suspected (or they may have had confidential information confirming it as a fact) had been off-duty government soldiers.19 They urged Purdom not to repeat the story to anyone else lest he (and, by association, Britain) should be seen as taking up arms against the Chinese government. This advice suited Purdom, a very private man who throughout his life avoided personal publicity. Furthermore, Purdom was angling for a job with the Chinese Republican William Purdom 33 Purdom and two assistants make their camp on or near Mudanshan, in May 1910. His herbarium presses are arranged in the foreground, with his lever-action rifle resting against the central press. government and may well have believed that to publicize the shooting wouldn't help his prospects. He did give Sargent and Harry Veitch very brief accounts of the incident,20 but it was not reported in either the Chinese or English press, nor did he ever allude to it in later life. Both sponsors of the expedition were disappointed by Purdom's harvest. Harry Veitch recognized that \"if the plants were not there, then he [Purdom] could not send them,\" but Sargent was reluctant to accept that while his decision to send Purdom to the botanical terra incognita of northwestern China had been a perfectly reasonable throw of the dice, the gamble had failed. That would have meant recognizing that Sargent had got it wrong, and he chose instead to blame Purdom for not trying hard enough.21 Sargent also rebuffed Purdom's request to return home from Beijing via San Francisco and New York in order to enable him to visit Boston to explain why the results of the expedition had not matched Sargent's over-ambitious hopes.22 And the statistics that Sargent reported in his 1910-11 Annual Report to the President of Harvard University tended (at least) to leave readers with the impression that Purdom's harvest over the 1910 season had been less than one-quarter of Wilson's, whereas, in fact, he had sent the Arboretum and Veitch germplasm from almost \u222b \u00a9 BRITISH LIBRARY BOARD 34 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 exactly half the number of different plants collected by Wilson in the same season.23 Sargent's harsh judgment of Purdom's competence as a collector may well have been influenced by his comparing Purdom's collections with those of Ernest Wilson, sent from Sichuan Province. Such a comparison would prima facie not be to Purdom's advantage: the two men were not competing on a level playing field. The climate of Sichuan is subtropical, shading into tropical, and the annual monsoon delivers plentiful rainfall. Gansu, Shanxi, and Shaanxi Provinces, where Sargent had dispatched Purdom, share a temperate climate, with bitterly cold winters and little rainfall. Unsurprisingly, the flora of Gansu and its immediate neighbors is much sparser than the vegetation of Sichuan where Wilson principally collected. The Hengduan Mountains in western Sichuan illustrate the extreme biodiversity of the region where Wilson was collecting. The mountains are far enough south that during the last ice age they escaped being scraped bare by glaciers. The substantial variation in altitude created a range of habitats, from river valleys to alpine meadows and peaks, and a huge range of plants flourished there while those further north were wiped out by the ice. In consequence, the Hengduan massif is a biodiversity hotspot, a veritable plantsman's paradise in which it is estimated there are over 8,500 species of plants, 15 percent of them endemic (found only in that confined geographical area). They include over one in four of the world's species of rhododendrons (224 species), primulas (113 species), and mountain ash (Sorbus, 36 species)\u2014the list goes on and on.24 In contrast, plant biodiversity where Purdom was collecting was much lower. In the Qilian Mountains of Gansu, researchers have tabulated around 1,044 species of plants, and in southeastern Gansu, the number is around 2,458 species.25 Neither Wilson nor Purdom ever claimed to have done more than explore part of the provinces in which they hunted for plants, but the bottom line is that Wilson was collecting in a region where there was approximately three and a half to eight times the number of plant species than in the area to which Purdom had been sent by Sargent and Veitch. This made it almost inevitable that Wilson would send back to Boston specimens and seeds of more species than Purdom. In 1910 and early 1911, the only season for which it is possible to make a direct comparison, Purdom sent back to Harry Veitch germplasm associated with 374 unique collections numbers, while Wilson sent back 744 collections, 271 of them collected by his assistants after he had broken his leg.26 Sargent's negativity towards Purdom may also have been influenced by his feeling a measure of responsibility towards Wilson in respect of the avalanche that had nearly caused him to lose a leg and that left him with a severe limp.27 Wilson hadn't really wanted to go on the expedition, but Sargent had effectively forced him to, and it seems quite possible that he subconsciously vented a feeling of guilt about what had befallen Wilson on Purdom. Furthermore, the extent to which Wilson's work in China captured the imagination of the United States media and public meant that Wilson found a ready market for the articles and books that Sargent encouraged him to write about his expeditions. Wilson stressed his links with the Arboretum in the publications, and his star status, in turn, added luster to the fundraising efforts in which Sargent was constantly engaged to support the Arboretum and its activities. In short, it suited both men very well for Wilson to be front and center of the public stage, and there is nothing to suggest that either of them was concerned that the accomplishments of other collectors, including Meyer and Purdom, were overshadowed as a result. The final blow to any hopes Purdom entertained that this expedition might allow him to forge a reputation among the horticultural cognoscenti that would help him to secure a good job in Britain or the United States fell on his return to England. Harry Veitch had decided to close the firm, which had dominated the English nursery trade for decades, and sell the stock at auction, causing Purdom's collections to be dispersed and brought to market without his name being associated with them (Viburnum farreri, mentioned above, is a particularly egregious example). Purdom (left) returned to China in 1914 and spent two years collecting with the British botanist Reginald Farrer. Purdom used a clockwork self-timer to photograph himself with Farrer (right) and Zhang Bing Hua, the viceroy of Koko Nor (present-day Qinghai Province). This is the only known photograph of Purdom and Farrer together. \u00a9 BRITISH LIBRARY BOARD 36 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 All things considered, if we factor in Purdom's fundamental modesty and aversion to publicity, it's easy to see why he never captured the public imagination in the way that, say, Wilson or Forrest did. In 1912, Purdom began corresponding with officials in Beijing about a possible post in a yet-to-be-formed Chinese Forest Service, which would enable him to pursue an objective to which he was personally and strongly committed, namely the reforestation of China after decades of extensive and largely uncontrolled logging. There were long bureaucratic delays in setting up the service, and in 1913, when the alpine plant expert and plant hunter Reginald Farrer invited Purdom to join him on an expedition to northwestern China and Amdo, he accepted.28 He and Farrer botanized successfully in 1914 and 1915, collecting inter alios some fine poppies, alpines, primulas, and an elegant butterflybush (Buddleia alternifolia). Although Farrer would go on to write two of the best travel books of the era about the expedition, 29 the devastating effect on European gardening and horticulture of the First World War and the complete collapse in demand for new plants brought an abrupt end to their plant hunting at the close of 1915. In the spring of 1916, the Chinese government at last formally created a Chinese Forest Service, and Purdom was appointed as a senior forestry adviser to the Chinese government. Purdom must have been deeply happy at last to have achieved a senior management position in which he could make his mark. He began working with Han Ngen (Han An), the secretary of the Ministry of Agriculture, to train Chinese foresters, develop tree nurseries, and plant trees where they would do the most good. By 1919, after three years of backbreaking effort, over one thousand tree nurseries had been established in China, containing one hundred million young trees. In the same, year twenty to thirty million trees were planted on over one hundred thousand acres of otherwise unproductive land.30 Many of these were timber trees new to China, mostly from North America, which Purdom knew would do well in different Chinese regions and climatic zones. He organized the importation of many millions of seeds and cuttings, making him the only Western plant hunter to have imported into China vastly more plant material than he ever collected there. It appears that eventually Purdom and Sargent were reconciled: in 1920 and early 1921, Purdom is known to have sent plant material to the Arnold Arboretum. Frustratingly, however, there is no surviving correspondence from this time in the Arnold Arboretum files, and Sargent's personal papers are lost. Purdom died suddenly in Beijing in November 1921 at the age of forty-one, due to an infection contracted following a minor surgery. He was buried in the English cemetery in Beijing, but fifty-four of his Chinese friends and colleagues clubbed together to commission a large and elegant memorial stele in the Forest Service plantation at Xinyang, which they renamed the Purdom Forest Park. Remarkably, the stele and the park were both left alone during the violently anti-foreigner Cultural Revolution of the 1960s and 1970s and they are both carefully preserved to this day. The epitaph is too long to quote in full, but a hundred years later the sorrow felt by Purdom's friends who subscribed to the stele is still very clear. Perhaps what would have most pleased Purdom is their description of him as \"a true and loyal friend of the Chinese people who won the admiration and respect of his colleagues, worked tirelessly for the reforestation of China and who, had he lived, would certainly have trained the next generation of Chinese foresters.\" Will Purdom was a fine and honorable man, who rose from a position of very limited personal agency and overcame formidable obstacles to leave the world a better place for his passage. Not only does he deserve to be remembered in his own right, but his life has a good deal to teach us about our place in this interconnected world. His concerns about protecting local ecosystems are a reminder that these ideas were current well over a hundred years ago. Finally, we should, in justice, remember him when we plant his introductions in our gardens: among them, \"his\" viburnum, butterflybush, or bird cherry. \u222b William Purdom 37 Endnotes 1 Purdom letter to Harry Veitch, 23 March 1912 (copied by Veitch to Charles S. Sargent, 10 April 1912), Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University (AA archive). 2 Anon. 1921. William Purdom. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 3(1): 55-56. 3 David Prain letter to Harry Veitch, 31 December 1908, Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, archives. 4 Ernest H. Wilson letters to Sargent, 21 November 1908 and 9 March 1909; also Sargent letter to Veitch, 26 April 1909, AA archive. 5 Sargent letter to Wilson, 8 July 1908, AA archive. Sargent also expressed his disappointment to David Fairchild, Meyer's superior at the Department of Agriculture. 6 Frank Meyer letter to Wilson, 7 May 1907, AA archive. 7 Bayley Balfour letter to George Forrest, 26 August 1908, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh archive. 8 George Forrest (1873-1932) made a total of seven expeditions to China, in the course of which he collected over thirty thousand different plants and herbarium specimens, nearly all of them from Yunnan Province in southwestern China. 9 Purdom was an apt pupil, and the Arnold Arboretum archive has a large collection of his photographs, which are an important resource for our understanding of remote areas of China in the first decades of the last century. 10 Sargent letter to Veitch, 16 February 1909; and to Prain, 25 February 1909, AA archive. 11 Sargent letter to Purdom, 8 February 1909, AA archive. 12 Wilson letter to Sargent, 9 March 1909, AA archive. 13 Purdom letter to Sargent, 26 March 1909, AA archive. 14 For a full account and a photo of the team, see: O'Brian, S. A. 2011. In the footsteps of Augustine Henry (p. 68 et seq.). Garden Art Press. 15 Wilson's biographer, Roy W. Briggs, suggests that Wilson was concerned that his replacement by Purdom might be seen as an adverse reflection on the quality of his own work in China. 16 See, for instance: Holway, T. History or romance? Garden History, 46(1): 3-27. 17 Sargent letter to Purdom, 3 May 1910, AA archive. 18 Sargent letter to Veitch, 13 June 1912, AA Archive. 19 On March 10, 1912, the political department of the legation sent a telegram about the ambush to the Foreign Office in London, but unfortunately it has been \"weeded\" from the file in the Public Record Office. The legation also asked the representative of the London Times in Beijing, Ernest Morrison, not to report the incident, and Morrison complied. 20 In addition to the letter that Purdom sent to Harry Veitch cited above, see: Thomas, W. B. 1913, July 10. Creator of 2,000 new plants. Daily Mail, p. 3. 21 Frank N. Meyer letter to David Fairchild, 15 October 1912, USDA compilation of Fairchild correspondence held at the University of California, Davis, Vol. 3, pp. 1600-1601. 22 Meyer letter to Fairchild, 21 December 1912, USDA compilation, Vol. 3, pp. 1619-1621. 23 For my full accounting of this, see: Gordon, F. 2021 Will Purdom: Agitator, plant-hunter, forester (pp. 111- 116). Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh. 24 See: Kelley, S. 2001. Plant hunting of the rooftop of the world. Arnoldia, 61(2): 2-13. These figures are likely to have changed slightly in the intervening twenty years as new species have been identified and others have been reclassified. By way of comparison, the British Isles presently (2021) have 1,443 species from 308 genera, only 1.2 percent of them endemic. 25 Wang, J, Che, K., and Yan, W. 1996. Analysis of the biodiversity in Qilian Mountains. Journal of Gansu Forestry Science and Technology; also, Lu, W-Z. and Ren, J-W. 2005. Plant biodiversity and its conservation in Maijishan Scenic Regions of Gansu. Journal of Northwestern Forestry University, 20(4): 44-47. 26 Plant collecting is emphatically not a \"numbers game,\" and it would be foolish to use these figures to attempt to compare the relative efficiency of the two men. But Purdom clearly did a good job in a poor collecting area. Again, for my accounting of these numbers in the biography, see pp. 111-116. 27 For a full account of the story surrounding Wilson's accident, see: Dosmann, M. 2020. A lily from the valley, Arnoldia 77(3): 14-25. 28 Purdom letter to Reginald J. Farrer, 9 September 1913, Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh archive. 29 See Farrer's books On the Eaves of the World (1917) and The Rainbow Bridge (1921). Both books are dedicated to \"Bill\", i.e. Will Purdom. 30 Reisner, J. H. 1921. Progress of forestry in China 1919- 1920. Journal of Forestry, 19(4): 396. The map in this article was inspired by the map on page 72 of Will Purdom: Agitator, Plant-Hunter, Forester and was created using Esri, Airbus DS, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, Garmin, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community. Purdom Plants at the Arnold Arboretum As of this writing, visitors at the Arnold Arboretum can find twenty-five trees and shrubs that arrived directly from Purdom (as seed) or Veitch (as plants) from Purdom's first expedition to China. Another twenty-six plants represent other Purdom lineages, including Forsythia that originated from Purdom's collections with Reginald Farrer. To map them in the landscape, visit https:\/\/ arboretum.harvard.edu\/explorer\/. Use the advanced search and input \"Purdom\" in the collector field. Francois Gordon retired from the British Foreign Office in 2009 after thirty years mostly spent in Africa. Today, he lives and gardens with his wife Elaine in Kent. His first book, Will Purdom: Agitator, Plant-Hunter, Forester, was published by the Royal Botanical Garden Edinburgh in 2021. It can be purchased on Amazon."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"George Ware and the Thornhill Elm: A Vision of Trees for the Future","article_sequence":6,"start_page":38,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25734","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25e816e.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Shearer, Kim","article_content":"In 1987, a plant pathologist in Montana ended an incomplete experiment by cutting down fourteen young American elm trees (Ulmus americana). At the time, Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi, DED) was taking hold in parts of Montana. The only management practices then available in Montana were tree removal or pesticide sprays to stop the movement of the vectors, elm bark beetles. The pathologist, Gary Strobel, had been hoping to develop an unconventional method of disease management\u2014vaccinate the tree with a genetically engineered bacterium (Pseudomonas syringae) to fight the fungal disease. In lab trials, Strobel and his colleague Donald Myers had demonstrated that Pseudomonas syringae produced natural antibiotics that suppressed the spread of DED through vascular tissue. Still, Strobel needed permission from the Environmental Protection Agency to proceed with a field experiment that involved a genetically engineered organism. The bureaucratic machinations promised to delay the field experiments for another year, so Strobel moved forward with his experiments and injected fourteen trees before receiving formal approval. This moment captured national headlines focusing attention on the debate over genetically engineered organisms and drawing unwelcome attention to Montana State University, where Strobel was a researcher. Rather than put his colleagues at risk of losing federal funding due to his decisions, Strobel volunteered to destroy his field experiment. As an unanticipated result, however, the news also generated a newfound interest in tree breeding work occurring in a Chicago suburb. At the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, George Ware had been busy developing DEDresistant elms the conventional way, through targeted breeding efforts using disease-resistant germplasm. In a 1987 New York Times article titled \"Fighting Elm Disease the Natural Way,\" Ware is quoted as saying, \"Dr. Strobel was trying to help one kind of elm quickly. We're looking more toward diversity over the long run.\" This quote highlights the nature of Ware's Elm Improvement Program and the efforts that he went through in developing the next DEDresistant elms. George Ware arrived at the Morton Arboretum in 1968, a mere two years after Marion Trufant Hall was hired as director and charged to lead the arboretum in an initiative to expand our research capacity. Ware was enlisted as the research director and the in-house ecologist and dendrologist. In 1972, four years into his tenure, Ware began noticing a peculiar tree in the arboretum collections: a stately elm growing outside the former study of Joy Morton, the arboretum's namesake and founder. At the time, much of the landscape in and around Chicago had been devastated by Dutch elm disease\u2014as was the case across the United States. The graceful American elm had been widely planted in the Chicago area, along streets and in parks. The prevalence of this species, which was also a ubiquitous forest tree, would ultimately be its undoing, enabling the rapid spread of both the vector and the disease by air and by root-to-root transmission. The first detection of Dutch elm disease in the United States was recorded in 1929 by Curtis May, a plant pathologist for the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). May received samples collected in Ohio by plant pathologist Paul Tilford. The trees in Ohio were dying and a cause for concern. Later, in 1933, a USDA inspection would discover the source of the introduced disease: shipments of imported burl logs harboring the European elm bark bee- Facing page: In 1972, George Ware observed an elm at the Morton Arboretum that displayed exceptional form and resistance to Dutch elm disease. The tree would become Ware's first commercial tree introduction: the Accolade elm (Ulmus davidiana 'Morton' Accolade\u2122). PHOTO: STERLING MORTON LIBRARY SHEARER, K. 2021. GEORGE WARE AND THE THORNHILL ELM: A VISION OF TREES FOR THE FUTURE. ARNOLDIA, 78(4): 38-47 \u222b George Ware and the Thornhill Elm: A Vision of Trees for the Future Kim Shearer tle (Scolytus scolytus). The larvae of elm bark beetles, including our native species (Hylurgopinus rufipes), feed on the vascular tissue of infected trees, picking up spores with their bodies. When they mature and emerge from the tree, they can move to uninfected trees, introducing fungal spores. Newspapers across the country began raising the alarm about the rapid loss of trees as the disease continued to spread in the East and Midwest. By 1970, the Chicago region was reported to have lost more than fifty thousand trees and was projected to lose another fifty thousand within two years. It was amidst this devastation, in 1972, that Ware noticed the tree growing outside of Joy Morton's study window at the Thornhill Estate. It was an elm (Morton accession 2352-24*1) with gracefully arching branches, healthy and green foliage, and no symptoms of the disease. The original elm, fondly referred to by Morton Arboretum staff as the Thornhill Elm, was accessioned into the collections in 1924, shortly after Joy Morton founded the arboretum on his estate in 1922. With guidance from Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arnold Arboretum, Morton established a 735- acre arboretum that included an herbarium, library, and nurseries, along with staff to manage it all by the time of his death. The most integral component of the arboretum\u2014the living collections\u2014included many accessions of plants initially sourced from the Arnold. In the initial establishment of the Morton collections, Sargent provided access to seed, clonal propagation material, and plants. One such packet of seed was labeled Ulmus crassifolia (the cedar elm), and records indicated that the seed had been wild-collected in Brownwood, Texas, by botanist Ernest Jesse Palmer. It was accessioned into the arboretum collections, and seeds were germinated and grown in the nursery. Eventually, a sapling was planted outside the bay window of Morton's study. As the years passed, the tree witnessed Morton's family and guests enjoying summer afternoons by the pool. The sloping vista beneath the elm was crowned by hawthorns for which the estate was named. There were staff picnics for Morton Salt Tree breeding is a slow, steady process, requiring years to grow and evaluate each generation of hybrids. Over the decades, Ware's Elm Improvement Program would produce some of the most popular disease-resistant elms for the North American landscape. STERLING MORTON LIBRARY \u222b George Ware 41 Company and the Morton Arboretum in the coming decades. The tree overlooks the Morton family cemetery and bore witness to family funerals, but it also provided shade to guests at weddings and garden soirees. Eventually, when the crumbling mansion was demolished long after Morton had died, the tree stood guard over Morton's study, which was preserved as part of a new facility for educating the public about plants and the rest of the natural world. In 1972, Ware looked at this tree and recognized that it was, in fact, not Ulmus crassifolia. The leaves were too large, the bark not quite right, and the form much too refined. As a dendrologist who had been a faculty member at Northwestern State College in Louisiana, Ware was familiar with U. crassifolia, which is native to that region. In fact, one of the first deposits Ware made into the arboretum collections in 1968 was a packet of cedar elm seed (Morton accession 385-68) that he had collected from the wild in Seguin, Texas. After further investigation (and even a visit to Arnold), Ware confirmed that the Thornhill Elm was U. davidiana, a species native to eastern Asia. Noting the native origin of the species and the lack of symptoms in the tree, Ware saw the possibility that the Dutch elm disease pathogen had Asiatic origins itself. Perhaps the presence of Ophiostoma ulmi in the natural habitat of U. davidiana had led to coevolution of the species such that the David elm had adapted a natural biochemical defense mechanism to combat the disease. In this tree, Ware saw great potential. The Thornhill Elm inspired the development of the first breeding program at the Morton Arboretum, the Elm Improvement Program. As a trained ecologist and dendrologist, Ware understood the necessity for genetic diversity within a population. He was soon on the search for more parent material to include in his germplasm collection. By 1980, Ware had clones of the Thornhill Elm propagated and under evaluation. That same year, he published two articles in the Journal of Arboriculture focusing on the qualities necessary for trees to survive in human-built landscapes and the attributes of Asian elm species that made them ideal candidates for such an environment. These publications were an effort to raise awareness within a community of tree experts about the possibilities that were held within the genetic resources of Asian elms. While American elms were being felled across the eastern United States, Ware was proposing a new solution to a decades-old problem: Let's plant Asian elms, he suggested, given that these species are adapted to both the constructed environment and the Ware recognized the value of Asian elm species as urban trees in North America. This list outlines species Ware recommended for evaluation and breeding in the Journal of Arboriculture and Landscape Plant News. Distribution and descriptions have been adapted from his papers. Species Geographic distribution Ware Description Selections available in US nursery trade? Ulmus davidiana (syn. include U. japonica, U. wilsoniana, U. propinqua) China, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Siberia Variation in habit; tolerant of hostile conditions Yes; many introductions made in the past couple of decades U. glaucescens Gansu Province (China), northern China Small tree; small leaves, fine texture; yellow to orange fall color; tolerant of urban conditions based on its distribution No U. laciniata Humid areas of northern China, Korea, Siberia, and Japan Small to medium tree; potential drought hardiness; lobed leaves; Zelkova-like branching No U. macrocarpa China, Mongolia, Korea, and Siberia Strong wood; shrub to mediumsized tree; adapted to humid and arid regions; tolerant of \"hostile\" conditions No U. parvifolia China, Korea, Japan Tolerant of drought, pollution, poor soils; attractive lace bark; glossy leaves Yes; many introductions made in the past couple of decades devastating disease. Clones of the Thornhill Elm are now widely available in the commercial nursery trade under the name Ulmus davidiana 'Morton' Accolade\u2122. When developing any plant breeding program, a breeder must first start with objectives and further refine them by identifying specific desirable traits. Ware's primary objective was to develop elm trees with Dutch elm disease resistance. Second to that, he aimed to develop trees that were not preferred by the elm bark beetles or elm flea weevils (Orchestes alni). Beyond pest and disease resistance, Ware would focus on species adapted to environments of the extremes: temperature, drought, flood, high winds, blizzard, and \"hostile\" soils. He defined hostile soils as those with high pH, poor aeration, and minimal organic matter. He noted that these are all common conditions of the Midwest and Great Plains, and coincidentally, these are the same conditions faced by trees in developed landscapes regardless of the region. Ware went on to list and describe Asian elm species that should be considered for breeding programs. Meanwhile, Ware began the process of hybridizing elms that were available within the Morton collections. He collected branches covered in rounded floral buds and brought them into his lab. He placed the cut stems in vessels containing water and positioned them upon white sheets of paper spaced out along lab benches. As the forced stems began to flower, yellow piles of pollen would accumulate on the paper, signaling the pollen was ready to be collected and stored. Ware then used a ladder to take this pollen into the canopy of a female parent tree, where he secured a bag over a flowering stem. Making an opening in the bag, he dispersed pollen inside and mimicked the movement of the wind to ensure the pollen made contact with the receptive stigma. Once the bag was securely shut, he climbed down from his ladder and waited. This process led to the development of several new hybrid elms, including Ulmus 'Morton Glossy' Triumph\u2122. This selection is one of the most popular of Ware's elm introductions due to its low maintenance requirements in both commercial nursery production and municipal tree management. While a breeder can develop the best possible plant selection, the plants would not get very far out of the breeding program without help from the nursery industry. Ware was acutely aware of this. While his initial collaborations were with arborists, foresters, and botanists, he would go on to develop strong working relationships with the nursery industry, specifically Keith Warren, the former manager of new plant development for J. Frank Schmidt & Son, based in Boring, Oregon. The two first discussed the possibility of evaluating Ware's elm selections after a Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance conference, hosted at Thornhill in June of 1990. This meeting would lead to a collaboration between the Morton and J. Frank Schmidt that continues today, enabling hybrid elm selections to be propagated on greater scales and evaluated in field research. The first grafting of Ware's elm hybrids at J. Frank Schmidt occurred in 1994\u2014just twenty-two years after Ware recognized the tree's potential and seventy years after being received as seed labeled Ulmus crassifolia. The Oregon Department of Agriculture helped the collaborators set up a screened isolation and quarantine area at the commercial nursery, ensuring that DED would not be introduced into the Oregon landscape due to the nursery trade. By 1995, additional propagation material was distributed for in vitro propagation evaluation by Microplant Nurseries, a tissue culture lab based in Gervais, Oregon, managed by Gayle Suttle. At that time, there were not yet any cultivars of U. davidiana available through the commercial industry. Ware also recognized that for elm breeding efforts to be effective, additional genetic material needed to be collected from the wild. When he began his research, he found that few elms of wild provenance were available in the collections of North American public gardens, potentially creating a genetic bottleneck for any North American elm breeding program. The total number of elm species is somewhere within the range of twenty to forty, depending on taxonomic classification, and the center for Facing page: To develop new elm hybrids, including Ulmus 'Morton Glossy' Triumph\u2122, Ware carefully crossed select trees using pollination bags, secured high within the tree canopy. PHOTO: JIM NACHEL, STERLING MORTON LIBRARY 42 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 \u222b this diversity is unmistakably in eastern Asia. The Flora of China indicates that more than half of all elm species are native to the region. Ware and his colleagues ultimately visited China five times and the Soviet Union three times, developing relationships with forestry researchers willing to collect seeds in the wild and ship them to Ware. Today, the Morton's elm collection contains 329 accessioned individuals representing thirty-three species and thirty-four cultivars, a dramatic increase from 1968, when Ware arrived. At that time, the elm collection included fifty-one trees, which represented nine species and ten cultivars. Of the newer individuals accessioned into the Morton collections, eighty-one came directly as plants from Ware's breeding and research program. Ware also actively distributed seed and plants throughout the United States. He coordinated a seedling distribution program through which he distributed one thousand seedlings to Midwestern nurseries, aiming to popularize the Asian elm species. Municipal foresters and park managers regularly arrived at the Morton Arboretum's service gate searching for elm seedlings he had promised. As the current manager of the program that Ware initiated, I still receive notes from recipients of such gifts who recount fond memories of Ware and his generosity. Today, the seedling trees that he distributed can be found from Oregon to New York and Illinois to Louisiana. Several of Ware's elms were even planted in the late 1980s on the course of the Winged Foot Golf Club, the prestigious host of multiple US Opens in Mamaroneck, New York. This planting was a direct result of a 1987 New York Times interview of Ware following the Strobel controversy. By 1990, Ware had several elm selections in the pipeline and a greatly expanded collection of germplasm. He then began the process of developing a new breeding population. Working with large, wind-pollinated, late-winterflowering trees presents unique challenges to a breeder. The flowers are insignificant and often located more than six feet above the ground. (I can attest to the complications of these factors as a breeder working with elms today.) To sim- This table outlines five of Ware's most well-known elm cultivars. Note that Ulmus japonica and U. wilsoniana are taxonomic varieties that make up the U. davidiana species complex, but they are listed here as the original species for the sake of simplicity. Information found in this table is adapted from the Chicagoland Grows' Plant Release Bulletin (no. 44). 44 Arnoldia 78\/4 \u2022 May 2021 Cultivar and trade name Parentage\/ origin Traits USDA Hardiness Zones Dimensions (feet) Ulmus 'Morton' Accolade\u2122 Chance seedling U. japonica x U. wilsoniana Vase-shaped habit and vigorous grower; foliage fine-textured, dark green, and glossy with yellow fall color; DED and elm yellows resistance; resistant to elm leaf beetle 5 - 8 20 year 30' H, 15' W Mature 50 - 60' H 30 - 40' W Ulmus 'Morton Plainsman' Vanguard\u2122 Chance seedling U. japonica x U. pumila Relatively upright branching and rounded habit in youth; requires corrective pruning to avoid included bark; dark green foliage with yellow fall color; DED and elm yellows resistant; susceptible to elm leaf beetle, Japanese beetle, and leafminer 5 - 7 Mature 45 - 50' H 40 - 50' W Ulmus 'Morton Glossy' Triumph\u2122 Controlled cross U. Accolade\u2122 x U. Vanguard\u2122 Grower favorite due to ease of training; lustrous dark green foliage with yellow fall color; upright oval form that ages to vase shape; strong branching; excellent DED resistance; moderate pest resistance 4 - 9 Mature 50 - 60' H 40 - 50' W Ulmus 'Morton Stalwart' Commendation\u2122 Controlled cross U. Accolade\u2122 x (U. pumila x U. carpinifolia) Symmetrical arching branches, upright oval habit; large, dark green leaves with yellow fall color; rapid growth and broad adaptability; excellent DED resistance; moderate susceptibility to elm leaf beetle, Japanese beetle, and gypsy moth (4)5 - 9 Mature 50 - 60' H 40 - 50' W Ulmus 'Morton Red Tip' Danada Charm\u2122 Chance seedling U. japonica Rounded habit in youth maturing to large and elegant vase-shape; fast grower; glossy green foliage with redpigmented new growth; yellow fall color; excellent resistance to DED and elm yellows; moderate susceptibility to Japanese beetle and elm leaf beetle (4)5 - 9 Mature 60 - 70' H 50 - 60' W plify the hybridization process, Ware developed an isolation block of sorts in a local cemetery. He knew the cemetery would not be paved and that the trees would be left alone until they declined from old age. While Ware retired in 1995, he continued to develop his vision of trees for the future as a research associate of Morton Arboretum until 2009. The selection criteria that Ware developed for this population include tolerance to DED and elm yellows (a phytoplasma disease, Candidatus Phytoplasma ulmi, which causes leaves to suddenly wilt in late summer), pest resistance, cold hardiness, vigor, and red fall color. Red foliage is not commonly seen in elms. Typically, the fall color is a muddy yellow. Ware, however, had noticed an intriguing trait in a group of Asian elm seedlings: red pigmentation in emerging leaves. He understood that if the seedlings could produce red pigmentation (anthocyanins) in leaves during the spring, they should be able to use the same biochemical pathway to produce anthocyanins in the fall. This unexpected discovery led to red fall color becoming a new breeding objective. I was hired as the tree and shrub breeder for the Morton Arboretum in 2016. When I arrived here, I was certainly not an elm expert. I had spent my graduate school years working primarily with shrubs and herbaceous perennials. It took some time to unearth the details of the Elm Improvement Program, but today, I can say that we are continuing to make progress with Ware's legacy project. The program is now part of the Daniel P. Haerther New Plant Development Program, named in honor of a generous benefactor of the arboretum who was one of many that Ware inspired to appreciate the development of trees for the urban landscape. Ware consulted about elms on Haerther's estate, and in the process, the two would develop a relationship centered on a love of trees. Currently, we have sixty-one seedling selections from the breeding population that Ware left behind for the next generation. These were all selected for fall colors ranging from oranges to reds and purples. The breeding population includes the Ulmus davidiana complex, a variable group that was historically treated as three STERLING MORTON LIBRARY Ware (center) embarked on plant-collecting expeditions to acquire new elm germplasm from populations in China and the Soviet Union. His collaborators on this 1990 expedition to Shaanxi Province, China, included (from left) Ross Clark, Peter van der Linden, Kris Bachtell, and William Hess. \u222b separate species (U. japonica, U. wilsoniana, and U. propinqua). The population also includes three other Asian species (U. macrocarpa, U. parvifolia, U. pumila), an Asian hybrid (U. 'Sapporo Autumn Gold'), and the European field elm (U. minor). Our primary focus has been on the U. davidiana complex. We have selected a tree that will serve as the seed parent. It has an attractive form and relatively petite stature, along with somewhat glossy and predation-free foliage in the summer. We also continue to expand the program, particularly with work on the lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia). In 1996, Ware published two short articles in Landscape Plant News regarding this Asian species. He had participated in a USDAsponsored research exchange trip to China led by Eugene Smalley from the University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ware and four American colleagues joined Smalley in the fi eld to collect seed and determine the natural range of U. parvifolia. They were also very much focused on building relationships with Chinese researchers. Ware considered this elm species to be an especially promising selection for built environments of the South due to its broad adaptability to heat, fl ooding and drought, hostile soils, and both humid and arid conditions. However, he also noted that it would not perform well in northern states due to limited cold hardiness. Today, lacebark elms have demonstrated some hardiness with proper site selection. At the Morton Arboretum, seventeen individuals of this species (along with three cultivars and three unnamed hybrids) have survived multiple polar vortexes. I have also witnessed the lacebark elm growing and thriving from North Carolina to New York City and Las Vegas to New Orleans. This widespread adaptability, however, is accompanied by legitimate concerns about weediness. Even though the lacebark elm has not been widely planted in the Midwest, it is already listed as a weed of concern in Wisconsin. Colleagues at public gardens in other regions have expressed similar apprehensions about the species. This concern has led us to develop a new elm improvement project at the Morton Arboretum focused on developing selections with reduced fertility. Breeders have long used methods of mutation breeding to develop seedless plants. The most commonly known examples include the seedless watermelon and banana. These were developed through a traditional breeding method referred to as interploidy hybridization. Ploidy is the number of complete sets of chromosomes found in the cells of an organism. Humans typically carry two sets of chromosomes (diploid)\u2014 STERLING MORTON LIBRARY A young Accolade elm represents the success of Ware's vision for tree breeding and introduction. This commercial introduction is now one of more than twenty-six cultivars of Asian elms available in North America. one set inherited from our mother, the other from our father. A plant, however, can carry many more sets of chromosomes within its cells. Having three sets of chromosomes (triploid) often causes issues in reproduction due to the odd number of chromosomes that cannot segregate evenly during meiosis. To develop a triploid, a breeder must hybridize a diploid and a tetraploid (four sets of chromosomes). Tetraploids can be developed through the application of chemical mutagens known as mitotic spindle fiber inhibitors. (One such chemical is colchicine, a toxic compound found in the autumn crocus, Colchicum autumnale.) We currently have several tetraploid lacebark elms, but now we must wait for them to mature. Once these trees have reached maturity, we will hybridize them with diploids in our collections that are reasonably cold hardy. Meanwhile, from the Ulmus crassifolia seed that Ware deposited in the Morton Arboretum collections in 1968, we have selected a tree with a remarkably symmetrical and pyramidal form that has survived severe winters and flooding events unscathed. We are building numbers of rooted cuttings to grow in evaluation blocks, inoculate with DED, and distribute to partners for evaluation around the country. Additionally, both this species and the lacebark elm are fallflowering species. Considering they are windpollinated and not self-compatible, we have begun collecting open-pollinated seed from our cedar elm selection and an adjacent lacebark elm, and we plan to evaluate the resulting seedlings. According to a paper published by USDA researcher Frank Santamour in 1973, not only are the two species compatible, but the lacebark elm confers increased DED resistance to its hybrid progeny. As Ware noted in his 1987 New York Times interview, the Morton Arboretum's effort to develop new trees for the American landscape has been focused on traditional breeding efforts. These slow and steady methods have required several decades, spanning multiple careers. Yet, the value in Ware's approach to breeding and outreach is evident in today's nursery catalogs and landscape. Once there were monocultures of American elm planted across the country in the built landscapes of cities and suburbs, but today the monocultures have been replaced with DED-resistant Asian elms. This diversity includes more than thirteen cultivars of elms from the Ulmus davidiana complex, in addition to at least thirteen cultivars of U. parvifolia. Many more selections of various species are still in the pipeline from academic and commercial breeding programs around the country. Through tenacity and vision, George Ware managed to inspire the nursery industry to adopt a new crop and introduce an unfamiliar Asian elm species to the North American landscape. The work has resulted in further diversification of our tree palette. It all began with the original Thornhill Elm, distributed to the Morton Arboretum by the Arnold Arboretum almost a century ago. Now, this very selection graces the landscape of the city of Boston, having come full circle in its journey from seed to cultivated tree. References Chicagoland Grows. 2017. The Morton Arboretum Elms. Plant Release Bulletin (no. 44). http:\/\/ www.chicagolandgrows.org\/downloads\/ MortonArboretumElms.pdf King, S. S. 1971, September 7. Dutch elm disease spreads westward. New York Times, 45. Malcolm, A. H. 1987, November 1. Fighting elm disease the natural way. New York Times, 9. Myers, D. F. and G. A. Strobel. 1983. Pseudomonas syringae as a microbial antagonist of Ceratocystis ulmi in the apoplast of American elm. Transactions of the British Mycological Society, 80(3): 389-394. https:\/\/doi.org\/10.1016\/ S0007-1536(83)80034-5 Santamour, F. S., Jr. 1973. Resistance to Dutch elm disease in Chinese elm hybrids. Plant Disease Report 57(12): 997-999. Schneider, K. 1987, September 4. Tearful scientist halts gene test. New York Times, A1, A11. Ware, G. H. 1980a. Little-known Asian elms: Urban tree possibilities. Journal of Arboriculture, 6: 197-199. Ware, G. H. 1980b. In search of new kinds of elms. Journal of Arboriculture, 6: 233-237. Ware, G. H. 1996a. Notes on elms observed on a trip to China. Landscape Plant News, 7(10): 4-6. Ware, G. H. 1996b. New elms for urban landscapes. Landscape Plant News, 7(10): 6-8. Kim Shearer is the tree and shrub breeder at the Morton Arboretum, where she is also manager of the Daniel P. Haerther Charitable Trust New Plant Development Program and woody plant liaison for Chicagoland Grows. George Ware 47 \u222b"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Temperate Cousin: Leitneria floridana","article_sequence":7,"start_page":48,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25735","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25e8526.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Enzenbacher, Tiffany","article_content":"\"Stop! We're here!\" directed Kea Woodruff, who was navigating from the passenger seat of our rented vehicle. Woodruff was then the Arnold Arboretum's plant growth facilities manager. We were on day three of a 2018 plant-collecting expedition to Arkansas and Oklahoma\u2014part of the Arboretum's Campaign for the Living Collections\u2014and we were driving up Highway 62 in northeastern Arkansas, approaching the Missouri border. Months prior, we reached out for guidance on our Ozark-specific taxa list to the Arkansas National Heritage Commission. They provided an account of a particular population of corkwood (Leitneria floridana), a rare shrub sparsely endemic to the southeastern United States. We dropped a Google pin on the approximate location of their 2003 description and hoped that no habitat loss occurred between then and October 2018. I steered onto the shoulder, and we began scouring the nearby flora as traffic whizzed by. After what seemed like only a moment, Woodruff pointed to a promising-looking stand. \"Wait,\" she inquired, \"isn't that it?\" Corkwood is a striking plant, and we were able to confirm it in short order. It is monotypic (the only species in its genus) and is in a mostly tropical family, Simaroubaceae. The most well-known and recognizable temperate member is the tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), a noxious urban weed. The noninvasive, but just as conspicuous, corkwood typically grows five to ten feet tall\u2014although it can reach up to twenty feet. It is adorned with elliptic olive-green leaves that are glossy, leathery, and crowded toward branch tips. The common name derives from the buoyancy of the wood. It is one of the lightest woods known and has been used to float fishing nets. The bark is a deep reddish-brown with lenticels. Corkwood is content to sucker and form thickets, particularly in its ideal environment: forested swamps and flooded soils. The Arboretum's inaugural corkwood plants (accession 5336) arrived from botanist Benjamin Franklin Bush, who sent plants in 1894, just two years after he had first documented the species in southeastern Missouri. (The species had been named, in 1860, by Alvan Wentworth Chapman, based on populations in the estuary of Florida's Apalachicola River.) The plants prospered along Meadow Road, in a location affectionately known as \"Leitneria swamp,\" where water accumulates and persists throughout most of the year. Eventually, this accession became indistinguishable from other corkwoods that were planted around 1970, and the mixed planting was given a new accession number (244-97). Plants from Taylor County, Florida, were later added to the location (accessions 29-96 and 30-96). The species is near threatened in the wild and remains in several Florida and Texas counties abutting the Gulf, and a few inland ones in Arkansas, Georgia, Mississippi, and Missouri. Woodruff and I were determined not to let several feet of muck act as a deterrent. I repurposed two herbarium voucher bags as waders and bounded in. As we had anticipated, we found no fruit. The olive-sized brown drupes are borne in clusters of two to four near branch tips, below the foliage. Corkwood is dioecious, having separate male and female plants. Flowers are axillary catkins approximately one-anda- half inches long. This colony could have been a single sex, or perhaps voracious critters beat us to the fruit. Plan B consisted of combing for small suckers. We dug three, which we bagged and labeled as puzzled drivers drove past. From there, we continued to the nearest FedEx location, where we were grateful for the kindness of strangers. After we explained that we hailed from Boston and were in the midst of an expedition, the store clerks were keen to facilitate packaging in the tallest boxes they had available. The plants arrived the next day at the Dana Greenhouse, where they were potted and catalogued (accession 278-2018). In April 2020, the three individuals were planted in the seep on Bussey Hill\u2014this time a location distinct from any others. I hope these plants will colonize the seep over the next decade, just as the original collection has done to the Leitneria swamp. Tiffany Enzenbacher is the manager of plant production at the Arnold Arboretum. A Temperate Cousin: Leitneria floridana Tiffany Enzenbacher"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25698","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270ab6e.jpg","title":"2021-78-4","volume":78,"issue_number":4,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Building a Comprehensive Plant Collection","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25720","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24e816c.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Carstens, Jeffrey D.","article_content":"Building a germplasm collection can take years or, more realistically, even multiple careers to assemble. The United States National Plant Germplasm System has nineteen stations around the country, and the goal is to acquire, conserve, evaluate, and distribute genetically diverse plant material. As a genebank curator at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station in Ames, Iowa, I'm responsible for managing collections of woody plants like ashes (Fraxinus) and chokeberries (Aronia), and also herbaceous plants. The collections arise from plant exploration by staff members (I typically make at least five collection trips per year), through exchange with other genebanks or public gardens, or by specific arrangements between a curator and an independent collector. The latter became more important than ever in 2020, as the coronavirus pandemic restrictions prevented normal travel. One of our most notable collections from this unusual season occurred in the mountains of northeastern Tennessee. The story, however, began in June of 2018, when I sent an email to Roger McCoy, the director of the Tennessee Division of Natural Areas, looking for contacts in eastern Tennessee who might be able and willing to collect native Monarda species. Monarda, or the bee balms, is a group of herbaceous plants native to North America and Mexico and is represented by approximately eighteen species. Our Monarda germplasm collection in Ames currently includes fourteen species, represented by 164 accessions. In the last couple of years, we've acquired interesting samples, including three species that were first described by botanists within the past decade: M. luteola, found in northeastern Texas and southwestern Arkansas; M. austroappalachiana, endemic to the Southern Appalachians; and M. brevis, a dwarf, earlyflowering species found in West Virginia and historically in Virginia. McCoy connected me with Marty Silver, a park ranger at Warriors' Path State Park, who graciously volunteered to help. Silver stated he had \"limited botanical skills\" and was simply an \"interested amateur botanist spending spare time in the field in various wild places in Tennessee.\" To ensure initial success, we selected Monarda didyma as the target from eastern Tennessee, since we had no holdings of the species from the region. The species also displays very conspicuous red flowers from July through August and is somewhat ubiquitous in the target area. This would make the plants relatively easy to locate. By the end of August 2018, Silver had documented several flowering patches of M. didyma, and that fall, he returned and successfully collected seed (accession Ames 34356). Despite living approximately an hour away from the sampling site, Silver conducted this travel and exploration on a volunteer basis. As Silver and I communicated after the 2018 collection, he drew my attention to a very thorough floristic survey of the nearby Rocky Fork Tract, written by Foster Levy and Elaine Walker, published in 2016. Silver connected me with Levy, who brought our attention to several Monarda specimens from the area that were labeled M. x media, a taxon that was missing within our germplasm collection. We designated this hybrid as our next target. Monarda x media is of potential interest for development as an ornamental landscape plant. Moreover, when I reviewed the published literature and herbarium specimens, I found a curious backstory for the taxon, suggesting that welldocumented wild collections could also support taxonomic research. The taxon was described over two hundred years ago, in 1809, by the German botanist Carl Ludwig Willdenow, who published the name without the multiplication symbol. The symbol is used to indicate plants of hybrid origin, although it is not required in Building a Comprehensive Plant Collection Jeffrey D. Carstens Facing page: Collaboration is key for developing a plant germplasm collection. A recent seed collection of Monarda x media in northeastern Tennessee is a case in point. PLANT PHOTOS BY MARTY SILVER; SEEDS BY ASHLEY SONNER, USDA ARS NCRPIS Monarda 3 4 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 a taxonomic name nor does authorship change in the event a name is later recognized as a hybrid. While Willdenow's description does not suggest that he recognized this taxon as a hybrid, he nonetheless noted an affinity to M. fistulosa, commonly known as wild bergamot. By 1901, Merritt Fernald, a botanist at Harvard, described observing numerous intermediate forms of M. media, making separation from M. fistulosa difficult. Currently, Monarda x media is recognized as a variable group of plants with intermediate characteristics of M. didyma and either M. fistulosa or M. clinopodia or both. These numerous intermediate forms may stem from the various hybrid combinations, and thus, the name M. x media should ultimately be assigned to a specific combination (for instance, M. didyma crossed with M. clinopodia), with new names given to each of the others. Surprisingly, Willdenow did not designate a type herbarium specimen, which could make it more difficult to determine which combination should, in fact, retain the original name. To correctly sample true-to-type specimens of Monarda x media in nature, Silver would need to mark populations in bloom, since M. clinopodia\u2014a white-flowered species\u2014and M. didyma are often found nearby; sometimes they are even intermixed with M. x media. This raises an interesting question about whether M. x media plants are stable in nature or whether they require the parents to constantly resupply them. Despite subsequent discussion about conducting reconnaissance and sampling for M. x media in 2019, Silver had other projects that left no time to acquire samples. The following year, as implications of the coronavirus pandemic were becoming clear, I followed up by asking about the possibility of sampling a Monarda x media population. Silver quickly replied, \"I am much more out and about in the field (outside and distanced) these days. If pointed in the right direction, I'll be glad to try and find populations within my limited taxonomic skills.\" While the pandemic quickly resulted in travel cancellations and restrictions (out of state, not to mention out of the country) across many agencies, Silver saw being in the field as an opportunity to be completely distanced while regaining a sense of normalcy. Using Levy's herbarium vouchers, we identified a total of three potential sites, but since the specimens were described from a broad geographic area, their relocation was going to be challenging. A few weeks later, Silver reported finding Monarda x media while on a hike on his day off. His hike to get to these populations was three and a half miles (one way) with an elevation climb of over two thousand feet. He took notes, GPS coordinates, and photos. Making the hike once again in the fall, Silver relocated the five previously flagged flowering patches, but one patch had been completely destroyed and another patch was nearly decimated due to human disturbance. He collected seeds from the available patches and then shipped them to Iowa. I assigned them an accession number (Ames 35579) and deposited them into the repository's freezer, which maintains the seeds at 0\u00b0F (-18\u00b0C). This collection will be periodically monitored for viability, and when germination falls below a critical level, it will be regenerated using controlled pollination techniques ensuring the preservation of the genetic profile for the future. Since Silver sampled each clonal patch separately along with appropriate plant descriptions, the collections will be important resources for future research (including ecogeographic and phylogenetic studies). The collections might also be useful for selecting superior genotypes for the nursery industry. Having one collection of this taxon is, of course, only a start\u2014additional samples are desired. Yet Silver's collections demonstrate the critical importance of local assistance while assembling a comprehensive germplasm collection, especially given the amount of time and effort required to acquire even a single collection. In the end, I'll never forget Silver humbly labeling himself as an \"amateur botanist with limited taxonomic skills,\" as his Monarda x media collection is one of the most exciting, well-documented samples of Monarda that I've accessioned in my nearly twenty-year career. Jeffrey D. Carstens is the curator for woody and herbaceous plants at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Conservation SOS: Polygonum hickmanii","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25721","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24e856f.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Forbes, Holly","article_content":"Plants with less-than-showy flowers tend to get overlooked, even by some of the sharpest botanists. When a plant is only a few centimeters tall and flowers later in the season than its more eye-catching neighbors, it can be even easier to miss. The Scotts Valley polygonum (Polygonum hickmanii) is a case in point. This tiny species was first described in 1995 and was already very rare. It occurs in a limited urban area in Scotts Valley, near Santa Cruz, California, where it is under pressure from development. Only 2,100 plants were observed in 1997, and in 2003, the United States Fish and Wildlife Service listed it as endangered under the federal Endangered Species Act. As the curator of the University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley, I work with the national Center for Plant Conservation and a coalition called California Plant Rescue. Each year we make an ambitious plan for conservation fieldwork in the greater San Francisco Bay Area, and for 2020, we planned a packed calendar. Most of our fieldwork was derailed by the restrictions put in place to limit the spread of COVID-19, especially given the timing of the restrictions. Annuals and herbaceous perennials on California's Central Coast tend to have a short spring cycle of growth and seed set. By the time permission was given to be in the field for just day trips, seeds had already set and been dispersed for many species. Scotts Valley polygonum, in contrast, is an annual wildflower that typically starts to germinate in December, flower from May to August, and set seeds in August. The species is now known to occur on less than an acre of A Conservation SOS: Polygonum hickmanii Holly Forbes DAVID GREENBERGER In recent years, the endangered Scotts Valley polygonum (above) has been observed in only one wild population. FORBES, H. 2021. A CONSERVATION SOS: POLYGONUM HICKMANII. ARNOLDIA, 78(3): 5-6 6 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 private land adjacent to a new housing development. The development company established a conservation easement to protect Scotts Valley polygonum and another endangered species, Scotts Valley spineflower (Chorizanthe robusta var. hartwegii). Both species are in the buckwheat family (Polygonaceae). In 2015, no Scotts Valley polygonum were found at this site, and it wasn't until 2020 that the number of plants went above four hundred, less than 25 percent of the population observed in 1997. In the past, Scotts Valley polygonum has been documented at two nearby locations, but no specimens have been observed there in recent years. One of these locations is a special ecological preserve adjacent to Scotts Valley High School, where the polygonum has not been observed since 2015. The site is fenced and managed to support the species, but we have limited hope it will reappear on its own. When my colleagues and I could finally return to the field, pandemic protocols required all participants to travel solo in vehicles and to maintain at least a six-foot distance from one another when working at the sites. I was fortunate to work with two other botanists, Kathy Lyons and Jaymee Marty, at the easement site on August 7. We declared ourselves free of COVID-19 symptoms and signed liability waivers for the landowner. The plants occupied an area of less than forty square feet, scattered across an undulating grassland. We worked for hours on hands and knees making a modest seed collection from the less than five hundred plants\u2014all that is left in the world. As we collected the tiny seeds from the plants (removing only a small percentage of the seed set), we remarked on how it almost felt normal to be in the field again, despite the pandemic. Travel restrictions had resulted in a huge reduction in the number of cars on the road, which meant that, as a side benefit, travel between Berkeley and Scotts Valley flowed along at the speed limit, instead of crawling through typical Silicon Valley gridlock. Travel each way took one hour instead of the usual three. A few weeks after our work, the CZU Lightning Complex wildfire in Santa Cruz and San Mateo Counties blackened over eighty-six thousand acres, starting on August 16 and continuing through September 22. The evacuation zone included the two historic polygonum sites. The only extant site, from which the seeds had been collected, was on the margin of the evacuation zone, just across a four-lane highway. It could have easily been different. The fire burned so hot in places that any seeds present in the soil were cooked. During the fire we anxiously checked the maps. It was a great relief to learn that the polygonum sites did not burn. Our purpose for collecting seeds was twofold: first, to create a conservation seed bank as a backup in case the population is lost for any reason, and second, to produce more seeds by growing plants in a nursery environment. This amplification of seed numbers may make it possible both to reestablish the plants at their historic sites and to augment the numbers of plants within the conservation easement. In November, propagator Susan Malisch at the University of California Botanical Garden sowed one-third of the polygonum seeds from our seedbank. As of late January 2021, over 85 percent germination has been observed. Each seed was sown individually to minimize root disturbance when the plants are moved into larger containers. The plants aren't likely to grow larger than six inches tall and perhaps two inches across\u2014giants compared to the plants in habitat, where they are crowded together and typically grow about one and a half inches tall. We look forward to a successful crop of Scotts Valley polygonum in 2021. If all goes as planned, we will have thousands of seeds to use in saving this species from extinction. Wildfires and other threats still pose an incredible risk to the species, but with a robust conservation seedbank and the knowledge of how to grow the plants to reproductive size, we can safeguard its future. Botanists are paying close attention, and Scotts Valley polygonum is no longer overlooked. Next November, we plan to work with the federal Recovery Implementation Team\u2014 a team established by the Fish and Wildlife Service\u2014to place seeds back into the habitat. Holly Forbes is the curator of the University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley. Support for the Scotts Valley polygonum project is provided by the Ventura Office of the United States Fish and Wildlife Service."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Unusual Autumn at the Dana Greenhouses","article_sequence":3,"start_page":7,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25722","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24e8927.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Enzenbacher, Tiffany","article_content":"October was quiet. The headhouse at the Dana Greenhouses was still, except for the dim hum of the radio, a necessity for an almost empty building. In previous years, the same location would have been marked with a cacophony of sounds, the door thrown ajar as Arnold Arboretum plant collectors eagerly arrived to unpack their hard-earned seeds and plants. Sieves and colanders would have rattled against the center worktable as plant production staff removed fruit pulp from each seed, and everyone would be talking about new and exciting acquisitions. Seed cataloging and cleaning is a departmental undertaking, sometimes lasting the entirety of fall and into early winter. This annual activity has occurred at an invigorated level since 2015, when the Arboretum launched the Campaign for the Living Collections, a strategic ten-year initiative to increase the biodiversity and conservation holdings of our living collections by adding nearly four hundred wild-collected taxa that were not already growing in our landscape. As part of the campaign, staff organized and executed as many as five expeditions annually, traveling to locations in northern Idaho, central China, the country of Georgia, and elsewhere. I have participated in two of those expeditions myself: one to the Ozarks and another to northern Illinois and Wisconsin. It was rewarding to engage in the full process, from planning An Unusual Autumn at the Dana Greenhouses Tiffany Enzenbacher The pandemic changed fall and winter routines at the Dana Greenhouses, providing an unplanned reprieve from processing new, wild-collected plant material. Chris Copeland (above) prepares grafts of a plum (Prunus alleghaniensis), one of hundreds of clonal propagations that are completed annually. ENZENBACHER, T. 2021. AN UNUSUAL AUTUMN AT THE DANA GREENHOUSES. ARNOLDIA, 78(3): 7-9 TIFFANY ENZENBACHER 8 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 expedition logistics and obtaining permits to harvesting in the field and then processing seed back at the Dana Greenhouses. The collection that stands out most from my two experiences was of the endangered seaside alder (Alnus maritima ssp. oklahomensis). I collaborated with Kea Woodruff, then the Arboretum's plant growth facilities manager, to collect seed from two plants growing along the Blue River in Tishomingo, Oklahoma. We were guided by local experts. This subspecies of the seaside alder has only been documented in three other locations in the wild, all near the Blue River. (The two other subspecies also have extremely restricted ranges\u2014one occurs in a single location in northwestern Georgia, the other com- When new plant material arrives at the Dana Greenhouses, staff begin a detailed process of record keeping. New innovations have streamlined the process. Sean Halloran (above) readies softwood cuttings and will note rooting observations using a newly developed mobile application in spring. prises scattered populations on the Delmarva Peninsula of Delaware and Maryland.) For me, this collection brought home the purpose of the campaign and the urgency of preserving threatened taxa. In the fall of 2020, however, those collections ceased due to the pandemic. Planned expeditions to China, Japan, and South Korea were postponed. In the headhouse of the Dana Greenhouses, the difference was striking. Only two or three members of the plant production department worked on-site on any given weekday, in an effort to de-densify our workspace and to allow staff to care for children who were completing schoolwork from home. This revised schedule continues into the new year. Other TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Dana Greenhouses 9 nonessential staff are not permitted inside the building. Now, our team hears only the quiet sounds of greenhouse doors opening as we check the facilities, monitor plants for water, and scout for insect pests and diseases. We hear the clatter of containers being placed on potting benches as we prepare to transplant seedlings and the swish of cutting media components being mixed as we get ready for winter hardwood cutting season. We occasionally share the same workspace, but only brief, work-related interactions can take place. Our team meetings are now virtual. The production cycle for plants already in the greenhouses and nurseries has not significantly slowed this year, although the headhouse tables are bare: no collection sheets from the expeditions strewn about, no bags of fermenting berries or cones to go through. During this altered time, as we have continued with usual greenhouse and nursery tasks, the plant production department has had the opportunity to refocus our direction on other activities. We have made enormous strides to integrate our workflows into the Landscape Management System, a new digital tool developed at the Arboretum, which combines horticulture and curation efforts through mobile applications and an internal website. One component of this system, PropManager, will eventually replace the use of handwritten propagation cards, which are used to record treatments and results for propagation attempts, including for seeds that return from expeditions. Currently, when seeds arrive, staff record propagation methods and experiments on these cards. While some seeds can be sown immediately, others must undergo periods of cold or warmth. Others require treatments to weaken the seedcoat: sandpaper or an acidic solution. Data from propagation cards are then entered into BG-BASE, the Arboretum's plant records database. Then, as germination, transplanting, and other events occur, the cards are updated, corresponding data are input into BGBASE, and the cards are refiled into a binder. PropManager will allow us to create a digital \"card\" on a mobile device and record events in real time. We observed how inefficient the physical card system was when Sean Halloran, our plant propagator, had to transport boxes of binders to and from his home as he toggled between remote and on-site work this spring. Our team has also completed work that will help us to map, track, and communicate about plants in our nurseries using additional Landscape Management System tools. Chris Copeland, our greenhouse horticulturist, worked with members of the Landscape Management System team to acquire and upload locations of over 250 nursery plants. Specimens are now visible on a dynamic map, and we can easily picture spatial patterns and adjust maintenance of the next generation of Arboretum plants. Likewise, when horticulture staff inherit a tree after it has been transplanted into the landscape, they can use this new set of tools to determine noteworthy events that transpired during the tree's early life. We are also working with Mike O'Neal, the director of BG-BASE, to analyze information about our repropagation attempts. Each year we duplicate hundreds of historic Arboretum plants through vegetative propagation\u2014a process whereby resulting progeny are genetically identical to the original. Halloran and O'Neal are in the process of creating BG-BASE summary reports. The result will help determine whether the repropagation of a specimen in the landscape is complete. Instead of Halloran spending weeks at his desk writing code and manually sleuthing through BG-BASE tables, he will be able to run a quick query to have access to all the data needed. The scene at the Dana Greenhouse is certainly different than it was in autumn 2019. That year, we processed over 150 seedlots and mailed surplus material to over a dozen collaborating institutions. Yet the unplanned reprieve from receiving campaign material has allowed our plant production team to collaborate on projects that would have otherwise progressed incrementally over multiple years. We are now better equipped than ever and prepared for the onslaught of new seed collected by Arboretum explorers who are eager to be back out in the field. Tiffany Enzenbacher is manager of plant production at the Arnold Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Brief History of Juglandaceae","article_sequence":4,"start_page":10,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25723","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24e896b.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Frei, Jonas","article_content":"When I first encountered butternuts on the ground of the arboretum here in Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland, I was puzzled. The tree these nuts fell from must have died or been felled years ago, so I only had the seeds for identification. This North American species, Juglans cinerea, is rarely seen in European cultivation outside specialized tree collections, and I didn't recognize the ridged, oblong nuts. When I took a few home, they were not easy to identify within books on common park trees. After additional research, however, the butternut aroused my fascination and left me with questions about the whole walnut family (Juglandaceae). I had long been familiar with this group of plants, but the more I read about them, the more I realized that, in fact, I knew so little. Like the butternut, many other members of the walnut family were absent in books that I had at home: hickories (Carya), wingnuts (Pterocarya), and platycarya (Platycarya). As I encountered each new species, new questions arose. After several years of intensive study, my pursuit evolved into a book project, Die Walnuss, which was published (in a German edition) in late 2019. My work with this unique plant family went far beyond scientific analysis; it also involved an artistic exploration of the unique variety of forms of this plant family. I wanted to make the knowledge hidden in scientific papers accessible through a language of drawings and photographs. These different approaches\u2014science and art\u2014offered new ways of observing and understanding the world of walnuts. I live in a region with no native species of this widespread plant family. Here, you can occasionally find the North American eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra) planted as an ornamental tree in parks. The English walnut (Juglans regia) was most likely introduced by the Romans into the northern parts of Europe and can often be found growing as lone specimens on farms. But the number of these solitary trees has declined in the region since the industrialization of agriculture half a century ago. Walnut farms and orchards are relatively new in the Germanspeaking part of Europe, and walnuts bought in grocery stores here mostly originate from France (P\u00e9rigord and Grenoble), the United States (California), or Chile. Members of Juglandaceae, however, were once among the most common trees of alluvial forests in Central Europe. Fossils allow us to look back on a plant family whose greatest diversity and distribution preceded the ice ages in the Paleogene and Neogene. Many species disappeared only a few hundred thousand years ago. I became fascinated by this history. The fossil record reveals a long, slow story of evolution and shifting ranges, and it provides a counterpoint to the story of the family's rapid globalization in recent centuries. Not far from Strasbourg, in the Rhine Valley of France, researchers and fossil collectors have discovered fossilized butternuts, described under the name of Juglans bergomensis. These fossils correspond so closely to the North American butternut that it is hard to find visual differences. The nuts must have fallen into the shallow water and sandy substrate of the Rhine five million years ago, but they still have almost the weight and feel of fresh nuts due to carbonization. In fact, this species had a wide distribution: its fossils have been reported in Italy, the Netherlands, and wider parts of eastern Europe and Russia. Similar fossils dating to the Neogene have been found in Japan and in the southern United States. Fossilized hickory nuts are also present in the Rhine sediments, including those of a widespread fossil taxon called Carya globosa, which is similar in appearance to the water hickory (Carya aquatica). Although all the European hickory species went extinct millions of years ago, A Brief History of Juglandaceae Jonas Frei FREI, J. 2021. A BRIEF HISTORY OF JUGLANDACEAE. ARNOLDIA, 78(3): 10-17 Facing page: The walnut family is best known for nut-bearing species like the English walnut (Juglans regia), pictured here in the Thur Valley of Switzerland, but the family also includes notable wind-dispersed species. ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHOR the nuts look as fresh as if they were only a few years old. Walnut family species with large, animaldispersed fruits are only part of the story. Wingnuts (Pterocarya)\u2014a genus that is now known for six extant species\u2014were once dominant trees here in Central Europe along rivers and in mountain slope forests. These are ancestors of the species we now call the Caucasian wingnut (P. fraxinifolia), which today runs wild in parks and gardens in Central Europe, its root sprouts forming dense stands. Some horticulturists have argued that we should cease planting this species in our gardens, given these invasive tendencies, but based on the fossil record, we could also view the wingnut as a returnee from another era. After all, wingnut leaf fossils in the Stuttgart region were found in sediments of the Holstein interglacial and date back only 325,000 years. The few remaining populations of this once widely distributed species are increasingly threatened in their last refuges in the Caucasus. Wheel wingnuts (Cyclocarya) and platycarya\u2014both unusual wind-dispersed genera now found only in East Asia\u2014are also represented in the fossil records in Europe. The reason the walnut family went extinct in Europe while some species meanwhile survived in North America and East Asia is related to the geographical shape of the continents. Here in Europe, the Alps and the Mediterranean Sea form a barrier for the north-south migration of plant species. In cold periods, trees could survive only in the southernmost corners of Europe; therefore, while in America plant species could migrate according to climate conditions, many European species died out with every cooling and warming. The fossil record indicates that wingnuts survived this back and forth the longest of all Juglandaceae, but in the end, they vanished irretrievably, just like the European magnolias (Magnolia), kiwis (Actinidia), and sweetgum (Liquidambar). Other genera of woody plants, including maples (Acer) and ashes (Fraxinus), are now represented in Europe with only a few species but had much greater diversity before the Pleistocene ice ages that started about two and a half million years ago. The diversity of these genera in Europe was similar to their modern-day representation in North America and Asia. The fossils reveal more than former distributions and long-extinct species\u2014the record also documents how the walnut family evolved from an entirely wind-dispersed family to one with the charismatic nut-bearing species that we know today. Some of the oldest fossils of Juglandaceae fruits originate from the United States. Fruits of a wheel wingnut named Cyclocarya brownii have been found in different sites from the Paleocene, occurring shortly after the K-T boundary, the geologic marker that separated the Cretaceous and Paleogene a good sixty-five million years ago. This event of mass extinction was both the end of the era of dinosaurs and ammonites and the beginning of a new chapter for the walnut family. Cyclocarya looks very typical for early members of the family, especially since its fruits are spread by the wind and not by birds or mam- Fossils document the former abundance of the walnut family in Central Europe, where no members of the family naturally occur today. Hickory (Carya) fossils, shown above, were collected from sediments in the Rhine Valley, close to Strasbourg, France, and are around five million years old. The author's illustrations show both the diversity and beauty of the walnut family: (a) English walnut, Juglans regia; (b) little walnut, J. microcarpa; (c) Japanese wingnut, Pterocarya rhoifolia; (d) Japanese heartnut, J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis; (e) black walnut, J. nigra; (f) butternut, J. cinerea; (g) Arizona walnut, J. major; (h) Platycarya strobilacea; (i) Ma walnut, J. hopeiensis; (j) Manchurian walnut, J. mandshurica; (k) nutmeg hickory, Carya myristiciformis; (l) buart hybrid, J. x bixbyi; (m) Chinese butternut, J. cathayensis; (n) bitternut, C. cordiformis; and (o) Chinese wingnut, Pterocarya stenoptera. mals. Back in Paleocene, some fifty million years ago, mammals only started to specialize in the new ecological niches that became available after the extinction of the dinosaurs. Many other winged walnut species emerged. Some went extinct, but the descendants of others are now populating the tropics of the New and Old World: Oreomunnea in Central and South America, and Engelhardia in Southeast Asia and northern India. It was only with the diversification of mammals, especially squirrels, that some walnut species developed fruits that could be spread by animals. Squirrels and other rodents drove the evolution of Juglandaceae in two different genera: walnuts (Juglans) and hickories (Carya), which evolved within separate lineages. Birds, especially the crow family, likely played a part in the distribution from the beginning as well. Because animals never find all the nuts they stash in their winter storage places, they contributed to the spread of these groups, and evidently, they were quite efficient. Walnuts and hickories spread through North America, Asia, and Europe, populating much of the Northern Hemisphere. In the case of the walnuts, this process must have taken place during the span of about ten million years. The oldest known fossil record of the genus, a species named Juglans clarnensis, was discovered in North America and dates back forty-four million years, while the oldest European specimen of J. bergomensis is around thirty-three million years old. Later, humans helped with the worldwide spread of two major species: the English walnut and the pecan (Carya illinoinensis). Whereas squirrels and crows spread walnuts and hickories on three continents over several million years, humans extended the range of cultivation into all other suitable climatic regions within a few decades. The English walnut (a species of Eurasian origin) and pecan (from the southeastern United States) are now cultivated well outside their native range, including in parts of South America, northern and southern Africa, Australia, and New Zealand. So, the tasty kernels of the walnut became the main reason for this widespread distribution\u2014a process started by squirrels many millions of years before the fossil records prove the evolution of humans. Today, in Central Europe, almost forty species and hybrids of Juglandaceae are cultivated. During my research, I traveled to many parks and arboreta, looking for insight into the diversity of this family. I was driven not only by my scientific interest in Juglandaceae but also by my enthusiasm for the aesthetics of their habits, leaves, and fruits. The readers of my book should be able to make their own journey of discovery through the walnut family, on the tracks I have uncovered with my research. Often, after days of traveling, I would find out that a tree I wanted to visit had been cut down or that a rare species was simply confused with an ordinary, oft-planted one. I created a collection of seeds of all the cultivated species and a leaf herbarium. The collection soon included hundreds of fruits and nuts from different locations in Europe, which made it possible to distinguish between the species and hybrids. Later, the collection became the basis for the illustrations of all species in the individual portraits of the book. These trips through Europe searching for the different species of the walnut family also brought to light the stories of other humans\u2014 botanists and horticulturists\u2014who moved the walnut family all over the world. While I could find many species within a day or two of searching, many researchers spent years traveling through the natural habitats in North America and Asia a few centuries ago. In the time of Carl Linnaeus, only three walnut species were known to European researchers. Besides the English walnut, Linnaeus included the North American butternut and the eastern black walnut in his Species Plantarum, published in 1753. The hickories\u2014especially the Asian species\u2014were documented much later. The genus name Carya was proposed by the English botanist and plant collector Thomas Nuttall, who used the name, in 1818, in his work The Genera of North American Plants. He had borrowed this name from ancient Greek, where karya was a word for walnut. The valid botanical name for a genus or species should always be the one from the first official description, and in this case, Nuttall's proposal wrongly became the namesake of the genus. Ten years earlier, the hickories were described under the name Hicoria by the American polymath Constantine Rafinesque. These circumstances led various scientists to urge for reinstating the earlier name, but the change was never implemented. It would have been a respectful act, not only to honor the scientific rules but also because the Greek word karya refers to the English walnut whereas Hicoria is derived from the Algonquin word for a well-known hickory dish: pocohiquara. That name reveals an obvious fact: these trees have a cultural importance that far predates their scientific documentation. Philipp Franz von Siebold was one of the first Europeans to collect plants in Japan. One of his great collections was Platycarya strobila- The large kernels of walnuts and hickories have inspired animals to disperse the species widely: (a) English walnut (cultivar), Juglans regia; (b) water hickory, Carya aquatica; (c) shellbark, C. laciniosa; (d) Chinese hickory, C. catha- yensis; (e) bitternut, C. cordiformis; (f, g, h) English walnut (cultivars); (i) butternut, J. cinerea; (j) black walnut, J. nigra; (k) Japanese walnut, J. ailantifolia; (l) Japanese heartnut, J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis; and (m) pecan, C. illinoinensis. cea, which was described in 1843. Some botanists initially thought it was a conifer due to its cone-like fruiting structures. In 1844, the famous English plant collector Robert Fortune also found Platycarya in China. Assuming that it was a new, not-yet-described species, he sent herbarium material and seeds to the Royal Horticultural Society in London. John Lindley, the secretary of the society, named the plant after its finder, Fortunaea chinensis, and called the species the most important new find of Fortune. Later, it became known that Siebold had described the species one year earlier, so today the name Fortunaea is only used as a synonym. These scientific explorations\u2014and those of other botanists\u2014made it possible to describe, collect, and, of course, cultivate many of the species as ornamentals and orchard trees. But this era of Siebold and Fortune was not simply a time of great scientific discovery; it was also a time of European colonization, in which the gathering of knowledge on expeditions was often combined with ideological, cultural, and religious imperialism. This movement of plants around the world coincided with violations of ethical standards by European maritime powers and a merciless approach to other cultures. The relatively slow but efficient distribution of Juglandaceae by squirrels and mice seems innocent in comparison. When the walnut family is viewed in the broad sweep of its evolutionary history, the speed of its recent spread is clearly unprecedented. As beautiful as it is to see the worldwide diversity of Juglandaceae close together in many parks today, the globalization of the family has also produced novel threats. As humans moved the walnut family around the world, fungi and pathogens often migrated with the species. In the United States, a fungal disease known as the butternut canker (Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum) has brought the butternut to the brink of disappearance. The fungus, which was once native to Asian walnut species, causes little damage to its original hosts, but it is often fatal to the North American butternut. The thousand cankers disease, meanwhile, is the result of the unfortunate encounter of a fungus (Geosmithia morbida) and a beetle (Pityophthorus juglandis) that formed in the western United States due to the proximity of the eastern black walnuts, cultivated in parks, and natural populations of the Arizona walnut (Juglans major). And the walnut fruit fly (Rhagoletis completa), which once lived inconspicuously on the black walnut species of North America, today spreads quickly in walnut orchards of Europe. Meanwhile, the close planting of related Juglandaceae species leads to the formation of hybrid offspring. This has led to major changes in natural environments, especially in the case of the butternut populations in North America. Many of the butternut trees that can resist the butternut canker also carry the genetic material of Japanese walnuts (Juglans ailantifolia). Resistant hybrids have greater fitness, as they survive and have more offspring, which could be a blessing for the American butternut stocks that survive the strong fungal infestation. On the other hand, conservation of the \"real\" butternut becomes more complicated. This scenario reveals the cascade of unintended but profound environmental consequences of human actions, which cannot be easily resolved. Of course, the walnut family experienced various climatic changes over the past fifty million years and therefore changed its distribution again and again. It is assumed that many of the species we know today are the result of hybridization between different populations that collided after a long separation due to climatic fluctuations and subsequent spread by squirrels and ravens. Genetic studies suggest that the English walnut originated from the hybridization of the black walnuts (section Rhysocaryon) and Asian butternuts (section Cardiocaryon). Also, the American butternut is said to carry some black walnut genes in addition to the genetic material of similar Asian species from the Cardiocaryon section. Given this history, one could say that many walnuts, as a lineage, will adapt to human-made influences, although it is unlikely all of the walnut species we know today will survive the pressure. Recently, in a second-hand bookstore, I found a small booklet titled Die Quaianlagen von Z\u00fcrich, from 1889. The author, botanist Carl Joseph Schr\u00f6ter, planned the tree collection at the arboretum where I first encountered the butternuts that started my interest in this exceptional plant family. He states that a butternut tree was planted in 1887 at exactly the spot where I found the nuts pressed into the soil. Now I know that these nuts, almost like modern-day fossils, are the remains of a nowrare species. The tree was planted long before butternut canker was imported to the United States, and before hybridization with imported species changed its natural populations rapidly. If we did not have our own hands in all the processes that threaten species like the butternut, we could analyze the consequences from a scientific perspective and see with great fascination how some species emerge from this immense pressure and how others disappear, just like during the whole history of this family. But we also have a responsibility towards biodiversity, towards those species that exist now and that enriched the global ecosystem long before the arrival of humans. Today, as the pace of ecological change and movement continues to accelerate, we have to recognize that the story of the walnut family is now entwined with our own. Jonas D. Frei is a landscape architect, documentary filmmaker, illustrator, and author from Z\u00fcrich, Switzerland. The author's book Die Walnuss\u2014currently available in a German-language edition\u2014features drawings, photographs, and descriptions of the walnut family."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Discovering the Majestic Mai Hing Sam of Laos","article_sequence":5,"start_page":18,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25724","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25ea36e.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coffman, Gretchen C.","article_content":"Facing page: The author was the first researcher to document the critically endangered Asian swamp cypress, Glyptostro- bus pensilis, growing in Laos. This old-growth specimen, photographed in 2015, is locally known as the \"mother tree.\" PHOTO BY DAVID MCGUIRE In early April 2007, less than three weeks after submitting my dissertation and receiving my doctorate at the University of California, Los Angeles, I got on a plane headed for Laos. It took four flights and more than twenty hours of flying time to get to the capital city of Vientiane. From there, I was bound for the Annamite Mountains: an eight-hour drive from Vientiane, then onward by truck, hand tractor (tok tok), and boat. The remote Annamite Mountains run 680 miles (1,100 kilometers) along the border between Vietnam and Laos, reaching into northern Cambodia. This range divides the Mekong River Basin to the west from Vietnam's narrow coastal plain to the east. The mountains are home to exceptional biodiversity. After the Vietnam War ended, Laos closed to Westerners, but in the early 1990s, the borders began to open. Biologists began to document fascinating endemic wildlife, some new to science, including the enigmatic saola (Pseudoryx nghetinhensis), a critically endangered bovine that, due to its rarity, has been dubbed the Asian unicorn. Perhaps the most miraculous discovery was that of the endangered Laos rock rat (Laonastes aenigmamus), a rodent identified as a surviving member of a family (Diatomyidae) previously thought to have gone extinct about eleven million years ago.1 Plant biodiversity in this mountain range is exceptionally rich as well, and many new species have been documented.2 When I initially arrived in the foothills, I could not have imagined that I would become part of one of these discoveries: the first biologist to collect samples of the majestic Asian swamp cypress (Glyptostrobus pensilis) growing in the country. This critically endangered species\u2014locally known as mai hing sam\u2014is currently documented in only two other heavily degraded populations, both in Vietnam. The mai hing sam in Laos are the only old-growth specimens in the world, and in recent years, the stands have been increasingly threatened by agricultural development and poaching for the luxury timber market. The protection of the few hundred remaining individuals in Laos has become my mission. Arriving in Laos My journey to the Annamite Mountains had begun four months earlier, when a member of my doctoral committee, Phil Rundel, emailed me with a proposal to work on a project in an especially remote part of Laos. I was immediately intrigued by the biodiversity, and the thought of getting away from my computer days after finishing my dissertation was alluring. Yet, I was hesitant. The opportunity involved working as a restoration ecologist on a World Bank hydropower project. As a wetland and riparian ecologist by training, I had always focused my research and professional work on protecting rivers and streams, not damming them. Rundel encouraged me to research both points of view\u2014pro- and anti-hydropower dam. On my breaks from dissertation writing that winter, I read articles and websites from advocates and opponents (including, among the latter, International Rivers and other nongovernmental organizations). I also corresponded with wildlife biologists who would be working on the project. The work was part of mitigation actions for the Nam Theun 2 Hydropower Project and supported the development of a national park in the reservoir's headwaters. At more than 1,300 square miles (3,500 square kilometers), this protected area is one of the largest remaining contiguous areas of forests on the Indochinese Peninsula.3 Ultimately, I made a pragmatic decision: there was no stopping the dam, but I could work for the wildlife by helping to develop a conservation plan. I would work closely with 20 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 The Annamite Mountains\u2014known for complex topography, geography, and climate\u2014harbor some of the most-contiguous moist forests in Indochina. James Maxwell, a renowned botanist from Chiang Mai University in Thailand, along with a team of wildlife biologists from a multitude of disciplines. Our mission was to assess wetland habitat on the Nakai Plateau\u2014located high within the Annamite Mountains\u2014before it was flooded by the reservoir. We would document the wetland vegetation and develop a wildlife management plan that included the restoration of habitat within an area known as the Nakai- Nam Theun National Protected Area. Little did I know I would be acting as field coordinator once I arrived, a task that I was comfortable with from fifteen years of managing restoration projects in the United States but not nearly as easy in this new landscape and culture. The Discovery The Annamite Mountains contain some of the last relatively intact moist forests in Indochina, unique due to the region's complex geology and climate, and relatively inaccessible due to the steep topography. Initially, working with Maxwell proved extremely difficult. He could not understand why I had been hired on this project, since all my botanical experience was in the United States. He was standoffish and focused on collecting rare wildflowers he encountered. As we settled into the work, however, we bonded. He proved to be an exceptional mentor and friend, and in the years to come, I would stay with Maxwell and his wife in Thailand on multiple occasions. Our standard workdays were reminiscent of my first fieldwork experiences in the hot, humid wetlands of coastal Georgia, where I had grown up. When we arrived in Laos, it was the height of the dry season and unbearably hot in the late afternoons. We started at sunrise to avoid the heat, first eating a bowl of pho, a noodle soup loaded with fragrant mint, crunchy cabbage, long beans, and assorted leathery forest leaves. In the field, we lugged our plant presses everywhere, as everything we collected ASSOCIATION ANOULAK Glyptostrobus 21 The author located Glyptostrobus pensilis within the Nakai-Nam Theun National Park. The discovery was made while assessing wetland habitat and developing a wildlife management plan for the Nam Theun 2 Hydropower Project. ARNOLD ARBORETUM, ESRI, GARMIN, AND GIS COMMUNITY went immediately into the press. The afternoons were sticky and oppressive in the open wetlands. We ended around four o'clock when we couldn't take the heat anymore, giving us time to process our plant specimen and clean up our notes. At that point, the plants went directly from the presses into rice sacks with alcohol for preservation. We surveyed all the herbaceous wetlands across the Nakai Plateau. These wetlands intermingled with rice paddies and were often used as grazing pasture. We began our collections in large, easy to access wetlands on the south side of the Nam Theun River. To guide us, we used paper topographic maps. We then made our way to more forested wetlands and riparian forests, northwest towards the dam site and onward to an area that was nicknamed Thousand Islands because of how the landscape fl ooded during the monsoon rains. From there we continued east, across the river, near the foothills of the Annamite Mountains. The fi rst potential wildlife habitat restoration site we visited was northeast of Thousand Islands, near the Nam Xot tributary to the Nam Theun River. Our colleague Pierre Dubeau, a geospatial scientist who had sited these potential restoration areas, exuberantly walked downstream through the forested wetland toward an area with large wetland grasses (Neyraudia reynaudiana). Maxwell and I followed Dubeau and wildlife biologist Rob Timmins, who was carrying an umbrella in the sprinkling warm afternoon rain. We agreed that this would be a great open location, ideal for wildlife habitat restoration. As we trudged back among a mucky mess of the forested wetland swamp, I stumbled over something and fell to my hands in the soggy soils. I slowly got up, shook off the fall, and investigated what I tripped over. It looked like a pneumatophore\u2014the cypress knees I knew from my childhood in coastal Georgia, where bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) are a dominant feature of the swamps. SOUTH CHINA SEA Mekong River VIETNAM THAILAND LAOS Route 13 A N N A M I T E M O U N TA I N S Nakai-Nam Useun National Park Phou Hin Poun National Biodiversity Conservation Area kongngngngngngn R 25 miles 50 kilometers Nam Useun Reservoir Protected Areas Glyptostrobus 23 Facing page: Forests in the Annamite Mountains are rapidly disappearing due to forestry, agriculture, and hydropower development, along with other causes. Philip Thomas (right) stands beside Glyptostrobus pensilis within a rice paddy. PHOTO BY DAVID MCGUIRE I looked up to find the tree it might be attached to, and sure enough, an enormous conifer towered above me. I looked up at this red-barked giant and saw something wonderfully strange and familiar. It looked like a cross between the bald cypresses that I knew from Georgia and the coastal redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) from California, both members of the cypress family (Cupressaceae). I found several other knees as I walked up to inspect the tree. This, I proclaimed to Maxwell, must be a very special tree! Maxwell, however, like many other tropical botanists, was not as interested in conifers as much as the epiphytes that might grow on them. He thought nothing of it. Meanwhile, I collected the samples of small cones, foliage, and bark of this tree, which I sent to conifer expert Philip Thomas at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, for identification. Documenting the Mai Hing Sam Conifers are dominant or codominant parts of primary- and secondary-growth evergreen forests throughout the Annamite Mountains. In Vietnam, for instance, the mountains host a particularly rich assemblage of thirty-three conifer species, of which the cypress family (Cupressaceae) has seven.4 When I asked people in the neighboring Lao communities about the enormous tree that I had encountered, they provided a name: mai hing sam. Mai means \"tree,\" hing is a modifier for the kind of tree, and sam means \"swamp,\" or what ecologists would describe as a forested wetland. As it turned out, the mai hing sam was, indeed, special. When Philip Thomas replied to my email, he identified the species as Glyptostrobus pensilis (known as the Asian swamp cypress), which the International Union for Conservation of Nature has classified as critically endangered.5 In 2007, the scientific community was aware of only 250 individuals of this species in the wild in Vietnam, where most were spindly, unhealthy young trees, growing in two small stands in the middle of coffee and corn plantations. Other stands in China were presumably planted.6 Due to its rot-resistant wood, Glyptostrobus pensilis is highly sought after in the luxury timber market and is used for a variety of structural and boat-building uses by local communities. It is threatened (like so many endangered species) by illegal logging. As I learned more about the two populations in Vietnam, I realized how remarkable the mai hing sam in Laos really were. The trees in Vietnam grew very close together and, like those in China, appeared like they could have been planted. Boardwalks had been built within the stands to get around. Dams located beneath each of the stands were used for agricultural irrigation and raised the water levels for the trees significantly. In contrast, the trees that we observed in Laos were erect and widely spaced, as expected for a wild population. The crowns of the mai hing sam in Laos were only found in the top third of the trees, with no limbs below for us to climb to the seed-bearing cones. In the Vietnam population, perennial and annual branchlets were numerous along the main bole, appearing to be epicormic growth. This form suggests that the trees in Vietnam were responding to stress from inundation. Also, some of the trees in Vietnam were cut down years ago and had resprouted.7 I immediately told my colleagues about the mai hing sam discovery so that we could develop a strategy to describe and protect this stand. I also informed the Nam Theun 2 Power Company (NTPC) of the discovery and asked to spend time describing the tree and its ecology and to have a surveyor document their elevation relative to the proposed reservoir footprint. I was not allowed time to document this stand properly, however, and I was only able to record the number and size of the trees and basic soil characteristics. There were approximately one hundred trees in the stand, and many were three feet in diameter at breast height. We only had very rough elevation information from our GPS units, but it was clear that the trees\u2014along with many others that we were unable to document\u2014would likely be within the reservoir footprint. In desperation to protect these rare trees, I contacted the Nam Theun 2 Panel of Experts, an audit group that was in charge of assessing 24 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 the environmental and socioeconomic impacts of the dam, during their visit to the Nakai Plateau in August 2007. One of the members, the American conservation biologist Lee Talbot, joined me on a tour of this newly discovered mai hing sam stand. Nothing seemed to come of the visit, however, and unfortunately, I didn't find anything about the trees in the panel's next report.8 I proposed to my contacts at NTPC to collect as many seeds as possible and try to propagate and grow more trees. NTPC thought it was a great idea and gave us the go-ahead. Developing a Restoration Protocol At the time, mai hing sam had never been successfully propagated from wild-collected seed. As a result, several critical facts about restoration protocol were unknown to scientists: What time of the year do the seeds mature in the mountains of Laos? How long is their seed viable? Do they produce seeds every year? Did we need to treat the seeds before sowing them? Under what conditions would they propagate and survive? What we did know was that all conifer seeds are wind dispersed, so we hypothesized that their dispersal is probably connected to the windy part of the year, which occurs toward the end of the monsoon season. Our first challenge was logistical: how would we collect seeds from cones high in the canopies, sometimes one hundred or more feet high. Maxwell\u2014who, by this point, had returned to Thailand where he lived\u2014often hired local tree climbers to make collections. But this method requires low branches or woody vines growing up the trunk, as the climbers do not use any specialized equipment. We put our heads together and came up with an unusual plan. We placed large tarps under the trees and hired boys with slingshots to shoot rocks up into the canopies of the trees so that the seeds would fall onto the tarps. We tried this method, and miraculously it worked. We got thousands of cones and hundreds of thousands of minute winged seeds. The next challenge was to clean and propagate the seeds. This process was not managed by a conifer expert like Philip Thomas, as I had hoped. Rather, NTPC hired a commercial contractor to propagate the seeds in a local nursery. The contractor had no familiarity with this sensitive species, and only twelve seedlings germinated. Of those, only four grew to maturity. In restoration and horticultural propagation, this rate is not considered successful, but it was a start. In 2008, NTPC planted the four trees at the confluence of two small streams behind the house occupied by the director of the Watershed Management and Protection Authority. This area was somewhat protected and easy to monitor, although soil characteristics were not similar to the natural conditions of the peat swamps in which the trees naturally grew. In 2015, when I first observed these trees, they were about six feet in height, and on my last expedition, in January 2020, they had reached over sixteen feet. The key to the survival of these four trees, I believe, was sustained high soil moisture during their establishment period and protection using sturdy exclusion fencing to fend off the cattle and water buffalo that munch on the succulent foliage. Threats to Wetland Habitat and Endangered Species After my contract was completed in 2009, I returned to California, where I became an assistant professor at the University of San Francisco. I vowed to go back to look for more mai hing sam in the Nakai-Nam Theun National Protected Area. Southeast Asia is experiencing rapid habitat loss, biodiversity declines, and risk of species extinction primarily due to unsustainable harvesting of forest resources and conversion for agriculture. Lack of enforcement and pressure to develop rice paddies has led to the decline of wetland habitat and continued poaching in the protected areas.9 Nearly every species of softshell turtle, terrapin, or tortoise is threatened with extinction. Populations of exceptionally rare species, such as the saola, are too low and fragmented to be viable.10 Considering these threats, I knew that we needed to mount a concerted effort to document and conserve mai hing sam in the region. Phil Rundel, who had first encouraged me to participate in the project in Laos, recommended that I apply for National Geographic funding. I spent two years getting collaborators on board Glyptostrobus 25 In 2015, the author partnered with other researchers and local collaborators to locate more than six hundred previously undocumented Glyptostrobus in the Nakai-Nam Theun National Park. The author (at right) measures tree height using a clinometer, and a tree climber ascends to the upper canopy. and finding out from contacts if there were any other trees in the national protected area. Maxwell and I corresponded regularly during this period. Likewise, Philip Thomas was a huge source of support and encouragement. Finally, in the spring of 2014, my collaborators and I received funding, and we went on to get permits and work on the expedition plan that summer. With the help of National Geographic funding, we were able to document more than six hundred other mai hing sam between ten and thirty miles from the original stand. These plants occurred in the newly renamed Nakai- Nam Theun National Park, an area that has been under the management of the Watershed Management and Protection Authority since 2005. The trees in the oldest stand are more than three feet in diameter at chest level and five hundred to more than one thousand years old. Many of them are over six feet in diameter, and the largest is over ten feet. (We recorded 11.2 feet\u20143.4 meters\u2014but it's difficult to get the measuring tape behind all the woody vines and strangler figs on the trunk.) The neighboring communities call the largest tree the \"mother tree.\" It is more than 138 feet (42 meters) in height. We believe it could be two thousand years old, but it is not the tallest tree: that claim goes to one we documented at 184 feet (56 meters) tall. While these trees are protected in the park, illegal activities still occur. Sometime between September 2015 and February 2016, two hundred mai hing sam were logged, leaving the PHOTOS BY DAVID MCGUIRE 26 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 GRETCHEN C. COFFMAN total known population at approximately four hundred individual trees. This event was deeply upsetting, especially because, as I later learned, the individuals responsible were aware of the conservation importance. The Laos government took the event seriously and not only arrested the local Lao poachers but aggressively pursued the company in Vietnam that had hired them. Fortunately, the neighboring communities protected the mother tree from the poachers. Another factor that might have contributed to its protection is that the oldest trees are often hollow at the base, much like coast redwoods in California. The younger trees have solid trunks that are more desirable to poachers. This event shifted our project's goals and objectives to focus on community-based restoration program and to identify and protect other unknown stands in the region. Each November, between 2017 and 2020, we collected seeds from the remaining stands. In the first two years, we propagated two thousand seedlings; however, many of these did not survive. We have learned a lot about propagation from these trials, and our team is actively developing improved propagation and planting techniques to restore stands of the mai hing sam in strategic areas of the watershed. We are excited to collaborate with colleagues in Vietnam and China to restore populations there as well. The urgency is clear: after the poaching occurred, the government intervened before the logs were removed from the forest. Some of the fallen trees were more than a thousand years old, and now those trunks remain as warnings on the forest floor. With these threats in mind, our work continues, sustained by the promise of the small seedlings. Endnotes: 1 To learn more about recently documented mammal species in the Annamite Mountains: Dawson, M. R., Marivaux, L., Li, C., Beard, K. C., and Metais, G. 2006. Laonastes and the \"lazarus effect\" in recent mammals. Science, 311(5766): 1456-1458. doi:10.1126\/ science.1124187; MacKinnon, J. 2000. New mammals in the 21st century? Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 87(1): 63-66. doi:10.2307\/2666208 2 Recent botanical discoveries in the Annamite Mountains include many new orchid species. Also, Brendan Buckley, from Columbia University, documented remarkable old-growth specimens of another cypress family species, Fokienia hodginsii, growing in Vietnam's Bidoup Nui Ba National Park. The oldest specimens he found are more than twelve hundred years old, and the tree-ring data have supported Brendan's research on long-term climate change in the region, including primary evidence for the fall of the Angkor civilization. Sano, M., Buckley, B. M. and Sweda, T. 2009. Tree-ring based hydroclimate reconstruction over northern Vietnam from Fokienia hodginsii: eighteenth century mega-drought and tropical Pacific influence. Climate Dynamics, 33: 331-340. doi.org\/10.1007\/s00382-008-0454-y 3 Robichaud, W. G., Marsh, C. W., Southammakoth, S., and Khounthikoummane, S. 2001. Review of the National Protected Area System of Lao PDR. Vientiane, Lao PDR: Lao-Swedish Forestry Programme, Department of Forestry and IUCN; Scudder, T. 2020. A retrospective analysis of Laos's Nam Theun The author (right) plants a Glyptostrobus seedling on National Tree Planting Day in May 2019. More than one hundred Laos government officials participated in the event, including Axay Vongkhamsao, head of the environmental division at NTPC (left); Khamthone Vongphachanh (center); and Thong Eth Phayvanh (second from right), the deputy general director of the Department of Forestry and director of the Watershed Management and Protection Authority. 7 It is interesting to note that pneumatophores of the trees in Vietnam measure about 2 feet (0.6 meters) tall on average, similar to those in Laos; however, the pneumatophores were more abundant in Laos, sometimes numbering dozens per tree and usually much shorter. 8 McDowell, D., Scudder, T., and Talbot, L. M. 2007. Twelfth Report of the International Environmental and Social Panel of Experts for the Nam Theun 2 Hydro Project. Vientiane: Lao People's Democratic Republic. 9 For more on the environmental threats in Southeast Asia: Hughes, A. C. 2017. Mapping priorities for conservation in Southeast Asia. Biological Conservation, 209: 395-405. doi:10.1016\/j. biocon.2017.03.007; Sodhi, N., Posa, M., Lee, T., Bickford, D., Koh, L., and Brook, B. 2010. The state and conservation of Southeast Asian biodiversity. Biodiversity and Conservation, 19(2): 317-328. doi:10.1007\/s10531-009-9607-5; Nooren, H., and Claridge, G. 2001. Wildlife trade in Laos: The end of the game. Gland, Switzerland: IUCN-The World Conservation Union; Appanah, S., Shono, K., and Durst, P. B. 2015. Restoration of forests and degraded lands in Southeast Asia. Unasylva, 66(245): 52-62. 10 For more on conservation of the saola: Tilker, A., Long, B., Gray, T. N. E., Robichaud, W., Van Ngoc, T., Vu Linh, N., Holland, J., Shurter, S., Comizzoli, P., Thomas, P., Ratajszczak, R. and Burton, J. 2017. Saving the saola from extinction. Science (American Association for the Advancement of Science), 357(6357): 1248. doi:10.1126\/science.aap9591 The map in this article was created using Esri, USGS, USFS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, lntermap and the GIS user community. Gretchen C. Coffman is a wetland restoration ecologist and a senior lecturer at the National University of Singapore. She teaches wetland restoration ecology, biogeography, applied ecology, and research methods in physical geography. From 2010 to 2019, she taught field ecology courses in the Environmental Science Department, the Masters of Science in Environmental Management program, and the Environmental Studies program at the University of San Francisco. Dedication I dedicate this manuscript to the late James Maxwell (1945-2015). He was an intrepid botanist, fervent collector, a character like no other, exemplar taxonomy mentor, and trusted friend. Glyptostrobus 27 GRETCHEN C. COFFMAN James Maxwell in 2007 2 Dam. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 36(2-3): 351-370. doi:10.1080\/079006 27.2019.1677456 4 Of the thirty-three conifer species documented in the Annamite Mountains in Vietnam, thirteen are members of the pine family (Pinaceae). The cypress and yellowwood families (Cupressaceae and Podocarpaceae, respectively) include seven species each. The yew family (Taxaceae) has five species, and the plum yews (Cephalotaxaceae) have one. In particular, the Da Lat Plateau in central Vietnam has sixteen species of conifers, representing the highest conifer diversity in Indochina. Ninety percent of these, however, are nationally threatened. Loc, P. K., The, P. V., Long, P. K., Regalado, J., Averyanov, L. V., and Maslin, B. 2017. Native conifers of Vietnam\u2014A review. Pakistan Journal of Botany, 49(5): 2037-2068. 5 While Glyptostrobus has few extant populations, the genus has existed for more than one hundred million years, dating back to at least the middle Cretaceous, and was once quite abundant. Fossils of the genus can be found across all of Asia and North America and as far north as Axel Heiberg Island in the Arctic. See: Greenwood, D. R., and Basinger, J. F. 1994. The paleoecology of high-latitude Eocene swamp forests from Axel Heiberg Island, Canadian High Arctic. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology, 81(1): 83-97. doi:10.1016\/0034-6667(94)90128-7; Vickulin, S. V., Ma, Q. W., Zhilin, S. G., and Li, C. S. 2003. On cuticular compressions of Glyptostrobus europaeus (Taxodiaceae) from Kaydagul Formation (Lower Miocene) of the Central Kazakhstan. Acta Botanica Sinica, 45(6): 673-680; Jahren, A. H. 2007. The Arctic forest of the middle Eocene. Annual Review Earth Planetary Science, 35: 509-540. 6 To read more about the stands in Vietnam and China, see: Averyanov, L., Phan, K., Nguyen, T., Nguyen, S., Nguyen, T., and Pham, T. 2009. Preliminary observation of native Glyptostrobus pensilis (Taxodiaceae) stands in Vietnam. Taiwania, 54(3): 191-212. doi:10.6165\/ tai.2009.54(3).191; Tang, C. Q., Yang, Y., Momohara, A., Wang, H.-C., Luu, H. T., Li, S., Song, K., Qian, S., LePage, B., Dong, Y.-F., Han, P.-B., Ohsawa, M., Le, B. T., Tran, H. D., Dang, M. T., Peng, M.-C., and Wang, C.-Y. 2019. Forest characteristics and population structure of Glyptostrobus pensilis, a globally endangered relict species of southeastern China. Plant Diversity, 41(4): 237-249. doi.org\/10.1016\/j.pld.2019.06.007; Wu, X., Ruhsam, M., Wen, Y., Thomas, P. I., Worth, J. R., Lin, X., Wang, M., Li, X., Chen, L., Lamxay, V. Le Canh, N., and Coffman, G. C. 2020. The last primary forests of the Tertiary relict Glyptostrobus pensilis contain the highest genetic diversity. Forestry: An International Journal of Forest Research, 93(3): 359- 375. doi:10.1093\/forestry\/cpz063; Li, F. G., and Xia, N. H. 2004. The geographical distribution and cause of threat to Glyptostrobus pensilis (Taxodiaceae). Journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany, 12(1): 13-20."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Backyard Climate Solutions","article_sequence":6,"start_page":28,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25725","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25ea726.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Faison, Edward K.","article_content":"Carbon dioxide levels in the Earth's atmosphere stand today at 415 parts per million, which is significantly higher than concentrations have reached for at least the past eight hundred thousand years. Throughout this time, levels oscillated between 180 and 280 parts per million, until the mid-nineteenth century, when they began an inexorable rise. By the end of the century, if business as usual continues, carbon dioxide levels could be higher than at any time in the past fifty million years.1 Like many other concerned citizens, I have wondered what one person can possibly do to help stem the rise of carbon dioxide levels, warming temperatures, and accompanying species extinctions that characterize our Earth in the twenty-first century. Carbon is a twopart problem: we must simultaneously reduce combustion emissions and increase the removal of atmospheric carbon dioxide. As an individual, I can take action to reduce emissions (use more efficient LED bulbs, drive a more efficient car less often, use airplanes sparingly), but what about the other side of the equation? I have increasingly come to recognize that, as a landowner, the way I steward the vegetation on my property can make a difference to both sides of this problem. I live in a small, residential neighborhood in an otherwise rural part of Connecticut. My property comprises a one-and-a-half-acre lot, about two-thirds wooded. The other third includes a yard (where the kids can kick a soccer ball), the house, and a gravel driveway that can accommodate several cars. Plants on my property, like those growing anywhere else, remove carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during photosynthesis and store it as carbon molecules in wood, roots, and leaves\u2014a process known as carbon sequestration. Yet it's surprising to learn just how much carbon dioxide is removed by the Earth's natural vegetation: about 30 percent Backyard Climate Solutions Edward K. Faison of all carbon emitted each year globally. With changes in the way we manage vegetation, this percentage could increase dramatically.2 Trees are key. An acre of temperate grassland and an acre of temperate forest store a similar amount of carbon in the soil, but a forest stores as much as seventeen to twenty times more carbon in the vegetation than does a grassland.3 Compare an acre of forest to an acre of lawn, and the carbon storage disparity is far greater. When we replace natural forest with fields, lawn, and other less-natural land covers (like roads, parking lots, and buildings), not only do we release huge amounts of carbon once stored in the trees into the atmosphere but we also sequester significantly less carbon going forward. The Carbon in My Trees I became curious about the role of my property in sequestering carbon and how much of a difference simple management decisions could make towards this end. How much carbon is stored in the trees on my property? To answer this question, I measured the diameter of every tree at least five inches in diameter at breast height and then used carbon estimation (\"allometric\") equations devised by the United States Forest Service and researchers from Harvard Forest to estimate the total biomass in the trees.4 Plant tissue contains about 45 to 50 percent carbon, so dividing total biomass in half is a good approximation of the carbon storage in the plants.5 The results: 226 trees storing 84.3 tons of carbon total, including a forty-inch-diameter black oak (Quercus velutina) and a red oak (Quercus rubra) of nearly the same dimension. These big oaks comprise less than 1 percent of the trees on my lot but store a remarkable 13 percent of the carbon. The big oaks are not idle reservoirs of carbon either. A healthy red oak forty inches in diameter may add two-tenths of an inch to its trunk FAISON, E. K. 2021. BACKYARD CLIMATE SOLUTIONS. ARNOLDIA, 78(3): 28-37 30 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 diameter each year\u2014an imperceptible increase to even an observant naturalist\u2014but a layer of carbon equal to adding an entire six-inchdiameter tree.6 The amount of carbon stored in the trees across my property is over 50 percent higher than in an average acre and a half of forest in Connecticut.7 The elevated levels can be attributed to the relatively high density of large trees in my woods, for which I have the past owners to thank. In addition to the two large oaks, seven other trees exceed twenty-seven inches in trunk diameter. A typical acre and a half of forest in Connecticut currently contains only one or two trees of this size.8 Ironically, the forest edge associated with residential properties appears to contribute to large tree growth. Trees within one hundred feet of a forest edge (which many of mine are) grow faster and thus are often larger\u2014and store more carbon\u2014than those in a forest interior because of reduced competition for light and greater leaf area.9 Hence, smaller residential properties can be surprisingly important contributors to carbon sequestration. Natural Climate Solutions As a property owner, I have many different options for how to manage the vegetation growing on my lot to increase the removal of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere and to reduce emissions. These practices are collectively referred to as natural climate solutions.10 By choosing not to convert the forest on my property into lawn or field (a practice known as avoided conversion), I refrain from emitting the carbon stored in those trees into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide: 310 tons of it. (Carbon dioxide emissions can be calculated by multiplying organic carbon\u2014in this case, 84.3 tons\u2014by 3.67). Three-hundred-ten tons of carbon dioxide is equivalent to the annual emissions of sixty-one cars.11 These are not insignificant numbers, and when multiplied across hundreds of thousands of small properties, the potential for avoided emissions is notable. When retaining a forest, I have a range of management decisions that will affect the amount of carbon stored in my woods. At one extreme, I could remove all the adult trees and regenerate a young forest. At the other extreme, I could remove an occasional tree for firewood, a practice that falls within the category of reduced impact forest management, or, by practicing wildlands management, I could remove no trees at all. Not surprisingly, the latter scenarios result in a significantly greater amount of carbon storage in my woods than the former scenario. In fact, any tree removal on a property like mine reduces carbon storage below the potential maximum for that site (although it is also true that if I leave all my trees standing, which I mostly do, and obtain my firewood from another source, I transfer that carbon loss to another property). Hence, reduced impact forest management\u2014retaining more trees, particularly large ones, for more time\u2014can make an important difference in the amount of carbon that is retained in a forest.12 Decisions about tree retention in residential areas often involve mitigating risk to power lines. A few years ago, for instance, the power company asked for my permission to cut three healthy trees on the edge of my previous property: a red oak, white oak (Quercus alba), and pignut hickory (Carya glabra), all with trunk diameters of more than thirty inches. Removing three trees would not have resulted in any forest conversion on my property\u2014indeed, there are young, small trees growing underneath these big ones\u2014but the carbon stored on my property would have been reduced by about eight tons, equivalent to the annual emissions of almost six cars. A large tree thirty inches in diameter also removes about seventy times the quantity of pollutants (including carbon monoxide, ozone, nitrogen dioxide, and particulate matter) as a tree three inches in diameter.13 I decided that the trees were a relatively low risk to the powerlines and would provide more benefits if I allowed them to continue to grow and sequester carbon. Wildlands management, the decision not to cut or mow any trees, has obvious limitations near houses, but it can be applied to more removed areas. In the relatively small number of wilderness areas and strict nature preserves in the northeastern United States, the trees store a disproportionately large amount of carbon Backyard 31 relative to the region's total forest area.14 Wildlands also have the potential to sequester much additional carbon. Because of a lengthy land-use history of forest clearance and intensive logging, northeastern forests are, on average, only about 20 to 30 percent of their maximum potential age (80 to 100 years versus 350 to 400 years) and store only about half their potential carbon. An eighty-year-old forest today can, in most cases\u2014 barring a major disturbance such as a windstorm or insect infestation\u2014continue to accumulate carbon for at least the next two hundred years in live and dead trees and in the soil.15 Individual trees sequester more carbon the larger they grow: A forty-inch-diameter red oak (left) adds about two-tenths of an inch to its trunk diameter every year, but this new layer of biomass stores approximately the same amount of carbon as an entire sixinch- diameter tree elsewhere in the author's backyard forest. Another management option I have is reforestation: allowing an existing field to return to forest. I have begun reforestation on a small section of lawn along the edge of my property. Over the next fifteen years, this patch of regrowing forest may store as much as twenty-five times the aboveground carbon as the grassy lawn it replaced.16 Hence, reforestation has tremendous potential to sequester additional carbon on little-used pastures, agricultural fields, vacant lots, municipal fields, and small lawns on residential properties.17 There is a good reason for this potential: a site in which the trees have 32 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 been removed\u2014either recently or long ago\u2014is in a deep carbon debt because the land stores a fraction of the carbon it once stored as a forest. Energy Use Trees, of course, also have other climate-related implications for my property. Trees standing within sixty feet of my house reduce home energy expenditure and carbon emissions by cooling the house in summer and insulating it from cold winds in winter. Not surprisingly, large trees provide significantly greater energy reductions than do small trees. A thirty-inchdiameter red maple located on the west side of a house would reduce carbon dioxide emissions by almost seven-fold compared to a two-inchdiameter red maple that is similarly placed.18 One caveat is that trees, especially conifers, located on the south side of a house increase winter fuel use by blocking solar radiation; but the drawbacks are generally offset by the substantial year-round benefits of trees located on the other three sides of a house. For example, if a thirty-inch white pine was growing on the south side of my house, it would increase winter fuel use slightly, while still providing some summer cooling, resulting in an estimated 10 pounds of additional carbon dioxide emitted annually. But the same tree on the north side of the house would reduce winter fuel use\u2014and provide greater summer cooling\u2014 resulting in the reduced emissions of an estimated 335 pounds of carbon dioxide annually.19 Trees, therefore, play an important role not only in sequestering and storing carbon but also in reducing household carbon emissions. Habitat and Biodiversity Natural climate solutions can also provide important forest habitat. Trees, as they age and grow larger, provide nesting and denning sites for a host of birds and mammals.20 They create deadwood that provides food for insects and develop large crowns that supply an abundant seed source. Even scattered trees with trunks at least sixteen-to-twenty inches in diameter in an urban setting can have outsized effects on bird diversity and abundance\u2014a role that has caused researchers to describe large urban trees as \"biodiversity hotspots.\"21 Reforestation of fields and lawns can provide additional young forest habitat (when the trees are fifteen years of age or younger), an ephemeral and uncommon habitat in the northeastern United States. Several species of birds (like chestnut-sided warbler, prairie warbler, indigo bunting, and brown thrasher) and the rare New England cottontail prefer dense, low woody vegetation found in young forests, shrublands, and disturbed open woods and are generally not found in closed forests.22 Depending on how many trees are retained or regrown on a property, and where the property is located, a small parcel may serve as a green oasis in an otherwise developed environment, or as an uncommon vegetation structure in a landscape of mostly mature forest or field, or as an extension of a larger forested patch. My property best exemplifies the last scenario, as it abuts one hundred acres of contiguous forest. I frequently see and hear wood thrushes, veeries, barred owls, and pileated woodpeckers on my property. These species generally prefer mature forests or are associated with larger trees, and the wood thrush is listed as globally \"near threatened\" by the International Union of Conservation of Nature.23 Such species would almost certainly avoid my property if I converted my woods into lawn. Given that North America has lost almost 30 percent of its total bird population in the past fifty years, the natural climate solutions presented here applied across a multitude of small properties could make a real difference in stemming these population declines.24 Management for Natural Climate Solutions In general, the less I manage my property, the more climate benefits it will provide. Some tending, however, is important to allow trees to continue growing to their full potential. Lianas like the non-native oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus), which thrive in the edge habitats characteristic of residential properties, are best cut and removed when they are growing up trees and over shrubs. Bittersweet will reduce the growth rate (and carbon uptake) and eventually kill trees by intercepting much of the sunlight in the canopy and by strangling the Backyard 33 trunk.25 The native poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) and grape (Vitis spp.) are generally more benign than bittersweet, but they function similarly and can proliferate in edge habitats, so I generally cut these vines at the base of my trees to give the trees every advantage to remain healthy and sequester the most carbon. With less management, tree branches inevitably grow close to my house and into my driveway and need to be trimmed periodically. After trimming, I deposit the branches in a brush pile or scatter them into the woods rather than chipping them or carting them away. Brush piles serve as cover and den habitat for a variety of small animal species such as red-backed salamanders, red-spotted newts, wood frogs, wrens, whitethroated sparrows, juncos, and box turtles.26 Trees will also die over time from insects, pathogens, and other causes and can be a hazard if houses, cars, or recreational spaces are in the fall zone. Common sense dictates that these should be cut down. But if dead trees are not a hazard, they provide considerable benefits if left standing and are not an indication that the forest is \"unhealthy\" and needs to be fixed. Though no longer sequestering additional carbon, standing dead trees continue to store existing carbon, often for decades, as the carbon is released slowly via decomposition.27 Dead trees also provide habitat for cavity-nesting birds and mammals and serve as an abundant source of insect food for woodpeckers and other barkgleaning birds like nuthatches. On my property, a standing dead elm tree (Ulmus americana) Regrowing forests can quickly store far more carbon in the vegetation than lawn grass\u2014as much as twenty-five times more in only fifteen years\u2014while also providing superior habitat. With this in mind, the author has begun a small reforestation project in an area previously maintained as lawn. Backyard 35 is used each year by a pair of yellow-bellied sapsuckers as a nest site. When I need to remove a dead tree that poses a hazard, I move it into the woods after cutting it. Similarly, when large branches and trees fall during storms, I move them off the driveway and lawn and into the woods and use some for firewood. I also resist cleaning up downed branches and trees in the woods. Downed logs serve as habitat for a host of animals, replenish nutrients and carbon to the soil, act as germination sites for new tree seedlings, and store large amounts of carbon, often for decades.28 Reforestation also requires little to no management. Tree growth is the default process in the Northeast, and the vegetation will naturally self-organize into a forest over time if a landowner simply stops mowing a lawn or field. The cessation of mowing will also add to the carbon benefits of reforestation by eliminating a significant source of emissions.29 A tall grass layer will inhibit tree growth because of competition and shading, and therefore shrubs, even thorny invasives like multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), will generally facilitate tree seedling growth by reducing the grass layer and protecting the seedlings from deer browsing.30 In most cases, tree seedlings will eventually grow above the shrubs and reduce shade-intolerant shrub species; however, in some instances, a dense shrub layer can suppress further tree growth beneath it.31 In such cases, selectively removing some shrubs can be beneficial. Planting trees can supplement and speed up natural reforestation, but it can be expensive and labor-intensive, and is ultimately unnecessary unless a homeowner is interested in an immediate screen planting or a particular species that does not grow nearby. The Final Look Ultimately, implementing natural climate solutions is an exercise in restraint and may challenge a homeowner's sense of aesthetics. Indeed, given the choice, many homeowners prefer a relatively open, tidy property, with a few trees, long views, and unobstructed sunsets. But a property stewarded for natural climate solutions can offer a beauty not found in more open landscapes. On my property, I appreciate the delicate beams of light that pass through the foliage and columnar tree trunks in the early or later parts of a summer day; the brilliant reds, yellows, and oranges that envelop the property each autumn; and multitudes of snowor ice-covered branches on a winter day. For six months of the year, when the leaves have fallen from the deciduous trees, the views lengthen and sunsets emerge. Even during the growing season, I enjoy surprisingly long views because most of the foliage on the large deciduous trees is above rather than below the sightlines. In the small area where I have begun reforestation, sightlines are reduced and the brushy patch of tall grass, young trees, and shrubs look unkempt compared to my neighbors' adjacent, close-cropped lawn. Yet this management decision comes with other aesthetic rewards: insects busily foraging on the tall goldenrods that bloom in late summer and the flash of goldfinches and white-throated sparrows drawn to the seed source in this brushy new habitat. In the end, there is a natural beauty that accompanies the climate and biodiversity benefits of leaving more vegetation intact. Faced with runaway carbon dioxide levels and a rapidly warming climate, property owners can leverage the carbon-absorbing power of trees by keeping them standing and growing and by allowing an existing field to revert to forest by not mowing. In this way, we can play an important role in the solution by doing less and letting nature do more. Endnotes: 1 Current carbon dioxide levels are posted on https:\/\/ www.co2.earth\/. The long history of carbon dioxide levels on earth are discussed in Lindsey, R. 2020. Climate change: Atmospheric carbon dioxide. NOAA Climate.gov. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.climate. gov\/news-features\/understanding-climate\/climatechange- atmospheric-carbon-dioxide; and in Kolbert, E. 2014. The sixth extinction: An unnatural history. New York: Henry Holt and Company. 2 Harris, N. L. 2020. Young forests capture carbon quicker than previously thought. World Resources Institute. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.wri.org\/blog\/2020\/09\/ carbon-sequestration-natural-forest-regrowth 3 Adams, J. M., Faure, H. F. D. L., Faure-Denard, L., McGlade, J. M., and Woodward, F. I. 1990. Increases in terrestrial carbon storage from the Last Glacial Maximum to the present. Nature, 348(6303): 711-714. Facing page: Trees continue storing carbon long after they have fallen. Therefore, retaining logs and branches on the forest floor provides additional climate benefits and also adds new habitat types. 36 Arnoldia 78\/3 \u2022 February 2021 4 Harvard Forest. 2013. Schoolyard LTER database: Tree biomass equations. Retrieved from https:\/\/ harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu\/sites\/harvardforest.fas. harvard.edu\/files\/Tree%20Biomass%20Equations%20 2013.pdf 5 Schlesinger, W. H. 1997. Biogeochemistry: An analysis of global change. San Diego: Academic Press. 6 Stephenson, N. L., Das, A. J., Condit, R., Russo, S. E., Baker, P. J., Beckman, N. G., \u2026 and Zavala, M. A. 2014. Rate of tree carbon accumulation increases continuously with tree size. Nature, 507(7490): 90-93. 7 Data on average carbon storage in Connecticut forests was calculated using the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis Program EVALIDATOR tool. Retrieved from http:\/\/apps.fs.usda.gov\/Evalidator\/ evalidator.jsp 8 Data on large tree density in Connecticut forests was calculated using the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis Program EVALIDATOR tool. 9 Reinmann, A. B., Smith, I. A., Thompson, J. R., and Hutyra, L. R. 2020. Urbanization and fragmentation mediate temperate forest carbon cycle response to climate. Environmental Research Letters, 15(11): 114036. 10 Fargione, J. E., Bassett, S., Boucher, T., Bridgham, S. D., Conant, R. T., Cook-Patton, S. C., \u2026 and Gu, H. 2018. Natural climate solutions for the United States. Science Advances, 4(11): eaat1869; Foster, D., Aber, J., Cogbill, C., Hart, C., Colburn, E., D'Amato, A., \u2026 and Thompson, J. 2010. Wildlands and woodlands: A vision for the New England landscape. Cambridge: Harvard University Press; Moomaw, W. R., Masino, S. A., and Faison, E. K. 2019. Intact forests in the United States: Proforestation mitigates climate change and serves the greatest good. Frontiers in Forests and Global Change, 2: 27. 11 The emission of the entire 84.3 tons of carbon (310 tons of carbon dioxide) into the atmosphere assumes that all cut trees would be chipped and burned and none would be used for wood products. If the trees were used for wood products, approximately 20-25 percent of the tree carbon would be stored in wood. See: Nunery, J. S., and Keeton, W. S. 2010. Forest carbon storage in the northeastern United States: Net effects of harvesting frequency, post-harvest retention, and wood products. Forest Ecology and Management, 259(8): 1363-1375; United States Environmental Protection Agency. 2019. Greenhouse gases equivalencies calculator - Calculations and references. Retrieved from https:\/\/ www.epa.gov\/energy\/greenhouse-gases-equivalenciescalculator- calculations-and-references 12 Three key sources were used for this paragraph: Catanzaro, P., and D'Amato, A. 2019. Forest carbon: An essential natural solution for climate change. Amherst: University of Massachusetts; Fargione, et al. Natural climate solutions for the United States; Nunery and Keeton. Forest carbon storage in the northeastern United States. 13 Nowak, D. J. 2000, April. Tree species selection, design, and management to improve air quality. In 2000 ASLA annual meeting proceedings (pp. 23-27). Washington, DC: American Society of Landscape Architects. 14 Lu, X., Kicklighter, D. W., Melillo, J. M., Yang, P., Rosenzweig, B., V\u00f6r\u00f6smarty, C. J., \u2026 and Stewart, R. J. 2013. A contemporary carbon balance for the northeast region of the United States. Environmental science and technology, 47(23): 13230-13238. 15 Information on age and carbon storage of old growth forests in the northeastern United States was drawn from: Keeton, W. S., Whitman, A. A., McGee, G. C., and Goodale, C. L. 2011. Late-successional biomass development in northern hardwood-conifer forests of the northeastern United States. Forest Science, 57(6): 489-505; McGarvey, J. C., Thompson, J. R., Epstein, H. E., and Shugart Jr., H. H. 2015. Carbon storage in old-growth forests of the Mid-Atlantic: Toward better understanding the eastern forest carbon sink. Ecology, 96(2): 311-317. The average age of the region's forests was calculated using the USDA Forest Service, Forest Inventory and Analysis Program EVALIDATOR tool. Retrieved from http:\/\/apps.fs.usda.gov\/Evalidator\/ evalidator.jsp 16 See appendix B in: Smith, J. E., Heath, L. S., Skog, K. E., and Birdsey, R. A. 2006. Methods for calculating forest ecosystem and harvested carbon with standard estimates for forest types of the United States. General Technical Report NE-343. Newtown Square, PA: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northeastern Research Station. 17 Cook-Patton, S. C., Leavitt, S. M., Gibbs, D., Harris, N. L., Lister, K., Anderson-Teixeira, K. J., \u2026 and Griscom, H. P. 2020. Mapping carbon accumulation potential from global natural forest regrowth. Nature, 585(7826): 545-550. 18 Energy savings from trees near houses was estimated using i-Tree tools. Retrieved from https:\/\/www. itreetools.org\/tools 19 Estimated using i-Tree tools. 20 Ranius, T., Niklasson, M., and Berg, N. 2009. Development of tree hollows in pedunculate oak (Quercus robur). Forest Ecology and Management, 257(1): 303-310. 21 Stagoll, K., Lindenmayer, D. B., Knight, E., Fischer, J., and Manning, A. D. 2012. Large trees are keystone structures in urban parks. Conservation Letters, 5(2): 115-122. 23 BirdLife International. 2017. Hylocichla mustelina (amended version of 2016 assessment). The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2017: e.T22708670A111170926. https:\/\/dx.doi.org\/10.2305\/ IUCN.UK.2017-1.RLTS.T22708670A111170926.en. Downloaded on 13 January 2020. Backyard 37 The author standing in his backyard forest. 24 Rosenberg, K. V., Dokter, A. M., Blancher, P. J., Sauer, J. R., Smith, A. C., Smith, P. A., \u2026 and Marra, P. P. 2019. Decline of the North American avifauna. Science, 366(6461): 120-124; DeGraaf, R. M., Yamasaki, M., Leak, W. B., and Lester, A. M. 2006. Technical guide to forest wildlife habitat management in New England. Lebanon, NH: University Press of New England. 25 Webster, C. R., Jenkins, M. A., and Jose, S. (2006). Woody invaders and the challenges they pose to forest ecosystems in the eastern United States. Journal of Forestry, 104(7): 366-374. 26 DeGraaf, et al. Technical guide to forest wildlife habitat management in New England. 27 Krebs, J., Pontius, J., and Schaberg, P. G. 2017. Modeling the impacts of hemlock woolly adelgid infestation and presalvage harvesting on carbon stocks in northern hemlock forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research, 47(6): 727-734. 28 McGarvey, et al. Carbon storage in old-growth forests of the Mid-Atlantic; DeGraaf, et al. Technical guide to forest wildlife habitat management in New England. 29 Jo, H. K., and McPherson, G. E. 1995. Carbon storage and flux in urban residential greenspace. Journal of Environmental Management, 45(2): 109-133. 30 Holl, K. D. 2002. Effect of shrubs on tree seedling establishment in an abandoned tropical pasture. Journal of Ecology, 90: 179-187; Meiners, S. J., and Martinkovic, M. J. 2002. Survival of and herbivore damage to a cohort of Quercus rubra planted across a forest\u2014old-field edge. The American Midland Naturalist, 147(2): 247-255. 31 Banasiak, S. E., and Meiners, S. J. 2009. Long term dynamics of Rosa multiflora in a successional system. Biological Invasions, 11(2): 215-224; Niering, W. A., Dreyer, G. D., Egler, F. E., and Anderson Jr, J. P. 1986. Stability of Viburnum lentago shrub community after 30 Years. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 113(1): 23-27. Edward K. Faison is senior ecologist at Highstead in Redding, Connecticut. His work focuses on deer and moose interactions with forests, long-term forest change, and natural climate solutions."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Look at Boston Common Trees","article_sequence":7,"start_page":38,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25726","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25ea76a.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Allen, Kelsey; Oswald, W. Wyatt","article_content":"Technology changes how we see the world: think of Antonie van Leeuwenhoek's microscope or Jacques Cousteau diving with a video camera and bringing the movements of ocean life to the silver screen. For the past decade, a digital camera mounted on the roof of a ten-story building has taken photos of the Boston Common every thirty minutes. The camera is a simple consumer model, but the resulting set of photographs, numbering well over two hundred thousand, compresses time in a way that turns everyday changes within the tree canopy into meaningful patterns and trends. Within this set of images, forty seasons can be viewed as a flipbook. If you visit the Boston Common in April, you will see light-green leaves unfolding on elms (Ulmus) and the warm glow of red maples (Acer rubrum) bursting into flower, yet only in an image set like this could you determine how these hour-by-hour moments in the life of a tree correspond to seasons past. Ten years can be viewed simultaneously. Seasonal shifts can be visualized in a way that surpasses our on-the-ground experience. Moreover, thanks to image-analysis software, data can be extracted from the photographs, allowing researchers to quantify the \"greenness\" of the canopy as it changes through the growing season and from year to year. We know that global climate change is impacting plant phenology. Already, for instance, researchers have described discernable differences between flowering times for herbarium specimens that were collected one hundred years ago and those that have been collected in recent years. So far, however, the photographs of the Boston Common have shown relatively consistent leaf-out times in the spring, with the exception of 2012. The sequence of photos from that year shows the details of the springtime green-up, when anomalously warm temperatures in March triggered leaves to emerge two to four weeks earlier than other years. The elms turn green first, but not because of leaf emergence; in fact, we are seeing the maturation of samaras, the elms' winged fruits. Leaf out of the elms, along with the Common's red maples, lindens (Tilia), oaks (Quercus), and scholar trees (Styphnolobium japonicum), follows over the next few weeks. As trees on the Boston Common respond to climate change in the future, ongoing photography may reveal that years like this become less anomalous. At the other end of the growing season, the deciduous trees of the Boston Common start to prepare for winter by breaking down their photosynthetic machinery during the second half of October. The timing of those changes has not varied much over the last ten years. In the set of photos from 2018, for instance, we can see the visual transformation of the landscape that occurs each fall, with the faded greens of early autumn giving way to patches of gorgeous color, including yellow elms and reddish-brown oaks. Then, by the last week of November, the leaves have all fallen, exposing the scaffolding of branches that held them aloft all summer long. And at the tips of those branches are buds, poised to burst open in spring and start this cycle anew. Further reading Oswald, W. W. and Richardson, A. D. 2015. Tracking the seasonal rhythms of Boston Common trees. Arnoldia, 73: 36-39. Primack, D., Imbres, C., Primack, R. B., Miller-Rushing, A. J., and Del Tredici, P. 2004. Herbarium specimens demonstrate earlier flowering times in response to warming in Boston. American Journal of Botany, 91: 1260-1264. Richardson, A. D. 2019. Tracking seasonal rhythms of plants in diverse ecosystems with digital camera imagery. New Phytologist, 222: 1742-1750. Kelsey Allen is a student at Emerson College, studying literature and environmental science. W. Wyatt Oswald is a professor in the Marlboro Institute of Liberal Arts and Interdisciplinary Studies at Emerson College. He is a research associate at Harvard Forest. Boston Common Trees 41 JULY AUGUST SEPTEMBER OCTOBER NOVEMBER DECEMBER ALL PHOTOS BY W. WYATT OSWALD Each column shows the Boston Common during the first week of the month\u2014revealing differences year over year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Case of the Anthropocene","article_sequence":8,"start_page":42,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25727","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25eab6d.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"On December 18, 1994, three cave explorers squeezed into an opening of a cliff overlooking the Ard\u00e8che River in southern France. At the back, a whisper of cool air prompted them to prize stones from a narrow passage and worm forward headfirst. After ten feet, they encountered a thirty-foot drop into a large chamber. Beneath them, as it turned out, the cave walls were covered with paintings. Some appeared almost fresh. First, the explorers found a mammoth drawn in red pigment, then woolly rhinoceroses, cave lions, and compositions made entirely of human handprints. Researchers would later determine that a landslide sealed the main entrance to the cave, now known as Chauvet Cave, twenty-eight thousand years ago, safeguarding hundreds of paintings and wall engravings. Eighteen thousand years later, glaciers had retreated from much of Europe, and many of the animals depicted in Chauvet Cave had gone extinct. Humans in Mesopotamia were domesticating wheat and barley. Fast forward another nine thousand years to the completion of the first recorded circumnavigation of the globe in 1522. Eventually, in the summer of 1833, an English sailing ship departed London, bound for Australia. On the upper deck, the captain diligently monitored two sealed glass cases planted with ferns, grasses, and mosses. About six months later, the ship arrived in Sydney with all but three of the plants still alive. The case was opened only once; moisture cycled naturally inside the enclosure. On the return trip, the cases were packed with ferns that survived air temperatures fluctuating between twenty and more than ninety degrees Fahrenheit. In fact, the cases were so effective that stowaway seeds germinated in the soil. A shipment of plants between the antipodes might seem like a minor historical footnote, but in a new book, The Wardian Case: How a Simple Box Moved Plants and Changed the World, historian Luke Keogh describes the shipment as a profound inflection point in the history of the Earth. Keogh first became interested in these enclosed glass cases while curating an exhibit at the Deutsches Museum in Munich. The exhibit opened in 2014 and focused on the Anthropocene, a term for our current geologic era that acknowledges the enormity of humancaused environmental change. Millions of years from now, our present moment will appear in the geologic record as an abrupt transition char- Case of the Anthropocene Jonathan Damery Luke Keogh. The Wardian Case: How a Simple Box Moved Plants and Changed the World. The University of Chicago Press and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 2020. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY\/FROM US BUREAU OF ENTOMOLOGY (1913) BULLETIN NO. 120 DAMERY, J. 2021. CASE OF THE ANTHROPOCENE. ARNOLDIA, 78(3): 42-43 Wardian cases moved plants around the world, along with insects and other organisms. Book Review 43 acterized by rapid climate change, sea-level rise, and mass extinction\u2014an imprint far more permanent than the markings at Chauvet Cave. The unprecedented biotic exchange ushered in by the experimental plant shipments between London and Sydney is a piece of this story. The experiments had been orchestrated by an affable English physician named Nathanial Ward and the nurseryman George Loddiges. Previously, it had been exceptionally difficult to ship live plants over such long distances. In addition to the general perils of sea travel (salt spray, tempestuous weather, foraging rodents), fresh water was a scarce resource and could seldom be spared for plants. In a backyard experiment, Ward discovered that plants could be sustained within an enclosed glass container for long periods without supplemental water. When such cases were used aboard ships, they solved many of the persistent problems associated with long-distance plant transport. In a follow- up experiment in 1834, Ward sent six cases to Egypt and Syria, and when the plants were received, scarcely a leaf was reported missing. Keogh follows the Wardian case as it became a commonplace tool, not only for moving botanical curiosities but also for transporting crops (including tea, Camellia sinensis, and rubber, Hevea brasiliensis) that supported the endeavors of Western empire-building. Also, because Wardian cases contained soil, the plants invariably arrived with insects and pathogens in tow. \"To move plants was to move ecosystems,\" Keogh writes. Some of these newcomers proved devasting, including coffee rust (Hemileia vastatrix), which erupted in Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) in 1869 and subsequently decimated plantations in many coffee-growing regions around the world. Altogether, this global churning\u2014which continues in a post-Wardian world\u2014accumulates to dramatic effect. Keogh, for instance, cites a study suggesting that approximately nine out of ten invertebrate pests in the United Kingdom arrived on live plants. Certainly, the Wardian case was just one innovation within the broader scope of the Anthropocene. The case gained traction at a moment of enormous industrialization and fossil fuel use. While the first Wardian cases were transported on sailing ships, steam power soon predominated. Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere would mount. Moreover, industrial agriculture favors monocultures, which are especially susceptible to pests and pathogens (like coffee rust) that spread rapidly in the Wardian era. In a curious twist, Keogh recounts how, in the early twentieth century, entomologists used Wardian cases to intentionally transport insects to control invasive plants and other pests that had been imported in earlier shipments. By the 1920s, plant quarantines and import restrictions slowed the use of Wardian cases, but it was the airplane that finally rendered them obsolete. Now live plants can be moved without soil, wrapped in plastic, and mailed directly to inspection sites before being admitted into a country, assuming importers follow the rules. Yet pests and pathogens continue to spread. The emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) was first identified in the United States in 2002 and likely arrived burrowed within wood shipping materials. The Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis) arrived in a similar fashion before 1996. In this light, the Wardian case was only one contributor to this dramatic biotic exchange. Not only has the admixture continued to the present but humans began moving plants long before Nathaniel Ward arrived on the scene. Ward's main innovation, Keogh stresses, was the enclosed system. Also, not insignificantly, Ward was a charismatic individual who used his social connections to promote the case. For Ward, awaiting news on his inaugural shipment to Australia, the long-term implications of his cases would have been impossible to imagine. Thinking about consequences two hundred years in the future is almost beyond the realm of comprehension\u2014almost as unlikely as the painters at Chauvet Cave imagining researchers studying their work more than thirty thousand years later. Yet the concept of the Anthropocene asks us to think even further ahead. In 1833, the captain of the ship to Australia penned a congratulatory letter to Ward: \"Your experiment for the preservation of plants alive \u2026 has fully succeeded.\" The case of the Anthropocene challenges us to reconsider the meaning of our own small successes. Jonathan Damery is the editor of Arnoldia."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Planting Edo: Pinus thunbergii","article_sequence":9,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25728","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d25eaf25.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Saunders, Rachel","article_content":"In February 2020, we opened our largest ever exhibition at the Harvard Art Museums, never anticipating that, a month later, the doors of the museums would close due to the pandemic. Painting Edo: Japanese Art from the Feinberg Collection features 120 paintings arranged as an immersive, in-person experience. At the onset of the closure, when I rushed about my office gathering books and papers, I expected to be away for only a few weeks, but as our exile from the galleries continued, we adapted to virtual close-looking through an online exhibition and Zoom events. What I hadn't realized was how significantly this new form of looking would alter my own vision of Edo painting. One work that I came to see differently was Old Pine by the eighteenth-century painter Ito\u02c9 Jakuchu\u02c9 . It is by no means a fresh observation that artists of the Edo period (1618-1868) were extremely interested in the natural world. Jakuchu\u02c9 is celebrated today for the magical hyper-realism of his polychrome paintings of flowering plants, aquatic animals, and especially chickens, which he is said to have kept so that he could observe the complexity of their feathers daily. Old Pine, by contrast, is executed in gestural monochrome ink. The painting is modestly sized, but the radical proximity from which the tree is painted\u2014so close that it cannot be contained within the picture plane\u2014makes an encounter with it feel as overwhelming as standing beneath an enormous conifer. Pines have a long history in East Asian art and are among the primary subjects of ink painting. In the vocabulary of this spare, highly intellectualized mode of painting, pines represent resilience, longevity, and the integrity of the upright scholar-gentleman. Identification of a painted tree as \"a pine\" is all that is sufficient to trigger these associations, since ink painting valorizes capturing the essence of a thing over mere verisimilitude. Jakuchu\u02c9 had clearly captured an individual arboreal essence, but it was not until a botanist's eye was turned upon it that the true level of Jakuchu\u02c9 's observation emerged. With Zoom, the distance between the painted plants in the galleries and their living counterparts at the Arnold Arboretum melted away. This enabled a new privilege of simultaneously looking at living and painted plants with the Arboretum's Michael Dosmann and Ned Friedman. Our conversations led to a series of public virtual events. With this botanical view, the eccentrically angled branches, plated bark, and textured twigs of Jakuchu\u02c9 's \"pine\" resolve almost immediately into features of a \"black pine,\" or Pinus thunbergii (kuromatsu in Japan). When we view the painting, a major limb\u2014 covered, dragon-like, in scaled bark\u2014thrusts up from the bottom left-hand corner, only to disappear beyond the right-hand border. It curves back into the frame at the top right, from where an angular branch, brushed in several switchback strokes, descends. This dramatically contorted form echoes the Japanese black pines growing at the Arnold Arboretum (see accession 11371), and so, too, does the orientation of the painted needles: spiky lateral marks from a wide brush that flare from axial twigs. But the precision of Jakuchu\u02c9 's observation is evident beyond these most prominent elements. A variety of lichen-like dots peppers the branches, the largest pressed from the side of an inked brush, and the smaller nubby marks from its tip. What I had read as an anomalous abundance of mosslike texture strokes, Ned's eye revealed as the closely observed characteristic texture of black pine twigs, formed by the unusual persistence of bracts, which can remain for up to two years after their sets of paired needles fall. In an inscription brushed in 1755, Jakuchu\u02c9 wrote: \"Flowers, birds, grasses, and insects each have their own innate spirit. Only after one has actually determined the true nature of this spirit through observation should painting begin.\" Old Pine shows just how thoroughly Jakuchu\u02c9 took this dictate, not only in his obsessively observed and painstakingly detailed polychrome paintings but also, we can now see, in the spare and immediate genre of ink painting. Rachel Saunders is the Abby Aldrich Rockefeller Curator of Asian Art at Harvard Art Museums. Planting Edo: Pinus thunbergii Rachel Saunders"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25697","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270a76a.jpg","title":"2021-78-3","volume":78,"issue_number":3,"year":2021,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pandemic Digitization","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25714","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eaf6e.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Brach, Anthony R.","article_content":"Listening to Vivaldi's Four Seasons, I began my day transcribing data from herbariumspecimen labels. The melodies and the early morning light mixed, and I entered the zone, my fingers typing rhythmically with the music. Staff at the Harvard University Herbaria transitioned to working from home due to the coronavirus pandemic on March 16. In the early weeks of this new routine, I was transcribing detailed data from specimens collected in Wyoming\u2014locations like Devils Tower and Yellowstone\u2014but instead of handling the physical specimens, I was working from images on my screen. This current work has been very different from the normal day-to-day curatorial activities at the Herbaria. Researchers, who we would normally be assisting, have been unable to visit the collections. Our team, likewise, was initially unable to be on-site for routine activities like processing incoming and outgoing shipments of loans, gifts, and exchanges. We could not mount new specimens or file them into the collection; nor could we update specimens with new taxonomic determinations. We have even discouraged other institutions from sending materials given potential shipping and handling delays. Before this began, however, our team was busy with a long-term effort to share images and data from our collections online, and this meant we could use the same images to continue digitization projects remotely as well. Over the past 170 years, the Herbaria have amassed more than five million specimens, making our collections one of the largest in the world. Given the scale, specimens have been digitized on a project-by-project basis. About one-quarter of our total holdings have been digitized to date. I like to think of imaging and transcription of specimen labels as \"publishing\" unfinished symphonies composed by botanists. Without digitization, their collections are often hidden in the Herbaria, requiring either in-person visits or potentially risky shipments of specimen loans. Among the Wyoming specimens, for instance, I enjoyed databasing those collected by Reed Rollins, a Harvard professor and longtime director of the Gray Herbarium. Many of his extensive collections of the mustard family (Brassicaceae) were redetermined by his student Ihsan Al-Shehbaz, who followed Rollins as the world's foremost taxonomist of this family. Now digitized, their collaborative work has become available for study by a new generation of researchers. Before the pandemic, our curatorial team was in the middle of three collaborative digitization projects funded by the National Science Foundation and coordinated through the Thematic Collection Network. One focuses on the Southern Rockies. The second focuses on the vascular flora of the South Central United States, particularly Texas and Oklahoma. The third is called Endless Forms (or Plants on Edge) and focuses on fifteen families of rare and endangered plants with unique morphological adaptations, including orchids (Orchidaceae), cacti (Cactaceae), and sedums (Crassulaceae). Combined, these projects include about 470,000 specimens. Our director of collections Michaela Schmull and the director of informatics Jonathan Kennedy have orchestrated our curatorial team's digitization efforts so that, rather than pulling collections piecemeal by individual states (states are filed alphabetically for each species), all vascular plants from the United States and Canada were added to the queue. This expansion (another 1.6 million specimens) is part of the Herbaria's effort to digitize the entire collection. When the closures began, I had been photographing Lupinus in the legume family (Fabaceae), and recently, I had photographed specimens of a few other families with great diversity in the Rockies, including the mustards (Brassicaceae) and saxifrages (Saxifragaceae). Now, working from our homes as a team, the thirteen of us curatorial assistants had the opportunity to loop back and record detailed Pandemic Digitization Anthony R. Brach \u222b data from specimens we had already photographed. This data entry allows the specimens to be searchable using details like the collector's name and collection date. Our team completed transcription from available images from project-related states (about 66,670 specimens) after the first couple of months of the pandemic. This could have taken three times longer if not for our work-from-home efforts. Next, we moved onto other states and provinces not part of the projects. For this second phase, I selected New York. I was born in Rochester, and when I was just a kid, I carried Peterson's Field Guide to Wildflowers of Northeastern and North-Central North America on hikes with my dad, who was an avid, knowledgeable amateur botanist. He took my brothers and me to regional parks and to the Adirondack Mountains. In my college years, I explored the Hudson River Valley and Long Island Sound, and my graduate research on the ecology of forest-understory herbs and ferns brought me back to the Adirondacks. Transcribing specimen labels for this familiar flora allowed me, in some sense, to revisit these ecosystems. Because many labels were from the nineteenth to early twentieth centuries, only a fraction were typed, while many were handwritten and of various degrees of legibility. Since the beginning of the pandemic, our team has been communicating via Slack, a chatting tool that we have used for asking questions and helping one another decipher illegible handwriting on labels. I was amused by two handwritten labels for collections from Irondequoit Bay (Rochester area) and Taughannock Falls (north of Ithaca). If not for my familiarity with these places, I do not know if I could have deciphered them. We also have a very large collection of specimens from New York that were collected by Asa Gray, the first director of the Gray Herbarium, whose handwriting has always been challenging to read. I was fascinated to see specimens collected more than one hundred years ago near my hometown and from other familiar places. In 1889, collector John Dunbar told Charles During the pandemic, curatorial staff at the Harvard University Herbaria have been recording collection data from previously photographed herbarium specimens. Often the intrigue is in the details. THE HERBARIUM OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND THE GRAY HERBARIUM, HARVARD UNIVERSITY 4 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arnold Arboretum, about many hawthorns (Crataegus) near Rochester that did not match any described species. Dunbar and others\u2014including his coworkers Calvin C. Laney, Henry T. Brown, and Berhard H. Slavin (all from the Rochester Parks Department)\u2014collected hundreds of specimens for Sargent. Beyond the familiar locations, some specimens included details that made these places come alive with activity. I came across a 1905 label, for instance, which noted that small boys filled their pockets with fruits from a scarlet hawthorn (Crataegus pedicellata). Others documented landscapes that were changing like the tempo of Grieg's \"In the Hall of the Mountain King\" (made popular in Fantasia). A dramatic 1907 label for another hawthorn (C. brainerdii), for instance, marked history: \"Prof. Sargent you will notice that I have changed this No. as I told you my No. 2415 was blown up by the Barge Canal work,\" a physician-botanist named Joseph V. Haberer wrote. Strikingly, the label recorded an instance of the widening of the Erie Canal, between 1905 and 1918, for use by large barges. When I encounter multiple specimens from the same collector, I often look up the person's backstory. Collections by botanists who happened to be medical doctors often catch my attention, especially since one of my sons serves as a doctor of osteopathic medicine and his brothers study pharmacy and medicine. In addition to Haberer (and Asa Gray, who trained as a physician), other medical doctors who collected specimens in New York included Henry P. Sartwell, George Thurber, Peter D. Knieskern, George G. Kennedy, and Edwin H. Eames. Their collections, too, have now been digitized for continued studies. Starting on June 15, our team transitioned to a hybrid work model, which allowed for limited entries into the Herbaria for a set number of hours, one day per week. This required strict adherence to the university's guidelines, safety protocols, and weekly coronavirus testing. It was a relief to be back but strange returning to a near-empty place, devoid of researchers. With this on-site day each week, I aimed to take \u222b care of essential services for the collections, in coordination with others during their allotted times at the Herbaria. I processed incoming shipments (after freezing to prevent potential insect problems), checked insect traps (each of the curatorial staff has an area to monitor), and photographed specimens as requested by botanists for their remote studies. I attached barcodes to a new set of two hundred herbarium sheets of Lupinus and photographed them for digitization from home. I finally reached Lupinus texensis, the brightly colored, bluebonnet of Texas. The university has encouraged staff to continue working from home, so transcription will continue to keep everyone busy. During our remote work so far, from mid-March until mid- September, our team has digitized 135,333 specimens, bringing the total number of digitized North American specimens in the Herbaria to nearly one million. These data and images can be found using the search interface on the Harvard University Herbaria website. Our team also learned how to use the Geo-Locate Project's collaborative georeferencing tool to add mapping coordinates whenever possible, starting with localities in the Southern Rockies. Throughout the pandemic, as I've been working with these digital specimens, my wife, Ying, has also been working from home. She is a forest ecologist by training. In the early months, when we left the house for walks in our neighborhood and local conservation areas, we were encouraged by the sights and sounds of spring. Plants flowered and produced leaves as usual, and the seasons have continued to flow like Vivaldi's melodies. This ceaselessness is echoed in our preserved herbarium specimens, each of which documents a particular moment from seasons past. Seasons and generations accrue. When brought together\u2014and shared with researchers and teachers\u2014the long-hidden symphonies, at last, resound. Anthony Brach is a senior curatorial assistant at the Harvard University Herbaria and a research associate of the Arnold Arboretum. Previously, between 1993 and 2012, he served as an editor of the Flora of China, while based at the Harvard University Herbaria as a Missouri Botanical Garden staff member, after completing his PhD in environmental and forest biology at the SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Redefining \"Remote Fieldwork\"","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25715","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eb326.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hruska, Amy; Komatsu, Kimberly","article_content":"During the summer, the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC), in Edgewater, Maryland, is typically buzzing with activity. Scientific staff and volunteers arrive early in the morning to load gear into field vehicles and begin long days of research on land or at sea. Much of this fieldwork, near or in the Chesapeake Bay, deals with pressing and complex environmental threats, such as climate change and invasive species. Roughly two dozen visiting undergraduate researchers move into campus dormitories during the summer and join the research labs where they diligently work to complete independent projects in just ten weeks. In SERC's Ecosystem Conservation lab, we investigate how ecosystems respond to global threats, such as nutrient runoff, land-use conversion, and invasive species. Our plan for the summer of 2020 was to revisit over a dozen forest fragments in the Chesapeake Bay watershed for the first time in more than forty years to assess how land-use change has affected plant and songbird populations. Undergraduate researchers were to be instrumental in resurvey efforts and would have the opportunity to design complementary field experiments or surveys that would broaden their experience. Over the winter, we assembled an all-star team: Skye Austin, a rising sophomore from Shenandoah University, enthusiastic about the environment and conservation and ready for her first research experience. Rachael Brenneman, a rising senior at Eastern Mennonite University, eager for the chance to design and implement her own field research after conducting class research projects. And Julia Smith, a recent graduate of the University of Chicago and a data modeler, excited to get outside and experience the nuances of ecological field research. During any given field season, we anticipate that not everything will go as planned\u2014an unexpected storm may shift the schedule or cause extensive damage to a site, or we might add measurements to account for new field observations. This year, however, the very idea of conducting fieldwork and mentoring students seemed to hang in the balance as the coronavirus pandemic led to nationwide shutdowns and internal policy changes. As stay-at-home orders went into place in March, it was unclear how field research programs would proceed\u2014if at Redefining \"Remote Fieldwork\" Amy Hruska and Kimberly Komatsu 6 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 all. Overnight, SERC's research campus became an unrecognizable ghost town as most of the staff began to telework and only pre-approved, essential staff (including members of our lab) came in to maintain critical operations and experiments. Over time, it became clear that this would be the new normal, and as a result, the organizers of the undergraduate research program decided to take everything remote. As our lab began planning a remote field season that did not involve a plane ride, we initially inventoried existing datasets related to plant mutualisms, biodiversity, and ecosystem function, and generated a list of possible questions that undergraduate students could address while living at home, turning a fun field-based research experience into ten weeks in front of a computer screen gathering data from the web or navigating the world of statistical analyses. While this type of experience would certainly be valuable for many students, the idea of a computer-based internship did not meet the goals of our three undergraduate researchers who were eager for the chance to design and conduct field experiments. Cue inspiration from none other than Charles Darwin. While most of us go through school associating Darwin with his voyage on the HMS Beagle and the theory of natural selection, many of his theorytesting experiments took place from the comforts of his own home (see Darwin's Backyard: How Small Experiments Led to a Big Theory by James Costa). We asked, would it be possible for our undergraduate students to conduct field experiments at their family homes? Before the undergraduate researchers started in mid-June, we determined their locations in relation to SERC, their indoor and outdoor spatial constraints for an experiment, and compiled topics and resources that would help shape the type of questions they'd be able to ask. Coincidentally, everyone lived within three hours of SERC, so with extra steps to keep materials disinfected and acquire administrative approval, we could drive materials to their homes. Furthermore, everyone had outdoor space in their family yards to set up an experiment. Thus, a summer of backyard ecosystemconservation research began. Our undergraduate researchers hit the ground running. With minimal direction other than the compiled topics and resources related to our broad research themes and the agreed-upon spatial constraints, they worked together to develop an overarching research question and experimental design that they could each have in their yards. Over two weeks, they read the scientific literature and met daily to settle on one overarching question: how does nitrogen pollution from runoff affect plant and soil communities? To address this question, they would each set up sixty one-gallon pots in their yards, each pot containing two native plants. Plants within a pot could be one of three native species: Joe-Pye weed (Eutrochium purpureum), sensitive partridge pea (Chamaecrista nictitans), or Virginia wild-rye (Elymus virginicus). All possible combinations were represented, meaning that a pot could be planted with either two of the same species or two different species. Next, the team identified measurements that would allow them to answer more specific questions based on their individual interests. Skye was interested in the capacity of these native plants to uptake added nitrogen under different diversity treatments. Rachael asked how added nitrogen and plant diversity treatments affect the soil microbial community. And Julia wanted to understand how nitrogen addition and diversity treatments affect plant competition. Everyone was responsible for collecting the data that would be needed to address each of these three questions. They would take plant growth measurements, collect soil and invertebrate samples, and harvest plants for analyses of biomass and nitrogen content. After settling on the questions, experimental design, measurements, and materials, we spent a week purchasing and preparing all the required materials. We then made a ten-hour road trip to drop off the materials at each house. Traditionally, lab mates would help with project setup, but this year, the undergraduate researchers were left to handle those steps on their own. Previous page: Julia Smith, an undergraduate researcher at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center, receives a delivery of remote research supplies. PHOTO BY AMY HRUSKA Remote Fieldwork 7 To ensure each researcher made the same judgment calls during setup (such as how to orient the plants in the pot), they held a multi-hour video meeting to discuss the process. Later, long video discussions became a reoccurring theme as the team took each measurement for the first time and harvested their plants at the end of the experiment. But various household members (parents and friends) did help each student with the setup (and maintenance and harvest). In some cases, parents became just as invested in the success of the plants as the undergraduate researchers themselves, checking on the experiment periodically just to see how the plants were getting along. In total, the experiment ran for a little over five weeks, with plants exposed to four weeks of fertilizer treatments in concentrations that matched those found in runoff from residential yards. After the last plant was harvested, we made a final road trip to collect their samples, as well as the equipment loaned for the summer. Back at SERC, we dried and stored samples that will be analyzed in the lab at a later date. For our undergraduate researchers, a final virtual presentation bookended their summer experience. Together, the researchers eloquently presented their fieldwork experience and discussed how they designed a single experiment to answer a host of meaningful questions related to ecosystem conservation. While this summer was a far departure from our initial plans, and a deviation from what is traditionally considered remote fieldwork, each undergraduate researcher experienced the hallmarks of conducting field research. Everyone coped with the heat and humidity of the DC, Maryland, and Virginia metropolitan area as they took their late-summer measurements. They anxiously sat and watched their pots from indoors as Hurricane Isaias brought heavy winds and rains to their yards. They all agreed to add herbivory observations to their data collection after each experiment had evidence of unintended interactions with residential wildlife. But, most importantly, everyone felt the ownership and satisfaction that can only come from developing and completing an experiment. Data analysis for this project is ongoing and will continue through the fall and winter. Many of the samples still need to be processed in the lab to determine plant biomass, and leaf and soil nitrogen content. While Julia is currently starting her doctorate, Skye and Rachael have continued as fall interns in the Ecosystem Conservation lab, working to finish these analyses and lead the efforts to publish their results. The initial results are beginning to tell an exciting story as to how plant diversity may help combat nutrient pollution. The data suggest that some species can continue to grow just as well under high nitrogen conditions from runoff and in different diversity treatments. A bonus of conducting remote research from home this summer was the realization that undergraduate researchers can, in some cases, continue to be supported once they return to school. As our lab continues to function over video conferencing, undergraduate researchers can be involved in lab meetings and SERC virtual events. And as SERC moves through the phases of its reopening plan as coronavirus cases drop in the region, the undergraduate researchers will finally be able to make it into the lab to process their samples. The current pandemic has changed many aspects of our day-to-day lives and how we conduct science. At times, these changes are overwhelming and do not have clear resolutions. Yet, this pandemic has also demonstrated our ability to be resilient and adapt to the previously unimaginable. Our ability to pivot from an in-person field program to conducting remote science in our backyards is one of many examples of how field scientists have coped this summer. These examples, however, should not come as a surprise. As field scientists, we know that disruptions are inevitable, and we need to be flexible and open to new solutions. If anything, conducting science during an unprecedented time is what field research has been preparing us for all along. Amy Hruska is a postdoctoral fellow in the Ecosystem Conservation lab at the Smithsonian Environmental Research Center (SERC). Kimberly Komatsu is the senior scientist and principal investigator of the Ecosystem Conservation lab at SERC."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Closing the Book on Sargent's Weeping Hemlock","article_sequence":3,"start_page":8,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25716","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eb36a.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Sargent's weeping hemlock (Tsuga canadensis 'Sargentii') is one of the world's greatest dwarf conifer cultivars in terms of its beauty, longevity, and stability. As opposed to the typical eastern hemlock with a tall straight trunk reaching upwards of a hundred feet, the weeping variety is a totally horizontal tree that can form a giant dome of foliage up to twenty feet high by forty feet across\u2014\"a vernal fountain of perpetual joy\" is what one writer called it.1 The tree was discovered in the mid-nineteenth century in the Hudson Highlands,2 about sixty miles northeast of New York City. This part of the world was a critical supply depot for the Continental Army during the American Revolution, and later its scenic vistas inspired both the Hudson River School of painting and the \"picturesque\" landscape movement championed by Andrew Jackson Downing. This region is one of the areas where modern American ornamental horticulture first took root, and many of its earliest practitioners built country estates in the area based on aesthetic principles that Downing laid out in his writings from the 1840s and 50s. One such horticultural pioneer was Henry Winthrop Sargent, the man for whom the weeping hemlock was named. In 1841, he purchased a twenty-two-acre parcel of woodland overlooking the Hudson River at Fishkill Landing\u2014also known as Fishkill-on-the-Hudson\u2014where he developed a country estate called Wodenethe, which included sweeping vistas and an especially notable collection of conifers.3 Sargent's younger cousin Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, would describe the conifer collection as \"the most complete in the United States.\" H. W. Sargent made his place famous by describing the design and construction of its grounds in the supplement to the sixth edition of Downing's classic book, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, published in 1859. In an update to the supplement, in 1875, Sargent produced a vivid description of the \"gardenesque\" landscape effects he sought to achieve through the use of exotic plants with extreme growth habits and foliage textures and tints. \"There should be certain groups all color, other groups all form, and others again pendulous or drooping,\" Sargent wrote. \"But these colors and forms must be harmoniously arranged by very careful blending. Sometimes in contrast (not so great as to shock), and sometimes by the delicate merging and intermingling of one color with another, the deeper and darker first, to disappear and melt away as it were into the lighter and fairy-like tones.\" For Sargent, landscape gardening was more about art than science, and the garden itself was a kind of living sculpture. The weeping hemlock that now bears his name fit so perfectly into Sargent's gardenesque landscape style that, as has been said, had he not introduced it, he would have invented it.4 My own interest in Sargent's weeping hemlock began in 1970. I had just moved to Boston from California and was teaching biology to children ages five through eighteen at an experimental school in Watertown, Massachusetts. Always on the lookout for interesting field trips, I visited the Arnold Arboretum for the first time in the fall of that year. In my aimless wandering, I came across a bizarre, low-growing tree with twisted, ribbon-shaped branches, the likes of which I had never seen before\u2014it was Sargent's weeping hemlock. Why did it have its amazing shape? Where did it come from? How did it get here? Although I did not recognize it at the time, I had been seduced by the tree and the Arboretum where it was growing. Closing the Book on Sargent's Weeping Hemlock Peter Del Tredici Facing page: The story of Sargent's weeping hemlock often centers on the plant's namesake, Henry Winthrop Sargent, who grew the horticultural curio at his estate, Wodenethe, in the Hudson River Valley. But archival discoveries have introduced new characters to the story. SARGENT\/ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES; WODENETHE (DOWNING, 1859)\/BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY; ARNOLD ARBORETUM SPECIMEN (15820*B )\/JONATHAN DAMERY; DUTCHESS COUNTY, NY, MAP (1850)\/ LIBRARY OF CONGRESS, GEOGRAPHY AND MAP DIVISION \u222b 10 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 When I finally began working at the Arnold some nine years later, in 1979, my interest in Sargent's weeping hemlock was rekindled when Augustus M. Kelley, publisher of Theophrastus Books in Little Compton, Rhode Island, wandered into the Dana Greenhouses where I was the assistant plant propagator and, without introducing himself, started talking to me about weeping hemlocks. At some point in the conversation, after I had expressed interest in the topic, I mentioned that I had a theory about why hemlocks weep. Gus said he'd like to hear it and, after listening carefully for about five minutes, asked if I would write it up. I told him I'd think about it, and a year later, I published my first-ever article for Arnoldia, the magazine of the Arnold Arboretum: \"Sargent's Weeping Hemlock Reconsidered.\" As soon as the article was published, however, I discovered several new references related to the origin of the tree, including one that pushed its first mention in print from 1875 to 1868. Gus suggested that this new information warranted an update of the weeping hemlock story and offered to publish a book about the tree if I would write it. To make a long story short, A Giant Among the Dwarfs came out in 1983, providing a new account of the tree's history. There were still gaps in the story, of course, but I did my best to fill them with well-reasoned speculation. Predictably, after the book came out, people wrote to me with new information about various specimens of Sargent's weeping hemlock, which I dutifully stashed away in a file folder, never really expecting to revisit the subject. In the years since the publication of my book, the internet was invented, and the door that I had closed some thirty-six years ago cracked open with the unexpected discovery of a statement from H. W. Sargent himself, in 1880, about who actually discovered the tree that carried his name. One thing led to another, and the cold case of the true discoverer of Sargent's weeping hemlock suddenly got very hot. With the help of various websites\u2014especially the Biodiversity Heritage Library\u2014I was able to access a slew of old references that shed new light on the story of how this sublime conifer came into being. And so, it is with some trepidation that I make my third attempt at resolving the contradictions that have plagued Sargent's weeping hemlock since its discovery. Hopefully, this time will be the charm. In the Beginning Based on research that I completed for A Giant Among the Dwarfs, I concluded\u2014correctly as it has turned out\u2014that the first written reference to Sargent's weeping hemlock was from 1868. The critical passage appears in The Book of Evergreens by Josiah Hoopes, a well-known nurseryman and conifer specialist, in the midst of his description of H. W. Sargent's Wodenethe estate. \"Near the mansion are two very handsome specimens of Araucaria imbricata, grown in boxes,\" Hoopes wrote, referring to the monkey puzzle tree (now A. araucana). \"These had attained the height of 5 or 6 feet, and were perfect examples of this species in a young state. Near these we noticed a remarkable variety of the Hemlock Spruce, of dwarfish habit, with long drooping branchlets, and altogether quite unique in character. This plant was found growing on the mountains near by.\" On the basis of the description alone, one could not say absolutely that Hoopes was talking about Sargent's weeping hemlock, but when the location of the discovery on a nearby mountain is added, the plant could be nothing else. Hoopes, nonetheless, omits the tree from the main body of the book where the \"hemlock spruce\" (listed as Abies Canadensis5) and two of its varieties are discussed, suggesting that the plant was relatively unknown in 1868. I recently found a second reference to the plant at Wodenethe in an 1874 article about mutant conifers by one Thomas C. Maxwell, a nursery owner from Geneva, New York. \"On Mt. Hounes, Fishkill-on-the-Hudson, is found a sport from our well known Hemlock,\" Maxwell reports. \"The species we all know is remarkably graceful and beautiful, lofty and grand, but this sport grows down as persistently as the Kilmarnock Willow\u2014a real deformity, and yet on Mr. Sargent's lawn it is one of the most interesting and ornamental plants in his entire collection\u2014 'a thing of beauty,' with which scarcely another tree or plant on these most beautiful grounds or in all the land can compare.\" It took me a while to figure out that \"Mt. Hounes\" was an alternate spelling for what is today known as Honness Mountain, a 906-foot \"peak\" near the present-day town of Fishkill\u2014 about five miles northeast of Wodenethe.6 Maxwell's description of the tree is particularly noteworthy because he describes how the wild weeping hemlock that was discovered on Honness Mountain\u2014\"a real deformity\"\u2014was transformed into \"a thing of beauty\" after being cultivated at Wodenethe, as if the plant had somehow gone to finishing school. Sandwiched between these two early references to H. W. Sargent's stunning new hemlock was a more complete description of the tree published by Frank Jessup Scott in his monumental work, The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds of Small Extent. Curiously, there are two different versions of this book with an 1870 publication date: One is 274 pages long and deals mainly with garden design issues. The other contains an additional 244- page section titled \"Part II: Trees, Shrubs and Vines,\" which contains detailed descriptions of woody ornamental plants suitable for planting in home landscapes. In the shorter of the two 1870 editions, Sargent's weeping hemlock is mentioned only in the fifteenth chapter, \"Plans of Residences and Grounds.\" This section of the book presents written descriptions of twenty-nine hypothetical landscape layouts, along with detailed drawings showing the locations of recommended plants. In the seventh plan (as well as in seven others7), Scott uses the letter H to designate the position of a plant he identifies as \"Sargent's hemlock, Abies canadensis inverta\" and recommends that \"its main stem to be kept tied to a stake until it has a firm growth six feet high.\" Remarkably, this first attempt at giving Sargent's weeping hemlock a proper scientific name is one of only two times that the epithet inverta appeared in print. In the longer of the two 1870 editions of Suburban Home Grounds, which is identical in all respects to an 1873 edition (except for the date), Scott preserves the use of the name Abies canadensis inverta in the chapter \"Plans of Residences and Grounds,\" but in the second part, under the entry on \"Hemlock Fir,\" he introduces a new name for the tree, \"Sargent's Hemlock: Abies canadensis Sargenti.\" He The author first encountered Sargent's weeping hemlock in 1970, at the Arnold Arboretum, and was instantly enamored with its unusual form. ARNOLD ARBORETUM MAP (1969); ARNOLD ARBORETUM SPECIMEN IN 1970 (10712*A)\/BOTH ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 12 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 goes on to describe it as being \"of an eccentric rambling nature, but well clothed in verdure,\" and he provides information about its cultivation: \"Grown without training it will probably be a broad, irregular, flat-headed tree or great bush, with an over-laying of downward growing branches like that of the Scamston elm. By grafting it well up on other trees, or by tying its leader to a stick or stake we believe it will be one of the prettiest and most picturesque of evergreens. The best effect will be produced when grafted well up on an ordinary hemlock stem.\" While Scott's use of two different names for Sargent's weeping hemlock in the longer of the two 1870 editions is confusing, the discrepancy suggests that there was a gap between the publication of the two editions. In fact, I found a review of the longer version of the book in the August 1871 issue of The Horticulturist by Henry T. Williams, which clearly suggests that the complete version of Scott's book did not come out until mid-1871. For whatever reason, this edition retained the 1870 publication date and constitutes the earliest publication of the name Abies canadensis Sargenti. In the longer of the two 1870 editions of his book, Scott also states that the plant had been \"brought into notice by H. W. Sargent, Esq., who found it growing wild on Fishkill mountain.\" I could find no reference for this specific mountain in the literature of the period, but given that the town of Fishkill lies at the base of Honness Mountain, which is shown as part of the \"Fishkill Mountains\" in period maps, it could well have been an alternative name for it. If so, then Scott is in agreement with Maxwell that Sargent's weeping hemlock was discovered on Honness Mountain. Scott and Maxwell also agree on the need to stake up Sargent's weeping hemlock in order to make it a proper \"ornamental\" plant and that without this treatment it would sprawl across the ground, eventually forming a strongly pendulous shrub. Henry Winthrop Sargent's house at Wodenethe, photographed in 1886. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 13 One final detail in Scott's description of Sargent's weeping hemlock that should be noted appears in the appendix at the end of the second part where he lists \"Sargent's Hemlock\" as reaching ten feet tall by ten feet across under the column headed \"Usual Size 12 Years from Seed\" and thirty feet tall by forty feet across under the column \"Usual Size at Maturity.\" When I first read these numbers in the early 1980s, I couldn't figure out how Scott managed to come up with them given that they were written just two years after Hoopes published the first written description of the tree, so I chalked it up to a lucky guess. The Parsons Brothers of Flushing Scott's description of Sargent's weeping hemlock and his prescient projections about its size clearly suggest that its propagation must have been well underway in the early 1870s. Samuel B. Parsons of S. B. Parsons & Sons, Kissena Nurseries in Flushing, New York, confirmed this supposition in a lecture that he presented on November 12, 1874, to the Rural Club of New York, with many prospective clients in attendance. \"But the gem of all gems is the Weeping Hemlock,\" Parsons declared. \"If left to itself, it will remain trailing upon the ground, but if the leader is tied to a firm stake it can be carried to any reasonable height, and each tier of branches will then droop in graceful curves toward the ground.\" A year later, in October 1875, Parsons sent a letter to the editor of The Garden introducing Sargent's weeping hemlock to British audiences, using the name Abies canadensis var. pendula. Parsons's promotion of the weeping hemlock to both national and international audiences clearly suggests that he was already selling or getting ready to sell the plant to the general public. As far as I have been able to determine, however, it was the nursery owned by Parsons's brother, Robert, who first offered Sargent's weeping hemlock for sale in the fall of 1874. Some two years earlier, in the fall of 1872, the brothers had decided to split up Parsons & Sons Nursery, which they had inherited from their father and jointly operated since 1841. Samuel got half of the plant stock and established S. B. Parsons & Sons, Kissena Nurseries in a new location in Flushing while Robert took control of the other half of the stock and remained at the original nursery site but changed the name to R. B. Parsons & Co.8 In his fall 1874 catalogue, Robert Parsons listed Sargent's weeping hemlock under the heading \"Abies canadensis, weeping.\" Ten onefoot- tall plants were available for the reasonable price of eight dollars, and ten larger plants (up to two feet tall) were selling for twelve dollars. Samuel's firm, S. B. Parsons & Sons, first offered the weeping hemlock in their autumn 1877 wholesale catalogue. Both brothers clearly had a financial stake in the success of the plant and cooperated in introducing it into cultivation. One of the curiosities of the weeping hemlock history is that up until 1875\u2014after its production and sale was well underway\u2014the supposed discoverer of the plant, H. W. Sargent, had said nothing about it. He finally broke his silence in the fourteen-page supplement he wrote for the ninth edition of Downing's Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening: \"Abies Canadensis pendula, or Sargenti, as sometimes called, is a very interesting and distinct variety of hemlock,\" Sargent wrote. \"It is as pendulous as a Weeping Cherry, perfectly hardy, and admirably adapted for small places, though as yet very rare, Messrs. Parsons, of Flushing, alone having plants for sale. It is a sport of our native Hemlock, found in the Fishkill Mountains.\" This brief description occurs in the supplement to the 1875 edition of Downing's book but is not included in his 1859 supplement to the sixth edition where fifty-one pages are devoted to \"The Newer Evergreen Ornamental Trees.\" This omission is significant because it suggests that Sargent did not learn about the tree until after 1859. From Fishkill to Philadelphia One of the long-standing questions surrounding the history of Sargent's weeping hemlock concerns the date when it was first propagated for commercial sale. In 1939, Arlow B. Stout of the New York Botanical Garden identified J. R Trumpy, the propagator for the Parsons & Sons Nursery, as the person who visited Fishkill and collected scions from H. W. Sargent's plant, but Stout didn't provide a date for the 14 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 15 trip. Trumpy was a Swiss-born horticulturist who immigrated to America in 1856 to work for the Parsons Nursery.9 When the Parsons brothers split up the nursery in 1872, Trumpy went to work for Samuel's newly established S. B. Parsons & Sons (the name Kissena Nurseries was added later), and their very first Descriptive Catalogue, from 1873, listed him as propagator on the title page. Thanks to a recently discovered article in an 1877 issue of the Moore's Rural New-Yorker\u2014written by the magazine's \"conductor,\" Elbert S. Carmen\u2014we now know what happened when Trumpy went to Fishkill in search of Sargent's weeping hemlock: Grace is not an adjective often serviceable in descriptions of Evergreens, but it is the first that comes to mind in any attempt at describing the Weeping variety of the Hemlock spruce [Abies Canadensis pendula]. The variety is comparatively new and its history interesting. The original tree was, as we learn, in the possession of an old gentleman named BURROW. Mr. J. R. TRUMPY, the well-known propagator of one of the Parsons of Flushing, heard about it, and visited BURROW for the purpose of purchasing the tree. But BURROW would not sell. Mr. TRUMPY, thus disappointed, and having a desire to possess so promising a novelty, which only those who have their hearts in the business can understand, set out for Mr. H. W. SARGENT'S (Fishkill, N. Y.), who, he had been informed, was possessed of a small specimen which, either from a layer or graft, was derived from the original tree of Mr. BURROW'S. Mr. SARGENT was gracious to the enthusiastic TRUMPY, who left him with a pocketful of cions [sic], and from this start the Weeping Hemlock was propagated and disseminated. This stunning description of J. R. Trumpy's trip to Fishkill came as a complete shock to me and upended the traditional story of Sargent's weeping hemlock by asserting that the mysterious Mr. Burrow was in possession of the \"original tree\" and that Sargent's tree had been propagated from Burrow's plant. In light of the publicity that the tree had received prior to 1877, it's surprising that none of the earlier writers\u2014or any of those that came after\u2014 mentioned Burrow, a sign that naming him as discoverer must have been somewhat controversial. The other remarkable thing about Carmen's article is that it is accompanied by the first known illustration of Sargent's weeping hemlock, which shows a healthy young specimen grafted about five feet up on the understock. Curiously, the lingering question of when Trumpy actually visited Fishkill does not get answered until eleven years later when Carmen published a second article about Sargent's weeping hemlock, in an 1888 issue of the Rural New-Yorker, that repeated (and embellished) his earlier story about Trumpy's trip to Fishkill and described how best to use the tree in the garden.10 Carmen ended his article with \"A Note from S. B. Parsons,\" which offhandedly revealed when Trumpy's fateful visit had occurred. \"I do not know the precise age of my Weeping Hemlock, but conjecture it is 25 years old, as it was one of the first we grew when we discovered it in the grounds of Mr. H. W. Sargent in 1861,\" Parsons stated. \"My specimen is 11 feet in height and 13 feet in diameter of foliage. Its height has been obtained by training up a leader, and there is no reason why it cannot be carried 20 feet high.\" In light of this 1861 date, Scott's 1870 prediction that a mature weeping hemlock would be thirty feet high by forty feet across no longer seemed so outlandish. In addition to introducing Burrow into the weeping hemlock story and identifying Sargent's \"small specimen\" of the weeping hemlock as the source of Parsons's first propagation material, both of Carmen's articles present a negative assessment of the attempts to make the tree more ornamental by grafting it \"upon high stocks.\" His 1877 article is particularly blunt: \"But the great expectations of securing an evergreen tree-form of unique and incomparable grace, thus reasonably entertained, have not been fulfilled.\" To support this assessment, Carmen quotes Samuel Parsons as saying, \"We graft it readily upon high stock in the nursery, but it does not thrive as well\u2014the naked stem cracks and suffers and the massive foliage, like most evergreens perched on high stems, is too Facing page: Jean R. Trumpy (right) propagated Sargent's weeping hemlock on behalf of the nurserymen Samuel and Robert Parsons. Samuel (left) began promoting the plant in 1874, the same year that his brother, Robert, offered it in the fall catalogue for R. B. Parsons & Co. PARSONS (T. MEEHAN, 1887)\/ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES; TRUMPY (AMERICAN FLORIST, 1913) AND CATALOGUE (PARSONS, R. B. & CO., 1874)\/BOTH BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY heavy for grace and proportion, and is beaten and tossed by the winds.\" In November of 1877, just four months after Carmen's first article came out, the botanist George Thurber published an article in the magazine he edited, American Agriculturist, which echoed Carmen's negativity about high-grafting weeping hemlocks and published the second known illustration of Sargent's weeping hemlock. The intensity of the debate about whether to graft the weeping hemlock high or low on the understock dates back to 1870 when Scott advocated grafting \"well up on an ordinary hemlock stem\" in his initial description of the tree. In 1874, Samuel Parsons implicitly supported the practice of high-grafting when he stated that such weeping hemlocks were \"more like an evergreen fountain than any tree known.\" In Carmen's 1877 article, however, Parsons came out against high-grafting, and he repeated his opinion ten years later in The Garden, an English publication edited by William Robinson. Curiously, Parsons chose to illustrate this article with an image of an extremely beautiful, twenty-five-year-old specimen growing on the grounds of his nursery that had clearly been high-grafted and trained to a stake. The fact that three prominent horticulturists expressed strong negative opinions about highgrafted weeping hemlocks suggests there must have been serious survival issues with specimens propagated this way. In addition, Parsons com- The first three illustrations of Sargent's weeping hemlock depicted specimens that had been grafted high: The first (bottom) appeared in The Rural New Yorker in 1877. The second (left) appeared in the American Agriculturist that same year. The third illustration ran in The Garden in 1887 and depicted a specimen, grafted in 1862, that was eleven feet tall by thirteen feet across. ALL BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY CARMEN, 1877 THURBER, 1877 PARSONS, 1887 Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 17 mented that such plants were \"too heavy for grace and proportion,\" subtly expressing his preference for the low-growing specimens that, in 1874, he had disparaged as \"trailing upon the ground.\" The first commercial sales of Sargent's weeping hemlock took place in 1874 and 1875 and were followed by the tree's first public showing at the famous 1876 Centennial Exposition in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. In what must have been a remarkable display, 105 exhibits in the \"Ornamental Trees and Shrubs\" division were arranged in the landscape surrounding Horticultural Hall.11 In his 1878 report on the Centennial Exposition, the chairman of the Awards Committee, William Saunders, published a detailed description of eight of these exhibits, only one of which was reported to contain specimens of the weeping hemlock\u2014the Hoopes Brother & Thomas Nurseries of West Chester, Pennsylvania. Amazingly, their display featured three separate varieties of weeping hemlock: Abies Canadensis inverta, pendula, and Sargentii. Contrary to my expectations, Saunders's descriptions of both the S. B. Parsons and R. B. Parsons exhibits noted that varieties of Abies Canadensis were present but did not specifically mention any weeping types. After the exposition ended in November, the commissioners of Fairmount Park arranged to purchase the plants used in the nursery exhibits for planting in the park. According to a December 15, 1876, report by Eli K. Price, chairman of the Committee on Trees and Nurseries for the Fairmount Park Commissioners, many of the nurseries that displayed plants at Horticultural Hall\u2014including Hoopes Brother & Thomas, R. B. Parsons & Co., and S. B. Parson & Sons Co.\u2014\"were actuated by a liberal desire that their collections should remain in the Park, and offered them at prices which they esteemed little over half the cost to them. It was an object to the Commissioners to secure these permanently for our Park, to be transplanted as thinning out shall be required for their healthy growth, and they have been secured by purchase.\" Later records indicate that at least four weeping hemlocks were planted near Horticultural Hall, on a site that had formerly been occupied by the Women's Pavilion.12 Who Deserves Credit? The fact that Scott initially referred to the weeping hemlock as inverta in 1870 but quickly changed it to Sargenti suggests that there might have been an issue deciding who deserved credit for introducing the plant. This idea is supported by the story of the weeping hemlock that Carmen published in 1877, which credited the mysterious \"BURROW\" with discovering the tree. In his second article, from 1888, Carmen made a bold proposal to formalize Burrow's role over that of Sargent's: \"Now this Weeping Hemlock is catalogued as Abies Canadensis Sargentii pendula. Ought not the varietal name to be Burrowii pendula, in justice to the originator? Otherwise we should say that Mr. Trumpy's name should be given, since it was due to him rather than to Mr. Sargent that the tree was introduced.\" It took a while, but I eventually figured out who Burrow was thanks to a pair of advertisements I came across in the January and February 1875 issues of The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Taste. The advertisements\u2014for Burrow, Wood & Co., Mt. Hanas Nurseries\u2014 offered \"a few thousand grafts\" of the weeping hemlock from the \"Original Tree.\" This not only confirmed Carmen's assertion that someone named Burrow played a central role in the weeping hemlock story but also identified him as a nurseryman living in the town of Fishkill. A quick check of the 1880 census records for the town of Fishkill indicated that John G. Burrow was born in 1839 and lists his occupation as \"Hybridizer & Originator of New Variety of grapes.\" He had two partners, the brothers Isaac C. and Joseph J. Wood, both listed in the 1880 census as \"nurseryman.\"13 The Burrow, Wood & Co. advertisements raise the intriguing question of why Sargent insisted in late 1875 that the Parsons brothers were the only ones selling the weeping hemlock when he certainly must have known that Burrow, Wood & Co.\u2014located just five miles from his home in Fishkill Landing\u2014had started selling the plant earlier that year. Could it be that Sargent was annoyed that Burrow claimed to have discovered the weeping hemlock before he did and therefore chose to ignore him? This 18 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 idea is supported by two items in the advertisement: first, an unusual postscript at the end of the advertisement, \"P.S.\u2014 We were the first to send out this very desirable novelty,\" indicates that Burrow, Wood & Co. was directly challenging the Parsonses' claim to have introduced the tree into commerce; and second, by using the name pendula14 to describe the weeping hemlock\u2014as opposed to Sargenti\u2014they were rejecting proposals to attach Sargent's name to the plant. Clearly, the issue of priority had caused bad blood between Burrow and Sargent, especially in light of Carmen's 1877 statement that Burrow had provided Sargent with his first weeping hemlock. One final detail in the Burrow, Wood & Co. advertisement that should be noted is that the name of their nursery, \"Mt. Hanas,\" is an alternate spelling for what is now called Honness Mountain\u2014the same location where both Maxwell and Scott said the weeping hemlock had been discovered. An 1867 map of Dutchess County by Frederick W. Beers clearly shows \"Mount Honness Nursery, Burrow & Wood\" located about a half-mile west of the center of Fishkill. The map also shows the home of \"J. Burrow\" nestled into the south slope of Honness Mountain. I suspect that this coincidence is best explained by the fact that both Maxwell and Scott were referring to the specimen of the tree\u2014\"The Original Tree\"\u2014that Burrow had growing on his property rather than to one he had found growing in the wild. An Evolving Myth Following its commercial debut in the mid- 1870s, Sargent's weeping hemlock became something of a horticultural sensation. In 1897, fifteen years after Sargent's death, his cousin Charles Sprague Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, attempted to formalize the tree's origin story in a Garden and Forest An 1875 advertisement for Burrow, Wood & Co. confirmed the role of an enigmatic character in the weeping hemlock story: John G. Burrow, a nurseryman who lived at the base of Honness Mountain. ADVERTISEMENT (BURROW, WOOD & CO., 1875)\/BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY; DUTCHESS COUNTY, NY, MAP (1867)\/DAVID RUMSEY MAP COLLECTION, DAVID RUMSEY MAP CENTER, STANFORD LIBRARIES Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 19 article. He noted that the plant had been found \"about forty years ago on the Fishkill Mountains, in New York, and was first cultivated and made known by Mr. H. W. Sargent \u2026 Several of these plants were originally found together and transplanted and the largest of them which I have seen is on the Howland estate, in Matteawan, New York, and is now about twenty five feet across. This variety has been propagated by grafting the branches on the ordinary Hemlock, but in a few years, the grafted plants form an erect stem and lose the dense low habit which is the charm of the original seedlings.\" Keeping in mind that Sargent's statement was written some forty years after the events described, it puts the date of the discovery at \"about\" 1857. For the first time, the article also reports that \"several plants were found together and transplanted,\" but it does not say by whom. Indeed, Sargent carefully counters Scott's 1870 suggestion that H. W. Sargent was the discoverer of the \"seedlings\" by noting that he was the one who \"first cultivated and made known\" the tree. Sargent followed his cousin's lead by not mentioning John Burrow or Honness Mountain, but he does weigh in on the high-grafting debate by expressing his preference for the lowbranched \"seedlings.\" Sargent's article is also noteworthy because it mentions that one of the original plants was growing at the Howland estate in the village of Matteawan (now Beacon), New York. This marks the first time that General Joseph Howland is mentioned in connection with the weeping hemlock, but Sargent does not credit him with its discovery. This attribution came fifteen years later, in 1912, in an unsigned article in the Arnold Arboretum's Bulletin of Popular Information written by Sargent's colleague Ernest H. Wilson:15 Many years ago, four or five plants of this form [Tsuga canadensis var. pendula] were found by Taxonomist Alfred Rehder photographed the Sargent's weeping hemlock at Holm Lea, in Brookline, in 1900. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 20 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 the late Joseph Howland of Mattapan [sic], New York, on one of the mountains back of Fishkill Landing on the Hudson River and were named by him Sargent's Hemlock for his friend and neighbor Henry Winthrop Sargent. One or perhaps two of these wild plants are now living, although the variety has been much propagated by nurserymen by grafting its branches on the common Hemlock \u2026 The plant in the Arboretum on Hemlock Hill Road is a grafted plant, but at Holm Lea in Brookline there is one of General Howland's original plants. In Wilson's retelling of the weeping hemlock story, he makes several mistakes: first, he confuses Howland's hometown of Matteawan with a Boston suburb, Mattapan, and then he goes on to identify Howland as the discoverer of Sargent's weeping hemlock when no one else mentioned him in this role. The saving grace of Wilson's article is that he mentions, for the first time, that one of the original weeping hemlocks was growing at C. S. Sargent's private estate, Holm Lea. In 1923, the British horticulturist Murray Hornibrook put the finishing touches on this widely cited but factually challenged version of the weeping hemlock story in Dwarf and Slow-Growing Conifers: \"Professor Sargent informs me that the nurseryman's stock has all been produced from grafts from the four original plants found near the summit of Fishkill Mountain (near Beacon City, on the Hudson River) by General Joseph Howland about 1870. The finder grew one in his own garden at Matteawan, N.Y., gave the second to Mr. Henry Winthrop Sargent of Fishkill; the third to Mr. H. H. Hunnewell16 of Wellesley, Mass., and the fourth to Professor C. S. Sargent of Brookline, Mass. The second and third are dead, but the first and fourth have made very fine specimens.\" The Horton Hemlock Hornibrook's Sargent-approved version of the weeping hemlock story from 1923 received its first serious challenge in 1939, when Arlow B. Stout of the New York Botanical Garden announced to the world that \"the largest and presumably the oldest specimen of this type (Tsuga canadensis var. pendula) is a tree that stands in stately splendor in its original wild location on the mountainside overlooking the hamlet of Hortontown,\" about eight and a half miles as the crow flies from H. W. Sargent's home in Fishkill Landing. According to Stout, \"My first knowledge of this tree was during 1937 when it came into view as I passed by auto along the newly constructed Eastern State Parkway [now the Taconic State Parkway].\" The tree was sixteen feet tall and had a single trunk\u2014eighteen inches in diameter\u2014that was unbranched for its first five feet. Stout interviewed the owner of the tree, Joseph Horton, who told him that he had known the tree \"since sixty-five years [1874] and that it was then at least one half as large as it is now.\" In February 1980, when I first visited the Horton hemlock, it was owned by Jacob Veldhuis, who was using the tree\u2014which was over eighteen feet tall and thirty-one feet across\u2014as a kind of storage shed, a use to which it was admirably, if ignobly, suited. The pendant branches concealed no less than half a cord of wood, a hundred-gallon oil tank, a ladder, a wheelbarrow, several packages of shingles, and innumerable other artifacts of country life. The branches that formed the tree's canopy grew out from the trunk at about eight feet, and within the canopy, considerable self-grafting occurred where the branches touched one another. In his 1939 article, Stout noted that the Horton hemlock was growing \"close to a dwelling,\" but I was surprised to see that it was only about twenty feet away from the corner of the house\u2014a fact that cast some doubt in my mind on Stout's \"original wild location\" hypothesis, as did the tree's single, unbranched trunk. This doubt was reinforced by the fact that I had been told that the so-called \"Knapp house\" where the tree was growing predated the American Revolution. At the same time, however, I chose to ignore the fact that the tree was growing at the edge of a relatively steep, rocky slope where it was unlikely to have been planted. Having seen the Horton hemlock in the flesh, I felt the need to learn more about it, so Facing page: Eva Scofield, photographed in 1938 (bottom), stands with the Horton weeping hemlock. The tree grew outside of a family home that first appeared on maps as \"E. Horton, Grocery\" in 1876. The author first visited and photographed the plant in 1980. SCOFIELD\/HAMILTON, ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES; HORTON HEMLOCK IN 1980\/PETER DEL TREDICI; PUTNAM COUNTY, NY, 1876\/PUTNAM COUNTY HISTORIAN'S OFFICE DIGITAL COLLECTION 22 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 I persuaded Jack Karnig, chief forester at the nearby (and now disbanded) Harvard Black Rock Forest in Cornwall, New York, to take core samples from the lowest branches on the tree\u2014at heights of five and six feet\u2014in order to calculate its age. The cores that Jack sent me in March of 1980 came with the following note: \"Your hemlock was a son of a b----. Twice I bored and got nothing. Finally got a reserve borer (smaller one) and managed to pull two cores.\" Under the dissecting microscope at the Arboretum, I counted 119 rings in the lower of the two cores\u2014with an average width of 0.5 millimeters\u2014which meant that the tree was at least five feet tall in 1860. In other words, the Horton hemlock was already a substantial tree when Burrow and Sargent first learned about it! While I was surprised by the 1860 date, I was still skeptical that the tree was growing in its original wild location given its single-trunk form and its proximity to the house. My suspicions were confirmed a year later when I unexpectedly discovered two photographs of the Horton hemlock in the Arnold Arboretum Archives. They were taken in May 1938 by Ormond Hamilton, a noted conifer enthusiast from Conway, Massachusetts, and the handwritten caption on the back of one of them stated that the tree was \"growing on place of Miss Eva Horton, Horton Town, Hopewell Junction, N. Y. This is not far from Beacon, N. Y. It was transplanted from mountain back of Beacon to its present site by Miss Horton's grandfather.\" I was stunned by this discovery, and in 1983, when I published my book on Sargent's weeping hemlock, I rejected Stout's theory that the Horton hemlock was the original tree in its original location and postulated instead that \"grandfather Horton discovered at least five weeping hemlock seedlings on the mountains between Hortontown and Beacon, New York. Sometime after 1859 but before 1865, he collected one plant for himself (and staked it) and sold the rest to H. W. Sargent.\" At the time, I naively thought I had finally solved the mystery of Sargent's weeping hemlock. Inspired by my book, Dennis Murphy of Warwick, New York, wrote me a letter on July 17, 1986, describing how he had visited the Horton hemlock in the company of a local dairy farmer, Vern Jackson, who told him that the house adjacent to the tree had been used as a store for many years. Murphy also spoke with Smith Townsend, one of the oldest residents in the area, who told him that Eva Horton's grandfather Alvah never lived in the house and that her father, Joseph, did not move there until \"after the death of Enoch Horton [in 1913] who was the last proprietor of the store.\" According to Townsend, Enoch, Alvah, and Joseph Horton were all buried in the cemetery located behind the old Calvary Methodist Church on Hortontown Road, and indeed, when Murphy visited the cemetery, he located the tombstones for both Alvah and Enoch. When I received Murphy's letter, I had no idea what to think given that it upended my published version of the origin of Sargent's weeping hemlock. I thanked Dennis for his letter and filed it away. And that's where things sat until 2015, when, by chance, I came across a statement by H. W. Sargent, from 1880, about who really discovered the weeping hemlock. This unexpected discovery got me thinking about the tree again and prompted me to pull out my old files where I rediscovered the letter from Dennis Murphy and the questions it had raised. One thing led to another and, with the help of the internet and several local historians, I was able to piece together the history of the Horton family farm. It turns out that the house where the tree was located\u2014now listed as 339 Hortontown Road, Hopewell Junction\u2014was not pre-Revolutionary at all but had been constructed by Enoch Horton in 1874, on an acre of land he acquired from his father, Jefferson Horton, for the price of one dollar.17 A local map from 1876 shows 339 Hortontown Road as \"E. Horton Grocery\" just as Vern Jackson had remembered. The same map, as well as one from 1854, shows Jefferson Horton's house just down the road apiece. According to Smith Townsend (as reported by Dennis Murphy), Alvah Horton lived about a half mile away from Jefferson Horton on Long Hill Road, and Alvah's son, Joseph, moved into the house on Hortontown Road after Enoch Horton's death in 1913. In 1939, Joseph Horton told Stout that he had \"known\" the weeping hemlock since 1874\u2014 when he was thirteen years old\u2014which coin- \u222b Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 23 cidentally was the date that Enoch Horton acquired land from his father and would have begun clearing the land around the weeping hemlock in order to build his house. In 1938, Joseph Horton's daughter, Eva Scofield, told Ormond Hamilton that her grandfather had transplanted the tree \"to its present site,\" but this is highly unlikely since her grandfather Alvah never lived in the house where the tree was located. Given that the Horton hemlock was at least five feet tall in 1860, the most plausible explanation for why it was growing where it was is that it had always been there. The Internet to the Rescue As stated above, my research on Sargent's weeping hemlock remained dormant until 2015, when in the course of doing internet research on the history of the introduction of Japanese plants into North America,18 I came across an article from 1880 by Samuel Parsons Jr., the son of nurseryman Samuel B. Parsons and an eminent landscape architect and horticulturist in his own right. The article was a transcript of a \"prize lecture\" Parsons delivered in Boston before a meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on January 17, 1880. In his talk, Parsons described in detail\u2014and at length\u2014 how best to use the flood of new woody plants that were coming into the market, especially Japanese species recently introduced by his father's company, Kissena Nurseries. Three-quarters of the way into his presentation, Parsons mentioned Sargent's weeping hemlock. \"If the broad-leaved hemlock [Abies Canadensis macrophylla] is somewhat stern and masculine in its outline,\" Parsons began, \"the weeping hemlock [Abies Canadensis pendula Sargentii] is essentially feminine in its graceful curves and fountain-like sprays of green.\" Parsons went on to credit H. W. Sargent for discovering the tree \"about twenty years ago [1860], near his place, at Fishkill on the Hudson, and moved by his enthusiasm and appreciation of choice ornamental trees, entrusted it for propagation to the distinguished expert, J. R. Trumpy.\" As I reached the end of Parsons's article, a paragraph appended to the conclusion of his lecture caught my attention. In it, the chairman of the Saturday morning meeting, the nurseryman William C. Strong of Brighton, Massachusetts, thanked Parsons for his lecture and then said that he was going to cut the discussion short so that the attendees could hear from \"a gentleman well known to be thoroughly versed in the subject before the meeting, and the editor of the new edition of Downing's Landscape Gardening\u2014Henry Winthrop Sargent, of Fishkill, N.Y., of whose presence he desired the Society to have the advantage.\" Strong went on to report that \"Mr. Sargent spoke first of the weeping hemlock, which was first introduced by him, and which he said was a very good 'find' by an old farmer on the mountains back of his (Mr. Sargent's) house. He has the largest tree of it, which is eight feet high, and spreads from fifteen to twenty feet. He has assisted the leader by tying it up to a stake. It is difficult of propagation.\" This brief quote\u2014a proverbial smoking gun\u2014 struck with the force of a thunderbolt. Shockingly, Sargent contradicted Parsons who, just a few minutes earlier, had claimed that Sargent had discovered the weeping hemlock. No, says Sargent, the tree was found by an \"old farmer\" who had a large specimen of it at his home. The fact that Sargent specifically says, \"He has assisted the leader by tying it up to a stake\" is undoubtedly a reference to the single-stemmed Horton hemlock. In addition, Sargent's use of the present tense indicates that the \"old farmer\" who found the weeping hemlock was still alive as of 1880. Assuming a discovery date in the late 1850s, Enoch Horton, born in 1846, would have been too young to qualify as Sargent's \"old farmer.\" But his father, Jefferson Horton (1804-1888), was still living at the time of the lecture and would have fit the bill\u2014especially given that the 1860 census lists his occupation as \"farmer.\" Taken together, all the evidence indicates that Jefferson Horton discovered Sargent's weeping hemlock growing wild on his own property. The size of the Horton hemlock in 1880\u2014 eight feet high by fifteen to twenty feet across\u2014 coupled with my tree ring data showing that the tree was at least five feet tall in 1860, strongly suggests that Frank Scott had seen the tree and used it as the basis for his prediction that Sargent's weeping hemlock would reach a mature size of thirty by forty feet. It also seems possible 24 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 that John Burrow knew about the Horton weeping hemlock and that it was the \"Original Tree\" he referred to in his advertisement from which he had produced \"a few thousand grafts.\" Hemlock Layering Around the time that I discovered H. W. Sargent's bombshell statement in 2015, I was also working on an article documenting the layering behavior of hemlocks growing wild on Wachusett Mountain, in central Massachusetts.19 My research showed that the low-hanging branches of stunted hemlocks growing on exposed, rocky sites can form adventitious roots where they come in contact with the soil and, over time, readjust their orientation from horizontal to vertical. In a moment of clarity, it dawned to me that the layering behavior of hemlocks that I had observed on Wachusett Mountain might be relevant to Jefferson Horton's discovery of the weeping hemlock. Could it be that the low-growing \"seedlings\" that C. S. Sargent first mentioned in 1897 were actually rooted branch layers dug up from the periphery of the wild weeping tree that Horton discovered? To my mind, finding a lone weeping hemlock with attached branch layers is much more plausible than finding five virtually identical mutant seedlings growing in one place. If there was just one original weeping tree sprawling across the ground, then it was probably growing on a sunny, exposed site with thin soil\u2014similar to the examples that I observed on Wachusett Mountain\u2014and its strongly pendulous lower branches would have been retained long enough to develop into layers. If this layering theory is applied to Sargent's weeping hemlock, it seems likely that when The size and age of the Horton weeping hemlock, photographed here in 1938, suggests that it was the original tree\u2014 staked in the location where Jefferson Horton found it. The photographer, Ormond Hamilton, reported that the trunk measured twenty-two inches in diameter at three feet off the ground. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 25 Jefferson Horton discovered the weeping hemlock on a steep, rocky slope on his own property, it would have been growing prostrate along the ground. Assuming the tree behaved like the ones I saw on Wachusett Mountain, he might well have dug up a couple of the layered branches and sold them to Burrow and Sargent. He then tied a branch on the remaining plant to a stake to create a single trunk. It also seems possible that he might have induced his tree to form the additional layers by pinning its pendulous branches to the ground. Evidence for the layering of Sargent's weeping hemlock comes from multiple sources: First, many of the mature, multistemmed specimens of the tree display layered lower branches. In fact, Al Fordham, a former propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, successfully removed one such layer, in 1966, from the weeping hemlock that C. S. Sargent had planted at his Brookline estate, Holm Lea. Second, when the nurseryman Jacob C. van Heiningen20 spoke to Stout about the origins of Sargent's weeping hemlock, in 1939, he reported that he had stopped grafting the hemlock because of their poor survival rate and that he had propagated several hundred plants by \"the old fashioned way of layering which is naturally perfect, as they are on their own roots.\"21 Third, H. W. Sargent himself never used the word seedling, but instead called the plant \"a sport of our native Hemlock.\" Sport is an old-fashioned horticultural term that describes a mutant plant that obviously deviates from the normal type. In his 1874 article \"Evergreens, Novelties and Dwarfs,\" Maxwell also uses the term \"Sports of Nature\" to describe various mutant conifers and points to the weeping hemlock sport found on \"Mt. Hounes\" as an example of \"a real deformity\" that became a \"thing of beauty\" after receiving proper horticultural treatment (high-grafting and staking). Perhaps the most convincing bits of evidence for the theory that Sargent's weeping hemlock was derived from a single plant comes from the Burrow, Wood & Co. advertisement that referred to an \"Original Tree\" and from Carmen's 1877 statement that Sargent's tree at Wodenethe, \"either from a layer or graft, was derived from the original tree of Mr. BURROW'S.\" Taken together, all of these early references clearly suggest that Jefferson Horton's original discovery consisted of a single tree that he propagated by layering\u2014the \"single sport theory\"\u2014 rather than the \"multiple seedlings theory\" proposed by C. S. Sargent some forty years after Horton's initial discovery. Indeed, Sargent's statement that \"the dense low habit which is the charm of the original seedlings\" implies a level of uniformity that is more characteristic of vegetatively propagated layers than a group of genetically distinct seedlings.22 As I reported in A Giant Among the Dwarfs, there is considerable variation in the size and form of the oldest specimens of Sargent's weeping hemlock as well as considerable debate as to whether these differences are genetic or the result of horticultural practices.23 The surprisingly heated debate about the merits of highgrafting among the horticulturists of the day make it clear that the different appearances of the original specimens are a reflection of their mode of propagation\u2014layering versus grafting\u2014 and whether or not they were staked.24 The Final Story Putting all this information together, I can now present the most likely\u2014and hopefully final\u2014version of the Sargent's weeping hemlock story: Sometime in the 1850s, \"an old farmer,\" Jefferson Horton, discovered a wild weeping hemlock growing on his property in Hortontown (Hopewell Junction), New York. The tree, which was rediscovered by A. B. Stout in 1937, was growing in its original wild location about twenty feet from the house and grocery store that Jefferson Horton's son Enoch had built in 1874. Sometime prior to 1861, John Burrow learned about Horton's weeping hemlock and obtained a layer, which he planted on his own property on Honness Mountain in Fishkill. Around the same time, Henry Winthrop Sargent also learned about the weeping hemlock and obtained a layer of it from either John Burrow or Jefferson Horton. The specimens that both men were growing were relatively small when J. R. Trumpy of Parsons & Sons Nursery visited Fishkill in 1861 looking for propagation material. After Burrow refused to sell him his tree, Trumpy visited Sargent who gave him some 26 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 scions, and he grafted these when he returned to Flushing. At some point, Sargent obtained at least three additional weeping hemlock layers from either his own tree or from Horton's tree. He planted one of them at General Joseph Howland's estate, Tioronda, in Matteawan, New York; gave a second to his cousin C. S. Sargent, who planted it on his estate, Holm Lea, in Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1871; and gave the third to his kinsman Horatio Hollis Hunnewell of Wellesley, Massachusetts. Josiah Hoopes published the first description of the weeping hemlock in 1868. Frank J. Scott gave the tree its first Latin name, Abies canadensis inverta, in 1870, and later that year published the first proper description of Sargent's weeping hemlock under the name Abies canadensis Sargenti. Robert B. Parsons & Co. of Flushing, New York, was the first nursery to offer the tree for sale in the fall of 1874, and his brother, Samuel, started writing about it in horticultural magazines around the same time. Burrow, Wood & Co., Mt. Hanas Nursery of Fishkill, began offering grafts of the \"Original Tree\"\u2014Jefferson Horton's tree\u2014in January 1875 under the name Abies canadensis Pendula, the first time this name was applied to the plant. At least four specimens of Sargent's weeping hemlock were put on public display at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia in 1876 and were later planted out on the grounds of Fairmount Park. Elbert Carmen published the first illustration of Sargent's weeping hemlock in 1877, followed a few months later by a second one from George Thurber, and a third from S. B. Parsons in 1887. In 1937, Arlow B. Stout rediscovered Jefferson Horton's specimen of Sargent's weeping hemlock in Hortontown, about four miles southeast of Fishkill and eight miles from Beacon. The convoluted story of Sargent's weeping hemlock\u2014which should by rights be called Horton's weeping hemlock\u2014is a cautionary tale about the confusion and infighting that often surrounds the issue of who gets credit for the discovery and introduction of a new plant as well as the myth-making that sets in once the facts have been clouded by the passage of time.25 Nomenclature In 1983, I accepted Alfred Rehder's 1949 determination that the correct scientific name for Sargent's weeping hemlock was Tsuga canadensis forma pendula. I did this because of C. S. Sargent's assertion that the original discovery consisted of \"several seedlings\" found in the wild fit the technical requirements of a botanical forma.26 Because I now know that the original specimens of Sargent's weeping hemlock were actually layers from a single plant, the tree should be reclassified as a horticultural cultivar.27 In the light of this new information, the relevant question becomes what the \"correct\" cultivar name for Sargent's weeping hemlock should be rather than what rank it should be. According to Article 29.2 of the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants,28 \"When there are two or more names in use for the same cultivar \u2026 the name that best preserves existing use is to be chosen as the accepted name by the appropriate International Registration Authority without regard to any rank in which those epithets might have been established or to the principle of priority.\" Scott's first epithet, inverta, from 1870 is clearly out of the running given that it lacked a proper description and it last appeared in print in 1876. Scott's second 1870 proposal, Sargenti, was properly described and is in wide use today as 'Sargentii'.29 Pendula came late to the party, first appearing in 1875, and seems to be used more commonly today than Sargentii. In 1983, I chose to use the name pendula because I thought that the tree was a botanical forma and the German botanist Beissner, in 1887, was the first author to describe Sargent's weeping hemlock as a forma with the name pendula. Now that I know Sargent's weeping hemlock is actually a cultivar, I prefer using the name 'Sargentii' because it helps clarify the distinction between the two categories. I also like the name 'Sargentii' because it has temporal priority and reflects the plant's common name, but it's up to the International Registrar to make the final determination. Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 27 HORTONTOWN: Based on branch core data, the single-trunked Horton hemlock was at least 5 feet tall in 1860, making this the oldest known specimen of Sargent's weeping hemlock. In 1880, H. W. Sargent said the tree was 8 feet tall by 15 to 20 feet across. In 1980, it was 18.3 feet tall by 31 feet across with a trunk diameter of 24.5 inches. When I visited the tree in December 2018, it was completely dead but still standing with a trunk diameter of 28.3 inches. A picture of the tree on the internet from spring 2015\u2014when the house at 339 Hortontown Road, Hopewell Junction, New York, was put up for sale\u2014shows it to be in poor condition. In a Google Earth image of the site on April 16, 2016, the tree appears dead. WODENETHE: Henry Winthrop Sargent purchased the twenty-two-acre parcel of land that became Wodenethe in 1841 and described the evolution of its landscape in the supplement to the sixth edition of Andrew Jackson Downing's Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, published in 1859. Sargent died in 1882, but the property remained in the family until 1921, when the house and grounds were sold and incorporated it into the Craig House Sanatorium. In 1955, Wodenethe was sold to a developer. The house was burned down as part of a fire-training session by the Beacon Engine Company in order to prepare the land for subdivision and housing construction. The first reference to a weeping hemlock at Wodenethe came in 1868 from Hoopes, and the last came from Maxwell, in 1874, who called it \"one of the most interesting and ornamental plants in his entire collection.\" As for the question of when Sargent's tree might have died, it is worth noting that Charles Sprague Sargent made no mention of a weeping hemlock in the article he wrote about Wodenethe in 1897. Current Status of Notable Sargent's Weeping Hemlocks TIORONDA: In 1859, Joseph Howland purchased sixty-five acres of land as a site for his country estate, Tioronda, in the village of Matteawan, on the other side of Fishkill Creek from the home of H. W. Sargent. Construction of the house was completed in 1861 while Howland was off fighting the Civil War. He returned home with the rank of brigadier general. Sargent oversaw the laying out of the grounds for Howland, and at some point, he planted a layer from the original weeping hemlock near the entrance. Howland died in 1886, and his widow sold the estate in 1911. In 1915, the property was converted into America's first privately run psychiatric center and renamed The Hortontown weeping hemlock 1981 (above) and standing dead in 2018. Note the Taconic Parkway in the background. ALL \"CURRENT STATUS\" PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS NOTED 28 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 Craig House.30 The facility closed its doors in 1999.31 The tree was heavily pruned in the late 1990s or early 2000s and treated for hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). In December 2018, the Tioronda specimen was 16 feet tall and 40 feet by 34 feet across and had four major trunks with basal diameters ranging from 16 to 29 inches. HOLM LEA: H. W. Sargent also provided a weeping hemlock to his cousin Charles Sprague Sargent, who planted the specimen at Holm Lea, in Brookline, Massachusetts. According to the caption on the back of a May 1923 photo, located in the Arnold Arboretum archives, the tree was planted in 1871. When I measured it in 1980, it was 7.5 feet tall and 32.5 feet across with multiple trunks emerging from the ground. On February 23, 1984, the tree was destroyed by a fire of suspicious origin, perhaps set by some teenagers who were reported in the vicinity of the tree that night. Indeed, the tree had long been an attraction for neighborhood children who called it \"The Fort\" and often played beneath its pendant branches. The Arnold Arboretum collected a layer off of the Holm Lea tree in 1966, and the resulting plant (accession 655-66*A) is currently 7.6 feet tall and 17.3 by 15.5 feet across with a basal trunk diameter of 16 inches. HUNNEWELL: H. W. Sargent described the making of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell's estate in Wellesley, Massachusetts, in his 1859 supplement to the sixth edition of Downing's book, in the same chapter that described the creation of Wodenethe. Hunnewell was married to Isabella Wells, H. W. Sargent's first cousin, and through this connection was also related to C. S. Sargent. Some people have suggested that a large weeping hemlock in the Hun- The Tioronda weeping hemlock in 1980 and December 2018 (top two). The Holm Lea weeping hemlock in 1980 and in 1984, with Gus Kelley, after the fire. Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 29 newell Pinetum might have been one of H. W. Sargent's original plants because of its multistemmed form, but it does not appear on an 1895 map of the collection. In 1923, Murray Hornibrook\u2014on C. S. Sargent's authority\u2014announced that one of the original seedlings went to Hunnewell but that it had died. In 2012, the estate's longtime horticulturist, David Dusenbury, uncovered a reference from the late 1920s among the unpublished writings of Theophilus D. Hatfield, who worked at the Hunnewell estate from 1887 until 1929: \"The original plant [of Sargent's weeping hemlock] I believe is still on the late professor Sargent's estate in Brookline. Our plant, of course, is a graft, and indeed a very handsome specimen, admired by all visitors.\" As of 2019, the tree measured 22 feet tall and 47.5 feet by 42.2 feet across; it has four large trunks with breast-height diameters ranging from 13 to 27 inches. FAIRMOUNT PARK: Following the end of the 1876 Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, at least four weeping hemlocks were sold to the Fairmount Park Commission and planted near Horticultural Hall, on a site that had formerly been occupied by the Women's Pavilion. In 1896, Joseph Meehan reported that the four trees were \"a source of much interest to the numerous visitors to the park. Having been grown for twenty years, they excel [sic] probably any other specimens in these parts. They are about six feet high and eight feet in width.\" In 1939, they ranged in size from 12 to 14 feet tall. When I visited the park in 1994, all four trees were still alive, and the largest specimen measured between 34.5 feet tall and 40 by 50 feet across with a basal trunk diameter of 31 inches. In November 2018, only this tree and one other were still alive. The Hunnewell weeping hemlock in 1930 and 2010 (top two). The Fairmount Park weeping hemlocks in 1938 and one in November 2018. A. B. STOUT, ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES H. G. MAYER, ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 30 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 ARNOLD ARBORETUM: A singlestemmed, grafted specimen (accession 1514-2*A) was propagated in 1881 from scions taken from a grafted plant received from S. B. Parsons & Sons, Kissena Nurseries in 1880. In 1980, a large branch with sixty-six growth rings was removed from the tree 6 feet up the stem, indicating that it was at least this tall in 1913. As of December 2018, the tree was 16 feet tall by 25 feet across with a trunk diameter at breast height of 19.4 inches; its trunk had a pronounced lean to it and structural roots near the base were protruding out from the ground. LOVE LANE: Claiming to have found the largest anything is always a risky proposition, but with that caveat, the largest weeping hemlock I have seen is growing in a lawn on a private estate in Weston, Massachusetts. It was planted in the early 1900s on property owned by John G. Freeman and his wife, Caroline Case, the sister of Marian Case, who established Hillcrest Farms at the Case Estates.32 In 1980, this giant, multistemmed specimen of Sargent's weeping hemlock was 19 feet tall and 47 feet by 43 feet wide. In 2018, it was 22 feet tall and 79 feet by 70 feet across with eight huge, ribbon-shaped stems with diameters ranging between 20 and 32 inches. It's a truly magnificent tree, but the main trunk was starting to split apart and one of its upper limbs had broken, leaving a large hole in the once closed canopy. The Arnold Arboretum's oldest weeping hemlock (1514-2*A) in September 1945 and June 2019 (top two). The Sargent's weeping hemlock on Love Lane in 2019 and, showing the branching structure, in 2016. J. F. ROCK, ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 31 DEDICATION This article is dedicated to the memory of Gus Kelley of Little Compton, Rhode Island, who first inspired me to take up the study of Sargent's weeping hemlock. Endnotes 1 Jenkins, 1946 2 According to A Book of the United States, edited by G. Mellen and published in 1838: \"The Highlands of the Hudson, or Fishkill Mountains, which first appear about forty miles from New York, are marked for their sublimity and grandeur, and interesting from their connection with many great events of the revolution. This chain is sixteen miles in width, and extends twenty miles along both sides of the Hudson.\" 3 Smith (1856) paints a vivid picture of Wodenethe in all its glory, and Spingarn (1937) documents the significant role that Sargent played in the history of American horticulture not only as a writer and plant collector but also a horticultural innovator. He was one of the first Americans to use a lawn mower and marveled, in 1855, at how it could do in eight hours what \"formerly occupied two men and a boy the better part of nine days to do, and infinitely better too.\" 4 Sargent's ideas about gardening were heavily influenced by the writings of the British horticulturist J. C. Loudon. According to Spingarn (1937), \"Loudon's 'gardenesque style' became Sargent's ideal, as it became that of the Arnold Arboretum\u2014in other words, an arboretum landscaped like a park-like English estate.\" 5 The earliest scientific name for the eastern hemlock, also known as the hemlock fir or hemlock spruce, was Pinus canadensis, bestowed by Linnaeus in 1763. Andr\u00e9 Michaux changed it to Abies canadensis in 1796, and in 1855, the French botanist L. Carri\u00e8re created the genus Tsuga to encompass all hemlocks and assigned the name Tsuga canadensis to the eastern hemlock, a change that was accepted slowly. 6 Apparently Honness Mountain is a corruption of the Dutch term hondenneus, meaning \"dog's nose.\" 7 Plans VIII, IX, XIII, XIV, XV, XVI, and XVII also feature \"Sargent's hemlock, Abies canadensis inverta.\" 8 Williams, 1872; Hoopes, 1875 9 Jean Rudolph Trumpy was born in Glarus, Switzerland, in 1830 and died on May 21, 1913; he worked in the gardens of the King of Bavaria before coming to America in 1856 (A. F. F., 1913). 10 The illustration that Carmen used with his article is of a specimen at Parsons's Nursery and first appeared in an article that S. B. Parsons wrote for The Garden in 1887; it also appeared in an unsigned 1887 article in the Horticultural Art Journal, volume 2, page 72. 11 T. Meehan, 1876 12 Rothrock, 1880; Jenkins, 1933 13 See also the 1910 obituary of Isaac C. Wood, published in Horticulture, 12(5): 156. 14 This advertisement constitutes the first use of the epithet Pendula to describe Sargent's weeping hemlock. 15 The article can be ascribed to Wilson due to the fact that he reprinted much the same information\u2014including the mistakes and much of the same phrasing\u2014in an article he wrote for The Garden Magazine in 1920. 16 Horatio Hollis Hunnewell was married to Isabella Wells, H. W. Sargent's first cousin (Sutton, 1970). 17 Sallie Sypher, deputy historian for Putnam County, located the Horton Claim Deed (executed on June 10, 1874) in Liber 67, pp. 21-22 at the Putnam County Clerk's Office. 18 Del Tredici, 2017 19 Del Tredici and Orwig, 2017 20 Van Heiningen established South Wilton Nurseries in Wilton, Connecticut, in the early 1900s. 21 See Hoopes (1868) and Wells (1955) for a description of layering in nursery practice. 22 It is tempting to speculate that the tendency of Sargent's weeping hemlock to \"come true\" from seed (first observed in 1906) provides evidence for Sargent's seedling theory (Jenkins, 1935; Stout, 1939; Del Tredici, 1983). The parsimony principle (Occam's Razor), however, suggests that propagating six layers off one parent tree is more likely than finding six identical seedlings growing in a single location. 23 Bean, 1914; Stout, 1939; Swartley, 1984 24 My own research at the Arnold Arboretum demonstrated that, after four years, grafted plants of two dwarf hemlock clones, 'Nana' and 'Cole's Prostrate', were significantly larger and broader than cutting-grown plants on their own roots (Del Tredici, 1985). Presumably these differences were due to the fact that a grafted plant is \"bi-genomic,\" with a normal root system and a dwarf top, while both the roots and the shoots of a cutting-grown plant are derived from the same dwarf genome. As regards staking, the early propagators knew that tying the leader to a stake dramatically increases both a plant's height and the speed of its growth. 25 In St. George and the Pygmies (1984), I describe the tangled story of Tsuga canadensis 'Minuta', which bears remarkable similarities to the story of Sargent's weeping hemlock. 26 According to Davis and Haywood (1965), the rank of forma (abbreviated f.) is the lowest unit of botanical classification and describes a single-character variation with a random distribution within a natural plant population. While horticultural taxonomy still uses the forma designation, it has fallen out of favor in botanical taxonomy. 27 In 1953, the horticultural concept of the cultivar was introduced as the preferred way to describe plants that have undergone some degree of human selection. Over time, the cultivar name in single quotes has largely 32 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 supplanted the use of the botanical concept of forma to describe horticultural selections. With woody plants, the cultivar name is typically, but not always, used to describe asexually propagated clones. 28 Brickell et al., 2016 29 According to the rules of nomenclature, when a plant name is derived from a person's name that ends in a consonant, the letters ii are added to it. 30 Craig House hosted many famous \"guests,\" including F. Scott Fitzgerald's wife, Zelda; Frances Seymour, the wife of Henry Fonda and mother of Jane Fonda; Rosemary Kennedy, after her catastrophic lobotomy; and the actors Jackie Gleason and Marilyn Monroe. 31 In 1933, Jenkins describes meeting Clarence Slocum, who initially managed Craig House. I met with his son Jonathan on several occasions in the 1980s, and on my last visit, he gave me the remains of H. W. Sargent's library as a donation to the Arnold Arboretum Archives. 32 According to the \"Love Lane Historical Narrative\" on the Town of Weston website, the landscape plan for the Freeman\/Paine house at 55 Love Lane was drawn up in 1901. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.weston. org\/687\/Love-Lane-Area-Historical-Narrative References A. F. F. 1913. Obituary, Jean Rudolph Trumpy. The American Florist 40(1304): 1059. See also: Anon. 1913. Obituary, J. R. Trumpy. Horticulture 17(22): 844; Anon. 1913. Noted horticulturist dead. New York Times: May 24, 1913: 4. Bean, W. J. 1914. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. London: John Murray. Beissner, L. 1887. Systematische eintheinlung der coniferen. F. L. Winterlich: Dresden. Brickell, C. D., Alexander, C., Cubby, J. J., David, J. C., Hoffman, M. H. A., Leslie, A. C., Mal\u00e9cot, V., and Jin, X. 2016. International code of nomenclature for cultivated plants (9th ed.). Leuven: International Society for Horticultural Science. Burrow, Wood & Co. 1875. Weeping hemlock grafts [Advertisement]. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 30(343): 1; and 30(344): 5. Carmen, E. S. 1877, July 21. The weeping hemlock (Abies Canadensis pendula). Moore's Rural New- Yorker, 36(3): 37. Carmen, E. S. 1888, January 21. The weeping hemlock. The Rural New-Yorker, 47: 38. David Rumsey Historical Map Collection. 1867. Map of Fishkill, Dutchess Co., N.Y. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.davidrumsey.com\/luna\/servlet\/ detail\/RUMSEY~8~1~272985~90046810:Fish kill,-Dutchess-County,-New-York?qvq=w4s:\/ where%2FDutchess%2BCounty%2B%25252 8N.Y.%252529%2F;lc:RUMSEY~8~1&mi=1& trs=50 Davis, P. H. and Haywood, V. H. 1965. Principles of angiosperm taxonomy. New York: D. Van Nostrand and Co. Del Tredici, P. 1980. Sargent's weeping hemlock reconsidered. Arnoldia, 40(5): 202-224. Del Tredici, P. 1983. A giant among the dwarfs: The mystery of Sargent's weeping hemlock. Little Compton, RI: Theophrastus. Del Tredici, P. 1984. St. George and the pygmies. Little Compton, RI: Theophrastus. Del Tredici, P. 1985. Propagation of Tsuga canadensis cultivars: Softwood vs. hardwood cuttings. Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators' Society, 35: 565-569. Del Tredici, P. 2017. The introduction of Japanese plants into North America. The Botanical Review, 83(3): 215-252. Del Tredici, P. and Orwig, D. A. 2017. Layering and rejuvenation in Tsuga canadensis (Pinaceae) on Wachusett Mountain, Massachusetts. Rhodora, 119: 16-32. Downing, A. J. 1875. A treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardening [1841] with two supplements [1859, 1875] by Henry Winthrop Sargent (9th ed.). New York: Orange Judd Co. Hoopes, J. 1868. The book of evergreens. New York: Orange Judd and Co. Hoopes, J. 1875. A visit to Parsons' Nurseries. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 30(351): 257-259. Hornibrook, M. 1923. Dwarf and slow-growing conifers. London: Country Life Ltd. Ingram, J. S. 1876. The Centennial Exposition, described and illustrated. Philadelphia: Hubbard Brothers. Jenkins, C. F. 1933. Sargent's weeping hemlock again; Hemlocks at the Centennial Exposition of 1876. The Hemlock Arboretum at \"Far Country,\" Bulletin, No.5. Jenkins, C. F. 1935. Sargent's weeping hemlock from seed. The Hemlock Arboretum at \"Far Country,\" Bulletin, No.11. Jenkins, C. F. 1946. Hemlock\u2014the queen of conifers. Arnoldia, 6(11-12): 49-60. Maxwell, T. C. 1874. Evergreens, novelties and dwarfs. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 29(337): 200-203. Meehan, J. 1896. Group of weeping hemlocks. Park and Cemetery, 5(11): 192. Meehan, T. 1876. Editorial notes: Horticulture at the Centennial. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist, 18: 254-256. Sargent's Weeping Hemlock 33 Meehan, T. 1885. Editorial notes, Frank J. Scott. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist, 27: 375-376. Meehan, T. 1887. Editorial notes, S. B. Parsons. The Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist, 29: 378-379. Mellen, G. 1838. A book of the United States. Hartford: H. F. Summer and Co. Parsons, R. B. & Co. 1874. Wholesale catalogue, Fall 1874. Flushing, NY. Parsons, S. B. 1874. Evergreens. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 29(342): 362-364. Parsons, S. B. 1875. The weeping hemlock spruce. The Garden, 8: 310. Parsons, S. B. 1887, October 22. Weeping hemlock spruce. The Garden, 32: 363. Parsons, S. B., Jr. 1881. The most promising, new, hardy, ornamental trees and shrubs, and their tasteful and effective arrangement. Prize essay for the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, presented Saturday, January 17, 1880. Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1880: 20-43. [Reprinted in 1881 as: Rarer ornamental trees and ornamental gardens in Gardner's Monthly and Horticulturist, 23: 260 ff.] Parsons, S. B. & Sons. 1873. Descriptive catalogue of ornamental trees, flowering shrubs, fruit trees, plants and evergreens. Flushing, NY. Parsons, S. B. & Sons' Kissena Nurseries. 1877. Wholesale trade list, autumn 1877 and spring 1878. Flushing, NY. Parsons, S. B. & Sons Co., Kissena Nurseries. 1878. Wholesale trade list, autumn 1878 and spring 1879. Flushing, NY. Parsons, S. B. & Sons Co., Kissena Nurseries. 1887. Descriptive catalogue of hardy ornamental trees, flowering shrubs and vines. Flushing, NY. Price, E. K. 1876. The Michaux trees. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 16(98): 340-345. Putnam County Historian's Office Digital Collection. 1876. Putnam County New York map from 1875. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.hrvh.org\/ cdm\/singleitem\/collection\/pchc\/id\/377\/rec\/2 Putnam Historical Society Digital Collection. 1854. Putnam County, NY map from 1854. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.hrvh.org\/cdm\/singleitem\/ collection\/pchc\/id\/256\/rec\/1 Rehder, A. 1949. Bibliography of cultivated trees and shrubs. Jamaica Plain, MA: Arnold Arboretum. Rothrock, J. T. 1880. Catalogue of trees and shrubs native of and introduced in the horticultural gardens adjacent to Horticultural Hall in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. Philadelphia: s.n. Sargent, C. S. 1897. Wodenethe. Garden and Forest, 10: 449-450. Sargent, C. S. 1897. Notes on cultivated conifers, no. 11. Garden and Forest, 10: 490-491. Sargent, H. W. 1855. The Shank's lawn mower. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 10: 335. Saunders, W. 1878. Ornamental trees and shrubs. In: F. A. Walker (ed.), United States Centennial Commission, International Exhibition 1876, Reports and Awards, Group XXIX (pp. 15-29). Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott and Co. Scott, F. J. 1870 and 1873. The art of beautifying suburban home grounds of small extent. New York: D. Appleton & Co. Smith, J. J. 1856. Visits to country places, no. 3. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Taste, 11: 445-449. Spingarn, J. E. 1937. Henry Winthrop Sargent and the early history of landscape gardening and ornamental horticulture in Dutchess County, New York. Dutchess County Historical Society Yearbook 1937: 36-63. [Reprinted in 1938 in Landscape Architecture, 29(1): 24-39.] Stout, A. B. 1939. Weeping or pendulous hemlocks. Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, 40(475): 153-166. Sutton, S. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Swartley, J. C. 1984. The cultivated hemlocks (revised by H. J. Welch). Portland: Timber Press. Thurber, G. 1877. Small evergreens for small places. American Agriculturist, 36(11): 429-430. Wells, J. S. 1955. Plant propagation practices. New York: MacMillan Co. Williams, H. T. 1871. Scott's Suburban Home Grounds. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 26(302): 238-239. Williams, H. T. 1872. Editorial notes: Parsons & Co. The Horticulturist and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, 27(316): 316. Wilson, E. H. 1912, November 14. Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information, no. 36. Wilson, E. H. 1920. The romance of our trees, no. 12: The pygmies and dwarfs. The Garden Magazine, 32(1): 36-40. Peter Del Tredici is senior research scientist emeritus at the Arnold Arboretum and the former director of living collections. The second edition of his book Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide was published in March 2020."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Each Year in the Forest: Autumn","article_sequence":4,"start_page":34,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25717","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eb76d.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hipp, Andrew L.","article_content":"Each Year in the Forest: Autumn Andrew L. Hipp Illustrated by Rachel D. Davis HIPP, A. L. AND DAVIS, R. D. 2020. EACH YEAR IN THE FOREST: AUTUMN. ARNOLDIA, 78(2): 34-43 Bonnets I September is the attenuated tail of summer. The last flowers of great blue lobelia bloom in meadow openings or in partially shaded forest edges where they can find a little extra soil moisture. Tangles of calico aster spill into the trails, branching and short-leaved, strewn with flowers. White rattlesnakeroot flowers hang like trombone bells at the ready. Jackin- the-pulpit berries turn gradually from green to red, the masses of fruits on some plants as variable as kernels of multicolored flint corn. False Solomon's seal berries ripen from salmon to bright red and become thin-skinned and heavy with juice. Blue cohosh seeds ripen on the plant, toxic but delicious looking, a rich blue that will hold its own through winter, when you may still find an occasional seed abandoned by a gray squirrel on top of a fallen log, beside a scattering of scratched red oak acorn shells. Forest: Autumn 35 Acorn production peaks in northern Illinois around the first of the month. Nuts pile up along the trails. Many are immediately split open by squirrels or eaten by deer. Others are not eaten by mammals but are preyed upon by weevils that devour the starchy cotyledons and fill the shells with frass, exposing the baby plants to fungi and desiccation. In some cases, the only violence weevils do the seedling is to deprive it of some of the nutrients left by the mother tree in its cotyledons. Perhaps this will be enough to kill the seedling over time, leaving it too weak to hold on for a few years in the understory until there is a blowdown or an old tree falls, taking a few others with it, letting in enough light for the baby oak to photosynthesize on its own and possibly win the race to the canopy. If it fails to do so, the oak will never produce offspring of its own. The seeds falling from the tips of the tree of life in the weeks flanking the equinox are the ones we will find growing next spring. They were sparked into life in an instant of unlikely pollination. They were provisioned with food all through development. Now, we find them dispersed on feathers or fur, in the stomach of a bird, in mud lodged between toes or talons or claws. Some are dropped unceremoniously at the base of the tree to roll downhill, in a move that might appear clumsy, but what are appearances? Each species has gambled successfully over tens of thousands of generations, if not more, on that drop to the ground or that risky flight on wind, or on the passage of squirrels or jays or extinct passenger pigeons or mammoths whose interests were never identical to those of the trees. The dice drop; then the plant prepares for winter. Perhaps their seeds will germinate before they can be eaten by a vole or squirrel. If so, these notes of fall will echo for hundreds of years. II Near the end of September, the white fungal bodies of aborted entoloma sprout from the leaf litter like manna. These knots of mycelia push leaves out of the way overnight to sit on the surface of the forest floor. Over a few days, they grow into misshapen white loaves as large as an infant's fist. They are caused by a pathogenic fungus (Entoloma abortivum)1 infecting one of the honey mushrooms (Armillaria gallica).2 The latter are known best from their black, cord-like rhizomorphs that scout the soil's surface for trees to infect and then ascend the trunks beneath the bark, where they remain long after the tree is dead. Near these masses of intertwined Armillaria and Entoloma mycelia, the yellowish-brown fruiting caps of Armillaria can often be found, and sometimes the whitish caps of Entoloma as well. By night, when the rains have been just right, glowing Armillaria marks the edges of the trails, ghosts of the cambium devoured by the fungal mycelia. Rings of light mark the ends of severed boles, squeezing through passages where sunlight formerly passed from the leaves down to the roots as fixed sugars. 36 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 Stump puffballs (Apioperdon pyriforme) sprout from downed logs or form colonies in the wood chips. Then their insides turn to spores. The precocious ones desiccate and become brown inside while their peers are still white and fleshy or just turning granular inside the taut skin. Chicken of the woods (Laetiporus sulphureus) sprouts from standing dead ashes, fallen oaks, and rotting trees of several species, forming scalloped orange shelves of delicious flesh. Months hence, its bleached carcasses will mark where the fungal bodies clung bright as lanterns to the dead trunks. Chanterelles (Cantharellus sp.), bonnets (Mycena sp.), oyster mushrooms (Pleurotus sp.), and giant puffballs (Calvatia sp.) emerge and then dry or decompose over the course of a few autumn weeks. As these decomposers crowd the woods, the flowering plants become increasingly tattered. Jewelweed spanned the entire growing season, beginning as forests of nickel-sized cotyledons crowded under the leaf litter in late March and then rising into rolling hills of adult plants that dominate the landscape well into September.3 Now, it begins to yellow and wilt, thinning and breaking over. Wild ginger leaves glow with golden margins as they senesce, like autumn leaves of Ginkgo biloba. False Solomon's seal becomes variegated and stringy, the vessels running the length of its leaves draped with torn and yellowing epidermis. Sheaths surrounding the glistening black wild leek seeds split open. The seeds stare out at the coming winter for a few days before they drop to the ground. Hop sedge and Gray's sedge become decrepit, and the swollen skins of their perigynia disintegrate. Straight-stigma and curly-stigma wood sedges shatter, scattering their last achenes onto the bare soil. The white oak acorns that have made it this far lie half embedded in the soil. They split at one end, opposite the cap, cracked open by the emerging root that swells in the autumn rains. They are feeling their way blindfolded, Blue Cohosh Forest: Autumn 37 trying to get a toehold while there is still time. Their impulse to grow is strong: collect a bagful of acorns, toss it into the refrigerator next to the carrots, and keep it cool and moist and dark; even there, some will start to germinate, senselessly looking for soil. The katydids have become quiet, and the morning-time crickets purr. They and the acorns are pacing the autumn to and fro,4 getting a little work done in advance of spring. III Rain falls and temperatures fluctuate in early October. Fog pools in the prairies beneath the power lines and drapes between the spruces. The trails become sodden. Stump puffballs ripen on fallen logs or stumps, syrupy brown. Earth stars (Geastrum sp.) crank their wings out and grip the soil. Young stinkhorns (Phallus sp.) erupt, crowded together like brussels sprouts, crawling with stink bugs. Over the course of several days, they grow obscenely to several inches in height and swarm with gnats. A few days later, they become flaccid and rot. One morning last year, our woods at the Morton Arboretum were overrun by spring peepers. I started hearing their squeaks, trills, and whistles on my walk into work, their sounds shifted upslope from the wetlands where they had been calling six months earlier. There wasn't anything they could be except for spring peepers. I did not expect them, however, and I consequently could not convince myself at first that I was hearing correctly. Songbirds were migrating, and I told myself the calls I heard were those of some itinerant bird I didn't recognize. I waded into the sunflowers and towering wild lettuce to flush out any birds that might be there, but the calls stopped, as frog calls always do when you go hunting their source. They picked up again after I was safely back on the trail. After about ten minutes of this, it was clear I was hearing frogs. Peeps punctuated the woods west of Big Rock Visitor Station and all the way down to the service road that runs north through the meadow. I walked into work surrounded by them. The peepers were with us for at least a few days. Colleagues found them in leaf traps and reported hearing their songs throughout the woods at all times of the day. Chorus frogs had also rediscovered their voices and were trilling in the warm afternoons. On a cool morning midweek, I made a quick stop to listen for the spring peepers again. The forest was silent. Gnats buzzed around the stinkhorns. Then, from a hollow tucked between the shortcut trail to Big Rock and the trail that runs west along the ridge of the moraine, a single peeper called. I walked down into the hollow and poked around for five or ten minutes, but there were no other calls. In early October, sugar maple leaves are turning yellow and starting to fall. Lower branches of the American black elderberry corymbs are broken, and ray flowers fall from wingstem in the floodplains. Zig-zag goldenrod heads are pale with feathery achenes. Wood nettle leaves are chewed to lace but still have plenty of sting left. Bedraggled pale jewelweed provisions its late-season capsules, galls blistering along its leaf midveins and darkening 38 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 Calico Aster Elm-Leaved Goldenrod Gray's Sedge White Rattlesnakeroot Wild Leek Forest: Autumn 39 along one side. Wild leek has dropped about a third of its seeds. Fowl mannagrass culms are reclining. Enchanter's nightshade leaves have almost all fallen, leaving the stalks bristling with fruits. But false rue anemone, one of our iconic spring ephemerals, often begins sending up fresh shoots. The species is known to be a fall germinator,5 a rarity in our forests. Yet many people miss it in the fall,6 myself included for my first twenty-five years as a naturalist. By mid-October, white-throated sparrows pass through town on their way southward and fill the fields with \"tssts\" and whistles, marauding the shrubs for berries and insects. Near sunrise, a single bird may belt out its spring song, the bold three-toned \"Old-Sam-Peabody-Peabody-Peabody\" or the two-toned \"Oh-Canada-Canada-Canada.\"7 The territorial song sparrows join in as they are skipping town, possibly defending their territory on the way south,8 as they did on the way to their breeding grounds in the north. These discordant echoes of spring reverberate through the months of fall: frog calls, spring wildflowers emerging under the year's falling leaves, sparrows guarding territory as though it were breeding season. Signs of the changing season are deeply inscribed, paid for with the lives of individuals whose instincts weren't as well tuned. Time your emergence right, and you'll make it through winter. Time it wrong, and you may not. A million hard-earned habits comprise this business of laying up treasure on earth, where the moth and dust corrupt. These are the forest's strategies for getting through winter. Beauty is a byproduct. IV Chlorophyll molecules become unhooked from the proteins that bind them as the days shorten and the nights become colder. They become phototoxic to the leaves in which they reside. Each leaf then begins the process of autumn housekeeping, breaking the chlorophyll into harmless components that can be recycled.9 It reabsorbs nitrogen, nutrients, and basic elements that are costlier to assimilate than to recycle. As the engines of photosynthesis are disassembled and reabsorbed, carotenoids are exposed, producing the brilliant yellows of fall. Anthocyanin production picks up, producing reds and oranges that may protect the leaf from sun or insects for a few weeks.10 It is a short period of intense color, shaped by the balance of daytime and nighttime temperatures, the shortening hours of daylight, the timing of precipitation, and the internal coordination of chlorophyll degradation, redistribution of resources in the tree, and the production of new pigments. Activity at the molecular level scales up to cells, to leaves, to canopies, finally to hillsides in color. Last year, an early snow fell on Halloween, weighing tree branches down and tearing leaves off prematurely. The next morning, an hour after sunrise, yellow sugar maple leaves chirped almost inaudibly as they hit the fresh snow and glowed like lanterns on its surface. The skeletons of jewelweed were knocked to the ground. The wood nettle leaves, frozen, hung like 40 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 rags. A woodcock stopped over on its way south, skating past a twelve-inch diameter red oak that had been hauled down by the snow. Fall can be over in a moment. In most years, though, autumn funnels down to winter. Conduits between tree leaves and their branches are squeezed by a scar forming at the base of the petiole, and the trees rain resources. Leaves falling to the soil return calcium, nitrogen, and other nutrients that were shuttled upward all through the summer. Maples, basswoods, ashes, tulip trees, sassafras, and black cherries shed nutrient-rich leaves that are thin and tasty. These decompose rapidly, forming an ephemeral and semitranslucent sheet over the soil's surface. Oaks, American beeches, and shagbark hickories drop leaves that decompose more slowly, remaining on the forest floor where they insulate and provide the raw material for rodent and insect activity and the matrix for ground fires.11 The chemical composition of these leaves, particularly their calcium content, shapes the sounds we will hear the next year in the quiet evenings, as Eurasian earthworms drag whole leaves into their burrows, selecting the calcium-rich species first12 and shushing along under the leaf litter. When I stamp my foot next summer, shaking the ground, the earthworms will all slurp down into their burrows and go silent for a moment before they begin again: shh, shh, shh. June beetle grubs go dormant. Cicada children, patient by nature, gradually cease their subterranean feeding. Forest understory herbs move their resources back into their corms or bulbs or rhizomes or bequeath them to the forest floor. Bald-faced hornet queens crawl into rotting logs and prepare for winter, quiet and still. Rotten black walnut husks disintegrate in puddles at the bases of hills. Needle ice appears again in the wet soil. V By the end of November, the days are cool and overcast. White oak and red oak and sugar maple leaves interbed. A few seedlings continue twisting over soggy earthworm castings that erode to granules beneath the litter. The crickets and birds are quiet, and colors become subdued. People are mostly gone from the woods. Orion begins to show up in the evening sky, gliding upward from the eastern horizon just about the time we are settling into bed. White Oak Acorns Germinating Forest: Autumn 41 The musclewood, ironwood, beeches, and oaks rattle with marcescent leaves: the branches either mistimed or willfully ignored the last freeze of the year, and in so doing, they failed to produce the scars that would have severed these leaves from the tree.13 The squirrels have mostly gleaned the acorns and walnuts they need. Their messy nests are exposed in the treetops. Bark on many of the slender ashes and sugar maples throughout the woods is shredded where bucks have rubbed, scraping the velvet from their antlers. Jewelweed skeletons are broken over and knocked to the ground. Zig-zag and elm-leaved goldenrods are sparsely fuzzed with achenes, while white snakeroot has fully dispersed its fruits, and the few remaining bracts that once subtended the flowerheads are recoiled and twisted like starfish arms. Sandhill cranes fly southward in flocks of a hundred or more, their backs scraping the clouds. Snow comes and goes, piling up on turkeytail fungus (Trametes versicolor) and secluding itself in the bark fissures of fallen logs. Juncos and chickadees glean and then spread the persistent berries of honeysuckle and gray dogwood. They are setting next year's seedlings into motion. White avens, spinulose wood fern, hepatica, white bear sedge, and a handful of other common species photosynthesize beneath the falling snow. The rhizomes of spring wildflowers are suspended for a moment, appear to rest for winter, but extend by a hair's breadth each time the soil thaws, bending around a buried stone. The future slowly unrolls with each cell division, shaping the forest we'll walk through two and three springs hence. Leaves abscise at intervals. They gyre downward. They touch the ground. Then, there is the shush of leaves against leaves. Everything that falls accumulates and shapes the forest floor. Here, a falling tree hides the entrance to a mouse's home and crushes a mass of puffballs, and spores are dispersed. Over there, the leaves pile deeply, and then a windstorm blows them away so that the next year's fires will not burn through: as a consequence, a handful of sugar maple seedlings survives one more year in the understory. These are the endings that form the forest's beginning. Endnotes 1 Czederpiltz, D. L. L., Volk, T. J., and Burdsall, Jr., H. H. 2001. Field observations and inoculation experiments to determine the nature of the carpophoroids associated with Entoloma abortivum and Armillaria. Mycologia, 93: 841-851. And for a readable summary: Volk, T. J. 2006. Entoloma abortivum, the aborting Entoloma, a.k.a. hunter's heart, totlcoxcatl, or \"ground prunes.\" University of Wisconsin Plant Teaching Collection. Retrieved from: http:\/\/botit.botany.wisc.edu\/toms_fungi\/sep2006.html. 2 For a great article on the story of Armillaria taxonomy: Volk, T. J. 2002. The humongous fungus\u2014Ten years later. University of Wisconsin Plant Teaching Collection. Retrieved from: http:\/\/botit.botany.wisc.edu\/toms_fungi\/apr2002.html. 3 The renowned forest ecologist John T. Curtis wrote of jewelweed, \"One interesting response to light is frequently seen in mesic forests in which selective logging has been practiced so that large openings have been made in the canopy. The yellow jewelweed (Impatiens pallida) regularly forms an almost pure stand under such openings. This succulent and tender annual is very sensitive to light and is markedly reduced in height at diminished intensities. The colonies thus take on the characteristics of an integrating light meter, with the tallest plants in the center of the colony and shorter and shorter 42 Arnoldia 78\/2 \u2022 November 2020 plants toward the edges. They produce contoured mounds which reflect the chance peculiarities in shape of the canopy opening with surprising accuracy.\" Curtis, J. T. 1959. The Vegetation of Wisconsin: An Ordination of Plant Communities (pp. 122-123). Madison: University of Wisconsin Press. 4 \"Listen to the rain, more rain, treadling earth to the sodden cold wet spun heads of this room, pacing the winter to and fro.\" Borodale, S. 2012. 3rd December: Notes. Bee Journal. London: Jonathan Cape. 5 Baskin, J. M., and Baskin, C. C. 1986. Germination ecophysiology of the mesic deciduous forest herb Isopyrum biternatum. Botanical Gazette, 147: 152-155. 6 I have only dipped my toe into the woodland phenology literature, but an unpublished report by Max Partch is an interesting example. Partch took pains to observe all plant phases across numerous species well into October and still included no observations of new growth in the fall. Partch M. 1999. Plant phenology in central Minnesota. Biology Faculty Publications, 1. Retrieved from https:\/\/repository.stcloudstate.edu\/ biol_facpubs\/1 7 If you sense that the white-throated sparrow song has changed over the past decade or so, you may not be imagining it. Since 2000, the two-noted song has spread across the breeding ground in Canada to largely supplant the three-noted song, perhaps due to tutoring in the wintering grounds. Otter, K. A., Mckenna, A., LaZerte, S. E., and Ramsay, S. M. 2020. Continent-wide shifts in song dialects of white-throated sparrows. Current Biology, 30: 3231-3235.e3 8 Wingfield, J. C., and Soma, K. K. 2002. Spring and autumn territoriality in song sparrows: Same behavior, different mechanisms? Integrative and Comparative Biology, 42: 11-20. 9 Christ, B., and H\u00f6rtensteiner, S. 2014. Mechanism and significance of chlorophyll breakdown. Journal of Plant Growth Regulation, 33: 4-20. 10 The potential adaptive role of leaf coloration is an area of active study. For an informative review, see: Archetti, M., D\u00f6ring, T. F., Hagen, S. B., Hughes, N. M., Leather, S. R., Lee, D. W., Lev-Yadun, S., Manetas, Y., Ougham, H. J., and Schaberg, P. G., et al. 2009. Unravelling the evolution of autumn colours: An interdisciplinary approach. Trends in Ecology & Evolution, 24: 166-173. For a recent evaluation of competing hypotheses: Pena-Novas, I., Archetti, M. 2020. Biogeography and evidence for adaptive explanations of autumn colors. New Phytologist, 228(3): 809-813. 11 Among the species I have included here, those dominated by arbuscular mycorrhizae (e.g., the maples) tend to decompose more quickly than those by ectomycorrhizal fungi (e.g., the oaks). Phillips, R. P., Brzostek, E., and Midgley, M. G. 2013. The mycorrhizalassociated nutrient economy: A new framework for predicting carbon-nutrient couplings in temperate forests. New Phytologist, 199: 41-51. Chicken of the Woods PLANTS REFERENCED Forest: Autumn 43 Andrew Hipp is the senior scientist in plant systematics and herbarium director at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. He conducts research on the origins and implications of plant diversity, with a focus on oaks, sedges, phylogenetic ecology, and trait evolution. You can read about his research at http:\/\/systematics.mortonarb.org and follow his natural history blog at https:\/\/botanistsfieldnotes.com. Rachel Davis is an independent visual artist in the Chicago area. She works at the interface of natural science, abstract painting, printmaking, and textiles, integrating the formal and empirical elements of the natural world in her work. You can see more of her work at https:\/\/artbumble.com and follow her on Instagram: @art_bumble. Acer saccharum - sugar maple Ageratina altissima - white snakeroot Allium tricoccum - wild leek; A. burdickii is sometimes recognized as a distinct species, and my account also applies to that species Arisaema triphyllum - Jack-in-the-pulpit Asarum canadense - wild ginger Carex albursina - white bear sedge Carex grayi - Gray's sedge Carex lupulina - hop sedge Carex radiata - straight-stigma wood sedge (I made up this common name, because the sometimes-applied \"straight-styled wood sedge\" is a misnomer; the stigmas separate this species from C. rosea, not the styles) Carex rosea - curly-stigma wood sedge Carpinus caroliniana - musclewood Carya ovata - shagbark hickory Caulophyllum thalictroides - blue cohosh Circaea canadensis - enchanters' nightshade Cornus racemosa - gray dogwood Dryopteris carthusiana - spinulose wood fern Enemion biternatum - false rue anemone Fagus grandifolia - American beech Fraxinus sp. - ash Geum canadense - white avens Glyceria striata - fowl mannagrass Helianthus sp. - sunflowers; here the common woodland species are H. strumosus and H. decapetalus Hepatica sp. - hepatica Impatiens pallida - pale jewelweed; the description in the first half of this essay also applies to I. capensis, though I. pallida is the more common in the woods I frequent Juglans nigra - black walnut Lactuca sp. - wild lettuces Laportea canadensis - wood nettle Liriodendron tulipifera - tulip tree Lobelia siphilitica - great blue lobelia Lonicera sp. - honeysuckle Maianthemum racemosum - false Solomon's seal Nabalus albus - white rattlesnakeroot Ostrya virginiana - ironwood Prunus serotina - black cherry Quercus alba - white oak Quercus rubra - red oak Sambucus canadensis - American black elderberry Sassafras albidum - sassafras Solidago flexicaulis - zig-zag goldenrod Solidago ulmifolia - elm-leaved goldenrod Symphyotrichum lateriflorum - calico aster Tilia americana - basswood Verbesina alternifolia - wingstem 12 Holdsworth, A. R., Frelich, L. E., and Reich, P. B. 2012. Leaf litter disappearance in earthworm-invaded northern hardwood forests: Role of tree species and the chemistry and diversity of litter. Ecosystems, 15: 913-926. 13 My understanding of this phenomenon comes primarily from an unpublished University of Wisconsin-Madison botany thesis on the anatomy of marcescent leaves in black oaks. As far as I know, the only published report on the thesis is a brief article I wrote in 1996 for NewsLeaf, the newsletter of the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum, then updated in 2005 as \"When Oak Leaves Fail to Fall,\" Plant Health Care Report, 2005.03: 11-12; reprinted in 2007 in the Taltree Arboretum's newsletter, Tag Along, 6: 6-7."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How Trees Were Urbanized","article_sequence":5,"start_page":44,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25718","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24ebb25.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"The Roman engineer Vitruvius, writing in the first century BCE, suggests that trees were the original model for columns. The classical colonnade became the precursor to the tree-lined street. The repetition of identical elements evokes a kind of control, an organizing principle for settings otherwise subject to continual change. The tree metaphor persisted into the Renaissance with the architect Leon Battista Alberti, in the fifteenth century, pointing out the similarity between the increased diameter of the bottom of columns and the root flare of the planted tree. An association of trees and streets evolved. By the late nineteenth century, tree-lined streets were part of every urban planner's tool kit. Sonja D\u00fcmpelmann examines two approaches to street tree planting in her recent book, Seeing Trees: A History of Street Trees in New York City and Berlin. In the narrowest sense, her book is a case study of two cities and their approach to trees, but in the broader context, she weaves together the overlapping perspectives of urban design, tree management, and engineering and seamlessly integrates them with shifting political and social values. Her book is not only a contribution to the history of street tree planting but an original contribution to urban history. The nature-versus-culture divide applies here as it does to much of urban landscape history. \"Cities were naturalized,\" D\u00fcmpelmann writes, \"and trees were urbanized.\" In American cities, street planting was part of the Romantic \"urban pastoral\" movement of the late nineteenth century. Advocates proselytized about bringing elements of the countryside into the city, arguing that this would offer respite from the tension inherent in city life. In New York City, trees were part of the urban sanitizing movement that created Central Park. Tree care itself still depends on the health metaphor originating in that period. Trees are evaluated in terms of health and disease. Terms like immune systems, resilience, and injury are part of tree care. Until recently arborists were called tree surgeons. Conversely, contemporary urban tree-planting practices embrace sophisticated technology to create manipulated growing conditions\u2014 an honest, transparent recognition of the unique conditions of the urban landscape. Tree species are hybridized to create selections that can withstand urban conditions. Soil mixes are created with the specificity of prescription drugs. Planting pits are engineered. It is now clear that what happens underground is as essential (if not more) to tree survival as what happens above. In American cities, grand street-tree-planting projects are still part of political campaigns\u2014 a bread-and-circus approach to garner votes in upcoming elections with no provision for aftercare. Despite lessons learned about urban planting as an ongoing process that involves nurturing young plants, providing water, and protecting trees from damage and from insects and disease, municipal governments often leave trees on their own to survive with little intervention. Advocates promote trees in terms of ecosystem services, pointing out that trees moderate local weather conditions, filter pollution, and reduce global warming. Trees symbolize civic pride and the regeneration of neighborhoods. Altogether this is a heavy burden to place on young plants. Every city has tree haters as well as tree lovers. If, on one hand, trees clean the air, on the other, they are dirty: They drop leaves and fruit on sidewalks and cars. They attract bugs. Trees block signs and Facing page: Philibert de L'Orme described trees as the original inspiration for columns in his Le Premier Tome de l'Architecture, published in 1568. SOURCE GALLICA.BNF.FR \/ BIBLIOTH\u00c8QUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE ANDERSEN, P. 2020. HOW TREES WERE URBANIZED. ARNOLDIA, 78(2): 44-47 storefronts. Although a seemingly benign activity, tree planting still attracts controversy. Tree species selected for urban streets have been transformed by research and hybridization. But the selection of tree species is still vulnerable to fads. D\u00fcmpelmann quotes landscape gardener Andrew Jackson Downing in 1847: \"There is a fashion in trees that sometimes has a sway no less rigorous than that of a Parisian modiste.\" The tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), once recommended as a street tree, was quickly rejected because of its overwhelming odor. Norway maples (Acer platanoides), widely planted because of their ability to thrive in stressful conditions, are now banned in some communities because of their propensity to self-seed. American elms (Ulmus americana) are lost to disease. D\u00fcmpelmann reveals how the selection of tree species is vulnerable to xenophobic reactions both in Germany and the United States. Trees are caught in the debate between native-plants-only advocates and those who champion botanical cosmopolitanism. The strength of D\u00fcmpelmann's treatment of street tree planting in New York is her ability to point out the differences between the work of municipal government, high-minded philanthropic groups, and community-based initiatives that recognize the needs of specific neighborhoods. Top-down versus bottom-up. New York's tree-planting schemes are still controlled by the New York City Commissioner's 1811 plan that overlaid a grid from Houston Street to 155th Street, ignoring the island's rolling topography. The architectural historian Hilary Ballon calls New York City's grid plan \"a living framework.\" It is the tension between the rigidity of the grid and the looseness of the crowns of trees that defines the classic New York City street. While the practical benefits of street tree planting drove municipal efforts, philanthropic groups were also aware that tree-lined streets gave the rapidly growing city a veneer of a refined environment. One of the first to join the movement was Gifford Pinchot, head of the United States Forest Service. As residents of the city, Pinchot and his wife, Cornelia, were active members of the Tree Planting Association, founded in 1897. In addition to his interest in scientific forestry, Pinchot believed that trees were \"the only form through which the residents of the city can come in daily contact with nature as we know it in the woods and fields.\" By the early twentieth century, the New York landscape had become a gendered space dominated by male professionals. D\u00fcmpelmann describes how women gained entr\u00e9e to tree-planting projects by virtue of their social position and influence. Women were valued for their roles as caregivers, child protectors, and municipal housekeepers. Tree-planting efforts The Tree Planting Association highlighted plantings on New York City's West Sixty-Eighth and West Sixty-Ninth Streets as examples of \"model tenements\" in a 1903 report. GENERAL RESEARCH DIVISION, THE NEW YORK PUBLIC LIBRARY, NYPL DIGITAL COLLECTIONS were a natural fit. Cartoonists had a field day. Later in the twentieth century, women were important leaders in groups like the Neighborhood Trees Corps and the Magnolia Tree Earth Center, which began to work in neighborhoods left behind in earlier planting efforts. African American groups, especially those in Bedford- Stuyvesant, organized local tree-planting projects to regenerate their neighborhood where the street was park space. Community groups came to resist top-down government initiatives and well-meaning but na\u00efve philanthropic efforts. Both New York and Berlin began street planting to build a healthy environment for residents. In contrast to New York City's efforts, street tree planting in Berlin is inextricably associated with destruction and loss. Berlin's important achievements in urban planning in the nineteenth and early twentieth century\u2014broad tree-lined avenues and gracious parks\u2014were destroyed by war. Trees were lost in massive numbers during World War II. Many were lost to bombing; those that remained were cut down for firewood and building materials. D\u00fcmpelmann's treatment of Berlin's rebuilding includes many small, poignant stories, from the struggle to plant trees on rubble to the protection of the city's mountain ash (Sorbus aucuparia) street trees because of the nutritional value of their fruits. The partition of the city into East and West sectors after World War II removed any possibility of comprehensive urban reforestation. It was only after reunification that renewed planting efforts could build on Germany's earlier research in scientific forestry, expanding on their admired analytic methods and fieldwork. The goal of nineteenth-century German forestry research was to increase yield, yet the basic methods of scientific analysis used for research were intriguing to tree specialists well beyond the field of forestry. German plant scientists experimented with vegetative propagation and hybridization techniques to create \"the perfect tree.\" They warned of the dangers of monoculture. Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arnold Arboretum's first director, assembled a valuable collection of German forestry manuals. Information exchange in the twentieth century between American street tree specialists and their German counterparts resulted in more sophisticated and experimental planting techniques. Ideas on tree management spanned from the individual plant to the greater tree population of a city. The American landscape architect Elbert Peets, a long-time advocate of street tree planting as an essential component of city design, collaborated with the German urban planner Werner Hegemann on American Vitruvius: An Architect's Handbook of Civic Art, published in 1922. This book provided a compendium of examples of urban forms, including the integration of trees into streets and boulevards. William Solotaroff, the New Jersey-based city forester and author of the widely distributed Shade-Trees in Towns and Cities (from 1911), often referred to German models for street planting. D\u00fcmpelmann uses the complicated story of loss and rebirth of Unter den Linden, Berlin's famous tree-lined boulevard, to mirror Berlin's fractured history. It was created in the late seventeenth century and connects the pleasure ground of the Berlin Palace to the Brandenburg Gate. Long admired as one of the great promenades of Europe, the design was referenced in Frederick Law Olmsted's 1868 proposal for the parkways of Brooklyn. Unter den Linden is now freed from the isolation of East Berlin and is being restored with its long all\u00e9e of lindens as part of the greater unification of the city. For some, there is a certain cynicism about planting street trees in cities. As D\u00fcmpelmann reflects, street trees have an \"inbuilt a priori obsolescence.\" They die. In both New York and Berlin, we see that the ability of trees to thrive is contingent on human intervention. But even given that responsibility, we no longer question that they are an essential part of urban infrastructure. We have enough confidence in urban life to no longer reference rus in urbe, the country in the city. Trees on city streets are health-enhancing; they have a strong sensory presence. But in the end, it is the power of the eye, the visual value of trees on streets that sustains their place in the city. Phyllis Andersen is a landscape historian and former director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum Book Review 47"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Writer's World: Fagus sylvatica 'Pendula'","article_sequence":6,"start_page":48,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25719","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24e8128.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"","article_content":"An afternoon in July found me in the Arnold Arboretum landscape, on a writer's quest, looking for inspiration for new poems. I was back for the first time since mid-March, when the impact of the coronavirus became unmistakable. Masked in the brilliant summer sun, I revisited the copse of white pines atop Bussey Hill, and on my way back down the hill, I cut across the dry, dusty grass where the mansion of Benjamin and Judith Bussey (the hill's namesakes) once stood. There, I found what I had been looking for\u2014an entrance into a new world, one created by an old weeping beech (Fagus sylvatica 'Pendula', accession 22746*A). Composing in my mind, I parted the emerald curtain of branches. Inside was a space of light and awe. Sequins of sun edged through a jangle of leafy streamers. At my feet, swollen roots appeared to be burnished like antique pewter. The tree forms a living memoir, written in the layering of branches that produce younger trunks. Those offspring encircle the mother trunk and echo its smooth gray. This was truly a tree to write about, with an allure both glorious and otherworldly. For me, all beeches have an aura of magic, but this tree, with its resplendent sanctuary, is my delight. It draws me in, hinting of a mythical forested world. Artists paint beeches; writers write about them\u2014and also on them. Their wide boles of smooth silver have beckoned lovers and poets through the centuries. In Shakespeare's As You Like It, Orlando hangs his love notes upon the trees, amorously declaring, \"O Rosalind, these trees shall be my books.\" This weeping beech is a well-annotated tree, incised with the names, initials, words of those who hoped to leave some mark, proclaim passion, or silently (!) voice an observation. My own words would never find a \"voice\" on a tree. Still, I am curious about the R's and E's, hearts, and watchful eyes on this trunk\u2014and I wonder about the impassioned sentiments that have already elongated and faded into its skin. When the tree was first mentioned in the Arboretum records, in 1942, it was described as \"an old tree,\" presumably part of the nineteenthcentury landscaping. The Bussey mansion was transferred to Harvard from the family in 1896, after the death of Thomas Motley, the husband of the Busseys' granddaughter, Maria. From that time until ours, how many must have marveled beneath this canopy? Weeping beeches have long inspired writers to mold that marvel into words. Garden and catalogue writers of the nineteenth and early twentieth century featured the weeping beech frequently, embellishing its description with curious and sometimes contradictory adjectives. Consider Albany Nurseries' 1915 description: \"quite ungainly in appearance \u2026 of wonderful grace and beauty.\" One wonders that they sold. Frank J. Scott, in The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds of Small Extent, published in 1873, resolved the contradictions into an enlightened use of prose: \"It is the very embodiment of all the odd freaks of growth that make trees picturesque, and the vigorous healthfulness of foliage that makes them beautiful.\" An etching in The Gardeners' Chronicle, from 1870, catches my own writing imagination\u2014 the tree leans and agitates, even in the stillness of an illustration. Its branches, from the very top to the thick undulating midsection, appear to swoop and splay about the ground in a hoary tapestry of leaf and limb. The tree's form and aspect appear as a landscape upon a landscape\u2014so yes, as the accompanying article proclaims, \"both grotesque and picturesque.\" Our tree stands steeple-like on the hill, catching a mosaic of sun. This specimen is surely, to echo a description from The Horticulturist in August 1872, \"like a cathedral built by one of the old masters of architecture.\" I consider the wonder of its life. It reassures me, even in our present world, that we, with this beech, remain, survive, hold to our roots. Fagus sylvatica 'Pendula' is evidence of nature's endurance and humanity's desire to be remembered. It is a witness. Though it does weep, I believe it is with a wondrous joy where it touches the earth. Sheryl L. White is coordinator of visitor engagement and exhibitions at the Arnold Arboretum. Her poetry chapbook, Sky gone, was published by Finishing Line Press this fall. A Writer's World: Fagus sylvatica 'Pendula' Sheryl L. White"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25696","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270a725.jpg","title":"2020-78-2","volume":78,"issue_number":2,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New Life for Old Collections","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25708","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d2708925.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Clement, Wendy L.","article_content":"Facing page: Six of ten violet specimens collected by Nelson Pepper in the spring of 1892. Clockwise from upper left: Viola tricolor, V. blanda, V. pubescens, V. sagittata, V. pedata, and V. rostrata. HERBARIUM OF THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY (IMAGES CROPPED) When I first joined the faculty at The College of New Jersey, in 2012, I knew we had a small collection of herbarium specimens available for use in our classes. The specimens were tucked away in the cabinets of the botany lab. At the time, my attention was turned to setting up my lab and continuing my existing plant systematics research agenda, but five years later, a planned renovation of the area where the specimens were kept gave me a reason to sort through these collections more carefully. Upon doing so, my students and I discovered a fascinating story about the origins of this small collection, a more than century-old link to botanical studies in the area, and a reminder of the value of preserving historical specimens that document how plant life is responding to a changing world. Within the collection were nearly 450 specimens collected during the late nineteenth century by three students enrolled in what was then the New Jersey State Normal School. One of the students, Nelson H. Pepper, had collected more than one hundred specimens in the spring and summer of 1892. Some of his specimens were exhibited the very next year at the 1893 Chicago World's Fair, bringing examples of the plants of Trenton, New Jersey, to an international audience. As I pulled out one of the first specimens, I noticed that the unmistakable pink anthers of the spring beauty (Claytonia virginica) were still visible under the white petals of the flower. The paper, thinning and stained with a shadow of the plant pressed upon it, could no longer support the weight of this 115-year-old specimen. This page was one of a hundred or more specimens that were kept together by a tattered leather binding. Nelson Pepper's name was still legible in gold print on the spine, along with the word \"HERBARIUM.\" Several folders were loosely stacked in alphabetical order inside the leather cover, each marked with botanical New Life for Old Collections Wendy L. Clement family names. The violet family (Violaceae) was located toward the bottom of the pile, with ten specimens of flowering violets collected in late April and May of 1892. Each plant was pressed and arranged carefully, permitting this set of specimens to illustrate the major differences of Viola species he collected in New Jersey. Each heart-shaped leaf of Viola striata and each arrow-shaped leaf of V. sagittata were separated to show the entire outline of each leaf, and the highly dissected leaves of V. pedata were similarly spread across the page. Nectar spurs\u2014 short and rounded in V. cucullata and long and pointed in V. rostrata\u2014extended out the back of the bilaterally symmetric flowers. The two other books from the same era, compiled by Sarah Elizabeth Kandle and Margaret Todd, also included over one hundred specimens. Our understanding is that all three collectors were completing an assignment for their botany class, led by professor Austin Apgar. In Apgar's more than forty-year career at the college, he was the botany and zoology instructor and, later in his tenure, the vice principal. All the while, he was a strong advocate for the establishment of the New Jersey State Museum. In his book Trees of the Northern United States: Their Study, Description and Determination for the Use of Schools and Private Students, published in 1892, Apgar presented a text for educating specialists and nonspecialists alike in botany. In the opening pages, he alludes to his own pedagogical approach of immersing students in studying botany and natural history. \"Teach [the student] to employ his own senses in the investigation of natural objects, and to use his own powers of language in their description,\" Apgar writes. Standing in his place a century later, with twenty-first-century students in my research group, I have continued the tradition of asking students to observe and document various aspects of plant diversity, such as 4 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 floral morphology or geographical distribution, as they begin to explore possible directions for their own work. After subjecting our collection to a typical freezing regimen applied to any specimen that has left an herbarium (to eliminate mold or insects), we relocated these books to archival boxes in the single herbarium cabinet in my lab. We then began the careful process of recording information from these specimens, wearing gloves to prevent further damage to the paper. The collection was rather typical of older herbarium specimens, having handwritten labels with little more information than a plant name, collection date, and vague locality. Herbarium labels now regularly include more information documented by the collector, such as detailed descriptions of the plant at the time of collection, robust accounts of the locality and habitat of the plant, and references to co-occurring species. Collectors increasingly include GPS coordinates, especially now that these data are collected with a tap on the screen of a smartphone. Most herbaria are likely to have more-recent, higher-quality collections of the nearly three hundred species documented in our herbarium books. Yet, these historic specimens represent an important snapshot in the history of the landscape surrounding Trenton, which has undergone significant changes over the past century. The specimens offer unique data points for the occurrence of these species and the developmental stage of the plant at the time of collection. My undergraduate research team often uses herbarium specimens in their work. The College of New Jersey is a primarily undergraduate institution, and at any given time, my lab is comprised of six or seven undergraduates engaged in multi-semester research projects directly related to my ongoing studies in plant systematics. Students working with me begin by engaging with projects that match their interests and then take their investigations in new directions often inspired by their own observations from herbaria or living collections. We are fortunate that our college is located near major herbaria such as the New York Botanical Garden's Steere Herbarium and the herbarium of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Drexel University, which have holdings of 7.8 and 1.4 million specimens, respectively. And now, as a result of major efforts to digitize museum collections, my students can access images of specimens from herbaria across the globe while sitting in the lab. Yet, as my students embarked on extracting data from the historic sheets, deciphering the handwritten labels and updating names to reflect the latest taxonomic changes, this time they had a direct connection to the collectors. In reflecting on their experience transcribing data from these specimens, student collaborators Linda Zhang and Aaron Lee wrote, \"Between the faded illegible cursive and yellowed paper we got a glimpse of the lives of collectors and students that spent their time gathering, identifying, and preserving these records with little knowledge that they would be stumbled upon over a century later.\" A third student, Matthew Fertakos, came to see this collection as a way to think about how individuals of the same species, divided by time, may change their biology in response to the environment. Matthew had become fascinated with published studies that used herbarium specimens to document how important phases of a plant's life cycle, such as flowering, may have changed over the past century in conjunction with changes in climate. As a DaRin Butz Intern at the Arnold Arboretum, he learned to generate maps that show the predicted distribution of a species based on locality data gathered from herbarium specimens and corresponding climate data for the year the plant was collected. Combining these two interests, Matthew asked what changes were happening in the rare but notable ecosystems of his home state, New Jersey, such as in the Pine Barrens. To date, his work has incorporated over eighteen hundred herbarium specimens, some dating back to the same era as our small collection. Many of the specimens were obtained from the Chrysler Herbarium at Rutgers University, the same institution that generously assisted with digitizing our own small collection. Focusing on a dozen herbaceous species native to the Pine Barrens, Matthew has used these herbarium specimens to generate distribution maps and estimate the first flowering date for many years over the past century. His work continues to test for correlations between changes in first flowering dates and shifts in climate to understand why some species native to the Pine Barrens now exhibit earlier fl owering dates than the century prior. Matthew's work, inspired by this small collection, joins an ongoing movement that demonstrates the hidden potential of these historical artifacts to provide information about the effects of climate change on a plant's biology. Over the past decade, herbaria worldwide have prioritized efforts to digitize their collections, increasing accessibility not only to botanists but to all scientists whose work could benefi t from these data. The renewed life that digitization has brought to museum collections has also allowed us to establish our own herbarium at The College of New Jersey, registered with Index Herbariorum, the international registry for herbaria. Now, our collection, currently focused on historical plants of the Trenton area, will soon be accessible to all. Within this digital collective, our small collection is more powerful than it could have been alone. The fact that our collection was preserved, waiting for students to use them, was not a coincidence. The families of collectors saw value in these specimens. Rather than ignoring or discarding the specimens among other attic keepsakes, the families donated these otherwise dusty old books of plant pressings back to our department. Now, more than a century after the specimens were mounted and nearly a quarter-century after the collections returned to our department, we are in a unique position to be able to breathe new life into these plants and use them in our quest to understand the effects of climate change on biodiversity, assessing changes that have happened over the past and predicting changes that will happen in the future. The story of how the collections returned to us is a testament to the value and power of amateur botanizing (what we would today call \"citizen science\") and experiential fi eldwork as part of an undergraduate education. As an instructor, I share Apgar's emphasis on engaging students in hands-on observation and documentation of the natural world, and I stress to students the importance of preserving these botanical legacies. Now, the historical plant collections from our region of the country will join the millions of specimens available digitally as the botanical community continues to ask more questions about biodiversity in an ever-changing landscape. Wendy Clement is an associate professor of biology at The College of New Jersey. She is a plant systematist and evolutionary biologist, and her current research focuses on the evolution of fusion in honeysuckles. She is a current James R. Jewett Prize awardee at the Arnold Arboretum. Two violet specimens collected by Sarah Elizabeth Kandle in 1894: HERBARIUM OF THE COLLEGE OF NEW JERSEY (IMAGES CROPPED) Viola pedatifi da (left) and V. pubescens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Model Maples","article_sequence":2,"start_page":6,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25709","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24ea328.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grossman, Jake J.","article_content":"For all of human history and many millions of years before it began, the forests of the temperate Northern Hemisphere have been populated by maples. Today, the maple genus (Acer) extends its reach from Guatemala to Canada, the Mediterranean to Scandinavia, and Southeast Asia to the Amur Valley. Like oaks, willows, and birches, among many other genera, the maples as we know them today differentiated from their nearest relatives at a time when the global climate was hotter and wetter than today's and have since survived a long period of cooling and drying, including many ice ages. Their evolution as a genus occurred through geographical radiation across the Northern Hemisphere, interspersed by extinctions and range retractions when climatic conditions became inhospitable. Contemporary maple diversity is the result of this history and represents only a single, still snapshot from a larger, unspooling reel. The extant maples have adapted, by and large, to climatically temperate conditions: warm summers and cold winters, with occasional dry periods interspersed with regular precipitation. But contemporary, human-caused climate change is rapidly reconfiguring this climate to a warmer one with less regular and more extreme events of rain or snow, making freakish droughts, early arrivals of spring, and warm winters more common. As the climate changes, maples, like other forest species adapted to the temperate north, face an uncertain future. In my research at the Arnold Arboretum, I make use of publicly available data, existing scholarship, and, most importantly, the Arboretum's collection of over six hundred maple trees (which is nationally accredited by the Plant Collections Network) to predict how the genus will respond to climate change. Specifically, I ask how maple species differ in their response to dry soil conditions and to the shorter, warmer winters that will likely become typical in the Northern Hemisphere. In doing so, I treat maples as a model for other kinds of temperate trees. The genus makes for a good model for several reasons. First, the maples are highly diverse. The genus consists of 120 to 160 species depending on the taxonomic authority, with half of these growing at the Arboretum. Second, maples have a very wide geographic distribution, unlike some temperate genera confined to only certain continents or regions. And third, as ecologically foundational, long-lived trees, maples are of interest in and of themselves, and so there is an existing body of research addressing their natural history, ecology, and evolution. Yet, in the final analysis, the story of the maples is powerful because it is typical: the genus is neither wildly more nor less vulnerable to climate change than other temperate woody genera. As such, maples can serve as a bellwether for other temperate trees: where goes the maple, so go other temperate taxa. Thus, the genus can tell us about the past, and potentially the future, of northern forests. Paleogene Origins Maples belong to the highly diverse angiosperms, or flowering plants, which probably had differentiated from their ancestors by the beginning of the Cretaceous period, some 145 to 66 million years ago (Coiro et al., 2019). During that period, the earliest flowering plants spread across the globe, competing with and living alongside the previously dominant woody gymnosperms (including pines, cypresses, and ginkgoes). But it was during the next geologic period, the Paleogene (66 to 23 million years ago), that maples split off from their relatives among the flowering plants and truly came into their own. By the beginning of the Paleogene, the world's continents were more or less in their present locations, although their climates and Model Maples Jake J. Grossman GROSSMAN, J. J. 2020. MODEL MAPLES. ARNOLDIA, 78(1): 6-15 Facing page: Historic maple diversity has arisen over the past sixty million years\u2014a period of extreme climate fluctuations. The physiological adaptations of modern-day maples are therefore a record of that history. The redvein maple (Acer rufinerve), pictured here, is native to Japan. PHOTO BY WILLIAN (NED) FRIEDMAN 8 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 the degree of connectivity among them differed from conditions in the present day. Land bridges between North America and both western Europe (through Greenland) and East Asia (through Alaska) emerged periodically during cooler parts of this climatic cycle and sank back beneath the waves during warmer ones. In general, the global climate was hot and wet: 18\u00b0F (10\u00b0C) hotter on average than global temperatures during the twentieth century. This means that tropical biomes extended across much of the Earth's land surface, with the poles experiencing temperate conditions like those we now have at the midlatitudes. Ice was absent\u2014or very scarce\u2014on the Earth's surface. As a result, the growth and abundance of plants living at the North and South Poles was probably limited not by cold temperatures but by the scarcity of light (Tiffney and Manchester, 2001). In these conditions, so different from those we experience sixty million years later, the population of trees that would give rise to the modern maples became distinct from its kin. Per fossil evidence\u2014the appearance of recognizably maple-ish leaves and fruits\u2014and complementary modeling based on the genetics of existing maple species, it was at this point that maples diverged from other genera in the soapberry family (Sapindaceae). This group, which also encompasses horsechestnuts and buckeyes (Aesculus) and lychee (Litchi chinensis), presently consists of over 130 genera and close to two thousand species. Of these, the maple genus is most closely related to Aesculus and to Dipteronia, the two extant species of which can be found in mainland China. Indeed, China is likely the evolutionary cradle of maples; despite some fossil evidence that maples originated in North America and spread to Asia over Pacific land bridges, the most recent molecular evidence points to an Asian origin (Li et al., 2019). From these beginnings in China, maples radiated across the entire Northern Hemisphere while the warm, wet climate of the Paleogene was at its acme. Studies of fossil evidence marshaled by paleontologists such as Toshimasa Tanai (1983), Jack Wolfe (Wolfe and Tanai, 1987), and Harald Walther (Walther and Zastawniak, 2005) indicate that, during this time, the maples were highly diverse and cosmopolitan in their distribution. For example, the maple flora of western North America, for which the fossil record is particularly strong, currently consists of three species: bigleaf maple (Acer macrophyl- Maples have a widespread distribution throughout the temperate Northern Hemisphere. This map was prepared for The Red List of Maples (2009). BOTANIC GARDENS CONSERVATION INTERNATIONAL GLOBAL MAPLE DISTRIBUTION Model Maples 9 lum), vine maple (A. circinatum), and Douglas maple (A. glabrum). If generous, we could also include in this count the widespread box elder (A. negundo) and the western bigtooth maple (A. grandidentatum), which is often, and rightly, I would argue, treated as a subspecies of sugar maple (A. saccharum). Regardless, Wolfe and Tanai (1987) report paleontological evidence of ninety-one distinct maple species in the region; some of these may be the ancestors of the modern western maples, but the vast majority have been lost to extinction. This pattern, in which current maple biodiversity represents a small subsample of a formerly diverse flora, is perhaps best documented in western North America, but it likely holds true across the maples' distribution. But why? Maples on Ice In short, maples can best be thought of as either pitiable victims or, perhaps, resilient survivors of tens of millions of years of adverse climate change. Starting roughly fifty million years ago, the Earth entered a long period of gradual and intermittent global cooling, one we would still be in if not for anthropogenic climate warming. During this time, the poles and middle latitudes became cooler and drier, giving rise to the ecosystems that we now associate with the high latitudes. Permanent ice formed in the Arctic, and glaciers periodically developed and spread south. As a result, maples were pushed toward the equator in some cases and restricted to small refugia\u2014areas of permissive warm and wet conditions\u2014in others. Those species that could not tolerate the increasingly cold and arid climate or migrate away from local, harsh conditions went extinct. At the same time, ice formation and climatic cooling opened up new land bridges. These included not only those among continents but also smaller regional bridges, connecting, for instance, mainland China to Japan, Taiwan, and the bulk of the Korean Peninsula. During these moments of connection, the maples' migration in response to climate change occurred alongside the interchange of previously isolated floras. Yet the decline of global maple diversity with climatic cooling and drying was not uniform. In general, the last fifty million years have been easier on the East Asian maple flora, which, protected by the geographic diversity and relatively stable climate of the region, now includes the native range of upwards of 80 percent of today's maple species diversity. The maple floras of Europe and North America, on the other hand, have been much more vulnerable to climatic cooling, which has frequently led to considerable glaciation of both continents. However, it is important to note that these cold, dry periods of migration, extinction, and exchange were likely cyclic. As a result, maples, like many other temperate tree lineages, were squeezed and pushed, but then given periods of ten million years or so of relaxed, permissive climatic conditions. During these relaxed periods, populations likely rebounded, beneficial climatic adaptations spread, and species were able to expand from their refugia and southern havens to repopulate the north. We can see evidence of this pattern if we consider the most recent glacial cycle, alternately referred to as the Pleistocene Ice Age or the Last Glacial Period, which ended eleven thousand years ago. At the height of this Ice Age, glaciers reached well into the northern United States, and much of what we now think of as forestland was probably devoid of tree cover. During this time, sugar maples and box elders migrated deep into Central America, returning north as the glaciers retreated and the climate warmed, rendering their southern refugia too hot and dry and opening up new territory in what is today the United States. As a result, relictual pockets of these maple species can still be found in cool, wet locations, such as cloud forests, in Mexico and Guatemala. This pattern of range shifts and adaptation to new conditions serves as a likely illustration of other maple species' responses to climate change over the last fifty million years. Classification from Evolution Against this backdrop of global change and migration, sixty million years of evolution has given rise to our current maple flora of roughly 120 species. (I prefer to stick to a relatively low estimate of maple species diversity. Higher species counts\u2014close to 160 in some cases\u2014 treat two maple populations separated by geography but capable of interbreeding as different 10 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 species instead of subspecies.) As noted above, the majority of maples (more than one hundred species) are native to the genus's ancestral East Asian home; nine are native to North America; and eleven are native to Europe and Western Asia. Furthermore, a handful of East Asian species are truly tropical, extending into mainland Southeast Asia and Indonesia. Maples are a staple of the Northern Hemisphere's temperate forests, although their ecological role varies from canopy-spanning dominants (sugar maple, Acer saccharum, and red maple, A. rubrum, in the eastern United States) to specialists that are more sparsely distributed in the understory (moosewood, A. pensylvanicum) or generally riparian (silver maple, A. saccharinum, and box elder, A. negundo). Western botanists since Linnaeus have studied this considerable diversity among the maples (de Jong, 1994). Yet recent advances have finally made it possible to describe the genus in properly evolutionary terms. For many contemporary biologists, one of the main goals of taxonomy\u2014the classification of organisms\u2014should be the creation of a system in which species are organized according to their evolutionary relationships. In such a phylogenetic approach, species in a given genus, for instance, are all descended from a common ancestral population and are thus more closely related to each other than to other species outside of the genus. This is almost certainly the case for Acer as it has been described since the authoritative taxonomy by German botanist Ferdinand Pax in 1885. His work, of course, was carried out shortly after Charles Darwin's proposal of adaptive evolution and many decades before the advent of modern genetics, and so is based entirely on morphological comparisons. Since Pax, students of the maple genus have continuously refined the organization of Acer, proposing and dismissing a variety of schemes in which the genus is organized into sections (each containing species more closely related to each other than to those in other sections) and, within sections, series. For instance, since 1933, botanists have generally agreed that the morphologically similar red and silver maple, both native to North America and unique in their flowering phenology, are members of a distinct section, Rubra (de Jong, 1994), with only a single, long-lost East Asian cousin (A. pycnanthum). More recently, such classifications have been put to the test through the application of modern genomic analyses. Most recently, botanist and former Arnold Arboretum senior researcher Jianhua Li, presently at Hope College, has capped off two decades of research into maple systematics by publishing, with colleagues, a definitive phylogeny of the genus (2019). Their portrait of the genus's diversity suggests the existence of sixteen sections, most of which had become evolutionarily distinct by roughly thirty-three million years ago. This point, marking the transition from the Eocene epoch (which began fifty-six million years ago) to the Oligocene epoch (which ended twenty-three million years ago), also coincided with a dramatic drop in global temperatures following a gradual cooling during the Eocene. By the time global cooling preceding our current age had really begun to accelerate, the maple genus had experienced its most profound evolutionary diversification. The emergence, over the subsequent thirty million years, of today's maple species, was likely shaped by smaller-scale adaptations and the extinction of existing lineages, rather than by wholesale innovations within the clade. So today, after tens of millions of years of evolution, what visible traits define a maple tree? Leaf arrangement and shape, and seed type are probably the best way to identify a member of the genus. To begin with, all of the temperate maples are deciduous and broad-leaved, with opposite leaves setting them apart from many other angiosperm taxa. Most have simple, palmately veined leaves with anywhere from three to thirteen lobes, giving rise to the \"maple leaf\" shape popularized by the Canadian flag Facing page, clockwise from upper left: Leaf and flower characteristics of maples are quite variable. The clade (section Pentaphylla) with three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum) diverged from section Acer, which includes the morphologically distinct sugar maple (A. saccharum), about 29 million years ago. These groups, in turn, separated from section Rubra, which contains the red maple (A. rubrum), about 34 million years ago. Although their foliage and flowers are easy to differentiate, horned maple (A. diabolicum) and hornbeam maple (A. carpinifolium) are in two allied clades. Vine maple (A. cissifolium) has leaves that resemble the three-flowered maple, but the vine maple's clade (section Negundo) is quite distinct, having separated from its look-alikes about 63 million years ago (Li et al., 2019). Acer triflorum Acer saccharum Acer rubrum Acer carpinifolium Acer diabolicum Acer cissifolium JONATHAN DAMERY KYLE PORT DANNY SCHISSLER DANNY SCHISSLER SUZANNE MROZAK WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN 12 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 and currency, which portray the leaf of a sugar maple\u2014and, in some cases, erroneously, that of an invasive Norway maple (Acer platanoides). Yet not all maple leaves fit this rubric. A few species, such as the hornbeam maple (A. carpinifolium) bear simple leaves with pinnate venation. And two surviving lineages have developed compound leaves. These species include the North American box elder in one lineage and Arboretum classics such as the East Asian paperbark (A. griseum) and Nikko (A. maximowiczianum) maples in the other. Furthermore, all maples produce beloved paired samaras: dry, winged fruit that can \"helicopter\" away from their mother tree when ripe. The presence of a paired samara generally will mark a temperate tree as a maple, though other genera, including ashes (Fraxinus), produce unpaired samaras. A tree bearing opposite leaves and paired samaras, then, is very likely to be a maple. On the other hand, flowers and bark are so diverse within the maple genus as to be unhelpful to most casual plant taxonomists. All maples produce regular, five-part (or rarely four-part) flowers, with fertilized female flowers eventually giving rise to samaras. Yet, here the similarities end. Flowers can be red, yellow, or green, and male or female (though male flowers often bear undeveloped ovaries). Maples can be dioecious\u2014single-sexed\u2014or monecious\u2014 having male and female flowers on the same plant. Monecious trees can produce waves of flowers over a single season, going from male, to female, to male again. Few trees, most notably box elder and the horned maple (Acer diabolicum), are fully dioecious, meaning they consistently present as either male or female. Maple bark presents another lesson in the genus's surprising diversity. The scaly motley of green and brown lining the trunk of European sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) makes these trees easy to spot, although in some cases, misleadingly similar to true sycamores (Platanus). The bright orange, peeling bark of the paperbark maple (A. griseum) is one of its outstanding merits as a horticultural tree. But it is the species of the section Macrantha, the snakebark maples, whose green, smooth-to-furrowed bark is, to me, most unusual and appealing. These species are restricted in their distribution to East Asia except for the North American moosewood maple (A. pensylvanicum). Hot and Cold Despite long-standing celebration of maples' morphological diversity, ecologists still lack a clear understanding of physiological diversity in the genus. I am interested in this question out of the need to forecast how particular species of maples, as well as other temperate trees, will respond to climate change. Recent studies have already documented some climate-related shifts in maple distributions. For instance, in North America, red maples seem to be increasing in abundance, while sugar maples are in decline (Fei and Steiner, 2007; Oswald et al., 2018). But how can these patterns be generalized across the remainder of the genus? Will those species that already live in warmer and drier climates be favored by our warming and increasingly drought-prone anthropogenic climate? Or are species from cooler, wetter habitats secretly concealing a capacity to put up with a wider range of conditions than indicated by their current distribution? In my ongoing study of the climate-change vulnerability of the maples, I seek to answer these questions. Most temperate forests will experience hotter conditions and a greater risk of drought as our climate changes. What will this mean for the maples? In comparisons of diverse woody plants from across the globe, a few physiological traits have emerged as excellent predictors of how good a given species is at thriving in hot, dry conditions. One of these is turgor loss point, the water potential at which a leaf from a tree or shrub loses turgor, or wilts (Bartlett et al., 2012). To date, I have measured turgor loss point for seventeen species of maple coming from diverse sections of the genus and from all over the world. One pattern emerging from these data is that European and West Asian maples have the lowest (most drought tolerant) turgor loss points, followed by North American and then East Asian species. It appears that species living in the genus's original homeland are among the most intolerant maples of hot, dry conditions. This could be due to differences in the climatic Model Maples 13 histories of the maples' East Asian, North American, and European ranges. In Europe, for instance, cycles of glaciation and warming have likely pushed to extinction any species that could not survive dry conditions; East Asia likely contained more refugia, allowing these species, including many maples, to survive to the present (Tiffney and Manchester, 2001). Yet the perils of hot and dry conditions are not the only challenge that climate change will pose to the temperate maples. Paradoxically, some temperate trees may be at greater risk of springtime freezing damage in a warming climate. The increasing likelihood of false spring events, in which warm, short winters allow plants to begin growing again earlier in the year, may lead some trees to lose cold hardiness and sustain critical damage from sudden drops in late winter temperatures. To understand whether maples will be sensitive to false springs, I partnered with my colleague and fellow postdoctoral Putnam Fellow Al Kovaleski, an expert in measuring cold hardiness in woody plants. In these tests, we generally find that maples can withstand much colder temperatures than they are likely to experience in their native habitats\u2014or in Boston! Many of our test species, even when actively growing, flowering, or putting out new leaves for the spring, can withstand freezing to 14\u00b0F (-10\u00b0C) or below. It seems unlikely that false springs concomitant with a warming climate will expose trees to these temperatures at the right time of the year and for the periods of time necessary to cause considerable damage. However, in our analysis of cold hardiness across species, we found a continental pattern that echoed my work on tolerance of drought. East Asian species were, once again, least tolerant of cold conditions. But, in contrast to intercontinental differences in turgor loss point, North American species were generally the most cold hardy, with European species intermediate and East Asian species most vulnerable. This is likely due to differences in the way that each continent experiences the onset of spring. Recent In the author's research on drought tolerance and cold hardiness, Asian maples, like Acer ceriferum (right), tended to be the most vulnerable to severe conditions. European species, like A. campestre, tended to be more adaptable, especially to drought conditions. PHOTOS BY SUZANNE MROZAK 14 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 work by a group of ecologists led by Constantin Zohner (2020) has established that North American forests have historically been much more likely to experience freezing temperatures in late spring. European and Asian floras have responded to generally more permissive springs by developing an opportunistic strategy, taking more risks and initiating growth earlier in the spring. As a result, European trees are thought to be in the most danger of damage from false springs as the climate continues to warm. Back to the Future But what do these findings mean for the climate-change resilience of maples and, by extension, other temperate woody species? For me, the best way of thinking about the future is to once more turn to the genus's past. For instance, though it's impossible to measure the physiological diversity of the historic European and North American maple floras, we might imagine that, under warmer and wetter conditions, in which environmental pressures were laxer, each region was home to maples adapted to a variety of environments. But paleontological evidence, climate modeling, and the present-day existence of only drought-tolerant European maples and relatively cold-tolerant American species suggest a compelling story. Successive cycles of cold, dry, and glaciated ice ages during the Oligocene, interspersed with warming, may have weeded out those species sensitive to these environmental stressors. This mechanism has been suggested to explain the relative lack of diversity in temperate eastern North American and Eurasian forests relative to those in East Asia and western North America (Qian and Ricklefs, 2000; Svenning, 2003). And they certainly explain patterns of physiological and species diversity for the extant maples outside of East Asia. Perhaps the few remaining species in North America and Europe are those that have managed to survive, adapt, and migrate in response to glaciations and accompanying cold and dry conditions. Pushed into Meso- and Central America and into Northern Africa, they have subsequently returned to higher latitudes, becoming locally abundant in the case of widespread species such as sugar, red, Norway, and sycamore maples, among others. Differences in the geography and climate of each continent have only reinforced these adaptive patterns: North America, for instance, has more extreme and variable early spring temperatures, producing a more coldhardy flora (Zohner et al., 2020). But what will happen next, as our climate warms and patterns of precipitation become more erratic? We could be facing a future reminiscent of our past, but with a twist. Paleoecologist Kevin Burke and colleagues, in 2018, offer a particularly compelling illustration of how global change might affect Earth's temperate forests. In this modeling exercise, the authors compare likely scenarios of future climate change to what we know about the Earth's historical climate based on climatological reconstructions. Disturbingly, they predict that, under a business-as-usual scenario, in which humans do nothing to curb climate change, the Earth very well may, by 2200, have a climate akin to that of the Eocene period (roughly fifty million years ago in their analysis). This means that, in just seven maple generations, we may skip over fifty million years of changing climate, reverting to conditions similar to those before the diversification of the maple clade in the late Eocene and early Oligocene. Whether our current palette of maple species can tolerate these conditions is unclear. Our warming climate could open up some habitat, at least initially, for cold-tolerant and northerly distributed maples (like sugar maple and Norway maple) to extend further into areas that are presently too cold for trees to inhabit. And maybe the highly drought-tolerant species of Eurasia will be able to capitalize on drying and warming conditions to displace moremesic species. But there is also a likelihood that anthropogenic climate change will create what climatologists call no-analog conditions, a climate unlike one that our existing flora and fauna have ever experienced, much less adapted to. In this case, humans will truly face something new under the sun, as will our biotic companions. In the immediate future, the story of the maples suggests the critical need to begin the conservation of woody plants we know to Model Maples 15 be heat- or drought-intolerant. These conservation efforts include the ex situ migration of species out of their current native ranges. We also should begin investing in forestry that focuses on those species that, by virtue of their natural history, have proven themselves capable of withstanding long periods with limited access to water. These suggestions, based on the climatechange vulnerability of the maples, are meant to apply to a variety of temperate woody taxa, including oaks, willows, and birches. Each of these genera is the result of a complex set of journeys across multiple continents and survival over many millions of years of global change. That such adaptation is possible should at least give us hope for the work ahead of us to keep the planet livable, both for our own progeny and for whatever comes next in the story of the Northern Hemisphere's forests. References Bartlett, M. K., Scoffoni, C., and Sack, L. 2012. The determinants of leaf turgor loss point and prediction of drought tolerance of species and biomes: A global meta-analysis. Ecology Letters, 15: 393-405. Coiro, M., Doyle, J. A., and Hilton, J. 2019. How deep is the conflict between molecular and fossil evidence on the age of angiosperms? New Phytologist, 223: 83-99. Fei, S., and Steiner, K. C. 2007. Evidence for increasing red maple abundance in the eastern United States. Forest Science, 53: 473-477. Gibbs, D., and Yousheng, C. 2009. The red list of maples. Richmond: Botanic Gardens Conservation International. de Jong, P. C. 1994. Taxonomy and reproductive biology of maples. In D. M. van Gelderen, P. C. de Jong, and H. J. Oterdoom (Eds.), Maples of the world (pp. 69-99). Portland, OR: Timber Press. Li, J., Stukel, M., Bussies, P., Skinner, K., Lemmon, A. R., Lemmon, E. M., Brown, K., Bekmetjev, A., and Swenson, N. G. 2019. Maple phylogeny and biogeography inferred from phylogenomic data. Journal of Systematics and Evolution, 57: 594-606. Oswald, E. M., Pontius, J., Rayback, S. A., Schaberg, P. G., Wilmot, S. H., and Dupigny-Giroux, L. A. 2018. The complex relationship between climate and sugar maple health: Climate change implications in Vermont for a key northern hardwood species. Forest Ecology and Management, 422: 303-312. Qian, H., and Ricklefs, R. E. 2000. Large-scale processes and the Asian bias in species diversity of temperate plants. Nature, 407: 180-182. Svenning, J.-C. 2003. Deterministic Plio-Pleistocene extinctions in the European cool-temperate tree flora. Ecology Letters, 6: 646-653. Tanai, T. 1983. Revisions of Tertiary Acer from East Asia. Journal of the Faculty of Sciences, Hokkaido University, 20: 291-390. Tiffney, B. H., and Manchester, S. R. 2001. The use of geological and paleontological evidence in evaluating plant phylogeographic hypotheses in the northern hemisphere tertiary. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 162: S3-S17. Walther, H., and Zastawniak, E. 2005. Sapindaceae (Aceroideae) from the late Miocene flora of Sos'nica near Wroc\u0142aw - A revision of G\u00f6ppert's original materials and a study of more recent collections. Acta Palaeobotanica, 45: 85-106. Wolfe, J. A., and Tanai, T. 1987. Systematics, phylogeny, and distribution of Acer (maples) in the Cenozoic of Western North America. Journal of the Faculty of Sciences, Hokkaido University, 22: 1-246. Zohner, C. M., Mo, L., Renner, S. S., Svenning, J.-C., Vitasse, Y., Benito, B. M., Ordonez, A., Baumgarten, F., Bastin, J. F., Sebald, V., Reich, P. B., Liang, J., Nabuurs, G. J., De-Migueln, S., Alberti, G., Ant\u00f3n-Fern\u00e1ndez, C., Balazy, R., Br\u00e4ndli, U. B., Chen, H. Y. H., Chisholm, C., Cienciala, E., Dayanandan, S., Fayle, T. M., Frizzera, L., Gianelle, D., Jagodzinski, A. M., Jaroszewicz, B., Jucker, T., Kepfer-Rojas, S., Khan, M. L., Kim, H. S., Korjus, H., Johannsen, V. K., Laarmann, D., Langn, M., Zawila-Niedzwiecki, T., Niklaus, P. A., Paquette, A., Pretzsch, H., Saikia, P., Schall, P., Seben, V., Svoboda, M., Tikhonova, E., Viana, H., Zhang, C., Zhao, X., and Crowther, T. W. 2020. Late-spring frost risk between 1959 and 2017 decreased in North America but increased in Europe and Asia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 117: 1-9. Jake J. Grossman is a visiting assistant professor of ecology at Swarthmore College and a research associate at the Arnold Arboretum. From 2018 to 2020, he was a Putnam Fellow at the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Essential Gardening: Public Gardens in the Spring of COVID-19","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25710","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24ea36c.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Forrest, Todd; Galligan, Brian; Gott, Ryan C.; Guidarelli, Conor; Henrichsen, Esther Truitt; Huang, Terry; Kartes, Nancy; LaPlume, Greg; Loving, Sharon; Merriam, Debbie; Salyards, Jim; Shearer, Kim; Williams, Kevin","article_content":"The spring of 2020 has been defined by upturned plans. As the number of COVID-19 cases skyrocketed, lives across the United States were reconfigured. Eight-year-olds learned how to take school classes remotely. Grocery stores began limiting the number of shoppers who could be inside at once. Restaurants reinvented their menus for takeout. Businesses large and small closed their doors, sending millions of workers to unemployment. Even hospitals\u2014while stretched beyond the max on one front\u2014began furloughing employees, given that routine and elective appointments were canceled. Streets in cities like Boston became veritably empty, with no morning rush, no evening rush. Public gardens, like other cultural institutions, were confronted with the same stay-at-home mandates that shuttered their communities. According to the American Public Gardens Association, more than 25 percent of gardens closed on a single day (Monday, March 16), and by the end of March, only 4 percent remained fully open to the public. The plants, of course, did not wait to begin growing until gardens reopened. The sunshine-colored blossoms of forsythia and daffodils put on their radiant shows no matter what. The unrelenting arrival of spring was, in many ways, incongruous with the national mood. It also meant that horticulturists at public gardens continued working despite closures and event cancellations at their institutions. Schedules changed. Procedures changed. But there were plants to be tended. Below, thirteen horticulturists from gardens around the country describe the on-the-ground realities of car- Essential Gardening: Public Gardens in the Spring of COVID-19 Todd Forrest, Brian Galligan, Ryan C. Gott, Conor Guidarelli, Esther Truitt Henrichsen, Terry Huang, Nancy Kartes, Greg LaPlume, Sharon Loving, Debbie Merriam, Jim Salyards, Kim Shearer, and Kevin Williams ing for their collections during the first months of the pandemic\u2014the months in which an old normal faded and a new normal was created. January 24 On January 21, 2020, our nation's first case of COVID-19 was reported in the Seattle area, just a few miles from Bellevue Botanical Garden. I was not paying attention to the news. As garden manager, I was deep into planning our first big event of 2020: a Lunar New Year Celebration scheduled for February 2. We had been snowed out the year before, which would have been our first year celebrating this event, so excitement was high over the favorable weather forecast. We expected over one thousand visitors. I could imagine red-and-gold lion dancers snaking through entry gardens that would be redolent with witch-hazels and sarcococca. The hot pink blossoms of Camellia 'Mary Christian'\u2014evocative of the tea plant (C. sinensis)\u2014would be punching through the winter gray. One of our community partners, Lily, began each planning meeting by serving different varieties of Chinese tea. Her gracious habit kept me connected to the mission of our collaboration: teaching the public about botanicals used in Chinese teas. Lunar New Year was to be the first of four events celebrating Chinese tea arts through the seasons. At our pre-event check-in on January 24, Lily was visibly shaken. She was wracked with concern over the news out of China. She had been in touch with friends and family there and felt it would be disrespectful to hold a large public celebration at a time when so many were suffering. She and her colleagues feared the virus would spread here. I Facing page: Horticulturist Jessica Kaplan cares for the New York Botanical Garden's Native Plant Garden. PHOTO BY THE NEW YORK BOTANICAL GARDEN FORREST, T., GALLIGAN, B., GOTT, R. C., GUIDARELLI, C., HENRICHSEN, E. T., HUANG, T., KARTES, N., LAPLUME, G., LOVING, S., MERRIAM, D., SALYARDS, J., SHEARER, K., AND WILLIAMS, K. 2020. ESSENTIAL GARDENING: PUBLIC GARDENS IN THE SPRING OF COVID-19. ARNOLDIA, 78(1): 16-31 18 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 agreed to cancel the event out of respect for the Chinese community. At the time, I didn't think it was necessary to add \"out of an abundance of caution.\" It was a scramble to put the brakes on with just a little over one week's notice: cancel the lion dancers, the musicians, the tea ceremonies. Notify the public, the volunteers, the dignitaries. While our garden was deep in winter dormancy, with so much unseen beneath the surface, novel coronavirus was silently making its way through our community. Our area was destined to be the first epicenter of the outbreak in the United States. Events and programs fell like dominos, one after the other as our understanding of the pandemic evolved, until our governor issued a stay-at-home order and everything ground to a halt on March 25. Our facilities closed. A handful of crew members would continue coming in to care for the garden, which remained open for walking, free as always. Everyone began panic shopping for toilet paper, which I could not understand. I stocked up on veggie seeds and compost. On January 24, I didn't see any of that coming. I now feel haunted by that day, by my ignorance in thinking that the virus was far away, not our problem. Thanks to our Chinese friends, we made the right call and that decision may have saved lives. I remember that we, at Bellevue, are the lucky ones: no staff layoffs, volunteers eager to return, and all of them healthy. I remember that we are strong and resilient. And I remember that, in the garden, the hidden promise of winter dormancy burst into an early spring, with daffodils, daphne, and rhododendrons coming into bloom, each, in their turn, providing respite from pandemic fears. \u2014Nancy Kartes, Garden Manager March 15 I was at home on Sunday, March 15, when we decided to close the New York Botanical Garden indefinitely to the public and nonessential staff to help prevent the spread of COVID-19. For several weeks prior to this decision, we had been following the news of the virus, communicating regularly with various government agencies, and planning for at least a partial shutdown. In spite of our preparation, the decision to close the garden at the height of our annual Orchid Show and on the eve of spring felt nonetheless sudden and severe. Even though we had dealt with temporary closures after 9\/11 and during various hurricanes and blizzards, none of us had ever experienced a long-term shutdown with no clear path to reopening. Gardens shouldn't close in spring. Starting at about seven o'clock that evening, I set out to call every member of the garden's horticulture team (nearly seventy people in all) to relay the news and to assemble a small crew to come in the next day. With 250 acres of designed gardens and curated plant collections and two glasshouses, the New York Botanical Garden needs tending every day. Fortunately, New York State deemed us an essential business, which made our horticulturists essential workers. Unfortunately, due to social distancing protocol and budgetary concerns, we could only bring in a reduced staff on an intermittent schedule. By ten o'clock, I had reached everyone and had confirmed twelve staff for the next day. Even as I grimly delivered the news of the closure to one colleague after another, I was buoyed by their hope and desire to help however they could. Hope in the face of COVID-19 was no small thing. At the time, none of us knew how severe the pandemic would become, but all of us were aware that New York City, with its densely packed humanity, could be fertile ground for a highly communicable virus. Many of my colleagues live in the five boroughs and take public transportation to the garden. Many are in close contact with elderly parents, or have partners with respiratory conditions, or care for small children, or have some other legitimate reason to be especially scared of contracting COVID-19. Despite their personal concerns, the horticulture staff knew what was at stake and gamely signed up to come in. They understood the essential nature of their work keeping the New York Botanical Garden healthy and beautiful so the garden can achieve its mission of serving and delighting the public. This spring has taught me a lot about the profound impact our garden has on peoples' lives. It has also deepened my respect and gratitude for the professional horticulturists who Public Gardens and COVID-19 19 care for our collections, displays, and natural landscapes. These are New York horticulturists: a bit jaded perhaps, and suspicious of authority (e.g., me), but as tough and serious as they come. Many have worked here for decades and are deeply proud of what we have built together on the foundation laid by the generations of horticulturists who came before us. And so, through the height of the pandemic, our now officially essential horticulturists came to the garden, albeit on significantly reduced and altered schedules, to care for our plants, COVID-19 be damned. \u2014Todd Forrest, Arthur Ross Vice President for Horticulture and Living Collections March 17 On Tuesday, March 17, I was in the nursery at the Arnold Arboretum with five other horticulture staff, digging trees and shrubs for the spring planting. It was the day after buildings at the Arnold were closed to non-essential personnel. Originally the closure was described as a \"trial\" work-from-home week, but for most, it would become a new normal. Horticulture staff would also set up home offices to reduce essential staff densities. Those who were juggling work, parenting, and teaching duties were home first. Our team in the nursery was the only horticulture and greenhouse staff on-site that day. The nurseries consist of three plots that are tightly spaced around the greenhouses, located on a central edge of the landscape. Visitors can see the nurseries and greenhouses through a chain-link fence. Almost all the one-hundredplus trees and shrubs that were slated to be dug this spring were growing in a single nursery plot, and everything was to be balled-andburlapped. This method involves hand-digging a teacup-shaped mass of roots and soil (the children's song \"I'm a Little Teapot\" always runs through my head) and lacing sisal in an inter- At the Arnold Arboretum, in-person horticulture meetings have shifted to Zoom. Here, horticulturist Conor Guidarelli attends from the landscape. JONATHAN DAMERY Public Gardens and COVID-19 21 woven drum-like fashion to hold on a covering of burlap. One person can do the digging and burlap dressing, but it takes at least two to hoist the plant to the surface. We managed to keep several feet away from one another by lifting with ball-and-burlap straps. At that point, we were all wearing makeshift masks fashioned from cotton rags and handkerchiefs. We normally dig several specimens and then go out onto the grounds to plant them on the same day. This spring, however, everything was to be dug at once. Given the small size of the nurseries, space is constantly in demand. New seed arrives from plant-collecting expeditions every year, and the seedlings work their way into the greenhouses, to the shade nursery, and eventually either into containers or into one of the nursery plots. If plants were not dug from the nurseries it would stop the production line. Because many of the plants are collected in the wild, throwing out the inventory is not a choice. The plants are impossible\u2014or exceptionally hard\u2014to replace. These are not massproduced Knock Out\u00ae roses. When the coronavirus was first being reported in the United States, back in January, I was grimly aware that the pathogen would be exceptionally disruptive. In our horticulture meetings, we began creating a game plan for how we would prioritize our operations under a series of scenarios. The fourth scenario was a near shutdown of operations, with only one or two people on-site. As it ended up\u2014and as I worried would happen\u2014we went straight from the modest precautions of the first scenario to the intense shutdown of the fourth within a matter of weeks. Before scenario four could occur, however, spring planting had to be completed. We had initially planned to tuck the balled-and-burlapped plants into another space in the nursery for a fall planting, but halfway through, the plan would shift: everything would be planted, including another two-hundred-odd plants that had been grown in containers. From the nursery, we could see through the fence to the main roadway that winds through the Arnold, which offered a view of a tremendous influx of visitors. The landscape is free and would remain open despite other closures. It is tucked directly within Boston residential neighborhoods, and with businesses around the city sending employees home\u2014or worse, laying off workers\u2014wave after wave of visitors were taking midday walks in the landscape. It felt like everyone was arriving for our largest event of the year, Lilac Sunday, but the lilacs were still more than a month from blooming. Tree branches were still bare and leafless. But our relentless pace of digging continued. This task was essential. \u2014Greg LaPlume, Arboretum Horticulturist March 25 In the early days of the pandemic, the pervasive singing of birds at Filoli was uncanny. The garden is nestled in the mountains between the San Francisco Bay and the Pacific, halfway between San Francisco and San Jose. While the gardens are formal\u2014part of a sprawling estate that was established on gold-mining profits more than a century ago\u2014wildlife is always abundant. Birdsongs provide a sense of vibrancy during the day, and large animals (like cougars, coyotes, foxes, and raccoons) leave evidence of nighttime visits. On March 25, I was in the Sunken Garden, snapping a social media photo of yellow 'West Point' tulips that were blooming within the low, clipped hedges of the parterres. The calls of sparrows, towhees, crows, and finches were inescapable, but they were now an eerie reminder of the lack of human voices in the garden. Filoli had closed the week before, on March 17, and although the horticulture team would continue to care for the landscape, the garden had to lay off some of our frontline staff at the beginning of our closure. Wildlife was becoming more brazen in their activities, but it was very bittersweet when all who would normally be enjoying the garden, along with the birds, were missing. Filoli has blooms 365 days a year because of the moderate climate along the coast of northern California. Camellias and daphne begin blooming in January. In summer, the formal parterres showcase a bounty of colorful designs. But spring continues to be our biggest draw. Locals and visitors from around the globe are captivated by the spring experience of seeing 'West Point' tulips at Filoli Historic House and Garden. PHOTO BY JIM SALYARDS daffodils and tulips in our meadows and formal beds. Wisteria clambers on the side of the mansion, and peonies are showstopping. But this year, our spring peak of mid-March to mid- April was completely missed. All the planting and tending on the part of the staff, all the expectant calls and emails that started at the beginning of the year asking the best time to visit were for naught. I did my best to share photos and videos through our social media outlets, but it's just not the same. A few thumbs-up or heart emojis are a poor substitution for the \"oohs\" and \"aahs\" and the thank-yous we receive from guests each day\u2014the guests who call out compliments while we are weeding and pruning or who pass along the praise to our colleagues in visitor services and interpretation. Public gardens like Filoli are champions of environmental education and conservation, yes, but we also provide substance for people's souls. Hopefully, in the near future, the garden will once again become a space of healing, just when the world needs us most. \u2014Jim Salyards, Director of Horticulture April 6 The first week of April, three weeks after Utah went on voluntary shutdown, I spent two beautiful days pruning at Ashton Gardens where I work. The gardens were closed to the public, and the gardeners were \"social distancing,\" a term that was new to our everyday vocabulary. I was on my own, pruning and listening to music within the walled Secret Garden, an enclosed space among the designed ruins of gothic arches that drip with honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica 'Halliana') and Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus tricuspidata). As the garden designer, I don't often have a chance to work directly in the At Ashton Gardens, a horticulturist cuts tulips from the Italian Gardens for online sales. ESTHER TRUITT HENRICHSEN Public Gardens and COVID-19 23 gardens, but during the pandemic, the entire staff was stepping up to help with horticultural care. I love to prune. I worked my way through the collection, shaping and thinning shrubs. I pruned branches from an indecisive willowleafed pear (Pyrus salicifolia 'Pendula'), removing those that were sticking straight up and keeping those that were draping down. It was just me, the blue skies and sunshine, and ten thousand tulips in the Secret Garden\u2014yes, ten thousand of the quarter million that we had planted at Ashton Gardens for our annual Tulip Festival. Like so many things this spring, the event did not happen, so only the gardeners and the birds were there to see the show. Ashton Gardens lies thirty miles south of Salt Lake City in the foothills of the Wasatch Range. We are part of Thanksgiving Point Institute, a complex of gardens, a farm, and museums in the middle of a rapidly developing area called Silicon Slopes. The Secret Garden is one of our guests' favorite spaces within our fiftyfive- acre landscape, and its charm lends itself as a place to stage marriage proposals, as well as for meetings of the local crochet club. There were no marriage proposals in the gardens this spring. Utah went on voluntary lockdown on March 14, before the gardens officially opened for the season. The office staff of Thanksgiving Point mostly worked from home, and staff with service jobs were paid to stay home. Due to our ability to distance ourselves while working, the garden staff had the good fortune of continuing to work every day. On March 18, four days after lockdown, a 5.7-magnitude earthquake hit the Wasatch Front. I was in my office and, true to my elementary school earthquake-drill training, dove under my desk. The staff working outside in the gardens didn't even feel the quake. Over the next several weeks, over two thousand aftershocks occurred, and COVID-19 was always there just beyond the garden gates. While we worked in the gardens, nature helped us to find solace in the storm and feel less unnerved than many in our community. Throughout the weeks that would have been the Tulip Festival, we cut fifty dozen tulips from the garden each day. Thanksgiving Point members could preorder bouquets and have them delivered to their front porch. Or they could drive past the Ashton Garden Visitor's Center, pop the hatch so that garden volunteers could put the flowers into the car, and then drive away with their little bit of the Tulip Festival. \u2014Esther Truitt Henrichsen, Garden Designer April 13 On Monday, April 13, I was at the Mary May Binney Wakefield Arboretum, located just south of Boston. As the arboretum director but one of just four employees, I normally work in our gardens every day. It's a twenty-five-acre property, listed on the National Register of Historic Places, and we are recognized for our collection of more than three hundred kousa dogwoods (Cornus kousa). The dogwoods were grown from seed that Mary (Polly) Wakefield collected at the Arnold Arboretum, where she took propagation classes for more than forty years. Our grounds had officially closed to the public following the statewide stay-at-home order that went into place on March 24. Due to the size of the landscape and staff restrictions\u2014 one week on and one week off\u2014I had only seen my coworkers in passing and felt so fortunate to still be employed, working in the garden that had become such a place of peace and solitude. On that day, however, pouring rain kept me inside catching up on paperwork. In an effort to create distance between staff members, I had moved my office from an old farmhouse to the main historic residence: a 1794 Georgian mansion. As the rainy and blustery spring day progressed, I looked out of the windows of the antiquated kitchen where I had set up my workstation and observed several of our massive hemlocks swaying back and forth. Mature trees before the Civil War, these hemlocks withstood the 1938 hurricane that destroyed many native trees all over New England. More recently, these giants survived hemlock woolly adelgid with attentive care. As winds strengthened, I received an alert from the Blue Hill Observatory, just a mile away, that gusts were recorded at eighty miles an hour. I heard a loud crack and saw that a large limb had come down and obliterated our ten-foot privacy fence. I stepped out of the mansion to survey the damage and quickly realized it was not a good time to be 24 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 standing among so many towering trees: hemlocks, sugar maples, and red oaks that are the oldest in our collection. Instead, I locked up the mansion, hopped in my car, and headed toward the gate and home. Ten minutes later, the largest hemlock snapped about ten feet up and with its huge girth took another massive tree with it, narrowly missing the mansion. I received an alarmed text from my colleague saying, \"We lost the big ones.\" I could not fathom these trees falling until the images appeared on my phone. It seemed almost cruel that these hemlocks would no longer record history from their stately position. As a wave of sadness came over me, I recalled a moment standing in an ancient hemlock grove in graduate school, listening to Mark Ashton, my favorite forestry professor. He spoke with deep passion and amazement about the hemlock's ability to survive in the understory for hundreds of years, biding their time until one of their cohorts comes down leaving growing space for a young tree to continue the legacy. Perhaps this would be an opportunity to plant some of the Chinese hemlocks (Tsuga chinensis) that I had been raising in our nursery. Or perhaps a young self-sown hemlock seedling would rise within the gap and thrive. I took great comfort in the fact that plants are so resilient and will go on, as will we in this challenging time. \u2014Debbie Merriam, Arboretum Director April 15 One morning, around April 15 (time has lost a lot of meaning during quarantine), I came into work at Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens to a desk covered with plant samples. As the associate director of integrated pest management, I handle our plant health care, including the diagnosis of all pests and disorders and the prescription of management and scouting protocols. I typically expect interesting new mysteries to appear. But looking through these samples, my first thought was, \"These are all known issues. Why were they turned in?\" Then, it hit me. Of course. With our new coronavirus-altered schedules, horticulturists were caring for spaces and plants they never had before. Everything they encountered was new to them\u2014the day-to-day simply didn't exist anymore. While gardens may not have been deemed officially life-sustaining during quarantine, we certainly are in the business of sustaining life\u2014 plant life that is. Phipps, located in Pittsburgh, closed to the public on the afternoon of March 14 due to COVID-19. While our glasshouses\u2014 a mixture of original Lord & Burnham Victorian- style rooms from 1893 and some modern additions like our Tropical Forest Conservatory\u2014 were shuttered to visitors, our plants still needed attention. Before coronavirus, horticulturists managed specialized areas including production greenhouses and collections of palms, ferns, orchids, cacti, bonsai, and more. During the coronavirus closure, we had large changes to our team structure. Instead of furloughing staff, we reorganized our horticulture department into three small teams that rotated on-site coverage on continuous five-day schedules starting March 27. All other Phipps staff worked from home, including horticulturists during the off-site portion of their rotations. This meant horticulture staff cared for more spaces than they typically would, often outside of their plant specialty. Pieces of our pest management plans, such as syringing this or that palm to suppress spider mite populations, were not always tended to since staff were working hard to perform basic plant life support like watering over large areas. These sorts of pest management tasks that were second nature to a room's usual horticulturist were unknown to other staff. In normal times, a handful of volunteers are at Phipps nearly every day, helping horticulture staff pot plants, clean beds, sow seeds, and more. One volunteer comes in every week to help me by scouting greenhouses for pests, carefully washing and cleaning plants to manage insect issues, and collecting samples of leaf spots and rusts. Like the other volunteers, she has not been on-site since we closed to the public, and without her, these simple but time-consuming tasks fell by the wayside. On May 3, according to my notes, I was finally able to check a particular cycad that my volunteer would regularly clean but that hadn't received her attention in almost two months. Public Gardens and COVID-19 25 The poor plant was overwhelmed with mealybugs, its newest set of growth fuzzy with wax and deformed and stunted from the mealybugs' toxic saliva. I cleaned it, arranged for augmentative biocontrol releases, and even identified some wonderful brown lacewing predators that were already present, feasting on the mealybugs. I, and all our staff and plants, are really missing our volunteers. Integrated pest management and plant health care more broadly are team efforts. As we adapt to whatever our new daily \"normal\" will look like, I've come to see how cross-training staff in many areas would produce knowledge and skill redundancy in all aspects of plant health care. Colleagues at other gardens have had similar realizations. These and other conversations and innovations will move gardens forward and better prepare us\u2014and our plants\u2014for whatever the future may hold. \u2014Ryan C. Gott, Associate Director of Integrated Pest Management April 20 The headhouse sits at the southern end of Filoli, among the greenhouses, nursery, and a few oaks. Inside, the air was cool and faint with the soft scent of aged cement and redwood. Working in the dim light, I slowly organized my desk. My fellowship had ended early due to the pandemic, and this was my final day. I sorted through the years of accumulation drawer by drawer, encountering fragments of the many lives that had passed through here: a handwritten reminder, a hair tie, a playing card, a dead spider. My mind drifted as I worked. I had been working off-site for a month and a half, and my last memory of the garden was in early spring. The hellebores and magnolias had just given way to a few blousy spring camellias, but most of the garden still slumbered. While my life took a pause, the strengthening sun and late spring rains had coaxed the garden out of its winter dormancy. Now, the fresh green growth of redwoods, coastal oaks, and arbutus enrobed the Santa Cruz Mountains. Irises and tree peonies stretched their satiny crepe petals in the spring sunlight. Masses of tulips swayed cheerfully in the gentle breeze as voles darted between their beds. With so many flowers in bloom and no one to admire them, the garden was rejoicing, blooming for itself without judgement. A little space to breathe, a moment to grow. After labeling the stacks of important documents and wiping down all surfaces, I headed out to the staff vegetable garden. Tucked away behind the headhouse, the garden is protected by a tall cherry laurel hedge and brick wall. The winter crops had finished. I saw evidence of recent activity, but not a single soul was there. Future plots were weeded, tilled, and enriched. Rows were marked and irrigation laid waiting. Soon rows of tomatoes would glisten in the sun, their leaves releasing a resinous fragrance. Swollen squash would hide under their giant prickly leaves. Multicolored carrots and potatoes would be unearthed like crystals and geodes, while sun-warmed strawberries and bright lemon verbena perfumed the air. The abundance would provide more than enough for human, beast, and microbe. For me, this was a place of refuge that had sustained me for a year, a place where I cultivated community with the earth and between people. I will miss the way the soil crumbled in my hands and how laughter floated over the garden hedge. Walking down the gravel path one last time, I took in the peace before heading out through the garden gate. \u2014Terry Huang, now Assistant Director of Mildred E. Mathias Botanical Garden at UCLA April 30 I dragged my eyes away from yet another Excel spreadsheet to the tall casement windows in my office. From my vantage at the northwest corner of the Horticulture Building at Longwood Gardens, I could see threatening clouds lumbering towards me. Located forty miles southwest of Philadelphia, Longwood doesn't normally receive such severe weather in late April. The sky darkened in minutes and began hurling something between hail and enormous raindrops into the windows, blurring my view of the forest edge across the deserted employee parking lot. The forecast was for a straight-line wind, but the tree branches were swirling in circles. The tops of the tall oaks and tulip poplars swayed in an unnatural dance. It was late on April 30, and six weeks had already passed since the mandatory closure 26 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 of our doors. Like the closures at many other gardens, this prolonged shutdown has been a first for Longwood. Even after a long career, I had found myself making the most challenging decisions I have ever had to make\u2014reducing budgets, furloughing all of the part-time staff, preserving our precious and rare plant collections\u2014 all within the span of a few weeks. We had already removed thousands of plants slated for our spring display, ripping out hundreds of beautifully planted beds of tulips and lilies. Our greenhouse staff had meticulously grown Echiums for a full year, and although the plants were magnificent, towering at four feet high, they never made it to display but instead were diverted to our compost stream, along with thousands of other crops. For a gardener, shuttering such beauty is heartbreaking. I hadn't expected to have such an emotional response to all of this (after all, they're only plants). Musing about the challenges being faced by our communities and our nation, I chided myself for being selfish. Our losses were only short-term. Watching the wind and rain, I suddenly heard a loud, splintering crack followed by an earthshaking crash. I squinted through the gray deluge and could see an enormous oak was missing from the skyline. Shortly after, the phone rang and a colleague delivered more bad news: a precious tree, the oldest Magnolia acuminata var. subcordata 'Peirce's Park' in the garden, named for the historic site on which it was planted, was down. This cucumber magnolia, at over eighty-fivefeet tall and with a mighty girth of four-feet, was a national and state champion. We had traced the lineage directly back to French explorer Andr\u00e9 Michaux, who discovered this species in South Carolina in 1788. Planted between 1780 and 1830, this tree was part of a mature alle\u00e9 of trees (considered to be the \"Soul of Longwood\") that the Peirce brothers had established on the property. Garden staff have even speculated that John Bartram or William Hamilton had helped them procure the tree, as they had in their own gardens in Philadelphia. Our founder, Pierre S. du Pont, purchased the original farm that was to become Longwood to save these trees from being lumbered. It was too dangerous to check the tree that night. The following morning, breezy and clear skies laid bare the torn twigs and stripped leaves strewn across the paths and lawns. I kept walking; I have become better at ignoring the lack of perfection these past months. Normally the entire horticulture team would be scouring the landscape picking up every bit of debris\u2014but not today. Seeing the tree down reminded me of an image of a poached elephant I had seen years ago: gray, lifeless, enormous, and sprawled awkwardly across the path. I ran my hands over the tree's scaly bark, gave it a hug, and said goodbye. On my way back, grief gave way to a fleeting thought of hope. Almost twenty years ago, we propagated saplings from this tree. I walked past three of its progeny that were battered and dazed but still standing strong: future sentinels at the opposite end of the same alle\u00e9 the Peirce brothers planted more than two hundred years before. \u2014Sharon Loving, Vice President of Horticulture May 8 On Friday, May 8, I received a text message from Erin Bird, our communications manager. \"Are the lilacs blooming?\" she asked. I knew she was looking for social media content. It was a welcome text. I missed these interactions. I hadn't seen or heard from many of my coworkers since the Denver Botanic Gardens closed on the afternoon of March 16. Thankfully, none of my colleagues lost their jobs, but only staff considered essential to the stewardship of the facilities and living collections were on campus, so the space felt different, quiet, empty. \"They are blooming, but not very well \u2026\" I responded. Denver sits in the rain shadow of the Rocky Mountains, on the eastern edge of the North American steppe, the expansive semiarid grasslands and shrublands characterized by hot summers, cold winters, mineral soils, and very little water. Echoing the mountains that reign above the plains, this extreme environment lends itself to extreme weather. Long stretches of warm weather start in February, encouraging early leaf growth and bud break, only to be followed by sharp freezes in late April. These fluctuations are particularly hard on introduced flora during spring and fall, when biorhythms can be out of sync with steppe weather. Due to one 14\u00b0F (-10\u00b0C) day in April, this year had turned out to be a particularly disappointing season for the lilac (Syringa) display. Still, there were some blooms. What had survived was fragrant and beautiful. And I realized what Erin must have already been thinking about\u2014 that for the first time in almost seventy years, we couldn't directly share this experience with our community. And although almost everything human was static, the phenological rhythm of the lilacs exists beyond COVID-19 time (and our psyches) as heralds of change and expectation. \"I'll go get some pics for you.\" I moved through the collection, across the pathways of fescue, yarrow, clover, and flowering daisy, photographing the most hopeful, vibrant panicles. It was quiet, and I was alone in the collection at a moment when these shrubs would normally be stroked, sniffed, and praised thousands of times a day. I felt selfish and wondered if the lilacs were suffering from a lack of attention. They are gregarious creatures, attention seekers, but still, they felt dull: their scent weakened by my mask and their presence hazy through my constantly fogged sunglasses. Sometimes I feel comforted by our new personal protective equipment, but at that moment, I felt smothered and separated. The standard protection that comes with being a gardener is, in itself, sometimes bulky, sometimes tactically empowering: hiking boots and knee pads for constant squatting, crawling, and walking; gloves to stop the earth from tearing my hands apart; and sunscreen, sunglasses, and a wide-brimmed hat, all to fight off the extra mile of solar radiation that we get in the high plains. The addition of the cloth mask was reassuring at first, during the colder days of March and early April, but on that hot May afternoon, it felt oppressive. Lilacs (Syringa vulgaris 'Henri Martin') at the Arnold Arboretum. JONATHAN DAMERY I finished photographing the blooms, put my phone in my pocket, and walked deep into a bed, hiding from the ever-present gaze of the mountains. I took my gloves off, pulled my mask down, and pushed my face in to fully smell their chemistry. To breathe together, to share the air with plants, has always been our most fundamental of exchanges. \u2014Kevin Williams, Horticulturist May 8 On the Friday before Mother's Day, I was working in the lilac collection at the Arnold Arboretum, double-checking it for any missed deadwood, overlooked weeds, and spillover mulch. As the caretaker for the collection, the upcoming Sunday would have been day zero for me\u2014Lilac Sunday\u2014the moment when all the work that I do comes to a head. Lilacs are the only plant that gets its own day of festivities at the Arnold, but unlike the 111 years of prior celebration, this year's event had been called off. The lilac collection is nestled on one side of Bussey Hill, which rises in the center of the landscape. In early May, the collection looks endless as it wraps its way along the contours of the slope, with bursts of violets, purples, pinks, and whites. Normally, on Lilac Sunday\u2014 a Mother's Day tradition\u2014thousands of New Englanders clamor to get their photo taken with the prolific flower displays and relish in the sweet aroma. Tour groups pack the roadway, enthusiastic and inquisitive. Merchandise and information booths are spaced accordingly. In recent years, an ensemble from the Boston Symphony Orchestra performed as guests made their way among the shrubs. But all the pomp and circumstance for this year was scrapped in light of the pandemic. I felt confused in my plight to steward the collection with all the fear and uncertainty that hung heavy in the community. Given that the Arnold Arboretum is one the few gardens to remain open while the rest of the world sheltered in place, I continued with \"business as usual,\" so that some semblance of \"normalcy\" might be evident to any visitors who still relied upon the lilacs for their spring awakening. The Friday before is usually a buzz of activity for me as I coordinate seasonal employees, interns from a local agricultural high school, and fellow colleagues to assist me in the final touch-up and presentation. I'm frequented with questions from the public about tips and tricks for lilac care, but this time I was isolated in my work. The hustle felt more imminent this time, not only because of the lack of extra hands but also because the preparations had taken a different slant. I always pamper and cater to the plants. I try my best to not distort a shrub's natural growth habit, but this time, my focus had changed to looking for pinch points in the collection. Where neighboring bushes might be funneling individuals too closely, I began pruning aggressively to widen corridors for greater social distancing, should the people we had asked to stay home decide to visit after all. I also spray-painted white arrows on the sidewalk to request one-way traffic to limit potential exposure of those in the garden. I spent the afternoon posting normal signage (\"Please don't pick the lilacs,\" \"No picnicking at the Arboretum\"), along with another, \"Don't smell the lilacs.\" It felt strange and unfounded, especially for someone accustomed to removing hazards or providing a safe environment for visitors. But treating the lilacs like they could transmit the coronavirus was the necessary precaution given all the uncertainty. The day was a complete fog for me, literally, as I ran around with clouded safety glasses from my mask. My instincts drew me in to pull the lastminute weeds and to cut out the hidden deadwood, but my main directive was to make visitors aware of the unseen dangers of what had always been a joyous day for celebrating spring, mothers, and the season of brighter days to come. \u2014Conor Guidarelli, Arboretum Horticulturist May 12 On the morning of May 12, I walked rows of Magnolia hybrids at the Morton Arboretum, investigating buds on the trees, searching for signs of life. My work as the tree and shrub breeder at the arboretum builds on the legacies of others. I am less than four years into my career, yet I have tree selections in the pipeline and populations of progeny to select from. 28 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 Public Gardens and COVID-19 29 These selections are the culmination of almost a hundred years of work spread over the careers of many individuals. Without this team that came before me, I would not have been here in this field of magnolias staring at the freezeburned blossoms and emerging leaves. These hybrids had been developed over years by the late Dennis Ledvina, a much loved and highly respected magnolia breeder from the Green Bay area. Late-season freezes provide an opportunity to select for Ledvina's target traits\u2014 improved cold hardiness and delayed bloom time. The longer a tree holds off on developing its flowers or pushing out new growth, the better chance it will have of coming through these freezes unscathed. I pressed buds between my thumb and forefinger, flagging trees whose buds gave way with a satisfying squish. While many gardeners lament when a late freeze occurs, a breeder reviews a weather forecast and then sits in anticipation for these moments, grateful for the gift Mother Nature has bestowed. The orange flagging tape was my signal to wield the mighty chainsaw and give the tree one final prune, a single cut at the base. Not all was lost; some would make it to see another winter. My dog, Maybelle, ran up and down the rows, delighting in the freedom of being penned into a fifteen-acre nursery. The nursery\u2014wound round with electric fencing intended to keep out larger wildlife\u2014is located on a southern edge of the arboretum, nestled between part of the taxonomic collection and a berm that buffers the sounds of an interstate that races through Chicago's western exurbs. Maybelle stopped short, leaned down to the ground and tentatively sniffed, inhaling the traces of other animals not yet seen. My gaze followed Maybelle's: a female coyote stood thirty feet away, her belly hanging low and rippling with the life held within. After the Morton shut its gates on April 2, signs of coyotes have become widely apparent to anyone who accesses the grounds for essential work. The arboretum includes seventeen hundred acres of cultivated and curated collections, managed forests, and a planted prairie and savanna, which is more than enough room for coyotes and other wildlife. With only the familiar faces of arboretum staff present, these canine compatriots more readily emerge from their secret daytime hollows to observe us from Coyote at the Morton Arboretum. BEN CASCARANO a distance. While not overly comfortable with us humans, the coyotes always exhibit some curiosity toward our existence. Perhaps this is a legacy of a recently retired staff member who spent fifty years living and working on the grounds with his family. August members of the staff have widely shared a story, with eyes twinkling, about how, years ago, this staff member once shared hot dogs with the first coyotes to establish their pack on these grounds. Some decades from now, generations of magnolias and coyotes between, perhaps the greatgreat- great-granddaughter of this coyote will meet me in these rows one quiet spring day. As my thoughts wandered, I made eye contact with the coyote. She lingered momentarily, and as she walked away, I returned to Ledvina's magnolias. \u2014Kim Shearer, Tree and Shrub Breeder and Manager of New Plant Development Program May 15 On an exceptionally muggy day in mid-May, I paused to take in my surroundings in the vast tropical collections at Naples Botanical Garden. I stood on the boardwalk over the Water Garden, a favorite spot that offers a panoramic view of the 170-acre property. Our Smith River of Grass, the garden's central spine and a replica of the Florida Everglades, stretched in front of me. The jungle-like Lea Asian Garden arose on one side, and the bright green performance lawn extended on the other. The garden had never looked so lush, I thought. The staff had laid fresh mulch, pruned, weeded, planted, taken out ailing trees, cleared areas for new displays. The colors this morning were extra vivid, a visual effect brought about by soot blown in from a wildfire burning in the Picayune Strand, well to our east. The waterlilies glowed in the light\u2014mostly pinks, with a few yellows and purples. Beyond the pond, the cassia and poinciana lived up to their common names\u2014 golden-chained and flamboyant. The smell of smoke made my stomach turn. Disasters loomed in my mind\u2014the pandemic we are living through and the hurricane we survived in Florida not all that long ago. Irma tore a path through Naples in September 2017, shredding shrubs and downing trees. A local reporter described our garden as resembling \"layers of tossed salad.\" Our visual paradise, which we had created from barren swampland less than ten years before, was ruined. The View from the Water Garden at Naples Botanical Garden. PHOTO BY NAPLES BOTANICAL GARDEN Public Gardens and COVID-19 31 winds had blown away years' worth of sweat and dirty fingernails. I was wrong about the ruin. Volunteers and incredibly dedicated staff rushed to save the place. We rebounded like kudzu in Alabama. I'd argue we came back even better than before. When we first opened in 2009, we were a brandnew garden mostly focused on giving snowbirds something pretty to look at. We now have an incredible botanical collection, thanks to our amazing \"plant nerds\" and their desires for rare and unusual specimens. But there is a difference in this new disaster. This time it's not the plants but the team that is battered and bruised and beaten. The plants look amazing, and if we could invite guests back in, their experience could not be better. But our gates closed in mid-March, not only to visitors but to our volunteers and even to our families. During the hurricane recovery, our staff and volunteers took afternoon breaks together to cool off and enjoy lunch, a daily ritual that lifted everyone's spirits. Who could lift us now? I thought about how my team looked during one of our weekly staff meetings. We had been able to keep everyone on, and I knew they were glad to be working, but I could see their exhaustion. They're the \"tossed salad\" this time, I thought. It's not just the dirty shirts and the unshaven faces, it's a lack of purpose that I worried about. Everyone was giving 100 percent, but for what? No one could see our beautiful oasis. No volunteer force was going to stride in to relieve the workload and share in the joy of creating something special. But I shook off those feelings. We're adapting, just like nature taught us to do after Irma, when our collections rebounded and shone with the beauty I noticed that morning. We decided to take on big projects\u2014like transplanting trees and dredging ponds\u2014to give the team a break from the endless weeding and pruning and offer them the satisfaction of accomplishing major tasks. The gardeners, who are so used to interacting with the public, found other ways to communicate. They took photos, shot videos, and shared stories about the collections, broadcasting their work to the world online instead of welcoming guests to our property. They answered questions over Facebook instead of in person. Nothing can replace the in-person experience of a garden, but our horticultural creativity meant that all could share in the joy of something special\u2014even during a crisis. \u2014Brian Galligan, Vice President of Horticulture Epilogue By the end of the spring, gardens and arboreta began to reopen. Bellevue Botanical Garden and the Arnold Arboretum were among the few whose grounds remained fully open throughout the early months of the pandemic. Ashton Gardens reopened on May 1, allowing visitors to catch the late-blooming tulips, and Filoli reopened on May 11. Attendees at both gardens were required to purchase timed-entry tickets. Filoli initially offered eight hundred tickets each day and later raised the number to fourteen hundred. Prepurchased tickets became the modus operandi for gardens\u2014a way of preventing attendance surges and of reducing interactions between visitors and staff at entrance bottlenecks. Denver Botanic Gardens reopened with a ticketed entry on May 22. The Morton Arboretum reopened to members on June 1 and to the general public on June 15. Phipps Conservatory and Botanical Gardens reopened on June 13, allowing a one-way path through the indoor conservatories. Longwood Gardens reopened on June 18, about three weeks before a massive corpse flower (Amorphophallus titanum) came into bloom. Due to state-mandated limits on guest capacity, the garden significantly expanded their evening hours so that more visitors could obtain tickets to experience the rare and short-lived bloom. Some visitors were relieved to find that the notoriously foul smell of the flowers was muffled by their masks. Naples Botanical Garden fully reopened on July 6. New York Botanical Garden partially reopened on July 21. By the end of July, the Wakefield Arboretum had opened for limited reservation-only tours and special programs. The trajectory of the pandemic is far from over. Yet the innovations that have allowed gardens to reopen in person\u2014and to connect with visitors online\u2014will have a lasting impact, no matter what lies ahead."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"One Green Earth","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25711","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24ea76f.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Raven, Peter H.","article_content":"While I was lying in bed in the spring of 1944, recovering from measles at the age of seven, my mother entered my bedroom and handed me a bright orange book: Six Feet by Ruth Cooper Whitney. Once I had taken a look, I couldn't put the book down. It presented simple stories, illustrations, and poems about different kinds of insects. Its stories were so engaging that I couldn't wait to rush outside and see the insects for myself\u2014 even though I'd paid no attention to them previously. In our garden, built on the sandy flats of the Richmond District in San Francisco, I could find and rear cabbage butterflies; discover Jerusalem crickets, earwigs, tenebrionid beetles, bumblebees, and other fascinating creatures; and begin to catch a glimpse of how they all fit together. I soon began making a collection of butterflies but then switched to beetles. I accumulated a collection of several boxes of these mounted insects, which my parents would proudly display when guests visited. As the years passed, it turned out that this book, an otherwise ordinary gift from my mother, provided the first major step towards my career as a botanist and environmentalist\u2014 a career that would culminate with a forty-year tenure as director of the Missouri Botanical Garden. During that career, I would see our global understanding of biodiversity expand far beyond what was known when I first began collecting insects in my childhood backyard. Yet, over that same period, researchers have shown how humans have increasingly pushed the Earth towards an environmental breaking point. Even as researchers are racing to name and describe new species, they are simultaneously racing to save species from extinction. The spring after starting my backyard explorations, I discovered the existence of the Student Section at the nearby California Academy of Sciences in Golden Gate Park. The group offered activities after school and on weekends, along with occasional field trips to the One Green Earth Peter H. Raven RAVEN, P. H. 2020. ONE GREEN EARTH. ARNOLDIA, 78(1): 32-41 One Green Earth 33 surrounding countryside. The students also received a degree of access to the scientific departments at the academy, and by the time I was ten, I had become a regular visitor to the Entomology Department. There, I could compare and identify my beetle collections with the help of friendly curators, especially E. C. Van Dyke, a world expert on beetles who was always encouraging. By the time I was twelve, in the summer of 1948, I had begun to switch my interest to plants, largely because of a book called Manual of the Flowering Plants of California, by the great University of California botanist Willis Lynn Jepson. With the aid of this book, I could identify almost every plant species that I collected and determine whether there was anything unusual about the place I encountered it or the characteristics of the individual plants that I found. There had been no such book available for beetles. For plants, Jepson's Manual made the world seem small and knowable\u2014as if the different species in the Bay Area were parts of a large puzzle for me to discover and piece together. In the academy's Botany Department, curator John Thomas Howell (\"Tom\" to almost everyone who knew him) took me under his wing and taught me more each I time I visited him. I started helping in the department as a volunteer in 1948, and later that year, I was hired for my first job, sorting new collections that had come from people working with Tom around the state. My Early Exploration While I knew, even as a child, that botanists were still discovering new species of plants around the world, I had always assumed that plants in the region of California where I grew up were already well documented. Generations of earlier botanists had studied the flora, and it seemed as though all of the plants had already been named and included. My first personal experience with a new species began when I was in my final year at high school. Harlan and Margaret Lewis, who were preparing a monograph of the attractive native plant genus Clarkia, showed up at the academy. They were reviewing herbarium specimens of Clarkia, and they had come across an unusual one that I had collected a couple of years earlier on a slope of serpentine rock in the San Francisco Presidio. They wanted to grow it for their research, but it took me two years to find the colony again. When I finally sent them the seeds, they invited me to work with them at UCLA the following summer, between my junior and senior years at Berkeley. Following that experience, it was only natural for me to begin graduate work with Harlan in 1957. The unusual Clarkia eventually proved to be an unnamed species: Clarkia franciscana\u2014now a federally endangered species. While I maintained a lifelong interest in insects, I never looked back. At UCLA, I prepared a dissertation on a group of desert plants that were, like Clarkia, members of the evening primrose family, Onagraceae. At the age of twenty-two, I married a girl I had met at the student section, Sally Barrett, and the following year, somewhat to the consternation of my graduate advisors, we had our first baby. We had our second child, Elizabeth, in 1960, while we were living in London, where I had a postdoctoral fellowship at Kew Gardens and the London Museum of Natural History. We returned to California, and in 1962, after a job at Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, I started what turned out to be a nine-year stint on the faculty at Stanford University. Fortunately for me, Stanford had a combined Department of Biological Sciences in which I had plenty of room to learn and grow in many aspects of the life sciences. Working with these colleagues, I could expand my research beyond its original emphasis on the classification of a particular group of plants and begin exploring topics with a broader and more theoretical footing. My closest colleague at Stanford was Paul Ehrlich, an entomologist and population biologist who has remained a mentor and friend for life. Comparing our thoughts on plants and butterflies, we recognized that the caterpillars of some groups of butterflies fed almost exclusively on one related group of plants. In these Facing page: A superbloom on the Carrizo Plain in California, with desert candle (Caulanthus inflatus) across the center of the image, the blue tansy phacelia (Phacelia tanacetifolia) in the foreground, and the hills beyond covered with hillside daisy (Monolopia lanceolata). PHOTOGRAPH BY ROB BADGER, FROM BADGER, R. AND WINTER, N. 2020. BEAUTY AND THE BEAST: CALIFORNIA WILDFLOWERS AND CLIMATE CHANGE. WINTERBADGER PRESS\/CALIFORNIA NATIVE PLANT SOCIETY. cases, few other kinds of butterflies fed on the same groups of plants. Cabbage butterflies, for instance, which I had observed in my childhood backyard, were among a group of related butterflies that fed on plants in the mustard and caper families. Paul and I came to understand that the ancestors of these plants had, over time, evolved chemical defenses that deterred most other insects. Ancestors of the cabbage butterflies, on the other hand, had gained the ability to break down or resist those defenses, which meant a whole food resource was more or less exclusively available to them. Paul and I developed, published, and named this stepwise process coevolution, which turned out to be one of the most fruitful scientific discoveries that either of us ever made. A couple of years earlier, my first Stanford graduate student, Dennis Breedlove had introduced me, through his fellow student and friend Brent Berlin, to a project that was being carried out in the Department of Anthropology. Professor A. Kimball Romney, one of the founders of cognitive anthropology and Berlin's graduate advisor, was working with colleagues to pursue various projects with the highland Mayans in the southernmost Mexican state of Chiapas. Together, the four of us conceived a project dealing with the names one group of these Mayans gave to the plants that grew in their area. Dennis moved to Chiapas for three years to carry out the botanical side of the study. We wanted to know what principles governed the way the Mayan community named their plants, Monarch butterflies (Danaus plexippus) advertise their poisonous nature by their bright colors and thus warn birds to leave them alone or suffer the consequences. This group of butterflies takes the process of coevolution one step further, getting poisons from the milkweeds on which their caterpillars feed and using them to protect themselves. HENRY DOMKE and what regularities we could find in comparing their system with those employed by groups from elsewhere. This Mayan community did not use a written language, and it turned out, this meant individuals only keep something like a few hundred plant names in their active memory. Within this system, they divided the kinds of plants most useful to them into many more categories than others. When this project began, the plants of southern Mexico were unfamiliar to me. Challenged with a rapidly growing number of herbarium cases filled with such plants, I had to find ways to name them in order to fulfill my part of the project. I eventually solved this problem with the help of many specialists, especially Jerzy Rzedowski, a Holocaust survivor who had become and has remained for many years the doyen of Mexican botanists, and the taxonomist Rogers McVaugh of the University of Michigan. On my next major collecting adventure in the tropics, where I served as an instructor for the Organization for Tropical Studies basic field course in Costa Rica during the summer of 1967, I was able to ship all the specimens to Bill Burger at the Field Museum in Chicago. He found a number of undescribed species among them and was quite pleased with what he received. Step by step, my interest in and knowledge about plants was expanding globally. Considering that my parents were living in Shanghai when I was born, and that my mother's grandfather arrived in California with his Irish family One Green Earth 35 Gunnera insignis was among the many wonderful new plants the author encountered while teaching a course for the Organization of Tropical Studies in Costa Rica in 1967. RICHARD MACK (Breen) as a member of the 1846 Donner Party, a global perspective had always been central to my family narrative. It seemed only natural that this perspective should be extended to plants. Research Coordination The mid to late 1960s were a tumultuous time for America, and all the more so for me. My wife, Sally, died of a sudden and unexpected health problem at age thirty. Our two young children were nine and seven at the time. This personal tragedy was compounded by the national unrest. These years were unsettling and extraordinary. This broader sentiment has been expressed well by Joan Didion, in her essay \"Slouching Towards Bethlehem,\" in which she describes the countercultural movement that had taken hold in San Francisco. \"Once we could see these children, we could no longer \u2026 pretend that society's atomization could be reversed,\" she concludes towards the end of the essay. \"This was not a traditional generational rebellion.\" This period saw the Tet Offensive, the assassinations of Robert Kennedy and Martin Luther King, the riots and arrests at the Democratic Convention in Chicago, and eventually the Kent State shootings. Demonstrations became an everyday event on the Stanford campus, as they did at other universities throughout the country. All in all, I became deeply confused about where the world was headed and uncertain about what the future held for me and, indeed, for the world. In this period, I worked with Helena Curtis, another biology writer, in preparing the first edition of what turned out to be a very successful botany text, The Biology of Plants. I also remarried relatively soon, to Tamra Engelhorn, whom I had met on the Organization for Tropical Studies course in 1967. Notwithstanding these positive events, I remained deeply troubled about the future and, indeed, about the purpose of life. My personal salvation came in the form of a sabbatical year in New Zealand, in 1969 and 1970. My intention in going there was to study the regional species of willow herbs, Epilobium, 36 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 Seiwa En, the Japanese Garden at the Missouri Botanical Garden, was designed as part of a plan to deepen community interest in this venerable institution (opened to the public in 1859) and, at the same time, to encourage an international outlook among St. Louisans. MARY LOU OLSON, MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN the largest genus of the family Onagraceae. About a quarter of the roughly 160 species of the genus occurred in New Zealand and Australia, a strange fact considering the obvious New World origins of the family\u2014why were there so many species of Epilobium in that part of the Southern Hemisphere? They were all herbs but widely varied in appearance. They gave the impression of having evolved relatively recently and rapidly in the varied habitats of the region. As Tamra and I studied the Epilobium, we gradually regained our balance. New Zealand felt like a green paradise, and the people we worked with were level-headed, friendly, and helpful. One of them, Eric John Godley, the director of what was then the Botany Division at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Services, was of particular importance for me. We soon became fast friends. Nearly twenty years older than me, he calmly offered sound advice and joined us for enjoyable activities throughout our time in the country. The theory that the position of the continents had moved over geologic time had been proposed half a century earlier by the German geophysicist Adolf Wegener. His theory was essentially validated in the years just before we reached New Zealand, and it opened important new ways to interpret the origins of the plants and animals in the region. I was quick to apply them to the patterns about which I was learning and to publish the results. For example, the ridge that included New Caledonia and New Zealand separated from Australia and Antarctica (then still joined) about eighty-five million years ago, and most of the plants in New Zealand (including Epilobium) reached their new home by blowing or floating across the intervening seas. In later years, I presented similar interpretations in a series of papers with my geologist friend (and former member of my doctoral committee) Dan Axelrod. At our final dinner with Eric Godley, in the garden of his suburban home, he turned to me and asked what I was going to do next. He suggested that I might make the greatest contribution by emulating the great German botanist Adolph Engler, who, in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, had led the production of the most important comprehensive works on plants, Die Pflanzenfamilien and Das Pflanzenreich. These works collectively described all the plants on Earth that were then known to science. Returning to Stanford, I kept Eric's advice in mind: I looked for a pathway to become a leader in encouraging others to undertake major projects, rather than simply continue to do my own research. The need for synthesis became obvious to me, and it has turned out over the years that instead of the roughly 250,000 species of vascular plants we had thought existed then, the actual number approaches twice as many. With these broader horizons in mind, I applied for the open position of director of the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis during my single year back at Stanford. As matters turned out, I was successful. There I soon realized my efforts in coordinating and enabling the studies of others were more important than the results I could achieve as an individual, regardless of how useful and interesting the results of my efforts might prove to be. Global Collaboration The Missouri Botanical Garden is the oldest public garden in the United States. I had visited several times earlier to consult its excellent herbarium. On my arrival in 1971, the garden's only major research project, and the only one it had ever conducted abroad, was the Flora of Panama, which was being published serially as exploration and writing proceeded. My experience in Chiapas had taught me that to inventory the plants of a particular area properly it was necessary to live there and work with them daily. It seemed logical to find parts of the world that were of particular interest botanically, not being studied in detail by others, and to concentrate there. We began to hire staff with the help of several grants from the National Science Foundation and the support that accompanied the increased local interest in the garden that we were building. As the years went by, we were able to sponsor scientists to live in Nicaragua, Costa Rica, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, Madagascar, and Vietnam, and to form strong partnerships with a number of other countries. We established a branch office One Green Earth 37 for studying African plants in the herbarium at the Mus\u00e9um National d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. Overall, these efforts led to the Flora Mesoamericana, a modern account of all plants between the Isthmus of Tehuantepec in southern Mexico and Panama; the revival of the Flora of North America, which covers the United States and Canada; national floras for many of the countries; and an online checklist of the plants of the Americas, a massive collaboration with institutions and researchers around the world that is headed by Carmen Ulloa Ulloa and Peter J\u00f8rgensen. I also helped to start and then coedit the Flora of China, a forty-nine-volume work that treats the more than thirty-two thousand species of plants found in the country where I had been born. This important and personally enjoyable project lasted for some three decades and was the product of a major cooperative effort between dozens of institutions and hundreds of individual botanists. It brought the botanists of China, taking up their new opportunities as the effects of the Cultural Revolution receded in the late 1970s, into cooperative contacts with botanists all over the world. The volumes were jointly published by Academic Press in Beijing and the Missouri Botanical Garden. Robert Woodson, the originator of the Flora of Panama, had told me in the course of a visit to St. Louis, back in 1961, that he thought they had accounted for nearly all of the species in the country. As our studies continued, however, we have reached the point where we now list approximately twice as many species from Panama as were known at that time. Everywhere botanists looked\u2014not only in Panama, but in North America, China, and around the world\u2014masses of new species turned up. Through this collective research effort, we were just beginning to grasp the magnitude of the Earth's biodiversity. The Need for Conservation When I was a young field biologist, in California, my studies were predicated on the assumption that the world would pretty much stay as it was. But in the 1960s, at Stanford, I started to 38 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 Libing Zhang (Missouri Botanical Garden), Hong Deyuan (Beijing Institute of Botany), Peter Raven, William McNamara (Quarryhill Botanical Garden), and Fu Chengxin (Zhejiang University), on the summit ridge of Huangshan (Yellow Mountain), in Anhui Province, China, on April 6, 2008. The field trip occurred a few days after a meeting of the Flora of China Editorial Committee, held at Zhejiang University. Hong and Raven were coeditors of the forty-nine-volume project. WILLIAM MCNAMARA become aware of the rapidly increasing destruction of nature around the world and the need to do something about it. California's population was then less than a quarter of its present 40 million, and the global population was less than a third of its present 7.8 billion, headed for 10 billion by the middle of the century. I began to worry about the severe effects of DDT and other pollutants\u2014Rachel Carson's Silent Spring appeared in 1962\u2014and I came to understand Paul and Anne Ehrlich's emphasis on population growth as a factor driving the destruction of ecosystems globally. In an effort to influence the 1968 presidential election, Paul and Anne published The Population Bomb, a real wakeup call about problems that were starting to become obvious. I was also becoming aware of the extensive destruction of tropical forests that was taking place; once I reached St. Louis this became a major issue for me in planning my personal activities and those of the garden. At the request and with the sponsorship of the National Science Foundation, I chaired a National Research Council study of priorities in systematic and evolutionary biology (Raven, 1974). By that time it had become obvious that the tropics were the most poorly known part of the Earth biologically and that the estimate for the number of species globally (then, with 1.5 million named, placed at 2 million) was much too low. Only five hundred thousand of the named species were tropical, yet two-thirds of the total number of species in well-known groups like plants and terrestrial vertebrates occurred there. It became clear that the actual number of species was at least 3 to 4 million\u2014and now we would probably say 20 million, with only 2 million of them yet named. In view of these new estimates and the fact that we had a sense that major habitat destruction was going on in the tropics, we selected focused research in the tropics as a top priority. We knew a lot less than we thought we did. Several years later, Bill Sievers, a program officer at the National Science Foundation, challenged me to head a study on setting specific research and conservation priorities in the One Green Earth 39 Tropical forests are being destroyed rapidly all over the world, as the 2011 clearing of primary forest for wood pulp in central Sumatra illustrates. WILLIAM LAURENCE tropics. I felt that we first needed a more comprehensive understanding of the degree and rate of destruction that was going on in the tropics. This information would help us set the most critical priorities during our study. It seemed to me that the man for the job was Norman Myers, an imaginative English ecologist and conservationist. He had gone to Kenya in the British Colonial Service and stayed on after independence, working as a teacher, guide, photographer, and consultant. By the late 1960s, Norman had become one of the very first to recognize that we were entering a major extinction event and to write about it. To conduct the study of tropical forest destruction for us over an eighteen-month period, he visited all of the major tropical areas and many tropical forested countries, consulting a great deal of \"gray literature\" and conducting interviews. His report, published in 1980, proved to be a bombshell, documenting rates of deforestation much higher than were generally assumed at the time. It spurred us all to higher levels of action, given the urgency of the task facing us. Once these relationships had become clear to me, I decided to devote a large part of my energy and available time to accomplish what could still be done while our present wealth of organisms and their ecosystems still exist. I had the opportunity to present the case for action at the American Association for the Advancement of Science annual meeting in Chicago in 1987. It was a large audience, and many people told me later that they had heard about the problem of mass extinction for the first time then (Raven, 1987). Even at the lower estimates of species numbers with which we began, we learned that for every twenty species of plants, animals, and other organisms in a given forest, nineteen were still unknown. So when an area of tropical forest is cleared, the overwhelming majority of species were disappearing without being documented by scientists. The problem was becoming generally obvious. Today, more than a quarter of the tropical forests standing when the Convention on Biological Diversity was ratified, twenty-seven years ago, have been cleared. The rate is only increasing. Few researchers project that any substantial stands of tropical forest will remain by the end of this century. At the same time, the world climate is warming rapidly, with no strong international agreement in place to slow it down. Biologists can still hope to fill out a relatively complete picture of species numbers and distribution for vascular plants, terrestrial vertebrates, and a few other groups of organisms. But carefully constructed sampling protocols afford the only hope for learning much about groups such as nematodes, mites, and fungi, for which we have recognized fewer than one in a hundred species yet. At least a quarter of all species, most of them unknown, are predicted to disappear from the face of the Earth by the close of this century. What we find and save now will be all we can pass on to those who come after us. We have a moral obligation to do so. As University of Pennsylvania biologist Daniel Janzen has remarked, \"If we don't save it now, we can't save it later.\" Collective and Individual Action When I was lying in bed recovering from measles at the age of seven, nearly eighty years ago, it would have been impossible for anyone, and certainly for me, to imagine the tremendously difficult problems we are facing now. Estimates by Global Footprint Network, based on United Nations statistics, reveal that human demand on natural resources in 1961 corresponded to about 73 percent of what Earth could renew at the time. Our demand has risen to 175 percent currently (Lin et al., 2018; Global Footprint Network, 2019). In other words, by July 29, 2019, humans had demanded as much of the Earth's resources as those ecosystems could regenerate in the entire year. Taking this depletion on a per-person basis, we find the averages in the United States, Gulf Countries, and Western Europe are the highest. In contrast, the averages within countries that lack ecological resources and purchasing power reflect very low demands, indicating extreme deprivation and difficult material prospects for their residents (Wackernagel et al., 2019). Huge inequities also exist within nations. Schemes for conservation imposed by wealthier nations tend to be massively unjust towards poorer nations, which have far fewer resources to devote to them than their wealthy counterparts. If the richer nations 40 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 would partner with them and help financially, the schemes could work, but there is little sign of such mutual respect and the love that it would require to generate such help. During my career, I have become convinced that only global collaboration and understanding can give us hope for sustainable life on Earth. Any such collaboration must be based on social justice and a spirit of love and understanding between people everywhere. Yet global success ultimately requires individual action, and it can exist only in a socially just world. Each of us must learn as much about the world, and especially about the poorer parts of the world, as we possibly can. We must live as sustainably as possible. We must vote for politicians who try to understand what's going on beyond their own short terms of office and who recognize the critical importance of arresting and then reversing global climate change. We must support the preservation of the species and ecosystems living today. We must also find ways to gradually lower our population to a level that the planet can support, instead of continuing to pretend that our global resource consumption doesn't matter. All of these actions are predicated on a fundamental need for us to find ways to love and appreciate one another. Our civilization is very young and vulnerable. Our ingrained habits of selfishness and competition were doubtless beneficial in a world where the total human population numbered in the hundreds of thousands, but they have become a sure pathway to destruction now. It is clearly time for us to act. Acknowledgments I sincerely thank Mathis Wackernagel, Global Footprint Network, for his suggestions, and acknowledge the exceptionally fine work of Jonathan Damery, the editor. Literature Cited Global Footprint Network. 2019. 2019 edition of the National Footprint and Biocapacity Accounts. Retrieved from https:\/\/data. footprintnetwork.org. Lin, D., Hanscom, L., Murthy, A., Galli, A., Evans, M., Neill, E., Mancini, M. S., Martindill, J., Medouar, F.-Z., Huang, S., et al. 2018. Ecological footprint accounting for countries: Updates and results of the National Footprint Accounts, 2012-2018. Resources, 7(3): 58. Retrieved from https:\/\/ www.mdpi.com\/2079-9276\/7\/3\/58. Myers, N. 1980. Conversion of tropical moist forests. Washington, DC: United States National Academy of Sciences. Raven, P. H. 1974. Trends, priorities, and needs in systematic and evolutionary biology. Brittonia, 26: 421-444. Raven, P. H. 1980. Research priorities in tropical biology. (P. H. Raven, Chairman, Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical Biology, National Research Council.) Washington, DC: United States National Academy of Sciences. Raven, P. H. 1987. We're killing our world: The global ecosystem in crisis. MacArthur Foundation Occasional Paper; reprinted in Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin, 75: 3-7. Wackernagel, M., Lin, D., Evans, M., Hanscom, L., and P. H. Raven. 2019. Defying the Footprint oracle: Implications of country resource trends. Sustainability, 11(7): 2164. https:\/\/doi. org\/10.3390\/su11072164 Peter H. Raven is president emeritus of Missouri Botanical Garden, in St. Louis. In 2014, he received an honorary doctor of science degree from Harvard University. His autobiography, Driven by Nature: A Personal Journey from Shanghai to Botany and Global Sustainability, will be published by the Missouri Botanical Garden early in 2021. One Green Earth 41 Pat and Peter Raven by the side of the rapidly receding Portage Glacier in Alaska, on a trip with scientists and Evangelical Christians to study climate change in early May 2007. PHOTOGRAPH BY CAMILLE PARMESAN, EDITED BY HENRY DOMKE"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Each Year in the Forest: Summer","article_sequence":5,"start_page":42,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25712","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eab27.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hipp, Andrew L.","article_content":"Each Year in the Forest: Summer Andrew L. Hipp Illustrated by Rachel D. Davis HIPP, A. L. AND DAVIS, R. D. 2020. EACH YEAR IN THE FOREST: SUMMER. ARNOLDIA, 78(1): 42-51 I Each year, for a few weeks in succession, I tell myself that we are done with spring. I think the chorus frogs have stopped singing for the year. Then they start up again. The sedges bloom in a flurry, anthers waving, and they die back. But then another wave arrives. Warblers stream through town and then are quiet. A few days later, I hear that a blue-winged warbler was lurking in the western suburbs. There is no clean joint between spring and summer. Still, near the beginning of June, the great waterleaf plants that emerged as blotchy, hairy leaves in early April become splendid with gauzy blue flowers. Dagger-like fruit columns sprout from the center of wild geranium flowers, arising from between the nutlets that develop at the bases of the petals. After a few weeks, they will catapult their seeds into the woods around them, then persist, irrelevant as the flowers fall to pieces. Sugar maple leaves unfurl. Toothwort begins yellowing; false mermaid becomes flattened and desiccated; the culms of straight-styled wood sedge flatten out as though they'd been stepped on by elephants. Leaves of wild leeks do the same. The forest prepares itself for the long run uphill to the solstice and over the crest to autumn. Bur Oak Acorns Forest: Summer 43 In early June, hackberries and basswood leaves are still expanding. Oaks spill into flower as gray squirrels nip off the shoot tips and strew them across the forest floor. The door continues to close on spring for a few more weeks: Virginia waterleaf flowers nod at the bases of white oaks; great crested flycatchers and red-eyed vireos call at intermittent points along every walk in the woods; sedges of the second flush drop their fruits (nutlets wrapped in papery green perigynia that will see them through to fall), and the sedges of the third flush begin to ripen; woodland bluegrass spikelets gush with anthers. But spring isn't over until the last leaves are fully open and the holes close in the canopy. At that point, the forest floor becomes its darkest, and leaves of the white bear sedge abruptly broaden out. Summer spreads out before us with its long weeks of photosynthesis in full spate. Its progression of insect songs will take us through hot afternoons and humid mornings to the end of September. Fireflies make their first flights near the beginning of June without any obvious chance to warm up and no training: they've only just pupated and emerged as adults. Still, they seem not to worry that their prospective mates might notice how raw and unpracticed they are. After a season of solitude as infants, after never having had a mating season at all, they mature, illuminate, and fly. They are nonchalant. They exhibit none of the uncertainty of young vertebrates, the stumbling fawns and warbling young white-throated sparrows, the clumsy great-horned owl babies. Instead, male fireflies execute aerial wooing dances whose precise choreography they are born knowing. These flights differentiate them by species. One flies a J-stroke. Another flies in dots and dashes. Meanwhile, the females sit in nearby shrubs and blink, drawing the males in.1 I was once swinging a double-bladed weed cutter through the University of Wisconsin's Curtis Prairie near sunset and found that I had attracted the attention of a firefly, who flew in toward me and tried to attract the fancy of the bolts glinting along the joint between the handle and the blade. It was unsuccessful. Mosquitoes are drawing blood by this time, bringing common nighthawks out into the open. I notice the nighthawks in the evenings when their splattery \"peent,\" juicier and less strident than the woodcock's, draws my attention to the sky. They career around overhead with an agility that defies physics, banking almost as sharply as dragonflies, diving and pulling up, the white bands on their wings flashing. All the while, they are funneling insects into their mouths. Watching them fly, I cannot understand how a diet of small insects can sustain such energy. Their flight is ceaseless but for the rare times that I have seen one perching, roughly the size and shape of a large bread loaf, on the edge of a flat city rooftop. I sometimes hear a male roaring as he drops through the sky to impress a potential mate, wind booming through the primary feathers as he nears the bottom of his dive. This is the same time of year when I used to hear a close relative, the whip-poor-will, calling in wooded neighborhoods of the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum on my late-night bike rides home from work. 44 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 All through the month, I watch the juneberries slowly ripen. Many people grow them in their front yards and apparently have no idea that they are edible. When the berries finally become dark and soft and sweet enough to eat, they are delicious, and for a couple of weeks each June, I cannot walk past the vacant lot turned playground down our street without standing at the fence for at least a minute or two, eating berry after berry. They do not travel or store well, so I eat as much as I can while they are in season. As I do, I know without a doubt that we are in the midst of summer, though I couldn't tell you exactly when it started. II In the weeks leading up to the solstice, the great waterleaf petals fall, and their spidery inflorescences bear capsules that ooze pulpy white ovules when you pinch them. Jewelweed grows to chest height and produces mysterious translucent fruits that appear to have preceded the flowers. They are, in fact, the products of cleistogams, flowers that never open, in which the stigmas and anthers are closed in together and external pollination is excluded. They are the plant's answer to the risk of not getting pollinated. They explode in hand before I notice a single outcrossing flower. Beside them, leaves of the wood nettle sprout translucent galls that resemble tapioca pearls with a dark core. Inside each grows a gall midge, Dasineura investita, which I have probably seen in adulthood but never recognized. Wild leek scapes poke up through the leaf litter, each tipped with an arrowhead-shaped hood. Some colonies emerge erect, others arched over and darkened on all surfaces. The flowering stalks sparsely map the extent of the dense swards of green foliage that grew fast in March and April, dissolving into the soil a couple of weeks before the scapes emerged, as the last holes closed in the canopy. There is no evidence of the leaves as the inflorescences swell against the hoods and tear through their sides. The inflorescences stand for a few days like fists raised above the leaf litter. The flowers open gradually, six papery tepals spreading beneath a congregation of stamens. Jewelweed Wild Garlic Forest: Summer 45 The individual flower stalks grow as the flowers continue to open, so that at their peak, the colony of leeks is a cloud of airy white inflorescences. Morbid owlet moths waft across the path and settle onto the undersides of last year's sugar maple leaves. The moths are similar to the faded maple leaves in color and value. Leconte's haploa moths flap their black-striped white wings like flags and settle on the shorter plants. Ebony jewelwing damselflies bumble along near creeks and at the edges of woodland marshes. They are so faithful to their habitat that when I see one, I know\u2014whether I am in central Wisconsin, northern Illinois, or overseas2\u2014that I am near water. They have a flair that I appreciate and a casual gait that I admire, flapping and gliding, bouncing between plants rather than vigorously taking out insects over open water. They seem to lack the ruthless efficiency of the other damselflies and dragonflies in the neighborhood. Summer pricks the forest floor with light. The delicate white petals of enchanter's nightshade open at the tips of bristling ovaries. Wild garlic spathes open to reveal a cluster of bulbils atop a thin scape; flowers emerge from among the bulbs and turn toward the canopy on narrow stalks. Jumpseed that started the year as red-stained leaves low to the floor produce flowers roughly the size and shape of cooked orzo. Honewort flowers wink on like stars scattered between the major constellations and then give way to plump, rubbery fruits that smell of celery leaves. Ripened spikelets of fowl mannagrass shine at the tips of slender branches; I gather a handful and drizzle them along the side of the path, where they crackle like grains of couscous against the leaves. Seeds ripen to a glossy chestnut brown inside the wild ginger berries lying in the duff, each rimmed with an oily crest, an elaiosome, that is as delicious to ants as a fresh-baked roll is to a human. A dull, hairy capsule of the great waterleaf is nestled within the persistent calyx. But when I slough off the fruit wall with my fingers, the seeds inside lie wet and pearly white, reflecting sunflecks. Then we hit the solstice. There is no more to see on this day than on any other, but we have a few extra minutes in which to see it.3 For a month or Ghost Pipes Morbid Owlet Moth 46 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 so, the woods will trundle, pause, grow, and decompose. The long days will fill with cicada songs and greenery, the nights with clouds of fireflies. It is downhill now in both directions. III Through June and early July, the fruiting bodies of dead man's fingers (Xylaria) 4 curl from gaps in fallen tree trunks and protrude from the chipped trails. They are powdery gray and tipped with white at first, blackening as they mature. Collared parachute mushrooms (Marasmius rotula) sprout from decomposing branches and tree fragments. Their caps are gelatinous and crenate. Their ridged margins droop down over the tops of the stems like children's umbrellas that leave only torsos and legs visible as they walk the rainy paths. Orange mycena mushrooms (Mycena leaiana) sprout small colonies along the sides of rotting red oak trees. Trooping crumble caps (Coprinellus disseminatus) mass up in the wreckage of fallen branches, fragile and diminutive forests forming in the canopy's cemetery. White jelly fungus (Ductifera pululahuana) glistens at knee level. Ghost pipes emerge from the forest floor, white, with nodding flowers that look down toward their toes, feeding off the fungi that live with the tree roots. The forest is growing at full tilt, and already it is being devoured. In Maple Grove Forest Preserve, there is a brown, spongy, decaying white ash trunk5 that I regularly check for fungi. I found it bristling, on the Fourth of July last year, with what I thought were bright red, tiny toadstools. The caps were less than a millimeter in diameter, the stalks threadlike. A flat-backed millipede was crawling among this fur of filaments and pinheads. On the side of the log, a white, fleshy Crepidotus, a common woodeating fungus, had emerged with a cluster of something that resembled tiny puffballs, a bit larger than mung beans. On a nearby log, the Xylaria were blackening at the tips. I posted the \"toadstool\" photos to iNaturalist, a social networking site for sharing and discussing biodiversity photos. Within hours, I had heard from a Tasmanian naturalist6 who observed that while the Crepidotus and Xylaria were fungi, the others were not. They were slime molds: Cribraria for the Dead Man's Fingers Orange Mycena Forest: Summer 47 \"toadstools,\" wolf's milk (Lycogala epidendrum) for the \"puffballs.\" I was surprised and delighted. In an afternoon, I'd found a whole new branch of the tree of life to watch for in the woods. I looked up the Encyclopedia Brittanica entry on slime molds:7 Science fiction did not invent the slime molds, but it has borrowed from them in using the idea of sheets of liquid, flowing protoplasm, giant voracious amoebae, engulfing and dissolving every living thing they touch. What fiction could only imagine, nature has evolved, and only their sharp dependence on coolness, moisture and darkness has kept the slime molds from ordinary observation, for they are common enough. Two days later, I returned to the woods to find that I could now distinguish at least six slime molds by eye. In addition to Cribraria and wolf's milk, I found Arcyria cinerea, which looked like grains of rice suspended by threads; Tubifera, pincushions on the sides of the logs; an undifferentiated yellow plasmodium that might have been Physarum crawling over the surface of the log; and the aptly named dog-vomit slime mold (Fuligo septica) mounded up on logs stripped of their bark. I slapped the colony of Cribraria: spores rose and formed a fog around my hand, then drifted off along the length of the log. After the slime mold sporing bodies disintegrated, the tree lay more or less naked. I have watched one end of the trunk crumble over the past year, trampled to the point that it now grades into the trail. The slime molds themselves didn't do this: they live largely on bacteria and fungi, not wood.8 Ants have trailed through the sapwood and replaced xylem with frass; mycelia of chicken of the woods (Laetiporus sulphureus) have wound through the tree, devouring lignin, leaving the wood blocky and red; the roots of jewelweed and enchanter's nightshade growing on the top have tunneled into the wood; moss growing on the shady side has helped keep the tree spongy. Slime molds help with the mop-up. When I returned this year, small patches of honeycomb coral slime mold (Ceratiomyxa fruticulosa) appeared on the side of the log by the first of July, along with wolf's milk. Then, on the third of July, as though on cue, a coat of Cribraria sporangia appeared on the flattened rubble pile along the path. IV By late July, many plants are scarred by insects. On the midribs of jewelweed leaves, translucent swellings conceal young gall midges (Neolasioptera impatientifolia), which grow as tiny yellow larvae inside each blister.9 Elm-leaved and zigzag goldenrod that haven't come into flower yet are inscribed with meandering leaf-miner tunnels that begin small, thicken as the larvae inside grow, and often terminate in a hole. Leaf miners find white snakeroot as well. Other leaves are crisscrossed with slime trails that I suspect are left by slugs or snails, but the leaves often show no evidence of chewing or scraping damage. The broad, soon-to-become-evergreen leaves of white bear sedge begin to resemble subway maps, with routes scratched into the mesophyll by leaf-miner flies (Cerodontha sp.), who follow the veins of the leaves longitudinally, tunneling in parallel before they veer diagonally to connect the paths. Along a trail through the Morton Arboretum's East Woods, woodland sunflowers are packed as densely as a planted field. They flower in July, their brilliant yellow faces all turned intently southward, extending almost as far as I can see in the shade of the white oaks. Tall bellflower comes into bloom one day, and the blue flowers are high enough to stare me in the eye, a single style snaking out from the white-target center of each flower. Shining bedstraw scrambles along like baby's breath at ankle-height. False nettle erects columnar inflorescences that angle from the leaf nodes and look strong enough to hang a coat on. The filigree of wood nettle inflorescences signifies the end of one's opportunity to harvest the leaves for the year. Before this, they can be boiled and eaten, though in my experience they are bland. After this, I have been told, they become bitter. Perhaps this marks the beginning of the end of summer. The interval from mid-July to the middle of August is hot and slow. I lose track of what is going on in the woods. I travel for a conference and come back to find that Solomon's seal berries are ripe; when I last looked, in early July, they had just broken out of the papery corollas that enclosed them. We leave on vacation, north to where Canada mayflower is in fruit and clubmosses are thick in the shady portions of the forest, and we return to find bottlebrush grass looking ragged, wild leeks beginning to fruit, clearweed in flower. Moonseed sprawls over fallen logs. This is the last month of summer before the boys return to school. The days spread out like a fog low over the field in the early morning, amorphous, hot, hard to pin down. V As summer draws to an end, sounds of the fields, woods, and suburbs mark my progression through each day. Between mid-July and early August, the robins relinquish their predawn singing to the cardinals. This changing of the guard always catches me unawares. Crickets stop singing as the sun starts to bear down. Cicadas and lawnmowers fill the midafternoon. Our family bustles around with supper, kitchen noises spilling out into the yard, then robins begin chuckling in the neighborhood. Cicadas give way to crickets about thirty or forty minutes after the sun sets. Crickets sing through the screen well into night as I sit by the window or by the fire in the backyard. White snakeroot comes into bloom along trails and on the margins of woods by the baseball fields and parking lots. White baneberry fruits ripen, and the stigmas, shriveled at the tip, form a black eyeball. Inside are half a dozen glistening, wedge-shaped brown seeds embedded in pulp. Wingstem blossoms in the floodplains beneath the silver maples. Black elderberry ripens to sprays of small, dark berries. American pokeweed berries swell green and darken along one edge, filled with black, lenticular seeds. The brittle, 48 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 Forest: Summer 49 jumpy, clingy fruits of the pathway species ripen. Lopseed fruits become completely reflexed. Jumpseed flowers enclose brittle fruits that have been hardening over the previous weeks and now spring at a touch. Fruits on enchanter's nightshade become bristly. Stickseed transitions from immaculate white flowers\u2014five petals, no longer than a millimeter or so, each encircling a donut of tissue (the fornices) that extends up from the flower's throat\u2014to stick-tights that will give you hours of work if you brush against a single plant while wearing a sweater. Last year, red oak acorns littered the trails by the middle of August. I worried that they were falling too early, that they were all rotten, but biting a few open, I found mostly healthy cotyledons filling the shell. I floated out a sample at home, and about 50 percent sank, suggesting they were viable. But these were still at the outset of their journey, and not all would survive on the forest floor. Within hours of landing, they might be visited by insects who tunnel in and devour and fill the shell with frass before they depart, poor house guests. They might be preyed upon by molds and other fungi. The bur oak acorns swell through August and begin falling near its end, caps clothed in a ruff of kinked scales. Like the red oaks, they are in danger as soon as they land: pop the caps off of fallen bur oak acorns, and you often find writhing yellow larvae dying to get into the meat of the nut. The white oaks and Hill's oaks generally hang on a bit longer before they release their progeny to the ravaging insects, fungi, squirrels, and jays. Oak leaves and stems balloon up with galls of all types. By the end of the month, katydids rasp from the treetops. There are no sutures between the seasons. We can flip over every log and scrabble around on the forest floor, and we'll find a multitude of signposts: false mermaid seedlings firing up, proliferations of mycorrhizae, cicadas Woodland Sunflower White Baneberry emerging, earthworms growing torpid as temperatures drop. With so much to choose from, we might as well start the forest year here, with the red oak acorns raining down to their various fates. As they bed down and some, at least, find a safe place to get a radicle into the ground, they are staking out a part of the forest that they may work for centuries. They have as strong a claim on the beginning of the year as anyone does. Endnotes 1 For a wonderful discussion of firefly biology and the importance of the dances to firefly taxonomy, read, Evans, H. E. 1968. In defense of magic: The story of fireflies. In Life on a little known planet: A biologist's view of insects and their world (chapter 6). New York: Dutton. 2 In spring 2014, living west of Bordeaux with my family, my commute to work often included a bike ride from the train station at Gazinet through a sandy, spring-fed forest with a little creek. One morning, near the beginning of summer, I spotted what I thought to be the ebony jewelwing I had learned on the Lower Wisconsin River, and I saw it several times more during the last weeks of our stay. It turned out, though, that the species I knew, Calypteryx maculata, is endemic to Eastern North America. But the genus has Eurasian relatives as well. It seems most likely I was following the beautiful demoiselle, Calypteryx virgo, which lives along fast-flowing streams across much of Europe. 3 Tim Dee writes of the day after the winter solstice: \"The extra minute [per day] had nothing more to show than what was already present - it showed just a minute more of that. More light but, so, all begins again. Today, there was nothing else to see but there was one more minute to see it in.\" Dee, T. 2020. Greenery: Journeys in springtime. London: Jonathan Cape. 4 I use the common name loosely here to refer to the fungal genus Xylaria, whose species are not easily distinguished from one another without microscopic study that I have not undertaken. 5 I am indebted to my colleagues Christy Rollinson and Ross Alexander (at the Morton Arboretum) for their help identifying this tree from a wood sample. 6 Lloyd, S. 2019. Tasmanian myxomycetes. https:\/\/sarahlloydmyxos.wordpress.com\/ Red Oak Acorn 50 Arnoldia 78\/1 \u2022 August 2020 PLANTS REFERENCED Forest: Summer 51 Acer saccharinum - silver maple Acer saccharum - sugar maple Actaea pachypoda - white baneberry Ageratina altissima - white snakeroot Allium canadense - wild garlic Allium tricoccum - wild leek Amelanchier sp. - juneberry Asarum canadense - wild ginger Boehmeria cylindrica - false nettle Campanulastrum americanum - tall bellflower Cardamine concatenata - toothwort Carex sp. - sedge; there are other sedge genera, but these are the \"true sedges\" that dominate in our woodlands Carex albursina - white bear sedge Carex radiata - straight-styled wood sedge Celtis occidentalis - hackberry Circaea canadensis - enchanter's nightshade Cryptotaenia canadensis - honewort Floerkea proserpinacoides - false mermaid Fraxinus americana - white ash Galium concinnum - shining bedstraw Geranium maculatum - wild geranium Glyceria striata - fowl mannagrass Hackelia virginiana - stickseed Helianthus strumosus - woodland sunflower; though the colony I am referencing in the Morton Arboretum's East Woods may be referable to H. decapetalus Hydrophyllum appendiculatum - great waterleaf Hydrophyllum virginianum - Virginia waterleaf Hystrix patula - bottlebrush grass Impatiens sp. - jewelweed, touch-me-not Laportea canadensis - wood nettle Lycopodiaceae - clubmosses (various genera) Maianthemum canadense - Canada mayflower Menispermum canadense - moonseed Monotropa uniflora - ghost pipe Persicaria virginiana - jumpseed Phryma leptostachya - lopseed Phytolacca americana - American pokeweed Pilea pumila - clearweed Poa sylvatica - woodland bluegrass Polygonatum biflorum - Solomon's seal Quercus alba - white oak Quercus ellipsoidalis - Hill's oak Quercus macrocarpa - bur oak Quercus rubra - red oak Sambucus canadensis - black elderberry Solidago flexicaulis - zigzag goldenrod Solidago ulmifolia - elm-leaved goldenrod Tilia americana - American basswood Verbesina alternifolia - wingstem Andrew Hipp is the senior scientist in plant systematics and herbarium director at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. He conducts research on the origins and implications of plant diversity, with a focus on oaks, sedges, phylogenetic ecology, and trait evolution. You can read about his research at http:\/\/systematics.mortonarb.org and follow his natural history blog at https:\/\/botanistsfieldnotes.com. Rachel Davis is an independent visual artist in the Chicago area. She works at the interface of natural science, abstract painting, printmaking, and textiles, integrating the formal and empirical elements of the natural world in her work. You can see more of her work at https:\/\/artbumble.com and follow her on Instagram: @art_bumble. 7 Cohen, A. L. R. 1969. Slime molds (slime fungi). In: Encyclopaedia Brittanica (Vol. 20). Chicago: William Benton. 8 Stephenson, S. L. and Stempen, H. 1994. Myxomycetes: A handbook of slime molds. Portland: Timber Press. 9 For an image of the gall and the larva inside: Hatfield, M. J. 2013. Cecidomyiidae, jewel weed gall - Neolasioptera impatientifolia. Bug Guide. https:\/\/bugguide.net\/node\/ view\/741909"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Speak, Cottonwoods","article_sequence":6,"start_page":52,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25713","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d24eab6b.jpg","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wheeler, Emily","article_content":"In August 1895 and September 1896, the dendrologist John George Jack visited his hometown of Chateauguay, on the shores of the St. Lawrence River, near Montreal. By then, Jack had been working at the Arnold Arboretum for a decade. Director Charles Sprague Sargent had hired Jack as a manual laborer in 1886. The self-educated Jack rose over time to become a popular lecturer, a prolific plant collector, and an associate professor of dendrology at Harvard. Jack returned to Boston from Chateauguay with seedlings of the eastern cottonwood (Populus deltoides). Fifteen members of accession 16611 were planted out near Peters Hill. In 1894, Jack had written a five-part series about the trees and shrubs growing near Montreal in the magazine Garden and Forest, which Sargent oversaw. In the final section, Jack described an impressive cottonwood growing near the Chateauguay River: \"This tree is said to have been not much more than a sapling within the memory of some of the older inhabitants.\" Already, in 1894, its trunk measured more than five feet in diameter. This remarkable tree bore only pollen- producing male flowers (cottonwoods are dioecious), but the seedlings Jack collected may well have come from nearby. The seed capsules ripen in early summer and burst to release tiny seeds attached to cotton-like strands\u2014nature's dust bunnies. A single tree can produce up to forty million seeds. According to the Arboretum's records, Jack made plant collections near Chateauguay on a near-annual basis through 1912 (the year his mother, Annie, a well-known horticultural writer, died). Cottonwoods were a repeat interest. Another singular tree grew on an island in the mouth of the Chateauguay River, where a convent was then located. Jack had collected an herbarium specimen from this tree in 1889, and he would collect additional specimens from the same tree on at least four other occasions. The undersides of the leaves were more silvery than those of other cottonwoods, and Sargent came to recognize the tree as a hybrid between the eastern cottonwood and the balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera). In 1913, he named the hybrid in Jack's honor: P. x jackii. Although Jack collected cuttings from the hybrid, none of the resulting trees are living today. As for the original accession of eastern cottonwoods, five remain, all at the juncture of the Peters Hill loop and the short oak-lined spur leading to Poplar Gate. These are large trees. Their silvery gray bark has matured into deep furrows. The trunk diameter of the largest is around three feet, which is impressive but not nearly the five-foot specimen that Jack had observed towering over the rich bottomlands. In 1950, a year after Jack died at his farm in Walpole, Massachusetts, his name would appear in the New Yorker, in an essay by Vladimir Nabokov. (The essay was later adapted as the final chapter of Nabokov's memoir, Speak, Memory.) \"I would like to have the ability Professor Jack, of Harvard and the Arnold Arboretum, told his students he had\u2014of identifying twigs with his eyes shut, merely from the sound of their swish through the air,\" Nabokov wrote. Nabokov had settled in the Boston area in 1941. Although he was an academic with a literature degree from Cambridge, England, he had, from boyhood on, a deep love of nature\u2014 especially butterflies. (He even worked with the lepidopteran collections at Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology.) Whether Jack and Nabokov met is unknown. Yet the writer spelled out examples of trees Jack's auditory keenness could identify: \"hornbeam, honeysuckle, Lombardy poplar.\" Leaves of the eastern cottonwood, like those of the Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra), have flattened petioles. Even the faintest breeze can cause the leaves to rustle. To some, the leaves of the eastern cottonwood shiver. If it's true that Jack could identify plants by their sound, perhaps, in the case of poplar, he was remembering the sound of wind caressing the big leaves of a mature cottonwood grove along the Saint Lawrence River\u2014perhaps remembering the trees that drew him back again and again. Emily Wheeler lives in Jamaica Plain and is a docent at the Arboretum. Speak, Cottonwoods Emily Wheeler WHEELER, E. 2020. SPEAK, COTTONWOODS. ARNOLDIA, 78(1): 52-53"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25695","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270a36e.jpg","title":"2020-78-1","volume":78,"issue_number":1,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Uncommon Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25700","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270af6b.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Goulet-Scott, Ben","article_content":"With one last gulp of iced tea, I stepped out of a rented sedan onto the weedy shoulder of Forest Service Road 117 to perform my pre-fieldwork ritual. I tucked my pants into my socks, applied sunscreen and bug spray, and pressed a baseball cap over my spiky bed head. The morning temperature in western Kentucky was already approaching 90\u00b0F (32\u00b0C), unusual for late April. I grabbed my water bottle and tablet from the back seat and turned towards my experimental garden plot, which was planted with three subspecies of pink-flowered herbaceous Phlox. As a doctoral student working with Robin Hopkins, a faculty member at the Arnold Arboretum, I have returned regularly to western Kentucky and Tennessee to study the role of local adaptation in the divergence and speciation of these closely related lineages. A skeletal dead tree stood on the opposite side of the field, a favorite perch for large birds. I recognized the familiar broad-shouldered silhouette and gleaming white head of an adult bald eagle. Surely it had long since noticed me and my car, and as I pushed through the tall Uncommon Gardens Ben Goulet-Scott grass to arrive at my modest garden, I wondered if I might now be familiar to the eagles of this area. I was relieved to find that my plants still stood, and in fact, they seemed to be thriving. The spring before, in 2018, I had worked with Robin and lab technician Matt Farnitano to plant 321 rooted cuttings at this site, each no more than four inches tall. Now many of the plants boasted dozens, even hundreds, of bright pink flowers. I set down my water bottle and turned on the tablet, ready to record herbivore damage and count flowers for as long as the daylight permitted. This plot is a type of experiment known as a common garden. Three different taxa\u2014Phlox pilosa subsp. pilosa, P. pilosa subsp. deamii, and P. amoena\u2014had been planted in a random order, and because the growing conditions are consistent, any differences in traits among the three taxa can be ascribed to genetic differences rather than plastic responses to the environment. Common garden experiments have a rich history in plant biology. Botanists in the first half of the twentieth century (especially G\u00f6te Turesson, Jens Clausen, David D. Keck, and Phlox Common Garden 3 Facing page: Intermixed Phlox subspecies flower in the author's common garden in the Land Between the Lakes region of western Kentucky. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR William Hiesey) made foundational contributions to our current understanding of heritable variation in natural populations using common gardens. Outside the Weld Hill Research Building at the Arnold Arboretum, other researchers are using a series of common garden plots to study the ecology, morphology, and physiology of woody plants. In fact, the entire Arnold Arboretum can be viewed as a large common garden, with plant species and varieties from around the world growing in one location. My research in Kentucky required not one but three common gardens, one in each habitat of my three study taxa. During the summer of 2017, I had traveled throughout the native ranges of these three subspecies in the southeastern United States and collected plant material for the gardens. Perennial Phlox propagate well from cuttings, so I collected single stems from wild plants, leaving the rest of the plant in the ground. I mailed these stems back to labmates at the Weld Hill Research Building who planted them in soil so they would produce roots. After one year in the Weld Hill greenhouses, they furnished three cuttings each, allowing me to plant a genetically identical panel of cuttings in each garden. All three of my common gardens sit adjacent to a wild population of one of the three subspecies. This experimental design\u2014plant all taxa in all habitats\u2014is called a reciprocal transplant. I repeated any measurements taken in this garden in the other two, both within a couple hours' drive. A reciprocal transplant is a powerful test for local adaptation. Populations that are adapted to different ecological niches are unlikely to encounter each other in their distinct habitats, and if they do, the nonlocal taxon is likely maladapted and will not persist. Local adaptation, therefore, may contribute to the divergence of closely related lineages. In general, Phlox pilosa subsp. pilosa favors open grassy areas in full sun, while P. amoena grows in the grassy fringes of mixed hardwood forest, and P. pilosa subsp. deamii peppers the understory of similar forest edges. But because the ecological factors that differentiate the preferred habitats of my three Phlox taxa are multidimensional and not entirely obvious to my human senses, I let the wild populations guide me to appropriate sites for the experiment. Settling into my morning work routine, I opened a spreadsheet on my tablet that contained a stack of three-digit codes in a column on the left. Each code corresponded to a unique plant identifier that was stamped into an aluminum tag and fastened in the ground at the base of each plant. In order to test for local adaptation, I designed my experiment to evaluate traits related to fitness, like susceptibility to herbivore damage and total reproductive output. My goal on this visit was to score the presence or absence of herbivore damage and count the number of open flowers on every plant. I labeled two new columns (\"herbivory_2\" and \"flowers_2\") and eased into a cross-legged seat on the edge of my plot. Collecting these data was a comprehensive sensory experience. As I pushed and pulled inflorescences aside to reveal more clusters of bright pink, my fingers reluctantly harvested the sticky secretion that protects the flowering branches of Phlox pilosa subsp. pilosa. Each time I agitated a bunch of flowers, a small flare of sweet fragrance mixed with the sharp scent of spring grasses and forbs soaking in the midmorning sun. The exaggerated buzz of a carpenter bee hummed under the exclamations of chattering songbirds. A jumping spider tickled across my wrist. Sitting quietly, eye-level with the asters (Erigeron philadelphicus), I immersed myself in the dense fabric of interactions that contributed to the deceptively neat figures in my spreadsheet. This common garden, in the full-sun habitat of Phlox pilosa subsp. pilosa, is tucked into the northern tip of a 170,000-acre inland peninsula (the largest in the United States), which spans the border between Kentucky and Tennessee. When the Tennessee Valley Authority completed the two dams that isolated this strip of land, aptly named Land Between the Lakes, the residents were forced to move, leaving their properties to be reclaimed by mixed hardwood forest. The house that complemented this yard and surrounding fields has long since been 4 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 demolished, but a patch of feral bearded irises (Iris x germanica) and a single mature post oak (Quercus stellata) hint at where it once stood. These days, the property is mowed annually and burned periodically by the United States Forest Service as part of a scattered network of restored prairie patches, important habitat for the robust deer and turkey populations in this National Recreation Area. My research permit with the local Forest Service office, however, guaranteed that this field would not be burned from spring 2018 through fall 2020, and my garden plot, demarcated with pink marking flags, would not be mowed. The Phlox that I study are the hangers-on of a much more audacious long-term experiment\u2014 the conversion of southeastern prairie into farm and forest. Through the conversion into farmland, suppression of fire, and elimination of grazing bison, humans removed the sources of periodic disturbance that once precluded large trees and favored communities of resilient herbs and grasses. These changes have been compounded by the ebb and flow of fertilizer and pesticide use, an evolving system of hunting regulations, and a rapidly changing climate, creating a volatile experiment with few constant variables. Each species has borne witness to the arc of human impact in its own way. The bald eagle, once suffering, now thrives. The same is true for white-tailed deer and wild turkey. Free-ranging bison have not returned, but Land Between the Lakes supports two small populations of reintroduced bison that graze on fenced-off grasslands, an allusion to the millions that roamed widely until the early 1800s. Dozens of species of prairie-dwelling plant have retreated to small patches of suitable habitat and are threatened or endangered. Today, the closest approximation to the lost prairie disturbance regimes is often the roadside, periodically grazed by a fleet of Department of Transportation mowers. These parallel ribbons are precious refugia for what remain of the remnant prairie species in this part of the world, including the Phlox that I study. Each Phlox in the author's common garden is identified with a numbered aluminum tag, staked at the base. Phlox Common Garden 5 In the Southeast, many grassland species, including the three types of Phlox studied by the author, are confined to roadside strips. Research on the presence and strength of local adaptation may be especially relevant as humans continue to modify the environment. As the southeastern prairies shrank, these three Phlox withdrew into smaller and smaller patches of suitable habitat. If the Phlox were forced into shared fragments, their chances of contacting one another, hybridizing, and melting into one shared gene pool likely increased. Yet, with the exception of a half mile of roadside in western Tennessee, I have never found any of my study taxa living together. After my initial round of spring observations, I would return to these bustling common gardens every few weeks to track flower output as well as the number of fruits each plant produced, the number of seeds in a subset of those fruits, and the aboveground biomass at the end of the growing season. These traits quantify survival, growth, and reproduction, all aspects of fitness that would allow me to test my prediction that these subspecies are locally adapted to distinct ecological conditions. If so, it would help explain how they kept their ecological distance, even as they were concentrated into small pockets of prairie-like habitat. By seven o'clock, the tall grass around me glowed pink. The yellowthroats and gnatcatchers resolved their conversation for the day, and I strained to distinguish the Phlox flowers from one another. I had counted more than six thousand flowers on about two-thirds of the plants in the garden\u2014a tedious but satisfying task\u2014 and would finish the rest before the next day's lunch. I gathered my water bottle and tablet and swished back through the tall grass. Standing next to the rental car, I shook off the tunnel vision of counting flowers and let my eyes wander over the rolling field. My gaze landed again on the large dead tree. A bald eagle leapt from an upper branch, circled the field once, and slipped out of sight behind the canopy. Ben Goulet-Scott is a doctoral candidate in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University and a fellow of the Arnold Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Revisiting the Mystery of the Bartram Oak","article_sequence":2,"start_page":6,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25701","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270b36e.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Crowl, Andrew; Bruno, Ed; Hipp, Andrew L.; Manos, Paul","article_content":"CROWL, A., BRUNO, E., HIPP, A., AND MANOS, P. 2020. REVISITING THE MYSTERY OF THE BARTRAM OAK. ARNOLDIA, 77(4): 6-11 An impressive oak tree grows on the quad of West Chester University, outside of Philadelphia. It is a healthy, open-grown individual measuring approximately 110 feet (33.5 meters) tall and with a trunk diameter of 64 inches (1.6 meters) at breast height. As the oldest tree on campus, it has become an important landmark for students. The tree is also a putative descendant of the first-described Bartram oak (Quercus x heterophylla) and is the largest of its kind in Pennsylvania. As such, the tree was recently recognized as a state champion, but this title remained somewhat uncertain, given the perplexing taxonomic status of the Bartram oak. Ed Bruno, the landscape designer at West Chester University, has been working with the trees on campus for more than thirty years. Bruno was aware of an 1862 observation by the southeastern naturalist Samuel Buckley, indicating that the West Chester oak was perhaps a second-generation descendant of the original Bartram specimen\u2014a seedling of a seedling. The original tree, however, is long gone, which meant that the West Chester oak\u2014now approximately 170 years old\u2014could not be directly compared to it. For Bruno, the identity of the tree became increasingly frustrating. To provide some clarity, Bruno contacted a dozen or so oak taxonomists in 2015, requesting their opinion of the tree's hybrid status and possible ancestry. He shared images of leaves, twigs, buds, bark, and acorns. Most recipients responded with slightly different opinions but agreed the tree was of hybrid origin. The varied answers, however, left the identity in ongoing limbo. Paul Manos, professor of biology at Duke University, agreed with the current identification of the specimen as a possible Bartram oak but suggested DNA testing would be necessary for verification. Testing would also provide an exciting opportunity to finally check hypotheses regarding the putative parents of this famous tree. The results would shed light on a two-hundred-year-old botanical mystery and further the narrative of hybridization as a frequent and important phenomenon in oaks. Revisiting the Mystery of the Bartram Oak Andrew Crowl, Ed Bruno, Andrew L. Hipp, and Paul Manos ANDREW CROWL Facing page: The Bartram oak (Q. x heterophylla, center) displays a range of leaves. Some resemble the willow oak (Q. phellos, top left); others resemble the northern red oak (Q. rubra, top right). These samples are from Duke Gardens. History of the Bartram Oak The original Bartram oak grew near Philadelphia, on the west bank of the Schuylkill River. In the mid-eighteenth century, the tree caught the eye of John Bartram, who was among the first practicing Linnaean-era botanists in the American colonies. Bartram traveled extensively throughout eastern North America, cataloguing and collecting native plants. While the anomalous oak, located within walking distance of Bartram's home, resembled known oak species of the region, it possessed distinct\u2014 though somewhat ambiguous\u2014morphological attributes, such as irregular lobing of the leaves and a range of leaf types from unlobed to lobed. This form of variation is termed heterophylly and likely prevented the specimen from being formally classified for another half century. In 1802, French botanist Fran\u00e7ois Andr\u00e9 Michaux traveled to Philadelphia where he met with John Bartram's son, William Bartram, an accomplished botanist and naturalist in his own right, who was maintaining and growing his father's botanical collection. During this visit, Michaux presumably observed the tree for the first time. When Michaux formally named Quercus heterophylla\u2014coining the common name Bartram oak\u2014in his North American silva, published in 1812, he designated the taxon as a new species rather than a hybrid. Michaux described the morphological ambiguity and suggested that although the Bartram oak resembled the laurel oak (Q. laurifolia), the leaves of that species were never lobed and the closest known population was more than one hundred miles from Philadelphia. The newfound species status bestowed upon the Bartram oak, however, was quickly called into question, in 1814, by Pennsylvanian botanist Frederick Pursh, who had previously served as a horticultural manager at a neighboring estate, known as the Woodlands. \"Of this singular species there is but one individual known, which grows on the plantation of the Messrs. Bartrams near Philadelphia,\" Pursh wrote. \"It probably is only a hybrid plant on that account, and cannot with propriety be considered a genuine species.\" This first suggestion of a hybrid origin was followed by one hundred years of confusion and arguments between botanists as to the validity of this taxon as a distinct species, its hybrid status, and its potential parents. Tragically, in 1842, almost two decades after the death of William Bartram, botanist Thomas Nuttall reported that the original tree had been recently cut down. Thomas Meehan, a preeminent American horticulturist, added to this report in 1853, noting that the tree had been removed because it \"interfered with a view of the Schuylkill [River] from the Woodlands.\" However, acorns of the tree had been collected before the removal and planted on the property and elsewhere around Pennsylvania. In subsequent years, numerous additional examples of this taxon were discovered in New Jersey, Delaware, Maryland, and New York. Though the infamous tree had been lost, this was not the end of the Bartram oak\u2014as a lineage or a botanical mystery. By the mid-1800s, seemingly every notable American botanist, and many from abroad, had examined either an herbarium specimen of a Bartram oak or an actual tree. But the debate continued, and in the words of botanist Arthur Hollick, looking back on this taxonomic foment in 1919, \"The opinions expressed in connection with [the Bartram oak] were as diverse and heterogeneous as the trees were heterophyllous.\" During this period, the Bartram oak was identified by various experts as Quercus ambigua, Q. phellos, Q. imbricaria, Q. laurifolia, Q. hemisphaerica, Q. coccinea, Q. leana, Q. tinctoria (or Q. velutina), Q. aquatica (or Q. nigra), Q. palustris, or some combination of these. A trend did begin to emerge, however, during the latter half of the nineteenth century: the Bartram oak was clearly aligned, in some way, with the willow oak (Quercus phellos). This was based primarily on leaf morphology, with the willow oak exhibiting unlobed and entire leaf margins. Some authors believed the Bartram oak to be a lobed form or variety of the willow oak; others maintained that it was simply an anomalous willow oak specimen; and others (perhaps the majority) argued for a hybrid origin in which the willow oak was a parent. The second parent continued to be debated. Among those that subscribed to the hybrid hypothesis were famed botanists Asa Gray and George Engelmann. Gray, in 1863, expressed Bartram Oak 7 Q. marilandica 3 Q. coccinea 2 Q. inopina 1 Q. marilandica 4 Q. myrtifolia 1 Q. elliottii 1 Q. agrifolia Q. arkansana 2 Q. imbricaria 1 Q. marilandica 2 Q. ilicifolia Q. laevis Q. incana 1 Q. coccinea 3 Q. imbricaria 2 Q. wislizeni 2 Q. buckleyi 2 Q. wislizeni 1 Q. buckleyi 1 Q. marilandica 1 Q. humbodtii Q. canbyi Q. georgiana 1 Q. kelloggii Q. nigra 1 Q. nigra 2 Q. texana 2 Q. arkansana 1 Q. laurifolia 2 Q. hemisphaerica Q inopina 2 Q. ellipsoidalis 1 Q. acerifolia 2 Q. myrtifolia 2 Q. acerifolia 1 Q. texana 3 Q. parvula Q. pagoda 2 Q. georgiana 2 Q. pagoda 1 Q. shumardii 2 Q. palustris 2 Q. coccinea 1 Q. laurifolia 1 Q. palustris 1 Q. ellipsoidalis 2 Q. shumardii 1 Q. elliottii 2 Q. incana 2 Q. mexicana Q. texana 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Q. velutina 2 Q. velutina 1 Q. rubra 1 Q. rubra 2 Q. falcata 2 Q. falcata 1 Q. x heterophylla Q. phellos 1 Q. phellos 2 Q. phellos 1 Q. phellos 2 Q. falcata 1 Q. falcata 2 Q. x heterophylla Q. phellos 1 Q. phellos 2 Q. rubra 1 Q. rubra 2 Q. x heterophylla H1 H2 H3 Q. phellos 1 Q. phellos 2 Q. velutina 1 Q. velutina 2 Q. x heterophylla * * * Quercus phellos Quercus rubra Quercus x heterophylla * Evolutionary relationships of red oaks (Quercus section Lobatae) are rendered on a phylogenetic tree (left), showing the clear affinity between the Bartram oak and the willow oak (Q. phellos). This complements results from genetic clustering analyses of the Bartram oak and its hypothesized parent species (below). Each colored box represents an individual tree, with colors indicating the genomic composition of that individual. For H1 and H2, the Bartram oak is distinct from the other species tested, while in H3, the genomic content of the Bartram oak demonstrates a clear combination of Q. phellos and the northern red oak (Q. rubra). The map shows the distribution of the Bartram oak and its putative parent species. A black star indicates the location of the West Chester oak. Bartram Oak 9 the opinion that the Bartram oak was a hybrid between the willow oak (Quercus phellos) and black oak (Q. tinctoria, now Q. velutina). Engelmann, on the other hand, disagreed with this and argued, for a time, that the Bartram oak should be considered a distinct species. By 1877, however, he had clearly aligned his thinking with Gray, though he disagreed as to the second parent species: \"While I was long inclined to follow Michaux in considering it as a distinct species \u2026 That it is a hybrid is most probable,\" Engelmann wrote. \"One of its parents is undoubtedly Phellos; for the other we must look among the lobe-leaved Black-oaks of its neighborhood, falcata, rubra or coccinea,\" meaning the southern red oak, northern red oak, and scarlet oak, respectively. At long last, in 1905, nearly one hundred years after Michaux's recognition of the Bartram oak, a group from the New York Botanical Garden attempted to put the debate to rest, once and for all. Arthur Hollick, then the assistant curator of the garden, later reported that seventy-five acorns from a tree on Staten Island had been collected and propagated to test the hybrid hypothesis. The resulting seedlings exhibited considerable variation in leaf morphology, which could be arranged in a series according to the extent of their lobing. On one end of the spectrum were trees exhibiting the deep-lobed leaves of northern red oak (Quercus rubra), while others had narrow leaves with entire margins, similar to those of willow oak (Q. phellos). The remaining individuals were heterophyllous trees, exhibiting various combinations of red and willow oak leaf forms. This was convincing evidence that the two parents for the Bartram oak were Quercus phellos and Q. rubra, and for a long time, this was the only hard evidence regarding the identity of the hybrid. But over one hundred years after this New York Botanical Garden study\u2014and two hundred years after Michaux's account was first published\u2014we reopened the case. This time, however, we had access to DNA sequencing technologies and computational methods, allowing us to peer into the genomes of these trees and directly observe the genetic composition. Modern Investigation In an attempt to shed light on the identity of the West Chester tree\u2014and to provide insights into the background of the original Bartram oak\u2014we broadly sampled North American red oaks, including any species hypothesized to be involved in the hybrid history. We also collected material from the West Chester tree. We then used a genomic sequencing technique (restriction site-associated DNA sequencing or RADseq) to create a genetic dataset for these taxa, resulting in tens of thousands of informative DNA sites for downstream analyses. Based on these data, evolutionary relationships were visualized with a phylogenetic tree. Much like a family tree, a phylogeny is a diagram depicting a pattern of descent and relationships between organisms. It is important to note that the behavior of hybrids in phylogenies is not straightforward and often results in one of two outcomes: the hybrid may be found as a close relative to one of the parent species, or it will be placed in an intermediate position in the tree, falling somewhere between the two parent species. Our phylogenetic analyses confirmed a close relationship of the Bartram oak with willow oak (Quercus phellos). We then carried out additional DNA analyses using a clustering approach that groups individuals based on DNA similarities and differences. This technique can be used to infer the presence of admixed individuals (those whose genomes are a combination of different parent species). Based on previous assertions and our own morphological insights, we tested three plausible hypotheses regarding possible parental lineages: willow oak crosses with southern red oak (Quercus falcata), black oak (Q. velutina), and northern red oak (Q. rubra). Our clustering analyses indicated the genome of this specimen is a mosaic, suggesting a hybrid origin, with northern red oak (Q. rubra) as the probable second parent. This confirmed morphological observations of the 1905 New York Botanical Garden study, as well as our own detailed observations. The West Chester oak shows many fruit characteristics similar to Quercus rubra. Fruit size is larger than would be expected given any of 10 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 the other potential parents, measuring up to 1.2 inches (30 millimeters) in length, consistent with the large nuts of Q. rubra. The cup covering of the nut also suggests Q. rubra as a likely parent: while the cup of this taxon covers approximately one-quarter of the nut, Q. velutina and Q. falcata both possess cups that cover up to one-half of the nut. Cup scale arrangement is consistent with Q. phellos and Q. rubra, both of which have smooth and tightly appressed scales. Bud size and bud scales are also consistent with Q. rubra. Leaf pubescence is reminiscent of Q. phellos, which presents hairs early in development but becomes glabrous to sparsely pubescent later in the season. Late-season leaves of the West Chester oak are mostly glabrous, with tufts of hairs in the axils of veins on the underside, much like Q. rubra leaves, which are glabrous throughout development but with similar tufts of hair. Moreover, the bark of the Bartram oak is reminiscent of Q. rubra, with smooth patches on the trunk. This hybrid scenario for the Bartram oak is plausible given the overlapping distributions of willow oak and northern red oak at the edges of their current ranges in eastern North America. As the West Chester tree is likely a secondgeneration offspring of the original Bartram oak, we propose the West Chester tree is the result of backcrossing with willow oak, a common element of the forest in the Philadelphia area. Conclusions and Broader Implications Many questions remain about the Bartram oak due to the inclusion of only a single individual in this study, but the interaction between the two parent species is clear. The parents share only a narrow range of ecological space, yet numerous hybrid individuals have been reported from the northern edge of the willow oak (Quercus phellos) range, distributed in disparate patches. This pattern is likely facilitated by an expanded distribution of willow oak due to land conversion during the last two hundred years, creating increased opportunities for the natural formation of Q. x heterophylla. While we were unable to test whether all Bartram oaks are descendants of a single hybridization event, we believe it to be unlikely. Known Bartram oak specimens are often found as single individuals. In fact, a putative Bartram oak was recently identified by Paul Manos within Duke Gardens, on the campus of Duke University, after years of being noted as an anomaly by garden staff. This single eighty- to ninety-yearold tree occurs, along with both parent species, on the edge of the garden in an area that was historically forested. This suggests the Duke individual is a naturally occurring hybrid rather than an intentional planting. We posit Bartram oaks are the result of multiple independent events that have occurred repeatedly. Future studies with increased sampling will be needed to directly test this hypothesis. Hybridization is certainly a common phenomenon in oaks; however, past concerns of oaks failing to form genetically coherent entities that merit species status have not been substantiated by genetic data. Based on recent DNA studies, we know that oak species have originated by diverging from one another in spite of gene flow. Oak hybrids are known to be fertile, and may eventually participate in forming narrow genetic bridges between species and generating new genetic combinations. This view of species as potentially open systems is based on observations made by generations of botanists. As more organisms across the tree of life are studied, the zoocentric definition of species as reproductively isolated end products of evolution is beginning to fade into history. This new paradigm redirects the question of species status to instead consider the evolutionary potential of naturally occurring Bartram oaks and the role of hybridization, in general, as oaks continue to respond to rapidly changing climates and landscapes. The West Chester oak, in its relative isolation as a prized campus monument, is unlikely to contribute to this evolutionary continuum of gene swapping. But in natural populations, hybridization is no doubt playing a role in shaping the genetic architecture of future generations of trees. For now, and to satisfy those who need to classify and at the same time honor our rich botanical heritage, it seems fitting (and useful) to recognize all first- and later-generation hybrids of Quercus phellos and Q. rubra that show intermediate morphological qualities as Bartram oaks (Q. x heterophylla). And in the meantime, the champion West Chester tree remains a noteworthy destination for anyone with horticultural wanderlust. Bibliography and further readings Buckley, S. B. 1862. Note no. 2: On Quercus heterophylla, Mich. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 14: 100-101. Conte, J. L. Le, H. Allen, S. B. Buckley, W. M. Gabb, W. Stimpson, and E. Coues. 1861. Note on the Bartram Oak (Quercus heterophylla). In Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 13: 335-390. Philadelphia: Academy of Natural Sciences. Engelmann, G. 1877. The oaks of the United States. Transactions of the Academy of Science of Saint Louis, 3: 539-543. Hipp, A. L., Manos, P. S., Hahn, M., Avishai, M., Bod\u00e9n\u00e8s, C., Valencia-Avalos, S. 2019. Genomic landscape of the global oak phylogeny. New Phytologist. doi:10.1111\/nph.16162 Hollick, A. 1919. The story of the Bartram Oak: How a little exact experimental science solved a problem of long standing. Scientific American, 121(17): 422-432. MacDougal, D. T. 1907. Hybrids among wild plants. The Plant World, 10: 25-27. Martindale, I. 1880. Notes on the Bartram Oak: Quercus heterophylla, Michx. Camden, NJ: S. Chew. Meehan, T. 1853. The American handbook of ornamental trees. Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, and Company. Meehan, T. 1902. Contributions to the life-history of plants, No. XVI. Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 54: 33-36. Michaux, F. A. 1812. Histoire des arbres forestiers de l'Am\u00e9rique septentrionale, consid\u00e9r\u00e9s principalement sous les rapports de leur usages dans les arts et de leur introduction dans le commerce. Paris: L. Haussmann. Nuttall, T. 1842. The North American sylva, or, a description of the forest trees of the United States, Canada, and Nova Scotia, not described in the work of F. Andrew Michaux. Philadelphia: J. Dobson. Pursh, F. 1814. Flora Americae Septentrionalis; or a systematic arrangement and description of the plants of North America (Vol. 2). London: White, Cochrane, and Company. Trelease, W. 1917. Naming American hybrid oaks. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society, 56: 44-52. Andrew Crowl is a postdoctoral associate at Duke University. Ed Bruno recently retired as landscape designer at West Chester University, after a thirty-year career with the school. Andrew Hipp is senior scientist in plant systematics and herbarium curator at the Morton Arboretum. Paul Manos is a professor in the Department of Biology at Duke University. The Bartram oak on the campus of West Chester University retains its claim as a state champion. ED BRUNO"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collector on a Grand Scale: The Horticultural Visions of Henry Francis du Pont","article_sequence":3,"start_page":12,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25703","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270b76b.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wilkie, Carter","article_content":"In 1924, the Arnold Arboretum's first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, named a new hybrid buckeye, Aesculus x dupontii, in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum and praised the tree's namesake, the du Ponts, for making the vicinity of Wilmington, Delaware, \"one of the chief centers of horticulture in the United States.\" The family's fortune had exploded from the manufacture of gunpowder in the nineteenth century and was enriched further by chemicals in the twentieth. The resources the du Ponts dedicated to their landscapes made Delaware's Brandywine Valley a must-see destination for horticulturists who travel there to visit and study at the estates that are open to the public today. Longwood Gardens, just over the Delaware border in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, is the most visited, with its Italianate and French neoclassical fountains, lightshows, and fireworks that elicit audible \"oohs\" and \"ahhs\" from large crowds at all seasons of the year. Its creator, Pierre S. du Pont, was inspired by the spectacle and sense of wonder he experienced, at age six, when he attended the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia in 1876. His grand conservatories of hothouse plants continue to wow his posthumous guests, especially when decorated for Christmas, as does a garden amphitheater that hosts evening concerts and Shakespeare plays performed in a veritable Forest of Arden. Closer to Wilmington, his cousin Alfred I. du Pont spent a large fortune to build Nemours, with gardens modeled after Versailles. And Mt. Cuba, the estate of Lammot du Pont Copeland and his wife, Pamela, would become a display garden and research center for studying the native flora of the Piedmont. Of the estates that earned northern Delaware the sobriquet \"chateau country,\" Henry Francis du Pont's Winterthur Museum and Gardens is the most naturalistic. Home to nearly a thousand acres of rolling meadows, forests, and one of the finest woodland gardens in the world, Winterthur's connections to the Arnold Arboretum are deep. To walk the curving pathways through its woods and fields is to see a landscape shaped by what H. F. du Pont learned in Boston and through collaboration with the Arboretum's collectors and propagators over decades. In an affectionate yet frank book about Winterthur (pronounced \"winter tour,\" meaning \"winter's door\"), H. F. du Pont's daughter Ruth Lord claimed that her father found his life's calling at the Arboretum. As a student in his junior year at Harvard, in 1901, du Pont applied for admission into classes at Harvard's Bussey Institution, one of the first formal university programs to teach horticulture in America. Its mission, according to the Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, was to educate \"young men who intend to become practical farmers, gardeners, florists, or landscape gardeners,\" as well as \"men who will naturally be called upon to manage large estates.\" Young du Pont was destined to become all of those things. But by October, the fall semester had already begun. He was late and had an unimpressive academic transcript. The coursework was rigorous, taught by scientists with little patience for dilettantes. Still, he was admitted with the expectation that he could catch up. He wrote to his mother of his \"sudden resolution \u2026 my great desire to really know something about flowers \u2026 In fact flowers etc. are the only real interests I have.\" He added, \"I do not think I am impulsive I hope not at least. I merely think it is the smouldering [sic] of latent thought which has burst into flame.\" In his first course, Horticulture I, Collector on a Grand Scale: The Horticultural Visions of Henry Francis du Pont Carter Wilkie Facing page: The sweeping and naturalistic landscape of Winterthur Museum and Gardens was shaped by the horticultural vision of Henry Francis du Pont. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS NOTED 14 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 taught by Benjamin Marston Watson, who led Harvard's horticultural instruction program for almost forty years, du Pont received a D-. The student would turn out to be a late bloomer. From that unpromising beginning, H. F. du Pont went on to become one of the most accomplished horticulturists of the twentieth century, a man the Garden Club of America in 1956 designated as perhaps \"the best gardener this country has ever produced\" up until that time. He also served as an important benefactor of the Arboretum and would consult with its staff over the next seven decades. Scion of a Distinguished Family Tree H. F. du Pont (or \"Harry,\" as his family called him) was born in 1880, \"with a silver trowel in his hand.\" He was the son of Henry Algernon du Pont, the richest man in Delaware; grandson of Henry du Pont, the longest-serving chief executive of the E. I. du Pont de Nemours Company; and great-grandson of the company's founder, \u00c9leuth\u00e8re Ir\u00e9n\u00e9e du Pont, who arrived in America with three generations of du Ponts in 1800. E. I. du Pont settled his family and established his powder works on the bank of Delaware's Brandywine River. There, at what he named Eleutherian Mills, he laid out a French parterre, with fruit orchards and potager to feed his family. He imported trees from Europe and instilled in his children and grandchildren a love of horticulture and an interest in agriculture and animal husbandry. E. I. du Pont purchased the first acres of what would become Winterthur with gunpowder profits from the War of 1812. H. F. du Pont's father inherited the property in 1889. By then, Winterthur had sprawled to 1,135 acres. As children, H. F. du Pont and his older sister, Louise, had the run of the outdoors, with farm animals for companions: goats, sheep, poultry, and forty draft horses. In her late seventies, Louise recalled to Winterthur curator John Sweeney how her father drilled into them his interest in botany, and the process of learning through careful observation: \"Father would take Du Pont studied horticulture at Harvard's Bussey Institution, which was located on South Street, adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Henry Francis du Pont and Winterthur 15 Harry and me by the hand and walk through the gardens with us, and if we couldn't identify the flowers and plants by their botanical names, we were sent to bed without our suppers.\" If their father, first in his class at West Point in 1861, was pompous and rigid, their mother, Pauline Foster, was warm and tender. Having lost five of seven children in infancy, she kept her son close and passed on to him her love of flowers that she shared with her mother-in-law, Louisa Gerhard du Pont, and other du Pont relatives. Pauline was the daughter of a gentleman farmer in New York, and she impressed upon her son that Winterthur was not a showplace but a country place, a retreat for repose. H. F. du Pont was shy as child and awkward around peers in his youth (he spoke only French when he first entered school), and he would credit his mother with his lifelong desire to reinforce the feeling of \"great calm and peace\" that Winterthur provided in his anxious childhood. At age thirteen, H. F. du Pont was sent off to boarding school at Groton, Massachusetts. From letters to his parents, he hated being away and consoled himself with visual memories of home. He wrote of his joy at recognizing Winterthur's May-blooming Brandywine bluebells (more commonly known as Virginia bluebells, Mertensia virginica) in Gray's Manual of Botany. When he begged for permission to work in the nurseries of a garden center near the school, du Pont's parents fretted over their son of the manor getting his hands dirty and rubbing elbows with workingmen in Groton. But he had already performed chores for Winterthur's gardeners, who decades later would remark that du Pont could work as hard physically as any paid laborer. Student at the Bussey Institution After entering Harvard in 1899, du Pont reconnected with a childhood acquaintance, Marian Coffin, one of two women enrolled in the new landscape architecture program at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. (Harvard did not admit women at the time.) Coffin's mother and du Pont's mother were close friends. It was Coffin who had urged du Pont to take courses at the Bussey Institution. Together, they studied in the Arboretum under John George Jack and toured Holm Lea, Sargent's 150-acre estate in Brookline, on the north side of Jamaica Pond. There, du Pont expected to find mature trees of enormous size but wrote home with disappointment that he saw only two, although he noted that \"the Magnolias around the pond were in full bloom and magnificent.\" Coffin found in Sargent a mentor who had already taken under his wing the early female pioneer in landscape architecture, Beatrix Jones (Farrand). Coffin's program at MIT, under the direction of Sargent's son-in-law Guy Lowell, emphasized geometric gardens in the neoclassical tradition. Homeschooled before college, Coffin found the heavy math requirement daunting. She credited Sargent with encouraging her to persevere, effectively saving her career at a critical moment of self-doubt. The death of du Pont's mother in his junior year made him return home and spend his senior year helping his father run the household and its staff. After graduating, Coffin and du Pont would tour the great gardens of Europe together, with her mother as chaperone. In an era when few firms would hire a woman landscape designer or have one supervise all-male crews, Coffin struck out on her own. Du Pont, meanwhile, would become a valuable client and steer business her way. He put off planned studies in New York's Hudson Valley, at the School of Practical Agriculture and Horticulture in Briarcliff Manor, and began to apply at Winterthur the knowledge he had acquired at the Bussey Institution, experimenting with plants, observing how they performed, and carrying with him a notebook everywhere he went. He started a trial of fifty-four different daffodils and planted the ones that performed best (Narcissus horsfieldii, N. albicans, and the cultivars 'Golden Spur', 'Grandee,'' and 'Emperor') along the banks of a stream and on hillsides, in large drifts and massed colonies, never mixing them. A Bussey course on hardy herbaceous plant materials had introduced him to the ideas of William Robinson, the evangelist for naturalistic gardens, whose book The Wild Garden, published in 1870, had revolutionized landscape design in Britain. The Irish-born Robinson was an irreverent crusader against Victorian garden contrivances, from the bedding out of 16 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 tender, tropical annuals in temperate climates to the idolatry of faux Italianate ruins. Instead, Robinson advocated for the use of winter-hardy plants and natural-looking gardens \"devoid of any trace of man.\" Valencia Libby, who dug deeply into Winterthur's ties to the Arboretum, unearthed a paper that du Pont wrote at Harvard (about an aunt's estate, Virieux, which bordered Winterthur) that reveals Robinson's strong influence on an impressionable student. Robinson had also influenced Sargent and the Arboretum's original landscape architect, Frederick Law Olmsted. Laconic rather than loquacious, du Pont never articulated his design principles in one comprehensive place for easy retrieval. Scholars have pieced them together from snippets he offered here and there and from the visual evidence he left behind. Above all, he strove to achieve the appearance of nature working effortlessly, with COURTESY OF THE WINTERTHUR LIBRARY: WINTERTHUR ARCHIVES H. F. du Pont relaxes in the Winterthur landscape, in 1904, with Marion Rawson and cousin Elaine Irving. Henry Francis du Pont and Winterthur 17 the garden fitting into the landscape \"as if it has always been there,\" he would say. He told visitors this design effect took a great deal of effort and was \"very hard to do.\" Estate Planner, Arboretum Benefactor In 1909, when du Pont's father gave him control of the estate's grounds and greenhouses, the young horticulturist began acquiring plants with the zeal of an obsessive-compulsive collector on an unlimited budget, planting twenty-nine thousand bulbs that year and thirty-nine thousand the next. He carpeted the ground beneath tulip poplars (Liriodendron tulipifera) with snowdrops (Galanthus), winter aconite (Eranthis hyemalis), glory-of-the-snow (Chionodoxa luciliae), squill (Scilla), snowflake (Leucojum vernum), and crocus (Crocus tomasinianus). In the decades to follow, he would source bulbs, herbaceous perennials, and woody plants from the top breeders and more than fifty nurseries, chief among them the Arnold Arboretum. Over the years, Sargent evolved from du Pont's professor and advisor into a peer and beneficiary. The du Ponts appear in Sargent's annual reports on the Arboretum to Harvard's treasurer beginning in 1915, when du Pont's father, Henry A. du Pont, made a donation to fund annual operating expenses, the equivalent of almost $2,500 today. Sargent, sensing an opportunity to cultivate new patrons to sustain the institution, pursued a personal relationship. He made personal visits to Winterthur, signing its guest book nine times between 1918 and 1923, usually during April, when spring in Wilmington is in full bloom while Boston is still dreary. Sargent already knew Wilmington as the home of the wealthy botanist William Canby, who collected forty-five thousand botanical specimens in his lifetime and had accompanied Sargent and John Muir on a tour of the Appalachians. Sargent grew close to H. A. du Pont, hosting him for personal tours of the Arboretum and the Hunnewell Estate, in Wellesley, where Horatio Hollis Hunnewell had popularized the cultivation of rhododendrons, especially the red torch azalea (Rhododendron kaempferi) that Sargent had brought over from Japan. Both Sargent and H. A. du Pont were veterans of the Civil War and patrician practitioners of noblesse oblige. In the twilight of his life, H. A. du Pont called Sargent his favorite friend. In 1916, H. F. du Pont wed the more outgoing Ruth Wales, who had grown up in New York near his former schoolmate at Groton and Harvard, Franklin D. Roosevelt. The next year, Sargent wrote a letter inviting du Pont, the one-time Bussey student, forty years his junior, to serve on the Arboretum's governing committee, formally called the Harvard Board of Overseers' Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum. \"The committee appointed by the Overseers has been of very great service to me now for many years in aiding [and] \u2026 in raising enough money \u2026 to keep the establishment going, the income from the endowment being inadequate for that purpose,\" Sargent wrote. \"While the Committee has been of great service to the Arboretum in this way I have never gotten any horticultural or other advice from its members, and when I suggested to the overseers to appoint you as a member of the Committee it was with the idea that you should be able to help me horticulturally for in this direction I am left entirely without advice or assistance.\" Du Pont would serve the Arboretum in that capacity for fifty years, until 1968, the year before he died. Over the years, du Pont would rely upon the Arboretum's experts for plant identification and sourcing, consulting its long-time propagator Jackson Dawson, Dawson's successor William Judd, and later director Karl Sax. With the Arboretum dependent on donors for fundraising, Sargent was more solicitous in correspondence than his staff, replying to one of du Pont's inquiries about the fragrant, white-blooming mock orange (Philadelphus) by writing, \"If there is any particular kind you want, we shall be glad to have a plant propagated for you.\" Du Pont would return to the Arboretum again and again, always with a notebook in hand, on frequent visits to see his sister who lived with her husband, Frank Crowninshield, in Boston and Marblehead. After a visit in 1923, du Pont wrote Sargent: \"The only trouble in going to the Arboretum is that I come back fired to possess all kinds of plants which, as you 18 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 know, are unprocurable elsewhere. After going through numberless catalogues I am absolutely stumped by the enclosed list, and I am wondering if little by little you could procure cuttings of these various shrubs, as I should so much like to have them.\" During du Pont's first year on the Overseers' Committee, Henry Hunnewell, son of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, initiated a capital campaign to grow the Arboretum's endowment. Du Pont and his father made gifts equivalent to six figures in today's dollars. Then, in 1918 and 1919, they each provided the Arboretum with its largest annual financial gifts from individuals. The Great War in Europe had been lucrative for the family's munitions business, and their wealth had multiplied thanks to three of du Pont's second cousins (Pierre S., Alfred I., and T. Coleman du Pont) who had taken control of the DuPont company and engineered its expansion into chemicals and a large stake in General Motors. H. F. du Pont would plow his share into developing Winterthur, collecting antiques, and creating a summer place for his wife in Southampton, New York. Woodland Gardener Before the Great War, du Pont and his father visited a conifer forest that was cultivated at the Dropmore estate, in Buckinghamshire, England. The estate dated to the eighteenth century, and some of its coniferous trees had been propagated by seed brought to England by early collectors. The sight of the rare specimens inspired du Pont's father to install a conifer collection at Winterthur. It grew to contain more than fifty different conifers recommended by Sargent and sourced by the Arboretum and thirteen commercial nurseries. Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata), Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), and Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) were among the selections. When laden with freshly fallen snow, Henry Algernon du Pont's dark-green Pinetum becomes Winterthur's own winter's door. While H. A. du Pont installed the Pinetum, his son worked on what would become his crowning outdoor achievement: Azalea Woods. Beginning in early spring and continuing into early summer, eight acres of second-growth tulip poplar, white oaks (Quercus alba), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and hickories (Carya ovata) are brightened, at eye level, with hues of white, pearl, blush, pink, and red. The design was not conceived at once in any grand plan but grew organically, like seeds sprouting in niches of opportunity opened by the demise of Winterthur's American chestnut (Castanea dentata), killed by blight. Among the azaleas H. F. du Pont used were seventeen Kurume hybrid azaleas he purchased during a visit to Cottage Garden Company, on Long Island. The nurseryman Robert Brown had obtained them from Yokohoma Nursery Company, in Japan, which had won a gold medal for showing them at the San Francisco Exposition of 1915. (The Yokohoma nursery had also grown the bonsai collection that Larz Anderson acquired in 1913 and which his widow donated to the Arboretum in 1937.) At Winterthur, du Pont was delighted when the new azaleas bloomed a subtle shade of pink. From these original accessions, Winterthur propagated more until their progeny spread for acres. In 1920, when Sargent wrote to du Pont with excitement about a new azalea introduction that held great promise for the nursery trade (a group of Kurume azaleas that Ernest Henry Wilson had selected from Akashi Kojiro\u00af, a nurseryman in Kurume, Japan), du Pont modestly avoided telling Sargent that he had been working with Kurume hybrids for three years already. From the Arboretum came Hunnewell's Rhododendron kaempferi, and Sargent recommended royal azalea (R. schlippenbachii), praising it as \"the loveliest of the hardy Asiatic Azaleas.\" In the 1930s, du Pont added broadleaved rhododendron hybrids from Charles Dexter of Sandwich, Massachusetts. Today, Winterthur's plant database catalogues thousands of azaleas on the property, representing 252 species and varieties. The collection reaches peak bloom in Wilmington around the same time as Lilac Sunday at the Arboretum (Mother's Day, the second Sunday in May). In bloom, the shrub layer stands out against the tall trunks and their drab bark the way Boston's sleek John Hancock Tower, designed by I. M. Pei's partner Henry Cobb, plays off of the hefty brown masonry of Henry Hobson Richardson's Trinity Church. Without Trinity Church beside Henry Francis du Pont and Winterthur 19 Azalea Woods was one of the first landscapes that du Pont designed at Winterthur. It has proved an enduring masterpiece. it, the modern glass tower could be an unmemorable building in almost any suburban office park. Likewise, without Winterthur's trees rising out of the shrub layer like giant columns, Azalea Woods would be just azaleas, an overscaled, formless mass of color, lacking apparent depth. At the herbaceous layer, du Pont again followed Robinson's ideas and planted great white trillium (Trillium grandiflorum), blue anemone (Anemone apennina), bluebells, bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis), smaller narcissi, and ferns to naturalize in colonies. While novice gardeners can be reluctant to uproot what they install, du Pont was a ruthless editor of his own work. He was a perfectionist about form and color and personally supervised the installation of trees and shrubs. In oral histories, his gardeners recalled how he would have them move a shrub mere inches to site it perfectly. He would have them plant and replant some shrubs five or six times until everything was right. Color dictated what went where. \"For me, color is the thing that really counts more than any other,\" he told an interviewer at age eighty-two. Viewed through a wide-angle lens, du Pont used color to emphasize the movement of bloom sequence, which rolls across the gardens at Winterthur like slow-moving, undulating waves. By grouping flowering shrubs, he strove for harmony of related hues, or complementary 20 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 colors at opposite ends of the color wheel. A signature color combination was mauve against chartreuse, which he produced by coupling two early blooming woody plants: the greenishyellow blooms of winterhazel (Corylopsis glabrescens) with the Korean rosebay rhododendron (Rhododendron mucronulatum). He also brought outdoor colors inside the mansion, decorating rooms with fabrics and cut flowers to reflect what was visible through each window. Guests who arrived at Winterthur for the first time were bowled over by the volume of cut flowers in the public rooms. In the dining rooms, he matched table linens with the flowers and kept more than fifty patterns of china (not place settings but entire sets of china) to do the same with dinnerware. For decades, he kept meticulous notes on every table setting so that returning guests could be served on china they had not seen on previous visits. Collector on a Grand Scale The estate du Pont inherited in 1927, at age forty-six, spread to 2,600 acres. It contained ninety houses for the 250 or so employees working at the estate's mansion, gardens, and farms. The self-supporting community had its own railroad station, post office, a vast complex of twenty greenhouses and potting sheds, cold frames covering an acre, huge livestock barns, a sawmill, tannery, and dairy. Descended from wealthy gentlemen farmers on both \"I like to see the shape and size of big shrubs,\" du Pont would write. Here azalea masses drift beneath conifers at Winterthur Museum and Gardens. Henry Francis du Pont and Winterthur 21 sides of his family, du Pont had been managing all farm operations for thirteen years. On legal documents that asked for his occupation, he sometimes wrote \"farmer.\" He even achieved fame for breeding a champion herd of milking Holstein Friesians, which won top awards from the dairy industry. He raised sheep and poultry, and his daughter remembered how he also loved his pigs. Having full control to shape Winterthur to his liking, one of the first things du Pont altered was his father's Pinetum. To the son, it felt like a collection of specimens arranged artificially, so he naturalized it with quince (Chaenomeles) planted along its broad path, creating his Quince Walk. He gave shrubs room to grow to their natural form. In his single-paragraph foreword for Hal Bruce's 1968 book, Winterthur in Bloom, du Pont echoed Robinson and Sargent, writing, \"I like to see the shape and size of big shrubs; even though they are always part of a group, one has to know when planting just how big and tall the shrubs are going to be.\" Against the dark greens of the conifers he also planted Winterthur's boldest flame azaleas (Rhododendron calendulaceum), which bloom in tangerine, apricot, salmon, and lemon yellow. Later, he added a dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) from the Arboretum. Du Pont then enlarged the big house, which grew to 175 rooms, to accommodate his expanding collection of American antiques. According to his daughter, du Pont's interest in early Americana was sparked by a visit to the Webb estate, in Shelburne, Vermont, in 1923, when he spotted pink Staffordshire china arrayed on a brown pine dresser. Those very pieces are now displayed among the ninety thousand objects of decorative art in Winterthur's collection. A visit that same year to the Gloucester, Massachusetts, home of Henry Davis Sleeper (now owned by Historic New England) inspired du Pont to install period rooms lifted from colonial era houses, as Sleeper had done, and as Ben Perley Poore had done in a haphazard way before at his estate, Indian Hill, in nearby Newburyport. Du Pont's genius as a designer of naturalistic landscapes shows in the way he fit his mansion into the existing topography. He left the north elevation of the existing house at four stories, but on the opposite side, he tucked nine new stories into a steeply sloping hillside that absorbed the height and volume. He also sited the building and new entrances carefully within an envelope of mature oaks, beech, and poplars. The height of the trees, at 150 feet, made the mansion appear less large. From Robinson and Olmsted, he had learned to subordinate built structures to their natural surroundings. As he expanded the house, du Pont hired his friend Marian Coffin to makeover the gardens along its southern shaded slope, which cradles a swimming pool and twin pool houses. The gardens Coffin designed were the most formal at Winterthur, arranged on straight axes punctuated at the ends by semicircles. Her talents complemented his. She architected the skeleton, and he fleshed it out. He outfitted the design with plants, softening her stonework and straight lines with shrubs and understory trees that he allowed to grow naturally, out over the edges. As collaborators, Coffin and du Pont would bounce ideas off one another throughout their lives. Du Pont wrote her playfully during their work on the project, \"I am enclosing a copy of a letter from Mr. E. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum in regard to the Picea asperata notabilis. This is the tree which you wished so ruthlessly to destroy.\" Native to Sichuan, China, dragon spruce (Picea asperata var. notabilis) was described by Wilson and Arboretum taxonomist Alfred Rehder, in 1916, and is considered endangered today. Du Pont weaved Coffin's formal gardens into Winterthur's naturalistic grounds by dissolving boundaries within the landscape. Like Olmsted's design of the Arboretum, there are no obvious seams between garden areas at Winterthur, only gentle transitions. The edge of Azalea Woods dissolves into the meadow beyond it, with shrubs extending out from under trees like an irregular line of troops beginning their advance on an open field. Following Robinson's dictate, Winterthur allows the lower limbs of trees to grow into the ground naturally, eschewing cuts in turf for neatly delineated beds where field and forest meet. Whereas du Pont's cousin Pierre, at Longwood Gardens, had used princess trees (Paulownia tomentosa) to line a formal all\u00e9e to the entrance of his monumental conser22 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 vatories, H. F. du Pont inserted Paulownia into his woodland edge as a transition element, its lavender blossoms catching the eye and leading visitors to the next sequence of seasonal bloom. A large mound of saucer magnolia (Magnolia x soulangeana), planted by du Pont's father in 1880, the year du Pont was born, carries the spring bloom into fields of grass, as do two large Sargent cherries (Prunus sargentii) beyond them, gifts to Winterthur from Sargent in 1918. Nearby, du Pont collaborated with Coffin again to create an April-blooming garden of fragrant ornamental trees and shrubs, many of which came from the Arboretum through its Cooperative Nurserymen program. Planner for Posterity In 1930, as du Pont's sister, Louise, planned for the future of Eleutherian Mills, the family's restored ancestral home, H. F. du Pont established a nonprofit entity charged with maintaining Winterthur in perpetuity as \"a museum and arboretum for the education and enjoyment of the public.\" The museum opened to the public in 1951, when du Pont relinquished responsibility for it to professional staff. He continued to oversee the gardens and farmland, calling himself head gardener. As he grew older, du Pont became more impish in the garden. He relaxed his highbrow standards of what constituted good taste. Before mod fashion in the 1960s made pink and orange a popular color combination, he inserted salmon blooming azaleas as accents into his Azalea Woods and placed bold, red-blooming azaleas next to lavender ones to \"chic it up,\" in his words. Coffin praised what she called his \"near discords\" of color. Tossing aside rules he learned about cool, pastel subtlety from the teachings of Gertrude Jekyll, he installed a In 1929, du Pont commissioned his friend Marian Coffin to redesign the south-facing slope below his mansion. Du Pont softened the formal lines with masses of shrubs. Henry Francis du Pont and Winterthur 23 carnival of hot colors in his summer Quarry Garden using primroses (Primula). Gordon Tyrell, who worked closely with du Pont in the garden, confided in a colleague, \"He was mixing colors. I know he did it intentionally, but they were beginning to yell. There were lavenders and mauves and reds. It wasn't offensive, but I think it was a little joke of his really. And I said, 'You can't do this.' And he said, 'I'm doing it.' And he did it.\" Although du Pont loosened Jekyll's tether on color, the aging gardener remained devoted to William Robinson's naturalistic aesthetic into the ninth and final decade of his life. When he hired architects to design a pavilion that became Winterthur's visitor center, he told them, \"Make it look like it isn't there.\" Tucked within his woodland, the modernist building is the color of bark, and its glass exterior walls reflect the foliage around it, camouflaging its mass. The approach road to the visitor center follows swales around hills, through open meadows. He had the road sunken below sightlines so as not to mar the views. Coffin liked to tell prospective clients that great gardens require three things: money, manure, and maintenance. Winterthur had all three in abundance. After du Pont's death in 1969, his endowment supplied the money, but the manure had to come from elsewhere. His will stipulated that his livestock operations be liquidated upon his death, to focus resources on the museum. Because du Pont oversaw and financed the gardens until he died, it took the institution two decades to formalize a Garden Department to preserve his landscape design intent. By then, his naturalistic garden was overgrown. Three years were spent assessing what was there and culling what shouldn't be, including forty truckloads of branches pruned from Azalea Woods. In the Pinetum, a mature Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica 'Glauca') was pruned at its base to reopen the circular seating area and sightlines around it. The spot reminds a visitor of the vantage point atop the Arboretum's Bussey Hill Overlook, where puddingstone boulders in the ground encircle the base of a large eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) and Japanese white pines (Pinus parviflora). At Winterthur, Sargent's role in shaping the Pinetum is memorialized on a plaque. Decades before, when du Pont planted bulbs by the tens of thousands, he wrote to Coffin that no mere mortal could do what he wanted done at Winterthur. And he was right. What makes Winterthur unique in America is its scale\u2014the product of vast wealth, space, and time. Few landscapes in the new world are the work of generations of a single family, let alone one man's lifetime of eighty-nine years. Today, Winterthur fulfills Henry Francis du Pont's wish \"that the museum will be a continuing source of inspiration and education for all time, and that the gardens and grounds will of themselves be a country place museum where visitors may enjoy as I have, not only the flowers, trees and shrubs, but also the sunlit meadows, shady wood paths, and the peace and great calm of a country place which has been loved and taken care of for three generations.\" References Bruce, H. 1968. Winterthur in Bloom: Winter, Spring, Summer, Autumn. New York: Chanticleer. Cantor, J. 1997. Winterthur. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Fleming, N. 1995. Money, Manure & Maintenance. Weston: Country Place Books. Libby, V. 1984. Henry Francis du Pont and the Early Development of Winterthur Gardens, 1880- 1927. Master's Thesis for the Longwood Graduate Program in Public Horticulture, The University of Delaware. Lord, R. 1999. Henry F. du Pont and Winterthur: A Daughter's Portrait. New Haven: Yale University Press. Mangani, D., et al. 1995. The Winterthur Garden: Henry F. du Pont's Romance with the Land. New York: Harry N. Abrams. Robinson, W. 1870. The Wild Garden: Or, Our Groves and Shrubberies Made Beautiful By The Naturalization Of Hardy Exotic Plants. London: John Murray. (Also, an expanded edition with new chapters and photography by Rick Darke. 2009. The Wild Garden: Expanded Edition. London: Timber Press.) Carter Wilkie grew up near Winterthur, where his mother took him on frequent visits and would quiz him to identify plants she had pointed out on previous walks. For thirty years, he has resided within a short walk of the Arboretum, where he can be spotted reading tags on trees. This article is based on a talk he gave to the local garden club in Roslindale in March 2018."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Eternal Forests: The Veneration of Old Trees in Japan","article_sequence":4,"start_page":24,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25704","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270bb6e.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Moore, Glenn; Atherton, Cassandra","article_content":"The accounts of foreign visitors who began arriving in Japan after the Meiji Revolution, in 1868, show that the newcomers were intrigued by the Japanese relationship with trees. Sacred trees were noted as important features around shrines. Old trees were marveled over, especially given the affectionate care the trees received, as were the miniature bonsai that could be hundreds of years old and require daily tending. But the visitors focused especially on the cherry trees (Prunus serrulata) and their brief but spectacular show of blossoms. Writer Lafcadio Hearn was no exception, and he recorded fables like \"The Cherry Tree of the Sixteenth Day\" in his classic book Kwaidan, published in 1904.1 Tourists today have the same focus, resulting in the peak season for tourism to Japan happening in early April, when the cherry trees are in bloom. Massed blossoms are the perfect photo opportunity\u2014they accounted for a massive twenty-nine million Instagram posts in 2018\u2014and the cherry-blossom-viewing ritual, known as hanami, is an attraction in itself. The ritual involves siting on blue tarpaulins beneath the trees and drinking sake while the fragile blossoms fall. This is promoted to tourists as indicative of a society whose people accept \"the fleeting nature of life.\"2 Although the symbolism of the cherry blossom certainly seems to fit with a nation Eternal Forests: The Veneration of Old Trees in Japan Glenn Moore and Cassandra Atherton Old Trees in Japan 25 Facing page: Branches of old Japanese red pines (Pinus densiflora) are supported with props in a Kyoto park. PHOTO BY STEPHEN SCHNEIDER that has endured earthquakes, tsunamis, and typhoons, hanami is just a small part of how trees fit into traditional Japanese culture. This relationship is rooted in Japanese history, folklore, and religion. Trees and nature are central to Shinto, a religion that originated in Japan, which holds that spirits inhabit trees that reach one hundred years of age. These tree spirits are known as kodama, and according to Japanese folklore, the kodama give the tree a personality. 3 Accordingly, in premodern Japan, old trees were regarded with awe and a degree of caution. In fact, they were marked with a sacred rope called a shimenawa, warning that if anyone chopped down the tree, they would have to deal with an angry spirit. Although it seems unlikely that these folkloric beliefs could survive in modern, urbanized Japan, they proved surprisingly adaptable. The idea of tree spirits was kept alive in storybooks and anime (most notably the Hayao Miyazaki film Princess Mononoke), and belief in the presence of kodama in old trees continues. So, while it might be more accurate to say that many of today's Tokyoites are likely to think in terms of old trees having admirable qualities rather than personalities, they nevertheless respect the trees for their age and resilience, and can be seen paying homage to them at shrines and in parks, or simply spending time in their presence as an antidote to the stress of modern life. Eternal Forest in Tokyo Tokyo is a modern city, and to a visitor, its residents seem totally immersed in their busy, modern lives. Salarymen dressed in suits and ties rush from train stations to their offices; young people sit in coffee shops engrossed in their phones; and people shop in gleaming department stores. It is easy to lose sight of the fact that Japanese traditions and myths persist behind what writer and cultural historian Boy\u00e9 De Mente refers to as a \"Western fa\u00e7ade.\"4 While not everyone today believes in the ancient myths in a literal sense, Shinto master Motohisa Yamakage has described how myths and related Shinto beliefs are still woven into the fabric of everyday Japanese life.5 For example, construction crews typically wait for a Shinto priest to purify a new worksite; major league baseball teams like the Hiroshima Carp receive a Shinto blessing before spring training; and almost everyone visits one of Japan's eighty thousand Shinto shrines on ceremonial occasions. It is during these shrine visits that the role played by trees in connecting people with the nation's mythic past becomes apparent. Meiji Jingu\u00af , a shrine in Tokyo, is not old by Japanese standards. It was completed in 1920 to honor Emperor Meiji and Empress Sho\u00afken. All Shinto shrines are surrounded by trees, which are thought to provide a conduit to the gods. While these shrine forests, or chinju no mori, are ideally \"old primeval forests,\" providing a living link to \"the ancient age of myths,\"6 everything at Meiji Jingu\u00af had to be planted from scratch, which required a staggering one hundred thousand trees. The long-term goal was to create an \"eternal forest\" dominated by long-lived trees like zelkova (Zelkova serrata) and ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), but because of the more immediate need to have a forest with an atmosphere appropriate for a shrine, a 150-year program was devised, whereby fastgrowing trees\u2014most notably Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), Japanese cryptomeria (Cryptomeria japonica), and two species of pine (Pinus densiflora and P. thunbergii)\u2014provided at least the appearance of a chinju no mori before the slower-growing, broadleaf species gradually took over.7 Even with fifty of the 150-year program remaining, the Meiji Jingu\u00af forest has begun to feel old. It attracts ten million visitors every year, with three million coming in the three days after the New Year to pray. Wishes for the coming year are written on wooden tablets called ema, and these are left at the foot of a camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora), which is believed to transmit the wishes to the deified emperor and empress. Visitors repay the trees with affection and respect, and the shrine's tree-viewing etiquette is rigidly adhered to. As soon as visitors pass through the ceremonial wooden torii (gate) they are in sacred space, and a quiet, respectful demeanor is assumed. No one leaves the paths to walk on the forest floor; no one picks leaves or seeds from a tree; and no 26 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 one removes anything from the forest\u2014even fallen leaves are left on the ground. Fabled Trees of Tokyo The desire to connect with Japan's spiritual and mythic past is accompanied by a strong feeling of connectedness with the nation's history. As a result, a number of Tokyo parks and gardens with old trees that have witnessed the city's history unfold have been given status as national monuments and historical landmarks. One of the most popular of Tokyo's historic landmark parks is the Institute for Nature Study, a 49-acre (20-hectare) forest that doubles as a research facility and a green oasis for the people of Tokyo. The Institute for Nature Study was once the feudal estate of the Matsudaira, a samurai clan related to the shogun (the military ruler of Japan). The star attraction is the Fabled Pine, an enormous Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii) that was part of the Matsudaira garden in the early 1600s. People typically bow before the old tree, which provides a living link to this emblematic era of Japanese culture\u2014a symbol of cultural continuity. The Fabled Pine also offers a reassuring example of resilience. The old tree's never-say-die spirit was underscored when the second-oldest tree in the Institute for Nature Study forest, a Japanese black pine known as the Ancient Pine, was toppled by a typhoon in October 2019. The fact that the Fabled Pine survived when even its venerable neighbor succumbed has only added to its mystique. Indeed, many of the visitors who stream up to the tree every day would be aware that the tree had survived a long list of disasters that began with the Great Fire of Meireki, in 1657. That fire burned 70 percent of the city and took over one hundred thousand lives\u2014far more destructive and deadly than the Great Fire of London, nine years later. Earthquakes were also a constant threat. Major quakes hit the city A ceremonial torii leads into the Meiji Jingu\u00af forest. STEPHEN SCHNEIDER Old Trees in Japan 27 in 1703, 1855, and 1894; then in 1923, the biggest of them all, the Great Kanto\u00af Earthquake, flattened most of the city. During World War II, Tokyo was spared the horror of the atomic bomb, but the city's trees were decimated by the relentless American firebombing.8 The chances of any tree surviving this litany of disasters is illustrated by the fact that of the twenty thousand trees in Shinjuku Gyoen, one of Tokyo's largest parks, only two, a 150-yearold magnolia (Magnolia denudata) and a 400-year-old zelkova (Zelkova serrata), are over one hundred years old. The zelkova\u2014the star attraction\u2014is showing signs of age. Its trunk was severed about ten feet from the ground, and new branches poke through a protective coat that was wrapped around the trunk to nurse the tree back to health. On face value, a tree that needs to be nursed back to health is an unlikely symbol of resilience, but as J. W. T. Mason has explained, according to Japanese tradition, great age and \"special hardihood\" are evidence of a tree's \"vital powers.\"9 The broken trunk and protective coat emphasize the battles the tree has fought, and give heart to residents of Tokyo that they can cope with the stresses and strains of their daily commute, long working hours, or, if they are young, looming exams. Survivor Trees of Hiroshima Never was Japanese resilience tested more than in the aftermath of the atomic bomb dropped on Hiroshima, in 1945. The bomb blast and resulting fires killed 140,000 people and destroyed all but a few buildings within an approximately 1.2-mile (2-kilometer) radius of the hypocenter. Survivors then began experiencing radiation sickness, resulting in death from cancer. At first it seemed as though the city's trees were following a similar trajectory. Most were instantly torn out of the ground or had their trunks snapped in half. The few trees left A prominent zelkova (Zelkova serrata) at Shinjuku Gyoen is more than four hundred years old. GLENN MOORE 28 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 standing were seared by a blast of heat so intense that a streetcar over a half mile (900 meters) from the hypocenter was completely oxidized. As one city administrator put it, the bomb had reduced the city to \"an ashen coloured wasteland bereft of all green.\"10 The fear was that nothing would grow in the radiation-affected soil for seventy-five years. Not surprisingly, residents were resigned to abandoning the city, when, almost miraculously, green shoots began emerging from some of the blackened, charred branches. A few trees, so burned and broken that they had no viable branches left, somehow managed to sprout new shoots out of their blackened stumps. A weeping willow (Salix babylonica), merely 0.2 miles (370 meters) from the hypocenter, was completely felled by the blast but managed to send up new shoots directly from its roots. In all, 170 trees regrew after the blast. Hibakusha (people who survived the bomb) have given testimony that the resilience shown by the hibaku jumoku (survivor trees) helped convince them that life could return to the city. Akio Nishikori was a second grader when the bomb fell. \"We were told nothing would grow for seventy-five years,\" he recalled. \"However, trees put out new shoots! Everyone was really moved to see the green leaves. These trees were the first to encourage humans [to rebuild.]\"11 In 1946, governor Kusunose Tsunei enlisted six community representatives to help him formulate a plan for restoring the city. As a city administrator explained, the consensus was not to \"create everything anew.\" Rather, the aim was to restore the \"social functions, culture, and traditions that had existed in the Hiroshima communities before the bombing.\"12 This meant many things. Hiroshima Castle, flattened by the bomb, was rebuilt. Hondo\u00afri, the city's ornate shopping arcade, was restored to its former glory. But most importantly, Kusunose's panel was adamant that \"many trees should be replanted in the city.\"13 It was no small task to grow trees in soil that had been burned by a nuclear blast and that was laced with rubble and debris, but today Hiroshima is a green city. Trees growing in parks and along rivers and roads give Hiroshima the look and feel it had before the war. The survivor trees provided living links to that prewar period, and the city was effectively rebuilt around them. Commemorative plaques were installed, and the trees have been preserved and tended into old age, even in cases when it might have been more convenient to remove them. A fine example of this respect is an old ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) that, before the bomb was dropped, stood on the grounds of the Hosenbo Temple. The temple was levelled by the blast, and the head priest and his family were killed. The ginkgo had branches torn off and was badly burned, but it survived. When rebuilding began in 1994, the priests realized that the ginkgo, now a very large tree, would have to be removed to accommodate the architectural plans. Not willing to cut down a tree that had displayed such courage, they asked the architect to alter the plans, so that the temple could be built around it, preserving the tree as a symbol of resilience and continuity. Walking among Old Trees In 1982, Tomohide Akiyama, director of the Japanese Ministry of Forestry and Fisheries, coined a new term: shinrin-yoku (forest bathing.) 14 In fact, although it was a new word, the idea was connected to the very old Japanese notion that being among trees was good for health. In time the idea would become mainstream, with books written about how to get the most out of forest bathing and with one thousand government-accredited Official Recreation Forests now including shinrin-yoku trails. But when Akiyama coined the term, in 1982, he was also responding to a growing unease about the shift from agrarian to urban lifestyles, and the stress of modern life. By the 1980s, 80 percent of the Japanese population was concentrated in cities, seemingly far removed from nature. Long commutes, even longer workdays, and the constant pressure of not making a mistake would lead to Japan becoming recognized as the most sleep-deprived country on earth. There is even a Japanese word\u2014karoshi\u2014for the concept of death by overwork.15 Initially, there was no scientific basis for Akiyama's assertion that \"being in the forest makes our bodies healthy,\" but there was a sense that the idea was at least plausible.16 Chiba Old Trees in Japan 29 University horticulture professor Yoshifumi Miyazaki, who would later conduct studies on the value of shinrin-yoku, described this prevailing sentiment: \"The practice of walking slowly through the woods, in no hurry,\" made \"intuitive\" sense to the Japanese.17 This intuition was partly rooted in knowing how much better it was to smell pine trees instead of car fumes, or to hear birds instead of harsh city noises, but at a spiritual level, it was also connected to the deep traditions associated with trees. As Shinto Studies professor Sadasumi Motegi put it, shrine forests and parks with old trees \"are places that remind one of distant, ancient times. This is where the voices of the gods (kamigami) sound in your ears. This is where our ancestors lived, humbly, in harmony with nature.\"18 In 1990, in a study funded by the Japanese national broadcaster NHK, Miyazaki set out to test whether the spiritual benefits of reconnecting with nature were matched by medical benefits. To that end, he monitored the effects of walking through a forest on stress hormone levels in the human body. The findings were promising but inconclusive. Subsequently, he received a large government-funded grant allowing him to conduct more detailed studies. These studies have shown that there are not only emotional benefits from spending time in a forest but also measurable physiological benefits. For instance, office workers with stress-related high blood pressure had their levels lowered after spending six hours in an old growth forest. But the truly remarkable thing was that those with low blood pressure had their levels raised.19 In effect, forest bathing, or shinrin-yoku, restores the balance that is so hard to achieve in modern life. While science has supported the effectiveness of shinrin-yoku, the spiritual element involved has made it harder to explain in scientific terms how it works. As Miyazaki conceded in 2018, \"we need to do more research.\" What is known, however, is that it works best in an unspoiled forest setting, pristine enough for moss to grow freely, and where old trees live. Moreover, shinrin-yoku requires intentionality to work GLENN MOORE GLENN MOORE A weeping willow (Salix babylonica, left) was among the 170 trees that survived the atomic bombing of Hiroshima, as was a ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) at the Hosenbo Temple. correctly. As Qing Li, the chairman of the Japanese Society of Forest Medicine, cautioned, \"This is not exercise or hiking, or jogging. It is simply being in nature, connecting with it through our sense of sight, hearing taste, smell and touch.\"20 In other words, forest bathers should proceed at the same sedate pace and with the same quiet, respectful attitude as when they visit a shrine forest. Bridging Past and Present Japanese city parks all at least aspire to a natural, unspoiled look, and many contain astoundingly old trees. This design intention is evident, even to a traveler, looking for cherry blossoms. Flower beds, a staple of parks in Western cities, are rare, and any lawns come with rules prohibiting ball games, music, or other activities that would shatter the serenity. Jogging is rarely permitted. When the Fabled Pine at the Institute for Nature Study, in Tokyo, was first planted under the auspices of the Matsudaira clan, more than four hundred years ago, the residents of the estate could never have imagined modern cities like Tokyo or Hiroshima. However, one thing they would find comfortingly familiar is the sustained relationship with trees. Shrine trees are still sacred. And old trees are still revered for their resilience, and they still provide a bridge back to the past\u2014indeed, even to the Matsudaira clan itself. As visitors at the Institute for Nature Study walk along the narrow path that wends through the trees, around ponds and over creeks, the city Shinrin-yoku paths wind through the landscape at the Institute of Nature Study in Tokyo. GLENN MOORE seems a million miles away. It was as if the park was designed specifically with shinrin-yoku in mind. The older trees are not, as in many parks, \"features,\" standing unnaturally apart from the rest of the plants. Instead they rise through a bed of saplings and bushes. Moss covers everything, underscoring the sense that the trees are growing in a pure, natural environment. Although Tokyo has changed so much over the last four hundred years, the Matsudaira clan would surely recognize the thinking behind shinrin-yoku, namely that spending time with trees is a life-giving activity. Endnotes 1 Hearn, L. 1904. Kwaidan: Stories and studies of strange things in Japan. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 139-141. 2 Ishikura, Y. 2019, April 3. Hanami a reminder of life's fleeting nature. Japan Times. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/opinion\/2019\/04\/03\/ commentary\/japan-commentary\/hanami-reminderlifes- fleeting-nature 3 Shirane, H. 2013. Japan and the culture of the four seasons: Nature, literature, and the arts. New York: Columbia University Press, 128. Note: According to Shirane, farmers believed that trees had emotions, and a tree would scream or groan when it was cut. 4 De Mente, B. 2018. Japan: A guide to traditions, customs, and etiquette. Tokyo: Tuttle, 10. (Original work published as Kata: The key to understanding & dealing with the Japanese, 2003). 5 Yamakage, M. 2006. The essence of Shinto: Japan's spiritual heart. Tokyo: Kodansha International, 11. See also: Hardacre, H. 2017. Shinto: A history. New York: Oxford University Press, 16. 6 Rots, A. 2017. Shinto, nature and ideology in contemporary Japan: Making sacred forests. London: Bloomsbury, 85. 7 Matsui, T. 1996. Meiji Shrine: An early old-growth forest creation in Tokyo. Restoration and Management Notes, 14(1): 46-52. See also: Saigusa, N. 2005, November. A 150 year-project: Meiji Shrine forest in central Tokyo. Japan For Sustainability Newsletter, no. 39. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.japanfs.org\/en\/ news\/archives\/news_id027807.html. 8 Cheng, S. and McBride, J. 2014. Restoration of the urban forests of Tokyo and Hiroshima following World War II. In K. Tidball and M. Krasny (Eds.), Greening in the red zone: Disaster, resilience and community greening. New York: Springer Books, 225. Note: Ironically, because records were destroyed in the fire-bombing, the exact number of trees lost from parks and gardens is unavailable. However, it is known that over sixty thousand street trees were destroyed in the war. 9 Mason, J. W. T. 2002. The meaning of Shinto. Victoria, Canada: Trafford, 75. (Original work published 1935.) 10 City of Hiroshima. (n. d.) A history of Hiroshima's greenery. Retrieved February 6, 2020, from http:\/\/www. city.hiroshima.lg.jp\/www\/contents\/1274090206341\/ index.html 11 Green Legacy Hiroshima. (n. d.) An introductory video [Video file in Japanese, with English subtitles]. Retrieved from http:\/\/glh.unitar.org\/ 12 Hiroshima for Global Peace Plan Joint Project Executive Committee. 2015 Hiroshima's path to reconstruction. Hiroshima: Rijo Printing, 24. 13 Kosakai, Y. 2009. Hiroshima peace reader. Hiroshima: Hiroshima Peace Culture Foundation, 18-19. 14 Miyazaki, Y. 2018. Shinrin-yoku: The Japanese way of forest bathing for health and relaxation. London: Hachette, 10-24. 15 Hoffman, M. 2018, September 8. Japan loses sleep over a variety of modern-day issues. Japan Times. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.japantimes.co.jp\/news\/2018\/09\/08\/ national\/media-national\/japan-loses-sleep-varietymodern- day-issues. Note: A 2016 survey ranked Japan last out of one hundred nations in terms of hours slept per night. Half of Japanese workers get less than six hours sleep a night. 16 Hendy, A. 2018, June 4. The call of the wild: Forest bathing and urban greening. The Japan Journal Online. Retrieved from https:\/\/www.japanjournal.jp\/science\/ environment\/pt20180604165729.html 17 Miyazaki, 9. 18 Rots, 85. 19 Miyazaki, 24. Note: for an example of a recent study on the effect of shinrin-yoku, see: Song, I. and Miyazaki, Y. 2017. Sustained effects of a forest therapy program on the blood pressure of office workers. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening, 27: 246-252. 20 Li, Q. 2018. Into the forest: How trees can help you find health and happiness. London: Penguin Random House, 12. Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the staff at the Management Office of the Shinjuku Gyoen for their help and advice. Glenn Moore taught for many years at the University of Melbourne. He now works for the Japanese national broadcaster Nippon Hoso Kyokai (NHK). Cassandra Atherton is an associate professor in Writing and Literature at Deakin University. Old Trees in Japan 31"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Each Year in the Forest: Spring","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25705","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d2708126.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hipp, Andrew L.","article_content":"Each Year in the Forest: Spring Andrew L. Hipp Illustrated by Rachel D. Davis I I spend the last weeks of each February brushing leaves aside, anticipating spring shoots. The first I find is often false mermaid, born beneath the maple litter. Its three-lobed leaves fold over themselves like the fingers of a glove. The fleshy cotyledons, newly hatched from the seed, are embedded a millimeter or two below the surface of the soil, soft and green on their inner surfaces, roughened on the backs where the clay and sand cling. The roots are spidery and translucent, barely a fifth of the height of the plant. The long petiole is ghostly white at the base and striated with elongating cells. It gradually darkens to a pale green just below the leaf blade, while the rest of the plant unrolls at the base. Once the false mermaid is out, I know all hell is about to break loose in the understory. Soon wild leeks prickle from the soil's surface, pale at the tips with crimson sheaths. Cut-leaved toothwort arches as it extracts its inflorescence from the soil. Its leaves are feathery and purple. Spring beauty reclines beneath the duff accumulated at the bases of the tree trunks or matted on the forest floor, fragile white stems spreading into green, strap-like, delicious leaves that Colony of Wild Leeks Forest: Spring 33 have not yet become bitter. Some of the spring beauty grow so far in search of light that their stems become threadlike. Bullet-shaped mayapple shoot-tips cluster at the bases of the oaks, each tip a half-inch high, clothed in white scales, like a goblin's fingertips. Wood violet rhizomes squeeze out infinitesimal soft green leaves. Rain buries the rhizomes in floods of soil and washes them downslope. Still they continue to grow. Mosses green up on decomposing logs and on soil that was sterilized by the burning of cut buckthorn in previous years. The mosses form a bed for flowering plant seedlings and a barrier between spongy, rotting wood and the desiccating air.* Mats of wavy starburst moss bristle with sporophytes, capsules at the tips of the filaments popping open to release a little dust storm of spores when I brush them. The spores float off and settle onto nearby plants and logs. Sporophytes wearing slender hoods emerge from a tussock of baby tooth moss, resembling bristles on a hairbrush. The leaves are as thin as the pages of a Bible, with the smallest possible teeth on the margins. Over the next few days, the capsules begin to swell and bend, and soon they are nearly perpendicular to the sporophyte stalks. The hoods split along the side. Within two or three weeks, they will be fully reflexed. They produce spores before most flowering plants in the woods start exchanging pollen. Evergreen leaves that have been working all through the winter give way. White bear sedge sends up blue-green shoots from broad-leaved, leathery rosettes. Pennsylvania sedge produces slender tillers, and even the leaves that overwintered brighten up. Winter leaves of white avens and strawberry and hepatica continue photosynthesizing as they pass the baton to the young leaves, which emerge as wrinkled as newborns, readying themselves to become next year's evergreen foliage. False Mermaid Baby Tooth Moss Bristling with Sporophytes 34 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 Infant soil centipedes curl on red oak chips that are decomposing in beds of earthworm castings. Chorus frogs sing and then retreat as the temperature swings. Spring peepers awaken and accompany me on my morning walks with strident, individual squeaks. I follow them into a weedy marsh, and suddenly I am in a fog of peepers blasting away, chorus frogs creaking behind them, but not a one to be seen. As I walk away, their calls attenuate, and in two hundred feet I no longer hear them. It is this way with peepers: a person could go through an entire spring within a quarter mile of a pond of peepers awakening and wooing in springtime and never know they were there. II That was the first week of March. Soon, wild garlic sprouts from gravelly roadsides and trail edges, slender as grass. Scales loosen on the flower buds of silver maples growing along city streets and creeks. The scale margins whiten with hairs, then the buds open and spill out a handful of stamens or dark-red, tentacular paired styles. Hazelnut catkins descend and are at first stiff, then looser a few days later, bracts cupped like umbrellas over the anthers balled up inside. Then they relax just a bit more and the anthers open. I cannot resist tapping the catkins growing together on a shrub, making them wobble like rows of prayer wheels and release clouds of pollen. Male woodcocks skate through early March mornings, peenting in openings in the grasslands before soaring overhead, making a distinctive kissing sound White Bear Sedge Pennsylvania Sedge Forest: Spring 35 when they reach the top of their aerial dance. On my bike ride into work at the Morton Arboretum, in the western suburbs of Chicago, I often hear the woodcocks spinning over the arboretum's easternmost marshes and fields as I unlock the gate. It is still dark out, and they are flying high overhead before they drop onto gravel roads, openings in the marshes, or mown fields around the cultivated collections. When I hear one calling from the ground, I will sometimes wait for the flight upward, then race to where he was. Almost invariably he drops down too far away, and I don't find him. Once last spring I succeeded in seeing one drop back and resume his dance. He barely lifted his chin when he called. After each \"peent,\" he paused and did a head-nodding shuffle forward and then backward before calling again. He seemed to wait for a response each time, shuffling as though in anticipation of the next call, a restless suitor. He called about five times before growing silent and then abruptly flying off to circle overhead. We'll have a few weeks of dancing woodcocks before they grow quiet and a portion of the flock moves farther north. We'll see them again on their way back through in the fall. Flocks of juncos buzz and pop in the shrubs, tails flashing as they whip back and forth over the trail. Last year's stump puffballs show up crushed against logs, and expired earthstar fungi nest in the wood chips. White ice fills ephemeral pools like congealed clouds on days when the temperatures rise to 50\u00b0F (10\u00b0C). The ice then melts outward from the maples and elms that perforate the pools, until the water is wide open, with only a glaze of clear ice returning on late-March mornings when temperatures dip below freezing. False mermaid, now a few inches tall, bunches up in openings in the oak leaves. Bluebirds perch on the lateral branches of bur oaks and scan the thawing turf for insects. Eastern phoebes return. One day, near the end of the month, I hear the protracted bubbling song of the winter wren. It stops for a few seconds, then starts again, five seconds of a complex line. The song twists around tree trunks and lichen-covered branches that were knocked to the ground by winter storms. I follow it and, if I am lucky, find the wren picking its way among mosses and scraps of soft wood, from one end of a rotten log to the other. A flock of American robins spreads out across the forest floor, solitary birds flipping leaves over one by one, looking for millipedes and pillbugs. It will be completely silent except for an occasional chuckle from the robins and the sound of leaves rustling, which might be the wind's doing if it were not the robins'. III Early April stammers as temperatures drop. This is the lull before the pandemonium of spring wildflowers. False mermaid is widespread, but not thick anywhere. It bolts, overtops the mottled sheets of oak and sugar maple leaves, and spreads across the bare soil of ephemeral watercourses. A week later, it carpets the woods. Spring beauty sprawls beneath the oaks, flower petals streaked with pink. Bloodroot flowers emerge, stalks wrapped in the solitary leaf. Rain a few 36 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 days later knocks their petals to the ground. Jewelweed cotyledons pop out on bare upland soil and floodplains, each the size of a nickel, fleshy and bitter. The lavender flowers of hepatica arise beside its light-green, rubbery new leaves, often at the bases of oaks where the plants are protected and where they can soak up rain that flows down furrows of the bark. The white flowers of false rue anemone pool in colonies scattered throughout the woods. One morning, on my bike ride into work, I find the field sparrows have started claiming territory. Their bouncing song rings through the woods for a minute before I reach a field embedded in the woods. Chipping sparrows trill and harvest insects from the swelling oak buds. Tree swallows patrol the birdhouses. Ruby-crowned kinglets flit in the lower areas of the woods, moving continuously, singing an uncontainable song that breaks open and spills through the leaves around me. Chorus frogs and spring peepers are exuberant and everywhere. I park my bike and walk in, and when I pause to list the birds I've been hearing, the first tick of the season crawls across my notebook. Mourning cloak butterflies come out from beneath panels of tree bark where they have slept out the winter. Bumblebees and painted ladies cross the trail. Then a late-season snowfall buries the wildflowers. Mayapples huddle in bunches against the snow, like passengers waiting for the bus in a blizzard, False Rue Anemone Jack-in-the-Pulpit Forest: Spring 37 leaves tucked tightly under their chins. Spring beauty in full flower reclines against a log where it is protected from the drifts. Wild leeks and Virginia bluebells are rigid, frozen in mid-expansion, figures in a wax museum. Then the next morning it is 60\u00b0F (15\u00b0C), and the snow melts away. By mid to late April, Dutchman's breeches forms puddles of foliage on slopes and disturbed trail margins. Its flowers school above the leaves. When the plants first emerged in early March, I hardly noticed them, flower buds condensed like frog eggs on the translucent scapes. Now, the white flowers mature from bottom to top, petals stretched back into deep spurs, stigmas arched at the snout. Jack-in-the-pulpit spears upward through the foliage before it grows tall enough to spread its wings. Soon it sends up a slender, fleshy inflorescence axis packed densely with pistillate or staminate flowers that I only see by carefully peeling back the hood. Wild ginger leaves appear at the tips of the rhizomes, folded over one another as they emerge, light green and hairy among trampled dead maple leaves. They spread open as soon as their blades are free of the earth, then lie back to sop up the sun. Jewelweed cotyledons I noticed in early March give way to scallop-margined foliage. And leaves begin to come out on the trees, unfurling like wet handkerchiefs on sugar maple seedlings and dripping from the tips of the hackberry branches. False mermaid has grown lanky. One day I notice its three diminutive petals, about two-thirds as long as the green sepals that alternate between them. They form a crown around three or six stamens, tipped with yellow anthers, and two or three prickly ovaries. The flowers, like the plants themselves, are easy to miss if you are not watching closely, and I sometimes miss their opening. If I have been particularly inattentive, the ovaries may already be swelling by the time I first see the flowers. The first plant I watched for in February does not flower until the spring ephemerals\u2014toothwort, spring beauty, Virginia bluebells\u2014 are already in full bloom. IV Yellow-rumped warblers appear near the middle or end of April with little warning. I typically hear them before I see them, singing from high in the canopy, and I struggle to remember whose song it is until I see the warblers stalking among the branches or catching flies midair. I will perhaps have already noticed blue-gray gnatcatchers bizzing and wheezing along the tree branches. Soon after, black-throated green warblers show up in the neighborhood, singing in the highest tree branches on our street as they warm up in the mornings. I know we are in the thick of warbler migration when I hear the lazy \"bee-buzz\" of the blue-winged warblers coming from trees along the edges of fields. Ovenbirds call insistently from the shrubbiest areas of the woods. Black-and-white warblers squeak in the midstory like rusted bearings. Last year, one struck an herbarium window at the arboretum and lay stunned. His eyes closed slowly, and he rolled onto his side on the window ledge. I reached out to retrieve him, but he flipped over and flew off between the branches of the European beech that shades the window. 38 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 At about the time that the yellow warblers and common yellowthroats start singing, wood thrushes return to a stand of closely planted spruces embedded in the arboretum's East Woods. The stand is low, with intermittently running water and a thick undergrowth of wood nettles that by this time is tall enough to sting my knees. This habitat seems to be just right for the wood thrushes. In the afternoons, orioles will be tearing at catkins in the tops of the red oaks and piping their hearts out. One evening, American toads begin droning from the marshes. Their song spills out into the adjacent forest. There are a few more weeks left in spring, but we are at the turning point to summer. Wildflowers flood the woods, running in sheets across the fallen oak leaves and overtopping the spring foliage that has carpeted the woods in the past two weeks. Spring ephemerals have peaked and begun to fruit, as they race to complete their entire annual life cycle on the sunny forest floor before the leaves are fully out on the trees. Cut-leaved toothwort, which flowers with petals the size of a child's incisors, produces siliques, slender capsules that crack open along the sides to release an abundance of small seeds. The flowers on Dutchman's breeches ripen to capsules. Rivers of Virginia bluebells flower, then the corollas fall off, leaving the capillary style ringed at its base with swelling hard nutlets. The first flowers of wild ginger open beneath the foliage, a pelage of long hairs combed over the backsides of the calyx, purple sepals tipping backwards. Anthers dangle from tiny flowers on male plants of early meadow-rue, and the females' flowers are frosted with stigmas. Rue anemone forms beds of beautiful, full-faced white blooms, some doubled so you might take them for cultivars. Glaucous branches of blue cohosh twist like dancers. Capsules swell thick as bullets on bloodroot. As the canopy begins to close, the wildflowers of late spring take over. Wild geraniums form lavender seas. The trilliums flower: first bloody butcher with purple petals arching upward, then large white trillium, and then nodding American Toad Forest: Spring 39 trillium, petals stretching out from between the sepals. Flowers dangle like bells in the leaf axils of Solomon's seal and hairy Solomon's seal; their leaves resemble those of the false Solomon's seal and starry Solomon's plume, but the flowers of those species form bouquets at the tips of the stem. The understory burns with wild hyacinth. V Everything that was brightest and most beautiful in mid-May is overrun by the end of the month, as wild lettuce reaches to my knees and orchard grass stretches out along the road through the arboretum. The false mermaid I found the first week of March is yellowing and flattened like seaweed against a boulder, pouring its last into the nutlets ripening at its apex. The forest floor is a bed of jewelweed. Yellowing leaves of white trout lily and variegated leaves of toothwort and wild leek stand out in the darkening understory beside the last flowers of false rue anemone. The first flowers of great waterleaf open as the hairy, spiderlike inflorescence branches unroll atop the plants. Bloodroot leaves swell to the size of my hand with fingers fully outstretched and lay back to absorb what sunlight they can through the closing canopy. Maple and elm seeds rain down overnight, clogging the gutters. Mayapple flowers become the lights of the woods, shining from beneath their great green umbrellas. For a week or so, I can hear golden-winged and black-and-white warblers, northern parulas, black-throated greens, all passing through, alongside the birds of summer: pewees and great-crested flycatchers, kingbirds, phoebes, gnatcatchers and red-eyed vireos, tanagers, ovenbirds, buntings, wood thrushes, and orioles. An olive-sided flycatcher calls an insistent \"quick three beers!\" Mosquitoes become pesky in the evenings. Spring peepers grow silent. American toads drone on. Wild Ginger PLANTS REFERENCED The onslaught of spring has come to a close, that time when I see each plant from all sides and keep thinking, what will happen tomorrow? Because for a few weeks, everything is happening at once. No one could catch it all in one year. A person needs year after year in, ideally, a single forest to get the sequence straight. * For more on the ecology, beauty, and importance of mosses, read Robin Wall Kimmerer's magnificent Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses (2003, Oregon State University Press). 40 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 Geranium maculatum - wild geranium Geum canadense - white avens Hepatica acutiloba, H. americana - hepatica Hydrophyllum appendiculatum - great waterleaf Impatiens capensis, I. pallida - jewelweed Lactuca spp. - wild lettuces Laportea canadensis - wood nettle Maianthemum racemosum - false Solomon's seal Maianthemum stellatum - starry Solomon's plume Mertensia virginica - Virginia bluebells Plagiomnium cuspidatum - baby tooth moss Podophyllum peltatum - mayapple Polygonatum biflorum - Solomon's seal Polygonatum pubescens - hairy Solomon's seal Rhamnus cathartica - buckthorn Quercus macrocarpa - bur oak Quercus rubra - red oak Sanguinaria canadensis - bloodroot Thalictrum dioicum - early meadow-rue Thalictrum thalictroides - rue anemone Trillium flexipes - nodding trillium Trillium grandiflorum - large white trillium Trillium recurvatum - bloody butcher Viola sororia - wood violet Acer saccharinum - silver maple Acer saccharum - sugar maple Allium canadense - wild garlic Allium tricoccum - wild leek Arisaema triphyllum - Jack-in-the-pulpit Asarum canadense - wild ginger Atrichum altecristatum - wavy starburst moss Camassia scilloides - wild hyacinth Cardamine concatenata - cut-leaved toothwort Carex albursina - white bear sedge Carex pensylvanica - Pennsylvania sedge Caulophyllum thalictroides - blue cohosh Celtis occidentalis - hackberry Claytonia virginica - spring beauty Corylus americana - hazelnut; you may also have C. cornuta in your area Dactylis glomerata - orchard grass Dicentra cucullaria - Dutchman's breeches Enemion biternatum - false rue anemone Erythronium albidum - white trout-lily Floerkea proserpinaca - false mermaid Fragaria virginiana - strawberry; you may also encounter F. vesca as a common species in your area Andrew Hipp is the senior scientist in plant systematics and herbarium director at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. He conducts research on the origins and implications of plant diversity, with a focus on oaks, sedges, phylogenetic ecology, and trait evolution. You can read about his research at http:\/\/systematics.mortonarb.org and follow his natural history blog at https:\/\/botanistsfieldnotes.com. Rachel Davis is an independent visual artist in the Chicago area. She works at the interface of natural science, abstract painting, printmaking, and textiles, integrating the formal and empirical elements of the natural world in her work. You can see more of her work at https:\/\/ artbumble.com and follow her on Instagram: @art_bumble."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How to See Urban Plants","article_sequence":6,"start_page":41,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25706","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270816a.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"\"Sight is a faculty; seeing, an art,\" the environmentalist George Perkins Marsh wrote in his 1864 treatise Man and Nature. \"I know no more important practical lessons in this earthly life of ours\u2014which, to the wise man, is a school from the cradle to the grave\u2014than those relating to the employment of the sense of vision in the study of nature.\" Botanical field guides, which became increasingly popular around the turn of the twentieth century, aimed to support the art of seeing. Their authors promised to transform overlooked spaces into landscapes filled with interest. One of the first successful field guides for the northeastern United States was Frances Theodora Parsons's How to Know the Wild Flowers, which was originally published in 1893. In the introduction, Parsons attested that \"even a bowing acquaintance with flowers \u2026 causes the monotony of a drive through an ordinarily uninteresting country to be forgotten in the diversion of noting the wayside flowers, and counting a hundred different species where formerly less than a dozen would have been detected.\" Yet an individual field guide necessarily elevates certain plants over others. After all, the guide must be sized for a pocket or, perhaps more How to See Urban Plants Jonathan Damery 42 Arnoldia 77\/4 \u2022 May 2020 realistically, a backpack. One of the most provocative field guides to appear in recent years is Peter Del Tredici's Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast (Cornell University Press), which presents an expansive vision for which plants, not to mention which landscapes, are worthy of being seen. The second edition was published this spring, adding forty-five plants to the twohundred- plus included in the 2010 edition. Del Tredici, who is an emeritus research scientist at the Arnold Arboretum, has provided, among other things, photographic documentation of the overlooked plants that inhabit overlooked urban places. In cities like Boston, New York, and Philadelphia, the plants are often so common that they are inconspicuous, ubiquitous but unseen. Del Tredici shows riverbank grape (Vitis riparia) cascading from powerlines in an alleyway and prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare) trapping cigarette butts on a sidewalk. These are common scenes that urban commuters and pedestrians often pass without a second thought. Almost half of the species that are newly added in the second edition are North American natives, including familiar trees like the black walnut (Juglans nigra). These additions suggest the haziness inherent to determining whether something should be included or excluded from any field guide\u2014even one, like Del Tredici's, that is emphatically inclusive. Del Tredici describes the black walnut as an ornamental shade tree from a bygone era. Its spread into neighboring lots may seem unremarkable; the trees are almost too normal to be noted. The same goes for the green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), which was another new addition. Deciding which plants should be featured in a field guide necessarily requires parameters. Parsons, in 1893, described her intention of omitting plants that were \"so common as to be generally known\" and \"so inconspicuous as generally Previous page: horseweed (Erigeron canadensis) and dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). Above: tufted lovegrass (Eragrostis pectinacea) and prostrate knotweed (Polygonum aviculare). Wild Urban Plants 43 to escape notice.\" Del Tredici, meanwhile, draws lines pertaining to the definition of the term urban and, by extension, a distinction between the spontaneous and the cultivated. The most fascinating photographs in the book are those that show the plants within their urban milieu. After all, as Del Tredici writes in the introduction, \"it is the context in which the plant is growing\u2014not the plant itself\u2014that makes it a weed.\" Within these landscapes, the plants often appear uncontained; they have an agency unto themselves. Road markings are a frequent motif in the photographs, and Del Tredici captures the omnipresent dandelion (Taraxacum officinale) sandwiched between a left turn lane and the oncoming traffic, as though the plants were moving in flagrant disregard of the yellow centerlines. He shows an American elm (Ulmus americana) flattening itself against a chain-link fence, in Hartford, Connecticut, where it has been hacked back repeatedly. The photographs document a changing landscape, one caught in an ongoing state of becoming. The book includes more than one thousand of Del Tredici's photographs, and in the opening pages, he notes that many were taken on family trips and errands. He acknowledges his family's patience with \"sudden stops on the side of the road\" for \"yet another \u2018weed' picture.\" In this sense, the photographs are remarkable in that they document not merely the fact of the plants but also the fact of stopping for them\u2014the fact of pulling over to the side of the road, as other cars zipped past, and hopping onto the shoulder to actually observe the plants up close. The book, in other words, is a testament to the necessary art of seeing. Jonathan Damery is the editor of Arnoldia. Riverbank grape (Vitis riparia) crosses over a Detroit alleyway, and maintenance crews would surely love to remove this American elm (Ulmus americana) in Hartford."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring is the New Fall","article_sequence":7,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25707","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270856d.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schoonderwoerd, Kristel","article_content":"When we welcome new foliage in the spring, we must also bid adieu to another set of structures that have adorned trees throughout the winter: the bud scales. That's right, May is the perfect time for bud-scale peeping, and there is no finer tree to start with than the shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), a Massachusetts native. With its fingerlike leaflets pointing towards the sky, emerging from a skirt of magenta scales, the spring shoot of a shagbark hickory is reminiscent of an alien that has recently taken up flamenco dancing. A large grove of shagbark hickories (accession 12907) can be observed near the Centre Street entrance to the Arnold Arboretum, and for an observant spring enthusiast, the spectacular display is likely to turn an easily overlooked piece of botany into a pressing question: What are these pink structures? Buds scales are best known for their winter protective role. Trees repeatedly develop new organs (leaves) throughout their lifetimes, but this mode of continuous development can be challenging in a temperate climate. In the words of John Muir: \"Consider what centuries of storms have fallen upon [trees] since they were first planted,\u2014hail to break the tender seedlings; lightning, to scorch and shatter; snow, winds, and avalanches, to crush and overwhelm,\u2014 while the manifest result of all this wild storm-culture is the glorious perfection we behold.\" Bud scales are one item in a long list of adaptations that make this glorious perfection possible, and not an insignificant one. Bud scales envelop the sites where new leaves are initiated. Newly formed miniature leaves, waiting for spring, are thus provided with a sheltered space for their earliest development. As the leaves mature within the bud scales, their familiar form, comprising a leaf blade, a leaf stalk, and a leaf base (the attachment point of the leaf to the stem), begins to appear. To understand what bud scales truly are, in addition to what they do, we have to follow this closely coordinated chain of leaf development even further back to when the scales themselves were first formed. Bud scales are, in fact, leaves\u2014 modified leaves, never meant to capture light over the growing season. When a tree builds a bud scale, it makes a leaf with just a long and thin version of a leaf base and none of the other components. We know this because vein patterns in the base of certain photosynthetic leaves are similar to those in bud scales. In addition, if you look at a lot of bud scales, and you are lucky, then you might find a happy accident where a leaf has ended up half bud scale and half foliage leaf, indicating the relatedness between the two forms. Moreover, we know that bud scales and photosynthetic leaves are initiated in the same pattern, from the same cell clusters. New bud scales appear relatively early in the season for shagbark hickories. In fact, if you examine the tender stems that emerge with the fresh leaves in the spring, you can already see the very earliest, minute instances of the new bud scales\u2014including the pink flamenco dresses of the following year. This way, the growing tips are not only protected during winter but are never once exposed through the four seasons. It follows that the conspicuous pink phase in early May is but the swan song of the shagbark hickory's bud scales. After many months of passive sheltering, the scales start to rapidly expand and change color in the spring. The reddish color may well point towards a continued protective role. These blushes are caused by anthocyanins, the very same compounds that color leaves red or purple in the fall. The currently most-favored hypothesis states that anthocyanins function as a sunscreen, protecting delicate structures\u2014new, growing leaves in this case\u2014from excess sunlight. Perhaps the spring metamorphosis observed in the shagbark bud scales is a final act to guard the small but rapidly expanding leaves, until the leaves can grow and function without outside protection and the scales can drop away, no longer needed, and make way for the next cohort. Kristel Schoonderwoerd is a doctoral candidate in the Friedman Lab at the Arnold Arboretum. Spring is the New Fall Kristel Schoonderwoerd"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25702","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d270b727.jpg","title":"2020-77-4","volume":77,"issue_number":4,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Cottage Flora","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25673","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070bb6f.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meholic, Cat","article_content":"A Cottage Flora Cat Meholic I n the fall of 2015, I moved into a small cottage on the back of the Granogue Estate, a sprawling property in northern Delaware. When my parents first visited the estate, I could tell they were nervous. As we drove the milelong driveway, the road got worse and worse. I tried to understand their apprehension; their daughter would be living alone in the last cottage on a woodland edge. I only had one small dog at the time, a feisty, unintimidating Yorkshire terrier. As we drove past cornfields and open meadows, and descended into the valley, all I saw in my new home was a childhood dream come true. My parents admitted that the old stone house, covered in white plaster, was charming. MEHOLIC, C. 2020. A COTTAGE FLORA. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 2?5 A young woodland is located on one side of my cottage, and the Brandywine Creek runs directly behind it. The light reflects off the creek into the house in unusual patterns, and on winter evenings, geese fly to the river, passing so low that I can hear the whispering of their wings. I often think of the Sand County Almanac and search for signs of life, as Aldo Leopold described, in every season: the mergansers that appear like clockwork in February, the tracks left from a battle of fox and rabbit in the snow, and the beaks of trillium (Trillium spp.) poking up in the spring. I am captivated by my surroundings. These woods have provided me with years of comfort and continuously pique my curiosity. Each copse is unique, but A Cottage Flora 3 most contain a mix of old tulip poplars (Liriodendron tulipifera), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and hickories, primarily shagbarks (Carya ovata). The house itself is two stories, built into the hillside. When the house was inhabited by a farmer, his wife, and eight children, the downstairs kitchen was an open structure for the livestock to bed down at night. Today the cottage (or \"studio,\" as the residents of the estate call it) is stacked with horticulture and botany books. These books are mostly gifts from my mentors, colleagues, and friends, and the bulk came from the lifetime collection of my graduate advisor, John Frett. His collection was so extensive that I turned an open staircase into a makeshift bookshelf to house them. The generous windows overflow with plants. In this ideal setting, I have completed a thesis, adopted two more dogs, started a nonprofit called Women in Horticulture, and begun a checklist for the flora of the property. Ir?n?e du Pont Sr. established the Granogue Estate and relocated his family to the property in 1923, when he was president of the DuPont company. The main house is now the residence of Barbara and Ir?n?e du Pont Jr. Much of the 505-acre property is actively farmed for corn, soy, hay, and dairy production, but large sections of forest and meadow have been preserved. Although the estate is less than a twenty-minute drive from Trader Joe's, Target, and a shopping mall, the landscape feels like a rural oasis. In these woods and meadows, I have walked my dogs almost every day for four years. While holding two leashes, and with a third dog strapped to my waist, I scribble out notes in a Moleskine notebook tucked in my dog-walking fanny pack, recording the flora that I observe. Although I must be a comical sight to my neighbors, which happen to be mostly cows, this method has been effective. Upon returning home, I add additional details to the notebook, and on rainy days when I am not outside as much, I update my Excel spreadsheet. Over time this exercise has turned into a checklist that is extraordinarily simple. The list itself records just the scientific name of the plant, and in some cases the date I observed it. What started as a means of learning about the land I lived on quickly morphed into a love of the plant communities that inhabit there. Already this information has had small impacts on land use. One of my first successes on the property was when a trail-running race agreed to no longer use a path that was carved straight through a population of goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). When the trail was created, before a March event, I was disheartened that I would not be seeing the glorious little white flowers or finally observing the goldenseal fruit in a wild population. I travel regularly in this section of the woods, so this part of the population was the easiest for me to view while corralling my dogs along the path. I showed the damage to an ecologist friend, and she was also dismayed. Goldenseal is not exceptionally rare in the state, but this population is the largest one we had ever seen in northern Delaware. After several attempts, I succeeded in contacting the race director and did my best to communicate how the path impacted that population of goldenseal. This was after two seasons of the race using the path. Thankfully, the director was amenable to my recommendations, and the population is slowly rebounding from the disturbance. On another occasion, regular path maintenance was endangering a small group of common moonseed (Menispermum canadense). In this case, the damage to the population could not be avoided as this section of the property needs to be accessible by vehicles and a horsedrawn buggy. The woodland edge and the moonseed population had been slowly encroaching for years. To help preserve the genetic diversity of this population, whole plants were given to two botanical gardens: Mt. Cuba Center and Natural Lands' public garden, Stoneleigh. After path edges were mown back, the moonseed has surprisingly rebounded from its roots. The estate has also been a great resource for educational exercises. Mt. Cuba Center is located just 7.4 miles from the Granogue Estate and is a regional resource for everything related Facing page: An unnamed creek on the Granogue Estate flows into the Brandywine Creek. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR 4 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 tage is situated across a gravel driveway from a field for dairy cows. I am lucky that this field is used for breeding the next generation of bovines and not full dairy production. In the spring I have wrestled a newborn calf in the snow to tuck it back under the fence with its mother. For two years, however, I watched as cows defecated directly into a water source that drained into the Brandywine. Our analysis found that the small corridor of trees that served as a riparian buffer drastically reduced the amount of pollutants entering the Brandywine, confirming the ecological value of the plant populations that were included on my checklist. I am still hesitant to jump in the water downstream after an extreme rain event, but at least the impacts are much less than I anticipated. to native plants. I know the precise distance because I drove to Mt. Cuba every day for years as their plant recorder and assistant curator. Over the years I have had the pleasure of sharing the botanical treasures of Granogue with colleagues and friends, including those at Mt. Cuba. (I must admit, at this stage in my career, the terms \"colleague\" and \"friend\" are often synonymous.) Colleagues from Mt. Cuba were impressed by the extent of a large population of showy orchis (Galearis spectabilis) at Granogue, and two interns were sent to Granogue to do a population estimate and record associated taxa. Research on native orchids has been at the forefront of Mt. Cuba's research initiatives, and data from Granogue were included in work by Adrienne Bozic, the orchid fellow at Mt. Cuba, who oversaw the development of an orchid inventory for a large part of Delaware. I also worked with colleagues at the University of Delaware, where I completed my graduate work, to conduct an exploratory study on the impact an existing riparian buffer has on the water quality of the Brandywine Creek. My cot- My observations of the flora at Granogue also include comparisons to adjacent sites. The Brandywine Creek State Park is separated from Granogue by Thompsons Bridge Road. When crossing this road, the change in vegetation is apparent even to the most plant-blind of indi- A view of the Granogue Estate, with the Brandywine Creek State Park in the background and the author's cottage nestled into the tree line. A Cottage Flora 5 The state park has increased human usage, and the estate, meanwhile, has increased deer hunting, lowering herbivory pressure. Locals have also suggested that the presence of cows on the estate deters deer, which seems to be true, at least anecdotally. viduals. Although both sides have almost an identical canopy, the understory is drastically different. The state park has large swathes of Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii) that create six-foot walls on either side of the path. Porcelain berry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata) covers defoliated trunks, and whole patches of forest have toppled due to stress, pests, and repeated wet summers. The Granogue side of the road has faced the same stressors, but the understory is more complex, which seems to add resilience to the existing canopy. The understory shrubs and trees include spicebush (Lindera benzoin), common witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), American bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia), hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), American holly (Ilex opaca), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), black cherry (Prunus serotina), pinxterbloom azalea (Rhododendron periclymenoides), swamp azalea (Rhododendron viscosum), smooth blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), and mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia). The herbaceous layer is a fantastic mix of ferns, spring ephemerals, violets, sedges, and other native flora, including wild ginger (Asarum canadense), zigzag goldenrod (Solidago flexicaulis), white wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), numerous species of trillium (Trillium spp.), and yellow jewelweed (Impatiens pallida). Although most of these taxa are not considered rare, it is striking to see the contrast in population members between the state park on one side of Thompsons Bridge Road and the estate on the other. This difference in taxa has captured my curiosity. Both properties were historically logged and then fragmented into farm fields. The hills are steep and rocky along the Brandywine, with the iconic \"blue rocks\" that our Minor League Baseball team is named after, and these rocky slopes were often too difficult to use for crops but were moderately successful for grazing sheep or goats. Old stone walls, characteristic of New England and the northern Mid-Atlantic, cut through sections of the existing forest, acknowledging this past. Despite these similarities, certain site characteristics provide at least a partial explanation for the floristic differences between the properties: As stewards of your own properties or those publicly shared--neighborhood parks and even urban wilds--it is important to understand your land as thoroughly as possible, and part of this is to understand the plant and animal communities that are present. I'm reminded of a quote from Aldo Leopold: \"We abuse land because we regard it as a commodity belonging to us. When we see land as a community to which we belong, we may begin to use it with love and respect.\" From the time we are born, we learn to \"love and respect\" our human communities, but we must teach ourselves to do the same for our natural communities that surround us. As an observer of plant communities, I have seen how sharing the knowledge of these communities changes the way in which humans treat them. A checklist provides the basis for assessments of biological productivity, ecosystem classifications, conservation decisions, and documentation of spatial or temporal changes over time. Without a basic checklist none of this would be possible. Every effort towards a better understanding of our natural world counts. Without someone observing and documenting the plants at Granogue, projects involving the path modifications and subsequent off-site plant preservation would not have been possible. Even these small projects have had a positive impact beyond the Granogue boundaries. I might seem na?ve or romantic, but I firmly believe if more nature enthusiasts observed their surroundings more closely and acted on what they were seeing, the impacts would be magnified in meaningful ways. I hope that the trend of encouraging citizen scientists continues to expand until we roll our eyes at how everyone now calls themselves a citizen scientist. What better citizen could we hope for? Cat Meholic is the curatorial horticulturist at Ambler Arboretum of Temple University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Beyond the Trees: An Herbaceous Shift at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":6,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25675","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070816d.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Keegan, Brendan","article_content":"KEEGAN, B. 2020. BEYOND THE TREES: AN HERBACEOUS SHIFT AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 6?13 Beyond the Trees: An Herbaceous Shift at the Arnold Arboretum Brendan Keegan W hile walking down Oak Path last October, I was drawn to a glint of yellow among the dappled shades of green. I carefully stepped through the tall grasses and clumps of wood aster (Eurybia divaricata), and found, to my surprise, a blue-stemmed goldenrod (Solidago caesia) in bloom. A few bumblebees busily gathered pollen in the afternoon light, hanging on the plant's characteristically staggered flowers that ascend like golden rungs on a ladder. Although blue-stemmed goldenrod is a common native plant, I had never seen one growing in the middle of the oak collection. Despite providing ideal habitat, with the high canopy allowing ample sun, the collection is typically mowed, which kills young perennials long before their autumn blooms. In 2019, however, much of the oak collection was purposefully left fallow to encourage the growth of herbaceous species. The lack of mowing resulted in an abundance of common violets (Viola sororia) in the spring followed by blue and white asters (Symphyotrichum and Eurybia), several species of goldenrod (Solidago), and, presumably, some very pleased bumblebees in the fall. Unlike the accessioned trees (each lovingly labeled, monitored, and cared for), the wild populations of herbaceous plants, such as the bluestemmed goldenrod, often exist in anonymity. A new appreciation for the herbaceous understory's benefits to the woody collection and to the urban ecosystem, however, is redefining the Arboretum's approach to these plants. The horticulture team has, among other things, begun leaving areas fallow to encourage spontaneous populations. Staff have also begun collecting and propagating herbaceous plants for landscape renovations, and these plants have been introduced as ground cover in the formal collections. An herbaceous shift is underway. A Naturalistic Legacy Although the Arnold Arboretum is famous for its history of plant exploration and its collection of temperate woody species gathered from around the world, it is perhaps less well known that the landscape itself was originally intended as an homage to New England. Both Frederick Law Olmsted, the landscape architect who designed the Arboretum, and Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's founding director, guided this aesthetic, drawing on shared horticultural principles and a desire to mimic the region's natural ecosystems. Although the resulting naturalistic aesthetic is taken for granted these days, it is easy to overlook how innovative and even radical the Arboretum's landscape was considered at the time. By the late 1800s, city planners across the United States were beginning to think about the importance of green space for the public. The industrial revolution had brought the masses into the urban core, where there was little escape from toil in factories. Wealthy homeowners, on the other hand, developed their gardens in the fashion of the day, filling greenhouses with imported tropical plants and their yards with various exotic specimens. In many cities, newly built public parks reflected the taste of the wealthy, with formal gardens and annual beds taking pride of place. Olmsted's vision for the Arboretum, and for the larger parkway of which the Arboretum is one part, could not have been more different. He planned for the winding roads to be bordered by layers of natural-looking shrubs and trees in order to invoke feelings of rural country lanes. Olmsted preferred woods and natural areas, interspersed with sweeping lawns that were designed to be maintained by cows and sheep. This preference, however, didn't preclude the use of non-native plants. Olmsted outlined this Facing page: Kent Field provides a colorful showcase of herbaceous-layer restoration and management at the Arnold Arboretum. ALL PHOTOS BY JONATHAN DAMERY UNLESS NOTED ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 8 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Local photographer Thomas Marr captured the herbaceous diversity along Bussey Brook in 1908. idea in an 1888 letter to the editor, in Garden and Forest, a publication established and overseen by Sargent: \"May we not (as artists) think that there are places with us in which a landscape composition might be given a touch of grace, delicacy and fineness by the blending into a body of low, native tree foliage that of the Tamarisk or the Oleaster ... ?\" Fortunately, Olmsted had a more than willing partner in Sargent. Known for his passion for woody plant collection and discovery, Sargent formed the cast in which the Arboretum was molded. Many of the horticultural decisions he employed at the Arboretum could also be seen at his Brookline estate, Holm Lea. Although Sargent rarely opened Holm Lea to visitors, those granted access marveled at his natural- istic integration of native and non-native trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. Wilhem Miller, a writer for Country Life, praised the estate, in 1903, as an example of \"`natural' landscapegardening.\" Miller observed that \"while there are few places that are more cosmopolitan--so far as kinds of plants are concerned--the visitor will search in vain for anything that sounds a discordant note.\" Similarly, Nathaniel Greene, a journalist writing for the New England Magazine, in 1908, observed that \"Professor Sargent wants nothing on his place that is not harmonious with a New England landscape.\" The combination of Olmsted's landscape philosophy and Sargent's horticultural decisions resulted in an Arboretum that combines plants in a naturalistic way. Greene noted that this Herbaceous Shift 9 combination, as demonstrated at Holm Lea, differed from the approach used in parks in other cities, which \"tend to look alike, because they use chiefly tender bedding-plants, which are costly, ephemeral, loud, garish.\" A fitting, albeit melancholic, example of Sargent's lasting sympathies towards naturalistic plantings was the location of his memorial service held on June 9, 1927. Rather than celebrating his legacy near the Hunnewell Building where he spent much time, or under one of the species named in his honor, the event was held in one of his favorite locations along Bussey Brook \"where white oaks, a white pine, and a white beech, all native to American soil, overhung the temporary platform.\" The Spontaneous Flora While Olmsted designed the Arboretum's bucolic setting and Sargent filled it with plants from around the world, the responsibility of documenting the landscape's herbaceous species fell to staff working on the grounds. In the early years, this role was filled by Ernest Jesse Palmer, a self-taught botanist from southwestern Missouri. Palmer came to the attention of Sargent around 1901 after he mailed Sargent fruits from several species of hawthorn (Crataegus), a group of plants that Sargent was beginning to research intensely. The pair corresponded for decades, with Palmer regularly collecting plant material for the Arboretum, before he finally accepted a position as a botanist collector and moved to Boston in 1921. Palmer soon began to inventory and study the spontaneous herbaceous flora at the Arboretum. Fortunately, he assiduously documented his observations, with the vast majority of the 2,235 spontaneous plant vouchers in the Arboretum's herbarium attributed to his name. He compiled his findings in an article titled \"The Spontaneous Flora of the Arnold Arboretum,\" first published in a 1930 issue of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Palmer's \"Spontaneous Flora\" remains a valuable benchmark for studying the diversity of wild plants in the Arboretum landscape, and the wider region. Unsurprisingly, the current wild plant composition is much different than Palmer's records describe. In his day, there was greater overall herbaceous plant diversity. Palmer noted \"bits of open meadow\" between the young trees in many of the collections, \"where the grass and other undergrowth is cut at infrequent intervals.\" Many plants flourished among what were then saplings in the hawthorn collection, including nine species of aster and goldenrod. Included among them were the \"pretty violet rays and yellows discs\" of the flax-leaved aster (now classified as Ionactis linariifolia), which were \"especially abundant and showy.\" These days, flax-leaved aster is a rare sight among the hawthorns. Other parts of the Arboretum, however, seem unchanged. Palmer observed, in the 1920s, that \"Elderberry ... Joe Pye Weed ... Poison Hemlock ... New England Aster ... and New York Aster are most conspicuous\" along the steep banks of Bussey Brook, a spot where they continue to thrive. Somewhat amusingly, he also noted that the \"curious little parasitic Love-vine or Dodder twines its amber evanescent stems about some of [these] upright herbs.\" Despite periodic assault by a century's worth of horticulturists intent on its removal, a healthy population of dodder (Cuscuta gronovii) persists in that exact location to this day. Palmer's wild plant baseline also proved invaluable for follow-up surveys documenting the change of spontaneous species through time. At least nine species from his 1930 publication no longer grow in the Arboretum, and four of those are now endangered in Massachusetts. Of the six species of orchid that once grew in the landscape, only pink lady slipper (Cypripedium acaule) has been recently documented. Ten additional herbaceous species are on the state watch list, and their status in the Arboretum is undetermined. Ironically, Palmer, who worked without the benefit of historical documentation to guide his observations, lamented that many plants which \"might have been found ... [are] now gone forever from the Arboretum\" as a result of physical alterations ongoing in his day. Cultural preferences likely played a role in changing species abundance. Lawns were increasingly viewed as more favorable than unkempt meadows, and they allowed greater mobility throughout the collection. Although horse-drawn sickle mowers were the tool of choice by the early 1900s (and were used by Sargent's land managers at Holm Lea), frequent mowing would not occur until the Arboretum 10 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Jerusalem artichoke (Helianthus tuberosus) and blue-stemmed goldenrod (Solidago caesia) attract summer pollinators. acquired gas-powered machinery in the midst of labor shortages during World War II: a tractor, with an attachment for hay cutting, in 1945, and two lawn mowers in 1946. Mowing also provided a cost-effective and reliable tool for keeping down unwanted vegetation, which became especially important as invasive plant populations increased. The asters and goldenrods that Palmer described on Peter's Hill were soon jostled by Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) and black swallowwort (Cynanchum louiseae), just two of many invasive species that harm the valuable woody specimens they grow among and on. While frequent mowing can mitigate these problems, it also kills the native grasses and forbs that once beautified the collections, depressing overall biodiversity. Mowing has also resulted in mechanical damage to accessioned plants and contributed to soil compaction collection-wide. Although no comprehensive bulletin of spontaneous plants has been published since Palmer's last edition of \"Spontaneous Flora,\" in 1945, staff and researchers continue to assess the status of herbaceous plants and other spontaneous species. Peter Green updated Palmer's list, in 1962, when he published \"Herbaceous Aliens in the Arnold Arboretum\" in Arnoldia. Leslie Mehrhoff, the herbarium curator at the University of Connecticut, reviewed and updated Palmer's baseline while documenting changes in invasive plant populations beginning in 2008. Mehrhoff intended to publish a comprehensive update to Palmer's list, but the project ceased after his death in 2011. Around that time, Walter Kittredge, of the Harvard University Herbaria, completed a multi-year taxonomic project, verifying the identifications for the well-over two thousand herbarium specimens that constitute the Arboretum's spontaneous flora collection. These individuals have kept institutional knowledge alive by channeling Palmer's surveying efforts, allowing the Arboretum to keep track of changes to herbaceous species composition through the years. Shaping the Herbaceous Layer In 2017, new strategies for increasing the ecological value of the landscape began reshaping the herbaceous flora once again. These changes started when Andrew Gapinski, the Arboretum's head of horticulture, organized the first official Herbaceous Committee. The group, of which I was a founding member, was initially concerned with identifying areas in the landscape where mowing pressures could be reduced or eliminated, in an effort to limit mechanical and compaction-related damage to accessioned plants. Compacted soils had compounded after decades of running heavy, gas-powered equipment directly around and beneath the plants. A healthy herbaceous layer would allow for staff to leave \"no-mow\" zones, mitigating future compaction and reducing fossil fuel inputs. The committee also anticipated that, as shorterlived herbaceous species come and go, their Herbaceous Shift 11 Herbaceous plants provide visual texture throughout the seasons. decomposing roots would help to break up and enrich the compacted soil. The committee discussed ways to increase the herbaceous diversity and how these collections could subsequently be managed by horticultural and curatorial staff. Irina Kadis, former Arboretum curatorial assistant and native plant expert, was central to this effort. Her knowledge and cross-checking of Palmer's observations informed the committee's reintroductions. The committee also relied on her personal knowledge of natural lands to determine from where to source the plants. In order to maximize the ecological benefits, as well as to mimic the naturalistic setting which Palmer described, the committee agreed to only introduce plants native to Massachusetts. These plants would, ideally, be sourced or collected from wild populations, allowing the Arboretum to document provenance and conserve local ecotypes. This means that, for a widespread species like red columbine (Aquilegia candensis), which has a native distribution stretching from the East Coast to the eastern Great Plains, the Arboretum would only acquire locally sourced wild material, to protect our regional genetic diversity. Acquiring wild seed poses a significant hurdle and is an ambitious jump for an institution focused on woody plants. However, there is ample precedent for building the collections with plants from New England. In the 1870s, the Arboretum propagator, Jackson Dawson, used a horse and buggy to collect native shrubs and trees to fill the young Arboretum's nurseries. Dawson continued to make local collections throughout his more than forty-year career, but recent local efforts are the first to strategically add to the Arboretum's herbaceous understory. I helped organize collaborations with the Native Plant Trust, the Trustees of Reservations, and the Massachusetts Audubon Society, allowing staff to purchase or collect seed from beautiful natural areas close to home. These revised management strategies have resulted in prominent no-mow zones on Peters Hill and in the conifer, oak, birch, linden, and maple collections. The meadows on the face of Peters Hill are particularly notable. Although cool-season grasses comprise the majority of the spontaneous vegetation, large stands of common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) and goldenrod are emerging. In addition, over two thousand butterfly milkweed (A. tuberosa) plants dot the hillside, propagated in the Dana Greenhouse from seeds collected on Martha's Vineyard and donated by the Polly Hill Arboretum. The meadow also provides habitat for a variety of insects, birds, and mammals. A pair of eastern bluebirds, spotted in the spring of 2019, were the first to successfully nest in the Arboretum's collection since 2006. In the Kent Field meadow, down the road from Sargent's chosen memorial site, masses of introduced mountain mint (Pycnanthemum muticum), common boneset (Eupatorium perfoliatum), butterfly milkweed (Asclepias 12 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Jim Papargiris, the Arboretum working foreperson, plants butterfly milkweed (Asclepias tuberosa) during a staff workday in 2018. tuberosa), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), great blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica) and golden Alexanders (Zizia aurea) provide food and shelter for wildlife throughout the seasons. In late summer, monarch butterfly caterpillars carefully munch on the milkweed, while a variety of butterflies and bumblebees cover the stands of mountain mint and purplestemmed aster (Symphyotrichum puniceum). In the evening, Kent Field is a prime spot to observe bats darting for insects, while great horned owls use the towering conifers to watch for unwary voles and mice. In addition to revitalizing meadows, the Arboretum is also actively collecting and purchasing herbaceous plants in response to other forms of landscape change. In 2018, a considerable number of beeches (Fagus) were removed from the Arboretum's collection, due to an outbreak of beech bark disease. This caused a massive shift in the growing conditions for the herbaceous layer, which went from deep shade to full sun essentially overnight. Expansive areas were laid open and bare. The following year, I coordinated the purchase of several thousand plugs of wild-sourced foxglove beardtongue (Penstemon digitalis), New York aster (Symphyotrichum novi-belgii), and other herbaceous species from the Native Plant Trust. Horticulturist Scott Phillips and I developed a plan to use these native plants for landscape restoration in the collection. Although most of the herbaceous plantings have occurred in naturalistic portions of the Arboretum landscape, the efforts have also filtered into the formally designed collections. Phillips led the acquisition of herbaceous species to fill mulch beds in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. This project fulfills the original vision of the Bradley redesign, which began in Herbaceous Shift 13 The Peters Hill meadow provides habitat for nesting birds. 2007. The herbaceous plants, primarily native members of the rose family (Rosaceae), fill in the open expanses of mulched beds, complement accessioned species, mitigate weed problems, and reduce the future needs for herbicide applications. Above all else, the new plants are beautiful and highlight ways that green groundcovers can be simultaneously functional, attractive, and consistent with the overall vision of the collection. Constant Change Temperate woody plants will always be the cornerstone of the Arboretum's mission, but recent projects with herbaceous plants will hopefully continue to spread through the collection. These projects will be crucial for the Arboretum's efforts to develop a more resilient landscape, protecting our valuable woody plants while enhancing the ecological function of our urban habitat. Beyond that, these herbaceous plantings fit well with the intent of both Olmsted and Sargent, whose original designs stressed the importance of a naturalistic landscape. Looking to the past verifies that the only constant with plants in the Arboretum's landscape is change. As Palmer observed, herbaceous populations and entire species will continue to come and go, following the ebbs and flows of management, culture, and climatic changes. If the trend continues, perhaps herbaceous accessions will eventually lose their anonymity and become as beloved to visitors as the towering trees. In the meantime, you can be sure that at least one Arboretum demographic will enjoy them--bumblebees searching for just a few more blue-stemmed goldenrod flowers on a warm autumn afternoon. Brendan Keegan is a gardener at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Lily from the Valley","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25674","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d0708128.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"A Lily from the Valley Michael S. Dosmann T his story is of a flower and the man who ventured to the other side of the world, away from family and modern convenience, to collect it. The plant was not just an object of desire but one of such value that it would underwrite the most significant collecting expeditions of the day. Yet, its beauty almost betrayed the collector, nearly taking his reputation and his life. It is also a story of their redemption: the story of Ernest Henry Wilson and the regal lily (Lilium regale). When I first glimpsed regal lilies in the wild, in 2014, I was in northern Sichuan Province, China, to retell Wilson's story for CCTV's documentary, Chinese Wilson. I recall how gusts filled the air with sand, as well as a bright aroma from lilies, prompting me to simultaneously squint and sniff deeply. Ensembles of the glistening, trumpet-like blossoms dotted the gray cliffs above the Min River. The blooms were sometimes a half-dozen to a stalk, predominantly a clear white, with a purplish blush on the outside and yellow throats within. DOSMANN, M.S. 2020. A LILY FROM THE VALLEY. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 14?25 I admired them from a vantage point on the narrow, rocky trail below. Most stems reached straight up to the sky, while others dangled out from the cliffs at near-ninety-degree angles. I was baffled by how they could defy gravity like that, with so little soil to cling to amidst the ever-blowing wind. Because of my plant collecting experience in China for the Arnold Arboretum, following in Wilson's footsteps, I had been asked to guide viewers for the documentary. The third and final episode highlighted Wilson's collection of Lilium regale and a rockslide that nearly ended his life not far from where we filmed that day. The episode was rounded out with narrations of Wilson's own descriptions of events. That part was easy. Wilson retold the story often, in numerous books and articles, with a dramatic flair that would have prompted Mark Twain's praise. Most accounts started with a rehearsed rhetorical question, as it did in \"Price of the Regal Lily,\" published in Country Gentlemen in October 1925: \"How many people know the E.H. Wilson and Lilium regale 15 The author (facing page) is photographed for a documentary that recounted Ernest Henry Wilson's harrowing collection of the regal lily (Lilium regale). The filmmakers orchestrated a reenactment of the mule train that was important to Wilson's retellings of the story. size of a mule's hoof?\" He then would respond, \"Frankly I do not know with mathematical exactness, but as I lay on the ground and more than forty of these animals stepped over my prostrate form the hoof seemed enormous, blotting out my view of the heavens.\" How is that for an opening line? The explorer went on to richly describe the dusty \"rude land\" south of Songpan where his \"royal lady\" grew: \"That such a rare jewel should have its home in so remote and arid a region of the world seemed like a joke on Nature's part.\" The disaster occurred on September 4, 1910, while Wilson was on his fourth expedition to China. \"Dysentery in a mild form\" had prompted him to ride in the sedan chair, yet he noted that \"song was in [their] hearts\" for they were near Wenchuan and just north of Sichuan's capital, Chengdu, where good food and accommodation awaited. When the landslide struck, his chair was tossed to the river several hundred feet below. Errant boulders left the team scattered, and Wilson's right leg shattered in two places. Luckily, he never lost consciousness, and he instructed his team to use the camera tripod to splint his leg. It was then that PHOTOS, PAGE 14 BY KOU JIN, PAGE 15 BY MICHAEL S. DOSMANN the mule train approached. Because the path between the cliff face and the roaring torrents below was too skinny for them to turn around, the only choice was for Wilson to remain on the ground and watch as each and every mule stepped over. What followed was a hastened and painful three-day journey to Chengdu, with Wilson carried on an improvised stretcher constructed from the remnants of his chair. Doctors at the Friends Foreign Mission set his leg as best they could, but the possibility of amputation persisted for weeks due to nagging infection. In the end, however, his leg--now nearly an inch shorter than his left--was saved, as were the lilies. During Wilson's recuperation, members of his team dug up a quantity of bulbs, which followed Wilson back to Boston in the spring of 1911. Wilson was so proud of the introduction that, despite the near-death experience and life-long injury, he stated that the \"lily was worth it and more.\" In his 1925 monograph The Lilies of Eastern Asia, he went even further, proclaiming that \"in adding it to western gardens the discoverer would proudly rest his reputation with the Regal Lily.\" I concur, this lily is a gem. But ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 16 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Ernest Henry Wilson (right) and zoologist Walter Zappey rest along a footpath in central China in 1908. ger for their (and his) value to be realized? Or, was there something more to his statement-- did Wilson really believe his reputation was at stake and only redeemed by this lily? Wilson was responsible for introducing over a thousand plants to Western cultivation, including scores of horticultural prizes. The ghostly dove tree (Davidia involucrata) haunted his dreams on his first expedition for Veitch Nursery, and the yellow poppywort (Meconopsis integrifolia) was his muse for the second. He had also introduced his favorite shrub of all time--the beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis)-- and the paperbark maple (Acer griseum). Wilson considered the maple, whose namesake bark is loved by connoisseurs everywhere, Hubei's best. Perhaps these successes didn't register to him because another collector sent one dove tree seed to France before Wilson managed to collect his bundle, and the poppywort proved a bit too finicky to cultivate broadly. As for the other two woody plants, maybe it just took lon- Little is written about Wilson's state of mind during his days of exploration, and his own correspondence barely sheds light upon such things. (Personal letters to his wife, Nellie, were destroyed by the family after the couple's death in 1930.) His journal entries have hardly seen the light of day due to his near-indecipherable penmanship, but one entry stands out beyond others, written on September 3, 1910, the day before the landslide. Wilson described his stomach trouble, his inability to keep warm, and the terrible road conditions. He noted the abundance of regal lilies (known then as Lilium E.H. Wilson and the Regal Lily 17 myriophyllum) upon the cliffs and described how, earlier in the day, two members of his team stayed behind in Sian Sou Qiao to investigate the region's conifers and to secure bulbs. The final paragraph is the most profound. While a word or two still evade \"translation,\" Wilson wrote of being in the same area two and a half years before. It had rained then, too, and I can imagine the drudgery, even misery, of being ill, sopping wet, loaded down with supplies, and trudging along a dangerous road still days away from civilization and convenience. \"I little thought then I should ever return here!\" Wilson lamented. \"I am certainly getting very tired of the wandering life & long for the end to come. I seem never to have done anything other than wander wander through China!\" Between 1899 and 1911, Wilson spent almost eleven years wandering through China, despite having a wife and, eventually, a young daughter, Muriel, at home. He was tired of the explorer's life before he wrote this entry in 1910 and was reluctant to head back after returning from his second trip for James Veitch & Sons nursery in 1905. He was then working as a botanist at the Imperial Institute of Science in London and lived at Kew, just a short walk from the Royal Botanic Gardens' gate. But, the stubborn persistence of Arnold Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent (and his accomplice Ellen Willmott, who worked the local English angle) finally persuaded Wilson to return to China in 1907, for what he thought was a final time. Whereas his trips for Veitch were motivated more by profit than botany, his work for the Arnold Arboretum was a scientific endeavor, with value placed on the germplasm secured in seeds, cuttings, and plants, as well as on the collection of welldocumented herbarium vouchers and photographs. Sargent, however, had arranged for a certain procurement of bulbs, which would help subsidize the 1907 expedition. Wilson first met the regal lily in August of 1903 while traversing the Min River Valley; the following autumn he sent about three hundred bulbs to Veitch under collection number 1791. They arrived in England in the spring of 1905, flowered that summer, and were identified at Kew as Lilium myriophyllum, a species described by the French botanist Adrian Ren? Franchet in 1892. Much was made of the freeflowering plants, with Wilson writing about the collection that year in Flora and Sylva. In 1906, Curtis's Botanical Magazine profiled the new-to-cultivation species, complete with a beautiful illustration. By the close of 1906, Sargent not only secured Wilson as the Arboretum's collector in China but found a partner to share some of the financial burden: John K.M.L. Farquhar. The Scottish-born nurseryman had established R.&J. Farquhar & Co. in 1884. It became one of the most prominent horticultural businesses in America, operating out of Boston. On Christmas Eve of 1906, Sargent wrote to Farquhar, \"Since our conversation of the other day I have talked over the bulb business with Wilson and have reached the conclusion ... that for the species from western China, namely ... [L.] myriophyllum ... thirty-five cents a bulb would be a fair price, in view of the fact that these would have to be carried on men's backs for at least two hundred miles before water transportation is reached.\" Two days later, Farquhar accepted the proposal, signing a contract to receive two separate shipments of bulbs collected by Wilson, paying all freight costs and a steep price for each sound bulb delivered. In the winter of 1907, Wilson found himself back in China and in no time reassembled his team in Yichang, Hubei Province. The collecting was good--Wilson began to accumulate vouchers, photographs, and plant material (including two Acer griseum seedlings that still grow in the Arboretum's collection). His first batch of lilies was also coming along nicely. According to the Farquhar contract, Wilson was to collect from \"Central China\" (namely Hubei) ten thousand bulbs, mostly the strident orange Lilium henryi but also L. leucanthum var. chloraster and L. brownii, both creamy white. (A collection like this would be unthinkable to modern collectors, not just logistically but because it is wholly unethical to dig up bulbs like this.) For those, Farquhar would pay $0.25 each (about $7 today). In a letter to Sargent before the turn of the year, Wilson commented that he would meet the quota but was worried about the cost of freight due to the quantity and weight of the cases. Rather than balling each bulb in clay, as he had done previously for Veitch, he informed ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 18 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 On February 2, 1909, Wilson photographed men in Yichang packing cases of lily bulbs for shipment. For this second shipment to Boston, all of the bulbs were balled in clay. Sargent that \"this year I intend to try packing in dry sand only. This method ought to succeed but I know I shall be broken up if it fails.\" On January 17, 1908, thirteen cases--containing eleven thousand bulbs in total--left Yichang, travelling by ship down the Yangtze for Shanghai, then to England, and eventually Boston. Wilson ended up compromising on the packing. The Lilium henryi were packed in sand; the other two species were balled in clay. \"This is an experiment tried on the grounds of economy in freight and packing cases,\" Wilson wrote in a letter to Farquhar on January 29. \"For if it succeeds both parties benefit. If it fails both suffer loss.\" Adjusting for inflation, the bounty would fetch a sum of about $77,000 today. Farquhar would have his bulbs, Sargent a subsidized expedition, and Wilson the satisfaction of another job well done. Wilson and his team departed Hubei that spring and headed west into Sichuan for the second part of what he thought was his final campaign. In late May and June of 1908, he saw his \"royal lady\" in bloom in the Min River Valley near Wenchuan and Maoxian and made multiple herbarium vouchers under number 1446. (These were later designated as type specimens for Lilium regale.) No doubt, he was gearing up for the next round of bulb collecting to occur that autumn. In August, Wilson received a letter from Sargent, sent April 25. The news was devastating. Sargent reported that of the six thousand or so bulbs of Lilium henryi, which were not balled in clay, only four to five hundred had survived. Although it appeared that those encased in clay fared better (at least the bulbs sent to Sargent), most cuttings, grafts, and seeds of tree species had also died. \"The loss of the bulbs, however is a secondary matter as that is only the loss of money,\" Sargent wrote. \"In the loss of cuttings and grafts of plants like Willows, Poplars and Elms, the matter is much more serious because we have not seeds of these and you are not likely to be in a region to obtain them again.\" Sargent added, \"We are all, of course, greatly E.H. Wilson and the Regal Lily 19 disappointed over the outcome of this consignment, but, as I said before, I feel absolutely sure that you did what you thought was best.\" After receiving this devastating message, Wilson responded, \"I need not enter into my feelings of bitter disappointment and vexation on mastering its contents. In slang language I was `knocked all of a heap.'\" He promised Sargent he would \"remedy the failure.\" On October 30, Sargent wrote to Wilson: \"If it is possible to make up the loss in Farquhar's Lily bulbs, I hope you will do so, as we counted on the profit from these bulbs to pay a considerable part of the expenses of the expedition.\" This time, instead of the long-about method of getting to Boston via Europe, the bulbs would be shipped to the West Coast and travel across the continent on the Canadian Pacific Railroad (the method that Farquhar used to transport bulbs from Japan). And they would all be encased in clay, regardless of the extra freight costs. According to Farquhar's contract, the second shipment of another ten thousand bubs from \"Western China\" (namely Sichuan) would be shipped out in February 1909. This colorful motley would comprise equal numbers of Lilium bakerianum, L. leucanthum, L. duchartrei, L. sutchuenense (a synonym of L. davidii), and, of course, the regal lily. For these, Farquhar would pay $0.35 for each sound bulb delivered to Boston (about $9.90 today). Wilson rallied to meet this and then some. He added a few L. lophophorum to the mix and, in a letter to Sargent on December 29, reported that he had secured a total of twenty thousand lily bulbs, all balled in clay. \"Last year's experiment in attempted economy has been enough!\" he wrote. When the bulbs left Yichang for Boston, on February 20, 1909, the thirty-two cases included over two thousand bulbs of regal lily. \"This collection is a large one, and has been got together at a great expenditure of energy, indeed, I hardly know how it has been obtained,\" Wilson wrote to Sargent on March 9. \"If the bulbs arrive safely Messrs. Farquhar should not complain of there being nearly 20 instead of 10,000.\" Wilson continued with a boastful reflection: \"It gives them, I make bold to say, the finest chance they will have of securing not only the largest collection of Lilies from Western China that has ever been made but the only large one that will be made for decades to come.\" Wilson had no intention of returning. Without a doubt, such a quantity of bulbs would satiate the enterprising nurseryman. The higher premium ($0.35 a bulb) would satisfy the Arboretum's chief as well, for it would amount to almost $200,000 today. And lastly, having rectified the previous year's failure, Wilson could wrap up his work in China and return to England and his family. He left Beijing in April via train, eventually taking the Trans-Siberian Railway across the expansive Russian landmass to Moscow. From there, he continued to the major cities of Europe, visiting nurseries, gardens, and herbaria along the way. By the middle of May, he reunited with his family in England and was soon looking at plants collected on earlier expeditions and reviewing the photographs that he took on the recent trip. Waiting for Wilson at Kew, however, was a letter from Sargent, dated May 24. Sargent began by addressing an issue that must have caused him--and Wilson--some consternation: the issue of other botanical explorers in China. \"Sometime ago you wrote me expressing regret that the opportunity had not been given you to remain longer in China. This I confess was a very great surprise to me for you had told me more than once that nothing would induce you to remain in China for more than two years.\" In 1905, Frank Meyer began to explore China on behalf of the United States Department of Agriculture (and the Arboretum, when he found woody species of interest). And in February of 1909, Sargent and Veitch Nursery jointly dispatched another Kew graduate, William Purdom, to pick up where Wilson was leaving off. While Wilson was eager to end the arduous work in China, he was also worried about his reputation and the prospect of being replaced. In the letter that Sargent referred to, dated March 9, 1909, Wilson discussed both Meyer and Purdom, and he admitted to \"a slight feeling of chagrin at being passed over so completely in favour of another and without a word of warning.\" He continued: \"It can be interpreted unfavourable on the work I have accomplished during the past two years. I merely mention this--I do not say I think it thus intended.\" ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 20 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Snow covered the hills south of Yichang, as Wilson prepared to leave China in 1909, for what he thought was the final time. Wilson took this photograph on January 21 of that year. And then, Sargent dropped the other shoe. In addition to the thirty-two cases shipped to Farquhar, another five (including three cases of bulbs and other plants for Sargent's private garden and friends) were shipped to the Arboretum. Not only had the smaller shipment \"arrived in the most unsatisfactory condition,\" Sargent wrote that the \"bulbs sent to me were in much worse condition than those of the previous shipping. I do not think there is life in one per cent. of them.\" As if Wilson couldn't realize the magnitude of the loss on his own, Sargent spelled it out: \"This is, of course, a serious matter for the Arboretum as it involves a loss of probably six or seven thousand dollars which there is now no way of making up.\" In a follow-up letter to Wilson on June 3, Sargent confirmed that Farquhar's bulbs suffered similarly. An annotated manifest noted that just 121 of the 2,182 regal lily bulbs were alive at the time of arrival. Despite careful packing, the bulbs rotted in the ship's cargo hold. On June 9, Wilson wrote to Sargent: \"The disastrous news you sent, re. the condition of shipments, is a severe blow to me.\" Wilson had spent two years of rigorous and dangerous work in China, away from his family and alone save the companionship of his Chinese team (which included Walter Zappey, who collected alongside Wilson for Harvard's Museum of Comparative Zoology). His own legacy's status loomed in his mind well before getting this latest news, and with this failure, Wilson likely felt his reputation would suffer. Perhaps recognizing Wilson's state, Sargent proposed that Wilson come to Boston that summer to work through the innumerable herbarium vouchers. Wilson--now unemployed and much in need of a salary--agreed, noting, \"It will also allow the `rounding off' of the expedition in a manner I hope completely to your satisfaction.\" Sargent still described the expedition as successful in a letter to Ellen Willmott on August 23, no doubt because of the photographs, vouch- ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES E.H. Wilson and the Regal Lily 21 Wilson photographed the habitat of the regal lily on August 31, 1910, just a few days before the landslide. \"A typical view in upper Min Valley,\" Wilson later captioned the image, \"showing barren desolate nature of the country.\" tributed to the Arboretum's Chinese Exploration Fund in hopes of a few plants of their own. The Wilsons departed Boston for England in the winter of 1910. Nellie and Muriel remained with relatives while Wilson retraced his journey via train back to Beijing. ers, and germplasm that had, in fact, survived. However, noting that the bulb debacle had cost the Arboretum nearly $8,000 (about $225,000 today), Sargent reminded her that she needed to remit to him the sum of ?6.10.3 (about $1,000 today) for her subscription to Wilson's expedition over the past two years. That September, Wilson, his wife, and daughter sailed for Boston, and he was soon organizing his herbarium specimens and doing his best to properly identify those lacking names. Nothing documents the conversations that must have occurred between him and Sargent, but within a few months, Wilson was planning a fourth trip to China. How much of this was due to Sargent's coaxing and how much of it was Wilson's need for redemption, we do not know. It was likely a mixture of both. Wilson planned a yearlong trip to Sichuan, with a focus on conifers that had evaded him before. To subsidize the expedition, Farquhar would still pay $0.35 for each bulb, while other private sponsors con- After the landslide and after doctors reset Wilson's leg, a Canadian Pacific Railroad train from Vancouver arrived in Boston. It was April 20, 1911, and the shipment carried Farquhar's complete order of bulbs, including some six thousand of the regal lily. They were immediately placed on the ground at the nursery and covered with soil. That summer, they flowered with wanton abandon, producing copious seeds by October. In Farquhar's Autumn Catalog, bulbs were already selling for $1.50 apiece ($40 today). Farquhar's Garden Annual of January 1912 lauded the regal lily, particularly the flower's unoppressive, jasmine-like perfume, and pre- 22 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 dicted it the Easter lily of the future. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded it a Gold Medal, and a beautiful illustration graced the November cover of The Garden Magazine (the American publication, not to be confused with the journal of the Royal Horticultural Society). Further admiration for it and other lilies appeared in an article in the same issue, with Farquhar's advertisements promoting their near-exclusive corner on the market. Wilson--the one who brought the horticultural world the regal lily--saw his reputation climb with that of the plant. The species, profiled on page one of Farquhar's Garden Annual of 1913, was attributed to \"the indefatigable plant collector, Mr. E.H. Wilson,\" who had collected it \"in remote and hitherto unexplored regions.\" That June, Wilson set the taxonomic record straight in The Gardeners' Chronicle, distinguishing Lilium regale from L. myriophyllum, the regal lily's maiden moniker. In this short article, Wilson also told the tale about the bulbs' transport \"on men's backs and by riverway 2,000 miles across China\" while he \"accompanied them in a stretcher or on crutches.\" While not as colorful and descriptive as his future retellings, Wilson was finding his voice. He was certainly getting much practice; in the same year, he published A Naturalist in Western China, a two-volume set of narratives about his travels. Farquhar's field of regal lilies in Roslindale, barely one mile south of the Arboretum, was abundantly populated, drawing crowds each summer. The Horticultural Club of Boston-- founded in late 1911 with John Farquhar and Wilson as inaugural president and secretary, respectively--made special fieldtrips to visit and witnessed some fifty thousand lilies in bloom in 1914. An article in The Florists Exchange titled \"Hardy Flowers at Farquhar's in July\" commented (perhaps with some hyperbole) on the lilies' display in 1916, noting that \"as many as thirty-eight fully developed flowers have been counted from one bulb on one stem, and a four year bulb will carry six stems.\" It was a popular item for sale and was frequently advertised in all the magazines. Farquhar's sale prices barely dropped to $1.25 a bulb through the teens, though there was the occasional offer of bulbs for $0.90 each. John Farquhar died in 1921, but the nursery continued under new leadership. Over the next decade, other nurseries such as Wayside Gardens (in Mentor, Ohio) and Baums (in Knoxville, Tennessee) promoted their own regal lily stock. Despite predictions that the regal lily would displace the common Easter lily as a forced bulb, production challenges limited this endeavor. A 1921 \"Talk of the Trade\" article in Horticulture Magazine noted how bulbs had to be \"carried over a year in a pot without having the flowers cut,\" which was impractical for most growers. Furthermore, a 1926 United States Department of Agriculture bulletin described how the market became flooded with smaller and smaller bulbs of poorer quality as growers offloaded stock, raising speculation about the species' worthiness. When Farquhar's nursery published its 1929 Garden Annual, regal lily was no longer profiled on page one, but was bundled with the other hardy lilies towards the back. Bulbs sold for $0.75 apiece, a price that continued to drop during the first few years of the Great Depression. Wilson, along with his wife, died in a car accident in the autumn of 1930. In 1932, R. & J. Farquhar Co. Nurseries went bankrupt and was resurrected as Dedham Nurseries. During the liquidation sale of all nursery stock, regal lily bulbs sold for just $0.15 each. The regal lily still sold through the midtwentieth century but was no longer an exclusive object of desire. Gardeners can be trendy, and it was the post-war era, when modern breeding programs were seen as the source of new plants, not old-fashioned field expeditions from a bygone age. George Pride, writing in these pages in 1974, summed it up: \"Although the Regal Lily has been superseded in favor with many gardeners by the fine modern trumpet strains of lilies, there are still gardeners who cherish and grow Lilium regale in its pristine, true species form and consider it still one of the best of all lilies.\" Brent and Becky's Bulbs of Virginia, one of the most well-known purveyors of geophytes in North America, currently sells the regal lily for $3.30 each. Facing page: Wilson and the regal lily (Lilium regale) were both celebrated in magazines, catalogues, and newspapers. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY 23 ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 24 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 While the regal lily was never officially planted in the Arboretum collections during Wilson's lifetime, Wilson cultivated a stand near his home on South Street. The original charter for the Arnold Arboretum, signed on March 29, 1872, declared that the living collections \"shall contain, as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air.\" Even though herbaceous plants were included, Sargent, knowing the charge was too ambitious, soon adjusted the scope to focus solely upon woody plants. His reasoning also related to the Arboretum's relationship with the Harvard Botanic Garden, in Cambridge, and to his own desire to create something unique within the university. The botanic garden possessed well-ordered beds of herbaceous plantings, and it is likely Sargent had no interest in competing with them. He would set out to monopolize woody plants instead. And thus, not even one of Wilson's wildcollected Lilium regale bulbs was accessioned at the Arnold Arboretum. In fact, regal lilies from China were first accessioned in the autumn of 2017. Xinfen Gao, a professor of botany at the Chengdu Institute of Biology, had collected seeds while doing fieldwork near Maoxian, along the Min River. To no surprise, plants grown at her house flowered freely every year and set copious seed. She provided some to Andrew Gapinski and me for the Arboretum's collections at the conclusion of our expedition to Sichuan in 2017. Over a hundred bulbs from this accession were planted in the collections last autumn. This isn't the first time the species was grown on Arboretum property, however. Numerous lilies, including this one, grew in E.H. Wilson and the Regal Lily 25 Wilson's personal garden, an Arboretum-owned house across from the then Bussey Institute on South Street. And, in the fall of 1963, Lilium regale was included in a lily demonstration plot established at the Arboretum's Case Estates, in Weston. With Lilium regale finally growing in the Arboretum's collections, I cannot help but ponder the persistent allure of the species. With dogged determination, Wilson pursued it for years, and the lily still draws others to the Min River Valley, including the whole entourage who worked on the CCTV documentary. Wilson noted the regal lily was limited to a fiftymile stretch along the Min River, where it was nonetheless common. And, despite his removal of nearly nine thousand bulbs between 1903 and 1910, the species still flourishes and is not considered endangered (though it probably deserves protection). In fact, a recent paper by Wu Zhu-Hua and colleagues reported surprisingly high genetic diversity and no bottlenecks among the populations that scatter the cliffs along the Min, Heishui, and Zagunao Rivers (all within the Min River Valley). It seems that those ever-blowing gusts play a role in the regal lily's lasting reign, for the researchers attribute the species' survival to long-distance pollen and seed dispersal. When I was there, with the lilies' fragrance blowing in the wind, something else was also in the air: a siren's song-- or rather a lily's song--to lure someone back again and again. Acknowledgments I thank Lisa Pearson for her assistance in deciphering Wilson's handwriting, as well as her, Jonathan Shaw, and Jonathan Damery for their constructive comments during this article's development. Bibliography Anon. November 4, 1905. Lilium myriophyllum. The Gardeners' Chronicle III, 38, pp. 328?329. Anon. September 9, 1916. Hardy flowers at Farquhar's in July. The Florists' Exchange, pp. 589?590. Anon. 1921. The talk of the trade. Horticulture, 34(3): 53?54. Franchet, M.A. 1892. Les lis de la Chine et du Thibet. Journal de Botanique, 6(17?18): 305?321. Griffiths, D. 1926. The regal lily. United States Department of Agriculture Bulletin No. 1459. Washington, DC. Grove, A. April 27, 1912. New or noteworthy plants: Lilium myriophyllum. The Gardeners' Chronicle III, 51, pp. 272?273. Herrington, A. 1912. Lilies from June to October. The Garden Magazine, 16(4):145?147. Horticultural Club of Boston, Minutes and Records, 1911?1919 (volume 1). Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University Pride, G. 1974. Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia, 34(3): 125?132. Sargent, C.S. Correspondence (series III). Charles Sprague Sargent (1841?1927) papers, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. Wilson, E.H. Correspondence, 1899?1930 (series W.XIV). Ernest Henry Wilson (1876?1930) papers, 1896?1952, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. Wilson, E.H. Fourth Expedition to China--the Second for the Arnold Arboretum (series W.V). Ernest Henry Wilson (1876?1930) papers, 1896?1952, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. Wilson, E.H. 1905. New and little-known lilies. Flora et Sylva, 3: 328?330. Wilson, E.H. June 21, 1913. New or noteworthy plants: Lilium regale. The Gardeners' Chronicle III, 53, p. 416. Wilson, E.H. 1915. Consider the lilies. The Garden Magazine, 21(6): 283?286. Wilson, E.H. 1925. The lilies of Eastern Asia. London: Dulau & Company Ltd. Wilson, E.H. 1925. Price of the regal lily: A treasure wrested from forbidding Tibet. The Country Gentleman. 90(36): 11, 145. Wright, C.H. 1906. Lilium myriophyllum. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 132: Tab. 8102 Wu, Z.H., Shi, J., Xi, M.L., Jiang, F.X., Deng, M.W., & Dayanandan, S. 2015. Inter-simple sequence repeat data reveals high genetic diversity in wild populations of the narrowly distributed endemic Lilium regale in the Minjiang River Valley of China. PloS one, 10(3). doi:10.1371\/ journal.pone.0118831 Wyman, D. 1964. Lilies in their order of bloom. Arnoldia, 24(10): 89?95. Michael S. Dosmann is keeper of the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Confronting Climate Change at an Urban Grassland: Preserving and Restoring the Grasslands at Green-Wood","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25676","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d0708526.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rossi, Frank S.; Evans, Sara; Charap, Joseph","article_content":"Confronting Climate Change at an Urban Grassland: Preserving and Restoring the Grasslands at Green-Wood Joseph Charap, Sara Evans, and Frank S. Rossi A ccording to standard ecoregion mapping of North America, New York City falls squarely within the eastern broadleaf forest--an ecosystem characterized by an overstory of tall, broadleaf trees, like American beech (Fagus grandifolia) and white oak (Quercus alba). The on-the-ground reality, however, is made obvious in the air: a plane flying low into LaGuardia International Airport offers its passengers a view of the city's expansive network of yards and parks, roads and parking lots. After generations of urbanization, New York City's tree canopy represents a mere 21 percent of its land cover. A comparable percentage is, in fact, represented by mixed grassland vegetation--the turfgrass in public parks, golf courses, and soccer fields. The city's cemeteries also house a significant portion of that vegetation, totaling an area of more than five Central Parks. At 478 acres, the Green-Wood Cemetery, in Brooklyn, is an active cemetery, a National Historic Landmark, and a curated arboretum, with a diverse and well-established collection of trees. It is also one of the largest urban grasslands in New York City. Founded in 1838, on land that was once forest, GreenWood includes rolling hills and kettle ponds. This topography, reflective of the landscape's position on a terminal moraine, made it inhospitable for agriculture but an ideal location to site a new kind of cemetery. Green-Wood was among the first cemeteries (after Mount Auburn Cemetery, in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and Laurel Hill Cemetery, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) built in the United States during the rural cemetery movement, a period in the mid-nineteenth century in which concerns over disease and rapidly increasing urban populations compelled city planners to site new burial grounds in the nearby countryside, instead of inner-city churchyards. In addition to providing burial space, these romantic, natu- CHARAP, J., EVANS, S., AND ROSSI, F.S. 2020. CONFRONTING CLIMATE CHANGE AT AN URBAN GRASSLAND: PRESERVING AND RESTORING THE GRASSLANDS AT GREEN-WOOD. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 26?31 Urban Grasslands 27 ralistic landscapes served as counterpoints to the bustle and tumult of cities, providing sites for passive recreation and spiritual reflection in an idyllic environment. Their development predated all public gardens and arboreta in the United States and would help institutionalize what became a quintessential American value: that all people, even city-dwellers, deserved access to green space. Green-Wood, at the time of its founding, was believed to combine an ideal set of virtues: it was close enough for a daytrip from Manhattan and far enough away that the land around it would never get developed. Since that time, Green-Wood's surroundings have radically transformed. Now bordered by the densely populated residential neighborhoods of Windsor Terrace, Park Slope, Sunset Park, and Kensington, Green-Wood's perimeter is directly flanked not by countryside but by the lessthan-bucolic Metropolitan Transit Authority's Jackie Gleason Bus Terminal and a Con Edison substation. Over the past two centuries, the rapid development and urbanization of GreenWood's immediate surroundings have increased the cemetery's relative socio-ecological value. Sunset Park, for instance, has the least amount of green space per capita among New York City neighborhoods. In the face of urbanization and increased disturbances from climate change, Green-Wood has returned to its roots as a community-focused public garden. This is a timely and crucial return for Green-Wood's resilience as a greenspace and for supporting the ecological health of the New York City region. In recent years, Green-Wood's collection of trees and shrubs has gained increased recognition and accolades. Among other things, GreenWood has collaborated with United States Forest Service on a project that led to the discovery of a new, as yet unpublished, species of woodboring beetle (Agrilus sp.), and Green-Wood's oak (Quercus) collection is now a Nationally Accredited Plant Collection. These efforts have highlighted the institution's importance within New York City's urban forest and have supported research vital for forest preservation. But what of Green-Wood's grasslands? Literally overshadowed by the larger, more charismatic trees and shrubs, Green-Wood's expansive grasslands are by far its most complex, dominant, and resource-dependent vegetation. Alterations to the management practices of these grasslands, therefore, may stand to have the most impact on the sustainability and resilience of Green-Wood in the face of climate change. Urban Grassland Ecosystem Services Over the last twenty years, with the advent of improved data capture and analytic technologies, researchers and policy makers have become increasingly interested in quantifying the relationship between humans and the natural world. The United Nations codified the conceptual framework of this relationship, known as ecosystem services, in the Millennium Ecosystems Assessment report published at the turn of the twenty-first century. The anthropocentric view of ecosystem services asserts that the natural world serves the needs of humans in measurable ways: by regulating climate and ecosystem health, producing raw materials, supporting natural systems through chemical processes, and providing cultural benefits. Humans, however, often impact the natural world in ways that demonstrably undermine those services. Urban grasslands showcase this tension. Grasslands provide a permeable surface for stormwater to penetrate, helping mitigate runoff from increasingly frequent extreme precipitation events. They provide habitat for wildlife and space for human recreation on a cushioning vegetated surface. Concurrently, at the soil surface, a seething foundry of microbial activity sequesters greenhouse gases, fixes nitrogen, and processes pollutants. Yet, by definition, urban grasslands, especially cemeteries, are associated with regular surface disruption from mowing and excavation, which destabilizes the soil surface, increasing erosion and releasing stored greenhouse gases. Turf is considered the most widespread irrigated crop in the United States, and its management also requires fossil fuels and a multitude of chemicals, including fertilizers, herbicides, fungicides, and growth regulators. The overall maintenance cost to the American consumer is steep: according to the market research group Facing page: Urban grasslands at the Green-Wood Cemetery, in Brooklyn, provide essential ecosystem services for the surrounding high-density neighborhoods. PHOTO BY MILES ABRAMS, REDWING DRONES FRANK ROSSI 28 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) spreads with aggressive rhizomes and above-ground stolons, presenting a serious management problem for Green-Wood staff. IBISWorld, households spent around $30 billion on landscape maintenance in 2019, with most of those services centered around lawncare. Expectations for high-intensity maintenance are especially pronounced at cemeteries, because they are publicly accessible landscapes of great emotional resonance, segmented by private ownership. Although ideal for a rural cemetery, GreenWood's glacially influenced topography is ill-suited for frequent mechanical mowing: the uneven ground is susceptible to scalping by mower blades and is further scraped by machinery navigating its steep slopes. The high-frequency mowing program causes surface disruption that leaves areas of bare soil and renders Green-Wood's grassland vulnerable to invasive organisms. Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon) is among the most aggressive invaders. Concerns about unsustainable mowing practices and the rapid expansion of Bermuda grass ultimately led to a collaboration between Green-Wood and the College of Agricultural Life Sciences at Cornell University. The threeyear partnership officially commenced in 2017 and has focused on developing intelligent and climate-sensitive strategies for grassland preservation and restoration. Intelligent Grassland Restoration Bermudagrass is a warm-season species found in the humid transition zone in the southern United States. It was likely introduced from eastern Africa through ship ballast and intentional planting as a pasture grass. With the reduced frequency of lethal winter temperatures, grasses and forbs more characteristic of warmer areas are now persisting farther north. The observed northern expansion of Bermuda grass has also been accelerated in urban environments by the heat island effect. While it is unknown how Bermudagrass arrived at Green-Wood specifically, the population has flourished over the past decade and continues to increase. Bermudagrass spreads with aggressive rhizomes and above-ground stolons, producing an impenetrable monoculture that quickly covers newer, prostrate gravestones. The success of its colonization is in part due to Green-Wood's function as an active Urban Grasslands 29 FRANK ROSSI urban grassland managers. The researchers have also deployed microclimate sensors in three areas of the cemetery that present unique vegetative characteristics due to topography and light intensity. Together, these technologies will allow the team to differentiate plant populations, measure the level of soil disturbance, and define microclimates and soil types across Green-Wood's landscape. Intelligent grassland management also relies on tools from a larger toolbox, including refined methods of soil handling, weed seedbank management, and adaptive seed mixtures. The team intiated trials in 2017, which have already yielded positive results. These last two years were the wettest in recorded history, which caused the team to assess fungal disease susceptibility among varieties in the first new seed mixture. But additional mixtures, some containing native species, have established nicely within three months and are now persisting under regular disturbance with little weed competition. These findings suggest that site-specific plant selection can help to address the persistent disturbance associated with the urban environment. FRANK ROSSI cemetery with more than one thousand burials each year. Cemetery staff excavate and relocate soil whenever a grave is dug, and Bermudagrass moves with soil and spreads into recently disturbed plots, outcompeting other vegetation. The aggressive nature of Bermudagrass creates two problems: its rapid growth requires more frequent mowing to sustain an aesthetic expected by Green-Wood's lot owners and other visitors, and the dormant stage of straw-brown vegetation during the cooler months creates a poor visual aesthetic that is highly unfavorable to the majority of cemetery stakeholders. In order to develop an intelligent grassland management system that is capable of controlling Bermudagrass at Green-Wood, the team knew that it would be essential to assess shifts in plant populations in response to maintenance. The researchers from Cornell are currently investigating the use of new agricultural technologies that can analyze satellite imagery to establish baseline Bermudagrass population levels. This technology will require on-the-ground observations to test its accuracy and will ultimately be integrated into existing mapping systems that are widely used by To better understand grassland habitats at Green-Wood, a team of researchers from Cornell and Green-Wood have installed microclimate sensors. They also conducted soil samples with colleagues from the United States Department of Agriculture's Natural Resource Conservation Service. 30 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 The goal is not to eliminate the presence of Bermudagrass but to find ways to realistically manage its presence, a balance which would occur in concert with restoration of the grasslands. Future seed mixtures will be designed to create ephemeral flowering regimes that support specialized pollinator species and will include grass species that thrive on reduced mowing, allowing the turf to store carbon deeper in the soil profile. Colleagues at Oklahoma State University are also conducting genetic fingerprinting of Green-Wood's existing Bermudagrass population, in order to identify its unique traits. As part of a progressive adaptation strategy, we hope to establish Bermudgrass cultivars that would better meet the needs of urban grasslands in the future. Climate-Smart Mowing While distinctly rural in design, Green-Wood's landscape also reflects qualities of the lawn cemeteries that came after the rural cemetery movement: flatter areas of turf bordered by trees. Lawn cemeteries prioritized turf for its assumed ease of maintenance and its neat, uniform appearance. To maintain a manicured aesthetic, however, these lawns demand either vegetation that grows slowly and moves by underground rhizomes, or a consistent, low height-of-cut mowing regimen (often a complete rotation through the landscape every seven days). At Green-Wood, depending on the rate of growth, the maintenance of this aesthetic can equal between thirty-two and thirty-five annual mows, which require over ten thousand gallons of gasoline to complete, emitting roughly two hundred thousand pounds of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere. Operational challenges that come with this level of turf maintenance are compounded by the complexity of GreenWood's landscape, leading to worn-out vegetation and rutted soils. The team of researchers, along with GreenWood staff and contracted specialists from the landscape management company BrightView, are implementing a data-driven process that is more sensitive to climate change. They initiated a study in the summer of 2019 to reduce mowing frequency by 85 percent on approx- imately two hundred acres, chosen for their topographical features and known levels of visitation. The team tracked equipment usage to assess actual mowing times and collected detailed observation of grassland response in terms of species richness. After three months, the acreage under the experimental reducedmowing program was scaled back for several reasons: the disparate areas made it difficult to manage revised specifications; aesthetic concerns were voiced by staff members; and critical feedback came from cemetery stakeholders. While the general public voiced strong enthusiasm for the program, some lot owners saw the longer grass as a symbol of neglect. We learned that it is often best to implement changes like this gradually, allowing for increased community engagement throughout the process. Nevertheless, much was gained during this first effort. The data gathered have enabled us to align mowing frequency with growth rate, thereby permitting a slight increase in cutting height, while respecting the expectations of stakeholders. These efforts will be strengthened as we continue to sow new seed mixtures in high-visitation areas, incorporating plants that require less mowing, while simultaneously increasing species richness. Quietly Planning to Raise Awareness The association between humans and grasslands is intimate and well-established: grasslands regenerate the soil for crops, sustain grazing animals, and fulfill an innate human desire to connect with the natural world. While a growing body of research is devoted to ecosystem services provided by urban grasslands, the people who most directly interact with these urban spaces are often unaware that the landscapes are, in fact, grasslands. This is more than semantics. Seeing cemeteries, public gardens, parks, sports fields, and golf courses as urban grasslands forces a paradigm shift. In this light, the grassland is not exclusively a feature of ruralness but rather one that is present in urban environments, within walking distance. This shift can help the public see that green vegetation is everywhere: in parks and gardens, on playing fields, and in cemeteries. The urban In 2019, meadows were allowed to develop at Green-Wood. The meadows provided improved ecosystem services and lead to overall emission reductions. Photo by Art Presson. grassland concept unites all these patches of green and makes them part of a dynamic landscape. It encourages curiosity from a soccer player about the care and health of a ground on which she runs, and it transforms an apartment building's backyard lawn into an opportunity to combat climate change, simply by doing less. Raising awareness of the importance of urban grasslands like Green-Wood is a critical step toward sustainable, intelligent management. To this end, Green-Wood and Cornell are forming an Urban Grasslands Institute at Green-Wood, intended to share our findings and communicate the value of these often overlooked grasslands to a diverse urban population. The success of such an initiative is dependent on broader collaborations. The leaders of the project have invited a national group of experts from the field to consult on issues such as species selection and soil type, and will continue to look for opportunities to grow this knowledge base and expand its reach. As socio-cultural issues evolve, the Urban Grasslands Institute at Green-Wood will share information about a combination of technologies and smarter management practices, helping homeowners and grassland managers prepare for the challenges of a rapidly changing urban climate. While not explicitly articulated, one of the underlying goals of the project is to reform the discordant, one-size-fits-all model of landscape maintenance promoted by the lawncare industry, which has directly shaped the public's views of acceptable turf management. We hope to present a more nuanced model that optimizes the relationship between the biological and cultural functions of a landscape. Joseph Charap is director of horticulture and curator at Green-Wood. Sara Evans is manager of horticulture operations and projects at Green-Wood. Frank S. Rossi is associate professor of horticulture at College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Each Year in the Forest: Winter","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25677","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070856b.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Davis, Rachel D.; Hipp, Andrew L.","article_content":"Each Year in the Forest: Winter Andrew L. Hipp Illustrated by Rachel D. Davis ... Except for the point, the still point, There would be no dance, and there is only the dance. --T.S. Eliot, \"Burnt Norton\" T I he forest year has neither beginning nor end. It has, however, landmarks along its coiling journey. By December, the worms are slow in the soil. Pillbugs and woolly bears become still as the puddles freeze. Painted ladies and mourning cloak butterflies are tucked under sheaves of tree bark. At our home in the Chicago region, snow comes and goes. One weekend, we have enough to cross-country ski. By the next it has melted away. Some years, we have yet to plant the garlic. In a warm December, a few spring wildflowers start making headway on the next year. Colonies of bullet-shaped mayapple shoots emerge from the soil, leaves folded inside like tiny hands in prayer. Spring beauties sprawl beneath the leaf litter at the base of a sugar maple tree or under a rotting log, strap-like leaves curled and vulnerable, stems fragile. Foliage of the HIPP, A.L. AND DAVIS, R.D. 2020. EACH YEAR IN THE FOREST: WINTER. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 32?39 Forest: Winter 33 false rue anemone looks as ready for the new year as it will in March. Do these individuals survive under the snow all winter long? Are they making a calculated move that will give them an edge in the spring rush? Or are they making a tactical error? No matter what year, winter arrives with unexpected greens. Dark, leathery leaves of white bear sedge grow as broad as banana peels, while the narrow-leaved sedges cluster like mop heads in the forest understory and pool in shady depressions. Fronds of the spinulose wood fern recline against the oak leaves. Seductive entodon moss carpets the decomposing boles of fallen red oaks that started growing in the mid-1800s. The moss works intermittently through winter when there are few other plants to see, collaborating across the seasons with fungi and slime molds, algae and bacteria, and mice and invertebrates to digest and break apart the fallen tree. Evergreen leaves are gearing up to spend winter under the snow, ready to photosynthesize whenever the light is bright enough to fire up their chloroplasts. They are scaling back their hours to part-time. II The soil freezes and thaws repeatedly. Under the sugar maples, bundles of needle ice form at the surface of exposed soils, each an inch or so long and packed together like fists full of glass straws. Without an insulating layer of leaves, the ice heaves knots of soil into spires reminiscent of the stone formations in southern Utah's Canyonlands. The ice melts slowly in my ungloved hand, perfectly clear near the top and middle, swimming with soil particles near the base. If the soil beneath is warm enough, the frozen clods can be brushed loose like granola off a countertop, revealing a cool, moist bed of fine crumbles and worm castings. The year pivots on the week flanking the winter solstice. We awaken to darkness and return home in darkness. On my bike ride into work, a whitefooted mouse darts across the road and disappears into a shrub. It navigates the tangle of branches, and the light I turn on it plays on its back as though Pillbug and Earthworm Deer Mouse 34 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 White-Breasted Nuthatch Gray Squirrel Downy Woodpecker the mouse were a convict scaling a prison wall. Owls call in the morning while I walk in through the woods. In the darkness, the trees are silhouetted against the cloudy sky. The sugar maples are magnificent, messy-headed beasts with trunks as wide as picture windows that heave out of the soil and head straight up for several stories before bursting into crown. Bur oak branches stretch out even under the canopy, vestiges of an ancient savanna. Oaks and beeches hang onto a good portion of their leaves. White and red oaks are everywhere, with hop hornbeam, musclewood, black cherry, and hackberry filling in where they can. I'm freed to forget, for the space of the walk, everything I need a hand lens to see. The days hang still. There is the Christmas bird count with its coots and mallards, juncos and chickadees. The woods are filled with nuthatches, woodpeckers, golden-crowned kinglets, brown creepers, screech owls, barred owls and, down from the north, a saw-whet owl. There are always a few bluebirds. We pad around the house for the first few lengthening days of late December and January. The cardinals start to sing. Forest: Winter 35 Then snow falls and blankets everything. In the midst of a snowstorm that lasts for hours, geese may be heard calling to each other from a nearby pond. As the sun goes down, the clouds shed enormous, cottony flakes. The snow goes on all night. We awaken to a clear sky, with Jupiter swinging up above Venus's left shoulder, the moon high in the southwest, a few steps from the planets. Paper birch fruits skid across the surface of the snow. Norway spruce needles from nearby backyards pepper the drifts. If it is cold and dry enough, the wind whips the fallen snow into sharp ridges that run along the margins of fallen tree trunks, forming slot canyons that reveal duff spilling out from beneath the trunks. Snowflakes link arms, cantilevering from the tree branches. Hoar frost sprouts from the ice along the creek like moss sculpted in porcelain. Water bubbles along beneath. III Snow hides, then it records and reveals. Mammal tracks run everywhere, except during the bitterest cold. White-footed mice gallop, tails licking the surface, forepaws and hind paws paired. Their tunnels weave through the snow, leading to crystal-edged holes. A scrabbling near one end of a mouse trail captures the frustrations of a fox. Meadow voles scurry, paws alternating. But we often don't see them. They begin their paths as tunnels between grass nests and the bases of tree trunks, but they often pop up for a quick view before they dive back down. When temperatures rise, these portals through the surface of the snowpack sweat a frosty collar, and the roofs of the tunnels become thin, translucent, graying over the darkness inside. When the roofs cave in, the tunnels are etched into the melting snow. They freeze again. Then the snow melts away and is gone altogether for a few weeks. Channels appear chewed into the grass. The snow returns. This coming and going of snow is common throughout the winter in southern Wisconsin and northern Illinois, where I have lived almost all of my life, and it's fundamentally different from the persistent snowpack of the north, which insulates the ground through the coldest weeks.1 During January 2019, when temperatures hit -30?F (-34?C)--so cold that a cup of boiling Red Oak Buds 36 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 water, tossed in the air, would vaporize into a cloud of fog before it hit the ground--the mice and voles carried on under the snow, feeding on tubers and plant stems, girdling willows. At the bottom of the snowpack, the bottom layers sublimate away, leaving a crystalline rooftop with an air gap for the mice to occupy.2 They are out of the line of sight of hawks and coyotes, though within earshot. The unlucky mouse may meet its maker crushed in the talons of a great horned owl that plucked it from the snow. Aside from that risk, the snow is the mouse's blanket and the earth its furnace. I fixate on tracks. I spent a week of 2019 mistaking skunk tracks for raccoon. Downers Grove is an exceptionally skunky town, so I should know better. Part of the blame goes to my preconceived notions about when skunks ought to be out. It's not warm enough for them, I thought. That's the downside of experience: it insinuates itself between you and what you're looking at. I'll give another part of the blame to the powdery snow, which was too airy to take more than a vague impression. But a week later, just a little warmer, and the snow was excellent for tracks. Opossum prints showed the rear-paw thumb as clearly as a textbook. I could have measured the claws on the gray squirrels and the lengths of the white-footed mice paws. The \"raccoon\" I had been following resolved clearly to skunk, with defined claws in lieu of the asymmetrical prints of the raccoons, which themselves showed up along a ditch that day with crystal clarity. Sharp-tipped maple seedlings and barren seed heads of wild leeks pierce the snow. Then the snow melts away, and I hardly notice them. A dusting over the top of a severed oak draws my attention to the white rot inside, throwing into relief the dark sutures between colonies of turkey-tail fungus devouring the wood. Dark, root-like networks of honey mushroom rhizomorphs become visible against the boles of fallen trees as the bark disintegrates. During the growing season, they invade roots of uninfected trees and work their way up beneath the bark, where the fungus infects the wood and causes decay. They aren't more prevalent in the winter, but snow masks so much that I notice things I would never see without it. IV Near the middle or end of February, winter starts to break. If it's very warm, bluebirds and mourning doves and chickadees will sing their hearts out as they shuttle around the neighborhoods. Red-bellied woodpeckers bark. Male redwing blackbirds return ahead of their potential partners and showboat around the ponds and ditches, singing from the spear-tips of the previous year's cattails and from the tops of the smaller trees. One morning a song sparrow returns: I hear it before I see it. It is a kind of springtime, but ephemeral, not the spring we planned for. In the exceptionally warm winter of 2017, fog descended on the region one February night, and we awoke to temperatures near 50?F (10?C), a winterresident robin singing, beating the sunrise by an hour and a half. I got to Forest: Winter 37 Skunk and Tracks the Morton Arboretum a bit before five. Fog hissed against the high-tension lines near the gate. I parked my bike and walked in through the unevenly blackened forest. The arboretum was a pioneer in burning oak woodlands to control weeds and promote understory diversity. The natural resources crew burns every year, and that February marked the beginning of one of the best burn seasons I've witnessed since I started working there in 2004. Raindrops hit the charred leaves at intervals, heavy, less resonant than they would have been on freshly downed leaves. This had been a particularly thorough burn, but even so, strips and patches of unburned leaves remained, and some logs that might have burned well went untouched while others smoldered for days. Flames were still darting out from the ragged end of a log. How must it have felt to come across spontaneous fire like this in the wild when it was still easier to carry coals from place to place than to start them from scratch? Over and over, groups of people must have rediscovered this mystery and felt grateful. Chorus frogs called from the lowlands near the interstate. I retrieved my bike, and on the ride into the herbarium, I heard the unmistakable whistling of a woodcock flying low overhead. He landed and uttered a single \"peent\" in the field between the planted buckeyes and the woods adjoining the lake sedge marsh. I waited a few minutes, but he had no more to say. This was early for the woodcock's return. Its migration north is perhaps more variable than other birds', who synchronize with the increasing day length. Songbirds moving through may live on insects that navigate the furrows in the warming tree bark. They search for groggy moths and butterflies, and berries still hanging from the trees. The woodcock, by contrast, follows the worms northward as they awake. Its prehensile bill is good for poking holes in the 38 Arnoldia 77\/3 ? February 2020 Woodcock Song Sparrow soil and snagging prey. Woodcocks are reputed to eat more than their weight in earthworms each day.3 The woodcock is not like the chorus frog, who can begin singing in the spring, stop when the weather gets cold, begin again, and then stop all summer long before its fall renaissance. The woodcock is different: when it returns, spring must be around the corner. The woodcock is committed to it. V We couldn't bear incessant spring exuberance. So, we are allowed a short break. Just as the most vivid dreams come when we are falling into sleep or stretching out of it, so the attenuation of stimuli in winter heightens our awareness. We notice praying mantis egg cases that we had missed in the fall. We pass a frozen pond and think of water milfoil and coontail and bladderwort on its floor, turions twisting toward March, common duckweed suspended below the surface of the ice or frozen into it, snapping turtles drifting noiselessly beneath the surface. We think back to the toads we saw moving through in June and wonder where they have buried themselves. The season meanders northward. One afternoon near the end of February, an enormous flock of sandhill cranes flies over. I may be inside with the dog, or in the garage with my bike flipped upside down, oiling the chain, when I hear their call from the south, like a sound that would have been familiar to the dinosaurs, though they never actually had a chance to meet. I run out to watch the cranes pass, impossibly high, sometimes concealed inside a cloud. They sound as loud as if they were in a park at the end of the block. They stream by, croaking, strings of them twisting away behind the tipmost point that glides on ahead. They catch sight of a marsh below and grow disoriented, suffer a few moments of uncertainty, continuing to drift northward like a cloud. Then they regroup, and then they are gone. Whatever I was thinking of when the cranes first started calling has mostly drained away, but not utterly, and the cranes are gone so soon that the thoughts flood back in. I wander back to what I was doing. We are not the same people we were last December. The cycles of freezing and thawing have heaved something loose. We are ready for spring. Forest: Winter 39 PLANTS REFERENCED Acer saccharum ? sugar maple Allium tricoccum ? wild leek Betula papyrifera ? paper birch Carex albursina ? white bear sedge Carex lacustris ? lake sedge Carpinus caroliniana ? musclewood Celtis occidentalis ? hackberry Ceratophyllum demersum ? coontail Claytonia virginica ? spring beauty Dryopteris carthusiana ? spinulose wood fern Enemion biternatum ? false rue anemone Entodon seductrix ? seductive entodon moss Fagus grandifolia ? American beech Lemna minor ? common duckweed Myriophyllum sp. ? water milfoil Ostrya virginiana ? hop hornbeam Picea abies ? Norway spruce Podophyllum peltatum ? Mayapple Prunus serotina ? black cherry Quercus alba ? white oak Quercus macrocarpa ? bur oak Typha ? glauca ? hybrid cattail Quercus rubra ? red oak Utricularia sp. ? bladderwort Praying Mantis Case Endnotes 1 Curtis, J.T. 1959. Environment. In The Vegetation of Wisconsin (pp. 25?48). Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. 2Peter Marchand writes eloquently about this in his fascinating 1987 book, Life in the Cold: An Introduction to Winter Ecology. Hanover and London: University Press of New England. 3Ehrlich, P.R., Dobkin, D.S., and Wheye, D. 1988. The Birder's Handbook: The Field Guide to the Natural History of North American Birds (p.140). New York: Simon and Schuster\/Fireside. Andrew Hipp is the Senior Scientist in Plant Systematics and Herbarium Director at the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. He conducts research on the origins and implications of plant diversity, with a focus on oaks, sedges, phylogenetic ecology, and trait evolution. You can read about his research at https:\/\/systematics.mortonarb.org\/lab and follow his natural history blog at https:\/\/botanistsfieldnotes.com. Rachel Davis is an independent visual artist in the Chicago area. She works at the interface of natural science, abstract painting, printmaking, and textiles, integrating the formal and empirical elements of the natural world in her work. You can see more of her work at https:\/\/artbumble.com and follow her on Instagram: @art_bumble. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Promise of Bark: Eucommia ulmoides","article_sequence":6,"start_page":1,"end_page":null,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25678","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070896f.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Richardson, Kathryn","article_content":"RICHARDSON, K. 2020. PROMISE OF BARK: EUCOMMIA ULMOIDES. ARNOLDIA, 77(3): 40 Promise of Bark: Eucommia ulmoides Kathryn Richardson On July 1, 1910, Ernest Henry Wilson was traveling through Yunyang County, Chinathen part of eastern Sichuan Provincecollecting plant material for the Arnold Arboretum. The region is extremely mountainous, with footpaths snaking along vertiginous river valleys, through naturally formed rock tunnels, and past old fort barrack sites. Wilson photographed many large trees in the region, and his passage was crisscrossed by men carrying loads of salt and other commercial products. He photographed one of these men shouldering two large bundles of bark that were suspended from either end of a wooden rod. This was a shipment of du-zhong, a medicinal bark from the hardy rubber tree (Eucommia ulmoides), which was prescribed then, as it still is today, for kidney and liver ailments, among other health issues. Wilson never observed wild populations of Eucommia ulmoidesthe only species in its family, Eucommiaceaealthough he frequently saw two or three medium-sized trees planted near houses. Overharvesting and deforestation were likely (and continue to be) the cause for the rarity of sightings in the wild, but bark for medicine was abundant in cultivation. This medicinal use, however, was not the sole interest of botanists in Europe and North America. When the bark is harvested, dried, and gently broken, a latex-like product becomes visible. This characteristic aroused commercial interests. In 1911, Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director of the Arnold Arboretum, wrote, in the Bulletin of Poplar Information, about considerable excitement that had arisen around the species. This is a hardy tree to which a good deal of space has recently been given in the daily papers as the 'Hardy Rubber-tree,' and as a possible source of rubber in cold climates, Sargent wrote. If true, this use would provide a considerable breakthrough, given that commercial rubber was produced from a Brazilian species, Hevea brasiliensis, which could only be cultivated in the tropics. Five years later, however, Sargent returned to the subject with a more dismal assessment, noting that the plant has been of more interest to the energetic newspaper report than it can ever be to the manufacturer of rubber goods. The Arboretum's oldest specimen of Eucommia ulmoides (accession 14538*A) grows along Linden Path, not far from the Hunnewell Building. The plant was received from James Veitch & Sons nursery in 1907 and was likely collected on an earlier Wilson expedition. The tree now graces visitors with its thick, sturdy branches that extend upward in a stair-like fashion. The bark is deeply ridged and furrowed, and has become a home for various moss and lichen. The elm-shaped leaves emerge in the spring. When gently pulled apart, the leaves reveal strings of latex within, each as thin as spiders' silk. Although Sargent's predictions about the commercial use of this latex product would prove accurate in North America and Europe, the Flora of China indicates that the rubber-like product has been successfully used for insulating electrical cables, sealing pipes, and even filling teeth. Medical research has increasingly pointed to the benefits of the bark for lowering blood pressure. Today, wild populations of Eucommia ulmoides are heavily protected. The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the species as vulnerable to extinction in the wild and estimates that fewer than one thousand mature individuals remain in widely scattered populations, mostly on steep slopes that are difficult to access. Collectors on recent Arboretum expeditions have never witnessed the species in the wild, although, like Wilson, they have observed the trees in cultivation. Whether wild or cultivated, Eucommia provides a direct reminder about the importance of plants beyond the garden walls: as medicine, as dreams of rubber, and as livelihoods for those who harvest and share what the plants have provided. Kathryn Richardson is a curatorial assistant at the Arnold Arboretum."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23468","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e8528.jpg","title":"2020-77-3","volume":77,"issue_number":3,"year":2020,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Marian Roby Case: Cultivating Boys into Men","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25670","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070b36d.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pearson, Lisa","article_content":"PEARSON, L. 2019. MARIAN ROBY CASE: CULTIVATING BOYS INTO MEN. ARNOLDIA, 77(2): 2?9 Marian Roby Case: Cultivating Boys into Men Lisa Pearson Only Hillcrest farm boys, we'll soon by Hillcrest men, True and trusted citizens, we'll work for Weston then. Bound to make her greater far than she has ever been. We are the farm boys of Weston. A -- FIRST VERSE OF \"HILLCREST SONG\" t the turn of the twentieth century, Weston, Massachusetts, was a farming town that had become a country retreat for the well-to-do of Boston. With a commuter train connecting it to downtown Boston, less than twenty miles away, wealthy families had moved westward, searching for fresh air and rural activities. Among these estates arose an unconventional operation: an experimental farm, launched in 1910, by Marian Roby Case. For more than three decades, Case conducted the operations of a remarkable educational and horticultural enterprise called Hillcrest Gardens, which made a lasting impact on the boys who participated. In 1920, a Whitman Times article by Louis Graton described Hillcrest as \"a truly philanthropic institution ... where boys, any boys, may receive, under expert tutoring, up-to-date instruction in fruit and vegetable growing. These boys are also taught the rudiments of good business. They are sent out with the truck, well loaded with the choice products their own hands have helped to raise ... to sell and thus learn self-reliance.\" Marian Roby Case was born in Boston in 1864, the fourth and youngest daughter of merchant and banking executive James Brown Case and his wife Laura Lucretia Williams Case. In her youth and young adulthood, Marian and her family divided their time between their home on Beacon Street, in Boston, and their country place, Rocklawn, in Weston. After her father's death in 1907, Marian, her sister Louisa, and their mother came to live year-round in Weston. Marian had inherited about ten acres of property from her father between Wellesley and Ash Streets and proceeded to purchase other nearby plots as they became available, assembling about seventy acres of orchards and arable land over the next few years. A Passion for Horticulture It would seem that Marian Case had always wanted to farm, as apparently had her father. When Hillcrest was established, she initiated an annual pamphlet, known colloquially as the \"green books,\" given the color of their covers. In the green book for 1918, she remarked, \"[I] had inherited my father's love for the care and cultivation of land. How often in travelling have I seen my father wax enthusiastic over the well-tilled acres we have passed.\" At their Weston home, James Case had indulged in his avocation, at least during the family's summer sojourns there, by raising prize livestock for exhibition at regional agricultural fairs. The family, whose wealth came from the dry goods business, and later banking, focused their philanthropy on organizations geared towards the improvement of society. Louisa Case was a donor to the North Bennet Street School, a training program in the manual arts located in what was then a section of Boston heavily populated with recent Italian immigrants. Marian Case was an active supporter of the Hampton Normal and Agricultural Institute, of Hampton, Virginia, through its Boston association. The institute, whose most famous graduate was Booker T. Washington, sought to educate black students to create future leaders in edu- For more than thirty years, Marian Roby Case operated an experimental horticulture training program at Hillcrest Gardens, her farm in Weston, Massachusetts. ALL IMAGES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 4 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 cation, farming, and business, and it is now known as Hampton University. Its programs stressed not only instruction in practical skills but had a deep grounding in ethical and cultural improvement. These training programs gained traction in Boston during a nationwide boom of secular and religious progressive activism in the second half of the nineteenth century, which aimed to address, among other things, rising income inequality. Andrew Carnegie famously outlined a vision for philanthropy in an 1889 North American Review article, in which he condemned ostentatious uses of wealth and urged that charitable giving should provide training and educational opportunities for the poor. James Case, for his part, attended monthly dinners hosted by the Unitarian Club, in Boston, where speakers often encouraged the affluent attendees to use their wealth for abolishing social hierarchies. In 1909, Marian Case's staff began preparing the land for the next year's farming season. The first eight Hillcrest boys were hired in 1910. This number steadily increased in subsequent years until it topped out at about twenty. The youngest were generally twelve years old, although occasionally some were younger. They worked half days for one dollar per week for the first two summers they were employed at Hillcrest. From the third summer and any summers thereafter, they worked full days and could earn up to twenty-five dollars per month. The pay was lower compared to other local farms, but each boy also received a new uniform every year, which looked rather like those of the Boy Scouts of America (an organization with complementary progressive ideals, which was also launched in 1910). The uniform consisted of two shirts, two pairs of pants, a Norfolk jacket, a tie, and a broad-brimmed hat. The boys also received a gift of educational enrichment more valuable than mere clothing in the form of lectures, study periods, journaling, report writing, and personal coaching on summer-long projects that fostered observational and writing skills. Case, following the model of the Hampton Institute, wanted to provide growth opportunities for the boys so they could develop into future leaders of their communities. We know a great deal about Hillcrest from the yearly green books, which provided a thorough review of the activities on the farm each season. The publication highlighted the reports presented by the boys during their annual convocation ceremony held on Labor Day, and these were interspersed with narratives written by Case, which provide a window into her thoughts and aspirations for her enterprise. It is interesting to see the degree to which the boys' papers became longer and more detailed as the years progressed. Some of this may be due to increased coaching that Case and her assistants were giving to the boys, but it also came from Case's desire to make the green books a resource for aspiring gardeners worldwide. We see articles by the boys to which Case had her farm manager Peter Mezitt--who founded Weston Nurseries in 1923--add additional material to explain a concept or technique more fully. Expert Instruction The boys' days were not entirely given over to farm labor at Hillcrest; Wednesday afternoon lectures were a weekly feature of the Hillcrest program. Hillcrest boy Ernest Little described them in 1935: \"One of the many advantages derived from Hillcrest Gardens is a series of instructive lectures planned by Miss Case. The program is so arranged that it includes every field of horticulture, floriculture, and botany here and abroad. They are given by leading men who are authorities in their particular line. It is with the greatest of pleasure that we welcome some of them back year after year.\" The speakers, of which there were well over one hundred by the time Hillcrest ceased operations, included a number of staff members from the Arnold Arboretum: John George Jack, who in nearly fifty years at the Arboretum was an educator, plant explorer, and dendrologist; Ernest Henry Wilson, one of the greatest plant collectors of the early twentieth century; Edgar Anderson, a geneticist and public outreach coordinator; Elmer Drew Merrill, the director (initially the supervisor) of the Arboretum from 1935 to 1946; and William Judd, a longtime propagator. Other speakers included horticultural publisher J. Horace McFarland; Arlow B. Stout, a plant breeder and research scientist Marian Roby Case 5 Over the years, the number of boys who participated at Hillcrest Gardens each summer rose to about twenty. The 1932 participants were photographed for the annual green book. at the New York Botanical Garden who spoke a number of times over the years on hybridizing and other aspects of plant propagation; John Caspar Wister, a longtime friend of Case who was a celebrated horticulturist and landscape designer; Edward Farrington, the editor of Horticulture magazine; and the Dahlia King of East Bridgewater, Massachusetts, J.K. Alexander, great-grandfather of our retired Arboretum propagator, Jack Alexander. Beginning in 1924, Case began to invite former boys back to speak at the Wednesday lectures on their experiences in business or in higher education. Brothers Joseph and E. Stanley Hobbs spoke on their respective paths into medicine and dentistry; Edmund Mezitt, whose father Peter had been employed by Case before founding Weston Nurseries, spoke about commercial horticulture; and Charles Pear lectured on his work as a weather researcher at the Blue Hills Observatory. By bringing the so-called old boys back to lecture before a new generation, Case demonstrated the success of her pedagogy at Hillcrest; boys were indeed being cultivated into active contributors to society. Cultivating Young Scholars As part of the educational component of Hillcrest, the boys were expected to keep a daily journal of their work and record their observations of the plants, insects, and weather. To this end, they were each given a notebook, pencils, and drawing paper at the start of the season. They had a daily study hour during which they could research, write about their experiences, or draw. Case worked with them personally on Fridays, critiquing their reports and coaching them on their public speaking. She also enlisted a long-serving group of local educators, including Joseph Gifford, an oratory instructor from Emerson College who worked on voice training with the boys. The summer activities culminated with the Labor Day exercises. The boys assembled and marched in carrying both the American flag and the green-and-gold flag of Hillcrest. The audience then stood for the Pledge of Allegiance, and the boys sang the Hillcrest song. Case, as mistress of ceremonies, then welcomed the guests and introduced the people who would be the judges for the boys' presentations. Each 6 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 Chen Huanyong (left) supervised the Hillcrest boys for the first ten summers. The first enrolled participant at Hillcrest was Harold Weaver (right). of the boys read a paper they had prepared on a subject having to do with the farm. At the conclusion, the judges withdrew and chose the winners from the younger and older boys. Prizes were awarded for the papers read that day, as well as for their work in the field and in the classroom over the summer. Boys who had successfully completed one summer with distinction received a Hillcrest pin. Boys who had completed three or more summers with distinction received a pin bearing the Hillcrest motto, Semper Paratus, \"Always Ready.\" The boys' families were encouraged to attend, and in some years, the boys were allowed to invite a girl as a guest. The subjects of the boys' papers tended to repeat from year to year. There was always a report on the Wednesday lectures, the weather, and a review of the season, which would suggest that the boys chose their subjects from a list of topics provided by Case. In the 1939 green book, Case thanks Charles Sprague Sargent, the late director of the Arnold Arboretum, for his support of Hillcrest, saying, \"Soon after Hillcrest Gardens was started Professor Charles Sprague Sargent became interested in our work and helped us in many ways by giving us beautiful lilacs and other shrubs and trees, and by letting us go to him for advice.\" Sargent also persuaded Case to sponsor an essay contest for students in the Weston Public Schools. From 1921 to 1932, junior high school and high school students wrote papers on subjects suggested by Case. Unlike the summer program at Hillcrest, this essay contest was open to both male and female students, and the girls took most of the prizes over the years. Marian Roby Case 7 Cultivating Young Horticulturists From the earliest days of its operations, Hillcrest's crop production was tailored to the preferences of its customers. In the 1913 green book, Philip Coburn, who had for the previous three summers conducted door-to-door sales in Weston, writes that when the seed catalogs arrived in the winter, he and Mr. Hawkins, one of Case's full-time farm employees, chose the coming season's seeds with an eye to customer favorites. During Hillcrest's first decade, direct sales were conducted in Weston and the nearby towns of Auburndale and Waltham, by horsedrawn wagon and concurrently by truck. Produce was occasionally carried as far afield as the historic Faneuil Hall marketplace in downtown Boston. By the farm's second decade, a summer stand opened in Weston near the village blacksmith on the Post Road, and doorto-door sales in town and in Auburndale were discontinued. Instead, direct marketing was concentrated in Waltham, as the dense population allowed for the best return on their efforts. Farm production catered to this primarily Greek and Italian clientele, with tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, and parsley. Sales at the market continued until 1930 when it was decided to provide Hillcrest's produce to a Weston grocer who would then handle all the cash transactions and bookkeeping. Case was eager to trial new crops. She developed a relationship with David Fairchild of the Office of Seed and Plant Introduction at the United States Department of Agriculture and received from him new seed introductions for testing. Likewise, in 1910, Case hired Chen Huanyong (Woon-Yung Chun), a Chinese undergraduate from the Massachusetts Agricultural College in Amherst, to take charge of the boys. He worked at the farm for five seasons until 1919. Meanwhile, in 1915, Chen enrolled in the New York State School of Forestry at Syracuse University, and after his graduation he came to Harvard's Bussey Institution and studied with John Jack at the Arboretum. Chen returned to China in 1919 and later became a professor at Sun Yat-sen University. Over the years, he sent seeds for many varieties of Chinese vegetables, including eggplant, cabbage, watermelon, and bok choy, which were excitedly planted and proved popular. Seeds also came from Case's friends in Italy with whom she often wintered, including zucchini and small white eggplants. In the present day of housing subdivisions and strip malls, it is easy to forget just how rural Weston and its neighbors, Sudbury, Wayland, Lincoln, and Wellesley, were one hundred years ago. In the early years of her enterprise, Case fretted as to whether Hillcrest was cutting into the business of other local farms. She had to strike a balance between selling their produce inexpensively but not selling it at such a low price as to undercut the other farms in town. In the 1918 green book, she wrote about discussing these issues with members of the local agricultural society: \"Last spring we made thorough inquiries as to whether Hillcrest was harming the other farmers of the town and were told decidedly no. One of our well known townsmen said, `Hillcrest is doing good work. It is interfering with nobody. Go ahead.'\" The Hillcrest Boys Initially Case limited the Hillcrest program to boys from Weston but very soon expanded it to include boys from Waltham and further afield. For the period, she was remarkably progressive in her acceptance of boys for the program, welcoming sons of old Yankee families, as well as recent immigrants from southern Italy and the eastern Mediterranean, and the son of her African American butler, George Weaver. Her mentorship, respect for, and longstanding relationship with Chen Huanyong also point to her progressive ideals. In an age when children were to be seen but not heard, Hillcrest boys were encouraged to speak and make their opinions known. In fact, as Case said in 1922, \"There is no sectarian or political influence exerted at Hillcrest Gardens; each boy has a right to his opinion, whether we agree with him or not.\" Harold Weaver, the first boy enrolled at Hillcrest, participated for six seasons. He was also the first of the Hillcrest boys to go to France, in 1918, with the American Expeditionary Forces of World War I, as part of the 369th Infantry Regiment, the all-black unit nicknamed the Harlem Hellfighters. Case published an excerpt Case was photographed by Vincenzo Ruocco, in Naples, Italy, in 1929. from a letter he wrote from \"somewhere in France,\" in which he said, \"You do me honor, Miss Case when you tell me that I am the first Hillcrest Boy to come to France. My Hillcrest pin is ever with me on the lapel of my blouse. I often look at it and think how I should dislike to lose it in No Man's Land and how I hope to bring it safely from No Man's Land to Weston again so that you yourself may see the pin that has travelled 4,000 miles.\" Case went on to name two other students who were serving in the military: one as an aviator in Texas, the other in the Marines. Weaver was commissioned a second lieutenant in France, perhaps due in part to the leadership skills he learned at Hillcrest. He and the other Hillcrest boys in uniform all returned safely from their service in the armed forces at the close of the war. Case never married and had no children of her own, but she nevertheless became a second mother to about one hundred Hillcrest boys whom she guided firmly but lovingly. In 1923, she reflected on her satisfaction in one of the boy's papers, noting that his \"tribute is very pleasing to one who has tried to mother the boys, and who through a long life has seen mistakes which she feels that the training in sturdy independence, responsibility, individuality and co-operation which the boys have at Hillcrest Gardens may help to overcome.\" The loving regard with which Case was regarded by the Hillcrest boys is clear in their writ- Marian Roby Case 9 ings and later reminiscences. Case seemed to inspire affection wherever she went. She was photographed by a friend, Vincenzo Ruocco, in Naples, Italy, in 1929, and he inscribed the picture, \"A Miss Marian Roby Case madre americana, con devoto affetto offre rispettosamente ed eternamente memore il figlio italiano.\" The note roughly translates to, \"To Miss Marian Roby Case, American mother, offered with devoted affection, respectfully and eternally, from her Italian son.\" Transitions As Case became older, she began to cast about for a successor organization to take over Hillcrest. She considered the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the University of Massachusetts, and other organizations, settling upon the Arnold Arboretum in 1942. The Hillcrest property was acquired by the Arboretum through bequests and donations by Case and her sister Louisa that occurred between 1942 and 1946. It was renamed the Case Estates and consisted of the family homestead, Rocklawn, and additional parcels of land and buildings acquired by Case. As part of the Arboretum, the property's main function was to provide additional nursery space for our living collections and to serve as a horticultural experimentation area. Weston's colder temperatures meant that plants that proved hardy there would definitely be hardy in the more temperate climate of Boston. In the 1950s and 1960s, experimental plantings and trial gardens were introduced to show plants, including herbaceous material, which would be appropriate for suburban home landscapes. The Case Estates buildings provided housing for staff and space for educational programs and public events. Case's will did not impose any restrictions on her bequests to the Arboretum, and she realized that, as times changed, the Arboretum might desire to sell the property, in which case she directed that the proceeds of the sale should be added to the general endowment. This outcome occurred in 2017 when the remainder of the property was sold to the town of Weston. In creating an educational work program for boys, Case sought to encourage future farmers, as well as leaders in whatever field a boy chose to pursue as his life's work. Women might well ask why she did not extend this program to girls. The answer is in the social mores of the era in which Hillcrest was conceived. In 1909, women were only starting to make their way into the public sphere, and it would have been very unusual for mixed groups of girls and boys to work together doing farm labor outside of a home situation. This was the era when school entrances had separate doors for boys and girls. Case grappled with what work was appropriate for the younger boys finding that the heavier farm labor was too much. Times, however, were changing. The progressive forces that inspired programs like Hillcrest were complemented by advocacy for women's rights, which extended beyond the right to vote. Pioneering women, especially the \"farmerettes\" of the Women's Land Army in Britain and the United States during World War I, led the change, and Case knew that a female horticulturist could be the match of any man. \"Sometimes I feel as if I would like to have a woman take care of my flower garden at Hillcrest,\" she wrote in Horticulture magazine in 1920. \"For as a rule women are better nurses. Men are good for spring and autumn work. They can plant, do good landscape work, go in for effects. But when it comes to the care that plants need in summer, the watching, nursing and babying I believe that women will prove better.\" She went on: \"There are some men who have this woman element to a large degree--not the feminine, there is a difference--of them, poets, artists and good gardeners are made. The marking of crosses on a piece of paper is not going to make any difference in the spirit of womanhood in either man or woman and there is still truth in the old saying that the hand that rocks the cradle is the hand that rules the world.\" Lisa Pearson is head of library and archives at the Arnold Arboretum. Her book Arnold Arboretum was published as part of the Images of America series in 2016. She had the pleasure of meeting two of the \"old boys\" from Hillcrest Gardens, Jack and Tom Williams, about fifteen years ago. They both spoke of Case in affectionate terms. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The <i>Viburnum Lentago</i> Clade: A Continental Radiation","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25672","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070b76b.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spriggs, Elizabeth","article_content":"The Viburnum Lentago Clade: A Continental Radiation Elizabeth Spriggs I arrived at the Missouri Botanical Garden's herbarium in the middle of a summer afternoon in 2014. I had spent the past two days driving and looking for Viburnum in the farm country of northern Illinois where occasional natural populations can be found in wooded roadside ditches. I was a second-year graduate student at Yale University, and it was my second collecting trip. This herbarium was an important destination because it is the second largest in the United States, and it has excellent collections of North American plants. I was planning to photograph all the viburnum specimens. I especially wanted to learn how to identify the seven viburnum species that taxonomists have traditionally grouped in the Lentago clade. A curator met me and took me to the viburnum section, where he showed me five full floor-to-ceiling cabinets. As I began to sort through the specimens that afternoon, I was totally overwhelmed: there were far too many to photograph, and I couldn't tell the species apart. The Viburnum Lentago clade is a small lineage of wide-ranging shrubs and small trees that are common in woodland edges of North America. Two members of this clade, nannyberry (V. lentago) and witherod viburnum (V. cassinoides), occur in New England and the upper Midwest. The lineage also includes the blackhaw (V. prunifolium), rusty blackhaw (V. rufidulum), and possumhaw viburnum (V. nudum), which have more southern distributions. Walter's viburnum (V. obovatum) occurs primarily in Florida, and V. elatum is restricted to Mexico. The species in this lineage all flower in the early spring and produce large blue or black bird-dispersed fruits. SPRIGGS, E. 2019. THE VIBURNUM LENTAGO CLADE: A CONTINENTAL RADIATION. ARNOLDIA, 77(2): 10?19 V. rufidulum V. prunifolium V. obovatum V. elatum core Lentago clade V. lentago V. cassinoides V. nitidum V. nudum complex V. nudum One of the most notable features of the group is that its members look very similar to one another, and nearly all the traits that distinguish the species are subtle. After my first day at the herbarium, I reread the two best treatments of the Lentago clade: Thomas Jones's 1983 graduate thesis and Waldo McAtee's A Review of the Nearctic Viburnum. Both taxonomic keys are full of equivocal phrases like \"leaves usually short-pointed or rounded apically,\" \"petioles more or less crinkly-margined,\" and \"veins less scurfy, usually glabrous.\" Resigned to the fact that I might not be able to tell the species apart, I decided to photograph as many specimens as I could with the hope that I would be able to figure them out once I was back in New Haven. Over the next couple of years, I spent many weeks collecting viburnums from wild populations in the eastern United States, collecting 330 individuals. I spent many more weeks looking at herbarium specimens. I did eventually learn to tell the species of the Lentago clade apart. Many botanists know the feeling: familiar species become easy to identify, but it is almost impossible to describe what is dis- tinctive about them. Once I knew the species, I understood the reason for ambiguous descriptions in the taxonomic keys. My own ways of identifying the species are just as difficult to describe--like picking out friends in a crowd of people. This detailed work on a small plant lineage led to surprising results and new insights into the biology of the clade. We even rediscovered a species, Viburnum nitidum, in the south eastern United States, which has been ignored for most of the past two centuries. It turned out that a lot can be learned from a group of plants that was known even to Linneaus, a lineage collected hundreds of times and studied by generations of taxonomists. History of the Clade Although most viburnums today occur in temperate or boreal environments, phylogenetic evidence suggests that the ancestors of Viburnum, and of the Lentago lineage specifically, lived in the warm temperate forests of Asia. Then, around thirty to thirty-five million years ago, Lentago moved into North America Taxonomists show the evolutionary relationships between species using phylogenetic trees. Here, a tree for Viburnum species in the Lentago clade reveals two primary subgroups: Species in the core Lentago clade, like V. prunifolium (left), produce flowers and fruit in unstalked clusters. Species allied with V. nudum (above) are borne on stalks. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS NOTED 12 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 (Landis et al., in prep). The only close relatives of the Lentago clade are V. punctatum and V. lepidotulum, which both live in warm forests in Southeast Asia, many thousands of miles of away. Because no closely related species occur in Europe or Northern Asia, it is impossible to be sure how the Lentago clade's ancient migration occurred. Researchers, however, have found a fossilized viburnum pollen grain in Iceland, which has distinctive characteristics typical of species in the Lentago clade. This suggests that Lentago was likely present in Iceland about fifteen million years ago and may have migrated to North America through Europe, over the North Atlantic Land Bridge (Landis et al., in prep). Once in North America, the Lentago clade split into two lineages: the core Lentago clade and the Viburnum nudum species complex. The core Lentago includes five species: V. lentago, V. prunifolium, V. rufidulum, V. obovatum, and V. elatum. The V. nudum species complex is a small, variable lineage, which I'm calling a \"species complex\" because when I started working on it, there was a lot of uncertainty about how many species were included and how they were different from one another. Like most of Viburnum, the species in this complex bear fruit on stalked inflorescences (umbel-like compound corymbs), but in the core Lentago clade, the inflorescences are sessile or unstalked, which means that leaves are produced immediately under the inflorescence branches. Each of these two lineages has radiated into habitats that today span the range of eastern North America from central Florida to Nova Scotia. Wild Hybridization One of the most enigmatic species of the Lentago clade is the blackhaw, Viburnum prunifolium. This species occurs in a geographic area that overlaps with both V. lentago and V. rufidulum, and it is intermediate between them in many traits. Joe Brumbaugh and Arthur Guard, who observed the overlapping ranges of all three species in Indiana, concluded, in 1956, that repeated backcrossing between these species--a process known as introgression-- could be a significant cause of taxonomic confusion. Botanist Linda Rader went further and argued, in 1976, that V. prunifolium might actually be a hybrid species formed by an ancient hybridization event between V. lentago and V. rufidulum parents. Although V. lentago and V. rufidulum do not come in contact today, it is reasonable to imagine that they might have shared a geographic range in the past and might have had opportunities to hybridize. Each of these theories about hybridization is supported by the fact that hybrids among the species are possible. The cross between Viburnum lentago and V. prunifolium is known as V. ? jackii. Alfred Rehder, a taxonomist who worked at the Arnold Arboretum for much of his career, proposed the name in honor of his colleague John George Jack, who, in 1908, noticed plants in the Arboretum that appeared intermediate between V. lentago and V. prunifolium and assumed that they were spontaneous hybrids. Although those individuals are no longer at the Arboretum, a specimen of V. ? jackii growing at the Morton Arboretum was obtained from the Arnold Arboretum and is likely to be from the same original lineage. The only documented set of controlled crosses between Viburnum lentago and V. prunifolium was carried out by Donald Egolf, a graduate student at Cornell University who would become a leading research horticulturist at the United States National Arboretum. His findings, in 1956, found that a cross between V. lentago and V. prunifolium yielded twentyeight seeds and twenty-six plants, roughly the same number as crosses between only V. lentago. These numbers are surprising because they suggest that intrinsic barriers that could prevent hybridization are very low for this species pair: if an insect transported pollen from V. lentago to a V. prunifolium flower, the V. prunifolium would likely produce fertile seeds. All of this indicates that hybridization is possible and could even be common in natural populations where both species occur. In order to test for hybridization and get a better understanding of these species, I went on a series of road trips to collect leaf samples from across the range of Viburnum lentago, V. prunifolium, and V. rufidulum, including areas where multiple species occur. At each natural population, I collected leaves to use for morphological measurements and leaves to use for DNA extraction and sequencing. Across all of these areas, I found no evidence of hybrid zones or ARNOLD ARBORETUM, US FOREST SERVICE, AND GIS COMMUNITY Viburnum 13 The overlapping ranges for three species in the core Viburnum Lentago clade raise questions about how these species remain distinct. Shown with V. lentago in blue, V. prunifolium in yellow, and V. rufidulum in green. of widespread gene flow among species. While the species sometimes appear morphologically similar to one another, it turned out that this variation is not related to genetic structure or hybridization. That is, in cases where V. rufidulum looked somewhat like V. prunifolium, genetic sequencing showed that it was still 100 percent V. rufidulum. Overall, our sequencing found that V. prunifolium did not originate through hybridization. Instead, V. prunifolium is sister to the southern V. rufidulum, and the northern V. lentago is a more distant relative (Eaton et al., 2017; Spriggs et al., 2019). Out of all the 180 individuals sequenced, only two appear to be admixed (have genes from two different species). These two individuals are from a small population in northern Kentucky where Viburnum prunifolium and V. rufidulum occur together in a rocky roadside woodland, five miles east of the Kentucky River. These individuals were morphologically similar to V. rufidulum (I labeled them as V. rufidulum when I collected them), but when sequenced, they appeared to be half V. prunifolium and half V. rufidulum. Floral Timing Whenever hybridization is possible but rare, it suggests that something is acting to prevent or eliminate hybrids, in other words, mechanisms of reproductive isolation. Hybridization in natural populations has several possible outcomes. One possibility is that hybridization between two species will be so common that the species will eventually merge to become a single species. At the other extreme, if hybrids between two species are unfit, natural selection can cause species to evolve ways of avoiding one another. In some plant lineages, closely related species have different numbers of chromosomes, often leading to inviable offspring. Another common way plants avoid interbreed- 14 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 Flowering time may explain why few natural hybrids occur between Viburnum prunifolium (left) and V. rufidulum (right). The author photographed both species on April 27, 2015, in Indiana. These temporal differences were later supported by analysis of herbarium specimens, which revealed a nine- to ten-day difference between flowering times for these closely related species. ing is with flowers that evolve to attract different pollinators. In the Lentago clade, however, the species have the same number of chromosomes (Egolf, 1956), and their flowers are extremely similar (Donoghue, 1980). How, then, do these species in the core Lentago group maintain their separation? The answer seems to lie in subtle habitat differentiation and phenological timing. Brumbaugh and Guard, in 1957, described habitat distinctions for the three overlapping species based on their work in Indiana: \"V. lentago occupies poorly drained areas; V. prunifolium, moist borders of woods, and V. rufidulum, dry rocky slopes.\" This characterization matches my own experience in the field, although I have also found that it is not difficult to find areas with two or more of the species occurring together. This kind of habitat differentiation could decrease how often the species flower in close proximity to one another. If the species are also adapted to slightly different habitats, hybridization might be disadvantageous because it could separate beneficial traits or cause beneficial traits to be lost altogether. Even more intriguing, several authors who have observed these species in the field or at arboreta sometimes mention offset flowering times. Viburnums typically flower once a year for only ten to fourteen days, and flowering time is often very synchronized within species (Donoghue, 1983). Rehder, in 1920, wrote that Viburnum prunifolium flowers about a week before V. lentago, and Rader, in 1976, noted that V. prunifolium flowered about two weeks before V. rufidulum. My doctoral advisor Michael Donoghue observed this same pattern, where V. prunifolium flowers about a week ahead of the other two species, while he was conducting his own dissertation research at the Arnold Arboretum (Donoghue, 1980). To investigate whether flowering time varies between the species in wild populations, I drove through Ohio, Indiana, and Kentucky in the early spring of 2015. In this region, V. prunifolium was very common and V. rufidulum less so, but over the course of a week, I found multiple populations of each species and consistently found V. prunifolium in full flower while V. rufidulum had green buds. Viburnum 15 Anecdotal evidence from single locations (even wild populations) is helpful but not all that convincing because each of these species occurs across a large geographic area, and each year populations experience a variety of climate conditions. To try to understand patterns of flowering time, I used herbarium specimens, which were excellent because the species are relatively common and have been collected hundreds of times from across their ranges. Even more importantly, most specimens are reproductive, meaning they have flowers or fruits, so we found plenty of suitable material, representing a large number of years. With the help of Caroline Schlutius, an undergraduate researcher, I found 1,379 flowering specimens that spanned the range of each of the species. By examining these specimens, we found clear geographic patterns in flowering time and consistent differences in flowering between species. First, we found that within each species, southern populations in warmer climates flowered earlier than northern populations in colder climates. More surprisingly, we found small but consistent differences in flowering time that remained remarkably constant across the regions where species co-occurred. In any given location, a nine- to ten-day difference in flowering time occurs between species, with a sequence that matches previous observations-- Viburnum prunifolium flowers before V. lentago and V. rufidulum. Because viburnums only flower for ten to fourteen days total, this small offset can dramatically decrease the opportunities for pollen transfer among plants. To be clear, these findings do not suggest that all of the individuals will flower in sequence every year in every location, only that in any given place for a particular year, the majority of individuals of one species will flower ahead of the majority of individuals of the other. Hidden in Plain Sight A second major focus of my work on the Lentago clade was the Viburnum nudum species complex. For the V. nudum complex, I wanted to sort out how many species there are, where they occur, and whether any traits consistently differentiate the species. In my first year collecting viburnums, I started in Florida and drove north. I was specifically targeting the V. nudum species complex, but it was very hard to find. I was surprised because viburnums are easy to find in New England, and I had expected to encounter populations driving down sideroads or in the state parks where I had permits to collect. This was not the case, and for future trips, I researched locations extensively using herbarium specimens and talking with local botanists. The first year, I collected a couple of individuals near Gainesville and then didn't find V. nudum again for a full week. The populations I had collected in Florida were in sandy soil along shallow streams, and I was looking for similar habitats as I made my way up the East Coast. I was driving on a small road along the edge of a black-water swamp in coastal South Carolina when I found the next population. A small group of viburnums was strung out along the edge of the road, several inches deep in muddy water, near a swamp with bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica). Not only was this a totally different environment than I was expecting but the plants looked different. The Gainesville plants had seemed delicate: they had small, narrow leaves, and the inflorescences bore bright pink and more mature black fruits simultaneously. This South Carolina population had thick leaves, larger than my hand, and pale green fruits. After several more collecting trips over the next several years, allowing us to sequence individuals from many populations, we discovered that these habitats are both typical for the V. nudum complex, but they contain totally separate genetic lineages, each adapted to its own environment. These results were surprising because they are at odds with the generally accepted taxonomy of Viburnum nudum species complex, which dates to the eighteenth century. Linnaeus described V. nudum in the first edition of Species Plantarum, published in 1753, and added V. cassinoides in the second edition, in 1782, distinguishing V. cassinoides by its leaf shape. Then, in 1789, William Aiton, the first director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, proposed two additional species, V. nitidum and V. laevigatum. Since then, more than eight other names have been proposed for segregates within the complex (McAtee, 1956), but none 16 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 As the author dug into the puzzling taxonomy of the Viburnum nudum complex, fieldwork revealed that the plants occurred in three distinct habitats. Most surprisingly, those in sandy soils in Florida (above) proved to be a long overlooked species, V. nitidum. Viburnum 17 of these have been widely recognized. In recent floras, only two species or subspecies are recognized: V. cassinoides in the North and V. nudum in the South (Jones, 1983; Small, 1933; Gleason and Cronquist, 1991; Ferguson, 1966; Radford et al., 1968; Strausbaugh and Core, 1978; Weakley, 2012). When we sequenced DNA of eighty individuals, we found three different lineages in the Viburnum nudum species complex, all of which seem to be evolving independently. Most importantly, we found that the way V. nudum is typically described makes it paraphyletic, meaning that the name refers to a partial evolutionary lineage. The oldest genetic split in the V. nudum complex lineage is not between the northern and southern populations (traditionally V. cassinoides and V. nudum). Instead it is between the large-leaved populations that occur in swamps and the rest of the complex (including sandy stream populations and northern populations). Our genetic data show that each of these three lineages is distinct and evolving independently, and therefore all three deserve to be recognized as species (Spriggs et al., 2018). Linnaeus's V. nudum matches the large-leaved species that occurs in swamps; V. cassinoides corresponds to the northern species in our analyses; and the sandy-soil species seems to match Aiton's V. nitidum. After surveying herbarium specimens from across the Southeast, we determined that Viburnum nitidum is mostly restricted to the coastal plain. From Florida it extends up to North Carolina, along the coast and in the Sandhills region, then west into the eastern edge of Texas. V. nudum is more widespread and occurs throughout the coastal plain and the Piedmont, from Delaware to Arkansas. The habitats of these two species are interdigitated across the Southeast, and the species occur in close proximity to one another frequently yet remain distinct and do not hybridize. Our findings support recent arguments that the flora of the North American Coastal Plain is under-described, meaning it is more diverse than the current taxonomies suggest (Sorrie and Weakley, 2001; Noss et al., 2015). It seems that this disregard was not always the case. Over the past century, field botanists, particularly southern botanists like William Ashe, of North Carolina, or Alvan Chapman, who spent most of his career in Georgia, recognized subtle variation in the habitats of the coastal plain and described many species. These proposed species have been systematically ignored or lumped into larger widespread \"species\" that may turn out to be paraphyletic. Genetic sequencing may vindicate at least some of these descriptions, as was the case for Aiton's V. nitidum. Significance of this Clade It is reasonable to question whether it is important to know how many species are in the Lentago clade or to know how exactly they are related to one another. If Viburnum nitidum is very similar to V. nudum, does it really matter that it has a separate name? Is it useful to know whether V. prunifolium originated as a hybrid species? Does knowing the recent evolutionary history of these species have any broader implications? I believe that all this lineage-specific knowledge about species limits, occurrences, and history is important for conservation and also provides insight into the ecology and evolution of North American forests. For one thing, species identities are fundamentally important because they affect how species are recognized and valued, and whether they are conserved. Some might view the long list of proposed (and subsequently ignored) botanical names for segregates of the Viburnum nudum complex as wasted effort, but I view these names and descriptions as essential contributions, stepping-stones leading along a path to accurately characterize plant diversity. The numerous common names for V. nudum, including witherod viburnum, possumhaw, wild raisin, and Appalachian tea, suggest that even nontaxonomists knew these plants and attempted to differentiate them. With genetic sequencing, we have new opportunities to get this right, to rigorously test species limits so that the current names and species descriptions are accurate. This is especially important because relatively few plant lineages in North America (or elsewhere) have been studied with fine-scale genetic sequencing, and there is much to learn. Accurate species descriptions are also an essential starting point for ecological studies that seek to understand species distributions 18 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 Finally, understanding the evolution of this small lineage can provide important insights into the evolution of the North American flora more generally. Each of the two major lineages of the Lentago clade diversified in eastern North America over many millions of years, and each lineage has differentiated into a series of morphologically similar but ecologically distinct species. Similar patterns of slow diversification into subtly different species are also apparent in other North American lineages like maples (Acer), dogwoods (Cornus), or ash (Fraxinus). Our work showed how the species of the Lentago clade have persisted through climate fluctuations associated with glaciation and provided evidence on one of the mechanisms (flowering time) that these species use to maintain their separation. Tensions around species identifications have hindered our understanding of the Lentago clade for over a century, but after years of observation in the field and extensive genetic sequencing, the species that had seemed incomprehensible to me at the SUZANNE MROZAK or interactions. If Viburnum nitidum and V. nudum are considered as a single entity, their distribution might be confusing or bimodal because it would include two very different habitat types. If, instead, V. nitidum is considered alone, its habitat preferences would likely be much more specific, and it might even be a useful indicator species that could serve as a quick way to identify a particular habitat or plant community. Similarly, species often differ for traits that are not readily apparent to human observers, and these can be critical in shaping interactions with insects or other species. Imagine, for instance, that there was reason to suspect that V. nitidum was a host species for a rare caterpillar, but in an assessment of this relationship, a researcher sampled V. nudum thinking it was the same as V. nitidum. This kind of mistake could lead to inconsistent or misleading results. Species are an essential unit for many ecological studies, and when species descriptions are inaccurate, there can be significant consequences. Taxonomic research reveals that all plants--even common garden denizens like Viburnum cassinoides (above)-- provide a record of millions of years of plant evolution. Viburnum 19 Missouri Botanical Garden herbarium became clear. Many other plant lineages that form the foundation of the flora of eastern North America likely have similar histories of subtle differentiation and persistence, promising countless stories waiting to be revealed. Landis, M.J., D.A.R. Eaton, W.L. Clement, B. Park, E.L. Spriggs, P.W. Sweeney, E.J. Edwards, and M.J. Donoghue. In prep. Joint estimation of geographic movements and biome shifts during the global diversification of Viburnum. References Noss, R.F., W.J. Platt, B.A. Sorrie, A.S. Weakley, D.B. Means, J. Costanza, and R.K. Peet. 2015. How global diversity hotspots may go unrecognized: lessons from the North American Coastal Plain. Diversity and Distribution, 21: 236?259. Brumbaugh, J.H. and A.T. Guard. 1956. A study of evidence of introgression among Viburnum lentago, V. prunifolium, and V. rufidulum based on leaf characteristics. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Sciences, 66: 300. Clement, W.L., and M.J. Donoghue. 2011. Dissolution of Viburnum section Meaglotinus (Adoxaceae) of Southeast Asia and its implications for morphological evolution and biogeography. International Journal of Plant Sciences, 172: 559?573. McAtee, W.L. 1956. A review of the Nearctic Viburnum. Chapel Hill, NC: Author. Rader, L.L. 1976. A biosystematics study of Viburnum p r u n i f o l i u m a n d Vi b u r n u m r u f i d u l u m (Caprifoliaceae) (Unpublished M.S. dissertation). University of Tennessee, Knoxville, TN. Radford, A.E., H.E. Ahles, and C. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. Clement, W.L., M. Arakaki, P.W. Sweeney, E.J. Edwards, and M.J. Donoghue. 2014. A chloroplast tree for Viburnum (Adoxaceae) and its implications for phylogenetic classification and character evolution. American Journal of Botany, 101: 1029?1049. Rehder, A. 1920. New species, varieties and combinations from the herbarium and the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 2(2): 121?128. Donoghue, M.J. 1980. Flowering times in Viburnum. Arnoldia, 40(1): 2?22. Sorrie, B.A. and A.S. Weakley. 2001. Coastal plain vascular plant endemics: phytogeographic patterns. Castanea, 66: 50?82. Donoghue, M.J., B.G. Baldwin, J. Li, and R.C. Winkworth. 2004. Viburnum phylogeny based on chloroplast trnK intron and nuclear ribosomal ITS DNA sequences. Systematic Botany, 29: 188?198. Eaton, D.A.R., E.L. Spriggs, B. Park, and M.J. Donoghue. 2017. Misconceptions on missing data in RADseq phylogenetics with a deep-scale example from flowering plants. Systematic Biology, 66(3): 399?412. Egolf, D.R. 1962. A cytological study of the genus Viburnum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 43(2): 132?172. Egolf, D.R. 1956. Cytological and interspecific hybridization studies in the genus Viburnum (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Cornell University, Ithaca, NY. Ferguson, I.K. 1966. The genera of Caprifoliaceae in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 47(1): 33?59. Gleason, H.A. and A. Cronquist. 1991. Manual of vascular plants of Northeastern United States and adjacent Canada (2nd ed.). Bronx, NY: New York Botanical Garden. Jones, T.H. 1983. A revision of the genus Viburnum section Lentago (Caprifoliaceae) (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC. Small, J.K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. New York: Author. Spriggs, E.L., C. Schlutius, D.A.R. Eaton, B. Park, P.W. Sweeney, E.J. Edwards, and M.J. Donoghue. 2019. Differences in flowering time maintain species boundaries in a continental radiation of Viburnum. American Journal of Botany, 106(6): 833?949. Spriggs, E.L., D.A.R. Eaton, P.W. Sweeney, C. Schlutius, E.J. Edwards, and M.J. Donoghue. 2018. Restriction-site-associated DNA sequencing reveals a cryptic Viburnum species on the North American Coastal Plain. Systematic Biology, 68(2): 187?203. Spriggs E.L., W.L. Clement, P.W. Sweeney, S. Madri??n, E.J. Edwards, and M.J. Donoghue. 2015. Temperate radiations and dying embers of a tropical past: the diversification of Viburnum. New Phytologist, 207(2): 340?354. Weakley, A.S. 2012. Flora of the Southern and MidAtlantic States. Retrieved from http:\/\/www. herbarium.unc.edu\/flora.htm The map in this article was created using Esri, USGS, USFS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, lntermap and the GIS user community. Elizabeth Spriggs is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Resolving the Enigma of Rainforest Biodiversity","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25671","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070b726.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"Resolving the Enigma of Rainforest Biodiversity Peter Ashton A berdeen, Scotland, as it was when I arrived as a professor, in 1966, at the cusp of the North Sea oil bonanza, was a very different coastal town from those in Brunei and Sarawak, where I had been based for eight of the previous ten years, while conducting fieldwork in the rainforests of Borneo. At 57? north latitude, the summer skies in Aberdeen never completely darken and native tree species are few, but the University of Aberdeen had a long tradition of research and instruction in tropical agriculture, including tea and rubber. As a new professor, I found colleagues with common interests, who shared my enthusiasms and encouraged me to continue in my research. A central puzzle had grown in my mind: How can so many species of giant sessile organisms--rainforest trees--apparently coexist in stable mixture and how did these communities originate? Elmer Merrill, celebrated botanist of East Asian floras and director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1937 to 1946, reasoned that the extraordinary species diversity of tropical and warm temperate forests in East Asia suggested an origin there for all flowering plants. Paleontological research and the growing science of molecular phylogeny would ultimately indicate the reverse--suggesting that the Aisian tropics were primarily devoid of broadleaf evergreen rainforests until the current tree families invaded in more recent evolutionary history-- yet the warm, wet equatorial climate of the tropical Far East appears, nevertheless, to be optimal for tree growth and survival. Around 4,500 plant species are known to occur in northern Borneo. ASHTON, P. 2019. RESOLVING THE ENIGMA OF RAINFOREST BIODIVERSITY. ARNOLDIA, 77(2): 20?29 Rainforest Biodiversity 21 Understanding how rainforest tree species sustain a stable mix within their communities and why these communities vary in species diversity was more than theoretical interest: If species are distributed at random within their soil-defined communities, how could consistent and predictable protocols for silvicultural management following timber harvesting be devised? At the time, research in temperate ecosystems was revealing that populations of tree species were remarkably genetically variable. This was the opposite of the widespread assumption that, for rainforest trees in species-diverse communities, self-pollination would prevail, resulting in low genetic variability within populations. As Charles Darwin foresaw, natural selection depends on the existence of diversity, which we now know to be genetic and heritable. Genetic uniformity within populations would imply lack of selection and suggest that species sharing the same habitat are ecologically complementary, surviving together through the random consequences of their seed dispersal. We decided to adopt a broad approach to explore these issues, combining crosspollination experiments with comprehensive observation of the reproductive biology of selected species, tracking them from bud formation to seed dispersal. We would bag the flowers after carefully brushing pollen onto the stigmas and then examine the genetic consequences of these crosses, comparing the genetic variability of the seedlings to the variability sampled among trees in the broader population. This research came with formidable challenges: the first was to find a safe way to ascend a 150-foot (45-meter) tree to its outer twigs in order to manipulate cross-pollination using a squirrel-hair artists brush. We were fortunate from the start. The North Sea oil was beginning to flow. I found an enterprising oilfield engineer who would work with me to devise a means of reaching the flowers through tree prosthesis: Three telescoping aluminum alloy booms, each 15 feet (4.6 meters) long, which were light enough to be carried into the forest to a tree about to flower. Combined with a cable, ropes, a simple manual dockside winch, and a boatswain's chair, the booms allowed a researcher to be lifted to the place of operation. But who among us academics, approaching middle age, would volunteer? The solution was obvious: find some students! So it was that I managed to write a persuasive grant proposal to an independent foundation created by the Unilever Corporation, from which I succeeded in gaining the necessary support. Six graduate scholarships were awarded for Malaysian students who had the necessary combination of fieldwork interest and some experience, curiosity, scientific acumen, and derring-do. Three women and three men were selected. Each student variously focused on the reproductive biology of both an emergent and a subcanopy tree species. Fieldwork was carried out at the Pasoh Forest Reserve, in central Peninsular Malaysia, about one hundred miles southeast of the capital city, Kuala Lumpur. At that time, the pollinators of dipterocarps--trees in the family Dipterocarpaceae, which dominate the overstory of these rainforests--were unknown. But in the second year, student Chan Hung Tuck collected inflorescences from a tree, sealed them in a plastic bag, and took them back to his lab at the university. To his amazement, when he opened the bag the following morning, he found several tiny insects and holes in the buds from which they had apparently escaped: thrips. Another student, Simmathiri Appanah, immediately got to work, dangling sticky plastic bottles in the canopy to trap insects. Together, their work confirmed that thrip eggs were laid in the flower buds and that thrip populations increased day by day as the dipterocarps developed buds en masse. When the open corollas fell to the ground beneath, a haze of tiny organisms was released, the insects batting their oar-like wings in the humid air. Petals are one of the very few plant organs not chemically defended in the rainforests, so they are like vegetarian McDonald's hamburgers sustaining rainforest insect diversity. The genetic work yielded unexpected results as well. The Pasoh population of the dipterocarp Shorea leprosula, by then the chosen emergent Graduate student Chan Hung Tuck uses a custom-designed boom to perform cross-pollination experiments in the canopy of Shorea leprosula. ALL PHOTOS COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND GIS COMMUNITY 22 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 INDIA Fushan Lienhuachih TAIWAN Nanjenshan CHINA BANGLADESH Dinghushan Nonggang Heishiding Xishuangbanna Hong Kong MYANMAR LAOS Doi Inthanon Palanan Hainan Huai Kha Khaeng THAILAND Mo Singto VIETNAM PHILIPPINES CAMBODIA Ngardok PALAU Bidoup Khao Chong Danum Valley MALAYSIA Lambir Pasoh E Q U A T O R Sabah BRUNEI Kuala Belalong Sarawak Bukit Timah SINGAPORE Borneo INDONESIA Ashton's research plot at the Pasoh Forest Reserve became one of sixty-seven sites in the Center for Topical Forest Science, now known as the Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO). Sites in Southeast Asia and southern East Asia are marked in green. for all our research, proved to have a genetic structure remarkably similar to the average temperate broadleaf canopy tree, with variability relatively low among neighboring trees but increasing to a population average at a radius of about 330 feet (100 meters). This is consistent with the maximum usual distance of dispersal of the winged dipterocarp fruit and the possible distance that thrips might be wafted by daily air turbulence within the sunny forest canopy. Later studies by others have confirmed that this phenomenon is close to the general rule, although some emergent dipterocarps and trees in other families attract pollinators that forage over long distances. Examples we examined included tree species visited by the giant Asian honey bee (Apis dorsata) and others visited by a cave-roosting, nectar-feeding bat (Eonycteris spelaea). Many of these same tree species bear large comestible fruit, the seeds of which are dispersed by mammals and large birds. It was becoming clear, however, that a preponderance of minute, small-winged pollinators, wafted aloft between distant conspecific individuals in the forest cornucopia, was maintaining genetic diversity across widespread habitats. Critically important, Robert MacArthur and my future Harvard colleague Edward O. Wilson had shown, in their 1967 book, The Theory of Island Biogeography, that animals on islands accumulate species at rates of immigration and extinction that vary with the area of the island: an increase of area by 90 percent is required to double the size of a fauna. Dipterocarps, however, did not follow these predictions. Whereas the large island of Sumatra includes just over 100 dipterocarp species, there are 158 species in Peninsular Malaysia, only one quarter of the area, while Borneo, one and one half the area of Sumatra, contains 270 species. The overall tree floras are consistent with these figures. As a consequence, the relationship between the number of motile organisms--animal species-- and the land masses they occupy, predicted by Rainforest Biodiversity 23 Ashton operates the boom equipment at the Pasoh Forest Reserve. MacArthur and Wilson, are rarely achieved by plants, especially trees, on account of the diversity of soils within which species are confined by interspecific competition. I joined the staff of the Arnold Arboretum in 1978, and my time as director was, for a while, fully occupied with pressing issues at Jamaica Plain. But in 1982, I attended a meeting on tropical forest ecology with my former Aberdeen student Ian Baillie, a tropical forest soil scientist. We presented a paper showing how soil nutrients governed forest community composition at topographic and geologic spatial scales in lowland Borneo. I had, by that time, become convinced that tree species in hyperdiverse rainforests were niche specific, and I published a pioneer paper to that effect. Also presenting at the conference was someone unfamiliar to me from the University of Iowa, Steven Hubbell. His paper gave me a shock! His approach and conclusion were dramatically different from my own. He had established one large tree-demography plot that covered 124 acres (50 hectares) on a relatively uniform and gentle slope on Barro Colorado Island, a research island in the Panama Canal, administered by the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. Steve had censused, tagged, mapped, and identified all trees larger than 0.4 inches (1 centimeter) in diameter, numbering over three hundred thousand trees--a staggering figure. From this, he had convincingly shown that the spatial distributions of the species were consistent solely with the constraints of limited seed dispersal from parent trees. He concluded that the species were ecologically complementary with one another and were therefore consistent with the geographical expectations of the theory of island biogeography after all. Following his session, I was in a state of shock. How then, if at all, could the hundreds of tree species sharing a common habitat distrib- 24 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 Stuart Davies is now the director of the Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO). He holds the Frank Levinson Chair in Global Forest Science and is a senior staff scientist at the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. ute themselves independent of any variation in their physical habitat? I introduced myself and suggested we retire to a neighboring pub to hammer out our differences over a pint or two. We realized that the disagreement likely arose from our different sampling methods: my small plots were distributed across variable landscapes on a regional scale while his single large plot represented a uniform habitat. My plots were too small to detect local patterns, nor had I mapped my trees, while his plot may have been too small to detect habitat-related floristic change in relation to topography, nor had he sampled soils. We agreed that the way forward was to replicate his large plot on the other side of the world. I gained the support of my friend Salleh Mohd Nor, the director of the Malay- sian Forest Research Institute, to establish a 124-acre (50 hectare) plot on the gentle topography of Pasoh Forest Reserve. Then, Steve and I successfully persuaded the National Science Foundation to fund it. We would use identical census protocols at both sites and recensus each every five years. The aim was to resolve the central, as yet not fully resolved question: To what extent are rainforest tree species niche specific and to what extent are they spatially restricted by their limited seed dispersal? I was soon in luck again: the United States ambassador in Thailand, John Gunther Dean, was a resource economist, and he recommended that the State Department should host a regional conference in East Asia on research priorities for the sustainable development of Rainforest Biodiversity 25 natural resources. The State Department was looking for someone to orchestrate it. I jumped at the opportunity. With support from the National Science Foundation and Agency of International Development, I then toured the region seeking advice from friends and colleagues. It was not difficult to gain consensus for the concept of a regional network of representative forest community samples. The sites would follow Steve's protocol, varying in area such that each captured at least one hundred individuals of half the species represented. Thus, the Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS) was born--an informal collaboration of national researchers and their institutions. This became part of the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute but was managed from the Arnold Arboretum until my retirement in 2000. CTFS has since expanded to become a component of the Smithsonian's new Forest Global Earth Observatory (ForestGEO). This expansion aims to build international capacity in forest science, monitoring the effects of climate change on natural terrestrial ecosystems. The program is now directed by Stuart Davies, who, as one of my Harvard graduate students, completed elegant field observations and experiments on habitat differentiation within a species-diverse genus of pioneer trees, Macaranga, a member of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). Crucially, Stuart had already gained the friendship of our regional partners. Although still best represented in East Asia, there are now sixtyseven forest research sites worldwide, including one at Harvard Forest, and more than six million individual trees monitored. More than four hundred published peer-reviewed papers underwrite the massive acceleration in our knowledge of forests. The CTFS focus on understanding tropical rainforest species diversity continues, but the work has revealed unexpected patterns: Plot species diversity, instead of increasing with habitat favorability, unexpectedly peaks at quite low levels of soil nutrients. This, interestingly, supports a theory advanced by ecologist David Tilman, now at the University of Minnesota, in his Princeton doctoral dissertation. He predicted that the low species diversity of plant communities in habitats that are severely lim- ited by low fertility, drought susceptibility, or shadiness is enhanced once these limiting factors start to relax. As soon as these factors relax past a certain threshold, however, one or a few of the species that grow fastest overtop the rest, suppressing subsequent diversity by competitive shading or by hindering establishment. The pattern shown by our plots confirmed the prediction remarkably, independent of the distance between plots. But that is not the whole story. We are still left with insufficient explanation as to how so many tree species can co-occur in a single community. Some years later, our postdoctoral researcher Koichi Kamiya used molecular genetic analysis of seedlings beneath a grove of four distinct but related Shorea species and found that although many were hybrids, very few of the reproductively mature trees were of hybrid origin. This provided clinching evidence that selective mortality results in survival only of those individuals that retain the parental genome and reoccupy the parental, as yet undefined, niche. Competitive selection also leads to differentiation of flowering times, stature, and response to light among sister species, but these explanations are surely insufficient explanations for the co-occurrence of this incredible biodiversity. Joseph Connell, at the University of California, and Dan Janzen, at the University of Pennsylvania, independently proposed that high diversity could be maintained if each species were to attract a single seed predator, such that seed mortality (causing fewer juveniles near parent trunks) would lead to space available for the establishment of others. But no vertebrate seed predators are so specialized. Czech entomologist Vojtech Novotny has convincingly shown, through studies in New Guinea, that herbivorous insects attack at a generic rather than species level. Instead, researchers, notably Yale professor Liza Comita and her students at the Barro Colorado Island plot, have discovered that the prevalent mortality of established seedlings in hyperdiverse rainforest tree communities is mediated by host-specific pathogenic microorganisms, especially fungi and viruses. If mature populations of particular tree species are less dense, the seedlings are less chemically defended. These less-common species include 26 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 trees whose seeds and pollen are the most widely dispersed, including species like the wild progenitors of cultivated mangoes (Mangifera), rambutans (Nephelium), and durians (Durio), which produce few fleshy fruits that are sought by mammals and large birds. Now, with hundreds of findings resulting from the CTFS coordination and research continuing to expand, we can conclude that niche specificity does indeed govern floristic structure within and between tree species in hyperdiverse plant communities such as rainforests, except at very local levels where the pull of limited seed dispersal is influential. As such, the pub dispute with Steven Hubbell, back in 1982, can be resolved: ecological niches occupied by particular species become increasingly specialized over time thanks to competitive interactions, so MacArthur and Wilson's theory of island biogeography can generally be applied to rainforest tree biodiversity at the local scale (a habitat island), but the theory rarely applies more broadly, because climate or geological changes ensue before an equilibrium can be reached in the number of large, long-lived plant species that might eventually occupy a nationsized island. When I first began my research career in Borneo, in 1957, the limitless lofty forests, the unforgettable aromas, and the bird-and-cicada orchestra echoing through the cathedral-like subcanopy were nothing short of glorious. Things are now so very different. The two British colonies, Sabah and Sarawak, united as states within independent Malaysia at an ominous time. Peninsular Malaysia had gained independence in 1957, at the moment when the African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) was beginning to be a serious commercial competitor to the Brazilian rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis), causing increased demand for new agricultural land. Agronomists in Peninsular Malaysia recommended that all soils that supported mixed dipterocarp forest were suitable for oil palm cultivation. Legal constraints on timber exports were relaxed. The international trade peaked, with oversupply depressing prices. Sustainable forest management languished. Now, Pasoh contains the only inland mixed dipterocarp forest remaining unlogged in Peninsular Malaysia outside the parks. In Borneo, the same fate awaited mixed dipterocarp forests ten years later. With dominance of demand from Japan, and later China, a local wood-based industry, which had benefitted from government investment in research such as mine, went into decline. Brunei, prospering from its oil, has alone retained aboriginal forest over two thirds of its modest land area, timber harvesting being allowed only for the home market. My initial campsite in Brunei, back in 1957, at Kuala Belalong, now hosts a university forest research and training camp, while our plots in the Andulau hills, closer to the coast, are now encompassed within a research preserve and an adjacent forest service research station. In Sabah, thanks in part to political gains among the inland communities, a successful expansion of an ecotourism industry, and an outstanding and farsighted director of forests, Datuk Sam Mannan, large tracts have been conserved and riparian fringes protected. But Sabah was far from immune to events that happened in Peninsular Malaysia and those that followed in Sarawak, where politicians saw timber licenses as a ready bribe to induce candidates to change sides. In Sarawak, politicians and their families became the new rentier elite, with the power to delegate timber licenses, awarded over periods that often corresponded with elections rather than felling cycles of fifty years or longer. Licenses were, in turn, delegated to companies of industrious and enterprising overseas Chinese, who have used their profits to expand their operations as far as New Guinea and South America. Young Dayaks hazarded their lives as saw operators at one hundred dollars a day, too often with tragic consequences. Now, other than in the parks, little of the original rainforest remains in Sarawak. On climbing the basalt peak of Bukit Mersing, in central Sarawak, I recall looking down in wonder on the lavender cascades of the rare strangler Wightia borneensis in flower. But, years later, a silviculturist apologetically confessed to me that this magnificent park, which I had proposed given its rich diversity of rare Eusideroxylon zwageri is a rare tree in the laurel family (Lauraceae), which is listed as vulnerable on the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red List of Threatened Species. 28 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 Oil palm (Elaeis guineensis) cultivation has created a massive conservation threat for mixed dipterocarp forests in Southeast Asia. and endemic species, had \"inadvertently\" been licensed for logging. Our permanent plots there were trashed, and those in coastal Nyabau forest were cleared for an oilfield service depot. Of all our thirteen plot sites in Sarawak, only three remain unfelled. Although smallholder plantations have increased, the relegation of formerly reserved forests to commercial interests has sanctioned a massive transfer of wealth from the rural poor to the new urban rich. Sarawak's national parks and strict preserves, unique among rainforest conservation areas, were selected and demarcated on botanical and ecological criteria rather than mammalian fauna. In the absence of any policy for retaining the animal migration paths, riparian forests between all but two of Sarawak's national parks have been destroyed, and most of the parks are consequently too small to sustain all but populations of the smallest vertebrates. In the summer of 2019, while writing this essay, I received the following from an old Sarawakian friend, Paul Chai, who succeeded me as forest botanist in 1966 and, like me, is long retired: \"No good news on forestry. Sarawak is experiencing annual haze due to burning in Kalimantan and here, and Miri is worse.... I am worried that other national parks may soon be at risk. Enforcement is poor and relies on drones and helicopter.\" This tragedy has resulted from the meteoric rise of China in the international timber trade--a country which has evolved exemplary conservation policies for its own natural resources but which imposes no rules on its overseas commercial interests, including imports of timber, and animals and plants of value for traditional medicine. Yet to whom, ultimately, should the accusing finger be pointed? China now exports more than half the world's furniture, and most of that production is purchased in the West. So, I wonder, have I been wasting my time? Laboring in this depressing environment, though, are two outstanding young Iban Rainforest Biodiversity 29 A mixed dipterocarp forest has been cleared and terraced for oil palm cultivation. women--Julia anak Sang and Wilhelmina anak Cluny, respectively a field botanist and a wildlife naturalist--doing their best to turn the tide with courage and determination. Julia works in the Sarawak Timber Corporation and has a team of forest botany technicians who search the degraded forests for surviving tree flora. She is publishing Red List data for the International Union for Conservation of Nature and is mapping and documenting current species conservation status within and outside the protected areas. Wilhelmina is a conservation officer in the Sarawak Forest Department who has focused on vertebrate conservation. She has worked on enhancing local community involvement in protected area conservation, especially Kayan Mentarang National Park, a large park that spans the border between Sarawak and the Indonesian territory of Kalimantan. Conservation and forestry are not fundamentally incompatible, but given the current status of forest degradation in this region, how long would it take to restore a sustainable felling cycle? Probably fifty to one hundred years. How long to restore the original forest carbon mass? At least one hundred. And species diversity? Even if there is no local extinction, probably at least a millennium. I'm hopeful, at least, that our research and the continued work of CTFS and ForestGEO can provide the information necessary for restoring, in the future, the unimaginable diversity of these rainforests. Reference The map for this article was created using Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, lntermap and the GIS user community. Peter Ashton is Harvard University Bullard Professor Emeritus and was director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1978 to 1987. Among many career honors, his research on tropical forests was recognized with the prestigious Japan Prize in 2007. He and his wife, Mary, live in Chiswick, London. This Arnoldia article is the third and final in a series about Ashton's research career. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. S. Rogers and the Origins of American Grape Breeding","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25669","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070b328.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Casscles, J. Stephen","article_content":"CASSCLES, J.S. 2019. E.S. ROGERS AND THE ORIGINS OF AMERICAN GRAPE BREEDING. ARNOLDIA, 77(2): 30?39 E.S. Rogers and the Origins of American Grape Breeding J. Stephen Casscles I n the mid-nineteenth century, eastern Massachusetts was a hub for American horticultural talent, including writers and nursery owners. In the case of fruit breeders like Edward Staniford Rogers, even work conducted at a relatively small scale had the potential to spread nationally, shaping breeding efforts into the present. Rogers focused on grapes, and he did his work in his half-acre backyard at 376 Essex Street, in Salem, Massachusetts. Rogers came from a prosperous mercantile and shipping family, and in 1826, the year Rogers was born, Essex Street was one of Salem's wealthiest residential neighborhoods. The street ran into the city's center, near the wharves of Salem Harbor, then one of the busiest ports on the Atlantic seaboard. Rogers began his breeding work in 1851, when he was still a young man. While shy with most people--some would even say reclusive--he could talk endlessly about his new hybrid grape creations and did so regularly with local and nationally renowned horticulturists. In the process, he became a leading American grape breeder, focusing on hybridizing the common European grapevine (Vitis vinifera) with the hardier and more disease-resistant American fox grape (V. labrusca). Ulysses Prentiss Hedrick, the chief horticulturist of the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station, extensively wrote about Rogers's work and noted, in 1908, that when Rogers introduced his grapes to the public in the late 1860s, \"enthusiasm and speculation ran riot.\" Another breeder, James H. Ricketts of Newburgh, New York, had released successful varieties around the same time, and it was, according to Hedrick, a \"golden era\" for American grapes. \"Possibly at no other period has interest in grape-growing been so keen as during the decade succeeding the introduction of these hybrids,\" he wrote. A Horticultural Renaissance As a grape grower and winemaker, I came to appreciate the landmark hybridization work of Rogers while researching and acquiring cool-climate grape hybrids that were developed in France between 1860 and 1940--primarily crosses between Vitis vinifera and American species like V. labrusca, V. aestivalis, V. riparia, and V. rupestris. I became attuned to these French-American grape hybrids starting in 1974, first by working at Benmarl Vineyards, in Marlboro, New York, and subsequently at the Hudson-Chatham Winery in Ghent, New York, where I encountered red grapes like `Baco Noir' and `Chelois' and white grapes like `Seyval Blanc' and `Vidal', along with more than a dozen others. My interest then led me to Rogers and other East Coast hybridizers, including a significant number based in the Hudson Valley. I evaluated the Rogers varieties to see if they could be grown in a more ecologically sustainable manner than grape varieties that are conventionally grown today, and I wanted to learn more about the flavor profiles of these forgotten old varieties. For over fifteen years, I have grown twelve of these Rogers hybrids very successfully on my farm, Cedar Cliff, in Athens, New York, for wine production. It is my hope to reintroduce some of the Rogers grapes to commercial growers and wineries so that they can be made more readily available to the public. In the process of researching heirloom grape varieties, I discovered that, between 1840 and 1890, eastern Massachusetts and the MidHudson Valley were two of three centers of grape breeding. Breeders were also busy near St. Louis, Missouri. In Massachusetts, the breeders were generally wealthy New England Brahmins, like Rogers, whose families made fortunes either as merchants or in mercantile shipping. Edward Staniford Rogers began hybridizing American and European grapes in 1851, launching an era of \"enthusiasm and speculation\" for American grape growers. All images, unless indicated, are from The Grapes of New York by Ulysses Prentiss Hedrick. ALL IMAGES FROM BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY 32 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 The American fox grape (Vitis labrusca, left) is well-known for being a parent of the spontaneous hybrid `Concord' (right), which is often used for jellies and juices. These genteel farmers engaged in horticulture for intellectual stimulation and social comradery. Nursery owner Charles Mason Hovey facilitated communication between nearby breeders and regularly corresponded with the national fruit-breeding community either in person or through the many plant catalogues, pamphlets, and horticultural books that he wrote. In addition, Hovey helped to direct, along with Marshall Pinckney Wilder, the nationally recognized Massachusetts Horticultural Society and the American Pomological Society. Local agricultural and horticultural societies were also actively evaluating new horticultural varieties in most eastern Massachusetts counties. Several forces compelled these Massachusetts horticulturists to develop new hybrid fruit. Many desired to create plant material for their suburban and rural homes, emulating the British landed gentry and securing greater social prestige within their community. Oth- ers desired to develop fruits that were more productive and disease resistant for profit. An underlying theme was the uniquely New England quasi-religious-social-ethical belief among business, social, and religious leaders that one's religious service could be manifest by service to community. Work had a moral component, and the highest calling was to be productive; unlike the trading of goods, engaging in agriculture and manufacturing was a divine calling. Further, by 1800, the region's already thin agricultural soils were becoming very depleted due to more than a century of extensive but unwise cultivation techniques and practices. Hence, a movement arose to study agriculture, hybridization, and plant sciences, so that local farmers could revitalize their increasingly poor and overcropped soils. The business community supported these agricultural research initiatives so that farmers would remain in Massachusetts and continue to be their loyal American Grape Breeding 33 Rogers made careful crosses between the fox grape and the European wine grape, Vitis vinifera (left). He used a common variety known as `Black Hamburg' (right). customers, instead of being forced to move farther west in search of more fertile soils. The business community's support was evidenced by the founding of the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture in 1792. Its membership was clearly mercantile in composition, including most of eastern Massachusetts's prominent families, along with attorneys and a few physicians and clergy, most of whom were Harvard College alumni. Hybrid Crosses Even within this vibrant horticultural milieu, Rogers was unique. According to Thomas Volney Munson, a central figure among the next generation of American grape breeders, Rogers was responsible for taking \"the first intelligent step\" towards developing \"thorobred\" American grape varieties. Unlike the classic `Concord', which was selected by Ephraim W. Bull from a spontaneous cross between Vitis labrusca and V. vinifera (the results of natural insect pollination) in Concord, Massachusetts, in the 1840s, Rogers was intent on carefully making and documenting his crosses. In his own words, Rogers said, \"When I commenced experimenting I had no knowledge of any one who had raised grapes by this process, though I had heard of flowers, pears, &c., and I had attempted crosses of pears. Reading articles in the London Horticulturalist, it occurred to me that I could get a new grape by this process; combining the qualities needed for open culture, it would be more valuable than any other fruit.\" Rogers was drawn to the quiet and contemplative life of horticulture, and once his father died in 1858, he very quickly exited the family shipping business and concentrated on his horticultural pursuits and real estate investments in Rockport, Massachusetts. He wanted to create new grape varieties that incorporated 34 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 the more sophisticated and subtle flavors of European Vitis vinifera varieties (like the table grapes we buy today in the supermarket) with the hardiness and reliable productivity of native American grape varieties, ripening early, before the first fall frost. Successful varieties also needed to possess ample fungal disease resistance and simultaneously be productive enough as commercial table grapes, with big berries, big clusters, sufficient sweetness, and skin that adhered to the flesh of the berry. In the summer of 1851, Rogers made crosses using a seed parent, Vitis labrusca `Carter' (a wild-type variety also known as `Mammoth Globe'), and the pollen of V. vinifera `Black Hamburg' and `White Chasselas'. `Carter' was used as the seed parent because this self-sterile variety was large fruited, hardy in the field, and one of the earliest ripening local selections that he could find. The pollen of `Black Hamburg' and `White Chasselas' was chosen because they were two of the hardiest European varieties and were the most commonly available in Massachusetts. The pollen was obtained from vines growing in a nearby unheated glass greenhouse. The exact provenance is unrecorded, but the pollen could have come from someone like John Fisk Allen, who lived about two blocks from Rogers, or George Haskell, in nearby Ipswich. Both men were highly interested in grape cultivation. The `Carter' blossoms were emasculated and fertilized with Vitis vinifera pollen and small cotton bags were placed over the `Carter' female flowers. Rogers also placed clusters of V. vinifera blossoms in the bags. From this cross-pollination, he secured about 150 seeds. These seeds were then planted in his backyard garden that fall. The following spring, many of these seeds germinated, but cut worms and other accidents reduced the number of vines to forty-five. These forty-five vines grew upward on poles for three years. Due to overcrowding, Rogers transplanted twenty-five of the plants to other parts of the garden to give them enough room to grow. The untransplanted vines started to bear fruit in 1856, and the transplanted varieties fruited a few years later. In observing the garden, Marshall Pinckney Wilder, of the American Pomological Society, said, \"How much can be done with little is illustrated by the fact that all [of his grapes] ... were produced by a lame man in a half-acre city lot 150 years in cultivation.\" Further, he noted that the lot was \"a cold matted soil filled with old apple and pear trees, currant bushes, flax and everything mingled in together.\" Rogers believed his grape creations to be a success, noting the intermixture of traits between the species. \"The vines are even more vigorous than the parents,\" he wrote, \"and more exempt from diseases, and more hardy than most outdoor varieties.\" The seedlings were numbered one to forty-five. In 1858 and 1859, Rogers sent cuttings of these numbered varieties to growers and horticulturists for further testing. He disseminated these varieties due to the small size of his backyard garden and because the common practice then, as it is now, was to share plant material with colleagues to get comments on the growing attributes, strengths, and weaknesses of such plants in a wide range of climates and soil types. Through his painstaking work, Rogers created over twenty major grape hybrids. The resultant grapes were first officially introduced to the public in 1867. In 1869, Rogers named thirteen of his varieties after local Massachusetts places and people (`Agawam', `Massasoit', `Salem', `Essex', and `Merrimac'), as well as for horticulturists (`Barry', `Lindley', `Gaertner', and `Wilder') and the German writer Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (`Goethe'). These were promoted through the Catalogue of Fruits by the American Pomological Society, an organization that was based in Boston. From there, the Rogers hybrids steadily gained interest and notoriety across the United States and Canada. The Rogers Grapes All Rogers hybrids possess large or very large berries, medium-sized clusters, and grape skin that is either attached or semi-attached to the berry flesh, unlike the \"slip-skin\" characteristic of the `Concord'. They grow vigorously, have better fungal disease resistance than their European pollen parents, and are hardy and American Grape Breeding 35 By 1869, Bushberg Vineyards and Orchards, in Missouri, promoted many of the Rogers grape varieties in their Illustrated Descriptive Catalogue of Grape Vines, Small Fruits, and Seed Potatoes. Of `Goethe', the catalogue advertised, \"At the fall meeting of the Mississippi Valley Grape Growers' Association, September 9, 1868, we exhibited for the first time a few branches of the vine, each with several perfect clusters, which were much admired, and would have probably astonished even its originator, could he have seen them.\" 36 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 productive. I like the growing characteristics of the twelve Rogers hybrids that I cultivate in the Mid-Hudson Valley, and the resultant fruit is flavorful and makes wonderful wines that have an attractive combination of soft flavors of Muscat grapes and Vitis labrusca. These characteristics made the Rogers hybrids very popular when first introduced to America and Canada in 1867. They were initially quite sought after by growers, talked about at horticultural and agricultural society meetings, and widely evaluated. In 1895, the nationally recognized Bushberg Vineyards catalogue, which set the standard for fruit catalogues and pomological literature in North America, extensively covered the Rogers hybrids with accompanying illustrations of many of them. The Bushberg catalogue stated that these Rogers varieties were \"very productive,\" \"beautiful,\" and \"valuable\" selections that were \"handsome in appearance\" and of \"fine quality\" for the table and for wine. Other definitive North American nursery catalogues of the latter nineteenth century, including Hovey's The Magazine of Horticulture, prominently featured and illustrated the Rogers hybrids, as did agricultural magazines like The Gardner's Monthly and Horticulturist, The Rural New Yorker, and The Country Gentleman. Among Rogers's selections, `Agawam' is one of his best. In 1908, Hedrick reported that `Agawam' was the most widely grown of the Rogers hybrids, noting that it was sold by practically all nurseries in the United States east of the Rocky Mountains. It is the only completely self-fertile of the Rogers varieties. The color is a dark purplish-red with a lilac bloom. The wines are aromatic with rich fruit flavors of Muscat grapes and hints of fresh grapes, guava, and tropical fruits from Vitis labrusca, along with an herbal finish. The body is substantial and viscous for a white wine, and it can either stand alone or be used in blends with other white wines. Tasting something like this is to taste the nineteenth-century innovation of Rogers and his contemporary fruit breeders in Massachusetts, the Mid-Hudson Valley, and the St. Louis area. The Rogers Hybrids Live On A combination of factors led to dwindling name recognition for the Rogers grapes. Hedrick stated that the period between 1853 (the date `Concord' was first introduced) and 1880 could be \"singled out as the period in which viticulture made its great growth in eastern America.\" After 1880, however, California started to compete in earnest with eastern vineyards, and grape prices fell significantly in eastern metropolitan markets, given the vast influx of inexpensive California grapes. This competition, combined with higher incidence of fungal diseases and insect damage in eastern vineyards, which were planted too closely to one another, severely reduced overall production in the east. With a corresponding reduction of grape acreage, varieties like `Concord', `Niagara', and `Delaware' expanded their dominance, while the Rogers hybrids, which, save for `Agawam', were mostly self-infertile, declined relatively and absolutely in acreage. In addition, the enactment of Prohibition in 1920 further reduced their demand for wine production, which was their primary use. Yet the Rogers hybrids live on in the twentyfirst century. In the Rogers era, privately organized horticultural and agricultural societies, such as the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, sponsored the bulk of the public discussion about plant evaluation. However, with the Congressional enactment of the Morrill Act of 1862 (establishing agricultural land-grant colleges) and the Hatch Act of 1887 (establishing agricultural experiment stations), this horticultural domain shifted increasingly to government-financed programs. With this shift, many of the Rogers grapes were incorporated into the most advanced American cool-climate, wine-grape breeding programs of the twentieth century. For example, at Cornell University, the Rogers hybrid `Herbert' was used to breed the hybrids `Sheridan', in 1921, and `Buffalo', in 1938. These, in turn, lead to the development of twenty-first-century introductions like `Geneva Red', `Corot Noir', and `Noiret'. Elmer Swenson of Wisconsin, whose private breeding program was subsequently absorbed into research at the University of Minnesota, used American Grape Breeding 37 The author considers `Agawam' to be the finest Rogers variety for modern winemaking. 38 Arnoldia 77\/2 ? November 2019 While the fame of the Rogers grapes waned in the early twentieth century, `Goethe' (left) has found unexpected popularity in Brazil. Also shown: `Lindley'. the Rogers variety `Wilder' as a great grandparent to create `Marquette'. The varieties `Marquette' and `Noiret' are now finding their place in today's North American cool-climate wine industry. In addition, Rogers varieties were used in the breeding programs at agricultural experiment stations in Missouri and South Dakota. Thomas Volney Munson, the pioneer American grape breeder who privately bred many scores of high-quality hardy and disease-resistant grape varieties for the central and southern United Sates, relied heavily on Rogers hybrids for his extensive breeding program. The Rogers varieties do not simply persist as the basis for subsequent breeding efforts. The variety `Goethe' is the foundation of one niche segment of the Brazilian wine industry in the Urussanga region of the state of Santa Catarina. In Brazil, `Goethe' is made mostly into sparkling wines with vineyards that cover over one hundred acres. While `Goethe' is traditionally a pink- red variety, a natural mutation, first observed in a Brazilian vineyard the 1950s, has produced a white clone, now known as `Goethe Primo'. This new variety makes still and sparkling wines that are very Vitis vinifera-like in their flavor profile and acid balance but with pleasant, soft aromatics from V. labrusca. In this region, over twenty thousand gallons of `Goethe' wine are produced, with the remainder sold as table grapes. Today, commercial and hobbyist growers, foodies, farm-to-table advocates, private grape breeders, and university breeding and agricultural research programs are all looking for the \"next best\" fruit variety that is flavorful and productive and which can be grown in a more environmentally sustainable manner. The Rogers hybrids, along with other heirlooms bred in New England and in the Hudson Valley, fit that bill. Rogers's work demonstrates that sometimes the search for the \"next best\" may involve looking back. American Grape Breeding 39 References Bush & Son & Meissner, Bushberg Vineyards. 1895. Illustrated descriptive catalogue of American grape vines (4th ed.). St. Louis: R.P. Studley and Co. Casscles, J.S. 2015. Grapes of the Hudson Valley and other cool climate regions of the United States and Canada. Coxsackie, NY: Flint Mine Press. Cedar Cliff Nursery. 2013?2019. Cedar Cliff Nursery: Grape vines for grape growers and field & cellar notes. Catskill, NY: Casscles, J.S. Downing, A.J., and Downing, C. 1869. The fruits and fruit trees of America (2nd ed.). New York: John Wiley & Sons. Hedrick, U.P. 1908. The grapes of New York (Annual report of the State of New York, Department of Agriculture; no. 15, v. 3, pt. 2). Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U.P. 1933. A history of agriculture in the State of New York (The New York State Agricultural Society). Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Company. Hedrick, U.P. 1950. A history of horticulture in America to 1860. New York: Oxford University Press. Hedrick, U.P. 1919. Manual of American grape-growing. New York: The Macmillan Company. Hovey, C.M. The magazine of horticulture, botany, and all useful discoveries and improvements in rural affairs. Boston: Hovey and Co. Hutchinson, B.J. 1980. A taste for horticulture. Arnoldia, 40(1): 31?48. McLeRoy, S., and Renfro, R.E. 2008. Grape man of Texas: Thomas Volney Munson and the origins of American viticulture. San Francisco: The Wine Appreciation Guild. Morton, L.T. 1985. Winegrowing in eastern America: An illustrated guide to viniculture east of the Rockies. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press. Munson, T.V. 1909. Foundations of American grape culture. New York: Orange Judd Company. Parker, S.J. 1865. Improvement of native grapes by seedlings and hybridization. In Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture for the Year 1864 (pp. 122?136). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. Rogers Family Papers, Peabody Essex Museum (MSS 87). Phillips Library at the Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, Massachusetts. Schofield, E.A. 1988. \"He sowed; others reaped\": Ephraim Wales Bull and the origins of the `Concord' grape. Arnoldia, 48(4): 4?15. Thorton, T.P. 1989. Cultivating gentlemen: The meaning of country life among the Boston elite, 1785? 1860. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Wagner, P.M. 1969. American wines and wine-making. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. J. Stephen Casscles comes from a fruit-growing family rooted in the Hudson Valley since the 1870s. In 1990, he established a four-acre vineyard, Cedar Cliff, in Athens, New York, where he has concentrated on identifying, growing, evaluating, and propagating heirloom grape varieties that were first developed in New York in the mid-nineteenth century. He has been the winemaker at Hudson-Chatham Winery, in Ghent, New York, since 2008. In 2015, he published a book on historic grape cultivation titled Grapes of the Hudson Valley and Other Cool Climate Regions of the United States and Canada with Flint Mine Press. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICESTATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004?2633. 3. Filing Date: October 1, 2019. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500, publisher; Jonathan Damery, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, MA 02130?3500, associate editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: September 5, 2019. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,600. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,600. b. 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I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Jonathan Damery, Associate Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Teacher's Favorite: Gleditsia aquatica","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25668","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070af6f.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Caballero McGuire, Ana Maria","article_content":"MCGUIRE, A.M.C. 2019. A TEACHER'S FAVORITE: GLEDITSIA AQUATICA. ARNOLDIA, 77(2): 40 A Teacher's Favorite: Gleditsia aquatica Ana Maria Caballero McGuire E veryone knows that teachers should not have favorites, but I do. My favorite has muddy feet, a thorny disposition, and reddish-brown, almond-shaped eyes. Oh, and he's also a southerner. Gleditisa aquatica (accession 201-93*B), also known as the water or swamp locust, is a North American native, closely related to the more familiar honey locust (G. tricanthos). You will find the species growing along riverbanks and marshes in its natural range, stretching from South Carolina to central Florida, across Louisiana to eastern Texas, and up the Mississippi River valley to southern Illinois and Indiana. My Arboretum favorite was wild collected in southeastern Missouri. When I introduce children to this tree at the Arboretum, I often start with, \"Who here is brave, really brave? I want to show you a dangerous plant.\" That usually elicits excitement and a loud chorus of \"Me!\" I bring them to Rehder Pond, where they stand looking very closely at the tree behind me. It can take a minute before they understand what they are looking at: a profusion of three- to five-inch-long reddish-brown thorns growing both on the lower parts of the trunk and out along the branches. I often clip a sample and model how to use a one-finger touch along the edge of the thorn to compare its smoothness with the sharp prickly point. It doesn't take long before many children begin to touch the thorns and even ask if they can hold it. They remind me of times when my brothers and I would beg our parents to give us their plastic sword cocktail picks, and we would sword fight in the restaurant while waiting for our meals! Once the children are comfortable with the thorns, we begin a conversation around function. Why would this tree have such thorns? Students quickly identify defense as the main function but then are stumped when asked what the tree is defending itself from. The most common answer is people and predators like foxes, lions, and sharks. It takes some pretend modeling of large herbivores eating before children understand how this tree, having large, thick, and sharp thorns growing at the base of each bipinnately compound leaf might deter large mammals--whether living (deer) or extinct (mastodon)--from eating the leaves. One season I noticed that an American robin (Turdus migratorius) had built a nest on a low branch. In the nest were three young chicks, and the momma was busy flying back and forth, attending to their needs. I used this opportunity to continue the thorn discussion by posing a new question: \"Is that robin smart for building a nest in this thorny tree?\" The group was evenly split between yes and no. Each child had to state their opinion and provide a reason for their answer. In this way, I encourage children to take what they know and what they observe firsthand to form a more complete understanding of how nature works. They also learn to debate by listening to differing views. Aside from thorns, G. aquatica also produces curious eye-shaped seedpods, about 1.5-inches long and flat. Before the seedpod dries out and turns a rich caramel brown color, children can raise the fruit to the sky and see through the papery thin walls to the singular round seed in the middle. Two of these seedpods placed over my eyes elicits cries of \"Owl eyes!\" This fruit is unique among all Gleditsia species because it does not contain a sticky, honey-like pulp surrounding the seeds, and it usually has one seed, rather than ten or more like the honey locust. This difference has led some botanists to suggest that G. aquatica evolved to disperse its seeds via water, instead of animal digestion. Finally, how can I resist a quick math lesson when observing the leaves? The compound leaves measure up to thirty inches long, and the small leaflets occur in six to fourteen pairs on a leaf. They are perfect for a lesson about odd and even and help facilitate counting by twos. Later, children line up in pairs, just like their leaf, and count by twos as they slowly walk back to their bus, heads full of wonder and a pocket or two hiding large owl eyes. Ana Maria Caballero McGuire is the nature education specialist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23467","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e816e.jpg","title":"2019-77-2","volume":77,"issue_number":2,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Valuing Biodiversity","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25667","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070ab6b.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":1,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grossman, Jake J.","article_content":"GROSSMAN, J.J. 2019. VALUING BIODIVERSITY. ARNOLDIA, 77(1): 2?15 Valuing Biodiversity Jake J. Grossman L ying on my side, I inspect each leaf of a four-year-old red maple (Acer rubrum) sapling. It is midsummer in central Minnesota, and, despite the hot weather, the leaves of this tree and most of its neighbors are covered in brown spots. These spots are a symptom of maple anthracnose, which is caused by infection with any of several ascomycete fungi. Especially in small trees, like the one I am inspecting, anthracnose can slow growth by impairing photosynthesis in damaged leaves and make them more vulnerable to other infections. I finish grading the infected leaves on my tree of interest, record the measurements on my clipboard, and roll over to check its nearest neighbor, also a red maple. Planted only 50 cm (about a foot and a half) apart from each other, these trees are part of the Forests and Biodiversity (FAB) experiment at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve, a long-term research site funded by the National Science Foundation. These trees are in a red maple monoculture plot, meaning each tree has only other red maples as neighbors. Many of these trees are covered in leaf anthracnose, probably because the fungal pathogens that cause it overwinter in the layer of dead leaves, or litter, of infected trees and emerge in the spring to reinfect new growth. Having so many red maples around seems to make any given tree more likely to develop anthracnose. But when I stand up and walk only a few feet away from this maple monoculture, which only reaches my mid-thigh after several years of growth, I encounter a markedly different part of the FAB experiment. On entering a \"biculture,\" or two-species plot, of red maple and jack pine (Pinus banksiana), I am surrounded by pines that exceed my own height and maples that reach my chest. These trees were planted at the same time as the maples in the adjacent monocultural plot, but living with diverse neighbors has clearly made a difference to them. Whereas maples in monoculture tend to be short and stocky, with little space between leaf buds, maples that are forced to compete for light with faster-growing pine tend to come up long and spindly, with tons of space between each set of leaf buds. And, exposed to a lower level of accumulated leaf litter from other red maples, these trees have a much lower incidence of leaf anthracnose. These two plots illustrate two extremes of the FAB experiment, which I comanaged while a graduate student at the University of Minnesota. Previously, as a young ecologist, I had devoured the reports of experiments designed to assess the importance of biodiversity coming out of Cedar Creek and applied to a doctoral program at Minnesota in the hopes that I would get to work there. I quickly heard back from Jeannine Cavender-Bares, a plant ecophysiologist and evolutionary ecologist who would become my doctoral advisor. At the time, she and a group of colleagues at Minnesota were in the final stages of planning a tree biodiversity experiment designed to expand on the foundation laid by grassland experiments at Cedar Creek and across Europe. This group was open to bringing in a new graduate student to help with the establishment of the new project and to do some preliminary research. Freshly returned from two years as a Peace Corps volunteer in subtropical Paraguay, I dug out my long underwear and moved to Minneapolis. On the Origin of Biodiversity Research But why go to the trouble of planting thousands of trees in various combinations of species, then take the time to make thousands of minute measurements of their every centimeter of growth and bout with an illness or pest? For me, as for a generation of researchers at Cedar Creek, experiments like FAB have emerged as a powerful approach for asking what role biodiversity, meaning the variety of life in a particular place or across the globe, might play in keeping the natural world working in the way PHOTOS BY AUTHOR UNLESS NOTED Biodiversity Research 3 To understand whether more-biodiverse tree communities are more productive than less-biodiverse communities, Jake Grossman and colleagues at the University of Minnesota designed research plots with different combinations of tree species, including a two-species biculture (top left) and a five-species polyculture (top right). Grossman is pictured within one of the five-year-old polyculture plots. JACOB MILLER, CEDAR CREEK ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE RESERVE (CC BY-SA 4.0) 4 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Over the last thirty years--a time of increasing global concern about the consequences of global diversity loss--ecologists, as well as farmers, foresters, conservationists, economists, and policymakers, have begun to ask how we measure the extrinsic value of biodiversity. we prefer it to do. To understand these experiments and the findings that come from them, though, we ought to take a step back and consider the history of what I would call the science of biodiversity. When we speak of the environmental challenges of the current era, we can hardly avoid worrying about the erosion of biodiversity. While considerable disagreement persists over how biodiversity across the earth's diverse landscapes has changed over the last ten thousand years, a period in which humans have exerted a growing influence over the biosphere, a consensus has emerged that, at a global level, our planet has entered into a period of precipitous biodiversity loss (Butchart et al., 2010). A case in point: a recent report from a group of Danish and Swedish authors predicts that the loss of mammal diversity that has taken place since the end of the last Ice Age will take 2.5 billion years--two-thirds of the time during which there has been life on the planet--to be replenished by natural evolutionary processes (Davis et al., 2018). Yet such sobering statistics beg a second question: does biodiversity loss really matter? Of course, to many of us--including, I imagine, most readers of Arnoldia--the diversity of earth's species represents an irreplaceable gift. We sense a precious value, whether spiritual, emotional, or cultural, inherent to the diversity of life on earth. It is challenging, though, to convince others. And so, those of us who wish to protect biodiversity must ask ourselves whether there is an extrinsic value to diversity and, if so, how we can justify its conservation. The ecosystem services movement has answered this question by, at least to some extent, evaluating biodiversity in terms of dollars and cents. For instance, Canadian scholars Robin Naidoo and Wiktor Adamowicz (2006) estimate that the financial returns from visits by ecotourists to a Ugandan park rich in bird biodiversity far exceed the costs of maintaining the Biodiversity Research 5 park. This approach, however, doesn't fully capture a deeper question: does biodiversity support the vast array of ecosystem processes-- or functions--that keep our biosphere working and, in doing so, sustain human life? In other words, are more-biodiverse ecosystems stronger and more resilient? The history of this question is a long one, with origins prior to the formal elaboration of the concepts of biodiversity (by American conservation biologist Raymond F. Dasmann in 1968), of ecosystems (by English botanist Arthur Tansley in 1935), and of ecology itself (by German biologist Ernst Haeckel in 1866). Instead, the question of how biodiversity affects ecosystem function was posed first, at least within Western scientific discourse, by the founding mind of modern biology, Charles Darwin. While Darwin is known foremost for his role in developing the concept of evolution by natural selection, his works also offer up a clairvoyant catalogue of research questions for contemporary biologists, one that we have yet to plumb fully some 130 years following his death. Through his lifetime, Darwin contributed important insights to the study of insect pollination; plant physiology; soil formation; the genetic origins of animal behavior; and the natural history of barnacles, coral reefs, and carnivorous plants; among other topics. Indeed, if we turn to Darwin's On The Origin of Species, first published in 1859, we find a claim that, though peripheral to the broader case for adaptive evolution, constitutes the origin of an important field of biodiversity research: \"If a plot of ground be sown with one species of grass, and a similar plot be sown with several distinct genera of grasses, a greater number of plants and a greater weight of dry herbage can thus be raised.\" In this brief aside, Darwin argues that it was, at the time, well known that more-biodiverse systems--well, grasslands, at least--ought to be more productive than less-diverse ones. Indeed, indigenous peoples, and especially farmers, have known for millennia that morediverse ecosystems are more productive. For instance, the \"three sisters\" technique of growing diverse gardens of corn, beans, and squash developed in pre-Columbian central Mexico and subsequently radiated throughout the Americas. Contemporary studies have demonstrated that this system of polyculture--or growing multiple crop species together--boosts yield compared to monocultures of constituent species (Zhang et al., 2014). Experimental assessment of traditional Chinese polycultures consisting of varying mixtures of wheat, corn, and soybeans have revealed similar trends (Zhang and Li, 2003). Such traditional techniques have continued to evolve to this day, resulting in, among other practices, the contemporary interest in \"companion planting\" among home gardeners and farmers. For instance, many gardeners in North America are familiar with the practice of planting African marigolds, mints, and other aromatics in their gardens, both for their own aesthetic or culinary uses and, allegedly, to deter pests. Despite this mountain of traditional knowledge and practical evidence, the empirical reality of the link between biodiversity and ecosystem function went without formal evaluation for over a century before slowly climbing back into the crosshairs of experimental biologists. An Ecological Reawakening For much of the twentieth century, ecologists explored tantalizingly around the question of how biodiversity might shape ecosystems, often taking diversity to be a consequence of ecological conditions in a particular place rather than a cause of those same conditions (e.g., Connell and Orias, 1964). Eventually, as ecologists became more attuned to the ecological importance of stability--how much conditions in a forest or grassland might remain constant from season to season or year to year-- they began to interrogate its relationship with biodiversity. At the center of this debate was the question of whether increasing the number of species in a community made that community more stable through beneficial effects such as symbiosis (Elton, 1958) or destabilized it by increasing the likelihood of, for instance, local numbers of a critical species crashing due to catastrophic disease (May, 1973). In their review of the field, American ecologist David Tilman and colleagues (2014) trace a \"reawakening\" in the study of biodiversity 6 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 to one of three biodiversity treatments. The lowest diversity rooms contained boxes of soil enriched with two common British plant species (e.g., sow thistle), three plant-eating invertebrates (e.g., aphids), one predator (e.g., an aphid predator), and three decomposer species (e.g., earthworms). A second set of rooms contained extra species of each class, and the most diverse rooms contained sixteen plants, five herbivores, two predators, and eight decomposers. Environmental conditions were held constant, and during a two-hundred-day period, an international team of ecologists monitored a variety of ecosystem functions: how much organisms in each room respired, how quickly organic matter decomposed, to what extent nutrients and water ran off, and how productive plants were in each room. In the end, morediverse communities of plants and animals consumed more carbon dioxide (respired more) and grew more than less-diverse ones (Naeem et al., 1994). Diversity supercharged the functionality of ecosystems with more species. JACOB MILLER, CEDAR CREEK ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE RESERVE (CC BY-SA 4.0) to incipient awareness of catastrophic global biodiversity loss during the 1980s, which culminated in a 1991 conference of ecologists in Bayreuth, Germany. The papers emerging from this meeting--which were ultimately collected in an edited volume, Biodiversity and Ecosystem Function, published in 1994--effectively launched the field of contemporary research on biodiversity-ecosystem functioning, otherwise known as BEF. The observational findings and theories marshaled in the very early nineties, however, lacked the gold standard of ecological evidence: experimentation. This was not long in coming; two progenitor BEF experiments were already in development at the time of the Bayreuth Conference. At Imperial College London's Centre for Population Biology, pilot testing of the futuristically named Ecotron facility began in 1991. The Ecotron, still operational today, consists of sixteen isolated rooms, each with its own light, temperature, and atmospheric control systems. Beginning in 1993, these rooms were assigned Between 1994 and 1995, researchers at the Cedar Creek Ecosystem Science Reserve established the \"Big Biodiversity\" experiment, which was one of the first field-based experiments to provide empirical evidence about the relationship between biodiversity and ecosystem function. Biodiversity Research 7 efficiently utilized available nutrients (Tilman et al., 1996). These findings have been borne out repeatedly through the expanded \"Big Biodiversity\" experiment, planted between 1994 and 1995. These plots are larger, more numerous, and contain as many as thirty-two species (Tilman et al., 1997). The assigned diversity levels of most of its original plots are still maintained through diligent weeding by an army of freshfaced interns hired by Cedar Creek's managers every summer. Now in its twenty-fifth year of growth, the Big Biodiversity experiment still serves as a critical platform for BEF research. A FABulous Journey The Forests and Biodiversity (FAB) project, which I was recruited to work on in 2012, would mimic past grassland experiments insofar as plots were planted with varying species diversity. Yet, in many other ways, the forest project departed from its progenitors. From a logistical standpoint, rather than weighing out JACOB MILLER, CEDAR CREEK ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE RESERVE (CC BY-SA 4.0) In a complement to the highly controlled approach of the Ecotron, Tilman and collaborators at Cedar Creek, in Minnesota, were simultaneously figuring out how to ask BEF questions in the field. Based on an observational study in which more-diverse grassland plots showed greater stability in biomass production than less-diverse plots following an extreme drought (Downing and Tilman, 1994), they established what came to be known as Cedar Creek's \"Little Biodiversity\" experiment. In this seminal experiment, 147 plots, each nine meters square, were denuded of existing vegetation and seeded with one, two, four, six, eight, twelve, or twenty-four species of prairie plants. Echoing findings from the Ecotron, diverse plots (and especially any plot with twelve or twentyfour species) produced far more biomass than less-diverse plots. Furthermore, even after only two summers of growth, more-diverse plant communities in the Little Biodiversity experiment showed lower levels of soil nitrogen, suggesting that their roots more completely and Researchers have expanded on the \"Big Biodiversity\" methods to explore the relationship between biodiversity and climate change at additional prairie plots. 8 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 and broadcasting consistent quantities of seed, we planted each tree on a grid (sixty-four trees per plot), where each tree was only half a meter from its nearest neighbors. Some plots were monocultures, consisting entirely of one of twelve species native to Minnesota: red (Pinus resinosa), jack (P. banksiana), or white pine (P. strobus); eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana); paper birch (Betula papyrifera); red (Quercus rubra), northern pin (Q. ellipsoidalis), bur (Q. macrocarpa), and white oak (Q. alba); basswood (T. americana); red maple (Acer rubrum); and box elder (A. negundo). Other plots (bicultures) contained thirty-two individuals of each of two species. Yet others were planted with five-species polycultures, and we threw the entire kitchen sink at a set of twelve-species plots. We started with twoyear-old bareroot seedlings, planted in May of 2013, and over the next three years, we replanted dead trees and weeded woody invaders so that each plot truly corresponded to its assigned tree-diversity treatment. By the time I finished my doctorate five years later, I could easily conceal myself within their densely interlocking boughs--at least in plots dominated by fast-growing pines and birches. Beyond logistical considerations, the design of FAB also expanded on past research by making it possible for us to ask which dimensions of biodiversity might be most important to supporting ecological function. For instance, the vaunted boost in productivity associated with higher-diversity plots in the Big Biodiversity grassland study appears not to be entirely due to species richness--the number of species in a plot. Instead, it seems that some of the diversity-related boost really stemmed from functional diversity, the variability in morphological and physiological traits associated with The Forests and Biodiversity (FAB) plots were established in 2013, with sixty-four seedlings planted in different combinations within each plot--totaling 140 plots and almost nine thousand trees. Biodiversity Research 9 species in a community. In particular, it appears that more-diverse plots provided opportunities for nitrogen-fixing legumes and droughttolerant grasses to interact synergistically, boosting the productivity of their community by sharing resources. Legumes fertilized nearby grasses, which, because they differ in their growth form and resource needs, did not outcompete their beneficial neighbors (Fargione et al., 2007). In this sense, it can sometimes be difficult to determine whether it is more important to have a lot of species present or for those species present to have a diversity of functions. While functional diversity can be difficult to measure, phylogenetic diversity--corresponding to the evolutionary distance between members of a community--offers a useful proxy. Closely related species tend to share traits and interact with their environment in similar ways, but such similarities are lost as evolution progresses. Subtly then, FAB was designed so that bicultures--all plots with just two species--varied widely in their functional and phylogenetic diversity. Some two-species pairs, like white oak and bur oak, were both closely related and quite similar in their leaf shape, nutrient consumption, and responses to environmental stresses like drought and shade. Other pairs of relatively closely related species, like red maple and basswood, differed quite a bit in these traits. Yet other pairs, like basswood and eastern red cedar were both distantly related--remember that the split between flowering angiosperms like basswood and nonflowering gymnosperms like pine took place roughly three hundred million years ago--and functionally distinct. And finally, some pairs of distantly related species, like red oak and white pine, had relatively similar functional traits despite considerable evolutionary divergence. The FAB experiment was designed so that the researchers could determine the role of functional and phylogenetic diversity in bolstering overall productivity. Here, the two-year-old plot in the foreground comprises red oak (Quercus rubra) and white pine (Pinus strobus). 10 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 The researchers wanted to understand the impact of biodiversity on herbivore vulnerability and disease susceptibility. Shown here (clockwise from upper left): red maple (Acer rubrum) leaves that have been spotted with anthracnose, an insect gall on a northern pin oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis), and insect herbivory on paper birch (Betula papyrifera), which Grossman evaluates with a plastic grid. Biodiversity Research 11 (This does happen from time to time: consider the functional similarities of bats and insecteating birds.) The presence of these four types of bicultures in FAB allowed us to tease apart the role of functional and phylogenetic diversity in bolstering the ecological functionality of our newly planted \"forest.\" We also wanted to understand whether diversity within a single species--genetic diversity-- was as important as diversity among species. Though intraspecific diversity in other species is often invisible to humans, it has been well-documented that some plant traits vary just as much within a species as among related species. And copious evidence from epidemiology to conservation biology has shown that genetically diverse populations are more stable and better poised to cope with environmental stressors than homogenous ones. To assess this question, we designed and planted a second tree-diversity experiment. The eighthundred-tree Biodiversity in Willows and Poplars (BiWaP) experiment included plots varying not just in species richness but also in genetic diversity. We took advantage of the fact that many species in the willow family (Salicaceae) can be easily propagated by cuttings to grow hundreds of identical clones of several quaking aspens (Populus tremuloides), white aspens (P. alba), and black willows (Salix nigra). We then planted these trees in the field such that some had as neighbors only genetic clones of themselves while others had as neighbors multiple genotypes each of several species. As such, the genetic diversity comprised another dimension of biodiversity whose role in supporting ecosystem function we planned to test. The Complex Role of Biodiversity But what goes into measuring the functionality of an ecosystem--even a highly simplified and orderly biodiversity experiment? At the end of each summer at Cedar Creek, a team of interns--led by me for the first several years of the experiment--measured the stem diameter and height of each tree in FAB. Standardized equations then allowed for easy conversions of these measurements into estimates of trunk biomass. Encouragingly, trunk growth from year to year was higher for trees with morediverse neighbors compared to those in mono- culture (Grossman et al., 2017), although we did not see an effect of either species or genetic diversity in the BiWaP experiment (Grossman and Cavender-Bares, 2019). Paralleling findings from Big Biodiversity, Ecotron, and other grassland experiments around the world, our documentation of a productivity boost in morediverse plots contributed to the growing consensus that this BEF phenomenon is not only confined to grasslands. Indeed, meta-analysis of tree growth data both from global forests (Liang et al., 2016) and managed or experimental systems (Zhang et al., 2012) corroborates our findings. This pattern is perhaps of special note given that monocultural plantations dominate production forestry the world over. Polycultures are harder to maintain and harvest; yet recent experimental findings like ours raise the question of whether increases in yield might compensate for higher costs of maintenance and harvesting. Going beyond my initial focus on productivity, I wanted to determine how tree biodiversity in these systems related to herbivore vulnerability and disease susceptibility. Since we planted FAB inside a massive fenced enclosure, I knew I would never be able to study, for instance, the role of diversity in preventing deer browsing. But I could measure damage by insects and fungal pathogens, like red maple anthracnose. Over three years, I spent a month each autumn painstakingly measuring leaves of hundreds of plants with a translucent grid: I would estimate the original size of a given leaf and the amount of this tissue that had been chewed up by insects or infected by fungi. I also counted galls (small tumors formed by insect larvae) and leaf mines (burrows in leaves created by other larval feeders). Finally, I surveyed damage across the experiment stemming from two fungal diseases, each specialized to a single species in the FAB and BiWaP experiments. The story that emerged from these measurements is a complicated one (Grossman and Cavender-Bares, 2019; Grossman et al., 2018). Having diverse neighbors frequently affected how vulnerable a given tree was to insect or disease damage, but the direction and strength of this relationship varied based on the species of tree and type of damage in question. For instance, having diverse neighbors reduced the 12 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Two genetically distinct white aspen (Populus alba) are shown in the Biodiversity in Willows and Poplars (BiWaP) experiment in the fall of 2016. These aspen look alike when green, but one has attained fall color before the other. likelihood that an oak would be attacked by leaf miners but increased the risk of leaf miner attack for birches! And yes, red maples with more conspecific neighbors were more likely to experience intense anthracnose infection. Fascinatingly, it also seemed that very nearby neighbors (within a one-meter radius of a focal tree) had a bigger impact on that tree's risk of pest attack or disease than did farther away neighbors. This spatial scale-dependence of vulnerability to damage was relatively consistent across tree and pest or disease identity. Generally, though, it appears that other factors, like climate, the presence of predators, and chance, might play a role equivalent to or greater than that of diversity in affecting the vulnerability of trees to pests and pathogens. While pests and diseases constitute the most famous consumers of living plant tissue, an entire food chain unfolds once leaves and roots are shed and begin to decompose, and I also wanted to know how tree diversity affected this microbial universe. Focusing on the rich, plantdependent microbial life of rotting leaves and the soil below them, I was interested in using the FAB experiment as a platform to assess whether more-diverse tree communities might beget more active and diverse soil microbial communities. In both cases, we found subtle biodiversity effects. We found that the most important factor shaping the microbial community was the proportion of trees in a plot that were gymnosperms (pines and junipers) versus angiosperms (oaks, maples, birch, and basswood). Interestingly, pines, and especially junipers, created a hostile environment for bacteria, perhaps due to antimicrobial properties exuded by these species. Yet, since I collected Biodiversity Research 13 samples after only three years of tree growth, it is important to note that the microbial communities of the FAB experiment have probably not finished responding to the presence of different combinations of tree species. So, this story is only just beginning to unfold. Across all these projects, I was surprised to find that species richness--long the standard metric of biodiversity for biologists--emerged as a still-critical predictor of ecosystem function. In study after study, the number of tree species in a plot predicted ecosystem function as well as or better than more abstruse dimensions of biodiversity. In some cases, the diversity of particular functional traits within plots emerged as an important predictor of particular functions. But, generally speaking, I saw little evidence that continuing to measure diversity in terms of species richness might obscure important connections between biodiversity and ecosystem function. From Local to Global to Local Encouragingly, my findings--or anyone else's-- from the tree-diversity experiments at Cedar Creek don't have to be the final word on BEF relationships in forests. On establishment, FAB was inducted into TreeDivNet, a network of twenty-five tree-diversity experiments distributed across the globe. The 1.1 million trees making up TreeDivNet have been planted in sites on six continents and range from boreal to Mediterranean and tropical climates. Though the design of these experiments varies from site to site, each includes some experimental manipulation of tree diversity, as in FAB. At most sites, investigators have made periodic measurements of tree survival and growth, and of damage inflicted upon trees by pests and pathogens (Grossman et al., 2018b). This riot of findings has already contributed to our understanding of how changes in tree biodiversity are likely to affect the way that forests function. And the BEF framework, though developed through experimental work, has now given credence to the idea that biodiversity changes the way ecosystems function. This premise has now been borne out through observational studies of non-experimental (e.g. naturally occurring) ecosystems (van der Plas, 2019). I argue that this holistic view on the value of biodiversity needs to inform the way that we, as managers and users of natural resources, make local decisions. Though large-scale, systemic change will be required for humans to fully address the current biodiversity crisis, such change can be instigated and incubated on the smallest scales. For urbanites, this might mean turning more and more of our marginal spaces into To examine the relationship between tree biodiversity and soil microbes, biodiversity havens. OpporGrossman filled six hundred mesh litterbags with preweighed dried leaves tunities of this nature include varying in diversity that corresponded with the FAB plots. The weight and pollinator-friendly prairie chemical composition of the litter provided a measurement of how decomposition had progressed over the course of four seasons. JACOB MILLER, CEDAR CREEK ECOSYSTEM SCIENCE RESERVE (CC BY-SA 4.0) 14 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Based on the initial results of the FAB experiment, Grossman argues that we should work as individuals and communities to promote biodiversity--not simply within designated natural areas but in yards, parks, and through consumer decisions. yards, urban gardens and food forests, and even no-mow zones such as those currently being put into place at the Arnold Arboretum. Communities can also make choices in our roles as consumers, advocating for less chemically intensive agriculture that protects the incidental biodiversity concomitant with farming prior to the widespread adoption of blanket glyphosate-spraying on row crops. For me, working mere meters away from the Big Biodiversity plots and playing my own part in the establishment of new biodiversity experiments has also highlighted the importance of humility. Empirical evidence shows us that biodiversity plays critical, complex roles in mediating the way ecosystems function. Yet we are often not nor, I would argue, will we ever be able to fully understand and thus manage these BEF dynamics. Instead of assuming that we can figure out how to optimize global biodiversity to provide for the ecosystem functions that we want, it might make more sense to take a precautionary approach. In doing so, we should be highly conservative in both senses of the word, protecting biodiversity far more stringently than we think is necessary to sustain critical ecological functioning, especially in the face of ongoing challenges such as climate change. We would be foolish, I believe, to fail to conserve global biodiversity, which BEF research has shown us to be valuable beyond measure. Acknowledgements The author wishes to acknowledge his doctoral advisor, Jeannine Cavender-Bares, as well as the other co-PIs of the Forests and Biodiversity (FAB) experiment: Sarah Hobbie, Rebecca Montgomery, and Peter Reich. Work described here also stems from collaborations with Peter Kennedy, Jess Gutknecht, and several undergraduate collaborators and interns. Susan Barrott offered helpful feedback on an early draft of this article. Finally, the author is incredibly grateful for the opportunity to work at the Cedar Creek LTER site and to collaborate with TreeDivNet partners. Biodiversity Research 15 References Butchart, S.H.M., M. Walpole, B. Collen, A. van Strien, J.P.W. Scharlemann,... R. Watson. 2010. Global biodiversity: Indicators of recent declines. Science, 328: 1164?1168. Connell, J.H., and E. Orias. 1964. The ecological regulation of species diversity. The American Naturalist, 98: 399?414. Darwin, C. 1859. On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life. London: John Murray. Davis, M., S. Faurby, and J. Svenning. 2018. Mammal diversity will take millions of years to recover from the current biodiversity crisis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 115: 11262?11267. Downing, J.A., and D. Tilman. 1994. Biodiversity and stability in grasslands. Nature, 367: 363?365. Elton, C.S. 1958. The ecology of invasions by animals and plants. London: Methuen and Co. Fargione, J., D. Tilman, R. Dybzinski, J.H.R. Lambers, C. Clark,... M. Loreau. 2007. From selection to complementarity: shifts in the causes of biodiversity-productivity relationships in a long-term biodiversity experiment. Proceedings of the Royal Society, B 274: 871?6. Grossman, J.J., and J. Cavender-Bares. 2019. Consequences of biodiversity shift across phylogenetic scales for aspen and willow growth, survival, and herbivory. Journal of Vegetation Science, 30: 301?311 Grossman, J.J., J. Cavender-Bares, S.E. Hobbie, P.B. Reich, and R.A. Montgomery. 2017. Species richness and traits predict overyielding in stem growth in an early-successional tree diversity experiment. Ecology, 98: 2601?2614. Grossman, J.J., J. Cavender-Bares, P.B. Reich, R.A. Montgomer y, and S.E. Hobbie. 2018a. Neighborhood diversity simultaneously increased and decreased susceptibility to contrasting herbivores in an early stage forest diversity experiment. Journal of Ecology, 107: 1492?1505. Grossman, J.J., M. Vanhellemont, N. Barsoum, J. Bauhus, H. Bruelheide,... K. Verheyen. 2018b. Synthesis and future research directions linking tree diversity to growth, survival, and damage in a global network of tree diversity experiments. Environmental and Experimental Botany, 152: 68?89. Isbell, F., D. Tilman, S. Polasky, S. Binder, and P. Hawthorne. 2013. Low biodiversity state persists two decades after cessation of nutrient enrichment. Ecology Letters: 454?460. Liang, J., T.W. Crowther, N. Picard, S. Wiser, M. Zhou,... P.B. Reich. 2016. Positive biodiversityproductivity relationship predominant in global forests. Science, 354: 196. May, R.M. 1973. Qualitative stability in model ecosystems. Ecology, 54: 638?641. Naeem, S., L.J. Thompson, S.P. Lawler, J.H. Lawton, and R.M. Woodfin. 1994. Declining biodiversity can alter the performance of ecosystems. Nature, 368: 734?737. Naidoo, R., and W.L. Adamowicz. 2006. Modeling opportunity costs of conservation in transitional landscapes. Conservation Biology, 20: 490?500. van der Plas, F. 2019. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning in naturally assembled communities. Biological Reviews, brv.12499. Schulze, E.-D., and H. Mooney. 1994. Biodiversity and ecosystem function. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Tilman, D., F. Isbell, and J.M. Cowles. 2014. Biodiversity and ecosystem functioning. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 45: 471?493. Tilman, D., J. Knops, D. Wedin, P. Reich, M. Ritchie, and E. Siemann. 1997. The influence of functional diversity and composition on ecosystem processes. Science, 277: 1300?1302. Tilman, D., D. Wedin, and J.M.H. Knops. 1996. Productivity and sustainability influenced by biodiversity in grassland ecosystems. Nature, 379: 718?720. Zhang, C., J.A. Postma, L.M. York, and J.P. Lynch. 2014. Root foraging elicits niche complementaritydependent yield advantage in the ancient \"three sisters\" (maize\/bean\/squash) polyculture. Annals of Botany, 114: 1719?1733. Zhang, F., and L. Li. 2003. Using competitive and facilitative interactions in intercropping systems enhances crop productivity and nutrient-use efficiency. Plant and Soil, 248: 305?312. Zhang, Y., H.Y.H. Chen, and P.B. Reich. 2012. Forest productivity increases with evenness, species richness and trait variation: A global metaanalysis. Journal of Ecology, 100: 742?749. Jake J. Grossman is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Medlar by Any Other Name","article_sequence":2,"start_page":16,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25665","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070a76d.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":1,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Enzenbacher, Tiffany","article_content":"ENZENBACHER, T. 2019. A MEDLAR BY ANY OTHER NAME. ARNOLDIA, 77(1): 16?25 A Medlar by Any Other Name Tiffany Enzenbacher T his is an account of a meddling medlar that placed an inquisitive thorn in the side of Jane Ellenbogen Stern, an environmentalist from Pine Bluff, Arkansas. In 1969, Stern was leading a bird-monitoring project at a small remnant of tallgrass prairie and bottomland woods about fifty miles northeast of her home--a natural area now preserved within an expanse of rice fields and aquaculture ponds. She noticed an unusual plant that resembled a hawthorn (Crataegus), only shrubbier, which was covered in white flowers. She collected a branch sample and notified regional biologists, including Edwin Burnell Smith, the curator of the University of Arkansas Herbarium. Stern's discovery triggered the interest of an entourage of plant professionals, who spent nearly a half century attempting to provide a proper identification and name. The plant is now recognized as an unusual naturally occurring hybrid and is known as Stern's medlar (?Crataemespilus canescens). In October 2018, Plant Growth Facilities Manager Kea Woodruff and I eagerly followed Stern's trail to gather propagules from her rare find, during our Arnold Arboretum plant collecting expedition to Arkansas and Oklahoma, which we nicknamed the A-OK expedition. The expedition was part of the Arboretum's Campaign for the Living Collections, a tenyear initiative to collect nearly four hundred taxa from around the globe. We reached out to staff at the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission in the summer of 2018 to prepare for our upcoming expedition. Theo Witsell, a botanist and ecologist at the commission, explained that Stern's medlar is protected, and as such, we would not be permitted to harvest propagules from the only known wild population growing at the Konecny Grove Natural Area, located in Prairie County. Witsell, however, connected us to his friend Tom Frothingham, a former commission staff member, now of the Little Rock Zoo. Frothingham had obtained a Stern's medlar from the Natural Resources Conservation Service's Plant Materials Center in Booneville, Arkansas, a decade prior. That plant, in turn, had been propagated from the Konecny Grove. Frothingham wrote to Woodruff that, in addition to having a large specimen growing in his yard, he had already potted up a division. \"You'd be welcome to it,\" he wrote, and he also volunteered that we could dig additional divisions. Woodruff and I planned to be near Little Rock during the initial two days of our nine-day expedition, so we arranged to visit Frothingham directly after our six-hour flight (with layover) on October 1. We obtained our rental car and drove forty-five minutes in the unanticipated afternoon heat, starting in the bustling city of Little Rock and continuing through the serene and rural landscapes northwest of the city. We then zeroed in on his address and proceeded to the end of the wooded side road. \"Mine is the second driveway, with the mailboxes,\" Frothingham had instructed. We found our spot. An Unexpected Discovery Born in Little Rock, in 1918, Jane Ellenbogen Stern moved to the suburb of Pine Bluff at about age thirty, with her husband, Howard Stern, and their two children, Arthur and Ellen. Stern developed a long-standing love of the outdoors through birdwatching, which she became passionate about while Arthur was obtaining his Boy Scout nature badge. As her hobby advanced, she became a charter member of the Jefferson County Audubon Society. Coincidentally, Stern was searching for a small bird, the Traill's flycatcher (Empidonax traillii), when she first encountered the medlar. The Traill's flycatcher is now more commonly known as the willow flycatcher. It had been previously documented in the low, moist tallgrass prairies of eastern Arkansas, and Stern was directed to PHOTOS FROM UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL ARKANSAS ARCHIVES, TORREYSON LIBRARY Stern's Medlar 17 In 1969, Jane Ellenbogen Stern observed an enigmatic shrub in an Arkansas woodland where she was searching for the Traill's flycatcher (Empidonax traillii). Her curiosity about the shrub aroused longstanding taxonomic research. The shrub is now known as Stern's medlar (?Crataemespilus canescens). the Konecny Prairie and Grove--then unnamed and unprotected--which was one of the few remnant prairies remaining in the region. In 1951, a nesting study had documented flycatchers at the site and found that out of the fifteen nests that were discovered, thirteen were in presumed hawthorn trees. One can speculate that the \"hawthorns\" may have been an initial sighting of Stern's medlar. In the summer of 1968, Stern first visited the property, searching for the flycatcher with Raymond McMaster, the manager of the White River National Wildlife Refuge, and Thomas Foti, who would later be appointed senior ecologist for the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. Sam Konecny, the owner of the property, showed them around. \"We piled into Mr. Konecny's new car and roared off, helter skelter, across the farm, stopping occasionally to leap out and pull a `weed' while battling off mosquitos and sweltering in the heat,\" Foti later wrote in the Ozark Society Bulletin. The remnant landscape was divided into two sections-- a seventy-one-acre rectangle of tallgrass prairie, which had been preserved as a hayfield (Konecny Prairie), and a twenty-twoacre grove of swampy woods (Konecny Grove), known as slash timber, which included overstory species like persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), and honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). Along the edge of this woodland were the hawthorn-like thickets in which the flycatchers nested. The following winter, Stern was contacted by Douglas James, a professor of zoology at the University of Arkansas, who asked her to organize an effort to determine when the Traill's flycatcher arrived at the grove. The reason for the effort was due to uncertainty about flycatcher taxonomy. Ornithologists increasingly believed the Traill's flycatcher should be treated as two species, rather than one, but they were uncertain which species deserved the original scientific name, which was based on a bird John James Audubon had observed in Arkansas. The song is considered the best way of distinguishing between the two species. The population that was already known to breed in Arkansas sang \"fitz-bew,\" but the popula- UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL ARKANSAS ARCHIVES, TORREYSON LIBRARY 18 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Stern organized a group of volunteer bird-watchers in the spring of 1969. The volunteers visited the Konecny Prairie and Grove Natural Area--then unofficially named--to monitor the arrival of the Traill's flycatcher. tion that sang \"wee-be-o\" had previously not been reported to nest in the state. Due to Stern's experience and proximity to the site, she was the ideal individual to lead the effort. She was eager for the challenge. \"We will do our best to cover the Konecny place,\" she wrote to James on February 26, 1969. \"If the fiz-bew one hollers as loud as the spit-chee and che-bek and wee-bee-o, I don't see how anyone could miss him.\" Several months later, the \"Traill's Flycatcher Vigil\" commenced. Stern assembled twentyseven birdwatchers to take turns observing the grove daily, beginning March 29, to determine when the flycatchers arrived to roost. On May 6, Stern was on the lookout with Jewel Herring, another birder from Pine Bluff, when they heard one of the flycatchers singing, and the song was \"fitz-bew.\" On July 7, Foti and Stern returned and found an empty nest, assumed to UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL ARKANSAS ARCHIVES, TORREYSON LIBRARY Stern's Medlar 19 \"Originally he had it perched on a honey locust twig,\" zoologist Douglas James wrote to Stern, describing an illustration of the Traill's flycatcher. \"I returned it saying good grief it's the hawthorn that determines the bird's presence on the Grand Prairie.\" James, however, was uncertain whether the illustration matched the unusual hawthorn-like shrub Stern had observed, and he requested her confirmation. be a Traill's flycatcher's, burrowed in a branch of a hawthorn-like shrub. Stern observed that the plant did not appear like other hawthorn species in the grove, and so she sent a sample to Edwin Burnell Smith, the curator of the University of Arkansas Herbarium. Stern would ignite a decades long process of pursuing an accurate name for the plant, even while the confusion around the flycatcher taxonomy was resolved. The \"wee-be-o\" species, commonly known as the alder flycatcher, was given the official name of Empidonax alnorum in 1973. The Search for a Name On July 10, 1969, Smith wrote to Stern with an initial classification of the mystery plant. \"I must say, [this is one] of the most difficult plants I've received for identification,\" Smith wrote. \"The small tree is a type of Crataegus, `Hawthorn,' in the Rose Family. The genus Crataegus is cursed with a very complex taxonomy which makes the individual species quite difficult to identify. The one you sent in is probably (and I emphasize probably) Crataegus engelmannii.\" As Smith was unsure of his initial naming, he solicited an additional sample and offered another stab--hillside hawthorn (C. collina). Smith even mailed an herbarium sheet to the Arnold Arboretum for assistance, likely due to the reputation of Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's founding director, as an expert on hawthorn taxonomy. Director Richard Howard responded to Smith on October 23 with a complicated assessment: it appeared to be a \"mixed collection.\" The flowering stems looked like red chokeberry (Aronia arbutifolia), and Howard agreed that the fruiting stems (obtained that fall) resembled C. collina. \"Unhappily,\" 20 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Howard wrote, \"the specimens lack the young leaves and flowers which are equally critical for accurate determination.\" Correct identification was proving to be exceedingly difficult, and the only sense that could be made was that Stern was harvesting samples from multiple plants. However, in a letter to Stern on June 8, 1970, Smith suggested an alternate explanation for the \"enigmatic `Haw'\"--the possibility of \"a strange hybrid of some kind.\" But then, after studying additional collections, Smith was relieved to finally provide the name of dotted hawthorn (Crataegus punctata). Dotted hawthorn is very similar to C. collina, and is occasionally considered the same species. \"Well, finally (!) I am able to report to you with great relief that I have been able to determine the frustrating `haw,' at least to my satisfaction,\" Smith wrote to Stern on October 15. \"It turns out that the plants are not a new species or a hybrid, which is kind of sad after all the trouble we have both gone to.\" Later, upon reexamination of specimens for the Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United States in the 1980s, taxonomists rejected Stern's medlar as a hawthorn. Although the flower and fruit characteristics are similar to hawthorns, as is the overall plant height, hawthorn leaves are shallowly to deeply lobed, unlike the simple, subentire leaves of Stern's medlar. Also, hawthorns typically grow as small trees with one large stem, occasionally producing suckers, while Stern's medlar is a large shrub with equal-diameter shoots. Taxonomist James B. Phipps, of the University of Western Ontario, was intrigued by the anomalous specimens, and contacted Smith in 1988. Phipps had been researching hawthorn taxonomy since the 1970s, and years later, he would author the hawthorn section of the Flora of North America. Smith relayed the news to Marie Locke of Pine Bluff in a letter dated July 13, 1988. \"I recently heard some interesting news from a botanist in Canada: He plans to name a new species (and new genus, for Arkansas) in the Rose family from collections made several years ago by Jane Stern,\" Smith wrote. \"I think that this is the plant I had such difficulty identifying-- remember it? It had two strikingly different kinds of leaves on it.\" Stern was later in contact with Phipps herself. She agreed to collect additional herbarium specimens in mid-September, when the fruit would be ripe, and she also promised to arrange for Phipps to visit the Konecny property himself. On October 21, a group of Arkansans, including Stern, escorted Phipps to the coveted shrubs. Phipps ultimately published a new name for the plant in 1990: Mespilus canescens. He recognized that although Stern's plants resembled hawthorns, other characteristics uniquely resembled common medlar (Mespilus germanica), the singular species within that genus, which is native to southeastern Europe and Iran. Among other things, it shared a multistemmed habit; distinctive leaf venation, with secondary veins curving toward the margins; and fine, white (canescent) hairs on the inflorescence. While even this comparison didn't match completely--the common medlar, for instance, produces larger brown fruit, unlike the red fruit of Stern's discovery--Phipps suggested that a hybrid origin seemed unlikely, given the lack of suitable parent species. \"The most likely explanation of the status of M. canescens is that it is an ancient relic,\" Phipps wrote. \"One should always be cautious in describing a new species from such limited material (all the cited collections come from the same locality), but M. canescens is so distinct from all other native American Maloideae that there can be no doubt that it is not a previously described North American member of this subfamily.\" In the same paper, the shrub was aptly given the common name of Stern's medlar. But the story was not over. Almost twenty years later, Eugenia Y.Y. Lo and colleagues further investigated the relationship of Stern's medlar to the common Eurasian medlar. Through DNA amplification and phylogenic analyses of over ninety Rosaceous species, including hawthorn, chokeberry, crabapple (Malus), medlar, and serviceberry (Amelanchier), they concluded that although Stern's medlar shares a common ancestor with the Eurasian medlar, it is more closely related to blueberry hawthorn (Crataegus brachyacantha)--a species whose range is centered in Louisiana, eastern Texas, and southern Arkansas. Their analyses, published in 2007, suggested a hybrid origin of Stern's med- UNIVERSITY OF CENTRAL ARKANSAS ARCHIVES, TORREYSON LIBRARY In 1988, taxonomist James B. Phipps visited Konecny Grove with Stern and other local environmentalists. Archival correspondence revealed the back-and-forth excitement, with a letter from Stern to Phipps (top left), coordinating Phipps's visit, and a letter from Harold Grimmett, the director of the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission (bottom right), providing a collecting permit for a follow-up visit. Phipps proposed that the plant was a new species of medlar, which he named Mespilus canescens. 22 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 tion, and aid from government agencies, private land corporations, and the railroad industry. Perhaps the families in Slovak had brought along plants or seeds of a favorite fruit? Common medlar has been cultivated as far back as the ancient Romans. Phipps accounted for these new conclusions, and in 2017, he reclassified Stern's medlar as ?Crataemespilus canescens. The ?Crataemespilus nothogenus was created in 1899 to accommodate an assumed hybrid, ?C. grandiflora, originating from midland hawthorn (Crataegus laevigata) and common medlar, that was also initially described as medlar. In 1914, a second hybrid was discovered: ?C. gillottii, an intermediate between English hawthorn (Crataegus monogyna) and common medlar. Now Stern's medlar has joined the ranks as the third member of this hybrid genus. WONDERLANE, CC BY 2.0 lar, with blueberry hawthorn as the maternal parent. Because the fruit of blueberry hawthorn is fittingly blue, however, the authors acknowledged that another native red-fruited hawthorn (or even an ancient, now extinct medlar species) may have been involved in past hybridization. The authors surmised that common medlar and blueberry hawthorn may have hybridized if they were cultivated within range of one another. Hawthorns are known to hybridize, and the authors pointed to literature confirming that common medlar was, indeed, cultivated in an agricultural station in Louisiana as far back as 1893. Furthermore, Slovak, the small town two miles north of Konecny Prairie and Grove, was home to at least fifty families of Eastern European heritage by 1909. Immigration to Arkansas in the mid- to late-nineteenth century was encouraged by advertising, legisla- Common medlar (Mespilus germanica) is harvested while unripe and allowed to blet (soften). After storing in a cool dark place until squishy and aromatic, the fruits are ready for direct consumption or for use in jellies or wine. LARRY ALLAIN, U.S. GEOLOGICAL SURVEY TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Stern's Medlar 23 Through genetic analyses, researchers have now determined that Stern's medlar (?Crataemespilus canescens, right) is a hybrid between the common medlar and the blueberry hawthorn (Crataegus brachyacantha). An Unconventional Collection The taxonomic and conservation status of the Stern's medlar initially placed this plant on the radar of the A-OK expedition. When Woodruff and I pulled into the driveway at Tom Frothingham's property, northwest of Little Rock, we were greeted by him and two colleagues, Lauren Goldstein and Connor Livingston. Woodruff and I could hardly contain ourselves as Frothingham led us from the driveway to where the specimen was planted, out in full sun, between the shed and house. The shrub was vigorous--it was nearly fifteen feet tall--and I thought its habit resembled that of a serviceberry or large rose (Rosa)--upright with slightly cascading branches. After months preparing for the A-OK expedition and a day's worth of travel, it was surreal that our target was in plain sight. To add to our excitement, the medlar was fruiting! Frothingham and I alternated ascending the ladder to gather the cherry-sized pomes, which were relatively sparse. After we collected a handful, Frothingham insisted that the whole group sample one, to which we all curiously obliged. The shiny red fruit was surprisingly sweet, and Woodruff and I saved all the seed from the consumed fruit to send back to the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouse for propaga- tion. I then slowly walked around the specimen and found an appropriate division to dig. Frothingham lent me a trowel for the job. After the division was successfully dug and bagged, Frothingham then led us to the promised potted plant, harvested as a division several years prior, at the front of his house. We chatted about seed propagation and the rich history of the plant for a while, before Woodruff and I loaded up our bounty. We repeatedly thanked our collaborator for his generosity, and we backed out of his driveway, delighted about how successful the first day of the expedition had been. Preserving an Unusual Hybrid Not only is Stern's medlar a rare hybrid but it is visually appealing to boot. In September 1989, Stern wrote to Harold Grimmett, then the director of the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission, urging him to request that Phipps withhold the location of the Stern's medlar in his 1990 paper. \"The plant is extremely attractive in appearance and can be expected to be aggressively sought by the horticultural trade,\" Stern wrote. Phipps, in response, suggested that the commercial threat seemed \"highly unlikely\" and noted that the location was already well-documented with herbarium spec- KEA WOODRUFF 24 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 flycatcher migrated elsewhere to nest, and the landowner told Stern that he was interested in reclaiming the property. \"So many things connect with the Konecny prairie, the grove, the bird, and the Tree,\" Stern wrote to Phipps on April 24, 1989. \"Bless the bird for hanging on long enough for the Commission to purchase the easement on the grove ... He would have plowed some or all of it ... but you and The Tree have put an end to that idea.\" Stern's medlar is now graded as critically endangered, which means it has an extremely The author harvests a division from the Stern's medlar (?Crataemespilus caneshigh risk of extinction in the cens) at Tom Frothingham's property on the outskirts of Little Rock, Arkansas. wild. Only twenty-four indiThe division was bagged and mailed for next-day delivery to the Arnold Arboreviduals are known to exist, and tum's Dana Greenhouse. because Stern's medlar is tripimens. Nonetheless, Phipps agreed with Stern's loid (having three sets of chromosomes), it is assessment of the plant's beauty. In his book likely sterile. This means the seeds we collected Hawthorns and Medlars, published in 2003, from Frothingham's specimen will be difficult Phipps states that \"Stern's medlar is arguably (if not impossible) to germinate. As hawthorns the most exquisite ornamental treated in this have been found to produce seed through apobook.\" Its exfoliating bark has hues of cream mixis (asexual seed formation), however, hope and olive, and he describes the plants as \"a for potential seedlings is well-founded. Regardfountain of white flowers.\" I personally like to less, the clonal division that we harvested, as imagine that this attractive nature is the reason well as the potted plant that Frothingham prothat Stern initially took such keen interest in vided, are thriving at the Dana Greenhouse prothe plant--launching a pursuit that continued duction facility. In two to three years, they will well beyond the Traill's flycatcher. be added to the Arboretum's living collections In fact, the medlar has proved to be a conto join the other 179 taxa in our landscape that servation boon for Konecny Prairie and Grove. are of conservation concern. I am proud to have From the beginning, Stern recognized the signifbrought Stern's medlar to the Arboretum with icance of this site as the only remaining Traill's Woodruff, to have the opportunity to learn of flycatcher's nesting habitat in eastern Arkansas Stern's tireless conservation efforts, and to have and as one of the few tallgrass prairie remnants experienced, first-hand, what Phipps devoted that escaped plowing in the region. Stern awakhis entire career to--the complicated identificaened a movement to preserve the prairie and tion of hawthorns, medlars, and their hybrids. grove, and in February 1976, the grove became Works Cited the first conservation easement purchased by the Arkansas Natural Heritage Commission. All archival correspondence and images were provided This was a victory for so many, and on May 14, courtesy of the Jane E. Stern Collection, University of 1977, a gathering was held on the Konecny land Central Arkansas Archives (M90-02, Series II, Sub-Series to celebrate, which coincided with the Traill's IV, Box 1, Files 12?17), Torreyson Library, University of Central Arkansas, Conway, Arkansas. flycatcher arrival. A decade later, however, the TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Stern's Medlar 25 Tom Frothingham (at left) encouraged the collectors to sample fruit of the Stern's medlar (?Crataemespilus canescens). His colleagues Lauren Goldstein and Connor Livingston are pictured, along with Kea Woodruff (right). Foti, T. 1971. The grand prairie. Ozark Society Bulletin, 5(4): 6?11. Freeman, F.D. 1948. Immigration to Arkansas. The Arkansas Historical Quarterly, 7(3): 201?220. Kesterson, K. 2019. Jane Rita Ellenbogen Stern (1918? 1989). In CALS Encyclopedia of Arkansas. Retrieved from https:\/\/encyclopediaofarkansas. net\/entries\/jane-rita-ellenbogen-stern-421\/ Joshi, V.K., and Attri, B.L. 2017. Specific features of table wine production technology. In Kosseva, M.R., Joshi, V.K., and Panesar, P.S. (Eds.), Science and Technology of Fruit Wine Production (pp. 295? 461). Cambridge, MA: Academic Press. Leslie, J.W. 2000. Stern, Jane Rita Ellenbogen. In Williams, N.A., and Whayne, J.M. (Eds.), Arkansas Biography: A Collection of Notable Lives (pp. 274? 275). Fayetteville: University of Arkansas Press. Lo, E.Y.Y., Stefanovic, S., and Dickson, T.A. 2007. Molecular reappraisal of relationships between Crataegus and Mespilus (Rosaceae, Pyreae)-- two genera or one? Systematic Botany, 32(3): 596?616. Meanley, B. 1952. Notes on nesting Traill's flycatcher in eastern Arkansas. The Wilson Bulletin, 64(2): 111?112. Phipps, J.B. 1990. Mespilus canescens, a new Rosaceous endemic from Arkansas. Systematic Botany, 15(1): 26?32. Phipps, J.B. 2016. Studies in Mespilus, Crataegus, and ?Crateamespilus (Roseaceae), I. Differentiation of Mespilus and Crataegus, expansion of ? Crataemespilus, with supplementary observations on differences between the Crataegus and Amelanchier clades. Phylotaxa, 257(3): 201?229. Phipps, J.B., Kennon, N., and Lance, R. 2003. Hawthorns and medlars. Portland: Timber Press. Vaughn, M. 2015. Hawthorn: The tree that has nourished, healed, and inspired through the ages. New Haven: Yale University Press. Tiffany Enzenbacher is the manager of plant production at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Botanist in Borneo: Understanding Patterns in the Forested Landscape","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25664","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070a728.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":1,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"ASHTON, P. 2019. A BOTANIST IN BORNEO: UNDERSTANDING PATTERNS IN THE FORESTED LANDSCAPE. ARNOLDIA, 77(1): 26?39 A Botanist in Borneo: Understanding Patterns in the Forested Landscape Peter Ashton W scapes of mild, moist climates are universal. Yet, in Brunei, I began to sense that individual species within these rainforest communities were often more highly habitat specific than I had ever seen in temperate forests. After twenty-eight intensive months of fieldwork, camping, and longhouse life in Brunei, I made the case that differentiating between these inland forest types--known collectively as mixed dipterocarp forests (or MDFs)--could have important implications for timber inventories and silviculture. At that time, timber was only cut for local use in northwestern Borneo, although research towards sustainable harvesting was advanced in Peninsular Malaysia. Even there, as elsewhere in the tropics, distinct types of lowland MDFs had yet to be defined. The forestry department gave me clearance and funding to lay out sets of plots to test my hypothesis. For foresters, understanding the distribution of these tree communities could guide sustainable harvesting practices. But knowledge of tree species preferences and distributions would also provide the means of mapping biodiversity, locating centers of richness and endemism, and identifying and demarcating priorities for conservation--a first for the tropics. hen I began as a field researcher on the island of Borneo, in 1957, little was known about the distribution of the inland rainforests. The forests are incredibly diverse and are dominated by large overstory trees in the dipterocarp family (Dipterocarpaceae), which often tower more than two hundred feet above the forest floor. While variation in the forests was evident, it appeared as chaotic and random as the colored specks in a children's kaleidoscope. Odoardo Beccari, a Florentine botanist who spent two years in northern Borneo in the 1860s, had provided the first confirmation that specialized lowland habitats, including peat swamps and sandy exposures, bear distinct forest types, but neither he nor his successors until my time had recognized any correlation between habitat characteristics and forest structure on the yellow-to-red tropical soils that characterize much of the inlands. Yet as I tramped along Bukit Biang--a long ridge in eastern Brunei--I was surprised to see dipterocarp species I had come to know on the sandy coastal hills of western Brunei, and I began to sense that these forests were divided into two distinct communities--one on sandy soils, the other on loams. These communities would reappear in different localities as I extended my explorations throughout Brunei. I came to anticipate the flora by the distinctive sounds of the cicadas that inhabited each and by the smells of the forest, which I later recognized all over Borneo and even Peninsular Malaysia-- the mellow fruitfulness and fermentation from the loams or the resinous aroma from the peaty humus covering the sandy soils. Those forest smells returned to me decades later, after I had assumed the directorship of the Arnold Arboretum and first trekked into the loamy bottomlands in the Connecticut River Valley and the sandy pine barrens of New Jersey and Cape Cod. It was only then that I came to understand that these habitat patterns in the forested land- Work on the research plots commenced in 1959. But first, I briefly returned to England for my own wedding. My wife, Mary, was to become the perfect companion for a life of jungle exploration. She had been born and spent her first years in Sri Lanka, where her family had been in trade and tea for over a century. She would join my hectic field life at once, and we only had a few days in town before departing for a long stay in the hulu (or upriver country). I wanted to document and compare the two main forms of MDFs that I had recognized in my explorations. I decided to compare two seemingly contrasting sites--one on the sandy coastal hills of Andulau, in western Brunei, and the other on 50 miles 100 kilometers Bandar Seri Bagawa Bagawan awan wan n BRUNEI Andulau An nd n d dul u Forest orre re t Reserve R eser serrve Miri Kual Kuala K Ku ual ala laa Be B Belalo eel ela llalong lal la alo on ng ng Lambir Lam L La am mbiir Hills Hi lss H SOUTH CHINA SEA Ulu Ul U lu Ba Bak Bakong akon ak ng ng Bok-Tisam Bo ok Ti Ti am m Fo Forest ores e R Reserve eser ese erv Iju ju Hill Hiill H Moun Mount Mo M oun o nt Me nt M Mersing rsing rsin si g si Sibu ibu ibu ib u Raja ng River Santubongg Mountain t Bara er Riv Sega Segan S Seg ggaan a F Forest res ess Res ve Reserve Res r ve Nyab Nyabau Nya N Ny yyabau ya baau uF Forest ore rees est st Re Res Reserv Reserve es rrvee m Tin jar Ri Ulu Ul U lu D Dapo Dapoi po p oi oi MAL AYSI A Sarawak Cara Carapa C Car arrap aapa p paa Pi P Pila iila l la Raya R Ra ayya Hil aya Hill Hi H ill lll Ulu U Ul lu M Mujo Mujong ujjong n ngg Bako National Park Kuch Kuc Kuching K Ku ucchiiingg u L u p a r R i ve r BORNEO I N D O NE SI A Peter Ashton's research identified distribution patterns in the hyperdiverse inland rainforests of northern Borneo, collectively known as mixed dipterocarp forests (MDFs). His research ranged between sites like the Andulau hills, in western Brunei, where forests occur on sandy soils (above left), and Carapa Pila, in central Sarawak, which supports large trees like Shorea mujongensis (above right) on loam soils. Ashton's research sites are mapped, along with his primary expedition routes (green) and his shorter secondary routes (blue) between 1963 and 1966. MAP BY PETER ASHTON, ARNOLD ARBORETUM, AND GIS COMMUNITY ALL PHOTOS BY AUTHOR FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 27 28 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 After their marriage in 1959, Mary Ashton joined Peter in the field. Here, Mary is shown with longtime field assistant Asah anak Unyong at Kuala Belalong, a research site on loam soils in eastern Brunei. Asah collects Borneo fiddleheads (Diplazium esculentum) for supper at the same site (below), while another collector poses a flowering branch of Dillenia excelsa (Dilleniaceae), a large tree observed on the sandier soils of the Andulau hills. Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 29 steep clay-loam ridges near Kuala Belalong, in eastern Brunei. I sensed that topography was an important feature, causing local variation in the form, composition, and possibly growth rates of the forests, so at each site, I planned for fifty one-acre plots that covered the complete topographic spectrum (including ridgetops, slopes, valley bottoms, and riverbanks). Each one-acre plot represented a homogeneous topography, and the number and size of the plots were visually estimated to be representative of the forest variation at each site. This method had already become a standard procedure for ecologists studying temperate grasslands, but it was a first for biodiverse tropical forests and, indeed, for any forests known to me. All trees above one-foot circumference were to be documented. We measured the trunk girth and estimated the height for each. We also identified each as morphologically different species by means of fallen leaves and local Iban names. But I rarely knew the scientific name for these visually distinct trees. Life eventually settled down to calm and peace at out first location, Kuala Belalong. It was one of the most beautiful places in which we ever camped, with the rush of water over the rapids in our ears as we lived and slept. While I scrambled daily up the muddy slopes, locating plot positions, surveying, and initiating documentation with the teams, Mary would take her typewriter to the shingle beach, preparing herbarium labels and editing field notes. She saw the wildlife that I rarely or never experienced: a pair of small-clawed otters (Aonyx cinerea) that came to join her, squeaking and gamboling in the shallow water nearby; the extraordinary and terrifying pack of Bornean beared pigs (Sus barbatus), thundering headlong down the steep hillside opposite, then splashing across a rapid upriver, on migration in search of fruiting trees; and a macaque (Macaca fascicularis) who discovered our food store and made off with some delicacies. Our work in Andulau began the following year, in 1960, and was carried out smoothly, given our growing experience and the gentle landscape. I continued to conduct multi-week collecting expeditions until I was satisfied that the diversity of landscapes and forests in Brunei had been examined. When we returned to the University of Cambridge, after the 1960 field season, I brought back two suitcases of fallen leaves and twenty notebooks--all needed to complete my doctoral dissertation. I had presorted the leaves into nearly eight hundred morphospecies, which were recognizable entities that were mostly (dipterocarps excepted) lacking a formal scientific name and therefore named using indigenous nomenclature. They were to be named with the help of taxonomists at the University of Leiden and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, supported wherever possible by our herbarium-quality specimens in flower or fruit. This groundwork provided the basis for a Checklist of Brunei Trees, which I co-authored with Hasan bin Pukol, the ascendant curator of the Brunei Herbarium, who had been a mentor on tree identification from the time he joined our team. He was an experienced informant on traditional plant uses and became a good friend who involved Mary and me in his family activities, including marriages and births (and he even got us invited to a royal circumcision). Our combined efforts eventually provided accurate names to support the baseline data from our one hundred plots: some twenty-five thousand individuals representing nearly seven hundred species. I had no idea how I could sort and compare the plots using this elephantine data set! But luck came my way, for a few months after my arrival in Cambridge, the annual meeting of the British Ecological Society was convened there. I attended, where I was recommended to confess my rash achievements to Peter Greig-Smith, a professor at the University College of North Wales, Bangor, who was one of the leaders of a new science known as quantitative plant community ecology. Greig-Smith, a modest if somewhat austere academic, asked whether I had seen the recent paper, published in Ecological Monographs, on the woodlands bordering the tallgrass prairies of northern Wisconsin. Authors Roger Bray and John Curtis of the University of Wisconsin were to save my career. They had devised a method of relating their forests to one another, and to their climate and soils, by comparing plots according to the presence and abundance of each species ADAPTED FROM ASHTON, 1964 30 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 BELALONG 7 HILLSIDES ca. 450 meters 6 Increasing steepness Decreasing humus 5 RIDGES ca. 600 meters HILLSIDES BELALONG RIVER BANK Decreasing steepness RIDGES RIDGES ca. 200 meters ca. 650 meters ca. 450 meters 4 RIDGES TEMBURONG RIVER BANK Increasing humus ca. 550 meters 3 2 3 4 5 Very humid sticky soils, shallow roots, poor drainage pH ca. 4.6 6 7 8 Friable silty soils, deep rooting, excessive drainage pH ca. 4.2 Ashton used a statistical method known as a Bray-Curtis ordination to visualize the relationships between habitat characteristics and the tree communities for two research sites in Brunei. Here, fifty plots from Kuala Belalong have been organized into groups using this method. present. This general method is known as ordination, and elements of their novel approach are still used today. Examination of the data from Brunei indicated that the tree flora at Belalong was markedly different from that at Andulau, with only a third of species common to both sets of plots, so I decided to ordinate the two sets separately. I set to work, entering the plot data and calculating the matrix of similarity indices. I toiled night and day, for more than three weeks, using a bulky hand calculator, the Swedish Facit. The day of reckoning arrived when I started to place the plots, as dots, using a simple geometric technique for ordination, in two dimensions so that the distance between them related to their floristic similarity. To my amazement, a recognizable pattern gradually emerged for the fifty plots at each site, much like, in those days, how a photographic print would emerge on paper set in hypo solution. The patterns confirmed intuitions gained from field experience, with the tree flora tied intimately with geology and topography. Although we hadn't recensused the plots to show change over time, the initial results were clear. The species composition indicated that the dipterocarp species on clay loams, and particularly the lower slopes and undulating land, were predominantly light hardwoods that grow relatively fast. These species might yield a timber crop within a half century. But the sandy soils of Andulau, and also the shallow loams along the sharp Belalong ridges, were dominated by heavy dipterocarps and other hardwoods whose growth rates were known from other research to be much slower, implying that more complex management would be needed to sustain selective felling, with growth cycles exceeding a century. Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 31 The Ashtons returned to Borneo in 1962. Here, Mark Ashton, at age four, carries a macaque (Macaca fascicularis) named Mr. Nips. Mark currently professes silviculture at Yale, where he also directs the Yale School Forests. Peter Ashton's research sites ranged from coastal locations like Bako National Park (top) and mountainous inland locations like Carapa Pila (bottom). expanded--both geographically, to see whether the same trends would be observed elsewhere on Borneo, and temporally, to observe changes in the forest structure over time. The ordinations demonstrated, for the first time, that hyperdiverse tropical lowland forests were as floristically variable and habitatspecific as temperate broadleaf forests; indeed, the individual species showed a degree of habitat specificity only found in temperate forests in specialized habitats such as limestone crags. It is the tree species, through their chemical and physical interactions with other forms of life, that directly or indirectly mediate all biodiversity. This knowledge provided a breakthrough, and I knew that the work needed to be Mary and I, now with a young family, returned to Borneo in 1962. I resumed my explorations, this time as forest botanist in the adjacent state of Sarawak (which became part of Malaysia in 1963), where we eventually spent five years. It was a perfect place to bring up our three children. Soon we were taking them to the woods where 32 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 we, looking up into the canopy for signs of flowering, would be nudged by them, looking down with a detail to be observed from their stature alone, alerting us to a nest of giant ants, or a huge millipede, or a leech swaying encouragingly. Sarawak is slightly larger than New York State and therefore twenty times the area of Brunei. This presented both a challenge and an opportunity. I adopted a plan whereby, as in Brunei, I would undertake one major botanical exploration each year, while making periodic short forays when time allowed. Although Sarawak and Brunei share a dominant sedimentary geology of sandstones, shales, and clays, Sarawak also supports tantalizing habitats on isolated pockets of limestone karst and volcanic rocks. I further suspected that the major waterways--the Baram, Rajang and Lupar Rivers--could provide evidence of separate diversification, even speciation, in the lowland forests isolated on either side of their extensive floodplains. The major expeditions provided opportunities to set up plot clusters in a diverse set of habitats and geographical locations. As in Brunei, plot results would add to knowledge needed to understand patterns of timber supply and quality. We would also have opportunities to initiate recensusing of permanent plots, conducted on five-year intervals. This would allow us to test predictions of growth rates and management protocols inferred from the static data gathered in Brunei. Our first year of plot surveys started with a crisis: The December-to-February northeast monsoon came in with a fury not matched in recent history. Kuching, in the west, where we all lived, received continuous rain rattling on our roofs for more than two weeks at a time. Over one-third of the state was underwater, but miraculously, no lives were lost thanks to the army with their inflatable rivercraft. But it also provided an opportunity to establish permanent plots on landslide locations, uniquely allowing us to monitor forest regeneration from scratch. Afterwards, these journeys became routine, socially as well as botanically. For the first Upriver travel occasionally proved dangerous and taxing. Here, one of Ashton's boats approaches the head of a rapid, Ulu Mujong, in central Sarawak. Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 33 few hours upriver, travelling in a dugout canoe known as a prahu, we would pass through mangrove forests to the first Malay fisherman's town where we would check in at the government office, buy food, and learn whether our advance party had succeeded in attracting local Dayaks--the indigenous people of Borneo--who were familiar with the terrain and who would also provide boats. We would then proceed to the forest, often spending nights in riverside longhouses along the way. Each longhouse is essentially a village of wooden rowhouses, on stilts and under one roof, entered by ascending a notched log (like a ladder) at either end. The shared roof shelters a gallery on whose floor all social activities flourished. These stayovers were always hilarious, if somewhat raucous, experiences. As the chosen house approached, our team of local field assistants would begin combing and oiling their hair, smartening up and adding perfume; when we turned the corner and saw the longhouse for the first time, as often as not there would be a group of young women, having heard the noise of our outboards, who would have descended to the landing to wave and shout encouragement. Conversations on these boat rides were always alive with joking and good-natured braggadocio. At first, the riverside vegetation would consist of a mix of cultivated trees--indigenous mango and durian species, rambutans, coconut palms, and native and Cavendish bananas-- and the indigenous species of the floodplains. But things would change as soon as the current quickened and the first rocky banks were exposed. A distinct flora appeared below the flood line: miniature palms, aroids, ferns, and a diversity of shrubs and coarse herbs, known as rheophytes, which are adapted to periodic immersion and sweeping floodwaters--a community rich in rare species awaiting collection. Overhead, trees that had gained traction on the rocks leaned precariously over the narrowing water, their branches dripping with epiphytic ferns, orchids, and even rhododendrons (Rhododendron sect. Vireya). We Supplies were carried in woven rattan packs known as selabits, shown with field assistants at Ulu Mujong (left). The work resulted in massive amounts of specimens. A field assistant, Brain, arranges and prepares specimens near the coastal town of Bintulu. 34 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Ashton's research ultimately documented around twenty-five hundred tree species at research plots in Sarawak and Brunei. Clockwise from top left: Scyphostegia borneensis (willow family, Salicaceae), Dysoxylum sp. (mahogany family, Melieaceae), Melanorrhoea inappendiculata (cashew family, Anacardiaceae), Ixora sp. (coffee family, Rubiaceae), Didesmandra aspera (Dilleniaceae), and Sterculia megistophylla (mallow family, Malvaceae). Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 35 solution. Everything--everything--had to be kept waterproof, in camp and in transit, and this required commissioning special durable waterproof backpacks. This work became my ecological specialty. We ended up with 105 plots, each 1.5 acres (increased from the Brunei experience), at thirteen sites in eleven localities. The work at each site, following establishment, which I personally undertook, was carried out by my team of climbers, some of whom had rejoined me when they heard of my return, and was led by an experienced Sarawak Malay forester. Among these foresters, I most remember Ilias bin Pa'ie, keeper of the Sarawak herbarium, who was a close friend and mentor, ever cautious and gentle, who tragically died from a heart attack when overseeing the 1975 recensusing at Lambir, a hilly site in the northeastern corner of the state. While this was some years after my departure, the loss was profound. observed trees like Dipterocarpus oblongifolius, which produces bright-pink winged fruit that hang like Christmas decorations, and the fragrant babai (Saraca declinata), a leguminous species, which produces decorative yellowishorange flowers on its trunk. At this point in the upriver journey, those with boating skill came to the fore, led by the outboard operator and the individual stationed on the prow with a long suar--a fending pole-- who was known as the jagar luan (or prowguard). The most crucial moment was always at the head of a rapid when the prahu, lifted during its ascent, would drop onto the calm water as we entered a lagoon. The stern would lift, and with it the propeller. All hands took to the poles for, if we failed to heave the baggage-filled prahu across, we could lose control, fall back headlong, probably sideways, and lose everything to the torrent. I experienced this seven times, but thanks to willing and experienced hands, we never lost our precious specimens, notebooks, or soil samples, although a camera could get a dousing. I would watch and admire the skill shown. But upriver travel was punishing to the outboard motor: what would start as a shiny new Evinrude with fancy hood would, on occasion, end up as an unprotected swirling stick, topped with a greasy bareboned engine-- still miraculously spinning! We aimed to establish plots representing the full range of yellow-red tropical soils and the MDFs that dominate the lowland Bornean landscape. In addition to recording representative forest profiles along transects, at sites of uniform geology, I had suspected that much of the floristic variation was influenced by soil fertility, perhaps individual nutrient ions, as in temperate forest communities. Soil analytical laboratories hadn't been available in Brunei, but in Sarawak, facilities were available. So, this time around, we sampled soils: at the surface, where organic duff was concentrated, and at a standard depth of 30 inches (75 centimeters), where tropical soils would be mineral alone, bereft of visible humus. But bringing back these heavy samples was a nightmare, not least because it had to be done without delay, before microbial activity influenced decay rates and the release of nitrogen and other salts into Otherwise, in those initial years, camp life during surveys became routine, with little of excitement to report. One exception was the accident our team experienced on the upper basalt slopes of Bukit Mersing, a mountain in central Sarawak where thirty plots were eventually installed, four of which became permanent for periodic recensusing. The Bornean climate is almost windless, except 00for the squalls that foreshadow the frequent afternoon thunderstorms. Occasionally, these take the form of violent cold-air downdrafts, flattening the forest in a patch of fifty acres or more. Our camp found itself in one when a giant emergent tree toppled nearby. The team hid beneath its cylindrical trunk, while the camp itself, including the tent frame and its tarpaulin, were trashed. But nothing was lost, and the work could continue. And there were the occasional culinary surprises. We discovered, to our amazement, that civets at some camps would bite into the cans of tinned mackerel and suck out their contents. How did they know what was within? We deduced that a smell, or dry juice, had been left outside during the canning process. And, then again, there was the jaoung: Bornean forests have few canopy palm species, and most While the mixed dipterocarp forests of Borneo had long been viewed as a random assortment of species, discernible and predictable patterns emerged through Ashton's research. Here, a tree climber collects fruits from Sterculia megistophylla (mallow family, Malvaceae) within a research plot at Ulu Mujong. are scattered or local. This one is a Pholidocarpus, which locally formed small groves in damp valleys. It would be felled on discovery and cut open to reveal the massive starchy pith with the portly grubs of a large beetle nestled inside. The trick was to pick these up by the head and bite off the wriggling body, which resembled a greasy polythene tube full of shortening. Then, you had to swallow fast while the three pairs of scratchy legs tickled past your uvula. For me, once was enough! We ultimately conducted four recensuses on five-year intervals, but the work still continues as I write. Different rainforest species achieve trunk-diameter growth rates from ten millimeters to less than two millimeters per annum, which is similar to a stand of regenerating red oaks (Quercus rubra) in a Massachusetts forest. The majority of individuals in any mature MDF, however, are losing to competitors and in slow decline. It required twenty years to gain sufficient data to start comparing the dynamic performance of forests on contrasting rock and soils, and then infer potential lengths of felling cycles and means of sustainable management for timber. By that time, I had spent twelve years on the biology faculty of the University of Aberdeen, where tropical forest research of another kind was occurring, and the work continued after I joined the Arnold Arboretum in 1978. It would take longer still before Harvard graduate student Matthew Potts was to use our data in his doctoral dissertation and Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 37 primarily at eight sites, occurred on sandy soils, characterized by higher acidity, lower nutrient levels, and a distinct surface layer of slowdecomposing raw organic matter. The other forty-eight plots, mainly at the other five sites, occupied the more widespread fertile loams, with a higher capacity to retain water thanks to their open lattice of clay molecules. These major groups were consistent, regardless of the underlying bedrock (sedimentary or igneous). Based on Matthew's dendrogram, it could be argued that the reason why two-thirds of the species differed in our original Bruneian plots was simply because the distance between the two sites--sixty miles--is sufficient for the random turnover that might be expected over time from their restricted seed dispersal distances. But the plot sites from Sarawak correlated with soil properties, irrespective of their location, indicating that the selective influence of the physical habitat dominates the random effect of seed dispersal over time in structuring the tree communities. This is particularly evident for isolated plots, where the soil type differs from the surrounding forest, supporting a floristic island of tree species that differ from the surrounding habitat sea. Immediately, I real- NYABAU North Central 0.4 IJU HILL North Central Dissimilarity Index 0.5 0.6 NORTHERN LAMBIR HILLS Northeastern SANTUBONG Southwestern SEGAN North Central BOK-TISAM Northeastern SOUTHERN LAMBIR HILLS Northeastern RAYA HILL South Central MOUNT MERSING North Central BAKO Southwestern ULU BAKONG Northeastern 0.7 NORTHERN LAMBIR HILLS Northeastern CARAPA PILA South Central 0.8 0.9 ULU MUJONG South Central BOK-TISAM Northeastern ULU DAPOI Northeastern ULU DAPOI Northeastern SOUTHERN LAMBIR HILLS Northeastern Taxonomists create phylogenetic trees to show the relatedness between organisms. Ashton, Potts, and colleagues used a similar visualization to classify 105 forest plots in Sarawak. This dendrogram groups the plots according to nine physical habitat characteristics (including altitude, steepness, and soil chemistry). The major branch on the left includes forty-eight plots on fertile loams; the branch on the right includes fifty-seven plots on sandy soils. ADAPTED FROM POTTS ET AL., 2002 devise the most informative methods to analyze patterns and correlations. But even the first results were impressive. Our 105 plots covered 157 acres and included just under two hundred dipterocarp species exceeding one-foot girth. This amounted to four-fifths of all dipterocarps known from Sarawak and Brunei, even though our plots only included MDFs and therefore excluded the characteristic species of the peat swamp forest and other specialized communities. We even captured 70 percent of approximately thirtyfive hundred known tree species in all families. This is tribute to our careful selection of sites representative of the full range of predicted species-specific habitats. These initial results were amplified by Matthew, who devised an elegant method of visually depicting the similarities (or dissimilarities) between the plots. The model, known as a dendrogram, resembles a family tree, with the twigs and branches grouping plots according to their similarities. His analysis revealed several patterns of importance. First, the plots were grouped into two major branches, confirming the original observations and ordinations from Brunei: Fifty-seven Sarawak plots, 38 Arnoldia 77\/1 ? August 2019 Ashton's research had important implications for sustainable forestry, as well as conservation. Similajau National Park, in northeastern Sarawak, received national protection in 1976. ized that the limited dispersal of pollen and seeds results in tropical tree species evolving more-restricted, habitat-defined spaces through competitive speciation. These floristic islands form the ecological equivalent of terrestrial archipelagoes. Other organisms such as symbiotic fungi or insects whose larvae specifically depend on those trees will be similarly confined. The implications for conservation planning are obvious. But although the plots within a particular site occupied distinct terminal branches of the dendrogram (no plots were identical), plots from a particular site generally remained within a single subsection of the dendrogram. This was even true for neighboring sites like the Bok-Tisam Forest Reserve and Ulu Bakong, which are located about twenty miles apart in northeastern Sarawak. Even though these sites share geology and soil characteristics (both primarily occur on yellow-brown loam), their forest compositions could be distinguished from one another. This provided strong evidence that, whereas soil properties dominate at broad landscape scales, the effects of dispersal are dominant over shorter distances, provided the Peter Ashton in Northwest Borneo 39 soils are uniform. Within a single site, we also found that the floristic composition of the plots correlated with topography, as well as nutrient concentrations in the soil. Topography and nutrient concentrations were themselves interrelated, but we were eventually able, by clever analysis, to find that nutrient influences are generally stronger. This research ultimately provided the basis for sustainable management of Bornean MDFs for timber production. Foresters in Peninsular Malaysia have never conducted plot surveys aimed at defining floristically distinct forest types, but they had, over many decades, developed a means of sustainably harvesting timber from MDFs by simulating natural succession: The forest is clearcut in patches hardly larger than large windthrows, after first checking to confirm that there was sufficient natural regeneration that would survive the logging process. Felling cycles of fifty to seventy years were envisaged. Our recensuses confirmed that Bornean forests on loam soils could be managed using the same method. But foresters from Peninsular Malaysia are still finding it difficult to develop sustainable management systems for their high-hill and coastal dipterocarp forests, which floristically resemble the Bornean MDFs of low-nutrient sandy soils. Our findings have suggested a more sophisticated management system is necessary for these forests. Our forest structure measurements and recorded growth rates on these indicated that species attaining timber diameters were slow growing and in lower numbers, although there was an adequate cohort of young trees, rather than seedlings, for successive crops. Sustainable management would, therefore, require foresters return to the same stand at shorter intervals to selectively harvest individual trees, given that it might take a century for a seedling to mature to timber size. For this method, a more experienced workforce would be essential. Our research also supported a new protocol for identifying the locations--to be tested by field censuses--of areas with potentially outstanding species diversity or concentration of endemics, meriting strict conservation. In this way, previously unexplored areas of conservation importance can be identified due to their surface geology. Up to then, conservationists were unable to make such extrapolations. Three national parks in Sarawak had already been legislated in the 1960s. I proposed five more, aimed at comprehensive representation of the flora. These were successfully passed into legislation by the new government of an independent Sarawakian state within Malaysia, in the 1970s, long after our departure from those raucous longhouse days and our entrance into the aethereal realm of academia. Additional reading: Ashton, P.S. 1964. Ecological studies in the mixed dipterocarp forests of Brunei State (Oxford forestry memoirs, no. 25). Oxford: Clarendon Press. Ashton, P.S. 1982. Dipterocarpaceae. In C.G.G.J. van Steenis (Ed.), Flora Malesiana (Series 1, vol. 9, pp. 237?552). The Hague: Matinus Nijhoff. Ashton, P.S. and Hall, P. 1992. Comparisons of structure among mixed dipterocarp forests of northwestern Borneo. Journal of Ecology, 80: 459?491. Ashton, P.S. 2014. On the forests of tropical Asia: Lest the memory fade. Richmond, Surrey: The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in association with the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Beccari, O. 1904. Wanderings in the great forests of Borneo. F.H.H. Guillemard (Ed.) and E.H. Giglioli (Trans.). London: Archibald Constable and Co. (Original work published 1902.) MacArthur, R.H. and Wilson, E.O. 1967. The theory of island biogeography (Monographs in population biology). Princeton: Princeton University Press. Potts, M.D., Ashton, P.S., Kaufman, L.S. and Plotkin, J.B. 2002. Habitat patterns in tropical rain forests: A comparison of 105 plots in northwest Borneo. Ecology, 83(10): 2782?2797. Peter Ashton is Harvard University Bullard Professor Emeritus and was director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1978 to 1987. Among many career honors, his research on tropical forests was recognized with the prestigious Japan Prize in 2007. He and his wife, Mary, live in Chiswick, London. The map in this article was created using Esri, HERE, Garmin, (c) OpenStreetMap contributors, Sources: Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Leaning into Legend: Acer mono","article_sequence":4,"start_page":40,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25666","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070ab26.jpg","volume":77,"issue_number":1,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hetman, Jon","article_content":"HETMAN, J. 2019. LEANING INTO LEGEND: ACER MONO. ARNOLDIA, 77(1): 40 Leaning into Legend: Acer mono Jon Hetman A mbling over nearly every acre of the Arnold Arboretum over the past two decades has made many of its pathways and collections special to me, but perhaps my favorite journey of all is the one I take nearly every day from the Forest Hills Gate to the Hunnewell Building--the lion's share of my morning commute. My great fortune in walking the short mile from home to work in a city recently named the nation's worst for rushhour traffic* is certainly not lost on me--nor is the fact that it is always a journey of beauty and discovery as the seasons ebb and flow. One tree I never tire of admiring along my way is a superb accession of painted maple (Acer mono, accession 5358*A) leaning somewhat languorously toward the road and welcoming visitors to our national collection of maples. Walking in either direction down Meadow Road, the tree is nearly impossible to miss and even harder to ignore. Though not extremely tall--Acer mono typically tops out at a moderate thirty to forty feet at maturity--it has a beautifully low, broad, and symmetrical crown that suggests the kind of idealized form that bonsai artists pursue. In spring, yellow-green flowers appear in tandem with the pale green foliage, which in autumn may turn a yelloworange or apricot. Come winter, the tree's graceful architecture shines through its bare canopy, and the sight of sparkling snow twisting across its branches never fails to send me running for my camera. And then there's the soft twist and southward tilt of the trunk, subtended by a thick knot of exposed roots seemingly coiled like a snake at its base. These thickly layered roots spread out in the opposite direction of the lean, illustrating how tree structure leverages the dynamics of tension and compression (like a suspension bridge) to mitigate the gravitational forces that might otherwise topple them over. While the case can be made that this individual represents its species rather well, the taxonomy of Acer mono remains largely unresolved. Although the Arboretum recognizes A. mono as the correct name, authorities have been mixed on both the name and identity of this widespread maple, often placing it within A. pictum, among other taxa. Seed for 5358*A was received in 1902 from the Imperial Botanic Garden in Tokyo, an institution that has shared material with the Arnold Arboretum since Charles Sprague Sargent made his pioneering expedition to Japan in 1892. Painted maple inhabits the forests of Japan, and it can also be found in China, Korea, Mongolia, and eastern Russia. The Arboretum's wild-collected holdings of the taxon include material collected on several North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium expeditions, including the 2018 expedition to western Hubei Province. Nevertheless, this particular tree has attaind a level of celebrity at the Arboretum. Its position at the head of the maple collection, contrasting handsomely with the texture and seasonal hues of the showy Japanese (Acer palmatum) and Korean (A. pseudosieboldianum) maples nearby, contributes to its appeal. As such, the tree and its neighbors receive attention in many of the Arboretum's public tours each growing season. When famed horticulturist Michael Dirr published the 1983 edition of his seminal Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, following his tenure as a Mercer Fellow at the Arboretum in 1979, he heralded this painted maple as \"one of the most beautiful trees in the Arnold Arboretum.\" And this praise has unwaveringly remained in subsequent editions. This individual may, in fact, be the most famous and recognizable painted maple in the world: as of this writing, a photograph of it adorns the entry for the species on Wikipedia. Its status as a botanical treasure and museum object, one perhaps endangered by an overabundance of public attention, has been acknowledged more definitively of late by the Arboretum as well. Like other eminent accessions across the Arboretum, the tree has been roped off to preserve the health and integrity of its root system from soil compaction. Hopefully this additional protection will contribute to its well-being for years to come and allow this noble maple to be admired as a masterpiece for as long as nature wills. Jon Hetman is the associate director of external relations and communications at the Arnold Arboretum. *INRIX 2018 GLOBAL TRAFFIC SCORECARD "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23466","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e8128.jpg","title":"2019-77-1","volume":77,"issue_number":1,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Searching for Wilson's Expedition to Australia","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25662","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060896b.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":4,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grose, Margaret","article_content":"GROSE, M. 2019. SEARCHING FOR WILSON'S EXPEDITION TO AUSTRALIA. ARNOLDIA, 76(4): 2?13 Searching for Wilson's Expedition to Australia Margaret Grose C ould diaries, newspaper clippings, and letters be hidden at the Arnold Arboretum, unexamined for almost one hundred years? Might the Arboretum possess more than two hundred glass plate negatives by famed plant collector Ernest Henry Wilson without labels for location or species? In the spring of 2016, I met Arboretum scientist Peter Del Tredici while visiting MIT, and he invited me to see the Arboretum, an invitation I accepted with relish. After a tour of the grounds, including a walk in the woods, a stop on Peters Hill, a discussion of insect attack on hemlocks, and a look at the amazing old bonsai, we found ourselves in the horticultural library. \"Bet you Australians don't know that Wilson went to Australia in the 1920s,\" Peter said. \"No one has looked at the collection. It's sitting there.\" He pointed, and there it was, hidden in plain sight. When I returned to Australia, I inquired as to whether, indeed, botanists knew that Wilson, famed for botanical explorations in China, had travelled to Australia. No one did. Everyone that I spoke with was astounded. Herbaria staff did not know; botanists at my university and elsewhere did not know; even those who have a long and keen interest in the botanical exploration of the Australian continent did not know. Wilson's expedition between 1920 and 1922 was to Commonwealth countries and no others. During my time in the United States, I have been asked, on a number of occasions, what the Commonwealth is, what countries belong to it, and what it means. The Commonwealth consists of now-independent countries that once made up the British Empire, and these countries are joined by commonalities, such as a politically independent judiciary and public service, school uniforms, and cricket, the second-most popular sport in the world after soccer. Wilson's travels took him to countries now known as Australia, New Zealand, Malaysia, Singapore, India, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Uganda, Zimbabwe, Zambia, and South Africa, before returning to England and then on to Boston. He wrote about the horticultural aspects of this trip in various garden magazines, as well as in the first volume of his book Plant Hunting, published in 1927 (and reprinted decades later as Smoke that Thunders). The writing in the book is part tourist travelogue and part horticultural journal, with a discussion of the cultural requirements and garden potential of plants met along the route. What surprised me was how much Wilson knew about the discovery of the western coast of Australia by the Dutch in the early 1600s, sailing eastwards from Cape Town to use a faster route to the East Indies. This is a lesser-known history than that of Captain James Cook mapping the east coast of Australia in the 1770s, and it shows that Wilson was remarkably well-informed in 1920. Two years after learning about Wilson's expedition, I returned to the Arboretum with a Sargent Award for Visiting Scholars, intent on examining the archives, images, and herbarium specimens pertaining to Wilson's time in Australia. I was fascinated by the idea of a lost collection of Australia and, like many botanists, interested in the history of plant collecting. I was also curious as to whether the images might offer a glimpse of land now lost to agriculture and suburban development, both research areas of my own. What I found in the archives was a collection in excellent order, with annotated boxes, carefully arranged glass plate negatives that had been digitized in 2018, meticulously kept diaries with their labels and individual folders in boxes, and neatly ordered newspaper clippings, letters, and ephemera of the expedition. I took photos of every box and every label. It was not evident who had established the organization of the collection, but even with the clear organization, there was little documentation to suggest what was in the letters, or what the images showed and where they were taken. PHOTOS FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES UNLESS NOTED E.H. Wilson in Australia 3 In Plant Hunting, Wilson described eucalyptus like these massive karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) as \"Australia's noblest trees.\" Karri are considered the second-tallest flowering tree species in the world, after E. regnans of southeastern Australian. Note the numerical label: Y-347. 4 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Charles Lane-Poole--formerly unidentified in Wilson's collection of glass plate negatives--stands beside a massive eucalyptus. In a letter to the Arboretum, Wilson mentioned that, soon after arriving in Australia, Lane-Poole \"became guide, philosopher & friend.\" E.H. Wilson in Australia 5 While images from India and Africa were annotated with old typewriter notes on thin white paper, the Australian images--numerically numbered and coded with the letter Y--were not annotated, and it was unclear just where Australia started and ended. It became clear to me that my inquiry would require three components: The examination and transcription of diaries, letters, and notes; the annotation of the unlabelled images; and a search of the Arnold Arboretum Herbarium to see what plant specimens had been submitted there by Wilson's expedition. Wilson arrived in the port of Fremantle, on Australia's western coast, after a tedious and hot trip by boat from Sri Lanka (then Ceylon). He was immediately struck by how Perth, the capital of Western Australia, reminded him of southern California. (There is a saying in Perth, my hometown, that we have the climate that the Californians think they have.) Southwestern Australia has, like southern California, hot summers and mild winters, and this was important to Wilson because Henry Huntington, a sponsor of the expedition, was eager to hear of plants suitable for cultivation in California. This region, today referred to botanically as the Southwest Australian Floristic Region, is known for its exceptionally high levels of floral endemism--meaning plant species that are found nowhere else in the world. Wilson was astounded by the plants he found there. \"To a visitor from the Northern Hemisphere, no matter how familiar he or she may be with the forest scenery of the North, Western Australia is a new world,\" he wrote in Plant Hunting. \"Nay, it might well be part of another planet so utterly different is the whole aspect of its vegetation. Intimate knowledge of the plants of the boreal regions only serves to accentuate the variance.\" i While reading Wilson's thoughts on the Australian flora, I was struck by his observational clarity, especially after recently reading a paper on the evolutionary history of the Australian flora over the last sixty-five million years. \"To what extent is the Australian flora unique?\" the authors--botanists Michael Crisp and Lyn Cook--asked, perhaps asking because most Australians think it is and most foreigners agree with them. They noted that thickened foliage (sclerophylly) is not unique to Australia, nor are traits that promote water storage (xeromorphy), nor is fire as a selective genetic force unique to the continent. But nowhere else do these combined traits dominate large proportions of an entire continent. ii Wilson, however, immediately noted two traits as completely unique to Australia: the angle of leaf repose and the color of the flora. \"In the North our trees in general have spreading umbrageous crowns, dark, often lustrous green leaves which ... cast a heavy shadow,\" Wilson wrote. \"In Western Australia the dominant trees have open, tufted crowns, gray or glaucous green leaves which ... cast little or no shadow. This difference in the color of the treefoliage and the fact that the leaves are pendant instead of spreading on the branches may seem to the reader trivial matters, but in reality they completely change the aspect of the forests and profoundly influence the whole landscape.\" iii To have quickly put his finger on these two points is a tremendous perception. The color of the Australian flora presents a world of very different greens and grays to the Northern Hemisphere, as I have found in my own research, and Wilson appeared to have recorded them all. The unique flora of Australia made it relatively easy for me to tease out Australian images from the others. I also began to identify the unnamed individuals in the photographs. One man, who recurred in multiple photographs, was distinctive due to a hook in place of his left hand. I emailed Australian colleagues about a botanist matching this description (which I thought would have been easy), but I met a blank. Eventually, I came across a biographical entry about Charles Lane-Poole, the conservator of forests in Western Australia from 1916 to 1922, which mentioned that his left hand had been lost in a shooting accident when he was nineteen (all other biographical sketches politely did not mention this). I had my man. I later came across Wilson's comment that he had travelled two thousand miles with LanePoole \"through all the important forest areas.\" Elsewhere, in \"the sand plains and savannah regions,\" he was guided by Desmond Herbert, 6 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 the Western Australian government botanist, who was also shown in images. Wilson noted that, without such expert guides, \"I should have been completely lost among the extraordinary varied and anomalous vegetation.\" These men were top in their field and their companionship and assistance shows the esteem in which Wilson and the Arnold Arboretum were held. The images, however, revealed an oddity--all that I could readily identify were from the beginning of his trip in Western Australia. With limited time, I set to work, realizing that diaries could be transcribed, letters read, and images annotated in Australia. Thus, I headed to the Harvard University Herbaria, where the Arboretum Arboretum's wildcollected herbarium specimens are housed, because I recognized that those materials could not be examined later. While Wilson's notebooks and photographs would provide some sense of his route across the continent, the specimens in the herbarium would provide more detailed information about where and when Wilson travelled, what he was collecting, and the identities of other botanists who collected on behalf of the Arboretum. At the Harvard University Herbaria on Divinity Avenue, I was given pencils, little paper envelopes for broken off bits of specimens, and clear plastic clips to replace rusty metal clips from one hundred years ago. The collection is contained within rolling cabinets, called compactors, and I was presented with a written directive that \"compactors can be opened by releasing the locking bar and smoothly rotating the handle of the appropriate bay.\" The instructions also suggested to \"move one row at a time to prevent strain on the system,\" although I was not sure whether that was referring to the compactors or to me. Lists of plant families hung on the walls, indicating where the families were housed in the building's several floors and annex rooms. \"Where would you like to start?\" Anthony Brach of the herbaria's curatorial team asked me. I looked about wideeyed. Well, why not Myrtaceae? I ventured, and Anthony chuckled. I had chosen \"the big one\"--the family of the eucalypts. Eucalyptus is a major genus in Australia and is rare in the world in that this single genus virtually defines an entire continent. There are now over eight hundred species (the number always rising), and this usually surprises overseas visitors to Australia, who often think that there are only a few \"gum trees.\" The eucalypts include the world's tallest flowering plant, E. regnans, known as the mountain ash, which reaches heights of 295 feet (90 meters). Timber records in the nineteenth century reported that trees logged then had reached far greater heights--up to 490 feet (150 meters). This loss underscores one of the reasons Wilson was keen to see the Australian forests. Eucalypts, however, are not all tall; some are small and gnarled; many are low shrubs and suitable for home gardens; some have brilliant flowers; some have dusky gray leaves that are suitable for the flower trade; some possess huge bud caps that gave the genus its name-- eu (well) and kalyptos (covered); some are small and gnarled; some are single-trunked; others have a mallee form, an Aboriginal term referring to plants with multiple trunks that emerge from underground lignotubers. Most live in mixed woodlands. Wilson was captivated by their variety and the colors and forms of trunks. He noted, for example, that the salmon gum (Eucalyptus salmonophloia) \"is a handsome tree, with a smooth white to pinkish trunk ... the twigs are reddish\" and that the gimlet (E. salubris) is \"fluted and twisted like a screw-- hence the name gimlet.\" iv In photographs, he recorded fire-scarred trees, and he was clearly impressed by the extraordinary capacity of most eucalypt species to resprout after fire. During the next few weeks, I extracted hundreds of specimens from the expedition across a large range of families and genera, all from blue folders that indicated the specimens came from Australia. These were easy to spot among swathes of green, orange, pale orange, yellow, pale yellow, beige, white, off white, and ranges of pinks and reds. In short, if a folder was blue, I knew it was mine to take out and examine. How curious and exciting it was to search through the blue folders and find labels with Wilson's name and handwriting. \"Near a saltlake,\" he noted on one. \"In a group of trees,\" he wrote on others. He described a now-rare little shrub (Daviesia euphorbioides) as a \"centipede bush\" and called a large shrub (Banksia sessilis) SPECIMENS FROM HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA Herbarium specimens provided historical evidence about Wilson's travels through southwestern Australia. Clockwise from top left: Hakea platysperma, a small shrub, collected on the sandplain at Yoting on October 25, 1920. Casuarina fraseriana (now Allocasuarina fraseriana) collected at Albany, on the southern coast, on November 6. Eucalyptus ficifolia (now Corymbia ficifolia) collected from the Frankland River region in November (day unspecified). Eucalyptus flocktoniae collected near Widgiemooltha in November (day unspecified). SPECIMENS FROM HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA 8 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Diverse members of Proteaceae include: Banksia grandis (left) collected October 25, 1920, in the Darling Scarp, east of Perth. Wilson noted the yellow flowers--produced in a large cone-shaped structures--were collected from a small tree, about 15 feet (4.5 meters) tall. Hakea multilineata (right) collected 20 miles (32 kilometres) south of the oncethriving gold-mining town of Coolgardie, now a near ghost town. \"parrot bush.\" Many labels included collection numbers that related to the diaries. From the images, I knew that Wilson and his travel companions appeared to have gone by horse, train, and a roofless Model T Ford. They travelled south of Perth through wetlands near Busselton, into the Darling Scarp--the hills east of Perth--to collect in the jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest. They continued south to the tall karri (E. diversicolor) forests, east through heavily cleared land of wheat and sheep fields, and still farther east into semi-arid country. Labels in the herbarium revealed place names: Yoting, Burracoppin, Merredin, Toodyay, Widgiemooltha, Quairading, Coolgardie, and Kalgoorlie. Many of these are indigenous names given to country towns or settlements that in 1920 and 1921 were gold-mining camps. At one such now-tiny outpost, Westonia, Wilson noted in his diary on October 22, 1920, that \"Saturday night in a mining camp is not a quiet place. Singing and chat extended far into the night.\" Looking at the labels in the herbarium, I was amazed to see where Wilson went--to places remote enough now, let alone then. A whole suite of specimens was collected \"20 miles south of Coolgardie,\" in hot and dusty conditions, but Wilson enthused over the \"astonishing\" variety of species. In his diary, he wrote, \"they are mostly prickly in character and many of them especially so.\" v Reviewing the specimens belonging to the Proteaceae was a treat for me because my doctoral dissertation had been on the ecophysiology of Banksia, which is the most well-loved member of the family in Australia. As I opened the compactors, I could see the banksias in their blue folders, and I laughed--they were large, MAP BY ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND GIS COMMUNITY E.H. Wilson in Australia 9 Western Australia Kalgoorlie Coolgardie Burracoppin Merredin INDIAN OCEAN Toodyay Cunderdin Northam Mundaring t York W h e a PE RTH Fo re Jarrahdale nnah Bruce Rock Darwin Northern Territory K rr a Donnelly River Queensland Western Australia iF o re st Pemberton Brisbane South Australia PERTH s Walpole New South Wales Frankland River Denmark Nornalup 50 MILES Lake Lefroy Widgiemooltha Capel Busselton ah Ja Cookernup Totadgin belt Sava Pingelly rrah North Dandalup Moorine Rock Yoting Beverley Quairading sts Fremantle S a vann Westonia Hines Hill Sydney Albany Frenchman Bay Adelaide Victoria Canberra Melbourne Tasmania SOUTHERN OCEAN Hobart 100 KILOMETERS Locations recorded on Wilson's herbarium specimens and in notebooks revealed extensive collections throughout southwestern Australia, from the towering karri (Eucalyptus diversicolor) forests, south of Perth, to the semi-desert forests farther east. Contemporary train lines are shown in gray. The Trans-Australian Railway, completed in 1917, connected Kalgoorlie with eastern cities. chunky folders. Banksia flowers grow in hairy cone-shaped inflorescences, which measure up to seventeen inches long. Some of the cones-- the flower heads or remaining fruiting bodies-- were stored elsewhere, in boxes, due to their size, and Anthony Brach got them out for me. These attracted comment from passing taxonomists in the herbarium, but I pitied that they could not see them on the trees instead of these dead, dry relics. One even commented: \"How wonderful to work on these. Some people,\" she shuddered, \"have to work on grasses!\" Wilson collected various banksia species near Perth and inland, and many of his images are of banksia trees. As I pulled out specimens, I mused as to what Wilson must have thought about when he looked at the banksias, with their wire-tough thick leaves, erect demeanour, and vibrantly colored inflorescences, usually buzzing with insects and birds with tongues and beaks evolved to suck nectar from these exact trees. In Plant Hunting, he described the genus as \"among the most wonderful flowering trees of Australia.\" He described the large pale lemon and yellow flowers of Banksia grandis, with cones measuring up to eight inches long, and he noted elsewhere that the species should be grown in California. Beyond the visual appeal, many contemporary botanists were intrigued by the banksias--which are particularly prominent in southwestern Australia--because these were clearly related to the striking diversity of Protea from South Africa. Our contemporary understanding of continental drift was first proposed by the German scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912, and we now know that Antarctica, Australia, South America, Africa, India, and 10 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Kingia australis--slow-growing and long-lived monocots--fascinated Wilson. He called them \"weird and extraordinary\" and suggested, in Plant Hunting, that \"the scene would be more complete if ... a Nothotherium, a Dinosaurus, a Plesiosaurus or some other monster of the remote Lizard Age\" were present. E.H. Wilson in Australia 11 Wilson returned to the Arnold Arboretum in 1922, after visiting India and various Commonwealth countries in southern Africa, which were recorded in his images. But what had happened to the herbarium specimens and images from a major part of his Australian tour? One day, in the middle of my stay, I turned to materials in the archives, to see if I could shed some light on the mystery of the missing Australians. The key was in a box of newspaper reports. An article described Wilson's \"great disappointment\" at losing much of the collection because the boat carrying two large consignments of photographic plates and specimens was lost at sea. The ever-helpful Lane-Poole had earlier shipped the entire Western Australian collection, which arrived safely in Boston. Sargent's response is not known. He had considered a study of Tasmanian conifers \"one of the most important objects of the expedition,\" vi but those collections were all gone. Other questions were answered: printed black-and-white images from Tasmania were sent by the noted Hobart photographer John Beattie after the loss of Wilson's collection, and unlabelled lantern slides, sent to Wilson, all depict New Zealand in a travelogue style. New Zealand were once joined in the supercontinent Gondwana and shared flora. Proteaceae is one of the oldest families in the Southern Hemisphere and once was found across Gondwana, right across what is now Antarctica. Fifty-million-year-old fossils have been found in Patagonia and New Zealand that even an untrained eye would easily recognize as lovely banksias. But alas, as Wilson knew, none of these living beauties would grow in Boston's climate for the Arboretum. As my notes from the herbarium accumulated, I soon realized that, as with the photographs, the specimens were almost entirely collected in Western Australia. This was odd, as Wilson's diaries revealed that he had travelled by train across Australia after leaving Perth, and had visited Adelaide, Melbourne, and Sydney, where he spent Christmas in 1920. He then went into the New South Wales heartland, north into Queensland, and then eventually to Tasmania in April 1921, after a sojourn in New Zealand. The diaries said little but did give the names of plants collected, with collection numbers. Yet, while I came across the odd specimen from Queensland and Tasmania, I found none collected by Wilson from New South Wales or Victoria. This was a mystery. At the end of each day in the herbarium, which closes precisely at five o'clock, I would close the compactors, pull down the bar, and turn off the light, as directed. One of the many delights of my own expedition into the 1920s expedition was the people I met along the way who still enliven the images and specimen sheets. Many of the herbarium specimens had been reassigned by David Moresby Moore, a British plant taxonomist and systematic botanist with a major interest in the flora of Gondwana, Patagonia, and the Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands. His work amid the Australian collection at Harvard in the 1960s made my job far easier, because the plants were correctly assigned and thus correctly catalogued. \"DM Moore\"--his appellation on the bright white labels near Wilson's originals-- was a welcome sight. Other collectors assisted the Arnold Arboretum and donated specimens from Western Australia, South Australia, and Queensland as part of the Expedition. Most important were those submitted by Frederick Schock (\"F.M.C Schock\" on the labels), who was a forest ranger in Western Australia. Schock's specimens were largely collected in 1916, but they were sent to Harvard after Wilson returned and were labelled \"Arnold Arboretum Expedition to Australasia, India, and Africa.\" Many included flower parts that had not been seen by Wilson during his summer visit, because many of these species, typical of southern Australia, do not flower in summer. With the addition of these donated specimens, one of the missions of the expedition began to become apparent to me: to add to the global collection of specimens and images held at the Arnold Arboretum. The Arnold Arboretum celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 1922, and Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director, laid out this global vision in a report on the Arboretum. \"If the Arboretum is to become 12 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Wilson stands within a jarrah (Eucalyptus marginata) forest, in the Darling Scarp, east of Perth. The trees beside him have been scarred by fire. a great institution for gathering and spreading information about trees and allied plants, specimens and a series of photographs of every species of tree in the world should be found in the herbarium,\" Sargent wrote. His ambition was that the work already achieved \"should be extended over the rest of the world.\" vii Given Sargent's desire to develop global collections of photographs and herbarium specimens, it made sense that additional Australian specimens would be requested from Schock and others, to fill gaps within Wilson's collection. While the Arnold Arboretum could only grow plants that suited Boston's cold winters and humid summers, Wilson's expedition to Commonwealth countries revealed the equal importance of the herbarium and archives for institutional collecting goals. I had noted, in the herbarium, hundreds of specimens from Australia that were not from trees and that were of botanical interest, rather than of forestry value, reflecting Sargent's desire for a comprehensive collection. I was also struck by letters of thanks from Sargent regarding the donation of pamphlets and books on specific aspects of the world's flora, as well as the contribution of physical specimens (including cones and seeds), sent from the countries visited on Wilson's expedition, even though these would not grow in Boston. With these materials, the various missions of the expedition to Australia became even more apparent. In addition to collecting images and specimens, Wilson was to make connections between the Arboretum and the staff of other international botanical institu- E.H. Wilson in Australia 13 tions, while investigating potential timber trees for production in the United States and assessing firsthand the state of forests in the world. Wilson achieved all these goals despite the loss of much of the physical collection. Wilson's travelling companions in Western Australia were highly informed and are now famous men in Australian botany. I wondered what they talked about, especially given Lane-Poole's desperate unhappiness with the lack of forest protection in Australia, and Wilson's diary comments about the ruthless destruction of woodlands for agriculture in Australia.viii Only a few months after Wilson's visit, Lane-Poole resigned, in 1922, as the conservator of forests because the government did not appear interested in conservation but was solely concerned with timber extraction. Letters between Wilson and Sargent show that the whole idea of forest protection was of great importance to the expedition because they both saw that forests were under threat across the world. This suggested to me that the conservation movement was more alive in the 1920s than many of us fully appreciate today. Wilson, Sargent, and Lane-Poole all saw that the world's forests were in danger of overexploitation and habitat loss, and both Wilson and Lane-Poole named the loss of large old trees as of greatest concern in Western Australia. Yet one hundred years later, botanists and conservationists are still raising this issue because it needs to be raised--surely something that would have saddened these men. The great banksia woodlands surrounding Perth have been substantially lost due to suburban development, and the woodlands east of the Darling Scarp, where Wilson noted an abundance of \"curious,\" \"wondrous,\" and \"extraordinary\" plants, continued to be clear-cut for agriculture into the 1980s. Today, ecological agriculture and ecosystem repair are imperatives for the future. With my time at Harvard running out, I had to cease work at the herbarium and say my goodbyes at the Hunnewell Building and the Weld Hill laboratories, where I had my office. And I had found that the answers to my search for the Arnold Arboretum's Expedition into Australia's spectacular flora lay not simply in one place. As Sargent noted, the arboretum is a three-part collection, with a living museum, an herbarium, and a library. ix I had needed all of the resources and staff of the arboretum to begin to understand this last great journey that Wilson undertook. Acknowledgements Margaret Grose thanks the Arnold Arboretum for a Sargent Award for Visiting Scholars, Anthony Brach of the Harvard Herbaria, and Lisa Pearson, Jonathan Damery, Peter Del Tredici, and Ned Friedman of the Arnold Arboretum. The map in this article was created using Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community. Endnotes i Wilson, E.H. 1985. Smoke that Thunders. London: Waterstone & Co. Limited. (Original work published as Wilson, E.H. 1927. Plant Hunting, Vol. 1. Boston: The Stratford Company.) iiCrisp, M.D. and Cook, L.G. 2013. How was the Australian flora assembled over the last 65 million years? A molecular and phylogenetic perspective. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 44: 303?324. iiiSee Wilson, 1985, above. ivWilson, E.H. 1920. Alternating diary and collection notes, October 22, 1920 (box 14, folder 3?4). Ernest Henry Wilson (1876?1930) papers, Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. v Ibid. viSargent, C.S. 1921. Sargent to E.H. Wilson, April 18, 1921 (volume 9, page 599?600). Charles Sprague Sargent (1841?1927) papers, Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. vii Sargent, C.S. 1923. The first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 3(3): 127?171. viii Wilson, E.H. 1920. Alternating diary and collection notes, October 25, 1920 (box 14, folder 3?4). ixSargent, C.S. 1925. The Arnold Arboretum. In Report of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College, 1923?24 (pp. 229?232). Boston: Harvard University. Margaret Grose is a senior lecturer in landscape architecture at the University of Melbourne, where her research and teaching merges design and ecological science. Margaret has published across science, landscape architecture, and planning. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Deja Vu Viburnums: A World Away but Close to Home","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25660","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060856d.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":4,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.; Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"AIELLO, A.S. AND DOSMANN, M.S. 2019. D?J? VU VIBURNUMS: A WORLD AWAY BUT CLOSE TO HOME. ARNOLDIA, 76(4): 14?25 D?j? Vu Viburnums: A World Away but Close to Home Anthony S. Aiello and Michael S. Dosmann I t is a truth universally acknowledged that closely related plants occur in widely varying locations around the globe, yet going from a truth universally acknowledged to a truth personally observed is a profoundly gratifying process. In September 2018, along Lake Yuno, within Japan's Nikko National Park, we collected fruits of the forked viburnum (Viburnum furcatum). The fleshy drupes were reddish-orange, although a number had already turned blackish and were mushy to the touch. We reached them by standing on tiptoes in the muck, and pole pruners came in handy for those higher up. When not browsed by deer, the shrubs stood up to ten feet tall and sometimes just as wide, the sprawling branches positioning the round, saucer-sized leaves like open hands to capture light in the shady understory of maples and conifers. While this species is native to eastern Asia, we could have fooled ourselves into thinking we were standing in front of the hobblebush (V. lantanoides) of eastern North America, given the striking similarities between the two species' appearance, habitat, and associated genera. It was already a great morning collecting, and not far away, deciduous azaleas (Rhododendron wadanum) and hollies (Ilex geniculata) grew near the shoreline of the mountain lake, as did the occasional clethra (Clethra barbinervis). Higher up on the ridges, large beech (Fagus crenata) and hemlock (Tsuga diversifolia) filled the overstory. Because these genera also occur in eastern North American forests, we could have sworn we had already experienced this collecting day before, a hemisphere away. While we have long understood the profound concept of biogeographical disjunctions, it has taken compounded years of plant exploration for us-- as colleagues at sister institution that share a long history of cooperation and collection goals--to personally observe these connections in far reaching places. Our collaborative expedition to Honshu, Japan, also included Steve Schneider from the Arnold Arboretum, Todd Rounsaville from the Polly Hill Arboretum, and Mineaki Aizawa and Tatsuhiko Shibano from Utsunomiya University. During our two-week trip, we visited six locations and made fifty-eight collections of fifty-five different taxa. Like the viburnum, half of the genera we collected co-occur in eastern Asia and North America, creating even more moments of d?j? vu. Botanical Kin At Lake Yuno, most of the forked viburnum's wide, rounded leaves had heavy insect herbivory, giving it the Japanese common name of mashikari (always eaten by insects), yet the habit and leaf shape instantly reminded us not only of the American hobblebush but another eastern Asian species, Viburnum sympodiale. The genus Viburnum (Adoxaceae) has a wide geographic range, with approximately 165 species occurring across the Northern Hemisphere and dipping into South America and Southeast Asia. Botanists have organized these species into sub-generic groups or clades, based on how closely related these are to one another. These three viburnums occupy the Pseudotinus clade, which also includes a fourth species, V. nervosum (also from eastern Asia). The four share a distinctive branching architecture, which Erika Edwards and colleagues have dubbed the \"furcatum pattern\" (drawing on work Michael Donoghue published in Arnoldia in 1981). The branches grow horizontally with the ground (known as plagiotropism) until the end of the season when one of the terminal buds turns upwards to produce a short, reproductive shoot. The next spring, the main, horizontal growth continues from the other terminal bud, creating a sympodial growth pattern, where one of two forked branches becomes dominant. This branching structure is acknowledged in the specific epithet of V. sympodiale. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN DANNY SCHISSLER MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Viburnum 15 On a 2018 expedition to Japan, the authors and colleagues collected fruits of Viburnum furcatum near Lake Yuno (bottom left). Insects had devoured the leaves (top), yet the resemblance to the North American species V. lantanoides (bottom right) was unmistakable. These disjunct species are two of four representatives of the Pseudotinus viburnums. PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY; PEABODY.YALE.EDU. PHOTO BY PATRICK SWEENEY JONATHAN DAMERY 16 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Unlike the other Pseudotinus viburnums, Viburnum nervosum (left) lacks the ring of sterile flowers around the margin of each inflorescence, although the individual flowers are larger. V. lantanoides (right) shows a more characteristic structure. Although there are no European representatives, this quartet is a fascinating case study of the history of botanical description and horticultural introduction. The description of these four species follows a familiar arc from the initial exploration and cultivation of North American natives in the late eighteenth century, followed by the introduction and study of Chinese and Japanese species through the early twentieth century, and it coincided with an increasingly refined understanding of biogeography and the eventual explanation of lookalike species that are spaced a world away from one another. The native range for Viburnum lantanoides stretches between Canada's Maritime Islands and northern Georgia. This species--the first of the Pseudotinus to be attributed a scientific name--was described as V. alnifolium by Humphrey Marshall, a cousin of botanists John and William Bartram, in an alphabetical catalogue of plants growing in the eastern United States. Marshall's publication in 1785 described the leaves as \"heart-shaped, oval, sharp-pointed, deeply sawed on their edges, strongly veined, and placed opposite upon long slender footstalks,\" but the most telltale characteristic was the halo of sterile flowers encircling each inflorescence--a feature also shared with V. furcatum and V. sympodiale. At first, this portrayal seems unmistakable, but as it turns out, Marshall's description was not of the hobblebush viburnum. Marshall based his description upon an earlier one (by British botanist Philip Miller in 1768), which was confused, in part, with smooth hydrangea (Hydrangea arborescens) given the shared floral characteristics and large leaves that are arranged opposite one another along the stem. Almost twenty years after Marshall's publication, Andr? Michaux proposed the alternative name, Viburnum lantanoides, which is now PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY; PEABODY.YALE.EDU. PHOTO BY PATRICK SWEENEY JONATHAN DAMERY Viburnum 17 While botanists have long considered Viburnum furcatum and V. lantanoides to be closely paired within the four Pseudotinus, recent analyses have shown that Viburnum sympodiale (left) and V. furcatum (right) are more closely allied. widely accepted. (For further background reading on the confusion between the two names, see Ferguson, 1966, and Mackenzie, 1927.) In some sense, it's surprising that such a widespread shrub would have escaped the attention of earlier botanists. After all, one of the shrub's characteristic qualities is its ability to lay branches and root, creating bulky masses of foot-catching vegetation that give the species its common name: hobblebush. When describing the species' habitat, phrases like \"damp woods,\" \"moist woods,\" \"cool moist woods,\" \"rocky woods,\" \"deep woods,\" \"swampy woods,\" and other combinations thereof leap off the labels of most specimens at the Harvard University Herbaria, and when it comes to describing the shrubs themselves, another word dominates: \"thickets.\" Even now, however, the species is scarce in the nursery trade and often slips under the horticultural radar. We first jointly encountered the species near its southernmost range edge in May of 2002, while hiking along the Blue Ridge Parkway in Transylvania County, North Carolina. On either side of the path, the shrubs bore large and roughly heart-shaped leaves that stuck out at wide angles to catch the light. Just two years before, and not far away, Tony had first seen and collected the species in very similar habitats at Nantahala National Forest in North Carolina and near Clingman's Dome in the Great Smoky Mountains National Park. Disjunct Discoveries The next Pseudotinus species to enter the botanical literature was Viburnum nervosum-- the most basal of the four species. While we often think that the earliest Western botanical explorations to Asia occurred in Japan and coastal China, the European presence in India meant that trans-Himalayan species were often described earlier in the nineteenth century, 18 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 larger. Showy fertile flowers are an alternative to showy marginal flowers for attracting pollinators, according to Brian Park and colleagues. The Japanese species that we observed at Lake Yuno--Viburnum furcatum--was next to be described. Japan was predominantly closed to Europeans and Americans until 1868, the year of the Meiji Revolution, but in 1858, the German botanist Carl Ludwig Blume obtained an herbarium specimen of a Japanese viburnum and labelled it with this name. The species would not be properly described, by Carl Johann Maximowicz, for another two decades. Nonetheless, in 1859, Harvard botanist Asa Gray noted the presence of a Japanese viburnum that he suspected was the same or a closely related species as V. lantanoides, based on herbarium specimens collected by Charles Wright, botanist on the United States North Pacific Explor- ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY; PEABODY.YALE.EDU. PHOTO BY PATRICK SWEENEY before their eastern counterparts. In 1825, forty years after Marshall's putative description of the hobblebush, David Don, the librarian for the Linnaean Society, described V. nervosum, based on collections made by Nathaniel Wallich and Francis Hamilton in Nepal. Neither of us has encountered Viburnum nervosum in the wild, but this species occurs at exceptionally high altitudes and is common in open, boggy habitats at (or even above) the tree line in Sichuan, Xizang, and Yunnan Provinces of China, as well as in Bhutan, India, Myanmar, Nepal, and North Vietnam. The Flora of China notes that it can grow up to 14,700 feet (4,500 meters) above sea level. Unlike the other three Pseudotinus species, V. nervosum does not produce the distinctive halo of sterile flowers around each inflorescence; instead, the fertile flowers within each inflorescence are In 1914, Ernest Henry Wilson photographed Viburnum furcatum growing on a woodland edge in the Yumoto region of Japan, near the location where the authors also observed the species. Among the Pseudotinus, V. nervosum (right) has the most atypical habitat preferences--shown within a montane bamboo and heath scrub at more than 10,000 feet (3,200 meters) elevation in Yunnan, China (notice the broader leaves, tucked in the center of the frame). PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY; PEABODY.YALE.EDU. PHOTO BY PATRICK SWEENEY Viburnum 19 Branching structure is a defining characteristic for the Pseudotinus viburnums. Here, Viburnum sympodiale-- photographed in Hunan, China--shows how the branches fork, with one side continuing the dominant horizontal growth and the other turning upwards to produce flowers and fruit. ing Expedition between 1853 and 1856. This and other early specimens, initially referred to as V. plicatum (and occasionally V. tomentosum), supported Gray's theories of disjunction of species, particularly between the eastern United States and eastern Asia. Gray concludes his momentous essay, published in 1859, with a provocative summation: \"Under the light which these geological considerations throw upon the question, I cannot resist the conclusion, that the extant vegetable kingdom has a long and eventful history, and that the explanation of apparent anomalies in the geographical distribution of species may be found in the various and prolonged climatic or other physical vicissitudes to which they have been subject in earlier times.\" Gray recognized that the occurrence of distant doppelg?ngers like these North American and Japanese viburnums could only be explained through change on a geologic timescale. This argument would gain substantial theoretical weight with the publication, in 1860, of On the Origin of Species, written by Gray's friend and scientific correspondent Charles Darwin. It is noteworthy, therefore, to see this group of Pseudotinus viburnums--or even just the paired Japanese and North American species-- along this timeline of scientific breakthroughs. As botanists like Gray began to work with a greater volume of herbarium specimens from Asia, an evolutionary and geologic story began to emerge. Global exploration and paradigmchanging scientific discovery necessarily moved in tandem. The final viburnum in the quartet--Viburnum sympodiale--was described by Paul Graebner in Ludwig Diels' epic Die Flora von Central-China, published in 1901. Graebner named this species using herbarium specimens MICHAEL S. DOSMANN MICHAEL S. DOSMANN ANTHONY S. AIELLO 20 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 Along with ornamental flowers and fruit, the Pseudotinus viburnums produce exceptional fall color. On a 2005 expedition in China, Tony observed Viburnum sympodiale (top) with red fall color. And in the Adirondacks, in 2008, Michael observed a striking mix of colors on V. lantanoides (both bottom). Viburnum 21 collected by Augustin Henry and Arthur von Rosthorn, and he noted how its forked (or sympodial) branching structure resembled that of V. furcatum. Ernest Henry Wilson observed V. sympodiale during his initial trip to China (between 1899 and 1902), while working for Veitch Nursery, as well as later while working for the Arnold Arboretum, and he noted in his collection notebooks that the species was \"very rare!\" This characterization stands in stark contrast to his observations of the common Japanese species. Hobbled Horticulture No matter the botanical interest of these species, it was another thing to bring them into more widespread cultivation. In 1889, Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director of the Arnold Arboretum, wrote a short article about Viburnum lantanoides for Garden and Forest. He praised the species as \"one of the most beautiful plants of our flora,\" yet he noted that the hobblebush was \"impatient of cultivation\" and \"the most difficult of all our native shrubs to cultivate.\" At the Arnold Arboretum, only two early hobblebush accessions achieved long-term success. Both arrived as plants and perished in the mid-twentieth century. Repeated attempts to cultivate the species since then--via seeds as well as layers from the wild--have been in vain until recently. Seeds refused to germinate, and the plants rarely lived beyond a few years after planting out. However, several plants collected in the Adirondacks in 2008 have survived near a swampy spot adjacent the North Woods, known for a planting of corkwood (Leitneria floridana)--the same location where one of the two earlier successes had grown. The other three species have been equally slow to enter North American gardens. Sargent collected seeds of Viburnum furcatum from Japan in 1892, yet no records of successful germination (or planting) exist. It was not until early 1915 that two collections from Ernest Henry Wilson in northern Honshu made their way to the Arnold Arboretum. One collection originated as plants, the other as seeds, and the resulting accessions (numbers 17988 and 17989, respectively) were also sited near the Leitneria. The year those accessions arrived, Sargent noted that the species was \"as handsome a plant as the American species, and will probably prove equally difficult to manage.\" However, the seed-derived accession survived until 1997, occasionally dying to the ground and sending up suckers. The other accession (containing three plants) has persisted in the location for a century, putting on dramatic floral displays typically in late April to early May. Another seed-derived accession arrived in 1998. Perhaps because this species takes more readily to various propagation techniques, Viburnum furcatum seems to be the most widely cultivated of the four species, showing up in some forty-three public gardens in fourteen different countries according to Botanic Garden Conservation International's PlantSearch database. The American species is growing in twenty-seven gardens in ten countries, while V. nervosum and V. sympodiale are growing in only eleven and nine gardens, respectively. These numbers, while likely accurate in the ranking of each species' popularity (or amenability to cultivation), are likely underestimates, for the database requires individual gardens to self-report what they are growing. For instance, no gardens in Japan are noted as cultivating V. furcatum, and they likely are. The Morris Arboretum has two specimens of Viburnum nervosum, which were acquired as cuttings from a specialist nursery in 2010. The Arnold Arboretum has only attempted to cultivate the species twice--two seed collections in the early 2000s--and, in both cases, the seeds failed to germinate. Wilson had made several herbarium collections of V. nervosum (as V. cordifolium) in western Sichuan, where he observed it was \"common\" and formed \"thickets.\" Joseph Rock also collected the species in high plateaus of Yunnan and noted it growing as both a shrub and even a tree up to twentyfive feet in height. Yet, the earliest record of the plant's introduction to North America seems to be a 1927 accession donated to the United States Department of Agriculture by the Lloyd Botanic Garden in Darjiling, India. As for the final species, Tony encountered Viburnum sympodiale in September 2005, 22 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, which rooted and survived on the grounds for eight years. Three seed acquisitions were never successful. Disjunct Reunions If the early work of plant explorers enabled discoveries pertaining to biogeography, like Gray's initial articulation of disjunct species, then the slow acquisition of other disjunct species (including Viburnum nervosum and V. sympodiale) makes us wonder what breakthroughs current and future plant exploration will enable. Aside from Viburnum furcatum, our expedition to Japan yielded a number of other collections of species that have familiar North American relatives. Among the most exciting was a collection of Stewartia: another genus with members that only occur in eastern North PEABODY MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, YALE UNIVERSITY; PEABODY.YALE.EDU. PHOTO BY PATRICK SWEENEY while collecting in Gansu Province, China. Although there were no fruits, he and the other explorers gathered leaf tissue and herbarium specimens for future molecular work, and longterm preservation, respectively. This experience caused another d?j? vu moment all over again, and the field notes for the collection (NACPEC05-033) acknowledge \"this species is very reminiscent of Viburnum furcatum or V. lantanoides.\" The team found it in a mesic, mixed deciduous and coniferous forest--much like the habitats preferred by the Japanese and American species--replete with three maple species and a hemlock (Tsuga chinensis), as well as littleleaf boxwood (Buxus sinica), rosy dipelta (Dipelta floribunda), Rosa davidii, and katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum). Despite four attempts, the Arnold Arboretum has only had this species in cultivation once: cuttings Like both the North American and Japanese Pseudotinus, Viburnum sympodiale grows in moist woodlands. Here it flowers within a roadside forest in Hunan, China. The young secondary forest included an overstory of pines (Pinus), along with planted larches (Larix). ANTHONY S. AIELLO ANTHONY S. AIELLO Viburnum 23 While in Japan, the authors and collaborators collected fifty-five unique species. Half of the genera, like Viburnum, co-occur in eastern Asia and eastern North America. At left, collaborators Tatsuhiko Shibano and Mineaki Aizawa (left and right) scan the canopy of a steeply sloped forest at the University of Tokyo Forestry Department Research Station, searching for fruits of Stewartia pseudocamellia. The striking bark of this species is show at right. America and eastern Asia. At the University of Tokyo Forestry Department Research Station, in Chichibu, west of Tokyo, we encountered a population of Japanese stewartia (S. pseudocamellia) perched on a steep hillside, the trunks elongated, stretching for light among an overstory of impressive beeches (Fagus japonica). This stewartia, known for its exfoliating bark, large white flowers, and rich autumn leaf colors, is among the most ornamental plants that have come to our gardens from Japan. We were excited to make this collection because, despite its common name, our collecting companion Todd Rounsaville confirmed that the only documented, wild collections of Japanese stewartia in the United States are of Korean origin. Our collection represents an infusion of novel Asian material into cultivation. We also collected a second species of Stewartia at the last location of the expedition, the Hokkaido University Forestry Station in Wakayama Prefecture on the Kii Peninsula, the southernmost tip of Honshu. This mountainous region is among the wettest areas of Japan, receiving upwards of 118 inches (300 centimeters) of annual precipitation, which we experienced during a continuous downpour--one of the wettest collecting days of our collective careers. We made collections of Stewartia monadelpha, aptly named the tall stewartia, which grew to about 40 feet (12 meters) tall, with trunk diameters of nearly 18 inches (45 centimeters)--showcasing the slick, orange-red bark. Of course, we made other collections of disjuncts on the trip, including green- or snakebarked maples (Acer micranthum and A. ANTHONY S. AIELLO ANTHONY S. AIELLO ANTHONY S. AIELLO 24 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 In addition to collections of familiar genera such as Viburnum and Stewartia, the expedition yielded unusual species including wheel tree (Trochodendron aralioides), which have no disjunct counterparts. At top, Michael holds a specimen of Trochodendron, which collaborators Tatsuhiko Shibano and Mineaki Aizawa (left and right, bottom left) collected from a towering specimen along one of the many mountain torrents charged with the recent rains. Viburnum 25 tschonoskii) that are within the same section or clade as our familiar North American moosewood (A. pensylvanicum). We also couldn't help but notice the genera without disjunct representatives. On the rain-soaked day in Wakayama, we collected three species of Enkianthus (E. cernuus f. rubens, E. nudipes, and E. sikokianus), a genus in the heath family (Ericaceae), which is represented by six species in Japan, seven in China, but none in North America. It was remarkable to see three distinct species growing together on one mountainside. Earlier on the trip, we collected E. campanulatus and E. subsessilis, bringing our total to five of the six Japanese species. We also made two horticulturally and botanically interesting collections at Wakayama: wheel tree (Trochodendron aralioides) and Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata), which both have a peculiar taxonomic standing. Wheel tree has only one other member in its family and order (Trochodendraceae and Trochodendrales, respectively), and the umbrella pine is the lone representative of its family (Sciadopityaceae). Importantly, through collection we've brought these species--long-lost cousins (as well as evolutionary orphans)--together in common gardens, as living plants, to observe them in cultivation. And like our pursuit of these four d?j? vu viburnums, the work as plant explorers continues. Gray used collections of herbarium specimens as inspiration to make daring hypotheses about biogeography. In that same vein, as plant explorers and curators we build collections to inspire future scientists to make new discoveries using not herbarium specimens and DNA samples (important as they may be) but living organisms. It is a longgame we play, however, for a century after the last species in the quartet was described, it has nearly evaded our cultivation. But, with dogged determination, hopefully we (or our successors) will achieve the perfect ensemble: a full quartet growing and performing together for audiences to enjoy and to study. Further Reading\/Bibliography Diels, L. 1901. Die Flora von Central-China. Botanishche Jahrb?cher f?r Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie (Vol. 29). Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. Don, D. 1825. Prodromus Florae Nepalensis. London: J. Gale. Donoghue, M.J. 1981. Growth patterns in woody plants with examples from the genus Viburnum. Arnoldia, 41(1): 2?28. Edwards, E.J., D.S. Chatelet, L. Sack, and M.J. Donoghue. 2014. Leaf life span and the leaf economic spectrum in the context of whole plant architecture. Journal of Ecology, 102: 328?336. Ferguson, I.K. 1966. The genera of Caprifoliaceae in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 47: 42?43. Gray, A. 1859. Diagnostic Characters of New Species of Ph?nogamous Plants, Collected in Japan by Charles Wright, Botanist of the U. S. North Pacific Exploring Expedition. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, New Series 6(2): 377?452. Mackenzie, K.K. 1927. A botanical riddle. Torreya, 27(5): 81?83. Marshall, H. 1785. Arbustrum Americanum: The American grove. Philadelphia: Joseph Crukshank. Michaux, A. 1803. Flora Boreali-Americana (Vol. 1). Paris and Strasbourg: Levrault. Maximowicz, C.J. 1880. Diagnoses plantarum Novarum Asiaticarum. St. Petersburg: Imperialis Academiae Scientiarum. Park, B., M. Sinnott-Armstrong, C. Schlutius, J.-C.P. Zuluaga, E.L. Spriggs, R.G. Simpson, E. Benavides, M.J. Landis, P.W. Sweeney, D.A.R. Eaton, and M.J. Donoghue. 2018. Sterile marginal flowers increase visitation and fruit set in the hobblebush (Viburnum lantanoides, Adoxaceae) at multiple spatial scales. Annals of Botany, 123: 381?390. Sargent, C.S. 1889. Viburnum lantanoides. Garden and Forest, 2(89): 531?532. Sargent, C.S. 21 June, 1915. Viburnums of Western Asia. Bulletin of Popular Information, 1(9): 33?35. Anthony S. Aiello is the Gayle E. Maloney Director of Horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Michael S. Dosmann is keeper of the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum. The authors thank Michael Donoghue, Brian Park, and Patrick Sweeney for their conversations in the preparation of this article and use of images, as well as our collecting companions during our expedition to Honshu in 2018 for their friendship and collaboration. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Bornean Rainforests: Exploring the Flora","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25661","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d0608926.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":4,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"ASHTON, P. 2019. IN BORNEAN RAINFORESTS: EXPLORING THE FLORA. ARNOLDIA, 76(4): 26?39 In Bornean Rainforests: Exploring the Flora Peter Ashton A expeditionary qualifications had been on family holidays in France and Italy. I went to Brazil as an entomologist, and I returned with a keen interest in forest botany. John Corner, a professor of tropical botany at the University of Cambridge, encouraged my new enthusiasm, and he promised to pass on any leads about career opportunities for a budding field worker. Thus, my arrival in Brunei. We would be leaving for the Temburong River the following morning, Bill informed me. This river flows through the eastern portion of Brunei--which is divided into two noncontiguous sections--and once we departed from the capital city, familiar accommodations would be scarce. Bill scrutinized my appearance--athleticwear that, in retrospect, was more suited for camping in the English countryside--and he pointed me in the direction of a provisions store. \"You had better go and buy some clothes,\" he said. t twenty-three years old, I found myself on an open-aired launch, motoring from the island of Labuan, off the northern shore of Borneo, and entering the humid mouth of the Brunei River. The riverine settlements near Bandar Brunei, the capital, sprawled before me. Houses and other structures rose on stilts, interconnected with bridges and walkways that formed a vibrant and densely populated community, all above water. Boats crisscrossed in every direction. It was 1957, more than two decades before I would be appointed the sixth director of the Arnold Arboretum, and I was arriving in Brunei to work as the first official forest botanist for the Bruneian government. At the time, I could scarcely have predicted that this would mark the beginning of five years working under the auspices of Omar Ali Saifuddien III--the Sultan of Brunei--or, for that matter, that it would mark the beginning of a lifetime of research on the forests of northern Borneo. At Bandar Brunei (now known as Bandar Seri Begawan), I was welcomed by Bertram (Bill) Smythies, who held the title of state forest officer. Bill was the author of classic texts on the birds of Burma and Borneo. His father and grandfather had been botanists in the Indian Forest Service, and as he stood, awaiting my boat on the north side of the river, I could immediately see that his gaunt and sinewy physique had been shaped by his ceaseless fieldwork. During World War II, he had been protected behind Japanese lines, within Kachin longhouses, while he continued his research in northern Burma. I later learned from my local team members that he spoke their language (Iban) so fluently that, were he hidden from view next door, he would not be recognized as a foreigner. By comparison, I was exceptionally new to this world. My first and only prior field experience occurred in 1954, at age twenty, when I spent my freshman summer with two friends on the northern bank of the Amazon River, near Monte Alegre, Brazil. Before that, my only As a new forest botanist, I had been charged with gaining field information about the tree flora of a region slightly larger than Delaware, concentrating on the dominant tree family, Dipterocarpaceae. Dipterocarps are colossal monarchs of the paleotropical rainforest, dominating the overstory. Over the previous half century, they had become the leading source of general-utility timber, and they also provided quality hardwood for flooring and decks. Because dipterocarps were entering the regional export market, I was to provide preliminary information that would guide sustainable management for this timber. I had visited the herbarium at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, near London, to read up and see examples in the herbarium. But the specimens revealed a diversity of foliage that was unfamiliar and complex. My knowledge, at the start, was little more than rudimentary. Before my departure from Bandar Brunei, I learned that my office in town lacked botany books and that no tree flora for Borneo had been published. Moreover, the herbarium at the office consisted of a closet with a small col- B RU N E I B AY Bandar Seri Begawan SO U TH CH INA S EA mb Te Tutong ur o n gR iv e r Li mb a n Andulau Hills g R iv Kuala Belait Kuala Belalong er B RU N E I B RU N E I Bukit Retak Gunung Pagon Periok MAL AY SIA (Sarawak) B OR N E O 1 0 M I LE S 2 5 KI LO M E T E R S Ashton arrived at Bandar Brunei (now known as Bandar Seri Begawan, top left) in 1957. His research in the Bruneian forests between 1957 and 1960 focused on overstory species like this giant dipterocarp, Shorea longisperma (top right), and followed routes mapped in red. MAP BY PETER ASHTON, ARNOLD ARBORETUM, AND GIS COMMUNITY PHOTOS BY AUTHOR FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES UNLESS NOTED Peter Ashton in Brunei 27 28 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 together more briefly). The Iban are members of an inland minority on Borneo, known collectively as the Dayak, which includes major groups that speak distinct languages. Later, an older and more experienced Iban collector named Sengelang anak Nantah joined my team. Given his considerable experience and wisdom, I called him Apai, meaning Dad. My field companions possessed an optimistic, energetic and ribald self-confidence. That first evening and night was both exciting and reassuring. My companions were endlessly helpful and friendly, although already detecting opportunities to pull my leg. The rush of the rapids, with the calls of the evening cicadas, frogs, and birds, was both exotic and inviting. I was already familiar, from student days, with the customary method of collecting botanical specimens and inserting them in wooden presses to dry, but the special requirements of doing so in dense forest under a climate of intense humidity and heat was challenging. The aim TIMOTHY CHARLES WHITMORE lection of specimens, mostly from the 1930s. I needed help, so Geoffrey (Geoff) Wood, a forest botanist from adjacent Sabah--now a state in Malaysia--came down to be my botanical tutor for the first three months. Geoff had hurt his leg in a field-hockey game before the expedition, causing his ankle to swell painfully, but he was nonetheless a tireless worker, and his field experience proved invaluable. It took us three days to reach Kuala Belalong, the fork where the Temburong River meets the white waters of the Belalong River, deep between hills that rise nearly 2,000 feet (600 meters), enshrouded in mighty emergent trees. I had learned much on the way up: I now knew that my life would revolve around an outboarddriven prahu (dugout canoe). I knew that I needed to learn the lingua franca Malay, and fast, and that Iban would be useful as well, given that I would spend day and night with a team of Iban lads near my own age: Ladi anak Bikas, Asah anak Unyong, and Naban (whose paternal name I do not recall, because we worked The field team (from left) included Asah, Naban, Ashton (wearing his indispensable leech socks), and Ladi. Peter Ashton in Brunei 29 Ladi demonstrates how diagnostic notches are made in the trunk of a large dipterocarp species, Shorea slootenii, using a parang. At right, a leaf is shown with the notched trunk of Dipterocarpus conformis. was to collect eight quality vouchers of every tree in flower or fruit, to send to regional herbaria, as well as to leading herbaria worldwide, including at Leiden University, Kew, and yes, the Arnold Arboretum--my first introduction! As a newcomer, the challenge of identifying giant trees, towering more than 200 feet (60 meters) overhead, quickly introduced me to the parallel world of Iban forest botany--a world very independent of the formal plant science of a western university. Flowers provide the best means to identify the botanical family, using methods devised by Linnaeus, but discovering fallen petals (or fruit) was rare. Canopy species only start to flower once their crown is in the sun. Few Bornean species flower annually, and some go many years without. If they do flower, however, it is most likely between the two wet monsoons, in and around April, when sunny periods of a few days are frequent in most years. So this was always the time to plan major collecting expeditions, and it was, in fact, around this time that our trip commenced. As I began to grasp a little of the Iban language, I started to ask Asah for help. Asah's approach was, first, to note the overall bark appearance, observing its color and whether it was smooth, flaky, fissured, or otherwise. He would then slice into the bark. He would smell the wood, look for sap or latex, and note the overall color of the inner bark and sapwood, as well as the presence of radiating pale lines (known as medullary rays). For this purpose, we all wore a parang at our waist--a short, sharp blade resembling a billhook without a bill, crafted by a blacksmith from a truck spring. (Parangs were also used for cutting paths and much more.) These wood and bark character- 30 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 near Los Angeles--Santa Barbara, Laguna Beach, Ventura--from where they had been exported as packing material. The packed specimens were then doused with a mixture of 90 percent ethyl alcohol, fortified with formalin and mercuric chloride powder, which helped to preserve the specimens until they could be dried in presses at the herbarium and dispatched or mounted. istics provided enough information to home in on the family and often the genus, for which Asah and the other collectors would often know an Iban name. Eventually, I learned that nearly all species could be identified on the basis of their leaf and petiole morphology, at times with the added assistance of trunk characteristics or a fallen twig fragment, without requiring flowers or fruit. Bill and I would bring samples back to the camp for Geoff to examine. In addition to providing a loose identification for the specimen, he could tell us whether something had already been well-documented with other herbarium collections. With this guidance, we knew what to collect. At this point, the fun really began. Asah, Ladi, and Naban were extraordinary tree climbers. (We never needed to fell a tree to collect specimens.) The men would clasp the trunk in a crouched position, using their arms and the soles of their feet, and then stretch up to embrace the trunk again. The trunk needed to be sufficiently slender to clasp, so if the target tree was too large, the climber sought out a smaller tree nearby. He would climb this neighboring tree until the stem began to bend, and then, using his weight to swing the crown of his tree back and forth, he would lean towards the next tree and hook a long, forked pole (known as a penyulok) around a branch. He could then tie the lower end of the penyulok in place, bridging the two trees. By hauling up a new penyulok on rattan cord, the procedure could be repeated until the main branches of the emergent tree were reached. The rest depended on confidence, agility, and iron will! The twigs, once dropped from on high, would be tied in bunches and placed in large plastic bags familiar to field botanists. I initially learned the Schweinf?rth method of preparing specimens, which was developed for wet, hot climates in the region by Dutch botanists. The method requires rustproof metal containers, which were made by local tinsmiths. These were designed with a cross-section large enough to fit specimens, which were entered between sheets of newspaper. It was both surreal and entertaining, in the gloaming of a rainforest evening, to spend moments reading the goingson in the local newspapers from seaside locales Bornean forests are not dangerous places, so long as care and discretion are the rule. Beyond villages and longhouses, mosquitoes and sandflies (no-see-ums) are confined to the riverbanks. Leeches are a perpetual pest, but they can be excluded by wearing gabardine kneelength stockings. Dangerous animals are few, although I did manage, a few months later, to step on a pit viper, after which Ladi carried me on his back for two days across high hills to the boats. Nevertheless, inland roads were scarce, and ascending white-water rivers presented a perpetual hazard. Moreover, the dense forests of undulating lowlands created conditions where one could easily get lost, especially on cloudy days, when the sun provided no bearing. Scarcely two months into my time in Brunei, however, I learned a sobering lesson about backcountry perils. The mixture of chemicals used for the Schweinf?rth were dangerous, even to the touch. I would later search for an alternative, but tragically, while we were breaking camp in the Andulau hills--near the coast, west of Bandar Brunei--a five-gallon drum of ethyl alcohol, standing too close to a camp fire, exploded on Geoff. One of our Iban assistants ran for help and managed to secure an Australian roadbuilder with a short-wheelbase Land Rover, in which we carried Geoff, fifteen miles along the beach at high tide, to an oil-field hospital. He did not recover. The experience was traumatic, and I recall riding with Geoff's climbers--Kadazan men from Sabah--to the little graveyard in Kuala Belait, on the western coast of Brunei. All of us wept. The Kadazan collectors returned home, while I would return to the field. Geoff, who I had not known before, was patient and immensely knowledgeable. We had shared long evenings of relaxed banter under canvas, and he could not have been a better instructor in the art and science of tropical forest botany. SPECIMENS FROM HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA GEOFFREY WOOD Peter Ashton in Brunei 31 Collectors on a later expedition in Sarawak rest while setting up camp (top left). Schweinf?rth tins--used for preserving herbarium specimens--are stacked in the foreground. Asah and Naban are photographed climbing Shorea curtisii (top right). Asah has reached the basal branch of the crown; Naban is positioned about halfway up the trunk, where a small neighboring tree has been bridged with the Shorea; and Ashton stands at ground level. Ashton sent specimens to the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, including Shorea amplexicaulis (fruits at right) and Shorea laxa (at left)--both collected in 1958. 32 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 The tidal rivers of Brunei are inhabited by taxonomically diverse mangrove species like Avicennia alba (top), Heritiera globosa (along with nipa palm, Nypa fruticans, bottom left) and Rhizophora apiculata (bottom right). Notice the unusual seedlings of the Rhizophora, which germinate and produce long drooping stems while the seeds are still attached to the parent plant. Peter Ashton in Brunei 33 Brunei is a small place, and most collecting trips took only a few days, although even those entailed slow travel up small rivers, with a nightly welcome in longhouses or forest camping beneath waterproof flysheets. Once a year, throughout most of my five years in Brunei, I took advantage of expected drier times in April to mount a major expedition. (I did the same in other parts of Borneo over the subsequent five years, amounting to six expeditions in all.) The first, undertaken when I had been in Brunei just over one year, tried my organizational and leadership skills and proved among the most eventful. Not only had my familiarity with the trees grown substantially over the previous year, but I had also learned sufficient Iban to get the gist of the endless exchanges of robust humor in the boats as we travelled. My knowledge of Malay was growing as well. My first long backcountry expedition targeted Brunei's highest mountain, Gunung Pagon Periok, which is a steep sandstone slab that rises over 6,000 feet (1,850 meters) at the cascading headwaters of the Temburong River in the eastern portion of the country. We would access the peak via a montane ridge in nearby Sarawak. With that elevation, I suspected that it should be possible to collect within all equatorial forest types, which are differentiated according to altitude. Pagon is visible on the horizon from Bandar Brunei, the capital city, but although it is hardly more than fifty miles distant, I knew from aerial surveys and maps that it would take many days to reach. The length of time we could spend hiking in the rainforest depended on the number of field assistants required to haul equipment and food, especially rice. The basic backpack is a selabit, woven from rattan. Its base fits snuggly in the small of the back, while the top reaches the crown of the head. For a two-month trip that required overland travel, we would need about fifteen field assistants--recruited along the way--in addition to the Iban climbers. Before heading towards Pagon, a day was spent shopping for sufficient food to last six to eight weeks: rice, cooking oil, salt fish, little red onions, chilies, and all-important matches and kerosene. I departed Bandar Brunei with Apai and Ladi, winding through vast mangrove swamps in an outboard prahu. We crossed the Bay of Brunei and entered the mouth of the Limbang River, whose valley separates the two halves of Brunei. This swamp, bordering the whole extent of the bay, harbors an exceptionally diverse flora, as well as a rich fauna including the notorious long-nosed, white-faced proboscis monkey (Nasalis larvatus). We then continued up the winding river through fertile floodplain farmland, to the large and elegant Iban longhouse of Tanah Merah. We were welcomed with a ceremonial bowl of tuak (rice wine), which was followed with a dinner of rice and chicken, loaded with plenty of chilies, and traditional dancing in the evening. I was cajoled into attempting a sword dance, which caused much hilarity. We managed to attract six enthusiastic assistants and a second outboard prahu, and we set off early again upriver. On a daily wage equivalent to my climbers (but lacking their field allowance), these recruits soon became socially part of our team. About midday, the current quickened, the occasional rapid had to be maneuvered, and the hills began to close in on both sides. We were now in the country of the Murut, a different ethnic nation from the Iban, but with a long-standing friendly relationship. When we stopped in a village, our welcome was subdued, as many were away, tending to their paddy farms. We spent our second night in one of their longhouses, which smelled strongly of rancid tuak--a sign that harvest festivities were over. We did succeed, however, in gaining another motorized prahu and a second contingent of young woodsmen so that our party, now fifteen, was complete. At noon on the third day, we reached Nanga Medamit, the tributary that drains the western flanks of Pagon. We pulled the prahus up the hillslope above the river, above highest flood levels, packed our equipment and food into selabits, and ascended the steep slopes to the ridge where we set up camp for the night. This gave me my first opportunity to chat with the Muruts, who were more reserved than my boisterous Iban companions. I had planned to use the expedition to start recording medicinal plant uses. One Murut seemed quite knowl- 34 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 On the way to Gunung Pagon Periok, Ashton encountered a lower montane forest, known as kerangas, for the first time. During subsequent fieldwork in kerangas forests, Ashton photographed lipstick palm (Cyrtostachys renda, left), named for vibrant red leaf sheaths that do not appear in the photograph, and Borneo kauri (Agathis borneensis, right) a member of the coniferous family Araucariaceae. A Malay collector named Karim is pictured. edgeable about plants, but, on seeking his experience, he answered that, although his people were unsurpassed in their knowledge of plants that increase the hunting and sniffing skills of their dogs, all that they knew for humans concerned poisons. The following day, we successfully shot a fat boar, the Bornean bearded pig (Sus barbatus). Some was consumed on capture but most was boiled with salt and stored for the weeks to come. Time being limited, we decided to collect little until our base camp was achieved. This gave us the opportunity to observe changes in forest structure and flora as altitude increased. We followed the ridge upward, trading the sounds of the water for the occasional ghastly cackle of the helmeted hornbill (Rhinoplax vigil)--a call that now brings back happy memories. We came upon a large water-filled wallow that, I was assured, had been made by a rhinoceros-- the little two-horned species (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis), also found in Sumatra. In late afternoon, we scaled a small peak, about 2,100 feet (650 meters) high, where I detected an upper dipterocarp forest for the first time, just below the cloud base. These trees were shorter of stature with unfamiliar species including a dipterocarp that later proved new to science: Shorea flaviflora. The next morning, we started an ascent to about 2,800 feet (850 meters), which led us into a lower-statured woodland, lacking emergent trees but with a profusion of trees in the oak family (Castanopsis, Lithocarpus). This was my first experience of a lower montane forest. It differed from textbook descriptions in its open canopy and dense understory of polesized trees. I later learned this was a forest type Peter Ashton in Brunei 35 flat densely wooded southern slope facing us. We spent three weeks there, exploring, collecting, and setting out one-acre plots (we had not become metric in those days), which we fully censused. We scaled the perilously narrow summit ridge, which bore a short shrubby thicket, with little in flower. But the forest around the camp yielded exciting new discoveries including, amazingly, a new dipterocarp, which I would name Shorea monticola. After nightfall one rainy day, we saw a curious pale globe of light, less than a meter in diameter, moving slowly downhill through the distant trees, eventually disappearing. Could it have been a form of ball lightning? It did not last long, and my campmates were unperturbed, casually explaining it to be a benign forest spirit, going about its business. known as kerangas, which is widespread on Bornean mountains. The going got steeper as we approached a high spur, where, at 5,700 feet (1,750 meters), the trees were hardly more than head height. Everything, including the contorted branches of the trees, became so carpeted in moss that their dwarf crowns could hardly be distinguished from the ground, giving purchase to spectacular orchids and occasional rhododendrons (Rhododendron sect. Vireya). This was the upper montane forest, daily immersed in fog, dripping, and so unnervingly silent that our voices hardly carried more than a few yards. We sought out a campsite while Apai and Ladi pressed on, cutting through the vegetation with parangs. The only visible way through was a tunnel made by wild boar. So thick were the moss tussocks that we had to stay two more nights while a passage was cut to squeeze through with the baggage. We set up our permanent camp in an ecotone between lower montane kerangas and upper montane thicket, where we could see the base of Pagon's imposing sandstone slab, with its After five weeks in the forest, rice was beginning to run low. We had to retain enough supplies for our return when the weight of the food would be replaced by that of the full cases of specimens. Because we had accessed the mountain The collectors viewed the sandstone slab of Gunung Pagon Periok, with its steep slopes carpeted with upper montane forests, from their ridge of approach in early morning. 36 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 from the Limbang River--which runs through Sarawak rather than Brunei--I discussed return options with Apai and our other teammates and was attracted to the idea, if possible, of continuing southeast with a few of our most energetic team members to access the Temburong River headwaters, which we would follow until the stream became navigable. This area had been explored by an oil geologist thirty years earlier, but it was otherwise unknown to western researchers. Apai confidently assured me that, upon reaching the Temburong, a bark raft could be constructed. So the main party returned the way we had come, carrying most of the baggage, while Apai, Ladi, one Murut assistant, and myself bid them farewell and set off, lightly equipped with five days of rice and other basic foodstuffs. That first day we made a steep descent of the northern slope of Gunung Pagon Periok to a ridge that connected to a lesser peak, known as Bukit Retak. Apai suggested that we should scale this peak to search out our route and possibly spend the night on the summit where we could usefully commune with mountain spirits. I succumbed to the idea, so we spent a soggy fog-enshrouded night beside a summit dewpond--but to no avail. We camped in an open valley the next evening and spent the following day scaling Bukit Lesong, the northernmost of Brunei's mountains, where I found another dipterocarp of unfamiliar leaf shape (which I would later know as a species of Vatica). Because we were traveling light, we had no means to collect specimens. On the following day--our third since leaving the others--we descended for five hours and came on the main Temburong stream, but it was flowing over massive boulders and was far too steep to attempt navigation. We followed it until evening, and at daybreak the next day, we searched for a tree with suitable bark for a raft. No such tree was to be found, so we felled the next best. The result was riverworthy but pliable, resembling a giant banana skin. We had not gone far that morning when we heard a After Ashton and his team finished their fieldwork near Gunung Pagon Periok, they descended towards the headwaters of the Temburong River, photographed on a later trip near Kuala Belalong. Peter Ashton in Brunei 37 Within the forests of the Temburong District--the easternmost enclave of Brunei--Ashton observed large overstory species like Anisoptera costata (left), which is a member of the dipterocarp family (Dipterocarpaceae), and Tristaniopsis whiteana (right), a member of the myrtle family (Myrtaceae). An Iban collector named Mujah is pictured. late. We leapt into the torrent, while our Murut assistant attempted to haul in the raft by its attached cord. All to no avail. The raft turned, bent in two, and flipped over the fall, and within it our clothes (including our shoes!), our remaining food, and our parangs--everything. The three of us crept to the edge of the fall and looked down. All that came up, turning in the whirlpool, was Apai's bamboo cigarette container which, after rescue, revealed five vital matches. massive clap of thunder over the mountains to the south and soon noticed a rise in the waters. We leapt to shore, dragging our craft as high up the steep hillslope as we could. Within little more than a minute, the waters had gone up fifteen feet, swirling, carrying whole trees, the rocky bottom shaking and rumbling. No further travel was possible until the following day, when the flood had somewhat subsided but the current was still strong. We proceeded with caution. Ladi and I had ascended the Temburong some months earlier, and we were stopped by a two-meter waterfall called Wong Uan, which was practically impossible to portage or descend. Below it, a cataract known as Gerugu Rimau raged between the cliffs. We knew we were getting close. After little more than one hour on the river, we rounded a bend, and Ladi and I recognized the terrain--only too Our only option was now to find the nearest Iban longhouse, several days walk downstream. We rested, and the next day--the fifth since we left the main party--was a disaster: showery, cloudy, with no clear view. Walking barefoot in the rainforest proved easier than I had imagined, but in late afternoon, we began to identify bent twigs with which we had marked our morning 38 Arnoldia 76\/4 ? May 2019 We waited and waited. Three days passed. Ladi became increasingly concerned and eager to find a floating log himself, but I discouraged him. Then, on the fourth day, the distant noise of an engine could be heard, coming, then going. That's an airplane, Ladi said in sad conviction, but I was more confident. Sure enough, after a long wait, around the river bend came a prahu manned by my friend Penghulu Gimang (an upriver chief), with his son Jah. They had been alerted by Apai and his Murut companion, and they brought a feast: salt fish, over which they poured condensed milk. Never, ever, have I tasted anything so delicious! We descended the river, stopped at Gimang's longhouse, and then proceeded down to the estuary and across the bay to the capital. On the way, we noticing occasional shirts, towels, and other flotsam high in the branches of the overarching trees. trail. We had turned in a complete loop. We set up a shelter by snapping off leaves from a fan palm (Licuala), and we found dipterocarp resin within a hollow tree, which, with some tinder, allowed us to start a fire. We spent that night toe-to-toe around the flame. The following morning, the sun revealed clear blue skies, so Ladi, climbing a tree, was able to discern the best way forward, bypassing a major turn of the river down to its confluence with a stream called Nanga Temburong Machang. By this time, Ladi was getting exhausted. We crossed the river, which had begun to subside, and Apai and our Murut assistant left us, floating on a log down the rapids in search of help. Ladi and I lit a fire with the last matches. We had plenty of water to drink, but food was sparse: some young turtles, which were exceedingly chewy after we cooked them in their shells, and the sweet and familiar fermenting pulp from the fallen fruits of a giant leguminous tree. We even took to eating clay to fill our stomachs, which turned them to cement. This initial immersion in Bornean forest botany lasted twenty-six months. During that period, Ladi and Asah became my friends for life. (We Wong Uan, a waterfall on the Temburong River, stranded Ashton's team without supplies. It was photographed here at more placid conditions in 1958. Peter Ashton in Brunei 39 Ashton's fieldwork documented 151 dipterocarp species in Brunei, including species like Dipterocarpus lowii (left), and Shorea rubella (right), which are both considered critically endangered by the International Union for Conservation of Nature. still communicate from time to time through a Malaysian friend.) We made nearly four thousand collections from which Dutch colleagues at Leiden University would assign over seven hundred scientific names. This was enough for Hasan bin Pukol--curator of our new herbarium in the attic of a local cinema--and I to publish a checklist of trees, which included local names. I also gained enough knowledge of the dipterocarps to publish a manual describing Brunei's 151 species, of which 33 were new and formally named for the first time (only 3 more have subsequently been discovered). This information would prove essential for future sustainable management and conservation efforts, and, on a personal front, these months in the field provided materials that would become the basis for my doctoral dissertation and a career beyond, including as the director of the Arnold Arboretum. Along the way, I had come to recognize the floristic and ecological patterns in the forest, and a newcomer--a neophyte, really--had found a way of life. My paleotropical education had officially begun. Peter Ashton is Harvard University Bullard Professor Emeritus and was director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1978 to 1987. Among many career honors, his research on tropical forests was recognized with the prestigious Japan Prize in 2007. He and his wife, Mary, live in Somerset, England. The map in this article was created using Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community, based on an illustration that originally appeared in Ashton, P. 1964. A Manual of the Dipterocarp Trees of Brunei State and of Sarawak. Oxford: Oxford University Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Old Timer","article_sequence":4,"start_page":40,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25663","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d070a36f.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":4,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mayer, Bob","article_content":"MAYER, B. 2019. THE OLDER TIMER. ARNOLDIA, 76(4): 40 The Old Timer Bob Mayer M ore than ten years ago, I photographed an odd-looking tree growing in front of the Roxbury puddingstone outcropping on Valley Road. It was early May, and the tree was in bloom--sort of. One of the main branches was barren. It looked like the tree had been mistakenly passed over by the crews clearing away the dead and dying after a long winter. When I photographed the tree two years later, in 2009, the horticultural staff had visited, not to remove the tree but to prune it vigorously. The barren branch was gone, and the tree resembled a warty, one-eyed beast, sprouting feeble arms. I checked the metal tag: a Yoshino cherry (Prunus ? yedoensis forma perpendens, accession 22542*A). It was accessioned in 1925, a dozen years before my own birth date. Perhaps because of that, I developed an attachment to this aging--indeed ancient by cherry standards--tree despite is ungainly appearance, and I occasionally grabbed other images of the \"old timer,\" as I nicknamed it. While the record label suggests this accession was grown from seed sent from the Imperial Botanical Garden in Tokyo, Japan, I learned that an important intermediate step was involved. The tree was grown as a seedling from another Yoshino cherry (accession 5351*A), which arrived from the Imperial Botanical Garden (now known as the Koishikawa Botanical Garden) in 1902. The original tree grew near the Forest Hills Gate, and Charles Sprague Sargent often commented on the pink and white flowers. Even though the buds were regularly nicked by spring frosts, Sargent esteemed the hybrid as \"one of the handsomest\" cherries from Japan. According to Donald Wyman--a long-time horticulturist at the Arboretum--the Arboretum's original tree represented the first introduction of the Yoshino cherry into America. This predated a more famous gift of the hybrid (along with other Japanese cherries) to the city of Washington, DC, in 1912, where it formed the basis of the famous planting that clouds the Tidal Basin with evanescent blossoms each spring. This lineage is especially significant given that, when Ernest Henry Wilson visited Japan in 1914 and 1915, he reported that fortyyear-old trees at the Imperial Botanical Garden were the oldest known representatives of this hybrid (which is now considered a complex cross between Prunus speciosa and P. subhirtella) and that the original taxonomic description had been based upon them. Wilson observed the old Yoshino cherries flowering at the Imperial Botanical Garden, with benches where visitors could sit beneath the outstretched branches. Despite the recent scientific recognition of the hybrid, Wilson described its omnipresence throughout Tokyo. \"This is the Cherry so generally planted in the parks, temple grounds, cemeteries and streets,\" he wrote in The Cherries of Japan, published in 1916.\"Its flowers herald an annual national holiday decreed by the Emperor. In all over fifty thousand trees of this species are growing in the precincts of the city.\" This celebration, known as hanami, is still enormously popular in Japan, and it is premised on appreciating ephemerality--a celebration of fleeting beauty. After discovering the significant background of the old timer, I returned recently for another look. It seemed taller and statelier, now that I had uncovered its history. Horticultural care during my decade of observations had maintained--seemingly even resurrected--this old tree, which looked even healthier now than when I first encountered it. If the spring flowers symbolize the swift passage of the seasons, then the knobby form of this tree seems to extend this metaphor even further, embodying the passage of years. I'm confident the tree will survive much longer than this humbled observer. Bob Mayer has been birding, photographing, and volunteering as a docent and field study guide at the Arnold Arboretum since 2002. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23465","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ebb6e.jpg","title":"2019-76-4","volume":76,"issue_number":4,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hybrid Mystique","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25659","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d0608528.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grossman, Jake J.","article_content":"GROSSMAN, J. J. 2019. THE HYBRID MYSTIQUE. ARNOLDIA, 76(3): 2?13 The Hybrid Mystique Jake J. Grossman H ybrids, the results of successful breeding between two parents of different species, occur frequently in nature, yet are perhaps most familiar to us when they result from human intervention. We encounter in our intentionally cultivated hybrids the utility of the mule, the stateliness of the London plane tree, and the sensuous smells and tastes of myriad vegetables and fruits, including broccolini and the tangelo. These remarkable examples are of our own making, but hybridization between closely related species is perhaps the norm rather than the exception in nature. Though hybrid offspring are sometimes sterile and can be visually distinct from their parents (like mules), they are just as likely to be fertile and to pass unnoticed by us. These cryptic hybrids, diagnosable only through genetic testing, breed with each other or with individuals of their parent species (in a process called backcrossing), giving rise to new hybrid progeny. Over generations, such interbreeding consolidates novel hybrid traits, sometimes leading to the formation of new species. Because what counts as a species is, after all, merely conventional, it could be said that we humans, the descendants of interbreeding between Neanderthals and early Homo sapiens, are just as much hybrids as the most luscious of tangelos. Perhaps foremost among the natural world's \"hopeful monsters\"--a term that geneticist Richard Goldschmidt coined in 1940 for evolutionary transformations that occur through rare but large-scale mutation--hybrids often captivate and delight human observers.1 Yet hybridization does not always precipitate the formation of a new species. In natural populations, hybrids are frequently formed, only to be subsumed, through backcrossing, into their parental stock. This process--called introgression--results in the enrichment of the gene pool of the predominant species with genetic material from close relatives. So, in the case of oaks--described as particularly problematic for the biological species concept due to their wanton tendency to hybridize (Burger, 1975)-- we might say that there is evidence of red oak (Quercus rubra) introgression into a stand of northern pin oaks (Q. ellipsoidalis). These pin oaks will still be pin oaks, but perhaps with some hidden genetic diversity and leaves or bark that look, well, just a little bit different. The ubiquity of such situations has led biologists to formulate the idea of hybrid complexes or zones: sets of species or populations in which rampant interbreeding has produced a messy gradient of similar organisms, rather than discrete sets. Our cultivated citruses represent one such complex, in which ten progenitor species in southeast Asia and Australia have given rise, through hybridization, to dozens of domesticated taxa (Wu et al., 2018). And so, when I began my own foray into the world of hybrid aspens (Populus), I risked wading into a thicket of biological questions that could have been difficult or impossible to resolve. Fortunately, I was a first-year graduate student, a neophyte far more optimistic than I am now when it comes to tackling a new project. What follows is a story of a journey through which a team of ecologists and evolutionary biologists, myself included, tried to track down the truth about a putative hybrid. To do so, we traveled throughout the Midwest and dug deep into the natural history of the Niobrara River Valley, a relictual ecoregion left behind by the retreat of glaciers at the end of the last Ice Age. A biotic crossroads: The Niobrara River Valley Heading into the Nebraska Sandhill region along the state's border with South Dakota, new visitors might be surprised to plunge from cornfields and pastures stretching as far as the eye can see into forested canyons hugging a cool, inviting river. Originating on the eastern edge of Wyoming, the Niobrara River runs from west to east across the northern quarter of Nebraska NATIONAL PARK SERVICE NATIONAL PARK SERVICE Smith Falls Aspen 3 Smith Falls aspens (Populus ? smithii, right) along the Niobrara River, in northern Nebraska, are natural hybrids of two common North American aspen species. It shares habitat with northern species like paper birch (Betula papyrifera) and western species like ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), both shown at left. before being subsumed in the Missouri River in the northeastern corner of the state. The canyons found between the river's banks and the surrounding matrix of arid short- and mixed-grass prairie constitute the Niobrara River Valley. For an eager observer, this valley presents more than just a respite from Nebraska's hot, dry uplands. Rather, as Midwestern botanist Charles Bessey first observed in 1887, the Niobrara River Valley is a \"meeting-place for two floras,\" a unique location in North America in which East and West comingle. Born and raised in Arizona, I had spent about five years living in the Midwest by the time I first visited the valley. When I arrived by car from St. Paul, Minnesota, where I had just begun my doctoral studies as a plant ecologist, it felt like I was seeing old friends again after a long absence. Most noticeably, stands of ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa), a decidedly western species, greet visitors to the Niobrara. These pines are among over a dozen western vascular plant species whose distributions extend all the way into Nebraska, following the biotic eastwest highway formed by the Niobrara River. A second look confirmed that this traffic moved in both directions: bur oaks (Quercus macrocarpa) and silver maples (Acer saccharinum) made unusual appearances for species that generally cannot be found in great abundance further west than the meeting of the prairies and forests in Minnesota and Iowa. It also became clear that the cooler, north-facing slopes of the valley, in particular, offered suitable habitat for species generally found further north, including cosmopolitan but drought-intolerant paper birch (Betula papyrifera). The same pattern-- a confluence of biota typical of the montane West, the deciduous forests of the East, and the boreal forests of the North--holds for herbaceous plants, insects, and vertebrates as well (Kaul et al., 1988). NATIONAL PARK SERVICE 4 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 The hills and canyons of the Niobrara River Valley have provided shared habitat for an unusual combination of eastern and western species--plants and animals, alike. Of aspens, poplars, popples, and cottonwoods Any exhaustive flora of the Niobrara is bound to mention aspens, meaning species of the genus Populus. These trees go by a plethora of common names: aspens, poplars, popples, and cottonwoods--names which do not neatly map on to the current phylogenetic characterization of six sections within the genus (Hamzeh and Dayanandan, 2004). In North America, native species from section Populus, and some from Tacamahaca, are referred to as \"aspens,\" \"poplars,\" or \"popples.\" These include the ubiquitous quaking aspen (P. tremuloides), its close relative bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata), and cold-tolerant basalm poplar (P. balsamifera). The species we know as \"cottonwoods\" are restricted to Aigieros and also to Tacamahaca, and these include, most famously, eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides, one of the largest trees east of the Mississippi), Fremont cottonwood out west (P. fremontii), and northwestern black cottonwood (P. trichocarpa), the first tree species to have its genome sequenced. Most species in the genus share traits with each other and with other members of the willow family (Salicaceae): they are dioecious, meaning that male and female flowers are borne on separate trees and have simple leaves and relatively short lifespans (often less than one hundred years). Many species have circumboreal distributions; they are generally cold tolerant, but vulnerable to hot and dry conditions. Aspens writ large have captured the imagination of botanists and the general public alike by virtue of their propensity for perpetuation through vegetative means. Most importantly, this means that a given aspen tree can, regardless of sex, produce new, genetically identical clones of itself. These new stems, often called \"suckers,\" emerge from rhizomes, underground stems that spread in parallel to the ARNOLD ARBORETUM, US FOREST SERVICE, AND GIS COMMUNITY Smith Falls Aspen 5 The distributions of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides, shown in gray) and bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata, shown in green) present a curious question: how could a hybrid between the two species occur in northern Nebraska, where one parent is exceptionally rare and the other is completely missing? soil surface. When a rhizome's buds encounter moist, warm conditions, a small shoot heads upward, sprouting leaves and emerging from the soil as though a seed had germinated in that exact spot. But these suckers grow faster than a typical seedling ever could, drawing on resources from their parental plant and bypassing seedling-hood in a mad dash for growth. These clonal offspring can, over time, become separated from their parents through the decay of the rhizome, but they remain genetic clones, such that what often appears to be a stand of aspen trees is, in reality, a single individual, connected, to varying extents, underneath the soil. The mystery of the Smith Falls aspens Aspen stands are vanishingly rare, if not altogether absent, in the Great Plains. Quaking aspens (Populus tremuloides) are nearly the sole representatives in the region but are restricted to a few tiny islands, usually growing in dense clumps around wetlands. These stands are relics, groups of trees left behind as the global climate warmed over the last ten thousand years. At the end of the Pleistocene Ice Age, aspen species, as with other cold-hardy trees, were probably quite common across this massive inland plain (Wright et al., 1985), but their ranges retracted as the climate became more arid. Stands of quaking aspen in central Canada and in the biotic highways of the Niobrara River Valley provide the only linkages between eastern and western populations for that species. My PhD advisor had secured funding from the National Parks Service--the Niobrara is a National Scenic River--to study one such stand, a rare, and therefore locally famous, collection of aspens centered around Smith Falls State Park, near Valentine, Nebraska. In 2013, we headed out for the first time to see these trees for ourselves. NATIONAL PARK SERVICE PAUL WRAY, IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, BUGWOOD.ORG BECCA MACDONALD, SAULT COLLEGE, BUGWOOD.ORG 6 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 Many morphological characteristics for the Smith Falls aspens (below) show intermediate traits between the parent species, including the shape and number of teeth on the leaf margins and the degree of leaf and bud pubescence. Quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) is shown at top left, bigtooth aspen (P. grandidentata) at top right. Smith Falls Aspen 7 When we began, it was immediately clear that the aspens at Smith Falls bear a great resemblance to quaking aspens. They have lovely white stems and dark green, heart-shaped, finely toothed leaves. They grow in clumped stands, indicating spread by rhizomes, with no singletons off on their own. We found these trees growing in a string of ten stands extending along the Niobrara River Valley, from Nature Conservancy holdings in the east to private property in the west. The stands in between these two locations are one of the crown jewels of Smith Falls State Park and are well known to its many visitors, who also come to raft the Niobrara River, camp out along its banks, and see the eponymous waterfalls. The aspen stands are confined to the cool, north-facing banks of the river, and they're undeniably beautiful trees. But, as aspen fanatics, we agreed with what we'd already heard about them: they seemed somehow different than the quaking aspens so familiar to us in Minnesota. Their bark, though light-colored, seemed rather green, and their leaves were rather large, with fewer and larger teeth, compared to a typical quaking aspen. Indeed, these trees had long been held by local botanists and natural historians to be hybrids between locally rare quaking aspen and bigtooth aspen--a species whose eastern range edge is currently estimated to fall around 375 miles (600 kilometers) to the east, near Ames, Iowa. We knew that quaking and bigtooth aspen hybridize naturally within their range-- renowned forest ecologist Burton \"Burt\" Barnes's seminal work documented many such stands in Michigan (1961)--but the thought of this hybrid having occurred naturally so far outside the distribution of one of its putative parental species struck me, at least, as somewhat scandalous. Aspen pollen is wind-distributed and can travel long distances, but there is no evidence of successful pollination events occurring when around 375 miles separate male and female plants. As such, I expected that the reputation of the Smith Falls aspens as hybrids was nothing more than understandable wishful thinking. After all, bark and leaf traits can be plastic, and a more parsimonious explanation of the unusual appearance of the Niobrara trees was that they were simply an unusual, isolated stand of quaking aspen. So, an important first step in our research would be to compare the genetics and morphology of the Smith Falls aspens to that of known quaking and bigtooth trees. Our research group collected leaf samples, from which we could extract DNA, from all ten stands of Smith Falls aspens. We also dug up rhizomes to produce cloned suckers and planted these suckers in a common garden at a research station in Minnesota. There, we could perform experiments on them without harming the precious Niobrara trees. For the sake of comparison, we also drove all over the Midwest, collecting leaf and rhizome samples from quaking aspens in the Black Hills of South Dakota and the Sandhills of Nebraska, from bigtooth and quaking aspens along their western range edge in Minnesota and Iowa, and from both species within the interior of their distributions in Minnesota and Wisconsin. Our assessment of the genetics and physiology of the aspens took place over two years at the University of Minnesota campus. We used microsatellite genotyping--the same technology that allows for DNA fingerprinting in humans--to understand which trees we had sampled were distinct individuals and which were clones. This work, as well as sequencing of parts of our sampled trees' chloroplast genomes, was possible thanks to the full genome for black cottonwood (Populus trichocarpa), which was produced by an international team of dozens of biologists led by Oak Ridge National Laboratory's Gerald Tuskan in 2006--the first whole genome project carried out for a tree species. In our physiological experiments, we pushed stems and leaves from our common garden trees to the brink. We measured them exhaustively, and we then dried them out and froze them to mimic climate change-induced drought and post-budbreak freezes. We also tracked their phenology--the timing of their leafing out and loss of leaves in our common garden. An Ice Age relic The results of our genetics work (Deacon et al., 2017) left me picking my jaw up from the lab bench. Our first finding struck an ominous tone: the Smith Falls aspens are shockingly ARNOLD ARBORETUM, NATIONAL PARK SERVICE, NEBRASKA GAME AND PARKS COMMISSION, AND GIS COMMUNITY 8 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 Genetic analysis of the ten aspen groves at Smith Falls (marked in red) revealed that only three genetic individuals occurred at the site. In some cases, these clones spanned opposite sides of the large canyon (and namesake waterfall) that bisects the park, suggesting aspens were once more widespread at the site. undiverse. We are confident that, across all ten stands at the site, any given tree belongs to one of three genotypes. This means that three original seedlings produced through sex have given rise, through rhizome suckering, to all of the extant aspens in the area. We found genetically identical individuals growing on opposite sides of ravines and in stands separated by hundreds of meters. It appears, then, that these particular trees rely almost exclusively on asexual suckering for reproduction. More shocking still, at the nuclear level, the Smith Falls aspens shared genetic information with both quaking aspen and bigtooth aspen, confirming that they are a hybrid between these parents--a hybrid christened, appropriately enough, Populus ? smithii. Evidence from chloroplast DNA suggested that bigtooth aspen, the species now not found until the middle of Iowa, was probably the maternal parent, with pollen coming from quaking aspen. Furthermore, patterns of genetic mixing we observed offer some support for the classification of these trees as F1 hybrids, meaning they are the first-generation offspring between two parents of different species, like mules. Our study of leaves collected from common garden trees supported our finding that the Smith Falls aspens were in fact hybrids of quaking and bigtooth parents (Deacon et al., 2017). Use of a dichotomous key to distinguish between these species will often require inspection of the pubescence and margins of the leaves of the specimen in question. Quaking aspens tend to be glabrous with many small teeth on their leaf margins. Bigtooth aspens tend to be pubescent with fewer, larger teeth. Barnes's work on Populus ? smithii tells the same story. Though we documented many subtle differences between leaves of the two species in our systematic analysis, our findings contributed to the current consensus: pubescence and tooth number are the best way to tell them apart. And Smith Falls Aspen 9 Specter of climate change Our grant from the National Parks Service enabled us to go beyond determining the genetic identity of these trees. We also used our common garden to study their disturbing demographic decline. State managers and conservationists had noted that existing aspens looked stressed and that new trees either were not sprouting or were quickly consumed by deer before outgrowing their reach. We wanted to understand the vulnerability of the Smith Falls aspens to two forms of physiological stress likely to be concomitant with climate change. The first is straightforward: climate change in the region is likely to lead to more arid conditions, imposing drought stress on the vulnerable, mesic species of the Niobrara River Valley. The second is less so: because the forces that cause this warming do not necessarily prevent late-winter cold snaps, even if spring temperatures arrive earlier, plants can leaf out in response to an early spring, then get hit with a freeze after budbreak. Such post-budbreak freezPHOTOS BY JAKE J. GROSSMAN leaves from P. ? smithii trees grown in Minnesota from Nebraska-collected rhizomes were perfectly intermediate between their putative parents in these two traits. Taken together, these findings suggest the rather shocking story that, at some point when both bigtooth and quaking aspen were locally abundant in the Niobrara River Valley-- probably between three and six thousand years ago--the two species hybridized. Both parents went locally extinct (and bigtooth vanished from the entire region), but their hybrid remained, reproducing vegetatively through rhizomes rather than through flowers and seeds. Despite considerable environmental change-- the climate in this region was warming and drying long before our present human-induced bout of climate change--these aspens hung on, perhaps shrinking in their distribution, but not disappearing from one small stretch of the Niobrara River Valley. As such, these aspens are a true relic of a past climate and a unique genetic treasure of the region. Each of the three aspen genotypes at Smith Falls is a first-generation hybrid, suggesting that the aspen trees found today at the site have descended through many generations of vegetative suckering, rather than seed reproduction, from the original hybrids. Vegetative suckering in aspens occurs via underground rhizomes, which the author showcases above. \"BUFFALO\" BRUCE MCINTOSH AND WESTERN NEBRASKA RESOURCES COUNCIL 10 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 Large eastern red cedars (Juniperus viginiana) have encroached on the aspen groves at Smith Falls. This photo was taken before an intensive volunteer effort removed a large number of cedars, some shown in the midground of this forest. Ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) rises in the background. ing can range from damaging to catastrophic, potentially killing vulnerable tissues and leading to whole-plant death (Anderegg et al., 2015). Our exploration of the aspens' vulnerability to climate change, currently in review, resulted in some bad and some good news. Unsurprisingly, given aspens' low level of drought tolerance, we found quaking, bigtooth, and hybrid aspens to be vulnerable to drought-induced cavitation, the formation of air bubbles in stem xylem. These bubbles, in quantity, disrupt waterflow in trees' vascular systems, like holes in a straw. They can, ultimately, lead to total hydraulic failure and tree death. Quaking aspen was slightly more vulnerable to this type of drought damage than bigtooth aspen, and their hybrid was intermediate. More generally, the hybrid aspens shared some drought-tolerance traits with quaking aspen, others with bigtooth aspen, and, in other cases, was intermediate between the two. But all three taxa showed a limited capacity to resist the challenges likely to occur in a warming and drying climate. The story surrounding post-budbreak freezing was simpler and rosier. We froze growing stems and leaves at temperatures equivalent to and lower than those that aspens in Nebraska are likely to experience during March and April storms. They were not substantially injured by this, suggesting that drought threatens aspens in the Niobrara River Valley more than latewinter cold snaps. Interestingly, in our measurements of spring phenology--the transition from dormancy to budbreak--we also found that the Smith Falls aspens were intermediate between quaking and bigooth aspen. Our findings echoed previous work showing that quaking aspens break bud about a week faster than bigtooths; fittingly, we observed that their hybrid offspring tended to leaf out in between the two parental species. Yet, compared to other regional conspecifics, all three groups of aspens generally leaf out around the same time. An aspen in a juniper's world Though our determination that the Smith Falls aspens are in fact hybrids has proven fascinating and satisfying, thornier questions remain about their future. Locally, the Smith Falls aspens are being outcompeted by neighboring trees, especially eastern red cedars (Juniperus virginiana). Quaking and bigtooth aspens are tolerant of low-intensity fires but intolerant of shade. Fire exclusion has, therefore, been catastrophic for \"BUFFALO\" BRUCE MCINTOSH AND WESTERN NEBRASKA RESOURCES COUNCIL Smith Falls Aspen 11 \"Buffalo\" Bruce McIntosh of the Nebraska Wildlife Federation leads a juniper removal initiative at Smith Falls. aspens, whether at Smith Falls or more broadly across the West. Because cedars are fire intolerant but drought tolerant, they have capitalized on our modern tendency to suppress and prevent fires. Locally, managers have fought this cedar encroachment by instigating prescribed burns, clearing cedars, and creating barriers to deer browsing on aspens. As a result, suckering is on the rise in some stands, producing a new cohort of healthy aspens (Robertson et al., 2018). Yet cedar removal and prescribed burns are expensive and will need to be repeated periodically to keep aspens abundant at Smith Falls. Globally, climate change is also likely to reshape the distribution of aspens across North America. Nebraska is expected to experience climate warming in the decades to come, in tune with the current global commitment to three to four degrees of warming. And though rainfall in the region will likely remain stable in absolute quantity, rain and snow will fall more sporadically, producing longer and more frequent periods of drought. None of this is good news for aspens in the region. Given historical changes in the distribution of quaking and bigtooth aspen, observations colleagues and I have made suggest the Smith Falls aspens will encounter a greater risk of climate-induced extirpation in the Great Plains than they have faced since the end of the last Ice Age. We might ask, then, what the future holds for the Smith Falls aspens and for other glacial relics in the region. The answer to this question depends on management. Stands of quaking aspen, paper birch (Betula papyrifera), and other drought-sensitive trees can probably be protected through active steps to shield them from direct climate stress and competition from more drought-adapted neighbors. In addition to prescribed burns, possible management practices include removal of competitors, use of exclosures to reduce grazing, targeted planting, and conservation of local groundwater. For species such as the aspens, which can be more easily propagated through rhizome cuttings than from seed, collection of rhizomes and propagation of suckers represents one pathway toward conservation of unusual, threatened germplasm. At present, private individuals and institutions may be able to assist with the migration of the Smith Falls aspens by purchasing commercially available nursery stock. Faller Landscape, in York, Nebraska, presently sells clonal trees produced through suckering from \"BUFFALO\" BRUCE MCINTOSH AND WESTERN NEBRASKA RESOURCES COUNCIL 12 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 their flowers are fertile. Genetic evidence certainly suggests that no new trees have been born from seeds at the site for a very long time. And the Smith Falls aspens are beset by environmental challenges ranging from the hyperlocal to the global. Unfortunately, the Smith Falls aspens may simply have survived by demographic good fortune, constituting an evolutionary dead end, rather than a way forward. Yet this is a rather pessimistic view, and, having grown rather fond of the aspens at Smith Falls during my time working with them, I think their conservaThe fate of the Smith Falls aspens under climate change will likely parallel the fate tion is justified. As unusual of other drought-intolerant populations in the region, including this grove of quaking hybrids that have persisted aspen (Populus tremuloides), south of Smith Falls. despite millennia of climate rhizomes collected at the site (marketed under change--whether by chance or due to some the cultivar name `Ice Age'). 2 More broadly, particular adaptation we did not measure--they any efforts to stabilize the global climate, if our represent a potential genetic resource. As such, society is willing and able to undertake them, they may be candidates for assisted migration: will also benefit Midwestern aspens, among transplantation from their current, imperiled many other species. location to one that will be more appropriate in the coming centuries of a climate determined Hopeful monsters or dead ends? by human-induced changes. Propagation of Like other natural hybrids, the Smith Falls these trees in cooler and wetter climates well aspens have been heralded, at least locally, as within the current ranges of their parent species uniquely adapted to their surroundings. It is might allow them to flourish while also buytempting to assert that these trees, by virtue ing time for intentional propagation of secondof their longevity, may illustrate one strategy generation hybrids through breeding with other for persistence in a warming, drying climate. Popolus ? smithii or backcrossing. Yet findings from our research do not support Regardless, we would be wise to remember this narrative. Indeed, these hybrids are unique, that the story of evolution in response to a and worthy of study insofar as they constitute warming climate has occurred many times in an evolutionarily unusual relic from a past the history of life, and it often produces messy climate. But as noted above, these trees repstories like that of the Smith Falls aspens. What appear to us to be non-adapted (or even resent essentially three genetic individuals maladapted) trees may hold the key to survivthat have probably been cloning themselves ing and thriving in a future climate. After all, for thousands of years. Though we have very the common ancestor of modern aspens and recently received second-hand confirmation willows had likely evolved during the earth's that the trees do flower in some years, we do last period of extreme warming, some fifty-five not know the sex of each clone, or whether Smith Falls Aspen 13 million years ago, when the tropics extended up to the North Pole (Manchester et al., 2006). Though the fate of quaking and bigtooth aspens and their hybrids is uncertain, the aspen lineage is likely to survive contemporary climate change. And so, whether hybrid aspens are best thought of as hopeful monsters or evolutionary dead ends is ultimately unknowable. But as an unlikely yet arguably successful hybrid myself, I'm inclined to give them the benefit of the doubt. Acknowledgements The original research reported in this article was conducted collaboratively at the University of Minnesota--Twin Cities with Jeannine Cavender-Bares, Nick Deacon, Anna Schweiger, and Isabella Armour. We were funded by National Park Service grant #191779 to Jeannine Cavender-Bares, Mark Dixon, and Molly Nepokroeff. Jeffrey Carstens, a horticulturist and curator of woody and herbaceous plants at the USDA's North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station in Ames, Iowa, played an absolutely essential role in guiding our collections of Midwestern aspens, especially along the species' range edges in Iowa. \"Buffalo\" Bruce McIntosh of the Nebraska Wildlife Federation and Joseph Zeleznik at North Dakota State University also provided essential help with collections in Nebraska and northern Minnesota, respectively. Three photographs in this article came from the video \"Fighting for Survival: The Ancient Aspen of the Niobrara Valley,\" produced by \"Buffalo\" Bruce McIntosh, Rod Jensen, and The Great Plains Motion Picture Company. Notes 1It should be noted that the chimaeras resulting from the almost unbelievable process of interspecies grafting (e.g. apples, pears, grapes, roses, citrus, mangos, stone fruit, and others, not to mention the introduction of certain porcine organs into human bodies) certainly give more integrated hybrids a run for their money in the realm of public interest. 2Aspen enthusiasts can also purchase from them a very robust and aesthetically pleasing quaking aspen genotype, `NE Arb', which was collected from a nowextinct stand elsewhere in Nebraska. References Anderegg, W.R.L., A. Flint, C.Y. Huang, L. Flint, J.A. Berry, F.W. Davis, J.S. Sperry, and C.B. Field. 2015. Tree mortality predicted from droughtinduced vascular damage. Nature Geoscience, 8: 367?371. Barnes, B.V. 1961. Hybrid aspens in the Lower Peninsula of Michigan. Rhodora, 63: 311? 324. Bessey, C.E. 1887. A meeting-place for two floras. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 14: 189?191. Burger, W.C. 1975. The species concept in Quercus. Taxon, 24:45?50. Deacon, N.J., J.J. Grossman, A.K. Schweiger, I. Armour, and J. Cavender-Bares. 2017. Genetic, morphological, and spectral characterization of relictual Niobrara River hybrid aspens. American Journal of Botany, 104: 1878?1890. Goldschmidt, R. 1940. The material basis of evolution. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. Hamzeh, M., and S. Dayanandan. 2004. Phylogeny of Populus (Salicaceae) based on nucleotide sequences of chloroplast trnT-trnF region and nuclear rDNA. American Journal of Botany, 91: 1398?1408. Kaul, R.B., G.E. Kantak, and S.P. Churchill. 1988. The Niobrara River Valley, a postglacial migration corridor and refugium of forest plants and animals in the grasslands of central North America. The Botanical Review, 54: 44?81. Manchester, S.R., W.S. Judd, and B. Handley. 2006. Foliage and fruits of early poplars (Salicaceae: Populus) from the Eocene of Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming. International Journal of Plant Science, 167: 897?908. Robertson, J.M., A.R. Cahlander-Mooers, and M.D. Dixon. 2018. Effects of management treatments on regeneration of a geographically disjunct, relictual hybrid aspen (Populus ? smithii) population in the central Great Plains, USA. Environmental Management, 62: 906?914. Tuskan, G.A, S. Difazio, S. Jansson, J. Bohlmann, I. Grigoriev, U. Hellsten,... D. Rokhsar. 2006. The genome of black cottonwood, Populus trichocarpa (Torr. & Gray). Science, 313: 1596?604. Wright, H.E., J.C. Almendinger, and J. Gr?ger. 1985. Pollen diagram from the Nebraska Sandhills and the age of the dunes. Quaternary Research, 24: 115?120. Wu, G.A., J. Terol, V. Ibanez, A. L?pez-Garc?a, E. P?rez-Rom?n, C. Borred?,... M. Talon. 2018. Genomics of the origin and evolution of Citrus. Nature, 554: 311?316. The maps in this article were created using ESRI, USGS, USFS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, Intermap and the GIS user community. Jake J. Grossman is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Roaming through Ranges: The Evolution of Tree Species Distribution Maps in the United States","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25656","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060bb26.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ellenwood, James","article_content":"ELLENWOOD, J. 2019. ROAMING THROUGH RANGES: THE EVOLUTION OF TREE SPECIES DISTRIBUTION MAPS IN THE UNITED STATES. ARNOLDIA, 76(3): 14?27 Roaming through Ranges: The Evolution of Tree Species Distribution Maps in the United States James Ellenwood A s a teenager, in the 1970s, I traveled with my siblings across the United States and Canada on a few multi-week road trips, camping and visiting National Parks and Forests. Along the way, I became fascinated by how different trees grow in different places-- the tall, narrow-crowned Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) found in the high elevations of the northern Rocky Mountains (which were still snow packed in the middle of June) and the incense cedar (Calocedrus decurrans) showing off its brilliant red bark on the western slope of the Sierras. The local tree species, I realized, were as distinct as the terrain-- patterns that emerged over millions of acres and thousands of miles. The quest for adventure and the desire to see the natural world drove my ambitions, facilitated by recently completed interstate highways and a personal automobile. Ecological patterns that were once relatively difficult to see now emerged, much like the transition from still frames to movie frames, via easy roadside stops to get into the wilds. Around this exact same time, these fundamental biological patterns were being synthesized into a comprehensive set of North American tree distribution maps by a botanist at the United States Forest Service named Elbert Little Jr. These maps were published in a six-volume set, collectively titled the Atlas of United States Trees, which covered around 720 species. Each map included shapes that represented the maximum extent of the distribution for a single species. Little and his collaborators developed these by drawing an outline around locations obtained from numerous published and unpublished sources, as well as personal knowledge. For decades, Little's maps have served as the definitive source for this distribution information. I referenced them as a student at the State University of New York's College of Environmental Sciences and Forestry in the early 1980s. And digital reproductions of Little's maps are now included on the Wikipedia pages for most--if not all--of the tree species that he documented. In 2007, however, I began working with colleagues at the United States Forest Service to project the potential for forest mortality due to insects and diseases fifteen years into the future. This involved building thousands of models based upon remotely sensed imagery, environmental variables, and observations from field plots. After many trials and iterations, we recognized a need to bound the modeled maps by known tree distributions, but we knew that Little's maps couldn't be used for this type of analysis. For instance, if we were attempting to understand the threat of emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) on populations of white ash (Fraxinus americana)--a widespread forest species in eastern North America--Little's map would suggest that white ash was equally prevalent in New York and Illinois, given that both states fall entirely within the range. Yet New York is widely forested, while Illinois is extensively cultivated. As a result, white ash populations would be much more fragmented in the western portion of its range, and Little's maps did not reveal this trend. Clearly new information was needed. Original Maps The history of mapping North American tree distributions is an ongoing narrative of collaboration on a national scale, but the evolution of these maps also reveals how cultural values (and even politics) factor into seemingly straightahead descriptive botany. My team began working on new distribution maps because of environmental concerns about the globalization of insects and diseases, an issue that wasn't remotely part of the scientific consciousness in 1880, when Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director of the Arnold Arboretum, was leading an initiative to describe and inventory UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE, FOREST HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ENTERPRISE TEAM Species Distribution Maps 15 This map for white ash (Fraxinus americana), published in the National Individual Tree Species Atlas (2015), compares a classic distribution prepared by Elbert Little Jr. (light purple) with a new modelled distribution (dark purple). forested landscapes for the 1880 United States Census. Rather, at that point in time, the primary driver for this kind of distribution mapping was related to economic interests. Sargent compiled information for about 412 tree species, which appeared in a voluminous final report, published in 1884. Some of this information came through personal field observations, but Sargent also enlisted the support of a team of botanists and natural history enthusiasts who traveled through specific regions, reporting on the composition of the forests. Most of the resulting distribution information was text-based, but the report also included several types of maps: One set showed the extent of forested landscapes for individual states. Another set, included as a large-format portfolio, showed the distribution of genera, 16 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 more detailed representation, and the maps also indicated \"regions from which Mercantile Pine has been removed.\" Farther west, individual species were not tracked on the state maps, which instead showed the density of forests. Likewise, the supplementary map for all pines indicated only the density (essentially a heatmap) rather than showing the ranges for individual species. As such, if someone wanted to determine the scattered range for something like the whitebark pine (P. albicaulis), which favors subalpine regions in the western mountains, the text-based descriptions would have been the best resource. Of course, individual species maps would have required many more ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES like pines (Pinus) or oaks (Quercus), on a continental scale, with monochromatic shading used to indicate the number of species in each location. All the maps were prepared by Andrew Robeson, Sargent's brother-in-law. It is particularly interesting to look at how the census report renders a single economically important species, like the long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris). Sargent called the species \"a tree of first economic value\" and described a distribution that spanned from southeastern Virginia, through the Gulf states, and into eastern Texas, \"rarely extending beyond 150 miles from the coast.\" On maps of the corresponding states, long-leaf pine was singled out for Charles Sprague Sargent's 1884 census report included forest maps for individual states. For South Carolina, the distribution of two species of long-leaf pine (both now recognized as Pinus palustris) are shown in green. Commercially harvested forests (shown in burnt orange) emanate from the coast and along transportation corridors. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Species Distribution Maps 17 The census publication included sixteen large-format maps, including one showing the density of pine species. The darkest shading, shown only in southern California, indicates that the census recognized seven pine species in that area. field observations than were currently available. A large region in the center of the Idaho census map was still labelled \"unexplored,\" which now offers an evocative reminder of this information scarcity. While the census project was nearing completion, Sargent simultaneously chaired an initiative to preserve woodlands in New York's Adirondack Mountains from deforestation, which culminated in the establishment of Adirondack Park--the country's first state forest preserve--in 1885. It is clear that Sargent was aware of the utilitarian value of the cen- sus project, given that more than two hundred pages of the final report were devoted to the material properties of wood derived from each species, yet mapping the forests also revealed the finite dimensions of a resource that had once seemed limitless, potentially setting the stage for subsequent conservation and preservation movements. Developing Detail While the census report provided a useful synthesis of information known at the time, by 1898, George Bishop Sudworth, a dendrologist 18 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 for the United States Department of Agriculture's Division of Forestry, articulated the need for a more comprehensive and up-to-date treatment of distribution information. \"The army of professional and amateur botanists engaged in botanical research are yearly bringing to light new facts, which are constantly enlarging our understanding of the geographical distribution of trees and other plants,\" Sudworth wrote in the first edition of his Check List of the Forest Trees of the United States: Their Names and Ranges, which was published that year. The checklist included short descriptions of the ranges for five hundred species, but he knew that much more collaborative work was still needed. The 1898 checklist ultimately presaged Sudworth's lifelong effort to develop better species distribution maps. Significantly, in 1913, Sudworth published an atlas for North American pine species, which was intended to be the first volume of a series covering all native trees. These maps represented a significant step towards the familiar appearance of distribution maps today, with each species rendered on a single map showing the entire range. Sudworth even showed the distribution of relatively sparse species like the whitebark pine, with green marking that followed the narrow elevational bands along mountain ranges. Given the scale, a reader would have difficulty in seeing the range for whitebark pine without the use of visual aids such as a magnifying glass, but the effort suggests the amount of detailed field observation that went into the project. Sudworth attributed the success of his maps to work being conducted by the new United States Forest Service, established in 1905, which provided invaluable \"unpublished field notes, unrecorded observations, and reports of Forest Service officials engaged in the exploration, surveying, and administration of the 163 National Forests now established.\" Sudworth's assistants compiled information from these sources, along with state floras and other resources, on cards for each species, and these annotations were plotted on a map of North America. Sudworth knew that the simplicity of maps far exceeded the usefulness of even the most detailed text, yet his volume on pines was the only portion of the atlas ever published. The explanation for Sudworth's discontinuation of the atlas project might be intuited from the publication of subsequent bulletins that included maps of select tree species (including additional conifers) in the Rocky Mountains. Given that much of Sudworth's field information arrived from the National Forests, which were almost entirely located in western states (at the time), it makes sense that the maps would ultimately share the same regional emphasis, with special attention given to species that were of economic importance. In 1927, the year of Sudworth's death, he published a revised checklist of North American tree species, in which he briefly described the range for every known species at the time (adding more than three hundred taxa to his original checklist). Sudworth knew the information would prove useful \"not only among foresters, woodsmen, and wood users, but also in forest schools and other educational institutions.\" At the time, he and an assistant were once again working on maps--with many complete but unpublished--but the effort was suspended as priorities shifted (perhaps related to the Great Depression). Developing Breadth Edward Norfolk Munns, the chief of the Forest Service's Division of Forest Influences, eventually returned to the work that Sudworth and his assistants had started. In 1938, he published an atlas covering 170 of the most important tree species, which he noted was \"based very largely\" on Sudworth's research, with many updated observations compiled by junior forester William W. Mitchell. Although the species representation was far greater than anything published in Sudworth's lifetime, critics suggested that the maps should have been shared with field botanists and foresters for additional corroboration, because to many working on the ground, errors were evident. Even so, the atlas was reprinted by popular demand. Beyond utility for botanists, foresters, and \"the manufacturer in search of raw materials,\" Munns also described new ecological and engineering implications for the maps, no doubt based on his early field experience studying the impact of wildfires on California watersheds. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY, CONTRIBUTED BY USDA NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY Species Distribution Maps 19 George Bishop Sudworth's 1913 atlas included distribution maps for thirty-six species of pines. This map shows the scattered high-altitude distribution of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY, CONTRIBUTED BY USDA NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY 20 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 This detailed rendering of long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris) appeared in the 1938 atlas prepared by Edward Norfolk Munns. \"[Forest distribution] is an essential element in erosion and flood control operations, and in land-use planning,\" he wrote in the introduction. \"Indeed, present trends toward better planning and integration of land use are directing increased attention to forest cover, the species represented in it, and the possibilities of enlarging the contribution of forest land to community welfare.\" This, of course, may have been a suggestion that worked better on paper than in practice, but the statement represented an important expansion of what distribution maps could enable. Ultimately, in 1942, a forest ecologist name Elbert Little Jr. was appointed as dendrologist for the Forest Service. Like both Sudworth and Munns (and myself), Little had spent a considerable amount of time at Forest Service field stations in the West, before taking his appointment at the national office in Washington. Little's continuation of the mapping project began with small generalized ranges for 165 forest species of economic interest, published in 1949. He later explained that the small size of the maps was due to practical and logistical reasons, given that it is easier to approximate an accurate range at a smaller scale. \"Botanists, foresters, and other authors bold enough to summarize plant distribution records graphically may expect criticism instead of reward for their efforts,\" he wrote in a follow-up article in Rhodora. \"It is far easier to detect a minor flaw along a boundary line than to prepare a better map.\" I learned this lesson very quickly in my own endeavors, to say the least. Over the next two decades, Little and his assistants worked rigorously to expand the distribution data, sifting through more than three hundred sources, including unpublished card files in state herbaria and doctoral dissertations. Like Sudworth's maps, the reference points were then plotted onto a map of the United States or Species Distribution Maps 21 transparencies, the originals could be used with two of the other volumes. If Munns, therefore, alluded to the possibility of using the distribution maps for something beyond a guide to natural resources, Little's transparencies indicated a genuine commitment to expanding the types of questions that could be raised with the maps. \"They provide the basis for correlation studies of distribution of a species and the environment,\" Little wrote of the overlays (in the fourth volume). Moreover, as someone who began his career as a forest ecologist, Little saw a greatly expanding set of research questions that would benefit from the maps, including \"such studies as classification, evolution, paleobotany, and genetics, and for the distribution of associated animals and plants, especially insects and parasitic fungi.\" Although the transparencies may seem simple compared to modern approaches, the effort to enable comparisons between tree BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY, CONTRIBUTED BY USDA NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY North America. The first volume appeared in 1971, and the next five volumes appeared over the next ten years, ultimately covering more than seven hundred species of trees and major shrubs. When Little published on the distribution of trees in Alaska, he retained the individual reference points within the distribution outlines, but otherwise, the maps generally followed the classic form, with a simple outline drawn around all contiguous populations. This work still represents the standard reference for tree species ranges in North America today. The first volume of the atlas also included nine semi-transparent overlays, nested within a cover pocket, which could be superimposed over the range maps. The overlays included features like \"precipitation and rainfall,\" \"plant hardiness zones,\" and \"maximum extent of glaciation in the Wisconsin Glacial Stage.\" While the subsequent volumes did not include these For many water-loving species, like the black willow (Salix nigra), Munns rendered the distribution according to rivers and streams. 22 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 species and environmental conditions represents a milestone development. Once published, Little worked vigorously in trying to maintain an authoritative record for each individual species, even after retirement. A colleague of his related a story of visiting an area in Wisconsin in the 1980s where there was a rumor for the occurrence of a species that wasn't depicted in the atlas. Little brought his field maps, confirmed the sighting, and promptly penciled in the location. Eventually, the field maps were brought back to the office for inclusion in the authoritative maps. Little stressed the importance of continual maintenance. His coauthor on the second volume, Leslie Viereck, continued to maintain records for Alaska and produced a second edition, which included range adjustments, some species reclassifications, and an expansion to include significant shrub species. It was unfortunate that Viereck passed away in August of 2008, about a year before we started on the finer scaled species distributions. Modelling the Present After Little retired from the Forest Service in 1975, the position of dendrologist was unfortunately abolished. In the ensuing decades, ecosystem classifications became the mapping priority. Communities of trees were identified as the dominant factors necessary for analyzing impacts of forest management, and distribution maps for individual tree species were no longer emphasized. With shifting priorities, staff changes, and a relocation of the National Headquarters, the whereabouts of Little's authoritative maps was lost through the ages. Although I have encountered people whose tenures overlapped with Little's, it is likely that the data have been forgotten, left in an attic, or moved to a storage facility at the Department of Agriculture's Greenbelt center or to a National Archives and Records Administration facility. If these data are recovered in the future, it would be important to appropriately curate them for further refinement and research. In some disciplines, however, the need for better species maps became critical. Given practical considerations, Little was required to take inherent liberties when connecting a distribution outline around scattered dots, and the resulting shapes also failed to convey the density of forests. Moreover, the maps no longer represented the best information about the current distributions. Limitations like this are inherent to the mapmaking process. Even Sudworth, writing in 1913, noted the forests were changing faster than the maps could show. \"Extensive and continued lumbering operations with attending forest fires have so changed, and in some cases exterminated, parts of the original stand of most of our pines,\" he wrote. \"These maps, therefore, indicate only the general occurrence of species with the prescribed areal limits, and have no reference to the density or continuity of growth.\" Munns made the same point twenty-five years later, and Little echoed these concerns. These limitations ultimately fueled my work with the Forest Service's Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team, where we needed to develop models to predict the risks associated with forest pests. We obtained current observations of 346 species that occur at Forest Inventory and Analysis field plots, as well as from other permanent plots managed by the National Forest System and the Bureau of Land Management. This amounted to more than 330,000 plots (and more than 1.2 million subplots). We linked this information to predictive layers pertaining to environmental variables like climate, terrain, soils, and satellite imagery. This dataset was then used to model individual species presence, as well as stand density, which was necessary for pest risk mapping. In the end, we successfully modelled the distribution of 264 trees sampled on these Forest Service plots, and as a by-product of that work, we published the National Individual Tree Species Atlas in 2015. Of course, this printed document will ultimately become a historical artifact, much like Little's volumes, given that the forests in the country will continue to change and transform in response to disease and insect pressure, climate change, habitat destruction, disturbance recovery, and any number of other threats (or boons), many still unforeseen. The difference between the distributions shown on Little's maps and our models is often quite noteworthy, so our published atlas also ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Species Distribution Maps 23 The first volume of Elbert Little Jr.'s Atlas of United States Trees (1971) included nine overlays that allowed for environmental analysis. In this case, a topographical overlay has been superimposed over the range of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis). Also note that the atlas included county borders. UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE, FOREST HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ENTERPRISE TEAM 24 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 This map of long-leaf pine (Pinus palustris), published in the National Individual Tree Species Atlas, shows a smaller modeled distribution (dark purple) compared to the distribution outlines prepared by Elbert Little Jr. (light purple). includes Little's outlines for comparison. It was my hope that this format would draw awareness to the ongoing need for studying these ranges--work that might require the oversight of a twenty-first-century Little (an authoritative steward of tree species distribution data)-- however, even now, no specific authority is responsible for maintaining comprehensive distribution records. The United States Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service maintains the PLANTS Database, which has some degree of authority, although species distributions are only tracked at the county level, at best, which is adequate for general applications but not for applications in need of a finer scale. Species Distribution Maps 25 For many species, like the long-leaf pine, comparison between the models and Little's maps suggests range contraction. The same is true for the whitebark pine. Both species are recognized as endangered, according to the International Union for Conservation of Nature, although for different reasons. The long-leaf pine was eventually disfavored by the forest industry due to its lengthy sapling (\"grass\") stage, and as a result, commercially managed forests were preferentially replanted with loblolly and slash pines (Pinus taeda and P. elliottii, respectively). The species is still threatened with continued habitat loss, although substantial restoration efforts are underway. Whitebark pine is currently most threatened by recent outbreaks of mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus ponderosae), a native insect that has caused widespread mortality among western pine forests. In both cases, the models are critically important for monitoring current populations, as well as for projecting the future of these populations. Other species, like the Osage orange (Maclura pomifera), however, show a dramatic range expansion. The range shown on Little's map is an upright column running through eastern Texas, barely extending into southern Oklahoma and Arkansas. Little wanted to show the original range for the species, before it had been widely planted as a living fence between agricultural fields in the Midwest. Because the species readily naturalized, our models, based on information about actual occurrence at field plots, shows a much wider range, with populations as far afield as western Pennsylvania. Our atlas also includes ranges for three nonnative species--tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), Chinese tallow tree (Triadica sebifera), and empress-tree (Paulownia tomentosa)--which have naturalized widely. Since these ranges weren't recorded in Little's atlas, this will provide invaluable baseline information for future management and research efforts. Changes to species classification can also result in significant changes to the distribution maps. The bristlecone pine, for instance, was separated into two species--Rocky Mountain bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata) and Great Basin bristlecone pine (P. longaeva)--which were easily separated based upon geographic data. Other species classification changes were not so easy. The Mexican pinyon pine (P. cembroides) was divided into two additional species, border pinyon (P. discolor) and papershell pinyon (P. remota), but the distributions were much more difficult to separate due the coincidence of the three species. As the inventory is maintained, newer modeling techniques can improve the distribution maps for only the species measured on an inventory plot. Other naturally occurring species--often those with more restricted ranges in the first place--will need different data sources and greater effort to be developed. Beyond Borders While developing our models, we had the privilege of working with colleagues in Mexico to develop pest risk maps for Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) and several key pines. Though we limited our investigation to eight species that had coarse climate and soils data, the permanent inventory for Mexico is designed much like the United States, and the potential exists to develop a complete set of species distribution maps for Mexico. (It should be noted that while 387 species were encountered within inventory plots in the United States, the Mexico inventory counted over 3,000 tree species.) Meanwhile, the resolution of our information does not carry into Canada, given limited access to the same amount of field data. Canada produced distribution maps for approximately ninety-three species, although they are of limited precision compared to the maps in the United States. At present, however, our own models don't extend north of the border either. In this sense, political relationships are often implicit in distribution maps, much as economic and ecological imperatives have manifest themselves throughout this ongoing history. Given the nature of remote sensing, however, there is increasing potential to combine forest inventories to map complete species distributions, regardless of political boundaries. The North American Forest Commission is currently developing a combined database for Mexico, Canada, and the United States, and the success of a shared system like this was recently 26 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 consistent methods and metrics), the resulting atlas is testament to the achievements possible with international collaboration. Moreover, the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations asks all countries to assemble a National Forest Inventory every five years, and although the distribution data are relatively UNITED STATES FOREST SERVICE, FOREST HEALTH TECHNOLOGY ENTERPRISE TEAM demonstrated in Europe. The European Union published the first systematic atlas of trees at the continental scale in 2016, which grew out of an effort to harmonize data within a continentwide forest information system, established in 2013. Although the authors stressed the need for even more data (collected using more This map of Osage orange (Maclura pomifera), published in the National Individual Tree Species Atlas, shows an expanded modeled distribution (dark purple) compared to Little's distribution outlines (light purple). Species Distribution Maps 27 coarse, efforts like this suggest the potential for a much more comprehensive set of tree species maps, especially in temperate regions where species diversity is less complex. Taken together, these aspirations suggest the longevity of Sudworth's observations in 1898. \"The geographical range of any of our trees must necessarily be an expression of the united efforts of all working botanists,\" he wrote, \"for the unaided diligence of one man's lifetime could never carry his search and study into all of nature's hiding places for even trees alone.\" Since the completion of the National Individual Tree Species Atlas, many changes have occurred that would enhance future modeling efforts. Modeled maps now have the potential to be dynamic and adaptive, but they still require the collaborative vision of botanists, foresters, and plant ecologists in the field, now and for generations to come. References: Beaudoin, A., Bernier, P.Y., Villemaire, P., Guindon, L., and Guo, X.J. 2017. Species composition, forest properties and land cover types across Canada's forests at 250m resolution for 2001 and 2011. Quebec: Natural Resources Canada, Canadian Forest Service, Laurentian Forestry Centre. Ellenwood, J.R., Krist F.J., and Romero, S.A. 2015. National individual tree species atlas. Washington, DC: United States Forest Service, Forest Health Technology Enterprise Team. Little, E.L. 1949. Important forest trees of the United States. In Trees: The yearbook of agriculture. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture. Little, E.L. 1951. Mapping ranges of the trees of the United States. Rhodora, 53: 195?203. Little, E.L. 1971. Atlas of United States trees: Conifers and important hardwoods (Vol. 1). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Little, E.L. 1976. Atlas of United States trees: Minor western hardwoods (Vol. 3). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Little, E.L. 1977. Atlas of United States trees: Minor eastern hardwoods (Vol. 4). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Little, E.L. 1978. Atlas of United States trees: Florida (Vol. 5). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Little, E.L. 1981. Atlas of United States trees: Supplement (Vol. 6). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Munns, E.N. 1938. The distribution of important forest trees of the United States. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. De Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., and San-Miguel-Ayanz, J. 2016. The European atlas of forest tree Species: Modeling, data and information on forest tree species. In: San-Miguel-Ayanz, J., De Rigo, D., Caudullo, G., Houston Durrant, T., and Mauri, A. (Eds.), European atlas of forest tree species. Luxembourg: Publishing Office of the European Union. Sargent, C.S. 1884. Report on the forests of North America (exclusive of Mexico). Washington, DC: Department of the Interior Census Office. Sudworth, G.B. 1898. Check list of the forest trees of the United States: Their names and ranges. Bulletin of the United States Department of Agriculture, Division of Forestry, 17: 1?144. Sudworth, G.B. 1913. Forest atlas: Geographic distribution of North American trees. Part 1: Pines. Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Sudworth, G.B. 1927. Check list of the forest trees of the United States: Their names and ranges. United States Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Circular, 92: 1?297. Viereck, L.A., and Little, E.L. 1975. Atlas of United States trees: Alaska (Vol. 2). Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service. Viereck, L.A., and Little, E.L. 2007. Alaska trees and shrubs (2nd ed.). Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska Press. James Ellenwood is the National Program Lead for Monitoring, Remote Sensing, and Geospatial Analysis Research at the United States Forest Service. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Taiwan Dispatches","article_sequence":3,"start_page":28,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25658","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060816f.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"WILSON, E.H. 2019. TAIWAN DISPATCHES. ARNOLDIA, 76(3): 28?33 Taiwan Dispatches Ernest Henry Wilson In March of 1919--one hundred years ago--Ernest Henry Wilson returned from his sixth and final plant collecting expedition to eastern Asia. The trip had begun in Yokohama, Japan, in January of 1917, and he traveled widely, tracing his way from Okinawa to Korea, even touching briefly into China. In early 1918, he sailed for Taiwan, where he was enamored with the subtropical conifers. According to his own tally, he collected more than seven thousand herbarium specimens, and he would return for seed in the fall. Taiwan, then known as Formosa, had been occupied by Japanese troops for more than two decades. Wilson's travels were conducted with a Japanese botanist named Ryozo Kanehira, and initial collecting locations were recommended by Bunzo Hayata, a botanist at the Imperial University of Tokyo. The following excerpts come from Wilson's handwritten letters to Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arnold Arboretum. Italics have been added. JANUARY 17, 1918 | YOKOHAMA, JAPAN My arrangements are all completed for the trip to Formosa & I leave here in the morning. I plan to stay in Formosa for about ten weeks if the money in hand be enough to enable me to do so. JANUARY 25, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA Just a note to let you know that I have reached Formosa & that everything is favorable to a successful visit. I arrived here on the 22nd & leave tomorrow (26th) for Arisan where the giant trees are.... The officials, one & all, promise every assistance & there is no doubt but that they mean it. A Mr. Kanehira, who speaks English & is one of the heads of the forestry department, has been detailed to accompany me to Arisan & will probably go elsewhere with me also. He is a very nice fellow & I fancy will make a genial companion.... It is now eleven years since I begged some scraps of Taiwania [a monotypic member of the cypress family (Cupressaceae)] from Hayata & got promises, which were never fulfilled, of more material of Formosan conifers. I intend now to make up for lost time & our Herbarium shall possess its compliment of Formosan conifers ere I am through. FEBRUARY 16, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA I am back from the trip to Arisan & have but one regret which is that you too were not present to enjoy the forests & the giant trees. I had expected much but what I saw far exceeded my expectations: the forests are easily the finest & the trees the largest I have ever seen.... The country is very steep & savage & travelling over it is hard work. Thanks to a light railway & courtesies extended by the government things were made as easy for me as they possibly could be made. The weather on the whole was good though two consecutive days of rain & sleet & many foggy afternoons were a hinderance. I collected over twelve hundred specimens, representing about two hundred species, & took six and one-half-dozen photographs ... The Chamaecyparis formosensis [an endemic false cypress] is the largest tree being sometimes ALL IMAGES FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Wilson's Letters 29 Wilson was awed by the enormous conifers near Mount Arisan. On February 1, 1918, he photographed Taiwania cryptomerioides (at right), towering beside Taiwan cypress (Chamaecyparis formosensis, at left). 30 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 The botanist Ryozo Kanehira accompanied Wilson in Taiwan. On January 31, 1918, Wilson photographed Kanehira near Mount Arisan, standing beside the trunk of Taiwania cryptomerioides, which soared to a height of 150 feet (46 meters). Wilson's Letters 31 Clockwise from upper left: Lithocarpus amygdalifolius on February 1, 1918; Taiwan Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga sinensis var. wilsoniana) on April 6; Taiwan cypress (Chamaecyparis formosensis) with a trunk diameter of 20 feet (6 meters), photographed on the return trip, October 31; and Calocedrus formosana on April 1. 32 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 Wilson photographed pure stands of Taiwan fir (Abies kawakamii) on Mount Kiraishu, Nantou County, on March 6, 1918. nearly 200 ft. tall & 65 ft. in girth of trunk.... I was informed that the oldest tree which had been felled showed about two thousand seven hundred annual rings, & a larger one standing is estimated at three thousand years. The trunks are mostly hollow but the wood, which is reddish, fragrant, & has a beautiful satiny luster, is much esteemed by Japanese for interior work in houses. FEBRUARY 28, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA I returned from the trip to the south on the night of February 26th. The flora of the coastal region did not prove at all interesting, indeed, most of it had been destroyed to make way for sugar, rice, & other crops. However, I made a fair collection of plants & took a dozen photographs so we shall have a record of what the flora is like. MARCH 16, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA The trip to the central range of Formosa has proved a complete success. The weather was fine throughout & the journey fairly easy. From the railway we travelled for two days on push trolley & then climbed for three days, sleeping in police huts at night.... The peak we ascended is named Mt. Kiraishu, is 11,002 ft. high, well-forested on the upper-middle slopes. The climate is drier & the flora different from Wilson's Letters 33 that of the Arisan region. Abies kawakamii [an endemic fir] was the particular quest of the trip & we found it in great plenty above 9,500 ft. After collecting from the ground scales & spikes of disintegrated cones, I was fortunate enough to find four or five perfect cones & so complete the specimens. With this acquisition our herbarium possesses ample & complete material of every known species of Abies found in the Far East.... Altogether the trip yielded about two hundred species bringing the total to date collected in Formosa to about four hundred & seventy species. It was difficult country to photograph in but I secured two & one half dozen, which will give a fair idea of the vegetation. APRIL 11, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA I am writing this at the completion of the allotted task in Formosa. One objective I had in mind on visiting the island was to see if possible every conifer known to grow there. Dr. Hayata in Tokyo assured me this was impossible but the local authorities took a more favorable view & thanks to their good services complete success has crowned our efforts. I have seen, photographed, & collected ample material of every species & variety of conifer known from Formosa. But it must be confessed that some of these Formosan conifers have exacted severe toll in time, money & energy & at the moment of writing I am leg weary & tired.... When last I wrote I mentioned that my next trip had for its principal object Cunninghamia konishii [another member of the cypress family]. Bad weather hampered things but I got him & photographs also. I then switched off to another district & got the Libocedrus [an endemic incense cedar, now recognized as Calocedrus formosana] which now is found only on steep ridges & cliffs almost inaccessible. So difficult is the country that it was not possible to obtain photographs of the whole tree but only sections.... I was back here on April 4th & left the next morning to collect the last remaining species--the For mosan Pseudotsuga [an endemic Douglas fir, now recognized as P. sinensis var. wilsoniana].... On the morning of the fourth day we found our tree but all our efforts to find more failed. Dense fog came on & photography was out of question. The tree was a large one, fully 90 ft. tall & 12 ft. in girth of trunk which divided into three stems.... We then descended some five miles to our lodgings--a police hut--hoping that the next morning would be clear so that we might return & photograph the tree. It rained during the night but morning broke gloriously fine & we got back to the tree by 9 a.m. It stood badly for photography & we were nearly three hours cutting (or rather hacking for our tools were poor) away surrounding trees before a satisfactory picture could be taken. However, fortune favored us but scarcely had we finished when down came the mists blotting out everything. The task accomplished we packed up & returned by the way we came. APRIL 14, 1918 | TAIPEH, FORMOSA Formosa is a land wherein it is quite impossible to travel off the beaten track without official sanction & assistance. To us everything has been open & every wish, expressed or implied, viewed favorably. The director of the forestry experimental station, Mr. R. Kanehira, is a very exceptional man full of energy, enthusiasm & good will, & associated with him are at least two very competent collectors. Kanehira arranged all our trips & accompanied us on most of them. We got to know (he speaks English perfectly) one another pretty well & I hope to our mutual advantage. In fact, whilst the tangible results of our trip are considerable no less important in my opinion is the relationship I have established between the Arnold Arboretum & Kanehira & his associates.... Formosa is certainly a rich & beautiful island & its forest wealth is very great. To have visited the island is a privilege I greatly appreciate & I shall carry away with me none but the pleasantest of recollections. With cordial regards & best wishes, I am, dear Professor Sargent, Faithfully & sincerely yours, E.H. Wilson "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hurried Journey: Botany by Rail","article_sequence":4,"start_page":34,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25655","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060b76d.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"DAMERY, J. 2019. HURRIED JOURNEY: BOTANY BY RAIL. ARNOLDIA, 76(3): 34?39 Hurried Journey: Botany by Rail Jonathan Damery I f a pin were dropped in the center of a topographic map of Nevada, it would land amidst a series of low mountain ranges, running roughly north and south. The ranges ripple towards the eastern border of the state, forming an arrangement that looks like a furrowed brow. In 1878, Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, embarked for these arid mountains in what would be the first non-local plant collecting expedition by an Arboretum staff member. Sargent found forests within this area that appeared \"scanty and stunted.\" He counted only seven tree species, of which the single-leaf pinyon (Pinus monophyla) and Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma, then considered J. californica var. utahensis) were the most abundant. Despite the limited diversity, Sargent was impressed with the trees for their resilience and age. Some, he estimated, were eight hundred years old, if not older. Sargent began this botanical reconnaissance near the town of Eureka, a silver-mining community located roughly in the center of the state. In 1869, the town consisted of one or two cabins, but by the time Sargent arrived, nine years later, it had grown into the second largest town in the state, with a population, according to boosters, that neared seven thousand. The town boasted a new brick hotel, an opera house that could seat five hundred, two banks, four churches, three newspapers, and, most importantly, sixteen furnaces for smelting silver ore. All of this--along with Sargent's arrival--was facilitated with a narrow-gauge railroad, completed in 1875, which connected Eureka with the town of Palisade, about eighty-five miles to the north. Those tracks, in turn, were made practical by the Pacific Railroad, completed in 1869, which carved its way through Palisade. The Pacific Railroad--composed of the Central Pacific to the west and the Union Pacific to the east--was the first railroad to span the Rocky Mountains and the Great Plains, connecting San Francisco with Omaha and cities beyond. To Sargent, railroad transportation would have seemed ordinary. After all, his father, a banking president named Ignatius Sargent, had been on the board of directors for several New England railroad companies since 1849, and in 1880, Charles would assume his father's membership on one of these boards--the Boston and Albany Railroad--and would continue in that capacity through 1900. Railroads were in the family. Yet when Sargent headed for Nevada, the Pacific Railroad was less than a decade old, and the railroad was just beginning to redefine botanical possibilities in the western United States. Sargent, himself, described his expedition as a \"hurried journey,\" suggesting how remote landscapes had been rendered newly accessible. Unlike botanical explorations that occurred in Nevada before the ceremonial golden spike was driven on May 10, 1869--the date when transcontinental rail passage was inaugurated--Sargent's field research could be conducted in the matter of two weeks (rather than months or years), with the subsequent research publication written in the comfort of Boston and Brookline. By Horse and by Foot In 1955, Susan Delano McKelvey, an Arboretum botanist, published an eleven-hundredpage tome on early botany of the western United States, titled Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West: 1790?1850. According to McKelvey, an Englishman named Joseph Burke was one of the first scientifically trained botanist to make observations in central Nevada. Burke spent thirty-eight months in the western United States, beginning in the spring of 1844, and he crossed Nevada in the summer of 1846. His account of the Nevada landscape provides scant details, however, because when that portion of the expedition ended at Fort Walla Walla, in southern Washington, he received two overdue letters from William Jackson Hooker, the director of the Royal ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Botany by Rail 35 A map from Susan Delano McKelvey's Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West: 1790?1850 shows the basin-and-range topography of central Nevada. The botanist Joseph Burke (Bu) passed through Nevada in 1846, partially sharing a route used by John Charles Fr?mont (F3) in 1845. Botanic Gardens, Kew, who was the primary sponsor for the trip. The second letter informed Burke that his funding had been halted due to Hooker's dissatisfaction with the amount of collections Burke had provided. Burke defended his record in a long response letter, noting several shipments of seed--the most recent of which had been sent \"across the mountains by the express\" and herbarium specimens that had been sent for a ship in Vancouver. Burke then resigned from the expedition. \"I think, Sir William, it is a very hard case if a collector is sent from the Royal Botanic Gardens to a country where he cannot send his collections by any means by the time mentioned in your letters,\" he wrote. \"I trust, Sir William, you will forgive my retiring from the service without waiting an answer, as it would be two years or upwards before I could receive one.\" It would, in fact, take fourteen months for his letter to arrive on Hooker's desk. So, Burke's estimate was realistic, and without the guarantee of money and supplies in the meantime, his explorations could not continue. He returned home. McKelvey, for her part, felt that Hooker was unfair to Burke, noting the physical rigor associated with backcountry botanical expeditions, where botanists were responsible for travelling with packages of seeds and herbarium specimens--not to mention food and supplies--for weeks if not months on end. \"To work one's way thus encumbered through a pathless wilderness of swamps, undergrowth or fallen timber, up and down ravines, across creeks and rivers, in fair weather or in, veritably, foul or to traverse for days on end waterless deserts in horrible heat and permeating dust, was exhausting work, and the collector was not chosen because he was qualified as a Paul Bunyan,\" McKelvey writes. She goes on to narrate the evening routine botanists were generally obligated to undertake: stopping for camp, building a fire to 36 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 prepare food and stay warm (even in the desert), and then arranging the daily collections of plant clippings between layers of paper and pressing them tight. Often, too, given that the papers used for herbarium specimens were prone to become damp or wet throughout the course of a trip, the botanist would need to regularly redo older specimens, transferring them to drier papers, in order to prevent mildew. Plant collecting was (and still is) physically demanding. These routines would have certainly applied to Burke, although it is unclear how many botanical collections Burke made in Nevada. He travelled across the state with a group of settlers that were following a newly blazed trail for Oregon's Willamette Valley. The team consisted of twenty-four individuals and several wagons, and it took nearly seven weeks for them to pass between Fort Hall, on the Oregon Trail, and the Willamette. Burke wrote little about Nevada, but he noted that when the team passed through the northwestern corner of the state, a landscape now known as the Black Rock Desert, it was the \"most miserable volcanic region, with many boiling springs.\" He recorded nothing of botanical interest until spotting an expanse of California poppy (Eschscholzia californica), which decorated a recently burned river valley with papery orange flowers, in southwestern Oregon. The poppy was \"a very shy fruiter,\" he wrote, as was the golden chinquapin (Castanopsis chrysophylla) that he encountered several days later. When they arrived at the Willamette farmstead where the leader of the wagon train lived, the whole team heaved with exhaustion, horses and humans alike. Burke rested three days and then continued to Oregon City--south of Portland. His horses \"nearly drowned\" while swimming a creek on the way (presumably soaking any herbarium specimens that he had collected), and it would take him another two weeks to reach Fort Walla Walla, where his resignation letter was ultimately penned. Over the three decades that separated Burke from Sargent, other botanists passed through northern and central Nevada, and the most detailed observations were rendered by Sereno Watson, who would later become the curator of the Gray Herbarium and Library at Harvard. Watson embarked, in 1868 and 1869, as the lead botanist on two of six field seasons by a geological team surveying the fortieth parallel between California and the Great Plains. Watson's first season focused primarily on central Nevada, the second on Utah--almost entirely within the self-contained watershed of the Great Basin. The region was of interest for the survey (which had begun in 1867) because no accurate maps existed and because the federal government was intent on cataloguing the natural resources along the projected path of the Pacific Railroad. Watson began at Carson City, Nevada, in April 1868, moving east on an indirect path. The purpose of the survey was thoroughness rather than speed, and the team spent a full six weeks working from a basecamp at Fort Ruby, about seventy miles northeast of the prospecting encampment at Eureka (of which Watson makes no mention). From Fort Ruby, explorations were made in the surrounding mountain ranges and valleys. Watson observed several locations where relatively sizeable conifers could be found, including limber pine (Pinus flexilis), growing in the East Humboldt Mountains, with individuals sometimes (though rarely) reaching fifty feet high. Although Watson documented his findings in incredible detail, he wrote little about the comforts or difficulties of travelling with the sur vey team, and he said nothing about the logistics of offloading herbarium specimens for shipment. Nevertheless, had his months in Nevada occurred even one year later, the realities of the railroad would have begun to reshape these considerations. By 1868, railroad workers had already begun to lay tracks across Nevada, and in 1869, these tracks were operational. Therefore, Watson's study marked an important moment: not only had it resulted in the most detailed account of the flora of central Nevada published to date but it also represented the final botanical study in the region before the landscape was bound into the national infrastructure of steel tracks and steam locomotion. Geologists on the survey would subsequently comment about strata and fossils observed at railroad cuts, indicating how the presence of the railroad became ingrained in the researchers' world. Botany by Rail 37 Botanical Space Given that Watson and Sargent would become Harvard colleagues, the men must have conferred about the flora and landscape of central Nevada while Sargent was making travel preparation in 1878. Yet Sargent also saw his trip as a follow-up to an expedition the previous summer by Asa Gray--the preeminent Harvard botanist--and Joseph Dalton Hooker, the English botanist who had assumed his father's role as director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. When Sargent returned from his trip, he sent Hooker a letter recounting his findings in detail, noting that he expected Hooker would remember the Palisade station on the railroad. Sargent continued south to Eureka, whereas Hooker and Gray continued riding the Pacific Railroad to Carson City. Yet the implications of Hooker's presence in this region is significant, given that thirty-one years before, Joseph Burke was passing through this exact same stretch-- then remote and without a defined wagon route--under the direction of Hooker's father. The son, acting in the same official capacity as director of Kew, was making a passage that his father had commissioned another to make. McKelvey stresses the power dynamics that were often at play between collectors and the individuals who sponsored their trips. She notes that few of the botanists considered in her book--individuals working in the western United States before 1850--were engaging in their own independent research. \"By far the greater number went at the behest of professional botanists living in proximity to the essentials of herbaria and libraries, and in distinction to their emissaries, amid safe and comfortable surroundings,\" McKelvey writes. \"The backers of the scheme--often called `closet botanists' for the reason that, working in offices, they may never have seen the living plants which they described--were engaged for the most part in descriptive botany, writing botanical papers or compiling floras of small or large scope.\" While Joseph Hooker began his early career with an expedition to Antarctica (and the surrounding islands) and then another to India, those two expeditions collectively required more than seven years abroad. The fact, therefore, that Hooker could now spend scarcely three months travelling from the Atlantic Coast to the Pacific Coast of the United States and back was a radical convenience. Instead of sending an explorer with youthful enthusiasm and resilience-- someone like Burke--Hooker himself could go, even as a sixty-year-old and even as the director of a major botanical institution. For Gray, this was a second trip on the Pacific Railroad; the first was in 1872. Gray's wife, Jane Loring Gray, accompanied him on both trips, and she would later recall him racing into the landscape at short station stops, collecting whatever he could find. This caused considerable intrigue for fellow passengers, who then gathered around to watch Gray prepare his herbarium specimens. Eventually others began to collect plants as well, bringing them to Gray for identification and causing exasperation for the conductor. It took them a day to cross Nevada, where Gray noted the snaking green vegetation along the Humboldt River. In a letter to his friend Richard William Church, Gray described the whole experience with exceptional enthusiasm. \"There were fatigues and small discomforts, of course, but these are all forgotten long ago, and the whole transit dwells in memory as one continual and delightful piece of pleasant, novel, ever-varied, and instructive sightseeing,\" he wrote. \"Of course, the identifying at sight, as we flew by, of flowers new to me in the living state, and the snatching at halts, and the physical features of districts which I had always been interested in, and knew much about but had never seen, all gave me occupation and continual pleasure.\" In this way, the Pacific Railroad was beginning to reshape botanical space in the western United States. By the time the Grays made their rail passage in 1872, five hundred miles through the Great Basin no longer meant the same thing that it had with Watson's expedition a mere four years before, let alone more than two decades before with Burke. While botanical explorations in the region could still be physical and immersive, the work was conducted with two steel lifelines to urban centers. Herbarium specimens no longer needed to be transported for weeks or months before reaching a shipping location. While Sargent and other leading botanists would continue to enlist field 38 Arnoldia 76\/3 ? February 2019 collectors to work in the western United States, the power and money associated with collecting along these railroad axes had been forever transformed. Botanical Limits COURTESY OF THE ARCHIVES OF THE GRAY HERBARIUM Certainly, the Pacific Railroad did not uniformly influence botanical space in the western United States, and in summer of 1883, Sargent would participate in a geological survey associated with the installation of the Northern Pacific Railroad that connected Tacoma, Washington, with St. Paul, Minnesota. Although he was gone less than two months, that expedition was rife with peril, including two instances where pack animals slipped and fell precipitously. (In the second case, the horse fell fifteen hundred feet, carrying Sargent's plant collections and the team's guns.) Yet Sargent, like others, quickly understood that it wasn't just botanists that would be benefit from this reconfiguration of space along the railroads. The power to study these landscapes came with the simultaneous power to exploit the resources found therein. Both processes could be conducted at an unprecedented rate. In 1878, after Sargent arrived in Eureka, he obtained a wagon and continued southwest for about seventy-five miles, exploring the Monitor Range, which reaches points well over ten thousand feet above sea level. He then continued to Carson City, from which he proceeded into California. During his two weeks in Nevada, he collected a considerable amount of seed, which he planned to introduce into garden cultivation. Meanwhile, he became increasingly attuned to the risks facing these unassuming and hardscrabble forests. Wood of the Utah juniper (Juniperus osteosperma) was widely harvested for cheap fuel, given that it was the only tree Harvard botanist Asa Gray rests at La Veta Pass, Colorado, holding an herbarium press (foreground), with Kew's Joseph Hooker at his side (seated at left). Jane Loring Gray wears a light-colored coat at the table behind. This 1877 expedition continued to California using the Pacific Railroad. Botany by Rail 39 found abundantly at lower elevations. (Its wood even powered the steam locomotive on the Eureka and Palisade Railroad.) Other tree species were harvested for lumber, charcoal, and even bearings for machinery. Most striking, however, were his observations of the Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva, then considered P. balfouriana). He found several specimens, growing between fifteen and thirty feet tall, on a mountain near Eureka. \"Formerly the whole summit of this mountain was very generally covered with this species,\" he wrote, \"but with few exceptions the trees have all been cut to supply the mines with timbering, for which purpose the strong and very close-grained, tough wood of this species is preferred to that of any other Nevada tree.\" Sargent didn't estimate the age of these trees or count the tightly packed growth rings, but in California, this species is now known to reach more than five thousand years old. On the same mountain, Sargent observed a curl-leaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius)-- a small tree in the rose family (Rosaceae)--and he suggested that plant was least 890 years old, if not much older. \"It is perhaps permissible to suppose that the seed which produced this little tree had already germinated when the oldest living Sequoia on the continent was still a vigorous sapling with its bi-centennial anniversary still before it,\" Sargent wrote. Sargent suspected that someone travelling across the Great Basin on the Pacific Railroad would perceive a landscape that was essentially \"destitute of trees,\" much like the prairies to the east. Yet he came to recognize the \"immense value\" of the forests, no matter how diminutive. \"It will have been seen that the forests of Nevada, consisting of a few species adapted to struggle with adverse conditions of soil and climate, are of immense age, and that the dwarfed and scattered individuals which compose them reach maturity only after centuries of exceedingly slow growth,\" he wrote. \"On this account, and because, if once destroyed, the want of moisture will forever prevent their restoration, either naturally or by the hand of man, public attention should be turned to the importance of preserving, before it is too late, some portions of these forests.\" He proposed that the federal government should step in to preserve the remaining woodlands, warning that \"terrible destruction\" would occur otherwise. (About three decades later, the Humbolt-Toiyabe National Forest was established, protecting vast swaths of these noncontiguous mountain forests.) In this sense, Sargent's railroad-powered expedition allowed him to articulate the finite limits of botanical space. Forests that were once remote and practically inaccessible for a Bostonian like Sargent were now mere days away, and their future, as a result, seemed ever more precarious. References Ambrose, S.E. 2001. Nothing like it in the world: The men who built the transcontinental railroad, 1863?1869. New York: Touchstone. Burke, J. 1846. Burke to W.J. Hooker, 17 October 1878. Director's correspondence, Library and Archives at Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. Gray, J.L. (Ed.). 1894. Letters of Asa Gray (Vol 2.). Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin, and Co. Lambert Molinelli and Co. 1879. Eureka and its resources: A complete history of Eureka County, Nevada. San Francisco: H. Keller and Co. McKelvey, S.D. 1955. Botanical Exploration of the TransMississippi West: 1790?1850. Jamaica Plain, MA: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Sargent, C.S. 1877. Sargent to J. Hooker, 21 October 1878. Director's correspondence, Library and Archives at Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. Sargent, C.S. 1879. The forests of central Nevada, with some remarks on those of the adjacent regions. The American Journal of Science and Arts, 3: 417?426. Sutton, S.B. 1870. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Watson, S. 1871. Botany. In C. King (Ed.) Report of the geological exploration of the fortieth parallel (Vol. 5). Washington, DC: Government Printing Office. White, R. 2011. Railroaded: The transcontinentals and the making of modern America. New York: W. W. Norton and Co. Williams, R.L. 2003. A region of astonishing beauty: The botanical exploration of the Rocky Mountains. Lanham, MD: Robert Rinehart Publishers. Jonathan Damery is the associate editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sax Pine: A Hybrid Left Behind","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25657","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060bb6b.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rubinstein, Jared","article_content":"RUBINSTEIN, J. 2019. SAX PINE: A HYBRID LEFT BEHIND. ARNOLDIA, 76(3): 40 Sax Pine: A Hybrid Left Behind Jared Rubinstein L ast fall, gray fog streamed down the hillside by the Hunnewell Building, enveloping the magnolias and eastern white pines (Pinus strobus) that dominate the area. The display emanated from an art installation, Fog x FLO, by Fujiko Nakaya, and when viewing the fog from atop the hill, as signs encouraged visitors to do, a few pines stuck out from the others. With bluish needles and scaly bark, these trees didn't look quite like their neighbors, nor did they look quite like any other species of pine. That's because these trees (accession 266-46) are hybrids. Although the Arnold Arboretum is best known for its wild-collected plants, most identified to a single species, we also have a significant collection of hybrid plants, including many that were bred and developed here. Karl Sax, a professor of botany at the Bussey Institute and later director of the Arboretum, created some of the Arboretum's best-known hybrids, including Forsythia `Meadowlark' and Magnolia ? loebneri `Merrill', which both can be found growing in the Arboretum and around the world. But Sax didn't only work with flowering trees or shrubs--he also dabbled with conifers. In the early 1940s, Karl Sax went on a bit of a pine hybridization kick. Crossing different plant species can be tedious: Pines are wind pollinated, so Sax covered the female cones of one pine species with a bag to prevent natural pollination from pollen blowing around in the wind. When the time was right, he removed the bags and introduced pollen collected from male cones of a different pine species to the female cones. Once the hybrid seeds had developed within the cone, Sax removed and planted the seeds in the nursery at the Bussey Institute. Sax mixed and matched pines from all over the world--New England pines with Himalayan pines, European pines with Japanese pines, West Coast pines with East Coast pines--all with an eye towards producing something new with a high economic or ornamental value. The hybrid pines behind the Hunnewell Building are crosses between Pinus monticola, the western white pine, and P. parviflora var. himekomatsu, the southern variety of the Japanese white pine. The combination shows just how well hybridization can capture traits from each parent. The needles, in fascicles of five, maintain the long, soft appearance of P. monticola but gain a glaucous, blueish-gray color from P. parviflora. The hybrids seem to get their height from P. monticola, especially accession 266-46*B, which soars to almost 75 feet (23 meters), already much higher than even the oldest Japanese white pines at the Arboretum. And the bark, normally thin and smooth on P. parviflora and rough and flaky on P. monticola, forms elegant plates that are divided into scales--a sort of middle ground between the two parents. When evaluating hybrids, one usually looks for hybrid vigor, or traits that give a hybrid an advantage over its parents, like a better form or a higher tolerance to adverse environmental conditions. While these particular hybrids do appear to be vigorous growers and have an unusual mix of features, they never managed to achieve the fame found by some of Sax's other hybrids, like Prunus `Hally Jolivette' or Malus `Mary Potter'. The beauty of these hybrid pines is perhaps a more subtle one, and they just weren't flashy enough to make it big in the horticultural industry of the 1940s. Unlike other pine hybrids Sax tried out, such as Pinus ? hunnewellii or Pinus ? schwerinii, these hybrids were never given a nothospecies designation--that is, a Latin name specific to that hybrid. What's more, these hybrids do not appear in horticultural catalogs or seem common in other arboreta. Far from diminishing their value, however, this lack of fame makes these hybrids all the more special to the Arboretum. It's possible that the five plants growing here are the sole representatives of this hybrid in cultivation. More than anything, these hybrids highlight the importance of experimentation and of following curiosity to wherever it may lead. Their longevity and beauty remind us that even hybrids that don't \"make it\" deserve another look. Jared Rubinstein is the living collections fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25746","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d160bb6f.jpg","title":"2019-76-3","volume":76,"issue_number":3,"year":2019,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Behind the Scenes on Naming a New Hemlock Species","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25649","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060ab28.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Behind the Scenes on Naming a New Hemlock Species Peter Del Tredici I n my thirty-five years working at the Arnold Arboretum, I have only once been involved in naming a new species--a hemlock tree (Tsuga ulleungensis) native to the volcanic island of Ulleungdo in the Sea of Japan. This South Korean island lies 80 miles east of the mainland and 176 miles from the west coast of Japan. It's a small island--twenty-eight square miles--and rises to an elevation of thirty-two hundred feet. Geological records indicate that Ulleungdo emerged from the ocean floor some 2.7 million years ago and that it has been vegetated for the past 1.7 million years. The story of how I got involved with naming this new hemlock tree is complicated, but it bears telling for what it reveals about the process of doing basic botanical research and about how welldocumented collections of plants--leavened with a bit of serendipity--can contribute to research on evolution and biogeography. Although I was not aware of it at the time, my involvement with the plant actually began with the arrival of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) at the Arboretum in 1997. This invasive sucking insect is native to Japan and was discovered in the eastern United States in the 1950s. It took about forty years for the bug to spread from the site of its original introduction in Richmond, Virginia, to the Arboretum--its relentless northward spread driven by warmer winters induced by climate change. When it finally arrived in 1997, it struck with a vengeance, attacking over a thousand trees located on the twenty-two acres of Hemlock Hill and scattered throughout the rest of the grounds. While the insect certainly presented serious problems for the Arboretum, it posed a far bigger threat to the wild-growing hemlocks of southern New England. In response to the arrival of hemlock woolly adelgid in the Northeast, biologists adopted a multipronged approach to try controlling the pest: Plant physiologists evaluated various chemical controls. Entomologists began searching for Asian insects that might be used as potential biocontrol. And horticulturists began evaluating other hemlock species for resistance to the bug. Given the Arboretum's extensive collection of hemlock species, which is nationally accredited through the American Public Gardens Association's Plant Collections Network, a number of researchers began coming here in hopes of finding something--anything-- that might shed light on the problem and contribute to a solution. Among these researchers was a young graduate student in entomology at Yale University, Nathan Havill, who was also working at the United States Forest Service's Northern Research Station in Hamden, Connecticut, trying to unravel the insect's complex life cycle and assess its genetic diversity across the region. As luck would have it, Michael Donoghue, a graduate and former professor at Harvard, was on Nathan's dissertation committee at Yale and suggested that just studying the insect was not enough and that Nathan should also to do genetic work on hemlock trees. Now anyone who has been a graduate student knows how annoying it can be when a committee member adds more work to a thesis project, but Nathan recognized a good idea when he saw one and agreed to investigate the genetics of the Arboretum's hemlocks in order to create a phylogenetic tree describing their relatedness. For help, he recruited Chris Campbell, a professor at the University of Maine and another Harvard alum, to help with the project because one of Chris's former students, Tom Vining, had produced DNA sequence data on Tsuga and developed a rough phylogeny of the genus in 1999. I first met Nathan in the spring of 2003, when he came to collect hemlock samples at the Arboretum. He was also looking for adelgid galls on the bug's alternate host, the Japanese tigertail spruce (Picea torano). It wasn't until the following year, having completed his genetic analysis, that Nathan shared the preliminary Tsuga ulleungensis 3 Tsuga sieboldii. This was a logical decision on his part given close morphological similarities with the southern Japanese hemlock and the fact that there were no hemlocks on the Korean peninsula or adjacent parts of China. Nakai's classification held up until 2008 when Nathan published his finding that the Ulleungdo hemlock was genetically distinct from the southern Japanese hemlock. Although Nathan indicated that more detailed analysis was required, his results suggested the taxon was more closely allied with the northern Japanese hemlock (T. diversifolia). A few months before this paper was published, I met up with Nathan at the Fourth Symposium on the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid, held in Hartford, Connecticut, in February 2008. I asked him about the Ulleungdo hemlock, and he told me that his research was inconclusive as to whether or not it was a new species. I was surprised to hear this and immediately asked him if he would have a problem JONATHAN DAMERY results of his research with me and casually mentioned that one of our accessions--labelled as southern Japanese hemlock (Tsuga sieboldii), from Ulleungdo, South Korea--did not line up with the Arboretum's other specimens under the same name, which was weird. Our two plants from Ulleungdo (accession 1251-83*A and B) had arrived in 1983 as wild-collected seed obtained by the Chollipo Arboretum, an institution located outside of Seoul, and no one prior to Nathan had questioned their identity. Despite its small size, Ulleungdo is famous in botanical circles for harboring over thirty species found nowhere else in the world. Ernest Henry Wilson visited the island in the late spring of 1917, guided by the botanist Takenoshin Nakai who was describing the island's plants on behalf of the Japanese government, which had taken over the kingdom of Korea in 1910. Wilson collected herbarium specimens of the hemlocks that he found there and, following Nakai's lead, referred to them as Two anomalous hemlocks on Bussey Hill became the catalyst for naming a new hemlock species (Tsuga ulleungensis), which is endemic to Ulleungdo, South Korea. Accession 1251-83*B is shown here, overlooking the oak collection. ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND GIS COMMUNITY 4 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Ulleungdo is a small volcanic island, ecologically isolated within the Sea of Japan. Botanists have discovered more than thirty endemic plant species or subspecies on the island. Collecting locations by Peter Del Tredici and his colleagues are marked. with me continuing his work on the taxonomic status of Ulleungdo hemlock. That would be fine, he said, because he was now working full time for the Forest Service on the genetics of the hemlock woolly adelgid and had no time for continued research on the trees. He also suggested that I collaborate with Ashley Lamb, an entomologist at Virginia Tech, who was going to southern Japan in the spring to study a potential hemlock woolly adelgid biocontrol insect, a small beetle known as Laracobius osakensis. I located Ashley at the conference later that day, and in no time flat, we agreed to collaborate on an Arboretum-funded trip to Ulleungdo. We would collect hemlock leaf samples and look for adelgids that Nathan could sequence for his research. Not even three months later, on May 9, Ashley and I met in Osaka, Japan, and immediately caught a flight to Seoul. There, we made contact with Nam Sook Lee, a professor at Ehwa Womans University, and her colleague Sung Hee Yeau. I had met Nam Sook several years earlier when she was visiting herbaria in the eastern United States--including Harvard--and we had kept in touch. When I began developing my plans to go to Ulleungdo, Nam Sook generously agreed to host the expedition, which meant making all of the travel arrangements and procuring the permits needed to collect research samples on the island. The four of us left early the next morning on the three-hour drive from Seoul to Donghae, the point of departure for the RAKI MAN Tsuga ulleungensis 5 ferry to Ulleungdo. It was a clear day, but the seas were rough. Despite my scopolamine patch, I suffered mightily from sea sickness during the seemingly endless journey, as did most of the other passengers on the ship. As far as I could tell, only Ashley, sleeping with her head down on a table the whole time, emerged unscathed. Needless to say, I was relieved when our ship finally landed at Jeodong, one of the island's two main cities, where we were met by Suk Su Lee, Dodong, the primary port city for Ulleungdo, is located south of Jeodong. In the forewho worked for the local ground, Sorbus ulleungensis, an endemic mountain ash, can be seen flowering. forestry department. lock trees that he had collected from the forest (Later, from 2011 to 2015, he served as chief and planted at the entrance. They were growof forestry for Ulleung County, which also ing extremely well--about twenty-five feet tall includes forty-three smaller islands). Suk Su and very full--and all three were loaded with quickly found a taxi and took us to our hotel, developing cones. where I promptly passed out for two hours. He We were up early the next day and took a taxi met us later for lunch (which I skipped, still across the island to Taeha Ryeong, a special feeling queasy), and then he drove us up into reserve established in 1962 to protect some of the hills north of Jeodong, nearly one thousand the largest hemlocks, beeches, and Japanese feet in elevation, where I got my first look at the native forest with Camellia japonica white pines on the island. The slopes were in bloom in the understory, along with the steep, and the hemlocks were especially large Ulleungdo beech (Fagus crenata var. multinerin trunk diameter--up to 25.5 inches (65 cenvis), which many taxonomists treat as a sepatimeters). I managed to collect leaf samples rate species (F. multinervis). We also observed from about twenty trees that had branches low two varieties of maple endemic to Ulleungdo enough to reach; all were growing around fif(Acer mono ssp. okamotoanum and A. pseuteen hundred feet in elevation. From there, we dosieboldianum ssp. takesimense), the Japahiked down the mountain through a patch of nese white pine (Pinus parviflora), and most woods that harbored an unbelievably rich herimportantly, the Ulleungdo hemlock, the target baceous understory. We ended up at a clearing of our expedition. where our taxi driver was supposed to meet us, On the second hemlock tree we examined, but since he wasn't there, we took the opporAshley found evidence of the adelgid and immetunity to do more collecting. Suk Su, at some diately collected samples for Nathan. We stayed risk to life and limb, climbed a tall hemlock in the area for a couple of hours, collecting more and managed to collect a branch with both male samples of the adelgid as well as herbarium and female cones on it, which we had been specimens and leaf samples of the hemlocks. unable to obtain at our earlier location because On the way down, the sun was setting, and we the trees were too tall. He climbed down from the tree with the precious specimen just as our stopped at the elementary school in Jeodong, where Suk Su proudly showed us three hemcab showed up. PETER DEL TREDICI 6 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Collaborator Suk Su Lee collected Tsuga ulleungensis from the wild and planted three specimens near the elementary school in Jeodong. After Peter Del Tredici visited in the spring of 2008, Suk Su sent seed from these plants to the Arboretum, where they were propagated and planted in the landscape. From Taeha Ryeong, we drove halfway around the island to the Nari Basin, a volcanic caldera left after an eruption that occurred about ten thousand years ago. This is now the only place on the island with relatively flat ground, so the locals have taken advantage of this fact by establishing agricultural fields devoted to the cultivation of local medicinal plants, such as Codonopsis lanceolata, a vining member of the bellflower family (Campanulaceae). The landscape was beautiful, ringed by mountains, with specimens of the Ulleungdo hemlock in the surrounding forest and Sorbus ulleungensis, an endemic mountain ash, growing at the edges of the fields. (Incidentally, the mountain ash was then considered to be S. commixta-- a species that ranges through northern Japan and the islands of eastern Russia--illustrating another case where speciation on Ulleungdo was long unrecognized.) We had lunch at a vegetarian restaurant that served the traditional bibimbap dish filled with medicinal plants cultivated in the caldera and wild plants from the surrounding mountains--super healthy we were told--which was unlike anything I've tasted before or since. The caldera was a jumping-off point for hiking to the highest peak on the island, but it was too late in the day for us to make the trek, so we headed back down the mountain to our hotel. We were greeted with bad news that a storm was moving in and that we would have to leave the island a day earlier than planned or risk getting stuck and missing two lectures I had scheduled in Seoul. The coup de grace was that there were no seats left on the boat leaving at five o'clock the following afternoon, so our only choice was to take a ferry at five the next morning. In the absence of any alternative, I packed up the specimens and set my alarm clock. It was frustrating to have come this far only to have the trip cut short before I could finish exploring the island. The good news was that I had collected leaf samples from PETER DEL TREDICI ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Tsuga ulleungensis 7 Ernest Henry Wilson photographed a stand of hemlocks--now Tsuga ulleungensis--on Ulleungdo in 1917, estimating heights ranging to 75 feet (23 meters). Peter Del Tredici observed similarly impressive specimens at the Taeha Ryeong Reserve in 2008, including this tree, which measured 98 feet (30 meters) tall. thirty-one plants in five different locations, which was enough for a thorough genetic analysis of the Ulleungdo hemlock population. After returning to the Arboretum from Korea, I continued making observations on the leaf and cone morphology of our two specimens of the Ulleungdo hemlock, but I failed to make progress on the genetic analysis of the leaf samples. The breakthrough finally came two years later, in August 2010, at the Botanical Society of America meetings in Providence, Rhode Island. I met with Chris Campbell, the professor from the University of Maine who had collaborated with Nathan on hemlock phylogeny, and his graduate student Garth Holman. After a brief discussion, we all agreed that Garth should include a chapter on the Ulleungdo hemlock in his dissertation on conifer genetics. His research would be based on the Arboretum's trees and on the DNA samples I had collected from Ulleungdo. It was with great joy and relief that I turned my samples and herbarium specimens over to Garth later that fall--at last they were going to someone who would put them to good use. For the next four years, Garth labored in the lab on the genetic analysis of various hemlock species, while also assessing their morphological variation. At the same time, I continued with my phenological studies at the Arboretum, which showed that the Ulleungdo hemlock consistently leafed out a few days before Tsuga diversifolia and more than a month before T. sieboldii. With the help of Arboretum staff member Kevin Block, I also determined that the Ulleungdo hemlock was tolerant but not immune to damage by the hemlock woolly adelgid. Garth completed his dissertation in September 2014 with a preliminary description of the Ulleungdo hemlock as a new species: Tsuga ulleungensis. Going from a dissertation to an actual publication in a scientific journal, however, is not always a quick process. In this case, PETER DEL TREDICI 8 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Comparison of four Asian hemlocks growing at the Arnold Arboretum. On the left, the branches show simultaneous phenological conditions on May 23, 2012. The central images show the attachment point for the seed cones, where differences in the shape of cone-scale bracts are most evident--providing a subtle but important diagnostic characteristic for the species. Tsuga ulleungensis 9 it took Garth another two years to expand and improve the research he had done for his degree, before submitting for publication to Systematic Botany in 2017. The final results, which were published in December of that year, painted a complicated picture of the Ulleungdo hemlock's ancestry: its chloroplast DNA indicated a closer relationship to T. diversifolia than to T. sieboldii, while the nuclear DNA was equivocal about the relationships among the three species. The morphological data--its cone and leaf structure--indicated that the Ulleungdo hemlock was more similar to T. sieboldii than T. diversifolia. Taken together, this evidence indicates that T. ulleungensis is distantly related to both Japanese hemlocks but is probably closer to T. diversifolia than to T. sieboldii. The Ulleungdo hemlock is most likely a remnant of a species that was once widespread on the Korean peninsula but disappeared from the mainland as a result of multiple glaciations that took place during the Pleistocene, over the past million or so years. Because of its mild, oceanic climate, Ulleungdo is the only place in Asia where Tsuga ulleungensis survived. The existence of some thirty-three other endemic species or subspecies of plants on Ulleungdo provides further evidence that this isolated landmass has long served as a glacial refugium. To me, the most interesting thing about the Tsuga ulleungensis story is how it illuminates the role that well-documented living collections can play in supporting basic scientific research and conservation. We start with a graduate student sampling the collections and finding a genetic anomaly. Next, we check the records to see where the plant originated, and then, in collaboration with scientists from the host country, we go back to the original location to recollect the plant for more in-depth analysis. Without the Arboretum's well-managed curatorial system, it would be impossible to make any of these connections. In the case of the Ulleungdo hemlock, a plant growing inconspicuously on the grounds of the Arboretum for twenty years unexpectedly provided a key to understanding the complex evolutionary history of a species restricted to a tiny island off the coast of Korea--half a world away. From a research perspective, the Arboretum's collections are a means to an end rather than an end in themselves: they provide easy access to a significant percentage of the world's temperate trees and shrubs and are the perfect jumping-off point for any number of studies that can open the doors to basic evolutionary questions. References Del Tredici, P., and A. Kitajima. 2004. Introduction and cultivation of Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and its resistance to hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Journal of Arboriculture, 30(5): 282?286. Havill, N., C. S. Campbell, T. Vining, B. LePage, R. Bayer, and M. Donoghue. 2008. Phylogeny and biogeography of Tsuga (Pinaceae) inferred from nuclear ribosomal ITS and chloroplast DNA sequence data. Systematic Botany, 33: 478?489. Havill, N. P., M. E. Montgomery, G. Yu, S. Shiyake, and A. Caccone. 2006. Mitochondrial DNA from hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) suggests cryptic speciation and pinpoints the source of the introduction to eastern North America. Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 99(2): 195?203. Havill, N. P., and M. E. Montgomery. 2008. The role of arboreta in studying the evolution of host resistance to the hemlock woolly adelgid. Arnoldia, 65(3): 2?9. Holman, G., P. Del Tredici, N. Havill, N. S. Lee, R. Cronn, K. Cushman, S. Mathews, L. Raubeson, and C. S. Campbell. 2017. A new species and introgression in eastern Asian hemlocks ( P i n a c e a e : Ts u g a ) . S y s t e m a t i c B o t a n y, 42(4):1?15. Wilson, E. 1918. The vegetation of Korea. Transactions of the Korea Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 9: 1?17. The map in this article was created using Esri, HERE, Garmin, ? OpenStreetMap contributors, and the GIS user community. Sources: Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, lntermap and the GIS user community. Peter Del Tredici is Senior Research Scientist Emeritus at the Arnold Arboretum and the former Director of Living Collections. He is currently teaching in the Department of Urban Studies and Planning at MIT and finalizing the second edition of his book, Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dormant Vines, Future Wines","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25650","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060ab6d.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Londo, Jason; Kovaleski, Al","article_content":"Dormant Vines, Future Wines Al Kovaleski and Jason Londo W hen you sip an aromatic Riesling with dinner in September, the day may feel noticeably shorter than it did a month before. While fall officially starts with the autumnal equinox, which occurs between September 21 and 24 from year to year, day length continuously decreases after the summer solstice and will continue through the arrival of winter. From August to November, in fact, the days get shorter by almost three minutes per day in Boston. Plants, including the common grapevine (Vitis vinifera), pay close attention to day length from the moment leaves and flowers unfurl in the spring until fruit ripens and leaves drop. Although this internal clock may seem difficult to conceptualize--more esoteric than flavor and mouthfeel, or even pests and diseases--understanding the process by which plants enter and exit dormancy, and how they survive in between, is critical, especially as winegrowers (and other agricultural producers) adapt their production to withstand a changing climate. As grapevines grow, they form buds in the leaf axils. Within these buds, about ten nodes are pre-formed--leaf primordia (baby leaves) and inflorescence primordia (baby flowers). These buds are formed in preparation for the following growing season. In that way, wines produced in 2018 actually started as microscopic inflorescences in the summer of 2017, which overwintered inside buds, formed flowers that bloomed in the spring of 2018, and became fruit that was harvested in the late summer and fall, effectively spending over a year developing on the plant alone. This process doesn't happen only in Vitis vinifera, the species native to the Mediterranean from which most of our wines are produced. Wild grape species like the riverbank grape (V. riparia), which is native to North America, and gloryvine grape (V. coignetiae), which ranges from eastern Russia to Japan, go through the same process, as do the majority of temperate perennial plants. Unlike migratory birds that avoid winter by flying south, plants are stationary. Therefore, plants must endure low temperatures and other unsuitable growing conditions that come with the winter. In these conditions, they lower their metabolism and enter dormancy, much like hibernation for animals. Plants, however, have evolved to start the preparation for winter much before damaging temperatures arrive, without relying on year-to-year weather patterns. Leaves register the decreasing day length (or technically the increasing nighttime), which provides a signal for buds to enter dormancy. Plants then start changing color to create the beautiful spectacle of fall foliage. In this process, grapes relocate nutrients from the leaves into storage tissue in the woody vines, ready to be recycled the following year. Once plants lose their leaves, they no longer track the day length. Instead, grapevines know when to start growing in the spring by tracking how long they have been cold. Much like a person setting an alarm to have eight hours of sleep, buds count the number of hours spent in what are called chilling temperatures, between 32 and 50?F (0 and 10?C). Just as different people need different amounts of sleep to be productive, each grapevine species, and even different genotypes within a single species, have different chill requirements before they are able to come out of dormancy. Once they have accumulated enough chilling hours, buds are able to better respond to warm temperatures and produce spring growth. The chilling requirement is associated with the region where a species originated: species from lower latitudes are accustomed to low chill accumulation because of short winters, while species from higher latitudes have a high chill requirement because of longer winters. Given that no chill accumulation occurs below 32?F (0?C), however, plants growing in cold continental climates, like Minnesota, or much higher latitudes, like northern Canada, expe- ALL PHOTOS BY AL KOVALESKI UNLESS NOTED Grape Dormancy 11 Because species and cultivars of grape (Vitis) can be grown in a wide range of temperate climates, they prove valuable for studying how hardy plants endure cold weather. At left, October snow clings to Vitis vinifera `Cabernet Sauvignon' in Geneva, New York. Other species, like riverbank grape (V. riparia), shown at right, are even better adapted to cold temperatures. rience low chill accumulation. Species from these places, therefore, also tend to have a low chill requirement. Chill requirements prevent plants from resuming growth during midwinter warm spells, which could cause death of both flowers and leaves upon the return of cold weather. The mechanisms that make buds wait for the appropriate and consistent warm weather in the spring are still largely unknown, but solving this mystery is important. As temperatures continue to increase due to climate change, the amount of chilling that plants experience in different areas is changing: lower latitudes are experiencing fewer hours with chilling temperatures, whereas the opposite is true for higher latitudes, like Boston and upstate New York. This trend in northern areas may seem a little counterintuitive, but time that was previously spent in below-freezing temperatures is now rising into the chilling range, above freezing but below 50?F (10?C), causing chill accumulation to rise. When plants fail to accumulate the necessary chilling requirement, they have erratic, reduced, and delayed budbreak. In vineyards and orchards, this means reduced yields. The same is true with native forests, where flowering and corresponding seed production drops. Moreover, shifting phenology could detrimentally impact overlap between flowering and the activity of pollinators for a given species, or there may be competition due to overlapping flowering for species that were previously staggered. In areas where excessive chill is expected, more responsive plants may break buds during midwinter warm spells, when they previously would have known to wait. In agricultural settings, new cultivars and adaptive management practices can 12 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Grapevines, like those in this commercial vineyard in Geneva, New York, gradually prepare for cold temperatures by tracking the increasing length of uninterrupted nighttime in the fall. help overcome these effects in the short term. For forests, however, climate change is happening faster than floristic composition can change. Researchers at the University of Alberta, in Canada, have estimated that forest species are already 80 miles south of their optimal climate niche, and this figure is expected to increase to 190 miles in the 2020s, beyond recorded rates of natural forest migration. Dormancy Fundamentals Vitis is a compelling genus to study dormancy because of its distribution from tropical to subarctic regions. Even the common grapevine (V. vinifera) alone is capable of growing within a wide band of climates, with the majority of production in the Northern Hemisphere spanning latitudes between San Diego and Vancouver (30 to 50? north). In the Southern Hemisphere, the band is even wider, stretching from northern Argentina to southern New Zealand (20 to 50? south), with some production occurring as close to the equator as northeastern Brazil (9? south). Moreover, many of the most popular cultivars like V. vinifera `Pinot Noir' and `Chardonnay' are present in almost all of these areas, which demonstrates the remarkable plasticity of the species. Also, many varieties have been cultivated for a very long time. The first records for `Riesling' date from the fifteenth century-- before Columbus arrived in the Americas--and impressively, seeds of `Rkatsiteli' were found in clay vessels dating to 3,000 BC. `Rkatsiteli' is still grown in Georgia, the eastern European country where the archaeological discoveries occurred, and limited production can be found in the Finger Lakes wine region of New York. This historical continuity provides us with a wealth of records from different regions, providing both temporal and geographic context for understanding the basic requirements for dormancy of grapevines. Measuring the chilling requirement of different grapevine varieties can be very simple, and in fact, similar techniques can be used to study dormancy in most deciduous perennial plants. Grape Dormancy 13 Once leaves have dropped, buds in the vineyard will wait to unfurl until a specified amount of chilling temperatures has been experienced. Cuttings with dormant buds that have experienced different amounts of chill are placed in a warm environment (72?F or 22?C) with sixteen hours of daylight. The chilled buds can either be collected from the field in regular intervals throughout the winter, or collected in late fall or early winter and placed in a cold chamber where they'll be removed after certain doses of chilling have been provided. The number of days taken for budbreak decreases for buds that have experienced additional chilling. When at least 50 percent of the buds have expanded within twenty-one days of being put into warm conditions, the buds are considered to have fulfilled dormancy requirements, and have now moved into a different phase in the dormancy cycle. Dormancy can be divided into three phases. Paradormancy occurs during the growing season due to factors that arise outside the bud tissue, typically from plant hormone concentrations. For example, hormones produced in the shoot tip prevent lateral growth too close to the tip. This phenomenon, known as apical dominance, dictates the general conical shape of spruce trees (Picea), for instance, because the uppermost buds are more suppressed than the lower buds. Because grapevines are pruned, paradomancy is minimized, allowing lateral branching throughout the growing season. Endodormancy occurs when factors within the bud prevent growth. This phenomenon is triggered by decreasing day length and temperatures in the autumn. Endodormant buds resist growth, even when taken from the outside and placed in a warmer environment. Ecodormancy, as the prefix eco hints, occurs when environmental factors prevent the resumption of growth. Buds transition from endo- to ecodormancy through chill accumulation. Essentially, plants clock how long the winter has been, and this tells them whether they should grow when exposed to warm temperatures (spring has arrived), or if they should remain dormant (midwinter warm spell). Once the buds are ecodormant, they will only remain in a dormant state so long as temperatures remain low. 14 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 The authors collect dormant grapevine samples and expose the buds to incremental durations of cold in the laboratory, testing the mechanisms by which plants know to produce new growth (including flower buds, shown above) in the spring. The necessity for chilling is one of the major factors that determines the distribution of vineyards in subtropical and temperate climates. In regions where insufficient chilling occurs naturally, grapevines and other fruit tree species require extra help to transition from endo- to ecodormancy. Wine growers can apply artificial stressors, such as agrochemicals (e.g. hydrogen cyanide), natural compounds (e.g. garlic extract), or even heat from mobile ovens, to jolt endodormant buds into an unnatural ecodormant state, much like a blaring alarm clock. Yet even though these methods can bypass chilling requirements, none are capable of stimulating budbreak as synchronously as natural processes. In addition to dormancy, plant tissues must have mechanisms to cope with below-freezing temperatures. Leaves and other green tissues are generally very sensitive to freezing, due in part to their high water content. This is why deciduous plants lose their leaves in the fall. In the case of grapevines, buds survive the winter through a process called supercooling. The precise mechanisms that contribute to differences in supercooling ability are exceptionally complex and not well characterized, but at the most basic level, supercooling allows water to be cooled below 32?F (0?C) and remain liquid. In fact, given the right conditions, water can remain liquid to temperatures around -40?F (-40?C), although once frozen, the water will only melt at 32?F (0?C). You might have observed this phenomenon if you have ever left a water bottle in your car overnight when the temperature dropped below freezing. When you grab the bottle the following morning, the water may still be liquid, but when you shake the bottle, ice will immediately start forming. Supercooling does not necessitate altering the concentration of sugars or other metabolites--the antifreeze method used in a car engine--rather, with grapevines and many temperate fruit species, physical barriers to ice formation seem to play major roles in the supercooling process. Supercooling provides variable levels of cold hardiness for grapevine buds throughout the winter. If the outside temperature drops below the current level of cold hardiness, ice will form inside the bud tissues, killing the tiny leaves and flowers beneath the bud scales. This means that the threshold temperature for ice formation changes throughout late fall, winter, and early spring. As temperatures begin to dip below freezing in the late fall, grapevine buds slowly Grape Dormancy 15 begin to gain cold hardiness, gradually increasing their ability to survive freeze events. The buds always must remain ahead of the environmental temperature, which is very important, and in New York, the first freeze event of the season rarely occurs before grapevines have gone dormant due to this process of acclimation. Under artificial conditions in growth chambers, we have found that if temperatures are held or oscillated around 27?F (-3?C), dormant buds can acclimate to survive temperatures as low as -4?F (-20?C). But the process isn't instantaneous and may take up to two weeks. Dormancy Danger Understanding the mechanics of dormancy matters because winter is dangerous for grapevines and other perennial plants, and when it comes to agricultural production, predictable harvests are paramount. Depending on the climate of different grape-growing regions, the most perilous time of winter can differ. In New York, slow temperature decline during the fall helps grapevines fully prepare for winter. In contrast, in the Pacific Northwest--an increasingly respected wine region, known for producing European-inspired vintages--the coldest days of the year are often in early December, and rapid temperature changes can zap buds before the acclimation process is finished. Wine growers in New York don't escape unscathed; instead problems arise due to midwinter cold temperatures. Because the vast majority of commercial grape cultivars have been selected from Vitis vinifera, the only grapevine species native to the Mediterranean and therefore adapted for hot summers and mild winters, these cultivars can only survive to a maximum cold temperature of around -4 to -13?F (-20 to -25?C). This temperature range is not unheard of in upstate New York, often causing at least partial bud dieback each winter--the reason vineyards in this region are mostly located around the Finger Lakes and on the shores of the Great Lakes. About sixty wild grape species can be found across North America and Asia, and most have greater maximum cold hardiness than the common grapevine. For example, the fox grape (V. labrusca)--the North American species from which `Concord' grapes were selected--can endure temperatures around -22 to -31?F (-30 to -35?C), or even lower. Amur grape (V. amurensis), which has a broad distribution throughout eastern Asia, may be capable The rates of cold acclimation and deacclimation differ from species to species, and even between different genotypes of the same species. Cold hardiness for cultivars of riverbank grape (Vitis riparia `Bougher') and a common grapevine (V. vinifera `Cabernet Sauvignon') are shown relative to temperature fluctuations in Geneva, New York, throughout months spanning 2017 and 2018. Notice how the riverbank grape--adapted for a colder climate in North America-- prepares more rapidly for more severe winter temperatures. 16 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 of surviving even lower levels. But while these species seem to promise natural cold hardiness for breeding efforts, our ability to tap into this genetic variation is relatively limited, given that pure water can only supercool to about -40?F (-40?C). Thus, winemakers in regions where winter temperatures drop below this level must be satisfied with importing grapes. If grapevine buds survive acclimation and midwinter temperatures, the next major event occurs when the buds start losing their cold hardiness as spring temperatures warm. We call this process deacclimation. This is another time of great risk, and climate change promises to make this transition even more unpredictable. Climate models suggest that polar vortex events will become more common in late winter and early spring, catching buds during deacclimation and resulting in lethal damage. Luckily, different species deacclimate at different speeds. The riverbank grape (Vitis riparia) tends to be much faster than the common grapevine (V. vinifera), for instance, while the southern wild grapevine (V. cinerea) seems to be much slower. This difference in northern and southern species probably indicates natural adaptations as a result of their respective winter climates. As a northern species, V. riparia probably evolved a fast deacclimation rate to take advantage of the shorter summers, while V. vinifera and V. cinerea, each more adapted to milder winters and hotter summers, lack the adaptive need to race toward growth. In this way, wild grapevines provide us with the natural adaptive differences needed to learn about cold hardiness and dormancy, and also with the breeding material needed to meet the challenges of a changing climate. Climate change has already reduced the amount of winter chill accumulation in most traditional wine regions. Bordeaux, the largest winegrowing area in France, now receives about 75 percent of the chilling it had in the mid1970s. Our latest research has demonstrated that the speed of early spring development is dependent on chill accumulation, and that we can measure this speed based on deacclimation. So to understand the implications of current climate trends in regions like Bordeaux, more detail must be added to our analogy of dormancy as a night of sleep. When you sleep only one to two hours and get up, it feels like you have not rested at all. Once you hit three hours, every additional hour of sleep feels like a great improvement--think about the difference between four and five hours--although after seven hours, each additional hour provides less energy improvement. We were able to measure a similar phenomenon with the grapevine buds. With minimal chill accumulation, the buds lost their hardiness very slowly, but once they accumulated about eight hundred hours, there was a sharp increase in how responsive they were to warm temperatures. After about twelve hundred hours, however, there was little improvement to responsiveness--the equivalent of surpassing seven hours of sleep. In this sense, the transition between endo- and ecodormacy is gradual, not a clear dichotomy between states. What does this mean for viticulture? Despite the reduced chill accumulation in Bordeaux, mentioned above, the region still receives plenty of chilling for Vitis vinifera cultivars. As a result, the buds and vines are usually ready to begin growing as soon as spring temperatures warm. In 2017, however, unseasonal warmth in April caused early budbreak as plants were very responsive due to high chill accumulation. A subsequent frost occurred in late April and caused extensive damage to vines, reducing the crop by 40 percent compared to the previous year, resulting in one of the lowest yields in the past thirty years. Thus, the future for wine production is complicated from the standpoint of dormancy, cold hardiness, and sustainable viticulture. Climate models predict less chill in warm regions in the future, leading to a need for different cultivars or the use agrochemicals to force vines. In cooler regions, increased chilling temperatures between 32 and 50?F (0 and 10?C) may lead to earlier budbreak for current cultivars, which could be especially detrimental given the increasingly erratic patterns of late winter cold events. Production of wine is not the main concern with a changing climate, given that food production and broader ecosystem stability are at risk. While our research has focused on grapevines, we expect that similar behavior would be seen with many other horticultural and forest MICHAEL DOSMANN Grape Dormancy 17 Gloryvine grape (Vitis coignetiae, accession 63-92*A) at the Arnold Arboretum was wild collected outside of Sapporo, Japan, where record winter lows have hit -19.3?F (-28.5?C) and where average winter snowfall tops seventeen feet (nearly six meters). species. Plant distribution is governed by temperature, and these are generally predicted to increase in the future. This means the optimal zones for many plants will move towards the poles--especially if they require chilling. Agricultural production can more readily adapt with new cultivars and species, but forests may need a hand if we want to continue seeing the current diversity available. Minimum temperatures are the most limiting factor for plant distribution, so as the world gets warmer, it is perhaps a little ironic that increasing our understanding of how plants respond to cold may be key to predicting how they will survive in the future. Additional reading list Cook, B. I., and Wolkovich, E. M. 2016. Climate change decouples drought from early wine grape harvests in France. Nature Climate Change, 6(7): 715?720. Gray, L. K., and Hamann, A. 2013. Tracking suitable habitat for tree populations under climate change in western North America. Climatic Change, 117(1-2): 289?303. Gu, L., Hanson, P. J., Post, W. M., Kaiser, D. P., Yang, B., Nemani, R., and Meyers, T. 2008. The 2007 eastern US spring freeze: Increased cold damage in a warming world?. AIBS Bulletin, 58(3): 253?262. Hannah, L., Roehrdanz, P. R., Ikegami, M., Shepard, A. V., Shaw, M. R., Tabor, G., and Hijmans, R. J. 2013. Climate change, wine, and conservation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 110(17): 6907?6912. Kovaleski, A. P., Reisch, B. I., and Londo J. P. 2018. Deacclimation kinetics as a quantitative phenotype for delineating the dormancy transition and thermal efficiency for budbreak in Vitis species. AoB PLANTS, 10(5): ply066. Londo, J. P., and Kovaleski A. P. 2017. Characterization of wild North American grapevine cold hardiness using differential thermal analysis. American Journal of Enology and Viticulture, 68: 203?212. Al Kovaleski is a postdoctoral researcher at the United States Department of Agriculture's research station in Geneva, New York. He completed his doctorate at Cornell University in 2018. Jason Londo is a research geneticist with the United States Department of Agriculture's Grape Genetics Unit, based at the New York State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva, New York. He is an adjunct associate professor at Cornell University's School of Integrative Plant Science. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wood Under the Microscope","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25654","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060b728.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kasia Zieminska","article_content":"18 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Wood Anatomy 19 WOOD U N DE R TH E M IC RO S CO PE Kasia Ziemiska The photo below shows the microscopic structure of twig wood from an American beech (Fagus grandifolia, accession 6832008*A) growing at the Arnold Arboretum. The cross-section is about 10 ?m thick, photographed at 200? magnification. Under the microscope, wood cross-sections have very little contrast, unless stained, and it is difficult to discern some tissues. Here, the lower-right section has been colored to indicate the three main interlocked tissues: fibers, parenchyma, and vessels. F P axial P ray W ood--also called xylem--provides mechanical support for plants, transports and stores nutrients, and transports water from roots to leaves. The proportion, structure, and spatial connectivity of wood tissues varies tremendously across species worldwide, but the functional meaning of much of that diversity remains unclear, leaving much for researchers to discover. FIBERS look like small donuts within a cross- section. But in fact, they are elongated spindle-like cells. Across species worldwide, fibers are the most abundant wood tissue on average, but their proportion ranges from around 10 to 95 percent. In this American beech, fibers occupied 32 percent of twig wood volume and had medium-thick cell walls. Fibers primarily provide mechanical stability for plants--the strength to support limbs and resistance to environmental stresses like wind or snow. PARENCHYMA is a three-dimensional network of living cells, with ray parenchyma connecting bark with inner portions of the stem and axial parenchyma running parallel with the length of the stem. This network stores and transports nutrients, which provide energy for building and maintaining living tissues. Parenchyma also contributes to pathogen defense, and it may factor into water storage and the continuity of water transport, although the exact mechanisms of these functions are yet uncertain. Parenchyma occupies between 5 and 90 percent of wood volume for species globally. In this American beech, parenchyma occupied 30 percent. VESSELS are like pipes that transport water from roots to leaves. Their diameter is larger than other wood cells, and they differ tremendously across species, ranging from around 15 to 250 ?m. The diameter has a huge influence on how efficiently water can be transported through wood. The larger the vessel, the more efficient the transport. In this American beech, average vessel diameter was 20 ?m. V 100 m F fibers P parenchyma V vessels 20 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Wood samples from seven tree species at the Arnold Arboretum illustrate striking differences in wood anatomy, even among trees adapted for similar climates. Notice the small but relatively consistent diameter of vessels in Liriodendron, compared to the prominent seasonal variation in the Quercus sample. Likewise, other tissues show similar diversity of dimension and distribution. Photos are all at the same scale, so cell sizes can be compared. Each image shows one or more growth rings. fibers F parenchyma P vessels V growth ring boundary G G G P F G V Osage orange (Maclura pomifera, 79-46*D) G G V G F F V P P G 100 m Tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera, 14992*A) G V Northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa, 927-58*B) Wood Anatomy 21 V P G V P F F V V G Honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos, 14681*A) G V Chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii, 389-91*C) G P V F P V V G Korean paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa `Coreana', 730-77*D) F G Common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana, 14513*B) 22 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 THE ANATOMY OF TREE LIFE T here are myriad ways plants can make a living. Herbaceous annuals grow fast and live short, while other plants, like trees, grow slow and live long. Plants can produce cheaply built leaves that catch sunshine for only a few months, and others produce robust leaves that survive for several years. In a forest, shade-tolerant trees produce short stems, while sun-thirsty ones stretch tall. This marvelous diversity of form and function persists at the microscopic level, hidden to the naked eye yet biologically consequential. Wood anatomy is not a new discipline. It has been studied since the seventeenth century, when Robert Hooke famously turned a microscope to a sample from the cork oak (Quercus suber) and coined the term cell based on the walled structures he observed. Shortly thereafter, in 1673, Antonie van Leeuwenhoek began observing the microscopic structure of cross-sectioned twigs from numerous woody species, including temperate and tropical plants. Over the next several decades, he rendered remarkably detailed illustrations, which are among the earliest progenitors to the images shown on the following pages. Yet the intensity and emphasis of these anatomical studies has changed with time. An increased interest in wood anatomy in the nineteenth century was related to taxonomy-- classifying differences between groups of plants--and Harvard University and other institutions built large collections of wood samples (usually rectangular blocks), which allowed researchers to easily compare wood from various species. This descriptive research continued into the twentieth century, although most of the studies were of qualitative nature, where anatomical structures were described using categories like \"thin\" and \"thick,\" instead of unit measurements. Over the past sixty years (and especially over the last two decades), however, an increased number of researchers started quantifying anatomical features, and importantly, they began considering the relationship between structure and function of wood on an ecological and climactic scale--attempting to understand why species adapted to disparate habitats possess different wood anatomies. The three main wood tissues--fibers, parenchyma, and vessels--are also present in herbaceous plants, simply in different organizations. These tissues play several vital functions. They transport water and nutrients, while also providing nutrient storage, pathogen defense, and mechanical support. We are still learning about additional roles; for example, scientists have found that nutrients stored in wood might be used for maintenance of continuous water transport, not only for building new organs like bark and leaves. Of the three main tissues, researchers have the greatest understanding of vessels, the cells responsible for transporting water. The average size of vessels varies hugely worldwide, from around 15 to 250 ?m in diameter. We know that large vessels tend to be more susceptible to embolism--air blockage in a vessel--which impedes water transport and, if common, can be lethal. Embolism can be caused by freeze-thaw events or drought, so species exposed to such stresses tend to have smaller vessels. On the other hand, smaller vessels are less efficient for water transport. Beyond vessel diameter, plants can make many other anatomical adjustments to alter their hydraulic functioning. Some plants have lots of vessels, others very few, and plants can change the size of these structures across the growing season. (On the previous pages, large vessels can often be observed at the beginning of each growing season, when plenty of water was abundant, and the dimensions progressively shrink throughout Wood Anatomy 23 the season.) Plants can also change how vessels are interconnected via the shape and size of small openings called pits. Because anatomical measurements are time consuming, studies that look at highly detailed anatomy are usually limited to, at most, a few dozen species. Recent use of metaanalysis, however, has combined data from many individual studies, shedding light on anatomical variation worldwide--primarily for vessel diameter, vessel proportion, and parenchyma proportion. As a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, my research focused on parenchyma, the tissue that is understood to store and transport nutrients, along with providing pathogen defense and water storage. One of the large-scale analyses had recently revealed that, across more than fifteen hundred species worldwide, the proportion of parenchyma in wood varies remarkably, ranging from 5 to 90 percent of the total volume (Morris et al., 2016). Species with the highest parenchyma proportions are only found in the tropics, yet species with little parenchyma are found in all climates: temperate, subtropical, and tropical. The functional meaning of this geographical distribution remains unclear, however, which is astonishing considering the dramatic extent of the variation. Given the traditional understanding that parenchyma stores water, I investigated the hypothesis that woody species with a higher proportion of parenchyma would have greater water-storage capacity, allowing them to withstand drought more readily--essentially like having more water bottles in the pantry. Across thirty tree species that I studied in the Arnold Arboretum, however, species with more parenchyma didn't necessarily store additional water, nor were they better at accessing whatever water had been stored. So the mystery of parenchyma proportion in wood continues to be unresolved. Presumably species with little parenchyma have entirely different life strategies than species with lots of parenchyma. This information will be important for helping us predict how plants will respond to increased aridity in many areas under climate change. An anatomical perspective within plant sciences is essential for unravelling ecological and physiological questions about how species evolved to grow where they do. William Louis Stern--a professor at the University of Maryland--noted the need for this interdisciplinary approach in the pages of Arnoldia back in 1973. \"Lest I am accused of being a wood anatomy bigot,\" he wrote, \"let me hasten to say that I do not believe that studies in wood anatomy can remain viable in a vacuum; rather, they must be integrated with other studies in plant anatomy and with other phases of botanical endeavor.\" Wood anatomy is timeconsuming and slow--requiring patience and meticulous microscopy skills--but the more we know, the more we realize that we still have much to learn. Work Cited Morris, H., L. Plavcov?, P. Cvecko, E. Fichtler, M.A. Gillingham, H.I. Mart?nez-Cabrera, D.J. McGlinn, E. Wheeler, J. Zheng, K. Ziemiska, and S. Jansen. 2016. A global analysis of parenchyma tissue fractions in secondary xylem of seed plants. New Phytologist, 209: 1553?1565. Kasia Ziemiska is an Arnold Arboretum research associate and a recent postdoctoral Putnam Fellow. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Old Molecules, New Climate: <i>Metasequoia</i>'s Secrets","article_sequence":4,"start_page":24,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25652","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060af6b.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Leng, Qin; Yang, Hong","article_content":"Old Molecules, New Climate: Metasequoia's Secrets Hong Yang and Qin Leng A round forty-five million years ago, the Arctic was ice free, scarcely the expanse of lichen-encrusted rock and glaciers that we see there today. Fossil records reveal that an extensive forest flourished throughout the early Cenozoic, when the canopy was predominated by Metasequoia and other deciduous conifers. The single remaining species of this genus, M. glyptostroboides, is known as the dawn redwood and is now restricted to a small population in south-central China, around forty-two hundred miles (sixty-eight hundred kilometers) south of this historic distribution. When botanists first learned about the living population more than seventy years ago, no one could have imagined that those plants would provide crucial clues for understanding more than one hundred million years of historic climate change--not to mention changes to come. Yet the rare discovery of fossils containing exquisitely preserved organic tissues and biomolecules, coupled with new molecular research techniques, has revealed just that. Traditional paleobotanical studies are comparative--drawing links between the anatomy of fossils and their living relatives--while molecular analyses of isotopes and biomolecules (such as lipids, carbohydrates, and lignin) are usually reserved for modern samples of freshly harvested material. Recent innovations with laboratory instruments, however, have made it possible for researchers, including ourselves, to extract valuable molecular information from so-called rocks. With Metasequoia, which boasts a long fossil record, the implications of this research are especially pronounced given that we can test hypotheses at the molecular level across an enormous timescale. The Green Arctic Scientists (and museumgoers) usually encounter two types of plant fossils: either imprints or compressions. Imprints are analogous to animal tracks, occurring when plant tissue remains pressed into sediments and subse- quently decomposes, while compressions occur when the tissue becomes sandwiched between flattened layers of sedimentary rocks. In the late 1990s, however, Ben LePage and Chris Williams, then working at the University of Pennsylvania, showed us three-dimensionally preserved Metasequoia fossils that they had collected from the Canadian islands of Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg, on the northwestern side of Greenland. We could hardly believe that the fossils were from Cenozoic strata that was around fifty millions years old. The dark-brown leaves, stems, and cones resembled a pile that someone had raked in their backyard--loose but delicate, soft but brittle, individually separated but tightly packed. When Metasequoia lived in the warm and humid Arctic, the plants shed their leaves in autumn, before the four months of total darkness. The litter was buried for tens of millions of years, including beneath the weight of a continental ice cap. Ironically, the tundra surface in the high Arctic has been increasingly exposed due to recent global warming, revealing some of the best fossil material to study ancient climate change. The unrivaled quality of these mummified Metasequoia fossils extends beyond what was visible to the naked eye. Using molecular technologies, we detected biomolecules--plentifully! Although cellulose and other polysaccharides are abundant in living plant tissues, they are rarely found in ordinary fossils. Preserved for around fifty million years, these Metasequoia fossils possess the oldest biomolecules of this kind ever recovered. Moreover, our molecular evidence suggests that these molecules actually provide both the physical enforcement and chemical stability for maintaining the three-dimensional structures of these exceptional fossils. The Arctic plays a crucial role in the dynamics of Earth climate. Not only does it actively influence climate on a global scale, but the Arctic passively receives climate change feedback as well. Interestingly, Metasequoia has been a witness CHRISTOPHER J. WILLIAMS QIN LENG AND HONG YANG CHRISTOPHER J. WILLIAMS Metasequoia 25 Fossilized Metasequoia trunks from the late Paleocene and early Eocene have been discovered on Ellesmere Island, Canada, along with three-dimensionally preserved leafy fossils, from which the authors have extracted biomolecules and isotope signals. The leafy branchlet in the upper right corner measures 0.83 inches (2.1 centimeters) long. 26 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 and faithful recorder of such changes. At Axel Heiberg and Ellesmere Islands, with latitudes higher than 80? north, large amounts of fossilized Metasequoia trunks--up to twenty-six feet (eight meters) long and ten feet (three meters) in diameter at breast height--indicate the large size of these forests, which were nurtured by a warm and humid high-latitudinal climate. Williams and colleagues demonstrated that the productivity of these dense Metasequoia forests was comparable with modern-day temperate rainforests, like the rich landscape of the Olympic Peninsula in Washington State. Yet the Metasequoia landscape was primarily populated with deciduous plants, not evergreens--evidence of adaptions for four months of complete darkness at the northern latitudes. Animal fossils are rarely found with these Metasequoia remains, but fossils found in similar-aged strata at Ellesmere Island include rhinoceros- and hippo-like mammals, along with giant tortoises and alligators--all indicative of a humid swampy environment, consistent with the reconstruction by plant fossils. Clearly, the ice-free Arctic during the early Cenozoic was a completely different world compared with the barren landscape today. Living Climate Legacies To understand the climate that supported such impressive forests in the Arctic, however, our ability to study a living Metasequoia species is essential. The first climate-related experiment involving the living species, M. glyptostroboides, was launched inadvertently. When trees were discovered in western Hubei Province, China, in 1944, two American scientists immediately recognized the importance of this plant: Ralph Chaney from the University of California, Berkeley, and Elmer Merrill, the director of the Arnold Arboretum. Through separate collaborations with Chinese colleagues-- notably Wan-Chun Cheng and Hsen-Hsu Hu-- both Chaney and Merrill arranged for the collection of dawn redwood seeds from China and distributed them to botanical gardens around the United States and Europe. Despite their arguments about who should get the credit for making these seeds available for cultivation, the resulting widespread dispersal to gardens in dra- matically different climatic zones (essentially all corners of the contiguous United States) set up a natural experiment that we have dubbed the Chaney-Merrill Experiment. The remnant population of Metasequoia in China represents a relatively homogenous genotype, so we can obtain information about how the seedlings survived in disparate gardens, and eliminate some confusion about nature versus nurture. Physiological studies based upon samples from these trees revealed that M. glyptostroboides can endure a wide range of climate conditions. We have obtained leaf samples from forty trees across this range, and these are stored in our Laboratory for Terrestrial Environments at Bryant University, tightly packed in yellow envelopes and frozen. These leaf tissues have helped us generate systematic molecular and biochemical data, which we compared with climate data from the past seventy years from the locations where the trees have been growing. We found that biomolecular compositions within the leaves changed relative to latitude, average temperatures, and average annual precipitation. These correlations established a necessary baseline for interpreting biomolecules and biochemicals that we would later obtain from Metasequoia fossils. Another recent experiment on Metasequoia glyptostroboides provided additional context. Richard Jagels and his colleagues and students at the University of Maine designed a greenhouse experiment to examine how the genus would have performed within its historic distribution inside the Arctic Circle. The climate in this northern region was temperate during the early Cenozoic, yet the unique light regime would have remained consistent: up to four months of complete darkness and four months of twenty-four-hour sunshine. To test the physiological adaptation of M. glyptostroboides--as a living stand-in for the Cenozoic species, M. occidentalis--to this light regime, the team partitioned a large greenhouse on their campus into two different compartments: one with normal light, corresponding to the middle latitude of Maine (45? north), and the other with continuous light, mimicking the same low angle and low intensity of Arctic light conditions during summer months. MICHAEL DOSMANN KYLE PORT DANNY SCHISSLER Metasequoia 27 Metasequoia glyptostroboides is the only extant member of a genus that once flourished at warm Arctic latitudes during the early Cenozoic. Clockwise from top left: Seed cones hang on winter branches (notice that the deciduous leaves have already fallen), small pollen cones emerge in the spring, and trees at the Arnold Arboretum showcase an affinity for moist habitats. ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND GIS COMMUNITY 28 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 The Canadian islands of Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg are among the most northerly landmasses on the planet, occurring well above the Arctic Circle. Metasequoia fossils have been recovered from both islands, at latitudes above 80?N. Seedlings of Metasequoia glyptostroboides were grown along with those of two other deciduous conifers: bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) and tamarack (Larix laricina), whose fossil relatives were also common in warm Arctic floras during the early Cenozoic. These plants were grown for two consecutive years under the two different light regimes with otherwise identical conditions, including temperature, relative humidity, carbon dioxide level, and greenhouse irrigation. This research revealed that, in addition to deciduous leaves, which would drop during the prolonged darkness of Arctic winters, Metasequoia possesses physiological characteristics, such as high photosynthesis capacity and improved water-use efficiency, that help it take advantage of the weak but continuous Arctic summer light. This helps explain how this genus outcompeted other plants in the warm Arctic. At the end of the two-year Jagels Experiment, we corresponded with the researchers and obtained leaf tissue from Metasequoia seedlings grown in these greenhouse conditions. We wanted to learn how the ratios of carbon and hydrogen isotopes--slight variations of these elements built into plant tissues through photosynthesis--changed under different light treatments. These isotopes have been commonly used to understand ancient patterns for temperature, precipitation, and carbon dioxide level, and indeed, we discovered noticeable differences between seedlings grown under these alternate light regimes. Even more importantly, our work, published in 2009, established precise empirical relationships between isotope values of plant lipids and environmental water, allowing us to infer ancient moisture levels in this Arctic habitat. New Technologies for Old Molecules Experiments based on fresh Metasequoia glyptostroboides samples have enhanced the ability of researchers to interpret data from M. occi- Metasequoia 29 dentalis fossils, including biomolecules stored within the seasonal growth rings of the large trunks on Ellesmere and Axel Heiberg Islands. Hope Jahren--a geochemist at the University of Oslo, now well-known for her science memoir, Lab Girl--conducted analyses on seasonal variation of isotopes within these rings. Jahren and her colleague Leonel Sternberg observed highresolution patterns in these isotopes, allowing them to reconstruct the impact of subtle climate variations on the growth habit of Metasequoia in the warm Arctic. They estimated a mean annual temperature for this high-latitude region to be around 55?F (13?C) during the Eocene-- about double the present-day measurements. Relative humidity estimates were equally high: around 67 percent during the growing season and close to 100 percent towards the end of the growing season. This climate information has direct implications for understanding global precipitation patterns during the early Cenozoic. At present, Arctic ice reflects back large amounts of solar radiation, keeping the global temperature low and simultaneously creating a steep temperature gradient across different latitudes. This equator-to-pole temperature difference significantly impacts the general circulation of heat--and moisture--through the atmosphere and ocean. Given what we know about Arctic temperatures, relative humidities, and carbon dioxide levels during the early Cenozoic, we know that this gradient of temperatures between latitudes would have been less pronounced, significantly impacting precipitation patterns. We used the relationship between environmental water and isotopes in fossilized Metasequoia leaves (established with the Jagels Experiment) to propose a model for early Cenozoic moisture patterns in the Arctic. To our surprise, the relatively low hydrogen isotope values we measured were not compatible with the conventional understanding that the reduced temperature gradient from the equator to the Arctic should result in less precipitation during the long-distance transport of moisture within the atmosphere, depositing water with heavier hydrogen within the Arctic. Although there is no modern analogue for these high-latitude forests, dense forests at lower latitudes, such as the temperate rainforests, offer clues that could explain these low isotope measurements. Due to moisture generated through extensive evapotranspiration of the vegetation, a portion of the heavy precipitation above these dense forests is composed of locally recycled moisture with lighter hydrogen. The greenhouse simulation in the Jagels Experiment supported this interpretation, demonstrating that photosynthesis under four-months of continuous light enhanced water evapotranspiration. These observations suggest that Metasequoia forests had a dynamic impact on moisture patterns in the ancient Arctic and may, in that sense, have even played an important role in maintaining the air circulation at the ice-free Arctic. Climate Predictions Strikingly, it took millions of years for the Arctic to transform from a humid Metasequoia-dominated forest into the landscape we recognize today, but the inverse warming trend now appears to be happening at a much faster rate. Over the last thirty years, Arctic warmth has accelerated along with rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere. Arctic sea ice is melting, and glaciers are retreating at an unprecedented pace. In 2017, sea ice reached the lowest extent since the earliest time of satellite measurement in the 1960s. Recent global circulation modeling suggests that if the warming trend continues, by as early as the 2030s, the Arctic Ocean will change from perennially ice-covered to seasonally ice-free, further decreasing the temperature gradient between the equator and the poles. The weakened moisture delivery towards the poles will likely alter storm trajectories and increase temperature and precipitation anomalies, affecting the life of plants and animals, humans included, at the global scale. In addition to informing what we know about ancient climate, Metasequoia has also contributed to future climate models. The scientific community has long accepted that atmospheric carbon dioxide has been one of the primary drivers for global temperature changes, but the rate at which temperature increases in response to changes of this greenhouse gas--a metric known YUYANG ZHUGE 30 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 An artistic reconstruction of a Metasequoia-dominated forest and its surrounding environment at the end of the Arctic growing season during the middle Eocene (around 45 million years ago). The composition and density of the forest, as well as the hydrological conditions, were based upon fossil records and their stable isotope analyses. as climate sensitivity--has been the subject of significant and ongoing research. Paleoclimatologists do not have the luxury of directly measuring ancient carbon dioxide levels; instead, they rely on indirect estimates, known as proxies, to make an inference. One of the most reliable proxies for reconstructing atmospheric carbon dioxide levels for geological eras that predate the oldest ice-core records is stomatal frequency. Stomata are small openings on the surface of leaves, and are the means through which terrestrial plants control the balance between absorbing carbon dioxide and losing water into the air. Species-specific relationships between stomatal frequency and atmospheric carbon dioxide (under high carbon dioxide levels, plants produce fewer stomata) thus allow scientists to predict one from the other. The ideal plant to study this phenomenon should have a continuous, abundant, and widespread fossil record, along with living representatives to provide detailed comparative analyses and calculation. The genus Metasequoia fits the bill perfectly. The only challenge is that, as a deciduous conifer, Metasequoia has a very thin and fragile cuticle--the waxy layer covering its leaves--making it difficult to calculate stomatal frequency from fossils. Recent studies using improved experimental treatments and bioimaging techniques of Metasequoia fossils were successful, however, and surprisingly, work by Daniel Maxbauer and colleagues, based upon Metasequoia fossils from the Axel Heiberg Island and published in 2014, found that carbon dioxide levels during the middle Eocene (about thirty-seven to forty-seven million years Metasequoia 31 Metasequoia's Legacy Continues As we look toward future research involving Metasequoia, we can't help but marvel over the unintended consequences of scientific discoveries. When Japanese paleobotanist Shigeru Miki made the seemingly routine description of a new fossil species belonging to an extinct genus in 1941, he had no idea that its living equivalent was growing a few thousand miles away and waiting to be discovered. When Chinese botanist Zhan Wang encountered a splendid dawn redwood tree in Hubei Province (then part of Sichuan) for the first time, he could not have predicted that this rare conifer would produce important clues for understanding the vexing problem of climate change. From the Chaney-Merrill Experiment to the Jagels Experiment, from the discovery of exceptional fossils in the Arctic to the applications of molecular isotope technology, science, as illustrated with Metasequoia, is a continuous endeavor in which new technologies facilitate new questions and, ultimately, new breakthroughs. Whether inconspicuously planted along a roadside in Sydney, Australia, or proudly JONATHAN FONSECA ago) may have been about half of what were previously estimated using other methods: a median of 424 parts per million (ppm) for the middle Eocene. If accurate, this work suggests that the Metasequoia forests in the Arctic were supported by much lower atmospheric carbon dioxide levels than previously thought. This scenario does not portend good news for humans. The latest data from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration show that carbon dioxide levels reached 405 ppm in 2017, exceeding concentrations throughout the past eight hundred thousand years that can be observed using ice cores. At the time when this article was written (in the summer of 2018), the level reached 410 ppm, marking the highest level since the late Pliocene, around three million years ago. From the pre-industrial carbon dioxide levels between 260 and 270 ppm to the current level, it took us less than two centuries to increase the atmospheric carbon dioxide level by more than 100 ppm. With this alarmingly accelerated rate, it wouldn't take long to reach levels that once sustained dense deciduous forests across an ice-free Arctic. The authors examine Metasequoia glyptostroboides on the Bryant University campus. These trees were planted in 2006 during the Second International Metasequoia Conference held at Bryant and Yale. 32 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 showcased on our campus at Bryant University in Rhode Island, the dawn redwood has thrived through cultivation around the globe. In terms of sheer numbers, Metasequoia seems to have survived from the brink of extinction, yet its native population remains isolated with low levels of genetic diversity. While the natural population's long-term survival remains uncertain under the changing climate, what is certain is that, along with the advancement of technology, both living and fossil Metasequoia will continue to offer us invaluable information about its past secrets and the future of our global climate. Acknowledgement With limited pages here, we can only highlight the many exciting scientific inquiries about Metasequoia contributed over the past two decades. This is the duration since Hong Yang's first Arnoldia article on Metasequoia fossils and molecules, which was published in a 1998 special issue celebrating the genus. Readers can obtain further reading from the references and especially the proceedings of the three International Metasequoia Conferences. We would like to thank Jonathan Damery for discussing the structure and editing the manuscript, Chris Williams and Jonathan Fonseca for providing photograph images, and Yuyang Zhuge for illustrating the Eocene Arctic Metasequoia forest and its surrounding environment based on the scientific data we provided. References Jahren, A.H. 2007. The Arctic forest of the Middle Eocene. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, 35: 509?540. Jahren, A.H., and L.S.L. Sternberg. 2008. Annual patterns within tree rings of the Arctic middle Eocene (ca. 45 Ma): Isotopic signatures of precipitation, relative humidity, and deciduousness. Geology, 36: 99?102. Jagels, R., and M.E. Day. 2004. The adaptive physiology of Metasequoia to Eocene high-latitude environment. In: A.R. Hemsley and I. Poole (Editors). The Evolution of Plant Physiology. Elsevier Academic Press, 401?425. Leng, Q., G. Langlois, and H. Yang. 2010. Early Paleogene Arctic terrestrial ecosystems affected by the change of polar hydrology under global warming: Implications for modern climate change at high latitudes. Science China Earth Science, 53: 933?944. LePage, B.A., C.J. Williams, and H. Yang (Eds.) 2005. The geobiology and ecology of Metasequoia. Springer Netherlands, Dordrecht, the Netherlands; Norwell, MA, USA. (The proceedings of the First International Metasequoia Conference) Maxbauer, D.P., D.L. Royer, and B.A. LePage. 2014. High Arctic forests during the middle Eocene supported by moderate levels of atmospheric CO2: Geology, 42(12): 1027?1030. Noshiro, S., Q. Leng, B.A. LePage, A. Momohara, H. Nishida, K. Uemura, C.J. Williams, and H. Yang (Eds.) 2011. Metasequoia: The legacy of Dr. Shigeru Miki. Proceedings of the Third Inter national Metasequoia Symposium. Japanese Journal of Historical Botany, 19: 1?136. Wang, Y.Q., A. Momohara, L. Wang, J. Lebreton-Anberr?e, and Z.K. Zhou. 2015. Evolutionary history of atmospheric CO 2 during the Late Cenozoic from fossilized Metasequoia needles. PLoS ONE, 10(7): e0130941. Williams, C.J., A.H. Johnson, B.A. LePage, D.R. Vann, and T. Sweda. 2003. Reconstruction of Tertiary Metasequoia forests. II. Structure, biomass, and productivity of Eocene floodplain forests in the Canadian Arctic. Paleobiology, 29: 271?292 Yang, H. 1998. From fossils to molecules: the Metasequoia tale continues. Arnoldia, 58(4) and 59(1): 60?71. Yang, H., and L.J. Hickey (Eds.) 2007. Metasequoia: Back from the brink? An update: Proceedings of the Second International Symposium on Metasequoia and Associated Plants. Bulletin of the Peobody Museum of Natural History, 48: 183?426. Yang, H., and Q. Leng. 2009. Molecular hydrogen isotope analysis of living and fossil plants: Metasequoia as an example. Progress in Natural Science, 19: 901?912. Yang, H., M. Pagani, D.E.G. Briggs, M.A. Equiza, R. Jagels, Q. Leng, and B.A. LePage. 2009. Carbon and hydrogen isotope fractionations under continuous light: Implications for palaeoenvironmental interpretations at high Arctic during Paleogene warming. Oecologia, 160: 461?470. The map in this article was created using Esri, USGS, NGA, NASA, CGIAR, N Robinson, NCEAS, NLS, OS, NMA, Geodatastyrelsen, Rijkswaterstaat, GSA, Geoland, FEMA, lntermap and the GIS user community. Hong Yang (hyang@bryant.edu) is Charles J. Smiley Professor of Geobiology, and Qin Leng (qleng@bryant.edu) is Professor of Biology; both co-direct the Laboratory for Terrestrial Environments at Bryant University in Rhode Island, USA, where Metasequoia has been a subject of investigation for various research projects related to both modern and ancient environments. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Overstory View","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25653","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060b36f.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"BOOK REVIEW Overstory View Jonathan Damery R ecord tags at the Arnold Arboretum are as much a record of human lives as the plants. The oldest living accession--the sole remnant from 1872, the year the Arboretum was founded--comprises three shrubby winterberry hollies (Ilex verticillata, accession 147*A, C, and E), tucked near the North Woods. These were collected near Boston by Jackson Dawson, the Arboretum's first plant propagator, who was then overseeing greenhouses for the recently established Bussey Institute. If you indulge philosophical predilections, it is awe-inspiring to eye these wane suckering shrubs, which bore a smattering of red fruit this year, and realize that the shrubs have now persisted more than a century beyond the man who collected the original seed. As a rule, the Arboretum's oldest plants have all outlived their collectors, and at least some members of the subsequent plant generations, even material collected on our four expeditions this year, are destined to do the same. Richard Powers explores this premise in his new novel, The Overstory. The narrative structure flexes time and space, at first introducing characters that exist in different decades (and centuries) and in different parts of the United States. All of the characters develop affinities for specific trees. In some cases, the relationship becomes a family legacy, as with the introductory characters: European immigrants named J?rgen and Vi Hoel move from Brooklyn to the Iowa prairie in the mid-nineteenth century. J?rgen plants an American chestnut (Castanea dentata) from seed he brought west. After J?rgen's death, his son buys a Kodak No. 2 Brownie--the classic model once used by hobbyist photographers--and, in 1903, he begins photographing the now prospering chestnut from the same location each month. A grandson continues the tradition, even as chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) sweeps through the eastern population, and the lens finally passes to a great-great-grandson named Nicholas. When Nicholas looks at the photos his family has produced, \"three-quarters of a century dances by in a five-second flip.\" Moreover, he sees a compression of human existence: \"the holidays of his childhood, the entire clan gathering for turkey or carols, midsummer flags and fireworks.\" This generational project, in the nonfiction realm, is reminiscent of Chinese botanist Kaipu Yin's rephotography of trees and landscapes that Arboretum plant collector Ernest Henry Wilson documented in China in the early twentieth century. The resulting side-by-side comparisons were published in a collection, Tracing One Hundred Years of Change: Illustrating the Environmental Changes in Western China. The passage of a ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 34 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 A sixteen-foot slab of this giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) was harvested from Kings River Grove, California, in 1891, as part of the Jesup Wood Collection, a project overseen by Charles Sprague Sargent. The slab can still be viewed at the American Museum of Natural History in New York City, where the annual growth rings reveal the tree began growing around 550 AD. Sargent, the founding director of the Arboretum, died in 1927. century is evident in the landscapes and, more specifically, in the form of individual trees. Some have survived and, given their size at the time Wilson photographed them, likely survived at least the century before that. Others, however, have gnarled to a fist of limbs, broken and beaten. Still others are ghosts, replaced with glowing storefronts. This effort to showcase non-human time is even more dramatic with Rachel Sussman's photography collection The Oldest Living Things in the World, because she only includes organisms (mostly plants) that are more than two thousand years old. Of course, one automatically thinks of bristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva), growing as bony skeletons in the White Mountains of California, where some specimens are more than five Book Review 35 thousand years old--a duration that pre-dates the invention of Sumerian script. But Sussman also directs attention to a colony of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) in south-central Utah, which has been spreading via underground roots for an estimated eighty thousand years. This marks the approximate time when humans began to successfully migrate from Africa--an astounding timeline, especially considering evolutionary anthropologists have shown that Neanderthals (Homo neanderthalensis) persisted in Eurasia for another forty thousand years beyond this. Incidentally, Powers doesn't miss this ancient colony of aspen. One of his characters, Patricia Westerford, flees academic pariahdom (after publishing a controversial article about plant communication) and drives to the magisterial forests of the Pacific Northwest, but not before stopping to see the Utah aspen. \"The thing is outlandish,\" Powers writes, \"beyond her ability to wrap her head around.\" Likewise, Powers uses narrative to force readers beyond their personal footsteps--to literally view human existence from the overstory of time--which many environmental theorists suggest is essential for conceptualizing issues like climate change, with implications stretching far into the geologic future. Plants at the Arboretum--even lowly shrubs like Dawson's winterberries--provide a legible reminder of organismal time, a scale beyond ourselves, and as Powers demonstrates, narrative has potential to do the same. Books referenced Powers, R. 2018. The Overstory. New York: W. W. Norton and Co. Sussman, R. 2014. The Oldest Living Things in the World. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Yin, K. 2010. Tracing One Hundred Years of Change: Illustrating the Environmental Changes in Western China. Beijing: Encyclopedia of China Publishing House. Jonathan Damery is the associate editor of Arnoldia. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICESTATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004?2633. 3. Filing Date: October 17, 2018. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500, publisher; Jonathan Damery, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, MA 02130?3500, associate editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: TBD. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,600. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,600. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1) Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 27. No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 25. (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,131. No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,109. (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: none. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,158. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,044. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 141. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 140. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 250. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 250. f. Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 391. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 390. g. Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,549. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,434. h. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 51. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 166. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,600. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,600. j. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 75%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 73%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Jonathan Damery, Associate Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hidden Gem Among Vines: Actinidia arguta","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25651","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060af26.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Brinkman, Rachel A.","article_content":"36 Arnoldia 76\/2 ? November 2018 Hidden Gem Among Vines: Actinidia arguta Rachel A. Brinkman T he hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta) is a vigorous vine with fruits that you are unlikely to find at your local grocery store. The grape-sized nuggets are like the large kiwifruit (A. deliciosa), simply smaller and hairless. When you cut open the dusky fruit, which sometimes blushes from green to red, you'll see a firework design of lime-colored flesh with an inner ring of tiny chocolate-brown seeds. The taste of A. arguta fruit is similar to the commercial kiwifruit, but I find it milder, with less acidic tang. A connoisseur might describe a more sophisticated bouquet of flavors. My first experience with this plant was back in college when a horticulture professor brought a basket of the fruit for the class to sample. I was amazed that the fruit existed-- a bite-sized, thin-skinned version of one of my favorite fruits. I quickly became obsessed with the vine, but I did not encounter it again until I came to the Arnold Arboretum where I got to experience the plant as a whole: the glossy leaves borne on bright red petioles, the exfoliating bark, and the delicate and rather inconspicuous white flowers. Native to northeastern Asia, Actinidia arguta numbers among sixty different species in the genus, but only a handful of these can be grown in colder climates. The common species, A. deliciosa, is only hardy to USDA Zone 8, which means the species cannot be grown in New England, while A. arguta can survive to a remarkable Zone 3. The Arboretum currently holds five additional kiwi species, which all produce edible fruit in various colors and shapes. Despite the taste and ornamental foliage, Actinidia arguta is a fast-growing vine that has escaped from cultivation in western Massachusetts, the New York metro, and northern New Jersey. This complicates any recommendation to introduce the species (which can climb more than thirty feet in a single season) as a more widespread fruit crop, although I have never observed any spontaneous seedlings on the grounds of the Arboretum. Three of our accessions of this species represent wild provenances. A particularly note- worthy plant (accession 905-85*A) is located on the second vine terrace in the Leventritt Garden, twinning up a steel trellis. This accession was received from the Chollipo Arboretum in 1985, which collected the seed on Mount Gaya, in North Gyeongsang Province, South Korea. I'm partial to its sweet wild-tasting fruit and its impressive girth at the base, which sprouts into twisting curls on the trellis. Two additional plants (accession 403-97*B and C) on the upper terrace of the Leventritt represent a wild provenance in Jilin Province, China, where seed was collected from a deciduous mountain forest by the North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC). These two plants have been trained to arch over the path, allowing visitors to view the beautiful structure of the vine from beneath. Buds that produce flowers and fruits occur on the interior portion of the current year's growth--usually obscured beneath the foliage. Actinidia arguta vines are typically dioecious, which means that two vines are needed to produce fruit--one with female flowers, the other with male flowers. The flowers may look very similar, however, because most flowers have both male and female parts, but only the males produce viable pollen and only the females have properly developed structures for receiving pollen and developing fruit. To confuse matters, some plants can produce both male and female flowers, and others have been reported with perfect flowers. The species may even change sexual expression from year to year. The specimens of A. arguta that I have observed at the Arboretum have never been consistent in their fruit production. Hardy kiwi may never become a common fruit crop, and perhaps, given its swift growth and ability to escape from cultivation, it never should. Yet as you stroll through the pathways of the Arboretum, don't forget to stop to investigate our winding vines; you may discover hidden gems nestled beneath the leaves. Rachel A. Brinkman is the assistant manager of horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23464","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ebb28.jpg","title":"2018-76-2","volume":76,"issue_number":2,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Exploring the Native Range of Kentucky Coffeetree","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25646","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060a326.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":1,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Carstens, Jeffrey D.; Schmitz, Andy","article_content":"Exploring the Native Range of Kentucky Coffeetree Andy Schmitz and Jeffrey Carstens M waterway, which has cut a deep ravine through the dry grasslands. Most of the tree species followed this creek, and sure enough, tucked near stands of mesquite (Prosopis glandulosa) and western soapberry (Sapindus saponaria var. drummondii), several coffeetrees were growing. The coffeetrees stood small and stunted--the largest barely exceeding thirty feet--and the pickings were slim, with only a handful of the thick leguminous pods dangling in each tree. We quickly went to work shaking the pods free and recording measurements and habitat data. ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHORS UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED orning temperatures clung above freezing when we pulled our minivan onto the dirt roads of Elm Creek Ranch, southeast of Shamrock, Texas. It was March 2015, and we were searching for seed of Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus). Although we never would have expected to find the species growing in the Texas Panhandle, beyond the range shown on distribution maps, a 2007 herbarium voucher confirmed it was \"locally common\" on the property. The ranch manager, J.C. Brooks, led us to the namesake A native population of coffeetrees (Gymnocladus dioicus) at Elm Creek Ranch, Collingsworth County, Texas, was found beyond the conventionally recognized range for the species. William Carr, J. C. Brooks, and Bob Fulginiti collected the herbarium specimen (TEX 00433298) that first pinpointed this location in 2007. Gymnocladus dioicus 3 herbarium vouchers. At a gas station one afternoon, a man noticed our unusual dash collection and interjected with understandable and friendly curiosity, \"Mind if I ask, what's with the branches in your window?\" Coffeetree Collaboration Our 2015 collecting expedition marked the sixth year of a partnership between the Brenton Arboretum, located in Dallas Center, Iowa, and the National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) genebank in Ames, Iowa. The partnership has aimed to develop a comprehensive collection of Kentucky coffeetree--sampling populations from across the range of the species, which extends from Ontario through central Arkansas, from west-central Ohio through Oklahoma, along with parts of Kentucky and Tennessee. Although the trees in Texas were scraggly and small, many of the specimens we have seen throughout the years have been impressively grand, measuring well over one hundred feet tall. We think Gymnocladus dioicus should be planted more widely in urban environments. The species has no serious insect or disease Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) stands among the largest North problems; it is drought tolerant American members of the bean family (Fabaceae). Andy Schmitz has collected an original copy of this hand-colored engraving by Pierre-Joseph Redout?, along and adaptable to tough soil condiwith other Gymnocladus prints. The engraving first appeared in Henri-Louis tions; moreover, it is exceedingly Duhamel du Monceau's sixth volume of Trait? des Arbres et Arbustes que attractive, with distinctive bark L'on Cultive en France, published in 1815. (even at a young age), interesting Three hours later, the temperature had rocketed compound leaves, and yellow fall color. The to 74?F (23?C), and we drove away almost giddy species should be included among the diverse about collecting Kentucky coffeetree in Texas. tree genera that are used to replace ashes (FraxBy this collection on the fifth day of a nineinus), removed because of emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), and oaks (Quercus), sufday expedition, our van was filling with bags of fering from oak wilt (Bretiziella fagacearum). the beautiful yet odoriferous pods--collected Yet if Gymnocladus is planted more broadly, from sites in Oklahoma and Kansas, in addition we realize that a collection of diverse germto Texas. The dash had become covered with plasm will be needed--both now and far in the stout sticks, which would eventually become MICHAEL DOSMANN 4 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Andy Schmitz stands beneath an exceptional coffeetree in Aurora, New York, which proved to be the largest specimen observed by Carstens and Schmitz over ten years of collections. This cultivated tree measured 110 feet (33.5 meters) tall, 60 feet (18.3 meters) wide, and 57.3 inches (1.4 meters) in trunk diameter at breast height, earning a big tree score of 305 and recognition as a New York state champion. Gymnocladus dioicus 5 future--to make selections adapted to regional climatic conditions and to preserve germplasm for potential reintroduction into the wild. The Brenton Arboretum's first collecting trip occurred in 2008, but plans for the project originated in 2004, as the institution contemplated developing a Nationally Accredited Plant Collection through the American Public Gardens Association's Plant Collections Network (PCN) program. Botanical research had been part of the Brenton's mission since it was established in 1997. After meeting with Mark Widrlechner, horticulturist at NPGS and the PCN's Iowa recruiter, Kentucky coffeetree was determined to be an excellent focus. Gymnocladus dioicus was not currently a PCN collection, and the NPGS had only six viable seed accessions of the species from known wild origins. Moreover, everyone agreed Gymnocladus was definitely underused in urban landscapes. Prior to 2004, the Brenton had eleven accessions of Kentucky coffeetree, but none were wild collected. Andy Schmitz, the director of horticulture, made the Brenton's first wild collection of Gymnocladus in 2008 at Ledges State Park in Boone County, Iowa. He made a few additional collections the following year, but he knew that as the only horticulturist at an arboretum operating under a small budget, additional help was needed to make their future PCN collection a reality. This solidified a long-term relationship between two Iowa horticulturists: Andy Schmitz and Jeffrey Carstens at NPGS. Collecting Seed and Data One of the many benefits of having two institutions striving towards a common goal of preserving genetic plant diversity is the shared work load, especially during the preparation for a collection trip. The success of each trip is largely dependent on the initial identification of specific collecting locations. For the 2015 expedition, for instance, herbarium records and floristic surveys were referenced to identify the anomalous population in Texas, as well as other populations near roadsides and deep canyons, creeks and national battlefields. Further communication with property owners and local botanists--including those who collected the original herbarium specimens--is also beneficial, whenever possible. Local contacts occasionally provide us with GPS coordinates for fruiting specimens, but our efforts typically depend on a pair of highquality binoculars. The characteristic brown pods are easily recognized from considerable distances (even when observed at sixty-five miles an hour) and resemble a flock of blackbirds perched high in the canopy. Thankfully, the fruits are persistent from October through May, allowing us to collect in the winter, when they are highly visible in the leafless canopy. (What other species provides a more than six-month window of fruit senescence?) Collections in early to mid-winter were difficult, however, because the stringy and tough peduncle does not release the fruits as easily, whereas roughly six weeks before bud break, the fruit is easily shaken from the tree. After we have spotted the trees, teamwork makes the seed and data collection easier. Our collection on March 4, 2013, illustrates our basic procedure. On the third day of a nineday expedition through southern Indiana and Kentucky, we were truly looking forward to exploring Griffith Woods, south of Cynthiana, Kentucky, which is known for harboring the world's largest chinkapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergii) within an exceptional oldgrowth savannah. As soon as we pulled into the parking lot, we could see fruiting coffeetrees on the distant horizon. Although we harvested from seven trees, the find of the entire trip was the sixth--discovered some four hours later. This was the second-largest coffeetree we had ever seen, measuring 120 feet (36.6 meters) tall, 46.5 feet (14.2 meters) wide, and 42.0 inches (1.1 meters) in trunk diameter at breast height, and it currently reigns as the Kentucky state champion. To harvest seeds from such a large tree, we used a Big Shot ? line launcher to accurately propel a weighted bag and line over branches high in the canopy. We then used the line to shake pods free. The launcher--a slingshot mounted on an eight-foot pole--has proved its worthiness over and over. On early trips, before using the launcher, we averaged up to two hundred seeds per tree, but now we average six hundred to eight hundred. BOB CUNNINGHAM 6 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Jeffrey Carstens uses a pole-mounted slingshot to collect pods along the North Folk River in Douglas County, Missouri. At right, coffeetree pods at the Brenton Arboretum. The collection time at each mother tree takes around forty-five minutes. Jeff is the \"shaker\" while Andy is the \"gatherer.\" Ideally, enough pods are shaken to the ground to fill one or two five-gallon buckets. While the pods are gathered and packed into labeled sacks, we record GPS coordinates, elevation, associate species, habitat notes, and descriptions of plant health and abundance. Over the years, we expanded our data collection to include height and trunk girth (diameter at breast height) for each mother tree, along with trunk measurements for all woody species over four inches (ten centimeters) within a prescribed area (calculated with a small lens, known as a ten-factor wedge prism). We take herbarium vouchers of branches and fruits, which are later deposited at regional herbaria, and we also photograph each tree in the field. (Back at NPGS, we also scan images of the fruits and seeds for each tree, so that precise dimensions are documented.) Our goal is to capture the potential genetic diversity at every site. Sometimes we collect seed from six to eight mother trees, but this has ranged from two to ten. Sometimes the trees are found less than a few hundred yards apart in a forested area, and other times as much as five miles apart along a river corridor. After we collected from the massive specimen at Griffith Woods, the afternoon sun was setting fast. We never found the record chinkapin oak, because everywhere we turned, massive lookalikes made us freeze in our tracks in admiration. We collected from one other coffeetree--our seventh for the site--and then, as we walked back to the van at twilight, we were startled by a black object moving in the tall grass ahead of us. When our eyes focused, Gymnocladus dioicus 7 we came to realize it was a skunk. Good thing for us (and for the hotel staff), the skunk disappeared without incident. Soon afterwards, several wild turkeys flew overhead, landing in the brush to roost for the night. Observations on Abundance To cover the entire native range of Kentucky coffeetree, we have targeted collection sites approximately seventy-five miles apart within distinct watersheds. We have also aimed to collect from every possible Omernik ecoregion (Omernik, 1987), in an effort to find the best representation of genetic diversity across as many unique habitats as possible. To date, we have made at least one collection from twenty of twenty-two ecoregions within the core range, although small disjunct populations could occur in another twelve. Our first extended collection trip occurred in 2010, when we spent eight days on the road making thirteen collections in six states (Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, Illinois, Indiana, and Tennessee). On future trips, we usually focused on a single state or a few adjacent states, often targeting two collection sites per day, sometimes as much as one hundred miles apart. On all trips, our work started before sunrise and ended after sunset. Looking at the range map for Gymnocladus dioicus in Elbert Little Jr.'s Atlas of United States Trees, we might assume the species would be well represented near the central part of the range and become scarcer towards the edges, but this assumption does not hold true. Missouri, for instance, is centered within the native range, and approximately 80 percent of the state's Carstens and Schmitz's collection sites are pinpointed on Elbert Little Jr.'s Gymnocladus dioicus range map (USGS, 1999), which has been superimposed over color-coded Level III Omernik Ecoregions (Omernik, 1987). 8 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 counties document its presence (Kartesz, 2015). Yet out of nine Missouri populations that we've sampled, finding more than twenty-five trees proved difficult, especially in the southeastern corner of the state--nearly the center of the range. Jeremy Jackson, from the United States Army Corps of Engineers, supplied us with forestry plot data for the Wappapello Lake Project in Wayne County, which demonstrated that only three genetically distinct colonies occurred within the ten-thousand-acre property. Our first-hand observations confirmed this scarcity. This aligns with observations by Gifford Pinchot, the first chief of the United States Forest Service, whose 1907 report suggested that coffeetree was one of the rarest forest trees despite its rather extensive range and that, in large areas within the range, the species was \"entirely lacking or represented only by an occasional individual.\" For this reason, we were especially intrigued by an 1899 report from the geologist Robert Ellsworth Call, which stated coffeetree was \"of very common occurrence\" along aspects of Crowley's Ridge, a geological formation that runs from southeastern Missouri through northeastern Arkansas, paralleling the alluvial plain of the Mississippi River. We wanted to target Crowley's Ridge during our first joint collecting trip, so we spent numerous hours searching the internet and communicating with botanists hoping to pinpoint locations. Only one botanist--a man who had spent more than thirty years studying the area--could tell us of a single population along the ridge. What changed over the past century that has caused the \"very common\" to become rare? Certainly this period coincided with environmental transformations rendered by agriculture, deforestation, grazing, and timber use. Based on our observations, Ken- Coffeetrees proved most abundant on the western edge of its range, where the environment is the most hot and dry. Carstens and Schmitz encountered this specimen growing along a gravel road in Roger Mills County, Oklahoma. Gymnocladus dioicus 9 tucky coffeetree is essentially rare throughout the eastern three-quarters of its native range. While Little's map does not capture this offcentered distribution, general patterns hold true. In 2010, we spent almost a full day scouring areas south and west of Carbondale, Illinois, covering hundreds of miles in and near the LaRue-Pine Hills Research Natural Area, where limestone and sandstone outcroppings tower over the Mississippi River bottoms, yet we only found one lone tree at the base of Fountain Bluff. Our struggle to locate the species in this region aligns perfectly with Little's map, which shows a distribution gap for southern Illinois. In Michigan, on the northern edge of the native range, numerous botanists have kept an eye out for coffeetree due to its rarity. During a seven-day tour of the state in 2016, we were able to locate coffeetree only at locations that had been provided to us and at no additional sites, thus confirming its rarity. In Minnesota, the map shows a few disjunct populations. Our sampling, again dependent on the observations of other botanists, found Gymnocladus dioicus to be infrequent but locally common along watersheds of the Minnesota and Blue Earth Rivers, which once again aligns with Little's map. Compared to other states sampled, Gymnocladus dioicus is quite abundant in Oklahoma and Kansas, where it could be considered a dominant forest species at some sites. Perhaps a combination of historical and current land management practices allow it to sustain and regenerate within these two states. Observations on Habitat When we initially started making seed collections of Gymnocladus near Iowa, we specifically targeted watersheds and bottomlands, as By day nine of the collecting trip through Kansas, Oklahoma, and Texas, Schmitz and Carstens had packed their van with 1,335 pounds of pods and seeds. 10 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 In southern Indiana and Kentucky, for instance, Gymnocladus dioicus occurs on upland bluffs and steep slopes with loose soils and occasionally on bedrock. The Loess Hills of western Iowa, which follow the Missouri River, support substantial specimens of G. dioicus on all aspects of their slopes. In Iowa and Illinois, human settlement and introduction of the plow has likely eliminated many G. dioicus in open fields and has left remnants only in areas too wet or steep for modern agriculture. Coffeetree was found in a variety of habitats in Missouri, including moist ravines, dry rocky slopes, and major and minor watersheds. On the western edge of its native range in Kansas and Oklahoma, coffeetree occupies dry ravines and hillsides, open pastures and bedrock. All six sites sampled in Tennessee were collected off cool north- to northeast-facing slopes, showing a definite variance compared to other states. While most sites tend to have rather uniform habitats for all trees sampled, a few possessed specimens growing in remarkably different conditions. Along the Minnesota River in south-central Minnesota, coffeetrees grow on bottomland alluvial soils as well as on threeAndy Schmitz stands beside a multi-stemmed coffeetree on dry bluffs overlooking the Arkansas River in Osage County, Oklahoma. Trees were also billion-year-old granite outcrops, found on the nearby floodplain, demonstrating the remarkable adaptability emphasizing the ability of the speof the species. cies to perform on an extreme specthis is where we found the species naturally trum of harsh growing conditions. Specimens occurring; moreover, this preference for moist at the Tallgrass Prairie Preserve in northeastern locations concurred with descriptions in scienOklahoma demonstrate similar adaptability: tific literature. Yet, over the ensuing years, our we found trees growing on shallow sandstone understanding of the species began to change. outcrops with blackjack oak (Quercus mariWhen we collected in central Michigan in landica) and post oak (Q. stellata), and in moist floodplains with sycamore (Platanus occidenta2016, we noted that even though the majority of lis) and black walnut (Juglans nigra). the specimens were growing in extremely wet Ten years ago, we assumed silver maple (Acer bottomlands, adjacent to major rivers, many saccharinum) would be a common associate, displayed signs of root rot and decline. Whether given our original understanding that Gymnothese Kentucky coffeetrees really preferred to cladus dioicus was a floodplain species, but in be in such wet conditions was questionable. Gymnocladus dioicus 11 Threat of Impermeable Seeds On March 5, 2013, the day after our collection at Griffith Woods, Kentucky, we began before sunrise, heading northeast for the Fleming Wildlife Management Area. This site occupies the eastern edge of the range for Gymnocladus in Kentucky. Scott Freidhof, a wildlife biologist for the area, had provided us with GPS coordinates for coffeetrees there, and this information proved essential. The trees were a three-quartermile hike up to the top of a bluff, and because the forest cover was dense, there was no using binocs to spy pods from afar. With the GPS unit in hand, we attempted to take the most direct route to this localized population and scrambled straight up a steep slope. At the top, pods littered the ground, and we swiftly scooped up twenty-five gallons. The slingshot pole came in handy, not for slinging the throw line but for stringing up the bags of pods like wild game from a hunt. With one end of the pole on each of our shoulders, we made our way down the steep slope, only stumbling a few times on loose rocks or wet oak leaves underfoot. SCOTT FREIDHOF the end, silver maple has been documented at only 12 percent of our sites. Today, our efforts to find coffeetree typically require a watchful eye for common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), often growing where wet habitat grades into slightly higher elevations or sandier soils. We have observed hackberry--the most common associate--at 62 percent of our collection sites, including on the edge of the Cass River in Tuscola County, Michigan, where we discovered Gymnocladus about seventy miles north of the presumed northern limit for its range. Hackberry and coffeetree regularly share upland locations as well. The common belief that coffeetree is adapted for wet sites in the landscape likely stems from the occurrence of coffeetree amongst bottomland forests of major watersheds in the states of Iowa, Illinois, Minnesota, and Indiana, where sand and loam soils provide adequate drainage. Seeing a strong presence of Gymnocladus in Kansas and Oklahoma, more than any other states, suggests the species is well adapted for dry, hot environments. Because few living animals are known to disperse coffeetree seeds, an abundance of pods can sometimes be found beneath the trees, including here, in Fleming County, Kentucky. Andy Schmitz (left) and Jeffrey Carstens (right) carry a load of pods. 12 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 KYLE PORT Why were so many seeds undisturbed on the ground? The Kentucky coffeetree has been referred to as a \"botanical anachronism,\" one that was once dispersed by large prehistoric mammals that are now extinct (Zaya and Howe, 2009). Grinding molars and intestinal juices of the American mastodon (Mammut americanum) may have aided in scarifying coffeetree seeds, and perhaps just as important, these animals would have served as a major dispersal mechanism (Barlow, 2008). Al Fordham, a prominent propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, conducted a germination experiment on Gymnocladus in 1965. He placed three hundred seeds in water, and within the first ten days, thirteen seeds germinated. Fordham suggested \"these, no doubt had fissures in their seed coats.\" Over the next two years, only three more seeds germinated that were submerged in water. Coffeetree seeds are surrounded by a gelatinous material, which may serve as a protective barrier during the early to mid-maturation phases and perhaps later as a reward to animals willing to disperse them throughout the landscape, though which fourlegged critters (if any) now move these fruits remains unclear. Water may be a viable dispersal mechanism. We have observed pods falling into a river, and though able to float for a while, they eventually An open coffeetree pod at the Arnold Arboretum, showing sticky pulp surrounding the seeds (accession 1181-83*A). sink to the bottom, where abrasion provided by gravel and sand in the riverbed may provide the necessary scarification needed for germination. Yet how would such a heavy seed make its way back to shore to even have a chance at sprouting? At many collection sites, two- and threeyear-old seeds can be found on the ground under the canopy of the mother tree, next to rotting pods from prior years. This is what writer Connie Barlow--drawing on the work of ecologists Dan Janzen and Paul Martin--described as the \"riddle of the rotting fruit,\" caused when seed lies in wait for an extinct animal that will never come to carry it away. Our observations recorded little to no regeneration at almost all of our collection sites, illustrating a potential threat for the species within its native habitats. Habitat Loss and Ecological Changes In 2015, the day before we collected Gymnocladus in Texas, we visited a site along the Washita River in Custer County, Oklahoma, where an existing NPGS accession (PI 649669) had been collected in 1993. Steve Bieberich, the owner of Sunshine Nursery in Clinton, Oklahoma, had collected the original accession. We met at his nursery, and he guided us to the site. Even with his help, we were unable to relocate any coffeetrees. By looking at historical photos, we realized a new highway bridge had eliminated Gymnocladus at this location back in 2005. This observation really hit home the importance of our collaborative effort to deposit seeds for long-term preservation. Fortunately, germplasm from this location is currently secure in the NPGS collection, and preserved seed could be used for reintroduction back into the Washita River watershed. In addition to habitat losses like this, habitat modification poses another serious threat. Our main concern lies with Gymnocladus dioicus growing in floodplains of major watersheds. Thirty percent of our collections came from sites like this, but given that 82 percent of these plants were restricted to extremely well-drained soils, a slight change in hydrology (including increased frequency or duration of floods) would significantly impact tree health. At the Michigan sites where we observed serious signs of dieback and root rot, Gymnocladus dioicus 13 Andy Schmitz poses with a grove of coffeetrees in Louisa County, Iowa. Between 2010 (left) and 2016 (right) the trees became overwhelmed with hops (Humulus sp.), causing significant coffeetree mortality that was compounded by increased flooding at the site. we also noted a number of uprooted specimens with debarked trunks lying in water, their root bases sticking eight feet in the air. These collapsed specimens likely resulted from hydrological changes, given that we found fruiting trees on slightly higher ground a few yards away. For a species that comprises only a small percentage of forest canopies, any loss is critical to future conservation. The threat of non-native invasive species (and even aggressive natives) is also significant. Nowhere was this more evident than on the Little Red River near Heber Springs, Arkansas, where back in 2010 it was virtually impossible to not get entangled in Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) or bloodied by multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora). We also noted mature coffeetrees acting like trellises for grape (Vitis sp.) and poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans) resulting in limb decline. That same year, we sampled a site along the Iowa River in Louisa County, Iowa, where we noted more than one hundred genetically distinct trees--the most coffeetrees we had ever seen in a single area. We could have literally collected truckloads of pods. However, when we returned to this location in 2016, we discovered that at least three-quarters of the coffeetrees were dead or in decline after becoming overgrown by hops (Humulus sp.). The area had also flooded numerous times, suggesting a simultaneous and significant change in hydrology. In these real-world situations, even if seeds could germinate or if clonal suckers sprouted, it seems unlikely a new generation of trees would ever have a chance to reach maturity. 14 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Still Collecting now linked to state champion coffeetrees in Kentucky, New York, and Oklahoma. Despite threats to native populations of GymAll told, we've travelled over twenty-five nocladus, we have consistently observed the thousand miles and spent seventy-five days on extreme toughness and adaptability of the spethe road, collecting over a quarter million seeds cies. Not only can it tolerate a wide variety from more than five hundred mother trees. This of soils, but the trees are remarkably durable, has resulted in one of the most comprehensive withstanding severe ice and other unfavorable tree seed collections ever preserved, including weather conditions. When we visited Obion 88 seed accessions in the NPGS (GRIN, Online County, Tennessee, in February 2010, we Database, National Genetic Resources Laboracrossed the mighty Mississippi on the Dorenatory 2018) and 130 accessions of different wild Hickman Ferry and witnessed the aftermath of provenances planted in three informal groupa major storm that had deposited over an inch ings at the Brenton Arboretum. Researchers in of ice a year before our visit. The forest was Ontario, Canada, are already using this expanentangled with downed trees and limbs. Most sive collection for genetic comparisons to their trees were uniformly broken off at a certain threatened native populations. In 2017, a repheight, but fifteen coffeetrees stood undamaged, licated block of 750 trees was planted at the towering above the surrounding mess and callPlant Introduction Station in Ames, representing like beacons to two boys from Iowa. ing fifty wild populations (three mother trees Over the past ten years, our travels have per population and five trees per mother tree), taken us across sixteen states in search of this which in time will help us to learn about polone species: Gymnocladus dioicus. We have linators, growth rates, and hardiness. Yet our spent eight hours on a frigid boat ride on Michifieldwork continues. We still aim to fill gaps gan's Shiawassee River to document the species within ecoregions and sample outlying populafor a new county record. We have tested the tions and unique habitats. The state of Ohio is shocks on our minivan after collecting 1,335 on our hit list because, to date, only one collecpounds of pods during our trip to Texas and tion has been made there. back. We have avoided snow storms in northern Arkansas, but in Kentucky, we collected in the pouring rain. We have worn hip waders too many times to count and used scrapers to clear ice off the inside of the windshield (given the condensation that rises from wet pods stored inside the van). We met an oilman in Oklahoma who just so happened to have a coffeetree pod under the seat of his truck because he wanted someone to identify it for him. We're sure he never thought two guys from Iowa would make the positive determination, let alone two guys from Iowa who just so happened to be on the same backroad Jeffrey Carstens shows the collection of Kentucky coffeetree seeds at the National shaking the exact same pods Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) genebank in Ames, Iowa. Seeds for each individual from a tree. Our names are mother tree are kept in separate packages and are maintained at -18?C (0?F). CRAIG SHIVES Gymnocladus dioicus 15 Andy Schmitz stands at the entrance to the Brenton Arboretum's Gymnocladus collection, which achieved Plant Collections Network accreditation in 2016. Each of the trees (currently 130 wild-collected accessions) has enough space to reach its mature size, while creating an intertwined canopy. More than anything, our adventures have allowed us the opportunity to experience the beauty of this species in the wild and to discover more than what we could ever find in any textbook or publication. In the words of the natural historian William B. Werthner, \"If in your walks through the woods, you chance to come upon a Kentucky coffeetree, count yourself fortunate for it is the rarest of our forest trees.\" And if you do, please give us a call because we would sure like to know its location. References Call, R.E. 1891. The geology of Crowley's Ridge. Annual Report of the Geological Survey of Arkansas for 1889, 2: 1?223. Carstens, J. and A. Schmitz. 2016. Michigan collection trip Gymnocladus dioicus. Technical Report to USDA-ARS Plant Exchange Office, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 1?42. Carstens, J. and A. Schmitz. 2015. Collection trip report Gymnocladus dioicus. Technical Report to USDA-ARS Plant Exchange Office, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 1?57. Barlow, C. 2008. The ghosts of evolution: Nonsensical fruit, missing partners, and other ecological anachronisms. New York: Basic Books. Carstens, J. and A. Schmitz. 2014. Collection trip report Gymnocladus dioicus. Technical Report to USDA-ARS Plant Exchange Office, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 1?18. Baskin, C.C. and J.M. Baskin. 1998. Seeds: Ecology, biogeography, and, evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego: Academic Press. Carstens, J. and A. Schmitz. 2013. Collection trip report Gymnocladus dioicus. Technical Report to USDA-ARS Plant Exchange Office, National Barlow, C. 2001. Anachronistic fruits and the ghosts who haunt them. Arnoldia, 61(2): 14?21. 16 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 1?54. Carstens, J. and A. Schmitz. 2010. Collection trip report Gymnocladus dioicus. Technical Report to USDA-ARS Plant Exchange Office, National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 1?18. Fordham, A.J. 1965. Germination of woody legume seeds with impermeable seed coats. Arnoldia, 25(1): 1?8. Herendeen, P.S., Lewis, G.P., and A. Bruneau. 2003. Floral morphology in Caesalpinioid legumes: Testing the monophyly of the \"Umtiza clade\". International Journal of Plant Sciences, 164(S5): 393?407. Harshberger, J.W. 1904. The relation of ice storms to trees. Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, 2: 345?349. Hauer, R.J., Wang, W., and J.O. Dawson. 1993. Ice storm damage to urban trees. Journal of Arboriculture, 19: 187?187. Hoss, G. 2013. Growing difficult hardwoods: Experiences at the George O. White State Forest Nursery. National Proceedings: Forest and Conservation Nursery Associations?2012: 39. Janzen, D.H. and P.S. Martin. 1982. Neotropical anachronisms: The fruits the gomphotheres ate. Science, 215(4528): 19?27. Kartesz, J.T. 2015. The Biota of North America Program (BONAP). North American Plant Atlas. (http:\/\/ bonap.net\/napa). Chapel Hill, N.C. [maps generated from Kartesz, J.T. 2015. Floristic Synthesis of North America, Version 1.0. Biota of North America Program (BONAP). (in press)]. McClain, M.L. 1973. Site preferences and growth responses of Kentucky coffeetree, Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch, near the center of its range (doctoral dissertation). Indiana State University, Terre Haute, Indiana. McClain, M.L. and M.T. Jackson. 1980. Vegetational associates and site characteristics of Kentucky coffeetree, Gymnocladus dioicus (L.) K. Koch. Proceedings of the Central Hardwoods Forest Conference, 3: 239?256. Omernik, J.M. 1987. Ecoregions of the conterminous United States. Annals of the Association of American Geographers, 77(1): 118?125. Pinchot, G. 1907. Coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus). USDA Forest Service Circular, 91: 1?4. Smith, M.A.L. 1996. Gymnocladus dioicus L. (Kentucky coffeetree). In Y.P.S. Bajaj (Ed.), Trees IV (pp. 194?204). New York: Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg. Smith, W.R. 2008. Trees and shrubs of Minnesota. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant G e r mp l a sm S y ste m. 2 0 1 8 . G e r mp l a sm Resources Information Network (GRINTaxonomy). National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. Accessed 1 May 2018 from https:\/\/www.ars-grin.gov\/ USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service, Soil Survey Staff. 2017. Web Soil Survey. National Soil Survey Center, Lincoln, Nebraska. Accessed 1 May 2018 from https:\/\/websoilsurvey.sc.egov. usda.gov\/ USGS. 1999. Digital representation of \"Atlas of United States Trees\" by Elbert L. Little, Jr. Reston, Virginia: US Geological Survey. Stilinovic, S. and M. Grbic. 1987. Effect of various presowing treatments on the germination of some woody ornamental seeds. International Symposium on Propagation of Ornamental Plants 226: 239?246. Weisehuegel, E.G. 1935. Ger minating Kentucky coffeetree. Journal of Forestry, 33: 533?534. Werthner, W.B. 1935. Some American trees. New York: The Macmillian Company. Zaya, D.N. and H.F. Howe. 2009. The anomalous Kentucky coffeetree: Megafaunal fruit sinking to extinction? Oecologia, 161(2): 221?226. Andy Schmitz has been the director of horticulture\/ general manager of the Brenton Arboretum for twenty years and oversees all horticultural aspects of the 143-acre arboretum, including planting, curating, and maintaining all plant records for over 2,500 woody accessioned plants. He enjoys observing trees in their native habitats while collecting seed to grow trees and shrubs to enhance the arboretum's collections, and his particular focus is on collecting the native Iowa woody plants for their Iowa collection. Jeffrey Carstens is a horticulturist at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station in Ames, Iowa, where he currently serves as the curator for the collection of woody and herbaceous plants. He coordinates the NC-7 Woody Ornamental Evaluation Trials and is actively involved with collecting ash (Fraxinus) as part of the National Plant Germplasm System Ash Conservation Project. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Great Wild Gardens: The Story of the Arboretum's Woodlands","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25647","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060a36b.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":1,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schissler, Danny","article_content":"Great Wild Gardens: The Story of the Arboretum's Woodlands Danny Schissler A Law Olmsted, preserved these masses of native trees, noting their natural beauty and educational potential. \"In no other public garden are there such cliffs or a more beautiful remnant of a coniferous forest,\" Sargent wrote of Hemlock Hill, one of the four main Arboretum woodlands. Of the other areas, he noted that large oaks and other deciduous trees--some more than two-hundred years old, according to his estimate--were valuable for illustrating \"New England trees in their adult state.\" Since Sargent's time, these four areas--North Woods, Central Woods, Hemlock Hill, and DANNY SCHISSLER t the heart of the story of the Arboretum's woodlands lies a tension between the managed and the unmanaged, the natural and the constructed. From the beginning, the Arboretum's woodlands were intentionally excluded from formal development to serve as an aesthetic contrast to the taxonomically grouped collections. The Arboretum's first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, took careful inventory of the remnant woodlands included in the Arboretum's indenture. Rather than clear these areas for collections, Sargent, in concert with the landscape architect Frederick Stands of sweet birch (Betula lenta)--seen here in brilliant fall color--take advantage of canopy gaps on Hemlock Hill. 18 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Four woodlands are traditionally recognized at the Arboretum, shown here from left to right: Peters Hill Woodland, Hemlock Hill, Central Woods, and North Woods. This map was hand-drawn by Jan Tijs Peiter Bijhouwer. Peters Hill Woodland--have come to exemplify the concept of the \"urban woodland,\" providing benefits along with management challenges unique to urban forest fragments. Today, these woodlands provide a naturalistic backdrop to the cultivated collections, offering a sense of spontaneity--whether in a fleeting glimpse of wildlife, discovery of a rare wildflower, or an unexpected encounter with a venerable old tree. Despite the seeming wildness of these areas, the woodlands and the ecosystems they support hardly represent the sort of pristine New England forest we might imagine them to be. On the contrary, they exist at the intersection of the intended and unintended consequences of human decisions--a sustained biological triumph over repeated broad-scale disturbances, creating a colorful mosaic of the native, the non-native, and the outright invasive, while raising questions about the very definition of so-called natural woodlands. Woodland Hill The woodlands inherited by Sargent at the time of the Arboretum's founding in 1872 bore the marks of widespread ecological disturbance, most of it regrown from worn cropland and pasturage. In a 1935 article on land-use history at MODIFIED FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Arboretum Woodlands 19 the Arboretum, research assistant Hugh Raup (who would later be appointed the first plant ecologist on the Arboretum staff) examined deeds of conveyance, records of will, and other historical documents to catalogue the extensive parceling and transfer of properties that would eventually form the Arboretum. From Raup's historical rendering, we know with some certainty that during colonial settlement in the 1700s, the forested portion of the Arboretum's lands befell the same dramatic ecological disturbance as most central New England forests. Rapid deforestation provided fuel and lumber; clear-cut land with fertile soil was cultivated; and upland areas with thin, rocky soils provided pasturage and orchard land. During that period, much of the Arboretum acreage passed through generations of the Davis, Morey, and Weld families. Raup used dendrochronology (a method of tree-ring dating) to show that nearly all of this land--with the exception of the steep slopes of what would later become known as Hemlock Hill--had witnessed the wholesale removal of mature trees. Early on, a saw mill had even been constructed on Bussey Brook. Then, in 1806, a wealthy merchant named Benjamin Bussey began purchasing properties in the area. He consolidated the 20 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 rhapsodic reflections inspired by these woodlands, Raup's study of extant trees in 1935 suggests that the oldest hemlocks were scarcely older than thirty when Bussey acquired the hill among his first parcels and, hence, would have been little more than twice that age when Fuller became a frequent visitor. Bussey's stewardship marked a period of rejuvenation for woodlands on the property, yet the ecological succession was nonetheless dictated according to the management practices of this genteel landowner. One local historian, drawing on the memory of older residents in 1897, noted that during Bussey's tenure, woodland paths had been carefully tended all over Hemlock Hill and that an arbor had been erected near the summit, allowing visitors to reflect on the pastoral vista. This aesthetic approach to landscape maintenance was also outlined in Bussey's will, where he dictated that, as long as his family still occupied the land following ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES land into an exemplary pastoral estate known as Woodland Hill, on which he would spend his well-earned retirement. Bussey was fascinated by horticultural and agricultural science, and among his three hundred acres of hillsides, meadows, ravines, and brooks, the retired merchant reared merino sheep and cultivated the land through the introduction of novel crop species, trees, and shrubs. Bussey developed his country estate in accordance with the naturalistic English landscaping tradition that had recently permeated American design sensibilities. He targeted areas for reforestation as part of his landscape plan and opened his woodlands, in truly altruistic fashion, to any who wished to escape the bustle and din of nearby Boston. Margaret Fuller and her circle of transcendentalist thinkers visited Bussey's Woods, now known as Hemlock Hill, and she wrote fondly of the soaring hemlocks and pines found along the brook. Despite the Benjamin Bussey's mansion and farm buildings were situated on the eastern slope of Bussey Hill--a short stroll from wooded paths on Hemlock Hill (then known as Bussey's Woods). This inset comes from a large map prepared by Guy Lowell in 1904. At that time, Bussey's home was on property maintained by the Bussey Institution, not the Arboretum. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Arboretum Woodlands 21 Ernest Henry Wilson captured the tranquil beauty of Hemlock Hill in 1923. The unidentified woman could be Wilson's daughter, Muriel. his death, no trees should be removed, except when necessary \"for the beauty of the groves and the walks.\" Presumably Bussey would have applied a similar approach to other woodlands--or rather thickets of young trees--as he acquired them. The areas now known as Peters Hill Woodlands and the North Woods were primarily ten to fifteen years old when Bussey died in 1842, while the Central Woods--located on rocky soil that was largely unsuitable for agriculture--was between twenty-five and fifty years old. When Sargent took the helm of the Arboretum, his impulse to preserve these woodlands likely spanned the aesthetic and the practical; his views on the multitude of ecological benefits provided by preserved forests--including reduced compaction, mulch creation, windbreaks, and improved soil moisture--are well-captured in his 1875 report, \"A Few Suggestions on Tree Planting,\" prepared for the Massachusetts Board of Agriculture. Sargent initially imagined that the woodlands would serve as plantations for the study of forestry and related sciences. In a letter to Boston's Department of Parks in 1879, Sargent described a \"scientific station\" that would allow for the investigation of \"the best methods of forest reproduction and management\" as well as \"a school of forestry and arboriculture in which special students may ... acquire the knowledge and training necessary to fit them for the care and increase of our forests.\" Eventually, Sargent abandoned this forestry plan, yet he retained the three woodland areas later known as Hemlock Hill, North Woods, and Central Woods, prescribing a basic management regime of occasional thinning--more or less maintaining Bussey's vision for these wooded spaces. Later, a fourth woodland was added with the 1895 annexation of the sixtyseven-acre tract that became Peters Hill. A naturalistic blending of native woodlands and cultivated collections--producing a so-called MODIFIED FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 22 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 The undulating borders of Central Woods show the impact of landscape management over five decades. The woodlands were allowed to spread across Conifer Path (originally known as Bridle Path) before undergoing restriction to create space for new accessioned plantings. From left to right: 1937 (or 1938), 1952, 1964, and 1987. landscape effect--formed the foundation for Olmsted's design and left a lasting impact on the institution's identity. Ultimately, the long legacy of human intervention that had shaped the Arboretum's woodlands would continue into the twentieth century and well beyond Sargent's time, as staff members grappled with a succession of natural and unnatural disturbances in these areas. Managed Succession Among the Arboretum woodlands, Hemlock Hill most clearly shows the ongoing process of human intervention. On a cold September evening in 1938, a four-day rainstorm crescendoed across New England. Violent wind gusts buffeted forests south of Boston, and the Blue Hills Observatory recorded hurricane speeds of over 150 miles per hour. At the Arboretum, staff members hunkered down in the darkness of the Administration Building, listening to the creaks and groans of the trees. The worst of the storm lasted only a few hours. The next morning, staff awoke to a grim scene. The Arboretum suffered greatly: over fifteen hundred trees had been claimed by the winds. Much of the damage befell the Arboretum's woodland areas, including Hemlock Hill, where at least four hundred native hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis) lay in splinters. Arboretum staff responded to this cataclysm by planting hundreds of hemlocks in their place, some as large as six feet tall. The storm would prove to be the most destructive in the recorded history of New England, just one in a series of events that transformed the Arboretum's natural woodlands--its marks still visible today. Yet in many ways, the natural history of Hemlock Hill, and the Arboretum woodlands in general, has been a story of ongoing landscape management. Without human intervention, ecosystems respond to disturbances like hurricanes, fire, and even secondary regrowth after agricultural land is abandoned, through the process of succession-- or the gradual change in species structure in an ecological community. Since the beginning of this successional process for the Arboretum woodlands, starting when Bussey set aside reforestation land and allowed seedling thickets to become established, this gradual change has been continually manipulated, especially in response to large-scale disturbance like the hurricane. This management, of course, raises questions about the very conception of natural succession and whether strategies often intended to contribute to (and perhaps simply expedite) these ecological changes are, in fact, additional forms of disturbance. In 1930, nearly a decade before the hurricane Today, the control of invasive plant species is caused ecological upheaval across New Engoutlined as an ongoing objective in the Arboreland, Arboretum botanist Ernest Jesse Palmer tum's Landscape Management Plan, although presented an extensive survey of the Arboremany of these interventions are conducted on tum's spontaneous flora, cataloging biodiversity an ad hoc basis, given that most horticultural throughout much of the grounds--including its resources are invested in the more manicured woodlands. Alongside his thorough inventory portions of the living collections. Nonetheof each area of the living collections and the less, occasional efforts have been devoted to underlying geology of the landscape, Palmer this end. Peters Hill Woodland, for instance, hinted ominously at the effects of aggressive was subject to a three-year project conducted exotic plants on native flora. His account is by the Hunnewell interns, starting in 2008, particularly notable for its description of the with the last two years focused primarily on colonization of highly disturbed areas, such as removing woody plants like cork tree and casthe abandoned quarry south of Bussey Street, tor aralia (Kalopanax septemlobus), which by an \"uncommon\" assemblage of herbaceous had escaped from the surrounding collections. weedy species like green foxtail (Setaria viridis), Control of the botanical composition of urban black nightshade (Solanum nigrum), and comwoodlands--particularly those in close proxmon vetch (Vicia sativa). These species, notaimity to historically disturbed areas--is often bly absent from his inventories of the diverse costly, however, requiring horticultural care and richly populated woodland areas, had only be diverted from the accessioned collections. begun to take hold on the grounds. The time Moreover, the management of invasive spebetween Palmer's and ours marks an ecological cies using mechanical and chemical methods transition for many of the Arboretum's natural raises questions about the very idea of preservareas, with the slow creep of invasive plants ing ecosystem processes, further muddying our gradually shifting the compositions of species understanding of how landscapes continually among these woodland fragments. disturbed by human intervention could be conMost of the first weedy species to show up strued as natural. in New England arrived with European settlers Introduced insects and pathogens have also beginning in the seventeenth century. Wellinspired radical management changes in the adapted to continually disturbed conditions, many of these species established themselves in parts of the Arboretum. A second wave of non-native introductions arrived on a network of exploration and plant trade connecting Western nurseries and botanical institutions with East Asia beginning in the 1860s, resulting in the rapid importation of thousands of potentially invasive species. Through its legacy of collection and distribution of exotic plants, the Arboretum played its part in popularizing many of these species, such as Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) twines atop castor aralia (Kalopanax and Amur cork tree (Phelloden- septemlobus). Both are abundant escapees from the Arboretum's cultivated collection, observed here in Peters Hill Woodland. dron amurense). JONATHAN DAMERY Arboretum Woodlands 23 24 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 up to fill canopy gaps. In 2006, the Arboretum also planted sapling oaks (Quercus montana, Q. coccinea, Q. velutina), shagbark hickories (Carya ovata), and sugar maples (Acer saccharum) on the southeast side of Hemlock Hill. To echo Palmer's observations from 1930, \"The line between Nature's great wild gardens and those planted and tended by man is not a hard and fast one ... Nature herself is the builder if not the designer, guided only by man's selection and aid in planting, pruning and cultivating the things he deems most desirable.\" Across its rocky terrain, Hemlock Hill bears the marks of past attempts to preserve what Sargent had once deemed \"the great natural feature of the Arboretum\" through generations of stewardship. While a walk in its cool and shady understory may mentally transport us to the \"primeval\" New England forest that even RICHARD SCHULHOF woodlands--a point illustrated by the arrival of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) at the Arboretum in 1998. After the initial discovery of this destructive pest on Hemlock Hill, a substantial effort on the part of the Arboretum's horticulture and curation staff culminated in the accessioning of over nineteen hundred existing trees (some nearly two hundred years old), allowing for the close monitoring of the spread of adelgid and its impact on the hemlock population. Today, the remaining mature hemlocks--many of them originally planted in response to the destruction of the Hurricane of 1938--owe their survival to annual treatment with a soil- and trunk-injected insecticide, imidacloprid. Where mature trees have fallen or been removed, dozens of recently planted Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis)--naturally resistant to the ravages of the adelgid--reach Arboretum arborist Robert Ervin holds a branch from an adelgid-infested hemlock (notice the cotton-colored egg masses), which was felled within a research plot on Hemlock Hill in early 2005. PHOTOS BY DANNY SCHISSLER Arboretum Woodlands 25 Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense) is an abundant spring ephemeral on Hemlock Hill, while spotted cranesbill (Geranium maculatum) is more commonly observed in Peters Hill Woodland. Palmer envisioned there, the turbulent history of this forest fragment and its resulting character is perhaps the most challenging to our notion of what constitutes a natural woodland. Ecology of the Urban Woodland Natural or not, the Arboretum's woodlands support a great deal of biodiversity. In contrast to the cultivated collections, the successional composition, varied topography, and increased leaf litter and woody debris of these areas provide suitable habitats for a variety of native and non-native species. The woodlands harbor a variety of deciduous hardwoods, conifers, shrubs, herbaceous species, ferns, mosses, and fungi. The woodlands also provide habitats for a range of fauna that often avoid open forests and humans. Snags--dead trees that remain standing--and decaying holes in trunks provide shelter for cavity-nesting birds. Tall trees with dense canopies offer nesting opportunities for larger birds of prey. In the shady understory, reptiles and amphibians make homes among the leaf litter and decaying logs. Wild turkeys forage for acorns and nuts from beeches and hickories. A variety of mammals--coyote, deer, foxes, rabbits, raccoons, opossums, squirrels, chipmunks, voles, and field mice--utilize the Arboretum woodlands. In addition to supporting biodiversity, these woodlands provide a range of ecosystem services that benefit outlying collections. Given the Arboretum's location in a densely populated urban environment, the entire landscape faces an exceptional set of disturbance and climatological factors. The constant pressure of competing species, exotic wildlife, and invasive pests and pathogens is compounded by elevated air and soil temperatures, carbon dioxide, ozone and nitrogen levels, decreased humidity and water availability, soil compaction, and the presence of pollutants. The preservation of urban forests combats these factors by promoting soil building and moisture retention, erosion prevention, temperature control, and carbon sequestration. As Sargent had once envisioned, the Arboretum's woodlands complement the surrounding cultivated collections aesthetically, as part of a naturalistic landscape design, and ecologically, as a buffer against the often harsh conditions of the urban environment. While the Arboretum's woodlands never became the forest plantations for the study of continues on page 30 26 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 PHOTOS BY DANNY SCHISSLER Woodland Sketches An abundance of fungi occur in the understory of the North Woods, where fallen trees provide habitat. From left to right: shaggy mane (Coprinus comatus) and yellow orange fly agaric (Amanita muscaria var. formosa). North Woods North Woods (2 acres) is situated along eskers that overlook the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden. The Arboretum acquired the westernmost part from the Adams Nervine Asylum in 1926, but the remainder has been part of the Arboretum since its founding. The eastern part of North Woods has diminished over time. This area is also home to quite a few non-native species that likely escaped from the cultivated collection, including cork tree (Phellodendron amurense), Korean mountain ash (Sorbus alnifolia), and Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus). Geology and soils: Higher pH soils (A horizon: 4.21; B horizon: 4.47) than Hemlock Hill and Central Woods; glacially deposited eskers underlain by gravel and other sediment; groundcover mostly of deciduous leaf litter. Mid and overstory: Dominated by sugar maple (Acer saccharum), with an abundance of sweet birch (Betula lenta); interspersed with white oak (Quercus alba) and shadbush (Amelanchier arborea). Understory: Woody taxa include many escaped species from nearby collections such as sapphire berry (Symplocos paniculata), euonymus (Euonymus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera spp.), linden (Tilia spp.), and zelkova (Zelkova spp.); herbaceous groundcover includes sedge (Carex spp.) and aster (Symphyotrichum spp.). Wildlife species of note: Great crested flycatcher (Myiarchus crinitus), eastern wood-pewee (Contopus virens), wood thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), red-eyed vireo (Vireo olivaceus), ovenbird (Seiurus aurocapillus), black-throated blue warbler (Setophaga caerulescens), black-throated green PHOTOS BY DANNY SCHISSLER Arboretum Woodlands 27 White trillium (Trillium grandiflorum) and common milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) are among the many wildflowers found in the Arboretum's woodlands. warbler (Setophaga virens), black-and-white warbler (Mniotilta varia), eastern screech owl (Megascops asio), and eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus). Central Woods Central Woods (6.5 acres) was maintained as pastureland before a period of regrowth beginning in the 1790s. This woodland is favored by wildlife species that prefer dense, mixed forests. While this woodland has been relatively undisturbed, containing few non-native species in comparison to other areas, the dominance of eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), a pioneer species, is the result of formal clearing in some areas several decades ago. Geology and soils: Low pH soils (A horizon: 3.6; B horizon: 4.09) underlain by outcroppings of Roxbury conglomerate in many areas; heavy cover of duff and leaf litter compared to the other Arboretum woodlands. Mid and overstory: Primarily dominated by eastern white pine, red oak (Quercus rubra), and white oak, with stands of immature eastern white pine and American beech (Fagus grandifolia). Understory: Dominated by lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium) and huckleberry (Gaylussacia spp.). Wildlife species of note: Red-breasted nuthatch (Sitta canadensis), yellowbellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius), pine siskin (Spinus pinus), common redpoll (Acanthis flammea), purple finch (Haemorhous purpureus), red- and white-winged crossbill (Loxia curvirostra, L. leucoptera), great horned owl (Bubo virginianus), and coyote (Canis latrans). DAVID CAPPAERT, BUGWOOD.ORG 28 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 The Arboretum's woodlands provide habitat for a range of fauna, and some, like the redbacked salamander (Plethodon cinereus), are found almost exclusively within these areas. Hemlock Hill Hemlock Hill, the largest Arboretum woodland, occupies 22 acres. It has had a complex history of disturbance, including the 1938 hurricane and arrival of the hemlock woolly adelgid. This woodland is home to a number of unique birds, amphibians, ferns, and herbaceous perennials that prefer the shady understory of dense forestland. Prominent non-native plants include glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus), castor aralia (Kalopanax septemlobus), mountain ash (Sorbus spp.), and hawthorn (Crataegus spp.). Geology and soils: Low pH soils (A horizon: 3.75; B horizon: 4.19); steep rock outcroppings on northeast side; pit-and-mound formations formed by downed trees throughout. Mid and overstory: Heavily dominated by eastern hemlock and some red oak, along with stands of eastern white pine and sweet birch succeeding mature trees. Understory: Dominated by Canada mayflower (Maianthemum canadense), wild sarsaparilla (Aralia nudicaulis) and hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula), with shadbush (Amelanchier arborea) and mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium). Wildlife species of note: Red-breasted nuthatch, pine warbler (Setophaga pinus), black-capped chickadee (Poecile atricapillus), tufted titmouse (Baeolophus bicolor), red-tailed hawk (Buteo jamaicensis), Cooper's hawk (Accipiter cooperii), Virginia opossum (Didelphis virginiana), eastern red-backed salamander, and northern dusky salamander (Desmognathus fuscus). Peters Hill Woodland The 2.5-acre woodland on the eastern slope of Peters Hill was the subject of the Hunnewell intern project for three years (2008?2010). In 2008, the intern class surveyed the vegetation and came up with management recommendations pertaining to invasive species removal, which the following two classes carried out. Peters Hill is the most species-rich of the woodlands and provides space for the greatest number of non-native species, most notably cork tree, crabapple (Malus spp.), hawthorn, and Korean mountain ash. PHOTOS BY DANNY SCHISSLER Arboretum Woodlands 29 False Solomon's seal (Maianthemum racemosum) and wood anemone (Anemone quinquefolia) are among the spring ephemerals observed in the Arboretum's woodlands. Geology and soils: Comparatively high pH soils (A horizon: 4.28; B horizon: 4.51) due to a lack of conifers; steep slopes forming a wet ravine that provides water throughout most of the year; heavy presence of woody debris, duff, and leaf litter. Mid and overstory: Dominated by red oak, followed by sassafras (Sassafras albidum), black oak, cork tree, yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), castor aralia, and a variety of other native and non-native hardwoods. Understory: Dense understory with at least twenty-three woody species in the sample plot; abundance of native and non-native saplings, primarily cork tree; many common herbaceous perennials. Wildlife species of note: Great crested flycatcher, scarlet tanager (Piranga olivacea), rose-breasted grosbeak (Pheucticus ludovicianus), black-throated green warbler, eastern wood-pewee, wood thrush, chimney swift (Chaetura pelagica), common nighthawk (Chordeiles minor), and common garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis). Survey methods Woody flora was documented in a 2017 survey, based on two randomly assigned ten-meter-radius circular plots within each of the four woodlands. In Peters Hill Woodland, only one circular plot was examined along with a recreated transect first studied by the Hunnewell interns, class of 2008. In addition, each study area was sampled as part of the 2017 landscapewide soil survey. Ten auger samples, separated into A and B horizons, were taken within each of the four study areas and composited, producing one A- and one B-horizon sample for each natural land. These samples were sieved, air-dried, and sent to the University of Massachusetts for analysis. 30 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 continued from page 25 lands. Data acquired through these projects can help researchers understand the response of urban woodlands and their inhabitants to a changing climate. Resistance of Nature Since the time of Benjamin Bussey and the wayward philosophers for whom he opened his lands, the forest fragments now situated on the Arboretum's grounds have offered a space for rejuvenation and a retreat from the hum of city life. Sargent and Olmsted--both profoundly influenced by an English tradition of naturalistic park design--incorporated these woodlands as a visual backdrop for the accessioned plant collections, adapting land that Olmsted described in a 1880 letter to author Charles Eliot Norton as largely unfit for cultivation. Today, the Arboretum's woodlands provide visitors a sense of tranquility and privacy JAY CONNOR arboriculture that Sargent had imagined, the unique ecosystems of these areas have served researchers working across a range of scientific disciplines. Sheltered habitats situated among woodland microclimates--such as the shady, moist understory of Hemlock Hill--have offered opportunities to study native salamander species. Mature trees in Central Woods are used in climatological and phenological studies. Peters Hill Woodland, along with the \"urban wild\" of Bussey Brook Meadow, present unique successional models of minimally managed urban vegetation and the ecosystem services provided by cosmopolitan assemblages of species found in such areas. Most recently, for mer Living Collections Fellow Jenna Zukswert collaborated with other staff members to conduct an Arboretum-wide survey of soils and species composition within the wood- The Arboretum woodlands--all visible from this springtime vantage in 2005--record a long trajectory of landscape management practices within a highly modified urban environment. Arboretum Woodlands 31 often missed among the more open and ordered character of the cultivated collections. Here, the allure of wildness and the excitement of spontaneity play out in chance encounters with the seemingly natural. But the character of such spaces begs the question: what is truly natural in an era of accelerated ecological upheaval? What role do such spaces--shaped continuously by the interplay of environmental stochasticity and human impulse--play in the Arboretum landscape today? And finally, how might we manage these spaces to reap the spiritual and ecological benefits they provide, while acknowledging the realities of our rapidly changing urban environments? In the words of Palmer, \"There is a constant effort of Nature to reassert her sway and reclaim for herself the areas that men have planted. Even in the best kept gardens this jealous resistance of Nature is not entirely overcome.\" At the Arnold, the genius of Sargent and Olmsted's collaborative vision lives on in these naturalistic, if not entirely natural, interstitial spaces between the cultivated and the wild--not only in their physicality, but in the way they touch our primal selves, helping us forget, if only for a moment, that we're walking in a garden. Olmsted, F.L. 1982. To Charles Eliot Norton, 5 May 1880. In R.C. Wade (Ed.), The papers of Frederick Law Olmsted: parks, politics, and patronage (pp. 463?465). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press. References Whitcomb, H.M. 1897. Annals and reminiscences of Jamaica Plain. Cambridge: Riverside Press. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. 2011. Landscape management plan (3rd edition). Retrieved from https:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/ wp-content\/uploads\/AA_LMP_Summary.pdf Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. 2007. Cultural resource management plan. Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. Bussey, B. 1859. Will of Benjamin Bussey of Roxbury. Boston: J.H. Eastburn's Press. Del Tredici, P. 2010. Spontaneous urban vegetation: reflections of change in a globalized world. Nature + Culture 5(3): 299. Hay, I. 1995. Science in the pleasure ground: a history of the Arnold Arboretum. Boston: Northeastern University Press. Hay, I. 1994. George Barrell Emerson and the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 54(3): 12?21. Mathewson, B. 2007. Salamanders in a changing environment on Hemlock Hill. Arnoldia 65(1): 19?25. Palmer, E.J. 1930. The spontaneous flora of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 11(2): 63?119. Raup, H.M. 1935. Notes on the early uses of land now in the Arnold Arboretum. Bulletin of Popular Information (Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University) 3(9?12): 41?74. Sargent, C.S. 1875. A few suggestions on tree-planting. Twenty-Third Annual Report of the Secretary of the Board of Agriculture. Boston: Wright and Potter, State Printers. Sargent, C.S. 1922. First fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 3(3): 127?171. Sargent, C.S. 1880. To the Board of Park Commissioners, City of Boston. Fifth annual report of the Board of Commissioners of the Department of Parks for the City of Boston for the year 1879 (pp. 21?22). Boston: Rockwell and Churchill, City Printers. Sargent, C.S. 1885. To Frederick Law Olmsted, 5 February 1885. Charles Sprague Sargent (1841?1927) papers, Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. Schulhof, R. 2008. Ecosystems in flux: the lessons of Hemlock Hill. Arnoldia 66(1): 22?28. Wilson, M.J. 2006. Benjamin Bussey, Woodland Hill, and the creation of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 64(1): 2?9. Many thanks to the following staff members at the Arnold Arboretum for offering their knowledge of the Arboretum's woodlands: Rachel Brinkman, Ana Maria Caballero McGuire, Jonathan Damery, Peter Del Tredici, Michael Dosmann, Andrew Gapinski, Wes Kalloch, Jim Papargiris, Lisa Pearson, Sue Pfeiffer, Kyle Port, Kathryn Richardson, Nancy Sableski, Stephen Schneider, and Mark Walkama. Special thanks to Jenna Zukswert for her survey work, data analysis, and contributions to this article. Daniel Schissler is Project Coordinator at the Arnold Arboretum, a for mer research assistant in the Friedman Lab, and a former Isabella Welles Hunnewell horticultural intern, class of 2016. He holds an MFA in photography from Massachusetts College of Art and Design and a BA in architectural studies and archeology from Tufts University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hickory Fever: Doing Taxonomy by Mail","article_sequence":3,"start_page":32,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25648","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d060a76f.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":1,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"Hickory Fever: Doing Taxonomy by Mail Jonathan Damery B otany in the early years of the Arnold Arboretum required a good postman. Boxes of photographs and herbarium specimens passed back and forth on the railroad. Taxonomic questions would follow in letters, along with requests for more specimens (and usually more again). Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director of the Arboretum, famously obsessed over the taxonomy of hawthorns (Crataegus). His work was comprehensive and exhaustive, leaving no leaf or flower unturned, and as such, his letters are filled with requests for specimens, fruits, and field descriptions of these small, confusing trees. Yet if hawthorns were first on Sargent's mind, hickories (Carya), the prominent forest trees of eastern North America, were not far behind--often mentioned in the same burst of typewriter keystrokes. Of course, Sargent travelled widely and frequently to study plants in the field--camping on mountainsides, riding in motorcars on dirt roads--but for a project like the Silva of North America, a fourteen-volume work on tree species native to the United States that was published between 1891 and 1902, Sargent needed assistants far and wide. The same was true for subsequent projects that aimed to disentangle specific taxonomic problems, like his synoptic treatment of North American hickories published in the Botanical Gazette in 1918. While Sargent worked on these projects--studying specimens and hand-written field descriptions at his desk on the third floor of the Arboretum's administration building--it must have felt like reconstructing a crime scene from several states away, years after the fact, with only a team of freelance detectives who could occasionally be marshalled (when time and finances permitted) to search for evidence and knock on doors to interview witnesses. In a long and detailed letter to Thomas Grant Harbison, one of his most reliable field collectors in the southeast, Sargent professed immense confusion when it came to the hickories. \"It begins to look as if all the characters on which we have been trying to base species are giving out,\" he lamented in 1914, after providing several pages of notes on specimens Harbison had collected. \"I think that ... the same species may bear globose and oblong nuts, that the leaves may or may not be pubescent, and that the bark may vary enormously according to situation.\"1 ALL IMAGES FROM ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES UNLESS NOTED Hickory Taxonomy 33 Above and facing page: Charles Sargent studied hickory (Carya) taxonomy with support of a large network of field correspondents, including the journalist Charlie C. Compton (\"Miss Compton\") in Natchez, Mississippi. \"No. 22 is still puzzling,\" Sargent wrote in 1913, responding to this set of Compton's photographs and field notes. \"Thanks to your energy and intelligent zeal we shall get to the bottom of this business sooner or later.\" Sargent later determined this tree, No. 22, was a black hickory (Carya texana). Evidence for solving these taxonomic mysteries could be frustratingly scant. Even if someone collected herbarium specimens in the middle of the growing season, Sargent would send them back to collect again in the fall. Specimens in hand often only confirmed that others were needed. When he received fruits from a hickory that Ernest Jesse Palmer had collected in Noel, Missouri, in 1915, Sargent told him it was \"one of the most remarkable of all your Hickories,\" yet the fruit had only wetted his desire to know more. \"Will you tell me something about this tree, its size, place of growth, character of the bark, or anything else you may know about it? I have never seen any fruit like this.\"2 Four years later, Palmer would send grafted material from the same tree--now considered a mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa, accession 8014*A)--which still grows in the Arboretum's hickory collection. Although spindly (much smaller than expected of a centenarian overstory species), the tree offers a robust reminder of the correspondence needed to conduct this kind of taxonomic inquiry. Special Agents Sargent's crew of field correspondents began solidifying long before his interest in hickories. His first concerted research project was the Report on the Forests of North America (Exclusive of Mexico), an ambitious opening salvo launched as part of the 1880 United States Census, which aimed to describe and map the composition of forests across the country. Sargent 34 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Sargent's Report on the Forests of North America (Exclusive of Mexico), published in 1884, included the first distribution maps for major North American tree genera, which were prepared by Andrew Robeson. Rather than presenting the distribution of individual Carya species on this map, the green shading suggests species richness--or the number of Carya species believed present at any particular site. The greatest density (eight species) was recorded in western Arkansas, the future location for significant collections by Sargent and his correspondents. Hickory Taxonomy 35 logged significant miles to research the project himself--notably botanizing forests in Utah, California, and Oregon--but to complete such a wide-ranging project, he needed colleagues that ranged just as far. Several botanists were officially enlisted as \"special agents\" for the four-year project, but others became informal collaborators.3 A number of the oldest hickories still growing at the Arboretum arrived due to the census project, including an exceptional specimen of pecan (Carya illinoinensis, accession 12913*A), tucked in the back corner of the hickory collection, where its straight trunk lofts the canopy nearly one hundred feet high. Fruit for this accession arrived from the ornithologist Robert Ridgway, the first full-time curator of birds at the United States National Museum, who had collected the material near Mount Carmel, Illinois, in 1882. Although Ridgway was based in Washington, DC, he continued to study the landscape of Illinois--his home state--while he prepared a two-volume treatise on the birds of the state. Ridgway was an unofficial census correspondent. Yet his research on woodlands in southern Illinois (and adjacent portions of Indiana) was so rigorous--far surpassing the needs of the census--that Sargent encouraged him to publish his findings independently. The article ran forty pages in the Proceedings of the United States National Museum, published in 1882, the same year the Arboretum received seed shipments from Ridgway. In the report, Ridgway described the pecan as \"one of the very largest trees of the forest\" with a canopy that often \"reared conspicuously above the surrounding tree-tops, even in a very lofty forest,\" and he noted that one tree (unfortunately measured after it had been felled) had been documented with a canopy 175 feet (53 meters) high and a trunk diameter of 5 feet (1.5 meters).4 The pecan in the Arboretum collection, while not yet that size, suggests this pedigree. A stand of nine shellbark hickories (Carya laciniosa, accessions 12898 and 20094) that grow in park-like planting atop Valley Road also arrived in 1882 from another census correspon- An unattributed Garden and Forest editorial from 1889 suggested that hickories \"are the despair of people who expect to be able to fit exactly every plant they encounter with the printed description of it in some book.\" This supplementary illustration of a shellbark hickory (Carya laciniosa) was based on a Robert Ridgway photograph from southern Indiana. dent. George Washington Letterman had been enlisted as an official special agent to study the forests west of the lower Mississippi River, although the hickories were collected near his home in Allenton, Missouri, about thirty miles west of Saint Louis. Letterman was a school teacher and scheduled fieldwork around his classroom duties. In a humorous note to George Engelmann, a prominent botanist who was a physician and a close mentor to Sargent, Letterman alluded to this time constraint in April 36 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 1881. Because so many students had the measles that spring, he suggested he might cancel classes and gain an unexpected week for census fieldwork. In the same note, Letterman also described the perplexities of hickories. \"It seems that the hickory nuts puzzle every body, especially those who have not been able to see the trees in all stages of growth year after year,\" he wrote, referring to an inquiry from the Illinois botanist George Vasey. \"Don't you think that something better than what the books now contain on the subject should be given to botanists? In case you undertake to revise the genus, I should be glad to procure all the material obtainable here for you.\"5 Engelmann responded with a brief postcard: \"Too early to work up Carya, but we must go on gathering material.\"6 The epistolary trail with Engelmann ends there, although Sargent, writing two decades later, recalled that Letterman made substantial collections for Engelmann near Allenton and that those collections included \"many notes on the Oaks and Hickories.\"7 Entirely Overlooked For his part, Sargent didn't seem espe- Above and facing page: \"This particular form of Hickory is quite new to cially interested in the hickories dur- me and I am anxious to have further information about the tree,\" Sargent ing the census years, and he wouldn't wrote to Bryant K. McCarty--a pineapple farmer in Saint Lucie County, begin to wade into the subject until an Florida. The herbarium specimen had been forwarded in 1911 from Robert Morris, Sargent's collaborator on hickory matters. Sargent later named the 1889 Garden and Forest article, where species Carya floridana--the scrub hickory--and Charles Faxon provided he attempted to parse out whether the the first illustration. genus should be called Carya, Hicoria, or Hicorius, opting for the final option.8 the different species, which is hardly surprising, An unattributed editorial ran after this nomensince botanists themselves are often perplexed clatural treatment, celebrating the hickory as over questions concerning the proper limita\"purely an American tree,\" given that none of tions of these species.\"9 the Asian species were known to Western botaEven so, when Sargent covered the genus in nists at the time. As the \"conductor\" for the the seventh volume of Silva of North America, magazine (essentially the publisher), Sargent published in 1895, he sounded little taxonomic must have conceded the general points, includalarm, although he footnoted a new variety of ing, quite notably, an admission of taxonomic pignut hickory (what he called Hicoria glabra confusion. \"More Americans know the Hickvar. villosa), based on a tree Letterman had docory-tree when they see it than any other of our umented in Allenton, and he offered passing trees,\" the author wrote. \"That is, they know descriptions of several unnamed hybrids. Yet, generally, the Hickory, without distinguishing hickories weren't alone in escaping Sargent's ARNOLD ARBORETUM HERBARIUM Hickory Taxonomy 37 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HERBARIUM 38 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Hickory Taxonomy 39 According to Sargent's correspondence records (which become more consistent in the Arboretum archive in 1902 when he began saving carbon copies of his typewritten letters) his interest in hickories began gaining traction in 1908. That fall, around the time that hickory fruits would be ripening, he received a letter from a physician-turned-botanist named Robert T. Morris, who inquired about Carya buckleyi (now considered C. texana, the black hickory). Although the two men had corresponded about hickories the year before, Morris's question about the black hickory seemed to awaken Sargent's curiosity. \"I confess that I, as well as all other botanists in recent years, have entirely overlooked this tree,\" Sargent wrote back, referencing the taxon at large, rather than an individual plant. \"The name does not appear in my Silva for some unaccountable reason as I was familiar with the paper [in the Proceedings of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia] where it was first described ... I shall be very glad of some of the nuts if you can spare them for me.\"10 Morris had obtained a letter about the species from a grape breeder in northeastern Texas named Thomas Volney Above and facing page: After Sargent visited Van Buren, Arkansas, in Munson. Sargent wrote to Munson March 1909, his local collaborator, George Brown, collected flowering herimmediately, even before responding barium specimens that Sargent would use to describe a new hybrid: Carya to Morris, and offered to trade a selec? brownii. Charles Faxon provided the first illustration of this hybrid. tion of Chinese grape seedlings (grown taxonomic scrutiny; his research interests had from Ernest Henry Wilson collections) for fruit just begun shifting from nomenclatural synand herbarium specimens from the hickory.11 thesis to novel taxonomy. Over the preceding This exchange proved successful. Within three years, Sargent had described as few as twentyweeks, Munson had already shipped the specione new taxa for an assortment that included mens, along with a list of grape species he was firs (Abies) and false box (Gyminda)--not interested in obtaining. Sargent, however, was counting nomenclatural transfers like Carya rarely satiated, and he requested that Munson to Hicorius. In 1895, however, Sargent proreturn to collect half-a-dozen specimens of branches with winter buds.12 posed another fourteen names--many of them The following March, Sargent rode the rails oaks (Quercus)--suggesting he was becomto Texas to see the inexplicable hickory himing more confident of his own taxonomic eye. self. He also stopped in central Arkansas, where Those numbers continued to grow, and by he botanized in the alluvial bottomlands near 1907, he had added over three hundred names the town of Van Buren with the engineer of the in Crataegus alone. 40 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 municipal waterworks, George M. Brown, who was an avocational student of the flora. Munson and Brown were new collaborators for Sargent, and he took fondly to both. When he returned to Brookline, hickory propagules had already arrived from Brown. Sargent requested flowering specimens from both men--apparently his trip had missed the spring flush--and although he reminded them to gather fruiting specimens in the fall, Sargent ultimately returned to observe the plants himself. 13, 14 He visited both men in early October and also rendezvoused to talk about hickories with his longtime collector Benjamin Franklin Bush, who ran a general store near Kansas City, Missouri, and who had already proven himself a keen botanical observer for Sargent's hawthorn research. While he was travelling that fall, Sargent collected seed for at least nine Arboretum hickory accessions. Only one plant from this collecting trip is still growing at the Arboretum today, representing our oldest accession of the nutmeg hickory (Carya myristiciformis, accession 6048*C), a rare species, which Sargent collected in Arkansas. It is now an impressively straight-trunked specimen in the center of the hickory collection, growing not far from a smaller-statured black hickory (C. texana, accession 12892*C), sent from Brown in 1912, and a pignut hickory (C. glabra var. megacarpa, accession 18062*A), which Bush collected in southern Illinois that same year. Sargent's enthusiasm was officially brimming. Hickory Problems If the unusual black hickory in Arkansas initially sparked Sargent's concerted investigation of the genus, publication projects breathed oxygen onto the flame. While Sargent began working on his first edition of the Manual of the Trees of North America, distilling his work on the fourteen-volume Silva into one comprehensive guidebook (published in 1905), he began simultaneously proposing and describing new taxa in serialized publications titled Trees and Shrubs: Illustrations of New or Little Known Ligneous Plants. These were released incrementally, and his research on hickories would appear in the final installment, published in 1913. As the publication date approached, he began firing off letters to collectors, urging them for information about hickories. Many of the correspondents were recent hawthorn collaborators--tried and tested in their ability to field ceaseless requests--although Sargent even turned to his old census agents, perhaps because their trees were already growing in the Arboretum collection. \"You used to be very keen about Hickories and I hope that you will have a relapse of the Hickory fever and make large collections again,\" he wrote to Letterman in 1911, even though the two hadn't corresponded significantly over the intervening years. \"The genus has got to be reworked and I am getting together as much material as possible for this purpose that it may make a better showing in the new edition of my Manual than it does in the first edition.\" 15 He also wrote to Ridgway the same year, and Ridgway responded with characteristically meticulous and detailed handwritten notes, and professed enthusiasm for the project. \"I have long been convinced that the genus is in sad need of overhauling,\" he wrote, \"and feel sure there are several more good species than are recognized in the books.\"16 When Sargent ultimately published his treatment on the genus in 1913, he proposed seven new species or hybrids along with an additional thirteen varieties--marking his first published effort to disentangle and redefine taxonomic parameters within the hickories. (One of these hybrids, Carya ? brownii, was based on an individual tree in the bottomlands of the Arkansas River, where it had puzzled Sargent and Brown back in 1909.) Yet this research on the hickories still proved unsatisfactory. Harbison--Sargent's faithful southeastern collector--had made extensive collections of hickories the same fall the report was published. \"I must say the more I see of them the more confused I become,\" Sargent wrote about material Harbison had sent from Georgia and Alabama, typing his frustrated missive on New Year's Eve. \"It is evident, I think, that we cannot depend much on the fruit as I once supposed we could and that we must try for other characters, bark, habit, location, habitat, winter-buds, pubescence, etc. I do not suppose that there are a great many species but the trouble is to limit what there Hickory Taxonomy 41 are. It seems to me that it will be impossible to properly know them without a great deal more field observation.\"17 Notes like this became a recurring refrain over the next several years, as he repeatedly asked Harbison, Palmer, and others for additional information about specimens that had arrived. Sargent would ultimately publish his final taxonomic treatment of the genus in 1918, when it appeared in the Botanical Gazette. He proposed more than twenty additional taxa, many of them varieties and forms. By the number of proposed names, this placed hickories in the top three genera that Sargent had studied, behind only oaks and, of course, hawthorns. Sargent closed that final report by describing thirteen individual trees that had been observed by John Dunbar, the assistant superintendent of the Parks Department in Rochester, New York. Sargent provided precise notes about the color of the branches and the shape of the fruit. None of these thirteen plants resulted in accessions that are still growing in the Arboretum collection, although we still have eight plants (representing seven unique wild provenances) from Dunbar and his collaborator Bernard H. Slavin. Sargent praised the collectors and noted that no region had been more \"carefully examined\" for hickories than western New York. To Sargent, the discovery of confounding individuals there simply proved that other regions needed to be studied with the same rigor. If so, he suspected additional taxa would be discovered. Nevertheless, hickories faded from Sargent's correspondence, and he would never publish another taxonomic treatment of the genus. Whether this report absolved what Sargent described as the \"hickory problem,\" however, remains unclear. Several months before the report was published, he wrote a letter to Reginald Somers Cocks, a professor at Tulane University, who had been a frequent correspondent on the genus. \"I have about finished up what I can do with Carya,\" he wrote, \"not a very satisfactory work.\"18 More than American Sargent based his description of Carya ? dunbarii on herbarium specimens from this tree, which John Dunbar had observed near Golah, New York. Richard Horsey, who worked with Dunbar at the Rochester Parks Department, photographed the tree and an unnamed man (could it be Dunbar himself?) in December 1918, shortly after publication of Sargent's final report. Notably, during much of this period, hickories were one of the few tree genera that appeared unique to the eastern North American flora. In the unattributed Garden and Forest article from 1889, the author--again, presumably articulating ideas approved by Sargent--had described the wood and fruits in superlative terms. \"As a nation we owe much to the Hickory tree, and we have good and just reason to be proud of it,\" the author wrote, even suggesting that the lightweight yet durable carriages crafted from hickory had allowed equestrian breeders to develop the American trotting horse, \"that race of horses which every American looks upon in his heart of hears with joy and admiration.\" 42 Arnoldia 76\/1 ? August 2018 Then, in 1915, Sargent received herbarium specimens of a Chinese hickory from the collector Frank Nicholas Meyer, who had first observed the fruits being sold at a market in Hangzhou, in eastern China. Sargent acknowledged receiving the specimens in a letter to Meyer the following January, and, of course, he requested more information about the size and abundance of the trees, not to mention photographs.19 Sargent's intrigue about the discovery, however, is perhaps most evident in his account of the species in Plantae Wilsonianae. Sargent edited the three volumes, published between 1913 and 1917, yet of nearly eight hundred names proposed for new Chinese plant taxa (not counting nomenclatural transfers), most came from other Arboretum staff--prominently Alfred Rehder and Ernest Henry Wilson--as well as European colleagues like Camillo Schneider and Bernhard Koehne. Sargent authored only seven new names: six hawthorns and one hickory--what he called Carya cathayensis. \"Since the finding in China of a species of Liriodendron [tulip tree] and of Sassafras, previously believed to be monotypic genera of eastern North America, no addition to our knowledge of the distribution of the trees of the northern hemisphere is so important and interesting as Mr. Meyer's discovery of a representative of the genus Carya in Asia,\" Sargent declared in the publication, noting that progressively few genera appeared unique to eastern North America. \"In China,\" he continued, using a tone that could suggest a trace of disappointment, \"there are many endemic trees.\"20 Strangely, Sargent never acquired seed of this species from Meyer-- perhaps suspecting they would be unable to grow at the Arboretum, given that it was discovered in the humid subtropics--and the only material ever collected (by Peter Del Tredici in 1989) never made it out of the greenhouse. It is currently on the list of desiderata for the Campaign for Living Collections. In 1915, Sargent learned that the American hickories like the charismatic shagbark (Carya ovata), photographed in Rochester, New York, above, had Asian relatives. That summer, Frank Meyer photographed a large Chinese hickory (Carya cathayensis) on the edge of a bamboo grove in Zhejiang Province. \"The wood is said to be tough and strong and appreciated as handles for agricultural tools,\" Meyer noted. Hickory Taxonomy 43 Confidence in the Commonplace Botanists would eventually begin consolidating many of the hickories Sargent had named. Because so many of the taxa were varieties, many of the names have been dropped in recognition of more morphologically diverse conceptions of each species. \"Phenotypic variation from tree to tree is often considerable and difficult to quantify,\" Donald Stone wrote in his treatment of the American species in the Flora of North America, published in 1997. \"Most of this variation undoubtedly results from adaptation to local and regional conditions; hybridization has probably played a subtle role as well.\"21 Stone included eleven species--down from the fifteen in Sargent's final report--and referenced another seven species globally (most in eastern Asia, one in Mexico), although these numbers have fostered ongoing debate.22 In the spring of 1918, as Sargent was wrapping up work on his final hickory report, he wrote to Harbison, suggesting that certain hickory species had been neglected by botanists, given their general abundance and familiarity.23 It was this fundamental spirit that inspired what must be, even still, one of the most widespread and detailed morphological studies of the North American members of the genus--an impossible endeavor without the nuanced observations by Sargent's cadre of mail correspondents. This collaborative effort also provided the centenarian core for the Arboretum's robust collection of hickories, which was one of our first to be accredited by the American Public Gardens Association's Plant Collections Network in 2002 (back when the network was known as the North American Plant Collections Consortium). Current field-collecting efforts continue to prioritize the genus, maintaining the intellectual passion of Sargent and his collaborators long ago: the confidence that even among the \"plants which have been considered too common to collect,\" something new can always be discovered. Endnotes 1 Sargent, C.S. 1914. Sargent to T.G. Harbison, 2 March 1914 (volume 8, page 8). Charles Sprague Sargent (1841? 1927) papers, Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library, Harvard University. (All Sargent correspondence below from the same archive, unless otherwise noted.) 2Sargent to E.J. Palmer, January 19, 1915 (volume 8, page 308). 3For the term \"special agent\" applied for collectors other than Sargent himself, see Sargent, C.S. 1902. Silva of North America, 13 (pp. 79?80.) 4Ridgway, R. 1882. Notes on the native trees of the lower Wabash and White River valleys, in Illinois and Indiana. Proceedings of the United States National Museum, 82(1): 49?88. 5Letterman. G.W. 1881. Letterman to G. Engelmann, April 12, 1881. Engelmann papers, Missouri Botanical Garden. 6Engelmann, G. 1881. Engelmann to G.W. Letterman, April 14, 1881. Engelmann papers, Missouri Botanical Garden. 7Sargent, C.S. 1902. Silva of North America, 13 (pp. 79?80). Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin and Company. 8 Sargent, C.S. 1889. Notes upon some North American trees--XI. Garden and Forest, 2(83): 459?460. 9Anon. 1889. The shell-bark hickory. Garden and Forest, 2(83): 460?461. 10Sargent to R.T. Morris, October 21, 1908 (volume 6, page 161). 11Sargent to T.V. Munson, October 19, 1908 (volume 6, page 160). 12 Sargent to T.V. Munson, November 7, 1908 (volume 6, page 190). 13Sargent to G.M. Brown, March 31, 1909 ( volume 6, page 383). 14Sargent to T.V. Munson, March 31, 1909 (volume 6, page 384). 15Sargent to G.W. Letterman, June 7, 1911 (volume 7, page 122). 16Ridgway to C.S. Sargent, August 6, 1912. 17 Sargent to T.G. Harbison, December 31, 1913 (volume 7, page 908). 18Sargent to R.S. Cocks, June 19, 1918 (volume 9, page 296). 19Sargent to F.N. Meyer, January 17, 1916 (volume 8, page 618) . 20Sargent, C.S. (Ed.). 1917. Plantae Wilsonianae, 3. Cambridge: The University Press. 21Stone, D.E. 1997. Carya. Flora of North America North of Mexico, 3. New York and Oxford: Flora of North America Association. 22 Zhang, J.B., et al. 2013. Integrated fossil and molecular data reveal the biogeographic diversification of the eastern North American disjunct hickory genus. PLOS ONE, 8(7): 1?13. 23Sargent to Harbison, June 19, 1918 (volume 9, page 294). Jonathan Damery is Associate Editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Existing through Change: Quercus alba","article_sequence":4,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25645","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15e896d.jpg","volume":76,"issue_number":1,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Existing through Change: Quercus alba Michael S. Dosmann O n a magnificent bird's-eye-view map of the Arnold Arboretum, prepared in 1927, paths and hillsides, collections and trees are depicted in such clear detail that you can easily imagine gazing down from a floating hot-air balloon (see pages 18?19). The map hangs in the Arboretum library, and perhaps the most striking specimen is a tree drawn on the northeast slope of Peters Hill, a lone shepherd guarding an endless flock of Charles Sargent's beloved hawthorns (Crataegus). This venerable singleton is a double-leadered white oak (Quercus alba), now towering above the Arboretum's crabapple (Malus) collection, which replaced most of the hawthorns after World War II. The tree reaches an impressive spread of 28 meters (92 feet) and height of 17.2 meters (56 feet)--the southwestern bole is slightly taller--but most notable is its girth, no doubt exaggerated by the twin stems, which are swollen with crown gall (Agrobacterium tumefaciens). A slight seam meanders through this burly base, suggesting the stems are fused at ground level, where the diameter is 2 meters (6.5 feet). Impressive is an understatement. Despite its size (and obvious age), a glance at the tag reveals the tree's accession number: 3462010*A, meaning it was accessioned just eight years ago. Ordinarily, the Arboretum receives accessions as wild-collected seed, nursery purchases, cuttings from sister gardens, or other means (there are thirty-three different options), yet this tree is an \"existing plant.\" It was officially given its unique accession number after it had been found growing in place. Of the 14,722 accessioned plants in the permanent collections, almost 20 percent are existing plants. Over half of these were accessioned since 2007, through an initiative led by Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port, which officially brings important specimens from managed areas into our systems to be measured, tracked, and studied. Even without an accession number, these trees with opaque provenance received arboricultural care; curatorial recordkeeping adds collections value. Our oak first shows up in Arboretum archives on a detailed 1894 topographical survey of Peters Hill made for the City of Boston, a year before this area became part of the Arboretum. At first glance, the tree appears to be marked with an 8, but this figure actually represents the two stems. To establish a firmer age, I recently extracted an increment core and counted the rings from the southwest stem, 138 centimeters (54 inches) above the ground. The wood was hard and intact most of the way until I approached the center and hit a soft pocket. Even so, with 70 percent of the core intact, I counted 142 rings. Assuming the unrecovered portion represented an additional 60 rings, that leader reached its position in the 1810s; germination would have been several years earlier. With this information, we've affirmed the tree to be of local, wild provenance. In 1937, Hugh Raup shared his thoughts about several existing white oaks on Bussey Hill. One tree's rings, counted after a fatal lightning strike in 1931, dated to 1666. Raup pondered what this tree had witnessed, particularly landscape changes from forest to agriculture to woodland again. Among all the changes, however, Raup stated \"the later scenes [of the Arboretum] are the strangest.\" The bizarre combination of exotic and local plants surpassed the previous centuries' revolution: the \"great white wings\" of the dove tree (Davidia involucrata) and \"impossible maples with copper-colored bark that peels off in thin sheets\" (Acer griseum). Change is inevitable, and the Arboretum's naturalistic landscape is no exception. In another century, perhaps a new collection will replace the Peters Hill crabapples just as they eclipsed the hawthorns. With good graces, I hope our white oak is around to bear witness to the transformation, for as Raup wrote of the Arboretum, \"the only continuity is in the inherent charm of the place and in the lives of the ancient oaks.\" Literature cited Raup, H.M. 1937. The Chinese Collection. Bulletin of Popular Information, Series 4, 5(5): 25?28. Michael S. Dosmann is the Keeper of the Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23462","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eb728.jpg","title":"2018-76-1","volume":76,"issue_number":1,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What the Rose Knows: Navigating Rosaceae at the BRC","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25644","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15e8928.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bowman, Erica","article_content":"What the Rose Knows: Navigating Rosaceae at the BRC Erica Bowman T When we develop botanical collections, plant specimens are the stars, and the genius lies in their artful and memorable arrangement. Strict taxonomic accuracy has never been our primary role. When the Julie Moir Messervy Design Studio (JMMDS) was hired to help redesign the Arnold Arboretum's Bradley Rosaceous Collection (BRC) in 2007, the objective was simple. We wanted to improve upon the sense of space in the existing garden without disturbing the living collection or dishonoring its legacy. We wanted the garden to be lightly educational, a place where visitors could experience taxonomic order in a beautiful, satisfying setting. We were determined to use an organizational MENG LI aken literally, Gertrude Stein's famous phrase \"Rose is a rose is a rose\" might have raised the collective eyebrows of a few scholars of the rose family (Rosaceae). After all, more than four thousand species and one hundred genera make up this complex family of woody and herbaceous plants. Robert Frost rendered these botanical relationships more accurately, writing, \"The apple's a rose, \/ And the pear is, and so's \/ The plum, I suppose,\" yet even he failed to mention less-lyrical genera like Spiraea, Cotoneaster, or the elusive Prinsepia, not that anyone could blame him. Frost was no more a taxonomist than Stein, or, ahem, a lot of landscape designers. Like poets, we landscape designers are primarily artists. Gertrude Stein's famous line \"Rose is a rose is a rose\" first appeared in the 1913 poem \"Sacred Emily.\" Robert Frost co-opted part of the phrase to open \"The Rose Family,\" a poem published in 1928. This specimen of Macdougal's rose (Rosa nutkana ssp. macdougalii, 516-78*MASS) was wild-collected in British Columbia. DAVID BASLER AND MARGARET KOSMALA, HARVARD UNIVERSITY Bradley Rosaceous Collection 3 Swooping bed lines in the BRC demonstrate Olmstedian sensibilities. In this photograph, taken above the east beds in May 2017, elements of the original 1980s layout can be detected as swaths of darker turf. The main flowering specimens shown in each bed, clockwise from the bottom left, are Wilson spirea (Spiraea wilsonii, 545-93), Henry spirea (S. henryi, 1121-86), another Wilson spirea (953-85), and smooth oriental photinia (Photinia villosa, 934-85). Dawson Pond brims with spring rain on the left. structure that visitors could intuitively understand through passive experience, whether or not they were botanical scholars. Mostly, we hoped that the garden would appear rejuvenated, while still reverent to the surrounding landscape that was developed by Frederick Law Olmsted and Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arboretum. All of this--simple as it initially seemed-- was no minor responsibility. The list of stakeholders was vast and intimidating. There were donors to consider and staff to please. We had to be respectful of the Arboretum's legacy, honoring the institutional position within both Harvard University and the City of Boston. We even had to consider the reputation of the esteemed plants themselves. Julie Moir Messervy had already been inducted into the Arnold's folds. In addition to lecturing there on numerous occasions, she designed the Linda J. Davison Memorial Path that winds along Bussey Brook. She also planned the landscape surrounding the granite bench that overlooks the BRC. Despite my role as project manager, I was a relative newbie on this scene, having just started working with JMMDS. I completed my MLA at Cornell in 2003, where, under Professor Don Rakow, I studied some of the world's most hallowed gardens: Longwood, Kew, and the Arnold Arboretum. My arrival at the BRC felt monumental to say the least. I knew I was on sacred grounds. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES 4 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 The location now occupied by the BRC was formerly known as the Shrub Collection, a series of long, straight rows that existed from 1885 through about 1982. By the time the Arboretum was first systematically mapped in the late 1930s, roses--that is, specimens of Rosa--occupied the center of the Shrub Collection, the most dominant genus growing there. When we began our work, the BRC contained over forty Rosaceous genera and up to four hundred different taxa. Keeper of the Living Collections Michael Dosmann (who then held the title of Curator) provided a \"desiderata\" of seventy-five additional taxa that the Arboretum wanted to incorporate into the design. The existing collection was not presented in an obvious order within the family itself. According to feedback from gardeners and staff, many visitors didn't understand the taxonomic connection between woody Rosaceous genera and plants in the Arboretum at large. Some plants were duplicated; others were overgrown. And visitors and staff both complained that most of the Rosas had a very short season of bloom, primarily in the month of June, and that even then, many of their differences were subtle and hardly obvious. Much of the time, the roses presented themselves as a sea of thorny stems. Each rose in the vast collection could be mistaken as just another rose. A rose was a rose was a rose. Moreover, although the beds were clearly defined, we wanted to improve upon the overall sense of place and intensify the experience of journey. We use \"sense of place\" to mean everything that defines a unique and recognizable landscape. Take Central Park, for example: A visitor can look up at the skyscrapers and then look down to see the Reservoir, the Great Lawn, and the stony bridges. Even with eyes closed, they will experience the sounds and smells that define the iconic city park. All of Bradley Rosaceous Collection 5 this contributes to their sense of being located in a memorable place in the world--exactly what we wanted for the BRC. ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Our creative process always involves iteration, beginning with the development of an overarching \"big idea.\" We considered a wide range of thematic concepts for the BRC. We envisioned the botanical structure of a rose flower, for example, with its five petals and sepals as a template for bed shape and placement. We compared contemporary and classic interpretations of the rose in folklore, religion, literature, and romance. These ideas were manifested in overlays of pencil upon tracing paper, often times starting and ending as scrawled words in the margins: \"What Rosaceous plants are mentioned in Shakespearean plays? What was the significance of the rose in world religions? How are Rosaceous plants used medicinally?\" We sketched routes and journeys for the pedestrian to travel from place to place, borrowing inspiration from Olmsted's pastoral style. We sketched potential bed outlines, envisioning new outdoor rooms and meeting spaces, new places to sit, and new views to see. The resulting documents were beautiful but chaotic, a palimpsest of possibilities. Still, the big idea hadn't taken hold. At JMMDS, we recognize that a big idea can evolve from many places. When Julie worked with Yo-Yo-Ma on her design for the Toronto Music Garden, they used Bach's Suite no. 1 in G Major for Unaccompanied Cello as a musi- The BRC was endowed by Eleanor Cabot Bradley, pictured in white at the dedication ceremony on June 12, 1985. Her daughter Elizabeth Cabot Sluder is shown planting a ceremonial rose. Arboretum Director Peter Ashton stands second from the right, beside Horticulturist Gary Koller, who crafted the original garden design. In 2007, Sluder graciously supported the garden renovation. JULIE MOIR MESSERVY DESIGN STUDIO 6 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 This 2008 renovation map uses color codes to indicate which plants were included in each of the old Rosaceous subfamilies. Rosoideae is shown in red, Maloideae in blue, and Spiroideae in green. (This particular bed had no members of Prunoideae.) Marginal comments describe horticultural characteristics and backstory for specific accessions. cal template. The resulting garden is a celebration in six movements--prelude, allemande, courante, sarabande, minuet, and gigue--all rhythmically expressed as wooded paths, great spiraling landforms, bee-filled plantings, and oversized grass steps. JMMDS's design for the Inspiration Garden at the Shore Country Day School in Beverly, Massachusetts, on the other hand, took the feel and form of the school's mascot, the beaver. We recreated habitat with native plantings and erected an outdoor classroom shaped like a beaver lodge. While brainstorming the big idea for the BRC, we looked again at a base map the Arnold had provided. It included a key with four subfamilies: Rosoideae, Spiroideae, Maloideae, and Prunoideae. As it turned out, these subfamilies had already become outdated, yet from a design perspective, the groupings created a useful ethnobotanical order. Rosoideae traditionally included, among other things, roses and brambles (Rosa and Rubus), so for that subfamily, we imagined a classic rose garden with arbors, benches, and other ornamental features. Maloideae contained apples (Malus) and hawthorns (Crataegus), along with a number of larger tree species, so we thought of an orchard planting. Prunoideae inspired us to think of ornamental trees blooming at a Japanese sakura festival, because the most dominant genus in the group includes cherries and plums (Prunus). Spiroideae--with members like nine-bark (Physocarpus), pearl-bush (Exochorda), and spirea (Spiraea)--brought to mind a well-ordered shrub collection. Obsolete or not, this historical classification helped us organize a series of places, each with their own beauty and meaning, and all connected by a journey through the larger family. We tentatively named these components the Bradley Rosaceous Collection 7 that would allow for a sort of compromise of ideals between taxonomy and design. \"Let's call it a `collection of arborescence' rather than a literal orchard,\" one person offered. \"Fruiting arborescence?\" we countered. To that they agreed. By \"arborescence,\" of course, we meant \"trees.\" That is the way botanists and landscape designers talk. Sometimes we pontificate in French, Latin, and Greek, other times in ultra-syllabic versions of regular English (\"fenestration\" instead of \"windows,\" \"rectilinear\" instead of \"rectangular\"). Yet, to communicate with the rest of the normally speaking world, we needed to tone down our jargon. So we retracted the place names KYLE PORT Rosoideae Roundabout, the Maloideae Meander, the Prunus Promenade, and the Spiroideae Stroll. Keeping this old taxonomic organization had the added benefit of allowing us to maintain the larger, less-movable trees in their place, given that many were grouped taxonomically already. This allowed the greatest amount of transplanting and bed realignment to happen with the more manageable roses and shrubs. It also made the plant groupings easy to comprehend on a basic level. We hoped that a visitor might be able to travel from area to area and immediately sense order within the groupings. The Arnold staff and donors tried to help us make this plan work. They steered us away from the literal interpretation of the old subfamilies and suggested slight verbiage shifts JMMDS imagined a section of flowering cherries that would invoke the spirit of hanami, the Japanese tradition of celebrating the transient beauty of spring. Here, visitors gather in the Prunus Promenade on April 30, 2013. 8 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 MENG LI Maloideae Meander and Spiroideae Stroll, which were a mouthful anyway, but we maintained the idea of shruband orchard-like collections. Rosoideae Roundabout seemed to work, especially since this subfamily was still legitimate, but the name was reduced to the Rose Roundabout for good measure. The Prunus Promenade was too lyrical to abandon. We had found our big idea. MICHAEL DOSMANN Cost, availability, and establishment time almost always influence plant selection and expectations. When we design a garden, we make plant choices based on nursery catalogs and availability lists. We're also used to waiting a bit before our designed landscapes grow into themselves. That is just part of the practice. For a perennial garden to reach its prime, three years is the normal window. Most practitioners plan for a fifteenyear grow-in period for trees. These establishment times assume that, at installation, perennials are gallonsized and trees have a 1.5- or 2-inch caliper trunk. Even this can be too small and slow for some clients. In those cases, we can crane in mature twenty-foot trees with six-foot root balls for an immediate impact. This is costly but instantly satisfying. The BRC is no average garden, however, and the Arnold certainly doesn't require instant satisfaction. As part of the larger living collec- Provenance is important for plants in the BRC, whether a specimen of tions, every plant in the BRC has a Japanese kerria (Kerria japonica, 237-2008*B), which was wild-collected in Gunma Province, Japan, or a `Donald Wyman' crabapple, propagated from standardized accession number, and the original specimen on Peters Hill (23254*A). all new acquisitions must meet the requirements laid out in the Living Collections these considerations in mind, it made sense to Policy. Many new accessions are wild-collected tackle the Rose Roundabout first, because those as seed and then grown in the Arboretum's nursplants were the quickest growing and most ery. Even the addition of new cultivars can take easily movable. The completion of the Prunus time. For instance, the crabapple Malus `Donald Promenade and orchard collection could wait. Wyman,' which the Arboretum introduced in 1970, was repropagated from the original tree, New and unfamiliar plant material was another even though a large specimen could have been obstacle for our team to clear. Few genera in purchased from a commercial nursery. With the BRC were completely new to us, but more MENG LI often than not, we were in the practice of working with more widely available, commercially propagated plants. We have had much less experience dealing with straight (and often obscure) species like the ones that fill the BRC. Delving into Rosoideae was particularly demanding with a large number of plants that seemed, at first glance, to have similar outward characteristics in the off-season: almost all were thorny and shrubby. We needed to learn more about the specimens in order to make design decisions. As the resident plant person at JMMDS, I was sent to the Arnold to receive some additional schooling. I spent days walking around with Kit Ganshaw, the long-time BRC horticulturist, discussing the particulars of each plant. Within Rosoideae alone, I learned that the Arnold had a large planting of Rosa `Justine Mee Liff', a cultivar named for the first woman to serve as Boston parks commissioner. The cultivar `Duchesse de Montebello' was an important gift from the Bradley family and needed to be preserved, especially as we ultimately reduced the garden in that location to make way for a new path. While the yellowflowered incense rose (R. primula) is the first rose to bloom in the garden, the single specimen of climbing prairie rose (R. setigera) was significant in that it blooms in July, after Other plants with known wild origins include this Henry spirea (Spiraea most other species are done. The henryi, 302-84*A), which was repropagated from an accession Ernest Henry Wilson collected in western Hubei, China, and this specimen of Rosa zalana apple-scented blossoms of the sweet- (928-78*G), which was collected north of Budapest, Hungary. brier rose (R. eglanteria) feature in the writings of Shakespeare. The whitedeemed a very special plant because it came stemmed bramble (Rubus cockburnianus) profrom the Duke of Buccleuch's estate garden-- vides great winter interest with its showy stems, considered one of the premier rose collections and Sweginzow's rose (Rosa sweginzowii) is when Sargent received a shipment of cultivars noticed for its glorious hips. Mount Omei rose in 1914--and it may be the only specimen of (R. omeiensis) grows up to twelve feet tall, has `Plato' remaining in cultivation. The claim of bright red thorns and an atypical arrangement fame for serafin rose (R. serafinii), according to of four petals to its flower. A trellis-worthy culKit, is that is has the \"nastiest hooks\" in the tivar of Scotch rose (R. spinosissima `Plato') was whole collection. Whew! MENG LI Bradley Rosaceous Collection 9 10 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Rose by Rose, Cobble by Cobble: A Garden Renovation Michael S. Dosmann and Stephen Schneider I t was January of 2007, Michael's first week as Curator of Living Collections, when former Arboretum Director Bob Cook presented three immediate curatorial priorities: reenvision the Arboretum's Living Collections Policy, implement environmental monitoring systems (including GIS), and \"do something about the rose garden.\" Despite several decades of care and attention since its intentional design in the early 1980s, the Bradley Rosaceous Collection (BRC) had become overgrown and lost its focus. Both the addition and subtraction of plant material had been limited. From a curatorial perspective, the dense plantings were a nightmare to label and keep authentic. It was time to make things right for a family with deep ties to the Arboretum by holding ourselves accountable to high levels of care and curation. In crafting a new vision for the BRC, we wanted to celebrate plant diversity writ large: not just botanical diversity provided by wild-collected woody species, but also cultivated diversity so richly illustrated by old and new cultivars. Accessions in the BRC, like those elsewhere in the Arboretum, would be valued based upon their full documentation and provenance, not simply a hierarchy of wild over cultivated origin. The attention to cultivated diversity would also solve a problem for us: come midsummer, few things in the garden bloomed. By adding new cultivars of roses (and other species), we could increase the garden's display potential. Around this time, we were dramatically rethinking how we deployed resources for horticulture. Under the leadership of former Deputy Director Richard Schulhof, the Arboretum launched an initial Landscape Management Plan (LMP) in 2007. The LMP prescribed expectations for arboricultural and horticultural care throughout the collections, including the BRC. Simultaneously, we undertook a curatorial review of all plants in the BRC to determine which lineages to preserve. The garden was packed, and the last thing we wanted was to renovate again in ten years. Even so, we still lacked the perspective that only a garden designer could provide. We needed innovative ways to organize plants that would maximize display potential (including for \"BIO\" plants that possess \"botanical interest only\"). We also needed to improve the visitor experience. Without a formal entrance, the garden lacked a sense of arrival. Circulation also demanded attention. While the existing bed configuration (full of tall, dense shrub masses) created intimate garden rooms, it also inhibited visitor exploration due to fear of the unknown or even concerns for safety. In Julie Moir Messervy Design Studio, we found technical expertise to help us tackle these and other problems. Erica and Julie provided both creative genius and sensitivity to the project (and its idiosyncratic client). Although we didn't intend to completely redo the five-acre site, we were seeking a major renovation. Shortly after the project launched in 2008, the Great Recession hit, forcing us to adjust the initial timeline that had called for a single season of renovation using contracted labor. The budget also caused us to rethink aspirations for formal paths and benches, at least initially. Instead, we used our in-house team of horticulturists and interns for the renovation, extending the bulk of the project from one year to three. With JMMDS's new plans in hand, we completely deconstructed some beds, while others were reshaped or constructed anew. This involved handling some 10,000 double cobbles, and a parade of pallets formed along Forest Hills Road. Shifting stones. Double cobbles were installed around a new bed in September 2010, while exposed soil remained visible in the footprint of an old bed (at right). The new plans identified plants to remove, as well as plants that could shift to new locations in the BRC. In some cases, the move could occur instantly, but because of the renovation's phased approach, other plants were transplanted to a temporary location near the Dana Greenhouse and Nursery's south nursery until new beds could be created. This intricate dance kept staff on their toes as they ensured plants were labelled and documented at all times. The greenhouse and nursery staff maintained these, while repropping important accessions from the BRC and beyond. Before we knew it, old beds morphed into turf and new beds appeared. Fresh rose cultivars extended the bloom season in the Rose Roundabout as well as other spaces in the garden. The Prunus Promenade materialized as trees were planted out (including additional cultivars). By the spring of 2011, most of the work was completed, including the installation of Peter Andruchow's beautiful arbor in the Roundabout. This destination for climbing roses was dedicated to Elizabeth Cabot Sluder (daughter of Eleanor Cabot Bradley) during an event with family and staff on June 18. We continue to implement elements of the JMMDS plan for the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. The orchard, comprising a diversity of harder-to-acquire germplasm, has taken some time to fill in, but as of this spring, we are about three-quarters of the way there. In 2013, we hired Peter to construct a second arbor, identical to the one in the Roundabout, which serves as an entry portal between two new beds along Meadow Road. We have also installed granite seating--akin to the bench Julie helped design above the BRC years before--as part of the Arboretum's new Commemorative Bench Program. Gardens, ever changing and dynamic, evolve and grow. The nearly 150-year history of this location, near the Forest Hills Gate, is a perfect example. Michael S. Dosmann is Keeper of the Living Collections and Stephen Schneider is Director of Operations at the Arnold Arboretum. MICHAEL DOSMANN MICHAEL DOSMANN Bradley Rosaceous Collection 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM GIS\/HARVARD PLANNING AND PROJECT MANAGEMENT 12 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 This 2015 photograph shows the BRC as redesigned by JMMDS, while the yellow outlines depict contours of the original 1980s design. The Rose Roundabout is located on the left, while the beds to the right primarily showcase Rosaceous shrubs. Notice that cherries are flowering pink and white in the Prunus Promenade. The orchard collection is located in the lawn near Willow Path, which runs along the top side of the collection. Additionally, we identified problem plantings. Some masses like prickly rose (Rosa nipponensis) needed reduction. Others, like wood rose (R. gymnocarpa) needed increasing. R. ? nitidula was too tall for the front of the garden, while interior rose (R. woodsii) and an unusual Taiwanese species (R. transmorrisonensis) were too short for the back. Species like red-spined rose (R. nitida) and swamp rose (R. palustris), both wet-loving, might have been better suited near the ponds, and longtooth rose (R. longicuspis) needed a trellis. Some of the catalogued plants were even missing from the field, including the namesake Arnold rose (R. ? arnoldiana `Arnold'). Clearly, reorganization was in store. Ultimately, we would suggest removal of sick and duplicated plants, reduction of colonies, and organization by height, habit, and bloom period to create densely alluring focal points throughout the summer. We fine-tuned the shape of the beds to improve circulation, pauses, and views. We also designed a main entrance and a circumferential route around the garden. Still, even with restructuring, we were concerned that some distinctions between plants might be too subtle for the average visitor. Our instincts wanted to make the whole collection more photogenically engaging. We wanted to intersperse herbaceous rose family JULIE MOIR MESSERVY DESIGN STUDIO Bradley Rosaceous Collection 13 KYLE PORT This illustration shows the initial design concept for the entrance arbors. plants, like lady's mantle (Alchemilla mollis), meadow sweet (Filipendula rubra), and avens (Geum spp.), between colorful rose hybrids. The Arnold pushed back on that idea, favoring a more dignified, uncomplicated (if not staid) order to things. Our mixed-garden proposal also complicated the maintenance practice at the time, which emphasized a clean contrast between mulch and woody specimens. That approach is easier to maintain, since any invading plant can easily be identified as a weed. Our compromise was to integrate longer-blooming hybrid roses like `Radtko' (Double Knockout?), `Chuckles', `Bucbi' (Carefree BeautyTM), and `AUSbord' (Gertrude Jekyll). We still dream of incorporating more herbaceous members of the rose family. In the very least, we want to eliminate views of mulch. To honor philanthropist Elizabeth Cabot Sluder, we designed a new arched entrance to the Rose Roundabout and put metal artist Peter Andruchow of Wovensteel to work. JMMDS designer Jana Bryan incorporated features from the Arboretum's wrought-iron main entrance into the design, and she also added hallmark puddingstone boulders at its base. We selected a delicate, pink climbing rose (Rosa `New Dawn') to clamber across the archway, a departure from the shrubbier citizenry of the Roundabout. The plants were shielded within the protective hollow of the arch's tri-scrolled feet. Rosa `New Dawn' (712-2010*A) grows over the Rose Roundabout entrance. When we evaluated existing plants in other parts of the garden--the orchard, the Prunus Promenade, and the shrub collection--it was mostly for location, health, quantity, and appearance. Unlike the Rosas, few of these plants came with noteworthy S. A. PFEIFFER 14 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 The BRC redesign includes two wrought-iron arbors, one at the entrance to the Rose Roundabout, the other, pictured here, along Meadow Road. backstories, other than a rare Chinese species of mountain ash, Sorbus yuana, which was one of the first accessioned in the United States. We identified some plants as stand-out ornamental specimens, including Toringo crabapple (Malus sieboldii), intermediate shadbush (Amelanchier intermedia), and petalless cherry (Prunus apetala), along with the grove of quince trees (Cydonia oblonga). We noted that the trio of Siberian crabapples (Malus baccata) were beautiful trees that could offer a transition between the orchard and shrub collections. We also catalogued a large and beautiful cultivar of black cherry (Prunus serotina `Cartilaginea'), a tall and stately example of Gray's chokecherry (P. grayana), and an early blooming favorite of visitors, cyclamen cherry (P. cyclamina). One unconventional hybrid, (? Sorbaronia sp.) ? (? Sorbocotoneaster sp.), was so appealing that Julie marked it as something we should find in the trade. We haven't seen it yet. In order to create distinct areas within these portions of the landscape, we needed to move a lot of plants around. One of our aims was to remove mulch beds around large standard trees, allowing the trees to spring directly from the lawn, while reserving beds for shrub groupings. Additionally, we wanted to improve upon the beauty and understandability of the space by reducing clutter, redundancy, and confusion. This meant moving plants like Nantucket shadbush (Amelanchier nantucketensis) out of the Prunus Promenade, despite their beauty. To give more space to the handsomely fruited medlar (Mespilus germanica), it was necessary to remove a Wilson spirea (Spiraea wilsonii) MENG LI Bradley Rosaceous Collection 15 KYLE PORT This highland drophip rose (Rosa oxyodon, 295-2008*A) was wild-collected on the north side of Lake Sevan, Armenia. that had invaded its folds. This was fine by Kit, who was very comfortable reducing size and clutter through pruning. It was actually Kit who introduced me to the term rejuvenation pruning, the process of pruning a shrubby plant to the ground in order to bring about a new and improved flush. While I was not in the practice of making such sudden and brutal cuts on slower-growing plants, the Arnold, on the other hand, is a practical institution and nothing if not patient. This willingness to wait and withstand the awkward stages actually freed up decision making. Rather than removing a rangy or overgrown plant, we could opt to rejuvenate it instead. Specimens of Laland firethorn (Pyracantha coccinea `Lalandei'), flowering quince (Chaenomeles), and spirea (Spiraea) were all candidates for this treatment. Some plants were outright deaccessioned because of age, disease, redundancy, bad form, or incorrect placement. While a one-hundredyear-old dwarf Siberian peashrub (Caragana arborescens `Nana') escaped the chopping block, several large and lovely Kousa dogwoods (Cornus kousa) did not. Their removal from along Willow Path was perhaps the most painful part of the demolition phase for me. Although their execution papers were signed in the effort to purge non-Rosaceous plants, I mourn their loss to this day. Double Knockout? (Rosa `Radtko', 709-2010*A) was among the showy cultivars that extended the bloom season. It was photographed here on October 22, 2013. Renewal of the BRC opened spaces for planting new specimens. Since we were not in the position to know the exact plants for future accessions, we designed plantings by genus and habit (e.g., \"Malus, arborescent species.\") This allowed Arnold staff the freedom to grow and add new MENG LI 16 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Cyclamen cherry (P. cyclamina, 706-31*B) is native to south-central China. specimens as we moved into the future. In this respect, our role at the Arboretum has been different from other design jobs: We were not the most qualified plant experts on the team. We had to cede that role. It may be many more years before all of the plants have grown to maturity and our vision of the new BRC is realized. By then, scholarship surrounding plant classification will have continued to shift, as will the garden. This is the challenge faced by gardeners and taxonomists alike: constant momentum. The art of a garden is never static. It sprouts weeds and seeds, and begins to seek its own expression. This is why most garden designers like to remain involved in order to see their plans to fruition. Otherwise we are at the whim of nature, or to whomever holds the pruning shears. Erica Bowman is a senior landscape architect for Julie Moir Messervy Design Studio, where she manages projects in New England and beyond. She holds an MLA from Cornell University. She also writes for Horticulture Magazine. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rose by Rose, Cobble by Cobble: A Garden Renovation","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25641","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15e8126.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schneider, Stephen; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"10 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Rose by Rose, Cobble by Cobble: A Garden Renovation Michael S. Dosmann and Stephen Schneider I t was January of 2007, Michael's first week as Curator of Living Collections, when former Arboretum Director Bob Cook presented three immediate curatorial priorities: reenvision the Arboretum's Living Collections Policy, implement environmental monitoring systems (including GIS), and \"do something about the rose garden.\" Despite several decades of care and attention since its intentional design in the early 1980s, the Bradley Rosaceous Collection (BRC) had become overgrown and lost its focus. Both the addition and subtraction of plant material had been limited. From a curatorial perspective, the dense plantings were a nightmare to label and keep authentic. It was time to make things right for a family with deep ties to the Arboretum by holding ourselves accountable to high levels of care and curation. In crafting a new vision for the BRC, we wanted to celebrate plant diversity writ large: not just botanical diversity provided by wild-collected woody species, but also cultivated diversity so richly illustrated by old and new cultivars. Accessions in the BRC, like those elsewhere in the Arboretum, would be valued based upon their full documentation and provenance, not simply a hierarchy of wild over cultivated origin. The attention to cultivated diversity would also solve a problem for us: come midsummer, few things in the garden bloomed. By adding new cultivars of roses (and other species), we could increase the garden's display potential. Around this time, we were dramatically rethinking how we deployed resources for horticulture. Under the leadership of former Deputy Director Richard Schulhof, the Arboretum launched an initial Landscape Management Plan (LMP) in 2007. The LMP prescribed expectations for arboricultural and horticultural care throughout the collections, including the BRC. Simultaneously, we undertook a curatorial review of all plants in the BRC to determine which lineages to preserve. The garden was packed, and the last thing we wanted was to renovate again in ten years. Even so, we still lacked the perspective that only a garden designer could provide. We needed innovative ways to organize plants that would maximize display potential (including for \"BIO\" plants that possess \"botanical interest only\"). We also needed to improve the visitor experience. Without a formal entrance, the garden lacked a sense of arrival. Circulation also demanded attention. While the existing bed configuration (full of tall, dense shrub masses) created intimate garden rooms, it also inhibited visitor exploration due to fear of the unknown or even concerns for safety. In Julie Moir Messervy Design Studio, we found technical expertise to help us tackle these and other problems. Erica and Julie provided both creative genius and sensitivity to the project (and its idiosyncratic client). Although we didn't intend to completely redo the five-acre site, we were seeking a major renovation. Shortly after the project launched in 2008, the Great Recession hit, forcing us to adjust the initial timeline that had called for a single season of renovation using contracted labor. The budget also caused us to rethink aspirations for formal paths and benches, at least initially. Instead, we used our in-house team of horticulturists and interns for the renovation, extending the bulk of the project from one year to three. With JMMDS's new plans in hand, we completely deconstructed some beds, while others were reshaped or constructed anew. This involved handling some 10,000 double cobbles, and a parade of pallets formed along Forest Hills Road. Shifting stones. Double cobbles were installed around a new bed in September 2010, while exposed soil remained visible in the footprint of an old bed (at right). The new plans identified plants to remove, as well as plants that could shift to new locations in the BRC. In some cases, the move could occur instantly, but because of the renovation's phased approach, other plants were transplanted to a temporary location near the Dana Greenhouse and Nursery's south nursery until new beds could be created. This intricate dance kept staff on their toes as they ensured plants were labelled and documented at all times. The greenhouse and nursery staff maintained these, while repropping important accessions from the BRC and beyond. Before we knew it, old beds morphed into turf and new beds appeared. Fresh rose cultivars extended the bloom season in the Rose Roundabout as well as other spaces in the garden. The Prunus Promenade materialized as trees were planted out (including additional cultivars). By the spring of 2011, most of the work was completed, including the installation of Peter Andruchow's beautiful arbor in the Roundabout. This destination for climbing roses was dedicated to Elizabeth Cabot Sluder (daughter of Eleanor Cabot Bradley) during an event with family and staff on June 18. We continue to implement elements of the JMMDS plan for the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. The orchard, comprising a diversity of harder-to-acquire germplasm, has taken some time to fill in, but as of this spring, we are about three-quarters of the way there. In 2013, we hired Peter to construct a second arbor, identical to the one in the Roundabout, which serves as an entry portal between two new beds along Meadow Road. We have also installed granite seating--akin to the bench Julie helped design above the BRC years before--as part of the Arboretum's new Commemorative Bench Program. Gardens, ever changing and dynamic, evolve and grow. The nearly 150-year history of this location, near the Forest Hills Gate, is a perfect example. Michael S. Dosmann is Keeper of the Living Collections and Stephen Schneider is Director of Operations at the Arnold Arboretum. MICHAEL DOSMANN MICHAEL DOSMANN Bradley Rosaceous Collection 11 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Shrubs and the Pollinators Who Love Them","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25642","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15e816b.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Walker, Holly; Gagliardi, James","article_content":"Shrubs and the Pollinators Who Love Them James Gagliardi and Holly Walker P From butterflies and bees to beetles and birds, many different kinds of pollinators have evolved within their ecosystems, building unique relationships with plants. When gardeners think of designing landscapes for pollinators, they may imagine plantings of floriferous herbaceous beds; however, trees and shrubs are essential components of the habitat required to support a wide variety of pollinators. For successful pollination, a pollinator must find a flower with a structure that matches its body. Consider a butterfly feeding on a daisylike composite flower. The butterfly will gracefully land on the inflorescence and elegantly unfurl its proboscis, which it precisely inserts through the long narrow tube of a central disc WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN ollinators are an essential part of our gardens, the ecosystem, and the United States economy. One in three bites of food you eat depends on pollinators. Honeybee pollination adds more than $15 billion to the value of agricultural crops in the United States each year, with another $9 billion coming from pollination by other species. Pollinator populations have been declining after decades of stress related to loss, degradation, and fragmentation of habitat; reduction in the number and quality of food sources; a lack of sites for breeding, nesting, and roosting; and improper use of pesticides and herbicides. Gardeners can be part of the solution to pollinator loss by creating landscapes that support pollinator health. This congregation of honeybees (and one beetle) was spotted on bigleaf magnolia (Magnolia macrophylla ssp. macrophylla, 961-89*B). DANNY SCHISSLER 18 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Pollen loads the hind legs of this honeybee, which was noticed on the early spring flowers of an Ozark witch-hazel (Hamamelis vernalis, 6099*D). flower to drink nectar hidden inside. During this process, a cleverly positioned anther (male flower part) rubs against the butterfly depositing pollen. After drinking nectar, the butterfly flutters away to the next bloom where the pollen will be brushed against the stigma (female flower part). Now consider beetles, which are sometimes referred to as \"mess and soil\" pollinators because of how they blunder their way through blossoms searching for food. Beetles are important pollinators for flowers like those of magnolia species, often arriving early in the season when temperatures are still too cool for most other pollinators. Since beetles did not originally evolve as pollinators, plants had to adapt to find a way to lure these insects. Most earlyseason beetles are attracted to rotting materi- als, as many beetle grubs are decomposers of decaying wood and plant tissue. The strongly fruited or slightly fetid smells associated with magnolias play on these preferences. Beetles don't possess special pollen-collecting features. Instead, with magnolias, they get covered in pollen while chewing on anthers and tepals (the term for undifferentiated petals and sepals). They then carry the pollen to the next flower. The process may not be as refined as that of a butterfly, but it is just as necessary for certain plants. Beetles are ancient and rank among the earliest evolving pollinators. Therefore, their correlation as the pollinator of ancient plants like magnolias makes evolutionary sense. Beetles and magnolias existed before bees and butterflies, and though bee pollination has been observed on several mag- JAMES GAGLIARDI Pollinators 19 At Smithsonian Gardens, the Urban Bird Habitat is located on the south and west sides of the National Museum of Natural History, not far from the Pollinator Garden. JAMES GAGLIARDI occupies a relatively small footprint in the urban landscape. In a 400-by-40-foot space, we cultivate more than two hundred types of plants, including many woody species. Diversity and seasonality are among the most important factors when choosing plants for pollinators. Plants with high wildlife value and great aesthetics help our public landscape achieve our goals of creating a healthy ecosystem, while both attracting and educating our visitors. Selecting Shrubs for Pollinators Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica `Henry's Garnet') is an exceptionally adaptable shrub in the Smithsonian's landscape. nolia species at the Arnold Arboretum (see Juan Losada's 2014 article in Arnoldia), the unique connection between these beetles and plants was developed well before other players arrived to the pollination game. At the Smithsonian Pollinator Garden in Washington, DC, we showcase trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants that support a wide array of pollinators and other wildlife. The garden The evolution and lifecycle of shrubs make them a particularly important part of a wildlife garden. All of the shrubs on this list are tough and adaptable in Mid-Atlantic gardens and often beyond. In addition to producing beautiful pollinator-attracting blooms, many have multi-season horticultural impact. When choosing the best combination of plants for the landscape, be sure that you plan for a garden that serves pollinators throughout the seasons. Include shrubs that flower early in spring, as well as others that will attract heavy pollinator activity in summer or during the KYLE PORT Large fothergilla (Fothergilla major, 968-88*A) attracts pollinators from April to May, much like its smaller-statured relative (F. gardenii). Virginia sweetspire (Itea virginica, Zone 5?9) is another versatile spring-blooming shrub in the Smithsonian's landscape. It is prominently featured at the entrance to the Pollinator Garden in the shade of a black gum tree (Nyssa sylvatica, Zone 3?9). We have also used it in a full-sun planting, where it retains a slope along a parking lot. It thrives in both locations, but the blooms are best in full sun. Its spires of fragrant white blossoms appear in early summer and draw nectar-loving insects like butterflies and bees, including native bumblebees and sweat bees. Best planted in a mass, the plant's rich red to purple fall color will persist into the winter in southern areas as a semi-evergreen plant. If some of the foliage has been damaged by insects, it might be a sign of more pollinator activity, as this plant is a host to the American holly azure butterfly (Celastrina idella). Dwarf fothergilla (Fothergilla gardenii, Zone 4?8) has showy bottlebrush inflorescences that emerge from March to May before their leaves. They attract bees with their white color and pleasant scent, and then offer their pollinators a sweet nectar reward for those that get past their dense tangle of anthers. Ornamentally, it is a great three-season plant with nice foliage that becomes particularly attractive in fall, when it turns brilliant shades of yellow, orange, and red. Consider pairing fothergilla with oakleaf ANSEL OOMMEN, BUGWOOD.ORG DANNY SCHISSLER 20 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Japanese spicebush (Lindera obtusiloba, 376-86*A) produces early spring flowers like its American counterpart (L. benzoin). bustling fall when pollinators are building their winter reserves. Witch-hazel species bookend the pollination season in our gardens. Common witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana, USDA Hardiness Zone 3?8) is one of the last plants that will bloom each year. When the days grow short and little else is flowering, the strap-like petals and strong fragrance of witch-hazel flowers draw pollinators like owlet moths, and potentially gnats and late-season bees scavenging for food. At the start of the year, Ozark witch-hazel (Hamamelis vernalis, Zone 4?8) is one of the first blooms to greet pollinators. The caterpillars of spicebush swallowtail (Papilio troilus) feed predominantly on the foliage of northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin). Pollinators 21 JAMES GAGLIARDI In 1995, Smithsonian Gardens opened the Butterfly Habitat Garden, along the east side of the National Museum of Natural History in the heart of Washington, DC. After twenty-one years, this popular landscape was rededicated as the Pollinator Garden. The new theme helps visitors discover the who, what, when, where, why, and how of pollination by interpreting the unique relationship between pollinators and flowers. The garden's title change and our extended educational efforts reflect the growing importance of supporting pollinator health (not just butterflies alone), as championed with a task force formed by President Barack Obama in 2014. Furthermore, the garden is part of the Million Pollinator Garden Challenge, launched by The National Pollinator Garden Network. This effort is a partnership between conservation organizations, gardening groups, volunteer civic associations, and participating federal agencies. It aims to inspire people and organizations to create more pollinator habitats by registering a million public and private gardens and landscapes that support pollinators. As a key advocate for pollinators, the Smithsonian's reinterpretation of the Pollinator Garden on the National Mall educates millions of visitors on the wide diversity of pollinators and the types of plants that support them. JAMES GAGLIARDI The Pollinator Garden James Gagliardi, below, helped with redeveloping the Pollinator Garden to showcase an evolving national awareness of the importance of all pollinators. The garden was officially dedicated in June of 2016. hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia, Zone 5?9), which likes similar growing conditions along a woodland edge. Its flowers appear from May to July, after fothergillas have finished, and draw later-emerging wasps and flower flies, along with the aforementioned bees. Not all plants will contribute as much to the aesthetics of your landscape as they will to pollinators. Spicebush (Lindera benzoin, Zone 5?9) is not often the focal point in a garden, but it offers a full package of horticultural benefits. It is tolerant of deer, drought, heavy shade, and clay soil. Green-yellow flowers appear in early spring before leaves emerge, and while the flowers are small, they have garnered enough attention for this native woodland understory shrub to be called the \"forsythia of the wilds.\" The plants are dioecious, requiring small bees and JAMES GAGLIARDI 22 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 The drupes of northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin) are popular with bird species, including gray catbird (Dumetella carolinensis), snacking here even before the fruits were completely ripe. various flies to move pollen from the larger, showier flowers on male shrubs to those on the separate females, providing a critical resource for native pollinators when many food sources are not available on the landscape. Once pollinated, the female shrubs produce red drupes that are a good food source for birds and a possible nutmeg substitute for bakers. The plant also features aromatic leaves that turn an attractive yellow in the fall. Spicebush is one of the few host plants used by the spicebush swallowtail (Papilio troilus), a well-recognized visitor of gardens and natural landscapes in the eastern United States. The adult female spicebush swallowtail has evolved to recognize specific compounds on the surface of its host plant before laying eggs, to ensure a suitable food source for maturing larvae. Other related hosts to spicebush that can support the native spicebush swallowtail include sassafras (Sassafras albidum, Zone 5?9) and redbay (Persea borbonia, Zone 7?11). Red chokeberry (Aronia arbutifolia, Zone 4?9) supplies a great deal of value to wildlife in our gardens. Butterflies and native bees, such as mason bees, mining bees, and bumblebees, visit its clusters of white flowers from March to May. Chokeberry foliage turns stunning shades in fall and provides a food source to some hairstreak butterflies and moths, including bluish spring moths (Lomographa semiclarata) and praeclara underwings (Catocala praeclara). This herbivore activity can be observed as typical chewing damage along leaf margins. True to their name, red chokeberry fruits (though actually pomes and not berries) have a dry, astringent taste for birds and humans alike. The fruits persist from summer into the winter, and after a long period of exposure to cold weather, the fruit becomes more palatable. This makes chokeberries an important late-season native food for birds after other food sources are exhausted. The fruit's persistence through late winter also makes it a beautiful ornamental plant in the winter JAMES GAGLIARDI SUSAN HARDY BROWN Pollinators 23 KYLE PORT Attractive throughout the seasons, red chokeberries (Aronia arbutifolia) flower in mid-spring and bear lustrous red fruits well into winter. Flowers of inkberry holly (Ilex glabra `Compacta', 745-69*D) are tucked within dense evergreen foliage. garden. Both red chokeberry and black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa, Zone 3?8) are useful for mass plantings or for mixing into a naturalized perennial border. Running serviceberry (Amelanchier stolonifera, Zone 4?8) is another plant that provides showy white blooms for pollinators in May, edible berries in summer, and striking fall foliage. Hollies (Ilex spp.) are a strong draw for pollinators in late spring and early summer. Their small scented flowers often go unnoticed by garden designers, but they effectively draw the attention of bees and flies. The prolific and showy fruits of winterberry holly (Ilex verticillata, Zone 3?9) are another credit to good cross-pollination required for these dioecious plants. At the Pollinator Garden, we recently installed a grouping of dwarf American holly (Ilex opaca `Maryland Dwarf', Zone 5?9), which provides the classic evergreen holly appearance in a more compact space. Other hollies like inkberry (Ilex glabra, Zone 4?9) may not have showy flowers or fruits, but you'll still find them covered in bees and later with birds looking for a snack. The same is true for the common wax myrtle (Morella cerifera, Zone 7?10). Shrubs can also fill a flowering lag in the summer landscape. Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis, Zone 5?9) 24 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Pollinator Syndromes The combinations of floral characteristics associated with particular types of pollinators are known as pollinator syndromes. Other than bat pollination, which most often occurs in tropical and desert ecosystems, all of these syndromes can be observed in the Smithsonian Pollinator Garden. The Smithsonian team has adapted this information to create seven \"pollinator profiles\" for bees, beetles, butterflies, hummingbirds, flies, moths, and wind (along with special references to bats and water). Using a field-journal theme, each profile in our Pollination Investigation describes the pollinators' favorite flowers based on floral characteristics. The panels teach pollination on a general level and are not designed for our garden alone. On May 20, 2018--the United Nation's first World Bee Day--the panels were unveiled at University of Ljubljana Botanical Garden in the Republic of Slovenia, in recognition of Slovenia's leadership proposing the new celebration. Additionally, our Pollination Investigation panels are available to educators in gardens around the world free of charge through the Smithsonian Gardens website. USDA FOREST SERVICE POLLINATOR SYNDROME TRAITS TRAIT BATS BEES COLOR Dull white, green, or purple Bright white, yellow, blue, or UV NECTAR GUIDES Absent BEETLES BIRDS BUTTERFLIES Dull white or green Scarlet, orange, red, or white Bright, including red and purple Present Absent Absent Present ODOR Strong musty; emitted at night Fresh, mild, pleasant None to strongly fruity or fetid NECTAR Abundant; somewhat hidden Usually present Sometimes present; not hidden POLLEN Ample Limited; often sticky and scented Ample Modest FLOWER SHAPE Regular; bowl-like; closed during day Shallow; have landing platform; tubular Large bowl-like; magnolia Large funnel-like; cups, strong perch support FLIES MOTHS Pale and dull to dark Pale and brown or dull red, purple; purple, pink, flecked with or white translucent patches WIND Dull green, brown, or colorless; petals absent or reduced Absent Absent Absent None Faint but fresh Putrid Strong sweet; emitted at night None Ample; deeply hidden Ample; deeply hidden Usually absent Ample; deeply hidden None Limited Modest in amount Limited Abundant; small, smooth, and not sticky Regular; tubular without a lip Regular; small and stigmas exerted Shallow; Narrow tube funnel-like with spur; or wide complex and landing pad trap-like Pollinators 25 JAMES GAGLIARDI DANNY SCHISSLER is a captivating and attention-grabbing plant for sun to part shade. Planted at the entrance to our Pollinator Garden, buttonbush draws the interest of visitors with its unique round flower heads. The flowers are also a magnet to bees and butterflies in June, just as our hot DC summers begin to peak. Additionally, the flowers of American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana, Zone 6?10) often go unnoticed by gardeners in June and July but draw bees and butterflies for pollination, enabling the glossy purple fruit that gardeners and birds adore. In full sun, bluebeard (Caryopteris ? clandonensis, Zone 6?9) and leadplant (Amorpha canescens, Zone 2?9) are other great summer pollinator plants and can mix nicely into a perennial border due to their smaller habits. Carolina allspice (Calycanthus floridus, Zone 4?9) is also called sweetshrub and strawberry bush because of how the bloom fragrance combines hints of pineapple, strawberry, and banana. Similar to magnolias, Carolina allspice has tepals and evolved long before bees and butterflies entered the landscape. As such, its flowers are predominantly pollinated by sap beetles, though they are attractive to other local pollinators as well. The beetles are drawn by the scent of sweet fermentation, and they work their way into the shade of the overlapping tepals to find food from April to July. The flowers are easy to enter but difficult to depart. Once trapped inside, the beetle picks up pollen. After the flower further matures, the inner parts of the flower fold back to release the beetle. By that point, the stigmas will have already withered, and the beetle will move on to another flower in search of more food, unknowingly ensuring cross-pollination. Summersweet (Clethra alnifolia, Zone 3?9) attracts a diverse group of pollinators, including butterflies, bees, and hummingbirds, which have evolved to take advantage of narrow, tubular flowers. It is one of the few blooms you can find in late-summer shade in our Pollinator Garden. Similarly, bottlebrush buckeye (Aesculus parviflora, Zone 4?8) draws butterflies, bumblebees, and hummingbirds from July to August with its big showy panicles of flowers that occur in part to full shade. Note that the ruby-throated DANNY SCHISSLER 26 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Summer shrubs for pollinators include, top to bottom, buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis, 123-78*A), Carolina allspice (Calycanthus floridus), and summersweet (Clethra alnifolia var. alnifolia `Rosea', 239-47*MASS). Pollinators 27 DANNY SCHISSLER hummingbird (Archilochus colubris) is the only breeding species of hummingbird on the East Coast each summer. It usually arrives in Washington, DC, in April, after migrating north from Mexico and Central America. Summer pollinators also love Chenault coralberry (Symphoricarpos ? chenaultii `Hancock', Zone 4?7). We planted a large grouping of it at the National Museum of Natural History to retain a steep slope, and it may attract the greatest density of pollinators of any shrub in the collection. The plants are thriving and often need to be trimmed, but because they are so popular with honeybees from a hive in the museum's insect zoo, located a few hundred feet away, our gardeners refrain from working with the plants during the summer months, preserving our record of being sting free. Both native and non-native viburnums (Viburnum spp.) work as powerhouses in the landscape, as they attract an exceptionally wide range of pollinators with strong scents that promise either a nectar or pollen reward. Scarab beetles of the genus Cetonia are particularly interesting viburnum pollinators, possessing branched hairs on their bodies that are similar to pollen-collecting hairs found on bees. These hairs ensure a better chance of cross-pollination for self-sterile viburnum species. Beetles, however, are only one of myriad pollinators that are necessary for the successful reproduction of viburnums. As Michael Donoghue reported in Arnoldia in 1980, viburnums with long corolla tubes and sweet scents are more often pollinated by species belonging to the order Lepidoptera, while viburnums with shorter corolla tubes and muskier odors receive frequent visits from flies and small bees. This relationship corresponds to the size of the insect mouthparts. It is important to note that most viburnums produce very little nectar despite the wide range of pollinators associated with the genus. It is thought that the primary reward, at least for bees, is not nectar but pollen. More than Flowers Bottlebrush buckeye (Aesculus parviflora, 558-2003*C) produces feathery panicles from July to August. Flowers are not the only consideration when creating a garden for pollinators. We must consider the needs of pollinators throughout their entire lifecycle. Creating a habitat means maintaining gardens that provide shelter and food. At the Pollinator Garden, we wait to cut back plants and remove dead foliage until spring, if at all. To accommodate the full lifecycle of pollinators, we must cater to caterpillars and other immature insects. In Eric Carle's book The Very Hungry Caterpillar, generations of schoolchildren have learned that we will not have beautiful butterflies without munching caterpillars. Caterpillars can be picky eaters, so we plant a wide variety of host plants in the Pollinator Garden. Pollinators often rely on specific trees, shrubs, perennials, and annuals as JAMES GAGLIARDI food sources. Some plants, like spicebush (Lindera benzoin), the host plant of the spicebush swallowtail butterfly, have pollinator-friendly flowers. But even wind-pollinated species can be important for pollinators. The foliage of smooth alder (Alnus serrulata, Zone 4?9), for instance, provides a significant food resource for beetles, aphids, moth caterpillars, and other insects. When planting a garden for pollinators, we need to be okay with leaves being eaten. It is also best to acquire plants from nurseries that have not treated their plants with systemic insecticides. In the 180 acres maintained by Smithsonian Gardens, we do use insecticides, but only as a last resort. Our preferred methods of control are mechanical, cultural, and biological. The plants in the Pollinator Garden are in good health, in part because maintaining a diverse plant inventory supports a balanced garden ecosystem. During our tenures at Smithsonian Garden, neither of us can recall spraying insecticides in the Pollinator Garden or in the preceding Butterfly Garden. In the extreme case that we ever need to apply an insecticide in the future, we would certainly make sure that the Horticultural care is an important factor when gardening for pollinators. At the Pollinator Garden, horticulturists wait to remove winter foliage, which is product would not affect beneficial necessary for insect habitat. insects and pollinators. In the end, pollination is all about survival James Gagliardi is a supervisory horticulturist with and sex. The insect and the plant both require Smithsonian Gardens in Washington, DC. After President something. The pollinator is often drawn to a Obama released a memorandum to promote pollinators plant with an offer of food. In turn, the plant in 2014, he worked on a task force with the Council on uses the pollinator as a vector to move its Environmental Quality to draft Supporting the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators. He is honored to pollen to the stigma of another flower. Plants be the editor of the Smithsonian's first gardening book, have evolved with particular traits, and polEncyclopedia of Garden Plants for Every Location. linators select blooms for their preference for Holly Walker is the Plant Health Specialist at color, odor, nectar, nectar guides, pollen, and Smithsonian Gardens in Washington, DC. With a diverse flower shape. These traits, combined with background in integrated pest management (IPM), bloom period and location, make for a variable biological control, and native pollinator conservation, matrix of pollinator and plant interactions. she works to educate the public in environmentally Therefore, it is important to grow a large selecresponsible pest management in both urban and tion of plants, including shrubs, to support the rural landscapes. She recently completed her PhD in entomology at the University of Delaware. needs of a great variety of pollinators. JAMES GAGLIARDI 28 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2017 Weather Summary: A Year of Recovery","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25640","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15ebb6d.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2017 Weather Summary: A Year of Recovery S. A. Pfeiffer A DANNY SCHISSLER s an Arboretum horticulturist, my daily routine always starts with the weather forecast. The forecast dictates priorities and deadlines for horticultural tasks. As the forecast shifts, new goals arise and others are eliminated. Pests and diseases come and go with seasonal turns in the weather, and access to our plant collections is determined on a daily basis, especially in the wet and muddy weeks of spring. Past weather conditions, however, also play an important role in directing our horticultural care. By the start of meteorological winter in December 2016, concern over the health of the collections was mounting. Following an exceptionally dry 2015 season, record-breaking heat and drought made 2016 an especially tough Spring colors swept down Oak Path on May 11. year for plants. From June through October, hundreds of feet of hose were dragged through the collection, and every water tank on hand was filled and refilled in an effort to alleviate drought stress. Water cannons pumped six million gallons of water into the landscape, and irrigation systems were on a tight overnight schedule. The efforts of the horticulture crew to carefully monitor and provide supplemental irrigation in the searing heat of 2016--the hottest summer on record for the city of Boston (but the second hottest according to Arboretum data)--cannot be overstated. As we entered 2017, what would it take to end the drought? Temperatures warmed during the winter months, and according to thirty-year averages calculated by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, precipitation during January and February of 2017 was well above normal for the Boston area. Due to the severity of the ongoing drought, expectations of major S. A. PFEIFFER 30 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Abundant rain brought abundant turf. Arboretum gardener Brendan Keegan is pictured mowing on Peters Hill in early May. DANNY SCHISSLER 2017 Weather 31 Our 218-day growing season enabled vibrant growth throughout the Arboretum. This view shows the North Meadow in mid-August. plant dieback and death were on the forefront of our minds as we awaited spring leaf out. Abundant rains fell during March and April, amounting to more than five inches above normal. Buds swelled, leaves emerged, and a green landscape was a welcome sight. Rains continued to fall. Soils were plenty moist, and the recovery of the collections was exceptional. Not only did the accessioned trees, shrubs, and vines flourish during the growing season but turf and weeds also seemed to grow exponentially, keeping horticulture crews busy. Arboretum staff, always attentive to the impact of weather on plant health, could not have asked for a better year following the preceding drought. Our annual weather summary tracks the four meteorological seasons and reveals, at least in part, moments when weather demanded adjustments in horticultural care. For ease of interpretation and statistical analysis, meteorological seasons are broken into three-month periods based on annual temperature. Winter is defined as the three consecutive months with the lowest average temperatures, corresponding with December, January, and February in the Northern Hemisphere. Spring, summer, and autumn follow accordingly, each comprising the next three-month series. Winter: December 1, 2016 to February 28, 2017 December was seasonable with slightly mild temperatures. Highs dropped below freezing on only four occasions. An outbreak of arctic air on the fifteenth and sixteenth forced temperatures to a low of 3?F, and on the seventeenth, we received five inches of snow. Most melted away as conditions rebounded to 57?F on the eighteenth. The majority of precipitation fell as rain during seven major events. The month of January brought unusual warm conditions. Despite a three-day cold spell that brought single-digit temperatures from the seventh through the 32 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 KYLE PORT ninth, January's average temperature was 7.1?F above normal. We hit a recordbreaking 62?F on the twelfth, far above the average high of 36?F for that day. Precipitation was abundant throughout the month with seventeen days of recorded rain or snow. Of this, 3.65 inches fell as rain. Another 9.8 inches arrived as snow, which mostly fell during the three-day cold spell. Major rain events were long, steady, and light, allowing moisture to infiltrate into the soil and recharge groundwater levels. A high-powered coastal storm arrived on the evening of the twentythird, bringing prolonged rain over the next twenty-four hours. Gusts reached 39 mph, scattering limbs throughout the landscape and completely destroying an oak and a willow. Overall, the warm and snowless month allowed access into more remote areas, providing opportunities for horticulture teams to prune deadwood in the beech collection and thin trees in Central Woods. Warm conditions continued into February, as temperatures averaged 6.1?F above normal. The horticulture crew took advantage of snowless days early in the month by pruning and rejuvenating most accessions in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. We ultimately received above-average precipitation, including 19.2 inches of snow that mostly fell between the seventh and the thirteenth. A nor'easter blizzard, the first since January 2015, delivered 11.5 inches of this total on the ninth. Conditions remained cold and cloudy in the immediate aftermath. With this deep snow cover, horticultural priorities shifted to scouting for signs of invasive insects in the collection. A warm spell sent temperatures soaring between the twenty-third and the twenty-fifth. We reached 74?F on the twentyfourth, the highest February temperature ever recorded in Boston since recordkeeping began in 1872. Daily records were also hit on the neighboring days (69?F on the twenty-third and 72?F on the twenty-fifth). All remaining snow melted The horticulture crew began mulching the Bradley Rosaceous Collection in late January. DANNY SCHISSLER 2017 Weather 33 Chinese witch-hazel (Hamamelis mollis, 215-2000*A) was spotted flowering on February 23. over this period, and the horticulture crew returned to the rose collection, mulching all sixteen beds. Early spring blooms appeared on red and silver maples (Acer rubrum and A. saccharinum) and on hybrid witch-hazel cultivars (Hamamelis ? intermedia `Arnold Promise', `Diane', and `Jelena'). Spring: March 1 to May 31, 2017 March was colder than normal with an average temperature below both January and February. Early in the month, lows dipped into single digits on three occasions. Precipitation was abundant and consistent throughout the month, although we experienced some of the driest air of the year between the third and sixth, when relative humidity levels remained in the teens and low twenties. On the fourteenth, a late-season blizzard brought high winds, gusting at 47 mph, our highest of the year. Heavy snow amounted to 6.5 inches and turned to heavy rain that fell at a rate of 0.50 inches per hour. Temperatures plummeted to the teens overnight, turning roads and sidewalks into a veritable skating rink by the morning of the fifteenth. The storm brought down limbs in the conifers and toppled an apricot (Prunus armeniaca). Temperatures remained cool until vernal equinox on the twentieth brought sunny conditions and a high of 51?F. We ended the month with plenty of rain. Buds that had begun to swell due to warm February temperatures suspended their development, waiting to open, while cooler temperatures extended the bloom time of many witch-hazels. The lack of snow cover allowed the horticulture crew to pursue diverse projects: mulching the beech collection, installing new paths, removing invasive plants in natural areas, and cleaning winter storm damage (including a giant willow that was pulled from the meadow). DANNY SCHISSLER 34 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 KYLE PORT Always among the first to brave the spring, Zen magnolia (Magnolia zenii, 430-91*A) was zapped by cold weather on March 5. Abundant rainfall continued into April, further reducing the water deficit from 2016. Temperatures were above average for the month. A storm that lasted from March 31 to April 1 delivered 2.82 inches of precipitation, most falling as rain. We began the third with our last spring frost, which melted as temperatures warmed to 60?F later that day, marking the beginning of the growing season. Excessive rain and melting snow saturated soils, especially in lowlying areas, leaving those areas inaccessible. Ponds filled, brooks flowed, and the forsythia began to bloom. Nursery digging for spring plantings began on the tenth. Warm conditions persisted as we hit 86?F on the eleventh and sixteenth, causing katsuras (Cercidiphyllum japonicum), magnolias (Magnolia), and cherries (Prunus) to burst into flower. Despite seasonal dreary conditions, the landscape looked alive as turf greened up and trees leafed out. Horticulture crews were busy with mowing Low-lying portions of the Arboretum, including the lindens, flooded as the growing season began in early April. 2017 Weather 35 Pests and Pathogens Mind the Weather Too MENG LI MENG LI Not all collections escaped the 2016 drought unscathed. Oaks on Peters Hill, defoliated for many years by winter moth (Operophtera brumata), were among those that continued to languish, as were hemlock specimens that had been struggling from infestations of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) and elongated hemlock scale (Fiorinia externa). Effects of drought stress on older beeches became apparent mid-summer as leaves browned and black-timber bark beetles (Xylosandrus germanus) invaded. Royal azaleas (Rhododendron schlippenbachii) in the Explorers Garden experienced major stem dieback. The arborist crew devoted a month to removing deadwood from older oaks and other large trees, while horticulturists did the same in the understory. Both powdery mildew and anthracnose, a general term for many fungal leaf diseases, erupted throughout the grounds. From the Arborway to Peters Hill, from May through October, anthracnose was ubiquitous due to frequent precipitation, overcast skies, and warm temperatures. Sycamores (Platanus), maples (Acer), and dogwoods (Cornus), which are typically affected Crabapples on Peters Hill presented an extraordinary spring display, including Magdeburg crabapple (Malus ? magdeburgensis, 544-66*A) and Chinese pearleaf crabapple (Malus asiatica, 341-86*B). by anthracnose, were especially hard hit. Other deciduous trees, including ashes (Fraxinus), beeches (Fagus), hophornbeams (Ostrya), hornbeams (Carpinus), oaks (Quercus), walnuts (Juglans) and stewartias (Stewartia), were certainly not immune. Severe infestation on sycamores and crabapples caused premature defoliation. Fortunately, however, winter moth populations were greatly reduced. Warm temperatures in January and February led to early bud break for red and silver maples (Acer rubrum and A. saccharinum), simultaneously causing winter moths to hatch early. The newly emerged caterpillars could wiggle between bud scales on those maple species and begin feeding, but subsequent cold temperatures delayed bud swelling for later-flowering host plants, notably apples and crabapples (Malus). With no access to the inner buds of those species, many caterpillars didn't survive through the spring. In recent years, Arboretum staff have also released tachinid flies (Cyzenis albicans) that prey on winter moths. The combination of these biotic and abiotic factors significantly lowered the population of winter moths, allowing the crabapple collection on Peters Hill to put on its best flowering show in years. ANDREW GAPINSKI operations throughout the grounds. We ended the month with temperatures hovering just above 80?F, pushing lilacs (Syringa) into bloom. May was slightly warmer than average, but we began the month with below-seasonal temperatures and lows in the thirties. A number of fastmoving downpours accounted for over an inch of rain during the first week. According to the United States Drought Monitor, soil moisture returned to normal conditions Arboretum horticulturists Mark Walkama (left) and Scott Grimshaw prepare a ball-and-burlap specimen in the East Nursery. This on May 9, officially ending (right) year, 378 plants graduated into the collection. the drought that had begun on June 7, 2016. Overcast conditions prevailed for the week leading up to Lilac Sunday on the fourteenth. These cooler temperatures extended the blooms of many plants, especially lilacs, but with the threat of soaking rain on the fourteenth, Lilac Sunday activities were held on Saturday the thirteenth. True to forecast, a nor'easter arrived that evening, and by the afternoon of the fourteenth, we had received over 1.5 inches of rain. Temperatures soared over the following days, hitting highs in the nineties from the seventeenth to the nineteenth and peaking ANDREW GAPINSKI 36 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 Arboretum arborists worked along Meadow Road on May 8, the day before the United States Drought Monitor officially announced an end to the drought that began on June 7, 2016. DANNY SCHISSLER 2017 Weather 37 Japanese pagoda tree (Styphnolobium japonicum, 216-35*A) showcased the lush greenness of this recovery year, pictured on August 2. at 96?F. This heat wave was one of the earliest for the area, as the most recent with an earlier date occurred May 2?4, 2001. A fast-moving cold front brought a heavy downpour on the evening of the nineteenth: within fifteen minutes, 0.30 inches of rain had fallen and temperatures had plummeted by 10?F. We ended the month with typical spring weather fluctuations and steady precipitation. Soils remained moist, plants were lush and floriferous, and turf continued its rapid growth. Horticulture crews were busy mowing and finishing spring cleanup. Summer: June 1 to August 31, 2017 A lingering cold front in early June brought temperatures in the fifties. Four days of rain accounted for 2.0 inches of precipitation, almost half of the monthly total. Moist soil conditions made it difficult to access low-lying areas for mowing operations. We experienced our second heat wave of the year between the eleventh and thirteenth, once again hitting 96?F. High soil moisture and hot temperatures led to an explosion of turf and weed growth throughout the grounds. The plant collections flourished, easing concerns over last year's drought as plants continued to recover. A fast-moving system brought an additional 1.78 inches of rain on the evening of the sixteenth. Conditions stabilized as temperatures remained in the high seventies to mid-eighties for the remainder of the month. Drier conditions were prevalent, and despite seven short rain events, we accumulated only one additional inch of rain. Nonetheless, compared to June 2016, we received almost four times more rain in 2017. July temperatures were seasonable with slightly below-average precipitation. We began the month with comfortable conditions, highs in the eighties and lows in the high fifties. Two fast-moving thunderstorms on the seventh and eighth brought downpours and a total of 0.94 inches of rain. Thunderstorms returned 38 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 What Factored into the Drought Recovery? DANNY SCHISSLER The Arnold Arboretum's primary weather station is located at the Weld Hill Research Building, where it takes measurements for temperature and precipitation every fifteen minutes. Snow measurements are taken once a day at the Dana Greenhouse. In 2017, three environmental factors played key roles in drought recovery for the plant collections. First, precipitation was plentiful in 2017, with a monthly average of 3.98 inches, compared to 2.84 inches in 2016 and 3.09 inches in 2015. Excess precipitation during the first six months of 2017 caused the United States Drought Monitor to announce that Boston had reached normal conditions by early May. During that time, light- to moderate-intensity rainfall occurred frequently. These conditions sustained soil moisture, allowing roots to consistently uptake water for plant growth and metabolic processes. Second, temperatures were mild from January through February and remained seasonable throughout subsequent months, except for a warm spell in October. While New England heat waves typically occur between July and September, when soil moisture levels are predictably low, two of the three heat waves that occurred in 2017 arrived early: one in May, another in June. During these heat waves, plants were not set back to the extent normally expected. Precipitation during both months was greater than expected, supplying relief from the effects of high temperatures. Likewise, despite normal high temperatures during summer months, frequent rain minimized plant stress. Third, we experienced an exceptional 218-day growing season, beginning April 3 and ending November 8. (The growing season is typically defined as the number of days between the last spring frost and the first in the fall.) The season was more than three weeks longer than the average growing season since 2009. Even more astonishing, it was thirty-five days longer than 2016. Moreover, because severe and extreme drought conditions persisted from July 26, 2016, through the first fall frost, the actual period of active plant growth that year was far less than the 183 days recorded between frosts. The Linda J. Davison Rhododendron Path was festooned with lavish pinks on June 5. 2017 Weather 39 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data ? 2017 Avg.Avg.Avg.Max. Min. Precipi- SnowMax. Min. Temp.Temp.Temp.tation fall (?F)(?F)(?F)(?F)(?F) (inches) (inches) JAN 40.927.134.061.8 4.7 4.27 9.8 FEB 45.427.136.274.2 9.1 3.8119.2 MAR 41.325.133.263.0 7.8 5.5211.1 APR 61.242.952.186.430.1 5.66 1.2 MAY 63.847.855.895.734.0 4.17 JUN 78.858.168.595.845.7 4.56 JUL 81.862.172.093.052.2 2.82 AUG 80.959.873.390.849.5 2.43 SEP 76.157.666.987.943.0 3.61 OCT 69.550.359.979.437.5 5.96 NOV 51.333.242.275.520.5 1.98 DEC 35.322.028.759.3 0.2 2.9810.4 Average Maximum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.5?F Average Minimum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . 42.8?F Average Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7?F Total Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47.77 inches Total Snowfall in 2017 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51.7 inches Snowfall During Winter 2016?2017 . . . . . . . . . . 47.5 inches Warmest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95.8?F on June 12 Coldest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.2?F on December 29 Strongest Wind Gust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46.9 mph on March 14 Last Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30.1?F on April 3 First Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29.5?F on November 8 Growing Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218 days Growing Degree Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3104 days Days at 90?F or Above . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 days Days Below Freezing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23 days 40 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 from the eleventh through the thirteenth, followed by a cold front that brought temperatures in the sixties for a couple days. Temperatures returned to expected highs, and we experienced our third heat wave of the year from the nineteenth to the twenty-first, with temperatures topping out at 93?F. Conditions continued to fluctuate as a slow-moving storm materialized, bringing prolonged soaking rains and temperatures in the sixties on the twenty-fourth and twenty-fifth. Because this addition of 1.47 inches of rain kept soils moist, we had yet to irrigate the collections (except for new plantings). We ended the month with partly cloudy conditions, high humidity, and temperatures in the seventies and eighties. Seasonable temperatures continued in August. High humidity and warm temperatures over the first couple of days culminated in violent thunderstorms that brought heavy downpours, hail, and high winds on the third and the fourth. Almost two inches of rain fell, scattering the landscape with fallen leaves and causing erosion (even in mulched beds) and flooding. A cold front brought conditions in the seventies from the fifth through the eighth, but otherwise, typical New England heat and humidity returned for the remainder of the month. We received only five additional rain events over the remaining four weeks, totaling a mere 0.38 inches. Soils dried, leading to dusty conditions in open grassy areas. Newly established turf began to go dormant, and supplemental irrigation began mid-month. Clear skies were ideal for viewing the partial eclipse, which peaked at 2:48 p.m. on the twenty-first. We reached 91?F on the twenty-second, the single incident of temperatures in the nineties for the month. Although very humid, temperatures were seasonable, remaining in the eighties mid-month and dropping to the seventies during the last week. Serviceberries (Amelanchier), which typically begin to drop their leaves early in the season, remained green and lush throughout the month. Autumn: September 1 to November 30, 2017 September brought average rain that fell predominantly as quick downpours. The month began with temperatures in the sixties and seventies as remnants of Hurricane Harvey delivered a quarter inch of rain on the third. An additional inch arrived as heavy overnight downpours on the sixth, including 0.30 inches that fell over a fifteen-minute period, the first significant rainfall since August 3. Soils were moist and temperatures favorable when autumn planting began on the eleventh. Hot and humid conditions returned mid-month leading to pop-up thunderstorms on both the fourteenth and the fifteenth. Conditions did not improve as Hurricane Jose approached on the seventeenth, bringing dense morning fog that was followed by wind and sporadic rain. Dreary weather persisted with minimal precipitation until the twenty-third, after which the sun and heat returned. Temperatures rose to the mid-eighties between the twenty-fourth and twenty-seventh, 15 to 20?F above average for this time of year. Summer conditions, however, would not last. Temperatures dropped to a more seasonable 56?F when a storm delivered over half an inch of rain on the thirtieth. With the abundance of precipitation in the latter half of the month, irrigation was limited to recent plantings. October was the third warmest on record. Highs shot above 70?F on seventeen occasions, exceeding average monthly temperatures by over 7?F. We began the month with warm and dry conditions, reaching a high of 79?F on the fifth. Two small showers arrived on the eighth and ninth. Warm temperatures continued and precipitation remained minimal. By the seventeenth, we entered moderate MICHAEL DOSMANN 2017 Weather 41 This green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. subintegerrima `Marshall's Seedless', 626-54*A) numbered among ten trees destroyed during an overnight nor'easter on October 29. drought, mirroring conditions last experienced in late March. Conditions were ideal for the horticulture crew, which spent these weeks seeding renovated areas, clearing the natural area behind the hickory collection, mulching new paths, and planting meadow natives. The dry pattern broke when a slow-moving system dropped over two inches of rain between the twenty-fourth and the twenty-sixth. An overnight nor'easter arrived on the twenty-ninth, bringing heavy rain and strong winds with 37 mph gusts. By the morning, 3.41 inches of rain had fallen and the collections experienced moderate damage; ten trees were lost, and many branches dropped throughout the grounds. Low-lying areas were flooded from the 5.5 inches of precipitation that had fallen over the previous six days, and the drought ended as quickly as it had arrived. We ended the month with highs in the sixties, having yet to receive our first frost. November temperatures were seasonable, despite large fluctuations, and rainfall was below average. We started the month with a continuation of the warm temperatures experienced in September and October, hitting 76?F on the third. These warm temperatures forced a number of spring-blooming shrubs into flower, including Smirnow rhododendron (Rhododendron smirnowii). This would mark the end of an unusually warm autumn; temperatures dropped into the sixties from the fifth through the seventh, before settling in the forties and fifties for the remainder of the month. We finally received a frost when temperatures dipped to 29.5?F on the eighth. This ended our growing season at 218 days. Low temperatures continued to drop as we sunk into the twenties for six straight days, reaching 21?F on the eleventh. These freezing conditions, well lower than expected for this time of year, caused leaves on many trees to freeze and die before abscission cells SUZANNE MROZAK 42 Arnoldia 75\/4 ? May 2018 This specimen of Japanese maple (Acer palmatum var. matsumurae, 148-57*B) was among the maples that carried an abnormal cover of marcescent leaves through the winter. What Happened to Autumn Foliage? Autumn color was poor at the Arboretum due to a series of meteorological factors. Ample moisture and favorable temperatures during the growing season precluded a typical summer drought, encouraging trees to bear lush foliage at the beginning of meteorological autumn. Conditions remained hot and moist through late September and October, and plants showed no signs of slowing down. Because nighttime temperatures remained relatively high, most plants failed to trigger leaf senescence (the final stage of leaf development, which leads to fall color and eventual drop). When arctic conditions descended in November, nighttime temperatures plummeted into the twenties for six straight days. Plants were unprepared for this sudden freeze, which slowed foliage change for some specimens and ended it for others, causing leaves to freeze before developing the abscission layer needed to separate and drop. This phenomenon, called marcescence, left many trees--notably the Asian maples--holding onto their brown, crispy leaves. This slowed leaf drop and prolonged autumn leaf cleanup. DANNY SCHISSLER 2017 Weather 43 Fall color began late and ended with little finale. This view shows leaves in the oak collection. could fully develop. Temperatures remained unseasonably cool with consistent rainfall. The largest storm delivered 0.88 inches of rain on the twenty-second. Sustained cleanup efforts continued throughout the month, as the crew progressed into leaf cleanup after completing storm-damage removal early in the month. Early Winter: December 2017 Cold temperatures extended into December. Highs dropped below freezing on the twenty-sixth and then sunk into the teens from the twenty-eighth through the end of the month--the four coldest days of 2017. Moving Forward The Arboretum experienced an optimal growing season in 2017, yet we cannot close the chapter on the preceding drought before considering the long-term effects of such a prolonged water shortage. Symptoms of persistent plant stress are more often observed years down the road, ultimately causing slow decline and possible death. As plants recover from drought, their ability to defend against disease and insect attacks remains compromised. Bark beetle invasions can be linked to drought stress, as can the onset of Diplodia tip blight and Cytospora and Nectria cankers, but connecting future disease and pest outbreaks to past drought events often proves difficult. Internal plant damage is hidden, and the cumulative effects of long-term drought stress may impact tree health for many years. As we move into 2018 and beyond, vigilance and regular observation will be critical to the overall preservation of the collections. Sue A. Pfeiffer is an Arboretum Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Pear to End All Wars: Pyrus ussuriensis","article_sequence":5,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25643","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15e856f.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"McDermitt, Matthew","article_content":"The Pear to End All Wars: Pyrus ussuriensis Matthew McDermitt O ne of my favorite things about the annual plant inventory at the Arnold Arboretum--the process of field checking each plant--is that you discover interesting specimens that many overlook. On a windy Halloween afternoon, I encountered a Ussurian pear (Pyrus ussuriensis, accession 11302*C) growing in dense woods along South Street. The tree was struggling for light and space under a canopy of old oaks and would not impress the average observer, but like all plants at the Arboretum, it has a story that is documented in our plant database. When the First World War began in 1914, Ernest Henry Wilson was busy collecting plants in Japan. Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's director, was travelling in England, and when he realized the gravity of Europe's political conflict, he asked Wilson to cut his trip short. Upon returning to Boston in 1915, Wilson was shocked to learn about the sinking of the RMS Lusitania and the rapid expansion of Central Powers across Europe. At the Arboretum, tensions began to rise between Wilson (an Englishman) and his friend and colleague Alfred Rehder (a German taxonomist). Wilson and his wife, Ellen, began only speaking to the Rehder family in a professional context. Relief came when Sargent sent Wilson on his sixth plant-collecting expedition in January 1917. Just before Wilson's departure, Sargent wrote to a correspondent of \"bad times,\" but he noted that \"there is no use thinking about them when there are trees to think of.\" Wilson spent the next two years collecting plants throughout territory that was then occupied by Japan. In 1918, he collected seed from a Ussurian pear in the Gyeonggi Province of South Korea (then known as Keiki-do, Japan), giving rise to accession 11302. The specific epithet for Pyrus ussuriensis refers to the Ussuri River, which flows from eastern Russia into northeastern China, forming part of the border between the two countries. The species inhabits this region--the coldest and most northern range of any pear species (it is hardy to USDA Zone 3)--along with portions of Korea and Japan. While not of global conservation concern, the species is endangered in Japan. The Arboretum also holds P. ussuriensis var. hondoensis--a Japanese variety, currently listed as vulnerable in Japan--along with the regional cultigens `Pin-li', `Shinchu', and `Shu-li'. The flowers of the Ussurian pear are among the most attractive of the genus: the immature buds are tinged deep red, and the color initially remains as the five petals unfurl. Once fully open, the flowers measure 3 to 3.5 centimeters (about 1.25 inches) in diameter and have beautiful dark red anthers that pop against the white petals. The flowers are similar to those of the Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), but are notably larger and open earlier in the season. The Callery pear became a wildly popular street tree in North America, but it fell from grace when it escaped into natural areas, not to mention limbs that would drop with the slightest wind. In contrast, P. ussuriensis hasn't demonstrated invasive tendencies or structural flaws. Besides the beauty of the flowers, Sargent was impressed by the size of the species. In the Bulletin of Popular Information, Sargent noted that the Ussurian pear is the tallest and largest of all pear species, citing a specimen that Wilson photographed in Korea, which was 18 meters (60 feet) tall with a trunk diameter of 1.4 meters (4.5 feet). He was also excited that Pyrus ussuriensis appeared resistant to fire blight, a plant disease that plagues many members of the rose family, but unfortunately, minor fire blight has been observed on Arboretum accessions within the past decade. Wilson returned to the Arboretum in early 1919, several months after the First World War had officially ended. Although the original pear that grew from his South Korean collection is hidden in a natural area, an exceptional example of Pyrus ussuriensis var. hondoensis (accession 11728*A) grows on the northern side of Poplar Gate Road. This tree was grown from seed Wilson collected in Nagano, Japan, on the same expedition. Matthew McDermitt is a former curatorial assistant at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23461","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eb36e.jpg","title":"2018-75-4","volume":75,"issue_number":4,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2017: A Banner Year for the Campaign for the Living Collections","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25630","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15ea36d.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dowell, Robert; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"2017: A Banner Year for the Campaign for the Living Collections Robert Dowell and Michael S. Dosmann S ince the Arnold Arboretum began its Campaign for the Living Collections in 2015, plant-collecting expeditions have launched with a fervor and sweeping extent rarely seen before. So far, 14 separate trips have taken place across Europe, Asia, and North America. These forays yielded incredible plant riches, from new collections of the daintyleaved regal lily (Lilium regale)--first introduced from China to the Arboretum by Ernest Henry Wilson--to the mast harvested from towering American beeches (Fagus grandifolia) in mature forests of eastern North America. With the 2017 season concluded, the Arboretum has progressed well toward its 10-year goal of securing germplasm from almost 400 target taxa or desiderata enumerated in the Campaign's opening communiqu? (Friedman et al., 2016). So far, the Arboretum has acquired 147 taxa from the list, resulting in over 200 accessions now in propagation and production at the Dana Greenhouses and Nursery--with a few already growing in the permanent collections. Deciding how, when, and where to collect a diverse array of target species requires organization, and several precepts guide our efforts. One of these is the \"greatest bang for the buck\" principle: geographic areas with the highest concentrations of plants on our wish list become hot spots for concentrated and repeated expeditionary activity. Our teams focus on these areas first, and as the Campaign progresses and we check targets off the list, high priority areas shift to those of lower priority. Because eastern North America and eastern Asia possess many of our desiderata, they will always remain important collecting spots, as they were in 2017. A second principal in the Campaign gives precedence to species with confined native ranges, or select portions of their native range. For example, the nutmeg hickory (Carya myristiciformis) grows in isolated populations from Texas to South Carolina, and its importance was a reason why a team of explorers went to the coastal southeast. The Campaign also In 2017, Arboretum explorers mounted four major expeditions: three occurred in North America: Wisconsin (WIE), ArkansasMissouri (ARMOE) and the Coastal Southeast (COSE); a fourth was a North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium trip to Sichuan (NACPEC2017). Individual markers are where the explorers made specific collections. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Campaign 2017 LIVING COLLECTIONS 3 await further trial and selection, such as the paperbark filbert (Corylus fargesii), an up-andcoming horticultural commodity collected on the 2015 NACPEC trip to China. Other collections represent novelty, such as the Georgian oak (Quercus iberica), a species never before grown in the living collections and acquired in 2016 in the Republic of Georgia. Just as we cannot predict all the species we will successfully acquire, we cannot anticipate all of the challenges and hazards encountered along the way. Treacherous road conditions, seasonal drought, and terrestrial leeches are just some of the things that can affect an expedition. Despite these and other encounters in the field, however, the 2017 expeditions bore amazing fruit: over 100 taxa and almost 150 separate collections! This leads to one more reflection about the Campaign for the Living Collections: it is as much about the growth of people as it is about the growth of our collection. This year, eight Arboretum staff members went into the wilds. Whether it was their first or their tenth ? Manager of Horticulture Andrew Gapinski admires a handsome Hydrangea bretschneideri in northern Sichuan during the 2017 NACPEC trip. Although the Arboretum already cultivates three different wild-sourced lineages of this species, the team opportunistically collected a fourth for further evaluation of its ornamental potential. seeks to increase the genetic diversity within certain genera grown at the Arboretum. This means growing as many species as possible within each genus, as well as growing multiple, well-documented representatives of each of those species. This is particularly true for the Arboretum's six Nationally Accredited Plant CollectionsTM: maple (Acer), hickory (Carya), beech (Fagus), Stewartia, lilac (Syringa), and hemlock (Tsuga). For species in these and other priority genera, we seek to grow accessions representing the center and distinct reaches of the native ranges. Beyond acquiring targeted species, the Campaign leverages chance by making supplemental or opportunistic collections in the field. To date, over 350 of these taxa have been collected for the Campaign, many on expedition. Some have promising ornamental merit and + ? ? + The native range of red maple (Acer rubrum) spans much of eastern North America. However until 2017, wild-sourced accessions in the Arboretum's collections were from only three northeastern provenances (?). The 2017 WIE and ARMOE expeditions sought out, and secured, germplasm from two new regions (+). Map modified from: Little, E. L. Jr. (1999). Atlas of United States Trees. U.S. Geological Survey. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN 4 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 The 2017 collecting team in Sichuan passed abandoned homesteads and towering Meliosma in their search for rare species. expedition, each collector discovered and grew, and brought those experiences back to the Arboretum. The Campaign articles profiled in this issue of Arnoldia highlight some of those experiences, from the humbling appreciation and celebration of history to the excitement of encountering a familiar species for the first time in the wild. We appreciate how \"reading a habitat\" leads to species acquisition, and how there is no substitute for seeing a plant in the wild in order to figure out how to cultivate it. Lastly, there is the value of persistence: sometimes, to secure a species you must collect it far and wide, and at other times, you must resort to an unusual propagation method. These represent just a few of the stories from 2017, and we look forward to those that the next seven years will bring. Literature cited Friedman, W.E., M.S. Dosmann, T.M. Boland, D.E. Boufford, M.J. Donoghue, A. Gapinski, L. Hufford, P.W. Meyer, and D.H. Pfister. 2016. Developing an exemplary collection: A vision for the next century at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Arnoldia 73(3):2?18. Robert Dowell was a Living Collections Fellow (2016?2017) and Michael S. Dosmann is the Keeper of the Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Keeping the Legacy: Retracing Century-old Footsteps","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25636","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eb326.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"LIVING COLLECTIONS 5 PHOTO BY THE AUTHOR Keeping the Legacy: Retracing Century-old Footsteps Michael S. Dosmann A ugust steamed hot as plant explorer Ernest Henry Wilson traversed the wilds of northwestern Sichuan in 1910, leading his fourth expedition to China. At this point in his career, many of the species Wilson saw were becoming familiar to his eyes, even mundane, and he was eager for something different. Although the expedition targeted conifers he observed on previous excursions, namely firs (Abies) and spruces (Picea), he was eager to see new habitats and with them, new species. On earlier trips, Wilson had visited Songpan--his destination--from Chengdu, Sichuan's capital to the south, using one of two routes. The most direct option tracked the Min River north, though it was rather depauperate in botanical diversity. Wilson had also used a counterclockwise route that bore him north-northeast of Chengdu through modern-day Mianyang and beyond to Pingwu (Longan Fu in his day), and then west-northwest to Songpan. This time, he forged a way through an expanse few westerners save a couple of missionaries had braved before. The path cut between the previous routes and would provide him the opportunities he sought. On the outset of this trip's leg, he did indeed encounter several things for the first time: he was robbed, from one of his own porters no less, and a local official dismissed his request for an escort through the unchartered territory. This same region of Pingwu became the destination for the 2017 NACPEC (North America?China Plant Exploration Consortium) expedition, which Andrew Gapinski (Arnold Arboretum), Jon Shaw (Harvard Magazine), Kang Wang and Jian Quan (both from Beijing Botanical Garden), Huaicheng Li (Chengdu Institute of Biology), and I undertook from 15 September to 1 October, 2017. I had tracked Wilson's footsteps several times in the past, quite literally during the 2014 filming of Chinese Wilson (a documentary produced by Earthquakes followed by heavy rains caused many of the roads in Pingwu County to subside into the rivers. The collecting team, and the wandering yak-cow hybrids seen here, choose their footsteps carefully. Central China TV), seeing towns, roadways, mountain views, and of course plants that he had also visited. However, this trip was more poignant, for I now bore the title of Keeper of the Living Collections; the title of Keeper used only once before at the Arboretum, given to Wilson in 1927. During our trip, we endured roadways capsized during the season's earthquakes and rains, and we got up-close-and-personal with terrestrial leeches that slink ubiquitously in these rich, mesic forests. On the morning of September 23, our team set out to explore one of the many mountain valleys near Si'er, an area Wilson referred to as Tu-ti-liang shan or mountain. Wilson had been awestruck by the herbaceous DIGITAL COLLECTION OF THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA 6 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 torrent below, we were impressed with the expanses of large trees to either side. We spotted dove tree (Davidia involucrata), several species of birch (Betula spp.) and gargantuan specimens of the multi-stemmed Chinese beech, Fagus engleriana. Giant panda, we learned from our guide, often overwintered between the stout boles of these very beech trees. Wilson's 1907 collection of the beech from Hubei is the only representation at the Arboretum, and likely anywhere else. Thus, on our hike back down the mountain, we secured fruits of this and other species. Wilson may not have recognized the heavily wooded landscape that we saw. He described this sparsely populated hamlet of Hsao-kou (now Xiaogou and depopulated) as having \"... open, park-like slopes, quite unlike anything I have encountered elsewhere in China. Now largely denuded of trees these glades are covered with grass, and horses, goats, and pigs are raised here in some quantity.\" The lumberman's axe and the herder's livestock had eliminated many of the conifers Wilson had hoped to find in the area. However, A fruiting, type specimen (Wilson 4301) from the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum (A) of Cercidiphyllum japonicum var. sinense. In his hard-toon August 17, 1910, he enthusiastidiscern handwriting, Wilson notes \"one tree measured 55ft. in girth 5 ft above cally noted an abundance of Cerciground!\" Although the variety is no longer accepted, plants with the pubesdiphyllum japonicum (katsura tree) cent leaves and follicles can be recognized as C. japonicum f. miquelianum. growing throughout the landscape. plants there, in particular the fingerleaf rodgAlthough he had seen the species on his previersia (Rodgersia aesculifolia), which grew \"in ous travels, he had never seen so many growing [the] millions.\" \"It was in the fruiting stage,\" he together. The intrepid explorer got busy with noted in China, Mother of Gardens, \"but when his vasculum, collecting herbarium vouchers. in flower the acres of snow-white panicles must This collection (Number 4301) would reprehave presented a bewitching sight. Nowhere sent the type of what he and Alfred Rehder later else have I seen this plant so abundant or luxudescribed as a separate botanical variety with pubescent leaves and follicles, Cercidiphyllum riant.\" In an adjacent valley the previous day, japonicum var. sinense. we had seen the same species, each of its coarse Wilson reported trees up to 36.6 meters (120 leaflets reaching nearly a half-meter (20 inches) feet) tall, and 2.1 to 6.1 meters (7 to 20 feet) in in length. As enthralled with it as Wilson had girth. Even amidst these giants, one specimen been, we joyously made a collection. stood out for its enormity--not in height but in As we ascended the valley on foot, marching girth: it was multi-stemmed and hollowed in along a roadway that was tumbling into the JONATHAN SHAW\/COURTESY HARVARD MAGAZINE the core, yet 16.8 meters (55 feet) around, which would be a diameter of 5.3 meters (17.5 feet)! Words are not necessary to conjure what Wilson saw, for he memorialized the tree in a photograph. This exact tree was our destination for the day's hike, and for me it glimmered with personal significance, because Cercidiphyllum japonicum had drawn me to China for the first time in 1999 and I considered this a bit of a reconnection. This was now my eighth trip to China, and perhaps a bit like my predecessor, I sought some reprieve from the mundane. I imagine that due to the openness of the landscape 100 years ago, Wilson spied the specimen easily from the path. Yet, even after our team left the road and ascended the steep and muddy streambanks, dense woods left us completely blind to our target. We had to bushwhack through the brush, and upon arriving at last, we could do nothing but marvel. Like the forest around it, the tree had recovered over the last century. The specimen had been but 8 meters (25 feet) tall in 1910; it now stood over 20 meters (65 feet) in height, and the diameter of the largest stem was just under 2 meters (6.5 feet). The three massive, original basal stems remained, though showed considerable wear. The tree at Wilson's time was probably coppiced repeatedly for firewood, and it had since rebounded by sprouting many new stem suckers. The ability of Cercidiphyllum to resprout following stress (age, drought, fire, coppicing) is well known. Assuredly this aged survivor had once been a single stem, hundreds of years before even Wilson photographed it. Years later, Wilson recalled this visit to the tree in August of 1910, stating that it was actually the first time he ever saw the species ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Retracing Footsteps LIVING COLLECTIONS 7 Wilson photographed the leviathan Cercidiphyllum with three of his collectors on August 17, 1910, in what he described as \"open country.\" By 2017, the same tree and the forest around it had rebounded considerably, dwarfing NACPEC17 collectors (l to r) Kang Wang, the author, and Andrew Gapinski as they recreate Wilson's shot. ANDREW GAPINSKI 8 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Boston in early 1911. Our 2017 team was lucky, too, for this huge Cercidiphyllum bore fruits, which we collected under number NACPEC17-020 (we also collected fruits from other trees in the population under NACPEC17-021). And, luckily, none of us broke an appendage. Of Wilson's 1910 seed collection, but a single tree grew in the Arboretum. It was sited on Peters Hill, just to the south of the summit's presentday access road in an area then called \"rare trees of the Arboretum.\" Accession 7281*A was near an American beech (Fagus grandifolia, accession 22798*E) that remains to this day. This Cercidiphyllum had survived the brutally cold winters in the earlyto mid-1930s, proving its hardiness. However, by 1946, for an undocumented reason, it was dead. The tree had previously yielded enough budwood to produce five additional accessions, and a grafted plant (accession 133-41*B), the last of its lineage, grew in the Cercidiphyllum collection off Meadow Road. It was alive in 1948, but died shortly thereafter when its base snapped off, likely due to graft-incompatibility. In early November of 2017, just weeks after I returned from China and the Arboretum propagator sowed the seed, the first seedlings of both The short-shoot spurs of the large Cercidiphyllum japonicum bore rounded of our 2017 collections germinated to cordate leaves, waxy on the undersides, and small green fruits (follicles), with abandon. In a few years, it will which the team gleefully harvested. be a privilege and a joy to reintroin fruit. He added parenthetically, \"Later I colduce an exact Wilson acquisition to the collected ripe seeds, and this tree is now growing lections. While no doubt some trees will go in the Arnold Arboretum, where it promises along Meadow Road and elsewhere, I think one to be quite hardy.\" Technically, it would have should return to the spot near the Peters Hill been Wilson's collecting team that acquired the Summit, for old time's sake. seeds and fruiting vouchers that October, for on Literature cited September 3rd, 1910, a few weeks after initially Wilson, E. H. 1929. China, Mother of Gardens. 408 pp. seeing this Cercidiphyllum, he was caught in a The Stratford Company, Boston. landslide that busted his leg in multiple places. Luckily, his steadfast companions carried him to Chengdu where he spent the remainder of Michael S. Dosmann is the Keeper of the Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. the autumn recuperating, before returning to "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Betula pumila: A Dwarf Among Giants","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25632","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15ea76b.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Enzenbacher, Tiffany","article_content":"LIVING COLLECTIONS 9 Betula pumila: A Dwarf Among Giants JOSHUA MAYER Tiffany Enzenbacher W hen one conjures an image of a birch (Betula spp.), typically a majestic tall tree with graceful architecture comes to mind--certainly not a low-growing, widespreading shrub. But, the small-statured bog or low birch (Betula pumila) is exactly what the 2017 Wisconsin Expedition (WIE) team, Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port and I, pursued from 23 August to 3 September of 2017. Since I began employment at the Arnold Arboretum three years ago, I have viewed our low birch accessions on an almost daily basis. Due to their short and scrubby growth habit, the specimens grow at the Arboretum alongside other dwarves: the plants of the Bonsai and Penjing Collection. Even as a caretaker of our dwarf potted plants, never did I imagine that I would be seeking B. pumila. The Arboretum has record of receiving 11 Betula pumila accessions prior to 2017. Founding Director Charles Sprague Sargent obtained the inaugural accession in 1876 from Mount Mansfield, Vermont just four years after the Arboretum's inception. Presently however, just two living accessions exist, the first comprising the two plants (800-93*A and B) growing next to the Bonsai and Penjing Pavilion. Jack H. Alexander III, former Arnold Arboretum Plant Propagator at the Dana Greenhouses (1976 to 2016), collected those seed-bearing catkins in Gros Morne National Park in Newfoundland, Canada in the fall of 1993. Our second accession (660-2016) is still in production at the Dana Greenhouses. We received small plants from the National Plant Germplasm System of the USDA-ARS (United States Department of Agriculture ? Agricultural Research Service) in 2016, with the seed originally harvested from Bremer County, Iowa. As the Manager of Plant Production, I obviously have regular check-ins with these seedlings. When caught at the right moment in early spring, the pistillate (female) catkins of low birch can be striking. KYLE PORT 10 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Coordinates from a 1958 herbarium voucher helped the collecting team locate this low birch (Betula pumila) population, still thriving in the drainage ditch bog along Highway 54 in Jackson County, Wisconsin. The ripening pistillate (female) catkins of low birch are bright green, nestled amidst the rounded to ovate, toothed leaves. KATHLEEN DOOHER Low birch is the only shrub birch native to Wisconsin and is widespread throughout the United States, indigenous to the northern Midwest, West Coast, Northeast, as well as much of Canada. It occurs in a variety of wetlands, such as bogs (areas of soft, water-logged ground), fens (low lying, frequently flooded land), and swamps (wetlands dominated by woody plants) in calcium-rich regions. During our expedition, Kyle and I anticipated finding abundant plants because the majority of the Nature Conservancy preserves we planned to visit harbor these bodies of water. After several days of looking in these prime habitats, to my utter disappoint, not a single Betula pumila was found. Viewing the Arboretum's only ex situ accessions every day for years had made this the one target taxon that I truly desired to acquire. So on our expedition's fifth day, Kyle and I decided to try another approach and go on a plant hunt using coordinates we pulled from a 1958 herbarium voucher in the Wisconsin State Herbarium database. The point was off Highway 54 in Black River Falls, above the Wildcat Ridge State Natural Area. The record indicated that the bog was being drained, and that black chokeberry JOSHUA MAYER Betula pumila LIVING COLLECTIONS 11 The author counts and cleans the tiny seeds--winged nutlets--of Betula pumila before direct sowing, or placing them under cold stratification at 2.2?3.3?C (36?38?F) for 3 or 4 months. These three different treatments will evaluate which brings greatest germination success. (Aronia melanocarpa), eastern larch (Larix laricina; another WIE priority taxon), and black spruce (Picea mariana) were associated species. After navigating to our location using our GPS, Kyle and I parked the vehicle, walked a short distance from a turnout, and began to look around. We excitingly noted that black chokeberry was still abundant, and walking further down the highway's shoulder, we were elated as we saw the 1950's low birch population flourishing 60 years later. At last, my long sought-after shrub was right before me in its native environment, after being so elusive the entire expedition. As the shrub groupings were not accessible 12 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 (1 ? inches) long by 3.2 centimeters (1 ? inches) wide, and oval or slightly orbicular (round) in shape. And luckily, the plants harbored persistent female catkins that contained small, 3.2 millimeter (1\/8 inch), winged nutlets. Kyle and I harvested as many catkins as possible from the low birches in the vicinity, placed them in a labeled cloth bag, and later that afternoon mailed them overnight to the Dana Greenhouses with other bounties accumulated over two days' time. Upon my return from the field, I insisted on cleaning and processing the seed myself. Later as I removed the chaff and counted thousands of nutlets, I thought it fitting that once again a team member from the Dana Greenhouses, keepers of the Bonsai and Penjing Collection, was the one to collect this unusual dwarf shrub in a tree genus. Tiffany Enzenbacher is the Manager of Plant Production at the Arnold Arboretum. TIFFANY ENZENBACHER from the road, we carefully made our way into the bog using sedge (Carex spp.) clumps as stepping stones. As we got closer, Kyle and I went over the identifying traits on our mental checklist to validate that they were indeed low birches. They stood approximately 2.5 meters (8 feet) tall, which is in the 0.9 to 2.7 meter (3 to 9 feet) range. This is a stark contrast to the 20-meter (65-feet) height attained by another native Wisconsin birch species, yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), which we collected the following day. The other features of these plants were the same as the very familiar Arboretum accessions and the description that Kyle and I had memorized. New twigs were characterized by smooth, reddish brown bark with speckled white lenticels (raised pores on stems that permit gas exchange between the environment and plant tissue). Dentate (bluntly or sharply toothed) leaves were small, 3.8 centimeters Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port collects new GPS coordinates of a low birch specimen. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Coastal Southeast Expedition 2017: How Habitat Type Guides Collecting","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25633","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eab6f.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Zukswert, Jenna; Halloran, Sean","article_content":"LIVING COLLECTIONS 13 Coastal Southeast Expedition 2017: How Habitat Type Guides Collecting CAMERON STAND Sean Halloran and Jenna Zukswert The COSE team included (l to r): Cat Meholic (University of Delaware), Ethan Kauffman (Stoneleigh, Natural Lands Trust), Jenna Zukswert (Arnold Arboretum), Jessica Slade (Morris Arboretum), Sean Halloran (Arnold Arboretum), and Tom Clark (Polly Hill Arboretum and Mount Holyoke Botanic Garden). Not pictured are local collaborators Richard Porcher, Mike Ammons, Gary Kauffman, and Andy Walker, who led the team to wonderful wild places. T he Campaign for the Living Collections takes explorers to many diverse parts of the temperate world in search of target taxa. Specific knowledge of plant ecology and plant communities helps us determine where we can find these taxa, and therefore where we will travel. From October 12?19, 2017, the multi-institutional Coastal Southeast Expedition (COSE) brought us to the coastal plains of South and North Carolina. Traveling through national forests, private lands, and public parks, we saw many habitat types, including calcar- eous forests, maritime depressions, pocosins (wetland bogs), Carolina Bays, longleaf pine savannas, pond cypress swamps, and ecotones (transitional regions between these habitats). In covering several hundred miles of Atlantic coastal plain between these two states, we targeted and collected taxa successfully by understanding and interpreting the plant community associations inherent in these various habitat types. The classic paradigm of plant collecting involves gathering historical locations of desired SEAN HALLORAN 14 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 We then traveled to the Sewee Shell Ring in Francis Marion, where an interpretive trail leads to a 4,000-yearold shell ring and an 800-year-old clamshell mound. These shell mound sites, called middens, were created by Native Americans discarding clam and oyster shells that have since broken down into soil that favors the growth of certain plant species. By seeking out a sandy shell-influenced soil type at a maritime forest edge, we found Opuntia humifusa (eastern prickly pear) and Tilia americana var. caroliniana (carolina basswood). Just inland The prickly pear cactus, Opuntia humifusa, grew in well-drained shell from these collections we found true mounds. This target species may wind up in the Arnold Arboretum's maritime forest, with heavier soils recently renovated Rockery. and accordingly an abundance of taxa, while leveraging local knowledge through stately Quercus virginiana (southern live oak) floristic experts in the targeted collection draped in Tillandsia usneoides (Spanish moss), areas. During COSE, we saw the importance of with wonderful twisted trunks overhanging plant collectors combining these classic ideolosalt marsh flats. gies with the knowledge of ecological fundaAnother habitat we encountered was the mentals such as floral associates, environmental longleaf pine savanna. Once covering more than factors, and lifecycle needs to identify and locate 60 million acres in the American southeast, our target taxa. these habitats, dominated by Pinus palustris Our trip began in a calcareous, or limestone, (longleaf pine), have shrunk to less than 3 milbluff forest in the Francis Marion National lion acres due to overharvesting and deforesForest in South Carolina, where we collected tation. Despite the overwhelming dominance Acer barbatum (southern sugar maple). By of P. palustris, these ecosystems are actually seeking out this rare forest type in South Caroamong the most diverse in North America, with lina, which is unique in its exposed rock outplant diversity levels in the understory among croppings and high-calcium soils, we found the highest outside of the tropics (Outcalt and the home of several species that are otherwise Sheffield, 1996). Many of the herbaceous sperare in this region. We collected seedlings of cies found in these habitats depend on condiA. barbatum, and found Sabal minor (dwarf tions created by the presence and dominance of palmetto), Ulmus rubra (slippery elm), Juglans P. palustris, or on frequent fires. Without fires nigra (black walnut), and various ferns. Just inhibiting woody plant expansion, the underdown the bluff was Wadboo Creek, a tributary story would not be nearly as diverse. of the Cooper River. In this wooded swamp, We first sought out this ecosystem type in we expected to find plants that would thrive South Carolina, and collected Pinus palustris in a similar soil type, but with much more cones in conservation lands at Brookgreen available water, such as Cornus foemina Gardens, led by their natural lands manager (swamp dogwood) and Ampelaster caroliniaMike Ammons. This pine savanna had dry, sandy soils, which don't occur frequently in the nus (climbing aster), the latter of which was coastal plain, and we expected to find P. palustris climbing other shrubs and trees on both sides trees in all stages of growth, given its tolerance of the creek. We were just in time to enjoy its to fire and need for sandy, well-draining soils. yellow-centered lavender flowers. SEAN HALLORAN CAT MEHOLIC Coastal Southeast Expedition LIVING COLLECTIONS 15 plants, we collected Persea palustris (swamp bay), Gordonia lasianthus (loblolly bay), and Zenobia pulverulenta (dusty zenobia). We learned from Andy and Gary how quickly these plants re-establish after fire: within two seasons, bur ned areas become nearly impassable to humans due in part to regenerative shrub growth, as well as the vining Smilax laurifolia (laurel greenbrier). Familiarity with the ecosysThe longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) savannah at Brookgreen Gardens in South tems of our target species is Carolina exhibited all stages of longleaf pine development from grass, bottlevaluable not only for finding and brush, and sapling stage (first branching), all the way up to mature trees with collecting them, but also for concharred trunks. The species can stay in its grass stage for many years, and then in a single year grow rapidly and tall enough to escape the effects of potential fire. sidering the next phases of life for our propagules. While the Arnold Arboretum landscape does not feature the same conditions that we encountered in the Carolinas, we can attempt to replicate some of their characteristics when siting the COSE collections as Arnold Arboretum accessions. Luckily, with each germplasm collection, we took copious notes describing the plant and the environment where we found it--this documentation is just as important as the germplasm itself. To give our collections the best Longleaf pine savannas in South Carolina support an array of fascinating chance to thrive in Boston, we understory species, including Asclepias humistrata (sandhill milkweed), with a can consider these data with other sprawling growth habit in sandy areas that makes it appear to grow sideways. criteria pertaining to the ArboreIn North Carolina, we encountered longleaf tum landscape, such as topography, soil condipine savannas in the Croatan National Forest. tions, water status, and even how the original Botanists Andy Walker and Gary Kauffman species associates perform here. introduced us to this habitat and pointed out Literature cited rare plant species, such as federally endangered Outcalt, Kenneth W. and Raymond M. Sheffield. 1996. Lysimachia asperulifolia (roughleaf yellow The longleaf pine forest: Trends and current loosestrife). These savannas were wetter than conditions. Resour. Bull. SRS?9. Asheville, NC: those we visited in South Carolina, and thus U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, had more species tolerant of wet conditions. Southern Research Station. 28 pp. In small, wet depressions, for example, we found several Sarracenia (pitcher plant) Sean Halloran is the Plant Propagator and Jenna species as well as Dionaea muscipula (Venus Zukswert was a Living Collections Fellow (2016?2017) at the Arnold Arboretum. fly trap). In addition to these carnivorous "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pieris phillyreifolia: The Opportunistic Climbing Fetterbush","article_sequence":5,"start_page":16,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25637","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eb36b.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Halloran, Sean","article_content":"16 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 IMAGE COURTESY OF BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY Pieris phillyreifolia: The Opportunistic Climbing Fetterbush Sean Halloran A t its core The Campaign for the Living Collections is a strategic endeavor involving years of planning and ten years of execution. Each expedition is organized thoroughly in advance, and anchored by specific target species or desiderata. However, no amount of planning can account for all of the factors at play when collecting plants in the wild, and as such non-target species are often collected opportunistically. Opportunistic collections can include biological outliers, like Pieris phillyreifolia (climbing fetterbush), the only Ericaceous (belonging to the heather family) plant native to North America that is also a woody vine or liana. After seeing this unique Pieris species, I could not resist the chance to collect it for the Arnold Arboretum, as a participant in 2017's Coastal Southeast Expedition (COSE). Pieris comprises seven known species. The two most utilized as ornamentals are the North American native Pieris floribunda (mountain andromeda) and Pieris japonica (Japanese andromeda). During our trip, we sought out the lesser-known P. phillyreifolia, found only in South Carolina, Georgia, Florida, and coastal areas of Mississippi and Alabama. Walter Judd (1982) wrote about this species in detail, but W.J. Hooker first described it in 1837, initially placing it in the genus Andromeda (Lemon and Voegeli, 1962). An 1837 illustration of Pieris phillyreifolia, appearing in Volume 2 of W. J. Hooker's Icones plantarum, where he originally placed it in the genus Andromeda. The specific epithet (phillyreifolia) reflects the resemblance of its leaves to those in the Mediterranean genus Phillyrea, in the olive family (Oleaceae). Pieris phillyreifolia LIVING COLLECTIONS 17 highway several times, Ethan got out of the car and motioned for us to join him in the woods: he believed he found the spot and the particular Taxodium ascendens (pond cypress) we were seeking. We all got out and trudged through the swampy borderlands of the highway to see if he was correct. He was! We found lianas just 9 meters (10 yards) from the highway. It is often unique plant form and function that interest people the most, and what makes the story of this species so fascinating is not just where and how we found, but what it grew on, and the mechanics of that growth. The common name, climbing fetterbush, is apt as we found it climbing on Taxodium ascendens in a cypress swamp. The root system was nestled in the buttressing roots of the cypress, and the stem traveled up the host tree underneath the bark, emerging from vertical cracks every 1 to 2 meters (3.3 to 6.6 feet) as aerial SEAN HALLORAN While exploring Francis Marion National Forest in South Carolina, we crossed paths with Clemson University's Patrick McMillan leading a group tour of the natural history of the area. Ethan Kauffman of Stoneleigh Gardens (one of the COSE participants) was keen to collect the unusual climbing fetterbush, and mentioned this to Patrick, who then produced a hand-drawn map of a nearby location of Pieris phillyreifolia for the team. Armed with this treasure map, our group eagerly set out in the National Forest along US Route 17 to find it. Our collecting routine was a bit comical: we would drive along the highway and then every few minutes Ethan would jump out and run into the woods, only to emerge seconds later to let us know we were not there yet. This occurred several times and admittedly, I was growing skeptical that we would find ever this population. Finally, after turning around on the Climbing fetterbush rhizomes grow underneath fissures in the fibrous pond cypress bark, emerging periodically to produce leafy green branches. shoots that extended outward up to half a meter (20 inches) from the tree. The plants we found were robust climbers reaching at least 6.1 meters (20 feet) up the Taxodium. On our trip last fall, we only observed this plant climbing T. ascendens, however it also grows on Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic white cedar), Cyrilla racemiflora (swamp cyrilla), Pinus elliottii (slash pine), and other downed trees and soil mounds, most likely to avoid standing water (Lemon and Voegeli 1962; Judd 1982). As a plant propagator, it is invaluable to understand a plant's life cycle to grow it successfully in a controlled environment. For many taxa there are established protocols for germinating seeds, rooting cuttings, or grafting budwood. However, this is not the case for Pieris phillyreifolia. When in doubt we often look to established protocols for related species, so I decided to treat the seed via cold stratification for 90 days at 4 degrees Celsius (39 degrees Fahrenheit), which our propagation records indicate work for other species of Pieris. My first-hand knowledge of climbing fetterbush's natural environment will The white, bell-like flowers of Pieris phillyreifolia are borne in short, axillary racemes. also be put to good use as we figure Literature cited out where to cultivate this unique Southeastern U.S. native once we have successfully propaHooker, W.J., and J.D. Hooker. 1872. Icones Plantarum, Or Figures, with Brief Descriptive Characters gated it. Given where we found it growing, I recand Remarks, of New Or Rare Plants, Selected ommend we site this plant in a wet depression from the Author's Herbarium (Vol. 12). London: under heavy deciduous shade where it can grow Longman. up a trunk or trellis. Given its native range, we Judd, W.S. 1982. A taxonomic revision of Pieris (Ericaceae). should protect it from harsh winters by estabJournal of the Arnold Arboretum 63:103?144. lishing it in a warmer microclimate within the Lemon, P.C., and J.M. Voegeli. 1962. Anatomy and ecology Arboretum. Observing a plant's unique form of Pieris phillyreifolia (Hook.) DC. Bulletin of in the wild, and researching its fascinating histhe Torrey Botanical Club 89:303?311. tory upon return, deepens the appreciation for all propagules collected afield. The climbing Sean Halloran is the Plant Propagator at the fetterbush is no exception. Arnold Arboretum. CHRIS EVANS, UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS, BUGWOOD.ORG 18 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Three Times a Collection: The Quest for Moonseed","article_sequence":6,"start_page":19,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25639","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15ebb28.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Woodruff, Kea","article_content":"LIVING COLLECTIONS 19 Three Times a Collection: The Quest for Moonseed Kea Woodruff F or members of Arnold Arboretum plant expedition teams, the target taxa list is their guiding document: What are we looking for and where will we find it? Being interested in all things botanical, each collector is also invariably curious about which plants are on the other teams' target lists. When these species are duplicated on a few different teams' lists, a friendly competition arises that also unites them over a shared mission. As a firsttime collector accompanying Robert Dowell on the Arkansas-Missouri Expedition (ARMOE), I was eager to test my field identification skills and compare expedition stories with the other two domestic teams in 2017. If the others were picking beechnuts in the Carolinas, I wanted to find them in Arkansas. If they were digging up red maple in Illinois, I wanted to find it in Missouri. There were several species targeted by multiple teams, but only one was successfully collected across all three domestic expeditions--Menispermum canadense (Canada moonseed). Menispermum is a temperate genus in a primarily tropical family, and contains just two species: Menispermum dauricum from northeastern Asia, and M. canadense, found throughout much of eastern North America. The Arnold Arboretum has only one accession of this woody vine, obtained in 1994 from a ? ? ? Common moonseed occurs throughout much of eastern North America, and the collections (?) in 2017 represent the north-northwestern, southwestern, and southeastern portions of its range within the United States. Dark green portions of the map illustrate states or provinces of species' nativity, with specific counties of occurrence shown in light green. Counties where the species is rare are shown in yellow, while counties with historic concurrences are in orange. Map modified from: Kartesz, J.T., The Biota of North America Program (BONAP). 2017. Taxonomic Data Center. (http:\/\/www.bonap.net\/tdc). Chapel Hill, N.C. JAN DE LAET, PLANTSYSTEMATICS.ORG 20 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 The broad, palmately lobed leaves of Menispermum canadense are up to 24 centimeters (9.5 inches) wide and long. Small white flowers develop into clusters of round, green and then purple fruits (drupes) when ripe. cultivated source. The absence of wild material prompted its inclusion on the target list. Not only did our successes fulfill the Campaign goal of bringing in material of wild origin, but because they came from diverse geographic regions, they collectively improve the robustness of the Arboretum's holdings. Growing multiple accessions of a species from across its native geographic range increases the overall genetic diversity represented in the Living Collections. These different individuals are likely to exhibit a broader range of species' traits and adaptations, leading to a richer resource for researchers and visitors alike. And, generally speaking, growing multiple accessions of different provenances increases the odds of success (although this species is rather easy to cultivate). Canada moonseed is not a showy vine-- a former Arboretum researcher once called it \"charming but overlooked\" (Young, 2014). Plants can climb up to 5 meters (16.5 feet) tall, and can be mistaken for various species of Vitis, or wild grape. Unlike wild grape, however, all parts of the Canada moonseed are toxic. For the plant collector working in the field, diagnostic features are crucial in identifying the correct plant. A lack of tendrils--the threadlike tissue vines use to coil or spiral around supports-- in Menispermum is a critical feature that can help distinguish it from its lookalikes. Another important diagnostic feature is its distinctive, crescent moon-shaped seed, from whence it takes its common name. Seed is a fickle commodity. For the plant collector, locating a target species and then finding it barren of fruit can be a disappointing experience. Fortunately, many species can be collected through other means. Seedlings or young plants are an alternative if granted permission and the local plant community will not be negatively affected. Collectors will often dig up seedlings early in an expedition, hedging their bets in case they never find seed later on. Such was the case in 2017. In Missouri, my collecting partner Robert Dowell identified a SEAN HALLORAN Menispermum canadense LIVING COLLECTIONS 21 The moon-shaped seed collected in Wisconsin (Accession 285-2017) germinated readily upon sowing. creek bed in Mark Twain National Forest as a likely habitat for Menispermum canadense. Looking in the understory beneath huge sycamore (Platanus occidentalis) trees, we found many vine seedlings, including Smilax spp. (cat briar), Vitis spp., and poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). It took close (and careful!) inspection to positively identify M. canadense among the others. Although seedlings were abundant, the lack of mature vines meant finding seed would be improbable, so we dug them up. The Wisconsin-Illinois team collected earlier in the fall, and found seed only after first collecting seedlings. Their stories kept us hopeful that the experience would be duplicated for us. And, sure enough, later that same day, while creeping slowly along the road, we found M. canadense plants bearing fruits which we harvested with much jubilation. The Coastal Southeast team eventually collected their seedlings in North Carolina, too. When we all got back and compared notes, there was a great sense of shared excitement that multiple teams collected this species, yielding six new accessions. All three teams found Menispermum canadense in shady understories, very near a creek, and in the same habitat as poison ivy. Once old enough to be planted out, these additions will provide an interesting native species to the shrub and vine collection. Easy to grow, this vine is generally free of insect predators and disease, and tolerates a range of conditions from full sun to full shade when in cultivation. This broad adaptability increases the likelihood that individuals from all three collection sites will thrive in Boston, giving Arboretum staff and future visitors a chance to observe and study potential differences in habit and performance among them. Bibliography Ortiz, R.D.C., Kellogg, E.A., and Van Der Werff, H. 2007. Molecular phylogeny of the moonseed family (Menispermaceae): Implications for morphological diversification. American Journal of Botany 94: 1425?1438. Young, S.T. 2014. Untangling the ways of lianas. Silva (The Newsletter of the Arnold Arboretum) 14:10. Kea Woodruff is the Plant Growth Facilities Manager at the Weld Hill Research Building. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Going Clonal: Beyond Seed Collecting","article_sequence":7,"start_page":22,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25634","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eaf28.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dowell, Robert","article_content":"KYLE PORT 22 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Going Clonal: Beyond Seed Collecting Robert Dowell S White, pea-like flowers of Cladrastis kentuckea are abundantly borne in long racemes, as in this old tree in the Arboretum's collection (accession 16370*A). Cladrastis kentuckea occurs in scattered, disjunct populations throughout the south-central United States. The large expanse in the westernmost part of the species range served as the source of the 2017 collection. Modified from Little, E. L. Jr. (1999). Atlas of United States Trees. U.S. Geological Survey. ROBERT DOWELL eed is the most important and most valuable propagation material an expedition targets. A handful of seed can offer genetically diverse, and logistically easy, material to procure and grow for the Arboretum's collections. Yet some target taxa present unique difficulties for collectors searching for seed. One species that exemplifies this is Cladrastis kentukea (American yellowwood). As part of the Campaign, American yellowwood is a target. This species is unique as the only member of its genus native to North America--all others occur in Eastern Asia. Furthermore, not only is it disjunct from its Asian relatives, but its North American populations are scattered in distribution. Of the 13 living accessions in the Arboretum landscape, only one (accession 51-87) has known wild origins, collected in 1986 by Rob Nicholson in Tennessee during the Southeastern States Expedition. Thus, to broaden the species' genetic diversity in cultivation in the Arboretum, we selected its westernmost range to source additional wild material. During the September 22 to 30, 2017 Arkansas-Missouri Expedition to the Ozarks (ARMOE), Kea Woodruff and I pursued Cladrastis kentukea. This tree can be a hard target to hit and offers several lessons for the plant collector. The species is nowhere abundant in its range, so pinpointing it can be an exercise in frustration. Thus, a previous collector's notes on the locations of existing populations, as well as observations of population health and size, can greatly aid a future collector's hunt. Luckily, we tracked C. kentukea in Arkansas due to the insights of a previous collector, Jeffrey Carstens, of USDA-Agricultural Research Service's North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station in Ames, Iowa. When collectors do find Cladrastis kentukea, they often find a small population of individuals producing few if any viable seeds. Even if a Root cuttings of American yellowwood, buried horizontally in a mixture of peat, perlite, and pinebark. CloningLIVING COLLECTIONS 23 collecting team is lucky enough to beat these odds and find a healthy population with high seed set, they must do so in August. The species disperses its seed before many others do--and before most collecting expeditions occur. These frustrations have played out for past Arboretum collecting efforts. In 1986, Rob Nicholson procured seven seedlings (four of which remain in the collections), because no seed was available in October. During the Southern Appalachian Expedition (SAPPE) of late September 2016, I observed the species in both North Carolina and Georgia, yet each small population also lacked seed. Thus, we were not hopeful to find seed-bearing American yellowwood on our trip. Luckily, Cladrastis kentukea illustrates an important yet less often approach for collectors: gather vegetative or clonal material instead of seeds. Depending on the season and the species, this could include leafy cuttings, dormant stem scions, or root cuttings. However, like a number of other woody genera in the legume family (Fabaceae), the only viable method for Cladrastis is to collect root cuttings, as enumerated by Peter Del Tredici (1995). With asexual or clonal propagation, the genetic diversity in any given collection is significantly lower than if you collect seed. A handful of sexually derived seed from one tree is a much greater pool of genetic diversity than a handful of cuttings from the same tree (which would yield identical clones). For this reason, when taking cuttings one should sample as many individual trees in a population as possible to maximize genetic capture. Armed with this knowledge of root cutting possibilities, and location data from Jeffrey Carstens, we set our sights on an American yellowwood population at the Long Pool Recreational Area, in the Ozark National Forest. This population is located upslope--and on a very steep slope at that--from a trail running adjacent Big Piney Creek. The dry understory was noticeably rocky, with the ever-present limestone bedrock well known in Arkansas. The population we encountered was small, about 20 mostly juvenile trees; many exhibited significant dieback. The largest tree, approximately 9.1 meters (30 feet) tall and with a diameter at breast height of about 30.5 centimeters (12 inches), was the victim of recent storm damage. The tree's main leader had snapped off, and was on the ground like a decaying skeleton. As we expected, there was no seed, but we were able to gather one to two root cuttings each from seven juveniles (cuttings from young trees tend to root more easily). After excavating a bit of the soil, we collected cuttings from as near the root crown or base of the tree as possible, being cautious to do as little harm as possible. This region also lies within the \"cone of juvenility\" that propagators know maximizes their chances for successful rooting. The cuttings themselves are generally 7.6 to 15.2 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) long and about 1.3 centimeters (0.5 inches) wide. When collecting them, the proximal end (the end closest to the trunk) is cut straight across whereas the opposite or distal end is cut at a slant. This allows the propagator to later identify the correct polarity or orientation of the cuttings if they insert them vertically in flat filled with growing media (proximal end up). However, typically cuttings are placed in the flat horizontally. Root cuttings generally do not require any hormone treatment (unlike stem cuttings) and are simply placed in a warm greenhouse environment to induce rooting. After considering the special circumstances in which to use them, asexual propagation techniques serve as additional tools in the toolbox that collectors can rely on to enhance their expedition success. Of the 68 taxa (104 accessions) collected on the three 2017 domestic expeditions, 11 taxa (14 accessions) represented collections of clonal material. Some of these were the more traditional leafy cuttings or rooted divisions, but others like the American yellowwood were of root cuttings. For example, Ulmus spp. (elm) disperse their seeds very early in the season, so Kea and I collected root cuttings of Ulmus alata (winged elm) and Ulmus rubra (slippery elm) on our trip. These elms were already sprouting shoots by early November 2017. Bibliography Del Tredici, Peter. 1995. Shoots from roots: A horticultural review. Amoldia 55(3): 11?19. Robert Dowell was a Living Collections Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum (2016?2017). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Recalling Plums from the Wild","article_sequence":8,"start_page":24,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25638","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eb76f.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"Recalling Plums from the Wild Jonathan Damery I BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY n 1811, a fur trader named George Sibley led a small team on a search for a storied salt mountain in the northern prairies of presentday Oklahoma. Sibley found the location in late June, although the salt did not mound; rather it formed a shimmering plain that stretched over dozens of snow-white miles. Bison peppered the expanse. On sandy hills rimming the salt plain, the team found shrubs, scantly waist high, that were loaded abundantly with small ripe plums. Sibley plucked these eagerly; they were, he said, \"the most delicious plums I ever tasted.\"1 Small native plums can be found across much of North America. The most widespread species, Prunus americana, ranges from New England to the Rockies, and it has garnered common names fitting for this range: the American plum or, more generally, the wild plum. Taxonomists disagree on the number of native plum species, but the Flora of North America includes thirteen, nine of which inhabit the central part of the continent, west of the Mississippi (see pages 32 and 33 for a gallery). Sibley probably waxed about the Oklahoma plum (Prunus gracilis), given the early fruiting time and sandy habitat, but despite such arduous praise (\"the most delicious\"), native plums seldom appear on grocery shelves or beneath farmers market tents. That has not always been the case. Luther Burbank, the famous horticultural polymath who began breeding plants at his home in Santa Rosa, California, in 1875, asserted that there were three important periods for plum cultivation: \"the wild era,\" \"the backyard era,\" and \"the railroad era.\"2 The disappearance of native plums occurred along this historic trajectory, at a collision between technology and taste. Selecting Plums from the \"Wild Era\" This image of Orville Lord at the age of 77 appeared in the June, 1902 issue of The Minnesota Horticulturist. The annotation below is in his own handwriting. When Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, wrote about plums in his fourth volume of the Silva of North America, published 1892, he noted that the fruits of several native species were common in markets, particularly in inland cities like St. Louis, where foraged plums were sold both fresh and jellied. Pomologists in Iowa, Minnesota, Wisconsin, Texas, and elsewhere were also selecting cultivated varieties or cultivars (at the time referred to simply as varieties) with larger fruits, thinner skins, and freestone pits. \"Selected varieties sometimes produce PETER ASSMANN Native Plums 25 The yellow to red fruits (drupes) of the Oklahoma plum, Prunus gracilis, range from 1 to 2 centimeters (0.4 to 0.8 inches) in size. excellent fruit,\" Sargent wrote, \"and have been largely cultivated, in the western states especially, for many years.\"3 While the Arboretum did not grow any native plum cultivars at the time, Sargent would have received insights about breeding and selection efforts from the pages of Garden and Forest, the horticultural magazine he began editing in 1888. In an article from 1891, Emmett Stull Goff, the first professor of horticulture at the University of Wisconsin, recounted a field trip to an orchard in southeastern Minnesota, along the banks of the Mississippi. The owner, Orville Lord, had gained regional acclaim for native plum cultivation, shipping fruits as far as New Jersey. Lord had introduced a cultivar of American plum that he named after a nearby creek, `Rollingstone.' Goff compared the fruit of `Rollingstone' favorably to `Green Gage,' a popular cultivar of domestic plum (Prunus domestica), which, even today, occasionally appears in grocery bins. Fruits of `Rollingstone' and `Green Gage' were about the same size, Goff reported, and although the skin of `Rollingstone' was thicker, he conceded that the native was nonetheless \"delicious.\"4 Horticultural experimentation with native plums occurred for practical reasons. While domesticated plums had been imported from Europe, where plum consumption has occurred since Roman times, if not earlier, 5 pests and diseases proved persistent obstacles for orchardists in the central United States. Black knot, the fungal disease that forms aptly named lumps on plum branches, was one of the chief problems, as was the plum curculio, a weevil that feeds on flowers and greening buds and eventually young fruit. Although the native species were not completely immune from these problems, they fared significantly better.6 Orchardists in northeastern states had better luck with classic European cultivars, so interest in native cultivation remained primarily within the Mississippi watershed. Liberty Hyde Bailey, at Cornell University, listed 140 cultivars of native plums in his 1892 publication, The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries, but it is clear that he had not grown many himself.7 Rather his curiosity had been aroused by the vexing taxonomy of the species. Taken as a whole, Bailey thought native plums represented a classic instance of \"contemporary evolution,\" given the high-degree of hybridization and morphological plasticity. His descriptive list of cultivars included fruit reviews, flowering times, and provenance narratives, but even this seemed to straddle a dual function: a horticultural guide for would-be orchardists, coupled with an attempt to systematically describe the range and variability of particular species. Cultivated varieties provided Bailey with useful taxonomic information because, according to his estimation, more than half were wild-collected favorites, imported directly from the hedgerow to the orchard. Significantly, none of the 45 cultivars of American plum on Bailey's list originated from wild locations east of Illinois, despite a Hedrick, in The Plum's of New York, considered `De Soto' \"first place species range that extends all the among the American plums\" for its productivity and ability to withstand shipping. The cultivar was discovered on the banks of the Mississippi River way to New England. 8 Most came near De Soto, Wisconsin in either 1853 or 1854. from Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa, and occasionally Missouri. One of these wild as have other tribes across the continent.9 Lord selections was Lord's `Rollingstone,' which was instantly enamored with the large, sweet he first encountered in 1852, the same year fruit, although he would not introduce `Rollinghe arrived in southern Minnesota and setstone' to market for about three decades, when tled among mounded Mississippi bluffs. The his attention, in older age, shifted evermore original shrub was growing on the edge of a towards horticulture.10 seasonal settlement used by the Mdewakanton-- In Minnesota City, Lord attempted to grow a subgroup of the Dakota--who may have every cold-hard variety, reporting in 1903 that intentionally selected and planted it near their he was cultivating more than one hundred disencampment. Certainly, the Dakota have long tinct selections.11 The most extensive trial, valued native plums, both fresh and preserved, however, likely belonged to Jonathan Kerr, a BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY 26 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Native Plums 27 nurseryman in Denton, Maryland. Bailey spent a considerable amount of time at Kerr's Eastern Shore Nurseries, researching varieties before he published his plum report. Unlike Lord, who primarily raised native plums for commercial fruit production and experimentation, Kerr intended to supply homeowners and orchards with plant material. In an 1895 catalog, Kerr announced that orchardists near Baltimore and Philadelphia had sold native plums for up to four times as much as the domestic plums. \"They pay better,--the pay oftener, than any other tree fruit,\" the catalog promised.12 The following year, Kerr reported that the nursery was growing more than 250 varieties.13 Over the next decade, that figure would double.14 Tracing Plums into Backyards and Orchards It might be careless to assume a proliferation of cultivar names implies a corresponding proliferation of cultivated acres. William Wight, a botanist for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, noted the cavalier nature of many of the horticultural selections. In a taxonomic report on the species, published in 1915, Wight estimated that more than 800 selections had been named, and some of these, he suggested, were \"no better, doubtless in some cases not so good, as those found in a wild state.\"15 Even so, the native plum industry was far from mere nursery hucksterism. According to the U.S. Census of Agriculture--a report, established in 1840, tabulating everything from acres of barley to pounds of butter and fertilizer expenditures--plum production exploded throughout the central United States during the final decade of the nineteenth century. Iowa emerged as a leader, with more than 1.3 million plum trees under cultivation, almost five times the amount reported a decade before. Illinois and Missouri increased at similar rates, amounting to more than a half million trees for Illinois and three-quarters of a million for Missouri.16 While the census did not delineate between species of plum, the authors noted that \"Chickasaw and allied varieties\" predominated in the \"Mississippi Valley.\" 17 This assessment echoed recommendations at state horticultural society meetings throughout the region, where native cultivars were always the most praised and discussed. \"Our natives are the only sure foundation for commercial plum orchards in Iowa,\" an orchardist from Cedar Rapids, Iowa announced at one of these characteristic local meetings in 1896.18 Return to the Hedgerows While the U.S. Census of Agriculture traced the rise of the plum, it also recorded the subsequent bust. Almost a million fruit-bearing plums disappeared from Iowa over the first two decades of the twentieth century. Illinois production was halved over the same period, and Missouri plums also dwindled to almost half (see data, next page). If the rising number of cultivated names paralleled an explosion of cultivated acres, then the same trend seemingly held true as production of nursery stock dwindled. The catalog for Kerr's Eastern Shore Nurseries listed only nine native cultivars in 1914, along with two hybrids that claimed native parentage, far from nearly two hundred selections previously advertised. Now, more than a century after the native plum boom, most selections have vanished from markets and from cultivation at large. The U.S. Department of Agriculture's National Plant Germplasm System maintains repositories to conserve genetic diversity for future crop breeding. The plum collection is located in Davis, California and offers the most probable location to encounter an assortment of historic native plums. Yet compared to the number of named varieties offered for sale in Kerr's 1896 nursery catalog, the diversity is slim. The collection includes thirteen accessions of American plum, a majority representing wild provenances. Of five with cultivar names, only `Wolf' was included on Kerr's list of more than 110 American plum selections,19 although another (`Anderson') was also a nineteenth-century selection. Both, incidentally, were wild-collected from Iowa. My recent search for Orville Lord's orchard in Minnesota City, Minnesota, turned up no fruit, except for several wild American plums growing near a boat launch about a mile away from his property. The center of his land is now 28 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Midwestern Plum Cultivation American plum production trends resemble a slow partner dance, as orchards in one region expand concurrently with reductions elsewhere. Native plums dominated cultivation in the Mississippi Valley--including states depicted here--at the dawn of the twentieth century, but as the national market for California hybrids grew, Midwestern production crashed. California growers eventually outcompeted themselves, creating an oversupply revealed with plummeting Depression-era fruit prices.1 In the late 1950s, demand for canned plums encouraged additional Michigan production, but as consumer taste shifted towards fresh fruit, swelling California cultivation was once again cited as critical competition.2 Data extracted from the U.S. Census of Agriculture represent the number of fruit-bearing plum trees reported from 1890, the first census to include plum data, through 1997. Subsequent reports have noted acreage rather than tree counts. N U M B E R O F F R U I T - B E A R I N G P LU M T R E E S 1890 1900 1910 CALIFORNIA 1,509,833 9,823,713 7,168,705 ILLINOIS 104,111 572,774 600,087 INDIANA 146,378 723,815 566,988 IOWA 260,600 1,302,217 1,155,041 KANSAS 410,426 852,702 624,648 MICHIGAN 168,318 1,378,952 464,917 MINNESOTA 47,458 191,313 233,736 MISSOURI 152,688 745,187 917,851 NEBRASKA 227,129 542,450 351,321 NORTH DAKOTA 681 4,745 19,147 OHIO 145,832 892,441 1,001,734 SOUTH DAKOTA 42,797 123,175 268,268 WISCONSIN 18,451 94,338 105,909 1Matthews, G. 1985. The apricot war: A study of the changing fruit industry during the 1930s. Agricultural History. 59(1): 25?39. 2Ricks, D. J. 1983. The Michigan and U.S. purple plum industry--Trends and changing marketing patterns. Michigan State University Agricultural Economics Staff Paper. 83(56): 1?46. *(D) signifies \"withheld data\" a small subdivision, and a separate orchard of his in the Mississippi bottomlands was flooded when the Army Corps of Engineers built a lock and dam in 1935. Plums of the \"Railroad Era\" The disappearance of native plum cultivars can be partly explained by matters of taste. Anyone who has foraged one of these plums will likely describe the astringency of the skin, even while savoring the sweetness of the flesh inside. This characteristic is generally true of all native species. Ulysses Hedrick, who joined Bailey at Cornell, wrote a 1911 monograph on plums. He noted that while the American plum had been introduced to Europe in the mid-eighteenth century, if not before, the species was always considered a flowering ornamental in European gardens, not an orchard plant. \"The Old World plums are so superior, speaking generally, in size, appearance, and flavor, the qualities which appeal to those who eat plums, that the native varieties stand small chance for popular favor,\" he wrote.20 Still, work of orchardists like Orville Lord might have continued in the central United States if not for technological innovations. In 1887, Lord imagined a native plum industry that could surpass the $2.5 million market for imported plums and prunes. \"Does this sound visionary,\" he exclaimed at a meeting of Minnesota horticulturists. \"I may ask who would Native Plums 29 NUMBER OF FRUIT-BEARING PLUM TREES 1920 CA 1930 1940 1950 1969 1978 8,971,175 9,809,553 9,522,743 1987 1997 8,768,436 16,668,590 273,554 160,494 98,382 62,148 5,765 1,659 16,511 1,623 698 214,202 117,713 59,155 42,181 7,467 4,197 4,369 1,990 603 313,769 290,613 177,375 118,018 11,076 4,950 824 487 426 143,473 139,590 46,665 32,434 4,684 1,122 1,241 302 544 377,123 312,899 204,022 264,976 237,325 579,239 480,651 315,164 131,085 193,668 224,974 160,947 130,449 10,337 2,022 2,243 1,299 2,501 528,649 317,598 239,804 121,032 15,426 1,325 4,394 2,910 544 86,183 118,133 36,173 33,574 4,812 209 441 274 (D)* 41,254 47,423 14,657 48,989 19,573 1,779 1,340 (D)* (D)* 459,265 323,731 187,548 130,587 44,651 32,518 17,151 10,182 5,165 117,677 100,185 21,137 63,222 4,302 802 769 266 628 117,844 126,538 102,891 83,242 10,522 2,913 4,345 2,838 878 IL IN IA KS MI MN MO NE ND 12,915,324 10,285,039 1959 13,866,499 15,909,878 OH SD WI have dared to predict, thirty years ago, the small fruit business of ... Chicago, Minneapolis or St. Paul. Then, a carload would have supplied the market of either place. Now, thousands of bushels are daily marketed in their season.\"21 Lord was optimistic about the voracious appetite of a booming city. Over the same thirty-year period, Chicago grew from a city of about three hundred thousand to a metropolis exceeding one million, but Lord missed the implications of the same appetite. If Chicagoans could each consume one quart of strawberries--berries that were not grown in the city, but rather, were grown in the hinterlands and shipped inward via rail--then the same transport innovations could undercut the need for locally grown native fruits. Over the decades that Lord cultivated increasing acres of native plums, railroads had connected the coasts. The first transcontinental passage occurred in 1869, and, in 1890, a California fruit shipper, Edwin Earl, devised a railcar suited for long coast-tocoast shipments. Along the way, pantries and iceboxes in Chicago and beyond became less beholden to horticultural limits for the region. Luther Burbank alluded to these innovations when he posited the \"railroad era\" as the ultimate stage for plum production. \"The railroad became a factor in plum improvement by bringing millions of plum-hungry easterners within reach--by affording quick and economical shipping facilities where there had been no Horticulturist Luther Burbank, flanked by Thomas Edison (left) and Henry Ford (right), in this image that appeared in Burbank's 1916 seed catalog Twentieth Century Fruits. shipping facilities before,\" Burbank quipped to editors of his multi-volume biography, published in 1914.22 Garden and Forest recorded this rail-powered influence, announcing in 1895 that classic cultivars of domesticated European plum had arrived in New York on rail shipments from California, along with peaches, pears, and grapes. \"Forty-four car-loads of California fruits were sold here in five days of last week,\" the magazine reported.23 As the final achievement of the \"railroad era,\" Burbank--an alchemical breeder, dubbed a horticultural \"wizard\" in his own time24-- developed large thick-skinned plum hybrids that were easier to ship across country. Ironically, he used native species to impart that thicker skin, along with disease resistance, but otherwise, the flavor and appearance most strongly resembles the other parents: the Japanese plum (Prunus salicinia) and the apricot plum (Prunus simonii). 25 Burbank's hybrids--most famously `Santa Rosa'--still dominate the American plum industry and have been the parents of other successful and widespread cultivars.26 Another Era for the Native Plum Recent attempts to introduce native plums into the market have centered on beach plum (Prunus maritima), a species that hems the sandy coastline of New England, growing on shifting dunes, alongside American beachgrass (Ammophila breviligulata). The James R. Jewett Prize was established at the Arnold Arboretum for research on the species in 1940, and although the award waned after little more than a decade, it was reinstated in 1997 when researchers at Cornell University launched a concerted commercialization project.27 Richard Uva, who instigated the Cornell research under the direction of Professor Thomas Whitlow, now grows three acres of beach plums on his cut-flower nursery, Seaberry Farms, in Federalsburg, Maryland. He estimates that twenty-two acres of beach plum are currently under production between sixteen growers in Massachusetts, Maryland, New Jersey, and Long Island. This is not enough to meet the growing commercial demand, especially among distillers, brewers, and winemakers. Growers have also found a market among chefs, especially in tourist beach towns, where the plums are a stamp of local credibility for the menu. Jam and jelly productions remains a relatively small scale. For other plum species, production and research has yet to return, although interest in indigenous ingredients has swelled more generally in recent years. Part of this interest GREENHOOK GINSMITHS BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY 30 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 One of the first of alcoholic products made from beach plum is a gin liqueur, manufactured by Greenhook Ginsmiths in Brooklyn. It is made in the manner of sloe gin--a product made with a European native plum (Prunus spinosa)--by steeping whole plums in gin for a matter of months. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Native Plums 31 The author makes observations on a beach plum (Prunus maritima) submerged by sand dunes on Cape Cod in 2010. could be attributed to work by organizations like Slow Food, which, in 1996, launched a program known as the International Ark of Taste, designed to protect and preserve distinctive regional foods that are threatened with gastronomic extinction. Beach plums are listed among more than two hundred imperiled products in the United States, as are other oft-overlooked native foods like shagbark hickory nuts (Carya ovata), groundnut tubers (Apios americana), and tangy staghorn sumac fruits (Rhus thypina). Whether interest in native plums will be rekindled as part of this larger trend is yet to be seen. But during the historic boom of native plum cultivation, Abraham Dennis, an orchardist in Cedar Rapids, Iowa, became particularly inspired by the long history of plum cultivation among Native American communities in the region. He suggested there was almost a moral imperative to perpetuate the process. \"It is not alone our duty to rescue these fruits from their wild state and reawaken by culture these higher qualities given them by similar efforts by ancient horticulturists,\" Dennis said at a horticultural meeting in 1897. \"But,\" he continued, \"we must transmit them to future horticulturists more perfect fruits than we found them--new qualities added--worthy of the advanced and scientific age it is our privilege to live in.\"28 Now, well over a century later, Dennis's challenge resonates, enticing foragers and horticulturists back to the hedgerows and thickets to reclaim plums from the wild at last. Jonathan Damery is a former Curatorial Assistant and Curatorial Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, and holds an MFA in creative writing from the University of Minnesota. His current book-length nonfiction project explores environmental history in the tallgrass prairie region, with grant support from the Minnesota State Arts Board in 2017. 32 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 THE AMERICAN PLUMS Prunus americana by T. Davis Sydnor, The Ohio State University, Bugwood.org Plum taxonomy has long perplexed botanists, including Bailey. \"Native plums constitute probably the hardest [black] knot in American pomology,\" he wrote. \"The group is one of the most inextricably confused of any one of equal extent in our whole flora.\"29 More recently, Joseph Rohrer, writing about Prunus for the Flora of North America, described the \"particularly troublesome\" delineation of plum species. \"Surely,\" he wrote, \"as more molecular and genetic data are analyzed and, more importantly, correlated with morphological data, circumscription will be redrawn and the number of North American plum species further reduced.\"30 As it stands, Flora of North America recognizes thirteen species of native plums, outlined below. Prunus americana (American plum): The most widespread species, with a range stretching from New England to the Rocky Mountains. According to Hedrick, about 260 cultivars were derived from this species during the historic plum boom. Prunus angustifolia (Chickasaw plum): A distinctive southern species, ranging from Virginia to eastern New Mexico and south through Florida and other Gulf states. In 1911, Ulysses Hedrick counted about twenty horticultural selections of this species.31 Prunus geniculata (scrub plum): A federally endangered species found on sandy hills in central Florida. Fruits develop early compared to other species, from March to May. Prunus gracilis (Oklahoma plum): A small suckering species, no more than 1.5 m (4.9 ft) tall, which grows in dry, sandy locations. No significant horticultural varieties have been named, although Frank Waugh of the Vermont Agricultural Experimentation Station reported, in 1901, that the \"fruit is sometimes gathered and sold in local markets.\"32 Prunus angustifolia by Karan A. Rawlins, University of Georgia, Bugwood.org Prunus hortulana (hortulan or wild goose plum): Distribution for this species centers on Missouri and Illinois, with scattered pockets through southern Ohio and possible introductions in the Virginias. In older literature, this species was divided into two groups--wild goose and miner plums--which collectively resulted in about thirtysix named selections, according to Hedrick, although Kerr advertised more than fifty. Prunus maritima (beach plum): A denizen of the sandy coastline between Maine and Delaware. In 1911, Hedrick counted only two cultivars (`Bassett' and `Beta'). The num- Prunus nigra by R. W. Smith, Lady Bird Johnson Wildflower Center Native Plums 33 ber climbed by at least another dozen in the 1950s, through work funded by the Jewett Award, 33 and most recently, Rutgers released a cultivar named `Jersey Gem.' Prunus mexicana (Mexican or bigtree plum): The largest of native species, forming a tree up to 12 m (39 ft) tall. It ranges from northeastern Mexico to northern Illinois, east to Kentucky and Alabama. Prunus murrayana (Murray's plum): A suckering shrub known only from scattered populations near dry streams and canyon beds in southwestern Texas. Prunus nigra (Canada plum): A northern species that grows around the Great Lakes, ranging east to Massachusetts. It offered hardy characteristics for orchardists in Minnesota and Wisconsin, who, according to Hedrick, named about forty cultivars. Prunus subcordata by Terry Spivey, USDA Forest Service, Bugwood.org Prunus rivularis (creek or hog plum): A widespread species that has come to encompass a larger-statured taxon, Prunus munsoniana. The primary distribution is located between Texas and Missouri, with scattered populations to southern Ohio. At least sixty horticultural selections were made of this species by 1911, particularly among southern orchardists. Prunus subcordata (Sierra, Klamath, or Pacific plum): Found in California and Oregon, this is the only plum native west of the Rocky Mountains. Hedrick did not count the number of cultivars derived from this species, but he quoted Luther Burbank, who described certain selections with fruit as \"sweet as honey.\" Prunus texana by William R. Carr Prunus texana (peachbush or Texas wild peach): Long considered a peach rather than a true plum, this fuzzy-fruited species has a small range stretching from central Texas to the Gulf coast. DNA sequencing has revealed that subgeneric classification of Prunus is more complicated than the fiveparted system that formerly partitioned plums and peaches into separate subgenera. While other native peach-like species occur throughout the southwest, recent work places P. texana clearly within the plums.34 Prunus umbellata (hog, flatwoods, or Allegheny plum): A shrub or tree, growing to 6 m (19.7 ft) in height, this species ranges between North Carolina and eastern Texas. Traditionally a northern population in Michigan and the Allegheny Mountains was treated as a separate species, P. alleghaniensis, but the taxa have more recently been grouped. Prunus umbellata by James H. Miller and Ted Bodner, Southern Weed Science Society, Bugwood.org 34 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Endnotes, Native Plums 1Bradbury, J. 1817. Travels in the Interior of America in the Years 1809, 1810, and 1811. Liverpool: Smith and Galway, pp. 185?186. 2Whitson, J., R. John, and H. S. Williams (Eds.). 1914. Luther Burbank: His Methods and Discoveries and Their Practical Application, 1. London: Luther Burbank Press, pp. 275?77. 3Sargent, C. S. 1892. The Silva of North America: A Description of the Trees Which Grow Naturally in North America Exclusive of Mexico, 4. Cambridge: Riverside Press. p. 24 4Goff, E. S. 1891. The present status of native plum culture. Garden and Forest. 4 (193): 523?524. 5 Pe?a-Chocarro, L., et al. 2017. Roman and medieval crops in the Iberian Peninsula: A first overview of seeds and fruits from archaeological sites. Quaternary International: 1?18. 6See Goff, above. 7Bailey, L. H. 1892. The Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries. Ithaca: Cornell University Agricultural Experimentation Station. 8Ibid. 9Moerman, D. 1998. Native American Ethnobotany. Portland: Timber Press. 10Hedrick, U. 1911. The Plums of New York. Albany: L.B. Lyon Co. pp. 330?331. 11Lord, O. M. 1903. Minnesota City trial station. The Minnesota Horticulturist, 31(4): 130?131. 12Kerr, J. W. 1895. Price List of the Eastern Shore Nurseries: For Fall of 1895 and Spring of 1896. Denton, MD: Eastern Shore Nurseries. 13 Kerr, J. W. 1896. Annual Price-List and Catalog of the Eastern Shore Nurseries: Fall of 1896, Spring 1897. Denton, MD: Eastern Shore Nurseries. 14Kerr, J. W. 1909. Thirty-Seventh Year: Eastern Shore Nurseries and Fruit Farm. Denton, MD: Eastern Shore Nurseries. 15Wight, W.F. 1915. Native American Species of Prunus. Bulletin of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, No. 179. 16United States Census Office. 1900. Fruits, Nuts, and Forest Products. Agriculture, 5: 618. 17Ibid, 606. 181900. Plum, varieties--discussion. Annual Report of the State Horticultural Society of Missouri, 42: 222?223. 19See Kerr. 1896, above. 20See Hedrick, above. 21Lord, O. M. 1887. Native plums. Annual Report of the Minnesota State Horticultural Society, 15: 373?376. 22See Whitson and Williams, above. 231895. Notes. Garden and Forest, 393: 360. \"Notes.\" 24Janick, J. 2015. Luther Burbank: Plant breeding artist, horticulturist, and legend. HortScience, 50(2):153?156. 25See Whitson and Williams, above. 26Okie, W. R. and D. W. Ramming. 1999. Plum breeding worldwide. HortTechnology, 9(2): 162?176. 27Uva, R. H. 2003. Taming the Wild Beach Plum. Arnoldia, 62(4). 28Dennis, A. B. 1897. New native plums. Report of the Iowa State Horticultural Society for the Year 1896, 31: 79. 29See Bailey, above. 30Rohrer, J. 2014. Prunus. Flora of North America North of Mexico, 9. New York and Oxford: Flora of North America Association. 31See Hedrick, above. 32Waugh, F. A. 1901. Plums and Plum Culture. New York: Orange Judd Co. 33Garrick, L. 2012. Banking on beach plums. Gastronomica, 12(3): 21?30. 34Shaw, J. and R. Small. 2005. Chloroplast DNA phylogeny and phylogeography of the North American plums (Prunus subgenus Prunus section Prunocerasus, Rosaceae). American Journal of Botany 92:2011?2030. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Insights from a Sole Survivor: Quercus castaneifolia","article_sequence":9,"start_page":35,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25635","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15eaf6d.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Zale, Peter J.","article_content":"Insights from a Sole Survivor: Quercus castaneifolia Peter J. Zale O aks (Quercus spp.) have become a worldwide symbol of tree conservation. Of the approximately 450 described oak species, at least 175 are of conservation concern and many require further conservation assessments (Oldfield and Eastwood, 2007; Jerome et al., 2017). To aid in these efforts, public gardens around the world have invested significant energy to develop taxonomically and geographically exhaustive, genetically diverse oak collections with high conservation value. Aside from their importance as landscape and garden specimens, maintaining living collections of oaks in public gardens is particularly important because recalcitrant (desiccation intolerant) oak seeds cannot be stored long term in germplasm repositories, highlighting an increased need for ex situ conservation of individual trees and improvements in collection practices. Within the United States, the American Public Gardens Association (APGA) has recognized the efforts of 20 public gardens who have formed a Plant Collections Network Quercus multisite collection to tackle some of these efforts (APGA, 2017). Benchmarking studies have become an important tool to help these and other gardens prioritize their conservation and collecting efforts by revealing the diversity of oaks in their collections relative to those in cultivation elsewhere. Gaps, or missing species, reveal areas for future development, and the identification of species (or clones) uniquely or poorly represented in cultivation can indicate those in need of further preservation and distribution. However, the power of benchmarking is predicated on the quality of records and the verification of species to accurate identity. In 2015, verification of tree plantings on perimeter areas of Longwood Gardens revealed a mysterious oak bearing an incorrect label. An exercise in curatorial sleuthing led me on a chase to discover the species' identity to be Quercus castaneifolia, chestnut-leaf oak, and that the accession had a provenance linked to the wilds of northern Iran. In my further investigations, I learned more about its natural history and, eventually, saw it growing in its native habitat. Taxonomy and geography of chestnut-leaf oak Quercus castaneifolia was first described in 1831, and belongs to Section Cerris and Subsection Cerris, a placement within the genus that has remained stable since Camus' 1936 monograph. However, the taxonomy within Q. castaneifolia has been debated, with at least eight intraspecific botanical taxa (varieties, subspecies, and formae) described based on differences in leaf, acorn, trichome, foliar epidermis, and pollen morphology (Panahi et al., 2011). Molecular analysis using Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphisms (AFLP) indicated that the differences at the molecular level were not enough to distinguish among the previously proposed intraspecific taxa, except for Q. castaneifolia subsp. aitchisoniana, and that molecular variation in some cases was indicative of introgression from other species (Azadbakht et al., 2015). Presently, the botanical community considers Q. castaneifolia to be a single polymorphic or highly variable species (Rix and Kirkham, 2009; The Plant List, 2017). In addition to its distinct leaf characters, diagnostic morphological features of this species include its linear bud scales, and curiously elongated, but variably sized, ellipsoidal acorns--maturing in two years--that reach 2 to 4.5 cm (0.78 to 1.78 in) in length and have cupules or caps covered with prominent scales (see inside front cover). The branching habit of mature trees is variable, ranging from upright with a dominant central leader, to a spreading structure devoid of a strong central leader that LONGWOOD GARDENS 36 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 Quercus castaneifolia is aptly named, with leaves [7 to 20 cm (2.8 to 7.9 in) long and 3 to 6 cm (1.2 to 2.4 in) wide] resembling those of the sweet or Spanish chestnut (Castanea sativa). This herbarium voucher was collected from the specimen growing at Longwood Gardens. Quercus castaneifolia 37 climate of Iran's Alborz Mountains (Panahi et al., 2011). In some of these areas, Quercus castaneifolia can form pure stands, although it becomes a member of Fagus orientalis (oriental beech)-dominated forest above 1200 m (3937 ft). It is a minor forest component in the eastern portion of its range, in areas dominated by Platycladus orientalis (Oriental arborvitae) (Menitsky, 2005). One study indicated that Q. castaneifolia comprises 6.5% of the total Hyrcanian Forest, belying the fact that it is among the most commonly encountered species in the region (Panahi et al., 2011). It has yet to be analyzed for Red Listing to determine its conservation status (Oldfield and Eastwood, 2017). The Specimen at Longwood Gardens The natural range of Quercus castaneifolia (shown in green) extends from Azerbaijan's Talysh Mountains along the southern border of the Caspian Sea to Gorgan, Golestan Province, Iran (map modified from Sales and Hedge, 1996). results in a distinctly rounded canopy. In the wild trees can reach heights of 45 m (148 ft), but 10 to 25 m (33 to 82 ft) tall and wide seems more typical, particularly in cultivated trees. Fall color develops late in the season in hues of clear yellow and brown. Chestnut-leaf oak is a member of the Hyrcanian Forest (from \"Hyrcania\", the Greek form of an old Persian word describing the region of Gorgan or Asterabad, Iran), a relict forest widespread during the Tertiary Period (65 to 15 million years ago) and now occurring only on the mountain ranges that surround the southern Caspian Sea. The forest is a well-defined glacial refugium rich in endemic species, including this oak (Milne and Abbott, 2002). Throughout its range, it grows from sea level to 2400 m (7875 ft) in elevation, and is reported to grow on the northern aspects of mountain slopes. (My personal observations, however, indicate a more general distribution, at least in Azerbaijan.) In the Talysh Mountains of southeastern Azerbaijan and northwestern Iran, it is a component of the Quercus-Buxus Forest that once dominated the Caspian Coastal Plain, and the Quercus-Carpinus Forest in the lowlands to 1200 m (3937 ft). The latter forest type transitions to the Quercus-Zelkova Forest in the drier In the 1950s Longwood Gardens became part of a large-scale project called the Michaux Quercetum. This project began as a partnership between the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania and the Northeastern Forest Experiment Station of the USDA, and was financed in part by the Michaux Fund of the American Philosophical Society. The primary purpose of the study was to develop a large-scale provenance test of US native oak species with the goal of selecting genetically superior trees for breeding and forestry purposes. Another part of the project was defined loosely as \"preliminary tests of exotic oak species from all temperate oak-inhabited parts of the northern hemisphere\" (Schramm and Schreiner, 1954). Little information exists on the full extent of exotic species of oaks trialed in the various Querceta, but in 1968, several exotic oaks were planted adjacent to the original Michaux Quercetum here in Longwood Gardens. Among these were oak seedlings bearing USDA Plant Introduction (PI) numbers 228074 and 228075, both originally collected in 1955 as acorns by USDA Agricultural Explorer Howard Scott (H. S.) Gentry in northeastern Iran. The Plant Introduction Inventory (USDA, 1964), records Gentry's description for the collections, each listed as yet-to-be-identified Quercus sp. For PI 228074: \"Col. Nol. 15709. Twenty-five miles south of Kalow, Caspian slope of Alborz. Sept. 12, 1955. Elevation 6,000 feet. Second PETER ZALE 38 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 In 2016, the specimen at Longwood Gardens (accession 1957-2444*A) was 15.5 m (50.9 ft) tall and 21.9 m (71.9 ft) wide, and had a DBH (diameter at breast height) of 112.5 cm (44.3 in). It has an ascending branching pattern and a distinctly rounded, spreading crown. growth from cut trees.\" And, for PI 228075: \"Col. No. 15799. Fifty-four miles east of Gorgan. Sept. 15, 1955. Spreading tree to 30 feet high.\" These were grown at the US Plant Introduction Garden (USPIG) in Glenn Dale, Maryland, and in September 1957 Longwood Gardens received three seedlings of PI 228074 and two of 228075, which were planted in the research nursery and later near the Michaux Quercetum. The Michaux Quercetum and adjacent oak plantings received little attention for the next five decades, providing a true test of a tree's ability to survive with relative neglect. During the summer of 2015, the plant records office was inventorying trees in this part of Longwood Gardens and `rediscovered' an unidentified oak tree. It was then brought to my attention and I began the detective work. An old planting map indicated the tree was Longwood Gardens accession 1957-2444*A, and the original pack- ing slip from the USPIG linked that accession to one of Gentry's collections: PI 228075 (accession 1957-2443 was assigned to PI 228074). It appears as if one seedling of each collection perished in the first few years. In 1971, an inventory of the Quercetum indicated that the two remaining seedlings of PI 228074 had perished due to sun scald, but no update was given for PI 228075. Using Gentry's original collection notes of the tree's nativity, I used the distinct shape of the tree's leaves, acorns, and linear bud scales to confirm the identify as Q. castaneifolia. Further research indicated that it is the only remaining tree in cultivation from Gentry's collection, and is thus unique among cultivated accessions of this species in public gardens worldwide. Because of its unique lineage, and the rarity of wild-collected Q. castaneifolia in the US (see below), I collected acorns in 2016. Oaks are TONY KIRKHAM Quercus castaneifolia 39 The Kew specimen (accession 1969-15985) is one of the largest trees at Kew, and is the largest chestnut-leaf oak in the British Isles. In 2016 it was approximately 35 m (115 ft) tall, 30 m (98 ft) wide, and had a DBH of 2.52 m (8.26 ft) at 1.5 m (4.9 ft). 40 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 anemophilous (wind-pollinated) species that generally rely on fertilization from genetically different individuals of the same species for successful seed development. But there is some evidence that oaks have the ability for selfpollination on a limited basis (Yacine and Bouras, 1997). Of the 24 seeds collected, 12 germinated and the resultant seedlings so far appear to be true-to-type, despite extensive nearby plantings of US native and exotic species including Quercus macranthera (Caucasian oak), which is reported to hybridize with Q. castaneifolia. Despite promising initial results, verification to identity will have to wait until the seedlings mature. If anything, they can serve as understock to graft scions from the original tree, which would preserve the exact genetic lineage. Chestnut-leaf Oak in Cultivation The Botanic Gardens Conservation International (BGCI) PlantSearch website indicated that 68 public gardens worldwide (mostly in Europe) grow this species. For comparison, 148 gardens list the commonly grown Quercus cerris (Turkey oak), while 54 gardens list the less common Quercus libani (Lebanon oak). Perhaps the best-known specimen in cultivation is the tree growing behind the Water Lily house at Kew Gardens, London. Widely accepted as the first introduction of the species to cultivation in western Europe, the accession was received as seed in 1843 and was reputedly planted in 1846 by William Hooker himself (Rix and Kirkham, 2009). This imposing specimen is one of the most recognized trees in the collection at Kew and was one of few to survive the great storm of 1987 without damage. Records of this species in cultivation in the United States are few. Some of the largest are two 1938 trees (239-38*A and D) at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, which came from the Mount Mashuk Forest Garden Experimental Station in Pyatigorsk, Russia (Northern Caucasus), which is outside of the species natural range. The larger of the two (239-38*D) stands 22.33 m (73.3 ft) tall, has a spread of 18.3 m (60 ft), and a DBH of 98.6 cm (38.8 in). A query of the most current inventory (2014) of the members of the Plant Collections Network multisite Quercus group indicated 19 living accessions of Quercus castaneifolia in nine gardens. Of these, 16 are of garden or nursery origin, two are from wild collections, and one is actually a hybrid: Q. castaneifolia ? Q. cerris. Interestingly, the two wild plants are 1994 accessions growing at the UC Davis Arboretum and originally came from Dr. Ahmad Mossadegh, Professor of Silviculture at the University of Tehran. He collected seeds from the Loveh Region, near Gorgan, Iran at an elevation of 830 m (2723 ft). This source locality, similar to that of the Longwood specimen, indicates that all of the known wild-sourced material in cultivation in the US comes from a similar place in the eastern extent of the species range. In addition to growing in the institutions mentioned above, chestnut-leaf oak is also at the Bartlett Tree Research Arboretum (Charlotte, NC), Denver Botanic Garden, Cornell Botanic Gardens (Ithaca, NY), and Morton Arboretum (Lisle, IL). Its ability to grow in such diverse places suggests a tolerance to extremes of heat and cold (USDA Hardiness Zones 5 to 9), as well as drought and a range of soil types. It is worth experimenting growing the tree in colder and drier regions where the palette of available landscape trees is limited. Quercus castaneifolia, recognized for its durability and ornamental qualities, has a number of selections. Aim?e Camus, in her 1936 Les Chenes: Monographie du genre Quercus, was the first to mention four cultivars (then formae) of Q. castaneifolia: `Asplenifolia', `Filicifolia', `Aureovariegata', and `Pyramidalis'. Although there were no descriptions provided, it is likely that the first two had fern-like, and the third had variegated leaves; the fourth likely had a narrow, yet not fastigiate, habit. No plants bearing these names have been found living in modern collections. Several other cultivars in Europe bear the place name where the original plant was selected. `Sopron', `Zorgvlied', and `Zuiderpark' originated in European parks or cities, and have not been widely propagated or distributed. Though listed as a selection of chestnut-leaf oak, `Algerensis' appears to be synonym for Quercus afares, the Algerian oak, a morphologically similar species from the coastal Atlas Mountains of Algeria and Tunisia. Quercus castaneifolia 41 PETER ZALE Perhaps the most common cultivar is `Green Spire' (note spelling, as numerous sources have it listed as `Greenspire'), selected and introduced by Hillier and Sons Nursery (Winchester, UK). It is described as \"a broadly columnar form of compact habit, raised in our nurseries about 1948. A vigorous, tall tree. Probably Q. castaneifolia ? Q. libani\" (Hillier Nurseries, 1991). This selection has become available in the US and its putative hybrid origin requires verification. The species is known to hybridize with others (particularly within Section Cerris), and although hybrids are poorly represented in cultivation, could prove valuable for creating widely adaptable, drought-tolerant trees suitable for managed landscapes, notably urban forests. Oikos Tree Crops (Kalamazoo, MI) offers Q. A large tree near Lankaran, Azerbaijan, had grey-brown bark with prominent, vertical ridges. castaneifolia ECOS Form, an open-pollinated strain sold as both seeds and seedlings from their original trees. According to their website description, the trees were originally obtained by growing acorns from gardens and arboreta, and may represent hybrids between Q. castaneifolia, Q. cerris, and Q. acutissima (sawtooth oak). They were reported to be the fastest growing oaks in their nursery, reaching nearly 2 m (6.6 ft) in height after two years from seed. Quercus castaneifolia in Azerbaijan From 9 to 22 September, 2017, the Plant Collections Collaborative (PCC, 14 US public gardens with similar interests in domestic and international plant exploration) organized and performed a plant collecting trip to the Republic of Azerbaijan. Participants included Phil Douglas (Chicago Botanic Garden), Matt Lobdell (Morton Arboretum), Vince Marrocco (Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania), and myself. Henrik Sj?man of the Gothenburg Botanical Garden (Sweden) joined us for the last week of the trip. Among the collection targets developed during trip planning was Quercus castaneifolia, no doubt inspired by my now familiarity with Longwood's single specimen. We were pleasantly surprised to find the species ubiquitous in the Lankaran Region of southern Azerbaijan, in the wild as well as a cultivated tree. It grew at sea level and was still abundant at 1500 m (4921 ft) in elevation, the highest point we reached between Lerik and Orand. We found it with other characteristic species of the Hyrcanian Forest: Acer velutinum (velvet maple), Buxus sempervirens (common boxwood), Carpinus betulus (European hornbeam), Parrotia persica (Persian ironwood), and Zelkova carpinifolia (Caucasian zelkova). Trunks of old, open-grown trees were often massive and supported a distinctive branching structure with a tall, straight central leader and irregular branches that resulted in a loosely rounded crown. Unfortunately, none of the trees bore mature acorns, and our guide, Dr. Ha?iaga Sofarov, Deputy-Director of Hyrcan National Park in Lankaran, indicated that they would not be ready until late-October or early-November. This corresponds to the timing of seed maturation of the tree at Longwood, but differs from 42 Arnoldia 75\/3 ? February 2018 HENRIK SJ?MAN ernmost extent of its range will increase the presence of wild-origin Q. castaneifolia at public gardens across the US, Conclusion Curatorial mysteries, like the story of Gentry's unidentified oak, are found in public gardens throughout the world. When acknowledged and solved, they not only enrich the collections and institutions where they exist, but also the greater public garden, horticulture, and botanical communities. As is the case for Quercus castaneifolia at Longwood Gardens, unraveling this mystery helped us inform, revise, and add value to our plant collections, their data, and our broader collections development objectives. The project shed new light on an underrepresented and under-collected species worthy of greater attention, and I hope this work serves to open new avenues of germplasm preservation, acquisition, and interpretation. References APGA (American Public Gardens Association). 2007? 2017. The plant collections network Quercus multisite group. Available at: https:\/\/ publicgardens.org\/programs\/plant-collectionsnetwork\/collections-showcase\/quercusmultisite. (Accessed 30 November 2017). The acorns found on trees near Lankaran, Azerbaijan were unripe in mid-September of 2017, foiling the collectors' plans. Gentry's field collection date of September 15, 1955, suggesting that acorns may mature earlier in the southeastern part of the species range. Chestnut-leaf oak is perhaps the most widely cultivated tree in the Lankaran Region. We immediately encountered extensive plantings used as windbreaks amongst the vast agricultural expanses that dominate the Caspian Lowlands. Street trees were also common, which thrived despite compaction from surrounding sidewalks and streets, late-summer heat and drought, pollution from vehicle exhaust and general neglect. PCC members are again planning an autumn 2018 trip again to southern Azerbaijan to make collections of this and other important, under-represented species. Hopefully, our success in capturing the northwest- Azadbakht, M., I. Mehregan, M. Assadi and T. Nejadsattari. 2015. Phylogenetic Relationships in Quercus castaneifolia C.A. Mey. in Hyrcanian forests of Iran based on AFLP markers. Journal of UMP Social Sciences and Technology Management 3:237?246. Bean, W.J. 1976. Trees and shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, Volume III. 8th revised edition. Butler and Tanner Limited, London, U.K. Camus, A. 1936. Les Chenes: Monographie du genre Quercus. Paul Lechevalier and Fils, Paris, France. Hillier Nurseries. 1991. Hillier's Manual of Trees & Shrubs. David and Charles, London. Jerome, D., E. Beckman, L. Kenny, C.S. Kua, and M. Westwood. 2017. The Red List of U.S. Oaks. The Morton Arboretum, Lisle, IL. Kr?ssman, G. 1978. Manual of Cultivated Broad-leaf Trees and Shrubs. Volume III, PRU-Z. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, U.S. Lancaster, R. 1974. Paradise found. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 99:103?109. PETER ZALE Quercus castaneifolia 43 A restaurant nestled in a shelterbelt of chestnut-leaf oak north of Lankaran, Azerbaijan. Like cultivated trees observed elsewhere, the trunks were painted white, supposedly as a preventative measure against trunk damaging insects. Menitsky, Y.L. 2005. Oaks of Asia. Science Publishers, Enfield, New Hampshire, U.S. Milne, R.I. and R.J. Abbott. 2002. The origin and evolution of Tertiary relict flora. Advances in Botanical Research 38:281?314. DOI: 10.1016\/S00652296(02)38033-9 Oldfield, S. and A. Eastwood. The Red List of Oaks. Flora and Fauna International, Cambridge, UK. Panahi, P., Z. Jamzad, M. R. Pourmajidian, A. Fallah, and M. Pourhashemi. 2011. A revision of chestnutleaved oak (Quercus castaneifolia C. A. Mey.; Fagaceae) in Hyrcanian Forests of Iran. Caspian Journal of Environmental Sciences 9:145?158. Rix, M. and T. Kirkham. 2009. Quercus castaneifolia. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 26:54?63. Sales, F., and I.C. Hedge. 1996. Biogeographical aspects of selected SW Asiatic woody taxa. Annalen des Naturhistorischen Museums in Wien. 98B Supplement:149?161. Schramm, J.R. and E.J. Schreiner. 1954. The Michaux Quercetum. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 5:54?57. Snyers, C. 2014. A natural hybrid? Available at: http:\/\/ www.internationaloaksociety.org\/ natural-hybrid\/ (Accessed: 30 November 2017) The Plant List. 2017. Version 1.1. Published on the I n t e r n e t ; h t t p : \/ \/ w w w. t h e p l a n t l i s t . o r g \/ (Accessed: 28 November 2017). Trehane, P. 2007?2015. The Oak Names Checklist. Available at: http:\/\/oaknames.org\/search\/ goodnames.asp. (Accessed: 30 November 2016). USDA (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture). 1964. Plant Inventory No. 163. Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Maryland, U.S. Yacine, A. and F. Bouras. 1997. Self- and cross-pollination effects on pollen tube growth and seed set in holm oak Quercus ilex L. (Fagaceae). Annals of Forestry Science 54:447?462. Peter Zale, Ph.D., is the Associate Director for Conservation, Plant Breeding, and Collections at Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square, PA. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Winter Beauty: Viburnum opulus","article_sequence":10,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25631","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d15ea726.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Keegan, Brendan","article_content":"A Winter Beauty: Viburnum opulus Brendan Keegan W hen I think back on my experience as a Peace Corps volunteer in Ukraine, my memories are often drawn to the cold, snowy days of January. In the silence of winter afternoons, the plants in the small town of Terebovlya seemed especially distinct. I often walked through haunting groves of silver birch (Betula pendula), white bark against the white snow of fields beyond. Near the school where I worked, two magnificent bigleaf lindens (Tilia platyphyllos) towered like giants among young European hornbeam (Carpinus betulus). However, nothing stood out against the winter gray so much as the bright red fruits of Viburnum opulus, a plant that Ukrainians have long praised in song, poem, and prose as a visceral symbol of beauty and identity. Native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa, Viburnum opulus is a multi-stemmed deciduous shrub. It has a rounded growth habit and can grow up to 5 meters (16 feet) tall. Although it is known as kalyna in Ukrainian, Western Europeans often call it the guelder rose, so-named for a region of the Netherlands where the popular \"snowball tree\" cultivar supposedly originated. In North America, Viburnum opulus is called European cranberrybush, because of its tart, cranberry-like red fruits, despite the fact that it is in the moschatel family (Adoxaceae) and unrelated to the true cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), a member of the rhododendron family (Ericaceae). (European cranberrybush is V. opulus var. opulus; the similar looking American cranberrybush, previously known as V. trilobum, is now known as V. opulus var. americanum.) During the summer months, Viburnum opulus bears three-lobed, dark green leaves, 5 to 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) long and wide. These palmate leaves, which resemble those of some maples, have deeply impressed venation, wrinkled surfaces, and soft undersides. In the autumn, the foliage often turns beautiful hues of red and purple. Red is also the color of the fully ripened berry-like drupes (fleshy, single-seeded fruits), which mature in late fall and can remain on the plant until the following spring. The vibrant fruits hang in dense clusters and, although they are primarily consumed by birds, they are also edible to humans. Tart and bitter until softened by frost, they are nonetheless believed to have medicinal properties, and Ukrainians consume small quantities raw, baked, or in tea to help treat various illnesses. It is also common to see fruit clusters adorning entryways, as well as on traditional Ukrainian embroidered clothing, as symbols of health and fertility. In North America, the beautiful white lacecap inflorescences of Viburnum opulus are often considered the plant's defining aesthetic characteristic. Each cyme is composed of a single ring of large, white petaled, sterile florets on the outside and bunches of smaller fertile florets on the inside. Some cultivars, such as the popular V. opulus `Roseum' produce inflorescences composed of entirely sterile flowers that look like snowballs or pom-poms, leading to the nickname \"snowball tree.\" Another popular cultivar, Viburnum opulus `Xanthocarpum' has the typical flat white corymbs, but produces bright golden yellow fruits instead of red. Earlier this year, I stopped by three Viburnum opulus accessions (352-78*A, C, and E, collected in the wild from the northeast of Denmark) in our Viburnum Collection. Humble looking among their neighbors, it was interesting to reflect that this plant is ubiquitous in small Ukrainian towns and villages where it is proudly planted next to homes. I had the chance to reflect on this again later in October when my wife and I were visiting friends in Ukraine. While there, one of her former colleagues asked where I worked, and I stumbled over describing the Arnold Arboretum and its mission of plant research and conservation. However, when he followed up my explanation by asking whether or not we grew kalyna, I was proud to say yes. Brendan Keegan is a Gardener at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23460","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eb328.jpg","title":"2018-75-3","volume":75,"issue_number":3,"year":2018,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Food, Poison, and Espionage: Mycorrhizal Networks in Action","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25627","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e856b.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":2,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Yih, David","article_content":"Food, Poison, and Espionage: Mycorrhizal Networks in Action David Yih C ROB ROUTLEDGE, SAULT COLLEGE, BUGWOOD.ORG an trees nurse their young? Do plants send out signals underground to warn each other of the arrival of ravenous insects? Can they go on the attack themselves and cripple competing plants with noxious chemicals they deliver through fungal connections? Lately, researchers investigating subterranean fungal networks have come up with surprising answers to questions like these. Their intriguing findings also have game-changing implications for ecology and conservation, forestry and agriculture--even evolutionary theory. Some 90% of terrestrial plant species around the world engage in symbioses called mycorrhizae--from Greek mykos (fungus) and rhiza (root). Mycorrhizal plants come from all corners of the plant kingdom and include trees, forbs, grasses, ferns, clubmosses, and liverworts. Their symbiotic partners (symbionts) are fungi whose threadlike hyphae radiate out into the soil, bringing water and nutrients--including phosphorus, nitrogen, zinc, and copper--back to the plant's roots in exchange for a share of the carbohydrates plants produce through photosynthesis. Though mycorrhizal symbioses range along a continuum from parasitic (on the part of the plant) to mutualistic types, most are mutually beneficial. By themselves, plants can only access nutrients in the immediate vicinity of their feeder roots, and soon exhaust the supply. By associating with fungi, they conserve resources that would have been spent on growing ever larger root systems. In fact, as Smith and Read state categorically in their compendium of all things mycorrhizal, \"Mycorrhizas, not roots, are the chief organs of nutrient uptake by land plants\" (Smith and Read 2008). Subway Lines The native North American orchid, hooded coralroot (Corallorhiza striata), is a mycoheterotroph that relies on mycorrhizal networks for its survival. When compatible mycorrhizal fungi and plants recognize each other and create an interface in the plants' roots for the exchange of nutrients, they can form a variety of structures in and around the roots, depending on the species involved. Broadly speaking, there are two main types: arbuscular mycorrhizae and ectomycorrhizae. Arbuscular mycorrhizae get their name from the classic shape that the fungi take inside root cells, a profusely branching form called MARK BRUNDRETT an arbuscule. As its name suggests, an arbuscule has a miniscule tree- or shrub-like shape. The creation of an arbuscular mycorrhiza begins when chemicals exuded by a plant's roots stimulate a nearby arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus to branch and grow, allowing it to quickly find the roots. Once in contact, the fungus adheres to the root surface and, within a few days, penetrates the root and begins the formation of a mycorrhiza. Inside the root, different arbuscular mycorrhizal structures may develop, This tree-shaped arbuscule within a plant cell is part of an arbuscular mycorrhizal depending on the particular fungus in the genus Glomus. species involved. In 1905, the botanist Ernest-Isidore Gallaud named arbuscular mycorrhizal structures after plant genera he found them in. Arum-type mycorrhizae resemble maps of bus or subway lines: hyphae grow into the space between rows of cells, extending alongside them, like avenues running past city blocks, and making \"stops\" along the way to enter cells and form arbuscules. Though it penetrates a root cell's wall, the fungus remains in what amounts to an antechamber; it never passes through the cell's plasma membrane. Instead, Both coils and small arbuscules can be seen within these root cells of yellow trout this membrane envelops the lily (Erythronium americanum). invading hypha and all of its branches, maximizing the area of mutual conParis type, the fungus forms coils that look like tact. At this interface, plant and fungus estabchaotic loops of strewn intestines. An occalish a sort of marketplace where each partner sional small arbuscule may branch off from deposits nutrients and trades them for nutrients a coil, but the Paris-type mycorrhiza lacks a deposited by the other. straight \"subway line\" traveling alongside the Gallaud named the other main form of arbuscells. Instead, a coiling hypha exits from one cular mycorrhiza the Paris type, after a Eurcell only to enter the adjacent one, where it asian plant genus (a relative of Trillium). In the forms another mass of coils before moving on MARK BRUNDRETT Mycorrhizal Networks 3 MARK BRUNDRETT to the next cell--definitely not the express train! Arbuscular mycorrhizae have been around for a long time. Researchers have found arbuscules in fossils of Aglaophyton, an extinct genus of pre-vascular plant, dating from around 410 million years ago, in the Devonian Period. In fact, most scientists agree that the first plants to colonize the land were symbiotic organisms containing structures very similar to arbuscular mycorrhizae (Smith and Read 2008). Ectomycorrhizal roots of a container-grown conifer. Given their lengthy tenure on the planet, it's not surprising that arbuscular mycorrhizae occur in nearly all species of herbaceous plants and in most trees and shrubs. But the other main mycorrhizal type--the ectomycorrhiza (going back a mere 50 million years)--is also extremely important. While only about 3% of seed plants are ectomycorrhizal, they occupy large expanses of the earth's terrestrial surface. Almost all are woody plants, and they include forest trees that are the world's main sources of timber, such as pines. Starting alphabetically, Abies, Acer, The Hartig net of an ectomycorrhizal fungus extends among poplar (Populus) root cells. Alnus, Betula, Carpinus, and grows between the outer layers of the root's Corylus are a few of the eastern North American genera containing at least one ectomycorcells. Another difference involves the relative rhizal species. numbers of associated fungus species. Despite Ectomycorrhizae differ from arbuscular the vast numbers of arbuscular mycorrhizal mycorrhizae in several other ways. Unlike plant species, their fungal symbionts consist arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, ectomycorrhizal of only about 150 species, all in the division fungi mostly do not penetrate root cells, hence Glomeromycota. Inversely, a more diverse their designation as \"ecto-\" meaning \"outer\" group of about 5,000 to 6,000 fungus species or \"external.\" The hallmarks of an ectomyform ectomycorrhizal associations. And while corrhiza are the fungal sheath, which encloses all arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi are microscopic and subterranean, many ectomycorthe root tip in a dense mass of hyphae, and the rhizal fungi develop large fruiting bodies that Hartig net, a labyrinthine hyphal network that ROBERT L. ANDERSON, USDA FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD.ORG 4 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 Mycorrhizal Networks 5 occur either above or below ground. Those that appear above ground include many common woodland mushrooms, while the most notable of the underground-fruiting ectomycorrhizal fungi belong to the genus Tuber, best known for its fruiting bodies, truffles. Sharing Food We can visualize a mycorrhiza as a simple oneto-one relationship between an individual plant and an individual fungus. But in nature the picture is more complex. As the threadlike hypha of a mycorrhizal fungus extends outward from a plant's roots, it frequently encounters the roots of other plants of the same or different species. It may form mycorrhizae with these new partners, while still maintaining its connection with the first plant. As it proliferates in new directions, the hypha branches and fuses repeatedly, weaving a fungal net through the surrounding soil. Meanwhile, additional fungi of the same or different species may approach the first plant. If they're compatible, the plant is apt to form mycorrhizae with them, too. Soon a diverse association appears, composed of various fungi and various plant species, big and small, all connected into a sizeable mycorrhizal network that may span hundreds of hectares of forest (Gorzelak et al. 2015). The promiscuous nature of these associations of multiple plant and fungus species has prompted scientists to give their papers playful titles like: \"Changing partners in the dark,\" \"Mycorrhizal networks: des liaisons dangereuses,\" and \"Architecture of the wood-wide web.\" Mycorrhizal networks are highly efficient at procuring essential plant nutrients from the soil while the plant partner provides the carbon that fungi require. But the carbon doesn't stop there. It's long been known that certain nonphotosynthetic, parasitic plants, called mycoheterotrophs, depend on carbon shuttled from photosynthesizing plants via mycorrhizal fungi (see next page). The seeds of most mycoheterotrophs are tiny \"dust seeds,\" consisting of only a few cells and little or no endosperm to supply the germinating plant with food. Thus, these species depend upon mycorrhizal fungi for their survival. The orchids, perhaps the largest family in the plant kingdom, depend entirely on carbon received via mycorrhizal fungi for successful seed germination and early development. Experiments have shown that certain green orchids can convey carbon back to their associated fungi once they reach maturity. Thus, they partake in mutualisms that are offset in time, like borrowers repaying a loan. But \"full mycoheterotrophs\" (including some orchids) depend, throughout their lives, on carbon received through mycorrhizal networks, apparently without benefit to the fungus. In recent years investigators have discovered that mycorrhizal networks can distribute resources in much more flexible ways than previously thought, sending them in the direction of greatest need in response to changing conditions, in a seasonal tide-like flux. Researchers at Laval University in Quebec found evidence that carbon moved via mycorrhizal networks from yellow trout lilies (Erythronium americanum) to young sugar maples (Acer saccharum) as the maples' leaves unfurled in spring, and then back to the trout lilies in the fall during rapid trout lily root growth (Lerat et al. 2002). The direction of carbon flow can reverse even more frequently. University of British Columbia researchers reported that the flow of carbon changed direction not once but twice in the course of a growing season. In the spring, carbon traveled from Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) to paper birch (Betula papyrifera) as its buds resumed growth. In the summer, carbon flowed from heavily photosynthesizing paper birch into stressed Douglas-fir in the understory. And in the fall, it flowed from stillphotosynthesizing Douglas-fir into paper birch as it shed its leaves (Simard et al. 2012). Other resources besides carbon can change direction too. Though water typically flows from mycorrhizal fungi into the roots of their plant symbionts, under extreme conditions it can go the other way. In a greenhouse experiment, investigators using dye tracers found that when soil became extremely dry, oaks that were able to access water through their deep taproots transferred water to their mycorrhizal fungi, thus keeping them alive (Querejeta et al. 2003). Plants can even defend their fungal partners from fungivores. A recent study found evidence that when springtails (tiny insect-like Mycoheterotrophs and the Birth of Mycorrhizology The first impetus for the investigations that culminated in the discovery of mycorrhizae in the nineteenth century came from a puzzling group of plants that grew in the gloom of the forest floor. The ghostly apparitions lacked chlorophyll and had only vestigial leaves. Instead of spreading deeply into the soil, their roots tended to be tangles of truncated \"coralloid\" stubs. How did such plants thrive in the darkness? In 1841, when a British entomologist and botanist named Edward Newman decided to publish a new monthly called The Phytologist, he had no idea that a controversy would arise among its pages that would mark the beginning of an entirely new field of inquiry. At the center of the debate was a peculiar plant that Linnaeus had named Monotropa hypopitys (now Hypopitys monotropa, yellow pinesap). With a wide distribution encompassing much of temperate Eurasia and North America, pinesap was one of the most common achlorophyllous plants in Britain, and its odd lack of green color cried out for an explanation. As early as 1821, William Jackson Hooker had posed the question of whether the plant was a parasite. Botanists had long been aware of the existence of parasitic plants, like those in the genus Orobanche, that attached themselves to other plants' roots. But the nature of pinesap's attachment, if any, to other plants' roots was unclear. In 1840, the Austrian botanist Franz Unger had looked at the closely intertwined roots of pinesap and Norway spruce (Picea abies) and concluded that it was not a parasite. A year later, the editor of The Phytologist proposed to its readers that they take up the question. The first response, from Edwin Lees, appeared in the December 1841 issue: the plant was a parasite on beech roots. Two issues later, another contributor came to the opposite conclusion: the plant was not a parasite. Soon more readers joined the fray, and the controversy raged on for months. The one thing the respondents could agree on was that they'd all seen an annoying profusion of mysterious fibers that impeded their attempts to observe any connection between tree roots and pinesap roots. The status of pinesap remained an open question until 1960, when Swedish investigator Erik Bj?rkman used the carbon-14 isotope to trace the movement of carbon into pinesap from nearby trees. Lees had actually hit the mark when he'd written that the strange fibers looked fungal and appeared to be \"imbibing nutriment from the rootlets of beech to which they are closely applied, and conveying it to the succulent radicles of the Monotropa, with which they are also connected.\" Pinesap turned out to be a previously unknown type of parasite that acquires carbohydrates from green plants by connecting to mycorrhizal networks. Scientists have dubbed such plants mycoheterotrophs and speculate that they evolved from photosynthetic mycorrhizal plants adapting to the darkness of the forest floor. Having no requirement for sunlight, most full mycoheterotrophs are subterranean for much of their lives. Some even flower and set seed underground! THOMAS G. BARNES, UNIVERSITY OF KENTUCKY hexapods) browse on mycorrhizal fungi, plants can help by sending protective chemicals into the hyphae (Duhamel et al. 2013). What about the extraordinary idea that plants might be subsidizing their progeny-- essentially nursing them-- using mycorrhizal networks? Though there is no clear evidence that plants can detect their kin through mycorrhizal networks and shuttle nutrients preferentially to offspring, there are hints in that direction. Ferns reproduce in a life cycle that passes through two distinct generations. Spores from the familiar, leafy sporophyte generation ger minate and grow into the tiny, rarely seen gametophyte generation, which, through sexual reproduction, gives rise to the next generation of sporophytes. Researchers working with two species of the fern genus Botrychium found that strains of Glomus (a genus of arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi) maintained mycorrhizae with individuals of both generation types simultaneously, demonstrating the potential for sporophytes to subsidize the Research showed that mycorrhizal networks reversed the movement of carbon between yellow trout lilies (Erythronium americanum) and sugar maples (Acer achlorophyllous gametophytes saccharum) during the year. (Winther and Friedman 2007). about? Like many animal species, plants have Since then, a number of studies have shown that tree seedlings do indeed benefit from a language of danger. In the early 1980s, David resources received from mature trees of the Rhoades, a zoologist interested in the interactions between insect herbivores and plants, same species via mycorrhizal networks, though proposed a novel idea. In the course of his not necessarily to a greater degree than other research with Salix sitchensis, he had noticed plants in the network. that defensive changes in the leaf chemistry of Notes from the Underground willows being chewed on by tent caterpillars The hustle and bustle of mycorrhizal netalso showed up in the leaves of nearby plants, works becomes even more intriguing as we even though they had not yet been attacked. look beyond resource sharing to the remarkHe speculated that the neighboring plants must able communication functions of mycorrhihave detected airborne molecules emanating zal networks. What do plants need to talk from either the attacked plants or the tent cat- JOSEPH O'BRIEN, USDA FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD.ORG Mycorrhizal Networks 7 8 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 erpillars, prompting them to deploy protective chemicals preemptively (Rhoades 1983). Subsequent research confirmed Rhoades' suspicion-- plants being attacked by herbivores can release volatile organic compounds into the air that induce defensive responses in nearby plants. And recent experiments have shown that such \"stress signals\" can also be transmitted through mycorrhizal networks. Researchers at South China Agricultural University inoculated tomato plants with the fungal pathogen Alternaria solani, the cause of early blight disease in tomatoes and potatoes, and became the first to demonstrate that mycorrhizal networks can act as plant-to-plant communication conduits. They found that the uninfected tomato plants (stress-signal receivers) in the mycorrhizal network showed an increase in disease resistance and putative defense-related enzyme activity. They also found that the receiver plants had activated several defense genes. These changes in the receiver plants began within 18 hours of inoculating the donor plants (Song et al. 2010). In 2013, a group of scientists working in the United Kingdom decided to follow up on the fungal pathogen study and see what would happen with insect herbivores. They produced the first experimental evidence that signal molecules from plants infested with aphids travel through mycorrhizal networks to uninfested neighboring plants. Within 24 hours of the arrival of pea aphids (Acyrthosiphon pisum) on broad bean plants (Vicia faba), signals traveling through mycorrhizal networks caused uninfested broad beans to give off volatile compounds. Not only did these compounds repel the aphids, they actually attracted the aphids' natural enemy, the parasitoid wasp Aphidius ervi (Babikova et al. 2013). This interaction apparently benefits all three parties to the network. Being quickly alerted to the threat allows the uninfested beans to deploy their protective volatiles preemptively, thus evading aphid attack. The fungi thereby avoid a potentially catastrophic reduction in the plants' capacity to supply them with carbon. And even the infested beans may benefit: some investigators suggest that stress-signal transmission ensures that signal-donor plants will become engulfed in a large plume of protective volatiles created collectively by the surrounding plants in the network (Barto et al. 2012). In some cases, attacks on plants can simultaneously stimulate both stress signals and nutrient transfers. A recent collaboration between Chinese and Canadian researchers investigated the flow of carbon and stress signals in a mycorrhizal network involving a four-month-old interior Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca), a ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosae), and the ectomycorrhizal fungus, Wilcoxina rehmii. They found that manual defoliation of the young Douglas-fir resulted in a transfer of both defense signals and carbon via mycorrhizal network to the ponderosa pine (Song et al. 2015). Some mycorrhizologists ascribe this result to the fungus throwing in its lot with the healthy pine rather than throwing good money after bad by propping up the struggling Douglasfir. Postulating that the transfers were initiated by the fungus, they write: \"Here, the networking fungus may have acted to protect its net carbon source, by allocating carbon and signals to the healthy, more reliable ponderosa pine\" (Gorzelak et al. 2015). Weapons of Plant Destruction Besides tranferring resources and signals, mycorrhizal networks can extend the reach of the allelochemicals that certain plants produce--toxic substances that inhibit the development of nearby competitors. Thus, \"mycorrhizal networks can serve as couriers for biochemical warfare\" (Gorzelak et al. 2015). A study of the effect of mycorrhizal networks in the transport of the allelochemical juglone, which is exuded by the roots of Juglans species (walnuts) and negatively affects the growth of many plants including rhododendrons, tomatoes, and apples, unequivocally implicated mycorrhizal networks in the dispersal of juglone into the soil (Achatz et al. 2014). In at least one case, instead of helping to spread noxious allelochemicals, mycorrhizal fungi themselves become the victims. Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), a European plant well known as an invasive in eastern North America, is a non-mycorrhizal plant that produces fungicidal allelochemicals. Researchers found that garlic mustard drastically reduced the abil- JOSEPH BERGER, BUGWOOD.ORG Mycorrhizal Networks 9 the West, where Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) is a common native grass. University of Montana researchers estimated that as much as 15% of the above-ground carbon in spotted knapweed plants came from nearby fescue by way of mycorrhizal fungi (Carey et al. 2004). Thus, invasives may exploit mycorrhizal networks to thrive at the expense of neighboring native plants. Networking for the Future ADOLF AND OLUNA CESKA Mycorrhizal networks can transmit warning signals to surrounding plants when pests such as these pea aphids attack. The fruiting bodies of the ectomycorrhizal fungus Wilcoxina rehmii. ity of North American arbuscular mycorrhizal fungal spores to germinate and form mycorrhizae. As a result, American mycorrhizal plants had reduced seed-germination and increased mortality, while non-mycorrhizal plants were unaffected. European arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi and plants were also relatively unaffected, presumably due to their long evolutionary exposure to garlic mustard's allelochemicals (Callaway et al. 2008). Another peculiar relationship between invasives and mycorrhizal networks involves spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe, formerly C. maculosa), which is invasive in many areas and covers over seven million acres in the United States. It's of particular concern in Understanding mycorrhizal networks is evidently important for effective conservation of many species. This is particularly true of mycoheterotrophs, which cannot survive apart from mycorrhizal networks. According to Martin Bidartondo of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, \"myco-heterotrophic plants are excellent indicators of undisturbed forests and forests with old-growth characteristics\" (Bidartondo 2005). It follows that mycoheterotrophs are among the species at greatest risk of extirpation from the clearcutting of forest lands (Moola and Vasseur 2004). Mycoheterotrophs are extremely hostspecific, so their conservation must involve both their particular fungal host species and the green plants that supply carbohydrates as essential habitat components. With the increased resistance to diseases and pests and the better access to water and nutrients that mycorrhizal networks offer, there is increasing recognition of the potential for a new \"Green Revolution\" based on using mycorrhizae in crop fields and forests. Much of the world's agriculture depends upon fertilizer derived from mined rock phosphate, a non-renewable resource that is steadily dwindling. Phosphorus is a crucial plant nutrient that mycorrhizal fungi are particularly good at locating in ordinary soil and funneling back to their plant symbionts. We can lessen our dependence on rock phosphate by finding ways to work with mycorrhizae. Proposed techniques include sowing fallow fields with appropriate mycorrhizal plants to maintain the level of fungal inoculum in the soil between crop rotations, using tilling patterns that minimize disturbance of mycorrhizal fungi, and avoiding the indiscriminate use of fungicides in the soil. Many tree nurseries are finding that inoculat- Garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata) not only crowds out woodland natives but also exudes allelochemicals that negatively affect arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi. EDWARD L. BARNARD, FL DEPT OF AGRICULTURE AND CONSUMER SERVICES, BUGWOOD.ORG ing tree seedlings with appropriate mycorrhizal fungi increases survival both in the nursery and after planting out. In perusing the reports mentioned in this article, I was struck by the various ways investigators conceptualized what they saw happening in mycorrhizal networks. There are large gaps in what is understood about how mycorrhizae operate, and scientists must often use human metaphors as stand-ins to bridge the gaps. One implicit question that kept surfacing was: Who were the doers of the actions taking place in mycorrhizal networks, and what were their \"motives\"? Were plants \"nursing\" their progeny to keep their species going, or were fungi redistributing resources to the young plants with an eye to their own future wellbeing? Were Douglas-firs helping paper birches so as to later receive reciprocal benefits in their hour of need, or were fungi orchestrating the flux of resources, minimizing their risk by diversifying across multiple partner species? Were stress-signal donors \"warning\" receiver plants, or were the receivers \"eavesdropping\" on donors, on the alert for potential trouble? Or were mycorrhizal fungi acting like savvy farmers, apportioning fertilizer and coordinating pest management to maximize long-term yield? Perhaps the answer is \"all of the above,\" because ultimately all the organisms involved tend to strengthen and perpetuate their mutually beneficial networks. Indeed, when all the participants' roles are considered, the network as a whole emerges as a kind of higherorder organism in its own right, fitter than the sum of its parts, a well-ordered social entity capable of surviving the death of any of its individual members. Some scientists argue that the groupings of species involved in mycorrhizal networks are examples of natural selection at the level of the group (Gorzelak et al. 2015). For others, the interesting question is: which is the true driver of evolution--competition or cooperation? The ground-breaking evolutionary theorist Lynn Margulis passionately insisted on the predominant role of symbiosis in evolution. And for evolutionary biologist and author Frank Ryan, the discovery of mycorrhizae was a missed opportunity. He wrote, \"The NANCY ROSE 10 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 The ectomycorrhizal fungus Pisolithus tinctorius readily makes associations with a number of woody plants and is used in plant nurseries to improve seedling growth. Seen here, a young fruiting body (left) and associated mycorrhizal roots on slash pine (Pinus elliottii) seedlings. intimate cooperation between wholly different life forms--plants and fungi--is not only an amazing biological phenomenon but also a vitally important factor in the diversity of plant life on earth. It should have been of enormous interest to evolutionary theorists, Mycorrhizal Networks 11 but ... at the end of the nineteenth century, as the fundamental principles of biology were being hammered into place in laboratories around the world, Darwinian evolution took center stage. And as Darwinism, with its emphasis on competitive struggle, thrived, [mutualistic] symbiosis, its cooperative alter ego, languished in the shadows, derided or dismissed as a novelty\" (Ryan 2002). Perhaps its time is still to come. In the meantime, plants and their mycorrhizal networks offer a fascinating and fruitful field of inquiry on many different levels. References Achatz, M., E. K. Morris, F. M?ller, M. Hilker, and M. C. Rillig. 2014. Soil hyphamediated movement of allelochemicals: arbuscular mycorrhizae extend the bioactive zone of juglone. Functional Ecology 28: 1020?1029. Babikova, Z., L. Gilbert, T. J. A. Bruce, M. Birkett, J. C. Caulfield, C. Woodcock, J. A. Pickett, D. Johnson, and N. van Dam. 2013. Underground signals carried through common mycelial networks warn neighbouring plants of aphid attack. Ecology Letters 16: 835?843. Barto, E. K., J. D. Weidenhamer, D. Cipollini, and M. C. Rillig. 2012. Fungal superhighways: Do common mycorrhizal networks enhance below ground communication? Trends in Plant Science 17: 633?637. Bidartondo, M. I. 2005. The evolutionary ecology of mycoheterotrophy. New Phytologist 167: 335?352. Callaway, R. M., D. Cipollini, K. Barto, G. C. Thelen, S. G. Hallett, D. Prati, K. Stinson, and J. Klironomos. 2008. Novel weapons: invasive plant suppresses fungal mutualists in America but not in its native Europe. Ecology 89: 1043?1055. Carey, E. V., M. J. Marler, and R. M. Callaway. 2004. Mycorrhizae transfer carbon from a native grass to an invasive weed: evidence from stable isotopes and physiology. Plant Ecology 172: 133?141. Duhamel, M., R. Pel, A. Ooms, H. B?cking, J. Jansa, J. Ellers, N. M. van Straalen, T. Wouda, P. Vandenkoornhuyse, and E. T. Kiers. 2013. Do fungivores trigger the transfer of protective metabolites from host plants to arbuscular mycorrhizal hyphae? Ecology 94: 2019?2029. Gorzelak, M. A., A. K. Asay, B. J. Pickles, and S. W. Simard. 2015. Inter-plant communication through mycorrhizal networks mediates complex adaptive behaviour in plant communities. AoB Plants 7. Lerat, S., R. Gauci, J. G. Catford, H. Vierheilig, Y. Pich?, and L. Lapointe. 2002. C14 transfer between the spring ephemeral Erythronium americanum and sugar maple saplings via arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi in natural stands. Oecologia 132: 181?187. Moola, F. M. and L. Vasseur. 2004. Recovery of late-seral vascular plants in a chronosequence of postclearcut forest stands in coastal Nova Scotia, Canada. Plant Ecology 172: 183?197. Querejeta, J. F., L.M. Egerton-Warburton, and M.F. Allen. 2003. Direct nocturnal water transfer from oaks to their mycorrhizal symbionts during severe soil drying. Oecologia 134: 55?64. Rhoades, D. F. 1983. Responses of alder and willow to attack by tent caterpillars and webworms: evidence for pheromonal sensitivity of willows. In: Plant Resistance to Insects: Based on a symposium sponsored by the ACS Division of Pesticide Chemistry at the 183rd Meeting of the American Chemical Society, Las Vegas, Nevada, March 28?April 2, 1982, ed. Paul Hedin. ACS Symposium Series number 208. pp. 55?68. American Chemical Society. Ryan, F. 2002. Darwin's Blind Spot: Evolution Beyond Natural Selection. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. Simard, S. W., K. J. Beiler, M. A. Bingham, J. R. Deslippe, L. J. Philip, and F. P. Teste. 2012. Mycorrhizal networks: mechanisms, ecology and modelling. Fungal Biology Reviews 26: 39?60. Smith, S. E. and D. J. Read. 2008. Mycorrhizal Symbiosis, third edition. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Academic Press. Song, Y. Y., R. S. Zeng, J. F. Xu, J. Li , X. Shen, and W. G. Yihdego. 2010. Interplant communication of tomato plants through underground common mycorrhizal networks. PLoS ONE 5(10): e13324. Song, Y. Y., S. W. Simard, A. Carroll, W. W. Mohn, and R. S. Zeng. 2015. Defoliation of interior Douglas-fir elicits carbon transfer and stress signalling to ponderosa pine neighbors through ectomycorrhizal networks. Scientific Reports 5, Article no. 8495. Winther, J. L. and W. E. Friedman. 2007. Arbuscular mycor rhizal symbionts in Botr ychium (Ophioglossaceae). American Journal of Botany 94: 1248?1255. David Yih is president of the Connecticut Botanical Society. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ernest Jesse Palmer and Charles Sprague Sargent: A Serendipitous Relationship","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25626","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e8526.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":2,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Theodore W.","article_content":"Ernest Jesse Palmer and Charles Sprague Sargent: A Serendipitous Relationship Theodore W. Palmer Ernest Jesse Palmer (1875?1962) was a highly accomplished plant collector, botanical taxonomist, and naturalist. He was employed by the Arnold Arboretum from 1913 to 1948 and, during the latter part of his tenure, lived with his family in the old farm house on Centre Street (near the Arboretum's current greenhouses). In this article, Palmer's son, Theodore W. Palmer, explains the unlikely circumstances that made this exceptional career possible. E rnest Jesse Palmer was born in England but came to the United States when he was three years old, his family first settling in west central Missouri. From early childhood Palmer had a strong interest in natural history, an interest that was encouraged by his parents who were surprisingly well informed on many subjects although they had no significant formal education. However, when his father lost the ability to work in his midfifties, Palmer's free time and chances for his own formal education were severely restricted as he became the main source of support for his family at the age of eleven. After the family moved in 1891 to the lead and zinc mining boom town of Webb City, in southwestern Missouri, he concentrated his natural history interest on the Carboniferous age marine fossils which were abundant in the mine tailing piles. Charles Sprague Sargent (1841?1927), founding director of the Arnold Arboretum, was the person mainly responsible for directing Palmer's career to botany. Palmer and Sargent first became aware of each other through the botanist Benjamin Franklin Bush (1858?1937). Bush had started collecting plants for Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum around 1899, after several years of doing the same for the Missouri Botanical Garden. In his obituary of Bush, Palmer wrote that in 1900 he read Bush's 1894 paper: In the introduction the author requested that teachers, horticulturists, or anyone interested in the woody plants of the state, send specimens to him for identification, for the purpose of bringing about a better knowledge of the flora of the state and of the distribution of the trees and shrubs. Finding many plants unknown to me, I decided to take advantage of this opportunity, and mailed a small package of twigs and leaves to him. Bush identified botanical specimens for Palmer over several months, and arranged to visit the next year in April. He stayed with the Palmers for nearly a week and left a supply of driers for the crude plant press Palmer had constructed. After that, Bush visited Palmer repeatedly in Webb City. Palmer sent his first specimens, some hawthorn (Crataegus) fruits, to Sargent in November 1901. His first attempt at shipment failed, however, as Sargent wrote to say that \"many of the paper packages inside the bag broke open in transit so that the fruit was mixed. In future the fruit should be put in separate cloth bags.\" No doubt numbers of inept people sent such packages to the Arboretum. But Palmer corrected the matter with a second box of specimens and received the following praise from Sargent: I have your letter of the 18th and also your box of specimens. These are excellent and you have been very successful in drying them, for Crataegus is one of the most difficult of all genera to handle for the herbarium. I hope you realize how greatly I am indebted to you for your assistance in this investigation. When the spring opens I COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR COURTESY OF PRAIRIE MOON NURSERY ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Ernest Jesse Palmer (behind horse) in 1895, ready to deliver groceries with a horse-drawn wagon, one of many jobs he worked as a way of supporting his family. Bush's poppy mallow (Callirhoe bushii), a herbaceous perennial native to Missouri, Kansas, Arkansas, and Oklahoma, was named in honor of botanist Benjamin Franklin Bush. Charles Sprague Sargent in the Arboretum collections, photographed in 1907. HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA 14 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 In his book Trees and Shrubs: Illustrations of new and little known ligneous plants (Volume 2, page 67), Sargent notes that he had botanized with Palmer near Webb City on October 2, 1901, finding the type specimen of Crataegus aspera (now known as C. pruinosa). Seen here is one of the specimens of C. aspera collected by Sargent that day. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY, MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN Ernest Jesse Palmer 15 and Shrubs, Volume I, p. 57, where he wrote: This handsome tree of the Crusgalli Group, one of the largest and most symmetrical of American Thorns, is named for its discover, Mr. E. J. Palmer, of Webb City, who has carefully collected and studied Crataegus in southwestern Missouri, where the genus is represented by a large number of interesting forms, of which several are still undescribed. Perhaps Palmer's early success was not particularly remarkable--Crataegus in southwest Missouri was widespread and varied. On the other hand, Palmer was able rather soon to distinguish the interesting from the commonplace, and therein lies the genius of any good collector. Thus began a correspondence that was eventually to change Palmer's life profoundly. During the next several years, until 1907, the letters were sporadic. These were the years during which Palmer was building his taxonomic skills as well as pursuing his many other interests in natural history--all while also supporting his family with multiple jobs, starting with delivering heavy loads with his father's horse and wagon in his teenage years to being chief bookkeeper for a local oil company. A drawing of Crataegus palmeri (now known as C. reverchonii var. palmIt is obvious that Sargent valued eri) from Sargent's Trees and Shrubs: illustrations of new or little known Palmer's work on his favorite subligneous plants, Plate 29. ject, Crataegus. Palmer was eager to hope that you will be full of enthusiasm please all his correspondents as can be seen in his correspondence with the many small-time and ready for a new campaign, for the field collectors with whom he exchanged specimens. about Webb City is by no means exhausted He did no less for this great man who showed yet. I shall write you later just what it an interest in him. He worked to master Crais desirable to look after in the spring. taegus as well as anyone could. By 1908 one (November 22, 1901) of his more colorful acquaintances, the ReverBy 1903, Sargent had published three new end John Davis of Hannibal, Missouri, wrote, species from Palmer's herbarium specimens: \"Mr. Bush says you know the several species Crataegus palmeri, C. lanuginosa, and C. [of Crataegus] now almost by heart; can sight them afar off, and call them all by name.\" Thus speciosa, naming the first for Palmer in Trees COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR 16 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 The Palmer's house in Webb City, Missouri, which was designed and built by hand from scrap lumber in the mid1890s by E. J. Palmer and his father. Palmer's sister and mother are on the front porch. Palmer had at this early date achieved a local reputation with this confusing genus. Is it, then, surprising that Sargent wanted to hire Palmer to collect for him? On March 25, 1907, Sargent wrote: I now enclose a list of the Crataegus material collected by you or me in your region which has not yet been described. Much of it is incomplete and I very much hope that you may be able to do more work this year on these numbers. Won't you kindly write me what the prospect is and whether there is any chance of your extending your work beyond the immediate neighborhood of Webb City and Carthage? Eureka Springs in Arkansas is evidently a good field as we collected flowers there a good many years ago but have never had any fruit. Joplin, I take to be a rich field and unexplored; indeed I fancy there is no place in southwestern Missouri that you could visit without finding new forms. But Palmer's answer was negative at this time because of his need to support his family. Sargent visited Webb City in the autumn of 1907 and stayed in the Palmer family home, as noted Dutch botanist Hugo de Vries had done in 1904. (The family, who lived in impecunious circumstances, took pride in these visits.) On the visit itself, there is no information. Palmer was then 32 years old, knew his area well, and no doubt Sargent saw a fair sampling of the surrounding countryside. Early in 1908 Sargent again wrote asking Palmer to collect professionally: I have been very much impressed with the carefulness with which you have made collections and observations of Crataegus and your grasp of the genus. I wish you could devote more time to collecting and studying the southern Missouri. Would it be possible for you to make an arrangement with your employers by which you could get off a month in the spring and a month or six weeks in the autumn for this purpose? THE STATE HISTORICAL SOCIETY OF MISSOURI Ernest Jesse Palmer 17 WEBB CITY N OE L A Rand-McNally map, circa 1888, of southwestern Missouri; note the many railway lines, but no roads, that are shown. If this could be done I should be very glad to pay you the salary you now get and, of course, all your expenses. Will you think this over and let me know if it is not possible to make some such arrangement? I should like to think that the Arboretum could employ you continuously for a year or two, at least, in this sort of work, and I was rather in hopes that Professor Trelease [of the Missouri Botanical Garden] would join me in such a scheme but he does not see his way clear to doing so, and single-handed I do not see how we can manage it.... (February 18, 1908) Again Palmer felt unable to do so; he wrote that he couldn't keep his position (as accountant with the Waters-Pierce Oil Company) and still take off so much time. A Growing Partnership By 1910 the relationship between the two men was such that Sargent could ask Palmer to collect very specific specimens, although Palmer would have to go to some trouble to do so. For example, on January 14, 1910, Sargent wrote: I believe you know that curious Hickory which grows at Noel and for which Bush suggested the name of subvillosa. It is one of the minima set but has smooth bark and very broad leaflets. If you know where to find the trees, would it be possible for you to run down to Noel now and get us some winter branchlets showing winter buds, etc. Noel is nearly fifty miles from Webb City and this was before automobiles were common. There was the train, of course. Palmer said in later years that he could not have collected so widely had not the railway and electric railway afforded access to places some distance from Webb City. By this means he could go to the towns of Alba, Joplin, Duenweg, Carthage, and Galena. (In 1918 the line was extended to include Baxter Springs and Pitcher.) The fare was twenty cents round trip to anywhere NANCY ROSE 18 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 In 1902, near Webb City, Missouri, E. J. Palmer collected the seeds from which this cockspur hawthorn (Crataegus crus-galli, accession 12079-A, photo from October 2017) was grown. within a fifty mile radius, and Palmer would take his bicycle along to give him mobility once he reached his destination. In the case under discussion, Palmer did secure the hickory specimen. He would, throughout the remaining years as a collector, go far out of his way to obtain a desired plant for Sargent. In 1911, Sargent urged Palmer again to collect professionally and for a more extended period than the snatched weekends and his annual two week vacation, which had been the only available time previously. The letters speak for themselves: You have a salary, I understand, of $50 a month in your present position and I understood from you that you were rather anxious to get a couple of months next summer to look after some changes and improvements in your house. It has occurred to me that possibly you might be willing to give up your present position for six months, beginning March 1st, and devote March, April, May, June, September, and October to collecting for the Arboretum, taking July and August for your own work. We could offer you the same salary that you have now and of course pay all your traveling expenses. If you can see your way to accepting such an offer, I should want you to go to Texas to look after some Crataegi there in March and then gradually work northward. There are indications in southern Missouri of a large number of still undescribed species of Crataegus of which we have incomplete material. I should be very glad to get these doubtful species cleared up and generally to get as much work done in southern Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Texas as time will permit. I am very anxious to get this work done and I don't know any one so well fitted to do it as yourself, so I hope that I shall get a favorable answer to this letter. (December 20, 1911) ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Ernest Jesse Palmer 19 A sketch by E. J. Palmer of hawthorn (Crataegus) leaves and fruit. And, only a few weeks later: ... My idea is that the proposed field work would take practically all the time from March 1st to December and January unless you wanted, as I had supposed, a couple of months at home in the summer for your work. I hope this arrangement can be made for I feel very strongly the importance of it and that you are the best man for the work. If the proposition I made you does not appear satisfactory, let me know just what you want. I think if possible we ought to decide pretty soon because my idea would be for you to go to Texas early in March and it will take some time to properly lay out the campaign, etc. In any case do not let this thing fall through if there is any possible way of preventing it. (January 11, 1912) Another negative answer from Palmer prompted this reply by Sargent: I am very much disappointed at your inability to devote the summer to botany and I am still in hopes that some arrangement may be made. The situation is this. We have indications of a large number of new species of trees and shrubs in southern Missouri, Arkansas, and eastern Texas. To collect these intelligently it is necessary that the collector should be in a position to visit the localities in the spring and autumn. Bush cannot be depended on for this as he is often tied up by his business. The result of this in the past has been that we have hundreds of incomplete specimens. I do not see why, if you want to take up botany, you cannot have summer employment for three or four years at least, and possibly make as much or more than you do now with the possibility that this work might lead to something better in the future. Of course if you collected for the Arboretum you could at the same time do what Bush 20 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 A New Genus BRENT BAKER, ARKANSAS NATURAL HERITAGE COMMISSION In 1913 Palmer collected an unknown plant in Jasper County, of which Bush wrote, \"Do not send out any of No. 3921, and if you have any more of it, please send me all of it until I can get it described ... This is a new genus to be known as Geolobium minimum ... I have found many new species, but never a new genus, and a genus so peculiarly situated, with no known relative, no known family to receive it.\" The name Geolobium was dropped in favor of Geocarpon and the plant was described by Kenneth Kent Mackenzie (to whom Bush apparently sent it for identification) in 1914. Mackenzie placed it in Aizoaceae, the fig-marigold or ice plant family, but it was changed much later to Caryophyllaceae, the pink family. Incidentally, it appeared that at least some of Palmer's botanical employers were annoyed that the description of the plant had fallen to Mackenzie, who was a lawyer and amateur botanist allied with the New York Botanical Garden. His connection with Palmer was an indirect one through Bush. While the United States had been a gold mine of new genera for a few hundred years, by 1913 a new genus was fairly uncommon (among phanerogams, certainly) and to have one get away to another institution hurt more than a little. Geocarpon minimum is a tiny (less than 2 inches [5 centimeters] tall), fleshy plant that grows natively in a limited number of sites in Missouri, Arkansas, Louisiana, and Texas. did, make sets for yourself and sell them with the understanding that they were not to be distributed until the plants had been named. I wish you would give this matter serious consideration for I think it is of the utmost importance to American botany that these collections should be made and I feel sure that the chances for you in advancements in the next few years would be better than what they would seem to me to be if you remain as a clerk in Webb City. Perhaps you can at least tell me what sort of a proposition you might want if you are not satisfied with the one I have made. (February 1, 1912) Bush wrote Palmer in April 1912, after a visit, that he wanted to show Palmer over the collecting ground because it was likely that he would succeed Bush in the field. Bush also wrote, \"You know more about them [Crataegus] than I do or anyone else does for that matter.\" However, Palmer did not yet accept an offer from Sargent and in May Sargent wrote, \"I am still most anxious that you should be connected with the Arboretum as a collector and I shall never lose an opportunity of suggesting to you the desirability of your Palmer's saxifrage (Saxifraga palmeri, syn. Micranthes palmeri) is one of several plants named in honor of E. J. Palmer, this species by his colleague accepting my propositions.\" Again, early in 1913, Sargent Benjamin Franklin Bush. This small herbaceous plant grows on rocky sites in open woodlands in Arkansas and Oklahoma. wrote: remain here for a few days at the ArboreI am in a position now to arrange permanent botanical employment for you for a tum.... The sooner you come the better, period of at least three years at a salary for the offer, if you accept it, means the which will be in advance of what you are beginning of work in the early spring ...\" now getting. I think this is a proposition (January 20, 1913) which you ought not to hesitate to accept Palmer's quick negative reply elicited this even if you are tied up in mining ventures, response from Sargent: which you can certainly turn over to some I regret extremely that you do not see your one else. Before deciding either to accept way to taking up botany as a profession. or refuse this offer I want to talk it over I wanted to open a way for you to have a fully with you and I suggest that you come really distinguished career and one that to Boston at once, at my expense, and HENDRIX COLLEGE HERBARIUM Ernest Jesse Palmer 21 22 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES would have paid you better than your present occupation. Mining properties are terribly uncertain and in nine cases out of ten, I am afraid, they lead to loss and disappointment. I had supposed that if you saw your way to accepting my proposition you would make your headquarters in St. Louis, and that your mother and sister would move there where I believe they would find life as comfortable and pleasant as in Webb City. I cannot tell you how disappointed I am at your decision. (January 28, 1913) The farm house at 1090 Centre Street is seen in a black-and-white photograph from the early 1900s and a contemporary view, photographed around 2000 by the author's childhood friend, Henry Alfred Anderson. In a letter from Palmer to Sargent on March 31, 1913, Palmer again declined Sargent's request, though this time he left open the possibility of future work, writing: I am situated just as I was when I wrote you a few weeks ago, and I do not see how it would be possible for me to get away from here at present. I could not leave or dispose of my mining interests at this time without sacrificing all that I have put into them. However, I expect to know within a few months whether I shall realize anything on my investment or not, and it has been chiefly on this account that I have delayed making any change in my plans for the past year. As I am situated in Webb City, with my mother and sister here and some property to look after, I can scarcely see how I could manage to be away altogether. However, I expect to make a change of some sort shortly, but not likely before fall. If there is still an opening in the line you suggest at that time I might be in a position to take advantage of it, but could not possibly do so just now. Ernest Jesse Palmer 23 Moving to Boston It was not until after his mother, Anna Windle Palmer (born 1841) died on April 30, 1920, that Palmer felt free to move to Boston. Finally at 11:00 p.m., April 4, 1921, a cold and rainy night, at age 45, Palmer arrived in Boston. He had never visited an eastern city before and knew only Sargent in the whole of Boston. The next day, Palmer called on Sargent before noon. (That evening he wrote his sister that the $1.50 he paid for a simple breakfast put him \"on the road to bankruptcy.\") The small Arboretum staff (all paid quite modestly) had been looking for an apartment for Palmer when he arrived. The best that they had found was a two-room suite upstairs in the house of the superintendent of the grounds, Christian Van der Voet, some distance from a place to eat. At the Arboretum, Palmer worked six and a half days a week. That half day, Sunday morning, was the most important time since Sargent arrived usually before 8 a.m. (and therefore so did Palmer). They enjoyed working together for a relatively uninterrupted few hours. Generally no one else was there on Sunday to consult the great professor. Every day Palmer rose in the morning about 5:30 a.m., spending about an hour before going out for breakfast. Then he worked until 12:30 or 1:00 p.m. when he had a small lunch at a food stand near the Arboretum. After dinner at a restaurant, he took an evening's walk, bought the newspaper, and went home to read. When the weather per mitted, on his after noon off, Palmer explored Boston on foot. (Besides relishing the exercise, Palmer deplored the high price of a trolley ride: ten cents.) Through the years Palmer continued to go on plant collecting expeditions as well as working in the Arboretum's collections and herbarium, and writing extensively on plants and other natural history topics, including the Native American artifacts he collected on the grounds. Sargent's death in March 1927 was very distressing for Palmer. He had lost a friend and mentor and then, as of April 30 that year, Ernest Henry Wilson terminated Palmer's job, purportedly as a cost cutting measure (by Wilson's estimation the Arboretum was $120,000-- nearly 1.7 million in today's dollars--in debt at the time of Sargent's death). Harvard botanist Oakes Ames (1874?1950) was appointed Supervisor of the Arboretum in June 1927, and COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR His resistance was fading, however, and he wrote to Sargent on June 20, 1913, \"While it would be more advantageous to me in my present financial circumstances to retain my present position until spring I scarcely feel that I should put you off any longer if you feel that the work to be done this year is urgent, and I am to undertake it.\" He finally began working as a collector for the Arnold Arboretum and Missouri Botanical Garden later that year. The death of his father on September 17, 1911, after a long illness, probably made this easier. E. J. Palmer, at age 78, putting plants in a herbarium press while out botanizing, which he did regularly long after retirement. 24 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES servants often also enjoy proving that they can get along well on their own in primitive situations. Palmer officially retired from the Arboretum around midsummer in 1947, but returned to work in the herbarium from September of that year until early summer 1948. Palmer and his family then moved back to the family home in Webb City, Missouri. He continued to work on botany and other natural history interests seven days a week, despite declining eyesight. On his death bed, he dictated the last few words of a botanical article about his beloved Ozark forest to his wife, Elizabeth. He died hours later, on February 25, 1962. Palmer published more than 100 botanical papers in his career. Academic writing was not his only forte, though-- in 1958, Elizabeth gathered seventy-six of her husband's poems, the result of his lifelong love of poetry, and published them in a volume titled Gathered Leaves, Green, Gold and Sere. Acknowledgements E. J. Palmer reading his poetry book, Gathered Leaves, Green, Gold and Sere, at home in Missouri. Wilson was appointed Keeper at about the same time. Ames and Palmer had already established a good relationship and with Ames now as Supervisor, Palmer was rehired by 1928. In 1930, at age 55, Palmer married Elizabeth McDougal, a bacteriologist at the Massachusetts State Laboratory, which is located to the east of the Arboretum. They had three children--my brother, sister, and me. Ames arranged for the family to live in the house at 1090 Centre Street, owned by Harvard University but adjacent to and controlled by the Arboretum. My father's stories when I was a young child left no doubt that he and Sargent had greatly enjoyed each other's company. Throughout his career Sargent managed to enlist a number of people down on their luck in a variety of ways to become part of his \"band of brothers\" and sisters. During Palmer's collecting years, Sargent repeatedly made arrangements to spend a few days with him in the field. Wealthy men like Sargent who enjoy the luxury of many My wife, Laramie Palmer, began writing a Master's thesis on my father for the University of Kansas in 1970. I have freely used her extensive but unfinished manuscript for this article and in a biography I hope to publish commercially in which she is acknowledged as co-author. She should be recognized as co-author here, but I wanted to be able to say \"my father.\" The many letters between Sargent and Palmer are in the Arnold Arboretum Archives. Palmer kept copies also and my family donated them to the State Historical Society of Missouri. I have received permission from both institutions to quote from the letters. Bibliography Bush, B. F. 1895. A list of the trees, shrubs, and vines of Missouri. Missouri Horticultural Society Report, pp. 353?393. Kobuski, C. E. Ernest Jesse Palmer, 1875?1962. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 43: 351?358. Palmer, E. J. 1937. Benjamin Franklin Bush. American Midland Naturalist 18(3): 1?6. Sargent, C. S. 1905. Trees and Shrubs: Illustrations of new and little known ligneous plants. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company. Theodore W. Palmer is Emeritus Professor of Mathematics at the University of Oregon and one of the founders of Mount Pisgah Arboretum near Eugene, Oregon. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Fungi to Forests: The Tale of Tropical Tree Diversity","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25626","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e8526.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":2,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Krishnadas, Meghna","article_content":"From Fungi to Forests: The Tale of Tropical Tree Diversity Meghna Krishnadas T in close proximity? It appears that the answer might partly lie in plant pathogens (MullerLandau 2014). How pathogens regulate the diversity of trees is a remarkable ecological tale. But, to better understand this story, we need to make a short trip down a path of scientific hypotheses. Many ideas have been posited to explain the conundrum of how multiple species coexist at relatively small spatial scales to generate diversity. Broadly, diversity can stem from mechanisms classified as stochastic or deterministic. Simply put, stochastic mechanisms are happenstance. ALL PHOTOS BY ARUN KUMAR AND MEGHNA KRISHNADAS hink biodiversity and a tropical rainforest might come to mind. Wet tropical forests, the most species-rich ecosystems on earth, are estimated to support nearly half of all known terrestrial species. Trees are a particularly diverse group of organisms in wet tropical forests and some regions like the Amazon can host over 1,000 different tree species in a single hectare of forest. Ecologists have long pondered the mechanisms underlying such astounding variety (Wright 2002). How do so many organisms of such similar, albeit simple, requirements coexist in such diversity Forest fragmentation creates edges, and edge effects occur when differences in habitat conditions in relation to distance from edge also change ecological communities. 26 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 The Natural History of Natural Enemies Predators and pathogens regulating population numbers of their prey or host is a well-known concept in a variety of ecosystems. In rivers, lakes, seas, or forests, predators keep consumer numbers in check. As with larger animals, predators of seeds and seedlings also exert a topdown effect on plant populations, and wet tropical forests are home to a variety of insects and fungi that kill seeds and seedlings. The forest understory provides especially conGerminating seed of Drypetes oblongifolia, an evergreen tree native to the ducive settings for fungi. Thriving in Western Ghats in southern India. the wet, dark forest floor, soil fungi infect seeds and seedlings, thus regulating their numbers. In a surprising twist, however, by keeping down the numbers of their hosts, plant predators allow other species to persist, thus promoting diversity of plant communities. Pathogens act in a manner termed \"negatively density dependent.\" Negative density dependence just means that an individual plant is more likely to be infected by its pathogen when in the vicinity of its own kind, i.e., other individuals of the same or closely related plant species (Freckleton and Lewis 2006). Just as human diseases spread more Seeds being matched to seedlings in the greenhouse. when humans crowd together, Would a seed arrive at a spot? Would a seedincreasing individuals of a single plant species ling be accidentally killed by a falling branch cultivates the soil for the very pathogens that or underfoot a roving deer? In contrast, deterkill the plant's seeds and seedlings. So, when ministic mechanisms, as the term suggests, are a species becomes numerous, its individuals processes that govern species' survival in preare more likely to die, allowing less competidictable ways, such as availability of necessary tive species to persist, leading to a more diverse resources or susceptibility to pests, pathogens, community. and predators (Freckleton and Lewis 2006). Back in 1971, negative density dependence The interaction between plants and their as a mechanism for diversity in multispecies consumers and plants and pathogens has been communities was proposed independently by suggested previously as an important driver Janzen and Connell, for tropical rainforests of plant diversity. Only recently, however, and coral reefs, respectively (Janzen 1971). The have the links between pathogens and plant Janzen-Connell (J-C) hypothesis states that diversity been demonstrated through empiridiversity of a community is maintained in part cal experiments. by the parasites and predators that cull young Tropical Tree Diversity 27 insects and mammalian seed predators, although evidence was mounting that fungal pathogens were also crucial agents of negative density dependence. Notably, no study had explicitly tested whether densitydependent culling by seed and seedling predators actually increased diversity of the plant community. Then in 2014, in a seasonally wet forest in Belize, researchers demonstrated how the plant community changed if the action of insects and fungi was experimentally inhibited using insecticide and fungicide (Bagchi et al. 2014). Without insects, Roads and other linear clearings fragment forests and the resulting edge the community of recruiting seedeffects alter the recruitment dynamics of plant communities. lings was markedly different from the naturally regenerating community. Without fungi, the diversity of seedlings dropped sharply in relation to natural regeneration. Clearly, pathogens drove diversity of the tree community in this neotropical forest. But would insects and fungi play the same role in other closed-canopy forests? Moreover, insect and fungal communities vary with factors like light and moisture--factors that also affect plants directly. How would pathogen impacts on plant diversity and composition change with different habitat conditions brought about from different light and moisture levels? A hard edge where forest abruptly transitions to a field; habitat conditions are Importantly, with environmental very different for seedling establishment here. conditions changing rapidly because progeny, especially where host numbers are of human actions, how would maintenance of high. Specifically, mortality of seeds and seedplant diversity via pathogens change in humanlings of a species will be higher with increasing altered forests (Swinfield et al. 2012)? numbers of that species in a neighborhood (such What Happens When Humans as close to seed-producing adult trees), opening Alter Forests? up these spaces for other species to occupy, thus promoting diversity. We live today in a human-dominated planet. For A recent meta-analysis--an analysis of the food, fuel, and other natural resources, humans net outcome from multiple studies conducted have deforested much of the earth, breaking in different ecosystems--found that overall once-large and contiguous forest into smaller empirical evidence supported the J-C hypothparcels, a process known as forest fragmentaesis (Comita et al. 2014). However, the J-C tion. One of the greatest threats to biodiversity, hypothesis was largely tested in the context of forest fragmentation sets in motion a range of 28 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 ecological processes that alter the dynamics of species' survival in the remnant forests. Long-term research in experimentally and naturally fragmented forests have found that fragments often lose species in predictable ways (Laurence et al. 2011). Edge effects, or altered habitat conditions at forest edges, are strongly associated with changes in fragmented tree communities. At edges and in smaller fragments, slow-growing, dense-wooded, shade-tolerant tree species are lost over time, being replaced by fast-growing, light- Human activities like agriculture are another major cause of forest fragmenloving species. However, while pat- tation and change in ecological communities terns of species' losses are clear, the underlying mechanisms are less well understood (Didham et al. 2012). Hitherto, edge effects have been primarily examined as changes to abiotic conditions--alteration in light, moisture, wind speed, etc., as we move from the forest edge to interior. Because species differ in their ability to survive in different levels of these resources, changes to light or moisture are assumed to alter species survival at different distances from edges. As a consequence, the plant community changes at edges compared to interior forest. Such changes in the tree community have important consequences for ecosysA typical human-dominated tropical landscape where forests exist in a matrix tem functions such as carbon stor- of farms, roads, and human habitations age or nutrient cycling (Chapin et al. 2000). Hence, grasping the mechanisms drivshade-tolerant species are able to come in. ing community-wide changes to trees could Without abundant light, the light-loving species do not have the resources to grow fast and improve management and inform restoration are outcompeted by slower-growing species. of fragmented forests for tree diversity and ecosystem function. Events unfold differently in forest edges. So why are edges dominated by light-wooded, Even after the canopy forms, shade-tolerant early successional tree species? Let us suppose species seem unable to establish at edges. It is that edges behave like giant forest gaps. Lightargued that high light at edges disadvantages loving, fast-growing species often colonize and slow-growing, shade-tolerant species, and fastdominate gaps by exploiting the high resource growing species outcompete them. As a consequence, edges and small fragments, which conditions. But, once the canopy is established are subject to edge effects, remain dominated in a gap, light availability reduces and more Tropical Tree Diversity 29 by light-loving species while shade-tolerant species are unable to regain a foothold. However, it is also possible that this \"arrested succession\" is happening because of changes to pathogen activity. Light-loving species tend to be more susceptible to pathogens than shade-tolerant species, although there are exceptions. While lightloving species might initially increase in areas of high light, their numbers should start coming down when pathogens build up around them over time. Thus, in edges of older fragments, the seedlings of abundant light-loving species should suffer higher mortality from pathogens, opening up that space for shade-tolerant species. However, warmer, drier conditions at edges might reduce pathogen activity, thus diluting the mechanism that prevents one of few species from becoming super abundant. Alternatively, the benefits of high light per se help overcome losses to pathogens for all species. In this case, no species will be much affected by pathogens at edges and controlling pathogen activity would not improve survival of shade-tolerant versus shade-intolerant species. Plant?Pathogen Interactions in Fragmented Forest In a fragmented, human-altered forest, I examined whether and how the influence of pathogens during seedling recruitment (establishment and survival of seedlings) varied with distance to edges. The research site was within the Western Ghats Biodiversity Hotspot in Karnataka state, India. To test whether light alone or a combination of light and pathogens regulated seedling recruitment, I set up groups of seedling plots at increasing distances from the forest edge. Each group consisted of two seed traps and five seedling plots. In each A one-by-one-meter plot where seedlings have been tagged and identified. 30 Arnoldia 75\/2 ? November 2017 Plots were demarcated and labeled at their diagonal ends using PVC pipes, colored ribbons, and a location code. A tagged seedling of Litsea floribunda infected by leaf fungi, resulting in a nectrotic spot. group, one plot each was sprayed with fungicide, insecticide, fungicide plus insecticide, and water, and one plot was retained as control without any spraying. I set up 145 such groups at 15 locations, three groups each at distances of 0, 25, 50, and 100 meters (0, 82, 164, and 328 feet) from the edge, totaling 730 seedling plots. I applied pesticide treatments from November 2015 through November 2016. During this time, seeds falling into the seed traps were recorded twice a month. I conducted censuses for new recruits twice during the year: once at the end of the dry season and then at the end of the wet season after peak recruitment occurred. Preliminary results indicate that seedling diversity reduces when plots are sprayed with fungicide, but only as we move into interior forest. Similarly, turnover of species between seeds that arrive at a spot and seedlings that establish is lowered with fungicides, but only in interior forest. Importantly, the density-dependent effect of fungi and insects appears to be at play only in interior forest. Hence, it appears that the lower diversity of seedlings in plots with pesticides are likely due to a loss of pathogen-mediated mortality of seeds and young seedlings as we move towards the forest edge. Clearly, edge effects are changing some interactions between plants and their pathogens, which in turn appears to be affecting the diversity of the plant community. The Future of Diversity New recruits (seedlings) were censused and tagged twice during the experiments. Uncovering the mechanisms driving diversity remains a fascinating quest. You know you have stumbled upon a rich question when every answer opens up more questions. But, as we slowly piece together bits of the diversity puzzle, we are also changing natural systems at an unprecedented scale. Labeling the \"Anthropocene\" as a valid geological epoch awaits scientific consensus, but few can miss the ubiquitous influence of Tropical Tree Diversity 31 humans on Earth (Corlett 2015). Human actions have wiped out entire species, introduced new plants and animals to places where they were unlikely to reach, changed species' numbers in relation to one another, and altered biological communities in a blink of evolutionary time. Unless we apply some serious course correction, today's biodiversity might stand a bleak chance for tomorrow. Even if we set aside areas of land and water for other species, much of Earth will likely continue to be occupied by Homo sapiens in the near future. One hopes that by understanding the subtle processes that generate diversity, we can better manage the spaces that we share with other species, both for biodiversity and its contribution to human needs. Bibliography Bagchi, R. et al. 2014. Pathogens and insect herbivores drive rainforest plant diversity and composition. Nature 506: 85?88. Corlett, R. T. 2015. The Anthropocene concept in ecology and conservation. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 1?6. doi:10.1016\/j.tree.2014.10.007 Didham, R. K., V. Kapos, and R. M. Ewers. 2012. Rethinking the conceptual foundations of habitat fragmentation research. Oikos 121: 161?170. Freckleton, R. P. and O. T. Lewis. 2006. Pathogens, density dependence and the coexistence of tropical trees. Proceedings of the Royal Society, Biological Sciences 273: 2909?2916. Janzen, D. H. 1971. Seed predation by animals. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 2: 465?492. Laurance, W. F. et al. 2011. The fate of Amazonian forest fragments: A 32-year investigation. Biological Conservation 144: 56?67. Muller-Landau, H. C. 2014. Ecology: plant diversity rooted in pathogens. Nature 506: 44?45. Swinfield, T., O. T. Lewis, R. Bagchi, and R. P. Freckleton. 2012. Consequences of changing rainfall for fungal pathogen-induced mortality in tropical tree seedlings. Ecology and Evolution 2: 1408?1413. Chapin, F. S. et al. 2000. Consequences of changing biodiversity. Nature 405: 234?242. Wright, S. J. 2002. Plant diversity in tropical forests: a review of mechanisms of species coexistence. Oecologia 130: 1?14. Comita, L. S. et al. 2014. Testing predictions of the Janzen-Connell hypothesis: a meta-analysis of experimental evidence for distance- and density-dependent seed and seedling survival. Journal of Ecology 102: 845?856. Meghna Krishnadas is a graduate student in the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and the 2016 recipient of the Arnold Arboretum's Ashton Award for research in Asian tropical forest biology. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICESTATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004?2633. 3. Filing Date: September 29, 2017. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 9. 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I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Nancy Rose, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fraxinus bungeana: An Ash of a Different Color","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25628","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e896f.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":2,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"Fraxinus bungeana: An Ash of a Different Color Anthony S. Aiello F raxinus bungeana, Bunge ash, is a plant that challenges one's preconception of a genus because, unlike other ashes, this Chinese native is a shrub with showy flowers instead of a tree with inconspicuous flowers. It belongs to a group known as the flowering ashes, which includes the better-known F. ornus along with the Asian F. sieboldii and F. chinensis. Its flowers and form are more reminiscent of its oleaceous cousins, Syringa (lilac) and Chionanthus (fringetree), than they are of familiar members of its own genus. This species has been cultivated in botanic gardens since the late 1800s, but has never significantly jumped the fence into general horticulture. Fraxinus bungeana is native to north-central China, where it grows in dry sandy soils and rock crevices. It was first collected by intrepid Russian plant collector Alexander von Bunge in 1831 on one of his explorations of Siberia, Mongolia, and Beijing. It was subsequently given its species name by botanist Alphonse de Candolle in 1844. Additional herbarium records appear throughout the latter half of the eighteenth century, but the first known seed introduction into North America was to the Arnold Arboretum in April 1880 from the Mus?um National d'Histoire Naturelle, in Paris. A second collection was received by the Arboretum in January 1882, from Emil Bretschneider, a physician and botanist who explored the plains and mountains surrounding Beijing. Remarkably, one plant (accession 14625*A) from this collection is still alive, located in the ash collection on the east side of Bussey Hill. As of July 2017, this tree had a height of 12 feet (3.7 meters) and spread of 16 feet (4.9 meters). The next wild collections after Bretschneider's were those of the USDA's explorer, Frank Meyer, who collected seeds in late 1907, again in and around Beijing. As far as can be determined, none of Meyer's plants remain alive. Meyer aptly described it as, \"an ash growing in rocky situations and on steep mountain sides. Attains, apparently, no great size. May be of use as a foresting plant in semiarid regions.\" In light of the spread of emerald ash borer, and as part of recent efforts to increase the diversity of ashes in the United States, collections of F. bungeana seeds were made in 2009 by Kang Wang, Beijing Botanical Garden, in Liaoning, Hebei, and rural Beijing municipality, and the following year by Kang Wang, Michael Dosmann (Arnold Arboretum), and I, near Beijing, as part of the 2010 North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium expedition (collections NACPEC10-039 and NACPEC10-042). Bunge's ash is a large shrub, growing 6 to 15 feet (1.8 to 4.6 meters) tall. The plants from which we collected in China in 2010 were 3 to 6 feet (0.9 to 1.8 meters) tall. As mentioned above, it has small, terminal flower panicles with small white fine-petaled corollas that resemble those of fringetree. Alfred Rehder, in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, described it as a \"distinct species, handsome in bloom.\" This year I noticed seed production for the first time on one plant at the Morris Arboretum. Fall foliage color is at best similar to forsythia, with purple overtones fading to yellow. As with other ashes, Bunge ash prefers full sun, and seems adaptable to a range of soil pH. It clearly can tolerate dry conditions but also thrives in rich soils. It is likely cold hardy through USDA Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20?F [-23.3 to -28.9?C]). Anthony S. Aiello is the Gayle E. Maloney Director of Horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia. Cultivar description: Fraxinus bungeana `Sunflash' Growing plants from seed can result in a great amount of variation, providing the opportunity to select for vigor and health and, occasionally, to find novel plants. This was the case in September 2014 when I first noticed a variegated plant among a group of seedlings from the NACPEC10-042 Fraxinus bungeana collection (Morris Arboretum accession number 2010-213*A). This plant, which has not flowered yet, has a growth rate and habit similar to others collected in 2010, but differs in having leaves that are patterned with a mixture of green, yellow, and cream. This variegation has been consistent since it was first observed and persists throughout the season. We are currently working on propagating this individual for further distribution. Fraxinus bungeana `Sunflash' "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23456","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eab28.jpg","title":"2017-75-2","volume":75,"issue_number":2,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Exudates and Amber: Their Origin and Uses","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25624","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e8128.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":1,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lambert, Joseph B.; Santiago-Blay, Jorge A.","article_content":"Plant Exudates and Amber: Their Origin and Uses Jorge A. Santiago-Blay and Joseph B. Lambert P some other plant pathology. In other instances, such as in typical underground roots, exudate production appears to be part of the typical metabolism of healthy plants that helps stabilize the soil and foster interactions with other organisms around the roots. Different plant tissue types and organs can produce exudates. We have collected resins and gums from the above ground portions of plants, or shoots, as well as from the generally below ground portion of plants, or roots. Root exudation has been known for decades and is respon- ALL PHOTOGRAPHS BY JORGE A. SANTIAGO-BLAY UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED REPRODUCED WITH PERMISSION OF AMERICAN SCIENTIST lants produce and export many different molecules out of their cellular and organismal confines. Some of those chemicals become so abundant that we can see or smell them. The most visible materials oozed by many plants are called \"exudates.\" What are plant exudates? Generally, exudates are carbon-rich materials that many plants produce and release externally. When exudates are produced, they are often sticky to human touch. Such plant chemicals can be the visible expression of attack by bacteria, fungi, herbivores, or Resinous exudates on a conifer. Prolific white, resinous exudation is seen on a tumorlike growth on the trunk of a white pine (Pinus strobus) at the Arnold Arboretum. Blobs of white resin on a relatively young shoot of a Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii, AA accession 11371-O). Plant Exudates and Amber 3 A slab of Great Basin bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) right out of the microwave oven showing extruded (and very hot!) resinous exudates. Microwave heating experiments were performed at the Laboratory of Tree-Ring Research, University of Arizona, Tucson. sible for many of the fascinating relationships in the interface of plant roots and soil microorganisms known as the rhizosphere. Collecting and Analyzing Plant Exudates After receiving collecting permission (if needed), we spend days walking the grounds of botanical gardens and arboreta, or do field work elsewhere. Exudates are easily collected directly from the trees with no harm to the plant and leaving no doubt about their botanical identity. Occasionally we use more forceful methods, such as carefully microwaving wood slabs to extract the exudates, then letting them resolidify. Once the material is collected, we place it in a small plastic zip-top bag. An additional, external bag is used to hold a paper label containing the collection data. If needed, we let the exudate dry slowly in an oven and, once dried, the materials are ready for subsequent analyses. In other instances, generous collaborators send us materials for chemical analyses. Carbon-13 solid state Nuclear Magnetic Resonance spectroscopy (ssNMR) is a stateof-the-art research tool that generates spectra (or chemical signatures) of materials, including plant exudates and amber or greatly fossilized plant resin. The analyses, which use a tiny amount (as little as 50 to 100 milligrams, approximately the volume of a new eraser on a school pencil) of the exudate, are non-destructive. They are performed at Northwestern University (in Evanston, Illinois), one of a few research laboratories in the world with carbon-13 ssNMR capabilities. At times, we observe plants that evidently have produced exudates but the amounts are insufficient for our analyses. Solid exudates are pulverized manually and undergo two sets of carbon-13 ssNMR analyses: normal decoupling, which gathers signals for all carbon atoms, and interrupted decoupling, which, among others, obtains signals from carbons lacking the attached hydrogens. Just like in spectra used in the health-allied sciences, different regions of the spectra provide valuable information (see Figure 1 on page 4). In the case of NMR, the peaks represent different atoms and reflect their molecular environment. The height of the peaks largely represents rela- 4 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 (A) Interrupted Decoupling ? only carbons with strong C-H interactions analyzed Normal Decoupling ? all carbons analyzed C=O bonds as in carboxyls C=C bonds as in alkenes C-O bonds as in sugars C-C bonds as in alkanes 220200180160140120100 80 60 40 20 0 f1 (ppm) (B) Interrupted Decoupling ? only carbons with strong C-H interactions analyzed Normal Decoupling ? all carbons analyzed C=O bonds as in carboxyls C=C bonds as in alkenes C-O bonds as in sugars C-C bonds as in alkanes 220200180160140120100 80 60 40 20 0 (ppm) (C) Interrupted Decoupling ? only carbons with strong C-H interactions analyzed Normal Decoupling ? all carbons analyzed C=O bonds as in carboxyls C=C bonds as in alkenes C-O bonds as in sugars C-C bonds as in alkanes 220200180160140120100 80 60 40 20 0 (ppm) Figure 1. Chemical identity of peaks on a C-13 ssNMR spectra. Panel (A) is a resin, panel (B) is a gum, and panel (C) is a kino (a type of phenolic, often found in Eucalyptus). In all panels, the upper result uses interrupted decoupling, which eliminates peaks representing C-H single bonds. The lower result uses normal decoupling in which all carbon-to-atom bonds are represented. tive abundance of those atoms. The position of the peak along the horizontal axis (parts per million [ppm]) is the resonance frequency characteristic of the atom and its molecular neighborhood. This position is an indication of the chemical identity of the peak as compared to an external molecular reference. In carbon-13 ssNMR, peaks in the 0?80 ppm region are singly bonded carbon atoms (-C-C-), or alkanes; signals within the 80?100 ppm region are single bonded carbon atoms with electron-withdrawing neighbors, in particular, oxygen (C-O), as found in carbohydrates, such as sugars. Currently, we have analyzed over 1,800 exudates of all types, including amber, representing most of the major plant groups worldwide. However, a lot more samples still need to be acquired and analyzed. Types of Plant Exudates Using NMR, we have determined that there are three major types of plant exudates: resins, gums, and phenolics. Resins are made from terpene molecules. The basic molecular unit of terpenes is a five-carbon molecule, known as isoprene (see Figure 2 on page 6). When freshly produced, many resins are sticky and smell like Christmas trees or incense. Resins are insoluble in water and thus do not dissolve during rains. As time passes and the resins begin to \"mature,\" many of their original chemical constituents evaporate. The materials remaining behind in the resin blob form chemical bonds, a process known as polymerization, and the blob begins to harden. With the passage of millennia, the resinous material becomes greatly polymerized and Plant Exudates and Amber 5 Not On the Collection List JOSEPH O'BRIEN, USDA FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD. ORG Not everything that looks like an exudate is an exudate. Some living organisms, particularly fungi, can resemble the kinds of plant exudates we collect. In other instances, the watery--and often foul smelling--material that decomposing portions of plants produce can also resemble exudates. As you may guess, we do not collect those! Clockwise: Some exudate mimics include a cedar-apple rust (Gymnosporangium juniperi-virginianae) fungal fruiting body on Juniperus virginiana; an unidentified fungus growing on a Pinus hwangshanensis (AA accession 68-76-F)--note its superficial similarity to the yellowish color of some resins; a Polyporus fungus on Quercus palustris (AA accession 805-87-A); an exudateresembling, foul smelling material resulting from decomposition by fungi and bacteria on a cut Cornus kousa (AA accession 524-49-D) branch. 6 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 CHIP CLARK, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION CH3 CH2 H2C Figure 2. An isoprene molecule, the building block of resins. CH2OH H C HO CHIP CLARK, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Close-up of resinous flow on the trunk of a pine (Pinus). C H OH C O OH H C C H OH H Figure 3. Model of a glucose, an example of a simple sugar molecule. Chemically linked sugar molecules make up carbohydrates. The carbon bound by two oxygen atoms (arrow) is known as anomeric carbon and is characteristic of sugars. Exudated carbohydrates are known as gums. Latex exudate emanating from a Euphorbia tirucalli stem. evolves into the robust gemstone called amber, produced only by specific plant species. Conifers such as pines (Pinus), firs (Abies), spruces (Picea), larches (Larix), and some other familiar cone-bearing trees in northern latitudes tend to produce resinous exudates. Many angiosperms (flowering plants) also produce resins. The term \"latex\" refers to milky-looking exudates produced by numerous flowering plants, including those in the euphorbia or spurge family (Euphorbiaceae). Latexes can be dangerous to touch, causing dermatitis or other damage, especially to the eyes. Interestingly, all latexes we have examined thus far are resins in suspension. A second type of exudates is known as gums. Gums are large carbohydrates consisting of myriad sugar molecules linked together chemically (see Figure 3 above). Gums do not CHIP CLARK, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION Plant Exudates and Amber 7 Gum produced by a Yoshino cherry (Prunus ? yedoensis) growing near the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C. Reddish phenolic exudates are visible on the trunk of this Eucalyptus sideroxylon. tend to smell because of their low volatility stemming from their high molecular weight. When freshly produced, many gums are spongy to touch because of their high water content. Thus, freshly produced gums dissolve easily during rains. If somehow gums manage to survive and dry out, they can then be very hard to dissolve. However, as far as we are aware, gums are not known to survive millions of years as amber does. Gum exudates tend to be produced by flowering plants; fruit trees in the genus Prunus, including cherries, plums, peaches, and almonds, commonly produce gums. The third major type of exudates is known as phenolics. Phenolics are chemically related to terpenes but form unsaturated ring compounds known as aromatics because of their often-pleasant odor. When freshly produced, phenolics tend to be watery and reddish brown, and lack the strong smell of resins. If they survive dissolution, phenolics tend to form brittle solids. As with gums, we are not aware of phenolics that have survived deep time. Phenolics tend to be common in Eucalyptus and related plants. Combinations of these major types of exudates, such as gum resins, as well as several other minor kinds of exudates are also known. Uses of Plant Exudates In addition to their generally beautiful colors, pleasant aroma, and light weight, resins are water insoluble. These properties make resins, including amber, coveted natural products. Some uses of resins, including amber, include: ceremonial and artistic, as construction materials, ingestive, and, of course, as objects of science because they provide windows into past worlds. Ceremonial and artistic uses Amber, that is, greatly polymerized resin, has been used for ceremonial purposes as well as for objects of trade, jewelry, sculptures, and many other items. Although highly valued in the market, amber varies greatly in color and translucency, from white to black and from translucent PATRICK R. CRAIG CHIP CLARK, NATIONAL MUSEUM OF NATURAL HISTORY, SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION 8 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Earrings made from Columbian copal were treated in an autoclave, which applies heat and pressure, resulting in a color change from yellow to green. NSAA, WIKIMEDIA COMMONS PATRICK R. CRAIG An assortment of typical yellowish amber specimens showing the wide range in color and translucency. PATRICK R. CRAIG A group of typical Baltic amber specimens shows varying color. Specimens of rare Dominican blue amber from the personal collection of Patrick R. Craig. Retsina is a Greek wine traditionally flavored with pine resin. to opaque. Because of this variability, color and translucency on their own are generally not good diagnostic traits for identifying amber. On the other hand, copal (less polymerized resin) and modern resins are still used in some areas of Mexico and Central America for artistic and ceremonial purposes, prized because they smell of incense. Next time you encounter a pine, fir, or spruce tree, look carefully at its bark and you may be able to see some exudate blobs or \"teardrops.\" Pick one of them up and smell it! Pine resin has been used in the preparation of rosin, which is applied to the hairs of bows used to play string instruments such Plant Exudates and Amber 9 Tertiary amber Mesozoic amber Is It Amber or Copal? Amber is greatly fossilized resin. This resinous fossilized material has been found in numerous localities worldwide. The oldest amber has been dated as early as the Carboniferous period, over 300 million years ago. Often, forests whose trees produced resins that eventually became amber tended to be located close to sea level at the time of production. Partially polymerized resin is known as copal, a Nahuatl or Aztec word that means incense. At times, we have seen the term \"semi-amber\" used instead of copal. We recommend avoiding the term \"semi-amber\" because it suggests the material is older than it really is. Although it can be difficult to distinguish copal from resin, a straightforward preliminary way to distinguish between the two is by using a drop of organic chemical such as 95% ethanol or acetone (the solvent used in most nail polish removers). Take a drop of the chemical and place it in a portion of the test sample that has little or no value to the owner. Then touch the wetted portion with the finger. If it feels sticky, the test sample likely is copal; if it does not feel sticky, likely it is amber. We have examined a number of alleged amber samples that turned out to be copal, some of which were in the collections of respectable museums. When finding \"amber\" specimens of potential scientific value, we recommend testing them by physicochemical means, such as nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR) or others, to gain more confidence on the specimen's true nature. 10 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 as the violin (rosin makes the hairs just sticky enough to grip the strings and create sound). ROBERT MAYER Construction materials The metallic transatlantic cable that connected the Old and New Worlds telegraphically during the second half of the nineteenth century was insulated by gutta percha, the resinous exudate of Palaquium gutta, a tropical Southeast Asian tree. The modern aviation and aerospace industry uses human-made, lightweight and strong, synthetic resins and phenolics in building airplanes. Ingestive An old and interesting use of resins is in the preparation of retsina, a Greek wine that is flavored with a little bit of pine resin (typically from Aleppo pine, Pinus halapensis). Gums are also sometimes eaten; in places where the legumiCollecting Competition nous Acacia trees produce copious Interestingly, sometimes birds, such as the types of woodpeckers quantities of gums, these exudates commonly called sapsuckers (genus Sphyrapicus), compete with are used as survival foods when us as they also feed on exudates and leave characteristic holes on other food is scarce. Although it has the surface of some trees. Other birds and some insects are known been alleged that amber has healing to use exudates for nest construction. and other medicinal properties, we are not aware of scientific studies using a double-blind protocol that demonstrate any medicinal properties of amber. A yellow-bellied sapsucker (Sphyrapicus varius) perches on a conifer branch that displays the typical holes created by this and other sapsucker species. Science For reasons that are not known, some forests in the past appear to have produced copious amounts of resins. Although these exudates may have attracted some organisms and repelled others, once small organisms such as insects landed on the sticky material it was difficult to detach from it. When subsequent resin flows covered the specimen it was protected from the action of decomposing organisms and the environment, allowing it to be preserved for a longer time. Subsequent polymerization of the resin preserved a fraction of the resin-entombed organisms, which, when found, now have great value to scientists. Amber encased plant and animal specimens have contributed insights in a number of scientific fields. Amber specimens that contain larger, rarely found organisms (e.g., scorpions, amphibians, lizards, birds) are of great interest and may command great sums of money. How- PATRICK R. CRAIG Plant Exudates and Amber 11 PATRICK R. CRAIG A drosophilid fly trapped in amber. unknown botanical origin, like the resin from the Java Sea wreck, with those in our database. With that information, we were able to suggest that the plant whose resins were harvested back in the thirteenth century was from the botanical family Dipterocarpaceae, and perhaps specifically the genus Shorea. Having an idea of the botanical provenance of archeological artifacts enriches our knowledge of how our predecessors used plants. In this case, research tells us that aromatic resins were an important commodity at the time and were often imported into China for use in Buddhist rituals as well as medicines, lacquers, and perfumes. We will continue to collect and analyze plant exudates from around the world, including amber and copal, as well as materials associated with anthropological artifacts, adding knowledge for future researchers to use. References Kosmowska-Ceranowicz, B. 2015 Infrared spectra atlas of fossil resins, subfossil resins and selected imitations of amber. In: ATLAS, Infrared Spectra of the World's Resins, Holotype Characteristics. pp. 3?213. Warszawa, Polska: Polska Akademia Nauk Muzeum Ziemi w Warszawie. Wood fibers encased in amber. ever, buyer beware, as there are unscrupulous sellers willing to make money from objects that are not genuine amber. Ongoing Research Goals Ultimately, we seek answers to questions because we are curious about nature. Sometimes, our results can help answer a question. For example, along with several other colleagues, including Dr. Lisa Niziolek from the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago, we answered the question: In what plant family was the tree that produced the blocks of resin found in a thirteenth century shipwreck excavated from the Java Sea? Our studies of many plant exudates have generated a large database of their NMR profiles. When we study a sample of unknown botanical provenance, that database allows us to compare the samples of Lambert, J. B., C. E. Shawl, G. O. Poinar, Jr., and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 1999. Classification of modern resins by solid nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Bioorganic Chemistry 27: 409?433. Lambert, J. B., Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2005. Taxonomic and chemical relationships revealed by nuclear magnetic resonance spectra of plant exudates. Journal of Natural Products 68: 635?648. Lambert, J. B., Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2002. Modern and ancient resins from Africa and the Americas. In: Archaeological Chemistry. Materials, Methods, and Meaning. Chapter 6, pp. 64?83. Symposium Series No. 831. K. A. Jakes (Editor). American Chemical Society. Washington, District of Columbia. Lambert, J. B., M. A. Kozminski, C. A. Fahlstrom, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2007. Proton nuclear magnetic resonance characterization of resins from the family Pinaceae. Journal of Natural Products 70(2): 188?195. Lambert, J. B., M. A. Kozminski, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2007. Distinctions among conifer exudates by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Journal of Natural Products 70(8): 1283?1294. 12 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Lambert, J. B., Y. Wu, and M. A. Kozminski, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2007. Characterization of Eucalyptus and chemically related exudates by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Australian Journal of Chemistry 60: 862?870. Lambert, J. B., J. A. Santiago-Blay, and K. B. Anderson. 2008. Chemical signatures of fossilized resins and recent plant exudates. Mini Review. Angewandte Chemie (International Edition) 47: 9608?9616. Also published in German, with the following bibliographic information: Chemischer Fingerabdruck von fossilen Harzen und rezenten Pflanzenexsudaten. Angewandte Chemie 120: 9750?9760. Lambert, J. B, E. A. Heckenbach, Y. Wu, and J. A. SantiagoBlay. 2010. Characterization of plant exudates by principal component and cluster analysis with nuclear magnetic resonance variables. Journal of Natural Products 73(10): 1643?1648. Lambert, J. B., C. Y.?H. Tsai, M. C. Shah, A. E. Hurtley, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2012. Distinguishing amber classes by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Archaeometry 54(2): 332?348. SUZANNE C. SHAFFER Lambert, J. B., C. L. Johnson, E. W. Donnelly, E. A. Heckenbach, Y. Wu, and J. A. SantiagoBlay. 2013. Exudates from the asterids: characterization by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Life: The Excitement of Biology 1(1): 17?52. SUZANNE C. SHAFFER Lambert, J. B., E. R. Heckenbach A. E. Hurtley, Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2009. Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopic characterization of legume exudates. Journal of Natural Products 72: 1028?1035. On the lookout even during vacation, author Jorge A. Santiago-Blay (left) noticed resinous exudates on several lodgepole pines (Pinus contorta) in Yellowstone National Park, including one partially debarked, possibly by American bison (Bison bison) (right). Note the copious exudate production (yellowish color) on the debarked portion of the trunk. Plant Exudates and Amber 13 Lambert, J. B., E. W. Donnelly, E. A. Heckenbach, C. L. Johnson, M. A. Kozminski, Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2013. Molecular classification of t he nat u r a l e xuda t e s of t he r os i ds . Phytochemistry 94: 171?183. Lambert, J. B., A. J. Levy, J. A. Santiago-Blay, and Y. Wu. 2013. NMR characterization of Indonesian amber. Life: The Excitement of Biology 1(3): 136?155. Lambert, J. B., J. A. Santiago-Blay, Y. Wu, and A. J. Levy. 2014. Examination of amber and related materials by nuclear magnetic resonance s p e c t r o s c o p y. M a g n e t i c R e s o n a n c e i n Chemistry (Special Issue on NMR in Cultural Heritage) 53: 2?8. Lambert, J. B., J. A. Santiago-Blay, R. Rodr?guez Ramos, Y. Wu, and A. J. Levy. 2014. Fossilized, semifossilized, and modern resins from the Caribbean Basin and surrounding regions for possible preColumbian Trans-Caribbean cultural contacts. Life: The Excitement of Biology 2(4): 180?209. Lambert, J. B., C. L. Johnson, A. J. Levy, J. A. SantiagoBlay, and Y. Wu. 2015. Molecular classification of exudates from the monocots, magnoliids, and basal eudicots. Life: The Excitement of Biology 3(2): 083?117. Lambert, J. B., J. A. Santiago-Blay, Y. Wu, and A. Levy. 2016. The structure of stantienite. Bulletin for the History of Chemistry 40(2): 86?94. Lambert, J. B., C. L. Johnson, T. M. Nguyen, Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2016. Ferns, cycads, Ginkgo, and Gnetophytes: Nuclear Magnetic Resonance characterization of exudates from exotic plant sources. Life: The Excitement of Biology 4(3): 215?232. https:\/\/blaypublishers. files.wordpress.com\/2016\/11\/lambert-et-al2016-leb-43215-2321.pdf Lambert, J. B. Y. Wu, and J. A. Santiago-Blay. 2016. Highresolution solid-state NMR spectroscopy of cultural organic materials. In: Webb, G. Modern Magnetic Resonance. Second Edition. Springer. Lambert, J. B., A. J. Levy, L. C. Niziolek, G. M. Fienman, P. J. Gayford, J. A. Santiago-Blay, and Y. Wu. 2017. The resinous cargo of a Java Sea shipwreck. Archaeometry. (A paper authored by M. Donahue describing this research was published in The Smithsonian Insider on May 15, 2017. http:\/\/insider.si.edu\/2017\/05\/resin-shipwreckhints-trade-routes-botany-ancient-asia\/ .) Langenheim, J. H. 2003. Plant Resins: Chemistry, Evolution, Ecology, and Ethnobotany. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. Mills, J. S. and R. White, R. 1994. The Organic Chemistry of Museum Objects. Second Edition. Oxford, England: Butterworth-Heineman. Nussinovich, A. 2010. Plant Gum Exudates of the World: Sources, Distribution, Properties, and Applications. Boca Raton, Florida: CRC Press. Rodr?guez Ramos, R., J. Pag?n Jim?nez, J. A. SantiagoBlay, J. B. Lambert, and P. R. Craig. 2013. Some indigenous uses of plants in pre-Columbian Puerto Rico. Life: The Excitement of Biology 1(1): 83?90. Santiago-Blay, J. A., R. L. Hoffman, J. B. Lambert, and Y. Wu. 2003. Cylindroiulus truncorum (Silvestri): a new milliped for Virginia (USA), with natural history observations (Julida: Julidae). Banisteria 20: 62?66. Santiago-Blay, J. A. and J. B. Lambert. 2007. Amber's botanical origins uncovered. American Scientist 95: 150?157. (Reprinted with permission as Aux sources de l'ambre. Pour la Science [French version of Scientific American] June 2007. 356: 70?75. Abstracted by David M. Kondo in the Winter 2007 issue of Gems and Gemology 43: 395.) Santiago-Blay, J. A. and J. B. Lambert. 2010. Legumes and their exudates. Aridus (Bulletin of the Desert Legume Program of the Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum and the University of Arizona) 22(1): 1, 4, 6. Santiago-Blay, J. A. and J. B. Lambert. 2010. Desert plants and their exudates. Desert Plants 26 (1): 1, 3?8. Santiago-Blay, J. A., J. B. Lambert, and P. P. Creasman. 2011. Expanded applications of dendrochronology collections: Collect and save exudates. TreeRing Research 67(1): 67?68. V?vra, N. 2015. Mineral names used for fossil resins, subfossil resins and similar materials. In: ATLAS. Infrared Spectra of the World's Resins ? Holotype Characteristics. pp. 215?280. Warszawa, Polska: Polska Akademia Nauk Muzeum Ziemi w Warszawie. Dedication Author Jorge A. Santiago-Blay dedicates this paper to his mother, ?ngeles Blay S?lomons, who in the early 1980s suggested to him that he pursue the study of \"las resinitas\" (the little resins) as she used to call exudates. Her memory always lives with him. Jorge A. Santiago-Blay is a Resident Research Associate in the Department of Paleobiology at the Smithsonian Institution's National Museum of Natural History in Washington, D.C. (blayj@si.edu). Joseph B. Lambert is Research Professor of Chemistry at Trinity University in San Antonio, Texas , and Clare Hamilton Hall Professor of Chemistry Emeritus, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois (jlambert@northwestern.edu). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Other Order: Sound Walk for an Urban Wild","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25623","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14ebb6f.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":1,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rueb, Teri; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Other Order: Sound Walk for an Urban Wild Peter Del Tredici and Teri Rueb I n urban areas, vegetation that is not planted or maintained by people--including both native and non-native species--typically dominates many different habitats including river and stream banks, highway verges, vacant building lots, infrastructure edges, chain-link fence lines, and random pavement cracks. For most cities, the amount of spontaneous vegetation they support varies inversely with their economic prosperity; cities that have lost the most population and jobs show the highest levels of land abandonment and volunteer plant growth (Del Tredici 2010a, b; Burkholder 2012). How city dwellers respond to the presence of spontaneous vegetation in their midst is influenced by personal preferences as well as by cultural norms. In many European cities, residents' feelings about spontaneous vegetation is divided--some welcome it as a manifestation of unrestrained urban nature while others see it as an indicator of dereliction that should be removed. Such responses have led to the categorization of urban residents as either \"nature lovers\" (a.k.a. wilderness enthusiasts) or \"neat freaks\" (a.k.a. urban devotees). Interestingly, the percentages of people in these categories can vary dramatically from one city to the next in the same country (Keil 2005; Rink 2005; Weber et al. 2014). In an effort to promote a wider appreciation and acceptance of \"urban wilds,\" urban ecologists have recently been attempting to calculate the value of the ecosystem services provided by spontaneous vegetation, especially in cities where the population is shrinking and the amount of vacant land is expanding (Pataki et al. 2011; Burkholder 2012; Robinson and Lundholm 2012). On the positive side, this vegetation contributes to increasing the ecological functionality of the city in terms of storm water management, temperature reduction, carbon sequestration, soil development, and total biodiversity (Kowarik and K?rner 2005; Carroll 2011). Harder to quantify, but nevertheless important, are the opportunities for social, cultural, educational, and nature experiences that spontaneous vegetation provides across the wide array of cultural contexts and sites that characterize most cities (Pfeiffer and Voeks 2008; Daniel et al. 2012; Jorgensen and Keenan 2012). The aesthetics of spontaneous vegetation are usually considered negative given that much of it is perceived as ugly or messy (i.e., lacking ornamental characteristics or possessing an unkempt appearance), and its presence in the landscape is justifiably viewed as projecting an image of neglect (Nassauer and Raskin 2014). In the arena of public health, many people see spontaneous vegetation as providing habitat for animals that are vectors for a number of human pathogens and infectious diseases such as rats, mosquitoes, and ticks (Garvin et al. 2012; Gulachensik et al. 2016). Similarly, the large size that spontaneous urban vegetation can reach in the absence of maintenance is viewed as providing cover for potential criminal activity and thus a threat to public safety. To the extent that urban landscapes dominated by spontaneous urban vegetation are perceived as threatening, they fit within a concept of a \"wilderness\" that is defined as land that exists outside the bounds of human control (Hofmeister 2010; Jorgensen and Keenan 2012; Desimini 2015). In this article we will explore the history of the \"urban wilds\" construct as it developed in Boston, Massachusetts, from its introduction in the mid-1970s through today, and present a case study of one such site, Bussey Brook Meadow at the Arnold Arboretum, to illustrate how multi-faceted urban wilds can be creatively interpreted for the general public utilizing GPS (global positioning system)-based cell phone technology. ALL PHOTOS BY PETER DEL TREDICI UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED Other Order: Sound Walk 15 Urban Wilds in Boston Urban vegetation takes hold in cracks in a neglected swath of asphalt pavement. Pretty wildflowers or invasive weeds? Chicory (Cichorium intybus), yellow sweet clover (Melilotus officinalis), and spotted knapweed (Centaurea stoebe subsp. micranthos) bloom along a city street. Weedy trees take over an abandoned lot in Detroit. In the United States, the idea that unmanaged \"open space\" in cities could perform valuable ecological services was foreshadowed by a movement in the 1970s that categorized such sites as \"urban wilds\" (Tanner 1975; Desimini 2015). In 1976, the Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA), a city planning agency, officially adopted the term when it issued an inventory of Boston's unimproved and unprotected natural areas under the title Boston Urban Wilds. The report--which was partially funded by a grant from the National Endowment for the Arts--was spearheaded by BRA landscape architect Elliot Rhodeside. It identified 143 parcels of land (2,000 total acres) of diverse sizes and ownerships that contained significant \"natural resource value\" but were threatened by on-going development pressure (BRA 1976). Most of the sites had histories of industrial, institutional, or residential use, some dating back to the nineteenth century. Rhodeside left the BRA shortly after the report was published and the work of advocacy, fundraising, and protection for the Boston Urban Wilds project passed to a non-profit organization, the Boston Natural Areas Fund (BNAF), founded in 1977 by Eugenie Beal (the head of the then newly formed Boston Conservation Commission) along with her future husband, John Blackwell. In its early days, BNAF was focused on trying to preserve and protect properties listed in the Urban Wilds report, but over time the emphasis of the organization shifted away from land acquisition to maintenance of already protected properties and coalition building with other nonprofit organizations around issues of public advocacy. In 1988, the Boston 16 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Boston Urban Wilds, a 1976 report from the Boston Redevelopment Authority, identified 143 land parcels in Boston with potential value as preserved natural areas. This copy of the report is in the Arnold Arboretum library. Parks Department officially took over management of the Urban Wilds program which, as of 2014, listed 39 properties in its inventory. The Parks Department currently provides maintenance and logistical support for those properties that are controlled by the city; other properties on the list receive varying levels of maintenance depending on the resources allocated by the organization that controls it (Bird 2014). The original 1976 BRA report described 143 sites that contained some significant \"natural resource value,\" including geological features (68 sites), coastal or fresh water wetlands (20 sites), shorelines (27 sites), or important vegetation (28 sites). It was clearly a simpler time when the meaning of the words nature and natural were not contested and the dichotomy between native and exotic species had yet to emerge as the divisive issue it is today. In the 1970s, urban wilds, regardless of their biological content or cultural history, were viewed as valuable antidotes to blighted, barren cityscapes. By the late-1990s, the original concept of an urban wild became subsumed under the rubric of ecological restoration. This reconceptualization of urban nature--essentially attempting to affix a \"native\" label on it--represented a dramatic reversal of fortune for the non-native organisms that found themselves reclassified as invasive species. Older, less value-driven terms to describe these plants, including weed, pest, naturalized species, garden escapee, volunteer, etc., fell by the wayside and with them an appreciation of their historic connection with the past land use of the site (Del Tredici 2010b). This privileging of native over non-native species has created problems for today's advocates of urban wilds because many of the sites they're striving to protect can no longer be \"restored\" to anything resembling their original ecological condition (Del Tredici 2010a, b; Carroll 2011). Similarly, the ways that some people use minimally maintained urban wilds, including drinking, doing drugs, having sex, painting graffiti, and camping out, has also caused problems for advocates because of complaints from abutting residents and other users. Like it or not, urban wilds are places where human behavior, like the plants and animals that occupy them, can sometimes be out of control (Keil 2005; Thompson 2012). Bussey Brook Meadow Bussey Brook Meadow of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University was listed as an urban wild in the 1976 BRA report. This 25-acre wetland has a documented history of land use going back 350 years when, in 1662, one of the first roads leading southwest out of the city of Boston was constructed along its western edge. This road opened the land up to farmers who drained portions of the property and moved the stream, Bussey Brook, that ran through the middle of it to the periphery. A hundred and forty years later, in 1802, another road was built along its eastern edge, which eventually developed into a railroad line that is still in operation today. Once a stable earthen berm was constructed for the rail line in 1873, Bussey Other Order: Sound Walk 17 Willows and cattails are among the moisture loving plants that thrive in Bussey Brook Meadow. Brook was effectively isolated from the larger, adjacent Stony Brook watershed that drains into the Charles River. Following this, the processes of fragmentation and filling of Bussey Brook Meadow accelerated dramatically, most notably with the installation in 1900 of a 9-foot-diameter, 3,600-foot-long high-level sewer line across the western edge of the property and the construction of an expanded Forest Hills train station to the north in 1909 (Arnold Arboretum). The Arnold Arboretum, through a land purchase from its Harvard University parent, acquired roughly half of the Bussey Brook Meadow parcel in 1919 and constructed Muddy Pond in the middle of the site, a wagon road following the track of the high-level sewer line, and a tree nursery on the site of former agricultural land. All of these activities over a period of seven years resulted in more wetland filling and disruption of surface drainage. In the 1950s, a privately owned esker on the site, composed mainly of sand and gravel, was excavated for construction purposes and replaced between 1955 and 1965 with a 5-acre landfill consisting of construction debris from the demolition of several Boston public schools. In 1971, after an unfortunate incident in which two neighborhood children from a nearby public housing project drowned, Muddy Pond in the center of the Arboretum's portion of the wetland was filled in (Arnold Arboretum). In 1982, the northern end of Bussey Brook Meadow underwent a major transformation when an expansion of the Forest Hills train station was initiated in order to make room for the new Orange Line subway station. As part of this project, a pathway was built along the base of the landfill that linked the new subway station to the South Street gate of the Arboretum. In 1996, through the determined efforts of 18 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 JAY CONNOR Eugenie Beal and John Blackwell and the two non-profit organizations they co-founded (the Boston Natural Areas Fund and the Arboretum Park Conservancy), the deeds to the variously owned parcels of Bussey Brook Meadow were bundled together and added to the Arnold Arboretum's 1882 indenture, thereby achieving permanent protection for the entire 25-acre site. At the same time, grants from federal, state, and city agencies, together with funds generated by the Arboretum Park Conservancy, were used to construct granite entrance gates and upgrade the surface of the main pathway, now christened Blackwell Path. In 2011, the Arboretum, in keeping with its scientific research mission, approved a plan that called for turning Bussey Brook Meadow into a site for long-term environmental monitoring and research on urban ecology. While this meant that most of the land in Bussey Bussey Brook Meadow with Blackwell Path running through it. Brook Meadow would be left alone to follow its own ecological trajectory, the Arboretum made a commitment to manage portions of the site that were heavily used by visitors, including mowing the edges of Blackwell Path regularly, removing hazard trees that threatened public safety, and mowing several meadow areas annually to keep woody vegetation from taking over (Arnold Arboretum). Creating the Other Order Sound Walk Having developed a long-term strategy for the site, the Arboretum still had to contend with issues raised by discordant visitor perceptions of the land. Some saw Bussey Brook Meadow as a \"natural\" counterpoint to the well-maintained landscape of the Arnold Arboretum proper, while others saw it as a haven for invasive species that undermined the Arboretum's moral authority on matters of ecology. It was into this ARNOLD ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Other Order: Sound Walk 19 The 9-foot-diameter sewer line being installed in Bussey Brook Meadow in August 1900. Blackwell Path in Bussey Brook Meadow in summer. breech that the authors of this article stepped in 2012 with a proposal to interpret Bussey Brook Meadow for the general public using a GPSbased sound walk designed for use with a cell phone. The purpose of the proposed app was to illuminate the complex cultural history of Bussey Brook Meadow, to reveal the complex ecological interactions that are currently taking place on the site, and to show some of the ways the site was being used by the general public. The ultimate goal of the project was to try and change how people thought and felt about the site--to help them see that it was not just a chaotic collection of weeds but a dynamic, organized ecological system that reflected cultural A tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) grove on the slopes of the landfill in Bussey Brook Meadow. Ring counts of downed trees indicated that they established themselves on the site in 1965 or 1966, shortly after dumping stopped. values, past land-use history, and future ecological trajectories (Rueb and Del Tredici 2014). The Other Order app took two years to complete and involved a close collaboration between Del Tredici, who provided extensive verbal interpretation of the site in situ, and Rueb, who recorded this material and combined it with field recordings to create a soundscape designed for delivery via a downloadable mobile app. The app uses GPS to track visitors' movements and play the sounds at specific locations in Bussey Brook Meadow as they pass through them. In addition to Del Tredici's monologues on \"cosmopolitan\" vegetation, recordings included dozens of on-site conversations with 20 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Non-native wetland plants growing in Bussey Brook Meadow: common reed (Phragmites australis) in the background, yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus) in the middle, and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea) in the foreground. These species have sorted themselves out across a moisture gradient to form a functional urban wetland. various experts, stakeholders, Arboretum staff, and park visitors including urban ecologists, park advocacy groups, multi-generation urban farmers, landscape architects, dog walkers, commuters, and transient residents. Over twenty hours of ambient field recordings of the environment were also incorporated and used as inspiration for sound compositions evoking, for example, the material layers of the landfill, the interior sounds of the high level sewer pipeline, the leisure activity of past visitors mingled with those of the present, and the wildlife of the meadow. In some places one might find unexpected sounds such as light snoring tucked under a tree-of-heaven grove (Ailanthus altissima) near a concrete overhang, a flute mingling with sounds of laughter in a clearing in the center of the old Arboretum nursery, cows lowing and chickens clucking near the site of the former Bussey farmstead, and the sound of underwater gurgling as captured with hydrophones dropped into Bussey Brook. All of these sounds reference actual and imagined ways in which the meadow has been inhabited over time and the various materials and organisms that make up the complex social, biological, and physical matrix that is Bussey Brook Meadow. Sound regions are arranged throughout the meadow in a manner that allows for a complete experience should visitors constrain their movements solely to Blackwell Path, which takes about twenty minutes to traverse at a leisurely pace. However, additional sound regions Other Order: Sound Walk 21 A wetland in Bussey Brook Meadow consisting of common reed (Phragmites australis), yellow flag iris (Iris pseudacorus), and reed canarygrass (Phalaris arundinacea). are spread throughout the meadow, rewarding the more adventurous and patient with sounds that may be accessed only by leaving the trail behind and following informal footpaths, trails, and tunnels through the dense vegetation. Blackwell Path is an egalitarian corridor that connects the elegant environs of the formal Arboretum with the urban hubbub of the Forest Hills subway station and surrounding neighborhoods. Intervening into this path system represents a critique of conventional parks as much as an invitation to go off the beaten track and explore the wilds held within this \"urban wild.\" Bussey Brook Meadow is a particularly complex social site as it sits somewhere between a managed botanical garden on the one hand, and an interstitial zone where commuters, neighborhood residents, and tourists from all over the world mix with transient populations who are often staying for extended periods of time or returning each year with the milder seasons to regular encampments. A central concern of the work is to communicate a variety of perspectives on place as a means of critically engaging contested meanings, uses, and inhabitations of public sites. Voices in the work range from those of experts who tell us what to look for, what to hear, and what to value in this richly vegetated environment, to those that offer meandering impressions, personal histories, random thoughts, and idiosyncratic perceptions of a place. Animals, wind, weather, and water are equal voices in this mix. Through this blending of voices, the work draws upon the cosmopolitan botany of the site as a central metaphor and a means for JON HETMAN 22 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Peter Del Tredici and Teri Rueb recording conversations in Bussey Brook Meadow. asking probing questions about ownership, access, interpretation, and use of public parks and green spaces. Among the discoveries that stood out for the authors in developing the work and seeing its reception across various audiences was an awareness of the intensity of the experience as visitors were often torn between giving themselves over to immersion in the layered sounds emanating from their headphones and relating them to the complex sights, sounds, and social activities of the site itself. Frequently groups of people would walk together, taking their headphones off at regular intervals to exchange impressions and ask each other if they heard the same thing, and if it was \"in the headphones\" or \"real.\" A surprising number of people seemed willing to bushwhack through the Japanese knotweed and stinging nettles to find a sound buried deep in the meadow or high on top of an embankment. A challenge of sorts, Other Order could be approached as a kind of game where one tries to cover as much territory as possible, to visit each sound in its unique niche, or identify each of the plants and landmarks referenced in the sound composition and included in the project index. Related apps, including \"Alpine Garden Misguide\" by Jill Didur (2015), have successfully used the game structure of an exotic plant hunt to engage critical perspectives on the colonial histories of botanical gardens and specimen collecting. As an educational and informative piece, the authors were happy to discover that Other Order was equally appealing to adults and children, though it is less accessible to audiences with physical disabilities that would limit their movement or ability to listen through headphones. Finally, we found that visitors' appreciation of the botany of urban wilds was enhanced through the experience, but especially in the context of understanding plants in relation to their social entanglements with humans. At its core, the Other Order sound walk is an effort to combine scientific and cultural perspectives on urban ecology in a format that can reach broader publics in non-traditional settings. Bussey Brook Meadow is often mistaken for a derelict parcel of public land--a park of sorts, but with an uneasy appearance when compared to the manicured landscape of the Arboretum grounds or with sections of the Olmsted-designed Emerald Necklace of Boston parks that bear the stamp of formal landscape design. As a public artwork, Other Order is aimed at drawing visitors into the site through a sonic overlay that reveals another kind of beauty--and another perspective on ecological environments that blend the biological, technological, cultural, and social elements. The contrasting aesthetics of urban wilds and more formal parks is brought into focus, revealing a historical moment when each has undergone dramatic shifts in purpose, perception, and public use. Other Order: Sound Walk 23 TERI RUEB A map of Bussey Brook Meadow showing the locations of the fifty-five sound regions that make up Other Order. Herb Nolan, a longtime Arboretum supporter, listening to Other Order. 24 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 NANCY ROSE Other Order is available for free download from the App Store and Google Play Store. Visitors are encouraged to download the app in advance of their visit and wear headphones in order to appreciate the stereo, binaural recordings as they blend with the actual environmental sounds of the meadow. The combination of stereo, binaural recordings with the ambient sounds that surround visitors as they move through the meadow creates an uncanny sense of being simultaneously \"here and now\" and \"there and then\" in the site, further emphasizing the complex temporalities of the meadow, and complicating the emplacement of visitors as situated actors within its operations. Urban vegetation provides autumn color along Blackwell Path in Bussey Brook Meadow. Other Order: Sound Walk 25 Acknowledgements The final work included over two and a half hours of edited sound recordings that were broken into roughly thirty-six different sound regions spread throughout the 25-acre site. Spoken elements included excerpts from conversations with the following Arnold Arboretum staff members: Ned Friedman, Maggie Redfern, Jim Papargiris, Nima Samimi, Susan Hardy Brown, Ailene Ettinger, and Bob Mayer (Arboretum volunteer). From outside the Arboretum the following people were recorded: John Lee, Eugenie Beal, Nina Brown, Lucy Hutyra, Steve Decina, Matthew Battles, Kyle Parry, Anya Yermakova, and Richard, a longtime resident of Bussey Brook Meadow. And finally, thanks to Ernst Karel for help with sound recording. Funding for the development of Other Order was provided by a generous donation from Janine Luke in memory of Melvin Seiden. References Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Bussey Brook Meadow. https:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/ plants\/featuredplants\/bussey-brook-meadow\/ (accessed March 20, 2017). Boston Redevelopment Authority (BRA). 1976. Boston Urban Wilds: A Natural Area Conservation Program. Boston: Boston Redevelopment Authority. Bird, C. J. 2014. Boston's Urban Wilds: The Persistence of an Idea Over Time. Masters Thesis, City Planning, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge Massachusetts. Burkholder, S. 2012. The new ecology of vacancy: rethinking land use in shrinking cities. Sustainability 4: 1154?1172. Carroll, S. P. 2011. Conciliation biology: the ecoevolutionary management of permanently invaded biotic systems. Evolutional Applications 4: 184?199. Daniel, T. C. et al. 2012. Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 109: 8812?8817. Del Tredici, P. 2010a. Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. Del Tredici, P. 2010b. Spontaneous urban vegetation: reflections of change in a globalized world. Nature and Culture 5: 299?315. Desimini, J. 2015. Deciphering the urban wild: remnant and re-emergent. In: A. Berrizbeitia (Ed.), Urban Landscape, pp. 163?170. London: Routledge. Didur, J. 2015. Alpine Garden Misguide, mobile app available on iTunes, June 2015. Jorgensen, A. and R. Keenan (Eds.). 2012. Urban Wildscapes. London: Routledge. Garvin, E., C. Branas, S. Keddem, J. Sellman. 2012. More than just an eyesore: local insights and solutions on vacant land and urban health. Journal of Urban Health 90: 412?426. Gulachenski, A., B. M. Ghersi, A. E. Lesen, and M. J. Blum. 2016. Abandonment, ecological assembly and public health risks in counter-urbanizing cities. Sustainability 8: 491. Keil, A., 2005. Use and perception of post-industrial urban landscapes in the Ruhr. In: I. Kowarik and S. K?rner (Eds.), Wild Urban Woodlands, pp. 117?130. Berlin: Springer. Kowarik, I. and S. K?rner (Eds.). 2005. Wild Urban Woodlands. Springer, Berlin. Hofmeister, S. 2009. Nature running wild: a socialecological perspective on wilderness. Nature and Culture 4(3): 293?315. Nassauer, J. I. and J. Raskin. 2014. Urban vacancy and land use legacies: a frontier for urban ecological research, design, and planning. Landscape and Urban Planning 125: 245?253. Pataki, D. E. et al. 2011. Coupling biogeochemical cycles in urban environments: ecosystem services, green solutions and misconceptions. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9: 27?36. Pfeiffer, J. M. and R. A. Voeks. 2008. Biological invasions and biocultural diversity: linking ecological and cultural systems. Environmental Conservation 35: 281?293 Rink, D. 2005. Surrogate nature or wilderness? Social perceptions and notions of nature in an urban context. In: I. Kowarik and S. K?rner (Eds.) Wild Urban Woodlands, pp. 67?80. Berlin: Springer. Robinson, S. L., and J. T. Lundholm. 2012. Ecosystem services provided by urban spontaneous vegetation. Urban Ecosystems 15: 545?557. Rueb, T. and P. Del Tredici. 2014. Other Order: A Bussey Brook Meadow Sound Walk, Version 1.1 (275 MB). Mobile app commissioned by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University and available on iTunes and Google Play, October 2014. Tanner, O. 1975. Urban Wilds. New York: Time-Life, Inc. Thompson, C. W. 2012. Places to be wild in nature. In: A. Jorgensen and R. Keenan (Eds.), Urban Wildscapes, pp. 49?64. London: Routledge. Weber, F., Kowarik, I., and S?umel, I. 2014. A walk on the wild side: perceptions of roadside vegetation beyond trees. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 13: 205?212. Peter Del Tredici is the former Director of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum and now a Retired Senior Research Scientist. Teri Rueb is a Professor in the Department of Media Study at the University at Buffalo -- State University of New York. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds, and the Ornamentation of Public Parks","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25622","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eb76b.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":1,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds, and the Ornamentation of Public Parks M unicipal parks are the last territory of the decorative gardening tradition of bedding out: the practice of using brightly colored, low-growing flowering and foliage plants in ornamental patterns in beds, mounds, pyramids, floral clocks, commemorative plaques, and threedimensional figures. Arranging plants to create decorative patterns is a convention of garden design from the eighteenth century, found from the parterres de broderie of Versailles to the boxwood fleur de lis of George Washington's Mount Vernon The geometric patterns and colorful flower and foliage plants typical of bedding out garden. But in the nineteenth are seen in this postcard depicting part of Forest Park in Springfield, Massachusetts. century, perhaps as a reaction who doesn't. Bedding out of brightly colored to the long reign of the picturesque model, flowers in artificial situations became part of which favored naturalistic design, bedding out the larger discussion in which popular taste jumped the walls of the aristocratic garden and was defined as bad taste, the highbrow\/lowbrow found a home in public parks on both sides of remnants of that discussion still being argued the Atlantic. The bedding out practice elicited in gardening circles today. Bedding out was the the admiration of the public and the sustained territory of gardeners rather than landscape scorn of many landscape critics. designers, anonymous individuals whose skills A variety of names have been assigned to were admired but whose names are unknown. this practice: carpet bedding, mosaiculture, The great bedding out schemes in public parks pattern gardening, \"gardenesque.\" It is also in American cities were associated with civic called Victorian gardening, an homage to its pride, with a populist enthusiasm for both the popularity in nineteenth century Great Britain, where advances in greenhouse technology intricate floral displays and the intensive labor and the introduction of tropical and subtropical that was needed to both create and maintain species created a new way of displaying flowthem. Horticulture, as well as city beautificaering plants. Bedding out, now the shorthand tion, is inherently competitive. Supported by term, occupies a territory between art and park commissioners and local officials, municipal gardeners were encouraged to expand their craft. It is part of the history of ornamentation as well as the history of gardening. Both floral displays to accommodate the tastes of the embrace the power of serial imagery and the people--\"to show you care.\" creator's virtuosity in creating original forms. Bedding out is temporary and labor intensive--a sink-hole of energy consumption. It is Bedding out evoked heated discussion on the profoundly artificial, appealing most directly to definition of taste: what is it, who has it, and COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR Phyllis Andersen COURTESY OF UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds 27 A color plate in Robert Thompson's The Gardener's Assistant (1878 edition) shows carpet bedding patterns complete with lists of plants to be used. NANCY ROSE 28 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Robinson went on to call bedding out \"pastrymaking.\" The popular and widely published British writer Shirley Hibberd called ribbon beds (long meandering beds with alternating bands of floral color) \"eels in misery.\" Landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted's antipathy to floral display is well known. Writing in 1892 to his associates in Brookline, Massachusetts, about detached floral beds in London parks, he observed \"I have hardly seen anything yet of that kind that did not seem to me childish, vulgar, flaunting, or impertinent, out of place and discordant with good general effect.\" In an article in a 1908 issue of Ladies Home Journal, the writer blamed municipal gardeners for creating \"veritable pimples on the face of Nature.\" The Roots of Bedding Out Brightly colored flowers and foliage along with exotic tropical plants are still a common feature in city parks, such as this streetside planting in Victoria, British Columbia. the senses rather than to the power of reflection or solitary contemplation. It is not a simulacrum of nature. It is antithetical to a prevailing notion of public parks based on a pastoral model, famously invoked in Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvin Vaux's design for Central Park in New York. It did not claim to bring the country into the city. The practice of bedding out produced no theoretical treatises, no literary or painterly allusions. It tapped into the public's love of spectacle and novelty, its appreciation of skilled labor well executed. Bedding out captured the lure of the exotic by using newly discovered plants from South America and Africa, tropical and subtropical natives brought into a temperate climate. It had the repetitive power of a military parade, an analogy not lost on the British garden writer William Robinson, who observed \"Gardeners were not so much plant stewards as drill sergeants.\" Critics of this type of floral display reached new heights of rhetorical disdain. William The evolutionary process that advanced the nineteenth century version of bedding out is traced to the writings of landscape designer and writer John Claudius Loudon (1783?1843) who, in the 1830s, introduced the word \"gardenesque\" to the vocabulary of landscape. He encouraged his readers to think beyond the picturesque to what he defined as \"scientific,\" collecting plants from all over the world to test their adaptability to different climates and growing conditions (a close definition of arboreta and botanical gardens). The goal was not to imitate nature. While Loudon valued artifice and offered bedding designs in many of his publications, he did warn against the extremes of bedding out, the distorted beds and clashing colors. Loudon also recognized the limited educational opportunities for gardeners whose only option was a long apprenticeship that isolated them from new plant introductions and planting techniques. Loudon published Self Instruction for Gardeners in 1815, the first of several publications in the nineteenth century that attempted to codify best practices for both estate gardening and later municipal park management. With printing costs dropping, a number of magazines were founded that addressed professional gardeners, giving them access to information on new bedding plants and propagation techniques. They came to serve as pattern books for floral designs--fashion magazines for BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds 29 With their bright colors and exotic, pouchlike flowers, South American calceolarias fit perfectly in the bedding out trend. Illustration of Calceolaria pisacomensis from Curtis's Botanical Magazine (Volume 93, plate 5677), 1867. Illustration by D. Bois of zonal pelargonium (Pelargonium zonale) and several hybrid selections (note the hybrids' larger petals and denser flower heads) in Edward Step's Favourite flowers of garden and greenhouse (Volume 1, Plate 54), 1896?1897. aspiring enthusiasts. Florists' Journal, Gardeners' Chronicle, and Gardener's Magazine were available in Great Britain, and Magazine of Horticulture, Gardener's Monthly, Genesee Farmer and Gardener's Journal informed gardeners in the United States. If principles of romanticism and aesthetic theory provided a structure for the pastoral park, advances in science and technology stimulated the expansion and complexity of bedding out. To underscore the artificiality of the bedding out system, the plant species used were often imports from South America, Africa, and the Mediterranean region. The botanical bounty collected by plant explorers, perhaps more appropriately called flower hunters, was given to botanic gardens and to commercial nurseries where species were hybridized to create showy selections with features such as compact growth, larger flowers, more brilliant colors, and variegated foliage. Plants were as much a product of the nursery trade as they were of plant collecting. Many global imports-- begonias, calceolaria, echeveria, caladiums, cannas, coleus, and more--were commonly used in bedding out configurations. Sedums, sempervivums, and other succulents also had a brief period of popularity. Palms, yuccas, crotons, monkey puzzle trees, and banana plants, all valued for their exotic forms, were brought in to serve as backdrops for theatrical staging and to punctuate the flatness of planting beds. Floral Clocks COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR The association of plants with the passing of time has a very long history. Carl Linnaeus developed an idea for a flower clock in his 1751 treatise Philosophia Botanica. Based on his field observations, he proposed a Horologium Florae, a clock using forty-six flowers which opened and closed as the day progressed. But this more literal interpretation of flowers and time evolved into decorative objects: flower plantings with an imbedded clock mechanism. In the early twentieth century the floral clock was reinvented as a decorative object for parks, tourist sites, and international expositions. COURTESY OF NIAGARA PARKS First created in 1903, the floral clock in Edinburgh, Scotland, is still a popular attraction (postcard from the early twentieth century). The design for the 40-foot-wide floral clock in Ontario's Niagara Parks is changed yearly and requires 15,000 to 20,000 bedding plants. Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds 31 Growing and Designing With Bedding Plants By the mid-nineteenth century, glass houses, once a luxury of estate gardens, became accessible to municipalities and commercial nurseries. In Great Britain, the repeal of the glass tax in 1845 dropped the cost of the material and fueled experiments with mass production. In both the United States and Great Britain advances in cast and wrought iron construction developed for the glass pavilions of the Crystal Palaces in London, Syndenham, and New York City were adapted to smaller glass structures. Magazines for gardeners offered advice on ventilation, humidity control, and heating alternatives. Commercial nurseries created acres of glass houses for the mass production of bedding plants. Nurseryman and author Peter Henderson (1822?1890) started with a small shop in New York City selling seeds. By the 1850s, his business skills and ability to predict the horticultural market allowed him to build extensive greenhouses near Jersey City, New Jersey. By his books, aimed at both the professional gardener and the amateur, and by his color catalogs, he developed a market for bedding plants, including his own introductions, most notably zinnias from Mexico and his hybrid `Giant Butterfly' pansy. Henderson visited England in 1885 and noted that the carpet style beds \"were interest- ing to the people in a way that no mixed border could ever be.\" He also noted the conspicuous lack of ornament in Central Park and Prospect Park, an omission he attributed to \"a lack of taste in the management of our public parks.\" Color theory, the investigation of human color perception, guided gardeners in the design of beds and created the distinctive intense impact of color combinations, either gaudy or brilliant according to your taste. One of the first explorations of color perception was a 1743 treatise by the French naturalist, Georges-Louis Buffon, followed by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's Theory of Colours published in English in 1840. But it was the work of Michel Eugene Chevreul (1786?1889), a French chemist employed by the Gobelins Tapestry Works whose work on color, first directed to the textile industry but also to horticulturists, gardeners, and artists, that proved the most influential. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY No plant group was more subject to manipulation than the pelargoniums (Pelargonium), which are often called (erroneously, British gardeners would say) geraniums in the United States. Native to South Africa, pelargoniums are still ubiquitous garden plants: drought resistant, blooming throughout the summer, a plant that has become a symbol of cheerful welcome in window boxes and entry planters. Zonal pelargoniums, introduced in the late eighteenth century, are characterized by alternating bands of dark and light green on their leaves and large, brilliantly colored flower heads. Continual experimentation with hybridizing various Pelargonium species resulted in hundreds of upright, prostrate, variegated, and ivy-leafed cultivars. Instantly recognizable by the general public, the pelargonium is still among the most popular bedding plants in municipal parks. The 1900 autumn catalog from Peter Henderson and Company offered tulip bulbs for bedding out patterns. BIBLIOTH?QUE NATIONALE DE FRANCE 32 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 Michel Eugene Chevreul's color circle was used by horticulturists and garden designers when creating bedding out displays. His book, The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colours and Their Applications to the Arts, published in English in 1854, enhanced the gardener's understanding of how colors are modified when placed next to each other, in contrast to how the color is perceived when observed alone. Chevreul's Color Circle, a circular chart organizing complimentary colors opposite each other, was a reference guide for gardeners well into the twentieth century. Bedding Out in City Parks The city of Chicago engaged some of the best landscape architects in the country to transform the flat terrain of the city into a sophisticated park system to rival those of Eastern cities. Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, H. W. S. Cleveland, and later Jens Jensen, with his passionate commitment to the prairie landscape, all left their imprint on the city. But parallel to their planning work, the city encouraged ornamental planting in the form of elaborate bedding out schemes. In the 1890s Chicago built a large glass conservatory in Lincoln Park for the display of tropical plants, with extensive plant propagation areas for bedding plants. Earlier Chicago's South Park Commissioners supported ornamental plant attractions in Washington Park that included a twentyfoot-diameter globe, a sundial of echeverias, and wire structures covered in flowering plants depicting President Grant and Uncle Sam-- what one writer called \"floral masterpieces.\" In 1872 a Board of Botanical Directors was formed under the direction of H. H. Babcock, a prominent botanist and member of the Chicago Academy of Science. In a move antithetical to Olmsted, Cleveland, and Jensen's native plant perspective, the Board sent requests to botanical gardens and noted horticulturists all over the world and received seeds and bulbs from the United States, Europe, India, and Australia. Many were eventually planted out in the Chicago parks. In 1891, the journalist Charles Pullen wrote extensively on the development of Chicago's park and parkway system, especially of Olmsted's plans. He carefully threaded his way through the controversies of natural and artificial but commented that \"it is hoped that with the gradual evolution of the grander and simpler elements of the park landscape these features of curiosity will be given to more appropriate places, less antagonistic to the pleasures obtained from natural scenery.\" Boston's Public Garden, still admired for its commitment to the bedding out tradition, rests on a set of artificial conditions that eliminated any call for a rural landscape model. The Garden was created out of brackish tidal flats as part of the landfill project that created Boston's Back Bay. The supporters of the Public Garden were men with strong horticultural interests as well as a dedication to civic improvement. William Doogue, the Irish-born horticulturist hired to bring architect George Meacham's original 1859 plan for the Public Garden to life, developed flower adornments for the Garden of great public appeal. He maintained a municipal greenhouse that produced thousands of plants for the extensive beds he created throughout the CHICAGO HISTORY MUSEUM Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds 33 CHICAGO HISTORY MUSEUM A park with bedding out displays along Drexel Boulevard in Chicago. A stereo view card with images of large floral sculptures in Chicago's Washington Park. COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR Garden. A newspaper article in 1888 described the summer scene: acanthus, pyrethrum, beds of silverleaf geraniums and pansies, edged with lobelias and alternanthera. In the midst of this blaze of color, Doogue created a cactus bed, an exotic sight to Garden visitors. In one of the more memorable horticultural disputes of the nineteenth century, played out in the pages of Garden and Forest magazine in the 1880s, Mr. Doogue's plantings and their accompanying popularity with the public were condemned by both signed and unsigned Early twentieth century postcard shows bedding out in Boston Public Garden. articles in the publication. Doogue and the supporters of his distinctive floral displays were pitted against an impenetrable fortress of opposition from the likes of landscape writer and architectural critic Mariana Griswold Van Rensselaer, Arnold Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent, and Frederick Law Olmsted. Doogue scoffed at their limited views, their isolated lives, and, most importantly, their lack of empathy for the taste of the general public. The bedding out tradition is seen as a historical remnant of the Victorian era, outside the canon of landscape design history: at best, charming and whimsical, at worst an affront to good taste and the sanctity of a natural landscape. It is seen A Boston Public Garden floral carpet bed depicting the seal of the American as a vernacular tradition perpetuated Legion in 1930. by gardeners rather than professional evergreen hedges of about 2-foot height ... The landscape designers or landscape architects. In type of plant, height, distance apart, and planta postscript to the bedding out tradition, the ing details would be under the direction of a Philadelphia Museum of Art sponsored an art botanist and the maintenance by a gardener.\" installation in 2012 by the minimalist artist It was a short term work, installed in 2012 and Sol LeWitt (1928?2007). The work was based dismantled in 2015. It, perhaps unintentionally, on a proposal LeWitt made to the Fairmount reiterated the original power of bedding out: the Park Art Association in 1981. The resurrected appeal of geometric forms, the intervention of Lines in Four Directions in Flowers was created from LeWitt's initial instructions: \"To blocks of color in a green field, the fascination plant flowers of four different colors (white, with observable change. yellow, red, and blue) in four equal rectanguToday, we still identify public parks with lar areas, in rows of four directions (vertical, the core of civic life. The binary of ornamental horizontal, diagonal right and left) framed by versus pastoral is still rightfully argued, but, COURTESY OF THE AUTHOR 34 Arnoldia 75\/1 ? August 2017 COURTESY OF THE PHILADEPHIA MUSEUM OF ART Floral Clocks, Carpet Beds 35 Artist Sol LeWitt's work, Lines in Four Directions in Flowers, was installed in front of the Philadelphia Museum of Art from 2012 to 2015. more challenging, is the question: How do you translate planting techniques of mass appeal with contemporary values of sustainability and the still unspoken ideas of taste? In 1856, horticulturist and landscape designer Andrew Jackson Downing argued that the public park could modify artificial barriers of class, wealth, and fashion--a notion that is still valid and still contentious. Sophisticated observers may still feel a degree of discomfort at the use of bedding plants to spell out town names, patriotic emblems, comic characters--the definition of kitsch being \"the adaptation of one medium to another.\" But in the words of the art historian Tomas Kulka, \"If works of art were judged democratically--that is, according to how many people like them--kitsch would easily defeat all of its competitors.\" Further Reading Bluestone, D. 1991. Constructing Chicago. New Haven: Yale University Press. Chevreul, M. R. 1987. The Principles of Harmony and Contrast of Colors and Their Applications to the Arts. Revised edition with introduction and commentary by F. Birren. West Chester, Pennsylvania: Schiffer Publishing. Elliott, B. 1986. Victorian Gardens. London: Batsford. Musgrave, T. 2007. The Head Gardeners: Forgotten Heroes of Horticulture. London: Aurum Press. Wilkinson, A. 2007. The Passion for Pelargoniums: How They Found Their Place in the Garden. Gloucestershire: Sutton Publishing. Phyllis Andersen is a landscape historian and former director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Uncommon By Any Name: Acer pensylvanicum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25625","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14e816d.jpg","volume":75,"issue_number":1,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hetman, Jon","article_content":"Uncommon By Any Name: Acer pensylvanicum Jon Hetman O ne thing I found challenging when I first started working at the Arboretum was learning (and using) scientific names for plants instead of their common names. While perhaps easier to use than those tongue-twisting Latin binomials, common names prove problematic for identification because they can refer to generic groupings (think of honeysuckle or rose) and can vary in usage from place to place (in the United States, a Tilia is called a linden; in the United Kingdom, a lime). Nevertheless, common names can offer intriguing clues about plants and their formal, natural, and historical associations. Consider the diversity of references suggested by the many common names for Acer pensylvanicum--from striped maple to whistlewood--and you begin to appreciate how one plant can inspire many appellations. Native to North America from Nova Scotia to Wisconsin and south through the Appalachians to northern Georgia, A. pensylvanicum is called striped maple or snakebark maple because its smooth, olive-green bark bears bright green and white vertical striations. It shares this trait with more than a dozen other maples in Section Macrantha, though all the rest (including A. davidii, A. maximowiczii, and A. rufinerve) originate from Asia, making the snakebark maples a great example of the eastern Asia\/eastern North America disjunct pattern of biogeography. The considerable ornamental interest provided by its bark makes A. pensylvanicum a real stand out, particularly in the winter landscape. In spring, the leaves of A. pensylvanicum unfold tinged with pink and mature to bright green. It bears large, serrately margined leaves that measure up to seven inches (18 centimeters) across. Long-stalked and typically with three sharp-tipped lobes, the leaf shape suggests a third common name for the tree, goose-foot maple. In autumn, leaves turns a clear yellow. A primarily dioecious plant with male and female flowers on different plants, the tree bears long, pendent racemes of delicate, pale yellow-green flowers in early spring, which give way to graceful chains of pinkish samaras (winged seeds) that are extremely showy by summer's end. Not overly abundant in the wild, striped maples grow to only 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 meters) in height and spread, and are often multi-trunked because of wildlife browsing. In addition to feeding on the tree's soft shoots and young foliage, deer and moose also rub the velvet on their antlers against the smooth trunks of A. pensylvanicum as they approach the rutting season, suggesting two additional common names--moose maple and moosewood. When cultivated in the landscape with good soil, adequate moisture, and at least partial shade, moosewood can thrive as a striking specimen of intermediate size. While the species is not prone to any significant insect pest or disease problems, gardeners should protect its soft trunk from lawnmower injuries and other mishaps. The ease of its wood to yield to the knife once made it a popular choice for making whistles, and some still call it whistlewood. The Arboretum has cultivated A. pensylvanicum since 1874. Today, you may observe 14 individuals of the species representing nine accessions, including two specimens of the cultivar `Erythrocladum', selected for the coral pink to red color of its young winter twigs. Holdings of the species include individuals wild-collected by Senior Research Scientist Emeritus Peter Del Tredici in 1979 (in West Cornwall, Connecticut), Keeper of the Living Collections Michael Dosmann in 2008 (in Franklin County, New York and Mt. Wachusett, Massachusetts), and Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port in 2013 (in Orland, Maine). Most grow on the east side of Meadow Road in the Azalea Border and along the edge of the Maple Collection, and on the west side of Meadow Road in the North Woods. Visit any time of year to appreciate this truly remarkable native, no matter what name you call it. Jon Hetman is Director of External Relations and Communications at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23455","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ea76e.jpg","title":"2017-75-1","volume":75,"issue_number":1,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Wardian Case: How a Simple Box Moved the Plant Kingdom","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25619","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eb328.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":4,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Keogh, Luke","article_content":"The Wardian Case: How a Simple Box Moved the Plant Kingdom Luke Keogh I ECONOMIC BOTANY COLLECTION, ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW n 1873, before a single road was laid at the Arnold Arboretum, founding director Charles Sprague Sargent packed a Wardian case full of ferns from the American West. Wardian cases--wood and glass boxes shaped like small, moveable greenhouses--were used for transporting live plants. They were often more delicate than typical cargo, so to ensure protection Sargent sent the box to England with a friend who also happened to be sailing across This Wardian case dates to around 1870. the Atlantic. He hoped the ferns, from California and Colorado, might impress his colleagues at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in particular the director, Joseph Hooker. Sargent wanted to make sure that Kew's collection of North American ferns was \"as complete as possible.\" In the April 2, 1873, letter that accompanied the Wardian case Sargent wrote to Hooker: \"If ... you have all you want, will you kindly send them on to the Jardin des ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Wardian Case 3 live plants around the globe had become extensive. This had only become possible because of the invention of the Wardian case. The letter also shows that botanists, arborists, agriculturists, and horticulturists from around the globe needed to remain in constant contact. Indeed, they could use one contact to begin a dialogue with another, in this case using Hooker to re-open contact with Paris. At all times these networks relied on reciprocity--one institution sends some plants and the receiver sends some back. One of the key ways a new contact was smoothed out, or an already established contact was asked for new plants, was to send them some from your own collection. Sargent concluded his letter to Hooker by sending a list of desiderata--a list of plants that they needed at Harvard. He was not only hoping for plants for the new arboretum in Jamaica Plain but also plants for the botanic garden that then existed in Cambridge. Among the most desired were palms and agaves. \"[A]s the Garden is so destitute of them that anything you can send will be most acceptable,\" wrote Sargent. A few months later Hooker was able to satisfy Sargent's request by sending palm seeds plus some very good seeds of the Abyssinian or Ethiopian banana (Musa ensete, now known as Ensete ventricosum). This was a very rare plant to have in North America at the time because it did not travel well. In the same consignment A hand-painted lithograph showing Musa ensete (now known as Hooker also included a Wardian case full Ensete ventricosum) growing in Abyssinia (a former kingdom in what of rhododendrons (Rhododendron). In the is now Ethiopia), from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, January 1861. following months Sargent would go on to Plantes at Paris.\" Sargent hoped that Kew could return the favor and send another Wardian case send at least a few plants on to Paris: \"I am sorry of ferns to Hooker. And so the reciprocal relationship continued between them. to trouble you in this way, but unfortunately we have not as yet any sure way of transporting The Challenge of Sending Plants living plants to Paris and I doubt not you are in Many common horticultural or agricultural constant communication with Dr. Decaisne.\" species, for example the Japanese umbrella pine Sargent's letter shows us a number of processes in motion during that time. While (Sciadopitys verticillata) or even tea (Camellia moving plants still relied on an important netsinensis), required the efforts of plant hunters work of botanists, by the 1870s the trade in and travelers to discover and introduce them. Just keeping plants alive on a long sea voyage was a challenge for early travelers. As early as the seventeenth century plants arrived in Europe from around the globe, to the pleasure of plant enthusiasts. As the centuries wore on, more and more rare and exotic plants steadily made their way to Europe and North America. While some plants were sent as seeds or cuttings, many plants could not be transported in those forms and had to be sent as live specimens. For naturalists this amounted to a great chalWardian cases were critical to the movement of economically important plants lenge. As shipping increased in such as tea (Camellia sinensis). A tea plantation in Tanzania is seen here. the early nineteenth century many in London it came down to the type of and the world became increasingly connected case plants were sent in. through exploration and trade, transporting live At this time naturalists and gardeners turned plants was still very difficult. their efforts to discovering the best way to In 1819, John Livingstone, the keen botanist send live plants around the globe. Was it in a and surgeon posted in Macao for the East India wooden box? Or were there other ways? Many Company, wrote to the Royal Horticultural methods for successfully moving live plants Society on the challenge of sending live plants to destinations well beyond their native range from China to London. Livingstone estimated were being tried. Accompanying Lindley's paper that only one in one thousand plants survived to the Horticultural Society were designs for the journey. He proposed a number of plans a glazed box that had been sent to him by the for the successful movement of plants. One Governor of Mauritius, Robert Farquhar. One was quite simply to send a gardener with any of the more interesting methods proposed was dispatch of live plants to make sure they were that of Nathaniel Wallich, pioneering botanist properly cared for on the voyage. But whatever and surgeon for the East India Company, based the method was, Livingstone concluded in in Calcutta; he sent a box that had a roof made his November 16 letter to the Society, that it with translucent shell inserts, which allowed \"becomes a matter of importance to attempt light in. These early decades of the nineteenth some more certain method gratifying the English horticulturist and botanist, with the plants century were an intense period of experimentation in sending live plants. of China.\" John Lindley, also of the Horticultural Society of London, described the great Ward's Glass Case challenge and care needed in sending live plants Most inventions do not come about in a vacacross oceans. In 1824, Lindley wrote, \"The uum, and so it was with the Wardian case. Many idea which seems to exist, that to tear a plant plant transportation containers, some of which from its native soil, to plant it in fresh earth, were quite successful, paved the way before to fasten it in a wooden case, and to put it on the actual Wardian case was invented. It was a board a vessel under the care of some officer, is simple case made of wood and glass and takes sufficient, is of all others the most erroneous, its name from its inventor, Nathaniel Bagshaw and has led to the most ruinous consequences.\" Ward, a London physician with a keen interest Lindley proposed a more controlled and concerned approach to sending plants. Indeed, for in the natural world. Ward's improvement on CHUCK BARGERON, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, BUGWOOD.ORG 4 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 The Wardian Case 5 Sketch of the box used by Sir Robert Farquhar to transport plants from Mauritius to London in 1824. This box holds a striking resemblance to the common Wardian case that became widely used in the nineteenth century. From John Lindley, \"Instructions for Packing Living Plants in Foreign Countries, Especially within the Tropics; and Directions for Their Treatment during the Voyage to Europe,\" Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London 5 (1824). the previous attempts was his proposal of an replanted with specimens from Australia. In airtight system in which transpiration inside Sydney the temperature was over 30?C (86?F), the case provides sufficient moisture to keep rounding Cape Horn temperatures fell to -7?C plants alive for extended periods. (We would (19.4?F), at Rio de Janeiro it reached nearly 40?C call this system a terrarium today.) (104?F), and eight months later when Mallard's In 1829, in a large sealed bottle partially filled ship travelled up the Thames the temperature with soil, Ward buried the chrysalis of a sphinx was below 4?C (39.2?F). When Ward and friend moth, with the hope that it would hatch. The George Loddiges, of the famous Loddiges & moth never flew, but he observed changes Sons nursery in Hackney, went aboard the ship inside the bottle. Sprouts of meadow grass in London they inspected the healthy fronds of a delicate coral fern (Gleichenia microphylla), (Poa annua) took life, so too did the common an Australian plant never before seen in Britain. fern Aspidium (now Dryopteris) filix-mas. Following the first successful journey to AusInstead of worrying about the moth, Ward took the sealed bottle and moved it to a window that tralia and back, Ward and his friends commenced would get the northern sun. The plants inside moving more plants in the glass cases. In 1835, survived for three years without water; in the Ward sent six cases of ornamental plants to the second year he observed the grass inside bloom head gardener for the Pasha of Egypt, and later, and the fern grew five fronds. Only after the lid following this success, coffee plants were sent. rusted and rain water entered the bottle was the George Loddiges was more ambitious. He put experiment over. into circulation over five hundred cases to all Many other experiments followed. Inside parts of the globe. It is the ingenuity and wide Ward's house was an extravagant display of use by Loddiges's nurseries that established the city gardening under glass. On March 6, 1834, Wardian case as the most compelling tool to use John Claudius Loudon, the well-known garden for transporting live plants. designer and journalist, visited Ward's house. In the nineteenth century, a Wardian case He described it as \"the most extraordinary city filled with ferns became a feature of many garden we have ever beheld.\" It was also the middle to upper class Victorian homes, includimplications of Ward's gardening in glass cases that was important. Loudon added, \"Mr. Ward has no doubt, that by boxes of this kind, with requisite modifications, he could transport plants from any one country in the world to any other country.\" At the time, Ward was in the process of testing his new glass cases on an overseas voyage. In 1833, Ward transported a perfectly packed sealed glass case containing a selection of ferns, mosses, and grasses from London to Sydney, Australia. On November 23, 1833, Ward received a letter from Charles Mallard, the ship captain responsible for the two cases: \"your experiment for the preservation of plants alive ... has fully succeeded.\" The next challenge was the return jour- Ward's case for moving plants on long sea voyages. Image from Ward's On the ney. In February 1834 the cases were Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases (1852; page 71). HARVARD UNIVERSITY, GRAY HERBARIUM LIBRARY 6 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 COURTESY OF VICTORIA AND ALBERT MUSEUM The Wardian Case 7 The Great Exhibition of the Works of Industry of All Nations was held inside the specially-built Crystal Palace in 1851. Ward's cases appeared just beside the large tree featured in the center of this illustration. ing many homes along the east coast of North America. This is where the Wardian case has largely been preserved in much historical literature--as occupying a significant place in the natural history crazes of Victorian England. By 1851 a Wardian case full of plants was exhibited at the Great Exhibition. Inside the Crystal Palace, people could view live ornamental ferns brought from far off regions; they could also view one of Ward's glass bottles with a plant in it that had apparently not been watered for 18 years. Casting our eye wider than the context of the Victorian fern craze, the scale of movement that the Wardian case facilitated is significant. Focusing on the movement of plants we see the extent to which the case was used as a unified transport technology in a time when the world was becoming increasingly connected. Ward's biggest contribution, building upon the efforts of others before him, was to propose the airtight system for keeping plants alive, as well as putting this technology into practice on many long voyages. Unlike others before him, it was also Ward's promotion of his system for transporting live plants that was important. As well as his short book On the Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases (1842, republished with illustrations in 1852), he also published numerous short articles in the popular gardening media promoting his system for transporting plants. And with Ward's promotions the adoption of the case was extensive, not just by well-known nurseries like Loddiges, but by the 8 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 British Royal Navy, French government expeditions, the Royal Horticultural Society, and many others. Travelling the Globe By 1841, Ward could add many North American ferns to his collection of global plants. He had formed a good relationship with the young Harvard botanist Asa Gray when Gray first travelled to London. Gray helped Ward accumulate an extensive collection, which he kept in glass cases in his home and put in taxonomic order using Gray's textbook. But the Wardian case wasn't just used between botanists on either side of the Atlantic. In the decades following the 1840s, botanical gardens, acclimatization societies (organizations that promoted the introduction of exotic plants and animals to see if they were adaptable), horticultural societies, and nurseries commenced wide use of the Wardian case to transfer plants around the globe. One of the most well-known uses of the Wardian case was by the Royal Horticultural Society of England. It first experimented with the cases when they sent the plant explorer Theodor Hartweg to California and central America in 1836. Following this in 1848, a member of the Society, Robert Fortune, travelled to China and successfully used Wardian cases to move tea plants from China to India. In total nearly 20,000 tea plants were transplanted in what might be one of the world's largest acts of botanical espionage. These set the foundations of the Assam and Sikkim tea industry in India. Often less known is that a This illustration of the United States Propagating Garden on the National Mall in Washington, D.C., is from the 1858 Report of the Commissioner of Patents: Agriculture. The glass houses pictured on the left and right were built to receive the tea plants that were sent to the United States in Wardian cases by Robert Fortune. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY The Wardian Case 9 by the Dutch and British to be transplanted to Java and India. The rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis) was taken from its native South America and transplanted, via Kew Gardens, to the Malay and Ceylon regions in Asia. In each of these examples the transplanted regions became leading global producers of the commodity. Many commercial crops in colonial regions were established with the help of the Wardian case. The dwarf Cavendish banana (a variety of Musa acuminata) was moved from China, via the Chatsworth Gardens in England, to the Samoan islands and spread throughout the region as a significant crop. When the French botanist Henri Lecomte was charged with establishing guttapercha (Palaquium gutta, a tree from which a useful latex was extracted) plantations in the French colonies in Indochina in the late 1800s, he took with him plants safely packed in Wardian cases. The establishment of mango (Mangifera indica) production in Queensland, Australia, also relied on the case, used as early as the late 1840s to bring grafted mango trees from India. The first Japanese plants to arrive in New England were carried in Wardian cases and delivered to horticulturists to be distributed in the Jamaica Plain (Massachusetts) area. Illustration of the gutta-percha tree (Palaquium gutta) from Franz Eugen Japanese umbrella pines, along with K?hler's 1887 publication K?hler's Medizinal-Pflanzen. dogwoods (Cornus), rhododendrons, crabapples (Malus), and cypress (Chamaecypdecade later Fortune, this time working for the United States Patent Office, sent 26,000 tea aris obtusa) survived the seventy-day journey seedlings in Wardian cases to Washington, D.C. from Yokohama to Boston, tightly and careThis instigated the United States' first experifully packed into the sealed glass cases. The first package of plants was sent in 1861 by the mental plant station in the center of the capiphysician George Rogers Hall and eventually tal, although it is suggested that not much ever found a home at Francis Parkman's small threereally happened with the tea shrubs. acre summer estate on Jamaica Pond. The folThe Wardian case was used in a range of other botanical appropriations. The cinchona tree, lowing year Hall returned from Japan with six whose bark was used in quinine-based antimamore Wardian cases. These cases were filled with many varieties of plants; among them larial drugs, was moved in secret from Bolivia NANCY ROSE 10 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 Botanical gardens, often with a large focus on economic botany, formed hubs of distribution to move plants around the globe. The significance of Kew Gardens as a global hub of scientific knowledge and a mover of economic plants in the age of empire has been well documented in various sources. However, the significance of the Wardian case has received little specific attention. Following the invention of the case, it is estimated that in just 15 years William Hooker, director of the Gardens at Kew from 1841 to 1865, imported more plants than in the previous century. In the following eras at Kew, when his son Joseph took over as director (from 1865 to 1885), followed by William ThiseltonDyer (from 1885 to 1905), the Wardian case continued to be used extensively. From the 1860s into the twentieth century, plants were travelling to and from points including Shanghai, Ceylon, Batavia, Yokohama, Calcutta, Hong Kong, Trinidad, Tonga, Venezuela, Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Guyana, Natal, South Australia, and Melbourne. In the cases were everything from Liberian coffee to orchids, tree ferns, sisal, tonka beans (Dipteryx odorata), mangoes, and tea. The connections covered the globe and were efficient. In one letter from August 21, 1877, the collector in India, George Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata) was among the first King, wrote to Thiselton-Dyer that Japanese plant species imported into New England. Seen here, Arboretum it was quicker to send plants in a accession 503-70-C grows near the Hunnewell Visitor Center. Wardian case from Calcutta to Kew than it was to get a case of plants from was Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), Sikkim to Calcutta. which was first planted out in a nursery row in With its own imperial interests Germany was Long Island. Many plants that arrived in Wardnot to be left out of the global movement. Estiian cases have swept across North America; mates from the Berlin Botanical Gardens note some, such as the Japanese umbrella pine, have that between 1891 and 1907 over 16,000 plants become beautiful additions to landscapes and were moved by the Gardens. These included gardens, but others, like the honeysuckle, have coffee, oil palms, cocoa, rubber, and bananas. invaded woodlands across the eastern United They were moved between Berlin and VictoStates and elsewhere. COURTESY OF ROYAL BOTANIC GARDENS, KEW The Wardian Case 11 Unpacking a Wardian case at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, around 1890. ria (now Limbe, Cameroon), Amani (Tanzania), Sokod? (Togo), and Simpson Harbor (today Rabaul, Papua New Guinea). German botanical gardens also played an important intermediary role when the sisal plant (Agave sisalana), cultivated for its tough fibers, was transplanted from Central America to colonies in Africa for the German East African Company. Other botanical gardens played major roles in moving plants around the globe whether it was for acclimatization, commercial, or ornamental reasons. The world renowned Jardin d'agronomie tropicale, Paris, was a major hub for acclimatization and agricultural research for the French colonies. In the first decade of the twentieth century the garden sent more than 40,000 live plants to the colonies. At Dutch gardens, including the Amsterdam Botanical Gardens and Leiden Gardens, many plants passed through on their way to Asian colonies including cinnamon, clove, mango, and ginger. For the Dutch the gardens at Buitenzorg (Bogor), Java, was the central hub for plant movement. At Russia's most prominent gardens in St. Petersburg, the German-born Carl Maximowicz became head of the botanical gardens, which COURTESY OF THE COLLECTION NATIONAAL MUSEUM VAN WERELDCULTUREN. TM-10010760 SCHLESINGER LIBRARY, RADCLIFFE INSTITUTE, HARVARD UNIVERSITY. COPYRIGHT BIBLIOTH?QUE HISTORIQUE DU CIRAD Specially crafted Wardian cases made by local Indonesian workers were used to send plants from the Buitenzorg Botanic Gardens, Java, in 1904. Workers at the Jardin d'Agronomie Tropicale [Garden of Tropical Agronomy] in Paris prepare to send live plants in Wardian cases to the French Colonies, circa 1910. With an interior botanical style inspired by the Wardian case, a rectangular terrarium sits near a New York apartment window in this photograph by Jessie Tarbox Beals, circa 1910 to 1930. The Wardian Case 13 allowed him to develop an extraordinary array of Japanese plants. In each of these places the Wardian case proved an important technology for building collections and disseminating plants to other regions. The United States became one of the most important users of the case in the early twentieth century (although there were many uses in the late nineteenth century, some of these noted above) because of the extensive usage by the United States Department of Agriculture. The Wardian case was used on many expeditions by American plant explorers importing everything from orchids to avocados and even insects. However, by the 1920s the Wardian case had become an expensive method of transport. There was also a change in the air as scientists, primarily entomologists, started to see the dangers of importing foreign plant material and biological matter. In a 1924 circular to the USDA, Beverley Galloway, the chief of the Bureau of Plant Industry, noted: \"The Wardian case, a sort of small portable greenhouse, has probably been the means of scattering more dangerous insects, nematodes, and other pests over the earth than almost any other form of carrier; hence its use is not advised except under special instructions.\" As quarantine became the order of the day, protecting the natural biota of a country became a much more significant goal of plant industries and scientists. In the eyes of gardeners, exotics still held value but they now had to compete with a greater value placed on native flora. from Australia to Boston, the case was put to good use. Collectively in the nineteenth and early twentieth century the use of Wardian cases facilitated a major plant migration across the globe. These plant distribution networks, established with the introduction of the Wardian case, are still in use today. A Century of Exchange Spongberg, Stephen A. 1990. A Reunion of Trees: the Discovery of Exotic Plants and their Introduction into North American and European Landscapes. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. The Wardian case is a persuasive and widereaching example of how a simple technology for moving plants had a major impact on the ecosystems we know and value today. It was a prime mover for botanical enterprises for over a century. But by the 1940s it was largely phased out, with the last journeys carrying ornamental plants occurring in the 1960s. The case was superseded by the use of polyethylene bags and temperature controlled air transport. The Wardian case was extensively used by many different groups of people from across the globe to move many different plants; from scientists to gardeners, from ferns to bananas, Further Reading Desmond, Ray. 1986. Technical Problems in Transporting Living Plants in the Age of Sail. Canadian Horticultural History 1: 74?90. Elliot, Brent. 2004. The Royal Horticultural Society: A History, 1804?2004. Chichester: Phillimore. Galloway, Beverley T. 1924. How to Collect, Label, and Pack, Living Plant Material for Long-Distance Shipment. USDA Department Circular 323, pp. 1?12. Gardener, W. 1971. Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea in the United States. Arnoldia. 31(1): 1?18. Lindley, John. 1824. Instructions for Packing Living Plants in Foreign Countries, Especially within the Tropics; and Directions for Their Treatment during the Voyage to Europe. Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London 5: 192?200. Livingstone, John. 1822. Observations on the Difficulties Which Have Existed in the Transportation of Plant from China to England, and Suggestions for Obviating Them. Transactions of the Horticultural Society of London 3: 421?29. Loudon, John C. 1834. Growing Ferns and Other Plants in Glass Cases. Gardener's Magazine. pp. 207?208. Pauly, Philip J. 2007. Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. Ward, Nathaniel B. Letters to Asa Gray, 1840?1868, Gray Correspondence Files, Archives of the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University Herbaria. (These can be read online through the Harvard Library.) Ward, Nathaniel B. 1842. On the Growth of Plants in Closely Glazed Cases. London: Paternoster Row. Luke Keogh is an environmental historian and was a Sargent Award recipient at the Arnold Arboretum in 2015?2016. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2016 Weather Summary","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25618","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eaf6f.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":4,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2016 Weather Summary Sue A. Pfeiffer Winter (December 1, 2015, to February 29, 2016) This meteorological winter was the third mildest winter on record (since 1872) for Boston, yet it also brought the lowest temperatures recorded at the Arboretum in nearly 30 years and subsequent damage to a number of plants in the collections. Precipitation was above normal every month during this period for a total of 12.12 inches compared to the average of 10.40 inches. While snow typically accounts for much of winter precipitation (melted snow is measured as liquid precipitation), this year we received only 25.4 inches of snow. The snow-to-liquid ratio varies with temperature and other conditions, but assuming a rough range of 20:1 to 10:1, the snow accounted for just 1.3 to 2.5 inches of the total precipitation. This above average precipitation reduced the abnormally dry conditions of late 2015 and we entered spring under no drought conditions. An extraordinarily warm December 2015 (temperatures were 10?F above normal) led into a mild January, with only 1.5 inches of snow falling during the latter part of the month. February began with above normal temperatures--highs from the upper 50s to mid 60s--before returning to normal. Most of the snow for the month (14.7 inches total) came during two snowfall events on the 5th?6th and the 8th. During the first storm a combination of wet, heavy snow and soft, unfrozen ground led to the toppling of a number of trees, including a large 85-year-old hemlock cultivar (Tsuga canadensis `Compacta', accession 21278-A) on Hemlock Hill. By the 11th, an arctic front moved in, bringing frigid temperatures to the area. Low temperatures were below zero February 13th through 15th; the low of -11?F on Valentine's Day was the coldest ever recorded at the Arboretum for February 14th. Unseasonably warm temperatures returned for the latter half of the month. February was notable for dramatic temperature fluctuations, with a difference of 76.3 degrees between the highest (65.3?F) and lowest (-11?F) recorded temperatures. The mild temperatures throughout early winter meant buds had started to swell far earlier than usual; the mid-February freeze resulted in damaged buds on some species as well as stem dieback and complete death of some marginally hardy specimens. Spring (March 1 to May 31) Precipitation was below normal during this period, with a total of 9.52 inches compared to the average 11.57 inches. This slight decrease in precipitation lead to abnormally dry conditions as we entered summer. March saw temperature fluctuations fairly typical for spring weather. A record high was set on March 9th when the temperature soared to 78?F, breaking the old record by 6?F. This made an 89 degree temperature range within 24 days from the -11?F record on February 14th. Overall, March was warmer than average and had less precipitation than normal (2.96 inches versus 4.33 inches) despite consistent and regular rain events throughout the month. On March 31st a storm brought wind gusts in the high 30s mph. KYLE PORT An arctic system caused erratic temperature fluctuations in early April (1st to the 8th) along with 5.5 inches of snow and windy conditions. Several nights with below freezing temperatures, including a low of 18.5?F on April 4th, resulted in damage to emerging foliage, buds, and open flowers. Spring flowering ended for many magnolias, whose tepals turned to brown mush, as well as forsythias and some spring bulbs. These conditions resulted in reduced flowering on other early blooming trees and shrubs and slowed foliage expansion. Significant temperature fluctuations occurred in April and the KYLE PORT Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas) and forsythia were in bloom on March 30th, a few days before a cold front brought sub-freezing temperatures that damaged many flowers and buds. A newly accessioned Carolina jessamine (Gelsemium sempervirens `Margarita', accession 520-2016-A) was in bloom on May 3. This cultivar, `Margarita', is reported to be somewhat more cold hardy than the species typically is. KYLE PORT Visitors enjoying a beautiful day at the Arboretum on May 20th passed by a blooming weigela (Weigela praecox `Gracieux', accession 164-2000-B). monthly high of 80.5?F was recorded on April 22nd, though the month overall was cooler than average. Precipitation was normal, with most falling during the first half of the month. May began with unseasonably cool temperatures and rain each day of the first week. These conditions further delayed plant development but did extend bloom time for early spring plants and late flowering bulbs. Unfortunately the flower bud damage from the extreme cold in February and the early April freeze resulted in a less colorful spring than usual. Lilac Sunday on May 8th started cloudy and dreary with light showers, though the afternoon was sunny and warmed up into the 60s. Lilacs were also delayed in their flowering and did not peak until the following week when temperatures warmed and sunny conditions returned. Temperatures heated up during the last week of the month, hitting 95?F on the 28th, Memorial Day, which set a new record and helped to advance plant growth. A storm at the end of the month soaked the ground and brought the strongest winds of the year; fortunately there was minimal damage in the collection. Summer (June 1 to August 31) Summer 2016 was very hot and very dry. Precipitation was well below normal, only 4.05 inches compared to the average 10.44 inches, and led to moderate, severe, and eventually extreme drought conditions as we entered autumn. June was warmer than usual and precipitation was far below normal. By midJune, the effect of winter damage was evident and it became clear which plants would not leaf out and stood dead in the landscape. Unirrigated turf began to go dormant, making the landscape look more like August than June, and supplemental watering started in the collections. Cloudy conditions prevailed on only three days in June and solar radiation for the month was very high. 2016 Weather 17 KYLE PORT July was much warmer than usual; we had 14 days with high temperatures in the 90s, including an eight-day heat wave from July 21st to 28th. The hottest temperature of the year, 97.5?F, was recorded on the 25th. Precipitation was far below normal for the month. A fast moving thunderstorm on July 18 brought strong winds, storm damage, and washouts. We received almost half an inch (0.47 inches) of rain that day, but most of this was lost as runoff because the entire amount fell within a 15-minute period. Signs of drought stress became evident throughout the landscape and irrigation continued. August did not offer much reprieve. After a few pleasant days in the mid 70s, the summer heat returned with high temperatures in the 80s and 90s for the remainder of the month. On August 16, this high heat and lack of precipitation upgraded the drought from severe to extreme for the first time here since national drought monitoring began in 2000 (US Drought Monitor ? National Drought Mitigation Center). On the 22nd, an overnight front brought 0.76 inch of rain, more than half the monthly total. In the end, this was the warmest August ever recorded in Boston, with below average temperature on only four days. By the end of summer the compounding effects of defoliating insects (winter moth, gypsy moth, etc.), drought conditions, and unusually warm weather left many plants showing signs of extreme stress (green leaf drop, premature fall color, wilting, browning along leaf margins). Irrigation continued but could not make up for the lack of rainfall. Conditions had progressed to extreme drought by August 17 when Arboretum Plant Records Manager Kyle Port documented the dry slope of Peters Hill, looking toward Hemlock Hill and the Boston skyline. 18 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 How Hot and Dry Was It in 2016? Number of days with temperatures in the 90s: 24 May: 1 day June: 1 day July: 14 days August: 7 days September: 1 day The average number of days per year with temperatures in the 90s is 13 (for Boston). The last year with more than 20 days in the 90s was 2010 (25 days). Summer 2016 (June 1 to August 31) was the second driest on record at the Arnold Arboretum. We received 4.05 inches of rain; the record is 3.97 inches set in 1957. (The official Boston weather station received only 3.92 inches, which did beat the record, making 2016 the driest summer ever recorded for the City.) PRECIPITATION SURPLUS\/DEFICIT BY SEASON Winter 2015?2016 12.12 inches average is 10.40 inches surplus of 1.72 inches Spring 2016 9.52 inches average is 11.57 inches deficit of 2.05 inches Summer 2016 4.05 inches average is 10.44 inches deficit of 6.39 inches Autumn 2016 9.92 inches average is 11.35 inches deficit of 1.43 inches 2016 CUMULATIVE PRECIPITATION DEFICIT 4 WATER (inches) 2 0 -2 -4 -6 -8 -10 WINTER SPRING SUMMER FALL 2016 Weather 19 2016 Drought Conditions at the Arnold Arboretum FROM THE UNITED STATES DROUGHT MONITOR, THE NATIONAL DROUGHT MITIGATION CENTER Scale D0............. (Abnormally Dry) D1............. (Moderate Drought) D2............. (Severe Drought) D3............. (Extreme Drought) D4............. (Exceptional Drought) Arnold Arboretum conditions (dates of status change) January 1, 2016............ D0 (Abnormally Dry) March 1, 2016............ Normal conditions June 7, 2016............ D0 (Abnormally Dry) June 14, 2016............ D1 (Moderate Drought) July 26, 2016............ D2 (Severe Drought) August 16, 2016............ D3 (Extreme Drought) November 1, 2016............ D2 (Severe Drought) In 2016, we had 14 weeks with normal conditions (no drought) and 38 weeks with drought conditions 14 weeks............ Normal Conditions 10 weeks............ D0 (Abnormally Dry) 6 weeks............ D1 (Moderate Drought) 11 weeks............ D2 (Severe Drought) 11 weeks............ D3 (Extreme Drought) In 2015, we had 28 weeks with normal conditions (no drought) and 24 weeks with drought conditions 28 weeks............ Normal Conditions 21 weeks............ D0 (Abnormally Dry) 3 weeks............ D1 (Moderate Drought) Previous years reaching Severe Drought Conditions (records began in 2000) 2012-- 2 weeks............ D2 (Severe Drought) 2002-- 5 weeks............ D2 (Severe Drought) From 2000 through 2015 there were no instances of Extreme Drought at the Arnold Arboretum. 20 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 Autumn (September 1 to November 30) IMAGE COURTESY OF NASA Rainfall was again below average for this period, with 9.92 inches compared to the average 11.35 inches, and we entered autumn in extreme drought conditions. September's total was far below average; some relief arrived in October when a total of 5.81 inches of rain fell, which was more than the combined rainfall from June through September (5.48 inches). September was another warmer than usual month with minimal precipitation. The remains of Hurricane Hermine offered hope to alleviate drought conditions, but ultimately produced less than half an inch of rain as it passed by on the 8th. Temperatures warmed to above normal for most of the rest of the month before finally cooling down to the 50s at the end of the month. October was a very wet month, bringing soaking rains on five occasions. Torrential downpours occurred on the evening of the 21st, bringing half an inch of rain within a 15-minute period and an inch of rain over a one-hour period. This left low areas flooded and there was significant erosion on gravel paths and washouts in mulched beds. Three storms in October each delivered between 1.25 and 2 inches of rain. Despite this much-needed precipitation, extreme drought conditions persisted and much of the rainfall was lost as runoff. October temperatures were normal with pleasant fall days and cooler nights. Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), red maple (Acer rubrum), sugar maple (A. saccharum), and hickories (Carya spp.) produced a great show of fall foliage color, but the leaves of many other trees desiccated or dropped off prior to color change because of the drought. Anticipated rain from a dwindling Hurricane Hermine didn't materialize. This satellite image shows a swirl of clouds with no rainfall off the coast of southeastern Massachusetts on September 8th. Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data ? 2016 Avg.Avg.Avg.Max. Min. Precipi- SnowMax. Min. Temp.Temp.Temp.tation fall (?F)(?F)(?F)(?F)(?F) (inches) (inches) JAN 30.422.930.759.4 6.7 3.38 8.8 FEB 44.323.533.965.3-11.0 4.2415.1 MAR 50.833.642.278.118.9 2.96 2.6 APR 56.137.146.680.518.5 3.62 5.3 MAY 67.848.958.394.939.7 2.94 JUN 78.757.167.989.849.5 1.22 JUL 85.664.074.897.555.3 1.34 AUG 86.764.375.597.052.4 1.49 SEP 75.657.866.793.538.8 1.43 OCT 63.244.553.879.827.8 5.81 NOV 54.036.445.270.228.1 2.69 DEC 41.125.733.457.4 3.1 2.92 6.2 Average Maximum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 61.9?F Average Minimum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . 43.0?F Average Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.4?F Total Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34.04 inches Total Snowfall in 2016 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.0 inches Snowfall During Winter 2015?2016 . . . . . . . . . 33.3 inches Warmest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97.5?F on July 25 Coldest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -11.0?F on February 14 Strongest Wind Gust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38.2 mph on March 31 Last Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32.0?F on April 27 First Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27.8?F on October 27 Growing Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 days Growing Degree Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3165 days Number of Days at 90?F or above . . . . . . . . . . . 24 days WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN 22 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 Despite the drought, some trees in the collections still displayed spectacular fall color including this black oak (Quercus velutina, accession 127-2016-A) photographed on November 19th. November was slightly warmer than normal with below average precipitation. On November 1st, drought conditions were downgraded from extreme to severe but supplemental irrigation continued to be necessary. We received regular precipitation throughout the month with fewer intense storms and a light dusting of snow on the 21st. The first half of November was unseasonably mild but more normal conditions returned mid-month and cooled further during the last week. Red oak (Quercus rubra) foliage was a beautiful red despite the ongoing drought conditions. By the end of autumn, we were 8.15 inches below normal rainfall for the year. Early Winter 2016?2017 December brought the beginning of meteorological winter. We finished the year (January 1 to December 31) with a deficit of 8.6 inches of precipitation and entered 2017 still in severe drought conditions. 2016 Recap It was a tough year for the Arboretum's living collections. Cold temperature events in February and April led to much damage and even the death of some plants. Summer brought hot and humid conditions and little precipitation, leaving soils extremely dry. Autumn saw some relief with cooler temperatures and more rain than summer, but drought conditions still prevailed. We are concerned about the long term effects of drought on the health of our collection and expect to see the effects of the 2016 water deficit on plant survival and growth in 2017. Sue A. Pfeiffer is an Arboretum Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Witness Tree: What a Single, 100-Year-Old Oak Tells Us About Climate Change","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25621","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eb726.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":4,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mapes, Lynda V.","article_content":"Witness Tree: What a Single, 100-Year-Old Oak Tells Us About Climate Change Lynda V. Mapes Environmental reporter Lynda V. Mapes spent a year at Harvard University's Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts. There, she got up close and personal with a special red oak (Quercus rubra) that provided great insights on forest life and the growing effects of climate change on the natural world. This article is adapted from her recently published book, Witness Tree: Seasons of Change with a CenturyOld Oak, which chronicles her experience. 2017. BLOOMSBURY ISBN 978-1-63286-253-2 I first met the oak in the fall of 2013, walking the Harvard Forest with John O'Keefe. A biologist given to wearing the same two sweaters all winter--that's a long time in Massachusetts--and a slouchy rag wool hat, John has walked the same circuit of 50 trees in the Forest for more than 25 years. John likes to say he started his long term survey of the timing of the seasons in the Forest, revealed in the budding, leaf out, leaf color, and leaf drop on the trees, as a way to get outside at least one day every week, then just never stopped. By now, he has compiled a valuable and unique record. Seasonal changes in nature are among the most readily observable clues to the biological effects of our changing climate, as warming temperatures reset the seasonal clock. In forests, water use, the growth rate of trees, the length of the growing season, and temperature all are connected. So John's work, documenting the seasonal gyre of the woods, was a look, told through the language of leaves, at our changing world. His foot survey is literally the ground truth for images of the tree canopy that are beamed over the Internet, continually recorded in daylight hours by surveillance cameras, watching these trees' every move, from 120 feet overhead. With John's tree-by-tree observations, the forest-level view from the cameras and other devices on observation towers, and even a drone used to fly regular photographic missions, these must be among the most closely-monitored trees in the world. For while the Harvard Forest is a natural wood, reminders that it is also an outdoor laboratory and classroom are never long out of sight. Spread over nearly 4,000 acres, the Harvard Forest, founded in 1907 and with more than 100 years of research in the archives, has one of the longest records of some types of data anywhere. Trees bristle with tags and flagging, and the Forest floor is studded with equipment. There are light sensors, and laundry baskets gathering leaf litter. Often, amid the birdsong, came sounds of science, from the buzz of a drone 24 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 ALL PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED flying a photographic mission overhead, to the hum of motors, and fans. The reality is this forest is under a microscope. It's the fulltime, year-round focus of a staff of about 40 to 45 biologists, modelers, GIS specialists, historians, ecologists, dendrologists, paleoecologists, information and communication specialists, policy experts, atmospheric chemists, research assistants, lab technicians, and administrative staff at the Harvard Forest with an operating budget from $4.5 to $6 million a year, and a larger cadre of visiting researchers from around the world. On his weekly survey walks, John measured little but the occasional snow depth or length of an unfurling leaf. But what he does do is look closely at a set number of tracked trees, chosen to represent a range of species, heights in the canopy, and forest environments--dry, wet, open, and shaded. He makes systematic notes of his observations on data sheets he created for the purpose, filled out the same way each week, year by year. Professor Andrew Richardson of Harvard University was among the first of many researchers to use John's records in influential scientific papers about the effects of climate change on forests. I met Andrew in August 2013, when I first arrived in Cambridge as a Knight Fellow in Science Journalism at MIT. I wanted to explore A spectacular luna moth rests on a building in early June. new ways to tell the story of our changing climate--a yawner of a story for too many, if told as a distant debate about treaties, dueling politics, and doomsday scenarios. The stakes are high: species extinction, the function of natural processes, and viability of habitats. But the facts won't matter if we can't get anyone to pay attention. I wanted to tell the story through the charisma of living things, and the compelling but largely overlooked drama of the delicate seasonal timing of the natural world and how it was being disrupted. So when Andrew took me up on my request to sit in with his lab, and John let me join his walks, I decided to dive deep. \"John,\" I wrote in an email not long after our first survey walk together, \"I need a tree.\" We picked it not long after--a single, glorious, nearly 100-year-old red oak in his survey that I could use as a narrative frame for my own inquiry into the Richardson lab's work. What where they learning? Could I see climate change at work in this forest, and even in this one tree? Just as settlers used notable trees, known as witness trees, to mark the metes and bounds of changing landscapes, could the big oak reveal the changing climate? John's walks were enthralling. He noticed everything, and with all five senses, creating in his field notes a portrait of the forest in Pointillist detail: how firm the tree's buds were, or whether they had softened and were getting ready to crack open. The sound of the first call of wood frogs, the scent of mineral soil as the frost melted from the ground. The sight of the leaves' first emergence; the filling and draining of puddles; the flow of the streams, and first unfolding of woodland flowers. The autumn colors of the leaves, the thunk of falling acorns; frost flowers and ice on the puddles, and the wintergreen taste of birch bark. Here was a place richly and closely observed, right down to the mud and black flies. With nothing more than a pair of binoculars, six-inch ruler, and clipboard, John, by walking the Forest again and again, amassed a detailed calendar of the seasonal year, his tiny handwriting in Number 2.5 pencil recording local events with planetary implications. His findings over the decades were clear. On average, spring is coming earlier. Fall is coming later. And winter is being squeezed on both ends. Everything in the woods reflected these changes, from the level of water in the vernal pools and springs to when the black flies were biting, the ground frozen, or leaves budding out or finally coming off the trees. It wasn't a matter of conjecture or political argument; the discussions of who does and doesn't \"believe\" in climate change in editorial pages, news reports, and Congressional debates frames this all wrong. The changing climate, trees, streams, puddles, birds, bugs, and frogs attest, is not a matter of opinion or belief. It is an observable fact. Leaves don't lie; frost isn't running for office, frogs don't fundraise, pollinators don't put out press releases. What John compiles, while taking all these walks, is the testimony of an unimpeachable witness: the natural world. Studying Phenology Discerning the workings of the natural world in seasonal timing has a long history. The roots of the word are the Greek words phaino, meaning to show or appear, and logos, to study. It's from phaino, too, that we get phenomenon, and traditionally phenology has consisted of the study of the timing of biological phenomena in nature and the relationship of these phenomena with Earth's environment, particularly the climate. The Belgian botanist Charles Morren argued that like meteorology, botany, zoology, physiology, and anthropology, this merited being a scientific discipline unto itself: phenology. He is credited with the first use of the term at a public lecture at the Belgian Royal Academy of Sciences at Brussels in 1849. Biologist John O'Keefe has recorded phenological details about trees at Harvard Forest for decades. Mushrooms, moss, and fallen leaves color the forest floor. 26 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 Newly expanded foliage provides a bright green crown for the witness tree. MELISSA LEVANGIE Witness Tree 27 swallows and cuckoos, rooks building nests, and all manner of plant activity, from flowering snowdrops, wood anemones, and hawthorns to leafing birches, elms, oaks, beech, and horse chestnut. The recording duty passed from one generation of Marsham's descendants to another until the death of Mary Marsham in 1958. Mainstream science left phenology aside long ago. But it's being rediscovered, as researchers look for evidence of climate change in the seasonal calendar of living things. Old photographs, records of birding and garden clubs, even art and literature reveal changes subtle in the moment but visible over time. The daffodil of Shakespeare has advanced its bloom time so drastically as to no longer fit its literary frame: \"Daffodils, That come before the swallow dares, and take The winds of March with beauty,\" Shakespeare wrote in The Winter's Tale. March. Not in January. And certainly not at Christmas, as happened in 2015 when the United Kingdom witnessed its warmest start to December in 50 years, The Guardian reported. At this rate, Britain's native daffodil, the Lent lily [Narcissus pseudonarcissus]--named Author Lynda V. Mapes takes notes aloft in the century-old red oak. for its expected February?March bloom Phenology's roots are in old-style, hands-on time--is going to need a new name. Of course observation like John's, practiced long before this just confirms what the gardeners, the hikers, the outdoorsmen and women of every the term phenology was invented. The longest sort already know from their own sense of a continuous written phenological record is probably marking the first flowering of cherry trees fraying natural order. Reliable patterns of at the royal court of Kyoto, Japan, dating back nature's pageant are slipping their chronology. to AD 705. In Europe, French records of grape Phenology Plus Technology harvest dates in Burgundy stretch back to 1370, For Andrew Richardson, John O'Keefe's records and have been used by scientists to reconstruct offer valuable data he uses to explore the effects spring-summer temperatures back into the of climate change on tree physiology and Middle Ages. seasonal timing of the forest canopy. The object In England, Robert Marsham in 1736 began is to probe the forest at a variety of scales, from recording what he called his \"Twenty One Indications of Spring\" at his country estate in individual trees to the forest, region, and biosphere. The data from John's weekly walks Norfolk. He tracked the seasonal stirrings of has also helped Andrew deploy phenology as a animal life: croaking frogs and toads, singing lens on the workings of the forest in a whole nightjars, pigeons and nightingales, arriving 28 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 new way--and brought new relevance to John's work. It all got started when Andrew was at the University of New Hampshire, working with his colleagues making measurements of the daily and seasonal rhythms of carbon dioxide exchange between the trees and the atmosphere-- the breathing of the forest. He was using instruments at the top of a 90-foot-tall tower in the Bartlett Experimental Forest in the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Then he had a hunch there were a lot of other things he could also be measuring to get a better idea of how the ecosystem Professor Andrew Richardson examines a core extracted from a tree worked. Which, in a project in Harvard Forest. meeting one day, led to a conversation with one of Andrew's collaborators. Voila: spring, pinpointed from the pixel mix. What, they wondered, about putting a camera Now the team could track the development of on the tower, with the thought that at the very the canopy all the way into summer, with every least they would get cool pictures of the forest day's incremental growth in the leaves showing canopy through the seasons for presentations up as increasing numbers of green pixels. And at science talks? come fall, the camera's pixilated signals of leaf They figured they would also probably be able coloring and drop were just as clear. Suddenly, to tell when the leaves came out and when they big swaths of landscape could be remotely monitored for seasonal development, over the Web, fell off, which would also be useful for estimating growing season length, key information for from anywhere. scientists studying how much carbon forests It was a breakthrough. Here was the possibility of creating a whole new kind of observatory: pack away. Within a few weeks they installed a remote, digital observatory, with a network what was then a state of the art camera, beaming its images over a wireless connection back of cameras that could monitor the rhythm of to a server on campus. When the first images the seasons as they transformed the land, over came in over the Internet to their computers, as large an area as the cameras could be placed, they were delighted that, dinky as it was, the with the information streamed to a central camera was performing just as they hoped. Sudserver where the data could be shared, archived, denly, they could monitor their remote field site and analyzed. Andrew dubbed it the PhenoCam from their desks. That got Andrew thinking. network. There had never been anything like it. The next summer, Andrew asked a PhD stuIn less than a year, Andrew found funding dent, Julian Jenkins, whether he thought he to start a small PhenoCam network to observe could use computer analysis to spot the beginforest phenology across northern New Engning of spring green-up in the images. In just land and adjacent Canada. That was in 2007. days, Julian created a computer program that Then the National Science Foundation (NSF) converted the red, blue, and green pixels in the in 2011 provided money that allowed the team camera image to numeric values. He then could to expand the monitoring network. Next, in count the amount of greenness in an image. 2013, NSF kicked in more money that the team Witness Tree 29 Observation towers in Harvard Forest hold cameras and other devices for research studies. used to involve volunteers in interpreting and analyzing more than 5 million images streaming into a network by then grown to some 250 sites across North America, uploading images at least once an hour, seven days a week, during daylight hours. The cameras were all over the place, from instrument towers such as those in the Harvard Forest to weather stations and building tops, from forests to tundra to Hawaiian grasslands and the desert southwest. The PhenoCam network brought the phenological tradition of Robert Marsham, Thomas Jefferson, Henry David Thoreau, and Aldo Leopold into the digital age. What would Jefferson have given for a PhenoCam on his beloved gardens, instead of having to wait for letters from Monticello to fill him in on what was in leaf and in flower. We even put a camera for the network under my red oak. Visit it at http:\/\/harvardforest.fas.harvard. edu\/webcams\/witness-tree Here was the ability to see the forest not only up close, from tree to tree, as John does, but at scale. The proverbial forest for the trees. Researchers are no longer limited only to what can be seen on foot, or the occasional imagery of a satellite, available only intermittently and from a great distance. Not surprisingly, Andrew and his collaborators are still figuring out what to do with so young a method. Their work keeps turning up surprises. New Insights on Climate Change Trevor Keenan, now at the Lawrence Berkeley National Lab, with Andrew published a paper in 2015 showing that the timing of spring and fall are connected, but not in the way widely 30 Arnoldia 74\/4 ? May 2017 The witness tree red oak stands leafless in late autumn. supposed. Conventional wisdom--and many climate models--held that the warmer temperatures that brought on an earlier spring would also mean a later fall, and a longer and longer growing season. But Trevor and Andrew found out that the timing of autumn correlates more closely with the onset of spring than with temperature or day length. Spring, it turned out, exerted a strong control on the timing of fall, somewhat offsetting the effect of warming. The findings do not imply a growing season of fixed length, as the relationship between spring onset and autumn senescence they discovered was not one to one. Rather their results suggested that current models don't include the effects of spring on autumn, leading to an over-prediction of the extension of the growing seasons by as much as 50 percent under future warming scenarios. \"It was a eureka moment,\" Trevor said. Struck by the importance of their initial findings, Trevor scaled up to investigate seasonal trends on the entire east coast. The same pattern still held true. There are several possible explanations. \"Plants know from the history of their ancestors how long their timeline is,\" Trevor said. \"So it makes sense they would have some mechanism built into their optimum function, to have a pre-programmed senescence ... The question is how quickly can they learn to change and Witness Tree 31 detect that the environment around them has changed?\" Another theory is that once trees have filled up their carbon stores they are finished with their work for the year, even though the weather is still fine. \"They have been as productive as they need to be for the year,\" Trevor said. \"They are done.\" For me the idea of seasons lasting longer than the leaves could stay on the trees was a lot to take in. There is something unnatural about it--because of course, it is unnatural. It's a human-caused forcing of the climate system, imposed on a natural physiological cycle with its own timing. There are two seasons now: the seasons of living things, and the seasons made by us. Trevor expected that in time the trees would catch up, using their ability to adapt to take advantage of longer growing seasons, as trees do further south. The question is how fast. Long term carbon sequestration measurements at the Harvard Forest also show that trees at the Forest, dominated by red oak, have been growing faster since the 1990s, as global average temperatures and carbon dioxide levels began their most rapid rise. By now, red oak is putting on more mass than any other tree species in the Forest, and faster. True, that is partly just red oak's nature. The relatively young age of the forest, still recovering from the deforestation of the nineteenth century, also makes for this strong growth. But the red oak's surge is also the result of climate change, manifest in warmer temperatures on average in winter, increased rainfall, and growing seasons lasting longer than at any point in the last two decades. With the millions of microscopic openings on their leaves, called stomata (from the Greek stoma, for mouth), trees also are speaking truth about the effects of the changing atmosphere. Water vapor, carbon dioxide, and oxygen all move in and out of leaves through these openings, creating a survival challenge. But Andrew and Trevor documented in another widely-read published paper that at higher carbon dioxide levels trees, including red oak at the Harvard Forest, are working more efficiently. They don't open their stomata as much or as often to take in the carbon dioxide they need. That means they can make as much and even more food while using less water. It also suggests a shift in the physiology of trees, with profound implications for everything from water cycling to climate. Trees like my big oak are changing their inner workings, using less water even as they put on more growth as temperatures warm and carbon dioxide levels rise. From the sky and its atmosphere to the seasonal timing and growth rate of trees and, deeper still, all the way into the photosynthetic process of individual leaves, human fingerprints are now on the most grand to the most intimate scales of our planet. You could see all this even within one tree. The big oak's witness was clear: Our world is already changing. Acknowledgements The author is grateful to the Knight Program in Science Journalism at MIT for the purchase of the PhenoCam under the witness tree at the Harvard Forest and to the Harvard Forest for keeping it online. To learn more about the witness tree project see http:\/\/harvardforest.fas. harvard.edu\/witness-tree Sources Keenan, T. F., G. Bohrer, D. Dragoni, J. W. Munger, H. P. Schmid, and A. D. Richardson. 2013. Increasing forest water use efficiency as atmospheric carbon dioxide concentrations rise. Nature 499: 324?327. Keenan, T. F. and A. D. Richardson. 2015. The timing of autumn senescence is affected by the timing of spring phenology: implications for predictive models. Global Change Biology 21: 2634?2641. Morton, O. Eating the Sun: How Plants Power the Planet. 2008. New York: Harper Perennial. Richardson, A. D., T. A. Black, P. Ciais, N. Delbart, M. A. Friedl, N. Gobron, D. Y. Hollinger, et al. 2010. Influence of spring and autumn phenological transitions on forest ecosystem productivity. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society, Series B 365: 3227?3246. Lynda V. Mapes is the environment reporter at the Seattle Times and the author of Witness Tree. Her research was supported by a Knight Fellowship in Science Journalism at MIT and a Bullard Fellowship in Forest Research at the Harvard Forest. For more on Lynda's experience and the book visit http:\/\/lyndavmapes.com. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Through the Seasons with Sassafras","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25620","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eb36d.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":4,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Through the Seasons with Sassafras Nancy Rose S assafras (Sassafras albidum) is an admirable tree any time of the year. Native to most of the eastern United States as well as far southern Ontario, sassafras is a mediumsized (typically 30 to 60 feet [9 to 18 meters] tall) deciduous tree with an attractive tiered branching habit. It may form dense, shrubby thickets as suckers arise from its shallow, wide-spreading, lateral root system, especially in sites like old farm fields where it has room to spread. Sassafras is primarily dioecious, bearing staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers on separate plants. Blooming in early to mid spring, the fragrant yellow flowers are borne in clusters that, en masse, put on quite a show despite the relatively small size (about 1\/3 inch [8 millimeters] in diameter) of individual flowers. Sassafras fruits are rather striking: ovoid, deep blue drupes cupped in fleshy, cherry red pedicels that often persist after the fruit has dropped or been eaten. Sassafras albidum has unusual foliage--its leaves may display three distinct morphologies, all of which may be present on the same tree. The three leaf shapes are 1) an unlobed oval, 2) a two-lobed \"mitten,\" with one large lobe and a smaller \"thumb\" lobe, and 3) a threelobed, trident-like form. Sassafras foliage is a pleasant-enough light green in summer, but its autumn coloration in shades of yellow, orange, and red is truly spectacular. The foliage also has a culinary aspect; fil? powder, a flavoring and thickening agent used in Creole gumbo, is made of young sassafras leaves, dried and finely ground. Sassafras is also a food plant for caterpillars of spicebush swallowtail and tiger swallowtail butterflies. Young sassafras twigs are olive green and, when scratched, emit a lemony, slightly medicinal odor. Mature bark on trunks is orangish brown and deeply furrowed. The yellowish wood is light and somewhat brittle, however, it is fairly rot resistant and so has been used to make barrels, fence posts, and other items. Oil of sassafras is extracted primarily from the bark of sassafras roots and has been used for medicines, fragrances, and flavorings, including for root beer. Sassafras is a member of the laurel family (Lauraceae), a group of mostly tropical trees and shrubs. There are just three species in the genus Sassafras. In addition to the North American S. albidum there are two similar looking species in Asia, S. tzumu from China and S. randaiense, endemic to Taiwan. Another familiar temperate region genus in the family is Lindera, the spicebushes. Scratch the stem of the native North American spicebush (Lindera benzoin) and you'll smell a lemony-medicinal fragrance similar to sassafras. For all its ornamental attributes you'd think sassafras would be more widely planted. Perhaps the main reason it's not on every street corner is that it's a bit difficult to propagate and transplant. Stem cuttings do not root readily, so propagation is done from seeds, which require stratification, or from root cuttings. Fortunately, container-grown sassafras can be found at some nurseries, especially those specializing in native plants. Sassafras grows best in moist, well-drained sandy loam but also tolerates other soils as long as they're well drained. It is generally cold hardy through USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20?F [-23.3 to -28.9?C]). There are currently ten specimens of Sassafras albidum growing in the Arboretum. The most prominent of these is a group (22915-A, B, C, and E) growing right along Bussey Hill Road across from the lilac collection. This is a a great-looking grove of sassafras, but unfortunately their exact provenance is unknown (they were accessioned in 1950 as \"existing plants\"). We do have several accessions of known provenance, including one (968-A) collected from a woods near the Arboretum in 1884, but we also hope to add more wild-collected accessions of this beautiful native tree as part of our ongoing Campaign for the Living Collections. Nancy Rose is the editor of Arnoldia. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23454","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ea728.jpg","title":"2017-74-4","volume":74,"issue_number":4,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Rise and Fall of the Ornamental Callery Pear Tree","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25617","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eab6b.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":3,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Culley, Theresa M.","article_content":"ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Rise and Fall of the Ornamental Callery Pear Tree Theresa M. Culley O ne of the most notable heralds of spring in the eastern United States is the profuse blooming of ornamental pear trees in front yards and along city streets. The Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), and particularly its many cultivars such as `Bradford', `Cleveland Select', and `Aristocrat', has become one of the most popular ornamental trees in North America. However, its commercial success has now become overshadowed by its tendency to spread along roadways and into natural areas through reseeding. Today this tree is considered invasive in many states, in stark contrast to how it grows in its native range in Asia. How did this tree become the scourge of land managers across North America? What has led to its fall from grace? To understand this fascinating story, we need to start at the beginning. Seeds From China Plant collector Frank N. Meyer in China in 1908. Toward the end of the nineteenth century, farming began to replace ranching in the western United States and there was a growing demand for improved crops that could thrive there. The United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) began to focus on importing new plants for testing and, in 1898, created the Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction Office. The mission of this office, headed by David Fairchild, was to locate and import economically important plants from other regions of the world. Fairchild was especially interested in China, which was thought to possess a wealth of unexplored botanical resources. Chinese plants were also expected to grow well in the United States because China's climate is very similar to that in the United States. In the early 1900s, Fairchild began searching for plant explorers who had the dedication and stamina to tolerate the physical discomforts and social isolation of travelling for months in distant lands. He found Frank N. Meyer (1875? 1918), a Dutch immigrant and former gardener who had a deep fascination with plants and saw nothing unusual about walking hundreds of miles on a botanical foray. Meyer eventually spent over ten years traveling across Asia looking for useful and valuable plants, seeking, in his own words, to \"skim the earth in search of things good for man.\" He eventually sent hundreds of shipments of cuttings and thousands of pounds of seeds back to the USDA. Many agricultural crops grown in the United States today, including certain grains, legumes, and fruits, resulted from Meyer's collections. But before he began his first Chinese expedition in 1905, Meyer visited several United States gardens to become familiar with Chi- ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Pyrus calleryana 3 The search for new plants from other countries became more urgent in the early 1900s when valuable orchards of the edible French pear (Pyrus communis) were being decimated by fire blight in the Pacific Northwest. This bacterial disease blackened leaves and branch tips of infected trees as if they were scorched by fire, eventually killing large fruit trees, and it was quickly spreading throughout the region. In the hopes of breeding resistance to fire blight into P. communis, Professor Frank C. Reimer of the Southern Oregon Experiment Station hastily began testing all available Pyrus species and varieties for resistance to this devastating disease. The initial results proved disappointing, so a call was put out to locate Pyrus species in Ernest H. Wilson made this photo of a 40-foot-tall Pyrus calleryana tree in a Chinese botanical garden on April 7, 1909. nese plants in their collections. He was most impressed with the Arnold Arboretum's collection and he met director Charles Sprague Sargent, who was keenly interested in Meyer's travels but who also had a complex and often difficult relationship with Fairchild. Meyer clearly respected the Arnold Arboretum--he once requested that his Chinese material be sent there instead of to a USDA station because he felt it would receive better care. However, Meyer's relationship with the Arnold's plant explorer Ernest H. Wilson was somewhat uneasy at first, likely because they first viewed each other as competitors since Sargent had also asked Meyer to collect for the Arboretum during his Chinese expeditions. While Meyer was willing to oblige, this arrangement would sometimes place Meyer in an awkward situation because Sargent's emphasis on capturing the diversity of the Chinese flora was often at odds with Fairchild's directive to focus only on economically important species. This 1890 USDA illustration shows a stem of the edible pear (Pyrus communis) cultivar `Le Conte' that had been inoculated with fire blight bacteria twelve days prior. The terminal \"shepherd's crook\" and blackened leaves are characteristic of fire blight. From the USDA Pomological Watercolor Collection, National Agricultural Library, Special Collections. Pyrus calleryana is simply a marvel. One finds it growing under all sorts of conditions; one time on dry, sterile mountain slopes; then again with its roots in standing water at the edge of a pond; sometimes in open pine forest, then again among scrub on blue-stone ledges in the burning sun; sometimes in low bamboo-jungle ... and then again along the course of a fast flowing mountain stream or in the occasionally burned-over slope of a pebbly hill. The tree is nowhere found in groves; always as scattered specimens, and but very few large trees were seen. In 1917, Reimer himself joined Meyer in China and they traveled together for several days, with Meyer showing Reimer the locations of Pyrus calleryana trees he had found. In his report, Reimer's amazement at this plant is evident, which also heralded his eventual emphasis on the species as rootstock: In its ability to endure diverse and adverse soil conditions, this species certainly is a marvel ... I found it growing in all the various soil types ... Flowers, leaves, and fruits of Pyrus calleryana collected in China and photographed by Frank Meyer in April 1917. Meyer's description of the photo from his South China Exploration typescript: \"Pyrus calleryana, natural size. A somewhat small-flowering type of a wild Calleryana pear, with rather tomentose foliage, which isn't full grown yet. Three fruits of last year's crop has persisted on the tree during the whole winter and spring. Note the very small size, on which account the Chinese call it the \"T'ang li\" or crab-apple pear, as these small fruits, with deciduous calyx, resemble the tiny apples of Malus spectabilis and M. baccata to a surprising degree.\" USDA NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY, SPECIAL COLLECTIONS other parts of the world that might be fire blight resistant. Many plant explorers, including E. H. Wilson and Emil Bretschneider, traveled to Asia in the early 1900s, in part to locate new Pyrus species, often with the material sent back to the Arnold Arboretum. In 1908, Wilson first introduced P. calleryana into the United States with several seed lots accessioned and grown at the Arnold Arboretum. In 1916, between his Chinese expeditions, Meyer visited the Pacific Northwest where he saw for himself the extensive fire blight destruction. He now understood the importance of his work because he learned from Reimer that resistance had only been found in the wild Chinese pear species P. calleryana and P. ussuriensis. However, Reimer needed more material for testing and Meyer agreed to collect and send back over 100 pounds of wild P. calleryana seeds during his next expedition. This was no small task since 25 pounds of cleaned seeds required at least 5,000 pounds of fruit. During his subsequent months in China, Meyer focused much of his effort on Pyrus calleryana. He painstakingly collected thousands of the marble-sized pear fruits in the field or bought them directly from local Chinese. He later wrote Fairchild that: USDA NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL LIBRARY, SPECIAL COLLECTIONS 4 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 Frank Meyer photographed the environmentally adaptable Pyrus calleryana growing in a number of distinct habitats in China including along waterways with roots in standing water, in crevices in shale rock, within a dense jungle of bamboo, and, seen here, in shrubby, dwarfed form on a dry mountain top. ranging from heavy clays to light sandy soils and disintegrated rock. I found it growing in shallow ponds, along streams, well-drained moist loams, and on very dry poor hillsides and hilltops. In places it was observed where the layers of soil above the bedrock was not more than eight inches deep. THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Pyrus calleryana 5 Upon his return, Reimer continued to work with other plant explorers to obtain Pyrus calleryana seeds for further testing. Tragically, Meyer never returned to the United States, drowning in the Yangtze River in late 1918 just as he was beginning his trip home. However, his much-anticipated collection of P. calleryana seeds was shipped back in his absence, to complete the task that he had begun years earlier. It is from many of these seeds that our story continues. `Bradford', the First Callery Pear Cultivar Over the next few years, Chinese seeds collected by Meyer and Reimer were planted in large numbers--primarily at the USDA Plant Introduction Stations at Corvallis, Oregon, and Glenn Dale, Maryland--to test their resistance to fire blight. Over time, interest in the species turned to its ability to serve as rootstock for the economically valuable edible French pear. For example, Reimer also saw that under favorable conditions in China, the tree \"is a rapid, vigorous grower, has a long growing season, and its leaves remain green and lusty until very late in the fall.\" In central China, the trees were often cut off for firewood every few years but they would put out \"new sprouts from the stumps and continue to live for many years.\" These wild trees also typically produced prominent thorns (actually sharp spur shoots) that effectively protected against herbivory. The species seemed to be adapted to mild climates, with Reimer suggesting, \"It is quite probable that it will not endure very severe winter climates.\" However, he also wrote that trees that originated from China had proved to be very hardy at the Arnold Arboretum over 10 years, despite the more severe winters near Boston compared to the native range in China. THERESA M. CULLEY Herbarium specimen of P. calleryana growing at the Arnold Arboretum in May 1918. The tree was grown from seeds collected in China by Ernest H. Wilson in April 1908. \"Thorns\" are naturally produced by both Callery pear trees in China and wild trees in the United States. This structure is technically a spur, a short, pointed shoot bearing leaves or flowers. Most Callery pear cultivars were selected in part for thornlessness. THERESA M. CULLEY THERESA M. CULLEY 6 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 for resistance to fire blight, overall vigor, and stock-scion compatibility with P. communis. In 1952, one of the remaining 33-year-old trees of Pyrus calleryana from Meyer's Chinese seeds that was still growing near the Plant Introduction Station in Glenn Dale caught the eye of John Creech of the USDA (Creech 1973). This tree had thick, glossy leaves and an attractive globular form, with a lack of sharp spurs so typical of the species. Recognizing its potential as a landscaping tree, Creech grafted scions of it onto P. calleryana rootstock. This method of propagation means that every tree is genetically identical to the original mother tree. Creech named this cultivar `BradA typical `Bradford' Callery pear flowering in early spring. This tree has already lost a limb and the homeowner has tied straps around the inside ford', in honor of F. C. Bradford, branches in an attempt to prevent further breakage. the former horticulturist in charge of the Glenn Dale USDA station (Whitehouse et al. 1963). (Incidentally, the original `Bradford' tree was destroyed years later to make way for a parking lot). In 1954, Creech planted two-yearold `Bradford' clones in a nearby residential subdivision in University Park, Maryland, for a street tree study. `Bradford' swiftly became quite popular for its rapid growth, attractive foliage that was retained into late fall, extremely showy and abundant flowers in early spring, and its overall hardiness. The cultivar was commercially released around 1961 and then planted widely across the eastern United States in residential areas. However, by the early 1980s probA `Bradford' tree in West Chester, Ohio, that split during the winds of Hurlems with `Bradford' pears began ricane Ike in September 2008. to appear, especially a tendency for Reimer wrote that \"thousands of seedlings older trees to break apart during windstorms have been grown\" in the Pacific Northwest or under heavy snow loads. Its branching structure was to blame, as described by horticulturfrom Meyer's original seed \"to test this species ist Michael Dirr (1998), \" `Bradford' tends to thoroughly as a stock for our cultivated varieties.\" In Glenn Dale, Meyer's seeds were also develop rather tight crotches and I have seen planted out in large numbers to test the plants trees that were literally split in half ... the plant More Callery Pear Cultivars Appear Over the next few decades, additional P. calleryana cultivars were quickly introduced as improved replacements for older `Bradford' trees that had begun to split. For example, `Whitehouse', a narrow columnar form with a strong central leader, was selected in 1969 from seedlings still growing near the Plant Introduction Station in Glenn Dale. This cultivar presumably began as a seed from the original `Bradford' tree that had been pollinated by one of Fall foliage color on Callery pear cultivars and seedlings ranges from yellow the other wild P. calleryana plants at to bright red and purple. the station. Similarly, `Redspire' also arose as a `Bradford' seedling and was patented in 1975. At the opposite side of the country, `Autumn Blaze' was selected in 1969 from among several hundred seedlings of P. calleryana growing at the rootstock research nursery in Corvallis. This cultivar, known for its striking red to purple leaf coloration in the fall, originated from seeds that Reimer had brought back from China during his trip with Meyer in 1917 or later in 1919. Other cultivars such as `Avery Park' and `Grant St. Yellow' also originated in the late 1960s and 1970s near Corvallis, most likely from Chinese seeds imported into that area. Callery pear cultivars became extremely popular as urban street trees in the Over time, additional cultivars eastern United States. arose from other areas of the country, presumably from different seed sources. These and other Callery pear cultivars became For example, `Aristocrat' arose in Indepenexceedingly popular as ornamental landscapdence, Kentucky, while the cultivars `Cleveland ing trees for residential and commercial use. Select', `Chanticleer', and `Stone Hill' were all Not only were they beautiful, fast growing, and derived from the same street tree in Cleveland, inexpensive, but they were also extremely tolerant of very difficult growing conditions. In Ohio. The cultivar `Valzam' was found growing commercial areas, for example, the tree could among `Cleveland Select' trees in Perry, Ohio in thrive in the harsh conditions of parking lot 1975--most likely an offspring of that cultivar islands and between streets and sidewalks, but with unknown paternity. THERESA M. CULLEY will ... fall apart because of the development of many branches around a common length of the trunk.\" LESLIE J. MEHRHOFF, UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT, BUGWOOD.ORG Pyrus calleryana 7 8 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 where temperatures were excessively high and water was scarce. Following the tragic events of September 11, 2001, when the World Trade Center's twin towers fell in New York City, a Callery pear tree at the site was found still alive but severely burned with damaged roots and branches. Known today as the \"Survivor Tree,\" it was rescued from the site, taken to a local nursery to recover, and later replanted back in the memorial park at Ground Zero as a symbol of resilience. In 2005, `Chanticleer' was chosen as the Urban Tree of the Year by the Society of Municipal Arborists, who noted that, \"This tree has all of the character and quality of a sheared topiary specimen plus, of course, the magnificence of its spring, summer, and fall outer garments-- the white flower, crisp glossy green summer foliage, and full fall color.\" Some homeowners associations in areas of the United States even had a requirement that a specific Callery pear cultivar had to be planted in each front yard. In fact, the Callery pear had become so popular that Michael Dirr lamented in 1989 that \"cookie-cutter Bradfords ... inhabit almost every city and town to some degree or another; the tree has reached epidemic proportions and is over-planted.\" In 2009 alone, the species generated over $23 million in sales across the country (USDA 2010), including continuing sales of `Bradford'. Although the majority of commercial sales occurred in the eastern and southern United States, cultivars were also available along the western coastal states. The tree had reached its epitome of fame and glory. The Fall From Grace As `Bradford' and other Callery pear cultivars surged in popularity, early indications of problems began to appear. Pyrus calleryana had escaped cultivation as early as 1964 in Arkansas and 1965 in Maryland (Vincent 2005), but it was not until the 1990s that the species began to be more widely noticed in natural areas, especially in southern states. For example, Michael Vincent of Miami University (Ohio) examined 300 P. calleryana herbarium specimens collected across the nation beginning in 1964. He found that 1% of all specimens were collected in each of the periods 1964?1969 and 1970?1979 before a dramatic increase began in 1980?1989 (17% of all specimens), continuing through 1990?1999 (31%), and mounting rapidly in the last three years of the study, 2000?2003 (50%). By the late 1990s, members of several Internet gardening forums began noting the increasing numbers of wild pears beside roadways along the midAtlantic coast, largely in the Maryland area. By the middle of the twenty-first century's first decade, thousands of young wild pear seedlings were growing undetected in the roadside vegetation across the southern and eastern United States. But as they began to flower in their third or later year, their profuse early spring blooms started to give them away. As each successive year revealed more and more wild pears blooming, public alarm began to sound. Land managers began to notice wild pears appearing in all types of habitats--along forest edges, in wetland areas, and even within forests. This is not surprising given Meyer's and Reimer's remarks about the many different habitats where P. calleryana is found in its native range. In the United States, word eventually began to spread of not only the slippery mess caused by pear fruits littering sidewalks, the difficulty in removing dense stands of thorny trees in natural areas, and the putrid smell of the flowers, but also increasing concern of liability caused by falling tree limbs damaging property and injuring people. Pyrus calleryana (often indicated as just \"Bradford pear\") began to appear on watch lists and invasive plant lists in several eastern and southern states. But why had this pear, which had behaved for decades as a popular landscaping tree, suddenly start to spread uncontrollably? The answer lies in the reproductive system of the species as well as its horticultural history. As with most other pears, Pyrus calleryana has a genetically controlled self-incompatibility system that prevents individual trees from pollinating themselves, thus requiring outcrossing among unrelated individuals. When `Bradford' was first introduced and became so wildly popular, `Bradford' trees were unable to cross-pollinate (since they were all genetically identical) and fruits were never produced. As additional cultivars were introduced they were often commercially marketed as \"self-sterile\" JOE BOGGS Pyrus calleryana 9 THERESA M. CULLEY Invasive population of wild Callery pears grows in a field next to Interstate I-75 in Butler County, Ohio. When two or more Callery pear cultivars are planted nearby, abundant fruits are usually produced. or even \"seedless\"--this was true, as long as each cultivar was grown in isolation. Cultivar patents and promotional material included notes such as \"[fruit set] very low (about 5 to 10%), usually only one fruit per cluster\" (`Autumn Blaze'); \"little or no fruit and the fruit that is produced is small and hard\" (`Trinity'); and \"self-sterile\" with fruits typically not abundant and only produced when \"planted near another clone\"(`Aristocrat'). The last point is the lynchpin of this story. Although each Callery pear cultivar cannot produce fruits on its own, fruits can easily develop when two or more cultivars--which are genetically different and therefore cross compatible--are planted together (Culley and Hardiman 2007). Cross-pollination is promoted by insect pollinators, especially bees, which frequently fly over a mile each day visiting all flowers within their range. This has a large impact on the magnitude of the pear problem. For example, if a large residential area only contains `Bradford' trees, no fruits would be formed. But if a new resident moves in and plants a single `Aristocrat' in her yard, that new tree now has the potential to cross-pollinate all the `Bradford' trees within a mile-wide range, and vice-versa. This could trigger a sudden outburst of fruit within a single year. Such massive fruiting may even go undetected at first because some people expect any pear, including P. calleryana, to produce large edible fruits like a `Bartlett' pear, and they do not recognize the small fruits of Callery pear. During the winter months, these fruits are consumed by birds that then defecate the seeds as they fly or roost in trees or along power lines, thereby spreading the species into new areas. In fact, genetic analysis of new wild Callery pear populations have confirmed that wild plants are typically F1 hybrids of cultivars planted in the surrounding residential and commercial areas (Culley and Hardiman 2009). In older populations, such as near the Glenn Dale station where `Bradford' was first discovered, wild pear populations largely consist of advanced generation hybrids. Cross pollination between mature specimens of Callery pear cultivars is not the only way fruit production can occur. To maintain their genetic identity, Callery pear cultivars are clonally produced by vegetative propagation. Stem cuttings of Callery pears are difficult to root so most trees are propagated for commercial sale by grafting. In this process, the scion material of the selected cultivar is grafted onto THERESA M. CULLEY LESLIE J. MEHRHOFF, UNIVERSITY OF CONNECTICUT, BUGWOOD.ORG 10 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 to come from a landscape planting of multiple cultivars or even from a single grafted tree. In a genetic parentage study of a wild Callery pear population in southwestern Ohio, it was discovered that at least 17% of wild trees had a rootstock parent (Culley et al. 2011). The Future The introduced range of Pyrus calleryana in the United States is currently restricted by the species' limited cold tolerance, as predicted decades ago by Reimer and Meyer. However, hardier cultivars are now being developed that will expand A flock of European starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) eats Callery pear fruits in Callery pear's landscape presence. a parking lot. In addition, wild Callery pear is expected to continue to spread northward as global climate change causes shifts in warmer temperatures. In fact, wild Callery pears have already been observed around Madison, Wisconsin (USDA Hardiness Zone 5a), an area where they were thought never to survive. What can be done to prevent the continued spread of the wild Callery pear? First, Callery pear cultivars need to be carefully phased out of commercial production and replaced with suitable alternatives. The latter is critical, as it would allow plant breeders and the nursery industry to recoup any economic loss and remain profitable. In fact, sterile varieties of P. calleryana are curThe rootstock of commercially grafted Callery pear trees can occasionally rently being developed. Second, as sprout. If left to grow and flower, the rootstock can cross-pollinate the upper cultivated trees within the landscape scion of the tree. break apart or decline they should be replaced with these alternatives. This is rootstock, which is usually P. calleryana seedsomething already happening in many towns lings. The two sections grow together, resulting nationwide, as Callery pears are being replaced in a tree composed of two genotypes. Occasionwith different tree species. Finally, if homeally, the rootstock of a planted Callery pear owners choose to keep cultivated Callery pears cultivar may develop shoots that eventually growing in their yards, they must take responsiflower. In such a case, the rootstock now has bility for ensuring that fruits are not produced. the potential to cross-pollinate the upper scion Callery pear fruit production can be reduced of the same tree, triggering fruit production. So as much as 95% by spraying flowering trees it is possible for a wild population of pear trees Pyrus calleryana 11 with ethephon, a plant growth regulator that does not affect the flowers' appearance but does make them incapable of developing into fruit. But even if all these suggestions could be accomplished, the sad reality is that wild Callery pear will continue to be a growing problem in the years to come because so many cultivars and their rootstock are already established in the landscape. Today, the Callery pear story is another example of how even the best of human intentions can go awry. The pear was introduced into the United States for the best of reasons-- to save the valuable crop of P. communis on the West Coast from fire blight in the 1920s. Decades later, `Bradford' and other Callery pear cultivars were selected and promoted to give gardeners and landscaping professionals additional highly tolerant and attractive trees for the landscape. These were all good and sensible ideas at the time, especially since the majority of introduced species in the United States never become invasive. The resulting spread of wild P. calleryana into the American landscape was unanticipated and completely unintentional. The best that we can do today is to view the Callery pear as a lesson on the importance of considering how mixes of ornamental cultivars may contribute to invasive spread of certain species. By learning from our past history, we can better understand why certain species become invasive, and thus we can work more effectively to prevent invasive spread of species in the future. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank the many researchers, land managers, nursery professionals, and students who were invaluable in uncovering this story. Most notably, this project was sparked by Marjie Becus, who first pointed out wild Callery pear to the author during their vegetational rambles, and Robert Naczi, who mentioned the Internet discussion on the topic shortly after. The author also thanks Joe Boggs and Michael Vincent for their willingness to share their thoughts and expertise, as well as Larissa Glasser for locating Frank Reimer's original notes in the Arnold Library. This article is dedicated to the memory of Sarah Elizabeth Reichard, who was instrumental in highlighting the importance of horticultural introductions in plant invasions as well as the necessity of working with nursery interests to create practical and effective solutions. She will be missed. References Creech, J. L. 1973. Ornamental Plant Introduction-- Building On the Past. Arnoldia 33(1): 13?25. Culley, T. M. and N. A. Hardiman. 2007. The beginning of a new invasive plant: A history of the ornamental Callery Pear tree in the United States. BioScience 57: 956?964. Culley, T. M. and N. A. Hardiman. 2009. The role of intraspecific hybridization in the evolution of invasiveness: A case study of the ornamental pear tree Pyrus calleryana. Biological Invasions 11: 1107?1119. Culley, T. M., N. A. Hardiman, and J. Hawks. 2011. The role of horticulture in plant invasions: how grafting in cultivars of Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana) can facilitate spread into natural areas. Biological Invasions 13: 739?746. Cunningham, I. S. 1984. Frank N. Meyer: Plant Hunter in Asia. Ames, Iowa: The Iowa State University Press. Cunningham, I. S. 1984. Frank Meyer, Agricultural Explorer. Arnoldia 44(3): 3?26. Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses. Fifth Edition. Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Publishing L.L.C. Meyer, F. N. 1918. South China Explorations: Typescript, July 25, 1916?Setpember 21, 1918. The National Agricultural Library. Available online at: https:\/\/archive.org\/details\/ CAT10662165MeyerSouthChinaExplorations Reimer, F. C. (undated) Report of a Trip to the Orient to Collect and Study Oriental Pears. The Arnold Arboretum. United States Department of Agriculture. 2010. Census of Horticultural Species (2009). Volume 3, Part 3. Available online at: https:\/\/www.agcensus.usda. gov\/Publications\/2007\/Online_Highlights\/ Census_of_Horticulture_Specialties\/index.php Vincent, M. A. 2005. On the Spread and Current Distribution of Pyrus calleryana in the United States. Castanea 70: 20?31. Whitehouse, W.E., J.L. Creech, and G.A. Seaton (1963) Bradford Ornamental Pear--A Promising Shade Tree. American Nurseryman 117: 7?8, 56?61. Theresa Culley is a Professor of Biological Sciences at the University of Cincinnati. She also serves as a board member of the Midwest Invasive Plant Network and is a past president of the Ohio Invasive Plants Council (OIPC). She currently is the Chair of the OIPC's Invasive Plant Assessment Team for the state of Ohio. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Dye Identification in Japanese Woodblock Prints","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25616","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14eab26.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":3,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Newman, Richard; Wright, Joan; Derrick, Michele","article_content":"Plant Dye Identification in Japanese Woodblock Prints Michele Derrick, Joan Wright, Richard Newman W oodblock prints were first produced in Japan during the sixth to eighth century but it was not until the Edo period (1603?1868) that the full potential of woodblock printing as a means to create popular imagery for mass consumption developed. Known broadly as ukiyo-e, meaning \"pictures of the floating world,\" these prints depicted Kabuki actors, beautiful women, scenes from history or legend, views of Edo, landscapes, and erotica. Prints and printed books, with or without illustrations, became an integral part of daily life during this time of peace and stability. Prints produced from about the 1650s through the 1740s were printed in black line, sometimes with hand-applied color (see figure 1). These colors were predominantly mineral (inorganic) pigments supplemented by plant-based (organic) colorants. Since adding colors to a print by hand was costly and slowed production, the block carvers eventually hit upon a means to create a multicolor print using blocks that contained an \"L\" shaped groove carved into the corner and a straight groove carved further up its side in order to align the paper to be printed (see figure Figure 1. Actors Sanj Kantar II and Ichimura Takenoj IV, (MFA 11.13273), 2). These guides, called kento, are located about 1719 (Kyho 4), designed by Torii Kiyotada I, and published by in the same location on each block. They Komatsuya (31.1 x 15.3 cm). Example of a beni-e Japanese woodblock ensure consistent alignment as each color print with hand-applied color commonly made from the 1650s to 1740s. is printed onto a single sheet of paper. From the 1740s to about 1765, the first block green. From 1765 on, the skills required to use printed colors appeared on simple two- or threethe kento registration system reached a level color images (see figure 3). These benizuri-e where several color blocks could be expertly (\"red pictures\") utilized red, blue, or yellow; printed and full-color nishiki-e or \"brocade sometimes these colors were over-printed to prints\" such as those designed by Suzuki Harunobu (1725?1770) became the standard create the secondary colors purple, orange, and Plant Dye Identification 13 Figure 2. A Japanese woodblock that illustrates the `L' shaped kento groove added in the corners of each block to aid in the alignment of the paper for printing multiple colors. (see figure 4). Vibrant full-color prints designed by well-known artists such as Torii Kiyonaga (1752?1815) and Kitagawa Utamaro (1753?1806), produced and marketed by the great publishing houses of Tsutaya Juzaburo and Nishimura Yohachi, defined the period from 1781?1801, which is often referred to as the Golden Age of the Japanese woodblock print (see figures 5 and 6). Figure 3. Actor Ichikawa Danz III as Adachi Hachir, (MFA 11.19030), 1762 (H?reki 12) 11th month, designed by Torii Kiyomitsu I, and published by Urokogataya Magobei (30.2 x 14.2 cm). Example of a benizuri-e Japanese woodblock print with a 3-color palette commonly made from the 1740s to 1765. 14 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 tures, and seals on the print into the Museum System collections database (TMS), enabling our current research as well as numerous exhibitions and publications. Of additional significance, the collection holds a number of multiple impressions of a single image, thus providing an ideal setting to identify, survey, and understand the organic and inorganic colorants used in traditional Japanese color woodblock printing. In 2013, the Asian Conservation and Scientific Research divisions began a large-scale survey of the colorants used in the MFA collection of Japanese prints. This effort uses only nondestructive techniques, which means no samples are required of the prints that are formed by minimal levels of colorants absorbed into their paper fibers. The first two techniques used for this study are standard methods used in museum labs: X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) and Fiber Optic Reflectance Spectroscopy (FORS). A new and previously little-used technique of Excitation-Emission Matrix (EEM), or 3D, fluorescence spectroscopy was also used to successfully characterize several additional dyes. Colorants The plant-based red, yellow, and blue dyes long considered to make up the palette of Japanese woodblock prints are summarized in Table 1. The list is based on various published sources, including early Japanese literature and analytical studies, and may not be comprehensive. The inorganic pigments used in the prints, such as red lead, hematite, and orpiment, can be easily estimated by XRF (see Table 2). The traditional organic blues, dayflower and indigo, can be confidently identified by FORS in the visible and near-infrared ranges. Both XRF and FORS were used in the examination of the prints discussed in this article. The unique component of this study was the use of EEM fluorescence spectroscopy to identify the yellow and red natural Figure 4. Courtesan Watching Two Kamuro Make a Snow Dog, (MFA 21.4463), about 1767?68 (Meiwa 4?5), designed by Suzuki Harunobu (28.5 x 21.8 cm). Example of full color printing, nishiki-e, characteristic of the early years from 1766?1780. Japanese Woodblock Prints at the MFA The Museum of Fine Arts (MFA), Boston, holds a collection of over 50,000 Japanese woodblock prints and illustrated books. This represents the largest number of such art works in a single location outside of Japan. In 2010, a major five-year project to accession, image, and re-house this vast collection of Japanese woodblock prints was completed with cataloguing ongoing. This project placed information about each print along with its image and the translation of any Japanese text, signa- Plant Dye Identification 15 Mass Spectrometer detector (LC\/MS). Afterward, each material was prepared by historical methods, then printed onto Japanese paper. For the materials listed in Table 1, all were available from documented sources as raw materials, except for Toringo crabapple (Malus sieboldii) and Coptis japonica, Japanese goldthread, a member of the buttercup family. Fortunately, the Arnold Arboretum generously supplied samples of branches from five Malus sieboldii specimens in their collection. In lieu of C. japonica, a sample of threeleaf goldthread (Coptis trifolia), a related species native to North America, was obtained from a biologist in Vermont. Results An initial set of 213 Japanese woodblock prints were examined at the MFA by the combined techniques of XRF, FORS, and EEM fluorescence. These prints covered the time period 1700 to 1800 (see Table 5). The goal for the analysis of the prints was to obtain an overview of the colorants used by artists active in each time period; this goal was later expanded to include information on publishers, since they were probably responsible for the final colorant decisions. Our research is ongoing and is conducted as time allows. It is hoped that the analysis Figure 5. Actors Matsumoto Kshir IV as Ukita Sakingo and Sawamura Sjr III of a more extensive set of prints will as the Ghost of Takao, with chanters Tomimoto Itsukiday? and Tomimoto Awatay?, provide definitive information on the and accompanist Sasaki Ichishir?, (MFA 11.13921), 1788 (Tenmei 8) autumn, relationships between colorants, pubdesigned by Torii Kiyonaga and published by Nishimuraya Yohachi (38.8 x 26.8 lisher, artist, and period. (See Table 6 cm). Example of full color printing, nishiki-e, characteristic of Japanese woodfor the results from the example prints block prints made from 1781 to 1801. mentioned in this article.) organic colorants on the prints. Examples of Even with this limited data set, several patterns of colorant use were consistently found the color and line contour maps obtained as for the eighteenth century time period. From results for the fluorescence analysis are shown the beginning, it was clear that the prints often in Tables 3 and 4. contained more than one yellow, red, or blue For this project, it was important to obtain colorant. Though it seems logical, since each reference materials from documented sources colorant has unique tonal properties, this findfor each of the materials to determine the best ing was significant in terms of analysis, indimethod for its identification. Once the reference samples were obtained, they were authencating it was imperative to analyze multiple ticated using Liquid Chromatography with a colored regions for each print. Because of the 16 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 PLANT SOURCE JAPANESE NAME COMMON ENGLISH NAMES PART OF PLANT USED COLOR Caesalpinia sappan suo, suwo sappanwood heartwood red Carthamus tinctorius benibana safflower florets separated from capitulum red Rubia akane akane Japanese madder roots, stems red Rubia tinctorum seiyo-akane European madder roots, stems red Berberis thunbergii megi Japanese barberry roots, stems yellow Coptis japonica; C. trifolia woren goldthread roots, stems yellow Curcuma longa (syn. C. domestica); C. aromatica ukon turmeric rhizomes yellow Gardenia jasminoides (syn. G. augusta) kuchinashi gardenia juice or extract from fruit yellow Garcinia hanburyi, G. morella shio, te-o; kusa shio gamboge resin\/powder yellow Malus sieboldii (syn. Pyrus toringo) zumi Toringo crabapple bark yellow Miscanthus tinctorius; M. sinensis kariyasu silver grass grass cut when flowering spikes form, then dried over the winter yellow Myrica rubra yama-momo mountain peach, red bayberry bark yellow Nandina domestica nanten nandina, heavenly bamboo branch yellow Phellodendron amurense kihada Amur corktree inner bark of trunk yellow Styphnolobium japonicum (syn. Sophora japonica) enju Japanese pagoda tree unopened flower buds yellow Table 1. Common Asian natural red and yellow organic colorants in Japanese woodblock prints. expansion to the use of mixtures and colorant variations from 1781 to 1801, it was common to find three types of yellow, two reds, and two blues in a single print (example figure 5). Thus, while 213 prints were studied, there were over 1,500 individual analysis points. As expected from the literature, safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) was the primary red and pink colorant used consistently for all of the time periods and methods of application. Surprisingly, however, the second most prolifically used red was madder. While the analytical methods used in these tests, could not distinguish between Japanese madder (Rubia akane) and European madder (Rubia tinctorum), one or both of these colorants were consistently found Plant Dye Identification 17 on prints in all four of the described periods with their use increasing from 20% up to 50% over the hundred-year period. The yellow colorants changed significantly over the hundred-year period from the sole use of flavonoids and gamboge during the beni-e hand-applied color period (1710?1740s) to the predominant use of turmeric and orpiment (an arsenic sulfide mineral) for the elaborate designs and techniques used for full color printing from 1781?1801. Inorganic pigments were found on most prints examined for each time period. While the use of orpiment (As2S3) increased significantly, the use of hematite (an iron oxide, Fe2O3) and lead (Pb) were constant. Other inorganic pigments were occasionally found, such as added decorations using ground metallic brass (figure 1). Vermilion, a mercurycontaining pigment commonly used for paintings, has been mentioned as a definitive colorant in Japanese printing. However, this study found only two prints containing vermilion, indicating it may not have been commonly used. Of interest to us were the compositions for purples and greens. Mixtures or overprinting transparent colors were noted in many prints from the 1740s on. In all analyzed purple regions, our results showed mixtures of safflower and dayflower (see figures 4 and 5). The presence of this mix- Figure 6. The Heron Maiden (Sagi musume) from the series An Array of Dancing Girls of the Present Day, (MFA 11.14364), 1793?94, designed by Kitagawa Utamaro I and published by Tsutaya Jzabur (Kshod). MINERAL SOURCE JAPANESE NAME COMMON ENGLISH NAMES CHEMICAL FORMULA COLOR hematite benigara red ocher Fe2O3 red red lead tan, entan red lead Pb3O4 red vermilion shu, shin-sha vermilion HgS red goethite odo yellow ocher FeO(OH) yellow orpiment kio, sekio, shio orpiment As2S3 yellow azurite iwagunjo azurite Cu3 (CO3 )2 (OH)2 blue synthetic gunjo ultramarine Na4-8 Al 6 Si 6 O24 S2-4 blue Table 2: Common natural inorganic colorants used in Japanese woodblock prints. 18 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 ture throughout the history of color printing seems to indicate that the tone obtained by mixing dayflower blue and safflower was preferred over other possible mixtures of reds and blues (for example, indigo and madder) to yield purple. The green regions varied more often, with earlier prints showing overprinting of turmeric with dayflower (figure 3) while later prints showed a more vibrant green made by mixing orpiment and indigo (figures 4 and 5). Two aspects of the results in this study seemed unusual. First, no examples of either gardenia (Gardenia jasminoides) or berberine colorants (e.g., Berberis thunbergii, Coptis japonica, Phellodendron amurense) were found in the analysis of 557 yellow spots in 213 prints. These plants, which generally grow in the highlands, have been described as common Chinese colorants that were used in the Japanese islands. The colorants were mentioned in the literature as being used for eighteenth century Japanese woodblock prints, but were not found on any prints analyzed in this preliminary study. Second, madder was found on 142 red analysis locations in 90 out of the 213 prints (42%). While madder was available in Japan and was European madder (seiko akane) On paper PMT=600 ex=550\/em=595 Japanese madder (akane) On paper PMT=675 ex=545\/em=585 E XC I TAT I O N WAV E L E N G T H (nm) Safflower (benibana) On paper PMT=630 ex=530\/em=570 Sappanwood (suo) On paper PMT=750 ex=560\/em=615 E M I S S I O N WAV E L E N G T H (nm) Table 3. Color and line contour plots for EEM fluorescent patterns of organic red Japanese colorants. Excitation and emission maxima are listed for the most intense spot. Plant Dye Identification 19 Turmeric (ukon) On paper PMT=600 ex=470\/em=525 Japanese pagoda tree (enju) On paper PMT=625 ex=450\/em=510 Gamboge (shio) On paper PMT=625 ex= -- \/em= -- E XC I TAT I O N WAV E L E N G T H (nm) Silver grass (kariyasu) On paper PMT=700 ex=455\/em=510 Amur corktree (kihada) On paper PMT=550 ex=445\/em=525 Gardenia (kuchinasi) On paper PMT=650 ex=350\/em=450 E M I S S I O N WAV E L E N G T H (nm) Table 4. Color and line contour plots for EEM fluorescent patterns of organic yellow Japanese colorants. Excitation and emission maxima are listed for the most intense spot. 20 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 1650s?1740s 1740s?1765 Hand-colored prints, Beni-e and Urushi-e 16 Limited-color prints, Benizuri-e Orpiment (As) Red ocher (Fe) Red lead (Pb) Sappanwood Madder Safflower NUMBER OF PRINTS Gamboge WOODBLOCK PRINT STYLE Flavonoid DATE RANGE PERCENT OF PRINTS CONTAINING THAT COLOR WITHIN THAT STYLE Turmeric Table 5. Summary of red and yellow organic and inorganic colorants found on 213 Japanese woodblock prints. The results are given as the percentages (%) of the EEM fluorescent pattern type, or element (as determined by XRF), attributed to the prints of each style of production. More than one type of each color was often used within the same print. Over 1,500 points were analyzed in this group of prints. 0 75756319 6 1219 0 21 622419383314141014 1766?1780 Full-color prints, Nishiki-e: First Period 80 362823783926252050 1781?1801 Full-color prints, Nishiki-e: Golden Age 96 72 7 1 915111201471 used prolifically as a textile colorant, it has not been previously mentioned as a possible colorant for printing. Madder may have been used as a substitution for more costly reds such as safflower (benibana) in order to keep the market price of an individual print affordable. With most of the print collection in the MFA, it is not always known whether the prints are first editions or later runs. Thus, there is always the possibility that madder was used for later editions, even though the date of the print is listed based on its initial production. Further work will be done to compare impressions and examine the paper fibers and formation methods to clarify the time periods of the madder use. Additional Information on Specific Colorants Safflower: benibana The florets of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) produce a wide range of colors from cherry red to pink (figure 7). Native to northern India and the Near East, this popular dye plant was widely cultivated throughout Asia and Europe by the end of the thirteenth century. It is a tender annual with spiny leaves and composite flower heads containing many yellow to orange disk florets. The florets are picked, then dried and crushed into a paste. The paste is washed with water to remove the non-lightfast yellow chromophores including several quinochalcones. The red colorant, primarily carthamin, is then extracted in an alkaline bath. The deepest reds are obtained through several initial washings to remove all of the water-soluble yellows. Red regions containing safflower were usually seen as bright fluorescence during the preliminary examination of the prints with a hand-held ultraviolet (UV) light. Thus, it was no surprise that the EEM fluorescence technique provided a unique and definitive pattern for safflower, even when it was visually observed as a faded brown tone. In addition to the fluorescence for the red chromophore, the pattern often contained an additional peak for the yellow chromophore that was supposedly removed in the preparation of the red colorant but often needed several washings for complete elimination. Printed examples of the safflower colorant can be seen in figures 1, 3, 4, and 5. In figure 1, the Kiyotada I hand-colored print from the beni-e period, safflower was found on the base of the umbrella and the flowers on the woman's kimono. Looking at the later Harunobu print from 1767?68 (figure 3), safflower was found on the purple robe of the kneeling child. In the 1788 print by Kiyonaga (figure 4), safflower was used for a pink collar, purple sleeve, and orange frame. Madder: akane and sieyo-akane The roots of madder plants (from Rubia tinctorum, Rubia akane, and many others) produce a deep true red color that was widely prized throughout the world (see figure 8). All madder family (Rubiaceae) plants give strong red dyes with the colorants concentrated in the parenchyma of the roots and stems, even though the plant and flowers do not exhibit any red colors. For processing, the roots were typically harvested in the autumn after a minimum of Plant Dye Identification 21 FIGURE MFA # ARTIST\/TITLE ANALYSIS POINTS ANALYSIS INTERPRETATION 1 11.13273 Torii Kiyotada I Blank - womans face red on umbrella . . . . . . . . . . . . pale robe man's chest . . . . . . . woman's robe near collar . . . . orange corner man's robe . . . . skirt yellow and black . . . . . . -- Safflower Flavonoid Flavonoid Gamboge Brass flakes* 3 11.1903 Torii Kiyomitsu I Blank - background -- green bell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turmeric overprinted with dayflower** blue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dayflower** yellow trim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turmeric red foot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Madder 4 21.4463 Suzuki Harunobu Blank- white snow -- yellow sky . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Flavonoid green bush . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orpiment* mixed with indigo** red post . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sappanwood red ribbon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Sappanwood brown robe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Safflower mixed with dayflower** orange leaf on robe . . . . . . . . . Flavonoid mixed with sappanwood and safflower 5 11.13921 Torii Kiyonaga Blank - face -- red ground cloth . . . . . . . . . . . Madder yellow pants on musician . . . Flavonoid green grass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orpiment* mixed with indigo** green knee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Orpiment* mixed with indigo** pink collar on woman . . . . . . Safflower pink shoulder on man . . . . . . Safflower orange scroll border . . . . . . . . Safflower mixed with turmeric purple cuff on man . . . . . . . . . Safflower mixed with dayflower** yellow at bottom . . . . . . . . . . Turmeric yellow fence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Turmeric 6 11.14364 Kitagawa Utamaro I Blank - face center yellow flower . . . . . . . . green in hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . yellow ribbons . . . . . . . . . . . . pink kimono . . . . . . . . . . . . . . brown in hat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . blue on kimono . . . . . . . . . . . . -- Flavonoid Flavonoid with dayflower** Flavonoid Safflower Safflower Dayflower** Table 6. Summary of the analytical results for four Japanese woodblock prints covering the range of eighteenth century printing styles. Identification of colorants was made by EEM fluorescence, XRF*, and FORS**. KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/SAFFLOWER 22 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 Figure 7. Safflower (Carthamus tinctorius). Photomacrograph of dried florets for prepared dyes and an example of safflower dye on paper. two years growth. The plants were marketed as whole dried roots rather than as a powder. Madders, a general name applied to anthraquinone-containing dyes extracted from plants from various genera and species, often exhibit strong (orange) fluorescence in a work of art when examined under ultraviolet radiation. The strong fluorescence is usually stated to be associated with purpurin, a common anthraquinone found in many types of madder, including both Rubia tinctorum and R. akane, a plant native to Japan. It is not certain when R. tinctorum was first utilized in Japan, or from where it would have originated, but it does not appear to be possible to distinguish it from Rubia akane based on its EEM fluorescence pattern. Printed examples of the intense red madder colorant can be seen in figures 3, 5, and 6. Figure 3, the Kiyomitsu I limited color print from 1762, has madder as the sole red colorant and it was used for the man's robe, face, and feet. Looking at the later print by Kiyonaga (figure 5), madder was used for the red cloth under the musicians. When it was found, the madder EEM pattern was very distinct and its color was a bright deep red. Madder was not found in secondary colors such as purple or orange in the prints examined for this study. Red dyewood: suo The insoluble red dye from sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan) and other types of red dyewoods (sandalwood, barwood, narrawood, padauk, camwood, Brazilwood, etc.) were prepared as colorants by pounding chips of the heartwood into a paste mixed with a little oil (see figure 9). These were formed into cakes or bars for storage and sale. The red colorant was so popular in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries that many of these species are now extinct or endangered. Its color was said to be orange-red, brownish-red, or cinnamon-like. Using our references, the EEM spectra could easily distinguish the sappanwood fluorescence pattern from safflower and madder. However, the reference spectra for a few other types of red wood dyes, such as sandalwood and Brazilwood, produced similar but not identical fluorescence spectra. Thus, it was difficult, if not impossible, to differentiate between the various red dyewood sources. In this study, the red dyewood fluorescence pattern was not often found, its use being limited to just a few artists and publishers. The print by Harunobu (figure 4) shows an example of the red dyewood. It was used for both the red and the orange regions, while the Plant Dye Identification 23 purple colorant was found to contain safflower and dayflower. KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/\/MADDER Turmeric: ukon Described as the most popular yellow colorant in the world, the rhizomes of turmeric (Curcuma longa) produce a bright yellow orange dye that is commonly used for food and textiles (see figure 10). Native to India, turmeric is now cultivated worldwide. Though a perennial herb, the plant is often completely harvested, then the roots are cooked, dried, and ground into a powder. Turmeric is a direct dye with high tinctorial strength that began its use as a fabric dye prior to the tenth century and is still used today as a curry seasoning. Yellow regions containing turmeric usually were brightly fluorescent during the preliminary examination of the prints with a hand-held UV light. The dye produced a very clear, consistent fluorescence pattern, likely because of its single primary chromophore. In this study, the printed examples that contain turmeric are figures 3 and 5. In the print by KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/SAPPANWOOD Figure 8. Photomacrograph of Rubia tinctorum dried roots for prepared dyes and examples of madder dyes on paper. Figure 9. Sappanwood (Caesalpinia sappan). Photomacrograph of sappanwood and of paper dyed with sappanwood extract. KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/TURMERIC 24 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 Figure 10. Turmeric (Curcuma longa). Photomacrograph of dried and cut rhizomes and an example of turmeric dye on paper. Kiyomitsu I, turmeric is used as a clear, intense yellow for the trim as a contrast to the bright red. In the print by Kiyonaga, turmeric is used as a strong yellow background color. This colorant is fairly lightfast and retains its color better than the flavonoids. Flavonoids--silver grass: kariyasu; Japanese pagoda tree: enju; Toringo crabapple: zumi Flavonoids occur in most dye plants and their yellow colorants were discovered from the earliest times. While many colorants in this group are not lightfast, their abundance has resulted in their wide use. In Asia, the primary flavonoid-containing plants were the luteolin containing grasses, such as Miscanthus tinctorius (silver grass: kariyasu), that were cut each fall, then dried, and kept until the next spring for extraction. Other common Japanese dyeing plants include Styphnolobium japonicum (syn. Sophora japonica; Japanese pagoda tree: enju, see figure 11) and Malus sieboldii (Toringo crabapple: zumi). Flavonoid-containing dyes tend to have numerous compounds. For fluorescence measurements, the emission positions were similar and tended to blend into a single elongated peak. This pattern tends to be weaker than the turmeric pattern and was often noted mixed in with the absorption pattern for the paper, thus making positive identification difficult. Additionally, it was difficult to make any consistent determination for the various types of flavonoid yellows. Since each contains similar compounds, but in different proportions, the excitation and emission maxima are similar, blending into an oblong mesa-type absorption area rather than a single peak. In this set of analyzed woodblock prints, flavonoids tended to be a popular early colorant that later gave way to the use of turmeric and orpiment. One possible reason for the shift in yellow colorants is the poor light stability of most flavonoid yellows. The prints shown in figures 1, 4, 5 and 6 show examples of yellow flavonoid printed colors. Figure 6 was included as an example to show that even though it is difficult to distinguish between various flavonoid colors, this print does show two visually different yellow-colored regions that both produced slightly different fluorescence spectra even though both corresponded to flavonoids. It is possible that this print contains two types of flavonoid yellows, such as Japanese pagoda tree and Toringo crabapple. It is also possible that the print was exposed to uneven levels of light and that the yellows at the top of the print have deteriorated differently than those at the bottom. KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/PAGODA_TREE Plant Dye Identification 25 KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/GAMBOGE Figure 11. Japanese pagoda tree (Styphnolobium japonicum) flower buds and photomacrograph of paper dyed with pagoda tree buds. Figure 12. Photomacrograph of Garcinia hanburyi (gamboge) resinous pieces from the Harvard Museum of Natural History and photomacrograph of paper dyed with gamboge. Gamboge: shio Gamboge is a golden yellow colorant that is extracted by tapping resin from various species of the evergreen Garcinia trees, most commonly G. hanburyi and G. morella native to southeast Asia and India (see figure 12). The trees must be at least ten years old before they are tapped. The resin is extracted by making spiral incisions in the bark, and by breaking off leaves and shoots and letting the milky yellow resinous gum drip out. The resulting latex is collected in hollow bamboo canes. After the resin is congealed, the bamboo is broken away and large rods of solidified resin remain. Gamboge is marketed as solid pieces or as a powder. Visually, under a hand-held UV light, the yellow regions containing this colorant appeared dark, as if absorbing the fluorescence. The lack 26 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 of fluorescence was confirmed by the EEM fluorescence pattern produced for reference samples of gamboge. The pattern exhibited a complete absence of emission peaks; this also included an absence of the paper peaks indicating that the paper was covered with a blocking agent. Gamboge is the only known organic reference in the potential set of Japanese colorants that corresponds to this negative pattern. Thus, this is a unique material that visually appeared yellow, but without sampling, it could only be characterized by the absence of any measurable inorganic elements (e.g., Fe, As) by XRF along with the absence of any unique fluorescence pattern by EEM fluorescence. Gamboge was most often found in the handcolored, beni-e, prints and is illustrated in the corner of the warrior's robe (figure1), along with other non-analyzed points such as the kimono collars and the center frame of the umbrella. Dayflower: aigama; awobama Indigo: ai Indigoid dyes were used in Neolithic Europe, Pharaonic Egypt, and now in twenty-first century jeans (see figure 15). While the source plants provide slightly different hues, indigo REBEKAH D. WALLACE, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, BUGWOOD.ORG KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/FILE:DAYFLOWER_BLUE.JPG Though rarely used elsewhere, dayflower (Commelina communis) blue was commonly used in Japan. Dayflower is an annual plant native throughout much of eastern Asia that bears one-day-blooming flowers featuring two large blue upper petals. The anthocyanin-containing juice extracted from the flowers was used by illustrators and printers for blue and green colors. Cloth or paper was dipped into the juice and dried; once needed the cloth or paper was dipped into water to extract the blue colorant (see figure 13). The best analytical method for the identification of dayflower is fiber optic reflectance. An example of the difference in the FORS spectra for dayflower and indigo is shown in figure 14. As dayflower and indigo were the only two plant-based blues dyes used for woodblock prints, the FORS method could quickly and simply distinguish between the two materials. Though dayflower was sometimes used by itself for blue areas (see figures 3 and 6), its poor lightfastness and its sensitivity to water were possible reasons that it was most often found used for greens and purples. Figures 3, 4, 5, and 6 show examples of the green and purple tones. Figure 13. Dayflower (Commelina communis) plant photo and photomacrograph of water soluble dayflower blue dried on paper. Plant Dye Identification 27 FORS spectra 120 100 80 dayflower indigo 60 40 colorless soluble form. Once the colorant is extracted, it is either printed out or cast into cakes where the insoluble blue indigo precipitates as it reacts with oxygen from the air. Of the prints selected for this article, indigo was found in figures 4 and 5 in the bright grass green colors. For both prints, orpiment, an inorganic yellow, was mixed with indigo to obtain the vivid, somewhat lightfast color. Conclusion 20 995 910 825 740 655 570 485 400 0 Figure 14. Overlay graph showing the Fiber Optic Reflectance (FORS) spectra for dayflower (Commelina communis) on paper versus indigo (Indigofera tinctoria) on paper. KEITH LAWRENCE, MFA, BOSTON, HTTP:\/\/CAMEO.MFA.ORG\/WIKI\/INDIGO has been regarded as the color of kings. Indigo producing plants, such as Indigofera tinctoria (a tropical shrub or subshrub), contain colorless glycocides that can be converted to the blue colored indigo on exposure to oxygen. To produce the dye, the fresh leaves are macerated in hot water, after which an alkali is added (such as lime) to ensure the colorant remains in a The purpose of this paper is to provide specific information on the analysis and identification of natural colorants used in the production of Japanese woodblock prints. Three nondestructive analysis techniques were used so that no samples were removed from the prints. X-ray fluorescence (XRF) was used to determine the presence of any inorganic compounds, and fiber optic reflectance spectroscopy (FORS) was used to distinguish between indigo and dayflower in the blue, green, and purple regions. Additionally, methods were developed to successfully use a third technique, excitationemission matrix (EEM), or 3-D, fluorescence spectroscopy, for the characterization of the red and yellow plant-based colorants. Figure 15. Indigo (Indigofera tinctoria). Photomacrograph of powdered indigo dye and of paper dyed with indigo. 28 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 The MFA collection of Japanese woodblock prints is an ideal venue for the use of three combined techniques for the identification of the colorants because: ?The palette used for woodblock prints is limited. ? The colorants and substrates for the print were prepared with consistent, often documented, methods that had minimal variation. ?The prints are flat and the size of the prints, even within their mats, is less than 1 square meter. ?The speed for all three types of analysis is fast and allows for easy analysis of multiple locations. ?The MFA has an extensive set of over 50,000 Japanese woodblock prints and illustrated books that allows for exten- sive surveys of the materials within each time period, style, publisher, and artist. ?The knowledge obtained from the colorant identification will promote the understanding of the light stability for each print, and thus help preserve its vibrancy. Acknowledgements The authors are grateful to Kathryn Richardson (The Arnold Arboretum) and Allaire Diamond (Williston, Vermont) for supplying known reference samples for analysis. Additionally, we commend Arianna McQuillen and Kaeley Ferguson for conscientiously analyzing the set of Japanese prints by EEM fluorescence and FORS. Michele Derrick is the Schorr Family Associate Research Scientist, Joan Wright is the Bettina Burr Conservator in Asian Conservation, and Richard Newman is the Head of the Scientific Research Division, all at the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICESTATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION(Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004?2633. 3. Filing Date: November 2, 2016. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 02130?3500. 8. 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Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 80%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 77%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Nancy Rose, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Tour of the Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix","article_sequence":3,"start_page":29,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25614","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14ea728.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":3,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Chasse, Beatrice","article_content":"A Tour of the Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix B?atrice Chass? O for a worldwide total of 430. Visitors to the Arboretum des Pouyouleix are always surprised to learn that Mexico, with 150 (90 of which are endemic), is the country with the greatest number of species. The diversity in number of species is paralleled by the morphological diversity of the EIKE JABLONSKI aks (Quercus) occupy every ecological niche in the Northern Hemisphere. The natural distribution of the genus only extends into the Southern Hemisphere in Indonesia where a few species can be found. In Europe there are 38 species, in Asia 156, while North and South America together harbor 236, Oak (Quercus) acorns are diverse in size and form. Clockwise from upper left: Q. insignis (Mexico); Q. chrysolepis (USA); Q. hypoleucoides (USA); Q. dolicholepis (Asia); Q. monimotricha (Asia); Q. macrolepis (Europe) ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED 30 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 Leaves of the Mexican oak species Q. urbanii are bright crimson when newly emerged. The handsome form and foliage of loquat oak (Q. rysophylla) has made it a favorite of plant connoisseurs. Quercus viminea, native to Mexico, has elegant, glossy foliage. Quercus cornelius-mulleri is a scrub oak native to California and Baja California. It was named for noted botanist and ecologist Cornelius H. Muller (1909?1997). Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix 31 leaves, as reflected by some of their common names: maple-leafed oak, loquat oak, chestnut oak, bamboo oak, holly oak, willow oak, myrtle-leafed oak, laurel oak, and so on. The diversity of acorn morphology is as surprising and wonderful as the diversity of leaf morphology and habit. Since the oak collection of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix is planted geographically, I'd like to introduce Arnoldia readers to some of the most interesting oaks here by taking a tour through the collection and providing some details and personal memories of collecting trips around the world. MEXICO Though I find it impossible to decide which is my single favorite oak, without a doubt my favorite oaks come from Mexico. Beyond their extraordinary diversity and beauty, my fondness results from the facts that, one, many of my best oak adventures with both the plants and the people interested in those plants are linked to that country, and two, that all of the Mexican oaks, with a few exceptions, grow so well here at the Arboretum des Pouyouleix. To be sure, there are beautiful and interesting oaks all over the world but for me nothing quite so extraordinary as a young leaf of Q. urbanii, as unbelievable as the acorn of Q. insignis, as elegant as Q. viminea, as majestic as Q. rysophylla--the list of superlatives is endless. Although it might be an exaggeration to say that Q. rysophylla, loquat oak, is everybody's favorite tree, it does have an impressive list of admirers. It was selected as \"Tree of the Year\" in 2015 by the International Dendrology Society (IDS), and botanist Allen Coombes, writing for the IDS Yearbook, described the young coppery leaves as quite unlike anything he had ever seen before when he first saw the tree in 1980 (Coombes 2016). John Grimshaw, in New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation (Grimshaw and Bayton 2009), wrote, \"Of all the trees in this book, Quercus rysophylla is the one that has made the greatest impression on me, wherever it has been seen, and if only one `new tree' were to be grown, this should perhaps be it.\" In 1978, Lynn Lowery, horticulturist and plant collector from Texas, regarded this species as a VIP (very important plant) (Creech 2016) and John Fairey, another noted plant collector and nurseryman from Texas, said \"If I had to have one oak, it would be rysophylla.\" (Raver 2012). Our first Q. rysophylla was grown from acorns collected in Chipinque Park in Nuevo L?on, Mexico, and planted here in 2004, measuring 23 centimeters (9 inches) tall. Today it measures nearly 9 meters (30 feet). The lovely dark green, thick and shiny, nearly sessile leaves are densely clustered and, when young, vary in color from bronze to red. We have planted six other trees of this species, which have grown even faster. \"9,490 Kilometers Across Mexico\" (Chass? 2011), an account of my second trip to Mexico, in 2010, could just as well have been titled \"In the Footsteps of Cornelius H. Muller.\" Perhaps Quercus mulleri and Q. cornelius-mulleri are the most immediately visible traces in the oak world of this incredible botanist who was still actively involved, in his mid-eighties, in preparing the Quercus section of the Flora of North America with botanist Kevin Nixon. Muller was indefatigable in the field and a large part of my itinerary in 2010 was based on the detailed location descriptions of the oak discoveries he made during his adventures in northern Mexico. These included Q. ? basaseachicensis near the Basaseachic Falls in Chihuahua, Q. flocculenta halfway up the Cerro Potos? in Nuevo L?on, Q. edwardsiae in Chipinque, Nuevo L?on, but above all, in Chihuahua, Q. deliquescens, which provides a story that started in the town of Delicias (\"delight\" in Spanish) and ended in Milagro (\"a miracle\"). Muller wrote, \"Recent heavy concentration of collecting efforts in the Chihuahuan Desert region of Mexico ... have yielded much new information on the flora and its distribution. Among the novelties is a striking species of Quercus here described as new\" (Muller 1979). The text continues with a precise description of how to approach the location (most useful even when one has GPS coordinates) and so off we went, leaving Delicias for the town of Julimes to get to the Sierra del Roque \"... as approached from Minas Las Playas via Rancho El Saucito.\" After several hours of very difficult and slow driving through the Chihuahuan Desert, The Arboretum des Pouyouleix, National Oak Collection (France) How does one become an oak nut? Initially, my motivation was simply to create a botanic garden. But while my companion and I drove around southwestern France in search of suitable land, we kept noticing a majestic tree that dominated the landscape--it was Quercus robur. Though perhaps best known as pedunculate or English oak, it is such a common tree in northern Europe that it has dozens of common names in many languages. This inspired us to make oaks the focus of our future garden. The Arboretum des Pouyouleix is located in the north of the Aquitaine region of France, in the department of the Dordogne, roughly 150 kilometers (93 miles) north of the city of Bordeaux and 200 kilometers (124 miles) from the western coast of France. The topography is quite variable, which provides planting sites with differences in soil composition and structure, drainage, exposure (to both wind and sun), and temperatures. Although we are theoretically in USDA Hardiness Zone 8b (average annual minimum temperature -9.4 to -6.7?C [15 to 20?F]), we rarely experience winter temperatures lower than -4?C (24.8?F), and summer highs are quite often in the mid 20s to 30?C (77 to 86?F). The average annual rainfall (for the past 11 years) is 917 millimeters (36.1 inches). We decided to create the collection with plants raised from seeds, and preferably from wild-collected seeds in order to reduce (though not entirely eliminate) the possibility of hybridization. A propitious encounter in 2005 with several European oak enthusiasts from the International Oak Society paved the way for a series of collecting trips that have taken me across North America, Mexico, Vietnam, and Taiwan, collecting dozens of species including several new to cultivation in Europe. The Arboretum des Pouyouleix now holds a little over 300 Quercus taxa (including 38 species on the IUCN Red List) and is certified as a National Collection for the genus in France. In addition, the Arboretum has about 600 taxa in a variety of other genera. The table below shows the growth rate of seven Quercus species at the Arboretum des Pouyouleix. DATE PLANTED AND HEIGHT (m) NAME HEIGHT (m) 2015 AVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH Q. imbricaria1 12\/20032.00 11.00 0.75 Q. saltillensis2 11\/20110.09 3.50 0.90 Q. rysophylla2 11\/2004 8.00 0.70 11\/20040.87 6.00 0.50 Q. dentata3 0.23 Q. mexicana2 06\/20120.40 5.00 1.50 myrtifolia1 03\/20080.11 3.50 0.50 Q. hintoniorum2 03\/20070.10 4.50 0.60 Q. Native to: 1North America; 2Mexico; 3Asia Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix 33 The Arboretum des Pouyouleix has varied topography that provides ideal sites for many oak species. and, according to Mr. Muller's coordinates, just a hop, skip, and a jump from Q. deliquescens, we found ourselves confronted with a difficult choice: there before us, for as far as the eye could see in either direction, stretched a very tall barbed-wire fence. To go or not to go over the fence? What would you have done? Driving back to civilization, we realized that we had started off without thinking to bring any food with us, although we did fortunately have enough to drink. So it was a miracle indeed, that the first town we came to, after several more hours of driving, had a small restaurant named ... El Milagro! But, truth to tell, the real miracle was that we were luckier than Mr. Muller who ends his description of the species with \"... acorns unknown.\" This species is considered vulnerable by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The area devoted to Mexico is the largest part of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix and comprises Quercus deliquescens is a rare oak species native to Chihuahua, Mexico. 34 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 India) are the two most common oaks from this group found in collections in Europe, the former having been introduced to cultivation in 1854 and the latter in 1804. We have several trees of both of these species that grow well. Q. myrsinifolia makes a prettier tree here, whereas Q. glauca tends to be bushy. This group of oaks is not very well represented in American arboreta. Of the 20 gardens in the Plant Collections Network (PCN) Quercus Multisite Collection, the University of Washington Botanic Garden has four, Bartlett Tree Research Lab (North Carolina) has five, and the Scott Arboretum (Pennsylvania), the University of California?Davis Abundant male flowers are seen on the Mexican species Q. hintoniorum. Arboretum, and the Morris Arboretum the greatest number of taxa. Many delightful (Pennsylvania) each has one. Though not part oaks rare in cultivation can be found here: Q. of the Multisite Collection, the Aiken Citywide macvaughii; Q. miquihuanensis, an endangered Arboretum (South Carolina) also has four. species; Q. hintoniorum, listed as vulnerable; Q. My two favorite ring-cupped oaks growing crassifolia; Q. furfuraceae, listed as likely endanhere are Q. salicina (Japan, maybe Taiwan) gered; and Q. liebmannii, to name but a few. and Q. gilva (Japan, Southern China, Taiwan, Vietnam). Quercus salicina is just a perfect, ASIA graceful tree. The leaves, evergreen (as with all Current phylogenetic understanding of the Cyclobalanopsis), are elegantly elongated with genus Quercus is that it is composed of eight a twist at the end. It will produce new leaves at lineages or groups. The group known as the various times from spring until early autumn, ring-cupped oaks (section Cyclobalanopsis) is coloring the tree to different degrees in a beautiful deep burgundy red that fades to pink and only found in Asia. Not all of the oaks that grow finally to green. Of all our evergreen species it in Asia belong to this group--some of them is one of the few that suffered absolutely no belong to the white oak (section Quercus) lineage, which is ubiquitous throughout the natudamage during a horrific 15-day cold spell in ral distribution. Hands down, the ring-cupped February 2012 with temperatures at night dropping to -18?C (-0.4?F), and daytime temperaoaks would win first prize in a contest for the tures never above -8?C (17.6?F). Quercus gilva most un-oak-like plants (at least for Western is one of the more easily recognizable Cycloeyes), just as they would also win the contest balanopsis in part because its leaves are characfor the group whose members are the hardest to teristically widest in the middle but especially distinguish from one another. Come to think of because the new leaves and shoots are distinctly it, the seeds of at least two species, Q. macrocalyx (China, Southeast Asia) and Q. pachyloma yellow with a soft tomentum, giving it a unique (Southern China, Taiwan), would probably also ornamental quality win first prize in an acorn beauty contest. These The Arboretum's Asia section also has many two species, collected in Vietnam and Taiwan, Asian oaks that are in sections other than respectively, are still in the nursery, perhaps to Cyclobalanopsis: Q. dentata, with its huge, be planted this year. leathery leaves and sculptured bark; Q. spinosa, Quercus myrsinifolia (China, Japan, Southa very rare oak in cultivation; and Q. semecareast Asia) and Q. glauca (China, Japan, Southpifolia, which holds, along with Q. guyavifolia east Asia, Afghanistan, Bhutan, Nepal, Sikkim, and Q. monimotricha, the oak record for high- CHARLES SNYERS D'ATTENHOVEN Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix 35 Asian oak species Q. macrocalyx (left, photographed in Vietnam) and Q. pachyloma (right, photographed in Taiwan) have fabulous acorns. Asian evergreen oak species Q. salicina (left) and Q. gilva (right) have handsome foliage. altitude living (up to 4,000 meters [13,123 feet] for the first two and 4,600 meters [15,092 feet] for the latter). Our expedition to Vietnam in 2013, though not entirely satisfactory in terms of the number of oaks found, was most interesting in what it revealed about the presence of certain oaks hitherto unreported in northern Vietnam (Chass? 2014). Much remains to be learned about the status of the oaks of Vietnam, indeed, about the forest communities in general, since during the second half of the twentieth century war, forest fires, slash and burn agriculture, encroachment for industrial purposes, and other forms of anthropic pressure have reduced forestland in Vietnam from 43% of the country's surface area in 1940 to 17% by the late 1970s (Bien 2001). Daimyo oak (Quercus dentata), native to Japan, Korea, and China, bears enormous leaves. 36 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 CHARLES SNYERS D'ATTENHOVEN EIKE JABLONSKI EUROPE Oak species diversity in Europe is not very high but there is interesting morphological diversity within the species present, and a few of them can indeed become most spectacular trees with truly impressive lifespans, especially Q. robur, pedunculate or English oak. This species also has the honor of being the first oak to have had its genome entirely sequenced (Plomion et al. 2015), a milestone for research into the evolutionary history of the genus. From an aesthetic point of view, the problem with quite a few European oaks is that they are moderately to severely affected by many diseases (powdery mildew, rusts, etc.) that, although not lethal, make the trees rather unattractive fairly quickly after the appearance of new foliage in spring. Quercus alnifolia, endemic to Cyprus, is one of my favorites with its golden yellow to orange tomentum on the underside of the round and shiny evergreen leaves and its fabulously elegant acorns. It is a large shrub or small tree (6 to 9 meters [20 to 30 feet]) and as such makes a wonderful addition to any small or medium-sized garden. Q. frainetto (Balkans, Bulgaria, Greece, Hungary, Italy, Romania, and Turkey) is another very special European oak, the deep sinuses of the leaves giving a delicate lacelike aspect to the silhouette. This species is also less prone to the above-mentioned afflictions. But my vote for the prettiest of all European oaks would be Q. macrolepis. Found across southeastern Europe from the Balkans to the Aegean Sea, Italy, and Turkey, it can be a shrubby tree of 5 meters (16 feet) or attain grand heights of 25 meters (82 feet) or more. The very striking silvery, grayish white color of the new leaves makes it a true eye-catcher on sunny spring days. And then of course, there is the acorn: one of the most fabulous of the genus (see page 29). I think that part of my enchantment with this species comes not only from its beauty but also from the importance of these acorns in human history, both in the leather-tanning industry for more than four hundred years (Mayer Maroulis 2014) and as a food source for probably much longer than that (Chass? 2016). Interesting European oak species include (top to bottom) Q. alnifolia (photographed in Cyprus), Q. frainetto (photographed at Wisley, United Kingdom), and Q. macrolepis. Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix 37 NORTH AMERICA We move now into the North American section. A dry, rocky, poor-soil area in this part of the Arboretum has proven to be an ideal place to plant many oaks from the southern (both east and west) United States. Generally, these oaks are accustomed to some level of environmental stress such as little rain, few nutrients, or harsh sun exposure. They are healthy plants here in France, many of them fruiting after only a few years, but tend to be slow growers. Four specimens of my favorite one, Q. palmeri, raised from seed collected in 2007 in Riverside County, California, were planted here in 2008, each measuring about 8 centimeters tall. Today they are all about 1 New foliage and flower buds of Q. palmeri, a shrubby oak native to meter tall (trees of this shrubby species California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Baja California. are generally not more than 3 meters tall oak (Q. nigra), swamp white oak (Q. bicolor), at maturity). The emblematic southern live oak white oak (Q. alba), black oak (Q. velutina), bur (Q. virginiana), one of the most magnificent oak (Q. macrocarpa), pin oak (Q. palustris), and oaks of the southern United States, with its many, many others are thriving here, reaching wide-spreading branches that are often dripping heights (for the fastest growers) of more than with Spanish moss in its natural habitat from 15 meters (49 feet) since 2003. This area of the Texas to Florida and northward to Virginia, Arboretum is the best seat in the house come does very well here, as do Q. chapmanii, which autumn as this mix of trees produces a vertigiis also from the southeast, Q. toumeyi from nous scale of color from yellow to orange to Arizona, and Q. engelmannii from California pink to red, set off by the surrounding chestnut(listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List). Nearby is an area with deep, rich soil that oak woodland that gives a magnificent backwe call \"la Grande Prairie.\" It was the first part drop of yellow and orangish brown. of the Arboretum to be planted, on December It is in this part of the Arboretum that I am 7, 2003, with the help of many neighbors and occasionally struck by the awesome temporal friends. We planted nearly 300 trees, most of dimension of what it means to plant trees. In them here. Under a bright blue sunny sky we just thirteen years, these trees, destined to live toiled away and, when we were finished, it several hundred years, have created a world of began to rain. Though I am not at all a superstitheir own but of which I am a part. And though, tious person, one has to admit that this was a regrettably, I will not live for several hundred good omen! In this part of the Arboretum can years, it is as though my trees have created a be found most of the common North American bridge through time for me. This exceptional oaks. I use the word \"common\" in the sense experience was magnified a hundred-fold when that they have been in cultivation for a long I visited the Arnold Arboretum in October 2015 time--some for more than two centuries--and because, of course, many of the trees there (oaks can be easily obtained through the nursery and other) have been planted for decades, some trade, but they are nonetheless extraordinary for more than a century. They are thus at once trees. Northern pin oak (Q. ellipsoidalis), a bridge through time past and time future. For scarlet oak (Q. coccinea), Shumard oak (Q. shuthose of us who plant trees, the Arnold is truly mardii), willow oak (Q. phellos), shingle oak (Q. a unique voyage, and without a doubt the most imbricaria), northern red oak (Q. rubra), water magnificent arboretum I have ever visited. 38 Arnoldia 74\/3 ? February 2017 Many of the North American oaks display bright autumn leaf color. From right to left, going down the hill, Q. palustris, Q. coccinea, and Q. muehlenbergii. On either side of \"la Grande Prairie,\" moderately steep slopes with rather poor soil have provided well-drained, sheltered areas for the planting of more fragile species from North America. I have come to the conclusion that, although cold is obviously a limiting factor to plant survival, heavy, rich soil and too much water in the fall and winter are equally serious handicaps for a great many oaks. On these slopes, many oaks that probably shouldn't enjoy being here because of the cold are very happy indeed: Q. myrtifolia (fruiting this year) and Q. inopina from Florida, and Q. invaginata and Q. insignis from Mexico, to name but a few. CONCLUSION As we turn to walk back up \"la Grande Prairie\" I should just point out a fine specimen of Q. tomentella, an oak endemic to the Channel Islands (off the coast of southern California), considered to be vulnerable by the IUCN. Near the house and other buildings, at the top of \"la Grande Prairie,\" many oaks, irrespective of geographic origin but that share the characteristic of being rather short and liking fairly poor soil, have been planted, including Q. vacciniifolia from California, Q. pumila from Georgia, Q. minima from South Carolina, and Q. guyavifolia and Q. monimotricha from China. Many, many seeds have been--and are being--sown here at the Arboretum des Pouyouleix. The seeds collected during the trips I've mentioned in this article, and plants raised from them, have been shared with different gardens and arboreta in France and around the world (Argentina, Belgium, China, the Czech Republic, Germany, the Netherlands, Spain, Taiwan, the United Kingdom, the United Oaks of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix 39 States of America, and Uruguay). A few years ago, there were almost exclusively Mexican and North American species in our nursery: these days, almost only Asian species, with many wonderfully exciting plants from Vietnam, China, and Taiwan, including some that have yet to be identified. In these times of ecological crisis, I should like to end this little journey with a sincere homage to plant collectors and plant propagators past and present. Identifying fragile zones and endangered species is surely a useful exercise, but is it not necessary, if we want to save those species, to have knowledge about their cultivation? In Europe, very nearly the only arboreta that are growing Runner oak (Q. pumila) is a shrubby, spreading oak native to the Coastal many endangered oak taxa, or, less Plain of the southeastern United States. dramatically, the more recent introCoombes, A. J. 2016. Tree of the year. Q. rysophylla ductions, are the private ones. These collecWeath. International Dendrology Society tions are a valuable resource for conservation Yearbook 2015. pp. 22?52. efforts and for building awareness about the beauty and the diversity of our planet. Creech, D. 2016. Quercus rysophylla ? One Mexico Acknowledgements I would like to thank Kyle Port for soliciting this article, Cindy Newlander for providing the information on the PCN Quercus Multisite Collection, and the International Oak Society. Thanks in great part to this group-- originally founded to facilitate seed exchange--the world of oak enthusiasts is one of sharing and camaraderie and it is safe to say that without the Society, oak collections around the world, including that of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix, would not be what they are today. Works cited Bien, N. N. 2001. Forest Management Systems in the Uplands of Vietnam: social, economic and environmental perspectives. Report prepared by the Economy and Environment Program for Southeast Asia. Singapore. Chass?, B. 2011. 9,490 Kilometers Across Mexico. International Oaks 22: 70?88. Chass?, B. 2014. In Search of Vietnam's Elusive Oaks. Chass?-Colin-Snyers Vietnam 2014 (CCSV13). International Oaks 25: 135?161. Chass?, B. 2016. Eating Acorns: What Story Do the Distant, Far and Near Past Tell Us, and Why? International Oaks 27: 107?135. Oak that's Texas Tough. https:\/\/dcreechsite. wordpress.com. Grimshaw, J., and R. Bayton. 2009. New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation. Richmond: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Mayer Maroulis, M. 2014. Creating Sustainable Income From the Ancient Oak Forest on Kea Island, Greece. International Oaks 25: 13?22. Muller, C.H. 1979. Quercus deliquescens, A New Species from Chihuahua, Mexico. Phytologia 42: 289?291. Plomion, C., et al. 2015. Decoding the oak genome: public release of sequence data, assembly, annotation and publication strategies. Molecular Ecology Resources, doi: 10.1111\/1755-0998.12425 Raver, A. 2012. Growing From His Mistakes. A Texas Gardener Looks to Mexico for Inspiration. h t t p : \/ \/ w w w. n y t i m e s . c o m \/ 2 0 1 2 \/ 0 4 \/ 1 9 . Accessed on 15 September 2016. B?atrice Chass? is co-founder of the Arboretum des Pouyouleix, past President of the International Oak Society, and Editor of International Oaks, the journal of the IOS, since 2013. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"One of a Kind: Pinus monophylla","article_sequence":4,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25615","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14ea76d.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":3,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"One of a Kind: Pinus monophylla Nancy Rose I 've led many plant identification classes and walks in my career as a horticulturist. When it comes to pines (Pinus), I've taught that pines always carry multiple needles grouped in fascicles (bundles), which readily differentiates them from spruces (Picea) and firs (Abies) (the other common \"tall, pointy evergreens\"), which both bear single needles. To then identify individual pine species, the first step is to see if the bundles hold two, three, or five needles. That's still good advice about 99 percent of the time, but when I came to the Arnold Arboretum I discovered a notable exception to those rules: Pinus monophylla, the single-leaf pine. Pinus monophylla is a member of the pine family (Pinaceae) and is one of 114 species in the genus Pinus. It is part of subsection Cembroides, a group of pine species native to the western United States and Mexico commonly known as pinyons, or pi?ons (P. monophylla is also known as single-leaf pinyon). The pinyons have thin-shelled, edible seeds; P. monophylla and P. edulis, Colorado or two-needle pinyon, have especially large (1\/2 inch [1.3 centimeters] long), high-fat-content seeds that have long been harvested and used as an important food source by indigenous peoples. Single-leaf pine grows about 15 to 30 feet (4.6 to 9.1 meters) tall and has a pyramidal form when young, becoming more irregular and spreading with age. As the common name indicates, this pine bears single needles on its stems, the only pine species to do so. Individual needles are thick, sharp-tipped, and bluish green with silvery stomatal lines (see inset photo on opposite page). Abundant small staminate (male) cones release pollen and the round female cones mature to about 1.5 to 2.5 inches long in two years. Pairs of large seeds are held in depressions on individual cone scales; seeds are readily eaten by many birds and other wildlife species, and animal seedcaching, especially by pinyon jays (Gymnorhinus cyanocephalus), is the primary means of seed dispersal for the species. Pinus monophylla grows in a semi-arid native range that runs from northern Baja California to southern and eastern California, Nevada, the southeastern corner of Idaho, western Utah, and parts of Arizona and New Mexico. It is cold hardy enough (USDA Zone 6, average annual minimum temperature -10 to 0?F [-23.3 to -17.8?C]) for Boston, but our much wetter climate may be part of the reason this pine has been difficult to grow at the Arboretum. We have tried a number of P. monophylla accessions through the years, the first one in 1908, but we currently have no living specimens in the collections. The last one was accession 400-88-B, which was a repropagation (by grafting) of a 1964 accession (287-64), which came from seeds wild collected in Nevada. Accession 400-88-B was a handsome, healthylooking specimen when I photographed it growing in the dwarf conifer terrace at the west end of the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden in May 2009 (opposite page). Unfortunately, just a few years later it went into severe decline and was removed; signs of root rot were noted on its removal. In its native range, single-leaf pine typically grows on very well-drained, gravelly slopes. The much greater annual rainfall and moister soils at the Arboretum may well have contributed to the demise of this and other specimens. This unique pine species will certainly return to the Arboretum soon. Pinus monophylla is one of the approximately 400 taxa targeted for acquisition in the ongoing Campaign for the Living Collections (see the complete list in Arnoldia 73\/3). We already have three seed accessions collected last year in Utah that are currently undergoing stratification in the Dana Greenhouses. And when we do have young single-leaf pines ready to move to the grounds, special care will be taken to place them in a site where, ideally, they will thrive for many years. Nancy Rose is the editor of Arnoldia. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23453","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ea36e.jpg","title":"2017-74-3","volume":74,"issue_number":3,"year":2017,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rooted in the Collections","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25612","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170896b.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":2,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gapinski, Andrew","article_content":"CAMPAIGN FOR THE LIVING COLLECTIONS Rooted in the Collections Andrew Gapinski We are now one year into the Campaign for the Living Collections, a ten-year initiative that will expand and refine the Arboretum's historically and scientifically valuable plant collections. Additional collecting trips this summer and fall have brought in new seed and plant accessions that will go through the Arboretum's propagation facilities, as described in the last issue of Arnoldia. In this issue, Manager of Horticulture Andrew Gapinski completes the Campaign article series by describing the process involved in moving plants to permanent locations on the grounds and the ongoing challenges of keeping the collections healthy and growing. F rom its origin to the Arnold Arboretum's propagation facilities, much time and many resources have been invested in the planning, acquisition, and production of an accession in preparation for its ultimate installation in the permanent collections. Successful establishment of new accessions and care of the Arboretum's 15,000 existing specimens takes a dedicated team of highly skilled horticulture professionals who are involved in aspects from site selection and planting to aesthetic and corrective pruning, soil health management, and attention to various plant stressors as part of the Arboretum's holistic Plant Health Care Program. Across our 281-acre landscape, we are preparing the grounds for a surge of new material as part of the Campaign for the Living Collections (Friedman et al. 2016)--an initiative to acquire and cultivate 400 target taxa over the next ten years. The Arboretum's historic collections scheme is based on the Bentham and Hooker system of plant taxonomy, devised in the late 1800s, with species grouped by genus in an evolutionary progression starting with the earliest of flowering plants, e.g., Magnolia, placed at the Arboretum's main gate. While taxonomic systems differ today, the Bentham and Hooker blueprint for incorporating new material into the permanent collections is generally still followed. Continued and expanded attention is also placed on utilization of the unique microenvironments, with their variable factors such as temperature, moisture, light, and soil type, that can be exploited for the successful cultivation of particular species. The Explorers Garden, nestled on the south side of Bussey Hill, represents one such area, long known as the spot for evaluating marginally hardy species not typically grown successfully in New England. New landscapes continue to be added, including the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden, dedicated in 2002, which arose out of a need for a space to feature shrubs and vines requiring full sun, and the landscape surrounding the Weld Hill Research Building, completed in 2011, which provides an opportunity for development of a new plant collection at the hub of the Arboretum's research programs. Whether sited in a particular location for taxonomic, thematic, aesthetic, or practical cultivation purposes, the placement of each new specimen into our historic landscape is part of The Explorers Garden's protected microclimate makes it an ideal site for trialing new accessions of unknown cold hardiness. This view shows (foreground to background) Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhanense, Chionanthus retusus, and Fothergilla hybrids. Photo by Richard Schulhof. CONOR M. GUIDARELLI 4 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Manager of Horticulture Andrew Gapinski, Manager of Plant ProductionTiffany Enzenbacher, and Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port compare Pinus cembra (accession 237-2001) siblings for overall health, vigor, form, and root development, assigning a ranking based on their condition. This information is used to determine whether each specimen is ready to be transplanted to the collections. a well-thought-out decision making process, executed with sound horticultural practice. Measure Twice, Cut Once After being cultivated in the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses and surrounding nurseries for about three to seven years, the process of determining which specimens are ready to find their place in the permanent collections starts in August of each year. A review by greenhouse staff of all accessions in the production facilities is undertaken and recommendations are made as to whether an individual plant is large and healthy enough for installation. With this information in hand, the Managers of Plant Production and Horticulture and the Curator of Living Collections visit each specimen for a final determination. Ideally, multiple individuals within an accession have been successfully grown to ensure the best chance of that lineage surviving the production cycle and many years in the collections. A comparison between these siblings for overall health, vigor, form, and root development is made, and individuals are assigned a ranking based on their overall condition. At this point, it is also determined whether spring or fall transplanting is most appropriate for the species under review. For example, many oaks (Quercus spp.), beeches (Fagus spp.), and hornbeams (Carpinus spp.) can fare poorly when transplanted in autumn, while other plants, including many conifers, acclimate just fine. For the past several seasons, fall planting has been limited or deferred altogether because of prolonged summer droughts that have persisted well into autumn. When conditions are favorable, getting a jump on the transplanting list in fall helps with the work load of the busy spring season. Nevertheless, ignate nodes where new accessions within a the vast majority of transplants occur in the genus can be sited together outside of the core spring when warming days, cool nights, and collection. For example, we have been clustering individual Carpinus specimens at a few abundant precipitation create favorable rooting nodes on Peters Hill. conditions. Depending on how many sibling The Arboretum is divided into 71 horticulindividuals are needed for the permanent collections (typically three or four), surplus plants tural zones, each of which is assigned to one of may then be offered up to other botanical instiseven horticulturists responsible for the daily tutions. The sharing of specimens at this stage care of the collections within. Continuing of the process offers yet another opportunity into fall, field selection of the specific planting for material to be \"backed-up\" elsewhere in the location for each specimen involves the Manager of Horticulture, Curator of Living Collecevent of loss at the Arboretum. tions, and the horticulturist assigned to that With the list of graduates in hand, the process of finding planting locations begins. After zone. Each planting location is marked with nearly 150 years of collections development, a wooden stake and is labeled with the taxon finding locations for the approximately 250 and accession number to be planted. With the annual plant additions to the permanent colmajority of planting scheduled for the following lections is no easy task. On paper, specimens spring, horticulturists will follow up before the are first loosely assigned to particular areas of ground freezes and turn the soil in place to further mark the planting location, because stakes the Arboretum. A number of different parameters are considered, including the species' can easily be lost over winter. This step also taxonomic group (family, genus, etc.), known provides an opportunity for soil amendments winter hardiness, moisture requirements, colto be added as needed and makes for easier diglections value of that particular lineage, and ging in the spring as the freeze and thaw of the aesthetic and functional qualities of the species season loosens the turned soil. for use in various landscape projects across the The planting locations of the qualifiers (individual plants assigned identification letters A, grounds. Since our museum specimens are living organisms exposed to many environmental B, C, etc.) of accession 637-2010, a Yunnan redinfluences (drought, disease, winter storms, etc.), lineages of high value are sometimes duplicated across different parts of the Arboretum landscape as a means of internal backup. However, as a general rule, most of the plants within an individual accession are planted in the same collection area, with an occasional planting in an alternative section. Some designated areas, such as the Carpinus collection near Valley Road, are rather full of high-value trees and leave little room for development. When siting new accessions here, we may plant just one in this core collection area, and then plant the remaining two or three siblings together in another area. To avoid the look of random plants A flag and wooden stake mark a newly selected planting site for a mountain dotted through the landscape, we've maple (Acer spicatum, accession 270-2010-B) grown from seeds collected by recently begun to identify and des- Arboretum staff in New York's Adirondack Mountains. KYLE PORT Living Collections 5 Gaining Ground ANDREW GAPINSKI The Campaign for the Living Collections is under way and seeds from both near and far are sprouting in the Dana Greenhouses. As Manager of Horticulture, I can't help but feel a bit of anxious excitement as I await the challenge of growing new taxa from around the world. As stewards of the Campaign we face many questions including \"Where will we find the space and how can we prepare the grounds now to receive new material?\" As a horticulture team, we are viewing the grounds through an opportunistic lens--what is the value of each specimen to the collection, how can we better utilize the various environmental conditions we find across our landscape, how can we benefit from issues that affect the health of our collections, what areas need additional attention, and how can we gain \"new\" ground? Although not necessarily novel questions for collections managers to be considering, these concepts are at the forefront of our decision making across the landscape: Addition through subtraction Not every specimen in our collections holds the same value, and making tough decisions to deaccession and remove otherwise healthy plants is not easy, but for the building of any museum collection what is taken away can be just as important as what is added. We seek to utilize our limited resources, including space and staff time, in the most effective way to achieve the Arboretum mission. The decision-making process for the continued stewardship of every accession considers many factors, including total opportunity costs, and is ultimately guided by our Living Collections Policy (Arnold Arboretum 2016). Reclaiming areas of deferred maintenance Of top priority is the reclaiming of areas in which maintenance was deferred at some point. The Horticulture staff is undertaking an aggressive cleanup effort in collections areas that have been reabsorbed into adjacent natural lands and succumbed to invasive weeds. Over the past several decades, the southwest edge of the Hickory (Carya) Collection (seen here) has been slowly reclaimed by the adjacent Central Woodland--this area represents over an acre of valuable territory that will be available for collections expansion once it is cleared. ANDREW GAPINSKI The deaccessioning and removal in 2015 of these four cultivars of Norway maple (Acer platanoides), which had low collections value, freed up valuable acreage in the heart of the Maple (Acer) Collection for new high priority taxa. In the opening created by the removals, a purpleblow maple (Acer truncatum, 629-2010A), wild-collected in Shaanxi, China, during the September 2010 North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) expedition, was planted. Our collections of trees, shrubs, and vines face continuous and ever-changing biotic and abiotic influences. When faced with events beyond our control, triaging the situation to prioritize and safeguard the most valuable holdings and finding opportunity in the loss is of utmost importance. ANDREW GAPINSKI The emerald ash borer (EAB), introduced to the United States from Asia via wood packaging material, has decimated ash (Fraxinus spp.) populations across central and eastern North America since its discovery in Michigan in 2002. Through the establishment of an early detection program in partnership with the Massachusetts Department of Resource Conservation, the Arboretum was the first detector of EAB in the City of Boston. A triage approach to evaluate the 146 accessioned ash trees in the permanent collections was undertaken. Fifty-one individuals were determined to be of low value, not warranting long-term preservation efforts. Of these, fifteen were immediately removed because of poor health, and the remaining thirty-six trees are being utilized for further EAB monitoring efforts. The remaining 95 high-value accessions are part of a preservation program that includes prophylactic treatments and clonal propagation efforts. Branch sections (including buds) from a select number of lineages were also sent to the USDA-ARS National Laboratory for Genetic Resources Preservation for potential long-term storage via cryopreservation. The photograph shows Arboretum Horticulturist Scott Grimshaw treating a high-value ash specimen. Exploring the potential of environmental niches Across the Arboretum, differences in environmental conditions from soil moisture to annual minimum temperature exist and are key considerations when selecting locations for species requiring particular niches. We are taking an aggressive approach to clean up these areas in preparation for harboring new accessions to come. The group project for the 2016 Isabella Welles Hunnewell Interns was to advance the development of the \"The Rockery,\" an area with exposed rock outcroppings along Valley Road (seen here, Arboretum Horticulturist Greg LaPlume removes excess soil from the site). Taking advantage of the natural geology of the site, the Arboretum seeks to develop an environment that supports species adapted to rocky mineral soils, with characteristically low nutrient and organic matter levels, such as those found in scree type habitats. Prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia humifusa), several ephedra (Ephedra) species, regal lily (Lilium regale), and a number of other species on the Campaign for the Living Collections list of desiderata are potential candidates for cultivation in such an environment. ANDREW GAPINSKI With loss comes opportunity: making lemonade out of lemons 8 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN bud (Cercis glabra) collected by Michael Dosmann, Curator of Living Collections, on the September 2010 North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) expedition to Shaanxi, China, serves as an example of the basic thought process for site selection. Having attempted to grow the species at the Arboretum several other times without success, the limited history of its cultivation here made planting decisions more difficult. Particularly in cases in which hardiness of the species is questionable, such as C. glabra, we use knowledge of the Arboretum's long studied and utilized microclimates to give us the best chance of success (Dosmann 2015). With the rolling topography, cold air drains down from the tops of the Arboretum's highest points including Bussey, Hemlock, and Peters Hills to the valleys below. In a typical year, these \"hot spots\" of the higher elevations experience minimum temperatures representative of a Zone 7 (average annual minimum temperatures 0 to 10?F [-17.8 to -12.2?C]), with Zone 6 (-10 to 0?F [-23.3 to -17.8?C]) conditions being most prevalent throughout the grounds. With six individuals of 637-2010 ready for the planting in the spring of 2015, what was the planting approach? Three were planted that spring: one (637-2010-A) in the microclimate of the Explorers Garden, located along Chinese Path on the south side of Bussey Hill, and the two others (B and C) among its relatives in the Legume Collection. The three remaining (D, E, and F) were held back in the greenhouses as reserves in case hardiness turned out to be an issue. The winter of 2015?2016 would turn out to be a true test of hardiness, with a season low of -14.5?F (-25.8?C; Zone 5) recorded in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection--the lowest temperature recorded at the Arboretum in 57 years. Spring 2016 came and observations were made; the Explorers Garden specimen leafed out fully with no dieback and the Legume Collection plants experienced only moderate branch dieback of 1 to 2 feet (30.5 to 61.0 centimeters). Success! With hardiness a non-issue, the three remaining plants were sited and planted in the landscape surrounding the Arboretum's Weld Hill Research Building for the species' ornamental value, its botanical and taxonomic interest, and the exploration story it brings to the newly developing Weld Hill landscape. The Weld Hill planting also is separated from its previously planted siblings by nearly a mile. That distance is a key part of the idea of internal back-up. Planting Season As spring approaches, we pay close attention to the thawing soils and moisture conditions and begin the transplanting process as soon as the timing is right. In preparation, planting lists and locations are reviewed, and a final walk-through of the nurseries is performed to document and adjust plans based on damage that may have occurred to plants over the winter. For example, following the record breaking snowfall--110.6 inches (280.9 centimeters) measured at Boston's Logan Airport--during the winter of 2014?2015, significant damage in the nurseries occurred as the snow melted and refroze during the spring thaw. Many young trees with low branches were pulled apart with the shifting snow and ice that covered them. Evaluations completed the Flowers of a Yunnan redbud specimen (Cercis glabra, 637-2010-D) that was planted in the Weld Hill Research building landscape. (continues on page 12) A Focus on Soil Health Jenna Zukswert, Living Collections Fellow In order for the nearly 400 taxa we intend to collect in the Campaign for the Living Collections to have a lasting legacy here at the Arboretum, we seek to provide specimens with the most favorable habitat possible. In preparation for the arrival of these new taxa, the horticulture department is investigating all aspects of plant health care and landscape management practices to ensure we are providing the highest of horticultural standards that will give these new accessions the greatest chance of success. Evaluation of the current conditions of our soils and the development and implementation of strategies to improve soil health across the Arboretum is a high priority. Awareness of the importance of soils, especially in relation to plant health, has been increasing; this was recently reflected in the United Nations-designated International Year of Soils in 2015. We as a global society are now more aware of how precious soil is, and also how often this resource is mismanaged. In addition to serving as a substantial terrestrial carbon sink, storing carbon that would otherwise be released into the atmosphere and further contribute to climate change (Dungait et al. 2012), soil provides important services that promote plant health, such as nutrient supply, water regulation, and physical support for roots (United States Department of Agriculture 2016). Therefore, proper stewardship of our soils will enhance the health of our valued Living Collections. The first step in caring for our soils is to fully understand their current state. In the late 1990s and early 2000s, an intensive program of soil assessment and management at the Arboretum identified highly acidic and nutrient deficient soils, which were at the time contributing to substantial tree decline in certain areas. In the years that followed, liming and nutrient applications were made, and some plant recovery was noted. Through staffing changes over the past decade, work on soils health waned, with only isolated issues addressed as plant decline was observed and investigated. With the onset of the Campaign, the Arboretum has renewed its commitment to understanding and managing the factors that affect soil health across our landscape. In 2015, with the help of that year's Isabella Welles Hunnewell Interns, Arboretum-wide soils testing that measured an assortment of nutrients and chemical characteristics was completed, as were analyses related to microbial processes. Initial recommendations for remediation were prescribed and executed. These soil testing data were recently mapped; the Geographic Information Systems (GIS) layer housing these data makes it possible to visualize all of the soil characteristics measured in the samples throughout the landscape. Having these data displayed spatially reveals landscape-wide patterns in soil health that we might otherwise overlook when referring only to a spreadsheet. We have also started to map the location of amendments that we apply to the soil; we hope that by continuing to measure and map soil characteristics and management efforts we can detect trends in soil health over time and determine the effectiveness of various management actions. We can use this new knowledge to adjust our practices and make more informed management decisions in the future. In addition to looking at these data ourselves, the formation is underway of a Soils Advisory Committee composed of soil science experts who can help us to further interpret these data and inform our management plans. Members of this committee contribute expertise from a wide range of topics in soil science and management, including bedrock geology, forest soil ecology, composting, and agricultural cover cropping. This committee will help connect us to academic research at Harvard University and beyond, enabling us to consider new ideas and to address with evidence the questions we have in our attempts to provide the best substrate for our expanding collections. N LEGEND Soil pH 4.07 - 4.28 4.28 - 4.49 4.49 - 4.71 4.71 - 4.92 4.92 - 5.13 5.13 - 5.34 5.34 - 5.55 5.55 - 5.77 5.77 - 5.98 5.98 - 6.19 JMZ, 8\/12\/2016 The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University JMZ, 8\/12\/2016, THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY 1 inch = 926 feet pH measured in 7\/2015 and 7\/2016 NANCY ROSE We are also evaluating our compost and mulch operations and are investigating the potential value of cover crops in our parklike setting. This fall, for example, we are testing the feasibility of growing tillage radish (Raphanus sativus) in the landscape as a no-till method for reducing the soil compaction that has resulted from increased foot traffic and equipment. Tillage radish is an agricultural cover crop known for its long taproot that \"drills\" through the soil, reducing compaction in a natural way; this taproot can grow as long as 6 feet (1.8 meters), and the first 12 to 20 inches (30.5 to 50.8 centimeters) can have a diameter up to 2 inches (5.1 centimeters) (United States Department of Agriculture 2012). When planted in fall, the radishes are winterkilled and decompose, thereby producing large cavities in the soil and releasing nutrients for surrounding plants to take up (United States Department of Agriculture, 2012). If you have been to the Arboretum since midAugust, you may have noticed four 20by 20-foot (6.1-meter) fenced plots in our landscape. In each of these plots we are testing four sowing methods (broadcast seeding, broadcast seeding after aerating the soil, slice seeding, and slice seeding after aerating the soil), with and without a leaf compost cover, to see if we are able to grow this cover crop in an urban, partially shaded setting and, if so, which of these eight methods works best. If successful, we may integrate tillage radish into our management. We intend to continue exploring options and testing them in the landscape, learning from our trials to develop best management practices. Managing the health of our soils to provide the best growing conditions for the over 2,000 diverse taxa that we cultivate from temperate biomes across the world is an essential component to the Arboretum's Plant Health Care program. We hope that our adaptive management approaches will help us develop wellinformed ways to steward the next nearly 400 taxa to join our Living Collections and improve the habitats of our current collections, as well. This tillage radish testing plot is in the Linden (Tilia) Collection. KYLE PORT 12 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 (continued from page 8) previous fall comparing siblings were revisited and adjustments were made in ranking based on their overall condition. Once all is checked, lists referred to as \"planting bulletins,\" which include accession numbers, names, and current nursery and final planting locations, are systemically issued to Living Collections Managers once final checks are complete and species' transplanting priority is established. The issuing of a bulletin first triggers the Manager of Plant Records to initiate important database updates and in turn create permanent labels for each plant being transplanted. Before plants leave the production facility, permanent labels are attached and double checked against temporary nursery labels to avoid mix-ups. When those tasks are done, horticulturists are given the green light to start the digging process. Ideally the goal is to complete transplanting before the plants break bud. Taxa such as birch (Betula spp.) and apple (Malus spp.) that leaf out early are the first priority of the digging season and thus will be listed on early bulletins. Others such as ash (Fraxinus spp.) and oaks (Quercus spp.) tend to break dormancy later and can remain in the nursery longer. Containerized plants are the last to be planted as root loss tends to be less severe. The transplanting method known as \"balledand-burlapped,\" or B&B, starts with digging soil out from around the trunk of the plant. As a general rule, the ball radius should be 1 foot (30.5 centimeters) per 1 inch (2.5 centimeters) of trunk diameter. For example, a tree with a 1.5-inch (3.8 centimeter) trunk diameter would have a ball that is 3 feet (91.4 centimeters) across. When digging, larger roots are cut with pruners to avoid tearing, and imperfections in the root system are noted and addressed as needed. Once the ball has been defined and the majority of soil excavated, burlap sheets are placed over the ball and twine is used to hold the ball tightly together to prevent the ball from falling apart and drying out during transplant. When complete, B&B plants are lifted out of the holes and taken to their final planting locations as soon as possible. Arboretum Horticulturist Scott Grimshaw checks planting information for a balled-and-burlapped specimen ready to be moved into the collections. Once on site, the planting hole is dug paying close attention to the height of the ball to avoid making the hole too deep. The root flare, the transition zone between trunk and root system, should be at or slightly above the existing grade and never be covered with soil or mulch since it is a key zone of gas exchange for the plant. Covering the root flare can also lead to the development of a secondary root system and the occurrence of girdling roots. With burlap and twine intact, the ball is placed in the planting hole and final adjustments to planting depth are made, and the tree is viewed from all angles to ensure that the plant is straight. The majority, if not all, of the burlap and twine is then cut away from the ball and the planting hole is backfilled with the excavated soil. A 3- to 4-inch (7.6- to 10.2-centimeter) layer of mulch is applied, making sure not to cover the root flare or trunk, and plants are watered thoroughly to hydrate roots and ensure good soil-to-root contact from ANDREW GAPINSKI KYLE PORT Living Collections 13 Arboretum Horticulturists Scott Grimshaw and Rachel Brinkman lace twine around the burlap covered root ball of a Magnolia amoena (accession 385-2012-A) in preparation for moving it out of the west nursery to its new home along Chinese Path in the Explorers Garden. Arboretum Horticulturists Mark Walkama and Wes Kalloch plant a specimen of black cherry (Prunus serotina, 602-2008B), carefully removing twine and burlap from the root ball before replacing excavated soil. Caring for the Curated Landscape Although much planning and many resources have gone into all phases of collections development from the ANDREW GAPINSKI the start. New plantings are provided with regular watering during their first year of establishment and also in subsequent years when drought conditions occur. Once the transplanting of all accessions on a particular bulletin is complete, the Manager of Plant Records is notified and each plant is visited to collect accurate GPS coordinates. In addition, all temporary marking materials (nursery labels, flagging tape) are removed and permanent labels are repositioned as needed. Watering is key to successful establishment of newly installed accessions. The Arboretum deploys both hand-watering and automated irrigation systems such as this one being installed in the renovated planting area in front of the Hunnewell Building by Horticulturist Greg LaPlume. point of acquisition to establishment on the grounds, the work to preserve and steward these holdings both curatorially and horticulturally has just begun. The Arboretum's curatorial team maps, labels, and regularly inventories and evaluates all accessions, noting such observations as growth, health, damage, and various other metrics. Horticulturally, we seek to keep specimens vigorous and thriving through regular aesthetic and corrective pruning, reduction of weed competition, soil health management, and the evaluation, prioritization, and mitigation of various plant stressors, from pest and disease pressure to drought. With the goal being to maintain the germplasm represented by our collections into perpe- Goats from a local \"goatscaping\" company have been deployed to clear weedy underbrush and invasives such as buckthorn and Oriental bittersweet from tuity, plant production staff sections of the Arboretum. continue to play a key role Dungait, J. A. J., D. W. Hopkins, A. S. Gregory, and A. P. in preserving important lineages through the Whitmore. 2012. Soil organic matter turnover collection of vegetative propagation materials, is governed by accessibility not recalcitrance. such as cuttings and scions for grafting, from Global Change Biology 18: 1781?1796. existing accessions. A lineage may be repropaFriedman et al. 2016. Developing an Exemplary gated because of the decline of a specimen or to Collection: A Vision for the Next Century at create clones for distribution to other instituthe Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. tions around the world. As we complete our Arnoldia 73(3): 2?18. second year of expeditions for the Campaign for Koller, G. K. 1989. Landscape Curation: Maintaining the the Living Collections, with new lineages and Living Collections Arnoldia 49(1): 65?72 taxa growing in the greenhouses, we anxiously United States Department of Agriculture. 2012. await transplanting the first of the Campaign Oilseed Radish: Raphanus sativus L. Plant material into the Living Collections and the Guide from the USDA Natural Resource Conservation Service. Retrieved 1 August challenges and opportunities that will follow. References Arnold Arboretum. Living Collections Policy. http:\/\/ w w w. a r b o r e t u m . h a r v a r d . e d u \/ p l a n t s \/ collections-management\/living-collectionspolicy\/. Accessed September 20, 2016. Dosmann, M. S. 2015. The History of Minimum Temperatures at the Arnold Arboretum: Variation in Time and Space. Arnoldia 72(4): 2?11. 2016 from: http:\/\/www.nrcs.usda.gov\/Internet\/ F S E _ P L A N T M AT E R I A L S \/ p u b l i c a t i o n s \/ arpmcpg11828.pdf United States Department of Agriculture. 2016. Soil Health. Retrieved 18 August 2016 from: http:\/\/ www.nrcs.usda.gov\/wps\/portal\/nrcs\/main\/ soils\/health\/ Andrew Gapinski is Manager of Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum. ANDREW GAPINSKI 14 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Towards Broader Adaptability of North American Deciduous Azaleas","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25613","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d14ea36f.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":2,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hokanson, Stan C.; Bradeen, James M.; Susko, Alexander Q.","article_content":"Towards Broader Adaptability of North American Deciduous Azaleas Alexander Q. Susko, James M. Bradeen, and Stan C. Hokanson N and many shades in between, providing tremendous spring and summer interest in the garden. Quickly recognized for their horticultural merit, North American deciduous azaleas piqued the interest of plant collectors upon their discovery and continue to be widely lauded by gardeners today. This has led to a proliferation of cultivars and interspecific hybrids that provide a beautiful floral display every year both in gardens and in the wild (Azalea Society of America 2016). WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN orth American deciduous azaleas have long been adored by horticulturists. These plants, which belong to the genus Rhododendron sect. [section] Pentanthera, comprise 15 species distributed from Texas to Florida, extending northwards to southern Maine, and with one species occurring in mountainous areas of Oregon and California. These species display a wide range of flower color, from pure white to deep orange, pink, As a common name, \"rhododendron\" usually refers to large evergreen shrubs whose flowers have ten stamens, such as this elepidote cultivar `Album Grandiflorum' (accession 22810-A) growing in the Arnold Arboretum's Rhododendron Dell. 16 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 The Linnaean system classifies organisms into increasingly narrow groups until reaching the individual species level. Classification (to the section level) for the North American deciduous azaleas is shown here (US-GRIN 2016). Kingdom......... Plantae Order............... Ericales Family............. Ericaceae Genus............. Rhododendron Subgenus.........Hymenanthes Section............Pentanthera DANNY SCHISSLER Over 240 unique accessions of Rhododendron sect. Pentanthera exist at the Arnold Arboretum including many interspecific hybrids, various cultivars, and 12 of the 15 deciduous azalea species native to North America (Table 1). The accessions at the Arnold Arboretum have origins in a wide range of environments and could contain many useful adaptations to common abiotic (non-living) stressors. This collection thus represents a valuable asset to woody plant researchers who seek to understand the adaptive potential of these plants to better benefit gardeners and ecosystems alike. Those who have spent any time researching azalea species or cultivars quickly discover a confusing naming system. Azaleas are actually a now informal designation within the genus Rhododendron, a large genus of 1,024 species Azaleas typically have five stamens that are often strongly exserted, as seen on this Alabama azalea (Rhododendron alabamense, 137-2005-E). in the heath family (Ericaceae) with a distribution spanning across the northern hemisphere (American Rhododendron Society 2015). Horticulturists and plant enthusiasts commonly split the genus Rhododendron into two informal groups, \"rhododendrons\" and \"azaleas,\" based on appearance. Rhododendrons are typically considered to be large evergreen shrubs with large, leathery, elepidote (without scales) leaves, or smaller evergreen shrubs with lepidote (with scales) leaves. Rhododendrons are also differentiated from azaleas in flower morphology by the presence of 10 or more stamens (Azalea Society of America 2016). Azaleas, in contrast, are usually considered to be smaller, sometimes deciduous shrubs with pubescent leaves and five to six stamens, though these morphological characteristics can be quite varied within species (Azalea Society of America 2016). The word azalea is derived from the Greek azaleos meaning \"growing in dry soil.\" This name reflected the cliffside and mountain habitats of Rhododendron luteum (yellow azalea), a European species (Lee et al. 1953). However, this is a misleading name because azaleas are generally intolerant of drought and are most commonly found in moist or Table 1: North American deciduous azaleas at the Arnold Arboretum Species Distribution Representative Accession Flowering Details Rhododendron alabamense AL, FL, GA, MS, TN 137-2005 Blooms April-May. Mostly white flowers, some pink coloration. R. arborescens AL, GA, KY, MD, MS, NC, NY, PA, SC, TN, VA, WV 464-81 Blooms June-August. White, fragrant R. atlanticum DE, GA, MD, NC, NJ, PA, SC, VA 108-2007 Blooms April-May; June in northern gardens. White\/ pink, very fragrant. R. austrinum AL, FL, GA, MS 1403-85 Blooms March-April in wild, later in northern gardens. Yellow\/orange, fragrant. R. calendulaceum AL, CT, GA, KY, MD, MS, NC, NY, OH, PA, SC, TN, VA, WV 109-2007 Blooms May-June. Variable color, from pink\/orange\/redorange depending on source. R. canescens AL, AR, DE, FL, GA, KY, LA, MD, MS, NC, SC, TN, TX 468-81 Blooms March-April; May in northern gardens. Pink\/white. R. occidentale CA, OR 21743 (hybrid) R. periclymenoides AL, CT, GA, IL, KY, MA, MD, NC, NH, NY, OH, PA, RI, SC, VA, VT, WV 111-2007 Blooms April-May. Varying shades of pink. R. prinophyllum AL, AR, CT, GA, IL, KY, MA, MD, ME, MO, NC, NH, NY, OH, OK, PA, RI, TX, VA, VT, WV 805-86 Blooms May. Pink. R. prunifolium AL, GA 815-90 Late blooming, JulySeptember. Vivid orange\/red. R. vaseyi NC 1438-85 Blooms April-May. Varying shades of pink. Vulnerable in wild. R. viscosum AL, AR, CT, DE, GA, LA, MA, MD, ME, MO, MS, NC, NH, NJ, NY, OK, PA, RI, SC, TX, VA, VT, WV 112-2007 May-August. White\/pink, depending on germplasm source. Fragrant. AZALEA SOCIETY OF AMERICA 2016 AL=Alabama, AR=Arkansas, CA=California, CT=Connecticut, DE=Delaware, FL=Florida, GA=Georgia, IL=Illinois, KY=Kentucky, LA=Louisiana, MA=Massachusetts, MD=Maryland, ME=Maine, MO=Missouri, MS=Mississippi, NC=North Carolina, NH=New Hampshire, NJ=New Jersey, NY=New York, OH=Ohio, OK=Oklahoma, OR=Oregon, PA=Pennsylvania, RI=Rhode Island, SC=South Carolina, TN=Tennessee, TX=Texas, VA=Virginia, VT=Vermont, WV=West Virginia 18 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 the assimilation of the North American deciduous azaleas as a section within the broader subgenus Hymenanthes, which includes many large-leafed evergreen Rhododendron species. Nonetheless, \"azalea\" and \"rhododendron\" remain important horticultural terms for marketing and identification purposes. Rhododendron in the Garden ALEXANDER Q. SUSKO The earliest recorded cultivation of plants in the genus Rhododendron began in the fifteenth century in Japan and involved a cultivar group now known as the Satsuki azaleas, derived from the former Tsutsusi, or subgenus of evergreen azaleas (Callaham 2006). At the time, only the rich and privileged classes in Japan were allowed to grow and possess azaleas as they were deemed \"too beautiful\" for commoners (Callaham 2006). Early botanical explorers such as Robert Fortune in Asia and John Tradescant in colonial North America first brought Rhododendron to prominence through their plant collecting activities in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries (Cox et al. 1997). They discovered diverse flower color, leaf morphology, and plant habit across the Rhododendron species they encountered. Soon after these plants appeared in European gardens, plantsmen began creating interspecific hybrids. The great diversity in flower colors, fragrance, plant size, ALEXANDER Q. SUSKO mesic forest sites (Hume 1948). Considered a distinct genus (Azalea) until the mid-twentieth century, azaleas were moved into the genus Rhododendron after Sleumer's taxonomy was published in 1949 (Chamberlain et al. 1996). Such taxonomies--the relationships of species based on morphological traits and, increasingly, genetic variation--are complex and frequently revised in a large genus like Rhododendron as new species are discovered. Traditional morphology-based taxonomy uses leaf, bud, floral, and other physical traits to determine relationships between species. However, this kind of physical classification can confuse convergent evolution (evolution of similar adaptations independently across varying taxa) with species similarity, leading to incorrect conclusions about species relationships. Modern molecular-based taxonomy uses differences in DNA sequence to group species based on the likelihood of previously shared ancestry. Since this is based on the timespan back to the most recent common ancestor, the classifications will not be confused by convergent evolution of morphological traits. In the genus Rhododendron, subsequent molecular phylogenies that group species based on genetic variation have shown no distinction between species commonly known as azaleas and rhododendrons (Goetsch et al. 2005). This has led to Swamp azalea (Rhododendron viscosum) has a very wide native range and variable growth habit. Flowers are typically white, as seen on this tagged plant (left) growing near the Fourche la Fave River in the Ouachita National Forest near Y City, Arkansas, but pink flowers also occur, as on this plant (right) found in another population within the Ouachita National Forest, this one near Eagleton, Arkansas North American Deciduous Azaleas 19 KYLE PORT The Ghent Hybrid Azaleas The brightly colored flowers of Ghent hybrid azalea cultivar `Reine des Rouges' (accession 623-61-A) show a resemblance to those of flame azalea (R. calendulaceum), one of the parent species originally used in hybridizing the Ghent azaleas. leaf shape, and leaf pubescence (indumentum) resulting from these efforts led to expanded horticultural interest in rhododendrons and azaleas in the early twentieth century (Hume 1948). Throughout the twentieth century, hobbyists played a major role in the proliferation of new cultivars (Galle 1974). Rhododendron cultivation today spreads across temperate regions of the world, and there are over 28,000 named cultivars in existence (American Rhododendron Society 2016). Deciduous azaleas in sect. Pentanthera are represented by one species each in Europe, Asia, and western North America and 14 accepted species in eastern North America (Towe 2004; Zhou et al. 2008). Deciduous azaleas constitute the largest group of Rhododendron species in North America. Because it holds such a large number of species (compared to other parts of the world), the southeastern United States is considered a major center of diversity for deciduous azaleas (Hume 1953). The great amount of phenotypic variation for flower color, fragrance, The Ghent hybrid azaleas resulted from crosses between the European native azalea R. luteum (yellow azalea) and a number of North American species including R. calendulaceum (flame azalea), R. periclymenoides (pinxterbloom azalea), and R. viscosum (swamp azalea) (Dirr 1998). Initial crosses were made in Ghent, Belgium, starting around 1820, additional hybridization occurred in England, and many Ghent hybrid cultivars were introduced, primarily from Belgium, in the following decades. Although the parentage is quite mixed, these hybrids are often grouped together under the name R. ? gandavense. They are notable for their often fragrant flowers that come in a wide range of colors. The Ghent hybrids lost popularity as other hybrid azaleas were introduced, but 22 Ghent cultivars can still be seen in the Arnold Arboretum collections. and cold hardiness among deciduous azaleas has long generated interest for using North American species in breeding. John Bannister, an English botanist, recorded the first deciduous azalea in North America, Rhododendron viscosum (swamp azalea), in Virginia in 1690 (Galle 1974). Seeds from the newly discovered deciduous azalea species were sent back to Europe where plants were grown for observation beginning in 1734 by the American botanist John Bartram. It was not until 1825 that the first recorded and popular interspecific hybrids were produced using North American deciduous azaleas (Hume 1953) (see textbox above). Although they grow well within their native ranges, lack of cold hardiness and\/or intolerance of high soil pH are major limiting factors to cultivation of these azaleas across much of North America. Relatively few Rhododendron species are native to continental climates, typified by extreme temperature variations throughout the year and characteristic of many regions within the United States. This is reflected in the culti- UNIVERSITY OF MINNESOTA 20 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Research staff member Margaret Gearhart stands next to the original `Northern Lights', a cold-hardy deciduous azalea cultivar, in June 1979 at the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. vation history of Rhododendron species, which, until fairly recently, were only commonly grown and propagated in the mild and humid climates of Japan, Europe, and the eastern and western coasts of North America. For woody plant breeders in the midwestern United States, developing cultivars for their tolerance to continental climates is of paramount importance for the horticultural success of deciduous azaleas. Fortunately, despite originating from milder climates, individual genotypes from many North American native azalea species have been identified that are exceptionally hardy under extreme temperature variation (Widrlechner 1982). North American deciduous azalea germplasm has undergone relatively little systematic evaluation and had received little breeding focus until the twentieth century, when diversified landscape needs led nursery growers to seek hardier Rhododendron germ- plasm (Hokanson 2010). For example, suburbanization in the United States following World War II led to an increased need for landscaping plants to beautify new developments (Whitehand and Larkham 1992). During the middle of the twentieth century, few ornamental plants adapted to the upper midwestern United States existed (UMN Fruit Breeding Farm 1954). Later, University Agricultural Experiment Stations in states like Minnesota began funding breeding programs for ornamental plants to develop and introduce promising cultivars for landscape use (Widrlechner 1982). Many ornamental shrubs were trialed at the time on the grounds of the newly founded Minnesota Landscape Arboretum, including several deciduous azalea species and interspecific hybrids developed previously in Europe. After years of parental and seedling testing, plants from crosses made in 1957 between mollis azaleas (R. ? kosteranum), North American Deciduous Azaleas 21 which are a group of Asian hybrid deciduous azaleas, and the American species R. prinophyllum proved to be hardy to at least -35?C (-31?F) (Johnson and Snyder 1966). One seedling from this breeding population later became the cultivar `Northern Lights' and was released in 1978 as part of the Northern Lights Series, the first flowering azaleas bred for midwestern climates (Pellett and Vos 1978). The University of Minnesota woody landscape plant breeding program has maintained the longest standing breeding program for deciduous azaleas in North America, and continues to actively release cultivars under the Northern Lights Series today (Widrlechner 1982; Hokanson 2010; Hokanson et al. 2015). Identifying Adaptive Genetic Variation NANCY ROSE Though certain stress tolerances (cold hardiness in particular) of azaleas within the University of Minnesota breeding program are well documented, understanding of trait variation for other abiotic stresses in natural Rhododendron sect. Pentanthera populations remains limited. Tolerance to abiotic stressors such as winter cold, summer heat, soil pH, and soil salinity are necessary for successful plant growth both in natural and cultivated settings. Abiotic stress tolerance in woody species like deciduous azaleas can arise genetically through humanmediated or natural selection. However, a lack of understanding about the nature of adaptive genetic variation for such traits is not unique to azaleas; a knowledge gap is common across woody plants and impedes understanding of their maximum adaptation in both horticultural and ecological contexts. Genetic variation, or variation in the DNA sequences between individuals in a species, is often a major factor in influencing the adaptation of an individual to an environment. In situations when individuals possessing certain patterns of genetic variation reproduce more successfully under an environmental stress, genetic variation is An azalea breeding trial bed at the University of Minnesota Horticultural Research Center includes introduced cultivars `Lemon Lights' (left) and `Northern Hi-Lights' (foreground) as well as numbered selections. ALEXANDER Q. SUSKO 22 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Open longleaf pine (Pinus palustris) forest is a typical habitat for Rhododendron viscosum subpopulations in the Apalachicola National Forest near Tallahassee, Florida. considered to be adaptive. Adaptive genetic variation and associated traits are inherited by offspring; identifying such traits is an important (but time consuming) part of breeding all plants. The development of the Northern Lights Series is a prime example: it took 21 years from evaluating initial parents, making crosses, and field testing the seedlings before a reliably cold hardy cultivar was introduced. This is largely due to the biological constraints of breeding woody perennial species, including long juvenile periods (time prior to sexual maturity of the plant) that slow the breeding process. This also complicates efforts to understand the genetics behind important traits, further hindering the discovery of potentially adaptive genetic varia- tion. It is imperative to understand such genetic variation in breeding populations if horticultural breeders wish to sustain the development of new, adapted cultivars. New research technologies present opportunities to more efficiently identify adaptive genetic variation for abiotic stress tolerance in populations of North American deciduous azaleas with important implications for cultivar development. Linking genomic sequence and environmental data, an emerging approach known as landscape genomics, makes it possible to identify genetic variation in plant populations that depend on an environmental factor (Rellstab et al. 2015). It is through this framework that genetic variation is declared North American Deciduous Azaleas 23 ALEXANDER Q. SUSKO Arboretum is currently being used to test these landscape genomic approaches by obtaining environmental data from the origin points of the accessions and performing genetic sequencing on those accessions. The goal is to identify potentially adaptive DNA variation in North American deciduous azaleas that could benefit future breeding efforts by identifying promising species or populations as parents for future cultivar development. For example, patterns of genetic variation might be detected when looking at a set of individual azaleas originating from environments with varying degrees of average winter minimum temperatures. If an association is detected between patterns in the genetic variation and average winter minimum temperature, it is possible that the genetic variation confers an adaptive advantage in those ALEXANDER Q. SUSKO as potentially adaptive. Although some follow-up experiments are necessary to confirm the adaptive nature of this genetic variation discovered using this approach, this advancement gives scientists and breeders a new way to quickly screen diverse wild germplasm to identify populations that display unique adaptations to the environment. Collections at the Arnold Arboretum and our program's prior sampling of wild populations of swamp azalea constitute an ideal source of plants to help answer these types of research questions. Most importantly, plants in this collection are linked to detailed information about their collection locations that allow for relationships between genetic and environmental variation to be investigated. North American deciduous azalea germplasm at the Arnold Rhododendron austrinum (orange azalea; accession 1403-85) is native primarily to the Florida panhandle and adjacent regions in Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. It bears fragrant yellow and orange flowers. Rhododendron vaseyi (pinkshell azalea; accession 657-70) is rare in the wild, with only a few known populations, all in North Carolina. The Arnold Arboretum has a number of conservation accessions of this beautiful pink-flowered azalea. KYLE PORT 24 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 WILLIAM (NED) FRIEDMAN Rhododendron prunifolium (plumleaf azalea) is a late-season (July to September) bloomer, bearing flowers in shades of red and orange. The flowers of Arnold Arboretum accession 815-90-J, seen here, are an especially vibrant cherry red. Rhododendron calendulaceum (flame azalea; accession 109-2007-J) is notable for its brightly colored flowers that range from yellow to orange to bright red. This species is native to the Appalachian Mountains ranging from New York to Georgia. NANCY ROSE North American Deciduous Azaleas 25 The flowers of Rhododendron periclymenoides (pinxterbloom azalea; accession 3237-C) range from white to pink to purplish pink. It grows in mesic forests and wetlands from New Hampshire and Vermont to Alabama. KYLE PORT 26 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 NANCY ROSE Rhododendron atlanticum (coastal or dwarf azalea; accession 108-2007-A) is native to coastal regions in the Mid-Atlantic and Southeast. Its white to light pink flowers are sweetly fragrant. Rhododendron prinophyllum (roseshell azalea) has a wide native range from Maine to Georgia and Texas. Its flowers may be light to deep pink. North American Deciduous Azaleas 27 azalea populations. While existing deciduous azalea germplasm has been well characterized for cold hardiness within the University of Minnesota breeding program, many other sources of tolerance to abiotic stressors (e.g., heat, temperature variability, drought) remain to be identified within this group of plants. Such variation is of great interest to breeders seeking to improve stress tolerance through breeding. The approaches introduced above could be extended in the future towards informing conservation efforts that leverage the adaptive potential of populations. For the existing deciduous germplasm at the Arnold Arboretum, this research will characterize the collection for its adaptive potential to common environmental stressors. Such efforts could greatly inform future collection and conservation efforts for these species should any generate breeding or conservation interest in the future. Ultimately, we hope that this approach will further enable the cultivation of these North American horticultural gems in as many landscapes as possible. Literature Cited A m e r i c a n R h o d o d e n d r o n S o c i e t y. h t t p : \/ \/ w w w. rhododendron.org\/. Last accessed January 2016. Azalea Society of America. http:\/\/azaleas.org\/. Last accessed January 2016. Callaham, R. Z. 2006. Satsuki Azaleas for Bonsai and Azalea Enthusiasts. Passumpsic, Vermont: Stone Lantern Publishing. Chamberlain, D., R. Hyam, G. Argent, G. Fairweather, and K. S. Walter. 1996. The genus Rhododendron: its classification and synonymy. Edinburgh, Scotland: Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh. Cox, P. A. and K. N. Cox. 1997. The Encyclopedia of Rhododendron Species. Perth, Scotland: Glendoick Publishing. Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants (5th ed.). Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Publishing LLC. Galle, F. C. 1974. Azaleas. Birmingham, Alabama: Oxmoor House, Inc.. Goetsch, L., A. J. Eckert, B. D. Hall, and S. B. Hoot. 2005. The molecular systematics of Rhododendron (Ericaceae): a phylogeny based upon RPB2 gene sequences. Systematic Botany 30:616?626. Hokanson, S. C. 2010. \"Lights\" in the land of 10,000 lakes. In: Rhododendrons, camellias and magnolias. London: Royal Horticultural Society. Hokanson, S. C., S. T. McNamara, N. Rose, K. Zuzek, and H. Pellett. 2015. `UMNAZ 493' and `UMNAZ 502'; Two new cold hardy deciduous azalea selections from the University of Minnesota. HortScience 50(9)S:053 (Abstr.). Hume, H. H. 1948. Azaleas: Kinds and Culture. New York: The MacMillan Company. Hume, H. H. 1953. Azaleas and Camellias (Revised). New York: The MacMillan Company. Johnson, A. G. and L. C. Snyder. 1966. Breeding azaleas for Minnesota. Quarterly Bulletin of the American Rhododendron Society 20:163?165. Lee, F. P., F. O. Coe, B. Y. Morrison, M. Perkins, and F. Weiss. 1953. The Azalea Handbook. Baltimore: Monumental Publishing Company. Pellet, H. and F. Vos. 1978. Northern Lights. Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Miscellaneous Report #155. Rellstab, C., F. Gugerli, A. J. Eckert, A. M. Hancock, and R. Holderegger. 2015. A practical guide to environmental association analysis in landscape genomics. Molecular Ecology 24(17): 4348?4370. Towe, C. L. 2004. American Azaleas. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. United States National Plant Germplasm System (GRIN), https:\/\/npgsweb.ars-grin.gov\/gringlobal. Last accessed June 2016. University of Minnesota Fruit Breeding Farm. 1954. Report of the Fruit Breeding Farm Visitors Committee. Minnesota Horticulturist, 82(9):143. Whitehand, J. W. R. and P. J. Larkham. 1992. Urban Landscapes: International Perspectives. Hove, East Sussex, United Kingdom: Psychology Press. Widrlechner, M. 1982. Studies on the Breeding Potential and Genetics of Hybrid Azalea, Rhododendron ? Kosterianum Schneider ? Rhododendron Prinophyllum (Small) Millias. St. Paul, Minnesota: University of Minnesota Doctoral Thesis. Zhou, W., T. Gibbons, L. Goetsch, B. Hall, T. Ranney, and R. Miller. 2008. Rhododendron colemanii: A New Species of Deciduous Azalea (Rhododendron section Pentanthera; Ericaceae) from the Coastal Plain of Alabama and Georgia. Journal American Rhododendron Society 62(2): 72?78. Alexander Susko is currently a PhD student in the Applied Plant Sciences graduate program studying plant breeding and molecular genetics, James Bradeen is a professor and department head in the Department of Plant Pathology, and Stan Hokanson is a professor of woody plant breeding and genetics in the Department of Horticultural Science, all at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"BOOK EXCERPT: Urban Forests: A Natural History of Trees and People in the American Cityscape","article_sequence":3,"start_page":28,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25610","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170856d.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":2,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jonnes, Jill","article_content":"In Urban Forests: A Natural History of Trees and People in the American Cityscape, author Jill Jonnes presents stories from the early days of the urban tree movement on through the challenges that face urban forests today. Excerpted here is Chapter Seven from the book. Book Excerpt 29 30 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Book Excerpt 31 32 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Book Excerpt 33 34 Arnoldia 74\/2 ? October 2016 Book Excerpt 35 Excerpt from Urban Forests copyright Jill Jonnes published September 27, 2016, by Viking, an imprint of Penguin Publishing Group, a division of Penguin Random House LLC. ISBN: 9780670015665 http:\/\/www.penguinrandomhouse. com\/books\/314478\/urban-forestsby-jill-jonnes\/9780670015665\/ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gray's Bird Cherry (Prunus grayana): A Fitting Tribute to Asa Gray","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25611","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d1708926.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":2,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Gray's Bird Cherry (Prunus grayana): A Fitting Tribute to Asa Gray Michael S. Dosmann I f you've ever noticed the similarity between North American and Asian species of Liriodendron, Hamamelis, or Stewartia, then you've recognized the same biogeographic phenomenon that botanists have for well over a century (for an overview of disjunct floras see: Yih, D. 2012. The Eastern Asian?Eastern North American Floristic Disjunction. Arnoldia 69(3): 14?22). One of the first to recognize the similarity between species native to eastern North America (ENA) and eastern Asia (EA), specifically Japan, was Harvard botany professor Asa Gray, who first compared the two floras in 1840 while reviewing Siebold and Zuccarini's Flora Japonica. Fascinatingly, much of Gray's own evolution of thought related to biogeography was nurtured by his extensive correspondence with Charles Darwin. Gray's work recognized \"identical species\" that co-occurred in ENA and EA, and in an 1859 analysis he referred to a Japanese bird cherry as either Prunus virginiana (of North America) or possibly P. padus (a Eurasian species), though his inclination was that it was P. virginiana. Dutch botanist Friedrich Miquel described this bird cherry as P. padus var. japonica in 1865, but it was Russian botanist Carl Maximowicz who, in 1883, named it as a separate species, P. grayana, commemorating Asa Gray. Prunus grayana along with P. virginiana, P. serotina, and P. padus form a group of deciduous, racemose-flowering Prunus species that have a compelling evolutionary and geographic history that extends from eastern Asia to eastern North America and northern Eurasia. How fitting a specific epithet! I was first drawn to Gray's bird cherry in the spring of 2001 while ogling spectacular floral displays in the Arboretum's Living Collections. The 2- to 4-inch (5- to 10-centimeter) -long terminal racemes of densely packed white flowers (each about 1\/3 inch [7 to 8 millimeters] across) have leafy bases and lack peduncles: the lowermost flower emerges directly from a leaf axil. The abundant flowers typically appear in early to mid-May, turning the entire canopy into a dazzling green and white display that lasts about a week or two. The fruits mature from green to bright red and eventually a dark purple by mid-August. The elliptic leaves, up to 4 inches (10 centimeters) long, become intensely yellow gold in the autumn, while the short petioles and midveins often turn bright red--quite a striking contrast. Mature trees are rounded to upright and can grow nearly 50 feet (about 15 meters) tall. Although uncommon in cultivation, P. grayana offers wonderful spring and autumn ornamental interest. Arboretum specimens have been free of major disease or pest issues. It grows at the Morton Arboretum, near Chicago, confirming USDA Zone 5 cold hardiness, and also survives the oppressive heat and humidity at Philadelphia's Morris Arboretum and the United States National Arboretum in Washington, D.C. I have never noticed naturalized seedlings, but since birds eat the fruit and may disperse seeds, I recommend careful invasiveness evaluation before major production and introduction into the trade. Prunus grayana is native to Japan, where it is common in mesic forests from Hokkaido to the southern islands of Shikoku and Kyushu, and also occurs in mainland China from Zhejiang westward to Yunnan. The Arboretum currently has eight living specimens, all from Japan. The oldest (16694-A) was collected by E. H. Wilson in 1914 on Mount Hayachine in northeast Honshu. It grows near Forest Hills Gate, stands 35.4 feet (10.8 meters) in height, and has a diameter of 30.3 inches (77 centimeters) at 2 feet (0.6 meters) above the ground. Our tallest tree, at 42.3 feet (12.9 meters), is 1698-77-C, which grows nearby with three others (1191-77-A and B, and 1698-77-B). All were collected on Hokkaido by then Arboretum staff members Richard Weaver and Steven Spongberg during their 1977 expedition. They also made an additional collection (1777-77) from northern Honshu, with specimens A and C now growing on Bussey Hill and specimen D on Peters Hill. So, this autumn (or during bloom next spring), take a tour of our collection of Gray's bird cherries and think about Asa Gray's laudable contributions to botany-- especially his notice of the North AmericanAsian floral connection. Michael S. Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23452","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14ea328.jpg","title":"2016-74-2","volume":74,"issue_number":2,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Concise Chronicle of Propagation","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25605","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170b76d.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":1,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Alexander III, John H.; Enzenbacher, Tiffany","article_content":"CAMPAIGN FOR THE LIVING COLLECTIONS The Campaign for the Living Collections kicked off last fall with plant collecting trips to China and Idaho, which Curator of Living Collections Michael Dosmann and Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port wrote about in the last issue of Arnoldia. Once newly acquired fruits, seeds, cuttings, divisions, and plants arrive at the Arboretum, the production staff at the Dana Greenhouses takes over. In this issue, Manager of Plant Production Tiffany Enzenbacher and Plant Propagator John H. Alexander III describe the process of shepherding new accessions from the greenhouse bench to final production nurseries, the last step before plants move to a permanent location on the Arboretum grounds. A Concise Chronicle of Propagation Tiffany Enzenbacher and John H. Alexander III P lant propagation historically has been recognized as an integral component of the Arnold Arboretum's mission. In fact, the Arboretum's second employee (inaugural director Charles S. Sargent was the first) was plant propagator Jackson Dawson, hired in 1873, the year after the Arboretum was established. Since Dawson was Sargent's only employee, he served not only as the propagator but also the superintendent (Geary and Hutchinson 1980) and remained with the Arboretum until his death in 1916. The Arboretum's other long-term and influential propagators--William H. Judd (employed from 1913 to 1946), Alfred J. Fordham (1929 to 1977), and John H. Alexander III (1976 to 2016)--and shorter-term propagators followed suit after Dawson. Through horticultural expertise, experience, and old-fashioned trial and error, they coaxed seeds to germinate and cuttings to grow roots, successfully propagating taxa novel to New England and North America. The propagation facilities have moved five times over almost a century and a half and have seen many exciting horticultural accomplishments by Arboretum propagators and production staff. In 1873, the Arboretum shared growing space with the Bussey Institution, then relocated in 1886 to a small land plot and 20-foot by 50-foot greenhouse on the property at 1090 Centre Street, where Dawson then resided (Geary and Hutchinson 1980). These modest accommodations were soon outgrown and a new greenhouse was constructed on Orchard Street across from the Arboretum (off of the Arborway) in 1917 (Howard 1962). With intensified Arborway traffic and road widening, production was moved back to land adjacent to the Bussey Institution in 1928. As additional space needs arose, along with the desire for a more up-to-date building, ground broke to construct the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses in 1961. The donation for the Greenhouses was provided by Mrs. William R. Mercer (n?e Martha Dana), and was named in honor of her father, Charles S. Dana (Howard 1962). This complex houses the present facilities, including specialized equipment and environments for seed, cutting, and grafting propagation, greenhouse and outdoor bench space for containers, an evaluation ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Arnold Arboretum's greenhouse at the Bussey Institution was built in 1928. This view is of the greenhouse interior in 1949, photographed by Heman Howard. Views of the Dana Greenhouses in spring 1966 by Heman Howard (above) and again in fall 1974 by Alfred J. Fordham (below). TIFFANY ENZENBACHER ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Propagation 3 Recent renovations to the Dana Greenhouses increase efficiency and save water and energy. The seed propagation house is now equipped with an improved mist system that features hanging mist assemblies, which allows for maximum use of bench space. Other revamped features include sectioning the house into three irrigation zones with as many isolation valves in each zone, which allows for the flexibility to tailor water needs to specific taxa. Mist frequency can be controlled to come on at intervals of 2 to 180 minutes, with the duration of a mist event ranging from 2 to 60 seconds. LED (lightemitting diode) lighting was installed in fall 2015. The LumiGrow Pro 325 LEDs utilize 70% less energy than our previous HID (high intensity discharge) lamps and produce 70% less heat. Lights are used to extend the day length during short days. nursery, three longer-term nurseries, a cold storage building for overwintering containers, and the Bonsai and Penjing Pavilion. Through facility relocations and many staff changes in the years since the Arboretum's inception, plant propagation and production have remained center stage. The current tenyear Campaign for the Living Collections (Friedman et al. 2016), which focuses on acquiring nearly 400 wild-collected plant taxa, will assuredly keep propagation in the limelight well into the future. The Campaign's list of desiderata features taxa selected because they increase the phylogenetic and biological breadth of Arboretum collections, belong to geographically disjunct clades, are marginally hardy or threatened in the wild, or can be used to create a \"living type specimen\" in genomic research. Last September, the Dana Greenhouses staff received 100 new accessions (seeds, cuttings, plants) from expeditions related to the Campaign. Seeds from many accessions have already germinated, and others such as paperbark maple (Acer griseum) may take several cycles of warm and cold stratification to germinate uniformly. We look forward to transitioning individuals through the phases of production here at the Dana Greenhouses, with the end goal of having plants in their permanent locations in the living collections for researchers to study, children to learn from, and the public to enjoy. PROPAGATION MATERIAL ARRIVES In autumn, as plants in the living collections are slowing in growth and their foliage begins to abscise, the \"growing season\" in the Dana Greenhouses is just commencing. Production staff is overwhelmed with anticipation about what seeds, fruit, cuttings, and plants we will be receiving from foreign and domestic expeditions. However, once the highly sought-after fruit or cutting has been harvested from its parent and is now at long last in the hands of an Arnold Arboretum explorer, its trip to the Arboretum's greenhouses is nowhere near complete. As Curator of Living Collections Michael Dosmann and Plant Records Manager Kyle Port (2016) explained in the last issue of Arnoldia, the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service KYLE PORT 4 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 Fleshy fruits like these from wild-collected Washington hawthorn (Crataegus phaenopyrum) are soaked, rubbed, and sieved to separate the pulp from the seeds. (APHIS) requires a specialized permit to import foreign seeds into the United States. This permit allows for the importation of a small quantity of seeds, pending a successful evaluation for hitchhikers--noxious weed or parasitic plant seeds, insect pests, or pathogens of concern. The Arboretum typically has seeds routed to the APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine inspection station at John F. Kennedy International Airport in Jamaica, New York. Because the several day to weeklong inspection process is so complex and vital, foreign seeds have to be clean (removal of fruit surrounding seeds), properly labeled, and limited to only 50 seeds (or 10 grams [0.35 ounces]) per package. Should the scrutinizing agent discover any unwanted travelers on the coveted soon-to-be Arboretum seeds, the entire content of the package fails to pass the test, and the voyage for that seed lot ends there. Because much time is spent to meticulously clean the seeds and package them correctly in the foreign country, the majority pass through inspection and are then shipped on to the Arboretum, where the true journey through Clockwise from upper right: Curator of Living Collections Michael Dosmann opens a shipment of seeds from the APHIS Plant Protection and Quarantine inspection station at John F. Kennedy International Airport in Jamaica, New York. The seeds were acquired during the North AmericaChina Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) expedition in September 2015 and were sent directly from China to the inspection station. Jack Alexander prepares to sow Quercus rehderiana acorns in individual containers. These acorns were shipped directly to the Arboretum from collaborators in China. We then sent them to APHIS for inspection, and, after passing examination, they were returned to the Arboretum where they were cold stratified to break dormancy. Kyle Port collected this bunchberry accession (Cornus canadensis 209-2015) as a whole plant during his expedition to northern Idaho in September 2015. ALL PAGE 5 PHOTOS BY TIFFANY ENZENBACHER This paperbark filbert (Corylus fargesii) seedling is identified with accession number, form received as (SD = seed), and collection information on both hand-written and thermalprinted labels. Sixteen seeds were acquired during the 2015 NACPEC expedition and so far three have germinated. Seed Propagation Seeds from our own staff collectors, collaborators, and other gardens never arrive in those colorful packets seen on garden center display racks. Our seeds may arrive in small, resealable polyethlene bags, coin envelopes labelled in beautiful cursive writing, or sheets of paper neatly folded into packets. All will be carefully handled as they enter the propagation process. The first step is examination, since occasionally those packets contain more than seeds. Fruit remnants, cones, and chaff may arrive with the seeds, plus the occasional weevil or other insect. Collections made in foreign countries are thoroughly cleaned before being shipped since they will have to pass an inspection by APHIS (see page 4). Collections made within the United States by our own staff are seldom cleaned before being shipped back to the Arboretum, so at the greenhouse we often get to unpack boxes full of polyethylene bags containing rotting and fermenting fruits. Seeds from other arboreta and botanic gardens, be it foreign or domestic, are usually neatly cleaned and packaged. Not every seed in every packet will germinate, though. We once obtained a half kilogram (about a pound) of wild-collected Chinese sweetgum (Liquidambar acalycina) seeds, but ended up with only a tablespoon of viable seeds while the rest were undeveloped. Anyone unfamiliar with sweetgum seeds could easily make this mistake since sweetgum fruits often hold more undeveloped seeds than sound seeds. Careful visual inspection may help determine sound from unsound seeds, but not always. For example, bald cypress (Taxodium distichum) seeds are not uniform and could easily be tossed out with the cones. Before sowing, plant propagators routinely remove all that is not seed (e.g., fruit pulp, capsules, cones) because it is likely to host fungi, attract insects or rodents, or, in the case of fruit pulp, inhibit seed germination. Cleaning may involve soaking, drying, sieving, or a combination of these and other techniques. Sometimes seeds and chaff are all so tiny, and separating the two so difficult, that it only makes sense to clean reasonably well and sow it all. Freshly collected seeds generally germinate in higher percentages than stored seeds so we go to work quickly once seeds arrive. Before sowing the cleaned seeds we need to know the best protocol for germination for that particular species. For many plants, past experience or a search of seed propagation reference materials provides well-established protocols for germination variables such as soil temperature, day length, or light\/dark requirements. Seeds of most temperate zone species require cold stratification, which simulates winter conditions, and will germinate in higher percentages if they first experience 30 to 120 days at temperatures just above freezing. We routinely place seeds into polyethylene bags containing a moist, well-drained medium and refrigerate at 40?F for 90 days. The seeds of some species need both warm and cold stratification periods. Examples include paperbark maple (Acer griseum) and related trifoliate maples, the dove tree (Davidia involucrata), and most viburnums (Viburnum spp.). And there are also many species whose seeds don't strictly require cold stratification (heath family [Ericaceae] members, for example) but they germinate more uniformly and in higher percentages if first given a one month cold stratification so we often opt for that treatment. Another obstacle for germination in some seeds is the presence of an impermeable seed coat. Plants in Fabaceae, the pea family, often have impermeable seed coats, so we typically scarify seeds of any fabaceous species, whether known or new to us, by rubbing on sandpaper or a file. Scarified seeds are then soaked in water; if they \"imbibe\" and swell to about twice their size, they are ready to be sown or stratified. For all seeds, imbibition is the first step in germination (and why garden seed packets always exhort gardeners to \"keep soil moist after sowing\"). KYLE PORT Keeping records is an essential part of plant propagation. To track germination percentages and successful protocols, we count seeds (or make a close estimate) before they are sown. Once the number of seeds is known and a protocol has been determined, we begin the specified treatment. With species that haven't been grown before at the Arboretum or for which no established protocol can be found, we may experiment and try a variety of treatments if there are plenty of seeds. If there are only a few seeds, we rely on experience and best judgement to pick a treatment. Once stratifications (if needed) are complete, seeds are sown in flats and placed in a warm, humid greenhouse with the option of supplemental lighting. The best time to sow seeds is in the early spring but that timing isn't always possible, so supplemental lighting allows us to lengthen the photoperiod to simulate the longer days of spring and summer. When seedlings reach sufficient size they are potted up in individual containers, ready to continue through our production system. Modern technology has changed many greenhouse peripherals--we now use LED lights, thermostats, soil heating mats, and precise irrigation--but nature's requirements for seed germination haven't changed, and we accomplish that in much the same way as did the Arboretum's earliest propagators. Many accessions of fruits and seeds are processed at the Dana Greenhouses. When it's large enough, this healthy Rosa moyesii seedling will be planted in the Shade House. TIFFANY ENZENBACHER the production system begins. On occasion, this step is skipped and seeds are shipped directly to the Arboretum from a foreign country. Since the inspection process is required by law and is essential in mitigating the introduction of invasive and\/or threating agents to agriculture and the environment, greenhouse staff sends the material to APHIS to be inspected prior to any germination treatment. If domestic fruits (berries, capsules, samaras, etc.), cuttings, or plants are acquired, such as materials that Kyle Port collected on his expedition to Northern Idaho last fall, they are shipped directly to the greenhouse. It should be noted that obtaining material from expeditions is not the sole means by which the greenhouse procures plants. Propagules and plants are also obtained by several other methods: through Index Seminum (seed list) exchanges offered by botanical institutions, from other gardens or arboreta, or by purchasing from nurseries (particularly when acquiring cultivars). However, upon receiving any new seed, cutting, or plant, no matter what it is or where it is from, the first step that production staff takes on is accessioning. Similar to all museums, the Arboretum has a number classification system in place so that each plant can be treated as a specimen with a unique, recognized background. The accession number is composed of a number-year unit. For example, the number 2742015 signifies the 274th plant material lot received in 2015. For every accession, abbreviations such as SD (seed), CT (cutting), PT (plant) denote the form of material received. TIFFANY ENZENBACHER 8 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 MOVING UP After a seedling has rooted into its growing container, the next phase through the production system beckons. The Shade House, true to its name, is covered by woven polyethylene fabric that Seedlings of Acer oblongum, a semi-evergreen maple native to the sub-Himalayan region, wait in the outdoor container area before being transplanted into the Shade House in 2016. The first Arboretum accession of this species in 1908 comprised seeds collected by Ernest H. Wilson in China. This most recent accession, 272-2015, represents the sixth accession of A. oblongum grown at the Arboretum. One accession in particular that we are eager about having the opportunity to move through the production system is Moyes rose (Rosa moyesii). First collected by Antwerp E. Pratt in 1893, R. moyesii was introduced from Western Sichuan in 1903 by Ernest H. Wilson, Arboretum plant explorer and botanist, and William Botting Hemsley. Wilson collected R. moyesii on the Tibetan frontier, near Tatien-lu, while on expedition for James Veitch and Sons Nurseries (Wilson 1906). Wilson noted that \"the species is not uncommon in shrubberies on the mountains between Mt. Omi and Tatienlu,\" and described the solitary flowers as \"very dark red ... 5 to 6.5 cm across\" and \"singularly pleasing.\" Wilson wrote that R. moyesii was \"named in compliment to the Rev. James Moyes, of the China Inland Mission, stationed at Tatien-lu, to whom I am much indebted for hospitality, assistance, and companionship on one long An illustration of Rosa moyesii from the October 21, 1916, issue of The Garand interesting journey in den, a weekly gardening journal published in London from 1871 to 1927. Eastern Tibet.\" Sargent later commissioned Wilson to collect for the Arboretum, and in 1909 Wilson was successful in acquiring seeds--the Arboretum's second accession of R. moyesii (17091). The first accession (6827) was obtained two years prior, as a plant, directly from Veitch Nurseries. The blossoms of R. moyesii are unique, an intense deep red. Wilson wrote in 1930, \"few if any wild species of Rose have created so much interest as this native of the ChinoThibetan borderland.\" However, he also noted that \"unfortunately, in this climate the flowers bleach rapidly and New England gardens will never know the real beauty of this Rose,\" which prompted him to add that the \"hips ... in this country are more attractive than its flowers.\" The showy orangish red hips have an elongated, bottle-like shape and can reach 2 inches (5 centimeters) long. R. moyesii is still a popular species rose today, but `Geranium', a selection introduced to North America by the Arboretum, is more widely grown. `Geranium' was written about in 1960 by Donald Wyman, Arboretum horticulturist from 1935 to 1970, as a plant of possible merit. It is more compact than the species, with larger hips. This selection originated at the Royal Horticultural Society's garden at Wisley in southern England. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM A Rose Returns to the Arboretum JENNIFER RIOUX 10 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 allows only 45% of the light to pass through. This keeps the vulnerable plants less stressed after transplant. Seedlings and small cuttings or plants are transplanted into the highly organic soil of this evaluation nursery in late spring to early summer and are well tended throughout the season. Plants are mulched in and hand watered until established. There is an overhead sprinkler system for irrigating the entire nursery when necessary. Rodents have been problematic, occasionally damaging all individuals within an accession, so caging plants that they appear to be most attracted to such as horse chestnut (Aesculus), hickory (Carya), and oak (Quercus) has become mandatory in recent years. The Shade House also offers a first test of cold hardiness. Since the vast majority of Arboretum Former Isabella Welles Hunnewell 2014 Intern and Term Employee Olivia Fragale (left) and former Hunnewell 2015 Intern Carly Troncale (right) standing next to cages in the Shade House that they constructed to protect seedlings from possible rodent damage. TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Manager of Plant Production Tiffany Enzenbacher rearranges flats in the center alley to make room for Cornus sericea (accession 257-2015) and Rosa moyesii (accession 285-2015) seedlings. All seedlings transition from the greenhouse to the outdoor container area before being transplanted into the Shade House. Propagation 11 HEADING TO THE COLLECTIONS After the individuals in an accession are large enough to transplant, shrubs get containerized and trees continue their journeys through the facility into one of three longer term nurseries. After entering the production facility as a propagule, trees take anywhere from five to seven years in the system before they are robust enough to be transplanted into the living collections. Shrubs are at the greenhouse for three to five years on average. The voyage of an accession through the Dana Greenhouses concludes when the individuals are planted into their sited location out on the grounds. Now a new, much longer passage of life begins. KYLE PORT accessions funnel through here, and because the greenhouse area is in a recognized cooler microclimate of the Arboretum (Dosmann 2015), it provides a rudimentary assessment of hardiness. However, if a species is known to be marginally hardy, one to several individuals may be containerized instead of being planted in the Shade House. Those individuals would then subsequently be planted in a warmer microclimate of the Arboretum to increase their likelihood of survival during typical Zone 6 (average annual minimum temperatures -10 to 0?F [-23.3 to -17.8?C]) Boston winters. Along with hardiness, seedlings are also evaluated for form and vigor. Shrubs and trees gain size in the container area (foreground) and the East Nursery (beyond container area). Curator Michael Dosmann, Manager of Horticulture Andrew Gapinski, and Manager of Plant Production Tiffany Enzenbacher regularly walk through the nurseries and container areas and determine which individuals will be designated for upcoming plantings. TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Young trees may grow for several years in the well-mulched East Nursery adjacent to the Dana Greenhouses. Once they attain sufficient size, they will be transplanted to permanent locations on the Arboretum grounds. Long-time Arboretum plant propagator Jack Alexander was sowing seeds in the Dana Greenhouses earlier this year. Divisions of twinflower (Linnaea borealis, 198-2015) collected by Kyle Port during last year's North Idaho Expedition take root under mist. This trailing, semi-woody evergreen has a wide circumboreal distribution and was named in honor of famed Swedish botanist Carl Linnaeus. KYLE PORT TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Clockwise from upper left: TIFFANY ENZENBACHER Propagation 13 The cold storage building provides a controlled climate during winter for dormant seedlings, rooted cuttings, containerized plants, and the bonsai and penjing collection. The Campaign for the Living Collections is now in its second year and it is already providing greenhouse staff with exciting and challenging opportunities to germinate seeds, root cuttings, and grow-on wild-collected species that are new to the Arboretum as well as previously attempted taxa. The Campaign has reinforced the importance of horticultural research and reasserts that propagation is very much center stage, even as we near our 2022 sesquicentennial. As autumn is fast approaching and new collecting expeditions will soon start, we are once again awaiting the propagules that will be beginning their journey through the production system. We can only imagine that this is how Dawson felt during Wilson's 1907 to 1909 expedition to China, eager to receive the 2,262 seed collections and 1,473 collections of live plants or cuttings that resulted from the trip. References Dosmann, M. 2015. The History of Minimum Temperatures at the Arnold Arboretum: Variations in Time and Space. Arnoldia 72(4): 2?11. Dosmann, M. and K. Port. 2016. The Art and Act of Acquisition. Arnoldia 73(4): 2?17. Friedman, W. E., M. S. Dosmann, T. M. Boland, D. E. Boufford, M. J. Donoghue, A. Gapinski, L. Hufford, P. W. Meyer, and D. H. Pfister. 2016. Developing an Exemplary Collection: A Vision for the Next Century at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Arnoldia 73(3): 2?18. Geary, S. C. and B. J. Hutchinson. 1980. Mr. Dawson, Plantsman. Arnoldia 40(2): 51?75. Howard, R. 1962. The Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 22(5?6): 33?47. Wilson, E. H. 1930. Bulletin of Popular Information. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University (series 3, vol 4, no 10): 37?40. Wilson, E. H. 1906. Some New Chinese Plants. Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 1906(5): 147?163. Wyman, D. 1960. Plants of Possible Merit? Arnoldia. 20(2): 9?16. Tiffany Enzenbacher is Manager of Plant Production at the Arnold Arboretum. Plant Propagator John H. Alexander III recently retired from the Arboretum after 40 years of service. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Unlocking Ancient Environmental Change with the Help of Living Trees","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25608","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170816f.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":1,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Marston, John M.","article_content":"Unlocking Ancient Environmental Change with the Help of Living Trees John M. Marston W ith both human societies and ecosystems worldwide now facing ongoing, and even accelerating, environmental change, both scholars and policy makers are increasingly concerned with predicting the future implications of climate change. Where will our coastlines, tree lines, and urban boundaries lie in 50 or 100 years? How will changes in the seasonality and intensity of precipitation, frosts, and heat waves affect the plants and animals on which we rely for food? And, most important, what are the consequences for us? One avenue for understanding human responses to dramatic environmental and climatic change is to look to the past when societies faced similar periods of rapid change. Paleoclimatologists and paleoecologists have developed numerous methods to identify ancient environmental change, creating rich records from glacial ice at the poles and on mountaintops, as well as cores drilled deep into seabeds and lakes that preserve hundreds or thousands of years of annually deposited sediments. Archaeologists who study the deep history of human-environmental relationships draw on these datasets, as well as archaeological records of social and economic change, to explore human adaptation to environmental change in the past. A variety of archaeological finds are useful in identifying climatic change, from mammal and fish bones to microscopic starch grains found on tools used in plant food processing. One material commonly found in archaeological sites from many different periods of the human past, nearly worldwide, is wood charcoal. Incompletely burned wood from fireplaces, ovens, kilns, and accidently (or deliberately) burned buildings becomes inorganic charcoal, which is resistant to degradation from soil microbes and fungi and thus can survive for thousands of years within the soil. It is frequently possible to identify the type of tree that produced these charcoal remains and thus reconstruct patterns of wood use and forest change, both as a result of climatic change and deliberate or inadvertent human reconfiguration of woodlands. Scholars have developed methods for systematically recovering, identifying, and interpreting these remains to identify patterns of climate and environmental change in the past. Recently, Boston University and the Arnold Arboretum have begun a partnership to draw on the vast living collections of the Arboretum to improve the resolution of archaeological charcoal studies in the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory in the Department of Archaeology at Boston University. In this article, I describe how archaeologists study charcoal from archaeological sites and use it to reconstruct the human role in environmental change, highlighting how resources of the Arnold Arboretum enhance our teaching and research mission at Boston University. Recovering and Identifying Archaeological Plant Remains Wood charcoal fragments from archaeological sites have been studied since the 1940s to address multiple questions about human wood use in the past. The first step in archaeological charcoal analysis is systematic recovery of charcoal remains from archaeological sites. Although not a universal practice, the recovery of plant remains is increasingly ubiquitous among archaeologists worldwide, even in remote areas of developing countries. We recover soil samples, generally 10 to 20 liters (2.6 to 5.3 gallons) in volume (equivalent to one or two buckets full), from every archaeological level and distinct feature (e.g., a pit or a hearth) identified during excavation. Archaeologists most commonly use a water flotation method to recover charred plant ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED Ancient Environmental Change 15 The author operating a flotation tank on site in Turkey, and charred plant remains floating to the surface within the tank. remains, including wood charcoal as well as carbonized seeds and other plant structures, from soil samples. Although flotation can be accomplished using only a pair of buckets and a fine mesh strainer, more common are systems that pump large volumes of water to process even large samples quickly. Clean water is pumped into the tank of the machine where the soil sample is held in a plastic window screen mesh. The water dissolves the soil, freeing carbonized plant remains, which float, and rinsing away sediment in the dirty effluent that is released from the bottom of the tank. Heavy components of the soil, including bone and pottery fragments as well as occasional heavy pieces of charcoal, are caught in the window screen and later dried and analyzed. The floating, or light, fraction consists of wood charcoal and carbonized plant remains, but also soil components lighter than water, including tiny roots and fine clay particles. The light fraction is allowed to overflow into a very fine polyester mesh, with holes less than 0.1 millimeter (0.004 inch) to catch even the smallest seeds. This fraction is then carefully air dried and brought to the laboratory for identification and analysis. We then pour the light fraction through a series of nested sieves, creating several size classes of material that can be sorted differently. In general, only wood charcoal fragments larger than 2 millimeters (0.08 inch) are analyzed, as smaller fragments are unlikely to be identifiable. Systematically sorting each size class under low-power stereomicroscopes, we remove each type of plant remain for subsequent identification and measurement, with wood charcoal, carbonized seeds and seed fragments, and nutshell distinguished and separated. Wood charcoal fragments are then weighed in aggregate and a representative number of those fragments are identified. The identification of wood charcoal can be challenging because fragments are often small and may be distorted by burning and subsequent deterioration in the soil. Fortunately, different species of woody plants vary considerably in their cellular anatomy, which allows wood (even charcoal) to be identified to varying levels of specificity depending on the wood 16 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 (Left) Diagram of pine wood, showing three planes of structure (image from Plant Anatomy by William Chase Stevens, 1916, Philadelphia: P. Blakiston. Courtesy of Florida Center for Instructional Technology, http:\/\/etc. usf.edu\/clipart\/). (Right) Scanning electron micrograph of Turkey oak (Quercus cerris) wood from the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory collection. (Left) Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) wood, in transverse section (scale bar 500 ?m = 0.5 mm); growth ring boundary is marked with red line. (Right) Black pine (Pinus nigra) wood, in transverse section (scale bar 500 ?m = 0.5 mm); growth ring boundaries are marked with red lines. type. Wood can be viewed from three planes, each of which presents a distinct set of anatomical structures for identification. All three are necessary for detailed identification, but the transverse, or cross section, is the most useful for charcoal identification and can be examined with a stereomicroscope at 20 to 100? magnification. Distinguishing hardwoods (angio- sperms) and softwoods (gymnosperms) can be easily accomplished using just low-power magnification of the transverse section; many families within these large categories can also be distinguished based solely on the transverse section. Using a combination of basic reflected light microscopy, high-power incident light microscopy, and electron microscopy, we cata- Ancient Environmental Change 17 log features of archaeological wood fragments and assign them tentative identifications based on their anatomy. Confirmation of these identifications, however, typically requires a comprehensive comparative collection of modern wood taken from properly identified and fully vouchered trees. Assembling such a comparative collection has been an ongoing effort of the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory and is the origin of our collaboration with the Arnold Arboretum. Using the Arboretum as a Research Collection The Arnold Arboretum offers a tremendous opportunity to collect wood from a wide variety of temperate tree species from the Americas, Europe, and Asia. Each tree is properly identified and labeled, and considerable information regarding its life history is recorded in the Arboretum's living collections database. For our partnership, since most woody plants are identifiable at the genus level, we preferentially collect wood from species native to the areas in which members of the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory work (mainly southern Europe, the Middle East, East Asia, and northeastern North America). When the most relevant species are not available, we choose other species of those genera in order to obtain the most similar comparative specimens possible. Wood anatomy can vary based on the diameter and age of the branch collected, between branch and trunk wood, and because of unique growth conditions such as bending or disease. As a result, we attempt to collect wood from multiple parts of a tree when possible. The Arboretum facilitates our collection by allowing us to gather dead branches that have fallen from trees as well as gathering samples from trees that are trimmed or cut down during the course of routine tree maintenance activities. Members of the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory compiled a \"wish list\" of trees in the living collections that Arboretum arborists can refer to when tree work is done. The arborists then collect specimens from trees of specific interest to us. We periodically stop by the Arboretum to collect these wood samples for further processing at Boston University. Back in the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory, we interface with the Arboretum's database and use the Arboretum Explorer website (http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/explorer\/) to gather information about trees that have been sampled. We record much of that information into the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory Collections Database, which is also searchable online (http:\/\/sites.bu.edu\/ealab\/ collections\/database\/). The wood sample is then divided between a wood specimen and a specimen to be converted into charcoal. Experimental carbonization of comparative wood samples is critical for two reasons. First, carbonization can modify the structure of the wood in predictable ways, leading perhaps to certain patterns of cracks that can be diagnostic when examining archaeological wood charcoal. Second, charcoal can be easily broken to expose any of the three planes, facilitating rapid examination, while wood needs to be cut with an ultrathin blade so as not to crush the exposed cell walls, requiring additional equipment and time to prepare comparative slides. We carbonize wood using a muffle furnace capable of reaching temperatures of 1000?C (1832?F), although we typically carbonize wood around 400?C (752?F) to maximize speed of carbonization without incinerating the wood. It is critical that wood heat in an oxygen-poor reducing atmosphere because that promotes charcoal formation, while an abundance of oxygen would lead to ashing and destruction of the sample. We carefully wrap samples twice in heavy-duty aluminum foil to minimize contact with oxygen and pack them tightly in the muffle furnace. At 400?C, wood carbonizes in 10 to 40 minutes, depending on the thickness of the pieces. Finally, both charcoal and wood specimens are stored in labeled boxes within a specialized shelving system in the lab. The boxes include basic information on the wood and its location of origin, together with an identifier code that corresponds to its record in our database. A future project for the laboratory is to take microscopic images of the wood anatomy of all woods in the collection and to make them available online, both through the laboratory website and as a contribution to Inside Wood 18 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 Clockwise from top left: Collected wood specimens to be accessioned into comparative collection. Larger pieces were provided by the Arnold Arboretum. Preparation of wood for experimental carbonization: sawing a sample for carbonization; packing the muffle furnace; a fully carbonized specimen, just out of the furnace. Samples housed and labeled for comparative collection. Ancient Environmental Change 19 Once it is possible to identify wood fragments reliably, we work to identify a statistically robust subsample of all wood charcoal fragments present in our archaeological samples. Recording both count and weight of these fragments, we are able to create diagrams that represent change in the prevalence and context of use for woods over time. For example, in my ongoing research at the ancient city of Gordion, in central Turkey, which was inhabited from the Early Bronze Age (3000 to 2000 BC) through the medieval period (fourteenth century AD), I was able to document changes in wood use practices and forest ecology over a span of 3,000 years. Gordion became a large city around 800 BC as the capital of the Phrygian kingdom, which grew from Gordion to control most of central Turkey. At that time the Phrygians began to construct monumental temples, massive city walls, and huge earthen burial mounds (the largest over 170 feet [52 meters] in height) containing royal burials inside elaborate wooden structures, including the oldest standing wooden building in the world. This amazing structure was fashioned from juniper (Juniperus spp.) wood, which was widely used within the city in roofing large public buildings. Juniper is a slow-growing tree, however, and the inhabitants of Gordion appear to have quickly exhausted their supply of easily cut large juniper trees. In later periods of occupation, charcoal samples from burned buildings indicate that oak (Quercus spp.) and pine (Pinus Wood samples from this yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis, accession 629-83-F) were carbonized for the Boston University Environmental Archaeology Laboratory charcoal collection. KYLE PORT Reconstructing Past Woodland Ecology and Wood Use, with Implications for the Future KYLE PORT (http:\/\/insidewood.lib.ncsu.edu), a free, public, wood anatomy database created at North Carolina State University. Although extensive comparative collections of wood samples are preserved at other arboreta and herbaria worldwide, very few of these have been digitized to make them publically accessible. Because our collection includes specimens from many countries of the Middle East and Central Asia, as well as specimens from several arboreta in the United States, we aim to publicize our records as widely as possible as a research tool for archaeologists worldwide. Wood samples from this hybrid tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera ? chinense, accession 584-81-A) growing near the Arboretum's Hunnewell Visitor Center were provided to the Boston University Environmental Archaeology Laboratory. Using the Arboretum as a Teaching Collection Every summer I teach a weeklong intensive workshop on wood anatomy and wood charcoal identification for archaeologists. Participants come to Boston from universities nationwide, from Santa Barbara to Chapel Hill, and a few even join us from across the river in Cambridge. Participants are mainly doctoral students, but we have a number of faculty participants and even an occasional undergraduate. During the week we cover wood anatomy from initial concepts (e.g., the three planes of wood) to advanced structural variation (e.g., ray cell margin shape in gymnosperms). We also read and discuss a number of articles that illustrate best practices for sampling and recovery of wood charcoal from archaeological sediments, methods for quantifying and presenting results, and the challenges of changes brought about by both the initial burning of wood and its preservation in soils for hundreds or thousands of years. Students spend the last few days analyzing their own wood charcoal assemblages and learning how to identify the woods common to their areas of expertise, which have ranged from southwest China to Jordan, the California Channel Islands, the Yucatan, and the Andes. One highlight of the week is our field trip to the Arnold Arboretum. The group receives an orientation and tour led by Michael Dosmann, Curator of Living Collections. During the tour, workshop participants learn about the unique collections of the Arnold Arboretum and about the life history of particular trees on the property. Following an orientation to the Arboretum Explorer web application, participants are able to use their smartphones to find particular trees of interest to them and spend the next two hours visiting those trees. We collect a few samples of dead wood from the ground under selected trees to bring back to the laboratory, where we then experimentally carbonize wood samples and study their microscopic structure. Participants then split their newly collected specimens, with a portion joining the permanent collection of the Environmental Archaeology Laboratory and the rest returning home with each participant. As a result, every participant returns to their home lab with the beginning of a personal comparative charcoal collection and the experience needed to expand their collection through fieldwork and collaborative ventures with local botanical gardens and arboreta. Participants in the 2014 wood charcoal workshop analyzing samples in the Boston University Environmental Archaeology Laboratory. Ancient Environmental Change 21 Clockwise from top: The funerary chamber within the largest burial mound at Gordion, dated to 743?741 BC, showing the outer casing of roughly finished juniper logs. Juniper logs used as support ties within a stone wall at Gordion. A Greek juniper (Juniperus excelsa) of a size similar to that of the logs in the funerary chamber; trees of this size are rare in the landscape around Gordion today. 22 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 spp.) were the primary woods used in construction, both of which have the advantage of being fast-growing trees that often take over in sites where older juniper trees have been cut. Oak and pine, however, have inferior strength and rot resistance compared to juniper. Archaeological wood charcoal assemblages show a dramatic human impact on the landscape that led to considerable forest reorganization during the early history of the city. Later inhabitants of the region had to contend with a different landscape, and different availability of natural resources, than their ancestors. Examples such as the case of Gordion parallel more recent human history, both in central Turkey and worldwide, in which human activity transforms a landscape for future inhabitants. When viewed from the perspective of later populations, we term these impacts \"legacy effects,\" and the implications of such changes are many. It has been argued by several scholars, including Jared Diamond, that the deforestation of Easter Island pushed its ecosystem beyond a tipping point that led to severely reduced resources and impoverishment of the isolated inhabitants. In contrast, legacy effects may also have been deliberate outcomes, designed to boost productivity and resource availability. The use of fire to maintain prairie habitats in the American Great Plains prior to European contact is an example of such \"niche construction,\" in which people modify their environment to boost productivity of desired resources to suit their cultural needs. Archaeologists have explored these environmental histories using wood charcoal analysis, and continue to search for a deeper understanding of not only when and how, but also why human groups manipulate their landscape in specific ways. These detailed studies offer cases of environmental disaster and social collapse, but also resilience and survival in even the most uninviting landscapes. As contemporary society faces environmental change on an unprecedented scale, archaeologists offer both cautionary and inspiring stories of humanenvironmental relationships that provide novel, proven effective tools for continued survival in a changing world. Additional Reading These include sources that outline the practice of archaeological wood charcoal analysis (Asouti and Austin 2005, Marston 2009); wood anatomy and identification (Panshin and de Zeeuw 1970, Schweingruber 1990, Schweingruber et al. 2006); frameworks for studying human-environmental interactions (Cumming et al. 2006, Marston 2015, Redman 1999, Smith 2007); and more about our team's recent work at Gordion (Marston in press, Miller 2010, Rose 2012). Asouti, E. and P. Austin. 2005. Reconstructing woodland vegetation and its exploitation by past societies, based on the analysis and interpretation of archaeological wood charcoal macro-fossils. Environmental Archaeology 10: 1?18. Cumming, G. S., D. H. M. Cumming, and C. L. Redman. 2006. Scale mismatches in social-ecological systems: causes, consequences, and solutions. Ecology and Society 11: 14. Marston, J. M. 2009. Modeling wood acquisition strategies from archaeological charcoal remains. Journal of Archaeological Science 36: 2192?2200. Marston, J. M. 2015. Modeling resilience and sustainability in ancient agricultural systems. Journal of Ethnobiology 35: 585?605. Marston, J. M. (In press). Agricultural Sustainability and Environmental Change at Ancient Gordion. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum Press. Miller, N. F. 2010. Botanical Aspects of Environment and Economy at Gordion, Turkey. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum Press. Panshin, A. J. and C. de Zeeuw. 1970. Textbook of Wood Technology. New York: McGraw Hill. Redman, C. L. 1999. Human Impact on Ancient Environ ments. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. Rose, C. B. (editor). 2012. The Archaeology of Phrygian Gordion, Royal City of Midas. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Museum Press. Schweingruber, F. H. 1990. Anatomy of European Woods. Stuttgart: Haupt. Schweingruber, F. H., A. B?rner, and E. D. Schulze. 2006. Atlas of Woody Plant Stems: Evolution, Structure, and Environmental Modifications. Berlin: Springer. Smith, B. D. 2007. The ultimate ecosystem engineers. Science 315: 1797. John M. Marston is Assistant Professor in the Departments of Archaeology and Anthropology at Boston University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cork: Structure, Properties, Applications","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25606","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170bb26.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":1,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gibson, Lorna J.","article_content":"Cork: Structure, Properties, Applications Lorna J. Gibson BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY E ver since people have cared about wine, they have cared about cork to keep it sealed in bottles. \"Corticum abstrictum pice demovebit amphorae ...\" (Pull the cork, set in pitch, from the bottle) sang the Roman poet Horace in 27 B.C., to celebrate the anniversary of his miraculous escape from death from a falling tree. In Roman times, corks used to seal bottles were covered in pitch; it was not until the 1600s that a method for stoppering bottles with clean corks was perfected by Benedictine monks at Hautvillers in France. Cork's elasticity, impermeability, and chemical stability means that it seals the bottle without contaminating the wine, even when it must mature for many years. The Romans also used cork for the soles of shoes and for floats for fishing nets. According to Plutarch (A.D. 100), when Rome was besieged by the Gauls in 400 B.C., messengers crossing the Tiber clung to cork for buoyancy. Cork is the bark of the cork oak, Quercus suber, which grows in Mediterranean climates. Pliny, in his Natural History (A.D. 77), describes it: \"The cork-oak is a small tree, and its acorns are bad in quality and few in number; its only useful product is its bark which is extremely thick and which, when cut, grows again.\" All trees have a thin layer of cork in their bark; Quercus suber is unusual in that, at maturity, the cork forms a layer many centimeters thick around the trunk of the tree. The cell walls of cork are covered with thin layers of unsaturated fatty Robert Hooke's book Micrographia amazed readers with its detailed drawings such as this one of cork showing the roughly rectangular cell shape in one plane and the roughly circular cell shape in the perpendicular plane. The lower drawing is of sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), whose touch-induced leaf movement Hooke studied. For more images and insight on Micrographia from this article's author, please view this YouTube video: https:\/\/www. youtube.com\/watch?v=zFfVtziLhg4 24 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 COURTESY OF AMORIM, COPYRIGHT APCOR (PORTUGUESE CORK ASSOCIATION) Cork is harvested from managed cork oak (Quercus suber) forests such as this one in Portugal. acid (suberin) and waxes, which make them impervious to air and water, and resistant to attack by many acids. Cork Under the Microscope shape in the perpendicular plane. Hooke noted that the cell walls were arranged \"as those thin films of Wax in a Honey-comb.\" Modern scanning electron micrographs of cork show additional detail. In the plane in which the cells look rectangular, we see that the cell walls are wavy, rather than straight, and in the perpendicular plane, the cells are roughly hexagonal prisms, with the waviness in the cell walls along the length of the prism axis. The dimensions on the unit cell are microns, or micrometers (?m); for comparison, a human hair is roughly 50 microns in diameter. Cork occupies a special place in the history of microscopy and of plant anatomy. When English scientist Robert Hooke perfected his microscope, around 1660, one of the first materials he examined was cork. What he saw led him to identify the basic unit of plant and biological structure, which he called the \"cell\" (from cella, Latin for small chamber). His book, Micrographia, published in 1665, records his observations, including the comment that, \"I no sooner descern'd these (which were indeed the first microscopical pores I ever saw, and perhaps, that were ever seen, for I had not met with any Writer or Person that had made any mention of them before this) but me thought I had with the discovery of them, presently hinted to me the true and intelligible reason of all the Phenomena of Cork.\" Hooke's detailed drawings of cork show the Scanning electron micrographs of cork cells in the same two perpendicular roughly rectangular cell shape in one planes as in Hooke's drawings, showing the corrugations in the cell walls plane and the roughly circular cell (from Gibson et al., 1981). Cork Tree vs Cork Oak LESLIE J. MEHRHOFF, UCONN, BUGWOOD.ORG The Arboretum's cork tree (Phellodendron spp.) collection lies south of the Hunnewell Visitor Center along Meadow Road, as seen in the photo below. There are 18 Phellodendron specimens comprising 5 taxa, all native to Asia, in the collection. While the bark of cork trees has a similar compliant feel as that of the true cork oak (Quercus suber), it is not used as a source of cork. These scanning electron micrographs of two perpendicular planes in Phellodendron bark show more irregular cells compared with those of Quercus suber (seen on page 24). Cork oak is only cold hardy through USDA hardiness zone 8 (average annual minimum temperature 10 to 20?F [-12.2 to -6.7?C]) so there are no specimens at the Arboretum. 26 Arnoldia 74\/1 ? August 2016 Sheets of cork oak bark rest in front of the tree they were harvested from. KESSLER AND SONS MUSIC Cork is roughly 15% solid and the rest is air. Its density is typically about 15% that of water: its low density, combined with the closed cells that do not allow water to enter, gives cork its great buoyancy. The low volume fraction of solid, along with the relatively compliant cell wall material, gives rise to its compressibility. The waviness or corrugations in the cell walls of cork leads to an unusual behavior: if pulled along the prism axis, the corrugations in the cell walls straighten out, with little change in the transverse dimension (like the bellows of an accordion unfolding). In contrast, if you pull on most materials they get narrower in the transverse direction (think of pulling on a rubber band, for example). And if a cube of rubber is compressed some amount in one direction, it will expand out sideways by nearly half that amount in each of the other two transverse directions. When compressed along the prism axis, the corrugations in cork's cell walls simply fold up, again producing no change in the transverse dimension. It is this property, along with the compressibility of cork, that makes it easy to insert cork into a bottle and gives a good seal against the glass neck of the bottle. Cork makes good gaskets for the same reason that it makes good bungs for bottles: it is compressible, accommodating deformation, and its closed cells are impervious to liquids. Thin sheets of cork are used, for instance, as gaskets between sections of woodwind instruments. The sheet of cork is always cut with the prism axis normal to its plane, so that when the two sections of the instrument are mated, the cork does not expand around the circumference of the section and will not wrinkle. Cork makes an admirable flooring material because it is comfortable to walk on (thanks to its compressibility), it holds warmth, and it doesn't become slippery, even when wet. Cork holds warmth because it transfers heat poorly. In porous, cellular solids such as cork, heat transfer occurs by conduction (through the solid or gas), by convection (as gas on the warmer side of a cell rises and that on the cooler side falls, setting up convection currents), or by radiation. Gases have lower thermal conductivities than solids (by a factor of up to a thousand) so COURTESY OF AMORIM How Cork Works Cork gaskets are used at the tenon joints of clarinet sections. the high volume fraction of air within the cells reduces heat transfer by conduction through cork. Convection currents, carrying heat from one side of a cell to the other, are suppressed for cell sizes less than about 1 millimeter (for small cell sizes, the buoyancy force associated with hot air rising is counteracted by drag of the air against the walls of the cells). And heat flow by radiation also depends on cell size--the smaller the cells, the more times the heat has to be absorbed and reradiated, reducing the rate of heat flow. So the high volume fraction of air in cork and its small cells contribute to its ability to hold warmth. Cork 27 unloaded loaded in tension Micrographs showing (left) cork cells unloaded and (right) the progressive straightening of cell walls as cork is pulled along the prism axis (from Gibson et al., 1981). A pin pushed into cork results in a narrow band of crushed cells next to the pin (left) but little deformation of the cork beyond that (right) (from Gibson et al., 1981). Friction between a shoe and a cork floor has two origins. One is adhesion, in which atomic bonds form between the two contacting surfaces and work must be done to break them. Between a shoe and a tiled or stone floor, this is the only source of friction, and since it is a surface effect, it is completely destroyed by a film of water or soap, making the floor slippery. The other source of friction is due to energy losses associated with loading and unloading the floor (as a step is taken, for instance). In some materials, such as stone, these energy losses are small, but in cork, the energy losses are significant (it is said to have a high loss coefficient). Since the energy losses occur within the cork, and are not a surface effect, cork floors do not become slippery even when wet or soapy. Cork is widely used for bulletin boards. When a pin is stuck into cork, the deformation is very localized around the pin. A narrow band of cork cells, occupying a thickness of only about a quarter of the diameter of the pin, collapses, crushing those cells nearly completely, to accommodate the diameter of the pin. The deformation in the cells beyond this highly deformed band is negligible in comparison. For this reason, the force needed to push the pin into a cork bulletin board is small. And cork recovers most of the deformation when it is unloaded, so that the hole nearly closes up after the pin is removed. The cellular structure of cork is unique. It gives rise to a remarkable combination of properties that are exploited in everything from bottle stoppers and gaskets to the soles of shoes, flooring, and bulletin boards. Acknowledgements This article is based on the paper, The structure and mechanics of cork, co-authored with Ken Easterling and Mike Ashby, referenced below; it is a pleasure to acknowledge their contributions. Micrographs on pages 24 and 27 are from that paper. References Gibson, L. J. , K. E. Easterling, and M. F Ashby. 1981. Structure and mechanics of cork. Proceedings of the Royal Society, A377, 99?117. Hooke, R. 1665. Micrographia, Tab XI. London: Royal Society. Horace, Q. circa 27 BC. Odes, book III, ode 8, line 10. Pliny, C. 77 AD. Natural History, vol. 16, section 34. Plutarch. 100 AD. Life of Camillus. Parallel Lives, vol. 2, ch. 25, p. 154. Lorna J. Gibson is the Matoula S. Salapatas Professor of Materials Science and Engineering at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ulmus thomasii: The Hard Elm That's Hard to Find","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25607","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170bb6b.jpg","volume":74,"issue_number":1,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pruka, Brian","article_content":"Ulmus thomasii: The Hard Elm That's Hard to Find Brian Pruka I f you hike Beech Path up the steep slope from Valley Road and continue to the point where a footpath branches off to the right, you will find a slender, stately tree next to the trail. It is a rock elm, Ulmus thomasii, one of only three elms native to northeastern North America. This particular specimen, accession number 444-88-A, is the only rock elm currently in the Arnold Arboretum's living collections. It is well worth seeing. Rock elm was originally named Ulmus rac emosa in 1831 by its discoverer, American civil engineer David Thomas of New York. It was renamed Ulmus thomasii in 1902 by Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent when he determined that another elm already had the name Ulmus racemosa. Rock elm is most common in the northeastern and north-central states, with the core of its range stretching from north-central Wisconsin to southern Michigan and southern Ontario. Populations exist as far south as Tennessee, but it is primarily a cold-weather tree, not often found in regions warmer than USDA Plant Hardiness Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20?F [-23.3 to -28.9?C]). Rock elm is rarely encountered in New England, likely because it has a strong preference for limestone substrates, which are not common here. Back in the 1910s to 1930s there were as many as twelve rock elms growing on the Arboretum grounds, all procured from well known plant nurseries of the era. Most of these trees eventually died of Dutch elm disease (DED), a devastating fungal vascular wilt. Four succumbed to Boston's first big DED epidemic in 1946. Two died of DED in 1987, another three in 1989. Specimen 17925-B was recorded as being in \"excellent health\" on May 5, 1989. It was cut down 75 days later, on July 19, dead from DED. Our current living specimen was propagated in 1988 as a cutting from a then 102-year-old tree (accession 17926-A) that was planted at the Arboretum in 1886. One of the best traits for identifying a rock elm--not often listed in identification books-- is its form. The species is typically tall and slender, with a single bole that gets remarkably tall before it splits into a narrow crown. Rock elms growing in crowded forest situations also usually have small corky branches that droop downward from the middle third of the main bole. The Arboretum's specimen has grown out in the open all its life and does not have drooping branches at mid-bole, though it does have a strikingly straight main trunk and currently measures 44.24 feet (13.48 meters) tall with a dbh (diameter at breast height) of 18.31 inches (46.5 centimeters). Rock elm leaves can look much like American elm leaves. Tree identification books generally list three identifier traits for rock elm: branches with 3 to 5 irregular corky wings; inflorescences of 7 to 13 flowers arranged in a long, pendulous raceme; and fruits (samaras) covered with tiny hairs and an inflated paper wing that is not distinct from the seed case. Unfortunately those unique traits are not always present. Some rock elms, including our specimen, lack corky twigs. Rock elms don't reproduce until about age 20, don't produce full seed crops until age 45, and produce bountiful seed crops only once every 3 to 4 years. Seeds drop from the tree as soon as they ripen, so from May to February there are no reproductive structures to aid identification. The timber of rock elm is especially prized for its hardness. It has interlaced fibers that make it almost impossible to split, yet easy to bend. It is especially durable underwater. In past centuries, much rock elm was cut and shipped to Great Britain to build wooden battleships. Rock elm is also highly regarded for its beautiful gold fall foliage color, so consider a hike up Beech Path this autumn. A tall, handsome native elm is awaiting you. Brian Pruka is a 2016 Isabella Welles Hunnewell Intern at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23450","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1708928.jpg","title":"2016-74-1","volume":74,"issue_number":1,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Art and Act of Acquisition","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25604","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170b728.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":4,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Port, Kyle; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"CAMPAIGN FOR THE LIVING COLLECTIONS The Art and Act of Acquisition Michael S. Dosmann and Kyle Port The Campaign for the Living Collections is well under way at the Arboretum. In the last issue we presented the document that guides the Campaign, and in this issue we get to the action-- how does the Arboretum curatorial staff prepare for and carry out plant collecting expeditions? Curator of Living Collections Michael Dosmann and Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port provide insight and share photographs from their recent trips. P lant exploration combines a love of plants with adventure. Over its nearly 145-year history, the Arnold Arboretum has harnessed these passions by leading or supporting more than 150 plant collecting events across 70 countries. As knowledge of the plant kingdom has evolved, so have the Arboretum's living collections, placing even greater demand on deliberate and strategic collection planning. As described in the previous issue of Arnoldia (Friedman et al. 2016), the new 10-year Campaign for the Living Collections articulates a number of broad goals that, when met, will preserve the collections' singular legacy and advance it well into the future. For example, there is a call to strengthen the species representation within genera such as Viburnum and Taxus that are useful to the study of biogeography. As a means of broadening the number of genera in the collections, several marginally hardy taxa like Daphniphyllum macropodum and Nothofagus dombeyi have been identified as species worth trying to grow here. And, because of the great threat of extinction, numerous conservation-status species are highlighted before they disappear from the wild. The Arboretum will meet these collections goals through the acquisition of nearly 400 target taxa, or desiderata, with each fulfilling at least one (and typically several) goals. For many of the taxa on the list, the Arboretum needs several unique acquisitions (e.g., from multiple locations), so what is initially a list of 395 blossoms into a vibrant garden of 720 actual targets. Each of these targets will require its own acquisition plan and approach. A few might be purchased from nurseries, some may be acquired from cooperative institutions and repositories, while others will be sought out and obtained through the Arboretum's network of colleagues. However, the majority will be obtained on specific plant expeditions in which an Arboretum staff member leads or participates. With the vision and goals in place, a new generation of explorers, horticulturists, and other Arboretum friends and associates are rallying to collect from the temperate flora and cultivate these plants in the Arboretum. Few endeavors are as rewarding and exciting as seeing plants in their wild habitats, collecting seeds or other propagules, and then bringing them back home to cultivate. As botanical garden professionals, we also value the role plant exploration plays in other aspects of collections manage- Smoke from dynamic forest fires cloaked the Alpine Lakes Wilderness in the central Cascade Mountains of Washington as Kyle Port's flight descended into the region at the beginning of his plant collecting trip to northern Idaho last fall. ment. The important pre-trip planning and posttrip follow-up lead not only to better executed expeditions, but to more individual (and thus institutional) knowledge that can be applied to the long-term stewardship of the species collected. In this article, we shed some light on a number of aspects of plant collecting based on some recent trips and our shared experiences. It is not our intention to be encyclopedic on the subject, however, as many resources exist that cover in greater depth. (For more details on the philosophy, mechanics, and best practices of plant exploration see Ault (2000), ENSCONET (2009), and the special 2010 issue of Arnoldia (Volume 68, Number 2) commemorating the 20th-Anniversary of the North America-China Plant Exploration Consortium [NACPEC]. For the majority of the expeditions that will be conducted by the Arboretum over the next decade, the various desiderata will dictate where (and how) we collect them. Simply put, as the individual targets are marked on maps, regions that contain the most \"dots\" become obvious sites for exploration. A region with just a single species might be best left to a contrac- tor or other means. With respect to the Campaign, Living Collections Fellow Robert Dowell has been tasked with conducting species audits to identify these ideal collecting localities. For the inaugural expeditions that marked the Campaign's launch in the autumn of 2015, we (the authors) preselected regions based on our prior knowledge of the areas and confidence that they would yield quality material listed as desiderata. Kyle collected in northern Idaho from August 24 to September 4, 2015; Michael participated in a NACPEC expedition in central China focused on paperbark maple (Acer griseum) from September 1 to 18, and then struck out with another set of colleagues in northern Sichuan from September 18 to 29. BE PREPARED In many respects, a trip's success--both shortand long-term--is proportional to the amount of planning. Once a general region for an expedition has been selected, the trip participants hone their knowledge about the target species' biology, including their identification, phenology (e.g., what time of year mature seeds are KYLE PORT 4 Arnoldia 73\/4 NANCY ROSE Acquisition 5 ANTHONY S. AIELLO Local collaborators are invaluable on expeditions. (Left) Kang Wang, from the Beijing Botanical Garden, has acted as liaison for a number of expeditions including the 2015 NACPEC trip that concentrated on paperbark maple (Acer griseum). Michael Dosmann, Kang Wang, and Kris Bachtell (left to right) sort and organize Acer griseum leaves that will later be subject to DNA extraction. (Right) Paul Warnick, from the University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden, collaborated with Kyle Port on the 2015 North Idaho Expedition. He's seen here with a collection of devil's club (Oplopanax horridus) in the Selkirk Mountains, Kaniksu National Forest, Idaho. What's a Collection? The word \"collection\" can refer to a group of living plants, like the Lilac (Syringa) Collection at the Arboretum. But on plant collecting expeditions, \"collection\" is also the term used for the products of each unique act of collecting. For example, if both seeds and herbarium vouchers are collected from a tree, a single collection number is assigned to both since they came from the same plant. When the seeds are distributed to other institutions, each institution will assign an accession number from its own system, but the original collection number will be included in the accession information so the original source can always be traced. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Anthony S. Aiello measures out seeds of Ostrya japonica, collection number 24 from the NACPEC 2010 trip, prior to packaging and shipping them back to the United States. KYLE PORT 6 Arnoldia 73\/4 KYLE PORT Acquisition 7 KYLE PORT (Left) David Port (Kyle's father), raised in the Idaho hamlet of Troy, played many roles over the course of the 2015 North Idaho Expedition, including lugging the pole pruners to the edge of Lake Pend Oreille and to the high elevations around Roman Nose Lakes. (Right) Pole pruners also came in handy during the 2014 Ozarks expedition, where they were used to collect these fruit capsules of red buckeye (Aesculus pavia) in Arkansas. forms, printed on waterproof paper, is best for all weather situations. The recorder must have a keen attention to detail, be thorough, and, of course, have excellent plant knowledge. Memories always fail, so it's important to capture the information immediately. Sloppy or partial records at this point can create a cascade of problems for days if not decades to come. Even if the propagules that are collected never survive, the data (and the herbarium vouchers) will. The germplasm collector is responsible for collecting propagules, which typically are in the form of fruits, although cuttings and even entire seedlings are also an option. This person should have a good understanding of how to treat the collected material, from estimating seed viability and determining if the collection is warranted to selecting the right kind of bag. For example, oil-rich seeds like acorns can generate a lot of heat through respiration, so cloth bags are used to keep them from overheating. Rhododendron capsules, however, are best gathered in small glycine bags to prevent the tiny seeds from escaping. In addition to regular pruning shears, a set of pole pruners is very handy to have since they can extend an extra 10 to 12 feet (3 to 3.7 meters), often eliminating the need to climb trees. The herbarium voucher collector collects samples of plants that are then pressed and dried for future documentation and study. Collecting a voucher (often with several duplicates) is a critical part of the process because it captures the maternal plant's traits at reproductive maturity. Once deposited in a herbarium, the voucher will serve as evidence of what was growing in that location. During the trip, vouchers are kept in wooden plant presses, which, when tightly clamped down and ventilated, will yield high-quality pressed and dried specimens. Wooden presses can be used in the field but they are heavy and bulky, requiring extra time to pack and repack with each collection. Instead, some collectors use a plastic bag (the modern day version of a botanist's vasculum), which is a lot quicker to use. However, if not labeled properly specimens can get mixed up, and they can dehydrate by day's end. We prefer to use canvas field presses loaded with newsprint and corrugated cardboard. These presses are light weight, can be quickly loaded, and begin the pressing process immediately. By the end of the day, all of the specimens collected are transferred to the full-fledged wooden press, which can be tightened more effectively than the canvas press. While each of these activities may be assigned to a single point person, in reality it becomes a group effort. For instance, everyone might pitch in to call out associate species' names or other plant details to the trip recorder. Gather- MICHAEL DOSMANN A question often is asked: From how many mother plants do you need to collect? The answer depends. If the goal is to capture as much genetic variation of that species' population as possible, particularly if the seeds will be banked long-term in a repository, then the answer is \"many.\" The actual number depends on that species' breeding system (e.g., can it self-pollinate or is it forced to outcross), some technical assumptions based upon the population, including its size, and other details. The seeds from multiple mother plants can be bulked in the field (keeping track of how many were sampled), or each sample can be kept separate, which is important in cases such as the collection of conservation-status plants. If the goal is simply to produce a few living plants, then the focus may be less on capturing the full genetic variation of the population and just a few (or even just one) maternal plants can be sampled. Sometimes the sampling regime is dictated by realities in the field--there might just be one plant encountered, or maybe there is not enough time to hunt for and collect from a dozen separate individuals. And, for international collections, we ship seed back in smaller quantities (using \"small seed lot\" permits), so it may be prohibitive to collect from large numbers of maternal trees. Another question often posed is: How many collections are enough to call the expedition a success? This answer, too, depends on a number of factors. A garden that is in the expansion phase may have a lot of room to accommodate hundreds of new collections from a single expedition. However, for the Arnold Arboretum, where our goals for development are focused, fewer well-documented, high priority collections are more the norm. In fact, some trips may even be focused on just a single species. This can require practicing a bit of \"collection restraint\" to pass by plants that may be dripping with ripe fruits. However, it's also important to be open to \"opportunistic collections\" when a species of value--even though not a target species--is encountered. For example, while making our way towards a large The team made an \"opportunistic collection\" when this Acer griseum in southeastern Shaanxi in Septem- massive paperbark filbert (Corylus fargesii) was encountered in Shaanxi, China. ber 2015, our multi-garden team stumbled upon a massive Corylus fargesii. After genuflecting and hooting and hollering, we all agreed that it would be worth making a collection of this paperbark filbert for our respective institutions. Sometimes an opportunistic species is of value to just one of the gardens, prompting a discussion about whether the group should collect it or not. If the decision is made to collect it, even if just for one of the participants, it is important to treat it just like all of the other collections and properly catalog, document, and voucher it. Supplemental or extra collections made on the side can end up being a nightmare to track later on if not documented and assigned an official collection number! Also, sometimes an important species is found, but without any fruits. An official collection of it can still be made, since the herbarium voucher and documentation are of value, perhaps enabling a collector to return in the future. PHOTOS BY MICHAEL DOSMANN It's All in the Numbers Acquisition 9 KYLE PORT Larry Hufford prepares a voucher specimen of Douglas hawthorn (Crataegus douglasii) found east of Feather Creek in the St. Joe National Forest, Idaho. Herbarium specimens of nearly all of the 42 species collected during the 2015 North Idaho Expedition have been submitted to the Harvard University Herbaria for long term storage and scientific study. In Arkansas, during the 2014 Ozarks Expedition, Michael Dosmann (left) and Polly Hill Arboretum's Ian Jochams (right) arrange a voucher specimen of overcup oak (Quercus lyrata) in a canvas field press. ing fruits often falls to the full crew after other tasks are done, particularly if some of the seed extraction happens in the field. While typically all the participants are busy snapping photos, it is good to either assign the official task to one of the members, or at least make sure the recorder is jotting down which participant captured that collection's fullest complement of shots--habit, leaves, fruits, habitat, etc. A final photo swap at the end of the trip is a good way to cover all the bases. In some cases, X marks the spot and target species are found exactly where expected. But sometimes there's only the suggestion that the species occurs in the general area, requiring the entire group to pay close attention to the surrounding habitat for clues to the target's presence. For example, perhaps it is a droughttolerant tree more often found on the western or southern exposure of slopes, or it is a shadeloving shrub found in a mesic forest. Even with the team's expertise and a local collaborator in tow, plant identification in the field can sometimes be tenuous, so a trusted field guide is worth its weight in gold. These books can feel as heavy as gold when toted in a backpack, but luckily technology has come to the rescue. Michael reports that on multiple occasions he has been able to access the online version of the Flora of China from his phone, even while in remote sites in central China. What would E. H. Wilson think of that? And, since the team collects herbarium vouchers, further keying out can occur in the evenings or even after the expedition is concluded for some pesky and challenging species. EVENING ACTIVITIES At the end of the day's excursion all of the germplasm and herbarium vouchers are unpacked and double checked to make sure that collection numbers are properly assigned to each. Fruits are readied for drying or preparation, such as letting fleshy Viburnum fruits soak TIM BOLAND 10 Arnoldia 73\/4 KYLE PORT Acquisition 11 KYLE PORT KYLE PORT Propagules are bagged for shipment in specific ways: transplants, fleshy fruits, and cuttings are held in damp plastic bags while cones and seeds are placed in paper bags. Regardless of the container, handwritten notations including the name, collection number, and trip name are always applied and correspond to entries in a notebook or other form. These collections were made during the 2015 North Idaho Expedition. Dug from a nurse log beneath 400-year-old virgin timber in Hanna Flats, this Western red cedar (Thuja plicata) is the Arboretum's first wild collected accession from Bonner County, Idaho. KYLE PORT Hiking above 6,000 feet, our search for Larix lyallii was another incredible experience. In waning daylight, facing a two-mile hike out, we gathered cones from a particularly fecund specimen above lower Roman Nose Lake, Kaniksu National Forest, Idaho. After finishing the collection, we turned to take in the view and were treated to the aerial display of two golden eagles (the black specks in the upper center of this photo). 12 Arnoldia 73\/4 KYLE PORT Acquisition 13 part of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Once inspected by APHIS, they are then forwarded on to the Arboretum. Some collectors bemoan this step as unnecessary, and in some cases risky, since some items might be confiscated because of the presence of a pest or pathogen. For the Arboretum, this step actually provides peace of mind because it ensures that we are not importing the next invasive pest like Asian longhorned beetle or emerald ash borer. While the individual collections are documented by the recorder and ample photographs are taken, there is much that occurs during the trip that can only be captured in narrative form, a duty that falls to the designated trip journalist. Although such journaling requires extra time, it's valuable to have a trip participant capture the names of people met along the way, make broad observations of the different sites and regions visited, and chronicle the events that make plant exploration colorful such as meals, wildlife, and other cultural items. example, the ease of creating digital images in the field adds to post trip responsibilities. In times past, when glass plates and film were the only options (yes, we are that old), there were fewer images to annotate. Now it is not unusual to have hundreds if not thousands of images to label. In the end, documentation is a labor of love and we revel in its detailed complexity. Our passion for plants is manifest in the remarkable collections we steward. The Arnold Arboretum's 10-year Campaign for the Living Collections reaffirms a commitment to biodiversity discovery and the people engaged in plant exploration. In sharing our goals and experiences with you, we hope to inspire collaboration and exchange. If we range through the whole territory of nature, and endeavor to extract from each department the rich stores of knowledge and pleasure they respectively contain, we shall not find a more refined or purer source of amusement, or a more interesting and unfailing subject for recreation, than that which the observation and examination of the structure, affinities, and habits of plants and vegetables, affords. --Sir Joseph Paxton (1803 14 Arnoldia 73\/4 Acquisition 15 Clockwise from upper left: A striking stainless steel sculpture, Allium Spring Chorus by David Tonnesen, in McEuen Park, Coeur d'Alene. Once a hub for dairy operations, this barn now holds equipment at the University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden in Moscow. Specimens at Washington State University's Marion Ownbey Herbarium show the variation of leaf morphology in Acer glabrum var. douglasii, a species we collected. In St. Joe National Forest we collected seeds from snowbrush (Ceanothus velutinus), notable for its glossy foliage and fragrant white flowers. Master naturalist and Washington State University professor emeritus Steve Ullrich displays old man's beard (Usnea spp.), a lichenized fungi. 16 Arnoldia 73\/4 Acquisition 17 Clockwise from upper left: Michael Dosmann measures the diameter of an Acer griseum in Henan Province (photo by Kris Bachtell). Calcite deposits lead to the formation of amazingly colored iridescent pools, giving the Huanglong (Yellow Dragon) Valley in northern Sichuan its name. We made an opportunistic collection of this Hydrangea aspera (note the large pink sterile florets) during the 2015 NACPEC trip in Sichuan. Steep cliffs in Sichuan's Guangwushan Park were home to Acer griseum; although not visible in this image, one of the trees sampled grew just a few feet away from the precipice shown in the center-right of the image. Autumn color was seen on Fraxinus baroniana growing along the Jialing River in Gansu on the 2015 NACPEC trip. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"BOOK EXCERPT: Saving the World's Deciduous Forests: Ecological Perspectives from East Asia, North America, and Europe","article_sequence":2,"start_page":18,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25602","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170af6b.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":4,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Askins, Robert A.","article_content":"BOOK EXCERPT Saving the World's Deciduous Forests: Ecological Perspectives from East Asia, North America, and Europe Robert A. Askins Editor's Note: In this compelling book, biologist Robert A. Askins examines the history and ecology of Northern Hemisphere deciduous forest ecosystems in East Asia, North America, and Europe. These forests have a common ancient origin but have evolved in now widely separated regions for millions of years. Askins writes clearly on the similarities among and differences between the forests, including the threats to the plants and animals they contain and the challenge of developing effective conservation methods for these unique ecosystems. The excerpt presented here is from Chapter 5, \"Giant Trees and Forest Openings.\" Saving the World's Deciduous Forests: Ecological Perspectives from East Asia, North America, and Europe Robert A. Askins Yale University Press. 2014. 307 pages. ISBN: 978-0-300-16681-1 Book Excerpt 19 20 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 21 PHOTOS BY ROBERT A. ASKINS Clockwise from top: An imposing wooden gate stands at the entrance to the Strict Reserve in the heart of Poland's Bialowieza Forest. The understory seen here is quite open, with little between the tree canopy and vegetation on the forest floor. A view of the forest trail through the Strict Reserve. This photo shows the wide range of tree sizes (trunk diameters) in this old-growth forest where ancient trees stand along with middle-aged trees and young saplings. 22 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 23 24 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 25 a) 1.0 0.8 0.6 0.4 0.2 0.0 1.0 0.8 Betula 12 c) 10 8 6 4 12 8 6 4 2 0 Tilia Fraxinus Ulmus 10 8 6 4 2 0 12 8 6 4 2 0 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 Populus Salix Picea 2 0 12 10 8 6 b) Picea abies 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Tree recruitment (# *yr-1*ha-1) d) Carpinus 10 8 6 4 0.6 Quercus 0.4 0.2 0.0 20 15 10 5 0 1920 1930 1940 1950 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 4 Acer Pinus 2 0 12 Ungulate density (ind. *km-2) 10 8 6 4 2 0 YEAR Alnus 2 0 e) Total Trees YEAR 26 Arnoldia 73\/4 ROBERT A. ASKINS Book Excerpt 27 28 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 29 30 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 31 32 Arnoldia 73\/4 ADAM WAJRAK Book Excerpt 33 (NOTES AND REFERENCES LISTED ARE FOR THIS EXCERPT ONLY) 34 Arnoldia 73\/4 Book Excerpt 35 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2015 Weather Summary","article_sequence":3,"start_page":36,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25601","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170af26.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":4,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2015 Weather Summary Sue A. Pfeiffer JANUARY began with seasonal temperatures. A warm front moved through on the 4th, bringing an inch of rain and a high temperature of 51 2015 Weather SUE PFEIFFER 37 No staff were lunching on the patio behind the Weld Hill Research Building on February 17. storm arrived on the morning of February 8th. The storm brought an additional 20 inches of snow, bringing the Arboretum's snow total to over 4 feet. Frigid conditions remained. With few places left to put the snow, the Arboretum crew spent many hours using large equipment to push snow banks back in order to clear roads and allow for access. Between the 1st and the 12th, 42 inches of snow fell, just surpassing the record for snowiest Boston February on record. The grounds were buried and many shrubs were completely covered, no longer visible under the thick quilt of snow. The final winter storm, a blizzard with high winds, dumped an additional 16 inches of snow on the 15th. By now, we were all exhausted from snow removal and were dreaming of spring. The idea of green grass, flowering snowdrops, and blooming magnolias seemed like an impossibility as snow banks of unprecedented size created a barrier between the roads and the collections. Sunny conditions returned and snow began to melt. There were a few smaller snowfalls over the following week and the temperature finally hit 41 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 2015 Weather 39 week, peaking at 59 40 Arnoldia 73\/4 SUE PFEIFFER 2015 Weather 41 JULY was a dry month with seasonal temperatures. Intense thunderstorms on the 1st delivered three-quarters of an inch of rain in two separate downpours. Perfect summer conditions prevailed for most of the month; highs remained in the 70s and 80s, dipping to 69 42 Arnoldia 73\/4 KYLE PORT 2015 Weather ANDREW GAPINSKI 43 No jacket required: Arboretum Horticulturists Rachel Brinkman (left) and Sue Pfeiffer (right) spread soil amendments in the collections on the 10th of December, a month with temperatures that were well above average. NOVEMBER was a warm month and the 7th month of the year with below average precipitation. During the first week of November, temperatures hovered 15"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sensei: An Austrian Pine Forest Bonsai Comes to the Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":44,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25603","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170b36f.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":4,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schneider, Stephen","article_content":"Sensei: An Austrian Pine Forest Bonsai Comes to the Arboretum Stephen Schneider ach dwarfed tree in the Arnold Arboretum's bonsai and penjing collection offers its own unique story. With the recent addition of ten new bonsai to this esteemed group, several interesting tales have been added to our archives. One of the new bonsai, an Austrian pine (Pinus nigra) forest, is of particular interest since it represents both a genus and a style that have never before been in our bonsai collection. Created and donated by Martin Klein of Andover, Massachusetts, this group of seven plants, meticulously sculpted over the past twenty-five years, takes its mound-like shape on what is known as a \"ciment fondu\" (a calcium aluminate cement) slab, also formed by the same artist. At first glance, one can't help but get the sense that this group of seven struggling stems represents nature on the edge of survival. Clearly competing for the most basic of resources-- light, water, nutrients--these tiny trees capture a snapshot of what their full-sized, earthbound counterparts contend with in the wild. This miniature forest receives daily care within the the Arboretum's comfortable urban setting, so it is all the more impressive that Martin's patience and steady hands created the successful illusion of ancient trees subjected to the vagaries of nature. Austrian pine, also known as black pine or European black pine, has a native range stretching from Austria to the Crimean Peninsula, south to Turkey and west to Morocco and Spain. It has been cultivated in the United States for at least 250 years. This two-needled pine grows 50 to 60 feet (15 to 18 meters) tall in the landscape and has characteristic dark green foliage and dark gray, furrowed bark. Austrian pine is quite adaptable, thriving under various soil and climate conditions (though unfortunately it is susceptible to diplodia tip blight, a fungal disease). It has a variety of uses including windbreaks, remediation plantings, and fastgrowing property screens. Its tolerance of dif- E ficult growing conditions makes it ideal for the pressures exerted through bonsai. The story of this bonsai forest began in 1991 when Martin purchased a bundle of ten Austrian pines from a local nursery for $25.00. Out of that bundle, seven plants were selected for the project. Emulating the work of bonsai master John Yoshio Naka, whom Martin had trained under during his early years of interest in bonsai, the concept of a forest began to take shape. Naka's famous bonsai, Goshin, a forest of eleven Foemina junipers (Juniperus chinensis `Foemina') on permanent display at the United States National Arboretum, inspired Martin to create a forest of his own using his newly acquired pines. The forest bonsai began in a training box where the young trees were pruned to develop trunk taper and wired for early form development. The forest then graduated to a Tokoname bonsai pot, and eventually moved to its final display on the ciment fondu slab. Mosses, lichens, and ferns were batted to the understory and have now all grown together, creating an emerald carpet speckled with many different textures and shades of green. At over four feet (1.2 meters) tall and with a spread of more than five feet (1.5 meters), this miniature forest creates a massive impact within the collection. On display for the first time this season, Arboretum visitors will find their imaginations challenged: To what distant land does this group of seven beckon them? Is this forest in a secluded mountain valley, or perhaps on a tiny island in the middle of a calm lake? As with all art, part of this bonsai's beauty lies in the perspective of the viewer. In memory of his former teacher John Yoshio Naka, Martin Klein has appropriately named this bonsai Sensei (teacher). As the fortunate recipient of this masterwork, the Arboretum will retain the name in the accession's passport data and proudly display our new treasure in the bonsai and penjing pavilion. Stephen Schneider is Director of Operations at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23448","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1708528.jpg","title":"2016-73-4","volume":73,"issue_number":4,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Developing an Exemplary Collection: A Vision for the Next Century at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25598","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170a76f.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":3,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfister, Donald H.; Meyer, Paul W.; Hufford, Larry; Gapinski, Andrew; Donoghue, Michael J.; Boufford, David E.; Boland, Timothy M.; Dosmann, Michael S.; Friedman, William E.","article_content":"CAMPAIGN FOR THE LIVING COLLECTIONS Last autumn the Arnold Arboretum launched the Campaign for the Living Collections, an ambitious ten-year plan to expand the breadth of plant holdings and increase their scientific and horticultural value. Considerable thought and effort went into creating a document that guides the Campaign's mission. We present this important document here in its entirety for the benefit of Arboretum supporters, stakeholders, and colleagues. Additional articles covering aspects of developing our Living Collections will be featured in Arnoldia this year. Developing an Exemplary Collection: A Vision for the Next Century at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University William E. Friedman, Michael S. Dosmann, Timothy M. Boland, David E. Boufford, Michael J. Donoghue, Andrew Gapinski, Larry Hufford, Paul W. Meyer, and Donald H. Pfister T he Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University not only support the Arboretum's mission by serving key research, education, and conservation roles, but in their entirety represent one of the very best examples of a historic Olmsted landscape. With some 15,000 accessioned plants, representing almost 4,000 unique taxa that include 2,100 species, the Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum remain a major destination for those who study and enjoy woody plants. Of the accessions brought to the Arboretum from elsewhere, 44% are of wild origin, hailing from over 60 different temperate countries. Another 39% are of cultivated origin, including pedigreed hybrids, nursery-origin introductions, and accessions from other gardens. This historic interplay between taxonomic, floristic, and cultivated diversities has resulted in one of the most comprehensive and heavily documented collections of temperate woody plants in the world. The living collections are central to the Arnold Arboretum--all research, education, and conservation initiatives are driven by them. And yet, without strategic planning for collections development, these collections are at risk of losing their prominence. In advance of the Arboretum's sesquicentennial in 2022, it is time to put forward a set of initiatives to simultaneously preserve its singular legacy and secure its future. This plan, to be enacted over the next decade, will thus serve to shape and define the Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum for the coming century. Values and Aspirations Throughout the Arboretum's history, the vitality and strength of the collections--and the institution as a whole-- can be attributed to an adherence to four essential tenets. The Arboretum's collection of Malus (apples and crabapples) currently holds 426 individual plants from 310 accessions comprising 159 taxa, many of which grow on Peters Hill, seen here. It has remained a traditional arboretum, with the Living Collections continually and almost exclusively focused on temperate woody plants. It has been committed to collections-based woody plant scholarship, particularly in recent years with the significant expansion of on-site research associated with construction of the Weld Hill Research Building. The Arboretum landscape remains true to the vision of Frederick Law Olmsted's design, through keen awareness of its role as a public garden and landscape. Lastly, the Arnold Arboretum has long invested in active curation and collections management, which in turn has fostered and enabled its research and preservation enterprises. Coupled to these principles are aspirations that the Living Collections Advisory Board (Tim Boland, David Boufford, Michael Donoghue, Larry Hufford, Paul Meyer, and Don Pfister), in collaboration with William (Ned) Friedman (Director), Michael Dosmann (Curator of Living Collections), and Andrew Gapinski (Manager of Horticulture), advanced during its 2013, 2014, and 2015 meetings. These recommendations to ambitiously strengthen the collections of the Arnold Arboretum articulate a set of guidelines that define targets for active collections development. In addition, these recommendations clearly circumscribe overarching principles that will help ensure that the Arnold Arboretum remains at the leading edge of botanical garden collections development. Enacting the Agenda and Creating a List of Desiderata Four principles will shape a unique identity for the Arboretum's ongoing and future roles in collections-based research, teaching, and public horticulture: (1) scholarship associated with comparative biology, from genomics to environmental change; (2) ex situ conservation and study of endangered temperate woody plant taxa; (3) strengthened species representation within key priority genera; and (4) successful cultivation of taxa currently or historically perceived as marginally hardy in Boston. Shared among these is the primary importance of a university-based organismic collection and public garden with the potential to uniquely reveal the complexities of nature. This deeply held notion expresses the intrinsic value that an individual accession or a suite of accessions possesses that enables a scholar to unravel (and share with the world) a taxon's mysteries. This extends to naturally occurring taxa as well as unique cultigens, honoring the Arboretum's long history of cultivating and comparing both, side-by-side. This core philosophy underpins all others. In support of these priorities for collections development, six goals have been used to specifically create and prioritize a list of desiderata for acquisition and accessioning into the organismic collections of the Arnold Arboretum over the next decade (see page 15). These six goals NANCY ROSE 4 Arnoldia 73\/3 NANCY ROSE le m en Le nt siae ag o* Pu nc ta Eu ta vi bu Ps rnu m eu * do tin So us le * no tin V. us lu * te To scen m en s V. tosa am * p Ur li c at ce um ol at Ti a nu s Viburnum Plant Phylogeny When explaining the relatedness of organisms, scientists often construct a phylogeny, or \"family tree,\" that portrays the organisms' evolutionary history. This figure depicts taxa (such as species, genera, families, etc.) on the tips or ends of the branches. Each taxon placed at the end of a branch is paired with its closest relative; the two can be traced back to a shared node that represents their common ancestor. That branch, in turn, can be traced back further to another ancestor that is common to it and another \"sister\" branch, ad infinitum. A branch that includes the common ancestor and all of its descendants is referred to as a clade. In contemporary phylogenetic systematics, a plant family's phylogeny should comprise individual clades of species that form distinct genera. Genera themselves comprise clades of species that share a common ancestor, and may receive special names. Organizing related species into clades is useful when studying large genera and families, particularly if the group is supported by a well-developed and accepted phylogeny. In such cases scientists look at all of the clades that occur across the breadth of the phylogeny but only need to sample one or two species per clade. We have taken the same approach to collections development at the Arboretum, where comprehensive or total species composition within a genus is not a goal but phylogenetic breadth (i.e., representation of as many clades as possible) is. The genus Viburnum (comprising some 165 species) is one such example. Decades of work in Michael Donoghue's laboratory has yielded a well-supported Viburnum phylogeny containing 19 terminal clades of closely related species (above, modified from Clement et al. 2014). Ten of these clades (shown in blue) are already represented in the Arboretum's collections by at least one species; acquisition of a few more species (* ) improves their representation. Although the remaining clades contain species not suited to New England (most are tropical), four clades (shown in red) contain a few marginally-hardy species that are worth trialing. Adding even just one species from a clade (e.g., V. davidii in the Tinus Clade) adds a completely new evolutionary lineage to the collections. Clement, W. L., M. Arakaki, P. W. Sweeney, E. J. Edwards, and M. J. Donoghue. 2014. A chloroplast tree for Viburnum (Adoxaceae) and its implications for phylogenetic classification and character evolution. American Journal of Botany 101: 1029 6 Arnoldia 73\/3 Genome Sequencing Brings New Knowledge Genome sequencing, which allows the entire string of DNA code to be read and interpreted for almost any species on earth, has the potential to link specific biological characteristics to specific genes and their genetic variants. Fifteen years ago, it cost nearly $100 million to sequence a genome and today, this cost is rapidly approaching $1,000. Thus, in the last decade, woody plant species as diverse as grape, poplar, pine, willow, oak, and birch have had their genomes sequenced, so that their biological traits can be related directly to their genes. Many more species of trees, shrubs, and lianas are in the pipeline for genomic sequencing. In the spring of 2015, the Arnold Arboretum hosted an international symposium on the genomics of forests and trees that brought together 80 of the leading scholars in this emerging world of DNA information. One critical challenge that came up repeatedly in discussions with participants is that those organisms whose genomes have been or are going to be sequenced are at high risk of being lost since there is no formal plan for perpetual stewardship. Incredibly, there is no home in the entire world for the unique individual plants whose genomes have been sequenced. The Arnold Arboretum has a perfect combination of world-class horticulture and world-class laboratory facilities to pioneer a \"genomic type collection\" of temperate woody plants, and will care in perpetuity for these incredibly special individual plants whose genomes have been sequenced. This genomic type reference collection will help tell us how trees will respond to climate change, how water moves from the soil to the top of the crown, how plants respond to biotic (herbivores) and abiotic (climate extremes) stresses. As research comes to rely more heavily on sequenced genes to advance discovery, the ability to reference the living counterpart of this DNA--either through the plant itself or its direct lineage--will make the Arnold Arboretum an essential resource for this work. raphy, ecophysiology, and phylogenetics, acquiring disjunct species associated with clades of eastern North American woody plants will be a priority. Although the majority of these disjunct taxa are of Asian origin, disjunct taxa from Europe and the Southern Hemisphere (although fewer in number) will also be sought. 6. Reassert horticultural leadership in accessioning marginally hardy species As established at its founding in 1872, the Arboretum will cultivate \"all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air.\" In the spirit of exploration and experimentation, the Arboretum has continually acquired germplasm of marginally hardy taxa to be coaxed into cultivation, despite and against all odds. To ensure that the Arboretum stays at the cutting edge of plant introduction (especially in a world of rapid environmental change), it must seek out, acquire, and test untried species for growth on the grounds. Importantly, identification of new \"marginal\" taxa should be coupled with targeted field collections of germplasm from parts of the taxon's natural range that are likely to predispose such accessions to ultimate success on the grounds. In light of predicted climate change scenarios over the next century in Massachusetts, the marginally hardy taxa of today are likely to be well positioned to grow and thrive at the Arnold Arboretum in the future. With all of this in mind, a list of desiderata comprising roughly 400 separate taxa has been developed, where each target for acquisition falls into one and often multiple prioritized categories or themes based on the guiding prin- 8 Arnoldia 73\/3 ANTHONY S. AIELLO Developing an Exemplary Collection 9 Table 1. High-priority targets for future acquisition comprise 395 separate taxa that represent 385 species among 145 distinct genera (see List of Desiderata). Each distinct target is linked to one or more of the priority goals put forward by the Collections Advisory Board. This table summarizes those core themes and other basic statistics. New species for the collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177 marginally hardy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92 New genera for the collections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41 marginally hardy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31 Taxa already represented in the collection by living lineages . . . . . . . . . . . 218 ... but not of wild provenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97 ... of wild provenance but requiring additional wild lineages z . . . . . . 121 Principal categories y: Conservation concern x . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51 PCN genera w . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 Robust genera v . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12 Disjunct genera u . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47 Acquisition targets' regions of origin: Eastern Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225 Eurasia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Europe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17 North America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133 South America . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 z Includes taxa where numerous wild-origin lineages are required, often for conservation purposes, or to repatriate known Arboretum lineages from other repositories and gardens. y Categories are not mutually exclusive; many target species occur in multiple categories. x Those taxa to which a conservation ranking has been given. w Plant Collections Network: Acer, Carya, Fagus, Stewartia, Syringa, and Tsuga v Carpinus, Forsythia, Ginkgo, and Ostrya u Only pertains to species occurring in Cornus, Diervilla\/Weigela, Hamamelis, Hydrangea, Magnolia, Taxus, and Viburnum 10 Arnoldia 73\/3 Developing an Exemplary Collection 11 WILLIAM E. FRIEDMAN WILLIAM E. FRIEDMAN The Carya collection is one of six Plant Collections Network collections currently at the Arboretum. Seen here, fruits of shagbark hickory (C. ovata 22868-N) and bud scales and new shoots of shellbark hickory (C. laciniosa 806-87-C). nial in 2072, the Arboretum community will be able to look back and pinpoint this campaign as one that guaranteed and secured a future where the Arnold Arboretum became the single most important living collection for those who study and enjoy temperate woody plants. Developing an Exemplary Collection-- Metrics and a List of Desiderata Over the past decade, the total number of deaccessions has significantly exceeded the total number of new accessions planted at the Arnold Arboretum. On average each year, roughly 250 new accessions are successfully added to the collections. In order to achieve the goals described in this plan to secure the long term preeminence of the Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum, acquisition and successful propagation of new and diverse germplasm will dominate the early phases of this campaign. The second phase of this ambitious program will then leverage the accomplishments of plant production efforts to move new accessions onto the grounds. We anticipate that at the peak of this second phase close to 300 new accessions will be added to the permanent Living Collections annually. The new leadership in collections-based horticulture (Andrew Gapinski) and in plant production (Tiffany Enzenbacher), along with the recent significant improvement in the management and job circumscriptions of horticulturists charged with the day-to-day care of the living collections, will ensure that this plan is successful. The horticultural team will be charged, under the leadership of the Curator of Living Collections (Michael Dosmann) and Director (William Friedman), with the creation of a specific set of plans and targets to fully enact the vision of this decadal campaign for the next century of the Arnold Arboretum's history. List of Desiderata: Priority Genera (Plant Collections Network, Robust, and Disjunct Genera) Highlighted are 17 genera that will receive focused investment in review and future acquisition. In fact, over 40% of the listed taxa are within this group. Although the collection goals for each of these are similar, there are some subtle differences in the levels at which each target should be represented. 12 Arnoldia 73\/3 Developing an Exemplary Collection 13 Living Collections are to be considered fully synoptic and representative of Earth's temperate woody flora, over 175 species and 40 genera not represented will be targeted and acquired. Acquisition of the rare is essential, and the list of desiderata includes over 50 MICHAEL S. DOSMANN targets with specific conservation value as measured by a NatureServe ranking of G1 to G3 (critically imperiled, imperiled, vulnerable) or its general equivalent. Documentation is the most reliable predictor of accession value, and many targets were selected to fill documentation gaps. One-fourth of the target taxa on the list are already growing in the Living Collections, yet are represented by accessions that are not of wild origin. It is essential that these \"finally wild\" targets are integrated into the Living Collections to displace specimens that have poorer (or no) documentation. Another third of the target taxa already exist in the collections and include at least one wild-origin accession. However, additional wild lineages are required to broaden the diversity of that taxon's lineage pool. An additional one-fourth of the target taxa either have not been tried at the Arboretum in the past, or they were planted but failed to establish because they were not sited in a suitable microclimate or for other reasons. In the spirit of exploration, hardiness testing, and plant introduction, the Arboretum will trial these taxa. MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Genomic Type Specimens Initially, the number of accessions associated with published genomic data will likely number in the single digits. However, with time, improvements in DNA sequencing technology and data analysis will likely yield dozens, if not hundreds of temperate woody plant taxa with sequenced genomes. The Living Collections Advisory Board will be charged with assessing which taxa should be added to the genomic type specimens of the Arboretum. Initially, attention to phylogenetic breadth Ostryopsis davidiana (top) and Acer caudatum ssp. multiserratum (bottom) are among the species on the list of desiderata. The specimens seen here were photographed in China during the 2010 NACPEC expedition. 14 Arnoldia 73\/3 List of Desiderata Family Actinidiaceae Adoxaceae Taxon Actinidia chinensis Viburnum atrocyaneum Viburnum bracteatum Viburnum buddleifolium Viburnum carlesii Viburnum cylindricum Viburnum davidii Viburnum ellipticum Viburnum farreri Viburnum foetidum Viburnum ichangense Viburnum kansuense Viburnum lantanoides Viburnum microcarpum Viburnum mongolicum Viburnum obovatum Viburnum plicatum ssp. tomentosum Viburnum sieboldii Viburnum tinus Viburnum urceolatum Viburnum wilsonii Liquidambar styraciflua Cotinus szechuanensis Asclepias incarnata Trachelospermum difforme Aralia nudicaulis Araucaria araucana Aristolochia tomentosa Nandina domestica Alnus glutinosa Alnus maritima Betula alleghaniensis Betula alnoides Betula chichibuensis Betula humilis Betula lenta Betula luminifera Betula maximowicziana Betula murrayana Betula pumila Betula schugnanica Betula uber Carpinus caroliniana Carpinus cordata Carpinus coreana Carpinus henryana Carpinus polyneura Ostrya japonica Ostryopsis davidiana Cupressaceae Cyrillaceae Daphniphyllaceae Elaeagnaceae Ephedraceae Family Bignoniaceae Buxaceae Taxon Campsis grandiflora Pachysandra procumbens Pachysandra terminalis Sarcococca hookeriana var. digyna Opuntia humifusa Aphananthe aspera Celtis tenuifolia Kolkwitzia amabilis Leycesteria formosa Weigela coraeensis Weigela maximowiczii Weigela middendorffiana Euonymus fortunei Euonymus obovatus Cercidiphyllum magnificum Sarcandra glabra Alangium platanifolium Aucuba japonica Cornus alternifolia Cornus canadensis Cornus florida Cornus foemina Cornus nuttallii Cornus quinquinervis Cornus rugosa Cupressus nootkatensis Cliftonia monophylla Daphniphyllum macropodum Elaeagnus multiflora Ephedra distachya Ephedra equisetina Ephedra gerardiana Ephedra intermedia Ephedra likiangensis Ephedra major Ephedra minuta Ephedra monosperma Ephedra przewalskii Ephedra rituensis Ephedra sinica Ephedra viridis Agarista populifolia Eubotryoides grayana Gaultheria miqueliana Gaultheria procumbens Kalmia cuneata Cactaceae Cannabaceae Caprifoliaceae Celastraceae Cercidiphyllaceae Cloranthaceae Cornaceae Altingiaceae Anacardiaceae Apocynaceae Araliaceae Araucariaceae Aristolochiaceae Berberidaceae Betulaceae Ericaceae 16 Arnoldia 73\/3 Developing an Exemplary Collection 17 Family Oleaceae Taxon Chionanthus virginicus Forsythia europaea Forsythia japonica Forsythia mandschurica Forsythia suspensa Forsythia togashii Fraxinus americana Fraxinus nigra Fraxinus pennsylvanica Fraxinus quadrangulata Osmanthus americanus Syringa afganica Syringa emodi Syringa josikaea Syringa julianae Syringa komarowii Syringa komarowii ssp. reflexa Syringa mairei Syringa meyeri Syringa oblata Syringa oblata ssp. dilatata Syringa pinetorum Syringa pinnatifolia Syringa protolaciniata Syringa pubescens ssp. microphylla Syringa reticulata Syringa sweginzowii Syringa tibetica Syringa villosa Syringa vulgaris Syringa wardii Syringa yunnanensis Meconopsis integrifolia Abies alba Abies koreana Larix laricina Larix lyalii Larix occidentalis Larix potaninii Picea abies Picea omorika Pinus albicaulis Pinus cembra Pinus lambertiana Pinus monophylla Pinus virginiana Pseudolarix amabilis Tsuga canadensis Tsuga caroliniana Tsuga chinensis Tsuga diversifolia Tsuga dumosa Tsuga forestii Family Taxon Tsuga formosana Tsuga heterophylla Tsuga mertensiana Tsuga sieboldii Platanaceae Ranunculaceae Platanus orientalis Clematis akebioides Clematis tangutica Clematis viridis Ziziphus jujuba Amelanchier nantucketensis Crataegus distincta Crataegus harbisonii Crataegus latebrosa Crataegus perjucunda Crataegus phaenopyrum Cydonia oblonga Exochorda korolkowii Exochorda racemosa Exochorda serratifolia Malus angustifolia Malus coronaria Malus florentina Malus ioensis Malus komarovii Malus prunifolia Malus transitoria Mespilus canescens Neviusia albamensis Physocarpus opulifolius Prunus apetala Prunus cyclamina Prunus maritima Prunus sargentii Rosa chinensis Rosa hugonis Rubus paludivagus Rubus prosper Rubus saltuensis Sorbaria kirilowii Sorbus domestica Sorbus wilsoniana Spiraea sargentiana Adina rubella Emmenopterys henryi Mitchella undulata Populus grandidentata Populus tremuloides Salix jejuna Salix turnorii Buckleya angulosa Buckleya distichophylla Rhamnaceae Rosaceae Papaveraceae Pinaceae Rubiaceae Salicaceae Santalaceae 18 Arnoldia 73\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Legacy Trees of Ernest Henry Wilson and John George Jack in Nikko, Japan","article_sequence":2,"start_page":19,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25599","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170ab28.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":3,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ohkubo, Tatsuhiro; Aizawa, Mineaki","article_content":"Legacy Trees of Ernest Henry Wilson and John George Jack in Nikko, Japan Mineaki Aizawa and Tatsuhiro Ohkubo ikko, in Tochigi Prefecture, about 80 miles (130 kilometers) north of Tokyo, has been among the most famous resorts in Japan for foreign visitors since the Meiji era (1868 20 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 21 available online in the digital archives of the Arnold Arboretum (directions for searching the database can be found at: http:\/\/www. arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/image-collection\/botanical-andcultural-images-of-eastern-asia\/search-the-image-database\/). E. H. Wilson visited Japan in 1914 and traveled throughout the country. According to his itinerary, he visited Nikko and photographed its trees and landscapes in May and October of that year. In 1905, nearly a decade before Wilson's visit, J. G. Jack also stayed in Nikko. He was interested in natural forests and forestry in Japan, and his photographs thus give us a glimpse into the forestry and lumber industries of Japan at that time. From 2007 to 2015, we traced the footprints of these visitors, and in some places we encountered the trees as Wilson and Jack had seen them in the past; the trees have kept their living witness for over a hundred years. We present here comparison photographs of these trees from the past and present. Japanese larch and Japanese arborvitae near Yumoto In the photographs that Wilson made near Yumoto on October 16, 1914, we looked at the probable view from Lake Karikomi, which takes an hour to reach by walking from Yumoto, and concluded that he must have traveled along a footpath that had been drawn from Yumoto to the lake in an old Japanese topographical map, published in 1915. While walking along the footpath, we immediately encountered an inspirational sight. The massive trunk of a Japanese larch (Larix kaempferi) that we had previously seen was standing in plain view. This tree was the one from Wilson's 1914 photograph, which appeared as plate XVI in his book The Conifers and Taxads of Japan, published in 1916. Information from the label on the back of the photo mount indicated that the tree's trunk was 12 feet (366 centimeters) in girth when originally photographed. In 2008, the tree was 12.5 feet (382 centimeters) in girth and 95 feet (29 meters) in height, demonstrating slight growth. Nikko is famous for its native larch, and this tree is a fine representative of the larch in this region. In Wilson's larch photo, a tree with multiple trunks can be seen just behind the man posing next to the larch. This tree is a Japanese arborvitae (Thuja standishii), photos of which also appear in his book (plates LII and LIII). It is surprising that a branch that inclined left and downward, as well as the spatial form of the tree behind the Japanese arborvitae, were in precisely the same positions as they were a hundred years ago (AEE-03655 and view in 2008). Now the tree is 15.9 feet (484 centimeters) in girth and 76 feet (23 meters) in height, while in 1914 it was 11 feet (335 centimeters) in girth and 45 feet (14 meters) in height. After an hour of walking, we reached the lakeside of Lake Karikomi. We tried to locate a massive Japanese bird cherry (Prunus ssiori), with a girth of 9 feet (274 cm) in 1914, that had stood at the water's edge. Although we were able to track down the view from behind the tree, the tree is no longer in existence. 22 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 23 Japanese yews and another Japanese arborvitae around Lake Chuzenji Next, we examined the trees around Lake Chuzenji, which is located at the foot of Mount Nantai, a volcano that rises to a height of 8,156 feet (2,486 meters). Because the embassy villas of several countries were located around the lake during the Meiji era, foreign visitors may be familiar with this area. The Nikko Futarasan-Jinja Chugushi Shrine is located on the north side of Lake Chuzenji. Jack and Wilson both visited this shrine. Jack photographed two tall trees (AEE-00175 and 00176) in this shrine. The two tall trees are now lost. According to the information from the label of Jack's photo, these trees were Japanese umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata). However, we wonder if these trees may have been Japanese soft pine, Pinus parviflora var. pentaphylla, considering their shapes and the non-native status of Sciadopitys verticillata in Tochigi. There is the possibility, though, that Sciadopitys verticillata was purposely planted at the shrine, as is occasionally observed in east and west Japan. In these photos (AEE-00175 and 00176), gravel sediment can be seen on the ground, which represents the remains of a massive landslide on Mount Nantai caused by a typhoon in September 1902. The shrine buildings and two tall trees in front of the building barely escaped the damage. In the photo AEE-00175, a Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata) can be seen located to the right of the two tall trees. This tree is still alive and it is now designated as a natural monument of Tochigi Prefecture. The age of the tree, as estimated from the age of a broken large branch, is more than 1,000 years. The tree was last measured at 12.8 feet (390 centimeters) in girth and 62.3 feet (19 meters) in height in a 1988 investigation by the Ministry of Environment of Japan. Another massive Japanese yew photographed by Jack (AEE00180) is still alive behind a main building of the shrine. Jack indicated that this tree was more than 3.5 feet (107 centimeters) in diameter and 50 feet (15 meters) in height in 1905. In 2015, the tree was 3.9 feet (119 centimeters) in diameter and 68.9 feet (21 meters) in height. When we observed the tree in 2010, its trunk was covered with a plastic net for protection against bark stripping by sika deer; in Nikko and throughout Japan, bark stripping by sika deer is now among the most serious problems facing forest ecosystem and forestry. Japanese yew is one of the favorite plants of sika deer. The Tachiki-Kannon temple is located on the east side of Lake Chuzenji. A wooden standing statue of the eleven-faced, onethousand-armed Kannon Bosatsu is enshrined in the main hall of the temple. This Kannon Bosatsu was carved into a standing tree with roots (\"Tachiki\" in Japanese), which is why the temple is called \"Tachiki-Kannon.\" This Kannon was said to be carved in 24 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 25 M. AIZAWA M. AIZAWA The shrine buildings, with a sacred Taxus cuspidata surrounded by a red wooden fence (seen lower right), at the Nikko Futarasan-Jinja Chugushi Shrine, Lake Chuzenji, on July 10, 2010. A front view of the sacred Taxus cuspidata surrounded and protected by a red wooden fence at the Nikko Futarasan-Jinja Chugushi Shrine, Lake Chuzenji, on July 10, 2010. M. AIZAWA Taxus cuspidata, Lake Chuzenji, on August 10, 1905, photographed by J. G. Jack (AEE00180 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). Probably the same Taxus cuspidata at the Nikko Futarasan-Jinja Chugushi Shrine, by Lake Chuzenji on November 4, 2015. Note the plastic mesh fencing to deter sika deer from stripping bark from the trunk. 26 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 27 M. AIZAWA \"Chamaecyparis obtusa,\" near \"Kwannon Temple,\" Lake Chuzenji, on May 29, 1914, photographed by E. H. Wilson (AEE-03424 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The tree is actually Japanese arborvitae (Thuja standishii). Thuja standishii (not Chamaecyparis obtusa) at the Tachiki-Kannon temple, Lake Chuzenji on July 10, 2010. the late eighth century. The temple was originally located next to the Nikko Futarasan-Jinja Chugushi Shrine on the north side of Lake Chuzenji. However, the temple was destroyed by the debris flow from the above-mentioned landslide in 1902 and the Kannon was swept away into the lake. The statue was subsequently beached, and the temple was reconstructed in its beached location in 1913. The tree that stood out most conspicuously at the temple was another Japanese arborvitae that Wilson photographed on May 29, 1914 (AEE-03424, 03425). Wilson described this tree as a Hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa), but it is actually a Japanese arborvitae. In 2010, the tree was 19.8 feet (603 centimeters) in girth and 103 feet (32 meters) in height, indicating slight growth from the 19 feet (579 centimeters) in girth and 90 feet (27 meters) in height observed in 1914. According to the giant tree database of Japan, only a few Japanese arborvitaes in the country have girths greater than 32.8 feet (10 meters). The biggest specimen of the species in Tochigi Prefecture is reported to be 21.0 feet (640 centimeters) in girth, located in Yunishigawa, Nikko. The Japanese arborvitae that Wilson photographed must now be comparable to that recorded tree. 28 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 29 Japanese cedar (Cryptomeria japonica), Nikko, on May 19, 1914, photographed by E. H. Wilson (AEE-03754 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). Photograph from the same position as that of the left photograph on January 13, 2007. Forests after the fires of the 1890s near Yumoto Finally, we introduce our recent study (Ishida et al. 2013), which provided evidence for forest fires near Yumoto in the Meiji era and was inspired by Jack's photographs. Jack photographed in Yumoto two views of forests after fires, entitled \"Japan-Forestry\" (AEE-00202 and 00203). According to the information from the labels, forest fires after lumber harvest had occurred on the south slopes, which were originally covered with fir (Abies), hemlock (Tsuga), larch (Larix), birch (Betula), oak (Quercus), and other trees, and had burned from May 15 to June 15 around 1893. Locating these burned forests bolsters the understanding of the forest dynamics for the century after a fire. Using Jack's photographs, we tried to locate the sites when the deciduous species were leafless, giving us a better view of the skyline and geological features, but we did not identify the locations in a year of searching. But then, when we looked at an old Japanese topographical map drawn in 1915, we noticed that it indicated the presence T. OHKUBO 30 Arnoldia 73\/3 Legacy Trees 31 ISHIDA ET AL. 2013 A (AEE-00202) and D (AEE-00203), views of previously burned forest on slopes in Yumoto photographed on August 11, 1905, by J. G. Jack; B and E, birds-eye views of the slopes constructed using Kashmir 3-D software; C and F, current views of the slopes with maturing forests on December 1 and December 4, 2010. Acknowledgements We are grateful to the people who helped us locate these trees in Nikko, and we also thank R. Primack for encouraging us to locate the Japanese trees of the Arnold Arboretum archives. The works of Primack and Ohkubo (2008) and Flanagan and Kirkham (2009) inspired us to write this article. References Flanagan, M. and T. Kirkham. 2009. Wilson's China: A century on. Richmond, Surrey: Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Ishida, Y., M. Aizawa, and T. Ohkubo. 2013. Evidence of forest fires in the Meiji era in the mountainous region of Nikko on the basis of charcoal particle analysis. Japanese Journal of Forest Environment 55: 1"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Woodland Restoration: 30 Years Later","article_sequence":3,"start_page":32,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25600","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170ab6d.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":3,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"McCoy, Emily; Mandel, Lauren","article_content":"Woodland Restoration: 30 Years Later Lauren Mandel and Emily McCoy W alking along the wooded trails in Loantaka Brook Reservation, Morristown, New Jersey, it's hard to believe that a 36-inch-diameter natural gas pipeline lies underfoot. The mature oak-beech forest overhead and native herbaceous understory don't suggest that this was a construction zone, nor do the runners or cyclists zipping by appear to notice. The Algonquin Gas Transmission pipeline, which transports 2.74 billion cubic feet of natural gas per day between New Jersey, New York, and parts of New England (Spectra Energy 2015), runs directly through the reservation. Its installation through the wooded landscape began 30 years ago, in 1986. Continual site monitoring suggests that the use of minimally invasive construction methods during the pipeline's installation, paired with innovative habitat restoration techniques and stewardship guidelines, have resulted in the long-term ecological success of this sensitive, post-construction landscape. THE SITE The reservation, which is used primarily for walking, running, cycling, horseback riding, and cross-country skiing, lies 25 miles due west of Manhattan, within the northernmost portion of New Jersey's Great Swamp watershed. The ALL IMAGES BY ANDROPOGON ASSOCIATES UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED Loantaka Brook Reservation, Morristown, New Jersey, contains diverse plant communities including several forest and meadow types. To limit ecological disruption, a natural gas pipeline installed through the reservation in 1986 was carefully routed and constructed. Here, the pipeline alignment is being marked. Woodland Restoration 33 As part of the preparation for the pipeline installation in 1986, a plant community inventory that mapped the various meadow, woodland, and forest species assemblages was completed. (Color coding added for this article.) Loantaka Brook, the reservation's namesake, flows from just north of the reservation down into the neighboring Great Swamp National Wildlife Refuge, where it joins other flows that discharge into the Passaic River. The reservation falls within the Glaciated Reading Prong\/ Hudson Highlands regional ecosystem, with local soils containing glacial lake bottom deposits of fine sand and silt with clay. Traversing this region, the 1,129-mile-long Algonquin pipeline connects to the mammoth Texas Eastern Transmission pipeline, which together provide approximately one-third of the continental United States with natural gas transportation infrastructure. The pipeline route was originally slated to run near a residential neighborhood in Morristown, but instead the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission mandated that the infrastructure be rerouted through the 744-acre reservation. The reservation contains diverse plant communities that respond to the site's topography and land use history. In the 1980s, young forest dominated the reservation, with sizeable lowland woodland areas, primarily consisting of red maple (Acer rubrum), oak (Quercus spp.), and ash (Fraxinus spp.), all of a similar age. Upland woodlands were also present, with dominant oak, hickory (Carya spp.), black birch (Betula lenta), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), and red maple species. Mature forest stands within the reservation consisted of mixedage, stable plant associations with a stratified forest structure. Upland forest communities contained large populations of American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tulip poplar, and red oak (Q. rubra), while lowland forests were dominated by red maple, white oak (Q. alba), and ash. The site also contained meadows that, in the 1980s, were in an early successional state that exhibited herbaceous perennials, pioneer woody shrubs, and young trees. Upland meadow areas were dominated by forbs, grasses, multiflora rose, goldenrod, and ferns, while wet meadow 34 Arnoldia 73\/3 Woodland Restoration 35 This figure shows details of habitat protection measures instituted during the 1986 pipeline installation. compressing the soil's air-filled pores (Sch 36 Arnoldia 73\/3 Woodland Restoration 37 One year after pipeline installation, the forest construction zone looked remarkably undisturbed. 35-foot-wide construction zone, while invasive species were eliminated. Approximately 25 feet of wooded area beyond the construction zone, in both directions, was considered a Park Commission zone of special management. MONITORING METHODS Various types of landscape monitoring occurred immediately before the pipeline's 1986 construction, periodically from the late 1980s through the late 2000s, and then with more rigor in 2013. Landscape architect Leslie Sauer recalls that in the 1980s landscape performance monitoring was not common practice and, because of this \"analysis paralysis,\" the pipeline owner did not agree to allocate funds for a formal investigatory effort (Sauer 2015). Informal monitoring was therefore deployed initially to inform the designers of the effectiveness of the new design, construction, and stewardship strategies. The site investigations performed in 1986, in preparation of the pipeline installation, included a plant community inventory that mapped the various meadow, woodland, and forest species assemblages. Additionally, a tree inventory and shrub valuation within and adjacent to the realigned pipeline corridor helped designate each woody plant for protection or removal. One year after construction, the landscape architect visually monitored the site. For nearly three decades to follow, monitoring methods consisted primarily of observation and photographic analysis during periodic site visits. In order to assess the ecological success of the implementation strategies after nearly 30 years, the integrative research department at Andropogon Associates performed vegetation and soil sampling in June 2013. The assessments aimed at understanding how the pipeline construction methods affected the biodiversity and soil health of the forest within the construction zone in comparison to areas left undisturbed during construction. The researchers randomly selected study areas within and outside of the pipeline corridor and then conducted a comparative analysis of species diversity. To calculate the site's species diversity the Shannon 38 Arnoldia 73\/3 Woodland Restoration 39 A study in 2013 assessed plant species in several areas, including this transect across the construction zone. mination within the existing seed bank rather than the introduction of new pioneer species. More importantly, perhaps, was the realization that the seed bank remained viable within the soil blocks that were lifted and reset, and that this habitat restoration method successfully maintained the pre-construction forest, woodland, and wet meadow species profiles while keeping new species at bay. Thirty years later, comparative measurements and observation revealed that the native understory plant communities present in 2013 closely matched the pipeline corridor's preconstruction species. These included mixed- age American beech and understory species like striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), and lady fern (Athyrium filix-femina) (McCoy 2013). This healthy species composition reveals a stark contrast to the nearby Texas Eastern Transmission pipeline, which was constructed around the same time as the Algonquin Gas Transmission pipeline using traditional construction methods. In 2013, the Texas Eastern Transmission pipeline's 100-foot-wide, linear disturbance zone exhibited low species diversity dominated by orchard grass (Dactylis glomerata) and other non-native plants. 40 Arnoldia 73\/3 Woodland Restoration 41 COURTESY OF ROBERT VOLKMAN, JEDROC CONSULTING SERVICES Typical pipeline construction involves clearcutting and environmental disruption of wide swaths of land. This photograph shows installation of a natural gas pipeline in northeastern British Columbia. ties result in human injuries and fatalities as well as environmental damage from spilled hazardous liquids. From 1995 to 2014, 360 fatalities and 1,365 injuries have been associated with gas and hazardous liquid pipelines in the United States, and 2,171,575 spilled barrels of hazardous liquids have been reported to Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration (Note that gas leaks are not quantified in PHMSA reports.) These environmental con- cerns are particularly heightened in residential neighborhoods and areas that serve as sources of drinking water. The best way to prevent habitat degradation is, of course, to avoid disturbing sensitive landscapes in the first place. However, when disturbance is unavoidable, minimally-invasive construction techniques paired with ecologically sound restoration practices offer the best possible opportunity for affected ecosys- 42 Arnoldia 73\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Dandy for Winter: Jasminum nudiflorum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25597","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170a36b.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":3,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hetman, Jon","article_content":"A Dandy for Winter: Jasminum nudiflorum Jon Hetman iscovering eye-catching ornamental interest in the winter landscape can be a challenge, but is by no means an impossible task. Some taxa retain their attractive fruits long into winter, and plants with handsome bark like paperbark maple (Acer griseum) or colorful stems like red osier dogwood (Cornus sericea) stand out like beacons against a snowy backdrop. Truly astonishing, both from a visual standpoint as well as a scientific one, is the odd species that hazards to bloom when most other plants--and indeed most pollinators--lie dormant. Jasminum nudiflorum, or winter jasmine, is one such horticultural jewel. A member of the olive family (Oleaceae), winter jasmine is a hardy member of a genus best known for its potently fragrant tropical and subtropical members. Blossoms of this small deciduous shrub appear before the leaves (its specific epithet means \"naked flowers\"), borne singly in the leaf axils on the previous year's wood like its relative, Forsythia, which it rather resembles. Winter jasmine's small, waxy, bright yellow flowers feature funnel-shaped corollas that flare at the end into five or six spreading lobes, giving a starlike appearance. These are described as either non-fragrant or possessing a delicate, mossy scent, but in any event they do not summon the delightful olfactory sensations that makes its genus name synonymous with perfume. Fortunately this shortcoming is redeemed by an extremely lengthy period of bloom, which may last from November to March. In severe winters, some dieback may occur and flowers may suffer damage, but the plant usually rebounds to continue flowering after such events. Compounding the seasonal interest offered by its flowers, J. nudiflorum also delights with arching, willowy green stems that provide further visual relief from winter's tonal monotony. In spring, stems produce compound leaves that are oppositely arranged and composed of three ovate leaflets, each about "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23447","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170816e.jpg","title":"2016-73-3","volume":73,"issue_number":3,"year":2016,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seeing the Landscape in Landscape Art","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25593","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160856f.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Faison, Edward K.","article_content":"Seeing the Landscape in Landscape Art Edward K. Faison I n 1825, a young British immigrant, captivated by the wild scenery of the Hudson River and nearby Catskill mountains, endeavored to promote America's natural wonders as a distinctive national identity. That year Thomas Cole began painting the undeveloped landscapes of the Northeast with romantic grandeur and literal exactitude, inspiring a cadre of followers that produced America's first painting movement. The Hudson River School (HRS), as the movement was later named, thrived for the next half century before being replaced by the misty, ethereal landscapes of the tonalists COURTESY OF THE METROPOLITAN MUSEUM OF ART made famous by George Inness in the 1880s and 1890s. In an ironic twist, a painting fraternity (the HRS) founded to celebrate America's wilderness became synchronous with a brief period in the northeastern United States in which the landscape was altered to a greater extent than at any time since the last ice age. Because photography was in its infancy during this period and because intensive observation and faithful depiction of nature as well as the study of natural science were integral to the HRS's ethos, nineteenth century American landscape painting affords a window into the dramatic ecologi- Thomas Cole's 1836 painting, View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm-- The Oxbow. Cole included a portrait of himself working at his easel, dwarfed by the surrounding forest, in the lower center of the painting. Landscape Art 3 COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C. Deforestation is evident in George Inness's The Lackawanna Valley, circa 1856. cal changes that occurred across the region. In turn, these spectacularly rendered landscapes, when viewed with an eye toward ecology and natural history, can be seen afresh. From Forests to Fields Few paintings capture the overarching landscape dynamic of nineteenth century northeastern North America as effectively as Cole's View from Mount Holyoke, Northampton, Massachusetts, after a Thunderstorm--The Oxbow. Painted in 1836, The Oxbow depicts a wild, storm-battered forest clinging to the slopes of Mount Holyoke under a darkened sky, juxtaposed against a sunlit, cultivated landscape surrounding the Connecticut River's oxbow below. Cole seems to capture the moment just before humanity on the right sweeps across the canvas and conquers the remaining wild nature on the left. Cole was certainly aware of and somewhat ambivalent toward the dramatic changes to the land that were occurring around him. Although he admired the cultural achievements of Europe and anticipated similar cultural greatness in America, he also decried the rapid loss of forest that inevitably accompanied the advancement of civilization. In 1841, Cole wrote on behalf of the forest: Our doom is near ... These slumbering mountains, resting in our arms, Shall naked glare beneath the scorching sun, And all their wimpling rivulets be dry. No more the deer shall haunt these bosky glens, Nor the pert squirrel chatter near his store. A few short years! --our ancient race shall be, Like Israel's, scattered `mong the tribes of men. Cole wasn't far from the truth. In fact he was witnessing one of the greatest acts of deforestation the world has ever known. While forest clearance took several centuries in Europe, in eastern North America it was largely condensed into two generations. From about 1810 4 Arnoldia 73\/2 Landscape Art 5 Jasper Cropsey's The Valley of Wyoming, 1865, depicts the agrarian landscape that replaced eastern forests. Courtesy of the Metropolitan Museum of Art. everywhere except for a few inhospitable and temporarily disturbed locations. As forest ecologist E. Lucy Braun (1950) wrote: When the Pilgrims came to this continent, New England was covered by forest interrupted only where lakes or bogs and river swamps made tree growth impossible; where sand deposits near the coast were unsuitable for closed stands; where fire or windfall had temporarily destroyed the forest; where Indians had burned the forest (especially near the coast); and where rock outcrops occurred in the more rugged sections. cousins of modern day elephants, were common in this transitional landscape between tundra and forest, and these large herbivores probably helped maintain the landscape's semiopen character, much the way elephants do in African savannas today. Disturbances in the Nineteenth Century Landscape The tranquility evoked by Cropsey's Valley of Wyoming belies the relentless disturbances required to maintain agrarian landscapes of the Northeast in a semi-open state. However, a closer look at the composition reveals some of these disturbances. In the left middle ground, we see farmhands cutting and collecting hay in an upland meadow near a gray barn. The arduous task of cutting hay meadows by hand provided fodder for livestock in winter, and simultaneously prevented trees and shrubs from invading and overtaking the grass. Cattle One would have to travel back 12,000 to 14,000 years to the end of the last ice age to find an environment that supported open landscapes in the Northeast at a scale comparable to the agrarian landscapes of the nineteenth century. Then, cold climates south of the waning ice sheet sustained a mix of tundra grasses and sedges and scattered spruce trees in an open \"spruce parkland.\" Mastodons, the now extinct 6 Arnoldia 73\/2 Landscape Art 7 forbs (\"wildflowers\"). Understory shrubs and trees are sparse, and the ground flora is essentially a continuation of the adjacent meadow--a vegetation structure pleasant enough for a late afternoon stroll by the woman in the center of the composition. Inness's \"forest\" would be described by ecologists today as a savanna or open woodland. His title and composition therefore reveal much about the structure and disturbances of nineteenth century woodlands near settlements. By removing smaller woody plants, burning and grazing often left mature and fire resistant trees (e.g., oaks) to grow larger with reduced competition. Fire and grazing also reduced or removed the leaf litter, releasing herbaceous plants from the suppressive cover of the dead leaves. Selective cutting of trees for fuelwood further increased the openness of these stands, casting more light on the forest floor and promoting a thriving herbaceous layer. The tall wildflowers emerging above the grasses in the foreground create both depth and balance in the composition and are consistent with the effects of cattle preferentially grazing grasses over forbs. Large Wildlife--Rare Symbols of the Wilderness In 1856 Henry Thoreau lamented the depauperate large wildlife community in the fields and ALLEN MEMORIAL ART MUSEUM, OBERLIN COLLEGE. GIFT OF CHARLES F. OLNEY. BRIDGEMAN IMAGES The white-tailed deer in Thomas Cole's 1825 landscape painting Lake with Dead Trees symbolize untamed wilderness. 8 Arnoldia 73\/2 Landscape Art 9 THE HAGGIN MUSEUM, STOCKTON CA Albert Bierstadt's Moose was painted sometime after 1880 from sketches he made along the Maine\/Nova Scotia border, an area that was one of the last strongholds in the Northeast for the species. 10 Arnoldia 73\/2 Landscape Art 11 the HRS's celebration of the American wilderness was getting started. Few other HRS paintings depict wolves or other top predators such as mountain lions, wolverines, and black bears, all of which were hunted with similar fervor and suffered precipitous declines in the mid to late nineteenth century (all except black bears were completely extirpated from the region by the end of the century). Remnant Old Forests Despite the widespread transformation of forests to fields, as well as the dramatic alteration of farm woodlands, relatively sizeable tracts of old growth forest still existed in the mid-nineteenth century Northeast (see Greeley virgin forest map 1850, on page 14). Asher Durand demonstrated a strong affinity for painting undisturbed forest compositions and espoused a particularly strong ethos for representing nature truthfully, stating: \"never let [the art- ist] profane [nature's] sacredness from a willful departure from the truth ... For I maintain that all art is unworthy and vicious that is at variance with truth.\" In Adirondack Mountains, N.Y. (circa 1870), Durand reveals an extensive forested plain of seemingly undisturbed wilderness with a weathered hardwood and hemlock standing sentinel-like on a cliff in the right foreground. The closer hardwood has few largediameter limbs in the crown and a relatively small leaf area to trunk volume, suggesting a very old tree. As depicted in Greeley's forest maps, the Adirondacks in northern New York were, indeed, one of the remnant strongholds of old growth forest in the Northeast in the late nineteenth century. Durand also takes us into a forest interior in Forest in the Morning Light (1855). Bryophytes grow high on the trunks of hardwood trees, and moss covers the forest floor, which is strewn with multiple pieces of large downed NEW YORK HISTORICAL SOCIETY. LUCE CENTER 1932.10 Asher Durand's Adirondack Mountains, N.Y., circa 1870, depicts a large expanse of undisturbed forest. 12 Arnoldia 73\/2 COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C. Landscape Art 13 wood. Trees range in size and age from sapling to large veteran. The tree leaning to the right has a low taper (i.e., little difference in diameter) from the base of the trunk to the base of the crown. All of these attributes suggest old age and are characteristic of old growth forests in the Northeast. Interestingly, the species Durand chose to include in this particular composition--an apparent white oak (Quercus alba) leaning to the right in the foreground, an American beech (Fagus grandifolia) with smooth gray bark to the right of the white oak, and perhaps an eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) or white pine (Pinus strobus) in the left foreground--were dominant species of the forests that greeted the first European settlers. Beech was the undisputed king of northern New England, northern New York, and northern Pennsylvania forests, with hemlock the second most important tree. White oak dominated the forests of the southern half of the region. EDWARD K. FAISON This 2015 photograph from Mount Holyoke showing the Connecticut River oxbow was made from approximately the same location that Thomas Cole painted The Oxbow in 1836. 14 Arnoldia 73\/2 Landscape Art 15 sharply in the second half of the twentieth century, expanding outward from nineteenthcentury refugia and thriving on nuts and acorns in maturing beech and oak forests, as well as on readily available deer fawns. A new wild canid, the coyote, migrated into the region from the western plains, partially filling the vacated niche left by the extirpated wolf. In its eastward expansion, the coyote interbred with wolves in the eastern Canadian provinces, producing a larger version of its western progenitor and an animal capable of bringing down deer. More recently, the vanguards of extirpated large carnivores have begun passing through the Northeast. At least four wild gray wolves and four wild cougars have been confirmed in the region in the past two decades, and unconfirmed sightings of cougars have increased dramatically. Of course, not everything has returned to a wilder condition today compared with 1836. Gone is an avian wonder that Cole may have seen from Mt Holyoke's summit: the passenger pigeon. This species once congregated in flocks in the millions, even billions, before being robbed of its forested habitat and hunted to extinction by the end of the nineteenth century. Wolverines still occurred in the Adirondacks as of 1842 and were reported to be in Pennsylvania, Maine, Vermont, and even in the Hoosac range of Massachusetts in the nineteenth century. These largest members of the weasel family remain far north of the United States today in upper Quebec and Newfoundland. Elk still roamed parts of New York and caribou inhabited northern Maine in the midnineteenth century, but both animals remain extirpated from those states today. There are also far fewer old growth forests today than in 1836, even if the percentage of forest area today is higher. Forest greater than 200 years in age cover only about 0.4% of the northeastern United States, compared with the relatively sizeable tracts of old growth forest in the mid-nineteenth century (see 1850 Greeley map, on facing page). The long-lived beech, white oak, and hemlock that dominated early colonial forest composition, have been replaced by shorter-lived and earlier successional species such as red maple, black cherry (Prunus serotina), and birches in the younger forests that have grown back on abandoned farmland and cutover lands. The large pieces of downed wood and moss covered trees in Durand's Forest in the Morning Light are far less common in today's drier, second growth forests. Forest wildflowers are generally less abundant and diverse in second growth forests compared with old growth forests, and bird densities are also lower in the former compared to the latter. Novel Threats One of the factors that has slowed the recovery of beech and hemlock to their former positions of dominance in northeastern forests is the invasion of forest pests and pathogens from Eurasia. The exotic fungus Nectria coccinea var. faginata, introduced to Nova Scotia in the early 1900s, has subsequently spread throughout the Northeast, invading the bark and killing many mature beech trees. Hemlock woolly adelgid, an aphidlike insect introduced from Japan, reached New England in 1985 and has thinned the canopy and killed many hemlocks in the southern parts of the Northeast. But by far the most dramatic change to the modern forest resulting from an introduced forest pest is a tree portrayed in William Trost Richards's October (1863). Richards was a member of a brief movement in the 1850s and 1860s that called themselves the Association for the Advancement of Truth in Art. Inspired by the British art critic John Ruskin, the American Pre-Raphaelites (as the group was later named) took the accurate portrayal of nature to a new level. In October, Richards's highly detailed rendering of an autumn forest scene enables us to identify the large tree on the right of the composition with diamond-shaped furrows on the trunk and linear sawtooth leaves with considerable confidence: an American chestnut (Castanea dentata). A chestnut this size hasn't been seen in the forests of the Northeast in perhaps 75 years. Forty years after Richards's painting, the Asian chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) arrived in New York City, and over the next several decades destroyed virtually every mature chestnut throughout its Appalachian 16 Arnoldia 73\/2 COURTESY OF THE NATIONAL GALLERY OF ART, WASHINGTON, D.C. Landscape Art 17 mountain range. Chestnuts today rarely grow above 15 centimeters (6 inches) in diameter, perhaps 1\/5 to 1\/6 the diameter of the tree in Richards's painting, before being killed by the blight and therefore almost never emerge into the forest canopy. Interestingly, the smaller tree to the left of the chestnut in the right foreground, flowering dogwood (Benthamidia florida; syn. Cornus florida), has also been struck by an exotic fungus, dogwood anthracnose (Discula destructiva), and has declined significantly in recent decades. The Future Landscape: Stemming a Second Deforestation Looking north from the summit of Mount Holyoke, past the farm fields that have succeeded to forest, an unmistakable threat to the forested landscape can be seen: the patchwork of residential and industrial development and roads fragmenting and perforating the forests and farm fields. As the forest grew back in the twentieth century after farm abandonment, human populations also surged. By 1975, the human juggernaut caught up to the regenerating forests, and the pendulum of 100 years of forest recovery began to swing back towards forest loss (see forest and population map). Forty years later, forest loss is in near free fall in New Hampshire and the southern New England states. More recently, Vermont began losing forest at an increasing rate. Only Maine has been able to sustain a balance between forest loss and forest recovery, although residential development is projected to increase significantly in the southern part of the state over the next two decades. This deforestation is much harder for trees to recover from than before. Paved roads and housing developments represent a \"hard deforestation,\" in contrast to the \"soft\" deforestation of agricultural fields in the nineteenth century (Foster et al. 2010). How will the northeastern landscape look in the next 50 to 100 years? The answer depends in large part on whether conservation groups, private landowners, public agencies, and other stakeholders are willing to work together to protect both forest and farmland. The news so far is promising. In the past 10 to 15 years, part- nerships of conservation groups that transcend political boundaries have increased by a factor of six in New England and adjacent New York. This type of regional collaboration is at the heart of The Wildlands and Woodlands Vision created by 20 scientists and environmentalists across the region. The Vision calls for the permanent protection of 70% (30 million acres) of the New England region in forest over the next 50 years. Like the structure of an ecosystem, the Wildlands and Woodlands Vision is fundamentally a bottom up (grass roots) effort. It has to be: over 80% of New England's forestland is privately owned. If he were alive today, Thomas Cole would be amazed to see more forest cover in New England than he saw in 1836. But he would once again recognize and lament the signs of deforestation. History has inadvertently given us a second chance to live in a forested New England, but there will be nothing inadvertent about the efforts needed to keep these forests standing. References Askins, R. A. 2000. Restoring North America's Birds. New Haven: Yale University Press. Askins, R. A. 2014. Saving the World's Deciduous Forests. New Haven: Yale University Press Aubry, K. B., K. S. McKelvey, and J. P. Copeland. 2007. Distribution and broad-scale habitat relations of the wolverine in the contiguous United States. Journal of Wildlife Management 71: 2147 18 Arnoldia 73\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Etymology of Parking","article_sequence":2,"start_page":19,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25595","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160896d.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Richmond, Michele","article_content":"The Etymology of Parking Michele Richmond park (circa 1845) verb a. to plant a tree or spread a patch of turf or flowers b. to create a little patch of parkland park (circa 2015) verb a. (1) to bring a vehicle to a stop and keep standing at the edge of a public way (2) to leave temporarily on a public way or in a parking lot or garage b. to enclose in a park I 've always wondered why we use the word parking to describe a place to leave a car. For me the word evokes images of my neighborhood park, playgrounds, or New York's Central Park: lush green spaces, not places easily reconciled with a patch of asphalt. A few years ago while I was working at the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation, I finally got my answer. While exploring the history of street trees, I came upon a law passed by the United States Congress on April 6, 1870, authorizing the city SHAWN STANKEWICH Public green spaces like New York City's Central Park, seen here, add to the livability of urban areas. 20 Arnoldia 73\/2 DUMBARTON OAKS Etymology of Parking 21 Automobiles Arrive The world was changing rapidly as the twentieth century arrived. The number of automobiles in the United States increased from 8,000 in 1900 to over 8 million in 1920 and marked a major shift in the meaning of the term parking. Just as people would tie their horses to the parking trees, automobiles began to stop next to the parking strips lining each road. The increase in the number of automobiles on the road, the enhancements made to the National Mall, and the See America First tourist campaign, which began in 1910, led to a huge increase in the number of cars in Washington, D.C., from both locals and tourists. The See America First campaign was designed and implemented by America's railroad companies and advertised America's first National Parks. Advertising for the National Parks, the majority of which were located in the western United States in the early 1900s, benefited the railroads immensely: more tourists journeying out west meant more money. However, the railroads did not foresee the rapid growth of the automobile and an unintended consequence of the See America First campaign was regional tourism (as opposed to national tourism). With all the positive press Washington, D.C., received from the greening of their streets through parking, the city received more This image from a 1915 National Geographic article about Washington, D.C., shows both an early automobile and a horsedrawn carriage taking advantage of shade from street trees. tourists than any other city in America in the 1920s and 1930s. Of course, the Washington, D.C., Parking Commission had not planned for the automobile when setting out their parking system. By the mid-1920s city officials began cutting down street trees and widening streets to accommodate the volume of cars, thereby replacing the original meaning of parking as a place for trees and greenery with parking as a place for automobiles to stop. Some of the earliest instances of this shift appear in Washington Post articles from the 1920s, where the term \"parking\" was used to explain where cars were parked rather than to where trees were planted. BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY place wooden boxes around the trees to protect them, but with the passage of another congressional law placing the jurisdiction of parking places squarely in the hands of the Commissioners of Washington, D.C., this practice was soon discarded. The new law had unintended consequences: the removal of the protective boxes allowed people to wedge their way into the parking system. How? Because during the hot summers in Washington, trees provided shade for horses while their owners were off in a shop or visiting a friend. Owners would tie their horses (and carriages) up to the street trees, effectively decreasing a two-lane road to one active lane and one stopped lane. Although it became illegal in 1882 to trespass on parking, or to cut, injure, or maim parking trees in any way, the convenience and shade provided by the trees for the waiting carriages and horses outweighed the fine levied. An illustration from the article \"The New Washington\" (The Century Magazine, March 1884) shows a protective structure around the trunk of a street tree on Thomas Circle in Washington, D.C. COURTESY OF HATHITRUST 22 Arnoldia 73\/2 LIBRARY OF CONGRESS Etymology of Parking 23 MICHELE RICHMOND Extensive plantings and wide sidewalks make city streets more usable and inviting. dents to determine what they wanted on their street. Since car parking spaces are useless to many low-income San Franciscans, the neighborhood ranked street amenities (from highest priority to lowest priority) as: walking, street trees, public transit, biking, and car parking. These rankings have guided the redesign of the street away from parking towards a multimodal street with a significant increase in the number of planned street trees. In another shift, Seattle has prioritized the creation of Green Streets throughout the city. Seattle Department of Transportation's U District Green Streets Concept Plan emphasizes the planting of healthy, consistently placed street trees, calling street trees crucial to the character and livability of the city. Their plan prioritizes street trees, perennial and shrub plantings, bike parking, and pedestrian movement over car parking along the Green Streets. The City of Toronto has set a goal of increasing their overall tree canopy of 10.2 million trees by approximately 13 percent over the next few decades. The city recognizes the wide range of environmental, ecological, social, cultural, and economic benefits their urban forest provides for residents and has developed multiple strategies to increase their overall tree canopy. At the street level, the city has worked diligently to increase street tree planting and survival rate in conjunction with better public transit and ease of walking. One strategy they have implemented is the use of below pavement soil structural systems (such as Silva Cells) that allow soil to receive air and water without being compacted by people, bikes, and buses moving above them. The strategy has been so successful that Silva Cells are now being deployed across the city to allow large shade trees to grow successfully in congested urban conditions. The story of parking over the past 140 years exemplifies changing social norms, ways in which city planners absorb technological advancements such as the birth of the automo- 24 Arnoldia 73\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Bonsai Collection of Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25594","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d1608928.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pretorius, Willem; Sax, Miles S.","article_content":"The Bonsai Collection of Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden Miles S. Sax and Willem Pretorius A panoramic view of Stellenbosch, Western Cape, South Africa. FMALAN AT EN.WIKIPEDIA S outh Africa has long been recognized for its picturesque landscapes, large wildlife species, and stunning plant diversity. Housing roughly 10 percent of the world's vascular plant biodiversity (about 30,000 taxa) on less than 1 percent of the earth land surface, it is the only country in the world that contains its own floristic kingdom (the Cape Floral Kingdom) within the confines of its borders. With plant endemism rates as high as 70 percent in the Western Cape, South Africa has continued to fascinate plant explorers, botanists, and horticulturists. Flowering geraniums (Pelargonium spp.), bird-of-paradise (Strelitzia reginae), and the calla lily (Zantedeschia aethiopica) are just a few of the South African plants that are now known to gardeners worldwide. A Garden Grows in Stellenbosch The town of Stellenbosch is located in South Africa's Western Cape province. It lies on the eastern flank of the Cape Flats, situated at the base of the commanding Hottentots-Holland Mountains, which provide an inspiring back- drop to the municipality. The Stellenbosch University (originally called the Stellenbosch Gymnasium) was established in this agricultural and wine-producing region in 1866. In 1902, the University made efforts to establish the first botanical garden in Africa to be housed in an institute of higher education. Augusta Vera Duthie was the first lecturer in botany at Stellenbosch and undertook this initiative in order to grow plant material for educating botany students at the school. In 1902, the first garden was laid out in front of the Main Building where it remained for twenty years. In 1922, under the guidance of Dr. Gert Cornelius Nel, the garden was moved to accommodate the growing collections and to establish a permanent site. The 1922 design included transectional and circular order beds for botanical education and were inspired by the world's oldest botanical garden in Padua, Italy. As Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden (SUBG) has developed over the decades its plantings and design have changed in response to the evolving mission of the garden and the priorities set 26 Arnoldia 73\/2 Bonsai Collection of SUBG 27 MILES S. SAX Clockwise from upper left: Narrow-leafed bird-of-paradise (Strelitzia juncea); A formal pond at Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden displays water lilies, including the platter-like Santa Cruz water lily (Victoria cruziana); Drosanthemum bicolor, a South African succulent with showy flowers. A Unique Bonsai Collection One collection in particular at SUBG stands out for its distinctive character--the bonsai collection, whose plants have played a central role in the development of a unique horticulture practice in Africa. Known as the Western Cape Heritage Bonsai Collection, it is the oldest and largest public bonsai garden in Africa. What makes this collection special is the wide variety of indigenous species used, its development by a cast of interesting characters, and the display of the internationally recognized African styles of bonsais. Originally established in 1972, the bonsai collection was incorporated into the gardens by Wim Tijmens, SUBG curator from 1962 to 1999. Wim is recognized for establishing much of the SUBG layout and design that provide the defining elements of the landscape today. His passion for the temperate flora of East Asia took 28 Arnoldia 73\/2 Bonsai Collection of SUBG 29 Louis Nel with his outstanding Buddleja saligna bonsai trained in the Pierneef style. tion and instruction of bonsai in South Africa. When she donated her collection, SUBG curator Wim Tijmens had some trouble explaining the significance of the gift to the University's chancellor, who didn't know what bonsai was. The next big donation to the collection came from the Reverend Gerjo van der Merwe, a minister in the Dutch Reformed Church. According to his family, he was one of the first bonsai enthusiasts to grow indigenous bonsai from seeds in South Africa. From Van der Merwe's personal notes his deep love of nature and the belief in the healing power of trees shines through as an obvious motivator for his bonsai passion. Because he was often transferred, he decided to use soil from the family farm in Boplaas in which he transported small trees with him on his travels. \"I believe that the growing of bonsai is a healthy help to heal this broken relationship. By growing trees from your own region and to take it with you is a strong way to keep and protect the association with a specific place and the sense of belonging.\" The third significant donation of bonsai to the collection was that of Louis Nel. His collection was donated on March 20, 2012. Nel was internationally known as the king of Buddleja saligna, an evergreen South African species commonly known as false olive or squarestem butterflybush. Nel started working with bonsai in 1974 and his skill and reputation quickly grew. Throughout his life he was a regular contributor to bonsai magazines and participated in many international bonsai demonstrations. A number of his trees won international competitions; an outstanding example is SUBG accession 2012-1, one of Nel's Buddleja saligna bonsai. This tree now stands as one of the garden's premier specimens, highlighting a South African native plant as well as a style of SUBG 30 Arnoldia 73\/2 Bonsai Collection of SUBG 31 SUBG it trend towards the less exacting and playful penjing style of China. The tree species found in the SUBG collection weave their own story of the development of bonsai in South Africa. The oldest trees in the collection date back to the 1940s and were created by South African bonsai pioneer Becky Lucas. Her original trees are the classic bonsai subject, Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii), which is native to Japan, China, and Korea. As Lucas continued to develop her passion and skill in bonsai, she mostly used the traditional Eastern pallet of plant species including trident maple (Acer buergerianum), deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara), and Atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica). As the SUBG An African olive (Olea europaea subsp. africana, syn. O. e. subsp. cuspidata) collection developed over the bonsai created by Louis Nel. decades and new bonsai growers a popular choice for growers for many centuries. added their contributions, many other familiar For example, a specimen of Ficus retusa (syn. bonsai subjects joined the collection including dwarf Japanese garden juniper (Juniperus F. microcarpa) in the Crespi Bonsai Museum procumbens `Nana'), lacebark or Chinese elm in Italy is purported to be over 1,000 years old. (Ulmus parvifolia), and Ligustrum ovalifolium, Ficus natalensis was likely selected to be trialed in bonsai culture as a substitute for East which oddly goes by the common name California privet despite being native to Japan and Asian species because it has traits that emulate South Korea. those of traditional bonsai species. Over the Although South African bonsai started out years Natal fig has proved itself as an excellent selection for development as bonsai and with traditional Eastern influences it has its popularity has expanded, making it a mainbecome adapted and transformed as a result stay for growers in South Africa and abroad. F. of its interpretation in Africa. It is unclear natalensis makes up one of the largest groups what prompted the beginning of use of African plant species for bonsai in South Africa. of species in the SUBG collection, comprising It can be speculated that perhaps a lack of around 10 percent. suitable imported plant material from Japan Another African species that has become and East Asia during World War II might have very popular for bonsai is Olea europaea subsp. limited availability. africana (syn. O. e. subsp. cuspidata), a subordinate taxon of the commonly known European The first African tree in the collection to olive tree. The distribution of this subspecies be adapted for bonsai was the Natal fig (Ficus ranges widely from Africa through the Middle natalensis) by Ian Ross in 1948. The native East, India, and China. It is widely grown in range of Ficus natalensis extends from Mozambique, Malawi, and Zimbabwe to South Africa. parks and urban environments for its stress tolerance and cold hardiness (Joffe 2002). The speIt is cultivated in southeastern Africa as a shade cies displays small, lustrous, evergreen leaves tree and living fence. The genus Ficus is commonly used for traditional bonsai and has been that form dense canopies, and greenish white Popular South African Styles Of the six styles described by Charles Ceronio, the three that have gained widespread adoption in South Africa are the flattop, Pierneef, and baobab styles (Adam 1992, Ceronio 1999). Baobab style This style focuses on mimicking the iconic African baobab tree (Adansonia digitata). Baobabs in the wild are considered to be one of the world's largest trees, not for their height, but for their impressive girth. These trees tend to grow with massive central trunks giving away to relatively short branches. Adapted to growing in regions with high summer temperatures, the genus is found throughout tropical Africa and Madagascar. For the baobab bonsai style the focus is placed on the upright trunk habit, giving the impression of a large central section while the branches are kept short. Seldom seen in collections, this style can be accomplished by using taxa such as the African baobab itself, corkwood (Commiphora spp.), or coral tree (Erythrina spp.). In order to convincingly emulate the thick trunk, bonsai trainers often select several upright stems and use twine or wire to pull the multiple stems together, thus fusing them into a single trunk. This style was principally developed by Charles Ceronio. A baobab (Adansonia digitata) growing in South Africa's Kruger National Park. REBECCA PRETORIUS A 28-year-old baobab bonsai created by article co-author Willem Pretorius. MILES S. SAX Pierneef style The Pierneef style is an open umbrella-shaped tree form. It invites the viewer to imagine the tree spreading wide over an expansive savanna landscape. The umbrella form itself is created by the tight zigzag branching pattern reminiscent of acacia species, such as Acacia sieberiana (syn. Vachellia sieberiana), found throughout Africa. The style was named after South African artist Jacobus Hendrik Pierneef (1886 34 Arnoldia 73\/2 Bonsai Collection of SUBG 35 SUBG Many plant species and bonsai styles are on display in Stellenbosch University Botanical Garden's bonsai house. there is some question as to the longevity of this tree for bonsai because of the shrub's soft wood. The collection of Buddleja specimens at SUBG will stand as a long term trial of the species' suitability as a bonsai subject. Just over 10 percent (23 of 213 specimens) of the collection is made up of this single taxon. Bibliography Adam, R. 1992. Bonsai in South Africa. Cape Town: Struik Publishers Ltd. Ceronio, C. 1999. Bonsai Styles of The World. Pretoria: Charles S. Ceronio. Hemy, C. 1967. How to Grow Miniature Trees, Full instructions for practising the ancient art of bonsai. Supplement to Farmer's Weekly, January 25. Joffe, P. 2002. PlantZAfrica. http:\/\/www.plantzafrica. com\/frames\/plantsfram.htm (accessed January 22, 2015). Lucas, B. 1968. A Summer in Japan. Bonsai Magazine 7(3): 8"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tracking the Seasonal Rhythms of Boston Common Trees","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25596","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d170a326.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Richardson, Andrew D.; Oswald, W. Wyatt","article_content":"Tracking the Seasonal Rhythms of Boston Common Trees W. Wyatt Oswald and Andrew D. Richardson N ew England's deciduous forests undergo dramatic seasonal changes. New leaves emerge from protective buds as winter gives way to spring, green trees conceal the landscape and cast deep shade during the height of summer, and glorious fall foliage senesces as autumn yields to the snows and bitter cold of winter. But how much do these seasonal transitions vary from year to year? We are exploring this phenological question through detailed observation of a setting familiar to many New Englanders and visitors alike--the Common in downtown Boston. Since mid May of 2010, a digital camera mounted on the roof of the ten-story Walker Building, overlooking the Boston Common from the campus of Emerson College, has taken photos at thirty-minute intervals of a tree-covered area on the east side of this historic park. The images generated by digital cameras represent colors using the RGB (red, green, blue) additive color model, which proposes that any color perceived by the human eye can be represented by some combination of these three primary colors. Each digital image is actually composed of three separate layers, one each for red, green, and blue. We characterize the \"greenness\" of the tree canopy by using image analysis software to measure how bright the green layer is relative to the total brightness of the red, green, and blue layers together. The color of the canopy is related to the color of individual leaves, as well as to the number of layers of leaves in the canopy. Individual leaf color is largely determined by pigments--green Photos of the Boston Common in spring (April 30, 2011), summer (July 1, 2011), fall (November 11, 2011), and winter (February 5, 2012). ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHORS UNLESS OTHERWISE NOTED Tracking the Seasonal Rhythms 37 chlorophylls, orange carotenoids, and red anthocyanins--but is also an indicator of photosynthetic capacity (Richardson et al. 2007; Sonnentag et al. 2012). When we use this approach to quantify the greenness of all of these photos of the Common we can visualize the seasonal shifts. Following budburst, leaves expand rapidly and the springtime green-up happens quickly. Over a span of just four weeks, the leaf-out of deciduous elms, basswoods, cherries, and maples transforms the Common from a late winter landscape of browns and grays to its maximum greenness, which generally occurs during the first half of May. Peak green lasts only a couple of weeks, though, because as leaves mature they actually darken somewhat (Keenan et al., 2014). This causes a gradual reduction in our greenness index over the course of the summer. Then fall arrives: day lengths get shorter, temperatures become colder, and chlorophyll production gradually slows down. Greenness fades with the onset of senescence, leaf coloration, and leaf fall. The timing of these autumnal changes varies from species to species, and thus the de-greening of the Boston Common landscape happens somewhat more slowly than spring leaf-out, taking about six weeks from start to finish. Comparison of the Boston Common data with those from a similar camera at Harvard Forest, located in the north-central Massachusetts town of Petersham, illustrates the general similarity of vegetation phenology in deciduous forests across southern New England. Despite differences in species composition between the native flora of Harvard Forest and the humanconstructed mixture of native and nonnative tree species that we find in the Boston Common, both landscapes feature rapid spring greenup and maximum greenness at the beginning of the growing season. However, since Harvard Forest is situated more than 300 meters (984 feet) higher than Boston, nearly 100 kilometers (62 miles) inland, and well outside the urban heat island (Zhang et al. 2004), it is cooler than the Common and thus has a shorter growing About Boston Common Since its founding in 1634, the fifty-acre Boston Common has served many purposes. In the seventeenth century, the sparsely wooded Common was used as a pasture for cattle. Early maps show only three trees, including the Great Elm, a majestic tree that loomed over the Common until it was blown down in a windstorm in the winter of 1876. The Common began to take on parklike qualities early in the eighteenth century. Bostonians strolled along wide, tree-lined malls, the first of which was established along Tremont Street in 1722. During the American Revolution and War of 1812, however, hundreds of soldiers were based in Boston and large encampments were built on the Common. Cows were eventually banned in 1830, and with subsequent formal landscaping the Boston Common was transformed to the largely forested park that exists today (Friends of the Public Garden 2005). This 1845 engraving by Hammatt Billings shows the Great Elm growing in the Boston Common. COURTESY OF HISTORIC NEW ENGLAND 38 Arnoldia 73\/2 Tracking the Seasonal Rhythms 39 season. With earlier leaf-out and later leaf drop, trees in downtown Boston have green leaves some eight weeks longer than their counterparts in Petersham. Now that we have captured the vegetation phenology of five springs in the Boston Common photos, we can see how the timing of leaf-out has varied across years with strikingly different weather conditions. All but one of the years have a similar pattern: in 2011, 2013, 2014, and 2015, leaf emergence at the Common started at the beginning of April and greenness increased steadily over the next five weeks or so. In contrast, early spring temperatures in 2012 were significantly warmer than normal (Friedl et al. 2014), with record-breaking heat in Boston during the middle of March. The trees of the Boston Common responded immediately to this unseasonable warmth, leafing out within just a few days. As a result, the 2012 growing season was about a month longer than the other years for which we have photos. The first five years of data from the Boston Common are consistent with other phenology studies in showing that the green-up of deciduous trees is highly sensitive to climatic variability (Cleland et al. 2007). If the warmth of March 2012 gives us a sense of what the future holds for springtime in Boston, as climate projections suggest (Hayhoe et al. 2007), then we can expect earlier leaf-outs and a substantial lengthening of the growing season. A failure to track these changes could be deleterious to the insect, bird, and mammal species that utilize urban forests as habitat. Such an outcome also has consequences beyond the Boston Common: phenological changes have the potential to shift competitive interactions among tree species and affect the carbon balance of forest ecosystems (Keenan et al. 2014). To better anticipate these dynamics, our research on vegetation phenology and related ecological processes will continue for years to come at the Boston Common, Harvard Forest, and dozens of other sites where this type of study is being carried out as part of the PhenoCam Network (phenocam. sr.unh.edu\/webcam). More broadly, as Aldo Leopold put it, \"phenology may eventually shed some light on that ultimate enigma, the land's inner workings\" (Leopold and Jones 1947). References Cleland, E. E., I. Chuine, A. Menzel, H. A. Mooney, and M. D. Schwartz. 2007. Shifting plant phenology in response to global change. Trends in Ecology and Evolution 22: 357"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Study in Scarlet: Nyssa sinensis","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25592","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160816b.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"A Study in Scarlet: Nyssa sinensis Nancy Rose M y favorite \"old reliables\" for fall color at the Arboretum include the pure gold foliage of sweet birch (Betula lenta), the fiery red-orange-yellow display of Korean maple (Acer pseudosieboldianum), and the glossy burgundy leaves of Euonymus carnosus. That's just a start, though, and one of the delights of wandering the Arboretum repeatedly in autumn is discovering new spots of color. A few years ago, on a gray mid-November day when many trees were already bare, I was drawn to a cluster of brilliant scarlet and orange leaves remaining on a tree branch. The tree, it turned out, was Chinese tupelo, Nyssa sinensis. This was a new species to me, but I certainly knew another species in the genus, Nyssa sylvatica, known by the common names sour gum, black gum, tupelo, black tupelo, pepperidge, or, to residents of Martha's Vineyard, beetlebung. Under any name, this eastern North American species is a handsome tree, noted for its lustrous green foliage that turns stunning shades of red in the fall. Though its native range is thousands of miles away, Chinese tupelo is strikingly similar to sour gum, providing yet another interesting example of the disjunct floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia. Chinese tupelo is slightly smaller than sour gum, growing as tall as 60 feet (18 meters) in the wild but in cultivation typically reaching only 30 to 40 feet (9 to 12 meters). It has a pyramidal to upright-oval form and dark gray, irregularly fissured bark. Chinese tupelo is deciduous; when its leaves emerge in late spring they often have an attractive red or bronze tint. Mature leaves are about 4 to 6 inches (10 to 15 centimeters) long, dark green and slightly shiny above, lighter green below. Autumn foliage color may be variable depending on individual plant and local climate, but typically ranges from light yellow and apricot to bright, almost luminous reds and oranges. As with other Nyssa species, Chinese tupelo is primarily dioecious (male and female flowers borne on separate plants) but some plants may also bear a few perfect (having both male and female parts) flowers. Female flowers are borne in axillary clusters and male flowers are produced along older branches. The small greenish flowers are inconspicuous but they are extremely attractive to honeybees (N. ogeche, which has a limited native range primarily in southern Georgia and northern Florida, is the source for prized tupelo honey). The fruit of Chinese tupelo is a dark blue oblong drupe that is readily eaten by birds. Taxonomy references place Nyssa either in Cornaceae (the dogwood family) or in its own family, Nyssaceae. The genus name Nyssa comes from Greek mythology and refers to a water (or rain) nymph named Nyssa (or Nysa), one of the nymphs who cared for Dionysus, god of wine, as a child (the location where the water nymphs sheltered Dionysus and where he invented wine is known as Mount Nyssa). The reference to water is the important bit, since this alludes to the preference of all Nyssa species for moist soils. The type species for the genus is in fact another North American species, N. aquatica, commonly called water tupelo or swamp tupelo because it grows in very wet sites. Like its American relative, N. sylvatica, Chinese tupelo prefers evenly moist, acidic soil but also tolerates somewhat drier conditions. The Arboretum currently holds just one specimen of Chinese tupelo (N. sinensis, accession 374-81-B), which grows near several other Nyssa accessions near Rehder Pond. This accession was received as seeds from China's Hangzhou Botanical Garden in 1981, but the exact provenance of their collection is unknown. Chinese tupelo has a fairly large range in central to southern China and an individual tree's cold hardiness may vary with provenance, but a probable hardiness rating would be through USDA Zone 6b (average annual minimum temperature 0 to -5 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23446","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1708128.jpg","title":"2015-73-2","volume":73,"issue_number":2,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Charles Edward Faxon: Botanical Draftsman","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25589","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160bb28.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":1,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pearson, Lisa; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Charles Edward Faxon: Botanical Draftsman Michael S. Dosmann and Lisa E. Pearson ear the Arnold Arboretum's Bradley Rosaceous Collection, at the south end of Meadow Road, lie three ponds whose names commemorate three staff members from the early years of the Arboretum: Jackson Dawson (propagator and superintendent), Alfred Rehder (taxonomist), and Charles Faxon (assistant director and botanical illustrator). These men, along with founding director Charles Sprague Sargent and explorer-botanist Ernest Henry Wilson, played central roles in shaping the Arboretum into the renowned institution that it remains today. Faxon's mark--in indelible ink no less--is the one we celebrate here. Charles Edward Faxon was born in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston, Massachusetts, in 1846, not far from the land that was to become the Arnold Arboretum in 1872. As a child, he developed dual interests in natural history and art. Much of his schooling in natural history was provided by his older brother Edwin Faxon (1823 Charles Edward Faxon JON HETMAN 3 assistant director at the Arboretum. In this position he was to curate the herbarium and organize the library, both of which were growing as quickly as the living collections. However, Faxon's primary charge was to assist Sargent with the Silva of North America by producing its illustrations. This seminal treatment, written by Sargent, spanned 14 volumes published between 1891 and 1902, and covered the known woody plants of the United States and Canada. Sargent-- the then \"dean of American dendrology\"--wrote eloquently and assertively about the various ligneous species, while Faxon brought the plants to life with painstaking detail and beauty in pen-andink. By the end of the project, some 744 plates for the Silva had been produced from Faxon's ink drawings. One fine example is his illustration of the vine maple (Acer circinatum), native to the Pacific Northwest. Faxon captured the full array of diagnostic characteristics necessary for identification, without whimsy, yet with an astonishing delicacy and A contemporary view of Faxon Pond (see inside front cover for a lantern slide from grace. In the forefront, the nearly the same viewpoint, circa 1920). eyes are drawn to a rounded wonderfully complementing Eaton's erudite leaf, the margins and primary veins boldly and text. Charles was responsible for a number of prominently outlined, as are the striking fruits the plates in Volume One and all of the plates from the same plane. The remaining leaf of this in Volume Two. branch, and those shown on the flowering and sterile branches in the background, are drawn in FAXON AT THE ARBORETUM lighter weights. When coupled to his subtle use of shading, the variable line weights effectively In 1879, Faxon became a botany instructor at create a depth of field, a sense of realism that Harvard's Bussey Institution, a school adjacent does not detract from the scientific purpose. to the Arboretum that was dedicated to the Magnified details of individual flowers, both agricultural and natural sciences. In 1882, C. S. Sargent hired him on a part-time basis as an male and female, as well as fruits, accompany 4 Arnoldia 73\/1 Charles Edward Faxon 5 6 Arnoldia 73\/1 Charles Edward Faxon 7 Top: A Charles Faxon drawing of Sequoiadendron giganteum (then known as Sequoia gigante) foliage and cone from Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North America. Bottom: A Charles Faxon drawing of Malus tschonoskii (then known as Pyrus tschonoskii) from Sargent's Forest Flora of Japan. Two M. tschonoskii specimens (accession 3678-A and B) grown from seed that Sargent collected in Japan in 1892 still grow in the Arboretum collections. 8 Arnoldia 73\/1 10 Arnoldia 73\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: The New Sylva: A Discourse of Forest and Orchard Trees for the Twenty- First Century","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25588","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160b76f.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":1,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"The New Sylva: A Discourse of Forest and Orchard Trees for the Twenty-First Century BOOK REVIEW Phyllis Andersen The New Sylva: A Discourse of Forest and Orchard Trees for the Twenty-First Century Gabriel Hemery and Sarah Simblet Bloomsbury, 2014. 390 pages. ISBN 978-1-4088-3544-9 I n 1664 the Royal Society in London published Sylva, or A Discourse of Forest Trees, and the Propagation of Timber in His Majestie's Dominions. The author, John Evelyn (1620 12 Arnoldia 73\/1 Book Review 13 BIODIVERSITY HERITAGE LIBRARY Illustration of white oak (Quercus alba) by Pierre-Joseph Redout 14 Arnoldia 73\/1 Book Review 15 SARAH SIMBLET, FROM THE NEW SYLVA, WITH PERMISSION OF THE PUBLISHER Sarah Simblet's detailed illustration of an English (or pedunculate) oak (Quercus robur) seedling from The New Sylva. 16 Arnoldia 73\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Filing A Missing Rose Claim: Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25590","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160bb6d.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":1,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Whitacre, Benjamin","article_content":"Filing A Missing Rose Claim: Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose Benjamin Whitacre I cannot suggest to the earnest rose lover any finer summer pilgrimage than one to the Arnold Arboretum. --J. Horace McFarland, editor and publisher of the American Rose Annual (1917a) undreds of new plant cultivars, complete with gorgeous catalogue pictures and euphoric blurbs, are introduced each year. Few will still be around in a hundred years, and unfortunately sometimes the most innovative and influential are the first to fade away. Jackson Thornton Dawson, whose hybrids revolutionized rose culture more than any since the first repeat-blooming China roses, remembered the quick rise and precipitous fall of his roses. Writing in Country Life in America in 1911, the Arnold Arboretum's first superintendent detailed his once successful climbing roses before closing with a comment on `Arnold', his breakthrough hybrid whose subsequent decline and near extinction remains one of the unresolved puzzles of modern roses. \"A rich crimson, darker even than `G 18 Arnoldia 73\/1 COURTESY OF STEVE NYMAN Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose 19 NANCY ROSE the \"affinities\" between species with an ambitious program of Rosa accessions. The mix of innovation and raw material paid off. By the mid 1880s, Dawson had done the impossible, twice. He wed the diploid Rosa multiflora to the tetraploid `G 20 Arnoldia 73\/1 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose 21 Darlington corrected \"Hartford Botanic Gardens\" to \"The Arnold Arboretum\" in 1917 and Jules Gravereaux, the director of the Roseraie de L'Ha 22 Arnoldia 73\/1 Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose 23 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HERBARIUM This herbarium specimen of `Arnold' (accession 857-79) was collected in 1994 when the cultivar still resided in the Arboretum's Bradley Rosaceous Collection. 24 Arnoldia 73\/1 Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose 25 `Little Tot', before 1900. A Rosa multiflora hybrid also listed as `Little Dot.' Dawson explained that `Little Tot' bloomed so much he could never get enough wood to propagate. `Minnie Dawson', 1896. An attempt to create a more fully double Rosa multiflora flower by backcrossing `Dawson' with the species. Named for Dawson's wife. `Pauline Dawson', 1916. Named for Dawson's daughter-in-law, who helped manage the family's Eastern Nurseries. *`Royal Cluster', 1899. `Dawson' 26 Arnoldia 73\/1 Jackson Dawson and the Arnold Rose 27 A Love Story Coded in Rosa Species Jackson Dawson was the key player in the Arnold Arboretum's rose breeding program, but Ernest Henry Wilson, the Arboretum's renowned plant explorer, also has a fascinating connection to roses. Wilson has not always been portrayed as a passionate husband; rosarians Douglas Brenner and Stephen Scanniello sketched him as a Ulyssean adventurer under the spell of his English patron, the heiress Ellen Willmott, willing to leave his wife Helen and newborn daughter Muriel Primrose to travel to the other end of the world for years at a time (Brenner and Scanniello 2009). Letters from Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent to Willmott show that she had a unique influence over Wilson. When Sargent failed to persuade Wilson to explore China for the Arboretum, he wrote an uncharacteristically seductive letter to Willmott, hoping she would intervene. She did (Sargent 1906). Her power over Wilson consolidated the Arboretum's legacy. The three later collaborated on Willmott's monumental tome, The Genus Rosa. During his time in Asia, Wilson collected as many as 2,000 species of plants previously unknown to the west, including Rosa helenae, or \"Helen's Rose,\" and R. murielae, named for his wife and daughter respectively. He named three finds for Willmott, among them a rose, R. willmottiae. Of the three roses, Rosa helenae caught on with gardeners. Where other musk roses fainted, Helen's Rose endured; Wilson suggested that a new breed of cold hardy Noisette-style roses be bred from it (Wilson 1916b). Canadian hybridizers took him up successfully (Thomas 1994). In 1914, shortly after helping Willmott finish The Genus Rosa, Wilson returned to Asia, this time to Japan. Helen and Muriel Primrose accompanied him on this and future expeditions. In 1927, after the death of Sargent, Wilson became keeper of the Arnold Arboretum, remaining one of the rose's most vocal proponents. He and his wife died together in an automobile accident on October 15, 1930. Over the following 30 years, botanists noted a close alliance between Rosa helenae and R. rubus, another species Wilson collected (Thomas 1994). At Kew, which had received both R. helenae and R. rubus seeds from the Arboretum in a lot labeled \"seed No. 431\" (Sargent and Wilson 1913"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Midsummer Flurries","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25591","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d1608126.jpg","volume":73,"issue_number":1,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Midsummer Flurries Nancy Rose I n the steamy greenness of the midsummer landscape, white flowers can add a cooling touch, sort of a visual equivalent to a scoop of vanilla ice cream. Several hydrangeas have just such a refreshing floral display, including oakleaf hydrangea (Hydrangea quercifolia) and its cultivars. This species is native to the southeastern United States, growing from North Carolina to northern Florida and west to Tennessee and Louisiana, but it also grows well in other regions. It is recommended for USDA Hardiness Zones 6 to 9 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23445","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170bb6e.jpg","title":"2015-73-1","volume":73,"issue_number":1,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The History of Minimum Temperatures at the Arnold Arboretum: Variation in Time and Space","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25587","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160b36b.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":4,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"The History of Minimum Temperatures at the Arnold Arboretum: Variation in Time and Space Michael S. Dosmann G iven the original charge to cultivate \"all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air,\" it's not surprising that the Arnold Arboretum has long been interested in documenting local climate and weather, particularly as they relate to plant hardiness. Early publications such as Garden and Forest and Arnoldia's predecessor, the Bulletin of Popular Information, are replete with notes of what did and did not survive New England's climate. Arnoldia continues that theme with annual summaries of the previous year's weather (see page 12 in this issue), often with notes on plant performance. One of the most innovative projects linking plants and climate was Alfred Rehder's creation of the first Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Zone Map, which was published in the first edition of his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America (Rehder 1927). On this map, Rehder divided the United States into eight different zones based on the average minimum temperature of the coldest month. Then, using information about what survived the winters in Boston and other regions, he assigned plants in his Manual to particular Arnold Arboretum zones of maximum hardiness. This novel application was further updated and improved by the Arnold Arboretum, and later inspired and gave rise to the hardiness zone map (see page 9) created and now perpetuated by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). (See Del Tredici 1990 for a broader review, as well as Dosmann and Aiello 2013 for a brief discussion on the 2012 version of the map and its application to plant acquisition and collections planning.) It is important to bear in mind that the zone parameters in the Arnold Arboretum scheme were different from those in the USDA's, thus giving rise to confusion about a species' cold tolerance, particularly when a species was simply said to be \"hardy to Zone 6\" without further clarification--was it the Arnold's Zone 6 (average annual minimum temperature -5 to 5 Arboretum Microclimates 3 JORDAN WOOD Location of Weather Stations at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University 0 0.25 Mi Hunnewell Visitor Center N Dana Greenhouses Bradley Rosaceous Collection Bussey Hill 198 ft. Arboretum and Bussey Institution Greenhouses Explorers Garden Weld Hill Research Building Hemlock Hill 170 ft. Weld Hill 175 ft. Peters Hill 240 ft. Weather Stations Years Active Current 2009 4 Arnoldia 72\/4 Arboretum Microclimates 5 nate those plants unable to survive at those temperatures. It pays to be conservative when playing the hardiness game. Location, Location, Location In examining nearly a century of annual variation in minimum temperature at the Arboretum, one must bear in mind that those data were obtained from three separate and distinct locations, each with its own elevation and proximity to buffering buildings or canopies, as well as differences in aspect. And although we know that the present Weld Hill and Dana Greenhouse stations are sufficiently far away from buildings not to be influenced by them, we are not exactly sure where Judd's station was--it may have been somewhat protected. The Arboretum landscape comprises some 281 acres, with elevations that range from 44 feet (13.4 meters) above sea level in the Meadow by the Hunnewell Building to 240 feet (73.2 meters) on the summit of Peters Hill. Peters, Hemlock, and Bussey Hills each have their own character and microclimates distinct from surrounding areas. William Judd recorded daily weather notes, including maximum and minimum temperatures, from 1918 through 1946. The entry for February 9, 1934, (about half way down on the right) shows an extremely cold reading of -18 6 Arnoldia 72\/4 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Arboretum Microclimates 7 MICHAEL S. DOSMANN cooling, warm air is lost to the atmosphere and cools. This forms a temperature inversion, where the denser, colder air then settles into the exposed areas at the lower elevations, creating what are often referred to as frost pockets. On this evening, the average minimum temperature of Raup's seven stations was -18.6 8 Arnoldia 72\/4 Arboretum Microclimates 9 of bowls--the frost pockets--had cold, dense air. Yet in other years, such as 2011 10 Arnoldia 72\/4 Arboretum Microclimates 11 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM KYLE PORT The weather station at the Dana Greenhouses, photographed by Arboretum plant propagator Al Fordham in the summer of 1969 (left), and the current state-of-the-art weather station located at the Weld Hill Research Building (right). for data collection. This season we are experimenting with a new set of loggers. The originals, while excellent in some respects, were nearing the end of their lifespan and required too much additional care; we have retired them. As part of her research, Arboretum Putnam Fellow Ailene Ettinger deployed a new set of loggers across an even wider swath of the landscape. These pendent loggers (Hobo 8KUA-002-08) are less intrusive in the landscape, easier to access and maintain, and are collecting temperature data at similar intervals. As I hope this article has demonstrated, a single landscape like the Arboretum's is marvelously variable. The year-to-year variation in elements such as temperature can be quite significant, particularly when compared across the Arboretum's unique nooks and crannies. I not only find this fascinating as a scientist, but as a dedicated horticulturist I am excited that ongoing data collection and analysis will allow us to best match the plants curated in the Arboretum with their optimum locations. Acknowledgements The deployment and maintenance of the data loggers and subsequent data wrangling have been no small task, and I wish to call attention to the many who have assisted in the venture over the years. Erik Youngerman, Sue Pfeiffer, Abby Hird, Jonathan Damery, Sam Schmerler, Stephanie Stuber, Joyce Chery, and Kyle Port did a lot of the heavy lifting out in the landscape with the loggers and data. Jordan Wood created the wonderful map integrating the old and new stations. Will Buchanan spent countless hours in the library putting the Raup and Judd data into spreadsheet form. Lastly, Mike Iacono not only provided data from the Blue Hill Observatory but also gave valuable comments on an earlier draft of this article. References Aiello, A. S. and M. S. Dosmann. 2007. The Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon. Arnoldia 65(1): 26"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2014 Weather Summary","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25584","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160af28.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":4,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2014 Weather Summary Sue A. Pfeiffer KYLE PORT Horticultural Technologist Dennis Harris worked on clearing Meadow Road while intrepid visitors enjoyed the snowfall on February 5th. JANUARY started out cold and quite snowy. The first winter storm on the 2nd and 3rd delivered 15 inches of fluffy snow while the temperature dipped to -4 2014 Weather 13 peratures with highs in the 20s and lows in the teens and single digits. Seasonal temperatures returned on the 13th, and in the following week an additional foot of snow fell. Frigid temperatures returned and we finished out the month with lows in the single digits once again. The cold trend continued and the average high for the month fell four degrees below the historical average. MARCH brought a continuation of the cold pattern with lows in the single digits during the first week. The first signs of spring were evident on the 8th as temperatures warmed to the mid 50s, greatly melting the snow cover and reducing the icy, hard-crusted remnants of plowed snow. As the snow cover retreated, rabbit damage was visible on many shrubs. Precipitation during the month was scarce; we received two rainfall events on the 12th and 13th and on the 20th, amounting to less than an inch cumulatively. As temperatures warmed, the snow and ice continued to melt; by the 23rd, three days after the spring equinox, bare ground was visible as the snow cover had completely melted. A couple of cold and windy fronts moved in on the 22nd and 26th, both with average wind speeds of 16 mph and gusts reaching 36 mph, making it feel even colder. A storm arrived on the 29th bringing two days of consistent rain followed by a combination of rain, sleet, and hail as the storm lingered into the 31st. Over three inches of rain fell, making up for the lack of precipitation earlier in the month. It felt as if spring was right around the corner as spring ephemerals popped up from the warming soil. Despite rising temperatures, the month as a whole turned out to be colder than the historical average; both the average high and average low temperatures were 5 14 Arnoldia 72\/4 KYLE PORT 2014 Weather 15 Ups and Downs Significant temperature fluctuations can affect many natural processes, and we saw several examples in May 2014. This was an explosive year for fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), a bacterial disease that affects apples (Malus), pears (Pyrus), and a number of other rose family genera including mountain ash (Sorbus), hawthorn (Crataegus), firethorn (Pyracantha), and flowering quince (Chaenomeles). The warmer temperatures experienced early in the month followed by cooler conditions with regular rain provided ideal conditions for fire blight bacteria to spread throughout the collection. We also witnessed a substantial fish kill in Dawson Pond (the largest of our three ponds) over the Memorial Day weekend. This common natural event, observed across the region, was attributed to low oxygen levels in the water caused by temperature fluctuations. JULY was characterized by heat, humidity, and torrential downpours. We experienced several consecutive days of hot and humid weather, with the hottest day of the year (94 16 Arnoldia 72\/4 2014 Weather 17 of rain, officially making it the driest September since climate records began. These drought conditions, combined with the low rainfall amounts during late August, translated to accumulations of only 0.83 inches over a six-week period. The effects of this drought were apparent throughout the landscape; soils were extremely dry and the air was very dusty. Two of the Arboretum ponds almost dried up completely. Most A garter snake (Thamnophis sirtalis), the state reptile of Massachusetts, navigated through fallen leaves in mid-October. plants showed some signs of drought stress and severe stress was obvious on many plants. Leaves were flagging, some turning brown; many plants had already formed their winter buds and appeared to go dormant early. Because of these continued dry conditions, fall planting was postponed until the following spring. Despite all this, fall leaf color on maples (Acer), cork trees (Phellodendron), and birches (Betula) was exceptional throughout the landscape. OCTOBER was a warm and wet month. We started out with some much-needed precipitation from a storm that passed through on the 1st and 2nd, delivering well over an inch of rain. Sunny skies were prevalent as temperatures remained above average. A warm front moved through mid-month and we hit a high in the 80s on the 15th before temperatures returned to seasonal averages. The first nor'easter of the season arrived on the morning of the 22nd, bringing with it a welcome rain. As the storm intensified overnight, torrential downpours and high winds prevailed; recorded gusts peaked at 41 mph. A microburst (a small but intense downdraft of air) in the Centre Street Gate vicinity resulted in the complete loss of two accessions--a black hickory (Carya texana, accession 12892-A) along with a centenarian pin oak (Quercus palustris, accession 22896-E) were completely uprooted and broken below the base. Rain continued to fall until the 24th, delivering over three inches of precipitation. Other than the loss of the two large trees and damage to several nearby plants, the impact on the collection was minor with just some smaller branches down. Rain accumulation for the month was more than double that of the months of August and September combined! NOVEMBER began with a nor'easter on the 1st and 2nd; wind gusts reached 35 mph and we recorded an additional 3\/4 of an inch of precipitation equivalence which included a few hours of snow flurries on the 2nd. The snow created a beautiful juxtaposition in the landscape, but this did not last long as temperatures quickly warmed into the 60s. The growing season came to an end on November 10th when the first frost was recorded, ending the growing season at 202 days, the KYLE PORT Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 2014 Weather 19 SUE A. PFEIFFER Heavy rain in early December resulted in mulch washouts, especially on slopes like this one in the Lilac Collection. longest we have seen in over 7 years. Mid-November saw overnight temperatures dip well below freezing; this combined with rain and wind resulted in many trees dropping the remainder of their leaves, bringing an end to fall color. Another significant rainfall was recorded on the 17th, bringing over an inch and a half of rain. The last week of the month was very moist; we received 3 rain\/snow events accounting for almost 2 inches of precipitation equivalence. Overall, November was a wet and cool month; average temperatures were 2 degrees below normal and accumulated precipitation exceeded five inches. DECEMBER was a very wet and warm month; temperatures were 4 degrees above average and rainfall was abundant for the third month in a row. High temperatures during the first week fluctuated between the mid 30s and lower 60s with three storms depositing a total of almost two inches of rain. The next storm hit on the 9th, bringing wind gusts of over 40 mph and sustained winds at 18 mph--the highest recorded for the year. An additional three inches of rain fell, bringing the 10-day total to more than 5 inches. All of this rain left eroded gullies in gravel pathways and mulch washouts from planting beds, especially those in the lilacs. The rain subsided temporarily and temperatures remained above seasonal averages, allowing the grounds crew to accomplish much pruning and mulching. We recorded four additional rain events before we hit a high in the 60s on the 25th. These temperatures would not last as we ended the year with highs just below freezing. Little did we know what lay in store for the rest of the winter as we moved into 2015. Sue A. Pfeiffer is an Arboretum Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hamamelidaceae, Part 2: Exploring the Witch-hazel Relatives of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25585","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160af6d.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":4,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gapinski, Andrew","article_content":"Hamamelidaceae, Part 2: Exploring the Witch-hazel Relatives of the Arnold Arboretum Andrew Gapinski I n \"Hamamelidaceae, Part 1\" we looked at just one genus, Hamamelis, in the witchhazel family. In Part 2, we'll study the other representatives of the family that are present in the Arnold Arboretum. It's helpful to start by looking at the evolutionary relationships among the genera in Hamamelidaceae. As mentioned in Part 1, witch-hazel (Hamamelis) displays showy flowers, each with four straplike petals. Several other genera within the family also have four-petaled flowers but they are found in warmer regions of the world and are not represented in the Arboretum, except for a lone specimen of Loropetalum (see page 26). In the past, these four-petaled genera were thought to be closely related on the family tree but recent DNA work is proving otherwise (Li and Bogle 2001). For example, when looking at the very similar appearing flowers of Hamamelis and Loropetalum it's easy to think they must be closely related (at one time both were included in the same genus), but in fact they are distant relatives found on separate branches of the family tree. The closest relatives of Hamamelis actually include genera such as Fothergilla, Parrotiopsis, and Parrotia (Li and Bogle 2001). Furthermore, the more advanced genera on each branch of the tree are those that have lost their showy, insect-attracting petals altogether, which is seen as an evolutionary shift from insect to wind pollination (Figure 1) (Li and Del Tredici 2008; Li et al. 1999). Among these aforementioned genera, Hamamelis is the oldest in evolutionary terms and is insect pollinated; Fothergilla and Parrotiopsis appear to represent an intermediate state in the transitional period and likely have both insect and wind pollination; and Parrotia, the most advanced, relies mainly on wind for pollination. Similar transitions take place on the other branches of the tree as well. We pick up here with the historical, taxonomic, and horticultural stories of the rest of the witch-hazel family starting with the closest relatives of Hamamelis. ANDREW GAPINSKI Fothergilla Fothergilla Gardeni[i] was introduced into English gardens one hundred and thirty years ago [1765], and judging by the number of figures that were published of it in Europe toward the end of the last and at the beginning of the present century, it must at that time have been a wellknown and favorite inhabitant of gardens from which it has now almost entirely disappeared, in spite of the fact that few shrubs present a more curious and beautiful effect than Fothergilla when it is covered with flowers. Its habit is excellent, too, and its foliage is abundant and rich in color. C. S. Sargent, Garden and Forest, 1895 The flowers of Loropetalum look very similar to those of Hamamelis, but the two genera are not closely related within the witch-hazel family. This is a flower of L. chinense on the Arboretum's sole specimen (see page 26). Hamamelidaceae, Part 2 22 Arnoldia 72\/4 NANCY ROSE 24 Arnoldia 72\/4 Hamamelidaceae, Part 2 MISSOURI BOTANICAL GARDEN, WWW.BOTANICUS.ORG 26 Arnoldia 72\/4 KYLE PORT 28 Arnoldia 72\/4 ANDREW GAPINSKI 30 Arnoldia 72\/4 32 Arnoldia 72\/4 HARVARD UNIVERSITY HERBARIA 34 Arnoldia 72\/4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pterostyrax hispidus, the Fragrant Epaulette Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25586","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160b326.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":4,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Thompson, Pamela J.","article_content":"Pterostyrax hispidus, the Fragrant Epaulette Tree Pamela J. Thompson I began my relationship with fragrant epaulette tree (Pterostyrax hispidus) when longtime Arboretum supporter and volunteer Elise Sigel brought me a lanky, homely specimen, wondering if I could give it a home. Elise couldn't recall its full botanical name (some sort of styrax?), and I failed to record even this. I planted it in my Milton garden, not knowing what I had, or how it might grow. Though I don't widely recommend this blind-faith landscape design strategy, in this case I've been delighted with the results. Pterostyrax hispidus is a deciduous tree native to Japan, specifically in the forested mountains of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. A member of the storax family (Styracaceae), it is closely related to the silverbells (Halesia). Though it can grow almost as broad as tall, reaching up to 50 feet (15.2 meters) in height and 40 feet (12.2 meters) in width as a tree, it is more often noted as a large multi-stemmed shrub reaching about 25 feet tall. In fact, it was the shrub form that Arboretum Director C. S. Sargent first saw in 1892 growing \"... wild in Japan on the banks of a stream among the mountains above Fukushima.\" The leaves of fragrant epaulette tree are oblong with a tapered point and have finelytoothed margins. They range from 3 to 7 inches (7.6 to 17.8 centimeters) long and 2 to 4 inches (5.1 to 10.2 centimeters) wide. Handsomely bright green above and gray-green below in spring and summer, the leaves turn yellowgreen to yellow in autumn before dropping. A truly remarkable feature of this plant is its profusion of 7- to 9-inch-long panicles of fringed, downward facing, white flowers that appear in mid to late June (in the Boston area). Hanging below the leaves, the flower clusters sway in the breeze, attracting multitudes of pollinators and giving off a delicate sweet scent. The inflorescences, reminiscent of the fringed epaulettes that once adorned the shoulders of military uniforms as a show of rank, give fragrant epaulette tree its common name. Through the summer, long clusters of indehiscent, bristly dry drupes develop, adorning the tree like bronze-chartreuse ornaments. These are most evident once the leaves have dropped, looking somewhat reminiscent of dangling sections of a DNA helix. The Arboretum's accession records for Pterostyrax hispidus reveal a history of human interest and persistence in growing this plant. The Arboretum acquired its first accession in 1880 from J. Veitch and Son in England. Over the next 130 years, the Arboretum acquired plants and seeds, including the 1892 accession collected by Sargent in Japan. Many of these acquisitions, though, were of garden origin or uncertain provenance. The Arboretum currently has 3 accessions (9 total plants) of Pterostyrax hispidus. Accession 218-60 came to the Arboretum as seed from the University of British Columbia, Canada, but with uncertain provenance. Accession 241-2008, received from Chiba University in Japan as seed, was wild collected in 2006 in Gunma Prefecture, Kanto District, about 20 miles northwest of Tokyo. The third accession, 843-76, came from the Academy of Sciences, Vacratot, Hungary, in 1976 and is also of uncertain provenance. Though it received the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit in 1993, Pterostyrax hispidus remains uncommon in the nursery trade. It is often listed as hardy to USDA Zone 4 (average annual minimum temperature -20 to -30"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23444","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170bb28.jpg","title":"2015-72-4","volume":72,"issue_number":4,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bark: From Abstract Art to Aspirin","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25581","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160a726.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":3,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Begley, Eva","article_content":"ALL IMAGES BY PAUL AND EVA BEGLEY EXCEPT WHERE NOTED Bark: From Abstract Art to Aspirin Eva Begley T In the fading light of dusk, satiny bark curls on a greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) take on a purplish sheen. The bark of whitebark pine (Pinus albicaulis) is much finertextured than that of most pines and resembles an extreme close-up of an impressionist painting. o many people, bark is just the gray or brown stuff that covers tree trunks, but it's actually much more interesting than that. Woody dicotyledons and gymnosperms depend on their bark to keep insects and pathogens out. Bark also minimizes evaporation of water from trunks and branches. The fireresistant bark of giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) grows up to 18 inches [45.7 centimeters] thick and has allowed some individuals to thrive for more than 3,000 years. Cork oak (Quercus suber), native to southwestern Europe and northwestern Africa, can also survive forest fires thanks to its thick bark. While functional for the tree, bark can be aesthetically pleasing for us. The bark of some trees shows surprising colors, including green, blue, and orange. It can be rough or smooth, stringy or flaky; it can peel away in long shreds or curl like chocolate shavings on an elaborate gateau. The textures and patterns in bark may remind you of abstract painting or sculpture, jigsaw puzzle pieces, or an old cable-knit sweater. Bark's charms are sometimes accentuated when festooned with lichens or providing a foothold for epiphytes. Anatomy of a Tree As a tree grows taller and adds more leaves and branches, its weight increases. To support the added weight, the trunk and branches grow in diameter. They do that thanks to a sleeve of almost-forever-young cells called the vascular cambium. During the growing season, these cells divide many times, mainly in a plane parallel to the surface of the trunk or branch. Cells produced on the inner side of the vascular cambium become xylem, which, as so-called sapwood, conducts water and minerals absorbed by the roots to the rest of the tree, then turns into the strong woody core of the tree--the heartwood, which is usually darker in color The trunks of giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum) are protected by thick layers of fibrous, fire-resistant bark. Bark 3 Mixture of dead cork cells and older, dead phloem Oldest, dead cork cambium Heartwood Sapwood Vascular cambium Xylem Older, dead cork cambium New, live cork cambium Phloem Bark What Is Bark? Botanists usually use the term \"bark\" to refer to everything outside the vascular cambium: phloem; phloem fibers; the innermost, live cork cambium and all its inner and outer derivatives; and older, dead cork cambia along with whatever else has accumulated outside the live cork cambium. The cork cambium and its products (that is, phellem and phelloderm) are collectively referred to as \"periderm.\" The live, deeper-seated components of the bark are sometimes called \"inner bark.\" than the sapwood. Cells produced on the outer side of the vascular cambium become phloem, which conducts sugars and other carbon-based nutrients throughout the tree. In temperate climates, the xylem and phloem formed early in each growing season usually contain lots of relatively large cells; cells formed later in the growing season are smaller. As a result, the xylem and phloem are built up of concentric rings, each ring constituting one year's growth. Phloem rarely lasts more than a few years (more on that in a moment). Xylem, however, can last well beyond the life of the tree in the form of standing snags or downed wood, or as lumber in buildings and furniture. Similar processes take place in roots. Once in a while, to keep up with the increasing girth of the tree, the cells of the vascular cambium divide in a radial plane. The phloem and most other cells outside the vascular cambium, though, have matured and aren't able to keep dividing or enlarging--they get stretched to the breaking point. That triggers the development of a new layer of squat, dividing cells, the cork cambium or phellogen, usually near the stem's surface. Like the cells of the vascular cambium, those of the cork cambium divide mainly in a plane parallel to the surface. (Interestingly, the cork cambium isn't necessarily active at the same time as the vascular cambium--the cork cambium seems to function more on an as-needed basis, perhaps in response 4 Arnoldia 72\/3 Bark 5 ally, that first layer of cork also gets stretched excessively and starts to crack. In cork oak, occasional cell divisions in a radial plane allow the cork cambium to keep pace with the growth in girth, but more commonly the first-formed cork cambium dies and new cork cambium forms deeper in the trunk or branch, sometimes even in the outer, older part of the phloem. In some species, each new cork cambium forms a complete sleeve; other species produce many small, overlapping patches of cork cambium, a bit like curling shingles on an old roof. Often, these later cork cambia are initiated right underneath cracks in the tree's surface, like internal bandages, ensuring that no crack gets deep enough to damage the living interior of the tree. This process is repeated over and over throughout the life of the plant. Eventually, a complex structure is formed, with everything outside the innermost, most recently formed cork cambium either dead or dying. Bark Variations The texture of the bark depends largely on the shape and location of successive cork cambia and on the types of cells \"trapped\" between them. Chinese or lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia), for example, has many overlapping, irregularly shaped cork cambia fairly close to the surface. Trees with deeper-seated cork cambia have rougher, craggier bark, like northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Layers of thin-walled cells, whether the inner derivatives of the cork cambium or part of the phloem, are structurally weak, so bark characterized by such layers is likely to flake or peel off easily. Phloem sometimes contains lots of long, skinny, thickwalled but pliable cells, called fibers; as old phloem gets incorporated into the bark, these fibers give it a stringy texture. In some pines, the outer derivatives of the cork cambium consist of alternating bands of suberized cork cells The bark of lacebark elm (Ulmus parvifolia) has a jigsaw-puzzle-like pattern. This Garry oak, also known as Oregon white oak (Quercus garrayana), has deeply creviced bark. 6 Arnoldia 72\/3 Bark 7 bark that is plain gray in color, albeit with various textures. But then there's the aptly named paperbark maple (Acer griseum) with peeling sheets of cinnamon colored bark, Father David's maple (A. davidii) with its characteristic vertical white squiggles on a bright green background, and coral bark maple (A. palmatum `Sango-kaku'), a Japanese maple that adds color to winter gardens with its brilliant red branches. Bark's appearance often changes with age, and it's common for the bark of twigs and young branches to differ from that of older limbs. An extreme example is European white birch, in which the rough, gray to almost black bark near the base of the trunk forms a stark contrast to the creamy white bark higher up. And in aspen (Populus tremuloides), wherever the trunk has been wounded, be it by fungal attack, natural NANCY ROSE abscission of the lower branches as the tree gets taller, a bear climbing the tree, or lonely sheepherders or bored teenagers carving their names into the tree, the bark becomes black and fissured, very different from the tree's normally smooth, pale bark. Bark Beneficiaries Thick bark has some obvious benefits to trees, but the cracks and fissures in that bark can also provide good habitat for other species. Especially on rough-barked trees, enough soil, organic debris, and moisture can collect to fill minute pockets in which lichens, mosses, and larger epiphytes such as ferns and orchids can get a toehold. Often, different species of lichens and mosses grow on the upper and lower surfaces of leaning tree trunks and large limbs. Younger branches of coral bark maple (Acer palmatum `Sangokaku') are bright red. Black bears have left permanent calling cards on the trunks of this quaking aspens (Populus tremuloides). 8 Arnoldia 72\/3 Bark 9 Sapsuckers drilled multiple rows of holes in this white alder (Alnus rhombifolia). Extensive sapsucker drilling may partially girdle trees, which can eventually lead to the tree's decline. Acorn woodpeckers constructed a granary in this valley oak (Quercus lobata). The tree is now dead, but the presence of a few remaining slabs of bark full of the distinctive holes indicates that the birds started their work while the tree was still alive or at least still had bark on it. from one or two thousand to tens of thousands of acorn-sized cubbies, and each year the birds drill many more holes to replace those lost as limbs break off and old trees fall. In fall, the birds harvest ripe acorns from the branches of nearby oak trees (they rarely collect acorns that have already fallen to the ground), pry off the caps, and hammer the acorns into the predrilled holes. The flat end of the acorn, which provides a better surface for hammering, is almost always on the outside. If the first hole is too large or too small, the bird will try other holes until it finds one that is just the right size for a snug fit. The acorns provide an important food source for the family throughout the winter and early spring. Contrary to earlier belief, it seems that the birds feed directly on the acorns, not just on the insect larvae that sometimes infest them. Some mammals feed directly on bark. Porcupines and snowshoe hares like conifer bark. Moose will eat bark in winter if nothing more to their liking is available. Beavers, on the other hand, love bark, especially aspen (which is abominably bitter to human taste buds), but also other Populus species, willows (Salix spp.), birch, red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea), and other species. I've even seen conifers (specifically, lodgepole pine, Pinus contorta subsp. murrayana) felled by beavers. During the growing season, the animals eat the buds, leaves, and twigs of these plants as well as the bark. In winter, bark is their primary food. Since beavers can't climb trees to reach the goodies up in the canopy, their solution is to gnaw down the entire tree. They are amazingly efficient at this: I once watched a beaver scramble out of an Ozark river and up a steep bank to a young 10 Arnoldia 72\/3 Bark 11 COURTESY OF AMORIM AND APCOR (PORTUGUESE CORK ASSOCIATION) The bark of cork oak (Quercus suber) is carefully hand-harvested. The bark regrows and can be harvested again in about ten years. to waterproof their homes. In fact, so versatile is the bark of paper birch that it was used for everything from canoes to kitchen funnels; as Moerman puts it, \"Nearly any kitchen utensil common to the white man could be duplicated in birch bark by the Ojibwe.\" The homes and barns of North America's European settlers were often roofed with the bark of American chestnut (Castanea dentata). Some of those buildings might have been painted using brushes made by boiling basswood (Tilia americana) bark in lye, then pounding it to extract its hemp-like fibers, a technique the settlers learned from Native Americans who made rope, sewing thread, and woven bags from basswood bark. The settlers probably wore shoes made of leather processed with tannins extracted from hemlock or oak bark, and some of their clothes may have been dyed with quercitron, derived from the yellow-orange inner bark of the black oak (Quercus velutina). Alone or in combination with mordants or other dyes, quercitron can yield colors ranging from bright yellow to warm browns. It was used commercially until well into the twentieth century, when cheaper synthetic dyes were discovered. Human health has also benefitted from certain chemical compounds in bark. To limit being incessantly munched by herbivores and damaged by insects, some plants produce chemical defenses. Some of these defenses are simply metabolic by-products, such as the calcium oxalate crystals that render the bark of some pines unpalatable to browsers. Others, such as various alkaloids, tannins, and cyanogens (which give cherry bark its distinctive bitter almond scent and cough-suppressing properties), require greater metabolic input and their synthesis consumes nutrients, but they provide valuable protection to long-lived plants. It's these same compounds that make the bark of some species medically useful. 12 Arnoldia 72\/3 Bark 13 wine jars among its uses. It takes a cork oak tree 25 to 40 years to build up a layer of cork thick enough to harvest, but the first harvest consists of hard, crumbly material good only for bulletin boards and insulation. If the cork is removed carefully, a new phellogen develops in the phloem 25 to 35 days later. The tree resumes cork production and can be harvested again 9 or 10 years later. Not until the third harvest, however, is the cork of sufficient quality for wine stoppers. The trees typically live 250 to 350 years, so each tree can be harvested many times. The practice of harvesting bark in cork oak forests actually helps preserve this unique ecosystem from land development so many conservation organizations promote the use of natural cork. And even though oenological research suggests that it doesn't really make much difference whether wine is sealed with natural cork, synthetic stoppers, or screw caps, yanking a plastic stopper out of a bottle just doesn't provide the same sort of tactile pleasure that pulling a real cork does. So pull a real cork, pour a glass, and drink a toast to bark. Further Reading Bugalho, M. N., M. C. Caldeira, J. S. Pereira, J. Aronson, and J. G. Pausas. 2011. Mediterranean cork oak savannas require human use to sustain biodiversity and ecosystem services. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 9: 278"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Dream Come True","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25580","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160a36d.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":3,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"A Dream Come True Peter Ashton T he possibility of being appointed director of the Arnold Arboretum in 1978 had come as a considerable surprise, but I jumped at it. Ever since my first professional appointment in 1962 as forest botanist in the Sultan of Brunei's government, I had been sending plant specimens to the Arnold as one of the six leading botanical research institutions both within and outside the Far East that specialize in the flora of East Asia, tropical as well as temperate. I respected the Arnold's scientific reputation in large part because of former Arboretum director Elmer Drew Merrill's astonishing achievements on the flora of the Philippines and southern China. Arboretum notables Ernest Wilson and Alfred Rehder were also well known to me and, as a life-long gardener and amateur horticulturist, the Arboretum's unique design by Frederick Law Olmsted intrigued me. Mary, my wife, and I will never forget our first glimpse of the Arboretum. During my interview, I sensed unhappiness among staff; morale was low. Mary was asked why she would wish to leave Scotland and her sheep; \"Why on earth do you wish to come to this place?\" quizzed another. Even the housekeeper in the fine old guesthouse at the faculty club, where we were accommodated on the Harvard campus, expressed the same feelings, and the (somewhat mythical) view that the Boston area had a crime level unimaginable in Aberdeen. When I arrived, curation and the living collections policies bore the mark of the celebrated horticulturist Donald Wyman who had been at the Arboretum from his appointment by tropical systematic botanist and director Elmer Drew Merrill in 1935 until his retirement in 1970. Wyman's interest had been in ornamental horticulture, reflected in his book Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia, still the most comprehensive text specifically designed for American gardeners. The Arboretum then, as now, continued to sustain the keen interest and support of many members of the Garden Club of America and the Federation of Garden Clubs, as well as the ornamental nursery industry. But I was skeptical that Harvard and its upper administration really understood its fundamental scientific importance, nor the importance of its potential role within the university. Indeed, only one director following Charles Sprague Sargent, Karl Sax, had used the living collections in his research. But research universities focus on endeavors that advance scientific theory. The Arboretum's global herbarium collection, and with it the systematic botanists, had been removed to Harvard campus in Cambridge in the 1950s on the recommendation of a review chaired by Professor Irving H. Bailey. That decision alone led to nearly a decade of litigation between the University and the Association of the Arnold Arboretum, Inc. Harvard's adjacent Bussey Institute for plant research finally closed near that time, its distinguished faculty, scholars and researchers having been relocated to Cambridge two decades earlier in the 1930s. The Arnold Arboretum had become a backwater for the University, indeed \"an orphan institution\" within the broad missions of the University to educate and discover. Among faculty, Carroll Wood was alone in running a course based on the collections by our time, though Peter Stevens also used them later. Around the time I assumed my position, the Jamaica Plain-West Roxbury neighborhoods had been experiencing long decline, and this, too, had impacted the Arboretum. Trash collection had become a major activity for grounds staff, kids periodically drove beat-up automobiles off the summit of Peters Hill, while two corpses were discovered in our first year, one head-first down a road drain. So, there was no shortage of challenges, but that gave the job particular interest! Once I accepted this challenging position, it became my goal to reinvigorate the research functions of the living collections of the Arbo- ALL IMAGES FROM THE ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Peter Ashton 15 Peter Ashton in the greenhouse, 1983. Given the pristine appearance of the Arboretum today, it's hard to believe that it was once plagued by litterbugs and vandals. The photo above shows a trash-strewn slope in the Conifer Collection in 1973. retum. Colleagues in Cambridge had to be convinced that a systematic collection of specimen trees could be a resource for cutting-edge research. But first the living collections themselves had to be reviewed, and a new curatorial policy defined and executed, before a convincing case could be made. Because Sargent, on advice from Asa Gray, one of the world's leading botanists in his time, had established a systematic collection of woody plants, carefully selected and documented, the key was to bring this founding vision back to the fore. As I soon discovered, the Arboretum could then assume a unique role among gardens in Boston that complemented Boston's other two great living botanical and horticultural gardens: Mount Auburn Cemetery, a horticultural landscape focused on trees; and the Garden in the Woods, a native wildflower garden. Together, these three wonderful botanical collections could together offer the public a diversity of plants unequaled anywhere else in the New World, and in very few other places elsewhere. I realized that our collective objective should be to complement, rather than compete. My first quest, therefore, was to see the original Olmsted road plan and planting scheme. As Sargent had intended, the collections were laid out in such a way that a visitor could observe the families of trees hardy in the climate of Roxbury \"without alighting from his carriage.\" On inquiry, I discovered that the Arboretum library did not have the plans, nor was it clear where they could be found! But the old Olmsted firm buildings and archives still existed at Fairsted in Brookline, thanks to the interest and commitment of the landscape architect Joe Hudack. Arboretum archivist Sheila Connor spent a fortnight searching for the original plans in a garage full of Olmsted's 16 Arnoldia 72\/3 Peter Ashton 17 ily focused on bringing an appreciation of natural landscapes to the general public in city parks, university campuses, and in his involvement with the growing conservation movement. Harking back to Capability Brown, he exploited the majestic spaces of the new continent including the growing cities, and achieved what was unachievable in crowded Europe. This accomplishment can still be admired and cherished in Boston's Emerald Necklace. Olmsted's Arboretum plans revealed how he seamlessly combined his philosophy of landscape design with the Peter Ashton in his office at the Arboretum, 1983. requirements of a systematic their governor-general of the East Indies. Modbotanical collection. Bearing in mind that trees eled after the king of Prussia's garden Sans Souci within genera and even families share much (\"carefree\"), Buitenzorg was set in Bogor, the architecture in common, groves of tree families, rather than species, can achieve a similar town that was built as the colonial administrative center on the island of Java. The gardens effect in the landscape. But cultivars selected were reorganized and landscaped under Stamfor outstanding color or shape must be used ford Raffles, founder of Singapore, who, in his with utmost discretion. twenties, governed the Dutch East Indies for the Thus it became clear that the OlmstedSargent design and planting plan not only proBritish who had expropriated them during the vided an optimal solution to the design of an Napoleonic wars. The gardens became a scientific establishment thereafter, while remaining arboretum whose purpose was both to provide a public park. For me, with a decade in Borneo at a representative systematic collection for systematic and comparative research, but it is a the start of my career, the plant explorations of historic landscape for designers and planners: a Sargent and Engelmann west of the Mississippi park within which the public can both recreate River recalled the great Johannes Teijsmann. and learn. I realized that such a project remained Thanks to his intrepid explorations of Borneo unique. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, are and Sumatra in leech-gorged clogs, the Buitenzorg gardens (now the National Botanic Gardens a historic landscape, but their land is uncompromisingly flat, denying the curving sweep of of Indonesia) hold the world's greatest collection of tropical woody plants. From the outset Olmsted's contour-hugging roads at the Arnold. they too had been meticulously documented Neither did Kew start with a clear accession and curated. And they are beautiful to look at, plan. The aim at the Arnold, to introduce at though nothing compared to the Arboretum! least three provenances of each taxon, to record And they have had a research laboratory on their location of collection, and to ensure nomenclatural verification with an herbarium voucher, grounds for over a century (though they, too, is known to me in only one other great ninerecently had their herbarium moved to Jakarta teenth century botanical garden, Buitenzorg, by unthinking biological policy-makers). which was originally established by the Dutch My prime objective, of returning the Arboretum to the fold of great research institutions as an ornamental garden around the palace of 18 Arnoldia 72\/3 Peter Ashton 19 Peter Ashton (center, seated) at a meeting in front of the Hunnewell Building, 1982. faculty appointments, rests with the faculty themselves. The university's schools have their own faculty and policies. But the allied institutions, such as the Arnold Arboretum, are in a no-man's land in which responsibility for faculty and research appointments has changed from time to time. Those allied institutions that are recognized as essential assets for FAS academic departments were in the best position, for their appointment priorities coincide. But the director of the Arnold Arboretum, clarified by the lawsuit of the fifties, reported directly to the university's president. Derek Bok, president at that time, was Peter and Mary Ashton in 1988 20 Arnoldia 72\/3 Peter Ashton 21 Without researchers on the staff who wished to avail of a laboratory, I sought to attract the interest of faculty in the several plant science departments in the universities of the Boston region. Thanks to some beneficent friends of the Arboretum, funds had been promised for construction of a modest lab. But new laboratories are normally approved at Harvard only where there is a potential or existing faculty to attract to them, or where a group of existing faculty campaign for one. Unfortunately, my own research in tropical tree biology could hardly be said to avail of our temperate living collections. Had I depended on the living collections in Jamaica Plain and Roslindale, a case could have been made as a condition of my appointment. Instead, a conclusion was reached at a meeting of the OEB Visiting Committee in 1988 that the Arnold Arboretum should retain a separate existence from the department and therefore FAS, and that no strong case therefore existed for faculty appointments on its staff. Lawrence Bogorad, a past president of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, alone continued to support my viewpoint: It was clearly time for someone more suitably placed to take up the challenge. Eddy Sullivan, educator and at that time vice-mayor in the City of Boston's mayor Kevin White's government, who had become a staunch supporter in my negotiations with the city, quipped, \"You don't have to worry, Peter; if it all fails, you can always go home to Ireland\"! Seen in this setting, it was no surprise that my successor as Arboretum director, Bob Cook, was not initially optimistic about the prospects of my case to embed the university's research back into the Arboretum. Bob had come from directing Cornell Plantations, which enjoyed a successful research and pedagogic relationship with academic departments in one of the leading universities in both fundamental and applied agricultural research. In the expected way, he arrived with a new broom. It was not long, though, before he came to realize the importance, even if against all odds, for building a laboratory at the living collections if they were to stand any chance of returning to Harvard's academic fold. Freed of faculty influ- ence as he was by the Arboretum's detachment from FAS, it is to Bob's great credit that with dogged determination he gained the support of the president's representatives in the administration. Those were the times of skyrocketing endowment values, and Bob's ambition came to vastly exceed my wildest dreams. But he--and the endowment--paid a heavy price when the recession of 2008 arrived. But the new laboratory building was nearing completion; it was fortunately too late to go back. Bob Cook should be remembered as the director who successfully brought the Arnold Arboretum back to a position where it could valuably contribute to Harvard's research and pedagogic mission, and in which it could reignite a major program in fundamental tree research--but this is his story to tell. For the first time in almost a century, the magnificent new Weld Hill Research Building might serve as a magnet for a new director, who could be a leader in a field that would avail of both them and what is now again the outstanding research collection of living trees in the temperate world. And so it has befallen! In spite of severe budgetary constraints, current Arboretum director William (Ned) Friedman has brought the new laboratory building to life with graduate students, with new faculty and classes availing of the living collections, and is attracting researchers from other institutions. Most importantly, thanks to a new generation of faculty in OEB and changing understanding in the Harvard administration, Friedman has been able to gain the university's support for advancing the Arboretum's scholarly mission in spite of current financial constraints. And in the spirit of the original intent, the public programs have been enriched by enhancing public appreciation of science. Regular research seminars have returned to the Arboretum, while the Director's Lecture Series is introducing increasing audiences to a variety of issues in the social as well as biological sciences. My dream has indeed come true, and with a flourish! Peter Ashton is Harvard University Bullard Professor Emeritus and was Director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1978 to 1987. He and Mary live in Somerset, England. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lighting the Night: The Use of Pitch Pine and Bayberry in Colonial New England","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25583","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160ab6f.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":3,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"Lighting the Night: The Use of Pitch Pine and Bayberry in Colonial New England Sheila Connor I TORCHES OF PINE n dark, small-windowed Colonial homes, the roaring fireplace brightened the room by day, and it often produced the only light available at night. Had domestic animals been abundant, the typical melted beef-suet or mutton-suet candles that the guildmakers produced in England would have been made. Tallow was scarce, however, and the inventive and resourceful settlers turned to materials ranging from extremely combustible meadow rushes soaked in lard to fish oil burned in shallow, wrought-iron holders, called Betty lamps, to illuminate their homes. These lamps An illustration of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) showing the cones still tightly closed, from A Description of the Genus Pinus by Aylmer Bourke Lambert, 1832. Pitch Pine and Bayberry 23 sputtered, smoked, and smelled unpleasant. A new method of lighting discovered by the colonists consisted of burning the resin-rich wood of a conifer that grew on the sandy coastal plains and ridges and in the sand barrens of river valleys. Pinus rigida earned the names candlewood and torch pine from the Europeans after they had observed how easily the Indians produced a bright flame by igniting several slivers of wood cut from its \"fat\" heartwood. The colonists referred to these sputtering torches that dripped pitch as \"splint lights.\" Whether growing in sterile seaside sands, where they are frequently bathed by salt spray, or rooted on exposed, windswept rocky hill tops, the torch or pitch pine thrives under adverse conditions. Easily blown over when young, a pitch pine eventually develops a root system that is substantial and deep enough to anchor it and to allow the tree to grow on an extremely dry site. Trees not more than four inches in diameter can have roots that penetrate to a depth of more than nine feet. Forest fires in these dry, windy habitats are devastating; however, not only do pitch pines survive, they often come to dominate the landscape after a fire. In New England, only Pinus rigida and the rarer P. banksiana, the jack pine--a tree of the Boreal Forest--are members of a group of conifers known as fire pines. These trees can withstand fire because they have evolved several specialized characteristics. All fire pines are pioneer trees--trees able to tolerate growing in full sun. Some have a high percentage of cones that remain closed until heat generated by fire melts the resin that glues the tips of their scales together, thereby releasing their seeds. These seeds remain viable inside the cone for many years, and they have the ability to germinate on soil totally lacking a humus component. The term \"serotinous,\" which means late-developing, describes the habit of bearing closed cones that contain viable seeds for many years. Jack pines retain their tightly closed cones for so long that they often become embedded in the wood of the tree's branches and can completely disappear as the branches thicken. Pitch pine's special adaptations include a thick, protective bark, some cones that remain closed, and the ability--unusual among conifers--to sprout A mature pitch pine cone that has opened and released its seeds. Cones may persist on the tree for years. from dormant buds on the main stem or at the base of the trunk if the tree is burned or cut. In New England, wherever the soil is exceptionally sandy, it is likely that pitch pines will be found. One of the few trees that can grow at the ocean's edge, flourish in salt marshes, and inhabit slowly moving sand dunes, Pinus rigida abounds on Cape Cod. Stunted oaks (black, red, scarlet, and white), along with the smaller post oak (Quercus stellata) and the Cape's ubiquitous scrub oak (Q. ilicifolia), are the common deciduous trees, but rising slightly above their crowns are the branches of the pitch pine, the true indicator of this sand-plain community. Usually reaching heights of less than fifty feet under the best of growing conditions, at thirty feet these pitch pines overtop the Cape's stunted forest canopy or form pure stands of low pine woods. Whether described as being New England `s most grotesque or most picturesque pine, a stand of P. rigida growing on a sandy hillside evokes an image of an untamed landscape. Pitch pines seldom grow straight; they twist this way and that. Their bark is remarkably rough and scaly, its color a very dark reddish gray-brown. Sparse, irregularly TIM BOLAND 24 Arnoldia 72\/3 Pitch Pine and Bayberry 25 NANCY ROSE Pitch pines growing on Cape Cod. 26 Arnoldia 72\/3 TIM BOLAND Pitch Pine and Bayberry 27 berries earlier than September 10th was outlawed in Connecticut beginning in 1724. Berry gatherers apparently ignored this legislation, however; and illegally collected berries before the authorized date. As they picked, the women and children noticed that their hands grew smooth as they acquired a thin film of wax from the berries. Inventive housewives saved some of the berries that they collected and filled cloth bags with them in order to grease the bottoms of their heavy flatirons. For candlemaking, the twigs and other debris that came home in the berry pails were removed, and the cleaned berries were placed in large cauldrons, covered with water, and heated and simmered for hours. A greenish, oily liquid floated to the top and solidified as it cooled. Repeated several times, this part of the process included straining the liquid through cloth to remove any impurities. Finally, a clear, solid cake of olive green wax resulted. The blue green water that remained was put to good use: homemakers used it to dye their homespun cloth. Patience and a steady hand came next. Dipping a wick twenty-five times or more into the remelted wax made a thin, tapered candle. Allowing each layer of wax to harden before the candle was dipped again meant that this process could take at least half an hour. Dipping several wicks at once saved time; only the size of the pot governed the number of candles that could be produced. Revolving candle stands that enabled the woman to dip several wicks at once decreased the time required, and tinsmiths made metal molds into which the heated wax could be poured, which eliminated the laborious dipping process altogether. It is no wonder that these highly prized and brittle candles, the finest light source available, were carefully stored in long, narrow boxes specifically made for holding candles. Not only were bayberry candles a useful domestic product that was saved for use on special occasions, they also became articles of trade in the colonies, and they were probably the first objects manufactured by women to be exported from New England. The English held these candles in highest regard, and they even tried to grow bayberries themselves. The French also hoped to establish bayberry plantations. However, neither the French nor the English succeeded in bringing Morella pensylvanica into cultivation on a large enough scale to support a candlemaking industry. Sheila Connor is the former Horticultural Research Archivist at the Arnold Arboretum. This article is adapted from New England Natives by Sheila Connor, Harvard University Press, 1994. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Erable de Montpellier, the Montpellier Maple","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25582","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160a76b.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":3,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Urban-Mead, Katherine","article_content":"Erable de Montpellier, the Montpellier Maple Katherine Urban-Mead L ast year I declared I could never love any other tree as much as a sugar maple. After accepting a several-month ecology internship in Montpellier, France, I bid a teary adieu to the stunning October foliage around my Hudson Valley home. Then I stepped off the airplane into a new world of dusky gray and gnarled Mediterranean greens. Ancient olive trees stand like statues in the roundabouts; streets are dotted with palms, cypresses, and occasional figs; tightly-pruned planetrees line esplanades and bike paths alike. There is no maple syrup here. On my first day at work, I climbed a rickety external staircase to the third floor, and with some confusion saw samaras waving from an unfamiliar tree growing alongside the stairs. Paired samaras (one-seeded fruits with papery wings) are characteristic of the maples (Acer), a group of plants I had worked with as a horticultural intern at the Arboretum last year. During my internship I had puzzled over hawthorn maple (A. crataegifolium) and communed with paperbark maple (A. griseum), but had never taken time to get to know the species that I now greeted with great glee. It was not a sugar maple, but instead the aptly-named Montpellier maple, Acer monspessulanum. After my joy at finding a local maple subsided, I had to admit that the Montpellier maple is not a particularly elegant tree. It is sometimes referred to as a shrub (arbuste in French), with an average height of only 15 to 25 feet (4.6 to 7.6 meters). Its slow growth and small trunk, frequently branched into several stems, give it a craggy feel characteristic of many Mediterranean region trees. Montpellier maple's leathery three-lobed leaves are rounded and smoothedged, are borne on long petioles, and are only 1.5 to 2.75 inches (4 to 7 centimeters) wide and 1.25 to 2 inches (3 to 5 centimeters) long. By mid-November the morning chill in Montpellier had become crisper; the endearing leaves of the tree I pass each morning turned first yellow then red. Finally brown, they fell and were scattered through the halls by passing boots. In the spring, Montpellier maple bears small, bright greenish yellow flowers that open earlier than its leaves, followed by the parallel-winged samaras frequently tinted pink or red and maturing to tan. This drought-tolerant species handles occasional cold and persists in USDA hardiness zones 5 to 9 (average annual minimum temperatures -20 to 30 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23443","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170b76e.jpg","title":"2015-72-3","volume":72,"issue_number":3,"year":2015,"series":null,"season":null},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23441","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170b36e.jpg","title":"2014-72-2","volume":72,"issue_number":2,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hamamelidaceae, Part 1: Exploring the Witch-hazels of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25577","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25e856b.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":2,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gapinski, Andrew","article_content":"Hamamelidaceae, Part 1: Exploring the Witch-hazels of the Arnold Arboretum Andrew Gapinski H KYLE PORT amamelidaceae, the witch-hazel family, includes approximately 30 genera representing around 100 species of deciduous trees and shrubs. Members of the family are found in both temperate and tropical regions of North and Central America, Eastern Asia, Africa, the Pacific Islands, and Australia. The Arnold Arboretum has a rich history with the family, from plant exploration to the naming and introduction of its members to cultivation. The Arboretum's Hamamelidaceae collection, which currently comprises ten temperate region genera, can be found in groupings throughout the Arboretum landscape. Specific locations Many witch-hazels display attractive fall color; seen here, Hamamelis Hamamelidaceae, Part 1 4 Arnoldia 72\/2 6 Arnoldia 72\/2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM 10 Arnoldia 72\/2 MICHAEL DOSMANN Hamamelidaceae, Part 1 ANDREW GAPINSKI 14 Arnoldia 72\/2 16 Arnoldia 72\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Did American Chestnut Really Dominate the Eastern Forest?","article_sequence":2,"start_page":18,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25576","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25e8526.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":2,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Foster, David R.; Faison, Edward K.","article_content":"Did American Chestnut Really Dominate the Eastern Forest? Edward K. Faison and David R. Foster \"The American chestnut once comprised 25% or more of the Native Eastern Hardwood Forest.\" American Scientist (1988) \"Chestnut was perhaps the most widespread and abundant species in the Eastern United States since the last glaciation.\" USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station General Technical Report General Technical Report SRS-173 (2013) \"Before the turn of the century, the eastern half of the United States was dominated by the American chestnut.\" American Chestnut Research and Restoration Project, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry (2013) A long with the bison and the passenger pigeon, the American chestnut forms an iconic triumvirate of the grandeur of the American wilderness and the devastation that human activity wrought upon it over the past three centuries. Just as the bison was the preeminent large mammal on the continent and the passenger pigeon the most abundant bird, so is chestnut often described as having dominated the eastern forest (or across its geographic range) prior to its destruction by an introduced Asian chestnut blight. By all accounts chestnut was a magnificent and invaluable tree. It was among the fastest growing, tallest, and widest-trunked trees in the eastern United States. The strength, straight grain, and decay resistance of its wood made it ideal for framing, finished lumber, and fencing, and its regular production of nuts provided abundant food for native and European peoples, domestic livestock, and diverse wildlife. But was it really the dominant tree in the eastern forest? Dominant species, in the words of forest ecologist E. Lucy Braun, are \"those trees of the canopy, or superior arboreal layer, which numerically predominate.\" Given American chestnut's purported prior dominance in the eastern deciduous forest, we would expect the tree to have ranged widely across the East relative to other common tree species and to occupy a superior place in written accounts by early naturalists and explorers, early land survey records, forest surveys of the early twentieth century, and the paleoecological record. In fact, these sources reveal a very different story. Accounts by Early Explorers and Naturalists Accounts by foresters about chestnut's abundance at the turn of the twentieth century have been widely cited in the scientific and popular literature as evidence of the tree's former dominance. Descriptions of chestnut by naturalists and explorers at the time of European settlement, on the other hand, are rarely cited. Early written records must be used with caution, given that they were often written by non-botanists and provide a potentially biased assessment of previous forest conditions (Whitney 1994). Nonetheless, these descriptions--particularly if they correspond with other available lines of evidence--provide valuable eyewitness accounts of eastern forests prior to their widespread modification by Euro- American Chestnut 19 FOREST HISTORY SOCIETY, DURHAM, NC DAVID R. FOSTER (Left) A large American chestnut photographed in the Monongahela National Forest, West Virginia, in 1923. (Right) Foliage of American chestnut (Castanea dentata). pean settlement. Below are selected quotations that reference chestnut and other species by some of the more important early explorers and naturalists in the Eastern United States. John Smith, New England coast (early 1600s): \"Oke [oak], is the chiefe wood, of which there is great difference in regard of the soil where it groweth; fir, pine, walnut, chestnut, birch, ash, elm ..., and many other sorts.\" (Smith 1616) Colonel William Byrd, Virginia (1737): \"chestnut trees grow very tall and thick, mostly, however, in mountainous regions and high land ...\" (Bolgiano and Novak 2007) William Bartram, northern Alabama A KILLER ARRIVES Chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) was first discovered in 1904 in a stand of American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) in New York's Bronx Zoological Park, perhaps arriving on imported nursery stock of Castanea crenata from Japan. Subsequent investigation determined that the blight arrived in the late nineteenth century, as evidence suggested that American chestnuts on Long Island had been infected as early as 1893. The effects of the blight were immediate and devastating, often killing mature trees in 2 to 3 years. By 1906, the blight was detected in New Jersey, Maryland, and Virginia and continued to spread rapidly, reaching Pennsylvania in 1908 and North Carolina by 1923. All government efforts to contain or eradicate the blight failed, and ceased entirely by 1915. By the early 1940s the destruction of the American chestnut throughout its 300,000-square-mile range was complete. The blight spreads by wind-borne fungal spores that invade the tree through cracks or injuries in the bark, killing the cambium and eventually girdling the tree. The roots generally survive the blight, however, and continue to produce sprouts that are eventually killed again before reaching reproductive age. In effect, the chestnut blight converted a once towering overstory tree into an understory shrub. An American chestnut in Connecticut succumbing to chestnut blight, from the image collection American Environmental Photographs, 1891 American Chestnut 21 A large white oak (Quercus alba) photographed near New Lenox, Illinois, from the image collection American Environmental Photographs, 1891 22 Arnoldia 72\/2 American Chestnut 23 CHESTNUT Pre-Colonial Relative Abundance Absent 0 to 2.5% 2.5 to 5% 5 to 10% 10 to 20% 20 to 40% > 40% BEECH Pre-Colonial Relative Abundance Absent 0 to 2.5% 2.5 to 5% 5 to 10% 10 to 20% 20 to 40% > 40% American chestnut abundance compared with American beech and eastern hemlock abundance in the Northeast at the time of European settlement as determined by early land survey data (Thompson et al. 2013) of trees in a single town. In contrast, beech comprised 22% of trees across the region; oaks, predominantly white oak, 17.5%; and hemlock 11%. Two decades ago, forest historian Gordon Whitney compiled maps of tree species abundance from land survey data across the midwestern United States. Data from about 100 counties or townships across eight states of the upper Midwest reveal that chestnut was never the dominant tree, comprising 5 to 15% of trees in a small section of Ohio and 0 to 4% of trees in the rest of the region. In contrast, beech and especially white oak were frequently the dominant tree, often comprising 25 to 65% of all trees. Limited early land survey data from the southern regions of the eastern forest also portray chestnut as a secondary species. Chest- HEMLOCK Pre-Colonial Relative Abundance Absent 0 to 2.5% 2.5 to 5% 5 to 10% 10 to 20% 20 to 40% > 40% 24 Arnoldia 72\/2 American Chestnut 25 A white oak (Quercus alba) in New Braintree, Massachusetts. nut was the first-ranked species in only one of 15 locations, whereas white oak was the firstranked tree in five of 15 locations (see Table on facing page). Early Twentieth Century Forest Surveys E. Lucy Braun conducted and compiled extensive forest surveys and observations across 120 counties of the eastern forest in the early twentieth century. Her data were predominantly gathered from \"original\" forests and thus fill in gaps in the witness tree studies, particularly in regions such as the Cumberland Mountains of Kentucky and the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Although Braun acknowledged her unequal coverage of different regions, her work remains by far the most comprehensive assessment of the eastern deciduous forest, including American chestnut's abun- dance, at the time of the chestnut blight. Her surveys and data tables reveal that chestnut was a tree of surprisingly limited dominance. Chestnut was dominant (the most abundant canopy tree) in at least one survey in only 15 of the 120 counties (12.5%) sampled by Braun and others. Sugar maple, white oak, and hemlock were all dominant species in over 20% of the counties sampled, and beech was a dominant tree in over 40% of the counties sampled. In fact, Braun's data suggest that chestnut was not even the most abundant tree within its own geographic range: beech was a dominant species in at least one survey in almost half (48%) of the counties sampled in chestnut's range, whereas chestnut was a dominant tree in less than a quarter (23%) of the counties sampled. American chestnut was spectacularly abundant in some locations. On north slopes in Joyce JOHN S. BURK 26 Arnoldia 72\/2 American Chestnut 27 AMERICAN CHESTNUT WHITE OAK Chestnut Range White Oak Range Counties Sampled Dominant Present Absent Counties Sampled Dominant Present Absent American chestnut's geographic range and extent of dominance compared to that of white oak and American beech in the early twentieth century. Data compiled by Braun (1950). ability to sprout vigorously from cut stumps, including those of large diameter and advanced age, made it better adapted to intensive logging than any other hardwood tree including oaks. As the early Connecticut foresters Hawley and Hawes (1912) wrote, \"this sprouting capacity of the species is its strongest characteristic and the one by which with each successive cutting it gains in the struggle for existence with the rival inmates of the woodlot.\" Interestingly, chestnut's sprouting capacity was much more prominent in the Northeast than in the southern parts of chestnut's range. In heavily cutover forests of northern New Jersey and southern New England, chestnut increased from 5 to 15% of the forest during the early colonial period to an estimated 50% of the standing timber in Connecticut. Because Braun focused AMERICAN BEECH Beech Range Counties Sampled Dominant Present Absent 28 Arnoldia 72\/2 American Chestnut 29 on \"original\" forests in her surveys, she largely avoided surveying the cutover southern New England region so her data probably underestimate chestnut's abundance in the Northeast. But it's important to remember that southern New England represents a small fraction of chestnut's range and the eastern forest overall. SPATIAL SCALE Spatial scale refers to the size or extent of the area under consideration. A stand is a relatively small area of forest that is spatially continuous in structure and composition and is exposed to similar soil and climatic conditions. In paleoecology the size of the catch basin (e.g., lake, pond, swamp, or small hollow) determines the distance from which pollen in the sediments originates. Sediments from a small forest hollow will contain pollen from vegetation growing predominantly in the immediate stand (a \"stand scale\" investigation), whereas sediments from a large lake are dominated by pollen from the broader landscape up to 20 miles away. The Last to Arrive: Chestnut Since the Last Ice Age Fossil pollen records in the Eastern forest enable reconstruction of vegetation communities and tree species that have dominated forests over the past 15,000 to 50,000 years. In formerly glaciated areas such as the Northeast, pollen records provide a chronological record of recolonization of forest vegetation after glacial melt some 15,000 to 20,000 years BP (before present). In southern New England, ash (Fraxinus), birch (Betula), ironwood (both Ostrya and Carpinus, whose pollens are indistinguishable from each other), and oak arrived first, followed by maples; deciduous forests replaced coniferous forests about 9,000 years BP. Beech arrived about 8,000 years BP, and hickory about 6,000 years BP. Not until about 2,000 years BP does chestnut pollen appear in the sediment record, earning chestnut the distinction of being the last major tree species to recolonize the region DANILO D. FERNANDO, SUNY-ESF A micrograph of American chestnut pollen. after deglaciation (Davis 1983). When chestnut finally does appear in the sediment record, it generally doesn't exceed about 4 to 7% of the pollen types across the region with the exception of one record in northwestern Connecticut where it reaches 18 to 19% (Paillet 1991, Oswald et al. 2007). In contrast, oak pollen consistently comprises 40 to 60% of the pollen and beech 5 to 20%. Interestingly, chestnut does achieve great dominance (40 to 70%) at the stand scale in a few local New England pollen records (Foster et al. 1992, 2002), exemplifying the importance of spatial scale when considering the abundance of this species. What accounts for chestnut's late arrival to New England? One possible reason is that the climate of the Northeast throughout much of the Holocene was too dry for chestnut. Other researchers have posited a lack of favorable well-drained germination sites in southern New England after deglaciation, or too much lime in the soil that took millennia to leach away. Chestnut is also self-sterile unlike many other trees that are self-fertile, and thus the chances of establishing new populations were much lower for this tree. Whether dispersal or environmentally limited, it is clear that 30 Arnoldia 72\/2 American Chestnut 31 chestnut's great abundance (40 to 45%) in a few southern Appalachian pollen records analyzed by the Delcourts and stand-level records from Massachusetts are consistent with twentieth century forest surveys in which chestnut achieved great dominance in some landscapes and topographic positions, but generally not at broader scales. Abrams, M. D., D. M. McCay 1996. Vegetation-site relationships of witness trees (1780 32 Arnoldia 72\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reading Tree Roots for Clues: The Habits of Truffles and Other Ectomycorrhizal Cup Fungi","article_sequence":3,"start_page":33,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25578","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25e896f.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":2,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Healy, Rosanne","article_content":"Reading Tree Roots for Clues: The Habits of Truffles and Other Ectomycorrhizal Cup Fungi Rosanne Healy H ere's something to ponder: The health and regeneration of grand old oaks (Quercus) and majestic pines (Pinus) is dependent on the well-being of tiny fungi that associate with the trees' roots. Such small organisms have a big role to play not only for oaks and pines but also for many other trees that rely on their fungal partners to get them through lean and dry times. An estimated 86% of plant species benefit from (or are even dependent on) fungal root associates that transfer water and nutrients to the plant in exchange for carbohydrates (Brundrett 2009). Carbohydrates from plants are the result of atmospheric CO2 (carbon dioxide) fixation through photosynthesis and subsequent processes, which the fungi are incapable of doing. The fungal root associates are the mycorrhizal (myco=fungus, rhiza=root) fungi. They can be roughly sorted into two types based on how they associate with the roots. One type is mostly invisible to us because their hyphae are inside the root (endomycorrhizae), and the other can be seen as a mantle surrounding the root tip (ectomycorrhizae). The endomycorrhizal fungi are root associates of the vast majority of herbaceous plants and certain tree species. This article focuses on ectomycorrhizal fungi, which grow mostly in association with trees rather than herbaceous plants. They make their presence known to us not only because we can see them on tree roots but also because we see their fruiting bodies, particularly from midsummer into fall here in New England. Trees such as the red oaks (Quercus rubra) and eastern white pines (Pinus strobus) seen here benefit from ectomycorrhizal fungi. ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHOR EXCEPT WHERE NOTED The color and \"furry\" appearance of this ectomycorrhizal red oak root tip are from the fungal symbiont, a Scleroderma fungus. NANCY ROSE 34 Arnoldia 72\/2 Ectomycorrhizal Cup Fungi 35 RICHARD SCHULHOF Research indicates that the ample foot paths, mowed lawns, and sparse understory in the Arnold Arboretum will favor Pezizales fungi on the root tips of the ectomycorrhizal trees. Sporemats of truffle fungi Pachyphlodes sp. nov. (left) and Tuber sp. nov. (right). An example of a sporemat and the truffle (Pachyphlodes ligericus) that its fungal barcoding sequence matches. ing trees, native shrubs, vines, and herbs. The ground under the trees is covered by woody and leafy litter, and under that layer is a deep organic layer composed of roots, soil, and partially broken down organic matter that together form a dense mat that requires a knife to cut through it. Compared to the forest habitat, there is not much in the Arboretum habitat to obstruct the passive transfer of fungal spores produced on the soil surface to roots and mycelia in or below the organic layer. This is possibly an important feature for the cup fungi because in order to fruit, the hyphae of outcrossing species such as Tuber must come in contact with a compatible mating type nucleus in another hypha. This is in contrast to most ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete species that form their mycelia with both nuclei soon after germination of their sexual spores. How do compatible mating types of truffles get together if the mycelia are underground? Perhaps the sporemats on the soil surface play a role in this event. If so, mating may be facilitated in an environment such as that found in the Arb o retu m o v er th at found in a forest. 36 Arnoldia 72\/2 Ectomycorrhizal Cup Fungi 37 units (MOTUs) from Harvard Forest and 56 MOTUs from the Arboretum, 17 of which overlapped in both sites. Some MOTUs could be matched to sequences in GenBank from described species or at least sequenced fruit bodies. Russula species were the most frequently sequenced in both habitats with 32 MOTUs. A number of our other This Russula fungus (fruit body and root tip shown) has a sequence that matches root sequences matched Russula tips in this study, as well as root tips and fruit bodies from a 2006 study by Don Pfister and Sylvia Yang in which they determined that many Russula species are exploited by sequences from a previous the Indian pipe plant, Monotropa uniflora. study by Don Pfister and Nearly equal numbers of Ascomycete MOTUs Sylvia Yang, but not sequences of any described were sequenced from each site. However, there species. A distant second place for most commonly sequenced genus was Cortinarius (14 was little overlap in species. It is particularly MOTUs) followed by Lactarius (9 MOTUs). interesting that the Pezizales had significantly Even less common (genus followed by MOTUs greater species richness and number of root within parentheses): Amanita (4), Boletus (1), tips in the Arboretum (10 MOTUs) than in the Forest (3 MOTUs). The cup fungi detected on Byssocorticium (1), Clavulina (4), Craterellus roots in the Arboretum included Hydnotrya, (1), Entoloma (3), Inocybe (4), Laccaria (1), Piloderma (1), Pseudotomentella (1), Scleroderma four species of Pachyphlodes, three species of (2), Sistotrema (1), Strobilomyces (1), TomenTuber, and two root tip sequences that have no tella (7), Trechispora (1), and Tylopilus (1). match to a fruit body sequence. From Harvard Ectomycorrhizal ascomycete fruiting bodies (above) and their root tips (below) from (left to right) Elaphomyces muricatus, Pachyphlodes sp. nov., and Tuber separans. 38 Arnoldia 72\/2 Ectomycorrhizal Cup Fungi 39 The fruiting body and root tips of the newly named Tuber arnoldianum. again on the same tree, and is in the process of looking for it on other trees in the vicinity. A third interesting story involves another Tuber species. We detected a species (termed \"species 46\" by Tuberaceae expert Gregory Bonito, a mycologist at the Royal Botanic Gardens in Melbourne, Australia) on the roots of several trees scattered throughout the Arboretum, as well as from one of the trees sampled in Harvard Forest. Our sequences match those for an undescribed species, known previously only from orchid root tips in New York and red oak root tips from an urban area in New Jersey. We were fortunate to recover some fruiting bodies from the Arboretum so that we will now be able to describe this taxon. The Arnold Arboretum staff has chosen the name Tuber arnoldianum for this truffle. While data are still being gathered, enough has been analyzed at this point (985 root tip sequences from 24 trees in each site) that I expect the pattern of Basidiomycete to Pezizales MOTUs in the two sites to hold up. This pattern continues to support the hypothesis that Pezizales are more prevalent in managed woodland sites such as the Arboretum. We can't be certain of the determining factors for this pattern, but refining the experimental parameters will help to zero in on those factors that are correlative. The well documented history of each accessioned tree, the ease of access to the rich information regarding Arboretum vegetation, and the encouragement and support of research by the staff at the Arnold Arbore- tum and Harvard Forest make these sites ideal for helping to resolve some of the outstanding questions regarding the ecology of ectomycorrhizal cup fungi. References Brundrett, M. C. 2009. Mycorrhizal associations and other means of nutrition of vascular plants: understanding global diversity of host plants by resolving conflicting information and developing reliable means of diagnosis. Plant Soil 320: 37"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Castor Aralia, Kalopanax septemlobus","article_sequence":4,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25579","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d160a328.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":2,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Port, Kyle","article_content":"The Castor Aralia, Kalopanax septemlobus Kyle Port K alopanax is a monotypic genus in Araliaceae, the ginseng family. The lone species, K. septemlobus, is a dominant tree in northeastern Asia (Japan, China, Korea, the Russian Far East) where it is valued for the ethnopharmacology of its plant parts and its timber quality. Across Korea, overuse has threatened some wild populations and there are now calls to protect the species. Castor aralia is a large deciduous tree that can grow to nearly 100 feet (about 30 meters) tall and has an average trunk diameter of about 40 inches (about 100 centimeters). Its stems are armed with stout prickles that yield to thick, deeply furrowed bark with age. It has very large (to 14 inches [36 centimeters] in diameter), longpetioled, 5- to 7-lobed leaves that may turn brilliant greenish yellow in autumn. Castor aralia bears large, wide (to 12 inches [31 centimeters] in diameter) inflorescences with numerous small umbels of white flowers that open in August and September here, providing late season nourishment to an assortment of pollinators. Successful pollination yields abundant blue-black fruits that are retained into winter. A single castor aralia plant was sent to the Arnold Arboretum in January 1881 by Alphonse Lavall "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seeing the Lianas in the Trees: Woody Vines of the Temperate Zone","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25574","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25e8128.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":1,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Leicht-Young, Stacey A.","article_content":"Seeing the Lianas in the Trees: Woody Vines of the Temperate Zone Stacey A. Leicht-Young STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Without a support structure to climb, this American wisteria (Wisteria frutescens, accession 1414-85) stretches laterally and spills over a rock wall in the Arboretum's Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden. I n the forests and edge habitats of temperate North America, there is a group of woody plants that is well recognized but often overlooked by both the casual observer and scientific researcher alike. These woody plants are generally described as \"vines,\" but are more accurately called lianas. The ability of lianas to grow and climb in all directions, not just taller and wider like the better-known trees and shrubs, makes them a unique group of plants worthy of further study and appreciation. What is a Liana? In the simplest sense, lianas are woody vines. The term liana is better known from tropical climates where they are more abundant. By def- Lianas 3 STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Lianas of the North Temperate Zone The highest diversity of liana species is in tropical areas where they can make up 25% or more of the total plant species in some forests. Lianas are much less prevalent in temperate North America, though; one estimate from North and South Carolina indicated that lianas constituted just 1.3% of the native plant species (Gentry 1991). Europe has even fewer native lianas than North America. However, southern temperate areas, such as southern South America and Eastern Asia have a higher diversity of species because of differing climate and different evolutionary history. For example, the genus Celastrus has only one native representative from North America (American bittersweet, Celastrus scandens) while China has at least 25 species NANCY ROSE Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), a common North American liana, climbing up a tree trunk. inition lianas (and herbaceous vines) are plants unable to support themselves; to grow upwards, they require other plants or structures to support them. The advantage to using other plants for support is that lianas can invest resources into growing a large leaf area for photosynthesis without investing much into stem materials. A disadvantage is that when the support a liana is growing on falls down, it will also fall. However, because of their unique stem anatomy and elastic growth, they can most often resprout from their stems or roots, or simply grow along the ground until they encounter a new support. This flexibile growth habit is perhaps the defining element of lianas. The liana growth form is found in many different plant families, indicating that the climbing habit has evolved several different times. The result is a great diversity of liana species that grow worldwide in varied habitats. Celastrus angulatus is a bittersweet species from China with large leaves. MANY WAYS TO CLIMB A TREE One of the most fascinating aspects of lianas (and herbaceous vines) is the many different methods by which they can climb trees, trellises, and even walls or rock faces. In fact, Charles Darwin was one of the first to publish on the many different mechanisms that vines use to climb objects (Darwin 1867). Although there is some variation in how these groupings are made, the general categories are root climbers, adhesive tendrils, tendrils, stem twiners, and petiole climbers. Root Climbers Root climbing lianas use adhesive adventitious roots to climb trees or rock faces. These roots can often look like bunches of hairs along the liana stems. These species grow close to the substrate they are attached to and sometimes form lateral branches that grow out and away from the main stem of the liana. Familiar temperate root climbing species include poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), climbing hydrangea (Hydrangea anomala ssp. petiolaris), woodvamp (Decumaria barbara), and the evergreens English ivy (Hedera helix) and wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunei). STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG JOSEPH LAFOREST, UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA, BUGWOOD.ORG (Far left) Hairlike aerial roots of poison ivy attach the vine to the tree. (Left) The shiny, light green foliage of woodvamp (Decumaria barbara), a rootclimbing species native to the southeastern United States. Adhesive Tendrils Like root climbers, lianas that have adhesive tendrils adhere to the tree or surface that they are climbing. However, it is not the roots that are doing the climbing in this case, but modified tendrils that have small adhesive pads at the tips. Adhesive tendril climbing lianas include Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), which is one of the most common lianas in the forests of the Eastern United States; its relative, Boston or Japanese ivy (P. tricuspidata); and the showy-flowered crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), a species native to the southeastern and south central United States. STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG (Left to right) Tendrils tipped with adhesive discs cling directly to supports; flowers of a crossvine cultivar (Bignonia capreolata `Tangerine Beauty'); the unique leaves and adhesive tendrils of a wild crossvine climbing a white pine (Pinus strobus). STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Tendrils are structures that are formed through modifications of the stem, leaves, leaf tips, or stipules (outgrowths at the base of a leaf). Tendrils coil around small objects such as twigs, allowing the liana to climb. The most familiar temperate lianas that use tendrils are grapes (Vitis spp.) and porcelainberry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata), another member of the grape family (Vitaceae). Greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia) and other Smilax species use tendrils that are actually modified thorns to climb. Although members of the genus Smilax do not technically form woody stems (they are monocots, like lilies), they are often considered to be lianas because their stems persist overwinter and form leaves in the spring. NANCY ROSE (Left) Grape tendril. (Above) Crimson gloryvine (Vitis coignetiae) is grown as an ornamental for its red to purple fall foliage. Stem Twiners Stem twining lianas, as the name describes, use their stems to climb up objects by twining around them. They can also form somewhat selfsupporting columns when many stems entwine. Stem twiners include bittersweets (Celastrus spp.) , vine honeysuckles (Lonicera spp.), wisterias (Wisteria spp.), chocolate vine (Akebia quinata), and supple-jack (Berchemia scandens), a lesser known native liana from the southeastern United States. Another species, the aromatic Chinese magnolia vine (Schisandra chinensis), is a stem twiner from one of the more ancient groups of flowering plants. Twining vines wrap around supports or even their own stems to climb. At left, entwined Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus) and Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla). Twining climbers include vining honeysuckles such as Lonicera 6 Arnoldia 72\/1 Lianas 7 STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Grape (Vitis sp., stone walls in gardens. Tendril climbers, stem far left) climbtwiners, and petiole climbers all need smaller ing on American supports to climb on since the stems or tenbeech (Fagus grandrils can only wrap around smaller diameter difolia) in mature objects such as twigs. These species are most forest. Oriental commonly observed in open forested habitats bittersweet (light or along forest edges where there are small bark) using grape (dark bark) as a supports (e.g., shrubs and small trees) and ladder to reach higher light availability. the canopy. However, some of these species--most notably grapes and Oriental bittersweet--can lianas are more abundant in high light, disemploy other methods to reach the canopy in turbed habitats because of the higher availabilolder forests with larger trees. Grapes often ity of small supports to climb on, they can be attach to trees when they are younger and conpresent in old-growth forests as well (Leichttinue to grow with them as the trees get taller, Young et al. 2010). spreading across the canopy by means of their tendrils. This is why on a walk in the woods North American Lianas and one can see very large grape stems scaling a Their Asian Relatives tree straight from the forest floor to the canopy. The liana floras of North America and East Oriental bittersweet, on the other hand, can Asia have many genera in common. For examclimb other lianas such as grapes to reach the ple, Wisteria, Clematis, Celastrus, Vitis, and canopy (this is called \"laddering\"), or it can Lonicera all have Asian and North American \"sit and wait\" in the forest understory, growing along the ground until a gap forms from a species, but Asia has greater species diversity. tree fall, resulting in higher light and smaller Since North America and East Asia share simidiameter trees growing in the gap that it can lar latitudes, many liana species (and tree, shrub, climb (Leicht and Silander 2006). So, although and herbaceous species as well) were brought 8 Arnoldia 72\/1 ROBIN BARANOWSKI STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Damage to tree trunk from Oriental bittersweet. Porcelainberry (Ampelopsis brevipedunculata), originally cultivated for its attractive multi-hued fruit, has escaped cultivation through bird dispersal of seeds and is now highly invasive in edge habitats throughout much of the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic regions. STACEY A. LEICHT-YOUNG Japanese hydrangea vine cultivars (Schizophragma hydrangeoides `Roseum [left] and `Moonlight' [right]) cling to rock walls in the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden. ROBIN BARANOWSKI 10 Arnoldia 72\/1 Lianas 11 lenburg et al. 1993). In addition, in seasonally dry tropical forests liana roots are able to tap deep water sources over a wide area, which allows them to continue to grow during drought while trees and shrubs often go dormant (Schnitzer 2005). From what we know about species like Oriental bittersweet, they can form extensive root networks that can compete with neighboring species and contribute to vegetative spread. Thus, roots likely contribute an important part in how lianas are able to successfully colonize and persist in competition with other plant species. Intense competition from lianas above and below ground in high light situations, such as gaps in forests, may result in \"liana tangles.\" These liana tangles can suppress the ability of trees to regrow into a forest gap or slow the succession of old fields to forests for many years. In temperate areas where the growing season is restricted to the warmer months, regrowth of trees and other species may be slowed for even longer. Additionally, as lianas grow up trees they put additional stress on them, resulting in a higher chance of tree fall. This cycle of lianas increasing the chance of tree fall and resprouting in newly formed gaps may have an important influence on the regrowth A tangle of wild grape (Vitis riparia) and Oriental bittersweet climbs trees in the of subsequent secondary forests, Arboretum's Bussey Brook Meadow. especially after high-wind events ate forests. We know from tropical studies and or ice storms. These concepts have been studied a handful of temperate studies that lianas comto some extent in the tropics but need further pete with trees, not just in the obvious comobservation and research in temperate habipetition for light above ground, but also in the tats to increase understanding of how lianas commonly overlooked root zone. In temperate contribute to the composition, structure, and species, researchers have found trees competecosystem dynamics of temperate forests and ing with liana roots show slower growth rates what their future contribution may be in light than those just competing above ground (Dilof global climate change. NANCY ROSE 12 Arnoldia 72\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Pawpaw, a Forgotten North American Fruit Tree","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25575","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25e816d.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":1,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hormaza, Jose I.","article_content":"The Pawpaw, a Forgotten North American Fruit Tree Jos Pawpaw 15 savages call assemina. The French have given it an impertinent name. There are people who would not like it, but I find it very good. They have five or six nuclei [seeds] inside which are as big as marsh beans, and of about the same shape. I ate, one day, sixty of them, big and little. This fruit does not ripen till October, like the medlars.\" In 1709, John Lawson, a British explorer, reported in his book A New Voyage to Carolina--probably the first report of pawpaw in English--that \"The Papau is not a large tree. I think I never saw one a foot through; but has the broadest leaf of any tree in the Woods, and bears an apple about the bigness of a hen's egg, yellow, soft, and as sweet as anything can well be. They [the Indians] make rare puddings of this fruit\" (Lawson 1709). English naturalist Mark Catesby described and illustrated the pawpaw in his classic 1754 edition of The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands: \"The trunks of these trees are seldom bigger than the small of a man's Leg, and are about ten or twelve feet high, having a smooth greenish brown Bark. In March when the leaves begin to sprout, its blossoms appear, consisting each of six greenish white petals, the fruit grows in clusters of three, and sometimes four together; they are at first green, and when ripe yellow, covered with a thin smooth skin, which contains a yellow pulp, of a sweet luscious taste; in the middle of which lye in two rows, twelve seeds divided by so many thin membranes. All parts of the tree have a rank, if not a foetid smell\" (Catesby 1754). In 1749, the Jesuit priest Joseph de Bonnecamps described the pawpaw: \"Now that I am on the subject of trees, I will tell you something of the assiminetree, and of that which is called the lentil-tree. The 1st is a shrub, the fruit of which is oval in shape, and a little larger than a bustard's egg; its substance is white and spongy, and becomes yellow when the fruit is ripe. It contains two or three kernels, large and flat like the garden bean. They have each their special cell. The fruits grow ordinarily in pairs, and are suspended on the same stalk. The French have given it a name which is not very refined, Testiculi asini. This is a delicate morsel for the savages and the Canadians; as for me, I have found it of an unendurable insipidity\" (Thwaites 1899). Besides these early reports, it is known that George Washington planted pawpaws at this home, Mount Vernon, in Virginia (Washington 1785). Pawpaws were also among the many plants that Thomas Jefferson cultivated at Monticello, his home in Virginia (Betts et al. 1986); during his time as Minister to France he had pawpaw seeds (Jefferson 1786) and plants (Jefferson 1787) shipped to his friends in Europe. In September 1806, the members of the Lewis and Clark expedition subsisted almost entirely on wild pawpaws for several days. William Clark wrote in his journal : \"Our party entirely out of provisions. Subsisting on poppaws. We divide the buiskit which amount to nearly one buisket per man, this in addition to the poppaws is to last us down to the Settlement's which is 150 miles. The party appear perfectly contented and tell us that they can live very well on the pappaws\" (Lewis and Clark 1806). Daniel Boone and Mark Twain were also reported to have been pawpaw fans (Pomper and Layne 2005), and early settlers also depended partially on pawpaw fruits to sustain them in times of crop failure (Peterson 1991). Pawpaws are well established in American folklore and history (the traditional American children's song, \"Way down yonder in the pawpaw patch,\" is still popular) and several towns, creeks, and rivers have been named after this fruit tree. Taxonomy, Origin, and Dissemination The first fossils of Asimina have been dated to the Eocene (about 56 to 34 million years ago) and the first clearly resembling A. triloba to the Miocene (about 23 to 5.3 million years ago) (Berry 1916). Janzen and Martin (1982) hypothesized that large fruits produced by some Central American plant species were dispersed by large mammals that were extinct by the end of the Pleistocene; they extrapolated this observation to North American plants that produce large fruits, such as the pawpaw. With the extinction of the fruit-eating megafauna, the range Naturalist Mark Catesby used flower and fruit specimens preserved in alcohol to create his illustration of pawpaw, which may explain the lack of maroon flower coloration in this depiction. Image courtesy Missouri Botanical Garden, www.botanicus.org 16 Arnoldia 72\/1 Pawpaw 17 18 Arnoldia 72\/1 Pawpaw 19 NANCY ROSE ranging from New York, and southern Michigan on the north, south to northern Florida, and west to eastern Texas, Nebraska, and Kansas (Callaway 1990). It is also present in Ontario, Canada (Fox 2012). A Description of Pawpaw The pawpaw is the only species in the Asimina genus that produces fruits of significant interest as a food source. It is, in fact, the largest edible fruit native to North America. It grows wild as a deciduous understory tree in hardwood forests with moist but well-drained and fertile soils in the eastern United States, often in large patches of the same genotype due to extensive root suckering (Kral 1960; Pomper and Layne 2005), although sometimes different genotypes can be found in the same patch (Pomper et al. 2009). Pawpaw trees can reach up to 10 meters (32.8 feet) tall and typically have a pyramidal habit in sunny locations. Pawpaw can be grown successfully in USDA plant hardiness zones 5 through 8 (average annual minimum temperatures -20 to 20 20 Arnoldia 72\/1 Pawpaw 21 MEGAN MCCARTY The Current State of the Pawpaw There was an increased interest in growing pawpaw as a crop at the beginning of the twentieth century; for example, in 1916 the American Genetic Association offered a $100 prize--$50 for the largest individual pawpaw tree and $50 for the tree--regardless of size--with the best fruit (American Genetic Association 1916). Yet in spite of its high potential through the years as a new high-value niche fruit crop, pawpaw is still only in the early stages of commercial production. The greatest current market potential for pawpaw is probably in local markets and direct sales to restaurants and other gourmet niche customers. Most pawpaw fruits are A female zebra swallowtail oviposits on an emerging pawpaw leaf. Butterflies, Pawpaw, and Coevolution The zebra swallowtail (Protographium marcellus, formerly Eurytides marcellus) is a beautiful black and white striped butterfly whose caterpillars feed exclusively on Asimina leaves. (The damage made to the leaves is reported to be negligible in pawpaw orchards [Pomper and Layne 2008]). Some compounds present in the pawpaw leaves (acetogenins, specific substances only found in species of the Annonaceae) are repellent to most insects and birds so the caterpillar accumulates them to avoid predation. These natural bioactive compounds present in the leaves, bark, and twigs of pawpaw and other species of the Annonaceae have shown some insecticidal and anti-tumoral properties (McLaughlin 2008). Of the seven swallowtail tribes, the Graphinii (to which the zebra swallowtail belongs) is one of the largest with about 150 species restricted to the tropics and subtropics except for two, Iphiclides podalirius and Protographium marcellus (the zebra swallowtail), that live in Palearctic and Nearctic regions, respectively (Haribal and Feeny 1998). The fact that both the zebra swallowtail and the pawpaw are the only members of their respective groups to live in temperate North America indicates that both species have coevolved and provides a neat system to study coevolution and adaptation to cooler climates. Illustration of the exterior and interior of a pawpaw fruit painted by Royal Charles Steadman in 1924. From the USDA Pomological Watercolor Collection in the Rare and Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library in Beltsville, Maryland. 22 Arnoldia 72\/1 Pawpaw 23 Jefferson, T. 1786. From Thomas Jefferson to John Bartram, with Enclosure, 27 January 1786, Founders Online, National Archives (http:\/\/founders.archives.gov\/documents\/ Jefferson\/01-09-02-0201, ver. 2013-08-02). Source: The Papers of Thomas Jefferson, vol. 9, 1 November 1785 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Biodiversity Hotspot: China's Hengduan Mountains","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25573","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25ebb6f.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":1,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Boufford, David E.","article_content":"Biodiversity Hotspot: China's Hengduan Mountains David E. Boufford I n southwestern China, in the southeastern corner of the Qinghai-Tibet Plateau, lies one of the world's 35 biodiversity hotspots: the Hengduan Mountains. This hotspot occurs at the juncture of mountain systems where precipitation can vary tremendously due to a combination of topography, climate, and hydrology. The terrain forms topographic channels that funnel seasonal monsoon rains up through the river valleys from the lowland tropics of south- ern China, India, and Myanmar (Burma) to the southeastern edge of the 5,000-plus-meter-high (16,400-plus-feet) Qinghai-Tibet Plateau. The region also receives vast amounts of water from the five major rivers that drain the plateau: the Yarlung Zangbo Jiang (which becomes the Brahmaputra in India and the Jamuna in Bangladesh); the Ayayerwaddy (Irrawaddy); Nu Jiang (Salween); Lancang Jiang (Mekong); and Jinsha Jiang (known in the West as the Yangtze, and Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau Nepal Bhutan Myanmar Hengduan Hotspot India Hengduan Hotspot 25 ALL IMAGES BY THE AUTHOR Sichuan, Batang Xian. A glacial lake lies at about 4,500 meters (14,764 feet) on the south side of the pass at Haizi Shan, surrounded by a Kobresia (bog sedge) meadow and with scattered dwarf Salix and Rhododendron on nearby slopes. What's a Biodiversity Hotspot? As defined by Conservation International, to qualify as a biodiversity hotspot a region must meet two strict criteria: 26 Arnoldia 72\/1 Hengduan Hotspot 27 Sichuan, Litang Xian. North of Litang between Litang and Xinlong. A broad ravine with numerous side seepages and both moist and dry upland meadows, featuring the tall, yellow-bracted floral spikes of Rheum alexandrae (a rhubarb relative) and yellow-flowered Pedicularis longiflora var. tubiformis in the foreground along the stream. centron, Acer (maple--45 species!), Aesculus (buckeye), Tilia (linden), several genera within Lauraceae (the laurel family), Meliosma, Phellodendron (corktree), Evodia, Cornus (dogwood), Ostryopsis, Carpinus (hornbeam), Ostrya (hophornbeam), Betula (birch), Quercus (oak), Lithocarpus, Fagus (beech), Elaeocarpus, and Ailanthus (Boufford and Ohba 1998). In formerly glaciated valleys and on higher slopes, Abies (fir), Picea (spruce), Betula and other boreal plants intermix with vegetation generally considered to be warm-temperate. Full grown, well-formed oak and fir trees reach an elevation of around 4,600 meters (15,092 feet) in some places and intermix with alpine meadows, scree slopes, and Rhododendron thickets. Herbaceous vegetation reaches to 6,000 meters (19,685 feet), although few plant specimens have been collected above 5,500 meters (18,045 feet). The east and southeast portions of the Hengduan region are the best known, since they were easily reached by explorers and researchers coming up the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) or entering from Chengdu, about 100 kilometers (62 miles) away, or from Kunming. The forests on the eastern slopes also harbor some of the last surviving populations of giant panda, and China's best known and perhaps largest panda research station at Wolong Shan. About half 28 Arnoldia 72\/1 Hengduan Hotspot 29 Wang Qia photographing plants at Haizi Shan, an extensive cold, glaciated plateau with numerous lakes, ponds, and streams that often flow out of sight under the glacial debris. up through the middle of shrubs, which offer some protection from the animals. The reason that so many herbarium specimens of herbaceous plants from these areas lack underground organs is because of the difficulty in extracting them from the middle of the coarse, frequently spiny shrubs in which they grow. dendron (226 species), Pedicularis (217), Saussurea (100+), Ligularia (70), Cremanthodium (38), Anaphalis (33), Leontopodium (25), Artemisia (55), Gentiana (117), Primula (113) Saxifraga (136), Salix (103), and Corydalis (89). EARLY EXPLORATION The first western explorers (and essentially the first naturalists) in the area were French missionaries who traveled to the remotest regions of China to convert the locals to Christianity (Kilpatrick 2014). Most were also trained in the natural sciences and were encouraged to collect and send specimens back to Paris. Among the most notable of these missionaries were P 30 Arnoldia 72\/1 Sichuan, Baiyu Xian, Zhandu Xiang. Mixed conifer-mixed broadleaved deciduous forests, with Salix (willow) growing near the stream, along a branch of the Ou Qu in Ase Gou (Ase Gorge). References Cited Boufford, D. E. and P. P. van Dijk. 2000. South-Central China. pp. 338 32 Arnoldia 72\/1 Hengduan Hotspot 33 GENTIANACEAE Gentians (Gentiana) and their relatives, notable for blue flower color, are characteristic of the Hengduan flora. Of the 248 species of Gentiana in China, 117 occur in the Hengduan region. Clockwise from upper left: 34 Arnoldia 72\/1 Hengduan Hotspot 35 PEDICULARIS Pedicularis has its main center of distribution in the Hengduan Mountain region, where 217 of China's 352 species occur. The plants are reported to be hemiparasitic, getting at least part of their nutritional needs from host plants. Despite many attempts, we have been unsuccessful in excavating the underground parts to find the connections with a host plant. While easy to recognize vegetatively as being a species of Pedicularis, the flowers are needed for identification to the species level. The beak (galea) and orientation of the corolla appear to be correlated with pollination by bumblebees (Eaton et al. 2012; Wang and Li 2005). The Hengduan region, with 65 species, is also the world's center of diversity for bumblebees (Williams et al. 2009). Clockwise from upper left: "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Shady Character: Platanus x acerifolia","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25572","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eb76b.jpg","volume":72,"issue_number":1,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"A Shady Character: Platanus "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23440","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170b328.jpg","title":"2014-72-1","volume":72,"issue_number":1,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"John George Jack: Dendrologist, Educator, Plant Explorer","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25570","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eb36d.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pearson, Lisa","article_content":"Lisa Pearson J ohn George Jack was a notable figure in the early history of the Arnold Arboretum. His story is perhaps less well known than those of his colleagues, but his fifty-year dedication to the study of trees, plant exploration, formal and informal education, and especially the instruction of a generation of Chinese botanists is unmatched. In 2012, the Arboretum was fortunate to acquire a trove of John Jack archival materials from his granddaughter, Constance W. Cross. Included were three manuscripts written by Jack in the early 1940s, in which he gives a lively account of his early life in Canada as well as a detailed look at the beginnings of the Arnold Arboretum. These historical sketches provide new insight on Jack and served as a primary resource for this article. Roots John George Jack (1861 John George Jack 3 Troy Female Seminary in Troy, New York, and taught in the city for several years before moving to Quebec. She had been the teacher at the Protestant school in Ch 4 Arnoldia 71\/4 John George Jack 5 continued in the community and were taught by many of the same people who had originally taken classes from Jack years before. In the first twenty years of his career in Boston, John Jack was a bachelor of presumably thrifty habits, boarding with Mrs. Cheney in Jamaica Plain. As such, he was able to accumulate enough savings to periodically travel in order to botanize and visit botanic gardens and arboreta. Travel in that period was truly an expedition; it took about a week to reach Europe by sea, and once there, ground transportation was by rail or horse-drawn conveyance. Jack's trips were lengthy, lasting six months in the case of his visit to Asia (see textbox on page 6). He made his first trip overseas in 1891, visiting Paris, Berlin, Geneva, northern Italy, Copenhagen, Hamburg, Brussels, and Britain. He spent several weeks at Kew alone and at An announcement for a spring session of John Jack's popular tree classes from around 1900. every stop was able to meet in person the botanists and horticulturists with whom he had corresponded. He took another leave of absence in 1898 to explore and report on the forests of the Pikes Peak region, his first exposure to the Rocky Mountain flora. Jack went west again in 1900 to This image of Abies lasiocarpa at Lake Louise, Alberta, Canada, was made by Alfred Rehder in August 1904 while on a plant collecting trip with John Jack. A JOURNEY TO THE FAR EAST In 1905, John Jack decided to visit Japan, Korea, and China. He hoped that the things he would invariably learn while abroad and the plants he might find would enrich his teaching and the collections of the Arboretum. For some unknown reason, Charles Sargent was opposed to his trip. He refused to pay for any of Jack's expenses and he docked Jack's pay of fifty dollars a month for the duration of his sixmonth leave of absence. Undeterred, Jack left Boston at the beginning of July and arrived in Yokohama at the end of the month. He spent the next month and a half visiting gardens, parks, and forests in the area and made an expedition further afield to Nikko and Lake Chuzenji. He decided to alter his itinerary and pay a visit to Sapporo where he was hosted by Professor Kingo Miyabe, whom he had known many years earlier when Miyabe was a doctoral candidate at Harvard University. From Japan, Jack sailed to Korea where he spent several weeks exploring the region around Seoul. Unfortunately the Japanese government, which had ruled the country since the end of the recently concluded Russo-Japanese War, would not allow travel out of the area, thus precluding any chance of botanical collections outside of the capitol. Jack then traveled to Shandong, China, and then on to Beijing. There he spent time botanizing with his old friend Frank N. Meyer, who was collecting economic plants for the U.S. Department of Agriculture. He returned to Japan in October to spend time with his brother, Milton, and to revisit Lake Chuzenji where he had noted numerous rhododendron and azalea species from which he collected seeds. He finally sailed for home by way of Naples, Italy, in November, arriving in New York on December 20. Jack considered this trip a success, notwithstanding the recently concluded war between Russia and Japan that hampered his movements somewhat. It cost him some $2,000, so it came as a pleasant surprise when Sargent, in an uncharacteristically apologetic manner, admitted the great value of Jack's collections and allowed him the $300 in back pay that had been withheld during the trip. The library has digitized a collection of John Jack's photographs from Japan, which are available at http:\/\/via.harvard.edu. A short introduction is available on the Library website: http:\/\/arboretum. harvard.edu\/library\/image-collection\/botanical-and-cultural-images-of-eastern-asia\/john-george-jack\/ Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii) grows above the wall and moat surrounding the Imperial Palace in Tokyo, Japan, in this John Jack photo from August 19, 1905. John Jack photographed this large specimen of Japanese chestnut (Castanea crenata, known then as C. japonica) along a road between Narai and Fukusawa, Japan, on September 2, 1905. In addition to making his own photographs in Asia, Jack also purchased colored lantern slides to use in his lectures. Seen here are two lantern slides from Japan showing people under a wisteria-covered arbor (left) and women digging shellfish on a beach (right). 8 Arnoldia 71\/4 John George Jack 9 could matriculate at the Bussey Institution and then study with John Jack, one-on-one or in small groups. An early student was WoonYoung Chun (Chen Huanyong) who had previously studied forestry at the Massachusetts Agricultural College and the forestry school at Syracuse University and came to study dendrology with Jack in 1915. Students like Chun came halfway around the world to study the tree flora of their native country because of the convenience of having an extensive living collection and a complete herbarium all in one place. In a 1917 interview Chun remarked, \"It would take me a lifetime of travel to study what I can find out here about Chinese trees in a few years.\" One of Jack's most notable Chinese students was H. H. Hu (Hu Xainsu), the botanist who, along with colleague W. C. Cheng (Zheng Wanjun), first identified and named living examples of dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), a tree previously thought to be extinct but found growing in Hubei in the late 1940s. Hu greatly respected and admired Jack and corresponded with him for the remainder of his life. In a letter dated June 17, 1931, Hu asks Jack for a portrait that they might hang in their herbarium, \"Since most of Chinese systematists studied under you and you have exerted such an important influence toward Chinese botany, your photograph is specially needed.\" In addition to their education at the Arboretum, Jack also brought his students to his property, \"Folly Farm,\" in Walpole, Massachusetts, for practical horticultural training in the garden and orchard. John Jack (far left) with some of his Chinese students, including Woon-Young Chun to the far right in the boater hat, in a 1917 photograph by A. A. Greenlaw. ARNOLD ARBORETUM JACK'S ACCESSIONS John George Jack left an indelible mark on the Arnold Arboretum, particularly through the prudent care and attention he gave to the early curation of the rapidly expanding collection. He was also quite the collector of plants himself and over 1,700 accessions originally collected by Jack have moved through the Arboretum. These represent collecting efforts in Asia as well as considerable sampling throughout North America. The majority of his collections did not survive beyond the 1930s, but some 100 accessioned plants collected by Jack do continue to grow at the Arboretum. These include three interesting hybrids, all named in honor of Jack, and some Korean accessions from Jack's 1905 trip to Asia. John George Jack 11 Legacy In 1926, Charles Sargent personally asked Jack to go to the Atkins Institution in Cuba, near Cienfuegos in the western part of the island, to collect specimens for the Arboretum herbarium, which lacked material from that part of the Caribbean. He made several trips over the next ten years, sometimes accompanied by special students from the Arboretum. The Atkins Institution was started as a private experiment station at about the turn of the twentieth century to develop better varieties of sugar cane. It was given to Harvard some years later and comprised over two hundred acres of open and forested land populated with Cuban and West Indian woody plants. In addition to his collections for the Arboretum, Jack also began a herbarium for the use of the Institution containing specimens from their collection as well as other Cuban flora. Karl Sax, Bussey Institution colleague and future director of the Arnold Arboretum, spent time with Jack at the Atkins Institution in 1936. He remembered, \"I discovered that although he was 75 years old Professor Jack was up at 6 A.M., worked all day, often travelling into the surrounding country on horseback, and continued to work until 11 or 12 o'clock at night.\" The Institution remained part of Harvard until 1961 when its director, Dr. Duncan Clement, left Cuba due to pressures associated with the Cuban Revolution and the University ended its support. Today the garden is managed by the Cuban government. John Jack continued to busily curate the Arboretum collections, to teach, and to collect plant material up until his retirement in 1935 at age 74, the mandatory retirement age imposed by Harvard University. In his later years he lived on his farm in Walpole where he maintained an extensive apple orchard that yielded large crops every year. His wife Cerise had died just after his retirement but his adopted daughter Betty, her husband, and their two daughters shared the farm with him. While pruning in his orchard in 1948, Jack fell from a ladder and broke his hip, leaving him bedridden. He died several months later in 1949, aged 88. A person like John George Jack would be a rarity today. He was a smart self-starter who made the most of opportunities when they pre- John Jack in Cuba, April 1927. sented themselves, and was fortunate to live at a time when it was not absolutely necessary for an academic to have an advanced degree. He was a teacher with an amazing gift for engaging his students, no matter what their background and education might have been. He was a methodical and diligent naturalist, in the broadest meaning of the term, whose interests ranged from entomology to forestry, horticulture, dendrology, and all points in between. The Arnold Arboretum was extremely fortunate that Jack chose to spend his long career here in Boston. Acknowledgement We would like to extend our sincerest thanks to Constance W. Cross for her generous gift of John Jack archival materials. Lisa Pearson is Head of Library and Archives at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Excerpt-Hemlock:A Forest Giant on the Edge","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25568","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eaf6f.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Foster, David R.","article_content":"BOOK EXCERPT Hemlock: A Forest Giant on the Edge David R. Foster, Editor Editor's Note: Eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is an iconic tree species in northeastern forests and the Appalachian Mountains. It has faced peril in the past but is now faced with perhaps its most deadly threat--the invasive and devastating insect pest, hemlock woolly adelgid. In this new book, Harvard Forest director David Foster and several colleagues and scientific collaborators explore the history and ecology of and challenges to the majestic eastern hemlock. Presented here by permission of the publisher is an excerpt from Chapter Three: Prehistory to Present, written by Wyatt Oswald, David Foster, and Jonathan Thompson. In the previous part of the chapter the authors describe the process of extracting 3-inch-wide, 3-foot-long sediment cores from a pond for later paleoecological analyses of the material. Hemlock: A Forest Giant on the Edge David R. Foster, Editor. Written by Anthony D'Amato, Benjamin Baiser, Aaron M. Ellison, David Foster, David Orwig, Wyatt Oswald, Audrey Barker Plotkin, and Jonathan Thompson; Stephen Long, Consulting Editor. Yale University Press. 2014. 336 pages. ISBN: 978-0-300-17938-5 Book Excerpt 13 H EMLOCK has changed in abundance numerous times in the past, and it now faces an extreme threat from the hemlock woolly adelgid. As we seek to consider this new dynamic in perspective, we are fortunate that hemlock has left a remarkable array of records that shed light on its ecology under a wide range of conditions. These historical and paleoecological archives inform the field studies, experiments, and modeling activity that we undertake in the woods and back in the laboratory. A look at hemlock's fossil record helps us examine how hemlock has changed with the intense human activity in the past few centuries and allows us to assess how it might cope with the combination of insect onslaught, climate change, and ongoing human activity today and in the future. It also enables us to evaluate whether there is any hope that hemlock may stave off or recover from the population collapse associated with a new invasive organism. We use a variety of tools and techniques to reconstruct the historical dynamics of the forest environment and vegetation, as well as individual tree species. To reach back furthest, we study pollen, other microscopic fossils, and diverse signatures of past environments that are preserved for millennia in the sediments of lakes, bogs, swamps, and other wetlands. More recent centuries and decades come alive in historical land-survey documents, field studies of old-growth forests, and tree rings that yield insights into the composition and structure of forest vegetation from the time of European arrival forward. In some cases, the particular qualities of hemlock provide a record that bridges prehistory and history. For example, by carefully dissecting the deep beds of needles that accumulate on the cool, moist ground beneath hemlock, we find pollen and other plant parts that yield a chronological record connecting the postglacial period with the time since European settlement. From these distinctive soil layers comes a record of changes in the composition of individual forest stands that can be linked to the evidence from tree rings, uprooted trees, and the many other clues that are present in the hemlock forest itself. Those of us conducting retrospective studies at the Harvard Forest have employed this full array of approaches, exploiting every opportunity to reconstruct the distribution, abundance, and dynamics of hemlock across New England and going back thousands of years into the past. ONE HUNDRED and fifty years ago, Henry Thoreau mused in his journal on what stories might be gleaned from the pollen grains accumulating in small pools and ponds, but it took nearly a half century more for the Swedish naturalist and geologist Lennart von Post to first take advantage of this phenomenon in studying the history of plants over long periods. He published a report in 1917 showing that the grains of pollen identified in Scandinavian peats told an astonishing story of dynamic changes in vegetation composition. Two characteristics of pollen make it a particularly useful tool for interpreting the past. First, pollen grains are remarkably durable because they are shielded by an outer layer of complex chemical compounds that protect the sperms cells as they get transferred from the stamens to the pistils of flowering plants, or from male to female cones in conifers like pine or hemlock. Second, the pollen of different species and genera of plants is different enough to allow us to identify them. It comes in a wide range of shapes, sizes, and surface markings, all of which allow palynologists--the meticulous and patient scientists 14 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 15 ALL IMAGES BY DAVID FOSTER The top of an eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) pokes above the canopy on the Prospect Hill tract of Harvard Forest. Researchers extract sediment cores from Harvard Forest's Hemlock Hollow. An extracted sediment core is finished and labeled by researchers. 16 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 17 previous generations of plants. In New England, where glaciers scoured the earth surface during the last ice age, the duration of both of these sedimentary archives is limited to the period since the ice melted, the land surface stabilized, and the climate allowed the growth of plants. Thus, the oldest lake records span about twelve to fifteen thousand years, and many wetlands only extend back five or six thousand years. MEANWHILE, back in the lab, we slice the cores into thin sections, half an inch or less in length, and carry out a series of treatments and analyses of the material. It's not just pollen grains that we seek. For instance, we want to know the age of the mud at different depths in the core, so we extract small samples of sediment or plant material and send them to a specialized (and expensive) laboratory that assesses the radiocarbon content of the material. We also measure the sediment's organic and mineral content or particle sizes to determine changes in the lake environment, including past droughts, which are often registered as layers of sandy, inorganic material. In combination with other chemical analyses, these sedimentary characteristics provide a detailed record of past variations in climate. We isolate pollen grains as well as the spores from ferns and other early plants by subjecting mud samples to intense acid baths, washings, centrifuge spins, and sieving steps. It's remarkable that these intense treatments remove most of the organic and mineral material but leave a tiny residual fraction that contains the concentrated and quite intact pollen, along with bits of insects, charcoal, and other miscellaneous detritus. The tiny pieces of charcoal and insect remains, both of which are as highly resistant to decay as pollen, are sieved, identified, and counted under a microscope to provide information about past wildfire activity and insect outbreaks. We mount the residue on microscope slides and examine them with high-powered magnification, carefully scrutinizing and identifying every pollen grain that is encountered. At any given level, a palynologist might identify 300 to 500 pollen grains through a painstaking process that can take anywhere from two to eight hours or more. Pollen data tell us the relative abundance of different species. If 50 out of 500 pollen grains at a given level are identified as hemlock, this would yield a value of 10 percent. Knowing whether or not a species is a prolific pollen producer helps us to assess how well the relative abundance of its pollen corresponds to its actual abundance on the landscape. The pollen of insect-pollinated trees such as maple and chestnut rarely exceeds 5 percent of the total, whereas pine, birch, and oak can easily reach 10 to 20 percent or more. Considering these factors, we would assume that 5 percent chestnut means a significant presence. At its very crudest, a pollen diagram will show at what point in the past hemlock or any other plant was absent, rare, or abundant. In most cases, it will also reveal fascinating curves depicting the long-term variation in these species in relationship to other species and many environmental factors. In well-studied regions such as eastern North America, many dozens of pollen records have been analyzed over the last few decades. In southern and central New England, the Harvard Forest group has analyzed cores from more than three dozen sites. We make the data available to everyone electronically on our website and collaborate with many people who use them. We also keep the cores from which samples have been taken in cold storage for our future needs and those of other scientists who may be interested in examining our records in more detail or for searching for other materials and clues in the mud. Our 18 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 19 one of great importance today because of the looming likelihood of rapid climate change and the question of how plants will respond and cope with new conditions. We are employing all sorts of approaches--genetics, simulation modeling, field and laboratory studies of dispersal, and pollen analysis--as we continue to grapple with the question. Have we overestimated the rates at which trees moved in the past, or are we underestimating their anticipated and potential future dispersal rates? One possible way to account for a more rapid past dispersal is to invoke a history of rare long-distance dispersal events, such as abrupt gusts and updrafts in wind that may loft a seed into the jet stream, or the rare flight of a bird in which it carries a seed for dozens of miles. In this way, a chance event can disperse seeds great distances. If such an event happened even once a decade, it may have been extremely important in shaping patterns of movement over centuries. We cite uncommon processes such as these in our modeling discussions when talking about the dispersal of insects like the hemlock woolly adelgid or the adaptations of plant species under future climates. As research on this dilemma progresses, the answers to these questions will have important implications for predicting the future shape of our forest ecosystems and for gauging the ability of many species to survive the expected changes in climate in coming decades. The long-term history of hemlock also reveals the extreme malleability of forest types and assemblages, including those that are familiar to us today. Hemlock arrived in the northeastern United States about 2,000 years after white pine and 2,000 years before American beech, even though today it frequently grows alongside both these species, and we often think of them as members of the same plant communities. Given beech's similarity to hemlock in shade tolerance and suitability for forest canopies, and the manner with which they coexist in many places today, it is hard to imagine that hemlock grew in New England for 2,000 years without beech. Similarly, it was only with the arrival of hemlock that the New England landscape developed forests akin to the old-growth stands of white pine and hemlock studied by early ecologists and described in many Harvard Forest studies, including those by Richard Fisher, Bob Marshall, Tony D'Amato, and Dave Orwig. The contrasting histories of these various trees illustrate that species respond in highly individualistic ways to environmental change. Because conditions in the past were distinctly different from the present, we witness the species behaving in significantly different ways over time. The assemblages of plants and animals that are familiar to us today are actually quite ephemeral in deep time and space. It is through such understandings that we've developed an ecological theory that accepts and explains the separate though interactive behavior of species. One of the earliest and best articulations of this theory came from a noted northeastern botanist--Henry Gleason of the New York Botanical Garden--who developed the \"individualistic concept of ecology\" in the early 1900s. This simple but revolutionary theory posited that the makeup of vegetation on a site was determined by the actions of the many individual species, each of which operated quite separately from others and according to its unique ecological qualities. Although this concept was debated for decades, some of the strongest evidence that led to its conclusive support came from paleoecological studies that showed the highly disparate behaviors of different tree species in migration and in response to climate change and to natural and human disturbances. While this understanding of plant behavior and ecology emerged from the past and helps us explain our current landscapes, it should also prepare us for unanticipated combinations of species to appear under the anomalous conditions expected for the future. 20 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 21 Coring dozens of ponds and bogs and examining tens of thousands of pollen grains preserved in their sediments has helped us outline the following picture of New England's prehistory. After a lengthy dry period, from around 11,500 to 10,000 years ago, during which white pine dominated the landscapes of the northeastern United States, hemlock increased in abundance across much of New England, then reached its peak population levels during a relatively warm and moist interval from 8,000 to 5,500 years ago. Beech had arrived to join hemlock in the region at that point, and with oaks, birches, and maples also present, and white pine and pitch pine already well established, the overall composition of New England forests was quite similar to what we find in our landscape today. Although the environmental conditions of that earlier time appear to have been well suited for hemlock, some of our recent research suggests that brief periods of cold climate occurred every few centuries, with deleterious impacts on hemlock in some parts of New England. Various lines of evidence, including chemical analyses of lake sediment records, show that the generally warm, moist conditions were interrupted occasionally by a century or so of cold, dry climate. And while hemlock and other species did not always respond uniformly to these events across the region, some of our relatively detailed pollen records feature abrupt, short-lived declines of hemlock, including significant population reductions at around 8,000 and 6,000 years ago. Hemlock certainly didn't disappear from the landscape during these events, but the pollen data do suggest that it became much less abundant during times of cold, dry conditions. Then, around 5,500 years ago, hemlock experienced an abrupt, range-wide collapse. For about two millennia it nearly disappeared throughout its entire range in the Northeast before it rebounded about 3,500 years ago. Although it recovered greatly across the region, at most sites hemlock never returned to its predecline levels. This hemlock decline is one of the most thoroughly studied aspects of the postglacial vegetation history of North America, yet we still don't completely understand what caused it or sustained it. Conclusions drawn over the past three decades variously attribute hemlock's decline to a species-specific disease, a massive insect outbreak, a sustained shift to drier climate, a series of drought events, and a combination of these factors. It is now quite clear that climate was strongly involved and that in some ways the big decline was a larger version of the earlier declines witnessed during cold spells. If the trees weren't killed directly by drought, then the associated environmental conditions either stressed hemlock in ways that made it more susceptible to insects or disease or facilitated an unusual outbreak of a pest or pathogen. (It was this record of minor events leading to the major drought and decline in hemlock that our colleague correctly surmised he was seeing in the various layers of sand we observed that day on the raft in the middle of the lake.) Hemlock eventually recovered, and pollen records reveal that it was again abundant in New England forests from around 3,500 years ago to the time of European settlement. Our studies of the sediments of Hemlock Hollow, a vernal pool hidden in the large hemlock forest on the Prospect Hill tract of the Harvard Forest, have yielded a detailed stand-scale record of forest changes over the last 10,000 years. The local nature of this record enables us to examine the fine-scaled ecological response of an individual forest to various changes in its environment. Here we can see that when disturbances occurred, including fires every 1,000 to 3,000 years, hemlock abundance dropped abruptly and then rebounded slowly, taking 500 years or more to recover to original levels. In the recovery from these major disturbances--intense events that we interpret to have killed most of the larger trees--the 22 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 23 Eastern hemlocks and eastern white pines along the Swift River in Petersham, Massachusetts. 24 Arnoldia 71\/4 Book Excerpt 25 regions of the world, including glacial advances farther north. It may seem counterintuitive that two species common in northern New England would be bothered by a shift to colder climate. It is quite possible, however, that conditions became both colder and drier, with both hemlock and beech suffering due to their relatively high moisture requirements. The latter part of the Little Ice Age coincided with the expansion of European colonists across New England, transforming the land. Region-wide, up to 60 percent of the land was cleared for agriculture and the rest was cut--repeatedly in some places--with a peak in harvesting occurring in the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. Although forest once again covers more than 80 percent of New England, these second-growth stands are not the same as those of presettlement times. When we compare the witnesstree data with present-day forest composition, we find that some species are more common than they were centuries ago, such as early successional birches, red maple, and pines, including the old-field white pines that invaded abandoned agricultural lands. These light-seeded, fast-growing, and light-requiring species spread and grew rapidly across heavily disturbed areas, thriving after the intense farming and logging subsided. On the other hand, some species are less abundant than they were before European settlement. Species of mature forests, including hemlock and beech, are much less common than they were in the witness-tree surveys. Throughout the Northeast, hemlock declined as much as 10 percent over the last 400 years. When we zoom back in from the region-wide scale to that of the individual landscape, we often see considerable evidence of land use in the characteristics of hemlock forests. In some cases, seemingly ancient hemlock stands have undergone much greater changes in their recent past than we might at first assume. These are the unexpected findings of a study led by Harvard Forest researchers Jason McLachlan and David Foster. They set out to reconstruct the histories of four old hemlock forests in central Massachusetts, using both tree-ring analysis of the largest trees and centimeter-by-centimeter analyses of pollen grains preserved in the approximately six-inch-thick layer of organic matter forming the top layer of the soil. They found that the stands, dominated today by hemlocks 100 to 200 years old, had experienced a series of disturbances over the last few centuries, including logging, windstorms, fires, and pathogen outbreaks. Indeed, early and mid-successional trees such as oaks, pines, and American chestnut had occupied those same stands at different times in the past. In many of the forests, it appeared as though today's dominant hemlocks may in fact owe their current good fortune to the removal of competing species by selective logging and the chestnut blight. Like many of our other retrospective investigations of hemlock, this study of secondgrowth stands obliges us to change the way we think about the species, the forests it forms, and the way that nature operates. On one hand, forests that appear to be unchanging may be relatively recent in origin and shaped by processes that the species has never experienced before. On the other, although hemlock forests have been dynamic at times, the history of the species in New England has always been one of long-term dominance interrupted by infrequent abrupt declines. With such a decline spreading across the landscape today, we can expect another lengthy period with little hemlock followed by--we can only hope--its gradual return. Wyatt Oswald is Associate Professor at Emerson College, David Foster is Director of Harvard Forest, and Jonathan Thompson is Senior Ecologist at Harvard Forest. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Getting Buzzed at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25569","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eb328.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Switzer, Callin","article_content":"Getting Buzzed at the Arnold Arboretum Callin Switzer W hile strolling through the Arnold Arboretum during the summer, visitors may see bees flying from flower to flower. Some bees are pushing their heads deep into flowers and collecting nectar, others are more interested in collecting pollen from the flowers' anthers. Bees that collect pollen are not collecting most of it for themselves; they are taking it back to their colony to feed to the larvae. Pollen provides a protein and mineral source for the developing brood. In flowering plants, pollination is the process of moving pollen from the anthers to the stigma. As bees collect pollen and nectar, they inadvertently transfer pollen from the anthers of one flower to the stigma of another flower, either on the same plant or different plants. For plants that are self-incompatible (they cannot reproduce without cross pollination from another plant), this transfer service is essen- tial. For both self-incompatible and self-fertile species, the transfer of pollen between plants allows for genetic variation in the plants' offspring, preventing plant populations from becoming inbred. Without bees, many species would make neither fruit nor seed. Give It Up for the Bees Plants have developed a variety of ways to \"give\" their pollen to bees. Some have longitudinally dehiscent anthers; these split open down the sides when the pollen is ready, making it easily accessible. Longitudinally dehiscent anthers have benefits and drawbacks. One benefit is that plants with these anthers can be pollinated by many insects, birds, or even humans. (In Sichuan, China, the decline of pollinators has led to pollination of apple and pear orchards by humans armed with vials of pollen and small brushes.) These plants are generalists CURT RAWN Pass the Bees, Please The next time you dip into a bowl of salsa, serve up butternut squash soup, or savor a slice of blueberry pie, thank the bees. Tomatoes, squash, apples, blueberries, and lots of other delicious foods require pollination--mostly done by bees. About 30 percent of our food relies directly on pollinators, and thousands of plant species depend on bees for reproduction. Honey bees and bumblebees are major pollinators of food crops, but many other bee species also pollinate a wide range of plants. Buzz pollination helps produce plump tomatoes like these (Solanum lycopersicum `Lemon Boy'). Buzz pollination 27 The anthers of Chinese stewartia (Stewartia sinensis) (left) and Carefree Beauty rose (Rosa `Bucbi') (above) are longitudinally dehiscent, which means that each anther splits along its length to release pollen. when it comes to attracting pollinators, but this could also be seen as a drawback. What if an animal rushes by and knocks all the pollen off the flowers? What if an insect visits different species and never actually transfers pollen between conspecifics (members of the same species)? Changing the shape of the anther can help solve both of these potential problems. Multiple lineages of plants have evolved anthers that are tube-shaped. Instead of splitting down the sides, these anthers simply open tiny pores when pollen is ready to be released. These anthers are known as poricidally dehiscent, or poricidal. Poricidal anthers help keep pollen from being knocked off the flower, and they prevent many pollinators from reaching the pollen. About eight percent of flowering plants (some 20,000 species) have poricidal anthers (Buchmann 1983). Because the pollen is in a tube, animals cannot easily shake it free. Three common ways to access this pollen are biting through the outside of the anther; squeezing pollen out by treating the anther like a tube of toothpaste; or A bittersweet nightshade (Solanum dulcamara) flower, showing poricidal anthers. At the center of the flower, ten distinct pores are visible. Pollen is held in the tubes below the pores. Purple beautyberry (Callicarpa dichotoma) has poricidal anthers; a pore is visible on the lower edge of the anther on the right in this photo. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR UNLESS OTHERWISE INDICATED 28 Arnoldia 71\/4 Buzz pollination 29 Look closely, and you can identify bumblebees and honeybees. Honeybees (left) are more slender and brown. They usually have rings of grey on their abdomen. Bumblebees (right) are round, fuzzy bees, often with black on the abdomen and yellow on the thorax. A common eastern bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) nest that was reared in a lab; the cotton covering has been pulled back to expose the cells. Nests are typically built in preexisting holes, often below ground. The structure is mostly made of wax, which is secreted from between the segments of a bumblebee's abdomen. A typical bumblebee colony has 50 to 200 individuals at a time. Food is stored in some of the cells, while other cells contain brood in various stages of development. Common eastern bumblebee (Bombus impatiens) buzz pollinating a Chinese beautyberry (Callicarpa cathayana) flower. 30 Arnoldia 71\/4 Buzz pollination 31 I recorded bumblebee buzz pollination on the following plants at the Arboretum. There are a number of other plants in the collections that are buzz pollinated, including Vaccinium species such as lowbush blueberry (V. angustifolium). Callicarpa cathayana Callicarpa dichotoma Callicarpa japonica Diospyros virginiana Hypericum `Hidcote' Lespedeza bicolor `Natob Strain' Rosa `Bucbi' Rubus odoratus Stewartia sinensis Chinese beautyberry Purple beautyberry Japanese beautyberry Common persimmon `Hidcote' hybrid St. John's wort `Natob Strain' shrub bushclover Carefree Beauty rose Fragrant thimbleberry Chinese stewartia The anthers of common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), seen in the center of these flowers, are not technically poricidal but they do dehisce only partially. NANCY ROSE Fruit of purple beautyberry in autumn. 32 Arnoldia 71\/4 Buzz pollination 33 3. Why do buzz frequencies change? Could it be that different flowers require different frequencies to get maximum pollen release? Is humidity affecting the bumblebee or the flower more? 4. Why do bumblebees buzz on plants with longitudinally dehiscent anthers? Before I started collecting data, I thought that bumblebees shouldn't buzz on longitudinally dehiscent anthers since the pollen is readily accessible. But I found multiple instances of buzz pollination occurring on St. John's wort (Hypericum `Hidcote') and Carefree Beauty rose (Rosa `Bucbi'), and I even recorded some buzzing on Chinese stewartia (Stewartia sinensis). All three of those plants have longitudinally dehiscent anthers. Stephen Buchmann (1985) published similar observations and hypothesized that buzzing may increase effectiveness at collecting pollen on longitudinally dehiscent anthers, especially when the flower has a \"shaving brush\" structure (contains numerous stamens with long filaments). One suggestion for why bumblebees use buzz pollination on this type of flower is that it allows them to get pollen from many anthers at one time. With these flowers, bees gather many anthers together and hold them close to their bodies while they buzz. Though this doesn't require buzz pollination, buzzing could result in faster pollen collection than collecting from one anther at a time. Bumblebees were observed buzz pollinating the flowers of St. John's wort (Hypericum `Hidcote', seen here) even though it does not have poricidal anthers. blueberries or combing through a recipe book to find something to do with all your tomatoes, you can thank the bees. Literature Cited Buchmann, S. L. 1985. Bees use vibration to aid pollen collection from non-poricidal flowers. Journal of the Kansas Entomological Society 58: 517"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2013 Weather Summary","article_sequence":4,"start_page":34,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25567","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eab6b.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2013 Weather Summary Sue A. Pfeiffer SUE PFEIFFER A light snow in late February flocked trees along Meadow Road. JANUARY was a relatively warm and dry month. The first two-thirds of the month saw high temperatures mostly in the high 30s and 40s ( 2013 Weather 35 lating snow, which made any sort of transportation a challenge on snow-covered roads and sidewalks. Temperatures warmed during the following week, reaching above 40 36 Arnoldia 71\/4 KYLE PORT 2013 Weather 37 oppressive and uncomfortable conditions outdoors, the heat index reaching 108 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 2013 Weather 39 OCTOBER was seasonably warm and very dry. The first few days of the month were warm and sunny but turned cloudy and drizzly for the following few days. Temperatures fell throughout the month, reflecting the progressing fall season. We received a light frost on the 25th, bringing the growing season to an end. The 185-daylong growing season was nine days shorter than the previous two years and the shortest growing season over the last five years. Since the first week of the month, minimal precipitation was recorded; three events produced only 0.12 inches of rain total. This lack of rain made fall leaf pick up in the Arboretum extremely easy. Supplemental watering was necessary in certain collections, but despite the lack of rain, fall color was in full swing. NOVEMBER was the fourth straight month with average low temperatures below the 30-year norm as we experienced colder than average overnight lows. Temperatures dipped below freezing (32"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Simply <i>Spirea</i>","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25571","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eb726.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Simply Spirea Michael S. Dosmann A s I write on this mid-March day, a pile of thick, crusty snow lies on the ground while the sky continues to shower the Arboretum with more of the icy mess. It has been a long winter. But the longer days give me hope that spring is just around the corner and soon we will see the blooms of old botanical friends. One of these is Spiraea prunifolia var. simpliciflora, a delicate spirea collected as seed by John George Jack in 1905 during his trip to Korea (for more about this extraordinary plantsman, see the article starting on page 2 of this issue). Jack's original plant (accession 18283-A) still grows below a canopy of hickory trees along Valley Road. An earlier accession of the same species (accession 3138) came from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1887 and still grows in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. This spirea is native to eastern Asia and grows wild throughout China, Korea, and Japan. Ernest H. Wilson had also collected the species in Korea, but that accession perished long ago. S. prunifolia var. simpliciflora is a fine-textured shrub that functions well as a single specimen, group planting, or in the mixed border. It reaches 5 to 6.5 feet (1.5 to 2 meters) tall and at least as wide. When allowed to reach its full size, the long stems grow gracefully from the center and arch up and away to create a vase shape. Cold hardy through USDA Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23439","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170af6e.jpg","title":"2014-71-4","volume":71,"issue_number":4,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Untangling the Twisted Tale of Oriental Bittersweet","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25565","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25ea76d.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":3,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Untangling the Twisted Tale of Oriental Bittersweet Peter Del Tredici PETER DEL TREDICI I t's amazing that the details of the introduction of one of eastern North America's worst invasive plants, Oriental bittersweet (Celastrus orbiculatus Thunb.), are essentially unknown. According to Alfred Rehder in his seminal Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1927) the vine was introduced into cultivation from Asia in 1860, but he offered no specific details about who the responsible party was. Since then, most authors have simply taken Rehder at his word and repeated the 1860 date without question (or attribution). More recently, some botanists have cited 1879 as the date of introduction of Oriental bittersweet into North America based on an 1890 article by Charles S. Sargent, but again with only minimal details. The purpose of this article is to fill in this void in the early history of the plant, especially now that it has become such a ubiquitous--and highly destructive--member of our flora. A Brief History of Oriental Bittersweet The first species of Celastrus to be described was the American Oriental bittersweet, in yellow fall foliage, scrambles to the top of a tall eastern or climbing bittersweet (also cottonwood (Populus deltoides) in Bussey Brook Meadow at the Arnold Arboretum. called waxwork or stafftree), native to eastern North America, and named Thunberg, in his ground-breaking Flora JaponC. scandens by Linnaeus in 1753. The second ica under the name Celastrus articulatus. Some was Oriental bittersweet, C. orbiculatus, native ninety-seven years later, the Russian botanist to Japan, Korea, and China and originally pubCarl Maximowicz pointed out that this name lished in 1784 by Linnaeus's student, Carl Peter was actually a misprint of Celastrus orbicula- Oriental Bittersweet 3 tus, Thunberg's intended name, which he used in the index of Flora Japonica as well as in the original manuscript pages of the book. It took years of back and forth debate among botanists to straighten out the confusion caused by this simple typographical error, but C. orbiculatus is now universally accepted as the correct scientific name for Oriental bittersweet. In Flora Japonica Thunberg also described a second Japanese species of bittersweet, C. punctatus, with smaller, more ovate leaves than C. orbiculatus, a different pedicel (flower stalk) structure, and rough white lenticels on its stems. Shortly after this plant entered cultivation in the mid- to late 1800s, it too became engulfed in a taxonomic debate, specifically as to whether it was a \"good\" species or just a variety of orbiculatus. Alfred Rehder, writing in L. H. Bailey's massive Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (1900), officially reduced C. punctatus to a variety of C. orbiculatus, with shorter petioles and smaller, thicker, elliptic leaves. This reduction in status was widely accepted in botanical publications for many years, most notably in the English version of Jisaburo Ohwi's Flora of Japan (1965), which described variety punctatus as \"a southern phase, abundant usually near seashores, although transitional with the typical phase [orbiculatus].\" The traditional view of Oriental bittersweet taxonomy underwent a change in 1955 when Ding Hou, a freshly minted Ph.D. from Washington University in St. Louis, published his revision of the genus Celastrus in the Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden. Hou reviewed the tortured history of Thunberg's two bittersweets and concluded they were both valid species. He also reviewed the taxonomy of the two Celastrus species described and illustrated in 1860 by Eduard von Regel, the Director of the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden: one was a \"new\" species that he christened C. crispulus, the other was Thunberg's species, C. punctatus. Writing in Plantae Wilsonianae in 1915, Alfred Rehder had expressed the opinion that both of Regel's plants belonged to the species C. orbiculatus--crispulus was a synonym and punctatus a variety--a determination that formed the basis for his citing 1860 as the date of Oriental bittersweet's introduction into cultiva- tion. Ding Hou looked at the same article and reached a very different conclusion--Regel's crispulus was synonymous with Thunberg's punctatus and his punctatus was really Thunberg's orbiculatus. According to Hou's interpretation, Rehder was right about 1860 as the date for the introduction of Celastrus orbiculatus, but wrong about which of Regel's two species was the true Oriental bittersweet. In the years following its publication, Ding Hou's revision of the genus Celastrus has stood the test of time. The current online Flora of Japan Database Project, for example, treats C. punctatus as a semi-evergreen species native to the warm-temperate or subtropical parts of the country, while the deciduous species C. orbiculatus is found in more northerly cool- and warm-temperate zones. Similarly, the English version of the Flora of China, which describes twenty-five species of Celastrus, includes both C. orbiculatus and C. punctatus. The former is widely distributed in the eastern and northeastern parts of the country, mainly north of the Yangtze River, while the latter is restricted to southeast China and Taiwan. Introduction Into Europe Eduard von Regel's 1860 Gartenflora article is significant for three reasons: 1) it is the first report of the cultivation of Oriental bittersweet outside of Asia; 2) it contains the first scientific illustrations of both Celastrus orbiculatus and C. punctatus; and 3) it unequivocally states that C. punctatus (= C. orbiculatus according to Hou) had \"only recently been imported\" into European gardens by the famous naturalist Philipp von Siebold. Siebold is an important and colorful figure in the early history of European involvement in Japan. His spectacularly illustrated Flora Japonica--co-authored with Joseph Zuccharini and published in thirty volumes between 1835 and 1870--is a botanical landmark. Siebold was a Bavarian physician who spent six years (1823 through 1829) in Japan working for the Dutch government, teaching and practicing medicine, and making a significant collection of Japanese flora and fauna. His sojourn ended when he was imprisoned for political reasons (the unauthorized possession of a strategically important Illustration of Celastrus orbiculatus and C. punctatus from Eduard von Regel's 1860 article. Oriental Bittersweet 5 map of Japan) and forced to return to Holland in 1830. He did, however, manage to leave with a boatload of herbarium specimens and living plants, which he cultivated in his garden in Leiden. Siebold managed to return to Japan in August 1859 but was forced to leave in 1862. Again, he returned to Leiden with a collection of Japanese plants that he added to the \"Jardin D'Acclimatation,\" which he had established in the 1830s (Spongberg 1990). He published a nursery catalogue for the garden in 1863 that listed an astounding 838 species and varieties of plants for sale, mainly from Japan and China. Included among the entries was \"Celastrus punctatus Thbg.\" at the price of 1 or 2 francs, presumably depending on the plant's size. Based on this catalogue listing and on Regel's article from 1860, we can now say that Siebold probably collected seeds of C. orbiculatus (which he called C. punctatus) in the fall of 1859--at the start of his second visit to Japan--and sent them to colleagues in Europe for cultivation. Siebold's 1863 nursery catalogue listing appears to be the first recorded public offering of C. orbiculatus outside of Asia. Portrait of Samuel B. Parsons from Meehan, 1887. Introduction Into North America On the other side of the Atlantic, Oriental bittersweet made its horticultural debut in the Kissena Nurseries catalogue first published in 1886 or 1887. The Kissena Nurseries were established by Samuel B. Parsons in 1871 as the successor to the earlier nursery he had established with his brother Robert in 1840 in Flushing, New York. The nursery specialized in ornamental trees and shrubs and was the first nursery in the United States to introduce Japanese maples into commerce and to propagate and distribute hardy evergreen rhododendrons (Meehan 1887). The Arnold Arboretum library has two virtually identical copies of the Kissena Nurseries \"Descriptive Catalogue of Hardy Ornamental Trees, Flowering Shrubs and Vines.\" One of them has \"1887?\" penciled on it while the other is marked \"Probably issued Spring, 1889.\" Both of the catalogues are 94 pages long and both include the identical entry for Oriental bittersweet on page 53: \"Celastrus punctatus, Japan. Leaves marked with points of white. 75 cts.\". (This reference to \"points of white\" is probably a misinterpretation of the word punctatus, which Thunberg used in reference to the prominent white lenticels on the stems.) In the Rhododendron section of the catalogue, on page 78, there is a reference to \"a recent published paper from C. M. Hovey, whose experience in this plant is well known, he states that he bought in 1884 [should read 1844], in England, a number of Rhododendrons supposed to be hardy.\" A search of the literature from this period turned up Hovey's article in the December 1885 issue of The American Garden, which makes spring 1886 the earliest possible date for the publication of the Kissena Nurseries catalogue. The listings for Celastrus from Parsons's 1887 Kissena Nursery Catalogue. 6 Arnoldia 71\/3 Oriental Bittersweet 7 Illustration of Celastrus orbiculatus by Charles Faxon from Sargent's 1890 article in Garden and Forest. Arnold Arboretum accession card for Celastrus orbiculatus accession 190 from Samuel Parsons. A check of the Arboretum's old card file system revealed that accession 190 had indeed been sent to the Arboretum by Samuel Parsons in 1879 under the name C. punctatus. In their articles, both Jack and Sargent changed the specific epithet to articulata instead of punctatus. Whether they did this because they thought the two species were synonymous or because they thought the plant was misidentified is unclear, but the latter explanation is more likely. Remarkably, the card file also revealed that seeds of \"Celas- Herbarium specimen from Arnold Arboretum accession 190-1, a plant raised from a cutting from the original plant from Parsons. Oriental Bittersweet 9 trus articulatus\" (accession 192) were received by the Arboretum on March 2, 1880, from the Agricultural College in Sapporo, Japan, less than a year after Parsons sent the Arboretum a plant of \"C. punctatus.\" Fortunately the Arboretum possesses herbarium specimens of both of these accessions, one from accession 190-1, which originated from a cutting collected on October 20, 1887, from Parsons's original plant, and the other from one of the original Sapporo plants collected on October 26, 1888. Both herbarium specimens are labeled \"articulata\" and both are in fruit, but only the Parsons specimen has leaves on it. As far as I have been able to determine, they are both Celastrus orbiculatus. Who Sent the Seeds? The unanswered question about the introduction of Oriental bittersweet into North America boils down to this: Where did Samuel Parsons get his plants? One possibility is that they came from Dr. George Rogers Hall, an American physician who lived in Japan from 1855 through 1861 and introduced many Japanese plants (including many collected by Siebold) into North America (Spongberg 1990). In March of 1862, upon his return to the United States, Hall hand-delivered a large shipment of Japanese plants and seeds to Parsons, who breathlessly described unpacking them in The Horticulturist. While there is no mention of Celastrus in the article, the door of possibility is left slightly ajar with the statement that the shipment contained \"a large number of other tree and shrub seeds.\" But this seems an unlikely source for bittersweet given that it would have necessitated a seventeen year time lag before its distribution to the Arnold Arboretum. In addition, a comprehensive article titled \"Ornamental Vines\" by Josiah Hoopes in The Horticulturist (July 1874) describes American bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) and one of Hall's notorious introductions, Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), but makes no mention of Oriental bittersweet. The available evidence--what little there is-- suggests that Thomas Hogg, Jr. was the source of Parsons's Oriental bittersweet seeds. Hogg served as the United States marshal assigned to the Japanese Consulate from 1862 to 1869 and later as an advisor to the Japanese Customs Service from 1873 through 1875. Hogg's father, Thomas, Sr., had immigrated to New York City from London in 1821 and established one of the first nurseries in the area. When Thomas, Sr. died in 1854, his two sons, James and Thomas, Jr., took over the business. During his diplomatic appointment in Japan, Hogg used the opportunity to send a number of Japanese plants--most notably variegated hostas and Japanese irises--to the family nursery in New York as well as to other horticulturally minded individuals in the northeast (Sargent 1888, 1894; Whitehead 2011). Hogg interacted with various Japanese nurseries as well as the European botanists who were working in Japan at the time, most notably Carl Maximowicz who lived in Japan from 1860 through 1864 and collected numerous plants--including Oriental bittersweet--for the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden (Bretschneider 1898). In a letter to his brother James (published in The Horticulturist in 1863), Hogg described their relationship: \"There is a Russian Botanist (Mr. Macimovitch) now here making a collection of living COURTESY OF THE GRAY HERBARIUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Portrait of Thomas Hogg, Jr. 10 Arnoldia 71\/3 Thomas Hogg, Jr.'s Plant Introductions Thomas Hogg, Jr. introduced many Japanese plants--both wild species and horticultural selections--to North America. Among his most famous are the old-fashioned variegated hostas `Decorata' and `Undulata Albomarginata', numerous Japanese maple cultivars, and the golden thread-leaved cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera `Filifera Aurea'). Writing in the Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1880, Samuel B. Parsons, Jr. wrote, \"Mr. Hogg has given us possibly more new Japanese plants than any collector since the time of Robert Fortune's famous horticultural explorations.\" While I've been unable to locate a comprehensive list of Hogg's introductions, the horticultural literature of the late nineteenth century is rife with references to them. The most important sources are an article by Hogg himself in Gardener's Monthly and Horticulturist in 1879 (GMH), the 1887 Kissena Nurseries catalogue (KN), and Charles Sprague Sargent's writings in Garden and Forest (GF) from 1888 to 1897 and The Forest Flora of Japan (FFJ) in 1894. From these four references, I've compiled the following list of Hogg's woody plant introductions from Japan. No doubt persistent digging will add more species to this list in the future. Introduction years are from Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. PLANT Veitch fir, Abies veitchii Katsura tree, Cercidiphyllum japonicum Sweet autumn clematis, Clematis terniflora Kousa dogwood, Cornus kousa Yeddo euonymus, Euonymus hamiltonianus var. sieboldianus Japanese winterberry, Ilex serrata Kobus magnolia, Magnolia kobus Japanese umbrella magnolia, Magnolia obovata Oyama magnolia, Magnolia sieboldii Japanese photinia, Photinia villosa Kudzu, Pueraria lobata Japanese hydrangea vine, Schizophragma hydrangeoides Stachyurus, Stachyurus praecox Japaneses stewartia, Stewartia pseudocamellia Sapphireberry, Symplocos paniculata Siebold viburnum, Viburnum sieboldii YEAR OF INTRODUCTION 1874 1864 or 1865 1864? 1874 1865 1866 1865 1865 circa 1865 1865 -- -- 1865 1868 1865 -- REFERENCE Sargent FFJ, p. 83 Hogg GMH 21: 53 Sargent GF 3: 621 Sargent FFJ, p. 47 Sargent FFJ, p. 26 Sargent FFJ, p. 25 Sargent FFJ, p. 10; GF 6: 65 Sargent FFJ, p. 9; GF 1: 305 Parsons KN, p. 24 Sargent GF 1: 67 Sargent GF 6: 504 Hogg GMH 21: 53 Sargent FFJ, p. 18 Sargent GF 9: 34 Sargent GF 5: 89 Sargent GF 2: 556; Parsons KN, p. 50 Sapphireberry Japaneses stewartia Kousa dogwood Color illustration of Celastrus orbiculatus from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1898, vol. 124 [ser. 3, vol. 54]: tab. 7599. Oriental Bittersweet 13 secured in 1897 from the Royal Gardens, Kew, granite and conglomerate were covered with England.\" Nash also noted that the painting Oriental bittersweet \"whose stems are coiled that accompanied the article \"was prepared and twisted into an intricate clump of growth, from a vine growing on some small trees in the picturesque at all season of the year.\" No doubt rear of the Museum building of the New York he was referring to plants that E. J. Palmer later Botanical Garden. It was of accidental occurreported finding on the south side of Hemlock rence there, and perhaps originated from seed Hill in his 1935 publication, Supplement to the carried by the birds from the large specimen in Spontaneous Flora of the Arnold Arboretum. the viticetum [a place where vines, especially While Wilson was an admirer of Oriental bittersweet, the Arboretum's longtime hortigrapevines, are cultivated] but a short distance culturist, Donald Wyman, was its true chamto the east\"--the very plant that had come from pion. He wrote about the plant in various Kew Gardens in 1897. So the cycle is complete: Arnold Arboretum publications in 1939, 1944, bittersweet seeds went from the wilds of Japan and 1950 as well as in a number of other horto Flushing to Boston to England and then back ticultural publications, and described it in his to New York where they began to naturalize! best-selling Shrubs and Vines for American Oriental bittersweet was a relatively rare cultivated plant towards the end of the nineteenth Gardens, published in 1949. Wyman's 1944 century, mainly confined to the properties of article was a survey of the use of rapidly growing vines in the United States, which concluded wealthy horticultural enthusiasts. With its dramatic fruit display and rampant growth, however, the plant was destined for popularity, and the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, as it had done earlier, was leading the charge. E. H. Wilson, writing in his 1925 book about the Ar nold Arboretum, America's Greatest Garden, described the plant in glowing ter ms, \"On the left ascending the Bussey Hill road, is another arresting feature. It is merely a dense tangle of Japanese Bittersweet (Celastrus articulata) but how beautiful!-- a mass of clear yellow foliage and a wild profusion of fruits with deep yellow husks cracked open, disclosing the clustered seeds clad in jackets of cinnabarred.\" Later on he notes that some of the Arboretum's boulders of A tangle of fruiting Oriental bittersweet on a stone wall in Cornwall, Connecticut. PETER DEL TREDICI 14 Arnoldia 71\/3 PETER DEL TREDICI Oriental Bittersweet Life History Celastrus orbiculatus is a high-climbing vine with stems that can grow up to 15 feet long in a single season and 60 feet long at maturity. It lacks tendrils and climbs by means of twining shoots that can eventually strangle the trunk of its host tree-- not unlike a botanical boa constrictor (Lutz 1943). Oriental bittersweet produces simple, alternately arranged leaves that are highly variable in shape--from round or egg-shaped to oblong or elliptical; they are smooth with wavy, slightly toothed margins and tips that taper to a long or short point. Bittersweet roots are shallow growing and bright orange (a good field identification characteristic) and are used as an anti-inflammatory in traditional Chinese medicine. Any piece of root that is left behind after pulling or cutting the stems will give rise, Medusalike, to numerous sucker shoots. This root-suckering capacity makes it extremely difficult to control Oriental bittersweet in landscapes where it has become established (Dwyer 1994). Oriental bittersweet produces small, greenish flowers that typically become unisexual by the developmental failure of either the male or the female organs, thus making the plant functionally dioecious (Brizicky 1964). Occasionally a plant will develop both unisexual and perfect flowers (polygamodioecious), leading to individual specimens that are functionally monoecious (Wyman 1950; Hou 1955). The inconspicuous flowers are insect pollinated (mainly by bees) and produced on lateral branches in May and June. Following pollination, female plants produce round green fruits (capsules) that become highly conspicuous in the fall when they turn yellow and then split open to reveal seeds covered with a scarlet aril. A wide variety of birds (both native and exotic) feed on the brightly colored fruits and disperse the seeds across the landscape. Seedlings are common under the trees and shrubs where birds roost at night and seeds can remain viable in the soil for several years (Dwyer 1994). Oriental bittersweet is highly adaptable and grows under a variety of light and soil conditions. Compared with the native C. scandens, the seedlings and young root sprouts of C. orbiculatus are extremely shade tolerant and can persist in the forest understory for a long time waiting for a light gap to develop (Leicht and Silander 2006). The plant is notorious for its ability to strangle and overwhelm nearby trees and shrubs and can cause serious damage in forests (Fike and Niering 1999). Oriental bittersweet was widely planted for ornamental, erosion control, and wildlife habitat purposes in the United States in the 1950s through 1970s and is now considered an invasive species throughout much of eastern North America. A recent publication from New Zealand (Williams and Timmins 2003) documented the spread of Oriental bittersweet in northern portions of that country, beginning in 1975. \"A botanical boa constrictor\"--Oriental bittersweet strangling a black locust tree. PETER DEL TREDICI Oriental bittersweet root suckers. 16 Arnoldia 71\/3 Oriental Bittersweet 17 A curtain of Oriental bittersweet foliage. Brizicky, G. E. 1964. The genera of Celastrales in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 45: 206 18 Arnoldia 71\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolia virginiana: Ephemeral Courting for Millions of Years","article_sequence":2,"start_page":19,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25564","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25ea728.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":3,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Losada, Juan M.","article_content":"Magnolia virginiana: Ephemeral Courting for Millions of Years Juan M. Losada MICHAEL DOSMANN The Arnold Arboretum's magnolia collection currently holds 157 accessions of native and non-native magnolias. A t the end of the seventeenth century, Henry Compton, the Bishop of London and a man known for his passionate love of gardening, sent the Reverend John Banister on a missionary trip to the New World. Banister arrived in Virginia in 1678 and, in addition to his clerical work, collected many new plant species for Bishop Compton. Among these was a tree species never before seen in Europe, specimens of which were planted and flourished near Fulham Palace, the Bishop's residence. After observing these specimens, botanist Philip Miller recorded the first written reference to this species in his book, The Gardeners Dictionary. Miller was not only the chief gardener of the Chelsea Physic botanic garden, the second oldest in Britain, but also a plant collector and conservationist who cultivated many exotic species. Interestingly, the garden was visited by Linnaeus during his trip to England in 1736. Miller was influenced by the new system of classification that Linnaeus proposed, to the extent that he organized the garden following the Linnaean system. In 1753, Linnaeus included for the first time in his world renowned work Species Plantarum the specimens that Miller observed at Fulham Palace, with the name Magnolia virginiana. 20 Arnoldia 71\/3 Magnolia virginiana 21 nated terrestrial ecosystems. Both gymnosperms and angiosperms are seed plants, and seeds are the product of fertilized ovules. Herein lies the main difference between both plant groups: while gymnosperms have their ovules exposed or \"naked,\" flowering plants developed maternal tissues to shelter their ovules. Despite the more complicated new arrangement of the ovules, flowers increased the efficiency of sexual reproduction and opened up many new opportunities for coevolutionary relationships between flowering plants and insect pollinators. Flowers became key evolutionary innovations, opening a door for innumerable new reproductive strategies that can be seen throughout the great diversity of flowering plants. Sexual Reproduction and Flower Receptivity In 1694, Rudolf Jakob Camerarius published his discovery that plants undergo sexual reproduction. Flowers are the reproductive parts of angiosperms, performing two main functions: they act as a showy display to attract pollinators, and they bear the germ lineages (gametes). The germ lineages are housed inside of a number of tissues specialized for either dispersal (for the male gametes) or protection (for the female gametes). The contact of both male and female gametes in most flowering plants involves the transfer of pollen between individuals, which is a task often carried out by insect pollinators. The first major studies on plant pollination were done by K 22 Arnoldia 71\/3 Magnolia virginiana 23 within a flower--self pollination (the equivalent of marrying a very close relative). But in Magnolia virginiana (and in other Magnolia species), a temporal separation of the activities of the male and female parts of individual flowers acts to diminish the possibility of inbreeding. The temporal separation of both sexes is manifested as a protogynous flowering cycle (proto = first, gynoecium = female parts, or \"ladies first\"), and is delimited by floral movements. As a result, the female phase precludes the male phase and they do not overlap, thus creating a two day flowering cycle. Flowers open the first day at dusk (opening takes around 20 minutes and can be observed by just staring patiently at the right flower) as females with wet, sticky stigmas that receive pollen grains, and then close when night falls. They remain closed until the evening of the following day, when flowers reopen in the male phase, at which point stamens shed pollen. During the stage in which the flower remains closed, the flowers generate heat in order to give Female phase of Magnolia flowers. (A) A Magnolia flower shows multiple gynoecia at the first flower opening. (B) Detailed view of the hooked stigmas that shelter to their main pollinator, have bright, sticky surfaces ready to receive pollen grains. (C) Scanning electron beetles. The ability for flowers micrograph of the stigma surface in Magnolia virginiana, showing the fingerlike to produce heat is common to all cells (papillae) that form an intricate network for pollen grain gathering. magnolias (and other members of actions, recorded with time-lapse photography the family), and so is thought to be an ancestral character for the lineage. Other pollinators, under controlled conditions The resulting video such as bees, have been observed to act as polis available online: linators for these plants, but little is known http:\/\/www.youtube.com\/ about how effectively they transfer pollen from watch?v=Ja3GJyJ98uI flower to flower. A few studies in the reproductive biology of The timing of flower movements affects the genus Magnolia suggested that the period reproductive performance and points to the of female receptivity was connected to these importance of a rhythm. This rhythm could flower movements, but exact timing was be associated with pollinator behavior, in our unknown. Our investigations in the Arborecase mainly bees and bumble bees, and possibly tum with controlled pollinations in the laborabeetles. Our research project with M. virgintory confirmed those suggestions, and showed iana at the Arnold Arboretum started with the that stigmatic receptivity is remarkably short. observation of this cycle and pollinator inter- 24 Arnoldia 71\/3 Magnolia virginiana 25 composed of two organic units: small amino acid backbones, and large sugar moieties where the functional capacity resides), which have numerous functions in plants such as acting as mediators in cell-to-cell communication, were secreted towards the apple stigma surface precisely at the time of receptivity. Furthermore, these glycoproteins are known to control plant cell elongation processes, and could be involved in pollen tube elongation. Their conspicuous presence in female tissues of apple flowers prompted us to wonder whether ancient lineages of angiosperms (flowering plants) would use similar molecular mechanisms. Microscopy evaluation of Magnolia virginiana stigmas showed that the nutrient movements in stigmatic tissues followed a precisely defined cycle, and that the secretory products on the stigma surface were mainly saccharides (short chains of sugars, based on the binding of individual units such as glucose or fructose). Furthermore, by using antibodies (immunolocalization) specific for the glycoproteins that were also present in apple stigmas, we detected these molecules during the short period of stigmatic receptivity in M. virginiana. This suggests that in M. virginiana, as in apple, specific glycoproteins mark the short time frame that flowers are able to allow pollen grain germination on the stigmatic surface. This work showed for the first time in a member of the Magnoliaceae that maternal tissues bear glycoproteins during pollen reception, and hinted at their involvement in pollen tube elongation towards the ovules. Combined, all this data offers new perspectives on how different flowering plants control the production of offspring. The presence of common nutritive factors secreted from the female tissues at times of pollen reception in very distantly related species points to a possible conserved mechanism across all angiosperms. But also, it sheds light on the molecular crosstalk during initial stages of male The Evolution of Pollen Receiving Structures in Seed Plants SHOWN HERE are illustrations of longitudinal median sections of different maternal tissues receiv- ing pollen grains in seed plants. The associated cladogram shows the estimated time of emergence for general seed plant lineages (mya=millions of years ago). The earliest group shown is the gymnosperms, which arose around 290 million years ago, and are characterized by naked ovules that have a liquid secretion at their ovule tips (the pollination droplet) directly catching pollen grains. Those pollen grains germinate following contact with ovule tissues. In contrast, angiosperms evolved around 243 million years ago, and most basal flowering plants had already developed maternal tissues surrounding their ovules. Among them, the apical part (the stigma) establishes the first contact between maternal tissues and paternal pollen grains. In the basal angiosperm lineages (Amborellales, Nymphaeales, and Austrobaileyales), the stigmas produce a copious secretion at their surface for pollen reception. More evolved but still relatively early divergent angiosperms show large stigmatic surfaces and a wet appearance, but lack a copious secretion. Pollen grains can develop different pollen tube lengths depending on the area of the stigma where they are deposited. Finally, in most evolved angiosperms (in a broad sense), stigmas tend to reduce their area, whereas larger styles developed, and a specialized central transmitting tissue is the arena for pollen tube elongation towards the ovules. These illustrations emphasize the importance of the stigma during the first male Magnolia virginiana 27 when they included this species in their palace gardens. However, they missed the equally remarkable story behind what was happening within those flowers: the impressive coordination of floral movements and molecular interactions that created the ephemeral female phase, a short time for a courtship repeated every blooming period for millions of years. Acknowledgements I am very grateful to Ned Friedman and Becky Povilus for valuable comments and their contribution to the fluency of this manuscript. References Camerarius, R. J. 1694. De sexu plantarum epistola. Tubingen. Darwin, C. R. 1862. Fertilisation of orchids. London: John Murray. Darwin, C. R. 1876. The effects of cross and self fertilisation in the vegetable kingdom. London: John Murray. Friedman, W. E. 2006. Embryological evidence for developmental lability during early angiosperm evolution. Nature 44: 337"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wish You Were Here","article_sequence":3,"start_page":28,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25566","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25eab26.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":3,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Wish You Were Here Nancy Rose L ong before email, Twitter, or Instagram, postcards were the medium of choice for sending brief messages and colorful images to friends and family. Simple cards, mostly used for advertising, were first introduced in the United States in the 1860s but were not especially popular since they required the same postage as letters. In 1873, the United States Postal Service (USPS) introduced official \"postal cards,\" plain cards with a printed stamp. The postage cost was one cent, half the rate for letters. However, non-USPS cards still required the full two-cent rate. The rise of souvenir postcards can be traced to the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, where vendors offered USPS postal cards with the addition of full color images of Exposition sights printed on the front. Finally, in 1898, an Act of Congress allowed privately printed postcards to mail at the same rate as USPS cards. Over the following decade the popularity of postcards soared, starting to decline only with trade and tariff issues prior to and during World War I (most postcards of the time were printed in Germany) and the increasing prevalence of telephones in the 1920s. Given the beauty of the Arnold Arboretum it's not surprising that it has been featured on many postcards over the years. The Arboretum archives hold a folder full of these historical postcards, some of which are presented below. Linen style postcards were introduced in 1931. They are notable for the fabric-like texture embossed on the paper and their crisp, bright colors. This postcard of the Arboretum's Hunnewell Building (then simply called the Administration Building) was likely produced in the 1930s but was clearly based on a 1921 black-and white photograph made by Alfred Rehder (the vine coverage on the building matches precisely!). Postcards 29 One hundred forty characters or less? Prior to 1907, postal regulations allowed only the mailing address to be written on the stamped side of cards. On many souvenir cards, whose main appeal was the colorful image on the front, this left only a narrow strip at the bottom for a personal message. This may have inspired concise composition (the upper card reads \"With kind regards, hope you are all well, from your friend Jemima Cook\") or very tiny lettering. The lower card shows the pre-1907 admonition against writing messages on the stamped side but by 1910, the year it was postmarked, the sender's message--\"Dear Grandpa, Mamma send[s] her love and hopes you are well\"--was perfectly legal. 30 Arnoldia 71\/3 Postcards 31 In living color The original postcard boom was in part related to the development and proliferation of chromolithography in the latter nineteenth century. Using multiple lithographic stones or plates to apply layers of color, this printing process greatly increased the availability of high quality but affordable color prints. The best quality chromolithograph postcards were printed in Europe, primarily Germany. Hand colored images could be printed in all their glory on postcards, though printers could be variable in color quality. Among the Arboretum cards, some show fairly natural colors while others have little resemblance to the actual landscape. These two cards (facing page) show the same view from within the Arboretum's lilac collection on Bussey Hill, looking east toward the ponds and Forest Hills gate. The top card was made in Germany circa 1906 32 Arnoldia 71\/3 Postcards 33 Where in the Arb? Hundreds of thousands of postcards featuring everything from local taverns to the Grand Canyon have been printed over the past 100-plus years. Thanks to long-standing appreciation of postcards as collectors' items, a surprising number of these bits of paper have been preserved. Postcards have come to be recognized as valuable research materials for historians of architecture, landscapes, and other natural and man-made features, including places like the Arboretum. It's particularly interesting to see the same view over the years: Seen here, a beautiful circa 1907 34 Arnoldia 71\/3 Postcards 35 We regret the error Poor spelling and misinformation did not originate with the internet--even the early postcard era had its share of errors. At left, a card incorrectly names the Arboretum's Bussey Hill as \"Buzzy Hill,\" while the rather unappealing card below labeled \"Scene in Arnold Arboretum\" appears to be the entrance to nearby Franklin Park instead. Suggested Reading Prochaska, D. and J. Mendelson, eds. 2010. Postcards: Ephemeral Histories of Modernity. University Park: Pennsylvania State University Press. Stevens, N. ed. 1995. Postcards in the Library: Invaluable Visual Resources. New York: Haworth Press. Willoughby, M. 1992. A History of Postcards: A Pictorial Record from the Turn of the Century to the Present Day. London: Studio Editions. Nancy Rose is the editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chimonanthus praecox: A Redolence of China","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25563","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d25ea36f.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":3,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Yih, David","article_content":"Chimonanthus praecox: A Redolence of China David Yih O n a raw, wintery day last February, I traveled from Connecticut to visit the Arnold Arboretum, impelled by curiosity. In 1977, my father, at the behest of the poet Donald Hall, had written a series of vignettes for The Ohio Review recalling the China he had left more than thirty years earlier. Among these was a nostalgic essay in which he sought to convey a feeling for Chinese esthetics as exemplified by Chimonanthus praecox, known in China as la mei. Its English common name, wintersweet, encapsulates two notable features of the plant: its membership in that small fraternity of temperate shrubs that bloom in winter and the remarkable fragrance of its flowers. I had recently learned that a specimen grew at the Arboretum and wanted to experience this fragrance for myself. No account of wintersweet fails to mention the scent of its blossoms. But, as my father's essay points out, the resources of the English language are scarcely adequate to describe the smell of flowers. His attempt begins by contrasting wintersweet with gardenia, orange, and locust, whose scents \"have something sensual in them that makes you feel restless, as if there were something missing in your life.\" The wintersweet's fragrance is something \"entirely different, because it is ethereal, spiritual, otherworldly.\" This distinctive scent had set off a Proustian tumult of memories when my father happened to visit a botanical garden while living in Geneva, in 1964: \"As I wandered about I suddenly smelled a remembered fragrance ... In the tepid sun and the breeze, I suddenly recalled my grandfather's house with its two wintersweet trees, my middle school in Soochow with its ancient garden, and the hills of the Chia-ling River. My mind was drunk with memories of people who had gone out of my life and of sceneries I should in all likelihood never see again.\" Chimonanthus belongs to Calycanthaceae, a small family whose members are found primarily in East Asia and North America. Endemic to montane forests in China, Chi- monanthus praecox has been cultivated for over a thousand years. A great number of cultivated varieties exist in China, where it is grown as a garden shrub, a potted plant, and for flower arrangements. When the Sung dynasty poet Huang T'ing-chien composed a poem in praise of la mei, the plant attained instant fame and popularity in the capital, Kaifeng. Fan Chengda included it in his botanical treatise, Fancun meipu (Fan-Village plum register), circa 1186. According to the custom of associating a plant with each month of the lunar calendar, la mei is the flower of the twelfth month; its blooming thus coincides with the Chinese New Year. The Arnold Arboretum's lone specimen (accession 236-98) was grown from seeds received from a botanical garden in Belgium. Wintersweet is marginally cold hardy in USDA Zone 6 (average annual minimum temperature 0 to -10 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23438","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170af28.jpg","title":"2014-71-3","volume":71,"issue_number":3,"year":2014,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Strange Range of Seaside Alder","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25562","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24e896b.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jones, J. Matthew","article_content":"The Strange Range of Seaside Alder J. Matthew Jones P lant species exhibit considerable variation in their native ranges. Some species, such as the North American white oak (Quercus alba), are abundant and have a continuous range across half the continent. Other species, like the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) in China, are rare and natively restricted to a small location in the wild. In addition to being rare, some species exhibit disjunct, or widely separated, populations. Disjunct populations can arise either by unusual dispersal events, or can be remnants of a formerly more widespread range that has since retracted. Disjunct populations of a given species are often highly isolated from one another, which can reduce the likelihood of pollen and seed dispersal (and thus gene flow) among populations. Consequently, isolated populations are more prone to inbreeding and random selection, which, over time reduces genetic diversity and a population's ability to adapt to environmental change. Therefore, studying disjunct Delaware A. maritima ssp. maritima Maryland Oklahoma A. maritima ssp. oklahomensis Georgia A. maritima ssp. georgiensis Seaside alder (Alnus maritima) comprises three small, widely disjunct populations in Maryland, Georgia, and Oklahoma. Seaside Alder 3 Introducing Seaside Alder: The Alder That Does Not Grow by the Seaside Seaside alder is among the most disjunctly distributed tree species in North America, with major populations so widely separated that they are recognized as distinct subspecies. Alnus maritima subsp. maritima occurs on the Delmarva Peninsula, specifically Foliage and catkins of Alnus maritima. along tributaries and streams of the Naticoke, Pocomoke, and Wicomico Alnus maritima and other members of the Rivers of Maryland's Eastern Shore, as well birch family (Betulaceae, 230 species worldas along rivers, ponds, and dammed creeks in wide) are recognized by their distinctive floral Delaware. Alnus maritima subsp. oklahomencatkins and conelike infructescences. Stamisis is restricted to four populations on the Blue nate (male) inflorescences are elongate catkins River and two of its tributaries in south central that hang loosely at the tips of branches, typical Oklahoma, while A. maritima subsp. georgienof trees that disperse pollen by wind. The tiny, sis occurs along opposite sides of a single pond apetalous, pistillate (female) flowers sit above in Bartow County, Georgia. What historical, woody, scalelike leaves (bracts), arranged as a ecological, and physiological factors caused this spike in the leaf axils. At maturity, the woody disjunct distribution? How genetically diverse bracts on the \"cones\" spread apart to release the are each of the regional subspecies and how water-dispersed seeds. Unlike birches, which might this affect their long-term viability? have deciduous three-lobed bracts, alders' fiveAlnus maritima is a large shrub or small tree lobed woody bracts persist well into the folthat tends to grow in spreading, multi-stemmed lowing season, yielding an attractive display of clumps in wet soils along banks of ponds, inch-long spent \"cones\" in winter. streams, and even fast moving rivers. Seaside Eight species of alder occur in North America. alder's roots can tolerate partial submergence in Flower-to-seed development of most of these water and, similar to legumes, have a symbiotic species requires a full year. Floral buds initiate relationship with bacteria that assimilate atmoin summer, go dormant over winter, open for spheric nitrogen. Despite its name, A. maritima pollination the following spring, and disperse doesn't occur on the seaside and is intolerant their seeds in late summer and autumn. Alnus of saline soils. Individual trunks are usually 10 maritima, however, initiates floral developto 13 centimeters (4 to 5 inches) in diameter, ment in spring, opens for pollination in late 5 to 7 meters (16 to 23 feet) tall, and covered summer to early autumn, and releases seeds in in smooth, light gray bark. The simple, alterlate autumn or early winter of the same year. nate leaves are narrowly elliptical to obovate in This phenological sequence (supported by more shape, with a lustrous surface, leathery texture, recent genetic data) delineates the alder suband singly serrated margins. genus Clethropsis, a clade that A. maritima ROBERT H. MOHLENBROOK, USDA-NRCS PLANTS DATABASE populations is important for understanding how habitat fragmentation affects biodiversity and species' long-term viability, as well as for helping to assess conservation strategies that maintain genetic diversity. Seaside Alder 5 shares with the Himalayan alder (A. nitida) and the Formosan alder (A. formosana). This means that seaside alder's nearest extant relatives are in southern Asia (Chen and Li 2004). Investigating the Causes and Consequences of the Disjunction Schrader and Graves (2002) classified the three regional populations of seaside alder as three subspecies. Subspecies are a taxonomic ranking used to distinguish geographically isolated populations of species that often have unique morphological features and specialized adaptations to local environments. Alnus maritima subsp. oklahomensis is the most distinctive of the three subspecies, with narrower leaves and larger trunks and canopies compared to the Delmarva (A. maritima subsp. maritima) and Georgia (A. maritima subsp. georgiensis) subspecies. A. maritima subsp. oklahomensis also occurs in more phosphorus deficient and alkaline soils than the other subspecies. Alnus maritima subsp. maritima was the first population recognized in the early nineteenth century. Seaside alder's strange distribution was first noted when Elihu Hall discovered populations along the Blue River in the Indian Territory during his exploration of the region in 1872. Was this the result of a dispersal event or the remnant of a formerly broader range? John Furlow (1979), in his comprehensive monograph of American alder species, proposed that the Oklahoma population was a relict of range retraction, noting the fossil evidence of related species further west. Virginia Stibolt's (1981) study of seaside alder distributions suggested the Oklahoma population might be the result of dispersal by Native Americans, as the Delaware Indians were forcibly relocated to the Indian Territory several decades before Hall's discovery. However, Stibolt herself expressed skepticism about this hypothesis, and there is no ethnobotanical or historical reasoning for Native Americans to have intentionally or inadvertently dispersed seaside alder seeds. The discovery of the Georgia population in 1997 further undermined the dispersal hypothesis. Alnus maritima subsp. oklahomensis has narrower leaves and larger trunk and canopy size than the other two subspecies of seaside alder. Population Genetics as a Research Tool Population genetics, the study of genetic diversity within and among populations of organisms, has further clarified the nature of seaside alder's present disjunct distribution. Additionally, using population genetics techniques can help conservation biologists assess the genetic health of the population. Namely, how diverse and genetically distinct are the existing populations, are those populations highly inbred, and how much do populations contribute to overall species diversity? To measure population diversity and health, population geneticists compare frequencies of alleles (variants of genes) and frequencies of heterozygosity (possessing two alleles of a gene Facing page. Charles Edward Faxon's illustration of Alnus maritima in Charles Sprague Sargent's Flora of North America, 1890. In the entry for this species Sargent wrote, \"Its brilliant foliage and its bright golden staminate aments [catkins], hanging in September from the ends of the slender leafy branches, make it at that season of the year an attractive ornament for parks and gardens.\" J. PHIL GIBSON 6 Arnoldia 71\/2 Seaside Alder 7 al. (2008) suggested the alders' perennial, multistemmed, clonal growth habit and ability to sprout new shoots after disturbance and damage promote greater gene flow (movement of pollen or dispersal of seeds) and maintenance of genetic variation within each region. Additionally, genetic variation within regions might be maintained by extensive gene flow among populations within regions. In other words, although the vast distances among seaside alder in Delmarva, Georgia, and Oklahoma severely limit the exchange of pollen or seed, more localized gene flow seems to occur among networks of populations within regions. However, allozymes lack sufficient variation (or resolution) to detect differences among populations within regions, or among subpopulations within those populations. To test this hypothesis, more variable genetic markers are required. Simple Sequence Repeat Microsatellites: High Definition Population Genetics Microsatellites (also known as Simple Sequence Repeats, or SSRs) are regions of repeated sequences of DNA (e.g., GAGAGA) that do not code for proteins or enzymes. Such genes may serve some regulatory functions, but are often colloquially considered to be \"junk\" DNA. Their repeated sequence motifs lend them to a type of regular, neutral mutation that makes microsatellites particularly useful molecular marker for population genetic studies. Although more expensive and time consuming to develop and analyze, microsatellites offer much greater variability than allozymes and allow for finerscale genetic analyses. My own thesis work (Jones and Gibson 2011, 2012) used microsatellite markers to corroborate population genetic characteristics observed in J. PHIL GIBSON A colony of Alnus maritima subsp. oklahomensis grows along the Blue River in Oklahoma. 8 Arnoldia 71\/2 Seaside Alder 9 reduced the uniform dispersal of pollen clouds, a common phenomenon affecting the mating systems of wind-pollinated species. However, while these barriers tended to favor siring by fewer local pollen parents, we were able to identify potential individual pollen parents located some distance from the mother tree. In Oklahoma, some offspring collected from the main Blue River population were potentially sired by pollen parent trees located 5 to 7 kilometers (3 to 4 miles) away in nearby creeks. In Georgia, identified pollen parents were located on both sides of the pond. This means that gene flow via movement of pollen is possible among populations within each subspecies. But How Did It Get There? Both the allozyme and microsatellite genetic data strongly suggested the three regional seaside alder subspecies are the result of range retraction, not dispersal. Each population showed comparable levels of genetic diversity and each contained alleles unique to the region. What then, made seaside alder's range retract so much, and why was it so previously widespread? Why is a species like Alnus serrulata widespread, but Alnus maritima rare? Alnus maritima and Alnus serrulata share many ecological features well suited for colonizJOSEPH O'BRIEN, USDA FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD.ORG ing disturbed riparian sites, including tolerance of wet soils, the ability to fix nitrogen, and a robust multi-stemmed growth habit. However, A. maritima has been observed to only inhabit areas with full sun, whereas A. serrulata can inhabit both sunny and shady niches. Schrader et al. (2006) investigated the photosynthetic and growth characteristics of both alder species and found seaside alder to have lower chlorophyll concentrations, greater seedling growth rates in full sun, and lower seedling survivability in shade compared to Alnus serrulata. Therefore, while seaside alder would be more successful on relatively open, early-succession habitats, as the ecosystem matures, later succession species establish and develop canopies that shade seaside alder and reduce its competitiveness. It would eventually succumb to other shade tolerant species, including hazel alder. Schrader et al. (2006) proposed that the late Pleistocene, a time of significant climatic instability characterized by cycles of glacial advancement and retreat and changes in the locations of drainage basins, would have provided many opportunities for seaside alder to colonize and establish a broad range across the continent. Once the climate stabilized, however, those disturbance events stopped, and with it seaside alder's chance to thrive and spread. Stability brought on ecological succession, and seaside alder was gradually outcompeted by other species, except in its present range. Alders bear persistent, conelike infructescences. Those of the widely adaptable hazel alder (Alnus serrulata) are seen here. Conservation Implications The distinct genetic identity of each subspecies and the gene flow among populations within each region means that it is important to protect all populations to conserve the genetic diversity and long-term viability of the species. The Georgia and Oklahoma subspecies are now both classified as \"critically imperiled,\" the most threatened conservation status according to state conservation agencies. Recent 10 Arnoldia 71\/2 COURTESY OF STANLEY A. RICE Seaside Alder 11 A five-year-old hedge of Alnus maritima `September Sun' shows off glossy foliage and golden fall-blooming staminate catkins. Gibson, J. P., S. A. Rice, and C. M. Stucke. 2008. Comparison of population genetic diversity between a rare, narrowly distributed species and a common, widespread species of Alnus (Betulaceae). American Journal of Botany 95: 588"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Alfred Rehder: His German Roots","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25558","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24e816f.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grimmer, Arnd Rudiger","article_content":"Alfred Rehder: His German Roots Dr. Arnd R Alfred Rehder 13 A.WINKLER, WWW.LUFTBILDER-WINKLER.DE Waldenburg castle, where Alfred Rehder was born, as it appears today. mate son of Heinrich, Duke of Anhalt-K 14 Arnoldia 71\/2 Alfred Rehder 15 Rehder's Years of Travel In March 1884, the apprenticeship was finished. Fourteen years of traveling then began for the young gardener, and during this period Rehder made himself familiar with all aspects of gardening work. First, he went to Berlin at the Botanical Garden of the Friedrich-Wilhelm-University and used the opportunity to gain new knowledge about taxonomy and field research. As first proof of his growing taxonomic skills, he gave a lecture at the 1886 meeting of the Association of Natural History in Zwickau. The 23-yearold spoke about beardmosses, and showed convincingly that the esteemed explorer Henry M. Stanley had made errors in the determination of this plant species (Anonymous 1886). After an interlude in 1886 working with a flower grower in Frankfurt, he went to Muskau and worked for a year with Gustav Schrefeld (1831 Brockengarten Alfred Rehder was instrumental in the creation of the Brockengarten, a botanical garden designed for the study of alpine plants. After years of neglect in the 1970s and 1980s, the garden was reestablished in the 1990s. Today, alpine plants from many regions can be seen in the garden, with a weather station and telecommunications tower arising at the mountain's peak. Seen here, sky blue Gentiana ternifolia from China and Calceolaria uniflora from the Patagonia region in South America. PHOTOS COURTESY OF DR. GUNTER KARSTE, NATIONAL PARK HARZ However, the collaboration with his supervisor, Albert Peter (1853 Alfred Rehder 17 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM A New Beginning in America In the 1880s, grape phylloxera (an aphid-like insect that can damage or kill grapevine roots) spread in Germany and threatened to destroy the wine producing industry. American grape (Vitis) species were found to be resistant to phylloxera, so knowledge of these plants was indispensable for the survival of European wine production. In 1898 Rehder received from the German government a mandate to examine the Vitis species on the East Coast, while at the same time reporting about American horticulture for his journal. As a destination, he chose the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, which was part of Harvard University and, despite being in existence for only 26 years, was regarded as the center of American dendrology. His initial reception in Boston was far from friendly, as the over-cautious port authorities had him summarily detained. Through the mediation of the founder and director of the Arnold Arboretum, Charles S. Sargent (1841"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Remembering Alfred Rehder","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25560","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24e856d.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pearson, Lisa","article_content":"Remembering Alfred Rehder Lisa Pearson A lfred Rehder sailed for America on the Cunard steamship Cephalonia in the spring of 1898. He had a small stipend from the gardening journal he worked for, M Alfred Rehder next to a rather sprawling specimen of Magnolia stellata in front of the Arboretum's Hunnewell Building. Photograph by R.W. Curtis, June 8, 1922. seeds, cuttings, bulbs, and roots of over 1,000 of the College of Agriculture at the University species, some of them completely new, and of California, Berkeley, and later Director of the all of which needed identification and classiArnold Arboretum) Rehder laments, \"Like you fication. The documentation of this labor by I am getting `snowed under' with material coming in all the time.\" With the death of Charles Rehder and Wilson, as well as their colleagues Faxon in 1918, Rehder was appointed curator George Russell Shaw and Camillo Schneider, of the herbarium and during his 22-year tenwas the three-volume Plantae Wilsonianae: An ure he increased the holdings by over 300,000 Enumeration of the Woody Plants Collected mounted specimens. Many of those sheets were in Western China for the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University During the Years 1907, 1908, and 1910 by E. H. Wilson. Rehder and Wilson would also collaborate on A Monograph on Azaleas, published in 1921, as well as a number of articles in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. In addition to their professional collaboration, they and their families were also genuine friends. In his letters to Rehder from Japan, Wilson often sends greetings from his wife Ellen to Rehder's wife Anneleise, and in a letter to Wilson from Breslau in 1930, Rehder familiarly tells about his having some \"good Rhine wine.\" Wilson's collecting trips to Japan in 1914, and Japan, Korea, and Formosa (Taiwan) in 1917 Plant Hardiness Zone Maps TODAY, plant hardiness zone information is found on everything from catalogs to plant labels in nursery pots, but less than 100 years ago there was no national map of hardiness zones for the United States. It was not until the publication of Alfred Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America in 1927 that one became available, its publication predating the first USDA hardiness map by more than 30 years. This early map was divided into eight zones and did not include Florida, the southern portions of Texas and Louisiana, and it only took in the parts of Canada contiguous with the northern border of the United States. For the second edition of his Manual, Rehder used a modified version of a zone map published in 1936 by Donald Wyman that included more of Canada. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The plant hardiness zone map, with colored pencil added by Rehder, in his personal copy of his 1927 Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America. the product of Arboretum-sponsored expeditions such as those by Wilson and Rock, but through his network of colleagues at other institutions, Rehder also actively collected duplicate sets of their sheets to fill gaps in the Arboretum herbarium holdings of the flora of important regions. Rehder as Writer and Editor In 1919, Rehder took over the behind-the-scenes management of a new institutional periodical, the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. He had lobbied for its creation to fill the gap left by the demise of Garden and Forest in 1897 and to provide a quarterly forum for articles more technical and lengthy than could be accommodated by the Bulletin of Popular Information. In his preface to volume one, issue one, Sargent summed up its purpose, \"In its pages will appear notes on trees and shrubs with descriptions of new species and their relationships, letters from correspondents, and notes on the vegetation of countries visited by officers and agents of the Arboretum.\" While it was Sargent's name which appeared as editor at that time, the bulk of the production work, preliminary editing, and the authorship of many articles for the Journal fell on Rehder's shoulders. In 1926, Rehder Alfred Rehder 21 COURTESY OF WWW.SEQUIMRAREPLANTS.COM More than 60 plant taxa have been named in honor of Alfred Rehder. Seen here is Clematis rehderiana, a handsome clematis native to China and Nepal. became joint editor to assist an increasingly frail Charles Sargent. With volume eight the next year, Rehder and Wilson assumed joint editorial control. Wilson's untimely death in an automobile accident in October 1930 caused more reorganization and Rehder assumed the role of senior editor with Joseph Horace Faull and Karl Sax as associate editors. In the following year Clarence Kobuski, Rehder's assistant in the herbarium, took over for Sax as joint editor and continued in this role until Rehder's retirement in 1940. At that time, A. C. Smith became editor as well as curator of the herbarium, and a ten-member editorial board was formed that included Alfred Rehder, who continued in this capacity until 1948, just a year before his death. Charles Sprague Sargent, who had guided the Arnold Arboretum since its founding in 1872, died in March 1927 after several years of declining health. The institution was on shaky fiscal ground, forcing acting director Ernest Wilson to cut Rehder had blank pages bound into his personal copy of the Manual of Cultivated Trees costs wherever he could. He and Shrubs Hardy in North America so that he could write notes and corrections. trimmed the staff in Jamaica Plain and abroad, even curtailing Joseph Rock's plant collecting in western China. But in the midst of the turmoil, publication of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America provided a bright spot for the institution in that momentous year. The Manual presented \"a systematic and descriptive enumeration of the cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America,\" and facilitated \"their identification by means of analytical keys.\" It immediately became the go-to book for botanists and horticulturists alike. The book proved so useful and popular that it went to a second printing. In 1940, a completely revised second edition was issued, which took in new species and applied changes to rules and nomenclature adopted in the 1930 and 1935 International Botanical Congresses. Multiple reprintings of this second edition of the Manual have been made over the years, including a paperback version as recently as 2001. In the foreword to a commemorative 1986 reprinting of the Manual, botanist Theodore Dudley noted that Rehder \"possessed an insatiable curiosity and outstanding originality, demanded of himself the very highest standards, and was dedicated to the systematics and biology of all woody plants.\" ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 22 Arnoldia 71\/2 Alfred Rehder 23 Finding the Dwarf Alberta Spruce IN 1904, Alfred Rehder and John George Jack, Professor of Dendrology at the Arnold Arboretum, went on a plant collecting expedition to the Canadian Rockies. While waiting for a train near Lake Laggan, Alberta, they decided to take a walk. On their stroll they came upon a remarkable dwarf form of the local variety of white spruce (Picea glauca var. albertiana). Seedlings were sent back and the one surviving plant grew into a fine specimen. With its dense, almost perfectly conical growth, extreme cold hardiness, and ease of propagation, dwarf Alberta spruce (P. glauca var. albertiana f. conica) was soon adopted by the nursery trade and is now ubiquitous in gardens and container plantings. Two accessions (11586 and 182-2005) of this popular garden plant may be found in the Arboretum's Conifer Collection and the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM NANCY ROSE A stand of Picea glauca var. albertiana photographed by Alfred Rehder in August 1904 near Banff, Alberta, and a potted specimen of the now widely-grown dwarf Alberta spruce. 24 Arnoldia 71\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dispersal","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25559","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24e8528.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Laurent, Anna","article_content":"Dispersal Anna Laurent Editor's Note: Presented here is a sampling of photographs from Dispersal, a project by writer and photographer Anna Laurent. Dispersal will be on display in the Arnold Arboretum's Hunnewell Visitor Center from October 26, 2013, to January 26, 2014. S eed pods are incredible little vessels tasked with protecting seeds as they mature, and assisting with their dispersal. Dispersal explores how species have evolved different forms to fulfill these common functions. Individually, each photograph is a fine art portrait of a unique botanic specimen; as a series, the collection becomes a visual and scientific inquiry into the diversity of botanic design. Each specimen profile includes text exploring the seed pod's relationship to its parent plant and natural environment, and a bit about its ethnobotanical history. The project explores questions of structure and behavior: Why are the magnolia's seeds red? Why do lotus seeds remain dormant for so long? Why do some trees hold onto their fruits until the seeds have dispersed, while others release the entire vessel? The project began in Southern California, where I began collecting seed pods--dangling from tree canopies and lodged between sidewalk cracks--in my urban Hollywood neighborhood. I have since collected specimens in the rain forests of Hawaii, the deserts of northern Iraq, and ecologies throughout the United States, including the Arnold Arboretum. Seed structures were collected from sites as lush as Lotusland in California (seen here, Nelumbo nucifera) and as sere as the foothills of Kurdistan. All photos by the author. 26 Arnoldia 71\/2 Dispersal 27 Oriental poppy (Papaver orientale) Collected: September 2010 in Portland, Oregon European plant collectors gathered seeds from mountains adjacent to the Euphrates River in the early eighteenth century, and the species has since dispersed in temperate regions throughout the world, including the Pacific Northwest and gardens in Portland, Oregon. With its tomato-red petals and eggplant-colored anthers, the Papaver orientale blossom has long been a darling of botanical illustrators. It is beautiful. The seed pod, however, better reveals the unusual morphology common to species in the Papaveraceae family: there is no style, instead a collection of sessile stigmas radiates atop the ovary, now swelling above a tangle of dehiscent anthers. When mature, seeds are released through small apertures that open below the stigmatic disc. The puckered pod shivers in the breeze, tossing small black bits like a pepper-pot. 28 Arnoldia 71\/2 Dispersal 29 Fleshy-flowered Spindletree (Euonymus carnosus) Collected: October 2012 at the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, Massachusetts In the fall, the Arnold Arboretum's grove of Euonymus trees is a pink haze of plump ornaments. Trees in the genus are characterized by their inconspicuous green or yellow flowers, while the fruits are brightly-colored capsules that split open to reveal seeds covered in an equally bright arillus. Like many other species in the genus, Euonymus carnosus appeals to its primary seed dispersal agent--birds-- with small flashes of red fleshy skin, from which the black seeds seem to coalesce like droplets. Birds, attracted to red wavelengths, pluck the seeds and consume the wattle-like skin. The seeds are carried for the length of the courier's digestive tract, then dispersed. The specific epithet, carnosus, translates to \"fleshy,\" which refers to the thick flower petals and fruits. Euonymus means \"aptly-named,\" an etymology with origins in Greek mythology. The genus of fiery-leaved trees was believed to descend from Euonyme, the mother of the Furies, as the fruits of the tree are beautiful but can be poisonous. Euonymus carnosus is native to forests and woodlands in parts of China and Japan; multiple accessions of this species have grown well at the Arnold Arboretum. 30 Arnoldia 71\/2 Dispersal 31 Astragalus Collected: June 2011 near Jarmo, Kurdistan, northern Iraq It's not always easy--or possible--to identify a seed pod collected in the wild. I found these in the Iraqi steppe near Jarmo, a neolithic farming site in Kurdistan's foothills, one of the first settlements to cultivate grains. I was working on a documentary about the future of agriculture in the Fertile Crescent, and, as we were finishing an interview with an antiquities curator, I set down my camera to collect these capsules. They would prove difficult to identity. One can often refer to a flora (a manual listing all plants in a country), but Iraq lacks this document. Begun years ago, it was delayed due to wars and sanctions. Botanists from Iraq and the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh have recently resumed the project, but it will take a while. Having yet to collect this species in Iraq's vast desert wilderness, none of the botanists were able to identify the pods. Meanwhile, I've tentatively named it an Astragalus and have sought confirmation from an Astragalus expert in neighboring Iran. When he replies to my query, I'll have a line to contribute to Iraq's flora. Anna Laurent is a flora-focused writer, producer, and photographer. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Standing Tall: The Upright Swede (Tilia cordata 'Swedish Upright')","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25561","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24e8926.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Standing Tall: The Upright Swede (Tilia cordata `Swedish Upright') Michael S. Dosmann S ome fifty years ago, the Arnold Arboretum introduced a cultivar of littleleaf linden (Tilia cordata) to the world. In the same issue where the Arboretum witchhazel introduction Hamamelis "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23437","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170ab6e.jpg","title":"2013-71-2","volume":71,"issue_number":2,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mutants in our Midst","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25555","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eb76d.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":1,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Friedman, William E.","article_content":"William E. Friedman W hat is horticulture? At its core, it is a human celebration, whether conscious or unconscious, of the very fact of evolution. It is thousands of years of detecting and rejoicing in the rare: the selection of the novel form that somehow pleases the human aesthetic or serves to feed the world. Although often overlooked, many of the wonderful horticultural varieties that grow in botanical gardens (as well as in backyard gardens) are premier examples of the amazing and ongoing process of evolution: random mutations that lead, on the rarest of occasions, to novel and desirable biological characteristics--as opposed to novel and neutral or undesirable characteristics. Charles Darwin was an avid consumer of horticultural literature and information, and was a frequent correspondent with the most eminent horticulturists of the nineteenth century. Over the course of his life, he wrote 55 notes and articles in the Gardeners' Chronicle and Agricultural Gazette, one of the most widely circulated horticultural periodicals of his time. He covered everything from how pea and bean flowers are pollinated (Darwin 1857, 1858, 1866) to the origin of variant forms of roses in cultivation (Darwin 1868). He wrote of his observations of and interest in the origin of double-flowered forms (Darwin 1843) and variegated leaves (Darwin 1844). No horticultural phenomenon was beyond his interest. Indeed, Darwin looked to the world of horticulture and plant domestication in order to gain critical insights into the generation of variation and the process of natural selection that underlie evolutionary change. In essence, Darwin was intensely interested in mutants in our midst. Charles Darwin wrote about many horticultural topics including variegated pelargoniums, which were very popular in the Victorian era. `Mrs. Pollack', seen here, was introduced in 1858. \"Florists have attended in some instances to the leaves of their plant, and have thus produced the most elegant and symmetrical patterns of white, red, and green, which, as in the case of the pelargonium, are sometimes strictly inherited.\" -- Charles Darwin, The Variation of Animals -- and Plants Under Domestication, 1868 Evolution at thE arborEtum The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University hosts a remarkable collection of more than 15,000 accessioned woody temperate plants distributed in over 2,000 different species. This living collection contains wild-collected trees, shrubs, and vines, as well as a spectacular set of horticultural varieties whose very presence is the result of human discovery and propagation of desirable variants. Many of these horticultural varieties are the result of the never-ending process of spontaneous mutations that occur in all organisms and serve to create novel GeOff BryANT mutants in our midst variety, Form, or Cultivar? how to namE a variant plant is the topic of some taxonomic debate and often results in multiple versions of the plant's name. as taxonomic understanding and interpretation changes through the years it often results in changed nomenclature, reflected in the International Code of Nomenclature and the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. a quick reference search finds the white-flowered redbud mentioned in this article listed as Cercis canadensis var. alba, Cercis canadensis f.[forma] alba, or Cercis canadensis `alba'(a cultivar name). the same range of synonyms are found for the mutant Kalmia latifolia (var. polypetala, f. polypetala, or `Polypetala') featured later in the article. to add to the confusion, in common usage the words \"variety\" and \"form\" are often broadly applied (\"i like pink varieties of roses\") or used when referring to a cultivar. For this article, i have used the scientific names as they appear in the arboretum's collections database. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis) blooms throughout its canopy, producing a spectacular spring display. traits--the very stuff of evolution. These variant plants, referred to as \"sports,\" arise in a single generation and have undergone a dramatic change in phenotype (the biological properties of the organism) from the parent plant and species. Typically, sports are discovered as a single branching system on a tree or shrub that differs significantly in its morphology, coloration, or other biological properties from the rest of the parent plant. The source of the biological novelty is random mutation, and subsequent vegetative propagation (e.g., grafting, rooting of cuttings, tissue culture) allows the new form to be cloned for further dissemination. Since arriving at the Arnold Arboretum in January 2011, I have fallen in love with these wonderful horticultural results of random genetic mutations and the creation of novelty PAUl W. Meyer, MOrrIS ArBOreTUM 4 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mutants in our Midst 5 WIllIAM e. frIeDMAN WIllIAM e. frIeDMAN This cluster of flowers shows both the normal (pink and magenta) and the mutant (whitish) forms found on the Arboretum's mutant redbud. mostly, but not entirely, white. It was not, however, until the spring of 2009 that these aberrant flowers were first noticed by Arboretum staff. The flowers are beautiful, and novel and rare in a way that every lover of new horticultural forms can appreciate. Now, every year, this redbud continues to produce the typical pink and magenta flowers on most of its shoot systems, with whitish flowers on a single lateral set of branches that bear the mutant gene that results in altered flower color. Interestingly, this is by no means the first horticultural variant of the eastern redbud to sport white flowers. A widely grown one, Cercis canadensis `Alba' (often referred to as C. canadensis f. alba from its earlier botanical description) can be found in gardens throughout the United States. It has pure white flowers, with no trace of red pigmentation. Although it has not been scientifically studied, it is very likely that the mutation that created `Alba' was one that \"broke\" or entirely suppressed the expression of the biochemical pathway to produce red pigmentation in these plants. even young leaves, which typically have a purplish (Top to bottom) normal redbud flower with full red pigmentation; one of the mutant flowers, with pink splotches on the petals and a lighter pink calyx showing that some red pigmentation is still expressed; and a flower of `Alba', with distinctly green sepals and white petals lacking any red pigmentation. 6 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mutants in our Midst 7 of pigmentation that help insect pollinators orient properly as they approach the flower during pollination. Nectar guides are much the same as the lighting on an airport runway, helping the airplane pilot to properly approach the landing strip. finally, in the mutant redbud flowers the female reproductive parts, particularly the style and stigma, differ in pigmentation from the wild type. In normal redbud flowers, the style displays a reddish color, as a consequence of the expression of the biochemical pathways to create anthocyanins. Under the microscope, it becomes evident that the mutant flowers have styles that lack any obvious red pigmentation. What does all of this mean? It suggests that unlike `Alba' and `royal White', which appear to have entirely lost the ability to create anthocyanins (at least in the flowers and young leaves), the Arboretum variant has a mutation that alters where the anthocyanins are produced. In other words, it still makes red pigmentation, but the cellular machinery that might otherwise produce this pigmentation throughout the petals and the style is no longer turned on in these places. How do we know when and where this remarkable single mutation occurred in the Arboretum redbud variant? The answer lies in a basic knowledge of how plants grow and a specific knowledge of an unusual pattern of flowering that can be found in redbud trees. At the tip of every branch of every tree, there is a small group of cells that remains perpetually embryonic and undifferentiated. These cells form the apical meristem, and are similar to stem cells in humans. every year this small population of cells divides, and in dividing creates the new tissues that will differentiate into stems and leaves. If a mutation occurs in one of the cells of the apical meristem, this mutation may come to populate some or all of the cells, and hence the differentiated stem, leaf, and flower cells that are descended from this mutant apical meristem. In the Arboretum's mutant redbud, the mutation that reduced the production of anthocyanins in the flowers of this tree can be found on a set of branches that are all descended from an original mutant meristem of the growing tip of a single shoot. The ability to determine when this mutation occurred in a shoot apical meristem can be deduced because of a specific and somewhat unusual characteristic of all redbud trees. redbuds exhibit a phenomenon known as cauliflory (Owens et al. 1995). Translated literally, cauliflory means flowering on stems. However, in botanical usage, cauliflory refers to the production of flowers on older woody stems. A careful examination of redbud trees reveals WIllIAM e. frIeDMAN This banner petal of a mutant flower clearly shows magenta lines that act as nectar guides for insects (a close-up of the nectar guides under the compound microscope is seen at right). 8 Arnoldia 71\/1 tain laurels produce an abundance of flowers in terminal panicles. In the wild, flowers of Kalmia latifolia are white to pink, with showy cup-shaped corollas. Hundreds of cultivars have been selected; these variants have flowers ranging from white to deep red, many with banded or speckled patterns. But, the \"monstrosity\" described above (initially as Kalmia latifolia var. monstrosa, later as K. latifolia f. polypetala, and now generally referred to as the cultivar `Polypetala') is not a color mutant. rather, it is a variant with an altered morphology of the petals. Instead of forming a sympetalous (fused sets of petals) corolla, `Polypetala' has narrow, unfused individual petals. This is the form of mountain laurel first described by Harvard Professor of Botany Asa Gray in 1870, as a consequence of the keen collecting eye of one Miss Mary Bryant of South Deerfield, Massachusetts. It did not take long before specimens of this unusual morphological mutant came to Harvard University. A specimen of Kalmia latifo- In this inflorescence of Kalmia latifolia `Polypetala' many of the flowers have yet to open. The dark red coloration at the tips of the filiform petals is associated with the unusual production of pollen-producing anthers on these mutant petals. Also note the reflexed normal stamens jutting out between the petals. NANCy rOSe Inflorescences of Kalmia latifolia `Polypetala' create a markedly altered and attractive appearance when the plant is in flower (the plant seen here is the original 1885 accession from South Deerfield, Massachusetts). Flowers of a normal (\"wild-type\") K. latifolia are seen at far left in the photo. Kyle POrT 10 Arnoldia 71\/1 GlASS MODelS: THe WAre COlleCTION Of GlASS MODelS Of PlANTS, HArvArD UNIverSITy; rOSe lINCOlN\/ArNOlD ArBOreTUM Mutants in our Midst 11 lia `Polypetala' from the Harvard University Herbaria notes that it was collected in the Botanic Garden at Harvard (in Cambridge) in 1884. Another 1891 herbarium sheet in the Harvard University Herbaria comes from a grafted specimen that was introduced into the Arnold Arboretum in 1885 (accession 2458). finally, and quite wonderfully, one of the extraordinary models in Harvard's famed glass flowers (formally, the Ware Collection of Glass Models of Plants) was based on observations and collections of the Arboretum specimen of Kalmia latifolia `Polypetala'. In the summer of 1895, rudolph Blaschka--of the father (leopold) and son (rudolph) team that created the glass flowers--came to the Arboretum to sketch and observe this mutant pioneer. The glass model of Kalmia latifolia `Polypetala' (one of over 800 models created by the Blaschkas between 1886 and 1936) can be viewed at the Harvard Museum of Natural History. And, after all of these years, six of the seven original living plants from the 1885 accession (2458-A, B, C, e, f, G) still survive and thrive on the grounds of the Arboretum. In 1907, another cluster of mountain laurels with unfused petals was found along roadsides in leverett, Massachusetts, near Mount Toby (Stone 1909). The mutant petals of these plants were reported not to produce anthers at their termini, as is the case with the `Polypetala' discovered by Miss Bryant and first described by Asa Gray. Arboretum botanist Alfred rehder suggested that this discovery was evidence of the independent origins of these petal mutants in different naturally occurring populations (rehder 1910). However, it is possible that this description was in error. In the University of Massachusetts Herbarium, there are six specimens of the `Polypetala' form of mountain laurel (in flower) that were collected between 1910 and 1932 on Mount Toby, and all of them show anthers at the tips of the mutant petals. Perhaps these oddly placed anthers were not initially observed in the report from 1909. Nevertheless, it is worth noting that `Polypetala'-like forms of Kalmia latifolia have also been found growing in the wild in North Carolina (ebinger 1997) and elsewhere. These variants appear to be fundamentally different from those of the South Deerfield and Mount Toby populations, as they are reported to lack anthers on the tips of the unfused (apopetalous) petals. Clearly there are at least two different and independently formed (evolved) variants with the unifying feature of forming unfused petals--not unlike the multiple evolutionary origins of white-flowered redbuds. Asa Gray's description of the `Polypetala' type of Kalmia refers to the notion that the petals have been \"transformed into stamens.\" In evolutionary terms, this is a statement worth examining. Close observation with a hand lens (or under the microscope) of the \"petals\" of the South Deerfield plant reveals that each one bears a pair of pollen-producing structures at its distalmost end (collectively, an anther). As might be expected, pollen can be found within and then dispersed from these anomalous anthers. Normally, the stamens of Kalmia latifolia comprise a long filament terminated by a reddish anther that produces pollen. A defining characteristic of the floral biology of Kalmia species is that the ten stamens insert themselves into ten pouches in the petals of the cup-like corolla, creating a mechanical tension. visitation by an insect pollinator trips the catapult and the anther flings pollen with enough force to throw it three to six inches away from the flower, but usually directly onto the body of the pollinator, where it will be transported to the next flower to effect pollination (ebinger 1997). In the `Polypetala' Kalmia from South Deerfield, the \"petals\" still produce a pouch about midway along the length of the organ. However, the disruption to the normal morphology of these flowers precludes the proper insertion of the ten normal stamens into these pouches. Thus, as the flower expands towards anthesis (the opening of the flower), the ten normal stamens proceed through their typical pattern of physical reflexing, but never find the petalborne pouches. The \"petals\" also bear much of the typical pinkish-red markings that create some of the brilliant spots or circumferential bands on the corolla of normal flowers. As such, the South Deerfield `Polypetala' \"petals\" may best be thought of as chimeric organs--part petal and part stamen--while some of the other `Polypetala'-like variants that lack anthers on their unfused petals may best be viewed as Mutants in our Midst 13 family history and modern genetics make clear that the gene for hemophilia did not exist in her family prior to her conception. Mutations happen in gametes (or gamete-producing cell lineages), and zygotes and the organisms that develop from the act of fertilization will exhibit the consequences of the new mutation. recent sequencing of whole genomes of human families indicates that each of us carries roughly 75 new simple genetic mutations (\"single nucleotide variants\" in the parlance of geneticists) that neither of our parents was born with (Campbell et al. 2012; Kong et al. 2012). Whether the mutation that created a new chimeric corolla form in the South Deerfield Kalmia latifolia took place in the immediate decades before Miss Bryant found the monstrous plants, we will never know. It could be that this mutation was present in this local population of mountain laurels for hundreds if not thousands of years, unseen by human eyes. And for all we know, this mutation might ultimately mark the beginning of a new species of Kalmia over the course of time. In either case, it took a wandering (and observant) naturalist to discover this product of the evolutionary process, this biological gem, and bring it to the attention of a professional botanist. One can only imagine the delight of Miss Bryant upon finding this unique type of mountain laurel! Botanical gardens are filled with examples of spontaneous mutations, many of which evolved and were discovered in our own lifetimes. These are the very same kinds of mutations that occur constantly in nature and have served as the raw materials that gave rise to humans, oak trees, and plasmodial slime molds--all descended and transformed over the course of billions of years from a single-celled common ancestor of all of life on earth. The raw ingredients of evolution writ large are all around us. And if we look carefully, we can observe the process of evolution by simply walking through a botanical garden, or one's own backyard. Mutant forms of redbud and mountain laurel, as well as myriad other \"sports,\" are an important reminder that we live in a beautiful and profoundly evolutionary world. References Anonymous. 1922. White red-bud. Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin 10(6): 110. Campbell, C.D. et al. 2012. estimating the human mutation rate using autozygosity in a founder population. Nature Genetics 44: 1277 PostsCriPt: One question that lingered after all of the historical research on Kalmia latifolia `Polypetala' was whether any of the mutant plants (or their descendants) that were originally found on Colonel Bryant's property were still in existence. A map of the South Deerfield, Massachusetts, area from 1871 showed exactly where this property was located. fortunately, this map could be cross-correlated with modern maps to show where Miss Bryant collected the mutant plants. On June 22, 2013, I drove to South Deerfield to hunt the wild mutant Kalmia. The old home that once belonged to Colonel Bryant still stands and is well cared for. regrettably, the land around the original six acres has not had a kind interaction with humans. The barren area on the other side of the brook was home to a pickle factory for many years. The town also installed a major sewer line that is buried alongside the brook. While I found lots of poison ivy and a modest amount of undergrowth beneath some maples and hemlocks, there were no Kalmia plants, mutant or otherwise, to be seen. After my visit to South Deerfield, I drove around the base of Mount Toby. There, I spotted several spectacular populations of mountain laurel in full bloom. My ramble in the woods did not turn up any mutant flowers. Next year, with a bit of time and coordination with the University of Massachusetts Herbarium, we will try to explore the Mount Toby area and search more This section from an 1871 map of South Deerfield, thoroughly for the `Polypetala' form of Kalmia latifolia. Massachusetts, shows Colonel Bryant's property, The loss of the mountain laurel population from where the mutant mountain laurel was discovered, near the center. which Miss Bryant collected the `Polypetala' mutant is a stark reminder of the incredible importance of botanical gardens as refugia for rare and endangered plants, whether entire species, threatened local populations, or unusual mutant forms. It is a very fortunate thing that Miss Bryant's monstrosity was propagated and cared for at the Arnold Arboretum. Otherwise, it might well have disappeared from the face of the earth without a second thought. Kong et al. 2012. rate of de novo mutations and the importance of father's age to disease risk. Nature 488: 471"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rediscovering Rhododendron Dell, Part 2","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25556","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24ebb26.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":1,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Port, Kyle","article_content":"Rediscovering Rhododendron Dell Part 2 Kyle Port \"They [hoodlums] deliberately twist off the metal labels from trees and shrubs, so that valuable information is sometimes lost forever and the yearly replacement bill is terrific. They break hundreds of unopened flower buds off the Rhododendrons in the early spring.\" --Edgar Anderson, Arnold Arboretum arborist , June 4, 1932 All Images By The Author unless otherwise indicated Planted in close proximity to one another, Rhododendron 'Old Port' 990-56-B (a catawbiense hybrid with \"vinous crimson\" flowers, seen here) was incorrectly labeled as R. 'Red Head' 329-91-A (with \"orient red\" flowers). A description published by the Royal Horticultural Society was used to verify the only remaining plant as 'Old Port'; a lack of indumentum on the undersides of the leaves distinguishes it from 'Red Head'. The Arboretum's plant records attest to episodes of vandalism, arson, theft, and other willful shenanigans that have occurred in the living collections over the years. In 2010, a pile of plant record labels was found in Rhododendron Dell. This intentional--and completely unsanctioned--removal of labels from numerous specimens by an anonymous person(s) can certainly be considered a major transgression. But, to quote Albert Einstein, \"In the middle of difficulty lies opportunity,\" and this act of vandalism initiated an unplanned curatorial review that has advanced our understanding of the rhododendron collection and further fostered its use. In response to the identity crises in Rhododendron Dell, a multi-year collection review was conceived. Identity verification and field work (e.g., labeling, photographing) was timed to coincide with peak flowering. Winter months were dedicated to auditing and digesting the raft of secondary documentation (e.g., records, articles, herbarium specimens, images) amassed over the collection's 141-year history. Through 16 Arnoldia 71\/1 Rhododendron Dell, Part 2 17 Labeling Following the imaging and field checks, hundreds of new anodized aluminum records labels were embossed and placed in Rhododendron Dell. many are mounted on three-inch stainless steel screws at the base of large stems. Additional records labels have been hung on branches for easy retrieval. In addition to these, prototypes of larger photo-anodized aluminum display labels were tested over the peak flowering periods. Feedback regarding these labels has been overwhelming positive and the roll-out of permanent signage is expected in 2014. Mapping The current maps of Rhododendron Dell are being revised. Vector data (e.g., points, lines, and polygons) representing plants and hardscape features are being re-collected using global posistioning system (gPs) equipment. These technologies allow for decimeter-accurate field mapping and update the triangulation and submeter-accurate data collection of the past. note that interactive maps of Arboretum collections are available at http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/plants\/collection-researcher\/ The gorgeous cultivar 'Brookville' was introduced in 1959 by the Westbury Rose Company based in Long Island, New York. Winter Audits and Records Review Nomenclatural review In advance of label production, we undertook a comprehensive review of rhododendron nomenclature. A total of 103 cultivar names were standardized following The International Rhododenron Register and Checklist (Royal horticultural society 2004). This effort revealed inaccuracies in spelling, punctuation, and use of synonymy for 20 elepidote cultivars. In addition to these edits, the name records in BgBase (collections management software) were appended with hybridizer, introducer, parentage, awards, descriptions, and common name as found in the aforementioned resource. We have used this information to create new display labels and have updated online resources. Archival maps and records The first maps documenting the location of accessioned plants in the permanent collections were purportedly authored by henry sargent codman in 1887. Plan views of the landscape On larger specimens, new record labels have been attached to lower trunks with screws. This specimen of R. 'Purpuream Elegans', accession 6135-B, came to the Arboretum in 1891 from the nursery of Anthony Waterer, who hybridized this and many other rhododendron cultivars. Arnold Arboretum from this era were copied from the Frederick law olmsted papers in 1987 but as yet do not reveal individual planting sites. Fortunately, the detailed cartography begun by le Rhododendron Dell, Part 2 19 Rhododendron flower color is often lost in herbarium specimens; compare the 1936 specimen of 'Melton' (left) to a current digital image of its flowers (right). In 2010, grant funds awarded through the museums for America program of the Institute of museum and library services (Imls-mFA) allowed Jonathan Damery, then a curatorial assistant, to scan and georeference the collection of hand-drawn maps. using ArcgIs software, these rasters can be layered with current representations of the Arboretum grounds. In addition, they can easily be printed on 11- by 17-inch paper for problem solving in the field. The Imls-mFA grant also provided resources to enter the Arboretum's entire plant records card catalogue and review accession books (dating from 1872 to 1987). spearheaded by curatorial assistant Kathryn Richardson, the entry of these data has improved all aspects of curatorial work. Herbarium resources A curatorial review would not be complete without a thorough review of specimens in the Arboretum's cultivated herbarium. In the case of hybrid rhododendron, these resources are limited for one major reason: flower color. often lost in the drying process, flower color variations (including the blotch on the dorsal lobe) are critical identification characters of rhododendron hybrids. other flower data such as truss height, width, shape, fragrance, and number of buds can be difficult to discern (or be entirely absent) from a two-dimensional dried specimen. Without question, examination of the whole plant at relevant phenophases provides a more accurate determination. The importance of identifying rhododendron flower color accurately is well documented. Arboretum horticulturist Donald Wyman was a proponent of hte nickerson clor Fan published by the American horticultural society and used this resource to describe the flowers of Rhododendron Dell collections (Wyman 1969). Agents of the Royal horticultural society, United Kingdom, have also published a color chart, which many have used to describe rhododendron cultivars (leslie 2004). These color designations have been saved to the Arboretum's plant records database and are easily retrieved. 20 Arnoldia 71\/1 other notable cultivars as of January, 2013 Subsection Species Traits Valued By Hybridizers Large flowers (some of the largest of the genus) Scented flowers; heat resistant Extreme hardiness; tolerant of exposed sunny sites Tolerant of poor, dry soil Flowers often with crinkled lobes, rachis fairly tall Large, narrow, dark green leaves Species commonly used as understock Hardiness; thick indumentum Hardiness; early flowering Hardiness; early flowering Small stature; longevity of leaf retention Hardiness Tolerant of dry soils Leaf, silvery indumentum; flower bright red to carmine, rarely pink or white Leaf, rusty brown indumentum; flower with purple spotting in throat Hardiness (variable) NATIVITY % of total (RD) cultivars (n = 103) with known parent (backcrosses not tallied) Fortunea Fortunea R. griffithianum R. fortunei E. Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, N.E. India Most widely distributed Chinese species. E. United States; Southeastern Appalachian Mountains N.E. Turkey and parts of the Caucasus W. North America 3% (n = 4) 7% (n = 8) Pontica R. catawbiense 48% (n = 50) Pontica R. caucasicum 2% Pontica R. macrophyllum < 1% (n = 1) Pontica Pontica Pontica R. maximum R. ponticum R. smirnowii E. North America Caucasus and N. Turkey N.E. Turkey and Caucasus E. Russia, Siberia, Mongolia, N. China, Japan E. Siberia, China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan China: W. and N.W. Yunnan E. North America China Himalayan foothills, Kashmir to Bhutan 5% (n = 6) 5% (n = 6) 2% (n = 3) Rhodorastra R. dauricum 1% (n = 2) Rhodorastra Neriiflora Pentanthera Scabrifolia R. mucronulatum R. haematodes R. prinophyllum R. racemosum R. arboreum ssp. arboreum R. arboreum ssp. cinnamomeum var. roseum (Album Group) R. ciliatum 2% (n = 3) < 1% (n = 1) < 1% (n = 1) 1% (n = 2) 2% (n = 3, two are R. arboreum) Arborea Arborea E. Nepal, N.E. India, Bhutan, S. hardiest indumented rhododendron species. Its distinctive indumentum and crinkled petal edges are traits favored by hybridizers. References cox, P.A. and K.n.E. cox. 1997. The Encyclopedia of Rhododendron Species. Perth, scotland: glendoick Publishing. leet, J. 1990. The hunnewell Pinetum: A long standing Family Tradition. Arnoldia 50(4): 32"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The World of Mosses","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25557","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24ebb6b.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":1,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Stuber, Stephanie","article_content":"The World of Mosses All IMAges By The AuThor Stephanie Stuber W hile the more charismatic trees and flashy flowers initially catch our attention, mosses have an enchanting, charming presence. What is it about these tiny plants that intrigue us? Perhaps we are aware that there is so much more to their story, but their secrets remain intangible, concealed by their diminutive size. Mosses differ from other plants largely in their life cycle. Mosses and tracheophytes (traditionally known as vascular plants) both alternate between two conditions throughout their lives, the gametophyte and sporophyte. The gametophyte is haploid (n), having 1 set of chromosomes, and the sporophyte, being the product of fertilization, is diploid (2n) with 2 sets of chromosomes. Tracheophytes conceal their gametophytes in reproductive structures, like flowers, never to be seen while they develop into the gametes (sperm and egg). For tracheophytes, the dominant condition is the sporophyte--the woody or herbaceous plant itself. The sporophyte produces spores that remain hidden when they develop into the gametophytes which then develop into the gametes. In essence, the gametophytes are dependent on the sporophyte. Mosses carpet the forest floor at the Coastal Maine Botanical Gardens. But in mosses, the sporophyte is dependent on the gametophyte. The domgametophytes produce gametes and the sporoinant condition is reversed; the conspicuous phyte produces spores. The spores, however, are green leafy plant is the gametophyte, and the released into the air before they develop into sporophyte is an ephemeral structure produced the gametophyte, rather than remaining hidden seasonally. The roles are the same, though-- in reproductive structures. Mosses 27 9 10 7 8 1 2 3 6 5 4 Sexual RepRoducTion in MoSSeS 1. a leafy female gametophyte (n) with attached terminal sporophyte (2n). 2. a papery protective covering, the calyptra (n), sheds off when the capsule (2n) fully develops; a remnant of the interior archegonial wall. Spores develop by meiosis inside the capsule. a row of tiny teeth, the peristome (2n), aids in spore dispersal. a spore (n) settles on a place to germinate. The protonema (n) emerges from the spore, reminiscent of filamentous algae, and develops into mature male and\/or female plants depending on the species. 3. 4. 5. 6. a cap, the operculum (2n), pops off the capsule when spores are mature. 7. a cluster of antheridia (n) develop on the male. 8. a cluster of archegonia (n) develop on the female. 9. in the presence of water, flagellate sperm (n) are released from the antheridium and swim to the egg (n) in the archegonium to fertilize it. 10. The fertilized egg (2n, zygote) develops inside the archegonium and emerges as the sporophyte. 28 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mosses 29 higher plants today. This model may also bridge the gap between their aquatic algal ancestors and the terrestrial tracheophytes. MoSSeS up cloSe When you first take a look at a moss plant, with your naked eye or under a hand lens, often the first thing you notice are striking similarities to other plants. Mosses have stems, tiny leaves, and little rootlike structures. With the aid of a microscope you may see more parallels: a midrib, a serrated margin, conductive tissues, even tomentum. These structural analogs have similar purposes in both mosses and tracheophytes. Mosses come in an enormous array of shapes, sizes, forms, colors, and textures, but most are made up of the same components. Members of the genus Polytrichum are commonly used to represent a typical moss species because of their relatively large size and distinct features. The gametophyte consists of parts similar to most other tracheophytes. The leaves of mosses are called phyllids to distinguish them from the true leaves of tracheophytes, which have lignified vascular tissues, but bryologists will call them leaves regardless, understanding their technical differences. These simple leaves are arranged spirally along the stem. This is a good distinguishing characteristic from liverworts, whose leaves are distichous (arranged in a two-ranked fashion on opposite sides of the stem). Instead of roots, mosses have similar structures called rhizoids. They do not make up an extensive subterranean network; rather, they are superficial and act more as a holdfast to anchor the moss to its substrate. The sporophyte consists of a stalk called a seta and the capsule, whose main parts are shown in the lifecycle image. My undergraduate professor, Dr. robin Kimmerer, described mosses as \"time made visible,\" and mosses undoubtedly do lend a certain timeless aesthetic to the landscape. Intuitively we relate the amount of mosses in an area to the length of time it has remained undisturbed. What perpetuates their reputation for being slow growing? Mosses, unlike most life forms on this planet, are poikilohydric. This means that they cannot internally regulate water, so are subject to moisture fluctuations in their The acrocarpous Ulota hutchinsiae has sporophytes that emerge terminally from the gametophyte. The mat-forming pleurocarp Hypnum imponens sends out sporophytes laterally. 30 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mosses 31 filamentous and essentially formless, offering much of their surface area to the open environment. As you move through mesic to drier habitats, the forms become more complex. The dendroid forms are still loose, but have rigid stems to support upright growth on saturated land. The pinnate forms with more intricate and rigid designs increase the amount of capillary spaces, helping to conserve water in mesic areas. habitats with limited water tend to support turf and cushion forms best. Their tight, dense forms and specialized cellular structures and appendages facilitate water retention in drier environments. Their desiccation tolerance is also directly related to their morphology; those species that live in wet areas will have less tolerance to desiccation than those species that are subjected to intermittent water availability. Because of their poikilohydric nature, mosses have had to develop ways to survive those dry periods in order to continue colonizing land further away from a water source. The length of time that some mosses can survive without water is remarkable. Aquatic mosses can remain desiccated for a few months to as much as a year, mesophytic species can wait several years without water, and xerophytic species are known to survive decades or centuries without water. once water returns, they will begin repairing the cellular damage incurred by the desiccation process and then begin photosynthesizing once more. of course, this is observed along a spectrum. The trend between form and desiccation tolerance, though positive, is dependent on the rate of the desiccation process; the slower the drying rate, the longer it can survive in that state. A close-up view of sphagnum moss reveals its rich texture. 32 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mosses 33 Polytrichum piliferum gives off a silvery cast with its very long clear awns and thin waxy cuticle that covers the leaves. awns are often white or greyish, which is thought to aid in light reflection, thus cooling the plant and protecting it from damaging ultraviolet light. These awns extend beyond the leaf margins, increasing the boundary layer blocking desiccating air flow. some species have found ways to thicken their leaves to help retain water longer. some can have short protrusions on the cell surface called papillae. Papillose species have a dull, matte appearance from a distance because of their roughly shaped cells, as opposed to the shiny appearance of species with smooth cells. Members of the Polytrichaceae have lamellae--multistratose plates of cells aligned perpendicularly over the leaf surface, effectively thickening the The awn of Tortula ruralis. 34 Arnoldia 71\/1 Mosses 35 A moss microcosm composed of star-shaped Polytrichum commune, windswept Dicranum scoparium, and short, pale Leucobryum glaucum. Crum, h. A. and l. e. Anderson. 1981. Mosses of Eastern North America. 2 vols. New york: Columbia university Press. glime, J. 2007. Bryophyte Ecology. 5 vols. ebook sponsored by Michigan Technological university and the International Association of Bryologists. Accessed in 2013 at http:\/\/www.bryoecol.mtu.edu goffinet, B. and A. J. shaw. 2009. Bryophyte Biology. 2nd edition. Cambridge, united Kingdom: Cambridge university Press. Kimmerer, r. W. 2003. Gathering Moss: A Natural and Cultural History of Mosses. Corvallis, oregon: oregon state university Press. Malcolm, W. and N. Malcolm. 2006. Mosses and Other Bryophytes: An Illustrated Glossary. Nelson, New Zealand: Micro-optics Press. stephanie stuber is a former Arnold Arboretum Curatorial Fellow and author of The Secret Lives of Mosses: A Comprehensive Guide for Gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' 877-37: A Venerable Survivor","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25554","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eb728.jpg","volume":71,"issue_number":1,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' 877-37: A Venerable Survivor Peter Del Tredici W hen people ask \"What's the oldest tree growing at the Arnold Arboretum?\" they're usually surprised to learn that it's a 276-year-old compact hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba', accession 877-37) that stands only four feet tall. It is one of seven `Chabo-hiba' specimens in the Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection that were imported from Yokohama, Japan in 1913. This makes 2013 a milestone for the tree--the hundredth anniversary of its arrival (and survival) in North America. It makes my head spin to think that someone has been watering this plant pretty much every day since well before the American Revolution! While this `Chabo-hiba' is not the oldest Japanese bonsai in the United States (there are older ones at the United States National Arboretum in Washington, D.C.) the Arboretum's plant has been under continuous cultivation longer than any other bonsai growing in North America. Larz Anderson attended Harvard College (class of 1888) and later served as a diplomat in the Foreign Service. In 1912, near the end of the Taft administration, he was appointed \"Ambassador extraordinary\" to Japan, a post he held for only six months, until Woodrow Wilson moved into the White House. During his brief stay, Anderson was smitten by the \"bonsai bug,\" and in early 1913, shortly before completing his posting, he purchased at least forty plants from the Yokohama Nursery Company to bring back to his estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. Many of the specimens offered for sale by the nursery were already hundreds of years old. Photographs from the time show that the `Chabo-Hiba' plants were often trained into a conical shape-- suggestive of a distant mountain--with regularly arranged, horizontal branches. Anderson and his wife Isabel (Weld) left Japan on March 6, 1913, and it seems likely that the plants followed them across the ocean in a shipment that autumn. Once they arrived, the trees were displayed on the terraces of the Anderson home where they resided for nearly twenty-five years. The collection was donated to the Arboretum in two batches, initially in 1937 following Larz's death, and later in 1948, following Isabel's death. `Chabo-hiba' 877-37 came to the Arboretum in the first installment and was put on display along with the other plants in a lathhouse on the grounds of the former Bussey Institution. They remained there until 1962 when they moved into their current hexagonal home near the Dana Greenhouses. In 1969 the Arboretum appointed Connie Derderian to take care of the plants. As honorary curator, Connie revitalized the collection after years of neglect and took care of the plants until 1984. Having worked as Connie's apprentice since 1979, I became the new curator the year she retired. In 1998, the noted English bonsai master, Colin Lewis, became involved with the collection. The fact that seven large `Chabo-hibas' have survived the ravages of both time and occasional neglect for the past hundred years is a testament to the incredible durability of the plants themselves. By virtue of their longevity, the plants provide a direct link not only to the early 1900s, when wealthy Americans were passionately collecting cultural artifacts from Asia, but also to the Tokugawa era in Japan (1600 to 1868) when shoguns ruled the land and the plants themselves occupied places of honor in temples throughout the country. The hinoki cypress cultivar name chabo-hiba is not widely used in Japan today, and it took some effort to uncover its history and meaning. The word hiba is the common name for the arborvitae-like conifer Thujopsis dolobrata and means \"hatchet-shaped,\" in reference to the scale-like foliage of the plant. Chabo means bantam or dwarf chicken, and when combined with hiba means \"compact or dwarf cypress.\" In the landscape, Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' is a relatively slow-growing plant that develops a pyramidal shape when left unpruned. When grown in a container and intensively pruned, it produces congested, planar foliage and contorted horizontal branches, resulting in striking bonsai specimens like accession 877-37. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. Selected specimens from the Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection will be on display at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston from October 2nd to 13th, 2013."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23436","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170ab28.jpg","title":"2013-71-1","volume":71,"issue_number":1,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Beyond Pine Cones: An Introduction to Gymnosperms","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25549","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eab28.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Conway, Stephanie","article_content":"Beyond pine Cones: An Introduction to Gymnosperms Stephanie Conway G ymnosperms are an intriguing group of plants, yet in many ways they are not well known. Most people can recognize a pine, with its familiar woody cones, but they may not know that this and other conifers are gymnosperms. Or, they may think that conifers are the only plants in the gymnosperm group. Undoubtedly the often large-flowered angiosperms (flowering plants) are the better known group within the seed plants, but gymnosperms are well worth a look. So what are gymnosperms and what makes them so intriguing? There are four groups of plants that make up the gymnosperms: the wellknown conifers, plus the lesser known cycads, ginkgo, and the order Gnetales. These groups KEITH KAnOTI, MAInE FOrEST SErvIcE, BUGWOOd.OrG are so different from each other that it would be hard to immediately recognize them as related. In fact, exactly how they are related to each other is not entirely clear, but most studies put cycads and ginkgo at the base of a gymnosperm evolutionary tree (meaning that they are the simplest, evolutionarily), and conifers and Gnetales as more evolutionarily advanced. What does it mean to be a gymnosperm? The most common feature across all four groups is that the ovule (which becomes the seed) is naked (unprotected) prior to fertilization. In comparison, the angiosperms have ovules that are protected by a layer of tissue called a carpel. The word gymnosperm comes from ancient Greek and means \"naked seed.\" This naked state of the ovule is a unifying feature of the gymnosperms (there are also some shared vegetative features such as wood anatomy), but often these ovules are not visible to the naked eye. This is perhaps what makes them so intriguing: How does this translate to the more common feature that we can see, the cone? How did these evolve? And how does the cone tell the story of the evolution of the gymnosperms? Gymnosperm roots The ancestors of gymnosperms most likely evolved from a group of plants called the seed ferns (pteridosperms), which are known only from the fossil record. These were the first plants to reproduce by seeds, despite looking deceptively like ferns. (True ferns reproduce from spores rather than seeds.) Early seed plants bore their seeds directly on leaves or branches, without any specialized structures like cones. From this starting point we can begin to see how the naked ovules and cones of living gymnosperms evolved. The four lineages of gymnosperms each have a unique set of cone characteristics, and comparisons with the naked eye are extremely difficult. In fact, even comparisons between well-known conifer groups are challenging. To understand Pine cones are perhaps the most familiar gymnosperm cone type. A mature eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) cone is seen here. Gymnosperms 3 STEpAHAnIE cOnWAy Angiosperms Gnetales seed plants Conifers Gymnosperms Vascular plants Ginkgo Cycads Ferns and fern allies Lycopods Phylogeny chart showing the relationship of gymnosperms to other plant groups. the elusive relationship between these cone types, it helps to examine the distinct paths of evolution that each gymnosperm lineage took from the seed fern ancestral condition, how all retained the character of a naked ovule and yet ended up with very different looking reproductive structures. and make them unique among all seed plants. They have a single, typically unbranched trunk with the leaves all bunched together in a crown at the top of the plant. This features makes them look superficially like palm trees, a fact reflected in the common name of one cycad that is often grown as a house plant, sago palm MIcHAEl cAlOnjE, MOnTGOMEry BOTAnIcAl cEnTEr CyCAds cycads are a very ancient lineage of plants with a fossil record that extends back at least 280 million years. They were once very common across most of the planet and were a prominent plant group in the age of the dinosaurs, but they have since retreated to the tropics and sub-tropics. As is the case for all the gymnosperm lineages, it's important to remember that when we look at the cycad taxa growing today we are seeing the survivors of a once very successful plant group. These \"leftovers\" include 3 families of cycads: cycadaceae, Zamiaceae, and Stangeriaceae, which contain about 11 genera and 250 species in total. cycads have unique characteristics that set them apart from the rest of the gymnosperms The female cone of Cycas revoluta. Note that the sporophylls resemble leaves and are all bunched together at the crown, similar to the leaves. Young ovules are formed on the lower portion of the sporophylls and are very exposed or naked. 4 Arnoldia 70\/4 Gymnosperms 5 pETEr dEl TrEdIcI and, as we'll see, shows that the cycad cone and the conifer cone had quite different evolutionary beginnings. But first, let's look at the fascinating Ginkgo biloba, which, in terms of cone morphology, is often considered an intermediate between cycads and conifers. GInkGo Ginkgo biloba is the sole living species of the once widely distributed order Ginkgoales and is often called a \"living fossil.\" This plant has fascinated botanist for centuries because it represents a unique set of characteristics that alludes to both the cycads and conifers but which represents a unique lineage within the gymnosperms. Ginkgo's flat, fan-shaped leaves are its most distinctive feature; the leaves on the plant's long shoots are typically two-lobed, hence the specific epithet biloba. Unlike the cycads, adult trees are heavily branched and have a broad crown. The fertile structures in ginkgo are unique as well, with little to make a comparison to either the cones of cycads or conifers easy. The male pETEr dEl TrEdIcI A Ginkgo biloba tree in fall color at Forest Hills Cemetary in Boston. KEvIn nIxOn The female cones of Ginkgo biloba are generally thought to have evolved from a branch, but all that remain are the long stalks with terminal ovules (seeds) with a thin fleshy covering. Male ginkgo cones (strobili) bear many pollen-producing organs along a central stalk. 6 Arnoldia 70\/4 Gymnosperms 7 umns\" are attached. Each of these attached columns has its own set of organs attached to it. In other words, you can break up a cone into a number of individual units, and each unit has a complete, replicate set of organs. Each one of those units is made up of a bract, a scale, and ovules. The bract is on the outside, and the scale is on the inside. This scale is sometimes called the ovuliferous scale because it is where the ovules are formed and where eventually the seed develops. The fact that the scale where the ovules are formed sits at the base of the bract is important because therein lies the fundamental compound nature of the cone. pETEr dEl TrEdIcI Florin proposed that in the ancestor of the conifers, seeds were formed on widely spaced branches, each branch with a number of fertile scales that bore stalked ovules. Each branch formed at the base of a bract. He proposed that over evolutionary time these branches transformed to have fewer and fewer scales until there was only one, that the ovules lost their stalks, and that the single remaing scale became more and more fused to the bract. So the interpretation is that each unit (an individual bractscale complex) that we break off a cone is all that remains of a once large branch. Most of the other genera in the pine family (pinaceae) have fundamentally the same bractscale complex but with different shapes and sizes of the bracts and scale. In Pinus for example, the bracts are small and inconspicuous compared to the scales, whereas in douglaspETEr dEl TrEdIcI Young female Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) cones sit upright on the branch and display prominent pink bracts (at this stage the scale cannot be seen). The more mature male pollen cones (hanging downward) have pollen organs attached directly to the cone axis. pETEr dEl TrEdIcI Young cone of northern Japanese hemlock (Tsuga diversifolia) with large green and purple scales. The much smaller bracts (white with brown tips) can be seen on the scales closest to the stem. The most prominent feature of this young Sciadopitys verticillata cone is the large white scales, with the smaller brown bracts hidden underneath. 8 Arnoldia 70\/4 Gymnosperms 9 pETEr dEl TrEdIcI The fleshy olive-shaped female cones of Cephalotaxus fortunei. rOBErT vIdEKI, dOrOnIcUM KFT., BUGWOOd.OrG Cones of Taxus (T. baccata is seen here) are so different that they are hard to compare to other conifers. In this species, the seeds are formed terminally on the end of short stems, and a swelling at the base of the ovule develops into a fleshy red aril that covers the seed and also attracts seed dispersers. On the younger green cone the single terminal seed can be seen with the fleshy aril just starting to develop. The large Southern Hemisphere family podocarpaceae also developed a berrylike cone, with fleshy parts to aid dispersal and minimal numbers of seeds per cone. However, this family has a unique cone type that looks nothing like the cones of Juniperus. The cones typically consist of a number of sterile bracts and one fertile bract on which the ovule arises on a structure called the epimatium, which is considered the evolutionary equivalent to the ovuliferous scale. In Podocarpus, the bracts at the base of the cone also swell into an often colorful \"receptacle\" that, as in Juniperus, probably serves in attracting animals for dispersal. plum yew (Cephalotaxus) also has fleshy, single-seeded cones that look suspiciously like olives. The early development of Cephalotaxus shows a lack of ovuliferous scales, and instead the ovules form on the bracts in a manner similar to other conifers. However, the bracts grow out to cover the seed in a fleshy covering that, as seen in Podocarpus, presumably aids in animal dispersal of the seed. Taxus is the final example of a female conifer cone and it's one that does not fit within Florin's theory of conifer cone evolution. The female reproductive structure of Taxus does not have ovules on bracts or scales; instead, it has a single terminal ovule. This ovule sits at the end of a short branch, and an outgrowth at the base of the seed becomes a fleshy red aril that partly covers the seed. Florin himself was so convinced of the fundamentally different nature of the cone structure in Taxaceae that he placed the family in a different order, the Taxales. This implied that Taxales had different ancestors than the rest of the conifers, therefore making the conifers not a natural group. This was a controversial theory, and other researchers have since shown it to be unlikely. Instead, researchers have proposed that the terminal cone may be related to the more advanced cones of the cupressaceae, including various species of Juniperus with single terminal ovules. However, how and from where the Taxus type of cone evolved (if considering the conifers as a monophyletic group) has not yet been satisfactorily resolved and remains something of a mystery. 10 Arnoldia 70\/4 USdA-BlM, USdA-nrcS plAnTS dATABASE Gymnosperms 11 KEvIn nIxOn A male cone of Gnetum gnemon with rings of pollen organs below rings of sterile female ovules, some with pollination drops present. dEnnIS STEvEnSOn, nEW yOrK BOTAnIcAl GArdEn The seed cones on this female Gnetum urens have matured and only one red, fleshy seed has developed from each cone. Above the seed on the right you can see the nodes where the other ovules would have formed, but have failed to develop. Ephedra are generally scalelike, or occasionally longer and needlelike, and all are joined at the base to form a sheath around the stem. Most species of Ephedra are dioecious (separate male and female plants). The pollen cones of Ephedra have a pair of bracts at the base of the cones, and the cones themselves are made up of a series of bracts, each with its own fertile shoot. This makes these cones compound structures in the same fashion as the seed cones of conifers. The female cones are also compound. The cones have a pair of bracts at their base, and the cones themselves are also made up of a series of bracts. The uppermost bracts have ovules in their axes, although often only one develops into a seed. Gnetaceae has only one genus, Gnetum. Most Gnetum species are tropical vines, though one of the most widely studied species, Gnetum gnemon, is a tree. Gnetum species occur in parts of Asia, South America, and Africa as well as some pacific Islands. If you were to walk past one in the tropics you would be hard pressed to recognize it as a gymnosperm because the leaves are broad, flat, and have netlike veins, making it look much more like a flowering plant (angiosperm). Gnetum cones are also very distinct from typical conifer cones and they form fleshy seeds that look like berries. Both the cones that produce pollen and those that produce seeds are compound structures and unique among gymnosperms. In Gnetum gnemon they are long and have distinct nodes where the fertile structures are formed. The pollen cones have bracts that cover the nodes, and underneath these a number of pollen organs are enclosed within two fused structures. Above this ring of pollen organs there are often aborted female ovules, which has lead many botanists to consider the cone of Gnetum to be primitively flowerlike. The seed cone also is on a long axis, with the fertile structures occurring on the nodes. There are bracts that cover a ring of 8 to 10 ovules. Each ovule is surrounded by 3 bractlike structures that form envelopes around the ovule. Welwitschiaceae consists of only one species, Welwitschia mirabilis, which may be one of the strangest plants on the planet. It grows only in the namib desert of Angola and namibia and produces just two huge leaves from a short, woody, unbranched stem. The leaves grow an average of 8 to 15 centimeters (3 to 6 inches) per year, and often are split and twisted at their ends, forming a tangled mass. Some Welwitschia leaves have been measured at up to 6 meters (19.7 feet) long. The plants survive in the desert by developing a huge taproot that may extend down nearly 2 meters (6.6 feet). A few plants have been estimated to be close to 12 Arnoldia 70\/4 Gymnosperms 13 An adult Welwitschia mirabilis plant growing in the Messum River area in Namibia. but the common theme across all the lineages has been an evolution towards simplifying the reproductive structure. This has been achieved in a variety of ways and with different results. cycads reduced the leafy portion of their cones down to a scale. Ginkgo reduced a large branch to a single stalk with two ovules. conifers tended towards simplifying the branch complex to just a bract, or getting rid of the traditional cone altogether, and 4 out of the 7 conifer families developed a fruitlike structure as well as reducing the seed number. Gnetales began experimenting with having both seed and pollen structures within a single cone. While a pine cone may be the best known representative of gymnosperm reproductive structures, it is in fact only a small part of the gymnosperm story. The current, living assemblages of gymnosperm groups are really only relicts of what once was a gymnosperm dominated world, so the task for us is to understand the whole narrative of dominance and decline. The gymnosperms of today are incredibly important since they represent 4 out of the 5 extant lineages of seed plants (angiosperms are the fifth lineage) and botanists continue to study exactly what gymnosperms are and how they evolved. current research includes phylogenetic stud- Male cones of Pinus muricata are simple, with a bract at the base of each cone and the pollen organs attached directly to the cone axis. pETEr dEl TrEdIcI GIllIAn cOOpEr-drIvEr 14 Arnoldia 70\/4 pETEr dEl TrEdIcI "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rediscovering Rhododendron Dell, Part 1","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25552","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eaf6b.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Port, Kyle","article_content":"Rediscovering Rhododendron Dell, Part 1 Kyle Port A pile of plant record labels, mysteriously stripped from accessioned plants in the Arboretum's Rhododendron Dell, sent Manager of Plant Records Kyle Port on a mission to assess, verify, and relabel the collection In this issue, Kyle reports on the early history of Rhododendron Dell, and in the next issue he will write about the multi-layered curatorial process involved in the Rhododendron Dell project. Editorial NotEs rhododendron show at Boston the rhododendron show on the Boston Common was a sight never to be forgotten--the finest in colors and display of choice varieties this country has ever beheld. it was with considerable difficulty the bare privilege was secured from the common council, to exhibit upon the Common; and next, it was believed to be almost impossible to transport and successfully flower so many plants as would be needed to produce the desired effect. thanks, however, to the untiring energy of Mr. H. H. Hunnewell, Charles s. sargent and E. s. rand, jr., every difficulty was surmounted, and for the entire month of June the denizens of that city saw a collection of azaleas and rhododendrons of rare value and great beauty ... two large tents were erected, one about 60 by 100 feet, the other 100 by 300 feet, and the plants transplanted from their native home and conservatories of Mr. Hunnewell and Mr. sargent, and placed in the natural soil of the Common. Within the tents were laid out, first, an avenue of 100 feet in length, bordered with Palms and rare Ferns; this led to the rhododendron beds and walks. in the center of the large tent were three raised beds; the first, 15 by 30 feet; the second, 50 by 80 feet; the third, 15 feet in diameter. Walks also surrounded all the beds, which were lined with specimen plants. imagine all this space and beds filled solidly with masses of rhododendrons in full bloom, bearing flowers of most royal size, and delicate as well as glowing and brilliant colors, and it would seem to be but a vision of the garden of Paradise. ... most of them [rhododendrons] are fit for in-door greenhouse culture only, many being but just imported from the Knapp [Knap] Hill nursery of anthony Waterer, Woking England. luther tucker The Horticulturist, and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste, Volume 28, august 1873 O ne hundred forty years ago, a triumphant rho d o d endron show bloomed on the Boston Common. For a nominal fee, attendees were ushered under tents where plants from private collections, including those of Arnold Arboretum director Charles S. Sargent and the event's sponsor, H. H. Hunnewell, were arranged. Rhododendron hybrids imported from Anthony Waterer (Knap Hill Nursery, Woking, England) garnered considerable attention. The revelation that R. `Album Elegans' and a few other cultivars were hardy outdoors in the Boston area soon fostered planting trials beyond conservatory walls, specifically in the bur- 16 Arnoldia 70\/4 ARCHivES OF THE ARNOld ARBORETuM allowed for cold air to sink away toward low-lying Bussey Brook Meadow. The new hybrids were not immediately planted in Rhododendron dell; instead, the first plantings on the site were of the hybrids' North American parent species, which included R. catawbiense, R. maximum, and R. minus. it is likely that the only remaining plants from these early plantings exist in a mass planting of R. maximum accessions 23020 and 23021. These accessions actually comprise a number of accessions that were interplanted over the years and became indistinguishable from each other. The oldest of these R. maximum accessions was obtained as seeds in 1880 from Benjamin Marston Watson's Old Colony Nurseries and Seed Warehouse in Plymouth, Massachusetts. in 1886, the first R. catawbiense hybrids from Anthony Waterer were planted in Rhododendron dell. Some of these hybrid cultivars had been featured in the tents of the 1873 rhododendron show on Boston Common, but now they were being planted outdoors to see how they would fare. Among these inaugural cultivars, R. `Purpureum Grandiflorum' (accession 2804) and R. `Album Grandiflorum' (accession 2805A) survive to this day. Subsequent introductions such as R. `Mrs. Harry ingersoll' (accession 6202-C, acquired in 1891) epitomize the allure these hybrid rhododendrons had upon so many. Their survival at the Arboretum solidified a resolve to develop, evaluate, and maintain a collection for the ages. As Sargent wrote to Anthony Waterer in February 1911, \"i think that we should have here a correctly named standard set of the hardy hybrid Rhododendrons as so many people depend on the Arboretum for information on such a subject.\" While the majority of the early acquisitions of hybrids in Rhododendron dell were those of Anthony Waterer and his cousin, John Waterer, a number of other international hybridizers are also represented. Fel- Rhododendron catawbiense `Grandiflorum' KylE PORT Rhododendron `Mrs. Harry ingersoll' KylE PORT Rhododendron `Echse i' KylE PORT 18 Arnoldia 70\/4 KylE PORT "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Excerpt: Ginkgo: The Tree That Time Forgot","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25550","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eab6d.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Crane, Peter","article_content":"Book exCerpt Ginkgo: The Tree That Time Forgot Peter Crane editor's note: In his new book, noted botanist peter Crane has gathered a vast trove of information on the ginkgo, undoubtedly one of the most loved trees in the world. exploring topics ranging from paleobotany to evolutionary biology, plant exploration, and human culture, the author presents fascinating tales from the ginkgo's very long history on earth. printed here by permission of the publisher is Chapter 21, \"extinction.\" (don't worry, ginkgophiles--Chapter 22 is \"endurance.\") Ginkgo: The Tree That Time Forgot Peter Crane yale University Press, 2013. 408 pages. ISBN: 978-0-300-18751-9 20 Arnoldia 70\/4 Book Excerpt 21 22 Arnoldia 70\/4 Book Excerpt 23 24 Arnoldia 70\/4 Book Excerpt 25 26 Arnoldia 70\/4 Book Excerpt 27 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ginkgopalooza","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25551","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eaf26.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"P GinkGopalooza eter Crane's book inspired us to gather a few ginkgo images. These pages show just a few of the aspects that make ginkgo such a fascinating plant. An ArTfully espAliered ginkgo graces a wall of the sterling Morton library at the Morton Arboretum (right). At about 55 years old, this ginkgo is a youngster compared to the \"old lion\" ginkgo at the royal Botanic gardens, kew. That venerable tree was planted in 1762 and is seen here in an engraving that originally appeared in the British publication Gardeners' Chronicle in March 1889 (lower left), and in a photograph from May 2010 (lower right). Credit photos, clockwise from upper right: Kris Bachtell, Tony Kirkham, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum people love ginkgos. Clockwise from upper left: This wonderful 1921 e. H. Wilson photograph shows a woman hugging an enormous ginkgo at the Temple of the yellow dragon, kuling (su-shan), China (Wilson recorded the tree at 100 feet tall and with a trunk circumference of 19.5 feet, measured at 3 feet above ground level). ginkgos stand behind a Buddha statue at the sens-ji temple in Tokyo. over 100 (possibly 200) ginkgo cultivars have been selected, including those with dwarf, fastigiate, weeping, and globeshaped habits as well as different leaf forms (`variegata' is seen here). ginkgophiles enjoy the golden glow under a ginkgo alle THe ginkgo leAf's simple but elegant shape and unique dichotomous venation make it a work of art in itself. over many centuries its iconic form has appeared on everything from street signs to silverware to shampoo bottles. shown here (clockwise from upper left) are a live leaf, a plate from Japan, the 1916 woodblock print Crow and Ginkgo Leaves by Japanese artist Watanabe seitei, a pair of silver sugar tongs, and a decorative wall tile. Credit photos, clockwise from upper left: Peter Del Tredici, Peter Del Tredici, Smithsonian Institution, Nancy Rose, Kris Bachtell "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2012 Weather Summary","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25548","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24ea76f.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"2012 Weather Summary Sue A. Pfeiffer T emperatures were again above average in 2012; this was the first year in local recorded weather history that all 12 months had above average temperatures (in 2011, all months except for November were above average in temperature). JANUARY began with warm temperatures, but a cold front moved in on the 4th and 5th, dropping the low to 10 32 Arnoldia 70\/4 2012 Weather 33 JULY was the warmest month of the year with highs mostly in the 80s and 90s. The month started off sunny and warm with minimal precipitation and consistently high temperatures in the 80s. a 6-day heat wave (temperatures 90 34 Arnoldia 70\/4 JIM PaPaRgIRIS Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Sweet Smell of Spring: Abelia mosanensis","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25553","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24eb36f.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"The Sweet Smell of Spring: Abelia mosanensis Nancy Rose S omeday I really want to publish a scratchand-sniff issue of Arnoldia, providing a \"by the nose\" tour of the Arnold Arboretum. I'd probably skip the less pleasant odors-- skunk cabbage, ripe ginkgo cones, the stinkhorn fungi that pop up in mulched planting beds--in favor of the many truly wonderful scents to be found here. While pleasant fragrances occur from winter (e.g., the flowers of Hamamelis mollis `Princeton Gold') through autumn (e.g., falling Cercidiphyllum japonicum leaves), the floral explosion from mid-spring to early summer brings the peak sniffing season. Come May, there are plenty of sweet-smelling flowers to stick my nose into but my current favorite is the aptly named fragrant abelia (Abelia mosanensis). This deciduous abelia is less well known than glossy abelia (Abelia "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23435","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170a76e.jpg","title":"2013-70-4","volume":70,"issue_number":4,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Middlesex Fells, a Flourishing Urban Forest","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25546","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24ea326.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kittredge, Walter","article_content":"The Middlesex Fells, a Flourishing Urban Forest Walter Kittredge ... five miles northerly of Boston lies a great tract of country, all stony hills and tablelands, almost uninhabited, and of wonderful picturesqueness, and wild, rugged beauty ... The nature of this region cannot better be characterized than by the application of the old Saxon designation fells,--a common enough word in England, meaning a tract of wild stone hills ... Sylvester Baxter, Boston Herald Supplement, December 6, 1879 Bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis) is fairly common in the Fells; this is the largest one at 32 inches (81.3 centimeters) DBH. It occurs in the newly designated Sugar Maple Middlesex Fells 3 NORMAN B. lEvENTHAl MAP CENTER AT THE BOSTON PuBlIC lIBRARy Middlesex Fells map from 1905. intentionally cultivated landscapes. As Elizur's daughter Ellen wrote, \"What we wanted in the Fells was a bit of nature so conveniently in our midst that we might watch its workings ... we wanted dark crowded places, even jungles ... marshes into which one might wade after reeds and bright berries, brooks where the border growth and waters frolic together ...\" A TrAcT oF WilD STony HillS The Fells is a dissected upland with narrow north 4 Arnoldia 70\/3 WAlTER KITTREDGE Middlesex Fells 5 MIKE RyAN Authority. The three reservoirs on the western side of the Fells were created out of the large Turkey Swamp before the reservation was set aside, and are owned (along with the adjacent land) by the town of Winchester. All of these reservoirs were included in both the original floristic survey of 1894 6 Arnoldia 70\/3 Middlesex Fells 7 rEcEnT FloriSTic SUrvEyS Deane's Flora reported a high level of biodiversity in the Fells, but a 1996 article by Drayton and Primack indicated an alarming loss of species. The article was based on a centennial study of part of the western Fells, done in the early 1990s by Brian Drayton for his master's degree. In the early 2000s, Bryan Hamlin began to question the validity of the 1996 report, after finding many of the \"missing\" plants in the area of study. As a result, he began a systematic resurvey of the entire Fells, assisted by Betty Wright, Don lubin, and others. At an NEBC meeting in 2006, Bryan Hamlin told me that he was working on a new flora of the Fells, and I agreed to help him with the difficult graminoid taxa--the grasses, rushes, and sedges. Over time, the current survey became a community effort among members of the NEBC, with a long list of local botanists contributing their expertise, very much like the original collaboration that led to the formation of the Club. For his survey, Drayton excluded ferns, graminoids, and aquatic taxa. Comparing the same set of plants from the same area, our survey found 564 taxa (355 native), while Drayton and Primack only reported 331 taxa (244 native) with a \"loss\" of 155 taxa since the Deane Flora. Our survey was able to find 105 of these reportedly lost taxa, 83 of them within their study area. The most likely reason for this large discrepancy was that Drayton's survey consisted mainly of a single person surveying for only 300 to 400 hours over three years, versus our team effort of about 2,000 hours over nine years. Drayton's work was also hindered because he wasn't allowed to collect specimens, which could lead to misidentifications. A large study of surveying techniques found errors of misidentification averaged about 5%, and that overlooking plants averaged 17%. After examining the Deane Flora vouchers, we found about a 4% error rate in misidentification. As stated in our Rhodora article, \"The level of expertise of the surveyors, the level of teamwork, and man-hours spent surveying all affect accuracy.\" For the 1890s survey, Manning defined four frequency categories--common, frequent, occasional, and rare--that the surveyors then reported according to their individual qualita- tive assessments. In order to create a quantitative measurement of frequency, we divided the Fells into eight approximately equal-sized sectors. Based on the number of sectors in which a plant was found, it was scored as common when found in seven to eight sectors; frequent in five to six; occasional in three to four; and rare in one to two. In order to obtain these data we conducted what were in effect eight minisurveys. Our examination of Deane's Flora and vouchers showed 680 vascular taxa (570 native, 110 non-native) for 1896, while our survey found 868 taxa (563 native, 305 non-native). This comparison of the two survey totals shows a tripling of non-native plants. While there was little net change in native plant numbers, there was a significant change in the composition. One hundred twenty-five native taxa that were reported in 1896 were not found by our survey, while we discovered or reconfirmed 119 BRyAN HAMlIN The parastic American squawroot was singled out by Deane as being the rarest plant in the Fells. It has since increased significantly in frequency, as we found it in five out of eight sectors. 8 Arnoldia 70\/3 Middlesex Fells 9 NANCy ROSE these were not previously known to occur in the Boston Basin Ecoregion, and two of them were newly designated during the course of this survey. One of these was Sugar Maple-OakHickory Forest, which is similar to Rich Mesic Forest, and only occurs on the south side of Bear Hill. The most prominent priority habitats were Rocky Summits, Pitch Pine Scrub Oak Communities, and vernal Pools. Over 100 vernal pools of varying size and hydrology have been identified, making the Fells a hotspot for vernal pools. The great diversity of habitats in the Fells can be accounted for by the diversity of geology and topography, in turn resulting in a high diversity of plants. Given the loss of land and the changing habitats over time, it is not surprising that there would be a significant change in the composition of the flora. The cessation of logging has allowed the forest to mature, with some areas starting to approach the characteristics found in old growth forest. Within the forest matrix, frequent anthropogenic fires continue to create a patchwork mosaic of different aged successional growth contributing to diversity. These burns have been kept small by the suppression of fires since the 1920s, which, along with increasing rainfall, has led to the overall favoring of mesophytic plants like beech and maple. During our survey a beaver dammed Whitmore Brook, creating a pond and marsh out of a red maple swamp, which resulted in an influx of new plants. Our survey found wetlands plants to be particularly opportunistic in responding to varying water levels and habitat succession. Studies of urban forests have found that the rarer plants with low population numbers are more susceptible to local extirpation. In the Fells about 60% of the taxa that were rare in 1896 are still extant, and almost half of those have increased in frequency. There are two state-listed rare species and eleven others which are watch-listed as potentially becoming rare in the state. Most of these rarer plants are herbaceous; woody plants are generally more abundant and more persistent. Some of the rare plants are ephemeral in nature, depending on successional habitats, and can come and go in a single season. We observed that orchids like Wild columbine (Aquilegia canadensis) is common in woodlands throughout the eastern United States and Canada, including Middlesex Fells. nodding ladies'-tresses (Spiranthes cernua) that were locally abundant in one year often went dormant and were very scarce the next. Other rare plants are restricted by only growing in habitats that are uncommon in the Fells. One of the factors that contributed to loss of plant populations was the replacement of the native oak forest around the Winchester Reservoirs with non-native evergreens. Another factor was construction. When Interstate 93 was built through the middle of the Fells in the late 1950s it destroyed a large area that included the only large fen habitat. A less obvious yet important negative factor is fragmentation caused by recreational overuse. There are 36 miles of fire roads and 75 miles of trails in the Fells, with a large proportion of these trails being created by users, resulting in very few large trailless areas. This extensive network of trails is an avenue for invasive plants to become widely established, evidenced by their abundance along the trails. 10 Arnoldia 70\/3 WAlTER KITTREDGE Middlesex Fells 11 beetles (Galerucella spp.) that eat purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria) has helped reverse the advance of this invasive plant, which was dominating wetlands. Although the deer population is relatively small, it still has had a negative effect on native lilies, which are also eaten by the non-native scarlet lily beetle (Lilioceris lilii). Other insects that pose potential future threats to the Fells forest include the emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) and Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis). Research in biological controls is ongoing and may eventually aid in controlling these highly destructive insects. Deane, W., ed. 1896. Flora of the Blue Hills, Middlesex Fells, Stony Brook, and Beaver Brook Reservations of the Metropolitan Parks Commission, Massachusetts. C. M. Barrows and Co., Boston, Massachusetts. Drayton, B. 1993. Changes in the flora of the Middlesex Fells, 1894"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Quest for the Hardy Southern Live Oak","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25547","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d24ea36b.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"The Quest for the Hardy Southern Live Oak Michael S. Dosmann and Anthony S. Aiello CHrIS EvANS, IL WILDLIfE ACTION PLAN, BugWOOD.Org I t's no secret that individual plants within a species can vary in appearance--just peruse the range of Japanese maples (Acer palmatum) for sale at your local nursery. All belong to a single species, yet show diversity in traits like growth habit, foliage color, and leaf shape. It's also old news that individuals can vary according to provenance (geographic source); winter hardiness is frequently noted as one of those variable physiological traits. Although he was not the first to note this phenomenon, botanist and plant explorer Joseph Hooker provided an early description in1853. In an introductory essay preceding his notes on the flora of New Zealand, he described differences in the hardiness of Himalayan plants, \"depending upon the altitude at which they were gathered.\" Specifically, \"some of the seedling Pines whose parents grew at 12,000 feet appear hardy, Southern live oaks (Quercus virginiana) draped with Spanish moss line the road whilst those of the same species at Wormsloe, a historic colonial estate in Savannah, Georgia. from 10,000 are tender. The common scarlet Rhododendron of Nepal and the component of the missions of our respective North-west Himalaya is tender, but seedlings arboreta. When adding accessions, we want to of the same species from Sikkim, whose parents capture as much variation as possible within a grew at a greater elevation, have proved perspecies, so we often collect from multiple popufectly hardy.\" A few years ago, we wrote about lations within a species' range. This is standard C. S. Sargent's interest in acquiring cedar of practice for species in our core, or high-priority, Lebanon (Cedrus libani) germplasm that would collections that are already well adapted to our prove to be hardy in Boston (Aiello and Doslocal Arboretum conditions. However, for spemann 2007). He succeeded by obtaining seeds cies like C. libani that are not typically winter from Turkey, and those plants and others from hardy in our climate, we must seek specific that region have fared notably well in Philadelprovenances that may hold hardier populations. phia and Boston as well as colder climes, while One of those marginally hardy species that accessions from other provenances have failed. has evaded our grasp so far is the southern The cedar of Lebanon story points out the live oak (Quercus virginiana), whose massive, ongoing importance of plant exploration, a vital gnarled form--often draped in Spanish moss Southern Live Oak 13 (Tillandsia usneoides)--conjures up images of the antebellum South. This oak often exceeds 50 feet (15.2 meters) in height, but it is the spread that typically draws our attention. Almost always wider than tall, the colossal sweeping branches of old trees are a marvel. The common name \"live oak\" refers to the typically evergreen leaves, stiff and shiny on the top, and gray-tomentose on the bottom. However, during particularly cold spells the species may shed some of its leaves and is regarded as brevideciduous. Tolerant of drought as well as soil salinity and salt spray, southern live oak is often categorized as a \"tough plant,\" aside from winter hardiness issues. THe QueST BeginS Quercus virginiana has leathery, usually evergreen leaves. florida peninsula, turning northward to follow In 140 years of acquiring and testing species the coasts of georgia, South Carolina, North from all over the temperate world, the Arnold Carolina, and southern virginia. flint (1997) Arboretum has never even attempted to grow noted that while the species' useful range as Q. virginiana. That the Arboretum had tried-- a landscape plant is uSDA Zone 8b (average and failed--to establish hardy plants in the colannual minimum temperature 15 to 20 14 Arnoldia 70\/3 Southern Live Oak 15 the lab of Jeannine Cavender-Bares at the university of Minnesota has yielded interesting information on its ecology. Her lab found that Q. virginiana, like many other temperate species, varies in leaf and stem hardiness as a function of latitude: the more northern populations possess greater hardiness (Cavender-Bares 2007; Cavender-Bares et al. 2011; Koehler et al. 2012). In these studies, the lowest temperature that plants were exposed to (and survived) was 14 16 Madison university, 35 to 29). We commented that either the students were notably well behaved, or the landscape services department worked through the evening hours. using directions provided by Professor of Biology John Hayden, we were able to easily find the various specimens, many of which had been planted in the last few decades. Although we had seen the occasional Q. virginiana before, this site gave us our first chance to really observe the species in depth. Our first two collections were from trees growing near Westhampton Lake. The first tree, rounded and spreading in form, was about 15 feet (4.6 meters) tall and twice as wide; we estimated that it had been growing in that location for 10 to 15 years. And it was loaded with acorns, most with bright yellowish green nuts and tawny brown caps. However, a few had started to turn the typical mature color, a rich burgundybrown. The branches were dense, with short internodes, and thickly set with leathery, oblong to oval leaves. Considering their form and (brevi)evergreenness, we thought they would make great screens. As was our protocol for the entire trip, we gathered germplasm in the form of acorns, made herbarium vouchers from cut twigs (complete with the acorns), and of course jotted down copious collection details that pertained to the trees as well as the local conditions and environment. The second collection was from a nearby tree, smaller and younger than the first, but similar to another six growing nearby. undoubtedly the campus was trying to establish a grove of these trees in this area. Before leaving the university, we located and collected from two trees, older than the first, which were growing near a dining hall. changes in Plant Hardiness Zones IN JANuAry 2012, the united States Department of Agriculture unveiled its new Plant Hardiness Zone Map (PHZM) (http:\/\/planthardiness.ars.usda.gov\/PHZMWeb\/), a development that was long anticipated by gardeners and researchers. Like its earlier incarnations, the new PHZM provides guidelines to predict a region's average annual minimum temperature, a vital statistic in determining whether or not a plant may survive the winter in a particular area. Last updated in 1990, the map now features a number of significant features. for one, it has gained interactivity through a geographic Information System (gIS) that enables users to zoom in at regional and state levels; it also has a tool to identify a zone by zip code. Data quantity and quality represent marked improvement in the map's reliability-- the new PHZM utilizes 30 years (1976 allow gardeners to reliably grow Stachyurus praecox and Chimonanthus praecox, which are currently hardy only in protected microclimates. And, if we are lucky, Philadelphia and Boston can add Quercus virginiana to that list. Our next destination--after an amazing lunch at Buz and Ned's BBQ--was Bryan Park, a historic richmond landscape founded in 1910. We expected to find small, rounded trees similar to those we had found at the university earlier in the morning. However, what we did find were three very large individuals, just down the hill from the gatekeeper's House on the park's northeast side. Heights ranged from 30 to 40 feet (9.1 to 12.2 meters); each was rounded, usually twice as wide as tall, and with gnarled, twisting stems and branches. Only two of the trees (with dbh values of 35 and 39 inches [89 and 99 centimeters], respectively) bore acorns. Although we do not have any records to confirm this, based on their size we assume that the trees date back to the founding of Bryan Park and approach the 100 year mark. If so, they certainly would have survived the frigid winter of 1940. TO WiLLiamSBuRg We departed richmond in the early morning of October 22nd, and by 9:00 a.m. arrived at our next destination: the College of William and Mary in Williamsburg. Beth Chambers, curator of William and Mary's herbarium, was a great help to our efforts. Prior to our arrival, 18 Arnoldia 70\/3 Southern Live Oak 19 A grove of old southern live oaks at the edge of the Parade Ground of Fort Monroe. The moat surrounding Fort Monroe contributed to its defenses; mature southern live oaks can be seen growing within the fort's interior, above and to the right of the casement. resources Management at the fort. We were thankful for the lead. Perched at the ocean's edge, the fort has a rich history that dates to the early seventeenth century. It had been occupied by the military until its recent decommissioning in 2011, and it is now a National Monument. The massive six-sided stone structure is the largest of its kind in North America: 63 acres of land surrounded by walls and an impressive moat. Construction of the current fort took 15 years to complete and the final phase (finished in 1843) was overseen by robert E. Lee. In an ironic twist, such was its fortitude that it was never lost to the Confederacy. We arrived in the late afternoon of the 22nd to meet Eola, who enthusiastically showed us around the facility and explained some of its fascinating history. We also returned on the morning of the 24th to visit with her, as well as Joshua gillespie and robert Kelly of the fort Monroe Authority. Inside the buttressed edifice we found a composite of former army barracks, period officer quarters, office and training facilities, storage buildings, a chapel, and a museum, as well as nearly 350 southern live oak specimens scattered throughout. Perhaps the most impressive is a large grove that grows along the south and west edge of the interior parade ground. Some trees stood as lone sentries, while others grew in small groups, sometimes arching over the sidewalks and defying gravity. Most were no taller than 35 to 40 feet (10.7 to 12.2 meters), and all had dramatic, ethereal forms, the result of decades and even centuries of difficult environmental conditions including drought, intense heat, and salt spray (even inside the fort's walls). No doubt, the grandest of these was the Algernourne Oak, a leviathan estimated to be over 450 years old. This tree has a basal diameter of 90 inches (228.6 centimeters), with two massive leaders diverging about 3 20 Arnoldia 70\/3 Southern Live Oak 21 in the parade ground, we imagined ourselves dressed in full uniform, performing drills and marching for hours under the hot sun and dry, salty breeze--those trees would be considered sacred! The trees were in remarkably good condition considering their age, size, and the heavy impact of human activities on the site. Many of them showed the marks of time but they were mostly healthy and growing well, a testament to the resilience of southern live oaks. fiRST Landing We dedicated the 23rd to surveying the flora of first Landing State Park, which lies on Cape Henry between Norfolk and virginia Beach. Its current name, changed from Seashore State Park in Tony Aiello stands near a cluster of Osmanthus americanus along the 1997, acknowledges this site as the namesake Osmanthus Trail at First Landing State Park. location where the virginia Company first landed in 1607 prior to settling Jamesfinding them was quite easy thanks to town. The park covers about 3,000 acres, and our earlier planning conversations with Erik comprises eight upland plant community types Molleen of the virginia Department of Conthat range from dune crests to mesic forests servation and recreation; the fact that there (Clampitt 1991). Our initial foray was into the was an Osmanthus Trail in the park was also mesic forests where several of our non-oak helpful. Osmanthus americanus specimens collecting targets were to be found: devilwood were numerous and scattered throughout the (Osmanthus americanus) and swamp bay (Perunderstory. They became easy to identify from sea palustris). Like southern live oak, these two a distance because their glossy green leaves are species of shrubs or small trees are near or at arranged oppositely, as with other members their northernmost ranges in virginia. And, for of the olive family (Oleaceae). At the Arnold reasons similar to our quest for hardy southern Arboretum, this species has proven to be quite a live oak germplasm, we were anxious to locate challenge to cultivate because of cold hardiness and collect from these species. issues. One clone, a cultivated lineage from Spring grove Cemetery in Cincinnati, Ohio, has been reliably hardy in Boston. Likewise a plant at the Morris Arboretum has survived but not thrived since it was received from a local nursery in 1962. Wild-provenance material has long been a target because of the species' botanical and ornamental appeal. Its broadleaved evergreen foliage provides winter interest, and the small, creamy white flowers in spring are a delight to the nose; their mellic scent beckons from great distances. We were able to collect fruits--bright green drupes at this stage--from many trees in the woodland. Persea palustris also dotted the understory, Devilwood (Osmanthus americanus) bears sweetly fragrant flowers in the spring. and, like devilwood, has large, elliptic, evergreen MIKE HOgAN, HTTPS:\/\/fP.AuBurN.EDu\/ SfWS\/SAMuELSON\/DENDrOLOgy 22 Arnoldia 70\/3 Southern Live Oak 23 The water table was down considerably at First Landing State Park, exposing the buttressed trunks and knees of the bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). branching form. One of the larger trees we found had three stems measuring 12.5, 17, and 21 inches (31.8, 43.2, and 53.3 centimeters) in diameter at 12 inches (30.5 centimeters) above the ground. Despite the stressful environment, trees were healthy and there was noticeable regeneration of young seedlings in the understory, which is always a good sign. rather than focus on individual trees at this site, we maximized the amount of genetic variation in the collection by gathering acorns from 12 trees. Some trees were so fecund and at perfect ripeness that we could easily shake the branch and scores of the nuts would drop from their caps. nexT STePS Although the fieldwork is complete, the data are in the databases, and the herbarium specimens are mounted, much work remains ahead of us. Each of our institutions is hard at work germinating the seeds from the various collections made on the trip--twelve separate Q. virginiana collections, plus one each of the Persea, Osmanthus, and Q. 24 Arnoldia 70\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mark Catesby: Pioneering Naturalist, Artist, and Horticulturist","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25545","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270896d.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Yih, David","article_content":"Mark Catesby: Pioneering Naturalist, Artist, and Horticulturist David Yih T his April marks the 301st anniversary of naturalist Mark Catesby's arrival in Williamsburg, Virginia, to begin the first of two exploratory sojourns he would make in the American colonies. A dabbler in watercolors from a family of provincial English lawyers, Catesby was twenty-nine when he stepped off the ship to begin the adventure that would determine the course of his life and culminate in his monumental work on North American flora and fauna, The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. The lavishly illustrated work would be hailed in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London as \"the most magnificent work ... since the art of printing has been discovered\" (Mortimer 1748). It would stand as a benchmark in American natural history throughout the eighteenth century and be deemed \"the most splendid of its kind that England had ever produced\" (Pulteney 1790). Though little documentation of Catesby's early life exists, it is generally supposed that his interest in the natural world had been stimulated by his uncle Nicholas Jekyll, an avid gardener who introduced the young man to John Ray, \"the foremost English naturalist of the late seventeenth century ... whose systems would dominate English natural history until the adoption of Linnaean classification\" (Frick 1974). The best glimpse into Catesby's preoccupations as he first arrived in America to visit his sister's family and have a look around comes in his own words: \"... my Curiosity was such, that not being content with contemplating the Products of our own Country, I soon imbibed a passionate Desire of viewing as well the Animal as Vegetable Productions in their Native Countries; which were Strangers to England. Virginia was the Place (I having Relations there) suited most with my Convenience to go to, where I arriv'd the 23d. of April 1712. I thought then so little of prosecuting a Design of the Nature of this Work, that in the Seven Years I resided in that Country, (I am ashamed to own it) I chiefly gratified my Inclination in observing and admiring the various Productions of those Countries, only sending from thence some dried Specimens of Plants and some of the most Specious of them in Tubs of Earth, at the Request of some curious Friends ...\" (Catesby 1731) Perhaps Catesby could afford to be a bit modest by the time he wrote these prefatory words of his celebrated magnum opus. In reality, when he returned to England after seven years in the colonies, he \"brought with him an extensive knowledge of New World flora and fauna as well as an impressive cache of drawings of animals and plants never before seen by English naturalists\" (Meyers and Pritchard 1998). These were sufficient to attract the interest of the eminent English botanist William Sherard, who happened to be in the process of organizing sponsors to send a naturalist across the Atlantic to explore and document the living wonders of America, especially those that might have scientific, economic, ornamental, or curative value. Whom to send on this mission was an issue yet to be resolved. But an ability to render accurate images of the new finds would be a significant qualification. Impressed by Catesby's work, Sherard wrote to an acquaintance, \"He designs and paints in water colours to perfection.\" Catesby got the job, and with the support of a dozen backers--including a number of aristocrats as well as the President and several members of the Royal Society--set out on his second journey, arriving in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1722. With the funds and trust that were now invested in him, he threw himself into 26 Arnoldia 70\/3 Mark Catesby 27 his work, resolving never to visit the same area twice during the same season. The frequent clamoring of his impatient backers for specimens sometimes hampered his efforts at what he saw as the main thing to be accomplished: an illustrated record of the plants and wildlife of America. But he persevered and for four years ranged from coastal plains to Appalachians and from the Carolinas south through georgia, Florida, and the Bahamas, collecting, documenting, and painting as he went. Upon his return to England in 1726, Catesby took a job as a nursery horticulturist and began work on the great book he envisioned. The project would take more than twenty years to complete. And he would have to publish it himself. In a practice common at the time, Catesby solicited subscribers by issuing a prospectus describing the proposed publication and his qualifications for undertaking it. Subscribers would make advance payments, and these would help defray the costs of producing the books. Catesby gave persuasive evidence of the worthiness of his project by listing in the prospectus the names of the twelve eminent men who had sponsored his second trip and by publicly exhibiting the drawings and watercolors he had brought with him from the colonies. Ultimately, 155 persons and institutions signed on, enough to set the project in motion. In order for the illustrations to be printed, they would have to be engraved into copper The Blue Bird and Smilax non spinosa, humilis Eastern bluebird (Sialia sialis) and sarsaparilla vine (Smilax pumila) 28 Arnoldia 70\/3 Mark Catesby 29 plates. Catesby had hoped to have the work done by the expert engravers of Amsterdam or Paris, but given the number of plates involved--220 would grace the finished work-- the expense proved prohibitive. Undeterred, he studied the technique of etching with Joseph goupy, a French printmaker and art instructor then living in England, and proceeded to etch all of the plates himself. He published the work in installments of twenty plates with accompanying bilingual English 30 Arnoldia 70\/3 Mark Catesby 31 The Painted Finch and the Loblolly Tree Painted bunting (Passerina ciris) and loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus) 32 Arnoldia 70\/3 Mark Catesby 33 the direction of twist shown in the twining of Catesby's sweet potato plant (Ipomoea batatas) is incorrect. Catesby himself recognized that his artistic skills were limited by his lack of expertise in perspective but felt that his flat depictions were sufficient for the purpose of delineating species. In time, his work was superseded by the achievements of later generations, and Catesby's renown faded. \"After the American Revolution, interest in Catesby's work, as with most things American, waned in England. And as the scientific community became increasingly specialized, . . . Catesby's generalist approach fell into disfavor. By the time John James Audubon set off to paint in South Carolina nearly a century later, Catesby had been almost forgotten.\" (Amacker) In recent decades, however, a new appreciation of Catesby's contribution has emerged. With the perspective of two-and-a-half centuries, it has become clear that Catesby's work was innova- The Blueish Green Snake and Frutex baccifer, verticillatus tive and ahead of its time. He Rough green snake (Opheodrys aestivus) and American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana) broke from the stilted bird profiles typical of the times to include dynamic logical characteristics. In the case of birds, he images of birds in motion. The bald eagle in often commented on aspects of nest-building, full swoop, bearing down upon its prey in the feeding, and migratory behaviors. He authored very first plate is an example. He was the first the first scientific paper (Catesby 1746-7) to to depict birds against botanical backgrounds. accurately address the phenomenon of bird More importantly, in choosing these backmigration (earlier theories had birds hibernatgrounds, he made a conscious effort to depict ing in caves or under water during the winter ecological relationships, frequently showing months). For these reasons, and in considerbirds with the plants on which they feed or in ation of the many new bird species he brought which they nest. His texts go beyond describto light, Catesby has been called the founder of ing morphology to reveal behavioral and ecoAmerican ornithology (Frick 1974). 34 Arnoldia 70\/3 Mark Catesby 35 Steuartia Silky camellia (Stewartia malacodendron) [Ed. note: Though he named the genus in honor of John Stuart, Linnaeus spelled it as Stewartia. This is still the generally accepted spelling, though some taxonomists spell it as Stuartia. Catesby's spelling seems to split the difference.] 36 Arnoldia 70\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Knowing Nature: Art and Science in Philadelphia, 1740-1840","article_sequence":4,"start_page":37,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25544","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d2708928.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Book Review: Knowing Nature: Art and Science in Philadelphia, 1740 38 Arnoldia 70\/3 Book Review 39 story of John Bartram's involvement in the discovery of ginseng in Pennsylvania (1739) and his efforts to collect plants for his patron, Peter Collinson, who was interested in establishing a business exporting American ginseng from England to China. While I have read about this story before, the six beautiful images of ginseng (including a botanical specimen collected by Bartram) that illustrate Janice Neri's chapter on the China trade give this version a vitality that text alone does not provide. Mark Laird's chapter on \"The American Connection in Georgian Pleasure Grounds\" traces how the interest in and importation of North American plants and animals into England changed the nature of designed English landscapes. In a similar vein, I found Lisa Ford's chapter about Fran"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Betula dahurica: A Special Birch Tree","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25543","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270856f.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"McAllister, Hugh","article_content":"Betula dahurica: A Special Birch Tree Hugh McAllister I n the United Kingdom, Betula dahurica has a reputation for not making a well-shaped tree, as it often suffers repeated dieback and poor growth because of late spring frosts and inadequate summer heat. One specimen in the Arnold Arboretum (overhanging the road on Bussey Hill) shows the typical \"witches' broom\" growths caused by such repeated dieback, but most trees of B. dahurica in the Arboretum have made good specimens. Particularly noteworthy is a tree of Japanese origin (accession 1015-80-A) just off Conifer Path near the bamboo collection. Dahurian birch is noted for its peeling, papery bark (similar to river birch, B. nigra) and this specimen has particularly attractive shaggy curls that have a redder color on their inner surface than some other Arboretum specimens. The color of the inner surface contrasts nicely with the creamy white of the outer surface of the curls and the unpeeled sections of bark on the branches. Betula dahurica is native to China, Japan, Korea, eastern Mongolia, and far eastern Russia. Accession 1015-80-A is of special interest since B. dahurica is endangered in Japan, being known primarily from a small population near Nobeyama in Nagano Prefecture in the central part of the main island of Honshu (where this accession was collected). There is another small population in the northern island of Hokkaido and one on Iturup in the Kurile Islands, which were Japanese before being occupied by Russia at the end of World War II. Of genetic interest, these offshore island populations are hexaploid (6 times the base number for birches of x=14) with a chromosome number of 2n=84, whereas the extensive populations on the Asiatic mainland all appear to be octoploid with 2n=112. This means that the island populations are unlikely to interbreed freely with the mainland populations, are genetically distinct, and, if they can be recognized by their appearance, should be named as a distinct species. Three cuttings from the tree in the Arboretum have been rooted and are now growing in the nursery. The only other known trees from the Nobeyama provenance in cultivation are a single tree at Dawyck, a satellite garden of the Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh in southern Scotland, and six trees at Ness Gardens, the University of Liverpool Botanic Gardens near Chester in northwest England. Trees from this provenance grow far better in the United Kingdom than any from continental Asia, presumably because of the greater similarity of our climate to the maritime climate of Japan. Since the Nobeyama trees are genetically distinct and rare in the wild, they are clearly of conservation significance and efforts should be made to have breeding populations for seed production in cultivation. Most species of birch are self-incompatible (self-sterile), so at least two different seedling trees are needed for seed production. Fortunately we have this at Ness and, despite the large number of other birch species in the surrounding garden, seedlings from the cultivated trees seem to be mostly coming true (i.e., are not hybrids with other species). Accession 1015-80-A is producing some viable seeds, so it will be interesting to sow this and see what the seedlings are. If the parent tree is totally self-incompatible then all the seedlings will be hybrids. No known hybrids of B. dahurica have ever been reported, and certainly no hybrids of the Nobeyama provenance, so, if we can identify what the other parent(s) might have been, it will tell us what other species B. dahurica can hybridize with. Any such hybrids could be of horticultural interest since B. dahurica may be resistant to bronze birch borer. Alternatively, accession 1015-80-A could have a limited degree of self-compatibility (resulting in a low percentage of viable seeds) and at least some of the seedlings could be the result of self-fertilization. This could result in some dwarf or other abnormal growth forms as a result of inbreeding depression--this is the probable mode of origin of many dwarf conifers. No doubt this species, and the Japanese provenance in particular, will continue to be studied, conserved, and propagated at the Arnold Arboretum, Ness Gardens, and other botanical institutions. Hugh McAllister is an honorary lecturer at the University of Liverpool and was recently a Sargent Award visiting scholar at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23431","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160896e.jpg","title":"2013-70-3","volume":70,"issue_number":3,"year":2013,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Mystery of Seasonal Color Change","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25542","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270816b.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":2,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lee, David","article_content":"The Mystery of Seasonal Color Change David Lee ... the gods are growing old; The stars are singing Golden hair to gray Green leaf to yellow leaf,--or chlorophyll To xanthophyll, to be more scientific ... Edwin Arlington Robinson (Captain Craig) T hroughout New England each autumn-- early October in some parts and as much as three weeks later in others--the pageant of color change in our forests unfolds. Though less noticed, in the springtime these forest canopies take on delicate pastel colors as buds swell and leaves expand. In the last 15 years, our understanding of the science behind color change has begun to emerge, with two different but not mutually exclusive hypotheses being formulated and defended. I have been involved in the research and debate on these color changes, and why that is so is a bit of a mystery in itself. After all, I grew up on the cold desert of the Columbia Plateau in Washington State, where the predominant colors were the grays of sagebrush and other pubescent shrubs. Occasionally I visited the forests of the Cascade Range to the west, witnessing the dark greens of conifers, occasional yellows of cottonwood, birch, and willow in the autumn, with just a few splashes of the reds of the Douglas maple (Acer glabrum var. douglasii). I did enjoy the autumn colors of the mid-Atlantic and Midwest forests as a graduate student and post-doctoral fellow, but was too busy in the laboratory to think much about that color. Then I moved to tropical Asia--Malaysia specifically--and took notice of the differences in tropical rainforest vegetation, which I have been studying ever since. I was particularly struck by the red colors of leaves, both on the undersurfaces of understory plants and the expanding leaves of giant trees (so colorful that from a distance they looked to be in flower). Yet, few of A red maple leaf shows developing red autumn color along with still-green sections. This micrograph of a red maple (Acer rubrum) leaf shows that it contains both red anthocyanins and yellow xanthophylls. Seasonal Color Change 3 the leaves turned red before falling from trees, and the canopies remained green because leaf fall was staggered. I began studying that red color--which led me back to the autumn reds of New England forests. A PAlETTE of PigMEnTS As poet Edwin Arlington Robinson partly described, the colors of leaves are the products of pigments produced in their internal tissues. Chlorophylls produce greens, xanthophylls produce yellows and oranges, and anthocyanins (left out by Robinson) produce reds. The leaf tissue is like the thick paper employed in watercolor painting. If you consider that most of the leaf consists of cellulose fibers, the similarities are particularly strong. The interior leaf volume, with its numerous air chambers facilitating the exchange of gases that supports photosynthesis, strongly scatters light, allowing some to reflect and some to be transmitted through the leaf. The leaf pigments are then All IMAgES bY ThE AUThOR like the soluble pigments in watercolors, and color is produced subtractively. Chlorophyll produces a green color because it absorbs light in the blue and red wavelengths. Xanthophylls produce yellow because they absorb blue into green, and anthocyanins red because they absorb even more green into blue. These pigments can combine to produce oranges (yellow and red), or even brown (green and red). The colors of spring and autumn are produced by these pigment combinations in leaves. When I was a college student of botany in the 1960s, the textbooks taught us that autumn colors were produced by the loss of chlorophyll unmasking the yellows of xanthophyll and reds of anthocyanin pigments, and that the colors had no function. To me, this did not seem right for the reds of anthocyanins, because I knew that these pigments are quickly synthesized in leaves. When I began to work at Florida International University in Miami in 1980, I turned my attention to the young leaves of mango and A red maple glows in autumn color at the edge of Connor Pond, between the towns of Petersham and Barre in central Massachusetts. 4 Arnoldia 70\/2 Seasonal Color Change 5 entire tree for the following year, and we speculated that the advantage could be to protect the leaves during the process of the breakdown of chlorophyll. leaves carefully disassemble the chlorophyll and associated proteins during senescence, and much of the nitrogen-containing compounds are resorbed in the woody tissues for use the following spring. We discussed a plan of action, and Missy supported my application for a bullard Fellowship at the harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, which I used from late summer through early winter in 1998 and 2004. During those sojourns in central Massachusetts, with frequent cultural trips to Cambridge and boston, I observed the changes in the forest pretty much every day, and made observations and physiological measurements of leaves during the process of leaf senescence and color change. When the snow started falling in early December, I high-tailed it back to balmy Miami. Missy and I collaborated with her Ph.D. student Taylor Feild (now at the University of Tennessee) and harvard Forest scientist John O'Keefe, who had been observing the phenology (when trees leaf out, when they flower and fruit, and when the leaves change color and fall from the trees) of common tree species at the forest starting in 1991. We found that most of the trees and shrubs (62 of 89, or 70%) produced anthocyanins during senescence, starting when leaves had already lost about half of their chlorophyll. Such leaves appeared red, red-orange, bronze, and even brown in color. The precise colors depended on the mixtures of anthocyanins, chlorophylls, and xanthophylls. We studied the changes in pigment composition and physiology in leaves of individuals of 16 species, 8 with anthocyanins and 8 whose leaves turned yellow (they had residual xanthophylls but no anthocyanins). We found that anthocyanin concentration during senescence was correlated with lower nitrogen content, consistent with the prediction that more nitrogen could be resorbed by the woody Autumn leaf color in sugar maple (Acer saccharum) varies between (and even within) individual specimens. 6 Arnoldia 70\/2 Seasonal Color Change 7 That created (1) some good will, (2) the understanding that we didn't know much about either hypothesis (which is often the fuel for disagreement and animosity), (3) the most exhaustive review on the subject (see the citation at the end of this article), and (4) an exhortation that we should produce the missing data that would more critically test the hypotheses. because it involves animals, the co-evolution hypothesis has attracted the most research. When we observe color, we automatically think of signaling--as from attractive flowers to pollinators, and from colorful fruits to dispersers. Conversely, in the physiological hypothesis, color is merely the by-product of protective absorption at specific wavelengths we can't see. We now know that color, particularly yellow against a green background, repels visits by aphids, at least in the few trees that have been examined, especially European birch (Betula pendula). The evidence for red leaves is more controversial. Although there is some evidence of aphids avoiding red leaves, these insects seem not to have visual receptive cells sensitive in the red wavelengths. limited evidence supports the contention that repelling aphids reduces egg laying, decreases activity of these sucking insects the following year, and increases seed production. Marco's strongest supporting evidence is from wild apples, where autumn aphids lay more eggs on green rather than red leaves. Inside and outside views of autumn leaf color in red oak (Quercus rubra). Another weakness is a lack of evidence of reduced palatability, greater duEling hyPoThESES toxicity, or less nutrition in yellow or red Publications supporting the two hypotheses leaves, although such leaves would likely be stimulated additional research, along with a more advanced in senescence and thus less number of speculative reviews. A little aninutritious than green leaves. A model of the mosity arose between proponents of these kind of research needed was published in 2011 two views, even though the hypotheses were by Kevin gould and colleagues in a New Zeanot mutually exclusive. To Marco's credit, he land tree, horopito (Pseudowintera colorata), convened a meeting at Oxford in March 2008, that has red leaf margins. They found a toxic with researchers from both \"camps\" present. plant molecule, polygodial, was associated with 8 Arnoldia 70\/2 Seasonal Color Change 9 Though more subtle than in autumn, reddish color is also common in spring on expanding leaves, as seen here in woods near Beaverkill, New York. cence, or the pressures of herbivory. Many maples and oaks produce red colors during the autumn, and birches and beeches produce yellows. hoch has shown that the birches resorb nitrogen as well as the species with red anthocyanins, so there are likely to be other protective mechanisms that have evolved. The color production in geographically distant forests also varies greatly. Among the most spectacular color displays are autumn forest scenes in New England, and also in the southern Appalachians (residents of the great Smoky Mountains region think their colors are the most beautiful!). however, European forests produce little red, and a lot of yellow. Although red and yellow colors are produced in virtually all deciduous trees in New England, in other forests leaves may stay green. Isreali botanist Simca lev Yadun has speculated that variation in color production may be the result of the different tree species in particular forests, and their evolutionary histories. Past and future climates may affect color production by determining the distributions of different trees in forests. Diseases may also remove species and change the colors during autumn. For New England forests, I expect that a century ago there was much more yellow in the autumn color palette. The rapid decline of the American chestnut from chestnut blight 10 Arnoldia 70\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Inside Plants: An Engineer's View of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25540","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270bb6d.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":2,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gibson, Lorna J.","article_content":"inside Plants: An engineer's View of the Arnold Arboretum Lorna J. Gibson G ardeners tend their plants to produce a beautiful display in the garden or to harvest fruits and vegetables. Botanists study the anatomy, life cycles, and evolution of plants. Engineers, too, are interested in plants, although from a different perspective. Historically, engineers have been interested primarily in wood, because of its widespread use in everything from furniture to boats to buildings. But more recently, engineers have recognized that plants are very effective at resisting the loads they are subjected to (for instance, from the wind or from their own weight). Today, engineers study plants to learn what features make them so effective mechanically, with a view towards \"bio-inspired design\" of engineering materials and structures that exploit these features. In this article, I will take you for a walk through the Arboretum and describe a variety of plants and how they work from an engineering perspective. The Tour Begins Across from the Hunnewell Visitor Center, east of Meadow Road, lies the Cattails (Typha spp.) growing in the Meadow at the Arnold Arboretum. Meadow, a marshy area largely filled with cattails (Typha spp.). The leaves stand along their length; if you draw your thumbnail close to vertical and reach an impressive height, across the width of the leaf you can feel the often over 6 feet tall. As you walk past, you can ridges of the fibers. How do the long, thin leaves see the leaves bend in the wind; occasionally, stand up so tall? a sparrow or red-winged black bird lands on A look at the cross section of a cattail leaf the stem or its fuzzy, cylindrical seed head and reveals the answer. The cross section shows bends that over, too. If you look at the leaves up two outer faces connected by a number of ribs. close, you can see that they have fibers running At the very outer top and bottom surfaces, you RoBERT MAyER 12 Arnoldia 70\/2 Inside Plants 13 nAnCy RosE and grasses. A cross sectional view of an iris leaf shows that it has large dense fibers (called sclerenchyma) at the outer surface and a thick inner layer of foamlike cells (called parenchyma). When the leaf is bent, the dense fibers carry most of the high internal loads at the outside of the leaf. The separation of the denser, stiffer fibers by the inner foamlike layer increases the resistance of the iris leaf to bending. Engineers make use of the same concept (a \"sandwich structure\") in the design of downhill skis, lightweight panels for aircraft, and the blades of windmills, which often have two outer skins of carbon-fiber-reinforced plastic separated by a foam (or sometimes an engineering honeycomb) core. suPPorTing AcT If we walk back towards the Arborway Gate and look along Willow Path, we see the huge leaves of the butterbur (Petasites japonicus). How does the stem support such large leaves without falling over? The stem bends under the weight of the leaf and from wind acting on the leaf. The stem is roughly circular in cross secLoRnA J. GIBson The swordlike leaves of bearded iris have a \"sandwich structure\" that increases their resistance to bending. Don GALLER, MIT Dense outer fibers (schlerenchyma) are separated by foamlike parenchyma in this iris leaf cross section. An empty tube kinks when bent, but the foam-filled tube resists kinking. 14 Arnoldia 70\/2 nAnCy RosE Birds of a Feather Bird FeATher quills have a similar structure to iris leaves. As the bird's wings beat in flight, the feather is bent up and down, so that the bending loads are highest on the top and bottom of the quill. A sandwich structure, with dense faces at the top and bottom of the quill, would seem to be an ideal option. But bird feathers also have to resist twisting, or torsion, and the foam-filled closed tubes are adept at this. (You can try this simple experiment: take a drinking straw and twist it. now cut a slit along the length of the straw and twist it again. The straw is much better at resisting twisting when the cross section is closed and intact.) As with the butterbur, the foamlike core also helps resist kinking failure of the dense outer layer of material in the feather quill. CouRTEsy of AL REID Don GALLER, MIT Blue jay (Cyanocitta cristata). Cross section of a blue jay feather. bark of the cork oak is removed, it regrows, allowing harvesting of cork every 10 to 15 years. The cork cells are like little bellows: they are roughly box-shaped, but with corrugations running in one direction. When you compress the cork in the direction of the corrugations, they simply fold up, like a bellows, so that they do not expand in the lateral direction. This feature of cork is one reason cork works well at stoppering bottles. A rubber stopper, on the other hand, bulges out laterally when compressed, making it difficult to press into a bottle; for this reason, rubber bottle stoppers are always tapered. Trees = Wood When we think of the Arnold Arboretum, we think of trees. And when engineers think of trees, they inevitably think of wood. Wood is one of the structural materials used for the longest time in human history and is still one of the most widely used. The oldest known wooden boat is Cheops's 4,600 year old barge, found dismantled in a pit next to the Great Pyramid in Egypt. In the late 1600s, eastern white pines (Pinus strobus) from new England were a strategic resource for the British Royal navy. The tall, straight trunks of the pines were used as masts for ships; the taller the mast, the more sail area, the larger the ship, and the more cannons it could carry. And most houses in north America are still wood framed. north American woods are divided into hardwoods (deciduous trees that drop their broad leaves annually) and softwoods (conifers with needles that are typically, but not always, evergreen). While hardwoods tend to be denser and harder than softwoods, that is not always the case: for example, Douglas fir, a softwood, 16 Arnoldia 70\/2 LoRnA J. GIBson Inside Plants 17 Vessel t Oak wood, cross section and longitudinal section. t Tracheid t Fiber ray t t ray Cedar wood, cross section and longitudinal views. wood, this is equivalent to the fraction of the volume that is solid. In contrast, when a model honeycomb is loaded across the cells, it is much easier to deform the honeycomb, as the cell walls bend. Wood cells loaded across the grain also bend in a manner similar to the honeycomb; this can be seen most easily in a low density wood like balsa (Ochroma pyramidale) (see upper right images on page 18). If you take a ruler and bend it, it deforms much more than if you rest one end on a table and compress it from the opposite end with the same load. It is also less strong when bent: it is much easier to break the ruler in bending than by compressing it on end. We have already seen how, in a bent beam, the amount that the material stretches or compresses increases as the distance up or down from the middle of the beam increases: the thickness of a beam plays a greater role in resisting deflection or internal loads than the width. When loaded across the grain, the wood cell walls bend, giving much lower stiffness and strength across the grain than along the grain. This effect can be analyzed in more detail to show that the stiffness of woods loaded across the grain depends on the cube of the volume fraction of solid, and the strength (loaded across the grain) depends on the square of the volume fraction of solid. This leads to the great difference in the stiffness and strength in woods when loaded along and across the grain, a difference that is greater in lower density woods, such as pine, than in high density woods, such as oak. for instance, in Eastern white pine the compressive strength 18 Arnoldia 70\/2 Inside Plants 19 nAnCy RosE typically loaded in bending from the wind--the increase in denser material towards the outside of the cross section increases the resistance of the culm to bending deflections and loads, compared with a section with the same amount of material evenly distributed across the section. on our walk through the Arboretum, we have seen a variety of plants with different internal structures. Plants are often mechanically efficient, using material to resist internal loads where they are greatest. Engineers studying the mechanical behavior of plants take inspiration from them for the design of engineering materials and structures. Acknowledgements Bamboo sEM figure is from Gibson, L. J., M. f. Ashby, G. n. Karam, u. Wegst, and H. R. shercliff. 1995. The mechanical properties of natural materials II: microstructures for mechanical efficiency. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London A450: 141"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fruits and Nuts of the Villa Farnesina","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25684","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e0d260af26.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":2,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Janick, Jules","article_content":"Fruits and Nuts of the Villa Farnesina Jules Janick The loggia of Psyche in the Villa Farnesina. The paintings on the ceiling depict scenes from the love story of Cupid and Psyche. I n 1505, an extremely wealthy Sienese banker named Agostino Chigi (1466 The Villa Farnesina 21 Richly detailed festoons painted by Giovanni Martini da Udine contain thousands of botanical images. the decorations of his home, Chigi was more interested in the sensuality of the pagan world than on the artistic representation of suffering, torture, and death of the medieval Christian tradition. The decorations--painted between 1515 and 1517--involve love and marriage, perhaps in anticipation of Chigi's marriage to his longtime mistress in 1519, one year before his death. The loggia is presented as a tentlike pergola with images of two large tapestries painted on the ceiling as a roof, depicting a scene of the Council and the Banquet of the Gods--the climax of the Cupid and Psyche story. The arches of the ceiling are divided into spandrels that contain scenes of the heavenly adventures of Venus, Cupid, and Psyche, alternating with severies that illustrate cherubs bearing trophies of the gods. The Cupid and Psyche myth is based on the first novel that comes down to us from antiquity, known as the Metamorphoses (or The Golden Ass) of Apuleius, written in the second century but translated to Latin in 1469. The story, which was to become immensely popular, concerns the marriage of Cupid (mischievous God of Love) to the beautiful mortal Psyche (\"soul\") leading, after tribulations and trials, to the divinity of Psyche. The underlying theme of the story is that \"love conquers all.\" These Raphael frescoes illustrating the heavenly adventures of Cupid and Psyche are stunning, but for botanists and horticulturists an even greater treasure is found on the ribs enclosing the loggia's spandrels and severies. Here, the elaborate festoons and wreaths painted by Giovanni Martini da Udine (1487 22 Arnoldia 70\/2 The Villa Farnesina 23 coltura 2002). The resemblance of the maize images painted in Italy between 1515 and 1519 to races of maize in Spain, Portugal, and Italy is confirmatory evidence for the early origin of some of these races. There is direct evidence that maize seeds reached Rome in 1594. A letter from Peter Martyr D'Anghiera, an Italian teacher connected with the Spanish court, to Cardinal Ascoanio Sforza, vice-chancellor of the papal court, describes news of the early returning ships from the second voyages of Columbus and encloses seed of maize (McNutt 1912; Janick and Caneva 2005). Pome Fruits Five types of pome fruits are illustrated in the festoons: apple (Malus: 97 fruits of cultivated apple and 21 fruits of wild apple); pear (Pyrus: 78 fruits of European cultivated pear and 21 of wild pear); quince (Cydonia: 31 fruits), medlar (Mespilus: 27 fruits), and hawthorn (Crataegus: 30 fruits in two clusters). The number of images are indicative of the relative popularity of these fruits in Renaissance Italy. Of the apple fruits (Malus 24 Arnoldia 70\/2 The Villa Farnesina 25 Old World cucurbits seen in the festoons include watermelon (upper left) and various melons within Cucumis melo horticultural groups. Depictions of Lagenaria siceraria gourds include both the bottle type (with a broad, round base) and serpentine type (long, slender form). art, probably because of their phallic shape and association with the worship of Priapus, god of orchards and vineyards and the personification of the male generative organ (Morel 1984; Janick 2004). Finally, there are 3 images (9 fruits) of bitter gourds, known also as balsam apple (M. balsaminia) and balsam pear (M. charantis). Fruits are reddish and slightly warty, with a pointed end. The cucumbers in the paintings look like typical modern pickling types. There is also one image of squirting cucumber (upper left). Cucurbits (New World Species) Of particular interest for the festoon images are representatives of two species of New World cucurbits: Cucurbita maxima (fall and winter squashes and pumpkins) and Cucurbita pepo The cucumber images (13 groups, 25 fruit) all resemble the type known as \"American Pickling.\" There is a single image of the so-called squirting cucumber. Two types of Lagenaria fruit associated with white flowers are included: the inedible bottle gourd (var. fiasco) which is used largely for utensils, and the serpentine or club-shaped gourd (var. longissima), called cocuzza in Italy, that is edible when immature and still consumed in Sicily. There are 9 fruits of bottle gourds with slight variation in color and neck morphology. There are 19 groups (22 fruits) of cocuzza with subtle differences in shape based on the thickness of the calyx end suggesting that some might be hybrids of fiasco and longissima types. Cocuzza are widely displayed in Renaissance New World cucurbits seen in the paintings include large pumpkin or squash types of Cucumis maxima (upper left) and small gourd type examples of C. pepo. 26 Arnoldia 70\/2 The Villa Farnesina 27 lus is found in an illustrated manuscript, Livre d'Heures d'Anne de Bretagne, painted between 1503 and 1508 by Jean Bourdichon (ca. 1457"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Maclura pomifera: Neither Apple Nor Orange","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25541","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d2708126.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":2,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hetman, Jon","article_content":"Maclura pomifera: neither Apple nor orange Jon Hetman T hough I confess that plants held little sway among my childhood interests, a few specific trees stand out in my early recollections, all due to their memorable fruits. A seemingly ancient apple tree in a neighbor's front yard was a climbing favorite, and bore small, mottled green fruits that were a delight to eat as long as you didn't overindulge. Behind my grandparent's garage in central Florida, a moss-covered orange tree provided fragrant spring flowers and slightly sour fruits that remain indelible sensations of my youth. But the fruits that perhaps fascinated me most belonged to an Osage orange tree that grew near my elementary school--large, hard as baseballs, and looking to us like green brains, the bumpy orbs with their citrusy aroma were a delightful mystery that inspired a number of ingenious games of our own design. In earlier days, Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) garnered significant interest among people of its native Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, and Texas, though for very different reasons. Hunters in the Osage tribe fashioned war clubs and bows from the tree's bright yellow heartwood, which proved stronger than oak and as tough as hickory. Early settlers in the American frontier called it the hedge apple, planting it in thicket-like rows so that the thorny, interlacing branches sheltered fields from wind and provided an impenetrable animal barrier. As historian Paul Landacre famously described it, an Osage orange hedge was \"horse-high, bullstrong, and pig-tight.\" For me though, even as an adult, it's the fruits of these dioecious trees that really excite the imagination. If you cut one in half--and you may need a saw to do so--you'll discover a tough, pithy core surrounded by a couple hundred small seeds. Like other members of the Moraceae (mulberry family), Maclura bears a true multiple fruit composed of numerous separate ovaries, each developing from a separate female flower. In fact, the fruit's distinctive bumps--and their accompanying black, hairlike styles--rise from the fruit's numerous, tightly-packed ovaries. Though squirrels rip into fallen fruits to consume the seeds, noth- ing else seems to find these forbidding fruits the least bit appetizing. Nothing, that is, that still exists. In her book The Ghosts of Evolution, author Connie Barlow suggests that mammoths, mastodons, and other large herbivores of the North American plains ate Maclura fruits and were its dispersal agents before humans evolved their own interests in the plant. Although the exact details of the original collection of this monotypic species remain murky, we know that Maclura was among the botanical specimens gathered by Lewis and Clark on their transcontinental expedition of the American West. By studying saplings subsequently cultivated in the Philadelphia garden of Bernard McMahon, Constantine Samuel Rafinesque produced the first botanical description of the tree in 1817, naming it Ioxylon pomiferum, or \"poison apple.\" Perhaps unaware of Rafinesque's classification, Thomas Nuttall offered his own description the following year, honoring American geologist William Maclure with its generic epithet and proposing aurantiaca (\"orange colored\") as its specific epithet. Nearly a century later, Germany's Camillo Karl Schneider argued for the name that has stuck to this day, pairing Nutall's generic Maclura with a derivation of Rafinesque's specific, pomifera. Coincidently, this Teutonic connection to Maclura is compounded in the Arboretum's most spectacular accession (471-36-B) of the plant, a female obtained in 1936 from the Hermann A. Hesse Nursery of Weener, Germany. Growing today on a steep bank near the Centre Street wall across from Faulkner Hospital, the tree exhibits the criss-crossing, nearly horizontal branching that once made the species so desirable as a hedging plant. It is 36 feet (11 meters) tall and its two trunks have diameters at breast height of 14 and 16 inches (36 and 40.5 centimeters). Visit it in autumn, when its limbs bend beneath the weight of its fruits and its glossy leaves turn yellow, and you'll likely acquire fond associations of your own with this most singular of American fruiting trees. Jon Hetman is the Arnold Arboretum's Communications and Stewardship Officer. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23430","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1608928.jpg","title":"2012-70-2","volume":70,"issue_number":2,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Constantine Rafinesque, A Flawed Genius","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25537","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270b36b.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":1,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mosquin, Daniel","article_content":"Constantine Rafinesque, A Flawed Genius Daniel Mosquin All pHotoS by tHe AUtHoR UnleSS otHeRWISe IndICAted V Stenanthium was first proposed as a subgenus of Veratrum L. by Asa Gray in 1837. Rafinesque had already suggested this group be recognized as its own genus, named by him as Anepsa, in 1832. When it was generally agreed upon that this group of species should indeed be considered its own genus, Rafinesque's earlier contribution was disregarded, and Gray's Stenanthium was conserved instead. Pictured here is Stenanthium occidentale A. Gray. iburnum rafinesqueanum--to a teenaged boy in Manitoba beginning to learn the scientific names of plants, this moniker stood out. Poa pratensis? Meadow grass or Kentucky bluegrass (pratensis = \"of a meadow\"). Caltha palustris? Marsh marigold (palustris = \"of a marsh\"). Aquilegia canadensis? Canada columbine or red columbine. Viburnum rafinesqueanum? Here was a mess of near-impenetrable letters, a poetic delight to my ears when recited, which I soon learned honored a man named Rafinesque. A few years later in a floristics lecture, the good-natured eye-rolling reaction of the professor to my question about Rafinesque started a broader curiosity about the man. Constantine Samuel Rafinesque was among the great American naturalists of the nineteenth century. He was also among the most controversial and eccentric natural history personalities of his time. In the course of four decades, he offended nearly every establishment botanist in the United States, leading to a disdain that persisted among these botanists and succeeding generations of their students. As one result, his contributions to botany and other natural history sciences were downplayed or ignored for many decades beyond his death in 1840. His reputation has been mended somewhat since the mid-nineteenth century, as those he interacted directly with passed away and several twentieth-century historians critically examined his life and work. What emerges is that the man was a flawed genius, whose inability to work within the bounds of scientific convention necessarily led to lower recognition than he would otherwise have deserved. Constantine Rafinesque 3 lIbRARy oF tHe ARnold ARboRetUM to immediately give an idea of Rafinesque and aspects of his personality, it is perhaps best to learn of his many roles in his own words: \"Versatility of talents and of professions, is not uncommon in America; but those which I have exhibited in these few pages, may appear to exceed belief; it is a positive fact that in knowledge, I have been a botanist, naturalist, Geologist, Geographer, Historian, poet, philosopher, philologist, economist, philanthropist ... by profession, a traveller, Merchant, Manufacturer, Collector, Improver, professor, teacher, Surveyor, draftsman, Architect, engineer, pulmist [one who treats pulmonary diseases], Author, editor, bookseller, library, Secretary ... and I hardly know myself what I may not become as yet: since whenever I apply myself to any thing, which I like, I never fail to succeed if depending on me alone, unless impeded and prevent by lack of means, or the hostility of the foes of mankind.\" RAFinesque's LiFe Rafinesque was turkish-born to a French father and a mother of German descent on october 22, 1783. He was reared in Marseilles, France, by his mother and his father's family; his father was a merchant trader who spent much time abroad. In 1792, his family fled to Italy to escape the French Revolution. A year later, his father died during a yellow fever epidemic in philadelphia. Rafinesque returned to France in 1797, where he remained until 1802. At the age of 19, he landed in philadelphia for three years, where his passion for botanizing the United States started immediately. He asserted that the brassicaceous Draba verna l. he picked up after stepping off the ship was a new species, as he generally believed that American counterparts of well-known european species could not be the same species. It is also in philadelphia where he began to write books and papers. In 1805, he returned to Italy where he resided for a decade (occasionally living under the name Constantine Samuel Rafinesque Schmaltz, in order to avoid anti-French sentiment). Here, he married in 1809, had a daughter born in 1811 and an infant son who perished in 1814. A return to the United States was made in 1815, though the boat he was traveling on was ship- Image of Constantine Rafinesque on the frontispiece of his 1815 publication Analyse de la nature. wrecked off long Island and he lost much of his collections and notes. Rafinesque lived in new york for three years, and helped to found the lyceum of natural History of new york. In 1818, a brief residence of under two years was made in philadelphia, before undertaking a posting as professor of natural History at transylvania University in lexington, Kentucky, from 1819 to 1826. post-professorship, he returned to philadelphia for the remainder of his life. on September 18, 1840, he died of stomach cancer. TAxonomiC ConTRoveRsies botanist, taxonomic scholar, and former director of the Arnold Arboretum elmer drew Merrill completed the voluminous Index Rafinesquianus in 1949 wherein he attempted the Herculean task of compiling the botanical work 4 Arnoldia 70\/1 Constantine Rafinesque 5 The genus Lomatium was proposed in 1819. It did not see much use for the next century, as critics declared it too close to the name Lomatia R. Br. (Proteaceae). Coulter and Rose briefly adopted it in a 1900 monograph of the Umbelliferae, but it didn't see widespread use until 1920 when Macbride pointed out that, according to the rules of botanical nomenclature, it was a valid generic name despite the similarity to Lomatia. Seen here, Lomatium brandegeei (Coult. & Rose) J.F. Macbr. is native to British Columbia and Washington. due to fire or other disasters), a nod to the principle of reproducibility in the scientific method. An additional, and critical, concept to understanding the controversy surrounding Rafinesque is that the linnaean system makes no attempt to define the boundaries of taxa. though a hierarchical framework is provided, the questions of \"What is a species?\" or \"What constitutes a genus?\" are left to the determination of taxonomists. this leeway gives the taxonomist much latitude in determining what might constitute a taxon. If the taxonomist errs on making too broad of a definition (i.e., \"lumps\" too much variability within a taxon), it increases the likelihood that her or his work will be revised by the next taxonomist to examine the taxon. Similarly, if the taxonomist errs on making too narrow of a definition (i.e., \"splits\" a group into separate taxa based on too little variability), the likelihood of revi- Parnassia glauca was one of a number of species published posthumously in 1840, in Rafinesque's Autikon Botanikon. 6 Arnoldia 70\/1 Constantine Rafinesque 7 reform, and called us Genera-mongers. We may in return call them Genera-shufflers, who want to squeeze plants into improper genera, and delay improvements by opposing the corrections of botanical blunders. It is to them that we owe the superfluity of synonyms: they often shuffle plants into 3 or 4 Genera, as linnaeus did for Heliopsis, until it must at last form a Genus of itself. It is a fact that almost all plants of doubtful Genera, are types of peculiar ones; the chances of it increase, as they are shifted.\" With the establishment of the linnaean system and the publication of Species Plantarum as the nomenclatural benchmark, linnaeus is credited with the valid publication of a large number of genera and species. linnaeus described about 1,440 genera, and most of these names are still in use today. by contrast, the splitter Rafinesque described approximately 2,700 genera--of these, no more than 50 or 60 are applied to recognized genera today (yet, had priority been applied, he would be credited with at least 160). linnaeus also generated almost 9,000 binomials (species names), and again, the large majority of these are in use today. Rafinesque did not quite match linnaeus in this category. of the 6,700 or so species names published by Rafinesque, fewer than 300 are generally accepted. Rafinesque's proclivity to deem the most minor variations as new species (and sometimes new genera) created work--much more work--for anyone who later attempted to publish a new species, write a monograph, or clarify names in a taxon. to give an example, Clintonia is a genus named by Rafinesque (and still recognized today). before Rafinesque erected a new genus for this group in 1832, its species were variously recognized as being in Dracaena (the first published name was in 1789), Convallaria, and Smilacina. According to The Plant List (drawing on information from the World Checklist of Selected plant Families), 41 names have been published within Clintonia (the actual number is likely higher). Working with a dataset of 35 names of \"High Confidence level\" (\"applied to the status of name records derived from taxonomic datasets which treat the whole of the taxonomic group in question on a global basis and have been peer reviewed\"), 30 are at the species rank (5 below the species level). Five of the species names are confidently recognized as \"Accepted\" species, and a single name for a recently described (1993) Asian species remains unresolved. the remaining 24 names are listed as synonyms, i.e., names that are considered to be already represented within the concept of a different name. of these 24 synonyms, 19 were published by Rafinesque. examples of species recognized by Rafinesque but generally regarded as minor variations within Clintonia uniflora (Sol.) Raf. include Clintonia angustifolia Raf. (a narrow-leaved entity), Clintonia biflora Raf. (a two-flowered entity), and Clintonia ciliata Raf. (presumably with fine hairs along the margins of an organ like a leaf or petal). If a taxonomist were to discover what she\/ he believes to be a new species of Clintonia, the taxonomic work involved would require at a minimum comparing it against the type specimens of other members of the genus and reviewing the taxonomic literature to ensure a previously published name and description (including all synonyms) does not conform to the purported new species. In practice, the taxonomist would further compare it against additional specimens of each species in order to properly account for variation within each species. In order to name a new species in Clintonia, the work required would involve reviewing all of Rafinesque's names and descriptions to determine if he had named the entity first. For a relatively simple group of species like Clintonia (5 accepted species), the task would be difficult in modern times, and very difficult at the time of Rafinesque. For more taxonomically complicated genera, like Trillium, Rafinesque made the difficult near-impossible. there are about 38 recognized species of Trillium in north America, with more than two-thirds of these from eastern north America. Rafinesque is presently responsible for 3 of these accepted names, though he described an additional 31 species and 67 varieties. this onslaught of published names of additional genera and species in many eastern north American plant groups, sometimes poorly described, was not well received. Amos eaton, a botanist and author of the 1817 Manual of Botany for the Northern States, was generally 8 Arnoldia 70\/1 Constantine Rafinesque 9 sympathetic to Rafinesque and considered him a friend. However, in 1817, he wrote to his student John torrey: \"I am glad Mr. Rafinesque has not set you all wild. Why can not he give up that foolish european foolery, which leads him to treat Americans like half-taught school boys? He may be assured, he will never succeed in this way. His new names with which he is overwhelming the science will meet with universal contempt.\" eaton accurately predicted the ultimate approach by much of the botanical establishment--ignore much of Rafinesque's work, to the extent that the principle of priority was overridden in many cases to exclude Rafinesque's contributions. Asa Gray, the pre-eminent American botanist of the nineteenth century, contributed to the practice of discounting Rafinesque. though he was charitable towards Rafinesque's earlier work, Gray's influence cemented the rejection of Rafinesque's ideas about new genera and species when he wrote the following about Rafinesque after his death: \"Many of Rafinesque's names should have been adopted; some as a matter of courtesy, and others in accordance with the strict rule.... one who, like Rafinesque, followed the easy rule of founding new genera upon all these species, could not fail to make now and then an excellent hit; but as he very seldom knew the plants themselves, he was unable to characterize his proposed genera, or to advance our knowledge respecting them in the slightest degree. In his later publications, this practice is carried to so absurd an extent as entirely to defeat its object ... A gradual deterioration will be observed in Rafinesque's botanical writings from 1819 to about 1830, when the passion for establishing new genera and species, appears to have become a complete monomania\". Originally published as Saxifraga ranunculifolia by Hooker in 1832, Rafinesque clearly disagreed. He erected the genus Hemieva in 1836 to segregate this species, but was ignored. In 1879, Asa Gray named a new genus and species Suksdorfia violacea. In 1891, H. Engler assigned Saxifraga ranunculifolia to Suksdorfia. Recent phylogenetic studies suggest Suksdorfia ranunculifolia is within a distinct genus, so Hemieva ranunculifolia (Hook.) Raf. was resurrected in the second edition of The Jepson Manual (2012), a major taxonomic reference. in the lapse of time,\" and that \"every variety is a deviation which becomes a species as soon as it is permanent by reproduction.\" Rafinesque's ideas were informed by Adanson from 1763, to whom he gives credit: \"Adanson ... was like linnaeus, necker and myself (in fact like all acute observers) a strenuous supporter of the doctrine that Species were unlimited, and increasing by the natural process of semination, deviation, variation, hybridization and such. Whence he concluded that we could hardly ascertain the primitive types of species, that many known to ancient botanists were lost or no longer found, while new ones were evolved in mountains, groves, fields, and gardens.\" on evoLuTion Another area where Rafinesque generated controversy was in his ideas about how species and genera were formed. one of the reasons Rafinesque named so many species and genera was because (in his own words, from 1832), \"the truth is that Species and perhaps Genera also, are forming in organized beings by gradual deviations of shapes, forms and organs, taking place 10 Arnoldia 70\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Quarter-Century Perspective on the Center for Plant Conservation Collections at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25535","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270af6d.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":1,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hird, Abby","article_content":"A Quarter-Century Perspective on the Center for Plant Conservation Collections at the Arnold Arboretum Abby Hird Flowers and fall foliage of Amelanchier nantucketensis. NANCy RoSe G iven the array of current threats to biodiversity (including habitat destruction, pollution, climate change, and invasive species), it is no surprise that roughly one out of every three plant species in the world is threatened with extinction. As native habitats are changing and disappearing, ex situ conservation (preservation of species outside their natural habitat as living plants, seeds, or other viable tissue) efforts are even more vital to the successful conservation of plants. Public gardens, numbering more than 700 in the United States alone (BGCI 2012), offer valuable resources, facilities, and horticultural expertise that support conservation efforts. These ex situ refuges also allow visitors a unique chance to learn about and observe threatened species firsthand. While these important plant collections serve as insurance policies against extinction for many species, the recent North American Collections Assessment found that only 39% of North America's threatened species are currently cultivated in public gardens; clearly, there is much opportunity to increase rare plant conservation collections (Kramer et al. 2011). In addition to increasing the number of threatened species in ex situ collections, broadening genetic diversity within those collections will support meaningful conservation applications. During my Putnam Fellowship from 2008 to 2010 I worked with Arboretum Curator of Living Collections Michael Dosmann to assess the conservation potential of the The ARNoLD ARBoReTUM 12 Arnoldia 70\/1 MIChAeL DoSMANN Center for Plant Conservation 13 CPC ColleCtions MAnAgeMent guidelines (CPC 2007) 1. Taxa should be proposed and accepted by the CPC Science Advisory Council for inclusion into the National Collection. 2. Propagative materials should be collected from the wild in accordance with CPC guidelines and should be maintained in protective storage. 3. A usable seed storage and germination protocol should be developed for the taxon and initial seed viability should be determined if possible. 4. horticultural techniques for ex situ cultivation should be established and documented, and the taxon should be successfully raised to reproductive maturity. 5. Adequate propagules and data should be stored in at least two separate secure sites 6. An initial baseline germination test should be conducted on stored seed accessions of the taxon, and viability should be retested at appropriate intervals, using enough seed if possible to detect statistically valid declines in viability. 7. Collaborative research agreements to be established for taxa as necessary and appropriate. 8. Legitimate reintroduction programs or experimental reintroductions are encouraged. In total, the Arboretum has assisted in the conservation efforts of 24 threatened CPC species by collecting wild germplasm and maintaining those plants in the living collections MIChAeL DoSMANN Fothergilla major bears fragrant, bottlebrush-like flowers in spring. 14 Arnoldia 70\/1 Center for Plant Conservation 15 About natureserve g-ranks and threat levels NaTUReSeRve'S Global Conservation Status Ranks (G-ranks) are the most comprehensive source of conservation information on species native to the United States or Canada (NatureServe 2012). G-ranks can be used to gauge the \"level of need\" for each species, which is useful when prioritizing collections curation and development activities such as repropagations, voucher collection, or backup germplasm distribution at an institution. Thus, Torreya taxifolia with a G-rank of G1 (Critically imperiled) has the greatest conservation need (the most threatened in the wild, with the fewest remaining wild populations) among current CpC species and first priority in collections management decisions; while Diervilla sessilifolia with a G-rank of G4 (apparently Secure) has a relatively lower conservation need. Global Rank Categories GX: presumed extinct, GH: possibly extinct, G1: Critically imperiled (5 or fewer populations remain), G2: imperiled (very few remaining populations), G3: vulnerable (relatively few remaining populations), G4: apparently Secure (common; widespread and abundant), Q: Questionable Taxonomy, GNR: Unranked, GNa: Not applicable (see Table 1). A majority of the Arboretum's CPC collections began via collecting expeditions to the southeast and northeast regions of the United States in the late 1980s and early 1990s by Rob Nicholson, then plant propagator for the Arnold Arboretum (Nicholson 1996). At the time of this assessment there were 13 species assigned to the Arnold Arboretum. Many of the current and historic CPC species collected by the Arboretum originate from the southeastern United States, and some have experienced cold hardiness issues in the Northeast. In the past 15 years, due to significant decline in health and numbers of living accessions, about half of the original CPC species have been transferred to more appropriate institutions closer to their native range and with more compatible climates. balsam wooly adelgid (Adelges piceae) introduced from europe. In 1876, Asa Gray first collected a wild plant for the Arboretum (accession 1522), which did not survive. Since then, several specimens were unsuccessfully introduced to the the Arboretum. A collecting trip in 1985 supported the establishment of the CPC collection of this species, which have suffered excessive losses due to incompatible climate and spider mite infestations. The Arboretum maintains 6 specimens from 3 states (Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee). Amelanchier nantucketensis: The Nantucket shadbush is a stoloniferous shrub which forms dense colonies in its restricted native habitat along the northeastern Atlantic coast. Flowers usually open in May but are small and hard to notice. Threats to this species include overcrowding by other plant species, harmful management practices such as fire suppression, and uncontrolled land development of coastal habitat. The Arboretum maintains specimens collected in the 1980s from New york, Massachusetts, and Maine. A large group was successfully transplanted during the Bradley Rosaceous Collection renovations in 2009 and now thrives near Dawson Pond. PlAnts in tHe Arnold ArboretuM's CPC ColleCtions Abies fraseri: The Fraser fir is well-known in the Christmas tree industry due to its spirelike crown and fragrant foliage. Reaching heights of up to 25 meters (82 feet), this species is native to the Smoky Mountain Range and is unique because it grows at high elevations. It is severely threatened in the wild by the invasive 16 Arnoldia 70\/1 Center for Plant Conservation 17 Rhododendron prunifolium: The plumleaf azalea is one of the showiest native azaleas, and may reach up to 6 meters (19.7 feet) tall in the wild. It has glabrous leaves and bears clusters of red-orange flowers in July and August. It is native to Alabama and Georgia and is threatened by logging and low seedling numbers in the wild. The Arboretum currently has specimens from two locations in Georgia, and is responsible for introducing this species into cultivation in the early 1900s via plant collector T. G. harbison. Rhododendron vaseyi: The pinkshell azalea is an upright shrub known to grow up to 5 meters (16.4 feet) tall in the wild. Scentless (and frost resistant) pink flowers emerge in April prior to leaf bud break, providing striking ornamental value. This species is native to North Carolina, and is threatened by land development and illegal collecting in the wild. The Arboretum introduced it to cultivation in 1880, and maintains several specimens from North Carolina which thrive in the Boston climate. Spiraea virginiana: The Virginia meadowsweet is a 1- to 2-meter-tall (3.3 to 6.6 feet) shrub that forms dense clumps of upright, arching stems with cream colored inflorescences in May. This species is endemic to the central and southern Appalachians, where its sporadic populations are threatened by competition with fast growing herbs and vines, habitat destruction including dam construction, and lack of sexual reproduction. Plants were first collected by the Arnold Arboretum in 1919 by T. G. harbison in a Fraser fir cone. North Carolina (accession 10160), grown at the Case estates, and then repropagated via cuttings and brought to the main Arboretum grounds in 1988, where the lineage still exists today. When this CPC collection was established in the mid1980s and 1990s, the Arboretum amassed one of the most extensive ex situ collections of this species in the world, composed of plants from all states where it is currently known to grow. Two groups were recently transplanted to beds near the South Street and Mendum Street gates. Torreya taxifolia: once a towering tree of 15 meters (49.2 feet) or more, the stinking cedar (named for its pungent, sharp needles) is native to Georgia and Florida, and is now one of the most threatened conifers in the world because of a fungal disease. The few remaining wild individuals have been reduced to root suckers.Until 2010, the Arboretum maintained 33 specimens from known remaining populations. BILL CooK, MIChIGAN STATe UNIVeRSITy, BUGWooD.oRG Magnolia pyramidata: The pyramid magnolia grows 3 to 7 meters (9.8 to 23.0 feet) tall, and produces creamy white flowers that give it potential as an ornamental landscape plant. It is native to a limited range along the coastal plain of the southern and southeastern United States, and is threatened by land development. The Arboretum does not currently have specimens in the living collections, but had grown two lineages from Texas that were removed in 2001 when it was determined that the specimens were not M. pyramidata. 18 Arnoldia 70\/1 Center for Plant Conservation 19 CoURTeSy oF TRoy UNIVeRSITy heRBARIUM, ALABAMA PLANT ATLAS WeBSITe (hTTP:\/\/FLoRAoFALABAMA.oRG) Magnolia pyramidata has a limited native range in the United States. 20 Arnoldia 70\/1 NANCy RoSe Center for Plant Conservation 21 table 2. recommended number of Populations in a rare Plant sampling Program for Capturing genetic diversity at the Population level (Falk and Holsinger 1991) Number of extant populations 1 2 3 4 5 >5 Number of populations Sampled 1 2 3 3-4 3-5 4-5 tee 2007). When comparing the total number of living accessions to the total number of living lineages, each CPC species is represented by 1 to 2 accessions per lineage. This assessment showed that both of the Diervilla species had a higher number of accessions per lineage, demonstrating redundant clones within the same lineages. To maintain appropriate accession-to-lineage ratios for the CPC collections, we identified lineages and accessions that could be bulked up via clonal propagation and others that could be \"thinned\" by sending back-up material to other institutions. Rhododendron prunifolium bears red-orange flowers with prominent red stamens. Plants health conditions through time and total numbers of living plant specimens give an indication of how well a species grows in the Arboretum and can provide guidance for collections management. At the time of this assessment in 2009, most CPC specimens were healthy. however, management needs were further considered for species with significant proportions of specimens in fair or poor condition, such as Torreya taxifolia, Amelanchier nantucketensis, and Abies fraseri. Also, Magnolia pyramidata, with no living plants represented in the collection, was prioritized for a collection transfer or germplasm acquisition. By using the Arboretum collections standard of maintaining an average of 2 plants per unique accession (Living Collections Committee 2007), we identified collections redundancy or deficiency for each CPC species. As we analyzed accession-to-lineage ratios, we also compared the total number of living accessions with the total number of living plants CoURTeSy oF MT. CUBA CeNTeR Finding a Home for Torreya taxifolia ToRReyA TAxIfoLIA, once a towering giant in the forests of Georgia and Florida, has been diminished to twig-like sprouts by an obscure fungal disease over the past century. It is now one of the most threatened conifers in the world. Several ongoing conservation efforts strive to understand the pathology of the disease and find effective management and reintroduction strategies. Several ex situ collections of the species have been aimed at conserving the narrowing genetic diversity of extant wild populations as well as producing seeds and cuttings for research. A large-scale ex situ effort began in 1985, funded by the CPC and the Arnold Arboretum (Nicholson 1996). Rob Nicholson and Mark Schwartz collected cuttings from 163 wild lineages of T. taxifolia and then distributed resulting plants to 10 institutions in North America and europe in the early 1990s. Using a 1996 Arboretum inventory of 156 of the original lineages as a foundation, we conducted an international inventory of this species in 2009 and tracked down all possible specimens that originated from the original CPC material. Fortunately most of the lineages had been preserved among the institutions surveyed (a benefit of backing up collections). But about 20% were represented by only one or a few remaining plants per lineage, and about 40% of lineages existed only at one or two institutions. Lessons learned from this long-term ex situ effort include ensuring a collection holder has appropriate horticultural know-how, climatic compatibility, and staff commitment for successfully maintaining a collection. For example, a loss of 70% of unique lineages at the Arnold Arboretum was observed from 1989 to 2009. This loss is attributed to incompatible climate, poor adaptability to container nursery conditions, and human error (staff changeover, labeling errors, etc.). Further, 5 of the 8 institutions still maintaining the original T. taxifolia germplasm required accession data cleanup and several specimen identifications were determined lost or unknown due to accidental dissociation with accession numbers, labels, or records. This long-term ex situ conservation effort dem- Foliage of Torreya taxifolia. onstrates how living collections can contribute to the collective conservation power of public gardens. As a result of the 2009 ex situ inventory for T. taxifolia, redistribution of germplasm has occurred among collection holders to preserve and back up ex situ maternal lines at multiple institutions. Further, this inventory led to a successful transfer of this important CPC collection from the Arnold Arboretum to the Atlanta Botanical Garden in 2010. ReBeKAh D. WALLACe, UNIVeRSITy oF GeoRGIA, BUGWooD.oRG Center for Plant Conservation 23 per species, also taking into account specimen health. This allowed us to identify specific plants in need of repropagation, removal, or relocation. one particularly successful example of making management decisions to improve plant health is the Amelanchier nantucketensis specimens in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection (BRC). Poor health had been recorded for these plants for several years, and during bed renovations in the BRC they were transplanted to new beds near Dawson Pond. This location's higher soil moisture has resulted in improved health for the plants. A common issue identified for Amelanchier nantucketensis, both Diervilla species, and Spiraea virginiana was maintaining individuals of these mass-forming species. As a result, these specimens were put on a pruning schedule to prevent uncontrolled spreading and suckering. Since the Arboretum's primary goal with the CPC collections is preservation of living germplasm, long term survival of the CPC plants is a top priority. Collections management at the Arboretum includes the preservation of unique lineages through clonal repropagation if needed. Sometimes plants brought to the Arboretum are not well-suited to survive in the collections for reasons such as lack of compatibility to cultivation or the local climate. Species whose records show high levels of lineage or plant loss, such as Torreya taxifolia, likely represent poor compatibility with Arboretum conditions, making them potential candidates for transfers to institutions better able to cultivate them. Additional supporting documentation may include observations, voucher herbarium specimens, images, verifications, and recorded instances of collections use (for tours, publications, and educational projects involving a species). herbarium specimens and images offer long-term genetic and biological information that can enhance understanding and aid in conservation of a threatened species. The Arnold Arboretum Cultivated herbarium sets a goal to document the living collections with vegetative, flowering, and fruiting material per unique lineage (Curatorial Department 2009). This CPC assessment identified gaps in passport data and supporting documentation for each species. In addition to augmenting geographic passport data for many CPC accessions, we also established herbarium specimen and image collecting targets, as well as past verifications that could be entered into the plant records database. ColleCtions enHAnCeMent Priorities The Arboretum has taken a number of positive steps following this assessment to improve and more effectively manage the CPC collections, making them more valuable and accessible for research, education, and conservation. Individual species reviews allowed us to create a prioritized master list of recommended curatorial and horticultural actions based on collections goals and needs. Accomplishments include enhancements in plant records information through the addition of county names, latitude and longitude, or other location information when possible. Voucher and image collection has also been a priority for the curatorial department, and over 350 herbarium specimens have been collected to further document the CPC collections. Recommended repropagations, removals, and relocations have been completed, including repropagation of two Abies fraseri specimens which are failing in the collection; addition of new lineages (Rhododendron vaseyi); removal of non-wild-origin plants and acquisition of new wild-origin lineages (Rhododenron prunifolium); planting out of nursery stock (Torreya taxifolia); and removal of redundant specimens Supporting Documentation The geographic, temporal, and environmental details about the source of an accessioned living plant are referred to as the passport data, which are curated in the Arboretum's plant records. Passport data can make collections more valuable for conservation, education, horticulture, and research by associating valuable habitat or biological information with each specimen. For wild-collected plant material the value of a collection increases with the amount of passport data. This can range from coarse geographic information such as country and state to highly local information such as soil type or altitude of an original collection location. 24 Arnoldia 70\/1 MIChAeL DoSMANN Center for Plant Conservation 25 Spiraea virginiana sources revealed through molecular study iN THe SUmmeR of 2008, leaf tissue samples of all living specimens were sent to Jessica Brzyski, then phD candidate at the University of Cincinnati, who was researching reproduction of S. virginiana. in the summer of 2009, Jessica visited the arboretum as a Deland award recipient and conducted controlled pollinations to determine the level of self-compatibility and out-crossing ability for S. virginiana. She was able to provide a summary of her molecular studies using the leaf tissue, which provided clarification on some of the questionable paternities of a few living specimens at the arboretum, some of which had grown into large masses in recent years. The controlled pollinations were inconclusive, as 2009 was an extremely rainy summer and most of the pollinations were completed in the rain. However, the molecular information helped us re-identify specimens that came from the same populations as other specimens with known identities. USDA-NRCS PLANTS DATABASe species would bring conservation work closer to home and likely result in increased success for threatened species grown, maintained, and utilized at the Arnold Arboretum. References BGCI. 2012. GardenSearch database. Accessed online: www.bgci.org\/garden_search. php. Botanic Gardens Conservation International. CPC. 1984. The Center for Plant Conservation Archives. The Arnold Arboretum of harvard University. CPC. 2007. Management Guidelines for Participating Institutions. Participating Institution handbook. CPC. Curatorial Department. 2009. Cultivated herbarium Collection Policy. The Arnold Arboretum of harvard University. Falk, D. A. and K. e. holsinger (eds.) 1991. Genetics and conservation of rare plants. New york: oxford University Press. hird, A. and M. Dosmann. 2010. CPC Collections Analysis. The Arnold Arboretum of harvard University. horticulture Department. 2012. Landscape Management Plan, 2nd edition. The Arnold Arboretum of harvard University. Kramer, A., A. hird, K. Shaw, M. Dosmann, and R. Mims. 2011. Conserving North America's threatened plants: Progress report on Target 8 of the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Botanic Gardens Conservation International U.S. Living Collections Committee. 2007. Living Collections Policy. The Ar nold Arboretum of harvard University. NatureServe. 2012. NatureServe Conservation Status. Accessed online: http:\/\/www. natureserve.org\/explorer\/ranking. htm Nicholson, R. 1996. CPC file archives. The Arnold Arboretum of harvard University. Abby hird is a Research Associate with Botanic Gardens Conservation International's United States office, based at the Arnold Arboretum. Spiraea virginiana from Britton and Brown's An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada, and the British Possessions, 1913. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Conifers Around the World","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25536","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270b326.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":1,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Book Review: Conifers Around the World Peter Del Tredici Conifers Around the World Zsolt Debreczy and Istv Book Review 27 tions of the book cover species ranges (474 maps reproduced from other sources); lengthy descriptions and numerous photographs of typical conifer habitats, arranged by continent; and a highly unusual \"bark gallery\" consisting of 648 color photos that augment the photos in the species treatments. And finally, there is a 130page introduction that describes the history, morphology, ecology, taxonomy, biogeography, and evolution of conifers along with a complete listing and description of conifer families (written by Robert Price). This introduction could easily be expanded into a stand-alone book about conifer morphology and natural history. An early version of Conifers Around the World was published in Hungarian in 2000 (Fenyk a F 28 Arnoldia 70\/1 Book Review 29 JEFF BISBEE This specimen of Cupressus arizonica var. arizonica displays two types of bark: scaly, persistent ribs on the main trunk, and detaching leathery plates on the lateral branches. spatial separation of closely related species (e.g., those within Taxodium) that are growing in separate regions. The taxonomy used in the book, for the most part, follows the accepted botanical classification used by most conifer authorities, but Debreczy and R "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dipelta floribunda: A Shrub of Subtle Beauty","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25538","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270b76f.jpg","volume":70,"issue_number":1,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Dipelta floribunda: A Shrub of Subtle Beauty Michael Dosmann I n the horticultural world, it is not uncommon to hear plant lovers laud a particular plant's endless weeks of flowering, months of dazzling autumn leaf color, and flamboyant, persistent fruits the size of golf balls. I can appreciate plants like that, and yet sometimes I want something subtler. English novelist George Meredith wrote that \"Speech is the small change of silence,\" and as I apply that maxim to the garden I find that I am drawn toward plants that possess quiet interest. One such plant is Dipelta floribunda, the rosy dipelta, a shrub native to central and western China. The Arboretum has cultivated rosy dipelta for over a century, the first seeds coming to the Arboretum in February 1911 from E. H. Wilson's collection from Fang Hsien, western Hubei, the previous October. He made the collection from plants growing in \"sunny places\" at altitudes of 1,200 to 1,800 meters (3,937 to 5,905 feet). Seventy years later, the Arboretum received its latest accessions of this species, collected in Hubei during the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition. Plants from two separate accessions from the 1980 SABE grow in the Arboretum, as does one large plant (accession 14514-B) from the Wilson accession. The Explorers Garden atop Bussey Hill serves as perhaps the best place to see these plants, though there is also another fine mass planting of rosy dipelta along Peters Hill Road. Dipelta floribunda bears fragrant, pinkishwhite flowers, typically blooming in early May. Each tubular corolla comprises five fused petals, with the two upper lobes forming a top lip, while the basal three lobes form a lower lip. Yellow pigment splashes along the lips and throat of the flower, no doubt serving as nectary guides for the bees that pollinate the flowers. At the base of the corolla are greenish bracts that increase in size as the growing season advances, surrounding the fruits (two-seeded achenes) as they mature. The round, 1-inchwide, papery bracts provide a bit of late summer interest--particularly as they blush a tawny pink--and also aid in the wind dispersal of the seeds. A casual examination of Dipelta reveals similarities with Kolkwitzia amabilis, beauty bush, also introduced by Wilson. The two genera are closely related to each other within Caprifoliaceae, the honeysuckle family; their flowers look similar, though Kolkwitzia fruits have but a single seed and lack Dipelta's papery bracts. Rosy dipelta is a large, vase-shaped shrub that typically attains a height of 12 to 15 feet (3.7 to 4.6 meters) and a width of 6 to 8 feet (1.8 to 2.4 meters). The leaves are lanceolate and rather coarse, and tend to abscise in the autumn with little effective color change. But when they do drop from the plant they reveal another bit of quiet interest. With a few years of age, the bark of the stems begins to shed in long, vertical, tawny-white strips. In the garden, some may think this somewhat messy (plantsman Michael Dirr muses that \"the entire matrix ... assumes the presence of a pile of sticks\"). However, I like this trait for both its tactile quality and its visual appeal in the winter. An undulating row of several of these fine shrubs at the back of a mixed perennial border provides an excellent backdrop, particularly when they are pruned to remove lower branches. Mix in several beauty bushes to extend the flowering season a few weeks, add a Heptacodium miconioides (seven-son flower) to provide late summer blooms, and enjoy all three of them for their habit and bark interest. Michael Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23429","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160856e.jpg","title":"2012-70-1","volume":70,"issue_number":1,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Flowering Cherries A 100-Year-Long Love Affair","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25533","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270ab6f.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"Japanese Flowering Cherries --A 100-Year-Long Love Affair Anthony S. Aiello T his year marks the 100th anniversary of the 1912 planting of the famous flowering cherries surrounding the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C. The story of how they came to be planted is worth exploring, given the centennial anniversary, the lasting impact of the planting efforts, and the continued public fascination with flowering cherries. Although the Tidal Basin plantings seem like a singular event, the interest in flowering cherries was widespread in the early 1900s, and these plants came into the United States through a number of different sources. Around this time both the USDA's Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Intro- duction (under David Fairchild) and the Arnold Arboretum were instrumental in bringing many cultivated varieties into the United States as part of a broad interest in flowering cherries. Based largely on the efforts of Fairchild, Charles S. Sargent, and E. H. Wilson, there was a surge in the number of varieties available in the first quarter of the twentieth century. The flowering cherries, or sakura, have been an integral part of Japanese culture for centuries. \"Japanese flowering cherries\" is a general term for a taxonomically complex group of plants that includes several well-known taxa such as Prunus subhirtella (Higan cherry), PETEr DEl TrEDICI The famous flowering cherry trees around the Tidal Basin in Washington, D.C. Japanese Flowering Cherries 3 ANTHONY S. AIEllO Prunus 4 Arnoldia 69\/4 lIBrArY OF CONGrESS PrINTS AND PHOTOGrAPHS DIvISION Japanese Flowering Cherries 5 MATTHEW JONES ArCHIvES OF THE ArNOlD ArBOrETUM with insects and diseases. All 2,000 trees were burned and, as can be imagined, this created a great deal of diplomatic consternation. Fortunately this was all overcome and a second shipment of 6,000 insect- and disease-free trees reached the United States in 1912. One half of these were sent to New York City, where some of the original Yoshino cherries grow near the reservoir in Central Park. The better known half of this shipment were the 3,020 trees that were sent to Washington and were planted Yoshino cherry blossoms frame the Jefferson Memorial in Washington, D.C. around the Tidal Basin, on the White House grounds, and in other areas in the city, where they quickly made the capital famous for its cherry blossom displays. These original trees were made up of 11 varieties of Prunus serrulata (1,220 plants) and 1,800 plants of Yoshino cherry (Prunus 6 Arnoldia 69\/4 Japanese Flowering Cherries 7 serrulata `Shirotae') cherries from the same to importing, growing, and hybridizing flowsource in 1912. ering cherries (Buchan 2011). His 1948 book, Flowering cherries continued to be very popuOrnamental Cherries, was responsible for lar between the World Wars. One of the leading spreading the gospel of growing cherries both proponents and sources of flowering cherries in the United Kingdom as well as on the Conwas Anton Emile Wohlert, the proprietor of tinent (Ingram 1948). If you happen to visit the the Garden Nurseries in suburban Philadelphia Philadelphia Flower Show or tour the city in (Wister 1955 Cherries in print AN INDICATION of the popularity of flowering cherries can be gained by reviewing the Arnold Arboretum's Bulletin of Popular Information and its successor, Arnoldia (Del Tredici 2011). Flowering cherries were mentioned as early as 1911, and their virtues were extolled regularly from the 19-teens through the 1930s (for examples, see Bulletin of Popular Information: New Series, vol. III (3) May 14, 1917: pp. 9 Japanese Flowering Cherries 9 newly added plants. In addition to trees dating tried on more of our mature cherry trees, with to the Morris Estate era, there were continual very similar results. waves of cherry varieties accessioned from the What began as trial-and-error attempts has 1940s through the 1980s. In the 1940s we received evolved into a regular retrenchment or restoraa large consignment of trees from the Scott Arbotion pruning program, based on the ideas estabretum, including a few that remain today. These lished in Europe for veteran tree management were followed by a group of plants from Kings(Fay 2002). We begin the process of targeted ville Nursery in the late 1950s, from Princeton pruning by reducing the end-weight of declining Nurseries in the mid-1960s, and more cultivars and decaying older branches. Major portions of from the U.S. National Arboretum in 1983. these branches are removed, lessening the endOne often reads that cherries are short-lived, load on these branches and reducing the risk surviving for not more than 50 or 60 years, so of failure along with hazards to the public and it may be surprising to learn that we have cherry trees that were planted by John and lydia Morris prior to the establishment of the Morris Arboretum in 1932. Our collection has individuals up to 100 years old because we use specific management practices for veteran trees. We work with the natural life cycles of these trees, managing them for longevity and safety and rethinking our approach to arboricultural practices. By implementing the practices of veteran tree care, we have been able to prolong the lives of our old flowering cherries almost indefinitely (Fay 2002). I could say that we began this process through careful literature research and a prescient understanding of veteran tree biology, but the reality is more serendipitous than that. In the early 1980s, then Morris Arboretum curator Paul Meyer (now our director) began to rejuvenate our Prunus collection by removing older trees and replanting with newly propagated plants that we had received from the National Arboretum. A 1940s accession of Prunus 10 Arnoldia 69\/4 ANTHONY S. AIEllO Japanese Flowering Cherries 11 ANTHONY S. AIEllO example of this is an old specimen of Prunus subhirtella `Pendula' that was planted prior to 1932. This tree has a highly decayed trunk with a band of healthy bark and one large remaining branch. For the past few years we have removed all but about five of these sprouts and are encouraging the basal rejuvenation of these to form a new tree (Fay 2002). Eventually we will remove all but one or two of these and then allow the original trunk to decay completely. Cherries have an especially interesting biology because of their tendency for endocaulous rooting, a process of forming roots from portions of stem tissue; these roots result in a successional trunk as they grow down through the decaying parent trunk (Fay 2002; liu and Wang 1992). As the inner trunks of older plants decay, often there is a shell of living tissue surrounding a core of rich decomposed organic matter from the old wood. The tree often initiates roots into this rich medium, and as root tissue grows down through the core of the tree, it provides added structural support to Management of the vigorous new sprouts around this old Prunus subthe tree's upper portions (Jenik 1994). hirtella `Pendula' allows the specimen to be rejuvenated. This process is especially apparent in old flowering cherries, and an extreme to stand on its own, but with about four feet example occurred with another of our old of above-ground root tissue forming the new Prunus subhirtella `Pendula' plants, in this trunk. Since then this tree has continued to case a plant that is shown on our 1909 Atlas prosper, a lazarus of a plant having returned of Compton (the Morris Estate). In the mid from the brink. It now grows vigorously across 1990s this tree was in significant decline, from our visitor center, providing a fabulous with a severely decayed old trunk supporting spring display. a few feeble branches. For a number of years Future eFForts with FLowering we observed a major root growing within a Cherries cavity in the trunk and leafy shoots arising A few years ago I began to expand the Morris from the top of this root with increasing vigor. Arboretum's cherry collection by propagating With each passing year the root became more early- and late-flowering varieties to extend the trunklike as the old trunk further deteriorated period of flowering interest. Before this project until it was a standing hollow shell. In the began I was intimidated by Prunus propagafall of 1997, the old rotting trunk simply fell tion, believing that, like many other rosaceous to the ground under its own weight. We were plants, they had to be grafted or budded to be delighted to see that the \"new tree\" that had reproduced. Fortunately our propagator, Shelformed inside of this shell was strong enough 12 Arnoldia 69\/4 Japanese Flowering Cherries 13 Arboretum. last year we rooted cuttings of these and look forward to growing and distributing them. `Gyoiko' is an especially interesting plant because it has chartreuse flowers with thin pink and white streaks in the center of the petals. The name translates as \"colored court-robes\" and refers to the green, white, and purple robes of women in the ancient Japanese imperial court (Kuitert 1999). In the original 1912 Washington planting, all 20 specimens of `Gyoiko' were planted at the White House. `Jo-nioi' (\"supreme scent\" or \"firstclass fragrance\") has single white flowers that bloom in profusion and is known as one of the most fragrant of the flowering cherries (Kuitert 1999). Although once more commonly grown, it has vanished from our landscapes and would make a fine addition to any garden. The flowering cherries at the Morris Arboretum are a prime example of how a living collection can fulfill multiple aspects of our mission, namely, collections preservation, horticultural display, research, and education. The cherry collection Three Prunus serrulata cultivars, including the unusual green-flowered `Gyoiko', are is a model for preserving our featured on this page from a 1916 14 Arnoldia 69\/4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Charlie Deam and the Deam Oak (Quercus x deamii)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25532","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270a76b.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hibben, George","article_content":"Charlie deam and the deam oak (Quercus x deamii) George Hibben SpuRgeOn-gReene phOTOgRAphS, ARChIveS AnD SpeCIAL COLLeCTIOnS, BALL STATe unIveRSITy LIBRARIeS A handy reference in the Arnold Arboretum's curatorial office is a paperback reprint of Trees of Indiana, originally published by the Indiana State Board of Forestry in 1912. It was written by Charles Clemon Deam (1865 16 Arnoldia 69\/4 Quercus x deamii 17 Accession 7033 e 7033 F 21817 A Taxon Fraxinus tomentosa pumpkin ash Fraxinus tomentosa pumpkin ash Quercus x bebbiana Bebb oak Quercus shumardii var. schneckii variant of Shumard oak Tilia americana American linden Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust Grid 27SW 27SW 25Se (meters\/feet) Height (centimeters\/inches) DBH Year accessioned 1929 1929 1916 24.1 \/ 79.1 25.1 \/ 82.3 17.4 \/ 57.1 82.2 \/ 32.4 58.5 \/ 23.0 29.5 \/11.6 16883 A 32nW 21.3 \/ 69.9 61.7 \/ 24.3 1916 19804 A 21588 A 7Se 21ne 14.2 \/46.6 18.4 \/ 60.4 76.1 \/ 30.0 56.4 \/ 22.2 1916 1929 a period of growth and the laying of groundwork. now began in earnest his tireless, distinguished journey into science . . . In the decade from 1905, when he reorganized and restarted his Indiana herbarium and numbering system, through 1914, his last full year without a car, he averaged collecting about 1,500 specimens a year. But in 1915 alone he added 3,764\" (Kriebel 1987). Deam sent his collections to the Missouri and new york Botanical gardens and to Charles S. Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum. he asked for assistance in identifying his specimens. The Sargent Letter Books, found in the archives of the Arnold Arboretum, contain copies of thirty letters written by Sargent to Deam during the years 1914 through 1919. They reveal that Sargent identified over 600 tree and shrub specimens mounted on Deam's herbarium sheets. Sargent thought highly of Deam's work, writing on two occasions in 1915: \"I am very pleased indeed with your collection [Cornus and Salix] and I think you have done a capital piece of work, and certainly you are adding greatly to the knowledge and distribution of Indiana trees\" and \"There is nothing in your Carya collection which I should not have expected from Indiana. It is a remarkably fine collection and of very great assistance to me.\" When Sargent believed one of the trees found by Deam would enrich the Arnold Arboretum's living collection, he requested Deam send seed for propagation. The table above lists some specimens grown from seeds sent by Deam that still survive in the Arboretum's living collection. the deam oak In Wells County, Indiana, about three miles northwest of Bluffton, stands an oak tree which is well into its second century of growth. Specimens from this tree were first collected on October 4, 1904, by Bruce Williamson, a young zoologist, and his father. The specimens were taken to Deam who forwarded them to professor William Trelease of the Missouri Botanical garden for identification. growing in proximity to this tree were many white (Quercus alba) and chinquapin (Q. muehlenbergii) oaks. Though reminiscent of Q. alba, the leaves were not as deeply lobed and its acorns were not as large as those of a white oak. 18 Arnoldia 69\/4 the arboretum's First deam oak In 1908, the arnold arboretum received two plants of Quercus muehlenbergii 20 Arnoldia 69\/4 geORge hIBBen Quercus x deamii 21 WeLLS COunTy gIS geORge hIBBen An aerial view of the the Deam Oak Monument Forest (upper left), the smallest preserve in Indiana. DOugLAS SunDLIng One of the grafted Deam oaks growing at the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. Bibliography Deam, C. C. 1912. Trees of Indiana. (published in the Indiana Board of Forestry Report for 1911, Bulletin no. 1, pp. 86"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Excerpt: Writing the Garden: A Literary Conversation Across Two Centuries","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25531","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270a726.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rogers, Elizabeth Barlow","article_content":"Book ExcErpt: Writing the Garden: A Literary Conversation Across Two Centuries Elizabeth Barlow Rogers David R. Godine, Publisher, Jaffrey, New Hampshire, with funding from the Foundation for Landscape Studies and the New York Society Library. 2011. 312 pages. ISBN: 978-1-567902-440-4. Editor's NotE: It'S SPRING, and those of us who love to garden are happily sinking our fingers into the warming soil as we plant seeds, pull early weeds, and ruthlessly hunt down lurking cutworms. But after a hard day in the garden it's time to relax with a good book, and what better than a book about some of the best garden writers (or writing gardeners) of the past couple of centuries. In Writing the Garden, author Elizabeth Barlow Rogers presents insightful essays on the works of a diverse group of writers. Some are well known, others less so, but in their writing all present fascinating opinions about the nature of gardening and a deep love for the subject. Rogers groups the authors into sections based on their interests and importance to garden literature, such as \"Women in the Garden,\" \"travelers in the Garden,\" and the delightful \"Humorists in the Garden\" (it turns out I'm not the only gardener who goes slug hunting at night with a flashlight). In the following excerpt, \"Warriors in the Garden,\" we are reminded that the seemingly gentle art of gardening is full of highly opinionated practitioners. Writing the Garden 23 G ardening is nothing less than warfare with nature. With no respect for the cabbage or the rose, nature sends in her legions of hungry insects and foraging animals to wreak havoc. But there is another kind of warfare in the garden, one that is waged against fellow gardeners rather than garden pests. In this kind of warfare garden theory is often presented as a polemical diatribe against previous practices or contrary philosophies. For the reader, it is both instructive and amusing to argue or agree with certain opinionated writers and to refight the horticultural battles of yesteryear as they promulgate their passionate beliefs and ideas. \"Warriors in the Garden\" William Robinson If [Gertrude] Jekyll was the authoritative mother of a more naturalistic English garden style, her friend William Robinson (1838 24 Arnoldia 69\/4 Writing the Garden 25 It would be a mistake, as Robinson is at pains to point out, to assume that the wild garden is the same thing as the native-plant garden. It should, to the contrary, be considered an opportunity to naturalize the flora of other countries, for as he tells us: Naturally our woods and wilds have no little loveliness in spring; we have here and there the Lily of the Valley and the Snowdrop, and everywhere the Primrose and Cowslip; the Bluebell and the Foxglove take possession of whole woods; but, with all our treasures in this way, we have no attractions in or near our gardens compared with what it is within our power to create. there are many countries, with winters colder than our own, that have a rich flora; and by choosing the hardiest exotics and planting them without the garden, we may form garden pictures. Here it is important to pause a moment and consider again the term \"garden pictures,\" since it is so frequently found in the writing of both Robinson and Gertrude Jekyll. For these writers, garden pictures did not imply the same thing as the Picturesque, the term commonly used to describe the earlier garden style in which designed landscapes were created in accordance with the principles of landscape painting. the garden pictures they had in mind are perhaps better characterized as vignettes, small scenes of beauty that the eye takes in as discrete discoveries rather than as panoramic scenery. Jekyll's carefully positioned camera framed many charming, seasonal vignettes within Munstead Wood, and in The Wild Garden, Alfred Parsons's engravings give graphic expression to Robinson's words, which are never themselves lacking in descriptive power. this does not mean, however, that such garden pictures, whether verbal or illustrational, should be considered as so many floral incidents independent 26 Arnoldia 69\/4 Writing the Garden 27 issue with Blomfield's recommendations for a return to formality, and here it is Blomfield's turn to aim a few angry verbal arrows at Robinson. Heatedly, he rebuts Robinson's sarcastic barbs, accusing him of willful misinterpretation and ignorance of garden making as a form of art: Mr. Robinson neither gives us the definition, nor shows us where the art is or what it consists of. the trees are beautiful, and so are the flowers, but where is Mr. Robinson's art? What does it do for us, or for the trees or the flowers? His skill as a tree-planter, or as a flower-grower, is no doubt great, but that does not make him an artist, and by no possible wrestling of the term can he be called so on this ground only. Blomfield maintained, \"the formal treatment of gardens ought, perhaps, to be called the architectural treatment of gardens, for it consists in the extension of the principles of design which govern the house to the grounds which surround it.\" Discriminating between the two views of gardening--the formal and the naturalistic--he argues: the formal school insists upon design; the house and the grounds should be designed together and in relation to each other; no attempt should be made to conceal the design of the garden, there being no reason for doing so, but the bounding lines, whether it is the garden wall or the lines of paths and parterres, should be shown frankly and unreservedly, and the garden treated specifically as an enclosed space to be laid out exactly as the designer pleases. He strongly refutes the notion that the landscape gardener has a monopoly on nature: the clipped yew-tree is as much a part of nature--that is, subject to natural laws--as a forest oak; but the landscapist, by appealing to associations which surround the personification of nature, holds the clipped yew-tree to obloquy as something against nature. Again \"nature\" is said to prefer a curved line to a straight, and it is thence inferred that all the lines in a garden, and especially paths, should be curved. Now as a matter of fact in nature--that is, in the visible phenomena of the earth's surface--there are no lines at all; \"a line\" is simply an abstraction which conveniently expresses the direction of a succession of objects which may be either straight or curved. \"Nature\" has nothing to do with either straight lines or curved; it is simply begging the question to lay it down as an axiom that curved lines are more \"natural\" than straight. For Blomfield, it was not the Italian style of formal gardening that was instructive for contemporary gardeners; rather it was the old gardens of England that had not succumbed to the fashion for Baroque ornamentation or, 28 Arnoldia 69\/4 Writing the Garden 29 subsequently, the Picturesque. Nor did formality imply a great expanse as in the French garden, for \"some of the best examples of [the English garden] are on a comparatively small scale.\" However, Blomfield does not merely sing the praises of old English formal gardens. With an architect's eye for composition and detail, he criticizes these as well as the later gardens designed in the Picturesque style, his principal objects of censure. He maintains that the white marble statues of Bacchus and Flora at Wilton were a mistake: \"to attain its full effect [marble] wants strong sunlight, a clear dry light, and a cloudless sky. In the soft light and nebulous atmosphere of the north marble looks forlorn and out of place.\" An integrated overall plan is what counts most, so in discussing public parks he comes down hard on \"the spasmodic futility\" of Battersea Park where, without a dominant idea controlling the general scheme, \"merely to introduce so many statues or plaster casts is to begin at the wrong end. these are the accidents of the system, not the system itself.\" Blomfield is united with Robinson, however unintentionally, in despising the Gardenesque style and the gardener who would have the specimen dahlia banish the hollyhock and other simple, old-fashioned flowers. He equally hates plants in beds that \"make the lawn hideous with patches of brilliant red varied by streaks of purple blue.\" taking sarcastic aim at the Victorian head gardener, he asks, \"Would he plant them in patterns of stars and lozenges and tadpoles? Would he border them with paths of asphalt? Would he not rather fill his borders with every kind of beautiful flower that he might delight in, and set them off with grass and pleasant green?\" In Blomfield's mind, the desired relationship between the architect and the horticulturist should not end in a standoff, nor would it, if their responsibilities were divided thusly: \"the designer, whether professional or amateur, should lay down the main lines and deal with the garden as a whole, but the execution, such as the best method of forming beds, laying turf, planting trees, and pruning hedges, should be left to the gardener, whose proper business it is.\" In this regard, it is worth noting that Gertrude Jekyll achieved some of her most notable gardens in collaboration with the architect Edwin Lutyens. their sympathetic marriage of brick terracing and hedge-enclosed garden spaces created an Arts and Crafts landscape idiom that influenced Vita Sackville-West and Harold Nicolson at Sissinghurst and many other gardeners up to the present day. Providing an architectural frame uniting house and garden and giving structure to seasonal borders of sophisticated horticultural artistry, this type of design might be viewed as a synthesis of Robinson and Blomfield. the harmonizing of their opposing but ultimately complementary theories resulted in a style that made a virtue of formal structure as a foil for loosely composed \"garden pictures.\" In this way these important late-nineteenth-century garden writers can be said to have assisted in the redirection of English garden style at a critical time when vast estate grounds were beginning to become a thing of the past. Elizabeth Barlow Rogers is a writer on the history of landscape design and the cultural meaning of place. She is the president of the Foundation for Landscape Studies and was the founding president of the Central Park Conservancy. Writing the Garden recently won a 2012 Book Award from the American Horticultural Society. Note: the images that accompany this excerpt are engravings by Alfred Parsons from William Robinson's The Wild Garden, 1881 edition. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2011 Weather Summary","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25530","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270a36d.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Famiglietti, Bob","article_content":"2011 Weather Summary Bob Famiglietti 2 011 continued the trend of warmer than normal temperatures and above average precipitation that started in 2008. Plentiful moisture plus a long growing season allowed the Arboretum's plants to attain optimum growth. Some of our plants suffered damage from storms during the year. January began mild, and Arboretum visitors celebrated New Year's Day at 59 Weather 31 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 32 Arnoldia 69\/4 Weather 33 8th and 9th. it never reached 90 34 Arnoldia 69\/4 Weather 35 Two inches of heavy, wet snow fell on October 30, 2011. The next day, traces of snow along with fallen leaves remained around this ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba, accession 222-97-a). DeceMber was very mild, continuing November's warmth. A high of 62"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wilson's Pearlbush (Exochorda giraldii var. wilsonii): A Gem to the Core","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25534","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270af28.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schneider, Stephen","article_content":"Wilson's Pearlbush (Exochorda giraldii var. wilsonii): A Gem to the Core Stephen Schneider I t can be a memorable experience the first time you crack open a geode--pale gray and nondescript on the outside, the colorful crystalline center is anything but. The same can be said for cutting into the wood of the trees and shrubs in the Living Collection at the Arnold Arboretum. There have been many surprises for Arboretum staff who prune and remove trees and are also interested in woodworking; often what is hidden by thick, scaly, neutral-colored bark proves to be a treasure once the inner wood is revealed. Several species come to mind when considering unique and beautiful wood. Golden raintree (Koelreuteria paniculata) and Osage orange (Maclura pomifera) yield consistent chocolate brown and bright yellow heartwood, respectively. Boxelder (Acer negundo), on the other hand, often displays an erratic, bright red fungal staining in parts of its center. Even the oldgrowth stems of common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) often have a deep purple center that, unfortunately, disappears once the wood is seasoned. Although there are many other Arboretum plants that possess interesting wood, a large specimen of Wilson's pearlbush (Exochorda giraldii var. wilsonii, accession 11626-C) merits particular attention. Grown from seeds collected in 1907 by E. H. Wilson in Hubei, China, this centenarian shrub resides just off the road near the top of Bussey Hill. Its racemes of spring flowers start as white, pearllike buds and open to perfect, five-petaled flowers. The flowers are followed by interesting star-shaped seed capsules. Mature and well established, this multi-stemmed shrub has a commanding spread of about twenty feet and a height to match. Its presence, however, is often overlooked by the many visitors who pass by it each day on their march to the top of the hill. They are unaware of the secret that lies beneath its bark. I remember well the first time I was introduced to Exochorda wood. A rather small piece, about a foot long and four inches in diameter, was tossed to me from across the room. Its weight took me by surprise--it felt as strong and dense as hickory. A first attempt to cut through it failed, since the wood was too hard for the band saw blade to provide a straight cut. It became necessary to use a fine-toothed carbide blade on a table saw. That machine even seemed to struggle a bit, but the results were worth the effort. Hidden beneath the gray, scaly, exfoliating bark was densely grained wood patterned in light and dark browns with orange-red highlights throughout. A single pass of the blade proved to be all that was needed to create a smooth finish, velvety to the touch. Applying a coat or two of Danish oil enhances the beauty of this material since it makes the swirling grain more noticeable. When put on a lathe and turned, this wood creates a beautiful spindle that displays the variety and complexity of its colors and patterns. Checking (cracking that occurs during the lumber drying process) is nearly impossible to avoid with a wood this dense, so finding stable stock to work with between the cracks can be a challenge. Since discovering the wood of Exochorda, I have reserved the use of it for very special projects for very special people. Since Wilson's pearlbush is a relatively easy plant to grow, I'll often give the recipient of the gift a live specimen of it to plant in the backyard as a reminder that, much like a geode, its plain appearance on the outside can harbor profound beauty on the inside. Stephen Schneider is Manager of Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23428","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1608528.jpg","title":"2012-69-4","volume":69,"issue_number":4,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Picking Up the Pawpaws: The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program at the University of Guelph Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25528","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260896f.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fox, Sean","article_content":"Picking Up the Pawpaws: The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program at the University of Guelph Arboretum Sean Fox t might surprise you to learn that, in Canada, species such as Magnolia acuminata (cucumbertree), Betula lenta (sweet birch), and Morus rubra (red mulberry) are among those that are listed as endangered in the wild (see Table 1). You may be thinking, \"Really, Betula lenta? It grows all over the place in the eastern United States!\" It's true that the majority of woody plant species at risk in Canada are quite secure in the United States, so why the concern? Is there really a need for conservation? Conserving an organism at the species level is generally regarded as the most immediate and crucial objective of many conservation programs. In the case of a species that is critically endangered on a global scale, simply ensuring the survival of a few individuals is often a significant challenge. But even many globally common plant species have conservation needs. Often these species do not have a very high representation of diverse genetic material archived in ex-situ collections simply because they are not considered to be a high priority for conservation. To compound this, the limited germplasm that is archived is often accessed from similar populations from the core of a species geographic range. By collecting from more provenances, including those at the extremes of a species' range, we can come closer to fully conserving and representing the genetic diversity of the species. After the Laurentide Ice Sheet began receding nearly 12,500 years ago, the forests of eastern North America began their march northward. Species migration is a dynamic and ongoing process, and while many species have already pushed into the tundra region in the far north of Canada, most other species have only extended into southern Canada far more recently. These regional populations, on the forefront of a long migration into northern latitudes, must adapt I to an array of environmental conditions that are often very different from those found at the core of the geographic range. Adapted gene complexes enable a plant to adjust to the timing of the local annual growth cycle, including bud break, root growth, shoot and leaf elongation, bud development, diameter growth, and cold acclimation. The genetic variation present in NANCY ROSe Notable for its bright yellow fall foliage, sweet birch (Betula lenta) is a rare find in Canada. The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program 3 ALL PHOTOS BY THe AUTHOR UNLeSS OTHeRWISe INdICATed Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) blooming in Ontario. these range extensions is very significant from a conservation standpoint since these particular genotypes may provide crucial genetic material to allow a species to migrate and fill various regional niches. The Ontario populations of woody species, at the northern extent of their natural range, represent adaptations to our northern conditions. Liriodendron tulipifera from Ontario are more likely to be suitable for forestry planting in that province than seedling stock from a Virginia source. Cornus florida from Ontario-based provenances have proven, in cold hardiness trials, to be more winter hardy in Canada than nursery stock sourced from farther south. As migration pressures increase due to a rapidly changing climate, it may become even more critical to conserve these northern genotypes. Unfortunately, the pace of abiotic change in the environment is likely to be far ahead of biotic survival for many species. The continued exploitation and segregation of suitable habitat adds another dynamic to an already challenging scenario for in-situ conservation. UndeRsTAndinG sPecies AT Risk in cAnAdA Taking the time to thoroughly understand the legislative conditions regulating species at risk in Canada, as in many other parts of the world, can be an exercise in patience. The federal government of Canada's National Strategy for the Protection of Species at Risk is composed of the National Accord for the Protection of Species at Risk (NAPSR), established in 1996; the Habitat Stewardship Program (HSP), established in 2000; and the Species at Risk Act (SARA) established in 2003. The National General Status Working Group (NGSWG) was formed in 1996 to support the mandate of the NAPSR, and is charged with establishing status rankings for all species in 4 Arnoldia 69\/3 cucumbertree (Magnolia acuminata): canada's First endangered Tree Magnolia acuminata was the first tree in Canada to be listed as endangered by COSeWIC in 1984. In 2003, this species was re-evaluated as endangered under the SARA and plans for a recovery strategy were developed. Cucumbertree has always had a very limited distribution in Canada and is currently only known to occur in two areas of southwestern Ontario. In total, only 283 naturally occurring individuals are known to survive in 12 small, extant populations. These individuals represent an extreme northern extension for a species that forms its most abundant core population in the central Appalachian range of the United States. The cucumbertrees remaining in Ontario are generally in good health; however, the habitat that supports them is highly fragmented. This segregation has not only reduced the reproductive fitness of the remaining populations (perhaps due in part to a reduction in pollinator-supporting habitat), but it has also eliminated suitable conditions for seedling regeneration. The range of cucumbertree also happens to lie within the most heavily populated area of human settlement in Canada and one of the most rapidly-developing regions in North America. In-situ conservation efforts to identify and protect individual trees in isolated woodlots have had some success. However, further steps are required to ecologically connect these remaining sites in order to allow this magnificent species to continue its natural migration within Ontario. cucumber Tree Magnolia acuminata N species Found non-Planted > 100 species Found non-Planted 20 6 Arnoldia 69\/3 The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program 7 PeGGY HURST A series of interpretive plaques were created for Ontario's rare woody plants with support from BGCI Canada's Investing in Nature: A Partnership for Plants program. Here, Kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus) is highlighted in the University of Guelph Arboretum's World of Trees collection. John Ambrose (right), with botanists Lindsay Roger and Gerry Waldron, upon their discovery of a new species to Canada, swamp cottonwood (Populus heterophylla), in 2002. The eastern Redbud (Cercis canadensis): O canada--its home and native land? A specific epithet like \"canadensis\" might lead one to believe that eastern redbud floods the understory of the great northern forests. But, despite its seeming patriotism to Canada, this beautiful species is not quite as common in the north as one might think. In Gerry Waldron's wonderful book, Trees of the Carolinian Forest (2003), he quotes the great Canadian botanist, John Macoun, as he recounts his first and only sighting of eastern redbud on Canadian soil in 1892: ... I was informed that a remarkable tree grew on the south end of the island, that many years ago produced an abundance of lovely red flowers in early spring before the leaves came out ... the next day I examined the south point and found the tree. It had been undermined by the waves and fallen inland, and more than half its limbs were dead, but it still bore leaves and what remained was quite healthy. It will soon disappear, but the record of its existence will remain. These flower buds of eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis) show the species' interesting trait of cauliflory (flower and fruit production from woody stems). This accession (1988-0284.002) in the World of Trees collection at the University of Guelph Arboretum is from a cold-hardy provenance in Wayne County, Michigan. This tree that Macoun happened across remains the only naturally-occurring individual ever discovered in Canada. This plant grew at Fish Point, Pelee Island, in Lake erie--the most southerly point in all of Canada, and, as he predicted, was eventually swallowed by the lake as the shoreline eroded away. While there are naturalized populations established in parts of southwestern Ontario, as escapees from cultivated stock, eastern redbud is now officially ranked as extirpated in Canada. 8 Arnoldia 69\/3 ROB GUTHRIe The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program 9 Table 2. Accessions of known, wild, Ontario-based provenance for selected rare woody taxa under cultivation at the University of Guelph Arboretum. Taxon Aesculus glabra Asimina triloba Betula lenta Campsis radicans Carya laciniosa Carya glabra Castanea dentata Celtis tenuifolia Cornus drummondii Cornus florida Euonymus atropurpurea Fraxinus profunda Fraxinus quadrangulata Gleditsia triacanthos Gymnocladus dioicus Hibiscus moscheutos Juglans cinerea Liriodendron tulipifera Magnolia acuminata Morus rubra Morella pensylvanica Pinus rigida Platanus occidentalis Ptelea trifoliata Quercus ellipsoidalis Quercus muehlenbergii Quercus prinoides Quercus shumardii Rosa setigera * G-global, S-provincial G1-extremely rare, G2-very rare, G3-rare to uncommon, G4-common, G5-very common S1-critically imperiled, S2-imperiled, S3-vulnerable, S4-apparently secure, S5-secure Risk Ranking* G5, S1 G5, S3 G5, S1 G5, S2 G5, S3 G5, S3 G4, S3 G5, S2 G5, S4 G5, S2 G5, S3 G4, S2 G5, S3 G5, S2 G5, S2 G5, S3 G4, S3 G5, S4 G5, S2 G5, S2 G5, S1 G5, S2 G5, S4 G5, S3 G5, S3 G5, S4 G5, S2 G5, S3 G5, S3 Total Number of Accessions 5 8 9 3 6 3 2 5 5 8 6 1 20 7 26 1 12 11 16 5 3 4 10 22 2 16 2 4 6 Total Number of Individuals 20 12 44 4 25 7 3 13 26 17 16 3 26 38 87 2 32 15 37 21 3 5 18 43 2 64 9 9 8 10 Arnoldia 69\/3 kentucky coffeetree (Gymnocladus dioicus): distribution within the University of Guelph Arboretum WHILe gene banking various accessions within seed orchards makes archiving and maintaining plant material simpler, a strong effort has also been made to establish accessions in suitable botanical and horticultural collections throughout the Arboretum. distributing our conservation collections in this fashion serves several purposes: 12 Arnoldia 69\/3 The Rare Woody Plants of Ontario Program 13 with a particular emphasis on recently discovered species such as Quercus ellipsoidalis (1978), Fraxinus profunda (1992), Quercus ilicifolia (1994) and Populus heterophylla (2002). These are important species that we hope to further incorporate into our ex-situ collections at the Arboretum. As our existing seed orchards continue to produce increasingly sound crops, we are now in the position to better distribute this seed to nurseries and local conservation authorities to aid in their restoration activities. Large crops of seed will also be archived at the National Tree Seed Center in Fredericton, New Brunswick, and the Ontario Tree Seed Plant in Angus, Ontario. Seed will continue to be available to other botanical institutions for conservation and research purposes. In this modern era, and with an unstable economy, most botanical gardens and arboreta are facing tough challenges with budget and staff cuts. As the years have progressed at the University of Guelph Arboretum, we've also had to make difficult decisions regarding the activities that we have the capacity to engage in successfully. While we've had to scale back several of our display-based horticultural collections, we've found that our conservation programs have helped to provide a niche that further defines the mission of our organization. It must always be remembered that ex-situ conservation programs, as valid and critical as they are, don't hold a candle to ecosystem conservation, expansion, and linkage. These in-situ conservation activities must be represented in our highest aspirations as citizens and nations. However, the important role that botanical gardens and arboreta can play must not be underestimated either. Whether it is the education, outreach, research, stewardship, or conservation hat that is being worn, public gardens are in a unique position to be meaningfully engaged in rare flora programs both locally and globally. References Ambrose, J. and d. Kirk. 2006. Recovery Strategy for Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata L.) in Canada. Prepared for the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources by the Cucumber Tree Recovery Team, Toronto, Ontario. Beardmore, T., J. Loo, B. McAfee, C. Malouin, and d. Simpson. 2006. A Survey of Tree Species of Concern in Canada: the Role of Genetic Conservation. The Forestry Chronicle 82-3: 351"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Land Bridge Travelers of the Tertiary: The Eastern Asian-Eastern North American Floristic Disjunction","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25526","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d2608526.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Yih, David","article_content":"Land Bridge Travelers of the Tertiary: The Eastern Asian The Eastern Asian 16 Arnoldia 69\/3 18 Arnoldia 69\/3 MIcHAEl DOSMANN 20 Arnoldia 69\/3 22 Arnoldia 69\/3 MIcHAEl DOSMANN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Rare Find: Yellow-Fruited Spicebush (Lindera benzoin forma xanthocarpum)","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25524","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d2608128.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lynch, Richard","article_content":"A Rare Find: Yellow-Fruited Spicebush (Lindera benzoin forma xanthocarpum) Richard Lynch here are as many different harbingers of spring as there are fond memories in the minds of the people who look for them. For some, the last of the snow melting off a northern slope fits the bill. For others, the first chorusing of spring peepers (Hyla crucifer) in the still-cold ponds of late March provides hope for the warmer seasons to come. For those with a more botanical bent, and especially for lovers of the deep woods across the eastern United States, the opening of the tiny yellow flowers of spicebush (Lindera benzoin) clearly marks the tipping point from winter to spring. In many parts of the Northeast, spicebush is the first shrub to flower and is often timed with the arrival of mourning cloaks (Nymphalis antiopa) and spring azure butterflies (Celastrina ladon). Spicebush also plays a role in alerting nature lovers that the fall season approaches. By the middle of September, female plants begin to display some of the brightest red fruit found in nature. Plants growing in deep woods will be a bit sparse in fruit, but those growing along the forest edge or near wetlands can produce a great profusion of colorful fruit. There are a great number of resident and migrating bird species that take full advantage of the bounty, and often within a week or two the T The typical bright red fruit of spicebush (Lindera benzoin). all PhoToS By The aUThoR UNleSS oTheRwISe INdIcaTed Lindera benzoin forma xanthocarpum bears golden-yellow fruit. NaNcy RoSe Yellow-Fruited Spicebush 25 fruit have been harvested and carried off by wildlife. Though bright red is the typical fruit color, there is also a yellow-fruited spicebush (Lindera benzoin forma xanthocarpum). The story of this unusual variant begins in Shrewsbury, Massachusetts, in 1913, where it was discovered by Mrs. Frank e. lowe. a description of the plant written by G. S. Torrey was published the following year in Rhodora (note that the species name was then Benzoin aestivale rather than the current Lindera benzoin): \"on october 4, 1913, Mrs. Frank e. lowe collected in Shrewsbury, Mass., specimens of the Spice Bush, Benzoin aestivale Nees., which differed from the common form in having the drupes orange-yellow, instead of bright red. Several bushes were found, some growing with the typical form in low, damp places; some alone, in drier ground in a rocky pasture. They all bore yellow fruit, which were ripe and falling. The material was sent by Mrs. lowe to Mrs. e. l. horr of the worcester Natural history Museum, by whom it was referred to the Gray herbarium. The plant may be characterized as follows: BeNZoIN aeSTIVale (l.) Nees., forma xanthocarpum, forma nova, fructus flavis.\" A view across the lowland sweetgum 26 Arnoldia 69\/3 Yellow-Fruited Spicebush 27 Green milkweed (Asclepias viridiflora), left, and globose flatsedge (Cyperus echinatus), right, are two of the rare (in New York) plants found growing in a sunny meadow within the Staten Island Greenbelt. rubrum), where a few of the golden-yellow fruit still remained. after the discovery of the first specimen, we made a greater effort to look for the yellow-fruited plants in the vicinity of the first one, but found none. Further up the trail and into a sunny meadow, we discovered two more plants heavily laden with yellow fruit. The meadow is part of a successional grassland growing over serpentine-derived soils and contains other New york State rare plants such as green milkweed (Asclepias viridiflora), purple milkweed (A. purpurea), and globose flatsedge (Cyperus echinatus). we collected these additional yellow fruit and added the fruit from the first collection; these became a separate cohort of seed from which we could propagate. It turns out that the yellow-fruited spicebush is a rarer taxon than first believed. according to charles Sheviak, the state botanist for New york, the plant had not previously been recorded as growing in the state. In Massachusetts, state botanist Brian connelly has no records for any extant populations in the state. although it is likely that other populations for the plant do exist, there are no other confirmed populations known in these two states. The question then arises as to what conservation efforts, if any, need to be taken to ensure the continued existence of the plant in the wild. In using the term \"forma\" in describing the plant, G. S. Torrey seems to convey the belief that the plant is a random mutation, not sustainable over time, occurring within a larger population. In general, the term \"variety\" would be used to describe a plant that is self-sustaining or represents a variant that covers a portion of the range of a larger species description. Given that we don't know either the genetic differences that separate the yellow-fruited spicebush from the more common red-fruited 28 Arnoldia 69\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: A Landscape History of New England","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25525","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260816d.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Book Review: Phyllis Andersen A Landscape History of New England Edited by Blake Harrison and Richard W. Judd. Cambridge: MIT Press, 2011. 413 pages. ISBN 978-0-262-01640-7 cultivation by Native Americans was ignored in the jeremiads of early Puritan ministers who needed a transformative narrative to motivate their flocks to both stay and spread out. As waves of settlers came to understand the intrinsic capacities of the landscape, the wilderness became a land of cultivation and harvesting: pastures, orchards, and gardens; forests for fuel and building material; rocky and sandy coastal waters offering access to a rich diversity of fish and crustaceans. Joseph Conforti opens the roster of essays by setting a theme for the entire volume: regional identity as both historically grounded and culturally invented. Conforti projects New England identity as flowing from Native American C oeditors Blake Harrison and Richard W. Judd challenged a group of senior and young scholars to produce essays that capture myriad aspects of the New England landscape: the material landscape of forests, upland farms, stone walls, inland rivers, and rocky coast lines, and the symbolic landscape of picturesque villages, bucolic pastures, and the stock pieties of hard-working farmers with backs to the plow and eyes on the horizon. Methodologies deployed by the authors vary from the new disciplines of environmental and ecological history to literary narrative and to the politics of gender, ethnicity, and environmental change. The twenty essays are bookended by the editors' introduction and conclusion--dissimilar threads skillfully woven to form comprehensive case studies of landscape and cultural changes over three centuries. The essays engage both the essence of regional character and the theatrical promotion of magnetic scenery created for the seduction of tourists to visit New England and support local economies. Old England was a refuge for New England's early settlers, so newly settled places were often named after mother-country places (the Berkshires, Portsmouth, Worcester, New London) and topographic terms (brook, pond, marsh, fens) coincidental to mother country terms. This offered familiarity amidst what some early settlers called the emptiness of the place and others called the howling wilderness. The fact that the \"emptiness\" contained areas of NEW HAMPSHIRE HISTORICAL SOCIETy 30 Arnoldia 69\/3 A Landscape History of New England 31 \"Fishermen and weir, Passamaquoddy Bay region near Eastport, Maine, circa 1880. This photograph was part of broader study by the U.S. Fish Commission for the 1880 U.S. Census. It shows fishermen using a traditional brush weir to take herring for the burgeoning canning industry.\" tribes such as the Algonquians, with their seasonal settlements and cultivation of crops, to the formation of isolated towns and villages distributed across farmland and along the seacoast, a land-planning method still visible today. The New England landscape was physically reconstituted in the nineteenth century with a surge of industry, especially shoe manufacturing, textile mills, and ship building. The current evolutionary stage of development includes a topology of leisure and recreation: heritage sites, boutique-lined waterfronts, ski slopes, athletic fields, and the indigenous clothier of fishers and hunters, L. L. Bean. Conforti quotes Dona Brown, a historian at the University of Vermont, to describe that tourist landscape as \"a commodity peddled and consumed like the notions of an itinerant yankee trader.\" In his essay, Kent Ryden finds the well-worn argument of nature vs. culture a useless bit of rhetoric in understanding the New England landscape. Everything we see is the result of land use, he insists, recorded in the ways that human minds and hands worked in tandem with natural opportunities and constraints. He cites a little-known essay by Thoreau, \"The Succession of Forest Trees,\" first delivered as a lecture in 1860. From years of observing \"Tourists in Franconia Notch, 1920s. Franconia Notch was one of the most popular sites in New Hampshire's White Mountains. Here, tourists by the shores of Profile Lake gaze upward at the Old Man of the Mountain.\" Source: From Automobile Blue Book. T. W. SMILLIE, NATIONAL ARCHIVES PHOTO 22-CD-451 32 Arnoldia 69\/3 LIBRARy OF CONgRESS A Landscape History of New England 33 control. Attracted to a life of self-sufficiency, writers in particular were drawn to the back country of New England where they documented their survival tactics in numerous publications. Dona Brown describes a little known back-to-the-land movement of the 1930s; she notes that an \"imaginative reconfiguration\" of New England was underway as the image of a region full of \"dour puritans and antiquated blue laws\" was refigured. In a 1932 editorial in Harper's Monthly, the noted writer and historian Bernard DeVoto observed that the great Depression was not as severe in New England because long years of trials and tribulations had given the people great moral strength: \"By the granite they have lived for three centuries, tightening their belts SPECIAL COLLECTIONS, RAyMOND H. FOgLER LIBRARy, UNIVERSITy OF MAINE \"Henry Red Eagle on the shores of Moosehead Lake, circa 1940. Red Eagle often drew inspiration from the Moosehead Lake region, incorporating its recreational and its working spaces into his writing.\" Source: From Bangor & Aroostock Railroad, In the Maine Woods (1941). and hanging on.\" Brown uses as an example the writer Elliott Merrick and his wife who gave up urban life for a back country farm in Vermont where Merrick wrote From This Hill Look Down (1934). He stressed self-reliance and hard work in taming nature as a way to revitalize the urbanized mind and body. The couple was followed by another pair of writers, Helen and Scott Nearing, who relocated first to rural Vermont and then Maine. Their book, Living the Good Life (1954), became a manual for disaffected youth of the 1960s and 1970s. Elizabeth Pillsbury investigates Long Island Sound on New England's southerly shore, valued first for its oysters and later for boating recreation. The Sound became a waste depository and ended up as a dead ecosystem. Moving up the coast line, Robert gee brings his reader to Maine's \"drowned coast\" created by the rising and then receding sea level revealing land features: dramatic inlets of eroded tide pools and island clusters accommodating a rich variety of sea and shorebird life. gee tracks the development of Maine's fish canning and blueberry industries in tandem with its growing popularity for tourists and summer homes. Moving back down to Boston, Michael Rawson traces the concern for the environmental health of Boston Harbor today back into the nineteenth century, when extensive filling of brackish tidal flats dramatically altered the shore line. The topic of alternative ways of writing about the New England landscape is covered by two essays on lesser known individuals, each dealing with the ambiguity between documentary and fantasy writings. Under the pen name Henry Red Eagle, the Native American writer and wilderness guide, Henry Perley, wrote numerous stories about Maine's north woods. Written for a popular audience, his tales of adventure and romance highlighted his Native culture. Perley also participated in tourist activities, and like many other Natives took roles in national performing troupes such as P. T. Barnum's, cooperating with displays of stereotypical Indian behavior demanded as entertainment by \"white man\" audiences. Similarly, the Maine travel writer george H. Haynes, who, in the words of contributing author David L. Richards, spe- 34 Arnoldia 69\/3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Remember Last Winter?","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25527","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260856b.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Remember last winter? MICHAEl DOSMANN This image of Meadow Road and the Fabaceae (legume family) collection was made on January 13, 2011, after yet another heavy snowfall. Read a summary of 2011 weather events at the Arboretum in the next issue of Arnoldia. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plainly Unique: Schisandra chinensis","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25529","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d270a328.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schmerler, Sam","article_content":"Plainly Unique: Schisandra chinensis Sam Schmerler T he plants of the Arnold Arboretum display incredible floral diversity. Magnolia macrophylla's huge waxy blooms open twice, partly closing in between for an overnight sex change. Helwingia japonica sprouts tiny green umbels in the center of otherwise unremarkable leaves. Davidia involucrata forgoes petals entirely, but shelters its reproductive organs with massive white bracts. Even wild Viola sororia, flagging down bees with its iconic violets, surreptitiously sends out discrete, selfpollinating flowers underground. With all this bizarre and beautiful reproduction going on, most of us overlook the most evolutionarily distinctive flowering plant in the collection: Schisandra chinensis. An unassuming woody vine, it represents a unique and ancient lineage that parted ways with most other flowering plants at least as far back as the early Cretaceous, before even \"living fossils\" like Magnolia. This ancient group, the Austrobaileyales, is now recognized as the third-oldest remaining branch on the phylogenetic tree of flowering plants, diverging after only Amborella (a strange New Caledonian shrub) and the Nymphaeales (a group of herbaceous aquatics that includes water lilies). This means that all the other flowering plants in our collection--from creeping crowberries to towering tuliptrees--are more genetically similar to each other than any of them are to Schisandra. We can't grow the other Austrobaileyales here, since they hail from warmer forests in North America, Asia, and Oceania, but Schisandra chinensis, from temperate northeastern Asia (China, Korea, northern Japan, eastern Russia), can reliably survive Boston winters. This dioecious vine doesn't appear particularly primitive. Visually, it doesn't stand out much at all. Our two specimens (343-97-B, a male plant from Changbaishan, China, and 409-97-B, a female from Chiaksan, South Korea) twine unobtrusively up his-and-hers trellises in the Levintritt Shrub and Vine Garden and tend to blend in with their neighbors. Their simple, medium-green leaves are perfectly innocuous, eventually turning a bland butter yellow. In late spring, small, white, sweet-smelling flowers droop on thin pedicels in a passable impersonation of nearby Actinidia (kiwi). The female's flowers develop into elongated fruits with numerous bright red, berrylike fruitlets. Winter will reveal exfoliating bark resembling that of climbing hydrangea. Evolutionary biologists (including Arboretum director Ned Friedman) have discovered that Schisandra and the other Austrobaileyales can offer insight into many key events in the history of flowering plants. Aspects of Schisandra's vascular system may represent an early step in the development of vessels, the structures that allow most flowering plants to rapidly transport water and ecologically dominate hot and dry habitats. Schisandra also retains a relatively simple anatomy during its haploid stage, with only four nuclei and one developmental module in each female gametophyte (almost all flowering plants have eight nuclei and two modules). The endosperm of Schisandra seeds consequently contains only one complement of genes from each of its parents, while most flowering plants acquire an additional copy of their moms' genes. Schisandra likely shares these characteristics with the extinct ancestors of all flowering plants, a living link to the distant past. But while it retains many archaic anatomical features that are long lost in most flowering plants, Schisandra has evolved a unique and medically promising biochemistry. Traditional Chinese herbalism prescribes S. chinensis for a whole host of ailments and as a general tonic and adaptogen. Recent science has isolated several new types of lignans (a class of polyphenols) from the fruits; these have anti-oxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Schisandra lignans have been shown to protect brain cells from glutamate and liver cells from a variety of toxins; they may also inhibit platelet aggregation, tumor proliferation, and possibly even HIV replication. As chemists in the food and medical industries increasingly explore these lignans, it's likely that demand for S. chinensis as a pharmaceutical precursor and \"functional food\" will increase. Even though Schisandra may not dazzle, this vine's exciting chemistry and singular evolutionary history prove it truly stands alone. Next time you visit the Arboretum be sure to check out Schisandra chinensis--it tends to reward closer inspection. Sam Schmerler recently completed his appointment as a Curatorial Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23427","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160816e.jpg","title":"2012-69-3","volume":69,"issue_number":3,"year":2012,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"One Hundred Years of Popular Information","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25521","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260b726.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"one Hundred years of Popular information Peter Del Tredici Publications History O n May 2, 1911, the Arnold Arboretum published the first issue of the Bulletin of Popular Information. Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent was the editor, and he stated that its specific goal was to meet the complaints of people who \"... do not know when the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum bloom and therefore miss flowers which they want to see.\" These first bulletins came out once a week during the spring, early summer, and fall and were \"mailed without charge to anyone interested in trees and shrubs and their cultivation.\" They were four pages long and without illustrations. The intention of the publication was to tell people who lived in the area what exciting things were happening on the grounds of the Arboretum and to provide some basic facts about selected plants, including their history of cultivation and suitability for New England gardens. The fact that the Bulletin came out thirty-nine years after the establishment of the Arboretum in 1872 suggests that public outreach to visitors was not originally very high on Sargent's to do list. By 1911, however, he apparently felt that the time was ripe to connect with the gardening public who wanted to know more about the collections. Despite its tardy introduction, the Bulletin of Popular Information established an Arboretum tradition of outreach through publications that continues today. After four years of publication, Sargent initiated a \"New Series\" of the Bulletin on April 28, 1915. Unlike the first series, this one had volume numbers and an index and established a subscription rate of one dollar. The first issue of the second series concluded with the rather quaint note that, \"Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum, but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning to Charles S. Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, photographed at the Arboretum in 1904. P. J. Brady, Jamaica 670, or Malone & Keane, Jamaica 344.\" From the perspective of today's digitally connected world, it's hard to imagine a time of when entire telephone numbers rather than just area codes consisted of three digits. Series Three of the Bulletin began in April 1927--a month after Sargent's death--edited by Ernest H. Wilson. It was printed on coated paper for the first time, which allowed for the insertion of a full page black-and-white photograph in each issue. Following Wilson's untimely death in an automobile accident on October 15, 1930, long-time Arboretum staff member ArCHIvES OF THE ArNOlD ArBOrETUM Bulletin of Popular Information 3 J. G. Jack took over the task of producing the Bulletin with contributions from Oakes Ames, W. H. Judd, and the young Edgar Anderson. Anderson took over full responsibility for the publication in 1932 and initiated a fourth series in 1933. In 1935, Anderson left the Arboretum to work at the Missouri Botanical Garden and horticulturist Donald Wyman took over the Bulletin, publishing his first article on \"Tree Troubles\" in March 1936. Elmer Drew Merrill had been appointed director of the Arboretum in 1935 and in March 1941 he made the decision to change the name of the Bulletin to Arnoldia. He had two reasons for doing so: first, he thought that the title Bulletin of Popular Information was too cumbersome, and second, that it was difficult to cite in scientific papers because it had been published in four separate series without sequential volume numbers. He also felt that changing the name to Arnoldia would not only \"reflect proper institutional credit on its sponsoring institution.\" Merrill retained Wyman as editor of the newly christened publication, a post Wyman held until 1969--a 34-year record of longevity that no one is ever likely to top. During the entire period of Wyman's editorship, Arnoldia came out more or less twelve times per year with each issue being of variable length. Following Wyman's retirement in 1969, richard Howard, who served as director from 1954 through 1977, changed Arnoldia from its pamphlet format to a magazine format in 1970. A card-stock cover with a full-bleed (printed NANCy rOSE Bound copies of every issue of the Bulletin of Popular Information and Arnoldia are housed in the Arboretum's library. All issues are also available through the Arboretum's website (http:\/\/arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu). 4 Arnoldia 69\/2 Bulletin of Popular Information 5 hold its own in New England. The hardiness of Writers and content this tree, its rapid growth, and the fact that it It is worth noting that the editors of the publiis not injured by insects, suggest that this is a cation during its first fifty-eight years--Sargent, good subject to plant in narrow streets. Seeds Wilson, Anderson, and Wyman--were also its will be sent from the Arboretum in the autumn principle writers. This aspect gave it both a to anyone who may desire to grow this tree.\" highly personal and authoritative tone. The This fascinating quotation reveals much people who were writing about the plants knew what they were talking about and, because the about the early history of the Arboretum that, Arboretum was a research and not a commercial had it not been written down, would have been institution, they could be counted on for unbiased information. All of these botanists wrote with a high level of confidence based on the completeness of the Arboretum's collections and on the soundness of their observations and judgment. Issues of the Bulletin from the Sargent years, in particular, make for fascinating reading because they tell the story of the early introduction of many now-familiar plants. Sargent was also very adept at capturing the essence of plants, sometimes in completely unexpected ways, such as his description of Populus tomentosa leaves, which \"hang on long flattened stalks and, fluttering in the slightest breeze, make, as the blades come together, a noise like drops of rain in a heavy shower falling on a tin roof\" (July 2, 1915). Many of the plants that were first described in the Bulletin have gone on to become famous ornamentals, and a few have become infamous invasive species. To illustrate the latter category, I found this quote about Amur corktree in the June 14, 1911, issue of the Bulletin: \"Phellodendron sachalinense [now classified as P. amurense], which is a native of Saghalin [Sakhalin] and the northern island of Japan, has grown in the Arboretum into a tree about thirty feet high, with a tall, straight trunk, and widespreading branches for ming a shapely flat-topped head. The seed- The picturesque forms and thick, corky bark of the mature corktrees along lings springing up naturally near the Meadow Road often draw the attention of Arboretum visitors (Phellodendron old trees indicate that it is likely to amurense var. lavallei seen here). NANCy rOSE 6 Arnoldia 69\/2 ArCHIvES OF THE ArNOlD ArBOrETUM Weather talk one tHeMe that runs through the arboretum publications is a thorough discussion of weather and its effects on the collections. this seemed to be especially true for the Bulletin, which was aimed primarily at a local audience and often emphasized the immediacy of the growing season. take, for example, the october 16, 1929, entry by e. H. Wilson, \"the phenomenal drought which Massachusetts in common with other states has endured will long be remembered for it caused grave anxiety among all who garden. in late June the arboretum enjoyed one good rainfall but not another worth mentioning until october 2nd. For fully two months supplying water to suffering trees and shrubs was the principal work engaged upon. Fortunately, there was no great heat but at the height of the drought it looked as if a great many plant must die. thanks to the water stored from the heavy rains of spring the trees suffered but little and as autumn arrived a general freshening among all woody plants was noticeable. today it is difficult to realize that extreme drought has been experiThis photo by Donald Wyman shows tree damage at the enced. the power of resuscitation enjoyed by plants Arboretum from the hurricane of September 21, 1938. is, indeed, marvelous.\" Perhaps the most famous weather event to affect the arboretum was described by Wyman in the october 7, 1938, Bulletin: \"rain had been falling rather consistently for four days when on september twenty-first, over large areas in new england, the downpour assumed the proportions of a deluge. rivers in western Massachusetts were at flood stage, and everywhere the ground was soggy from excessive rain. by late afternoon the rain slackened and the wind increased to a gale. at 4:50 p.m. when the lights went out in the administration building staff members expected a \"blow\", but certainly did not anticipate the hurricane which caused frightful damage throughout new england. the arboretum lost approximately 1500 trees, and a recent newspaper estimate of the number of trees lost in Massachusetts--only one of the new england states touched by the storm--reached the appalling figure of 100,000,000. there is no way of checking such an estimate, but with definite information concerning the number of trees destroyed in a few boston suburbs, this figure seems possible... Hemlock Hill in the arboretum is one of the higher points between boston and the blue Hills. With wind velocities at times approximating 125 miles an hour it is understandable that great damage was done to the particular plantings on the southern or exposed side an the top of that hill. to the older friends of the arboretum, this damage will seem the most serious.\" (the tradition continues with an annual report in Arnoldia recapping the previous year's weather and its effects on arboretum collections.) science at the arboretum: seeing the Forest through the trees William (Ned) Friedman tHe arnold arboretuM is all about science, and has been since its founding in 1872 by Harvard university. the arboretum's mandate as stated in the original deed--to grow all of the trees and shrubs from anywhere on earth that could be grown here--was a long-term research proposal in itself, one that continues to this day. over the decades research in many fields has been conducted at the arboretum by our scholars as well as colleagues from institutions around the world. the opening of the Weld Hill research building early this year brings a new era of science to the arboretum. Weld Hill's state-of-the-art facilities include laboratories, greenhouses, and spectacular teaching equipment for undergraduates. Microscopes with lasers allow scientists to peer into the microscopic world of plants; molecular biology equipment allows us to unravel the dna that codes for the processes that make each plant and plant species unique and exquisitely responsive to its environment; and highly sophisticated banks of growth chambers permit botanists to study the effects of climate change on plants under controlled conditions. importantly, Weld Hill allows arboretum researchers formerly based at Harvard's camThe Weld Hill research facility at the Arnold Arboretum. bridge campus to expand their work at the arboretum. it also provides great new opportunities for students, scientists, and visiting scholars to conduct research using the living collections and the Weld Hill facilities. in essence, the arnold arboretum of Harvard university is poised to become a worldwide hub for the study of plant biodiversity. With over 15,000 curated living organisms, there are unlimited and unique opportunities to conduct botanical research at the arboretum. research has limited value until it is shared with others, of course. a vital part of the arboretum's mission over the years has been to translate the science of the arboretum to a wide audience. arboretum publications, especially Arnoldia and its predecessor, the Bulletin of Popular Information, have been important vehicles for disseminating information about the fascinating world of plant science to arboretum friends and colleagues around the world. as research grows at the arboretum we will continue to share it through Arnoldia as well as our much expanded website and education programs. William (Ned) Friedman is Director of the Arnold Arboretum and Arnold Professor of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University. JON HETMAN Bulletin of Popular Information 9 While these later publications were more complete and formal, the original Bulletin observations provide a more intimate connection to the seasonal cycles of the Arboretum. For me, the most remarkable thing about the Sargent and Wilson contributions is their timelessness. Having worked at the Arboretum for over thirty years, I can read their words and get the feeling that I can go right out onto the grounds and see the exact same scenes (or close to them) that they were describing. \"Bussey Hill, where the new and rarer plants from the Orient are quartered, is perhaps the most interesting place in the Arboretum at the moment [May 16, 1927]... From the overlook itself looking toward the south, the Hemlock Grove looms majestic; westward across the Oaks, over and beyond the steely gray, misty, cloud-like clump of American Beech, Spruce, Fir, and Pine stand conspicuous. Everywhere wholesome scented air, opening bud, blossom, and green grass--everything fresh and clean--the Arboretum in spring is rich in charm and beauty.\" When it comes to writing arti- ing this 102-year-old sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) in the open area just cles, no one was more prolific--in below the summit. both the Bulletin and Arnoldia-- cific purposes, based on his notes on the perthan Donald Wyman. He published hundreds formance of the collections over the years. In of pages of observations on the Arboretum's horticultural circles of the 1940s and 1950s, collections covering an amazing array of topics Wyman was the voice of authority in the including crabapples (his specialty), rhododennortheast when it came to recommending (or drons, lilacs, winter injury, hurricane damage, condemning) plants. trees with interesting bark, the order of bloom of Arboretum plants, seashore gardens, hedges, tHe Future vines, and a number of arcane topics such as In reading through Arboretum publications the use of spent hops for mulch (in Arnoldia from the past hundred years it's interesting to volume 7, Number 12, December 12, 1947). note how some things change and some stay More than any other of the Arboretum's horthe same. Many horticultural recommendaticulturists, he had no qualms about passing tions published in the Bulletin and Arnoldia judgment on the suitability of plants for spe- Bussey Hill still provides magnificent views and beautiful plants, includ- rICHArD SCHUlHOF 10 Arnoldia 69\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Can Taxodium Be Improved?","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25520","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260b36d.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Eguiluz-Piedra, Teobaldo; Yunlong, Yin; Zhou, Lijing; Creech, David","article_content":"Can Taxodium Be Improved? David Creech, Lijing Zhou, Yin Yunlong, and Teobaldo Eguiluz-Piedra COURTESy OF STEvEN J. BASKAUF, hTTp:\/\/BIOIMAgES.vANDERBIlT.EDU Growing in wetland conditions, this stand of baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) displays the distinctive knees (pneumatophores) characteristic of the species. D egradation of coastal forests and associated wetland habitats by excessive flooding and saltwater intrusion is a global problem, and may become even more so if predicted climate changes and consequent rises in sea level occur. In the United States, there's been great concern about the degradation of the entire Mississippi River Delta biotic system, much of which can be traced to manmade changes in the nature and flow of the Mississippi river. One example of this degradation is the loss of coastal forests south of New Orleans, which has left this city more vulnerable than ever to the impact of hurricanes. (Allen 1992; Earles 1975; Krauss et al. 1999) These circumstances make it increasingly important to identify, select, and even improve tree species that have some innate tolerances to flooding and salinity. Such trees will be valuable for restoring degraded coastal areas as well as for urban landscapes and other greening projects. For this reason, we are particularly interested in Taxodium distichum. Taxodium Taxa Of all native swamp forest tree species in the southern United States, Taxodium distichum (baldcypress) has long been recognized as being among the most tolerant to flooding and salinity. This long-lived and generally pest-free 12 Arnoldia 69\/2 Taxodium 13 All phOTOgRAphS By ThE AUThORS ExCEpT WhERE NOTED interfere with routine maintenance such as lawn mowing. While their exact function is unknown, knees may contribute substantially to wind throw resistance (Conner et al. 2002). Baldcypress in the western part of its range (central and western Texas) is generally more salt and alkalinity tolerant, and is less prone to produce knees than baldcypress from more eastern sources. East Texas genotypes of Taxodium planted in San Antonio, Texas, where soils are highly alkaline, often turn chlorotic and perform poorly. As with pond cypress and baldcypress, botanists and horticulturists speculate that baldcypress in central to western Texas are perhaps commingled with Montezuma cypress and represent transitional genetics (lickey and Walker 2002). This very large, old pondcypress grows at Shangri La Gardens, in Orange, Texas. While outside the normally accepted range for the species, this pondcypress appears to be spontaneous, not planted. Pondcypress occurs in the southern portion of the range of baldcypress and only on the southeastern coastal plain from North Carolina into louisiana. While southeast Texas is not normally included as part of the pondcypress natural range, an approximately 1,200-year-old pondcypress at Shangri la gardens, Orange, Texas, appears to broaden the range. pondcypress occurs in blackwater rivers, ponds, bayous, and swamps, usually without alluvial flood deposits. pondcypress is relatively easy to distinguish by its feathery foliage, which is ascendant, \" 14 Arnoldia 69\/2 Taxodium 15 distinct knees, is generally more tolerant of year, there are already apparent differences in salt and alkaline soils, and is less tolerant of foliage color, tree form, growth rate, and branchextended flooding. At Stephen F. Austin State ing characteristics. In Mexico, Montezuma University gardens in Nacogdoches, Texas, cypress is considered quite variable from one Montezuma cypress forces new growth early provenance to another and nursery conditions in the spring and continues to grow late into can greatly impact growth rate and form. The the fall. Observations of Montezuma cypress in viveros genfor nursery in Texcoco has grown USDA plant hardiness zone 8 (average annual Montezuma cypress for the last twenty years minimum temperature 10 to 20 16 Arnoldia 69\/2 ROBERT MAyER Taxodium 17 Planted at the Stephen F. Austin State University Gardens in March 2010 as small one-gallon-container plants, these specimens of \"merit\" clone T406 from China had a very fast growth rate. This photograph is from July 2011. to female flowers of `Nanjing Beauty' (then known as selection T302). Fifteen selections were made in 1995, with the main characteristics for selection being fast growth rate, dark green leaf color during the growing season, and red-orange leaf color in the autumn. Several of these clonal selections are now widely used in China. Additional Montezuma cypress Taxodium in China Taxodium varieties and hybrids play a very important role in the southeastern China coastal vegetation plan, particularly in the floodplains of the delta and associated bottomlands and estuaries of the yangtze River. The planting of coastal windbreak forests in this area was initiated in 2005. There are many reforestation projects under way on the mainland side of dikes that run along the sea, both north and south of the mouth of the yangtze. These projects have received massive provincial and federal financial support and millions of trees will be planted by midcentury. Taxodium hybrids have also found a place in many of the large parks being constructed in the major cities of southeastern China. as grand all Taxodium 19 IMPRovING Taxodium Several Taxodium germplasm collections exist in the southern United States but they remain relatively unexploited. In addition to the Taxodium collection at Stephen F. Austin State University gardens, Dr. Donald l. Rockwood, University of Florida, gainesville, Florida, manages a large planting of varied genotypes, many of which serve as seed sources for superior seedlings, with plantings that target tolerance of fly ash, salinity, or polluted soils. Dr. Ken W. Krauss, at the United States geological Survey, National Wetlands Research Center, lafayette, louisiana, is collecting seed from survivor trees in the Mississippi Delta that have been exposed to increasing inundation and salt surges (Krauss et al. 2000; Conner and Inabinette 2005). By cruising the massive \"ghost cypress forests\" (large stands of dead or declining baldcypress) of the southern delta, individual survivor trees can be found that perhaps have good resistance to subsidence and high salinity. Their progeny may offer promise for reforestation projects in marginal sites, and the opportunity for selecting superior clones is immense. Finally, Dr. Mike Arnold, Texas A & M University, College Station, Texas, has planted a large collection of baldcypress genotypes from across the South; the collection includes central and western Texas provenances, as well as a collection of Montezuma cypress from Mexico and southern Texas (McDonald et al. 2008) At the government nursery near Jinjiang (Jiangsu, China), I viewed over a million Taxodium cuttings in the one-acre field of propagation beds during a visit in September 2011. The nursery manager, Mr. Zho, employed a half-dozen ladies who used high-pressure hoses to hand mist the cuttings. Every day, for 8 to 12 weeks, each worker managed her own long run of propagation beds, dragging her hose and wand and waving a stream of mist over the crop. After each run, the ladies would rest and visit with each other, waiting until the beads of water on the cuttings had evaporated, the signal that it was time to repeat the process. When I asked why he used this strategy, Mr. Zho reflected that he had previously used automated boom misters on a timer, but he had found that the ladies knew better when the cuttings needed water--they had a feel for the crop--and rooting percentages were now very high. --David Creech 20 Arnoldia 69\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Writing of New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25523","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260bb6f.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Grimshaw, John","article_content":"the Writing of New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation John Grimshaw Editor's note: New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation is an extensive new reference manual published by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 2009. In this essay, co-author John Grimshaw describes the process of putting such a detailed publication together. New Trees: Recent Introductions to Cultivation John Grimshaw and Ross Bayton Kew Publishing, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 976 pp. 2009 ISBN 978 1 84246 1730 I n 2002 I was living and working in the Netherlands. One afternoon the phone rang and a richly English voice identified its owner as Giles Coode-Adams. Might I be interested in writing a book about recently introduced trees? Following early retirement from a career in finance, Giles had devoted his time to horticultural causes, first fund-raising for Kew and later becoming Treasurer and then President of the Royal Horticultural Society. Among his numerous commitments he was also Chairman of the International Dendrology Society's Scientific and Education Committee, reflecting his personal interest in trees and woody plants in general. While involved with Kew he had been the occasional recipient of young specimens grown from seed collected on expeditions, and indeed had taken part in a seed-collecting trip to Japan. The only problem was that, for so many of the recently introduced trees he was encountering, there was no useful literature to look them up in. His proposal to the committee that a book on such trees would be valuable was accepted and they started looking for authors. I am still not quite sure how they found me, as I was then by no means dendrological, but I had recently co-authored and edited a well-reviewed book on snowdrops (Galanthus) that may have had something to do with it. To cut a long story short, the committee decided I was the right person for the job. Generous sponsors provided funding and the task could begin. Setting ParameterS The assignment was to produce a book about all the tree species introduced to cultivation in recent decades, or those that had been in cultivation for longer but for which there was no good description. The standard reference in Britain is the venerated W. J. Bean's Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, first published in 1914 and last updated in the 1970s to form the eighth edition. Its botanical descriptions are complemented by readable discursive text about the plant and its cultivation requirements, rather than the terse encyclopaedic format of, for example, Kr 22 Arnoldia 69\/2 ERICH G. VAllERy, USDA FOREST SERVICE, BUGWOOD.ORG New Trees 23 maritime climates of the north and the Mediterranean climate to the south. An obvious vegetational difference is the commercial cultivation of olives in the Mediterranean and this matches, with remarkable precision, the area of southern Europe experiencing USDA Zone 9 winter temperatures (average annual minimum temperature 20 to 30 24 Arnoldia 69\/2 New Trees 25 for recording details of trees, but one that really interested me was a large specimen of Larix sibirica whose label recorded that it had come from H. J. Elwes in 1900: I connected with this tree on several levels. Henry John Elwes (1846 26 Arnoldia 69\/2 New Trees 27 high enough and just far north enough for their plants to have a sporting chance of being hardy in milder areas. One of its special trees is what is known as Aesculus wangii, although the name is technically invalid, which produces nuts 10 centimeters (3.9 inches) across--they are a trophy in themselves. Upon germination, seedlings rocket up to over a meter (3.3 feet) within weeks. Its habit of coming into leaf early may be a problem, but the tree itself seems to be winter hardy in Britain, at least. Strange though it may seem, Australia was the next most prolific source for recent tree introductions. This apparent anomaly can be explained by the single genus Eucalyptus, although there are several Acacia and Callitris species plus odds and ends from other genera too. Although of negligible interest in much of the area covered, Eucalyptus has a devoted fan club in the milder parts (maritime Europe, the Pacific Northwest). These enthusiasts have been searching out populations in the coldest part of each species' range, a classic example of intelligent plant-hunting, unlike the usual grabbing of material from the first population found. Whether or not such sourcing has done them any good after a series of hard winters in both of these regions remains to be seen--many eucalypts have been devastated. As they grow so fast, however, it won't be long before we see another crop appearing. Eucalyptus nitens, the shining gum, holds the record for the fastestgrowing tree in Britain, achieving 20 meters (65.6 feet) in six years in Oxfordshire, making a splendid-looking tree in that time, but alas, it was killed last winter. Mexico has also been an important destination for plant explorers in recent decades. With its huge diversity of ecosystems this is hardly surprising. Conifers and oaks are the two most important groups of Mexican trees for temperate gardens, but there are hardy Cornus, Crataegus, Fagus, Platanus, and Tilia too. It is always astonishing to think of \"temperate\" genera occurring in the tropics, but there is a huge diversity of Magnolia in tropical America, and rainforest maples and oaks are diverse in southeast Asia. Half the diversity of Juglans (walnut) is found in the Neotropics! Most of these tropical species are too tender for tem- An impressively large nut from the tree known as Aesculus wangii (the name has not been validly published), native to Vietnam. perate horticulture, but this shouldn't prevent experimentation with species along the tropical fringes. Many Mexican evergreen oaks are proving to be remarkably tough, and even if they are defoliated by a severe winter will usually resprout next spring. Of all the new trees I studied for the book I was most impressed by Quercus rysophylla, an evergreen oak with big leaves that emerge red or bronze, and which forms a stately and handsome tree, hardy in western Europe, the southeastern United States, and the Pacific coast. Experts continue to discover new species of oaks in the United States and Mexico, usually isolated on obscure mountain ranges. One such is Q. acerifolia, from a few mountains in Arkansas, a handsome red oak with excellent autumn colors. liberated from its native habitat it is proving to be versatile, succeeding across the northern and eastern United States, including in the Arnold Arboretum. In general, trees from Chile and New Zealand are for specialist growers in mild moist climates, and one has to be bold to grow any African woodies: even species from the most temperate parts of South Africa and the high mountains of East Africa are very tender. But in the right conditions it is fun to try--and even JOHN GRIMSHAW 28 Arnoldia 69\/2 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Year With the Apples of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25519","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260b328.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Miles S.","article_content":"Miles Sax I have spent the past year as a horticultural apprentice working in the Malus (apple and crabapple) collection of the Arnold Arboretum, a collection that has long been recognized for its importance to the horticultural and scientific worlds. Because of the Arboretum's many introductions and broad distribution of both cultivars and previously undiscovered Malus species from wild origin, it has been hailed as the \"`Mother Arboretum' for flowering crabapples\" (Fiala 1994). Once celebrated in an annual event known as Crabapple Saturday, this collection remains popular with Arboretum visitors, especially during spring bloom and fall fruit display. The dynamic nature of arboreta, including ongoing change in the fields of taxonomy, nomenclature, and research technology, inevitably leads to the need for periodic large scale review of the plant collections. Although historically the Arboretum's Malus collection has been a high priority, in recent decades hor- An old poster touts the Arnold Arboretum's crabapple collection. PhOTOS By The AuThOr exCePT where nOTed Part of the Arnold Arboretum's Malus collection in spring bloom, including white-flowered Malus hupehensis (accession 324-55-B) at left. ArChIveS OF The ArnOld ArBOreTuM A Year With the Apples of the Arnold Arboretum 30 Arnoldia 69\/2 Apples of the Arnold Arboretum 31 were examined and data were taken on size, shape, and color of the fruit. In spring 2011 a similar review was done by recording the size, shape, and color of flowers along with other morphological characteristics. This information was compared to existing descriptive references. For cultivars, the late Father John Fiala's book Flowering Crabapples: The Genus Malus was the primary resource used in determining identity and exploring the ornamental history of the genus. Because there is no current monograph of Malus, for accessions of wild provenance we used the flora pertinent to the region in question, e.g., Flora of China. This initial review was done to verify the plant material and confirm its correct taxonomic identity, allowing us to update nomenclature and ultimately make sure our plants are correctly labeled. The petaloid stamens of this Malus sieboldii `Fuji' (accession 418-68-C) flower are an example of the importance of field observation in a curatorial review. These petal-like structures, viewed from afar, make the flowers appear to be double. This curious discovery was not noted in Fiala's previous descriptions of this selection. ArChIveS OF The ArnOld ArBOreTuM Plant detectives observing physical characteristics (flower color, leaf shape, etc.) is the most common way of identifying plants but it's not the only way. A trip to the Arboretum's curation department can give a researcher access to records detailing the origins or place of collection for many plants located on the grounds. Another resource is the cache of maps--many hand drawn--detailing the exact locations of plants come and gone. the herbarium in the Arboretum's hunnewell building and the main harvard university herbarium yield pressed specimens of wild plants that we enjoy as landscape ornamentals today. A trip to the Arboretum's library may uncover volumes of floras spanning the world, or historical horticultural periodicals detailing the latest plant introductions that were in vogue at the time. the library's extensive archives provide a wealth of original documentation such as ernest h. Wilson's journals and letters to Charles sprague sargent from his many far-flung plant collectors. to have these resources condensed in a single place allows for research and discovery to be made in a way that is unique to the Arnold Arboretum. The archives of the Arnold Arboretum hold a treasure trove of documents, including many examples of Ernest but sometimes even all these resources are not enough H. Wilson's correspondence. to make a definitive conclusion on a plant's true identity or origin. in recent years the ability to look at a plant's genetic makeup has proved to be a very powerful tool in plant systematics. to that end, the usdA Plant genetic resource unit in geneva, new York, has graciously offered to genotype a handful of the Arboretum's mystery Malus. When the results are returned we can look forward to some answers from this unique plant identification technology. 32 Arnoldia 69\/2 Apples of the Arnold Arboretum 33 Knowing what the collection actually comprises was the first step in being able to ask the question, \"what is the collection missing?\" There was no way to assess what additions would be required without first understanding all the options. The Arboretum's collections focus primarily on plants of documented origin, in particular wild provenance, so that became the framework for the assessment. we assembled a list of all known Malus species and their infraspecific taxa (e.g., subspecies, varieties) from around the world and compared it with our existing accessions, with the goal of identifying key areas where the collection lacked diversity. Armed with this information, the curation department now has a desiderata (wish list) of plants and we can request material from other botanical institutions and germplasm repositories. The list will also be useful when determining goals for future plant collecting expeditions. hortiCulturAl CAre of the ColleCtion horticultural care and maintenance of the Malus collection was a major part of my apprenticeship. One of my primary goals was to take a hard look at \"best practices\" for growing apples in order to develop an action plan that would reflect some of the new thinking on orchard cultural practices. The Arboretum collection grows primarily ornamental crabapples rather than eating apples, but many of the horticultural concerns are shared. eating apples have been cultivated for centuries in a variety of settings, so apple orchards provide an interesting model system for understanding how we manage human created plant ecosystems. Consumer interest in organic products has increased, as have demands that growers utilize better practices that are more environmentally friendly. what initially started with farmers is now spilling over into MIChAel dOSMAnn The author pruning in the Malus collection. 34 Arnoldia 69\/2 My favorite Malus nAnCy rOSe nAnCy rOSe the eCleCtiC mix of wild germplasm, hybrids, and early cultivars in the Arnold Arboretum's Malus collection gives inquisitive visitors a chance to see crabapples rarely found in the commercial trade. here are a few of my favorites: Malus `Mary Potter' FEATUrES: A medium height, wide-spreading tree with high disease resistance, offering abundant white flowers and small (0.4 inches [1 centimeter] diameter) red fruits. dESCrIPTIoN: This specimen is the original selection of the cultivar. Introduced by the Arnold Arboretum, this Karl Sax selection is considered by many to be his best Malus hybrid. Named in honor of C. S. Sargent's daughter, this hybrid is a result of cross between M. sargentii `rosea' x M. x atrosanguinea. ACCESSIoN NUMBEr: 181-52 B LoCATIoN: 51-SW orIgIN: Arnold Arboretum Malus kansuensis var. calva FEATUrES: rare in cultivation, its small stature and unique flowers and fruit make this an interesting apple in the collection. dESCrIPTIoN: Small, slow-growing tree; flowers are creamy white and fruits develop a caramel yellow color with a red cheek. The fruit is somewhat flattened on the top and bottom and has vertical ridges around it, giving it a pumpkin-like appearance. ACCESSIoN NUMBEr: 134-43 A LoCATIoN: 49-SE orIgIN: China Malus tschonoskii FEATUrES: Silver-white, tomentose undersides of leaves, attractive orange to red fall color, tall (40+ feet [12+ meters]) upright-pyramidal shape. dESCrIPTIoN: This accession is the Arnold Arboretum's oldest apple in the collection as well as one of the tallest. Collected by C. S. Sargent in 1892 during his expedition to Japan. The flowers and fruits of this specimen are insignificant, but the unique leaves and form look unlike any other apple. To the casual passerby it would be difficult to identify it as an apple tree at all. ACCESSIoN NUMBEr: 3678-A LoCATIoN: 17-SW orIgIN: Japan Malus hupehensis FEATUrES: The fruits are yellow with a red cheek and provide a nice contrast with the crimson to purple fall leaf color. dESCrIPTIoN: Wide-branching, vase-shaped tree. Leaves and copious fruit develop out of short branch spurs, giving a distinctive appearance. Leaves have reportedly been used as a tea substitute in parts of China. The species was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum and was first collected from China by E. H. Wilson in 1908. ACCESSIoN NUMBEr: 324-55 B LoCATIoN: 50-SW orIgIN: China Malus x robusta `Arnold-Canada' FEATUrES: A rare cultivar that is a towering giant of an apple tree. By far the tallest specimen in the collection. dESCrIPTIoN: Primary scaffolding branches alone are larger than the main trunks of many other Malus. The distinctive bark has an appearance somewhat similar to Prunus (cherry). This specimen features copious fruits that are orange-yellow with a bright red cheek. rarely found in other collections outside the Arnold Arboretum ACCESSIoN NUMBEr: 172-52 B LoCATIoN: 50-SE orIgIN: Hybrid 36 Arnoldia 69\/2 Apples of the Arnold Arboretum 37 This specimen of Malus spontanea (accession 10796-2-A, previously listed as Malus halliana var. spontanea) has an interesting shape and an interesting history. Perhaps because of its provenance or its status as an e. h. wilson-collected lineage it was preserved and is now growing perfectly well in its new orientation. Initially struck by its unusual form, I came to realize that this Malus had an interesting tale to tell. while conducting my curatorial review I was searching through our plant records in an effort to verify the identities of the Malus in our collection. My research brought me upon four living specimens of Malus halliana var. spontanea, all of which are the wilson lineage and one of which was the Malus in repose. looking at the provenance information I noticed that the original accession (10796-A) was wild-collected from Japan by wilson during his 1918 expedition. Although the taxonomy of Malus halliana is a bit unclear, what struck me as odd is that this species is reported as a native of China. My initial thought was that this was an accident in nomenclature and so I began to pursue the tree's true identity. Accession information stated that the plant was wild-collected by wilson, but without providing an exact location. Malus halliana has been cultivated as an orna- mental in Japan for generations, but since the Arboretum's specimens were supposedly from wild origin I realized something wasn't adding up and exact provenance information would have to be unearthed to get to the true identity of this specimen. weeks later, while conducting the conservation portion of my curatorial review, I was searching Malus on the Botanic Gardens Conservation International's (BGCI) website. To my surprise I saw that on the 1997 IuCn red list of Threatened Plants Malus spontanea (as a species, not a variety of M. halliana) was flagged as vulnerable. realizing that the Malus in question might be of conservation value, I decided I had to give another go at this mystery apple. I figured that if our records indicated that this plant was wild collected from Japan, somewhere buried in the archives there must be conclusive evidence of the true identity of this tree. After multiple searches in our herbarium, archives, and historic records, I eventually found the information I had been looking for in an article on new taxa by Alfred rehder in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (rehder 38 Arnoldia 69\/2 Apples of the Arnold Arboretum 39 Iketani offered to collect seed from the remaining wild populations and send them to both the uSdA and the Arnold Arboretum. Once this plant material clears the importation process we look forward to the infusion of these plants of high conservation value into the collection. ConClusion working as an Arboretum apprentice for the last year has been a fulfilling experience that has pushed me both intellectually and physically. The chance to engage with both the horticulture and curation departments led to many synergistic benefits. In 2010 I made 369 observations that resulted in data entries in BGBASe, and in 2011 I added another 560 observations, for a total of 929 observations on 479 individual plants. These data will be valuable for long-range curatorial planning as well as current horticultural maintenance, and may also be of benefit to fellow botanical institutions who hold Malus collections. My apprenticeship has been extended for another year so I will be able to continue my efforts to push this collection toward the highest levels of care and curatorial value. Bibliography Bunker, J. P. 2007. Not Far From the Tree. waterville, Maine: (self published). dosmann, M. S. 2009. Malus at the Arnold Arboretum: An Ongoing legacy. Arnoldia 67(2): 14"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Royal Azalea: Rhododendron schlippenbachii","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25522","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260b76b.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"The Royal Azalea: Rhododendron schlippenbachii Nancy Rose R hododendron schlippenbachii is perhaps most noted for its lovely spring bloom, but this deciduous azalea is also a standout in the autumn garden when its leaves turn striking shades of yellow, orange, and red. In addition, royal azalea displays attractive summer foliage and a handsome winter silhouette, making it that object most desired by gardeners--a plant with all-season ornamental interest. Royal azalea has long been a favorite of mine, so I was tickled to find out that several illustrious Arboretum horticulturists have also written glowingly about this species. As Peter Del Tredici mentioned in the first article in this issue, many timeless bits of information and opinion can be gleaned by reading through old issues of the Bulletin of Popular Information and Arnoldia--here, Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arboretum, describes royal azalea's native range and growth habit: R. Schlippenbachii is one of the commonest shrubs of Korea and often forms the dominant undergrowth in open woods. From Korea it crosses into northeastern Manchuria where it grows on the shores of Possiet Bay; it occurs, too, in two localities in northern Japan. Wilson found it extraordinarily abundant in Korea on the lower slopes of Chiri-san and on the Diamond Mountains, which were where he visited this region in June \"a wonderful sight with literally miles and miles of the purest pink from the millions of flowers of this Azalea.\" In Korea this Azalea on the wind-swept grass-covered cliffs of the coast grow[s] less than a foot high but flowers abundantly. In the forests of the interior it often grows to a height of fifteen feet and forms a tall and slender or a broad and shapely shrub. (Bulletin of Popular Information, May 5, 1921) Typically blooming in mid-May at the Arboretum, royal azalea is covered with large flowers in clear shades of pink, somewhat resembling a mass of pink butterflies resting on the branch tips. In the same Bulletin article quoted above, Sargent wrote, \"The pale pink fragrant flowers, which are about three inches in diameter and marked on one of the lobes of the corolla with red-brown spots, are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea, certainly of any Azalea which has proved hardy in the Arboretum.\" And Ernest H. Wilson wrote in the May 16, 1927, issue of the Bulletin, \"The blossoms on this lovely Korean Azalea are now open on the Bussey Hill. A sturdy bush of upright habit, bearing on naked twigs terminal clusters of large pale to pure pink blossoms. This is a very hardy and satisfactory Azalea.\" (Cold hardy through USDA Zone 5 [average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23426","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd1608128.jpg","title":"2011-69-2","volume":69,"issue_number":2,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree by Tree, Yard by Yard: Replanting Worcester's Trees","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25518","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260af6f.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Freilicher, Mollie","article_content":"Tree by Tree, Yard by Yard: Replanting Worcester's Trees Mollie Freilicher T MASSAchUSETTS hiSTOricAL SOciETy cOLLEcTiONS he trees of Worcester, Massachusetts, have had a hard time recently, as Asian longhorned beetle (ALB) (Anoplophora glabripennis) has decimated public and private trees there and in surrounding communities. What may be less well known is that the invasion of ALB is just the most recent blow in what has been a difficult century for trees in the Worcester area. Some of the issues that the city has faced, such as canopy defoliation from gypsy moth (Lymantria dispar) and tree death from chestnut blight (Cryphonectria parasitica) and Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi), were not unique to Worcester, affecting many communities across the eastern and central United States. Other threats have been more localized. Worcester, along with much of New England, suffered major tree loss in the 1938 Disasters have hit Worcester's trees before, including the devastating 1953 tornado. Photo of tornado damage by Alfred K. Schroeder, June 1953. Replanting Worcester's Trees MichAEL BOhNE, BUgWOOD.Org 3 PA DEPT. OF cONSErvATiON AND NATUrAL rESOUrcES, BUgWOOD.Org An adult male Asian longhorned beetle. ALB larvae tunnel into host trees, damaging essential conductive tissues. After pupating, adult beetles emerge from large, round exit holes, as seen on this maple trunk. hurricane, and a tornado in 1953 devastated parts of Worcester. More recently, the ice storm of 2008 damaged many trees, some beyond recovery, in the Worcester area. The ongoing onslaught has made it difficult for planting efforts to keep up with tree losses. Following the 1953 tornado and the already significant losses from Dutch elm disease, Worcester began growing maples and ramping up its planting efforts. Maples, especially Norway maple (Acer platanoides), known for its urban adaptability, became a mainstay of the planting program. Over the next six decades, maples came to comprise 80% of street trees, leaving many of the city's public trees vulnerable to a maple-specific insect or disease. Enter Asian longhorned beetle. This mapleloving insect was found in Worcester in August 2008 and has since been detected in four surrounding towns, spurring the creation of a regulated area in Worcester county that now measures 98 square miles. Like the hurricane and tornado, ALB quickly changed the land- scape of Worcester's northern neighborhoods. residents felt bereft of trees and looked to state and federal authorities to come forward with a solution. Even in areas without ALB, communities across the United States have been losing trees to development, to neglect over time, and to a lack of adequate replacement programs. Add up Worcester's experience with the hurricane, the tornado, the ice storm, and ALB, and the importance of replanting becomes clear. On a psychological level, replanting is also an important part of the healing process following the losses to ALB and the ice storm. Tree Benefits While urban residents have enjoyed shade and the aesthetic benefits of trees, in the last several decades researchers have studied the ecological, psychological, and social benefits of trees in urbanized areas. it is now known that trees are important for air quality, watershed health, carbon dioxide reduction, soil quality, noise reduction, property values, and psychological and 4 Arnoldia 69\/1 Replanting Worcester's Trees 5 experience. Some streets that had been lined with maples quickly became barren. residents felt the character of their neighborhoods had completely changed. images of empty streets were reminiscent of pictures following the tornado, when some streets were stripped of all trees. With the losses to ALB and the ice storm, the opportunity arose to reshape the urban forest--to improve diversity by planting a variety of non-host trees (trees that cannot support ALB), to move away from monocultures of maples, to strategically place trees along streets, in parks, and on private property to ensure that they have adequate growing space now and in the future, to educate residents about the value of trees and how to care for and maintain them, and to keep track of the new trees over time. The scale of such a replanting effort was larger than in any of the other ALB infested areas in the United States (parts of New york, illinois, and New Jersey). Planning the Plantings The lead federal agency in the Massachusetts ALB cooperative Eradication Program is the United States Department of Agriculture's Animal and Plant health inspection Service (APhiS) and the lead state agency is the Massachusetts Department of conservation and recreation (Dcr). replanting has been a component of all ALB programs in the United States and the United States Forest Service (USFS) is the lead agency for working with cooperators toward this end. Some cooperators in the Worcester area include municipalities and non-profit organizations that have stepped up MOLLiE FrEiLichEr Professional staff, volunteers, and property owners have all been involved in tree replanting efforts. Here a DCR team in Boylston plants trees. 6 Arnoldia 69\/1 MOLLiE FrEiLichEr Replanting Worcester's Trees 7 NANcy rOSE wrapped up in spring 2010. The goal of the USDA-funded planting was to mitigate the impact to the communities where host trees were removed because of ALB infestations. The USDA-funded planting specifically targeted property owners who lost trees to ALB in the 2-square mile core area where most removals occurred in 2009. For a property owner to be eligible for a tree with the USDA planting, the owner had to have lost a tree over six inches diameter at breast height (dbh) from a maintained area of the property. This put the focus on replacing landscape and specimen trees on properties in areas where natural regeneration could not be expected. Naturalized, unmaintained areas that could regenerate on their own were not included in this planting. Already two years on, property owners are seeing these areas come back to life. By spring 2009, the funding was in place from the USDA to plant approximately 800 trees in the areas first affected by tree removals. Properties that lost trees to ALB were identified from the USDA database and Dcr foresters mailed information to property owners about replanting. interested property owners responded and staff scheduled visits to select trees and locations. Additionally, staff went door to door to reach property owners who did not respond. As the USDA planting program was wrapping up, the next program was just getting started. The American recovery and reinvestment Act of 2009 (ArrA) provided $4.487 million in funding for the second planting program that got underway in spring 2010. The ArrA planting will continue into 2012. it targets all property owners in the regulated area regardless of whether they lost a tree to ALB. The only limit to the number of trees a property can have is the number of trees the property could support. in addition to increasing diversity and the number of trees on private property, the ArrA planting aims to restore public shade trees, to plant 15,000 trees on private property, to restore forest canopy and watershed functions affected by reduced canopy, and to create jobs. As of May 16, 2011, over 4,700 trees have been planted through the ArrA program. in addition to working with residents to site trees, Dcr foresters also conduct inspections of trees planted in previous seasons to ensure that trees Though popular ornamental trees, mountain ashes (Sorbus spp.) were not offered in replanting programs because of their suscebtibility to ALB. S. aucuparia `Michred' shown here. Host Genera for Asian Longhorned Beetle Acer Aesculus Albizia Betula Celtis Fraxinus Platanus Populus Salix Sorbus Ulmus Cercidiphyllum Koelreuteria Maple horse chestnut Mimosa Birch hackberry Ash Sycamore Poplar Willow Mountain ash Elm Katsura tree goldenrain tree 8 Arnoldia 69\/1 10 Arnoldia 69\/1 Trees selected for the replanting effort include (left to right) seviceberry (Amelanchier spp.), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), red oak (Quercus rubra), and linden (Tilia spp.). Table 1. Replanting List for Massachusetts Regulated Area. This represents current and past species that have been offered in the replanting program. LARGe SHADe TReeS Carpinus caroliniana American hornbeam Cladrastis kentukea (syn. lutea) yellowwood Fagus sylvatica European beech Ginkgo biloba* ginkgo Gleditsia triacanthos honeylocust Larix spp. Larch Liquidambar styraciflua Sweetgum Liriodendron tulipifera Tuliptree Metasequoia glyptostroboides Dawn redwood Nyssa sylvatica Blackgum Ostrya virginiana American hophornbeam Quercus alba White oak Quercus bicolor Swamp white oak Quercus coccinea Scarlet oak Quercus palustris Pin oak Quercus rubra red oak Tilia spp. Linden\/basswood ORnAMenTAL TReeS Amelanchier spp. Serviceberry Chionanthus virginicus Fringetree Cornus spp. Dogwood Malus spp. crabapple Prunus spp. cherry Syringa reticulata* Japanese tree lilac eVeRGReen TReeS Abies concolor White fir Picea pungens colorado spruce Pinus strobus Eastern white pine Thuja occidentalis* American arborvitae *No longer offered NANcy rOSE (ALL PhOTOS) 12 Arnoldia 69\/1 Replanting Worcester's Trees 13 MOLLiE FrEiLichEr Data on these recently planted street trees on Fairhaven Road in Worcester will be gathered for a central database that will help evaluate tree establishment and survival. software to explore the structure of and the environmental services provided by the newly planted trees. costs, and Strategic Planting. United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest research Station, general Technical report, PSW-gTr-202. herwitz, E. 2001.Trees at risk: reclaiming an Urban Forest. chandler Press, Worcester. http:\/\/www.beetlebusters.info\/ http:\/\/www.massnrc.org\/pests\/alb\/ i-Tree. n.d. http:\/\/www.itreetools.org\/ M. Freilicher, B.c. Kane, h.D.P. ryan, iii, and D.v. Bloniarz. 2008. Trees in Peril: responding to the Asian Longhorned Beetle. http:\/\/www. mass.gov\/dcr\/stewardship\/forestry\/urban\/docs\/ Worcester_report.pdf ric, J., P. de groot, B. gasman, M. Orr, J. Doyle, M.T. Smith, L. Dumouchel, T. Scarr, and J. Turgeon. 2006. Detecting Signs and Symptoms of Asian Longhorned Beetle injury: Training guide. Available online: www.glfc.forestry.ca\/vLF\/ invasives\/alhbdetecguide_e.pdf Worcester Tree initiative: http:\/\/www.treeworcester.org Mollie Freilicher is a Forester with the Massachusetts Department of conservation and recreation. What's next? As of May 24, 2011, the replanting program has planted nearly 6,000 trees and has found homes for over 9,000 trees for the spring and fall 2011 plantings. it will be some years before the streets of Worcester are lined with large trees again, but the diversity of trees that are being planted today will help buffer the city against future pests. Strategic placement of trees now can also help eliminate later conflicts with infrastructure such as power lines. With the many partners involved, and support at the state and federal level, Worcester and the rest of the regulated area is poised for an exciting recovery. References E. g. McPherson, E.g., J.r. Simpson, P.J. Peper, S. L. gardner, K.E. vargas, and Q. Xiao. 2007. Northeast community Tree guide: Benefits, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Geographic Information Systems for the Plant Sciences","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25516","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260ab26.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Morgan, Brian J.","article_content":"Geographic Information Systems for the Plant Sciences Brian J. Morgan T he disciplines of the plant sciences and geography have been intertwined as far back as circa 300 BCE when the Greek scholar Theophrastus, frequently referred to as the \"Father of Botany,\" described the habitat and geographical distribution of plants in his first work on the subject titled Enquiry into Plants (Historia Plantarum). It wasn't until the sixteenth century and the establishment of the world's first botanical garden in Padua, Italy, that the leading icon of modern geography, the map, found its permanent place in the plant sciences by documenting the locations of woody plants in the garden for identification purposes. Today, location--the unifying theme of geography--has taken on an even more important role in the plant sciences where it is considered an essential attribute to record, and variable to consider, for the study of plants in fields ranging from agriculture to ecology. In the digital age that we live in, the cataloging of plants and the analysis of the influence that location plays on the growth and distribution of them is increasingly performed using geographic information systems (GIS). GIS is commonly defined as a system of personnel, computer hardware, software, and data for capturing, managing, analyzing, and displaying all forms of geographically referenced information. GIS merges the visual aspects of a map with the analytical power of a database, and allows plant scientists to view, question, understand, interpret, and visualize data in many ways that reveal relationships, patterns, and All ImAGES By ThE AuThor ExCEPT whErE noTEd Analysis of plant condition at the Arnold Arboretum reveals a cluster of plants in poor condition (indicated by red dots), in this case mostly eastern hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis) damaged by hemlock wooly adelgids. Geographic Information Systems 15 GIS is used to explore plant collections in public gardens. By linking maps with the collections database, details about accessions such as this white oak (Quercus alba) are readily available. trends in the form of maps, globes, reports, and charts. In our rapidly changing world, GIS gives scientists the power to quickly understand and formulate solutions to the problems presented by our most complex issues such as population growth, resource consumption, and climate change. ComPonentS of a GIS Personnel and Equipment The foundation of a powerful GIS is built with the personnel required to develop and manage the system. GIS managers and analysts usually have a strong background in the principles of cartography and database management systems, and a number of graduate and certification programs have appeared in the last decade to support this education. Fortunately, recent advances in simple desktop GIS software like Esri ArcGIS Explorer for the visualization and analysis of any geographic data, and in webbased solutions like Google maps, have made the use of GIS technology accessible to all. with expert personnel in place, the next item needed for a geographic information system is the computer software used to capture, manage, analyze, and display spatial data. desktop GIS software packages like Esri ArcGIS desktop or Quantum GIS are most commonly used to perform the majority of GIS functions, but serverbased systems like map Server and Esri ArcGIS Server are increasingly being employed to share data, maps, and even analysis capabilities with users through their web browsers without the need for training or special software. These server systems even allow for the collection and use of GIS data and maps on mobile devices like smartphones and tablets that contain location sensors such as a global positioning system (GPS) receiver. The computer hardware used for a desktop GIS is largely dependent on the requirements of the software selected, the amount and intricacy of the data to be analyzed, and the complexity of the analyses to be performed. while a standard desktop or laptop computer can be used for most systems, workstation-class desktop computers with fast processors, ample memory and storage, and high-performance graphics are most common. Server-based systems that allow multiple users to work with GIS data stored in a 16 Arnoldia 69\/1 Geographic Information Systems 17 as a conservation organization for biodiversity assessment, or a botanical garden for plant collection curation, it is common to design or employ an existing data model. A data model can be thought of as a database design or template that carefully considers how real-world features are represented as geometry in feature classes, the attributes appropriate for each feature, and any known relationships that exist between individual features or entire feature classes. In the plant sciences, user community designed data models for Esri ArcGIS exist Collecting GPS data at the UC Davis Arboretum. for biodiversity assessment, forestry, and public gardens. These models can be downloaded for free and allow scientists open Source vs. Commercial to get started with their GIS projects quickly, Software without the need to design their own modthere is much debate within the GIS develels. data models like the one developed by oper and user community regarding the the Alliance for Public Gardens GIS (ArcGIS Public Garden data model) additionally prochoice of commercial software versus open vide standardization across multiple organizasource software. Commercial products like tions, thus simplifying the exchange of critical those offered by esri and mapInfo are quite biodiversity data. expensive to purchase and typically require whether using an existing data model or annual maintenance fees for support and designing a new GIS from the beginning, one of the first things to consider is the availability upgrades, but offer well-designed user interof the data required for the project. A common faces and sophisticated analysis tools. Constarting point is to collect as much existing data versely, open source solutions such as those as is readily available through internet data that are part of the open Source Geospatial repositories like the united States Geological foundation (oSGeo) are free to use, but are Survey Earth Explorer or local government spatial data clearinghouses. one of the primary more difficult to operate and get support for. sources of this data is from a technique called Developers and scientists within academia remote sensing which is formally defined as generally tend to favor the use of open the collection of information about an object source software for GIS applications and without making contact with it. [Ed. note: See research, while private companies and govnext article for more on the use of remote sensing.] As it relates to spatial data, remote sensing ernments usually use commercial products. usually refers to data captured from aircraft or Ultimately, the choice is a tradeoff between spacecraft, and typically comes in the form of cost and ease of use, but the same functionaerial photography, multi-spectral images that ality is available from either option. measure non-visible forms of electromagnetic radiation, or even lIdAr height data that is CourTESy oF mIA InGolIA, uC dAvIS ArBorETum 18 Arnoldia 69\/1 Geographic Information Systems 19 Global greenness (vegetation) can be evaluated with the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) from remote sensing data gathered by satellites. sciences. The next section describes how it is being employed in real-world projects for both research and management. aPPlICatIonS of GIS our ever increasing need for land and resources combined with the threat of climate change has pushed the assessment of biodiversity to the top of the list of plant science research priorities. The scientific literature is rich with articles on the subject, ranging from studies of parks and reserves to the entire planet. GIS is often cited as the primary tool used to perform many of these studies, which frequently employ species occurrence data from informatics sites like the Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF) and remotely sensed data from satellites like landsat 7 Tm to determine the relative species richness of a particular area. In one study of African vascular plant diversity, the investigators performed a multivariate analysis to determine the relationship between the number of species in well-known areas and the associated environmental conditions like topography, temperature, precipitation, and evapotranspiration. This relationship was then used to interpolate the species richness in lesser-known areas to produce a vascular plant diversity map for the entire continent (mutke et al. 2001). once the biodiversity of an area has been assessed, the spatial data generated from the assessment can be used to help prioritize which parcels of land should be designated as conservation areas. Since the study of land and the process of delineating boundaries are inherently spatial in nature, GIS is cited as the overwhelming choice of tool for the task. In addition to biodiversity data similar to that produced in the previous study, conservation planning activities usually include topography, precipitation, soil, geology, and land use data. In a forest conservation study in malaysia the investigators used a decision making approach that assigns weighted values to possible alternatives in an effort to prioritize areas for conservation. This study considered species and ecosystem diversity, the soil and water conservation functions of plants, and potential threats to the forest, and through a process called map algebra, hot spots for conservation were determined and used to delineate potential new protection areas (Phua and minowa 2005). GIS can also be an invaluable tool when planning a collecting expedition. Traditional approaches to expedition planning have favored areas that were considered interesting or easily accessible, and tended to focus on species that were easily studied. GIS allows for the unbiased Geographic Information Systems 21 GIS data can be represented as points, lines, polygons, and rasters. Here spot elevations are shown as points, contours are shown as lines, ponds are shown as polygons, and an elevation surface is shown as a raster in part of the Arnold Arboretum. sampling of an area that not only maximizes heterogeneity, but can also assure that the largest gaps in the record of biodiversity are filled with the least amount of effort and resources. GIS-based expedition planning typically utilizes existing biodiversity data along with topography, geology, vegetation, temperature, and precipitation data to determine areas that have the greatest potential to provide the maximum amount of new information and specimens. In a survey gap analysis study in Guyana the investigators used museum and herbaria specimen data to locate geographical gaps in the existing data in an effort to determine candidate survey sites for each taxonomic group of interest. These candidate sites were then compared with weighted abiotic variables to determine a final set of collecting sites that had the greatest chance of producing new information and specimens for each taxonomic group (Funk et al. 2005). once plant specimens have been collected and cultivated in a botanical garden or arboretum, GIS is commonly used to curate the collection and to help make management decisions throughout the entire lifetime of the plant. GIS is commonly used for creating collection maps and planting plans, identifying problems and threats, planning mitigation, and performing research. In addition to data about the living collection, a typical garden GIS employs data on topography, soils, hydrology, land use, facilities, transportation and more. In a tree conservation study at the uC davis (university of California, davis) Arboretum the investigators used data on the location, species, size, and condition of each specimen in conjunction with data on site characteristics and conflicting urban infrastructure to determine a condition rating and a hazard rating for each tree in the collection. These ratings were then used to identify areas of concern and to produce prioritized mitiga- Facing page: Thematic layers in the ArcGIS Public Garden Data Model allow comparisons and correlations of databases from soils and topography to plants and animals. 22 Arnoldia 69\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Remote Sensing as a Botanic Garden Tool","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25517","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260ab6b.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Griffith, Patrick; Witcher, Ericka","article_content":"Remote Sensing as a Botanic Garden Tool Ericka Witcher and Patrick Griffith MONTGOMeRy BOTANICAL CeNTeR R emote sensing is a tool already in use for plant exploration, ecology, forestry, habitat restoration, and other related fields. It also has great potential in botanic gardens for botany, horticultural science, and management purposes. At Montgomery Botanical Center, located in Coral Gables, Florida, we were able to improve our assessment of the property with the addition of new software that provided the capability for deeper evaluation of the collections and natural resources using remote sensing imagery and data. By adding LIDAR (Light Detection And Ranging) imagery to maps and employing techniques normally used at larger regional scales, new information was discovered about the garden and its collections. Garden maps serve multiple purposes. Their primary use is as a location catalog--what a garden has and where it is. People who use the garden, whether staff or visitors, will want to know where certain features are at some point. The information displayed in this kind of map can reflect the vastly different purposes of, say, a researcher examining different subspecies of Coccothrinax miraguama (miraguama palm), an irrigation techni- A 2008 aerial photo of Montgomery Botanical Center property in south Florida. cian repairing a break, or a visitor through the addition of a spatial or geographic looking for the restroom, but all three of their component--where things are in relation to garden maps would need to show what things something else. Spatial relationships in a botanare and where they are located. On the other ical garden, for example, can examine how close hand, maps can also be used for more dynamic vulnerable plants are to open spaces or high-use purposes in the garden. New areas of horticulvisitor areas, how tree canopies change over tural and scientific interest can be illuminated 24 Arnoldia 69\/1 Remote Sensing 25 eRICkA WITCHeR Vegetative and geologic characteristics, like canopy and elevation changes seen here along the Palm Walk, are quantifiable with LIDAR-integrated maps. origins or sensitive nature of many plants in our collections, we must work to create and maintain an environment that provides for their individual needs for life and growth. To that end, we are continually looking for new ways to assess the garden property and analyze both its biological and geological resources. Legacy Imagery For several years we had utilized aerial photographs to examine tree canopy and other features at MBC that were difficult to thoroughly evaluate from ground level. Orthophotographs (planimetrically-corrected aerial photographs) and uncorrected aerial photos are frequently used in many different industries, including botanic gardens, for many disparate purposes, and are readily available through a variety of sources (e.g., the USGS website http:\/\/www. usgs.gov\/pubprod\/, or state or county websites). These photos provided a good general sense of how areas were developing, but we experienced a fair amount of difficulty integrating them with our AutoCAD (a computer-aided-design software program)-based maps, so their utility was somewhat limited. We wanted a way to view the photos and the maps at the same time as well as use other types of imagery, then be able to perform spatial analysis. New Systems Add Capability A software grant for botanical gardens and zoological parks provided an all-in-one solution. Two MBC staff members had prior experience with the software, and with the help of an additional intern, by late 2009 we had completely converted the old maps and their CAD layers to a GIS (geographic information system). The local coordinate system was replaced with geographic latitude and longitude so the con- 26 Arnoldia 69\/1 Remote Sensing 27 By eRICkA WITCHeR FOR MONTGOMeRy BOTANICAL CeNTeR height and density were examined in the LIDAR images and transects were distributed and performed accordingly. The invasive plant was not found to be as pervasive as feared, and as a result, eradication efforts were scaled down proportionally (edelman and Griffith 2010). Using LIDAR imagery to better visualize the dense plant growth beforehand gave us a more complete picture prior to entering the area, saving time and effort. For another project we adapted a conventional forestry analysis using first-return LIDAR images to appraise height and breadth information (Sumerling 2010) to establish potential candidates for national or state champion tree status. (Champion trees are the largest known individuals of a species based on measurements of height, trunk circumference, and canopy spread.) This was done by simply overlaying the plant layer over the image and visually identifying the tallest canopies. The plant curators also applied their infield knowledge of the various species' usual growth habits Bare-Earth LIDAR image of MBC property showing ground level surface geology; to propose more individulower (darker) areas west of the escarpment are important for planting, as they als for assessment, the height are more likely to contain sand and silt, in contrast to the surrounding alkaline and spread of which were also limestone bedrock, or the clay marl to the east. checked in the LIDAR map. A first-return LIDAR image also offered a At writing, 27 trees had been awarded state lot of utility for other vegetation-assessment champion status by the Florida Division of projects. First-return images illuminate all the Forestry, and 2 trees received national chamtopmost surfaces of the study area; in this case, pion status from the conservation organization canopy height and coverage. In one project, an American Forests. undeveloped section of the property filled with Future Development both an invasive exotic plant, Schinus terebinWith the successful completion of these projthifolius (Brazilian peppertree), and protected ects, we have become more familiar with the mangrove trees needed a thorough evaluauses of both aerial photography and LIDAR for tion so we could determine the most efficient horticultural purposes, and subsequently the course of action for managing the land. Canopy 28 Arnoldia 69\/1 By eRICkA WITCHeR FOR MONTGOMeRy BOTANICAL CeNTeR Remote Sensing 29 30 Arnoldia 69\/1 By eRICkA WITCHeR FOR MONTGOMeRy BOTANICAL CeNTeR eRICkA WITCHeR Remote Sensing 31 This Florida champion tree, Pterygota alata (Buddha coconut), has endured dozens of hurricanes, and at 89 feet tall is one of the tallest trees on our property. We first identified it as a candidate through examination of LIDAR imagery. eRICkA WITCHeR potential applications for this kind of data. We are also exploring additional applications currently in use by other landscape-level industries that have a good deal of potential for use in botanic gardens (Perroy et al. 2010, Sumerling 2010). For example, we are now working on creating contours from a first-return LIDAR image that will provide new information about the canopy coverage and biomass density in the garden. This type of three-dimensional data can amplify current knowledge about shade structure, wind protection, and plant growth and expansion within the property and create an operational image of the \"vegetative topography.\" Coupled with 15 years of database records tracking the growth and reproductive activity over time of our plants, we anticipate new insights to spur in-depth research. LIDAR also lends itself to three-dimensional modeling and creating fly-throughs, leading to comprehensive visual aids for online garden \"explorers\" and researchers, as well as garden managers looking to gain new perspectives on their collections and resources. Meanwhile, maximizing survival rates of invaluable scientific plant collections with analysis of current collections and records, both spatial and temporal, is an ongoing objective. By employing imagery in our GIS and adapting some of the more basic and conventional uses of LIDAR for regional landscapes to the localized, relatively small-scale botanical garden, we have been able to save many hours of laborious fieldwork and gain a nuanced understanding of the property and plants under our care. Acknowledgements: We thank Brian Witcher and Judd Patterson of the National Park Service SFCN program for their GIS assistance and consultation, MBC GIS Intern Jonas Cinquini and MBC Intern Sara edelman for their project assistance, the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust for all GPS equipment funding, and the eSRI Botanical Garden\/ Zoological Park Grant program for providing all GIS software. LIDAR imagery provides clues to planting conditions at MBC for staff biologist, Chad Husby, looking for future plant sites near the all 32 Arnoldia 69\/1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants","article_sequence":4,"start_page":33,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25515","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260a76d.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Book Review: Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants Peter Del Tredici Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants Richard Mabey. Ecco, an imprint of HarperCollins Publishers. 324 pp. 2010 (United States publication 2011) ISBN 978-0-06-206545-2 I n his new book Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants, Richard Mabey presents a refreshingly non-judgmental look at some of the most vilified plants on earth. While acknowledging the problems that some of these notorious plants can cause for both gardeners and ecosystems, he also presents their not insubstantial positive contributions in terms of recolonizing derelict land in cities, restoring war-ravaged landscapes in Europe, and, over the millennia, providing abundant food and medicine for people. In short, the author takes a balanced approach to the subject of weeds and he puts the focus where it belongs--on their intimate association with human culture going back to the dawn of agriculture itself. As Mabey presents it, the subject of weeds is nothing less than a microcosm of human culture, an observation that he reinforces with numerous quotations from famous writers including Shakespeare, Ruskin, and Thoreau, and, of course, from the Bible. Not stopping here, he also provides a lengthy discussion of the significance of weeds in visual arts, as exemplified by a discourse on the significance of Albrecht D 34 Arnoldia 69\/1 Book Review 35 aggressive invasive species such as giant hogweed (Heracleum mantegazzianum) and kudzu (Pueraria montana). It should also be noted that the book is up-to-date in its discussion of the modern, scientific data on weeds, discussing in detail how the increased use of herbicides over the past fifty years has influenced weeds' evolution, and how genetically modified (GM) crops are interacting with weeds to make them hardier and more difficult to eradicate. In short, Mabey masterfully weaves the disparate fibers that constitute the cultural and natural history of weeds into a colorful tapestry of a book that few nature writers can match. Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants is not without a few flaws however, one of which (for American readers) is its exclusive use of the British common names of plants throughout the text. There is a glossary at the end which provides the Latin equivalent to the common name, but the fact that many of the plants discussed in the book have different common names in North America than they do in England leaves the inquisitive American reader who doesn't know the Latin names of plants with little choice but to turn to the internet or reference books to figure out identities. In addition, the book is overwhelmingly focused on weeds that dominate the landscapes of the British Isles and on British writing on the subject, making the book somewhat less relevant to North American audiences than it perhaps needs to be. Certainly the history and behavior of North American weeds is discussed in the book, particularly the subject of their early introduction from Europe, but their treatment is minimal compared to the space devoted to weeds in Britain. There's also a surprising absence of any mention of the extensive pioneering German literature on the subject of urban ecology, particularly that done by Herbert Sukopp and his colleagues in post-war Berlin. Despite the British focus of Weeds: In Defense of Nature's Most Unloved Plants, I found it a fascinating read--which is no small accomplishment given the fact that I have a large library of well-studied weed books at home. Mabey is an engaging writer with long-standing, highly personal interest in weeds that shines through on Dandelion (Taraxacum officinale). every page. He deserves kudos for his masterful integration of the scientific and cultural aspects of weed ecology and his fluid, often poetic, use of language. Here he describes watching weeds grow at an active construction site: \"When I look at their comings and goings, as hectic as the movements of the bulldozers, I grope for metaphors to understand their meaning. I think of ants, but they're too organized, too determinedly earth-changing, like the excavating machinery itself. Then it occurs to me that they are like a kind of immune system, organisms which move in to repair damaged tissue, in this case earth stripped of its previous vegetation.\" While this book has something for everyone, I suspect that its greatest appeal will not be to down-in-the-dirt gardeners but to those of the armchair persuasion who like their weeds with a touch of literature, humor, and taste. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. NANCy RoSE "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Venerable Hybrid Oak: Quercus x sargentii","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25514","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260a728.jpg","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"A Venerable Hybrid Oak: Quercus x sargentii Michael S. Dosmann S cores of plant taxa--species, infraspecific variants, and hybrids--commemorate Charles Sprague Sargent with their epithets. They range from the cherry palm of the Caribbean, Pseudophoenix sargentii, to the vase-shaped Sargent cherry of East Asia, Prunus sargentii. In 1915, yet another plant was given the Sargent moniker when Arboretum taxonomist Alfred Rehder recognized the Arboretum director by providing a name for the hybrid between the English oak, Quercus robur, and the American chestnut oak, Quercus montana (formerly known as Q. prinus). While hybrids between these two members of the white oak subgenus (Lepidobalanus) had been known since the 1830s, this was the first time the taxon was recognized officially with its own name, Quercus x sargentii, the Sargent oak. From Q. robur, the hybrid attains a certain nobility and majesty, not to mention a girthy trunk, broadly spreading canopy, and distinctive auriculate (earlobe-shaped) leaf bases. From Q. montana come the crenately toothed leaves, smaller-stalked acorns, and, with age, coarsely furrowed bark. The Sargent oaks that grow in the Arboretum's living collections can all be traced to the initial lot of acorns collected from a magnificent tree at Holm Lea, Sargent's estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. The seeds arrived at the Arboretum on October 6, 1877. They germinated and yielded multiple seedlings that were planted in the permanent collections and cataloged under accession number 5883. Currently, three plants (A, B, and C) remain in the collection, each looking exceptional for being over 130 years old. Perhaps the most spectacular is 5883-A, a majestic specimen located near the junction of Bussey Hill Road and Beech Path, at the base of the Forsythia and Syringa collections. With a current height of 84 feet (25.6 meters) and DBH (diameter at breast height) of 55.7 inches (141.5 centimeters), this tree commands attention. Visitors strolling down Beech Path often pause in awe to admire the tree's massive limbs and rounded crown. Recent landscape renovations to this area, known as State Lab Slope, will not only maintain the health and vitality of this specimen and the surrounding plantings, but also improve visual access. I should note that its siblings (plants B and C) may be slightly smaller, but are also notable and worth a visit. Both are located further along Beech Path, near the edge of the Fraxinus collection. Q. x sargentii is extremely rare in cultivation, and our understanding of it is essentially limited to the specimens grown in our collection as well as those of a few other botanical gardens and arboreta. Certainly, our three trees are exceptional and have stood the test of time, but it would be premature to say much more without further study. I am particularly interested in this hybrid's potential use as a tree tolerant of the vagaries of the managed landscape, especially in urban areas where soils are prone to drought and other limitations. As Q. montana is an upland species typically found growing in dry and rocky habitats, one could hope that the Sargent oak is similarly tough. Oaks are difficult to propagate clonally, and attempts over the years to clone the Arboretum's trees have been in vain. However, because Q. robur is a species that can sometimes be rooted from cuttings, Manager of Horticulture Steve Schneider and I are conducting several experiments to see if ease of propagation from this parent was passed along to the hybrid. If that is the case, it opens up a great deal of potential for additional study and, perhaps, the Sargent oak's use as a street tree near you. Michael S. Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum For additional information on this hybrid and its interesting history, see: Hay, I. 1980. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Quercus x sargentii. Arnoldia 40(4): 194 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23425","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160bb6e.jpg","title":"2011-69-1","volume":69,"issue_number":1,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tapping the Underappreciated Plant Diversity of the Eastern United States","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25512","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070896b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lewandowski, Rick J.","article_content":"tapping the underappreciated Plant Diversity of the Eastern united states Rick J. Lewandowski T All pHoToS By RICk J. leWANDoWSkI exCepT WHeRe NoTeD he romance and intrigue of plant discovery and acquisition continues to entice plant explorers, most often to remote and exotic places far away from the United States. Though early explorers and botanists (including the Bartrams, the Michauxs, Nuttall, Torrey, Gray, and Harper) described the vast richness of eastern North America's flora, its range of diversity and adaptability continue to be underappreciated and understudied to this day. In efforts to more fully document and explore its potential, Mt. Cuba Center, near Wilmington, Delaware, is among a handful of public gardens currently active and engaged in exploring and promoting this rich flora. Plant ExPloration with PurPosE The forests of eastern North America are replete with a remarkable array of plant communities, habitats, and plant species. Through the vision and resources left by our founders, Mt. Cuba Center has dedicated significant energy The Dogwood Path forms an intimate canopy adjacent to Mt. Cuba Center's meadow. It showcases many plants in sophisticated layers, from tall trees to low-growing wildflowers. Plant Exploration 3 Gorge rhododendron (Rhododendron minus) is one of the native species being documented, collected, and evaluated. The wild population seen here on Flag Mountain in Alabama is at home in the hot and humid southern end of its range on shady, dry, acidic slopes. to exploring habitats throughout the eastern United States from pennsylvania and Delaware through the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama. Throughout these states we have discovered that there is an enormous reserve of genetic diversity worthy of greater study and appreciation. plant exploration is an essential component of Mt. Cuba Center's commitment to study and assess the adaptability of native plants for horticultural use. In addition to enriching the gardens with documented, wild-collected, seed-grown plants from a range of provenances, detailed field data gathered from this effort has provided us with a greater understanding of habitats, distribution, and plant associations. This documentation has potentially far-reaching implications for horticulture, landscape design, and conservation. During the past 11 years, Mt. Cuba Center staff members have conducted nearly 80 field expeditions in the eastern and southeastern United States in 11 states. over 1,150 documented collections have been made, representing 619 taxa of herbaceous and woody plants. Regular collaboration with numerous partners--including other public gardens, universities, state and federal agencies, industry, conservation organizations, and private individuals--has afforded us the opportunity to observe and sample plant diversity in a wide range of habitats. In addition to broad-based sampling of herbaceous and woody taxa, Mt. Cuba Center's field work in recent years has also focused on sampling specific taxa in order to obtain broader genetic diversity, obtain taxa from the edges of their ranges or from disjunct populations, and assess potential variation of selected plant species for wider landscape use. Some of the highest priority woody plant taxa for targeted sampling currently include: Fothergilla gardenii, Fothergilla major, Halesia carolina, Halesia diptera, the Copeland Family legacy MT. CUBA CeNTeR is the 589-acre former estate of Mr. and Mrs. lammot du pont Copeland. over a 65-year period, beginning in 1937, gardening became a consuming passion for the Copelands. During the formative years of their estate and garden, the Copelands engaged a number of designers including Thomas Sears, Marian Coffin, and Seth kelsey to assist in creating a series of formal and informal landscapes surrounding their home. These provided structure and a unique identity to their ever-expanding gardening interests. By the late 1970s Mr. and Mrs. Copeland had begun to refine their gardening interests, focusing more and more on native plants of the eastern United States. With passion, vision, and hands-on garden development, the Copelands and their staff, including their first director, Dr. Richard lighty, created some of the mid-Atlantic region's most attractive and diverse native plant gardens. In 2002, a year after Mrs. Copeland's death at age 94 (predeceased by Mr. Copeland in 1983), Mt. Cuba Center officially became a private non-profit organization, with a mission to display, study, and promote the broader use of the flora of the eastern United States, with particular emphasis on the piedmont physiographic region. Today, a decade later, well documented and botanically diverse gardens, horticultural research and introduction programs, as well as extensive education and public tour programs are beginning to fulfill the Copelands' hopes for their beloved estate. The Copelands' Colonial Revival home was completed in 1937 and today serves as the hub of administrative and education activities at Mt. Cuba Center. In the foreground, a dense stand of native prickly-pear cactus (Opuntia humifusa) spills over a rocky ledge. Plant Exploration 5 Halesia tetraptera, Illicium floridanum, Kalmia latifolia, Leucothoe axillaris, Leucothoe fontanesiana, Rhododendron catawbiense, Rhododendron colemanii, Rhododendron minus, Rhododendron prunifolium, Stewartia malacodendron, Stewartia ovata, Viburnum acerifolium, and several deciduous Rhododendron species. somE ExamPlEs oF initiativEs CurrEntly unDErway: Sampling Stewartia Diversity Silky camellia (Stewartia malacodendron) and mountain camellia (Stewartia ovata) are attractive native North American deciduous shrubs or small trees that have been underappreciated for their horticultural value and as biological indicators of stable, botanically rich habitats. Both species have highly attractive, non-fragrant, white flowers that open daily over a one to three week period from mid May to late June, depending upon the region. The distribution of these two species is often discontinuous, Silky camellia (Stewartia malacodendron) flowering in mid June at Mt. Cuba with highly variable popula- Center is a show-stopper. tion sizes. Silky camellia is primarily found in the coastal plain and piedmont species overlaps, with plants of both species from Virginia to Florida and west as far as eastgrowing in close proximity to each other. ern Texas. Mountain camellia is naturally disIn 1999, Mt. Cuba Center began targeted tributed in the piedmont and mountains from field work to document populations and collect Virginia to Georgia and Alabama, reaching its seeds of both species from across the breadth of western limit in southern kentucky and Tentheir ranges. More than 120 documented seed nessee; a few disjunct populations can be found collections of these two species from 7 states in the coastal plain of Virginia and North Carohave since been made. lina. While there are pockets of large populaThe Stewartia Working Group (SWG) was tions, most populations are small and isolated, formed in 2007 as a collaboration to develop ex which is likely to have resulted in genetic isositu repositories for the extensive documented lation. North-central Alabama is one (possibly seed collections already made and to study, the only) place where the range of these two long-term, the variation in these two eastern 6 Arnoldia 68\/4 These four images show variation in the filament color of Stewartia ovata flowers on separate plants. North American species. The SWG currently includes the Birmingham Botanical Garden, Alabama; Mt. Cuba Center, Delaware; polly Hill Arboretum, Massachusetts; Smithgall Arboretum, Georgia; yew Dell Gardens, kentucky; and Heritage Seedlings nursery, oregon. Much of the success of the SWG is due to the knowledge, guidance, and assistance of stewartia authority Jack Johnston. He has systematically identified countless stewartia populations and guided the group to them in order to observe and sample both silky camellia and mountain camellia. As a result, a significant portion of the range of these two species has already been sampled. Much remains to be learned, though, about the variation, habitats, distribution, propagation, production, and adaptability in cultivation of both species. even so, the SWG is making significant progress in representing a broad range of native stewartia diversity in cultivation. provenance-based collecting such as that with Stewartia malacodendron and Stewartia ovata offers an important window into the variation of species and potential preservation of genetic variation. It also affords emergent opportunities to encourage research as well as selection of superior forms. Some other important provenance-based collections of interest include Leucothoe axillaris (6 collections), Leucothoe fontanesiana (14 collections), Rhododendron colemanii (8 collections), and Rhododendron prunifolium (7 collections) to mention just a few. In many cases these taxa are represented in cultivation by few or no known wilddocumented populations. Documented collections in our public gardens are crucial for Plant Exploration 7 Stewartia ovata is frequently found in rich mesic woodlands of the upper Piedmont and mountains of the southeastern United States where it can become a small tree. The specimen seen here is growing in Georgia's Warwoman Wildlife Management Area. expanding our appreciation of the variation in these species, properly identifying cultivated forms and hybrids of species, and providing documented, known-source material for horticulture and science. on thE EDgE Unfortunately, much of our pre-conceived bias about plant adaptability is based upon limited experiences with plants from their core ranges. Assumptions about adaptability become rules regarding how plants perform in the landscape, but are not always correct. In eastern North America, the range of many species is frequently broader than we know and is not fully represented in cultivation. Success and failure with a number of native plants in the garden at Mt. Cuba Center has informed our opinions about the need to more thoroughly explore the distribution of native eastern North American herbaceous and woody plant species. As a result, in the past several years field work has focused on locating, documenting, sampling, and growing a number of species from the edges of their ranges. Rhododendron minus Gorge rhododendron (Rhododendron minus) is found in the mountains of North Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, and Tennessee, growing on well-drained slopes and outcrops. However, there are also many discontinuous populations of this species found into southern Alabama and Georgia. The location and environmental conditions of these southern populations places them under significantly greater heat and drought stress for extended periods throughout the growing season than mountain populations. 8 Arnoldia 68\/4 Alabama populations of Rhododendron minus frequently produce attractive pink flower trusses. While gorge rhododendron and its close relative, Carolina rhododendron (Rhododendron carolinianum), are attractive broadleaved evergreen shrubs that have been exploited for breeding and selection for many decades, their summer adaptability to landscape stress in the mid-Atlantic has been suspect. over the past several years, Mt. Cuba Center has made 26 collections of Rhododendron minus from throughout the southern end of its range to observe garden adaptability and variation; this work continues. It is interesting to note that nearly all the populations of gorge rhododendron from the southern end of its range develop attractive pale to dark pink flower trusses that bloom later than mountain populations despite their southern nativity. Through the guidance of rhododendron expert Ron Miller, we have also obtained and grown seeds from isolated populations of whiteflowering forms found in Alabama and Georgia. It is our hope that long-term observation and assessment of these plants may yield opportu- nities for wider introduction of these southern genotypes into cultivation as well as breeding and selection work. Additionally, the inclusion of these plants in our living collection provides opportunities for continued taxonomic study of this interesting group of rhododendrons. Rhododendron catawbiense Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense) generally ranges from the mountains and upper piedmont of the Carolinas and Tennessee northeast into Virginia and West Virginia above elevations of 3,000 feet (914 meters). Because of hot and humid summers (especially the warm night temperatures) in the mid-Atlantic region, this rhododendron struggles to survive in the typical suburban landscape. Again, with the knowledge and assistance of noted azalea and rhododendron expert, Ron Miller, we have been able to document and collect seeds from 12 populations along the extreme southern edge of the range of this rhododendron. In remote and difficult-to-access Creating a haven for herbaceous Plants MT. CUBA CeNTeR'S garden and living collection is an integrated matrix of plants intended to delight and inspire guests. It is our goal to provide guests with an understanding of how beautiful gardens are created and maintained using environmentally appropriate landscape management practices. Through this approach the garden and living collection provides opportunities for sophisticated layers of herbaceous plants that play an important role in the structure of the garden, integrating with and complementing the woody plant layers throughout the growing season. our gardens are well-known for an extraordinary variety of herbaceous plant species and cultivars that contribute character to the woodland garden setting. of Mrs. Copeland's favorite wildflowers, trillium (Trillium spp.) was the queen. To this day, trilliums continue to be among the most coveted of all wildflowers grown in our garden. over the past 20 years, we have developed expertise in the propagation and production of trillium species from seed. In 2001, Mt. Cuba Center was recognized for significant plant expertise with trillium propagation, production, and ex situ preservation by receiving North American plant Collections Consortium (NApCC) member status as an official holder for the genus Trillium. At present, the collection includes 84 taxa represented by more than 470 accessions. To broaden the genetic diversity of trilliums available in cultivation and to support ex situ preservation, we have continued to target trillium in our plant exploration activities. over the past 11 years, we have made 110 collections of wild-documented trillium species, varieties, and unique forms. These include: Trillium catesbaei, T. cernuum, T. cuneatum, T. decumbens, T. discolor, T. erectum, T. flexipes, T. lancifolium, T. luteum, T. nivale, T. rugellii, T. stamineum, T. underwoodii, and T. vaseyi. A number of hybrids and unique forms of several trillium species have also been collected. While trillium is an important focus, much work at Mt. Cuba Center continues on a very diverse assemblage of native herbaceous plants in order to contribute to the richness and diversity of plants worthy of wider use by the gardening public. Trillium decumbens Trillium simile Trillium discolor 10 Arnoldia 68\/4 BoTH IMAGeS By FReDeRICk R. SpICeR, JR., BIRMINGHAM BoTANICAl GARDeN altitude montane habitats farther north. evaluation of seedlings from these populations is in the early stages, but as with gorge rhododendron, observation and assessment may provide opportunities for broader use of this species in cultivation along the mid-Atlantic seaboard or for incorporation into breeding schemes. Kalmia latifolia Mt. Cuba Center has had a long-standing love affair with mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) because natural populations occur on the property and, more importantly, because the Copelands used this attractive broadleaved evergreen frequently in their garden. Mountain laurel is common throughout the eastern and northeastern United States all the way to Maine. Interestingly, it is also distributed into southern Alabama, the Florida panhandle, and eastern louisiana. While much selection and breeding work has been done with mountain laurel in the northeastern United States, there has been a limited emphasis on documenting, collecting, growing, and assessing the adaptability of mountain laurel from the extreme southern end of its range. Unlike populations of Kalmia latifolia in our area that Catawba rhododendron (Rhododendron catawbiense) flowers heavily even in dense grow in dry, shady upland woodshade in Alabama. However, its flowers are pale lavender pink rather than the lands, populations of mountain deeper violet purple of northern populations. laurel in the Deep South are frequently found in sandy, well-drained, shady sites along rivers and ravines in northeastern riverine habitats, sometimes well within the Alabama, Catawba rhododendron grows on flood zone of streams. Recently, 20 collections sandy benches at elevations ranging from 600 of mountain laurel from Alabama, Florida, and to 1,200 feet (183 to 366 meters). The climate louisiana were made to assess the long-term of the Alabama Catawba rhododendron habitats stress tolerance of these provenances compared is much warmer and more humid than higher Plant Exploration 11 In the southern end of its range Kalmia latifolia is frequently found in riverine habitats where flooding is common. Flowers of a Kalmia latifolia specimen growing in Coosa County, Alabama. 12 Arnoldia 68\/4 Mountain laurel was among the Copelands' favorite shrubs, serving as a year round evergreen that explodes into flower in early summer. to widely cultivated forms. This work is in its infancy but represents an important long-term opportunity to assess adaptability, disease and pest resistance, and ornamental value. assEssing aDaPtability Most gardeners in the mid-Atlantic region are unfamiliar with Florida anise (Illicium floridanum). For those who are, they usually consider it to be, at best, marginally hardy in our area. Despite this fact, Mrs. Copeland grew this lovely broadleaved evergreen shrub in her garden for nearly two decades. Its supple evergreen foliage, modestly formal upright habit, adaptability to shade and drought, as well as its attractive burgundy red flowers in early spring have made Florida anise a modern favorite of staff and visitors to this day. Florida anise is common in bottomland forests, along lakes and streams, and on the edges Dark red flowers of Florida anise (Illicium floridanum) stand out in the spring landscape. of wetland communities throughout much of southern Mississippi and southern to centralnorthern Alabama. Despite its common name, Plant Exploration 13 A flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) blooms in the spring mist along the Woods Path at Mt. Cuba Center. Florida anise is found only in the panhandle of Florida. In order to more systematically assess the garden adaptability and hardiness of Illicium floridanum, we began sampling populations on the northern edge of its range in Alabama several years ago. Through this work, 11 documented collections have been made, including samples from disjunct populations at the northern edge of the species' range in Alabama. Through long-term evaluation and distribution, we hope to broaden the potential for using Florida anise in the mid-Atlantic and surrounding regions. what's nExt? The flora of the eastern United States still has much to offer. The plants mentioned here are just a few of the many that deserve broader long-term study. Through Mt. Cuba Center's long-term commitment to observing, documenting, and sampling the flora of the eastern United States, we hope that a broader segment of this flora will be appreciated and used by the gardening public. Rick J. lewandowski is Director of Mt. Cuba Center near Wilmington, Delaware. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Leaf-out Dates Highlight a Changing Climate","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25510","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070856d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.; Polgar, Caroline","article_content":"Leaf-out Dates Highlight a Changing Climate Caroline Polgar and Richard Primack T RichaRd PRiMack and caRoline PolgaR he arrival of spring is heralded each year by striking displays of flowers on trees and shrubs. Perhaps less conspicuous than the blooming of flowers, the emergence of new leaves on woody plants marks the onset of the growing season and controls a host of ecosystem functions. While to the untrained eye it may seem as though the leaves come out at the same time each year in one big burst, there are actually relatively consistent differences among species in leaf-out dates, as well as large differences from year to year in the timing of leaf out. The study of the timing of leaf out (and other natural annual phenomena) is known as phenology. Much of what we know about the physiology of leaf and bud development, and the mechanisms behind various leaf-out strategies, comes Clockwise from top left: Birches tend to leaf out early in the spring, while hickories tend to leaf out in late spring. Red oaks and beeches tend to leaf out in the middle of spring. Leaf-out Dates 15 caRoline PolgaR as red maple (Acer rubrum), white oak (Quercus alba), and red oak (Quercus rubra) (o'keefe 2010). The Japanese Meteorological agency has been recording leaf out, flowering times, autumn leaf color, and other phenological data of individual marked plants in phenological gardens at over 100 weather stations since 1953 (ibanez et al. 2010). ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), also known as maidenhair tree, is one of the species being monitored. The international Phenological gardens (iPg) project, a network of botanical gardens across europe, has been collecting similar data on leaf-out dates Young red maple (Acer rubrum) leaves begin to expand in the spring. of individual plants since from research done in the past by tree physi1951 (Menzel 2000). other leaf-out datasets go ologists and foresters who were interested in back even further, including one that henry the connections to tree growth and timber hardavid Thoreau compiled in the mid-nineteenth vests. over the past few years, however, the century on plants in concord, Massachusetts. range of people interested in leaf-out phenolFindings from these studies indicate that there ogy has grown, as have the methods employed can be large year-to-year variability in the timto study it, largely as a result of the relevance ing of leaf out, depending on the weather, and of this phenomenon to global climate change. that there tends to be relative consistency in new technology, including satellite data, is the order of leaf out of species from year to year now being used to monitor leaf-out timing over (lechowicz 1984). wider areas than was possible in the past. Forest obtaining annual observations of leaf-out and ecosystem ecologists are connecting these dates can be quite time and labor intensive, leaf-out date observations to larger issues of often limiting studies to a small area around a global climate change, with implications for field station or a small number of species. To carbon cycles, the availability of fresh water, measure leaf out on a larger scale, remote sensand wood production. ing has emerged as a valuable new tool that can monitor an entire plant community or ecoMonitoring leaf out system consisting of many different kinds of The recent resurgence of interest in the phenolplants. Remote sensing studies typically use ogy of woody plants has led to leaf-out monidata obtained by sensors on orbiting satellites, toring projects around the world. For example, such as the advanced Very high Resolution over the past twenty years dr. John o'keefe and Radiometer (aVhRR) and the Moderate-resoother ecologists at the harvard Forest in central lution imaging Spectroradiometer (ModiS), or Massachusetts have been recording the dates of equipment on landsat satellites. Satellite sysleaf emergence of individual trees and shrubs tems vary in their spatial resolution, frequency each spring, including such common species of coverage, and types of data gathered. Scien- 16 Arnoldia 68\/4 FiSheR and MuSTaRd 2007 A 110 DateofAverageGreenLeafOnset(P ) 165 Km 0 25 50 100 B Km 0 50 100 200 The average onset of leaf out in (A) southern New England from Landsat (1984? 2002) and (B) the northeastern United States using MODIS (2000?2005). These images demonstrate that later phenology occurs at higher elevations, such as the Adirondacks and White Mountains; at higher latitudes; and in coastal areas that experience moderating ocean effects, such as Cape Cod and the Islands. The Boston and New York metropolitan areas leaf out earlier because of higher temperatures associated with the urban heat island effect; earlier leaf out is also seen in warm river valleys. Colors indicate the date on which half of the tree canopy has leafed out (from day 110 [April 20] to day 165 [June 15]), with earlier onset shown by blue and later onset by orange and red. (image from fisher and mustard 2007) tists use data transmitted from these satellites to calculate the changes in the amount of green vegetation (greenness) there is in a certain area over a growing season. analysis of graphs of greenness over time can be used to quantify important dates in the growing season, such as date of first leaf out in spring, the date at which half of the leaf cover has developed, and canopy senescence in autumn. Several recent research papers have shown that regional leaf-out data from satellites accurately match ground observations. This is particularly important because there is concern that different topographic features, such as mountains, fields, cities, and lakes, might create errors in the detection of green-up dates. in one study from Rhode island, researchers using landsat data were able to incorporate landscape features into their analysis and detect a delay in leaf out at the base of hills due to cold air drainage, a delay in coastal areas due to the cooling effects of the ocean, and a one-week delay in leaf out for deciduous forests in rural areas compared to those in the nearby urban area of Providence (Fisher et al. 2006). While such changes in leaf-out dates are already known from specific ground observations, the ability to detect such effects using remote sensing greatly extends our ability to map leaf out over large areas. another interesting remote sensing approach for monitoring leaf out uses phenocams, which refers to cameras placed in fixed locations that are used to record images of the leaf canopy at regular intervals, such as every hour or once a day, throughout Leaf-out Dates 17 couRTeSy oF John o'keeFe and The haRVaRd FoReST A sequence of two photos taken at the same spot by a phenocam at the Harvard Forest showing leaf out over a one-week period. The picture on the top left was taken on April 30, 2009, the one on the top right was taken on May 7, 2009. The photograph on the bottom was taken on April 29, 2009 and shows a view over the canopy of the Harvard Forest with the phenocam below. the growing season. dr. andrew Richardson and others have set up phenocams in the canopy at harvard Forest and 11 other forests in the northern continental united States. These images can be analyzed using computer programs to determine the seasonal trajectory of budburst, green-up, and senescence. networks of these phenocams can fill in the spatial and temporal gaps between plant monitoring by human observers and regional remote sensing images. Seven of these sites in the united States also have towers that monitor the exchange of carbon dioxide (co2) and water between the atmosphere and the forest. This combination of data from webcams, satellites, and gas sensors is providing crucial information on the relationship between phenology and ecosystem processes, especially carbon uptake (Richardson et al. 2009a). Leaf out and climate change climate change is already affecting many ecological processes, and leaf out is no exception (ibanez et al. 2010; Menzel 2000; Richardson et al. 2006). By analyzing long-term data on leafout dates, much can be learned about how the onset of spring has changed over time as temperatures have increased. From data collected at the iPg, researchers determined that trees in northern europe have advanced their leaf out by an average of one week over the past fifty years (Menzel 2000). in Japan, woody plants such as forsythia (Forsythia viridissima var. koreana), ginkgo, mulberry (Morus bombycis), and various cherry species (Prunus spp.) leafed out an additional 2 to 7 days earlier for each 1?c increase in temperature between 1953 and 2005. at a few sites, however, ginkgo trees were actually leafing out later than they did in the past, contrary to expectations (ibanez et al. 2010). at the hubbard Brook experimental Forest in new hampshire, the leaf out onset of three native species--american beech (Fagus grandifolia), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis)-- has advanced an average of 5 to 10 days over the past five decades (Richardson et al. 2006). historical datasets, such as those recorded by henry david Thoreau and aldo leopold, can 18 Arnoldia 68\/4 also be used for these types of studies by comparing their records to contemporary observations from the same place, even if there is a lack of data between the two time periods (Bradley et al. 1999; Miller-Rushing and Primack 2008). We know that leaf out has become earlier in many areas in recent years, largely because of warmer temperatures, but what about the future? Will the advance in spring's onset continue for all species? To answer these questions, it is necessary to both be familiar with the physiology behind leaf out, and to build on what we already know about the response of leaf out to temperature. Variation in leaf-out times Trees and shrubs vary widely in leaf-out times, both among and within species. For instance, individuals will leaf out earlier in a warm, sunny location, such as a south-facing hill, than individuals of the same species located in a cold, shady location. Similarly, all individuals of a given species will leaf out later during a cold spring than in a warm spring. Sometimes when a tree is growing on the edge of field, the exposed sunny side will leaf out earlier than the shady side. These differences aside, there is a fairly consistent pattern in the leaf-out timing of trees, shrubs, and vines from year to year. RoBeRT MayeR Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) is one of the latest native shrubs to leaf out in the spring. It is seen here blooming in midsummer. in eastern Massachusetts, species leaf out over a 4 to 6 week period. among the first plants to leaf out in the spring are such introduced ornamental shrubs as common lilac (Syringa vulgaris), honeysuckles (Lonicera spp.), and Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii), and nonnative fruit trees such as apple (Malus spp.). of native species, meadowsweet (Spiraea alba var. latifolia), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and grey birch (Betula populifolia) are among the first species to leaf out. consistently among the last species to leaf out are white ash (Fraxinus americana), white oak, and black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica), with poison sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) and buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) often being the last of all. The pattern of leaf out is fairly consistent across the temperate zone of europe and north america. certain groups of plants tend to leaf out early (birches, willows, alders, many poplars and aspens) and others late (hickories, walnuts, and ashes). So why do some species leaf out so early and other species leaf out so late? Since the function of leaves is to carry out photosynthesis and provide sugars for the tree, in general it should benefit a tree to leaf out as early as possible to get the longest growing season. a tree species that leafs out in early april has four additional weeks to photosynthesize compared to a tree species that leafs out in early to mid May. however, the early-leafing tree faces the danger of a late frost that will kill its leaves and damage its vessel elements, the chief water conducting tissue. This trade-off between the advantages of early growth and of late growth provides a good explanation of why certain species leaf out when they do. The stem anatomy supports this explanation, with early species tending to have smaller vessel elements that are less prone to frost damage than the larger vessel elements of later species (lechowicz 1984; Miller-Rushing and Primack 2008). also important is the evolutionary history of a plant group: if it orginated in a warmer climate, it may not have fullyadapted mechanisms for dealing with extreme cold and therefore may have different factors regulating leaf out than a plant group originating in a colder climate. The vulnerability of trees and other plants to frost damage was recently demonstrated when Leaf-out Dates 19 ioWa STaTe uniVeRSiTy A late frost killed the new foliage on this oak tree. two weeks of abnormally warm weather in March 2007 triggered early leaf out all across eastern and central north america. a return of freezing weather from april 5 to 9 killed young leaves and flowers, and caused the die back of tree canopies across the region (gu et al. 2008). This frost damage was an example of the type of episodes of mismatches between plants and climate that may become increasingly common as climate change continues. What triggers leaf out? leaf out is predominantly controlled by temperature, with plants generally leafing out earlier in warmer conditions, but warm temperature is the not only factor. in fact, for many species it is a combination of warm and cold temperatures along with day length that dictates when the leaves will emerge from the bud. Most temperate species, including sugar maple and quaking aspen, have a chilling requirement, meaning that a certain number of cold (gener- ally a minimum of 0 to 10?c [32 to 50?F]) days in winter are required before the buds are able to break dormancy. The exact number of chilling units required depends both on species and on the weather of the preceding growing season (hunter and lechowicz 1992; Perry 1971). once this requirement has been fulfilled, a certain number of warm days above a certain temperature threshold are then needed for leaf development to begin and buds to open. This pattern is seen in both deciduous and evergreen species. in addition, some species also have a photoperiod requirement, meaning that they will only leaf out once daylength reaches a certain number of hours in the spring. in particular, longlived trees of mature forests, such as american beech, some oak species, and hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), often rely on a combination of photoperiod and temperature cues to break dormancy. For these species, budbreak only occurs after specific photoperiod and temperature requirements have been met. This holds even 20 Arnoldia 68\/4 when individuals from these species are planted in subtropical climates with exceptionally high temperatures (korner and Basler 2010). in contrast, many opportunistic species that are found early in forest succession, such as birches, hazelnuts (Corylus spp.), and poplars, do not have a photoperiod requirement to break winter dormancy. This somewhat risky strategy allows trees to respond more quickly to episodes of warm temperature in the early spring, but also creates more susceptibility to late frosts. yet a third group of species, which includes mostly ornamental plants from warmer climates, has a leaf-out strategy linked to spring temperature with minimal chilling requirements and no photoperiod requirement. The common lilac is a local example, and is one of the first plants to leaf out each spring. Learning from the past, predicting the future using information about past phenological responses to temperature and future climate scenarios, scientists can develop models to predict future phenological changes both at the species and ecosystem levels. one modeling study found that the advance in leaf-out time for most species and places is likely to continue in coming decades as the climate continues to warm (Morin et al. 2009). Many temperate tree species will show large advances in leaf out at higher latitudes, including the northern united States and canada. delays in leaf out, or abnormal leaf-out events, could occur at the southern end of species ranges in the southern united States for some species including black ash (Fraxinus nigra) and sugar maple if those species fail to meet their winter chilling requirement. Species with photoperiod requirements are also unlikely to continue to show linear advancements in leaf-out dates with increasing temperatures since photoperiod will not change. Because there are a host of complicated factors involved in leaf-out phenology, it is hard to predict whether leaf out will continue to advance linearly with changes in temperature at the whole forest level. The possibility of shifts in species composition resulting from climate change, as some species expand their range and others contract theirs, adds yet another layer of uncertainty to the prediction of leaf-out dates. if certain early successional species with minimal photoperiod and chilling requirements continue to leaf earlier in the spring, they may increase their abundance and distribution to become the dominant species, and shift the leaf-out time of the whole forest. The unmet chilling and photoperiod requirements of other species may significantly slow the advance of leaf out at the whole forest level. These two scenarios have consequences for many ecosystem processes, including the uptake of carbon dioxide, tree growth, forest temperature, and water movement. The earlier leaf-out times of many escaped ornamental shrubs, such as Japanese barberry and several honeysuckle species, may help to explain why these species are increasing so greatly in abundance in our forests. Their earlier leaf-out times may give them a competitive advantage over native species with more restrictive requirements for leaf out (Willis et al. 2010). Ecological interactions The onset of spring affects not only plants and ecosystem processes, but also organisms that depend on those plants. leaf-out timing determines the availability of food and shelter for many species, particularly insects. This timing is especially important for species that have gone through a long winter with little available food, or for bird species completing an energy-demanding migration north. From his close observations of nature in concord, henry david Thoreau was aware of the ecological importance of the emergence of leaves in the spring, writing in 1854: \"To-day the air is full of birds; they attend the opening of the buds. The trees begin to leaf, and the leaf-like wings of birds are in the air. The buds start, then the insects, and then the birds.\" Thoreau was aware of order of events based on what he had experienced in previous years and took for granted that the same pattern would persist, even with the large inter-annual variation in weather. in the twenty-first century, we can no longer take for granted that this order of natural events will continue each year. While plants are responsive to changes in temperature, other organisms that interact with plants Leaf-out Dates 21 RichaRd PRiMack Clockwise from top left: Photos of the Old North Bridge in Concord, Massachusetts, showing the development of the leaf canopy in the spring of 2010 (April 15, April 20, May 3, May 13). The meadow in the foreground is flooded in the first two photos, and dried out in the second two photos. in an ecosystem may not be quite so quick to respond. For instance, while certain species of birds arrive earlier in warmer years, other birds do not change their arrival dates, and some species are even arriving later (Miller-Rushing et al. 2008). insects are involved also: if certain kinds of insects feed only on the young leaves of a particular plant species that are present for a limited time in the spring, those insect species may decline in abundance if they emerge too early or late in the spring relative to their food resource. Birds that depend on those insects for food may similarly decline in abundance. Much more work is needed to understand how climate change and rising carbon dioxide concentrations are affecting ecosystem processes. if trees are leafing out earlier in the spring and dropping their leaves later in the autumn, they are likely increasing the net amount of carbon being sequestered in biomass. This possibility is supported by the work done by andrew Richardson and others at the harvard Forest and the howland Forest in Maine, showing that the earlier onset of spring in new england results in an increase of carbon sequestered in deciduous forest and somewhat less in coniferous forest (Richardson et al. 2009b). if this is occurring over a large area and over many years, the longer growing season could allow temperate forests to withdraw more carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. The longer growing season and warmer temperatures could also mean that 22 Arnoldia 68\/4 trees are losing more water vapor to the atmosphere during the process of photosynthesis; in consequence, forest ecosystems could possibly release less water to streams and aquifers, with major implications for drinking water supplies, flood control, and ecology of aquatic organisms. Conclusion Throughout the world, forests are being altered in many ways by the rising temperatures associated with global climate change, and the earlier leaf-out dates of trees and shrubs is one such example. earlier leaf-out dates are expected to continue in coming decades across much of north america. over a longer period of time, many tree species will likely be extirpated on a local scale and shift their ranges in response to the changing climate. Because there is a wide variation among species in leaf-out times, changes in the species composition of a forest will also mean changes in leaf-out dates at the level of the whole forest. disentangling the separate effects of changing species composition and changing climate is one of the great challenges of detecting leaf-out trends using remote sensing. Botanical gardens such as the arnold arboretum can contribute to these efforts by quantifying the differences among species in leaf-out dates for trees, shrubs, and vines all growing at one location, which for many species is outside of their native range. Such information can then aid in calibrating leaf-out dates over a large area using remote sensing. References Bradley, n. l., a. c. leopold, J. Ross, and W. huffaker. 1999. Phenological changes reflect climate change in Wisconsin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96: 9701?9704. Fisher, J. i., J. F. Mustard, and M. a. Vadeboncoeur. 2006. green leaf phenology at landsat resolution: Scaling from the field to the satellite. Remote Sensing of Environment 100: 265?279. Fisher, J.i. and J.F. Mustard. 2007. cross-scalar satellite phenology from ground, landsat, and ModiS data. Remote Sensing of Environment 109: 261?273. gu, l., P. J. hanson, W. Mac Post, d. P. kaiser, B. yang, R. nemani, S. g. Pallardy et al. 2008. The 2007 eastern uS spring freezes: increased cold damage in a warming world? Bioscience 58: 253?262. hunter, a. F., and M. J. lechowicz. 1992. Predicting the timing of budburst in temperate trees. Journal of Applied Ecology 29: 597?604. ibanez, i., R. B. Primack, a. J. Miller-Rushing, e. ellwood, h. higuchi, S. d. lee, h. kobori et al. 2010. Forecasting phenology under global warming. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B-Biological Sciences 365: 3247?3260. korner, c., and d. Basler. 2010. Phenology under global warming. Science 327: 1461?1462. lechowicz, M. J. 1984. Why do temperate deciduous trees leaf out at different times? adaptations and ecology of forest communities. American Naturalist 124: 821?842. Menzel, a. 2000. Trends in phenological phases in europe between 1951 and 1996. International Journal of Biometeorology 44: 76?81. Miller-Rushing, a. J., T. l. lloyd-evans, R. B. Primack, and P. Satzinger. 2008. Bird migration times, climate change, and changing population sizes. Global Change Biology 14: 1959?1972. Miller-Rushing, a. J., and R. B. Primack. 2008. global warming and flowering times in Thoreau's concord: a community perspective. Ecology 89: 332?341. Morin, X., M. J. lechowicz, c. augspurger, J. o' keefe, d. Viner, and i. chuine. 2009. leaf phenology in 22 north american tree species during the 21st century. Global Change Biology 15: 961?975. o'keefe J. 2010. Phenology of Woody Species. harvard Forest data archive: hF003. Perry, T. o. 1971. dormancy of trees in winter. Science 171: 29?36. Richardson, a. d., a. S. Bailey, e. g. denny, c. W. Martin, and J. o'keefe. 2006. Phenology of a northern hardwood forest canopy. Global Change Biology 12: 1174?1188. Richardson, a. d., B. h. Braswell, d. y. hollinger, J. P. Jenkins, and S. V. ollinger. 2009a. near-surface remote sensing of spatial and temporal variation in canopy phenology. Ecological Applications 19: 1417?1428. Richardson, a. d., d. y. hollinger, d. B. dail, J. T. lee, J. W. Munger, and J. o'keefe. 2009b. influence of spring phenology on seasonal and annual carbon balance in two contrasting new england forests. Tree Physiology 29: 321?331. Willis, c. g., B. R. Ruhfel, R. B. Primack, a. J. MillerRushing, J. B. losos, and c. c. davis. 2010. Favorable climate change Response explains non-native Species' Success in Thoreau's Woods. PLoS ONE 5(1): e8878. doi:10.1371\/ journal.pone.0008878. caroline Polgar is a graduate student at Boston university, where Richard Primack is a professor. For the past eight years, Richard Primack and his students have been investigating the impact of climate change on the plants and animals of Massachusetts, with much of the focus at the arnold arboretum and concord. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Not-So-Traditional Chinese Medicine: The Example of Donglingcao (Isodon rubescens)","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25511","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed0708926.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Harris, Eric S. J.","article_content":"Not-So-Traditional Chinese Medicine: The Example of Donglingcao (Isodon rubescens) Eric S. J. Harris T he use of plants in Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has a long and well-recorded history. Not all plants in the TCM pharmacopoeia share this long history of use, however, and TCM, like any institution of knowledge, continues to grow, expand, and change. As an example, the medicines sold in TCM stores in Chinatowns in the United States include a mix of herbs that have been known for centuries, and some that have been introduced to the TCM pharmacopoeia only in the last few decades. This article provides the context for my research on one of those recent introductions to the TCM pharmacopoeia: an unassuming yet potentially medicinally powerful herb in the mint family called donglingcao. Folk Medicines and Formal TCM One of the earliest written A statue of Shennong (\"The Divine Farmer\") on the campus of the Shanghai Univerworks about botanical medi- sity of Traditional Chinese Medicine. (all photos by the author) cines in TCM is the Divine Farmer's Materia Medica (Shen Nong Ben Cao herbs listed in the Divine Farmer's Materia Jing) which was written over 2,000 years ago Medica remain in use. For example, the book and catalogues more than 300 types of mediincludes herbs such as ginseng (Panax ginseng), cines, most of which are plants (Yang 1998). licorice (Glycyrrhiza uralensis), and goji berries The book has been attributed to the mythical (Lycium chinense). Shennong (the Divine Farmer) who is claimed While works such as the Divine Farmer's to have tasted different plants himself to deterMateria Medica maintain an influence in formine which were poisonous and which could mal TCM practice, the use of different botanibe used as medicine. Many, if not all, of the cal medicines in China continues to transform 24 Arnoldia 68\/4 and grow. For example, the recently published multi-volume work of the Chinese Materia Medica (Ministry of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine 1999) lists more than 9,000 different medicines, or roughly 30 times as many substances as listed in the Divine Farmer's Materia Medica. The Chinese Materia Medica contains different substances, such as animals and minerals, but plants make up the overwhelming majority. The Chinese Materia Medica includes plants that have been in recorded use in China for hundreds of years, and also those that were incorporated only very recently. Of the latter, a large number of the newly recorded botanical medicines were catalogued for the first time in the 1960s and 1970s under Chairman Mao's directions to develop and improve medicine in the Chinese countryside. One result of those efforts was the documentation of plants used as folk medicines (in Chinese, caoyao) (Harris and Yang 2009). Folk botanical medicines are typically used in a limited area in China (e.g., within one province), are generally not accompanied by A pharmacy in a Traditional Chinese Medicine hospital in Beijing. Each wooden drawer holds 2 to 3 different medicines, most of which are plants. Traditional Chinese Medicine 25 Native range of Isodon rubescens by province (shaded in dark green), according to the Flora of China (Li and Hedges 1994). Region of traditional medicinal use of I. rubescens circled in yellow dashed line. Collection sites from field trip in 2009 indicated by red triangles. Yellow River shown in blue. written documentation, and information about their medicinal uses is passed down orally from generation to generation. Folk botanical medicines can be distinguished from formal TCM herbs (in Chinese, zhongyao). Formal TCM herbs typically have a much longer written history, standards for their production and use, are often cultivated, and are well known throughout China. Ginseng, licorice, and goji berries are good examples of these. In general, formal TCM herbs are listed in the official Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China (Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission 2005). By contrast, folk medicines are not standardized and are usually collected from the wild. There are many exam- ples of folk medicines from throughout China, but one of recent note is the herb donglingcao (Isodon rubescens). The Story of Donglingcao Donglingcao (Isodon rubescens) is a mint family (Lamiaceae) plant within the basils and allies group (Tribe Ocimeae) and is closely related to plants like lavender (Lavandula) and coleus (Solenostemon). The genus Isodon includes about 100 species, most of which occur in Asia, with a few species in Africa (Li and Hedges 1994). Isodon rubescens is distributed throughout central China, usually in dry areas on slopes or in thickets along streams. The area of tradi- 26 Arnoldia 68\/4 Clockwise from upper left: Images of Isodon rubescens--a plant growing in typical habitat, a group of plants in flower, close-up view of flowers, inflorescence structure. tional medicinal use of the plant is in the Taihang Mountain range near the Yellow River in Northern Henan province. Plants of I. rubescens are shrubs that can grow about 1 meter (3.3 feet) tall. They typically have many sprawling branches with ovate leaves (Li and Hedges 1994). Isodon rubescens flowers from late summer into autumn with inflorescences of small (about 1 cm[.4 inches] long) white or purplish flowers. Interestingly, populations of I. rubescens growing in parts of China that experience subfreezing temperatures can sometimes produce ribbons of ice--known as \"ice flowers\"--from the stem (Means 2005). In fact, the Chinese name donglingcao ( ) roughly translates Traditional Chinese Medicine 27 as \"winter-ice herb,\" probably in reference to this phenomenon. Based on the tolerance of the plant to low temperatures, it is possible that donglingcao would be able to grow in gardens in New England. I have not seen it grown here yet, but curious gardeners who would like to try growing it may find seeds of I. rubescens available commercially from some distributors in the United States. The first written records of the medicinal use of donglingcao in China are from the 1960s and 1970s during the period of documentation of China's folk medicines. The plant has been traditionally used for indications such as sore throat and stomach problems. Donglingcao is usually collected in the wild, although there have been some recent efforts at cultivation in northern Henan province. To prepare donglingcao as a medicine, the aerial portions (i.e., stems and leaves) are collected in July and August and dried in the sun. When needed, the dried plant is usually steeped in water to make a tea. The taste of the tea is extremely bitter, owing to diterpenoid chemicals produced by the plant (more about those below). In fact, it is very easy to identify plants of Isodon in the field by simply tasting a leaf-- if after several bites the bitter taste compels you to spit it out, then the plant is likely a species of Isodon. In addition to being taken as a tea, donglingcao has been combined with other herbs in some Chinese patent or proprietary medicines that are available in pill form. During the effort to study folk botanical medicines in the 1970s, it was discovered that one of the bitter diterpenoids in donglingcao, a chemical called oridonin, might have some use in treating cancer (Sun et al. 2006); interestingly, parallel work in Japan on related species of Isodon, such as I. japonicus also came to similar results. This discovery followed the general integration of scientific and chemical approaches in the research of Chinese herbs (in what might be called a \"re-tooling\" of Shennong's approach). A Donglingcao cultivation site in northern Henan province. The plants shown are usually larger in the wild, but this picture was taken in late October after the plants had already been harvested. 28 Arnoldia 68\/4 Commercial products that contain donglingcao include (left to right) throat lozenges, pills, and tea. initial studies in the 1970s. However, in the last few years oridonin has again garnered scientific interest for its potential as an anti-cancer remedy (Zhou et al. 2007). Oridonin, one of the main chemical ingredients responsible for the bioactivity of donglingcao. famous example of the fruits of these efforts is the anti-malarial compound artemisinin. Artemisinin was originally discovered in the 1970s by Chinese researchers examining Artemisia annua, a plant long known in TCM (Hsu 2006). Artemisinin is now used globally as a standard treatment for malaria, and cultivated plants of Artemisia annua remain the main source of the compound today. In contrast to the more popular Artemisia, donglingcao and the chemical oridonin gradually lost the spotlight after the Current Research Starting in 2009, I became interested in donglingcao as an example of a folk botanical medicine that had clear potential to become a standardized TCM herb with more common and widespread use. I began research on this plant to understand the evolution and ecology of the chemicals that are responsible for the medicinal effect, in particular the compound oridonin. The primary goal of this research was to suggest populations or related species of this plant that would have the highest production of oridonin. In collaboration with researchers in the colleges of Chinese medicine in Beijing and Henan province, I traveled to China in the fall of 2009 to collect plants of I. rubescens and related species. The trip included collection areas in Henan province where donglingcao is traditionally used and also other areas in China where I. rubescens is known to occur (Hubei and Guizhou provinces). Through the course of the collecting trip, I traveled together with a Chinese graduate stu- Traditional Chinese Medicine 29 dent by car, sleeper-train, bus, and taxi, covering a distance of more than 1,500 kilometers (over 900 miles) from the northernmost collection site to the southernmost site (roughly the same distance as between Boston and Chicago). This distance allowed me to visit various scenic rural areas, from the expansive Taihang Mountains to small ethnic minority villages in Guizhou province. The collection trip also provided the opportunity to sample a wide variety of Chinese local cooking, from mutton noodle soup in Environment near Isodon collection site in the Taihang mountains, Henan province. Henan in the north to fried \"field chicken\" (=frog) in the south. At each collection site, I collected several individual plants of Isodon to account for possible variability of chemical production within populations. For each individual plant, I collected a pressed voucher specimen, dried leaves in silica desiccant, and a seed sample if the plant was in fruit. The vouchers will be accessioned and deposited at the Harvard University Herbaria. The dried tissue in desiccant has been used for DNA and chemical analyses. The Environment near Isodon collection site in Jiangkou county, Guizhou province. seeds were collected so that chemical content of all populations could be of my work will provide insight into the degree compared in greenhouse grown samples in order of variability in oridonin production in I. rubeto factor out possible differences in chemical scens and related species, and will ideally help production that result from different growing in the standardization of the use of the plant for environments. I have completed the chemical more widespread use in TCM and elsewhere. In and genetic lab work on the wild-collected and fact, although previous editions of the Pharmagreenhouse-grown samples and am now eagerly copoeia of the People's Republic of China did examining and interpreting the results. not list donglingcao, the most recent edition In addition to my primary goal of locating released in the summer of 2010 now includes sources of high oridonin production, the results this plant. It is likely, then, that research and 30 Arnoldia 68\/4 The author in a thicket of Isodon rubescens in Hubei province. development of this plant will continue. With roots as a folk medicine in China, donglingcao has seemingly finally earned its place in the canons of the official Traditional Chinese Medicine. And, depending on the plant's hardiness and desirability as an ornamental, it may also earn its place in gardens in New England. [NOTE: Some of the greenhouse-grown Isodon rubescens plants from this collection trip will be planted at the Arnold Arboretum within the next year or two.] References Chinese Pharmacopoeia Commission. 2005. Pharmacopoeia of the People's Republic of China: 2005. People's Medical Publishing House, Beijing. Harris, E. and B. Yang. 2009. Variation and Standardization in the Use of a Chinese Medicinal Moss. Economic Botany 63: 190?203. Hsu, E. 2006. Reflections on the \"discovery\" of the antimalarial qinghao. British Journal Of Clinical Pharmacology 61: 666?670. Li, X.W. and I.C. Hedges. 1994. Isodon. In: Flora of China, Vol. 17, 269?291. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden, Beijing & St. Louis. Means, B. 2005. Mysterious Ice \"Flowers\". The American Gardener Jan\/Feb: 34?37. Ministry of State Administration of Traditional Chinese Medicine. 1999. Chinese Materia Medica. Shanghai Science and Technology Press, Shanghai. In Chinese. Sun, H., S. Huang, and Q. Han. 2006. Diterpenoids from Isodon species and their biological activities. Natural Product Reports 23: 673?698. Yang, S. 1998. The divine farmer's materia medica : a translation of the Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing. 1st ed. Blue Poppy Press, Boulder CO. Zhou, G., S. Chen, Z. Wang, and Z. Chen. 2007. Back to the future of oridonin: again, compound from medicinal herb shows potent antileukemia efficacies in vitro and in vivo. Cell Research 17: 274?276. Eric S. J. Harris, PhD, is a Research Associate at the Harvard University Herbaria. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2010 Weather at the Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25509","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed0708528.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Famiglietti, Bob","article_content":"2010 Weather at the Arboretum Bob Famiglietti A s in 2008 and 2009, above average rainfall continued in 2010. Moisture combined with warm temperatures and plentiful sunshine created optimum growing conditions for the Arboretum's plant collection. January produced less than 6 inches of snow and was relatively mild. The average temperature was almost 5?F warmer than the previous January. A January thaw occurred on the 24th through the 28th, reaching the monthly high temperature of 57?F on the 26th. It dropped to single digits on only three nights, a rare occurrence, reaching a low of 5?F each time. The first Arctic cold front of the year passed through on the 29th with wind gusts up to around 50 mph. The 6-inch snowpack dwindled to a trace by month's end. February was mild and had 4.74 inches of precipitation, much of it falling as rain. The 24th, 25th, and 26th produced strong east winds and 3.88 inches of rain. A low of 13?F was recorded on the 7th, one of the highest lows ever recorded for February. The remainder of the month was unseasonably warm and a high of 49?F was reached on the 21st. Snowfall was light with only 5 inches recorded from two storms. A minimal snowpack created optimum ground conditions, enabling our horticulture staff to perform vital winter pruning of the Arboretum's plants. There was only a trace of snow on the ground by the end of the month. March continued the 2010 pattern of mild temperatures. There was only 0.4 inch of snow for the month. Spring appeared to be on a very early track and, as good gardeners, we hoped for the arrival of abundant spring rains. By month's end--and nearly 18 inches of rain later--we regretted what we had wished for. March started mild with strong winds, rain, and a trace of snow. Temperatures raced into the 50s for five days by mid-month. A three-day Nor'easter produced 3.94 inches of rain on the 14th, 3.74 inches on the 15th, and 1.27 inches on the 16th. A total of 9.43 inches of rain had fallen by midmonth. The rain continued: another 1.51 inches on the 23rd, 0.85 inches on the 24th, with smaller amounts from the 26th through the 29th. The third large storm of the month arrived on the 30th, dropping 3.15 inches that day and 2.15 inches on the 31st, ending the month with an amazing 17.44 inches of precipitation. This was about 13 inches above normal. There were 16 days with measurable precipitation in our rain gauge. March became the wettest month measured at the Arboretum since the weather station was established at the Dana Greenhouses in 1962. (By comparison, the wettest month ever recorded for Boston's official weather site was 17.09 inches in August 1955.) All the rain caused numerous problems throughout the Arboretum: ponds overflowed their banks and flooded adjoining roads and collections, the linden March 15th--heavy rainfall caused bussey brook to overflow, leading to serious erosion in several locations including this spot at the base of hemlock hill near the South Street Gate. (matt connelly) (Tilia) collection looked like a large lake, and Bussey and Goldsmith Brooks overflowed their banks, causing severe erosion. Our secondary road system was severely eroded--90% of it had to be regraded and resurfaced, and additional water mitigation channels had to be installed. In early April a sinkhole was discovered in the road surface over Goldsmith Brook at the Arboretum's main entrance, likely caused when March floodwaters deteriorated the underlying culvert. The entrance was closed to vehicle traffic for nearly a year but re-opened on April 1, 2011. april started warm, reaching 78?F on the 3rd. It reached 90?F on the 7th, breaking a record as the earliest 90?F day in April. A low of 32?F occurred on the 28th. It was the only freezing temperature recorded for the month-- a rare event--and the last frost date for the season. April ended on the dry side with no snow and only 2.13 inches of rain. This gave our nurseries a chance to dry out so our spring transplanting season could begin. May was warm, dry, and sunny. A high of 94?F on the 26th and one of the sunniest Mays on record helped push the average high temperature over 4?F above normal, ranking it the 5th warmest on record. The first five months of 2010 averaged over 3?F above normal. Precipitation was below normal at 2.92 inches. Lilac Sunday on May 9th was partly sunny but cool and very windy. Visitors walked along a narrow dry strip on Forest hills road on March 16th, with an overflowing Dawson pond in the background. (kevin b. schofield) arboretum horticultural technologist Kit Ganshaw measures water depth in rehder pond on March 25th after yet more rain fell on the previous two days. (nancy rose) Weather 33 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data ? 2010 avg. Max. (?F) Jan Feb Mar apr May Jun Jul auG Sep OcT nOV Dec 35.2 37.2 50.3 61.6 73.1 79.6 86.2 81.4 77.2 62.8 51.5 37.5 avg. Min. (?F) 20.1 24.3 35.2 42.1 52.0 60.7 68.0 62.7 57.1 44.0 34.0 23.4 avg. Temp. (?F) 27.7 30.8 42.8 51.9 62.6 70.2 77.1 72.1 67.2 53.4 42.8 30.5 Max. Temp. (?F) 57 49 72 90 94 93 98 92 95 82 65 56 Min. Temp. (?F) 5 5 24 32 38 49 54 52 45 33 25 12 precipi- Snowtation fall (inches) (inches) 3.74 4.74 17.44 2.13 2.92 3.52 2.63 8.05 1.99 5.42 3.75 3.93 16.1 5.3 5.0 .4 average Maximum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 61.1?F average Minimum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 43.6?F average Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52.4?F Total precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.26 inches Total Snowfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26.8 inches Warmest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98?F on July 7 coldest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5?F on January 5 and February 1 last Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32?F on april 28 First Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29?F on november 1 Growing Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 days 34 Arnoldia 68\/4 June continued very warm, reaching 93?F on the 24th and 28th. It was the 15th warmest June in Boston's 139 years of weather record keeping. In contrast, June 2009 was the 3rd coldest. There were 17 days of measurable rain but only 3.52 inches fell for the month. Thunder was detected on six days, double the average. July was very hot and somewhat dry. The average high temperature was 86.2?F, making it the 3rd hottest July on record. It reached 100?F at Logan Airport in Boston for the first time since 2002. It hit at least 90?F twelve times this month alone, marking 17 days already for this year, more than the entire annual average for Boston. We had three heat waves (highs of at least 90?F for 3 consecutive days) this month. An Arboretum high of 98?F was reached on the 6th. In contrast, last June?July was the 4th coldest in the 138 years of Boston's weather records. Rain totaled 2.63 inches, in contrast to last July's nearly 8 inches. auGuST kept pace with the preceding months as warmer than normal, though not as extreme as July. A high of 92?F occurred on the 9th. This summer (June?August) was the third warmest on record. It was also a wet month as 8.05 inches of rain fell, though rainfall occurred on only eight days. 6.43 inches of rain fell on the 22nd through the 26th. Three 90?F days ended the month as another heat wave began. SepTeMber also was very warm and dry with only 1.99 inches of rain. Our only thunderstorm occurred on the 8th. The month started as August had ended with temperatures in the 90s for the first three days. A high for the month of 95?F was reached on the 2nd. This was the third warmest September on record. Wind gusted to nearly 50 mph on the 30th as Tropical Storm Nicole passed offshore. OcTOber was on track with the preceding 9 months as we continued with above average temperatures. A high of 82?F was reached on the 1st, our last reading in the 80s for the year. Decent rainfall occurred with a total of 5.42 inches recorded. Precipitation was recorded on 14 days but the remaining ones were often sunny and glorious. There was no trace of snow this month but a low of 33?F was recorded on the 22nd, bringing just a hint of light frost in the low areas around the Arboretum ponds. This spectacular month of weather made for grand viewing of our fall foliage. nOVeMber became our first colder than normal month of 2010. The Arboretum's first freeze occurred the night of the 1st when temperatures dropped to 29?F, ending our growing season. A heavy widespread frost occurred on the 3rd. Rainfall was near normal with 3.75 inches. There was no trace of snow this month, and a high of 65?F was recorded on the 17th. Finally as temperatures cooled we sensed the impending dormant season, a prerequisite to winter storage of our containerized plant material from the Dana Greenhouses. Weather 35 Glowing orange and gold sugar maple (Acer saccharum) foliage framed the leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden on October 25th. (michael dosmann) DeceMber was snowy and the only month of 2010 with markedly below normal temperatures. A low of 12?F was reached on the 10th and then a high of 56?F was recorded on the 13th, an extreme range of 44?F in three days. Our first snowfall occurred on the 21st, leaving 2 inches on the ground. There was a large, violent Nor'easter on the 26th and 27th. Over a foot of snow was deposited but blizzard-level wind conditions created snowdrifts 3 to 4 feet deep, making it difficult to measure exactly how much snow fell. This fierce storm left some of the Arboretum's plants with structural damage. The year ended with a snow depth of nearly 1 foot, a sign of things to come. Bob Famiglietti is a Horticultural Technologist at the Arnold Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Family Tree: Prunus 'Hally Jolivette'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25513","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4e1d260a36f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Miles S.","article_content":"The Family Tree: Prunus `Hally Jolivette' Miles Sax A sk someone to show you their family tree and you'll likely be shown a genealogy chart in an old book, or perhaps a family lineage document on the computer. As a child, if I asked my father to see our family tree he would take my hand, lead me outside, and show me the enchanting spring blooms of the `Hally Jolivette' cherry in our yard. This tree-- named for my great-grandmother--is important to me both as a link to my family history and as a horticultural gem. Prunus `Hally Jolivette' is a flowering cherry hybridized by Dr. Karl Sax, the Arnold Arboretum's fifth director (and my great-grandfather). A research scientist by training, Sax's investigations in genetics and chromosome studies played a seminal role in the biological sciences of his time, most notably in the field of cytology. His interests also encompassed plant breeding, a field to which he made many contributions through his extensive hybridizing studies. Conducting much of his work while a professor at the neighboring Bussey Institute, many of Sax's hybrids \"jumped the fence\" and ended up in the Arboretum's collections, and a number were introduced to the nursery trade. Perhaps the best of Sax's hybrids, Prunus `Hally Jolivette' was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1948. It resulted from crossing P. subhirtella and P. x yedoensis, and then backcrossing with P. subhirtella. It is a fine-textured, densely branched, rounded small tree or large shrub that grows about 15 feet (4.6 meters) tall and equally wide. Each spring it delights the eye with a profusion of pink buds opening up to 1? inch (3.2 centimeter) diameter pinkish white double flowers. At the Arboretum, flowering occurs in late April or early May. Bloom may continue for ten to twenty days, a notably long period for a flowering cherry. Flowers open prior to leaf emergence so the floral effect is unobscured. The 2 to 3 inch (5.1 to 7.6 centimeter) long leaves are simple, alternate, and dark green. `Hally Jolivette' cherry grows best in full sun, is drought tolerant, and is an ideal plant for small gardens, specimen plantings, or even bonsai. Best adapted to USDA zones 5 through 7, this cherry is a precocious bloomer and often flowers in its second year of growth. Three young specimens (accessions 278-2007-B, C, and D) can be seen in the Arboretum's newly renovated Bradley Rosaceous Collection. Prunus `Hally Jolivette' has received many accolades including awards from both the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society and Cornell Cooperative Extension. Of his many introductions, Karl Sax clearly held this Prunus in a special place because he named it in honor of his wife, colleague, and scientist in her own right, Dr. Hally Jolivette. She was a mycologist and botanist, and in 1912 was the first woman to receive a Ph.D from Stanford University in the field of botany. She held many academic posts across the country including instructorships at Washington State University, Wellesley College, and the Bussey Institute. She was a research scientist and published original work as well as co-authoring many papers with Dr. Karl Sax. Both a scientist and a devoted mother, she is remembered as a woman who put cookies on the table for her three children one minute and was deep in study with her microscope the next. My family has been honored and delighted to have this tree that not only greets each spring with great beauty but also reminds us of our lineage. In the words of plantsman Michael Dirr \"Great plants transcend the generations,\" and with this in mind I hope that Prunus `Hally Jolivette' will be planted and enjoyed for many years to come. Miles Sax is a horticultural apprentice at the Arnold Arboretum, where he works on evaluating, maintaining, and improving the Malus collection. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23424","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160bb28.jpg","title":"2011-68-4","volume":68,"issue_number":4,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"White Bracts of the Dove Tree (Davidia involucrata): Umbrella and Pollinator Lure?","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25508","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070816f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":3,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sun, Ji-Fan; Huang, Shuang-Quan","article_content":"White Bracts of the Dove Tree (Davidia involucrata): Umbrella and Pollinator Lure? Ji-Fan Sun and Shuang-Quan Huang JI-FAN SuN AND SHuANg-QuAN HuANg P ollen movement in flowering plants depends on various vectors including animals, wind, and water. Compared to wind- or waterpollinated flowers, animal-pollinated flowers are generally showier, often with bright colors. They also often produce nectar or other rewards to attract pollinators. However, the advertisement and reward for pollinators may also attract plant enemies. Herbivores can consume parts of flower structures, entire flowers, or whole plants. For example, nectar robbers may penetrate a hole in the corolla and thereby suck nectar from flowers without playing a pollination role. The great diversity found in angiosperm flowers can be fully understood only when the diverse floral traits are considered as functional units, shaped by partly opposing selective pressures (Faegri and van der Pijl 1979; Waser and Ollerton 2006). In experimental work on the evolution of floral traits, most attention has centered on natural selection that favors mutualistic pollinators and hinders antagonistic herbivores (Fenster et al. 2004; Strauss and Whittall 2006). A Closer Look at Dove Tree The dove tree, Davidia involucrata, A dove tree in bloom at the study site in Shennongjia Nature Reserve, is a species prized by gardeners for its Hubei, China. showy bracts. The only species in the genus, dove tree is a medium-sized tree (up was more widespread in the past (for a review, to 20 meters [65 feet] tall) that is endemic in see Manchester 2003). mountain forests at altitudes of 1,100 to 2,600 The genus Davidia is named after Father meters (3,600 to 8,500 feet) in western China Armand David (18261900), a French mission(Fang and Chang 1983). Fossils from the Paleoary and keen naturalist who lived in China from cene of North America indicate that the lineage 1862 to 1874 and collected many specimens of White Bracts of the Dove Tree 3 PAuL MEyER PETER DEL TREDICI Dove trees now grow in gardens around the world, including these specimens at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (left), and the VanDusen Botanical Garden in Vancouver, British Columbia (right). plants previously unknown in the West (Zhang and Li 1994). David was also the first westerner to describe another rare Chinese endemic, the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca). The dove tree has been considered a firstclass endangered plant in China, but it became well-known in its homeland only after it was seen growing in other countries during two diplomatic visits by Chinese leaders. When Enlai Zhou (18981976), the first premier of the People's Republic of China, visited geneva, Switzerland, in 1954, he was impressed by the beauty of flowering dove trees in the gardens of many local families and was told that the tree came from China. Another surprise happened when Chinese leaders visiting Washington, D.C., saw dove trees in bloom in front of the White House in the early 1970s. The tree's common names--dove tree or handkerchief tree--refer to the two white, paperlike bracts that surround the base of each flower head (capitulum). The bracts initially are small and green, resembling leaves, but increase in size and turn white as the flowers mature. The change in bract color from green to white is associated with the bracts becoming uV (ultraviolet)-light-absorbing (Burr and Barthlott 1993). The anthers are even more strongly uVlight-absorbing. This trait is associated with attracting pollinating insects that see uV light, and the species has therefore been classified as entomophilous (insect pollinated) (Burr and Barthlott 1993), although the pollination of Davidia involucrata had not been previously studied in the field. We are particularly interested in the questions \"What is the function of the white bracts? Do the dove tree's bracts play a role in attracting pollinators?\" Many plants within Cornales, the dogwood clade, have large bracts that surround the inflo- 4 Arnoldia 68\/3 COuRTESy OF KEVIN NIxON flowers in a population of 16 flowering dove trees to assess the function of this species' bracts. Though dove tree's mature bracts draw much attention, the round inflorescences dangling beneath the bracts are also interesting. The dark purple inflorescences generally consist of a single perfect (holding both stamens and pistils) flower surrounded by numerous male flowers (Fang and Chang 1983). The individual flowers are naked and nectarless, without The colorful bracts surrounding the small flowers of this Dalechampia attract pollinators. sepals or petals. Before rescences. Bracts have been thought to protect flowering, dove tree's bracts are green, turning flowers from herbivores in various species. white rapidly as flowers mature and anthers For example, the bracts of Dalechampia vines begin to dehisce. The anthers split longitufunction as honest signals to pollinators of the dinally, and pollen grains are exposed on the presence of floral reward (Armbruster et al. recurved anther walls. Individual capitula of the 2005) and also function in protection from dove tree last 5 to 7 days and the bracts drop off florivores (flower eaters) and pollen thieves when flowering ends. (Armbruster 1997). As part of the study, we collected both green Flowers are also under strong selection presand white bracts and preserved them for later sures from their physical environment, yet observation under the microscope. We also research on selection by abiotic environmenmeasured the length and width of the bracts on tal factors on flowers has been limited (Corbet each of 20 capitula daily between April 16 and 1990; galen 2005). During our previous field April 22, 2006. work, our observation was often interrupted by Do Dove Tree's Bracts Function in the rainy days. Rain is one of those abiotic factors Pollination Process? that acts as a selective agent on flowers. This To investigate the role of bracts in pollinator was first recognized by Sprengel ([1793]1972), attraction, we recorded pollinator visits to four who noted that rain may wash away pollen kinds of capitula: (1) natural, (2) with both bracts grains and dilute flower nectar. This added removed, (3) with both bracts replaced by green another question to our research: Did the need artificial bracts made of copy paper, or (4) with to protect pollen grains from rain play a role in both bracts replaced by white artificial bracts the evolution of large bracts? made of copy paper. The artificial bracts were Carrying Out the Study similar in shape and size to the natural bracts. With our questions about rain protection and We recorded the number of pollinator visits to pollinator attraction in mind, we carried out the dove trees' flowers from 10:00 in the mornobservations and experiments in a natural poping to 3:00 in the afternoon between April 18 ulation of dove trees in western China (Shenand April 22 in 2005, and between April 16 nongjia Nature Reserve, Hubei) in April 2005 and April 20 in 2006. Two observers monitored and April 2006. In our study, we manipulated two sites during these periods of maximum pol- White Bracts of the Dove Tree 5 JI-FAN SuN AND SHuANg-QuAN HuANg Clockwise from upper left: A young inflorescence displays still-green bracts and deep purple immature anthers. An artificial inflorescence in which the natural white bracts were replaced with green paper. Two artificial inflorescences in which the natural white bracts were replaced with white paper. Two mature inflorescences, the upper one is untouched, while the lower one has had the bracts removed. linator activity. Insect visits became extremely rare after 3:00 in the afternoon, and during one night of observations, no pollinators were observed visiting this nectarless species. Pollinators were collected and sent to the Institute of Zoology of the Chinese Academy of Science in Beijing for identification. To examine whether capitula with intact bracts lost more or less pollen to rain than did capitula that had their bracts removed, late in the flowering period we counted the pollen remaining within 29 and 27 capitula that were natural or had both bracts removed, respectively, and had experienced at least one rainy day. 6 Arnoldia 68\/3 Numbers of anthers and ovules per capitulum and pollen grains produced per anther were estimated in 34 capitula with freshly dehiscing anthers. In September 2005 and 2006, we collected 39 and 32 open-pollinated capitula and counted their seeds to estimate seed set under natural pollination. What We Found Out... When we looked at the dove tree bracts that we had collected at either the green or white stage, we saw that the parenchyma cells in the green bracts were full of chloroplasts, while the parenchyma cells of white bracts had degenerated and contained few chloroplasts. Bract color turned from green to white on the third or fourth day, when the anthers began to dehisce and when bracts had reached three-quarters of their final size. Bracts continued to grow during anthesis but dropped off soon thereafter. Pollen-collecting bees and pollen-feeding beetles were the major visitors and pollinators of the flowers. We recorded a total of 2,174 visits to capitula, of which bees and beetles accounted for 93.6% and 6.4%, respectively. Beetles generally stayed within a capitulum for 1 to 2 hours, while bees spent 4 to 6 seconds per capitulum foraging for pollen, suggesting that bees are the more effective pollinators of the dove tree. Bees that visited included Apis cerana, Xylocopa appendiculata (Apidae), and Halictus and Lasioglossum species (Halictidae), and beetles included Agriotes species (Elateridae), Oxycetonia jucunda (Cetoniidae), and species of Nitidulidae. Visitor frequencies were low, and so was seed set of openpollinated capitula in both years. It seems clear that wind pollination Pollen grains of Davidia involucrata germinating in 10% sucrose solution. of dove tree is unlikely since its Pollen Stickiness and Behavior in Water The pollen grains of anemophilous (wind pollinated) plants are not sticky, while those of entomophilous plants usually are sticky in order to adhere to visiting pollinators. To assess the possibility of wind pollination of dove tree, we tested the stickiness of its pollen grains by their adherence to glass slides. We also placed netting around 20 capitula, thereby excluding pollinators but allowing possible wind pollination, and later examined the netted capitula for seed production. To test the behavior of pollen grains under rainy conditions, we followed Huang et al.'s (2002) method of pollen germination. Pollen grains from newly dehisced anthers were placed in sucrose solutions of 5%, 10%, 15%, and 20% by mass to examine optimum conditions for pollen germination. We then compared germination rates of pollen grains from eight ran- domly collected capitula in distilled water or in the optimum sucrose solution (10%). Pollen grains that had either germinated or burst after 4 hours were counted under a light microscope. Ten samples of pollen grains from each flower were analyzed in this manner. Data analysis was accomplished by using one-way ANOVA analysis to compare the frequencies of pollinator visits to the four kinds of capitula and the amount of pollen remaining in capitula after different experimental treatments and to assess pollen viability in distilled water versus 10% sucrose solution. JI-FAN SuN AND SHuANg-QuAN HuANg White Bracts of the Dove Tree 7 JI-FAN SuN AND SHuANg-QuAN HuANg Cross sections of a green bract (left) and a white bract (right). Mesophyll cells and chloroplasts have degenerated in the white bract. Scale bars = 0.5 millimeters (0.02 inch). pollen grains are sticky and apparently not picked up by wind. Also, the netted capitula did not produce any seeds, further evidence that insects rather than wind pollinate dove tree flowers. Bees preferred to visit capitula with white bracts over those with green bracts, on the basis of four consecutive days of observations on inflorescences of 62 natural capitula, 62 bractless capitula, 62 white-papered capitula, and 48 green-papered capitula. Visits to natural and white-papered inflorescences were not significantly different but were higher than those in the other two treatments. Visits to inflorescences with bracts removed and those with bracts replaced by green paper did not differ significantly. The pollen\/ovule ratio in D. involucrata is extremely high, with a capitulum producing only about 7 ovules to about 900 to 1,000 anthers, which produced over a million pollen The Asian honey bee (Apis cerana) was one of the pollinators found on dove tree flowers. The specimen seen here is feeding from Chinese elderberry (Sambucus chinensis) growing in Sichuan, China. grains in total. Pollen amounts remaining in capitula with their bracts removed were not significantly different from those in intact capitula but were significantly lower than the ZACHARy HuANg, HTTP:\/\/BEES.MSu.EDu 8 Arnoldia 68\/3 total pollen production, demonstrating high pollen loss to rain or removal by pollinators. Pollen germinated best in 10% sucrose solution, and there was a highly significant difference in germination and bursting rates between pollen grains placed in distilled water or 10% sucrose solution. After 4 hours, about 85% of pollen grains in water had burst, while only about 37% of the grains in 10% sucrose solution had burst. (ed. note: see Sun et al. 2008 for detailed results) ... and What It Means Pollen-collecting bees, the most important pollinators of Davidia involucrata, preferred visiting white-bracted capitula, and it is therefore likely that during their green stage the bracts function in photosynthesis, while during their JI-FAN SuN AND SHuANg-QuAN HuANg white, uV-light-absorbing stage their function changes to attracting pollinators. During more than 170 hours of observation, we never observed bees visiting green-bracted capitula. Their uV-light absorbance makes the white bracts stand out from surrounding foliage in the bee visual spectrum (Burr and Barthlott 1993; Kevan et al. 1996) and is likely due to the flavonoids that are the major pigments in the bracts of D. involucrata (Hu et al. 2007). Over the 2 years of our study, insect visitation was low. With low visitation rates, prolonging the flowering period will benefit reproductive success as a sit-and-wait strategy (Ashman and Schoen 1994). Protection of the pollen grains presented on the recurved anther walls during the 5 to 7 day flowering period would then be of key importance; the longer viable pollen is Greenish immature bracts function photosynthetically, while mature white bracts absorb UV light and function in attracting pollinators. Note that many of the anthers have already dehisced in the mature inflorescences. White Bracts of the Dove Tree 9 ROBERT MAyER present, the better the chance of a pollinator visiting within that period. Since dove tree's flowers lack a corolla, protection of the pollen must be achieved by the bracts. Dove trees generally flower from mid-April to mid-May, a period which is within the rainy season of the subtropical region where they occur. Since the pollen grains of dove tree readily burst in water, it is probable that the rooflike bracts function as an umbrella to reduce rain damage to the anthers and pollen. Indeed, we repeatedly observed rain-damaged stamens in the capitula where we had removed bracts, while capitula with intact bracts had dry stamens even after heavy rain. The fact that bract-bearing capitula lost as much pollen as bractless ones is attributable to bees removing most pollen from the former, while rain washed away most pollen from the latter. The evolution of flower or inflorescence structures with multiple functions may reflect the net effect of conflicting or additive selective pressures (Anderson 1976; Armbruster 1996, 1997, 2001; galen 1999; Fenster et al. 2004; Armbruster et al. 2005; Strauss and Whittall 2006; Waser and Ollerton 2006). In the case of the dove tree, pollinator selection favors white bracts, while the need to protect pollen from rain favors large bracts. Notably, dove tree's two bracts differ in size, perhaps in response to constraints on weight or resources. Experimental studies of the effects of rain on floral traits are scarce (Bynum and Smith 2001; Huang et al. 2002; galen 2005). Recent studies of pollen longevity in 80 angiosperms found that pollen life-span was decreased by direct contact with water (Mao and Huang 2009). Another evolutionary tactic is seen in the erect flowers of Primula vulgaris; though the flowers regularly fill with water, roughly a quarter of the primula's pollen grains will still germinate even after 5 hours underwater (Eisikowitch and Woodell 1975). While some species have relatively high water-resistant pollen, others rely on nodding flowers, or close their flowers by petal movements (Bynum and Smith 2001; Hase et al. 2006; He et al. 2006), or have other features protecting pollen from wetting, such as in the dove tree. The pale green bracts above these Tilia (linden) flowers may serve several purposes, including attracting pollinators. It seems that the bracts of the dove tree are a striking example of the multiple roles played by one structure in photosynthesis, pollinator attraction, and as a stamen rain shelter. As another example, in Tilia the bracts not only help wind dispersal of the fruits once they mature, but also may act as flags that attract pollinators-- especially nocturnal pollinators-- to the flowers (Anderson 1976). Our observation of the multifunctional nature of bracts in the dove tree suggested that floral traits are under selection pressure from mutualists and antagonists as well as selection by abiotic environmental factors. Acknowledgments This public introduction of our work in the dove tree is based on the first author's PhD thesis and a paper in American Naturalist (2008). We thank y.-B. gong, Q. Fang, and S. S. Renner for collaboration, and we also thank L. Wang from the Altar Park in the Shennongjia Nature Reserve as well as W. Chen, Q. Li, y.-y. Mao, and M.-Q. Pan from Wuhan university for help in the field and in the lab, and S. Armbruster and an anonymous reviewer for many valuable suggestions for an early draft. A grant from the National Science Foundation of China (30825005) to S.-Q. Huang supported this work. Literature Cited Anderson, g. J. 1976. The pollination biology of Tilia. American Journal of Botany 63: 12031212. Armbruster, W. S. 1996. Evolution of floral morphology and function: an integrative approach to 10 Arnoldia 68\/3 adaptation, constraint, and compromise in Dalechampia (Euphorbiaceae). In: D. g. Lloyd and S. C. H. Barrett, eds. Floral Biology, pp. 241272. Chapman & Hall, New york. Armbruster, W. S. 1997. Exaptations link the evolution of plant-herbivore and plant-pollinator interactions: a phylogenetic inquiry. Ecology 78: 16611674. Armbruster, W. S. 2001. Evolution of floral form: electrostatic forces, pollination, and adaptive compromise. New Phytologist 152: 181183. Armbruster, W. S., L. Antonsen, and C. Pelabon. 2005. Phenotypic selection on Dalechampia blossoms: honest signaling affects pollination success. Ecology 86: 33233333. Ashman, T. L., and D. J. Schoen. 1994. How long should flowers live? Nature 371: 788791. Burr, B., and W. Barthlott. 1993. untersuchungen zur ultraviolettreflexion von Angiospermenbluten. II. Magnoliidae, Ranunculidae, Hamamelididae, Caryophyllidae, Rosidae. Trop. subtrop. Pflanzenwelt 87, Akad. Wiss. Lit. Mainz. F. Steiner Verlag, Stuttgart, 193 S. Bynum, M.R., and W. K. Smith. 2001. Floral movements in response to thunderstor ms improve reproductive effort in the alpine species Gentiana algida (gentianaceae). American Journal of Botany 88: 10881095. Corbet, S. A. 1990. Pollination and the weather. Israel Journal of Botany 39: 1330. Eisikowitch, D., and S. R. J. Woodell, 1975. The effect of water on pollen germination in two species of Primula. Evolution 28: 692694. Faegri, K., and L.van der Pijl. 1979. The principles of pollination ecology. 3rd ed. Pergamon Press, Oxford. Fang, W.-P., and C.-y. Chang. 1983. Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae, vol. 52(2). Pages 157159. Science Press, Beijing. Fenster, C. B., W. S. Armbruster, P. Wilson, R. Dudash, and J. D. Thomson. 2004. Pollination syndromes and floral specialization. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 35: 375403. galen, C. 1999. Why do flowers vary? The functional ecology of variation in flower size and form within natural plant populations. Bioscience 49: 631640. galen, C. 2005. It never rains but then it pours: the diverse effects of water on flower integrity and function. In: R. Edward and F. A. Bazzaz, eds. Reproductive allocation in plants, pp. 7795. Elsevier Academic Press, Burlington, MA, uSA. Hase, A. V., R. M. Cowling, and A. g. Ellis. 2006. Petal movement in cape wildflowers protects pollen from exposure to moisture. Plant Ecology 184: 587. He, y.-P., y.-W. Duan, J.-Q. Liu, and W. K. Smith. 2006. Floral closure in response to temperature and pollination in Gentiana straminea Maxim. (gentianaceae), an alpine perennial in the Qinghai-Tibetan Plateau. Plant Systematics and Evolution 256: 1733. Hu, J.-y., S.-L. Zhang, Z.-x. Su, and y.-M. Liao. 2007. Pollinator attraction by Davidia involucrata. I. Color. Journal of Plant Ecology 31: 166171. (In Chinese with English Abstract) Huang, S.-Q., y. Takahashi, and A. Dafni. 2002. Why does the flower stalk of Pulsatilla cernua (Ranunculaceae) bend during anthesis? American Journal of Botany 89: 15991603. Jones, C. E. 1967. Some evolutionary aspects of a water stress on flowering in the tropics. Turrialba 17: 188190. Kevan, P., M. giurfa, and L. Chittka. 1996. Why are there so many and so few white flowers. Trends in Plant Science 1: 280284. Mao y.-y., and S.-Q. Huang. 2009. Pollen resistance to water in 80 angiosperm species: flower structures protect rain susceptible pollen. New Phytologist 183: 892899. Manchester, S. R. 2003. Leaves and fruits of Davidia (Cor nales) from the Paleocene of North America. Systematic Botany 27: 368382. Sprengel, C. K. 1793. Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen (Reprinted 1972). Weldon & Wesley, New york. Strauss, S. y., and J. B. Whittall. 2006. Non-pollinator agents of selection on floral traits. In: L. D. Harder and S. C. H. Barrett, eds. Ecology and evolution of flowers, pp. 120138. Oxford university Press, Oxford. Sun, J.-F., y.-B. gong, S. S. Renner, and S.-Q. Huang. 2008. Multifunctional bracts in the dove tree Davidia involucrata (Nyssaceae: Cornales): rain protection and pollinator attraction. The American Naturalist 171: 119124 Waser, N. M., and J. Ollerton. 2006. Plant-pollinator interactions: from specialization to generalization. university of Chicago Press, Chicago. Zhang, J., J. Li, and x. Lian. 1994. Morphology and biological characteristics of Davidia involucrata. Journal of Beijing Forestry University 16: 3337. Ji-Fan Sun and Shuang-Quan Huang are from the College of Life Sciences at Wuhan university in Wuhan, China. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Little Big Plant, Box Huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25507","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070bb6b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":3,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Little Big Plant, Box Huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera) Rob Nicholson I t is one of the charms of the science of botany that the most subtle species can contain the most elegant mysteries. Such is the case with box huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera), an evergreen subshrub with small, glossy, leathery leaves. Box huckleberry grows in the full shade of mixed pineoak forests in sporadic locations from Pennsylvania to Tennessee (including a fairly recently discovered site in North Carolina [Wilbur 2004]). While this species has been known to botanists for Box huckleberry's foliage looks somewhat similar to boxwood (Buxus spp.), which centuries, it is an example explains its common name. (photo by rob nicholson) of how knowledge builds on knowledge and how even familiar subjects can species found in the hills and mountains near still be a source of discovery. the Argentine border. A few more species are This low-growing shrub is in the Ericaceae Andean, but then a separation of 1,100 miles (heath family), an assemblage of plants that (1,770 kilometers) occurs before reaching any of includes heaths (Erica) and heathers (Calluna), the North American species, the closest being rhododendrons and azaleas (Rhododendron), Gaylussacia dumosa in southern Florida. Eight blueberries and cranberries (Vaccinium), and Gaylussacia species are known from the eastmadrones (Arbutus). It is a fairly large family ern United States and Canada, but none have with species found throughout much of the been found in Mexico, Central America, or the world. The huckleberries, along with the blueCaribbean--a somewhat mysterious gap. berries, are grouped in a subfamily called the The huckleberries have traditionally been Vaccinioideae. Blueberries (Vaccinium) and further divided into three subgroups called sechuckleberries (Gaylussacia) are traditionally tions: section Vitis-idaea, with only Gaylusseparated botanically by the number of chamsacia brachycera; section Decamerium, with bers (called locules) within the fruit and the three North American species; and section size of the seeds. Gaylussacia, with G. mosieri of the Florida While the name huckleberry may bring panhandle and all the South American species. forward associations to Mark Twain's all(Some recent research [Floyd 2002] questions American rascal, Huckleberry Finn, the genus whether Gaylussacia should be divided into Gaylussacia shows a predominantly South sections at all.) So this odd distribution of speAmerican bent. The center of species diversity cies and subgroups presents the first botanifor the genus is southeastern Brazil, with 37 cal puzzle that heavily involves the little box Box Huckleberry 13 Have Berries, Will Travel The migration route traveled by Gaylussacia between the southern and northern landmasses is unclear, with one botanist (Camp 1941) postulating a gradual migration over a former landbridge, a connection to the east of the Isthmus of Panama. Another (Floyd 2002) suggests the possibility that the genus originated in North America, rather than South America. Gaylussacia brachycera is different from all other species within the genus in that it lacks glands upon its leaf surfaces, and is therefore segregated into its own section. Its original discoverer, the French botanist Andre Michaux, thought it to be a Vaccinium and published it as such in 1803. However, it has an ovary split into ten chambers like its brethren Gaylussacia rather than the five chambers usually associated with blueberry, and it also has large seeds rather than the tiny seeds typical of blueberries. Anyone who has sampled wild huckleberries knows they have more crunch than blueberries and are probably less developed as a food crop because of this seediness. I had reason to believe I had found a \"missing link\" on the path between North and South America while collecting in the high pine forests of northeast Mexico. I came upon a lowgrowing, thick-leafed plant that I immediately took to be a species of Gaylussacia because of its close resemblance to box huckleberry. I was excited by the biogeographic implications, and cuttings were collected and brought back to the botanic garden for propagation. When the resulting plants finally flowered I was able to dissect the flowers and determine the plant's true identity. If it was a blueberry then the ovary of the flower would have five compartments, if a huckleberry, then ten. I focused my microscope on the sectioned ovary and saw a pie of five wedges resolve itself. The plant was determined to be a Mexican species of blueberry, Vaccinium kunthianum. It was my ulti- Gaylussacia seeds (seen here) are larger than those of Vaccinium, giving huckleberries a distinct crunchiness when eaten. mate anti-Archimedean moment, the crashing flip side to \"Eureka!\" Depending on which taxonomic interpretation one subscribes to, Gaylussacia brachycera is a unique species among the huckleberries, or has two very close relatives in southern Brazil. Alternative positions have constantly swirled around box huckleberry; Camp (1941) wrote \"it would certainly appear to merit generic rank,\" while recent molecular genetic studies by Dr. Jennifer Whitehead Floyd (2002) show that the box huckleberry may be intermediate between the huckleberries (Gaylussacia) and blueberries (Vaccinium) and may be an ancient hybrid involving species from each camp. But if it is a hybrid, what were the parents? And where might the ancestral lines be? Further molecular genetics studies may finally crack the riddle or even return the species to the Vaccinium fold, where it started with Monsieur Michaux two hundred years ago. How Old Is Old? Gaylussacia brachycera was first found around 1796 by the French botanist Andre Michaux at Warm Springs, Virginia, a locale now shrouded in confusion. Two other collectors found it in the early 1800s, both in West Virginia. Fifty years would pass before another, more northern stand in Perry County, Pennsylvania, was discovered by Spencer F. Baird, a young professor of natural history at Dickinson College who later went on to be Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution. Facing page: Black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata) is distributed throughout the eastern United States and eastern Canada. This deciduous Gaylussacia species is noted for its bright red autumn foliage. (photo by nancy rose) RoB NICHolSoN huckleberry: on which continent did the huckleberries first evolve, and how did they then spread? And where did this unique species-- Gaylussacia brachycera--come from? How Old Are You Now? THE MEASUREMENT of age in living plants can be done with a limited number of species. only those ligneous (woody) plants that live in temperate or arctic regions and are exposed to annual weather cycles will dependably create rings that correlate to age. The title holder for oldest plant is still under contention. Among the most vaunted contenders are the Great Basin bristlecone pines (Pinus longaeva) of California's White Mountains with tree ring counts of over 4,000. A specimen of the magnificent alerce tree (Fitzroya cupressoides) in Chile has recently been shown to have ring counts of over 3,600 years, and some Saharan cypress (Cupressus dupreziana) in Algeria are probably over 2,500 years old. These species all form rings and are arborescent species, having a single trunk. Interesting also, they are all conifers. Tropical trees don't form dependable dating rings, so despite the great size and age that some of these attain, they are bystanders in the contest. Also excluded are those species that aren't trees. Clump forming shrubs or herbaceous perennials, such as azaleas and iris, can persist for many generations and slowly increase their size and numMICHAEl DoSMANN ber of stems. The limits of age on shrubs are unknown, although some documented plantings in botanic gardens are well into their second century. In fact, some of the oldest plants may appear as entire forests or large assemblages of individuals. Many poplar (Populus) species, including quaking aspen (P. tremuloides), can send up multiple individual trunks from a single vast spreading and interconnected root system. These colonies can expand and contract over time depending upon competition, climate, and catastrophic events such as forest fires. Entire mountainsides have been revealed to be covered by a single clonal stand of many trunks connected by a subterranean network of roots. With clonal colonies such as these, estimating age is next to impossible, though in two notable cases this has been attempted. one is the box huckleberry, as described in this article. The other is creosote bush. The shrub Larrea tridentata, known as creosote bush because of its prodigious production of resin, grows in arid regions of the southwestern United States and north central Mexico. Growth of creosote bush colonies begins with the original founding event, the germination of a seedling. As the plant grows, its lower branches come in contact with the soil and develop their own roots. over time the interior portions of the clump die and a ring of plants, slowly increasing in diameter over time, is formed. In the 1980s, botanist Frank Vasek radiocarbon dated chunks of deadwood at the centers of the oldest and largest rings and derived an average growth rate for creosote bush in his region. By applying this rate to the largest clone (for which he found no wood at its epicenter) a phenomenal figure of 9,400 years was obtained (Vasek 1980). This champion plant is now Annual growth rings can be seen in the stems of woody plants in temknown as \"King Clone\" and is properate or arctic regions. A cut trunk of common alder (Alnus glutinosa) is seen here. tected on a 17-acre preserve. Box Huckleberry 15 In 1919, the botanist Frederick Coville postulated (on the basis of morphological characteristics and the inability of the plant to set viable seed) that the large 1,200-foot-long (366 meters) stand in Pennsylvania seemed to be a single clone and had spread across the gentle slope by means of underground runners. It was observed that the plant grew laterally about 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) a year so he estimated that the entire clump had incrementally increased to its present size from a single seed deposited 1,200 years prior. A sister clump, across the Juniata River from the Baird stand, was found in 1920 by H. A. Ward. This was the largest single stand ever to be found, a massive colony stretching over a mile and covering 100 acres (40.5 hectares). Coville's methodology was applied to this monster and an age estimate of 13,000 years was declared. Based on fossil pollen studies, we now have a clearer picture of what the climate and flora of this area would have been like over 13,000 USDA-NRCS PlANTS DATABASE Box huckleberry covers the forest floor at this Pennsylvania site. (photo by rob nicholson) Botanical illustration of Gaylussacia brachycera from Britton and Brown's An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada, and the British Possessions, published in 1913. years ago, and these data alone would probably debunk the age claim. The leading edge of the glacier terminated about 75 miles (120.7 kilometers) to the north of the position of the goliath clump around 18,000 to 20,000 years before the present day. As little as 10,000 years ago central Pennsylvania was covered in a boreal forest association, one that would probably have been too cold for the box huckleberry. The current forest, a mix of conifers and deciduous species, started to come into place about 8,000 years ago. In the years since Coville's conjecture, the interstate highway system has had more impact on the plant than any glaciers. During the 1960s a large portion of the goliath colony was eradicated by the installation of US Route 22\/322, and a forest fire also diminished it. Sadly, this construction predated the stronger environmental standards in place today in Pennsylvania, which require highway contractors to inquire about rare and endangered plants in their paths. The conservation status of box huckleberry varies among the states where it is found, but in Pennsylvania it has a ranking of S1--critically imperiled. The species global conservation status, which considers all populations in total, is G3--vulnerable. The tract of land where the original Baird clump grows is now a Pennsylvania State Park while the remnants of the goliath clump are in private hands. The owner is aware of the plant's legacy and seems proud to direct the botanically inclined to its location. 16 Arnoldia 68\/3 CoURTESy oF PlANTENTUIN ESVElD WWW.ESVElD.Nl Box huckleberry's evergreen leaves and delicate bell-shaped flowers are highly ornamental. A Short Walk Through a Short Giant I contacted him, got precise directions, and made a weekend pilgrimage to collect research material from this diminished Methuselah. The two Pennsylvania stands of box huckleberry are in the upper end of the ridge and valley system that stretches from Pennsylvania to Alabama. A drive along the interstate brought me to the top of a bedrock fold overlooking the broad and muddy Juniata River. As directed, I turned from the river and walked into the woods. It was a plain piece of land, a common mix with red maple (Acer rubrum), hickory (Carya spp.), chestnut oak (Quercus prinus), white pine (Pinus strobus), and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) standing tallest, while below these grew shadblow (Amelanchier spp.) with highbush and lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium corymbosum, V.angustifolium). It would have been quite possible, if you weren't keyed onto it, to walk past the box huckleberry thinking it a variant of lowbush blueberry, or not noticing it at all. Its thick, bright green, leathery leaves are held on wiry pinkish-green stems, and the small, bell-shaped, white and pink flowers are borne in clusters. Its fruit could easily pass for a blueberry, at least until they are chewed, at which point their larger and coarser seeds interrupt the anticipated gastronomic explosion of blueberry deliciousness. In the filtered shade the box huckleberry grew to a height of 8 inches (20.3 centimeters) and formed a patchy patch, denser in some sections than in others. The outer edge of the colony was amoeba-like, its edge curving in and out through the trees. Nearest to the highway was an area of woods that had recently burned, and here the box huckleberry had leaves of a more anemic green, perhaps sun-scorched from want of a shady canopy. After some concentrated tramping, I found another small patch on the slope of a neighboring ridge and sampled this also over two transects. Along with the Baird stand across the river, this would make a total of three separate Pennsylvania populations in the study. I had questioned whether genetic analysis could tease apart these stands to determine whether these large clumps were indeed a single individual run amok or were many indi- Box Huckleberry 17 RoB NICHolSoN Box huckleberry forms a sprawling carpet of green in shaded woodlands. viduals that had merely coalesced together. Dr. Margaret Pooler of the United States National Arboretum had begun some genetic analysis of the species and we agreed that this clonal analysis would make an interesting research subject and also help in determining conservation strategies for this rare species. I established two perpendicular transects across the length and breadth of the clump and then sampled at equal distances along these. I brought cuttings back to the Smith College Botanic Garden, rooted them, and kept them all in separate pots as they grew. The analysis of each sample's genes would show how closely related each of the samples was to one another. If identical in genetic makeup then Coville's single-clone theory would gain credence. To complete the study, material was also collected from a stand in north central Tennessee. The lovely town of Rugby is a quaint cluster of 20 Victorian homes in the woods, a former utopian community now under siege by antique hounds. A path through the woods leads to the Gentlemen's Swimming Hole, and here, growing with the spectacular mountain stewartia (Stewartia ovata), is another outsized patch of box huckleberry, which was also transected and collected for the study. Finally, a sample of the low-growing Mexican Vaccinium kunthianum was also sent to the United States National Arboretum for analysis. Little Plant, Big Data After the team at the National Arboretum did their genetic analysis they found the Tennessee stand was a single clone and the Mexican material was very distantly related. The Baird stand of Pennsylvania showed only two clones, with one clone limited to one corner of the huge clump. Those from across the river were very different. The smaller of the two showed three closely related clones. But a quarter mile away, the largest clump of all--at nearly 1,000 feet (over 300 meters)--showed but one clone. Using the estimated growth rate of 6 inches (15.2 centimeters) per year, this would make this stand 1,000 years old had it started in the middle but 2,000 years old had it begun at the end. Because of the destruction of 80% of the stand we will never know if the entire mile 18 Arnoldia 68\/3 RoB NICHolSoN Coville, F. 1919. The threatened extinction of box huckleberry. Science 50(1280): 3034. Floyd, J. 2002. Phylogenetic and biogeographic patterns in Gaylussacia (Ericaceae) based on morphological, nuclear DNA, and chloroplast DNA variation. Systematic Botany 27 (1): 99115. Gustafson, S. 1986. The Methuselah bush. Rangelands 8 (4): 168169. Kron, K., E. Powell, and J. luteyn. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships within the blueberry tribe (Vaccinieae, Ericaceae) based on sequence data from MATK and nuclear ribosomal ITS regions, with comments on the placement of Satyria. American Journal of Botany 89: 327336. Moldenke, H. 1950. The oldest flowering plant. Horticulture 18: 436437. Pooler, M., l. Dix, and R. Griesbach. 2006. Genetic diversity of the endangered box huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera) based on AFlP markers. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society 133: 3439448 Rooted cutting of Gaylussacia brachycera. Pooler, M., R. Nicholson, and A. Vandegrift. 2008. Clonal fidelity in large colonies of Gaylussacia brachycera Gray (box huckleberry) assessed by DNA fingerprinting. Northeastern Naturalist 15(1): 6774. Sleumer, H. 1967. Die gattung Gaylussacia. Botanische Jahbucher 86: 309384. Smith, H. and D. Smith. 1971. The box huckleberry, Gaylussacia brachycera. Castanea 36: 8189. Vasek, Frank C. 1980. Creosote bush: long-lived clones in the Mojave Desert. American Journal of Botany. 67(2): 246255. Ward, H. 1920. A new station for Gaylussacia brachycera. Rhodora 22: 167168. Wherry, E. 1934. The box huckleberry as an illustration of the need for field work. Bulletin of the Torrey Club 61:8184. Wherry, E. 1972. Box huckleberry as the oldest living protoplasm. Castanea 37: 9495. Wilbur, R.l. and S. Bloodworth. 2004. Notes on the box huckleberry, Gaylussacia brachycera (Ericaceae), and its unexpected presence in North Carolina. Rhodora 106: 371377. Willaman, J. 1965. The oldest living plants. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 16: 6566. Rob Nicholson is Conservatory Manager at the Smith College Botanic Garden in Northampton, Massachusetts. He was formerly Assistant Plant Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum and collected from multiple populations of Gaylussacia brachycera for the Arboretum's collection. length was once all connected and genetically identical. But what was left of Coville's \"charming little thousand-year-old lady of the forest\" may indeed be the oldest known woody plant east of the Rocky Mountains. Space and time are key concerns of our human species and we tend to measure other species by our own familiar rulers and clocks. These large clonal plant stands put the lie to the idea that plants do not move or locomote. A plant specimen will cover distance, but in an imperceptible fashion relative to our lifespan and our ways of moving. It just moves to a slower, millennial-scale timepiece rather than the sweeping second hands that so many of us caffeine-addled commuters adhere to. Perhaps we should all aspire to so relaxed a pace. Bibliography Camp, W.H. 1941. Studies in the Ericales: a review of the North American Gaylussacieae: with remarks on the origin and migration of the group. Bulletin of the Torrey Club 68: 531551. Claypole, E.W. 1883. Note on a Relic of the Native Flora of Pennsylvania, Surviving in Perry County. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. 21(114): 226230. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"General Forest Ecological Processes chapter 10 from Trees and Forests, a Color Guide","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25506","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070bb26.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":3,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Thomas, Peter A.","article_content":"General Forest Ecological Processes chapter 10 from Trees and Forests, a Color Guide Peter A. Thomas IntroductIon W ooded land currently covers between 30 and 35% of the world's land surface (depending on what is counted as forest), or around 39 to 45 million k2 [15 to 17 million square miles] (FAO 2003). Ecologists often distinguish between woodland and forest. Woodland is a small area of trees with an open canopy (usually defined as the canopy giving less than 40% cover, that is 60% or more of the sky is visible) so that plenty of light reaches the ground, encouraging other vegetation beneath the trees. By contrast, a forest is usually considered to be a relatively large area of trees forming a closed, dense canopy. For simplicity's sake, and because the underlying ecological processes at work are the same, in this chapter the term forest will be used to mean any wooded land. All phOtOs By thE AuthOr A dense temperate rain forest in the Olympic Peninsula, Washington State, USA. It is composed mostly of Psuedotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir), Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock), and Thuja plicata (western red cedar). 20 Arnoldia 68\/3 SIzE and Growth the most obvious factor that separates forests from other types of habitat is the large weight or mass of organic material present, referred to as the biomass (or sometimes the standing crop). In most forests, more than 85% of the biomass is contained in the above-ground portion of the woody plants. Biomass above ground increases from the northern boreal forest southwards towards the tropics, starting from very low levels at the Arctic tree Open woodland at Needwood Forest, England. The sparse canopy of Fraxinus excelsior (European ash) and Tilia spp. (lime [linden]) line, and reaching in excess of 940 standards allows abundant light to reach the shrub layer of cop- t ha -1 [838,480 pounds per acre] piced Corylus avellana (hazel) and, on the ground, a mixed field in the Amazon basin. however, layer dominated by Hyacinthoides non-scripta (bluebell). A there are exceptionally large forsparse ground layer of mosses is also present. ests outside the tropics, notably the temperate forests of the pacific Northwest of North America. these include stands of huge Psuedotsuga menziesii (Douglas fir), reaching 1,600 t ha-1 [1,427,200 pounds per acre], and Sequoia sempervirens (coastal redwoods), the tallest trees in the world, which have a biomass of up to 3,450 t ha-1 [3,077,400 pounds per acre] just in the trunks. Below-ground biomass in roots is significantly less (Jackson et al. 1996), averaging 29 t ha-1 [25,868 pounds per acre] in boreal forests, 40 to 42 t ha-1 [35,680 to 37,464 pounds per acre] in temperate and tropical deciduous forests, and 49 t ha-1 [43,708 pounds per acre] in tropical evergreen forests. Biomass is a static measure of how much mass there is at any one time, with no indication of how quickly new growth is being added or lost, and so gives little insight into how the forest is functioning. More useful are estimates of the productivity of the forest, i.e. how much new material is being added per year, described as net primary productivity (Npp). this can vary from as little as 1 t ha-1 y-1 [892 pounds per acre per year] in cold boreal forests, to over 30 t ha-1 y-1 [26,760 pounds per acre per year] in tropical rainforests, with an average of 7 to12 t ha-1 y-1 [6,244 to 10,704 pounds per acre per year] in temperate forests. however, a maximum of 36.2 t ha-1 y-1 [32,290 pounds per acre per year] has been recorded in the pacific Northwest from a 26-year-old forest of Tsuga heterophylla (western hemlock). these figures have sometimes been used to calculate how much additional forest needs to be planted to soak up (sequester) the huge amount of extra carbon that is being pumped into the atmosphere--usually approximately 25% extra forest globally. however, such an estimate is blatantly wrong. When a forest is mature it reaches an approximately steady state of mass, where Npp is balanced by an equal loss in biomass through decomposition. At this point, the productivity of the whole forest (the net ecosystem productivity - NEp) drops to near zero. thus, it is only young forests that are carbon Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 21 sinks; once forests are mature they become carbon neutral. In reality, temperate and northern forests globally are a net sink of carbon, but this is primarily due to expansion of the amount of forest due to reforestation (Beedlow et al. 2004). LIGht trees have evolved as a life form to outcompete their neighbors for light by growing tall, so producing dense forests that inside are darker, more humid, and less prone to extremes of temperature variation than outside. In temperate forests at least, it is usually possible to recognize four reasonably distinct layers. At the top is the tree canopy, normally 5+ m [16.4 feet or greater] above ground. Below are the shrub layer (< 5 m) [less than 16.4 feet], the field or herb layer of herbaceous plants and short woody plants such as brambles, and the ground or moss layer of mosses and liverworts, lichens, and algae. Each layer blocks sunlight so that a dense layer may preclude any layers below, and the forest floor may be very dark indeed. In temperate regions, the amount of light reaching the forest floor may be as high as 20 to 50% of full sunlight in an open birch wood, down to just 2 to 5% beneath Fagus sylvatica (European beech). In these deciduous forests, light levels are higher once the leaves have fallen, but the trunks and branches still block some light such that light levels are likely to be below 70 to 80% of full sun. Evergreen forests Primula vulgaris (primrose), a wintergreen plant that keeps tend to cast similar shade all year round; some leaves alive throughout the year. in Europe, light levels below natural Pinus sylvestris (scots pine) forests are usually around 11 to 13%, while below Picea abies (Norway spruce) they can be as low as 2 to 3%. In tropical rain forests, light levels at the forest floor may be even lower, just 0.2 to 2% of full sunlight. As a rule of thumb, plants require 20% of full sunlight for maximum photosynthesis and at least 2 to 3% sunlight for photosynthesis to exceed background respiratory costs (the compensation point). this inevitably means that the floor of densest forests is at, or beneath, the limits of plant growth. some forest floor plant specialists have overcome this problem with a number of physiological solutions. using shade leaves that are thinner and more efficient at low light levels than sun leaves. reducing the compensation point. Bates and roeser (1928) found that coastal redwood in deep shade requires just 0.62% sunlight. Making use of sunflecks--patches of sunlight passing through gaps in the canopy--which can briefly give up to 50% of full sunlight and make up 70 to 80% of the total solar energy reaching the ground in a dense forest (Evans 1956). these flecks are especially important to shade plants that are capable of responding quickly to the brief flurries of light. 22 Arnoldia 68\/3 plants can also cope with dark conditions by avoidance. temperate deciduous forests are well-known for their colorful carpets of prevernal plants, which grow and flower early in spring. In the uK these include Hyacinthoides non-scripta (bluebell), Ranunculus ficaria (lesser celandine), and Anemone nemorosa (wood anemone). these plants make use of the light reaching the ground before the trees develop their canopy of leaves, and die back once the shade is too deep. summergreen plants, such as Mercurialis perennis (dog's mercury) and Galium odoratum (woodruff), are similar but keep their leaves through the summer using what little light is available. As an extension of this strategy, wintergreen plants (which keep at least a few green leaves all year round) and true evergreen plants can start growth as soon as spring conditions allow, and continue growth into a warm late autumn after leaf fall. such plants include wintergreen Oxalis acetosella (wood sorrel) and Primula vulgaris (primrose), and evergreens such as Hedera helix (ivy) and Ilex aquifolium (holly). Being evergreen is an efficient strategy for coping with seasonally abundant light, but it does carry costs. In winter, holly is a sitting target for herbivores such as deer, and so has evolved prickly spines to the leaves. these spines are absent above deer-browsing height, around 3 m [9.8 feet] above ground. tree seedlings face similar problems of shade, having to grow up through dark layers of vegetation before reaching the canopy. Different tree species vary tremendously in how much shade they can bear as seedlings and saplings. Fagus sylvatica (European beech) and Acer saccharum (sugar maple, from North America) are very tolerant of deep shade, while Betula spp. (birches) and Populus spp. (poplars) grow best under high light intensities. however, it is now apparent that the ability to tolerate shade can change through the lifespan of a tree (poorter et al. 2005), so it is possible that many trees are more shade tolerant as seedlings than as adults. Nevertheless, comparatively few trees can tolerate the full shade cast by their mature relatives. Consequently, they depend Seedlings of Fagus sylvatica (European beech) are very shade-tolerant and upon gaps appearing in the forest, capable of growing under the dense canopy of their parents. Each seedling by one or more trees dying or fallshows two distinctively shaped cotyledons below the young shoot. ing, for successful establishment of seedlings. Gaps are sufficiently important that while large-scale regional vegetation (e.g., oak forest) is determined by climate, soil, and topography, it is the dynamics of gaps that largely controls the proportions in which the various species grow in any one area. For example, in small gaps created by one tree falling, shade tolerant trees such as Fagus spp. (beech) or Abies spp. (fir) are more likely to do best and dominate. In larger gaps, species such as Betula (birch) and Salix (willow), Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 23 which invade quickly from light, wind-borne seeds and grow rapidly, are more likely to dominate initially but later give way to shade-tolerant trees. It is not just what goes on above ground that is important; in larger gaps there will also be less belowground competition from the root systems of the large trees at the gap edge. the importance of such competition has been demonstrated experimentally by cutting roots (trenching) around the edges of a plot: seedlings inside the plot usually grow faster (e.g., Barberis and tanner 2005). Competition may also happen below ground from the field layer vegetation by allelopathy, i.e., secretion of chemicals, which inhibit other root growth, into the soil (e.g., Orr et al. 2005). Further variability in seedling establishment is produced by small-scale heterogeneity of the forest floor. pits and mounds of bare mineral soil created by falling trees offer less competition and a more constant water supply than the surrounding humus-rich forest floor. In a Pinus sylvestris (scots pine) forest in Finland, Kuuluvainen and Juntunen (1998) found that although these bare sites covered just 8.4% of the forest, they held 60% of pine and 91% of birch seedlings and saplings. Dense field and ground layers can cause problems for tree regeneration, swamping small seedlings. this is one reason why, in temperate rainforests, seedlings are often most common on \"nurse logs,\" which are continuously damp enough to provide moisture and lift the seedlings above the dense field layer. As tree seedlings grow upwards into a gap, there can be intense competition to reach and keep the light; whichever seedlings grow quickest will dominate the gap, at least in the short term. A common strategy to get a head start, found in trees as diverse as Fraxinus excelsior (European ash), and shade-tolerant firs (Narukawa and yamamoto 2001), is to have a seedling bank. here, young plants survive in light conditions below their compensation point (i.e. they are sustaining a net loss of energy) and grow very slowly while their energy reserves last. these seedlings are then able to take rapid advantage of an opening in the canopy in the race for dominance. watEr Given that a single, large deciduous tree can use 400,000 liters [105,670 gallons] of water in transpiration in a summer (thomas 2000), it is obvious that whole forests move immense amounts of water from the soil to the atmosphere. Nevertheless, water is rarely limiting for tree growth in temperate regions until rainfall decreases to such an extent that scrub and grasslands take over. Almost all roots tend to be quite shallow, so potential problems exist if the surface layers of the soil are drained of available water between rain events. this is obviated, however, by the process of hydraulic lifting present in a number of trees and a few grasses. here, water is raised at night from moist areas lower in the soil (flowing along a hydraulic gradient through the roots) to nearer the surface. hydraulic lifting is most common in savannas and other xeric (dry) woodlands, especially among older trees (Domec et al. 2004), but is found elsewhere. the amounts moved can be significant: a mature Acer saccharum (sugar maple) 19 m [62.3 feet] high can raise around 100 liters [26.4 gallons] of water each night compared to a water loss via transpiration of 400 to 475 liters [106 to 125 gallons] the following day (Emerman and Dawson 1996). this raised water also benefits other surrounding plants (penuelas and Filella 2003; Filella and penuelas 20032004). 24 Arnoldia 68\/3 Forests also play a significant role in the redistribution of water on a regional scale. rainfall intercepted by the canopy is evaporated before it reaches the ground. When this and the transpiration of water are combined (evapotranspiration), the overall losses are in the order of 30 to 60% of precipitation in deciduous forests, 50 to 60% in tropical evergreen forests, and 60 to 70% in coniferous forests, compared to around 20% in grasslands. Not surprisingly, forested areas have water yields (measured as stream flow) 25 to 80% lower than pastures. Moreover, computer modeling by Calder et al. (2003) suggests that planting oak woodland in central England would eventually reduce recharge of aquifers and runoff to streams by almost one half. so, should forest be removed to improve water yield? Most data show that regardless of forest type, removal of up to 20% of the trees has an insignificant effect on water yield, presumably because of increased soil evaporation replacing evapotranspiration (Brown et al. 2005). Further clearance does improve water yield (Bosch and hewlett 1982), but by comparatively small amounts until clearance is significant. Many people have held the view that forests increase rainfall in a watershed through evaporating water, thus helping build clouds. however, in temperate areas, at least, the contribution of a forest to rainfall is likely to be insignificant and certainly less than 5% (Golding 1970). On a continental scale, forests help to increase rainfall in the sense that they repeatedly recycle the atmospheric moisture passing from the oceans to the land. For example, in the Amazon Basin, much of the daily rainfall is immediately evaporated to generate clouds for rainfall downwind. It is highly likely that continual clearance of the forest will reduce rainfall elsewhere in the region since much of the water will enter rivers and be lost to the system. Moreover, the effects of such tropical deforestation have far wider repercussions in mid- and high latitudes through large-scale links in the water cycle and weather. Avissar and Werth (2005) have shown, for example, that deforestation of Amazonia and Central Africa severely reduces rainfall in the Midwest of the united states. nutrIEntS Nitrogen is usually the nutrient most limiting growth in temperate forests, while in other forests, especially on soils of great age, phosphorus may well be the limiting nutrient. Nutrients within a forest ecosystem are highly recycled and key to this recycling are the decomposer organisms that release nutrients from dead material. larger soil fauna, such as earthworms and beetles, chew debris into fine particles suitable for the soil fungi and bacteria. A square meter of soil in temperate woodland may contain more than 1,000 species of animal, from protozoa to earthworms, and a gram of soil can contain more than 1,000 species and more than 200 million bacterial cells (Fitter, 2005). soil organic matter (surface litter and humus incorporated into the soil) is thus the main bottleneck controlling nutrient availability to plants, and the slower decomposition is, the more of a limiting factor it is. this helps explain why slow plant growth occurs on cold northern soils that have large organic matter accumulations. Fungi and bacteria are not altruistic in providing nutrients to plants. As dead material is decomposed, nutrients released by the microorganisms are immediately taken back up by other microorganisms, and so are effectively immobilized and unavailable to plants. however, as the carbon is progressively used up in their Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 25 respiration (and released as carbon dioxide), the conserved nutrients become more than the microbes can use, and the excess is released in inorganic form for plants to use. Consequently, when a fresh batch of litter arrives on the forest floor there is a variable time lag before its carbon has been reduced sufficiently to allow nutrients to be freed into the soil for plant growth, the process being regulated by the microbial community (Attiwill and Adams 1993; Agren et al. 2001). plants can, however, circumvent this bottleneck in several ways. Firstly, more than 80% of the world's vascular plants have on their roots mycorrhizal fungi, which greatly assist in scavenging nutrients from the soil to the symbiotic benefit of both plants and fungi. secondly, some plants are now known to be able to directly use organic nutrients, without the intervention of microorganisms first breaking them down into inorganic forms. For example, up to 50% of the total nitrogen in forest soils is usually in the form of dissolved organic nitrogen (DON), of which approximately 10 to 20% consists of amino acids. the degree to which plants can use DON is open to speculation, but it is becoming clear that many plants are capable of absorbing amino acids directly (lipson and Nasholm 2001) and are thus able to short-circuit the microorganism bottleneck. the same may also be true for organic phosphorus. Although nutrients are tightly recycled within a forest ecosystem, there are still (usually small) annual inputs and losses. Nutrients are added to forests The effect of 14 years of nitrogen enrichment on Pinus resinosa (red pine) at Harvard Forest: (top) control plot with no extra nitrogen added above the background deposition of 7 to 8 kg N ha-1 y-1; (middle) low N addition (50 kg N ha-1 y-1); and (bottom) high N addition (150 kg N ha-1 y-1). 26 Arnoldia 68\/3 through rain and dust, dissolved from rocks in the soil, and as biological input from nitrogen fixation by microbes. losses of nutrients can be very rapid due to fire, wind, and erosion but the majority of losses, from temperate forests at least, are by leaching of nutrients as water percolates through the soil. however, since nutrients are vital to forest growth, plants and microbes are fairly efficient at reabsorbing and holding available nutrients and creating conditions of controlled decomposition. this has been admirably demonstrated by the hubbard Brook Ecosystem study in the White Mountain National Forest of New hampshire, established in 1963 (likens 2004). As part of this, a discrete watershed was clear-felled in 19651966 and treated with herbicides for three years to prevent any regrowth, while a similar watershed had the hardwood forest left intact. After clear-felling, stream flow went up (due to reduced evapotranspiration) and net losses of nitrate, calcium, and potassium in stream water generally peaked in the second year, each returning to pre-cutting levels at rates unique to each ion as the forest regrew. however, even decades after clear-felling, differences in stream water solutes can still be seen, especially in calcium (likens et al. 1998). there is still a good deal to learn about mechanisms of nutrient retention in forests. For example, Muller and Bormann put forward the vernal dam hypothesis in 1976. this proposes that prevernal plants, which grow early in spring before canopy closure, take up nitrogen and other nutrients before they can be leached; these are subsequently made available to other plants as the prevernal plants die back from lack of light. At hubbard Brook, plants of Erythronium americanum (yellow trout lily) saved almost half of the important nutrients from being washed away. In the spring they used 43 and 48% of the released potassium and nitrogen, respectively, with the rest being lost in stream water. some subsequent experiments (e.g., tessier and raynal 2003) have supported the theory. however, other contradictory studies have shown that the microbe population itself is better at soaking up the spring burst of nutrients (e.g., Zak et al. 1990). Also, while the dying back of vernal plants can produce a burst of nutrients (e.g., Anderson and Eickmeier 2000), the plants may not be very efficient at taking up nutrients in the first place (e.g., Anderson and Eickmeier 1998; rothstein 2000). undoubtedly, some of the experimental differences come from investigating different plant species in several forests. the tight recycling of nutrients within the forest ecosystem can cause problems if too much arrives as pollution. Nitrogen enrichment, particularly in northern temperate areas, is just such a case (Nosengo 2003). since the 1980s, normal background nitrogen deposition of < 1 kg ha-1 y-1 [less than .892 pounds per acre per year] has increased by 10 to 40 times or even higher. the effect of too much nitrogen is clearly seen in long-term experiments running at harvard Forest, Massachusetts since 1988 (Magill et al. 2004). In one of these, a plantation of Pinus resinosa (red pine) was subjected to three levels of nitrogen: a control, low N addition, and high N addition. After 14 years, annual wood production had decreased by 31% and 54% relative to the control in the low N and high N plots, respectively, and the canopies had thinned due to dieback under higher nitrogen levels. Mortality also increased (control 12%; low N 23%; high N 56%) and the whole high N stand was expected to die in the near future. Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 27 coarSE woody dEbrIS the vital importance of dead wood in forest carbon budgets, and also as an invaluable wildlife resource, has been increasingly appreciated over the last decade (Kirby and Drake 1993). Dead wood appears in many forms, sizes, and positions including standing dead trees (snags), dead branches in the canopy, and trunks and branches on the ground. A useful term for this motley collection is coarse woody debris (CWD). typically, CWD in a forest forms up to a quarter of all the above-ground biomass and is normally in the range of 11 to 38 t ha-1 [9,812 to 33,896 pounds per acre] in deciduous forests, with the largest amounts in cooler regions where decomposition is slower. Conifer forests generally hold more CWD than deciduous forests, typically around 100 t ha-1, [89,200 pounds per acre] but up to 500 t ha-1 [446,000 pounds per acre] in the coastal redwood forests of California and the rain forests of the pacific Northwest. tropical forests, with more rapid decomposition, usually have lower amounts of woody accumulation, but levels up to 100 t ha-1 [89,200 pounds per acre] are possible in more water-logged areas of the Amazonian forest. If 100 t ha-1 [89,200 pounds per acre] of wood was spread evenly over the forest floor it would amount to 10 kg [22 pounds] in each square meter. however, because the bulk of the wood is in large pieces, typically less than 5% of the ground will be covered by CWD, although this can rise to around a third cover in very dense coniferous forests. snags are of particular wildlife interest. In the Bialowiea forest of poland, one of the most pristine forests in Europe, Bobiec (2002) found that standing dead wood varied from 3 to 21% of total CWD, and figures of 25% are typical in many of the world's forests. Wood is difficult to decompose. It is composed of 40 to 55% cellulose, 25 to 40% hemicelluloses, and 18 to 35% lignin (conifers having a greater proportion of lignin than hardwoods). Wood is thus high in structural carbohydrates (which require specialized enzymes to break them up) but also poor in nutrients such as nitrogen: 0.03 to 0.1% N (by mass) compared to 1 to 5% in foliage. In most forests, wood (CWD) will be colonized by fungi within a year and completely colonized within 5 to 10 years. however, decay rates of wood vary tremendously depending upon the climate, decaying organisms available, and the size and type of wood. In general terms, pioneer trees such as birches and willows Temperate rain forests, such as the one here on western Vancouver Island, Canada, can contain large quantities of dead wood, in part invest less energy in protecting because of the size of some of the fallen logs. The one shown here is of their wood from rot (going for Picea sitchensis (Sitka spruce). 28 Arnoldia 68\/3 speed of growth rather than defense) and logs on the ground rot away within a few decades. Wood from longer-lived trees such as oaks may persist for a century or much longer, while in cool climates such as the pacific Northwest wood may persist for up to 600 years (Franklin et al. 1981). Even in tropical rain forests, wood above 3 cm [1.2 inches] diameter takes at least 15 years to decompose (Anderson and swift 1983). Again, however, environmental conditions play an important role in determining decay rates; logs of Populus balsamifera (balsam poplar) in North America, which would decay away within 40 to 60 years on land, last for over 250 years when waterlogged in a beaver pond. EvErGrEEn and dEcIduouS LEavES At first sight, the occurrence of evergreen and deciduous trees in different forests can appear haphazard, but in reality it demonstrates the interactions of many of the ecological processes described above (thomas 2000). Deciduous trees lose their leaves during an unfavorable season (winter in temperate areas), while evergreen trees always have some leaves on the tree and individual leaves Evergreen conifers, such as Abies lasiocarpa (submay live from six months to over 30 years. If grow- alpine fir) shown here in the Canadian Rocky Mountains, are typical of areas with short growing seasons ing conditions are favorable all year round, as in where deciduous trees are disadvantaged by wasting tropical rain forests, then there is no selective part of the season producing new leaves. advantage in being deciduous and so evergreen angiosperms dominate. In climates with a dry summer or cold winter, it is cheaper to grow thin disposable leaves than to grow more robust leaves capable of surviving the offseason, so in most moist temperate areas deciduous trees dominate. however, if environmental conditions become worse, it may once again be more beneficial to grow evergreen leaves. this includes areas with a very short growing season, where evergreen leaves are able to start growing as soon Deciduous forest in Harvard Forest, Massachusetts, USA. In a seasonal temperate climate it is more economical for trees to grow a set of disas conditions allow and so none posable leaves each spring rather than build leaves capable of surviving of the growing season is wasted. the winter. Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 29 this accounts for evergreen leaves in northern and alpine areas, and also among woodland understory shrubs such as holly and ivy, which benefit from an early spring start and late autumn finish when the canopy has no leaves. Evergreen leaves are also found in Mediterranean climates where the winter growing season is dry; leaves that are protected enough to cope with the droughty conditions will also sur- In the very short growing season of the tundra overlying permafrost, evergreen shrubs give way to deciduous Salix spp. (willows). (The graves are those of 19th century vive the hot dry sum- whalers who overwintered and died here on Herschel Island in the Arctic Ocean.) mer, and so effectively become evergreen and need to be kept for several years to repay the high investment cost. In areas where the climate becomes even more severe, such as at the Arctic tree line or in alpine areas, deciduous leaves re-appear. Despite the problems of a very short growing season and acute shortage of nutrients, the winter is so severe that it is cheaper to build new leaves every year rather than attempting to keep leaves alive. thus, the northernmost trees in the Arctic and uppermost trees in alpine areas are deciduous trees such as species of Betula (birch), Larix (larch), and Salix (willow). concLudInG rEmarkS Forest ecosystems work in much the same way as any other ecosystem, but size and complexity create ecological situations that are unique to forests. the large amounts of biomass that can be grown in a year appear useful for carbon sequestration in relation to global warming, but must be weighed against the decompositional losses in mature forests, and possibly the extra methane--a potent greenhouse gas--that these will generate (Keppler et al. 2006). to maintain sequestration rates, new forests are constantly needed. light availability presents problems for those plants living below the dense forest canopy, but these problems are solved by making do with less light or growing when light is available in the spring or during brief sunflecks. the role of forests in the water cycle still needs to be fully clarified, but it is of great importance due to the likely pressure on forests as human water needs increase. Nutrient dynamics in forests are crucial to their long-term well-being and it is important that we improve our understanding of the effects of climate change and pollution on decomposition and nutrient cycling. Of necessity, this chapter gives only a resume of a very large subject. A more detailed account of forest ecology is provided by thomas and packham (2007). 30 Arnoldia 68\/3 rEFErEncES Agren, G. I., E. Bosatta, and A.h. Magill. 2001. Combining theory and experiment to understand effects of inorganic nitrogen on litter decomposition. Oecologia 128: 9498. Anderson, J.M. and M.J. swift. 1983. Decomposition in tropical forests. In: sutton, s.l., t.C. Whitmore, and A.C. Chadwick (eds.), Tropical Rain Forest: Ecology and Management. Blackwell scientific publications, Oxford, pp.287309. Anderson, W.B. and W.G. Eickmeier. 1998. physiological and morphological responses to shade and nutrient additions of Claytonia virginica (portulacaceae): implications for the \"vernal dam\" hypothesis. Canadian Journal of Botany 76: 13401349. Anderson, W.B. and W.G. Eickmeier. 2000. Nutrient resorption in Claytonia virginica l.: implications for deciduous forest nutrient cycling. Canadian Journal of Botany 78: 832 839. Attiwill, p.M. and M.A. Adams. 1993. Nutrient cycling in forests. New Phytologist 124: 561582. Avissar, r. and D. Werth. 2005. Global hydroclimatological teleconnections resulting from tropical deforestation. Journal of Hydrometeorology 6: 134145. Barberis, I.M. and E.V.J. tanner. 2005. Gaps and root trenching increase tree seedling growth in panamanian semi-evergreen forest. Ecology 86: 667674. Bates, C.G. and J. roeser Jr. (1928). light intensities required for growth of coniferous seedlings. American Journal of Botany, 15: 185194. Beedlow, p.A., D.t. tingey, D.l. phillips, W.E. hogsett, and D.M. Olszyk. 2004. rising atmospheric CO2 and carbon sequestration in forests. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment 2: 315322. Bobiec, A. 2002. living stands and dead wood in the Bialowiea forest: suggestions for restoration management. Forest Ecology and Management 165: 125140. Bosch, J.M. and J.D. hewlett. 1982. A review of catchment experiments to determine the effect of vegetation changes on water yield and evapotranspiration. Journal of Hydrology 55: 323. Brown, A.E., l. Zhang, t.A. McMahon, A.W. Western, and r.A. Vertessy. 2005. A review of paired catchment studies for determining changes in water yield resulting from alterations in vegetation. Journal of Hydrology 310: 2861. Calder, I.r., I. reid, t.r. Nisbet, and J.C. Green. 2003. Impact of lowland forests in England on water resources: application of the hydrological land use Change (hyluC) model. Water Resources Research 39: paper 1319. Domec, C., J.M. Warren, F.C. Meinzer, J.r. Brooks, and r. Coulombe. 2004. Native root xylem embolism and stomatal closure in stands of Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine: mitigation by hydraulic redistribution. Oecologia 141: 716 Emerman, s.h. and t.E. Dawson. 1996. hydraulic lift and its influence on the water content of the rhizosphere: an example from sugar maple, Acer saccharum. Oecologia 108: 273278. Evans, G.C. 1956. An area survey method of investigating the distribution of light intensity in woodlands, with particular reference to sun flecks, including an analysis of data from rain forest in southern Nigeria. Journal of Ecology 44: 391428. FAO. 2003. State of the World's Forests 2003, Food and Agriculture Organization of the united Nations, rome, Italy. Filella, I. and J. penuelas. 20032004. Indications of hydraulic lift by Pinus halepensis and its effects on the water relations of neighbor shrubs. Biologia Plantarum 47: 209214. Fitter, A.h. 2005. Darkness visible: reflections on underground ecology. Journal of Ecology 93: 231243. Franklin, J.F., K. Cromack, Jr., A. McKee, C. Masser, J. sedell, F. swanson, and G. Juday. 1981. Ecological Characteristics of Old-growth Douglas-fir Forests. united states Department of Agriculture, Forest service, pacific Northwest Forest and range Experiment station, portland, Oregon, General technical report pNW-118. Golding, D.l. 1970. the effects of forests on precipitation. Forestry Chronicle 46: 397 402. Jackson, r.B., J. Canadell, J.r. Ehleringer, h.A. Mooney, O.E. sala, and E.D. schulze. 1996. A global analysis of root distributions for terrestrial biomes. Oecologia 108: 389411. Keppler, F., J.t.G. hamilton, M. Bra, and t. rockmann. 2006. Methane emissions from terrestrial plants under aerobic conditions. Nature 439: 187191. Kirby, K. and M. Drake. 1993. Dead wood matters. English Nature Science No. 7, English Nature, peterborough. Kuuluvainen, t. and p. Juntunen. 1998. seedling establishment in relation to microhabitat variation in a windthrow gap in a boreal Pinus sylvestris forest. Journal of Vegetation Science 9: 551562. likens, G.E. 2004. some perspectives on long-term biogeochemical research from the hubbard Brook Ecosystem study. Ecology 85: 23552362. likens, G.E., C.t. Driscoll, D.C. Buso, t.G. siccama, C. Johnson, G.M. lovett, t.J. Fahey, W.A. reiners, D.F. ryan, C.W. Martin, and s.W. Bailey. 1998. the biogeochemistry of calcium at hubbard Brook. Biogeochemistry 41: 89173. lipson, D. and t. Nasholm. 2001. the unexpected versatility of plants: organic nitrogen use and availability in terrestrial ecosystems. Oecologia 128: 305316. Magill, A.h., D.A. Aber, W.s. Currie, K.J. Nadelhoffer, M.E. Martin, W.h. McDowell, J.M. Melillo, and p. steudler. 2004. Ecosystem response to Trees and Forests, a Color Guide 31 15 years of chronic nitrogen additions at the harvard Forest ltEr, Massachusetts, usA. Forest Ecology and Management, 196: 728. Muller, r.N. and F.h. Bor mann. 1976. role of Erythronium americanum Ker. in energy flow and nutrient dynamics of a northern hardwood forest ecosystem. Science 193: 11261128. Narukawa, y. and s-I.yamamoto. 2001. Gap formation, microsite variation and the conifer seedling occurrence in a subalpine old-growth forest, central Japan. Ecological Research 16: 617625. Nosengo, N. 2003. Fertilized to death. Nature 425: 894 895. Orr, s.p., J.A. rudgers, and K. Clay. 2005. Invasive plants can inhibit native tree seedlings: testing potential allelopathic mechanisms. Plant Ecology 181: 153165. penuelas, J. and I. Filella. 2003. Deuterium labeling of roots provides evidence of deep water access and hydraulic lift by Pinus nigra in a Mediterranean forest of NE spain. Environmental and Experimental Botany 49: 201208. poorter, l., p.A. Zuidema, M. pena-Claros, and r.G.A. Boot. 2005. A monocarpic tree species in a polycarpic world: how can Tachigali vasqueszii maintain itself in a tropical rain forest. Journal of Ecology 93: 268278. rothstein, D.E. 2000. spring ephemeral herbs and nitrogen cycling in a northern hardwood forest: an experimental test of the vernal dam hypothesis. Oecologia 124: 446453. tessier, J.t. and D.J. raynal. 2003. Vernal nitrogen and phosphorus retention by forest understory vegetation and soil microbes. Plant and Soil 256: 443453. thomas, p. 2000. Trees: Their Natural History. Cambridge university press, Cambridge. thomas, p.A. and J.r. packham. 2007. Ecology of Woodlands and Forests. Cambridge university press, Cambridge. Zak, D.r., p.M. Groffman, K.s. pregitzer, s. Christensen, and J.M. tiedje. 1990. the vernal dam: plant microbe competition for nitrogen in northern hardwood forests. Ecology 71: 651656. Excerpted with permission from: Trees and Forests, a Colour Guide (in united Kingdom) Edited by Bryan G. Bowes 2010, Manson publishing ltd. IsBN 978-1-84076-085-9 published in the united states as: Trees and Forests, a Color Guide Academic press\/Elsevier IsBN 978-0-12-382173-7 Note: Not all photographs from the book are included in this excerpt. peter A. thomas is senior lecturer in Botanical and Environmental sciences in the school of life sciences, Keele university. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. publication title: Arnoldia. 2. publication No: 00042633. 3. Filing Date: september 30, 2010. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues published Annually: 4. 6. Annual subscription price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, suffolk County, MA 021303500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of headquarters of General Business Office of publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, suffolk County, MA 021303500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, suffolk County, MA 021303500, publisher; Nancy rose, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: the Arnold Arboretum of harvard university, 125 Arborway, Boston, suffolk County, MA 021303500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other security holders Owning or holding 1 percent or More of total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other securities: none. 12. the purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: June 17, 2010. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months: 2,867. Actual No. Copies of single Issue published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,800. b. paid and\/or requested Circulation. (1) paid\/requested Outside-County Mail subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months: 1,430. No. Copies of single Issue published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,428. (2) paid In-County subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months: 396. No. Copies of single Issue published Nearest to Filing Date: 386. (3) sales through Dealers and Carriers, street Vendors, and Counter sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed through the usps: none. c. total paid and\/or requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months: 1,826. Actual No. Copies of single Issue published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,814. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During preceding 12 Months: 108. 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Actual No. Copies of single Issue published Nearest to Filing Date: 75%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Nancy rose, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Taste of Sichuan: Zanthoxylum simulans","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25505","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070b76d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":3,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Damery, Jonathan","article_content":"A Taste of Sichuan: Zanthoxylum simulans Jonathan Damery S pices have molded the modern world. Columbus and his fleet sailed in the name of black pepper. New Amsterdam, the Dutch colonial settlement on Manhattan Island, became New York in an island trade essentially pertaining to nutmeg. And the records go on back, to the time when the caravan routes of the rising Arab world first introduced exotic Eastern spices to the insipid foods of Europe. The worldwide distribution of spice-producing plant species (and especially the woody plants within that group) is limited mostly to tropical climates, which excludes the most common spice plants from the temperate-zone tree and shrub collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Of the few exceptions, the Arboretum is home to one spice-producing plant of particular interest--Zanthoxylum simulans, a source of Sichuan pepper. Though not a common spice in American kitchens, the signature mouth-numbing flavor of Sichuan pepper is indispensible in the regional cuisine of Sichuan, China. It is produced from the dried fruit of several different species of Zanthoxylum, also known as the prickly ashes. The most common sources are Z. bungeanum and Z. simulans (formerly considered varieties of the same species), and Z. piperitum is used for similar culinary purposes in Japan. IT IS INTERESTINg to note that Zanthoxylum is a member of the citrus family (Rutaceae). In the United States, this relationship has proved to be rather problematic for Sichuan cooks. Thought to be a potential mode of introducing citrus canker to American citrus groves, the United States Food and Drug Administration forbade its importation for nearly forty years, from 1968 to 2005 (though serious enforcement only came about in 2002). The ban was lifted under the stipulation that the Sichuan pepper be heated just enough to kill any infectious bacteria prior to importation. Several examples of both Zanthoxylum simulans (flatspine prickly ash) and Z. piperitum can be found growing in the Arboretum, but the most notable is a large specimen of the former, tucked in just before the smoketree collection on Meadow Road. This specimen (accession 1803-77-A) was collected as seed by Arboretum taxonomists Stephen Spongberg and Richard Weaver in 1977 from the Forest Research Institute in Seoul, South Korea. The gracefully spreading form of this specimen (24.3 feet [7.4 meters] tall, 6.5 inch [16.5cm] diameter main stem) melds easily into the border of Meadow Road, but even in the winter it is worth taking a few steps off the path for a closer view. A spiny plant from twig to trunk, the spines (or technically prickles in the case of those on the trunk) become enlarged and woody, lending an exotic appearance to the tree. The deep green compound leaves have an attractive glossy sheen, and in midsummer Z. simulans is covered with a greenish white haze of small flowers, followed by a prolific display of small, round follicles (a type of dehiscent fruit). At maturity these fruits turn a pinkishbronze color and split open, spitting out the seeds. The dried follicle is the culinary product, Sichuan pepper. On the plains and in upland forests of northern and central China, Arboretum plant explorer E. H. Wilson reported that Zanthoxylum simulans grew naturally on cliffs and waysides. In cultivation it was grown in dry, hot river valleys. This is a good indication of its adaptability to a myriad of difficult landscape conditions. The species is cold hardy in USDA Zones 5 to 7 (average annual minimum temperature -20 to 10F [-28.8 to -12.3C]). From the bare winter trunks through the remarkable autumn fruit display, Zanthoxylum simulans is worth viewing all year long. It is a not-so-hidden--but often missed--Arboretum treasure. Jonathan Damery is a Curatorial Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23422","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160b728.jpg","title":"2011-68-3","volume":68,"issue_number":3,"year":2011,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Case for Plant Exploration","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":2,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25501","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070af26.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Case for Plant Exploration Peter Del Tredici he history of plant exploration is as old as human history itself. People have been discovering, collecting, and moving plants for eons, and the process is not likely to stop any time soon. Indeed, it is as ancient as the practice of agriculture itself--it's part of our genetic heritage. The challenge plant collectors face today is how to continue their work without causing further problems for our already badly damaged environment. Despite the best efforts of many research scientists, we have yet to develop a truly reliable way of predicting whether an unknown plant will be problematic without actually growing it under a variety of conditions to see how it behaves. Botanical gardens, with their relatively secure perimeters and their commitment to science over commerce, are places where new plant introductions can and should be tested for a variety of traits including their potential invasiveness As the world environment continues to deteriorate as a result of human-induced phenomena such as acid rain and climate change, there can be little doubt but that we are going to need tough, adaptable plants for Peter Del Tredici inspecting persimmon seeds our managed landscapes more than ever. Many during the NACPEC expedition to Wudang Shan, of our native species--including such familiar Hubei, China, in 1994. trees as American elm, eastern hemlock, sugar maple, and white and green ash--are no longer planted in our cities because of insect, disease, or stress susceptibility. We have a real need to replace them with stress-tolerant, non-invasive species that can survive all the abuse that people throw at them. Some of these plants of the future may be native to North America, but I can guarantee you that some of them--either as species or as hybrids--will come from Central and Eastern Asia. And that's where the North AmericaChina Plant Exploration Consortium comes in. For the past twenty years this collaborative organization has made it a priority to try to deal with future horticultural problems without creating new ones in the process. The organization is devoted to the collection, propagation, and study of plants in their native habitats, with a potential outcome of selection and eventual introduction. There can be little doubt but that plant diversity--in all its glorious forms--is going to be crucial in keeping the planet habitable, most especially for humans. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. T PAUL MEYER "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Return to China, Mother of Gardens","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25502","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070af6b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meyer, Paul W.","article_content":" The Return to China, Mother of Gardens Paul W. Meyer I n 1929, Ernest Henry Wilson's book China, Mother of Gardens was published, which documented the importance of Chinese plant species to western gardens. Wilson collected plants widely in China between 1899 and 1910. Many of his introductions have become important components of the cultivated flora of our gardens and our cities, and have been used widely in plant hybridization and selection. Wilson's China collections greatly expanded our understanding of the Chinese flora as the richest and most diverse flora in the temperate world and identified the usefulness of many species for cultivation. However, until recently, many of the most important and useful Chinese species in America were the result of limited seed collections, representing only a narrow slice of the genetic diversity and potential of each species. In some cases, all the plants in this country derived from a single plant or a few seedlings. After multiple generations of propagation from seed, symptoms of inbreeding were being observed. Since the 1930s, wars and the political situation in China made it difficult, if not impossible, for western scientists and plant explorers to travel, study, and collect plants in China. However, Chinese botanists were hard at work during this time, cataloguing, describing, and publishing detailed accounts of their flora. With the gradual opening of China following President Nixon's visit in 1972, these publications became more available in western botanical libraries. This new information further documented the richness of the Chinese flora and its potential for further plant exploration, evaluation, and introduction. These data also provided additional information on the natural geographic distribution of species, allowing us to target specific areas for collection in particular parts of their range. By doing so, we could potentially maximize adaptability characteristics such as winter hardiness, heat and drought tolerance, and adaptability to special soil characteristics. Collaboration Breeds Success Earlier expeditions in South Korea, beginning in the 1960s and 1970s, had clearly demonstrated the diversity of plant species still relatively unknown to western horticulture and the importance of studying intraspecific variation and its potential usefulness to landscape crops. Up until this point, collections had been largely one-time efforts and not part of a comprehensive plan to collect over a large geographic range. In the early 1980s, Barry yinger, at that time employed by the United States National Arboretum, proposed a series of Korean collecting trips that would facilitate the collection of specific target taxa over separate geographic and climatic ranges. The resulting trips occurred between 1984 and 1989. They were facilitated by the United States National Arboretum in close collaboration with American and Korean botanical institutions and were highly successful. This collaborative approach based on a multi-year master plan became the model on which we began to build a proposal for a longrange plan for plant exploration in China. Key to the success of the Korean expeditions was the principle of collaboration among institutions as they plan, execute, and follow up on a plant collecting expedition. Most institutions today do not have the financial or human resources to do this work alone. Collaboration allows for the division of responsibilities and of the significant financial commitment needed. It also broadens the range of expertise present in the field. The field work itself is labor Facing page: While on a plant collecting trip for the Arnold Arboretum, E. H. Wilson captured this image of an alpine village (elevation 7,500 feet [2,286 meters]) in the mountains of western Sichuan, China, in August 1908. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 6 Arnoldia 68\/2 ANTHONy AIEllO reliably cold hardy in USDA Zone 6 (average annual minimum temperature 0 to -10F [-17.8 to -23.3C]). Indeed, seedlings grown have demonstrated superior winter hardiness and, after years of testing, a number of named cultivars have been introduced. Similarly, kousa dogwood (Cornus kousa) was a tried and proven landscape plant but most, if not all, kousa dogwoods in the United States at that time (pre-1980) were descended from a nar row genetic pool. Additional collections made in Korea in the 1980s further demonstrated the great variation within that spe(Left to right) Kris Bachtell, Chris Carley, and Li Jianjun collect ash seeds (Fraxinus cies. By 1990 we were seeing paxiana NACPEC08-016) on a road in Hong He Gu Forest Park, Shaanxi. the promise of greater winter intensive and it is important to have multiple hardiness, increased vigor, and interesting varihands to physically collect the seeds, make and ation in flower bract shape and size from these record the field observations, and complete the collections. As we reviewed Chinese floras we evening tasks of cleaning seed and processing discovered that Chinese botanists had observed herbarium specimens. Most important, coland documented wide variation within this laboration provides multiple sites for propaspecies in China, so much so that they divided gating, growing, and eventually evaluating the what we know as Cornus kousa into multiple collections. Multiple institutions give a variety species. The successes of our Korean collecof testing locales and some level of insurance tions along with the promise of a richness of against seed loss or crop failure. And even if intraspecific variation encouraged us to purall are successful, it allows for a greater genetic sue additional collections of these and other reservoir to be tested and preserved through species in China. permanent living collections. Another specific plant that motivated us was Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis). During the Widening the Pool 1980s and 1990s, hemlock woolly adelgid (AdelSeveral notable collection successes from the ges tsugae) was becoming widespread in the Korean expeditions encouraged us to continue northeastern United States, causing our native this work in China. In 1984, there were two eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) to decline expeditions to islands off the northwest coast of and often die. At both the Morris Arboretum South Korea. The key target species was Cameland the Arnold Arboretum, it was noted that lia japonica. It was believed that populations a Chinese hemlock growing near an infested on these islands would represent the most coldeastern hemlock was resisting infestation. A hardy forms of the species. Seedlings grown few other Chinese hemlocks growing in other in multiple institutions could be selected for arboreta were visited and also were showing hardiness as well as landscape attributes, and resistance. This led to a comprehensive plan ultimately be used in breeding projects, with to re-collect Chinese hemlock from a number the ultimate goal being clones well-adapted and of different locales across its natural range in Return to China 7 China to further study its adelgid resistance and explore horticultural variation and adaptabilities within this species. By the late 1980s, travel to China was becoming more practical and a group of horticulturists who had worked in Korea began to envision a wide-ranging, long-term plan to collaborate with Chinese colleagues. We had already identified a broad geographic arc across northern China that represented areas with a climate parallel to the northeastern United States. We looked at reported mean temperature in both January and July and gave priority to areas with both hot summers and cold winters. Also, we continued to target superior Chinese species already known and grown in the United States that might benefit from new collections and the introduction of greater genetic diversity. We also began the slow process (in the days before email) of establishing contacts with Chinese colleagues and exploring the possibility of meeting with them in China to map a collaborative plan and agreement. Out of this effort, a loose consortium of institutions came together in 1991 to form The North AmericaChina Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC). Founding members included lawrence lee of the United NANCy ROSE States National Arboretum (Washington, D.C.), Peter Bristol of the Holden Arboretum (Kirtland, Ohio), and Paul Meyer of the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). NACPEC, the Early Years Our overtures were enthusiastically received and in the autumn of 1991 the founding American members traveled to China to visit a number of botanical and forestry institutions in six cities, and to explore the feasibility of future plant exploration trips. Host Chinese Institutions included the Research Institute of Forestry and Beijing Botanical Garden, the Heilongjiang Academy of Forestry in Harbin, the Chang Chun Forest Botanic Garden, Xian Botanic Garden, and Nanjing Botanic Garden. We visited their herbaria and discussed target species and potential area for collection as well as the nuts and bolts of planning future trips and getting official permissions. With the advice and encouragement of our Chinese colleagues, we laid tentative expedition schedules for the next 5 years. As part of the exchange, NACPEC would assist our Chinese partners by supporting RICHARD SCHUlHOF Kousa dogwood (Cornus kousa) has a broad native range and much variation within the species. Hemlock wooly adelgids (seen as cottony white dots along the branchlets in this photo) attack native eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) but Chinese hemlock (T. chinensis) appears to be resistant. 8 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MEyER PAUl MEyER research projects, facilitating and supporting student and professional exchanges, and by procuring wild-collected and cultivated North American germplasm for evaluation by Chinese institutions. Funding for these expeditions was primarily dependent on the participating NACPEC members' institutions with additional support from the National Plant Germplasm System, a part of the Agriculture Research Service of the United States Department (From right, facing camera) Peter Bristol, Lawrence Lee, and He Lin examine of Agriculture (USDA). The herbarium specimens in the Nanjing Botanical Garden Herbarium on the 1991 USDA recognizes that the pro- planning trip. Research in the herbarium was helpful in pinpointing potential duction of landscape plants sites for future exploration. represents a significant and growing part of American agricultural production and that, in the past, landscape plants were not well represented in the germplasm repository system. Interest in NACPEC grew following the success of these planning efforts. In 1992, longwood Gardens (Kennett Square, Pennsylvania) and the Morton Arboretum (lisle, Illinois), based on their expressed interest and experience, were invited to join NACPEC. later, the Arnold Arboretum (Boston, Massachusetts) and the University of British Columbia In the far north of Heilongjiang, beautiful remnants of the great Manchurian Botanic Garden (Vancouver, forest remain. The tallest trees are Pinus koraiensis, Picea jezoensis, and Abies nephrolepis. Common deciduous species include Betula costata, Betula platyBritish Columbia) joined the phylla var. mandshurica, Fraxinus mandshurica, Acer pictum ssp. mono, and collaboration. Quercus mongolica. The Manchurian forest appears quite similar to northern Planning progressed for the New England forests. first NACPEC full plant exploration trip to the province of Heilongjiang, ters, pole pruners, packing bags, and sphagnum located in the far northeastern corner of China. moss for packing and shipping seed. Once we We were hosted by Professor Jin Tieshan, a arrived, we had to navigate the protocols of renowned professor of forestry at the Heilongjiimportation of supplies and later the exportang Academy for Forestry. This first expedition ing of seed. As with governments everywhere, to China was a great learning experience for these procedures are never fast or easy. the American visitors and our hosts alike. We We were overwhelmed by the commitmailed much of our equipment over in advance, ment and hospitality of our hosts. They did including herbarium presses, papers and bloteverything possible to help us professionally Return to China 9 PAUl MEyER PETER DEl TREDICI and to look after our safety and human comforts. The modern world had not yet arrived in rural Heilongjiang in 1993 and we had a chance to experience the beauty of the traditional agrarian life in northeast China. In the far north of Heilongjiang, we got to see remnants of the once great Manchurian forest with Korean pines (Pinus koraiensis), yezo spruce (Picea jezoensis), and Manchurian fir (Abies nephrolepis) towering well over 100 feet (30.5 meters) tall. By the end of this month- (Left to right) Sheng Ning , a local host, and Jeff Lynch collect seeds of Acer triflolong trip we had collected rum, a maple valued for its exfoliating bark and brilliant red-orange fall color. 112 accessions. Especially notable collections include Maackia amurensis, a potentially useful urban street tree; Pinus koraiensis, a beautiful and fast growing five-needled pine; and Abies holophylla, one of the firs best adapted to areas with hot summers. Where possible, each accession included dried pressed specimens for herbaria of both Chinese and American institutions and seed lots to be grown and evaluated in our institutions. The herbarium specimens serve as an important part of the scientific documentation of each germplasm collection and a perma- This Chinese man collected a bumper harvest of Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) in the edible seeds (comnent record of the occurrence cones from the local forest in Jilin. After dryingand the sun, Korean pine is the most monly called pine nuts) are extracted, cleaned, packed. of that species in the wild. common source of pine nuts in world commerce because they are relatively large, This work is especially urgent plentiful, and inexpensive. and important today as China is being developed at an unprecedented pace. that first diplomatic trip in 1991, NACPEC Mountainous areas that were largely pristine has sponsored a total of 12 plant collecting in the 1980s were being developed with tourtrips to China. ist resorts and aerial tramways in the 1990s, A World of Opportunities putting increased pressure on the already limThe outcome of this work is hard to fully meaited natural areas in China. The success of sure as it has affected so many individuals and this first expedition energized the team to institutions in so many ways. Over the years, continue planning for two separate expediNACPEC plant explorers have had a chance to tions in 1994 and others in later years. Since Return to China 11 visit and study innumerable Chinese plants in their natural habitat and to learn from Chinese colleagues about the plants' economic and folk uses. By seeing a plant growing in its natural habitat, we can glean insights into the growing conditions to which it is best adapted. It has also given our collectors the opportunity to lecture to groups of professionals and amateurs about the importance of conserving our planet's plant resources. Additionally, NACPEC institutions have hosted many Chinese colleagues and students for study visits and extended internships in the United States over the past 20 years, as part of our broader academic exchanges. Today we are well aware of the dangers of introducing a new invasive species. In many instances we are focused on re-collecting new genetic material of plants that have already proved themselves as well-behaved, handsome landscape plants. When in the field, many potentially invasive plants were left uncollected. Warning signs include an aggressive habit in their natural environment or the existence of related species which have already become unruly in the United States. Back at home, curators keep an eye on plants in the botanic gardens and those showing invasive tendencies are typically removed. With each trip, NACPEC has become increasingly focused on a limited number of target species that address specific emerging needs, such as resistance to the hemlock woolly adelgid or the emerald ash borer, rather than on general collecting. Over the years, hundreds of plants have been shared with NACPEC members and many other non-member institutions. In all, the database of NACPEC collections lists 1,348 accessions with over 6,000 plants in 9 institutions. Each collector may have their favorites, and individual plants are attracting attention as possible cultivar introductions. But beyond the garden merit of these plants, perhaps one day some \"ugly duckling\" may be found to contain genes for resistance to some still unknown virulent disease or insect, or may contain a compound effective in the fight against cancer. No doubt the value of these collections will continue to emerge for decades and maybe even centuries to come in ways we cannot yet imagine. NACPEC is probably the most successful, broad-based, and long-lived collaboration of its sort anywhere in the world. And after nearly 20 years of active collecting in its countryside, modern China continues to indeed be the \"Mother of Gardens.\" Bibliography Aiello, A. S. 2005. Evaluating Cornus kousa cold hardiness. American Nurseryman 201(5): 3239. Aiello, A. S. 2009. Seeking cold-hardy camellias. Arnoldia 67(1): 2030. Aniko, T. 2006. Plant exploration for Longwood Gardens. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Del Tredici, P. and A. Kitajima. 2004. Introduction and Cultivation of Chinese Hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and Its Resistance to Hemlock Wooly Adelgid, Journal of Arboriculture 30(5): 282287. Meyer, P. W. 1999. Plant Collecting Expeditions: A Modern Perspective. The Public Garden 14(2): 37. Meyer, P. W. 2000 Plant Collecting Expeditions: A Modern Perspective. In: J. R. Ault (ed.) Plant Exploration: Protocols for the Present, Concerns for the Future (Symposium Proceedings). Chicago Botanic Garden, Chicago, Illinois. pp. 712. Meyer, P. W. and S. J. Royer. 1998. The North American Plant Collections Consortium. The Public Garden 13(3): 2023. Meyer, P. W. 1985. Botanical riches from afar. Morris Arboretum Newsletter 14(1): 45. yinger, B. 1989. Plant Trek: In pursuit of a hardy camellia. Flower and Garden 33(2): 104106. yinger, B. 1989. Plant Trek: On site with hardy camellias, Sochong Island, Korea. Flower and Garden 33(3): 6266. Paul W. Meyer is the F. Otto Haas Director of the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Facing page: This gateway building is part of the beautiful Taoist temple complex on the slopes of Wudang Mountain in Hubei. Taoist monks find tranquil spirituality in nature. Over the centuries they have helped protect this botanically rich forest, dubbed \"horticultural heaven\" by NACPEC expedition members. Photo by Paul Meyer. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sharing and Enjoying the Joint Botanical Expeditions","article_sequence":3,"start_page":12,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25500","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070ab6d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Shanan, He","article_content":"Sharing and Enjoying the Joint Botanical Expeditions He Shanan A fter nearly thirty years of isolation from each other, the first modern Sino American botanical expedition was initiated in 1980, with five American botanists participating in a joint expedition to Shennongjia in China's Hubei province. In a reciprocal activity, five Chinese botanists then joined a field expedition in the United States for more than four months in the spring and summer of 1982. It was a historic expedition--the largest Chinese team to make a field trip outside of China in many years--and it generated a sound mutual understanding and cooperative base for the further development of botanizing activities. Some ten years later, a series of joint expeditions began in China, organized by NACPEC and a group of Chinese botanical gardens, which have continued for twenty years already. Improving on the first SinoAmerican botanizing trip, the NACPEC expeditions have covered a very wide range of geographical areas and have had teams composed of members from a number of different disciplines. By all accounts, both the American participants and their Chinese botanical garden hosts have been well satisfied by the efficiency, valuable collections, and the mutually beneficial exchanges of science and technology. Speaking as a member of the Chinese botanical gardens team, I would like to express my great interest and satisfaction in the project, since it has made a considerable contribution to the ex situ conservation collections in Chinese botanical gardens. First, it increased the accessions and enriched the geographical diversity of the botanical gardens' living collections. These collections typically consist of relatively few individuals of a given species, and they are often collected from only a few geographic localities. According to modern concepts of ex situ conservation, a well-balanced germplasm collection should consist of numerous individuals Professor He Shanan in the propagation house at the Nanjing Botanical Garden. from multiple locations. Second, these kinds of collaborative projects can save both money and human resources by sharing plant materials collected with other botanical gardens in different regions, thereby reducing the risk of losing precious plant germplasm. And third, this project provides good opportunities for exchanging scientific information, methodology, and experience. Personally, I am very interested in knowing that most botanical gardens in the United States have the same team doing the collecting activities in the wild, managing the propagation PAUl MEyER Joint Botanical Expeditions 13 HARVARD UNIVERSITy HERBARIA Herbarium specimens like this one of Emmenopterys henryi are permanent scientific records of individual collections that may well last long beyond the living material. In most cases, multiple herbarium specimens were made of each collection for sharing among the Chinese and American institutions. 14 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MEyER Emmenopterys henryi is a rare and endangered tree species native to China. E. H. Wilson first collected this species in 1907 on an expedition for the Arnold Arboretum. He described it as \". . . one of the most strikingly beautiful trees of the Chinese forests, with its flattish to pyramidate corymbs of pure white, rather large flowers and still larger white bracts.\" The 1994 expedition to Wudang Shan found and collected E. henryi in Hubei (top photo).Some of the seeds from this collection went to the Nanjing Botanical Garden, and the resulting seedlings are seen growing in the NBG propagation house (bottom right). An herbarium specimen from this collection (previous page) shows the persistent bracts and oblong seed capsules. In cultivation, Emmenopterys henryi is notorious for taking decades to start blooming, though this precocious specimen (bottom left) at the Quarryhill Botanical Garden in California bloomed at just six years of age. PETER DEl TREDICI JESIKA JENNINGS Joint Botanical Expeditions 15 American and Chinese expedition members shared information and expertise throughout the collection process. in the garden, and taking care of the resulting collections. Such a unified approach encourages botanical garden staff to have strong feelings of attachment to the collections. In Chinese botanical gardens, sometimes these three activities were conducted by different groups of people; for example, the taxonomists and their technicians conducted the expeditions in the wild, and the horticulturists and gardeners propagated the plants and maintained the introduced materials. It is also helpful for Chinese botanical gardens to learn to emphasize and to standardize the record system both in the wild and in the garden. Summarizing the achievements of the cooperative projects, it is obviously very positive, especially as we know that there are so many new plants released. More investigations and more collections are critically important as the planet faces the serious challenge of climate change and ex situ conservation becomes the only effective method for saving plants in the face of relentless urban expansion. I would like to suggest that the NACPEC project should continue its development and move ahead with follow-up research on the plants already collected. Conserve more plants for humanity! Have great success in the future! He Shanan was Director of the Nanjing Botanical Garden in Nanjing, China, from 1983 to 1998. PETER DEl TREDICI "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Traveling in China Photo Features","article_sequence":4,"start_page":16,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25503","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070b36f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"TravelIng In ChIna S Clockwise from upper left: haring narrow rural roads with large logging trucks led to plenty of white-knuckle moments in China (top two photos). A close encounter on the road to Changbai Shan in 1997 turned nearly fatal--by a matter of inches-- when an oncoming truck swerved, directing an unsecured log straight toward the NACPEC expedition van. The end of the log neatly peeled off the driver's door like the lid on a sardine tin (above and at left). Paul Meyer, looking slightly stunned, observes the damage. Ever the plantsmen, the expedition members identified the offending log as Manchurian linden (Tilia mandshurica). Upper left photo Paul Meyer, all others Peter Del Tredici Traveling in China Photo Features 17 O ther travel hazards included muddy roads and various waterways as well as sinkholes and road construction (top two photos). Clockwise from right: This apple vendor used a low-tech but efficient means of transport, a wooden handcart. Once at the collection sites, foot power became the required mode of travel. Charles Tubesing leads the expedition members through a patch of Oplopanax elatus. The rewards of hiking included incredible views of the scenery such as Tianchi (Heavenly) Lake at 2,000 meters (about 6500 feet) elevation in the Changbai Shan. Unfortunately, NACPEC expedition members did not see the mysterious monsters that local legend says inhabit this volcanic crater lake. All photos Paul Meyer C FIeld ColleCTIng ollecting seeds, plants, and herbarium specimens is a team effort on expeditions. Clockwise from upper left: Jeff Lynch and Paul Meyer check out an unknown elm species (Ulmus sp.) on a hill above the Yalu River, which divides China from North Korea (seen in the background). Though woody plants dominate among NACPEC collections, some herbaceous plants such as Paeonia obovata (held by Sheng Ning) have also been collected. This peony grows in moist, fertile soils in the woodland understory. The glamorous work of plant explorers includes picking up Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) seeds along a roadside. Out on a limb: Mr. Park, \"the barefoot guide,\" balances precariously while collecting branches from a three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum). Chris Carley, Bai Genlu, and Li Jianjun strip seeds from harvested branches of Acer stachyophyllum ssp. betulifolium. Photos clockwise from upper left: Peter Del Tredici, Paul Meyer, Kris Bachtell, Peter Del Tredici, Anthony Aiello R ecording detailed data is an essential part of the collection process. Clockwise from upper left: In the mountains of the Beijing area, Rick Lewandowski (left) takes notes on location and surrounding flora while Ned Garvey (center) writes out labels for the seeds being packaged by Charles Tubesing (right). Tools of the collecting trade include extendable pole pruners, held here by Wang Xianli. Pole pruners are put to use collecting Fraxinus insularis in the rain during the 2008 expedition. A cluster of fruit collected from Farges filbert (Corylus fargesii). A thin-shelled nut is held within each tightly wrapped involucre. This species was previously rare in the United States and is a valued addition to the USDA's Corylus germplasm collection. Upper right photo Peter Del Tredici, all others Kris Bachtell (Continues on page 36) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"By the Numbers: Twenty Years of NACPEC Collections","article_sequence":5,"start_page":20,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25487","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060b36b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.; Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"By the Numbers: Twenty Years of NACPEC Collections Anthony S. Aiello and Michael S. Dosmann B eginning with the initial feasibility expedition in 1991, NACPEC has conducted a total of 12 botanical expeditions to China (Table 1). These represent a concerted effort to systematically investigate and explore varying climatic areas, habitats, and ecosystems across a wide geographic range. Although quite comparable in land mass, China has much greater plant diversity than the United States. Target areas for NACPEC expeditions were determined based on climate information and cover a broad arc from central China where the Qinling mountain range forms the continental divide separating north and south China (the yellow and yangtze River systems), through the mountain ranges west of Beijing, to the far north and northeast of the country in the provinces bordering Russia and North Korea. Although there is a fascinating and diverse flora in Sichuan and yunnan, these provinces have not been primary targets because plants from this warmer region of China have not performed particularly well in the climates of most NACPEC members. The goals of each NACPEC trip have varied-- on many trips we collected broadly, working from a large list of target plants, while on other trips we focused on specific taxa (e.g., Tsuga in 1998 and 1999, and Fraxinus in 2008). (See map on page 26 for locations covered on each trip.) The contributions from these trips have resulted in a wealth of knowledge about the characteristics and ecology of Chinese plants, represented by copious collection notes and herbarium specimens. And, by bringing germplasm back to North America and integrating it into the living collections spread among all of the members of the consortium, we collectively learn how these individuals respond under cultivation to our diverse growing conditions. The expeditions are summarized in separate trip reports that are housed in the libraries of the participating institutions and generally consist of two parts: a trip journal and the field notes. The journal recounts the daily activities of the trip and also sets out the context for the various plant collections. The detailed field notes provide extensive information on all of the collections for an expedition. These trip reports provide a resource for current and future exploration efforts. Sifting the Statistics As more NACPEC collections were propagated, distributed, and evaluated, it became clear that we should report on the results of the NACPEC expeditions. Our goal with this article is to provide information on the successes and challenges of collecting in this modern era, and to evaluate the significance PETER DEl TREDICI Detailed notes are taken for each collection. Here, Paul Meyer records a collection location from a GPS (global positioning system) device. Sunrise in Xia Ban Si (Cloud Sea), Shaanxi. The photograph was made at an elevation of over 9,000 feet (2,743 meters), the highest point reached on the 2008 expedition. Photo by Anthony Aiello. of NACPEC collections to botany, plant conservation, and ornamental horticulture. A similar case study was published by Dosmann and Del Tredici in their review (2003) of the 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition (SABE), another collaborative trip that yielded abundant herbarium and germplasm collections from Hubei. We wanted to know if there were any similarities or differences between the SABE and the NACPEC trips, and if there were lessons learned that could be applied not only to future collecting trips, but to living collections management in general. NACPEC members regularly combine and update lists of their expedition holdings into a complete plant survey, and this was most recently completed in late 2009 (for online access to this information see the Data Base of Asian Plants in Cultivation [DAPC] http:\/\/ www.quarryhillbg.org, the BG-Base Multi-Site Search page http:\/\/www.bg-base.com, and the individual institutions' websites). This combined inventory aids curatorial decisions among the collaborating institutions, helps to find missing or unusual collections, and focuses future collecting efforts. We used this combined inventory as the basis for the descriptive statistics provided in this article. These statistics include all of the collections made on the 12 NACPEC expeditions, as well as seeds collected in 1994, 1997, and 2001 by Professor Cui Tiecheng (formerly of the Xi'an Botanic Garden), and a few sets of seeds received as exchanges. living germplasm data came from the NACPEC institutions, plus the holdings at the Dawes Arboretum. A very recent inclusion in this survey is the University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden, which received a seed distribution following the 1993 Heilongjiang and 1994 Beijing expeditions (see page 24). NACPEC: Who We Are and What We Do S I N C E its inception, NACPEC's efforts have been motivated by a number of goals, including: Broadening the genetic pool of species already in cultivation, with Conserving rare species. Selecting improved ornamental forms. Evaluating and introducing appropriate new species. Increasing our understanding of botanical diversity throughout China. Collaborating with key institutions in the national and international botanical community. particular emphasis on extending cold hardiness and increasing vigor, improving adaptability to stressful environments, and increasing insect and disease resistance. NACPEC consists of eight member institutions plus partner organizations that contribute to the success of our collecting efforts and the wide distribution of valuable germplasm. Each location not only has unique growing conditions that are favorable for certain types of taxa or those from specific parts of China, but the individual missions and collections policies of each institution are novel. Such diversity is truly an asset. The NACPEC members are: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Boston, MA The Holden Arboretum, Kirtland, OH Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, PA The Morris Arboretum of the University The Morton Arboretum, Lisle, IL United States National Arboretum, University of British Columbia Botanical USDA Woody Landscape Plant Germplasm Repository, Beltsville, MD Garden, Vancouver, BC Viburnum betulifolium of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA Washington, DC Other partners in these efforts include the Dawes Arboretum in Newark, OH as well as several Chinese botanical institutions listed in Table 1. KRIS BACHTEll Twenty Years of NACPEC Collections 23 What's a Collection? V I S I T O R S to public gardens may associate the word \"collection\" with groups of living plants, often labeled with signs such as \"Maple Collection\" or \"Conifer Collection.\" But on NACPEC expeditions, we use the word collection in a different way. A collection results from one specific act of collecting and may comprise one or more products. Each NACPEC collection receives a unique alpha-numeric code for identification. For example, on the 2005 trip to Gansu we collected seeds from a Cercidiphyllum japonicum and also collected herbarium specimens from the tree. A single collection number, NACPEC05-059, was assigned to both the seeds and herbarium specimens, and any associated data also carry that collection number. Once a NACPEC collection (in the form of seeds, cuttings, plants, or herbarium specimens) arrives at a botanical garden or arboretum, it is typically assigned an accession number unique to that institution. The Cercidiphyllum collected in Gansu is accession AA # 126-2007 at the Arnold Arboretum and MOAR # 2005-192 at the Morris Arboretum, but both institutions can track their accessions back to the original NACPEC collection, which makes ongoing evaluation This Cercidiphyllum japonicum growing at the and reporting easier and more accurate. Any instituArnold Arboretum is identified by the Arnold tion that receives clonally propagated plants of that Arboretum accession number 126-2007-A NACPEC collection in the future may give it their own (letters identify individual specimens within the accession group), but the label information accession number but will also retain the original also includes the original NACPEC collection number, NACPEC05-059. NACPEC collection number in their records. There have been a total of 1,350 unique NACPEC collections since 1991 (Table 2). Of these, 71% (961 collections) are represented by herbarium specimens and 93% (1,250 collections) were originally collected as germplasm (primarily seeds but occasionally seedlings or cuttings); most collections comprised both germplasm and herbarium vouchers. Of the 1,250 germplasm collections made, more than half (56%) are currently represented by living plants among the various member gardens, a percentage somewhat greater than the 1980 SABE (258 of initial 621, or 41%). Certainly, as in the 1980 SABE, an inability to successfully propagate some germplasm collections led to their initial failure. For example, in the case of some taxa such as Acer (maples), seeds collected may be empty and therefore not viable. Similarly, seeds of other taxa may germinate but only grow into weak plants that do not make it out of the propagation\/production phase. And there are also those taxa that make it out onto the grounds only to perform poorly and eventually die. Thus, a \"success rate\" of around 50% is not uncommon. In directly comparing the NACPEC and SABE collections, we wondered what the contributing factors might be for the slightly higher rate among NACPEC collections (56% versus 41%). Certainly, some of the more recent NACPEC collections are still going through the pivotal propagation\/production phase, which contributes to the higher PAUl WARNICK, UNIVERSITy OF IDAHO RICHARD NASKAlI Got NACPEC Plants? W H I L E writing this article, we happened upon information that added significantly to our inventory and the compilation of our statistics. Charles Tubesing, curator at the Holden Arboretum, forwarded to me a newsletter from the University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden. In that newsletter, Paul Warnick wrote about the development of an arbor to hold vines that they had grown from seeds collected by NACPEC. In further correspondence with Paul, I learned that their institution holds 246 NACPEC plants representing 55 taxa and 64 collections. These include 5 collections A number of NACPEC collection plants grow that previously existed at only one institution, 3 colon the vine arbor at the University of Idaho Arboretum and Botanical Garden, including, lections that previously existed as a single plant at a Clematis mandshurica HLJ-073 and Vitis lone institution, and 2 collections that we previously amurensis BJG-039, top, and Actinidia arguta BJG-025 (male flowers), bottom. thought were dead altogether. While we knew that NACPEC collections had been distributed far and wide, this one instance illustrated just how pivotal distributions outside the NACPEC network can be. In light of this information, we would be very interested in hearing if any other organizations have NACPEC collections in their gardens. If so, please contact Anthony Aiello at aiello@upenn.edu . We would be happy to include your records in future NACPEC inventories. --ASA success rate. However, we believe that the overwhelming reason for the greater success is due to the unique nature of NACPEC: wide initial distribution of germplasm--and continuing distribution of surplus plants and vegetative propagules--to a network of gardens and arboreta with unique growing environments. lighty (2000) described several barriers to successful expeditions, one of them being the \"too-rapid rate of entry of plants into the system\" that then overwhelms staff and facilities. Because of its distributive and collaborative nature, NACPEC may have found a way to break this barrier. Notable Successes There are some remarkable success stories from the trips of the early 1990s, with 62% of the 1993 Heilongjiang collections and 69% of the 1994 Beijing expedition plants still alive today. What might have contributed to these successes? Germplasm from these trips was widely distributed to numerous NACPEC institutions, and by and large it was well-adapted to these varying climates. And even though the 1999 trip to Sichuan has a fairly low percentage of living germplasm (40%), significant collections resulted from this expedition, most notably Tsuga chinensis var. oblingisquamata (Table 3). Another important statistic revealed in our assessment is the level of duplication among collections. Of those unique germplasm collections that are currently alive, approximately 60% grow in at least two different institutions. This duplication insures against the loss of valuable material and also provides opportunities for broader evaluation and study across a number of different growing sites. The numbers do not always tell the whole story, however. For example, there are only 15 living collections (out of an initial 30) from the 1995 Collaborative distribution of seed and plant collections helps prevent individual NACPEC member institutions from reaching \"propagation overload.\" ERIC lA FOUNTAINE Chimonanthus praecox (the cultivar `Grandiflorus' is seen here) bears fragrant yellow flowers in late winter or early spring. NANCy ROSE 26 Arnoldia 68\/2 1 Heilongjiang 1 Inner Mongolia A.R. Liaoning Jilin 6 BEIJING Ningxia 2 Tianjin Shanxi Hebei Shandong Qinghai Gansu 9 5 Shaanxi 10 4 5 11 3 Henan Anhui Hubei Jiangsu 8 Sichuan Chongqing 7 Jiangxi SHANGHAI Zhejiang Hunan Guizhou 7 7 Fujian Guangdong Macau S.A.R. Hong Kong S.A.R. Yunnan Guangxi Zhuang A.R. 0 250 125 250 500 1,000 Kilometers 500 Miles Hainan 0 NACPEC EXPEDITION LOCATIONS 1 1993Heilongjiang 2 1994Beijing 3 1994Hubei 4 1995Shaanxi 5 1996ShaanxiandGansu (QinlingMountains) 6 1997Jilin(ChangbaiShan) 7 1998Anhui,Guangxi,andJiangxi 8 1999Sichuan 9 2002Shanxi 10 2005Gansu 11 2008Shaanxi Twenty Years of NACPEC Collections 27 Shaanxi expedition. One of these is Chimonanthus praecox (SHX033), a shrub noteworthy for its fragrant flowers in early spring. This plant is well known horticulturally, but as far as we can determine, this is the only wild-collected collection in North America. It is represented by only five plants at the Morris Arboretum and is an example of a collection growing at only one institution. This type of collection, held at only one institution, illustrates one of the challenges facing NACPEC as well as others engaged in germplasm acquisition. Forty percent of the NACPEC collections grow in just a single place. Even though most of these exist as multiple plants (as in the Chimonanthus), they are potentially at risk and need to be prioritized for distribution. But at even greater risk are those collections that exist as just a single plant in a single institution. For the NACPEC collections, 15% fall into this category. While they are clearly the most tenuous collections and the highest targets for propagation and distribution, this is considerably lower than the 45% of single-plant collections surviving from the SABE. Again, the unique collaborative and distributive nature of NACPEC contributes to this lower number. The annual inventory of combined holdings is the first step in alerting NACPEC members of the rarity of their own holdings. A P R I M E example in the category of a single plant is Magnolia biondii (QLG062A) collected in 1996 in the Foping Nature preserve in Shaanxi. This rare magnolia is a close relative of Magnolia stellata and is growing as a single individual at the Morris Arboretum. In light of its high conservation value and its rarity in cultivation, it becomes a very important target for propagation and distribution to other botanic gardens. PHIlIPPE DE SPOElBERCH KOEN CAMElBEKE These photographs show the distinctive long carpel (in center of flower) and long fruit structure with red-ariled seeds of Magnolia biondii specimens growing at the Arboretum Wespelaar in Belgium. 28 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MEyER In contrast to these sparsely represented taxa, there are a number of collections that are widely held among the NACPEC members. There are 13 collections grown in at least seven institutions, making them ideal candidates for further evaluation for broad adaptability as well as uniformity. Topping this list is Acer pictum ssp. mono BJG141, held by nine institutions, followed by Acer davidii ssp. grosseri (BJG017) and Corylus fargesii (QlG231), each held at eight gardens. It is difficult to know why some plants are grown more successfully and widely compared to others, but factors include initial quantities, broad original distribution, seed viability, curatorial interest, and broad adaptability to an array of growing conditions. In combined NACPEC holdings, Acer is the most frequently collected genus--not surprising given that China is the center of diversity for maples, with 99 of the 129 species worldwide occurring there. Keen member interest in Acer (five of the NACPEC members and partners--the Arnold, Dawes, Morris, and Morton Arboreta, and UBC Botanic Garden--are members of the North American Plant Collections Consortium's multi-site Acer collection), combined with the great natural diversity has led to the A large specimen of Acer pictum ssp. mono growing in Heilongjiang. extensive holdings in this genus. There have been 106 distinct collections of griseum, A. miyabei ssp. miaotaiense, and maple, representing 33 taxa. Of these, 73 (10% A. yui. These collections represent a signifiof all living NACPEC collections) are represencant increase in the diversity of maples collted by living germplasm for a total 29 taxa and ectively held not only by NACPEC members, 585 plants among all of the member institubut among other North American institutions tions. Among these are garden-worthy plants due to redistribution. such as Acer davidii (including ssp. grosseri), After Acer, other frequently collected taxa A. pictum ssp. mono, and A. triflorum; plants include Viburnum (20 taxa), Quercus and rarely grown in North American botanic Euonymus (15 each), and Rhododendron (13). gardens such A. ceriferum and A. sterculaceum Of special significance are the 26 total collecssp. franchetti (A. tsinglingense); and plants tions representing 11 taxa of Fraxinus. Some of high conservation value, including A. of these ash taxa, such as F. insularis and F. PAUl MEyER Upper left, Rick Lewandowski measures the diameter of an impressively large specimen of paperbark maple (Acer griseum); upper right, Acer ceriferum growing in the wild in China; lower, A cultivated specimen of three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum). paxiana, may eventually hold the key to solving the emerald ash borer epidemic that is devastating native and planted populations of North American ash species. Tsuga is another genus that stands out among the collections, not because of the diversity of taxa but for the number of collections made. Representing a classic case of a genetic bottleneck, T. chinensis had been introduced as a single individual into the United States in 1910. Starting in the 1990s, Tsuga chinensis became a prime target for NACPEC collecting expeditions because of the immediate threat to North American hemlocks by hemlock wooly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). A total of 33 collec- NANCy ROSE ANTHONy AIEllO Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) in its native habitat. Photo by Kris Bachtell. tions of the adelgid-resistant T. chinensis and its varieties were made from across its native range, 19 of which are represented by living plants (Table 3). The original collections-- mostly by seed but in some cases as seedlings or even cuttings--were made from several provinces from southeast China through the northwestern limit of its range in southern Gansu. Of the 18 seed collections, 17 are represented by at least one plant; none of the cuttings and few of the seedling collections are extant. Because of their high priority, these plants have been widely distributed among the NACPEC members and show that targeted collecting (instead of broad, opportunistic collecting) can greatly increase the diversity of germplasm among our collective holdings. These plants have been widely distributed among other North American botanic gardens, aiding in research on and wider introduction of Chinese hemlock. What Have We Learned? After nearly 20 years of collecting germplasm and herbarium specimens, we can draw a number of important conclusions. Overall these statistics point out the importance of collaboration in sustaining the NACPEC collections. Without the combined efforts of the member organizations, it is difficult to imagine how these expeditions would have occurred, let alone how the plants would have been subsequently propagated and maintained over a period of time. In total the herbarium specimens and living collections represent material of horticultural, botanical, and conservation significance. The sum of the consortium work is certainly greater than its individual parts, leading to significant scientific contribution and a deeper understanding of the Chinese flora as well as its horticultural potential. This is an important point to emphasize--NACPEC's goals are broader than simply introducing gardenworthy plants. First and foremost is the primary scientific documentation of botanical diversity. Additional lessons learned include the need for sustained and repeated collecting within varied geographic, climatic, and ecological ranges, and the importance of vision and long-term planning. looking forward, this analysis will prove a useful tool as we focus on additional Table 1. List of NACPEC expeditions, abbreviations, participants and dates. Trip Name 1991 Initial Feasibility Expedition (Beijing, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Shaanxi, Jiangsu) 1993 Expedition to Heilongjiang Abbreviation LL Participants Bristol, Peter; Holden Arboretum Lee, Lawrence; U.S. National Arboretum Meyer, Paul; Morris Arboretum Bachtell, Kris; Morton Arboretum Bristol, Peter; Holden Arboretum Meyer, Paul; Morris Arboretum Gao Shi Xin; Heilongjiang Academy of Forestry Jin Tae Shan; Heilongjiang Academy of Forestry Liu Jun; Heilongjiang Academy of Forestry Bachtell, Kris; ; Morton Arboretum Lewandowski, Rick; Morris Arboretum Garvey, Edward; U.S. National Arboretum Tubesing, Charles; Holden Arboretum Liu Mingwang; Beijing Botanical Garden IBCAS Conrad, Kevin; U.S. National Arboretum Del Tredici, Peter; Arnold Arboretum Meyer, Paul W.; Morris Arboretum Thomas, R. William; Longwood Gardens Hao Riming; Nanjing Botanic Garden Mao Cailaing; Nanjing Botanic Garden Garvey, Edward; U.S. National Arboretum Lewandowski, Rick; Morris Arboretum Cui Tiecheng; Xi'an Botanic Garden Ault, James; Longwood Gardens Conrad, Kevin; U.S. National Arboretum Lewandowski, Rick; Morris Arboretum Kim Kunso; Norfolk Botanical Gardens Cui Tiecheng; Xi'an Botanic Garden Bachtell, Kris; Morton Arboretum Del Tredici, Peter; Arnold Arboretum Lynch, Jeffrey; Longwood Gardens Meyer, Paul W.; Morris Arboretum Tubesing, Charles; Holden Arboretum Wang Xian Li; Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology Cao Wei; Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology Sheng Ning; Nanjing Botanical Garden Lewandowski, Rick; Morris Arboretum Garvey, Edward; U.S. National Arboretum Li Weilin; Nanjing Botanical Garden Wang Qing; Nanjing Botanical Garden Belt, Shawn; U.S. National Arboretum Garvey, Edward; U.S. National Arboretum Stites, Jerry; Longwood Gardens Wang Qing; Nanjing Botanical Garden Aiello, Anthony; Morris Arboretum Bachtell, Kris; Morton Arboretum Bordelon, Carole; U.S. National Arboretum Bristol, Peter; Holden Arboretum (Chicago Botanic Garden) Tang Yudan; Beijing Botanical Garden IBCAS Aiello, Anthony; Morris Arboretum Bachtell, Kris; Morton Arboretum Scanlon, Martin; U.S. National Arboretum Wang Kang; Beijing Botanical Garden Sun Xue-gang; Forestry College of Gansu Agricultural University Aiello, Anthony; Morris Arboretum Bachtell, Kris; Morton Arboretum Carley, Chris; U.S. National Arboretum Wang Kang; Beijing Botanical Garden Dates 10 Oct 2 Nov 1991 HLJ 25 Aug 28 Sep 1993 1994 Expedition to Beijing BJG 13 Sep 3 Oct 1994 1994 Expedition to Hubei WD 6 Sep 11 Oct 1994 1995 Expedition to Shaanxi SHX 31 Mar 17 Apr 1995 1996 Expedition to Shaanxi & Gansu (Qinling Mountains) QLG 30 Aug 18 Oct 1996 1997 Expedition to Changbai Shan (Jilin) NACPEC97 (CBS) 25 Aug 27 Sep 1997 1998 Expedition to E. & SE. China (Anhui, Guangxi, Jiangxi) 1999 Expedition to Sichuan NACPEC98 (TS98) 5 Oct 22 Oct 1998 NACPEC99 (TS99) 1 Oct 20 1999 2002 Expedition to Shanxi NACPEC02 9 30 Sep 2002 2005 Expedition to Gansu NACPEC05 14 Sep 12 Oct 2005 2008 Expedition to Shaanxi NACPEC08 16 Sep 8 Oct 2008 NANCy ROSE Acer davidii is much admired for its striped bark. This specimen at the Arnold Arboretum (AA#666-94-A) was grown from seed collected during the 1994 expedition to Hubei (NACPEC collection #WD 040). Table 2. Collections totals for formal NACPEC expeditions and other associated collections. Trip abbreviations follow Table 1. TRIP Year Total Herbarium collections # % 0 96 130 149 0 235 122 0 29 71 85 44 961 0 961 0 86 90 77 0 89 85 0 88 91 94 86 79 0 71 Germplasm # 24 102 138 171 30 234 139 42 27 71 85 45 1108 142 1250 % 96 91 96 88 91 89 97 100 82 91 94 88 91 100 93 Living germplasm # % 9 63 95 83 15 120 91 19 11 48 60 43 657 47 706 38 62 69 49 50 51 65 45 41 68 71 96 59 33 56 Exists at only one institution* # % 5 20 26 40 11 48 22 17 6 20 29 20 264 36 294 56 32 27 48 73 40 24 89 55 42 48 47 40 77 42 Exists as a single plant** # % 3 5 11 21 5 22 7 11 1 2 4 4 96 15 109 33 8 12 25 33 18 8 58 9 4 7 9 15 32 15 LL HLG BJG WD SHX QLG NACPEC 97 TS 98 TS 99 NACPEC 2002 NACPEC 2005 NACPEC 2008 Expedition total Other*** Grand Total 1991 1993 1994 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2002 2005 2008 25 112 144 194 33 263 143 42 33 78 90 51 1208 142 1350 * A germplasm collection that exists at only one institution; may be of one or multiple plants ** A germplasm collection that is represented by a lone plant at one institution *** Include collections made during tourist visits, as well as those collections made through contract NANCy ROSE Acer pseudosieboldianum is another garden-worthy small maple collected on several of the NACPEC expeditions. 34 Arnoldia 68\/2 CHRIS CARlEy Bai Genlu (back to camera), Wang Kang (white hat), Li Jianjun, and Anthony Aiello examine Acer caesium ssp. giraldii (NACPEC08-014) in Hong He Gu Forest Park, Shaanxi. collecting efforts, and will allow us to focus our efforts on propagating and distributing plants of horticultural, botanical, and conservation significance. lastly, and perhaps most importantly, we acknowledge the cultural exchange that has occurred among the American and Chinese institutions and the individuals involved. Without these lasting relationships none of these expeditions or the resultant collections would have occurred. The end result is a mutual affinity and deep appreciation for the relationships that have ensued. Bibliography Aiello, A.S. 2006. Plant collecting on the eaves of the world. The Plantsman 5 (4): 220225. Aniko, T. 2006. Plant exploration for Longwood Gardens. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Del Tredici, P., P. Meyer, R. Hao, C. Mao, K. Conrad, and R. W. Thomas. Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan. Arnoldia 55(1): 1220. Dosmann, M. and P. Del Tredici. 2003. Plant Introduction, Distribution, and Survival: A Case Study of the 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition. BioScience 53 (6): 588597. lighty, R.W. 2000. An assessment of ornamental plant introduction in the not-for-profit sector. In: J. R. Ault (ed.) Plant Exploration: Protocols for the Present, Concerns for the Future (Symposium Proceedings). Chicago Botanic Garden, Chicago, Illinois. pp. 1422. Meyer, P. W. 1999. Plant Collecting Expeditions: A Modern Perspective. The Public Garden 14 (2): 37. Anthony S. Aiello is the Gayle E. Maloney Director of Horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, and Michael Dosmann is Curator of living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. Table 3. List of NACPEC Tsuga collections. Taxon Coll. # How Material was Collected Province of origin Collection alive? Number of Institutions growing this collection 4 4 3 4 3 6 7 6 2 3 1 1 Total plants among all institutions 24 26 12 12 7 20 18 23 9 17 1 5 174 4 5 2 3 4 0 22 11 22 9 9 0 73 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 3 250 Tsuga chinensis Cui 97-053 Cui 97-054 NACPEC05022 NACPEC05063 QLG013 QLG188 QLG190 QLG193 QLG216 QLG217 SHX017 XBG s.n. Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seedling Seed Shaanxi Shaanxi Gansu Gansu Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi Shaanxi yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes yes 12 living (100%) Subtotal Tsuga chinensis var. oblongisquamata 12 TS 99-018 TS 99-022 TS 99-025 TS 99-026 TS 99-027 TS 99-033 Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Seed Sichuan Sichuan Sichuan Sichuan Sichuan Sichuan yes yes yes yes yes no 5 living (83.3%) Subtotal Tsuga chinensis var. tchekiangensis 6 TS 98-046F TS 98-058B TS 98-035E TS 98-036E TS 98-040H TS 98-042C TS 98-043E TS 98-044F TS 98-051B TS 98-051C TS 98-052B TS 98-062B TS 98-066B TS 98-066C TS 98-069 Seedling Seed Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Seedling Cuttings Seedling Seedling Seedling Cuttings Seedling Jiangxi Guangxi Jiangxi Jiangxi Jiangxi Jiangxi Jiangxi Jiangxi Guangxi Guangxi Guangxi Guangxi Guangxi Guangxi Zhejiang yes yes no no no no no no no no no no no no no 2 living (13.3%) 19 living (57.6%) Subtotal Grand Total 15 33 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Traveling in China Photo Features 2","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25504","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070b728.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnoldia 68\/2 (Continued from page 19) F ProCessIng reshly collected seeds and herbarium specimens must be processed promptly to prevent spoilage. These tasks occupied many evenings for all of the expedition members. Clockwise from upper left: Soft-fleshed fruits are soaked and sieved to remove any pulp before the seeds are dried and packed. Rick Lewandowski cleans seeds at a trough sink during the 1994 expedition to the Beijing region. Pressed herbarium specimens must be dried quickly or else mold may set in. During a rainy spell, Peter Del Tredici and Mao Cailaing resorted to burning charcoal under the herbarium press to help dry the specimens. Air-drying seeds and herbarium samples. Kris Bachtell and Martin Scanlon begin processing cones of Tsuga chinensis. Dry fruits like these maple samaras are winnowed, carefully cleaned, and sorted before they are packed in labeled bags. Photos clockwise from upper left: Kris Bachtell, Paul Meyer, Peter Del Tredici, Anthony Aiello, Kris Bachtell Traveling in China Photo Features 37 E Food xpedition members enjoyed many elements of Chinese cuisine on their travels. Clockwise from upper left: A vendor at a market in Harbin sells fruit including round Asian pears native to this region and warty, orange, ripened bitter melons. Graduate student Zhang Wei and an expedition driver, Mr. Liu, eat spicy noodles in a restaurant in Min Xian, Gansu. This noodle vendor in Xi'an served up bowls of piping-hot seasoned noodles. In Shanxi's Pangquangou National Preserve, this \"mushroom lady\" was collecting a type of edible mushroom known to grow on Populus davidiana. Photos clockwise from upper left: Paul Meyer, Kris Bachtell, Anthony Aiello, Kris Bachtell B geTTIng To Know ChIna eyond collecting plants, the NACPEC expeditions have provided an opportunity for participants to see and learn more about China's people and landscapes. Clockwise from top: Tall, blond expedition members Bill Thomas and Paul Meyer attracted a lot of attention in the streets of Wudang Shan City, Hubei. This Tibetan woman was harvesting Anemone tomentosa plants to feed to her pigs. Chinese colleagues hosted a birthday celebration for Kris Bachtell in September 2005 (left to right: Anthony Aiello, Kris Bachtell, Zhang Zuoshuang, He Shanan, and Zhang Aoluo and his wife). Opposite page, clockwise from upper left: Peter Del Tredici shoots pool with the locals on a street in the Wudang Shan area, Hubei. Children give pig riding a try, to the amusement of onlookers in a small village in the Mo Gou Forest area in Gansu. A misty view of the Seven Sisters, a set of peaks in the Tai Bai Shan reserve in Shaanxi. Photos this page, clockwise from top: Peter Del Tredici, Kris Bachtell, Kang Wang Photos opposite page, clockwise from upper left: Paul Meyer, Kris Bachtell, Anthony Aiello Traveling in China Photo Features 39 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Planning Future NACPEC Plant Exploration: Challenges and Opportunities","article_sequence":7,"start_page":40,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25498","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070a76f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kim, Kunso; Bachtell, Kris R.; Wang, Kang","article_content":"Planning Future NACPEC Plant Exploration: Challenges and Opportunities Kunso Kim, Kris Bachtell, and Kang Wang T he North AmericaChina Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) is an innovative partnership formed in 1991 between American and Chinese institutions to organize and conduct plant explorations in China. Since its inception, this collaborative effort has been successful in collecting many botanically and horticulturally important plants including paperbark maple (Acer griseum), Farges filbert (Corylus fargesii), and Chinese stewartia (Stewartia sinensis). During the two decades of its existence, NACPEC has witnessed dramatic changes occurring around the globe that have profoundly affected the consortium's collecting efforts, most notably the Convention on Biological Diversity, the complexity of ex situ plant conservation, the impacts of climate change, the spread of invasive species, and the tightening of import\/export regulations. These issues have challenged us to rethink the way we plan and organize plant explorations as the consortium moves forward into the next decade. CURRENT ISSUES AND CHALLENGES Convention on Biological Diversity The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) is an international treaty signed at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (also called the \"Earth Summit\") in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in 1992. The key component relevant to NACPEC activities is Article 15, Access to Genetic Resources (CBD 1999). This provision endorses the sovereign rights of countries over their biological resources. The article not only offers countries an opportunity to revamp their efforts in conservation of biodiversity and sustainable uses, but also gives them leverage over their natural resources. In essence, the possibility of con- ducting any plant exploration in China rests upon consent from the host country based on mutually agreed terms. As a consequence, the consortium may see increasing restrictions imposed by the Chinese government on certain collecting areas including national parks and reserves that are often biologically rich. Described in the same article is another provision called \"Access and Benefit Sharing\" that requires the consortium to establish a clear understanding of how the benefits should be shared. Participating countries are required to share with the host country any benefits arising from commercialization or other utilization of the genetic resources. In the past, NACPEC has made good faith efforts to honor this provision by training Chinese students in plant curation and database management, hosting a number of Chinese scientists during their extended visits to the United States, supporting BG-Base and BG-Map at the Beijing Botanical Garden (IBCAS), supporting field work inside China by a number of Chinese botanists, and by sharing a portion of the royalties from the sale of plants through the Chicagoland Grows Plant Introduction Program. Ex Situ Plant Conservation Conserving rare species has always been one of the objectives in the consortium's collecting trips (Meyer 2000). Despite the high priority given to horticulturally important plants, the consortium's annual inventory survey includes 52 accessions that are on the current IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Should future explorations emphasize collecting red-listed plants as the major goal? As habitat loss in China continues to increase and more public gardens are responding to the plea to participate in ex situ Facing page top: Farges filbert (Corylus fargesii), a promising tree species for landscape use, was collected in this river terrace habitat in Gansu. Bottom: A temple within the Lingkongshan Chinese pine (Pinus tabuliformis) national preserve, one of a number of botanically rich national preserves in China. Photos by Kris Bachtell. 42 Arnoldia 68\/2 When human development encroaches on the habitat of threatened plant species, ex situ conservation may be the key to preventing species extinction. Here, the \"suburbs\" of a village in Hubei expand up a steep terraced slope. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. plant conservation, there is an opportunity for the consortium to renew its efforts and play a more active role in acquiring threatened species and sampling species from different populations to get a better representation of genetic diversity. The consortium is uniquely positioned to expand its ex situ conservation role. It has established successful collaborations with Chinese institutions, gained invaluable field experience, and established a high standard of documentation that holds important information for breeding, evaluation, and conservation purposes (Bachtell 2000). Capitalizing on its experience and collaborations, future explorations can contribute to advancing the goal of preserving 60% of threatened plant species in accessible ex situ collections as laid out in the Global Strategy for Plant Conservation Target 8 (CBD 2005). Future plant exploration with conservation in mind will need to priori- Some widely grown landscape plants of Asian origin have become invasive in parts of North America. One example is winged euonymus (Euonymus alatus), a popular shrub also known as burning bush because of its bright carmine red fall color. ROBERT MAyER Future NACPEC Plant Exploration 43 tize species by conservation concern and sample multiple populations in order to maximize genetic diversity. When sampling from within populations, care must be taken to collect sufficient germplasm to maximize the capture of genetic diversity for long-term seed storage, or clonal stands for taxa that have recalcitrant seeds. Introducing Horticulturally Superior Plants This was at the heart of initial NACPEC plant exploration efforts and remains an important goal for the consortium. The definition of a superior plant in the early days of NACPEC plant exploration often meant that a plant should have increased cold hardiness, tolerance to stressful conditions (including urban landscapes), and resistance to pests and diseases. Exciting plants with such traits are in the process of being introduced and others are being developed through breeding and selection programs utilizing the rich germplasm of plants the consortium has assembled. While the above criteria are still valid, biological invasiveness has emerged as an area of concern. The need to screen introduced plants for non-invasive characteristics has become a high priority for the consortium, which has stepped up its efforts by excluding from expedition target taxa lists any potentially invasive species. At the same time, participating gardens need to develop vigorous risk assessment protocols to determine the invasive potential of lesser known species from the pool of plants that are maintained in living collections before they reach reproductive stage. Use of reliable predictive modeling to assess invasive risk can allow the consortium to avoid time-consuming screening and expensive processing in the field (Widrlechner 2009). Climate Change Climate change has a huge implication for biodiversity and consequently on the consortium's future collecting initiatives. Major vegetation PAUl MEyER Large expanses of forest in China have been cut down and burned to make way for ginseng cultivation. 44 Arnoldia 68\/2 PETER DEl TREDICI PETER DEl TREDICI Ginseng requires shade to grow, so the forests are replaced with vast expanses of low shade structures, seen here in the Changbai Shan area. shifts are predicted by various climatic models. Hawkins (2008) states three different possibilities: (1) some plants will adapt to new climate conditions through selection or plasticity; (2) some plants will move to higher latitudes or altitudes; or (3) other plants may become extinct. It is predicted that continued climate change will ultimately drive many plants to extinction. An average world temperature rise of 2 to 3C over the next 100 years will result in up to 50% of the 400,000 or so higher plants being threatened with extinction (Hawkins 2008). How should NACPEC's future plant explorations respond to climate change? Studying climate analogues has provided the most useful information to NACPEC in planning the potential target areas in China. The consortium considers seasonal rainfall, mean seasonal temperatures, and summer high and winter low temperatures to identify the target areas (Meyer 2000). Will it be necessary for NACPEC to reconsider expanding the collecting zones towards warmer regions or lower altitudes and latitudes in response to anticipated vegetation shifts? Import\/Export Regulations NACPEC members who participated in past plant explorations are familiar with the complexity of obtaining collecting permits in China. Compliance with rules governing col- Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis). Photo by David Cappaert, Michigan State University, Bugwood.org. Future NACPEC Plant Exploration 45 The 2008 NACPEC expedition focused on collecting Chinese ash species. This large specimen of Fraxinus insularis grows near a country house in Shaanxi. Photo by Kris Bachtell. lecting permits and germplasm importation is absolutely necessary, yet it is one of the most cumbersome aspects of any plant exploration. With the CBD recognition of countries' sovereign rights over their natural resources, it is possible that the consortium will see more limited issuance of collecting permits and increased restrictions on collecting in special areas. Adding to the challenges, there are new rules on importation of plant germplasm into the United States. Even clean seeds with phytosanitary certificates attached do not guarantee an easy entry. Some people mistakenly think that the possession of an import permit issued by USDA APHIS for small lots of seeds means free passage, but it only eliminates the requirement to obtain a phytosanitary certificate from the exporting country (USDA 2008). In view of recent insect and disease outbreaks such as emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), and sudden oak death (Phytophthora ramorum), it is understandable that the USDA is increasingly tightening the rules. The threat posed by invasive plant species is another issue that has contributed to stricter importation rules. STRATEGIC PLANNING FOR FUTURE COLLECTING EFFORTS Past plant exploration efforts focused on collecting a broad range of species and a large number of accessions. Priority taxa lists are carefully developed during the trip planning process, but inevitably non-target taxa are added to the list 46 Arnoldia 68\/2 along the way, resulting in increased collections. This practice of collecting a broad range of species will need to change. The current issues and challenges described above necessitate that future plant explorations become more sharply focused. This can be accomplished by the annual survey inventory which examines total living accessions accumulated over the last two decades and shows which institutions hold what accessions. The survey results have helped NACPEC understand gaps in its collections and will help with planning future trips. Based on an analysis of past results, a trip could target a single genus or a few genera depending on the purpose or priority of the taxa. More focused collecting trips allow the initiation of new research projects in response to rapidly changing environmental conditions such as those posed by invasive species. The 2008 Shaanxi expedition was an example of a goal-driven and therefore more focused collecting trip. This USDA-funded trip was specifically for collecting ash (Fraxinus) species that are not well represented in American botanic gardens and arboreta. A percentage of the seeds collected were seed banked within the USDA's National Plant Germplasm System. The resulting progenies are to be incorporated into a feeding preference study to test the ash species' resistance to the emerald ash borer. sortium to focus future plant explorations on collecting a more narrowly defined list of target plants, paying particular attention to preventing accidental introduction of plants with invasive potential. NACPEC has succeeded largely through the close collaborative work between the American and Chinese member institutions. The issues listed above present opportunities for NACPEC to help meet the challenges presented by our changing world. Literature cited: Bachtell, K. 2000. Documenting your collections. In: J. R. Ault (ed.) Plant Exploration: Protocols for the Present, Concerns for the Future (Symposium Proceedings). Chicago Botanic Garden, Chicago, Illinois. pp. 5257. Convention on Biological Diversity. (2 November, 1999). Article 15. Access to Genetic Resources http:\/\/www.cbd.int\/convention\/articles. shtml?a=cbd-15 Convention on Biological Diversity. (27 July, 2005). Global Strategy. Target 8. http:\/\/www.cbd.int\/ gspc\/future.shtml#8 Hawkins, B., S. Sharrock, and K. Havens. 2008. Plants and climate change: which future? BGCI, Surrey, UK. Meyer, P. W. 2000 Plant Collecting Expeditions: A Modern Perspective. In: J. R. Ault (ed.) Plant Exploration: Protocols for the Present, Concerns for the Future (Symposium Proceedings). Chicago Botanic Garden, Chicago, Illinois. pp. 712. USDA. APHIS: Plant Import. (14 July, 2008). On small lots of seeds. http:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/import_ export\/plants\/plant_imports\/smalllots_seed. shtml Widrlechner, M. P., J. R. Thompson, E. J. Kapler, K. Kordecki, P. M. Dixon, G. Gates. 2009. A Test of Four Models to Predict the Risk of Naturalization of Non-native Woody Plants in the Chicago Region. Journal of Environmental Horticulture. 27(4): 241250. Kunso Kim is Head of Collections and Curator, and Kris Bachtell is Vice President of Collections and Facilities, both at the Morton Arboretum in lisle, Illinois. Kang Wang is a Research Horticulturist at the Beijing Botanical Garden in Beijing, China. TOWARDS GREATER COLLABORATION Modern day plant explorers are facing a different set of challenges than did earlier plant explorers. The impact of climate change on vegetation is one obvious reason for the consortium to take a more active role in conserving plants. The CBD has helped focus our attention on how to balance the needs for access to genetic resources and benefit sharing, with the ultimate goal of conservation of biological resources through preservation and sustainable use. In spite of the tremendous success NACPEC has experienced in collecting and introducing plants, there is a need for the con- Facing page: A view across the Wudang Mountain range from atop Wudang Mountain in Hubei. The building in the foreground is part of the Taoist monastery and temple complex for which this mountain is famous. Photo by Paul Meyer. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Paperbark Maple Acer Griseum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":48,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25497","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070a36b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meyer, Paul W.","article_content":"During NACPEC expeditions plant species are targeted for collection for a range of reasons including environmental adaptabilities, conservation value, and ornamental features. Presented here are thirteen profiles of notable plants collected on these expeditions. Paperbark Maple Acer griseum Paul W. Meyer P aperbark maple is an iconic Chinese species with beautiful exfoliating cinnamon-colored bark that never fails to grab attention. It is frequently highlighted in public gardens and connoisseurs' gardens throughout the temperate world. It was first introduced to the United States by E. H. Wilson through the Arnold Arboretum in 1907. In addition to its stunning bark, this species is widely admired for its clean, fine-textured foliage, orange-red fall color, and relatively small stature, usually under 35 feet (10.7 meters) tall. It is believed that until recently, all or most paperbark maples in the United States derived from the genetically narrow 1907 Wilson introduction--it consisted of only two plants. Some contemporary seedlings lack vigor, a possible sign of inbreeding over the past century. The re-collection of paperbark maple to introduce greater genetic diversity has been a high priority from the very beginning of NACPEC planning. Of the many hundreds of plants I have observed and collected in China, none were more exciting than finding a grove of wild paperbark maples on Wudang Mountain in Hubei in 1994. Wudang is the site of a famous Taoist temple, and the forests on its slopes have been relatively well protected. On September 21st, 1994, the Hubei expedition team was especially excited to find a scattering of paperbark maples in the understory of a rich, diverse forest at an elevation of 836 meters (2743 feet). It was one of the most biologically diverse habitats that any of us had ever experienced. Dubbed \"horticulture heaven\" by the collectors, we found many choice species including Stewartia sinensis, Cornus kousa, Cornus controversa, Ilex pernyi, and many others growing naturally on this mountainside. The paperbark maples growing on Wudang Mountain were relatively small, growing on a west-facing slope in thin, rocky soil. Being in the understory, most were leggy and the foliage was high off the ground. With careful observation though, we spotted the winged samaras in the upper canopy. Using pole pruners, we were able to collect herbarium specimens and a small seed sample. The following year, in April 1995, NACPEC team members Rick lewandowski, Teicheng Cui, and Ned Garvey spotted an incredible specimen of paperbark maple in the Baxiam Forest Station in Shaanxi, less than 200 kilometers (124 miles) west of Wudang Mountain. They spotted the tree from afar; its leaves had not yet emerged, and they were struck by a distinct warm orange glow reflecting from the tree's bark. The collectors wrote in their journal, \"Holy Hannah! We encountered the biggest specimen we ever saw of Acer griseum. This was incredible... We can't describe the impact of the bark color and the massive stem--the effect was overwhelming.\" This tree measured 81.4 centimeters (32 inches) in diameter at 3 meters (9.8 feet) above the ground. It was estimated to be about 27 meters (88.6 feet) tall. Though no collections of living germplasm resulted, the herbarium specimens, descriptions, and photographic documentation of this individual tree have redefined our thinking about the potential of this species. Paperbark maple is known to frequently produce empty samaras with no viable seeds. That was the case with the Hubei collections. After cutting open many samaras, we found a few (less than 5 percent) with seemingly viable seeds. Fortunately, there were also small seedlings growing under the trees, some of which were Acer griseum 49 RICK lEWANDOWSKI The \"Holy Hannah!\" specimen of paperbark maple spotted during the 1995 expedition to Shaanxi. 50 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MEyER Paperbark maple is noted for its beautiful bark and red-orange autumn foliage color. carefully dug bare-root, stripped of their senescing leaves, and packed in moist sphagnum moss. The seeds never germinated, but these dormant seedlings were brought home successfully and 13 are growing at NACPEC institutions. Though this lack of viability is frustrating to a propagator, the upside is that this species has little potential of becoming invasive. I live on the grounds of the Morris Arboretum and two of the Wudang Mountain paperbark maples are growing in my garden. One is an especially fine specimen. It is a very vigorous individual and in its youth it grew more than 1 meter (3.3 feet) a year. Today it stands over 8 meters (26.2 feet) tall and has a diameter of 27 centimeters (10.6 inches) measured 30 centimeters (11.8 inches) from the ground, just below the first branch. Perhaps because of its strong growth, its bark is especially beautiful, with heavy exfoliation. Morris Arboretum propagator Shelly Dillard took cuttings of this tree in 1998, 1999, 2000, and 2001 while the tree was still juvenile. None rooted successfully. In 2001, I rooted a low branch of the tree in my garden by layering, resulting in the only successful propagation of this individual. This layered plant has the same vigorous habit as its parent, and in July 2010 it had a 6.2 centimeter (2.4 inches) diameter measured 30 centimeters (11.8 inches) from the ground and stood about 3.5 meters (11.5 feet) tall. Four other individuals of this Hubei accession are growing at the Morris Arboretum and each year we watch them, hoping that one might produce some fertile seed for growing on and further evaluation. Bibliography Del Tredici, Peter. 2007. The Paperbark Maple--One Hundred years later. Arnoldia 65(2): 40. Del Tredici et al. 1995. Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan. Arnoldia 55(1): 1220. Paul W. Meyer is the F. Otto Haas Director of the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Beautybush Kolkwitzia amabilis","article_sequence":9,"start_page":51,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25486","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060b326.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Beautybush Kolkwitzia amabilis Michael Dosmann I t was in the late summer of 1901, while exploring the mountains northwest of Ichang, Hubei, China, that Ernest Henry Wilson encountered a shrub which would become one of his favorite introductions: Kolkwitzia amabilis. At the time, he wasn't even quite sure what it was--his notes for collection #1007 simply state that the unnamed plant was 5 feet (1.5 meters) tall, had been free-flowering, with possibly red blooms, and had spinose fruits. The seeds were sent to Veitch Nursery in England where they germinated and grew. In November 1907, plants (labeled as Abelia sp.) were sent to the Arnold Arboretum--the species' first introduction to North America. Shrubs (now under the correct moniker Kolkwitzia) flowered at the Arboretum for the first time in June 1915. Their early-summer displays of pink blossoms, profusely borne on arching branches, so impressed Wilson and others that it was christened beautybush. Thereafter, in early to mid June, the Arboretum's Bulletin of Popular Information routinely included a glowing snippet about the blooming KolMICHAEl DOSMANN Beautybush bears a profusion of pink blossoms in early summer. 52 Arnoldia 68\/2 PETER DEl TREDICI Kevin Conrad stands next to a visually unimpressive but botanically important specimen of beautybush, which was collected from during the 1994 Hubei trip. kwitzia, how big they were getting, and which specimen in the Arboretum was faring best. In fact, the species' merits were lauded to such an extent that in 1927 Wilson noted that the original plant on Bussey Hill had \"been much mutilated for propagation purposes, and from it, either by seeds or cuttings, has originated the whole stock of this plant in America.\" Not everybody agreed with Wilson's endorsement, however, with some even suggesting that plants were not as gorgeous in flower as claimed, or that the plants didn't flower at all. His dander up, Wilson sought to set the record straight on several occasions. His statement on June 7, 1930, (a few months before his untimely death) sums it up: \"There is a foolish rumor abroad that this plant when raised from seed does not blossom. The story is ridiculous since the original plants were raised from seed and the particular plant on Bussey Hill Road is also a seedling... Another canard in circulation is that it is an acid-loving plant. As a matter of fact, it will do equally well on a moderately acid soil or on limestone.\" Nobody could doubt his love for the plant, for in the same passage he states \"Among the deciduous-leaved shrubs that central and western China has given to American gardens Kolkwitzia stands in the front rank.\" Amazingly, it was not until September 25, 1994, that this beautiful and elusive species was collected again, about 100 miles north of Wilson's original collection site in Hubei. The participants on the NACPEC expedition to Wudang Shan discovered multiple plants on a hillside near yan Chi He, and collected ample seed (collector number WD 122). The germinated seedlings at the Arnold Arboretum grew vigorously, and within 18 months were about 0.5 meter (1.6 feet) tall. Unfortunately, all of these plants were sold by mistake at the Arboretum's plant sale in 1997. This was a striking loss, but fortunately seeds of this collection were grown at other institutions also. In the spirit and interest of sharing material, the Arnold Arboretum received cuttings from 3 plants at the Morris Arboretum in 2008. They have rooted and will eventually be planted out. Almost everything we know about this species in cultivation can be traced to Wilson's single introduction event, so we are curious to see how this new collection compares to the original germplasm. No formal studies or evaluations have taken place so far, but there are some preliminary observations that are worth further investigation. Phenological data from the Morton Arboretum from the past 8 years show that the Wilson material on average reaches peak bloom about 1 week earlier than the Wudang Shan material. Perhaps only a minor difference, but this is worth further study. If it holds true, it would be worth selecting for later blooming in self-pollinated F1 and F2 generations of the Wudang Shan germplasm. Michael Dosmann is Curator of living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Henry's Viburnum Viburnum henryi","article_sequence":10,"start_page":53,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25494","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed0608928.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bordelon, Carole","article_content":"Henry's Viburnum Viburnum henryi Carole Bordelon V iburnum henryi, commonly known as Henry's viburnum, was discovered by Augustine Henry and introduced to the west by E. H. Wilson in 1901. Native to central China, V. henryi is relatively rare in cultivation in the United States, existing primarily in public gardens. When this plant was discovered during the fall 1996 NACPEC expedition to the Qinling Mountains in China's Shaanxi province, the team of collectors considered this find a high point of their trip. They were impressed by its beautiful dark green foliage and its large clusters of glossy red fruit. The seeds were collected and propagated for trialing, and fourteen years later, V. henryi is still an impressive plant growing at the United States National Arboretum and the Morris Arboretum. Henry's vibur num is an evergreen shrub, typically growing 7 to 15 feet (2.1 to 4.6 meters) tall, and is hardy in USDA Zones 7 to 10 (average annual minimum temperature 0 to 40F [-17.7 to 4.4C]). Its growth habit is lax, especially when young, but its spreading, arching branches can be pruned into a small upright tree, if desired. Otherwise, little aesthetic pruning is required (any pruning should be done after flowering). The attractive foliage and flowers of Henry's viburnum. DANIEl MOSQUIN, UBC BOTANICAl GARDEN PAUl MEyER 54 Arnoldia 68\/2 DANIEl MOSQUIN, UBC BOTANICAl GARDEN This handsome plant has year-round ornamental interest as well. In the spring months, the new foliage emerges with a bronzy cast that matures to a glossy dark green, which is held throughout the growing season. The narrow, 2 to 5 inch (5 to 13 centimeters) long leaves are serrated above the middle of the leaf and may sport attractive red petioles. During the fall, the leaves may take on a purplish-red hue-- depending on sun exposure--that persists into winter. During winter, the grayish brown bark is revealed. V. henryi blooms in June, displaying slightly fragrant white flowers that occur in panicles that are 2 to 4 inches (5 to 10 centimeters) tall and wide. The flowers are attractive to both bees and butterflies. In July, terminal clusters of glossy red fruit appear, covering the entire plant. As the summer wanes, the red fruit matures to black. Henry's viburnum grows best in full sun or part shade and prefers a well-drained, slightly acid, moist soil. It is not a heavy feeder, but it can be fertilized in late winter and after flowering. Applying a mulch such as composted leaves reduces the need for supplemental watering and fertilizer. No disease or insect problems causing substantial damage to the plant have been noted. The ideal propagation method is by semi-hardwood cuttings some time between late May and late June. Propagation by seed is also possible, but requires at least one cycle of warm\/cold stratification and may take up to several years to germinate. Viburnum henryi is easy to grow and fits into a variety of landscapes. It is recommended for gardens in the southeastern and northwestern sections of the United States but, since it has also performed well in the Washington, D.C., area, it is worth testing in protected sites in Zone 6 areas. Henry's viburnum makes a worthy addition to gardens and may be a more common sight in the future. Carole Bordelon is Supervisory Horticulturist, Gardens Unit, at the United States National Arboretum in Washington, District of Columbia. CAROlE BORDElON Henry's viburnum bears fruit that turns from red to black in late summer. It has an upright, open growth habit. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Manchurian Fir Abies holophylla","article_sequence":11,"start_page":55,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25496","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070a326.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meyer, Paul W.","article_content":"Manchurian Fir Abies holophylla Paul W. Meyer F irs are among the most beautiful of landscape conifers. However, since firs are mainly native to cool northern areas or high elevations, many of them do not grow well south of New york City or in regions where summers can be very hot. The Manchurian fir, Abies holophylla, is among the most heat tolerant firs and has proven itself well adapted to midwest and mid-Atlantic states. It is also one of the most handsome firs, with distinctive bright green foliage color and a wide-spreading horizontal branching pattern with age (it is more pyramidal in youth). In addition to its heat tolerance, it is exceptionally winter hardy, capable of withstanding temperatures to -30F (-34C). In nature, the Manchurian fir grows not only in the mountains but also at lower elevations and in valleys where it is exposed to hot summer temperatures. Its range includes North and South Korea, northeastern China, and far southeastern Russia. It often grows in association with Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis), Mongolian oak (Quercus mongolica), purplebloom (or Korean) maple (Acer pseudosieboldianum), and three-flowered maple (A. triflorum). It is among the tallest trees in the forest canopy, often exceeding 100 feet (30.5 meters). In China its wood is valued for use in construction and furniture, though it is not considered as high quality as the wood of Pinus koraiensis. In the northeastern United States, with the decline of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and the overuse of white pine (Pinus strobus) and Norway spruce (Picea abies), we have a need for a greater diversity of attractive, welladapted conifers. Since it was first introduced in 1905, Manchurian fir has proven itself to be a useful, non-invasive, and adaptable landscape plant. But unfortunately it is still little known The growth habit and foliage of Manchurian fir. PAUl MEyER 56 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MEyER 25 feet (7.6 meters) tall and 22 feet (6.7 meters) across at the ground. Seedlings from other accessions collected in China in 1993 are just hitting their stride, now standing 4 feet (1.2 meters) tall. At the Morris Arboretum, seeds were treated with cold stratification for 60 days at 41F (5C) before sowing. The seeds then generally germinated reliably within a few weeks. We have found that the seedlings are very slow growing for the first few years, but as they get established can grow over 18 inches (45.7 centimeters) a year. Several specimens of Abies holophylla have been growing well at the Morris Arboretum since before 1933. These mature specimens are over 70 feet (21.3 meters) tall and have taken on a distinctive broadspreading horizontal habit. A prized specimen at the Morton Arboretum in lisle, Illinois, was planted in 1939 and is considered one of their best firs. Curator Kunso Kim reports young plants from the NACPEC expeditions are also performing well at the Morton Arboretum. He observes that the Manchurian fir is relatively This tall specimen of Manchurian fir was photographed in South Korea, part of shade tolerant, although plants its native range. have a more open habit in the shade. Heavy clay or poorly drained soils can outside of arboreta and botanic gardens. Until be problematic for firs, so planting on higher, recently the germplasm represented in this well-drained sites is recommended. country was narrow, not fully representing the landscape-sized Manchurian firs are difficult species' geographic range in its natural habitats. to find in nurseries, but small plants are someThrough the work of collaborative expeditions times listed by specialty mail order nurseries. A to Korea in the 1980s by institutions that later diligent and patient collector will certainly be formed NACPEC, followed by the 1993 and rewarded with a fine growing specimen. 1997 NACPEC expeditions to Hielongjiang and Jilin Provinces, the genetic representation in North America has been expanded. Paul W. Meyer is the F. Otto Haas Director of the Seedlings grown from accessions collected Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. in Korea in 1981 are thriving and are now over "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Qinling Maple, Acer tsinglingense; or Franchet's maple, Acer sterculiaceum subsp. franchetii","article_sequence":12,"start_page":57,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25499","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed070ab28.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Justice, Douglas","article_content":"Qinling Maple, Acer tsinglingense; or Franchet's maple, Acer sterculiaceum subsp. franchetii Douglas Justice DOUGlAS JUSTICE C hina serves up an enormous variety of plants for our gardens and landscapes, so much so that the plant explorer Ernest Henry \"Chinese\" Wilson famously called China \"the mother of gardens.\" One need only think of the numbers of cultivated Viburnum, Rhododendron, and Magnolia species that hail from China to get an idea of the magnitude of temperate plant diversity there. While impressive in number, many Chinese species are too tender for cultivation in much of North America. So when a \"new\" cold-hardy Chinese maple comes along, it is cause for gardeners to sit up and take note. Such is the case with a maple collected in the Qinling (Tsingling) Mountains of Gansu Province during the 1996 NACPEC trip: the Qingling maple (Acer tsinglingense)--or Franchet's maple (Acer sterculiaceum subsp. franchetii) as it's being called in North America. Qinling maple is native to the mountains of Shaanxi, Henan, and Gansu provinces in north central China at elevations of 1200 to 1500 meters (3940 to 4920 feet). This area of China is an important bio- By either name, this maple may be a promising addition to North American landscapes. diversity hot spot, with many defined by the Qinling Mountains, where temendemic plant and animal species. Two parallel peratures are considerably cooler than in the mountain ranges--the Qinling and the Daba-- southern Daba Mountains at the same elevatrend east-west, dividing the moist, subtropical tion. According to the collection notes from the to warm temperate south and the drier, cold 1996 expedition, this species was found growtemperate north. The northern boundary is 58 Arnoldia 68\/2 Autumn foliage color of Qinling (or Franchet's) maple. ing on a steep stream bank alongside a variety of familiar temperate plants including Carpinus (hornbeam), Malus (crabapple), and Cornus (dogwood), a good indication that it should be relatively cold hardy. Franchet's maple is found to the southwest of the Qinling Mountains but there is some debate about whether the two species are truly separable. North American botanists generally consider them the same species; however, distinctions have been noted among some individual specimens growing in cultivation. The question is, are the distinctions clear enough to warrant a split (as recommended in Flora of China)? According to the Flora of China account, A. tsinglingense displays three-lobed leaves with wide-spreading side lobes, while the leaves of A. sterculiaceum subsp. franchetii are of a thicker texture and have forward-pointing lobes. The young branches of Qinling maple are described as light brown (vs. darker for Franchet's), and the inflorescences, individual flowers, and samaras are smaller in Qinling maple. In gardens, A. tsinglingense appears to be a robust, medium-sized maple with a strong branch structure that produces an upright-spreading crown. leaves have a papery texture and turn beautiful shades of apricot and red in autumn. It is worth noting that cultivated plants of A. tsinglingense--specimens at the United States National Arboretum and the Morris Arboretum--have often been described as handsome or attractive, while those of Franchet's maple are widely dismissed as dull or coarse. Most European accounts list A. sterculiaceum subsp. franchetii as having little or namental value, and plants at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden grown from older seed collections made in Hubei and Sichuan Provinces (to the south and west of the Qinling collections) could also easily be described in this disapproving light. On the other hand, the response of maples to the climate in eastern North America is often manifested in neater, more compact growth and autumn leaves with more saturated colors. This could explain much of the difference, but until a wider sample--representing trees from the Qinling and beyond--are grown under the same conditions, these questions will go unanswered. Whether we are seeing a minor variant of Franchet's maple or a bona fide species in Qinling maple is an open question. More research is required to settle the science, but judging by the plants in gardens, this fine-looking maple appears worthy of wider cultivation, at least in eastern North America. Douglas Justice is Associate Director and Curator of Collections at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden in Vancouver, British Columbia. DOUGlAS JUSTICE "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Stewartia Stewartia sinensis","article_sequence":13,"start_page":59,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25491","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed0608126.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Peter Del Tredici I n perusing my handwritten journal from the 1994 NACPEC trip to Wudang Shan in Hubei Province, China, I found the following entries regarding the Chinese stewartia, Stewartia sinensis: Monday, September 19, 1994: \"The other highlight [besides finding Acer griseum] was to see Stewartia sinensis--the biggest plant I've seen of any Stewartia--about 30 inches [76 centimeters] in diameter at the base and 50 feet [15 meters] tall, with a clear bole for the first 20 to 30 feet [6 to 9 meters]. The bark was a buff\/tan color-- carried high up into the crown--and absolutely smooth with little or no flaking. Certainly the most magnificent tree I saw on Wudang Shan. It should also be noted that a spot right next to the Stewartia, above it to be precise, was selected as a site for a public toilet--and it was disgusting to the point that no one but me dared to go near the tree. Perhaps that is the secret to its vigor.\" Tuesday, September 20, 1994: \"Up the mountain again, then a quick turn to the east at about 1300 meters [4,265 feet] and off into the woods. It was misty and rainy the whole day, giving the whole place a great air of mystery... The rain and heavy This young specimen of Chinese stewartia displays multi-colored bark. fog limited our visibility pretty much to what was immediately beside the path--but kousa was there too, and a small (4 inch [10 centhere was so much. After about an hour or so timeter] diameter) specimen of Acer griseum. All on the path, we came upon an incredible house within the narrow space of ten square meters--I nestled under the cliffs. It looked like it had been felt as though I'd died and gone to horticultural there forever--no one was around so I took a few heaven. The only thing missing, sadly, was seeds pictures. It really felt like the same China that on any of the plants. The conditions were moist Wilson saw. A little ways beyond the house and and shady and steep, with an oak overstory.\" garden we came to a bend in the road where it It was in this location--Hubei Horticultural looped back into a ravine. Our guide, Mr. Zeng, Heaven we called it--that I noticed a small a collector of medicinal plants among other Stewartia seedling, about 20 centimeters (8 things, pointed out a beautiful specimen of Stewinches) tall with a distinct kink at its base, artia sinensis, and then we saw another, both growing along the edge of the path. I immewith the beautiful, rich, smooth, cinnamon-red bark--a wonder to behold and to touch! Cornus diately stopped and dug it up while the other PETER DEl TREDICI Chinese Stewartia Stewartia sinensis 60 Arnoldia 68\/2 PETER DEl TREDICI Chinese stewartia blooms in midsummer. PETER DEl TREDICI members of the party went on ahead. At the end of the expedition, the plant was washed clean of soil and packed in moist sphagnum moss for shipment back to the United States. The plant passed inspection at the USDA inspection station at Beltsville, Maryland, and, after 48 days on the road, arrived at the Arnold Arboretum on November 7, 1994. It was immediately potted up, assigned the accession number 691-94, and left to overwinter in a cool greenhouse. The seedling was moved to the outdoor nursery in spring 1996, and it grew to a height of 1.1 meters (3.6 feet) by the end of July. In spring 2000, it was moved from the nursery to the grounds, where it has proved to be completely hardy. By the end of the 2009 growing season, the plant was 4.7 meters (15.4 feet) tall and 4.1 meters (13.5 feet) wide with two co-dominant trunks arising from the stout base which is 14 centimeters (5.5 inches) in diameter. The plant flowered for the first time in the summer of 2002 and has gone on to flower every year since. The flowers, which are produced from the end of June through mid July, are 6 to 7 centimeters (2.4 to 2.8 inches) across with beautiful light lemon yellow anther filaments and short pedicels, indicating that it is S. sinensis var. sinensis according to the Flora of China. In Boston, the new leaves emerge in early May and are distinctly hairy and tinged with red anthocyanin pigment; both features disappear within a week or so. The bark is cinnamon-red where it is not exfoliating and olive-green where the bark has peeled off in fine, papery flakes. Over time, I'm sure the tree will develop mature bark that is \"smooth as alabaster and the colour of weathered sandstone\" (to quote W. J. Bean), like the magnificent specimen we saw on Wudang Shan. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. A mature specimen in China shows smooth, sandstone-colored bark. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Chinquapin Castanea henryi","article_sequence":14,"start_page":61,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25489","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060bb28.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Anagnostakis, Sandra L.","article_content":"Sandra L. Anagnostakis C harles Sprague Sargent wrote a beautiful description of this chestnut tree in his Plantae Wilsonianae in 1917. He also revised the taxonomy to the name that we still use today. Here is an excerpt from his article: \"This very distinct species is distributed from the neighborhood of Ningpo through the valley of the Yangtsze River as far west as Mt. Omei. On the mountains of western Hupeh and of eastern Szech'uan it is common in woods. This chestnut grows to a larger size than any other Chinese species and trees from 20 to 25 meters [66 to 82 feet] tall with trunks from 1 to 3 meters [3.3 to 9.8 feet] are common. Occasionally trees 30 meters [98.4 feet] tall and 5 meters [16.4 feet] in girth of trunk are met with. The leaves are green on both surfaces and entirely glabrous except for a few appressed hairs on the underside of the primary and secondary veins. The leaves are without lepidote glands except on the upper surface of the very young leaves, E. H. Wilson made this photograph of a large Castanea henryi growing in from which they disappear very early. Hubei Sheng, China, on June 22, 1910. Although variable in size the leaves are very characteristic; they are always caudatelaway was very interested in chestnuts, and acuminate and broadest below or at the middle, in 1935 he began planting chestnut trees from and the secondary veins are projected in long Asia procured by the United States Department aristate points. The shoots are dark-colored and of Agriculture's plant exploration and imporquite glabrous and the winter-buds are brownish, tation program. Over a period of eight years, short, broadly ovoid, obtuse or subacute and are he planted 2,192 chestnuts, and among them glabrous or nearly so. The styles vary in number were 202 Castanea henryi from eight differfrom 6 to 9, and the fruit may be solitary or two ent locations in China. I visited the chestnut or three on a short spike. The spines of the ripe involucre are sparsely villose. All the fruits we plantings at Callaway Gardens in 1993 with have seen contain a solitary nut, but it is probDr. Jerry Payne and Ann Amis from the USDA. able that occasionally two occur, as they do in We noticed that most of the chestnuts were the American C. pumila.\" badly damaged by the Asian chestnut gall wasp My interest in this species was piqued when I saw a large planting of it at Callaway Gardens in Hamilton, Georgia. Founder Cason J. Cal- that Dr. Payne had discovered and described in 1976, shortly after a chestnut grower accidentally brought it to central Georgia. Within one ARCHIveS OF THe ARNOlD ARbOReTUM Chinese Chinquapin Castanea henryi 62 Arnoldia 68\/2 PAUl MeYeR This Morris Arboretum specimen of Castanea henryi (WD-069) was grown from seed collected in Wudang Shan on the 1994 Hubei expedition. It flowers heavily and bears sweet-tasting nuts that are quickly devoured by squirrels, deer, and other wildlife. PAUl MeYeR C. henryi, and all plants that we saw of this species had either very few or no galls. Finding a chestnut species that was clearly resistant to gall wasp presented an opportunity to breed resistance into our orchard and timber chestnut lines (C. henryi is also resistant to chestnut blight). We have one mature C. henryi here at the Connecticut Agricultural experiment Station, but others planted over the years have not been winterhardy enough to survive. Seeds that Wilson collected were planted at the Arnold Arboretum, but no trees from this accession (AA-551) now survive. However, one open-pollinated offspring (a probable cross with a nearby Chinese chestnut, C. mollissima) is still alive and well ( AA-623-32). Since that discovery of gall wasp resistance in Georgia, I have been including C. henryi in my crosses to produce better timber and nut-producing chestnut trees for our northeastern forests and orchards. We don't know what pest or disease of chestnuts will next be brought into the United States, but it is clear that imported chestnut species will be called into use in hybridization to combat these new threats. All the more reason to say \"Keep exploring, NACPeC!\" References: Payne, J. A., R. A. Green, and C. D. lester, 1976. New nut pest: an Oriental chestnut gall wasp in North America. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association. 67: 8386. Sargent, C. S. 1917. Plantae Wilsonianae: An enumeration of the woody plants collected in western China for the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University during the years 1907, 1908, and 1910 by E. H. Wilson. volume 3, p. 197. Cambridge, Massachusetts: University Press. Developing nuts are enclosed in prickly involucres. of the plantings we came to a block of what I thought were Japanese chestnuts (C. crenata) and noticed that there were no galls. A check of the planting plan revealed that these were Sandra l. Anagnostakis is a research scientist in plant pathology and ecology at the Connecticut Agricultural experiment Station in New Haven, Connecticut. eRRATUM 15 December 2010: The specimen shown in the two images above has been identified as a Castanea hybrid rather than straight species Castanea henryi. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Epimediums Epimedium spp.","article_sequence":15,"start_page":63,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25492","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060816b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bordelon, Carole","article_content":"Carole Bordelon A lthough the vast majority of the plants targeted for collecting by NACPEC are trees and shrubs, several genera of herbaceous plants have been targeted as well. Since China is the major area for the diversity of epimediums (Epimedium spp.), it made perfect sense to target this group of adaptable perennials. Thirteen accessions of epimedium were collected during Epimedium stellulatum bears starry white flowers. NACPEC trips, several of which are highly ornamental and should be recognized as worthy plants for the shade garden. In the fall of 1994, members of the NACPEC expedition to the Wudang Shan mountain range located in central China (which is famous for its exceptionally rich and diverse flora) collected several noteworthy accessions of epimedium. This was a historically significant trip as there were many new species of epimedium being described in China at the same time. With the help of Darrell Probst, an expert in the collection, identification, and introduction of epimediums, those 1994 Wudang Shan epimedium accessions were correctly identified and, more importantly, several of them proved Epimedium lishihchenii has long-spurred yellow flowers. to be new species not represented in the NACPEC members' institutional holdings. -34.4C]). It has a running habit and reaches 12 Epimedium lishihchenii and Epimedium stelinches (30.5 centimeters) in height. The large lulatum are just two of the species identified evergreen leaflets are leathery and sustain little from that trip. damage in the winter months. It has bright yelEpimedium lishihchenii is an attractive plant low flowers with elongated spurs, and blooms hardy to at least USDA Zone 4 (average annual in late April or early May. Although the flowers minimum temperature -20 to -30F [-28.9 to are attractive, this plant's best quality is the CAROlE BORDElON CAROlE BORDElON Epimediums Epimedium spp. 64 Arnoldia 68\/2 foliage. It remains fairly clean throughout the growing season. In the winter, the foliage may be tinged with an attractive burgundy color. like Epimedium lishihchenii, Epimedium stellulatum is an evergreen species hardy to Zone 4. It has a clumping habit and is smaller in stature than Epimedium lishihchenii. E. stellulatum blooms early in the season, revealing small white starlike flowers that are held above the leaves on erect stems. Though it is considered to be evergreen, it has sustained more winter damage to the foliage at the United States National Arboretum than Epimedium lishihchenii. During the 1996 NACPEC expedition to the Quinling Mountains, several additional accessions of Epimedium stellulatum were collected. These additional accessions have leaflets that are slightly larger and narrower than the 1994 Epimedium stellulatum collection. CAROlE BORDElON The epimediums that hail from China occur primarily in woodlands in temperate hilly or montane regions. Keeping this in mind, they do best in moderately cool and half shady conditions. They thrive best in a moist but well drained soil and will tolerate periods of drought provided their roots are not exposed. They benefit from being mulched with leaf mold. Epimediums are best propagated by division. Epimediums make excellent landscape plants because they can grow in a variety of situations and are easy to care for. Depending on the species, they thrive in sun or full shade and can provide year-round interest in gardens. Carole Bordelon is Supervisory Horticulturist, Gardens Unit, at the United States National Arboretum in Washington, District of Columbia. Glossy, leathery foliage is an ornamental feature of Epimedium lishihchenii. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Hemlock Tsuga chinesis","article_sequence":16,"start_page":65,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25490","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060bb6d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Chinese Hemlock Tsuga chinensis Peter Del Tredici A specimen of Tsuga chinensis var. tchekiangensis growing in Jiangxi. RiCk LEWANdOWSki O ne of the most important of all NACPEC collections is the Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis). Prior to 1979, this species appears to have been successfully introduced into North America only once--a single seedling collected by E. H. Wilson in Hubei, China, in 1910 that is still alive today. This accession has been frequently propagated and widely distributed by the Arnold Arboretum. The lack of Chinese hemlock diversity became a significant factor when horticulturists began to notice that the species was highly resistant to the Japanese strain of hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) that was ravaging native stands of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) throughout the central and southern portion of its range in eastern North America. Working through its various Chinese contacts, NACPEC began a concerted effort to acquire Chinese hemlock germplasm in order to facilitate research on its growth rate, habitat tolerances, and resistance to HWA. The collections began in 1994 with seeds provided by the Xian Botanical Garden and peaked in 1996 with 6 separate collections from various habitats in the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi Province, the northern part of 66 Arnoldia 68\/2 PETER dEL TREdiCi Tsuga chinensis growing in montane habitat. its range. in all, some 33 different collections of three different varieties of the species were made. Representatives from 19 of these collections--totaling some 250 plants--are growing at various NACPEC gardens. The largest of them is at the Morris Arboretum and has reached 4.9 meters (16 feet) in height with dBH (diameter at breast height) of 9 centimeters (3.5 inches) after 10 years of growth. True to initial reports, Chinese hemlock has so far proved completely resistant to HWA in a wide variety of North American locations. it is fully cold hardy into USdA Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20F [-23.3 to -28.9C]) and is relatively fast growing--the mean height of 38 seedlings growing under variable conditions on Hemlock Hill at the Arnold Arboretum was 169 centimeters (66.5 inches) at 10 years of age. i observed Chinese hemlock at the Arnold Arboretum during the 2009 growing season and noted that the species both began growing and stopped growing about two weeks earlier than eastern hemlock. interestingly, the new growth on vigorous terminal shoots was the same for both species--about 45 centimeters (17.7 inches)--which was the greatest among the seven hemlock species measured. Compared to eastern hemlock, Chinese hemlock is a bit Tsuga chinensis 67 PETER dEL TREdiCi Slightly drooping branch habit on a young Chinese hemlock. Attractive foliage of Chinese hemlock. woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Journal of Arboriculture 30(5): 282287. Bentz, S. E., L. G. H. Riedel, M. R. Pooler, and A. M. Townsend. 2002. Hybridization and selfcompatibility in controlled pollinations of eastern North American and Asian hemlock (Tsuga) species. Journal of Arboriculture 28(4): 200205. Hooper, B. k., R. M. Bates, J. C. Sellmer, and G. A. Hoover. 2009. Challenging Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) with hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) ovisacs. Arboriculture and Urban Forestry 35(1): 14. Peter del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. \"droopier\" during the growing season, seems to be comparably shade tolerant (although this trait has not actually been quantified), is less cold hardy--Zone 5 versus Zone 3 (average annual minimum temperature -30 to -40F [-34.4 to -40C])--and, as mentioned, has the great advantage of adelgid resistance. it is a terrific plant for replacing adelgid-killed eastern hemlocks under cultivated conditions. References del Tredici, P. and A. kitajima. 2004. introduction and cultivation of Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and its resistance to hemlock PAUL MEyER "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Amur Maackia Maackia amurensis","article_sequence":17,"start_page":68,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25485","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060af6d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Meyer, Paul W.","article_content":"Amur Maackia Maackia amurensis Paul W. Meyer O ne of our most impor tant plant exploration goals is collecting tree species that demonstrate stress tolerance and are therefore likely candidates for evaluation as urban street trees. Maackia amurensis is outstanding in its promise as a tough and useful urban tree. It is native over a wide geographic area including Japan, the Korean peninsula, northeast China, and far eastern Russia. It is a member of the legume family (Fabaceae) and it is one of the relatively few trees that support nitrogen fixing bacteria on its roots. Although it was introduced to the United States in the late nineteenth century, it is still relatively rare here. In cultivation Maackia amurensis is a mediumsized tree reaching 45 feet (13.7 meters) or more (we were surprised to see specimens in China growing well up into the forest canopy, taller than the species is usually reported to grow). It has compound leaves similar to its relative, black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). As the leaves emerge in the spring they are covered with silky hairs which give the tree a silvery-gray appearance. A 40-foot tall specimen of Amur maackia at the Morris Arboretum. PAUl MEyER Maackia amurensis 69 PAUl MEyER This Amur maackia in China managed to survive in difficult soil conditions with highly variable moisture levels, an indicator that the species may perform well as an urban street tree. PAUl MEyER Newly emerged foliage of Amur maackia has a silvery sheen. Upright racemes of small creamcolored flowers appear in July, a time when few other trees are blooming. Amur maackia's bark is slightly exfoliating with handsome shades of copper and tan. It is especially striking when backlit. Professor Jin Tieshan of the Heilongjiang Academy for Forestry reported that Amur maackia's darkcolored wood is very valuable and in the 1990s it was commonly exported to Japan. He also pointed out that on twigs the young sapwood is a light greenish tan, while the older heartwood takes on a dark brown color. The wood is exceptionally hard and rot resistant; traditionally, it has been used for fencing in China, similar to the use of black locust wood in the United States. NACPEC explorers collected 3 accessions of this species in 1993 in Heilongjiang. Collection HlJ085 was made along Jiang Po lake, where it grew along the high water line in thin, sandy soils overlaying rock. It was clear that the trees had to tolerate wet soils when the water levels were high and then very droughty conditions when the water level dropped. Adaptability to these kinds of natural conditions suggests that this species might also be adapted to the periodic root flooding and droughts that plague urban street trees. At another site in Heilongjiang, small, stunted Amur maackias were growing on a rocky, ancient lava flow along a stream edge. This area was subject to alternating periods of flooding and drought. Few other woody plants could survive there, but these trees were able to withstand the difficult environment, growing out of fissures in the rock. We tried two different treatments to soften the hard outer coats of Amur maackia seeds from collection 70 Arnoldia 68\/2 Amur maackia bears upright racemes of creamy white flowers in midsummer. PAUl MEyER HlJ051. One group of seeds was given a 24-hour soak in hot water and a second group of seeds was scarified in sulfuric acid before being sown. Both treatments resulted in excellent germination. Three 16-year-old specimens are growing near my home on the grounds of the Morris Arboretum. These Amur maackias stand 18 feet (5.5 meters) tall and are 5 inches (12.7 centimeters) DBH (diameter at breast height). They have attractive foliage, flowers, and bark, and are handsome in every season of the year. They are growing on a hot, sunny, south-facing slope and have never exhibited stress in times of drought. Maackia amurensis is certainly proving itself to be a handsome, tough, adaptable shade tree that should be used more widely in stressful urban sites. Bibliography Pai, J. G. B. and W. R. Graves. 1995. Seed source affects seedling development and nitrogen fixation of Maackia amurensis. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 13:142146. Paul W. Meyer is the F. Otto Haas Director of the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PAUl MEyER Clean green foliage and exfoliating bark add ornamental appeal to Amur maackia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Farges Filbert Corylus fargesii","article_sequence":18,"start_page":71,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25493","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060856f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"Farges Filbert Corylus fargesii Anthony S. Aiello ANTHONy AIEllO O ne of the goals of plant exploration is to introduce new species into cultivation, and it is a rare and exciting opportunity for any plant collector to do so. Corylus fargesii (Farges filbert) was first described in China by Western botanists in the late 1800s and early 1900s. Although herbarium specimens were collected during this \"golden age\" of plant exploration, there is no evidence that living specimens were grown in arboreta and botanic gardens from these early collections. The first NACPEC collection of C. fargesii occurred on the 1996 expedition to Shaanxi and Gansu, and it was collected again on the 2005 expedition to Gansu (identified by collector numbers QlG-231 and NACPEC05-047, respectively). Until the introduction of Farges filbert seeds to the United States in 1996, little was known or written about The attractive pyramidal form of Farges filbert. this species. ern Ningxia, Shaanxi, and northeast Sichuan Of the many taxa collected by NACPEC over (Chengkou Xian). During the 1996 expedition, the past twenty years, few arouse more exciteFarges filbert was collected in eastern Gansu at ment than Corylus fargesii. The trees display the Xiao long Shan Forest Bureau, Dang Chuan exfoliating tan and copper bark that rivals the Forest Station. In their field notes, the collecmost attractive birches and is especially remitors described it as a truly beautiful tree with niscent of river birch, Betula nigra. According exquisite bark. The parent trees had reached to the Flora of China, Farges filbert grows to 12 to 15 meters (39 to 49 feet) tall and were 40 meters (131 feet) tall and occurs naturally in found growing among rocks in sandy silt loam mountain valley forests at elevations from 800 soil approximately 2 meters (6.6 feet) above a to 3000 meters (2,625 to 9,843 feet) in southern stream in open woodland. Gansu, Guizhou, Henan, Hubei, Jiangxi, south- 72 Arnoldia 68\/2 ANTHONy AIEllO Farges filbert displays exfoliating bark similar to that of river birch. 10 plants from this accession, all of which show remarkably similar growth habit and size. These trees have grown quickly, reaching 25 to 30 feet (8 to 9 meters) after 13 years, with strong central leaders and very uniform broadly ovate habits. The trees exhibit some variation in the level of exfoliation and color of the bark, which ranges from a deep copper to a pale cream color. Farges filbert has clean summer foliage with no insect or disease problems, and turns a good yellow in autumn. Our plants are growing in several locations, with slight differences in soil pH and all with evenly moist, well-drained soils. Farges filbert has been propagated successfully from seeds and by grafting, but with only marginal success from stem cuttings. The diversity of conditions under which it is growing successfully indicates broad adaptability from the central Midwest to New England and south to the mid-Atlantic states. The species appears to be fully cold hardy in USDA Zones 5 through 7 (average annual minimum temperatures -20 to 0F [-29 to -18C]). This tree's highly ornamental exfoliating bark and rapid growth rate indicate great potential as an ornamental tree for a range of situations, and it promises to be an excellent addition to landscapes in the future. Literature Cited Aiello, A.S. 2006. Plant collecting on the eaves of the world. The Plantsman 5(4): 220225. Aiello, A.S. and S. Dillard. 2007. Corylus fargesii: A New and Promising Introduction from China. Proc. Intl. Plant Prop. Soc. 57: 139143. Grimshaw, J. and R. Bayton. 2009. New trees: recent introductions to cultivation. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. Wu, Zheng-yi and Peter H. Raven, eds. 1994. Flora of China. Missouri Botanical Garden Press. St. louis. On the 2005 NACPEC expedition to southern Gansu, on a morning when we shared our hike through pastures and woodland with numerous cattle, we were fortunate to encounter and collect C. fargesii in Zhou Qu county, near the Sha Tan Forest Station. The parent plants were growing in a mesic mixed deciduous forest and were located a few meters above a stream. Many C. fargesii were seen throughout a small area; all of these trees had been heavily coppiced but had resprouted vigorously. As in 1996, we were impressed by the beautiful exfoliating bark. Corylus fargesii is now well established at all of the NACPEC member gardens and in several other North American public gardens. Trees from the 1996 collection are doing especially well at the Morris Arboretum, where we have Anthony S. Aiello is the Gayle E. Maloney Director of Horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Ashes Fraxinus spp.","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25488","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060b76f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bachtell, Kris R.; Siegel, Olivia","article_content":"Chinese Ashes Fraxinus spp. Kris R. Bachtell and Olivia Siegel S ince its discovery in Detroit, Michigan, During previous NACPEC expeditions, colin 2002, the emerald ash borer (EAB), lecting Fraxinus species had not been a primary Agrilus planipennis, is estimated to have focus. Typically, there were too many other killed over 40 million ash trees in southeastern more exciting species to collect and there was Canada and in 14 states throughout the central no reason to focus on ash. With the invasion of and eastern United States. Native to Asia, EAB EAB this changed. A 2006 NACPEC-sponsored probably arrived in North America by ship in grant request was funded by the USDA and supsolid wood materials used for packing freight. ported contract collecting of native Fraxinus This insect's impact has cost municipalities, seeds in China by Kang Wang of the Beijing property owners, nursery operators, and the forBotanic Garden from 2007 through 2010. Addiest products industry tens of millions of dollars. It appears that no North American ash species is resistant to this pest, so all are threatened--there are an estimated 8 billion ash trees currently growing in the United States. On the few ash species that have been studied in China, EAB is usually a secondary or periodic pest, infesting only stressed trees and not necessarily resulting in tree mortality. Most outbreaks in China have been associated with urban and restoration plantings involving North American species, particularly green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) and velvet ash (F. velutina), both of which have been extensively planted in many northern Chinese cities. It is extremely important to gain access to Fraxinus species from China to test the full range of EAB response and to assess the adaptation of Asian ash species to American conditions and their appropriateness for urban landscapes. There are 22 Fraxinus species listed in the Flora of China. Some of these species are tropical, and therefore not suitable for regions of the United States currently under siege by EAB, but they are of potential utility for expanding the range of ash adaptation or for responding to EAB if the pest proves to be adapted to tropical or subtropical areas Collecting seeds of Manchurian ash (Fraxinus mandshurica) in China. in the New World. KRIS BACHTEll 74 Arnoldia 68\/2 KRIS BACHTEll tionally, the 2008 NACPEC expedition to Shaanxi Province focused on collecting Fraxinus in the botanically rich Qinling mountain region. We collected several thousand seeds of five Fraxinus species there. Several of these species are poorly represented in the United States; for example, Pax's ash (F. paxiana) and island ash (F. insularis) are being grown at only two or three botanical institutions. We made several collections of these species, along with Chinese ash (F. chinensis), Manchurian ash (F. mandshurica), and Chinese flower- Fraxinus insularis foliage and seeds. ing ash (F. stylosa). Of these, ing efforts, noting that the previous lack of Manchurian ash is probably the best known, Asian ash accessions in the United States had since it is a large-growing tree with an estabgreatly restricted the potential for hybridizalished landscape value (the cultivated selection tion. Future collecting expeditions are planned `Mancana' is common in the nursery industry). and many additional research questions related Other species, such as island ash and Chinese to EAB still need to be answered. flowering ash, are medium-sized trees that may have urban use potential if they prove adaptBibliography able. Pax's ash is a shrubby species that possesses extremely large flower clusters, but its Flora of China. (1996) Retrieved December 15, 2006 from http:\/\/flora.huh.harvard.edu\/china\/mss\/ landscape potential is unknown. volume15\/Oleaceae.published.pdf Twenty-six Fraxinus seed collections have Koch, J. l., D. W. Carey, M. E. Mason, and M. N. been made in China, resulting in 11 different Islam-Faridi. (online publication in process). taxa currently represented by over 600 plants. Overcoming obstacles to interspecies Ash seed is relatively easy to harvest, clean, hybridization of ash. In: Proceedings of and germinate, so the degree of success growthe Symposium on Ash in North America, ing these plants has been good. Surplus seeds March 1921, 2010. Purdue University, West lafayette, IN. will be preserved in the USDA's germplasm repository in Ames, Iowa, and made available liu, H., Bauer, l.S., Gao, R., Zhao, T., Petrice, T.R., and Haack, R.A. (2003). Exploratory for scientific research throughout the world. survey for the Emerald Ash Borer, Agrilus Currently, plants from the 2008 Shaanxi expeplanipennis (Coleoptera: Buprestidae), and its dition are being used by leading researchers in natural enemies in China. The Great Lakes efforts to identify relative susceptibility and Entomologist, 36(3 & 4): 191204. resistance of different ash species to EAB. The Poland, T.M., & McCullough, D.G. (2006). Emerald ash seed collections will also aid research in idenborer: Invasion of the urban forest and the threat tifying appropriate genetic material to create to North America's ash resource. Journal of Forestry, April\/May 2006: 118123. new North American-Asian ash hybrids that combine resistance genes from the Asian species with useful characteristics from the North Kris R. Bachtell is Vice President of Collections and American species. Researchers Koch et al. Facilities at the Morton Arboretum in lisle, Illinois. recently cited the importance of the NACPEC Olivia Siegel is Development Coordinator at the Aspen Center for Environmental Studies in Aspen, Colorado. Fraxinus collections to their genetics and breed- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Manchurian Catalpa Catalpa bungei","article_sequence":20,"start_page":75,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25495","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060896d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Olsen, Richard T.; Kirkbride Jr., Joseph H.","article_content":"Manchurian Catalpa Catalpa bungei Richard T. Olsen and Joseph H. Kirkbride, Jr. F amiliarity breeds contempt--for catalpa. The genus has nine accepted species, two in eastern North America, four in the West Indies, and three more in eastern Asia. The North American species (Catalpa bignonioides and C. speciosa) are the best known in the West, often overlooked as waifs in urban landscapes or as country trees, too large or messy for modern landscapes, yet tolerated when in flower in late May to June. Perhaps this sentiment permeated the group conscience on NACPEC's 1994 Wudang Shan expedition, when, on the first day of collecting, they were underwhelmed by Kevin Conrad's sighting of a lone pollarded catalpa in a field of soybeans and corn. Conrad, representing the United States National Arboretum (USNA), was on his first expedition to China, the wide-eyed and energetic newbie in a field of veteran collectors. Reluctantly, the group stopped to collect seed and vouchers of what was identified as the Manchurian catalpa, Catalpa bungei. As it turned out, it was the only catalpa seen on the trip and proved to be one of the most important collections of the expedition. In 1831, Alexander Andrejewitsch von Bunge collected herbarium specimens of a catalpa near Beijing, which C. A. Meyer later identified and described as a new species, and named in honor of Bunge. Catalpa bungei and C. ovata are the two most commonly cultivated species of catalpa in China, both in agroforestry for their high quality wood and in religious circles as one of the \"jeweled trees\" of Chinese Buddhism. There is much research published in Chinese journals on propagation, breeding behavior, and sylviculture of C. bungei, but this emphasis on its importance has not filtered to the West, where appreciation for the species is lacking. Early introductions of catalpa into Europe were erroneously ascribed to this new species, even as they came into flower with upright, many- flowered panicles of small yellow or yellowishgreen flowers that clearly identified them as C. ovata. The inflorescences of C. bungei are corymbose, with fewer but larger flowers conspicuously spotted with pink, effectively coloring the flowers rose. The first introduction of true C. bungei is attributed to the Arnold Arboretum in 1904, when wild-collected seeds were acquired (via American diplomat E. T. Williams) from the vicinity of Beijing. These seeds--and subsequent plants--were distributed to European botanical institutes, but the species remains almost nonexistent in cultivation, a victim of confusion generated by earlier misidentifications. The Arnold Arboretum still has a living plant of this accession (AA#12927), which has stood sentinel above the lilac collection for over a century. The great plant collectors E. H. Wilson and F. N. Meyer did not overlook catalpa on their forays across China in the early twentieth century. Wilson, collecting for the Arnold Arboretum, never knowingly collected C. bungei, but based on herbarium specimens from his trips, his collections of C. fargesii (syn. C. duclouxii) are a mixed bag of phenotypes, some of which agree with C. bungei. But Meyer, collecting for the USDA, collected what he labeled C. bungei on five separate occasions, calling the species \"one of the finest flowering trees in the world\". The taxonomy of these species is not well resolved, but based on recent phylogenetic analyses, this group forms a clade separate from the North American and West Indian species. The USNA conducts on-going taxonomy and breeding work in the genus Catalpa, and C. bungei has taken center stage, thanks to its beautiful flowers, disease resistant foliage, and general adaptability. In our search for germplasm to introduce into our breeding program, we have scoured both domestic and foreign nurseries for material of C. bungei and related species. 76 Arnoldia 68\/2 We have yet to find a nursery offering the real C. bungei. Our search of botanical gardens and arboreta yielded only three accessions in North America that are true-to-type, two of wild origin: the original C. bungei 12927 at the Arnold, and C. bungei WD009 from the Wudang Shan trip in 1994. Unknowingly, NACPEC had made the first collection of C. bungei in 90 years, proHARVARD UNIVERSITy HERBARIA viding germplasm for urban tree breeding and increasing our knowledge of an underutilized and underappreciated genus. Richard T. Olsen is a Research Geneticist and Joseph H. Kirkbride, Jr. is a Plant Taxonomist, both at the United States National Arboretum in Washington, District of Columbia. An herbarium specimen from the lone Catalpa bungei collected in Wudang Shan during the 1994 NACPEC expedition to Hubei, showing its foliage and long seed pods (bent to fit on sheet). Facing inside back cover: Manchurian catalpa (Catalpa bungei) bears lovely rose-tinted flowers. Photo by Richard Olsen. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23421","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160b36e.jpg","title":"2010-68-2","volume":68,"issue_number":2,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25484","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060af28.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bunting, Andrew","article_content":"Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College Andrew Bunting F SCott ARBoREtum rom the inception in 1929 of the Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College, the mission has remained the same--to collect and display outstanding ornamental plants, specifically trees, shrubs, and vines. Since 1931, one of our most prominent collections of plants--and one that has stood the test of time--has been the magnolia collection. Early on, new magnolia accessions were received from notable nurseries, organizations, and individuals including Bobbink and Atkins, Rutherford, New Jersey; Andorra Nursery, Chestnut Hill, Part of the magnolia collection at the Scott Arboretum. Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum 3 SCott ARBoREtum Pennsylvania; the Arnold Arboretum; Hicks Nursery, Long Island, New York; and Highland Park, Rochester, New York. At the time, John Wister, first director of the Scott Arboretum, was developing the campus based on an evolutionary or phylogenetic tree, so all genera in a plant family were planted together, and hence all species in a family resided together. the magnolia collection housed both species and cultivars alike. In 1931, Wister began to get regular deliveries of many plants, especially magnolias, from Henry Hicks of Hicks Nursery on Long Island, New York. on may 8th, 1934, Hicks brought Wister a gift of plants which included 61 accessions representing 3,143 individual plants. these included seven seedlings of the sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia viginiana), a native species which was then known as Magnolia glauca. of these original seven, only one survived. It was SCott ARBoREtum The original type specimen of Magnolia virginiana var. australis `Henry Hicks' still thrives at the Scott Arboretum (above). This cultivar bears fragrant, creamy white flowers and cold-hardy evergreen foliage (right). 4 Arnoldia 68\/1 I Early History of the Scott Arboretum n 1929, John Caspar Wister was appointed the first director of the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation (now the Scott Arboretum). Wister graduated in 1909 with a degree from the School of Landscape Architecture at Harvard university, and supplemented this education with courses taken at the New Jersey Agricultural College. After graduation, Wister worked in landscape architecture offices in both Philadelphia and New York. From his youth, John Wister was an avid plant collector. As a small boy he had exposure to estate gardening at different Wister properties located in and around Germantown, Philadelphia. At age 14 he grew 40 cultivars of chrysanthemums. After Wister started his professional career his interest in a myriad of plant groups and genera began to grow. throughout his lifetime he was an avid collector of both herbaceous and tree peonies. Wister admired a photograph in a garden catalog that showed the peony collection of Arthur Hoyt Scott (for whom the Arboretum is named) and Edith Wilder Scott and in 1913 he met the Scotts at their home in oak Lane, Philadelphia. on July 10, 1917, at the age of 30, Wister enlisted as a private in World War I. Wister was sent to France. on his leave time during the war Wister toured the gardens of Europe. While in France he collected several cultivars of tree peonies and sent the plants back to mr. and mrs. Scott. Wister was honorably discharged in 1919. Arthur Hoyt Scott was a graduate of the class of 1895 from Swarthmore College. His father, E. Irvin Scott, founded Scott Paper Company which was located in Chester, just south of Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Like Wister, Scott developed a passion for ornamental horticulture as a young man. In 1920 he became president of the Scott Paper Company, but his spare time was primarily occupied by his love of plants. Scott served as an officer of the American Peony Society and the American Iris Society. As early as 1915 Scott was sending gifts of plants to his alma mater, Swarthmore College. His first gift was 100 lilacs of many different varieties. In 1919 the Scotts moved from Philadelphia to a 100-acre farm in Rose Valley near Swarthmore. As Wister later wrote \"Here for the first time he had ample room. He at once began to plant great collections of flowering trees and shrubs like Japanese cherries, crabapples, dogwoods, lilacs, mockoranges and azaleas.\" When Arthur Hoyt Scott wanted to study peonies he had to travel to Cornell university and when he wanted to see lilacs he had to go to Highland Park in Rochester, New York. Scott dreamed of having an arboretum at Swarthmore College where local gardeners could go and see attractive displays of his favorite plants. Scott had the support of Samuel Palmer, the head of the Botany Department, and Swarthmore College. Palmer, in turn, contacted Robert Pyle who had graduated from Swarthmore in 1897 and was serving on Swarthmore's board of managers. Pyle was head of the Conard-Pyle Company, one of the country's largest purveyors of mail-order roses. Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum 5 John C. Wister (second from right) at the dedication of the Scott Arboretum's rose garden in 1958. Wister was director of the Scott Arboretum from 1929 to 1969. Arthur Hoyt Scott died in 1927, at the age of 51. two years later Edith Wilder Scott and Arthur Hoyt Scott's sister, margaret moon, and her husband, owen moon, approached Swarthmore's president with the idea of starting a campus arboretum. they recommended that John Wister become its first director, and so indeed he did. the early 1930s were the heydays of the Scott Horticultural Foundation. With Wister at the helm, the plant collections grew very quickly. Huge collections of Paeonia, Iris, Rhododendron, Syringa, Philadelphus, Prunus, Malus, Cotoneaster, Chrysanthemum, Narcissus and Magnolia were being accessioned and planted. In 1931 the Foundation accessioned 783 plants; in 1932 there were 1162 accessions, and in 1933, 1110 accessions. to put this in perspective the Scott Arboretum currently accessions about 300 plants per year. ARCHIVES oF tHE SCott ARBoREtum oF SWARtHmoRE CoLLEGE 6 Arnoldia 68\/1 NANCY RoSE planted in a poorly drained section of the magnolia Collection, and over the years this sweetbay magnolia thrived (unlike most magnolias, this species performs well in wet soils). It was observed that while most specimens of Magnolia viriginiana in the Swarthmore area are deciduous, this particular specimen was reliably evergreen. In 1967 this clone was officially registered and named Magnolia virginiana var. australis `Henry Hicks'. the original type specimen remains in great shape today in the old magnolia Collection. A Stream of Magnolias In addition to Magnolia virginiana, several accessions of oyama magnolia (Magnolia sieboldii, previously M. parviflora), a shrubby Asian magnolia noted for its white flowers with striking crimson stamens, were added to the collection from several different sources. other early additions included the star magnolia (Magnolia stellata), anise magnolia (Magnolia salicifolia), umbrella magnolia (Magnolia tripetala), Kobus magnolia (Magnolia kobus), southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora), cucumbertree magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), and the saucer magnolia (M. x soulangiana, syn. Magnolia x soulangeana). Magnolia x soulangiana resulted from a cross between Magnolia denudata and Magnolia liliiflora in 1820 by Etienne Soulange-Bodin, who was the first director of the Royal Institute of Horticulture near Paris. For many gardeners across the united States, saucer magnolia is the quintessential magnolia species. this large shrub to medium-sized tree produces masses of large, showy flowers that emerge before the foliage. the flowers, which are often fragrant, appear in white and shades of pink and purple. In the early 1930s the Scott Arboretum received two different batches of Magnolia x soulangiana cultivars. In 1933, Arthur D. Slavin at Highland Park in Rochester, New York, sent `Alexandrina', which has deep red-purple flowers and was introduced in Paris in 1831; `Amabilis', an 1865 French introduction with white flowers; `Alba', which is another white-flowered clone that was grown and named by Louis van Houtte of Belgium; `Andre Leroy', which has dark pink to purple flowers and is a French The slightly nodding flowers of Magnolia sieboldii bloom in late spring or early summer. NANCY RoSE Early-spring-flowering Magnolia salicifolia has fragrant, 6-tepaled white flowers and a pyramidal growth habit. Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum 7 SCott ARBoREtum introduction from 1892; `Brozzoni', which bears white flowers with pink veins and was named in honor of Camillo Brozzoni in Brescia, Italy in 1873; `Lennei', which has tepals that are magenta on the outside and white on the inside; `Norbertii', a lateblooming cultivar with red-purple flowers; and `Verbanica', which has deep pink flowers and was named by Andre Leroy in France in 1873. In 1936, scions of all these clones were sent to Verkades Nursery in Wayne, New Jersey. the magnolias were propagated there, and duplicate plants were then sent back to the Scott Arboretum. today, many of these original cultivars from Highland Park are found in our collections. Noted magnolia expert Philippe de Spoelberch from Arboretum Wespelaar, Haacht-Wespelaar, Belgium, commented that the Scott Arboretum's collection of Magnolia x soulangiana cultivars is important because they most likely represent clones which are true to name. De Spoelberch said that many of the original cultivars from France are much confused in the nursery industry and that many cultivar names have been mistakenly attributed to the wrong cultivar. Magnolia x soulangiana `Alexandrina' is noted for its dramatic redpurple flowers. A David Leach hybrid of M. acuminata x M. denudata, `Ivory Chalice' bears large, pale yellow to cream colored flowers. Southern Belles and Little Girls In 1933, the Scott Arboretum received its first plant of the southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) as a gift from Edith Wilder Scott. this large magnolia, native to the southeastern united States, is prized for its leathery evergreen foliage and large, fragrant, creamy white flowers. Several cultivars of this species were soon added to the collection; in 1939, `Exoniensis' was received from Princeton Nursery, and in 1940 `Lanceolata' arrived from Hillier and Sons in Winchester, England. Both of these clonal names are synonymous with `Exmouth', which is a fastigiate cultivar. It was not until 28 years later, in 1968, that any additional selections of the southern magnolia were added to the Arboretum's collections. `Edith Bogue' was a selection that was made in 1961 for its ability to withstand very cold temperatures with minimal SCott ARBoREtum 8 Arnoldia 68\/1 NANCY RoSE SCott ARBoREtum Three of the \"Little Girl\" magnolia hybrids, (clockwise from above) `Betty', `Ann', and `Judy'. This group of magnolias was bred at the United States National Arboretum and named for the wives, daughters, and secretaries of the breeders. leaf burn. our plant came from Kingsville Nursery in Kingsville, maryland. today, there are several specimens of `Edith Bogue' growing on the campus of Swarthmore College, as well as 7 other M. grandiflora cultivars including both `D. D. Blanchard' and `Pocono' which also have been selected for greater cold hardiness. In 1968 the Scott Arboretum also received an important collection of magnolias from the united States National Arboretum. Commonly referred to as the Eight Little Girls, these magnolias were the result of hybridizing work conducted at the uSNA by research geneticist Dr. Francis deVos and horticulturist William Kosar. In 1955, deVos began breeding working using Magnolia liliiflora `Nigra' and Magnolia stellata `Rosea'. `Nigra' was used for its hardiness and late blooming, while `Rosea' was used for its fragrance, prolific flowering, and mildew resistance. the results of this program resulted in the introduction of cultivars `Ann', `Judy', `Randy', and `Ricki'. In 1956, Kosar hybridized Magnolia stellata `Rosea' and `Waterlily' with Magnolia liliiflora `Nigra' and `Reflorescens', which resulted in the introduction of cultivars `Betty', `Jane', `Pinkie', and `Susan'. today at NANCY RoSE Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum 9 SCott ARBoREtum A specimen of the rare Florida native Magnolia macrophylla subsp. ashei growing at the Scott Arboretum. the Scott Arboretum `Ann', `Betty', and `Susan' remain as beautiful mature specimens, while the others that we lost have been replaced with younger specimens. the \"Little Girl\" hybrids remain a group of magnolias that we continue to promote as relatively small (about 12 to 20 feet [3.5 to 6 meters] tall) magnolias for the home garden. In addition to Magnolia virginiana and Magnolia grandiflora, the Scott Arboretum added several other magnolia species native to the united States. We received the umbrella magnolia (Magnolia tripetala) from the Hicks Nursery in 1932 and Magnolia fraseri came from Arthur D. Slavin at Highland Park Nursery in 1933. Magnolia macrophylla, which is closely related to Magnolia fraseri, was acquired from Andorra Nursery near Philadelphia in 1939. the Scott Arboretum's first plant of Magnolia pyramidata (which is sometimes listed as Magnolia fraseri subsp. pyramidata) came to us via the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania in 1971. this species is native to the coastal plains of Alabama, Georgia, Florida, Louisiana, mississippi, South Carolina, and texas, while Magnolia fraseri is only found in the mountains. It wasn't until 1991 that we added the last of the North American native magnolias, a single plant of Magnolia macrophylla subsp. ashei. Ashe's magnolia is very rare in the wild and only occurs in a small portion of the Florida panhandle where it is found from Leon to Wakulla counties and westward to Santa Rosa county. In the Red List of Magnoliaceae, which documents globally threatened plants within the magnolia family, Magnolia macrophylla subsp. ashei is given the conservation status of \"vulnerable\", which means it is considered to be facing a high risk of extinction in the wild. 10 Arnoldia 68\/1 CouRtESY oF PAt mCCRACKEN `Gold Crown', an August Kehr hybrid, bears large, light to medium yellow flowers. Magnolia zenii is a critically endangered species in its native range in China. Recent Additions, Future Plans the 1990s saw dozens of new cultivars enter the Scott Arboretum's collections from many magnolia purveyors such as Arbor Village Nursery, Gossler Farms, and Fairweather Gardens. In 1998, through Pat mcCracken and mcCracken Nursery, we received a number of cultivars introduced by noted magnolia hybridizer Dr. August Kehr. After retiring from the uSDA, Kehr started a robust magnolia breeding program in Hendersonville, North Carolina that resulted in many outstanding cultivars of magnolias. Some of the Kehr cultivars included in our magnolia collection are `Serenade', `Pink Perfection', and a number of the much-desired yellow-flowered hybrids including `Gold Crown', `Golden Endeavor', `Hot Flash', `Solar Flair', and `Sunburst'. to create the yellow magnolias Kehr made complex crosses using M. acuminata, M. denudata, M. x brooklynensis, M. `Elizabeth', M. `Woodsman' and M. `Gold Star'. From 2000 to 2010 the Scott Arboretum continued to add dozens of new magnolia taxa to our collection. many new cultivars of Magnolia grandiflora and Magnolia virginiana were added. Several other yellow-flowered magnolias such as `Yellow Joy', `Limelight' and `Golden Rain' were added. In addition, many species magnolias from a variety of sources were accessioned, including Magnolia x wiesneri, a hybrid between M. sieboldii and M. obovata; Magnolia zenii which is critically endangered in China where only one population, comprised of 18 NANCY RoSE Magnolias at the Scott Arboretum 11 SCott ARBoREtum Magnolia denudata `Swarthmore Sentinel' was selected and named for its distinctly upright habit. 12 Arnoldia 68\/1 SCott ARBoREtum individual trees, exists; and Magnolia wilsonii, which is endangered and only exists in scattered populations in Sichuan, northern Yunnan, and Guizhou, China. two other additions--Magnolia lotungensis from China and M. tamaulipana from northeastern mexico--may prove to be borderline hardy in Swarthmore (uSDA zone 6, average annual minimum temperature -10F to 0F [-23.3C to -17.8C]). In 2009 the Arboretum introduced a new selection of the Yulan magnolia, Magnolia denudata `Swarthmore Sentinel'. the Arboretum originally received a seedling from J. C. Raulston at North Carolina State university, who had received seeds from the Beijing Botanic Garden. From a seedling in 1993, the tree is over 30 feet tall today. on several occasions visiting magnolia experts commented on how upright our particular clone was. therefore, we decided to name this selection `Swarthmore Sentinel' for its fastigiate habit. over the last 81 years we have accessioned 502 magnolias at the Scott Arboretum. today the collection holds 165 different taxa. the Scott Arboretum's collection is recognized as a national magnolia collection through the American Public Garden Association's North American Plant Collections Consortium (NAPCC). According to the APGA \"the North American Plant Collections Consortium is a network of botanical gardens and arboreta working to coordinate a continent-wide approach to plant germplasm preservation, and to promote high standards of plant collections management.\" the Scott Arboretum will be working with approximately 20 other institutions across North America, including San Francisco Botanical Garden, Quarryhill Botanical Garden, university of British Columbia Botanical Garden, the Bartlett Arboretum, and Atlanta Botanical Garden to create a consortium of institutions to oversee the preservation and conservation of magnoliaceae germplasm. this group will also be part of the NAPCC and administered through the APGA. once formed, this magnolia Curatorial Group will partner with the magnolia Society International to target both wild species and cultivar groups which need to be preserved in botanic gardens and arboreta. the Scott Arboretum Magnolia `Charles Coates' is an unusual hybrid between M. sieboldii and M. tripetala. will also continue to grow its own collections. We currently have 72 magnolia taxa growing in a nursery, and once these reach specimen size they will be transplanted to garden sites throughout the arboretum. In 2015 the Scott Arboretum plans to host the international meeting of the magnolia Society International. Bibliography Callaway, D.J. 1994. The World of Magnolias. timber Press, Portland, oregon. Gardiner, J. 2000. Magnolias: A Gardener's Guide. timber Press, Portland, oregon. Liu, Y.H. 2004. Magnolias of China. Hong-Kong, Beijing Science & technology Press. treseder, N.G. 1978. Magnolias. Faber and Faber, Limited, London and Boston. Wister, J.C. Swarthmore Plant Notes 19301954, Volume 1, Part 1. pp. 8088. Yagoda, B. 2003. The Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College--The First 75 Years. the Donning Company Press. Andrew Bunting is Curator of the Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Excerpts from Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25482","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060a76b.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Excerpts from Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide Peter Del Tredici E Editor's NotE: ver wonder what kind of tree that is, the one growing from a crack in the asphalt parking lot at work? Or what that tangled vine engulfing the slope by the subway station might be? Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide, written by long-time Arnold Arboretum researcher Peter Del Tredici, may have your answer. Del Tredici's goal with this book is \"to help the general reader identify plants growing spontaneously in the urban environment and to develop an appreciation of the role they play in making our cities more livable.\" Many of the 222 plants featured in the book could be called weeds, and some are notoriously invasive. The author eschews these labels, however, pointing out that in many urban\/suburban areas the environment has been so radically altered (think non-native fill soils, soil compaction and contamination, impermeable pavement, and pollution) that the presence of any plants has benefits. This handy guide is organized by plant families and includes both woody and herbaceous plants. Numerous color photographs and extensive information is provided for each species, including place of origin, descriptions of vegetative, flower, and fruit characteristics, and habitat preference. Some fascinating details emerge from the \"Cultural Significance\" subsections--for example: \"During World War II, the silky seed hairs [of common milkweed, Asclepias syriaca] were used as a substitute for kapok to fill \"Mae West\" life vests. Between 1943 and 1945, a million such flotation devices were filled with the floss from some 24 million pounds (11 million kilograms) of milkweed pods.\" Following are half a dozen plant species featured in the book. Reprinted from: Peter Del Tredici, Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast: A Field Guide. Copyright 2010 by Cornell University. Used by permission of the publisher, Cornell University Press. 374 pages. ISBN 978-0-8014-7458-3. 14 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 15 16 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 17 18 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 19 20 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 21 22 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 23 24 Arnoldia 68\/1 Wild Urban Plants of the Northeast 25 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Conserving the Dawn Redwood: The Ex Situ Collection at the Dawes Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25481","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060a726.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Payton, Greg","article_content":"Conserving the Dawn Redwood: The Ex Situ Collection at the Dawes Arboretum Greg Payton S NANCy ROSE ince 1990, the Dawes Arboretum in Newark, Ohio, has undertaken a large scale ex situ conservation project with Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood. Ex situ conservation is defined as the conservation of genes or genotypes outside their environment of natural occurrence (China, in the case of dawn redwood). There are challenges and limits to ex situ conservation, but for some threatened or endangered plants and animals it is an essential component in efforts to keep the species from extinction. For a long-term conservation project to be successful and sustainable, a large sampling of genetic material is desirable to maintain the existing and potential variation within a particular species. Many attempts at rescue efforts are done on a limited basis, and they hold relatively small numbers of specimens due to insufficient space and budgetary limitations. Ideally, ex situ collections should have the capacity to grow the requisite number of individuals essential for preserving the base Dawn redwoods develop distinctive buttressed trunks with age. Dawn Redwood at the Dawes Arboretum 27 GREG PAyTON GREG PAyTON A specimen with good form and foliage qualities (accession D1993-0249.004). Variations in foliage of trees in the Dawes plantation. All branchlets photographed on October 13, 2009. gene reserve with a goal of capturing as large of a part of the genetic diversity within the species as possible. Some species require relatively few individuals to capture that genetic range, while others require much larger population sizes. Studies of the genetic variation within dawn redwood have been and still are being conducted. Early results indicate that there is a fairly low genetic diversity, although there is some differentiation within the native populations throughout the overall range of the species. Ex situ conservation does have its limits, and ideally it should complement in situ protection in the natural environment. Preserving a native, wild population is the best option, and this should be the primary focus of any conservation program. One of the particular problems with ex situ conservation lies in the inevitable environmental differences between the site of origin and the site of the ex situ collection. If plants in the ex situ site are allowed to sexually reproduce, environmental conditions in this new setting favor the selection and survival of the progeny best adapted to that site. Progeny that survive in the ex situ location may have different traits than progeny which would have survived in the original site. While this may have advantages from a horticultural standpoint (e.g. selection of plants with greater cold hardiness or better drought tolerance), it is a disadvantage for most conservation goals. Preserving the genetic diversity of a species ex situ may be best accomplished by maintaining clonal populations. However, seed banking of species with orthodox seeds (seeds that survive drying or freezing) can also be important in securing a species for the future, and there is the advantage that seeds can be stored in a much smaller space than living plants. A combination of both seed banking and living plants offers the most opportunities for conservation research. 28 Arnoldia 68\/1 Meet Metasequoia glyptostroboides Dawn redwood (shui-shan in Chinese, meaning \"water-fir\") is a deciduous conifer similar to bald cypress (Taxodium distichum). The soft, distichous needles of dawn redwood are arranged oppositely, easily distinguishing it from bald cypress with its alternate needle arrangement. When dawn redwood--once thought to be extinct--was discovered still growing in southcentral China in a mild and wet climate, it was not believed that it would survive in the United States north of Georgia. The provenance testing done since Metasequoia seeds arrived in the United States in 1948 shows that it can survive in USDA Hardiness Zones 5 to 8 (average annual minimum temperature -20 to 20F [-28.8 to -6.7C]) in areas with sufficient rainfall (or with supplemental watering). In its native Sichuan, China, the average rainfall is around 40 inches (100 centimeters) per year but dawn redwood has survived in parts of the United States with lesser amounts of rainfall. The typical form is a large tree, up to 150 feet (45 meters) tall in the wild, pyramidal in youth, becoming more open-crowned with great age. The trunks on older specimens become strongly buttressed. It is fast growing when moisture is available and can add over 3 feet (1 meter) of growth per year. It is heliophilic (requiring full sun), which has limited its use as a commercial timber tree since it does not grow well in competition. Many millions of dawn redwoods have now been planted throughout China, but the condition of the native population has remained stagnant. The 2009 IUCN Red List of Threatened Species gives dawn redwood a status of critically endangered, saying that the few remaining trees have been protected but that the habitat has not been, and there are poor prospects for natural regeneration. The valleys the tree prefers have been denuded of vegetation and mature trees are often limbed up--all the way to the top--for firewood. Seedling reproduction is unlikely in this altered environment. In the past, natural seeding was also hampered because the seeds were collected and sold by farmers for various uses such as timber plantations. This practice has become less common in recent years, since An example of a plant that exists only ex situ is Franklinia alatamaha, Franklin tree. It is believed to have been extirpated from its native range (Georgia, in the southeastern United States) by the early nineteenth century. Fortunately, botanists John and William Bartram found and later collected and propagated Franklin tree in the late eighteenth century, and the species still survives in cultivation today. It blooms from late summer into autumn, and flowering often overlaps with fall foliage color. other Chinese conifers have provided lumber of greater quality. In addition, propagation from cuttings has proven to be advantageous for producing new plants. Recent surveys indicate that 5,396 native trees (of all ages) still remain in the native range in China. The majority of trees (5,363) grow in western Hubei, while 28 grow in eastern Chongqing. Only 5 trees remain in Hunan. NANCy ROSE Dawn Redwood at the Dawes Arboretum 29 A Case of Depression and the \"Single Tree\" Theory In 1983, Dr. John Kuser, a forestry professor at Rutgers University, surmised that cultivated Metasequoia in the United States were suffering from inbreeding depression. He said, \"Apparently, variation in the amount of genetic load carried by different trees causes some to be incapable of producing fertile selfpollinated seeds but allows others to produce a few viable seeds and occasional trees to self quite well.\" He noted that Metasequoia pollen is wingless and \"tends to clump together.\" The best seed germination was found to occur on trees that had been located advantageously for cross-pollination. At the time, the popular belief was that the poor germination of seedlings was the result of trees in the United States having all originated from the single \"type\" tree in the village of Maudao, China. However, allozyme variation work done in 1995 showed that the 1947 seeds were not likely to have come from a single isolated tree. Furthermore, a copy of a previously unpublished paper by W. C. Cheng dated March 25, 1948 revealed, as stated above, that Hwa had found more than 1000 Metasequoia and about 100 \"big ones.\" Apparently seeds from many MAP by GREG PAyTON Map of native dawn redwood distribution and seedlot collection sites. 30 Arnoldia 68\/1 GREG PAyTON trees had been collected and disseminated. Poor seed set seems to stem from the fact that most seed production outside of China is the result of selfing (due to isolation of specimens). The genetic variation of dawn redwood in China was believed to be much greater than that in the United States, and in 1990 a cooperative research project on Metasequoia began between Dr. W. J. Libby at the University of California, berkeley, Professor Minghe Li at Huazhong Agricultural University in Hubei, China, and Dr. Kuser. A number of organizations contributed to fund the project, and it was at this point that the Dawes Arboretum became involved in provenance testing of Metasequoia. Professor Li collected Metasequoia seeds from several locations in its native range in October 1990. In April 1991, 53 packets of seeds were PHOTO by bURNEy HUFF (DAWES ARCHIvES) A bronze-foliaged specimen in the plantation (accession D1993-0237.005). received at Rutgers University from Professor Li, 52 from trees that still had seed cones, and one packet of mixed seeds. These seed lots were germinated, and only four of the collections produced no seedlings. The remaining 48 \"families\" were grown on, and complete collections were planned for both Rutgers and Dawes. The remaining seedlings were distributed to nearly 20 cooperating institutions and individuals in the United States and United Kingdom. (The Arnold Arboretum received 125 of these seedlings.) In 1993 the Dawes Arboretum received two shipments of the dawn redwood seedlings from Rutgers. A total of 344 trees were planted in the Dawes plantation. because of the large size (8 acres [3.2 hectares]) of the Dawes site we were able to plant the trees 25 feet (7.6 meters) apart so no subsequent thinning was necessary. A dawn redwood specimen from the original 1949 seed accession at the Dawes Arboretum. The photograph is from the early 1990s when the tree was nearly 80 feet (24 meters) tall; a lightning strike later took out the top of the tree. Current Status of the Dawes Collection The Dawes plantation of seedlings from Professor Li and Rutgers currently consists of 320 trees, which makes it one of the largest living ex situ conservation collections of documented wild-origin dawn redwood trees outside of China. Through 2009, 24 trees have been lost Dawn Redwood at the Dawes Arboretum 31 from this plantation, and one seed lot family has been lost completely from both the Dawes and Rutgers plantations. In 2009, Dawes began contacting other institutions to see what living accessions they had from the original 52 seed lots; 29 new accessions (in the form of vegetative cuttings) representing trees from seed lots where Dawes had few representatives were obtained from these institutions. Since each of these trees was originally grown from seeds, every tree is genetically unique and therefore valuable for its individuality. These cuttings are currently doing well in propagation and will help to provide more genetic stock to add to the diversity of the plantation. The search for additional collections of this Li\/Rutgers project is ongoing. Any other modern or historical collection of wild material would be invaluable to add to the Dawes collection. One of the seed lots that had no germination was the only lot from Hunan, collected from three individual dawn redwoods there, so we are especially interested in acquiring germplasm from the few trees in Hunan. In addition to the plantation trees, Dawes has a few other accessions of wild-collected Metase- quoia: three accessions from the original 1947 seedlings, received in 1950 from Ralph Chaney who presumably got his seeds from Merrill; a grove of 44 trees propagated by cuttings in 1960 from the previous accession; and three individuals also propagated from the original accession. Into the Future In Metasequoia, female cones (macrosporangiate strobili) are typically produced when trees reach a height of 30 to 50 feet (9 to 15 meters ). Male cones (microsporangiate strobili) are not produced until trees are 60 to 83 feet (18 to 25 meters) in height. At this point, neither female nor male cones have been observed on the Dawes Arboretum plantation trees. As the grove continues to grow and seed production begins, the resultant progeny will represent the greatest level of genetic variation within dawn redwood outside of China. The origins of these plantation trees are from across the estimated 800 square kilometer (312 sq. mi.) native range in central China where full cross-pollination is very unlikely. Studies have shown that trees in the native populations show a lack of spatial genetic flow, indicating GREG PAyTON Wide spacing allows ample room for trees in the dawn redwood plantation. 32 Arnoldia 68\/1 DAvID bRANDENbURG The author with a witches'-broom on one of the Dawes plantation trees. In 2009, both the genetic and taxonomic (cultivar) collections of dawn redwoods at the Dawes Arboretum were granted full status as a North American Plant Collections Consortium (NAPCC) collection. This symbolizes the commitment of the staff and organization to fulfilling the duty of preserving this important collection. As a repository for North America, requests for propagation material are honored for research purposes. Of horticultural interest, there are well over two dozen cultivars of Metasequoia that add to the range of variation within the species. `Miss Grace' and `Bonsai' are dwarf selections, `Jack Frost' has a hint of variegation, and `Ogon' (syn. `Gold Rush') is a Japanese cultivar with bright yellow foliage that originated from irradiated seeds. Several cultivar selections could be made from the Dawes plantation trees, as there are some interesting habits and foliage types. Tree heights of the plantation trees are from scarcely 3 feet (1 meter) tall to over 33 feet (10 meters), and habits range from squat and round to tall and narrow with many forms in between. Foliage varies from large and coarse to small and fine, with colors in shades of green and bronze. A witches'-broom--which may yield dwarf forms--has even been found on one specimen. Dawn Redwood at the Dawes Arboretum 33 genetic isolation due to habitat fragmentation (Leng et al. 2007). As stated earlier, natural pollen dissemination is limited. Since these wide-ranging Chinese collections are located together in a single plantation at Dawes, broad genetic combinations could occur. The resultant mixed, open-pollinated seeds could prove useful for horticultural purposes as well as for selecting for resistance to any future insect or disease pressures. These seeds would have limited use for some conservation projects (since they are from mixed meta-populations), but there is potential for controlled crossing within the separate seed lot collections, which would give greater conservation value. The seeds produced here will be made available to seed banks, researchers, and growers. This collection holds many opportunities for future studies and research to be conducted without traveling to China. The sister population at Rutgers University is currently the subject of an amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) analysis to assess the breadth of the genetic diversity of the collection. Since most of the genotypes at Rutgers are duplicates of dawn redwoods in the collection at Dawes, the data from the AFLP study will pertain to this collection as well. We hope that this successful ex situ collection at the Dawes Arboretum will aid in the conservation and further understanding of this ancient and impressive species. Bibliography Andrews, H.N. 1948. Metasequoia and the Living Fossils. Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin 36(5): 7985. bartholomew, b., D.E. boufford, and S.A. Spongberg, 1983. Metasequoia glyptostroboides--Its Present Status in Central China. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 64: 105128. Ecker, Eisenman, S.W. 2009. Pers. comm. Rutgers University, School of Environmental and biological Sciences, Department of Plant biology and Pathology. GSPC. 2002. Global Strategy for Plant Conservation. Montreal: Secretariat of the Convention on biological Diversity. Hendricks, D.R. 1995. Metasequoia Depression, Sex, and Other Useful Information. Landscape Plant News 6(2): 710. Hendricks, D. and P. Sondergaard. 1998. Metasequoia glyptostroboides--50 years out of China. Observations from the United States and Denmark. Dansk Dendrologisk Arsskrift 6: 624. Hsueh, C.-J. 1985. Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Arnoldia 45(4): 1018. Hu, H.H. 1948. How Metasequoia, the \"living fossil\" was discovered in China. Journal of the New York Botanical Garden 49(585): 201207. IUCN. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009.1. Retrieved October 12, 2009, from www. iucnredlist.org Kuser, J.E., D.L.Sheely, and D.R. Hendricks. 1997. Genetic variation in Two ex situ Collections of the Rare Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Cupressaceae). Silvae Genetica 46(5): 258264. Kuser, J. 1983. Inbreeding Depression in Metasequoia. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 64: 475481. Leng, Q. et.al. 2007. Database of Native Metasequoia glyptostroboides Trees in China based on New Census Surveys and Expeditions. Bulletin of the Peabody Museum of Natural History 48(2): 185233. LePage, b.A., C.J. Williams, and H. yang. 2005. The Geobiology and Ecology of Metasequoia. Springer. Li, M. 2009, November 1. Pers. comm. Li, X.-D., H.-W. Huang, and J.-Q. Li. 2003. Genetic diversity of the relict plant Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Biodiversity Science 11: 100108. Ma, J. 2003. On the unsolved mystery of Metasequioa. Acta Botanica Yunnanica (25)2: 155172. Ma, J. 2003. The Chronology of the \"Living Fossil\" Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Taxodiaceae): A Review (19432003). Harvard Papers in Botany 8(1): 918. Ma, J. 2002. The History of the Discovery and Initial Seed Dissemination of the Metasequoia glyptostroboides, A \"Living Fossil\". Aliso 21(2): 6575. Ma, J. and G. Shao. 2003. Rediscovery of the \"first collection\" of the `Living Fossil', Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Taxon 52(3): 585588. Merrill, E.D. 19981999. Another Living Fossil Comes to the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 5859(4-1): 1719. Sand, S. 1992. The Dawn Redwood. American Horticulturist 71(10): 4044. Wyman, D. 1968. Metasequoia After Twenty years in Cultivation. Arnoldia 28(1011): 113122. Greg Payton is the Plant Records Specialist at the Dawes Arboretum in Newark, Ohio. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 67","article_sequence":4,"start_page":34,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25483","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060ab6f.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 67 Items in boldface refer to illustrations Anteater 2: 30 Anthocyanins 3: 23 Anticancer plants 3: 23, 25 Antioxidant fruit 3: 1425 -- -- commercial potential of 3: 2325 Ants, leaf-cutter 2: 30 Appalachian Mts., Tennessee 3: 20 Apple, original 2: 20 -- fruiting genotypes 2: 20 -- quince and 1: 3 -- scab resistance 2: 10, 10, 20 Apple-pear, Asian 4: 28 Apomixis 3: 19, 21, 22, 2425 Arboriculture and plant hormones 4: 1519 Arborvitae, as beetle host 1: 35 Arisaema dilatatum, in China 2: 27, 28 Armenia, quince-growing in 1: 5, 5 Arnold Arboretum, Acer rubrum `Schlesingeri' at 2: 32, inside back cover -- -- aerial photographs of 1: 1927, 11; 1929, 13; 1936, 14; 1955, 13, 18; 1967, 12; 1968, 15; 2005, front cover, 11, 15; 2006, 18; 2007, 12; 2008, 17; 2009, 19; 2: 2008, 14 -- -- apple selection at 2: 20 -- -- autumn interest 2: 32, inside back cover; 4: 23 -- -- beetle research at 1: 3135, 32 -- -- Bentham and Hooker sequence at 2: 16 -- -- Bradley Rosaceous Collection 1: 14, 44; 2: 16, 20, 20; 4: 22, 24 -- -- Bussey Brook Meadow, in aerial photo 1: 14 -- -- Bussey Hill, in aerial photos 1: 11, 13, 14 -- -- Camellia trials 1: 27 -- -- cartography systems 1: 1219 -- -- Centre Street, in aerial photo 1: 14 -- -- China expeditions, 19071908, 1910 3: 213 -- -- cold-hardiness at 3: 36 -- -- conifer collection 3: 36; 4: 22 -- -- crabapple legacy 2: 1421, back cover -- -- Crataegus at 2: 16 A Abies spp., and exotic beetles 1: 33, 35 -- homolepis, lightning-damaged 4: 22, 22 Abscisic acid 4: 15, 1819 -- -- photosynthesis and 4: 19 Acai juice 3: 23 Acer spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 -- davidii, in China 2: 22, 26 -- -- bark 2: inside front cover -- rubrum `Schlesingeri' 2: 32, inside back cover -- -- -- propagation and redistribution of 2: 32 -- saccharum 3: 31 -- sutchuenense, in China 2: 27 Ackerman, Dr. William 1: 24, 28 Acorns, features of 4: 25, 35, 10, 11 Adenorachis 3: 21 Aerial photography and mapping 1: 1019, 1115, 1719 Aesculus spp., and exotic beetles 1: 34, 35 Afghanistan, pine from 3: 36, inside back cover Africa, pest beetles from 1: 33 Agrilus planipennis 1: 34, 34 Agroforestry 3: 2627 Aiello, Anthony S., \"Seeking ColdHardy Camellias\" 1: 2030 Ailuropoda melanoleuca, discovery of 2: 23 Akebia trifoliata, in China 2: 26 Alders, as beetle host 1: 35 Alexander, John H., III -- -- -- -- photographs by 1: inside front\/back covers; 2: 18 Allium tricoccum 3: 30 Alnus spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 Alpha-pinene 1: 32 Alpine plants, in China 3: 213, 4, 6, 1011 Ambrosiella fungi 1: 35 American ginseng 3: 2830, 2930, 35 Amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) 4: 7, 910 Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS), and beetles 1: 3135 Anoplophora glabripennis 1: 34, 34 -- -- cultivar evaluation 2: 18 -- -- Dana Greenhouses, in aerial photos 1: 14 -- -- early accessions 1: 44; 2: 16, 1920 -- -- Faxon Pond 2: 32 -- -- Forest Hills Gate 2: 16 -- -- Forsythia hybrids at 2: 18 -- -- Himalayan pine at 3: 36, inside back cover -- -- Hunnewell building, in aerial photos 1: 15, 15 -- -- Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' at 1: inside covers, 44 -- -- introductions 1: 44; 2: 6, 1821 -- -- Japanese and Korean plants at 1: 27, 44; 2: 16 -- -- Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden, aerial photo of 1: front cover -- -- Living Collections survey 1: 15, 17 -- -- Master Plan 1: 17 -- -- Meadow Road 2: 32 -- -- Malus collection 2: 4, 1421, 14, 1621, back cover -- -- Metasequoia glyptostroboides at 4: 23 -- -- model 1: 1819 -- -- Nikko fir, loss of 4: 22, 22 -- -- Peters Hill 2: 14, 16, 16, 18, 19, 19, 20 -- -- -- -- in aerial photos 1: 1112, 14 -- -- Pinus wallichiana at 3: 36, inside back cover -- -- plant distribution benefits 2: 20 -- -- Prunus at 1: 13; 2: 18; 4: 24 -- -- Pyrus 2: 16 -- -- -- pyrifolia at 4: inside covers, 28 -- -- Rosaceae blights at 4: 22 -- -- sand pear at 4: 28, inside back cover -- -- Visiting Committee, 1955 1: 15 -- -- \"Weather Station Data--2009\" 4: 2024 -- -- Weld Hill in aerial photos 1: 14, 18, 19, 19 -- -- winter temperatures 3: 36 Arnoldia, Index to Volume 66 1: 3643 -- and Donald Wyman 2: 19 Index 35 Arnot Teaching and Research Forest 3: 32, 32 Aronia 3: front\/back covers, 1425, 1418, 22, 24 -- arbutifolia 3: 1415, 1519, 2122, 24 -- -- flowers 3: 15 -- -- foliage 3: 15 -- -- fruit 3: 14 -- fruit chemistry 3: 14, 21, 2325 -- -- crop potential 3: 1925 -- genetics 3: 19, 21, 22, 2425 -- habitat and range 3: 1819, 1820, 21 -- hybrids 3: 21, 25 -- juice products 3: 2225, 23 -- `Likernaya' 3: 25 -- melanocarpa 3: 1519, 16, 17, 2125, 22, 24 -- -- foliage 3: 17, 22 -- -- fruit 3: front cover, 16, 24 -- -- growth habit 3: 21, 22 -- -- `Nero' 3: 24, 25 -- -- x Sorbus aucuparia 3: 25 -- -- `Viking' 3: 24, 25 -- mitschurini 3: 25 -- ploidy and apomixis in 3: 19, 21, 22, 2425 -- prunifolia 3: 15, 1819, 21, 22 -- -- x arbutifolia 3: 21 -- -- x melanocarpa 3: 21 -- -- x prunifolia 3: 21 -- taxonomy 3: 21 -- -- and Photinia 3: 21 \"Aronia: Native shrubs With Untapped Potential,\" Mark Brand 3: 1425, 1420, 2224 Ash, as beetle host 1: 34 -- borer, emerald 1: 34 Asia, plants from 1: 2030, 44; 2: 5, 2228; 3: 213, 36; 4: 28 Asian long-horned beetle (ALB) 1: 34, 34; 2: 29 -- medicine, traditional 3: 2930 Asiatica Nursery [PA] 1: 2021 Asimina triloba, fruit of 3: 28, 28, 30 Astilbes, shade-grown 3: 33 Atomic testing 2: 31 Autumn color 2: 32; 4: 23, 28 \"Autumn's Harbinger: Acer Rubrum `Schlesingeri',\" Michael S. Dosmann 2: 32, inside back cover Auxin pathway 4: 1519 -- exogenous 4: 18 B Bachtell, Kris, photo by 2: inside front cover Bacterial diseases 2: 10; 4: 22 Bamboo, in panda habitat 2: 26 Baoxing, plant exploring in 2: 2228 Bark beetles, in port of Boston 1: 3132 Basset, Cedric,\"In the Footsteps of Father David\" 2: 2228, 2228 Bayesian approach 4: 11 Beech 3: 31 Beeches, as beetle host 1: 35 Beetle, ambrosia 1: 32 -- Asian long-horned (ALB) 1: 34, 34; 2: 29 -- emerald ash borer (EAB) 1: 34, 34 -- European spruce bark 1: 35 -- red-haired pine bark 1: 33, 33 -- six-toothed bark 1: 33, 33 Beetles, damaging 1: 3135, 334 -- -- emergence and phenology 1: 32, 35 -- -- fungal vectors of 1: 33, 35 -- -- links to information 1: 34 -- -- new surveys and trapping methods 1: 3235 -- -- observation of 1: 34 Bene, John 3: 27 Bentham, George 4: 26 Bentham and Hooker sequence 2: 16 Berberidaceae 2: 26 Beresowski (the botanist) 2: 28 Berks, Robert 4: 27 Berry crops 3: 1425, 28, 30 \"`Best' Crabapples (Malus spp.)\" 2: chart 9 Betula spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 \"Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees,\" Nalini M. Nadkarni, [excerpt] 2: 2931 Bible, quince in 1: 3 Binomial nomenclature 4: 26 Biodiversity 2: 2223, 24, 28; 3: 6, 1113, 26, 27, 28 Biology and taxonomy 4: 2527 Birch spp. 3: 36 Birches, as beetle host 1: 34, 35 Birds 2: 6, 10; 3: 14, 16 \"Bird's-eye Views: Aerial Photographs of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Sheila Connor 1: 1019, 1019 Black, James W., aerial photography of 1: 10, 10 Blackberries 3: 28 Blights and 2009 weather 4: 20, 22 Blooming, premature 4: 24 Blue Ridge Community College 4: 19 Blue stain fungi 1: 33 Boston 133 Cities Urban Area mapping program 1: 17 Boston port 1: 31 -- -- invasive beetles and 1: 3132 Botryosphaeria obtusa 2: 10 Bourg, Ian C., Ph.D. 2: 28 Brand, Mark, \"Aronia: \"Native shrubs With Untapped Potential\" 3: 1425 -- -- photos by 3: back cover Bristol, Peter 1: 21 Brooklyn Botanic Garden 2: 6 Buckeyes, as beetle host 1: 34, 35 Burbank, Luther, and quinces 1: 2, 4, 7, 8 Burma, pine from 3: 36 Burnett, D. Graham 4: 27 Bussey Institute 2: 17 C Calanthe tricarinata, in China 2: 25, 25 California, quinces in 1: 2, 3 Callicarpa japonica 1: 24 \"Camellia Belt\" 1: 27 Camellia japonica 1: 2030, 2223, 2529 -- -- `Balustrade' 1: 29 -- -- `Bloomfield' 1: 29, 29 -- -- espaliered 1: 30 -- -- fruit and seed 1: 23 -- -- grazing and 1: 23 -- -- `Korean Fire' 1: 28 -- -- Korean selections 1: 2429, 27, 28, 29 -- -- `Longwood Centennial' 1: 28 -- -- `Longwood Valentine' 1: 28 -- -- `Meadowbrook' 1: 29 -- -- `Morris Mercury' 1: 29 -- -- winter performance 1: 20, 2430 Camellias, hardier 1: 2030 Campanulaceae 2: 26 36 Arnoldia 68\/1 Campbell, Nichole K., \"Searching for Exotic Beetles\" 1: 3135 Canada, ginseng cultivation in 3: 30 Cancer, plants against 3: 23, 25 Caprifoliaceae 2: 25 Cardamine, in China 2: 28 Cargo ships, and pests 1: 3132, 31 Carnegie Museum of Natural History, beetle collections 1: 32 Carpinus caroliniana 3: 31 -- fangiana, in China 2: 26, 27 Carya spp. 3: 30 -- x dunbarii 3: 32 -- graft unions 3: 32, 32 -- laciniosa x ovata 3: 32 -- ovata 3: 32 -- ovalis 3: 32 Caucasus region, quinces of 1: 4, 5, 7, 7 Cedars, as term 2: 23 Ceratocystis spp. 1: 33 -- polonica 1: 35 C-glucoside vitexin flavone 3: 21 Chaenomeles sinensis 1: 8 Chanticleer garden 1: 27 Chengdu Institute of Botany 2: 28 Cherries, as beetle host 1: 35 Cherry, flowering 4: 24 -- in secondary growth 3: 32 Chicago area, oaks near 4: 4, 7, 10 Chicago Botanic Garden 4: 27 China, expedition to, 1980 2: 19 -- Imperial 3: 11 -- travel between Tibet and 3: 213 -- plants of 1: 30; 2: inside front cover, 15, 16, 1920, 2228, 2223, 2528; 3: inside front cover, 213, 4, 6, 10, 11; 4: 28 Chinese medicine, traditional 3: 2930 Chokeberry, black 3: front cover, 1519, 16, 17, 2125, 22, 24 -- commercial potential of 3: 2225 -- comparison of spp. 3: 1418, chart 17, 19, 2123, back cover -- cultural needs 3: 19, 23 -- fruits 3: front cover, 1425, 14, 16, 24, back cover -- habitat and distribution 3: 1820, 1820 -- ornamental qualities 3: 1419, 1417, 22 -- populations 3: 21 -- propagation 3: 14, 22 -- purple 3: 1819, 21, 22 -- red 3: 1415, 1519, 21, 22, 24 -- winter interest 3: front cover Chagga people 3: 27 Chloroplast data, and oak hybrids 4: 3 Classification trends 4: 2527 Clematis, in China 2: 28 Climbing plants 2: 26, 27 Climate change 4: 13 Codonopsis tangshen, in China 2: 26 Cold-hardiness 3: 36 -- -- in camellias 1: 2030 Computerized records, and mapping 1: 17, 19 Conifers 3: 36; 4: 22 -- pests of 1: 3135 Connor, Jay 1: 19 -- -- photographs by 1: front cover Connor, Sheila, \"Bird's-eye Views: Aerial Photographs of the Arnold Arboretum\" 1: 1019 Container-growing 3: 33 Convallariaceae 2: 25 Corkscrew willow 3: 35 Cornell University 3: 32; 4: 25 Cornus controversa, in China 2: 25, 26 -- kousa, Korean 1: 30 -- sericea, in winter 3: 34 Corydalis anthriscifolia, in China 2: 26 -- davidii, in China 2: 26 Cotoneaster moupinensis, in China 2: 28 Crandall, C.S. 2: 20 \"Crabapple Cultivars Introduced by Arboretum\" 2: chart 21 Crabapple cultivars 2: 213, 1721 Crabapples, at Arboretum 2: 1421 -- bark interest 2: 1920 -- best of 2: chart 9 -- breeding and selection 2: 57, 1421 -- choosing 613 -- cultivation 2: 37 -- description 2: 25 -- diseases 2: 10, 20 -- fruit 2: 311, 4, 5, 8, 10, 11, 13, 17, 1920, 19 -- -- palatability of 2: 10 -- longevity 2: 5 -- plumleaf 2: 56 -- problems with 2: 23, 6, 7, 10, 13 -- seasonal interest 2: 5, 10, 13, 19 -- Siberian 2: 1920 -- siting 2: 3, 5, 67, 10, 13 -- weeping 2: 5, 56, 12, 13, 13 \"Crabapples...With No Apologies,\" Jeff Iles 2: 213, 28, chart 9, 1013 Crops, new 3: 1425, 2635 -- -- medicinal 3: 23, 25, 2930 -- -- ornamental 3: 3335 Cypripedium tibeticum 3: 12 Cryptomeria spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 Cunninghamia lanceolata 2: 23, 23 Cuppressaceae 2: 23 Curtis, Ralph, 1922 photo by 2: 16 Cydomalus 1: 4 Cydonia oblonga 1: 29, 27, back cover -- \"A\" clone 1: 5 -- -- `Angers' 1: 5 -- -- botany of 1: 34, 8 -- \"C\" clone 1: 5 -- -- cultivation and uses 1: 27 -- -- germplasm resources 1: 37, 9 -- -- `Champion', 1909 illustration 1: back cover -- -- `Chartar Gyugh' 1: 5 -- -- `Fontenay Quince' 1: 5 -- -- `Harron' 1: 6 -- -- `Orange', 1922 illustration 1: 4 -- -- `Pineapple' 1: 2, 2, 4 -- -- `Smyrna' 1: 4 -- -- `Van Deman' 1: 2 -- sinensis 1: 8, 8 \"Cydonia oblonga: The Unappreciated Quince,\" Joseph Postman 1: 29, 28, back cover Cytokinin pathways 4: 1519 D Da Pao Shan mountain 3: 12, 13 -- -- -- climate 3: 8, 9, 13 Darwin, Charles 4: 16, 26 -- -- The Power of Movement in Plants 4: 16 Darwin, Francis 4: 16 Dating of trees 2: 3031 David, Father Armand, discoveries revisited 2: 1, 2228 -- biography 2: 24 Index 37 -- portrait 2: 24 Davidia 2: 22 -- involucrata, in China 2: 24, 25, 25 Dawn redwood 4: 23 Da Xue Shan Mts. 3: 4, 5, 89, 1213 Daylilies, shade-grown 3: 33 Deforestation 1: 21 Del Tredici, Peter, \"The Sand Pear-- Pyrus pyrifolia\" 4: 28 -- -- -- photographs by 1: inside back cover; 4: inside covers Den Boer, Arie F. 2: 2 Dengchigow mountain 2: 28 Deutzia glomeruliflora, in China 2: 26 Dipelta yunnanensis, in China 2: 25 Dirr, Michael 2: 32; 3: 21 Diseases of pome fruits 1: 4, 6, 7, 8 Disjunct flora 1: 44 Disporum bodinieri, in China 2: 25 Diversification, in black oaks 4: 413 Diversity in alpine habitat 3: 6, 1113 Dogwood, in China 2: 25, 26 -- red-twig, as woody floral 3: 33, 34 Dormancy, and tree hormones 4: 17 Dosmann, Michael S., \"Autumn's Harbinger: Acer rubrum `Schlesingeri'\" 2: 32, inside back cover -- -- -- \"Malus at the Arnold Arboretum: An Ongoing Legacy\" 2: 1421 Douglas firs, as beetle host 1: 33, 35 Drepanostachyum, in China 2: 26 Dulce de membrillo 1: 45 Erwinia amylovora 1: 6; 2: 10; 4: 22 \"Essay on Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science,\" P.F. Stevens [review] 4: 2527 Ethanol, in beetle trap 1: 32 Ethylene 4: 15 Euonymus alata, restrictions on 3: 23 -- in China 2: 28 Eurasia, quinces in 1: 47 Eurasian beetles, damaging 1: 3335 Europe, quinces in 1: 45, 7 European spruce bark beetle 1: 35 Evolutionary relationships, and oaks 4: 13 -- -- and classification 4: 2527 \"Excerpt From Wilson's China: A Century On,\" Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham 3: inside front cover, 213, 36, 812 Exotic beetles 1: 3135 Experiential learning 3: 32 \"Extraordinary Discoverer of Life\" 2: 24 -- health checklist 3: 27 -- non-timber crops from 3: 2635 -- private ownership of 3: 2728 \"Forest Farming,\" Ken Mudge 3: 2635, 2634 Forest Farming Practicum [Cornell] 3: 32 Forest Hills Station 1: 12 Forests, North American oak 4: 213 Franchet (the botanist) 2: 27 Fraxinus, and exotic beetles 1: 34 Fruit, nutraceutical 3: 1425 -- spot 1: 6, 7 -- trees 1: 29; 4: 28 Fuji cherry 4: 24 Fuller, Dave 1: 19 Fullerview Photography 1: 19 Fumariaceae 2: 26 Fungus 1: 33, 35; 2: 10, 20; 4: 20 G \"Golden Apple\" of antiquity 1: 23 Garden and Forest 1: 44 Genealogical relationships 4: 2527 Genebank, national system 1: 6, 7, 9 Gene flow, between oak spp. 4: 711 -- -- interspecific 4: 9 Genera Plantarum [Bentham and Hooker] 4: 26 Genetics, in Aronia 3: 19, 21, 22, 2425 -- in Malus 2: 20 -- nut-tree grafts and 3: 32 -- of black oak group 4: 213 Geographic distance, and oak speciation 4: 213 -- information systems (GIS) 1: 10, 19 Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) 3: 21 Gibberellins 4: 15 Ginseng, American, 3: 2830, 29, 30 -- -- growing 3: 2830, 32 -- -- market for 3: 2930 -- -- medicinal uses 3: 2930 -- -- pricing 3: 30 -- -- root 3: 30 -- -- soil calcium and 3: 29 Ginsenosides 3: 30 Glaciation, and oaks 4: 13 Gleason, Herbert Wendell 1: 13 Globalization 2: 29 F Fabraea maculata, and quince 1: 6, 7 Fagus and exotic beetles 1: 35 Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Inc. 1: 10, 11, 18 Fairchild, Sherman Mills 1: 10 Famiglietti, Bob, \"2009 Weather at the Arboretum\" 4: 2024 \"Farming or Wildcrafting?\" 3: 27 Fengtong nature reserve 2: 22, 22, 2428, 25, 26 Ferns, shade-grown 3: 33 Fertilizing, and tree hormones 4: 18 Fiala, Father John 2: 6, 14 Field-forest ecotone 3: 28 Fir, Nikko 4: 22 -- as beetle host 1: 33, 35 Fire blight 1: 6, 7, 8; 2: 10 -- and oaks 4: 2 Flanagan, Mark 3: 2, 3 -- -- \"An Excerpt From Wilson's China: A Century On,\" with Tony Kirkham 3: 213 Forest ecology 2: 2931; 3: 2628 -- farming, introduction to 3: 2635 -- -- crop selection for 3: 2830, 33, 35 -- -- income potential of 3: 26, 28, 29, 30, 33, 35 E \"Early Bloomer: Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox',\" Sue A. Pfeiffer 1: inside front\/back covers, 44 Eastern Aerial Surveys, Inc. 1: 15 East Malling quince rootstocks 1: 5 Ecology, and oaks 4: 13 -- of forests 2: 2931; 3: 2628 Edgar, Mr. [circa 1910] 3: 4, 6, 7 Edible crops, new 3: 1425, 3033 Education, experiential 3: 32 Egolf, Don 2: 7 Elms, as beetle host 1: 34 Emerald ash borer 1: 34, 34 Enkianthus deflexus, in China 2: 25, 25 Epimedium davidii, in China 2: 26, 27 Ericaceae 2: 24, 25 38 Arnoldia 68\/1 Goldenseal 3: 29, 29 Gongga Shan Mt. (Minya Konka) 3: 4, 5, 810 Google Earth 1: 10 GPI Models 1: 18 GPS database, in curriculum 3: 32 Gravitropism 4: 16 Gray, Asa, and disjunct flora 1: 44 Great Lakes region, oaks in 4: 213, map 6 Griffola frondosa 3: 30 Growth processes, and plant hormones 4: 1519 -- rate, measuring 2: 3031 Grunsfield, John 1: 16 H Hardiness, of camellias 1: 2030 -- of crabapples 2: 3 -- of hydrangea 1: 44 -- of pines 3: 36 Hardwoods, for mushroom-growing 3: 31 -- secondary 3: 32 Harvard Institute for Geographical Exploration 1: 12, 16 Harvard Real Estate 1: 17 Hayrapetyan, Vagharshak, Dr. 1: 4 Hellebore, Tibetan 2: 2728, 28 Hellebores, shade-grown 3: 33 Helleborus chinensis 2: 2728 -- thibetanus, in China 2: 2728, 28 Hemlocks, as beetle host 1: 35 Hengduan Shan mountains 3: 413 Hen-of-the-woods mushroom 3: 30 Hericium spp. 3: 30, 31 Heucheras, shade-grown 3: 33 Hickory nuts 3: 30, 32 -- red pignut 3: 32 -- shagbark 3: 32 -- varieties and grafts 3: 32 Hill, Rev. Ernest J. Hill 2: 4 \"Hill's Oak: The Taxonomy and Dynamics of a Western Great Lakes Endemic,\" Andrew L. Hipp 4: 213, 26, map 6, genetic chart 7, 812 Himachal Pradesh, pine from 3: 36 Himalayan National Park 3: 36 Himalayan pine 3: 36, inside back cover Himalayas, Eastern 3: 3, 413, 5, 8, 9, 12 -- flora of 3: 213, 36 Hines Nursery 1: 28 Hipp, Andrew L. \"Hill's Oak: The Taxonomy and Dynamics of a Western Great Lakes Endemic,\" 4: 213 -- -- -- photo by 4: back cover Hippeastrum 4: 16 Hokkaido 1: 44 Holboellia, in China 2: 26, 27 Holden Arboretum 1: 21 Honeysuckle family 2: 25 Honeysuckles, in China 2: 28 Honshu 1: 44 Hood Blimp 1: 19 Hooker, Joseph Dalton 4: 26 Hormones, and plant care 4: 1519 \"Hormones and Tropisms\" 4: 16 Hornbeam 2: 26; 3: 31 Horsechestnut, as beetle host 1: 34 Hosie, Sir Alexander 3: 11 Hostas, forest-grown 3: 33, 33 Howard, Heman 1: 18 -- -- 1959 photo by 2: 17 Hubble telescope camera 1: 16 Hubei Province 2: 19; 4: 28 Humanity and trees 2: 2931 Hun, Chang Yong 1: 21 Hybrid, intergeneric 1: 34; 3: 25 -- interspecific 3: 21 Hybrization, in oaks 4: 213 Hydrangea, panicle 1: 44 Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' 1: inside front\/back covers, 44 Hydrastis canadensis 3: 29, 29 Hylurgus ligniperda 1: 33, 33 Iowa State University 2: 13 Ips sexdentatus 1: 33, 33 -- typographus 1: 35 -- -- spruces killed by 1: 35 Iran, quince germplasm in 1: 7 Ironwood 3: 31 Irrigation, and hormones 4: 1819, 18 Japan, plants from 1: 30, 44; 2: 16 Japanese spicebush 1: 24 Johnson, Ethan W. 1: 15 Joyce Kilmer Park, in aerial photos 1: 1936, 14; 1955, 18 Juglans spp. 3: 30 Juice crops, sustainable 3: 1425 June, Chang Yong 1: 21 Junipers, alpine 3: 8 Kabul, pine from 3: 36 Kangding expedition 3: 213, 10 Kazakhstan wild apple 2: 20 Kelley, Susan 1: 17 Kenya, agroforestry center 3: 27 Kew's Arboretum 3: 2 -- expeditions to Himalayas 3: 213, 36 Kilimanjaro, agroforestry on 3: 27 Kirkham, Tony 3: 2, 3 -- -- \"An Excerpt From Wilson's China: A Century On,\" with Mark Flanagan 3: 213 -- -- photo by 3: inside front cover Knox, Charles 1: 2 Koller, Gary 2: 32 Korean camellias 1: 2030, 23, 2530 -- climate 1: 2025, 30 -- mountain ash 1: 24 Kuan Hsien, travelling in 3: 1112 IJ K Iles, Jeff, \"Crabapples...With No Apologies\" 2: 213 Illinois, oaks in 4: 213 Incarvillea delavayi 3: 13 -- in a Tibetan scene 3: 11 \"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 66\" 1: 3643 India, pine from 3: 36 Indiana, spruce beetle in 1: 35 International Council for Research in Agroforestry [Kenya] 3: 27 \"In the Footsteps of Father David,\" Cedric Basset 2: 2228, 2228 Iowa, Aronia in 3: 32 L Ladyslipper, Tibetan 3: 12 Lampshade poppy, quest for 3: 2, 47 Landscape ornamentals 1: 29, 2030, 44; 2: 221, 32; 3: 1425, 36; 4: 28 Land-use 3: 2635 Larches, as beetle host 1: 33, 35 Lardizabalaceae 2: 26 Larix spp., and exotic beetles 1: 33, 35 Latin America, quinces in 1: 45 Leaf-spot 1: 6, 7 -- frogeye 2: 10 Leaves, soil nutrients in 3: 29 Lentinula edodes 3: 28, 30 Index 39 Leptographium spp. 1: 33 Lian Lua Shan mountains [Tibet] 3: 5 Lightning damage 4: 22 Lilium lophophorum 3: 13 Lindera obtusiloba, autumn foliage 1: 24 Lindgren funnel trap 1: 32, 33, 35 Linnaean system and new trends 4: 2627 Linnaeus, Carolus, statue of 4: 27 Lion's mane mushroom 3: 30, 31 Liriodendron tulipifera 3: 31 Lhasa, travelling to 3: 25 Longwood Gardens, camellias at 1: 28 Lonicera, in China 2: 28 Lyon Botanical Garden 2: 28 M MacDaniels, Lawrence 3: 32 \"MacDaniels Nut Grove: A Unique Educational Site\" 3: 32, 32 Magnolia, in China 2: 28 -- liliiflora, in China 2: 23 Maine, chokeberry in 3: 19 -- exotic beetle in 1: 35 Maitake mushroom 3: 30 Malus 1: 3; 2: front\/back covers, 221 -- `Adirondack' 2: 7, 7, 9 -- `Aldenhamensis' 2: 2 -- `Almey' 2: 2 -- `Amberina' 2: 5 -- `Antonovka' rootstock 2: 18 -- apple-scab and 2: 3, 10, 10 -- Arboretum legacy of 2: 1421, back cover -- x atrosanguinea 2: 17 -- baccata 2: 5, 1920 -- -- `Columnaris' 2: 21 -- -- `Jackii' 2: 21 -- `Barbara Ann' 2: 21 -- bark interest 2: 1920 -- `Blanche Ames' 2: 17, 21 -- `Bob White' 2: 10, 10, 21 -- `Camzam' (Camelot) 2: 7, 8, 9 -- `Cardinal' 2: 7, 9 -- centenarian 2: 16 -- `Cinzam' (Cinderella) 2: 7, 9 -- `Coralcole' (Coralburst) 2: 7, 7 -- `David' 2: 7, 8, 9 -- diseases and resistance to 2: 3, 6, 910, 20 -- documentation 2: 16 -- `Dolgo' 2: 10, 10 -- `Donald Wyman' 2: 8, 9, 10, 11, 19, 19, 21 -- `Dorothea' 2: 2, 21, 21 -- `Doubloons' 2: 13 -- dwarf 2: 7, 18 -- floribunda 2: 2, 4, 6, 9, 10, 16 -- -- `Exzellenz Thiel' 2: 6 -- -- Selection #821 2: 20 -- flowering display 2: 2, 24, 4, 68, 9, 1219, 13, 17, 19, 21 -- foliage 2: 3, 5, 910 -- fruiting 2: front\/back covers, 3, 4, 5, 56, 8, 910, 10, 11, 13, 19, 19, 20 -- -- preserves from 2: 10 -- fruitless cultivars 2: 10 -- genetics and selection 2: 1417, 20 -- halliana 2: 20 -- hardiness 2: 3 -- `Henrietta Crosby' 2: 17, 21 -- `Henry F. Dupont' 2: 17, 21 -- `Hopa' 2: 3 -- `Huber' (Royal Fountain) 2: 13 -- hupehensis 2: 16, 17, 20 -- `Indian Magic' 2: front cover, 10 -- ioensis `Palmeri' 2: 21 -- `Jarmin' (Marilee) 2: 10 -- `Jewelcole' (Red JewelTM) 2: 8, 9, 10 -- `JFS-KW5' (Royal Raindrops) 2: 9, 13 -- `Katherine' 2: 21 -- lancifolia hybrids 2: 18 -- `Lanzam' (Lancelot) 2: 7, 9 -- `Liset' 2: 2, 2, 6 -- `Lollizam' (Lollipop) 2: 7 -- longevity 2: 16 -- `Louisa' 2: 9, 13, 13 -- `Mary Potter' 2: 17, 17, 21 -- `Orange Crush' 2: 6, 6, 9 -- pedicel variation 2: 19 -- `Pink Pearl' 2: 21 -- `Prairie Maid' 2: 5, 9 -- `Prairifire' 2: 9, 10, 12, 13 -- `Prince Georges' 2: 21 -- `Profusion' 2: 2 -- prunifolia 2: 56 -- -- `Pendula' 2: 6 -- `Purple Prince' 2: 7, 9 -- `Radiant' 2: 3 -- `Red Jade' 2: 2, 5, 56, 12, 13 -- `Red Swan' 2: 5, 6 -- x robusta `Erecta' 2: 21 -- rootstock effects 2: 20 -- sargentii 2: 6, 16 -- -- `Rosea' 2: 7, 17, 21 -- -- `Select A' (Firebird) 2: 7 -- -- `Tina' 2: 7 -- `Satin Cloud' 2: 5 -- Sax experimental hybrids 2: 18, 18 -- `Schmidtcutleaf' (Golden Raindrops) 2: 7, 8, 9 -- sieversii 2: 20 -- `Snowdrift' 2: 10, 11 -- `Spring Snow' 2: 10 -- sylvestris hybrids 2: 18 -- transitoria, in China 2: 15 -- tschonoskii 2: 5, 16 -- unnamed #691-52-A 2: 18 -- variation of 2: 3 -- wasps and 2: 3 -- weeping forms 2: 56, 1213, 13 -- winter interest 2: 11, 12, 13, 20 -- x zumi `Calocarpa' 2: 21 \"Malus at the Arnold Arboretum: An Ongoing Legacy,\" Michael S. Dosmann 2: 1421, 1421 \"Malus Mystery\" 2: 18 Maple 3: 32, 36 -- David's 2: inside front cover, 22 -- products 3: 28, 35 -- red, cultivar `Schlesingeri'2: 32, inside back cover -- red 3: 31 -- sugar 3: 31 Maples, as beetle host 1: 35 Maps from photos 1: 10, 1215, 1719 March, Sylvester 1: 21 Marino, Sergio 1: 18 Maryland, spruce beetle in 1: 35 Maslow, Abraham, human needs concept 2: 29 Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation 1: 34 Massachusetts forests 3: 26 Massachusetts Public Works 1: 18 Maximowicz (the botanist) 2: 28 Mayr, Ernst 4: 25, 26 Meconopsis x beamishii 3: 7 -- x finlayorum 3: 7 -- horridula 3: 13 40 Arnoldia 68\/1 -- integrifolia ssp. integrifolia, in China 3: inside front cover, 2, 47, 4 -- -- x grandis 3: 7 -- -- x quintuplinervia 3: 7 -- pseudointegrifolia 3: 7 Medicinal crops 3: 2930 Mediterranean beetles, damaging 1: 33 Mesopotamia, quince in 1: 3 Mespilus 1: 4; 3: 21 Metasequoia glyptostroboides, fall color 4: 23 Mexico, oaks native to 4: 3 Meyer, Paul 1: 21, 22, 23, 24 Michigan, EAB in 1: 34 Microbiota decussata cutting 4: 18 Midwest, Aronia in 3: 23 Miller, George 4: 26 Min Shan mountains 2: 1 Missouri Botanical Garden 4: 27 Morchella spp. 3: 30 Morels 3: 27, 30 Morphology, oak speciation and 4: 213 -- scientific classification and 4: 2527 Morris Arboretum, camellia selection at 1: 2030, 2530 -- -- -- Korean expeditions of [19791991] 1: 2024, 2023 Morton Arboretum, oak research at 4: 414 -- -- herbarium specimens 4: 35, 9 Mountain ash, Korean 1: 24 -- habitats 2: 2228 -- -- Afganistan 3: 36 -- -- Burma 3: 36 -- -- Maine 3: 19 -- -- Tennessee 3: 20 -- -- Sichuan\/Tibet 3: 213, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12 Mt. Emei 2: 26 Mt. Wachusett 3: 26 Mudge, Ken, \"Forest Farming\" 3: 2635 Murray, Joseph, \"Tree Hormones and Why They Matter\" 4: 1519 Museum of Science 1: 16 Mushroom cultivation 3: 28, 3033, 31, 33 -- income from 3: 30 -- nutrient process 3: 31 -- spawn 3: 31, 33 -- wild-collected 3: 27 Mutagen breeding 3: 24 N Nadkarni, Nalini M., Dr. 2: 29 -- -- -- \"Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees\" [excerpt] 2: 2931 Nakai (Japanese botanist) 4: 28 Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science [Yoon, reviewed] 4: 2527 National Arboretum 2: 7 National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) 1: 6, 7, 9 Native Americans and plants 3: 27, 29 Nebraska, Aronia in 3: 23 Nematode, pinewood 2: 29 New England, hydrangeas in 1: 44 Newton, Amanda A., 1909 illustration by 1: back cover New York forests 3: 2728 Nightshade family, blights 4: 20 Nikko fir 4: 22 Nineteenth-century aerial photography 1: 10, 10 -- -- garden trends 1: 44 Nomenclature, binomial 4: 26 -- of Aronia 3: 21 Non-native pests 1: 3135 North America, flora of 1: 44; 3: 1425 -- -- forest-farming in 3: 27 -- -- oaks of 4: 213, map 6 -- -- pests from 2: 29 North Carolina, chokeberry in 3: 18 Northeast Aerial Photos 1: 15 Northeast, versatile shrub for 3: 1425 -- -- reforestation trends in 3: 26, 28 Nuclear data, and black oaks 4: 3 Nursery trade 2: 14, 32 Nut groves 3: 30, 32 Nutraceutical fruit crop 3: 1425 -- -- petioles 4: 11 -- genome 4: 711 -- Hill's, disturbance and 4: 13 -- -- interbreeding and taxonomy 4: 113, 25, map 6, genetic chart 7, 910 -- northern pin 4: 213 -- pin 4: 5 -- red 4: front cover -- scarlet 4: 310, 4, 6, map 6, genetic chart 7, 89, 12 -- white 4: 12 Oaks, as beetle host 1: 35 -- black group 4: 213, map 6, genetic chart 7 -- white group 4: 23 Ohio Valley, camellias in 1: 27 Olmsted style 1: 6, 12 Ophiostoma spp. 1: 33 Orchids, wild 2: 25 Oregon, Aronia in 3: 23 -- exotic beetle in 1: 35 -- USDA genebank in 1: 7, 9 Ornamentals, forest-grown 3: 3335, 33, 34 -- woody 1: 29, 2030, 44; 2: 221, 32; 3: 1425, 36; 4: 28 Osmanthus forest, in China 2: 24 Oyster mushroom 3: 30, 31 P Panax quinquefolius, as crop 3: 2830, 29, 30 Panda, giant 2: 22, 23, 24, 28 Pao-chung, Kao, Prof. 2: 28 Paris fargesii, in China 2: 25 Parks, Clifford, Dr. 1: 24, 28 Pawpaw fruit 3: 28, 28, 30 Pear 1: 3, 4, 5 -- `Beurre Hardy' 1: 5 -- `Bradford' Callery 4: 28 -- `Comice' 1: 5 -- Japanese 1: 4 -- `Old Home' 1: 5 -- quince hybrid 1: 4, 4 -- quinces and 1: 37 -- sand, at Arboretum 4: inside covers, 28 -- -- fruit of 4: 28 -- -- vigor of 4: 28 -- tribe 1: 3 O Oak 3: 31, 32, 36 -- black 4: 56, 1013, 1011, back cover -- -- hybrids 4: 7 Index 41 Pectin 1: 2; 3: 23 Perennials, pot-in-pot 3: 33, 33 -- shade-grown 3: 33 Permaculture 3: 32 Pests 1: 3135 Pfeiffer, Sue A., \"Early Bloomer: Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox'\" 1: inside front\/back covers, 44 Pheneticists, and trends 4: 26 Philadelphia, camellias for 1: 20, 2430 Photinia 3: 21 -- floribunda 3: 21 -- melanocarpa 3: 21 -- pyrifolia 3: 21 Photography, aerial 1: 1019 Photosynthesis and plant hormones 4: 1819 Phototropism 4: 16, 16 Phytophthora infestans 4: 20 Picea spp., and beetle damage 1: 33, 35 -- forest in Slovakia 1: 35 Pine bark beetle, red-haired 1: 33, 33 -- cones for crafts 3: 27, 33 Pine, Eastern white 3: 36 -- Himalayan 3: 36, inside back cover -- lanceolate 2: 22, 23 -- Monterey, with bark damage 1: 33 Pines, as beetle host 1: 33, 35 -- cold hardiness of 3: 36 Pinewood nematode, in Europe 2: 29 Pinus spp., and exotic beetles 1: 33, 35 -- excelsea 3: 36 -- griffithii 3: 36 -- nepalensis 3: 36 -- radiata, with beetle damage 1: 33 -- strobus 3: 36 -- thunbergii 1: 24 -- wallichiana 3: 36, inside back cover -- -- synonyms for 3: 36 Plant exploring 1: 2030; 2: 2228; 3: 213 -- hormones, and arboriculture 4: 1519 Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) program 1: 3135 Pleione limprichtii, in China 2: 25 Pleurotis spp. 3: 30, 31 Ploidy, in Aronia 3: 1922 Plums 2: 28 Polly Hill Arboretum 1: 27 Pome fruits 1: 27 Poppies, lampshade 3: inside front cover, 2, 47, 4 Postman, Joseph, \"Cydonia oblonga: The Unappreciated Quince\" 1: 29 Powdery mildew 1: 6 Powerline undergrowth 3: 18 Practicum in Forest Farming (Cornell course) 3: 32 Primula secundiflora 3: 6 Pruning, and hormones 4: 1519, 17, 19 Prunus spp., in China 2: 28 -- incisa f. serrata 4: 24 Pseudocydonia sinensis, in North America 1: 8, 8 -- -- flowers and bark 1: 8 Pseudotsuga spp., and exotic beetles 1: 33, 35 Psychology, and trees 2: 29, 30 Pujigou 2: 22, 2425 Purdue-Rutgers-Illinois Apple Breeding program 2: 20 Pyreae 1: 3 Pyronia 1: 4, 4 -- veitchii 1: 4 Pyrus calleryana `Bradford' 4: 28 -- pyrifolia 1: 4; 3: 21; 4: inside covers, 28 -- serotina 4: 28 -- sinensis 4: 28 Q Quarryhill Botanic Garden 3: 36 Quercus spp., 3: 31 -- -- exotic beetles and 1: 35 -- -- genetic studies of 4: 513 -- coccinea 4: 1, 310, 4, map 6, genetic chart 7, 89, 12 -- -- acorns 4: 4 -- ellipsoidalis, related spp. and 4: 113, 25, map 6, genetic chart 7, 910 -- -- acorns 4: 3, 5, 10 -- imbricaria 4: 3 -- Lobatae Section 4: 3 -- x palaeolithicola 4: 7 -- palustris 4: 3 -- phellos 4: 3 -- pumila 4: 3 -- rubra 4: front cover, 3 -- shumardii 4: 3 -- velutina 4: 313, 56, genetic chart 7, 1011, back cover -- -- acorns 4: 5, 1011 Quince 1: 29, 28, back cover -- \"A\" rootstock clone 1: 5 -- `Angers' 1: 5 -- \"C\" rootstock clone 1: 5 -- `Champion', 1909 illustration 1: back cover -- `Chartar Gyugh' 1: 5 -- Chinese 1: 8, 8 -- cold-hardiness 1: 6, 7, 8 -- culinary uses 1: 2, 45 -- cultivars 1: 27 -- diseases or problems 1: 4, 67, 8 -- flowers and foliage 1: 3 `Fontenay' 1: 5 -- fruit 1: 2, 2, 47, 47. back cover -- genetics 1: 4, 5, 67, 9 -- `Harron' 1: 6 -- history of 1: 26 -- hybrids 1: 4 -- in Kakheti [Eurasia] 1: 7 -- landscape qualities 1: 2, 56, 8 -- `Orange', 1922 illustration 1: 4 -- pear hybrid 1: 4 -- pears and 1: 37 -- pectin content 1: 2 -- `Pineapple' 1: 2, 2, 4 -- propagation and grafting 1: 27 -- Provence 1: 5 -- pruning 1: 6 -- rootstocks 1: 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 -- Shilda variety 1: 7 -- `Smyrna' 1: 4 -- `Van Deman' 1: 2 R Radiation, and plant breeding 3: 24 Radioactive \"bookmark\" of 1954, and tree-dating 2: 31 Rainforest, dating trees in 2: 3031 -- experience 2: 30 Ramps 3: 30 Ranunculaceae 2: 27 Raspberry, black 3: 28 42 Arnoldia 68\/1 Red osier dogwood 3: 34 -- haired pine bark beetle 1: 33, 33 Reed, Dr. George M. 2: 6 Reeve, Bob, archival photograph by 1: 16 Reforestation trends 3: 28 Rehder, Alfred, 1: 44; 4: 28 -- Malus and 2: 1617 Resistance breakdown, in crabapples 2: 10 Rheum alexandre 3: 6 Rhododendron, in Sichuan 2: 22, 22 -- capitatum 3: 13 -- prezwalskii, in Tibet 3: 10 Rhododendrons, alpine 3: 8, 10, 13 Rock, Joseph F., and Gongga Shan 3: 4 -- -- 1926 photo by 2: 15 Root development, and hormones 4: 1519, 18 -- disease fungi 1: 33 Rosaceae 1: 34, 6; 2: 16; 3: 14, 19 Rose, Nancy, \"A Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana\" 3: 36, inside back cover -- -- photos by: 2: front\/inside back covers; 3: front\/inside back covers; 4: front cover Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew 3: 2, 36 Rubus spp. 3: 28 Russia, Aronia breeding in 3: 22, 23, 24, 25 Rust diseases 1: 6 Rutgers, apple breeding at 2: 20 S Sakhalin Island 1: 44 \"Sand Pear--Pyrus pyrifolia,\" Peter Del Tredici 4: inside covers, 28 Sapindaceae 2: 26 Sargent, Charles S. 2: 14, 16, 17, 19, 32 -- -- -- Japanese plants and 1: 44 -- -- -- photography and 3: 1011 -- -- -- Wilson, E.H. and 3: 2, 1011 Sasaki Associates 1: 17 Sax, Karl 3: 36 -- -- Malus research and 2: 1719 Schlesinger, Barthold 2: 32 Science in the Pleasure Ground exhibit 1: 1819 Scientific Center for Viticulture [Armenia] 1: 5 Scientific classification 4: 2527 -- limits 4: 27 Scott Arboretum 1: 27 \"Searching for Exotic Beetles,\" Nichole K. Campbell 1: 3135, 3135 Seasonal changes, and trees 2: 30; 4: 1517, 19 Seed collection 1: 20, 2324 \"Seeking Cold-Hardy Camellias,\" Anthony S. Aiello 1: 2030, 2030 Shaw, Peter Ashton 1: 15 Shawnee National Forest 4: 8, 12 Shiitake cultivation 3: 28, 3033, 31, 33 Shipping industry 1: 3132; 2: 29 Shrubs, centenarian or notable specimens 1: 44, inside back cover -- native 3: 1425 Sichuan\/Tibet 2: 2228; 3: 213, 3, 5, 8, 9, 12 Sino-American Botanical Expedition [1980] 2: 19 Sinofranchetia chinensis 2: 26 Six-toothed bark beetle 1: 33, 33 Slovakia, bark beetle in 1: 35 Sochong Island 1: 22, 23 \"Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana,\" Nancy Rose 3: 36, inside back cover Soil 3: 29 -- and oaks 4: 13 Solanaceae, blights of 4: 20 Sorbus 1: 4; 2: 28; 3: 21 -- alnifolia 1: 24 -- aucuparia and Aronia cross 3: 25 South Korea, deforestation in 1: 21 -- -- expeditions to 1: 2024, [1984] map 21, 2023, 30 -- -- hardy plants from 1: 2030 -- -- landscape 1: 2123 Spath Nursery [Berlin] 2: 6, 32 Species, biological concept 4: 2, 25 -- differentiation in black oaks 4: 213 Spicebush, Japanese 1: 24 Spiraeoideae 1: 3 Spruce bark beetle 1: 35 Spruces, as beetle host 1: 33, 35 Stevens, P.F., \"An Essay on Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science\" [review] 4: 2527 Stewartia pseudocamellia, branching 4: 15 Storm damage 4: 22 -- -- plant hormones and 4: 19 Street trees, beetle damage to 1: 34 Strontium, radioactive 2: 31 Styrax japonica 1: 24 Sunlight, and plant hormones 4: 16 Sustainable crops 3: 23, 2635 Swissair Photos + Surveys 1: 15 Sympatry, among oaks 4: 3 Systematist debates 4: 2527 T Tachien-lu 3: 2, 8, 11 Taean Peninsula 1: 21 Taechong Island 1: 2023 Tagong temple 3: 12, 13 Talltree Arboretum 4: 9 Tang li tzu 4: 28 \"Taxonomic Teasers in Aronia\" 3: 21 Taxonomy, of Aronia 3: 21 -- -- black oaks 4: 213 -- -- Malus 2: 14, 1617, 20 -- trends in 4: 2527 Three-ips lure, in beetle trap 1: 32 Thuja spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 Tibetan Empire 3: 23 Tibetan Frontier, circa 1910 3: 213, 8 Tibetan region, exploration in 2: 2228; 3: 213 -- peoples 3: 23, 4, 11 Time concepts, and trees 2: 29, 3031 Tinley Creek Forest Preserve 4: 10 Topping damage 4: 19, 19 Toucans 4: 25 Tournachon, Gaspard-Felix (Nadar) 1: 10 Trabut, Louis 1: 4 Trapping beetles, chemistry of 1: 32 Tree care, and hormones 4: 1519 -- consumption 2: 29 -- dating 2: 3031 -- longevity 4: 15 Index 43 \"Tree Hormones and Why They Matter,\" Joseph Murray 4: 1519, 1519 Trees, benefits of 2: 2930; 4: 15 -- centenarian or notable specimens 2: 16, 19, 32, inside back cover; 3: 36, inside back cover; 4: 22, 22, 23, 28, inside back cover -- damage to 4: 18, 18, 19, 22, 24 -- human needs met by 2: 2931 -- radioisotopes and dating of 2: 31 -- seasons and 2: 30; 4: 1517, 19 -- time and 2: 20, 29, 3031 -- urban 4: 1519 Trilliums, shade-grown 3: 33 Tropical forests 2: 3031; 3: 27 Truffles, difficulty of 3: 30 Tsuga spp., and exotic beetles 1: 35 Tuber spp. 3: 30 Tulip poplar 3: 31 Turkey, quinces in: 1: 4, 6, 7 Turkmenistan, fruit trees in 1: 4, 7 Tyler Arboretum 1: 27 UV W \"Umwelt\" concept 4: 2627 Urban mapping 1: 17 -- tree care 4: 1519 United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) 1: 2 -- -- -- -- APHIS and beetles 1: 3135 -- -- -- -- artwork, circa 1900 1: back cover -- -- -- -- GRIN 3: 21 -- -- -- -- hardiness zone five 3: 36 -- -- -- -- links 1: 34; 3: 21 -- -- -- -- NPGS 1: 6, 7, 9 -- -- -- -- PPQ program 1: 3135 -- -- -- -- Plants Database 3: 21 -- -- -- -- Trans-Caucasus expeditions, recent 1: 4, 7 US economy and tree consumption 2: 29 US Geological Surveys (USGS) 1: 17 US National Agricultural Library, 1909 illustration from 1: back cover US National Arboretum 1: 8, 21 -- -- -- -- winters at 1: 24 University of Bristol, Long Ashton [Eng.] 3: 21 University of Connecticut, Aronia research at 3: 1425 University of Illinois, apple breeding at 2: 20 University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill 1: 24 University of Pennsylvania arboretum 1: 30 University of Wisconsin, juice crop research 3: 23 Vaccinium corymbosum 3: 23 Vavilov Institutes [Soviet] 1: 7 Veitch Nurseries, E. H. Wilson and 3: 2, 10 Venturia inaequalis 2: 10 Vf gene, and apple scab 2: 20 Viburnum bitchuense 1: 24 -- brevitubum, in China 2: 26, 27 -- chingii 2: 26 Viburnums 2: 26 Wachusett, view from 3: 26 Walnut 3: 30, 32 -- varieties and grafts 3: 32 War, deforestation from 1: 21 Warming trends 4: 24 Washburn, Bradford 1: 16 -- -- aerial photography of 1: 1217, 13, 14 Wasp, yellow-jacket 2: 3 Watersprouts 4: 19 Watson, James 4: 26 \"Weather at the Arboretum--2009,\" Bob Famiglietti 4: 2024, chart 21, 2224 Weather damage at Arboretum 4: 22 Weather Station Data, 2009 4: 21 Wildcrafting 3: 27, 33 Willow, corkscrew 3: 35 Willows, as beetle host 1: 34 Willowwood Arboretum 1: 27 Wilson, Ernest Henry, hydrangea and 1: 44 -- -- -- lampshade poppy and 3: 2, 47 -- -- -- Malus finds 2: 16 -- -- -- sand pear and 4: 28 -- -- -- Tibetan discoveries revisited 3: 213 Wilson's China: A Century On [Flanagan and Kirkham, excerpt] 3: 213 Windsor Great Park 3: 2 Wisconsin, ginseng cultivation in 3: 30 Wood beetles 1: 3135 -- digestion by mushrooms 3: 31 -- industry 2: 29 -- -- pests and 1: 3135 -- packing as pest vector 1: 3132, 34; 2; 29 Woody florals 3: 3335 -- ornamentals 1: 29, 2030, 44; 2: 221, 32; 3: 1425, 33, 35, 36; 4: 28 Worcester, MA, ALB in 1: 34 World Agroforestry Center [Kenya] 3: 27 World War II, deforestation from 1: 21 -- -- -- nursery trade and 2: 14, 32; 3: 3335 Wright, Wilbur 1: 10 Wyman, Donald, aerial photography of 1: 18 -- -- crabapple namesake 2: 8, 9, 11, 19, 19, 21 -- -- -- legacy 2: 19 -- -- quince opinion 1: 56 -- -- `Schlesingeri' red maple and 2: 32 XYZ Xizang Autonomous Region 3: 3 Xyleborus spp. 1: 35 -- seriatus 1: 35 Xylotrechus spp. 1: 35 -- hircus 1: 35 Ya-jia Pass region 3: 310, 3, 6, 8, 9 Yangtze River, Wilson in 3: 11 Yellow Sea islands 1: 2021, 2123 Yichang, Wilson in 3: 11 Yinger, Barry 1: 20, 21, 22, 28 Yoon, Carol Kaesuk, at Cornell 4: 25 -- -- -- Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science [reviewed] 4: 2527 Yushania, in China 2: 26 Zacharias, Elizabeth H., Ph.D. 2: 28 Zeiss camera on Hubble 1: 16 Zhong, Xiao 3: 13 Zhedou Pass 3: 45, 12 Compiled by Rosalie Davis "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Plant Introduction from the Arnold Arboretum: Ilex glabra 'Peggy's Cove'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25480","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060a36d.jpg","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"A New Plant Introduction from the Arnold Arboretum: Ilex glabra `Peggy's Cove' John H. Alexander III I n October 1988, I was in Nova Scotia for a speaking engagement with the Atlantic Rhododendron and Horticultural Society. Several members were kind enough to show me the sights, including local natural areas. One day we were on a seaside barren, northwest of the fishing village of Peggy's Cove, looking out at the Atlantic Ocean. Crouched between us and the ocean, on a treeless shore that appeared to be more rock than soil, were numerous inkberries, Ilex glabra. I have a special interest in this species and had previously collected inkberry cuttings from the New Jersey pine barrens and from compact plants I spotted while driving along Massachusetts roadways. The plants at Peggy's Cove were dwarfed and misshapen by the harsh seaside environment, growing here near the northern extreme of the species' range. I knew that a plant's response to its environment does not necessarily change its genetic makeup, so cuttings from these dwarfed plants might grow into large, robust shrubs when planted in a favorable garden setting. But then again--they might not. My hope was that, after countless generations growing by the shore, their compact habit was now genetic. As plant propagator's like to say, \"The best time to take a cutting is when it's offered,\" so I collected cuttings from plant after plant until my hosts seemed to grow weary from watching me. Thirty-eight of these cuttings--collected from perhaps 12 different plants--were stuck in the Arboretum's propagation house. At least 19 of the cuttings rooted, and all were given the accession number 929-88. Within this group I found what I had hoped to find: a more compact and smaller-leafed form of Ilex glabra. Named `Peggy's Cove' in honor of its site of origin, this cultivar is not only compact, but it also grows well. It has a mounded habit with branches right to the ground. The latter trait is notable since a complaint sometimes heard about the Ilex glabra cultivars `Densa' and `Compacta' is that they frequently lose their lower branches. Other surviving plants of this collection either didn't grow well or weren't significantly different from cultivars already available. At the Arboretum, the original plant of `Peggy's Cove' (now accession number 500-2007-A) is growing in the Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden, near specimens of `Compacta' for easy comparison. This 22-year-old plant is now 48 inches (122 centimeters) tall and 60 inches (152 centimeters) wide with a rounded habit. Perhaps it isn't the best example because we have pruned it by harvesting many cuttings from it. Four lightly pruned 8-year-old plants near the Dana Greenhouses (accession number 3-2002) are 22 to 36 inches (56 to 91 centimeters) tall and 30 to 45 inches (76 to 114 centimeters) wide. `Peggy's Cove' is a female, producing the typical small black fruits of this species (if pollinated by a nearby male Ilex glabra). The leaves of `Peggy's Cove' are dark green and smaller than the average inkberry leaf. `Peggy's Cove' inkberry grows best in full sun and tolerates light shade, but may stretch a bit and become less compact if in too much shade. Like many hollies, it prefers acidic soils that are evenly moist. Winter damage to leaves of this evergreen has been slight at the Arboretum. `Peggy's Cove' is probably no hardier than what is typical for the species: USDA zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -20 to -10F [-28.8 to -23.4C]). It is currently in the early stages of commercial production. Acknowledgments Many thanks to John Weagle, Stanley Dodds, Walter Ostrom, and the late Captain Richard M. Steele. It was these folks who were instrumental in getting me to Nova Scotia and to that barren coast where I found Ilex glabra `Peggy's Cove'. A registration description of this cultivar was published in the Holly Society Journal, 2008, 26(2): 1011. John H. Alexander III is Plant Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23418","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160af28.jpg","title":"2010-68-1","volume":68,"issue_number":1,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hill's Oak: The Taxonomy and Dynamics of a Western Great Lakes Endemic","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25477","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15e856b.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hipp, Andrew L.","article_content":"Hill's Oak: The Taxonomy and Dynamics of a Western Great Lakes Endemic KrIS BAchTELL Andrew L. Hipp O aks afford a unique insight into the history of our landscape, flora, and vegetation. Oaks have been among the dominant trees of eastern North American forests and woodlands for approximately 10,000 years (Abrams 1992). Between 8,000 and 3,000 years ago, oaks spread to distributions close to those we observe today (Webb 1981). The landscape between the prairies of the Great Plains and the eastern deciduous forest had by that time settled into a broad transition zone in which prairie, woodland, and savanna shifted with the dynamics of climate and fire (Anderson and Bowles 1999). Some oak species in this region could persist below ground for decades as their shoots were regularly burned to the ground, growing to maturity only when a break in fire frequency allowed their stump sprouts to grow (Kline 1997). The oldest oaks still growing have borne witness to fires, changes in forest structure and composition, and substantial anthropogenic landscape changes. These old oaks sustain The form and fall color of Hill's oak (also known as northern pin oak). large numbers of mammals, birds, and insects. Blue jays, squirrels, and, previously, naturalist to imagine a landscape without oaks. passenger pigeons have eaten, hoarded, and disAt the same time, oaks are remarkable for persed acorns in vast quantities (Johnson and their ability to stump botanists. Even where Adkisson 1986; Keator and Bazell 1998; Price there are only a few species to choose from, we 1999, ch. 1), and civilization rests in part on often struggle to put a name on oaks in the field, the structural and nutritional properties of oaks and annotations on many herbarium specimens (Logan 2005). It is hard for a North American capture decades of disagreement. Oaks are noto- Hill's Oak 3 riously promiscuous, with closely related species able to exchange genes seemingly at will. Pioneering work by James hardin in the 1970s demonstrated hybridization among 14 of the 16 white oak group species of eastern North America, with hybridization occurring almost anywhere that different white oak species grow in sympatry (hardin 1975). In the era of DNAbased taxonomy, hybridization has been demonstrated numerous times using chloroplast and nuclear data (Whittemore and Schaal 1991, Dumolin-Lapegue et al. 1997, curtu et al. 2007, cavender-Bares and Pahlich 2009). For this reason, oaks have been described by two leaders in the field of speciation as a \"worst case scenario for the biological species concept\" (coyne and Orr 2004, p. 43). Our understanding of the depth and orientation of genetic boundaries, our concepts of what constitutes a plant species, and our ability to differentiate morphologically similar species are tangled up in the oaks. A worst case in a genus of worst cases The Western Great Lakes endemic hill's oak (also known as northern pin oak) (Quercus ellipsoidalis; Plate 1) is distinguished by the number of workers who have puzzled over its taxonomic status and proper identification (Trelease 1919; Jensen 1977, 1984; Overlease 1977, 1991; Maycock et al. 1980; Shepard 2009). hill's oak is a member of the black oak group, Quercus section Lobatae, a New World lineage of more than 100 species, of which approximately 75 are found in Mexico and 35 in North America north of Mexico. The section is easily recognized in the field by the presence of bristles or awns on the tips of the lobes (in, for example, Q. velutina, Q. rubra, Q. shumardii, Q. palustris) or leaf apex if the leaf is unlobed (for example, Q. imbricaria, Q. phellos, Q. pumila). Most species in the group also mature acorns over two seasons. In habitat, hill's oak ranges from dry sandstone bluffs, oak barrens, and sand savannas to seasonally wet sandy soils and dry-mesic forests in clayey soils. The tree is particularly common in woodlands of northeastern Illinois. Typical hill's oaks have deeply lobed leaves with moreor-less c-shaped sinuses; leaf undersides that Plate 1. Hill's oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis), showing leaf and acorns. While the smaller leaf size and more ellipsoid acorn are typical of Hill's oak relative to scarlet oak (see Plate 2), leaf and acorn morphology are profoundly variable in Hill's oak. William Trelease (1919) wrote that the \"extremes\" of morphological variation in Hill's oak acorns range continuously from one to the other and have no obvious segregation on the landscape. This is a remarkable statement in light of the fact that the epithet \"ellipsoidalis\" references the acorn shape, which was instrumental in tipping Rev. Hill off to the species' distinctness. Vouchers of the illustrated specimens are deposited at the herbarium of The Morton Arboretum: A.Hipp #3096 (Hoosier Prairie, Lake Co., IN; leaf), A.Hipp & J.Schlismann #2489 (Middlefork Savanna Forest Preserve, Lake Co., IL; acorn). Illustration by Rachel Davis. are smooth or at most sparsely pubescent; terminal buds that are silky-pubescent on the distal (upper) third to two-thirds; and acorn caps that are smooth to sparsely pubescent on the inner surface, with scales on the upper surface that have tightly appressed tips. In these characters, hill's oak is similar to the more widespread eastern North American scarlet oak (Q. coccinea; Plate 2), and in fact it was commonly 4 Arnoldia 67\/4 cially northwestern Indiana, and as a consequence the taxonomy of these two species has remained in flux. We began a study at The Morton Arboretum in 2005 to investigate whether hill's oak, scarlet oak, and the widespread black oak (Quercus velutina; Plate 3) are genetically distinct from ANDrEW hIPP Terminal buds of Hill's oak, showing the silky pubescence on the distal (upper) half of the bud that is typical in this species. Hoosier Prairie, Lake County, Indiana. identified as scarlet oak when first viewed by botanists in the late nineteenth century. In 1891, reverend Ernest J. hill encountered a few populations in the area around Glenwood and calumet Park, cook county, Illinois that he identified as scarlet oak \"with some misgivings.\" With further study, hill judged that the leaf coloration in fall, bark texture, and acorn shape sufficiently distinguished the tree from scarlet oak to warrant its recognition as a separate species, and he published his description of the species in the Botanical Gazette in 1899. Subsequent to this work, many botanists accepted that hill's oak was found throughout the upper Midwest to the exclusion of scarlet oak. however, the distinction between hill's oak and scarlet oak is not always clear. At their morphological extremes, scarlet oak and hill's oak are readily distinguishable. Typical scarlet oak has larger leaves and terminal buds; acorn cap scales with broad, glossy bodies and tips tending to be narrow and somewhat elongate\/ acuminate; and concentric rings of pits around the exposed (stylar) end of the acorn nut that appear as though they were scratched with an etching needle or burned into the acorn. hill's oak has smaller leaves and terminal buds; acorn cap scales with dull or pubescent bodies and relatively short apices; and usually no rings around the tip of the acorn cap, occasionally one or two small rings. But these characters overlap in the greater chicago region, espe- Plate 2. Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), showing leaf and acorns; detail of the stylar end of the acorn illustrates the concentric rings typical of this species. While typical scarlet oak does possess these rings, and typical Hill's oak does not, we have found several specimens of Hill's oak that have one ring or, less commonly, two concentric rings of pits at the stylar end of the acorn. In Hill's oak, these rings are mostly solitary when present, 2.753.5 (5) mm in diameter, but in scarlet oak, they are commonly 2 or more and greater than 3.5 mm in diameter. Vouchers of the illustrated specimens are deposited at the herbarium of The Morton Arboretum: A.Hipp & C.Kirschbaum #2627 (Wayne National Forest, Lawrence Co., OH; acorn largely enclosed in cupule, leaf and branch with immature acorns), A.Hipp #3107 (Tinley Creek Forest Preserve, Cook Co. IL; mature acorn, side view and stylar end detail). Illustration by Rachel Davis. Hill's Oak ANDrEW hIPP 5 in northwestern Indiana and southern Michigan that confound our efforts to understand the natural distribution of hill's oak and scarlet oak? Second, do local populations of hill's oak and black oak exhibit gene flow, and does genetic intermediacy between these species correlate with morphological intermediacy? Finally, what is the evolutionary history of black oak section members, and what can this history tell us about the process of oak diversification? Acorns of Hill's oak, illustrating the tightly appressed acorn cap scales that distinguish the species from black oak. Striations on the acorn body are not uncommon in Hill's oak, but also not the rule. Acorn shape in Hill's oak is highly variable. Talltree Arboretum, Porter County, Indiana. one another. My primary collaborator in this project, Jaime Weber, and I have sampled oaks from 58 sites (Figure 1) and genotyped nearly 700 hill's and black oaks as well as populations of scarlet oak from Missouri, southern Illinois, southern Ohio, and upstate New York, and of the related species red oak (Q. rubra), Shumard's oak (Q. shumardii), and pin oak (Q. palustris). We are currently investigating three basic questions. First, are hill's oak and scarlet oak genetically distinct from one another? Do they show the genetic separation we expect of distinct species? can we use genetic data to identify morphologically problematic populations Plate 3. Black oak (Quercus velutina), showing leaf and acorns. The loose apices of the acorn cap scales in typical black oak give the cap a fringed appearance clearly visible in the field. In both Hill's oak and scarlet oak, the acorn cap scale apices are more nearly appressed to the underlying scales, giving the cap a smooth appearance. An important but less recognized character for distinguishing black oak is the pubescence on the inner surface of the acorn cap, which is dense and matted in black oak only (illustrated in Hipp et al. in press). Vouchers of the illustrated specimens are deposited at the herbarium of The Morton Arboretum: A.Hipp #3087 (Hoosier Prairie, Lake Co., IN; leaf), J.Hitz & A.Hipp 100505-13 [TAL-013] (Taltree Arboretum, Porter Co., IN; acorns). Illustration by Rachel Davis. 6 Arnoldia 67\/4 ANDrEW hIPP ANDrEW hIPP Growing in a forest understory, this seedling of scarlet oak (left) shows relatively deep lobing of the leaves compared to those of a black oak seedling (right). Chemung County, New York. Figure 1. Map of species distributions, with sampling localities. The distribution of Hill's oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) is mapped in dark grey, the distribution of scarlet oak (Q. coccinea) in light grey. Speckling indicates counties in which both species have been reported. Dots indicate sites where species were sampled for the current study. Note that only pin oak (Q. palustris) was sampled from the northern Ohio locality. Base map adapted from Hipp and Weber 2008, with Indiana distribution according to Biagi and Jensen 1995. Hill's Oak 7 Hill's oak and scarlet oak: two different gene pools We began our work uncertain as to whether hill's oak and a genetically distinct scarlet oak were both present in the chicago region. We also did not know whether we would be able to distinguish closely related species at all using genetic data. Previous workers in the region had found that microsatellite data, which is generated by surveying the genome for rapidly evolving repetitive DNA regions, is not consis- tently able to distinguish such species as white oak and its relatives (craft and Ashley 2006) or members of the black oak group (Aldrich et al. 2003). We decided to utilize the amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) technique to genotype trees in this study. The AFLP approach is a shotgun-type approach used for DNA fingerprinting and genome scanning. The method entails cutting the genome of an organism into a large number of pieces at arbitrary points in the genome, then using the size dis- Figure 2. Two-dimensional ordination of 120 individuals representing Quercus coccinea, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. velutina, and Q. ellipsoidalis x Q. velutina [Q. x palaeolithicola]. The ordination represents the best two-dimensional spatial representation of the genetic distances among individuals. Stated another way, each point on the figure represents a single genotyped oak tree, and the relative proximity between points represents the relative genetic similarity between trees. Ordination methods and voucher numbers are reported in Hipp and Weber 2008. 8 Arnoldia 67\/4 ANDrEW hIPP Scarlet oak trunk, illustrating the planed-off appearance of the bark ridges, reminiscent of (though less pronounced than) red oak. Shawnee National Forest, Gallatin County, Illinois. Hill's Oak 9 ANDrEW hIPP ANDrEW hIPP tribution of the DNA fragments to estimate genetic similarity between organisms. The disadvantages of AFLP data relative to microsatellite and DNA sequence data is that without directly sequencing AFLP markers, one generally has to assume that markers of a given length are identical by descent and that each marker represents a gene region independent of all others sampled, in which we can identify alleles that are present but not alleles that are absent. These facts render the data less useful for population genetic studies than microsatellite data, but the ability Leaf of Hill's oak, illustrating the deep lobing typical of this species and scarto sample large numbers of genes let oak. This specimen (TAG-027, housed at the Herbarium of The Morton across the entire oak genome is Arboretum) genotypes decisively as Hill's oak, but morphologically it appears desirable if we are to detect genetic closer to scarlet oak (see discussion in text of article). Talltree Arboretum, differentiation even in the presence Porter County, Indiana. of interspecific gene flow. All analyses we have conducted demonstrate a strong separation of scarlet oak from the other species investigated, stronger than the separation between hill's oak and black oak (Figure 2). It is important to note that genetic divergence alone does not make a species. It has long been recognized that there can be strong genetic differentiation among populations within species (Ehrlich and raven 1969). however, when genetic divergence between two putative species exceeds genetic differentiation between other closely related taxa recognized as being distinct at the species level, and when this differentiation is associated with geo- Foliage of a putative hybrid between Hill's oak and scarlet oak. This specigraphic distance (allopatry; Figure men (TAG-030, housed at the Herbarium of The Morton Arboretum) is one of the very rare specimens in our study that genotypes as a hybrid between 1), most biologists are inclined to Hill's oak and scarlet oak. These specimens bear further study. Talltree recognize the taxa as distinct spe- Arboretum, Porter County, Indiana. cies. The divergence between scarlet oak and hill's oak must be explained either as there is little association between genetic difdivergence between two species or as genetic ferentiation and geographic distance in black divergence within a single, wide-ranging speoak across a similar geographic range. When cies. Although geographic distance may play a we sample hill's oaks of northwestern Indiana role in the strong separation between these two and southern Michigan that are morphogically species, we have found in follow-up analyses similar to scarlet oak (e.g. Figure 2, individual (hipp and Weber 2008; hipp et al. unpubl.) that TAG-027), for the most part they do not appear 10 Arnoldia 67\/4 to be genetically similar to scarlet oak, though the genotypes of a small number of samples we have collected in northwest Indiana suggest that scarlet oak may be present in that area. It is significant that we find very few individuals with genotypes intermediate between hill's oak and scarlet oak. Naturally-occurring scarlet oak also appears to be rare in the range of hill's oak, with a few exceptions. First, as indicated above, our data suggest that scarlet oak may be present in northwest Indiana, based on a few specimens that are genetically intermediate between hill's oak and scarlet oak. however, the one specimen we sampled from northwest Indiana that appears morphologically to be unambiguous scarlet oak (TAG-027) genotypes as pure hill's oak, and results at other sites where scarlet oak is not present (e.g., central Wisconsin) suggest that occasional genetic assignment discrepancies between hill's oak and scarlet oak may be a consequence of genetic similarity between the two species. Our findings on this bear more detailed follow-up work. Second, we have genotyped a few trees from a stand of scarlet oaks and other southern Illinois trees previously reported from Tinley creek Forest Preserve, cook co., IL (Shepard 2005). Scarlet oaks from this site are the only trees in our study to genotype as pure scarlet oak in the Great Lakes region, with no evidence of introgression from hill's oak or black oak. however, they appear to have been planted in the twentieth century, as they occur on former oldfield habitat (pers. obs.). Moreover, smaller trees from an adjacent ANDrEW hIPP forest margin genotype as scarlet oak as well, though with minimal evidence of introgression from hill's oak, and may be natural offspring of these introduced trees. These facts notwithstanding, the strong genetic disjuncture we see between hill's oak and scarlet oak gives us a great deal of confidence that the morphological intermediacy between them (Shepard 2009) has more to do with intraspecific morphological variation than with gene flow between them. hill's oak and scarlet oak are distinct species. Black oak and Hill's oak: gene flow, but not as much as you might think having determined that hill's oak and scarlet oak are genetically distinct from one another, we were interested in understanding the source of genetic similarity between black oak and hill's oak. In northern Illinois, Wisconsin, and Michigan, distinguishing these two species from each other is not always straightforward. As is the case with hill's oak and scarlet oak, specimens that lie at morphological extremes are easy to identify: typical black oak has large, densely pubescent terminal buds; acorn caps with loose scales and dense, matted pubescence on the inner surface; and leaves that are often pubescent, even roughly so, tending to be less deeply lobed than those of hill's oak. however, morphological intermediates are not uncommon (though with good material they are less common than people may suspect), and our first thought was that morphological intermediacy might be predicted well by genetic intermeANDrEW hIPP Inner surface of a black oak acorn cap (left) shows the matted pubescence typical of the species while the inner surface of a Hill's oak acorn cap (right) is typically hairless. Hill's Oak 11 ANDrEW hIPP ANDrEW hIPP Acorn of black oak, illustrating the loose acorn cap scale tips typical of this species. Talltree Arboretum, Porter County, Indiana. diacy. Our attempt to place morphologically intermediate individuals on our ordinations suggests something different: specimens with mature winter buds and\/or acorns as well as reasonably intact leaves and that nonetheless have characteristics of both hill's oak and black oak genotype across a wide range of the two species rather than in a position intermediate between them (Figure 2). Other researchers have found similar discrepancy between morphological and molecular estimates of admixture (e.g., craft et al. 2002, Gonzalez-rodriguez et al. 2004), which may be a product of the complex history of crosses and back-crosses expected in a group of outcrossing, readily hybridizing species like the oaks. Subsequent analysis of our full set of sampled individuals demonstrates a few misclassifications between black oak and hill's oak, i.e., incongruence between our identifications based on morphology and the population assignments based on genetic data: 14 black oak out of 286 sampled have > 0.20 assignment to hill's oak in a commonly used Bayesian population genetic analysis approach. This mismatch between genetic and morphological species assignments is a hallmark of introgressive hybridization and has been reported previously in oaks (cavenderBares and Pahlich 2009), and the presence of such individuals supports the hypothesis of gene flow between the two species. It is remarkable, however, that we find so little genuine misclassification or evidence of genetic admix- Branch of black oak, illustrating the densely pubescent buds typical of the species. Black oak has distinctive yellow petioles at some sites, as illustrated here, but that character is not reliable in much of the range of the species (though in The Trees of Vermont by Burns and Otis (1916), petioles of black oak are described as \"stout, yellow, 3 to 6 inches long\"). Talltree Arboretum, Porter County, Indiana. ture between black oak and hill's oak. Our findings build on those of a now-classic study of European oaks (Muir et al. 2000) in demonstrating that while oaks do hybridize, there are enough barriers to interspecific gene flow to make oak taxonomy a meaningful enterprise. Phylogeny of the black oaks: a little information, a lot to learn Our work going forward is aimed at understanding how these species and their relatives are related, and how contemporary gene flow and evolutionary history interact to define the limits of today's oak species. Utilizing a larger AFLP dataset and species sampling, we have found that hill's oak and scarlet oak are sister 12 Arnoldia 67\/4 ANDrEW hIPP View from High Knob, overlooking a forest of white and scarlet oak. Shawnee National Forest, Gallatin County, Illinois. Hill's Oak 13 species, meaning that they share a more recent common ancestor than either shares with black oak, red oak, pin oak, or any other species. The morphological overlap we see between hill's oak and scarlet oak suggests that the two species may have inherited a similar pool of characteristics from a recent common ancestor, though these characteristics were inherited in differing proportions. This finding is particularly interesting in light of the distribution of hill's oak and scarlet oak. hill's oak is the only oak species endemic to the Great Lakes region (Abrams 1992) and is distributed almost exclusively in glaciated terrain. It is tolerant of disturbance and has been characterized as the most drought-tolerant of the black oak species (colodonato 1993), though it appears to be less common than black oak in the driest sand soils of northern Illinois. Its geographic range also overlaps closely with the distribution of dry soil oak savannas in the Great Lakes region (Will-Wolf and Stearns 1999). Scarlet oak, on the other hand, is distributed predominantly south of the edge of the ice sheet at the last glacial maximum. While also tolerant of disturbance and favoring dry sandy or gravelly soils, scarlet oak is not uncommon in mature forests in more mesic soils (carey 1992). Given the broad geographic extent of scarlet oak and the compressed distribution of hardwood forests during the glacial maximum (Delcourt and Delcourt 1984), these two species likely co-occurred for at least a portion of the Pleistocene. Why, then, has hill's oak migrated into postglacial environments while scarlet oak is largely confined to unglaciated terrain? It may be that differences in cold tolerance between the two species govern their relative distributions. hill's oak may also be more tolerant of disturbance or of higher ph or finer soil texture. If so, it may have been more able to take advantage of newly opened territory as the vegetation of the savanna regions around the Great Lakes shuffled around rapidly following glacial retreat. This capacity to respond to relatively rapid environmental change may bode well for hill's oak in the future. In the shorter term, our growing understanding of oak evolutionary relationships and ecology should allow us to address basic questions about oak distribution and speciation, and guide predictions about how tree species will respond to future climatic and environmental changes. Acknowledgements This work has been funded predominantly by The Morton Arboretum, where oaks have been a priority in research and the living collections for decades. Additional funding was provided by grants from The American Philosophical Society and The hanes Fund of the Michigan Botanical club. rachel Davis, Marlin Bowles, and Paul Manos generously provided feedback on a draft of this article. References Abrams, M.D. 1992. Fire and the development of oak forests. BioScience 42: 346353. Aldrich, P.r., G.r. Parker, c.h. Michler, and J. romeroSeverson. 2003. Whole-tree silvic identifications and the microsatellite genetic structure of a red oak species complex in an Indiana old-growth forest. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 33: 22282237. Anderson, r.c., and M.L. Bowles. 1999. Deep-soil savannas and barrens of the Midwestern United States. In: r. c. Anderson, J. S. Fralish and J. M. Baskin, eds. Savannas, barrens, and rock outcrop plant communities of North America, pp. 155170. cambridge University Press, cambridge. Biagi, A. and r.J. Jensen. 1995. The genus Quercus (Fagaceae) in Indiana: Phytogeography and a key to the species. Indiana Academy of Science 104: 1124. carey, J.h. 1992. Quercus coccinea. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, rocky Mountain research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http:\/\/www.fs.fed.us\/ database\/feis\/plants\/tree\/quecoc\/all.html [Accessed 5 January 2010]. cavender-Bares, J. and A. Pahlich. 2009. Molecular, morphological, and ecological niche differentiation of sympatric sister oak species, Quercus virginiana and Q. geminata (Fagaceae). American Journal of Botany 96: 16901702. coladonato, M. 1993. Quercus ellipsoidalis. In: Fire Effects Information System, [Online]. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, rocky Mountain research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory (Producer). Available: http:\/\/www. fs.fed.us\/database\/feis\/plants\/tree\/queell\/ all.html [accessed 5 Jan 2010]. craft, K.J., M.V. Ashley, and W.D. Koenig. 2002. Limited hybridization between Quercus lobata and 14 Arnoldia 67\/4 Quercus douglasii (Fagaceae) in a mixed stand in central coastal california. American Journal of Botany 89: 17921798. craft, K.J. and M.V. Ashley. 2006. Population differentiation among three species of white oak in northeastern Illinois. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 26: 206215. curtu, A., O. Gailing, and r. Finkeldey. 2007. Evidence for hybridization and introgression within a species-rich oak (Quercus spp.) community. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 218. Delcourt, h. r., and P. A. Delcourt. 1984. Ice Age haven for hardwoods. Natural History 93: 2228. Dumolin-Lapegue, S., et al. 1997. 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The affinities and misbehaviors o f h i l l 's o a k ( Q u e r c u s e l l i p s o i d a l i s ) . International Oak Journal. Jaccard, P. 1908. Nouvelles recherches sur la distribution florale. Bulletin de la Societe Vaudoise des Sciences Naturelles 44: 223270. Jensen, r.J. 1977. A preliminary numerical analysis of the red oak complex in Michigan and Wisconsin USA. Taxon 26: 399407. Jensen, r.J., r. Depiero, and B. K. Smith. 1984. Vegetative characters, population variation, and the hybrid origin of Quercus ellipsoidalis. American Midland Naturalist 111: 364370. Johnson, W.c. and c.S. Adkisson. 1986. Airlifting the oaks. Natural History 10\/86: 4146. Keator, G. and S. Bazell. 1998. The life of an oak: An intimate portrait. heyday Books, Berkeley. Kline, V. M . 1997. Orchards of oak and a sea of grass. In: S. Packard and c. F. Mutel, eds. The Tallgrass restoration handbook for prairies, savannas, and woodlands, pp. 321. Island Press, Washington, D.c. Logan, W. B. 2005. Oak: Frame of civilization. W.W. Norton & company, Inc., New York. Maycock, P. F., D. r. Daniel, r. Gregory, and A. A. reznicek. 1980. hill's oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis) in canada. Canadian FieldNaturalist 94: 277285. Muir, G., c.c. Fleming, and c. Schlotterer. 2000. Species status of hybridizing oaks. Nature 405: 1016. Overlease, W. r. 1977. A study of the relationship between Scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea Muenchh.) and hill oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis E.J. hill) in Michigan and nearby states. Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 51: 4750. Overlease, W.r. 1991. Genetic relationships between three species of oaks as deter mined by common garden studies with populations from Michigan, Indiana and Wisconsin. Journal of the Pennsylvania Academy of Science 65: 7174. Price, J. 1999. Flight maps: Adventures with nature in modern America. Basic Books, Perseus Books Group, New York. Shepard, D.A. 2005. The land that time forgot: Southern flatwood oaks and associates of the Tinley creek Forest Preserve of cook county, Illinois. International Oak Journal 16: 4760. Shepard, D.A. 2009. A review of the taxonomic status of Quercus ellipsoidalis and Quercus coccinea in the Eastern United States. International Oak Journal 20: 6584. Trelease, W. 1919. The jack oak (Quercus ellipsoidalis). Transactions of the Illinois State Academy of Science 12: 108118. Webb, T. 1981. The past 11,000 years of vegetational change in eastern North America. BioScience 31: 501506. Whittemore, A.T. and B.A. Schaal. 1991. Interspecific gene flow in sympatric oaks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 88: 25402544. Will-Wolf, S. and F. Stearns. 1999. Dry soil savanna in the Great Lakes region. In: r. c. Anderson, J. S. Fralish and J. M. Baskin, eds. Savannas, barrens, and rock outcrop plant communities of North America, pp. 135154. cambridge University Press, cambridge. Andrew L. hipp is Plant Systematist and herbarium curator at The Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. rachel Davis is an artist in Downers Grove, Illinois. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Hormones and Why They Matter","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25479","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed060a328.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Murray, Joseph","article_content":"Tree Hormones and Why They Matter Joseph Murray T rees are the oldest, largest, and perhaps the most complex organisms on earth. Increasingly, society has moved beyond simply appreciating trees for the beauty and shade they offer, and now recognizes the significant societal, environmental, and economic benefits trees provide. These benefits can be especially important in urban areas, yet many urban sites present very difficult situations for growing trees. Most tree species should be able to live and provide benefits for several hundred years, but urban trees--often plagued by poor soil, restricted root zones, and limited care--rarely achieve even a fraction of their potential life spans. The more we (arborists, city foresters, growers, etc.) know about the biology of trees, the better we will be able to apply proper arboricultural practices to help trees help themselves. Plant hormones and their effect on tree behavior is an often overlooked aspect of arboriculture. Plant hormones--generally defined as sub- The hormone pathway runs from roots to branch tips in trees such as this stances produced in very small amounts Stewartia pseudocamellia. in the plant that influence the plant's concentration, or interaction--for everything physiological processes--play a crucial role in happening in trees. Today, most plant science helping the plant to make adjustments in a textbooks describe five major plant hormones: changing environment. Knowing more about auxin, cytokinin, gibberellins, abscisic acid, and how plant hormones work in trees helps in ethylene. However, there are more than five understanding the implications of such comhormones in plants and research is ongoing. mon arboricultural practices as pruning, plantPlant hormones present a number of chaling, fertilization, and irrigation. lenges to the physiologists attempting to What Do We Know About Plant Hormones? understand how they operate. Plant hormones Prior to 1950 in the United States, this artiare produced, and are active, in very small cle would only have addressed two hormones, concentrations. At different times during the auxin and ethylene, which were then considgrowing season, different parts of the plant ered responsible--by their presence, absence, produce specific hormones that influence dis- PeTer Del TreDIcI 16 Arnoldia 67\/4 NANcy roSe Hormones and Tropisms An interesting example of a hormone causing a plant response is auxin's role in phototropism. A tropism in plants is any growth response resulting in the curvature of a plant organ toward or away from stimuli. Phototropism in plants typically consists of new growth in the shoot system growing toward light. Light striking the side of new growth at the end of branches stimulates the tissues to produce auxin, which then migrates to the opposite (dark) side of the stem where it triggers a physiological response loosening longitudinal cell walls, allowing those cells to expand in length, thus resulting in the curvature of the stem toward the light. Similarly, gravitropism also results in the curvature of the new growth in the root system downward to gravity in response to the unequal cell expansion in the tissue just behind the root tip. In addition to light and gravity, there are many other forms of stimuli that elicit a growth response. This Hippeastrum exhibits phototropism--plant growth bending toward light. Charles Darwin was one of the first to research the mechanics of phototropism and, with his son Francis, published a summary of their observations in the book The Power of Movement in Plants in 1880. Later researchers identified auxin as the plant hormone involved in phototropism. tant tissues that are receptive for brief periods of time. Furthermore, the same hormone may cause two different responses in the same receptive tissues, depending upon the concentration of the hormone. Hormones are signal transducers, converting an environmental stimulus into a physiological or anatomical response. As an example, let's look at how sunlight makes roots grow in the spring, via a simple pathway using the plant hormone auxin. It makes sense for a tree to invest resources into the root system before the shoot system, so early in the spring sunlight on the shoot apical meristem (bud) and young leaves results in these tissues producing auxin, which travels down to the roots. Hormones in plants may travel throughout the plant but will only affect tissues composed of cells that have special receptors to receive that particular hormone. These target cells may perform a number of functions in response to the arrival of the plant hormone. In a physiological response similar to that described for phototropism (see textbox), auxin stimulates cells at the root tips to release hydrogen ions into the surrounding cell walls. In response to the decreasing pH, enzymes become activated and begin loosening bonds between cellulose microfibrils, thus softening the cell walls. Inside the plant cell is an organelle, the central vacuole, full of water that is continually pressing against the cell wall resulting in turgor pressure. The collective action of softened cell walls expanding in response to the central vacuoles results in the elongation of the root tips. The signal transduction is complete. The hormone auxin allowed the tree to translate an environmental stimulus into a physiological and anatomical response. Simply put, sunlight made roots grow. The Auxin-Cytokinin Pathway Many gardeners are familiar with a common technique to produce bushier plants; by simply pinching off the end of a growing stem, Hormones 17 NANcy roSe responsible for the auxin's production. left out of this pathway are the numerous lateral buds, especially those near the end of the branch. Without receiving the spring wake-up call from cytokinin, these lateral buds become dormant. Although they are no longer visible at the surface, each year the dormant buds move outward with the vascular cambium so that they remain close to the surface. Should something happen to disrupt the auxin-cytokinin pathway, then they may emerge and grow into branches, setting up their own auxin-cytokinin pathways with the root system. It's also important to recognize that there are specific enzymes located at the shoot and root tips to destroy the arriving hormones after they have had their effect. These hormone-destroying enzymes are produced in the same tissue near the shoot and root tips. In the root tips, an enzyme is produced that will destroy auxin, just as in the shoot tips, an enzyme is made to destroy cytokinin. Should these enzymes not perform their tasks, the concentration of hormones will increase and cause a different response in the receptive tissues. Removal of the branch tip (center of photo) disrupted the auxin-cytokinin pathway, allowing lateral shoots to develop just below the removal point. there is a proliferation of branch development below the area that was removed. This growth response demonstrates what happens when the auxin-cytokinin pathway is disrupted. The downward flow of auxin creates a pathway from the terminal buds to the root tips. As mentioned, the auxin acts as a signal transducer, notifying the roots that it's spring and it would be in the best interest of the tree to begin growing roots for the season. In addition to growth, the tissues in the root tips produce the hormone cytokinin. cytokinin, like auxin, is going to stimulate growth as well, but in a different location--at the ends of the very branches that originally established the auxin pathway. each spring, the auxin-cytokinin pathway promotes the timely growth of the root and shoot systems. like a male insect following a pheromone trail produced by a receptive female insect, cytokinin follows the increasingly stronger gradient of auxin directly to the shoot tips Common Tree Care Practices and the Impact of Hormone Pathways Knowing that plants have internal mechanisms helping them with an ever-changing environment should make us pause and attempt to understand what is happening in the plant before beginning to actively \"care\" for the plant. Sometimes our efforts at achieving short term goals (e.g., darker green foliage, more growth, controlled shape) may be aggravating the tree's ability to achieve optimal health. Trees' hormone pathways are involved in the arboricultural practices described below: Transplanting regardless of how carefully balled-andburlapped or container-grown trees are transported and installed, some roots will be damaged and die. The roots that are particularly susceptible to damage are the very fine root tips. And it is these same roots that are to produce cytokinin and transport it up to the shoot tips to stimulate elongation of branches. This is why newly transplanted trees are so slow at developing significant shoot growth during 18 Arnoldia 67\/4 NANcy roSe be the dominant hormone directing the majority of resources to continue root growth, and a larger root system enables a search through a greater soil volume for nutrients. In nutrient poor soil, it is in the tree's best interest to invest its limited resources in root growth and not shoot growth. But if a fertilizer is applied, the root system is fooled into thinking it is in a nutrient-rich environment and the production of cytokinin increases, resulting in a larger shoot system relative to the root system. If this nutrient subsidy ceases, the tree is caught with a shoot system that cannot be sustained with the current root system. Irrigation cytokinin also functions in the opening of stomata on the underside of leaves, allowing the steady movement of water from the roots to the leaves. The arch-rival of cytokinin is another root-derived hormone called abscisic acid. Abscisic acid is responsible for the closure coUrTeSy oF BoB MUgAAS Auxin accumulates at the base of stem cuttings, stimulating root initiation. Exogenous auxins, in the form of rooting powders or dips, are often applied to the bases of woody plant stem cuttings before sticking in propagation beds (rooted Microbiota decussata cuttings seen here). the first year or two after transplanting. The loss of the root tips also means the loss of the ability to produce the auxin-destroying enzymes. As a result, the auxin concentration increases until the surrounding tissue responds by generating adventitious root growth. This kind of root proliferation can be observed when an African violet leaf stem is placed in water. Auxin moves down the base of the stem until it builds in concentration at the point the stem was severed from the plant, changing stem tissue into actively growing root tissue. Fertilization So long as there is adequate nitrogen available in the soil, tree roots will continue producing cytokinin at the appropriate times of the year in response to the establishment of the auxin pathway. However, when the nitrogen level is inadequate, the root system will suspend cytokinin production. Auxin will then When trees receive environmental subsidies, such as supplemental water from lawn irrigation systems, their internal regulatory mechanisms can be disrupted resulting in imbalanced root-to-shoot growth. Hormones 19 JoSePH MUrrAy pathway. Should the shoot tips be removed, the timely production of auxin and its transport to the roots will not occur in the spring. This means the cytokinin produced in the roots will not know where to travel to stimulate the growth at the end of the branch. The concentration of cytokinin will increase at the point where the branch broke or was cut because the tissue responsible for producing the cytokinin-destroying enzymes is gone. As a result, cytokinin will spread through this new truncated terminal end of the branch, finding and releasing the latent buds. This is why there is a proliferation of watersprouts emerging at the end of branches damaged by storms or by the ill-advised practice of topping trees. Topping, an improper pruning practice in which tree trunks and major branches are drastically cut back, results in a proliferation of weakly attached lateral shoots at the pruning points. of the stomata when there is not enough soil moisture to perform photosynthesis. As long as the fine roots are in contact with soil and able to absorb water, cytokinin is being produced and traveling to the leaves to keep the stomata open. Should the soil begin to dry and soil particles pull away from the roots, the root system will produce abscisic acid and send it to the foliage to shut the stomata. Periodic episodes of landscape irrigation disrupt this internal regulatory mechanism, possibly placing those irrigated trees at risk for more severe damage. If periodic irrigation stops (perhaps from failure of an irrigation system or institution of municipal watering bans) the trees are suddenly exposed to drought conditions made even more acute because the shoot system has developed at a faster pace than the root system. Lessons Learned Trees have existed for over 300 million years. The evolution of a hormone system allowed early plants to deal with a changing environment and to coordinate their parts in time and space. And for venerable trees, these hormone systems are particularly important. As caretakers of trees in urban areas, it is our duty to first understand these subtle internal mechanisms before blithely applying a treatment that we believe is in the tree's best interest. Bibliography Davies, P.J. 1995. The Plant Hormones: Their Nature, occurrence, and Functions. In: Plant Hormones: Physiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Biology. Kluer Academic Publishers. Boston. Kozlowski, T.T. 1979. Tree Growth and Environmental Stresses. University of Washington Press, Seattle. raven, P.H., g.B. Johnson, J.B. losos, and S.r. Singer. 2005. Biology. 7th edition. Mcgraw Hill. Boston Taiz, l. and e. Zeiger. 2006. Plant Physiology. 4th edition. Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Massachusetts Wareing, P.F. 1974. Plant Hormones and crop growth. Journal of the Royal Society of Arts. 122: 818827. Joseph Murray is an Assistant Professor of Biology at Blue ridge community college, in Weyers cave, Virginia. He is an International Society of Arboriculture certified arborist, certified utility arborist, and a certified tree worker\/climber specialist. Improper Pruning Cuts or Storm Damage Similar to the response observed in trees following transplanting, the loss of shoot (branch) tips will also disrupt the auxin-cytokinin "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2009 Weather at the Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25475","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15e816d.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Famiglietti, Bob","article_content":"2009 Weather at the Arboretum Bob Famiglietti A s in 2008, greater than normal rainfall occurred in 2009, resulting in optimum soil moisture conditions at the Arboretum. Excellent growth rates were recorded on a vast majority of our woody plants. January was colder than normal. The minimum temperature dropped to at least 28F on every night, a rare occurrence. Readings of -1F were recorded on the 15th, 16th, and 17th, the low for the year. Three storms that each deposited about 6 inches of snow left a persistent snow cover on the ground. Snow total for the month was 21 inches. February was mild and dry with only 7 inches of snow, six of that coming on the 3rd. The relative warmth reduced a foot of accumulated snow on the ground at the beginning of the month to all but a trace by the end of the month. February's high temperature of 60F was reached on the 27th. March had average temperatures and produced only 10 inches of snow. A temperature of 61F occurred twice, and the snow pack melted by mid month. april was a month of extremes. It began cool, as low temperatures dropped into the 30s for thirteen days. Our last freeze occurred on the 13th when it hit 32F. Temperatures soared to the other extreme by the end of the month. Our first day over the 70F mark arrived on the 24th, making it to 71F. It reached 86F on the 25th and 26th and then soared to 95F on the 28th, an amazing leap from the freezing temperature barely two weeks earlier. This was the highest temperature since June 2008, and also turned out to be the high for the year. Rainfall was 4.13 inches for the month. May was warm, cloudy, and dry. Even though rain was measured on fourteen days, it only totaled 2.76 inches for the month. Weather conditions for the Arboretum's annual Lilac Sunday event on May 10th were extremely windy, with gusts over 40 miles per hour. A high of 91F was reached on the 21st, the only reading in the 90s for May. June had eighteen consecutive days with below normal temperatures (8th25th) finishing almost 5F below normal for the month. It was the third coldest June in 183 years of Boston weather-keeping records. Clouds were persistent and rain was measured on nineteen days with traces on four others. Precipitation was 3.99 inches for the month and there were only six days when no water was detected in our rain gauge. A frequent east wind kept us cloudy, cool, and damp. These cool, damp, early summer conditions made it an excellent year for post-transplanting establishment of new plants in the collection; little supplemental watering was needed. On the negative side, the cool, damp weather exacerbated a widespread outbreak of the late blight fungus (Phytophthora infestans) in the Northeast. Late blight attacks plants in the nightshade family (Solanaceae) and is the fungus that was a major factor in the Irish potato famine of the 1850s. Farmers and home gardeners in the region had to destroy tomato and potato crops to prevent the spread Weather 21 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 2009 avg. Max. (F) Jan Feb Mar apr May Jun Jul aug Sep OcT nOv Dec 29.8 39.6 44.1 60.1 68.7 71.5 78.0 82.2 71.1 58.2 55.4 39.4 avg. Min. (F) 13.9 21.6 27.7 40.1 50.3 55.5 61.6 65.2 52.8 41.2 40.7 23.7 avg. Temp. (F) 21.8 30.6 35.9 50.1 59.5 63.5 69.8 73.7 62.0 49.7 48.1 31.6 Max. Temp. (F) 40 60 61 95 91 83 88 93 79 73 69 69 Min. Temp. (F) -1 3 8 30 43 43 51 55 41 32 29 9 precipi- Snowtation fall (inches) (inches) 4.65 2.07 3.01 4.13 2.76 3.99 7.91 3.40 3.28 5.62 3.76 5.27 10.5 21.0 7.0 10.5 average Maximum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 58.2 average Minimum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . 41.2 average Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.7 Total precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.85 inches Total Snowfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49.0 inches Warmest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 on april 28 coldest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . -1 on January 15,16, and 17 last Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 on april 13 First Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 on October 19 growing Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 days 22 Arnoldia 67\/4 SuE A. PFEIFFER a lightning strike at about 9 a.m. on July 2, 2009, destroyed this venerable nikko fir (Abies homolepis) in the arboretum's conifer collection. The explosive force threw pieces of the tree at least 180 feet away. of late blight. The Arboretum has very limited holdings of woody plants in this family and no collections plants were affected. The damp conditions were also a factor in the appearance of fire blight (Erwinia amylovora), a bacterial disease, on some rose family (Rosaceae) plants in the collections. A high temperature of 83F (lower than in April or May) was reached on the 26th. July was also cloudy, cool, and wet, with 7.91 inches of rain, the sixth wettest July on record. There were fourteen days with measurable rainfall and traces on four others. Thunderstorms were frequent; on the 2nd, a lightning strike during a thunderstorm destroyed a notable 91-foot-tall, 110-year-old Nikko fir (Abies homolepis) in the Arboretum's conifer collection. 2.93 inches of rain fell on the 23rd, the highest one day total since December 11th, 2008. For five days it remained in the 60s and on eleven days it never made it out of the 70s. A high of 88F was recorded on the 18th and 28th. We never reached 90F, which is extremely rare for July. The combined JuneJuly average temperature was the 4th coldest in Boston's recorded weather history. auguST was very warm and, with only 3.4 inches of rain, our driest summer month. Measurable precipitation was recorded on only eight days. The high of 93F was reached on the 18th. 90F or greater was recorded on the 17th through the 19th, creating our only official heat wave of the summer. Weather NANCy ROSE 23 visitors and arboretum staff commented on the outstanding orange-russet fall color exhibited by the dawn redwoods (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) near the hunnewell visitor center late in the autumn of 2009. 24 Arnoldia 67\/4 SepTeMber was cool, sunny, and a bit dry. A heavy rain occurred on the 11th and 12th, but rainfall was measured on only five days for a total of 3.28 inches. Long sunny breaks occurred between rain days. No temperatures of 80F or higher were recorded during the month. OcTOber was cold and wet. Our growing season ended on the 19th with a low of 32F. This was the 21st coldest October in 138 years of Boston weather history. Precipitation was measured on fifteen days for a total of 5.62 inches. Damp conditions notwithstanding, visitors to the Arboretum enjoyed another great fall foliage display this year. KEvIN B. SChOFIELD a cool October followed by unusual warmth in november triggered an abundance of premature late-autumn blooms on this Fuji cherry (Prunus incisa f. serrata) in the bradley rosaceous collection. an early December snow brought an end to the spring preview. nOveMber was warm and somewhat dry, ranking as the 7th warmest November on record. It was only slightly cooler than October. A high of 69F was recorded on the 9th. A low of 29F was recorded on the 6th and 17th. This warm weather kept containerized nursery plants at the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouse from going completely dormant, the condition needed for winter root cellar storage. Many of our containerized plants had to wait for the cold of December to drop their leaves. Though they commonly open a few blossoms during late fall warm-ups, this year some of the mature cherry (Prunus spp.) trees in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection appeared to be in nearly full bloom. DeceMber started warm, reaching a high of 69F on the 3rd. But it then turned cold, remaining below freezing for eight straight days from the16th through the 23rd. This is just what our containerized woody plants needed to go into dormancy, and they could finally be put to bed for the winter. Almost a foot of snow fell over the weekend of the 19th and 20th. Bob Famiglietti is a horticultural Technologist at the Arnold Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Essay on Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25476","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15e8526.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Stevens, Peter","article_content":"An Essay on Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science P. F. Stevens Naming Nature: The Clash Between Instinct and Science Carol Kaesuk Yoon. W.W. Norton & Company, 2009. 344 pages. SBN 978-0-393-06197-0 S ystematics, the science of the study of relationships between organisms, has seen remarkable developments over the last fifty years. Carol Kaesuk Yoon was a graduate student in Cornell in the late 1980s, trying to elucidate the relationships between some fruit flies using the then still fairly novel technique of DNA analysis. There she witnessed some of the vitriolic debates between cladists and evolutionary biologists, two warring groups of systematists who interpreted relationships in very different ways. In fact, analysis of the molecular data that she and others were then starting to use has had profound consequences for our understanding of the living world, and our knowledge of the genealogical relationships between organisms is increasing by leaps and bounds. Taxonomists, those who classify, have in many cases redrawn the limits of groups to better reflect these genealogical relationships. Of course, systematists had long been interested in such relationships, but they used morphological differences to establish them. As Ernst Mayr (who figures in the book's pages) noted, everybody could tell a toucan, with its remarkable beak, from a barbet. Brightly colored though the latter bird might be, barbets had much more conventional bills, and nobody in his or her right mind would put toucans and barbets in the same family. But that is exactly what the genealogical evidence suggested to some. The resolution of this particular story is that barbets are now in four separate families, toucans remaining in their own family. For some, this is a satisfactory solution; after all, this taxonomy does take into account genealogy. But situations like these seem to make no sense intuitively--are birds to be included in reptiles, are we humans really to be placed with fish, as genealogy would suggest? Such questions led Yoon to reflect on where taxonomists and systematists were going. They seemed to have taken leave of their everyday senses as they peered myopically at bands on gels that represented DNA. On the other hand, we have always classified the living world using our 26 Arnoldia 67\/4 ordinary senses, and these classifications make that world real to us in a way that the new classifications do not. It is this world--she calls it the umwelt, the world as it is apparent to our senses, the natural order that it discloses to us--that matters to us. In the world as we perceive it, objectivity, hypothesis testing, and evolutionary change are not relevant; the whale is a fish of sorts, as are clams and maybe even coots, and humans are not apes. This is folk taxonomy, not a scholarly endeavor but a hard-wired and ageless tradition that was coopted by Linnaeus and hijacked by molecular systematists. In the book, we then embark on a fascinating tour. Linnaeus's Herculean labors in classifying the world are explained in detail, \"capturing,\" as he did, \"the essential vision of the living world . . . the vision of the human umwelt\" (p. 50). A brief discussion on Darwin's barnacles ends with the conclusion that all his brilliant evolutionary inspirations would cripple taxonomy--a wall was being erected between the scientist and the living world. Indeed, despite the title of his book, On the Origin of Species . . . , arguments about what a species really was were not settled by Darwin, nor later by Mayr, who thought that because he and New Guinea tribesmen could recognize the same species of birds this made species objectively real. This observation simply made James Watson wonder why Harvard faculty were needed to name things if they did no better than New Guineans. The classifications of plants and animals all over the world show remarkable cross-cultural similarities, down to the numbers of different things that are included in any one classification--which turns out to be similar to the number of genera that some of Yoon's informants, professional taxonomists, could remember; around 600 is the upper limit. Similar numerical regularities apply to species; few genera have more than seven species. Indeed, there are general memory rules here, as George Miller noted in his classical paper, \"The Magical Number Seven, Plus or Minus Two: Some Limits on Our Capacity for Processing Information.\" The great taxonomist George Bentham was aware of such limits as he wrote Genera plantarum with Joseph Dalton Hooker in the later nineteenth century. Yoon notes that it has been shown that names of fish sound like names of, well, fish, rather than of birds or some other animal. This is the classificatory umwelt that we have left behind. She also describes some remarkable people with brains damaged in particular ways who could no longer classify organisms. Returning to academia, the arguments between the three main group of systematists--cladists, pheneticists, and evolutionary systematists--are described very perceptively. Yoon sees that the cladistic approach--recognizing relationships because of shared unique characters--has allowed us to start assembling a tree of life that shows us surprising things about the world. However, this is not the world of our senses, since the living world has been excluded. What is the mere mortal to do? Indeed, there is a tension here. Yoon suggests that classifications were developed specifically for communicating about organisms. However, classifications extend to every part of our world, living or not. We classify items in a supermarket just as effectively as we do organisms. We may have lost contact with life, but we have not lost the ability to classify. Indeed, classification is not so much part of an umwelt that has to do with life in particular but something we do to everything. The binomial, a noun-adjective combination that Linnaeus used, is simply two words we use to describe groups of things, whatever they may be. A red cart and a red oak have the same grammatical and cognitive structure, but one refers to things and the other to plants. In the end, Yoon suggests that we name organisms as we please. There is no one classification, but each classification is a variation on a universal theme; we must reclaim our own umwelts. And herein is food for thought. What is our umwelt? She acknowledges that all individual classificatory systems may be different, but of course the great advance made almost inadvertently by Linnaeus was a way of communicating. A common language, a common classification, is always essential. And whether our umwelt tells us anything in particular or stable is debatable, certainly, our attitudes to the environment have changed dramatically over the last few hundreds of years, and our prelapsarian ideas might not seem very satisfactory to us now. Eyewitness accounts may well be decidedly less than accurate, as any trial Naming Nature 27 NANCY ROSE Carolus Linnaeus, a larger-than-life bronze statue of the \"father of modern taxonomy\" by Robert Berks, in the Heritage Garden at the Chicago Botanic Garden. lawyer or judge will know. Thus, to oppose the new classifications we are developing with an umwelt-based classification that reflects an understanding of the phenomenal (= real) world, seems a mistake. I have been through the biological battles that Yoon describes, and am also a maker, user, and teacher of classifications. There is much more than just DNA sequencing and changing names going on. We are learning much more about the living world and in such a way that it makes us wonder and understand in a way that was impossible before. When I take beginning biology students around the campus and talk about bacteria in the nodules in the pea family, and the bacteria-that-were that pervade cells as mitochondria and chloroplasts (all features that also reflect the new classifications) students clearly understand the world in a very different way. A classification based on umwelt and instinct would be a sorry substitute. The reader will learn a great deal from this book, which is well and clearly written (although the asparagus has never been included in the orchid family, p. 235). The issues that it raises are ongoing. Even aside from the \"debate\" over global warming and evolution, scientists sometimes forget the limits of their world: their truth is not necessarily broadly self-evident. Readers of Yoon's book will surely enjoy Trying Leviathan: . . . by D. Graham Burnett, which raises similar issues, but in a historical context, as the subtitle of that book explains: The Nineteenth-Century New York Court Case That Put the Whale on Trial and Challenged the Order of Nature. The ultimate question is surely why we need alternative classifications and what are the situations in which they help--and what are those in which they are a hindrance. Whether the umwelt, whatever it is (and the word is overused in this review as it is in the book itself), will help us as we think about this, I do not know, although I doubt it. And we do need to think about what is, not what seems--and I say this fully aware of the difficulties surrounding that most simple of words, \"is\". P. F. Stevens is professor of biology at the University of Missouri, St. Louis, and curator, Missouri Botanical Garden. He maintains the Angiosperm Phylogeny Website: http:\/\/www.mobot.org\/mobot\/research\/apweb\/ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Sand Pear-Pyrus pyrifolia","article_sequence":5,"start_page":28,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25478","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15e896f.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Sand Pear--Pyrus pyrifolia Peter Del Tredici I n more than thirty years at the Arnold Arboretum, I have observed many trees in our collections. Some have not lived up to expectations, but others have proven themselves over time. One such tree is the specimen of sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia, accession 7272-C) growing at the back edge of the open meadow below the summit of Bussey Hill, which I consider to be the most beautiful flowering tree in the Arboretum. This tree comes into flower in late April or early May, depending on the weather, and at its peak bloom it shines like a beacon in the early spring landscape. When first glimpsed from Bussey Hill Road, against a backdrop of tall white pines, it looks like a giant white cloud-- an effect that is intensified because no leaves compete with the floral display. The flowers are pure white with crimson anthers, 3 to 3.5 centimeters (1.2 to 1.4 inches) in diameter, and are borne in rounded clusters on slender stalks. In bloom, the tree can be easily spotted from the top of Peters Hill, some 800 meters (2,600 feet) away as the crow flies. It stays in flower for up to a full week, holding up well through all kinds of inclement early spring weather. In fall, the tree's glossy, dark green leaves turn beautiful shades of orange and red. Its hard, round fruits are 3 to 4 centimeters (1.2 to 1.6 inches) in diameter, brown, and covered with pale dots. The fruit has an extremely gritty texture (hence its common name--sand pear) and a puckery aftertaste when bitten into. It's hard to imagine how the delectable Chinese and Japanese \"apple-pears\" in the supermarket were derived from this astringent ancestor. The magnificent sand pear on Bussey Hill stands 16.9 meters (55.4 feet) tall with a spread of 25.7 meters (84.3 feet) and a trunk DBH (diameter at breast height) of 79 centimeters (31.1 inches). Remarkably, it seems never to have suffered any major snow, ice, or wind dam- age--an unexpected observation given its age (101 years) and the exposure of the site where it is growing. Such structural integrity provides a striking contrast to the widely planted but notoriously weak `Bradford' Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana `Bradford'), which shows an all too predictable tendency to split apart in severe storms after about age 20. Were it not for its relatively large, messy fruits, our streets might well have been planted with sand pears instead of Callery pears. The Arboretum's beacon tree was grown from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in the fall of 1907, somewhere in the mountains surrounding the city of Ichang in Hupeh (now Hubei) Province. When Wilson collected the seed he did not give the tree a species name, but noted that the Chinese called it \"tang li tzu.\" At the time, sand pears were classified as Pyrus sinensis, a name which was used mainly to describe cultivated plants with large, edible fruits. Back at the Arboretum, Alfred Rehder decided that Wilson's tree was the wild ancestor of these cultivated trees and, in 1915, proposed the name Pyrus serotina for Wilson's specimens. Taxonomy is ever changeable, though, and in 1926 the Japanese botanist Nakai reduced Rehder's name to synonymy with Pyrus pyrifolia--the name the species now bears. Wilson's sand pear seeds arrived at the Arboretum in April 1908 and germinated in the spring of 1909. Sometime prior to 1918, at least three of the seedlings were planted on the grounds. Remarkably, all three are still alive today--a testament to the toughness and tenacity of the species. Specimen 7272-C is the finest of the three, and it will, I hope, remain a shining spring beacon for Arboretum visitors for many years to come. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23417","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160ab6e.jpg","title":"2010-67-4","volume":67,"issue_number":4,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Excerpt From Wilson's China: A Century On","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25471","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eb726.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":3,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flanagan, Mark; Kirkham, Tony","article_content":"An Excerpt From Wilson's China: A Century On Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham Editor 's N ote : Ernest H enr y W ilson was one of the most intrepid and productive plant hunters of his era--the beginning of the twentieth century. His collecting trips to China--first for Veitch Nurseries in England and then on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum--resulted in an extraordinary stream of new plants to the West. Arboretum director Charles Sprague Sargent instructed Wilson to thoroughly document his 19071908 and 1910 expeditions with photographs; these striking images still reside in the Arboretum's archives. Mark Flanagan, Keeper of the Gardens at Windsor Great Park , and Tony Kirkham, Head of the Arboretum at Kew, are modern-day plant hunters, having traveled and collected extensively in eastern Asia. Admirers of Wilson, they plotted a journey to retrace his footsteps in Sichuan, China. Using Wilson's expedition photographs as a guide, they were able to capture views of some of the very same locations and even plants that Wilson saw a century ago. Their book pays homage to Wilson and provides a fascinating \"then-and-now\" glimpse of China's landscape. The following is an excerpt from Chapter 3, \"Mystery Towers of Danba.\" Tatien-lu is a small and filthy dirty place, it boasts a large mixed population of Chinese and Tibetans. Being on the highway from Pekin to Lhasa, officials are constantly passing and re-passing. This makes it a highly important place, both politically and commercially. Although Batang, 18 days journey to the west, is the actual frontier town, Tatien-lu is really the gate of Tibet.1 ilson's accurate but rather unflattering description of Kangding was penned at the conclusion of his first visit to the town in 1903. Wilson had made the journey to Kangding on the instructions of the Veitch nurseries who wished to add a very special plant, the lampshade poppy (Meconopsis integrifolia), to their nursery catalogue. \"Messrs. Veitch despatched me on this second, and very costly, journey to the Tibetan border for the sole purpose of discovering and introducing this, the most gorgeous alpine plant extant,\" recorded Wilson.2 Kangding still has a frontier town feel about it and is inalienably a Tibetan place. It also remains a very important staging post on the road that leads westward into Tibet. This road was one of the great highways constructed during imperial times to hold the Celestial Empire together. But Chinese writ did not extend very far. Indeed the country around Kangding remained lawless and untamed until very recent times. Historically the area was known as Kham and its inhabitants, the Khampas, were much feared for their ferocity and war-like demeanor. In truth, Khampa was a collective noun as the area was home to a very diverse group of related, though distinct, peoples. For a thousand years, after the collapse of the vast Tibetan Empire in the ninth century, Kham remained unconquered and unconquerable, its peoples engaged in ceaseless internecine W Wilson's China 3 All PHoToS ARE By THE AuTHoRS unlESS oTHERWISE InDICATED The authors, Mark Flanagan (left) and Tony Kirkham (right), surrounded by prayer flags at the Ya-jia Pass. conflict as petty warrior chieftains battled for supremacy. Banditry was an accepted means of acquiring wealth and position. The various groups of ethnic peoples he encountered fascinated Wilson and he wrote about them extensively. His understanding was gained both first hand and through studying the work of contemporary ethnographers, though this understanding was far from exact. For example, he used the Chinese generic, and derogatory, name \"Sifan\" (western barbarian) to describe the tribe now identified as the Qiang, one of the 56 official ethnic peoples in China. To the enquiring Edwardian mind the alien culture and manners of the various peoples, particularly their peculiar (and supposedly immoral) sexual liaisons in which both polyandry and polygamy were commonplace, was of abiding interest. Their relative lack of sophistication also appealed to Wilson, suggesting to him a oneness with their environment that he found endearing. The eventual subjugation of the Kham region in what the Chinese called the \"peaceful liberation of Tibet\" finally ended the brigandry and general lawlessness in the 1950s. Eastern Kham formally became part of Sichuan Province and Western Kham formed a large part of the Xizang Autonomous Region. Despite this the Khampas retain their individuality by virtue of their strong culture and association with their land. In travelling this country it is impossible not to be impressed by their proud bearing and independent mien and it is easy to 4 Arnoldia 67\/3 understand how they struck fear into the hearts of friend and foe alike. Despite the suppression of banditry, in recent years occasional acts of violence against foreigners still occur when travelers are held-up by groups of armed local men: old habits die hard.3 Through the 1980s and 1990s the Kew expeditions to this part of China employed the services of an armed Chinese policeman, lao liu, as a precaution against unwanted local attention, though he never drew a weapon in anger! Wilson's quest for the lampshade poppy was, therefore, into territory that he knew little of and amongst people with whom, at that stage, he was largely unfamiliar. not only was the territory unfamiliar, it was built on a grand scale. The Da Xue Mountains into which Wilson was travelling, together with the neighboring ranges form part of the vast, complex Hengduan Shan, the eastern extension of the Himalaya. They were created at the same time but, due to the shearing effect involved when the landmass of India collided with the Asian continent, they incline northsouth. These mountains, eroded by monsoon-swollen rivers--the Jinsha, yalong, Dadu Finding the lampshade poppy (Meconopsis integand Min--form an enormous convoluted mass rifolia subspecies integrifolia) was the principal of peaks, ridges and spurs with deep, sheer-sided objective of Wilson's second trip to China. valleys. The range climaxes at the summit of the mighty Gongga Shan, which at 7,556 meters is Sichuan's highest mountain by some way. Joseph Rock brought Gongga Shan to the attention of the West in 1930, when he infamously over-estimated its height, erroneously claiming it to be higher than Mount Everest.4 Wilson would be travelling at far higher elevations and over much more demanding terrain than he had experienced in his first trip to the more modest hills and valleys of Hubei. He was not alone, however. It is intriguing that Wilson rarely mentions any western companions in his writings, let alone provides any details of their backgrounds and occupations. This time, as he prepared to find the lampshade poppy, he was accompanied by an experienced traveler. on July 16, 1903, he started out for the mountains: \"on this journey I was accompanied by Mr. Edgar of the China Inland Mission, in whom I found a delightful companion . . . leaving by the South Gate we followed the main road to lhasa--a broad, well-paved road.\"5 [...] The main road to lhasa was a well-travelled highway but not one that Wilson would remain on for long. It quickly rises to the Zheduo Pass, which today is still the most commonly taken route into Tibet from western Sichuan. on the flanks just below this pass the lampshade poppy can be easily found and many writers have assumed that this is where Wilson gathered his first plants. But the Wilson's China 5 Zheduo Pass was not Wilson's destination; he was heading for the ya-jia Pass, which followed an alternative and much less-used track to the south. At first the journey was enjoyable and Wilson reveled in his surroundings: \"Our road was through lovely grassy country, with a steady rise. A wealth of many colored herbs enlivened our path,\" and, \"we continued through similar country, with a fine snow-clad peak straight in front of us and another to our left.\" Soon, however, the going became much tougher, and heavy rain fell as they reconnoitered the mountainsides close to their overnight stopping point. The altitude had a detrimental effect on his coolies and all endured a miserable night. our journey up to the ya-jia Pass was rather more comfortable. The road was well surfaced right to the top, though the occasional small landslip had to be carefully negotiated by the vehicles. As Wilson suggested, snow-clad peaks were visible all around and we were fortunate to have fine weather in which to appreciate them. looking back, a stunning range of mountains could be seen to the north-east beyond Kangding--the lian lua Shan (lotus Flower Mountains)--no doubt one of the views enjoyed by Wilson during his own ascent 103 years before. Ahead the scene was much less promising with dark clouds scudding across the sky alternately revealing and concealing the mountain tops and providing tantalizing glimpses of the pass. A view to distant Gongga Shan, showing its distinctive peak. 6 Arnoldia 67\/3 Wilson's miserable end to the day was compounded during the night: Having at length got rid of our soaked garments--a difficult enough task under the circumstances--we eventually got between the blankets. No sooner had I lay down than a drip came a spot of rain into my eye: I turned over and drip came another into my ear. I twisted this way and that way, but there was no escape. Like evil genii these rain-drops pursued me turn which way I would. I could not move my bed, since this was longer than the tent was broad, and my feet already exposed, and we sorely afraid the whole thing might collapse, it being anything but secure . . . About 4 a.m. our firewood gave out and things assumed a very dismal aspect. However, all things have an end; day at length dawned and all were devoutly thankful . . . With what fire remained we managed to boil some water and make some tea. We breakfasted on ship's biscuits and cheese and felt none the worse for the night's experience.8 Wilson was, above all things, a fatalist. The rain stopped and Wilson and Edgar prepared for the day's work, during which they hoped to find the lampshade poppy. A farmhouse, one thousand feet below their overnight position, was commandeered and their cook, who was suffering from severe altitude sickness, was taken down to recuperate. The journey to the pass began at 7.a.m. and after some initial rain showers continued on in sunshine. The alpine flowers captivated Wilson; in early summer these Chinese mountains are amongst nature's most exquisite natural gardens. Tony and I arrived at the peak of the display and we left the vehicles three or four hundred meters below the pass and proceeded on foot. By the roadside, a braided mountain stream provided ample moisture and it was in this sodden turf that the greatest diversity could be found. \"I wish I had the ability to describe this floral paradise with all its glories, but this is beyond me,\" wrote Wilson.9 I certainly won't try where Wilson failed and hope that the images reproduced The flora of the moist ground below the Ya-jia Pass is replete with a wonderful array of colorful flowers, including Rheum alexandre (left) and Primula secundiflora (right) Wilson's China 7 on these pages will give the reader a hint of the individual and collective beauty of these mountain flowers, many of which have become firm garden favorites amongst discerning growers. We followed Wilson's and Edgar's route to the pass knowing that at any time the lampshade poppy would appear. our experience was almost exactly as theirs had been: At 11,000 feet I came across the first plant of Meconopsis integrifolia! It was growing amongst scrub and was past flowering. I am not going to attempt to record the feelings which possessed me on first beholding the object of my quest to these wild regions . . . I had travelled some 13,000 miles in five and a half months and to be successful in attaining this first part of my mission in such a short time was a significant reward for all the difficulties and hardships experienced en route.10 The lampshade poppy is a monocarpic species, dying after flowering, but it produces ample seed and has proved to be relatively amenable in cultivation particularly in the cool summer climate of Scotland.11 Wilson's plant became an instant success, flowering in its first season in the Veitch nursery and persisting for many years.12 All the recent trips to this and neighboring parts of China have reinforced its presence in cultivation and it is not unusual to see this plant flowering in northern gardens. In cultivation it has also produced several attractive hybrids with other Asiatic species such as M. beamishii (M. integrifolia M. grandis) and M. finlayorum (M. integrifolia M. quintuplinervia). In recent years botanical opinion, particularly that of Dr. Chris Grey-Wilson, has suggested that this variable plant is easily divisible into two distinct entities-- M. integrifolia and M. pseudointegrifolia, the latter a plant with nodding and more open flowers, quite distinct from Wilson's plants that have globular and more upright flowers.13 After this first plant the mountainsides began to reveal a veritable cornucopia of poppies. Wilson recorded that \"as we continued the ascent, Meconopsis integrifolia became more and more abundant. At 12,000 feet and upwards, miles and miles of the alpine meadows were covered with this plant, but only a few late flowers remained.\"14 Being a month earlier Tony and I caught every plant in full flower, the sun-disk blooms swaying in the mountain breeze, flaunting their wares for any passing bees. our climb continued in deteriorating conditions until we reached the pass at nearly 4,000 meters. Wilson tells us of the fear that the ya-jia Pass engendered amongst his Chinese followers who were not, by nature or inclination, mountain people: \"this Ya-kia pass enjoys an unenviable reputation, and is much dreaded on account of its asphyxiating winds. It is said to be the only pass in the neighborhood which `stops peoples' breath'.\"15 on reaching the pass we were forced to concur, for though it was June 17, the temperature hovered around freezing point and a biting wind blew from the bleak Tibetan Plateau to the west, bringing pulses of sleet in its wake. Despite this we were thrilled to take an image at almost exactly the same location as Wilson had when he re-visited the pass on 19 July 1908. Wilson stayed a second night on the mountain, this time in the more salubrious surroundings of the farmhouse that had been commandeered for the use of 8 Arnoldia 67\/3 ARCHIVES oF THE ARnolD ARBoRETuM The caption for this 1908 Wilson photograph reads: Tachien-lu, near, W. Szechu'an. The Ya-chia-k'an snows and alpine regions clothed with dwarf junipers and rhododendrons. 13,000 feet. July 19, 1908. his party. This proved to be a clean, dry, cozy dwelling, and to add further to their good fortune his cook was quite recovered and prepared a hot meal for the team. on the next day of our trip a most intriguing incident occurred, something that caught me quite by surprise. I have already mentioned Gongga Shan, the giant peak that dominates the Da Xue Shan range. It is the highest mountain in Asia outside of the main Himalayan chain and it exerts a baleful influence. numerous glaciers grind their way down its flanks and such is its size that it generates its own climatic conditions over a sizeable swathe of the surrounding country. This mountain has always fascinated me. Despite dominating the area it is frequently covered in cloud: I have journeyed to five key vantage points-- east, northeast, west, and south of the peak--and been disappointed to find a shroud-covered summit every time. In all his writing Wilson never mentions this mountain either as Gongga Shan or Minya Konka, its Tibetan name. How can this be? During his visits to China he spent many months in the Da Xue Wilson's China 9 A current view of the barren and desolate Ya-jia Pass, unchanged since Wilson and Edgar first came here. Shan, surely he must have heard some local reference to the peak or glimpsed some distant view? Given his silence on the matter the obvious conclusion was that he was also unlucky and never had a clear view of the summit nor did he hear mention of it amongst the local people. As Tony and I wandered the lonely slopes around the ya-jia Pass I pondered this matter, knowing that the giant mountain lay to the southwest of our position. All around us were shattered and snow-clad peaks. It would have taken a strenuous hike into the higher reaches to breast these in order to provide an unencumbered view to the southwest, and time didn't allow this opportunity. In the warmth and comfort of our 4x4 as we took the road back to Kangding, I re-read Wilson's account of his first journey to the ya-jia Pass, particularly the second day of his visit. one paragraph leapt from the page. Although I had pored over all Wilson's writings for the best part of the previous 18 months, the significance of the words had, until now, escaped me: The moraine in front of us terminated in tremendous fields of ice, glaciers of a virgin peak, 21,000 feet high. The sun shone brilliantly and we got a magnificent view of the surrounding mountains. South, south-west of us lay a gigantic peak, several thousand feet higher than the one mentioned; its summit crowned with snowfields of enormous size.16 10 Arnoldia 67\/3 Gongga Shan? Surely. The following day it was time to move on to the next phase of our journey. Wilson's first trip in the employ of the Arnold Arboretum, his third visit to China, took place between 1907 and 1909. Released from the economic shackles imposed by the Veitch nursery he could take a much more expansive view of his activities. The patrician director of the Arnold Arboretum, Charles Sprague Sargent, encouraged Wilson not only to \"science-up\" his work--more emphasis on herbarium specimens and greater attention to field notes--he also insisted that a comprehensive photographic record of the journeys be produced. In a letter to Wilson dated 6 november 1906, a copy of which can be found in the Wilson archive at the Arnold Arboretum, Sargent explains: I write to remind you of the very great importance of the photographic business in your new journey. A good set of photographs are really about as important as anything you can bring back with you. I hope therefore you will not fail to provide yourself with the very best possible instrument irrespective of cost. The hardy and ubiquitous Rhododendron prezwalskii covers huge areas of the high mountains above Kangding. Wilson's China 11 Sargent's prescience not only provided us with an excellent series of images of plants and landscapes, which were later published by the Arnold Arboretum, but also a snapshot of Imperial China right at the end of its long history; within a year of Wilson's departure China was effectively a republic. Thus equipped and instructed Wilson arrived at yichang, his old base on the yangtze River, in February 1907 for what was The local flora is occasionally put to a novel use; this Tibetan girl is using an to be his most successful Incarvillea flower as a kazoo. trip, a trip that cemented his reputation as the foremost collector of his generation. I have long felt that the second year of this expedition, 1908, was also his most interesting and productive and in following in Wilson's footsteps I was especially keen to emulate some of his travels during that year. From Kangding we had the opportunity to retrace Wilson's journey of JuneAugust 1908 when he travelled between Dujiangyan (Kuan Hsien) and Kangding, though we would travel it in reverse. Interestingly, Wilson himself was following an earlier traveler--Sir Alexander Hosie--as he tells us: During the summer of 1908, when in Chengtu, I determined upon a journey to Tachienlu. Previously, in 1903 and again in 1904, I had visited this town by three different routes. This time I decided upon following the road leading from Kuan Hsien via Monkong Ting and Romi Chango. The only published account of this route that I had knowledge of is a report by Mr. (now Sir) Alexander Hosie, erstwhile HBM's Consul-General at Chengtu, who returned over this road in October 1904.17 The account Wilson refers to, \"Journey to the Eastern Frontier of Thibet\", was published as a Parliamentary Report and presented to Parliament in 1905. Hosie took the same direction as Tony and I would, east from Kangding, which he left on 10 october 1904. This was by no means a regular or accepted highway and that is what interested Wilson: \"what I saw of the forests and mountain scenery, together with the quantity and variety of the plants discovered and collected, abundantly repaid me for the hardships experienced.\"18 My hope was that we could also experience some of this scenery and plant diversity. But could we retrace the route and match some of the many images that Wilson had taken on this journey? Things began disappointingly. Wilson had travelled on foot on the east side of the Da Xue Shan between Kangding and the village of Hsin-tientsze and even 12 Arnoldia 67\/3 The new temple at Tagong with the massive bulwark of the Da Pao Shan behind. today there is no suitable road for motorized vehicles. This meant that we would have to drive up the west side of the range before rejoining Wilson's route beyond Hsin-tientsze. Fortunately, apart from stunning views of some of the snowclad peaks and a range of hot springs at Je-shuit'ang, it seemed we would miss nothing of great import. no images of particular interest record this section of the journey. We left Kangding taking the road up and over the Zheduo Pass. In the sunlight the roadsides were bright with wild flowers, many of a striking nature, including the large flowered but short-statured Tibetan lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium tibeticum) with large maroon pouches. At the pass we had a something of a shock. Having been at this lonely spot in 2001 we were dismayed to find that things were much changed. A wooden belvedere had been built about 150 meters above the pass, reached by a flight of steps, and another building was under construction nearby. no doubt these developments are underpinned by good intentions, this spot is very much on the tourist route, but it somehow seems quite inappropriate to despoil these pristine alpine areas with such frippery. We didn't dwell. on the other side of the pass we got stuck behind an endless convoy of lumbering army trucks, which slowed the pace considerably. one of the positive results of this inconvenience was that we were able to continue to admire the carpet of flowers in the grassy alpine pastures. unlike the valleys to the east, the west Wilson's China 13 side of the Da Xue Shan is quite dry and few trees are to be found. As a result extensive grasslands are a feature and at this time of year they boasted a display worthy of the most colorful flower garden. The turf was studded with gorgeous plants--Incarvillea delavayi, Meconopsis horridula, Lilium lophophorum--odd specimens of Rhododendron capitatum formed hummocky mounds amongst the grass sward and the horizon was an endless, undulating green line. Eventually we turned north leaving the army to continue their procession into Tibet. The road became more and more potholed and uneven as we proceeded. Along the way the solid architecture of Tibet began to dominate, with farm buildings of substantial size and construction. Many are only seasonally occupied as the inhabitants leave in the spring to spend the summers in the high mountain pastures grazing their herds of yak. We passed through the important religious centre of Tagong, dominated by its richly decorated and ornamented temple. Rising in front of us was another range of impressive peaks, the Da Pao Shan (Big Cannon Mountains). This linked us back with Wilson who enjoyed fine weather during the last leg of his journey, albeit on the other side of the range to our position: The view from the summit of the pass far surpassed my wildest dreams. It greatly exceeded anything of its kind that I have seen and would require a far abler pen than mine to describe it adequately. Straight before us, but a little to the right of our view point was an enormous mass of dazzling eternal snow, supposed to be, and I can well believe it, over 22,000 feet high. Beneath the snow and attendant glaciers was a sinister-looking mass of boulders and screes.19 unfortunately for us low clouds obscured the actual summit, though Xiao Zhong told us of that on a recent previous visit he had seen nothing of the mountains at all, so perhaps we were not so unlucky. [...] REFEREnCES 1 12 2 3 4 5 Wilson, E. H. (1906). leaves from my Chinese notebook. Gardeners' Chronicle Vol 39. 17 February. p. 101. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179. \"lonely Planet writer vanishes on trek in Tibet bandit country\". The Times 5 June 2007. Goodman, J. (2006). Joseph F. Rock and His Shangri-La. Caravan Press, Hong Kong. p. 97. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 3 March. p. 138. [...] Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 3 March. p. 139. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 17 March. p. 166. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179. Grey-Wilson, C. (1993). Poppies: A guide to the Poppy Family in the Wild and in Cultivation. london. B T Batsford. p. 186. 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 8 9 10 11 Gardeners' Chronicle Vol 36. 1 october. 1904. p. 240. Grey-Wilson, C. (1996). The yellow Poppywort and its Allies. The New Plantsman 3 (1) 2239. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 179. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 17 March. p. 165. Wilson, E. H. (1906). op cit. 24 March. p. 180. Wilson, E. H. (1913). A Naturalist in Western China. Methuen and Co. london. Vol. 1. p 170. Wilson, E. H. (1913). op cit. Wilson, E. H. (1913). op cit. Vol 1. p. 200. Wilson's China: A Century On Mark Flanagan and Tony Kirkham. Kew Publishing. 2009. 256 pages. ISBn-13: 978-1842463949 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Aronia: Native Shrubs With Untapped Potential","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25472","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eb76b.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":3,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Brand, Mark","article_content":"Aronia: Native Shrubs With Untapped Potential Mark Brand T he genus Aronia is a group of largely overlooked shrubs native to the eastern United States. Aronia species have tremendous potential for use as ornamental landscape plants and as an edible fruit crop. One thing that has held back consumer acceptance of Aronia is the unfortunate common name chokeberry--a name unlikely to endear a plant to consumers. The name chokeberry may have been given to Aronia because people have observed that the berries are initially overlooked by birds and are only taken later in the winter when they are the last fruits remaining. The strong tannin flavor of chokeberry fruits may seem to be the reason why birds avoid the fruits, but ornithologists point out that it may actually be the relatively low protein content of the fruits compared to other fruits that are more readily taken by birds. I am always working to enlighten people about Aronia and in doing so I have found that confusion abounds when it comes to chokeberry and chokecherry. I regularly have people tell me they are familiar with chokeberry, only to find out that they meant chokecherry (Prunus virginiana). Aronia is one of the best kept plant secrets around--surprising since this genus is as complex and interesting as it is useful. Aronia Species and Their Characteristics Chokeberries are in the Rosaceae and are multistemmed, deciduous shrubs. They readily form rhizomes and can sucker to form small colonies in a non-aggressive manner. Two species All phOTOS ARe by The AUThOR UnleSS OTheRwISe IndICATed Red chokeberry's striking fruit display lasts several months. Aronia 15 The leaves of red chokeberry (seen here) are pubescent on the lower surface while black chokeberry leaves lack pubescence. species, A. prunifolia (purple chokeberry), is generally recognized as having purple-black fruits and amounts of pubescence intermediate between the red and black species. In my observation, the amount of pubescence on plants that could be considered A. prunifolia can range from moderate to heavy. Table 1 summarizes some of the characteristics that can be used to try to differentiate red from black chokeberry. Speciation within the Aronia genus is far from clear cut and more research needs to be conducted to determine if A. prunifolia is a hybrid between A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa or should be considered as part of the A. melanocarpa species. (See the taxonomy sidebar for more information on Aronia speciation). The red chokeberry grows 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3 meters) tall and 3 to 5 feet (.9 to 1.5 meters) Though not long lasting, red chokeberry's flowers are attractive in the spring. Red chokeberry has an upright growth habit. of Aronia are generally recognized: A. arbutifolia (red chokeberry) and A. melanocarpa (black chokeberry). hardin (1973) suggests that fruit color--red versus black--should be used to differentiate between species. In addition to fruit color, Krussmann (1986) used degree of pubescence on stems, leaves, and inflorescences to distinguish red from black chokeberry. A third Red chokeberry has outstanding red fall foliage color. 16 Arnoldia 67\/3 wide. It is a multi-stemmed shrub with a distinctly upright growth habit. even though the plant suckers and spreads, it can become somewhat leggy and open at the base. Most of the foliage on a mature red chokeberry will be found in the upper half of the plant. Summer foliage of red chokeberry is shiny or flat green above and grayish tomentose below. new growth on stems is also quite pubescent. leaves are obovate or elliptical with a short acuminate tip and marginal serrations. Red chokeberry fall foliage turns a vibrant red crimson or purple red and can be spectacular in sunny locations. even in partly shaded locations the leaves muster a very nice blend of orange and red. In addition to being attractive in the summer and fall, the red chokeberry also flowers in spring, usually in early May in new england. Small white flowers are produced in clusters that are about 1.5 inches (3.8 centimeters) wide and can be so numerous that they cover the canopy surface. The flowers do not last a particularly long time (about the same amount of time as Amelanchier flowers), but they do add early season interest to the plant. perhaps the best part about the flowers is that they give rise to abundant red fruits in late September and early October. The clusters of small (0.25 inch [.64 centimeter] diameter) fruits are quite showy and typically remain firm, glossy, and attractive through december. As stated before, birds rarely strip the fruits from the plants until after they have lost ornamental appeal. The black chokeberry can generally be distinguished from the red chokeberry (when fruit are absent) by the lack of pubescence on stems and leaf undersides. black chokeberries are also shorter than their red-fruited counterparts, attaining a mature height of 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 meters). like the red chokeberry, it suckers profusely, but forms dense plants and colonies, rarely appearing very leggy. black chokeberry has outstanding, lustrous, dark green summer foliage that turns a pleasing blend of yellow, orange and red in the fall. while Black chokeberry bears glossy black fruit. Aronia 17 the black chokeberry's autumn foliage display may fall a bit shy of that of its red-fruited relative, it is still superior to many shrubs. Flowers are white, borne in May, and are similar in landscape effectiveness to the red chokeberry. The black fruits, from which A. melanocarpa gets its common name, are shiny and larger (0.3 to 0.5 inch [0.8 to 1.3 centimeters] diameter) than the fruits of A. arbutifolia. Fruits can ripen as early as mid-July, but they primarily ripen dur- Table 1: Comparison of red (Aronia arbutifolia) and black (A. melanocarpa) chokeberry characteristics Red fruit color cherry red fruit relatively small ( 0.3 inch) fruit ripens Sept.Oct. fruit persistent into winter leaves, stems, inflorescences pubescent habit upright, leggy at base found primarily on damp\/wet sites inhabits coastal southeastern U.S. BlaCk fruit color black fruit relatively large ( 0.3 inch) fruit ripens late JulyAug. fruit shrivels and drops leaves, stems, inflorescences glabrous habit rounded, full to base found on both damp\/wet sites and dry sites inhabits northeastern and midwestern U.S. The glabrous foliage of black chokeberry is green in summer and can develop good red to orange and yellow fall color. 18 Arnoldia 67\/3 a powerline cut with sand overlaying moist seeps is home to red chokeberries in North Carolina. ing the month of August. black chokeberries wither soon after ripening and either drop off or persist for a while as \"raisins\" on the plant. A. melanocarpa populations in the upper Midwest typically have more persistent fruit than populations in the northeast. distribution and Habitat The geographical range for Aronia arbutifolia is centered in the southeastern Coastal plain, but it can be found extending out into suitable habitats westward into the Appalachian Mountains. It ranges from eastern Texas to northern Florida and continues up the eastern seaboard. It is common in much of the Carolinas, Virginia, Maryland, and new Jersey. Although it can be found in new england, red chokeberry occurs much less frequently there and is generally found close to the coast. The center of distribution for Aronia melanocarpa is in the northeastern states and the Great lakes region, with range extension into the higher elevations of the Appalachian Mountains. In the Appalachian Mountains and the northeast there is considerable overlap of the red and black chokeberry range. Although the information is somewhat incomplete, A. prunifolia seems to be found throughout much of the black chokeberry range and extends somewhat into the red chokeberry range. Aronia arbutifolia occurs in bogs, swamps, savannahs, lowland woods, the edges of water bodies, moist rocky seeps, and moist pine barrens. A. melanocarpa occurs in similar wet locations, but can also be found growing on sand dunes, dry rocky slopes, dry bluffs and balds, and grassy areas. you will rarely find A. arbutifolia on the same dry rocky bluffs and Aronia 19 One type of black\/purple chokeberry environment in Maine. dunes where A. melanocarpa occurs, but I have found it growing in thin layers of organic duff on the exposed spines of rock balds. A. prunifolia is found in areas similar to A. arbutifolia, but also in somewhat drier clearings. Cultural Conditions Chokeberries are considered to be hardy to USdA hardiness zone 4 and, with proper genotype selection, the red species can exhibit good heat tolerance as well. plants can be grown successfully in partial shade or full sun, but better flowering, fruiting, and fall color occur in full sun situations. both red and black chokeberries seem to tolerate dry or wet soil conditions, even though the red species naturally occurs most often in wet areas. best growth can be expected in moist soils, but soil type is not critical. Transplanting and establishment are easy with chokeberries even when they are given only modest aftercare. like most members of the Rosaceae, Aronia has a seemingly endless list of insects and diseases that could attack it, but the plants rarely seem to be affected by much and are considered relatively carefree. I have found that powdery mildew can hit A. melanocarpa, but it doesn't seem to show up to any degree on A. arbutifolia. lacebug is one insect that I have observed occasionally afflicting black chokeberry growing on hot, dry sites. Aronia Genetics: Ploidy and apomixis published literature states that A. arbutifolia has a 2n number (number of chromosomes in somatic cells) of either 34 or 68 and A. melanocarpa has a 2n number of 34 (darlington and Janaki 1945). At the University of Connecticut I have an Aronia germplasm collection of over 20 Arnoldia 67\/3 This rocky outcropping in the appalachian Mountains in Tennessee is a typical habitat for Aronia. Aronia 21 O Taxonomic Teasers in Aronia ver the years, Aronia has been placed in numerous genera, including Mespilus, Pyrus, Adenorachis, Sorbus, and Photinia by different taxonomic authorities (Robertson et al. 1991). Rehder (1949) and hardin (1973) chose to use the genus Aronia for the chokeberries. In 1991, Robertson et al., placed the chokeberries in the genus Photinia, citing no differences in floral and fruit morphology between plants formally in the genus Aronia and those in Photinia. According to Robertson et al., red chokeberry becomes Photinia pyrifolia, black chokeberry becomes Photinia melanocarpa, and purple chokeberry becomes Photinia floribunda. The USdA plants database (plants.usda.gov) has adopted Photinia as the genus for the chokeberries, but USdA GRIn (www. ars-grin.gov\/) is still allowing Aronia. likewise, in the new 6th edition of Michael dirr's Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, Aronia is still being used for the chokeberries. Until more conclusive genetic studies are undertaken, there will likely be continued uncertainty about the correct genus for the chokeberries. Another point of nomenclatural uncertainty is with Aronia prunifolia. Should it be considered a separate species or be folded into A. melanocarpa or A. arbutifolia as a variety? If it is a separate species, does it have its origins as an interspecific hybrid of A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa and should it be designated as Aronia x prunifolia? Most of the evidence seems to suggest that the purple chokeberry is the result of interspecific hybridization between red and black chokeberry. we know from our own hybridization work that it is relatively easy to cross red and black chokeberries and get offspring that are not the result of apomixis. we have pollinated diploid black to tetraploid red and have many purple plants which are triploid. hardin (1973) points out that garden hybrids between red and black have arisen at times and have been referred to as Aronia floribunda. Some have argued that the naturally occurring A. prunifolia is something different from A. floribunda because it can occur outside areas where the red and black chokeberries are sympatric, but this argument is flawed. It does not take into consideration the likely scenario that interspecific red-black hybrids produce viable seeds apomictically. The purple species could arise at the margins of overlap of the red and black species and then spread by seed to regions far beyond each parent species' range. purple chokeberry could also spread vegetatively by rhizomes. Furthermore, purple chokeberries seem to occur in the greatest abundance and have the most within-population variability in areas where both the red and black chokeberries overlap. paper chromatography done in the 1960s on red, black, and purple chokeberry found that purple chokeberry contained the greatest number of unique compounds in comparison to red and black, adding more weight to the theory of hybrid origin (Alston et al. 1965). These arguments, along with the fact that A. prunifolia generally has morphological characteristics (degree of leaf\/stem pubescence, fruit color, fruit ripening date, plant habit) that are intermediate between A. arbutifolia and A. melanocarpa, seem to tip the balance in favor of hybrid origin. One bit of work conducted in the 1970s, at the now closed long Ashton Research Station at the University of bristol, found that the flavone C-glucoside vitexin is restricted to arbutifolia and prunifolia x arbutifolia material and absent from melanocarpa and prunifolia x melanocarpa material. These findings do not support the involvement of A. arbutifolia in the parentage of A. prunifolia (Anon. 1974). 22 Arnoldia 67\/3 100 accessions of black, purple, and red species. So far, based on flow cytometry results, we have not found any diploid (2n=34) red chokeberries. with additional collecting, we hope to find the elusive diploid A. arbutifolia. black chokeberries collected from outside of new england have all been tetraploids (2n=68), while new england black chokeberries have been diploid (2n=34). There are numerous accessions that we believe to be A. prunifolia and these plants are either tetraploid or triploid. There is mounting evidence that suggests that Aronia is capable of producing apomictic seeds (persson hovmalm et al. 2004). These are seeds that develop without fertilization of the egg and are, therefore, clones of the mother plant. This is particularly true of tetraploid and triploid forms of Aronia. Apomictic seed set has been suspected from observations of the homogeneity in cultivated Russian plant material (poplavskaya 1995). In our own nAnCy ROSe breeding work with Aronia at the University of Connecticut, we have found that seedling populations from tetraploid plants are visually identical to the female parent regardless of the ploidy of the pollen used. when we use a diploid female parent, we get segregation within the population. we have also found that triploid Aronia produce fertile seed, even though triploidy typically results in sterility. It is likely that polyploid forms of Aronia have evolved to produce seed through apomixis as a functional manner in which to reproduce. Why the Interest in Aronia? The future is particularly bright for Aronia and it will undoubtedly emerge from its relative obscurity to serve as both an important ornamental landscape shrub and as a nutraceutical fruit crop. There is growing interest among gardeners, landscapers, landscape architects, and the general public in making better use of our Chokeberries are versatile ornamental landscape shrubs. a planting of black chokeberry is seen here in fall color. Aronia 23 own native plants, especially when they can serve as alternatives to problematic aggressive and invasive exotic species. In the northeast, the popular winged euonymus or burning bush (Euonymus alatus) has become invasive and has even been banned in Massachusetts and new hampshire. Its main landscape attributes are stunning red fall color, dense habit, and easy culture. Since native highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) also has excellent red fall color it is often recommended as a replacement for burning bush, but it is not adapted to many of the landscape sites where burning bush has typically been employed. Aronia can serve as a much better alternative to E. alatus because it is site adaptable in addition to having multi-season interest, including red fall color. To become popular ornamental shrubs, chokeberries simply need a little marketing and perhaps a more appealing common name. In addition to uses as an ornamental, black chokeberry is rapidly gaining momentum as a new small fruit crop for many parts of the United States. The blueberry-sized black fruits produced by Aronia melanocarpa have the highest known levels of antioxidants (anthocyanins and flavonoids) of any temperate fruit, five times higher than cranberry and blueberry, and also contain strong anticancer compounds. Aronia has been widely grown in eastern europe and Russia where the fruits are processed and used in beverages, wine, jelly, and baked goods (Kask 1987). In the United States, Aronia is largely unknown as a fruit crop, but there are no obvious limitations to prevent it from becoming popular here as well, especially given the public's growing interest in functional foods. preliminary work in Iowa, Oregon, wisconsin, and nebraska has demonstrated the viability of Aronia as a fruit crop in many regions, including new england. Aronia berries, while edible as a fresh fruit, are much tastier when the fruits have been processed. They are high in sugar (12 to 20% soluble solids), anthocyanins (560 to 1050 mg\/100 g fresh weight), have a ph of 3.3 to 3.7, and 0.7 to 1.2% titratable acidity (Jeppsson and Johansson 2000; Oszmianski and Sapis 1988). Chokeberries are very suitable for industrial aronia juice products (left to right): aronia blended with acai juice to make a fruit juice drink similar to cranberry cocktail, powdered juice to mix into food or drink as a nutraceutical, and a nutraceutical beverage containing aronia juice. processing since they are not prone to mechanical damage during transport and have low pectin content (Jeppsson 1999). Moreover, chokeberries can be harvested by machine (Gatke and wilke 1991) and there is a long harvest window. Since \"chokeberry juice\" is unlikely to sell, it is usually labeled as \"aronia juice.\" wine red to dark purple in color, it is often blended with other more flavorful juices such as apple, cranberry, grape, and black currant to make popular beverages. Other common uses include jellies and jams, syrup, soft spreads, teas, wine, and flavorings for ice cream and yogurt. Aronia juice is also an excellent colorant. The University of wisconsin-Madison Center for Integrated Systems (Secher 2008) evaluated 13 potential uncommon fruits with sustainability potential. Aronia was chosen as the crop with the greatest potential, beating out currants, gooseberries, and elderberries. low input requirements, high adaptability, high pest resistance, high nutraceutical content, short time to first yield, ease of culture, and high machine harvest potential were given as reasons why Aronia is tops for commercial production potential. 24 Arnoldia 67\/3 The fruit of `Viking'(left) and typical wild-type Aronia melanocarpa (right). `Viking' and `Nero' are the primary cultivars available for fruit production in the United States (Mckay 2001). Both are tetraploid forms (Brand, unpublished data) with large, relatively sweet berries and are the highest producing cultivars currently available (Strik et al. 2003). Breeding and Selection breeding efforts to improve ornamental chokeberries at the University of Connecticut are focused primarily on red chokeberry. There is a need to reduce the plant's stature by half and eliminate its tendency toward legginess. Another goal would be increased fruit size to provide a more impressive display in the fall and early winter. Fall foliage impact can be enhanced by improving leaf retention as the leaves turn red; currently available forms of red chokeberry tend to drop leaves too quickly after coloring. Selections can also be made for resistance to powdery mildew in black chokeberry. So far, improving red chokeberry has been challenging because all of the accessions we have are tetraploids that probably produce apomictic seed. Finding a wild diploid A. arbutifolia could prove to be very useful in breeding this species. polyploidy can also make it more difficult to use mutation breeding on red chokeberry due to the extra sets of chromosomes that can mask incomplete mutations. nonetheless, we have made some progress in developing more compact forms of red chokeberry using chemical mutagens and irradiation. european and Russian breeding efforts to enhance black chokeberry for fruit production have been largely constrained by the highly homogenous gene pool in domesticated Russian plant material. To make progress in this area it is, therefore, necessary to broaden the genetic basis through the introduction of germplasm from native stands (persson hovmalm et al. 2004). There is evidence suggesting that flavonoid content of chokeberries can be increased by incorporating native germplasm that contains higher levels of flavonoids into a breeding program (Sueiro et al. 2006). due to apomixis, diploid forms of black chokeberry are at the core of plant improvement efforts at the University of Connecticut. It is unclear whether tetraploid forms are autotetraploids or allotetraploids. It is possible that commercial Aronia 25 Aronia cultivars like `Viking' could be allotetraploids, since Aronia is known to hybridize with plants in the Rosaceae genus Sorbus. Our primary goal at the University of Connecticut is to improve black chokeberry as a fruit crop by increasing levels of antioxidants and anticancer compounds in the fruits while maintaining or increasing fruit size above that found in current commercial cultivars such as `Viking'. Of course, improving fruit flavor is also important. we are currently trying to unravel the genetics that have given us cultivars like `Viking' and `nero'. Some authorities designate the large fruited black chokeberries as Aronia mitschurini (Strik et al. 2003). In the late 1800s and early 1900s, Russian and eastern european breeders had significant Aronia breeding programs. Ivan Michurin, a Russian plant breeder, produced a plant called `likernaya' that is an intergeneric hybrid between Sorbus aucuparia and Aronia melanocarpa (Kask 1987). It is possible that this intergeneric hybrid, or others like it, were eventually back crossed to A. melanocarpa to give rise to cultivars such as `Viking'. by understanding how `Viking' was created, we hope to re-create superior large-fruited forms for the fledgling domestic chokeberry fruit industry. literature Cited Alston, R. e., h. Rosler, K. naefeh and T. J. Mabry. 1965. hybrid compounds in natural and interspecific hybrids. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 54:14581465. Anon. 1974. Aronia. long Ashton Research Station, University of bristol: Report 1974. bermudez-Soto, M.J., larrosa, M., Garcia-Cantalejo, J.M., espin, J.C., Tomas-barberan, F.A., & GarciaConesa, M.T. 2007. Up-regulation of tumor suppressor carcinoembryonic antigen-related cell adhesion molecule 1 in human colon cancer Caco-2 cells following repetitive exposure to dietary levels of a polyphenol-rich chokeberry juice. Journal of Nutritional Biochemistry 18: 259271. darlington, C. d. and e. K. Janaki. 1945. Chromosome atlas of cultivated plants. George Allen and Unwin ltd., london. Gatke, R. and K. wilke. 1991. Sind Aronia-busche machinell beerntbar? Gartenbau 38:3738. hardin, J. w. 1973. The enigmatic chokeberries (Aronia, Rosaceae). Torreya 100:178184. Jeppsson, n. 1999. evaluation of black chokeberry, Aronia melanocarpa, germplasm for production of natural food colourants. Acta Horticulturae 484:193198. Jeppsson, n. and R. Johansson. 2000. Changes in fruit quality in black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) during maturation. Journal of Horticultural Science and Biotechnology 75:340345. Kask, K. 1987. large-fruited black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa). Fruit Varieties Journal 41:47. Krussmann G. 1986. Cultivated Broad-leaved Trees and Shrubs, 3 volumes, b. T. batsford ltd., london. McKay, S.A. 2001. demand increasing for aronia and elderberry in north America. NY Fruit Quarterly 9:23. Oszmianski, J. and J. C. Sapis. 1988 Anthocyanins in fruits of Aronia melanocarpa (chokeberry). Journal of Food Science 53:12411242. paplavskaya, T. K. 1995. Aronia, its economic significance and current status. In: A program and methods of breeding fruit, small-fruit and nut bearing crops. Oryol, Russia:457459. persson hovmalm, h.A., n. Jeppsson, I. V. bartish and h. nybom. 2004. RApd analysis of diploid and tetraploid populations of Aronia points to different reproductive strategies within the genus. Hereditas 141:301312. Rehder, A. 1949. Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. Arnold Arboretum, harvard University. pp. 261262. Robertson, K.R., J.b. phipps, J.R. Rohrer, and p.G. Smith. 1991. A synopsis of genera in Maloideae (Rosaceae). Systematic Botany 16: 376394. Secher, d. 2008. Fruit with potential for wisconsin farms. http:\/\/www.cias.wisc.edu\/wp-content\/ uploads\/2008\/07\/carandale.pdf. Strik, b., Finn, C. and wrolstad, R. 2003. performance of chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) in Oregon, USA. Acta Horticulturae (IShS) 626:439443. Sueiro, l., G. G. yousef, d. Seigler, e. G. de Mejia, M. h. Grace and M. A. lila. 2006. Chemopreventive potencial of flavonoid extracts from plantationbred and wild Aronia melanocarpa (black chokeberry) fruits. Journal of Food Science 71:480488. Mark brand is a professor in the department of plant Science and landscape Architecture at the University of Connecticut. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forest Farming","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25474","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15e8128.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":3,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mudge, Ken","article_content":"Forest Farming Ken Mudge NaNcy Rose Many sections of the Northeast have been reforested over the past century. Extensive forest cover is seen in this view from Wachusett Mountain in central Massachusetts. F armers harvest crops from their fields, and loggers harvest trees from their forests, but what do forest farmers harvest? The answer is an eclectic collection of non-timber forest crops like maple syrup, medicinal herbs, fruits, gourmet mushrooms, and nuts. Forest farming is an approach to forest management that combines some of the management practices of conventional forestry with those of farming or gardening to achieve an environmentally and economically sustainable land-use system. It is one of several related practices that fall under the domain of agroforestry--a multidisciplinary approach to agricultural production that achieves diverse, profitable, sustainable land use by integrating trees with non-timber forest crops. While some other agroforestry practices begin with planting young trees that take years to mature, forest farming involves planting nontimber forest crops beneath the canopy of an established forest. In other words, other agroforestry practices bring the forest to the crops, whereas forest farming brings the crops to the forest. In this regard it is helpful to consider the role of forest farming in overall forest man- Forest Farming 27 agement. a forest farm should be designed to emulate as much as possible a natural forest. This includes characteristics of a healthy forest ecosystem such as species diversity, resilience to disturbance, soil health, and a relatively wide tree age distribution. Forest Farming Through the Ages although this article will focus on modern temperate region forest farming, similar practices have been used in tropical regions by indigenous peoples for hundreds of years. In a classic paper from the agroforestry literature, Fernandez et al. (1984) described an agroforestry practice called home gardens, used by the chagga people who live on the slopes of Mt Kilimanjaro. Home gardens are highly integrated, multistory collections of overstory forest trees valued for timber, an intermediate layer of small trees including coffee and banana, and a diverse array of understory herbs and vines used for food and medicine. In North america, during and prior to the seventeenth century, native peoples are known to have planted and managed various food bearing trees including walnuts and peaches, but there is no evidence of deliberate cultivation of useful crops beneath the canopy of established forest. although some types of forest farming and other agroforestry practices have been going on for centuries, the terms \"agroforestry\" and \"forest farming\" are of relatively recent origin. agroforestry--as a concept that recognized the integration of trees, crops, and people--was introduced in 1973 by John Bene, and led to the establishment of the International council for Research in agroforestry (IcRaF) in Nairobi, Kenya which is now the World agroforestry center . It was not until 2000 that the term forest farming was introduced by Hill and Buck (2000) to describe the cultivation of non-timber forest crops beneath an existing tree canopy. one factor contributing to the growing popularity of forest farming in northeastern North america is the gradual increase in the extent of privately owned forest. Using the state of New york as an example, forest cover was at a minimum of about 15% in 1880 because of extensive conversion of forest to farmland. NaNcy Rose Farming or Wildcrafting? although there is no anthropological or archeological evidence that Native americans practiced forest farming per se, unquestionably they were highly skilled at gathering and utilizing wild forest products, including food, medicines, and ceremonial plants. Prospective forest farmers today frequently ask if the collection of wild forest products like edible mushrooms, wild leeks (ramps), ginseng and other medicinals, and decoratives like pine cones for wreaths and vines for basketry can be considered forest farming. These practices, known collectively as wildcrafting, are certainly compatible with forest farming, particularly when done on a sustainable basis, but don't qualify as forest farming (i.e. cultivation) unless they are practiced in combination with deliberate cultivation of nontimber forest crops. Wild-collected morel mushrooms. 28 Arnoldia 67\/3 Reforestation since then has gradually increased forest cover to 65%, and about 60% of that is privately owned. at the same time average parcel size has decreased, making timber extraction a less economically feasible option. This transition from \"industrial\" forestry to \"investment\" forestry by owners who consider forestry a part-time activity or even a hobby makes forest farming an attractive management alternative. Those interested in forest farming include conventional farmers, many of whom have woodlots on their farm, but also private forest owners with non-farm day jobs who want to use their forest productively while preserving or restoring the natural ecosystem. In either case, supplemental income associated with sale of non-timber forest crops can be the deciding factor, although many forest owners pursue forest farming as a source of non-timber forest products for the family, or simply as a source of personal satisfaction. The banana-custard-flavored fruits of pawpaw (Asimina triloba) are a potential forest farming product. Becoming a Forest Farmer Before starting, the forest owner should consider site issues beyond just \"can I grow ginseng (and\/or any other crop) at this site?\" a successful forest farm should be seen as an integrated agro-ecosystem that satisfies the owners goals while sustaining ecosystem components including soil, water, trees, and wildlife. a forest farm often begins with a more or less natural (unmanaged) stand of trees. To make it suitable for forest farming, some degree of management is necessary, including management of the forest light environment. For the medicinal herb ginseng (Panax quinquefolius), up to 70% shade is necessary, and for mushrooms like shiitake (Lentinula edodes), the more shade the better. on the other hand, fruit crops like blackberries (Rubus spp.) and pawpaw (Asimina triloba) perform best under moderate shade. Light management practices include pruning, selective tree removal, utilizing natural gaps in the forest canopy, and planting less shade-tolerant crops along the forest perimeter. observing the natural distribution of wild relatives can inform decisions about appropriate placement of candidate non-timber forest crops. For example, wild brambles like black raspberry and blackberry typically occur along the ecotone (interface) between field and forest. attempts to grow cultivated brambles beneath a dense forest canopy rather than along its perimeter generally have not been successful. While light is an environmental factor that can be managed, others, including soil pH, fertility, slope, and water availability, cannot be modified in forests as easily as in field agriculture. Irrigation, fertilization, and modification of soil pH are not realistic management options in most forest situations. It makes more sense to select crops that are naturally well-suited to the site characteristics. Types of Non-Timber Forest Crops There are three major categories of non-timber forest crops used in forest farming: medicinal, food, and ornamental. Ginseng and mushrooms, in the medicinal and food categories respectively, have the greatest proven income potential but there are others in each category well worth considering (see chamberlin et al. 2009). While cultivation of ornamentals in forest farming systems is less frequently practiced it does have considerable potential. In traditional farming, crop diversification was considered insurance against the failure of any one crop. species and temporal diversity are characteristics of a natural forest ecosystem which forest farms ideally should seek to emulate. For example, in a forest farm growing mushrooms, maple products, and ginseng, diversification makes good sense from a production standpoint; maple is tapped yearly, mushrooms yield a harvest for several years, while ginseng will take eight years to mature. In this NaNcy Rose Forest Farming 29 KeN MUdGe case, the maples also provide shade for both other crops and additional calcium (in fallen leaves) needed by the ginseng. Medicinals The forests of North america have been repositories for a wide range of herbs and other plants and mushrooms gathered for use in traditional medicine. The pallet of medicinal plants collected and used by Native americans and others was and is extensive, but only a few of these species are cultivated as non-timber forest crops today. To a very great extent, this is due to economic factors, including lack of markets and concomitantly low potential for income generation. Ginseng and goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis) are the two medicinals most often cultivated by forest farmers. american ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) is a shade-loving perennial herb that produces a valuable below-ground storage root. It occurs in hardwood forests throughout most of eastern North america. although wild populations have declined somewhat because of harvesting, it is still relatively common. american ginseng has been highly valued in traditional chinese and Korean medicine since it was first exported from North america in the seventeenth century. Most commercial demand today is from china and Korea. Ginseng is valuable as a forest farming product, but potential growers should use Beyfuss's site assessment techniques (see listing under additional Reading) before jumping in. american ginseng is reputed to function in the human body as an \"adaptogen,\" increasing the body's resistance to stress. In traditional chinese medicine, ginseng is said to promote yin energy and have a calming effect. This and other beneficial effects of ginseng have been claimed for centuries, but there is little modern scientific research to substantiate these claims. Nevertheless, ginseng is the most valuable of North american medicinal herbs. The ginseng plant has an unusual growth habit and life cycle that contribute to the relative difficulty and long timeframe involved in cultivating it as a crop. a more typical plant has roots, stem(s) and multiple leaves, each associated with a bud that grows into new branches. Not ginseng. The mature plant consists of a single stalk that American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius). KeN MUdGe Goldenseal (Hydrastis canadensis). looks like a stem, but is in fact a sympodium consisting of the fused petioles (leaf stalks) of its 3 or 4 palmately compound leaves. Ginseng develops a narrow underground rhizome--about the thickness of a good sized-earthworm-- with a bud at one end and one or more tuberous storage roots at the other end. a single flush of aboveground growth emerges from the rhizome bud in the spring while the storage root grows slowly during the summer. The plant's slow growth rate is an adaption to its low light environment and results in forest-cultivated ginseng taking about eight years to mature. The storage root, which looks a little like a branched carrot, is what all the excitement is about. In chinese the word for ginseng means \"man root,\" and the more it looks like a person (arms and legs) the more valuable it is to traditional asian buyers. The root is the source of 30 Arnoldia 67\/3 KeN MUdGe The branched storage root of ginseng. the pharmacologically active compounds known as ginsenosides. When it comes time to harvest the crop, it can only be sold to a licensed dealer if it is intended for export, as is the case with most american ginseng. The price structure for ginseng is a curious inversion of most other crops. The more intensively it is cultivated, the less it is worth. Large scale, high density ginseng grown in Wisconsin, ontario, and British colombia requires expensive artificial shade structures and considerable amounts of fertilizers and fungicides. The wholesale value of this ginseng is about $25 per pound dry weight as of 2009. as a forest farming crop, ginseng is cultivated either by the \"woods-cultivated\" or the \"wildsimulated\" method. \"Woods-cultivated\" ginseng is grown in raised beds, often amended with organic matter. Its price is about $150 per pound dry weight. The less intensive wildsimulated method involves minimal management--little more than roughing up the ground with a rake, scattering the seed, and coming back to harvest eight years later. It wholesales for about $300 per pound dry weight. This inverse relationship between price and intensity of cultivation extends even to wild-collected (zero cultivation) ginseng which wholesales for $400 to $600 or more per pound dry weight. Food North american forests abound with edible plants. However, their use in forest farming is limited since few of these forest edibles can be grown in sufficient quantity, in a reason- able period of time, and be sold for a reasonable price. Food crops that are most likely to be found in a forest farm include gourmet mushrooms like shiitakes (Lentinula edodes), berries, other fruits such as pawpaw (Asimina triloba), ramps (Allium tricoccum), and tree nuts such as walnuts (Juglans spp.) and hickories (Carya spp.). Forest-cultivated mushrooms deserve serious consideration for those starting a new forest farming venture. Most candidate crops like medicinals, fruits and nuts, or ornamentals require specific site conditions, but since mushrooms are grown on logs they are less dependent on factors like soil moisture, pH, and drainage. Mushrooms are not photosynthetic and therefore can tolerate nearly complete shade, and a shady site is essential to minimize excessive drying of the substrate logs. aside from socioeconomic factors like access to markets, mushrooms can be cultivated almost anywhere as long as there is sufficient shade and a source of substrate logs. Mushrooms are less valuable per pound than ginseng, they are more perishable, and their cultivation requires more labor than ginseng. on the other hand, $8 to $16 per pound fresh weight for shiitake mushrooms is not a bad price when you consider that you can start harvesting mushrooms in as little as one year after log inoculation, and continue harvesting from the same log for 3 to 5 years. By contrast, once a ginseng root is harvested, the plant is gone. other mushrooms including lion's mane (Hericium spp.), oyster (Pleurotis spp.), and hen of the woods (or maitake) (Griffola frondosa) can be cultivated under forest farming conditions but cultivation strategies are not yet as well worked out as for shiitake. People curious about mushroom cultivation often ask about the ultra-valuable truffles (Tuber spp.), which can sell for nearly $1000 per pound, and valuable morels (Morchella spp.). It is probably best to discourage all but the bravest and most patient entrepreneurs from investing time or money in cultivating truffles--many have tried to grow them but very few have succeeded. similarly, there are very few who have successfully grown morels, which are best left to wildcrafting. By far the most reliable mushroom for forest cultivation, and for which there is the greatest commercial demand, is shiitake. While log- Forest Farming 31 KeN MUdGe Lion's mane (Hericium spp.) and oyster mushrooms (Pleurotis spp.) can be cultivated in forest farms, though not as reliably as shiitake. KeN MUdGe Forest-farmed shiitake mushrooms ready for harvest. grown shiitake can be a reliable non-timber forest crop for forest farming, it is worth pointing out that most shiitake mushrooms available to the public are grown indoors on artificial (sawdust) logs, in expensive climate-controlled rooms. The quality of these artificially cultivated shiitake is generally considered inferior to log-grown shiitake mushrooms. shiitake is a primary saprophytic fungus that derives its nourishment from dead organic matter; in forest farming, freshly cut logs provide the substrate. The goal of shiitake cultivation is to facilitate the decay of the log through a process by which the fungal mycelium (aggregated fungal strands, or hyphae) enzymatically digests the wood by degrading lignin and cellulose, producing carbon dioxide, water (products of respiration), and the energy necessary for the fungus to assimilate the remaining carbon into new mycelium and reproductive structures, that is, the mushrooms. since shiitake competes poorly with other fungi, the substrate logs for production must be freshly cut and lack competing decay organisms. Freshly cut logs also provide the high moisture content necessary for fungal colonization after inoculation. a number of deciduous hardwood tree species make good shiitake substrate. oaks (Quercus spp.) are considered the gold standard in the Northeast but sugar maple (Acer saccharum) also rates highly. Tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) is particularly desirable further south. conventional wisdom says that species with tight bark that helps maintain a high moisture content make the best shiitake bolts, yet our research has shown that aspen, which maintains a higher moisture content than oak, beech, or red maple, is the poorest with respect to shiitake production. Interestingly, in our tests ironwood, or american hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) outperformed red oak. cut logs are then inoculated with spawn, a pure culture of shiitake fungal mycelium (not spores) grown on sawdust or other substrate which is introduced into holes drilled in the logs. Production of uncontaminated spawn must be done under sterile laboratory conditions, so most growers purchase their spawn from commercial producers. an approximately $20 bag of spawn inoculates about 2030 logs. once inoculated, the logs are transferred to the KeN MUdGe 32 Arnoldia 67\/3 P The MacDaniels Nut Grove: A Unique Educational Site racticum in Forest Farming is a multidisciplinary course taught at cornell University. What makes the course unique is not only the subject matter but also the Macdaniels Nut Grove, the outdoor classroom where the course is taught. Both are an outgrowth of the rediscovery, in 2000, of a more than 70-year-old temperate nut tree variety trial established in the 1920s by Professor Lawrence Macdaniels. Not long after dr. Mac (as he was known) retired in 1956, the site was abandoned. soon, it was all but forgotten as it reverted to secondary forest including oak, hickory, maple, cherry, and invasive honeysuckle. Fifty or more years later, the only obvious sign that the seven acre site was once a repository for hickory and walnut clonal varieties was an abundance of graft unions on over 100 of the older trees. When dr. Mac was acquiring and grafting scions (upper portion of a grafted plant) onto understocks (lower portion), little was known about the limits of genetic compatibility between different hickory (Carya) species. Graft unions between genetically compatible scion\/stock combinations like C. x dunbarii (C. laciniosa x C. ovata) grafted onto a shagbark hickory (C. ovata) understock are barely evident today. other combinations like shagbark hickory grafted onto red pignut hickory (C. ovalis) showed extreme bulging and cracking at the graft union, signs of delayed incompatibility. When the site was rediscovered it was easy to recognize it as a nut tree variety trial, but it didn't take long to envision it as an outdoor forest farming classroom for cornell students and members of the community. The course is structured around experiential learning, combining a wide range of outdoor activities with related reading and writing assignments. a field trip to cornell's arnot Teaching and Research Forest lets students learn about ongoing mushroom and ginseng research, A view into the MacDaniels Nut Grove, teaching site for Cornell's including hands-on inoculation of freshly Practicum in Forest Farming. cut logs with shiitake mushroom spawn and digging young ginseng seedlings from a wild-simulated (not wild) ginseng patch. Both the logs and the ginseng are brought back to the Macdaniels Nut Grove for further learning activities. additional activities include soil analysis, vegetation inventory, site indexing to gauge suitability for a given tree species, and forest stand improvement. data collected in each of these categories contribute to an ongoing GPs database of the Macdaniels Nut Grove. as an integrator of all these hands-on activities, student groups work on a final project involving a systematic permaculture-inspired approach to site assessment and design using an explicit set of \"forest owner\" goals developed by each (A) shows an incompatible graft union (Carya ovata on C. ovalis) group in order to synthesize a final design. and (B) shows a compatible graft union (C. x dunbarii on C. ovata). KeN MUdGe KeN MUdGe Forest Farming 33 KeN MUdGe KeN MUdGe thrive in full sun are not well suited for forest farming, but there is plenty of demand for shade-tolerant garden perennials including hostas, daylilies, ferns, heucheras, trilliums, astilbes, and hellebores. Note that some of these are forest wildflowers, but in forest farming the emphasis is on deliberate cultivation and conservation of wild plants so plants are grown, not wild collected. Two basic nursery production systems are adaptable to forest farming--field (in the ground) and container. Field production can have lower costs but harvest and sale of plants is seasonally limited. conA laying yard of logs inoculated with shiitake mushroom spawn. tainer production makes it easier to harvest, move, and sell plants, but has drawbacks such as wind throw, low and high temperature stress to root systems, and higher water needs from restricted rooting volume. a newer method, pot-in-pot production, solves many of these container problems and may be well suited for forest farming. This method uses an empty socket pot buried in the ground so that its rim is about even with the soil surface. a second pot containing the crop plant slides down into the socket pot, so its soil line is at about the natural ground line. This prevents wind throw, allows for easy, multi-season harvest, moderates soil temperature These hostas are being forest-farmed in a pot-in-pot nursery production bed. within the crop pot, and reduces Netting prevents deer browsing. water use. The latter is particularly laying yard where they will incubate while the useful in most forest farming systems where fungal mycelium colonizes the log. The layirrigation is usually not readily available. ing yard must be well shaded (about 80%) year another category of ornamentals for forest round to minimize moisture loss from the logs. farm production includes cut stems, flowers, Production of mushrooms for harvest typically cones, and vines that are harvested from intact occurs about a year after inoculation. plants that remain alive, ready to produce subsequent crops. although collection of cones, Ornamentals boughs, bark, etc., is more closely allied with The North american public spends a considwildcrafting than forest farming, the distinction erable amount of money on plants used as becomes blurred if a wild plant is deliberately ornamentals, either in gardens or for decoramanaged to produce a continuous supply of cut tive purposes around the home (e.g. cut flowproducts. Woody florals--ornamental stems ers). ornamental plants like roses or lilacs that of woody shrubs such as red-twig dogwood or 34 Arnoldia 67\/3 NaNcy Rose Red-twig (or red osier) dogwood (Cornus sericea) can be grown as a woody floral for its colorful winter stems. Forest Farming 35 corkscrew willow used in floral design--are another potential crop, though most woody species in this category would be best suited for planting along the perimeter of a forest farming site. Woody floral shrubs are generally coppiced (cut back to ground level annually) to generate multiple new shoots for harvest each year. The Future of Forest Farming Forest farming is not yet a widespread approach to, or component of, forest management, but it has great potential for wider adoption as forest owners look for alternatives to either management of the forest for timber extraction or no management at all. development of a successful forest farming design should include an integration of the explicit goals of the forest owner with a systematic assessment of both biophysical and anthropogenic characteristics of the site. Ginseng, maple syrup, and forest-cultivated mushrooms have the most reliable track record, and are potentially more profitable than other non-timber forest crops. others like minor fruits and ornamentals have considerable potential for exploration and development. Additional Reading Beyfuss, R. Visual site assessment (for ginseng cultivation) http:\/\/scnyat.cce.cornell.edu\/forestfarming\/ ginsengvisualassmt.pdf chamberlin, J.L., d. Mitchell, T. Brigham, T. Hobby, L. Zabek, J. davis. 2009, Forest Farming Practices, ch. 9, In: North American Agroforestry, An Integrated Science and Practice, 2nd ed., edited by H.e. Garrett. american society of agronomy Press, Madison, WI. Fernandez, e.c.M., a. oktingata, and J. Maghembe. 1984. The chagga homegardens: a multistoried agroforestry cropping system on Mt. Kilimanjaro (Northern Tanzania). Agroforestry Systems, 2: 7386. Hill, d.B. and L.e. Buck. 2000. Forest Farming Practices (ch. 8), In: Garrett, H.e., W.J. Rietveld, and R.F. Fisher (eds.), North American Agroforestry: An Integrated Science and Practice, amer. soc. agronomy, Madison, WI. Jacke, d. and e. Toensmeier. 1996. Edible Forest Gardens, vol. 2, chelsea Green Publisher, White River Junction, VT. Mudge, K.W., 2009, Northeast Forest Mushroom Growers Network http:\/\/mushrooms.cals.cornell.edu\/ Mudge, K.W., L. Buck and P. Treadwell, 2007. How When and Why of Forest Farming http:\/\/www.hort. cornell.edu\/forestfarming\/ Mudge, K.W., 2009. Macdaniels Nut Grove Forest Farm http:\/\/www.hort.cornell.edu\/mng\/ Mudge, K.W. Forest Farming at the Macdaniels Nut Grove, Cornell Plantations Magazine, summer 2004, 59(2):611. World agroforestry center, http:\/\/www.worldagroforestry. org\/af\/index.php Ken Mudge is an associate professor in the department of Horticulture, cornell University, Ithaca, New york. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 00042633. 3. Filing date: october 14, 2009. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published annually: 4. 6. annual subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. complete Mailing address of Known office of Publication: arnold arboretum, 125 arborway, Boston, suffolk county, Ma 021303500. 8. complete Mailing address of Headquarters of General Business office of Publisher: arnold arboretum, 125 arborway, Boston, suffolk county, Ma 021303500. 9. Full Names and complete Mailing address of Publisher, editor, and Managing editor: arnold arboretum, 125 arborway, Boston, suffolk county, Ma 021303500, publisher; Nancy Rose, arnold arboretum, 125 arborway, Boston, Ma 021303500, editor. 10. owner: The arnold arboretum of Harvard University, 125 arborway, Boston, suffolk county, Ma 021303500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and other security Holders owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or other securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: arnoldia. 14. Issue date for circulation data Below: october 8, 2009. 15. extent and Nature of circulation. a. Total No. copies. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 3,000. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 3,000. b. Paid and\/or Requested circulation. (1) Paid\/ Requested outside-county Mail subscriptions. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 1,453. No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 1,421. (2) Paid In-county subscriptions. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 430. No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 398. (3) sales Through dealers and carriers, street Vendors, and counter sales: none. (4) other classes Mailed Through the UsPs: none. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested circulation. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 1,883. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 1,819. d. Free distribution by Mail. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 108. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 110. e. Free distribution outside the Mail: average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 500. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 480. f. Total Free distribution: average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 608. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 590. g. Total distribution: average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 2,491. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 2,409. h. copies Not distributed. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 509. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 591. i. Total. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 3,000. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 3,000. j. Percent Paid and\/or Requested circulation. average No. copies each Issue during Preceding 12 Months: 76%. actual No. copies of single Issue Published Nearest to Filing date: 76%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Nancy Rose, editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25473","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15ebb6f.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":3,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"A Soft Touch: Pinus wallichiana Nancy Rose I f any tree could be described as pettable it would have to be the Himalayan pine (Pinus wallichiana). Its drooping clusters of finetextured, luxuriantly long needles positively invite touching. Think of it as the Afghan hound of the conifer world. Native to the Himalayan Mountains from Afghanistan to Burma, Himalayan pine is fairly common at mid to upper elevations. It grows in valleys and hillsides either alone or with other conifers and deciduous trees including oak, birch, and maple species. Himalayan pine is known to reach 50 meters (about 160 feet) or more in height in its native range. It typically has a straight central trunk and horizontal to slightly drooping branches. In open, cultivated settings it tends to be shorter (perhaps 15 to 25 meters [about 50 to 80 feet]) and develops an attractive domed or haystack shape. When grown like this, with plenty of space, the foliage display is most attractive. The thin, 15 to 20 centimeters (about 6 to 8 inches) long needles are bundled in groups of five and cascade elegantly from the branches like bluish green waterfalls. The pendant cones of Himalayan pine look similar to those of Eastern white pine (Pinus strobus)--light brown at maturity, with flexible scales, and very resinous. Cold hardiness for cultivated Himalayan pine is somewhat variable depending on provenance. The species has grown well in locations in the United States at least as cold as USDA hardiness zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -20 to -10F [-23 to -29C]). As with some other thin-needled pines, the foliage may suffer winter desiccation damage in windy, exposed sites. The Arnold Arboretum's first accession of Himalayan pine arrived in January 1874 from The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (the plant was removed from the Arboretum in 1892 for unknown reasons). The Arboretum's curatorial records show that this accession was received under the name Pinus excelsea, changed to P. nepalensis, back to P. excelsea, then to P. griffithii. These are all synonyms for the nowaccepted name P. wallichiana. The Arboretum holds a number of accessions of Himalayan pine. Currently, the oldest living specimen is a large, handsome 1946 accession (268-46-A) originally received from Karl Sax under the name P. griffithii. It stands 18 meters (59 feet) tall, has a crown spread of 16.4 meters (54 feet), and a trunk diameter of 97.8 centimeters (38.5 inches) (measured below the first limb). This plant is of unknown garden origin, but the Arboretum does have several accessions of documented wild origin as well. The specimen pictured at right (accession 83-94-B) arrived as seed from the Quarryhill Botanic Garden, originally collected in October 1993 during a plant expedition to India. The seeds were collected in the northern Indian state of Himachal Pradesh at an elevation of approximately 2500 meters (8200 feet). Of the four specimens of accession 83-94 planted, this one has performed best, perhaps because of its somewhat protected but adequately sunny location behind the Arboretum's maintenance garage. It currently stands 8.3 meters (27 feet) tall and has a DBH (diameter at breast height) of 17.3 centimeters (6.8 inches). We also have two specimens of another accession, 84-94, which originated from the same 1993 expedition but a different location, this one at an elevation of approximately 2300 meters (7500 feet) in the Great Himalayan National Park. One last wild collected Himalayan pine accession of interest is 1277-61-A, grown from seed collected in November 1961 in the vicinity of Kabul, Afghanistan, at an elevation between 6000 and 7000 feet (about 1800 to 2100 meters). Unfortunately, this specimen is in only fair condition but is a candidate for repropagation because of its unique provenance. Nancy Rose is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23416","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160ab28.jpg","title":"2010-67-3","volume":67,"issue_number":3,"year":2010,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Crabapples...With No Apologies","article_sequence":2,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25468","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eaf6f.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Iles, Jeff","article_content":"Crabapples . . . With No Apologies Jeff Iles NANcY ROse An oldie but a goodie, red-flowered `Liset' is still a popular crabapple. O ne of my favorite older horticulture books is a signed copy of Ornamental Crabapples by Arie F. den Boer. Pub lished in 1959 by the American Association of Nurserymen, this little manual was perhaps the first successful attempt at popularizing the various species, varieties, and cultivars of crab apples (those taxa in the genus Malus bearing fruits 2 inches in diameter or smaller). I like the book because it provides a unique glimpse back to an era when selections like `Aldenhamensis', `Almey', and `Dorothea' ruled the nursery sales yards. Those cultivars are rarely seen today but others described in the book, including Malus floribunda, `Liset', `Profusion', and `Red Jade', have prevailed and would be totally appropriate in today's landscapes. What I really enjoy about the book, though, is the author's unapologetic and matteroffact acceptance of crabapples, warts and all. For example, he begins the chapter on insect and disease pests with this blunt statement: \"It should not be considered strange or disturbing that apples and crabapples are visited once in a while by some unwelcome guest.\" You have to admire Mr. den Boer's understated admission Crabapples 3 that certain members of the genus Malus do have pest issues, but the reality is few landscape plants are problemfree. Yet for some reason crabapples are subjected to much disrespect by certain detractors, even those who readily accept the premise that most landscape plants aren't perfect. crabapple nay sayers are happy to share their tales of crabapple woe, particularly when they involve suscepti bility to foliar diseases (\"My Uncle Vito over in Dubuque had a crabapple in his front yard that would defoliate completely every July.\") or fruit litter (\"You think that's bad ... my Aunt Betty had one that would drop loads of rotting, messy fruit all over her patio every summer.\") These repeated knocks against crabapples often trace to plantings of oncepopular, older crabapple cultivars such as `Hopa' and `Radiant'. Origi nally embraced for their headturning spring flower extravaganzas, these cultivars are now sadly, and maybe a bit unfairly, remembered only for debilitating disease problems and overly large, nonpersistent fruit. Unfortunately, a suf ficiently large population of `Hopa', `Radiant', and other lessthanstellar cultivars still can be found in present day landscapes, reinforcing the misperception that all crabapples defoliate in July and double as fastfood emporiums for every yellow jacket wasp in the neighborhood. But surely we--whether plant scientists or backyard gardeners--should understand the folly of making blanket statements about a group of plants with upwards of 900 named selections. After all, a family (in the non taxonomic sense) that large is bound to produce a few bad apples, if you'll excuse the pun. Why Crabapples Still Rule The fact is that crabapples remain atop the list of small ornamental trees used in residential and commercial landscapes in UsDA hardi ness zones 4 through 7 for many very good reasons. crabapples offer an avalanche of fra grant and colorful spring flowers in white and JeFF ILes Select apple-scab-resistant cultivars in order to avoid the heartbreak of mid summer crabapple defoliation. 4 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 JeFF ILes Malus floribunda sports beautiful pink buds and white flowers. JeFF ILes Crabapples with persistent fruit provide months of color. Crabapples 5 NANcY ROse The weeping branches of `Red Jade' laden with bright red fruit. shades of red ranging from palest pink to deep burgundy. As an added spring attraction, many crabapples display beautifully contrasting col ors as the flower evolves from tight bud stage to fully opened flower--for example, deep pink buds opening to white flowers or deep red buds becoming bright pink flowers. Most crabapples have handsome foliage with leaf color ranging from dark green to burgundy. Though generally not noted for fall foliage color, some crabapples including M. tschonoskii and `satin cloud' develop eyecatching shades of orange, crimson, and purple, while others flaunt hues of apricot (`Prairie Maid') and goldenyellow (`Amberina' and `Red swan'). Providing as spectacular a display as their spring blossoms but much longer last ing, the best crabapples bear bushels of vividly colored fruit that enliven the fall and winter landscape. Another plus is the broad array of growth habits and mature sizes that makes it possible to choose a crabapple for practically any landscape situation. Finally, when planted on appropriate sites (welldrained soils and full sun) and given modest annual care, crabapples can have a functionally effective life of at least 40 to 50 years, and sometimes much longer. Where Do They All Come From? There are interesting stories behind the dis covery, naming, and introduction of every spe cies, variety, and cultivar of crabapple. From M. baccata, gleaned from the wilds of siberia and named by Linneaus in 1767, to modern cultivars that owe their existence to count less crosses and backcrosses, one has to marvel at the imagination, determination, and luck required to bring a single crabapple selection to the attention of the gardening public. As an illustration, consider the circuitous birthing path for the much admired weeping crabapple `Red Jade'. The `Red Jade' story begins in the early to mid 1800s in northeast Asia with the discovery and introduction of Malus prunifolia. The plumleaf crabapple was known for having many forms, and as luck would have it, a weeping form was 6 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 JeFF ILes A Father Fiala introduction, `Orange Crush' crabapple is gaining popularity. discovered and given the cultivar name `Pen dula'. Later, M. prunifolia `Pendula' was crossed with M. floribunda (Japanese flowering crabap ple) with the result being a small, weeping tree eventually dubbed M. floribunda `exzellenz Thiel'. selected by spath Nursery in Germany and introduced to North America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1912, this diminutive, disease prone crabapple was one of the first weeping ornamental trees used in the United states. In 1935 serendipity stepped in as Dr. George M. Reed of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden either discovered or purposely germinated and grew openpollinated seedlings from M. floribunda `exzellenz Thiel'. What initially captured his attention isn't clear, but one of those seedlings developed into a beautiful weeping tree. In 1953 it was given the cultivar name `Red Jade'; the name remains a bit of a mystery but probably refers to the bright red, inch diameter fruit and the glossy \"jade\" green foliage, two notable and recognizable features of the cultivar. Now fastforward to one of today's rising stars, M. `Orange crush'. This delightful intro duction sports orangecrimson flowers, handfuls of deep maroon fruit, and excellent disease (and Japanese beetle) resistance. But its existence and subsequent rise to fame comes only after a mindnumbing series of crosses, ending finally when Father John Fiala crossed M. `Liset' with M. `Red swan'. And you can bet M. `Orange crush' will join the hybridization dance many times before it's put out to pasture. Selecting the Right Crabapple Finding a great crabapple for your landscape is pretty easy these days. The vast majority of crabapples now sold in nurseries and garden centers have much improved resistance to dis ease compared to their predecessors, and also feature highly ornamental fruit that is either small in size, persistent, or relished by our winged friends. The decision to include one or several crab apples in a landscape planting really hinges on several factors. First and foremost, the tree you choose must fit the site. For example, if you don't have sufficient room for a large tree (stan Crabapples 7 NANcY ROse Dense-crowned `Coralcole' (Coralburst) crabapple fits in smaller spaces. dard crabapples typically grow 20 to 25 feet tall and wide), you might consider one of several dwarf selections such as `camzam' (camelot), `cinzam' (cinderella ), `coralcole' (coral burst), or `Lanzam' (Lancelot). And if you like the somewhat formal look of dwarf forms top grafted to a standard, then you must investigate the aptlynamed `Lollizam' (Lollipop) and two Malus sargentii selections, `select A' (Firebird) and `Tina'. If you're looking for an uprightgrow ing selection that will pose minimal problems for pedestrian and vehicular traffic, the increas ingly popular `Adirondack' (selected by Don egolf at the United states National Arboretum) is the crabapple for you. But if space constraints aren't an issue (parks, golf courses, entryway plantings, large residential lots, etc.) imagine the visual impact of informally arranged drifts (5 to 9, or more) of redflowering `cardinal', red fruited `David', or goldfruited `schmidtcutleaf' (Golden Raindrops). Next, consider special maintenance issues such as disease susceptibility. In a perfect world, we'd quickly rule out using crabapple JeFF ILes White-flowered `Adirondack' has a tidy upright-vase shape. The crabapple to the right is `Purple Prince'. JeFF ILes NANcY ROse NANcY ROse Clockwise from upper left: `Camzam' (Camelot) `Jewelcole' (Red JewelTM) `David' `Donald Wyman' `Schmidtcutleaf' (Golden Raindrops) NANcY ROse NANcY ROse The \"Best\" Crabapples (Malus spp.) TAxA `Adirondack' FLOWeR white FRuiT orange-red (\") HT\/WD 18'\/10' FORm upright (inverted cone) FOLiAGe dark green Limitations: slow-growing `Camzam' (Camelot) fuchsia-pink burgundy (3\/8\") 10'\/8' rounded\/compact dark green\/burgundy Limitations: not much late-season interest `Cardinal' pinkish-red Limitations: none known `Cinzam' (Cinderella) white deep red (\") 16'\/22' broadly spreading dark purple-red gold (\") 8'\/5' rounded, upright light green Limitations: slow-growing `David' white scarlet (3\/8\") 15'\/20' rounded light green Limitations: alternate bloom; light apple scab noted; fruit mummies persist until spring `Donald Wyman' white bright red (3\/8\") 20'\/20' rounded medium green Limitations: apple scab noted; fruit mummies persist until spring floribunda pink-white amber (3\/8\") 12'\/20' spreading\/irregular medium green Limitations: unimpressive fall fruit display `Schmidtcutleaf' (Golden Raindrops) white golden-yellow (\") 20'\/15' upright medium green\/deeply cut Limitations: alternate-year bloom; fire blight has been reported `Lanzam' (Lancelot) white gold (3\/8\") 10'\/8' oval medium green Limitations: flowers\/fruit borne on interior of the tree which diminishes their ornamental effect `Louisa' rose-pink amber (3\/8\") 10'\/15' weeping dark green\/glossy Limitations: fruit are ornamentally insignificant `Orange Crush' rose-red red (3\/8\") 15'\/15' rounded purplish-green Limitations: none known `Prairie maid' deep pink red (3\/8\") 15'\/15' rounded medium green\/yellow-apricot fall Limitations: none known `Prairifire' pinkish-red dark red (\") 20'\/20' rounded purple turning reddish-green Limitations: requires pruning to correct overcrowded branching `Purple Prince' rose-red maroon (\") 20'\/20' rounded purple turning bronze-green Limitations: heavy fruit production may weigh branches down `Jewelcole' white (Red JewelTM) Limitations: none known `JFS-KW5' (Royal Raindrops) pinkish-red red (\") 15'\/12' pyramidal medium green red (\") 20'\/15' upright purple cutleaf\/orange-red in fall Limitations: none known 10 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 for crabapple lovers because resistance to scab apparently is not a forever kind of thing (or, is not a permanent and bind ing contract between pathogen and host). In fact, all it takes is one lucky \"super\" ascospore infecting a previously resistant crabapple host to begin the pro cess of resistance breakdown in that host. Notable examples of resistance breakdown and the subsequent development of scab have occurred on Malus `Prairifire', `Bob White', `Jew elcole' (Red JewelTM), and floribunda. But sometimes positive attributes outweigh the nega tive, and therefore I'm willing This specimen of `Bob White' shows just a few spots of apple scab on its leaves. to look the other way when `Indian Magic' jettisons most of its scabflecked leaves in late summer, only to reveal one of the most visually stunning fruit displays in all of Malusdom (see front cover). When the topic of fruit size and persistence comes up, crab apple detractors fre quently trot out the poster child for obnoxious fruiting behavior, Malus `Dolgo' (ignor ing the fact that its large crim son fruits are great for making tasty preserves). But it would be disingenuous to paint all crabapples with the same brush. For example, crabapple selections like `Jewelcole' (Red if only Aunt Betty had planted her `Dolgo' crabapple (shown here) out in the yard JewelTM) and `Donald Wyman' instead of next to the patio she wouldn't have a crabapple mess underfoot. produce bright red, extremely selections with poor resistance to fungal patho persistent fruit that eventually fall from the gens Venturia inaequalis (apple scab) or Botrytree, but only after they've dried and shriv osphaeria obtusa (frogeye leaf spot) responsible eled to onehalf their original size. Others like for premature defoliation, and would never `snowdrift' and `Bob White' drop very little entertain the addition of a crabapple suscep fruit thanks to the work of opportunistic and tible to the bacterium Erwinia amylovora (fire grateful birds. And on those sites where fruit blight). The fungal prankster responsible for production of any kind is forbidden, fruit apple scab (actually, there are several races of less selections `spring snow' and newcomer V. inaequalis) has been especially frustrating `Jarmin' (Marilee) are viable options. NANcY ROse NANcY ROse Crabapples 11 The bright red fruit of `Donald Wyman' last through the winter. NANcY ROse The bite-sized orange fruit of `Snowdrift' attract birds. NANcY ROse 12 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 NANcY ROse The form of weeping crabapple `Red Jade' outlined in snow. JeFF ILes The pinkish-red flowers of `Prairifire' crabapple. Crabapples 13 NANcY ROse What about weeping crabapples? Real or imagined, several barriers stand in the way of using weeping trees in the landscape. For start ers, consider the word \"weeping.\" Who wants a sad landscape? secondly, trees like weeping willow and weeping mulberry have, albeit unfairly, caused many weekend gardeners to be wary of any plant with cascading branches. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, weeping trees can be very difficult to integrate into the landscape. They vie for attention when used in groupings and look awkward and forlorn if used as a solitary specimen in the middle of a large lawn. And sticking one smack dab in the center of that unnaturallooking berm in your front yard isn't the answer either. But when classy, weeping crabapples like `Louisa' and `Huber' (Royal Fountain) come along, we are obliged to find them a prime location in the landscape where they can be viewed and appreciated at any time of day and throughout the year, espe cially during the winter months. Positioning a weeper at the corner of a home, near a water feature, atop a terrace, or at the end of a shrub border will gain approving looks from visitors and neighbors alike. Finally, consider a crabapple's ability to stop you in your tracks as you stroll through the landscape. If you've ever seen `Prairifire' awash in bright pinkishred flowers, `Doubloons' sport ing a bumper crop of goldenyellow fruit, the handsome purple cutleaf foliage of `JFsKW5' (Royal Raindrops), or the memorable silhou ette of weeping `Red Jade' encased in a glittering mantle of ice, well, you know what I mean. still, there are some who can't be convinced crabapples are anything but diseaseprone, messy trees. And in all honesty, this anti crabapple mindset is probably a good thing. I mean, what kind of crazy world would it be if everyone began planting crabapples? see you at the garden center. Resources Beckerman, J., J. chatfield, and e. Draper. 2009. A 33year evaluation of resistance and pathogenicity in the apple scabcrabapples pathosystem. HortScience 44(3): 599608. Brewer, J.e., L.P. Nichols, c.c. Powell, and e.M. smith. 1979. The Flowering Crabapple A Tree for All Seasons. coop. ext. serv. of Northeast states. Ne223, NcR 78. Delicate pink flowers flow along the weeping branches of `Louisa'. den Boer, A.F. 1959. Ornamental Crab Apples. The American Association of Nurserymen. Dayton, D.F. 1982. `Prairifire'. HortScience 17(2): 262. egolf, D.R. 1987. `Adirondack' crabapple. HortScience 22(5): 969970. Fiala, J.L. 1994. Flowering Crabapples: The Genus Malus. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Iles, J.K. and J.s. stookey. 1997. crabapples: sales trends and consumer preferences in Iowa. Journal of Arboriculture 23(3): 9499. Romer, J.P., J. K. Iles, and c.L. Haynes. 2003. selection preferences for crabapple cultivars and species. HortTechnology 13(3): 522526. Jeff Iles is Professor and chair of the Department of Horticulture at Iowa state University, Ames, Iowa. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Malus at the Arnold Arboretum: An Ongoing Legacy","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25470","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eb36d.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Malus at the Arnold Arboretum: An Ongoing Legacy Michael S. Dosmann NANCy RoSE Malus in bloom on Peters Hill, the Arnold Arboretum, May 2008. I n his book Flowering Crabapples: The Genus Malus, the late Father John Fiala (1994) states that \"no horticultural institution did as much for introducing and discovering new species, varieties, or special clones [of Malus] as did the Arnold Arboretum.\" Those are humbling words coming from such an authority as Father John. As I considered his accolade, I asked myself: What were the drivers that made this all possible? No doubt there were a number of factors involved in making the Arnold Arboretum \"the `mother arboretum' for flowering crabapples\" (Fiala 1994). Timing played a critical role in the initial development of the crabapple collection as well as its ongoing use and development. The Arboretum's founding in 1872 and early rapid expansion of collections coincided with vigorous plant exploration efforts around the world. With respect to Malus, countless taxa new to science were collected from the wild and described, while many others new to North America were introduced from cultivation else- where (primarily Europe). Additional introductions of taxa from varying parts of their native ranges ensured that a high degree of genetic variation was present. Simply having a diverse and sizeable collection of crabapples does not necessarily make it significant, however. The collection's active use in science throughout its existence put it on the map. Early on, the Malus collection was notably used in the study of taxonomy--the description of new species and their classification. This was followed by the collection's incorporation into better understanding genetics and cytology, as well as physiology. The collection proved to be of value to applied horticulture as well. Following World War II, as the demand for greater diversity of high-quality landscape plants increased, the products of these plant-breeding efforts (novel hybrids and cultivars) were grown and evaluated at the Arboretum. Development and scientific use of the collection was made possible by a number of prominent Arboretum personalities. Charles S. Malus at the Arnold Arboretum 15 ARNolD ARboRETuM ARChIvES Famed plant explorer Joseph F. Rock made this image of Malus transitoria on an expedition in Kansu (Gansu) province, China, on October 21, 1926. 16 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 Sargent, first director of the Arboretum, knew the research value of a well-documented collection and ensured that the initial development of the Arboretum, including its growing repository of apples and crabapples, would get off on the right foot. he also recognized that Rosaceae was indeed too large a family to occupy its allotted space--the hillside currently known as State lab Slope near the Forest hills Gate--which was dictated by the Arboretum's design based on the bentham and hooker sequence of plant families. And so, at the end of the nineteenth century, he designated large expanses on Peters hill for the cultivation of Pyrus, his beloved Crataegus, and of course Malus. The expansion provided much relief, as numerous new species, hybrids, and cultivars were rapidly being introduced and needed space. Sargent himself collected and introduced new Malus, including the low-growing M. sargentii and the lesser-known but highly ornamental M. tschonoskii, both from his 1892 trip to Japan. Amazingly, the original specimens of these two species, now nearly 120 years old, still grow near ARNolD ARboRETuM ARChIvES the bradley Rosaceous Collection and represent the Arboretum's oldest Malus accessions. Ernest h. Wilson also played the role of explorer and introducer. Plantae Wilsonianae credits Wilson with collecting from some 16 Malus species during his travels in China, several of which were taxa new to science. Perhaps the best of these is Malus hupehensis, the picturesque small tree with a vase-shaped habit that Wilson made numerous collections of during both his veitch and Arboretum expeditions. In describing its merits, Wilson (in Sargent 19131917) notes that \"it is very beautiful in spring when covered with light pink flowers, and resembles at this time a flowering cherry rather than an apple tree; the effect of the flowers is heightened by the purple calyx and the purplish tints of the unfolding leaves.\" Alfred Rehder, Arboretum taxonomist, may not have collected and introduced material from the wild, but he certainly applied his shrewd skills of observation and classification in describing and naming scores of the new Malus Malus floribunda on Peters Hill, photo by Ralph W. Curtis, May 10, 1922. Malus at the Arnold Arboretum 17 MIChAEl DoSMANN MIChAEl DoSMANN The lovely pink flowers of Malus hupehensis. One of the original Malus `Mary Potter' (181-52-B), planted in 1952. ARNolD ARboRETuM ARChIvES species and countless infraspecific taxa and hybrids. hybrids within Malus are quite common, and as the Arboretum's collection grew and diversified, genes began to mix, hybrids arose, and more discoveries were made. Perhaps the most ardent scientific user of this botanical petri dish was Karl Sax, former Arboretum director and research scientist at the bussey Institute. Through the course of much of his Arboretum career, he integrated the Arboretum's Malus collection into a wide array of studies ranging from polyploidy and apomixis (Sax 1959) to plant physiology (Sax 1957). A byproduct of his many cytology and breeding experiments was an abundance of hybrids, from which Sax was able to evaluate and select a number of crabapple cultivars (Sax 1955). Four prominent In this 1959 photo by Heman Howard, Karl Sax is seen with a grafted dwarf apple ones are `blanche Ames', `hen- tree, one of his many research interests at the Arboretum. rietta Crosby', `henry F. du Pont', and `Mary Potter'. The latter is perhaps of single white flowers in the spring and bright his finest introduction and a personal favorite red fruit in the autumn. Making the story all of mine. `Mary Potter'--a cross between M. sarthe more interesting is that it was named after gentii `Rosea' and M. x atrosanguinea--is lowthe daughter of C. S. Sargent, and has the Sargrowing yet spreading, producing an abundance gent crabapple as a parent. 18 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 ld, robust collections like the Arnold's are always full of new surprises. An interesting story concerns two unusual trees growing on Peters hill, AA 691-52-A and b. While a Putnam Fellow in the spring of 2001, I became enamored by their wide-spreading, low-branching form; 691-52-b, the slightly larger of the two, stands 18 feet (5.5 meters) tall and 33 feet (10.1 meters) wide. The leaves and flowers are borne in dense, tight clusters throughout the canopy, giving the two specimens an unusual cloudlike appearance. The flower buds are magenta at first, and then transition into light pink before they open into creamy white blooms. The tag read simply \"Malus sp.\" so I figured the trail was cold and that nothing more could be found about these plants. however, hidden away in the records was the note: Sax 7841. \"Sax Numbers,\" as these were known, were remnants of Karl Sax's own accessioning system at the bussey Institute and referenced his research plants or crosses (this one being the 78th plant or cross of 1941). but unfortunately, no additional documentation had ever been found that explained the numbers further, such as source of material, what the parentage had been if it was a cross, or what the understock or scions may have been in one of his experiments. Another seeming dead end, I gave up on pursuit of this additional information. Nearly a year later, though, while rummaging through the archives, I stumbled upon an unknown notebook of Sax's that turned out to be his master list of hybrids and experimental units. With this fortunate The mystery crabapple: Malus 691-52-A. find, I was able to identify not only these two plants but also a great number of other hybrid Malus, Forsythia, Prunus and other genera. It turned out that the duo in question were hybrids that Sax had made between M. lancifolia and M. sylvestris. Although I do not know if it was his original intent when making the cross, he used these hybrids in a rootstock experiment, possibly to examine any potential dwarfing effects rootstocks can have upon the scion above. Two seedlings of Sax 7841 were the ungrafted individuals I was struck by (691-52-A and b), while 780-52-A and D, located westward and up the hill a bit, were grafted plants that had Sax 7841 as the understock and an unknown wild apple as the scion (his notebook did not provide that detail, alas). Although Sax's cross yielded an unusual plant with ornamental habit, it would be premature to introduce it as a cultivar without further evaluation. And so, in 2007, Arboretum propagator Jack Alexander grafted budwood from both plants of 691-52 onto numerous seedlings of Malus `Antonovka'. Soon these trees will be planted and further evaluated for potential selection and introduction. o A Malus Mystery NANCy RoSE Malus at the Arnold Arboretum 19 While Sax may have been the creator of many of the cultivars, it was Arboretum horticulturist Donald Wyman who was their biggest promoter. he lauded their merits throughout the pages of Arnoldia and in his books, and advocated for their use in his lectures and correspondence. And, like Sargent before him, Wyman tapped his extensive global horticultural network to distribute Arboretum selections as well as acquire new taxa to grow and evaluate. In honor of Wyman's dedication to crabapples, the Arboretum introduced Malus `Donald Wyman' in 1970 to honor him in his retirement. A fantastic selection, it is appreciated for its abundant white flowers in the spring, relatively high disease resistance, and very long-lasting display of brilliant red fruit from autumn through winter. Interestingly, this tree was actually a spontaneous seedling that was first recorded growing on Peters hill on March 20, 1950. Due to its aesthetic appeal, it was later accessioned and then selected and introduced as the cultivar known today; the original tree still stands. It is ironic that, despite the great efforts of breeding and The original specimen of `Donald Wyman' (seen here in spring bloom and fall fruit) selection made over the years, still stands on Peters Hill. the Arboretum's most important crabapple introduction to date must be For example, the 1980 Sino-American botanical chalked up purely to serendipity. Expedition yielded several fascinating collecAlthough the period from Sargent to Wyman tions, including an unusual southern provemay have been known as the \"Golden Era for nance of M. baccata, the Siberian crab, found Crabapples\" at the Arboretum, work in the in hubei province. In addition to its unusual collection did not end when Wyman retired. collection site, this collection (SAbE #1298) As the Arboretum shifted the focus of its colproduces flowers and fruits borne on particulections policy towards acquisitions of known larly long pedicels (Spongberg 1991). An amazwild origin in the 1970s and 1980s, novel germing trio of this accession, AA 1843-80-D, h, and plasm from Asia again crossed the threshold. I, each with outstanding spiral-grained bark, MIChAEl DoSMANN MIChAEl DoSMANN 20 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 Resistance can be conferred by the presence of the Vf gene, whose original source came from Malus floribunda selection 821 growing at the university of Illinois. This clone, the most frequently used source for scab resistance in the world (Koller et al. 1994), arose from seed sent from the Arboretum in 1908 to C. S. Crandall, a geneticist at the university of Illinois who was studying inheritance patterns in Malus. however, it was not until the 1940s that the initial crosses were evaluated for disease resistance, and it has only been in the last 30 years that high-yielding cultivars have been introduced through the PRI (Purdue-Rutgers-Illinois) Apple breeding Program, the most important just in the last few years (Janick 2006). I like this story for a number of reasons. It demonstrates how important it is for the Arboretum to distribute material (plants, seeds, cuttings, tissue, etc.) to researchers to enable their work. It also illustrates the importance of prudence and patience when working with trees--in this case, it has taken nearly 100 years since the original shipment from the Arboretum for the most meaningful dividends in research (in this case superior apple cultivars through one breeding program) to be realized. Currently, the Arboretum's living collection of Malus comprises 455 accesThis trio of Malus baccata display their distinctive spiral-grained bark sioned plants (about 3% of the total in the Arboretum's Bradley Rosaceous Collection. collection), representing 173 unique taxa, can be found in the bradley Rosaceous Collec104 of which are cultivars. Development is contion. other collections of M. hupehensis and stant: old lineages of high value are maintained M. halliana were made on this momentous through vegetative propagation, discretionary expedition as well, significantly increasing the accessions are disposed of, and new germplasm genetic diversity of these species in cultivation. is obtained. Recent and future renovations on The Arboretum collection continues to undergo Peters hill and the bradley Rosaceous Collecdevelopment. Recently, we have acquired a tion provide wonderful opportunities to grow number of wild-collected M. sieversii, the pronovel material of both wild and cultivated origenitor of the cultivated apple found growing in gin. At the species level, the goal is to possess Kazakhstan and neighboring countries. two to three wild provenances; for cultivars, With respect to the enhancement of fruiting we will continue to trial new introductions of genotypes, the Arboretum's collection played a ornamental selections and will also begin to noteworthy role, even if it was indirect. Apple feature several selections of eating apples. And, scab is a serious fungal disease that damages of course, the collection will continue to hold not just the leaves of trees but also fruits, causmany old and historically important selections, ing serious economic losses in apple orchards. including those introduced by the Arboretum. MIChAEl DoSMANN Malus at the Arnold Arboretum 21 Crabapple Cultivars Introduced by the Arnold Arboretum `Barbara Ann' `Dorothea' `Henrietta Crosby' `Henry F. Dupont' `Katherine' `Pink Pearl' `Blanche Ames' `Bob White' `Donald Wyman' `Mary Potter' `Prince Georges' M. baccata `Columnaris' M. baccata `Jackii' M. ioensis `Palmeri' M. x robusta `Erecta' M. sargentii `Rosea' M. x zumi `Calocarpa' Malus `Dorothea'. NANCy RoSE Literature Cited: Fiala, J. l. 1994. Flowering Crabapples: The genus Malus. Timber Press, Portland, oregon. Janick, J. 2006. The PRI apple breeding program. HortScience 41(1): 810. Koller, b., l. Gianfranceschi, N. Seglias, J. McDermott and C. Gessler. 1994. DNA markers linked to Malus floribunda 821 scab resistance. Plant Molecular Biology 26(2): 597602. Sargent, C. S. 19131917. Plantae Wilsonianae: An enumeration of the woody plants collected in western China for the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University during the years 1907, 1908, and 1910 by E. H. Wilson. Cambridge university Press, Cambridge (united Kingdom). Sax, K. 1955. Plant breeding at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 15(2): 512. Sax, K. 1957. The control of vegetative growth and the induction of early fruiting of apple trees. Proceedings of the American Society for Horticultural Science 69: 6874. Sax, K. 1959. The cytogenetics of facultative apomixis in Malus species. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 40: 289297. Spongberg, S. A. 1991. A Sino-American sampler. Arnoldia 51(1): 214. Michael S. Dosmann is Curator of living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In the Footsteps of Father David","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25469","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eb328.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Basset, Cedric","article_content":"In the Footsteps of Father David Cedric Basset A rmand David (18261900), famously known as \"Father David,\" is well known by those passionate about plants. Indeed, many plants carry his name, such as Davidia and Acer davidii. Though best known for his plant discoveries, one cannot mention this great figure without also mentioning the famous giant panda that he discovered in 1869 near Baoxing (previously Moupin) in the Sichuan province of China. During our expedition to Sichuan in May, 2007, we followed the same paths that Father Armand David took during the second half of the nineteenth century. These regions--with their extraordinarily rich flora and fauna--are fortunately still preserved, no doubt in part because they remain very difficult to access. A Few Notes from Father David Upon arriving in Moupin, Armand David wrote: \"The land of steep mountains is, despite the loggers and farmers, abundantly forested with fir trees and cedars up to 3,000 m ... The lanceolate pine and the narrow-leaved pine, as well as the alder of Setchuan, thrive up to 2,000 m. The rhododendrons are particularly abundant.\" It All phoTogrAphS Are By The AUThor This flowering Rhododendron was part of the extreme botanical richness we admired in the narrow valley of Pujigou, located south of the nature reserve of Fengtong. Armand David 23 should be noted that there are no cedars (Cedrus) in this region; Father David probably uses this term to designate other conifers with a similar horizontally spreading form. The lanceolate pine is certainly his designation for Cunninghamia lanceolata. At that time, Moupin (now known as Baoxing) was still part of Tibet. And Armand David wrote: \"Long closed to the Chinese, the principality now tolerates their growing number.\" That was a different era, indeed. on March 23, 1869, having just discovered the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) he writes: \"The young bear is entirely white, except for his four limbs, his ears, and the area around his eyes which are a deep black. Thus, we have here a new species of Ursidae that is very remarkable not only because of its color but also because of the hairiness under its paws.\" later, he writes concerning his botanizing: \"The large rhododendrons are flowering, and I can already distinguish at least seven distinct species. I also found, in the middle of a wet forest, a magnificent magnolia with large purplish flowers and with no leaves yet.\" This may be Magnolia liliiflora, naturally present in this region. Baoxing, Town of the Panda Nowadays, the little town of Baoxing Cunninghamia lanceolata is a large conifer in the cypress family (Cuprespays homage to Father David with a saceae) that can reach 50 meters (164 feet) in height. It is present in the statue of him and with another that landscape of the Chinese provinces explored by Father Armand David. celebrates his discovery of the panda. The balustrades along the river are engraved Wolong, pass to the south and north of Baoxing, with representations of the numerous species respectively, while the northsouth road that of plants and animals that he discovered during connects rilong to ya'an through Baoxing is his sojourn in the region. poorly travelled. According to numerous local officials, There are several explanations for this lack Armand David's discovery over 130 years ago of tourist traffic. The road linking rilong to confers on Baoxing the status of \"cradle of the ya'an is not always in a good state. It is long giant panda.\" And yet, Baoxing remains infreand winding, and the lack of bus service forces quently visited by tourists. Westerners are rare, one to use a taxi. There are few possible stops since the town is located on a road little used along the road. our stop in the small town of by tourists. The roads that connect Chengdu to yanjingping was an adventure: no real hotel, Tibet through Kangding and litang, or through only one very dirty house, and one building 24 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 ArNolD ArBoreTUM ArChIveS An Extraordinary Discoverer of Life rmand David was born September 7, 1826, in the village of espelette in southwestern France. on November 4, 1848, he joined the lazarist order in paris where he studied for several years. he then traveled to Italy to study medicine, zoology, and botany. on July 5, 1862, he arrived in peking where he lived for the following twelve years. During those years, he carried out three expeditions to western China. After falling sick during the third expedition, he returned to France in 1874. During his life in China, he visited Inner Mongolia, Shanghai, the Sichuan provinces, and hubei and Jiangxi, combining his missionary work with his scientific research. From March 1, 1869, until 1872, he worked in Moupin (now known as Baoxing) in Sichuan. During his travels in China, Armand David collected 13,000 specimens including 189 new plant and animal species, among these the handkerchief (or dove) tree (Davidia involucrata), the butterfly bush (Buddleja davidii), Lilium davidii, Populus davidiana, as well as thirteen species of rhododendrons, three magnolias, four firs, and four oaks. A where we found a room with no bathroom facilities. In the only restaurant in town, we involuntarily attracted a crowd and became, for the duration of our dinner, the main attraction. Baoxing, on the contrary, turned out to be a quiet small town, ideal for an enjoyable stop. There we stayed in a comfortable hotel where the rooms were very clean. The Forgotten Valley and Pujigou Baoxing is located to the south of the nature reserve of Fengtong. This reserve covers 40,000 hectares (98,842 acres), with 13 percent of the area serving as habitat for the panda. The town proudly advertises the region and its natural marvels--virgin forests, waterfalls, forests of Osmanthus, panoramas--but public transportation, as often in China, is non-existent. one must hire a vehicle and driver (fairly easily done at the train station) and communicate to the driver that he must wait all day or return to a meeting point after several days. otherwise, in the small villages, one would not be sure of finding a vehicle available for returning to town. We decided to enter the nature reserve by an alternative route, by taking the road that leaves from the northwest of Baoxing and winds to its final destination, the village of pujigou. The road, paved at its start, rapidly gave way to a narrow dirt path where we had perilous crossings with the trucks from a nearby quarry. To our surprise, after two and a half hours of driving, our driver stopped before a dilapidated wooden bridge and told us that we had to continue on foot. he told us that pujigou was located about an hour's walk further. We took five hours, since we walked very slowly at first, our botanical passion ignited as we marveled at discovering an interesting plant with each step. The flora in this infrequently traveled area offers a rare diversity, the very acidic soil being favorable to the growth of many plants of the ericaceae and the climate allowing amazing sub-tropical species to flourish. Armand David 25 We arrived at an old, abandoned building in the middle of the forest where two men and one woman lived without electricity. The reception was icy at this abandoned and empty inn. We were in pujigou. It is not really a village, but rather the remains of what must have previously been a remote mountain refuge. Deciding to flee this place, we turned around and went on to find a village where we were hosted by a local resident. The Fengtong Reserve In all of our previous trips to China we had never found such a wild valley as at the Fengtong reserve. Unlike more accessible nature reserves such as Wolong, here at Fengtong there was no road, no cars or buses, only a small path. The valley is narrow, with steep slopes covered with dense vegetation that benefits from the very humid air. From a botanical perspective, it is a real treat. The orchid Calanthe tricarinata grows about 30 centimeters (about 12 inches) tall. It enjoys semi-shaded areas and a humid climate. The superb striped bells of Enkianthus deflexus. Davidia involucrata (center) bloomed among the dense vegetation in this narrow valley in the Fengtong Reserve. All along the trail, magnificent handkerchief trees (the famous Davidia involucrata, dedicated to Father David) in full bloom hung over us. The edge of the path was full of flowering Disporum bodinieri (a member of Convallariaceae) and a somewhat rare Paris, Paris fargesii. In the nooks of dead tree trunks and on rocks, beautiful orchids--Calanthe tricarinata and Pleione limprichtii--bloomed abundantly. Above our heads we saw two beautiful shrubs, Dipelta yunnanensis of the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae) and Enkianthus deflexus of the family of the rhododendrons (ericaceae). The giant dogwoods (Cornus controversa) spread their tiered silhouettes above the shrubs. 26 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 the viburnum of China, Viburnum chingii. We met more frequently another little shrub with lots of flowers: Deutzia glomeruliflora. In this gorgeous reserve, another seasonal spectacle was provided by climbing plants of the lardizabalaceae: Holboellia and Akebia. Certain stems, several meters tall, were covered with flowers exuding a sublime scent. A few plants of Akebia trifoliata revealed flowers that were almost black. A little higher, Sinofranchetia chinensis, belonging to the same family, was reaching even farther up into the trees. The trail, although inaccessible to cars, was very good for walking. Certain signs showed that it was previously accessible to vehicles. The reserve is home to the giant pandas, and large stands of bamboo of the genus Drepanostachyum bordered the trail. We also saw a beautiful, large Yushania on which climbed Codonopsis tangshen (in Campanulaceae), not in flower. Cornus controversa displays its elegant horizontal branching habit. Some Rare Finds one great surprise was finding dozens of plants of one of the most spectacular hornbeams, Carpinus fangiana. I had wanted to see it for a long time and had already searched for it, notably at Mount emei (emei Shan). This tree is surprising for its large leaves (longer than 20 centimeters [7.9 inches]) and catkins that can reach 50 centimeters (19.7 inches) long. Several species of viburnum (among these Viburnum brevitubum) carried their long, white tubular inflorescences in the manner of Remembering Father David At the forest's edge and along paths on shady rocks, several species reminded us of Father David: Epimedium davidii, a small epimedium (Berberidaceae) with beautiful four-pronged yellow flowers. Acer davidii, David's maple (Sapindaceae), with its bark finely striped with white. Corydalis davidii (Fumariaceae) with its pretty yellow flowers. Much rarer is the impressive Corydalis anthriscifolia, a large plant with long purple inflorescences of which we saw only one specimen. In another small, narrow valley, we observed large arisaemas in flower with enormous leaves Armand David 27 The superb Carpinus fangiana growing in the dense forests of Pujigou. Holboellia sp., a perennial vine with strongly perfumed flowers. Viburnum brevitubum growing in the cracks of rocks in the Fengtong Reserve. composed of three leaflets. This was Arisaema dilatatum, a little-known species distributed from western Sichuan to Bhutan. We also were very surprised by the diversity of maple species in this valley. We admired the very rare Acer sutchuenense, a small tree of 5 to 8 meters (16.4 to 26.2 feet) high with trifoliate, denticulate leaves. The Big Surprise The exploration of this fantastic valley ended in an exciting discovery--finding plants of the famous and rare hellebore of Tibet (Helleborus thibetanus). This species (in ranunculaceae) lives in isolation, as the next closest hellebore species grow more than 5,000 kilometers (3,100 miles) to the west. This hellebore is doubtless the most delicate of its type, with sepals much Yet another plant named in honor of Father David, the lovely Epimedium davidii. more finely-textured than the other species. Its flowers vary from pinkish-white to dark pink, often with darker pink veins. Helleborus thibetanus was described by Franchet in 1885 from specimens collected in 28 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 1869 by Armand David at Baoxing in Sichuan. The same year, Beresowski collected specimens in the province of gansu that were described by Maximowicz in 1890 under the name Helleborus chinensis, a name now synonymized under H. thibetanus. Tibetan hellebore's introduction to europe is relatively recent. In 1991, seeds were sent from China by professor Kao pao-chung of the Chengdu Institute of Botany. They had been collected from Sichuan, near Baoxing, on Dengchigow mountain at an elevation of 2,300 meters (7,500 feet). Among the long list of other species that we observed, we should mention Cotoneaster moupinensis, several superb dark Cardamine along the creeks, several Clematis, several Euonymus, a beautiful Magnolia that was not The rare Helleborus thibetanus bears delicately veined pink flowers. flowering, several honeysuckles (Lonicera), one Sorbus with simple leaves, and several plums (Prunus spp.). A Good Inspiration Father David chose well in coming to this mountainous region. The diversity of its flora and fauna is fascinating and important. efforts to protect the panda and the creation of reserves have allowed the preservation of very speciesrich valleys. To travel in this area, one must temporarily do without some comforts, but it is truly worth it, especially since Baoxing has several good hotels. This region is representative of western Sichuan on the road to Tibet. In addition to Baoxing, one should stop in Kangding, ganjia Caoyuan, garze, or also at Mugue lake to discover fabulous landscapes and a very diverse natural world. Bibliography Boutan, e. 1993. Le nuage et la vitrine: Une vie de Monsieur David. editions Chabaud, Bayonne. Wu, Z. and p. raven, eds. 1994+. Flora of China. Missouri Botanical garden press, St. louis. Cedric Basset is responsible for the collections of the Botanical garden of lyon in lyon, France, and is a specialist in Asian flora (www.asianflora.com). Translated from French by elizabeth h. Zacharias, ph.D., and Ian C. Bourg, ph.D. The very strange-looking Arisaema dilatatum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Excerpt: Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25467","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eab6b.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nadkarni, Nalini M.","article_content":"Book excerpt: Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees Nalini M. Nadkarni. University of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angles, California. 2008. 322 pages. ISBN 978-0-520-24856-4 Editor's Note: Dr. Nalini Nadkarni is a noted expert on the ecology of forest canopies in both tropical and temperate regions. Her innovative research has led to greater understanding of forest canopy ecology and forest ecosystem ecology. In this book, Nadkarni steps back from pure science and instead explores the profound connections between humans and trees. The book's structure is based on a creative modification of psychologist Abraham Maslow's pyramidal hierarchy of human needs. Here, the pyramid represents levels showing how human needs are met by trees, from the basic levels of physical needs like food and shelter, mid levels including imagination, language, and connections to time, and ultimately to the apical levels of spirituality and mindfulness. The following are brief excerpts from three chapters. Goods and services lthough humans now rely on ships and airplanes made of metal for long-distance transport, trees still figure into the regional and local transportation of our commodities. In 2000, for example, well over half of the $1.7 trillion worth of goods that entered and left the United States used some form of solid-wood packing material, such as pallets and crates. In 2001, an estimated two billion pallets were in use in the United States--six for every American. Over half of these are designed to make just one trip, and pallets as a whole average just 1.7 trips. Only about 10 percent are recycled, ground up and used as landscaping mulch, animal bedding, or core material for particle board. The wood in the pallets that are discarded each year is enough to frame 300,000 average-sized houses. Each year, too, 500 million more pallets are made, consuming trees on the equivalent of 18,000 acres. Our global reliance on pallets also introduces nonnative pests. One is the Asian longhorned beetle, an \"exotic\" pest that has threatened North American hardwood trees such as maple, elm, birch, poplar, and willow since 1996. The clue that these large beetles arrived in \"Trojan pallets\" was that outbreaks were concentrated near warehouses in New York, New Jersey, and Chicago, which contain pallets from China and Korea, where the beetles are native. Since then, infested pallets have been intercepted by vigilant entomologists in many North American cities, and so far, serious outbreaks have been contained. Europe, meanwhile, is suffering from an invasion of the pinewood nematode, thanks to products received from the United States, China, and Japan. Because of such threats, many export companies have begun to use metal or plastic pallets. These in turn create other problems, as those materials are not as easily recycled. A 30 Arnoldia 67\/2 2009 T play and imaGination dreaminG aloft o many climbers, the ultimate experience is spending a night high in the treetops. There is something about sleeping in the forest--whether on the ground or in the trees--that brings us as close as we can get to nature. My first overnight experience suspended in a hammock between branches of a giant tropical rainforest tree remains vivid in my memory even thirty years later. I climbed into the canopy as the sun set, the darkening understory giving way to the lighter environment of the canopy--though that, too, gradually became part of the jungle night. Bird songs gradually yielded to the buzzing, whirring, creaking calls of insects, which grew louder both below and above me, a sort of stereo effect I had never heard before. I curled up on my hanging cot, water bottle and a bag of snacks tied to an auxiliary cord, my harness and rope giving me a sense of security as the spookiness of being two hundred feet above the ground crept into me. At some point during the night, an anteater rambled over to my perch, in pursuit not of a dormant human but rather of the steady stream of leaf-cutter ants that were harvesting chunks of leaves from the trees and walking them along the branch highways down to their underground nests. On seeing me, the colliesized mammal seemed as startled as I had been. But we looked at each other for a long moment without fear, two arboreal animals in a high place on a dark night. Since that time, I have spent many nights aloft. What has surprised me is not the \"otherness\" of the canopy night compared to where we ground-bound humans normally sleep, but rather how homey and comfortable it seems up there with darkness stretching out in three dimensions. We were raised with the classic lullaby, \"Rock-a-bye baby in the treetops,\" with its inevitable and sobering conclusion: \"and down will come baby, cradle and all.\" And there are noxious insects and poisonous reptiles somewhere up there. But during those nights I spent on my canopy cot, swaying slightly in the wind one hundred feet above the ground, I couldn't have felt safer and more ready for sleep, lulled by my nocturnal companions above, below, and around me. connections to time rees express time with a precision and beauty that are unmatched in nature. Changes in their foliage mark the passage of Earth's seasons, while the incremental growth in their rings mark Earth's years. Nothing more effectively indicates seasonal transitions than the tender green of the emerging buds of spring, the rich, deep greens of summer, the multicolored leaves of autumn, or the delicate filigree of snow on tiny twigs after a winter storm. We are inspired by trees' relationships to time: the great age they can attain and the fierce disturbances they can endure. When we walk along the winding paths of a cemetery, we pass beneath the trees that have dwelt there far longer than their interred neighbors, giving us a comforting sense of continuity. Measuring the age of trees in tropical forests has been a perennial problem for ecologists. Because in many places favorable growth conditions occur year-round, many trees in the tropics are constantly growing and so have no rings at all. Even trees that do undergo seasonal growth, such as those in habitats where rainfall is concentrated into a few months of the year, have unreliable rings because they can jump into a growth mode in response to even small inputs of out-of-season rainfall. The tropical dendro- T Book Excerpt 31 chronologist, therefore, must turn to other methods to determine a tree's age. One surprisingly useful tool for tree dating emerged through the development of atomic weaponry. During the early era of nuclear testing, atomic devices were detonated in the atmosphere. The radioisotopes ejected from these explosions spread worldwide, forming a thin, weakly radioactive blanket over the earth. Some of these radioisotopes mimic naturally occurring elements so closely that many plants and animals cannot distinguish them. Trees take them up and incorporate them into their cells, along with their regular nutrients. Radioactive strontium, for example, mimics calcium, a nutrient that plants use to build new cell walls, much as animals use calcium to build bones. In 1954, trace amounts of radioactive strontium generated from bomb tests wafted through the air, dissolved in rain, entered the water cycle, were absorbed by roots, and then were incorporated into the living tissues of trees. This resulted in a short-lived but distinctive radioactive signal that has been held in the tissues of all of the trees living in the world at that time. Now, half a century later, scientists extract pieces of wood from tropical trees and note where in the cross-section of the trunk the \"1954 bookmark\" of radiation occurred. This allows scientists to measure how much each tree has grown since that time. Although the results cannot be extrapolated to determine how old a tree is, they do provide the dendrochronologist with an exciting tool to compare the rates of growth (from 1954 to the present) of individual trees and different species of trees that lack reliable rings. By revealing relative growth rates, this approach gives scientists a better understanding of population dynamics within forests. Adapted from Between Earth and Sky: Our Intimate Connections to Trees, by Nalini Nadkarni, published by the University of California Press. 2008 by the Regents of the University of California. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Autumn's Harbinger: Acer rubrum 'Schlesingeri'","article_sequence":6,"start_page":32,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25466","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15eab26.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Autumn's Harbinger: Acer rubrum `Schlesingeri' Michael S. Dosmann A utumn is my favorite time of year, and during the dog days of late summer I particularly look forward to the cooler, crisper, colorful months to come. That's why I am delighted when, on some sultry August afternoon, I notice that our Acer rubrum `Schlesingeri' has begun to express the first hints of leaf color at the Arboretum. In most years, the green foliage of this early-coloring red maple shades to bronze by mid August, and by early September the entire canopy is ablaze in carmine red. The colorful display usually holds into October. The precocious and stunning autumn coloration of this selection first caught the eye of Arboretum director Charles S. Sargent in the late 1800s. The original tree grew at the home of Sargent's neighbor, Mr. Barthold Schlesinger, in Brookline, Massachusetts. On February 13, 1888, budwood from this tree arrived at the Arboretum and, upon grafting, became accession 3256-A. It was planted along Meadow Road across from the Hunnewell Building, where it remains to this day. Curiously, this cultivar's introduction to the ornamental scene occurred not in North America but in Europe. Sargent had shared it with the world-famous Spath Nursery in Berlin, which first made it commercially available in their 18961897 catalog. During World War II, the nursery dissolved, no doubt limiting the supply of this sought-after clone. In 1951, the Arboretum distributed plants to some 25 cooperating nurseries as a means of promoting the cultivar and increasing supply. In his description of the tree and this distribution program, Donald Wyman (1956) noted the efforts made to learn if the precocious fall color trait was truly genotypic or just a function of environment: \"... scions from this variety were grafted on seedling red maples, but both the scion and the understock were allowed to grow. In the fall, it was clearly evident that the variety schlesingeri [`Schlesingeri'] would produce autumn color several weeks before the seedling understock on which it was growing, regardless of where it was planted.\" Unfortunately this cultivar is now often misidentified, so the Acer rubrum `Schlesingeri' that you purchase at the local nursery may not be true-to-type. This has even happened at the Arboretum. In the early 1980s, three trees labeled as `Schlesingeri' were donated by a large, reputable, national nursery. But in 1989, Arboretum horticulturist Gary Koller noted that they \"do not match 3256-A ... identification (of) this cultivar is questionable.\" Further observations proved Koller correct and these trees were duly removed. Michael Dirr, in his Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, also noted that \"some of the material in today's market does not appear similar to the Arnold Arboretum's fine specimen.\" And an interesting study on red maple cultivar coloration (Sibley et al. 1995) yields further evidence: although the trees of `Schlesingeri' examined in the study were obtained from a reputable nursery, they developed the wrong leaf color (orange) far too late (no earlier than the 5th of October) to be true `Schlesingeri'. Over 120 years later, this old sentry remains in its original location. It stands 65 feet (19.8 meters) tall with a crown spread of about 60 feet (18.3 meters), and its trunk diameter (below the lowest branch) is 44.6 inches (113.3 centimeters). Red maples generally reach maturity at around 75 years of age, so it is no surprise that this individual is in decline. Recent efforts to maintain this important lineage by rooting cuttings have been a success: accession 408-91-A grows next to Faxon Pond, and scores of new cuttings are now rooting in the greenhouse. One of these new plants will eventually replace the original tree, while others will be distributed to commercial nurseries so that they, too, will have the real cultivar again. References Sibley, J. L., D. J. Eakes, C. H. Gilliam, G. J. Keever, and W. A. Dozier Jr. 1995. Growth and fall color of red maple selections in the Southeastern United States. Journal of Environmental Horticulture 13(1): 5153. Wyman, D. 1956. New and rare ornamental plants recently distributed by the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 16(79): 3351. Michael S. Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23415","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160a76e.jpg","title":"2009-67-2","volume":67,"issue_number":2,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cydonia oblonga: The Unappreciated Quince","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25461","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14e8926.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Postman, Joseph","article_content":"Cydonia oblonga: The Unappreciated Quince Joseph Postman The quince of Persia attains a weight of 1.5 kilos (more than 3 pounds), ripens on the tree or in the store, and can be eaten like a soft ripe pear, according to a report in The Horticulturist, and Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste of 1849 (Meech 1908). \"the quince, the `Golden Apple' of the ancients, once dedicated to deities and looked upon as the emblem of love and happiness, for centuries the favorite pome, is now neglected and the least esteemed of commonly cultivated tree fruits.\" (Hedrick 1922) Luther Burbank took credit for transforming this neglected fruit from a commodity that was \"altogether inedible before cooking\" into a crop he likened to the best apple. He half-jokingly cited a formula to make quince fruits edible prior to his breeding efforts: \"Take one quince, one barrel of sugar, and sufficient water...\" (Whitson et al. 1914). Burbank released several improved cultivars in the 1890s that he hoped would raise the status of the fruit. Two Burbank cultivars, `Van Deman' and `Pineapple', are important commercially in California today, but overall quince fruit production in the United States is so small that it is not even tracked by the USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service (McCabe 1996; USDA 2009b). While underappreciated here, these Burbank quinces have found their way to other parts of the world where they are among the handful of cultivars considered worthy of production (Campbell 2008). In 1908, Meech described 12 quince varieties important in the United States Burbank's `Pineapple' quince as seen in a photograph from the 1914 multi-volume publication Luther Burbank, His Methods and Discoveries and Their Practical Application. at the time, although some hat description hardly fits the quince known in America today, or rather the quince which is hardly known today. During Colonial times a quince tree was a rarity in the gardens of wealthy Americans, but was found in nearly every middle class homestead (Roach 1985). The fruit--always cooked--was an important source of pectin for food preservation, and a fragrant addition to jams, juices, pies, and candies. However, by the early twentieth century quince production declined as the value of apples and pears increased. Today's consumers prefer the immediate gratification provided by sweet, ready-to-eat fruits. After Charles Knox introduced powdered gelatin in the 1890s the use of quince pectin for making jams and jellies declined. U.P. Hedrick lamented in 1922 that T Quince 3 JOSEPH POSTMAN The attractive flowers and foliage of quince. like `Orange' (syn. = `Apple') were as often as not grown from seed rather than propagated as clones. Quince is easily grown from either hardwood or softwood cuttings, and is readily grafted onto another quince rootstock. Although it is an important dwarfing rootstock for pear, quince should not be grafted onto pear roots because this reverse graft is not reliable. Quince has a very extensive history in the Middle East, and may have even been the fruit of temptation in the story of the Garden of Eden. The ancient Biblical name for quince translates as \"Golden Apple\" and cultivation of Cydonia predates cultivation of Malus (apple) in the region once known as Mesopotamia, now Iraq. Juniper and Mabberly (2006) explain how this region is well adapted to cultivation of quince, pomegranate, and other fruits, but Mesopotamia was much too hot and dry for the cultivation of all but the most recently developed low-chilling-requirement apples. Quince was revered in ancient Greece, where a fruit was presented to brides on their wedding day as a symbol of fertility. It was mentioned as an important garden plant in Homer's Odyssey, and Pliny the Elder extolled its medicinal properties. Botany and Intergeneric Liaisons Cydonia oblonga is a monotypic genus belonging to family Rosaceae, subfamily Spiraeoideae, tribe Pyreae, and subtribe Pyrinae (USDA 2009a). It grows as a multi-stemmed shrub or small tree and has pubescent to tomentose buds, petioles, leaves, and fruit. Leaves are ovate to oblong, about 2 inches (5 centimeters) across and 4 inches (10 centimeters) long. The solitary white flowers are 1 to 2 inches (4 to 5 centimeters) across, have 5 petals, 20 or more stamens, 5 styles, an inferior ovary with many ovules, and are borne on current season growth. Bloom time overlaps with that of apples, usually beginning mid April in the central latitudes of the northern hemisphere. The fruit is a fragrant, many-seeded pome about 3 inches (8 centimeters) in diameter. Shape ranges from round to pear-like, flesh is yellow, and the Baileys refer to it as \"hard and rather unpalatable\" 4 Arnoldia 67\/1 Veitch in London sent scions of a quince-pear hybrid to Louis Trabut, the Algerian botanist. Trabut proposed the name Pyronia veitchii for this curious seedless-fruited hybrid (Trabut 1916). Pyronia is little known today, except by fruit tree pathologists who use the virussensitive clone as a graft-inoculated indicator to detect virus diseases in pome fruits. Another more recent hybrid generated in Japan between Cydonia and the Japanese pear, Pyrus pyrifolia, was probably the product of embryo rescue, a controlled tissue culture technique. In Italy and the Czech Republic, a purported hybrid between quince and apple (Cydomalus) has been touted as a possible rootstock for both apples and pears (Wertheim 2002). Illustration of `Orange' quince from U.P. Hedrick's 1922 Cyclopedia of Hardy Fruits. JOSEPH POSTMAN Center of Origin Cydonia is native to western Asia, and the center of origin is considered to be the Trans-Caucasus region including Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iran, southwestern Russia, and Turkmenistan (USDA 2009a). During ancient times, quince spread from its wild center of origin to the countries bordering the Himalaya Mountains to the east, and throughout Europe to the west. It has many uses and traditions associated with it throughout this broad range. Several recent USDA funded plant collecting expeditions to Armenia, Georgia, and Azerbaijan returned with quince seeds and cuttings from these countries. The availability of Cydonia germplasm in the United States increased significantly from 2002 to 2006 as a result of these collections (McGinnis 2007). Cultivation for Fruit and Rootstock Production Worldwide, there are about 106,000 acres (43,000 hectares) of quince in production with a total crop of 335,000 metric tons. Turkey is the largest producer with about 25% of world production. China, Iran, Argentina, and Morocco each produce less than 10%. The United States is a very minor player in quince fruit production with only about 250 acres (about 100 hectares) planted, mainly in California's San Joaquin Valley. Burbank's `Pineapple' is the most widely grown cultivar in that state and is said to be more flavorful than `Smyrna' (McCabe 1996). Quince fruit has a number of culinary uses. Dulce de membrillo, or quince paste, is popular in several European countries, particularly Spain. It is also much appreciated in parts of A Pyronia fruit--from a cross of Pyrus pyrifolia (Japanese pear) and Cydonia oblonga--growing in the USDA genebank orchard. (Bailey and Bailey 1976; Rehder 1986). Fruit size and leaf size of cultivated varieties can be many times larger than the wild type described above. All varieties are self-pollinating. Intergeneric crossing is fairly rare in plants, but has occurred naturally on occasion in the Rosaceae. While not as promiscuous as its cousins Sorbus and Mespilus, Cydonia has had a number of encounters with related genera that resulted in intergeneric offspring. In 1913 a Mr. Quince 5 JOSEPH POSTMAN Quince A will be about half the size of a tree grafted onto pear seedling rootstock. The tree will also be more precocious and fruit size will be larger. Quince C produces a tree slightly smaller and more precocious still. Provence Quince rootstock produces a pear tree slightly larger than Quince A or C. Some pear varieties are not graft compatible with quince and require a compatible interstem pear variety such as `Comice', `Old Home', or `Beurre Hardy' as a bridge. Dr. Vagharshak Hayrapetyan, head of the Scientific Center for Viticulture, Fruit Growing, and Winemaking in Yerevan, Armenia, poses with the winter quince variety `Chartar Gyugh' in September, 2006. Scions of this heirloom quince cultivar were recently brought to the United States. Landscape Use Few small trees rival the quince in becoming interestingly gnarled and twisted with age. Nonetheless, renowned Arnold Arboretum horticulturist Donald Wyman (Wyman 1965) STEPHEN AUSMUS, USDA ARS Latin America. This sweet, fragrant, jellylike confection is cut into slices and often served with a heady cheese. Quince is also served poached in either water or wine, and when so prepared develops a rich aroma and deep caramel-red color. In Armenia, quince is used in many savory as well as sweet dishes, and is often cooked with lamb (Ghazarian 2009). Quince fruit is also used by some home brewers to make very fine hard ciders. While quince is still grown for its fruit in some parts of the world, in England, France, and the United States it is primarily grown for use as a dwarfing pear rootstock. In the region around Angers, France, quince has been used as a pear rootstock since before 1500. The French were growing quince plants from cuttings and layering in stool beds by the early 1600s and France became an important source of rootstocks around the world. Quince rootstocks grown near Angers were known as `Angers Quince' and those propagated near Fontenay were known as `Fontenay Quince' (Roach 1985; Tukey 1964). Confusion arose about the identities of various quince rootstocks, and in the early 1900s researchers at East Malling in England collected rootstocks from a number of nurseries and designated clones with letters of the alphabet. Quince rootstock clones now available in the United States include Quince A and Quince C, which came from East MallingLong Ashton (EMLA); and Provence Quince (= Quince BA 29-C) from France. A pear tree grafted onto These bowls of quince show the diversity of shapes found in quince fruit. 6 Arnoldia 67\/1 JOSEPH POSTMAN This young quince tree, growing in the genebank orchard at USDA-ARS, Corvallis, Oregon, has been pruned to open up the crown and remove basal suckers. did not consider Cydonia worthy of his list of recommended landscape trees. He relegated it to his secondary list because of inferior flower interest, poor growth habit, and pest problems. However, Cydonia is an essential component of many historic gardens, and Frederick Law Olmsted included the common quince as a valuable plant in some of his landscapes (Deitz 1995). As a young tree, Cydonia may sucker profusely, and it takes some pruning effort during the first few years to establish an open-crowned specimen tree rather than a small thicket. Quince is such an interesting plant that it's worth the pruning effort, and germplasm recently imported from other parts of the world may provide some relief from pest and climate challenges that limited its use in the past. When grown in high pH soils, however, trees can become stunted and suffer iron chlorosis. In northern latitudes or colder climates the fruit of many cultivars does not fully ripen prior to the onset of winter, and in places where it rains during the ripening season, fruit cracking can be a big problem. Although most commercial quince production today is located in very warm areas, one of the largest quince orchards in 1895 was a 60 acre (24 hectare) planting in upstate New York near Waterport (Brown's Berry Patch 2007). Whether grown for fruit production or for use as a pear rootstock, quince is impacted by several disease problems. Fire blight caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora limits the cultivation of quince either for its fruit or as a pear rootstock, especially in regions with warm, humid summers. The genus Cydonia is one of the most susceptible to fire blight in Rosaceae, the plant family which includes many susceptible hosts (Postman 2008). Leaf and fruit spot caused by Fabraea maculata (anamorph = Entomosporium mespili) can result in tree defoliation and production of disfigured, unmarketable fruit if not controlled. Powdery mildew and rust diseases also impact quince production. Genetic improvements needed for expanding the use of quince as a dwarfing pear rootstock include increased resistance to fire blight for warm and humid summer climates, and increased winter cold-hardiness for northern climates. Adaptation to alkaline soils will allow quince production to expand to more diverse JOSEPH POSTMAN Potential for Genetic Improvement Quince is adapted to hot, dry climates and to acid soils. Under favorable conditions, ripe fruit can become quite fragrant, juicy, and flavorful. The Turkish cultivar `Harron' has the largest fruit size of the hundred or so quince clones growing at the USDA genebank, but the fruit may crack badly when exposed to rain just before it is ripe. Quince 7 JOSEPH POSTMAN A young boy in Georgia's northeast province of Kakheti displays quince fruit from a tree in the village of Shilda. Scions of the Shilda quince were collected by ARS genebank curators Joseph Postman and Ed Stover during a 2006 expedition to the Caucasus region. A tree is growing in quarantine at Beltsville, Maryland, and will be sent to the USDA-ARS genebank in Oregon upon release soil conditions both as a rootstock for pear or for production of quince fruit. Very slight progress in soil adaptation was achieved by selecting somoclonal variants of rootstock clone Quince A following multiple generations of in vitro culture on high pH media (Bunnag et al. 1996). Quince for fruit production will benefit from earlier ripening, and elimination of summer \"rat-tail\" blooms, which predispose a tree to attack by fire blight. Fruits that are picked too green will never ripen properly (McCabe 1996). Resistance to the fungal rusts and mildews will allow quince to be produced with fewer pesticide applications. Available Germplasm A quince germplasm collection was established in Izmir, Turkey, beginning in 1964 that includes many regionally developed fruit cultivars and landraces (Sykes 1972). In Karaj, Iran, a collection of more than 50 Cydonia accessions are maintained, including both cultivated and wild types (Amiri 2008). Smaller quince collections are growing in Italy, Greece, Spain, and other European countries (Bellini and Giordani 1999). There are also significant collections in Ukraine and southwest Russia. A large fruit tree collection in Kara Kala, Turkmenistan, was once a part of the Vavilov Institutes during Soviet times. Many fruit tree accessions, including quince, were rescued from that station in the late 1990s and brought to other genebanks for safekeeping. More than a dozen quince accessions from Kara Kala, representing both wild types and fruiting cultivars, are growing at the USDA genebank in Oregon. The Oregon facility is one of several ex situ genebanks housing temperate fruit and nut collections for the USDA National Plant Germplasm System (NPGS) (Postman et al. 2006). The NPGS Cydonia collection includes more than 100 clones with origins from 15 countries maintained as self-rooted trees in a field collection (Postman 2008). About half of this collection represents cultivars for fruit production, and the other half are pear rootstock selections, wild types, and seedlings. Observations made at the genebank have revealed a wide diversity of genotypes, some with resistance to Fabraea leaf and fruit spot, and a range of ripening seasons that may make it possible to produce quince fruit in short-season production areas. Quince selections made in Bulgaria following a fire blight epidemic in that country have shown good field resistance to the disease, and some of this Bulgarian germplasm was recently introduced into the United States by the NPGS genebank. For nearly a century, the quince has been almost ignored for fruit production in North America, while many improvements have been made in the Middle East and central Asia. Germplasm is now available in the United States for expanding the use of Cydonia both as a rootstock for pear and as a fruit producing tree in its own right. As Luther Burbank concluded a hundred years ago, \"The quince of today is, indeed, a half wild product that has waited long for its opportunity. It remains for the fruit growers of tomorrow ... to see that the possibilities of this unique fruit are realized\" (Wickson et al. 1914). 8 Arnoldia 67\/1 his Chinese relative of Cydonia presently belongs to the genus Pseudocydonia, but has previously been assigned to both Chaenomeles (Chaenomeles sinensis) and Cydonia (Cydonia sinensis). Chinese quince has attractive single pink flowers that appear earlier than those of Cydonia but not as early as most Chaenomeles. The fruit is a large, oval, aromatic yellow pome that ripens in the fall. The shiny, leathery leaves develop nice red-orange fall color. But its most interesting characteristic is the exfoliating bark that reveals brown, green, orange, and gray patches. Chinese quince's attractive bark rivals that of many stewartias. The trunk often becomes fluted with age, adding even more textural appeal. Luther Burbank devoted some attention to the Asian quinces and was probably responsible for a large-fruited clone of Pseudocydonia. Michael Dirr (1997) notes that Chinese quince is reliably hardy in USDA Zones 6 to 7 (average annual minimum temperatures -10 to 10F [-23 to -12C]), and possibly hardy in Zone 5 (-20 to -10F [-29 to -23C]). Fire blight is said to seriously impact its cultivation. However, the presence of very nice specimens of Chinese quince at the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., and in gardens in the Carolinas--locations where Cydonia is readily killed by fire blight--indicate that it can be grown even in regions where the disease is present. Chinese quince's pink flowers, attractive patchwork bark, and fluted trunk are highly ornamental. COURTESY OF KENPEI MICHAEL DOSMANN T The Chinese Quince: Pseudocydonia sinensis Quince 9 References Amiri, M.E. 2008. The status of genetic resources of deciduous, tropical, and subtropical fruit species in Iran. Acta Horticulturae 769:159167. Bailey, L.H. and E.Z. Bailey. 1976. Hortus Third. Campbell, J. 2001. Quince Growing. New South Wales AgFact H4.1.3. Bellini, E. and E. Giordani 1999. Online European Minor Fruit Tree Species Database EMFTS Database. http:\/\/www.unifi.it\/project\/ueresgen29\/ netdbase\/db1.htm (7 March, 2009). Brown's Berry Patch. 2007. http:\/\/www.brownsberrypatch. com\/history_farm.html (2 April, 2009). Bunnag, S., R. Dolcet-Sanjuan, D.W.S. Mok, and M.C. Mok. 1996. Responses of two somaclonal variants of quince to iron deficiency in the greenhouse and field. Journal of the American Society of Horticultural Science 121:10541058. Deitz, P. 1995. Fairsted: at home with Frederick Law Olmsted. Magazine Antiques, August 1995. Dirr, M.A. 1997. Dirr's Hardy Trees and Shrubs, An Illustrated Encyclopedia. Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Ghazarian, B. 2009. Simply Quince. Mayreni Publishing, Monterey, CA. 216 pp. Hatch, P.J. 1998. The fruits and fruit trees of Monticello. University Press of Virginia. pp. 127128. Hedrick, U.P. 1922. Cyclopedia of Hardy Fruits. Juniper, B.E. and D.J. Mabberly. 2006. The story of the apple. Timber Press, Portland, OR. 219 pp. McCabe, C. 1996. Enjoying the forbidden fruit. Saveur 14:105110. McGinnis, L. 2007. Quest for Quince: Expanding the NCGR Collection. Agricultural Research, January 2007:2021. Meech, W.W. 1908. Quince Culture; an illustrated handbook for the propagation and cultivation of the quince, with descriptions of its varieties, insect enemies, diseases and their remedies. Orange Judd Co., New York. 180 pp. Postman, J. 2008. The USDA Quince and Pear Genebank in Oregon, a World Source of Fire Blight Resistance. Acta Horticulturae 793:357362. Postman, J., K. Hummer, E. Stover, R. Krueger, P. Forsline, L.J. Grauke, F. Zee, T. Ayala-Silva, B. Irish. 2006. Fruit and Nut Genebanks in the US National Plant Ger mplasm System. HortScience 41(5):11881194. Rehder, A. 1986. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America, 2nd edition. Dioscorides Press, Portland, OR. Rieger, M. 2006. Mark's Fruit Crops. http:\/\/www.uga. edu\/fruit (4 February, 2009). USDA. 2009a. ARS, National Genetic Resources Program. Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN) [Online Database]. URL: http:\/\/www. ars-grin.gov\/cgi-bin\/npgs\/html\/taxon.pl?12779 (20 January 2009) Roach, F.A. 1985. Quinces. In: Cultivated Fruits of Britain: Their Origin and History. Blackwell, London pp. 220225. Sykes, J.T. 1972. A description of some quince cultivars from western Turkey. Economic Botany 26:2131. Trabut, L. 1916. Pyronia: A hybrid between the pear and quince. Journal of Heredity 7:416419. Tukey, H.B. 1964. Dwarfing rootstocks for the pear. Ch. 11 In: Dwarfed Fruit Trees, The MacMillan Co., New York. pp. 182199. USDA. 2009a. Germplasm Resources Information Network - (GRIN) Online Database. National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland. http:\/\/www.ars-grin.gov\/cgi-bin\/ npgs\/html\/taxon.pl?12779 (05 Febr uar y 2009) USDA. 2009b. National Agricultural Statistics Service, U.S. fruit production data. http:\/\/www.nass. usda.gov\/QuickStats\/indexbysubject.jsp (4 February, 2009) Wertheim, S.J. 2002. Rootstocks for European pear: a Review. Acta Horticulturae 596:299309. Whitson, J., R. John, and H.S. Williams (eds.) 1914. The Transformation of the Quince. Chapter 7, Volume 4 In: Luther Burbank, His Methods and Discoveries and Their Practical Application. Luther Burbank Press, New York and London pp. 211240. Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American Gardens. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York. Joseph Postman is a plant pathologist and curator of living pear, quince, and hazelnut collections at the USDA Agricultural Research Service, National Clonal Germplasm Repository in Corvallis, Oregon. Information about quince genetic resources in the USDA National Plant Germplasm System, as well as a field day on October 10, 2009 featuring the Corvallis genebank's quince orchard, is available at http:\/\/www. ars.usda.gov\/pwa\/corvallis\/ncgr. A one day symposium on underutilized pome fruits will be held in August, 2010 during the 28th International Horticulture Conference in Lisboa, Portugal. For more information visit the `Symposia' link at http:\/\/www.ihc2010.org\/ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bird's-eye Views: Aerial Photographs of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25460","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14e856d.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"Bird's-eye Views: Aerial Photographs of the Arnold Arboretum Sheila Connor ur desire to fly must have been driven, in part, by wanting to have a bird's-eye view of the land. Today, we can launch ourselves skyward simply by clicking on Google Earth, where a virtual world created by combining aerial photography, satellite imagery, and GIS (geographic information systems) unfolds on our computer screen. Attainment of that instant bird's-eye view was many years in the making, though. The first aerial photographs were taken from a hot air balloon in 1858 by the French portraitist \"Nadar\" (GaspardFelix Tournachon), who did so while tethered 240 feet (73 meters) above the village of Petit-Bicetre near Paris. Two years later--also in a tethered hot air ballon-- James Wallace Black ascended 1,200 feet James W. Black's 1860 image of Boston, the earliest aerial photo still (366 meters) over the densely developed in existence. port city of Boston, Massachusetts. His the shutter placed inside the lens, his highimage, \"Boston, as the eagle and wild goose see speed camera was capable of producing images it,\" is the earliest known aerial photograph still with little or no distortion, which made accuin existence. Kites, rockets, and carrier pigeons rate mapping possible. Although the army did (outfitted with tiny breast-mounted cameras) not take delivery of his cameras until after the were the next airborne means used. war, Fairchild continued to improve upon his Just a few years after the Wright brothers design and, in 1920, started the Fairchild Aerial famous first flight, images were shot from an Camera Corporation. airplane piloted by Wilbur Wright, the first He also began designing aircraft to suit his taken from an airplane. The military, both photographic needs and founded his second here and abroad, quickly grasped the value of company, Fairchild Aerial Surveys, Inc. The these unexpectedly revealing views and estabcompany is well known for the remarkable lished aerial reconnaissance units. Following aerials it produced of every major city in the World War I, newly created commercial comUnited States between 1920 and 1960, and panies expanded upon the progress made in the Arboretum was one of its earliest clients. aerial techniques. Using one of the company's specially designed New Equipment, New Techniques cameras, a pilot flew over the Arboretum in Sherman Mills Fairchild started several of 1927 in a Fairchild FC-1 and took \"the first these new peacetime ventures. Fairchild had airplane view to show all of America's greatoriginally secured a contract with the army to est hardy garden,\" as reported in the Boston develop a camera for aerial photography. With Herald newspaper. This \"bird's-eye view\" was O COUrTESy OF THE BOSTON PUBlIC lIBrAry Aerial Photographs 11 This 1927 Fairchild aerial photograph of the Arboretum, looking toward Boston, shows Peters Hill in the foreground and the familiar curlicue of roadway atop Bussey Hill. JAy CONNOr This 2005 image was made with the same perspective as the 1927 photo. Peters Hill is in the foreground, but mature trees now obscure the top of Bussey Hill. Downtown Boston is seen in the distance. All PHOTOS FrOM THE ArCHIvES OF THE ArNOld ArBOrETUM UNlESS OTHErWISE INdICATEd 12 Arnoldia 67\/1 A large paved circle for bus turnarounds is seen atop Peters Hill in this 1967 photograph. Prior to 1964 there was no paved roadway to the top of the hill. In the late 1990s the paving was removed as part of a landscape restoration project that returned the hilltop to a design consistent with Frederick Law Olmsted's naturalistic style. JAy CONNOr reproduced in the the newspaper's autogravure section on November 20, 1927. Since that initial flight, photographers have used planes, helicopters, a dirigible, and, most recently, a drone as means to attain views of the Arboretum. The resulting collection of negatives, microfiche, prints (both black and white and color), and digital images provides a unique perspective and an amazing record of how change occurs in the Arboretum's seemingly permanent landscape. Entire plant collections disappear only to reappear years later completely redesigned and reconfigured. Others simply disappear. A few migrate, acquire a new name, then eventually vanish. roads appear, are paved, then unpaved, and fade away. Sidewalks and paths (whether planned or established by desire) do the same, and while our aerial archaeology has not revealed any crop circles, one can easily see the remains of the characteristic circles that signify abandoned planting holes, sites where specimens once grew. Additional unplanned footpaths created over the years are visible in this 2007 image of Peters Hill. In place of the pavement at the summit there are now a scattering of granite blocks used for informal seating. The granite blocks, recycled from a demolished Olmsted-era bridge that once stood near the Forest Hills Station, were originally placed in a circle on Peters Hill in the 1980s to deter a then popular youth activity--setting stolen cars on fire and pushing them down the hill. Making Maps The first vertically shot aerial survey of the living collections took place in 1936. (In vertical aerial photography the camera is in a level position and pointing directly downward, the best format for precise mapping.) This survey consisted of a series of four images taken by Bradford Washburn, then a 26-year-old instructor at Harvard's Institute for Geographical Exploration. His long Aerial Photographs 13 When seen from above in this 1955 Bradford Washburn aerial (top), the broad, grassy plain just below the summit of Bussey Hill sports shadows of planting holes from the Prunus collection that once occupied the site, seen in the May 1929 photo (bottom) taken by the renowned New England landscape photographer Herbert Wendell Gleason. affiliation with the Arboretum, coupled with his expertise in aerial photography and cartography, greatly influenced the number of aerial photographs taken of our landscape. Mr. Washburn often acted as a project manager, directing and organizing both vertical and oblique (camera is angled) shots made of the arboretum. Under his direction an image of the 14 Arnoldia 67\/1 1 2 3 7 6 4 5 One of Washburn's 1936 vertically shot aerials of the Arboretum. Marked on the map are: 1. Present site of the Dana Greenhouse, constructed in 1962, and the Leventritt Pavilion and Shrub and Vine Garden (an aerial view of this garden is on the front cover). 2. The site of the original Shrub and Vine Collection, now occupied by the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. 3. Site of the Bussey Institution, the location of the Arboretum's greenhouses prior to 1962, and now the site of the Massachusetts State Laboratory. 4. Bussey Brook Meadow, also known as the South Street Tract and Stony Brook Marsh, prior to the pond being filled in and the creation of the Blackwell Footpath 5. Peters Hill had only the outer ring road at the time. 6. Weld Hill, once known as the Weld Walter Street Tract, prior to the construction of the Hebrew SeniorLife Center on the site of the former Joyce Kilmer Park 7. Highly visible remnant of Centre Street left from the Centre Street realignment and widening in 1931. Today, a grassy swath still indicates the route of the old roadbed. Aerial Photographs 15 entire Arboretum was taken in 1952. Then in 1955, his first year as chairman of the Arboretum's visiting Committee, he raised the sum of $310.00 from the committee for a flyover by Eastern Aerial Surveys, Inc., with the recommendation that a second survey take place the following spring. Twelve images resulted from the October 6 survey. Unfortunately there is no record of a spring session. Northeast Aerial Photos produced the first series of color images of the Arboretum in 1967. A year later, color images of the Hunnewell Building and the newly built garage facility were taken, and in 1974 a survey of the entire Arboretum produced a suite of seventeen images. Bradford Washburn's longheld goal of creating a mapping system of the Arboretum's living collection based on aerial photography finally came to fruition when dr. Peter Shaw Ashton, then director of the Arboretum, approached him in 1978 to orchestrate the coordination of a photogrammetric survey of the Arboretum by Swissair Photos + Surveys, ltd. (now named Swissphoto AG). \"On a cloudless day in April, 1979, the survey crew took a series of aerial photographs, which were then transformed into orthographically corrected images displaying an exceptionally accurate picture of the Arnold Arboretum at a scale of 100 feet to the inch. A groundsurvey team was hired to complete the contours in certain areas of the Arboretum that are covered by an evergreen canopy. Swissair provided the Arboretum with a base map of the grounds that illustrates true north, contour lines at intervals of ten feet, physical features (roads, paths, walls, and buildings), and reference points.\" From the article \"Cartographic records of the living Collections\" Ethan W. Johnson, Arnoldia. 49 (1) 1989. The Hunnewell Building and then newly built garage behind it are shown in this 1968 photograph. JAy CONNOr A similar view as seen in May, 2005. 16 Arnoldia 67\/1 B rAdFOrd WASHBUrN was an extraordinary man. Born in Boston in 1910, as a teenager he developed a love for mountain climbing, summiting peaks around the world in the days well before high tech climbing gear was available. As an undergraduate at Harvard he honed his passions--climbing, photography, and scienctific exploration-- and in 1934 pursued graduates studies in cartography, surveying, and aerial photography at Harvard's Institute for Geographical Exploration. At 29 he became the director of the New England Museum of Natural History, now the Boston Museum of Sci ence, a position he held for 40 years. As a pioneer in aerial photography, Washb u r n 's s t u n n i n g mountain images made him one of the most important landscape photographers of the twentieth century. recently, one of Washburn's cameras (a 1929 Zeiss 4 x 5) was taken on Bradford Washburn and the Fairchild 71 Monoplane, Valdez, Alaska, a the space shuttle's 1937 gelatin silver print photograph by Bob Reeve. Hubble telescope repair mission by astronaut and mountain climber John Grunsfeld. It seems fitting that Washburn's camera was used to make the ultimate in aerial photos--images from space. PHOTOGrAPH 2009 MUSEUM OF FINE ArTS, BOSTON. GIFT OF BrAdFOrd ANd BArBArA WASHBUrN. 1999.446 Aerial Photographs 17 Susan Kelley, then curatorial associate in mapping, and I met with Mr. Washburn in 2000 to learn more about his early Arboretum work. He believed that his photographs of the collections would eventually provide a valuable record. Upon seeing our current maps of the living collections, which were based on the 1979 photogrammetric survey and formatted in AutoCAd, which interacts with the computerized plant records database, BG-Base, Mr. Washburn pronounced them \"gorgeous!\" More Bird's-eye Views Sasaki Associates ltd. produced aerials in 1990 and 1991 as part of the Arboretum's Master Plan process, and in 2002 the Arboretum participated for the first time in a survey of the Harvard campus, which was coordinated by Harvard's Planning and real Estate department. The living collections were again included in the Harvard survey in 2006. recently, when aerial imagery has been needed, photographs have also been acquired from surveys done by the United States Geological Surveys (USGS). Our most recent full scale vertical aerial view of the entire Arboretum was taken in spring 2008, as part of the USGS Boston 133 Cities Urban Area mapping program. Interspersed between these major surveys were other more site specific or overview flights. In 1950, Arboretum horticulturist donald Wyman took a series of photographs at a Image of the Arnold Arboretum in 2008 from the United States Geological Surveys. 18 Arnoldia 67\/1 Weld Hill in 1955, with Kilmer Park adjacent (top of photo). Weld Hill in 2006, part of the Harvard survey. height of 3,000 feet from a plane flown by his 17-year-old son.Wyman's photographs were taken from a vantage point reminiscent of the 1927 Fairchild survey images. Eight years later, Heman Howard, in charge of the mapping and labeling department, also duplicated this view with a series of oblique shots from both 1,400 and 2,300 feet. The Massachusetts department of Public Works photographed the lilac collection and replicated the bird's-eye view in 1969 and, in 1995, Sergio Marino of GPI Models took a series of images from a helicopter to facilitate his construction of an 8 feet by 16 feet scale model of the Arboretum. The model became Aerial Photographs 19 An oblique view of Weld Hill, taken from a drone on May 20, 2009, shows the Arboretum's new research facility under construction. the centerpiece for the exhibit Science in the Pleasure Ground in the Arboretum's Hunnewell visitor Center, where it continues to be a popular feature. My brother, Jay Connor, has taken almost 200 oblique images of the collections. He began photographing the Arboretum in 2004, usually from a helicopter, but once from the iconic Hood Blimp, officially an American A-60+ lightship. This familiar cigarshaped balloon is capable of hovering motionless for hours at a time. As Boston red Sox fans can attest, it is truly an airship designed for aerial observations. The Arboretum's most recent aerial photography project involves the new research facility on Weld Hill. Over the past two years, dave Fuller of Fullerview Photography has sent up a drone to capture images of the construction of the building. Over the coming months, arboretum staff will be adding aerial imagery to our GIS (geographic information system) using ESrI software. This will provide a new generation of bird's-eye views of the arboretum's landscape and its change over time. Incorporating these images into our GIS system will assist in reconciling diverse georeferenced features and provide unprecedented detail about our living collections for researchers and visitors. Sheila Connor is the Horticultural research Archivist at the Arnold Arboretum. FUllErvIEW PHOTOGrAPHy "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seeking Cold-Hardy Camellias","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25465","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15ea76d.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"Seeking Cold-Hardy Camellias Anthony S. Aiello or those of us in more northern climates, trips to southern or West Coast gardens in early spring often result in admiration (and a little envy) for the range and beauty of camellias (Camellia spp.) that can be grown in Zones 7 or warmer. As with many plants, we always want those that are either too tender or too boreal for our zone; those plants well suited for a particular climate are all too quickly considered prosaic and it is the struggling arcane plants that most of us cherish as gardeners. It was the tantalizing possibility of finding more cold-hardy camellias that 25 years ago led to a plant hunting expedition and the resulting multi-year evaluations of a group of Camellia japonica. Domestic and international plant exploration, and subsequent evaluation of plant acquisitions have been important missions of the Morris Arboretum in recent decades. Since the late 1970s, staff of the Morris Arboretum have participated in 20 plant collecting trips, including trips to South Korea, China, the Caucasus Mountains, and regions within the United States. On these expeditions, seed is collected and returned to the Morris Arboretum for propagation. (Occasionally live plants are collected, but because of difficulties with transportation and import regulation, seeds are the primary form collected.) One of the main goals of our plant exploration and evaluation program is broadening the genetic pool of known species to extend cold hardiness and increase vigor. Between 1979 and 1991, Morris Arboretum staff participated in five collecting expeditions to South Korea. These trips were planned to sequentially cover different geographic regions of South Korea. The 1984 Expedition to Korea's northwestern coast and islands (Korea Northwest Expedition KNW) visited areas along the northwestern coast and inland to the Kwangnung Arboretum (now Korea National Arboretum) of South Korea (Meyer 1985). It is from this 1984 expedition that the Morris holds a number Map of areas visited on the 1984 Korea Northwest collecting expedition. of accessions of Camellia japonica collected on Taechong and Sochong Islands, off the west coast of South Korea. The island collections represent some of the most northern collections ever made of common camellia. As an extension of the Asian land mass, Korea is exposed to a continental climate that includes strong, cold, and persistent winter winds. Even along the coast, the Korean climate is much harsher than that in Japan. As a result, despite their location in the Yellow Sea, these islands are exposed to more extreme temperatures than one would expect from their maritime location. The Trip to the Islands The idea of visiting and collecting from these island populations of Camellia japonica was instigated by Barry Yinger (Asiatica Nursery, MOrrIS ArBOrETUM OF ThE UNIvErSITY OF PENNSYlvANIA F Camellias 21 PAUl W. MEYEr The Taean Peninsula on the northwest coast of South Korea. This area and islands off of the northwest coast were the focus of the 1984 Korea Northwest collecting expedition. lewisberry, Pennsylvania), who had read of this northern cold-hardy population in the early 1980s (Yinger 1989a; Yinger 1989b). Through great persistence, Yinger first encountered these plants on Taechong and Sochong Islands in the winter of 1981. Yinger relates how his concern that the camellias were destroyed during the almost total deforestation of Korea during World War II turned to delight once he reached the islands. Yinger wrote about his first encounter with these camellias on Sochong Island: \"... off we went, up the hillsides overlooking the Yellow Sea, buffeted by the cold wind from the northeast. The hillside was bleak and brown with few trees of any kind. The only greenery was an occasional grove of pines, the lower limbs of which had been chopped off for firewood. Up a little further and there--at last--a grove of camellias glittering green against the brown dried grasses, catching the winter sunshine and throwing it back to us.\" (Yinger 1989a) By counting the growth rings of stumps of camellias that were cut for firewood, Yinger estimated the age of these trees, some of which were 15 to 18 feet (4.6 to 5.5 meters) tall, as close to 150 years old. These astonishing trees had silently witnessed the political vagaries that had affected the Korean peninsula and its people over that long period. In October 1984, Yinger, then at the U.S. National Arboretum, returned to Taechong, Sochong, and Paekryong Islands with Sylvester March, Paul Meyer, and Peter Bristol (of the National, Morris and holden Arboreta, respectively) along with their Korean colleagues Chang Yong June and Chang Yong hun. Although these islands are controlled by South Korea they are located just south of the 38th parallel and north of the mainland border between North and South Korea. The islands are within view of North Korea, so they are of military and political significance; the explorers were required to 22 Arnoldia 67\/1 PAUl W. MEYEr Mature plants of Camellia japonica growing on a steep hillside on Sochong Island. Peter Bristol and Sylvester March are pictured at lower left. have a naval escort to reach and travel on the islands and were forbidden from photographing the boat on which they travelled. As Meyer (1985) wrote: \"... it must have been a peculiar sight as the Korean navy boat pulled out of Inchon harbor. Among the Korean sailors were four American plant explorers eager to collect on a group of islands in the Yellow Sea. Piled high on the deck were herbarium presses, seed bags, and general expedition supplies. The pole pruners leaning against the gun turrets created a strange juxtaposition. If the North Koreans observed this they must have wondered what this unusual mission was all about.\" Although the collecting supplies were exposed to the sea air, the Americans were sequestered below decks in crowded cabins for the duration of the long trip. Once on the islands, the collectors were escorted by the sailor companions, who eventually chipped in and helped with seed collecting and cleaning (trip details from Yinger 1989a and 1898b; Meyer 1985; and Meyer, personal communication). The Americans travelled among the three islands for approximately one week, making a large number of collections from a great diversity of plants. Among these were nine seed collections of Camellia japonica including some Camellias 23 PAUl W. MEYEr Collecting seeds from mature, open-grown Camellia japonica plants on Sochong Island. An unidentified Korean sailor is standing beneath the trees at left. that were growing in pastures and others that had been transplanted into local farmers' gardens. Six of these came from Taechong Island and the other three from Sochong Island. The islands' inhabitants recognized the beauty of these plants and often transplanted them into their small home gardens. Meyer (1985) found a grove on Sochong Island to be the most impressive; here, the camellias grew into large trees that grew luxuriantly on a site exposed to sea winds and salt spray. The areas where they grew were heavily cut and grazed by goats. Only tall plants with their lower foliage eaten remained, and the grazing prevented any natural regeneration of seedlings. (here at the Morris we have a similar problem, except it is the white-tailed deer that browse on our low hanging camellia foliage.) The human and livestock pressure on the islands was significant and the field notes describe collecting from resprouting plants Fruit of Camellia japonica collected on the 1984 Korea Northwest expedition. The camellia fruit is a woody capsule containing several seeds. in locations that were either cut-over forests, heavily grazed, or along roadsides. As unromantic as these types of plants and locations may sounds, they can make for excellent field PAUl W. MEYEr 24 Arnoldia 67\/1 throughout the year. Another standout from this group is Lindera obtusiloba; anyone who knows the sublime golden yellow fall color of Japanese spicebush agrees that it is one of the most outstanding shrubs for autumn foliage. ArNOlD ArBOrETUM Wanted: A Hardy Camellia What was the impetus that led to such effort to reach a far-flung corner of the world? As mentioned previously, camellias are exquisite garden flowers, but the vast majority of camellia cultivars are not hardy in regions colder than USDA hardiness Zone 7. From the late 1970s into the early 1980s a series of extremely cold winters devastated camellia collections at the U.S. National Arboretum and elsewhere (Ackerman 2007; Ackerman and Egolf 1992). At the National Arboretum alone, the harsh winters reduced the collection of 956 The handsome foliage of Japanese spicebush (Lindera obtusiloba) in 30- to 40-year-old plants to less than a golden fall color. dozen struggling survivors (Ackerman collecting. Compared to a mature forest, with 2000; Ackerman and Egolf 1992). These severe little sunlight reaching the understory and winters--and the damage to large numbers of fruits far out of reach, roadsides or regrown cultivars--inspired Dr. William Ackerman, a areas provide plants with sufficient sunlight to plant breeder and camellia aficionado at the produce fruit while lending easy access to the National Arboretum, and Dr. Clifford Parks, a plant collector. professor from the University of North Carolina In addition to the camellias, numerous other in Chapel hill, to undertake breeding programs plants were collected on the islands, and many to develop camellias cold-hardy in Zones 6 and of these have grown exceptionally well for us. 7. In light of the severe winters at the time of Most notable among these collections are Calthe Korean expeditions, there was considerable licarpa japonica, Lindera obtusiloba, Sorbus excitement about the potential for cold-hardy alnifolia, Styrax japonica, Pinus thunbergii, provenances of Camellia japonica coming from and Viburnum bitchuense. Meyer (1985) was South Korea (Yinger 1989a). It was hoped that particularly impressed by seaside populations these northern collections of Camellia japonica of Styrax japonica, which were noteworthy would expand the hardiness of common camelbecause of leathery and glossy leaves that were lia, generally considered to be reliably hardy in unaffected by salt spray or summer sun. Plants Zone 7 (Flint 1997) but historically not reliably grown from this seed collection grace our parkcold hardy in the Philadelphia area (Zone 6b). ing lot where their May flowers provide a fraThe nine accessions of Camellia japonica grant welcome to our visitors. Over the years were collected on the Korean islands in October we have lost many compound-leaved Sorbus 1984, and some of these seeds were sown at the species, but perhaps the best mountain ash for Morris Arboretum beginning in November of our area is Sorbus alnifolia. With its simple that year. Eight of the nine accessions germileaves, abundant white flowers, striking coralnated successfully, with varying numbers of red fruits, and russet fall color, the Korean seedlings among accessions. Given the northern mountain ash is one of my favorite plants locations of the parent populations, we began Camellias 25 The Tryouts Begin In 1986 plants were designated for one of two parallel evaluation studies: either a replicated field trial, or garden settings throughout the Arboretum. Of the eight successfully germinated accessions, six were eventually planted in the Arboretum's trials or throughout the Arboretum. In April 1987, 730 seedlings were planted in a replicated field trial at the Arboretum's Bloomfield Farm research area and were evaluated for cold hardiness. From 1989 to 1993 all of these Field trials of Camellia japonica at the Morris Arboretum's Bloomfield plants were evaluated for general foli- Farm, February and April, 1994. age quality, vigor, and hardiness (survival) on a scale of 1 to 5 (with 1 being dead plants were moved to our greenhouses. Then, and 5 being excellent). As would be expected between the fall of 1995 and spring of 1999, with seedling grown plants, there was great 25 of these highest rated plants from the origivariation in the survival and quality of plants nal 730 in the Bloomfield trial were planted in this study (Aiello et al. 2008). into the Arboretum's public garden for further By June 1990, 589 plants survived, and 283 assessment (Aiello et al. 2008). were deemed acceptable because they had a ratIn a parallel study, between 1987 and 1991 ing of 3, with only slightly damaged foliage. an additional 33 of the originally germinated Three years later, in August 1993, the cutoff seedlings that were not part of the formal field for retaining plants was elevated to a 4 ranking, trial were planted in protected garden settings that is, plants that showed only occasional foliar throughout the Arboretum. These plants did damage. At this level of scrutiny only 40 of 170 not receive the formal ratings applied to their remaining plants made the grade. The winters siblings in the research plots. Nevertheless, the of 199394 and 199495 resulted in further winters took their toll and by October 1999, 22 loss of plants, and by April 1995 the remaining of these plants remained in the garden. rICK J. lEWANDOWSKI a long-term field and garden trial of several accessions. Since the late 1980s plants grown from these collections have been evaluated for cold hardiness and several ornamental characteristics such as general vigor, leaf quality and retention, flower abundance and color, and plant habit. The camellias in this study all exhibit attractive evergreen foliage and single red flowers, which is typical of the straight species. These plants are large shrubs, reaching up to 12 feet (3.6 meters) tall or higher in 25 years. Although their single red flowers are not like the very showy forms grown farther south, their greatest value is in their hardiness and potential for breeding. rICK J. lEWANDOWSKI 26 Arnoldia 67\/1 Bringing it All Together In October 1999, shortly after I arrived at the Morris Arboretum, a total of 50 camellias were alive in garden settings throughout the Arboretum. Faced with what was already a 15-year old trial, I wanted to bring some resolution to this evaluation effort and to determine which of the remaining plants truly stood out among the others. The 50 plants included the 25 plants from the field trials, 22 remaining plants from those originally planted in garden settings, and three additional plants which had been cutting-grown in our greenhouse from original seedlings. These 50 plants were growing in protected areas throughout the Arboretum, where Camellia japonica plants growing at Gates Hall at the Morris Arboretum. the camellias could grow under the year's ratings for these plants were combined. canopy of conifers or against buildings, where These 43 plants were grouped into three catthey were shielded from strong winter winds egories according to overall performance and and afternoon sun. For example, one group was appearance after 5 years of evaluation. These massed to the north of a very large Chamaecycategories were somewhat subjective but paris pisifera that screens our parking lot from allowed us to consolidate several seasons of Meadowbrook Avenue, a quiet residential street information into a shorthand that would clarify that borders our property. Another group was the better performing plants. planted along the northeast face of Gates hall, Of the 43 plants, the top 15 (\"A\" rating) the Arboretum's administration building. exhibited consistent, positive performance in Starting in the fall of 1999 and continuthree key areas of the evaluation criteria. In paring through the spring of 2004, the 50 plants ticular, these plants flowered every year, mainthroughout the Arboretum were visually evaltained a desirable habit, and retained attractive uated. In the spring and fall of each year the glossy green foliage throughout the seasons. plants were rated for a variety of ornamental The foliage quality is especially important in traits including general vigor, hardiness, leaf March, when the effects of winter start to show retention, and foliar and floral characterison poorer performing plants. Because Cameltics. Plants with foliage that was deep green, lia japonica flowers on old wood before new glossy, disease-free, and with no winter injury growth emerges, we were especially interested received the highest ratings. Although there in those plants that retained high quality foliage was not a great deal of variation in floral traits, as the flowers emerged from March into April. plants with greater numbers of flower, flowers The middle 16 plants (\"B\" rating) generally perthat were more open, and flowers with richer formed well in one or two areas of the evalubright scarlet color were considered the most ation, but their performance was either not desirable. There was also significant variaconsistent, or was poor in the other categories. tion in plant habit and we gave higher ratings For instance, \"B\" plants may have had good to denser and more regularly shaped plants foliage quality but their flowering was poor or (Aiello et al. 2008). inconsistent, or they might have had beautiful After these visual evaluations were completed flowers but scraggly open habits that detracted in late 2004, 43 plants remained alive and each ANThONY S. AIEllO Camellias 27 from the overall quality of the plant. The lowest rated 12 plants (\"C\" rating) generally performed poorly in several categories. In some instances, they may have exhibited one positive characteristic, but this was overridden by the overall appearance of plant. The Current Situation and Next Steps After more than 20 years of evaluation, the numbers of Korean Camellia japonica at the Arboretum has gone from approximately 750 plants to just over 40 individuals. The remaining plants represent six of the original nine collections from Korea (KNW 312, 342, 344, 348, 350, and 352) and are a valuable genetic resource for introduction and breeding. Although their ornamental value may not compare to cultivars hardy in the southern and western United States, our plants exhibit attractive single red flowers and glossy evergreen foliage. They rep- resent a significant advance in the hardiness of common camellia, with suitability for Philadelphia and the mid-Atlantic region, and possibly the lower Ohio valley and coastal New England. These cold-hardy selections will appeal to Zone 6 gardeners who have coveted these plants after visiting the \"Camellia Belt\" found in southeastern and West Coast states. Along with evaluating the remaining plants in our collection, over the past several years we have been propagating and distributing cutting-grown individuals from our highest rated plants. Camellias have been provided to other public gardens throughout the northeastern United States, including Chanticleer, and the Scott, Tyler, Willowwood, Polly hill, and Arnold Arboreta. Our hope is that distributing this material will help conserve the germplasm and provide evaluation over a broader range of climates. ANThONY S. AIEllO Camellias with glossy green foliage that remained attractive through the winter received higher ratings in the evaluation. 28 Arnoldia 67\/1 ANThONY S. AIEllO Single, red flowers were standard for the Korean seedlings, though some plants had more vibrant color or greater numbers of flowers. Currently we are planning to name and introduce several individual plants from our Camellia japonica trials (see sidebar). Two of these plants are those that show the highest ratings for combination of plant habit, foliar quality, and flower density. One plant shows a striking upright habit and a fourth is consistently precocious, regularly blooming in late autumn compared to the normal early spring blooming time of the species. Presently there are three commercially available introductions from the 1984 Korean Camellia japonica collections. These are: `Korean Fire' (KNW 352) a 2003 Pennsylvania horticultural Society Gold Medal winner that was introduced by Barry Yinger through hines Nursery (Bensen 2000); and `longwood valentine' and `longwood Centennial' (KNW 350) introduced by longwood Gardens (Tomasz Aniko, personal communication). Going forward, our goal is to distribute our selections and compare them to other known cold-hardy forms of Camellia japonica. We are also working with plant breeders to share material in the hope that the hardiness inherent in our plants can be utilized to develop coldhardy varieties with greater variation in flower color and form. Much of the work in developing cold hardy camellias has been conducted by Dr. Ackerman and Dr. Parks (Aniko 2000). Additionally, longwood Gardens continues a long research program in breeding and selecting camellias (Aniko 2000). The evaluation of woody landscape plants is a long-term commitment, one that often spans the tenures of staff at institutions that Camellias 29 T New Camellia Introductions December 1995 and is 16 feet (4.9 meters) tall and 9 feet (2.7 meters) wide. The single flowers are scarlet red, typical of the species. It received an overall \"A\" ranking, flowered every year, and had especially high marks for foliage quality and habit. This was ranked the number one overall plant of the entire evaluation. It is fully branched to the ground with an excellent ovate habit. `Morris Mercury' (86-050*Z9 \/ KNW 352). One of a group of plants growing on the north side of Gates hall, the Arboretum's administrative offices. This is a precocious, fall blooming plant. This plant has been growing in its current location since October 1999 and is 11 feet (3.4 meters) tall and 7 feet (2.1 meters) wide. It has a more open habit than the others, with an upright arching branch habit. This plant blooms regularly in November of each year, with sporadic blooms the following spring. Despite flowering every year, it received an overall \"B\" rating due to its open habit and foliar damage after cold winters of 2000 and 2001. ANThONY S. AIEllO here are four plants that we are planning to name and introduce. The varietal names and descriptions of these are as follows. All heights are approximate. `Balustrade' (86-043*J \/ KNW 342). One of two plants at the Studio Building, a small office building near our administrative offices. This plant has a very narrow, upright habit and strongly upright branch angles. This plant has been growing in its current location since the spring of 1988 and is 11 feet (3.4 meters) tall and 3 feet (.9 meter) wide. The single flowers are a good scarlet red, typical of the species. It received an overall \"A\" ranking and flowered every year, with excellent lustrous foliage. `Meadowbrook' (86-050*U \/ KNW 352). One of a grove of plants growing on the north side of a large Chamaecyparis pisifera along Meadowbrook Avenue, near the Arboretum's parking lots. This plant has outstanding bluegreen foliage. It has been growing in its current location since December 1995 and is 12 feet (3.6 meters) tall and 6 feet (1.8 meters) wide. Its flower color is a rosy red and lighter in color than others that we have evaluated. It received an overall \"A\" ranking, flowered every year, and had especially high marks for foliage quality; its attractive lustrous foliage stands out for its high quality in all seasons. It is fully branched to the ground with an ovate habit. `Bloomfield' (86-050*W \/ KNW 352). Another in a grove of plants growing on the north side of a large Chamaecyparis pisifera along Meadowbrook Avenue, near the Arboretum's parking lots. This plant combines the best flowering of all of our plants with excellent foliage quality and vigorous growth. This plant has been growing in its current location since Camellia japonica plants growing along Meadowbrook Avenue at the Morris Arboretum. `Bloomfield' (Morris Arboretum 86-050*W ) is pictured at the center of this photograph. 30 Arnoldia 67\/1 Chinese origin (Aiello 2005). likewise, after more than 20 years of evaluation, the Korean Camellia japonica plants represent some of the most cold-hardy collections ever made of common camellia. These collections may extend the hardiness of Camellia japonica into more northern areas and bring the spring pleasure of camellias to eager gardening audiences. Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Elinor I. Goff, Michelle Conners, Shelley Dillard, and Sara ranck for their contributions to this project and to this article. Literature Cited Ackerman, W.l. 2000. Northern Exposure. American Nurseryman 192 (11): 3843. Ackerman, W.l. 2007. Beyond the Camellia Belt. Ball Publishing, Batavia, Illinois. Ackerman, W.l. and D.r. Egolf. 1992. `Winter's Charm', `Winter's hope', and `Winter's Star' Camellias. HortScience 27: 855856. Aiello, A.S. 2005. Evaluating Cornus kousa cold hardiness. American Nurseryman 201 (5): 3239. Aiello, A.S., S. Dillard, E.I. Goff, and M. Conners. 2008. Evaluation of cold hardiness and ornamental characteristics of Korean provenances of Camellia japonica. royal horticultural Society: The rhododendron, Camellia & Magnolia Group Yearbook: 2631. Aniko, T. 2000. Collection Service. American Nurseryman 192 (11): 4450. Bensen, S.D., ed. 2000. New Plants for 2001: Shrubs. American Nurseryman 192 (12): 34. Flint, h.l. 1997. Landscape Plants for Eastern North America. 2nd Edition. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Meyer, P.W. 1985. Botanical riches from afar. Morris Arboretum Newsletter 14 (1): 45. Yinger, B. 1989a. Plant Trek: In pursuit of a hardy camellia. Flower and Garden 33 (2): 104106. Yinger, B. 1989b. Plant Trek: On site with hardy camellias, Sochong Island, Korea. Flower and Garden 33 (3): 6266. Anthony S. Aiello is the Gayle E. Maloney Director of horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. PAUl W. MEYEr A Camellia japonica grown as an espalier in a protected spot at the Morris Arboretum. collect, propagate, and evaluate these plants. At the Morris Arboretum we have found that plants collected in the 1980s in South Korea have exceptional cold hardiness and adaptability. For example, stems from Cornus kousa that were also collected on the 1984 KNW expedition showed significantly more freezing tolerance in tests than plants of either Japanese or "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Searching for Exotic Beetles","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25464","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15ea728.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Campbell, Nichole K.","article_content":"Searching for Exotic Beetles Nichole K. Campbell W hen non-native species of plants, animals, and disease organisms are introduced to other regions they have the potential to become serious pest problems in their new location. Concern over the introduction of potentially damaging species has led the Plant Protection and Quarantine (PPQ) program--part of the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service--to increase its domestic surveillance for non-native species in the United States over the past several years. Most exotic (non-native) species enter the United States through international movement of people, commodities, and conveyances. Most are accidental introductions, though some intentional introductions (primarily plants) have turned out to be invasive pests. Not all introduced species become agricultural or forest pests; typically, one in seven exotic species is considered invasive. There is often a lapse between the time the pest is introduced and the time that the pest is discovered or reported in the United States; unfortunately this often allows new pest populations to build. Beetle Patrol In 2009, PPQ is conducting exotic beetle trapping around the Boston port area as part of the USDA's national wood borer and bark beetle survey. The Boston port area may be a high-risk PeTer Del TreDICI A cargo ship heads toward the port of Boston, passing between Spectacle Island and Deer Island in Boston Harbor. 32 Arnoldia 67\/1 NICHOle K. CAMPBell area for the introduction of new exotic forest pests because of the high volume of cargo imports that enter the United States through it. Commodities entering the port are often shipped in solid wood packing material, a potential harbor for insect pests of trees. Prior to 2005, there were no regulations requiring the treatment of solid wood packing material for the prevention of pest introductions. Today, all foreign solid wood packing material must be fumigated or heat treated to prevent new forest pests from entering the United States through that very high-risk pathway. The goals of the USDA's national wood borer and bark beetle survey are to obtain information about: The presence, distribution, or absence of target species. The advent of new species. Patterns of distribution throughout the United States and possible pathways for introduction. The phenology of target exotic species in the United States and their selection of hosts. The characteristics of high-risk habitats or sites. The survey methods themselves. When selecting survey sites, we primarily target cargo transport companies, businesses that receive imports, and areas around the port of entry where there are host trees that could support the establishment of exotic beetles. PPQ has chosen twenty locations within 15 miles of the port of Boston for the wood borer and bark beetle survey. One of the sites chosen this year is the Arnold Arboretum because of its close proximity to the Boston port and the presence of a wide variety of tree species in its collections. One of the Lindgren funnel traps at the Arnold Arboretum. Setting the Trap The survey involves trapping and identifying beetles in order to determine if exotic species are present in the area. We placed three lindgren 12-funnel traps at each of the twenty selected locations for a total of sixty traps in the Boston area. each trap is baited with one, or a combina- tion, of the following lures: ultra high release ethanol, ultra high release alpha-pinene, or the 3-ips lure. The volatiles in the lures simulate stressed or dying hardwood and softwood trees, the types of host trees that many of the exotic beetles are attracted to. The traps are hung in trees, on poles, or on fences near target hosts. Traps are placed a minimum of 25 meters (82 feet) apart to prevent volatiles from mixing in the air and deterring beetles. each trap has a collection cup at the bottom that is filled with non-toxic antifreeze to preserve the collected beetles. The trapping period will last from mid March through the end of August to cover a range of emergence periods of the target beetles. Bark and ambrosia beetles typically emerge in early to late spring, while larger wood-boring beetles typically emerge later in summer through fall. The traps are serviced on a bi-weekly schedule to collect any trap contents and replace lures as needed. All of the trapped beetles will be sent to the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Section of Invertebrate Zoology, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. They will be screened by qualified experts to determine if they are the target exotic beetles or other non-native beetles. Determining the potential invasiveness of these exotic beetles is difficult since there is very little research information available for most of them. Often, they are not studied in their native countries if they do not cause eco- Exotic Beetles 33 nomic damage there. We can't predict exactly how an introduced beetle species will affect forests in the United States, but experts do try to make educated guesses. If any exotic beetles are found they will be confirmed by PPQ experts, and state and local authorities will be notified. The USDA's New Pest Advisory group (part of PPQ), in conjunction with state and local officials, would then evaluate the new pest risk and determine the appropriate action to take to protect our national forests and agricultural industries. A Gallery of Beetles Here are some of the exotic beetles targeted in the survey: WIllIAM M. CIeSlA, FOreST HeAlTH MANAgeMeNT INTerNATIONAl, BUgWOOD.Org Hylurgus ligniperda (Red-haired Pine Bark Beetle) NATIve: europe, Mediterranean areas, Africa, and parts of Asia eNTereD U.S.: Introduced near rochester, New York, in 1994. Found in a lindgren funnel trap. Has been found in four counties. HOST: Pinus spp. (pines) preferred. Also, Abies spp. (firs); Larix spp. (larches); Picea spp. (spruces); Pseudotsuga spp. (Douglas-firs) DAMAge: Affects bark, stem, root, trunk, and seedlings. Feed and develop in tunnels beneath the bark. They are know vectors of the root disease fungi Leptographium spp. and Ceratocystis spp. Ips sexdentatus (Six-toothed Bark Beetle) MIlAN ZUBrIK, FOreST reSeArCH INSTITUTe SlOvAKIA, BUgWOOD.Org Red-haired (or goldenhaired) pine bark beetles under the bark of a Monterey pine (Pinus radiata). Six-toothed bark beetles in galleries. NATIve: Mainland Asia and europe eNTereD U.S.: Has been intercepted at ports of entry. Has not been found domestically beyond ports. HOST: Pinus spp. (pines) preferred. Also, Abies spp. (firs); Larix spp. (larches); Picea spp. (spruces); Pseudotsuga spp. (Douglas-firs) DAMAge: Affects inner bark, leaf, stem, and whole plant. Mates, develops, and feeds in tunnels beneath the bark. Mainly attacks stressed or dying trees. It can kill trees of commercial importance. It also introduces blue stain fungi (Ophiostoma spp.) into host trees which hasten the death of tree, discolor wood, and can result in loss of lumber grade and value. 34 Arnoldia 67\/1 U Two Highly Destructive Exotic Beetles nfortunately, many exotic wood-boring beetles are not attracted to traps baited with volatiles and can only be surveyed for visually. This requires trained spotters using binoculars from ground level, or professional tree climbers knowledgeable in insect signs and symptoms. The Asian longhorned beetle (ALB) (Anoplophora glabripennis) is a highly destructive invasive beetle that can only be surveyed for in this manner. There is ongoing research to identify more effective survey methods for this devastating pest. larvae of the Asian longhorned beetle tunnel into the heartwood of live healthy trees, eventually killing their hosts. Favored species are maples, birches, Ohio buckeye, elms, horse chestnut, and willows. AlB, and efforts to eradicate it, have resulted in the loss of thousands of street trees in several states. AlB was detected in Worcester, Massachusetts, in August, 2008, and its potential spread is of great concern in New england. volunteers will be educated to survey for AlB throughout Massachusetts this year. visual surveys and education outreach for AlB will be conducted in all New england states during 2009. For more information about AlB, please visit: http:\/\/www.aphis.usda.gov\/oa\/alb\/alb.html or http:\/\/massnrc.org\/pests\/alb\/ Emerald ash borer (EAB) (Agrilus planipennis) is another highly destructive beetle that has spread in regions of the United States and Canada. eAB attacks ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) and has been moved from its introduction point in Michigan to other states primarily through movement of nursery stock and firewood. We have not detected eAB in Massachusetts yet, but a survey for it is planned for this year. The Massachusetts Department of Conservation and recreation, Division of Forestry, will place purple panel sticky traps baited with lures at twenty high-risk locations such as campgrounds, nurseries, and wood processors. Currently, there are no plans to trap inside the Arnold Arboretum for eAB because it is not a high-risk location for the introduction of this pest. For more information about eAB, please visit: www.emeraldashborer.info DAvID CAPPAerT, MICHIgAN STATe UNIverSITY, BUgWOOD.Org KeNNeTH r. lAW, USDA APHIS PPQ, BUgWOOD.Org Exotic Beetles 35 NATIve: europe and Asia eNTereD U.S.: Has been intercepted in traps in Indiana (1995) and Maryland (2002). It is not known to be established in the U.S. HOST: Picea spp. (spruces) preferred. Also, Abies spp. (firs); Larix spp. (larches); Pinus spp. (pines); Pseudotsuga spp. (Douglas-firs) DAMAge: Affects bark, crown, foliage, leaf, stem, and whole plant. Considered one of the most serious pests of spruce in europe. It vectors a blue stain fungus (Ceratocystis polonica) which can also kill the host. It causes major economic losses when it is in outbreak numbers and can cause severe decline in spruce populations within its native range. Males aggregate and colonize a stressed tree by boring into the bark and preparing nuptial chambers. The females are then attracted to the chambers to mate. The females lay eggs in maternal galleries where the larva will develop. They can have multiple generations in a year depending on temperature. Dead spruce trees in Slovakia, killed by European spruce bark beetles. Xyleborus seriatus (No common name; very little is known about this beetle.) NATIve: China, russia, Japan, Korea, Taiwan eNTereD U.S.: Intercepted in lindgren trap in Massachusetts in 2005, the first North American record. This beetle was also trapped in Maine in 2008. HOST: Acer spp. (maples), Aesculus spp. (buckeyes), Alnus spp. (alders), Betula spp. (birches), Cryptomeria spp., Fagus spp. (beeches), Larix spp. (larches), Pinus spp. (pines), Prunus spp. (cherries), Quercus spp. (oaks), Thuja spp. (arborvitae), Tsuga spp. (hemlocks), etc. large possible host range. DAMAge: very little data. Is known to be associated with Ambrosiella fungi. Spores of a symbiotic fungi are carried on their bodies to new galleries. larvae and adults feed on this fungi growing between the bark and sapwood. Thought to be a secondary pest and will not kill healthy trees. Several Xyloborus species are potential survey targets. Xylotrechus hircus (No common name; very little is known about this beetle.) NATIve: Native to eastern russia, China, Korea eNTereD U.S.: Intercepted in lindgren trap in Oregon in 1999; not known to be established. HOST: Betula spp. (birches) DAMAge: No information available. Species damage unknown. Several Xylotrechus species are potential survey targets. Nichole K. Campbell is a pest survey specialist with the USDA, APHIS, Plant Protection and Quarantine program. MIlAN ZUBrIK, FOreST reSeArCH INSTITUTe SlOvAKIA, BUgWOOD.Org Ips typographus (European Spruce Bark Beetle) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Early Bloomer: Hydrangea paniculata 'Praecox'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25462","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14e896b.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pfeiffer, Sue A.","article_content":"Early Bloomer: Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' Sue A. Pfeiffer D uring the second half of the nineteenth century, the latest trend in the gardening world was the acquisition and display of exotic plants. At the time, Darwin's theory of evolution was changing the scientific community, and Harvard botanist Asa Gray's paper noting the similarities between eastern North American and eastern Asian floras had recently been published. By the early 1890s, the still young Arnold Arboretum was beginning to take shape. C. S. Sargent, the first director of the Arboretum, had become highly interested in Gray's work comparing our native flora to that of eastern Asia. His desire to plant the Arboretum with every tree capable of surviving the New England climate led him to seek exotic Asian species from similar climates. Although European plant species were easily obtained, acquiring plant material directly from Asia was still difficult during this era. Wanting to view the native flora and personally judge the plants for their landscape value, Sargent set off on a ten week expedition to Japan in the fall of 1892. He collected extensively on the islands of Hondo and Yezo (now known as Honshu and Hokkaido), returning with seeds of 200 species, including Hydrangea paniculata, panicle hydrangea. Hydrangea paniculata is native to Japan and southern Sakhalin Island in Russia as well as eastern and southern China where it is typically found in mixed forests or open hillsides. A large shrub or small tree, panicle hydrangea may reach 20 feet (6 meters) in height, though in New England landscapes a mature height of 10 to 13 feet (3 to 4 meters) is typical. Its large, simple, dark green leaves have toothed margins and a slightly undulating surface. Panicle hydrangea produces conical compound inflorescences 6 to 8 inches (15 to 20 centimeters) in length at the tips of branches. The inflorescences are comprised of two types of florets; a large number of small, cream-colored, fertile florets, plus a scattering of larger, showier, white, sterile florets. The sterile florets often become speckled or flushed with pink as they age. In New England the species flowers from early August into September. When plants were grown from the Hydrangea paniculata seeds collected by Sargent, one was observed to flower far earlier in the summer than the others. Sargent noted this early bloomer in an issue of the Arboretum publication Garden and Forest in September 1897, less than five years after the seed was collected. Several years later, the plant was named `Praecox' (meaning \"premature\") by Arboretum taxonomist Alfred Rehder. Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' is a vigorous, fast growing, erect shrub which tends to flower three to six weeks earlier than the species. At the Arboretum it typically starts to bloom in early to mid July. Its beauty in the landscape was described in 1922 by Sargent himself: \"When in flower in early July it is one of the handsomest shrubs in the Arboretum,\" and in 1927 by E. H. Wilson: \"Well worth the attention of all interested in hardy plants.\" At the Arboretum, the original plant--now 116 years old--can be found in the Bradley Rosaceous Collection. Although not a member of the rose family, the plant (accession 14714-A) has remained in its original location (formerly the Shrub Collection) because of its importance as a type specimen. The plant is now 15.5 feet (4.7 meters) tall and 24.5 feet (7.5 meters) wide. Every July, visitors are drawn to its incredible display of flowers borne on the many arching stems clad in handsome gray-brown exfoliating bark. Another specimen (accession 14714-1-A), propagated from the original plant in 1905, stands nearby and is equally impressive. Panicle hydrangeas have become very popular in the nursery trade in recent years, and many new cultivars have been introduced. `Praecox' remains the earliest blooming cultivar and is valuable for extending the panicle hydrangea bloom season. While not as readily available as some cultivars, `Praecox' is well worth seeking out and acquiring. Sue Pfeiffer is a Curatorial Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 66","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25463","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed15ea36f.jpg","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 66 Items in boldface refer to illustrations. American cultural\/horticultural studies 2: 2831, 3235 American Society for Horticultural Science 2: 31 Amur corktree, fruit of 1: 14 \"An African Fir Grows in Boston,\" Kyle Port 3: 32, inside back cover Anagnostakis, Sandra L., \"American Chestnuts in the 21st Century\" 4: 2231 Ananas, fruit 2: 25 Andersen, Phyllis, \"A Matter of Taste: Pleasure Gardens and Civic Life\" 3: 1014 Andropogon gerardii 2: 35 Angelo, Ray 3: 5 Anoplophora glabripennis 1: 22 Anthracnose fungus, on ash 4: 35 Apios americana 3: inside front cover Apiosporina morbosa 4: 20, 20 Apples or crabapples with ornamental fruit 2: 22, 23 Arboriculture, for old trees 1: 36 -- 19th-century photo of 2: 29 -- urban 2: 910 Aril 2: 25 Arnold, James 1: 10 Arnold Arboretum, Abies marocana at 3: 32, inside back cover -- -- Accessions process 1: 1718 -- -- -- terms 1: 2021 -- -- Acer saccharinum at 1: 36, inside back cover -- -- African plants in 3: 32 -- -- autumn-fruiting plants 2: 2227, 2227 -- -- Biogeographic Collections 1: 15 -- -- Bussey Hill, in 1930 1: 11 -- -- Case Estates 1: 10, 13 -- -- Cathaya argyrophylla at 3: 2223, 23 -- -- Central Woods 4: 36 -- -- Clethra barbinervis at 4: 36, inside back cover -- -- Conifer Collection 1: 17; 3: 32 -- -- -- -- monotypic rarities in 3: 20, 2223, 23 -- -- conservation collections 1: 16, 17 -- -- Core Collections 1: 1516 -- -- cultivar collections 1: 1718 -- -- Dana Greenhouse and Nursery 1: 19; 3: 22, 32 -- -- Display collections 1: 19 A Abies 3: 16 -- pinsapo var. marocana 3: 32, inside back cover -- -- var. pinsapo `Glauca' 3: 32 Acer 1: 6 -- seeds 2: 26 -- campestre 3: 32 -- dasycarpum 1: 36 -- mono, with bark fungi 4: 18 -- monspessulanum 3: 32 -- negundo, lifespan 2: 2 -- opulus ssp. hispanicum 3: 32 -- saccharinum 1: 36, inside back cover -- -- lifespan 2: 2 -- saccharum 2: 5, 7 -- triflorum, seed 2: 26 \"A Closer Look at Fungi in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Kathryn Richardson 4: front cover, 1321, 13, 1521 Acorn, of bur oak 2: 26 Actinidia spp. 2: 22 -- arguta 4: 36 Adelges tsugae, at Arboretum 1: 2228 Aesculus glabra 2: 36 Africa, plants of 3: 32, inside back cover Agaricus bisporus 4: 14 Aggregate fruits 2: 25 Agricultural record-keeping 3: 5 -- terracing, in China 2: 13 Agrilus planipennis 1: 22 Ailanthus altissima f. erythrocarpa, seeds 2: 26 Albizia julibrissin 1: 6; 2: 27 Alexander, John H. III, \"Collecting Sweetgum in the Wilds of Missouri\" 2: 36, inside back cover Alliaria petiolata 1: 23 \"A Matter of Taste: Pleasure Gardens and Civic Life,\" Phyllis Andersen 3: 1014, 1014 America, the Beautiful (song) 2: 31 \"American Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree,\" by Susan Freinkel, reviewed 4: 3233 \"American Chestnuts in the 21st Century,\" Sandra L. Anagnostakis 4: 2231, 2230 -- -- documentation and nomenclature 1: 10, 13, 14, 17, 18 -- -- early leadership, and accessions 1: 1013, 1718 -- -- fall color in 2008 4: 35 -- -- flooding in 2008 4: 35 -- -- fungi at 4: 1321, 35 -- -- Hemlock Hill conditions 1: 2228, 2224, 27 -- -- -- -- in 1920 1: back cover -- -- Historic Collections 1: 1718 -- -- Japanese and Korean plants at 4: 36 -- -- introductions by 1: 17, 18 -- -- Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection 1: 13, 18 -- -- Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden 1: 18 -- -- Liquidambar styraciflua at 2: 36, inside back cover -- -- Living Collections, description and policy 1: 1021 -- -- Malus collection at Arboretum 1: 17, 17 -- -- Meadow Road 1: 21, 36, inside back cover -- -- microclimate project at 4: 35 -- -- Missions statement, and collections 1: 14 -- -- natural areas in 1: 13, 19 -- -- New England flora and 1: 19 -- -- non-native organisms and 1: 2223 -- -- North American taxa 1: 1516 -- -- nursery and horticultural accessions of 1: 17 -- -- Parrotia subaequalis at 1: 9 -- -- Peters Hill 1: 17 -- -- Plant Health Manager 1: 22, 27 -- -- Putnam Fellow 4: 35 -- -- Ralph E. Perry Wood Collection 4: 3 -- -- Rhododendrons at 1: inside front cover, 11, 17 -- -- school children at 1: 28 -- -- seed exchanges 3: 2223 -- -- Spontaneous Flora 1: 14, 19 -- -- Synoptic Collections 1: 16 -- -- tallest tree 1: 36, inside back cover -- -- taxa, botanical and horticultural 1: 10, 13, 17, 18 -- -- Tsuga canadendis, and HWA 1: 2224, 25, 2627 -- -- two-sites issue 1: 10, 13 Index 37 -- -- Weather Station Data--2008 4: 3435 -- -- Willow Path flooding 4: 35 Arnoldia, Index to Volume 65 1: 2935 Aronia melanocarpa, fruit 2: 22, 23 Ascomycota 4: 14 Ash, seeds 2: 26 -- green 2: 5, 6 Ashton, Peter, and collections policies 1: 13 Asia, plants of 1: 29, 10, 12, 15, 27; 2: 1121; 3: 1525; 2630; 4: 2, 6, 710, 36 Asimina triloba 2: 36 Australian Bicentennial Arboretum 3: 17, 18 Autumn fruiting display 2: 2227 Azalea, swamp 1: inside front cover B \"Bai guo\" legend 3: 27, 30 Bailey, Liberty Hyde 2: 29 Bark interest 1: 2, 7, 8, 36; 2: 36; 4: 36 Basidiomycota fungi 4: 13, 14 Bates, Katherine 2: 31 Beach tomato 2: 25 Beautyberry, purple 2: 22, 24 Beech, Japanese 1: 16 Beetle, Asian lady 1: 25 -- -- long-horned 1: 22 -- elm bark 1: 25 -- native lady 1: 25 Berry 2: 22 Betula spp. 2: 7 -- lenta 1: 23, 26; 3: 3, 8; 4: 35 -- nigra 2: 36 -- papyrifera, lifespan 2: 2 -- populifolia 3: 4, 8 Biodiversity, threats to 1: 22 Biogeographic collections 1: 15 Biological responses to climate change 3: 29 Birch, bare-root planting of 2: 7 -- sweet 1: 23, 26, 28; 3: 3, 8; 4: 35 -- river 2: 36 Birds, and fall-fruiting plants 2: 22 Bird's-nest fungi 4: 19 Black knot fungus 4: 20 Blazing star 2: 35 Bloodroot 3: 8 Blueberry, highbush 3: 6, 8 Bluestem, big 2: 35 Blue Hill Observatory, long-term temperatures at 3: 6 Book reviews 2: 2831; 4: 3233 Borer, emerald ash 1: 22 Boston ivy 2: 22 -- parks 3: 10, 13, 14 Boston Public Garden 3: 10, 13, 14 Botanizing in Concord, MA 3: 29 Botany, of fruits 2: 2227 Britton's violet 3: 3 Brooks, Wm. Penn 4: 36 Buartnuts 4: 610 Buckeye, Ohio 2: 36 Buckthorn, glossy 1: 26 Bull, Ephraim 2: 29 Burnham, Charles 4: 25 Bussey Institution 3: 20 Butternut, American, status of 4: 212 -- -- bark 4: 23, 9 -- -- canker disease 4: 46, 4 -- -- cold-hardiness 4: 2 -- -- conservation and restoration 4: 56, 910 -- -- dye from 4: 3 -- -- flowering 4: back cover -- -- genetics 4: 7, chart 8, 910 -- -- native range 4: map 3 -- -- nuts 4: 3, 3, 68, 7 -- -- propagation 4: 6 -- -- regeneration and reproduction 4: 56, 910 -- -- seeds 4: 6, 910 -- -- trees 4: 2, 5, 5, 6, 10 -- -- uses for 4: 24 -- -- wood 4: 34, 3, 4 Buttonbush 2: 36 Buxus 1: 6 C Cactoblastis cactorum 1: 25 Calendar of natural events 3: 5 Callicarpa 2: 22 -- dichotoma, fruiting 2: 24 Canada, butternut status in 4: 4 Capsule 2: 27 Cardinal flower 3: 7 Carnivores, and seed dispersal 2: 18 Carpinus 1: 6 -- caroliniana 2: 36 Carya spp. 4: 2 -- illinoinensis 4: 2 Case Estates 1: 10, 13 Castanea 1: 6 -- crenata 4: 28, 29 -- dentata, blight, and responses to 4: 2233, 2330 -- -- breeding 4: 2829 -- -- decline and regrowth 4: 22, 24, 2829, 3233 -- -- distribution 4: 22, map 22 -- -- flowers of 4: 25 -- -- future of 4: 2231, 32, 33 -- -- gall-wasp damage 4: 29 -- -- genetic analysis of hybrids 4: chart 27 -- -- nuts 4: 27, 28 -- -- regeneration and reproduction 4: 2225, 27, 28, 3233 -- -- trees 4: 23, 26, 27, 30 -- -- wood and timber 4: 22, 2425, 29, 32, 33 -- henryii 4: 29 -- ozarkensis 4: 29 -- pumila 4: 29 -- mollissima 4: 28 Castilleja sessiliflora 2: 35 Castor River [MO] 2: 36 Cathaya, as \"living fossil\" 3: 16, 20 -- argyrophylla 3: 1525, 15, 1819, 21, 2324 -- -- at Arboretum 3: 2223 -- -- collecting in China 3: 1618, 2425 -- -- cultivation in landscape 3: 19, 21 -- -- distribution in China 3: map and chart 1617 -- -- germination record 3: 22 -- -- leaf detail 3: 15 -- -- propagation 3: 18, 18, 2223, 23 -- nanchuanensis 3: 16, 17 \"Cathaya Comes to the Arnold Arboretum\" 3: 2223 \"Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China,\" Christopher B. Callaghan, with contributions by William McNamara and Peter Del Tredici 3: 1525, 1521, 2324 Cedrus atlantica 3: 32 Celtis occidentalis 2: 5 Central Park, and public taste 3: 10, 11, 14 Cephalanthus occidentalis 2: 36 Cercidiphyllum 2: 17 -- japonicum 4: 36 Channing, William Ellery 3: 5 Cheng, W.C. 3: 20 Cherries 2: 24 Chestnut, American, status and survival 4: 2231; 3233 -- -- history and culture 4: 22, 2829, 3233 -- Asian species 4: 2324, 28 38 Arnoldia 67\/1 -- breeding 4: 2327, 2831, 32 -- hybrids 4: chart 27 -- nut-growing 4: 23, 24, 27, 2829, 28 Chestnut blight disease 4: 14, 2231, 24, 3233 -- -- -- biological controls 4: 2426, 27, 28 -- -- -- resistance to 4: 2425, 26, 28 -- -- gall wasp 4: 29, 29 -- -- weevil 4: 28, 29 Chicken of the woods fungi 4: 17 China, nature reserves in 3: 1718 -- plants of, 1: 29, 12, 27; 2: 1121; 3: 1525, 2630 \"Chinese Parrotia: A Sibling Species of the Persian Parrotia,\" Jianhua Li and Peter Del Tredici 1: 29, 28 Chokeberry 2: 23, 23 Christopher B. Callaghan, with contributions by William McNamara and Peter Del Tredici, \"Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China\" 3: 1525 Chryphonectria parasitica fungus 4: 2223, 3233 -- -- -- biological controls of 4: 2628, 32 -- -- -- in Connecticut, circa 1900 4: map 24 Chung, H.C. 3: 16 Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC), 1930s 2: 34, 34 Civil War uniforms, butternut-dyed 4: 3 Clark, Stacy 4: 29 Clethra alnifolia 2: 27; 4: 36 -- barbinervis 4: 36, inside back cover -- -- centenarian at Arboretum 4: 36 Climate change, biological responses to 3: 29 -- -- ginkgo's adaptability to 2: 17, 18 \"Collecting Sweetgum in the Wilds of Missouri,\" John H. Alexander III 2: 36, inside back cover Clover, prairie bush 2: 35 Cold-hardiness 2: 36; 4: 2 Collections policy 1: 1021 Colorado College 2: 31 Compass plant 2: 35 Compression of tree trunks by roots 2: 47, 810 Concord, MA, flora of and climate change 3: 29 -- -- preservation property in 3: 9 -- -- Public Library archives 3: 5 Coneflower, prairie 2: 35 Conifers 1: 2228; 3: 1525; 4: 17, 20 -- dwarf collection at Arboretum 1: 17 -- fungi on 4: 17, 20 Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES) 4: 22, 24, 26, 28, 29 Connecticut, chestnuts in 4: 22, 23, 24 -- -- -- circa 1900 4: 23, 24, 30 -- HWA in 1: 25, 26 Conservation of forestland 3: 9, 32 Convallaria majalis, flowering and winter temperatures 3: 5 Coop, Julie 4: 35 Coprinus comatus 4: 18, 18 Cornus, anthracnose and 4: 35 -- fruiting 2: 24 -- alternifolia, flower 1: 15 -- controversa 1: 8, 15 Corylopsis sinensis var. glandulifera, blossom with bee 4: inside front cover Cotinus coggyria 1: 12 Cotoneaster 2: 23 Crabapple `Donald Wyman' 2: 23 -- urban planting 2: 7 Cranberrybush 2: 24 Crataegus 2: 23 Crucibulum fungi 4: 19 Cucumbertree magnolia, senescent at Arboretum 4: front cover \"Curatorial Notes: An Updated Living Collections Policy at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Michael S. Dosmann 1: 1021, 1112, 1421 Curtis, James 2: 31 Curtis Prairie 2: 3235, 33 Cyathus fungi 4: 19 -- -- -- \"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King,\" with Zhun Xiang, Yinghai Xiang, and Bixia Xiang 3: 2630, 2730 -- -- -- \"Wake Up and Smell the Ginkgos\" 2: 1121 -- -- -- photos by 2: front\/back covers Denmark, public garden 3: back cover Diospyros 1: 6 -- virginiana, fruit of 2: 22, 22 Disjunct flora 1: 24, 15, 15 Disney, Walt, and public parks 3: 14 Distyliopsis tutcheri 1: 3 Distylium racemosum 1: 3 Dog vomit slime mold 4: 21 Doogue, William 3: 10, 14 Dosmann, Michael S., \"Curatorial Notes: An Updated Living Collections Policy at the Arnold Arboretum\" 1: 1021 -- -- -- photo by 1: inside front cover Drupe 2: 24, 25 Dutch elm disease 1: 25; 4: 14 \"Dysfunctional Root Systems and Brief Landscape Lives: Stem Girdling Roots and the Browning of Our Landscapes,\" Gary Johnson 2: 210, 36, 810 E Ecosystem disturbance 1: 2627 \"Ecosystems in Flux: The Lessons of Hemlock Hill,\" Richard Schulhof 1: 2228, 2224, 27, 28 Edinburgh Conifer Conservation Program 3: 18 Elm, American 1: 25 -- arborists in, 1890s 2: 29 -- seed 2: 26 Elysian Fields park [NJ] 3: 12 Emerald Necklace parks 3: 13 Endangered or rare plants 1: 29, 17, 2228; 2: 1121; 3: 1525, 2630; 4: 212, 2231, 3233 English yews 2: front\/back covers Enkianthus campanulatus 1: front cover Environmental education 3: 9 Ergot fungus 4: 1415 Estabrook Woods 3: 9 Evolution, of Hamamelidaceae 1: 26 \"Excerpt From Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America,\" Philip J. Pauly 2: 3235, 3335 D Daniel Boone National Forest [KY] 4: 2 Dean, Brad 3: 5 Death camas 2: 35 Debreczy, Zsolt and Istvan Racz, photo by 1: inside back cover Deer damage to trees 4: 5, 29 Delaware Valley, Clethra in 4: 36 Delphinium carolinianum subsp. virescens 2: 35 Del Tredici, Peter, \"Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China,\" with Christopher B. Callaghan, and William McNamara 3: 1525 -- -- -- \"The Chinese Parrotia: A Sibling Species of the Persian Parrotia,\" and Jianhua Li 1: 29 Index 39 F Fabaceae, seeds of 2: 27 Fagus 1: 6 -- crenata 1: 16 Fairchild, David 2: 31 Fairchild Botanical Garden 2: 31 Fairy Lake Botanical Garden 3: 19, 22 Famiglietti, Bob 4: 35 Farrand, Beatrix 1: 10 Fassett, Norman, and prairie landscape 2: 3235 Faxon, Charles, illustration by, circa 1900 4: back cover Felis bengalensis 2: 18 Fir, African 3: 32, inside back cover -- Douglas 3: 23 Firethorn 2: 23 Florida, early horticulture in 2: 31 Flowering times and climate change 3: 29 Flycatcher, pied 3: 3 Follicle 2: 25 Forest Hills Cemetery, ginkgos in 2: 15, 16 Forests, Caspian [Central Asia] 1: 6 -- conservation of 3: 9 -- Eastern 4: 56, 10, 22, 28, 32 -- hardwood 4: 5, 22 -- loss of mixed in China 2: 12, 13 Forsythia `Courdijau' 1: 18 Fortunearia fortunei 1: 8 Fothergilla major 1: 3 Fragrant plants 4: 36 Frangula alnus 1: 26 Fraxinus, spp. 2: 7 -- anthracnose on 4: 35 -- seeds 2: 26 -- pennsylvanica 2: 5 Freinkel, Susan, \"American Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree,\" reviewed 4: 3233 Fruiting, botany of autumn 2: 2227 \"Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America,\" Philip J. Pauly, reviewed and excerpted 2: 2831, 3235 \"Fruits of Autumn,\" Nancy Rose 2: 2227, 2227 Fu, Chengxin 1: 6 Fuligo septica 4: 21, 21 Fungi, at Arboretum 4: front cover, 1321 -- classification and identification of 4: 1315 -- hardwoods and 4: 15, 17, 18 Fungus disease, of butternut 4: 211 -- -- of chestnut 4: 14, 2231, 3233 -- -- of elm 1: 25; 4: 14 G Galloway, Beverly T. 2: 29 Ganoderma lucidum 4: 21 -- tsugae 4: 20, 20 Gardens, public 1: 1021; 3: 1014 Garlic mustard 1: 23 Geranium `Crystal Palace Gem' 3: 10, 10 Ghizhou Botanical Garden 3: 17 Ginkgo, ancient giant of Li Jiawan, China 3: 2630, 27, 29 -- -- -- drawings of, in elevation and cross-section 3: 28, 30 -- -- -- folk legends 3: 27, 30 Ginkgo adiantoides, in fossil record 2: 17 -- biloba 2: 1121, 11, 12, 1415; 3: 2630 -- -- adaptability 2: 11, 13, 17, 18, 20 -- -- aging and lifespan 3: 2627, 30 -- -- epiphytes on 2: 12 -- -- evolutionary history 2: 1718 -- -- foliage: 2: 11, 11, 13, 17, 19 -- -- fruits 2: 1516, 15, 18 -- -- -- dispersal by animals 2: 18 -- -- genetic diversity 2: 12 -- -- growth 2: 14, 14, 18; 3: 2627, 28, 29, 30, 30 -- -- in cultivation and the wild 2: 1214, chart 14, 17 -- -- pollination 2: 15 -- -- popularity 2: 11, 12, 13; 3: 27, 30 -- -- populations 2: 1121 -- -- regeneration 3: 2627, 30 -- -- reproduction 2: 1318 -- -- -- and latitude 2: chart 16 -- -- -- and temperature 2: 15, 1617 -- -- urban planting 2: 11, 11, 18, 19, 20 -- yimaensis, in fossil record 2: 17, 17 Gleditsia spp. 2: 27 -- triacanthos, pods of 2: 27, 27 -- -- `Shademaster' 2: 5 Global climate change 3: 2, 3, 6 Glyptostrobus 2: 17 Golden rain tree capsules 2: 27, 27 Goldenrods and climate change 3: 8 Gong, Wei 2: 13 Grape 2: 22 -- honeysuckle 2: 22 Graves, Arthur 4: 24 Gray, Asa 1: 3 Great Meadows National Wildlife Refuge 3: 9 Great Smoky Mts. National Park, HWA in 1: 26 Greenbrier 2: 35 Grey Towers historic site, butternut interior 4: 4, 4 Grifola frondosa 4: 19, 19 Groundnut 3: inside front cover Guangxi Institute of Botany 3: 16 Gustafson, Kathryn, and Crosby, Schlessinger, and Smallwood (designers) 3: 14 Gymnocladus dioicus 2: 27 Gypsy moth removal, 19th-century photo 2: 29 H Hackberry 2: 5, 6 Hallucinogen in grain fungus 4: 1415 Hamamelidaceae, evolutionary kinships 1: 26, chart 3 -- genetic analysis 1: 34 Hamamelis 1: 24 -- x intermedia `Jelena' 3: 31 -- japonica 1: 2 -- mexicana 1: 2 -- mollis 1: 2 -- vernalis 1: 2 -- virginiana 1: 2, 3 Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center 4: 10 Hardwood forests 4: 5 -- fungi 4: 15, 17, 18 Harmonia axyridis 1: 25 Harvard Forest, HWA study 1: 27 Hawthorne 2: 23 He, Shan-an 1: 6 Heartnuts 4: 7, 7 Heimarck, Heather D., book review by 4: 3233 Helianthus rigidus 2: 35 Hemlock, Chinese, and HWA 1: 27 -- eastern 1: 2228 Hemlock varnish shelf fungus 4: 20 -- woolly adelgid (HWA), at Arboretum 1: 2228 -- -- -- cold and 1: 26 -- -- -- egg masses of 1: 22 -- -- -- history of 1: 25, 26 -- -- -- management of 1: 2228 -- -- -- pesticides for 1: 26 -- -- -- resistance to 1: 27 Hen of the woods fungi 4: 19 Hessian fly 2: 29 40 Arnoldia 67\/1 Hickories 4: 2 Hird, Abby 4: 35 Hokkaido, plants of 4: 36 Hollies 2: 22, 24, 24 Honey locust 2: 5, 6, 27, 27 Honeysuckle berries 2: 22, 22 Hornbeam, American 2: 36 Horticultural oil 1: 26 Horticulture, civic 3: 1014 Hosack, David 2: 29 Hosmer, Alfred 3: 29 Hovey, Charles 2: 29 Hsu, H.L. 3: 16 Huanyong, Chen 3: 16, 20, 20 Huaping Nature Reserve 3: 17 Hummingbirds and climate change 3: 9 Hunnewell, Horatio Holis 2: 31 Hunnewell Pinetum, 1901 image 2: 30 Hurricane damage to maples 1: 36 -- of 1938 1: 25 Hybrids, role in species recovery 4: 9 Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' 1: 18 Hypovirus 4: 26, 28 I Ilex spp. 2: 22, 24 -- decidua 2: 36 -- verticillata `Red Sprite' 3: front cover -- -- `Winter Red' 2: 24 Imidacloprid 1: 26 \"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 65\" 1: 2935 Inky cap mushrooms 4: 18, 18 International Registrar for Chestnut Cultivars 4: 29 International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 3: 32 Introduced organisms 1: 2223, 25, 2627 Ironwood, Chinese 1: 29 -- Persian 1: 29 Jefferson, Thomas, and horticulture 2: 29 -- -- recordkeeping 3: 5 Jeholornis, and ginkgos 2: 18 Jensen, Jens 2: 29, 32 Jiangsu Institute of Botany 1: 4 Jixin, Zhong 3: 16, 24 Johnson, Gary, \"Dysfunctional Root Systems and Brief Landscape Lives: Stem Girdling Roots and the Browning of Our Landscapes\" 2: 210 Johnson, Samuel 3: 11 Juglandaceae 4: 2 Juglans 4: 2 -- ailantifolia 4: 2 -- -- var. cordiformis 4: 7 -- x bixbyi 4: 2, 6 -- Cardiocaryon Section 4: 2 -- cinerea, status and survival 4: 212, 27, 9, 10 -- -- bark 4: 2, 3, 4, 6, 9 -- -- canker 4: 46, 4 -- -- `Chamberlin' 4: 3 -- -- `Craxezy' 4: 3 -- -- DNA 4: 910 -- -- fungus epidemic 4: 211 -- -- hybrids compared to species 4: 610, 6, 7, chart 8 -- -- -- nuts 4: 2, 3, 3, 5, 69, 67 -- -- inflorescence, circa 1900 illustration 4: back cover -- -- lenticels 4: 9 -- -- native range 4: map 3 -- -- nuts 4: 3, 7 -- -- trees 4: 26, 2, 5, 6, 10 -- -- wood 4: 3, 3, 4, 4 -- mandshurica 4: 2 -- nigra 4: 2 -- x quadrangulata 4: 2 -- regia 4: 2 -- Rhysocaryon Section 4: 2 -- Trachycaryon Section 4: 2 Koller, Gary, plant-collecting anecdote 2: 36 Korea, plants of 1: 12; 2: 23; 4: 36 Kwangfu-Lingchu Expedition 3: 16 Kwangtung Institute of Botany 3: 16 L Laetiporus cincinnatus 4: 17 -- sulphureus 4: 17, 17 Larkspur, prairie 2: 35 Latinized cultivar names 1: 13, 18 Lei, H.C. 3: 16 Leopard cat 2: 18 Leopold, Aldo, and prairie culture 2: 31, 3235 Lepachys pinnata 2: 35 Lespedeza capitata 2: 35 Li, Jianhua, \"The Chinese Parrotia: A Sibling Species of the Persian Parrotia,\" with Peter Del Tredici 1: 29 \"Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King,\" Zhun Xiang, Yinghai Xiang, Bixia Xiang, and Peter Del Tredici 3: 2630, 2730 Liatris spp. 2: 35 Lichens 4: 14 Livestock, plants poisonous to 2: 35 Linden 3: back cover -- littleleaf 2: 58, 56, 8, 9 Liquidambar styraciflua, in Missouri 2: 36 -- -- bark 2: inside back cover Living Collections Policy 1: 1021 -- -- -- text of 1: 1421 \"Living fossils\" 2: 18; 3: 1517, 20 Lobelia cardinalis 3: 7 Longenecker, William 2: 3233, 34 Longwood Gardens 4: 32 Lonicera 2: 22 -- reticulata, fruit 2: 22 Lupine, sundial 2: 35 Lupinus perennis 2: 35 M Maclura pomifera, fruit 2: 25, 25 Magnolia, fruiting behavior 2: 25 -- sweetbay hybrid 2: 25, 25 Magnolia acuminata, senescent 4: front cover -- virginiana, seeds 2: 25, 25 Malus spp. 2: 7, 22, 23 -- -- collection at Arboretum 1: 17, 17 -- `Donald Wyman' 2: 22, 23 J Jack, John 1: 17; 3: 20, 20 Japan, plants of 1: 18; 4: 2, 6, 7, 36 \"Japanese Clethra: A Hidden Gem,\" Richard Schulhof 4: 36, inside back cover Japanese clethra, centenarian specimen 4: 36, inside back cover -- knotweed 1: 23, 26 K Katsura 4: 36 Keeteleria fortunei 3: 16 Kentucky coffee tree 2: 27 Keren, Kuang 3: 16 Kiwi, hardy 2: 22; 4: 36 Knotweed, Japanese 1: 23, 26 Koelreuteria paniculata capsules 2: 27, 27 Index 41 Maple, Norway, compression of stem tissue 2: 5 -- seeds 2: 26, 26 -- silver 1: 36, inside back cover; 2: 2 -- sugar 2: 5, 6, 7, 8 Marlatt, Charles L. 2: 29 Massachusetts, climate change in 3: 29 Massachusetts Gypsy Moth Commission 2: 29 Massachusetts state agricultural college 4: 36 Mayetiola destructor 2: 29 McFarland, John Horace, 1920 photo by 1: back cover McNamara, William 3: 18 -- -- \"Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China,\" with Christopher B. Callaghan and Peter Del Tredici 3: 1525 -- -- \"Three Conifers South of the Yangtze\" excerpted 3: 2425 Medicinal use of fungi 4: 21 Mendocino Botanic Garden 3: 25 Merkel, Hermann 4: 32 Merrill, Elmer D. 3: 15 Metasequoia 2: 17 -- glyptostroboides 3: 15, 20 Millenium Park, Chicago 3: 14 Miller, Wilhelm 2: 32 Miller-Rushing, Abraham J., \"Impact of Climate Change on the Flora of Thoreau's Concord\" with Richard J. Primack 3: 29 -- -- -- photo by 3: inside front cover Minnesota Department of Forest Resources, urban tree survey 2: 510 Missouri, collecting sweetgum in 2: 36 Missouri Botanical Garden herbarium 4: 9 Moroccan fir 3: 32, inside back cover Morocco, fir forest in 3: 32 -- plants of 3: 32 Morus, fruit 2: 25 Moth, winter 1: 23 Mountain ash, autumn interest 2: 22, 23 -- -- Korean 2: 23, 23 -- habitats 1: 68; 2: 1213; 3: 16, 17, 1921, 26, 32 Mulberry 2: 25 Mulch, mold in 4: 21 Munroe, Alfred, 1890s photo by 3: 4 Murrill, William 4: 32 Mutualist fungi 4: 14 Mycena spp. 4: 1819, 18 Mychorrhizae and trees 4: 14 Myxomycetes 4: 15, 21 N Nanjing Botanical Garden 1: 6, 7 Nannyberry, fruits of 2: inside front cover National Clonal Germplasm Repository [Davis, CA] 4: 7, 9 Native Americans 2: 33; 4: 23, 32 Nature Conservancy 4: 10 New England flora 1: 19 -- -- -- and climate change 3: 29 New York, public gardens in 3: 10, 1112 New York Botanical Garden 3: 22 Nicholson, Rob 3: 32 Nidulariales fungi 4: 19 Nolen, John 2: 32 Non-native organisms 1: 2229; 4: 212; 2233 North America, plants native to 1: 1516, 2228, 36; 2: 2331, 36; 3: 3235; 4: 212, 2231, 3233 North American Plant Collections Consortium (NAPCC) 1: 1516 Northern Research Station of Forest Service [MN] 4: 6 Nurseries, historic 1: 17 Nursery trade, post-World War II 1: 13 Nut trees 2: 1518; 4: 212, 2233 Nyctereutes procynoides 2: 18 O Oak, bur (acorns) 2: 26 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr. 2: 29 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Sr. 2: 29, 31; 3: 1011 Olmsted park design 2: 32; 3: 1011 Operaphtera brumata 1: 23 Ophiostoma ulmi 1: 25 Opuntia spp. 1: 25 -- macrorhiza 2: 35 Ostry, Michael 4: 6 Oudolf, Piet 3: 14 Oxalis stricta 3: 6 Oyster mushroom 4: 17, 17 P Paeonia coriaceae var. marocana 3: 32 Paguma larvata 2: 18 Palm civet 2: 18 Parasitic fungi 4: 14, 15, 17, 19 Parks and popular aesthetics 3: 1014 Parrot, F.W. 1: 4 Parrotia, Chinese 1: 29 Parrotia, botanical literature on 1: 23, 45, 6 -- distribution 1: map 2 -- family relationships 1: chart 3 -- persica 1: 26 -- subaequalis 1: 29, 38 -- -- at Arboretum 1: 9 -- -- evolution and genetics 1: 26 -- -- penjing (bonsai) subject 1: 6 -- -- pollination 1: 4 -- -- propagation: 1: 6, 6, 7, 7, 9 -- -- Shaniodendron and 1: 4 Parrotiopsis jacquemontana 1: 3 Parthenocissus 2: 22 Pauly, Philip J., \"Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America,\" title reviewed and excerpted 2: 2831, 3235 -- -- -- death of, in 2008 2: 31 Pawpaw 2: 36 Payne, Jerry 4: 29 Peaches 2: 24 Pear 2: 23 -- Chinese sand 2: 23 Pecan 4: 2 Penjing, Parrotia as 1: 6 Persimmon 2: 22, 22 Pest control, unintended effects of 1: 25, 26 Pheasant's-back polypore 4: front cover, 15, 15 Phenological events and flowering times 3: 29 Phellodendron amurense 1: 14 Picea 3: 23 Picturesque landscape ideals 3: 1011 Pijut, Paula M., \"The Peril and Potential of Butternut,\" with Keith Woeste 4: 212 Pinaceae 3: 23 Pinchot, Gifford, home of 4: 4 Pineapple 2: 25 Pine, jack 2: 2 Pinus spp. 3: 16, 23 -- banksiana, lifespan 2: 2 Planting depth, and lifespan of city trees 2: 4, 510 Platanus 2: 17 Pleasure garden, aesthetics of 3: 1014 42 Arnoldia 67\/1 Pleurotus ostreatus 4: 17, 17 Plums 2: 24 Png, S.K. 3: 17 Pods 2: 27 Pogonia ophioglossoides 3: 7 Poison ivy 2: 35 Pollinators and climate change 3: 3, 89 Polygonum cuspidatum 1: 23 Polyporus squamosus 4: 15, 15 Pome 2: 23 Pomology, in 19th-century America 2: 2831, 3235 Port, Kyle, \"An African Fir Grows in Boston\" 3: 32, inside back cover Possumhaw 2: 36 Prairie landscape 2: 3235, 33 -- -- species and weeds 2: 3435, 35 -- painted cup 2: 35 -- rose 2: 35 Prickly-pear cactus 2: 35 Primack, Richard J., \"The Impact of Climate Change on the Flora of Thoreau's Concord,\" with Abraham J. Miller-Rushing 3: 29 -- -- -- photo by 3: inside front cover Prunus, edible fruit in genus 2: 24 Pseudocolus fusiformis 4: 1617, 16 Pterocarya 1: 6 Pterostyrax corymbosum 1: 8 Public gardens and aesthetics 3: 1014 Pyracantha 2: 23 Pyrus pyrifolia, fruit 2: 23, 23 Rhododendron viscosum f. rhodanthum 1: inside front cover -- yedoense var. poukhanense 1: 11 Richardson, Kathryn, \"A Closer Look at Fungi in the Arnold Arboretum\" 4: front cover, 1321 Riming, Hao 1: 4, 6, 6 Riparian habitats 1: 8; 2: 17, 36 Rock, Joseph 1: 17 Root-growth, of yews 2: front\/back covers Root restriction, and tree mortality 2: 210, 46, 810 Rosa carolina 2: 35 -- rugosa hips 2: 25 Rose, Nancy, \"Silver Wins Gold\" 1: 36, inside back cover -- -- \"The Fruits of Autumn\" 2: 2227 -- -- photos by 1: front cover; 2: inside front\/inside back covers; 3: front\/inside back covers; 4: front\/ inside front covers Rose, prairie 2: 35 Rose family 2: 23 -- pogonia 3: 7 Rosehips 2: 25 Rosinweed 2: 35 Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh 3: 18 Royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney 3: 18 Russia, plants of 1: 12 S Salem witch trials, and ergot poisoning 4: 15 Samara 2: 26, 26 Sanguinaria canadensis 3: 8 Sapphireberry 2: 24 Sapporo Agricultural School 4: 36 Saprobic fungi 4: 14, 15, 17, 19 Sargent, Charles S. 1: 10, 17, 18; 2: 29 Saunders, William 2: 29 Sax, Karl, and Peters Hill 1: 17 Schlereth, Thomas J., book review by 2: 2831 Schneider, Stephen 4: 35 Schulhof, Richard, \"Ecosystems in Flux: The Lessons of Hemlock Hill\" 1: 2228 -- -- \"Japanese Clethra: A Hidden Gem\" 4: 36 -- -- photo by 4: inside back cover Seasonal temperatures and flowering times 3: 78 Q Quackgrass 2: 34 Quarryhill Botanic Garden 3: 18 Quercus spp. 1: 6; 2: 26; 4: 35 -- fungi of 4: 17, 19 -- macrocarpa, lifespan 2: 2 -- -- acorns 2: 26 Qiu, Ying-xiong 1: 7 Qiu, Yinlong 1: 4 R Raccoon dog 2: 18 Racz, Istvan, and Zsolt Debreczy, photo by 1: inside back cover Raspberry, fruits 2: 25 Raynal, Guillaume 2: 29 Rhododendron collection at Arboretum 1: 17 Seed dispersal, of ginkgos 2: 18 Shaniodendron 1: 45 Silk-tree 2: 27 Silphium spp. 2: 34, 35 -- laciniatum 2: 35 Silva of North America, illustration from, circa 1900 4: back cover \"Silver Wins Gold,\" Nancy Rose 1: 36, inside back cover Simberloft, Daniel 2: 29 Simpson, Charles T. 2: 29 Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum, discovery and description 4: 45 Slime mold 4: 21 Smilax lasioneura 2: 35 Soil, excess and tree decline 2: 510 Solidago graminifolia 3: 8 -- rigida 2: 35 -- rugosa 3: 8 Sorbus 1: 6; 2: 22, 23 -- alnifolia 2: 23, 23 -- yuana 1: 12 Sorrel, yellow wood 3: 6 Southwest China, Off the Beaten Track 3: 17 Spain, plants of 3: 32 Sperry, Theodore, and prairie style 2: 32, 3435 Spruces 3: 23 Stewartia rostrata 1: 8 -- sinensis 1: 8 Stinkhorn fungi, in Arboretum 4: 1617 Storm damage, to urban trees 2: 2, 3, 45, 7, 89 Styrax confusus 1: 8 Sukachev (Soviet botanist) 3: 16 Summersweet 2: 27, 27; 4: 36 Sunflower, stiff 2: 35 Sun Yat-sen University 1: 4 Sweetbay magnolia seeds 2: 25 Sweetgum, collecting in Missouri 2: 36, inside back cover Sycamore 2: 36 Sycopsis sinensis 1: 3 Symplocos paniculata, fruit 2: 24 Syringa, at Arboretum 1: 17 T Talassemtane National Park 3: 32 Tan, H.F. 3: 16 Index 43 Taxus 1: 6 -- baccata 2: front\/back covers \"The Impact of Climate Change on the Flora of Thoreau's Concord,\" Abraham J. Miller-Rushing and Richard J. Primack 3: 29, 25, 7, 8 \"The Peril and Potential of Butternut,\" Keith Woeste and Paula M. Pijut 4: 212, 27, 9, 10 Thoreau, Henry David, and flora of Concord, MA 3: 29 -- -- -- statue at Walden 3: 2 \"Three Conifers South of the Yangtze,\" William McNamara, excerpted 3: 2425 Tianping Mts. [China] 3: 16 Tilia cordata, and root-girdling 2: 5, 5, 7, 8, 8, 9 Tivoli Garden 3: 13, 13, back cover Tokyo, gingkos in 2: 11, 20 Toxicodendron radicans 2: 35 Trabut, Louis Charles 3: 32 Trametes versicolor 4: 18, 18 Tree-of-heaven, red-seeded 2: 26 Trees, centenarian or notable specimens 1: 21, 36, inside back cover; 2: front\/back covers, 29; 3: 2630, 27, 29; 4: front\/inside back covers, 15, 30, 36 -- epidemic losses of 1: 2228; 2: 210; 4: 212, 14, 2233 -- relationships with fungi 4: 1321 -- restricted growth, and lifespan 2: 210, chart 2 -- prairie 2: 33, 34 -- urban plantings 2: 210, 9, 11, 20 -- veneration of, in Asia 3: 30 Tremella mesenterica 4: 16, 16 Tsuga canadensis, decline due to HWA 1: 2228 -- -- fungus on 4: 2021, 20 -- chinensis, landscape potential 1: 27 Turkey-foot grass 2: 35 -- tail fungus 4: 18, 18 \"Two Living Fossils and the Arnold Arboretum Connection\" 3: 20 UVW Ulmus seeds 2: 26 -- americana 1: 25 University of California, Berkeley 3: 23 University of Minnesota, urban forestry research 2: 510 University of New Hampshire 1: 4 University of Wisconsin Arboretum 2: 31, 3235, 33 Urban tree losses 2: 210 -- ginkgo plantings 2: 11, 20 -- park displays 3: 1014 USA National Phenology Network 3: 9 USDA Forest Service 4: 4, 10, 29 -- -- -- -- inspections 1: 22 -- -- -- -- -- -- Northern Research Station [MN] 4: 6 US National Academy of Sciences 1: 22 US National Arboretum 2: 31 US National Park Service 2: 34 Vaccinium corymbosum 3: 6 Van Rensselaer, Mariana 3: 10 Vaux, Calvert 3: 10, 11 Vauxhall Gardens [London] 3: 1112, 13 -- -- engraving of, 1785 3: 12 Veblen, Thorstein 3: 11 Vernalization 3: 67 Viburnum 2: 22 -- lentago, fruit 2: inside front cover -- trilobum, fruit 2: 24 Viola brittoniana 3: 3 Virginia, HWA in 1: 25 Virginia creeper 2: 22 Vitis spp. 2: 22 \"Wake Up and Smell the Ginkgos,\" Peter Del Tredici 2: 1121, 1115, 1720 Walden, by Henry David Thoreau 3: 5 Walden Pond 3: 45, 9 -- -- in 1890s 3: 4 Walnut, eastern black 4: 2 -- English 4: 2 -- Japanese, and hybrids of 4: 2, 69, 9 -- Manchurian 4: 2 -- Persian 4: 2 Walnuts, New World 4: 2 Ward, Samuel A. 2: 31 \"Weather Station at Arboretum--2008 Summary\" 4: 3435, 35 Weigela subsessilis 1: 12 Wellesley College, and horticultural heritage 2: 30, 31 Wilson, Ernest Henry 1: 17; 3: 21; 4: 36 Winterberry `Red Sprite' 3: front cover -- `Winter Red' 2: 24 Winter temperatures, and flowering times 3: 67, 8 Wisconsin, butternut canker in 4: 4 -- prairies 2: 3235, 33, 34 Wisteria spp. 2: 27 Witchhazels 1: 25 Witch's butter fungus 4: 16 -- -- -- European folk legends of 4: 16 Witch trials and ergot poisoning 4: 1415 Woeste, Keith, \"The Peril and Potential of Butternut,\" with Paula M. Pijut 4: 212 Wollemia nobilis 3: 15 Wollemi pine 3: 15 Wood, compression by girdling roots 2: 47, 810 -- tissue, healthy and malformed 2: 5 Woodland Period Indians, in Wisconsin 2: 33 Woody plants, fruits of 2: 2227, 2227 Wyman, Donald, and collections policies 1: 10, 13, 17 -- -- eponymous crabapple 2: 23 XYZ Xianfu, Deng 3: 16 Xiang, Bixia, \"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King,\" with Zhun Xiang, Yinghai Xiang, and Peter Del Tredici 3: 2630 Xiang, Yinghai, \"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King,\" with Zhun Xiang, Bixia Xiang, and Peter Del Tredici 3: 2630 Xiang, Zhun, \"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King,\" with Yinghai Xiang, Bixia Xiang, and Peter Del Tredici 3: 2630 Xiansu, Hu 3: 20 Xu, Shixian 3: 27, 28 Yew, English 2: front\/back covers Yin, Dr. (Chinese botanist) 3: 24 \"Yinshan\" 3: 24 Yixing Caves 1: 7 Yong, Li 3: 22 Zelkova 1: 6 Zhejiang University 1: 7; 2: 13 Zhong, Jixin 3: 24 Zigadenus elegans 2: 35 Index compiled by Rosalie Davis. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23414","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160a728.jpg","title":"2009-67-1","volume":67,"issue_number":1,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Peril and Potential of Butternut","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25459","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14e8528.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Woeste, Keith; Pijut, Paula M.","article_content":"The Peril and Potential of Butternut Keith Woeste and Paula M. Pijut AMy ROSS-DAvIS B utternut (Juglans cinerea), also known as white walnut because of its light-colored wood, is a shortlived, small- to medium-sized tree (40 to 60 feet [12 to 18 meters] tall; 30 to 50 feet [9 to 15 meters] crown spread) (Fig. 1). Butternut's native range includes most of the northeastern United States and southern Canada from New Brunswick to Georgia, and west to Arkansas and Minnesota (Rink 1990; Dirr 1998) (Fig. 2). Butternut often grows in widely scattered clusters, with each cluster containing a few individual trees. It was never a highly abundant species (Schultz 2003), but for reasons that will be described later, it is even less common now than before. The former prevalence of--and appreciation for--butternut in the landscape is reflected evocatively by the many Butternut Hills, Butternut Creeks, and Butternut Lakes found across the eastern United States. Butternut is a member of the walnut family (Juglandaceae), which includes many familiar nut trees including eastern black walnut (Juglans nigra), Persian or English walnut (J. regia), pecan (Carya illinoinensis), and all the hickories (Carya spp.). How butternut relates to the other Figure 1. Researchers collect samples from a true butternut growing in walnuts remains a puzzle. Early taxonomy Daniel Boone National Forest, Kentucky. placed butternut in its own section within Juglans (Trachycaryon), but more recent treatone of the most winter-hardy, to USDA Zone 3 ments place it with Japanese walnut (J. ailanti(average annual minimum temperature -30 to folia) and Manchurian walnut (J. mandshurica) -40F [-34 to -40C]). in section Cardiocaryon (Manning 1978; FjellFood, Furniture, and Forage strom and Parfitt 1994), or with the New World Butternut has a long history of usefulness. walnuts (Rhysocaryon) (Aradhya et al. 2007). Native Americans extracted oil from the Butternut cannot hybridize with eastern black crushed nuts by boiling them in water, made walnut, but it can hybridize with Persian walnut syrup from the sap (Goodell 1984), and threw to form J. quadrangulata, and with Japanese butternut bark (which contains toxins) into walnut to form J. bixbyi (USDA-NRCS 2004). small streams to stun and capture fish. They Of all the walnuts, butternut is considered to be Butternut 3 BILL COOK, MICHIGAN STATE UNIvERSITy, BUGWOOD.ORG taught early European settlers how to make medicine from butternut bark, roots, and husks (Johnson 1884; Krochmal and Krochmal 1982). The inner bark of butternut and its nut hulls can be used to produce a yellow-brown dye. This dye was used most notably on some of the Confederate Army's Civil War uniforms, giving rise to the practice of referring to southern troops and their sympathizers as \"butternuts\" (Peattie 1950). Butternut is valued economically and ecologically today for its wood and edible nuts (Ostry and Pijut 2000) (Fig. 3). The sweet, oily, edible nuts are used in baked goods and are also popular for making maple-butternut candy. Butternuts were often planted near homes on farmsteads for the use of the nuts. There has been limited selection of butternuts for nut quality and production (McDaniel 1981; Goodell 1984; Miliken and Stefan 1989; Miliken et al. 1990; Ostry and Pijut 2000), but a few butternut cultivars with large nut size and superior ease of cracking (e.g., `Chamberlin' and `Craxezy') have been propagated, and some of these are available from commercial nurseries. The nuts are also an important food source for wildlife. In forests, butternut trees produce RINK, G. 1990 Figure 3. Butternut fruits have thick husks covered with sticky glandular hairs. Inside the husk is an edible nut enclosed in a thick, hard shell that is elaborated with eight prominent ridges (Brinkman 1974; Flora of North America Editorial Committee 1993+). NANCy ROSE Figure 4. Butternut wood samples: (clockwise from upper left) bark, slab-sawn, quarter-sawn, and cross-section (note darker brown heartwood). From the Ralph F. Perry wood collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Figure 2. The native range of butternut. seed at about 20 years of age, with good seed crops occurring every two to three years (Rink 1990). Open-grown trees, which benefit from more sun and less competition, can begin bearing as early as five years of age and bear annually under ideal conditions. The sapwood of butternut is light tan to nearly white and the heartwood is light brown (Fig. 4). The wood is moderately hard, but workable; it saws and carves easily, finishes well, and resembles black walnut when stained. The commercial availability of butternut wood is now extremely limited, but quality butternut 4 Arnoldia 66\/4 COURTESy OF GREy TOWERS NATIONAL HISTORIC SITE dead (Cummings-Carlson 1993; Cummings-Carlson and Guthmiller 1993). By the early 1990s butternut canker was reported in Canada (Davis et al. 1992), and butternut is now considered an endangered species in that country. In 1992, the state of Minnesota placed a moratorium on the harvest of healthy butternut on state lands, and butternut is considered a species of special concern in all United States National Forests. Although the origin of the fungus is uncertain (evidence suggests it may have come from Asia), it is believed to have been introduced into North America as a single isolate (Furnier et al. 1999). ButterFigure 5. The library at Grey Towers National Historic Site is paneled nut trees of all ages and sizes, regardless in butternut. of site conditions, can be infected. The wood commands a high market price today for spores of the fungus are spread by rain splash many uses including furniture, veneer, cabinets, and aerosols to adjacent trees where new infecpaneling, specialty products such as instrument tions originate at leaf scars, lateral buds, bark cases, interior woodwork, and fine woodworkwounds, and natural bark cracks. Perennial ing. The library of Grey Towers, a National cankers eventually develop on twigs, branches, Historic Site near Milford, Pennsylvania, and stems, and even the buttress roots (Tisserat and formerly the home of Gifford Pinchot, the first Kuntz 1983). Cankers can be seen most easily if chief of the United States Forest Service, is panthe bark is removed, revealing a sunken, ellipeled entirely with butternut (Fig. 5). tically-shaped region of dark brown to black stained wood, often with an inky black center A Deadly Disease Arrives and a whitish margin (Ostry et al. 1996) (Fig. 6). Sadly, a devastating canker disease has caused Cankers reduce the quality and marketability range-wide butternut mortality in recent of the wood, and the girdling effect of multiple decades and threatens the survival of the specoalescing cankers eventually kills a host tree. cies. Unusual stem cankers were first observed on butternuts in southwester n Wisconsin in 1967 (Renlund 1971). A pest alert announcing butternut decline was issued in 1976 (USDA 1976), and by 1979, the fungus responsible for butternut canker disease, Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum, was described as a new species (Nair et al. 1979). Surveys of butternut trees in Wisconsin in the 1990s revealed that 92% were diseased and 27% were Figure 6. Healthy butternut (left), and tree with bark removed showing cankers (right). PHOTO ON LEFT By KEITH WOESTE. PHOTO ON RIGHT USDA FOREST SERvICE FOREST HEALTH PROTECTION ST. PAUL ARCHIvE, USDA FOREST SERvICE, BUGWOOD.ORG Butternut 5 KEITH WOESTE While its spread to adjacent trees is understood, just how the fungus travels long distances to find new hosts remains a mystery. Several beetle species have been found on infected trees carrying fungal spores (Katovich and Ostry 1998; Halik and Bergdahl 2002), but it is not known which species (if any) carry spores over long distances. The fungus has also been found on the fruits of butternut and black walnut, causing lesions on the husks of both species (Innes 1998), which means that the movement of seeds can also spread the disease. Conservation and Restoration of Butternut There is no cure for butternuts once they become infected with butternut canker. In order to maintain butternut populations, conservationists must rely on a strategy of encouraging the growth of as many young, healthy trees as possible. The methods used include the management of regeneration (often by improving local habitats for seedling establishment) and reintroduction (for example, planting butternuts into suitable habitats from which they have been lost) (Ostry et al. 1994). Figure 7. Foresters identified this healthy butternut in a central Indiana forest. Butternut is a pioneer species, its seedlings require full sun to thrive (Rink 1990), percentage of the mature butternuts growand the presence of areas of exposed soil seems ing in the eastern forest are cankered, and to benefit its establishment (Woeste, personal infected trees have limited energy reserves observation). These factors explain why young to put towards flower and fruit production. butternuts tend to be found now on road-cuts, Because butternuts almost never self-pollinate steep terrain, fence-rows, old fields, clear-cuts, (Ross-Davis et al. 2008b), when a high percentwashouts, and the banks of swiftly flowing age of the trees in an area become diseased or streams. The management of most hardwood are killed, the number of potential mates can forests--both public and private--favors minbe reduced to the point that adverse genetic imal disturbance, so there are relatively few and demographic consequences become likely large, sunny openings for butternut seedlings to (Geburek and Konrad 2008). find a foothold. Browsing and antler rubbing by For all the above reasons and more, poor natdeer also limit the growth and survival of butural regeneration has been a hallmark of the ternut seedlings in the few sites sunny enough butternut canker epidemic (Ostry and Woeste to support regeneration (Woeste et al. 2009). 2004; Thompson et al. 2006). Until we learn Butternut canker, of course, also plays an how to effectively assist natural regeneration important role in reducing the natural regenof butternuts, reintroduction will be needed eration of butternut (Ostry et al. 1994). A high to restore butternut populations to the eastern 6 Arnoldia 66\/4 KEITH WOESTE population crash. Butternut collections must be conserved as living specimens growing in arboreta or other repositories because butternut seeds do not remain alive in long-term storage (even controlled-environment seed banks) unlike the seeds of many other species (Bonner 2008). Butternut can be propagated vegetatively by cuttings (Pijut and Moore 2002), through tissue culture (Pijut 1997; Pijut 1999), and by grafting. The ideal seed source for butternut reintroductions would be an orchard of genetically diverse, locally adapted, and canker-resistant butternut trees. Starting in the 1980s, a small group of scientists began identifying, grafting, and growing butter nuts that appeared healthy even though they were growing in locations with many dead or diseased trees (Ostry et al. 2003). It was assumed that these candidate trees had been exposed to the canker disease fungus, but because they remained healthy--or at least sufficiently healthy to continue to grow and reproduce--it was hoped that some of them would have genes for resistance to butternut canker. By the late 1990s, about 200 of these trees had been identified by Dr. Michael Figure 8. The trunk of a very old buart growing in central Indiana. Ostry of the USDA Forest Service Northforest. Reintroduction, whether by afforestaern Research Station in St. Paul, Minnesota, and tion (establishing plantations on old fields) or other colleagues. by supplemental planting in existing habitats, Butternut or Buart? requires a ready source of seeds. Seeds from By growing a large number of butternuts genetically diverse and locally adapted sources together in one location, Ostry and others were are preferred (Broadhurst et al. 2008). Because able to observe differences among these trees seed supplies from wild trees are so unreliable, that had not been obvious at the time of collecnumerous state and federal agencies as well tion. Differences in traits such as nut size and as private nurseries have worked over the past branch habit led him to wonder if some of the 20 years or so to document the location and collected butternuts were, in fact, buarts (Ostry health of butternut trees that could be used as and Moore 2008). A buart (pronounced bew-art), seed sources (Fig. 7). Others have collected and also called a buartnut, is the common name for grown butternut trees to provide seeds that will Juglans bixbyi (hybrids between butternut and be needed for reintroduction. the exotic Japanese walnut) (Fig. 8). Buarts were These collections constitute a germplasm well known among nut growing enthusiasts repository for butternut, a living bridge to the in the United States and Canada, but virtually future, and a method for preserving the genetic unknown by dendrologists and forest biologists diversity of the species in the face of a devastating Butternut 7 KEITH WOESTE (Ashworth 1969). Buarts had probably already been growing unnoticed in yards and orchards for a generation when they were first described by Willard Bixby in 1919 (Bixby 1919). Japanese walnuts were introduced into the United States around 1860 (Crane et al. 1937). In Japan, these walnuts were exploited as a food source by early tribal settlers (Koyama 1978), but never became an important commercial nut crop. By the late 1800s, Japanese walnuts had become popular among nut growers in the eastern United States because the kernels separate easily from the shell, and because some horticultural selections of Japanese walnut have an attractive and distinctively heart-shaped shell (Crane et al. 1937) (Fig. 9). Trees bearing heartshaped nuts became known as heartnuts (technically J. ailantifolia var. cordiformis), and the hybrid combination of butternut plus heartnut results in the common name \"buart\". Cultivars of heartnut have been selected and named (Ashworth 1969; Woeste 2004), but heartnuts never became a market success in the United States, perhaps because the nuts, while exotic in appearance, tend to be bland tasting. Although Japanese walnut never became popular as a nut crop, it gained a permanent foothold in the New World by intermating with butternut. Over time, as buarts became more common and as the gene pools of butternut and Japanese walnut intermixed, it became almost impossible and certainly impractical for most people to distinguish butternuts from buarts (Fig. 10). As early as 1919, Bixby (1919) found that \"[c]ertain Japan walnuts [are] so near like butternuts as to be readily mistaken for them. . . . [A]s far as the appearance of the nuts was concerned, the butternut could not be well separated from certain Japan walnuts.\" Buarts are remarkable hybrids. They stand out as exceptionally vigorous trees, sometimes exceeding 40 inches (102 centimeters) in diameter when mature (butternuts typically reach 12 to 24 inches [30 to 61 centimeters] in diameter). Buarts often bear enormous crops of nuts, and typically appear to be resistant to butternut canker (Orchard et al. 1982), although it is not certain that these trees truly are more resistant. It is easy to see why nut enthusiasts found buarts so attractive. Figure 9. A distinctively shaped heartnut (center) surrounded by nuts of other (non-heartnut) forms of Japanese walnut. All the nuts in the photo came from Japanese walnuts grown at the National Clonal Germplasm Repository for Juglans, in Davis, CA. PHOTO COURTESy SALLy WEEKS Figure 10. Butternut (top row) and hybrid nuts (bottom row) with the husks removed look nearly identical. As butternut populations dwindled and disappeared because of canker, buarts began to confound butternut conservation. Buarts were mistakenly identified as butternut survivors, and buarts planted in yards, parks, and cemeteries attracted seed collectors who gathered and sold the nuts to nurseries or through local markets, made them available through local conservation groups, or simply gave them away to friends and neighbors. Concerns about butternut's status in the forest caught some unaware because there were so many large, healthy \"butternuts\" (really buarts) growing in farmyards all over the countryside. It is likely that landowners have planted many more buarts than butternuts over the past 20 years, since so many of the 8 Arnoldia 66\/4 Figure 11. Summary of Characteristics Distinguishing Pure Butternut from Hybrid Butternuts. CHARACTERISTICS HABITAT BuTTERNuT Forests, occasionally as a grafted tree or wildling BuTTERNuT HyBRIDS Parks, forest edges, farmyards, urban areas, planted trees, orchards 1-yr-Twigs CuRRENT-yEAR STEm Olive green changing to red-brown near terminal, glossy, few hairs except immediately beneath terminal buds Beige in color; longer and narrower than hybrids, and the outer, fleshy scales more tightly compact. Vegetative buds are elongated (sometimes stalked) and somewhat angular, creamy white to beige in color Small, round, abundant, evenly distributed, sometimes elongating horizontally across the branch (perpendicular to the stem axis) Bright green to copper brown or tan, often densely covered with russet or tan hairs, especially near terminal buds. Pale green near terminal bud Pale green to tan or yellowish in color, wider and squatter than J. cinerea. Outer fleshy scales more divergent than butternut and often deciduous. Vegetative buds are rounded, and green to greenish brown in color. TERmINAl BuD lATERAl BuD lENTICElS large, often elongating laterally down the branch (parallel to the stem axis) on 1-yrwood, patchy distribution. On 3 and 4-yrwood, lenticels often form a diamond pattern as they become stretched both transversely and longitudinally Top edge almost always notched; often with large, exaggerated lobes Dark brown, medium brown or even light brown lEAF SCAR Top edge almost always straight or slightly convex; scar usually compact Dark brown PITH MaTure Tree BARK Varies from light grey and platy to dark grey and diamond patterned in mature trees. In older trees, fissures between bark ridges may be shallow or deep but are consistently dark grey in color. leaves yellow and brown by earlymid autumn, dehiscing in early to mid autumn. 512 cm in length at peak pollen shed One or two nuts per terminal in most clusters, sometimes 35, rarely more. Silvery or light grey, rarely darker. Fissures between bark ridges moderate to shallow in depth and often tan to pinkish-tan in color. lEAF SENESCENCE leaves often green until late autumn, dehiscing in late autumn or may freeze green on the tree. 1326 cm in length at peak pollen shed usually 3 to 5 per cluster, sometimes as many as 7. WOESTE ET AL. 2009 CATKINS NuT CluSTERS Butternut 9 remaining butternut trees have low vigor because of the effects of butternut canker and because butternuts, even when healthy, usually only produce a crop every two to three years (Rink 1990). For butternut, the existence of these hybrids presents something of a dilemma. On the one hand, buarts represent the dilution and potential loss of a distinctive native species with deep cultural connections and a complex quilt of ecological roles that evolved over many hundreds of thousands of years. On the other hand, hybridization is a common theme in plant evolution (Wissemann 2007), and for butternut, hybridization Figure 12. Twigs of butternut (top and bottom), Japanese walnut (upper middle,) could represent a way forward, espe- and buart (lower middle). The shape of the lenticels is characteristic of each type. cially if it is determined that all butternuts are completely susceptible to butternut Clonal Germplasm Repository in Davis, Calicanker (something that is far from certain at fornia, for comparison. this point). What role hybrids will play in butArmed with the best possible descriptions of ternut recovery remains to be seen. butternut and Japanese walnut, we had to conclude that trees with intermediate traits were Detailing the Differences buart hybrids. After examining a large number Whatever the possible uses of buarts, by 2003 of samples we developed a list of characters that it became clear to researchers that they needed can be used in combination to separate butterreliable mechanisms to distinguish buarts from nut and hybrids (Woeste et al. 2009) (Fig. 11). butternuts (McIlwrick et al. 2000; Ostry et al. After a few years of observing these traits in the 2003; Michler et al. 2005). The first task was field we have trained our eyes and now find that to describe the two parental species. Published most hybrids are fairly easy to spot, though for descriptions of the vegetative and reproductive more complicated cases a careful examination tissues of butternut, Japanese walnut, and the is needed to make a determination. (Fig. 12) hybrids are often brief, and based on an unknown At the same time, we began development of number of samples of unidentified provenance. a series of DNA-based tools for identifying butBy surveying published descriptions of butterternuts and hybrids (Ross-Davis et al. 2008a). nut, especially those made before the introducThe DNA markers are being used in both the tion of Japanese walnut to the United States or United States and Canada to identify true butbefore hybrids had an opportunity to become ternut seed sources. To understand the genetic widespread, a clearer picture of the morpholdiversity of butternut, we developed DNAogy of butternut and Japanese walnut emerged based markers called microsatellites, and used (Ross-Davis et al. 2008a). To verify our findthese to evaluate samples of butternuts from ings, we examined old butternut specimens at five locations spanning the upper south and the Herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garmidwestern United States. To our relief, we den. These long-preserved samples provided learned that the genetic structure and neutral additional certainty that what we saw in the genetic diversity (diversity at the DNA level wild today matched what was collected over that is not associated with genes) of the current 100 years ago. We also obtained authenticated generation of large, standing butternuts was samples of Japanese walnut from the National quite similar to that of black walnut, a much KEITH WOESTE 10 Arnoldia 66\/4 KEITH WOESTE Figure 13. young butternut trees are screened for canker resistance at the Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center in West lafayette, Indiana. more common related species (Ross-Davis et al. 2008b). This observation held out hope that it was not too late to begin to collect and preserve the genetic diversity of butternut. Armed with new DNA-based markers, and support from The Nature Conservancy and the USDA Forest Service State and Private Forestry, a small group of scientists and collaborators spent 2008 collecting butternut seeds as part of a long-term gene conservation program. A permanent home for the seedlings that will grow from these seeds is envisioned in western Iowa, sufficiently distant from sources of butternut canker it is hoped, to ensure the collection will be safe. These trees represent one of several collections that will reconstitute the future for butternut. A final note of good news is that an evaluation of candidate canker-resistant butternuts using our DNA-based methods confirms that many of the trees are truly butternuts and not hybrids (Woeste, unpublished data). Recently, pathologists proposed protocols for inoculating and testing candidate trees to determine if these are truly resistant to butternut canker (Ostry and Moore 2008) (Fig. 13). If future pathology studies demonstrate that some candidate trees contain useful levels of resistance to butternut canker, an aggressive program of breeding will be undertaken to transfer the resistance genes into butternuts from all across the species' range. The goal will be to produce seed orchards of genetically diverse, regionally adapted, diseaseresistant butternuts for reintroduction to areas of the eastern forest where butternut has disappeared. Learning how to reintroduce and sustain viable populations of trees into habitats from which they have been lost remains an important and ongoing challenge (Broadhurst et al. 2008; Geburek and Konrad 2008). Butternut 11 References Aradhya, M., D. Potter, F. Gao, and C. Simon. 2007. Molecular phylogeny of Juglans (Juglandaceae): a biogeographic perspective. Tree Genetics and Genomes 3: 363378. Ashworth, F.L. 1969. Butternuts, Siebold (Japanese) Walnuts, and Their Hybrids. pp. 224231, In: Handbook of North American Nut Trees. 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Cummings-Carlson, J. and M. Guthmiller. 1993. Incidence and severity of butternut canker in Wisconsin in 1976 and 1992. Phytopathology 83: 1352. Davis, C.N., D.T. Myren, and E.J. Czerwinski. 1992. First report of butternut canker in Ontario. Plant Disease 76: 972. Dirr, M.A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses. 5th ed., Stipes Publishing, Champaign. Fjellstrom, R.G. and D.E. Parfitt. 1994. Walnut (Juglans spp.) genetic diversity determined by restriction fragment length polymorphisms. Genome 37: 690700. Flora of North America Editorial Committee. 1993+. Flora of North America North of Mexico, 7+ vols. New york and Oxford. Furnier, G.R., A.M. Stolz, R.M. Mustaphi, and M.E. Ostry. 1999. Genetic evidence that butternut canker was recently introduced into North America. Canadian Journal of Botany 77 (6): 783785. Geburek, T. and J. Konrad. 2008. Why the conservation of forest genetic resources has not worked. Conservation Biology 22 (2): 267274. Goodell, E. 1984. Walnuts for the northeast. Arnoldia 44 (1): 319. Halik, S. and D.R. Bergdahl. 2002. Potential beetle vectors of Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum on butternut. Plant Disease 86: 521527. Innes, L. 1998. Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum on butternut and black walnut fruit. pp. 129 132, In: Foliage, Shoot, and Stem Diseases of Trees; Proceedings of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations. LaFlamme, G.; Berube, J.A.; Hamelin, R.C. (eds.) Working Party 7.02.02; 1997 May 2531; Quebec City, Canada. Johnson, L. 1884. Manual of the Medical Botany of North America. W. Wood and Co., New york. Katovich, S.A. and M.E. Ostry. 1998. Insects associated with butternut and butternut canker in Minnesota and Wisconsin. The Great Lakes Entomologist 31: 97108. Koyama, S. 1978. Jomon subsistence and population. Senri Ethnological Studies 2: 1246. Krochmal, A. and C. Krochmal. 1982. Uncultivated nuts of the United States. USDA Forest Service Agriculture Information Bulletin 450. Manning, W.E. 1978. The classification within the Juglandaceae. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 65: 10581087. McDaniel, J.C. 1981. Other walnuts including butternut, heartnut, and hybrids. pp. 98110, In: Nut Tree Culture in North America. R.A. Jaynes (ed.), Northern Nut Growers Association, Hamden. McIlwrick, K., S. Wetzel, T. Beardmore, and K. Forbes. 2000. Ex situ conservation of American chestnut (Castanea dentata [Marsh.]) and butternut (Juglans cinerea L.), a review. Forestry Chronicle 76: 765774. Michler, C. H., K.E. Woeste, P.M. Pijut, D.F. Jacobs, R. Meilan, and M. Ostry. 2005. Improving disease resistance of butternut (Juglans cinerea) a threatened fine hardwood: a case for single tree selection through genetic improvement. Tree Physiology 26: 113120. Milikan, D.F. and S.J. Stefan. 1989. Current status of the butternut, Juglans cinerea L. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 80: 5254. Milikan, D.F., S.J. Stefan, and K.S. Rigert. 1990. Selection and preservation of butternut, Juglans cinerea L. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 81: 2225. Nair, v.M.G., C.J. Kostichka, and J.E. Kuntz. 1979. Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum: an undescribed species causing canker on butternut. Mycologia 71: 641646. 12 Arnoldia 66\/4 Orchard, L.P., J.E. Kuntz, and K.J. Kessler, Jr. 1982. Reaction of Juglans species to butternut canker and implications for disease resistance. pp. 2731, In: Proceedings of Conference on Black Walnut for the Future. General Technical Report NC-74. USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. Ostry, M.E., M.E. Mielke, and D.D. Skilling. 1994. Butternut--Strategies for managing a threatened tree. General Technical Report NC-165. USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN Ostry, M.E, M.E. Mielke, and R.L. Anderson. 1996. How to identify butternut canker and manage butternut trees. HT-70. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Area State and Private Forestry. Ostry, M.E. and P.M. Pijut. 2000. Butternut: An underused resource in North America. HortTechnology 10 (2): 302306. Ostry, M.E., B. Ellingson, D. Seekins, and W. Ruckheim. 2003. The need for silvicultural practices and collection of butternut germplasm for species conservation. pp. 551555, In: Proceedings of 13th Central Hardwood Forest Conference. General Technical Report NC-234. USDA Forest Service, North Central Research Station, St. Paul, MN Ostry, M. E. and K. Woeste. 2004. Spread of butternut canker in North America, host range, evidence of resistance within butternut populations and conservation genetics. pp. 114120, In: Black Walnut in a New Century, Proceedings of 6th Walnut Council Research Symposium. Michler, C.H. et al., eds.; 2004 July 2528, Lafayette, IN. General Technical Report NC-243. USDA Forest Service, North Central Forest Experiment Station, St. Paul, MN. Ostry, M.E. and M. Moore. 2008. Response of butternut selections to inoculation with Sirococcus clavigignenti-juglandacearum. Plant Disease 92: 13361338. Peattie, D.C. 1950. A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North America. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Pijut, P.M. 1997. Micropropagation of Juglans cinerea L. (Butternut). pp. 345357, In: Biotechnology in Agriculture and Forestry, vol.39, High-Tech and Micropropagation, Section III.4:, Bajaj, y.P.S. (ed.). Springer-verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, New york. Pijut, P.M. 1999. Somatic embryogenesis from immature fruit of Juglans cinerea. pp. 415429, In: Somatic Embryogenesis in Woody Plants, vol.4, Section B: Jain. S.M., Gupta, P.K., and Newton, R.J. (eds.)., Kluwer Academic Publishers, The Netherlands. Pijut, P.M. and M.J. Moore. 2002. Early season softwood cuttings effective for vegetative propagation of Juglans cinerea. HortScience 37 (4): 697700. Renlund, D.W. 1971. Forest pest conditions in Wisconsin. In: Annual Report of the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI. Rink, G. 1990. Juglans cinerea L., Butternut. pp. 386390, In: Silvics of North America, vol 2. Hardwoods. R.M. Burns and B.H. Honkala (Tech. Coords.). USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 654, Washington, DC. Ross-Davis, A., Z. Huang, J.R. McKenna, M.E. Ostry, and K. Woeste. 2008a. Morphological and molecular methods to identify butternut (Juglans cinerea) and butternut hybrids: relevance to butternut conservation. Tree Physiology 28: 11271133. Ross-Davis, A., M.E. Ostry, and K. Woeste. 2008b. Genetic diversity of butternut (Juglans cinerea) and implications for conservation. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 38 (4): 899907. Schultz, J. 2003. Conservation assessment for butternut or white walnut (Juglans cinerea L.). USDA Forest Service, Eastern Region. On-line at www.fs.fed. us\/r9\/wildlife\/tes\/ca-overview\/docs\/plant_ juglans_cinera-Butternut2003.pdf Thompson, L.M., F.T. van Manen, S.E. Schlarbaum, and M. DePoy. 2006. A spatial modeling approach to identify potential butternut restoration sites in Mammoth Cave National Park. Restoration Ecology 14: 289296. Tisserat, N. and J.E. Kuntz. 1983. Dispersal gradients of conidia of the butternut canker fungus in a forest during rain. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 13 (6): 11391144. USDA. 1976. Butternut decline. Pest Alert. USDA Forest Service, Misc. Publication Newtown Square, PA, Northern Area State and Private Forestry. USDA-NRCS. 2004. The PLANTS Database, version 3.5 (http:\/\/plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge. Wissemann, v. 2007. Plant evolution by means of hybridization. Systematics and Biodiversity 5: 243253. Woeste, K. 2004. An On-line Database of Juglans Cultivar Names and Origins. HortScience 39: 1771. Woeste, K., L. Farlee, M. Ostry, J. McKenna, and S. Weeks. 2009. A forest manager's guide to butternut. Northern Journal of Applied Forestry. Keith Woeste and Paula M. Pijut conduct research at the USDA Forest Service Northern Research Station Hardwood Tree Improvement and Regeneration Center in West Lafayette, Indiana. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Closer Look at Fungi in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25455","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eb76d.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Richardson, Kathryn","article_content":"A Closer Look at Fungi in the Arnold Arboretum Kathryn Richardson W alk into the Arnold Arboretum and you'll see a beautiful and historically important collection of trees and shrubs. With a closer look, other organisms become visible, including fungi. The world of fungi is vast, and many members of this diverse kingdom are found throughout the Arboretum. In an informal survey from spring through fall of 2008, Arboretum staff reported over 100 fungal sightings, and positive identifications were made for 40 species. A dozen species noted in the survey are profiled starting on page 15. Fungi ID PrecIsely identifying fungi can be challenging even for experts. Many morphological features from growth habit to the size and color of spores provide clues for identification. Often minute details are needed to confirm species identity. correct identification is critical when considering fungi as food, since the fungi kingdom contains species that are deliciously edible and others that are deadly poisonous. Though often stated, it's worth repeating: Never consume any mushroom without being absolutely sure of its identity. susAN HArdy BrOWN Plants + Fungi The association between plants and fungi is sometimes beneficial, sometimes harmful, and sometimes a bit of both. Fungi can be indicators of a tree's declining health, but in other cases--such as mycorrhizae which aid roots with nutrient uptake--they are physiologically beneficial to plants. Identifying fungi and understanding their physiology is an important aspect of interpreting the health of the Arboretum's collections. The Arnold Arboretum hosts an unknown number of fungi, many of which have specific relationships with certain plants. When a fungus is found growing on an accessioned tree, horticultural staff attempt to make an accurate identification, and often those known relationships aid in the identification process. For example, a shiny bracket fungus growing on eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) is probably the hemlock varnish shelf (Ganoderma tsugae), and an oak tree with a massive cluster of sulphur-yellow mushrooms growing from its roots is likely to be chicken of the woods (Laetiporus sulphureus). These fungi may live in their hosts for several years. As they feed, these fungi cause wood decay and often weaken the The distinctive lamellae (gills) of this mushroom mark it as a member of the phylum Basidiomycota, but much more information is needed to determine its exact species. 14 Arnoldia 66\/4 structural integrity of the tree. damage from fungi also weakens the tree's defenses and may enable entry for other pests and diseases which cause further injury. Arboretum trees flagged with potentially fatal fungi are carefully observed and notes are kept within the Arboretum's collections database. If the tree begins to decline, this information is useful in making a decision on its treatment or removal. ing for miles), or within wood or other hosts. Mycelia grow even when no fruiting bodies are present, so the extent of damage caused by a fungus in the tree before the emergence of the fruiting body is sometimes unclear. The Fungal Life Fungi are neither plant nor animal and are placed in their own kingdom, though historically this was not always the case. Taxonomists initially placed fungi in the plant kingdom (Plantae) because, plants and fungi are both sessile (not free-moving) and have cell walls. However, fungi lack chlorophyll (and thus cannot make their own food via photosynthesis) and have walls made of chitin, not cellulose as seen in plants. Fungi are closely related to animals and bacteria and were once placed in the animal kingdom (Animalae), but fungi are not motile. Fungi proved to be unique life forms deserving their own kingdom. Fungi cannot produce their own food and thus must acquire the nutrients they need from their hosts or substrates. Based upon their nutritional needs, fungi fall into three categories: saprobes, parasites, and mutualists. saprobic fungi feed on dead organic materials and serve as the scavengers of the kingdom by recycling carbon, nitrogen, and other essential elements back into the soil. Parasitic fungi feed on living organisms and often harm them in some way. \"Parasitize\" sounds threatening, but the reality is that fungal parasites do not typically destroy their host quickly and may be present for some time before the host shows decline. Mutualistic fungi have a beneficial relationship with other living organisms. examples of mutualists include lichens (fungi plus algae or cyanobacteria) and mychorrhizae (fungi and plant roots). Around 90% of all living trees have a mycorrhizal relationship with fungi. The presence of fungal fruiting bodies on trees indicates that the fungus has reached the spore production stage of its life cycle. When released spores land on a substrate and germinate, threadlike hyphae grow and combine to form mycelia, the vegetative growth of fungi. Mycelia grow underground (sometimes spread- Fungi to Know The largest groups of fungi are found in the phylum Basiodiomycota, often inclusively called the basidiomycetes. Many familiar fungi such as cap-and-stipe (stalk) mushrooms (including the cultivated \"white button mushroom\" [Agaricus bisporus] found in grocery stores), brackets, and puffballs are placed in this group. It is safe to say that if you are looking at a fungus that has either rib-like gills (lamella) or tiny pores on the underside of the cap, it's a basidiomycete. The microscopic rust and smut fungi are also basidiomycetes. Basidiomycota produce basidiospores which have a single haploid nucleus. When these spores germinate they produce long, branching hyphae with a single nucleus in each compartment (area between cell walls). When two compatible hyphal strands come into contact with each other they unite to form a hyphal strand that now houses two nuclei in each compartment. A basidiomycete will spend most of its life in the vegetative mycelial stage until environmental cues, such as rain or temperature change, cause the growth of fruiting bodies (basidiocarps). Many basidiomycetes are decomposers, but others have a mycorrhizal partnership with forest trees. Another fungal phylum, Ascomycota, includes the sac fungi or spore shooters. unlike basidiomycetes that have structures (basidiophores) that drop spores from their fruiting bodies, ascomycetes have spores in sacs located within a structure called an ascocarp or ascomata. The spores are \"shot\" out of their sacs and dispersed into the air. sac fungi are also decomposers and recyclers of organic matter. Many ascomycetes are parasitic including those that cause dutch elm disease and chestnut blight. Ascomycetes include yeasts, which are used to make beer and wine, as well as mycelial fungi such as morels and black knot. Another interesting example of an ascomycete is the fungus that causes ergot, a damaging disease of grain crops. ergot fungus contains a compound Fungi 15 that is a precursor to the hallucinogen lsd. Though not proven, it has been suggested that ergot poisoning was a potential cause of the hysteria that led to the salem witchcraft trials in the late 1600s. Although no longer classified in the fungi kingdom, Myxomycetes (slime molds) are also mentioned here since they resemble fungi, are common at the Arboretum, and elicit many questions from visitors (see page 21). A Sampler of Arboretum Fungi Here are a dozen interesting fungi--plus one slime mold--that were found in last year's informal survey of fungi at the Arnold Arboretum cOurTesy OF PAulA desANTO Pheasant's-back Polypore or Dryad's Saddle (Polyporus squamosus) In the spring of 2008, a very large pheasant's-back polypore appeared on a venerable cucumbertree magnolia (Magnolia acuminata, accession 15154-e) near the main entrance of the Arnold Arboretum. This magnolia has survived for over 100 years, but time has taken its toll and the doors are now open for various organisms, including fungi, to invade. Growing out of an old limb-removal wound on the magnolia's trunk was an impressive bracket with a uniquely patterned cap. This species, the pheasant's-back polypore, can grow to 24 inches (61 centimeters) in diameter. It appears growing on stumps and dead hardwood trees in spring in the northeastern united states. It is easily recognized by its fan-shaped, tan to creamy yellowish cap with an array of brown scales that look like pheasant feathers-- thus the species' common name. (Another common name, dryad's saddle, refers to its potential use by the tree-dwelling nymphs known as dryads in Greek mythology.) The white underside of the cap is dotted with thousands of small pores (polyporus means \"many pores\"). It was sad to see this particular polypore because it indicates that this magnolia's life is coming to an end. The Arboretum's horticultural staff had noted the tree's decline before the emergence of this polypore, but its presence told us more about the health of this tree. The pheasant's-back polypore is typically saprobic on dead trees but it can also parasitize the heartwood of living trees such as this magnolia. This polypore fungus had been living in this tree for an unknown period of time before it produced this fruiting body; the extent of internal rot is uncertain but the tree will continue to be monitored closely. 16 Arnoldia 66\/4 HAruTA OVIdIu, uNIVersITy OF OrAdeA, BuGWOOd.OrG Witch's Butter (Tremella mesenterica) Witch's butter is a member of the phylum Basidiomycota, but does not have the traditional cap and stem as do some other fungi in this group. This fungus is yellow to orange in color and appears as wavy, gelatinous folds. It can dry out to the point of appearing dead, but will rehydrate readily with rainfall or other applied water. Another interesting fact about witch's butter is that it feeds on other fungi, not on wood. It is often seen growing on downed logs or dead branches, where it parasitizes wood-decaying fungi. Witch's butter is widely distributed in temperate regions in North America, europe, Asia, and Australia. The name \"witch's butter\" comes from several european legends. One states that if the fungus was found growing near a home's entrance or front gate, then the homeowner had been hexed by a witch. The spell could be broken by plunging a pin into the fungus, causing the witch to feel the pinpricks, which in turn would cause her to return to remove the spell and the fungus. A legend of swedish origin blames this fungus on a witch's cat. The cat, sent out to steal food from the neighbors, would gorge itself and then vomit \"witch's butter\" on the gardens, fences, gates, and homes of unsuspecting people. The name \"witch's butter\" is sometimes applied to any of a number of jelly-like fungi. NIMA sAMIMI The Stinky Squid (Pseudocolus fusiformis) The stinky squid is a basidiomycete belonging to the Phallaceae, a family of fungi commonly known as stinkhorns. The stinky squid certainly lives up to its name both in scent and appearance--in late August 2008 this stinkhorn created quite a horrible smell in the Arnold Arboretum when it appeared in a few beds in the leventritt shrub and Vine Garden as well as in densely planted areas on Peters Hill. common to eastern North America, this species of stinkhorn has a fantastic appearance. Beginning its reproductive life as an egglike structure with white rhizomorphs attached to the base, its fruiting body quickly emerges, displaying three to five tapering arms. The arms may be free-standing or fused together at the tips, and are yellow towards the base and reddish orange towards the apex. It stands 1 to 3 inches (3 to 7 centimeters) in height with dark green spores lining the inner sides of its arms. (A broken-off fruiting structure is seen here.) There's no question about how this fungus received its common name: it looks like a squid and has the odor of rotting flesh. stinkhorns, including stinky squid, Fungi 17 disperse their spores by attracting flies and other insects which land on the fungus and feed on the stinky slime. In the process, the insects collect spores on their bodies as well as ingesting them, then spread the spores to new locations. Common Oyster Mushroom (Pleurotus ostreatus) The common oyster mushroom--a familiar edible mushroom that can be found in grocery stores--is common in the Arboretum and appeared in large numbers last spring. Oyster mushroom species are typically found in the fall, winter, and early spring, though they are also sometimes seen in the summer under the right conditions. They grow on dead hardwoods and, less often, on conifers, and also on some living trees. Oyster mushrooms grow in dense clusters, have light brown to off-white caps, and display prominent, elongated white gills. An interesting fact about species in this mushroom genus is that they are carnivorous; they trap, kill, and eat living organisms such as nematodes and bacteria in addition to the more typical fungus function of decomposing wood. JOsePH O'BrIeN, usdA FOresT serVIce, BuGWOOd.OrG Chicken of the Woods (Laetiporus sulphureus) chicken of the woods belongs to the genus Laetiporus, which fairly recently has been separated into several species based on dNA analysis. When I first began identifying chicken of the woods in the Arboretum I assumed it was Laetiporus sulphureus, but most turned out to be the very similar-looking species Laetiporus cincinnatus. Both species have the common name \"chicken of the woods\" and are popular edibles for mushroom hunters. They are readily identified because of their bright yellow to orange color and appearance as masses or rosettes of wavy, blunt-rimmed plates. They are widely distributed east of the rocky Mountains and often grow as parasites or saprobes on oaks (Quercus spp.). The main difference between the two species is the location of their fruiting bodies; Laetiporus sulphureus usually grows on tree stumps while L. cincinnatus grows from the roots of the infected host, giving the appearance that it is growing terrestrially. The common name is appropriate for several reasons. The flesh of the caps is yellowish in color, almost like raw chicken. Also, the taste and texture of this fungus, when cooked, reportedly are similar to cooked chicken. NANcy rOse 18 Arnoldia 66\/4 rOBerT MAyer NANcy rOse Turkey Tail Fungus (Trametes versicolor) The turkey tail fungus is one of the most commonly seen bracket fungi, occurring on dead trees in temperate zone forests all over the world. Turkey tail fungus is saprobic on dead hardwoods and can sometimes completely cover trunks and branches. A decomposer of wood, this fungus will sometimes work away for hundreds of years on a single host. Turkey tail fungus is a polypore, having pores instead of gills, and has a hard exterior instead of the fleshy ones seen in traditional mushrooms. It is aptly named, displaying concentric colored bands that resemble a fanned turkey's tail. The colors of turkey tail fungus can vary, but the bands commonly appear in shades of white, brown, and tan, sometimes with more colorful bands in orange, cinnamon, or bluish tones. A close look reveals dense, downy hairs on the bracket's upper surface. usdA FOresT serVIce-NOrTH ceNTrAl reseArcH sTATION ArcHIVe, BuGWOOd.OrG Shaggy Mane Mushroom (Coprinus comatus) The shaggy mane--a type of inky cap mushroom--is readily observed from mid-spring to late summer. Found on lawns, in mulched beds, and in forests, the shaggy mane performs as one of nature's recyclers, feeding on soil, forest litter, decaying wood, and even dung. It slowly decomposes the organic matter on which it feeds. One characteristic that makes this mushroom interesting is its method of spore dispersal. When the spores begin to mature, the shaggy oval cap begins to curl, becoming bellshaped, as the gills deliquesce (liquefy). This gives the spores maximum exposure to the wind, which then transports the spores to new locations. The gills will continue to liquefy until they are virtually gone, leaving a flat, almost transparent cap. True to the name, the liquefied gills of this and other inky caps can be used as a semi-permanent ink. Bark Mycena (Mycena spp.) There are many tiny, often-overlooked mushrooms growing in the Arboretum including several in the genus Mycena. This genus contains hundreds of species distributed worldwide. Most Mycena species are very small and have bell-shaped caps on slender stipes. Walking along Meadow road I came across an old painted maple (Acer mono) covered with these tiny mushrooms. Gray-brown in color with caps no larger than a few millimeters in diameter they covered the bark of this Fungi 19 maple along with moss and lichens. At first it seemed sad to see such a fantastic old tree covered with mushrooms, but these fungi do not harm the tree. Bark Mycena live on the outer layer of a tree, feeding on the dead bark. They never move to the living layers of the tree and thus do no harm. Bird's-Nest Fungi (species in several genera including Crucibulum and Cyathus) Bird's-nest fungi are a group of unusual fungi in the order Nidulariales (\"nidula\" means small nest). They are very common in the Arboretum and can be found growing in almost every mulched bed as well as on debris in natural woodland areas. These harmless fungi are saprobic on substrates such as dead wood (including woodchips), leaves, and dung. They often grow in large expanses. The common name describes these fungi perfectly. The mature peridia (fruiting bodies) resemble tiny nests. These nests contain tiny egglike peridioles which contain spores. several species of bird's-nest fungi grow at the Arboretum and can be differentiated by the color, size, shape, and texture of their peridia as well as by the color of their peridioles which can vary from white to black with several shades of gray and brown in between. Bird's-nest fungi exhibit an interesting spore dispersal method. When it rains, water droplets splash the \"eggs\" (peridioles) out of the nest and into the air. When this happens, a cord which attaches the egg to the nest breaks free and elongates. When the egg lands on nearby substrates the cord sticks and secures the egg to its new site. rOBerT MAyer Hen of the Woods (Grifola frondosa) Hen of the woods is a popular edible mushroom with sweet-tasting flesh. The clustered caps of this fungus resemble the ruffled feathers of a hen, and a full-grown specimen can reach a foot or more in diameter and weigh as much as 40 pounds (18 kilograms). Hen of the woods is commonly found growing on oak (Quercus spp.) trees from either the trunk or roots. This mushroom is a parasite and will cause damage over time. It causes white rot which can compromises the structural integrity of the roots. A weakened root system can prove disasterous for a tree in wind storms, since lack of solid anchorage may allow the tree to topple over. NANcy rOse 20 Arnoldia 66\/4 NANcy rOse Black Knot Fungus (Apiosporina morbosa) Black knot fungus is visible on several cherry trees by the Arboretum's Forest Hills gate. Black knot can infect a number of cherry and plum species (Prunus spp.). This ascomycete is a harmful fungus that damages both the health and appearance of its host. The visible part of this fungus, a black gall, is the result of the fungus disrupting the normal growth of the twig. Galls form at the site of infection. Black knot galls look something like burned marshmallows on a stick and may eventually grow to a foot in length if left unchecked. Inside the galls are perithecia which produce ascospores, which, after overwintering in the gall, are ejected in the spring when warmer temperatures and adequate moisture arrive. The ascospores are then carried by wind and water to new host sites. Infection occurs on new plant growth and wounded tissues. These ascospores are able to penetrate through the green tissue of new growth and quickly begin to grow. New galls are brown, and can easily go unnoticed until the following year when they continue to grow and turn black. The galls continue to grow every year and the infection continues to spread further down the branch. Older galls often harbor borers which can cause even more problems for infected trees. All trees at the Arnold Arboretum with black knot galls present are monitored. When a gall is found the infected branch is removed while the fungus is still dormant. This slows further spread on the host tree and also reduces the spread of infection to other trees. rOBerT MAyer Hemlock Varnish Shelf (Ganoderma tsugae) The Arboretum's Hemlock Hill offers visitors a chance to see the interaction between a fungus and a specific type of tree. The hemlock varnish shelf (Ganoderma tsugae) has a preference for conifers and specifically for hemlocks (Tsuga spp.). It is found on living and fallen trees on Hemlock Hill and was also reported growing in a mulch bed along Meadow road. If seen growing on a living hemlock it is safe to say that the tree is not in perfect health. Fungi 21 The hemlock varnish shelf is a beautiful polypore. Its hard, shiny cap is dark red to reddish brown, sometimes with prominent concentric zones. young specimens may show white and yellow segments also. This annual mushroom grows individually or, less commonly, in limited clusters. This species is closely related to the more common taxa Ganoderma lucidum, (sometimes known as reishi or lingzhi); extracts of both have been used in herbal medicine. susAN HArdy BrOWN Dog Vomit Slime Mold (Fuligo septica) I have had Arboretum visitors ask me about \"the lumpy yellow (or tan) stuff in the mulch bed that looks like vomit.\" Well, that's the descriptively named dog vomit slime mold, commonly seen in planting beds mulched with wood chips. Fuligo septica is a type of Myxomycetes, so not a true fungus. It is a plasmodial slime mold; this means that the \"vomit\" is actually a huge single cell containing millions of nuclei. dog vomit slime mold is motile, but moves quite slowly. It is not harmful to animals or plants and usually vanishes in a short period of time. This species and similar slime molds feed on bacteria, fungal spores, and smaller protozoa found on wood chips. slime molds feed much like an amoeba feeds; they ingest their food and then digest it (unlike fungi, which digest and then ingest). If conditions are favorable, these slime molds will produce reproductive structures (sporangia) that produce spores. When conditions are unfavorable (loss of food, dry conditions), the plasmodium will form hard, dormant, protective structures called sclerotia. Inside the sclerotia the plasmodium will divide into \"cells\" containing up to four nuclei. When conditions become favorable each \"cell\" will form a new plasmodium. dog vomit slime mold is primarily an aesthetic problem in mulched garden beds. It can be physically removed, but more is likely to return. so, before panicking and taking your dog to the veterinarian, take a closer look and consider that that stuff is likely just Fuligo septica working away at cleaning the mulch. Acknowledgments Thanks to susan Hardy Brown, Nima samimi, eric youngerman, Bob ervin, Marc devokaitis, Nancy sableski, and all staff for their help in surveying and photographing fungi at the Arboretum, and to don Pfister for reviewing this article. Kathryn richardson is a curatorial Assistant at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"American Chestnuts in the 21st Century","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25456","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14ebb26.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Anagnostakis, Sandra L.","article_content":"American Chestnuts in the 21st Century Sandra L. Anagnostakis N ew England was heavily forested in 1600, and American chestnut (Castanea dentata) was commonly found in Connecticut and Massachusetts woodlands (Cogbill et al. 2002). At that time, American chestnut was abundant throughout its native range from southern Maine to northern Georgia, all along the Appalachian Mountains (Saucier 1973). In the following centuries, European settlers cleared land for farming and cut trees for fuel, and the forest cover was greatly reduced by 1850. This was followed by the introduction of coal as a fuel, which was brought easily to New England by the railroads. Once wood was no longer being harvested for fuel, and more fields were left fallow as people abandoned farms and moved west or into the cities, the trees started to take back their habitats. When hardwood forests were harvested and left to resprout, the chestnuts grew faster than the oaks and maples with which they shared the land, and the number of chestnut trees greatly increased. Many woodlots became nearly pure stands of chestnut. A bulletin issued by the Connecticut Experiment Station in 1906 stated that regenerating hardwood forests covered most of the wooded area of Connecticut and \"the most important tree of this type is the chestnut which constitutes fully one-half of the timber\" (Hawes 1906). Forest surveys done at the turn of the last century show that there were about 130 million mature American chestnut trees in Connecticut alone. These stands of chestnut trees were valued because chestnut is a strong wood that resists rotting. Chestnut was used extensively for framing and woodwork, and was also essentially the only wood used for telephone poles and most of the railroad ties laid as rail lines pushed westward (Pierson 1913). The Blight Arrives The fungal pathogen causing chestnut blight disease (now called Cryphonectria parasitica) was introduced into the United States in the late 1800s on Japanese chestnut trees. The disease was spread up and down the east coast by mail-order sales of infected trees (Anagnostakis 2001, http:\/\/www.ct.gov\/caes\/cwp\/view. asp?a=2815&q=376754). In 1908 chestnut blight disease started killing American chestnut trees in Connecticut (Clinton 1912), and SAUCIEr 1973 Native range of American chestnut (Castanea dentata) in Eastern North America. American Chestnut 23 FrOM USDA FOrEST SErvICE BUllETIN 96 (1912) A pure stand of American chestnut in Connecticut in 1910. infections were reported in Cape Cod, Wellesley, and Pittsfield, Massachusetts (Metcalf and Collins 1909). Chestnut blight disease has reduced American chestnuts to understory shrubs, which die back, sprout from the base, die back, and sprout again. This fungus is now present throughout the original range of C. dentata, and has spread to many of the Midwestern locations where chestnuts were planted. Chestnut Breeding Chestnut trees are monoecious and bear separate male and female flowers on the same tree. As with many fruit trees, they must be crosspollinated for fully formed nuts to develop. Without cross-pollination, burs with small, flat nuts comprised of all-female tissue are all that form. Although the size of the nuts formed is completely dependent on the female parent, the pollen parent influences the flavor of the nuts (Anagnostakis 1995a, Anagnostakis and Devin 1998). Growers interested in getting nuts as large as those of Japanese or European chestnut but with the superior flavor of American chestnuts started creating hybrids in the late 1800s. After chestnut blight disease began killing timber 24 Arnoldia 66\/4 DisEAsE NoT REpoRTED DisEAsE NoT BAD DisEAsE BAD This map shows the presence of chestnut blight disease in Connecticut in 1908. SANDrA ANAGNOSTAkIS Blight canker on an American chestnut tree; note the dead, sunken bark and lumps of fungal tissue that have broken through the surface where they will form spores. chestnut trees--and Asian chestnut trees were seen to be resistant to the disease-- it was hoped that new hybrids could be developed that combined the upright, timber-producing form of American chestnut with the Asian species' resistance to blight. Arthur Graves, a plant pathologist in Connecticut, began crossing blightresistant Asian trees and susceptible American trees in 1930. He then tested these hybrids for resistance to chestnut blight disease (Graves 1937). He was soon joined by Donald Jones of the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station (CAES), who was a renowned geneticist with a great interest in chestnut. Many of those original hybrids are still alive, and CAES now has what is probably the finest collection of species and hybrids of chestnut in the world. These were planted on land left to the State of Connecticut by Graves, and at the CAES farm, both located in Hamden, Connecticut. Trees with two forms are being chosen from our continuing breeding efforts at CAES: tall, straight trees with limited energy put into forming nuts but very well-suited for timber production, and short, spreading trees with maximum energy put into forming large, good-tasting nuts, making the trees suitable for commercial or backyard nut orchards. Both kinds of ClINTON 1912 American Chestnut 25 COUrTESy OF BrAD SMITH American chestnut flowers on a tree near Quabban Reservoir in Massachusetts. trees must have resistance to chestnut blight disease and be well adapted to the New England climate (Anagnostakis 1992). There is now interest in developing DNA tests for genetic maps of chestnut trees (http:\/\/www.fagaceae. org\/web\/db\/index), and we are using specific crosses to study the genetics of resistance to diseases as well as to develop timber and orchard chestnut trees. To make these crosses, we put waxed paper bags over female flowers in late June before they are fertile, then put selected pollen on the flowers in July and cover them up again. This allows us to know the parents of the nuts that form. During our breeding program we have found that many hybrids that are the result of crosses between two different species do not form functional pollen. These male-sterile trees produce male catkins with flowers that never bloom. Although this lack of pollen is a nuisance in the breeding program, it is a feature valued by commercial nut growers--they can plant orchards of male-sterile trees with a few pollen-producing trees and have yields of nuts that are very uniform. When it became clear that at least two genes were responsible for resistance to chestnut blight, we began a back-cross breeding program based on the plan of Charles Burnham (Burnham 1988). Asian trees are crossed with American trees, and the hybrids (partially blight resistant) are crossed to American trees again. If there are two resistance genes, one out of four of the progeny from these back-crosses has one copy of both resistance genes, giving it partial resistance. If there are three genes for resistance, one 26 Arnoldia 66\/4 SANDrA ANAGNOSTAkIS A row of twelve-year-old chestnut hybrids selected for timber qualities. out of eight of the progeny will have one copy of all three resistance genes. Trees with partial blight resistance are crossed again to American chestnut trees. This repeated back-crossing increases the percentage of American genes in the hybrids, and selecting for partial resistance insures passage of the resistance genes. A final cross of two trees with partial resistance should result in one of sixteen trees having two copies of two resistance genes (or one of sixty four trees having two copies of three resistance genes), which will make them fully resistant to the chestnut blight fungus. Biological Control of Chestnut Blight Disease In a 1992 Arnoldia article we described viruses, called \"hypoviruses,\" that infect C. parasitica and keep the fungus from killing trees by reducing its virulence (Anagnostakis and Hillman 1992). Since 1972, when CAES imported American Chestnut 27 kEITH kANOTI, MAINE FOrEST SErvICE, BUGWOOD.OrG The densely spiny chestnut bur encloses several nuts, typically three. American chestnut trees in this Hamden, Connecticut, orchard were treated with biocontrol strains from 1978 to 1981, and 15% of the 71 trees survive as the original trunks in spite of the presence of many cankers. Half of the trees continue to be in a repeating cycle of dying back and resprouting. About one third of the trees died back once, resprouted, and the sprouts are still surviving. Percentage of American genes in back-crossed (BC) hybrid chestnut trees. pARENTs 1. American x Japanese 2. American x F1 3. American x BC1 4. American x BC2 5. BC3 x BC3 AMERiCAN GENEs 100% American genes 0% American genes 100% American genes 50% American genes 100% American genes 75% American genes 100% American genes 87.5% American genes 93.8% American genes 93.8% American genes egg + pollen egg + pollen egg + pollen egg + pollen egg + pollen HyBRiD = 50% A F1 = 75% A BC1 = 87.5% A BC2 = 93.8% A BC3 = 93.8% A BC3-F2 SANDrA ANAGNOSTAkIS 28 Arnoldia 66\/4 virus-containing strains of the chestnut blight fungus from Europe, great strides have been made in understanding how these viruses can keep the fungus from killing trees. The genes of three kinds of these (dsrNA) viruses have been sequenced, and the viruses placed in the genus Hypovirus by Bradley Hillman and his collaborators (Hillman et al. 1994). We have studied the movement of both killing and curing strains of the fungus by birds and insects of several kinds (Anagnostakis 1990; Anagnostakis 1995b; Anagnostakis 2001). Although we have introduced hypovirulent strains of the fungus into forest plots, this biological control has not brought about a general recovery of forest chestnuts in Connecticut. However, it has been successful in an orchard of American chestnut trees at the CAES farm in Hamden, Connecticut, where we introduced hypovirulent strains into every canker that we could reach for four years from1978 to 1981. Now, although half of the trees continue to die back from chestnut blight (and sprout, and die back, etc.), about a third that died back once and sprouted now survive and flower even though they are covered with cankers, and about 15% of the trees are the surviving original stems. resistance and all of the native genetic diversity into the future generations. The first generation offspring will be intermediate in resistance, but subsequent generations will produce trees with full resistance. synthesis of Breeding and Biological Control The crosses that have produced blight-resistant trees for timber have, by necessity, used a rather narrow genetic base, even though different trees were used as parents in each generation. At CAES, this has involved crossing and back-crossing both Japanese and Chinese chestnut trees (C. crenata and C. mollissima) with locally adapted American chestnut trees. Our strategy has been to keep native chestnuts alive and flowering by using our biological control agent. This eliminates the need to search for American trees that have survived long enough to flower. It also lets us use populations in specific forest clearings. By planting resistant trees in the forests and treating the native trees with our biocontrol, native trees will survive to naturally cross with the resistant trees and will incorporate blight A basketful of nuts from a hybrid chestnut orchard. Chestnut Trees for the orchard In addition to selecting timber trees, we have continued to evaluate trees for their potential for orchard production in New England. A few acres of chestnut trees can produce enough nuts to sell at farmer's markets or to local stores. The only serious pest is chestnut weevil, which can be controlled by spraying insecticide when the nuts are ripening, or by allowing chickens or guinea fowl to range under the trees and eat the weevils and their grubs. Squirrel control is also essential and every nut farmer has his or her own method. The most productive chestnut orchards are planted with named cultivars, which are vegetatively propagated clones of the original named trees selected for efficient nut production. Since cuttings of chestnut trees will not form roots, chestnut orchard cultivars must be grafted onto suitable rootstock for propagation. Although this increases the cost of the plants, the value in having proven clones makes the purchase price well worth it. Another challenge faced by growers is that some splendid cultivars that do well in one part of the country do not do well in other places. For example, cultivars suited to the far south or to the far west may not do well in New England. Selections from Ohio have generally proven SANDrA ANAGNOSTAkIS American Chestnut 29 JErry A. PAyNE, USDA AGrICUlTUrAl rESEArCH SErvICE, BUGWOOD.OrG reliable in southern New England, as have the few cultivars released from CAES. Since I am the International registrar for Cultivars of Chestnut, information on new trees usually crosses my desk, and I keep a list of the names used and some of their characteristics on our website (http:\/\/www.ct.gov\/caes\/cwp\/view. asp?a=2815&q=376864). The biggest challenge to development of a nut industry in New England is the lack of an established market--many people have never eaten chestnuts and are hesitant even to try them. Also, many who have bought chestnuts and then had weevil larvae crawl out of them will never buy them again. Efforts to develop markets and grower awareness in Michigan and Missouri are making some progress and can serve as examples for New England. The Next problem Even as progress was being made toward blight resistance, another serious chestnut pest arrived. The oriental chestnut gall wasp, Dryocosmus kuriphilus, was introduced into the United States in 1974 by a grower who evaded plant quarantine (Payne et al. 1976). The insect lays its eggs in leaf and flower buds, resulting in defoliated trees with no flowers. Entomologist Jerry Payne chronicled the devastation of orchards of Chinese chestnut trees planted in the state of Georgia. We have reports of infestations throughout Alabama, North Carolina, and Tennessee, and most recently in Columbus, Ohio. As a consequence, breeding work must now include selection for resistance to this pest. Jerry Payne has observed that American and Chinese chinquapins (Castanea pumila, C. ozarkensis, and C. henryi) are resistant to infestation, as are some cultivars of C. crenata. Once again, the CAES collection of species and hybrids is being used for making new crosses, and progeny from these crosses are being tested in North Carolina where the insect is now endemic. These trees were examined by Stacy Clark of the United States Forest Service in 2006 and the preliminary results were encouraging. Of 93 trees planted in 1995, there were 53 that survived the droughts, deer, rabbits, and weed competition for 12 years. Among the survivors, Developing gall and damaged chestnut shoot caused by the oriental chestnut gall wasp. 11 had no wasp galls and 25 had few galls. We hope to understand how resistance is inherited and will incorporate this resistance into our trees as quickly as possible. The other ray of hope for dealing with gall wasp is that Asian parasites released by Jerry Payne seem to be moving with the wasp (Payne et al. 1976). lynne rieske recently reported that parasites were now in the Ohio population (rieske 2007). If these parasites continue to improve as control agents for gall wasp, it is possible that only stressed trees will be seriously damaged by wasp infestation. What's Next? We will soon have timber chestnut trees that can survive in New England. These trees will provide another source of lumber and will also increase the diversity of tree species in forests. We are learning about growing chestnuts in orchards in New England and selecting better FrOM CONNECTICUT ExPErIMENT STATION BUllETIN 154 (1906) This 1905 photograph shows the tall, straight trunk of a then 103-year-old American chestnut in scotland, Connecticut. American Chestnut 31 nut-producing cultivars to make a new niche crop for farmers. The work goes slowly, but is very satisfying. When I talk to scientists who conduct laboratory research, and expect results within months, they are often astonished that I have been working at this research for more than 40 years. There are no quick solutions to the complicated problems in the environment, and trees take a long time to grow. When many factors are interacting they must all be considered. We can make crosses of our trees, wait 10 years for the seedlings to mature, select them, make more crosses, wait 10 years, and still miss some crucial clue in the soil or the weather or animals or insects that will affect our hoped-for outcome. When talking with students I try to emphasize the need for patience, keeping an open mind, and noticing everything. \"Publish or Perish\" and \"More Grant Funding for Survival\" are still driving forces that tempt scientists to focus on small things that can be examined in isolation and written up quickly for scientific journals or granting agencies, but it is important to keep looking at the big picture. References Anagnostakis, S. l. 1990. Improved chestnut tree condition maintained in two Connecticut plots after treatments with hypovirulent strains of the chestnut blight fungus. Forest Science 36: 113124. Anagnostakis, S. l. 1992. Measuring resistance of chestnut trees to chestnut blight. Canadian Journal of Forest Research 22: 568571. Anagnostakis, S. l. 1995a. Effect of the Male Parent on Nut Weight in Chestnut. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 86: 124127 Anagnostakis, S. l. 1995b. The Pathogens and Pests of Chestnuts. pp. 125145, In: Advances in Botanical Research, vol. 21, Andrews, J. H. and I. Tommerup, eds., Academic Press, New york. Anagnostakis, S. l., and P. Devin. 1998. lack of Effect of Pollen Parent on Nut Weight of Chestnuts. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 89: 1517. Anagnostakis, S. l. 2001. The effect of multiple importations of pests and pathogens on a native tree. Biological Invasions 3: 245254. Anagnostakis, S.l. Chestnut cultivar names. http:\/\/www. ct.gov\/caes\/cwp\/view.asp?a=2815&q=376864 Anagnostakis, S.l. Chestnuts and the introduction of chestnut blight. http:\/\/www.ct.gov\/caes\/cwp\/ view.asp?a=2815&q=376754 Anagnostakis, S. l. and Hillman, B. 1992. Evolution of the chestnut tree and its blight. Arnoldia 52 (2): 210. Burnham, C. r. 1988. The restoration of the American chestnut. American Scientist 76: 478487. Clinton, G. P. 1912. Chestnut bark disease. report of the Station Botanist. 19111912, pp. 407413. Annual Report of The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut. Cogbill, C. v., Burk, J., and Motzkin, G. 2002. The forests of presettlement New England, USA: spatial and compositional patterns based on town proprietor surveys. Journal of Biogeography 29: 12791304. Graves, A. H. 1937. Breeding new chestnut trees. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 28: 93100. Hawes, A. F. 1906. Chestnut in Connecticut and the improvement of the woodlot. Bulletin 154, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT. Hillman, B. I., Fulbright, D. W., Nuss, D. l., and van Alfen, N. k. 1994. Hypoviridae. In. Virus Taxonomy: Sixth Report of the International Committee for the Taxonomy of Viruses. F. A. Murphy, C. M. Fauquet, D. H. l. Bishop, S. A. Ghabrial, A. W. Jarvis, G. P. Martelli, M. P. Mayo, and M. D. Summers, eds. Springer-verlag, Wein, New york. Metcalf, H. and J. F.Collins. 1909. The present status of the chestnut bark disease. Bulletin 141, part 5, pp. 4553. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. Payne, J. A., Green, r. A., and lester, D. D. 1976. New nut pest: an oriental chestnut gall wasp in North America. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association 67: 8386. Pierson, A. H. 1913. Wood-Using Industries of Connecticut. Bulletin 174, The Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, CT. rieske, l. k. 2007. Success of an exotic gallmaker, Dryocosmus kuriphilus, on chestnut in the USA: an historical account. EPPO Bulletin 37: 172174. Saucier, J. r. 1973. Natural range of American Chestnut, USDA Forest Service Fact Sheet 230. Sandra l. Anagnostakis continues her research at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station in New Haven. She is still having too much fun to consider retiring. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: American Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25457","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14ebb6b.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Heimarck, Heather D.","article_content":"Book Review: American Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree Heather D. Heimarck American Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree Susan Freinkel. University of California Press, 2007. 284 pages. ISBN 978-0-520-24730-7 merican Chestnut: The Life, Death, and Rebirth of a Perfect Tree chronicles the history of chestnut blight, a devastating fungal disease first identified in 1904 by Hermann Merkel, Chief Forester of the New York Zoological Park, and studied by William Murrill, a mycologist at The New York Botanical Garden. The fungus--reclassified in 1978 as Cryphonectria parasitica--swept rapidly through American chestnut's native range, nearly annihilating this once-dominant tree species. By mid-century the blight had reached the southernmost part of the range--Alabama, Mississippi, and northern Georgia. Freinkel notes, \"A map produced by Gravatt in 1943 showed the scope of the pandemic as a long ellipse stretching nearly the full length of the Atlantic seaboard. Within that ellipse, 50 to 99 percent of the chestnuts were dead . . . All told, it is estimated the blight killed between three and four billion trees, enough to fill nine million acres. That is enough trees to cover Yellowstone National Park eighteen hundred times over.\" Susan Freinkel presents ethnobotanical information on the cultivation of the American forests, first by Native Americans and later by rural inhabitants. She describes an Appalachian culture benefiting from an economy based on collecting chestnuts from family \"orchards\"-- actually chestnut stands in the wild that loosely belonged to different families by tradition or proximity. With little else to use as barter, Appalachian families used chestnuts in trade for store goods at mountain exchange posts. The tree's carroty flavored nut was considered superior to other endemic nut species, and its lumber was straight, strong, and rot resistant. The Appalachian voices in this book provide a soliloquy to the species, which was once so abundant that a squirrel could supposedly pass from \"Maine to Georgia\" in its branches. The American chestnut--in diminished form--still lives on more than one hundred years after the blight was first diagnosed. But the species is on a life line, as the author details, waiting for a positive outcome from the experimental strategies of back breeding and guided natural selection. Freinkel conveys the tale of American chestnut through the facets of rural and suburban culture, focusing primarily on Appalachia, New York City, and Pennsylvania. She details the endeavors of the nascent forestry and agricultural departments, observant naturalists and scientists, and well-intentioned legislators. The book portrays key agents and events in the American chestnut's struggle to survive. Many of the chapters are defined by singular people with some intuitive knowledge and skill who bucked common opinion in their methods. They were agents in early control measures like fungal identification, eventual experiments to fight fungus with fungus, and later breeding and scientific efforts to improve the chestnut gene pool. This legacy is mostly borne by a few tenacious individuals, many of whom receive well-deserved public recognition in this book. They were the architects of experimental nurseries and laboratories working on breeding projects or fungal experiments whose results are clocked in a life cycle longer than that of human generations. These efforts, not yet abandoned, may still succeed. This wonderful book is paced like a mystery novel, complete with fascinating characters. The plot line of chestnut's survival includes A Book Review 33 serendipitous interventions such as that of a cross-country skier turned horticulturist who recognized a surviving stand of chestnut trees in Michigan, or the observant tourist who did helpful comparative research on the European chestnut blight. The history also includes unfortunate, foolhardy visions borne of the spirit of the times such as seed irradiation or the advice given to the struggling public to cut down every tree while the lumber value still yielded a profit. The effects of such commerce consequently spread the blight and reduced the gene pool. The story of the American chestnut showcases a chapter of scientific history, human history, and a change in environmental consciousness. Susan Freinkel combines an easy narrative style with a factual yet poetic voice that elevates this material beyond dry science to make it a compelling, addictive read. As the author points out, in a world where a species is lost every minute, the survival and potential comeback of the American chestnut is a victory song for the unsung soldier. The beauty of this book is that at its heart it is a tale of the heroic spirit of individuals who have dedicated careers to work on a solution against great odds. Her observations focus the dialogue on the evolution of a consciousness about an enemy that had not been understood or apprehended. It became an enemy that schooled young foresters, botanists, ecologists, enthusiasts, and scientists on how to work on a problem of vast scope. To the author's credit, she refrains from moralizing or predicting the future. She turns the problem around for proper examination from all sides. An old riddle is answered--yes, if a tree falls in the forest and there is no one there to hear it, it does make a sound. Heather D. Heimarck is Director of the Landscape Institute of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"2008 Weather at the Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25454","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eb728.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"2008 Weather at the Arboretum T he autumn of 2007 was so dry that fall transplanting had to be postponed, so moisture was a major concern as 2008 arrived. Fortunately, the year brought greater than normal rainfall which provided optimum conditions for our moisture-starved collections. Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 2008 Avg. Max. (F) JAn Feb MAr APr MAy Jun Jul Aug SeP OcT nOv Dec 38.4 39.6 44.2 58.7 65.8 78.4 84.2 75.6 69.2 60.3 59 42.3 Avg. Min. (F) 22.3 23.5 30 37.9 46.8 59.8 65.7 60.8 55.5 40.9 33.2 24.6 Avg. Temp. (F) 30.4 31.6 37.1 48.3 56.3 69.1 75 68.2 62.4 50.6 41.1 33.5 Max. Temp. (F) 65 62 60 72 83 99 94 87 87 74 69 63 Min. Temp. (F) 4 9 11 28 31 51 61 53 42 26 19 8 Precipi- Snowtation fall (inches) (inches) 3.23 8.53 5.65 3.78 1.59 3.97 7.65 5.25 7.24 1.82 4.38 7.84 15 6 14.7 2 January was marked by warmer than normal temperatures, including a balmy 65F on the 8th, and only one snowstorm (on the 14th and 15th) which produced 6 inches of snow, the total for the month. February was mild and wet with over 8.5 inches of total precipitation including 15 inches of snow. Only 2 inches of snow were recorded in March, well below normal, but rainfall added up to nearly 6 inches. April started warm, with some rain, but became dry as the month progressed, causing concern for the imminent spring transplanting season. Our concerns diminished as we received 2 inches of rain toward the end of the month. May was quite dry with only 1.5 inches of rain, and irrigating our new plantings was a priority as we feared a repeat of the dry summer of 2007. Though May's total rainfall was low, a string of days with brief late afternoon or evening showers (which left foliage wet overnight) led to ideal Average Maximum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59.6 Average Minimum Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41.8 Average Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50.7 Total Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60.93\" Total Snowfall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37.7\" Warmest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99 on June 11 coldest Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 on January 4 last Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 on May 1 First Frost Date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 on October 24 growing Season . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176 days Weather Sue PFeiFFer 35 NANCy rOSe Putnam Fellow Abby Hird installs one of eighteen weather recording units that were placed on the grounds in 2008. Data from these units will be used to create maps of the microclimates within the Arboretum. Julie COOP 2008 was an excellent year for fall color. The foliage of this 105-year-old sweet birch (Betula lenta 17679-A) was in full golden glory on October 29th. Sue PFeiFFer Anthracnose, a fungal disease, was common on the foliage of Fraxinus (seen here), Cornus, Platanus, and Quercus in spring 2008. Heavy rain on frozen ground led to flooding along Willow Path in December 2008. conditions for several fungal diseases including anthracnose. Fears of drought subsided as June was on the wet side with about 4 inches of rain. The temperature on June 11th reached 99F, our high for the year. July was wet and warm, with rainfall and mean temperature above normal. August ended wet and cool with no readings over 90F. These two summer months brought many thunderstorms and buckets of rain--an astonishing total of 12.9 inches for July-August. Flooded roads and streams (and clouds of mosquitoes) were common at the Arboretum and throughout the region. The moist summer allowed us to concentrate on watering only new plantings and not the entire collection, and we did very little supplementary watering overall. September continued our \"above average rainfall\" theme as we transitioned into fall. Heavy rains occurred at the end of the month, totaling about 4 inches in four days. October was sunny, cool, and dry with less than 2 inches of rain--a perfect fall month. The fall foliage display was one of the best the region had seen in many years. The first half of November was mild, but a cold and wet second half transitioned us to what would lie ahead. December was slightly warmer than normal but several major storms piled up a total of 15 inches of snow. Heavy rain (over 2 inches) on the 11th and 12th fell on frozen ground, causing stream flooding and some damage to Arboretum paths; fortunately, no collections plants were damaged. Bob Famiglietti, Horticultural Technologist, compiled the 2008 weather data and wrote the month-by-month weather summary. Additional weather-related information was provided by Stephen Schneider, Manager of Horticulture, and Julie Coop, Manager of Plant Health. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Clethra: A Hidden Gem","article_sequence":6,"start_page":1,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25458","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14e816f.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schulhof, Richard","article_content":"Japanese Clethra: A Hidden Gem A t the edge of the Arnold Arboretum's Central Woods, far from most visitors, grows an exceptional specimen of Japanese clethra (Clethra barbinervis, accession 13087). I first became enamored with this species as a student at Longwood Gardens, where I admired its elegant form as part of the backdrop to the famed Flower Garden Walk. While I later saw several very fine examples of Japanese clethra in the great gardens of the Delaware Valley, none approached the singular beauty and character of the Arnold Arboretum's specimen. Like many plants in the Arboretum's collections, this accession comes with an impressive pedigree, tracing back to Japan in 1886. In that year, William Penn Brooks, a Massachusetts native and valedictorian of the state agricultural college class of 1875, sent seeds of several species to the Arnold Arboretum. Brooks, then a teacher and administrator at Sapporo Agricultural School, found time to survey the surrounding countryside of Hokkaido for interesting plants, several of which came to enrich the Arboretum, including katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum) and hardy kiwi (Actinidia arguta). Of these plants, the Japanese clethra accession is Brooks's greatest Arboretum legacy. At 122 years of age, the specimen is over 20 feet (6 meters) tall and nearly 15 feet (4.5 meters) wide. In the forests of Japan and Korea, Japanese clethra is said to attain heights of over 30 feet (9 meters), but in North America I have seen few specimens larger than the Arboretum's accession. Although its American cousin, summersweet (Clethra alnifolia), is better known to gardeners, the Arboretum's E. H. Wilson considered C. barbinervis to be the finest ornamental in the genus. Unlike summersweet, Japanese clethra is more a small tree than a shrub. Judicious pruning can emphasize the small-tree form; when trained as such, it displays sinuous single or multiple trunks broken by floating tiers of foliage. This treatment also shows the tree's exquisitely mottled cinnamon, salmon buff, and slate grey bark to full advantage. Japanese clethra's leaves are deep green through summer. Autumn color tends to be unreliable. I have seen outstanding tints of red and burgundy on specimens in both southeastern Pennsylvania and here at the Arnold Arboretum, but in other years have noted little color change before the leaves fall away inconspicuously. Japanese clethra's white flowers are similar to those of summersweet, but they are borne in 4 to 6 inch long panicled racemes that nod forward and gently twist. Japanese clethra blooms around mid July at the Arboretum, about two weeks before our native, and though some consider the fragrance inferior to summersweet, my nose finds it ample in portion and delicious in scent; if anything, too much of a good thing. Clethra barbinervis is listed as hardy to USDA Zone 5 (average annual minimum temperature -10 to -20F [14 to -4C]). Our venerable specimen has survived the coldest of Boston winters, but has proven vulnerable to drought. During a very dry summer in the early 1990s, the death of this specimen seemed certain, with each leaf appearing as if torched to a crisp. Phoenix-like, it recovered, living on as one of the Arboretum's most distinguished, and best-hidden, centenarian plants. Richard Schulhof is Deputy Director of the Arnold Arboretum. RICHARD SCHULHOF Richard Schulhof "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23412","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160a328.jpg","title":"2009-66-4","volume":66,"issue_number":4,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Impact of Climate Change on the Flora of Thoreau's Concord","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25452","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eaf6b.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller-Rushing, Abraham J.; Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"The Impact of Climate Change on the Flora of Thoreau's Concord Abraham J. Miller-Rushing and Richard B. Primack All pHOTOS By THe AUTHOrS UNleSS OTHerWiSe iNDiCATeD C limate change is driving major shifts in ecosystems all over the world, including here in the United States. Tree swallows and many other bird species are breeding earlier, forest edges are extending up the sides of mountains, and the distributions of pest insect species such as the hemlock woolly adelgid are shifting northward. Notably, most of the evidence for biological responses to climate change, including these examples, is based on studies of one or a few species. The number of examples is large, but it is difficult to know how representative they are. How is climate change affecting entire natural communities of plants and animals? Are all of the species within a community changing, or are just a few? Are most species in a location changing in the same way, or are there substantial differences among species? Are there ways to predict how species within communities might change and what the consequences of these changes will be? Despite the obvious importance of these questions, we do not really know the answers. We know many changes are happening, some of them major, but thus far our knowledge is limited to a relatively few species in a few places. To help answer the question of how The statue of Henry David Thoreau at Walden Pond, with a replica of his plant communities are responding to cabin in the background. climate change, we turned to one of also of flowering times. One of these two botathe best-documented floras in the country-- nists was the well-known philosopher and natthe flora of Concord, Massachusetts. The flora uralist Henry David Thoreau, and the other was has been inventoried five times since 1830, a a local shopkeeper, Alfred Hosmer. Between huge effort for the flora of a single town. During them, they recorded the flowering times of over two of these inventories, the botanists collected 700 plant species in Concord. observations not only of plant occurrences, but Flora of Concord 3 affect relationships among plants competing for resources, between plants and herbivores, and between predators and their prey. in the Netherlands, pied flycatcher populations are already declining because they are breeding too late to feed on their caterpillar prey. More broadly, the populations of european migratory birds species that are not migrating earlier in response to warming temperatures are declining, possibly because of temporal mismatches between their migrations and breeding and their environments. Thus, we are left to question, why do species respond differently to climate change? What species are Concord is home to a wide diversity of wildflowers such as this Britton's most (or least) sensitive to changes violet (Viola brittoniana). in climate? Are there characteristics We know of no other climate change study that make a species particularly sensitive? The in the United States that has recorded observaobservations of Thoreau and Hosmer provided tions on as many species in a single location an opportunity to make headway in answering for as long a period as Thoreau and Hosmer. these questions. These observations have major scientific value because we can use them to examine the response of an entire flora to climate change. Their value is further enhanced because changes in the timing of phenological events-- those biological events like flowering, fruiting, and migrations that recur on a seasonal basis--are among the most sensitive biological responses to climate change. Many phenological events in different places in the world are now occurring earlier than in the past. However, it is clear that species' phenologies are changing at different rates. For example, in england some species are flowering more than a month earlier than they did 50 years ago, while other species' flowering times are advancing more slowly, or are not changing at all. in some instances, plants are even flowering later than they did in the past. This variation has the potential to alter important relationships among species, such as those between plants and pollinators. if a plant is flowering much earlier now than it did in the past, but its preferred pollinator is active at the same time each year, the plant and the pollinator could be misThe flowering time of sweet birch (Betula lenta), seen here, matched in time, to the disadvantage of both. proved to be much more responsive to temperature than did the flowering time of gray birch (Betula populifolia). Similarly, variation in changes in timing could 4 Arnoldia 66\/3 The Remarkable History of Botanical Investigation in Concord The surveys of Concord's flora since 1830 are remarkable not only for their number, but also for their intensity. Aside from simply noting species occurrences, in some cases the surveyors recorded species abundance and the presence of invasive species, and noted botanically important areas. Building on the extraordinary historical base of previous surveys of Concord's flora, over the past five years we have conducted our own survey of the flora. All of the previous surveys provided interesting data, but the precise observations of flowering times by Thoreau and Hosmer proved to be the most important for our study. in the 1850s, after a decade of observing nature and four years after his experience of living on How suddenly the flowers bloom! Two or three days ago I could not, or did not, find the leaves of the crowfoot. To-day, not knowing it well, I looked in vain, till at length, in the very warmest nook in the grass above the rocks of the Cliff, I found two bright-yellow blossoms, which betrayed the inconspicuous leaves and all. The spring flowers wait not to perfect their leaves before they expand their blossoms. From the journal of Henry David Thoreau Flora of Concord 5 the edge of Walden pond, Thoreau began recording flowering times of plants in Concord. He cared deeply about the seasonal changes, as can be seen in his many observations in Walden. in describing his activities at Walden, Thoreau states, \"i want to go away soon and live away by the pond . . . But my friends ask what i will do when i get there. Will it not be employment enough to watch the progress of the seasons?\" One might say he was obsessed with the progress of the seasons. From 1852 to 1858, he hiked around Concord and made regular observations of the first flowering times of over 500 different species of The influence of temperature on plant development is shown by lily of the valley plants in an effort to create a (Convallaria majalis). Plants next to a warm building have undergone more develcalendar of the natural events opment than plants further away. in Concord. His intention was to write a book about the seasons in Concord. and Hosmer made was exceptional. They made Unfortunately, he died before he was able to observations across an entire town (without the complete his project. His friends also wrote aid of a car) several days each week for many about his obsession with the seasons, as ellery consecutive years. in the processes, they creChanning did after a walk with Thoreau on ated a list of flowering phenology for more speMarch 6, 1859: \"Our round of walks is as regucies in a single location than any other of which lar as the seasons; now to low spots to look for we are aware. early spring plants, also for early birds. Nature Linking Historical Observations with is an eternal provision and repetition. H[enry] Climate Change Science says there is nothing but the seasons.\" When we learned about these flowering time His efforts to record flowering times were folobservations from the late Thoreau scholar, lowed by another botanical enthusiast, Alfred Brad Dean, and the active New england botaHosmer, who recorded the first flowering times nist, ray Angelo, we recognized that we had an of over 700 species of plants in 1878 and from opportunity to test whether climate change had 1888 to 1902. We do not know exactly why affected the flowering times across the entire Hosmer made these observations, but we are community of flowering plants in Concord. We quite thankful that he did. His records can all immediately set out ourselves to document the be found in precisely organized notebooks, prescurrent flowering times of as many species as ently housed in the Special Collections Section we could throughout the town. From 2003 to of the Concord Free public library. 2006 we visited Concord two to three days each The idea of tracking phenological events was week throughout the flowering season, from not new at the time of Thoreau and Hosmer's March to October, and recorded the plants we work. The practice is said to be as old as agriculsaw in flower each day. We deliberately sought ture, if not older. Well-known Americans such out locations of difficult-to-find species, such as Thomas Jefferson kept records of flowering as Britton's violet (Viola brittoniana) and rose and bird migrations. But the incredible effort pogonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides), with hopes and continuity of the observations that Thoreau 6 Arnoldia 66\/3 of observing as many of Thoreau's and Hosmer's species as we could. eventually, we made observations of the first flowering dates, in addition to recording the entire period of flowering, of over 500 species. Many of the species we observed, and even the places where we saw them, were identical to those that Thoreau and Hosmer had seen. With these data in hand, we set out to test whether first flowering dates had changed in Concord, and whether species differed in their response to a warming climate. To simplify things, we started by analyzing changes in the first flowering dates for 43 of the most common spring-flowering species that Thoreau, Hosmer, and we had all observed in nearly every year we looked. These species were abundant and widely distributed, and probably reflected fairly the changes in flowering times that had occurred more broadly in the Concord flora. On average, these 43 species were indeed flowering about a week earlier in recent years than they had in Thoreau's day, with Hosmer's observations right in the middle. Some of these species' flowering times changed dramatically. For example, highbush blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum), a shrub of wetlands, and yellow wood sorrel (Oxalis stricta), a native herb of fields and roadsides, are now flowering 21 and 32 days earlier, respectively, than they did 150 years ago. This trend toward earlier flowering corresponded with warming temperatures in the Concord area. Temperature records from the Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Milton, Massachusetts showed 2.4C (4.3F) warming from 1852 to 2006. Most of this warming occurred because of urbanization and development in the greater Boston area, while some of it occurred because of global climate change. (For comparison, the average global temperature warmed by about 0.7C (1.3F) over the past 100 years.) The relatively large warming in Concord, boosted by urbanization, makes this flora a good example for how floras in the rest of the country, away from cities, may respond to future warming. Global temperatures are predicted to warm by about 3C (5.4F) in the next 100 years. Of course, the responses of plants in a developed area may be different from rural areas for a variety of reasons, pollution and the rate of warming among the most important. However, pollution is thought to have a negligible effect on flowering times relative to temperature. And although the rate of warming could alter how quickly flowering responses to temperature might evolve, evolution is likely to be slow in a flora, such as Concord's, dominated by longlived perennials and should have little impact on flowering responses to temperature on the time scales with which we were working. We found a strong relationship between temperature and flowering times in Concord; temperatures in January, April, and May explained most of the variation in flowering dates. (More on why those months later.) On average, plants flowered about three days earlier for each 1C warming. When we examined a much larger list of 296 species, we found the same response of flowering dates to temperatures. Because plant flowering dates respond to temperatures at particular times, we examined the relative importance of temperatures in each month. Temperatures in January, April, and May were by far the most important for most species; warmer temperatures in all three months were linked to earlier flowering dates. April and May were important because they were the temperatures immediately preceding flowering for most species. Why January temperatures were so important was more of a mystery. Winter temperatures are typically understood to influence flowering times in temperate plants through a process known as vernalization. plants have biochemical methods to keep track of how cold it is and for how long. Once it has been cold enough for long enough, plants are said to be competent--that is, their dormancy is nearly complete and they are ready to start developing leaves and flowers as soon as it warms up. if it never gets cold enough for long enough, the plants may still flower when temperatures warm in the spring, but it will take longer to flower; the colder it gets, the closer the plants come to being fully competent, the faster they flower in the spring. The need to track the cold is a defense against abnormally warm temperatures in mid-winter. plants in New england are adapted to avoid flowering in January or February, even when the weather is Flora of Concord 7 Rose pogonia (Pogonia ophioglossoides) is an elusive native orchid found in fens and other damp sites. Cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) grows in moist soils and produces spikes of bright red flowers in mid to late summer. warm. Under this scenario, plants should flower earlier in the spring after cold winters, because they should become more fully competent. However, we found that plants flowered later after particularly cold Januaries. Vernalization was apparently not responsible for the response we saw. instead, we suspect that it gets so cold in Concord in January that in the coldest years plants suffer physical damage to the vascular tissue that delays flowering. We found support for this hypothesis in a subsequent project of ours in which we looked for this sort of damage in birches at the Arnold Arboretum. Variation Among Species With data on all these species, we looked for patterns of variation. Which species were the most sensitive to temperatures? Did particular traits seem to be associated with strong responses to temperature? The flowering responses of plants from different habitats (e.g., aquatic, forest, grassland, roadside, and wetland) did not differ, nor did the responses of natives and non-natives differ from each other. However, season of flowering seemed to matter a great deal. The flowering times of early-season plants were on average strongly correlated with temperature, whereas the flowering times of late-season plants had a much weaker link with temperature. if this pattern continues, the flowering season may lengthen as temperatures warm. Spring species may flower ever earlier and the flowering times of summer species may not change much at all. As a result, the degree of overlap in species' flowering times may be reduced. Growth form seemed also to matter, although in a more indirect way. Among perennial herbs, the flowering dates of late-season plants varied a lot from year to year compared to the flowering dates of early-season plants. However, the variation in flowering time was not related to temperature. We are still unsure of what is driving the year-to-year variation in the flowering dates of late-season perennial herbs; it might have do with soil moisture, degree of shading, 8 Arnoldia 66\/3 or land use. Meanwhile, woody plants showed the pattern we expected--lots of climate-driven variation in flowering dates for early-season plants and relative stability in the flowering of lateseason plants. lastly, we noted that the flowering responses of several closely related species varied substantially. For example, sweet birch (Betula lenta) and gray birch (Betula populifolia), which occur in many of the same habitats in Concord and elsewhere, showed very different responses to temperature. Sweet birch flowered about three days earlier for each 1C increase in January, March, and April temperatures, whereas gray birch flowering dates were Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis) is one of the early spring ephemerals recorded unrelated to temperature. in an in Concord's flora. even more dramatic example, ecologically, these results reflect the comrough-stemmed goldenrod (Solidago rugosa) plexity of plant response to climate change. flowered 11 days earlier for each 1C increase The flowering times of early-season plants are in temperature, whereas the flowering dates of shifting more quickly than those of late-sealance-leaved goldenrod (Solidago graminifolia) son plants. perennial herbs and woody plants and most other goldenrods were unrelated to respond differently. Habitat and nativeness do temperature. These varied responses to clinot seem to affect flowering responses to climate change could lead to increased hybridizamate change. With such a wealth of data from tion among closely related species, if flowering this single location, we found surprising pattimes that previously occurred at distinct times terns, leading to questions that still must be began to overlap. it could also cause more comanswered. For example, why do the flowering petition for pollinators; if plants that share times of closely related species respond so difpollinators and have historically flowered at ferently to warming temperatures? How will different times begin flowering at the same species interactions change as a result? Given time, they may start competing for the pollinathe remaining uncertainty, it is difficult to tors' services. Competition for nutrients and assess how exactly flowering times will shift water needed at critical times in plant developin the future and what the changes will mean ment could also increase. for plants and animals. Thoreau was also aware The Big Picture of the effects of climate on plants and animals Our study found that the plant community and their interactions more than 150 years ago in Concord is responding to climate change when he wrote, \"Vegetation starts when the in dramatic ways. Spring is coming earlier on earth's axis is sufficiently inclined; i.e. it folaverage, but there is a lot of variation among lows the sun. insects and the smaller animals species. Highbush blueberries are flowering (as well as many larger) follow vegetation . . . three weeks earlier than they were in ThoThe greater or less abundance of food deterreau's day, yet the flowering times of other mines migrations. if the buds are deceived and species are not changing at all. suffer from frost, then are the birds.\" Flora of Concord 9 The results of our study show how perceptive he was and suggest likely impacts of a warming climate. interactions among species--e.g., predators and prey, competing plants, plants and herbivores--will certainly change. Most plant species can be pollinated by many animal species or by the wind, and most pollinators can feed on various flowers. For them, the relationships will shift, but they will probably continue to persist. However, shifts in the timing of specialist interactions, like those between hummingbirds and plants with long flower tubes, will probably lead to more dire consequences for the species involved. if a plant with a specialist pollinator flowers before its pollinator is active, its chances of reproducing may decline significantly. Additionally, as the flowering times of early-season plants continue to advance and pull away from the flowering times of late-season plants, there may be times of low floral resources for pollinators like bumblebees. Undoubtedly, some species will do well and thrive under the changed circumstances, while others will do poorly and may even go extinct. Thoreau was keenly aware of the importance of educating people about environmental issues. He helped Concord's citizens to appreciate wild nature, and he encouraged them to protect it. He wrote, \"i think that each town should have a park, or rather a primitive forest of five hundred or a thousand acres, either in one body or several, where a stick should never be cut for fuel, nor for the navy, nor to make wagons, but stand and decay for higher uses-- a common possession forever, for instruction and recreation.\" residents of Concord and the government have followed this advice; about 40% of Concord's land is preserved in parks and protected areas, such as Walden pond State reservation, Great Meadows National Wildlife refuge, and the estabrook Woods. With the help of these protected areas, we have been able to continue the same observations of flowering times made by Thoreau at many of the same localities in Concord. We now hope that Thoreau's observations and our own work will promote broad discussion of the effects of climate change on biological systems. Resources: Bradley, N. l., A. C. leopold, J. ross, and W. Huffaker. 1999. phenological changes reflect climate change in Wisconsin. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96: 97019704. Miller-rushing, A. J., and r. B. primack. 2008. Global warming and flowering times in Thoreau's Concord: a community perspective. Ecology 89: 332341. Miller-rushing, A. J., r. B. primack, D. primack, and S. Mukunda. 2006. photographs and herbarium specimens as tools to document phenological changes in response to global war ming. American Journal of Botany 93: 16671674. parmesan, C. 2007. influences of species, latitudes and methodologies on estimates of phenological response to global warming. Global Change Biology 13: 18601872. USA National phenology Network. www.usanpn.org Abraham Miller-rushing and richard primack completed this research together while working at Boston University. Dr. Miller-rushing is now the coordinator of the Wildlife phenology program, a collaboration between the USA National phenology Network and The Wildlife Society. Dr. primack is a professor at Boston University. What's Next? research efforts are underway to solve these unanswered questions, but more data are needed. Known sets of phenological observations like those of Thoreau and Hosmer are quite rare. yet scores of people have recorded observations--flowering dates in gardens, birds' spring arrivals at feeders--that now sit in boxes in attics and basements. The newly formed USA National phenology Network (www. usanpn.org) is beginning to collect these valuable \"shoebox\" data sets to make them freely available to the research community and the public. There is great potential for these phenological observations to shed light on ecological responses to climate change. in addition, evidence of changes in phenological events can improve public awareness of the effects that climate change is already having on biological systems. people can see changes in phenology in their back yards, neighborhoods, parks, and forests. We believe that building on the observations of a well-known figure such as Thoreau can further increase the potential for public outreach. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Matter of Taste: Pleasure Gardens and Civic Life","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25449","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eab28.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"A Matter of Taste: Pleasure Gardens and Civic Life Phyllis Andersen \"To be natural is such a very difficult pose to keep up.\" --Oscar Wilde, An Ideal Husband \"P opular taste is not a criterion that those who serve our public can respect.\" So said Mariana Van Rensselaer, the distinguished New York art critic and first biographer of architect H.H. Richardson. That remark, made in 1888, fueled the controversy that erupted over her criticism of flowerbeds in Boston's Public Garden. Describing them as crude hues in false situations, she took particular offense at `Crystal Palace Gem' geraniums: \"The cherry colored blossoms with yellow-green leaves are the most hideous products of recent horticulture.\" William Doogue, the Irish-born horticulturist in charge of the Garden's plantings, took exception to her criticism and also rebuked her social position, personal gardening habits, and Harvard-connected friends. Doogue defended his work as accommodating the general taste of the public, who loved his plantings. He protested to the local newspapers and the Mayor, and anyone else who would hear him out. Was all of this brouhaha caused by some ill-placed geraniums, or was it indicative of a deeper division in how we imagine our public parks? This division is illustrated by the wellknown story of the 1858 design competition for New York's Central Park, won by Frederick Law Olmsted and architect Calvert Vaux with a plan titled \"Greensward.\" Their proposal offered a picturesque landscape evocative of the English countryside, combining rustic structures with meadows punctuated by groves, rock outcroppings, and sinuous water bodies. \"Sylvan\" and \"verdant\" were words used by the designers to describe their design as \"a constant suggestion to the imagination of an unlimited range of rural conditions.\" The contrast with the majority of proposals from competitors-- A source of color and controversy, `Crystal Palace Gem' geranium. engineers, landscape gardeners, and talented amateurs--represented a remarkable shift toward the narrative of the picturesque. Other more traditional plans presented highly embellished gardens with formal promenades, fountains, arches, statues of Greek deities and New York politicians, bandstands, and extensive formal layouts of flowering plants. By the mid nineteenth century, the educated public understood that the picturesque landscape was the aesthetic ideal for public parks, allowing the mind to wander along with the body. Among others whose opinions counted, economist and social critic Thorstein Veblen pointed to an upper-class predilection for public parks that were rustic and natural. Enlightened park advocates rejected the pleasure garden model with its emphasis on flowery display, theatricality, sociability, and amusement, believing its artificiality and \"claptrap and gewgaw\" lacked moral uplift and tasteful restraint. Like sin and grace, the picturesque park and the pleasure garden are mutually defining. Olmsted used medical metaphors to promote his COuRTESY OF JIMMY TuRNER. Pleasure Gardens 11 notion of the park ideal: parks should be an antidote to urban ills, healing places for damaged minds. Calvert Vaux's famous comment on Americans' intuitive love of the country was at the core of learned park discussions. Vaux spoke of an \"innate homage to the natural in contradistinction to the artificial, a preference for the works of God to the works of man.\" Supporters of the pleasure garden model rejected the imposition of rural scenery on the city and embraced the seductive lure of sensual sound, color, and light--a sustained Fourth of July celebration, an extended summer fete. The Origin of the Public Pleasure Garden The public pleasure garden originated in London in the eighteenth century with extensive public gardens established at Ranelagh, Marylebone, and Islington. But Vauxhall Gardens on London's South Bank most completely and intensely captured the public's imagination. A favorite watering hole for Samuel Johnson, it was frequently used as a fictional backdrop by novelists. It offered grand promenades, open-air temples imitating ancient buildings, an array of dining and drinking pavilions, small theatres, bandstands, tea gardens, and private bowers for romantic interludes. Linking the attractions were elaborate flower displays of local and foreign blooms selected for color, fragrance, and mood-evoking exotic origins. There were fireworks and beguiling night-lighting in an era when both were rare. In its heyday, Vauxhall Gardens attracted aristocracy, royalty, and anyone who wished to mingle and immerse in an environment designed to please. New York entrepreneurs transported the Vauxhall Gardens concept, name, and menu of PHYLLIS ANDERSEN Central Park's Sheep Meadow reflects the pastoral, naturalistic theme inherent in Olmsted and Vaux's winning design for the park. 12 Arnoldia 66\/3 Music, dining, and assorted other revelries made London's Vauxhall Gardens the place to see and be seen. Vauxhall Gardens, 1785, engraved by Robert Pollard II after Thomas Rowlandson. credit: The Metropolitan Museum of Art, The Elisha Whittelsey Collection, The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1959 (59.333.975). Image The Metropolitan Museum of Art attractions to New York in 1805, to the area around Broadway and East 8th Street, which is now known as Astor Place. At the same time, even the less than sybaritic Hoboken, New Jersey created Elysian Fields, a popular waterfront park that offered ferry service from Manhattan, and where, some say, the first organized game of baseball took place. The last of the New York pleasure gardens, Palace Gardens, opened in 1858 (the same year as the Central Park competition). It offered the usual array of dining pavilions, water features, and elaborate night-lighting. Legacy of the Pleasure Garden Today, the tradition of the pleasure garden continues to influence the way we think about urban parks. Certainly the questions posed 150 years ago continue to resonate: Who owns the parks? The planners? The middle class? The working class having no other options? And just as important: What is the purpose of a park? The success of the public pleasure gardens was due to diligent management by entrepreneurs who owned them and developed new attractions: balloon launches, water gondolas, music commissioned for special occasions. The eventual demise of the public pleasure garden was due in part to competition from new urban amenities: restaurants, concert halls, theatres, tearooms, and cafes dispersed throughout the city. It was due as well to the growth of petty crime that, then as now, often attaches to public venues that draw huge crowds. And some plea- Pleasure Gardens 13 sure gardens, having contributed to the growth and desirability of the city, became victims of their own success and were lost to real-estate development pressures. The prototypical evocation of a pleasure garden that survived is Copenhagen's Tivoli, which opened in 1843. Patterned on London's Vauxhall and named for the beautiful resort town near Rome, it still offers families a complete pleasure garden experience with attractions interspersed among flower displays appropriate to the season. The horticultural display of pleasure gardens, with its emphasis on seasonal flowering, evolved into civic horticulture--embellishment of city-spaces that are not within the purview of the professional landscape architect and most often maintained by gardeners trained through apprenticeship and guided by trade magazines. These plantings typically feature massing of large numbers of flowers of strong color con- trasts arranged in geometric or pictorial patterns. Some traditions, such as the theatrical display of plants in graduated tiers, evolved from the eighteenth-century English estate garden into the public pleasure garden, as still seen in Boston's Public Garden today. Civic horticulture draws on a rich planting tradition that evokes admiration of both the beauty of the plantings and the ingenuity of the gardener. The immense popularity of the Rose Garden in the Fens section of Boston's Emerald Necklace, of the planted borders in downtown Boston's Post Office Square, and the grand flowerbeds at Copley Square are fine examples of horticulture that enlivens the city, akin to Pop Concerts on the Esplanade. Although theme parks and amusement parks are obvious descendents of the pleasure garden, recent trends in urban public parks suggest that the pleasure garden is enjoying a renaissance PHOTOS COuRTESY OF TIVOLI Modeled on public pleasure gardens such as Vauxhall, Tivoli opened in Copenhagen, Denmark, in 1843. Tivoli's exotic Moorishstyled Nimb building is shown in 1910 (left), one year after being built, and as it appears today (right). 14 Arnoldia 66\/3 wood have developed a highly ornamental planting plan for the North End Park of Boston's Rose Kennedy Greenway. The Dutch horticulturist Piet Oudolf is acting as a consultant for a number of new urban parks in the united States, bringing his skill at highly textured perennial planting in changing seasonal patterns to a new audience. Yet, we still drag issues of public taste behind us, although now couched in concerns for environmental suitability, often with the same moral overtones that characterize the Central Park discussions of the midnineteenth century. We lay a huge responsibility on our urban parks. They must be didactic, educate about ecology, unify communities, and convey history. They must exhibit good taste and local values. But if we are to sustain parks in cities, they must embrace the imagination of the public. The term \"Disneyfication\" is now Beds of brightly colored annual flowers feature prominently in views of Boston's Public Garden from an early-1900s postcard (top) and a 2006 photograph (bottom). an indictment, but one suspects that William of sorts. We are in the midst of defining a new Doogue would have welcomed Walt Disney's words: \"We are not trying to entertain critics. urban park discourse, one that rejects the picI'll take my chances with the public.\" turesque and encourages new kinds of urban engagement--drawing in the city, making use of technology, and embracing theatricality. ChiPhyllis Andersen is a landscape historian and the former cago's Millennium Park, an assemblage of culdirector of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies tural attractions and elaborate planting displays, of the Arnold Arboretum. She is currently working lists \"theatre consultant and lighting designer\" on a book on public pleasure gardens scheduled for as part of the design team. The team of Kathryn publication in 2010. This article originally appeared in ArchitectureBoston. Gustafson and Crosby, Schlessinger and Small- PHYLLIS ANDERSEN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China","article_sequence":3,"start_page":15,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25451","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eaf26.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Callaghan, Christopher B.; McNamara, William; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Cathay Silver Fir: Its Discovery and Journey Out of China AUSTrAlIAn BICEnTEnnIAl ArBorETUM Christopher B. Callaghan ll that glitters isn't gold. Sometimes it's silver, especially when it's the rare Cathay silver fir (Cathaya argyrophylla). It is now over 50 years since the discovery of this \"living fossil\", yet it remains largely unknown. Access to this conifer has been tightly controlled by China; reportedly, even the offer of a Trident jet in exchange for a single plant during the late 1970s was not sufficient to entice the Chinese to release their grip on this endemic \"treasure tree,\" whose fir-like leaves reflect their silvery undersides when they catch the sunlight. This offer may not sound so farfetched when compared with the more recently discovered Wollemi pine (Wollemia nobilis) of Australia, which has grossed millions of dollars in worldProminent stomatic bands on the undersides of leaves give Cathaya argywide sales since its public release in rophylla its silvery flash. early 2007 following a well- orcheswestern cultivation from China in late 1947, trated marketing and publicity campaign higha mere six years after its discovery. This was lighting its ancient origins. Earlier, a pre-release thanks in large part to the efforts of Elmer D. auction of the first Wollemi pines realized over Merrill, then Arnold Professor of Botany at one million Australian dollars with an average the Arnold Arboretum and previously the of A$3,627 per tree, and this without any AmerArboretum's director. ican bids because of U.S. import restrictions on By the time of the discovery of Cathaya argytrees over 18 inches (0.5m) tall. So for China, rophylla just eight years later, the changing the Cathay silver fir--mass produced and proppolitical landscape in China and the cutting of erly marketed to the west--had the potential of ties with the west meant that this botanically being a similar financial success story. interesting tree, which Chinese botanists have Described as another \"living fossil\" when it described as \"The Giant Panda of the Plant Kingmade world headlines in the 1950s, the Cathay dom,\" was to languish in near obscurity for over silver fir did not make it out of China prior to thirty years. Even with the gradual lifting of the its official release by Chinese authorities in bamboo curtain post-1972, it still took many the 1990s. In contrast, dawn redwood (Metaseyears before the Chinese allowed the tree to be quoia glyptostroboides), the previous worldtaken out of the country, or distributed any seeds renowned \"living fossil\", was introduced into A 16 Arnoldia 66\/3 to overseas botanical institutions. Consequently, the Cathay silver fir is still little known even today, more than half a century after its scientific discovery. A New Plant is Found This discovery occurred in 1955 during a botanical exploration of the remote Huaping region of northern Kwangsi province (now Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous region) in southern China. Deng Xianfu, a member of the Kwangfulingchu Expedition, literally unearthed the first Cathay silver fir when he dug up a seedling of what he thought was Keteleeria fortunei. Following a closer inspection of the seedling, expedition leader Professor Zhong Jixin found that it didn't resemble Fortune's keteleeria. He also knew that Keteleeria fortunei, while occurring naturally in Kwangsi province, could not survive there at above 1400 meters (4600 feet) in the Tianping Mountains, and so considered that it might be a new species of Keteleeria. Upon receiving further information that a tree had been seen in these mountains with some resemblance to both a pine (Pinus) and a fir (Abies), Professor Zhong realized that they should be looking for something special. He directed expedition members to intensify their efforts to find the parent plant(s) of the unfamiliar seedling. Continued searching of the precipitous, mist-shrouded mountains led to the discovery of a mature tree on the southern slopes of Mt. Hongya on May 16, 1955. Herbarium specimens were collected by expedition members, with further specimens collected from the same locality by H.C. lei, H.C. Chung, H.l. Hsu and H.F. Tan from May to July the following year. All these specimens were deposited at the herbarium of the South-China Institute of Botany, Sketch maps not to scale Numbers on the enlarged map indicate the approximate locations of wild Cathaya (see facing page). Additionally, Cathaya argyrophylla is said to occur at Luohandong in Hunan province and in Tongzi county, Guizhou province. The approximate position of these two localities has not been determined and is therefore not indicated on the map. C.M. = Chongqing Municipality. later renamed Kwangtung Institute of Botany (now held at Guangxi Institute of Biology). Here they were seen by the Soviet botanist Sugatchey [likely a mistranslation of the name Sukachev] who advised that they resembled plant fossils previously found in the Soviet Union and Europe dating back to the Pliocene of the Tertiary Period, and hence the newly discovered tree represented a \"living fossil\". Cathaya fossils found since then include fossil pollen in Asia and north America dating back to the Cretaceous. Chun Woon Young (Chen Huanyong) and Kuang Ko Zen (Kuang Keren) published a description of the new genus and species in 1958. They also described a second species, Cathaya nanchuanensis, discovered in 1955 on Jinfo Shan (Golden Buddha Mountain) in southeastern Sichuan. However, this name was reduced to a synonym of Cathaya argyrophylla in 1978. Cathay Silver Fir 17 Natural Occurrences of Cathaya in China ProviNCe\/ reGioN GuANGXi ZHuANG AuToNoMouS reGioN NuMber oN MAP LoCATioN (reserve area in ha) Dayao Mountain Nature reserve (aka Dayao Shan National Forest Park) established 1982. Jinxiu County. Huaping Nature reserve (aka Huaping Primeval Forest), Mt Tianping. established 1961. Sanmen, Longsheng County (type specimen of Cathaya argyrophylla found here in 1955 near Yezhutang, Southern slope of Mount Hongya). Cathay Silver Fir Nature reserve (aka Dashahe Cathaya reserve) established 1984. Daozhen Xian, Daozhen County. Forest reserve of Guizhou botanical Garden. Founded 1964. Liuchongguan, Guiyang. Mount Fanjing Nature reserve. established 1978. Jiangkou County. Dingliao Nature reserve. established 1986. Zixing County\/ bamian Mountain Nature reserve est. 1982. Guidong County. Ziyunwanfeng Mountain Nature reserve. established 1982. Xinning and Chengbu Counties. Wulong County. Jinfo Mountains Nature reserve. established 1979. Nanchuan County. (Cathaya nanchuanensis, now regarded as an ecotype of C. argyrophylla, found here in 1955.) GuiZHou HuNAN CHoNGQiNG MuNiCiPALiTY (previously part of Sichuan Province) The generic name Cathaya derives from the historic place name Cathay, a dominion of the Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan at the time of Marco Polo's travels during the late thirteenth century, and now the northern section of today's China. However, the areas of the present day natural occurrence of Cathaya are actually outside the realm of what was known as Cathay in Marco Polo's time. Instead, they fall within another of Kublai Khan's dominions known as Mangi or Manzi, now the region of China south of the Yangtze river. So perhaps in a historical context the name Mangia would have been more appropriate, although without the appeal of implied antiquity in the name Cathaya. Guarding the Silver The significance of the discovery of the Cathay silver fir in 1955 was considered by the Chinese to be so important that they established Hua- ping nature reserve in 1961 to protect the first found population of the trees. This was one of the earliest nature reserves created in China. Since 1976 many more nature reserves have been established throughout China, and around 4,000 Cathay silver firs presently occur in about a dozen of these (see map). Even when China opened to the west in the late 1970s, these nature reserves were generally off-limits to most foreigners. As late as 1997, I and my colleague S.K. Png of the Australian Bicentennial Arboretum, during a visit to Guizhou Botanical Garden in Guiyang, were steered clear of the natural stand of Cathaya argyrophylla growing in the forest reserve of the garden. A similar situation befell the authors of Southwest China, Off the Beaten Track while they were researching their book during the mid-1980s, and were discouraged from visiting Huaping nature Preserve in longsheng County, 18 Arnoldia 66\/3 AUSTrAlIAn BICEnTEnnIAl ArBorETUM A miniature forest of Cathaya argyrophylla seedlings emerges from a propagation flat. where Cathaya argyrophylla was first found. As they commented, \"longsheng County has a nature preserve, though what is there is anyone's guess since we could never get a straight answer\". [Ed. note: William Mcnamara of Quarryhill Botanical Garden also had a challenging experience trying to see Cathaya--read his account on page 24] Ultimately, China must have realized that one way to protect these rare and endangered trees in their natural habitat is to make them A juvenile plant of Cathaya argyrophylla growing at the Australian bicentennial Arboretum. AUSTrAlIAn BICEnTEnnIAl ArBorETUM Seven- and ten-year-old trees at the Australian bicentennial Arboretum are the first known Cathaya in cultivation outside of China to bear male and female strobili (a male strobus on the seven-year-old tree is shown here). in China, cultivated specimens are said to take as long as 17 years to bear male flowers and even longer to bear fruit. available for cultivation elsewhere. The earliest record I've found for Cathaya argyrophylla introduced outside China is a 1993 accession at the royal Botanic Gardens, Sydney, Australia, The accession's exact fate wasn't recorded, but as of May, 2003, it was listed as \"no longer in the nursery\". However, since plants which had lost their identification labels in the botanic garden's nursery were sometimes sold at the annual Friends of the Garden's plant sales, it is at least possible that the oldest Cathaya in cultivation outside of China is growing unrecognized in a yard somewhere in Sydney. The next earliest year for introduction of definitely surviving Cathaya argyrophylla is 1995 when seeds were received by the royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Scotland from Shenzhen Botanical Garden in China. These seeds were then redistributed by Edinburgh's Conifer Conservation Program to various other gardens, AUSTrAlIAn BICEnTEnnIAl ArBorETUM Cathay Silver Fir 19 DEnDroloGICAl ATlAS ProJECT TEAM--ZSolT DEBrECZY, ISTvan raCZ A native stand of Cathaya argyrophylla grows on a steep, misty mountainside in China. including 50 seed sent to the Arnold Arboretum, where none germinated. The Arnold Arboretum received further seed in 1998 from Fairy lake Botanical Garden in China, with excellent germination [Ed. note: read more about Cathaya at the Arnold Arboretum on page 22]. Finally, seed was allowed out of China in commercial quantities in 1998. Worldwide, apart from botanical gardens, arboreta, and rare plant collectors, relatively few private individuals appear to have acquired this desirable conifer, although many have expressed interest in obtaining the plant if and when it becomes available. Cathaya in the landscape Although not yet widely grown, Cathay silver fir certainly has potential as a landscape plant. It is beautiful as a young plant, and ultimately develops into a noble tree of about 20 meters (65 feet) or more tall with a columnar trunk and horizontal branching. Its long, narrow, evergreen leaves are about 4 to 6 centimeters (1.4 to 2.4 inches) long (sometimes longer), and 2.5 to 3 millimeters (.08 to .11 inches) wide. leaf color is deep green. on the underside, two prominent silvery-white stomatal bands are separated by the midrib. This flash of silver provides the species with its specific epithet, argyrophylla, \"with silvery leaves\". Surviving as it does in Chinese botanical gardens at Shanghai near the coast and Wuhan in central China, which experience minimum winter temperatures of -12C ( 10F) and -18C (0F) respectively, this rare and endangered tree should be hardy in USDA zones 7 or warmer. In slightly colder regions it may be suited to cultivation provided it is given a sheltered microclimate where it is protected from extremes of winter cold and freezing winds. In its native range Cathay silver fir experiences cool summers, winter snow, high humidity, and plen- 20 Arnoldia 66\/3 C Two Living Fossils and the Arnold Arboretum Connection athaya argyrophylla co-author Chun Woon Young (Chen Huanyong) had undertaken dendrology courses with Professor John Jack at the Arnold Arboretum from 1915 to 1919 while completing graduate studies at Harvard's Bussey Institution. He was to comment that it would take him a lifetime of travel to learn as much about Chinese trees as he did while studying at the Arnold Arboretum for a few years. Hsen Hsu Hu (Hu Xiansu), who was the lead author with W.C. Cheng in naming and describing the dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides), also studied under John Jack from 1923 to 1925. Thus, both the monotypic \"living fossil\" conifers endemic to China, Cathaya argyrophylla and Metasequoia glyptostroboides, were named and described by pioneering Chinese botanists who undertook forestry courses at the Arnold Arboretum. ArCHIvES oF THE ArnolD ArBorETUM in this 1917 photograph, Professor John G. Jack studies a black maple with several students, including Chun Woon Young (Chen Huanyong) at right. Cathay Silver Fir 21 DEnDroloGICAl ATlAS ProJECT TEAM--ZSolT DEBrECZY, ISTvan raCZ tiful rainfall. When planted in the landscape it should grow best if it receives plenty of moisture, particularly in summer, and is situated in a sunny, well-drained site. The Cathay silver fir is one of the most notable in a long line of rare, endemic, and endangered plants to come out of China, Ernest Wilson's \"Mother of Gardens,\" and I suspect that there remain others yet to be discovered. We can only hope that they are found before human population pressure and the resultant clearing of ever-diminishing forested areas forces them to extinction, as is sadly happening throughout the world. references and Further reading Bean, W. J. 1970. Cathaya. In: Trees & Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles (8th Ed.) vol. 1. p. 539. John Murray, london. Callaghan, C. 2006. Botanical Sale of the Century. Wollemi Pine Auction. International Dendrology Society Ye a r b o o k 2 0 0 5 , p p . 4 7 4 9 . Dendrology Charitable Company, Herefordshire, England. Callaghan, C. 2007. A synopsis of the enigmatic Cathay Silver Fir. International Dendrology Society Yearbook 2006, pp. 151164. Dendrology Charitable Company, Herefordshire, England. Callaghan, C. 2007. Bibliography of Cathaya--living & Fossil. International Dendrology Society Yearbook 2006, pp. 164167. Dendrology Charitable Company, Herefordshire, England. A mature Cathay silver fir displays its picturesque habit. Dallimore, W. and A. B. Jackson. 1966. Cathaya. In: A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. (4th Ed.), pp. 136137. Edward Arnold, london. den ouden, P. and B. K. Boom. 1965. Cathaya. In: Manual of Cultivated Conifers Hardy in the Cold and Warm Temperate Zone. pp. 5354. Martinus nijhoff, The Hague. Farjon, A. 1990. Cathaya. In: Pinaceae: Drawings and descriptions of the genera. regnum veg. 121, pp. 171175. Koeltz Scientific Books, Konigstein. (continues on page 25) Cheng, W. C. and l. K. Fu. 1978. Cathaya. In: Flora R e p u b l i c a e P o p u l a r i s S i n i c a e , vo l . 7 , Gymnospermae. p. 122, plate 30. Science Press, Beijing. [in Chinese]. Chun, W. Y. and K. Z. Kuang. 1958. Genus novum Pinacearum ex Sina australi et occidentali. (A new genus of Pinaceae--Cathaya, from the South and West of China). Bot. Zhurn., Moscow, 43(4):461476, 10 plates [in russian and latin]. Chun, W. Y. and K. Z. Kuang. 1962. De genere Cathaya Chun et Kuang. Acta Bot. Sinica 10(3):245247, plates 13. [in latin and Chinese]. 22 Arnoldia 66\/3 Cathaya Comes to the Arnold Arboretum o Peter Del Tredici n october 21, 1998, like a bolt out of the blue, the Arnold Arboretum received an unsolicited packet of nearly 600 seeds of the extremely rare Chinese conifer Cathaya argyrophylla from the Fairy lake Botanical Garden in the city of Shenzhen, Guangdong Province, China. We were excited about getting these seeds for two reasons: first, Cathaya argyrophylla is an endangered species endemic to China, with only limited distribution outside that country, and second, we had received seeds three years earlier, in 1995, but to our great disappointment they had failed to germinate. When the Cathaya seeds arrived at the Arboretum they had no markings other than the name of the plant and the return address. It was all rather mysterious, and it wasn't until nearly three years later, during a chance encounter at the new York Botanical Garden, that I met Dr. li Yong who told me that the seeds had been collected from wild trees growing in Zi Yuan County in Hunan Province, and that he had sent them to the Arnold Arboretum. needless to say, I thanked him profusely for the wonderful gift. The day after the seeds arrived at the Arboretum, Jack Alexander and I counted and divided them up into various lots to test their germination following various periods of moist stratification in the refrigerator. Because we could find no written information about the dormancy requirements of the seeds, and because the species is native to a warm temperatesubtropical area, we made the assumption that the seeds probably required minimal chilling. Table 1 lays out the parameters and results of the seed germination experiment we set up in the Dana Greenhouses. Number of seeds 200 100 100 159 Percent germination (Number of seedlings) 6 (12) 21 (21) 31 (31) 74 (118) Number of days to first seed germination 170 24 29 18 Number of days of chilling 0 57 70 112 Table 1. Germination of seeds of Cathaya argyrophylla which were sown or moist stratified on october 22, 1998. Despite our best guess, the seeds which received four months of cold stratification germinated much faster and in much higher percentages than seeds which received less than seventy days of chilling. So much for a propagator's intuition. By the time the experiment ended in July 1999, we had potted up a total of 182 seedlings, which made for an overall germination rate of 32.6%. Cathay Silver Fir 23 This ten-year-old Cathaya argyrophylla was transplanted to the Arboretum grounds in spring 2008. From the botanical perspective, this species is intriguing because it occupies an intermediate position within Pinaceae, sharing certain morphological similarities with true pines (Pinus), Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga), and spruces (Picea). on April 5, 2000, the Arboretum distributed 79 seedlings to various botanical gardens throughout the United States, keeping about a dozen plants for ourselves. Several of our plants grew well; by spring of 2006, after eight growing season, the three biggest plants were 1.2, 0.8, and 0.7 meters (4, 2.6, and 2.3 feet) tall. Five of the biggest seedlings were moved from the shade house to the nursery in June of 2006, but three of them failed to survive the transplanting. only one plant was still alive by April 2008, when it was planted out on the grounds. our fingers are crossed that it will survive its first winter out on the grounds. As for the seedlings that we distributed back in 2000, the Mendocino Botanical Garden and the University of California Botanical Garden in Berkeley have both reported having plants that are still alive. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. PETEr DEl TrEDICI 24 Arnoldia 66\/3 An Excerpt From: Three Conifers South of the Yangtze ur final goal was to reach the Jinfu Shan, the mountainous home of the extraordinary conifer Cathaya argyrophylla . . . After a good night's rest in a fairly decent hotel in nanchuan, we eagerly headed to the jeeps for the drive up into the Jinfu Shan. To our surprise, blocking the gate to the hotel were at least a dozen people arguing with Dr. Yin and Professor Zhong. Apparently several of them were determined to keep us from visiting the Cathaya. There was a representative from the local police, the local tourist bureau, the forestry department, the public security bureau, the Chinese army, the mayor's office, and who knows what else. All were yelling and throwing their arms up in the air. Finally they agreed that we could go see the trees but stated emphatically that we would not be allowed to touch or photograph them. At this point the argument was on the verge of getting seriously out o f c o n t r o l . D r. Yin then made a phone call to the governor, who told the troublemakers that we could indeed visit and photograph the valuable resource Yinshan, the Chinese name for Cathaya argyrophylla, as we were important scientists from England and America. Two and a half The expedition's reward: seeing the silver-backed foliage of Cathaya argyrohours later our phylla in person. jeeps, with an escort of six Chinese to keep us under control, were climbing up steep, mist-covered mountains. We stopped at about 1700 meters (5600 feet) elevation in an area of dense bamboo . . . We then hiked in a light rain for about 20 minutes, slightly uphill, to a large limestone outcrop about 15 meters (50 feet) high and wide. our Chinese escorts pointed to the top of the outcrop and said, \"There they are.\" Through the mist we could barely make out several conifers growing on the top. As we stood there wondering if they would let us climb up to view them closer, we noticed that someone had already rendered that nearly impossible. Everywhere that it might have been possible to climb, the limestone outcrop had been o William McNamara WIllIAM MCnAMArA Cathay Silver Fir 25 (continued from page 21) Fu, l., n. li, and r. r.Mill. 1999 Cathaya. In: Flora of China vol. 4, p. 37. Science Press, Beijing\/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. louis. Fu, l. K. et al. 1992. China Plant Red Data Book--Rare and Endangered Plants. vol. 1. Science Press, Beijing. Haas, W. J. 1988. Transplanting Botany to China: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong. Arnoldia 48(2):925. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, MA. Krussman, G. 1985. Cathaya. In: Manual of Cultivated Conifers. pp. 17, 6263. Timber Press, Portland. li, W. and X. Zhao. 1989. Cathay Silver Fir in Huaping and Jinfo Mountains nature reserves. In: China's Nature Reserves, pp. 128131. Foreign languages Press, Beijing. (brief mentions also of Cathay Silver Fir on pp. 7, 12, 15, 16, 113. Also in Appendix pp. 167, 168, 172, 174, 182). rushforth, K. 1987. Cathaya. In: Conifers. p. 93. Christopher Helm, london. Spongberg, S. A. 1995. Cathaya comes to the Arnold Arboretum, Arnoldia 55(3): Fall news 12. Tang, X. 1987. The Secret Cathay Silver Fir. In: Living Treasures. An Odyssey Through China's Extraordinary Nature Reserves. pp. 8394, illustration p. 196. Bantam Books, new York\/ new World Press, Beijing. van Gelderen, D. M. and J. r. P. van Hoey Smith. 1996. Cathaya. In: Conifers: The Illustrated Encyclopedia vol. 1 AK p. 8, photo p. 90. Timber Press, Portland. Wu, Z., and P. H. raven with G. Zhu (eds.) 2001. Cathaya argyrophylla. In: Flora of China, Illustrations, vol. 4. p.41. Science Press, Beijing\/ Missouri Botanical Garden Press, St. louis. Yu, D. (ed.) 1983. The Botanical Gardens of China. Science Press, Beijing. (photos of Cathaya argyrophylla on pp. 190, 248). Zhang, C. (ed.) 1990. Natural Resources: Vegetation and Plants in the People's Republic of China (Profile China Series). pp. 6377. lotus Publishing House, Hong Kong, and Carlingford, Australia. (Cathaya argyrophylla mentioned pp. 64, 72 with photos both pages). Zhao, J. et al. 1990. The Natural History of China. Collins, london. (Cathay Silver Fir mentioned pp. 52, 193, 199, 209210). Christopher B. Callaghan is a plant researcher and Curator of living Collections at the Australian Bicentennial Arboretum. altered to prevent that possibility. Cracks that might have been footholds had been filled in with concrete, rough areas that might have served as grips were smashed smooth, and in areas of easy accessibility, barriers of rock and concrete had been installed. Someone was undoubtedly determined to keep people away from the Cathaya. As we looked around, clearly frustrated and not trying very hard to disguise it, the Chinese surprised us all by picking up a small fallen tree and leaning it against the outcrop. They then found another similar log and together with the other, they created a makeshift ladder. Several minutes later, after pushing and pulling each other up onto the top of the outcrop, we were standing in a grove of Cathaya. our hosts further surprised us by telling us that it was all right to climb the trees and to take an herbarium specimen. The dozen or so trees averaged about 10 meters (33 feet) in height and superficially resembled short-needled pines... After a good half hour of climbing, examining, and photographing the trees, we slowly made our way back down the outcrop. The rain intensified as we walked back to the road. While getting into the jeeps, our escorts told me that I was the first American to see Cathaya argyrophylla in the wild. Though very suspect of that statement, and rather cold and wet, I was nonetheless very happy to have seen, photographed, and even climbed the Cathaya. William Mcnamara is Executive Director at Quarryhill Botanical Gardens in Glen Ellen, California. Full article at: http:\/\/www. quarryhillbg.org\/page16.html "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25453","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eb36f.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Xiang, Zhun; Xiang, Yinghai; Xiang, Bixia; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King Zhun Xiang, Yinghai Xiang, Bixia Xiang, and Peter Del Tredici he largest Ginkgo biloba tree in the world, the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King, is located about a hundred kilometers west of Guiyang, the capital of Guizhou Province, China. The tiny hamlet of Li Jiawan (2639' N and 10725' E) is too small to appear on any maps. Administratively, Li Jiawan is part of Lebang Village, which is part of Huangsi Town in Fuquan County. The Grand Ginkgo King is growing at an altitude of 1,300 meters (4,265 feet) in a narrow valley where it towers over the surrounding bottomland vegetation, which consists mainly of cultivated crops (Figure 1). It is a male tree, about 30 meters (98 feet) tall, with a ground level trunk diameter of 460 centimeters (181 inches) in the eastwest orientation and 580 centimeters (228 inches) in the north south direction. Its circumference at breast height is 15.6 meters (51 feet) and its canopy shades an area of roughly 1,200 square meters (13,000 square feet). The primary \"trunk\" is completely hollow and encloses an area of 10 to 12 square meters (108 to 130 square feet), more than enough for seating a dinner party of ten people. Indeed, during the 1970s, an old man by the name of Pan Shexiang, accompanied by his cattle, lived in this natural tree cave for two years. The inside of the trunk--up to a height of about 5 meters (16 feet)--is charred black from lightning-ignited fires (Figure 2). The outside of the trunk shows no signs of fire, but has a ragged appearance caused by the excessive amount of callus tissue that has formed between the new branches and old trunks. In addition, large hanging chichi (downward growing shoots that look something like stalactites) have developed in response to various wounds and breaks, adding more confusion to the convoluted woody excrescences that cover the trunk. As battered as the outside of the tree appears, however, it maintains a vigorous hold on life, as attested to by the presence of T numerous young shoots sprouting out all over the tree (Figures 2 and 3). Chinese investigators have determined that the Grand Ginkgo King is a \"five-generationsin-one-tree\" complex. In other words, the first generation was a normal seedling which--as a result of repeated sprouting from the base over the course of several millennia--produced four succeeding generations of trunks, each of which has continued the tree's growth and development after the preceding generation was damaged or died (Figure 4). The tree, as we know it today, is the result of at least five generations of stems produced over the course of thousands of years. There are five distinct trunk sectors which are separate at ground level but are partially merged at the height of about a meter (3.3 feet) above the ground, and new branches often sprout from the tissue between trunk sectors. While each trunk section seems to be physiologically independent, the secondary fusion creates the appearance of a single tree (Figures 2 and 3). Age Estimation Extensive field work has shown that the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King is the biggest (in terms of trunk diameter) ginkgo tree in the world, a fact what was recognized by the Guinness Book of World Records in 1998. The question of how old the tree might be is unclear given that its internal tissues--with all their growth rings--are totally gone. What we do know, however, is that ginkgo trees of different ages have very different appearances and growth characteristics, and that different generations of ginkgo trunks typically have different growth rates and different longevities. We have come up with a rough estimate of the Grand Ginkgo King's age based on what we know about the ages of other ancient ginkgo trees in China with a similarly complex developmental history: the first generation stem(s) can typically reach up to 1,200 years of age, the Grand Ginkgo King 27 P. DEL TREDICI. Figure 1. The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King as it appeared in September 2002. second generation stems live for about 1,000 years, the third 800 years, the fourth 600 years, and the fifth about 400 years. According to this highly theoretical formula, the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King has a maximum estimated age of around 4,000 to 4,500 years. Legends and Romance The Grand Ginkgo King has been living for thousands of years without an official record in the history books of the local government. However, there are many folk legends surrounding this tree. Writer Shixian Xu described one of these legends: During the Tang dynasty there was a scholar named Bai who had recently gained a governor's position by winning a national competition. At some point after taking office, Bai had a fight with a treacherous court official who had done a lot of bad things to the ordinary people. Given that bad officials typically protect each other, the scholar Bai was punished for his actions and sent off to an isolated army camp. On the way there, he was severely beaten and eventually died from his wounds. His body was buried at Li Jiawan by the local people, who deeply loved this scholar who tried to help ordinary people. Soon afterwards, a huge tree grew out from the tomb. This tree was considered the avatar of scholar Bai and given the name \"bai guo tree\" (one of the Chinese names for Ginkgo biloba). Another story about the origin of the tree dates from the Ming dynasty and holds that the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo tree transformed itself into a scholar and entered a national competition. The tree-scholar won the championship and was appointed to be a high official by the king. When the tree-scholar failed to show up for the position, the king sent two messengers to find him, both of whom were killed when they came back empty handed. The third messenger that the king sent was worried about his own safety since he too could find no trace of the mysterious scholar. During his disturbed sleep one night, he had a dream in which a person appeared calling himself \"Bai.\" At this point 28 Arnoldia 66\/3 DRAWING By yINGHAI XIANG. Figure 2. The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King. Grand Ginkgo King 29 P. DEL TREDICI. Figure 3. The multi-generational trunk of the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King. 30 Arnoldia 66\/3 DRAWING By yINGHAI XIANG. there have been no new sprouts from part 3. Such a loss of normal regenerative function suggests that the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo may be losing its vigor. Based on what we have seen of other multigenerational trees, it is predictable that the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo will get smaller over time rather than bigger and that in 50 to 100 years or so it will be dead. References Xiang, B., Z. Xiang, and y. Xiang. 2007. Report on wild Ginkgo biloba in Qianzhong altiplano. Guizhou Science 25(4): 4755. Xiang, B., Z. Xiang, and y. Xiang. 2006. Investigation of wild Ginkgo biloba in Wuchuan County of Guizhou, China. Guizhou Science 24(2): 5667. Xiang, y. and B. Xiang. 1997. Primary report on ancient Ginkgo biloba remnant community in Wuchuan county of Guizhou Province. Guizhou Science 15(4): 239244. Xiang, y., X. Lu, and B. Xiang. 1998. Ancient Ginkgo biloba report 2: data of ancient Ginkgo biloba remnant communities in Luping village and Fengle town of Wuchuan county Guizhou Province. Guizhou Science 16(4): 241252. Xiang, y. and Z. Xiang. 1999. Ancient Ginkgo biloba report 3: investigation on ancient Ginkgo biloba remnant population in Guiyang. Guizhou Science 17(3): 221230. Xiang, Z. and y. Xiang. 2001. Ancient Ginkgo biloba report 4: investigation of ancient Ginkgo biloba remnant population from Changming to Jingyang along 320 national highway in Guizhou province. Guizhou Science 19(1): 4858. Xiang, y., B. Xiang, M. Zhao, and Z. Wang. 2000. A report on the natural forest with Ginkgo biloba population in West Tianmu Mountains, Zhejiang Province. Guizhou Science 18(1-2): 7792. Xiang, Z., Z. Zhang, and y. Xiang. 2001. Investigation of natural Ginkgo biloba population on the Golden Buddha Mountains of Nanchuan, Chongqing. Guizhou Science 19(2): 3752. Xiang, Z., Chenglong Tu, and yinghai Xiang. 2003. A report on Ginkgo resources in Panxian county, Guizhou province. Guizhou Science 21(1-2): 159174. Zhun Xiang is Research Assistant at Guizhou Academy of Science in Guizhou and Graduate Student at South China Agriculture University in Guangzhou. yinghai Xiang is Professor of Ecology at Guizhou Academy of Science in Guizhou. Bixia Xiang is Assisstant Professor of Genetics at the University of Miami. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. Figure 4. A cross-section of the Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King at ground level: Part 1 has two trunks: A, 30 meters (98 feet) tall, 110 centimeters (43 inches) diameter; B, 20 meters (66 feet) tall, 90 centimeters (35 inches) diameter; Part 2 has produced trunk C with a height of 28 meters (92 feet) and diameter of 80 centimeters (31 inches); Part 3 has trunk D of height of 28 meters (92 feet) and diameter of 60 centimeters (24 inches). The smallest and youngest trunks, Parts 4 and 5, have produced many small, weak stems, only a few meters tall, which seem to have lost their capacity to grow into upright trunks. the messenger woke up and saw an official's hat hanging on the top of a nearby ginkgo tree and immediately understood that the scholar and the tree were one and the same. This story--that the ginkgo tree had changed to a spirit--is an astonishing, age-old story, and there are lots of \"big tree changed to spirit\" stories in the south of China. Luckily, people usually worship such \"spirit trees\" and don't dare to damage them. Many of these trees grow in temple courtyards or on sacred mountains and are preserved out of respect for the spirits that inhabit them but, unfortunately, this kind of conservation is not good enough to protect trees in the modern world. What the Future Holds The Li Jiawan Grand Ginkgo King was seriously damaged and its overall appearance dramatically changed by a storm in July, 1991, in which the biggest trunk on part 2 was broken off (Figure 4). The stem was pruned off below the break, but the resulting scar still looks fresh with no sign of callus growth to cover it over. It is also worth noting that for eighteen years "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An African Fir Grows in Boston","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25450","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14eab6d.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Port, Kyle","article_content":"An African Fir Grows in Boston Kyle Port T he Arnold Arboretum's Conifer Collection offers visitors an opportunity to explore gymnosperms collected from around the world. While Eastern Asian, European, and North American species dominate the collection, a solitary Moroccan fir, Abies pinsapo var. marocana, stands as an exceptional North African taxon. Grown from seed collected by former Arboretum plant propagator Rob Nicholson on Mt. Tisouka near Chefchaouen, Morocco, in 1982, specimen 1435-82-A has thrived undamaged in the landscape for 15 years. It is one of two plants of accession 1435-82 that were moved from the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouse to the grounds on September 21, 1993. One plant did not survive transplantation and was noted as dead in the spring of 1994. The lone survivor, which was approximately 4.3 feet (1.3 meters) at the time of transplant, is now a stunning exemplar at 28 feet (8.5 meters) tall with a DBH (diameter at breast height) of 12.6 inches (32 centimeters). Conical in youth, the tidy habit of this specimen has opened slightly over the years to reveal smooth gray bark. Radially arranged needles persist for 11 to 13 years, giving even older branches an armored appearance. The dark green needles are streaked with 7 to 11 silvery stomatic lines on the upper surface; the lower surface is marked with two pronounced stomatic bands on either side of the midrib. Unlike the characteristically soft-to-the-touch foliage of most Abies, the needles of Abies pinsapo var. marocana have sharply pointed apices, making the foliage far less friendly to fingers. The upright cylindrical cones typical of the species have not yet been observed on this specimen but can be expected soon; sexual maturity for Moroccan fir is typically reached when the trees are between 25 and 35 years old. Described by French botanist Louis Charles Trabut in 1906 as A. marocana, the Moroccan fir is confined to the Rif Mountain Range of Morocco, growing at altitudes between 4,600 and 6,900 feet (1,400 to 2,100 meters). The calcareous soil of this region supports associated taxa, and notes from the Arnold Arboretum's collecting trip detail an open fir forest containing Cedrus atlantica, Acer (A. opulus ssp. hispanicum, A. campestre, A. monspessulanum), and Paeonia (P. coriaceae var. maroccana). Rare in cultivation, the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources considers Abies pinsapo var. marocana to be a \"near threatened\" species, an indicator that it could become threatened in the wild in the near future. Human activities (logging, expansion of cultivated areas, population growth) and climate change may further restrict the range of this taxon. However, preservation efforts are ongoing and the establishment of the Talassemtane National Park, which contains the only remaining Moroccan fir forest, was celebrated by conservation organizations in 2004. Related species: Abies pinsapo `Glauca', blue Spanish fir, is also represented in the Arboretum's collection (accession 192-42-A, obtained from W.B. Clarke and Company, San Jose, California). Planted in the fall of 1954, this blue-hued cultivar is topped with dozens of cones this year. Separated from the Moroccan fir by the Straits of Gibraltar, the Spanish Fir (Abies pinsapo var. pinsapo) is endemic to the Sierra de Ronda in Southern Spain. Kyle Port is Manager of Plant Records at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23411","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25e896e.jpg","title":"2009-66-3","volume":66,"issue_number":3,"year":2009,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dysfunctional Root Systems and Brief Landscape Lives: Stem Girdling Roots and the Browning of Our Landscapes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25446","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14ea326.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Johnson, Gary","article_content":"Dysfunctional Root Systems and Brief Landscape Lives: Stem Girdling Roots and the Browning of Our Landscapes Gary Johnson Consider this comparison of potential life spans for trees (Burns and Honkola 1990; USDA 1998) Quercus macrocarpa (bur oak), in upland site Acer saccharinum (silver maple), in riparian site Acer negundo (boxelder), in lowland site Pinus banksiana (Jack pine), in field site Betula papyrifera (paper birch), in northern lowland forest Tree planted in urban core street site 250+ years 125+ years 100+ years 80+ years 65+ years less than 10 years hat's a sobering thought--a tree with a normal life span of 65 to 250 years may live less than 10 years when planted in any American city's downtown landscape. Admittedly, that figure represents tree placement in the worst of our urban landscape sites: sidewalk cut-outs. These inhospitable planting sites are also known as tree coffins, tree burial mounds, or urban tree disposal units to frustrated urban foresters. When the mortality rate of downtown trees is compared to tree losses from Dutch elm disease, oak wilt, sudden oak death, and gypsy moth, it doesn't take too long to realize that there's an epidemic of urban tree loss going on and it's largely under the radar (Figure 1). Another oft-quoted number is that the average urban residential tree lives for 30 to 35 years (Moll 1989). That life span is three times as long as a sidewalk tree, yet only half as long as a paper birch in its natural environment. Growing conditions in residential landscapes may not be quite as bad as sidewalk sites, but there are many natural and unnatural pressures on the trees that lead to briefer landscape lives. Residential landscape soils can be as stressful as downtown sites: poorly drained, outrageously alkaline, subjected to blends of every pesticide T known to modern society, and compacted to such a degree that lawns may seem like nothing more than green concrete. With few exceptions (perhaps tornadoes and a few diseases), there are no \"angels of death\" that descend and quickly kill trees in landscapes. More commonly, a multitude of predisposing stresses that occur in our highly altered urban landscapes combine to weaken trees over the years. Often, inciting events such as floods or hailstorms and\/or contributing agents such as target cankers or wood boring insects complete the job for the majority of tree losses. Meanwhile, plant health care professionals attempt to determine the true causes of decline and death, and often the diagnoses are incomplete or incorrect because of the multiple offenders involved with the problem. Predisposing Factors and Tree Decline When trees are chronically stressed (long-term drought, repeated defoliation, etc.), their normal reserves of chemical energy--primarily as complex carbohydrates--are slowly depleted. Each year as stressed trees come out of dormancy, they emerge in a weakened state due to this energy depletion and find it increas- Dysfunctional Root Systems 3 PHOTO By GARy JOHNSON Figure 1. Trees in urban sidewalk sites are subjected to very unhealthy environments and live less than 10 years on average. ingly difficult to releaf, grow, and deal with the harsh realities of urban landscapes on a normal basis. It takes a tremendous amount of chemical energy to push out new leaves and shoots, recover from accidental wounds on the stems, or produce flowers and fruit. As the tree's energy reserves continue to decline--and thereby affect the tree's ability to capture and store new energy through photosynthesis--the entire system is affected and the decline spiral to premature death begins. So decline in a sense refers to the tree's ability to deal with life's normal stresses. A tree in decline may die suddenly because of an event such as a cold winter with no snow cover, a short-term summer drought, or a defoliation from insects or hail. The other trees in the landscape tolerate the damage and survive, but the predisposed trees--those in decline--are unable to recover from the damage. Dysfunctional Root Systems as Predisposing Agents Despite the fact that roots are seldom seen, dysfunctional root systems are too often the predisposing agents connected to tree health decline, and ultimately the reason why many urban landscape trees experience such brief lives. If the root system--approximately 50% of a tree's biomass--is not operating normally, the entire system will be abnormal. Abnormal is not always harmful, as seen in bonsai plants and trees growing on slopes. In bonsai plants, a restricted root system causes compacted growth in the rest of the plant system, but the system itself may be healthy and completely functional under most circumstances. In the case of a tree growing on a slope, the tree is anchored with a skewed and asymmetrical root system, but its overall health is not compromised even though the root system could certainly be considered abnormal. 4 Arnoldia 66\/2 PHOTO By DAVE HANSON which create a root system so dysfunctional that it can end up killing the entire tree. Stem Girdling Roots as Predisposing Agents Stem girdling roots are those roots that grow either partially or completely against the tree's stem and compress (girdle) the stem tissues (Figure 2). Xylem and phloem tissues in the stem become much narrower at the point of compression, impeding normal water movement and sap flow (Figure 3). This restriction affects energy reserves by directly Figure 2. With part of a stem girdling root removed, the compression to the and indirectly affecting photosyntree's trunk is evident. thesis. Trees become stressed and But abnormal root systems that do affect more vulnerable to secondary problems. For the overall health or stability of the tree are this reason, SGRs are considered to be primary considered dysfunctional. For example, when a predisposing agents in landscape tree decline container-grown tree with a severely pot-bound and death. root system is planted, its rhizosphere does not Some of the first symptoms of SGR-impacted occupy a large enough area to capture sufficient tree health include leaf scorch or leaf wilting water and nutrients needed to support a normal on a tree when no other plants in the area are sized tree without supplemental help. Dysfuncshowing the same symptoms. There may be tional root systems are also common on newly adequate moisture in the soil, but the tree's transplanted bare-root and balled-and-burlapped ability to move water throughout the system is plants; these plants often lose 75% or more of thwarted by the areas of compression, i.e. the their root systems during the harvest operation, greatly reduced diameter of vessel elements. resulting in transplant shock which may go on Soon, this water stress evolves into early leaf for several years until the root system regrows. coloration and leaf drop in the summer, late And then there are stem girdling roots (SGRs), leaf-out in the spring, and chlorosis or other G. W. HUDLER, CORNELL UNIVERSITy Figure 3. Transverse views of normal Norway maple stem wood showing a healthy growth pattern (left), and malformed stem wood compressed by a stem girdling root (right). Water and nutrient transport in trees is negatively affected when tissue is malformed by compression. V = vessel element, R = ray, F = fiber tracheid. Both views are at the same scale. Dysfunctional Root Systems 5 PHOTOS By GARy JOHNSON nutrient deficiency symptoms. If the stem compression becomes more severe, affecting 50% or more of the stem circumference, so do the symptoms. Trees will tend to suffer more damage during the winter seasons, in particular true frost cracks, cambial death, and dieback. In the latter stages of decline due to SGRs, trees usually suffer from severe stunting (very small leaves, annual twig growth of 1 to 2 inches or less) and significant defensive dieback. With Figure 4. The middle littleleaf linden was in the last stages of decline from stem so little vascular capacity left, girdling roots at the time of this photograph. One year later it was dead. affected trees may succumb completely from even a short-term summer drought (Figure 4). Though often a slow-acting cause of death, SGRs can also cause tree death that is a bit more sudden and dramatic. The compressed areas of tree stems are structurally weak points and far too often are the points of failure during windstorms (Figure 5). For example, in severe windstorms that occurred in Minnesota in 1998, 73% of the lindens (Tilia spp.) that were lost in urban Figure 5. Stem compression from SGRs located 4 or more inches below ground landscapes failed at compression was the most common cause of urban tree failure in windstorms in Minnesota points from SGRs, and most broke from 1995 to 2005. several inches below ground. This these SGRs were well below ground (from 4 to is a different type of predisposition but equally 14 inches)--out of sight, out of mind (Figure 6). damaging to a tree's ability to grow, survive, and In landscape surveys conducted by the Uniadd to the quality of life. versity of Minnesota Department of Forest More (Soil) is Not Always Better Resources (1997 to 2004), five species of trees were investigated in three different communiEarly SGR studies conducted by the University of ties. All trees were growing in public spaces: Minnesota were in response to unexplained tree boulevards, schools, government centers, parks. decline in urban areas. From 1994 through 1996, Species surveyed included hackberry (Celtis 220 declining and dying trees were diagnosed. In occidentalis), littleleaf linden (Tilia cordata), 81% of the cases, stem girdling roots were the sugar maple (Acer saccharum), `Shademaster' only causal agents isolated. This figure closely honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos `Shademasparalleled data collected from a national survey of ter'), and green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica). tree care professionals (Johnson and Hauer 2000). Trees were randomly selected, evaluated for More specifically, these trees had been planted health and condition, and then examined for in the previous 12 to 20 years and had signifidepth of soil over the main order roots and the cant stem compression (greater than 50% of the presence of stem encircling roots (potentially stem circumference) from SGRs. In all cases, 6 Arnoldia 66\/2 conflicting roots within 6 inches of the stem) or stem girdling roots. The results were a bit depressing. Only 4% of the lindens, 8% of the ash, 10% of the maples, 15% of the honey locust, and 40% of the hackberries had their stems completely above ground. The rest of the sampled trees had from 1 to 12 inches of soil over the first main order roots and against the stems. PHOTOS By GARy JOHNSON Non-destructive root collar examinations were performed on a total of 1,380 trees. The intent of these examinations was to determine the frequency of SERs (stem encircling roots-- those potentially conflicting roots within six inches of the stem) and SGRs associated with different depths of soil (up to 12 inches) over the first main order roots. The excavations demonstrated that the deeper tree stems were buried in the soil or mulch, the more likely it was for them to have multiple layers of stem encircling and stem girdling roots. The increased presence of these problem roots showed up in trees beginning with as little as one inch of excess soil against the stem. In a nutshell, the more soil or pre-soil (organic mulches that will break down) that is piled over the root systems and against the stems, the more likely it is that trees will decline or fail due to multiple conflicts with SGRs (Figure 7). Figure 6. This SGR, located approximately 4 inches below ground, runs tangential to the tree trunk and is compressing 30% of the stem circumference. Figure 7. As shown on this littleleaf linden, more layers of SGRs develop as the stem is buried deeper. Greater than 40% of the stem circumference of this tree was compressed by several layers of SGRs. How SGRs Form Observations from the 1,380 root collar examinations conducted during the species surveys and a separate nine-year planting depth study have led to the conclusion that stem girdling roots form in one of two ways: first, new roots regenerating from deeply buried main order roots, and second, from stem adventitious roots. When main order roots are buried too deeply, new woody roots that originate from them or any part of the buried root system tend to grow closer to the surface. It is speculated that this action is in response to a more desirable soil oxygen and moisture balance. As the roots reach the soil surface, an unpredictable percentage of them grow tangential to the tree stem or in some cases encircle the stem. For the next number of years (12 to 20, from our observa- Dysfunctional Root Systems 7 tions), the roots and stems expand in diameter, resulting in the ultimate confrontation between roots and stems. Stem adventitious roots are also sources of SGRs. When a buried stem begins forming adventitious roots, many or most of those roots grow away from the stem in a radial fashion. As with new roots growing from main order roots, an unpredictable percentage of these adventitious roots do not grow radially but instead grow tangential to the stem or encircling the stem. The interface area between soil and stem appears to be a highly desirable area for stem root growth, perhaps because it provides an ideal balance of soil oxygen and moisture and is also the path of least resistance for root proliferation. The exact reasons for these root growth responses are still speculative, but it is clear that when tree stems are buried by a media that supports root growth, SGRs are highly likely to occur. It's worth noting that stem girdling roots are a problem primarily with younger trees. As trees mature, their growth slows down dramatically, including the growth of trunk diameter and encircling roots. Because of this reduced growth--and the fact that there is often a relatively thick outer bark--stems of mature trees that then become buried by soil or organic matter are much less likely to develop stem girdling root problems. SGRs can still develop, but if they do they are less likely to result in the decline and death of the tree. Trees are planted in a new landscape before final grading is completed. There are so many different ways that stems can be buried--accidentally or with good intentions--that it is difficult to pinpoint the main source of the problem. One seemingly common cause is the act of burying trees rather than planting trees. Unfortunately, too many people still have the notion that trees are like fenceposts and need to be buried deep for stability. Not so. In 2002, we conducted a planting depth study in collaboration with a large wholesale nursery. Bare-root birch (Betula spp.), ash (Fraxinus spp.), and crabapple (Malus) were potted up in number-ten containers at four different depths: 0, 2, 4, or 6 inches of soil over the first main order roots. On a weekly basis, each of the 240 trees was inspected for lean or windthrow from the containers. At the end of the four month study, all trees were well-rooted in the containers and the results of the study showed that all trees, regardless of depth, leaned at the same frequency and to the same degree. Planting tree stems deeper had absolutely no positive effect on tree stability. If newly planted trees are unstable, they may need temporary support from a guying or staking system, not entombment. How to Cause Stem Girdling Roots If you want to cause the formation of SGRs, bury the tree stem with a medium that supports root growth. Here are some common ways SGRs occur: Excess soil is piled over the first main order roots during the growing and harvesting of balled-and-burlapped trees. Excess growing medium buries stems when container-grown trees are up-potted. Decayable organic mulch is piled high around tree stems in nurseries and landscape sites. Soil is piled against tree stems during construction regrading in landscapes. Nine Years of Burial In 2000, a long-term planting depth study was installed at the University of Minnesota's Urban Forestry and Horticulture Institute's research fields. Three hundred and sixty trees equally represented by two species (sugar maple [Acer saccharum] and littleleaf linden [Tilia cordata]) were planted at three depths: 0, 5, or 10 inches of soil over the first main order roots. All trees were planted in a complete, randomized block design in a .75 acre plot as unbranched, 2 to 3 feet tall liners. At three year intervals, onethird of the trees were harvested and had their root systems excavated with a supersonic air tool. Each year, mortality rates, growth rates (stem caliper), number of suckers produced, and percentage of dieback was recorded. In 2009, the final third of the original experiment will be harvested, but some interesting trends and 8 Arnoldia 66\/2 PHOTO By GARy JOHNSON PHOTO By NANCy ROSE Figure 8. Bury the stem of littleleaf linden just 5 inches deep and a profusion of suckers will develop. These suckers eventually become SGSs (stem girdling suckers) as they grow in caliper and compress the tree's stem. significant data have already been revealed from the first two harvests, including: Planting sugar maples 5 to 10 inches too deep is an effective way to kill them. The mortality rates for the 0, 5, and 10 inch depths as of 2006 were 30, 40, and 65%, respectively. There was a significant positive relationship between placing 5 to 10 inches of soil against the stems and the frequency of SGRs on Tilia cordata in both the 2003 and 2006 harvests. Acer saccharum showed a trend in the same direction. Tilia cordata with stems buried in 5 inches of soil will produce masses of stem suckers, making the tree look more like a shrub. Sucker formation on Tilia cordata doesn't just ruin the tree's appearance, it can also cause premature failure. Stem girdling suckers (SGSs) are suckers that form prolifically and, when they enlarge in diameter, can girdle the stem vertically and horizontally (Figure 8). How Often do Trees Die from SGRs? This question is likely unanswerable. When trees suddenly fail and die during a windstorm, diagnosing the problem below ground is not often considered. Weather alone is often blamed for the deaths, and the trees are hastily removed and replaced. Research we conducted from 1995 through 2005 on tree failure in windstorms exposed a Dysfunctional Root Systems 9 broader picture of the effects SGRs have on landscape trees. During this period over 1,500 \"tree autopsies\" were conducted on trees that had failed during wind-loading events in Minnesota. These trees were not those from the centers of severe wind-loading events such as straight-line winds or tornados. Rather, they were victims of thunderstorms or those at the edges of severe wind events. From that data, the destruction and economic losses from premature tree failures due to SGRs were determined, and it was startling. The most common tree size category for boulevard tree failures was the 6 to 10 inch DBH (diameter at breast height, 4.5 feet above ground) range. Of those trees, 50% snapped off at compression points from SGRs at a depth of 4 or more inches below ground. The Achilles' heel was a compression root that couldn't even be seen because the stem was buried so deeply. The data also indicated that littleleaf lindens (Tilia cordata) were grossly affected by SGRs. Littleleaf linden ranked as the third most common species for total failure (the tree went down completely) during those years, and 73% of those trees snapped off at below-ground SGRs, almost the exact percentage of littleleaf linden that failed during the previously mentioned 1998 storms. After 11 years of data collection, the presence of SGRs and, more specifically, stem compression from SGRs that amounted to 50% or more of the stem circumference, emerged as the number one reason why urban trees failed in windstorms. What to Do, What to Do? Prevention is the easiest and most effective way to eliminate the SGR problem in landscapes. Whether you are an urban forester, commercial landscaper, or home gardener, follow these steps to prevent or manage stem girdling roots: Don't plant container or balled-and-burlapped trees that are already buried too deeply. Assume there is too much soil over the first main order roots and remove that excess soil before planting a newly purchased tree (Figure 9). Plant trees, don't bury them. If stems aren't buried, it's not likely that SGRs will become a problem. They can still occur on correctly planted trees, but much less frequently than on buried trees. PHOTO By GARy JOHNSON Figure 9. Most containerized trees will have 2 to 6 inches of excess soil over the first main order roots and against the stem. Use a pruning saw to remove this excess soil before planting. Of 500 trees subjected to this treatment at the University of Minnesota's research nursery, there has been a 0.7% mortality rate in 2.5 years. 10 Arnoldia 66\/2 Don't pile mulch against stems. Organic mulch is basically presoil. Piling on mulch will result in a buried stem and a wonderful environment for SGRs to develop. When suspicious, investigate. Root collar exams are not all that difficult to perform (Figure 10). If you have a trowel and a wet-dry vacuum, you can perform a non-destructive root collar exam. If you find offending roots during the exam, remove them. Also, Figure 10. The fastest and most non-destructive method for conducting a root collar exam remove all that extra is with a supersonic air tool that blows the soil away without harming the roots. This root soil. If you do nothing, collar exam was accomplished in approximately fifteen minutes. it will only get worse. References: If greater than 50% of the stem's circumference is severely compressed, it is probBurns, Russell M., and Barbara H. Honkala, tech. coords. 1990. Silvics of North America: 2. Hardwoods. ably best and safest to remove the tree and Agriculture Handbook 654. U.S. Department of start over. Agriculture, Forest Service, Washington, DC. Treatments for affected trees are uncertain. If SERs (stem encircling roots) can be removed before compression begins, that's an excellent and effective treatment. If the SERs have become SGRs and if, during the course of removing SGRs, the stem is wounded, the long-term potential for recovery is uncertain. The study of stem girdling roots is a relatively young science and long-term data on treatment options and efficacy are not there. If 50% or more of the tree's trunk is severely compressed by the SGRs, and if the symptoms included dieback and severe stunt, the tree is probably beyond salvation. If that same tree is ten feet from a house or utility line, then the risk of leaving the tree is unacceptable. Buy a new tree. Remove the excess soil over the root system. Plant it with the trunk fully exposed. Mulch the roots, not the trunk. These steps will put your new tree well on the way to a long, healthy life. Johnson, Gary and Dennis Fallon. 2007. Stem Girdling Roots: The Underground Epidemic Killing our Trees. www.forestry.umn.edu\/extension\/. Under \"Hot Topics\" on the home page, access \"Stem girdling roots.\" Johnson, Gary and Richard Hauer. 2000. A Practitioner's Guide to Stem Girdling Root of Trees: Impacts on Trees, Symptomology, and Prevention. www.forestry.umn.edu\/extension\/. Access the \"Urban Forestry\" folder, then \"Stem Girdling Roots\" under \"Tree Care.\" Moll, Gary. 1989. The state of our urban forest. American Forests. 95(11\/12):6164. Summary of Storm Damage to Urban Trees in Minnesota: 19952005. www.forestry.umn.edu\/extension\/. Access the \"Research\" folder, then \"Storm Damage 19952005.\" USDA Forest Service. 1998. Urban Forest Health: Identifying Issues and Needs within the Northeastern Area. Gary Johnson is a professor in the Department of Forest Resources at the University of Minnesota. PHOTO By DAVE HANSON "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wake Up and Smell the Ginkgos","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25448","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14ea76f.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Wake Up and Smell the Ginkgos ALL PHOTOS By THE AUTHOR EXCEPT AS INDICATED Peter Del Tredici G inkgo biloba is one tree that most Americans--even those with little knowledge of botany--can recognize. There are two reasons for this: first, its fan-shaped leaves are highly distinctive and impossible to confuse with any other tree; and second, it is widely cultivated as a street tree in many urban areas throughout much of the United States. Because of its environmental adaptability, its resistance to pests and diseases, and its general tolerance of inhospitable growing conditions, ginkgo is experiencing a spike in popularity as evidenced by the long rows of them that are showing up in commercial and municipal landscape projects across the country. In this regard, Americans are following the pattern set in Japan where ginkgo accounts for 11.5% of all the street trees growing in that country--more than any other single species (Handa et al. 1997). As well as gaining in popularity, ginkgo has also been experiencing a surge in attention from the scientific community, particularly from the Chinese, for whom the tree has become a national symbol of their botanical heritage. The pur- An allee of ginkgos, about 100 years old, on the campus of Tokyo University. Ginkgo has unmistakable fan-shaped leaves. 12 Arnoldia 66\/2 One of the old ginkgos at Bai Yuan village in Wuchuan County, Guizhou Province. Note the epiphytic ferns growing on its trunk. pose of this article is to acquaint the reader with some of this new information about the plant's unique evolutionary history as well as its ecological role as a plant teetering on the brink of extinction in the wild. Ginkgo's Homeland Questions about the extent of Ginkgo biloba's native range in China--or if native populations even exist at all--have been the subject of debate among botanists for well over a hundred years (Del Tredici et al. 1992, Li et al. 1999). The conflict has only recently been resolved with the help of DNA analyses (Fan et al. 2004, Shen et al. 2005, Wei et al. 2008) which have demonstrated that isolated ginkgo populations located in southwest China, especially around the southern slopes of Jinfo (or Golden Buddha) Mountain in Chongqing Province (2853' N; 10727' E), possess a significantly higher degree of genetic diversity than populations in other parts of the country, indicating native status. The area has a mesic, warm-temperate climate with a mean annual temperature of 16.6C (62F), and a mean annual precipitation of 1,185 millimeters (47 inches), with ginkgos growing mainly between 800 and 1,300 meters (2,625 and 4,265 feet) elevation (Li et al. 1999). In addition to the genetic evidence, there is ecological and cultural evidence which suggests that these populations are wild. Ecological work in Chongqing Province, as well as in adjacent parts of Guizhou Province (Xiang et al. 2006), has identified dozens of small populations of ginkgos which can be considered either to be wild trees growing in the midst of native forest or the remnants of wild populations that have lost their forest context. These ginkgo populations occupy land that usually measures a few hectares at most, and they are surrounded by small villages whose residents practice subsistence agriculture. In areas where livestock has been excluded, spontaneous ginkgo seedlings and saplings are common in the forest understory. In the cultural realm, much of northern Guizhou Province has been settled over the past three hundred years or so by people of Miao descent who, unlike the Chinese of Han descent, have no tradition of consuming ginkgo nuts and therefore have no history of cultivating the tree. While this situation began to change around 1980, cultivation by humans cannot explain the many large ginkgos scattered throughout the area that are not growing near temples. (Ginkgos found near temples are usually human cultivated.) From the ecological\/botanical perspective, wild populations of ginkgo tend to show a number of characteristics which distinguish them from populations of cultivated trees. These differences are summarized in Table 1 (page 14). In addition to the populations around Jinfo Shan, a second area of high genetic diversity for ginkgo occurs in eastern China, in Zhejiang Province, primarily on the slopes of Tian Mu Shan, a sacred mountain with many Buddhist shrines and temples, located about 100 kilo- Ginkgo Sexuality 13 The agricultural terraces in the vicinity of Shan Jiang village in Wuchuan County, Guizhou Province. Over the past several hundred years, these have replaced the mixed coniferbroadleaf evergreendeciduous forest that originally grew there. meters (62 miles) west of the city of Hangzhou. This area, which was the site of one of the first nature reserves in modern China, has long been considered by botanists to be one of ginkgo's wild locations, but only recently--through the work of Wei Gong and her colleagues (2008) at Zhejiang University--has the distinct genetic ancestry of this population been established. In contrast to its very limited distribution as a wild plant in China, ginkgo is widely cultivated throughout the temperate world, across a broad range of moisture, temperature, and topographic gradients. In China, the tree can be cultivated between 25 and 42 N latitude where minimum winter temperatures can reach -32C (-26F) and maximum summer temperatures 42C (108F) (He et al. 1997). Detailed phenological studies in Japan over a fifty year period by Matsumoto and his colleagues (2003) have determined that spring bud break in ginkgo occurs 40 days earlier in the extreme south of the country (30 N latitude) than it does in the far north (43 N latitude) and that autumnal leaf drop happens about 40 days later, making for an effective vegetative growing season range of 170 to 260 days across 13 of latitude. It's no wonder that ginkgo is touted as a paragon of environmental adaptability. Ginkgo Sexuality Ginkgo biloba is a dioecious species, with separate male and female trees occurring at roughly a 1:1 ratio. Ginkgo shows a long juvenile period, typically not reaching sexual maturity until approximately 20 years of age. Male (microsporangeate) and female (ovulate) sex organs are produced on short shoots in the axils of bud scales and leaves. The male catkins emerge before the leaves and fall off immediately after shedding their pollen to the wind. Pollination 14 Arnoldia 66\/2 (Left) A portion of the stand of wild ginkgos at Bai Yuan village in Wuchuan County, Guizhou Province. Note the tall, straight form of the trees indicting that they grew from seed. (Below) Cultivated ginkgos in this orchard show the typical shorter, wide-spreading form. Table 1. The botanical and ecological characteristics of remnant natural ginkgo populations versus cultivated ginkgo populations in China Remnant natural ginkgo populations Sex ratio should be more or less balanced with males at a 1:1 or greater ratio than females. Trees are growing mixed in with numerous other species that are native to the surrounding forest. The growth form of most of the trees is single stemmed with relatively few lower branches (indicative of having grown up from seed). Cultivated ginkgo populations Skewed sex ratio--overwhelmingly female. Few other species growing with ginkgo; if other trees are present, they are typically cultivated for some specific purpose. Low-branched growth form of female trees (indicative of vegetative propagation by cuttings or grafts). typically occurs anywhere from mid-March in areas with mild winters to late May in areas with severe winters. The ovules on female trees are 2 to 3 millimeters (about .1 inch) long at the time of pollination, and are produced mostly in pairs at the ends of long stalks. When the ovule is receptive, it secretes a small droplet of mucilaginous fluid from its apical tip which functions to capture airborne pollen. Retraction of this droplet at the end of the day brings the pollen into the pollen chamber. Once inside the ovule, the pollen grain germinates to release the male gametophyte which attaches itself to the inside wall of the ovule. Here it undergoes a four- to fivemonth-long period of growth and development which is supported by the tissues of the expanding ovule (Friedman and Gifford 1997). Ginkgo Sexuality 15 Ginkgo ovule with pollination drop at tip. Sometime in September or October, depending on the latitude, the development of the male gametophyte culminates with the production of a pair of multiflagellated spermatozoids. In one of nature's most dramatic moments--first described by the Japanese botanist Hirase in 1896--the two microscopic sperm cells must swim, propelled by about one thousand tiny flagella, a full millimeter across a fluid-filled channel to reach the waiting egg cell, where only one can claim the prize. Contrary to what has often been written, fertilization takes place while the ovules are still on the tree and embryo development begins posthaste. The embryo length may range from less than 1 millimeter to 5 millimeters (.04 to .2 inch) at the time of seed drop, which can occur anywhere between September and November, depending on local weather conditions. Once the seeds fall to the ground, the embryo continues to develop until the arrival of cold temperatures (below 10C [50F]), at which point elongation stops. With the onset of warm weather in the spring, the embryo resumes its growth, which culminates in germination in late spring or early summer. gametophyte surrounded by a thick seed coat. The intact seed coat consists of a soft, fleshy outer layer (the sarcotesta), a hard, stony middle layer (the sclerotesta), and a thin, membranous inner layer (the endotesta). The seed, devoid of the famously smelly sarcotesta, is generally referred to as the \"nut\" with dimensions that range from 19 to 30 millimeters by 11 to 14 mm (approximately 1 by .5 inch). Over the past several hundred years, Chinese horticulturists have selected scores of cultivars which produce large and\/or distinctively shaped nuts. Large plantations of these select ginkgo cultivars are common throughout eastern and central China. The putrid odor often associated with ginkgo seeds typically develops only after they have lain on the ground for several days and have begun to rot. The smell is due to the presence of two volatile compounds in the sarcotesta-- butanoic and hexanoic acids (Parliament 1995). The sarcotesta also contains numerous fatty acids and phenolics, one of which, ginkgoic acid, is known to cause allergic contact dermatitis in some people (Kochibe 1997). A Common-Garden Experiment The timing of pollination, fertilization, seed abscission, and germination in ginkgo are strongly affected by the latitude of cultivation as well as by local climate conditions. In the Ginkgo Nuts It is now generally accepted that ginkgo was first cultivated by the Chinese not for religious purposes but rather for its edible seeds, which at maturity are relatively large and nutritious. The seed, as it falls from the tree, consists of an embryo embedded in the tissue of the female Mature ginkgo seeds on a tree at Forest Hills in Boston, Massachusetts. 16 Arnoldia 66\/2 fall of 2002, I undertook a series of commongarden experiments to explore the relationship between the timing of pollination and the timing of germination in ginkgo by cultivating in a common location seeds produced by trees from two different latitudes. One lot consisted of about 500 cleaned seeds from trees that were being cultivated for nut production, which I purchased on September 22, 2002 at Tuo Le Village, Panxian, in southern Guizhou Province, China, (2536' N). For comparative purposes, I collected ginkgo seeds on October 31, 2002 from beneath a number of trees growing at the Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston, Massachusetts (4217' N). When sown in the Arnold Arboretum's heated greenhouse (20C [68F]), the Guizhou seed began germinating on November 12--approximately 58 days after abscission--while the Boston seed did not begin germinating until January 6--some 67 days after abscission. Assuming approximate pollination dates of March 24 for the Guizhou seed and May 17 for the Boston seed, the total time elapsed from pollination to germination under continuously warm greenhouse conditions was 233 days and 234 days respectively, a remarkably confluent result given their different latitudinal origins. A second striking result of the experiment was that only 15% of the uncleaned, outdoorsown Boston seed germinated versus 72% germination for a replicate lot of one hundred seeds washed clean of their smelly sarcotesta. The fact that cleaned ginkgo seeds germinated at statistically significantly higher percentages than those with their sarcotesta intact suggests that animals which consume the seeds--provided they do not crush the thin-shelled nut--might play a role in promoting successful seedling germination (Rothwell and Holt 1997, Del Tredici 2000). The specific mechanism whereby the sarcotesta reduces the germination capacity of ginkgo seed is currently unknown, but the exclusion of light is probably not an explanation given that William Friedman (1986) has shown that female gametophytes with all their seed coats intact are capable of photosynthesis. Ecological Implications The results of my experiment indicate that aspects of ginkgo's sexual reproduction cycle are strongly influenced by temperature (Del Tredici 2007). For seeds left outdoors immediately following seed drop, the timing of their pollination influences the timing of their germination the following spring which, in turn, influences their chances of surviving the following winter. In warm-temperate climates--such as Guizhou Province--ginkgo seeds are shed in late summer or early fall, and the embryo is able to make considerable growth during the mild weather that follows. In cold-temperate climates--such as Massachusetts--seeds are shed much later in the season and the cooler temperatures of mid to late fall delay embryo development until warm weather arrives the following spring. This differential timing of embryo maturation means that seeds produced by trees growing in warm-temperate climates will be ready to germinate during the favorable conditions of Table 2. A comparison of the phenology of the sexual reproduction cycle of Ginkgo biloba growing in Guizhou Province, China versus Massachusetts, USA. Location Guizhou, China (25 North latitude) Massachusetts, USA (42 North latitude) Pollination mid-March to early April mid-May Seed Abscission mid-September late October to early November Outdoor Germination mid-March mid- to late June Ginkgo Sexuality 17 mid to late spring (March through early June), while those in cold climates will not germinate until later in the summer (late June through early August), when conditions for establishment are less favorable and the seedlings have less time to accumulate carbohydrates before going into winter dormancy. In this regard, it is worth noting that in Tuo Le Village in Guizhou Province, ginkgo seeds sown outdoors would typically germinate in March, while the same seed sown outdoors in Boston did not germinate until May 29, approximately two months later. From an ecological perspective, the complex phenology of ginkgo's sexual reproduction cycle may well have constrained the species' ability to migrate, independently of humans, into cold-temperate regions with short growing seasons, and probably accounts for its A fossilized leaf of Ginkgo yimaensis. limited warm-temperate distribution and Zheng (2003), have pushed the lineage of as a wild or semi-wild tree in the mountains of G. biloba-type ovules back to the Lower Crecentral and eastern China (Li et al. 1999, Xiang taceous, about 120 million years ago. This et al. 2006, Wei et al. 2008). Table 2 presents a suggests the possibility that the seeds of G. comparison of the phenology of Ginkgo biloba's yimaensis could have possessed a temperaturesexual reproduction cycle in Guizhou Province, sensitive, developmental-delay mechanism China versus Massachusetts, USA. similar to that of G. biloba. Such a trait would Evolutionary Implications have allowed this species to reproduce successThe fossil species Ginkgo adiantoides existed in fully in regions of the northern hemisphere that the northern hemisphere from the Upper Crewere undergoing dramatic cooling after a long taceous through the Middle Miocene (roughly period of warm conditions. Indeed, Zheng and 70 to 12 million years ago) and is considered by Zhou (2004) have proposed that \"the drastic paleobotanists to be morphologically indistinclimatic changes during the Upper Jurassic and guishable from the modern G. biloba (Tralau Lower Cretaceous, around 140 to 150 million 1968). Most of the ginkgo fossils from this time years ago, were responsible for the transformaperiod in Europe and North America come from tion of the ovulate organs of the G. yimaensis sites above 40 N latitude that were originally type into the modern G. biloba type,\" includdisturbed stream margins and levee environing the development of short shoots, the reducments, and typically occurred in association tion and protection of ovulate organs, and the with a consistent set of riparian plants, includproduction of larger seeds. Ginkgo biloba's ing Cercidiphyllum, Metasequoia, Platanus, temperature-sensitive, embryo-developmentand Glyptostrobus (Royer et al. 2003). delay mechanism could well have been another Fossils of a new Ginkgo species (G. yimaenclimate-induced Cretaceous innovation--an sis) from Liaoning Province, China, recently evolutionarily primitive but ecologically funcdescribed by Chinese paleobotanists Zhou tional form of seed dormancy. NANCy ROSE 18 Arnoldia 66\/2 Ginkgo Seed Dispersal Researchers studying various ginkgo populations in Asia have reported a number of animals feeding on, and presumably dispersing, the malodorous, nutrient-rich seeds. In China, dispersal agents include two members of the order Carnivora: the leopard cat (Felis bengalensis, family Felidae) in Hubei Province and the masked palm civet (Paguma larvata, family Viveridae) in Zhejiang Province (Del Tredici et al. 1992). In Japan, where ginkgo was introduced from China some 1,200 years ago, another member of the order Carnivora, the raccoon dog (Nyctereutes procyonoides, family Canidae), has been documented feeding on ginkgo seeds, and its droppings have been found to contain intact seeds which germinated the following spring (Rothwell and Holt 1997). The existence of three reports of omnivorous members of the Carnivora consuming whole ginkgo seeds suggests that the rancid smelling sarcotesta may be attracting primarily nocturnal scavengers by mimicking the smell of rotting flesh--in essence acting as a carrion-mimic (Del Tredici et al. 1992). The fact that ginkgo seed germination percentage is enhanced by removal of the sarcotesta lends further credence to this theory. Ancient Dispersal Agents In 2002, Zhou and Zhang reported the discovery in China of a long-tailed bird (Jeholornis sp.) from the Early Cretaceous with a large number of ginkgo-like seeds in its crop. This provides direct evidence that early birds potentially could have been involved in seed dispersal activities, although the seeds' intact nature suggests they were destined for digestion in the gizzard. In general, Ginkgo biloba seeds do not fit the typical profile of a fruit dispersed by modern birds (van der Pijl 1982). Prior to the discovery of Jeholornis, most of the speculation about Cretaceous ginkgo dispersal agents centered on dinosaurs, based primarily on their temporal overlap. If dinosaurs were involved with the dispersal of ginkgo seeds, it probably would have been carrion feeding scavengers, with teeth adapted to tearing and swallowing flesh, rather than herbivores with grinding dentition that would have A spontaneous ginkgo sapling growing out of a karst rock formation at Niu Tang village in Wuchuan County, Guizhou Province. crushed the thin-shelled seeds. At any rate, any connection between dinosaurs and ginkgo seed dispersal is, at best, conjecture based on circumstantial evidence. Ginkgo's Future By rights, Ginkgo biloba should have gone extinct long ago along with all of its close relatives. The fact that it did not provides botanists with a unique window on the past--sort of like having a living dinosaur available to study. As remarkable as ginkgo's evolutionary survival is, the fact that it grows vigorously in the modern urban environment is no less dramatic. Having survived the climatic vicissitudes of the past 120 million years, ginkgo is clearly well prepared--or, more precisely, preadapted--to handle the climatic uncertainties that seem to be looming in the not too distant future. Indeed, should the human race succeed in wiping itself out over the course of the next few centuries, we can take some comfort in the knowledge that the ginkgo tree will survive. Ginkgo Sexuality 19 This ginkgo, growing as a street tree in New Brunswick, New Jersey, shows the species' outstanding yellow fall color. 20 Arnoldia 66\/2 True survivors, these severely pruned ginkgos on a Tokyo street are growing in spite of cramped planting spaces and air pollution. Ginkgo Sexuality 21 Acknowledgements The author would like to thank Elisabeth and Jim Dudley of the Highstead Arboretum in Redding, Connecticut for their generous support of a trip to Guizhou Province in 2002, Professors Shi Jikong of Guizhou University and Fu Cheng-Xin of Zhejiang University for organizing the trip, and Jianhua Li of the Arnold Arboretum for help with all aspects of the project. Literature Cited Del Tredici, P. 2000. The evolution, ecology, and cultivation of Ginkgo biloba. In Ginkgo biloba, ed. T. Vanbeek. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publ. Del Tredici, P. 2007. The phenology of sexual reproduction in Ginkgo biloba. The Botanical Review 73(4): 267278. Del Tredici, P., H. Ling, and y. Guang. 1992. The Ginkgos of Tian Mu Shan. Cons. Biol. 6: 202210. Fan, X. X., L. Shen, X. Zhang, X. y. Chen, and C. X. Fu. 2004. Assessing genetic diversity of Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) populations from China by RAPD markers. Biochem. Gen. 42: 269278. Friedman, W. E. 1986. Photosynthesis in the female gametophyte of Ginkgo biloba. Am. J. Bot. 73: 12611266. Friedman, W. E. and E. M. Gifford. 1997. Development of the male gametophyte of Ginkgo biloba: a window into the reproductive biology of early seed plants. In Ginkgo biloba--a global treasure. eds. T. Hori, R. W. Ridge, W. Tulecke, P. Del Tredici, J. Tremouillaux-Guiller, and H. Tobe. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. Handa, M., y. Iizuka, and N. Fujiwara. 1997. Ginkgo landscapes. In Ginkgo biloba--a global treasure. eds. T. Hori, R. W. Ridge, W. Tulecke, P. Del Tredici, J. Tremouillaux-Guiller, and H. Tobe. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. He, S. A., y. Gu, and Z. J. Pang. 1997. Resources and prospects of Ginkgo biloba in China. In Ginkgo biloba--a global treasure. eds. T. Hori, R. W. Ridge, W. Tulecke, P. Del Tredici, J. Tremouillaux-Guiller, and H. Tobe. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. Hirase, S. 1896. On the spermatozoid of Ginkgo biloba. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 10: 325328 (in Japanese). Kochibe, N. 1997. Allergic substances of Ginkgo biloba. In Ginkgo biloba--a global treasure. eds. T. Hori, R. W. Ridge, W. Tulecke, P. Del Tredici, J. Tremouillaux-Guiller, and H. Tobe. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. Li, J.W., Z. G. Liu, y.G. Tan and M. B. Ren. 1999. Studies on the Ginkgo at Jifo Mountain. Forest Research 12: 197201 (in Chinese). Matsumoto, K., T. Ohta, M. Irasawa, and T. Nakamura. 2003. Climate change and extension of the Ginkgo biloba L. growing season in Japan. Global Change Biol. 9: 16341642. Parliment, T. 1995. Characterization of the putrid aroma compounds of Ginkgo biloba fruits. In Fruit flavors: biogenesis, characterization, and authentication. eds. R. Rouseff and M. Leahy. Am. Chem. Soc. Symp. Ser., 596. Rothwell, G. W. and B. Holt. 1997. Fossils and phenology in the evolution of Ginkgo biloba. In Ginkgo biloba--a global treasure. eds. T. Hori, R. W. Ridge, W. Tulecke, P. Del Tredici, J. Tremouillaux-Guiller, and H. Tobe. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag. Royer, D. L., L. J. Hickey, and S. L. Wing. 2003. Ecological conservatism in the \"living fossil\" Ginkgo. Paleobiology 29: 84104. Shen, L., X. y. Chen, X. Zhang, y. y. Li, C. X. Fu, and y. X. Qiu. 2005. Genetic variation of Ginkgo biloba L. (Ginkgoaceae) based on cpDNA PCR_ Rflps: inference of glacial refugia. Heredity 94: 396401. Tralau, H. 1968. Evolutionary changes in the genus Ginkgo. Lethaia 1: 63101. Van der Pijl, L. 1982. Principles of dispersal in higher plants, 3rd ed. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Wei, G., y. X. Qui, C. Chen, Q. ye, and C. X. Fu. 2008. Glacial refugia of Ginkgo biloba L. and human impact on its genetic diversity: evidence from chloroplast DNA. J. Integrat. Plant Biol. 50(3): 368374. Xiang, B. X, Z. H. Xiang, and y. H. Xiang. 2006. Investigation of wild Ginkgo biloba in Wuchuan County of Guizhou, China. Guizhou Sci. 24: 5667 (in Chinese). Zheng, S. and Z. Zhou. 2004. A new Mesozoic Ginkgo from western Liaoning, China and its evolutionary significance. Rev. Palaeobot. and Palynol. 131: 91103. Zhou, Z. and F. C. Zhang. 2002. A long-tailed, seed-eating bird from the early Cretaceous of China. Nature 418: 405409. Zhou, Z. and S. Zheng. 2003. The missing link in Ginkgo evolution. Nature 423: 821822. Peter Del Tredici is a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. A more extensive discussion of this topic can be found in the author's article \"The Phenology of Sexual Reproduction in Ginkgo biloba: Ecological and Evolutionary Implications\", 2007, The Botanical Review 73(4): 267278. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Fruits of Autumn","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25447","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed14ea36b.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"The Fruits of Autumn Nancy Rose utumn is prime time for observing a great array of maturing fruits on woody plants. Fleshy types like pomes, drupes, and berries are often brightly colored and highly noticeable at this time of the year. Fallfruiting trees and shrubs--viburnums (Viburnum spp.), crabapples (Malus spp.), mountain ash (Sorbus spp.), beautyberries (Callicarpa spp.), and hollies (Ilex spp.), to name a few--provide a showy display, especially as deciduous leaves begin to fall. In addition to adding color to the landscape, fall-fruiting plants also serve as an important food source for birds. Other fruiting structures seen in autumn are less showy but still interesting. Pods, samaras, and inflated capsules are some of the diverse forms to be seen. As anyone who has ever tried to learn woody plants knows, fruits often provide the key for correct identification. Here are some examples of fruits to look for this fall: ALL PHOTOS By THE AUTHOR EXCEPT AS INDICATED ROBERT MAyER A Grape honeysuckle, (Lonicera reticulata) Common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) The word \"berry\" is often used to describe just about any rounded, juicylooking fruit, but botanically speaking a berry is a fleshy, indehiscent (not splitting open at maturity) fruit that develops from a single pistil and contains one or multiple seeds. A number of woody plants bear berries including vines like Vitis (grape), Actinidia (kiwi), and Parthenocissus (Virginia creeper, Boston ivy). Both vine and shrub species of Lonicera (honeysuckle) have berries, often attractive bright red ones. Common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is one of few large trees that produces true berries; look for the golden orange, globe-shaped fruits persisting on branches through late autumn. Fruits of Autumn 23 MICHAEL DOSMANN Clockwise from upper left: Donald Wyman crabapple (Malus `Donald Wyman') Korean mountain ash (Sorbus alnifolia) Chinese sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia) Black chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) A pome is a fleshy, indehiscent fruit that develops from a compound ovary set within a fleshy floral cup or tube. Multiple seeds are found in the core of the fruit. Pomes are the fruits of a number of well-known genera in the rose family (Rosaceae), including Malus (apple, crabapple), Sorbus (mountain ash), Pyrus (pear), Crataegus (hawthorn), Aronia (chokeberry), Cotoneaster, and Pyracantha (firethorn). MICHAEL DOSMANN 24 Arnoldia 66\/2 Clockwise from upper left: Sapphireberry (Symplocos paniculata) American cranberrybush (Viburnum trilobum) Purple beautyberry (Callicarpa dichotoma) Winter Red winterberry (Ilex verticillata `Winter Red') Another common berrylike fruit found on woody plants is the drupe. A drupe is a fleshy, indehiscent fruit containing a single seed which is surrounded by a stony endocarp. Many of the showiest fall-fruiting shrubs and small trees bear drupes, including viburnums (Viburnum spp.), beautyberries (Callicarpa spp.), dogwoods (Cornus spp.), and hollies (Ilex spp.). Many delicious drupes are found in the genus Prunus including cherries, plums, and peaches. Fruits of Autumn 25 A hip is a pomelike structure formed by a fleshy hypanthium (a cup-shaped structure formed from fused floral parts at the flower's base) which surrounds multiple achenes (small, dry fruits containing single seeds). The term hip is used specifically for roses (Rosa spp.). The large, scarlet hips of Rosa rugosa (left) give it one of its common names: beach tomato. Aggregate fruits are composed of numerous small fruits that develop from multiple pistils in a single flower. Raspberry fruits, for example, are aggregates of drupelets. Magnolias produce conelike aggregates of follicles; at maturity, each follicle opens to reveal a seed covered by a brightly colored aril (fleshy seed coat) and attached by a stretchy thread. The fruit of a hybrid sweetbay magnolia (Magnolia virginiana) is seen here (right). MICHAEL DOSMANN Multiple fruits develop when the fruits derived from numerous individual flowers in an inflorescence fuse together to form what appears to be a single fruit. Pineapple (Ananas spp.) and mulberry (Morus spp.) are examples of multiple fruits. The unique, baseball-sized green fruits of osage orange (Maclura pomifera), shown at left, are also multiple fruits. 26 Arnoldia 66\/2 Built to be carried by the wind, samaras are winged achenes. The papery wing part of the structure takes variable forms; for example, in elms (Ulmus spp.) the wing encircles the achene, in ash (Fraxinus spp.) the wing extends like a paddle from a single achene, and maples (Acer spp.) bear paired (two-winged) samaras that usually split apart when they mature and fall. The size and wing angle of maple samaras provide a good identification key among species. Three-flowered maple (Acer triflorum) bears triplets of two-winged samaras. Another samara variation--a single achene dotted in the middle of the wing--is seen in this red-fruited form of the notoriously seedy tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima f. erythrocarpa). Exclusive to oaks (Quercus spp.), acorns are hard-shelled seeds (nuts) nested in cupshaped involucres. Acorn size and degree of involucre extension on the nut provide a good clue when trying to identify oak species. Noted for their extensively fringed involucres, the acorns of bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa) are seen in this image. Fruits of Autumn 27 Many plants bear seed-holding capsules but the forms of these dry, dehiscent (splitting open at maturity) fruits vary widely. The inflated, paper-lanternlike capsules found on golden rain tree (Koelreuteria paniculata, left) turn from green to tan--sometimes with a blush of pink--and often persist well into the winter. Also shown (right) are the small, rounded capsules of summersweet (Clethra alnifolia), filled with numerous tiny seeds. Pods are dry, dehiscent or indehiscent fruits that contain seeds. The legume family (Fabaceae) is well-known for producing pods as its fruiting structure. Woody plants in this family include honey locust (Gleditsia spp.; pods of G. triacanthos pictured), Kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicus), wisteria (Wisteria spp.), and silk-tree (Albizia julibrissin). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25444","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed1708928.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schlereth, Thomas J.","article_content":"Book Review: Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America Thomas J. Schlereth Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America Philip J. Pauly. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 2007. 336 pages. ISBN-13: 978-0-674-02663-6 M any readers, at first glance, may find this book's main title a bit puzzling. What do pomology and plains have in common? The author intends this minor mystery but he does provide several clues in his introduction and the nine chapters that follow. I must admit I had not completely grasped his full meaning until reaching his closing chapter where a complete explanation is found. Out of respect for the author's book-craft, I too will leave this resolution for the end. Long before arriving at the book's conclusion, I knew that what I was reading was a provocative and persuasive re-interpretation of several interrelated research fields; namely American plant pathology, biogeography, and cultural history. Moreover, it was a brilliant and novel re-interpretation of nineteenth-century American history using American cultivated plants as a primary resource. Beginning with the introduction (\"Taking the History of Horticulture Seriously\"), Philip J. Pauly launches his methodology of interconnecting American horticultural history with American cultural history. This fruitful hybrid yields many useful insights, one of which is how our perpetual indulgence in claiming to be exceptional in our nationhood can also be found, repeatedly, in our horticultural history. As one might expect of a cultural historian, Pauly frequently reminds us of a more universal issue evident in all of our interactions with the natural word: that is, whether we are home gardeners or plant scientists, landscape archi- tects or arboretum directors, USDA bureaucrats or environmental historians, we all culture nature. When we horti-culture nature, its plants become, to various degrees, natural artifacts subject to various forms of human artifice. Hence there are two general perspectives that characterize Pauly's achievement. First, one can see it as a revisionist interpretation in American Character historiography, a subfield in interdisciplinary American Studies scholarship since the 1950s. Second, the book is also a carefully documented survey of how Americans, despite their professed objectivity (scientific and otherwise), historically brought various types of cultural baggage (political and economic; regional and religious; profes- Book Review 29 sional and personal) to their several centuries of interactions with other living organisms and particularly with plants and plant pests. To document this dual approach--explaining both American history and the history of American horticulture--Pauly analyzes the motives and actions of a cadre of Americans who cultured nature in diverse ways and often for divergent purposes. Many will be familiar to Arnoldia readers: for instance, Thomas Jefferson, Frederick Law Olmsted (Senior and Junior), Charles Hovey, Charles S. Sargent, Horace J. McFarland, Jens Jensen, and Liberty Hyde Bailey. Also studied are less wellknown but influential plant culturists such as David Hosack, Beverly T. Galloway, William Saunders, Ephraim Bull, Charles T. Simpson, Daniel Simberloft, Charles L. Marlatt, and Katherine Bates. With these dramatis personae, Pauly explores several additional subthemes. In chapter one, for example, he stages Thomas Jefferson as an early exemplar of American horticultural chauvinism, particularly in his Notes on the State of Virginia (1785, 1787) written, in part, to answer Guillame Raynal's Historie de deux Indes (1770), a European best seller that claimed the New World's flora, fauna, climate, as well as its native peoples and even its recent emigrant Europeans were all in a state of continual anthropological and biological degeneracy. In chapter one, he also provides early definitions for terms readers will find throughout the book: first, a vocabulary of \" N-words\": nature, natural, naturalism, nationalism, and nativism; second, a litany of \"C-words\" that no cultural historian can do without: culture, cultural, and culturalism, plus related \"culture\" nomenclature that Pauly uses frequently. Chapter two initiates another important book topic--the tensions and controversies (diplomatic, military, economic, political, and scientific) that have been factors in the history of plant introductions and plant pests all arriving in increasing numbers to a supposedly virgin land. The first culprit is the Hessian fly (Mayetiola destructor) which Pauly discusses as \"America's first invasive\" as well as \"the nation's first postcolonial public scientific issue.\" This initial late eighteenth-century debate over invasives and introductions resurfaces in several places throughout the book in its survey of nineteenth- and early twentiethcentury arguments over exotic vs. native species as well as the horticultural practices (organic vs. chemical) in solving plant pathologies. Chapters five and six, cleverly named by Pauly as \"Immigrant Aid: Naturalizing Plants in the Nineteenth Century\" and \"Mixed Borders: A Political History of Plant Quarantine,\" document the local, regional, and national aspects of these prolonged conflicts, many of which are still contested issues in present-day horticulture. Massachusetts Gypsy Moth Commission employees scraping gypsy moth egg masses off of a notable elm in Malden, Massuchusetts in the early 1890s. From The Gypsy Moth (1896), Edward H. Forbush and Charles H. Fernald. 30 Arnoldia 66\/2 STEREOPTICAN IMAGE COURTESy OF WELLESLEy COLLEGE ARCHIVES In chapter six's subtitle, another Pauly interpretive emphasis appears. He recognizes that plants have politics in the sense that people culture plants with political (and other) motives. For some readers, however, his extremely detailed accounts of the political infighting among plant importers and breeders, university science faculty and nursery growers, government officials and departments as well as plant collection administrators may Book Review 31 prove too tedious a tale to stay with until the chapter's conclusion. Turning back to chapters three and four, respectively titled \"The Development of American Culture, with Special Reference to Fruit\" and \"Fixing the Accidents of American Natural History: Tree Culture and the Problem of the Prairie,\" we find major clues to the book's main title as well as nineteenth-century America's fascination with pomology. It also introduces us to Midwestern horticultural biogeography, one of the book's three such foci--the other two being the country's northeastern corridor and the anomaly of the \"horticultural construction\" of Florida. The latter history turns out also to have interesting ties to northeastern plant culturists, as diverse as diplomat Henry Perrine, proprietary town builder and citrus magnate Henry Stanford, railroad and luxury hotel entrepreneur Henry Flagler, plus the USDA's David Fairchild (after whom the Fairchild Tropical Botanic Garden in Coral Gables is named), and America's most famous nineteenth-century woman abolitionist and author, Harriet Beecher Stowe. (Interestingly, author Pauly grew up in Ohio, one gateway to--as well as an important part of--the Midwest's horticultural hearth.) Pauly's chapter nine (titled \"Culturing Nature in the Twentieth Century\") is unfortunately only a 28-page introduction to what might have been a larger Fruits and Plains or a second volume as its sequel. Here we find important developments such as the founding, at long last, of a National Arboretum in 1927, and the influential Midwestern prairie restoration by James Curtis and Aldo Leopold at the University of Wisconsin Arboretum in 1936. Also treated are the importance of the American Society for Horticultural Science and the enormous multiplication of garden clubs nationwide, plus a brief survey of \"How Pests Became Invasive Species.\" Given its brevity, the chapter is a tantalizing but selective overview of an extremely complicated and conflicted century in American horticultural history. In beginning his final chapter, Pauly references the poetry, travels, and academic career of Katherine (Kitty) Bates, an undergraduate and later a lifelong English professor at Wellesley College. Pauly muses that Bates, both as student and teacher on the Wellesley campus, could gaze across Lake Waban and see the highly cultured conifer topiary garden and arboretum at the estate of H. H. Hunnewell, one of New England's most well-known horticulturists and a generous benefactor of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1893, Professor Bates took a combined pleasure\/professional trip to teach a summer-school course at Colorado College. En route she visited Chicago's World's Columbian Exposition designed in part by Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., travelled through Kansas prairies and wheat fields, and climbed Pikes Peak for a majestic view of the seemingly never-ending Great Plains. Atop that mountaintop, she reflected on all that she had seen on her westerning odyssey. On the peak, the beginning words of a poem also came to her. It was published in 1895 by The Congregationalist as its Fourth of July number. New yorker Samuel A. Ward set the poem to music and we have sung it ever since, a geographical and horticultural counter point to Francis Scott Key's militant navel ode whose melody Key borrowed from a British drinking song. Professor Pauly deploys Professor Bates's verses (obviously \"the fruited plain\") to announce his final chapter titled \"America, The Beautiful.\" More an epilogue than a chapter, it serves as his own anthem to his subject's meaning in both American horticultural history and American cultural history. He concludes by noting that the Bates metaphor provided him with \"a kind of professional and personal perspective\" by which to summarize and to reflect on his book's methodology (the transformation of horticulture by American culture, culturing, and culturists) and its ambitious scope and synoptic brilliance (to offer an answer, in my judgement, to the question: \"What's American about American nature?\"). In his moving, intimate acknowledgements-- placed significantly but uncharacteristically at the end of his conclusion--he alludes to his personal battle with lymphoma cancer. Phillip J. Pauly died of the disease in April, 2008, at age 57, and American historical scholarship lost one of its most insightful culturists. Thomas J. Schlereth is Professor of American Studies and History at the University of Notre Dame. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Excerpt From Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25443","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170856f.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pauly, Philip J.","article_content":"An Excerpt From Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America Philip J. Pauly Prairie Spirit ortheasterners' struggles to garden landscape were recapitulated, in a shorter time span and with greater seriousness, in Illinois and Wisconsin. Interest in replicating familiar Anglo-Hudson scenery competed with desires to evoke the regionally distinctive prairie. Landscape historians have focused on the pre-World War I innovations of the Danish German immigrant Chicago park designer Jens Jensen and the American horticulturist Wilhelm Miller. I suggest, however, that Jensen's and Miller's \"prairie style of landscape gardening\" drew so much from German and Olmstedian naturalism, and placed so much emphasis on shrubs and trees, that it contained little that was distinctive. The truly important development occurred, not on Chicago parklands or North Shore estates in the 1910s, but in southern Wisconsin in the 1930s, where Aldo Leopold planted a vast wildflower garden. [p. 187] N ldo Leopold, Norman Fassett, and Theodore Sperry were the developers of a real prairie style of landscape gardening. Between 1935 and 1940, they transformed about twenty-seven acres of old pasture in Dane County, Wisconsin, a few miles southwest of Madison, into a naturalistic garden of grasses and wildflowers that they called a prairie. This act of historical naming enabled them to resolve the problem faced by landscape gardeners from Downing to Miller. They planted a landscape that was distinguishable from, and an improvement upon, the common vegetation around it, but which was plausibly naturalistic. The University of Wisconsin Arboretum began as a provincial Olmstedian park project. In 1911 the private Madison Park and Pleasure Drive Association hired the young Massachusetts landscape architect John Nolen to prepare a comprehensive plan for the improvement of their city. Among Nolen's recommendations was the idea that the city and the university should emulate Boston and Harvard's partnership of the 1870s by establishing an arboretum-park on the shore of Lake Mendota, west of the city and the university campus. That suggestion went nowhere. The arboretum idea was revived in the late 1920s, however, by local boosters seeking to transform a failed suburban development on the small and marshy Lake Wingra, a few miles southwest of the city. They argued that the state and the university should fund a park, arboretum, and wildlife refuge as part of the ongoing initiative to establish a conservation professorship for Madison-based forester and game manager Aldo Leopold. The university approved this plan in 1932, appointed landscape architect William Longenecker to the position of executive Reprinted by permission of the publisher from Fruits and Plains: The Horticultural Transformation of America by Philip J. Pauly, Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, copyright 2007 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. A Original Wisconsin Fruits and Plains 33 MOLLy FIFIELD MURRAy, UNIVERSITy OF WISCONSIN The Curtis Prairie at the University of Wisconsin Arboretum as it appears today. director, and asked Leopold to take on the arboretum's research directorship as one of his professorial duties. Disagreements arose immediately over issues of plant choice. Longenecker envisioned a landscape park containing systematically and ecologically ordered displays of all the perennials, shrubs, and forest trees that might prove hardy in Wisconsin. Visitors to the arboretum would be inspired to beautify their own properties, and would learn what different ornamentals and woodland trees looked like and which were worthwhile. Leopold wanted to send the visiting public a different message. He was uninterested in what he considered merely \"a `collection' of imported trees.\" Instead he wanted to show how much the state's vegetational quality had declined since the 1830s, and to provide a vision for improvement in the future. Advised by botany professor Norman Fassett, he proposed that the arboretum should be \"a reconstruction of original Wisconsin.\" It would be \"a bench mark, a datum point, in the long and laborious job of building a permanent and mutually beneficial relationship between civilized men and a civilized landscape.\" This disagreement was resolved by dividing the arboretum into areas controlled by either Longenecker or Leopold. For Leopold and Fassett, original Wisconsin was an essentially steady state, consisting of forest, wetland, and prairie, that had existed prior to Anglo-American settlement. (They passed over the major presence of Indians in Dane County during the Woodland Period, evident in the number of mounds--over one thousand, more than anywhere else in the United States.) Creating replicas of these plant communities on a few hundred acres would require a number of different kinds of effort. Sections with trees could redevelop on their own if there were fire suppression and culling of undesirable species. The right mix of wetland vegetation depended largely on 34 Arnoldia 66\/2 COURTESy UNIVERSITy OF WISCONSIN-MADISON ARCHIVES steam dredges that could change the monotonous marsh into a more varied landscape of islands and lagoons. Shoreline areas with different slopes and soil compositions could then be planted with cattails and pondweeds that would attract wildfowl. The real gardening challenge, however, was to create a \"Wisconsin prairie\" (the present-day Curtis Prairie). The basic This photograph from the 1930s shows University of Wisconsin horticultural director William Longenecker directing Civilian Conservation Corps workers prerequisite was labor. planting prairie sod. In 1934 the arboretum received a windfall when the state established a work relief camp for transients on its grounds. Then, when complaints arose about the behavior of these migrants and hoboes, the university persuaded the National Park Service to take over the camp and use it for the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) (see Figure 7.9). The CCC recruited a more tractable pool of young local men, and its involvement enabled the university to hire the young National Park Service plant ecologist Theodore Sperry as foreman. \"Camp Madison\" averaged about two hundred residents during the second half of the 1930s, at a cost to the federal government of more than two million dollars. The first step in the creation of a Wisconsin prairie park was to clear existing old-field growth. Tree control was a straightforward matter of destroying saplings, but was complicated by Fassett and Sperry's interest in leaving one large tree standing to evoke early settler accounts of \"oak openings\"; each year laborers had to pull up a crop of squirreland bird-distributed oak seedlings. The major problem was quack grass. Sperry and his workers sought to eliminate this Old World pasture mainstay and agricultural weed by plowing deeply, harrowing to dry out the rhizomes, and then replanting with clover to smother remaining growth. Irritating plants such as nettles and thistles were also a concern, without regard to their geographic origin. Finally, Leopold sought to suppress high-density populations (\"thickets\") of plants that were too common, such as goldenrods and asters. Once the ground was cleared, the major issues involved plant choice. In principle, Fassett and A Civilian Conservation Corps worker displays a Sperry's palette could include any of the species massive Silphium taproot. UNIVERSITy OF WISCONSIN-MADISON ARBORETUM ARCHIVES Fruits and Plains 35 NANCy ROSE associated with prairies in or near Wisconsin during the previous century. A present-day list of such plants totals between 340 and 550. But prairie gardeners in the 1930s were neither capable of nor interested in cultivating such a diverse flora. Sperry's planting list from 1935 to 1939 consisted of about fifty species. In both his exclusions and featured species, his goal was to plant an assemblage that would not be confused with common or despised pasture. The largest category of excluded species consisted of the dozens of plants that were small, had inconspicuous flowers, or were visually generic. There was minimal interest in devoting labor and space to vegetation that added little to the field's visual composition. More straightforwardly, Sperry did not replant the nettles and thistles that had been removed when the land was cleared, nor did he introduce additional species with similar properties. While some of the more memorable native species that people encountered on Wisconsin prairies were greenbrier (Smilax lasioneura), prickly Compass plant (Silphium laciniatum) was one of the forbs selected by plant ecologist Theodore Sperry for pear (Opuntia macrorhiza), and poison ivy (Toxico- the Wisconsin prairie park. dendron radicans), they were not part of the arboretum plantings. The most interesting group of exclusions was of species poisonous to livestock. Prairie larkspur (Delphinium carolinianum subsp. virescens), sundial lupine (Lupinus perennis), and death camas (Zigadenus elegans) were all visually impressive Wisconsin natives. But the prosperous rural citizens whose sensibilities Leopold wanted to touch would not have appreciated a field filled with seed-bearing specimens of the weeds they had worked for a century to eradicate. Sperry wisely emphasized familiar species that would, under proper cultivation, provide a spectacular mass display. His most frequently planted species was turkeyfoot grass (Andropogon gerardii, now commonly called big bluestem). The mostplanted forbs were stiff sunflower (Helianthus rigidus) and three species of Silphium (including compass plant and rosinweed). Others included blazing star (Liatris), prairie goldenrod (Solidago rigida), prairie rose (Rosa carolina), prairie bush clover (Lespedeza capitata), prairie coneflower (Lepachys pinnata), and prairie painted cup (Castilleja sessiliflora). They were either large (big bluestem, compass plant, and stiff sunflower could all grow ten feet high in a good summer), had conspicuous flowers (blazing star, rose, coneflower), or unusual characteristics (indicated in names such as compass plant and painted cup). While Wisconsinites might know these plants, they would have seen them only in small populations or in fields browsed by livestock. At the arboretum, by contrast, they were able to display their capabilities and to reinforce each other visually as elements of a multiacre garden. People who visited this landscape, especially in the peak summer vacation months of July and August, would experience a wonderful wildflower garden in the style of a prairie. It was both easy and pleasant to imagine that this was original Wisconsin. [pp. 190 to 194] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collecting Sweetgum in the Wilds of Missouri","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25445","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170896d.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"Collecting Sweetgum in the Wilds of Missouri John H. Alexander III O n a sunny day in December, 1979, in the countryside near Zalma, Missouri, a tractor dutifully worked the upper end of a 40-acre field. In search of native tree seeds, Arboretum horticulturist Gary Koller and I were about half way across the lower end of the field when the tractor turned toward us. The farmer, clearly silhouetted against the skyline, picked up a rifle. It suddenly became clear that we were trespassing. Gary turned to me and said \"Do you have a business card?\" I don't recall the expletives or the suggestions I proffered, but I handed him a card. He ran toward the tractor, waving the card like a tiny white flag. Dumbfounded, I stood and watched, then followed. As it turned out, the farmer's brother had been shot (not fatally) by errant hunters while working in these fields a week or two earlier. The farmer was friendly, apologized for the rifle, and welcomed us to collect seeds in an uncultivated area by the river. It was there in the floodplain of the Castor River that Gary and I collected the seed from which the sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua, accession 1248-79-B) pictured at right was grown. At 28 years old, this sweetgum is 36 feet (11 meters) tall with a DBH (diameter at breast height) of 16 inches (40 centimeters). Typical mature height for sweetgum is around 60 to 80 feet (18 to 24 meters). Sweetgum has a pyramidal habit when young; older trees often have a rounded canopy. Its star-shaped leaves can develop striking fall color in shades of yellow, red, orange, and purple. The spiky, 1 to 1 inch (25 to 38 millimeters) diameter fruits may be dried and used in decorations, but in large numbers can be an inconvenience when they fall on lawns and walkways. Sweetgum's branch texture is variable from tree to tree; branches may be fairly smooth or have corky wings. The latter trait is impressively displayed on specimen 1248-79-B; its eye-catching abundance of large, corky, winged protrusions gives the tree great textural interest, especially in the winter. Native Ground The Arnold Arboretum is well-known for its international plant explorations, especially in China. Woody plants from around the world fill the Arboretum's collections. But collecting from wild populations of native North American plants is also important to the Arboretum's mission. Gary and I were in Missouri to attend a plant propagators' conference in St. Louis, but we had also scheduled a couple of extra days for collecting in the area. Our goal in southeast Missouri was to find species that were native to southern regions of the United States but were growing wild in a climate that was similar to our own in Boston. Sweetgum's principal native range extends from New Jersey to southern Illinois, south to eastern Texas and northern Florida. It is usually listed as hardy to USDA Zone 5, but specimens grown from seed sources in the southern part of its range may suffer significant damage in northern winters. We must have succeeded in collecting from an appropriate location--all three specimens of accession 1248-79 are in good condition. Currently, these are the only sweetgum trees in the Arboretum that are from a known wild source. In addition to sweetgum, we collected a number of other species in Missouri and neighboring Illinois, including Ohio buckeye (Aesculus glabra), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), possumhaw (Ilex decidua), buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), and river birch (Betula nigra). These species are all fairly common, but what's important is that our collections provide a genetic representation of each of these species as it exists in the wild. When one of these plants, like sweetgum specimen 1248-79-B, turns out to have ornamental characteristics that appeal to us as gardeners, that's icing on the cake. John H. Alexander III is Plant Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23410","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25e8928.jpg","title":"2008-66-2","volume":66,"issue_number":2,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Chinese Parrotia: A Sibling Species of the Persian Parrotia","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25442","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170816b.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jianhua, Li; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Chinese Parrotia: A Sibling Species of the Persian Parrotia Jianhua Li and Peter Del Tredici he Persian ironwood (Parrotia persica) has a well-deserved reputation as a beautiful garden plant--mainly because of its exfoliating bark and gorgeous fall color--but also as a tough species that tolerates drought, heat, wind, and cold (Dirr 1998). Less well known is the fact that Persian ironwood has a sister species, the Chinese ironwood (Parrotia subaequalis) (Figure 1), growing about 5600 kilometers (3500 miles) away in eastern China. Remarkably, this species was correctly identified only sixteen years ago (Deng et al. 1992a). T The Persian and Chinese ironwoods are members of the witch hazel family (Hamamelidaceae), and in order to appreciate their uniqueness and evolutionary history we need to first examine one of their more familiar relatives, the witch hazels (Hamamelis). There are five species of witch hazel distributed throughout the temperate regions: H. mollis in eastern China, H. japonica in Japan, and H. virginiana, H. vernalis, H. mexicana in North America. The genus shows the intercontinental disjunct distribution between eastern Asia and North Figure 1. Geographic distribution of Parrotia persica (in green) and P. subaequalis (in red). Note that the scale bar is 400 kilometers. Parrotia 3 Hamamelis virginiana ..... 55 84 Distylium racemosum Parrotia persica ........... 91 7.83.8 mya Parrotia subaequalis ................................. 50 mya Parrotiopsis jacquemontana ......... Fothergilla major .... 10 changes Figure 2. Evolutionary relationships of Hamamelis and petalless genera, showing shift (the arrow) from insect to wind pollination. Black dot indicates the fossil calibration point and the red dot shows the divergence time of the two Parrotia species. The scale bar represents ten changes in nucleotide composition as measured along the horizontal branches of this phylogenetic tree. Changes in nucleotide composition indicate genetic evolution over time. The numbers that appear over several of the branches indicate the percentages of statistical support for those groupings. Higher numbers indicate stronger evidence of support. (mya=million years ago) America that has fascinated many scientists since the time of Asa Gray (Gray 1846). Witch hazels have four ribbonlike petals (Figure 2) that come in a variety of colors from yellow to reddish copper. Six other genera in the witch hazel family have similar ribbonlike petals and occur in Southeast Asia, Africa, Madagascar, and northeastern Australia. These genera have traditionally been considered closely related to one another and to Hamamelis because they have the same number of similarly shaped petals. But recent DNA analysis has determined that the genera with four ribbonlike petals do not form a closely related natural group because they are positioned on different branches in the MOBOT 100 Sycopsis sinensis ................... UBC Botanical Garden Distyliopsis tutcheri 4 Arnoldia 66\/1 the only known species in the genus. In 1960 Professor H. T. Chang of Sun Yat-sen University described a new species of Hamamelis--H. subaequalis-- based on a fruiting specimen that had been collected twentyfive years earlier from Yixing county of Jiangsu province, China. Its main distinguishing feature was that it produced much smaller leaves than the Chinese witch hazel (H. mollis) (Figure 3) (Chang 1960). The fact that the plant described as H. subaequalis was not recollected until 1988--some 53 years after its initial collection--led to speculation that Figure 3. The foliage of a specimen of Parrotia subaequalis growing at the Nanjing the plant had gone extinct in Botanical Garden. the intervening years. witch hazel family tree. Interestingly, in each In the fall of 1988, Miaobin Deng and colbranch of this family tree the most advanced leagues at Jiangsu Institute of Botany disgenera are those that have lost their petals, a covered a natural fruiting population of H. trait that is generally believed to correlate with subaequalis in the town of Yixing. After three the transition from insect to wind pollination years of continually monitoring the population, (Li et al. 1999). During this evolutionary transitheir patience was rewarded when the plants tion period, a few genera in the Hamamelis-- finally flowered again (Deng et al. 1992b). At Parrotia lineage developed showy parts other that point it became clear that H. subaequalis than petals with which to attract insect pollacked petals, making it dramatically different linators. For example, Parrotiopsis of the westfrom H. mollis (Figure 4). They proposed a new ern Himalayas possesses showy leaflike bracts genus--Shaniodendron--to accommodate the beneath the inflorescences, while Fothergilla species which they named S. subaequale (Deng species in the eastern U.S. have conspicuous et al. 1992a). Dr. Riming Hao, who studied the white stamen filaments (Figure 2). In contrast, floral morphology of Shaniodendron, pointed Parrotia flowers lack not only petals but also out that Shaniodendron subaequale was quite showy bracts and stamen filaments. Instead, similar to Parrotia persica, but he did not place their anthers are elongated, a characteristic it within the genus Parrotia (Hao et al. 1996). In common to wind-pollinated species including 1996, Dr. Yinlong Qiu sent some DNA of Shathe most advanced genera in Hamamelidaceae. niodendron to Jianhua Li, then a PhD candidate Thus, the shift from insect to wind pollination at the University of New Hampshire working is complete in the evolutionary branch leading on the systematics of the witch hazel family. to Parrotia, Sycopsis, Distyliopsis, and DistyHe obtained nuclear DNA sequence data from lium (Figure 2). the sample and, after comparing it with other genera of the family, determined that ShaTaxonomic History of the Chinese Parrotia niodendron was a sibling species to Parrotia The first recorded species of Parrotia--P. persica (Li et al. 1997). After seeing the DNA persica--was described by C. A. Meyer in 1831 results, Hao used this evidence to propose the and named in honor of F. W. Parrot, a German merger of Shaniodendron with Parrotia (Hao naturalist and traveler. For a long time it was and Wei 1998). Nevertheless, it seems that this P. DEL TREDICI Parrotia 5 JIANHUA LI Figure 4. The flowers of Parrotia subaequalis as shown on a sign posted at the Yixing Caves Scenic Area. treatment may take some time for people to accept since recent studies continue to use the name Shaniodendron subaequale (Fang et al. 2004; Huang et al. 2005), despite the fact that the plant is listed as Parrotia subaequalis in the Flora of China. Parrotia persica and P. subaequalis are very similar from growth habit to morphology. Both trees display exfoliating bark, have obovate leaves with bluntly toothed margins, and grow in moist habitats along streams. They bear four to seven flowers clustered in a head inflorescence subtended by broadly ovate, brownish bracts. Each flower has five sepals but no petals and four to fifteen stamens with long anthers (Figure 4). Their fruits are woody capsules consisting of two chambers, each with two brown seeds (Figure 5). Parrotia subaequalis can be easily distinguished from P. persica by its lanceolate stipules and sepals fused into a shallow saucer-shaped calyx (Hao et al. 1996). When did Parrotia persica and P. subaequalis diverge? Recent DNA work in Jianhua Li's laboratory has shown that witch hazels (Hamamelis) are more primitive than the petalless genera in Hamamelidaceae. The evolutionary sequence of the petalless genera appears in the order of Fothergilla, Parrotiopsis, Parrotia, Sycopsis, and Distyliopsis plus Distylium, and the two species of Parrotia are grouped together (Figure 2). Fossils can provide evidence for the minimum age of the lineage to which they belong. Unfortunately, fossil information is often unavailable for a specific taxon. Nevertheless, if DNA molecules evolve at a constant rate, that is, a certain number of nucleotide changes per million years, we can use the total number of changes between the two species to estimate how long ago they diverged. Our statistical tests indicated that the evolution of the nuclear genes we have used to reconstruct the evolutionary history of these genera followed a clockwise manner. The next thing we needed was to calibrate the ticking rate of the molecular clock using one or more known fossil dates. Luckily, Radtke et al. (2005) found a fossil leaf that could be unequivocally assigned to Fothergilla, specifically F. malloryi. This fossil leaf is part of the Republic Flora of northeastern Washington State, dating to the late Eocene (about 50 million years ago), and thus provides a minimum separation age of Fothergilla from the branch leading to other genera (Figure 2). Based on the molecular clock calibrated using the fossil, our estimates suggest that the two species of Parrotia diverged around 7.5 million (plus or minus 3.8 million) years ago, during the Lower Miocene. This divergence time is consistent with the geological evidence JIANHUA LI Figure 5. Fruit and seed of Parrotia subaequalis. 6 Arnoldia 66\/1 P. DEL TREDICI Figure 6. Parrotia subaequalis cultivated as penjing at the Nanjing Botanical Garden. production, serious habitat competition from bamboos, and increasing human activities. It is essential to take immediate action and institute stricter measures to protect the species. Peter Del Tredici first saw two plants of Parrotia subaequalis on October 8, 1994. They were being cultivated in containers as penjing (bonsai) in a lath-house at the Nanjing Botanical Garden. At that time, the foliage had turned a beautiful, rich, deep red (Figure 6). According to the Director of the Garden, Professor Shan-an He, the plants had been collected in Jiangsu province at the Yixing Caves Scenic Area, which is located about 120 kilometers (75 P. DEL TREDICI that the cooling temperature in the Lower Miocene plus the uplifting of the Himalayas and the mountains of western China from 55 million years ago to the Middle Miocene may have restricted biological exchanges between central Asia and eastern China (Yin and Harrison 2000; Sun and Wang 2005). Forests in the Caspian region of central Asia and those in eastern Asia are both relicts of the widespread Tertiary vegetation (Wolfe 1975; Hosseini 2003; Sun and Wang 2005). Besides Parrotia, the two regions share many other woody plant genera including Acer, Albizia, Buxus, Castanea, Carpinus, Diospyros, Fagus, Pterocarya, Quercus, Sorbus, Taxus, and Zelkova. From an evolutionary and biogeographical standpoint it would be interesting to determine whether central Asian species within these genera are siblings of the eastern Asian species, and if so, whether their separation time agrees with that between the two Parrotia species. Parrotia subaequalis in China According to Chengxin Fu, Riming Hao, and various accounts in the literature, there are five populations of Parrotia subaequalis in eastern China: two each in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces (Huang et al. 2005) and one in Anhui (Shao and Fang 2004). Professor Fu's team is currently conducting a survey to determine the levels and patterns of the genetic diversity in Chinese Parrotia populations. The results will provide a scientific foundation for designing conservation strategies. Regeneration of Parrotia subaequalis populations will be challenging because of the species' alternate-year fruit Figure 7. Dr. Hao Riming of the Nanjing Botanical Garden with a plant of Parrotia subaequalis grown from a cutting. Parrotia 7 JIANHUA LI miles) southwest of Nanjing on the east side of Tai Lake. Both specimens had massive trunks and the larger of the two was about 50 centimeters (20 inches) tall by 70 centimeters (28 inches) across. The form of their trunks, along with their extensive yet well-healed wounds, suggested that both plants were very old. When Peter returned to the Nanjing Botanical Garden in September of 1997, he didn't see the penjing specimens but saw one young plant--recently propagated from a cutting and about 2 meters (6.6 feet) tall--growing out on the grounds of the garden (Figure 7). On September 1, 2004, we [Del Tredici and Li] had the good fortune to be able to visit the Yixing Caves Scenic Area (known as Shan Juan Park) with Professor Cheng-xin Fu and Yingxiong Qiu of Zhejiang University. Upon entering the park, the group immediately encountered a large specimen of Parrotia subaequalis growing on a steep slope above a small pond at the mouth of the largest of the karst caves. The plant was hard to miss because it was identified with a large sign with a close-up color photograph of the plant in bloom (Figure 4). The tree, which was about 6 meters (20 feet) tall, had two main trunks, the largest of which was 24 centimeters (9.4 inches) in diameter (Figure 8). The bark appeared to be at the peak of its exfoliation, with patches of fresh greenish white bark showing where sections of the old bark had sloughed off. There were no fruits on the plant--the species typically flowers only every other year--but there were numerous seedlings growing beneath it. A second large specimen was spotted about 30 meters (100 feet) away, on a slope in a mixed woodland with bamboo and other trees. We observed at least two cases where the exposed roots of this plant were producing vigorous young suckers, a phenomenon which had not been reported in the literature (Figure 9). Interestingly, sprouting from the base of the trunk was not observed on any of the trees. Later that afternoon, the group drove to Longwang Shan in Anji Xian, in northern Zhejiang Province, about 90 kilometers (56 miles) south of the Yixing Caves. This relatively small mountain is considered part of the larger Tian Mu Shan range that forms the border with Figure 8. The trunk and foliage of a Parrotia subaequalis specimen growing at the Yixing Caves Scenic Area. P. DEL TREDICI Figure 9. Root suckers from a mature specimen of Parrotia subaequalis at the Yixing Caves Scenic Area. 8 Arnoldia 66\/1 P. DEL TREDICI bark was not exfoliating as dramatically as the larger plant. Neither was producing any sprouts from the base of its trunk or any root suckers. Unfortunately there were no fruits on either plant, although there were curious hard, round, gall-like structures about a centimeter or so in diameter on many of the leaves of the smaller, double-trunked plant. Some of the notable associates growing with Parrotia subaequalis on Longwang Shan were Fortunearia fortunei, Styrax confusus, Pterostyrax corymbosum, Cornus controversa, Stewartia rostrata, and Stewartia sinensis. We were told that the Parrotia subaequalis population at Longwang Shan consisted of about twenty individuals at that time. P. DEL TREDICI Figure 10. Parrotia subaequalis on Longwan Shan, 9.5 meters (31 feet) tall with a diameter at breast height of 38 centimeters (15 inches). Anhui Province. After spending the night in comfortable accommodations at the research station, we hiked partway up the mountain to about 650 meters (2,130 feet) elevation and located two specimens of Parrotia subaequalis growing near the side of a stream, amidst a pile of boulders. The larger of the two trees was about 9.5 meters (31 feet) tall with a trunk diameter at breast height of 38 centimeters (15 inches) (Figure 10). Its bark was exfoliating in a dramatic way--shedding jigsaw-puzzle-shaped plates of old, blackish brown bark to expose conspicuous patches of greenish white bark below (Figure 11). The second specimen had a double trunk, was about 8 meters (26 feet) tall, and its Figure 11. This specimen of Parrotia subaequalis (same plant seen in Figure 10) shows a very knobby trunk, indicating that it has lost many lower branches over time. Parrotia 9 Parrotia subaequalis at the Arnold Arboretum The Arnold Arboretum has two established plants of Parrotia subequalis. So far, both of them have survived two winters outdoors and they are now about 1.5 meters (5 feet) tall. On June 23, 2005, during their first growing season at the Arboretum, seven cuttings between 5 and 10 centimeters (2 to 4 inches) long were taken from the two plants. A month later, on July 25, another nine cuttings were taken from the plants. All sixteen cuttings were treated with a five-second dip in an aqueous solution of 5,000 parts per million KIBA, stuck in flats filled with a mix consisting of half sand and half perlite, and placed in the high-humidity greenhouse under intermittent mist and fog. Remarkably, all sixteen of the cuttings rooted and three of them are planted in the nursery. With five plants now growing outdoors, the Arboretum is in a position to begin evaluating the horticultural potential of Parrotia subequalis. Successful establishment at the Arboretum also facilitates continued research on the genetics, physiology, reproductive biology, and conservation of this rare and evolutionarily important species. Acknowledgments We thank Cheng-xin Fu and Ying-xiong Qiu of Zhejiang University for their field assistance. Literature Cited Chang, H. T. 1960. Hamamelis subaequalis. Journal of Sun Yat-sen University 1: 35. Deng, M. B., H. T. Wei, and X. Q. Wang. 1992a. Shaniodendron, a new genus of Hamamelidoideae from China. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 30: 5761. Deng, M. B., H. T. Wei, X. Q. Wang, P. Su, and J. Y. Xing. 1992b. On the significance of the discovery of Fothergilleae in China. Journal of Plant Resources and Environment 1: 3035. Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL Fang, S., J. Yan, Q. Weng, and S. Huang. 2004. Population ecological status quo and protection study on Shaniodendron subaequale M. B. Deng, H. T. Wei in Longchi mountain reserve in Yixing. Journal of Jiangsu Forestry Science and Technology 31: 46. Gray, A. 1846. Analogy between the flora of Japan and that of the United States. American Journal of Science and Arts, ser. 22: 135136. Hao, R. M., H. T. Wei, and W. G. Liu. 1996. Floral morpholgy of Shaniodendron (Hamamelidaceae) and its taxonomic significance. Journal of Plant Resources and Environment 1(1): 3035. Hao, R. M. and H. T. Wei. 1998. A new combination in Hamamelidaceae. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 36: 80. Hosseini, S. M. 2003. Incomparable roles of Caspian forests: Heritage of humankind. Forest Science 3: 3140. Huang, S., Y. Fang, Y. Peng, J. Yan, and S. Fang. 2005. The niche study of Shaniodendron subaequale population of Longchi mountain. Journal of Central South Forestry University 25: 8083. Li, J., A. L. Bogle, A. S. Klein, and K. Pan. 1997. Close relationship between Shaniodendron and Parrotia (Hamamelidaceae), evidence from its sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 35: 481493. Li, J., A. L. Bogle, and A. S. Klein. 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of the Hamamelidaceae inferred from sequences of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany 86: 10271037. Radtke, M. G., K. B. Pigg, and W. C. Wehr. 2005. Fossil Corylopsis and Fothergilla leaves (Hamamelidaceae) from the lower Eocene flora of republic, Washington, U.S.A., and their evolutionary and biogeographic significance. International Journal of Plant Science 166: 347356. Shao, X. F. and G. F. Fang. 2004. Habitat survey and ex situ conservation of Shaniodendron subaequale. Journal of Anhui Forest Science and Technology 2: 1213. Sun, X. and P. X. Wang. 2005. How old is the Asian monsoon system?--Palaeobotanical records from China. Paleogeography Paleoclimatology Palaeoecology 222: 181222. Wolfe, J. A. 1975. Some aspects of plant geography of the Northern Hemisphere during the late Cretaceous and Tertiary. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 62: 264279. Yin, A. and T. M. Harrison. 2000. Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences 28: 211280. Jianhua Li and Peter Del Tredici are senior research scientists at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Curatorial Notes: An Updated Living Collections Policy at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25438","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170b76f.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Curatorial Notes: An Updated Living Collections Policy at the Arnold Arboretum Michael S. Dosmann M useums, by definition, collect things, and in the case of botanical gardens and arboreta, those things are plants. In this quest to collect, curators must exercise discipline and prudence in determining what new things to acquire as well as which ones to remove. Garden collections can be notably challenging to curate because of the overwhelming breadth of possible biodiversity to accumulate. Thus, it is essential for curators to make use of a collections policy--a tool which defines the scope of the collection. The collections policy is mission-driven; it defines short- and long-term goals and establishes the direction of collection building. While the specifics of what items to collect may occasionally be included in the collections policy, they are typically outlined separately in a detailed collections development plan. Likewise, the tactics of curation, such as the means of acquisition, intricacies of database management, standardization of nomenclature, or tasks related to plant maintenance, are best housed within a separate procedural manual. Collections policy history at the Arboretum Since its inception, the Arboretum has built its living collection of plants with the aid of a collections policy, although the policy's content and application have varied considerably over the years. The indenture signed by the President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Trustees of Mr. James Arnold on the 29th of March, 1872, included the original collections policy: \"The Arnold Arboretum... shall contain, as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air at the said West Roxbury...\" It was simple, direct--and too broad for Charles S. Sargent, the Arboretum's first curator and director. While he followed the spirit of the indenture's charge with aplomb, acquiring as many taxa as possible, the focus quickly shifted almost solely to woody plants, leaving most herbaceous plants out of the permanent collections. His keen interest in the floras of North America and eastern Asia, no doubt influenced by his mentor Asa Gray, led to substantive biogeographic collections from these locales. And Sargent's fascination with ornamentals resulted in the acquisition of many horticultural plants, including great numbers of botanical formae and varieties that are now considered cultivars. Sargent (1922) estimated that during the Arboretum's first half-century some 6,000 taxa grew in the collections. But space became limited in the 265-acre landscape, and the collections became crowded. The problem became acute in the years following Sargent's death in 1927; in the absence of his careful direction the collections multiplied unchecked. To respond to this dilemma, landscape architect Beatrix Farrand was hired in 1946 by Karl Sax, Arboretum director at the time, to create a restorative plan. In her assessment (Farrand 1946), she questioned whether \"the comparatively small acreage of the Arboretum can wisely accommodate all the species and varieties of woody plants of the temperate regions.\" The recommendation that she and the Administration came up with was that the collections grown in Jamaica Plain would be \"the best and most ornamental\"; research plants that lacked the desired showiness, yet had scientific merit, would be transferred to the Case Estates in Weston, where they could be lined-out in experimental nurseries. This strategy's execution was left to Donald Wyman, the Arboretum's horticulturist. Wyman undoubtedly sighed in relief with this decision. He acknowledged (Wyman 1947) the difficulty of maintaining an expanding number of plants solely at Jamaica Plain given the institutional reticence to modify any collections following Sargent's death (particularly those that Sargent had a hand in building). In theory, this splitsite solution allowed the living collections to Living Collections Policy 11 HERBERT W. GLEASON, ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Arboretum planting space was already filling up when this photograph was made in May of 1930, a few years after Sargent's death. The photo shows Korean azalea (Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhanense) and other plants on Bussey Hill. 12 Arnoldia 66\/1 PHOTOS BY MICHAEL S. DOSMANN Starting in the late 1970s, the Arboretum shifted its priority to collecting plant material of documented wild origin. Representative plants collected on expeditions made during this period include (clockwise from upper left): Weigela subsessilis collected in the Republic of Korea in 1977, Sorbus yuana collected in the People's Republic of China during the Sino-American Botanical Expedition in 1980, and Cotinus coggygria from the 1980 expedition to the Russian Federation (then the U.S.S.R.). Living Collections Policy 13 remain comprehensive--as per the original collections policy of 1872--while providing focus to the two sites: research collections in Weston and ornamental collections in Jamaica Plain. For the next 30 years, this practice continued and the Arboretum landscape in Jamaica Plain accrued great numbers of ornamental taxa, particularly cultivars under evaluation. This swing was reinforced by the post-war proliferation of cultivars introduced by the nursery industry, the institutional goal of becoming a showcase of horticultural material, and practically complete cessation of plant exploration efforts. It is important to note that while the collections policy did not shift, per se, its method of realization did. In the late 1970s, a shift again took place-- this time with an eye towards documentation, the prime metric used to assess a collection's value. While material of cultivated origin may carry with it notable documentation, its value is generally eclipsed by material of wild origin, particularly once it has been verified to identity. Thus, in a new living collections policy, priority shifted away from ornamental and toward botanical taxa (Spongberg 1979). While the emphasis was placed upon botanical taxa of wild origin, provisions were in place to accession or maintain garden-origin plants (as temporary placeholders), as well as cultivars--provided they were of historic significance (i.e., those with Latinized epithets proposed prior to 1953). This policy change coincided with the reinstated tradition of field collection of germplasm, both domestically and abroad. As a result, many new acquisitions of documented wild origin again crossed the Arboretum's threshold, particularly in Jamaica Plain. With respect to the practice of growing material in both Jamaica Plain and Weston, Peter Ashton (1979) reflected that the two-site strategy had come at a cost: the loss of valuable germplasm which did not survive the transfer from Jamaica Plain to Weston, including original introductions of species by E. H. Wilson and other explorers. The ambitious goal of acquiring everything--maintained in two separate sites--was too lofty, particularly with the resources available, and Jamaica Plain was deemed the primary repository. This formal policy direction was sustained for the next decade, and then reaffirmed in 1991 (Liv- ing Collections Long-Range Planning Committee 1991). As in the 1979 version, the goal stated that \"the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum were to consist of a scientific collection of entities tied to botanical, not horticultural nomenclature.\" Because the emphasis was placed on names and not necessarily taxonomy, a great deal of space in the new policy was dedicated to the \"problem of cultivars and their relationship to taxa of infraspecific botanical rank.\" The need for a collections policy update Shortly after joining the staff as Curator of Living Collections in January of 2007, I convened the Living Collections Committee to review the Arboretum's existing living collections policy and place it in context with current, as well as future, institutional needs. After thorough discussion and assessment, we restructured the policy with several broad goals in mind: The policy needs to describe the entire scope of our living collection, including collections that previously had not been highlighted such as the Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection and plants in our natural areas. It should also articulate levels of commitment, or priority (i.e., high to low), depending upon the type of collection. This would allow us greater flexibility as well as focus in collections development. The policy should not perpetuate the hierarchy between wild-origin and cultivated material. Instead, the emphasis should be placed on the level of documentation associated with individual accessions, as well as their programmatic use(s) in furthering the mission of the institution. This is particularly important when we consider the immense research potential of the collections (Dosmann 2007). The policy must be clear and usable, yet not burdened by too many details; the policy was not intended to be a procedural manual. Instead, we appended it with a list of operational definitions to aid in interpretation. Here is the result: the current living collections policy for the Arnold Arboretum. Notice that in spirit, it has remained true to the original plan of 1872; additional details have been added for clarity and for establishing organization and a sense of priority. Interspersed within the official policy below are text boxes and figures that provide illustrative examples and additional information. 14 Arnoldia 66\/1 Living Collections Policy Policy reviewed and approved on 10 September, 2007 MISSION STATEMENT The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University discovers and disseminates knowledge of the plant kingdom to foster greater understanding, appreciation, and stewardship of the Earth's botanical diversity and its essential value to humankind. I. INTRODUCTION A. PURPOSE OF THE LIVING COLLECTIONS POLICY The Living Collections Policy of the Arnold Arboretum guides the development, management, and enhancement of the institution's Living Collections, and applies to all plants outlined below under Scope of the Living Collections. The Living Collections Policy is written and administered by the Living Collections Committee, which comprises the Curator of Living Collections (Chair of the Committee), Deputy Director, Manager of Horticulture, Manager of Plant Records, Manager of the Dana Greenhouses and Nursery, and Senior Research Scientist; it is further reviewed and approved by the Director. The Living Collections Policy is reviewed every five years and revised as needed. Operational procedures related to implementation of this and related policies are detailed in the Arboretum's General Procedures for Managing the Flow of Plants through the Department of Horticulture (January 2007). B. PURPOSE OF THE LIVING COLLECTIONS The Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum are essential to achieving its mission as a research institution dedicated to improving the understanding, appreciation, and preservation of woody plants. As a national and international resource for research in the various fields of plant biology and beyond, the Arboretum's Living Collections are actively developed and managed to support scientific investigation and study, as well as key educational and amenity roles. C. LEGAL AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS Activities related to the development, management, and use of the Arnold Arboretum's living collection comply with all relevant local, state, federal and international laws. This includes compliance with all necessary documentation and phytosanitary requirePhellodendron amurense (Amur corktree; fruit shown at left) is currently monitored for its invasive potential in the Arboretum. Spontaneous trees have been removed, and female trees lacking sufficient documentation have been deaccessioned as a means of limiting seed production. However, other individuals of documented origin--some representing unique provenances--remain in the collection because of their high scientific value. NANCY ROSE Living Collections Policy 15 NANCY ROSE Nearly 500 plant genera are common to both North America and eastern Asia. Many representatives of this disjunct group are included in the Arboretum's collection, including two strikingly similar Cornus species, Cornus alternifolia from North America (left) and Cornus controversa from eastern Asia (right). ments during acquisition and distribution activities. All taxa are evaluated for their potential invasiveness, and should invasive or potentially invasive plants be retained for their scientific value, additional management procedures are put into place for containment purposes; they are not distributed for horticultural use. II. SCOPE OF THE LIVING COLLECTIONS The Living Collections are divided into three primary collection categories: Core, Historic, and Miscellaneous Collections; within each are secondary collections. This organization allows priority to be assigned to all extant, as well as potential, accessions within each category, thus guiding collections development, management, and enhancement. It should be noted that none of the primary, or secondary, collections are mutually exclusive and that many accessions fall into multiple categories. A. CORE COLLECTIONS The Core Collections are of highest priority and receive the greatest focus with respect to development, management and enhancement. In general, these collections are intrinsic to the mission of the institution through their research use, and preference is placed on material of documented wild origin. Exceptions to provenance requirements are made only in specific cases when the value is significant enough to warrant accessioning. By and large, these collections are regarded as obligatory. 1. Biogeographic Collections Collections representing the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia have been an important traditional focus, strongly supporting research related to the floristic relationships between these two regions. In particular, eastern North American-Asian disjunct taxa receive high priority with respect to collections development. 2. NAPCC Collections As part of its commitment to the North American Plant Collections Consortium (NAPCC), the Arboretum maintains and develops collections of botanical taxa RUPERT TAYLOR 16 Arnoldia 66\/1 Interspecific diversity is attained by growing as many species as possible within each of these high-priority genera. To increase intraspecific diversity, we strive to acquire germplasm from multiple provenances of each species so that we may illustrate genetic variation as a function of geographic source. Japanese beech (Fagus crenata) is just one of the species of beech grown as part of the NAPCC collection. MICHAEL DOSMANN within the following genera: Acer, Carya, Fagus, Stewartia, Syringa and Tsuga. Because they serve as national germplasm repositories, development and maintenance maximizes both inter- and intraspecific diversity. 3. Conservation Collections As part of its commitment to the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), the Arboretum maintains and develops collections of the following species: Amelanchier nantucketensis, Diervilla rivularis, Diervilla sessilifolia, Fothergilla major, Ilex collina, Rhododendron prunifolium, Rhododendron vaseyi, Spiraea virginiana, and Viburnum bracteatum. These species, as well as other taxa of conservation value outside the scope of CPC, are developed and maintained with the goals of preserving as high a level of intraspecific diversity as is practicable. 4. Synoptic Collections Collections of documented wild-origin species that together provide a synoptic representation of the woody flora of the North Temperate Zone are maintained and developed. Emphasis is first placed on generic diversity, and then inter- and intraspecific diversity as is practicable. The goal of a synoptic, or comprehensive, collection is to include the broadest possible representation of the item or group being collected. At the Arboretum this means seeking the greatest breadth across all families that contain woody plants. The Arboretum's synoptic collections cannot contain every woody species, let alone every botanical variety or subspecies, so representative genera and species are selected based on institutional priorities and available space. Living Collections Policy 17 B. HISTORIC COLLECTIONS The Arboretum's early contributions to plant exploration and horticultural improvement are manifested in a number of Historic Collections. In general, these collections are obligatory and maintained, but not actively developed except in cases where authentic material of Arboretum origin can be repatriated or the material is sufficiently unique to warrant accessioning. 1. Arnold Arboretum Accessions Plants collected by early Arboretum staff (e.g., C.S. Sargent, E. H. Wilson, J.G. Jack, J. Rock) may lack sufficient documentation, or be of garden origin. However, because they represent important historical chapters in the development of the institution, they are maintained in the Living Collections. In some cases, these accessions may represent genotypes no longer extant in the wild because of local extinction and thus have high conservation value. 2. Nurseries and Horticulturists Accessions derived from historically significant nurseries, botanical institutions and horticulturists (e.g., H. J. Veitch, T. Meehan, M. Vilmorin) may lack full documentation, but are maintained in the Living Collections. These often represent the initial introductions of species into cultivation and are, in all probability, wild-collected. In some cases, these accessions may represent genotypes no longer extant in the wild because of local extinction and thus have high conservation value. 3. Distinctive Cultivar Collections Early in its development, the Arboretum established diverse collections of garden selections now regarded as cultivars within various plant groups (e.g., dwarf conifers, Malus, Rhododendron, Syringa). Because of their period and oftentimes comprehensive nature, these collections are maintained but not developed. NANCY ROSE In 1885, C. S. Sargent described the goals of the Peters Hill landscape as housing \"a collection for investigation which need not necessarily be permanent.\" Otherwise known as discretionary collections, these have often reflected the research interests of staff scientists. Prior to the substantial Malus collection (shown above), which grew through the work of director Karl Sax and horticulturist Donald Wyman, Peters Hill was home to extensive Crataegus collections--a long-term research project of Sargent. 18 Arnoldia 66\/1 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Hydrangea paniculata `Praecox' is an old cultivar with a Latinized epithet. Originally collected in Japan by C.S. Sargent in 1892, this Arnold Arboretum introduction is noted for its precocious floral displays, blooming at least a month before typical plants of the species. MICHAEL DOSMANN 4. Cultivars with names proposed prior to 1953 The Living Collections contain a number of historic cultivars with Latinized names that were proposed in a botanical context prior to 1953. While not developed, these are maintained, particularly when they represent material unique in cultivation. 5. Arnold Arboretum Cultivar Introductions Throughout its history, the Arboretum has selected and introduced a number of clones for ornamental use, many of which were initially regarded as botanical formae but are now recognized as cultivars. Because they arose at the Arboretum, they are maintained and development occurs only to repatriate genotypes lost by the Arboretum. 6. Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection The Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection, while not actively developed, is of high priority within the Arboretum's Living Collection because of its historic and aesthetic value. In addition to housing permanent collections that require high maintenance, The Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden also displays outstanding ornamentals with exemplary traits. Shown here is accession 178-93-A, Forsythia `Courdijau'. C. MISCELLANEOUS COLLECTIONS In addition to those within the above collection categories, The Living Collections comprise a number of plants grown to achieve display effects, for interpretation, for evaluation, or that may fall outside of traditional scope and not even be accessioned. However, because they play important roles in the Arboretum's research, horticultural and educational work, they are included within the Living Collections. These may be obligatory or discretionary, and development and maintenance decisions are made on a case-by-case basis by the Living Collections Committee. Living Collections Policy 19 SHEILA CONNOR 1. Display Collections Plants of cultivated origin, particularly cultivars selected for unique traits, serve important research and education roles; however their primary value is for display. Examples include ornamentals with exceptional or namental qualities, landscape plants well suited to the New England climate (including those with stress-, insect-, and disease-resistance), as well as those under evaluation. These collections are regarded as discretionary and are developed and maintained as needed, with the acknowledgement that accessions may be deaccessioned when their value no longer meets the appropriate standard. 2. Natural Areas The Arboretum landscape contains several natural areas representative of the New England Flora. Generally, these are maintained through natural regeneration of the present vegetation; however development may occur under certain circum- While they may not contain formally accessioned plants, several natural stances (e.g., restoration fol- areas in the Arboretum (including the North Woods, above) are managed as part of the living collections because of their research potential as lowing major disturbance). well as intrinsic beauty. 3. Spontaneous Flora Spontaneous generation of native, as well as exotic, plants occurs throughout the Arboretum's cultivated landscape. As a matter of course, some of these plants are removed because of their noxious characteristics, some are left in place, while others are accessioned (in particular spontaneous interspecific hybrids or landscape specimens). The forthcoming Policy on the Spontaneous Flora addresses this category more thoroughly. 4. Dana Greenhouse and Nursery Collections A number of plants are cultivated at the Dana Greenhouse and Nursery for experimental, observational, and other programmatic functions outside the scope of production for the accessioned Living Collections. Development and maintenance lies with the primary investigator or other assigned staff member, with the understanding that these may be formally accessioned at a later time. 20 Arnoldia 66\/1 APPENDIX: DEFINITION OF TERMS USED IN THE LIVING COLLECTIONS POLICY An accession is the basic unit of a collection and identified by a unique accession number. By definition it represents a single taxon, from a single source, acquired at one time, and through one means of propagation. An accession may comprise a single plant, or multiple plants, each identified by a letter qualifier following the accession number, or in the case of mass plantings, MASS. Accessioning is the process of adding specimens to the Arboretum's Living Collection and occurs at the time of entry regardless of its stage (e.g., plant, cutting, scion, seed). All accession records are permanent and are not expunged should deaccessioning occur. Acquisition of new accessions may be through field collection, exchange, gift or purchase. All acquisitions must meet specific collections development goals in accordance with the Scope of the Living Collections detailed in this Living Col- The label for accession 638-88-C, Fraxinus tomentosa. lections Policy. A collection is operationally defined as a group of accessions organized by a particular category for curatorial, educational, research, display or other use. A collection need not be physically grouped together, and a single accession may be part of multiple collections. From the perspective of commitment, collections may be discretionary or obligatory. Curation is the process of managing the Living Collections to guarantee its conservation, guide its development, ensure its documentation, and facilitate its enhancement. Deaccessioning is the process of removing a living specimen from the collection, but does not include the removal of any records related to that accession. Deaccessioning decisions are made by the Curator of Living Collections, in consultation with the Living Collections Committee. Development is the process by which the Living Collections undergo change through the acquisition of new accessions and the deaccessioning of accessions no longer needed in accordance with the Scope of the Living Collections detailed in this Living Collections Policy. Discretionary collections can be regarded as temporary or permanent. They meet specific research, display, education or other programmatic needs, but do not necessarily represent collections central to the mission and purpose of the Arboretum. Enhancement is the process of adding value to the Living Collections through documentation, research, and other means. MICHAEL DOSMANN Living Collections Policy 21 Literature Cited Ashton, P. S. 1979. The Director's Report. Arnoldia 39(6): 330369. Dosmann, M. S. 2007. The Arnold Arboretum's living collections: A repository for research. Arnoldia 65(2): 3039. Far rand, B. 1946. Contemplated landscape changes at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 6(10): 4548. Living Collections Long-Range Planning Committee. 1991. Plants for the Twenty-First Century: A longrange plan. The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, MA. Sargent, C. S. 1922. The first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Aboretum 3(3): 127171. Spongberg, S. A. 1979. The collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum: Taxa of infraspecific rank, and cultivars. Arnoldia 39(6): 370376. Wyman, D. 1947. The past year at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 7(1): 18. Michael Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. Last year a decision was made to deaccession a prominent winterberry holly, Ilex verticillata 22879-F, from its location along Meadow Road across from the Visitor Center. Although it was a noteworthy specimen that consistently produced copious fruits, its large size (nearly 25 feet in diameter) prevented access to one of the original Metasequoia glyptostroboides (524-48-AA). An examination of the records showed that the holly was of unknown origin--not even a nursery source--and that seven other vigorous plants of the accession remained in the collection. MICHAEL DOSMANN The Living Collections comprise all plants formally accessioned, and in a broad sense also contain unaccessioned plants in natural areas, spontaneous flora, and research material. Maintenance, from the standpoint of curating the Living Collections, is the practice of vegetatively repropagating an obligatory accession in order to preserve and perpetuate its genetic lineage. Multiple accessions of the same lineage are genetically identical. Obligatory collections are considered permanent and represent collections central to the mission and purpose of the Arboretum. A taxon (plural, taxa) is a unit of any rank within the taxonomic hierarchy (e.g., family, genus, species, variety, cultivar). SYLVIA WINTER "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ecosystems in Flux: The Lessons of Hemlock Hill","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25439","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170bb28.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schulhof, Richard","article_content":"Ecosystems in Flux: The Lessons of Hemlock Hill Richard Schulhof en years after the first detection of hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae) at the Arnold Arboretum, the hard lessons of biological invasion are written across the face of Hemlock Hill. Large gaps mark the loss of hemlocks, while many survivors, diminished by infestation, stand as relics in growing swaths of successional vegetation. Introduced invasive organisms pose an increasing threat to native biodiversity. As is conspicuously evident on Hemlock Hill, newly arrived pests and pathogens can quickly decimate susceptible native species, creating issues that range from concerns for public access and safety to the long-term management of ecological disturbance. Invasive plant species often follow in the wake of such outbreaks, further disrupting native ecosystems. Responding to invasive species in ways that safeguard people, plants, and the larger environment demands that we more wisely manage the uncertainties of a rapidly changing world. The story of hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) at the Arnold Arboretum recounts the lessons learned in addressing the rarely predictable, often irreversible consequences of biological invasion. New Invasives: A Steady Parade The scope of the problem is substantial. A 2002 National Academy of Sciences study determined that the USDA inspects roughly 2% of cargo shipments yet intercepts over 53,000 arthropods, pathogens, and plants annually. Although few introduced organisms successfully establish, it is conservatively predicted that 115 non-native insect species and 5 plant pathogens will become naturalized in the United States between 2000 and 2020. Continuing loss of native T biodiversity is recognized as perhaps the greatest long-term consequence of invasive species, which are second only to habitat loss as a primary cause of native species decline in the U.S. Of species on the threatened or endangered list, roughly 50% are at increased risk due to competition or predation from non-native organisms. Some unlisted species, such as the eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), face extirpation or severe reduction over large parts of their range. Each region of the country has its own list of problematic introduced insects and pathogens, with growing public awareness that emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis) and Asian longhorned beetle (Anoplophora glabripennis), among others, are dire threats to both cultivated landscapes and native ecosystems. The Home Front It is with some irony that I survey the introduced invasive organisms that today inhabit the Arnold Arboretum. A leader in scientific collecting and importation of plants from east RICHARD SCHULHOF Egg masses in dense, cottony clusters provide a highly visible indication of the progress and intensity of hemlock woolly adelgid infestation. Hemlock Hill 23 RICHARD SCHULHOF Sweet birch (Betula lenta), shown here in golden fall color, is now growing across large areas of Hemlock Hill. As is typical across southern New England, this birch species is a dominant colonizer of the post-hemlock landscape. Asia in the decades before and after 1900, the Arboretum is one of a great many agents that unwittingly introduced species to the North American landscape that later naturalized and wrought destructive impacts. Regardless of our respective \"rap sheets\", the Arboretum and other public gardens now work diligently toward devising management strategies to deal with problematic introduced species. At the Arboretum, developing appropriate responses to invasive species is an ongoing responsibility shared by horticulturists, managers, and administrators. Aggressive incursions of winter moth (Operophtera brumata), garlic mustard (Alliaria petiolata), Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum), and other invasives require that we stay abreast of new methods and information, not only to improve the efficacy of our management measures but to do so with ever diminishing environmental impacts. This past fall, the position of Manager of Plant Health was created to coordinate integrated pest management and associated environmental monitoring. Cautionary Tales As we have learned over the years, \"best\" practices are moving targets that shift with increasing knowledge and a changing environment. This can be particularly true in managing recently introduced insects and pathogens whose life cycles, host impacts, modes of spread, and other critical traits may still be relatively unknown. The long-term consequences of various management options are often equally unknown. How we make decisions in the face of uncertainty is of great importance. Confronted with approaching waves of introduced species, what can we learn from previous efforts to manage new invaders? 24 Arnoldia 66\/1 RICHARD SCHULHOF Infested trees on Hemlock Hill in 2003 showing the defoliation and reduction of new growth typical of hemlock woolly adelgid infestation. Hemlock Hill 25 Most recently, the potentially harmful effects of biocontrols--non-indigenous species released to control invasive pests--have received considerable attention. The multicolored Asian lady beetle (Harmonia axyridis), intended to control a range of insect pests, now appears to outcompete and replace some native lady beetle species, while becoming a nuisance in its winter aggregations in homes and buildings. In southern Florida, native Opuntia species are threatened by a South American moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) that had been introduced to control Opuntia naturalizing in the Caribbean. Cases of unforeseen consequence, the nontarget effects of some biocontrols may be remembered as cures worse than the disease. From an earlier period, management response to Dutch elm disease (Ophiostoma ulmi), a public and politically charged effort, targeted its primary vector, the elm bark beetle (Scolytus multistriatus). The American elm's (Ulmus americana) importance as an icon in the cultural landscapes of the Northeast made saving the species a priority for state and municipal agencies, and the resulting massive applications of toxic pesticides contributed to an environmental disaster all too well known today. Past actors on a period stage, decision-makers were undoubtedly influenced by historical biases and limited by critical gaps in knowledge, yet their legacies suggest that response to uncertainty--particularly the consequences of our own actions--merits particular focus today. Managing Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Our ten years of managing hemlock woolly adelgid is a story of decision-making in a rapidly changing informational environment. We began with many uncertainties and traveled a path of pivots and about-faces led by growing knowledge of our own site, analysis of outcomes elsewhere, and key findings from the research community. In 1997 HWA was first detected on the Arboretum's Hemlock Hill, a 22-acre historic natural site whose early public use included frequent visits in the 1840s from Margaret Fuller and other members of the Transcendentalist circle. Prior to infestation, Hemlock Hill was home to over 1,900 eastern hemlocks, some dating to the early 1800s. With its several stands of fully mature hemlock-dominated forest, the Hill had long been appreciated as a place of seemingly wild nature in the midst of the city. The Arboretum was hardly among the first sites to deal with HWA. First detected in Richmond, Virginia in the early 1950s, HWA spread rapidly, decimating hemlock populations in the Mid-Atlantic and coastal Connecticut before reaching Boston. Across much of the range of infestation, the ultimate consequence of HWA was near to complete hemlock mortality within four to twelve years. There were few exceptions. With the prospect of losing one of Boston's most significant natural sites and an integral part of our own history, Arboretum managers addressed challenges of a scope not seen since the 1938 hurricane. The process began with questions. What would be the rate of decline for our hemlocks? How many trees could we protect and at what costs to the larger ecosystem? Could a biocontrol under development save our trees? Although these and other questions would remain unanswered for years, management goals drawn from our organizational mission provided a strong compass for initial decisionmaking. Protecting visitor and staff safety, protecting the larger environment, and preserving a still undetermined number of hemlocks were our key priorities. But where to start? Through the Learning Curve We determined that obtaining reliable, sitespecific information about the spread of the infestation and rates of hemlock decline would be essential to planning an effective management response. Monitoring the health of our hemlocks required mapping the locations and assigning an accession number for each tree. This significant investment was abundantly repaid in data that detailed the progression and severity of the infestation as well as the efficacy of our control efforts; information that continues to inform our decisions. Using assessments of crown health, we evaluated all hemlocks, finding that from 1998 to 2002, the number of trees in poor health increased from 30% to 70%. By 2003, Hemlock Hill was a sickly graygreen color. Data from other sites indicated that we could expect large numbers of hazardous and dead trees within two to three years. 26 Arnoldia 66\/1 That winter we visited forests in Connecticut that had been closed to the public because of the danger presented by hundreds of disintegrating dead hemlocks. Further, we learned that the highly hazardous brittle snags had precluded both salvage operations and efforts to contain rapidly growing populations of invasive plants. Foreseeing similarly grim prospects for Hemlock Hill, we anticipated removing over 1,000 rapidly declining trees within the next two years. Fortunately, that large-scale removal never occurred. The winter of 2004, the coldest in many years, brought several nights with temperatures of -5F or colder, delivering an unexpected reprieve. Although not well documented at the time, HWA is highly vulnerable to extreme cold. Based on surveys at other sites, we estimate that well over 90% of the existing HWA population perished that winter. The following summer, which also brought much needed rain, saw a revitalization of our hemlocks that was a wonder to behold. For once, extreme cold had been a gift, resetting the clock of infestation and allowing more time to find new strategies. Additional changes in approach came with new information from the research community. Publications that elucidated site factors affecting rates of hemlock decline, the relative efficacy of different HWA control methods, and the field performance of highly anticipated biocontrols were part of a burgeoning informational environment that enabled knowledge-based decisions. The Arnold Arboretum was fortunate in that HWA arrived in our vicinity just as many research efforts came to fruition, providing us with essential information that was unavailable to managers of previous infestations. Perhaps our hardest decision thus far concerns the number of hemlocks we attempt to save. The absence of host resistance and limited cultural controls leave us with few management options. Clearly any chemical treatment, even relatively benign horticultural oil, brings concern for the larger environment. At the same time, we are an essential resource for a large urban population that for over 150 years has enjoyed the singular educational and aesthetic experiences of a majestic hemlockdominated forest. Finding balance among stewardship, education, and public service goals, we protect hemlocks that are of sufficient vigor to recover and that grow in conditions that are favorable for treatment and do not present risk of water contamination. HWA is controlled with applications of horticultural oil and, more recently, soil injections of imidacloprid , a treatment now provided to over 40,000 trees at Great Smoky Mountains National Park. We now use this method and pay close attention to ongoing research that monitors for non-target effects and persistence in the environment. Ultimately, it is hoped that these treatments will buy time for the Arboretum's hemlocks until biocontrols or other non-chemical options can offer reliable protection. An ongoing challenge, symptomatic of ecosystem disturbances on a global scale, is the control of non-indigenous plants that often invade when native habitats are affected by introduced organisms. As hemlock mortality continues, canopy gaps become points of colonization for glossy buckthorn (Frangula alnus), Japanese knotweed, and other invasives. Our long-term goal is to promote native hardwood forest where hemlock once grew, and while we actively eliminate invasive vegetation, robust native species, particularly sweet birch (Betula lenta), are rapidly dominating large areas. Adaptive Management Our HWA management strategy continues to evolve, reflecting the iterative learning process needed to develop effective site-specific responses to invasive species. Gathering data that monitor changing conditions as well as the effectiveness of management actions is essential, as is a willingness to completely revise strategies based on new results. Our experience speaks to the value of Adaptive Management, a process developed for the management of complex natural systems characterized by uncertainty. Borrowing from scientific method, it relies on carefully assembled hypotheses, field testing of proposed practices, Hemlock Hill 27 RESEARCH OPPORTUNITIES An unanticipated silver lining was found in emerging research opportunities on Hemlock Hill. The severe consequences of HWA infestation pose compelling questions about the ecological changes associated with decimation of a foundation native species. Beginning a four-year investigation in 2004, the Arboretum collaborated with the Harvard Forest to establish six 15-meter by 15-meter research plots in order to measure the changes occurring when hemlock is abruptly removed from the forest system. We removed hemlocks from four of the plots, with the remaining two left unlogged for use as controls. Measurements established baseline data for soil temperature, available nitrogen, organic soil mass, and understory vegetation. Analysis compared nitrogen cycling, decomposition rates, and regeneration across the six plots. Scheduled to conclude in summer 2008, the study is part of a longerterm Harvard Forest effort to assess ecosystem impacts of HWA in southern New England. A second project examined Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis), a species first grown in North America at the Arnold Arboretum. The research established that Chinese hemlock is cold hardy through at least Zone 6 and is fully resistant to HWA, confirming its suitability as a promising landscape replacement for Tsuga canadensis. P. DEL TREDICI Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis), planted in openings on Hemlock Hill, proved highly resistant to hemlock wooly adelgid. and the monitoring of results to inform next steps and ongoing improvement. It is a model for managing disturbed natural systems that lack both predictability and stability, and for which management outcomes may be determined by variables that are unrecognized or unknowable at the outset--in short, much of the world as we now know it. At the Arboretum, we did not set out to adaptively manage; the approach was born of necessity. But with the appointment of a manager of plant health, we now seek to more fully implement its tenets. Public Awareness The dramatic losses on Hemlock Hill, roughly 30% of the original hemlock population, offer an important local example of a global phenomenon. To build public awareness, the Arboretum now offers school field studies and special tours that explore the fragility of native ecosystems, disturbance caused by invasives, and the complex challenges that result for environmental stewards. As former evergreen forest converts to deciduous woodland, programs will interpret changes in nutrient cycling and species inter- 28 Arnoldia 66\/1 RICHARD SCHULHOF Acknowledgments The author thanks the Arnold Arboretum Hemlock Hill management team for its dedicated efforts: Julie Coop, John DelRosso, Peter Del Tredici, Bob Ervin, Susan Kelley, Alice Kitajima, James Papargiris, and Kyle Port. References Cheah, C., M. Mayer, D. Palmer, T. Scudder, and R. Chianese. 2005. Assessments of biological control of hemlock woolly adelgid with Sasajicymnus tsugae in Connecticut and New Jersey. Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. USDA Forest Service,Morgantown, West Virginia, pp. 116130. Cowles, R.S., C.A. Cheah, and M.E. Montgomery. 2005. Comparing systemic imidacloprid application methods for controlling HWA. Proceedings of the Third Symposium on Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in the Eastern United States. USDA Forest Service, Morgantown, West Virginia, pp. 169178. Del Tredici, P. and A. Kitajima. 2004. Introduction and cultivation of Chinese hemlock and its resistance to HWA. Journal of Arboriculture. 30:282286. School children examine sweet birch seedlings as part of a new Arnold Arboretum field study investigating the ecological impacts of hemlock woolly adelgid. Dennis, N. 2004. Expanding trade with China creates ecological backlash. Science. 306:968969. Ellison, A.M., M.S. Bank, B.D. Clinton, E.A.Colburn, K. Elliot, C.R. Ford, D.R. Foster, B.D. Kloppel, J.D. Knoepp, G.M. Lovett, J. Mohan, D.A. Orwig, N. L. Rodenhouse, W.V. Sobczak, K.A. Stinson, J. K. Stone, C.M. Swan, J. Thompson, B.Von Holle, and J.R. Webster. 2005. Loss of foundation species: consequences for the structure and dynamics of forested ecosystems. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 9:479486. Holling, C.S. 1978. Adaptive Environmental Assessment and Management. John Wiley & Sons, Chichester, Great Britain. Orwig, D.A., D.R. Foster, and D.L. Mausel. 2002. Landscape patterns of decline in New England due to the introduced hemlock woolly adelgid. Journal of Biogeography. 29:14751487. Pearson, D.E. and R.M. Callaway. 2003. Indirect effects of host-specific biological control agents. Trends in Evolution and Ecology. 18:456461. Pimenthal, D., L. Lach, D. Morrison, and R. Zuniga. 2000. Environmental and economic costs associated with non-indigenous species in the U.S. Bioscience. 50:5365. Simberloff, D. and P. Stiling. 1996. How Risky is Biological Control? Ecology. 77:19651974 Richard Schulhof is deputy director of the Arnold Arboretum. actions. Presentations to the community and feature stories appearing in newspapers and on radio and the web have further disseminated the Hemlock Hill story in Boston and southern New England. Introduced insects and pathogens are here to stay. Looking to the future, warming temperatures will likely enable HWA and other temperature-limited invasives to expand ranges of infestation and more quickly reach lethal densities on host species. The USDA, among other domestic and international agencies, must strengthen efforts to prevent unintended introductions as well as accelerate research programs to better inform management efforts. Institutions such as the Arnold Arboretum, committed to environmental stewardship and with unique expertise, will increasingly contribute to invasive species management. Perhaps more importantly, we can foster awareness, offering our public landscapes as places of witness and learning during a time of remarkable environmental change. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Silver Wins Gold","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25441","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed1708126.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Silver Wins Gold Nancy Rose T he tallest tree at the Arnold Arboretum isn't a majestic white pine or a venerable beech, it's a silver maple (Acer saccharinum, accession 12560-C). This stately 127-yearold specimen was recently measured at 126 feet (38.5 meters) tall. Its DBH (diameter at breast height) is currently 67 inches (170 centimeters); it takes three people, fingertip-to-fingertip, to encircle the trunk. This tree started its life at the Arboretum in the form of seeds (accessioned under the then-accepted name Acer dasycarpum) received from the nursery of Benjamin M. Watson in Plymouth, Massachusetts on June 1, 1881. Two other silver maples from accession 12560 also lived at the Arboretum for over 100 years, but specimen A was removed in 1982 and specimen B was removed late in 1985 after suffering major damage from the winds of Hurricane Gloria. Acer saccharinum 12560-C displays the typical form of a mature silver maple: a massive trunk that soon divides into multiple upright limbs; thin, pendulous young branches curving up at the tip; and a rounded, spreading crown. The mature bark is characteristically gray-brown, ridged, and scaly. On this tree (and many other old silver maples) the curving bark scales appear to spiral up the massive trunk. The textured bark and impressive girth of Acer saccharinum 12560-C are irresistible to many visitors passing by on Meadow Road; no doubt this is one of the most frequently touched trees in the Arboretum. Acer saccharinum is native to moist woods and river bottoms in much of the eastern half of the United States and a fringe of southeastern Canada. It can grow in drier soils, but may not be as successful or long-lived. Charles S. Sargent noted in Silva of North America, \"On dry and elevated ground...\" silver maple \"...is not handsome...the habit is loose and unattractive....\" No doubt the vigor, longevity, and stature of Acer saccharinum 12560-C is due in part to its ideal growing site in the moist, rich soil of the Arboretum's Meadow area. Silver maple is often considered highly susceptible to storm damage, but Acer saccharinum 12560-C has survived many storms--including the devastating hurricane of 1938--with little damage. Along with other large, old trees at the Arboretum, this specimen is inspected regularly by staff arborists. In 2006, Acer saccharinum 12560-C was tested using radar imaging and wood density borings in addition to visual inspection. The tree proved to be amazingly sound for the most part, but the presence of some decay led to a bit of support work; two cables now connect several of the main vertical limbs, which should help reduce the chance of major limb breakage in high winds. As with most mature trees at the Arboretum, pruning on Acer saccharinum 12560-C is limited to removal of dead wood. To reduce soil compaction (from its many up-close admirers), mulch is spread in a wide swath around the tree and the soil is periodically loosened with a compressed-air tool. Silver maple's popularity as a shade tree has waxed and waned over the decades. Its status as a native plant and its ability to grow quickly in a wide range of soil conditions gave rise to widespread planting in some eras. However, it has just as often been shunned for its irregular trunk habit, susceptibility to storm damage, extensive root system, and prolific seed production. Silver maple is not a good choice for small urban lots or narrow planting strips along streets, but in larger sites such as parks its leafy, shade-casting canopy is an asset. Acer saccharinum 12560-C certainly shows that silver maple can be a beautiful and impressive tree in the right setting. Nancy Rose is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 65","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25440","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170bb6d.jpg","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 65 Items in boldface refer to illustrations. Ames, Oakes, correspondence with Edgar Anderson 2: 8, 10, 11 Amphibians 1: 3, 10, 1924, 20, 21, 22 -- at Arboretum, chart 1: 24 Anatolia, southern 1: 26, 2831 -- -- hardy cedar from 1: 2635 \"Ancient and Notable Trees of Japan: Then and Now,\" Richard Primack and Tatsuhiro Ohkubo 3: 1021, 1021 Anderson, Dorothy Moore 2: 2, 3 Anderson, Edgar 1: 36 -- -- life of 2: 24 -- -- Balkan expedition 2: 213 -- -- portrait of 2: 4 Anisko, Tomasz 2: 10 Aono, Yasuyuki 2: 1721 Arabidopsis thaliana genome 2: 28, 36 Araucaria cunninghamia, ancient 1: 18, 18 Arboretum, roles of the 2: 2329, 3039; 3: 29 -- best practices for 4: 1617, 27 Arisaema sikokianum 3: 24 Arnold, James 1: 36; 4: 4 Arnold Arboretum, administration 4: 7 -- -- aging accessions 4: 17 -- -- archives 4: 28 -- -- Asia, current research 4: 13, 14 -- -- Beech Path 4: 34 -- -- boxwood accessions and 2: 3, 4, 710, 9, 12, 12 -- -- Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants 1: 24; 2: front cover, 40 -- -- Bussey Brook 1: 24; 3: 28, inside back cover; 4: 4 -- -- Bussey Hill 1: 30, 32; 2: 31, 40, inside back cover; 4: 17 -- -- cedars in 1: 26, 30, 3034, 32, 33 -- -- Centre Street 4: 8 -- -- Chinese Path 2: 40, inside back cover -- -- Conifer Path 3: 28, inside back cover -- -- correspondence, online index to 4: 28 -- -- Dana Greenhouses 1: 11; 4: 8, 17 -- -- Deland Endowment 3: 4 -- -- Digital Resources 4: 21, 28, 29 -- -- director's role 4: 23 -- -- ecological change 4: 17 -- -- education 4: 19, 20, 22, 24, 27, 29, 30, 31, 34, inside back cover Abies, and adelgids 3: 2 -- cilicica 1: 31 Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia 3: 7 Acadia National Park, salamanders in 1: 24 Acer 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 -- distribution of 3: 22 -- foliage qualities 3: 22 -- of China 3: 2227 -- acutum 3: 23, 23 -- diabolicum 3: 23 -- griseum 2: front cover, 40, inside back cover -- henryi 3: 24 -- hyrcanum 1: 32 -- maximowiczianum 3: 23, 24 -- miaotaiense 3: 22, 25 -- miyabei 3: 22, 25 -- negundo 3: 22 -- oligocarpum 3: 26 -- palmatum 3: 22, 25 -- -- f. atropurpureum 4: 9 -- pensylvanicum 3: 25 -- platanoides 3: 22 -- rubrum 1: 23; 3: 22 -- saccharum 1: 23; 3: 22 -- schneiderianum 3: 26 -- sinopurpurascens 3: 23 -- wardii 3: 22, 2527, 26 -- -- genetic analysis 3: 25 -- -- in cultivation 3: 25 -- -- Yunnan, collecting in 3: 2627 -- yangjuechi 3: 2224, 2225 -- -- genetic analysis 3: 25 -- -- seeds 3: 22, 23, 24 -- -- Zhejiang, collecting in 3: 2225 A Changing Ecosystem (school curriculum) 4: 30 Adelges tsugae 1: 22; 3: 2, 29 Adelgids, evolution of resistance to 3: 29 Africa, research in 4: 13 Aiello, Anthony S., \"The Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon,\" with Michael S. Dosmann 1: 2635 Ambystomatidae in MA 1: 19 American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (AABGA), 1983 meeting 2: 35 American Society of Landscape Architects Award 4: 21 -- -- expeditions, archival material on 4: 28 -- -- -- to Asia Minor, 1900s 1: 3132 -- -- -- to Asian hemlock habitats, 200204 3: 29 -- -- -- to Balkans, 1934 2: 213 -- -- -- to China, 1980 2: 40; recent 3: 3; current 4: 1314 -- -- -- to Japan (Wilson's of 1914 revisited) 3: 1020 -- -- Facilities Planning 4: 3, 8 -- -- funding 2: 2329, 38; 3: 4; 4: 20, 23, 26, 29, 32, 33, 34 -- -- governance 4: 20, 2324, 26, 29, 3132, 33, 34 -- -- Head Start partnership 4: 30 -- -- Hemlock Hill 1: 19, 2225; 4: 30 -- -- -- -- salamander study 1: 1925 -- -- hemlocks at 1: 2225; 3: 23, 4, 7, 8, 9, 9; 4: 17, 30 -- -- herbarium collections, digital 4: 28 -- -- history 4: 45, 1920, 21, 22, 23, 34 -- -- -- -- online archives and photographs 4: 28 -- -- horticulture 4: 8, 1617, 1920, 21, 24, 29, 31, 34 -- -- information access 4: 8, 19, 22, 28, 29, 32 -- -- international research, current 4: 1314 -- -- Landscape Institute 4: 20, 24, 29, 33 -- -- Landscape Management Plan 4: 1617, 20 -- -- Leventritt Garden 4: 20, 21, 33 -- -- landscape 2: 23, 26, 34; 3: 28, inside back cover; 4: 79, 1617, 20, 27, 31 -- -- libraries 2: 23, 26; 4: 8, 23, 28, 29 -- -- Lilac Sunday 4: 5 -- -- Linden Path 4: 21 -- -- Living Collections 2: 2329, 3039; 3: 7; 4: 4, 12, 1617, 31 -- -- -- -- accessions added 4: inside front cover -- -- -- -- database 4: 28 -- -- -- -- scientific control 2: 2426, 3138, 31 -- -- -- -- obligatory genera 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 -- -- map, facilities 4: 3 30 Arnoldia 66\/1 -- -- -- online 4: 28 -- -- Meadow 1: 25; 4: 21 -- -- mission and vision 2: 2426, 3338; 4: 34, 12, 1920, 2324, 26, 29, 30, 31 -- -- native tree species plan 1: 23 -- -- neighbors 4: 3, 8, 26, 30 -- -- Oak Collection 2: 23; 4: 2 -- -- Oak Path 4: 31 -- -- Operations Summary 200207 4: 33 -- -- Organizational Chart 4: 32 -- -- paperbark maples in 2: front cover, 40, inside back cover -- -- Peters Hill 2: 30 -- -- photodata 1: 37 -- -- plant health 4: 1617 -- -- public programs 4: 4, 8, 23, 24, 2632, 34 -- -- publishing 1: 3, 10, 32, 36; 2: 24, 25, 26, 33, 36, 38; 4: 19, 28, 4052 -- -- Putnam Fellow 4: 17 -- -- research 1: 29, 1925; 2: 29, 2329; 3039; 4: 39, 1115, 1820, 2324, 26, 29, 31, 34 -- -- -- current international 4: 1314 -- -- -- documenting accessions and 2: 3133 -- -- -- global benefits of new program 4: 15 -- -- Sargent Fellows 2: 29; 4: 1820, 33 -- -- School Programs 4: 30, 30 -- -- seed-collecting 4: 16 -- -- Seed Herbarium Imaging Project (SHIP) 4: 22, 22 -- -- shrubs and vines 4: 20, 21 -- -- staff, list of 4: 3639 -- -- -- published writings of 4: 4052 -- -- Tree of Life project 4: 16, 19 -- -- Visitors 4: 19, 20, 21, 27, 27, 29, 32 -- -- Walter Street 4: 4 -- -- wayfinding systems 4: 21, 27 -- -- Weather Station Data--2007 4: 35 -- -- Weld Hill research facility 2: 25, 26; 4: front and back covers, 312, 1415, 1820 -- -- -- -- -- -- administrative issues 4: 1820, 2324, 26, 29, 31, 34 -- -- -- -- -- -- architect's rendering 4: 11 -- -- -- -- -- -- building description 4: 911 -- -- -- -- -- -- investment 4: 3, 47, 1112, 20, 3034 -- -- -- -- -- -- program 4: 57, 912, 1415, 1820, 31, 34 -- -- -- -- -- -- site planning 4: 3, 39, 67 -- -- wildlife of 1: 19, 2225 \"Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections: A Repository for Research,\" Michael S. Dosmann 2: 3039, 31, 36, 37 Arnoldia 1: 3, 36; 2: 10; 4: 19, 28 -- archives 1: 36; 3: 10; 4: 28 \"Arnoldia Online\" 1: 36, 36 Arundinella 3: 26 Ashton, Peter, research vision for Arboretum 2: 27, 28, 29, 3536; 4: 13 Asia, current research in 4: 13, 14 Asia minor, hardy cedars in 1: 2635 Asian hemlocks 3: 29, 3, 59 -- -- associated flora 3: 7 -- -- distribution map 3: 5 -- -- phylogenetic charts 3: 4, 8 Aspen tree, and polluted land 4: 15 Audubon, John James, Birds of America, illustrations from 1: 23, inside back cover Bagby, Martin 2: 12 Balkans expedition of 1934 2: 213 Balsam woolly adelgid 3: 2 Bamboo 3: 7 -- as impediment to travel 3: 2526 Bank, Mike 1: 24 Barbre, Clarence 2: 12 Barnes, Sheryl 1: 36 Batdorf, Lynn 2: 7, 12 Beech 4: 22, 34 Beijing Institute of Botany 3: 25 Bentham and Hooker classification 2: 34 Betula lenta 1: 23 Biodiversity website, Chinese plants 4: 14, 28 Biofuels, and woody plants 4: 15 Biology, modern approaches 2: 23, 2629, 3037; 3: 34, 78; 4: 1112, 14 Birch, black 1: 23 Birds 1: 3, inside back cover -- and hemlock forests 1: 19, 21, 22, 23 Blandy Research Farm, and boxwood 2: 8, 12 Blue Hill Observatory, long-term temperatures 1: 3, 4 -- -- -- data chart 1: 4 Blue Ridge Mts. 3: 5 Bo tree 3: 14 Boston, City of 4: 3, 3, 4, 8, 20, 30 Botanical Review 2: 30 Botanic gardens, and climate change data 1: 9 -- -- collections crisis 2: 3039 -- -- databases 4: 28 -- -- hemlock research at 3: 29 -- -- leadership 2: 2429 Boufford, David 4: 14 Box elder 3: 22 Boxwood, Balkan 2: 212, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12 -- English 2: 213 -- -- decline 2: 2 -- registrar 2: 7 British Columbia, botanic garden 3: 25 -- -- history of HWA in 3: 4 Broken Arrow Nursery 1: 12 Bussey, Benjamin 4: 4 Bussey Institution 2: 2 Buttercup 3: 26 Buxus sempervirens 2: 213, 3, 6, 7, 9, 12 -- -- Balkan accessions 2: 3, 4, 710, 9, 12, 12 -- -- -- -- herbarium specimen #133 2: 69, 7, 9 -- -- `Inglis' 2: 8 -- -- \"K-Series\" 2: 12, 12 -- -- -- `Agram' 2: 12 -- -- -- `Ipek' 2: 12 -- -- -- `Nish' 2: 12 -- -- -- `Petch' 2: 12 -- -- `Scupi' 2: 8 -- -- suffruticosa `Edgar Anderson' 2: 8 -- -- `Treska Gorge' 2: 8 -- -- `Vardar Valley' 2: 213, 3 -- -- -- -- propagation 2: 67, 8, 9, 10 Cabot Family Charitable Trust 4: 22 California Botanical Garden, Berkeley 2: 35 Camelbeke, Koen 1: 11 Camellia 3: 7 Carbon flows 4: 13 Cardiocrinum lily 3: 26 Cary Arboretum 2: 35 Carya 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 Cedar, Atlas 1: 26 -- Cyprus 1: 26 -- deodar 1: 26 -- of-Lebanon, hardy 1: 2635 -- -- -- Pennsylvania champion 1: 34 -- -- -- in North America 1: 3134 Cedrus, found in wild 1: 26, 30 -- atlantica 1: 26 -- brevifolia 1: 26 -- deodora 1: 26, 29 Index 31 -- libani 1: 2635, 27 -- -- in botanical literature 1: 2635, 26, 27 -- -- ssp. stenocoma 1: 2635, 2830, 3233 -- -- -- propagation 1: 3132, 3334 -- -- -- `Purdue Hardy' 1: 34 Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS) 4: 13 Cercidiphyllum 4: 21 -- japonicum, roles in Collection 2: 34 Chemetoff, Alexandre 1: 13 Chemotaxonomic studies 3: 8 Cherry blossom festivals 2: 1416, 1422, 20, 22, back cover -- -- -- charts of flowering times 2: 19, 20, 21 -- Edo-Higan 2: 20 -- Japanese mountain 2: 1618 -- Oshima 2: 20 -- Yoshino 2: 1618 -- -- in Washington D.C. 2: 20, 21 Cherry laurel 2: 4 Chickadee, black-capped 1: 22 Chionanthus virginicus 1: 6 China, arboricultural practices 1: 15, 17, 18 -- expeditions to, 1910 3: 3; 1907 2: 40; 1932 3: 3; 1980 2: 40; recent 3: front covers 1 and 2, 5, 7, 8, 2227, back cover; current 4: 1314 Chloroplast DNA 3: 8, 25 Chollipo Arboretum 3: 8, 9 Cienfuegos Botanical Garden, archives 19461959 4: 28 Climate change 1: 29, 1925; 2: 1422, 37; 3: 4; 4: 13, 15 \"Climate Change and Cherry Tree Blossom Festivals in Japan,\" Richard Primack and Hiroyoshi Higuchi 2: 1422, 1422 Cold-hardy boxwood 2: 213 -- cedar 1: 2635 -- hybrid magnolia 1: 1012 Collections-based research 2: 2329, 3039; 3: 2; 4: 31 -- -- curatorial practices and 2: 3037, 31 Concord [MA] climate change 1: 48 -- -- -- data chart 1: 8 Conservation, plant 4: 21 Cook, Robert E., Director's Report 20032007 4: 335 -- -- -- \"The Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum\" 2: 2329 Coop, Julie 4: 17 Cornell University 4: 14, 17, 27 Crataegus 2: 34 Cryptomeria fortunei 3: 23 -- japonica 3: 18, 19 Cuba, botanic garden in 4: 28 Cupressus sempervirens 1: 31 Curtis's Botanical Magazine, illustration from 1: inside front cover Cycads in rice straw 1: 16 Cypripedium acaule 1: 5 Daikokuten shrine 3: 20 Daphniphyllum macropodium 3: 24 Database of Asian Plants in Cultivation (DAPC) 2: 35 Databases 2: 35; 4: 28 Davies, Stuart 4: 13 Deer, damage to trees in Japan 3: 18 -- white-tailed 1: 22 Deforestation 1: 23, 30, 31, 32; 2: 6; 3: 2 Del Tredici, Peter 1: 24 -- -- -- \"Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft'\" 1: 1012 -- -- -- \"The Paperbark Maple--One Hundred Years Later\" 2: 40 -- -- -- \"`Vardar Valley' Boxwood and Its Balkan Brothers\" 2: 213 -- -- -- photos by 2: covers 1, 2, 3; 3: covers 1, 4 Dendroica fuscus 1: 22 -- virens 1: 22 Desmognathus fuscus 1: 20 Digital imaging of seeds 4: 22 Director's Report 20032007, Robert E. Cook 4: 335 Disjunct flora 2: 27; 4: 17 -- -- and Tsuga 3: 45 Dooley, Major James and Sallie 3: 4 Dosmann, Michael 4: 17 -- -- \"A Golden Afternoon\" 3: 28 -- -- \"The Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections: A Repository for Research\" 2: 3039 -- -- \"The Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon,\" with Anthony S. Aiello 1: 2635 -- -- photo by 3: inside back cover, 4: inside front cover Doyle, Kevin 1: 11, 12 East, Dr. Edward 2: 2 Ecology, tropical forest 4: 13 Ebisudaikoku Pines 3: 20 Edinburgh Botanic Garden 3: 7, 9; 4: 28 Ehwa Woman's University, Seoul 3: 8 Elongate hemlock scale 3: 8 Endangered species 4: 22 Energy independence, and woody plant research 4: 15 Ericaceae 4: 22 Ervin, Robert 4: 16 Europe, hemlock extinction in 3: 4 Eurycea bislineata 1: 20 Evolution, and plant biology 2: 3, 2729, 34; 3: 29, 22; 4: 12 Fagus 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 Fiducela hypoleuca 1: 3 Firs and adelgids 3: 2 Flanagan, Mark 1: 32 Flint, Harrison 1: 34, 37 Floras of Asia 2: 26 -- -- -- and North America 2: 27, 37; 3: 45; 4: 17 Floristics 2: 26, 31 Flowering and climate change 1: 29; 2: 1422 Flycatcher, pied 1: 3 Fordham, Al 4: 22 Forests, Chinese 3: 2226 -- ecology of 1: 1925; 2: 37 -- maple 3: 27 -- hemlock 1: 19, 2225; 3: 28 -- northern hardwood 1: 20, 2225 -- tropical 4: 13 Fortune, Robert, and Pseudolarix 3: 28 Fragrance, in magnolia hybrid 1: 1012 Fringe tree 1: 6 Furlong, John 4: 24 \"Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Robert E. Cook 2: 2329, 2326, 29 Gamble, Mary 2: 8, 12 Gansu Province 3: 22 Gao, Lianming 3: 27 Gaoligong, Mt. [China] : 2527 Garden and Forest 1: 10 Gas-exchange experiment 2: 37 Genetics 2: 2728, 31, 35, 37; 3: 3, 4, 79, 22, 23, 25; 4: 12, 14, 19 German language, and plant-collecting 2: 4, 1011, 13 Germplasm repositories 2: 33, 35 Ginkgo, growths on ancient 3: 1617, 1618 -- historic specimens in Japan 3: 12, 1213, 1518, 1518 -- male gametophyte behavior 3: 13 Ginkgo biloba, in China 3: 23 32 Arnoldia 66\/1 Gleason, Herbert Wendell, and flora of Concord 1: 1, 5, 7, 8 Global warming 1: 29, 2122; 2: 1422 \"Golden Afternoon,\" Michael Dosmann 3: 28, inside back cover Golden larch 3: inside back cover Golden-rain tree 2: inside front cover, 37 Greaney-Williams, Ann photo by 4: inside back cover Greenhouse gas 1: 2122 Grimshaw, Scott 4: 31 Groover, Andrew 2: 23, 28 Gyrinophilus porphyriticus 1: 20 Harvard Botanical Museum 2: 26 Harvard Botany Libraries 2: 26 Harvard Dept. of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology (OEB) 4: 5 Harrison, Jim photo by 4: inside back cover Harvard Forest 1: 19, 23; 2: 10 Harvard Graduate School of Design (GSD) 4: 24 Harvard Libraries 4: 23, 28 Harvard Medical School 4: 5 Harvard Online Archival Search Information System (OASIS) 4: 28 Harvard Online Library Information System (HOLLIS) 4: 28 Harvard University 2: 23, 26; 4: 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, 26 Harvard University Herbaria (HUH) 2: 7, 23, 26; 4: 12, 13, 18, 23 -- -- -- specimen 2: 9 Havill, Nathan P. 3: 5 -- -- -- \"The Role of Arboreta in Studying the Evolution of Host Resistance to Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" with Michael E. Montgomery 3: 29 Hay, Ida 2: 33 Hebrew SeniorLife 4: 5, 8 Hedera helix var. baltica 2: 4, 8 -- -- -- -- MBG `Bulgaria' 2: 4 -- -- -- -- MBG `Rumania' 2: 4 Heimarck, Heather 4: 24 Helwingia japonica 3: 24 Hemidactylium punctatus 1: 20 Hemlock 4: 22 -- Carolina 3: 2, 5 -- Chinese 3: 23; 2: 37 -- eastern 1: 1925; 3: 2 -- -- HWA nymphs on 3: 2 -- -- replacement species for 2: 37 -- -- soil fauna and 1: 2225 -- mountain 3: 5 -- other pests of 3: 8 -- research in botanic gardens 3: 29 -- Ullung or Korean 3: 8, 9 Hemlock looper caterpillar 3: 8 -- scale, elongate 3: 8 -- woolly adelgid (HWA) 1: 2225; 2: 37; 3: 29, 2; 4: 17, 30 -- -- -- at Arboretum 1: 2425; 3: 23, 7, 8; 4: 17, 30 -- -- -- biological control of 3: 2 -- -- -- genetic variation of 3: 4, chart 4 -- -- -- in evolutionary context 3: 24, 78 -- -- -- in North America 3: 29 Hemlocks, Asian 3: front cover, 29, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9 back cover -- in European fossil record 3: 4 -- taxonomy of 3: 79 Hengduan Mt. region [China] 4: 14 Heptacodium miconioides 2: 35 Herbarium, databases 4: 28 -- specimens 1: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9; 2: 7, 9, 23, 35; 3: 3, 22; 4: 14, 22 Hetman, Jon photo by 4: inside front cover Hickory 4: 22 HighMark Land Design firm 4: 24 Higuchi, Hiroyoshi, \"Climate Change and Cherry Tree Blossom Festivals in Japan,\" with Richard Primack 2: 1422 Himalayas 1: 26; 3: 5 Hohman, Henry 2: 8, 12 Holden Arboretum 4: 16 Honeysuckle, Himalayan 3: 26 Honshu Island 3: 4, 20 Horticulture 2: 27, 35, 36; 4: 8, 1617, 1920, 21, 24, 29, 31, 34 Hosmer, Alfred 1: 6, 7, 8 Howard, Heman 3: 28 Howard, Richard, and research 2: 38 Hubbard Brook Forest, White Mts. [NH] 1: 20 Hubei Province 2: 35; 3: 3, 4 Human Genome Project 4: 12 Hunnewell, Horatio Hollis 3: 28 Hunnewell Pinetum 3: 28 Hurricane of 1938, damage to cedars 1: 32 Hybridization and evolution 2: 3 Hylocichla mustelina 1: 21 Indocalamus, in nature 3: 24 Insects, sucking vs. chewing 3: 8 Invasives 4: 17, 31 Ivy, Baltic 2: 4 Jack, John George, 1905 Japan expedition 3: 15 -- -- -- photos by 3: 15, 16 Japan, ancient trees of 3: 1021, 1021 -- arboricultural practices 1: front cover, 1417, 1417 -- cherry-tree blossom festivals 2: 1422, 1422, back cover -- hemlocks of 3: 29 Jaynes, Dick 1: 12 J. Frank Schmidt Foundation 4: 22 Jiang, Jinhuo 3: 23 John Innes Horticultural Institute [UK] 2: 2, 78 Juniper, Chinese 3: 18, 19 Juniperus chinensis 3: 18, 19 -- foetidissima 1: 31 Kalimantan, research in 4: 13 Kamakura coast pines 3: 13, 1314 -- temple trees 3: 1516 Katsura 2: 34; 4: 21 Keewaydin camp [Ontario] 2: 11 Keteleeria 3: 3 Kingsville Nursery [MD] 2: 8, 12 Kinkakuji Temple, Kyoto 3: 11 Kitaibelia balansae 1: 32 KlingStubbins, Architects 2: 24; 4: 3, 7 -- images by 4: front and back covers, 11 Koelreuteria paniculata 2: inside front cover, 37 Kohl, Paul 2: 12 Koishikawa Botanical Gardens 3: 12 Korean island hemlock 3: 8, 9 Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB) 3: 25, 27 Kyoto, cherries of 2: 1521 -- temple trees of 3: 1012, 1415, 1820 Lady beetle and HWA 3: 23 Lady's slipper, pink 1: 5 Lambir National Park [Malaysia] 4: 13 Land-grant colleges, research role 2: 27; 4: 12, 14 Land reclamation 4: 15 Landscape design profession 4: 24 Larch, golden 3: 28, inside back cover Latin America, research in 4: 13 Leaf emergence and carbon sequestration 4: 15 Lebanon, cedars of 1: 26, 30, 34 Lee, Nam Sook 3: 8 Letea Forest Reserve, on Danube 2: 11 Leycesteria formosa 3: 26 Li, Jianhua 3: inside front cover Index 33 -- -- \"The Search for Two Rare Maples\" 3: 2227 Li, Li 3: 4 Li, Mimi 3: 23, 25 Light-sensing pigment 2: 29 Lilacs 2: 4, 22 Linden, Chinese ancestor in Japan 3: 14, 14 Lindera 3: 26 Linnaean Society 2: 4 Longwood Gardens [PA] 2: 10, 12 Lowell [MA] Cemetery, photodata 1: 2, 24, 8 McCracken Nursery 1: 12 Macedonia, boxwood from 2: 2, 47 Magnolia, first hybrids 1: 10 -- sweetbay 1: 1012 Magnolia `Elizabeth' 4: 25 -- glauca var. major 1: 10 -- tripetala 1: 1012 -- virginiana 1: 10, 11, 12 -- -- `Urbana' 1:10 -- x soulangeana 1: 10 -- x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft' 1: inside front cover, 1012, 1012 -- -- `Olmenhof' 1:11 -- -- zenii 2: 35 \"Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft',\" Peter Del Tredici 1: inside front cover, 1012, 1012 Maple, devil 3: 23 -- Japanese 3: 22 -- Miaotai 3: 22 -- Norway 3: 22 -- -- group 3: 23 -- paperbark 2: 40, inside back cover -- pointed-leaf maple 3: 22, 23 -- red 1: 23; 3: 22 -- Schneider 3: 26 -- sheep-horn 3: 2225, 2224 -- stripe bark, American 3: 25 -- sugar 1: 23; 3: 22 -- Tianmu 3: 23 -- Ward's 3: 22, 2527, 26 -- -- in cultivation 3: 25 -- -- in Yunnan 3: 2627 Maples 3: 27; 4: 22 -- eastern North American 3: 22 -- rare Chinese 3: 2227, 2226 -- semi-evergreen 3: 26 -- taxonomic studies of 3: 2227 Mathewson, Brooks, \"Salamanders in a Changing Environment on Hemlock Hill\" 1: 1925 -- -- photo by 1: inside back cover Matthews, Sarah 2: 29; 4: 18, 19 Mayer, Robert G. 1: 19 Maymont Park [VA] 3: 4 Mediterranean region, Cedrus in 1: 26 Meleagris gallopavo 1: 21 Merrill, Elmer Drew 1: 36 Meyer, Henry and Nod 4: 30 Michigan Agricultural College 2: 2 Miller-Rushing, Abraham J., \"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times,\" with Richard Primack, et al. 1: 29 Missouri Botanic Garden 2: 24, 12, 26 Molecular biology 2: 2728; 4: 12, 14 Montgomery, Michael E., \"The Role of Arboreta in Studying the Evolution of Host Resistance to Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" with Nathan P. Havill 3: 29 Morris Arboretum 1: 33, 34; 3: 3, 8; 4: 16 Morton Arboretum 4: 16 Moth, winter 4: 17 Mountain habitats 1: 20, 2635; 2: 67; 3: 45, 2324, 2526; 4: 14 Mt. Tianmu Reserve, maples in 3: 2225 Mukunda, Sharda, \"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times,\" with Richard Primack, et al. 1: 29 Muller, Erhart 2: 10, 1011, 13 Muto, master gardener (circa 1911) 3: 4 National Research Fellowship 2: 2 National Science Foundation 2: 27; 4: 16 Necturus maculosus 1: 19 New York Botanic Garden 2: 26, 35 Newt, eastern red-spotted 1: 20, 21 North American Plant Collections Consortium (NAPCC) 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 Nothotsuga 3: 3 Notophthalmus viridescens 1: 20 Nuthatch, red-bellied 1: 22, 23 Nutrient cycling 1: 23 Oak, giant of Nara 3: 18, 20, 20 -- red 1: 23 Oaks, at Arboretum 2: 23; 4: 2, 15 Oakes Ames Orchid Collection 2: 26 Odocoileus virginianus 1: 22 Ohkubo, Tatsuhiro \"Ancient and Notable Trees of Japan: Then and Now,\" with Richard Primack 3: 1021 Olmsted, Frederick Law, landscape principles 2: 34; 4: 78 Omoto, Yukio 2: 1721 Osaka Prefecture University 2: 17, 18 -- flowering cherries of 2: 1721 Pacific northwest, hemlocks in 3: 34 Painter, Jacob and Minshall 1: 34 Panama, research in 4: 13 Panda dens in hemlock 3: 7 \"Paperbark Maple--One Hundred Years Later,\" Peter Del Tredici 2: 40, inside back cover Papua New Guinea, research in 4: 13 Pear, Balkan 2: 4 -- sand 2: 31 Peony 3: 7 People, Places and Design firm 4: 27 Pest management 4: 17 Peters, Wim 1: 11 Phenology 1: 29; 2: 37 Phenotypic plasticity 2: 34 Philadelphia nurseries 1: 34 Photodata 1: 29; 3: 1021; 4: 22, 28 Phragmites, on Danube 2: 11 Phytochrome 2: 29 Pierce, Naomi 4: 13 Pine, Japanese black 3: 13, 13, 18, 19 -- -- white 3: 20, 21 -- white 1: 23 Pinus parviflora 3: 1011, 1112, 20, 21 -- strobus 1: 23 -- thunbergii 3: 1314, 13 Plant biology 2: 23, 2629, 3037; 4: 18 -- -- evolutionary 3: 34, 78; 4: 12 -- hydraulics 2: 29; 4: 18 -- introductions 1: 12; 2: 35; 3: 3; 4: 21 \"Plant Prosthetics: Artifice in Support of Nature,\" Marc Treib 1: front cover, 1318, 1318 Plethodon cinereus 1: 20, back cover Polluted land, and woody plants 4:15 Populus genome 2: 28 Primack, Daniel, \"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times,\" with Richard Primack, et al. 1: 29 Primack, Richard, \"Ancient and Notable Trees of Japan: Then and Now\" 3: 1021 -- -- \"Climate Change and Cherry Tree Blossom Festivals in Japan,\" with Hiroyoshi Higuchi 2: 1422 -- -- \"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times,\" with Abraham J. Miller-Rushing et al. 1: 29 34 Arnoldia 66\/1 Primrose 3: 7 Propagation research 4: 22 Prunus jamasakura 2: 16, 20 -- -- flowering and temperatures 2: 1422 -- laurocerasus var. shipkaiensis 2: 4, 8 -- pendula f. ascendens 2: 20 -- serrulata 2: 16 -- -- var. speciosa 2: 20 -- -- var. spontanea 2: 16 -- x yedoensis 2: 1921 Pseudolarix 3: 3 -- amabilis 3: 28, inside back cover -- -- cone 3: 1 -- -- cultivation at Arboretum 3: 28 -- -- tall `Nana' cv. 3: 28 -- -- wild-collected 3: 28 Purdue University 1: 34 Pyrus elaeagrifolia 2: 4 -- pyrifolia 2: 31 Quarry Hill Botanic Garden 2: 35 Quercus 4: 2 -- gilva 3: 18, 20 -- rubra 1: 23 \"Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon,\" Michael S. Dosmann and Anthony S. Aiello 1: 2635, 2630, 3233 Radcliffe Seminars in Landscape Design 4: 20, 24 Ranunculus 3: 26 Red eft, toxic defense and moisture 1: 20, 20 Reed|Hilderbrand firm 4: 21 -- -- site plan of Weld Hill by 4: 67 References, digital or online 4: 14, 22, 28 Reforestation efforts 1: 34; 4: 13 Research, at Arboretum 2: 2339; 4: 39, 1115, 1820, 2324, 31, 34 Rhododendron 3: 7, 26 Rice straw, and Japanese tree culture 1: 16, 1617; 3: 1516, 16 Richmond [VA], and introduction of HWA to North America 3: 4 Robin, American 1: 21 Rock, Joseph: 3: 2, 3; digital archives 4: 28 \"Role of Arboreta in Studying the Evolution of Host Resistance to Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" Nathan P. Havill and Michael E. Montgomery 3: 29, 29 Roll Barresi firm 4: 27 Romania (Rumania) 2: 2, 78, 10, 11 Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh 3: 7, 9; 4: 28 Rubus, invasive 4: 31 -- lasiostylus var. hubeinsis 2: 35 Salamander, blue-spotted 1: 19 -- dusky 1: 20, 24 -- eastern red-back 1: 1922, 2325, back cover -- -- abundance at Arboretum, chart 1: 24 -- -- forms of 1: 19, 20, 2022, 24 -- four-toed 1: 20, 25 -- Jefferson 1: 19 -- mole type 1: 19 -- mudpuppy 1: 19 -- northern spring 1: 20, 25 -- -- two-lined 1: 20 -- species in New England 1: 1925 -- vernal activity 1: 1920 \"Salamanders in a Changing Environment on Hemlock Hill,\" Brooks Mathewson 1: 1925, 1924 Samurai and trees 3: 11, 12, 16 Sargent, Charles Sprague 1: 10, 31, 36; 2: 3334, 40; 4: 4, 12, 13, 19, 24, 31, 34 Sargent Fellows 2: 29; 4: 1820, 33 Scale, elongate hemlock 3: 8 Schneider, Steve 4: 16 Schulhof, Richard 1: 24; 4: 32 -- -- \"Landscape Institute\" 4: 24 -- -- \"Linden Path and the Leventritt Garden\" 4: 21 -- -- \"Management Initiatives for Collections and Landscape\" 4: 1617 -- -- \"School Programs\" 4: 30 -- -- \"Seed Herbarium Imaging Project\" 4: 22 -- -- photos by 4: inside front cover, inside back cover Scientific research, prospects for 2: 2339; 4: 39, 1115, 1820, 2324, 31, 34 Scymus sinuanodulus 3: 2 \"Search for Two Rare Maples,\" Jianhua Li 3: 2227, 2226 seed morphology, imaging 4: 22 Shaanxi Province 3: 4 Shaw, Ted 1: 34 Shigeta, Mayumi, photograph by 2: back cover Shinagawa, Fujiro 2: 22, 22 \"Ship Pine\" of Kyoto 3: 1012, 10, 11 Shiyake, Shigehiko 3: 4 Shogun's Ginkgo, Tokyo 3: 1213, 12 Sichuan Province 3: front cover, 4, 5, back cover; 4: 14 Siehe, Walter 1: 31, 32 Silva, online archives 4: 28 Sino-American Botanical Expedition, 1980 2: 35; 3: 2 Sitta canadensis 1: 22 Snakes, garter 1: 21, 24 Soil fauna 1: 1925 Sorbus umbellata 1: 32 -- yuana 2: 35 South Korean hemlock 3: 8, 9 Sparks, Tim 1: 3 Spicebush 3: 26 Stachyurus chinensis 3: 24 Staking methods 1: front cover, 1318, 1318; 3: 1011, 1011 -- contemporary European 1: 13, 13 Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust 4: 22 Staphylea holocarpa var. rosea 2: 36 Stewartia 2: 32, 34; 4: 17, 22 -- phylogenetic chart 2: 32 -- ovata var. grandiflora, seeds 4: 22 -- sinensis 3: 23, 24 Sugi tree 3: 18, 19 Syria, cedars in 1: 26, 30, 32 Syringa 2: 34; 4: 17, 22 `Purple Haze' 4: 17 -- vulgaris 2: 34 Taiwan 3: 4 Takakannon Gonshoji Temple, Kyoto 3: 1415 Takao, Mt. [Japan] 2: back cover Taurus Mts. [Turkey] 1: 26, 28, 2832, 34 Taxa 2: 29, 32, 3637 -- rare 4: 22 Taxonomic studies 2: 3437; 3: 45, 79 Taxus baccata 1: 31; 2: 4, 8 Terpenoids in hemlocks 3: 8 Thamnophis sirtalis 1: 21 Thoreau, Henry David, wildflowers mentioned by 1: 5, 7 Thrush, hermit 1: 21 Thuja plicata 4: 19 Tianmu Reserve [China] 3: 2225 Tibet, research in 4: 14, 28 Tilia 4: 21 -- miqueliana 3: 14, 14 Index 35 Toad, American 1: 24 Tokyo, flowering cherries in 2: 14, 15, 16, 20, 22 -- landmark trees of 3: 12, 12, 1618, 1618 -- botanic gardens 3: 12 Tonkin, John 1: 34 Topyedik, Mt. [Turkey] 1: 28 Towada volcanic caldera 3: 20 Trees, biology of 2: 2629, 3334; 4: 12 -- ancient of Japan 3: 1021 -- evolution and biology -- giant Asian 3: 12, 1620, 23 -- rare Chinese 3: 2227, 28 -- sacred to Buddhists 3: 14, 16 -- veneration of, in Asia 1: 17; 2: 1418; 3: 1021 -- war-damaged 3: 12, 13, 18 Tree-support practices 1: front cover, 1318, 1318; 3: 1011, 1011 Treib, Marc, \"Plant Prosthetics: Artifice in Support of Nature\" 1: 1318 -- -- photo by 1: front cover Trends in Plant Science 2: 23 Treska Gorge [Macedonia] 2: 59 -- -- map 1937 2: 5 Tropical forests 4: 13 Tsuga 4: 17, 22 -- adelgid resistance and evolution 3: 29 -- biogeography 3: 45, chart 4 -- distribution 3: 5, map 5 -- elevation and 3: 5, 8 -- fossil record 3: 4 -- hybrids 3: 8 -- new species 3: 9, 9 -- other pests of 3: 8 -- panda dens in 3: 7 -- phylogenetic chart 3: 8 -- canadensis 3: 2, 45, 7, 8 -- -- `Albo-spica' 3: 8 -- -- cultivars 3: 8 -- -- `Snowflake' 3: 8 -- -- woolly adelgid and 3: 2, 7, 8 -- caroliniana 3: 2, 5, 8 -- chinensis 2: 24, 37; 3: 3, 5, 7, 8 -- -- var. tchekiangensis 3: 6 -- diversifolia 3: 5, 7, 8, 9 -- dumosa 3: front to back covers, 3, 5, 7, 7, 8 -- formosana 3: 8 -- forrestii 3: 5, 5 -- heterophylla 3: 5 -- mertensiana 3: 5 -- sieboldii 3: 5, 6, 8, 9 Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine 3: 1516, 1516 Tsurugi, Mt. [Japan] 3: 6 Turdus migratorius 1: 21 Turkey (Anatolia), cedars from 1: 2635 Turkey, wild 1: 21 Tyler Arboretum 1: 34 Ullung Island hemlock 3: 8, 9 Understory vegetation 1: 2223, 31, 32; 3: 57, 20, 24, 26; 4: 31 University of British Columbia, Botanic Garden 3: 25 University of Illinois 1: 10 University of Memphis 3: 7 University of Pennsylvania 4: 16 University of Toyko, garden 3: 12 University of Washington, Seattle 2: 12 University of Wisconsin 3: 2 Urban forest 1: 23 -- heat 1: 4; 2: 15, 17, 1922 USDA 2: 2, 27, 35; 3: 5; 4: 14 USDA Forest Service 3: 5 US National Arboretum 2: 7, 8, 12; 3: 3, 7, 8; 4: 16 US National Collection of Insects 3: 3 \"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times,\" Richard B. Primack, Abraham J. Miller-Rushing, Daniel Primack, and Sharda Mukanda 1: 29, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Van Meulder, Jef 1: 11 Vardar Valley [Yugoslavia] 2: 47 -- -- map, 1937 2: 5 \"`Vardar Valley' Boxwood and Its Balkan Brothers,\" Peter Del Tredici 2: 213, 37, 912 Vegetative succession 3: 20 Veitch and Sons nursery 3: 28 Vireo, solitary 1: 22 -- yellow-throated 1: inside back cover Vireo solitarius 1: 22 Warbler, Blackburnian 1: 22, 23 -- black-throated green 1: 22, 23 Ward, Frank Kingdon, and discovery of Acer wardii 3: 25 Warsowe, Julie 4: 27 Washington Park Arboretum, Seattle 2: 12 Watershed dynamics, and climate change 4: 13 Weather data 1: 29; 2: 1418; 4: 35 Weather Station at Arboretum--2007 summary 4: 35 Weld Hill Research Facility, proposed for Arboretum 4: front and back cover, 312, 3, 6, 11, 1415, 1820, 33, 34 Westwood [MA] origin of magnolia hybrid 1: 1112 Wharton, Peter 3: 25 White, Orland 2: 8 Wilson, E.H. 1: 32, 36; 2: 31, 37, 40; 3: 2, 3 -- -- -- Japanese trees revisited 3: 1021 -- -- -- photographs by 3: 10, 1221 Windsor Great Park, research sponsored by 1: 32 Winter moth 4: 17 Wood, structure of 4: 15 Woodiness, evolution of trait 2: 2829 World War II, remembered in Asia 3: 13, 18, 2627 Wyman, Donald, Arnoldia and 1: 32, 36 -- -- boxwood and 2: 8, 10 -- -- cedar and 1: 32 Xiaohua, Jin 3: 2526 -- -- photo by 3: inside front cover Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies 3: 4 Yale University 3: 3 Yew, European 2: 4 Yu, Guoyue 3: 4 Yugoslav Forest Service 2: 12 Yugoslavia 2: 2, 410, 12 Yunnan Province 3: inside front cover, 4, 5 -- maples in 3: 2526 Zelkova serrata 4: inside front cover Zenpukuji Temple, Tokyo 3: 16, 17, 18 Zhejiang Province 3: 2225, 28 Zhejiang University 3: 25 Zhou, Jianhua 3: 4 Zhao, Mingshui 3: 2324, 24 Zuk, Judy 2: 33 Zwieniecki, Maciej 2: 29; 4: 18 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23409","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25e856e.jpg","title":"2008-66-1","volume":66,"issue_number":1,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Director's Report: 2003-2008","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25437","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170b36b.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":4,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schulhof, Richard; Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY DIRECTOR'S REPORT: 2003?2007 Robert E. Cook, Director ARNOLDIA ? VOLUME 65 ? NUMBER 4 Arnoldia (ISSN 004-2633; USPS 866-100) is published quarterly by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Periodicals postage paid at Boston, Massachusetts. Copyright ? 2008. The President and Fellows of Harvard College. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University 125 Arborway, Boston, Massachusetts 02130 FRONT COVER: Weld Hill research facility, design sketch of Centre Street view (detail); KlingStubbins. BACK COVER: Model of Weld Hill research facility by GPI Models; photographs by Desroches Photography. Top main entrance and laboratory wing on the north side of the building; Bottom courtyard and greenhouses on the south side of the building. Quercus (oak) collection by Jon Hetman Introduction E arly this spring, the Arnold Arboretum began construction of a new research and administration building at Weld Hill, a fourteen-acre parcel of land adjacent to the grounds of the Arboretum (see Figure 1). It will be the first major building added in nearly half a century. The Weld Hill facility, as we are calling it for now, will have nearly 44,000 square feet of floor area and cost approximately $42,000,000. Its greenhouses, growth chambers, and modern laboratories will provide state-of-the-art facilities for plant research. The construction of the building marks a major milestone in the history of the Arboretum and a reaffirmation of our mission as a research institution at Harvard University. In this Director's Report, I will focus on a physical description of the building and its location, the decisions that led to its construction, and the implications of its Figure 1. Map of the Arnold Arboretum, showing Harvard-owned land, City of Boston-owned land leased to Harvard, and the proposed facility additions (see Facilities Planning, page 8), by KlingStubbins. 4 operation on the future programs of the Arboretum. At the end of the report, I will return to the critical role that all the friends of the Arboretum have had in reaching this milestone. A Building in its Landscape A s is well known, most of the land of the Arboretum is owned by the City of Boston and open to the public as part of the Boston park system; however it did not begin this way. Through the generosity of James Arnold, and on land donated by Benjamin Bussey, Harvard University created the Arboretum as a private research department dedicated to the study of trees. Within a decade the first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, had developed a unique partnership with the City that captured his vision for the institution. It was to become both a non-public research station and a public museum. A decade later, in 1882, the Arboretum's land was given to the City to be operated as a park open to the public for education and enjoyment. At the same time, the land was leased back to the University, for a fee of one dollar a year and a renewable term of 1,000 years, to allow faculty and students to conduct research on the biology of trees. This partnership between Harvard and the City has successfully endured up to the present day. The Weld Hill building is simultaneously an affirmation of the partnership and the embodiment of Sargent's original vision. Several considerations determined the choice of location for the facility. First, it was highly desirable that a new facility not subtract from the parkland available to the public; a location on the grounds would have had this effect. At the same time, however, researchers would highly value close proximity to the collection of trees upon which their research is conducted. Finally, in consideration of both cost and formal control of the facility's operation and construction, we preferred to site the building on land already owned outright by the University, close to but not within the historic public park. In 1922 Charles Sargent, in his fiftieth year as director, purchased from a neighbor a fourteen-acre parcel of land lying across Walter Street and adjacent to the southwest boundary of the Arboretum (see Figure 2). The parcel displays significant topographic variation, from the drainage swale feeding Bussey Brook to a large hilltop that reaches 172 feet above sea level. Over the subsequent eighty years, it was variously used for nurseries, tree plantations, and the planting of some specimen trees. By 2002 Weld Hill's pastures and woodlots were no longer home to any significant collections and horticultural care had been reduced to an annual mowing of its meadows. To the north of Weld Hill, a major teaching and research hospital for the elderly, called Hebrew SeniorLife, had become an important partner of the Harvard Medical School. Following completion of our strategic plan in 2002 (see Director's Report 1999?2002), we decided that this parcel of land would become the home for a laboratory facility representing a major expansion of our capacity to conduct research. The functional requirements were developed collaboratively with botanical faculty members in Harvard's Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology (OEB), with which the Arboretum has worked for more than a century. These requirements grew out of the Arboretum's commitment, described in the 2002 Director's Report, to make a strategic investment in scientific research.1 Our goal for 1 R. E. Cook. \"The Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Arnoldia 65(2): 23?39 (2007). Lilac Sunday visitors by Eric Roth. 6 Figure 2. Site plan with topographic detail and building footprint for the Weld Hill facility, by Reed|Hilderbrand. this investment was to match other major research units at Harvard University in providing the physical and financial capacity to support researchers of the highest quality. Nothing pleases high-quality researchers more than first-class research facilities. For plant scientists, this means the finest growing facilities (controlled climate greenhouses; growth chambers; nurseries and experimental gardens). And, if at all possible, it also means access to a broadly diverse collection of living 7 tree species of great maturity and known provenance from all over the world. The scientific program of the building must support a sufficient number of scientists to form an intellectual community that interacts and collaborates closely. Toward that end we specified enough laboratory space to house eight senior researchers or faculty members, along with their post-doctoral trainees, their graduate students, their laboratory technicians, assorted undergraduates just getting started, and visiting scientists. We estimated the total to be about 40 full-time researchers. In addition, as part of a larger facilities plan to address other needs at the Arboretum (see Facilities Planning, page 8), the new building would also accommodate the relocation of the Arboretum's administrative offices, presently housed in the Hunnewell Building. These offices include the director's and those of such functions as finance, facilities management, personnel, and research administration. The space required for these purposes, together with the mechanical systems to heat and cool the facility, comes to approximately 43,500 square feet. Taking into account site conditions (topography, wetlands, utility easements, rock) and the necessary road and parking infrastructure, we envisioned that the facility would require less than a quarter of the entire fourteen acres of the Weld Hill site. In collaboration with the architectural firm of Stubbins Associates (now KlingStubbins, Inc.), located in Cambridge, MA, we defined a set of principles for siting the building that would be consistent with the pastoral nature of the Weld Hill land and with the Olmsted FAC I LITI E S PL AN N I N G I n 2004 the Arboretum developed a comprehensive facilities plan. At its center was the creation of the research facility that is described in this director's report. But the plan also projected the construction of facilities that would address two other needs. First, our primary maintenance facility, which houses grounds equipment adjacent to the Hunnewell Building, has reached the end of its useful life. In the plan we proposed a new facility that would be more centrally located in the vicinity of the Dana Greenhouse, thereby separating the traffic in tractors and trucks from the movement of pedestrians around the Hunnewell Building Visitor Center. Second, we wanted to expand our service to the public adding a new wing to the Hunnewell Building that would house our educational programs and visitor services and provide greater access to the horticultural library. Thus the larger facilities plan envisioned three centers (see Figure 1). A new research and administration complex would be located at Weld Hill. The horticultural support facility would include a new maintenance building combined with the Dana Greenhouse. Finally, the Hunnewell Building, with a newly constructed public wing, would be the \"public museum,\" dedicated to education and service. However, late in 2005, after developing schematic designs for the maintenance facility at the Dana Greenhouse, we suspended any further work on it and, consequently, on any expansion of public programs at the Hunnewell Building as well. Our plan called for the removal of an 1820 farmhouse, in dilapidated condition and of no further use to the Arboretum, because its location precluded the construction of a maintenance facility on land owned outright by Harvard University rather than on land under lease from the City and historically part of the public realm. A small group of neighbors objected to our proposed removal for reasons of historic preservation. We made the strategic decision to focus our immediate energies on the construction of the Weld Hill facility. design of the adjacent Arboretum landscape. These principles are: 1) to locate buildings on edges and in corners; 2) to concentrate buildings and circulation infrastructure near other buildings and infrastructure; and, 3) to reserve the higher elevations for pedestrians and use the lower, level land for nurseries. These principles, combined with the concern expressed by neighbors that they not \"see\" the building, led to its current planned location in the parcel's northwest corner on the lower slope of Weld Hill (see Figure 2). Here the building will lie close to the existing hospital facility (Hebrew SeniorLife) and be terraced into the lower hillside such that the mass and height of the hill will screen the building from its neighbors to the south. The service road will enter the site from Centre Street and curve across and around the rising topography to meet the rear of the building at its highest floor, adjacent to the greenhouses, before descending to an exit on Centre Street. This siting effectively leaves the hill itself open for pedestrian enjoyment and reserves the eastern half of the parcel for woodlands, pastures, and gardens. 9 Thus the overall landscape will be characterized by its four quadrants. The northwest quadrant will hold the building and its circulation infrastructure; the pastures and distant views of the hilltop will continue to occupy the southwest quadrant; mature woodlands will remain throughout the northeast quadrant; and the southeast quadrant will display terraced nursery beds. A Home for Research T he facility itself will be a large, three-story central building with Acer palmatum f. atropurpureum (AA 22717-A), two wings to the east and west photo by Jim Harrison. (see Figure 3). The basement floor of the central building will consist of a large room for mechanical equipment adjacent to the main entrance and the stairway leading to the administrative offices, computational facilities, and a large auditorium for meetings and lectures on the first and second floors. The first floor of the east wing will have a large, open laboratory conducive to collaborative research, with individual work stations on the north side and specialized equipment rooms tucked into the hillside on the south. Above this, on the second floor, a series of offices will house senior researchers and faculty. The west wing will be devoted to growing plants. On the first floor, several large rooms will be equipped with reach-in and walk-in growth chambers, as well as related laboratory support spaces. The second floor will have a large head house and loading dock to support twelve adjacent greenhouse modules. My simple description of these spaces with their highly specialized equipment and technical capacity does not evoke the 10 ambiance of the building--the way it will look and feel as it sits in its landscape. I wanted the building's occupants to feel very much at home despite the essentially institutional nature of their work. This is a challenge for a fairly large facility that one might initially envision as a steel and glass box like most laboratories being built today. The configuration of the interior spaces will be largely dictated by functional needs; any domestic qualities must evolve from the ingenuity of their occupants. Nevertheless, we have tried to communicate in the design of the building's exterior--its appearance and surface qualities--a sense of arriving at home as one approaches the front door. The fa?ade of the building will be constructed of basic, traditional, residential materials: stone, brick, and wood. The lowest level of the central building will be clad in light Kasota stone of a lemon hue. This stone base will rise to meet horizontal shiplap cedar siding covering the first and second floors, both of which will display horizontal bands of vertical windows (see Figure 3). The base of each wing will be articulated in brick that rises to meet cedar-clad walls and rows of windows. At the end of each wing and at the junctures with the central building will be large vertical brick \"chimneys\" to house mechanical ducts and other equipment. Most important, the roofs of the entire building will slope gently down to create substantial overhangs. They will be shingled with a dark synthetic slate, and the gutters, downspouts, and building accents will be made of copper. The overall appearance of the building will recall the early prairie houses of Frank Lloyd Wright, particularly Taliesin East, his first studio and home in Wisconsin. With its central mass flanked by two recessed wings that recede into the slope of the hill; its strong horizontal lines defined by roof, windows, and base; and its cladding of natural materials, the building will be fully integrated with and defer to the surrounding pastoral landscape. The immediacy of the landscape will be reinforced on the south side of the central building by a courtyard sanctuary that visually connects the first-floor reception area to the summit of the hill (see Figure 3). The design and engineering of the facility and its site will fully incorporate current principles of sustainable architecture. The roof shingles, for instance, will be made of recycled tires, and other materials Figure 3. Architectural rendering of the north (top) and south views of the Weld Hill facility, by KlingStubbins. throughout the building have been chosen to minimize their negative impact on the environment. Water flow from rain falling on the building and land will be managed to minimize any change to the hydrological conditions that prevailed prior to construction. Rooms will have ceiling fans and all windows will be operable to maximize natural circulation and encourage energy conservation. Finally, and most significantly, the building will be heated and cooled by a geothermal exchange system buried deep below the ground. This system--essentially a network of connected pipes buried in deep bore holes--will work like a very large radiator drawing heat from the earth in the winter and returning it in summer. There will be no basement furnaces or rooftop air conditioners. Building Research Capacity B ecause of the challenges presented by the building's hillside location and its environmentally sensitive architecture, the Weld Hill facility is relatively expensive on a cost-persquare-foot basis. Can such an investment in research at the Arnold Arboretum be justified? I believe the answer is yes. Elsewhere I have written extensively on the revolution sweeping the botanical sciences and the critical 12 importance of the Arboretum's participation in this revolution.2 Let me briefly review the reasons for our investment at this time. In 2001 a landmark goal was reached in biomedical science when the Human Genome Project completed the sequencing of all human genes. Out of this work and related efforts with other species' genomes have come whole new approaches to basic research that are fundamentally transforming our understanding of biological organisms and their evolution. A new field of science, evolutionary developmental biology, has emerged that embodies many of the elements of this revolution. It seeks to understand how a sequence of genes inherited from two parents leads to the creation of a new organism and how this system of reproduction evolved over time. The methods of research in this new field, while drawing deeply on the sciences of molecular biology and biochemistry, have also given renewed importance to comparative biology, which analyzes the differences between species and studies their evolutionary history in order to bring insight to discoveries in developmental biology and genetics. All of these new approaches and their highly technical methodologies apply to the biology of plants as well as that of animals. This has three major implications for the Arnold Arboretum. First, if the Arboretum is to maintain its scientific reputation for the long-term future, it must invest in the capacity to conduct this kind of research. The original trustees who created the Arboretum at Harvard University and the Arboretum's first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, would have surely agreed. Second, with its collections and endowment, the Arboretum has an exceptional opportunity to advance our understanding of plant biology, particularly that of trees. The herbarium and living collections, in addition to our incredible library collections, can only become more valuable as tools to further our understanding of comparative biology and the evolutionary history of botanical diversity. And, as noted earlier, the Arboretum needs research facilities of the highest caliber to preserve and enhance our future scientific reputation. Should the Arboretum conduct applied research with more targeted goals typical at agricultural colleges and land-grant universities? I believe the answer is no, because the highest-quality research, 2 Ibid. C U R R E N T I N T E R N AT I O N A L R E S E A R C H A lthough the Arboretum is investing in a major research expansion at Weld Hill, it continues its international research in Asia through projects in southwest China, Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo), and Papua New Guinea. Also of critical importance is our growing collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution. It was Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, who first recommended an expansion of the Arboretum's mission to the tropical forests of Asia.1 This tradition reached its apex in the spring of 2007 when Peter Ashton, Bullard Professor Emeritus and director of the Arboretum from 1979?1987, was awarded the Japan Prize for his lifetime devotion to research on the biology of Asian tropical forests (see Director's Report 1997?1999 for a full description of this work). In 1983 Peter initiated a collaboration between the Smithsonian Institution's Tropical Research Institute (STRI) and the Arnold Arboretum which has since evolved into the Center for Tropical Forest Science (CTFS), a network of international partners around the world. This program supports long-term tropical forest research through a set of permanent, large-scale plots established in forests that differ in climatic conditions, soil types, and disturbance regimes. These research plots, located at twenty sites in fifteen different tropical countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America, are united in maintaining a standardized monitoring methodology involving a complete census every five years of all trees larger than one centimeter in diameter, with each individual being mapped, tagged, measured, and identified to species. The first plot was estab1 lished on Barro Colorado Island in Panama in 1980. In recent years the number of permanent plots has been expanding through support from the Arnold Arboretum, particularly in tropical Asia. Recently the Center received grants to create a global earth observatory system for research on forest dynamics in response to climate change. This system will be based on the already existing permanent tropical forest plots and expanded to include new plots in temperate regions of the world. The grants will support measurement and monitoring of carbon flows and watershed dynamics in forests that are experiencing the impact of changes CTFS director Stuart Davies and in global climate. Harvard biology professor Naomi The Center also Pierce at the CTFS tropical forest plot maintains programs at Lambir National Park, Malaysia, photo by Christian Ziegler. of field training, research grant support, and applied research into sustainable policies for the management and restoration of tropical forests. In June of 2007 the headquarters of CTFS, and its director, Dr. Stuart Davies, relocated to the Harvard University Herbaria, with the Arnold Arboretum assuming full support for the twelve permanent plots in Asia. The CTFS program will continue to maintain the core of its operations at STRI in Panama. C. S. Sargent. \"The First Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 3(3): 127?171 ( January 1922). 14 of greatest long-term value to society, emerges out of the passions and interests of the highest-quality scientists asking basic research questions. Rather than defining a particular problem and hiring a scientist who will conduct prescribed research to solve it, I favor identifying the best scientists in very broad areas of endeavor--as defined by their previous research and their publications--and giving them the freedom to define their own research problems and priorities. Restricting individuals of this sort to a narrow specific problem usually leads to narrow findings and less valuable science. Open-ended research by very creative scientists is a better long-term investment strategy. In fact, the Arboretum's capacity to make major advances in our basic understanding of plant biology is unique. There are many institutions with strong agricultural missions (Cornell comes to mind) that are much better positioned to apply massive scientific resources, underwritten by the Department of Agriculture, to the resolution of agricultural or horticultural problems by developing drought- or pest-resistant varieties of crop species, for example. Today, however, the distinction between applied and basic research has become increasingly blurred Senior research scientist David E. Boufford collects herbarium specimens with by the impact of the the help of local Tibetans at an elevation of 3,780 meters, in Daofu Xian county of genomics revolution on western Sichuan, China. In 2007, Arboretum researchers joined an international our understanding of team for the fourth of five expeditions to China's Hengduan Mountain region, home to 30 to 40 percent of China's estimated 30,000 plant species. The group plant physiology and made 2,652 collections of vascular plants for a total of 17,861 herbarium sheets, development. These days and 752 collections of tissue samples for molecular analysis. In addition, members basic research in plant of the team photographed the plants and their habitats for the project's biodiversity website (http:\/\/hengduan.huh.harvard.edu), the largest collection of such biology promises to condocumented and vouchered images of Chinese plants, photo by Susan Kelley. tribute directly to imme- 15 diate societal problems in ways, and in a time frame, that are very hard to predict. Let me cite as examples three major problems that currently confront us and suggest how basic research on woody plants might point to solutions: global climate change, remediation of severely polluted land, and energy independence. Early each year, as the days of spring grow longer, a magical phenomenon sweeps across vast tracts of land in the temperate regions of the world. The branch tips of a wide diversity of deciduous trees develop a covering of carbon-sequestering machines called leaves. Over time, this greening of a large part of the earth's surface has a huge impact on the overall carbon budget of the planet and, therefore, on its climate. Curiously, though, maple trees develop their leaves very early in spring, while for unknown reasons the leaves of oak trees emerge much later. Could basic research on the biology of leaf emergence and canopy development, particularly on the difference in the timing of these phenomena in oaks and maples, contribute to a greater understanding of global climate and how humans are changing it? Consider the second example, remediation of land pollution. There are natural populations of plant species whose roots have adapted to growing in soils that have been severely contaminated by heavy metals, such as mercury. Could an investigation of the basic biology of root growth under these conditions suggest ways that this capacity might be introduced into a fast growing tree such as aspen, thereby allowing the mercury to accumulate in its wood for safe disposal? Finally, the search for renewable energy has increasingly focused on potential fuels from plants (biofuels). Unfortunately, the strong and resilient structure of wood, with which any carpenter is quite familiar, resists the efficient extraction of energy to create a liquid form of fuel able to compete with gasoline. Could a better understanding of the biology of wood lead to a crop that efficiently yields its energy in a highly concentrated form of fuel? In sum, I believe the Arboretum must seize the opportunity before it. We can become an international leader in the type of basic research that will be required to resolve fundamental problems facing today's world. Through the construction of research facilities on Weld Hill, we are taking a giant step toward achieving this goal. M A N A G E M E N T I N I T I AT I V E S F O R COLLECTIONS AND LANDSCAPE T he past five years have brought significant progress in strengthening operations at the Arnold Arboretum. Signaling an increased commitment to excellence in the care of the living collections as well as the landscape in which they grow, staff members completed a strategic plan with the explicit goal of attaining an exemplary level of quality in arboretum management. To define excellence in the care and development of a botanical collection and landscape, Arboretum managers investigated four sister institutions that share our mission as centers of knowledge and investigation relating to woody plants: Holden Arboretum in Kirtland, Ohio; Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia; Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois; and the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, DC. These investigations included interviews with staff, reviews of policies and management practices, and tours of facilities, equipment, and landscapes to explore common challenges and identify best practices across our profession. Arborist Robert Ervin gets a lift to collect seed from the upper branches of an Abies accession for use in the Arboretum's `Tree of Life' investigations of gymnosperms, funded by the National Science Foundation, photo by Kathryn Richardson. In assessing the accomplishments and aspirations of our peer institutions, we identified three key initiatives that will significantly enhance the work of the Arnold Arboretum: Landscape Management, Collections Development, and Plant Health Management. Landscape Management Our careful review of how landscape work is accomplished at sister arboreta underscored the benefits of assigning to each horticulturist the responsibility for specific collections and landscapes. As our professional peers have found, this site-specific focus yields substantial cumulative knowledge, enabling staff to provide increasingly effective horticultural care and to serve as \"local\" experts on soils, pests and disease, collections development, hardscape maintenance, and visitor needs and impacts. In June 2006, following a history of more broadly deploying staff, Arboretum managers implemented this approach through a new Landscape Management Plan. After organizing our 265-acre landscape into 62 management zones composed of contiguous areas that share similar challenges, collections themes, and management priorities, we placed each zone under the care of a staff horticulturist. Now entering its second year of implementation, the new system is yielding substantial improvements, which will be amplified as horticulture manager Steve Schneider collaborates with our dedicated horticulturists to further refine care plans for collections, natural areas, and historic features. In a second phase, to be completed in 2009, the Landscape Management Plan will expand to include curatorial initiatives, cultural resource management goals, and longer-term capital projects. The end result will be a comprehensive vision for the Arnold Arboretum landscape. Collections Development Our assessments also identified a strong need to develop a highly systematic approach to collections development. As we enter our 137th year, the Arboretum collections are distinguished by their maturity, with over 500 accessions that exceed 100 years in age. Through careful planning, the coming decades can bring a significant strengthening of our collections. Priorities for future development include expansion of our national collections in Acer, Carya, Fagus, Syringa, Stewartia, and Tsuga, along with the acquisition of documented, wildcollected accessions to fill critical gaps, or augment specimens of lesser-known provenance. We will also create new research opportunities through increased representation of the disjunct genera of eastern Asia and North America and other taxa that can directly support the work of Arboretum scientists. Additional tasks include assessing space-constrained collections, particularly our plantings of shrubs, as well as implementing new curatorial policies for potentially invasive accessions. In January 2007, Michael Dosmann, a recent graduate of Cornell University's doctoral program in horticultural science, joined the Arboretum staff in the new position of curator of living collections. A former Arnold Arboretum Putnam Fellow, Michael brings strong expertise in both hardy woody plants and collections management. In 2008, he will complete a collections development plan to guide the acquisition of new accessions and to set curatorial priorities for the next five years. Horticultural staff relocates Syringa `Purple Haze' (AA 36-2002) on Bussey Hill from its testing location at the Dana Greenhouse, photo by Steve Schneider. the human-mediated transport of organisms has made the management of hemlock woolly adelgid, winter moth, and other invasive species a challenge of expanding scope. At the same time, we have sought to more effectively manage the complex and changing ecosystem within which our diverse botanical collections grow. To address these and other needs, the strategic vision for horticulture called for a staff position dedicated to overseeing plant health. In the fall of 2007, Julie Coop, former grounds superintendent, was appointed plant health manager. Charged with implementing a comprehensive approach, Julie will coordinate integrated pest management activities and increased monitoring of critical environmental factors over time, including pest populations, soil pH, and soil moisture. This work will provide important opportunities to better understand the impacts of introduced organisms, climatic shifts, and other forces of long-term ecological change in the Arboretum environment. These initiatives promise to bring the Arnold Arboretum to the forefront of professional practice, requiring significant investment but Plant Health Management achieving the standards of excellence and innoNot surprisingly, the larger environmental vation befitting an internationally respected changes altering our world have affected the botanical institution. work of the Arnold Arboretum. Most notably, --Richard Schulhof, deputy director 18 Sargent Fellows E qually important as creating new facilities for research is the development of personnel policies to support the hiring of senior scientists at the Arboretum. Ordinarily at Harvard University faculty members are hired by academic departments to teach while also pursuing scholarly activities. Since the Arboretum is not an academic department--it is administered by the Vice President for Administration rather than being part of an academic school such as the Faculty of Arts and Sciences--we needed to create a new type of position that would attract highly qualified scientists. At the same time, a set of recruitment and retention policies different from those ordinarily associated with our administrative positions would be required. Scientists in a university setting usually have remarkable freedom to define their work schedules and to develop their research programs. The quality of their research is judged according to exactingly high standards set by the larger community of scientists rather than by the administrator who \"supervises\" them. Therefore the Arboretum's personnel policies must be crafted to encourage creativity rather than constrain it. In 2003, working with Harvard botanical faculty members in Cambridge, I defined a new type of position: the Sargent Fellow. Over time, I envision that the Arboretum may have six or eight such Fellows managing their own research programs in the new Weld Hill facility. Initial appointments will be for a fixed term of time (two years, followed after evaluation by another five years). At the end of this time, Fellows will be considered for permanent appointments based on a review of the quality of their research by their peers. In August 2003, the Arboretum appointed the first Sargent Fellow, Dr. Sarah Mathews. Sarah conducts research on the biology and evolution of systems in plants that sense environmental conditions and control plant development. She currently works in borrowed facilities at the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambridge and eagerly anticipates the construction of the Weld Hill facility. In 2004 I recruited a second Sargent Fellow, Dr. Maciej Zwieniecki, who is a plant physiologist interested in the physical and biological mechanisms that control the acquisition and movement of water and nutrients in very large trees. As completion of the Weld Hill facility approaches, I will begin searching for a senior research director, who may also be a faculty member at Harvard. For this position I hope to attract an exceptional scientist who will oversee the development of a broad, long-term research program on the biology of trees. Balancing a Dual Mission I n making this major investment in research, does the Arboretum risk overshadowing its traditional mission to serve the public? For the Arboretum, administered as it is by one of the world's leading research universities, what is the proper balance between the scholarly activities that ordinarily define the mission of Harvard and the programs of education and visitor amenity that serve the general public? During the Arboretum's first half-century, approximately ninety percent of the Arboretum's activity and expenditures would probably have been defined as research by its director, Charles Sprague Sargent. At that time public activities largely consisted of publishing the Bulletin of Popular Information (the predecessor of Arnoldia) and holding occasional public lectures by staff for local schoolteachers. This was also a time when research itself, especially exotic expeditions securing new species in distant lands and introducing them as landscape plants for the garden, was seen by the Arboretum's public--primarily affluent Sargent Fellow Sarah Mathews collects foliage samples of Thuja plicata for DNA analysis as part of the `Tree of Life' project, photo by Mark Beilstein. 20 Bostonians during that period--as more obviously serving their interests (see Current International Research, page 13). Over the last half-century, botanical research, particularly at Harvard, has become much less accessible to non-specialists, while the Arboretum's public has become much more diverse. When I became director in 1989, research as a percentage of the budget was below twenty percent and declining. As described in my most recent Director's Report, in 2002, the scientific reputation of the Arboretum was coasting on the impact of work done decades earlier, and current research activity was being conducted by a few scientists who were housed in Cambridge and distant from the collections here in Boston. If research at the Arboretum was to avoid extinction, a major investment would be required to modernize facilities, expand the scope of research, and fully engage the intellectual resources of the University in a collaborative effort. The Weld Hill facility and our Sargent Fellows program begin to address this need. In the 1980s, at the same time that our research effort was contracting, our public service initiatives, including education programs for children and adults, as well as visitor services, were expanding significantly. Over the past decade and a half, we have increased our commitment to improved care for our collections and landscape (see Management Initiatives for Collections and Landscape, page 16). Large landscape projects, exemplified by the new Leventritt Shrub and Vine Garden, have richly enhanced the enjoyment of visitors. In 2002, we adopted the Landscape Institute (formerly administered by Radcliffe College as the Radcliffe Seminars Landscape Design Program), adding a major public program to our budget. Over the next five to ten years, our investment in research is likely to increase to perhaps sixty percent of our budget, with the remaining forty percent supporting programs that serve the public. This seems about right to me. However, these two parts of our dual mission-- as research institution and as public museum--have always been in some tension at the Arboretum, and they pose an unusual governance challenge for the University. In general, research at Harvard is conducted within its schools, with the directors of research organizations reporting to a dean. This is how the Arboretum was governed from about 1930 to 1988 before Jon Hetman L I N D E N PAT H A N D T H E L E V E N T R I T T G A R D E N I n 2006, completion of a new path through collections of Tilia (linden), Cercidiphyllum (katsura), and Lonicera (honeysuckle) marked an important addition to the Arboretum's pedestrian circulation system. Linden Path, designed by the landscape architectural firm Reed|Hilderbrand Associates, provides a direct connection between Meadow Road and the Leventritt Garden, guiding visitors along a gently winding passage that features exceptional specimens of Tilia and Cercidiphyllum. The Leventritt Garden, also designed by Reed|Hilderbrand, was recognized by the American Society of Landscape Architects with its 2007 Award of Excellence. Completed in 2002 and now a highly popular visitor destination, the Leventritt Garden provides a long-needed home for sun-loving shrubs and vines as well as new interpretive exhibits exploring botanical research, plant conservation, and horticultural introduction. --Richard Schulhof, deputy director S E E D H E R BAR I U M I M AG E PROJ E C T B eginning in the 1960s, Arboretum propagator Al Fordham created a seed herbarium to facilitate the growing of unfamiliar species. Collecting the seed of several hundred rare and unusual taxa, Fordham envisioned a unique resource for the identification and propagation of woody plants from around the world. In 2004, his vision entered the digital age through the Arboretum's Seed Herbarium Image Project (SHIP). Made possible through the generous support of the J. Frank Schmidt Family Charitable Foundation, the Cabot Family Charitable Trust, and the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust, SHIP uses high-resolution digital photography to document the morphol- ogy of seeds and selected fruit structures. The SHIP images, now available on the Arboretum's website, support scientists, horticulturists, and educators, particularly in propagation research and management of rare and endangered species. The SHIP team is working to finish photographing the Arboretum's six national collections within the North American Plant Collections Consortium: Acer (maple), Carya (hickory), Fagus (beech), Stewartia, Syringa (lilac), and Tsuga (hemlock). Using new protocols and equipment developed for microphotography, SHIP will next document species within the Ericaceae (heath family). --Richard Schulhof, deputy director Seed and fruit images of Stewartia ovata var. grandiflora created as part of the Seed Herbarium Imaging Project (SHIP) include a detail of a single seed, multiple seeds displaying alternate views and morphological variation, seeds shown with fruiting structure, and fruiting detail, photos by Julie McIntosh Shapiro. 23 it was moved to administration within the Central Administration. At about the same time, other non-research organizations providing public service, like the University Art Museums and the American Repertory Theatre, were also moved to the Central Administration. Today, with the revitalization of our research mission and our major investment in research facilities and staff, we have become something of an anomaly in Central Administration and this creates some specific problems for the Arboretum. First, there are no personnel policies for research scientists in the Central Administration of the University because research scientists at Harvard ordinarily receive academic appointment in one of the schools. Second, the Arboretum now manages seven federal research grants-- another anomalous activity within Central Administration--and the number promises to grow. Finally, because neither the director of the Arboretum nor the researchers on its staff are members of a faculty, there is no link between long-range planning for research at Harvard, which happens in faculty meetings and committees, and long-range planning at the Arboretum which does not involve faculty. The issue of governance for the Arboretum is further complicated by the administrative position of the Harvard University Herbaria (HUH), located five miles away in Cambridge. Nearly half the herbarium and library collections within this botanical unit are the property of the Arnold Arboretum and we pay for about 40% of the facility's operation. Yet its director reports through a school to the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS) and the administrative and personnel policies governing its operation are defined and executed by FAS.3 Despite considerable similarity in their missions, these two botanical units are governed in very different parts of the University. All of these factors have come together to frame a critical question: Should the Arboretum return to management by the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, consistent with its research mission? Or should it remain under the management of Central Administration, consistent with its public mission? This matter should be resolved before a new director is chosen for either the Arboretum or HUH, but it presents a thorny challenge. In the case of the Arboretum, a governance structure that is dominated 3 In July, 2005, I accepted a three year term as director of HUH in addition to my duties as director of the Arboretum. LANDSCAPE INSTITUTE S ince its relocation to the Arnold Arboretum in 2002, the Landscape Institute (formerly the Radcliffe Seminars Landscape Design Program) has undergone several changes that will prove critical to its future success as an educational resource for professionals working in landscape design and management, historic preservation, landscape history, and related fields. In 2006, the Institute moved from the Cronkhite Center, the program's home for more than seven years, to 29 Garden Street in Cambridge, just outside Harvard Square. The new facility, with its strikingly contemporary design, offers increased space and new possibilities for classes and special programs. An equally significant transition began in early 2007 when Landscape Institute director John Furlong, following twenty-five years of strong leadership, announced his desire to step down to devote more time to private practice and teaching. Following a national search, Heather Heimarck assumed full-time duties as director in February 2008. Her background includes a Master in Landscape Architecture from the Harvard Graduate School of Design, work with several accomplished landscape architects, and the founding of Heimarck and Foglia, formerly HighMark Land Design, a firm specializing in green design, innovative use of plant materials, and new construction approaches. In keeping with the progressive spirit of the Institute, Heather's extensive practical experience and commitment to innovation promise important new directions in sustainable design, construction, and landscape horticulture. Looking to the future, the Landscape Institute will continue the work of Arboretum founding director Charles Sprague Sargent to strengthen the landscape professions, while also addressing burgeoning societal needs for leadership in environmental design and management. --Richard Schulhof, deputy director by either FAS or Central Administration risks undermining one part of our dual mission or the other. Put another way, if the dual mission of the Arboretum is to survive into the future, its governance structure must support integration of its research investment with the traditional mission of the University (research and undergraduate education) while also encouraging the public mission of the Arboretum to thrive. A New Model for the Arboretum T hus our sizable investment in research will only succeed for the Arnold Arboretum if it also succeeds for the University. Effectively this means that the conduct of research must be governed as an integrated part of ordinary academic operations and coordinated through members of a school's faculty. In this case, the logical school is FAS, where the Arboretum resided prior to 1988. I believe the decision about how Arboretum research is to be managed will need to recognize this reality. The remaining question about Arboretum governance regards its public mission: what threats might it face in an academic context such as FAS? Magnolia `Elizabeth' (AA 120-78), photo by Jim Harrison 26 Three come to mind. First, a large bureaucracy exists within FAS to manage intelligent and ambitious professors who are powerful through their appointment and their relations with outside sources of funds (donors, government agencies, consultancies). Professors, in turn, are always creative in their efforts to circumvent a constraining bureaucracy. A small public museum governed by this sort of bureaucracy without the protection of a resident professor can suffocate through no one's ill intentions. Second, public service will never be a high priority at major research universities beyond the normal public relations activity required by proximity to non-university neighbors. Put more positively, universities like Harvard provide \"public service\" for the long term: they develop tomorrow's leaders and increase our understanding of the world. In such a university, a unit providing direct services to the public can suffer from administrative and financial neglect simply because it is not a priority for senior administrators and deans. Finally, unprotected public service operations in the midst of large academic schools can suffer financial predation from wellmeaning but narrowly focused academics. Funds that are not being used to educate university students or support faculty research look to many professors like money being poured into a hole, money that could be more fruitfully spent on academic activities. In view of these threats, three elements seem essential to protecting a university unit with a mission of direct public service--what we here call the public museum of the Arboretum. First, the public museum must have a clear identity and sufficient independence to establish its own brand of administrative culture, one that openly acknowledges a commitment to service. This requires real authority, particularly over budgets and personnel, even though in an academic setting this authority is normally vested in the dean and his or her administration. Second, this independence can only work if the public museum is given a guaranteed base of financial support sufficient to carry on essential activities. This base of support must be ensured a reasonable rate of annual increase to sustain it against inflation in the future. While this will support the core program, special projects that enhance its facilities and programs will also require the public museum to raise money from the public, largely through philan- ENHANCING VISITOR EXPERIENCE A Time for Change, a strategic vision authored by Bob Cook in 2002, voiced a strong commitment to improving the quality of information and orientation furnished to Arnold Arboretum visitors. After several years of planning, 2007 brought completion of a comprehensive wayfinding signage system that enables visitors to fully explore our 265-acre historic landscape and diverse botanical collection. Created by the environmental graphic design firm Roll Barresi, the system provides \"you are here\" maps, path markers, and other navigational aides to ensure confident and effective visitor wayfinding. In 2009, the system will be augmented by a new map brochure and temporary interpretive signs focused on seasonal information. To provide leadership for visitor programs, Julie Warsowe, a graduate of Cornell University's program in public garden management, was appointed the Arboretum's first manager of visitor education in 2006. Julie recently completed a survey of Arboretum visitors that provides valuable information about the demographics, motivations, and interests of the broad community that utilizes our landscape. Survey data, compiled and analyzed by visitor research consultants People, Places and Design, will inform development of new interpretive programs, including plans for new exhibits in the Hunnewell Building Visitor Center. Justin Ide\/Harvard News Office, ?2004 President and Fellows of Harvard College D I G I TA L R E S O U R C E S Plant Collections ? Plant Inventory: Search the Arboretum's living collections database by common or scientific name; http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/plants\/inventory.html ? Interactive Map of the Arboretum: Explore 31 plant collections and 76 featured plants; http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/visitors\/map.html?myURL=\/visitors\/visitors.html&myLayer=collections ? Multisite Plant Inventories: Search 24 living collections and conservation databases for participating botanical institutions, hosted by the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Scotland, UK; http:\/\/rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk\/multisite\/multisite3.php Herbarium Collections ? Cultivated Herbarium: Search the Arboretum's herbarium collections by common or scientific name; http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/plants\/herbarium.html ? Seed Herbarium: Browse images from the Arboretum's seed herbarium; http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/plants\/herbarium.html ? Joseph Rock's Type Specimens: Access to 197 type specimens collected by Joseph Rock between 1923?1932 in western China and Tibet; http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/tibet\/herbarium.html ? Maps of Joseph Rock: Navigate 10 individual hand-drawn maps and related gazetteer illustrating plant explorer Joseph Rock's travels (1924?1927) in China; Maps: www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/tibet\/zoom\/rock_maps.html Gazetteer: www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/tibet\/map.html Photographic Collections ? The Arboretum Through Time: Historical photographs of the Arboretum's landscape and collections; www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/programs\/views\/intro.html ? Botanical and Cultural Images of Eastern Asia, 1907?1927: Archival images of Arboretum plant explorers and their field photographs from their exhibitions; www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/programs\/eastern_asia\/overview.html ? South Central China and Tibet: Hotspot of Diversity: Images of natural history and ethnographic collections from Arnold Arboretum expeditions to China and Tibet between 1924 and the present; http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/tibet\/expeditions.html ? Cienfuegos Botanical Garden, Cuba: Archival and contemporary photographs of the former Atkins Institution, administered by the Arnold Arboretum from 1946 to 1959; http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/programs\/cuba\/intro.html Other Resources ? Arnoldia: Searchable database of all volumes published during the last hundred years of the Arboretum's journal Arnoldia and its antecedent, The Bulletin of Popular Information; http:\/\/arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu ? Silva: All issues of the Arboretum's news magazine since its inception in 2005; http:\/\/arboretum.harvard.edu\/aboutus\/silva\/current.html ? Correspondence Index: A work in progress referencing institutional correspondence from the 1880s to 1940; http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/library\/about_arc.html ? OASIS: Harvard's Online Archival Search Information System includes 42 finding aids to archival and manuscript records at the Arnold Arboretum Archives; http:\/\/oasis.harvard.edu ? Hollis: Searchable database containing more than 9 million records for more than 15 million items in the Harvard University Libraries; http:\/\/lib.harvard.edu\/ ? Google Book Search: Search the full text of all books available in Google Book Search, including some 3,000 titles from the Arnold Arboretum Library; http:\/\/books.google.com 29 thropy rather than earned revenue which usually creates too many conflicts in an academic culture. Finally, a public museum in academia needs deeply committed leadership with a strong belief in its public mission, not only within its internal operation but also at more senior levels of the university. For the Arboretum, this certainly includes the director, who may be primarily focused on the health of the research mission. But it must also extend to the supervising administrator, whether in FAS (the dean) or in Central Administration (the provost or a vice president). These governance issues are now being addressed in two ways. First, the provost has formally assigned them for deliberation to the University's senior committee for long-range planning for science and engineering. I anticipate resolution of the matter by the end of the fiscal year in June. Second, at the Arboretum we have begun to develop a new model of operation that more explicitly acknowledges the identity of our public museum functions traditionally serving our visitors and students. The Public Museum D efining the programs at the Arnold Arboretum that provide public service is relatively easy in the case of educational programs and visitor services. Our educational programs are of two kinds. Children's education serves about 2,000 individuals under the age of ten each year. Adult programs include lectures and classes for the dedicated amateur and the more formal programs of the Landscape Institute, which can lead to a certificate indicating professional-level achievement. The services for visitors might be characterized as providing access to information. They include the traditional functions of our horticultural library and our visitor's center, both of which serve people walking in through the door. But they have also been expanded to include the vast amount of information we are now making available through the Internet (see Digital Resources, page 28). Because digital access provides valuable information to anyone anywhere in the world at any time, these efforts promise to continue growing in the years to come. SCHOOL PROGRAMS ver the course of several years, Arboretum friends Henry and Nod Meyer have generously supported explorations of the natural environment for urban children. Thanks to their encouragement, Arboretum field study programs have grown significantly in depth and focus, now hosting over 2,000 A second initiative serves pre-schoolers attending neighborhood Head Start centers. Over the past three years, visiting children from Hyde Park, Jamaica Plain, and Roslindale were led by trained volunteers in exploring flowers, fruit, bark, soil, and other aspects of plants and landscape. Designed in collaboration with specialists in early children annually with a special commitment to elementary schools in Boston and Chelsea, and to local Head Start centers. Among these initiatives is a new field study that invites Boston students to investigate the dramatic changes caused by hemlock woolly adelgid on the Arboretum's Hemlock Hill. The new program, developed in collaboration with Boston teachers and titled \"A Changing Ecosystem,\" supports the fifth-grade science curriculum through a case study in biological invasion that powerfully conveys the dynamics of ecological change. childhood education, the program provides children with a range of new outdoor experiences, builds vocabulary, and encourages curiosity about the natural world. In coming years, we will increase our training for Head Start instructors in inquiry-based teaching methods and also offer family activities that foster parental participation in pre-school education. In addition to supporting public education, these efforts seek to strengthen neighborhood connections and promote greater enjoyment of the Arboretum by the diverse communities of Boston. --Richard Schulhof, deputy director Kris Snibbe\/Harvard News Office, ?2007 President and Fellows of Harvard College O 31 One might ask, does the Arboretum's program in horticulture also provide \"public service\"? While the living collections are of great value for research, they and the grounds are given a much higher level of care than would be the case if they were grown solely for the use of scientists. A planting for purely scientific use would look like an agricultural field, with long rows of trees enclosed by a tall fence, rather than an open, beautiful landscape inviting the visitor to linger. I therefore see our strong commitment to horticultural excellence on the grounds as a public service, though that commitment is shared with our obligation to serve the needs of researchers today and tomorrow. This dual function of the living collections is the essence of Charles Sprague Sargent's original vision for the Arboretum. Last summer we reorganized the Arboretum into two programmatic entities, research and public museum, supported by a central administration consisting of the director's office and the functions of finance, information technology, and facilities (see Organizational Chart, page 32). As noted earlier, the research program will be headed by a director of research and will include all senior research staff, as well as the post-doctoral fellows and technicians in their laboratories. The public museum will include the functions of horticulture, education, and information access for visitors. It is now headed by my deputy director, Richard Schulhof. Anticipating its need for financial security, we have identified a core budget for the public museum that for the current fiscal year amounts to $9,375,000 (out of a total Arboretum budget of $13,770,000; see Summary of Operations, page 33). We have also projected a four-percent rate of budget increase for future years. Finally we have transferred the Arboretum's membership and development program from administration (reporting to the director) to the public museum (reporting to the deputy director). Horticultural technologist Scott Grimshaw cuts invasive undergrowth of Rubus spp. growing along Oak Path, photo by Richard Schulhof. 32 The Arboretum and its Friends ne may question the change in the reporting relationship of the development department. Shouldn't it support the entire institution, not solely the public museum? Ever since its creation in 1872, the Arboretum has benefited from very generous friends and their generosity has arrived with remarkably few restrictions beyond a specification that their gifts should support the Arboretum (as opposed to Harvard University). I believe this pattern of giving reflects unusual trust on the part of our friends in the wisdom of past directors. O AR N O LD AR B O R E TU M O F H ARVAR D U N I V E R S IT Y O R G A N I Z AT I O N A L C H A R T President of Harvard University Drew Gilpin-Faust Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences Vice President for Administration Michael D. Smith Sally Zeckhauser Director of the Harvard University Herbaria Director of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Bob Cook Bob Cook Director of Research Director of Capital Projects (TBH) Cynthia Jensen Sargent Fellows Education & Public Programs Horticulture Deputy Director Richard Schulhof Development Finance Director of Human Resources Director of Administration & Finance Lisa Toste Andrea Nix IT Library Facilities S U M M A R Y O F O P E R AT I O N S T his chart indicates our overall financial performance for the past six years. As we have taken on new capital projects and invested in research, our overall budget has moved from overall surpluses to deficits in the past two years which have been covered by reserves. With respect to income trends, the appointment of Sargent Fellows after 2003 has led to increases in research grants, and renewed efforts in membership have brought in increasing numbers of gifts. The large jump in education income in 2003 represents the assumption of administrative responsibility for the Landscape Institute and its educational programming; it is offset by equal increases in expenditures. With respect to expenses, salaries and services are the major categories increasing, along with debt service reflecting the completion of the Leventritt Garden in 2005. Expenses will continue to increase in coming years as we expand our investment in research. Actual FY 2002 Actual FY 2003 Actual FY 2004 Actual FY 2005 Actual FY 2006 Actual FY 2007 7,666,661 8,226,848 8,244,215 8,360,913 9,042,906 9,590,265 Membership\/Gifts 644,972 497,892 376,947 292,612 307,663 442,613 Enterprise 116,774 115,463 323,496 239,770 334,377 346,373 Grants 112,446 39,422 194,647 410,335 455,040 566,553 70,799 605,748 607,701 675,098 753,989 636,561 8,611,652 9,485,373 9,620,006 9,845,844 10,754,143 11,434,580 4,162,438 4,393,437 5,000,632 5,801,809 6,219,559 6,526,842 Supplies\/Equipment 429,101 460,973 554,039 560,997 600,118 562,473 Facilities\/Operations 717,645 881,689 724,302 800,482 1,143,790 1,505,463 Services 771,907 1,058,734 1,296,032 1,131,235 1,931,237 1,990,992 University Subvention 256,483 264,092 292,123 317,134 346,520 378,988 66,934 107,962 142,577 235,863 182,432 201,637 6,404,508 7,166,887 7,882,705 8,714,636 10,283,824 11,018,610 2,207,144 2,318,486 1,737,301 1,131,208 470,319 415,970 312,416 304,434 393,609 609,450 566,729 568,962 1,894,728 2,014,052 1,343,692 521,758 (96,410) (152,992) Income Endowments Education\/Publications Total Income Expenses Salaries\/Benefits Travel Total Expenses Excess (Loss) Debt Payment Total Excess (Loss) 34 The research program of the Arboretum, now and as expanded in the near future, will be fully integrated into the University's overall research endeavors in the botanical sciences. As such it will benefit from the fundraising energies of the University, which are traditionally focused on alumni. Fundraising for the public museum will face the significant challenge of operating nimbly in the shadow of Harvard's larger fundraising program which is unlikely to support public service as a priority. Because most members of the Arboretum are unusually committed to the horticultural and educational work of the institution, they give their support to ensure the continuing excellence of these programs. Therefore I believe that the work of our development staff should primarily sustain the long-term survival and growth of the public mission. So a bargain can be struck. The University will commit itself to ensuring the health and well-being of the Arboretum's research mission, at the same time permitting the Arboretum to raise funds for its parallel mission of public service. But the Arboretum will need help achieving this second goal. Our members and friends, who have always been deeply loyal to our public purposes, will be asked to increase their critical support for this equally important part of our mission. It is a bargain that can secure the continuing fulfillment of Charles Sargent's remarkable vision. Beech Path, photo by Eric Roth Robert E. Cook 1 May 2008 A R N O L D A R B O R E T U M W E AT H E R S TAT I O N DATA --20 07 Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. May June July Aug. Sep. Oct. Nov. Dec. Avg. Max. Temp. (?F) Avg. Min. Temp. (?F) Avg. Temp. (?F) Max. Temp. (?F) Min. Temp. (?F) Precipitation (in.) Snowfall (in.) 40.0 33.0 46.4 52.8 71.4 77.0 81.7 81.7 76.6 66.8 50.3 36.4 23.1 16.1 25.8 36.4 49.5 57.4 63.6 61.2 55.9 47.9 31.5 20.5 31.55 24.55 36.1 44.6 60.45 67.2 72.65 71.45 66.25 57.35 40.9 28.45 69 49 70 87 93 95 91 95 94 87 68 54 2 7 4 27 33 47 53 50 43 32 20 8 2.74 2.15 4.78 7.91 3.16 3.1 3.44 0.4 1.67 2.59 3.11 5.93 1.5 7 7.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 26.7 Avg. Maximum Temperature Avg. Minimum Temperature Avg. Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest Temperature Coldest Temperature Last Frost Date First Frost Date Growing Season 59.5? 40.7? 50.13? 40.98\" 42.9\" 95? on August 4 2? on January 26 and 27 32? on April 9 32? on October 9 183 days 2007 was a year of highly changeable weather at the Arnold Arboretum. The first half of January brought record warmth, even inducing a scattering of cherries into early bloom. But on January 16 winter finally arrived in the Northeast and temperatures plummeted. The first 16 days of January averaged 12 degrees above normal while the second half of the month averaged 5 degrees below normal. The winter cold extended well into March and April and was coupled with heavy rains and street flooding during both months. Spring and early summer precipitation provided adequate levels of moisture for a very good growing season up to the end of July, which began a period of extremely dry weather in the Northeast. Fortunately temperatures did not soar during this dry spell which helped to limit the negative impact of the drought. However it was dry enough to delay and significantly reduce fall planting from Arboretum nurseries to the grounds. September and October were pleasantly mild and quite sunny. Although poor fall color had been predicted (in part because of the drought), the foliage at the Arboretum ended up putting on quite a colorful show. November remained on the dry side and brought the onset of winter with below average temperatures. To close the year, December was very cold and snowy, with snow accumulation coming close to breaking the record for Boston. Unlike the very mild late fall\/early winter of 2006, this period in 2007 reminded us how tough our winters can be. Throughout this variable year of weather, visitors and staff continued to appreciate the beauty of the Arnold Arboretum through all the seasons. 36 S TA F F O F T H E A R N O L D A R B O R E T U M * ADMINISTRATION Rose Balan, Staff Assistant Donna Barrett, Accounting Assistant Kenneth Clarke, Horticultural Technologist (resigned 9.30.05) Robert Cook, Director, Arnold Professor Ann Marie Countie, Computer Services Manager William Hays, Biological Database Applications Programmer (resigned 6.3.06) Andrew Hubble, Network Systems Manager Cynthia Jensen, Director of Capital Projects (hired 1.3.05) James Macklin, Director of Collections and Informatics (hired 3.20.06) Frances Maguire, Director of Administration and Finance Andrea Nix, Director of Administration and Finance (hired 4.30.07) Karen Pinto, Staff Assistant Christopher Preheim, Executive Assistant (hired 9.11.05) David Russo, Facilities Manager Lisa Toste, Director of Human Resources (hired 7.1.02) Sylvia Winter, Landscape Project Manager (hired 9.2.03) DEVELOPMENT\/INSTITUTIONAL ADVANCEMENT Sheila Baskin, Development Assistant Anne Jackson Bell, Events Manager (resigned 7.27.06) Ronda Brands, Development Assistant (hired 7.1.05 and resigned 1.5.07) Jon Hetman, Development Manager Wendy Krauss, Development Assistant (hired 1.24.07) Michele Levy, Director of Communications (hired 2.6.07) Julie Anne McNary, Senior Development Officer (hired 2.6.05 and resigned 8.26.05) Heidi Norris, Development Officer (hired 2.7.06) Robert Surabian, Director of Development (hired 8.9.04) Michaela Tally, Events Manager (hired 2.26.07) *(1 July 2002 through 30 June 2007) PUBLIC & PROFESSIONAL PROGRAMS Sheryl Barnes, Webmaster Kirstin Behn, Staff Assistant (resigned 6.17.05) Ellen Bennett, Manager of Horticultural Information (resigned 1.10.03) Sonia Brenner, Staff Assistant (resigned 6.1.07) Lois Brown, Editorial Assistant (hired 9.25.05) John Furlong, Director of the Landscape Institute (program transferred from Radcliffe 7.1.02) Ann-Marie Greaney-Williams, Administrative Coordinator (hired 7.1.02) Leah Kane, Staff Assistant (hired 5.2.05) Karen Madsen, Editor of Arnoldia Sandra Morgan, Staff Assistant (resigned 5.3.07) Caroline Richardson, Manager of Horticultural Information (hired 5.19.03 and resigned 12.15.05) Nancy Sableski, Manager of Children's Education Micah Schatz, Arboretum Assistant (less than half time); (hired 3.27.04 and resigned 4.22.07) Richard Schulhof, Deputy Director (hired 9.30.02) Pamela Thompson, Manager of Adult Education Julie Warsowe, Manager of Visitor Education (hired 7.5.06) Sheryl White, Staff Assistant Laura Wilson, Staff Assistant (hired 7.10.02) HERBARIUM David Boufford, Senior Research Scientist Maria del Carmen Chavez-Ortiz, Curatorial Assistant (hired 8.1.05 and resigned 7.31.06) Lihong (Wendy) Duan, Curatorial Assistant (transferred to J.P. Library 1.2.05); Staff Assistant (hired 10.31.05) Jennifer Fonda, Curatorial Assistant (hired 11.9.04) Susan Hardy Brown, Curatorial Assistant Edith Hollender, Arboretum Assistant (less than half time) Henry Kesner, Curatorial Assistant (hired 10.5.04) Walter Kittredge, Curatorial Assistant Jude Mulle, Curatorial Assistant (resigned 9.30.02) Melanie Schori, Editorial Assistant (resigned 10.10.03) Emily Wood, Manager of Systematic Collections 37 LIBRARY Beth Bayley, Library Assistant (hired 5.1.04) Sheila Connor, Horticultural Research Archivist Carol David, Library Assistant (resigned 6.1.04) Lihong (Wendy) Duan, Staff Assistant (transferred from Herbarium 1.2.05) Marla Gearhart, Library Assistant (hired 11.29.04) Judy Green, Project Image Cataloger (hired 4.1.01 and resigned 6.30.02) Joseph Melanson, Library Assistant (resigned 12.6.04) Lisa Pearson, Library Assistant (hired 7.8.02) Cathleen Pfister, Library Assistant Christy S. Robson, Catalog Librarian Gretchen Wade, Reference\/Collection Development Librarian Judith Warnement, Librarian of Harvard University Botany Libraries Winifred Wilkens, Library Assistant (retired 9.6.03) LIVING COLLECTIONS Thomas Akin, Assistant Superintendent of Grounds (resigned 10.24.03) John Alexander, Plant Propagator James Allen, Arboretum Assistant (less than half time) Jesse Batty, Grounds Crew Term (9.4.05?9.21.06) Stacy Berghammer, Apprentice (resigned 12.2.02) Jessica Blohm, Gardener (hired 9.10.04 and resigned 7.15.06) Laura Tenny Brogna, Landscape Project Manager (resigned 7.19.04) Julie Coop, Manager of Horticulture John DelRosso, Head Arborist Peter Del Tredici, Director of Living Collections (transferred to Research 7.1.03) Kristin DeSouza, Apprentice (hired 8.29.04 and resigned 9.19.05) Michael Dosmann, Curator of Living Collections (hired 1.2.07) James Doyle, Gardener\/Arborist Apprentice (hired 9.29.03 and resigned 1.5.07) Ralph Ebener, Grounds Crew Term (10.3.04?10.21.05) Charlotte Enfield, Grounds Crew Term (10.30.05? 4.29.06) Robert Ervin, Arborist (hired 7.8.02) David Falk, Horticulture Term (9.5.06?1.5.07) Robert Famiglietti, Horticultural Technologist Kirsten Ganshaw, Horticultural Technologist Donald Garrick, Horticultural Technologist (resigned 7.8.03) Bethany Grasso, Horticultural Technologist (resigned 1.14.04) Scott Grimshaw, Horticultural Technologist (hired 5.17.04) Dennis Harris, Horticultural Technologist Eric Hsu, Putnam Fellow (hired 10.31.05 and resigned 9.23.06) Irina Kadis, Curatorial Assistant Wesley Kalloch, Horticultural Technologist (hired 4.24.06) Susan Kelley, Curatorial Assistant (transferred to Research 1.1.04) Jennifer Kettell, Horticultural Technologist (hired 11.17.03) Alice Kitajima, Apprentice (hired 9.30.02 and resigned 9.21.03) Jianhua Li, Botanical\/Horticultural Taxonomist (transferred to Research 1.1.04) Daniel March, Apprentice (resigned 8.23.02) Brendan McCarthy, Horticultural Technologist (hired 3.20.07) Bruce Munch, Horticultural Technologist Chloe Nathan, Grounds Crew Term (9.4.05?3.3.06) James Nickerson, Horticultural Technologist (resigned 10.8.04) James Papargiris, Horticultural Technologist, appointment as Working Foreperson Thomas Por, Arborist (resigned 9.9.05) Kyle Port, Manager of Plant Records Chris Rice, Horticultural Technologist (hired 6.1.04 and resigned 10.28.05) Kathryn Richardson, Curatorial Assistant (hired 6.7.04) Kelly Ruth, Horticulture Term (9.3.06?1.26.07) Nima Samimi, Gardener (hired 2.16.07) Stephen Schneider, Associate Manager of Horticulture Rita Schwantes, Grounds Crew Term (10.3.04? 11.15.04) Julie Shapiro, Curatorial Assistant (hired 4.9.06) Maurice Sheehan, Horticultural Technologist, Working Foreman (retired 10.31.03) 38 Kyle Stephens, Arborist Apprentice\/Arborist (hired 10.2.06) Kevin Stevens, Apprentice (hired 9.13.05 and resigned 7.28.06) Sara Straate, Curatorial Assistant (resigned 9.16.02) Siobhan Sullivan, Horticulture Term (9.3.06?3.3.07) Aneiage Van Batenburg, Apprentice (hired 9.29.03 and resigned 8.31.04) Mark Walkama, Horticultural Technologist Thomas Ward, Manager of the Greenhouse Victoria Woodruff, Gardener (hired 9.29.03 and resigned 8.5.04) INSTITUTE FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDIES (incorporated into Public and Professional Programs) Phyllis Andersen, Director of the ICLS (retired 6.30.04) RESEARCH Kobinah Abdul-Salim, Mercer Fellow (appointed 12.1.02?5.31.03) Jennifer L. Baltzer, CTFS-AA Asia Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 4.4.05?3.31.2007) Mark Beilstein, Mercer Fellow (hired 12.18.07) Jonathan Bennett, Research Fellow (appointed 8.1.03? 7.31.04) Tim Brodribb, Putnam Fellow (appointed 6.1.05) Zhiduan Chen, Mercer Fellow (appointment ended 8.31.02) Stuart Davies, Science Director of the CTFS-AA Asia Program (resigned 9.30.05); Director of Asian Programs (re-hired 7.1.07) Peter Del Tredici, Senior Research Scientist (transferred from Living Collections 7.1.03) Michael Dosmann, Putnam Fellow (appointment ended 8.31.02) Rodger Evans, Mercer Fellow (hired 1.2.07 and resigned 4.30.07) Kenneth Feeley, CTFS-AA Asia Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 6.1.05) Margaret Frank, Research Assistant (hired 6.18.07) Lianming Gao, Mercer Fellow (hired 6.26.07) Phyllis Glass, Staff Assistant (hired 5.27.03 and resigned 6.1.05) Anna Gorska, Post Doctoral Fellow (hired 3.1.06) Barbara Gravendeel, Mercer Fellow (hired 10.19.05 and resigned 10.18.06) Jocelyn Hall, Mercer Fellow (appointed 9.1.03?1.31.06) Maria Jaramillo, Mercer Fellow (appointment ended 6.30.03) Zhen Jiao, Mercer Fellow (hired 3.20.06) (resigned 9.14.06) Susan Kelley, Botanical Project Manager (transferred from Living Collections 1.1.04) David King, CTFS-AA Asia Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 1.1.03?12.31.04) Jeremy Ledger, Research Assistant (hired 7.15.02 and resigned 1.23.04) Ethan Levesque, Research Assistant (hired 12.2.03 and resigned 5.23.07) Jianhua Li, Senior Research Scientist (transferred from Living Collections 1.1.04) Wenbo Liao, Mercer Fellow (appointed 3.1.05?8.15.05) Stuart Lindsay, Mercer Fellow (appointment ended 9.30.02) Tatyana Livshultz, Mercer Fellow (appointed 7.16.03? 10.15.05) Laura Lukas, Arboretum Assistant (hired 1.7.05, less than half time); Research Assistant (hired 10.9.05 and resigned 1.14.06) Andrew Marshall, Mercer Fellow (appointed 8.1.04? 8.1.06) Sarah Mathews, Sargent Fellow (appointed 8.11.03) Joel McNeal, Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 2.22.05? 1.26.07) David Middleton, Tropical Plant Systematist (resigned 12.31.04) Rebecca Pradhan, Mercer Fellow (appointed 9.1.02? 6.30.03) Richard Primack, Putnam Fellow (hired 7.1.06) Hardeep Rai, Post Doctoral Fellow (hired 5.1.07) Sabrina Russo, CTFS-AA Asia Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 9.1.03?12.31.05) Lawrence Sack, Putnam Fellow (appointed 8.1.02? 7.31.03) Sonali Saha, Putnam Fellow (appointed 10.8.02? 8.31.04) Mariya Schilz, Research Assistant (hired 8.20.06) Suzie Shoup, Research Assistant (hired 3.29.04 and resigned 11.13.06) Stephanie Stuart, Research Assistant (hired 11.28.04 and resigned 8.4.05) 39 Wayne Takeuchi, Tropical Forest Biologist Nina Theis, Putnam Fellow (appointed 1.12.04? 8.31.05) Donna Tremonte, Research Assistant (hired 1.5.04 and resigned 8.31.06) Sonia Uyterhoeven, Putnam Fellow (appointed 1.1.02? 2.1.03) Ellen VanScoyoc, Staff Assistant (resigned 6.30.03) James E. Watkins, Mercer Fellow (hired 9.1.06) Campbell Webb, Tropical Forest Biologist (hired 9.1.05) Kyle Williams, Post Doctoral Fellow (appointed 1.12.04?1.12.07) Qing Ye, Post Doctoral Fellow (hired 3.27.06) Jipei Yue, Mercer Fellow (appointed 10.1.04?5.31.05) Lihua Zhou, Putnam Fellow (appointed 10.1.02? 3.31.03) Maciej Zwieniecki, Sargent Fellow (appointed 6.6.04) RESEARCH AFFILIATES Glenn Steven Adelson, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 9.1.06) Ihsan Al-Shehbaz, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 4.1.05) Phyllis Andersen, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 8.1.04) Peter Ashton, Charles Bullard Professor of Forestry, emeritus Jennifer Baltzer, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 4.1.07) Mark Beilstein, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 8.8.06?12.17.07) Gordon Burleigh, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 7.19.06?10.31.06) Mabel Cabot, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 11.1.05) Thomas Campanella, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 1.31.03) Chin-Sung Chang, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 9.15.06) Chua Siew Chin, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 3.1.06) Stuart Davies, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 10.1.05; hired 7.1.07) Michael Dosmann, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 4.1.04?3.31.06; hired 1.2.07) Peter J. Franks, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 12.1.02?11.30.03) Irwin L. Goldman, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 1.31.03) Jocelyn Hall, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 2.1.06?6.30.06) Richard Howard, Professor of Dendrology, emeritus (died 9.18.03) Shiu-Ying Hu Hsu, Botanist, emerita Alice Ingerson, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 7.1.02?6.30.05) Yu Jia, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.06) David King, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.05?9.30.05) James LaFrankie, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 9.1.02?8.31.05) Timothy Laman, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 6.30.04) Tatyana Livshultz, Arnold Arboretum Associate (10.16.05?12.31.05; hired 3.1.06) Richard H. Ree, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 2.1.03) Kenichi Shono, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.05 ?12.31.05) Stephen Spongberg, Curator, emeritus George Staples, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 8.1.03?7.31.04) Hang Sun, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.06) Kim Tripp, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 4.30.03) Sonia Uyterhoeven, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 2.1.03?1.31.05) Keith Vanderhye, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 9.1.03?8.31.04) Campbell Webb, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 8.31.05) Kyle Williams, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.13.07) Carroll Wood, Jr., Professor of Biology, emeritus Zhuliang Yang, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.06) Donglin Zhang, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 8.31.02) 40 PUBLISHED WRITINGS OF T H E A R N O L D A R B O R E T U M S TA F F J. H. Alexander 2002. Paraphyletic Syringa: evidence from sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS and ETS regions. Systematic Botany 27: 592?593 (with J. Li and D. Zhang). 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of Empetraceae inferred from sequences of gene matK and nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS region. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 25: 306?315 (with J. Li et al.). P. Andersen 2002. The Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. In Restoring the Landscape: Policies for a New Sustainable Regional Project, ed. Francesca Leder. Ferrara, Italy: Facolta di Architettura di Ferrara. 2003. The Arnold Arboretum and the Early Years of Landscape Design Education in America. Arnoldia 62(3): 2?9. 2003. Spirit of Place (roundtable discussion). Architecture Boston 6(6): 8?17. 2003. Book review: Sacred Places: American Tourist Attractions in the Nineteenth Century, J. F. Sears. ArchitectureBoston, 6(6): 61. 2004. Book review: Becoming Cape Cod: Creating a Seaside Resort, J. C. O'Connell. ArchitectureBoston, 7(3): 49. J. L. Balzer 2007. Geographical distributions in tropical trees: can geographic range predict performance and habitat association in co-occurring tree species? Journal of Biogeography 34: 1916?1926 (with S. J. Davies et al.). 2007. Determinants of whole-plant light requirements in Bornean rain forest tree saplings. Journal of Ecology 95: 1205?1221 (with S. C. Thomas). 2007. Physiological and morphological correlates of whole-plant light compensation point in temperate deciduous tree seedlings. Oecologia 153: 209?223 (with S. C. Thomas). J. R. Bennett 2006. Phylogeny of the parasitic plant family Orobanchaceae inferred from phytochrome A. American Journal of Botany 93: 1039?1051 (with S. Mathews). D. E. Boufford 1992?2006. Harvard University Herbaria Databases: Botanists, Publications, Specimens. http:\/\/www.huh. harvard.edu\/databases (with K. N. Gandhi). 1998?2007. Biodiversity of the Hengduan Mountains Region, China. http:\/\/hengduan.huh.harvard.edu\/ fieldnotes (with Z. W. Ge et al.). 2002. Plant databases and the study of Asian Plants (1). Ouroboros 7(1): 10?13. 2002. Plant databases and the study of Asian Plants (2). Ouroboros 7(2): 13?15. 2003. Hengduan Mountains: International Hotspot of Biodiversity. In Xiuyuanjieying, ed. H. S. J. Wenji. Hong Kong: Commercial Press. 2003. A checklist of the vascular plants of Taiwan. In Flora of Taiwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 6. Taipai: National Taiwan University (with H. Ohashi et al.). 2003. Flora of Taiwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 6. Taipei: National Taiwan University (with C. F. Hsieh et al.). 2003. Rubus Linnaeus. In Flora of China, Vol. 9, eds. C. Y. Wu and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with L. D. Lu). 2003. Phylogenetic position of Schnabelia, a genus endemic to China: evidence from sequences of cpDNA matK gene and nrDNA ITS regions. Chinese Science Bulletin 48(15): 1576?1580 (with S. H. Shi et al.). 2004. Mountains of Southwest China. In Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Ecoregions, 2nd ed., ed. R. A. Mittermeier et al. Mexico City: CEMEX Conservation International (with P. P. van Dijk). 41 2004. Japan. In Hotspots Revisited: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Ecoregions, 2nd ed., ed. R. A. Mittermeier et al. Mexico City: CEMEX Conservation International. 2005. Cornaceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 8, ed. D. Y. Hong and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with Q. Xiang). 2005. Aucubaceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 8, ed. D. Y. Hong and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with Q. Xiang). 2005. Helwingiaceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 8, ed. D. Y. Hong and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with Q. Xiang). 2005. Mastixiaceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 8, ed. D. Y. Hong and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with Q. Xiang). 2005. Toricelliaceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 8, ed. D. Y. Hong and P. H. Raven. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with Q. Xiang). 2005. Circaea lutetiana L. sensu lato (Onagraceae) reconsidered. Harvard Papers in Botany 9(2): 255?256. 2005. Polyploidy in the flora of the Hengduan Mountains Hotspot, Southwestern China. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 92: 275?306 (with Z. L. Nie et al.). 2005. The Botanical Collections: Proceedings of the symposium Siebold in the 21st Century, Bulletin No. 41. Tokyo: University Museum, University of Tokyo (with H. Ohba). 2006. Angiospermae; Dicotyledonieae; Archichlamideae. Flora of Japan, Vol. IIa, ed. K. Iwatsuki et al. Tokyo: Kodansha, Ltd (with K. Iwatsuki and H. Ohba). 2007. Taxonomic note on Wikstroemia salicina (Thymelaeaceae). Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 45: 413?414 (with Y. H. Zhang and H. Sun). 2007. Taxonomic studies of Saussurea de Candolle (Asteraceae) in the Hengduan Mountains, China. An annotated list of recently collected specimens. Newsletter of Himalayan Botany 39: 13?37 (with K. D. Fujikawa et al.). 2007. Rhizophoraceae. In Flora of China, Vol. 13, ed. Z. Y. Wu et al. Beijing: Science Press; St. Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden (with H. N. Qin). 2007. Botanical Expedition to southern Gansu Province, China, May 2007. Newsletter of Himalayan Botany 40: 5?14 (with Y. Jia et al.). 2007. A Selection of Plants from Iriomote Island, Japan. Nantao, Taiwan: Endemic Species Research Institute and Research Center for Biodiversity, Academia Sinica (with C. Peng et al.). 2007. Meconopsis wilsonii subsp. wilsonii (Papaveraceae) rediscovered. Acta Botanica Yunnanica 29: 286?288 (with T. Yoshida and H. Sun). 2007. Atlas of the flora of New England: Cyperaceae. Rhodora 109: 237?360 (with R. A. Angelo). 2007. The Genera of Vascular Plants of Korea. Seoul: Academy Publishing Company (with C. Park, et al.). 2007. Two New Species of Wikstroemia (Thymelaeaceae) from Western Sichuan, China. Rhodora 109: 448? 455 (with Y. H. Zhang and H. Sun). Z. Chen 2003. Phylogeny of the Dipsacales s.l. based on chloroplast trnL-F and ndhF sequences. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 26: 176?189 (with W. Zhang et al.). 2004. Regional differences in rates of plant speciation and molecular evolution: a comparison between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Evolution 58: 2175?2184 (with Q. Xiang et al.). 2004. Phylogenetics and biogeography of Alnus (Betulaceae) inferred from sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS region. International Journal of Plant Science 165: 325?335 (with J. Li). 2005. Phylogenetics of Betula (Betulaceae) inferred from sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Rhodora 107: 69?86 (with J. Li and S. Shoup). 2007. Phylogenetic relationships of diploid species of Betula (Betulaceae) inferred from DNA sequences of nuclear nitrate reductase. Systematic Botany 32(2): 357?365 (with J. Li and S. Shoup). 2007. Phylogenetic and biogeographic diversification of Berberidaceae in the Northern Hemisphere. Systematic Botany 32(4): 731?742 (with W. Wang et al.). 42 2007. Mitochondrial matR sequences help to resolve deep phylogenetic relationships in rosids. BMC Evolutionary Biology 7: 217?231 (with X. Zhu et al.). S. Connor 2003. Shrubs and Vines at the Arnold Arboretum: A History. Arnoldia 62(2): 3?15. 2003. A picture is worth... The Public Garden 18(4): 39?41. 2004. In the Library: Hortus Nitidissimis. Arnoldia 63(1): 32. 2005. The Nature of Eastern Asia: Botanical and Cultural Images from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. Arnoldia 63(3): 34?44. R. E. Cook 2003. The Director's Report of the Arnold Arboretum: 1999?2002. Arnoldia 62(1). 2006. Botanical collections as a resource for research. The Public Garden 21(1): 18?21. 2007. The Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 65(2) 23?29. J. Coop 2003. Sun-loving shrubs and vines for the Leventritt Garden. Arnoldia 62(2): 20?26 (with P. Del Tredici et al.). S. J. Davies 2002. The 52-Hectare Forest Dynamics Plot at Lambir Hills, Sarawak, Malaysia: Tree Distribution Maps, Diameter Tables, and Species Documentation. Diliman, Philippines: Center for Integrative and Development Studies, University of the Philippines (with H. S. Lee et al.). 2003. Effects of nutrient addition, mulching and planting-hole size on early performance of Dryobalanops aromatica and Shorea parvifolia in enrichment plantings in Sarawak, Malaysia. Forest Ecology and Management 180: 261?271 (with A. Vincent). 2003. Coadaptation and coevolution of Macaranga trees and their symbiotic ants. In Genes, Behaviours and Evolution of Social Insects, ed. T. Kikuchi et al. Sapporo, Japan: Hokkaido University Press (with T. Itino and T. Itioka). 2003. The trees of Pasoh Forest: stand structure and floristic composition of the 50-hectare forest research plot. In Pasoh: Ecology and natural history of a Southeast Asian lowland tropical rain forest, ed. T. Okuda et al. Tokyo, Japan: Springer (with M. N. Nur Supardi et al.). 2003. Lambir forest dynamics plot, Sarawak, Malaysia. In Forest Diversity and Dyna","distinct_key":"arnoldia-2008-Director's Report: 2003-2008"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Director's Report: 2003-2008","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25437","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170b36b.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":4,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schulhof, Richard; Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"mism, ed. E. Losos and E. Leigh. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (with H. S. Lee et al.). 2003. Book review: A Manual for Forest Plantation Establishment in Malaysia, ed. B. Krishnapillay. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 15(2): 365?367. 2004. Habitat heterogeneity and niche structure of trees in two tropical rain forests. Oecologia 139: 446?453 (with M. D. Potts et al.). 2004. Soil-related habitat specialization in dipterocarp rain forest tree species in Borneo. Journal of Ecology 92: 609?623 (with P. Palmiotto et al.). 2004. Evolution of host affiliation in Crematogaster (Formicidae) inhabitants of Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae). Evolution 58: 554?570 (with S. P. Quek et al.). 2004. Lambir Hills Forest Dynamic Plot, Sarawak, Malaysia. In Forest Diversity and Dynamism: Findings from a Network of Large-Scale Tropical Forest Plots, ed. E. Losos and E. G. Leigh. Chicago: University of Chicago Press (with H. S. Lee et al.). 2004. Sinharaja 25-hectare plot: comparisons with other forests in the CTFS network. In Ecology of Sinharaja Rain Forest and the Forest Dynamics Plot in Sri Lanka's Natural World Heritage Site, ed. C. V. S. Gunatilleke et al. Columbo, Sri Lanka: WHT Publications. 2004. Palanan forest dynamics plot, Philippines. In Forest Diversity and Dynamism, ed. E. Losos and E. G. Leigh. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press (with L. L. Co et al.). 2005. Tropical tree -diversity: results from a worldwide network of large plots. Biologiske Skrifter 55: 565? 582 (with R. Condit et al.). 43 2005. Tree growth is related to light interception and wood density in two mixed dipterocarp forests of Malaysia. Functional Ecology 19: 445?453 (with D. A. King et al.). 2005. Edaphically-associated variation in performance correlates with species' distribution patterns in a Bornean rainforest. Journal of Ecology 93: 879?889 (with S. E. Russo et al.). 2005. Forest Trees of Bukit Timah, Singapore: Population Ecology in a Forest Fragment. Singapore: Simply Green (with J. V. LaFrankie et al.). 2005. Soil-related floristic variation in a hyperdiverse dipterocarp forest. In Pollination Ecology and the Rain Forest (Sarawak Studies), ed. D. Roubik et al. New York: Springer Science (with S. Tan et al.). 2006. Regeneration of native plant species in restored forests on degraded lands in Singapore. Forest Ecology and Management 237: 574?582 (with K. Shono and Y. K. Chua). 2006. Spatial associations of humus, nutrients, and soils in mixed dipterocarp forest at Lambir, Sarawak, Malaysian Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology 22: 543?553 (with I. C. Baillie et al.). 2006. The role of wood density and stem support costs in the growth and mortality of tropical trees. Journal of Ecology 94: 670?680 (with D. A. King et al.). 2006. The importance of demographic niches to tree diversity. Science 313: 98?101 (with R. Condit et al.). 2006. Competitive dominance in a secondary successional rain forest community in Borneo. Journal of Tropical Ecology 22: 53?64 (with H. Semui). 2006. Contrasting structure and composition of the understory in species-rich tropical rain forests. Ecology 87(9): 2298?2305 (with J. V. LaFrankie et al.). 2006. Comparing tropical forest tree size distributions with the predictions of metabolic ecology and equilibrium models. Ecology Letters 9: 589?602 (with H. C. Muller-Landau et al.). 2006. Testing metabolic ecology theory for allometric scaling of tree size, growth, and mortality in tropical forests. Ecology Letters 9: 575?588 (with H. C. Muller-Landau et al.). 2006. Nonrandom processes maintain diversity in tropical forests. Science 311: 527?531 (with C. Wills et al.). 2006. Growth and mortality are related to adult tree size in a Malaysian mixed dipterocarp forest. Forest Ecology and Management 223: 152?158 (with D. A. King et al.). 2006. Forest Trees of Palanan, Philippines: A Study in Population Ecology. Diliman, Philippines: Center for Integrative and Development Studies, University of the Philippines (with L. L. Co et al.). 2007. The role of gap-phase processes in the long-term biomass dynamics of four old-growth tropical forests. 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Additions to the flora of the Kaijende Highlands, Papua New Guinea: occurrence records, synonymies, and descriptions of new taxa. Edinburgh Journal of Botany 64(2): 159?172. 2007. Cyathea lamoureuxii (Cyatheaceae), a remarkable new species from the Papuan Peninsula of New Guinea. Blumea 52(1): 147?152. 2007. Notes on Pneumatopteris (Thelypteridaceae) from Papua New Guinea, with the description of a new calciphilous species. Blumea 52(1): 153?158. 2007. Introduction to the flora of Papua. In The Ecology of Papua, ed. A. J. Marshall and B. M. Beehler. Singapore: Conservation International, Periplus HK Editions. 2007. Additions to the flora of the Kaijende Highlands, Papua New Guinea: Macaranga daviesii (Euphorbiaceae), a new calciphilous species from the Paiela limestone. Harvard Papers in Botany 12(2): 389?394. 2007. Taxonomic notes and distributional records for New Guinea Schradera (Rubiaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 12(2): 397?404. 2007. Vascular plants of the Kaijende Highlands, Papua New Guinea: taxonomic and vegetation survey. In A Rapid Biodiversity Assessment of the Kaijende Highlands, Enga Province, Papua New Guinea, ed. S. J. Richards. Arlington, VA: Conservation International. T. Ward 2002. Phylogenetic relationships of Empetraceae inferred from sequences of gene matK and nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS region. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 25: 306?315 (with J. Li et al.). 2003. Sun-loving shrubs and vines for the Leventritt Garden. Arnoldia 62(2): 20?26 (with P. Del Tredici et al.). 2004. Phylogenetics of Calycanthaceae based on molecular and morphological data, with a special reference to divergent paralogues of the nrDNA ITS region. Harvard Papers in Botany 9: 69?82 (with J. Li et al.). C. O. Webb 2002. Phylogenies and community ecology. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 33: 475?505 (with D. D. Ackerly et al.). 2003. A floristic analysis of the lowland dipterocarp forests of Borneo. 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Relationships among ecologically important dimensions of plant trait variation in seven neotropical forests. Annals of Botany 99: 1003?1015 (with I. J. Wright et al.). 2007. Trait evolution, community assembly, and the phylogenetic structure of ecological communities. American Naturalist 170: 271?283 (with N. J. B. Kraft et al.). 52 2007. Regional and phylogenetic variation of wood density across 2,456 neotropical tree species. Ecological Applications 16: 2356?2367 (with J. Chave et al.). 2007. Phylogenetic signal in plant pathogen-host range. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. 104(12): 4979?4983 (with G. S. Gilbert). J. Yue 2006. Support for an expanded Solms-laubachia (Brassicaceae): evidence from sequences of chloroplast and nuclear genes. Annals of the Missouri Botanic Garden 93: 402?411 (with J. Li et al.). 2006. Phylogenetics of Acer (Aceroideae, Sapindaceae) based on nucleotide sequences of two chloroplast noncoding regions. Harvard Papers in Botany 11: 105?119 (with J. Li and S. Shoup). M. A. Zwieniecki 2004. Functional design space of single veined leaves: role of tissue hydraulic properties in constraining leaf size and shape. Annals of Botany 94: 507?513 (with C. K. Boyce and N. M. Holbrook). 2004. Water relations under root chilling in a sensitive and tolerant tomato species. Plant, Cell and Environment 27: 971?979 (with A. J. Bloom et al.). 2004. Changes in pit membrane porosity due to deflection and stretching: the role of vestured pits. Journal of Experimental Botany 55: 1569?1575 (with B. Choat et al.). 2004. A potential role for xylem-phloem interactions in the hydraulic architecture of trees: effects of phloem girdling on xylem hydraulic conductance. Tree Physiology 24: 911?917 (with P. J. Melcher et al.). 2004. Hydraulic limitations imposed by crown placement determine final size and shape of Quercus rubra L. leaves. Plant, Cell and Environment 27: 357?365 (with C. K. Boyce and N. M. Holbrook). 2005. The role of potassium in long distance transport in plants. In Vascular Transport in Plants, ed. N. M. Holbrook and M. A. Zwieniecki. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 2005. Integration of long distance transport systems in plants: perspective and prospect for future research. In Vascular Transport in Plants, ed. N. M. Holbrook and M. A. Zwieniecki. Amsterdam: Elsevier. 2005. Daily transpiration rates of woody species on drying soil. Tree Physiology 25: 1469?1472 (with T. R. Sinclair and N. M. Holbrook). 2005. The spatial pattern of air seeding thresholds in mature sugar maple trees. Plant, Cell and Environment 28(9): 1082?1089 (with B. Choat et al.). 2005. Leaf hydraulic capacity in ferns, conifers, and angiosperms, impacts on photosynthetic maxima. New Phytologist 165: 839?864 (with T. J. Brodribb et al.). 2005. Evolution of xylem lignification and hydrogel transport regulation. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, U.S. 101: 17555?17558 (with C. K. Boyce et al.). 2006. Direct measurements of intervessel pit membrane hydraulic resistance in two angiosperm tree species. American Journal of Botany 93: 993?1000 (with B. Choat et al.). 2006. Hydraulic design of pine needles: one-dimensional optimization for single-vein leaves. Plant, Cell and Environment 29: 803?809 (with H. Stone et al.). 2007. Dynamic changes in root hydraulic properties in response to nitrate availability. Journal of Experimental Botany 58: 2409?2415 (with V. Gloser et al.). 2007. Hydraulic design of leaves: insights from rehydration kinetics. Plant Cell and Environment 30: 910?921 (with T. J. Brodribb and N. M. Holbrook). 2007. Pulvinus-induced tightening plays an important role in the generation of squeezing forces in the monocotyledonous twiner, Dioscorea bulbifera. Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology A-Molecular and Integrative Physiology 146: S111?S111 (with S. Isnard et al.). Richard Schulhof Adult Education: 2007 Jim Harrison Visitor Education: 2007 Classes Offered: 112 Enrollments: 1040 Free Tours: 57 Free Tour Participants: 548 Paid Tours: 35 Paid Tour Participants: 612 Visitor Center Attendance: 27,575 Ann Greaney-Williams Landscape Institute: Spring\/Summer\/Fall 2007 Courses Offered: 70 Enrollments: 938 Certificates Granted: 18 Richard Schulhof Children's Education: Spring\/Fall 2007 Programs Offered: 60 Participating Classes: 116 Students Served: 2,098 ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-2008-Director's Report: 2003-2008"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23457","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eab6e.jpg","title":"2008-65-4","volume":65,"issue_number":4,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Role of Arboreta in Studying the Evolution of Host Resistance to the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25435","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170af6d.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":3,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Havill, Nathan P.; Montgomery, Michael E.","article_content":"The Role of Arboreta in Studying the Evolution of Host Resistance to the Hemlock Woolly Adelgid Nathan P. Havill and Michael E. Montgomery he hemlock woolly adelgid, Adelges tsugae, is an introduced pest of hemlock which is, unfortunately, all too familiar to many readers of Arnoldia. Adelgids are a small family of sucking insects, related to aphids, which feed only on conifers1. Because they are so small and typically not very common, most adelgids usually go completely unnoticed by all but a handful of entomologists that specialize on them. This can change dramatically when an adelgid species is transported outside of its native range into an ecosystem that is not adapted to keeping it in check. In the United States and Canada, this was first experienced with the balsam woolly adelgid, which killed millions of fir trees (genus Abies) in first half of the 20th century and continues to severely threaten these ecosystems. We are now seeing similarly devastating effects by the hemlock woolly adelgid (HWA) on eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, and Carolina hemlock, T. caroliniana 2. In this article, we will take a worldwide look at the relationship between the adelgid and its various hemlock hosts. While most of our research was done with plants growing in their native habitats, we also made extensive use of cultivated hemlocks growing in various botanical gardens around the world, including the Arnold Arboretum. The living collections and herbaria at these institutions have proved to be an invaluable resource for us in developing an evolutionary context for understanding hemlock resistance to HWA. In addition, the records and herbarium specimens from expeditions sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum-- from the time of E. H. Wilson and Joseph Rock through the Sino-American Botanical Expedition of 1980--were invaluable in helping us to pinpoint where to look for hemlock specimens in southwestern China. T Our collaborative research on HWA began in 1999. Nathan had just received his master's degree in entomology from the University of Wisconsin and Mike needed someone to do a field evaluation of a tiny lady beetle (Scymnus sinuanodulus) that had been collected three years earlier in China, and had just been released from quarantine for biological control of the adelgid. Going to China to look for biological controls for HWA had been something of a gamble. The adelgid had never been collected from mainland Asia, only from Japan and Taiwan. But the fact that China was home to three of the nine species of Tsuga as well as several ALL PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHORS Overwintering hemlock woolly adelgid nymphs settled on eastern hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. Hemlock Evolution 3 closely related genera (Nothotsuga, Keteleeria, and Pseudolarix) suggested that hemlock had a long evolutionary history in the region. Such a time span would have provided ample opportunity for stable tri-trophic relationships to have evolved between the host (Tsuga), its herbivores (HWA), and the predators of the herbivores. This hunch has proved correct, as more than sixty species of lady beetles have been collected from the hemlocks in China since the early 1990s, with twenty-five of them being new to science3. In 2001, Mike artificially infested every hemlock species at Arnold Arboretum and at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia with HWA. These tests confirmed Dr. Peter Del Tredici's observation that Chinese hemlock (T. chinensis) growing in the Arboretum were immune to HWA4. This seemed odd, because in China we found this hemlock species to be infested by HWA, sometimes with very dense populations. We wondered if there were genetic and behavioral differences among the world's geographic populations of HWA and where the HWA introduced to the eastern U.S. originated. In the fall of that year, Nathan began to address these questions as part of his Ph.D. thesis for the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Yale University. How Did HWA Get Here? The origin of HWA in North America has been the subject of considerable speculation. Most people have assumed that it arrived from Asia early in the 20th century, first on the west coast and then migrated to the east coast. By doing some detective work with museum specimens and modern molecular technology, we were able to separate fact from fiction. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, exotic hemlock nursery stock and bonsai purchased from Japanese nurseries usually arrived in the United States through ports on the West Coast. Around this same time, China was opening up as a new frontier for plant exploration, and live plants collected by the Arnold Arboretum as well as the United States Department of Agriculture were typically sent to San Francisco and then shipped east by rail. A particularly noteworthy example of this is a seedling of Chinese A page from the 1914 Yokohama Nursery catalog showing the availability of live plants of Tsuga sieboldii and T. diversifolia for import to the United States from Japan (from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). hemlock collected by E. H. Wilson in Hubei Province in 1910 that is still alive and well at the Arboretum. That imports like these had the potential to bring HWA with them to the U. S. was reinforced during a recent visit to the U. S. National Arboretum where we noticed that an herbarium specimen of T. dumosa collected in 1932 by Joseph F. Rock in southwestern China had the distinctive remains of HWA still attached to it. At the U. S. National Collection of Insects in Beltsville, Maryland, we found a specimen collected in 1907 in South Bend, Washington that was not identified as HWA until 60 years later. 4 Arnoldia 65\/3 China The first published account of an adelgid causing damage to North American hemlocks is from 1916 in Vancouver, British Columbia5 and the formal description of HWA as a new species was based on insects collected in 1922 from Oregon and California6. In contrast, the first report of HWA in the eastern United States was not until 1951, from eastern hemlocks growing in Maymont Park in Richmond, Virginia. This 100-acre municipal park had formerly been part of the estate of Major James and Sallie Dooley (see http:\/\/www.maymont.org). Mrs. Dooley was an avid horticulturalist who collected plants from around the world. In 1911, with the help of the master Japanese gardener known simply as Muto, she created a traditional Japanese-style garden that was in vogue at the time. While we cannot be certain that HWA arrived on the east coast on nursery stock ordered by the Dooleys from Japan, its slow spread from a small area to several states is typical of introductions of non-native species. Based on all of the circumstantial evidence, it seemed reasonable to assume that HWA had arrived on the west coast from Asia early in the 20th century. But we were not satisfied with this speculation and decided to look into the matter more deeply. Between 2002 and 2004, we collected samples from the mountains of Yunnan, Sichuan, Shaanxi, and Hubei provinces in China and throughout Honshu Island in Japan. Several collaborators sent us additional samples from eastern and western North America to include in our study. When we compared DNA sequences from HWA collected in the different locations we found an exact match between HWA in eastern North America and HWA in southern Japan 7, 8. On the east coast, there was only a fraction of the natural variation found in Japan, which is characteristic of a recently introduced species. We also found that DNA sequences from HWA on the west coast do not match HWA from either the east coast or Asia, and that there was much more genetic variation in HWA on the west coast than on the east coast. These results suggest that HWA from western North America is a separate endemic lineage that has been diversifying there for thousands, or even millions of years. And finally, we were able to Taiwan Japan Japan & Eastern North America Western North America Phylogenetic relationships among geographic lineages of the hemlock woolly adelgid inferred using mitochondrial and nuclear DNA sequence data. Adelgids from China and Taiwan are different enough that they may be different species from the one that was introduced to eastern North America from Japan. There is a second lineage in Japan that is not the source of the introduction, and hemlock woolly adelgids in western North America are a separate lineage that appears to be native, not introduced as some have assumed (Figure based on the results of Havill et al. 2006, and Havill et al. 2007). show that HWA in China is genetically divergent from HWA in Japan and North America and should probably be considered an entirely separate species. Hemlock Biogeography In conjunction with this research on HWA genetics, we have also been exploring the evolutionary relationships among hemlock species around the world. Both of these studies were supported by grants from the USDA Forest Service, the Yale Institute for Biospheric Studies, and the Arnold Arboretum's Deland Endowment. We have also enjoyed the invaluable collaboration of colleagues in China and Japan, including Guoyue Yu, Li Li, Jianhua Zhou, and Shigehiko Shiyake. Most plant taxonomists recognize nine species of hemlock worldwide 9 . There are four species in North America and five in Asia. There are no hemlocks native to Europe but the fossil record tells us that hemlock was once widespread on that continent but went extinct somewhere around one million years ago because of climate change and repeated glaciations10. There are two species of hemlock in eastern North America. The eastern hemlock, T. canadensis, is widely distributed from southern Canada to the Great Hemlock Evolution 5 Map showing the worldwide distribution of the genus Tsuga (Reprinted from Havill et al., in press). Lakes and New England down through the Appalachians into Georgia. The other species in the east is the Carolina Hemlock, T. caroliniana, which is native to the Blue Ridge Mountains from Virginia to Georgia. In western North America, there are also two species--western hemlock, T. heterophylla, usually found at low elevations, and the mountain hemlock, T. mertensiana, which grows at high elevations. There is a similar pattern in Japan, with T. sieboldii occurring mostly in the south and at low elevations, and T. diversifolia mostly in the north and at high elevations. There are three other hemlock species in Asia--T. chinensis has several described varieties and is widely distributed in China; T. dumosa, occurs in a narrow band from southwestern China along the Himalayas to Nepal; and T. forrestii, overlaps with the two other species in Yunnan and Sichuan provinces in southwestern China. Our research has given us the pleasure of observing hemlocks growing in a variety of natural habitats in China and Japan. In both countries, hemlock occurs where it is cool and wet in the summer, such as the fog belt of high mountains. They are in the transition zone between deciduous hardwoods and boreal conifers and are often a climax species in diverse forests. The hemlocks may rise above the canopy, often with broad, domed, or flat crowns which is very different from the conical or pyramidal crowns of the North American species. The understory of a Chinese hemlock forest not Dr. Nathan Havill standing next to a large T. forrestii in Lijiang, Yunnan Province, China. 6 Arnoldia 65\/3 Tsuga chinensis var. tchekiangensis growing on Mount Maoer in Guangxi, China. Tsuga sieboldii in the background with fir in the foreground growing on Mount Tsurugi, Shikouku, Japan. Hemlock Evolution 7 only contains Rhododendrons and other genera of plants commonly found in the forests where eastern hemlocks grow, but also has species of camellia, bamboo, peony, primrose, and other Asian plants which we only find here in cultivated landscapes. In southwestern China, the range of hemlock and the panda overlap, and ancient hollow conifers are used as maternity dens by the panda. Tsuga is a Japanese word meaning \"mother tree\" and is the highlight of several national parks in Japan. Standing in a hemlock stand in east Asia, the opening lines of the poem Evangeline by Henry Wadsworth Longfellow comes to mind: This is the forest primeval. The murmuring pines and the hemlocks, Bearded with moss, and in garments green, indistinct in the twilight, Moss covered T. dumosa trunk in Laojun Shan in Yunnan, China. Modern Taxonomy Reveals Ancient Relationships With the help of colleagues at Yale University, the University of Maine, the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, and the University of Memphis, we used DNA sequences to reconstruct the evolutionary relationships and biogeographic history of hemlock, in part to see what this could tell us about how to manage HWA. We assembled multiple samples of each hemlock species, either collected by us in the field or from the living collections at Arnold Arboretum, the U.S. National Arboretum, Hangzhou Botanical Garden in China, and the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh. As with the HWA, some of the relationships among the hemlocks were a surprise to us11. One interesting result of this study was that the two hemlock species in eastern North America are not closely related to each other. Tsuga caroliniana is more closely related to the Japanese species T. diversifolia than to T. canadensis. Despite this close affinity, T. caroliniana is susceptible to HWA damage, while T. diversifolia is resistant. Tsuga chinensis with hanging lichens growing near Danba in Sichuan, China. 8 Arnoldia 65\/3 T. mertensiana T. heterophylla T. canadensis T. caroliniana T. diversifolia Ullung Island hemlock T. dumosa* T. formosana T. sieboldii T. chinensis T. forrestii Phylogenetic relationships among Tsuga species inferred using chloroplast DNA sequence data. Analysis using the nuclear ITS region agreed with this except that T. dumosa was sister to the rest of the Asian species plus T. caroliniana. This discordance may have resulted from an ancient hybrid origin of T. dumosa (Figure modified from Havill et al., in press). Since the two species in eastern North America have different ancestries, their s u s c e p t i b i l i t y t o H WA p r o b a b l y a r o s e independently in each species. Perhaps this resulted from living in a region where there are only a few inconsequential sucking insects that specialize on hemlock and where there was more selective pressure from chewing insects. Many studies have shown that plants have different defensive reactions to sucking versus chewing insects. Before HWA was introduced, the major pest of hemlock was a defoliator, the hemlock looper caterpillar. Recent chemotaxonomic studies of hemlock species and cultivars growing at the National Arboretum, Morris Arboretum, and Longwood Gardens suggest that the two hemlocks in eastern North America have adapted their terpenoid chemistry to provide protection against chewing insects, which seems to have made them vulnerable to non-native sucking pests such as HWA and the elongate hemlock scale12, 13. Out of thirteen cultivars of T. canadensis examined, the two with white-tipped foliage, `Albo-spica' and `Snowflake' grouped closer to the Asian species than to the \"wild\" T. canadensis. Careful testing is still needed to examine whether these cultivars are more resistant to HWA and more susceptible to native chewing pests such as hemlock looper caterpillars. Another surprising and very exciting discovery from the Tsuga phylogeny project involves two hemlocks growing at Arnold Arboretum (AA #1251-83). These trees were grown from seed collected on Ullung Island, South Korea in 1982 by an expedition from the Chollipo Arboretum. Ullung is a small, isolated volcanic island in the Sea of Japan--equidistant between Korea and Japan--that hosts many endemic plant species. Based on morphological characteristics, the hemlocks on Ullung Island have always been identified as T. sieboldii, the lowelevation Japanese species. DNA sequences from the trees growing in the Arboretum, however, consistently grouped, not with T. sieboldii, but with T. diversifolia, the other Japanese species that grows at higher elevations. To confirm this unexpected result, we obtained a fresh sample of Ullung hemlock from Dr. Nam Sook Lee at Ewha Womans University in Seoul. This sample, like those from the Arnold, independently verified that the Ullung hemlocks are closely related to, but distinct from, T. diversifolia rather than T. sieboldii as previously thought. A detailed study comparing the morphology of Ullung Island hemlock with T. diversifolia still needs to be done to decide whether it should be considered a new species. Adelgid Resistant Hemlocks Previously, it was reported that T. chinensis and T. diversifolia had high resistance to HWA. Researchers at the National Arboretum have been able to produce viable hybrid crosses between T. chinensis and T. caroliniana 14 . These hybrids have been established in a field trial to evaluate their HWA resistance and growth characteristics. Recent expeditions to China have resulted in collection of hemlock seed from five provinces and more than 20 accessions are growing in experimental nurseries at the National, Morris, and Arnold Arboreta. It seems that the cultivation of T. chinensis and its hybrids may be an option available to gardeners in the foreseeable future. Without the resources and expertise at the Arnold Arboretum, the U.S. National Arboretum, Morris Arboreum, Longwood Gardens, Hemlock Evolution 9 Adelges tsugae Annand (Homoptera: Adelgidae). The Coleopterists Bulletin 54: 154199. 4 Del Tredici, P. and A. Kitajima. 2004. Introduction and cultivation of Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and its resistance to hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Journal of Arboriculture 30: 282286. Chrystal, R. N. 1916. The forest insect problem in Stanley Park. Proceedings of the Entomological Society of British Columbia 9: 6366. Annand, P. N. 1924. A new species of Adelges (Hemiptera, Phylloxeridae). Pan-Pacific Entomologist 1: 7982. Havill, N. P., M. E. Montgomery, G. Yu, S. Shiyake, and A. Caccone. 2006. Mitochondrial DNA from hemlock woolly adelgid (Hemiptera: Adelgidae) suggests cryptic speciation and pinpoints the source of the introduction to eastern North America. Annals of the Entomological Society of America 99: 195203. Havill, N. P., R. G. Foottit, and C. D. von Dohlen. 2007. Evolution of host specialization in the Adelgidae (Insecta: Hempitera) inferred from molecular phylogenetics. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 44: 357370. Farjon, A. 1990. Pinaceae: Drawings and Descriptions of the genera Abies, Cedrus, Pseudolarix, Keteleeria, Nothotsuga, Tsuga, Cathaya, Pseudotsuga, Larix, and Picea. Konigstein, Germany, Koeltz Scientific Books. LePage, B. A. 2003. A new species of Tsuga (Pinaceae) from the middle Eocene of Axel Heiberg Island, Canada, and an assessment of the evolution and biogeographical history of the genus. Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 257296. Havill, N. P., C. S. Campbell, T. F. Vining, B. A. LePage, R. J. Bayer, and M. J. Donoghue. In press. Phylogeny and biogeography of Tsuga (Pinaceae) inferred from nuclear ribosomal ITS and chloroplast DNA sequence data. Systematic Botany. Lagalante, A. F. and M. E. Montgomery. 2003. Analysis of terpenoids from hemlock (Tsuga) species by solidphase microextraction\/gas chromatography\/ion-trap mass spectrometry. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 51: 21152120. Lagalante, A. F., M. E. Montgomery, F. C. Calvosa, and M. N. Mirzabeigi. In press. Characterization of terpenoid volatiles from cultivars of eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis). Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. Bentz S. E., L. G. H. Riedel, M. R. Pooler, and A. M. Townsend. 2002. Hybridization and self-compatibility in controlled pollinations of eastern North American and Asian hemlock (Tsuga) species. Journal of Arboriculture 28: 200-5. 5 6 7 8 9 A hemlock from Ullung Island, Korea growing at the Arnold Arboretum (AA #1251-83B). At 24 years of age, the tree was 8 meters tall by 6 meters wide. Ullung hemlocks have traditionally been identified as T. sieboldii based on morphology, but DNA analyses show that it is closely related to T. diversifolia and may be a new species (Photograph by P. Del Tredici, December 2007). 10 11 Chollipo Arboretum, Hangzhou Botanical Garden, and the Royal Botanical Garden at Edinburgh, this research would not have been possible. By highlighting the vital contributions that botanical gardens have made to the development of ways to control this devastating pest, hopefully we have reinforced the need for their continued commitment to research. Endnotes: 1 12 13 Havill, N. P. and R. G. Foottit. 2007. Biology and evolution of Adelgidae. Annual Review of Entomology 52: 325349. Ward, J. S., M. E. Montgomery, C. A. S.-J. Cheah, B. Onken, and R. S. Cowles. 2004. Eastern Hemlock Forests: Guidelines to Minimize the Impacts of Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. USDA Forest Service, Morgantown, WV. Yu, G., M. E. Montgomery, and D. Yao. 2000. Lady beetles (Coleoptera: Coccinellidae) from Chinese hemlocks infested with the hemlock woolly adelgid, 14 2 3 Dr. Nathan Havill is a USDA CSREES Fellow at Yale University's, Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology. Dr. Michael Montgomery is a Research Entomologist, at the USDA Forest Service, Northern Research Station, Hamden, CT. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ancient and Notable Trees of Japan: Then and Now","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25434","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170af28.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":3,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.; Ohkubo, Tatsuhiro","article_content":"Ancient and Notable Trees of Japan: Then and Now Richard Primack and Tatsuhiro Ohkubo E rnest Henry Wilson (18761930) visited Japan in 19141915 to collect woody plants for the Arnold Arboretum, principally conifers, azaleas and cherries. Many of the special plants that he brought back to the United States are still widely cultivated. During this expedition he photographed hundreds of trees and landscapes, which are now stored in the Arnold Arboretum archives and available online. These photographs show the appearance of the trees and landscapes in Japan 93 years ago. In December 2006 and January 2007, we visited some of the same locations as Wilson, and tried to find the same trees. Most of the places that he visited were famous locations that were easy to track down. In most, but not all, cases the trees were still alive. Other sites were not described in sufficient detail to be readily located. These trees and places have been associated with some of the major events in Japanese history, so the trees can be regarded as \"witness trees\" that can tell a story. And the trees themselves have a history in terms of how they have grown and been taken care of through this time. Let's now look at some of these trees as they were in the past and as they are today, starting with the famous Ship Pine of Kyoto. The Ship Pine of Kyoto. Kyoto was the capitol of Japan from A.D. 794 to 1185. Even after the government moved first to Kamakura and then Tokyo, Kyoto remained important to Japanese society for its many The Ship Pine of Kyoto (Pinus parviflora) in 1914, photographed by E. H. Wilson (#AAE-00292 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). Note the latticework supporting the prow. Ancient and Notable 11 R. B. PRIMACK The Golden Temple of Kyoto. Photographed in 2007. R. B. PRIMACK important Buddhist temples which are still in active use and frequetly visited by foreign tourists. The most well known of these is Kinkakuji Temple, also known as the Golden Temple because of the stunning metallic-yellow color of its main shrine. A small pond acts as mirror in front of the temple, creating an added effect and rocks are positioned deliberately to create a seacoast effect. This coastal imagery is further enhanced by the nearby Ship Pine, a white pine (Pinus parviflora Sieb. & Zucc.), known in Japanese as the \"Rikushu-no-matsu\", and is one of three famous pines in Kyoto. This tree was originally a bonsai trained in the shape of a ship, and belonged to the Shogun, or military ruler, Ashikaga, who was a great patron of the Temple. After the Shogun's death in the mid1300s, the ship pine was planted at this spot approximately 650 years ago. One of Wilson's photos from 1914 shows the tree planted in front of temple buildings. The lower branches have been trained in the shape of the hull and prow of a sailing ship, supported by a bamboo frame. The trunk of the tree appears as the mast, with approximately 22 side branches trained R. B. PRIMACK The Ship Pine in 2007. Bamboo latticework supporting the prow of the Ship Pine. Photographed in 2007. 12 Arnoldia 65\/3 as short, flattened surfaces suggesting sails. The horizontal branches are also supported by a framework of bamboo. Careful pruning of shoots over hundreds of years have been needed to create this precise shape. Today the buildings in the background are still the same, showing the tree has remained in the same place, though the large building to the right is being renovated. The tree is approximately 20 feet (6 m) high and 30 feet (9 m) long. The horizontal \"sail\" branches and \"prow\" are still supported by bamboo frames. The Ship Pine is evidently in good health and essentially the same in shape after more than ninety years. The present pruning regime appears to be less precise that before, with the outlines of the prow and sails now appearing more diffuse. The Shogun's Ginkgo Tree The site of the present day Koishikawa Botanical Gardens, Graduate School of Science, The University of Tokyo was originally the medici- nal plant garden of the Tokugawa Shogun, the military ruler that unified Japan in 1603. The large Ginkgo tree that grows there was planted approximately 300 years ago. In 1868 ownership of the garden was transferred from the Shogun to the new imperial Meiji government. This government was unpopular with many of the samurai, the traditional military class of Japan, because the Meiji government was eliminating their hereditary privileges in its drive to bring Japan into the modern age. To demonstrate their dislike of the new government, the samurai cut down some of the large trees on the day before the transfer was to take place. They started to cut down this ginkgo tree but did not complete their vandalism. However, even today evidence of the axe cuts remain at shoulder height on the trunk. This tree is also linked to an important scientific discovery. In 1896, teaching assistant Sakugoro Hirase of the Botanical Institute of the Imperial University, using material collected from this tree, uncovered the previously R. B. PRIMACK E. H. Wilson's photograph of the Shogun's Ginkgo from 1914 (#AAE-03304 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The Shogun's Ginkgo tree in 2007. Ancient and Notable 13 E. H. Wilson's 1914 photograph of the black pine forest (Pinus thunbergii) on the Kamakura coast (#AAE-03392 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). unknown sexual secrets of this unusual gymnosperm. He discovered that the male gametophyte, when it is mature, releases two large spermatozoids with multiple flagella, one of which fertilizes the ovule. This was a widely reported scientific discovery at the time, and a plaque at the base of the tree commemorates this finding. Today the tree looks remarkably similar to its appearance in Wilson's photograph. Only the branches on the left side are now somewhat more pendent than before. The current tree height of 80 feet is virtually unchanged since Wilson's visit. It is remarkable that the tree survived at all, as the site was heavily damaged by firebombs dropped by American aircraft in World War II. And from 1945 to 1955 much of the surrounding garden area was used to grow food for the devastated population. Black Pines on the Kamakura Coast One of Wilson's photos shows an elegant group of Japanese black pines (Pinus thunbergii Parl.) growing on the grounds of the Kaihin Hotel near the Kamakura seashore. The trees are Only a few of the black pines from 1914 remain in 2007, surrounded by a parking lot. being bent to the right by the sea-winds and salt spray. Today the site is occupied by a tennis club. Sandwiched between tennis courts and houses, only four pine trees remain from the original stand, and have now become part of a parking lot. These trees are about 30 feet (9 m) tall R. B. PRIMACK 14 Arnoldia 65\/3 The Chinese linden (Tilia miqueliana) growing on a hillside above Lake Biwa, photographed in 1914 by E. H. Wilson (#AAE-04480 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The Chinese linden in 2007. and 6 feet (2 m) in girth, with the bottoms of their trunks encased in asphalt. The fate of this coastal pine stand is typical--less than 1% of the original coastal pine stands remain intact as these sites are prime sites for the residential and industrial development. The Ancestor of Chinese Lindens in Japan Most of Wilson' pictures show well-formed trees. In contrast, the pictures he took at the Takakannon Gonshoji Temple near Kyoto show a Chinese linden (Tilia miqueliana Maxim.) with a massive knobby trunk, ending abruptly at perhaps 10 to 12 feet (3.7 m) high, out of which grows a dozen or so shoots. Behind the tree is a flattened ledge with benches. In the distance, a town can be viewed below with an indistinct horizon. According to the litera- ture at the site, this tree was carried to Japan as a sapling by a Buddhist priest from China named Eshinsozu, who founded the temple in 904 A.D. This story would make the tree over 1100 years old. In Japan, the Chinese linden tree is held sacred to Buddhists in the same way that the Bo tree is held sacred by Buddhists elsewhere in tropical Asia. According to local tradition, this particular tree is not only the oldest Chinese linden tree in Japan, but it is regarded as the probable parent tree of all Chinese linden trees in Japan. Even today, pilgrims to the temple stop to collect seeds from this tree to plant back home. The temple remains today perched on a steep hillside, above the pale blue waters of Lake Biwa, the largest lake in Japan. On the flat ground between the hills and the lake, lies R. B. PRIMACK Ancient and Notable 15 the densely settled town of Otsu, though now with more tall buildings than shown in the old photo. Right in front of the temple is the same Chinese linden tree shown in the Wilson photos, but without the massive trunk. The 15 foot (5 m) tall tree consists of 16 vigorous shoots, the largest of which are covered with the distinctive helicopter-like fruit. A local resident told us that 40 years ago a typhoon broke off the trunk and washed away the bank beyond the tree. The tree base re-sprouted, as is typical for lindens, forming the tree that we see today, which is now on the edge of the road. The Giant Ginkgo at the Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine in Kamakura A massive ginkgo tree, in full leaf is shown in this photo from July 28, 1905, taken by John George Jack, another collector who worked for the Arnold Arboretum. To the right of the tree is a wide set of stairs leading upward to the Tsu- rugaoka Hachimangu Shrine, which is above and out of sight. There is a courtyard in the foreground and a traditional building on the right. A second picture shows a Japanese man standing between the base of the tree and the stairway. The immense size of the tree is indicated by the relative size of people in both pictures. On January 2, 2007, the courtyard was packed with a dense crowd of people waiting to visit the shrine to say their New Year's prayers. Afterwards they buy a \"Omikuji\", or written prediction for the coming year, and have the chance to buy a special white arrow called \"Hamaya\" for keeping away unhappiness. Police and special officials were carefully regulating traffic up the temple steps to prevent injuries. As a result, we were unable to measure the size of the tree. A sign at the base of the tree today states that it is over 1000 years old, approximately 100 feet (32 m) tall and 23 feet (7 m) in girth. The ginkgo tree still dominates the courtyard area, though R. B. PRIMACK The giant Ginkgo tree at the Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine, photographed by J. G. Jack in 1905 (#AAE-00114 from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). The giant Ginkgo at the New Year's celebration in 2007. 16 Arnoldia 65\/3 The base of the giant Ginkgo at the Tsurugaoka Hachimangu Shrine, photographed by J. G. Jack in 1905 (#AAE-00115 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The base of the giant Ginkgo tree in 2007. on this winter day the tree was leafless. The tree had been heavily pruned recently to help it regain a symmetrical shape following heavy typhoon damage three years ago. The trunk was encircled by a stylized rice straw rope called \"Shimenawa\", a traditional symbol showing the boundary of the shire sanctuary. Giant Witness Ginkgo in Tokyo In the crowded, chic Tokyo neighborhood of Azabu stands the Zenpukuji Temple, founded in 824 A.D. According to legend, a famous Buddhist priest visited the temple in 1232 A.D. and planted his staff in the ground. The staff later put forth buds and grew into the giant Ginkgo tree photographed in 1914 by Wilson. The tree was declared a national monument in 1926, and is among the oldest in Tokyo. Wilson records it as being 50 feet (16 m) in height and 30 feet (9 m) in diameter, which is probably close to its size today. The tree has seen lots of history: in 1859, the Temple was used as the first American embassy in Japan, and the assistant ambassador was assassinated nearby by angry samurai just few years later. The basic shape of the tree is still the same as it was in the past. The main trunk is apparently formed by the fusion of multiple trunks which then broke off about 12 feet (4 m) from the ground. A secondary trunk formed from this main trunk, and was itself later broken off at about 36 feet (12 m) from the ground. There are now about ten additional secondary trunks developing both from the top of the trunk and the base of the tree. Many of the older branches are covered with \"chichis\" or \"hanging breasts.\" These stalactite-like structures are downward growing shoots that are typical of ancient ginkgos throughout Asia. Some of these chichis are quite impressive, measuring more R. B. PRIMACK Ancient and Notable 17 The Ginkgo tree at Zenpukuji Temple in Tokyo, as photographed by E. H. Wilson (#AAE-03739 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). R. B. PRIMACK R. B. PRIMACK The massive trunk of the Zenpukuji Ginkgo in 2007. The cemetery grounds in 2007 with the Ginkgo in the background and a statue of a Buddhist priest to the left. 18 Arnoldia 65\/3 than 6 feet (2 m) in length and 15 inches (37 cm) in diameter at the base. The trunk has many rotting holes and a bamboo is sprouting from the top of the split trunk. During World War II, the tree trunk was badly damaged by bombs, with burn marks still visible on the trunk. In Wilson's photo, the area around the tree appears to be fairly open. However, today there is a wall blocking the view to the temple buildings on the left, there are trees planted in the courtyard, and there is a profusion of gravestones. Facing the main entrance to the cemetery is a greenish copper statue of a Buddhist priest, with a large sign that requests visitors to go to the temple to make a donation before paying their respects at family gravestones. The Ghosts of Ancient Trees at Nara Wilson photographed a series of ancient trees in Nara, the former capital near Kyoto. Nara Park near the city center is filled with winding paths, temples, and gardens. The park has a peculiar quality because of large numbers of tame deer that roam freely, and the black plastic netting which covers many tree trunks to prevent deer from stripping off the bark. We readily located the Kofukuji Temple and pagoda where a magnificent black pine had grown before and was photographed by Wilson. According to tradition, this tree was planted in the 9th century. Unfortunately the tree was gone, and a memorial plaque announced that the tree had died in 1937. We next visited a bridge extending over a ravine, with a small shrine on the right side. A Wilson photo shows a giant Sugi tree (Cryptomeria japonica (L. f.) D. Don) on the left. On the right side a Chinese juniper (Junipers chinensis L.) leans slightly to the right with a Sugi tree growing out of its split trunk, and leaning slightly to the left. In 2007, the scene looked surprisingly similar, except that the damaged bridge is now being supported by a network of poles. Unfortunately all three trees are now dead though their trunks are still visible; two poles support the leaning trunk of the juniper tree. The final Wilson picture from Nara shows a massive oak (Quercus gilva Blume), described as 90 feet (27.4 m) in height and 30 feet (9.1 m) in diameter. The tree has large buttresses An unusual side branch of the Zenpukuji Ginkgo showing its prominent chichis (Wilson photo #AAE03700 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). R. B. PRIMACK The unusual side branch, shown above, photographed in 2007. Ancient and Notable 19 The magnificent pine of Nara photographed by E. H. Wilson in 1914 (#AAE-03350 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The tree died in 1937. R. B. PRIMACK The bridge and shrine at Nara with the two Cryptomerias and one Juniper photographed by E. H. Wilson in 1914 (AAE-03351 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). The Cryptomeria bridge in 2007 with the trunks of the dead trees still standing on either side of the small red hut. 20 Arnoldia 65\/3 coming out from the trunk and sweeping to the left. After considerable searching failed to locate this distinctive tree, we did locate a huge tree stump cut off at about 3 feet (1 m) from the ground. Based on the sheer size of the stump and the distinctive buttresses still present, this is almost certainly the remains of this ancient tree. In the end, none of the ancient trees from Nara that Wilson photographed are still alive. Japanese White Pines on the Rocky Island in Lake Towada The Ebisudaikoku Island is named after two shrines, Ebisu and Daikokuten. They are the gods of wealth and commerce, two of the seven deities of good fortune. The island, which is located in Lake Towada, in northern Honshu, originated as part of central cone of the Towada volcanic caldera. On October 10, 1914, Wilson noted that Japanese white pine trees (Pinus parviflora S. & Z.) dominated the island and were between 45 to 50 ft (1416 m) tall and 2 to 4 ft (0.61.3 m) in circumference. The pine canopies completely covered the Daikokuten shrine at that time and the understory vegetation was sparse. In today's photograph, taken on July 2, 2007, some of the past canopy trees have died. The heights of the pines that are still alive are remarkably similar to what they were in Wilson's day. The shrine buildings are now exposed to direct sunlight, and the understory shrubs are more abundant than in 1914. This is the typical pathway of vegetation succession following the death of canopy pines. Acknowledgements The authors wish to thank the many people in Japan who helped us to locate these trees, and the staff of the Arnold Arboretum who have taken care of these photos and made them accessible online. Richard Primack (primack@bu.edu) is professor of biology at Boston University and a recent Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. Tatsuhiro Ohkubo (ohkubo@cc.utsunomiyau.ac.jp) is professor of forest science at Utsunomiya University. A massive Quercus gilva at Nara photographed by E. H. Wilson in 1914 (#AAE-03359 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). R. B. PRIMACK The presumed stump of Wilson's Quercus gilva, with massive buttresses similar to the ones visible in the original photo. Ancient and Notable 21 Wilson's 1914 photograph of the Japanese white pines on the island in Lake Towada (#AAE-03642 from the Arnold Arboretum Archives). SHINGO NARA The island in Lake Towada, photographed on July 2, 2007. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Search for Two Rare Maples","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25436","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170b326.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":3,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Li, Jianhua","article_content":"The Search for Two Rare Maples Jianhua Li or most people in eastern North America, the first maple trees that come to mind are native species such as sugar maple (Acer saccharum), red maple (A. rubrum), or the box elder (A. negundo). When it comes to introduced species, the most familiar ones are widely planted Japanese maple (A. palmatum) and Norway maple (A. platanoides). From a worldwide perspective, maples occur across all temperate areas in the Northern Hemisphere, with a slight extension to the subtropics and tropics of Southeast Asia. Of the approximately one hundred and fifty species that have been described, over two-thirds of them occur in Asia. The vast majority of maples are deciduous, and justifiably famous for producing brilliant fall color, but a few of the Asian species are evergreen. From an evolutionary perspective, the genus Acer has been around for at least 40 million years, during which time it has undergone extensive speciation and extinction. From a more modern perspective, the genus Acer was established by Linnaeus in 1753, and since then more than 200 species of maple have been described, of which about 150 are commonly recognized by botanists. Some of them have extremely wide geographic distributions, such as box elder which grows across most of North America, while others are restricted to a single, remote location. Because roughly two thirds of maples occur in China and because one of my research focuses has been on elucidating the maple \"family tree,\" I have been collaborating with colleagues in China for the past few years to visit the areas where maples grow and to collect herbarium specimens and DNA samples. More recently, I have been anxious to obtain material of two very rare species--Acer yangjuechi and Acer wardii--to fill in some prominant gaps in my taxonomic study. Below is the story of my search of these elusive species in their native habitats. F Acer yangjuechi The species name of this maple, \"yangjuechi,\" is derived from the local name of the plant, which literally translates as \"sheep's horn\" and refers to the similarity of the shape of seeds to the horns of a sheep. It was first described in 1979 based on specimens collected from Mt. Tianmu in Zhejiang Province in eastern China (Fang, 1979). It is similar to Miaotai maple (A. miaotaiense), a species in southwestern Shaanxi and southern Gansu Provinces, but differs by virtue of its larger fruits and hairy branchlets and leaf undersides. Sheep-horn maple also resembles the Japanese species, A. miyabei but differs in its overall hairiness. ALL PHOTOGRAPHS BY THE AUTHOR Figure 1. Acer yangjuechi in cultivation on Tian Mu Mountain, Zhejiang Provence, China. Rare Maples 23 Figure 2. The seeds of Acer yangjuechi. Figure 3. Acer acutum on Tian Mu Mountain. Figure 4. Acer maximowiczianum on Tian Mu Mountain. Figure 5. Stewartia sinensis on Tian Mu Mountain. Upon arriving at the Mt. Tianmu Reserve in April 2007, we learned from our official guide, Mr. Mingshui Zhao, that only a few sheep-horn maples were still alive. Mt. Tianmu is located about 60 miles (100 kilometers) west of Hangzhou and is famous for the gigantic trees of Ginkgo biloba and Cryptomeria fortunei (Del Tredici et al., 1992). In an effort to preserve genetic resources of this species in case the plants disappear from natural or artificial causes, my students--Jinhuo Jiang and Mimi Li--and I spent a day with Mr. Zhao looking for specimens of the sheep-horn maple. Mr. Zhao had seen the species a few years before, but was not certain whether it still existed today. To make sure that we obtain genetic material of the species, we first visited two trees cultivated in the resort village located at the foot of the mountain (Figure 1). The trunk was grayish and covered with moss and the yellowish-green leaves had three to five lobes with coarsely toothed margins. The plants were covered with immature samaras with reddish wings spread out at a nearly horizontal disposition (Figure 2). Around 8:30 in the morning, we took a tourist van up the mountain to the entrance of the nature reserve not far from the Old Temple, a landmark building on Mt. Tianmu at an elevation of about 900 meters. Near the entrance to the Temple we saw two other maple species, both young saplings without fruits. The first was the pointed-leaf maple (A. acutum), which belongs to the Norway maple group which produced 6 to 7-lobed leaves with sharply toothed margins (Figure 3) and a drop of the milky sap oozes when the leaf stalk was broken. The other species was the Tianmu maple (A. sinopurpurascens) with beautifully veined 3 to 5lobed leaves, which is similar to the devil maple (A. diabolicum) of Japan. 24 Arnoldia 65\/3 Figure 6. Mr. Zhao next to the largest specimen of Acer yangjuechi on Tian Mu Mountain. Figure 7. The crown of Acer yangjuechi. While the main path leads people up to the summit from the Old Temple, we followed the trail down the mountain and then veered off into the woods to look for the sheep-horn maple. Here we saw several saplings of another maple species with trifoliate leaves which were densely hairy on their undersides (A. maximowiczianum) (Figure 4). A few other plants were in bloom or fruiting including Helwingia japonica, Stachyurus chinensis, Daphniphyllum macropodium, Arisaema sikokianum, and an unidentified Iris species. After eating our lunch in the woods, we climbed up to a mountain ridge and were greeted by some azaleas (Rhododendron simsii) blooming in various shades of red, white, and light blue. I was particularly pleased to see a large specimen of Chinese stewartia, Stewartia sinensis, that looked very much like the one growing at the Arnold Arboretum that had been sent from the Nanjing Botanical Garden in 1934 (Figure 5). Given that I have been working on the phylogeny of Stewartia for several years, it was particularly exciting to see this tree--covered with flower buds--growing in the wild. From the mountain ridge we had to go downhill to find the sheep-horn maple. The understory vegetation was different here from the other side of the mountain, the dominant plant being a bamboo in the genus Indocalamus. Since bamboos are tall and form interlocking thickets, it took some effort to get through it. Mr. Zhao led the way but had to stop frequently to find his direction. Three years earlier he searched for the sheep-horn maple but ended up getting lost, so I kept my fingers crossed that we would have a better luck this time around. After about an hour or so of plowing through bamboo, Mr. Zhao shouted out that he found the tree. I pushed my way through the thicket and saw him standing next to a stately tree with a grey trunk (Figure 6). We searched the surrounding area for seedlings or saplings of sheep-horn maple but could only find those of a different species with three leaflets (Acer henryi). The lack of seedlings is probably due to a number of factors including intense competition from the bamboo and predation by insects. After finishing our search of the area, I finally took a break to examine the old sheep-horn maple closely. The task filled me with a mixture of excitement and sadness because the tree, which was 20 meters tall with a diameter of 30 centimeters at the breast height, was decidedly unhealthy (Figure 7). The trunk had a gaping hole in it and insects have so damaged the foliage that it failed to produce any fruits. Luckily, we did manage to get a few undamaged leaves Rare Maples 25 to preserve the genetic blueprint of this rapidly disappearing species. We left the area filled with a great sense of accomplishment, thankful that the time spent trekking around the mountain through bamboo thickets and winding pathways in the hazy and humid weather had not been wasted. Upon our return to Hangzhou, Mimi Li, one of graduate students at Zhejiang University, obtained some DNA sequence data from both chloroplast and nuclear genomes of the sheephorn maple. Our preliminary analyses indicate that it is indeed closely related to the Japanese species A. miyabei, but we need to include another Chinese species, A. miaotaiense, in our analysis in order to determine what its closest relative is. Acer wardii The quest for the next maple brought me to Yunnan Province in the southwestern part of China, an area long considered the botanical treasure land of the country. More than sixty species of maples occur naturally in Yunnan, and so it is no surprise that Ward's maple (Acer wardii) should also be one of them. This rare species, whose leaves have only three lobes, was named by W. W. Smith in 1917, to honor Frank Kingdon Ward (18851958) the English plant hunter who first collected it in Upper Myanmar (the country formerly known as Burma). The species also grows in Assam, India and in Yunnan and Xizang Provinces, China. Ward's maple was first introduced to England by George Forest at the end of 19th century. Unfortunately the plant did not survive, and it is probably still not in cultivation in the West. In early May of this year I was fortunate to visit Mt. Gaoligong in northwestern Yunnan with a group of researchers from the Kunming Institute of Botany (KIB). Prior to the trip, I had gotten a few specks of leaf tissue of Ward's maple from Peter Wharton of the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden and had been able to extract DNA sequences of the sample for several genome regions. Despite this limited success, it was still unclear which group of maples Acer wardii was most closely allied with. Based on morphological features alone, it seemed to stand between the Japanese maple and the American stripe bark maple (A. pensylvanicum). The primary goal for my trip, therefore, was to collect specimens to further resolve the question of its affinity to other maples. I flew to Kunming from Hangzhou on the afternoon of April 30 and early the next morning our van left for Mt. Gaoligong with 15 people on aboard, all from KIB except for myself and Dr. Jin Xiaohua, who was from the Beijing Institute of Botany. Since the week of May 1st was a vacation week in celebration of the World Labor Day the highway teemed with buses, cars, and vans. However, the bustling traffic did not dampen my spirits: I had not visited the area for about fifteen years and was excited at the prospect of seeing how everything had changed. Whereas before there was no highway between Kunming and Dali, the one-way trip took an arduous twelve hours, but with the new road, the time travel between these two cities Figure 8. Acer oligocarpum. Figure 9. Leycesteria formosa in fruit. 26 Arnoldia 65\/3 Figure 10. The foliage of Acer wardii. Figure 11. The distinctive leaves and unopened flower buds of Acer wardii. was reduced to four hours. Change was clearly happening as rapidly in Yunnan as it was everywhere else in China. Be that as it may, it still took us nearly two days to get from Dali to Gongshan Xian, the town where we were to begin our hike. By the time we reached our destination, the long and tiring journey had taken its toll on me and I was feeling pretty sick. I was also worried that it would not get better and would hold up the rest of the group. Xiaohua suggested that I stay in the inn for the day to rest up while he went out to look for the maple with the guide. However, no one but me knew what the plant looked like and I hated to miss the opportunity to find the plant after coming such a long way. So we compromised by taking a taxi instead of hiking the first half hour of the trip. We went down to the valley from the dirt road where the taxi dropped us off, crossed a suspension bridge (see inside front cover), and hiked along the river. Not far from the bridge we saw a Schneider maple (A. schneiderianum) with five, deeply lobed leaves. Several yards from it was a semi-evergreen maple, A. oligocarpum (Figure 8), with simple, entire leaves and aborted terminal buds similar to those of the Japanese maple. We found a plant of the Himalayan honeysuckle, Leycesteria formosa (Caprifoliaceae), with many young fruits (Figure 9) and we saw patches of a common orchid in bloom with greenish yellow flowers. We also found the giant Cardiocrinum lily in its vegetative state with large leaves and immature flower. By noon we were still four hours from where the specimen of Acer wardii had been collected and I did not feel any better. Following the guide's advice we decided to turn back. It was clearly a good decision since just climbing up the hill from the valley to where the taxi dropped us off took more than half an hour. It was getting dark when we got back to the inn. The next morning we drove back to Liuku town for the night. The next day our van followed the winding mountain road to the summit pass called Pianmayakou where we saw many interesting plants including Ranunculus (buttercup), Lindera (spicebush), and Arundinella (bamboo) and the top of the mountain was covered with rhododendron thickets. After half an hour botanizing at the summit we went back to the winding road and drove downhill to the other side. About noon we got to the city of Pianma bordering Myanmar. Here we visited a museum housing a United States C-53 cargo aircraft which had been restored from wreckages that were discovered near the border in 1996. It was built as a memorial to the hundreds of US pilots who died while transporting supplies between New Dehli and Kunming (known as the \"hump\") during World War II. I found the display deeply moving because it reminded Rare Maples 27 me of the great sacrifices the American people made in helping the Chinese defend their country against the Japanese invasion. While our van took the others back to the pass where we had collected specimens in the morning, Lianming Gao (a researcher at KIB), Xiaohua, and I walked back up the mountain botanizing and collecting. My focus was again on finding Acer wardii since this area is part of Mt. Gaoligong. The maples were easy to spot because the reddish color of their emerging leaves made them stand out like flames against the mountain. Unfortunately, almost all of the maples we saw had leaves with five lobes. To my surprise and great joy, however, I spotted a small tree with red, three-lobed leaves next to a maple with five-lobed leaves growing on a ten-foot high cliff above us in full sun. Xiaohua climbed up and threw a small twig down to me. It was clearly Acer wardii, with each of its leaf lobes terminating with a long, sharp-pointed tip. The flowers were typical for a maple, but were not yet open. We saw a few more individuals in the area, which were absolutely beautiful under the blue sky with their reddish leaves (Figures 10 and 11). Finding Acer wardii was the highlight of my brief trip to Mt. Gaoligong, and seeing how beautiful it was in the wild makes me believe that Ward's maple would make a great ornamental tree, albeit somewhat tender and in need of protection in areas with a harsh winter. Maples are one of the most diverse tree groups in the Northern Hemisphere and they play an important role in both natural and man-made forest ecosystems. It is important to conduct detailed studies on the diversity, geographic distribution, ecology, evolution, and biology of maples in their native habitats before they disappear forever. Such information will not only help to preserve and protect endangered species, but will also help people learn how to use maples in a sustainable manner. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Jessica R. Li and Peter Del Tredici for reading and improving the article. References Fang, W. 1979. Praecursores florae Aceracearum sinensium. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 17: 6086. Del Tredici, P., H. Ling, and G. Yang. 1992. The Ginkgos of Tian Mu Shan. Conservation Biology 6: 202 209. Smith, W. W. 1917. Diagnoses specierum novarum. Notes of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh 10: 8. Jianhua Li is a senior research scientist at the Arnold Arboretum working on phylogenetics and biogeography of woody plants. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 00042633. 3. Filing Date: 8 January 2008. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500, publisher; Nancy Rose, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: September 2007. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,300. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,300. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1) Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 53. No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 53. (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2096. No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2109. (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: none. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,149. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,162. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 262. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 261. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 500. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 500. f. Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 762. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 761. g. Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,911. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,923. h. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 389. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 377. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,300. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,300. j. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 73.8%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 73.9%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Peter Del Tredici, Acting Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Golden Afternoon","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25433","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170ab6f.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":3,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"A Golden Afternoon Michael Dosmann estled at the base of the conifer collection and straddling the banks of Bussey Brook stands one of the most picturesque plantings in the Arboretum: a grove of mature golden larches, Pseudolarix amabilis. In the winter, one marvels at their stately, flat-topped form; girthy branches defying gravity. Each spring, from small branch spurs, new leaves flush greenish-yellow before turning dark green by mid-summer. But, it is in autumn that the species takes on its true majesty, when the leaves seem to be on fire, becoming the intense golden-yellow that gives the species its common name. Pseudolarix is a monotypic genus (i.e., it has but one species), and is a moderately rare tree of east-central China. It resembles the true larches (Larix) by having both long- and short-shoots (spurs) and deciduous leaves, however the male cones are borne in clusters at the ends of the short shoots as are the solitary female cones, which resemble miniature artichokes before disintegrating as they release their seeds. Robert Fortune, the famous Scottish plant explorer responsible for innumerable horticultural introductions from Asia, first collected seeds of Pseudolarix in modern-day Zhejiang Province, China, in the autumn of 1853. Some of the massive trees he found in the wild reached impressive sizes, oftentimes exceeding 35 meters (115 feet) in height. Although he collected seeds, germination was very poor and most of the plants first in cultivation in the west were seedlings brought back in the infamous Wardian cases. By the 1870s, cultivated European trees began producing seeds, and many nurseries in the UK were offering young plants for sale. However, it was not until May of 1891 that the Arboretum received its first plants from the English firm of Veitch and Sons. These two individuals, accessions 3656-A and 3565-B, were planted on opposite banks of Bussey Brook. They con- N tinue to thrive, and 3656-B stands tallest in the collection, with a height of 24.5 meters (80 feet) and a DBH of 80 centimeters (2.5 feet). In 1896, the Arboretum received seed from the Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Massachusetts, which was collected from a mature tree Horatio Hollis Hunnewell had purchased from Veitch back in 1866. Two plants of this 1896 seedlot, accessions 16779-A (see facing page) and 16779-B, also grow on the banks of Bussey Brook; 16779-B has the stoutest stem of any in the collection, with an impressive diameter at breast height of 91.4 centimeters (3 feet). A bit higher up on the slope stands accession 10764A, another plant received from the Hunnewell's on April 22, 1921 with the moniker Pseudolarix amabilis nana. However, this tree did not live up to its dwarf name, for by 1946 it was at least 9 meters (30 feet) tall, prompting Heman Howard to note in the records: \"nothing `nana' about this plant.\" By coincidence, the Arboretum's archives contain a photograph taken by Alfred Rehder on June 21, 1921 of a `dwarf' Pseudolarix growing in a container; most likely the same individual. Despite being 30 years younger than the two oldest specimens, this tree is nearly as tall, with a height of 21.1 meters (70 feet). The only wild-collected golden larches in the Arboretum came from Tian Mu Shan, Zhejiang Province, and are represented by 5 plants in accession 187-94. Plant A of this accession was planted in the Bussey Brook grove in 2000 and has grown very well, already reaching 8.2 meters (27 feet) in height. The next time you come to the Arboretum, be sure to visit the grove of golden larches-- each season reveals a bit of its personality. As you stroll Conifer Path and cross the bridge over Bussey Brook, you can admire their majesty and reflect upon their history. Michael Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23407","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25e816e.jpg","title":"2008-65-3","volume":65,"issue_number":3,"year":2008,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Vardar Valley' Boxwood and Its Balkan Brothers","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25432","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170a76b.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"`Vardar Valley' Boxwood and Its Balkan Brothers Peter Del Tredici In 1934, I visited Rumania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia under the joint auspices of Harvard University and the United States Department of Agriculture, choosing by preference the sun-baked areas of the northwestern Balkans, which have cold, dry winters like ours [St. Louis]. I attempted to collect seeds and cuttings of four interesting evergreens, holly, ivy, yew, and box, on the theory that, even though they looked more or less identical with these same species in northern Europe, they must be different on the inside. --Edgar Anderson, 1945 W ith these words, the former director of the Missouri Botanical Garden and one-time Arnold Arboretum staff member, Edgar Anderson described his memorable trip across eastern Europe in search of reliably hardy, broadleaved evergreens. At the time, it may have appeared as just another Arboretum collecting expedition to a distant corner of the globe. But looking back on it-- seventy-three years later--we know it was a special trip that resulted in the introduction of a horticulturally important strain of the common or English boxwood, Buxus sempervirens, collected from wild plants growing along the Treska River just outside the city of Skopje, the capitol of Macedonia. In 1957--some twenty-three years after the fact--the first of Anderson's boxwood selections was named `Vardar Valley' because of its outstanding winter hardiness and mounded growth form. As this cultivar spread slowly through the nursery trade during the 1970s and 80s, it became apparent that `Vardar Valley' was resistant to virtually all pests and disease--including the dreaded boxwood decline--that were damaging or killing common boxwood across eastern North America. The recognition of this resistance, together with its hardiness and compact habit, caused an explosive increase in the landscape use of `Vardar Valley', beginning in the 1990s and continuing through today. Edgar Anderson, the Man Before proceeding further with the story of Buxus `Vardar Valley', it would be appropriate to take a look at the man who discovered this important cultivar. Edgar Anderson was born in Forestville, New York in 1897, and moved to East Lansing, Michigan as a child. He attended Michigan Agricultural College (now Michigan State University), where his father was a professor of dairy husbandry, and graduated in 1918. Anderson received his doctorate from the Bussey Institution of Harvard University in 1922, where he studied the tobacco genus, Nicotiana, under the direction of Dr. Edward M. East. The Bussey was located adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum and provided Anderson with an opportunity to familiarize himself with the collections and get to know various staff members. While at the Bussey, Edgar met Dorothy Moore, a laboratory assistant working for East while finishing up her master's degree in botany from Wellesley College. The two were married in 1923. Following his graduation from Harvard in 1922, Anderson went to work for the Missouri Botanical Garden, and in 1929 was awarded a National Research Fellowship for study in England with a focus on genetics under the guidance of J. B. S. Haldane. He also studied cytology with C. D. Darlington at the John Innes Horticultural Institute, and statistics with Boxwood 3 The original plant of Buxus sempervirens `Vardar Valley,' AA 352-35-E, was 23.3 feet wide by 8.3 feet tall (7 m x 2.5 m) in December, 2006. R. A. Fisher at the Rothampstead Field Station. Anderson returned to the Missouri Botanical Garden in 1930 and, a year later, accepted an appointment as arborist at the Arnold Arboretum where he worked until the fall of 1935. The primary responsibilities of Anderson's position were care of the living collections and furthering the Arboretum's relations with the public. In his biographical sketch of Anderson, John Finan notes that the four years he spent at the Arnold Arboretum were frustrating because of \"the large number of speaking and other public service obligations at the Arboretum did not allow him to pursue his research interests. Indeed, the press of duties became so great that, as Dorothy Anderson's diary records describe, he suffered severe exhaustion in the spring of 1934. He went with his family to England in July, 1934 and he spent August and September on a collecting trip to the Balkans.\" Anderson resigned his position in the summer of 1935 and returned to the Missouri Botanical Garden, where he spent the remainder of his botanical career. Today, Anderson is remembered primarily for his groundbreaking work on the role that hybridization plays in the evolution of plants, summarized in his book Introgressive Hybridization, published in 1949. He was also interested in the history of domesticated plants AUTHOR PHOTOGRAPH 4 Arnoldia 65\/2 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM never wavered in his belief that he could make life better for others by his kindness toward them, and his ability to share with them his extraordinary perception of the wonders of plant life, and what plants could mean to people. Edgar Anderson, \"Arnold Arboretum Arborist 1931.\" and in 1952 published a popular book on the subject, Plants, Man and Life, which is still in print. Anderson was appointed director of the Missouri Botanical Garden in 1954, but resigned in 1957 to go back to the teaching and research that he so dearly loved. During his lifetime Anderson was awarded many honors, including membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the National Academy of Sciences, and the Darwin-Wallace Medal of the Linnaean Society. He died in St. Louis in 1969 at the age of seventy-two. Writing in 1972, his good friend, G. Ledyard Stebbins of the University of California, Davis, described Anderson's well-known humanitarian side with the following words: I cannot conclude without referring to Edgar Anderson's great faith in mankind, which let him to adopt and follow zealously the Quaker religion and way of life. He accepted family tragedies calmly and resolutely. His inner conflict with himself was never wholly resolved, but he The Balkan Expedition Anderson's trip to the Balkans during the summer of 1934 is not usually mentioned in his list of scientific accomplishments, but it was Anderson's most important foray into the field of ornamental horticulture, and `Vardar Valley' its most significant result. Indeed, the only other ornamentals--besides Buxus--that Anderson collected on the trip, which are still commercially grown, are two cultivars of Baltic Ivy (Hedera helix var. baltica) `MBG Rumania' and `MBG Bulgaria.' Anderson was not successful in his attempt to introduce a winter-hardy butcher's broom (Ruscus spp.), cherry laurel (Prunus laurocerasus var. shipkaiensis), or English holly (Ilex aquifolium). Several specimens collected from the trip, however, are still growing on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum: including three accessions of European yew (Taxus baccata, AA #935-34, 370-35 and 371-35), one wild lilac (Syringa vulgaris, AA #949-34), and one wild pear (Pyrus elaeagrifolia, AA #948-34). The story of how Anderson came to collect Balkan boxwood is best told in his own words, from an article he wrote for The Boxwood Bulletin in 1963: Boxwoods are not evenly distributed all over Europe; there is a northern area where they are found and then another separate area at the south. At the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew and at the Botanical Gardens in Belgrade by consultation and study in the herbarium I found that the northernmost extension of this southern strain was just outside of Skopelie [Skopje] in the valley of the Vardar River, in the Macedonian edge of Yugoslavia. The government gave me a courier to travel with me and help in buying tickets, reporting to the police, carrying luggage and generally serving as a companion. He was a White Russian and spoke almost no English but he spoke fluent German and we communicated in that language. Our directions had been to go to a monastery in the outskirts of Skopelie and that there we would find boxwood in quantity. My memory A German Army map from 1937 showing the Treska Gorge and the Treska River. The white arrow indicates the location of the Monastery of St. Andreja near where Anderson collected `Vardar Valley.' The region has changed considerable since Anderson's time, due to the construction of a masonry dam near the Monastery. The coordinates for the Treska Gorge are 41 58' N and 21 18' E. HARVARD MAP ARCHIVES 6 Arnoldia 65\/2 is that we took some sort of conveyance out to the bridge over either the Vardar or one of its tributaries and then proceeded afoot along the pathway which led to the unpretentious little whitewashed monastery. [Author's note: This is most likely the Monastary of Sveti Andreja on the banks of the Treska River, which flows into the Vardar River southwest of Skopje.] The river bed, broad and gravelly, was at one side and the mountains from which the stream rose loomed ahead, dry and rocky with some shrubs on the lower slopes and here and there an occasional battered tree. The records of the monastery showed that up to a few hundred years ago the mountain was largely covered with a beechwood ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM forest, from which the monastery had drawn a substantial part of its revenue. Over-cutting and over-grazing had destroyed the forest. Heavy erosion had done the rest and much of the mountain was down to the bare rock. Goats, which were still everywhere, were the worst offenders and when we came to the acres and acres of boxwood they too were nibbled, sometimes almost down to the ground; seldom or never were they over shoulder high. While the boxwoods grew in great abundance there were other characteristic evergreen shrubs in with them; big bushy thyme and rosemarys I remember in particular. At the time of our visit the seeds were already ripe and had been scattered by the browsing Anderson photos #17415 with the following caption: \"Yugoslavia, Skoplje [sic], Treska Gorge. Buxus sempervirens habitat. Photos. by Edgar Anderson, Sept. 19, 1934. Locality where herbarium specimen #133 was collected.\" In the picture on the left, note the boxwood growing along the edge of the road and up the steep slope of the gorge. In the picture on the right, note the Treska River flowing at the base of the Treska Gorge and the boxwood dominating the slopes. Boxwood 7 goats. We got down on our hands and knees and picked up the shiny black sees (a little smaller than apple seeds) from underneath the bushes. It was slow work but we eventually got a hundred or so. We also took cuttings to send back airmail to my collaborators in England and made herbarium specimens of the boxwoods and other shrubs. The bushes had been so heavily grazed it was difficult to tell anything about their growth habit but from the stubs that were left it was easy to see that there was much more variation from bush to bush than in the boxwoods which grew wild (or apparently so) at Box Hill in the south of England. They varied conspicuously in leaf size and in leaf shape and in the amount of bluish bloom on the leaves. In the Arnold Arboretum Archives I unearthed several of the photographs Anderson took while on his Balkan trip, including several taken on September 19 of location #133 in the Treska Gorge area, and of boxwoods that were growing there. These photos are particularly noteworthy because this is where Anderson collected the plant that would eventually become the cultivar `Vardar Valley' (AA #352-35). I was elated at the thought that I might have discovered a photograph of the original `Vardar Valley' growing in the wilds of Macedonia. But the joy was quashed after I located an undated, typewritten manuscript that Anderson wrote, probably in mid to late 1935, \"Report on Balkan Expedition to the Arnold Arboretum.\" It lists all of his collections, including Buxus sempervirens #133, which he describes as consisting of seeds from two plants (given AA numbers 789-34 and 818-34), and cuttings from two plants, (given AA numbers 352-35 and 353-35). The report clearly indicates that Anderson used #133 to designate a collection location rather than in reference to a specific, individual plant. The truth of this supposition was confirmed when I obtained a high resolution scan of Anderson's original Buxus sempervirens herbarium specimen #133 from the Harvard University Herbaria, which showed a plant with long, narrow leaves as opposed to the distinctly rounded leaves that are typical of `Vardar Valley'. Lynn Batdorf, boxwood curator at the U. S. National Arboretum and registrar for the genus Buxus, examined the scan and reported that \"the leaves Anderson photos #17416 with the following caption: \"Yugoslavia, Skoplje, Treska Gorge. Buxus sempervirens. Photos. by Edgar Anderson, 1934. Herbarium specimen #133.\" of herbarium specimen #133 are elliptic to oblong with an obtuse apex, while the leaves of `Vardar Valley' are larger, far more ovate shaped with an acute apex.\" The Publication of `Vardar Valley' Anderson collected cuttings from four different boxwood plants during the course of his Balkans expedition: two from cultivated plants in Bucharest, Romania and two from wild plants at location #133 outside Skopje. Anderson sent the plants and cuttings directly to the John Innes Horticultural Institute in London rather than to ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 8 Arnoldia 65\/2 Buxus sempervires accessions received by the Arnold Arboretum from Anderson's 1934 Balkans Expedition: 350-35 = \"Buxus sempervirens #1 Bucharest E. Anderson. (from the John Innes Hort Inst., Mostyn Rd., London SW. 19) April 1, 1935. 20 cutts April 2, 1935. 18 boxed Dec. 3, 1935.\" [According to Anderson's undated report, these cuttings were collected from a cultivated plant. One specimen was planted on the AA grounds in 1950; it was removed in July, 1982.] 351-35 = \"Buxus sempervirens #2 E. Anderson. Bucharest, Rumania April 1, 1935. 66 cutts April 2, 1935. 58 boxed Dec. 3, 1935.\" [According to Anderson's undated report to the Arnold Arboretum, these cuttings were collected from a cultivated plant. Two specimens of #351-35 were planted on the AA grounds in 1950; plant A was removed in April 1981; the name of plant B was changed to Buxus sempervirens suffruticosa by Donald Wyman on Oct. 25, 1956, and on Sept. 24, 1960 it was \"stolen by vandals\". In 1984, this clone was assigned the cultivar name `Edgar Anderson' by Mary Gamble in The Boxwood Bulletin 24: 4153.] 352-35 = \"Buxus sempervirens. Treska Gorge, Skoplje #133. E. Anderson, April 1, 1935. 44 cutts April 2, 1935. (42). 40 boxed Dec. 3, 1935.\" [This accession was named `Vardar Valley' by Donald Wyman.] 353-35 = \"Buxus sempervirens, E. Anderson no label, April 1, 1935; 58 cutts April 2, 1935. (52) 50 boxed Dec. 3, 1935.\" [According to Anderson's undated report to the Arnold Arboretum, these cuttings were part of collection #133 at Treska Gorge. An unsigned note at the bottom of the accession card reads: \"Do not name this clone. It is not as good as `Inglis', and has a few browned leaves 4\/27\/66. On this date it is 6' tall, 7' across. Foliage lighter green than the much lower `Varder Valley.'\" According to Arboretum records, one specimen was planted on the grounds in 1950, and was removed in November, 1982. A cutting of this plant at the National Arboretum was given the cultivar name `Scupi' in 1998 and registered in 2000.] 789-34: \"Buxus sempervirens. seed #133 E. Anderson. Treska Gorge, Skoplje, Yugo-Slavia. Oct 5, 1934. germ Dec. 27, 1934. 25 boxed Dec. 27, 1934.\" [According to Arboretum records, one specimen was planted on the grounds in 1950, and was reported missing in 1986. One plant from this seed lot at the National Arboretum was given the cultivar name `Treska Gorge' in 1998 and registered in 2000.] 818-34: \"Buxus sempervirens. seed #133 E. Anderson. Treska Gorge, Skoplje. Oct 30, 1934. germ June 20, 1935. 7 potted July 16, 1936.\" [According to Arboretum records, none of these seedlings were planted on the grounds or distributed.] the Arnold Arboretum for two reasons: first, the stopover would cut down on the length of time the fragile material would spend in transit; and second, Anderson knew people at the John Innes Institute from the time he spent there in 1929. In one of the letters he wrote from Yugoslavia to Oakes Ames,1 the supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum, Anderson listed the material he sent to the Innes Institute for propagation: \"Cutting and plants of the following sent to London: Hedera helix--5 localities; Taxus baccata--1 locality; Prunus lauro-cerasus shipkaiensis--2 localities; Buxus--1 locality; Ruscus--2 localities.\" The staff of the John Innes Horticultural Institute successfully rooted all four of Anderson's Buxus selections, and sent them on to the Arnold Arboretum, where they arrived on April 1, 1935, and were accessioned under numbers 350-35 through 353-35 [see box this page]. The Arboretum's propagator took a second generation of cuttings from the Innes Institute plants on April 2, most of which rooted and were potted up on December 3, 1935. At some point during the early 1940s, a number of these rooted cuttings were planted out on the Arboretum grounds amidst its other boxwood accessions. Around this same time, in November, 1942, one plant each of the four cutting-grown selections and one seedling from accession number AA 789-34 were distributed to the geneticist Orland E. White,2 Director of the Blandy Research Farm of the University of Virginia in Boyce, Virginia and to Henry Hohman, owner of Kingsville Nursery in Kingsville, Maryland. While other individuals and institutions undoubtedly received rooted cuttings of Anderson's boxwoods at a later date, it is likely that White and Hohman were the first to receive them because they were friends of Anderson's and both had special interests in boxwood. In 1957, Donald Wyman, who had been appointed Arnold Arboretum horticulturist in late 1935 to replace Anderson, Boxwood 9 A high resolution scan of Anderson's original herbarium specimen for Buxus sempervirens #133 housed at the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambridge and incorrectly annotated as the cultivar `Vardar Valley'. 10 Arnoldia 65\/2 formally named one of his predecessor's boxwoods `Vardar Valley.' In an article in Arnoldia, Wyman explained why the plant he selected was special: Eight plants were grown to size over a period of many years. Several of these were sent outside the Arboretum for trial elsewhere. Cuttings were sent to at least one commercial nursery which, in turn, rooted them and propagated more, selling the resulting plants [this was probably Henry Hohman]. Enthusiastic responses have come from several of these sources so that now it is thought wise to name this plant Buxus sempervirens `Vardar Valley' and to start propagating it for a wide distribution. . . . Cuttings, rooted in 1935, have grown into plants that are now four feet across, with a fairly uniform flat top, but only two feet high. This habit is of outstanding importance, for it is low enough to be covered or partially covered by snow in winter, or else it is an easy matter to protect the plant in other ways when necessary. It is unlike other varieties of Buxus sempervirens in having this low, flattopped shape. Apparently, it is as hardy as any clone we have yet tried. In January of 1957, the temperature dropped to -23 F at Weston, and although there was some snow on the ground, the top of the plant was not covered nor was it injured. A large plant in the Arboretum has not shown any marked winter injury. Reports from others in Cleveland show that it has withstood temperatures of -20 F there, and we know that it had withstood similar temperatures in Boston. The foliage is a glossy, dark green, similar to that of the species, while new young foliage is first bluish green. at the mouth of the Danube River in SalinaTuscea, Romania, describing his earlier travels: \"At Cluj my companion, Erhart Muller started back for the Harvard Medical School. He has been very helpful in many ways, gathering seeds, labeling packages, building up my German, and has greatly reduced traveling expenses since he always paid his half of cab and boat fare. I celebrated his departure by going to bed with an acute attack of diarrhea.\" What stunned me about this passage was that I actually know Erhart Muller and that he is well and living in the town of Harvard, Massachusetts, about thirty miles west of Boston. I first met him in 1972, when I was living in Harvard and working at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts. I knew that Erhart had traveled with Anderson on his Balkan trip, but somehow failed to appreciate the full significance of this fact when he told me about it thirty years ago. It wasn't until his name popped out at me from a letter written in 1934 that the proverbial light bulb went on. Maybe Erhart had been with Anderson when he collected `Vardar Valley' was my first thought. But the date of the letter in which he is mentioned, September 3, clearly indicates that he went home before Anderson collected the `Vardar Valley' cuttings on September 19. So, in much the same way that I was foiled in my attempt to turn up either a photograph or herbarium specimen of `Vardar Valley', I was thwarted in my attempt to locate a living witness to its collection. AUTHOR PHOTOGRAPH An Interesting Postscript The story of `Vardar Valley' is a worthy subject in its own right, but what really peaked my interest was a letter that Anderson wrote from the Balkans to Professor Oakes Ames, then supervisor of the Arboretum. I was reading through the archival material at the behest of my friend from Longwood Gardens, Dr. Tomasz Anisko, who was planning a trip to Skopje in the summer of 2007, and had asked me to help locate any of Anderson's original collecting books in the Arboretum Archives. The books weren't there, but the letters were. One letter in particular caught my attention; it was written on September 3, 1934, while Anderson was A portrait of Erhart Muller, December, 2006. Boxwood 11 Nevertheless, I decided to pay Erhart a visit to see what he might remember about Anderson and their trip together. The answer is, as it turns out, not very much. Erhart was born in 1909--his father had immigrated to the United States from Barmen, Germany and his mother was a New Yorker of German descent. He grew up in the New York City area, spent a year at boarding school in Germany after World War I, and attended Harvard College where he studied anthropology. One highlight of his college days made newspaper headlines in April, 1929, when a small biplane he was traveling in was forced to make an emergency landing on Memorial Drive, a major roadway along the Charles River in Cambridge. Later, after graduation from Harvard in 1932, Erhart spent the summer in Montenegro with one of his professors, documenting the physiognomy of people living in the highlands. Erhart first met Anderson--or Andy as he called him--in 1933, at the Keewaydin boy's camp on Lake Temagami in Ontario, Canada, famous then, as now, for its wilderness canoe trips. Erhard had been a camper there during a previous year and had returned for another summer to help out in the \"running of the thing.\" Anderson was there to lead groups of campers on canoe trips. The two became friends and remained in contact after they both returned to the Boston area. Erhart remembers visiting Anderson at the Arboretum, not so much to PHOTOGRAPHS AND LETTERS FROM THE ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Anderson's photo #17432 taken on September 2, 1934 at the Letea Forest Reserve in Valcov, Romania, at the delta of the Danube River. In a letter to Oakes Ames on September 3, 1934, Anderson described the scene: \"The last two days have been spent on the ultimate delta of the Danube, hot in summer, cold in winter; a vast swampy region with a very low rainfall. One does not know whether to refer to it as a dusty swamp or a swampy desert. Among the ancient sand ridges there are long strips of a most peculiar forest. The topography reminds one strongly of the Lake Michigan sand dunes. Like them it has been made a natural reservation and is in charge of the department of forestry. . . . The great plant of the delta is Phragmites. It builds the land and like the palms of the tropics is used for everything. The young growth is forage, the dried canes are fuel, housing, roofing, fences, sticks, rafts!\" 12 Arnoldia 65\/2 Anderson left the Arnold Arboretum at the end of the summer in 1935 and returned to the Missouri Botanical Garden, taking his interest in Balkan boxwood with him. Writing in The Boxwood Bulletin in 1963, he describes how he, \". . . got in touch by mail with the acquaintances I had made in the Yugoslav forest service3 and imported a pound or so of boxwood seed which was raised at the Gray Summit Arboretum of the Missouri Botanical Garden.\" Horticultural selections from Anderson's second importation of Balkan boxwood have come to be know as the \"K-series\" boxwood, as a means of distinguishing them from the earlier selections distributed by the Arnold Arboretum. The history of the K-series boxwood has been painstakingly pieced together by Mary Gamble in her articles in The Boxwood Bulletin published in 1975 and 1984. As she recounts the story, Paul A. Kohl, floriculturist at the Missouri Botanical Garden for forty years, told her that a boxwood seed arrived in September, 1936 from Anderson's contact in the Yugoslavian Forest Service. The Buxus sempervirens # 131-64 (K-24) at the Arnold. seed, which had most likely been collected earlier that summer, was propagated in two locations, at the main garden in St. Louis by Kohl, and at Gray Summit Arboretum (now the Shaw Nature Reserve), about 35 miles from St. Louis, by Martin Bagby. Eventually, seedlings from both locations were brought together in a special boxwood nursery at Gray Summit. In June, 1954 Anderson distributed cuttings from a number of these Balkan plants to the National Arboretum with cultivar names reflecting their Yugoslavian origin: `Agram,' `Nish,' `Petch,' and `Ipek,' all being ancient names for famous cities in the region. In 1955, following this initial cultivar selection and distribution, Mr. Clarence Barbre, a retired chemist and avid horticulturist from Webster Groves, Missouri, selected 155 of the Balkan seedlings at Gray Summit for further horticultural trial. These selections were assigned numbers preceded by the letter \"K\", which designated the Kingsville Nursery run by Henry Hohman, to whom the unrooted cuttings were sent for propagation and distribution. Hohman rooted the cuttings and in 1957 and 1958 sent sets of plants under their original Knumbers to the University of Washington Arboretum in Seattle, the United States National Arboretum in Washington, DC, the Blandy Experimental Farm in Boyce, Virginia, and Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. According to the latest research (2004) by Lynn Batdorf, the National Arboretum has fifty of the original plants; the Blandy Farm has twenty-nine; the Washington Park Arboretum has six; Longwood Gardens has twenty; and the Missouri Botanical Garden, including the Shaw Nature Reserve, has thirty-five. The Arnold Arboretum received unrooted cuttings of 64 of the K-series boxwoods from the National Arboretum on January 29, 1964 (AA # 83-64 through 146-64), and still has three living plants from this distribution: #131-64 (= K-24), a conical plant, currently 11.7 feet wide by 13.3 feet tall; #113-64 (= K-33), a tall plant, 13.3 feet wide by 21.7 feet tall; and #116-64 (= K-75), a low-growing plant resembling `Vardar Valley', 16.7 feet wide by 7.3 feet tall. AUTHOR PHOTOGRAPH Balkan Boxwood, the \"K-series\" Boxwood 13 talk about plants, but to get some guidance from him about what he should do with his life. Probably because of Erhart's past experience in Montenegro and his ability to speak German, Anderson invited him to go on the Arboretum's expedition to the Balkans, planned for the summer of 1934. Erhart's memories of that trip are vague, but he remembered well one of the botanists they met, a Professor Stoyanoff from the University of Sofia in Bulgaria: He was probably the chief botanist there because he was the one who went botanizing with the king, Boris. And I was very much impressed with him. He seemed more aristocratic in demeanor. We went down by bus. The thing that impressed me tremendously was what a gentleman he was. A woman getting on the bus with quite a bit of luggage and so forth, he didn't try to press in ahead of her or anything. He treated her as though she has as much right to be there as he did--that sort of thing. I remember particularly later when we got to the monastery of Rila, and one of the monks there was really quite spruced up, I don't know what to say, but, he had long curly hair and that sort of thing. And I made the comment that it looks as though he had curled the hair, and this botanist, I think his name was Stoyanoff, said in response to my comment, \"It is not impossible.\" Anderson, E. 1963. Collecting boxwood in the Balkans. The Boxwood Bulletin 2(3): 26. Batdorf, L. 2004. Boxwood: An Illustrated Encyclopedia. American Boxwood Society, Boyce, VA. Finan, J. J. 1972. Edgar Anderson: 18971969. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 59: 325345. Gamble, M. A. 1973. The story of 351-35: Buxus sempervirens `Edgar Anderson' (Balkan strain). The Boxwood Bulletin 13(2): 2628. Gamble, M. A. 1975. The Edgar Anderson Balkan boxwoods. The Boxwood Bulletin 14(4): 5763. Gamble, M. A. 1984. The story of the Anderson Balkan boxwoods. The Boxwood Bulletin 24(2): 4153. Hay, I. 1995. Science in the Pleasure Ground: A History of the Arnold Arboretum. Northeastern University Press, Boston, MA. Stebbins, G. L. 1972. Edgar Anderson: recollections of a long friendship. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 59: 373379. Wyman, D. 1957. A new boxwood. Arnoldia 17(7): 4244. Endnotes 1 Indeed, Professor Stoyanoff's response could well be used to describe the serendipitous circumstances surrounding the discovery and propagation of Buxus `Vardar Valley'. References Anderson, E. 1934\/35. Report on Balkan Expedition to the Arnold Arboretum. Undated, typewritten manuscript from the Archives of the Missouri Botanical Garden. Anderson, E. 1935. A visit to the home of the lilac. Arnoldia series 4, vol. 3, no. 1: 14. Anderson, E. 1945. Two Balkan ivies for St. Louis gardens. Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin, 33(3): 5963. Anderson, E. 1949. Introgressive Hybridization. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Anderson, E. 1952. Plants, Man and Life. Little Brown and Company, Boston (reprint Dover Publications, 2005). Ames had been one of Anderson's botany professors at the Bussey Institution and was appointed Supervisor of the Arboretum in 1927 following the death of its founding director, C. S. Sargent. I suspect that it was Ames who persuaded Anderson to work at the Arnold Arboretum in 1930 and that Ames's retirement in 1935 may have been a factor in his decision to leave. Anderson's 1952 book, \"Plants, Man and Life\" is dedicated to Oakes Ames, Orland White, and Carl Sauer. Like Anderson, Orland White was one of Dr. East's graduate students, who earned his D.Sc. degree from the Bussey Institution in 1913. For clues as to who this person might be, I turned to Anderson's undated \"Report on Balkan Expedition to The Arnold Arboretum.\" In this document he mentions only one person who worked for the Yugoslavian Forest Service: \"Herr Ing. Ohm, Forest Service, Skoplje [sic]. This forester, stationed at present in Skoplje is the best botanist actually located in the neighborhood, though he is liable to transfer at any time. He has an herbarium of his own and has a very real interest in botanical problems. Most of the foresters whom I met are more interested in hunting wild boars than in botanical problems allied to their work.\" 2 3 Peter Del Tredici is Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum and a Lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Edgar Anderson is one of his botanical heroes. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Climate Change and Cherry Tree Blossom Festivals in Japan","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25428","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160896f.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.; Higuchi, Hiroyoshi","article_content":"Climate Change and Cherry Tree Blossom Festivals in Japan Richard Primack and Hiroyoshi Higuchi C PHOTO COURTESY OF HIROYOSHI HIGUCHI limate change is already having an influence on plants throughout the world, with warming trends creating conditions that cause many plant species to extend to cooler zones on mountain slopes or farther north of their original ranges. Plants are leafing out earlier in the spring and holding leaves longer in the autumn, creating an extended growing season. Of all of the characteristics of plants that relate to global warming, the timing of flowering is the one for which there are the greatest number of observations. These data demonstrate that plants are now flowering earlier than they did a few decades ago, and that changes are mainly a product of temperature increase, rather than a result of other aspects of the weather. Although observations of flowering time tell a convincing story of the impacts People enjoying the cherry blossom festival in Ueono Park, a popular spot in the center of Tokyo. Climate Change 15 PHOTO COURTESY OF HIROYOSHI HIGUCHI A well-organized cherry blossom party being celebrated by a group of business people at Yasukuni, a park in the center of Tokyo. of global warming, the record extends back a mere 150 years, at most. The studies are predominantly from Europe, with a scattering of more recent studies from the United States, and many of these studies of climate change are from cities where additional warming is associated with urbanization. Scientists working on long-term climate change need additional studies from elsewhere in the world and conducted over a longer period of time. Such studies could provide evidence that the earlier flowering time--observed in Europe and the United States--is caused by a warming trend, a truly global phenomenon extending beyond the historical weather record of the 19th and 20th centuries. Kyoto Cherries as Indicators of Climate Change A unique data set that can potentially supply these insights is the record of annual cherry blossom festivals in Japan. Cherry blossom fes- tivals, or Hanami, are a special feature of Japanese life that really has no equivalent in other countries. During modern festivals, all ages spend time outdoors, enjoying the beauty of the cherry blossoms by day and by night, with their family, friends, and workmates. Festival activities include eating seasonal foods, such as bamboo shoots, rice cakes with red beans, and wild vegetables, playing games, listening to musical instruments, and singing. More enthusiastic pursuits include dancing and drinking sake--Japan's special rice wine--and beer. The festivals have been the subject of numerous poems and songs and have been depicted in paintings, pottery, and textiles for hundreds of years. Because of their great popularity and cultural significance, local governments, meteorologists, botanists, and newspapers have recorded the flowering times of cherry blossom times for an extraordinarily long time. In Kyoto, a beautiful ancient city on the main island of Honshu, the cherry blossom 16 Arnoldia 65\/2 PHOTO COURTESY OF HIROYOSHI HIGUCHI People boating in the moat surrounding the Imperial Palace in Tokyo, when the cherry trees are in full flower. festivals have been part of court life for over one thousand years. The diaries of court officers often include mention of the festival dates, a peculiarity of the region's history that allows modern scientists to track the influence of a changing climate on flowering times. Kyoto became the capital city of Japan in 784 A.D., and was the focus of a rich court life for several hundred years, a time known as the Heian Period. Cherry trees were prominently planted in the gardens of aristocratic residences, and cherries were an important imperial symbol. During the flowering period, people made special trips to visit particular sites around Kyoto to view cherry trees planted in attractive settings, such as temple gardens, and imperial parties went on excursions of up to several days into the surrounding Arashiyama hills to enjoy the cherry blossoms at their peak. While double-flowered cherries and unusual cultivars were sought for the gardens of the nobility, ancient cherry blossom festivals focused on the blossoming of wild cherry trees, known in English as the Japanese mountain cherry and in Japanese as the yama-zakura. Scientifically this species is known as Prunus serrulata var. spontanea, or less commonly as Prunus jamasakura. It is typically found in the foothills of central Japan, often in secondary forests. In contrast with many other species of cherries, the mountain cherry is long-lived and easily raised from seed. Its white five-petaled flowers, about 1 to 1 inches (5 to 8 cm) across, help with identification, and the species is more readily recognized because the young leaves are brownish-red to red in color, presenting a striking contrast with the green leaves of most other cherries. The mountain cherry trees are still found in abundance around Kyoto and have been planted extensively in gardens. The hills of Arashiyama are especially noted for them. Paintings from Climate Change 17 Kyoto depict boatmen paddling small boats in the nearby Oigama River, with their passengers observing the flowering trees on the riverbanks nearby and the hills above. And the Arashiyama Hills have featured prominently in Japanese literature, most notably as the occasional 17th century residence of the great Haiku poet Matsuo Basho. For over eighty years, Japanese scientists have been examining court records and diaries from Kyoto to extract information on when the cherry blossom The location of Kyoto and Osaka in Japan. The urban area of Kyoto is densely shaded. festivals have been celebrated Aono taught himself to read these documents, in Kyoto. The date of the celebrations are and he gradually converted them to modern determined several days before peak flowering Japanese characters. In addition, the dates on by observations of the flower buds, and may the documents corresponded to the Japanese be adjusted some days earlier if the weather calendar and had to be converted to the Western is unusually warm or later if the weather is calendar. His lifetime goal of analyzing ancient unusually cold. The past dates of the festival and modern climate data has filled his modthus indicate when the Japanese mountain est office with boxes of photocopies of court cherries were in full flower and provide an estirecords, old books, and computers. mate of the temperature in that year. The earliDuring fifteen years of dedicated searching, est of these studies, published in 1939 and 1969, Dr. Aono was able to greatly increase the numwere carried out by meteorologists primarily interber of years for which there were dates of the ested in using this data to reconstruct past climate Kyoto cherry blossom festivals, with many adand to predict the timing of the modern cherry ditional dates going back to the 11th century. blossom festivals based on climate variables. From 1401 to the present time, a 605 year time The researchers were able to find fairly abunspan, there are now records of the festivals for dant records for the 15th and 16th centuries, most years. For the period 1476 to 1553, there with less complete records extending back to is a record for every single year. the 11th century, and forward to the present. The cumulative flowering record shows a six Studies by Aono and Omoto week range in flowering dates from as early as late March to as late as early May. The extreme In the 1990s, the agricultural meteorologist Dr. flowering dates are scattered throughout this Yasuyuki Aono of the Osaka Prefecture Unitime period. There are, however, periods of versity, along with his colleague Yukio Omoto, decades with earlier than average flowering and began to search all available court records and decades with later than average flowering. Many diaries, with the goal of having a complete set of of the flowering records from the 12th and 13th cherry blossom festival dates for Kyoto. These centuries are noticeably earlier than average, documents were stored in libraries, archives, along with the decades before and after 1600. In and museums, primarily in Kyoto, Nara, and contrast, the period from the mid-1600s to the other historical centers of Japan. The documents early 1800s is characterized by later than averwere hand written in ancient Japanese script on age flowering. After approximately 1830, the paper and parchment. Over many years, Dr. COURTESY OF DR. YASUKUKI AONO, 1998 18 Arnoldia 65\/2 flowering times become progressively earlier. By the 1980s and early 1990s, average flowering times had become earlier than at any time previously during the entire flowering record of over one thousand years. Using these old records and more modern temperature data, Dr. Aono's goal was to develop a model that could predict the modern flowering time of cherry trees from temperature data, then use this model to predict past spring temperatures from past flowering dates. The modern values used for calibrating the model come from the Arashiyama Hills, the same site where ancient court officials went for their parties. He and Omoto published the results of their work in the Journal of Agricultural Meteorology in 1994, a journal appropriate to his background in agricultural meteorology, and his appointment in a College of Agriculture within his university. Using a complicated equation, he was able to show that estimates of flowering time of the Japanese mountain cherry could be made using just the temperature in the months before the cherry trees flowered. These estimates using temperatures corresponded closely with the actual flowering times of ARRANGED BY DR. YASUYUKI AONO, WITH PERMISSION FROM THE KYOTO UNIVERSITY LIBRARY Old court diaries and records let us know the past dates of the cherry blossom festivals in Kyoto. This diary of Tokistune Hiramatsu, a well-known court figure of the Edo era, provides the following entry on April 14, 1644: \"In Seiryoden Palace, Kyoto, we enjoyed watching cherry blossoms and took sake provided by the emperor.\" The translation of the highlighted sentence is shown in red. The black entry is the date, according to the Japanese calendar. Climate Change 19 COURTESY OF DR. YASUYUKI AONO AND YUKIO OMOTO, 1994 cherry trees in Kyoto during the last few decades. With this equation and past dates of cherry blossom festivals, Dr. Aono was then able to estimate March temperatures in Kyoto going back to the 11th century. Obviously the accuracy of the estimates depends on the number of years for which data exist, with the greatest certainty Upper figure. Known dates of the cherry blossom festival (full flowering available for the middle and later of P. jamasakura) in Kyoto from the 11th century to the present time. periods of this one thousand year April 1 is the 91st day of the year (in years without a Leap Year); May span. The calculations show that 1 is the 122nd day of the year. In recent decades, flowering times have during the 11th through the 13th become earlier than in the past. Lower figure. Estimated March mean temperature in each decade, centuries, average temperatures as calculated from flowering dates. Means calculated from 5 or more were at their warmest averages, years are shown as solid dots. Decades with less than 5 years of data often as high as 8 C , as indicated are shown as open circles. While temperatures have varied over this by early dates of the cherry blos- period, recent decades have been warmer on average than any time som festival. There were occasion- during the past 1000 years. ally very cold years, as indicated to the early 9th century, and many scientists by late flowering years, but on the whole this around the world are awaiting the published was the warmest average period. From 1400 results of his new work. to the mid 1500s, temperatures were variable, but they appear to have declined slightly on Cherry Tree Flowering Affected by average. Certain decades, both before and after Urbanization 1600, were noticeably warmer. In the following As mentioned above, cherry tree flowering times centuries, temperatures generally declined to have been strongly influenced by the urban heat 6 C, with particularly low temperatures in the island effect, the warming that comes from the periods from 1690 to the 1710s, and from 1810 added heating caused by removing trees and to the 1830s. replacing them with roads, parking lots, buildAnd by using estimates made from the cherry ings and other aspects of a human-dominated blossom records, over the past 170 years, Dr. landscape. In studies of the impact of global Aono saw a general rise in temperature in the warming, it is important to separate the Kyoto area of 3.4 C. The estimated temperature effects of localized warming caused by urbanincrease during this period corresponds well to ization from the more general aspects of warmthe increase in temperature recorded from reguing caused by global climate change. Cherry lar meteorological records, and is attributed, trees can be used to separate these effects primarily to the warming associated with the because they are planted at many locations--in urbanization of the Kyoto area, and secondarily cities, suburban areas, and more remote rural with the general global climate warming of locations. It is again Drs. Aono and Omoto who Japan. If we assume that Kyoto has experienced lead the way in this research. the average global increase of 0.6 C , then the The most widely planted cherry species since remaining 2.8 C is due to urbanization. the late 19th century, and therefore the most Dr. Aono has been active in tracking down useful for climate change research covering ever more obscure historical records to fill in the past one hundred years, is Somei-yoshino the remaining gaps in the records of Kyoto's (Prunus x yedoensis), also known in the nurscherry blossom festival times. He has located ery trade as the Yoshino cherry. This cherry is records going back even further in time, back 20 Arnoldia 65\/2 almost certainly a hybrid between the Edo-higan cherry (P. pendula f. ascendens) and the Oshima cherry (P. serrulata var. speciosa). The somei-yoshino is the most striking of the cultivated cherries with a profusion of white to pink, five-petaled flowers that appear The flowering dates of mountain cherry trees (P. jamasakura) on the on the branches before the leaves are Arashiyama Hills outside of Kyoto have been getting earlier over produced. The 1 inch (4 cm) wide the past 90 years; the different symbols represent different types of observations of flowering dates. Courtesy of Dr. Yasuyuki Aono and flowers are produced in umbels of three Yukio Omoto, 1994. to four flowers. This hybrid began to be widely planted in the late 19th century, and enjoyed by Americans during the flowering is now commonly cultivated in Japan. In the season. Its flowering behavior is similar to the view of many Japanese, the Somei-yoshino Japanese mountain cherry, so the results from is the most beautiful cherry tree, and it has the two species are comparable. replaced the yama-zakura as the focus of the Due to the abundant records of cherry bloscherry blossom festival. This is the same cherry som festival records at numerous locations in tree that is planted in Washington, DC, and Japan, it is possible to use the flowering dates PHOTO COURTESY OF HIROYOSHI HIGUCHI A cherry tree in flower in the built-up center of Osaka, the second largest city in Japan. Climate Change 21 of the Somei-yoshino to measure how many days earlier plants flower as a result of the urban heat island effect. At locations near Kyoto, Osaka and Tokyo, urban, suburban, and rural locations had similar times of cherry blossom festivals in the 1950s. This indicates that urban, suburban, and rural areas still had essentially the same temperatures in the spring. Over the next 50 years, however, urban, suburban, and rural sites at each of these cities gradually began to diverge in flowering times, with urban areas flowering earlier than nearby rural and suburban areas. By the 1980s, the warmer temperatures in the city had shifted the flowering of cherry trees by eight days earlier in central Tokyo in comparison with nearby rural areas, and four to five days earlier in central Kyoto and Osaka than in their nearby Cherry trees were monitored for their flowering times in 1989 at rural areas. The temperature effects of urban- numerous locations in Osaka, shown as black dots in this map. Isoclines ization on flowering times for Osa- are produced by a computer program to show the geographic pattern ka City have been mapped in detail. of flowering. Trees flower earliest on March 19 in the center of the city and progressively later at greater distances from the center. The latest In 1989, the first flowering times of flowering is along the coast to the west of the city, due to the moderating somei-yoshino cherries were recorded influence of the sea. A city park to the northeast of the city center also at around eighty locations in Osaka creates a small area of later flowering. City. First flowering was recorded starting on March 19 at locations in the city Conclusion center. Flowering was recorded at successively The dates of cherry tree festivals in Japan have later dates at distances farther from the city emerged as one of the most important sources center. At around seven kilometers from the of information on the impacts of climate city center, plants were starting to flower as change on plants. The data set is exceptionally late as March 22 to March 27, as much as eight detailed, and extends back in time more than any days later than in the city center. The latest other known data set on plant flowering times. dates were found along the bay to the west Because cherry trees have such great cultural where the cooling influences of the water may importance in Japan, the results of this climate have caused a further reduction in temperachange research have been widely appreciated ture, slowing flowering. Cherry trees in a city and publicized, both in Japan and among the park just northeast of the city center also have international scientific community. Even the a delayed flowering, indicating a local cooling cherry trees in Washington, DC, donated by the Japanese government, are responding to higher effect. Based on models that relate temperature urban temperatures by flowering one week to flowering times, Drs. Aono and Omoto were earlier than in the past, providing an example of able to show that these earlier flowering times the biological impacts of climate change right in the center of Osaka City correspond to a temon the doorstep of the American government. perature increase of 1 to 1.5 C. COURTESY OF DR. YASUKUKI AONO, 1998 22 Arnoldia 65\/2 The Japanese people often mark events in their lives by corresponding events in the natural world, and one of the most significant events on the Japanese calendar is the time of the cherry blossom festival. Mr. Fujiro Shinagawa, a well known psychologist and author of books on raising healthy children, often associates himself with the cherry blossom festival. He was born in Okayama Prefecture in western Honshu on April 15, 1916, a day on which the cherry blossom festival was being celebrated. As a child, the trees were always in flower on his birthday, and he considered himself a child of the cherry blossom. Living in Tokyo as an adult, however, the cherry blossom festival gradually moved forward in time and was celebrated before his birthday; in some years, the cherry trees had finished flowering by his birthday. His twin daughters, Hiromi and Yoshimi, growing up in Tokyo from 1955 to 1965, associated cherry blossom festivals with their school opening ceremony--always held on April 8, an exciting day, when students, parents and teachers joined at the school for special activities. On that day, the cherry trees in the schoolyard were always covered in blossoms, creating a joyous start to the school year, and in some years, April 8 was even the day of the cherry blossom festival, creating a double holiday. But in the 1990s, when Hiromi sent her own son to school in Tokyo, the cherry blossom festivals were often held before April 8, and in some years the trees no longer had any flowers by that date. Hiromi felt that something joyous and beautiful was missing from her son's school ceremony without the profusion of cherry blossoms. But for her son, the earlier flowering time of cherry trees seemed normal. At the retirement community in the western suburbs of Tokyo, where Mr. and Mrs. Shinagawa now live, the annual cherry blossom festival remains an important event. On this day, the staff put chairs and tables in the parking lot of their building, and serve a special meal under the gorgeous flowers of the cherry trees. Now, however, the date is typically at the end of March, two to three weeks earlier than in 1916, when Mr. Shinagawa, the cherry blossom child, was born. Mr. and Mrs. Shinagawa and their grandson enjoying a cherry blossom festival on April 5, 1992. Further Reading Aono, Y. 1997. Assessment of urban warming using plant phenology. Pages 111123. Proceedings of International Symposium on Monitoring and Management of Urban Heat Island, Fujisawa. Aono, Y. 1998. Climatic change in March temperature deduced from phenological record for flowering of cherry tree in Tokyo since the late 18th century. Bulletin of the Osaka Prefecture University, Series B, 50: 1119. Aono, Y. and Y. Omoto. 1994. Estimation of temperature at Kyoto since the 11th century using flowering data of cherry trees in old documents. Journal of Agricultural Meteorology 49: 263272. Kuitert, W. 1999. Japanese Flowering Cherries. Timber Press. Portland. Omoto, Y. and Y. Aono. 1990. Estimation of change in blooming dates of cherry flower by urban warming. Journal of Agricultural Meteorology 46: 123129. Richard Primack is a professor at Boston University and a current Putnam Fellow. During the fall of 2006, he was in Japan working on the impacts of climate change with Professor Hiroyoshi Higuchi of the University of Tokyo. Prof. Higuchi is an ornithologist specializing in bird migration and conservation. PHOTO COURTESY OF HIROMI KOBORI People and Cherries in Japan: The Shinagawa Family "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25430","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170a36d.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"The Future of Research at the Arnold Arboretum Robert E. Cook In this article, the director of the Arboretum examines the role of research in botanical gardens, and the singular circumstances that position the Arboretum to become a center for the scientific study of plants. In this context, he discusses plans for a future research program on the biodiversity, genomics and developmental biology of plants. I recently came across the title of an opinion piece that I thought I should read. \"What genes make a tree a tree?\" was published in the May, 2005 issue of Trends in Plant Science by Andrew T. Groover. A decade ago I would have passed over this title without notice. But the Arnold Arboretum has recently put forward a plan to make a major investment in molecu- lar and genomic approaches to research on the biology of woody plants and this research will call upon the resources of our living, herbarium and library collections. It will also cost a lot of money. Because the Arnold Arboretum receives no funds from the University (we are financially self-sufficient, depending almost entirely on past and present philanthropy), a large investPETER DEL TREDICI The oak collection at the Arnold Arboretum in late spring. 24 Arnoldia 65\/2 ment in research presents a major financial challenge to the institution. Let me discuss collections-related research in more general terms first, and then return to those genes that make a tree a tree. Over the past couple of decades, directors of many botanic gardens and arboreta, especially those associated with colleges and universities, have wrestled with the question of the role that research should play in their institution's mission. In part this reflects the historical roots of botanical collections gathered and curated as a basis for advancing knowledge of the botanical world and as an important foundation for economic advancement and commerce through the development of new plants. At modern research universities, the substantial budget allocations once enjoyed by botanical collections have increasingly come under scrutiny by the administration as the research use of those collections, particularly living collections, has shrunk in importance. Likewise, the availability of external research funds from federal agencies to support the use of living collections (to say nothing of their upkeep) is non-existent. In many public gardens and arboreta, the purposes of the living collections have expanded to include educational and horticultural display values which have surpassed any research use the collections may have once served. This leaves the fiscally conscientious director to ask: how important a role should research play in the mission of the organization? Supporting a Research Function For many institutions whose mission is fundamentally educational, supporting a research dimension confers great interest and legitimacy in the eyes of the institution's supporters. The investment required may be modest and the rigor of the research can be high if pursued systematically. The research can bolster the primary mission to educate and increase scientific literacy. But major research investments require a realistic assessment of what will be the cost of achieving long-term, high quality results as judged by publication in peer-reviewed journals. Most institutions are not well positioned to make such open-ended investments. Since research comes in many flavors, very different financial implications accompany the initiation of a research program. In the simplest case, an institution may create a formal monitoring protocol designed to provide environmental and horticultural data with which to improve the care of collections whose primary functions are aesthetic and educational. Gathered systematically over longer periods of time, such data may also yield valuable insights into local trends related to larger environmen- Research at the Arnold 25 The proposed research facility on Weld Hill as designed by KlingStubbins Architects. tal variables such as climate and soil chemistry. Depending upon the scope of the measured variables, and the quality and duration of the monitoring records, this can yield publishable information that constitutes valuable research. The creation of such formal programs can, but need not, require expensive equipment; rather, it requires a long-term commitment to the management and evaluation of data, and its subse- quent publication. These days the web can be an excellent medium for providing inexpensive access to this information. Beyond the gathering of data for the purposes of collections management, research investments are often motivated by the desire to discover unknown aspects of the natural world, by the application of existing knowledge to the development of improved horticultural plants 26 Arnoldia 65\/2 PETER DEL TREDICI A well-laid out research collection can be enjoyed by people with little or no interest in science. (stress tolerance, pest resistance, morphological variety, urban horticulture), or to the testing of specific hypotheses about the evolutionary history and functional biology of plant diversity. Whether an institution should invest in any or all of these types of research, and how much investment is appropriate, depend very much on the specific circumstances of that institution. Discovery Research Among large botanic gardens in this country that are involved in discovery research, the Missouri Botanic Garden and the New York Botanic Garden clearly stand out as leaders. Both institutions continue to mount major efforts in botanical exploration at multiple locations around the world, and this work is accompanied by significant publications in plant floristic and monographic research. The Arnold Arboretum, by virtue of its age and history, and in collaboration with other botanical institutions at Harvard University (the Gray Herbarium, the Botanical Museum, the Farlow Herbarium, the Oakes Ames Orchid Collection) maintains a modest effort in this type of research, and it will continue to do so in the future, with particular emphasis on the floras of Asia. Absolutely essential to this kind of work is the collection and maintenance of a large herbarium (over 5 million specimens at Harvard) and the related library collections (280,000 volumes, 900 current journals) without which such research would be impossible. In recent years, this type of research has been complimented at the Arbo- Research at the Arnold 27 retum with molecular systematic studies utilizing its well documented living collections. Of particular interest are phylogenies that relate to our understanding of the biogeography and evolutionary history of the disjunct floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America. Improved Horticultural Plants The use of the living collections of a botanic garden or arboretum for the development of better plants for agricultural production, for landscape use in suburban and urban settings, and for improving basic mechanisms of stress tolerance and pest resistance has been closely tied to the land grant university system with its long history of support from the Department of Agriculture and related commercial sources. The research mission of botanical gardens within such a setting will always depend upon its relationships with various research departments (horticulture, crop physiology, plant breeding) and the idiosyncratic needs of faculty members and senior research scientists for the resources of the gardens. Directors of these gardens may feel captive to these academic sources of power and funding, and independent investment in research not defined by faculty needs and external funding sources can be politically risky. Of course, independent institutions outside the academic system of universities have much greater leeway to pursue problems of applied research of their own choosing. Evolutionary Relationships and Functional Biology Basic research into the evolutionary history and functional biology of plants has generally been less closely allied with botanical gardens than with academic departments of botany, biological sciences or ecology and evolution. On the face of it, the great diversity of the living collections of botanic gardens and arboreta would seem a particularly valuable resource for such research, especially for comparative experimental approaches to addressing functional and evolutionary questions about plants. Twenty-five years ago, my predecessor as director, Professor Peter Ashton, put forth a vision for the use of the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum to investigate basic questions of plant functional biology in an evolutionary context. At that time, however, Peter's vision did not find fertile soil among his faculty colleagues and he was unable to implement it. There are a number of challenges facing a director inclined to invest in such research. Generally large questions of this nature require the development of specific hypotheses about mechanisms and controls that can only be addressed through experimental designs using molecular, genetic, and biochemical approaches. This kind of research can only be done in a highly sophisticated laboratory setting with expensive equipment and protocols. Technical support is essential and, therefore, expensive. Senior research scientists usually establish large labs consisting of multiple technicians, post-doctoral researchers, undergraduate assistants, and several graduate students working on elements of the problem at hand. The research is highly collaborative, both within the laboratory setting and among different labs located at other institutions. Funding the research requires a continual flow of money, most often provided by the federal government through grants from organizations like the National Science Foundation. This system of funding is closely tied to the peer review system that dominates both the publication of results from such research and the advancement of faculty members through traditional ladder positions within university departments. As this implies, the director of an independent botanical garden needs to think twice before embarking upon such research investments without having in place close working relations with an academic institution that can provide access to students and faculty resources. The investment in modern research laboratory and growing facilities must be of a large scale to attract the quality of researchers able to support their research through successful, peer-reviewed grant applications. Finally, an institution will want a critical mass of such researchers, at least five or six senior scientists, each capable of supporting a laboratory staffed with up to half a dozen technicians and students. The hiring 28 Arnoldia 65\/2 of each is usually accompanied by significant start-up requirements (laboratory equipment, laboratory assistance until the first grants are received). It is all a very expensive affair and it can't be done in incremental steps. Investing in Research At the Arnold Arboretum, we are prepared to make such an investment. Ironically it will be very much based on the vision of research with the living collections articulated by Professor Ashton twenty-five years ago. How can such a vision succeed today if it was not able to do so two decades ago? Two major advances in the biological sciences have fundamentally altered the context surrounding such a vision. First, the proliferation of molecular approaches to investigating the evolutionary history of organisms has dramatically altered our understanding of the phylogenetic relations among species. This new understanding provides a solid evolutionary foundation for the comparative study of the functional and developmental biology of closely and distantly related species. Second, with the sequencing of the human genome in the past decade, biological science has made tremendous advances in creating genetic and molecular tools for investigating basic questions about the functional and developmental biology of organisms. These tools have led to the subsequent sequencing of the genomes of the tiny herbaceous plant Arabidopsis thaliana, in the mustard family, and the first woody plant in the genus Populus as model species for the understanding of plant biology at the genetic and molecular level. Over the coming decade, the genomes of a number of other species will also be partially or fully sequenced, creating an immense opportunity for comparative studies of plant diversity. To provide just an illustration of this, let me briefly return to the publication, \"What genes make a tree a tree?\" Woody stems, of course, develop from growth in the vascular cambium that is generated by meristematic stem cells whose daughters differentiate into the carbohydrate-conducting phloem and water-conducting xylem (wood). As Andrew Groover, the author of this article, points out, \"trees\" may be cat- egorized at the local nursery as a group based on the presence of a woody trunk; but it is a completely artificial classification. Nearly all orders of higher plants in the Angiosperms contain tree-like species and many families have both herbaceous and woody species. Because woody growth is evolutionarily ancient and probably predates the divergence of Angiosperms and Gymnosperms, the appearance of woody taxa may be a matter of degree rather than a trait that has arisen uniquely within a single lineage. Even within a species, the expression of woody growth can depend upon environmental conditions. Not surprisingly, then, we find that woody species on remote islands have evolved rapidly from closely related, herbaceous ancestors on the mainland. Groover concludes that the genes regulating woody growth ought to be evolutionarily ancient and common to all taxa, ought to be present in a broad range of taxa including herbaceous species, and ought to be readily modifiable to express or suppress woody growth in the process of speciation or in response to changes in the environment. With the sequencing of the genomes of the herbaceous species Arabidopsis and the woody species Populus, scientists can now determine whether woodiness in the latter species depends on genes not found in the former species. In fact, the same genes that regulate primary growth in the shoot apical meristem in Arabidopsis are also involved in the regulation of secondary growth in Populus. Thus these genes are probably present, but suppressed, in many herbaceous species. Tree forms therefore reflect differences in the expression of a similar set of genes that are present in a vast number of taxa. Woodiness-- the genes that make a tree a tree--could be studied and artificially manipulated in almost any species. Groover argues that this fundamental understanding, and the genetic tools that have led to it, will usher in a revolution in approaches to increasing our knowledge of woody plants. The Arnold's New Research Initiative I believe that these new approaches to addressing basic research questions about the evolutionary diversification of plants through a deeper comparative understanding of their functional Research at the Arnold 29 biology should be at the heart of the Arnold Arboretum's research mission. At the same time, I do not believe that this should necessarily serve as a model for other botanical gardens and arboreta. The Arnold is in a relatively unique position because of several important factors. First, we have an exceptionally welldocumented collection of woody taxa, many of known wild origin. Second, we are part of a university able to provide a constant stream of students (if not money) and a brand identity that can be immensely helpful in recruiting the finest scientists. Finally, a long history of philanthropy has created a substantial endowment able to provide a dependable financial foundation upon which to build new programs. To staff this large investment in research, the Arboretum has created a new type of research position which we have named Sargent Fellows. We intend to recruit individuals of the highest quality as judged by their colleagues and per manent appointment will require rigorous peer review. Two Sargent Fellows are currently Sarah Matthews collecting leaf tissue from Cedrus deodara growing appointed. Sarah Matthews is an at the Arboretum. expert on the molecular biology chambers and experimental gardens. This suband evolutionary history of the light sensing stantial investment will return the Arboretum pigment phytochrome in plants, and Maciej to the forefront of basic research on the biology Zwieniecki studies plant hydraulics, the microof trees. As Peter Ashton stated shortly after fluidic systems that control the long-distance arriving as director in 1979, \"Only if it mainmovement of water, solutes and energy from tains its preeminence in research and education roots to leaves. can the Arnold Arboretum continue to develop In 2007, we will break ground for the conits complementary function as a unique public struction of a $38,000,000 laboratory and greenamenity and an authoritative source of inforhouse facility able to support up to eight senior mation on the culture of woody plants.\" researchers and their associates. This state-ofthe-art facility will also serve to integrate the research efforts of our Sargent Fellows with Robert E. Cook has been director of the Arnold Arboretum those of faculty and students in Cambridge since 1989. An earlier version of this article appeared last year in Public Garden, vol. 21, no. 1. through common use of greenhouses, growth JON HETMAN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections: A Repository for Research","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25429","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170a328.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections: A Repository for Research Michael S. Dosmann Bob Cook has expressed in the article preceding this one, the Arnold Arboretum is embarking on a dramatic programmatic expansion into research. This includes housing an expanded research staff in a modern facility sited on Weld Hill, adjacent to the Peters Hill section of the Arboretum. As the newly appointed Curator of Living Collections charged with overseeing the development and enhancement of this most precious of Arboretum assets, this new initiative has served to focus much of my energy on the dynamic interplay between living collections and scientific research. As a result, in the coming months, the Arboretum will be unveiling a new collections policy that will reaffirm its commitment to research. While the resurgence of a strong research agenda is heartening for the Arboretum, it does not seem to be a trend being followed by similar institutions. Over the past decade, many members of the natural history collection community, which includes a full spectrum of museums, herbaria, zoos and aquaria, have been concerned about their future. Despite their intrinsic value, some of these collections, particularly those affiliated with universities, have become fiscally endangered and are at risk of abandonment by their parent institutions. At the very core of the issue is a decline in collections-based research. Dubbed a \"crisis\" by those in the field, this state of affairs has prompted an array of discussions and calls-to-arms demonstrating the vital importance collections have to science and to society (Krishtalka and Humphrey, 2000; Dalton, 2003; Pekarik, 2003; Miller et al., 2004; Suarez and Tsutsui, 2004). While following these dialogues, I was puzzled by the absence of botanic gardens and arboreta--long-standing members of the col- As lection's community--from the debate. Even more surprising was the discovery that there was very little discussion within the botanic garden literature about the collections crises and its implications for research. I began to ponder a broad question: What does the future hold for collections-based research in our gardens and arboreta? What eventually came to fruition was a review, published last year in The Botanical Review (Dosmann, 2006), of the historical and contemporary literature related to living plant collections, the research derived from them, and strategies and tactics that gardens and arboreta can take to avert their own crisis. This article summarizes some of that work, describes the central role the living collections can play in supporting research, imparts some rationales and approaches for fostering collections-based work in the future, and frames several take-home-messages in light of the Arnold Arboretum's mission and history. Research in the Collection: Why is it Important? There are many reasons why research is important to botanical gardens, and I would like to highlight but a few. Because of their original missions and mandates, many instititutions are obligated to engage in research activities, even if it is only to accommodate requests for material by off-site researchers. At one time it was argued that \"no institution is privileged to call itself a botanical garden unless it is doing research of some kind and to some degree\" (Steere, 1969). Estimates of the number of gardens and arboreta whose collections are used in research vary considerably, from 10% (Raven, 1981) to nearly 50% (Sacchi, 1991; Watson et al., 1993), depending upon the type and nature Living Collections 31 of the institution. Regardless of the percentage, a common perception among curators is that their collections are underutilized for research (Rae, 1995). It should be noted that while research may play a central role in numerous gardens and arboreta, oftentimes that which is lauded is field-based floristics and genomics rather than collections-based and could occur in the absence of curated living collections (see Marris, 2006; Nature, 2006). Due to trends within academia, gardens and arboreta are some of the last bastions where collections-based research can occur because of the combined presence of documented accessions and trained staff. Here at the Arboretum, with the planned construction of the new research facility and the expansion of its staff, the research potential of the collections ought to increase dramatically. Not only will the scientists have full access to the plants, but as they observe them on a daily basis, hypotheses will flow freely and experimental results will become easier to interpret. It is also important not to underestimate the off-site pool of researchers who must rely upon gardens and arboreta as a source of material. All too often, the cost Collection documentation increases its value. This sand pear (Pyrus pyrifolia), AA 7272-C, growing on Bussey Hill was collected by E. H. Wilson near Ichang, Western Hubei Province in 1907 and accessioned in April of 1908. Original accession cards were used to record information until the late 1980s, when the data were transferred to a computerized database. Computer-generated maps make it easy to locate plants in the field, and accession tags that hang from the plant contain essential information. Photos by M. Dosmann. 32 Arnoldia 65\/2 As illustrated in this phylogenetic tree of Stewartia (From Li et al., 2002), living collections are frequently used by researchers studying biogeography. In this analysis, molecular data derived from documented Arboretum accessions were used to delimit relationships between Old World and New World Stewartia taxa. Living Collections 33 (both in time and dollars) of assembling collections at their own institutions is prohibitive, making places like the Arboretum a vital resource, especially for individuals working with limited budgets. In a very practical way, research can pay a dividend for gardens and arboreta because it actually improves the management and care of their collections. Every time an accession is targeted for study, it is accessed and evaluated by a member of the curatorial staff. This increase in field-check frequency allows for timely evaluations of the plant's condition and when necessary (e.g., poor health), appropriate maintenance or vegetative repropagation can occur. At the same time, the accession records are reviewed, previous information is checked for accuracy and new information is added. This includes a notation that the accession was used in a research project, and oftentimes notes or observations the researcher may have made. These periods also provide opportunities for additional voucher herbarium specimens to be collected, if necessary. Also, one of the best ways to ensure verification is to encourage its use as a reference collection for taxonomic studies. The various additions to the records increase the collections' value and also catalyze future discovery, for those collections with a history of characterization serve as benchmarks against which future results can be compared. This has been demonstrated in other germplasm repositories where researchers prefer to characterize accessions that had been previously studied. To put it another way, a collection's value is directly linked to its \"past, present, and future uses\" (Widrlechner and Burke, 2003). Research in the Collection: Making it Happen Maximizing the potential for collections-based research requires several things, the most important of which is strong advocacy. In 1984, Judy Zuk posed an important question to the curators of botanic gardens and arboreta: \"Are our collections underutilized because we have not been successful advocates, or because we are advocating a resource for which there is no widespread demand?\" In light of the current collection crisis, her question is still timely. My answer to both parts of the question is a qualified yes: we must be better collection advocates, and we must work to increase their demand among a range of users. Here at the Arnold Arboretum, collection advocacy is well-established and the historic link to scientific endeavors is strong. In fact, Ida Hay's 1995 history of the Arboretum, Science in the Pleasure Ground, epitomizes this connection. By declaration of the indenture signed by the trustee's of the will of Mr. James Arnold and the President and Fellows of Harvard College, the arboretum was established on the 29th of March, 1872 with a clear collections-based mandate: \". . . [to] contain, as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air at the said West Roxbury.\" The appointment in November of the following year of Charles S. Sargent to the position of Director of the Arboretum and Arnold Professor set into motion the realization of this mission. In one of his earliest reports, Sargent (187778) described his research vision for the Arboretum: \"In such a museum, every thing should be subservient to the collections, and the ease with which these can be reached and studied; and none of those considerations of mere landscape effect, which properly govern the laying out of ordinary public parks, should be allowed to interfere with these essential requirements of a scientific garden, however desirable such effects undoubtedly are.\" From day one, it was clear to Sargent what the priorities of the Arnold Arboretum should be. As a word, research was not part of the printed lexicon in the early days of the Arboretum; however, as a process of science, it most certainly was a priority. In his many written statements, Sargent often placed research activity under the scope of education and the Arboretum's general goal to \"increase the knowledge of trees.\" In his fifty year review of the Arboretum's accomplishments, written in 1922, he outlined the key components to its dramatic success: \"a collection of living plants arranged for convenient examination and study . . . the distribution of surplus material obtained in the Arboretum explorations, and . . . the publication of the results of the dendrological investigations carried on in its laboratories.\" 34 Arnoldia 65\/2 As an example of planning, Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted arranged the collection according to Bentham and Hooker's natural classification sequence outlined in Genera Plantarum. This not only increased its educational value but facilitated comparative studies among related plant groups (Spongberg, 1989). Less well known is the fact that the original plan also took in to account comparisons beyond the taxonomic. For many North American species, Sargent (1922) intentionally sited individual specimens in the open as well as in groves, so \"that they may show their habit under different conditions.\" While the term did not exist at the time, this demonstration of phenotypic plasticity (the capacity of a species to adjust its morphology or physiology in response to distinct environmental conditions) was part of a larger plan for studying the interaction between plants and their environment. The development of the living collection under scientific auspices was clearly part of the culture and its importance extolled by others in addition to Sargent. In describing the Arboretum to the broader museum community, Ernest H. Wilson wrote in 1924 that it was different from many other public arboreta, because while \"[i]n many countries individuals have planted collections of trees . . . such collections lack scientific control and permanency, and sooner or later they disappear without having made any great addition to knowledge. It has been left to Harvard to establish the first garden which is exclusively a tree museum and which has the size and the promise of permanency necessary for success in its field.\" More recently, Arboretum leadership has lauded the use of living collections in meeting research needs and goals. In his maiden report as new director, Peter Ashton wrote in 1979: \"We have, perhaps, thought of the herbarium as our principal center of research, but we must not underrate the research potential offered by the living collections. . . . Opportunities exist here for basic research to bridge the traditional divisions between biology, horticulture and forestry.\" This mantra launched a vigorous restoration of the Arboretum's living collection, as well as a modernization of its curatorial practices (Ashton, 1989). And now, this welldocumented collection of woody plants is first among several anchors as the Arboretum positions itself to achieve preeminence in studying the evolutionary history and functional biology of trees. Beyond advocacy, gardens and arboreta must continually evaluate their collections, enhance their value, and develop them through steady acquisition--a static collection is the antithesis of a working collection. This includes shifting perspectives of what may constitute a research collection. They may be long-term and obligatory collections, like the six genera the Arboretum grows as part of the North American Plant Collections Consortium (Acer, Carya, Fagus, Stewartia, Syringa, and Tsuga); they may be short-term and discretionary collections, such as the Crataegus assembled for study by Sargent on Peter's Hill or plants grown for a specific experiment; or some place in between. Regardless of their position on this sliding scale, it is important to document intended use(s), priority, and commitment. It also behooves us to broaden how we intellectually categorize our collections. Traditional types of classification (e.g., taxonomic, phytogeographic, habitat, use) have served gardens well and will continue to do so, yet other designations (e.g., conservation status, expedition, collector, cultural significance, research project, location in the garden) can also be used to maximize both their interpretive and research potential. In this regard, it is important to recognize that a single accession can fall under multiple collection categories. For example, a lone katsura tree, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, may occupy a place in an institution's taxonomic (Cercidiphyllaceae), geographic (Eastern Asia), conservation (threatened), ecological (disturbance-induced stem sprouting), collector (E. H. Wilson), horticultural (trees with outstanding autumn color), educational (specimens included centenary tree tour) and research (dimorphic leaf project) collections. Also, the collection may contain unaccessioned plants found in natural areas of the grounds, or may extend outside the institution's boundaries (see Box on page 35 describing the 1980 SABE collection). With Living Collections 35 Case Study: Tracking the Fate of the 1980 SABE Living Collections In 1980, the Arboretum participated in the Sino-American Botanical Expedition to the Shennongjia Forest District, Hubei Province, a monumental trip that not only improved scientific ties with China, but yielded a considerable amount of valuable herbarium and germplasm material (Bartholomew et al., 1983). New and notable introductions to cultivation included Magnolia zenii, Heptacodium miconioides, Sorbus yuana, and Rubus lasiostylus var. hubeiensis. All told, 621 germplasm collections were brought back to the United States and divided into equal shares among the four participating institutions (The Arnold Arboretum, The US National Arboretum, the University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley, and the Cary Arboretum, which at the time was affiliated with the New York Botanical Garden). There was some sharing of excess germplasm by the individual institutions, including a distribution of nearly the entire Cary Arboretum's lot during the 1983 American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta meeting, however no system had been in place to document what material was distributed and to whom it was distributed. In 2000, Peter Del Tredici and I began to sleuth the fate of those plants collected on the trip. We pooled the Arboretum's extant holdings of SABE plants with those of the other participants and nearly 30 other institutions we suspected had SABE material, to create a master database. Upon analyzing these and other archival data, we drew some conclusions that were informative on many levels (Dosmann and Del Tredici, 2003; Dosmann and Del Tredici, 2005). At the core, we found 258 (42%) of the original collections to be alive, however what was startling was that 115 (45%) of these existed as a single accession growing in a lone garden, arboretum, or USDA research facility. The fact that nearly half of the plants in cultivation were at extreme risk of loss clearly demonstrates that the process of plant introduction is much more tenuous than generally assumed. Perhaps most importantly, we recognized that without sharing of collection information, institutions have no way of determining the uniqueness of their own collections. After putting our database on-line, we shared it with Quarryhill Botanic Garden which combined it with its own botanical inventory to create a Database of Asian Plants in Cultivation (DAPC): http:\/\/www.quarryhillbg.org\/DAPC\/ DAPC.htm. Continuing to grow, the DAPC provides collection information on documented Asian germplasm and serves not only as a valuable resource for collection managers and curators, but provides a catalogue for researchers as they seek germplasm for study. the aid of databases and other information systems, it is now much easier to see collections in the multiple dimensions within which they exist and appreciate their unlimited research potential. In addition to advocating and redefining their collections, gardens must concomitantly advocate and redefine perceptions of collectionsbased research. As I consider the Arboretum's living collections, I see research potential across a wide swath of disciplines--far too many to list here. For certain, taxonomic and horticultural research will continue to be important areas of study, as will work in plant conservation and natural products. I also foresee the collections becoming more valuable in areas not traditionally studied using living plant collections, such as ecology and developmental biology. For these and other fields, our concept of collectionsbased research must be broad, spanning a scale that includes the multiple genomes residing within a given accession, genotypic responses to the abiotic environment, and interactions between plants and other organisms. While Peter Ashton lauded the work on model systems because of their use in experi- 36 Arnoldia 65\/2 MICHAEL DOSMANN The 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition yielded over 600 collections of seeds, cuttings and plants. SABE 1084 was a collection of but 16 seeds of Staphylea holocarpa, and four of each were sent to the four participating institutions. However, only one seed germinated and that was one at the Arnold Arboretum: AA 59-81A. When this tree flowered, it was found to be of the pink-flowered type, and its name was changed in 1991 to Staphylea holocarpa var. rosea. Because of its rarity, the Arboretum has been attempting to vegetatively propagate this accession. mentation, he (1981) went on to state \"There is no doubt that future research must be directed increasingly at developing the technology required to expand this dangerously slender base, and competently curated collections, particularly of living plants, will prove invaluable.\" As we seek to apply the lessons gleaned from Arabidopsis thaliana and other models to the diversity within the plant kingdom, the Arboretum's collection is well positioned because of the genetic diversity it comprises. Our accessions of documented wild origin will continue to be important in illuminating mysteries related to genetic variation, adaptation, and biogeography. We should not discount the research potential of cultivated taxa--particu- larly those cultivars that are aberrant forms of the botanical species--as they may find new footing in the research of the future. Just imagine the typical ornamental border: a colorful circus of cuticular waxes, pigment combinations, bizarre leaf and floral morphologies, contorted habits, atypical growth rates, and unusual tolerances to environmental stresses. These ornamental mutants, in many ways similar to those found in the contrived collections of Arabidopsis, could well become important research collections of tomorrow. Ever the seer, Ashton also recognized that a living collection's research potential could never be exhausted, that there would be a constant need for its use, growth and development. Living Collections 37 It does not require clairvoyance to realize the basic premise that new technologies and new research interests always have a way of shedding light on old, \"anachronistic\" collections. Many museums have found this to be true, impacting collections of mummies (Irving and Ambers, 2002), preserved pigs (Larson et al., 2005), and dried plants (Stern and Eriksson, 1996). When a new perspective is brought to a collection, discovery follows. Take for instance the paintings of Caravaggio, which have been extensively studied by artists and historians. When scrutinized by a horticulturist, these works, in unanticipated fashion, revealed a unique glimpse of the crop diversity, pests and diseases present in the late 16th and early 17th centuries of the Old World (Janick, 2004). Living plant collections are no different, and those amassed for one reason frequently become useful for others. Countless synoptic collections assembled for taxonomic comparison have been extremely practical in the screening of natural products for medicinal use, an area of research that will become more important as natural populations of plants become threatened in the wild. Harrison Flint (1974) recommended plant collections would be ideally used to study phenology, and recently they have been--not to examine genecology as he suggested but to study climate change (Primack et al., 2004; Wolfe et al., 2005). Sometimes the unanticipated use is the result of unfor tunate events, leading to the application of the adage \"When life gives you lemons, make lemonade.\" Ongoing research at the Arboretum on the hemlock wooly adelgid includes studies on forest floor regeneration, biogeochemistry, and the identification of replacement hemlock species. When it comes to the last, Studying gas exchange it is doubtful that when paniculata. E. H. Wilson collected a single plant of Chinese hemlock, Tsuga chinensis, in 1911, he had in mind that this accession would play a key role in understanding the behavior of the insect (Del Tredici and Kitajima, 2004). Because one cannot predict the future, a challenge presents itself: How to prepare the Arboretum's collections for these unanticipated research needs? There are two areas where the institution can plan accordingly. The first deals with the nature of the collections and what makes them valuable. As future development of the collection ensues, it is important to target taxa (genera, species, populations, clones) that are not only unique to the Arboretum's holdings, but also have a greater than normal reseach potential. For example, future acquisitions to the six genera grown as part of the North American Plant Collections Consortium will be to specifically bolster their status as world-renown reference collections. Clearly, an accession's value is directly proportional to the information attached to it, and that which may lie in waiting. Thus, it is crucial that new additions have as much of the desired passport information related to their source as possible, and for accessions already in the collection, we MICHAEL DOSMANN in the field on the golden-rain tree, Koelreuteria 38 Arnoldia 65\/2 must attempt to repatriate any collection information that may have been lost over the years. It is also important that collaborating researchers have ready access to all types of collections data in order to be able to select the plants best suited to their projects. Luckily, the Arboretum continues to obtain material whose origin is well documented, and as we improve our ability to track and document research usage, the accessions become more robust benchmarks for future assessment. The second area of preparation is associated with the researchers themselves. One dilemma that living collections often face is the inability of researchers to know what gardens have to offer; conversely, gardens often do not know what researchers need (Rae, 1995). Such problems are particularly acute when researchers are located off-site, but they can also occur between and among staff members employed by the garden. As researcher pools expand into nontraditional disciplines, it is ever more important for gardens to engage these audiences directly and build the necessary relationships. The late Arboretum director, Richard Howard (1970) was an early proponent of a system where researchers outside of the garden and arboretum world could seek out and obtain research material in cultivation. Now, with the advent of the internet, access of collections to potential researchers is vastly improved, in part answering Howard's call. The Arboretum's website allows researchers to search for accessions in the living collections inventory, as well as vouchers held in the cultivated herbarium. Beyond access to the living collections themselves, the Arboretum can provide scientists with a wealth of other things, including affiliated collections (records, archives, images, herbarium specimens), expertise, greenhouse and lab space, and even financial assistance in the form of grants and fellowships. Although the institution may be the primary provider in this relationship, there are also things that researchers can do in return for collection access. One of the most basic is following-up when the project is completed, which includes sending updates and\/or reprints of any published work. I have found that while nearly all gardens and arboreta request this, it unfortunately occurs less than a third of the time. It is also important that results that did not make it into publication because of their anomalous or questionable nature be reported, particularly when the study is taxonomic in nature, as they may indicate that the name on the label is not correct. Researchers are also able to assist with the development of the living collection by donating well-documented plant material. By understanding and valuing the mutually beneficial relationship between the Arboretum and researchers, we can more ably respond to, and meet, the future needs of science. When it comes to the collections crisis afflicting other museums, gardens and arboreta are not immune. However, with strong collection advocacy and commitments to the collections use in research, I believe the future to be bright. In fact the relevancy of gardens and arboreta will only continue to increase as they become dynamic citadels comprising living plant collections and specialized botanical expertise. As for the Arboretum specifically, it is well poised for this future because of its historic and contemporary commitments to collections and research. With the physical manifestation of a research center on site, our living collections will become more bountiful and valuable. Acknowledgements I thank Richard Schulhof and Peter Del Tredici for comments on this article, and Kyle Port and Reni Driskill for producing the modified map image. Literature Cited Ashton, P. S. 1979. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: A message from the new director. Arnoldia 39(2): 6770. Ashton, P. S. 1981. The director's report. Arnoldia 41(6): 197254. Ashton, P. S. 1989. The genesis of the Arboretum's restoration and verification projects. Arnoldia 49(1): 710. Bartholomew, B., D. E. Boufford, et al. 1983. The 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Western Hubei province, People's Republic of China. Journal of the Arnold Aboretum 64(1): 1103. Dalton, R. 2003. Natural history collections in crisis as funding is slashed. Nature 423(6940): 575. Living Collections 39 Del Tredici, P. and A. Kitajima. 2004. Introduction and cultivation of Chinese hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and its resistance to hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae). Journal of Arboriculture 30(5): 282286. Dosmann, M. and P. Del Tredici. 2003. Plant introduction, distribution, and survival: A case study of the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition. BioScience 53(6): 588597. Dosmann, M. S. 2006. Research in the garden: Averting the collections crisis. The Botanical Review 72(3): 107134. Dosmann, M. S. and P. Del Tredici. 2005. The SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition of 1980: A retrospective analysis of success. HortScience 40(2): 302303. Flint, H. L. 1974. Phenology and genecology of woody plants. Phenology and seasonality modeling. H. Leith. New York, Springer-Verlag. 8: 8397. Hay, I. 1995. Science in the pleasure ground: A history of the Arnold Arboretum. Boston, Northeastern University Press. Howard, R. A. 1970. Wanted: Information on the distribution of cultivated plants. BioScience 20(2): 7986. Irving, A. and J. Ambers. 2002. Hidden treasure from the Royal Cemetery at Ur: Technology sheds new light on the ancient Near East. Near Eastern Archaeology 65(3): 206213. Janick, J. 2004. Caravaggio's fruit: A mirror on Baroque horticulture. Chronica Horticulturae 44(4): 915. Krishtalka, L. and P. S. Humphrey. 2000. Can natural history museums capture the future? BioScience 50: 611617. Larson, G., K. Dobney, et al. 2005. Worldwide phylogeography of wild boar reveals multiple centers of pig domestication. Science 307(5715): 16181621. Li, J., P. Del Tredici, et al. 2002. Phylogenetic relationships and biogeography of Stewartia (Camellioideae, Theaceae) inferred from nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS sequences. Rhodora 104(918): 117133. Marris, E. 2006. Plant science: Gardens in full bloom. Nature 440(7086): 860863. Miller, S. E., W. J. Kress, et al. 2004. Crisis for Biodiversity Collections. Science 303(5656): 310b. Nature. 2006. The constant gardeners. Nature 440(7086): 845. Pekarik, A. J. 2003. Long-term thinking: What about the stuff? Curator 46(4): 367370. Primack, D., C. Imbres, et al. 2004. Herbarium specimens demonstrate earlier flowering times in response to warming in Boston. American Journal of Botany 91(8): 12601264. Rae, D. A. H. (1995). Botanic gardens and their live plant collections: Present and future roles. Social Sciences. Edinburgh, University of Edinburgh: 573. Raven, P. H. 1981. Research in botanical gardens. Botanische Jahrbucher fur Systematik, Pflanzengeschichte und Pflanzengeographie 102: 5372. Sacchi, C. F. 1991. The role and nature of research at botanical gardens. Public Garden 6(3): 3335. Sargent, C. S. (187778). The Arnold Arboretum. Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College. Sargent, C. S. 1922. The first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Aboretum 3(3): 127171. Spongberg, S. A. 1989. Establishing traditions at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 49(1): 1120. Steere, W. C. 1969. Research as a function of a botanical garden. Longwood Program Seminars 1: 4347. Stern, M. J. and T. Eriksson. 1996. Symbioses in herbaria: Recommendations for more positive interactions between plant systematists and ecologists. Taxon 45(1): 4958. Suarez, A. V. and N. D. Tsutsui. 2004. The value of museum collections for research and society. BioScience 54(1): 6674. Watson, G. W., V. Heywood, et al. 1993. North American botanic gardens. Horticulture Reviews 15(1): 162. Widrlechner, M. P. and L. A. Burke. 2003. Analysis of germplasm distribution patterns for collections held at the North Central Regional Plant Introduction Station, Ames, Iowa, USA. Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution 50(3): 329337. Wilson, E. H. 1924. Harvard's tree museum. Museum Work 6(5): 147152. Wolfe, D. W., M. D. Schwartz, et al. 2005. Climate change and shifts in spring phenology of three horticultural woody perennials in northeastern USA. International Journal of Biometeorology 49(5): 303309. Zuk, J. D. 1984. Confessions of a collections advocate. Longwood Program Seminars 16: 2126. Michael Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum, where he was a Putnam Research Fellow from 2000 through 2002. He recently received his Ph. D. in Horticulture from Cornell University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Paperbark Maple - One Hundred Years Later","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25431","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed170a726.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Paperbark Maple--One Hundred Years Later Peter Del Tredici T he living collections of the Arnold Arboretum hold many important trees, but few are as significant as two of its paperbark maples (Acer griseum) which are celebrating their hundredth anniversary this year. Not only are these trees exquisitely beautiful, but they are also the oldest specimens of this rare Chinese species growing in North America. One of them is the well-known, low-branched individual growing on Bussey Hill along Chinese Path (see inside back cover), while the other is much taller and grows at the edge of the maple collection near the Bradley Garden of Rosaceous Plants (see front cover). Given their status as the original introduction of this highly ornamental species into North America, it is worth telling the story of how these two landmark trees came to be growing at the Arboretum. In the fall of 1907, Ernest Henry Wilson collected at least two seedlings of paperbark maple in Hubei Province, China. In his field notebook for this trip, under the number 719, Wilson entered the following notation: \"Acer griseum. tree 2550 ft. margin of woods 45006000 ft. North Plants.\" Ten years later, in 1917, Wilson rewrote this cryptic entry in Volume III of Plantae Wilsonianae, edited by C. S. Sargent. The following entry appears on page 427: \"Acer griseum: Western Hupeh: north of Ichang, margin of woods, alt. 15002000 m., 1907 (No. 719; trees 816 m. tall; plants only).\" According to our card files, two of the Acer griseum seedlings that Wilson collected under number 719 in Fang Xian, in Hubei Province, were accessioned in December 1907. They were originally assigned accession number 58132, which was later changed to 12488, the number under which both trees are still listed today. Among botanists, the maple family is notorious for having complex flowers, and Acer griseum is no exception. Technically the species is considered to be \"androdioecious,\" which means that some individuals produce only staminate (male) flowers while others produce perfect flowers with both male and female parts. Individual \"A\", near the Bradley Garden, is a male specimen that produces no seed and stands some 64 feet tall (19.5 meters), with a spread of 44 feet (13.5 meters), and a diameter at breast height of 28 inches (70 centimeters) at the age of 100. Individual \"B\" has a more unusual form, having lost its leader some time ago. It stands only about 30 feet tall (9 meters), with a spread of 38 feet (11.5 meters), and a diameter of 37.5 inches (95 centimeters) at two feet off the ground. It produces perfect flowers and regularly produces viable seed which germinate spontaneously under the tree. This specimen was undoubtedly the source of the first generation of paperbark maples planted in North America. Indeed, the Arboretum's distribution records indicate that seedlings of Acer griseum were first distributed in 1927, some twenty years after its introduction from China. All together some 79 seedlings, 4 seed lots, 3 packets of scions, and 1 packet of softwood cuttings of Acer griseum were distributed to various plant collectors and nurserymen between 1927 and 1945, firmly establishing the species in North American gardens. Peter Del Tredici is Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum and a Lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23406","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25e8128.jpg","title":"2007-65-2","volume":65,"issue_number":2,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Using Photographs to Show the Effects \r of Climate Change on Flowering Times","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25427","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160856b.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.; Miller-Rushing, Abraham J.; Primack, Daniel; Mukunda, Sharda","article_content":"Using Photographs to Show the Effects of Climate Change on Flowering Times Richard B. Primack, Abraham J. Miller-Rushing, Daniel Primack, and Sharda Mukunda T here are many indications that global warming is affecting natural processes around the world. Glaciers are melting and many species are shifting their ranges poleward and up mountain slopes while others are becoming extinct. Changes in the timing of phenological events like the flowering of plants and the arrival of migratory birds are among the most sensitive indicators of global warming's effect on biological systems. In England, plants now flower up to a month earlier than they did fifty years ago. Across Europe, leaves emerge an average of six days earlier than they did thirty years ago. In Massachusetts, we have observed earlier flowering, earlier bird migrations, and earlier frog reproduction in recent warmer years. Clearly, current changes in plant phenology will have widespread impacts on critical ecosystem processes such as carbon dioxide storage in plants, interactions between land and atmosphere, and relationships among species. In the Netherlands, for example, dramatic declines in some populations of pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca) have been attributed to changes in the time-sensitive relationships between oak tree leaf-out, caterpillar emergence, and bird breeding times: earlier leaf-out, linked to warmer temperatures, causes the caterpillars to finish their lifecycle earlier, thereby depriving laterarriving birds of the caterpillars required to feed their nestlings. The fundamental questions being asked by scientists are: How is the timing of phenological events changing? And how will continued climate change affect this timing in the future? Most studies documenting the impact of climate change on phenological events have relied on long-term written records. Although many such records have been found and analyzed in Europe, they are too rare in the United States and elsewhere to help answer these questions. To expand our information base to more species and more geographic locations, scientists must therefore seek out reliable data from other kinds of records. In an earlier Arnoldia (vol. 63, no. 4), we described how herbarium specimens collected over many years could be used with a single baseline season of field observations to provide data about changes in plant flowering times. Since then, we have discovered that like herbarium specimens, dated photographs of plants in flower can also inform us about those changes. These photographs are far more common than herbarium specimens or written records: collections can be found in many museums, libraries, universities, and private holdings. Scientists in other fields have used photographic records to document changes in soil and vegetation and to calculate the rate of glacier retreat. Recently, Tim Sparks and colleagues used dated photographs to document changes in plant development in response to weather conditions in particular years. The photos (facing page top and bottom) show leaf-out at the Lowell, Massachusetts, Cemetery. Leaves are conspicuously missing on Memorial Day in this 1868 photograph by an unknown photographer. In the bottom photo, taken on Memorial Day, 2005, at least two of the large, bare trees seen in the 1868 photo are alive and fully leafed out. They appear directly above the two large plinths at the far left and far right. Mean February-through-May temperature in 1868 was 35 degrees F (1.9 degrees C), whereas in 2005 it was 40 degrees F (4.7 degrees C). 4 Arnoldia 65\/1 Mean temperatures in February, March, April, and May from 1881 to 2004 as recorded at Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Milton, Massachusetts. The horizontal line represents the long-term mean FebruaryMay temperature, 40 degrees Fahrenheit (4.4 degrees C). To test the value of photographs in our own phenological research, we examined two collections of dated photographs of flowering plants and a single, very unusual photograph of trees taken at the Lowell, Massachusetts, Cemetery. The Test: Methodology Our first step was to obtain temperature data from Blue Hill Meteorological Observatory in Milton, Massachusetts. The Blue Hill Observatory, located approximately five miles (8 km) south of the Arnold Arboretum and twenty miles (33 km) southeast of Concord, Massachusetts, has one of the longest continuous records of weather observations in the United States. These records allowed us to correlate temperatures with plant flowering times. From 1881 to 2004, mean FebruaryMay temperatures at the site warmed 4.5 degrees F (2.5 degrees C)--an increase in metropolitan Boston that is nearly as great as those predicted for western Massachusetts and beyond over the next fifty to one hundred years. About three-quarters of the increase at Blue Hill has been attributed to the urban heat island effect, that is, the warming associated with more buildings, streets, parking lots, and other human modifications. Urban areas, being in the vanguard of climate change, can therefore provide useful information about the ecological changes that will occur elsewhere, though somewhat later, as a result of global warming. Our photographic data came from two collections of photographs. The first consisted of 251 dated images of 48 species of cultivated woody plants in flower at the Arnold Arboretum between 1904 and 2004. They had been taken by staff photographers as well as by other staff Photodata 5 members and amateur photographers. In general, the individual plants shown in the photographs were not recorded, but the species were either recorded or clearly identifiable. We examined the photographs taken at the Arnold Arboretum first, assuming that on average the photographs represented the mean flowering time of a species in a particular year. (We had previously confirmed a similar assumption during our study of herbarium specimens.) For each photograph, we calculated how much earlier or later a plant had flowered in the year it was photographed than it did in the benchmark year of 2003, when we observed the flowering times on the grounds. We then used statistical techniques to estimate the rate at which flowering dates changed over time and to relate that H. W. GLEASON. COURTESY OF THE CONCORD FREE LIBRARY change to mean temperatures from February through May. We validated the magnitude of these changes by comparing them to the ones revealed by our herbarium-based study. The second collection contained 34 dated photographs of 17 species of wild plants in flower in Concord, Massachusetts. Most were images of wildflowers, with a few of trees and shrubs as well. These photographs, spanning the years from 1900 to 1921, were taken by the landscape photographer Herbert Wendell Gleason, who was focusing on plants and places mentioned in the journals of Henry David Thoreau. To demonstrate the general usefulness of the approach, in 2005 we analyzed the collection of flowering wild plants in Concord. By comparing the dates of the photographs to the mean A. J. MILLER-RUSHING Wild specimens of pink lady's slipper (Cypripedium acaule) in Concord, Massachusetts, flowered six weeks later in 1917, on June 22, than in 2005, when they were in flower on May 17. Mean FebruaryMay temperature in 1917 was 35 degrees F (1.8 degrees C) and in 2005, 40 degrees F (4.7 degrees C). 6 Arnoldia 65\/1 E. H. WILSON, ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM plant flowering times of the same species that we found in our Concord field observations, we were able to calculate how much earlier or later a plant species had flowered in the year of the photograph than it did in the benchmark year of 2005. Again, we used statistical techniques to derive an average rate of change for all the photographed species in relation to mean temperatures from February through May. In this case, we validated our results by comparing them to trends shown by 13 of the same species in observations made by the botanist Alfred Hosmer in Concord each year from 1888 to 1902. Findings Our study of the photographs from the Arnold Arboretum indicated that plants are flowering about eleven days earlier on average than they were a century ago. The rate of change was 3.9 days for each increase of one degree Centigrade (.5556 degree F) in mean FebruaryMay temperatures--in other words, plants were flowering earlier because the temperatures in the months before flowering were getting warmer over time. On average, mean FebruaryMay temperatures at Blue Hill Observatory warmed 2.1 degrees C (just over one degree F) from 1904 to 2004. In the particularly cold springs of 1916, 1923, 1924, and 1926 (mean February May temperatures less than 37 degrees F [3 degrees C]), plants flowered nine days later than average. In the particularly warm springs of 1976, 1977, 1981, 1991, 2002, and 2004 (mean FebruaryMay temperatures greater than 43 degrees F [6.0 degrees C]), they flowered two days earlier. This rate closely matched the response to temperature change that we had found in our previous study, using herbarium specimens and the living plants at the Arnold Arboretum. These findings were confirmed by the study of wild species in Concord. Flowering times as recorded in the Concord photographs were the same in 1921 as ROBERT G. MAYER Another representative comparison of historical and recent photographs is this pair of native fringetrees (Chionanthus virginicus) photographed at the Arnold Arboretum on June 20, 1926, and again in 2003, on May 7, when they flowered seven weeks earlier. Photodata 7 Changes in flowering times of woody plants at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University in Boston for the period 19042004. Each point represents the difference between the date a historical photograph showed a specimen in flower and the date that the same species was in flower in 2003 (historical date2003 date). Negative values indicate historical flowering times that were earlier than flowering times in 2003. The line represents the best fit to the data. For comparison, the dashed line represents the same relationship using herbarium specimens but without individual points being shown. It is readily apparent that both dated photographs and herbarium specimens indicate that plants are flowering earlier during this hundred-year period. they had been in 1900; this was to be expected since temperatures at Blue Hill Observatory did not on average increase between those years. However, during these years the photographic record showed plants flowering 5.3 days earlier for each single degree Centigrade increase in spring temperatures. In warm years, such as 1903, plants flowered earlier than in cool years, such as 1916. In the particularly cold springs of 1901, 1916, 1917, and 1920 (mean FebruaryMay temperatures less than 37 degrees F [3.0 degrees C]), plants flowered eight days later than average. In the particularly warm spring of 1903 (mean FebruaryMay temperature more than 43 degrees F [6.0 degrees C]), they flowered eight days earlier. We verified these findings by comparing them to the evidence in a set of unpublished observations of flowering times in Concord made by Alfred Hosmer from 1888 to 1902. Hosmer apparently carried out these observations as a continuation of similar observations begun by Thoreau in the 1850s. His observations indicated that the same species flowered 4.8 days earlier for each degree Centigrade warming. The results from the two sets of photographs and from Hosmer's observations are statistically indistinguishable. The results also reflect the disparity in dates: Hosmer recorded first flowering dates, whereas Gleason photographed plants on their peak flowering dates. Hosmer's observations are therefore 8 Arnoldia 65\/1 Changes in flowering times in response to changes in mean spring (FebruaryMay) temperatures for wild plants in Concord, Massachusetts, for the period 19001921. Each point represents the difference between the date a historical photograph showed a specimen in flower and the date that same species was in flower in 2005 (historical date2005 date). Negative values indicate historical flowering times that were earlier than flowering times in 2005. Solid line represents the best fit to the data. The dashed line represents independent data from field observations of first flowering dates collected by A. W. Hosmer between 1888 and 1902 but without the individual data points. The slopes of the lines are indistinguishable, indicating that they both show the same relationship between climate and flowering times; plants flower earlier in warm years than in cold years. The line using photographs is higher in the graphs because photographs are usually taken when plants are in full flower, which occurs several days after plants are in first flower, which is what Hosmer was recording. dated several days earlier than Gleason's photographs. We also noted an example of how photographs can be used to document changes in the timing of leaf-out as well as flowering. The striking photograph at the top of page 2 was taken in the Lowell Cemetery in Lowell, Massachusetts, on Memorial Day, 30 May 1868. In the photo, the trees have not yet leafed out, despite the late date, and people are wearing heavy clothing. The photograph below it, taken on the same date in 2005 at the same location, shows the trees fully leafed out. At least two of the large, leafless trees in the 1868 photo are still alive and had fully leafed out in 2005. An exceptionally cold spring probably caused the delayed leaf-out in 1868; the mean temperature from February to May of that year was 4 degrees F (2.2 degrees C) lower than the average over the past 150 years and nearly 5 degrees F (2.7 degrees C) colder than February to May 2005. The Advantages and Problems of Using Photographs Our study showed that photographs provide reliable estimates of the date of peak flowering and can be used to calculate rates of change in flowering times that are comparable to the rates Photodata 9 determined from independently collected data sets, including direct field observations. Moreover, these results hold true for both wild and cultivated plants. Because photographs are far more abundant than are scientists' field observations, they can dramatically increase the amount of reliable data available for studying the times not only of flowering but also of leaf-out, bird migration, the emergence in spring of hibernating animals, and other seasonal events. And even though the photographs may have been taken over several days or even several weeks, the flowering dates they reveal can be accurately correlated with temperatures as long as enough photographs are used and if analysis of the photographs is combined with studies in the field. As noted, the analysis of a photograph collection may need to take account of the tendency of some people to photograph plants as soon as they start to flower while others photograph them when more flowers are open. These limitations did not substantially affect the results of our study, as demonstrated by the validation from independently collected data. Researchers should also be aware of a problem inherent in using photographs of multiple species to calculate a single rate of change. In our study, we assumed for the sake of simplicity that the flowering times of all the plants we observed changed at similar rates in response to warming, even though we knew this is not the case. These differences added variation to our results, making them less reliable than if we had examined changes in the flowering times of individual species. Nevertheless, the indications are that on average, plants are flowering earlier now than in the past because of warmer temperatures. Even though these alternative sources of information--herbarium specimens and photographs--can be used to show phenological responses to climate change, botanical gardens remain a particularly valuable source of long-term data. We hope that regular observations of key events such as leaf bud burst, flowering, fruiting, and leaf senescence will be recorded. At the same time, however, analysis of additional photograph collections could dramatically increase our understanding of how climate change affects a wide range of species at many previously unexamined localities. If you know of any such collections, please get in touch with us. For Further Reading on Climate Change Both, C. S. Bouwhuis, C. M. Lessells, and M. E. Visser. 2006. Climate change and population declines in a long-distance migratory bird. Nature 441: 8183. Fitter, A. H., and R. S. R. Fitter. 2002. Rapid changes in flowering time in British plants. Science 296: 16891691. Lavoie, C., and D. Lachance. 2006. A new herbariumbased method for reconstructing the phenology of plant species across large areas. American Journal of Botany 93: 512516. Ledneva, A., A. J. Miller-Rushing, R. B. Primack, and C. Imbres. 2004. Climate change as reflected in a naturalist's diar y, Middleborough, Massachusetts. Wilson Bulletin 116: 224231. Miller-Rushing, A. J., D. Primack, R. B. Primack, C. Imbres, and P. Del Tredici. 2004. Herbarium specimens as a novel tool for climate change research. Arnoldia 63(2): 2632. Miller-Rushing, A. J., R. B. Primack, D. Primack, and S. Mukunda. 2006. Photographs as tools to document phenological changes in response to global warming. American Journal of Botany 93: 16671674. Parmesan, C., and G. Yohe. 2003. A globally coherent fingerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421: 3742. Primack, D., C. Imbres, R. B. Primack, A. J. MillerRushing, and P. Del Tredici. 2004. Herbarium specimens demonstrate earlier flowering in response to warming in Boston. American Journal of Botany 91: 12601264. Sparks, T. H., K. Huber, and P. J. Croxton. 2006. Plant development scores from fixed-date photographs: the influence of weather variables and recorder experience. International Journal of Biometeorology 50: 275279. Richard Primack is currently a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. He and Abraham Miller-Rushing, Dan Primack, and Sharda Mukunda are all at Boston University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolia x thompsoniana 'Cairn Croft'","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25423","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160bb6f.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft' Peter Del Tredici M and partly because it does not seem to perform agnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft' all that well under typical growing conditions. is the reincarnation of a very old hyIn the United States, the plant is less widely brid. Indeed, the sweetly scented M. grown than it is in Europe, mainly because of x thompsoniana was the first hybrid magnolia its lack of winter hardiness. Indeed, the Arnold to be described in the Western horticultural Arboretum's first director, C. S. Sargent, writing literature, in 1820, beating M. x soulangeana in Garden and Forest in 1888, noted that \"it is into press by seven years. The original M. x a curious fact that it [M. x thompsoniana] is thompsoniana selection was discovered in much less hardy and much less vigorous than 1808 by Archibald Thomson among a flat of either of its supposed parents, suffering here normal seedlings of the sweetbay, M. virginiana, which had germinated at his Mile End nursery in London, most likely from seed he collected from a plant growing in England. John Sims, writing in Curtis' Botanical Magazine twelve years later, described the plant as a robust, large-flowered variety of the sweetbay, to which he gave the name M. glauca var. major, and published a full-color illustration of its leaves and blossom (see inside front cover). In 1838, J. C. Loudon, in his monumental Arboretum et Fructicetum Britannicum, followed Sims' lead in classifying the plant as a variety of sweetbay magnolia \"enlarged in all its parts,\" but changed its specific name to thompsoniana. He speculated that the plant might The fully opened flower of Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft', roughly be a hybrid between M. virginiana six inches across. and M. tripetala but left the question always, unless carefully protected in winter, and open. Thirty-eight years later a Dutch botanist, rarely rising above the size of a small bush.\" C. de Vos, followed up on Loudon's suggestion In 1960, J. C. McDaniel, the well-known horand formally reclassified the plant as the hybrid ticulturist and magnolia breeder at the Unibetween M. virginiana and M. tripetala, retainversity of Illinois, attempted to remedy the ing M. x thompsoniana as the name. hardiness problem by recreating the hybrid Despite its large, deliciously fragrant flowers, using Magnolia virginiana parents that were Magnolia x thompsoniana has achieved only hardier than the one that the original plant modest popularity in European gardens since came from. His work culminated in 1966 with its introduction. This is partly because of its the introduction of `Urbana', which had the ungainly habit of growth, which makes it difgreatest ornamental potential of all of the seedficult to use in small or medium-sized gardens, PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR `Cairn Croft' 11 lings he raised and was hardy to minus-15 degrees F. Like its predecessor, however, `Urbana' has never achieved anything other than limited distribution, and most nursery people who have grown the plant consider it a poor performer. In 2004 a third M. x thompsoniana cultivar, `Olmenhof', was found growing in a public park in Belgium and was named and registered by Koen Camelbeke, Jef Van Meulder, and Wim Peeters. It is reported to have a better growth habit and earlier and larger flowers than the 1808 selection (Boland, 2005). `Cairn Croft' The flowers of Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn Croft' (left) next to those Magnolia x thompsoniana `Cairn of a \"sibling\" M. virginiana (right). Croft' is the fourth reincarnation of this unusual hybrid. The plant was discovered those of the Magnolia virginiana seedlings that on a private estate in Westwood, Massachusetts, came in the same 1989 shipment. The plant is about ten miles southwest of the Arboretum. It fully hardy in USDA zone 6 (minus-10 degrees was one of a group of about a dozen specimens F), where it has been growing without winter of sweetbay magnolia that had been purchased protection or damage since 1989. It is a fully around 1989 from a nursery identified only as deciduous plant, with pale green winter twigs \"southern.\" On June 22, 1998, the gardener for and buds, not unlike those of M. virginiana. the estate, Kevin Doyle, stopped by the ArboIt produces relatively large, elliptical leaves, retum's Dana Greenhouses with some cuttings six to eight inches (1621 cm) long by two to (with flowers) of one of the seedlings that was three-and-a-third inches (58.5 cm) wide with strikingly different from its supposed siblings. slightly undulating margins; they are a bright, One quick look was all it took to recognize the shining green above and, due to a covering plant as a M. x thompsoniana hybrid, which I of fine hairs, silvery-white underneath. Like knew from the literature but had never seen. the original clone of M. x thompsoniana, the Research in the library confirmed my initial pith of its young twigs is incompletely sepdiagnosis, and I immediately set about propatate while that of M. virginiana is completely gating the plant from the cuttings that Kevin septate and that of M. tripetala is continuous had brought in by dipping the lower portion (Spongberg, 1976). of their stems in an aqueous solution of K-IBA `Cairn Croft' produces flowers from mid June (5,000 parts per million) for five seconds and through July that stand erect on the ends of then placing them under fog and intermittent the branchlets on relatively stout, glaucous mist. Some six out of sixty-three cuttings were pedicels, not unlike those of its Magnolia tripwell rooted by the following April, two of which etala parent. Typically the flowers have eleven are now growing on the Arboretum's grounds tepals: the three outer ones are greenish-white (AA #174-98). The mother plant remains alive in color, spatulate in shape, and reflex back as and well in its original Westwood home. the flower opens. The eight inner tepals are `Cairn Croft'--the name Kevin selected-- thicker than the outer tepals, creamy white in produces flowers with a sweet, lemony fracolor and oblong-ovate in shape. They are three grance that are two to three times larger than to three-and-a-quarter-inch (79 cm) long and 12 Arnoldia 65\/1 seed. No doubt it suffers from same case of pollen sterility that was reported for the original M. x thompsoniana clone by Frank Santamour in 1966. It is my hope that in `Cairn Croft' we at last have a \"home-grown\" Magnolia x thompsoniana selection that can stand up to the rigors of the North American climate. For now I am assuming that `Cairn Croft' originated from open-pollinated seed collected from a plant of M. virginiana and was the only hybrid among a group of seedlings that was true to its maternal parent. How accurate this assumption is awaits the results of DNA-testing, which is planned for later this year. Scions of `Cairn Croft' were distributed to Pat McCracken (McCracken's Nursery) and Dick Jaynes (Broken Arrow Nursery) in March of last year and, with luck, should be commercially available within a year or two. References Boland, T. 2005. New cultivar registrations 20042005. Magnolia 40(77): 2425. De Vos, C. 1876. Pomologische vereeniging [M. x thompsoniana]. Nederlandsche Flora & Pomona: 131: t. 43. Loudon, J. C. 1838. Arboretum et Fructicetum Britannicum. London, vol. 1. The original plant of `Cairn Croft' with its discoverer, Kevin Doyle, in 2002. It was fifteen feet tall, with a spread of seventeen feet. McDaniel, J. C. 1966. A new-old Magnolia hybrid. Illinois Research, Fall 1966. Santamour, F. S. Jr. 1966. Hybrid sterility in Magnolia x thompsoniana. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 17: 2930. Sargent, C. S. 1888. Magnolia Thompsoniana x. Garden and Forest 1: 268269. Sims, J. 1820. Magnolia glauca var. major. Thomson's New Swamp Magnolia. Curtis' Botanical Magazine 48: t. 2164. Spongberg, S. A. 1976. Magnoliaceae hardy in temperate Nor th America. Jour nal of the Ar nold Arboretum 57: 250-312. Treseder, N. G. 1978. Magnolias. Farber and Farber, London. less than an inch by an inch-and-a-third (2.2 3.5 cm) wide, and fade as they age to a \"rusty yellow,\" to use John Sims' phrase. The flowers of `Cairn Croft' are intermediate in size between its two parents, being roughly twice the size of M. virginiana and three-quarters the size of M. tripetala. Fortunately, in fragrance all of the M. x thompsoniana selections favor their sweetbay mothers rather than their \"illscented\" fathers. The original `Cairn Croft' is a vigorous grower, having reached a height of fifteen feet (4.6 m) with a spread of seventeen feet (5.2 m) by 2002, in the absence of any pruning. Despite its proximity to flowering specimens of Magnolia virginiana, `Cairn Croft' does not set viable Peter Del Tredici is a senior research scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Prosthetics: Artifice in Support of Nature","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25424","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed1608128.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Treib, Marc","article_content":"Plant Prosthetics: Artifice in Support of Nature Marc Treib ALEXANDRE CHEMETOFF I n the wild, trees seem to do rather well all by themselves. That is, some of them do rather well; you know, Darwin and all that. But in constructed settings, urban or suburban, they seem to need some help just to get by. So we irrigate them, protect them from getting gnawed, buffer them from being bumped, spray them against insects and rot--and we prop them up. The debate still rages whether staking is a good thing (aiding the tree in its struggles to withstand the attacks of wind and vandals during their adolescence) or a bad thing (creating a dependence on the artificial support that hampers the development of the tree's own natural systems). Whichever side of the argument you land on, the fact remains that staking accompanies the planting of almost all trees. And like it or not--except perhaps within the realms of those sufficiently wealthy to purchase large and mature specimens--for many years the visual impact of the stake will dominate that of the tree. The French landscape architect Alexandre Chemetoff understood this and used it to aesthetic advantage in his hillside plantations for a motorway intersection near Toulouse. Rather than deny their presence, Chemetoff painted the stakes a bright blue; paired with the colored polyethylene used to retard erosion and weeds, the strong diagonals of the staking arranged on a grid became the principal features of the design [figure 1]. Supports may be delicate and almost diaphanous or stout and sturdy. The schools of staking vary from the single--whether vertical or diagonal--the paired, and the tripod and quadrupod. And how the supports connect with each other and with the tree varies from a manner that accepts sway and movement as a part of growth and one that ranks stolid rigidity above all else. The selection of form appears to depend on the budget, the size of the tree, and the number and degree of hazardous conditions [figure 2]. 1: Single stake, diagonal, blue paint. Roca de Est Junction, Toulouse, France, circa 1989. Design by Alexandre Chemetoff. ALL PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR EXCEPT WHERE INDICATED OTHERWISE 2: Vine supports. Gravetye Manor, Essex, England, 2005. 14 Arnoldia 65\/1 36: clockwise from upper left: Two stakes, wood with rope. Viken, Sweden, 2002; Two stakes, wood, sturdy. Tokyo, Japan, 1988; Two stakes, wood, multiples. Museu Serralves, Porto, Portugal, 2003; Two stakes, diagonal. Boston, Massachusetts, 1999. The single stake represents an optimistic gesture; one encounters many a fallen, broken, or missing stake that accompanies--or accompanied--many a fallen, broken, or missing tree. Dual staking, with rubber-covered leads, bolsters the trunk just as two friends support a drunkard [figures 36]. It is strong along one axis, but weak when faced with perpendicular forces. Certainly it is no match for an errant automobile or the nonchalance of an inattentive garbage-truck driver. Schools of application range from the sturdy vertical to the angled and more tensile. The tripod configuration starts getting serious in locations like Tokyo and other urban areas where the edge between sidewalk and road is barely apparent [figures 79]. These tend to be constructed of stout wooden poles, wired Plant Prosthetics 15 79: Tripod, large scale, wood. Mito, Japan, 2006; Tripod, small scale, re-bar. Awaji Island, Japan, 2005; Tripod, superscale, metal: staking as gateway. Summer Palace, Beijing, China, 2005. or nailed together, with no pretense of naturalness. But they are also made of metal, some of them so tall that they double as spatial markers and entryways. Like the crutch and the kneebrace these are prosthetic devices that use the artificial to improve the natural. The quadruped is the heavy duty, industrial-strength version of the tripod, exceeded in muscle and effect only, perhaps, by devices of stainless steel that give no quarter to any oncoming vehicle [figure 10]. Darwin and all that, you understand. Arboreal prosthetics address a variety of needs: to support the tree during its early years, often to counter problems incurred by the demand for quick growth; as compensation for a structural weakness, perhaps caused by mannered horticultural practices; in periods of decline; and as life-support in advanced age, countering senility in the twilight years. Staking is most commonly practiced during early adolescence, however, suggesting the parents' handholding of the child, or their protecting it from cold, hunger, and the elements. Props also compensate for weakness due to infirmity, for example re-erecting a tree fallen in a storm or one undermined by insects or erosion. Then there are the prosthetics necessary to certain horticultural practices--Japan is the great example here. Cultural norms coerce the Japanese gardener and arborist to treat the verti- cal mass of the tree as a series of masses horizontally defined. To accomplish this look, branches are trained and pruned, needles thinned and shaped. The resulting sub-masses of the trees are exposed and inherently frail, a limitation multiplied enormously when applied to the 10: Quadrapod, steel. Sydney, Australia, 2006. 16 Arnoldia 65\/1 13: Cycad wrapping, straw. Tokyo, Japan, 1971. 11: Pine tree tent supports, caps. Hama Rikyu, Tokyo, Japan, 1988. 14: Cycad wrapping, straw, base. Hama Rikyu, Tokyo, Japan, 1988. 12: Tree wrapping, straw. Koraku-en, Okayama, Japan, 2005. pine family. Unlike the denuded branches of deciduous trees, in winter the clumps of evergreen pine needles catch and clutch volumes of snow, and their accumulated weight threatens to snap the branches from their trunks. To thwart this threat elaborate laceworks of (traditionally) rice-straw ropes support the branches from a central pole or trunk [figure 11]. The resulting structure is visually splendid, a carousel-like tent whose tawny hue contrasts eloquently with the deep green of the pine needles. Coats made of rice-straw matting complete the winter garments worn by Japanese trees [figure 12]. Around the base of the trunks the mats serve double duty: protecting the trunk from bumps and scrapes and--it is claimed by Japanese gardeners--tempting boring insects with a more easily penetrated target. At season's end, these are removed and tossed away, vermin included. Matting also protects the tender tops of cycads whose fronds are cut back each winter to protect them from frost [figures 13, 14]. The logic of these multi-layered constructions is verified by their parallels with the structures constructed by termites in humid Plant Prosthetics 17 15: Trunk protection, bamboo. Koyasan, Japan, 2005. 17: Canopy protection, plastic mesh. Tokyo, Japan, 1988. 16: Trunk protection, plywood. Fredensborgslothave [Fredensborg Castle Garden], Denmark, 2003. climates with heavy rainfall: the stacked roofs continually eject the water and prevent it from running down the full length of the mat and into the tree, which may cause rot. Against heavy vehicular or pedestrian traffic or during construction, existing vegetation requires protection for it to survive. Prosthetic appliances protect the trunk, the canopy, or both. Plywood boxes guard the trunks against unintended thuds from forklifts and bulldozers, while pervious sheets of plastic mesh defend leaves and branches from the knocks of cranes or careless workmen [figures 1517]. Each produces its own aesthetic, an aesthetic at times verging on the threshold of art, whether the minimal \"specific objects\" of Donald Judd or the wrapped landscapes of Christo and Jeanne-Claude. Mature trees in their sunset years often require supports in order to endure, like the pensioner requiring the aid of a walker or a cane. Perhaps the trunk has been attacked by borers or fungus, perhaps key branches have been lost to lightning or to encroaching development, perhaps the depleted circulation system no longer keeps the trunk and branches sufficiently turgid. Support is required. And in cultures that venerate longevity--China and Japan, for example--the tree is treated as an honorable member of the family. In these situations one often encounters the wooden or metal post. But one also finds the cultural urge to disguise the prosthetic effort, as if the tree would be embarrassed by such reinforcement. Or is it an attempt to make the unnatural appear natural? In any event, in these situations one may encounter a field of posts, each directly reacting to the drooping force of gravity, in some ways a ghost duplicating the field of tree trunks themselves. 18 Arnoldia 65\/1 18: Tree support, concrete. Ming Tombs, Dingling, China, 2005. 19: Tree support, Araucaria cunninghamia, concrete. Yu Yin Shan Fang garden, Panyu, Guangzhou, China, 2005. Wrapped up in this nursing of weakness, then, is the relation of the natural to the artificial. Most prosthetics make no bones about being constructions. In material and in form they stand apart, functionalist in approach and vocabulary. They stand to serve, not to blend, and there is little question as to which is the tree and which is the structural addition. In China, however, detecting which is which may be difficult. For some reason, posts of concrete are modeled or cast to emulate the pine trunks they support [figure 18]. So realistically are they modeled that after years in place, colored by layers of dirt and discoloration, they look exactly the same as the real trunks. There develops a second forest of concrete trunks that shadows the living forest of brown bark and green needles: a forest of the artisans' efforts rather nature's. The results can be almost unnerving. In the Yu Yin Shan Fang garden in Panyu, near Guangzhou, the post supporting an aged Araucaria cunninghamia was so realistic that it was easy to confuse the living with the made [figure 19]. Perhaps this is the ultimate prosthetic effect--a creation so authentic in its guise that it becomes indistinguishable from its host. More than prosthetic, construction is akin to what plastic surgery is to the human face or body--an artificial creation that appears to be natural and real. Real, without a doubt; natural, not really. Marc Treib is Professor of Architecture at the University of Califor nia, Berkeley, and a prolific author on landscape and design subjects. His most recent books are Settings and Stray Paths: Writings on Landscapes and Gardens (Routledge, 2005), and The Donnell and Eckbo Gardens: Modern Californian Masterworks (William Stout Publishers, 2005), both available from www.stoutbooks.com. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Salamanders in a Changing Environment on Hemlock Hill","article_sequence":4,"start_page":19,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25425","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160816d.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mathewson, Brooks","article_content":"Salamanders in a Changing Environment on Hemlock Hill Brooks Mathewson O ne way ecologists measure changes in the environment is by monitoring animal populations over long periods. Over the past five years, for example, Robert G. Mayer has documented 126 bird species at the Arnold Arboretum, including 46 confirmed breeders and another five probable breeders. Using data from several earlier studies, Mayer was able to document the absence of at least 27 species that had once bred successfully at the Arboretum over the past century and the occurrence of seven new breeding species. In 2004 researchers at the Harvard Forest extended their studies of salamander populations in New England to the Arboretum's Hemlock Hill. No studies of salamanders at the Arboretum existed, but we have now compiled baseline data on species composition and abundance for use in future monitoring of this ecologically important group. Salamanders of Massachusetts Of the 4,600 known species of amphibians in the world, approximately 400 are salamanders, of which 127 are found in the United States and Canada. Salamanders are morphologically distinct from the other two amphibian orders, Anura (frogs and toads) and Gymnophiona (caecilians), in that they possess tails. They are also characterized by four toes on their front feet and five on the back. Like other amphibians they are ectotherms (cold-blooded) and have no epidermal structures, such as scales, feathers, or hair. Ten salamander species from three families are found naturally in Massachusetts. (In addition, one species from a fourth family, the mudpuppy (Necturus maculosus), was introduced into the Connecticut River, probably late Red-back salamanders occur most commonly in two color morphs, the leadback morph and the striped morph. The percentage of leadback morphs in redback salamander populations increases with warmer temperatures. in the nineteenth century.) Perhaps the most familiar salamander family is the mole salamanders, Ambystomatidae. Four representatives of this family are found in the state: the Jefferson salamander (Ambystoma jeffersonianum), the blue-spotted salamander (A. laterale), the marbled salamander (A. opacum), and the spotted salamander (A. maculatum). They spend the majority of their lives in underground burrows in upland woods surrounding the ephemeral vernal pools in which they breed. The largest and most common is the spotted salamander. Adults of this species measure between six and ten inches and are very distinctive in appearance, with two rows of bright yellow spots prominently displayed on their black backs. On the first warm rainy night of the year, when the temperature approaches roughly 50 degrees F (10 degrees C), these animals migrate up to half a mile from upland woods to vernal pools to breed in a dramatic event that has been dubbed \"The Big Night\" by naturalists and conservationists. PHOTOS BY THE AUTHOR 20 Arnoldia 65\/1 lineata), the dusky salamander (Desmognathus fuscus), the spring salamander (Gyrinophilus porphyriticus), the four-toed salamander (Hemidactylium punctatus), and the eastern red-backed salamander (Plethodon cinereus). The eastern red-backed salamander is the only one of these that is a fully terrestrial breeder. Since amphibian eggs do not have calcareous shells, they are vulnerable to desiccation; therefore, most species deposit their eggs in aquatic environments where they pass through a gill-bearing larval stage that is not present in other vertebrates. Red-backed salamanders are an exception to this During their terrestrial juvenile--or \"red eft\"--phase, eastern red-spotted newts rule, laying their eggs in moist are ten times more toxic than during their aquatic adult phase. They are often locations under logs and rocks seen foraging in forests adjacent to breeding ponds. on the forest floor and completAnother commonly observed species in ing the larval stage within the egg. Incubation Massachusetts is the eastern red-spotted newt of the eggs by the mother and sometimes the (Notophthalmus viridescens), the state's lone father over a six-week period helps prevent the representative of Salamandridae. While this gelatinous egg mass of three to fourteen eggs species is aquatic both as larva and adult, it also from drying out. has a terrestrial juvenile, or \"red eft,\" phase that Since red-backs do not need to be near lasts from two to seven years. As a deterrent to aquatic breeding habitats, they are far more potential predators, red efts are equipped with ubiquitous than other salamander species. At toxic chemicals in their skin similar to those Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest, a northproduced by puffer fish. Consequently, on days ern hardwood forest in the White Mountains of that are wet enough to keep their skin moist, New Hampshire, red-back densities were estithey are able to forage in the open without fear mated to be 0.25 individuals per square meter. of predation--often in such abundance as to In fact, the biomass of plethodontid salamanmake hikers fear stepping on one by accident. ders at the Forest--of which red-backs contribThe fourth family of salamanders occurring uted 95 percent--was found to be double the in Massachusetts, the plethodontids, or lungbreeding bird biomass and equal to the biomass less salamanders, are considered especially of all small mammals. Similar high densities valuable indicators of environmental health, have been found in other parts of its range. thanks to their position in the middle of the Red-backs are small and slender, measuring food web, their great abundance, and their relaonly three to five inches in length and weightively stable population size. Plethodontidae is ing about a gram--less than half a penny. Their the largest family of salamanders in the world, legs are short relative to their body size, and consisting of 240 species in 27 genera. The five they have 18 to 20 grooves along the side of the representatives found in Massachusetts are the body. In most populations red-backs occur in northern two-lined salamander (Eurycea bistwo forms, a striped morph, with a red stripe Salamanders 21 high protein content, making them attractive prey items. The diet of the red-back salamander consists primarily of invertebrates that live in the soil--adult and larval beetles, adult and larval two-winged flies, mites, ants, centipedes, millipedes, snails, slugs, and spiders. Yearly consumption of these invertebrates by red-backs can exceed five times the total biomass of these organisms living at any one point in time. The soil invertebrates are important to the process of leaf decomposition since they fragment the leaves for the primary decomposers, bacteria and fungi. As leaf litter decomposes, an imporThe Ecological Role of Salamanders tant greenhouse gas, CO 2, is emitted into the Salamanders are an important link in the food atmosphere. Consequently, a change in decomweb between small soil fauna on which they position rates may lead to changes in the global prey and the larger vertebrates that prey on carbon budget. them, such as American robin (Turdus migraA study conducted by Richard Wyman in 1998 torius), hermit thrush (Hylocichla mustelina), found that decomposition rates were between wild turkey (Meleagris gallopavo), and garter 11 and 17 percent lower in artificial enclosures snakes (Thamnophis sirtalis). As ectotherms installed in the field that contained salamanwith low metabolic demands, salamanders ders versus enclosures without salamanders. convert newly ingested material into biomass Wyman also found, not surprisingly, a signifivery efficiently. In addition, salamanders have cant decrease in the numbers of invertebrates in the enclosures containing salamanders. He speculates that salamanders indirectly reduce decomposition rates by reducing the abundance of leaf litter fragmenters and, subsequently, the surface area of leaf litter available to bacteria and fungi. In addition to being extremely abundant and positioned in the middle of the food web, plethodontid salamanders are good indicators of overall ecosystem health because populations do not fluctuate greatly from one year to the next. An extensive survey of time series data gleaned by monitoring a number of taxonomic groups found that annual counts of plethodontid salamanders varRed-backs are lungless and breathe through their skin, which must remain ied less than counts of pasmoist for efficient gas exchange. The required moisture appears as a film on serine birds, small mammals, and butterflies, as well as other the red-back's skin. on a black back and a darkly mottled stomach, and a lead-backed morph, which lacks the red stripe. In New England, where the striped is the more common morph, a 1977 study by Fred Lotter and N. J. Scott found that the frequency of lead-back color morphs was positively correlated with warmer climates. In contrast to red efts, which are often seen on the surface of the forest floor during the day, red-backs are rarely seen, spending most of their lives in the soil or under such cover objects as decaying logs on the forest floor and emerging only on warm, rainy nights in the summer. 22 Arnoldia 65\/1 Hemlock Hill in Transition The Arnold Arboretum provides important habitat for many wildlife species. It is a critical time to be conducting this study on Hemlock Hill as the area is undergoing significant changes. The hemlock woolly adelgid (Adelges tsugae, or HWA), an invasive insect pest that causes mortality within four to ten years of infestation, was discovered on Hemlock Hill in 1997. Native to Japan, HWA is believed to have been introduced into Virginia in the 1950s and since then has been spreading throughout eastern hemlock's range. Currently, fifty percent of eastern hemlock-dominated stands in Massachusetts are infested with HWA, and no failproof way has been found to treat the affected trees or eliminate the pest. Eastern hemlock-dominated stands are structurally distinct in having dense canopies and little understory. Being shade tolerant, hemlocks retain their lower branches, creating a cool, dark microenvironment on the forest floor that provides habitat for many species of wildlife that require mature forests for their growth and\/or reproduction. Among the migratory breeding birds found to be strongly associated with this forest type are black-throated green warblers (Dendroica virens), blackburnian warblers (D. fuscus), and solitary vireos (Vireo solitarius); full-year residents include black-capped chickadees (Parus atricapillus) and red-breasted nuthatches (Sitta canadensis). In addition, 23 of the 32 small mammal species and thirteen of the fourteen large mammalian carnivore species occurring As top-level predators of soil fauna, red-backs are believed to regulate biodiversity in New England use this forest in the soil community by reducing the number of leaf litter fragmenters, chiefly adult and larval beetles and larval two-winged flies. By reducing their numbers type, as do white-tailed deer the salamanders indirectly lower the rate of decomposition of the leaf litter on (Odocoileus virginianus), especially in winter when these the forest floor. amphibians. This population stability is thought to be partially explained by salamanders' site fidelity and the small size of their home territories. Since plethodontid abundance does not fluctuate dramatically under normal conditions, when changes do occur they could provide valuable warnings of the impacts of global stresses caused by human activity. For example, acid rain resulting from nitrous oxide and sulphur dioxide being emitted into the atmosphere and reacting with water vapor to produce nitric and sulphuric acids can lower soil pH to levels that may prevent red-backed salamanders from occupying them. In Albany County, New York, eastern red-backed salamanders are far less abundant where the soil pH is below 3.7. In fourteen eastern hemlock-dominated forests in north-central Massachusetts, where the average soil pH was 3.7, red-back abundance was negatively correlated with soil pH. Warmer temperatures on the forest floor as a result of global climate change could also have a negative impact on red-back abundance. As mentioned above, plethodontid salamanders are lungless and breathe through their skin and the linings in their mouth. To respire efficiently they must remain moist. In fourteen hardwood stands in north-central Massachusetts, the most important predictor of red-back abundance is the temperature on the surface of the forest floor, with abundance decreasing as the temperature rises. Salamanders 23 Left to right, the black-throated green warbler, blackburnian warbler, and red-bellied nuthatch drawn and published by John James Audubon in Birds of America, vol. ii, 1841, and vol. iv, 1844. forests have less snow cover than hardwood stands. In my 20032004 study conducted at the Harvard Forest I found higher red-back salamander abundance in eastern hemlockdominated stands than in hardwood stands. A follow-up study conducted throughout northcentral Massachusetts found no difference in red-back abundance in the two forest types, but the populations in hemlock-dominated forests did contain a higher percentage of larger individuals than populations in hardwood stands. The potential loss of eastern hemlock from this region provides an opportunity to study how the loss of a dominant tree species changes the forest ecosystem. Researchers at the Harvard Forest, who are conducting several studies to assess ecosystem changes and wildlife response to the loss of eastern hemlock are interested in further exploring some of their results, which suggested that pre-logging of hemlock stands to prevent the spread of HWA causes much more abrupt changes than does the gradual loss of hemlock to HWA infestation when left alone. Hemlock Hill provides an opportunity to explore this hypothesis and to examine the impacts of the loss of a hemlockdominated forest in an urban environment. Currently, seventy percent of the trees on Hemlock Hill are infested with HWA and are in severe decline. While the trees at the base of the hill can be reached with a spray truck and treated with horticultural oil, the remaining trees are inaccessible and are expected to die over the next two to ten years. The Arnold Arboretum's management plan calls for removal of hazardous trees as needed while encouraging the regeneration of native species such as red oak (Quercus rubra), red maple (Acer rubrum), black birch (Betula lenta), sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and white pine (Pinus strobus). Since 2004 researchers from the Arboretum and the Harvard Forest have been monitoring nutrient cycling and microenvironmental changes as well as vegetative succession in three experimental plots totaling roughly 2,000 square meters (one-half acre) on Hemlock Hill. In February and March of 2005 all eastern hemlocks were removed from two of the three experimental plots, with the third plot left unchanged as the control. In the summer of 2004, before trees were removed from the two experimental plots, I initiated a study of red-back salamander abundance on Hemlock Hill. With the help of 24 Arnoldia 65\/1 Richard Schulhof and Peter Del Tredici I set out 8 one-inch-thick eastern hemlock boards measuring 36 by 12 inches to serve as artificial cover objects (ACOs, used to avoid disturbing natural cover objects) in each of the three study plots. I made 5 observations of each ACO from mid August 2004 to the end of October 2004 and 12 observations from early April 2005 to the middle of November 2005. Previous studies have found that differences in salamander abundance on the surface of the forest floor correlate directly with differences in total abundance, including in the soil. Reptiles and Salamanders Found on Hemlock Hill During the course of the study, I recorded 139 observations of eastern red-backed salamander, twelve of American toad, three of northern dusky salamander, and one garter snake. Forty percent of the red-backs observed were leadback morphs and sixty percent were striped. This is a higher percentage of lead-back morphs than in any of the fifty populations observed in Lotter and Scott's 1977 New England study although comparable to populations found in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Ohio. The three observations of northern dusky salamanders occurred under the same ACO in successive visits, suggesting that all were of the same individual. Northern dusky salamanders are slightly longer and weigh about three times as much as red-backs, and like most streambreeding plethodontids, their tails are laterally compressed, in contrast to the round tails of terrestrial species. A recent study by Mike Bank and colleagues (2006) found northern dusky salamanders in only one of the 37 streams surveyed (out of 41 total streams) in Acadia National Park, Bar Harbor, Maine, between 2000 and 2003. Amphibian surveys conducted in the 1950s found that northern dusky salamanders were widely distributed in streams throughout Acadia. The exact cause of this decline is unknown, but regular acidification of Acadia's streams, causing toxic aluminum and mercury to leach, may be part of the explanation. Further moni- toring efforts along Bussey Brook at the base of Hemlock Hill, where northern dusky salamanders may be breeding, would be worthwhile. The two non-salamander species I observed, the American toad and the garter snake, are widespread, occurring in diverse habitats ranging from gardens and suburban yards to moist upland woods. American toads belong to Bufonidae, one of the four families in the order Anura that occur in New England. Like salamanders, they prey on terrestrial invertebrates such as insects, sowbugs, spiders, centipedes, millipedes, slugs, and earthworms. One of their most important predators, the garter snake, also preys on both species of salamander observed on Hemlock Hill; indeed, red-back salamanders have been found to contribute as much as 38 percent of the diet of garter snakes. 250 Red-backs per 100 ACOs 200 150 100 50 0 enclosure 1 (logged in winter 2005) enclosure 2 (logged in winter 2005) enclosure 3 (unlogged control) Summer 2004 Fall 2004 Spring 2005 Summer 2005 Fall 2005 Eastern red-back salamander relative abundance over five seasons in three enclosures (each containing 4 stations consisting of paired 3ft x 1ft hemlock boards which were used as artificial cover objects (ACOs)) on Hemlock Hill at the Arnold Arboretum. Given the lack of ponds or vernal pools near Hemlock Hill, I was not surprised to find neither red efts or mole salamanders. The three ponds surrounding the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants may provide breeding habitat, however, and these species might be found in the woods to the west of the ponds. Another species not found on Hemlock Hill that could be present in other areas of the Arboretum is the northern two-lined salamander, a plethodontid, like the red-backed. This common species occurs in and near streams and may inhabit either Bussey Brook or the stream running Salamanders 25 through The Meadow. The other two plethodontid species that occur in Massachusetts, the four-toed salamander and the northern spring salamander, are uncommon-to-rare and are unlikely to be found at the Arboretum. Fourtoed salamanders prefer acidic, wet woodlands and bogs with sphagnum moss, and spring salamanders are found in and near clear, cold streams and seeps. The Impact of Logging on Red-back Salamander Abundance In the spring of 2004, immediately following logging, red-backed salamander abundance declined significantly, dropping 83 percent in Plot 1 and 63 percent in Plot 2. Meanwhile, abundance changed little in the unlogged control plot (minus-9 percent). Temperature measurements on ACO observation days show that in the logged plots the average temperature was 10.3 degrees F (5.7 degrees C) warmer on the surface of the forest floor and 2.3 degrees F (1.2 degrees C) warmer two inches beneath the surface than it was in the control plot. In addition, the average relative humidity was 3.4 percent lower in the logged plots than in the unlogged plot. The large drop in red-back abundance in the logged plots is likely due to these microclimatic differences. While red-back abundance declined substantially in both logged plots in the spring following logging, by fall of 2005 it had nearly recovered in plot 2, where observations were only 8 percent fewer than in the pre-logging fall of 2004. In plot 1, by contrast, abundance had declined even farther, by 94 percent of the pre-logging number. In fall 2005, plot 1, which is more exposed than plot 2 and seems to get more direct sunlight, was found to have higher average air and soil temperatures as well as lower average relative humidity than plot 1. These results suggest that the effect of logging on redback abundance is site-specific. The large number of red-back salamanders on Hemlock Hill suggests that relatively small forest fragments within the larger urban landscape can sustain healthy populations of this ecologically important animal. Hemlock Hill is likely to change significantly over the next decade, however, as declining eastern hemlocks are replaced by hardwood species. This study establishes a baseline that can be used to track population changes in these ecologically important organisms as the ecological conditions at the Arboretum change. References Bank, M. S., et al. 2006. Population decline of northern dusky salamanders at Acadia National Park, Maine, USA. Biological Conservation 130: 230238. Lotter, F., and N. J. Scott, Jr. 1977. Correlation between climate and distribution of the color morphs of the salamander Plethodon cinereus. Copeia 1977: 681690. Mathewson, B. G. 2004. The abundance of two species of salamanders in eastern hemlock and hardwood stands. Harvard University Extension School ALM thesis. -- -- --. 2006. Red-backed salamander populations in North Central Massachusetts. Harvard University MFS thesis. Mayer, R. G. 2005. A Century of Breeding Bird Data-- Changes Over Time at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 64(1): 1215 (Like all articles dating from 1918, this one is also available online at www.arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu.) Orwig, David A., and David R. Foster. 1998. Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid. Arnoldia 58(2): 4144. Wyman, R. L. 1998. Experimental assessment of salamanders as predators of detrital food webs: effects on invertebrates, decomposition and the carbon cycle. Biodiversity and Conservation 7: 641650. Brooks Mathewson holds two masters' degrees, one in liberal arts with a biology concentration from Harvard University Extension School in 2004 and another from Harvard University, in 2006, in forest science. He has studied eastern red-backed salamander populations throughout north central Massachusetts, acquiring baseline distribution and abundance data in easternhemlock dominated and mixed deciduous forests in this region. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon","article_sequence":5,"start_page":26,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25426","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed1608526.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Aiello, Anthony S.","article_content":"The Quest for the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon Anthony S. Aiello and Michael S. Dosmann G enetic variation within plant species has not only been richly documented in science but also widely exploited for horticultural use. Individual plants have often been selected from wild populations for their deviations in growth habit, flower size, and leaf color, but another primary driver of plant exploration has been the promise of winter hardiness due to provenance. In many cases, this, too, is under the auspices of science, for it allows botanical gardens and arboreta to cultivate species that may normally be out of reach due to lack of hardiness. We present here a prime example of such work: the quest by the Arnold Arboretum to introduce into cultivation hardy stock of the cedar-of-Lebanon, Cedrus libani. The genus Cedrus has a natural range that extends from North Africa around the Mediterranean Sea into Lebanon, Syria, Cyprus, and Turkey and west to the Himalayas (Farjon 1990). Depending on the treatment, there are a variable number of species of true cedar, and Farjon (2001) recognizes four. The beautiful long-needled deodar cedar (Cedrus deodora) occurs in a wide range of habitats in the Himalayas of Afghanistan, Pakistan, Kashmir, and Nepal. The atlas cedar (Cedrus atlantica) grows in the Atlas Mountains of Algeria and Morocco while the short-needled Cyprus cedar (Cedrus brevifolia) is restricted to that island; both of these taxa have by some botanists been considered separate subspecies of Cedrus libani, the cedar-of-Lebanon, which occurs naturally in Lebanon, Syria, and the Cilician Taurus mountains of southern Anatolia, or modern-day Turkey. It is this group of cedars from Turkey that most interests us and that is the focus of this article. Authors have variously recognized the Turkish provenance of cedar with subspecific status (Farjon 1990). Cedrus libani subspecies stenocoma was first described by Schwarz (1944) and then Davis (1949), who both recognized that it Cedrus libani as illustrated in John Gerard's 1597 Herball. was intermediate between the typical cedarof-Lebanon and the atlas cedar. Volume One of The Flora of Turkey (Davis 1965) did not recognize subspecies stenocoma, although it is recognized as a variety in the eleventh volume of the same work (Guner 2000). More recently, the Turkish provenance was classified as Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma (Farjon 2001) and these trees usually are called the hardy cedarof-Lebanon. The Turkish trees are generally considered to be more upright and conical HUNT INSTITUTE FOR BOTANICAL DOCUMENTATION, CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY Cedar-of-Lebanon 27 Image of Cedrus libani from Trew's Plantae Selectae, 17501773. HUNT INSTITUTE FOR BOTANICAL DOCUMENTATION, CARNEGIE MELLON UNIVERSITY 28 Arnoldia 65\/1 (not forming the flat \"umbrella\" top of other cedars) and to have shorter needles than those from Lebanon (Farjon 1990), although there is variability particularly in the former trait and is likely more a function of environment than pure genotype. The epithet stenocoma literally means \"narrow hair,\" referring to pubescent twigs of the Turkish plants. Cedrus libani in Asia Minor During the 1800s Cedrus libani was grown throughout Philadelphia and New York but was not hardy in Boston and New England (Wilson 1926). Josiah Hoopes, a nurseryman from West Chester, in southeastern Pennsylvania, wrote that \"the cedar-of-Lebanon is found to be pretty hardy . . . [and] with us it has succeeded to our entire satisfaction, and we can therefor recomMARK FLANAGAN mend it without reserve, if proper cultivation and a moderate amount of care be given to it.\" In his 1868 book, Hoopes also mentions Pierre Belon, a French botanist and physician who traveled throughout the Levant in the 1540s. In 1553 Belon published De arboribus coniferis, probably the first text devoted entirely to conifers, and in it he included the first description of cedar-of-Lebanon growing in the Amanus (Nur) and Taurus Mountains of southern Anatolia. In 1597, John Gerard cited Belon in his Herbal, saying: The cedar trees grow upon the snowie mountaines, as in Syria on mount Libanus, on which there remaine some euen to this day, saith Bellonius planted as it is thought by Salomon himselfe: they are likewise found on the mountains Taurus, and Amanus, in colde and stonie places. Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma growing in the eastern Taurus Mountains of Turkey, near the Syrian border. Gerard's statement reveals that as early as the sixteenth century authors took notice of these unique trees from Anatolia and recognized that this more northern provenance possessed greater potential for cold hardiness. Nineteenth-century botanical and horticultural literature was replete with references to the northern populations of cedar-of-Lebanon. Several European botanists were exploring and describing the flora of Asia Minor and their works describe a growing understanding of the natural range of cedar in this region. Asie Mineure by P. A. Chikhachev is an extremely thorough account of the physical geography, climate, fauna, and flora of Asia Minor, based on his travels throughout the region. Among his extensive botanical listings is Cedrus libani, which he described as growing in numerous locations. Chikhachev describes their locations using the ancient names for the regions of Anatolia, moving from west to east: in Pisidia between Lakes Beysehir and Egridir; in Isauria at Mount Topyedik growing around 2,000 meters; in Cilicia growing on the northeast and southeast exposures of all the mountainous regions of the Bulgar Daglari (Bolkar Daglari mountains of the Taurus range), where it descends to 4,600 feet (1,400 m); growing in groves in the Antitaurus Mountains between the villages Sarkanty-oglu and Tchedeme [sic] at 5,600 feet (1,700 m) (Chikhachev 1860). Cedar-of-Lebanon ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 29 Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma growing in the Taurus Mountains of Turkey, photographed by Walter Siehe, likely in 1900 or 1901. 30 Arnoldia 65\/1 LIBRARY OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Plantation of Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma growing on Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum, photographed by G. R. King, summer 1915. Just two years later, Joseph Hooker gave detailed location information on Cedrus libani in Asia Minor, clearly building on contemporary botanical work: The nearest point to the Lebanon [Mountains] at which Cedars have been found, is the Bulgardagh chain of the Taurus in Asia Minor, and from that point forests extend eastward to Pisidia, in long. E. 32, westward to long. E. 36, and northward to the Anti-Taurus, in lat. 40 N.; growing at elevations of 4000 to 6400 feet above the sea. The Lebanon may be regarded as a branch of the Taurus, and is 250 miles distant from the Cedar forests upon that chain . . . Northern Syria and Asia Minor form one botanical province; so that the Lebanon grove, though so widely disconnected from the Taurus forests, can be regarded in no other light than as an outlying member of the latter. Ravenscroft gave a colossal summary of all known accounts of cedar-of-Lebanon, with beautiful color plates, in his 1884 Pinetum Britannicum. He describes the species in amazing detail, including comparisons made to other Cedrus and descriptions of the Syrian and Lebanese trees. Particularly interesting is a table that accounts for all visits made by individuals from 1487 to 1864 to the sacred grove that lies on Mt. Lebanon. He also writes of the Anatolian population, providing a description practically identical to that of Hooker. Cedar-of-Lebanon 31 Yet another thorough description of the locations of the Anatolian cedars is given in Boissier's 1884 Flora Orientalis, where he reported cedar-of-Lebanon growing in the mountainous and subalpine regions of southern Anatolia, in the mountains of the Lycian, Cilician and Anti-Taurus mountains. He wrote that the species grew extensively throughout forests with Abies cilicica and Juniperus foetidissima at 4,000 to 6,500 feet (1,200 to 2,000 m). Stapf noted in 1885 that in the southwestern corner of Turkey (Lycia) dense woods of cedar were observed in the Baba Dagh and between Zumuru and the Bulanik Dagh [sic]. How the Hardy Cedar-of-Lebanon Found Its Way to North America A contemporary of the botanists writing and exploring Asia Minor in the late 1800s was Walter Siehe, an interesting and somewhat mysterious character who played an integral role in introducing the hardy cedar-of-Lebanon into the United States. Siehe was a German botanical explorer living in Smyrna (Izmar), Turkey. In his Die Nadelholzer des cilicischen Taurus (Conifers of the Cilician Taurus), he described the natural habitat of conifers growing in the mountains of southern Anatolia and the conifers themselves, including Abies cilicica, Taxus baccata, several species of Juniperus, Cupressus sempervirens, and of course Cedrus libani. Of the cedar he wrote, \"the proud tree is a child of the high altitude,\" growing in a severe climate where the snows lie a few meters deep for five months of the year (Siehe 1897b). In these mountains where the cedars grow on the steep walls and high saddles between peaks, Siehe romantically describes the roaring wild rivers, the whiteness of the snow, and the long silences broken only by the screech of birds or tumbling stones kicked loose by an escaping mountain goat. He notes that despite the usefulness of cedar's wood, the large populations of cedar persisted because of the inaccessibility of the mountains. He describes trees up to 130 feet (40 m) tall and describes their column-like trunks supporting branches as regular as floors of a building (Siehe 1897a). It is clear from his travel accounts that Siehe knew the mountains of southern Turkey very well and was the right person, in the right place, and at the right time to send seed to North America. It is in the context of nineteenth-century botanical exploration and description throughout Asia Minor that one understands Charles S. Sargent's interest in the more northern population of cedar. Cedar-of-Lebanon--with its handsome and stately form, its association with grand estates throughout Europe and the midAtlantic United States, and its historic associations--is a highly desirable landscape tree. With this in mind, it's easy to understand how Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1873 until 1927, would have surely longed to grow cedars in New England. However, hardiness in New England was indeed an issue. He certainly would have read with great interest the accounts of the cedars and understood that trees from the Taurus mountains held the key to increased hardiness. With this in mind, Sargent hired Walter Siehe to collect seed from trees in the Taurus Mountains and have these sent to the Arnold Arboretum. In a letter from Siehe to Sargent, dated 18 November 1900, from Mersina, Turkey, Siehe wrote: Dr. Bolle . . . has repeatedly informed me of your desire [to acquire] cedar cones from cold resistant trees of high altitude (1900 m [6,250 feet]). Only a few days ago did I manage to obtain, after several futile attempts, 50 kilos [110 pounds] of cones with good seeds. Since it was necessary to make a special trip, use many pack animals, and spend eight days of time for this, I am certain that you will not find the fee of 60 Mark German currency too high. Apparently Sargent did not find the fee too high because the Arboretum's plant records show that they received cones with ripe seeds from Siehe on February 4, 1902. The Arnold Arboretum was not the only recipient of Siehe's seed: in 1908 H. J. Elwes and Augustine Henry wrote another excellent description of the cedars from the Taurus mountains and noted, \"Siehe has sent seed from the Cilician Taurus to various places, and I have two vigorous young trees raised from them.\" Early reports from the Arnold Arboretum noted great success with this seedlot. The seeds had a high rate of germination and by 1915, Sargent 32 Arnoldia 65\/1 PETER DEL TREDICI of twenty-one feet in thirteen years.\" Wilson also seemed pleased with the rapid growth and hardiness of these trees, writing in 1919 that although the dreadful winter of 19171918 scorched the needles of the cedars, they recovered fully and \"had grown more rapidly in the Arnold Arboretum than any other conifer has ever done.\" And just five years later, the Bulletin reported that the trees had already reached 30 feet (9 m) in height. In 1926, twenty individuals of this accession (AA 4697*A-T) appear in the plant records, although over time there has been some attrition and currently only eight trees from Siehe's original 1902 collection remain extant in the Arnold's collection (AA #4697*A,C,G,I,K,M,O,P). Cold winters were not the cause for their decline, however; Donald Wyman wrote in 1946 that the cedars were thriving, growing for over forty years and withstanding temperatures of minus-20 degrees F. Strong winds were responsible for the loss of at least eight of the twelve trees, including five from the infamous 1938 hurricane alone. The Current State of Trees in the Wild In Lebanon and Syria, the species is rare due to millennia of human impact (logging, burning, grazing). Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma (AA #4697*G). Despite the loss of its central leader, this original seedling, part of the 1902 Arnold Arboretum However, in Turkey, where the topography has prevented easy introduction, stands tall on Bussey Hill. access, there remain extensive forests of Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma. During a reported in the Arboretum's Bulletin of Popucollecting expedition to the Taurus Mountains lar of Information that the cedars-of-Lebanon in 1990, Mark Flanagan (Keeper of the Royal had \"all proved perfectly hardy, not one having Gardens, Windsor Great Park) encountered the suffered from drought or cold.\" A plantation of hardy cedar-of-Lebanon running for nearly 620 trees was established on Bussey Hill, and other miles (1,000 km) along the 5,900-foot (1800-m) individual specimens were planted throughout contour line. Due to the high, open canopies the collection. The average height of these trees in the overstory, the ground layer of these forwas about 13 feet (4 m), with the tallest having ests is very rich, including a diversity of taxa reached 21 feet (6.5 m), prompting Sargent to such as Acer hyrcanum, Sorbus umbellata, and reflect, \"It is doubtful if any other conifer can be Kitaibelia balansae. At present there are over grown in New England from seed to the height Cedar-of-Lebanon ANTHONY AIELLO 33 Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma at the Morris Arboretum (MOAR #32-0398*A). This tree, planted in the early 1900s, is likely one of seedlings from the 1902 Arnold Arboretum introduction. It has a diameter at breast height of 44 inches (1.1 m), is 68 feet (20 m) tall, and has a 40-foot (12 m) spread. 34 Arnoldia 65\/1 250,000 acres (100,000 ha) of cedar forest in Turkey, but this area is but a sixth of what used to occur in the Taurus Mountains (Boydak). With luck, though, these amazing stands will be appreciated for many more centuries due to recently established conservation efforts. Other Notably Hardy Specimens Among the Morris Arboretum's extensive conifer collection are five mature specimens of hardy cedar-of-Lebanon. They are growing throughout the Arboretum, some tucked away, others in full view, and all of them handsome. The oldest tree was planted before the Arboretum's founding in 1932 when the property was known as Compton, John and Lydia Morris's estate. A cedar appears in this location in the 1909 Atlas of Compton--a survey of the Morris' gardens and plants--and according to notes written by John Tonkin, the Morris' gardener and Morris Arboretum's superintendent from 1913 to 1961, this cedar came from the Arnold Arboretum. It is likely that this tree is a seedling from the original 1902 collection of Turkish seed, sent to the Morris's from the Arnold Arboretum. Over the years, staff at the Morris Arboretum have marveled at the hardiness of this tree, recording that it showed no visible injuries during the devastatingly cold winters in the early 1930s (Lambert 1936). Although it has suffered storm damage during the past 25 years, today it shows a remarkable amount of young, vigorous re-growth for a tree of its age and size. As students of Harrison Flint at Purdue University we often admired the selection `Purdue Hardy' (Cedrus libani ssp. stenocoma `Purdue Hardy'), which grows in West Lafayette, Indiana, in a hardiness zone that routinely reaches minus-20 degrees F (USDA zone 5a). This 40year-old specimen is remarkable for its graceful form and nearly pendant branches; like many others of the subspecies, it has not become flattopped. It has certainly lived up to its name, withstanding winter temperatures of minus25 degrees F with only minimal browning of needles (Flint 1997). The selection's provenance is uncertain. It was one of several seedlings germinated from seed collected by the late Purdue professor Ted Shaw in the 1950s. Shaw had been in Lebanon working on reforestation projects supported by the United States when he obtained it. Oral history at Purdue has it that Shaw found the seeds \"up in the Hills,\" which could mean Lebanon or it could have been Turkey, where he vacationed. Since no Lebanese cedar has been successfully grown out-of-doors north of zone 6, it is far more likely to have originated in the mountains of Turkey. Another noteworthy specimen, a mammoth cedar-of-Lebanon that is a Pennsylvania state champion, is at the Tyler Arboretum, in Media, Pennsylvania. Jacob and Minshall Painter, horticulturists and owners of the property that became the Tyler Arboretum, recorded purchases of cedars of Lebanon from the Philadelphia nurseries of John Evans, Josiah Hoopes, and Morris in the 1850s (Appleby 1992). It is one of the most remarkable conifers in the Delaware Valley: it stands 87 feet high (26.5 m) with a spread of 93 feet (28.4 m) and a diameter at breast height of 69 inches (175 cm). The story of the majestic hardy cedar-ofLebanon mixes history, geography, plant ecology, horticulture, and a love of conifers. When you next visit the Arnold, Morris, or Tyler Arboreta, take time to enjoy their magnificence and muse on their long journey from the mountains of Turkey to the eastern United States. References Appleby, M. E. 1992. The Tyler Arboretum: A Legacy of Botanical Riches. Tyler Arboretum, Media, PA. Arnold Arboretum. 1915. Bulletin of Popular Information 1 (17): 66. -- -- --. 1924. Bulletin of Popular Information 10 (1): 4. Belon, P. 1553. P. Bellonii Cenomani De arboribus coniferis. G. Cavellat, Paris. Boissier, E. 1884. Flora Orientalis, vol. 5. H. Georg, Geneva and Basil. Boydak, M. 2003. Regeneration of Lebanon cedar (Cedrus libani A. Rich.) on karstic lands in Turkey. Forest Ecology and Management 178: 231243 Chikhachev, P. A. 1860. Asie Mineure; description physique de cette contree, pt 3: Botanique, vol. II. Gide, Paris. Cedar-of-Lebanon 35 Davis, P. H. 1949. A journey in South-West Anatolia, pt I. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 74: 104115. -- -- --, J. Cullen, and M. J. E. Coode, eds. 1965. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 1. Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Elwes, H. J., and A. Henry. 1908. The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. III. Edinburgh. Farjon, A. 1990. Pinaceae. Koeltz Scientific Books, Konigstein, Germany. -- -- --. 2001. World Checklist and Bibliography of Conifers, 2nd ed. The Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, London. Flint, H. L. 1997. Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, 2 nd ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Gerard, J. 1597. The Herball, or, Generall historie of plantes. John Norton, London. Guner, A., N. Ozhatay, T. Ekim, K. H. C. Baser, eds. 2000. Flora of Turkey and the East Aegean Islands, vol. 11 (supplement 2). Edinburgh University Press, Edinburgh. Hooker, J. D. 1862. On the cedar-of-Lebanon, Taurus, Algeria, and India. Natural History Review II: 1118. Hoopes, J. 1868. The book of evergreens. A practical treatise on the Conifer, or cone-bearing plants. Orange Judd & Company, New York. Lambert, J. 1936. Winter injury to conifers at the Morris Arboretum. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 1 (3): 2730. Ravenscroft, E. 1884. The pinetum britannicum: a descriptive account of hardy coniferous trees cultivated in Great Britain, vol. 3. W. Blackwood & Sons, London. Schwarz, O. 1944. Anatolica I. Feddes Repert. Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 54 (1): 2634. Siehe, W. 1897a. Die Nadalholzer des cilicischen Taurus. Gartenflora 46 (7): 179182. -- -- --. 1897b. Die Nadalholzer des cilicischen Taurus. Gartenflora 46 (8): 205211. Stapf, O. 1885. Beitrage zur Flora von Lycien, Carien, und Mesopotamien, pt I. Karl Gerold's Sohn, Wien. Trew, C. J. 17501773. Plantae Selectae [Nuremberg], Plate 61, Cedrus. Wilson, E. H. 1919. The Cedar-of-Lebanon. The Garden Magazine XXX (5): 178183. -- -- --. 1926. Aristocrats of the Garden. The Stratford Company, Boston, pp. 125126. Wyman, D. 1946. The Garden Club of America Tours the Arnold Arboretum, May 15, 1946. Arnoldia 6(3): 912. Anthony S. Aiello is The Gayle E. Maloney Director of Horticulture and Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania. Michael S. Dosmann is Curator of Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. They thank Elinor Goff of the Morris Arboretum, Charlotte Tancin of the Hunt Institute of Botanical Documentation, Britt Gardhner, and Nicole Schrader for their German translations, and Carol David, formerly of the Arnold Arboretum Horticultural Library. 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 00042633. 3. Filing Date: January 4, 2007. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 021303500, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Boston, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Boston, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes has not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: December 2006. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,900. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,800. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1) Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,285. No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,280. (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions: none. (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: 7. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,292. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,287. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 115. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 115. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 115. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 115. f. Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,407. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,402. g. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 1,493 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,398. h. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,900. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,800. i. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 95%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 95%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Online","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25422","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160b76b.jpg","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Online N inety-five years and 13,000 pages of Arnoldia (1940present) and its predecessor, The Bulletin of Popular Information (19111939), are now available on the Arboretum's website at www.arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu. This trove of rich and varied content invites browsing by date, author, and title or by using the yearly indexes (19152006) and the two cumulative indexes (19411969, 19702000). Plants, places, and people are the chief but not the only constituents of the indexes, and they can be searched online in the same way as in printed versions. As you'd expect, either Latin binomials or common names will take you to plants, although the Latin binomial is likely to yield more comprehensive results. In cases of frustration, look for the \"Help\" button provided by webmaster Sheryl Barnes, who orchestrated the two-year project. A bit of history: The Bulletin of Popular Information was launched by Charles Sprague Sargent, founding director, in response to complaints from visitors who had missed the peak bloom of certain plants. To the expected dates of bloom he added the phylogeny, history, and culture of many Arboretum plants, particularly those introduced from East Asia by staff members and other agents. Sargent's Bulletin was a four-page affair issued weekly during the growing season until his death in 1927. E. H. Wilson took up where Sargent left off, adding more illustrations but otherwise without change. It was after Wilson died, in 1930, that the publication began to expand its length and scope. The next editor, Edgar Anderson, wrote The Bulletin's first article on botanical nomenclature, aptly titled \"Jabbywocky.\" Other staff members also contributed longer articles: e.g., Ernest J. Palmer's \"Trees Used by the Pioneers\" and Hugh Raup's \"Injurious Effects of Winds in the Arnold Arboretum\" and \"Notes on the Early Uses of Land Now in the Arnold Arboretum.\" Donald Wyman assumed the editorship of The Bulletin when he arrived in 1936. In 1940 director Elmer Drew Merrill shortened the title to Arnoldia, following his penchant for one-word titles and honoring benefactor James Arnold. For over thirty years Wyman wrote nearly all of the articles in Arnoldia, an accomplishment not likely to be soon matched. Subsequent editors (listed in the 19702000 cumulative index) expanded the range of content, updated the design, and added color and variety while emphasizing scholarship and style. Please visit the site at www.arnoldia.arboretum.harvard.edu. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23405","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ebb6e.jpg","title":"2007-65-1","volume":65,"issue_number":1,"year":2007,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Foreword","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25414","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160a728.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Furlong, John","article_content":"Editor's Note N ow approaching forty years old, the Landscape Institute's certificate programs have clearly influenced the evolution of the Institute itself in important ways. First offered in 1968 under the auspices of the Landscape Program of the Radcliffe Seminars, the certificate has become an important credential in the landscape design profession. Students come to the Institute for particular courses that meet their immediate needs. Others seek a working knowledge of the landscape design profession, choosing what they need and leaving after taking six or eight courses. Landscape history scholars take design studios to deepen their understanding of the design process or they take specific history courses to complement previous studies. But more and more students opt for one of the three certificate programs--landscape design, history, and preservation--each with its own complete curriculum. These programs have come to set the standard for education in the field; and the graduates' professional preparation is validated by the rigor and comprehensiveness of the required courses. (For listings, see http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/programs\/ld\/ ld.html.) It's been five years since the Arnold Arboretum assumed administrative oversight of the Radcliffe Seminars in Landscape Design, expanded the offerings, and changed the name. Much has remained the same, including the administration's willingness to develop new offerings in response to ever-changing demands. The Institute is now integral to the Arboretum's education mission and will complement its commitment to generating new knowledge in plant biology with programs that further our understanding of the role of plants in the human environment. For this special issue we decided that the best vehicle for introducing the Landscape Institute to Arnoldia readers and illustrating the scope of its interests is to present a sample of final projects from the 347 completed since 1981, when digital records were first kept. (All 347, including the fifteen presented in 2006, are listed at the back of the magazine.) In choosing the six projects included here we looked for a representative variety that could withstand drastic abridgement without losing their core meaning. The task of abridgement was ably undertaken by guest editor Jane Roy Brown, herself a graduate in landscape design history who writes on both contemporary and historical landscapes. Introduction T he independent project is usually the last step a Landscape Institute student encounters before earning the certificate in landscape design, history, or preservation. It represents a major commitment in time and cannot be undertaken until most of the course requirements have been fulfilled. After their topics are approved, students work with a faculty advisor who meets frequently with them for the full year or more that is needed to finish the project. In addition, as the coordinator of the program, I schedule regular seminars for all students working on independent projects; at these meetings, students present their works-in-progress and exchange critiques and suggestions. The program requires students to focus on a specific area of landscape design or history and to carry out a real or theoretical project from beginning to end. Ranging widely in scale from residential to regional, most case studies deal with public or semipublic landscapes. Typical final products include master plans for institutions; environmental policy recommendations for wetlands or other conservation areas; regulatory standards for urban developments; playground designs for schools and neighborhoods; studies of historical designs and designers; and plans for preserving historic landscapes. The clients include institutions and agencies such as the Massachusetts Department of Conservation and Recreation, The Trustees of Reservations, the National Park Service, and local cities and towns throughout New England. The projects listed below illustrate the breadth of interests at the Landscape Institute. Introduction 3 Most design and preservation projects are mutually beneficial: the community or institution gets help in solving its landscape-related problems while the student gains experience in dealing directly with a client. \"Reclaiming Walden\"--Joan Popolo's 2001 project--resulted in recommendations for re-using the Concord, Massachusetts, landfill. In 2005 Karen Longeteig presented proposals for street tree improvements at Lexington, Massachusetts, town meetings; and Phil Bevin's 1994 \"Landscape Rehabilitation Plan for the Codman Estate for the Town of Lincoln, Massachusetts\" was implemented to become Historic Massachusetts' outdoor museum. Heidi Kost-Gross' project, the York River Open Space Study (1995) grew out of a 1994 landscape studio project. The document was widely used and reprinted and helped to preserve open space in the York River watershed. Many of the projects in landscape design have productive afterlives. They may be used by clients to get funding, to raise public awareness, to document important landscapes, or to get a long-delayed building process underway. Drawings for community improvements, be they playgrounds or streetscapes, often sit in office file drawers for years awaiting funding for implementation. Since graduates of the Institute usually live near the areas of their projects, they remain available to work with local officials to raise public awareness, to write grants for funding, or to modify plans in response to the changing needs of the client, or to get a long-delayed building process underway. Many recipients of certificates in landscape design history also continue to work on their projects after graduation, building on them, refining them, and often finding publishers. Alan Emmet's expanded project, \"Changes in a Cambridge Landscape,\" (1977) was published by Harvard University Press. \"Boston's South End Squares, Inventory, Analysis, and Recommendations\" by Phoebe Goodman also evolved into a book, as did \"Money, Manure, and Maintenance: The Life & Work of Marion Cruger Coffin, 18761957\" by Nancy Flemming. After my many years at the Landscape Institute--beginning when it was the Landscape Design Program of the Radcliffe Seminars--I am still impressed by the professional quality of the projects completed by our students. I believe that after reading the summaries of those that were chosen for this issue, you will feel the same way. John Furlong Director of the Landscape Institute of the Arnold Arboretum A Sampling of the Institute's Concerns Sherborn Open Space Study: a proposal for the use of open space in the rapidly growing community of Sherborn, Massachusetts Dome Community Garden Study, New York City: a history of the evolution of a community garden illustrating the political decisions that influence the shape of a community's open space Common Places: a proposal for realizing the full potential of the many town commons in the Town of Brookline Schooner Park Development Plan: a design for public open space at the town dock of Duxbury, Massachusetts, that reflects the town's shipbuilding traditions Guidelines for Therapeutic Landscapes: applying guidelines to develop a proposal for continuing-care retirement center communities in Hanover, New Hampshire New Hampshire Landscape Inventory Study: the first inventory of 350 historic and noteworthy gardens in the state York River Open Space Study: a study that resulted in recommendations for conservation and development around an endangered tidal river estuary in York, Maine Landscape Plan for Cambridge Friends School: a guide for the school as it expands both in size and enrollments, including public open space used by neighborhood residents Master Plan for Chauncy Allen Park: a plan for revitalizating a public park and restoring the historic \"Grandmother's Garden\" in Westfield, Massachusetts The Paine Estate Development Plan: a proposal for Wayland, Massachusetts, that includes an assisted living facility, 20 single-family homes, a soccer field, and walking and ski trails--all on 166 acres Salk Institute Study: an examination of the lessons to be drawn from architect\/theorist\/teacher Louis Kahn's La Jolla, California, landscape The Congregational Church of Topsfield Plan: a history of the town common and the historic church in this Massachusetts town Plaza Del Sol, Lechmere Canal Area: An imaginative look at a streetscape in Cambridge, Massachusetts, proposing ways to integrate commercial activities, social life, transportation, and open space "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Memories of a Bamboo Grove: A Master Plan for Wakamatsu Park in Kobe, Japan","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25417","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160ab6b.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nagai, Ireine","article_content":"Memories of a Bamboo Grove A Master Plan for Wakamatsu Park in Kobe, Japan Ireine Nagai I have a memory from my childhood of a bamboo grove next to my grandparents' house, on the tip of the lzu Peninsula in Japan. The grove was dark and dense, and I remember being afraid of the shadows and the clucking sound the plants made. But when my grandmother told me that a bamboo grove is actually the safest place to be during an earthquake, I believed her, and my fears went away. Now, twenty years later, I have proposed a design for a park filled with bamboo in Kobe, a cosmopolitan city of one and a half million people on the northwest shore of Osaka Bay. The design is my response to Kobe's urgent need for restoration following the 1995 Hanshin earthquake, which killed more than six thousand people and left hundreds of thousands homeless. It also reflects my childhood memories, my personal experiences, both emotional and spiritual, and my hope for the future. Bamboo 5 The Parks of Kobe and Their Multiple Roles During and after the massive earthquake that struck Kobe, parks offered sanctuary and safety. In some cases, their trees and vines prevented fires and kept walls from collapsing. As part of a large-scale redevelopment plan that takes future earthquakes into account, Kobe officials devised a \"greenification\" plan that identifies sites for various kinds of parks throughout the city. In addition to serving the usual purposes of urban parks, these will be places for citizens to gather in the event of future earthquakes and will provide access to emergency shelter and water supplies in underground reservoirs. Situated in the western part of Kobe, Wakamatsu Park is near the residential and commercial district of Shinnagata, the area that suffered the most damage during the earthquake. The park was used as a shelter during the quake and has since been the site of temporary housing. The city is planning to rebuild the park on a plot of 1.6 hectares (four acres) that will be surrounded by new high-rise residential buildings, shopping malls, offices, and hotels. The district will also become an important transportation hub, with a reconstructed train station and a new highway. As the only substantial green space among all these buildings, Wakamatsu Park will be a destination for visitors and play an important role in the lives of community residents. The Many Valuable Qualities of Bamboo Although some species grow very tall and stout, bamboo is not a tree, but a primitive, woody-stemmed grass. The hollow central stem with its many joints is called the culm. Some species are the fastest-growing plants in the world, generating more oxygen than any other plants. Instead of roots, bamboo has rhizomes, large underground stems that spread out rapidly through the soil. The result is a dense, interlocking web of fibers that holds topsoil firmly in place. It is widely recognized that bamboo is especially useful in seismic regions, thanks to an internal structure that gives it unusual strength and resilience. In The Book of Bamboo, David Farrelly writes about the value of bamboo in creating a safe quake zone: \"Dense growth of bamboo around a building functions in the soil as windbreaks act in air: rhizomes buffer the blow and diminish the intensity of motion. Widely planted in any quake zone, bamboo absorbs much of the earth's ripple [and] . . . provides immediate construction material for temporary disaster shelter.\" Buckminster Fuller, who introduced the geodesic dome to architecture, experimented with domes made of bamboo. \"This [bamboo geodesic dome] will provide more shelter to more people at less cost than any other structure possible,\" Fuller concluded. But bamboo has also played an important role in the gardens and art of Japan. The designers of early Japanese gardens sought in their creations to achieve \"yugen,\" a term that means tranquility but also suggests elegant beauty and a profound depth of kinship with nature. These designers were often Zen monks The Shinnagata district in western Kobe suffered the most catastrophic damage in the Hanshin earthquake. 6 Arnoldia 64\/4 and were strongly influenced by Zen and ink monochrome painting. Their gardens provide ample evidence of bamboo's ability to create a variety of effects. Along paths, for example, tall species on either side form a canopy that lends a sense of intimacy. Densely planted bamboo at the corner of a path creates the illusion of entering a forest. Or, in a deep forest of bamboo, a curved path can achieve a subtle light that accentuates tranquility. Near water, bamboo is useful because it is moisture tolerant. Planted as a background to form a vertical screen, it can evoke a mountain forest behind the water feature. And beside rocks or near buildings, bamboo provides contrast in color and texture. Today's designers have avoided using bamboo in public landscapes because they regard it as invasive and difficult to maintain, as well as \"primitive\" and inconsistent with modern design. But bamboo's growth can be controlled, and when species are carefully chosen, it has a unique ability to create a sense of repose that is as valuable in modern gardens as in ancient ones. By using bamboo in Wakamatsu Park, I hope to reintroduce the values of bamboo into everyday life, to explore its potential for innovation, and to reconnect people with the \"natural\" aspects of their environment. As Kobe strives to become a more modern and international city through its post-earthquake renewal projects, bamboo can be a symbol of traditional values that must not be forgotten. The Goals, Features, and Themes of the Wakamatsu Park Design The design I created was directed toward achieving several specific goals: to create a tranquil environment that buffers the sounds of urban life; to offer recreational and educational opportunities; to provide easy access, open spaces, and shelter in case of emergency; and, finally, to permit recycling of natural resources. These goals are to be achieved within a park that includes several specific components: open spaces for events and playgrounds, for capturing sunlight to use in solar heating, and for refuge during emergencies; resting areas that are insulated from street noise; a picnic area close to underground food markets and restaurants; a pool for collecting rain water and to serve as part of an emergency water supply system; an underground pavilion for food storage and to hold self-sustaining solar heating and water recycling systems in case of emergency; and underground parking with access to the park, to nearby buildings, and to the train and subway stations. I based the park design on three thematic concepts. The primary one, inspired by traditional Japanese garden design, is the cycle of life, a symbol for an ideal environment that includes the entire universe. I began by reducing the Japanese pictographs for the celestial elements of sun, sky, and moon to elemental forms, which I superimposed on the outline of the site. I then abstracted the characters for A stand of tall bamboo, Phyllostachys aureosulcata. The fifty-plus species of Phyllostachys are native from the Himalayas to Japan and among them are the largest and most frequently cultivated hardy bamboos. They spread by rhizomes to form thickets. Bamboo 7 The cycle-of-life concept begins with simplified pictographs of sun, moon, and sky. Pictographs for tree, water, and light also evolve into simple symbolic forms. light, water, and tree and combined them with the celestial elements. Through these basic elements of nature, people will symbolically experience the cycle of life. Within the formations representing the cycle of life are examples of sustainable technologies, the second theme of the park. These include equipment for conserving and recycling rainwater and for generating electricity from sunlight. By using natural resources in a sustainable way, the park will be not only a refuge in time of emergency but a demonstration of our dependence on the natural environ- ment as well. And finally, the third theme of the park will be a symbolic journey from earliest childhood to a dream of the future, using bamboo to create a variety of sensual and spiritual experiences. Molding Features and Themes into a Master Plan The park will have three spatial components. In keeping with Japanese tradition, each has a name that evokes its function: Shadows of the Moon, Reflecting Pools, and Rays of the Sun. The conceptual diagrams project the program onto the site and illustrate the relationships between them. 8 Arnoldia 64\/4 The master plan for Bamboo Park. From left to right are the Shadows of the Moon, the Reflecting Pools, and Rays of the Sun. In all three areas, visitors' experiences will be affected by the special qualities of bamboo, enabling them to escape from a hectic life into a tranquil setting and, perhaps, to remember happier times. Shadows of the Moon accommodates areas for picnicking, resting, and playing. In the picnic area, a path lined with bamboo of the species Phyllostachys aureosulcata will take visitors to a seating area where they can enjoy lunch in the shade, protected from the noise of traffic and from the wind that whips around tall buildings. The resting area, structured by bamboo planted in the form of a spiral, is intended to transport adults back to a realm of happy childhood memories and to introduce children to the plant. At the center of the spiral, visitors discover a surprise planting of Phyllostachys heterocycla. This space recreates a wellknown scene from a traditional story that begins with a childless farmer cutting down a tall bamboo, only to find a small girl standing on the spot where the plant had stood. Sitting on a rock bench, enjoying the rustling of bamboo leaves with a companion, perhaps a child, a visitor may be prompted to tell the story of how the child, nurtured by the farmer, grew into a brave princess. In the playground, surrounded by low plantings of Pleioblastus argenteostriatus, children can climb on a small bamboo dome inspired by Buckminster Fuller. A grove of Phyllostachys aureosulcata serves as a safety barrier between the park and the road. The second area of the park is called Reflecting Pools: The Path of Meditation. The water pools here mirror the sky, symbolizing transitions in life. The path along the pools thus invites visitors to reflect on their past, present, and future. The quiet sound of running water becomes louder at the end of the path, where water rushes over a waterfall. Flowing water, like life, is constantly evolving, and its sound can soothe minds churning with pressures and uncertainties. Bamboo is used all along the pools to mimic the flow of water. The short Shibataea kumasasa are pruned into a rounded wave pattern, and the undulating bamboo fence also imitates the motion of waves. At the end of the sloping path, a bamboo bridge leads to the underground bamboo courtyard, where the pat- Bamboo 9 Planting plan. terns of water are repeated in the sand of a traditional \"dry water\" garden. Sand represents the ocean, and rocks and bamboo stand in for islands and mountains. Here, a few Pseudosasa japonica stand straight up in a sea of gravel raked into water patterns. Throughout this space, bamboo reinforces the sense of flowing water and the feeling of change that frees the mind from negative thinking. Finally, in the below-ground-level pavilion, called Rays of the Sun: Illumination, the visitor follows a path to an open space. Along the path, Shibataea kumasasa are pruned in rounded shapes that reflect the radial pattern of the sun. A bamboo dome rising above the ground's surface symbolizes the sun and lights up a large open space where people can gather for events and to admire the resilient strength of the bamboo structure. The bamboo walls of the pavilion cast a pattern of light and shadow. In the center one can enjoy the rays of the sun and the warmth generated by the solar heating system. Here, bamboo stands as a symbol of illumination and hope, and demonstrates its strength and flexibility through the use of a new technology. Shrubby plantings of Pleioblastus argenteostriatus surround the playground. Ireine Nagai's independent project was part of Kobe's Restorative Post-Earthquake Urban Redevelopment Program. In addition to her formal design studies, she visited many garden and parks for a sense of the spatial experiences bamboo can offer. She also interned at the New England Bamboo Company to learn bamboo culture and propagation. She received the certificate in landscape design in 1998. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Linking People With Plants: A Master Plan for the Pine Tree State Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":10,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25416","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160ab26.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Griffin, Pamela","article_content":"Linking People With Plants A Master Plan for the Pine Tree State Arboretum Pamela Griffin T he Pine Tree State Arboretum in Augusta, the capital of Maine, occupies 224 acres of open fields, deep forests, ledges, and wetlands. The state purchased the land in 1835 and farmed it to meet the needs of the state hospital for the mentally ill until 1972. In 1981 the state's Bureau of Public Lands and the Maine Forest Service founded the Pine Tree State Arboretum on the property, with both agencies providing staff and funding. While the state agencies continue to provide support, the Arboretum is now a private nonprofit corporation governed by a board of directors. In 1996, the staff and the board felt strongly that it was time to step back, evaluate the progress of the Arboretum, and make plans for its future. As part of this effort I collaborated with the staff and board to prepare a master plan that would establish a permanent design policy and guide the institution's physical development over the next ten years. Specifically, the team's task was to develop an organizing theme applicable to all existing and future collections in order to give a sense of unity and aesthetic continuity to the Arboretum, and to extend public access to all parts of the grounds. Site Analysis The planning team began its work by investigating the natural and cultural processes that had shaped the site so that we could then define its opportunities and limitations. Only with an intimate understanding of the land could we identify and enhance its unique qualities and link them to the surrounding region. A series of maps was drawn up to illustrate nine characteristics of the site. Together these maps form a graphic representation of the physical factors that guided our decisions about design. Only six of the nine site characteristics analyzed for this study are included in the discussion that follows; omitted are microclimate, visual qualities, and regional characteristics. Pine Tree State Arboretum is in Augusta, Maine's capital. Surrounding forests are dominated by oak, white pine, and hemlock. Linking People With Plants 11 Above: To preserve native species and teach visitors about local ecology, knowledge of existing plant communities must be thorough. Most of the land is in post-agricultural succession. Below: Geology defines any landscape, including its soil composition and its acidity and alkalinity levels. Hydrology determines the life forms the site will support. 12 Arnoldia 64\/4 Above: Analysis of soil types provides information for the placement of buildings and plants. Below: This map shows the property's high and low points and the resulting views. Linking People With Plants 13 Above: The placement of paths and gardens will be guided by the steepness of slopes. The map shows that gentle, rolling hills are the rule on the property, with only a few steep areas. Below: It is the plant collections that distinguish an arboretum from a park or a nature preserve. This map shows the existing collections at the time that work on the master plan began. 14 Arnoldia 64\/4 Synthesis Several features emerged from our site analysis as significant, suggesting some initial goals to guide our planning: preserve the existing natural communities; explain the stages of species succession that have followed the discontinuance of agriculture; emphasize the exposed bedrock at the high point of the site; preserve and explain the watershed system; maintain open agrarian views; manipulate microclimates for human comfort and to create zones for more delicate plants; provide explanatory materials about historical features; integrate the existing plant collections into a wider framework; and improve visitor circulation throughout the site. These goals suggested an organizing theme for the Arboretum: the story of Maine's landscape as shaped by its people, with emphasis on its agricultural and forestry traditions. But the site analysis also highlighted the Arboretum's potential to provide vitally needed public education about Maine's future and to illustrate the value of thinking globally, while acting locally, when confronting issues of ecological degradation and species loss. At the same time in recognition of funding and staffing restrictions, the planning team decided that the design should make use of existing site conditions and local materials as much as possible. This drawing and the one that follows represent the two defining features of the Arboretum's landscape, fields and forest. Linking People With Plants 15 Drawing Up the Master Plan In this phase of the process the team incorporated all the goals and opportunities listed above into an actual plan, striving to establish a coherent design while maintaining enough flexibility for future growth. Five drawings were then made to illustrate the thematic components of the plan. The Agrarian Landscape and the Maine Woods These two drawings display the two main features, fields and forest, that define the Arboretum landscape. The challenge for the planners was to build design themes around these features and create a sense of their value. Using the agrarian landscape, for example, we wanted to demonstrate that as agriculture declines in Maine, the Arboretum can be a model for preserving open vistas and other traditional elements of farmland. The design accomplishes this by using the linear forms of stone walls and hedgerows to complement the flowing lines of the natural topography. Old stone walls will be uncovered and new ones built, and interpretive signs will tie together such historical features as the cistern, the piggery, and the three embanked ponds. The visitor center will be relocated, enlarged and enhanced with features such as an entrance garden called the Maine Landscape Garden. It will integrate agrarian elements--an old-fashioned perennial garden, a grape arbor, and a sinuous stone wall--into a design based on the gardens of typical farmhouses. The other design theme focuses on the Maine woods and wetlands. The forest is central to the state's identity, and it is imperative that commercial use of the forest be balanced by environmental stewardship. For that reason, the team emphasized public education in considering how to illustrate this theme. The cistern will be a central gathering place for outdoor education, its walls refitted with a level surface for amphitheatre-style seating. Native shrubs will line the outer perimeter, and an attractive rustic shelter will provide weather protection. A series of outdoor classrooms will 16 Arnoldia 64\/4 surround the cistern, with displays on ecology, resource utilization, and woodlot management. A woodland walk will take visitors through the major forest communities. Clearings in each plant community will provide seating and interpretive displays about forest succession, native species, wildlife habitats, and other topics. A wetland boardwalk winding through the watershed system will feature interpretive devices, including maps and text panels. Guided tours will also be offered. Plant Collections The planners felt that the plant collections should not simply be labeled exhibits but should also provide a link to the greater community and its history. To demonstrate a connection with the site's agricultural past as well as with the present Maine economy, for example, the heirloom apple collection should both preserve heirloom varieties and show visitors how to establish an orchard. Accordingly, the Arboretum's collections were divided into three major categories, each intended to have distinctive interpretive materials: the Maine Landscape Garden at the entrance, which will include specimens from the horticultural collections; the taxonomic collections and other special gardens, such as the hosta garden, the Viles Pond bird and waterfowl habitat, and the rock garden; the existing natural habitats, which include the post-agricultural successional communities as well as the forest and wetland communities. The design proposal identifies ways to use the plant collections to more meaningfully connect the Arboretum to the greater community. Linking People With Plants 17 A hierarchy of trails allows visitors to feel safe while exploring the landscape and brings order to the Arboretum's diverse display collections. Visitor Circulation It was decided that the trail system would serve not just to get visitors from here to there but also to reveal the land through sequential experiences, each of which affects the perception of the next one. The plan outlined a hierarchical arrangement of paths and orientation devices that would allow visitors to feel safe while enjoying their experience. A main loop providing access to all major features will be clearly identified by width, surface treatment, and a distinctive edge. Narrower secondary paths will bring visitors directly to major features, and winding tertiary trails will offer exploration and discovery. The design of intersections and transition areas will also help to guide the visitor, with focal points such as the cistern and piggery situated so as to aid in orientation. Developing a sense of unity was one of the most important objectives of the master plan and the overriding challenge for the Arboretum. As outlined in the summary above, the planning team addressed this challenge in several ways: by interweaving two thematic landscapes, fields and forest; by clarifying the educational mission through the selection of collections and interpretative programs; by establishing a circulation system that balances hierarchy and mystery; by designing guidelines that include the repetition of certain forms, the use of local materials, and an emphasis on local culture. We believed that if the staff and the board applied these basic design guidelines throughout the Arboretum, they would create a facility that integrates science, design, local culture, and social activity for the betterment of the 18 Arnoldia 64\/4 The plan weaves a central theme throughout the landscape, achieving unity in orderly circulation, by repeating forms and materials, and establishing a uniform palette of materials for signs, furniture, and paths. surrounding community and the greater world, and that leads visitors to an understanding of natural processes in a way that connects them to what is happening on a global scale. At the same time, the Arboretum would help Maine residents maintain the natural beauty of their native landscape and define the parameters of a sustainable economy. Perhaps most important, it would be a place to experience the renewal and peace that come from visiting a beautiful landscape. Postscript In the nine years since the master plan was completed, it has provided a long-range vision for the Arboretum's staff and board members. It has proven flexible enough to allow the staff to respond to new opportunities--creating a new program for home schoolers; installing a native plants garden; and completing a large new addi- tion to the visitor center in recognition of the desire for more educational programs. The staff continues to work with limited funds but is nevertheless now updating the plan in response to new challenges and opportunities. Since completing her certificate in landscape design in 1999, Pamela Griffin has worked in Maine for landscape architectural firms; researched and wrote a cultural landscape report for historic trails in Camden Hills State Park; conducted a survey of Maine's cultural landscapes; and designed several outdoor classrooms. She recently completed a master's degree in biology with a thesis on plant ecology at the University of Southern Maine, Portland, and plans to enter the growing field of ecological design and mapping. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Playground: Planning a Playground for the Driscoll School in Brookline, MA","article_sequence":4,"start_page":19,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25419","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160b328.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dennis, Mary","article_content":"Playground Planning a Playground for the Driscoll School in Brookline, MA Mary Dennis P arks and playgrounds are now a part of most cities and towns. In Brookline, for example, so many are scattered throughout the town that a place to play is within a five-minute walk for almost every resident. These open areas are the town's complement to neighboring Boston's Emerald Necklace, and they provide Brookline's neighborhoods and schools with their own little jewels. Boston's Emerald Necklace is a linked system of parks, ponds, and parkways over five miles long. It was designed by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1875. 20 Arnoldia 64\/4 One of the most heavily used playgrounds in Brookline is at the Driscoll School. Throughout the day it is filled with children playing. But playgrounds, like sneakers and clothes, get old and worn out after years of use by hundreds of children, day after day after day. This is the story of what happened when Driscoll's playground needed renovation. Playground 21 \"We need clear views into the playground.\" First a plan had to be developed. So there was a meeting. WELL . . . actually, quite a few! Lots of people gathered together, neighbors and parents, teachers and students, the town planning department, the police, and even the DPW crew. All these folks had ideas and concerns to discuss and review. (There were so many it created quite a stew.) \"Emergency and service vehicles must be able to get onto the playground.\" \"The playground should be attractive for both children and adults.\" \"Basketball courts need to be placed so neighbors are protected from noise.\" \"The playground must be easy to take care of.\" \"The playground needs to provide active and passive recreation for the whole community.\" 22 Arnoldia 64\/4 The teachers requested an outdoor classroom and a place for a garden. Playground 23 The children were quite clear about what they wanted: Space for a variety of games, room to run, and special places for make-believe. The town officials helped the community sort out all their ideas until agreement was reached. They also made sure the new playground would be safe and accessible to all. 24 Arnoldia 64\/4 To fit all these pieces together and to resolve conflicts as they arose were the challenges the designer had to meet. Finding a solution for multiple uses in such tiny places is no easy feat. Playground 25 The plans were drawn up and presented. Then even more meetings took place. Many details still needed to be worked out. Picnic tables and benches placed in the shade provide quiet places for checkers and relaxation. A giant map of the U.S.A. painted onto the blacktop puts geography right underfoot. 26 Arnoldia 64\/4 When every detail was worked out and approved, including places for a water fountain, sand fort, and ginkgo tree, the drawings were finally finished. Then a builder was chosen to buy all the materials, hire the workers, schedule demolition, begin new construction, and even roll out the new grass. During renovation the playground was closed and off limits. The children watched with anticipation while construction proceeded, anxious to return to their games. Playground 27 Finally there was reason for celebration. The playground is well planned and rebuilt. This little jewel is now safe and attractive and with care will provide a place for every kind of recreation for this generation . . . and maybe the next. Mary Dennis received the certificate for landscape design in 1993. She participated throughout the entire planning, design, and construction of the Driscoll School playground. John Furlong was the project landscape architect. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Private Pleasures Derived From Tradition: The Hunnewell Estates Historic District","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25420","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160b36d.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hayward, Allyson M.","article_content":"Private Pleasures Derived From Tradition The Hunnewell Estates Historic District Allyson M. Hayward W hen I set out to select a topic for my independent project in landscape design history, the gardens of Wellesley, Massachusetts, seemed an obvious choice. Having lived in the town for almost twenty years and served as president of one of the local garden clubs, I believed that a historical survey of its gardens would be of use to scholars as well as to the community. I hoped to find examples of landscapes representing a variety of styles, and my initial foray was sucClockwise from top: H. H. Hunnewell's Italian Garden and boathouse. The terraces were planted on a three-acre bank, using the space in an interesting manner while leaving the view of the lake uncluttered. Undated photograph courtesy of Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives. When Henry S. Hunnewell was not tending to his own beautiful estate, The Cedars, he could be found at The Oaks playing golf, a game he loved and often wrote about in his journals. Undated photograph courtesy of The Cedars, Henry S. Hunnewell Family Archives. The Pinetum, a nine-acre collection started in 1866, of more than four hundred conifers from all over the world. Undated photograph from Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, courtesy of Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives Horatio Hollis Hunnewell with his secateurs at the end of a workday, enjoying his view of Lake Waban. Undated photograph courtesy of Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives. cessful. Early in my research, however, it became clear that many of the historically significant gardens in Wellesley belonged to a single, very large family. So after putting aside the preliminary work on other gardens, I focused on the properties of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell and his talented children, who gave so much to the town of Wellesley. The most familiar image of the famous landscapes built by the Horatio Hollis Hunnewell family shows Italianate topiary casting precise shadows across terraces that rise above the waters of Lake Waban in Wellesley, Massachusetts. This image, however, represents only one of more than a dozen contiguous Hunnewell family estates that the Hunnewells developed in the latter half of the nineteenth century. By 1900 these properties comprised several hundred acres and included not only the estate called Wellesley, with its terraced topiary garden, but also The Cottage, The Oaks, Hill Hurst, The Cedars, the WellesRichardson Estate, the Welles-Kimball Farm, the Morrill Estate, the Walter Hunnewell Estate, The Pines, the Winn House, and the Souchard House--all of them funded by the great wealth amassed by the Hunnewell family in banking, railroads, copper mines, and other industrial enterprises all over the United States during the years of America's westward expansion after the Civil War. 30 Arnoldia 64\/4 Today most of these properties make up the Hunnewell Estates Historic District in the southwestern corner of the town of Wellesley, twelve miles west of Boston. The town, like the principal estate in the Hunnewell District, takes its name from Horatio Hollis Hunnewell's wife, Isabella Pratt Welles (18121888). Formerly known as West Needham, it was incorporated as Wellesley in 1881. Most of the estates lie on a relatively flat river plain between the Charles River and Lake Waban within the town of Wellesley; those that extend into neighboring Natick enjoy more varied topography, with commanding views of the lake, hills, meadows, and river plain. The Hunnewell Estates Historic District, listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1988, is still largely owned and occupied by members of the Hunnewell family. Only one of the properties--the Pines, now owned by Wellesley College and housing its Women's Research Center--has passed out of family ownership. Four properties are of particular historical interest: Wellesley, the origi- nal estate and the centerpiece of the District; The Cottage, a property key to the development of the District; The Oaks, with the first documented private golf course in New England; and The Cedars, an extraordinary landscape with rolling lawns and vistas designed by Charles Eliot. Horatio Hollis Hunnewell H. H. Hunnewell, the family patriarch, was born in Watertown, Massachusetts, in 1810. At the age of fifteen he was sent to Paris to learn banking in the house of Welles and Company. In 1937, he married Isabella Pratt Welles, the daughter of John Welles, one of the firm's partners. Soon afterwards the couple returned to the United States and purchased a residence on Boston's Beacon Hill. Like John Claudius Loudon and Andrew Jackson Downing before him, Hunnewell believed that \"nature was beneficial for everyone and making a garden was socially valuable.\" They all agreed, in Hunnewell's words, Graphic by the author, 1997 Private Pleasures 31 Horatio Hollis Hunnewell lived a full life. A generous man, he believed in family unity, public duty, and horticultural beauty. Undated. \"[that] human behavior was greatly affected by the environment and that gardening was a civilized and healthful activity.\" An 1843 note in Hunnewell's diary reads simply, \"Became interested in country life.\" In that year he and his wife purchased a large plot of land next to a modest cottage owned by his father-in-law in West Needham. In 1844 Hunnewell initiated the construction of a Renaissance Revival mansion designed by Arthur Gilman, at the same time clearing the land, building stone walls, and laying out the initial plans for his famous gardens. Like other couples of their wealth and status at the time, the Hunnewells drew inspiration for their splendid home from the old-world architecture and landscapes seen on their many trips abroad. These properties were designed to reflect their owners' place in society, but unlike most of his peers, Horatio Hollis Hunnewell also used his estate to contribute generously to the development of ornamental gardening in New England. The Hunnewells produced nine children, seven of whom built homes on properties contiguous to their parents'. The estates reflected not only the values that H. H. Hunnewell instilled in his family, but also the tastes of the emerging leisure class throughout the United States, especially in New England and New York State. Many of the properties, for example, included greenhouses and plantations for horticultural experimentation. H. H. Hunnewell himself gained national recognition for his experiments with trees--especially conifers-- and with other woody plants, notably the rhododendrons that he introduced into New England. Nurserymen traveled from as far as England to see his gardens. Through public exhibits mounted by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, plants from the family's estates served as an educational resource, and H. H. Hunnewell enjoyed hosting plant hunters and landscape architects as well as nurserymen, inspiring all who took an interest in coniferous and broad-leaved evergreens. The properties themselves, with their innovative facilities for sports and leisure activities, their sophisticated animal husbandry, and their extensive landscape gardening, were often featured in the influential literature of the day, including A. J. Downing's Treatise and the magazine Garden and Forest. Horatio Hollis Hunnewell fostered in his children a sense of community and public spirit, a solid work ethic, and a commitment to wise stewardship of their land, setting a strong example by employing his wealth, his knowledge of horticulture, and his down-to-earth personal style for the benefit of many organizations. He was a supporter of the botanical department of Harvard University, a contributor to the Botanic Garden and Museum in Cambridge, and one of the largest benefactors of the Arnold Arboretum, where the Hunnewell Building still stands. He endowed a chair in the botanical department at Wellesley College, served as a trustee of the Massachusetts Humane Society for twenty-six years, and was a director of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for more than thirty-four years. In 1869, on the occasion of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's fortieth annual exhibition, he established the Hunnewell Award, consisting of annual prizes of $40 to $160 bestowed Courtesy Wellesley Historical Society 32 Arnoldia 64\/4 its own palette of plants: the Pinetum in the easternmost corner, the Italian Garden along the lakeshore, a formal French parterre extending from the back of the house toward the lake, and an extensive rhododendron and azalea garden tucked away on the outermost edge of The Great Lawn. Near the Pinetum, Hunnewell later added more gardens of rhododendron and azalea, 1876 and Overview of Wellesley with the Italian Garden and Pavilion in lower left portion 1879, respectively. of the photograph. The greenhouses and service buildings are located in the The juxtaposition upper right. of exotics and native for \"grounds laid out with the most taste, trees, and of natural and constructed forms, planted most judiciously, and kept in the best reflected the fashions of the time. Rhoorder for three successive years.\" The awards dodendrons imported from China, for example, gave prestige and a lasting stimulus to orna- were planted as a large informal garden along mental horticulture in New England. an avenue leading to the Italian Garden, where fancifully clipped conifers were arranged on Wellesley terraces designed to conform to existing topogIn 1852 Horatio and Isabella Hunnewell moved into their new house, which they named Wellesley. Many large and lavish estates were built throughout the United States at this time, but few in New England could compare with Wellesley in taste, grandeur, and the liberal expenditure of money. Spread over forty acres on the eastern shore of Lake Waban, it remains the central component of the Hunnewell Estates Historic District. Although Hunnewell was his own landscape designer and helped work his own land, he often sought the advice of horticulturally talented friends, including the Arnold Arboretum's first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, Henry Winthrop Sargent (a cousin of Isabella Hunnewell), and his own principal gardeners, F. L. Harris and T. D. Hatfield. The Wellesley garden, laid out eastwest along the southern shore of Lake Waban, comprised a series of separate areas, each with a distinctive design and Courtesy Alex MacLean, Landslides, May 1997 H. H. Hunnewell offering direction and advice to the workmen building terraces for the Italian Garden, c. 1890. Courtesy Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives Private Pleasures 33 Seaver Photo, West Newton, MA, courtesy Hill Hurst, Hollis Hunnewell Family Archives raphy. In the Pinetum native trees mingled with conifers that Hunnewell imported from all over the world, making it internationally famous as one of the most comprehensive collections in the United States prior to the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum in 1872. Fittingly, a cultivar of one of his introductions, Picea pungens, was named `Hunnewelliana'. Among the outbuildings clustered to the west of the Hunnewell's gondola house are numerous green- Wellesley, undated. houses for propagation and experimentation. The first was built in May of 1852 as a grapery. By 1895 he was experimenting under glass with peaches, hollies, rhododendrons, azaleas, palms, and oranges. A pit house was used to store tender rhododendrons during the winter. The inspiration for the sumptuous Italian Garden was a visit to Elvaston Castle in Derbyshire, where he saw an English interpretation of the delights and grandeur of the great Italian gardens. Its centerpiece was a topiary collection surrounded by an arboretum of coniferous trees. \"It was . . . after a visit to Elvaston Castle, that I conceived the idea of making a collection of evergreen trees for topiary work in imitation of what I witnessed on that celebrated estate,\" Hunnewell later wrote. In 18501851, he began creating his own Italian garden on seven terraces that descended from a ridge seventy-five feet above Lake Waban to its shores, covering about three acres. His choice of trees reflected the harsh New England climate; the English yews so magnificently trained at Elvaston would never survive the cold Massachusetts winters, so instead he used white pine, spruce, hemlock, cedar, and arborvitae. To add to the illusion of a classic Italian scene, Hunnewell purchased a gondola and constructed a boathouse along the shores of the lake. This idea may have been sparked by a on Lake Waban with a view of Italian Garden at trip to Bellagio, on Lake Como, where he also borrowed ideas from the gardens of Villa Serbelloni and Villa Melzi. Disregarding the unpretentious style favored in New England, Hunnewell entertained his friends and family on Lake Waban, a gondolier skillfully gliding across the waters, guiding the boat to within view of the Italian Garden, just as if he were plying the waters of Lake Como. To the east of the Italian Garden lies the nine-acre Pinetum with its collection of more than four hundred conifers from throughout the world, the first planted in 1866. The care that has gone into building this privately owned arboretum over the past one hundred and forty years has resulted in many new plant varieties, some widely used throughout the northern United States today. The Pinetum remains the central feature of the Wellesley landscape, increasing in area and number of species with each new Hunnewell generation Any discussion of the Hunnewell horticultural legacy would be incomplete without a mention of Theophilus D. Hatfield, the gardener who served the Hunnewell family for thirtyseven years. Hunnewell afforded Hatfield the resources to carry out years of hybridizing and experimentation, while Hatfield provided a broad knowledge of the required nursery practices. Born in England in 1856, Hatfield graduated from Kew College and went on to practice 34 Arnoldia 64\/4 on private estates. In 1883 he sailed to the United States, where he first worked in a New Jersey nursery. In 1884 he was hired as estate manager by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell's eldest son, Walter, and in 1890 he took charge of Wellesley. Hatfield and Hunnewell experimented with hybridizing chrysanthemums, begonias, and, especially, azaleas and rhododendrons. Hatfield attributed his introduction to rhododendron to a gift of a Rhododendron japonicum from Jackson Thornton Dawson, the Arnold Arboretum's first propagator and a Hunnewell family friend. Hatfield later crossed that plant with Rhododendron molle, producing the first authentic crosses between the Japanese and Chinese species. (He named a dark orange variety \"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" for H. H. Hunnewell's daughter.) Hatfield is best known today for a hardy yew cultivar he developed while working for the Hunnewells. Crossing the English yew, Taxus baccata, with the Japanese yew, T. cuspidata, for the latter's hardiness, he produced Taxus x media, meaning \"in between.\" An excellent cultivar, T. x media `Hatfieldii', a dense, pyramidal form with dark green leaves, is used extensively for hedging, screening, and other mass plantings. Hatfield lived on the Hunnewell estate until his death in 1929. The Cottage Across the street from Wellesley lies The Cottage, the second estate built by the Hunnewell family. Hunnewell chose the site for its proximity to Wellesley, revealing his desire to keep the family together. On July 25, 1870, he noted in his diary, \"Commenced digging cellar. This is for the use of any of the members of the family who, it is hoped, may be tempted to occupy it.\" The Cottage served as a convenience, a temporary lodging for the Hunnewell children while they were building their own homes nearby. As such, it was key to the development of the District: without this \"spare\" house located so close to their own new construction, one or more of the children might have chosen to build elsewhere. From its construction in 1870 until Hunnewell's death in 1902, many relatives took up residence on an interim basis. The original estate consisted of about six acres. Hunnewell employed a friend, the architect John Hubbard Sturgis, to build a Queen Anne-style home of stone, wood, and stucco. In 1923 when Hunnewell's unmarried daughter, Louisa, took up permanent residence, she hired Henry V. Hubbard and Percival Gallagher of the Olmsted Brothers firm to redesign the entrance driveway and plantings and to add a naturalistic pool, new stone, brick, and stucco boundary walls along Washington Street, and various terraces and garden beds around the house and grounds. Courtesy National Park Service, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. The Oaks In the westernmost section of the Hunnewell Estates Historic District is The Oaks, built for Arthur, the sixth child of H. H. Hunnewell, and his wife, Jane Hubbard Boit. Begun in 1871, the estate originally consisted of forty-one acres of level, river-plain pasture abutted by the Charles River, Washington Street, and the property today known as Elm Bank. Arthur Hunnewell, an active member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, had a passion for The Cottage, showing the new entry driveway, c. 1934. Private Pleasures 35 Arthur Hunnewell, the sixth child of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, undated photograph from Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell. hybridizing and exhibiting chrysanthemums; he produced around twenty-five new varieties in his greenhouses. An avid sports enthusiast as well, he combined landscape gardening with his love of athletics by building the first documented private golf course in New England on his property. In 1892 Florence Boit, Jane Hunnewell's niece, spent the summer at the Oaks. Enthusiastic about golf and armed with a set of clubs acquired while on vacation in France, she introduced her uncle Arthur and his friends to the sport. He and his brothers soon set out to con- The Oaks golf course, second hole. From left to right, Gertrude Hunnewell bendstruct a six-hole golf ing over her putt, with Robert Gould Shaw, Arthur Hunnewell, Jane Boit course on the grounds of Hunnewell, and Francis Williams Sargent looking on, 1901. The Oaks, assisted by Arthur's estate superintendent, Frederick Coles, and supervised by Florence Boit. The course crisscrossed the property and encircled the one-room schoolhouse built for and used by generations of Hunnewells. Construction was relatively easy: the turf was already there, ready for scything or mowing; the flat terrain accommodated ditches and a brook; and a variety of plants added obstacles and interest. The Hunnewell course stimulated the development of golf in New England, making this property one of exceptional historical importance. Within six months friends and fellow club members were so quickly and completely won over by the new sport that they recommended that golf be given a trial at The Country Club in Brookline. The proposal was approved in November of 1892, with Arthur Hunnewell and his friends Laurence Curtis and Robert Bacon named to supervise the project. The following year, in March of 1893, a six-hole course was constructed and soon expanded to nine holes. By 1900 twenty-nine clubs had been built within a twelve-mile radius of Boston, and in the ensuing years the sport blossomed throughout New England on courses that still exist today. Private courses, while not common, became one of the pleasures of industrial Courtesy Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives Courtesy Wellesley, Hunnewell Family Archives. 36 Arnoldia 64\/4 Henry Sargent Hunnewell sporting his distinctive and ever-present mustache, 1902. giants of the Country Place era such as Vanderbilt, Rockefeller, and DuPont. The Cedars To the north and west of the District, along the Natick town line, lies The Cedars, the summer home of the ninth and youngest child of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, Henry Sargent Hunnewell. Like his father, Henry was intensely interested in the aesthetic aspects of landscape gardening and estate development and sought to preserve the natural beauty of the rolling hills and woodlands of his property. The original 1888 purchase consisted of about 248 acres along Pond Road and East Central Street in Wellesley and Natick. Within ten years, however, Henry had increased his holdings to more than five hundred acres by systematically acquiring adjacent farms and Aerial view of The Cedars, undated. A fine example of the visual links from the main house to the lakes and woodlands of the surrounding landscape. woodlots. Charles Eliot, best known for conceiving The Trustees of Reservations and planning the Boston Metropolitan Park System, was the landscape architect for the estate. He died in 1897, before the estate was complete, but had a major influence on the siting of the house and stable and on the location and layout of the main avenue, the vistas, and the garden beds. Until the time of his death, Eliot visited the estate often to provide consultation to Hunnewell. Olmsted himself offered advice on the siting of the main avenue; Charles Sprague Sargent visited the estate often and gave horticultural and design suggestions; and Jackson Dawson supplied many woody plants. In fact, numerous journal entries in the Hunnewell archives document the hundreds of trees that were sent from the Arnold Arboretum to The Cedars and other Hunnewell properties for trial. The main organizing element in The Cedars' landscape is a series of vistas radiating from the house in four directions. Typical of the large estates of the Country Place era, these vistas form dramatic visual links to the lakes and woods beyond. The primary view is to the south, down the main front lawn. Courtesy The Cedars, Henry S. Hunnewell Family Archives Courtesy The Cedars, Hunnewell Family Archives Private Pleasures 37 Hunnewell, working with Charles Eliot, reinforced the vistas using the textural contrast of cedars to define the edges of the maple and swamp oak woods. The \"cedars\" that formed picturesque-styled belts, important focal points, and triangles that demarcated the vistas included Cedrus atlantica (Atlas cedar), C. libani (cedar of Lebanon), and C. deodara (deodar cedar), but also others not of the genre Cedrus: for instance, Chamaecyparis thyoides (Atlantic white cedar), Thuja occidentalis (American arborvitae or white cedar), and Juniperus virginiana (eastern red cedar). Harriett Risley Foote, a nationally known rosarian during the golden age of American gardens (18901940), designed and laid out the estate's rose garden, which won a Massachusetts Horticultural Society Gold Medal in 1923. The rose garden, like the perennial garden, was not situated near the house but off in the woods, to be enjoyed by visitors while strolling the estate. Expanses of immaculate lawn were outlined by trees or shrubs, with statuary positioned as focal points in the center of the rose garden and at the entrances to the gardens. The liberal use of evergreens, both broad-leaved and coniferous, provided year-round interest. Henry also introduced utilitarian agriculture to the estate--vegetable gardens, an orchard, a few dairy cows, chickens, pigs, and--to support his favorite pastimes of riding and racing--horses. Postscript While other wealthy families in the United States were also building domestic empires at this time, none amassed so many large, contiguous estates. The Hunnewell Estates Historic District is a rare example of several contiguous landscapes passing from one generation to the next with each successive owner building on the work of his predecessor. This arrangement is even more unusual in that the land was not originally owned by one family member and then deeded to the sons and daughters. Instead, through a carefully planned sequence of acquisitions, each son or daughter added to his or her own property, thereby extending the District and wrapping it around the lake. Horatio Hollis Hunnewell set out in 1843 to create a beautiful estate, but in involving himself in horticulture it became a setting where he shared his knowledge--and his passion for his favorite plants--with the public. When he started the collection of broad-leaved evergreens, it was generally thought that few, if any, choice rhododendrons and azaleas would thrive so far north, but by persisting over many years he demonstrated that hundreds of varieties could grow outdoors in New England. His Pinetum, too, the first comprehensive collection of its kind, became an educational force and an inspiration to all in America with an interest in conifers. Today, the properties still encircle Lake Waban, presenting a pristine landscape in the midst of metropolitan Boston's bustle and revealing intriguing layers of New England's garden history. With their statements about the power that culture and wealth can wield when used for education and social good, the Hunnewell gardens record late-nineteenth and early-twentieth-century New England society at its best. A quote from an 1857 historical sketch of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture (of which H. H. Hunnewell's youngest son, Henry, was an active supporter) also aptly describes the Hunnewells: \"[T]hey were gentlemen of the highest standing in the country, distinguished for their wealth, their learning, and their public and private virtues . . . wealth as well as knowledge is power.\" Facing the long-term care of their properties, the Hunnewells, who have a strong sense of family heritage, are in the process of preserving them for future generations. Hundreds of acres have been placed under conservation restrictions with The Trustees of Reservations and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. H. H. Hunnewell's Pinetum, the Italian Garden, and the shoreline along Lake Waban have been protected from development. The Italian Garden will remain as open land, not reverting to forest, and the seven-tiered terraces are to be maintained. 38 Arnoldia 64\/4 References Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell: With A Short History of the Hunnewell and Welles Families and An Account of the Wellesley and Natick Estates, vols. 1, II, III (Boston: Privately printed, 1906). The children of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell (18101902) and Isabella Pratt Welles Hunnewell (18121888) were: Hollis Horatio Hunnewell (18361884), Francis Welles Hunnewell (18381917), John Welles Hunnewell (18401909), Susan Hunnewell (18421842), Walter Hunnewell (18441921), Arthur Hunnewell (18451904), Isabella Pratt Hunnewell Shaw (18491934), Jane Welles Hunnewell Sargent (18511936), Henry Sargent Hunnewell (18541931). Susan died in infancy. John, who spent most of his life in Paris, was the only other offspring of H. H. Hunnewell not to build in the District. Albert Emerson Benson, History of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (Boston: Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1929), 158. Hunnewell's youngest son wrote, \"I was named for Henry Sargent, cousin of my mother and a very intimate horticultural friend of my father.\" Henry S. Hunnewell, Recollections of Henry Sargent Hunnewell (Boston: Privately Printed, 1938), 3. H. H. Hunnewell, Life, Letters and Diary, 101. From Donald Wyman, \"The Hunnewell Arboretum, 18521952,\" Arnoldia 12(912): 6184, which includes Hatfield's 1928 list of hardy rhododendrons. Wyman also includes \"a few\" of the Hunnewell Arboretum's woody plants, 18521952. Undated, unsigned document, Hunnewell Archives, 18501997, Wellesley, MA. Family 187375, at different periods, the Cottage was occupied by Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Hunnewell, Mr. and Mrs. Hollis Hunnewell and Mr. and Mrs. Francis W. Hunnewell. In 1875 it became the property of Mr. and Mrs. R. G. Shaw . . . In 1882, Mr. and Mrs. F. W. Sargent occupied the house . . . In 1891 Mr. and Mrs. Arthur Hunnewell spent the summer there . . .\" Olmsted Job No. 7215, Francis W. Hunnewell, Wellesley, MA, June 1923April 1939. National Park Service, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, Brookline, MA. For a more complete history of The Cedars, see Allyson M. Hayward, \"A Rather Wild and Picturesque Place: Henry Sargent Hunnewell at The Cedars,\" Journal of the New England History Society 6 (1998): 113. The Henry S. Hunnewell Horticultural Journals and Plant Lists, 18811900 (Hunnewell Family Archives, The Cedars, Natick, MA). H. H. Hunnewell, Life, Letters and Diary, 199200: \"From Upon earning a certificate in landscape design history in 1997, Allyson received the Outstanding Student Faculty Award in her class. Since then, she has been awarded a Gold Medal from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for promoting New England's garden history, served as chair of the New England Garden History Society, and is currently a member of the landscape advisory committee for Historic New England (formerly SPNEA) and president of the New England Farm and Garden Association, Inc. She lectures extensively and her book on the life and gardens of British garden designer Norah Lindsay (18731948) will be published in 2007. She will soon revisit her initial research on the Hunnewell estates with a book in mind. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Pilgrimage of the Groves: Reconstructing the Meaning of a Sixteenth-Century Hindu Landscape","article_sequence":6,"start_page":39,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25421","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160b726.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Shah, Behula","article_content":"The Pilgrimage of the Groves Reconstructing the Meaning of a Sixteenth-Century Hindu Landscape Behula Shah This article summarizes the results of an effort to discover the relationship between the landscape in a region called Vraj, in north central India, and the religious and political climate that existed at the time the landscape became enclosed by an extended pilgrimage route. At that point the area enclosed by the longer route became known as Braj. Located along the Yamuna (Jumna) River between Delhi and Agra, Braj encompasses the ancient city of Mathura and its surrounding countryside, an area of 35 square miles. The Cultural Landscape of Mathura N o history of northern India can exclude a discussion of the contribution of this region to the molding of Indian consciousness. By the first few centuries of the current era, Mathura had already acquired the status of an important economic, cultural, and political center; it is no exaggeration to say that every significant political and religious influence on the development of Indian civilization was in some way related to Mathura and its environs. In particular, the city has been an important destination for Hindu pilgrimage for at least the last ten centuries, and the physical landscape of the region has been closely associated with the myth of Krishna, one of the most popular Hindu deities and mythological figures, ever since the emergence of the myth two thousand years ago. Krishna (meaning \"dark-colored lord\") is one of ten avatars (incarnations) of Vishnu, the sustainer of all life and nature. All Vishnu's avatars personified aspects of the idea of sustaining life on Earth, which might be framed today as stewardship or environmentalism. Krishna grew up among the herdsmen of Vraj (one meaning of which is \"cattle shed\"), and he was himself a cowherd. (As in Greek and Persian, the Sanskrit word for cow [Go] also means earth.\") This is the mythical landscape where Krishna was born and spent his early childhood and amorous adolescence. In the sixteenth century, when Vraj was renamed Braj, the area became an even more important locus for the cult of Krishna. The purpose of my study was to uncover the reasons for this development and the role that this sacred landscape played in asserting political as well as religious authority in the area. Mathura in the Sixteenth Century Because of its geographic and cultural importance, Mathura was the focus of attack when the first Muslim invasions of northern India took place in the eleventh century. By the twelfth century Mathura and its environs had been absorbed into the territory controlled by the Muslim dynasties of India, collectively known as the Delhi Sultanate. At the beginning of the sixteenth century, one of the sultanate's last powerful rulers, Sikandar Lodi (14881517), consolidated his hold on the region when he moved his capital from Delhi to Agra, much closer to Mathura. A road that he built to connect Agra to Delhi ran through the heart of Mathura, severely disrupting the traditional Hindu pilgrimages. Furthermore, his forces desecrated and 40 Arnoldia 64\/4 destroyed its important temples, an affront to Hindu freedom of worship in a city that symbolized Hindu religion and culture. The Hindus, however, were not willing to surrender their attachment to Mathura; indeed, one result of this new incursion was to shift even more devotional activities to the region. Hindu poet-seers (a \"seer\"--drashta in Sanskrit--has free access to the past, the present, and the future, and his poetry has the divine power of universal appeal) began to settle in the area, where they elevated Krishna's status as the predominant deity in this Muslim-controlled territory. The mechanism they used to achieve this was a new pilgrimage, the Pilgrimage of the Groves. Transforming the Landscape into a Sacred Pilgrimage Route The ritual of the Pilgrimage of the Groves was codified in 1552 in a Sanskrit text, Vraj Bhakti Vilasa, written by Narayan Bhatt, one of the poet-seers. This text became the major instrument for expanding and elaborating the traditional mythology of Krishna. It was my primary source for interpreting the meaning of the landscape of Braj and--in the absence of contemporary descriptions--for constructing a model of its sixteenth-century form. The Vraj Bhakti Vilasa metaphorically inscribed the Krishna myth on the landscape of the region, to which the poet-seers now gave the name Braj. Every feature--hills, woodland, groves, ponds and pools, the Yamuna River-- became associated with episodes from the Krishna myth. This new symbolic significance was reinforced by a new pilgrimage path. Mathura itself was no longer the central pilgrimage destination that it had traditionally been; instead, a new and circuitous route extended the pilgrimage beyond the city into the surrounding natural landscape. Important sites along this pilgrimage path were marked by groves, each one representing a deity or deities that played a role in the Krishna narrative. The poet-seers prescribed rituals for worshipping the deities at each site, all of them clearly elaborated in Narayan Bhatt's text. Thus was established the Pilgrimage of the Groves. I would argue that the Braj landscape served as the medium through which the Hindus contested the Muslim presence in the land that had traditionally been an important religious and cultural center for them. By restructuring the landscape metaphorically and infusing it with new meaning, the Hindus were able to assert their claim on the land without directly confronting the ruling Muslim elite. In effect, the poet-seers used the spiritual power of Krishna to repossess the region under the name they had given it, Braj. Krishna's mythical authority in the landscape, reinstated as \"historical fact\" through place-based narratives, legitimized the Hindu presence. This newly mythologized landscape embodied the historical, cultural, and religious perceptions of Mathura that had accumulated in the Hindu imagination over time. Instead of rebuilding the city's demolished temples, the poet-seers compensated for their loss by \"building\" the Krishna doctrines, and rituals into the landscape, creating an iconic landscape with all the meanings and associations of the temple. The Pilgrimage of the Groves The pilgrims at Braj were required to visit the groves in a prescribed order, performing the proper rituals at each grove. Detailed information about some of the groves has not yet come to light, but the map includes the most significant stations, including overnight stops, along the twenty-three-day route. The rituals prescribed in the Vraj Bhakti Vilasa introduced specific meanings at each grove. The pilgrim incorporated the myth into his own life--and charged the landscape with sacred meaning-- by engaging in the traditional actions of Hindu worship: chanting mantras according to a prescribed rhythmic structure and circumambulating the object of worship in a clockwise direction, all the while concentrating on the Krishna narrative. Spatially, the pilgrimage path meandered as it linked the groves, tracing a closed circuit that insulated Braj from the outside. The cen- Pilgrimage 41 tral area enclosed by the path remained relatively undifferentiated, implying that it had no ritual function but, rather, was intended to protect worshippers from outsiders, just as temple walls separate the place of worship from the space around it. Likewise, Hindu worshippers at a temple followed a prescribed ritual circumambulation of the temple walls. The geometric shapes of the landscape envisioned by Narayan Bhatt were also a feature shared by Hindu temples, as was the nature symbolism underpinning both. Conceptually, the Braj landscape replicated the temple envisioned by Hindu architecture: a place where unordered, undifferentiated nature was ordered and given meaning. Unlike the temples leveled by the Shah's troops, however, this new place could not be destroyed. This buttresses the argument that the underlying reason for creating Braj was subversive: it allowed Hindu traditions to continue undetected by the ruling Muslims. None of these changes required substantial alterations to the natural landscape. Instead, the pilgrimage path largely overlaid new meanings on existing landscape. Each grove consisted of a tree or group of trees and a water tank (cistern), both of which carried many longstanding, symbolic meanings in the Hindu culture. Trees represented the operational forces of nature, or the creative process, and also symbolized the axis mundi, or cosmological center of the world. Certain trees and groves were thought to be inhabited and guarded by Yakshas, or tree spirits, who personified the genius of the place and bestowed fecundity and wealth on devotees. As for water, in Hindu thought it is a potent purifier. Because all ritual acts begin with water, its presence was a functional necessity in a sanctified place. Up to the end of the sixteenth century, when political circumstances changed, the poet-seers marked the landscape only with small shrines and other unobtrusive structures containing natural or found objects that had no value or meaning for the Muslims. The Pilgrimage of the Groves had ramifications that went beyond the region of Braj and beyond the sixteenth-century circumstances that led to its development. For the Hindu pilgrim, acts of devotion became connected to the natural landscape, with nature replacing the ostentatious icons that had traditionally served as objects of worship. While Braj never acquired a political role, the part it played in redefining and reenergizing the Hindu culture was critical in sustaining the religion in that place and time. Postscript My Radcliffe Seminars independent project provided answers to some of the questions I broached regarding the relationship of one specific landscape to its surrounding Hindu culture and to political events at the time of its development. At the same time, it raised many new questions. The Hindu landscape tradition in India has not been well studied or even acknowledged in landscape design history. The much longer paper from which this article was excerpted therefore met with much interest when it was delivered at the Dumbarton Oaks Landscape Architecture Symposium in Washington, D.C., in 2002. That paper, \"Braj: The Creation of Krishna's Landscape of Power and Pleasure and Its Sixteenth-Century Construction through the Pilgrimage of the Groves,\" will appear as a chapter in Sacred Ritual Practices in Gardens and Landscapes: Ritual and Agency, forthcoming from Dumbarton Oaks in early spring 2007. Behula Shah received her certificate in landscape design history in 1997 and became founding director of landscape studies at Chatham College, in Pittsburgh, PA, establishing a master of arts in landscape studies and teaching courses in all aspects of landscape design. A founding member of the board of directors of The Cultural Landscape Foundation, she has also been instrumental in establishing the Landscape Records of South Western Pennsylvania Archives. She is now a landscape painter. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Of Fantasies and Footpaths: Seven Landscapes to Enjoy With Children","article_sequence":7,"start_page":42,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25418","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160af6f.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Malarkey, Maryann Alberts","article_content":"Of Fantasies and Footpaths Seven Landscapes to Enjoy With Children Maryann Alberts Malarkey O f Fantasies and Footpaths is a guide to seven public gardens and parks in eastern Massachusetts that hold special appeal for children. It gives brief histories of the sites, identifies the elements that engage children's energies and imaginations, and suggests ways for adults to share their magic with children. Sites as urban as Boston's Post Office Square Park and as rural as the Crane Estate in Ipswich are among those included. My selection was based on a review of published materials about public and semipublic parks and gardens in eastern Massachusetts, visits to candidate sites, and many interviews. I made second visits accompanied by children to test my preliminary decisions as well as additional visits with different age groups to experience seasonal changes and special events. For children, an appealing landscape is one where they can touch, climb, hide, run, rest, explore, and daydream. In judging a garden's appeal for children, I looked for elements such as visual beauty, fragrance, and sounds; variations in texture, temperature, and scale; and enclosures and promontories for a sense of intrigue and opportunities for playing hideand-seek. Because children need order and predictability to feel comfortable, I also looked for repetition of forms and clearly delineated paths. And finally, I made sure that each site offered places for rest between periods of play and exploration. Let's go explore! Fantasies and Footpaths 43 A chickadee sounds like . . . The Rockery at the Ipswich River Wildlife Sanctuary of the Massachusetts Audubon Society Perkins Row, Topsfield Located in the northern part of the sanctuary, a quarter mile from the central buildings and parking area, the Rockery Trail begins at the north side of a cluster of buildings, crosses an open field, and descends through wooded slopes across bubbling streams and around ponds. Remember to bring birdseed: chickadees will eat from outstretched hands. The Rockery was commissioned at the turn of the twentieth century by Thomas Proctor, a major landowner in Topsfield. In collaboration with the Arnold Arboretum's Charles Sprague Sargent and John George Jack, Proctor worked out a plan for a sizable garden in which to grow hardy North American trees. The designer, a Japanese landscape architect named Shintare Anamete, began work on the Rockery in 1902 and stayed on the site during the entire nine-year construction period, overseeing every detail. The result was a naturalistic landscape of ponds, plants, and ledges, featuring a cottagesized structure made of boulders arranged to form tunnels, paths, and overhangs. Explore the spaces and find the rooms that occasionally open up along the paths between the rocks. The Rockery is an example of opposites working together in harmony: the fluidity of pond water contained by the solidity of stone; the darkness of interior spaces opening to sunlit paths; massive boulders sheltering the tiniest of blueberries; and the loftiness of a terrace overhanging the depths of the pond. Children sense the harmony and ask for return trips. 44 Arnoldia 64\/4 Mytoi Gardens Chappaquiddick Island, Martha's Vineyard Adults who arrive at Mytoi Gardens expecting to see large plants are sometimes disappointed: the three-acre, Japanese-style garden was ravaged by Hurricane Bob and an accompanying tornado in 1991, leaving only the smallest specimens. But children, because they arrive without preconceived notions, respond with Moss is soft. The tree is strong. Ocean breezes blow all day long. delight to the tiny plants surrounded by open spaces. The garden was designed in 1958 by Hugh Jones for an individual islander and later left to the care of The Trustees of Reservations. The terrain is hilly--another appealing feature--and everything is miniature in scale: pond, island, slopes, trees, bridges, and even flowers. Children are charmed: as small as they are, they are giants next to tiny Iris cristata, dwarf Japanese maple, and pillow-soft moss. Older kids will be drawn to the tiny island and the red bridge leading to it; they can pretend the bridge is a ship carrying pirates to a distant land in search of long-buried riches. Fantasies and Footpaths 45 Let's pretend this is our magical kingdom. Castle Hill at the Crane Estate Argilla Road, Ipswich The Crane Estate is a multifaceted property that commands magnificent views of Gloucester, Plum Island, New Hampshire, Crane's Beach, and the Ipswich River. From the Great House on top of Castle Hill--usually called \"the Castle\"--you can see the ocean, forests, and estuarine marshes. It was built in 1925 by Richard T. Crane to replace the original 1910 mansion, which his wife never liked. But it is the grounds that beguile children. Landscape construction began in 1910 when Crane commissioned the Olmsted Brothers to plan a grand allee, a swimming pool, and an Italian garden. Additional work was completed after 1925 when the Great House was built and Crane hired his neighbor, landscape architect Arthur Shurcliff, to design the drive, vegetable gardens, a bowling green, a maze, a rose garden, and an extension of the Grand Allee. Today the Bowling Green, the Grand Allee, and the Italian garden are the highlights of the built landscape. The Bowling Green, on the east side of the Great House, is a rectangle of lawn surrounded by a low stone wall that creates a sense of security in pleasant contrast to the unrestrained nature outside it. To find the Grand Allee, walk from the Bowling Green to the northwest side of the house, where a terrace faces the sea across a giant ribbon of lawn that unfurls from the house to the ocean. The statues that peer out from the trees bordering its crisp edges might be storybook characters for children romping down the long expanse of green. The Italian garden, on the west side of the estate, is a sunken outdoor theater, a rectangle defined on three sides by walkways and cement walls. The fourth side is an elegant stone arbor over a path leading to the stage. The walk to the beach from the Castle takes you down the hill on wooded trails to a boardwalk ending at a four-mile beach of white sand. The predominantly sandy ocean bottom makes for superb swimming. A beach picnic as the sun sets over the Castle is an excellent way to end the day. 46 Arnoldia 64\/4 Endicott Park 57 Forest Street, Danvers If you know children who would enjoy an outing with an agricultural theme, take them to Endicott Park. Here you will find farm animals in their barn and pens; a large carriage house used for workshops, lectures, and other gatherings; and a pond with a dock. Enter from Forest Street and begin your visit by greeting the animals. Wander the complex of farm buildings, arranged to create an informal courtyard with benches and bird feeders. The novelty of the farmlike atmosphere, coupled with the pond and the meandering paths, is enhanced by the surprise of finding the children's playground-- ramps, swings, towers, clubhouses, ropes, slides, hiding corners, and balconies. But there is more: on a low hill at the end of the dirt road leading to the pond lies Glen Magna Farms, an enchanting property that offers a very different experience. Imagine how it feels to fly and float, like a milkweed seed. Fantasies and Footpaths 47 What's inside? What's outside? It's time for a snack! Glen Magna Farms Ingersoll Street, Danvers In 1814 a sea captain named Joseph Peabody purchased this land as a place to hide valuable cargo from the British during the War of 1812. Today his mansion is surrounded by elaborate gardens. Walk around the house to the terrace overlooking the geometric flowerbeds. The half-circle of the first garden will guide you to the central stonedust path, which in turn leads to a gazebo where birds can be heard singing in the spruce behind. West of the formal garden is a pergola covered by an ancient, knobby wisteria. Watch for the intriguing carvings at the top of the pergola pillars. Continuing down toward the western corner of the formal area, the path brings you to the McIntire Tea House, also called the Derby Summer House; it was built in 1793 at a farm in the neighboring town of Peabody and moved here in 1901. Just behind the teahouse, the big house garden encloses a smaller garden, one of the many subtle surprises that children are amused to discover within the formal layout. 48 Arnoldia 64\/4 Many gravestones, many different pictures. Mount Auburn Cemetery 580 Mount Auburn Street, Cambridge As America's first landscaped burial ground, created in 1831, Mount Auburn Cemetery influenced the development of public parks throughout the country. Its fascinating tapestry of natural features, eccentric monuments, and magnificent trees, together with its generous size and easy access, makes it a wonderful place to share with children. Mount Auburn encompasses 174 acres of well-placed plantings and more than ten miles of roads and paths that wind over its hilly topography. The landscape's complexity and its sense of enclosure bring out the curiosity in children. Rather than embarking on a prescribed walk, choose a destination and encourage diversions along the way; you may quietly discover some of the best secrets of Mount Auburn. Fantasies and Footpaths 49 Post Office Square Park Financial District, Boston Cars zip by, people bustle, sounds reverberate, buildings loom, and the pace of it all may be overwhelming. This is Boston's intensely energetic financial district. In its center, bounded by four streets (Congress, Franklin, Milk, and Pearl), there's a place of relative tranquility, a refuge called Post Office Square Park. The park comprises 1.7 acres of curving paths, a pedestrian arbor, pavilions, fountains, and 125 species of trees, shrubs, and perennials, all arranged on a level, open lawn under a canopy of tall trees. Two plazas are linked by a long pedestrian arcade, which serves as a backdrop to the central lawn as well as a performance area. On one of the plazas, glass pavilions house a cafe and an entrance to an underground parking garage. A sense of relative security abides here, perhaps because of the clear sightlines. Surprises are minimal and seating is cozy. Tuck your small ones and yourself into one of the intimate seating areas between planting beds and watch the people going by or wander the paths, enjoying the flowers as you stroll. How many steps does it take to walk this whole path? 50 Arnoldia 64\/4 Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum Courtyard 280 Fenway, Boston Hailed as one of Boston's finest and most beloved cultural treasures, the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum offers a unique blend of art and architecture. The art is the personal collection of Mrs. Gardner, who also conceptualized the building and created an atmosphere to \"delight the senses and spark the imagination.\" Begin your visit in the courtyard garden. Three stories of balconies rise above it, topped by a glass roof. The space is tall and grand-- children are swept away by the view. Their eyes skip from column to statue, from fountain to arched window. They're mesmerized by the fragrance of the flowers, the sound of the gentle fountains, the soft air, and the colors of flowers cascading from arched windows. While enjoying the courtyard, you can decide which gallery to see first. Stairs on the side will take you to the art displays on the second and third floors. Children may need a lot of storytelling about the paintings to hold their interest, but the statues and reliefs of mythological characters will catch their fancy. Sshhh . . . listen to the whispering water. Maryann Malarkey, of Ipswich, Massachusetts, received the certificate in landscape design in 1995. For the past twelve years she has designed awardwinning landscapes ranging from planting plans for small urban gardens to master plans for historic estates. Over that period, her firm, Alberts Malarkey Designs, has grown into a full-service designbuild company known especially for environmentally sensitive landscapes. Upon completion of revisions, Maryann plans to publish Of Fantasies and Footpaths. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Landscape Institute Independent Projects 1981-2006","article_sequence":8,"start_page":51,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25415","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160a76d.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"51 Landscape Institute Independent Projects 19812006 1981 Lenox, MA, Open Space Plan, Rebecca De Neri-Zagal Evergreens in the New England Landscape, Vincent DiColo Two Eighteenth-Century Gardens: William Paca's, Annapolis, MD, and Elias Hasket Derby's, Salem, MA, Louesa M. Mace Master Plan for Radcliffe Yard, Patricia Strand Ogunquit Green Proposal, ME, Susan Dean, Ellen Matheson & Susan Littleton Murphy Roots: A Creative Intervention in an Urban Space, Boston, MA, Betty King South Park, Buffalo, NY: An Olmsted Park Inventory & Rehabilitation Study, Joanne J. Turnbull & Arleyn Levee Moses Brown Campus, Providence, RI, Development Plan, Mary Worrell Nancy Jarnis Elm Bank Estate, Dover, MA: Adaptive Reuse of a Historic Landscape Plan, Jane Kittredge & Mary Pillsbury Front Street Riverfront Park, New Haven, CT, Marian La Follette \"Plantlist,\" A Computerized Plant Selection Program, Susan Saarinen Greenough Boulevard Park on the Charles River, Watertown, MA, Carol Schein 1983-1984 A Town Landscape Planning Proposal for Harrisville, NH, Ann Carlsmith & Caterina Fitzgerald Castle Hill Study & Restoration Proposal, Ipswich, MA, Jane Crandell-Glass & Virginia Hibbard Watertown, MA, Square Revitalization Proposal, Merrette Ische-de Gruiter & Patricia Larkin Showcase Gardens for the Arnold Arboretum's Case Estates, Weston, MA, Elise Laurenzi & Angela Silsby South Shore, MA, Science Center Development Proposal, Monica A. Luft Andrew Jackson Downing, Cultivator of an American School of Landscape Architecture, Susan Raslavicus Wollaston Beach Revitalization Plan, Quincy, MA, Pamela Schooley & Elizabeth Cion Master Plan for Moore State Park in Paxton, MA, Janet Taber & Catherine Hodgson 1982 Fairsted Garden Plans: The Olmsted Office Landscape, Joanne Emerson Concord River Greenway Plan, Concord to Cambridge, MA, Anne Hale & Minako Henderson A Program for the Renewal of Rock Meadow Conservation Land, Belmont, MA, B. June Hutchinson Study for Revitalization of Cleveland Circle, Boston, MA, Barbara Keller Landscape Design and Implementation for the Cambridge School in Weston, MA, Nina Lavin Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA, Space Analysis and Commentary, Margaret Megowan A Program of Renewal for Rock Meadow Conservation Land, Belmont, MA, Ann Steinberg 1987 The Bay Circuit: A Proposal for Billerica and Tewksbury, MA, Morag Hollway & Jeanine Smith Plan for Marine Park in South Boston, Ann Gilardi Johnson A Proposal for an Educational Center at the Abbott Campus, Andover, MA, Phyllis R. Marx & Judith F. Wright Gardens of America's Golden Age: Fletcher Steele, Landscape Architect, Priscilla Urquiola Lincoln Park, Lexington, MA, Development Plan for a Disturbed Site, Nell McDill Walker 1988 Mystic Valley Parkway: A Master Plan for a Historic Landscape, MA, Grenelle BauerScott Winslow Park Master Plan, Freeport, ME, Carol Burrall Exeter Waterfront Park, Exeter, NH, Elizabeth Dawson Money, Manure, and Maintenance: The Life & Work of Marion Cruger Coffin, 18761957, Nancy Flemming The Burbank & Winn Brook Schools of Belmont, MA: School Grounds Planning 1983 1985-1986 McKinley Square Design, Boston, MA, Anita Berrizbeitia Audubon North River Sanctuary, Norwell, MA, Rose Broderick & Barbara Cain Rowes Wharf Development Plan, Boston, MA, Lee Cooke-Childs Waynflete School: Campus Master Plan, Portland, ME, Eleanor Ames Beverly Farms, MA, Townscape, Laura Benefield Gibson Frank Lloyd Wright: Landscape Architect, 52 Arnoldia 64\/4 with Community Input, Nancy Forbes Revitalization Proposals for Oak Square, Brighton, MA, Jody Emerson Howard & Dee Ramee Villa by the Sea: A Master Plan, Cornelia Hanna McMurtrie Lynn, MA, Waterfront: Access Circulation, John Moberger and The Gardens of the Aztec Kings, as Documented by the Spanish Conquistadors, Sandra Lopez-Loucel Public Access to the Water: Gloucester's Inner Harbor, Mary Lou Nye & Sally Dibble Master Plan for Linking Open Spaces in Hingham, MA, Katharine W. Reardon Crosby Estate at Nickerson State Park, Brewster, MA, George Reilly The Commonwealth Avenue Mall, A Master Plan for the Future, Margaret Pokorny Palimpsest: A Design Study for a Family Farm in Rhode Island, Virginia P. Purviance Kaleidoscapes, A Children's Park and Garden Book, Lynn S. Schad Memories of an Industrial Landscape: A Design for Mill Brook, Waterford, ME, Robert W. Spencer, Jr. Connecting River & Town: Designing a Future for the DPW Site in Concord, MA, Ann Venable \"Seeing Is Forgetting the Name of the Thing One Sees\"--An Exploration of Transformation in Landscapes, Margaret P. Watson Design for a Main Street in Transition, Falls City, NE, Linda Watzke The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum: A Land-Use and Development Proposal, John C. Quinn & Janis S. Wedmore Symbol and Spirituality in the Landscape, Jenny Wall 1991 Open Space Plan for Mother Brook, Dedham, MA, Mary Bush Brown Long Range Plan for Walnut Hills Cemetery, Brookline, MA, Janet R. Childs Fort Point Channel Design Proposal, Boston, MA, Linda Dillon & Barbara Hulsizer Master Plan for The Rocks Bethlehem, NH, Ellen Fisher Park, 1989 East Arlington, MA, Greenspace Linkage Plan, Kenneth Bastion Horn Pond Park Plan, Woburn, MA, Catherine Bate Raphael: Art to Landscape Architecture, Barbara Carpenter The Garden in Winter, Pamela Fleming Gardens for the Elderly, Joan Kutcher Acton, MA, Arboretum Master Plan, Beverly LaFoley & Sandy Bayne Jens Jensen: The Natural Impulse & the Prairie as Motif, Eve F. W. Linn Borderland State Park Master Plan, Easton\/Sharon, MA, Betsy Mayer, Susan Stockman & Ann Shubert Long Hill Feasibility Study and the Sedgwick Garden Long Range and Management Plan, Beverly, MA, Elizabeth Stone & Elizabeth Collier Cape Herb Farm, Cape Cod, MA, Sandra Thibault Bedford, MA, Riverfront Design Study, Lynn Willscher Mill Pond & Pipe Stave Hill, Newbury, MA, Master Plan, Polly Zevin & Jane Rupley 1993 Martha's Vineyard Bicycle Trail System, Stephanie Sewell Bacon & Lynne Miller A Painter's View of Garden Landscapes and Their Design Inspirations, Alice Boardman Designing Gardens for Seniors, Hannah Delfiner Playground: Planning a Playground for the Driscoll School in Brookline, MA, Mary Dennis Squantum Point Meadow Reserve Plan, Quincy, MA, Karen Derman A Landscape Plan for the Gardens on the Hill, Whitinsville, MA, Barbara Gaudette A Proposal for Maintaining the Ecology with Increased Use at Storrs Pond, Hanover, NH, Barbara Gibbs Imagining Medieval Gardens in Words and Drawings, Sue Ellen Holbrook A Master Plan for the Grounds at the House of Seven Gables, Salem, MA: Past, Present, & Future, Robyn Kanter A Design for a Cranberry Reservation in Chelmsford and Carlisle, MA, Cynthia Kaplan The Lincoln-Sudbury, MA, Regional High School Landscape Revitatilization Plan, Deborah Kruskal Trees 2000: A Master Plan for the Boston Tree Party, Deborah McCarthy Urban Spaces: Strategies for Traffic Island Planting, Boston, MA, Sally Muspratt The Habitat Trail Design, New York Botanical Garden, Carol Taber & Elizabeth Vestner Abandoned Rail to Commuter Trail: Wellesley to Newton, MA, Joanne Weiss Master Plan for Berwick Academy, South Berwick, ME, Rebecca L. Linney The Farm: A Transitional Landscape, Wendy Pomeroy Construction Detail Manual, Thomas Schroeder The Charles River at Cow Island Pond, MA: A Threatened and Underused Natural Resource, Andrea Taaffe Master Plan for South Mill Portsmith, NH, Jackie Vaccaro Pond, 1992 The Church of the Messiah Landscape Master Plan, Woods Hole, MA, Dorothy D. Aspinwall Master Plan for a New England Landscape by Warren Manning, Gertrude S. Bancroft Sudbury Village: Back to the Future, Marylyn M. Benson & Kathleen SargentO'Neill A Charles River Corridor Study from Watertown to Newton, MA, James H. Broderick Rail-to-Trail Recreation and Interpretive Greenway, Dorchester, MA, Regina C. Clarke The Artwork of Christo and Landscape Design: An Overview of Christo's Artwork From 19581992 Comparing His Methodology and Philosophy to Those of Landscape Designers, Liz Goodfellow A Memorial and Life-Cycle Garden Design for Temple Beth Shalom, Needham, MA, JoAnn Green Packet Landing Master Plan, North River, Marshfield, MA, Cynthia H. Mulcahy Great Falls Park and Newichawannock Trail Plan, Berwick, ME, Kim E. Myers 1990 A Pastoral Vision Reclaimed: A Preliminary Master Plan for Brook Farm, Jean Cavanaugh, Mary Dewart & Judy Stoessel A Design for Veterans Brickyard Park, Barrington, RI, Mary G. Glenn Cultural Landscape Assessment of Governor Thomas Hutchinson's Estate (17421774), Milton, MA, Nina Graves Virginia Wood, Middlesex Fells Reservation, MA: An Interpretive Plan, Susan Halpern & Patricia Starfield Visions of the Landscape: A Survey of Twentieth-Century Gardens of Rhode Island, Martha D. Halyburton Middlesex Fells Reservation MA, Master Plan, Sandra Jonas & Joan Schofield 1994 Oxbow Reserve Plan: A Link in the Nashua Independent Projects 53 River Greenway, Kathy Anestis A Room of One's Own: American Garden Writers, 1900-1940, Virginia Begg Landscape Rehabilitation Plan for the Codman Estate, Lincoln, MA, Philip E. Bevins A Study of Charles River Access and Experience, Waltham, MA, Susan Brown Japanese Theory\/American Sensibility: A Video, Lynne Butler A Landscape Plan for the DeCordova and Dana Museum and Sculpture Park, Abigail Congdon Designing Nature Trails Between the Osgood and Deer Hill Schools, Cohasset, MA, Margaret Cotter Creating a Landscape Design Heritage: Conversations with Designers and Preservationists, Claudia Everest Through the Mind's Eye, a Touch of Sensibilia: Garden Designs for the Visually Impaired, Laura Gallant Use of Geometry as a Landscape Design Methodology, Diane Gilbert-Lints Boston's South End Squares, Inventory, Analysis, and Recommendations, Phebe S. Goodman An Inventory and History of Baroque Gardens in the Czech Republic, Jan Hendrych Campus Master Plan for Gettysburg College, PA, Patricia W. Henry A Better Acre: A Master Plan for the Fletcher Street Corridor Through the Acre Neighborhood of Lowell, MA, Rosalie Johnson Winchester, MA, Public Library Master Plan, Julie Khuen A Plan for Great Brook State Park, Carlisle, MA, Eunice Knight A Room of One's Own: American Garden Writers, 1900-1940, Virginia Nemerever A Design for the Highland Park Greenway, Boston, MA, Molly Paul Codman Estate Maintenance Program Analysis, George Riley A Plan for the Ipswich Riverwalk Extension, Ipswich, MA, Mary Shattuck The Pilgrim Monument and Provincetown, MA, Museum Design Study, Laurie Carney Design Principles and Concepts Video for a General Audience, Lucia Droby A Play-for-All Park at Poor Farm, A Handicapped Accessible Multi-Use Recreational Park in New Bedford, MA, Eleanor Sue Fairfax The Art of Landscape Design for Television Audiences, Natasha Hopkinson Boxford Woods, Boxford, MA, Master Plan, Marcia Imbrescia York River, ME, Open Space Plan, Heidi Kost-Gross New Seabury, MA, Country Club: A Master Plan, Mary LeBlanc Middleton, MA, Open Space Plan, Sally Macdonald Of Fantasies and Footpaths: Seven Landscapes to Enjoy With Children, Maryann Alberts Malarkey A Redesign for the Boston City Hall Plaza, David McCoy A Look at Small Urban Neighborhood Parks in Somerville, MA, and How They Work, Lynn McWhood Cashman Park on the Newburyport, MA, Waterfront, Lillian Newbert A Design Plan for the Wellesley, MA, Rhododendron Botanical Park, Kristen Vlass Transitional Spaces in Italian Renaissance Gardens, Kathleen Warren Papillon Park Design, Westford, MA, Lorraine Wright Jetties Beach: A Park on Nantucket, MA, Anneliese Zion-Hrones Designed Before 1950, Jill Nooney Commonwealth Avenue Urban Design Proposal, Boston, Victoria Schwab The Dome Community Garden Design, NYC, Elizabeth Tegen Landscape Plan for the Congregational Church of Topsfield, MA, Edith Ventimiglia A Master Plan and Design for Grandmother's Garden, Chauncey Allen Park, Westfield, MA, Anne C. Wellington 1997 Life Space in the Private Landscape: Designing Experience and Memory in the Quiet Garden, Monique M. Papazian Allan A Plan for Rogers Fort Hill Park, Lowell, MA, Ellen Coppinger A Preservation Plan for the Ropes Mansion Garden, Peabody Essex Museum, Salem, MA, Frances Doyle The Martha's Vineyard, MA, Arboretum: The Legacy of Polly Hill, Margaret H. Early Private Pleasures Derived From Tradition: The Hunnewell Estates District, Wellesley, MA, Allyson M. Hayward The Dynamics of George E. Kessler: Park Landscape Architect and City Planner, Nancy Hubert Adaptive Re-use Landscape Guidelines for the Crane Estate, Ipswich, MA, Denise King The Green Prince: Hermann Von PuecklerMuskau and His Legacy, Heidi KostGross Designing a Celebration of History: Fort Revere, Hull, MA, Kristin McCarthy The Conservation, Restoration, and Enhancement of the Germany Brook Headwaters, Westwood, MA, John J. O'Toole III 73 Dascomb Road Site Plan: A NineteenthCentury Residential Landscape in Its Ecological Profile, Andover, MA, Diane M. Pitochelli Den Rock Park Study, Lawrence, MA, Lori A. Poel-Piazza Ashumet Holly and Wildlife Sanctuary: Unifying an Accessible Landscape, Falmouth, MA, Marie Potter The Design for the Russian-American Business Center, Bridgton, ME, Anne H. Radway Garden Photography in the Country Place Era: The Work of Mattie Edwards Hewitt, Terri Ann Rochon Site Improvement Plan for Martin Luther King Elementary School, Cambridge, MA, Sophie Salerno The Search for a Sixteenth-Century Hindu 1996 The Paine Estate: A Development Plan, Wayland, MA, Mary Beard Schooner Park Development Duxbury, MA, Jill Blackburn Plan, Revision of the Bay Circuit Open Space and Recreation Plan for Sherborn, MA, E. Louise Forrest Plaza Del Sol Streetscape for Lechmere Canal Area, Cambridge, MA, Carolina Fungairin A Landscape Master Plan for Cambridge, MA, Friends School, Alice Evans Design for Common Places in the Town of Brookline, MA, Alan Friedman Linking People with Plants: A Master Plan for the Pine Tree State Arboretum, Augusta, ME, Pamela Griffin A Study of Louis Kahn's Salk Institute Landscape, La Jolla, CA, Sarah Jolliffe A Study of New Hampshire Gardens Luis Barragan: Philosophy and Selected Work, Colleen Thornton Sudbury Commons: A Master Plan for the Historic Town Center, Maria von Brincken 1995 Special Holding Places, Room for Recovery: A Master Plan for the Community Therapeutic Day School, Patricia A. Bras Wildlife Habitat Enhancement in Somerville's Open Space, MA, Leslie Brayton 54 Arnoldia 64\/4 Landscape, Braj, India, Behula Shah Proposed Site Plan for the Rogers High School Campus, Newport, RI, Julia Rush Toland The Windsor Dam Promenade, Quabbin Reservoir, MA, Ann Townsend Landscape Plan for the Observatory LIGO, MA, Elizabeth Vickers The Twenty-First Century at Elm Bank, Dover, MA, Caroline Whitney Skunknett Nature Center: A Window into Cape Cod, MA, Ecology, Pamela Whiteley The Ruin and the Garden: The Interstices of Stone and Leaf, Ann Uppington The Doyle Reservation, Leominster, MA: From Private Estate to Public Trust, Linda Willoughby On Common Ground: A Master Plan for Faulkner Farm, Brookline, MA, Dale Wilson Proposal, MA, Virginia Rogers An Environmental Sourcebook for Concord, MA, Tracy Greene Sharakan The Lake in Our Hearts: A Park on the Shore of Lake Massapoag, Sharon, MA, Amanda Sloan Nan Fairbrother: Life, Language, Landscape, Faith Smith Rinnerroon--Creating a Celtic Garden in an Irish Landscape, Karin Stanley Little River Park, NH: Rejuvenation of a Damaged Landscape, Karen Wakefield The Renewal of a Town Center: Topsfield, MA, Maria Wheeler 1999 A Landscape Design for Tierra Verde Community Center, FL, Carolyn Berger Leland Mill Reservation Restoration Plan: History Remembered\/ Nature Enjoyed, Sherborn, MA, Thurza Campbell Dedham, MA, Town Center Master Plan, Marcia N. Damon Reflections in Stone, A Guide to the Use of Stone in the Garden, A. David Davis Stilts, Stones, and Sand--Landscape Design at the Ocean's Edge, Cape Cod, MA, Susannah Davis Reflections of History: Bradford Riverwalk Design, Haverhill, MA, Nancy Hollis A Preservation Plan for Canton Corner Cemetery, Canton, MA, Kathleen Keith The Olmsted Brothers' \"Broadfields\": A Preservation Project, North Andover, MA, Kyle Lunn The Colonial Garden on the Common, Lynnfield, MA, Joanne Paul A Rehabilitation Plan for the Orchard on Thompson Island, Boston, MA, Deborah Rivers A Design for \"Homewood,\" A Wooded Cape Family Retreat, Osterville, MA, Maureen Spillane Master Plan for the Providence, RI, Zen Center: Gardens of Nameless Being, Nathan Wilbur 1998 Modern Residential Garden Designs, Robin Bouyer Gardens of Innocence and Experience: Landscape in the Literature of Childhood, Nancy Butman The North 40: A Development Study, Wellesley, MA, Alison Campbell Making the Connection: The History, Influence, and Future of the Greenway Movement, R. Jill Chamberlain A Therapeutic Landscape Design for the Greenways Community, MA, Susan Foley The Natick, MA, Community Organic Farm: The Land as Community, Barbara J. Karski Wildlife Landscaping for Homeowners, Julie Lisk Memories of a Bamboo Grove, Wakamatsu Park, Kobe, Japan, Ireine Nagai Tee Time for Migratory Songbirds: An Environmental Plan for the Widow's Walk Golf Course, Scituate, MA, Philip Racicot Therapeutic Landscape Design Guidelines for Special Needs Facilities, Judith Reeve Brookline's Small Parks: Circles, Triangles, Median Strips, Alya Shklovskaya Landscape Resource Center of Boston: A Website for Landscape Designers, Anne Smith Gardens of Chinese Inspiration, Marie Stella Landscape as Processing: The Offered Journey, Claire Tague Master Plan for Egremont Inn, Egremont, MA, Joshua Taufman A Master Plan for the McLean Hospital Landscape, Belmont, MA: A Contemporary Interpretation of the Sublime, Diana Thomas A Master Plan for Spot Pond, Middlesex Fells, MA, Christopher Tinkham A Therapeutic Garden at the Veterans Administration Hospital, Brockton, MA, Michael Toomey 2001 Wakefield's Emerald Necklace: Landscape Design Plans for a Passive Park at Lake Quannapowitt, Wakefield, MA, Pattiann Bampos A Streetscape Improvement Plan for the Village of Stowe, VT, Juliet Barash Unitarian Universalist Rowe Camp and Conference Center Master Plan, Rowe, MA, Prudence Barry An Interpretive History of \"Skylands,\" A Jens Jensen Landscape in Maine, Jane Roy Brown Restoration of the Peach Wall at the Lyman Estate, Waltham, MA, Carol Michener Card Design of Hayward Place, Chinatown, Boston, MA, Elizabeth Carey Dong-Ping Forest Park Expansion Plan: An Ecological and Cultural Study, CongMing Island, Shanghai, China, Yo Yi Chen Constructing a New Edge: The Sewall Shipyard and Waterfront Park, Bath, ME, Catherine Davis-Massey A Design for Breckinridge Park, York, ME, Caroline Donnelly Horticultural Recommendations for Larz Anderson Park Master Plan, Brookline, MA, James Farnsworth Landscape for Living in Public Housing, Dorchester, MA, Judith Lipson-Rubin Salt Sea Lane--A Restorative Landscape for Seniors, Falmouth, MA, Frances McClennen Italian Renaissance, French Grand Style, and Modern: Three Landscape Design Styles Adapted for a Contemporary Home, Maureen Meinert Reclaiming Walden: A Narrative of a Damaged Landscape and Recommendations for the Re-Use of the Concord Landfill, Concord, MA, Joan Popolo Cooley Dickinson Hospital: A Design for Art and Healing, Northampton, MA, Janis Porter A Master Plan for the Use of Public Land at 2000 Shelticote: Sharing in a Virginia Landscape, Paula Berardi A Restoration Plan for the French Garden at the Stevens-Coolidge Place, MA, Laura Bibler The Legacy of Robert Smithson, Patricia Fuller A Design Plan for Oak Ridge Cemetery, Dennis, MA, Shannon R. Goheen-Huettner The Hidden Gardens of Harvard, 16002000, Paige Jarvis Mercer A Design for the Hoft Farm Habitat Garden, Martha's Vineyard, MA, Melissa Morrison In and Out of the Garden: Paintings and Drawings, Diane Nicholls A Master Plan for Glen Urquhart School, Beverly Farms, MA, Diana Peck Willowdale: A Suburban Development Independent Projects 55 the Covered Bridge Crossing the Nashua River, Pepperell, MA, Margaret-Ann Rice The Influence of Modern Designers on Residential Design, Richard Russell Fenwick Gardens: Landscapes for Affordable Housing, Dorchester, MA, Nina Shippen A Design for the Lahey Clinic Healing Gardens, Burlington, MA, Catherine Wiersema Harlem Valley Rail Trail Design--Fostering Connections, Millertown, NY, Jill Wentorf Wright Dolan Pond Conservation Area: A Plan for Revitalizing an Urban Wetland, Margo Young Renovation of the Virginia Thurston Healing Garden, Harvard, MA, Jessie Panek Arthur A. Shurcliff: Reshaping Boston Landmarks, Jo Ann Robinson A Master Plan for an Equestrian Landscape, NH, Lisa Robinson Inventing Downtown: Streetscape Study for Sudbury, MA, Cheryl Salatino A Design for the Asklepios Healing Garden, Boston, MA, Joan Smith Pompey's Park Design, Medford, MA, Lynette Tsiang Appleton \"The Machine in the Garden\": A Design Re-Use Technology Center for the Twenty-First Century, Gizella Betak The Ecology and Design of a New Hampshire Farm, Dexter Burley Development Study: Big House, Little House, Back House, Barn, George Connors Watermarks: Imprinting the Past, Mediating the Present, Reclaiming the Future, Margaret Coyle-Nestler Unity and Continuity: A Design Connecting Landscape, Life, and Spirit, St. Mary's Parish, Winchester, MA, Deirdre Crowley Master Plan Proposal for Connecting of Three Historic Longfellow Properties, Cambridge, MA, Susan Doolittle The Philosophy Foundation: The Relationship Between Philosophy and Design, Ellen Forrester Journey and Destination: Seriality and Sequence as a Landscape Design Strategy, Valeria Ivan A Master Plan for Auburndale Park, Newton, MA, Sarah Kish In-Between: A Design for Two Middle School Landscapes in Waltham, MA, Elizabeth Lowe Art as Inspiration in Residential Landscape Design, Amy Martin A Proposal for Roscoe Conkling Park, Utica, NY, Erica Max Revealing Hidden Treasures: Ware Pond Design, Marblehead, MA, Joan McDuff Tannery Brook Park: The Restoration of a New England Landscape, Anne Murphy Mapping the Essence: Landscape as an Agent of Human Ritual, Susan Opton Revitalizing a Historic Parkway, Fairhaven, MA, Mary Rapoza Hillside School, Marlborough, MA: A Landscape Master Plan, Frank Re Spirituality, Community, and Context: A Design for the First Parish Church of Canton, MA, Susan Shelkrot 2003 A Sense of Time, A Sense of Place: A Master Plan for the Unitarian Universalist Church of Worcester, Jo-Anne Crystoff A Treatment Plan for the Mount Lebanon, NH, Shaker Society North Family, Jacqueline Del Rossi Mount Holyoke College: A Historic Landscape Report, Terese D'Urso Job Lane Farm Design: Integrating New England's Past and Present, Deborah Edinger Colonial Farm to Colonial Revival Garden, a History, Cambridge, MA, Karen Falb The Tribuna Residence Design, Norwell, MA, David Foster Under the Canopy: Master Plan for an Education Facility at the Arnold Arboretum, Deborah Gaw & Carol Spitzer The Isaac Jackson Garden, Newton, MA: Preserving a Legacy, Jacalyn Gould A Master Plan for the Dimock Community Health Center Campus, Linda Jonash Garden Vignettes for Strong Planting Design, Linda Lischer A Woodland Garden Design: Coastal Maine, Joan Lofgren Barrett House: A Master Plan, New Ipswich, NH, Marshall McKee Grandfather's Farm Master Plan: Peace Field, Quincy, MA, Mona McKindley Glen Urquhart School: Integrating Indoor and Outdoor Education, Beverly, MA, Deborah Nance Reclaiming Deer Meadow Homestead, Sharon, MA, Jean Phelan A Nineteenth-Century Mill Harrisville, NH, Izola Porter Village, 2002 Roots of Learning: A Landscape Master Plan for Machon Elementary School, Swampscott, MA, Susan Balleza Veteran's Memorial Park Revitalization Plan, Old Orchard Beach Park, ME, Andrea Berlin A Cornish Garden Design Project, NH, James Brown Master Plan for the Gundlach Bundschu Winery of Sonoma, California, Eunice Burley The Gerry Playground: Renewing the Natural Landscape, Marblehead, MA, Alexandra Carr A Master Plan for Diamond Cove, Great Diamond Island, Portland, ME, Laurie Green Colburn On Common Ground: A Study of Community in the Garden, Boston MA, Maureen Doherty Larrea Parcel Master Plan, Cape Elizabeth, ME, Linda Francescone Landscape Language and the Perception of Place, Christine Gavin El Jardin del Paraiso, NYC, Lynne Heath A Guide for Identifying Native Plant Communities on Martha's Vineyard, MA, Kristin Henriksen Designs for Urban Driveways, Tidal Henry The Grand Tour and Its Influence on Landscape Design in England and America, Sally H. Kahn A Design for Big Meadow Creek Alpaca Farm, Idaho, Mary Elizabeth Leu Fairy Tale Garden Number 12 Design Proposals, Ferrell Mackey Barrett House, New Ipswich, NH: A Cultural Landscape Report, Marshall McKee Design for a Natural Woodland Garden, Sharon, MA, Cheryl McLaughlin Design for Quamphegan Landing, South Berwick, ME, Phyllis Murphy 2005 Turkish Garden Kiosk: A Design Proposal for Central Park, NYC, Gursan Ergil A Restorative Garden Design for Hale House, Boston, MA, Linda Herman A Master Plan for Albermarle Park: Meeting Recreational Needs With Sustainable Design, Judith Kokesh A Design for Paradise: Breaking Ground in the Virgin Islands, Deborah Lee Design Implications of a Street Tree Inventory in Lexington, MA, Karen Longeteig Mt. Hood Nature Trails: Rediscovering a Cultural Landscape, Melrose, MA, Kathy Shamberger 2004 A Cloister Garden Design, All Saints' Church, Chelmsford, MA, Sylvia 56 Arnoldia 64\/4 Designing the Pequossette Park District, Belmont, MA, Susan Marsh A Landscape for the Espousal Center: Embracing Dual Communities, Waltham, MA, Patricia McGinnis A Master Plan for Heritage Museum and Gardens, Sandwich, MA, Suzanne O'Keeffe Shifting Patterns, Shifting Significance: The Design and Social History of Fresh Pond Reservation, Cambridge, MA, Jill Sinclair In Our Back Yard: A Design to Enhance an Urban Park, Allston, MA, Maureen Sullivan A Design Proposal for Waterfront Park, Boston, MA, Gabrielle Whitcombe Community Farm: An Island of Hope, Edward Chapman Going Places: Designing a Transportation Node in Gloucester, MA, Rita Christensen The Relocation of Partners Village Store: A Design Study, Westport, MA, Lauren Conroy The Front Entry: A Design Manual for Integrating Architecture and Landscape, Diane Crossman Turkish Garden Art and Its Influence on European Landscape Design, Gursan Ergil Meditating on the Edge: Designing an Urban Memorial Garden, Watertown, MA, Monica Fairbairn Stewardship of the Land: A Suburban Model for Integrating Landscape Ecology with Landscape Design, Nea Glenn Design Proposal for a Secret Garden in Queset Garden Park, North Easton, MA, Katherine Holland A Design Proposal for the Charles E. Aspinall Conservation Easement, N.H., Carol Jowdy Looking Beyond: A Master Plan for the Blessed John XXIII National Seminary Campus, Weston, McFadden MA, Timothy Landscape Design According to James Vick: A Nineteenth-Century Seedsman Appeals to Middle Class America, Thomas Mickey Sharing the Shores of Lake Massapoag: A New Landscape for the Community Center in Sharon, MA, Adriana O'Sullivan Union Square for People: Reclaiming Public Space in Somerville, MA, Nancy Phillips The Jackson Homestead: A Landscape's Past and Present, Newton, MA, Barbara Smiley Town-Owned Trees in Mattapoisett Village: A Guide to Their Stewardship, MA, Deborah Smiley A Development Study at a Confluence of Boundaries, Swampscott, MA, Ted Smiley A Landscape Study for the the Lowell Dracut Tyngsboro, MA, State Forest, Gale Smith Landscape Master Plan for Woodlawn and John Black's Tomb, ME, Julie Wang A Master Plan for Camp Taconnet: Nature Completed, ME, Joan Yogg 2006 The Eras of Oatlands: A Master Plan Study of Two Centuries of Virginia History, Margaret Black Integrating Strategic Sites in an Area of Revitalization: Designing a River Overlook and Town Green, Ipswich, MA, Jennifer Buchanan A Master Plan for the Newton Angino "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23404","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ebb28.jpg","title":"2006-64-4","volume":64,"issue_number":4,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Temple to Terrace: The Remarkable Journey of the Oldest Bonsai in America","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25411","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25e8926.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":"2-3","year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"From Temple to Terrace The Remarkable Journey of the Oldest Bonsai in America Peter Del Tredici T he Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarfed Trees at the Arnold Arboretum was originally imported into the United States by the Honorable Larz Anderson in 1913, upon his return from serving as ambassador to Japan. The core of the collection consists of seven large specimens of compact hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba')-- between 270 and 145 years old--that Anderson had purchased from the Yokohama Nursery Company (Figure 1). While these are certainly not the oldest Japanese dwarfed trees in the United States, they have been under cultivation longer than any other plants currently growing Figure 1. Portrait of `Chabo-hiba' #881-37 started in 1862. It stands 110 centimeters tall by 140 centimeters wide. Photographed in 2002 by Colin Lewis. From Temple to Terrace 3 in North America. To be sure, dwarfed trees had been imported into the United States from Japan prior to 1913, but none of these plants are alive as far as I have been able to determine. The fact that the Larz Anderson Collection has survived the ravages of both time and occasional neglect for the past ninety plus years is not only a testament to the care it has received, but also to the incredible durability of the plants themselves. In a very real sense, the `Chabo-hiba' hinoki cypresses in the Larz Anderson Collection provide a direct link to the early 1900s, when the wealthy Americans and Europeans, infatuated with all things oriental, were passionately collecting cultural artifacts from Japan, and the Japanese, in their headlong rush to modernize, were only too willing to oblige this passion. The purpose of this book, then, is two-fold: to document the spirit of the early twentieth century as it relates to the importation of ancient bonsai plants from Japan into North America, and to show how this spirit has been miraculously preserved in the ancient `Chabo-hiba' specimens that today make up the Larz Anderson Collection of the Arnold Arboretum. The Yokohama Nursery Company The story of the Larz Anderson Collection really begins with events that took place in July 1853 and February 1854, when Commodore Matthew C. Perry, led two separate armadas of American \"black ships\" into Edo Bay, and forced the Japanese government to open its ports to trade with the United States. This initial opening eventually led to establishment of the Meiji Restoration in 1868, which marked the end of the Tokugawa dynasty that had ruled Japan since 1603. The Meiji government moved quickly to established new political boundaries, instituted a new land tax system, and actively encouraged the development of an economy based on manufacturing and heavy industry. In an effort to speed up this modernization process, the government paid some three thousand foreign technical experts to come to Japan to start new businesses and train Japanese citizens to run them. One of these foreign experts was Louis Boehmer, a German citizen who had immi- Figure 2. A `Chabo-hiba' wood cut from the 1892 Yokohama Nursery catalogue. Illustration courtesy of the United States National Arboretum. grated to America around 1866 and become a successful gardener in Rochester, New York. He next moved to Japan in 1872 to head a government-owned farm that was operated by American agricultural officials. After the break-up of this farm, Boehmer established his own nursery in 1882, which specialized in exporting Japanese plants to Europe and the United States. In 1890, Boehmer sold his company to his German partner, Albert Unger, who operated it with his American wife, Mary, until 1908 (Creech, 1988). At roughly the same time that Boehmer sold his nursery to Unger in 1890, a group of four Japanese nurserymen established the Yokohama Gardeners Association with the purpose of exporting Japanese plants to the west. One of these original founders of this cooperative was Uhei Suzuki, who had worked for Boehmer for seven years previously. In 1892, the Yokohama Gardeners Association issued their first English catalogue that offered both green and gold 4 Arnoldia 64\/23 leadership of Uhei Suzuki and his son Hamakichi (Elias, 2005). The Yokohama Nursery Company catalogues from the mid-1890s through the mid-1920s are impressive documents, written in English and beautifully illustrated with colored plates, line drawings, and photographs of classic Japanese garden plants (see back and inside covers). Many of the colorful wood block prints were created by Tokejiro Hasegawa, one of the premier artists of his day. The 1901 catalogue contains a beautiful woodcut of three specimens of \"Thuja obtusa var. Figure 3. \"Thuja Obtusa, var. Chabo-hiba. Specimens of the famous Chabo-hiba\" with the label, \"the Japanese minimized tree, above 100 years in pots.\" Woodcut from the famous Japanese minimized tree, 1901 Yokohama Nursery catalogue. over 100 years in pots\" (Figure 3). The 1905 and subsequent catalogues feature a photograph of a magnificent, 400-year-old `Chabo-hiba' specimen that was labeled \"A relic of the Tokugawa Era,\" (Figure 4). The Yokohama Nursery Company's listings of \"Dwarfed Trees Growing in Jardinieres\" featured a wide variety of both conifers and flowering trees in a range of sizes, and included remarkably detailed instructions, written in flawless English, on how to care for these dwarfed trees once they arrived at the customer's home (see page 63). Interestingly, none of the Yokohama Nursery catalogues used word bonsai to describe the plants they offered for sale. The section on dwarfed plants was typically only a small part of the catalogue, which often ran over eighty pages long Figure 4. \"A rare specimen of dwarfed Thuja obtusa (400 years old). A relic of the Tokugawa Era.\" Illustration from the 1905 Yokohama Nursery and featured an incredible array of plants, seeds and bulbs. They sold catalogue. Note the same type of concrete container in Figure 7. both wild species and horticultural `Chabo-hibas' for sale and was illustrated with varieties, along with an amazing selection of a woodcut of a spectacular, 120-year-old potpots and other decorative objects for the garden ted `Chabo-hiba' specimen (Figure 2). At some and greenhouse. Numerous photographs of the point between 1893 and 1894, the Yokohama nursery operation were published in the cataGardeners Association was re-organized into logues (Figure 5) which portray a prosperous, the Yokohama Nursery Company under the well-organized business. Many famous horti- From Temple to Terrace 5 Figure 5. Photographs of main office and grounds of the Yokohama Nursery Company from the 1908 catalogue. 6 Arnoldia 64\/23 culturists from Europe and the United States visited the nursery, including E. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum, who took a number of photographs of the grounds in 1918. Among his pictures is one which shows a impeccably groomed `Chabo-hiba' (Figure 6), and another which shows a large group of `Chabo-hibas' growing in the distinctive concrete containers as well as in the ground (Figure 7). At the turn of the nineteenth century, there were at least twelve Japanese nursery companies exporting dwarfed trees and other nursery products to the west. Without question, `Chabo-hiba' was the most common type of dwarfed tree being exported between 1890 and 1920. Many of the specimens offered for sale were hundreds of years old and had once Figure 7. A large group of pruned `Chabo-hibas' at the Yokohama Nursery Company, photographed on June 7, 1918 by E. H. Wilson. The caption reads, \"Chamaecyparis obtusa var. nana Carr. Group of trained specimens. Tsuga diversifolia Maxim. In center.\" Note the concrete containers similar to those in Figure 4. The tall specimens in the background are also `Chabo-hibas'. Figure 6. A beautiful `Chabo-hiba' specimen at the Yokohama Nursery Company, photographed on June 7, 1918 by E. H. Wilson. The caption reads, \"Chamaecyparis obtusa var. nana Carr. Genuine dwarf tree about 70 years old. Value 50 yen.\" occupied places of honor in temples throughout Japan. They were usually trained into a conical shape--suggestive of a distant mountain--with regularly arranged, horizontal branches. At roughly the same time that these traditionaly trained trees, properly known as hachi-no-ki, were being shipped off to Europe and America, trees grown in the more modern, naturalistic bonsai style was gaining in popularity in Japan (Matsuki, 1931; Marushima, 2005). In this regard, the ancient specimens of `Chabohiba' were no different than some of the other artifacts of traditional Japanese culture, which were being sold off to the highest bidder during the country's headlong rush to modernize. From Temple to Terrace 7 Dwarfed Trees at Nineteenth Century International Expositions Figure 8. The Japanese pavilion from The Centennial Exposition, Described and Illustrated, by J. S. Ingram, 1876. One particularly significant manifestation of Japan's opening up to the west was its participation in various international expositions which provided the opportunity to showcase its culture, its arts, and its commercial products, often in a garden setting. The famous \"Centennial Exposition\" held in Philadelphia in 1876 featured a Japanese pavilion along with a house and garden (Figure 8). The exhibit contained at least one dwarfed tree in a pot, most likely a specimen of `Chabo-hiba': In a box of blue porcelain, with white raised imitations of beets, carrots, etc., on the outer surface, and having porcelain supports of the size, shape and color of turnips, was a stunted cedar tree sixty years old and not more than thirty-two inches in height. The spread of its branches was four and half feet in the widest part. The trunk was eight inches in diameter. (Ingram, 1876) The first extensive display of dwarfed trees outside of Japan occurred in Paris in 1878, during the famous \"L'Exposition Universelle,\" and caused a sensation in the French horticultural world. Elie-Abel Carriere wrote an article about the exhibition in Revue Horticole in 1878, which contained illustrations of some of the more spectacular plants (Figure 9). A second Paris Exposition, in 1889, featured an equally dramatic display of Japanese dwarfed trees, including several specimens of `Chabo-hiba', which were illustrated in another Revue Horticole article by Carriere (Figure 10). The first significant display of Japanese dwarfed plants in the United States took place at the \"World's Columbian Exposition\" held in Chicago, Illinois in 1893. The Japanese exhibit featured an elaborate building and a garden with several potted specimens of `Chabo-hiba', which were probably supplied by the Yokohama Gardeners Association (Elias, 2005). In the March 15, 1893 issue of Garden and Forest, Charles Sprague Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum, described the sad history of one particular plant, no doubt a `Chabo-hiba', which never made it into the display: A remarkable dwarf Cedar, known to be three hundred years old, was sent some time ago to the Chicago Fair by the Emperor of Japan. It seems strange to learn that it was prepared for transportation by being taken from its pot and wrapped in paper; and not at all strange that when it reached Jackson Park it should have been nearly dead. 8 Arnoldia 64\/23 Figure 9. Illustration of Japanese dwarfed plants displayed at the Universal Exposition in Paris in 1878. From \"Essai sur L'Horticulture Japonaise\" by E.-A. Carriere published in Revue Horticole. From Temple to Terrace 9 Figure 11. A `Chabo-hiba' at the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Photograph from The World's Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893 by White and Igleheart. tesque, and it is one of the best object-lessons in the art of patient and persevering garden-craft. (Figure 11) Figure 10. Two specimens of `Chabo-hiba' illustrated in E.-A. Carriere's 1889 article \"Japonaiseries,\" published in Revue Horticole. The plants, which he labeled Retinospora obtusa breviramea, were 80 and 150 years old respectively and 70 to 80 centimeters tall. Every effort was used to resuscitate it, but a few days ago it died. Nevertheless, its defunct form will be carefully set in a pot and exhibited in the Horticultural Building. It is described as a remarkable example of the skill of the Japanese in retarding the growth of trees and yet preserving, in miniature, the aspect of an ancient, weather-worn specimen. It is larger than the most interesting of these dwarfs which were shown at the Paris Exhibition [see Figure 10], being about three feet in height. A third article about the Japanese exhibit appeared in the September 6, 1893 issue of Garden and Forest, which reprinted the text of a public lecture by Henry Izawa, the gardener of the Imperial Japanese Commission to the Columbian Exposition. He described the methods used by the Japanese to produce dwarfed plants as well as the techniques of propagating `Chabo-hiba': We give plenty of fertilizer to the plants of Thuja Lobbi, and, in early spring, take two-inch shoots of Thuya obtusa, cut the ends slantwise and insert them in the smaller portions of the Thuya Lobbi trunk, using one graft to every inch on the trunk. We then wrap the grafts with rice straw and take them to a shaded, windless room with the temperature of thirty-five degrees Fahrenheit. For three weeks the temperature is raised one or two degrees daily, and by that time a little breeze may be admitted; the temperature of the room is kept at sixty degrees for two weeks, and at seventy degrees for two weeks, and then leaves will start from the grafted twigs. In the latter part of spring, when the temperature in and out-of-doors becomes uniform, the plants can be safely transferred to some shady position out-of-doors. In the fall, when all the grafts have taken good hold, all the remaining shoots of Thuya Lobbi are cut off. Transplant every year in good rich soil; six years will be sufficient to produce handsome specimens of dwarfed Thuyas. Five months later, in the August 30, 1893 issue of Garden and Forest, Liberty Hyde Bailey of Cornell University described two other `Chabo-hiba' in the Columbian Exposition that survived the long journey from Japan: There are many curious plants in this garden. The chief interest centers about two twisted trees of Thuya obtusa, which are three to four feet high, and a hundred years old. This Japanese garden cannot be called beautiful, as Americans understand rural art, but it is curious and gro- 10 Arnoldia 64\/23 Dwarfed Trees Sold at Public Auctions In addition to the sale of dwarfed plants through Japanese nurseries, public auctions were another important channel for the dissemination of particularly choice `Chabo-hiba' specimens to the west. Given their ephemeral nature, these auctions received only limited publicity, and there is precious little evidence of their occurrence. Indeed, only three catalogues for these major auctions are known to exist, all of which I was fortunate to obtain copies of. The oldest catalogue is from 1899, for an auction held in Boston, Massachusetts, and was generously provided by Mr. Michael Levin, owner of \"Bonsai West\" in Littleton, Massachusetts (Figure 12). A photocopy of the 1900 London auction catalogue came from Mr. Harry Tomlinson of Nottingham, England (via Dr. Tom Elias of the United States National Arboretum in Washington, D.C.). And finally, I discovered the 1904 New York City catalogue in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum in 1988 (Del Tredici, 1989). This catalogue had been posthumously donated to the Arnold Arboretum in 1958 by Dr. Ernest G. Stillman, a graduate of Harvard College (class of 1907) and a well-known benefactor of that institution. The Boston and London auctions were sponsored by Yamanaka & Company of Figure 12. The front cover of the November 15-18, 1899 auction catalogue, sponsored by Yamanaka & Co. in Boston. From Temple to Terrace 11 Figure 13. The staff of the S. M. Japanese Nursery Company, from the 1904 New York auction catalogue. Osaka, Japan, while the New York auction was sponsored by the S. M. Japanese Nursery Company of West Orange, New Jersey (Figure 13). All the catalogues are profusely illustrated with black and white photographs of the plants and other miscellaneous art objects, and the Boston and New York catalogues have beautiful color covers, the later featuring a woodblock print of a woman watering bonsai plants by the famous artist Mizuno Toshikata (Figure 14). While many different types of \"arboreal plants, curiously and artistically trained\" were offered for sale in the auctions, `Chabohibas' were the most common specimens offered for sale in two of the three early auctions. Indeed, 321 (25%) of the 1310 total items offered for sale in the three auctions combined were `Chabo-hiba'. Statistically speaking, the average `Chabo-hiba' offered for sale was roughly 60 years old and 48 centimeters tall; it was most likely green in color (but it could also be golden or white-variegated), with a conical shape, and was growing in a blue and white pot. A complete summary of all the plants offered for sale in the three auction catalogues is presented in Table 1. Interestingly, only one hundred and thirtynine of the items offered for sale in the three auctions were specifically labeled as \"Bon Sai,\" a term that the glossary of the 1904 New York catalogue describes as: \"Interpreted means a large tree of the forest that the tree trainer has taken as a model and trained in miniature to show every detail, even to the number of branches and shape of trunk, etc., that the large tree possesses, literally meaning a `tree on a 12 Arnoldia 64\/23 Figure 14. Front cover of the catalogue for the auction sponsored by the S. M. Japanese Nursery Company of West Orange, New Jersey on May 4-6, 1904 in New York City. This woodblock print is by Mizuno Toshikata, and is very similar to his March 1, 1899 print \"#6 Woman watering bonsai,\" from his \"Contemporary Beauties\" series. From Temple to Terrace 13 Boston 1899 Total number of Auction items `Chabo-hiba' plants `Chabo-hiba' variety: green `Chabo-hiba' variety: gold `Chabo-hiba' variety: variegated `Chabo-hiba' < 50 years `Chabo-hiba' > 50 < 100 years `Chabo-hiba' > 100 years Average age of `Chabo-hiba' (years) Average height of `Chabo-hiba' (in.) `Chabo-hiba' shape: jikka (or jikkei) `Chabo-hiba' shape: mikoshi `Chabo-hiba' shape: kengai `Chabo-hiba' shape: nakasu 450 112 88 20 4 74 34 4 48.2 yr (n = 112) range: 10 to 285 20.7\" (n = 112) range: 5\" to 54\" 27 20 14 12 London 1900 300 74 67 7 0 21 33 18 77.9 yr (n = 72) range: 18 to 300 18.6\" (n = 72) range: 5\" to 36\" 17 12 7 8 New York 1904 560 135 123 9 3 71 37 15 58.8 yr (n = 123) range: 14 to 300 17.4\" (n = 126) range: 9\" to 43\" 32 1 2 0 Grand Totals 1310 321 (25%) 278 (87%) 36 (11%) 7 (2%) 166 (54%) 104 (34%) 37 (12%) 59.5 yr (n = 307) 18.8\" (n = 310) 76 (50%) 33 (22%) 23 (15%) 20 (13%) Other Plants in the Auction Catalogues Pinus parviflora Podocarpus species Acer species Cycas revoluta Larix kaempferi Juniperus chinensis \"Bon Sai\" 82 49 5 43 0 10 31 81 10 0 12 0 2 59 28 9 59 2 38 20 49 191 (15%) 68 (5%) 64 (5%) 57 (4%) 38 (3%) 32 (2%) 139 (11%) Table 1. A statistical summary of the characteristics of the `Chabo-hibas' and other dwarfed trees offered for sale in the Boston (1899), London (1900), and New York (1904) Auction Catalogues. 14 Arnoldia 64\/23 tray.'\" Most of the New York catalogue items that are listed as \"Bon Sai\" are described as consisting of several small plants grouped together to form a \"charming landscape.\" In contrast the older, solitary specimens are listed according to species and are categorized as having one of four basic shapes, which the glossary defines this way: \"Jikka\" is a shape of tree having a regular and proportional arrangement of the branches, giving a conical shape to the tree. This tree is always planted in the centre or important position of the gardens. \"Mikoshi\" is a shape of tree having generally no branches at the bottom, as this plant is always placed behind something, and only the top branches show; the literal meaning of \"Mikoshi\" being \"to look over.\" \"Kengai\"--A shape to represent a tree overhanging a cliff. \"Nakasu\"--A shape of a tree growing on an island and having its branches overhanging the water. Figure 15. Item #422 from the 1899 Boston auction catalogue with the following description: \"Chabo Hiba. Green variety; another style of the Jikkei shape, trained by the late Mr. Takagi, one of the best known cedar trainers; we wish to call attention to the fact that this specimen is a perfectly natural growth, in that it has never been cut to reduce its size, but has simply been kept back to its present height by the most skillful and careful training; a marvelous example when one considers this triumph of art; height, 2 feet, 6 inches; age about 90 years; Shigaraki pot. See illustration.\" In 1902, the French horticulturist, Albert Maumene published a detailed study of the techniques used by the Japanese to produce dwarfed trees as well as the aesthetic principles that regulated their design. Based his experience with plants that had been imported into Europe for display at expositions or for sale at auctions, Maumene described the practical procedures used to keep the plants healthy and to maintain their original shapes. In his book, Maumene followed the same system for classifying the styles of dwarfed trees that was presented in the 1900 London auction catalogue, suggesting that it was his primary source of information. The abundance of `Chabo-hibas' in the auction catalogues, and the great age of some of the specimens (up to 300 years old) clearly suggest that the plants had lost favor in Japan in the late 1800s and were being \"dumped\" on the newly opened western markets. Hard evidence for this supposition comes from the statements of Kamajiro Yamada (1995) who, in an article written in 1977, described his experiences with `Chabo-hiba' while working in his father's nursery: When I was still a child (at the end of the Meiji Period, 18671911) my father and many other grew numerous specimens of `Chabo Hiba' hinoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo Hiba.' They propagated them by grafting and always used common hinoki cypress for understock. Each year we propagated two to three thousand hinoki cypresses from cutting to be used for grafting understock. The `Chabo Hiba' hinoki cypress we produced were not popular in Japan for bonsai; we grew them for export to the United States, China, and Europe. We trained them so they had undulating trunks with many curves and a triangular crown shaped like the top of Mt. Fuji... At that time, people skilled in bonsai always had a hinoki cypress bonsai, but nowadays you do not see many of them. That is due to the fact that the care for hinoki cypress is rather laborious and people do no know the proper methods for caring for them. From Temple to Terrace 15 Information in the auction catalogues clearly supports Yamada's recollection that `Chabohiba' was typically trained to have the shape of Mt. Fuji. Indeed, of the 152 plants listed as having a specific shape, exactly half of them had the jikka or mountain shape. Those `Chabo-hiba' specimens that did not fit any of the four primary shape categories are described as having shapes that were evocative of everyday objects such as a butterfly, a pair of eye glasses, a pagoda, a hellfish, a waterfall, a magnifying glass, or even the \"long flowing sleeves of an ancient court lady.\" From the historical perspective, most of the specimens described in the auction catalogues should be properly considered hachi-no-ki (\"potted tree\") rather than bonsai. The use of the term hachi-no-ki in Japan dates back at least to the 1400s and describes dwarfed trees with a variety of shapes growing in relatively deep containers. The word bonsai, which is equally ancient, was originally used as a synonym for the term hachi-ue (\"potted plants\"), but did not achieve linguistic dominance until the late1800s when its meaning took on artistic connotations. In general, bonsai takes its inspiration from nature and utilizes shallow pots or trays, while hachi-no-ki is more stylized and uses deeper pots (Matsuki, 1931; Yoshimura, 1991a & b; Marushima, 2005). The Lineage of `Chabo-hibas' sold at Auction The most fascinating aspect of the auction catalogues is their careful documentation of the horticultural lineages of many of the older specimens which were produced by famous master gardeners who worked at important temples. Among the `Chabo-hiba' trainers mentioned by name, Mr. Kiyei Takagi of Tokyo stands out as the only person listed in all three catalogues, with a total of 17 plants credited to him. Item #422 from the 1899 Boston catalogue is one of his more spectacular productions (Figure 15). The second most common trainer in the catalogues is a Mr. Genbei of Tokyo with 8 plants to his credit, including the outstanding item #450 from the Boston auction (Figure 16). Other noteworthy catalogue items included specimen #336 from the 1904 New York auction, which was created by three successive generations of trainers in one family (Figure 17); and item #340, also from New York, that came from the famous Hongauji temple in Kyoto, where it was admired by close to a million people (Figure 18). One final plant that deserves special mention is item #270 from the 1900 London auction, which had made a big splash in Boston earlier in the year: Chabo Hiba; green variety. A splendid specimen of Nagashi shape; trained by Genbei of Tokio. The wonderfully gigantic trunk and peculiar training of branches merit attention. Secured from Mr. Hamada's garden two years ago. This plant was exhibited at the Horticultural Show in Boston, and first prize awarded on this particu- Figure 16. Item #450 from the 1899 Boston auction catalogue with the following description: \"Chabo Hiba. Green variety; this remarkable tree was trained by the great cedar trainer, Genbei of Tokio; this family have had for more than 300 years the special honor of being gardeners to the different Lords Kaga, and they own at present the finest gardens in Tokio; this cedar was secured from these gardens, where it had been carefully trained for over 120 years; a more magnificent specimen of the Mikoshi shape would be difficult to find in Japan, and cannot be duplicated in the United States; without exception the finest specimen ever brought to this country; height, 4 feet, 6 in.; width, 5 feet, 6 inches; age 270 to 300 years; Shigaraki jardiniere.\" 16 Arnoldia 64\/23 lar Chabo Hiba. Circumference of the trunk, 15 inches; height 35 inches; age, about 300 years. Beautiful blue and white pot. A check of the Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the year 1900 confirmed the fact that Yamanaka & Co. was awarded Honorable Mention for its \"Display of Japanese Plants\" at the annual Spring Exhibition, held from March 20 through 23, 1900 (Lunt, 1901). So here was a plant that traveled three-quarters of the way around the globe-- Figure 18. Item #340 from the 1904 New York auction catalogue with the following description: \"Chabo-hiba. One of the most imposing-looking specimens in this collection. This grand tree once belonged to the famous temple Hongauji, Kyoto, the ancient Capitol of the Japanese Empire. It has been said that owing to its most attractive shape, this specimen was admired by almost a million people, who made the pilgrimage to this noted temple of Buddha. It was trained by several master gardeners who gave their services to the temple. Trained in the standard Jikka style. Note: its most graceful branches extend into both sides. About 100 years old; height, 2 feet, 6 inches. With Chinese pottery pot on stand.\" Figure 17. Item #336 from the 1904 New York auction catalogue with the following description: \"Chabo-hiba (Thuja Obtusa Nanus). One of the most wonderful specimens in this collection. The arrangement of the branches and the fine growth of leaves, in spite of its age, has been admired by art loving people in Japan. It has been exhibited at many horticultural exhibitions and many medals were awarded to this specimen. It was trained by Kinhachi of Tokio in the famous Denchu garden, located at Sugamo, an outskirts of Tokio, and succeeded by his son Kinbei, and finally by his grandson Kingoro of the present time. A very valuable specimen. Height 2 feet, 10 inches. 125 years old. With beautiful Awaji pot and Kagomaki decoration.\" from Japan to Boston to London--in space of a single year, and lived to tell the tale! The spectacular appearance and colorful history of these ancient `Chabo-hiba' specimens raises the question of why the Japanese seemed to be so willing to part with them. Was it for the money? Was it changing fashion? Or had the plants simply become too big and too much trouble to take care of, as suggested by Yamada? The answer, undoubtedly, is some combination of all of the above reasons. Regardless of the rationale behind the decision to get rid of the plants, it's sad to think about these noble specimens being auctioned off to private western collectors who had no idea how to care for them. From Temple to Terrace 17 Who was Larz Anderson? At the other end of the Japanese dwarfed tree supply chain were the wealthy European and American collectors who collected everything the Japanese were willing to sell. In regards to horticultural \"antiques,\" Larz Anderson and his wife Isabel might serve as a model for the typical western customer. Larz was born of in Paris in 1866, and grew up in Cincinnati, Ohio, a city founded by his grandfather, Nicholas Longworth, who had become a millionaire in the early nineteenth century. The Andersons traveled to Europe frequently and eventually settled in Washington, D.C. As a boy, Larz was tutored privately and attended a number of different schools, including Phillips Exeter Academy. Following in his father's footsteps, Anderson enrolled in Harvard College and graduated with and A.B. degree in June 1888. Two months later, he set out on a trip around the world. The journey lasted two years and included a memorable visit to Japan (Kenworthy, 1991). Larz served in the military as Captain and an Assistant Adjutant General during the SpanishAmerican War. After this experience, he joined the Foreign Service as a diplomat in England and Italy, and as Minister to Belgium. Anderson rose quickly to the rank of ambassador and in 1912 he returned to Japan as \"Ambassador extraordinary and plenipotentiary.\" He held this post for only six months, resigning in March 1913, with the change from the Republican Taft administration to the Democratic Wilson administration. This was the last official diplomatic position that Anderson held. Larz married Isabel Weld Perkins of Brookline, Massachusetts, in June of 1897. Isabel, who was born in 1876, came from a wealthy, aristocratic New England family. While still a young woman, she inherited the then fabulous sum of $17 million derived from a variety of family enterprises, most notably the clipper ship company operated by her grandfather, William Fletcher Weld. She attended college rather late in life, earning a Doctor of Letters (Litt. D.) degree from George Washington University in 1918 and her Doctor of Law (LL.D.) degree from Boston University in 1930. She Figure 19. Ambassador and Mrs. Larz Anderson. Portrait by Philip de Laszlo. From Larz Anderson, Letters and Journals of a Diplomat, edited by Isabel Anderson, 1940. was a prolific writer, producing seventeen books between 1909 and 1933, as well as two plays and a volume of poetry. As newlyweds, Isabel and Larz purchased a residence--including a huge stable and substantial land--in Brookline from one of Isabel's cousins. They called their new home \"Weld,\" which served as their summer house from late spring through fall. As befits a diplomatic couple, the Anderson's made Washington, D.C., their primary home. Isabel loved traveling the world as much as her diplomat husband did and, over the course of her life, wrote no less than thirteen travelogues about her experiences (Figure 19) (Kenworthy, 1991). 18 Arnoldia 64\/23 The part of Brookline where \"Weld\" was located, in the vicinity of Jamaica Pond, was one of the centers of American horticultural activity from the early 1800's up until the late 1920's. The estates of Col. William Perkins, Thomas Lee, Charles Sprague Sargent, and Francis Parkman, the historian, were showpieces of their time. Later Olmsted acquired property in the area, and the Arnold Arboretum was established nearby in 1872. In the now classic 1841 edition of The Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Andrew Jackson Downing described the area this way: The whole of this neighborhood of Brookline is a kind of landscape garden, and there is nothing in America of the sort, so inexpressibly charming as the lanes which lead from one cottage, or villa, to another. Nor animals are allowed to run at large, and the open gates, with tempting vistas and glimpses under the pendent boughs, give it quite an Arcadian air of rural freedom and enjoyment. These lanes are clothed with a profusion of trees and wild shrubbery, often almost to the carriage tracks, and curve and wind about, in a manner quite bewildering to the stranger who attempts to thread them alone; and there are more hints here for the lover of the picturesque in lanes than we ever saw assembled together in so small a compass. Figure 20. \"The bosquet at the end of the garden, the pergola, flower draped, the marble balustrade, the wall fountain and the great Ludovisi jars.\" Note the parrot in the center of the picture. Illustration from the March 12, 1904 issue of Town and Country. \"Weld\" was famous in horticultural circles well before the Andersons went to Japan in 1912. The terraced Italian garden was designed in a lavish, for mal European style by Charles A. Platt in 1901. It was featured in several magazines of the day, including Town and Country (Anonymous, 1904), Country Life in America (Miller, 1905), and House and Figure 21. \"The end of the [Italian] garden, showing the wall fountain and vases.\" Illustration from the March 12, 1904 issue of Town and Country. From Temple to Terrace 19 Figure 22. The Japanese Garden at \"Weld\" constructed in 1907. Photograph by T. E. Marr from Isabel Anderson's 1909 House and Garden article. Figure 23. A view of the Japanese Garden at \"Weld.\" Photograph in 1908 by T. E. Marr, courtesy of the Museum of Transportation, Brookline, MA. 20 Arnoldia 64\/23 and unvexed with the toil and moil of execution, put all parts into place with the seeming ease of a child who turns his kaleidoscope at play. (Figures 20 and 21) Larz and Isabel added a Japanese garden to \"Weld\" in 1907, with stepping stones, a large stone bridge, a variety of Japanese lanterns and statuary, and a collection of tightly trimmed conifers (Figures 22 and 23). The garden was laid out by the Anderson's personal Japanese gardener, simply referred to as \"Onchi San,\" and was featured in an article that Isabel wrote for House and Garden in 1909. She described the garden this way: A little corner near a Massachusetts country house has been made into a most bewitching spot. When you enter the thatched gateway you forget New England--you are in Japan. You see Onchi San, dressed in his native costume, standing by the birds' bath-tub, watching the pretty feathery creatures as they splash in the hollow stone filled with rain-water. Presently he steps inside the wicker enclosure and washed too, for he has been weeding the garden which he has designed and made with his queer little upsidedown tools... Here and there among the greens are bright-colored bowls with groFigure 24. `Chabo-hiba' specimens on the terrace of the Anderson's home tesque designs, and gray stone lanat \"Weld.\" Top, c. 1916, courtesy of the Museum of Transportation, terns. Above you rises the huge bronze eagle; he is the one high point, the key Brookline, MA; bottom, from House Beautiful, June, 1933. of the Japanese garden. His piercing eye looks down to frighten you, but, reflected Garden (E. T., 1904). This last article waxes in the smooth surface of a pool near by, sits the poetically about the glories of the garden as a calm and smiling Buddha to dispel the fear; and true work of art: so peace and happiness pervade this little fragNot the work of many hands is this, nor the ment of the far East. It is only when your eye result of piecemeal additions nor the accidents suddenly catches sight of the big elm hanging of changing Time. The long probation which garover all that you realize that you are at home. dening as an art has served appears not to have entered here. \"Weld\" is a deliberate creation, An Infatuation with Japan rather than an outgrowth; a consummate work Larz Anderson's interest in Japanese horticulstarted and finished, as it were, in a day. All difture dates back to at least 1889, when, at the age ficulties of the work have disappeared, nor can of 23, he returned home from his trip around they longer be imagined to have halted the hand of the artist who here, apparently unhindered the world with two dwarfed maples that he had From Temple to Terrace 21 Figure 25. Rainosuke Yori Awano in 1950. Photograph courtesy of Ohio Wesleyan Univeristy. purchased in Japan. But it was not until 1913 that this interest fully matured. His journal entry for February 1, 1913, shows the moment of enchantment: About us were dwarf trees of fantastic shape and stunted plum in fragrant bloom, white and pink, and gnarled trees hundreds of years old with branches blossoming out of seemingly dead trunks in pots of beautiful form and color. Isabel and I stopped so long in this little fairy place that we had to drive like the dickens through the congested streets of endless villages to Yokohama, which we reached without disaster in a little over an hour, in time for one o'clock luncheon. (Anderson, 1937) Anderson must have purchased at least forty dwarfed trees from the Yokohama Nursery Company shortly after this experience, since he returned to the United States a little more than a month later, on March 6 (Anderson, 1937) (Figure 24). Exactly how much Larz Anderson paid for his plants is not recorded, but the 191314 edition of the Yokohama Nurs- ery catalogue lists the \"dwarfed trees we have always on hand to select from ranging in price from $1 to $50 [in U.S. gold], depending on age, size, etc.\" (see inside front and back covers). A survey of the catalogues revealed that the prices remained remarkably stable at $1 to $50 from 1901 through 1924. From 1919 on, however, the mode of payment shifted from gold dollars to gold yen. Multiplying this figure by twenty, to make the price roughly comparable to today's dollars, would make the cost roughly $20 to $1,000. Living plants were typically shipped by boat from Yokohama to North America during their dormant period, from October through February. Around the turn of the century, the boat trip to San Francisco took 18 to 20 days, while the trip to New York City via the Suez Canal took 70 to 80 days. It was common practice to deliver the plants to San Francisco and then transship them to the east coast via railroad, which took about 28 days, for a total delivery time of 46 to 48 days when shipped east from Japan to New York (Elias, 2005). The Connecticut nurseryman, Ernest F. Coe purchased some dwarfed trees from Japan in 1911, and described an experience that was probably typical for the time: \"Their journey over land and sea covered three months, but so skilfully [sic] had they been packed that they appeared but little the worse for their long subjection `in durance vile.'\" The purchase of plants from the Yokohama Nursery represented a serious escalation of Anderson's commitment to Japanese horticulture. Not only were the plants expensive to import but, once in the United States, they had to be maintained by someone knowledgeable in the techniques of dwarfing trees. Undoubtedly the task would have been assigned to Onchi San, and later to other members of the gardening staff. In 1932, the Andersons hired a Japanese scholar by the name of Rainosuke Yori Awano to take care of the plants. Awano had earned an A. B. degree from Ohio Wesleyan in 1927 and a M. A. degree from Columbia University in Hellenic studies in 1930. He had met the Andersons in 1932 while studying Greek antiquities at Harvard, and worked for them as both a gardener and the caretaker of their Asian collections until 1938 (Figure 25). He worked 22 Arnoldia 64\/23 Figure 26. Larz Anderson's display at the 1933 New England Spring Flower Show. Note that the small plant in the background on the right has a label that reads, \"Gift from Imperial House of Japan--60 years old.\" This is the only known photograph of the `Chabo-hiba' specimen which had been given to the Andersons by the Emperor of Japan. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. for the Boston Museum of Fine Arts as an Assistant Librarian from 1938 through 1940, when he returned to Japan to join the staff of Kobejogakuin College with a specialization in ancient Greek papyrology. In 1950, he was appointed professor of history at the University of Kanseigakuin (Anonymous, 1951; Kenworthy, 1991). On at least two occasions, Larz Anderson put his collection of dwarfed trees on public display: at the 1916 spring flower show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (May 12 14), where it was awarded first prize and a silver medal; and again from November 23 to 26, 1933 at the M.H.S. show of chrysanthemums and Japanese dwarfed trees, were the exhibit-- which was sponsored by the Japan Society of Boston--was awarded a gold medal. The display featured a straw shelter with a background of gold screens (Figure 26). Also in 1933, a popular article about the Larz Anderson Collection appeared in the June edition of House Beautiful, which contained a number of photographs of the plants along with an interview with Awano (Guthrie, 1933). The author had no problem anthropomorphizing her subject matter: It seems unholy to move such venerable patriarchs from the land where they have lived so long in meditation and repose. But they are here, nevertheless, in this country which was a wilderness when they and their art had reached a high degree of elegance and culture. And on the wide green terrace before the stately Brookline home of Mr. Larz Anderson, noted statesman and scholar, these noble trees, samurai of their realm, seem quite at home. That may be because adaptability is a quality of the nobly born (see Figure 24, bottom). The author goes on to quote Awano regarding his approach to training the trees: \"There are two ways for the tree to grow-- vertically and horizontally. The tree will want to grow vertically, reaching up to heaven, drawn by the sun, but that way it will grow too fast, for it wants to reach heaven soon. So we must make it grow horizontally and then it will grow slowly. So we trim the top branches and train it to grow horizontally.\" From then on it is a matter of thin wires and tiny bamboo sticks to flatten out the branches and keep them disciplined. There must be three branches, or five or seven, he told me--never more than seven. From Temple to Terrace 23 Figure 27. The Italian garden at \"Weld\" was transformed into an ice hockey rink by the Town of Brookline in 1958. Compare with Figure 21. Photographed in 2004 by Peter Del Tredici Figure 28. The remains of the Japanese garden at \"Weld\" with the Boston skyline in the distance. Photographed in 2004 by Peter Tredici. 24 Arnoldia 64\/23 The End of an Era Larz Anderson died in April, 1937, and six months later Isabel donated the major portion of his dwarfed tree collection--thirty plants in all--to the Arnold Arboretum, along with the funds necessary to build a shade house for their display. Isabel died eleven years later, in November of 1948, and in July of the following year the remaining nine plants in the collection were donated to the Arboretum, including one that the Andersons considered their most special possession, a seventy-six-year-old `Chabo-hiba' that had been given to them as a gift from \"the Imperial House of Japan\" (AA #885-49). According to Guthrie, \"Mr. Anderson, himself, carefully supervised the journey of this precious tree\" across the Pacific in 1913. The only known image of this plant is on the right side of the photograph of Anderson's 1933 exhibit at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (see Figure 26). The fact that Isabel held onto nine plants after Larz's death clearly indicates that she had become as attached to the collection as her husband had been. Following Isabel's death in Figure 28. The golden eagle that formerly dominated the Anderson's Japanese 1948, \"Weld\" was donated to the garden, now dominates the campus of Boston College. Compare with Figure Town of Brookline to become part 22. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. of its park system. Today it is echo of its former self, marked by the presence called Larz Anderson Park, and its stables now of some granite steps, a slate bridge, four Sawara house the Museum of Transportation, which Cypresses (Chamaecyparis pisifera), a large Japwas founded in 1949 with the Anderson's anese maple (Acer palmatum `Yatsubusa'), and antique car collection forming its core. Very three spreading Japanese yews (Taxus cuspidata little remains of the once glorious Italian gar`Nana') (Figure 28). The bronze eagle that once den, with its marble balustrade, wall foundominated the Japanese garden has be relocated tains, and geometric planting beds, which was to the campus of Boston College in Chestnut destroyed by the Town of Brookline in the 1950s Hill, where it now oversees campus life as the to make room for an ice-hockey rink (Figure 27). college mascot (Figure 29). As for the Japanese garden, it survive only as an From Temple to Terrace 25 Larz Anderson Collection at the Arnold Arboretum When Isabel donated Larz's dwarfed plant colthe plants in covered pits and cold frames for lection to the Arnold Arboretum, she also the winter. Not only was this dangerous to the donated the funds necessary to build a lath health of the plants, but the consequent freezhouse to display and protect them. This strucing of the root ball also cracked some of the ture was situated on the grounds of the old original Japanese containers. Bussey Institution that was formerly located Another positive turn of events for the collecon the southeastern boundary of the Arboretum tion occurred in 1969 when Connie Derderian and is now occupied by University of Massachuof Watertown, Massachusetts, was made setts Medical Laboratories (Figure 30) (Wyman, Honorary Curator. Connie had been teaching 1938). Unfortunately the Larz Anderson Colcourses in bonsai at the Arboretum for several lection did not continue to get the attention of knowledgeable Japanese gardeners following its donation to the Arboretum. The staff did the best it could with its limited knowledge of how to maintain the plants and its limited financial resources during the Depression\/World War II era. In the 1950's and early 60's, additional stress was put on the collection by the practice of forcing some of the plants into growth for the spring flower show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (1954 and 1959) as well as for other shows in the region (most notably the Detroit flower show in 1961). While this made for a spectacular display, it Figure 30. The Larz Anderson collection in the old lath house at the seriously weakened the collec- Bussey Institution, May 1938. Photograph by D. Wyman, from the tion and contributed to its overall Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. decline. As a result of these factors, the collection shrank from the original thirtyyears prior to her appointment, and was well nine plants to twenty-seven in 1962. Included known to the greenhouse staff. Her own words among the casualties was the `Chabo-hiba' describe how she became involved with the that had been the Japanese emperor's gift to plants: the Andersons. Perhaps because I was the only Bostonian who, Things began looking up for the collection for almost ten years, had steadily pursued the in 1962, when work on the Charles Stratton study of bonsai in the United States and in Japan, Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum in 1969, through the efforts of Mr. Alfred Fordham, Dr. Donald Wyman asked me to repot the was completed (Wyman, 1964). This new horAnderson collection of bonsai. I did and began a ticultural facility included an attractive hexprogram to renew the vigor and beauty of these agonal redwood lath house for displaying the venerable trees. Dr. Richard A. Howard, director, collection during the growing season and a pleased with the initial effort, had me appointed concrete-block cold-storage unit for winter Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection. protection. The construction of this building, which maintains temperatures between 1 and Working patiently and with a clear sense 3 degrees Centigrade (34 and 38 degrees Fahrenof purpose, Connie began the long process of heit), brought an end to the practice of storing revitalizing the collection after years of neglect. 26 Arnoldia 64\/23 Figure 31. Connie Derderian working on one of the Larz Anderson `Chabo-hibas' in 1970. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Figure 32. The hexagonal home of the Larz Anderson Collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Photographed in 1987 by Peter Del Tredici. She continued as curator until 1984, when her failing health forced her to resign her position (Figure 31). Having worked as Connie's apprentice since 1979, I became the new curator the year she resigned. During the spring of 1987 the deteriorating redwood slats on the hexagonal lath house were replaced with more structurally substantial vertical-grain Douglas fir, and a new security system was installed. In June, the newly renovated structure was dedicated to Connie (Figure 32). She died a year later, on September 20, 1988. A highlight of Connie's tenure as curator came in the fall of 1982, when three plants from the Larz Anderson Collection were put on display at the Boston Museum of Fine Arts to celebrate the opening of its newly renovated Asian wing. Two of the large `Chabo-hibas' were displayed at the New England Spring Flower show in 1987 and again in 1997, when they were also featured in an article in Horticulture Magazine by Public Television's \"Victory Garden\" host, Roger Swain. In 1998, the noted English bonsai expert, Colin Lewis, became involved with the Larz Anderson collection, initially as a volunteer and later as a paid consultant. Since that time, Colin and I have worked closely together to reestablish the traditional form and character of the `Chabo-hibas', as documented in the Japanese auction and nursery catalogues. This work came to fruition in March, 2006 with their display at the New England Spring Flower Show (Figure 33). As of this writing, fifteen plants still remain of the original thirty-nine plants in the Larz Anderson Collection. These include seven Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' four Japanese Maples (Acer palmatum), one Trident Maple (Acer buergerianum), one Higan Cherry (Prunus subhirtella), one Japanese White Pine (Pinus parviflora), and one Sawara Cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera `Squarrosa') (Table 2). The `Chabo-hiba' specimens that make up the core of the Larz Anderson Collection are clearly of the same vintage as those described so vividly in the early auction catalogues. They started out life in the 1700s as venerated temple decorations throughout Japan, and then, starting in the late 1880s, were summarily shipped off by the boat load to a variety of western countries through the early 1920s, when their importation into the United States dropped off due to the enforcement of new plant quarantine laws that had been enacted to prevent the accidental introduction of plant diseases and harmful insects (Creech, 2001). The fact that seven of Larz Anderson's original ten `Chabo-hiba' trees are still alive, ninety-three years after leaving their homeland, is nothing short of miraculous; especially when you consider that all their peers are mostly dead and their once lofty status in Japan all but forgotten. From Temple to Terrace 27 Nomenclatural Conclusions The hinoki cypress cultivar name `Chabo-hiba' is not widely grown in Japan today, and it took some effort to uncover its precise meaning. Hiba is the common name for the arborvitaelike conifer that is endemic to Japan, Thujopsis dolobrata. The word literally means \"hatchetshaped\" and refers to the scale-like foliage of the plant. The word chabo means bantam or dwarf chicken, and when combined with hiba is translated to mean \"compact or dwarf cypress.\" The earliest use of the name `Chabo-hiba' that I have been able to find is from the three-volume book Somoku Kihin Kagami, published origiAccession # 870-37 872-37 877-37 878-37 879-37 880-37 881-37 889-37 899-372 886-49 888-49 889-49 890-49 892-49 893-49 101-693 1 2 nally in 1827 and reprinted in 1976 with modern Japanese characters and Latin plant names (Kintaro, 1827; Tsukamoto, 1976). This work covers hundreds of plants considered highly unusual or rare at the time. While `Chabo-hiba' itself is not covered in the book, a Chamaecyparis cultivar listed as Chabo-yadori, meaning \"bantam's nest\" is described. The accompanying illustration shows a plant with two types of foliate, the loose, feathery growth (\"Cryptomeria-like\") rising out of a \"nest\" of tight congested growth (\"Chabo-hiba-like\"). In the text, the author states that he first noticed the plant as an unusual branch (or sport) on a specimen Common Name Trident Maple Japanese Maple `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress Higan Cherry Sawara Moss Cypress Japanese Maple Japanese Maple Japanese Maple `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress Japanese White Pine `Chabo-hiba' Hinoki Cypress Age1 1852 1887 1737 1787 1802 1832 1862 1852 1907 1887 1897 1897 1832 1787 1887 1969 Scientific Name Acer buergerianum Acer palmatum Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Prunus subhirtella Chamaecyparis pisifera `Squarrosa' Acer palmatum Acer palmatum Acer palmatum Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' Pinus parviflora Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' 3 Ages from Anderson, 1937 This plant was originally part of a miniature planting that also included one Cryptomeria japonica and one Euonymus fortunei radicans. This plant was created by separating off a lower branch of from #879-37 Table 2. Inventory of the Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees as of January, 2006. 28 Arnoldia 64\/23 Figure 33. A portion of the Larz Anderson Collection on display at the 2006 New England Spring Flower Show from March 1019. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. of `Chabo-hiba', and propagated it specially. As this reference in Somoku Kihin Kagami indicates, the name `Chabo-hiba' has a long tradition of use in Japan that predates any naming of the plant by western botanists. This reference also indicates that `Chabo-hiba' is a rather unstable stable selection that has given rises to a number of bud-sport mutations--namely the gold and white-variegated varieties--over the course of its cultivation. The fact that `Chabo-hiba' was a well established name in Japan did not stop European botanists from trying to change it. Nana is the oldest Latinized name that possibly describes `Chabo-hiba'. It was published by Elie-Abel Carriere in 1867 as: \"much smaller than the species, this rarity is distinguished mostly by its branches, branchlets and twigs which are very slender and very short.\" George Gordon, in his famous book, The Pinetum published in 1875, defined the variety compacta as: \"The leaves and branches of this variety resemble those of the species in every way, except that they are much smaller, and the plant has a very dense and compact habit.\" In the same book, Gordon published the name pygmaea, which might also have described `Chabo-hiba': \"This very singular variety forms a dwarf, cushionshaped, little bush, which seldom grows more than a foot or two high, but spreads out in a horizontal direction all round, more than double that distance, and forms a large, dense, flat tuft of glossy-green spray when old, with branchlets and leaves exactly like those of the species. A very curious miniature evergreen bush, much cultivated in the Japanese gardens about Yeddo. On account of its very dwarf habit, dense, compact appearance, and glossy deep green colour. It is quite hardy, and forms an interesting object for rock-work or miniature gardens.\" A fourth Latinized name, breviramea, was used by Carriere to describe the `Chabo-hiba' specimens he observed at \"L'Exposition Universelle\" in Paris in 1889. This name had originally been published by Maximowicz in 1866 to describe a supposedly new species of Chamaecyparis from southern Japan, but later authors reduced it to synonymy with C. obtusa, rendering its use obsolete. Despite the fact that all of these various names can be interpreted as more or less accurate descriptions of `Chabo-hiba', they suffer from the same drawback that affects all Lantinized botanical names for horticultural cultivars: they were originally intended to describe groups of plants that share similar characteristics rather than distinct, clonally propagated individuals. The lack of precision of these older Latinized names, in conjunction with their obvious lack of priority, provides ample justification for selecting `Chabo-hiba' as the official cultivar name for the plant (Del Tredici, 1989). From Temple to Terrace 29 Nomenclature and Pruning When I first started working with the Larz Anderson collection in 1979--and I had not yet discovered the Yokohama Nursery Catalogues--the Arboretum's accession records simply listed the plants as Chamaecyparis obtusa. This seemed strange to me, given that their congested foliage and contorted growth habit didn't look anything like the typical hinoki cypress. Was their distinctive form the result of genetic selection or of the annual pruning they had received over the course of their long lives? To resolve this question, I planted a ten-year-old rooted cutting from one of the Larz Anderson `Chabohibas' in the ground to see how it would develop without pruning (Fordham, 1971). This cutting retained the dwarf habit and congested foliage of its parent until 1984, when it suddenly produced an upright leader with loose, feathery foliage. By 1989 the plant was a meter and a half tall and a meter wide; and now in 2006, at thirty-five years of age, it is approximately four meters tall by two meters wide and periodically produces abundant crops of cones that are characteristic of the species. That this is typical behavior for unpruned `Chabo-hiba' is attested to by the fact that the 1913 and 1914 editions of the Yokohama Nursery catalogue modified the listing of the plant to \"Thuja obtusa compacta or Chabo-hiba,\" and published a photograph on a nearby page of a narrowly pyramidal conifer--5 to 6 meters tall--with the caption, \"Thuja obtusa compacta\". Clearly the nursery was using the same cultivar to produce dwarfed trees in containers as well as narrow, conical shaped landscape specimens. E. H. Wilson's 1918 photograph of the `Chabo-hibas' at the Yokohama Nursery (see Figure 7) provides further confirmation that tall, conical plants and the dwarf spreading plants were one and the same. A sheared specimen of \"Thuja obtusa compacta\" from the 1914 Yokohama Nursery catalogue. The rooted cutting (#1100-71) propagated from one of the Larz Anderson `Chabohibas' after 16 years of unpruned growth. The same plant in 2005, after 35 years of unpruned growth. Photos by Peter Del Tredici 30 Arnoldia 64\/23 References I. Anderson. 1909. A Japanese garden in America. House and Garden 16 (September): 9094. I. Anderson. 1937. Japanese Dwarf Trees at the \"Weld\" Estate. Typed manuscript in the Ar nold Arboretum Archives, 3 pp. I. Anderson. 1940. Larz Andersen: Letters and Journals of a Diplomat. Fleming H. Revell Co., New York. Anonymous. 1904. The gardens at Weld. Town and Country 59(1): 1216. Anonymous. 1951. Headliners. Ohio Wesleyan Magazine 29 (December 1951), pp. 4041. R. Awano. 1937. The Life of Japanese Dwarf Trees. Typed manuscript in the Arnold Arboretum Archives, 23 pp. L. H. Bailey. 1893. The Colombian Exposition: Japanese horticulture at the fair. Garden and Forest 6 (August 30): 369370. E.-A. Carriere. 1867. Traite General des Coniferes, 2nd ed. Paris: Chez L'Auteur. E.-A. Carriere. 1878. Essai sur L'Horticulture Japonaise. Revue Horticole 50: 271275. E.-A. Carriere. 1889. Japonaiseries. Revue Horticole 61: 374378. E. F. Coe. 1923. Keeping Japanese picture-plants alive. Garden Magazine 37: 331332. J. Creech. 1988. Pioneer plantsmen in Japan. The Garden 113(8): 380383. J. Creech. 2001. The Bonsai Saga: How the Bicentennial Collection Came to America. National Bonsai Foundation, Washington, D.C. C. E. Derderian. 1971. Japanese theory--American practice. Arnoldia 31: 294296. C. E. Derderian. C. E. 1980. Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum. Bonsai Journal 13(4): 7578. P. Del Tredici. 1989. The Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 49(3): 237 (reissued as Early American Bonsai, 1989). P. Del Tredici. 2005. The Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees and the Early Importation of `Chabo Hiba' Hinoki cypress into North America; pp. 105128 in Proceedings of the International Scholarly Symposium on Bonsai and Viewing Stones, May 2002. National Bonsai Foundation, Washington, D.C. A. J. Downing. 1841. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. Orange Judd, New York. E. T. 1905. The garden of \"Weld.\" House and Garden 5: 105113. T. Elias. 2005. History of the Introduction and Establishment of Bonsai to the Western World; pp. 19104 in Proceedings of the International Scholarly Symposium on Bonsai and Viewing Stones, May 2002. National Bonsai Foundation, Washington, D.C. A. J. Fordham. 1971. Propagation of some aged bonsai. Arnoldia 31(5): 297299. G. Gordon. 1875. The Pinetum, new edition. London: Henry G. Bohn. E. Guthrie. 1933. The ancient art of bonsai. House Beautiful 73(5): 284F284N. J. S. Ingram. 1876. The Centennial Exposition, Described and Illustrated. Hubbard Brothers, Philadelphia. H. Izawa. 1893. Dwarfing plants in Japan. Garden and Forest 6 (September 6): 373. R. G. Kenworthy. 1991. Bringing the world to Brookline: the gardens of Larz and Isabel Anderson. Journal of Garden History 11(4): 224241. Kintaro. 1827. Somoku Kihin Kagami, 3 vols. Reprinted in facsimile in 1976. Tokyo: Seiseido (in Japanese). W. W. Lunt. 1901. Report of the Committee on Plants for the Year 1900. Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1900, part II. H. Marushima. 2005. History of Japanese bonsai appreciation; pp. 118 in Proceedings of the International Scholarly Symposium on Bonsai and Viewing Stones, May 2002. National Bonsai Foundation, Washington, D.C. B. Matsuki. 1931. Japanese potted trees (Hachinoki). Brooklyn Botanical Garden Record 20(6): 279289. A. Maumene. 1902. Les Arbres Nains Japonair. Francois Tedesco, Paris. (An English translation of this work was published in 1908 in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 33(1): 5370.) W. Miller. 1905. An \"Italian garden\" that is full of flowers. Country Life in America 7 (March): 485489. C. S. Sargent. 1893. Notes. Garden and Forest, 6 (March 15): 128. R. B. Swain. 1997. Unpotted. Horticulture 94(1): 14. Y. Tsukamoto, et al. 1976. Explanation Volume to Accompany 1976 Facsimile Reprint of Somoku Kihin Kagami. Tokyo: Seiseido (in Japanese). T. White and W. Igleheart. 1893. The Worlds Columbian Exposition, Chicago, 1893. Elliott Publishing, Philadelphia. D. Wyman. 1938. The Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees. Arnold Arboretum Bulleting of Popular Information: Ser. 4, vol. 7, May 27, 1938: 3139. D. Wyman. 1964. Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 24 (12): 101104. K. Yamada. 1995. The Culture and Styling of Hinoki Cypress Bonsai. International Bonsai 17(3): 1218. Y. Yoshimura.1991a. Modern bonsai: development of the art of bonsai from an historical perspective--part 1. International Bonsai 13(3): 3335. Y. Yoshimura.1991b. Modern bonsai: development of the art of bonsai from an historical perspective--part 2. International Bonsai 13(4): 3440. Auction Catalogues Yamanaka & Co. 1899. A collection of rare and beautiful Japanese floral and arboreal plants to be sold at public auction by order of the importers, Yamanaka & Co., Boston and New York. November 1518, 1899, at 3.00 o'clock. Leonard & Co., Auctioneers, 47 Bromfield Street, Boston; 86 pages (photocopy provided by Michael Levin). Yamanaka & Co. 1900. A Catalogue of a collection of rare and beautiful Japanese floral and arboreal plants, curiously and artistically trained, imported by the horticultural department of Messrs. Yamanaka & Co., Osaka, Japan, London, New York and Boston. November 67, 1900, at one o'clock precisely each day; London; Robinson and Fisher Auctioneers, Willis's Rooms, King Street, St. James Square; 43 pages (photocopy provided by Harry Tomlinson via Tom Elias). S. M. Japanese Nursery Co. 1904. Catalogue of Japanese floral and arboreal plants. An interesting and marvelous showing, all to be sold without reserve by order of the importers S. M. Japanese Nursery Co., 191 Valley Road, West Orange, N. J. at Fifth Avenue Auction Rooms, 238 5th Ave., near 27th St., New York, on May 46, 1904, at 2 o'clock P.M. Wm. B. Norman, Auctioneer; 55 pages (original in the Arnold Arboretum Archives, donated by Ernest G. Stillman). Acknowledgements Many people have helped the author write this history of the Larz Anderson Collection. Foremost among them are Michael Levin, of Bonsai West in Littleton, Massachusetts, who provided me with a copy the 1899 Yamanaka Nursery Company Boston auction catalogue, and Dr. Tom Elias, Director of the United States National Arboretum in Washington, who invited me to speak at the 2002 Scholarly Symposium on Bonsai and Viewing Stones. I would also like to thank the Archivists of the Arnold Arboretum for their untiring assistance in tracking down illustrations for this book, and the staff of the Dana Greenhouses for their ongoing care of the Collection over the years. And finally, I would like to acknowledge the work of Dave Henderson whose photographs of the collection in 2005 grace this publication. Peter Del Tredici has been the Curator of the Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarfed Trees since 1984. He is also a Senior Research Scientist at the Arnold Arboretum and a Lecturer in Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Portrait Gallery of the Larz Anderson Collection: 1913-2005","article_sequence":2,"start_page":31,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25412","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25e896b.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":"2-3","year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Portraits of the Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 All photographs in this section of the book taken prior to 2005 are from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Those with the blue background were taken by Dave Henderson in November, 2005. 32 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 33 Facing page, top, Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba' from the Yokohama Nursery Company on display at \"Weld\" in 1933. Note how wires were use to hold the branches in a horizontal position. The structure of the main trunk, with a heavy branch strongly curving to the right, indicates that it is the same plant as Arnold Arboretum #892-49, started in 1787. Illustration from House Beautiful, June 1933. Facing page, bottom, `Chabo-hiba' #892-49, photographed at the Arnold Arboretum in 1952. Notice how the branches were tied to bamboo sticks in a desperate effort to maintain their horizontal orientation. Above, `Chabo-hiba' #892-49, photographed in 2005. Note the same concrete container in all three pictures, as well as similar ones in Figures 4 and 7. The plant in its pot is 140 centimeters tall by 185 centimeters wide. 34 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 35 Trident Maple (Acer buergerianum), Arnold Arboretum #870-37, started in 1852. Facing page, top, the plant c. 1913; facing page, bottom left, a photograph of the plant in 1933 from the June, 1933 House Beautiful article; facing page, bottom right, the plant in 1954. Above, the plant in 2005. Note how it has stayed in the same container since its arrival in the United States. The plant is 85 centimeters tall by 85 centimeters wide. 36 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 37 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' Arnold Arboretum #877-37, the oldest plant in the Larz Anderson Collection, started in 1737. Facing page, top, the plant in 1954; facing page, bottom, the plant in 1987. Above, the plant in 2005, which is 127 centimeters tall by 140 centimeters wide. 38 Arnoldia 64\/23 Japanese White Pine (Pinus parviflora), Arnold Arboretum #893-49, started in 1887. Above, the plant in 1952. Note how wires and bamboo sticks were used in training the branches. Left, the plant in 1965. Facing page, the plant in 2005, which is 177 centimeters tall by 82 centimeters wide. Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 39 40 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 41 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' Arnold Arboretum #879-37, started in 1802, and #101-69, its lower branch. Left, the mother plant in 1963 with its lower branch intact. Above, the mother plant in 2005, without its lower branch, 110 centimeters tall by 125 centimeters wide. Facing page, top, the final result of a successful operation performed by Connie Derderian on February 19, 1969. As she describes it, \"A lower branch had split away from the main trunk of 879-37. Rather than cut it off and lose it, a wedge-shaped piece of soil was cut away from the root ball to create anew plant. It was put into the container on the right.\" Facing page, bottom, the lower branch after 36 years of independence. 42 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 43 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' Arnold Arboretum #878-37, started in 1787. Facing page, top, the plant in 1938; facing page, bottom, the plant in 1954. Above, the plant in 2005. Note how the curved branch at the lower left has remained a constant, identifiable feature. The plant is 125 centimeters tall by 135 centimeters wide. 44 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 45 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' Arnold Arboretum #881-37, started in 1862. Facing page, top, the plant in 1965; facing page, bottom, the plant in 1987. Above, the plant in 2005, 110 centimeters tall by 140 centimeters wide. 46 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 47 Higan cherry (Prunus subhirtella), Arnold Arboretum #889-37, started in 1852. Facing page, bottom, the plant circa 1913; facing page, top, the plant in 1965 (note the same pot as in 1913). Left, the plant in bloom in April, 2005; above, the plant in 2005, 60 centimeters tall by 48 centimeters wide. 48 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 49 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabohiba,' Arnold Arboretum #880-37, started in 1832. Facing page, top, the plant in 1954; facing page, bottom, the plant in 1963. Above, the plant in 2005, 82 centimeters tall by 90 centimeters wide. 50 Arnoldia 64\/23 Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba,' Arnold Arboretum #890-49, started in 1832. Above, the plant in 1965; right, the plant in 1989. Facing page, the plant in 2005, 100 centimeters tall by 90 centimeters wide, with exposed stiltroots that once clung to a rock. Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 51 52 Arnoldia 64\/23 Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum), #872-37, started in 1887. Right, the plant in 1976. Below, the plant in 2005, 70 centimeters tall by 70 centimeters wide. Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 53 Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum), #886-49, started in 1887. Right, the plant in 1989. Below, the plant in 2005, 85 centimeters tall by 90 centimeters wide. 54 Arnoldia 64\/23 Larz Anderson Collection 19132005 55 Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum), #888-49, started in 1897. Facing page, top, the plant in 1954; facing page, bottom, the plant in 1987. Above, the plant in 2005, 98 centimeters tall by 100 centimeters wide. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rejuvenating and Reshaping the Larz Anderson 'Chabo-hibas'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":56,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25413","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed160a36f.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":"2-3","year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lewis, Colin","article_content":"Rejuvenating and Reshaping the Larz Anderson `Chabo-hibas' Colin Lewis T he compact hinoki cypresses (Chamaecyparis obtusa `Chabo-hiba') in the Larz Anderson Collection are the elder statesmen of bonsai, the high priests whose secrets we had to learn before approaching them with tools in our hands. In their early youth, two or three centuries ago, their supple trunks had been wrapped around canes; their young branches pruned and tied into fanciful shapes, their foliage trained to form cloud-like layers. As the trees matured, the trunks and branches strengthened until their twisted shapes evoked coiled snakes trying to break free from the calm order and visual stability of the canopy or, perhaps, the violent energy of Mount Fuji's volcano held in check by the stable mass of the mountain. By the time we began our restoration work in 1999, some of the trees' original branch structure had been destroyed--partly by nature, partly by man--but the essential design and conceptual intent were still evident. For a Western bonsai artist of the twenty-first century, the notion of restoring a collection of eighteenthcentury bonsai was a humbling prospect. Rather than impose on these venerable masterpieces a twenty-first-century bonsai aesthetic, we hoped to restore their visual power by recreating the original design. It was not only the great age of the trees that gave them that power but also the masterly training and care they had received for so long. Rejuvenation Regime When working with ancient plants like these, the restorer must spend a few years observing and learning from them before attempting major reshaping. In 1999 these trees were stable and healthy but not vigorous, so the first task was to rejuvenate them. We began by addressing the question of fertilization: changing the regimen from a dose of dilute chemical fertilizer every two weeks to an application of dry organic fertilizer pellets to the surface of the pots every three months. We got noticeable results within the first year--foliage color improved and growth became more robust. This regimen is now the standard practice for all the trees in the collection. The second problem concerned the amount of light the trees received. When the lath house was built in 1962 it provided the ideal balance between sun and shade; over time, however, the surrounding white pines had become large trees, creating far too much shade. Almost all the trees in the lath house showed the effects of insufficient light in weak or lost lower branches, strongly vertical growth of new shoots, pale foliage, and the absence of inner adventitious growth. By happy coincidence, the offending trees were removed to make way for the Leventritt Garden of Shrubs and Vines. Here again, after only a year the improvement in growing conditions was visible in better foliage color and stronger adventitious growth. Repotting the `Chabo-hibas' The third and most important part of the rejuvenation process--and the most difficult--was improving the condition of the roots. The central core in each pot was, and still is, a compacted block of centuries-old loam. (Much of it will remain there forever since it would be impossible to replace it without severely damaging essential roots.) The only area available for roots for annual growth was in the fresh soil that each tree received every three to five years during repotting, and it was here that changes were needed. The volume of soil replaced at each repotting had been minimal: an outer shell no more than two inches thick. For large trees in such large Rejuvenating and Reshaping 57 The rootball of `Chabo-hiba' 878-37 is showing signs of needing to be repotted. The parallel lines of root growth are due to the presence of grooves in the pot which directed the roots downward towards the bottom rather than around in a circle as is the case with more typical containers. containers, this was barely enough to maintain a minimal level of health and totally inadequate for regaining and maintaining vigor. Each year the roots had pushed upwards toward the surface in an attempt to escape the inhospitable conditions below. Once on the surface, they accumulated dust and detritus, in effect creating another layer of soil. Gradually the soil level had risen until the lower inch or two of the trunks was engulfed. By first lowering the surface of the soil to its original level (or even lower) we were able to use slightly shallower containers and still gain valuable space for fresh soil below the roots. To increase the volume of new soil introduced when repotting, we had to remove more of the original soil. But rather than arbitrarily cut away \"pie slices\" of the root ball, we adopted a far more cautious approach. We carefully remove the soil introduced during the previous repotting and comb out the roots to avoid excessive damage. Then we use a hose to wash away loose portions of the original core and reveal the more accessible areas around the exposed root ball. These areas are then carefully excavated in an operation that more closely resembles an archaeological dig than a horticultural exercise. In addition to copious amounts of lifeless clay, we have unearthed rocks, brick fragments, and pottery shards. With each repotting the volume of additional new soil increases. When we have finally removed around fifty percent of the original soil, the excavations will cease. We also made changes in the growing medium. The commercial bonsai soil we used for the first few repotting cycles was made of calcined clay, sand, and decomposed organic matter. None of the ingredients had been sifted 58 Arnoldia 64\/23 On old, pot-bound `Chabo-hibas' the roots often grow upwards around the trunk. It is important to remove these girdling roots when repotting the plant. In this picture, taken in 1996, the removal of upwardgrowing roots exposed a full two inches of truck that have previously been buried. tion. Although the pots are large, the grit used is an eighth-inch aggregate of well sand #3. Larger particles would obstruct root growth while doing little to help drainage. The ten percent of organic matter is supplied in the form of decomposed pine bark that binds with the minerals in the fertilizer to create a medium that not only supplies nutrients to the plants but also encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms, which also helps to break down the outer edges of the remaining original soil. At each repotting, organic matter from the old root ball is salvaged and reintroduced with the new ingredients. Restructuring the `Chabo-hibas' As the trees' twisted branches had increased in girth over time, they had also straightened somewhat, a perfectly normal phenomenon in all conifers. In addition, they had grown outward and lost many of their inner branches. Consequently, each branch ended in a tuft of foliage far from the trunk, with no spatial relationship or harmony among the tufts. These remote tufts of foliage needed to be brought closer to the trunk and once again consolidated into clearly defined layers, and the trees' silhouettes needed to be restored to the denser and more stable pyramidal form of the original design, instead of the open, irregular shapes they had taken on. and the organic matter in particular was little more than dust that tended to clog the air spaces among the larger particles. This soil--designed primarily for high-volume nursery production of tropical and subtropical plants--was unsuitable for long-term cultivation of hardy bonsai. The `Chabo-hibas', in common with all the trees in the collection, require a growing medium with a coarser, more free-draining structure. The current recipe seems to be working well: 50 percent akadama; 20 percent calcined clay; 20 percent grit; 10 percent organic matter. Akadama is an untreated, surface-mined, clay-like mineral with a granular consistency that it retains for many years, even when constantly wet. When akadama finally does break down into finer particles after some years, it does not become compacted, as do clay, loam, and even peat moss. In addition to structural stability akadama offers the advantage of allowing the roots to grow into and through the particles, not only around them, thus maximizing the volume and nutrients available for root growth. Calcined clay, in this instance Turface, is a clay that has been heated enough to drive structural moisture out of the grains so that they will not soften or break down when wet--but not so much as to reduce their porosity. These grains absorb a large volume of water and release it gradually and evenly to the roots. Grit is used to maintain good drainage and to prevent compac- Colin Lewis is seen here using water pressure from a hose to wash away the old soil from `Chabo-hiba' 877-37, exposing the plant's dense, fibrous root system. Rejuvenating and Reshaping 59 effective on branches up to three-quarters of an inch thick. We knew from the texture of the bark that the branches varied in age, but age seemed to make little if any difference in their response to being bent with wire. For example, a six-inch length of a branch a half-inch thick would accept an initial bend in the region of forty-five degrees and a quarter-inch thick branch would bend beyond ninety degrees, both seemingly regardless of age. On larger branches, the very heavy wire and significant pressure needed to effect a bend might have resulted in scarring. We therefore pulled these branches into position with fine tension wires attached to other parts of the tree. Normally this method introduces gentle curves over the entire branch, with the branch requiring a long time to adopt its new position. Sharper curves adopt new positions much faster and, in this case, sharp curves were our aesthetic goal. Where possible, then, we worked to sharpen the existing curves, focusing the entire bend more efficiently in a limited area and thus reducing the setting time. Manipulating the branch at the point of the bend before applying the tension wire and again when tightening it helps sigThe branches of old specimens of `Chabo-hiba' are often extremely nificantly to concentrate the bend at one contorted as a result of their slow growth and the annual pinching point. The wire usually remains on the they receive tree for about four months, the time necIn spite of their great age, the trees had essary for the branch to produce a new layer of responded to the new soil and fertilizing pracwood. Beyond four months the damage to the tices within a year of repotting. However, it was bark may become too severe. If the tree is not three years before the new growth on the larger particularly vigorous, the wire may stay on the specimens was extensive and supple enough for branch for up to a year. training work to begin. Meanwhile, I was able In one instance we successfully used a more to work on the three smaller trees and learn a drastic technique to lower a branch that was great deal about the way `Chabo-hiba' responds too thick and too short to respond to any other to various training techniques. One of the most method. After cutting a fifteen-degree notch surprising discoveries was that once the tension into the underside of the branch through about provided by multiple layers of dead bark has half its diameter, we pulled it down with tenbeen removed, even hundred-year-old branchsion wires until the cut surfaces of the notch es well over an inch thick are astonishingly were in close contact and under pressure. This pliable--a crucial factor in enabling us to was done in early June 2005; as of October 2005, restore the original design. no adverse effect on the health or vigor of the We quickly learned that normal wiring techbranch is evident and the two sides of the notch niques, using annealed copper wire, are very appear to have bonded perfectly. The tension 60 Arnoldia 64\/23 wire will remain undisturbed for another growing season. The speed with which the branches adopt their new position, regardless of their age or position on the tree is another remarkable property of the `Chabo-hiba' cultivar. After four months, most branches of a quarter-inch or thinner have set more or less permanently. Thicker branches with more severe bends can also set within four months although a second wiring is applied to consolidate the new position. This rate of setting contrasts with that of spruce, fir, and many species of juniper and pine, some of whose branches can take more than six years to become fixed in a new position. Pruning the Branches Occasionally it has been necessary to remove a part or all of a heavy branch. Here again we adopted a cautious approach out of respect for the age and value of these trees. Removing too much foliage from a branch at any one time can seriously weaken it or even cause death, especially in the case of older trees with complex compartmentalization of the vascular system. Therefore, we do the work in stages, cutting away the targeted areas bit by bit. It is important to leave enough healthy foliage to sustain the balance and vigor of the branch as a whole. As more growth develops on the desirable portions of the branch, more of the undesirable portions can be removed. Removing entire large branches is also a gradual process. We first weaken the branch by cutting away up to seventy percent of its foliage; we then continue to cut back new growth to further reduce the vigor of the branch. After one year, the branch can safely be cut back to a short stub, which then remains untouched for yet another year. At that time it is cut as closely as possible to the trunk unless, as we have seen in some instances, the vascular system at the base of the stub--known as a collar--is too complex or too fragile. In these cases the stubs will remain in place for the foreseeable future. From time to time some of the smaller branches succumb to competition from their stronger neighbors and begin to deteriorate. New growth is reduced to almost nothing and the foliage becomes pale and inactive. This is not a tragedy; rather, it is the tree deciding for itself which branches it wishes to rely on for the future and which it has no further use for. This helps us greatly by telling us which branches to discard and which to maintain. Furthermore, since the tree has spontaneously decided to bypass these branches, they can be removed instantly and without ceremony. Refurbishing the Foliage Once the branches have been repositioned, we can begin remodeling the dense foliage layers, often referred to as clouds. Almost without exception, this calls for reducing the canopy's height and increasing its width to achieve a more horizontal appearance. Height can easily be reduced by pruning out strong vertical smaller branches and repositioning the more flexible lower growth. Foliage on lateral branches is left to grow freely until the extension shoots are robust enough to wire into position. This process took three years for the first trees we worked on but currently, thanks to the trees' continually increasing vigor, shoots can reach this stage in two years. We use fine pruning for a variety of purposes: to eliminate weak shoots and give the healthier shoots more room to flourish; to direct future growth to where it is needed; and to eliminate growth where it is not needed. This kind of pruning is also used for other bonsai, but the foliage of the `Chabo-hibas' presents its own unique challenges and rewards. For example, unlike many species of Chamaecyparis, whose foliage fronds or fans are presented in different planes, `Chabo-hibas' (at least when grown in containers and heavily pruned) tend to present their fronds on a horizontal plane in all parts of the tree. It is hardly ever necessary to reposition wayward fronds with wire--they are so few in number that they can usually be cut away; and once any zone of foliage has settled into \"horizontal frond mode\" very few, if any, vertical fronds are produced. An important part of foliage manipulation begins in late summer. At this time, a typical new shoot comprises two or three small (less than half-inch) recurved fronds at the base, then two or three medium-sized fronds up to an inch across and, overlaying all these, a spread- Rejuvenating and Reshaping 61 The mature shoots produce branchlets which overlay each other like tiles on a roof. The upper branchlets are larger and more vigorous than those below. By snipping off the larger upper branchlets and leaving the smaller and less vigorous lower ones, the foliage can be encouraged to become more dense and finely textured. At the same time, any branchlets that are not horizontal are removed. and is usually confined to one terminal, which is easily pinched off. Rather than try to extend these small fronds, the tree responds to the loss of a shoot by producing more small fronds from other internodes. Eventually the foliage becomes so dense that we must thin out some of the heavier branch terminals and allow younger inner growth to replace them. This density-building technique has worked well, first on the small cascade (#101-69) and then on the two medium-sized trees (#880-37; 890-49). The larger specimens have not yet reached the stage of density building, although that time is near. Ongoing Maintenance The gradual process of old soil removal will continue, ideally for several decades, until it is complete. Even after that, however, the roots should receive ongoing care and structuring in much the same way as do the branches. As new roots develop closer to the trunk, some of the heavy pieces at the extremities of the root ball can be removed. The eventual goal is to have the majority of the root ball consist of healthy young roots. Restructuring the branches on the large trees will take perhaps another three to five years after which the focus will be on building foliage density. From that point forward, the trees will be maintained by a sort of micromanagement ing terminal frond that expands to a diameter of two inches or more if left unchecked. To increase bulk and encourage fine branching, we remove the terminal fronds entirely, leaving the two medium-sized fronds intact. These will develop during the following year into duplicates of the parent shoot, with equal vigor and size. Although slow, this process builds a more sturdy and organized network of smaller outer branches than merely allowing the foliage mass to expand without control. With trees of this size, every process from branch shaping to fine pruning can be carried out simultaneously on different parts of the tree. The final process, however--building density-- can only begin once the branch terminals are sufficiently balanced over the entire tree. Foliage density is needed not only to create a neater and more defined bonsai image, but also to allow the large clouds of foliage to be divided into smaller interrelated sections, giving the tree a more massive and more vibrant appearance. So when the branch terminals have been properly established, we return to the shoots in late summer, this time cutting away almost the entire shoot and leaving only two of the very small, recurved fronds at the base. These fronds seem to be of a different nature from the others, as if destined to remain small. Their growth is slow but robust. Extension is rare The foliage of `Chabo-hiba' becomes tight and dense as a result of annual pinching. 62 Arnoldia 64\/23 Peter Del Tredici is seen here using a chop stick to tamp new soil around the older portion of the rootball of `Chabo-hiba' 879-37, which he was repotting in March, 1996. that includes cyclical thinning and replenishment of branch terminals as well as selective fine pruning to guide foliage growth in anticipation of future thinning. Overwintering In the milder parts of the United States, as in much of Japan, bonsai can be left out-of-doors all winter with only minimal protection from the elements. In New England, however, even though `Chabo-hibas' are hardy in zone 5, the plants need to be protected from the cold. A plant that is perfectly hardy growing in the ground is not as hardy when grown in a container above ground and surrounded by air. This is because the soil, which has great insulating power, never gets as cold as the air, which has no insulating power. The Arboretum bonsai are stored in a windowless concrete-block structure for the winter. The temperature in the building is maintained between 33 and 36 degrees Fahrenheit, and the plants are checked for water once a week. In general, they need watering about once a month. Extreme care is taken to keep the plants from drying out during storage; it can be difficult to rewet them come spring. On the other hand, if the plants are kept too wet during storage, they become susceptible to fungal infections. As long as the temperatures remain below 36 degrees, the plants survive in total darkness (and, surprisingly, continue to need water). However, such dark storage will not work at higher temperatures. The key to successful winter storage is to make sure that the plants are fully dormant before they go in and that they come out before they show any sign of growth. Traditionally, the plants went into cold storage on Armistice Day (November 11) and came out on Patriots' Day (April 19), but in recent years these dates have shifted to a week later in the fall and a week earlier in the spring as a result of changes in the weather. Colin Lewis has been working with the Larz Anderson Collection since 1998. He is the author of four books on bonsai and the founder of the Ho Yoku School of Bonsai. He has been a practicing bonsai artist for twenty-seven years. Rejuvenating and Reshaping 63 Yokohama Nursery Company Instructions for Growing Dwarfed Trees The Yokohama Nursery Company Catalogues issued between 1901 and 1922 all contain the identical instructions for how to take care of the dwarfed trees that the nursery sold. This information is historically significant for being among the earliest English descriptions of how the Japanese took care of the plants. The instructions are reprinted below in their entirety. According to Dr. John Creech, these instructions were most likely written by Mary Unger, the American wife of Alfred Unger, the German horticulturist who operated the Louis Boehmer Nursery Company in Yokohama from 1890 through 1908. Dwarfed Trees Growing in Jardinieres and Their Cultural Directions Treatment of Thuja obtusa. During spring and summer, by preference keep this plant in a sunny airy situation where the wind will pas freely through the branches; water once a day giving just enough to make the soil moist; in dry hot weather it may be necessary to give water twice a day. Care however should be taken not to have the soil wet and never water unless the plant needs it. Watering overhead in dry weather is bad but rain is always beneficial. During winter keep the tree in a cold greenhouse partially shaded, or in an unheated orangery, giving water about once in 10 days; the soil however much never be allowed to get dry. (The science of successful culture of all plants in pots consists in judicious watering, giving too much or too little is equally bad.) Treated as above this plant is very ornamental on balconies, terraces, etc. If this plant is kept indoors, it should always be placed out-of-doors at night and as often as it is not wanted for decoration. Indoors it should never be exposed to the dry heat from a stove or open fireplace, otherwise the leaves will drop off and the plant perish. Pinus pentaphylla and pine trees in general growing in jardinieres require the same attention in watering and general treatment as Thuja obtusa but are not so much influenced by atmospheric conditions; nevertheless sun and air are necessary to maintain health, therefore keep the plants out-of-doors as much as possible. Maples and other deciduous trees take the same treatment as Thuja obtusa as regards watering, but are much more accommodating than evergreens; in fairly mild climates the maples may remain out-of-doors all winter, but where the frost is very severe they should be kept in a cool cellar after the leaves have fallen in autumn; the soil must always be kept moist but not wet; early in spring put the plants outof-doors and fully exposed to all weathers and when in full leaf use for decoration indoors as needed. MANURING: When the trees commence growing in spring, we give manure twice a month, say March, April, May and June, again September and October. In the hot days of July and August, we give no manure and the same in winter and early spring, the plants then being at rest; the best manure is finely powdered oil cake or bone meal. To a jardiniere one foot in diameter we give 3 or 4 large teaspoonfuls not heaped of this dry manure spread evenly around the edge of the jardiniere; a 64 Arnoldia 64\/23 larger or smaller jardiniere will require more or less. For a small jardiniere, say three inches by six inches, half a teaspoonful will be ample each time. REPOTTING: This is done by us once in two or three years as follows: lift the plant out of the jardiniere and with a sharp pointed stick remove about one-third of the old soil around the edges and bottom, cutting away a portion of the old fine roots but none of the strong roots, then replace the plant in the same jardiniere first looking to the drainage; for a small shallow jardiniere we use a flat piece of tin or a flat crock over each hole; over this spread some rich fresh soil; neatly balance the plant and fill up with the same rich fresh soil to within one-half an inch of the rim; this holds the water and prevents the manure being washed over the sides of the jardiniere; also the soil should be made sufficiently tight round the edges of the jardiniere to prevent the escape of water, it being of the first importance that the entire ball of soil around the plant be moistened at each watering. Should the watering of the plant at any time be neglected and the soul has become quite dry, put the jardiniere in a tub of water for 10 or 15 minutes, not longer, and if the injury is not too serious, the plant will recover. In the case of large plants, we use hollow crocks for drainage, the same as is used by growers of specimen plants. After several repottings, the plant having increased in size, shift into a larger pot, but as dwarfness is the thing aimed at, the smaller the shift the better. Repotting should be done in February or March just before spring growth commences. We advise when it is possible to get the above work done by a good gardener who has been accustomed to the handling of heaths, New Holland plants, etc. In the care of very shallow jardinieres we find it desirable annually to replace a portion of the old soil to maintain a healthy growth. PRUNING: To maintain dwarfness in the trees, pinch back the young growth; this we usually do from April to the middle of June and always with the finger and thumb, a practice followed by the late Mr. Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England, when preparing his dwarfed fruit trees fruiting in pots. In Thuja obtusa we pinch out the points of the young growth all over the plant to maintain the form; this practice we also apply to Cryptomeria and all other conifers except Pinus. Pinus: we pinch out the points of the irregular growth simply to maintain the shape of the plant. Pomegranate, Lagerstroemia indica, flowering peach, flowering cherry, etc.: we pinch back the nonflowering shoots either before or after blooming. Wisteria: in July and August we pinch back all the young growth leaving only four or five leaves on each shoot. Maple and other deciduous trees are pinched back at the same time as Thuja obtusa leaving two to four leaves as may be necessary to maintain the desired shape of the plants. Should a second growth be made, the same rule is followed of pinching out the points. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23403","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eb76e.jpg","title":"2006-64-2","volume":64,"issue_number":"2-3","year":2006,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Benjamin Bussey, Woodland Hill, and the Creation of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25407","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25ebb6b.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, Mary Jane","article_content":"Benjamin Bussey, Woodland Hill, and the Creation of the Arnold Arboretum Mary Jane Wilson The Arnold Arboretum was officially established in March 1872, when an indenture was signed by which trustees of a bequest of James Arnold agreed to turn the fund over to Harvard College, provided the college would use it to develop an arboretum on land bequeathed earlier by Benjamin Bussey . . . An intense regard for the land and for agricultural endeavor led Bussey to leave a large portion of his fortune and all of his property in West Roxbury to Harvard College for the creation of an institution for instruction in farming, horticulture, botany, and related fields. --Ida Hay, Science in the Pleasure Ground The following is adapted from the first full-length life of Bussey, soon to be published in its entirety. I first met Benjamin Bussey when I opened an old family box labeled \"Important Papers--Save.\" Inside I found more than two hundred documents, primarily letters written in the early 1800s, addressed to a Benjamin Bussey of Boston. It appeared that Bussey was a man of importance in Federalist New England and that here was a story to be told. My research confirmed that, indeed, Bussey was an outstanding New Englander. The letters found in that box have allowed me to piece together Benjamin Bussey's life and encouraged the telling of his story. May history better remember and recognize this extraordinary man who bettered the world in which he lived and whose legacy remains today in a most special way, enhancing the lives of untold others, through the Arnold Arboretum. Benjamin Bussey (17571842) played an important role in the growth of commerce, manufacturing, and agriculture in New England. After a childhood of frugal living and hard work and a soldier's travails in the American Revolution, he became a merchant, eventually amassing a great fortune from European trade. He was also on the cutting edge of New England's manufacturing industry, with woolen mills in Dedham, Massachusetts, that introduced the water-driven Broad Power Loom to America. Throughout his life he was a benefactor to many individuals as well as to religious and civic organizations. As a farmer Bussey acquired vast tracts of land from Boston, Massachusetts, to Bangor, Maine. At his country estate, Woodland Hill, he demonstrated his support for the new movement called \"scientific farming.\" His sponsorship of agricultural education, \"remarkable in its foresight,\"1 led to his bequest to Harvard College of Woodland Hill for a school of agriculture and horticulture. Harvard honored his bequest in 1869 with the creation of the Bussey Institution. The years have obscured his name. His mills in Dedham are gone, his properties in Maine in great part absorbed by the city of Bangor. Only traces of his life remain in the landscape: a street bearing the Bussey name in Dedham and a hilltop and a brook named for him at the Arnold Arboretum. Bussey had accumulated a great fortune by the early 1800s. Around the same time, a combination of embargos, falling markets, and failing enterprises made the shipping business Benjamin Bussey 3 COURTESY OF THE HARVARD UNIVERSITY PORTRAIT COLLECTION, HARVARD UNIVERSITY ART MUSEUMS. BEQUEST OF BENJAMIN BUSSEY, 1894 less attractive, and he retired from the merchant life. Five Summer Street in Boston had been his home since 1798. The property included a mansion with grounds and gardens and a carriage house for the family's horses and vehicles. In 1806 he purchased the farm of Eleazer Weld, located in what was then known as West Roxbury, now the Jamaica Plain\/Forest Hills section of Boston, an area popular for country seats and summer relaxation. Several of Bussey's friends had already established country estates. Joseph Barrell built Pleasant Hill in Charlestown in 1791; Theodore Lyman, The Vale in 1793 in Waltham; and John Codman renovated the Russell estate in Lincoln in 1797. These gentlemen farmers used new experimental methods to develop their lands. In 1792, twenty-one lawyers, doctors, politicians, and merchants chartered the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture (MSPA). The Society acquired and disbursed information on crop rotation, refores- In 1808 Bussey made arrangements with the famed portraitist Gilbert Stuart to tation, and the use of cattle to paint the family's portraits. Bussey's own was the last to be finished. Reporting provide natural fertilizer. Bussey on its progress after a visit to Stuart's studio, daughter Eliza wrote to her mother, who was with Benjamin in Bangor, \"It is the very image of himself and joined the Society in 1803. the pleasure I have in viewing it lessens the pain of our separation for I feel as At this point in his life Bussey tho' in his presence when I look at the portrait.\" was virtually free to devote his time to managing his investments and his real land Hill would eventually grow to encompass estate. His son and daughter were grown and more than three hundred acres. on their own: Benjamin III had graduated from Bussey immediately assumed management Harvard and Eliza had married. Developing of the farm operations. Farmhands were hired his estate was now the major focus of his life, and a woman, Anna Sherman, was employed to becoming both an experiment in developing watch over the farmhouse needs. The land was his interest in scientific farming and an outlet plowed and planted with new products such as for the attachment to the land that had formed Liberian wheat, and outbuildings were erected, in his childhood and progressed to ornamenincluding a barn to house the livestock, cattle, tal gardening at the Summer Street residence. swine, and the newly introduced merino sheep. The spacious meadows, hills, and brooks, and He also targeted reforestation for an important the excellence and variety of the Jamaica Plain role in his farming activities. Except for one landscape spoke to his agrarian nature. Woodstand of trees (later known as Hemlock Hill) 4 Arnoldia 64\/1 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Maps of land that now comprises the Arnold Arboretum. Benjamin Bussey greatly expanded his holdings between 1810 (above) and 1840 (below). Benjamin Bussey 5 COURTESY OF MRS. GEORGE SKINNER. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The mansion on Bussey Hill photographed in the 1930s. and a hillside oak that had escaped cutting, the land was treeless, having been cleared to supply the city with firewood, to raise hay, and to graze animals. Shortly after the purchase of the farm Bussey established the first of his woodlots, and by 1810 several areas of young woods were growing. He added numerous species of trees and shrubs to the estate, including European larch, catalpa, honey locust, and silver fir. Bussey chose to site his mansion on the south side of Weld Hill (now known as Bussey Hill), a commanding location that overlooked the great variety in his landscape: woods, brooks, fields, and meadows. While supervising the farm operations, he watched his new home rise. If he was away, his daughter Eliza and her husband Charles followed the progress of the building. In July of 1816, when Bussey and his wife Judith were enjoying a visit to Saratoga Springs, Eliza sent word that the new house was beginning to look finished, with windows set in the upper stories and the tops of the piazzas shingled.2 Charles reported a few days later on both farm and house. [T]he hay of all sorts and the barley are now under cover . . . and the fields are seldom so verdant as the rain Sunday was a constant pour. Joe came very near losing his chickens, many apparently dead after the flood. We brought them into the house and by the application of flannel and by the children's hands all but three were restored to their anxious mothers. The work at the new house proceeds with regularity. About two thirds of the plastering is Finished . . . that in the attic and in the entry leading to it has many small cracks in it owing to its drying too fast, occasioned by its proximity to the roof . . . I have cut the dead limbs from the trees in the woods near the walk and the stone wall is finished to the bottom of the summer house. I have also taken the dead wood from the honeysuckles. We have had some days past the company of Miss Ely and her sister from Hartford . . . have taken tea with Aunt Lowder and have had Mr. and Mrs. Parsons with us at dinner yesterday.3 The finished mansion was a model of stately neoclassical elegance. It was approached by a gravel carriage road lined with gutters of granite sea pebbles and bordered with white pines 6 Arnoldia 64\/1 and horsechestnuts. At the top of the steep incline the road ended in a turnaround at the mansion entrance, where granite steps led to a front porch floored with white marble tiles. The interior of the house reflected the popularity of French decor at the time. The dining room wallpaper was of Paris views and monuments. The drawing room and parlor floors were covered with Brussels carpets. Damask draperies hung at the windows and throughout the house were costly French furnishings, such as the settee and set of chairs with needlework upholstery that Bussey had acquired at the close of the French Revolution. Other accoutrements were added over the years. In 1818 Bussey purchased a copy of the Declaration of Independence for ten dollars, and in 1832, five copies of old masters painted by Rembrandt Peale. Peale sent a note with them expressing his gratitude \"that five of his best copies of the masters would reside together in Bussey's hospitable mansion where they would be appreciated properly.\"4 Plantings around the mansion included a wide-spreading American elm, a weeping beech, and a black oak that in time would offer cooling shade. Nearby were cherry and mulberry trees. A few yards from the house, a crescent-shaped pond was fed by an underground reservoir that piped water down to the house. Stone steps and a cobblestone path wound up the hill behind the house, bordered with lilacs and white pines that screened the distant working farm. Myrtle and lilies-of-the-valley covered the ground beneath the trees. At the crest of the hill was the stone-based summerhouse where Bussey and his friends viewed the distant Great Blue Hill and the town of Boston. Looking upward observers could see the heavens, and looking downward on a clear night, the stars were reflected in the crescent pool. The summerhouse later became an observatory. Friends and neighbors came to Woodland Hill to stroll through the ornamental plantings or to climb the hill to the summerhouse, passing by the sweet-smelling lilacs. Some came for tea, others for dinner. The mansion's spacious rooms and many chairs (the west drawing room alone held forty-two) allowed the Busseys to entertain large groups. French china, silver pitchers, and crystal goblets made for elegant serving. Much of the food grew on Bussey's land: the cherries came from the orchards, the rhubarb from the garden, and his livestock provided the popular roasted veal and calves-head soup. His neighbors included Enoch Bartlett of Bartlett pear fame; John Warren, a distinguished physician, known for his Roxbury russet apple; and Joseph Story, associate justice of the United States Supreme Court and a Harvard law professor. One frequent visitor, Dr. Thomas Gray, minister of the Third Parish in Roxbury, often came for dinner following the Sunday worship service. The short distance between the church and Woodland Hill made it very convenient for Gray to visit Bussey as well as for Bussey to attend the meetinghouse. Relatives and their families also spent many hours at Woodland Hill. They came, mostly from Boston, either by personal coach or by the public stage that had begun hourly service to Roxbury for twelve-and-a-half cents per passage. Eliza and Charles, living at 7 Summer Street, Boston, brought their daughters Judith, Eleanor, Eliza, and Maria to play in the woods and meadows. Bussey participated in local activities and hosted visiting dignitaries when they came to town. In 1824, when the Revolutionary War hero Lafayette visited Roxbury, he joined the prominent politician H. A. S. Dearborn and Governor William Eustis in paying homage to this wellloved personage. Later, when President Andrew Jackson came to Boston, he joined in another grand procession: Vice President Martin Van Buren rode in Bussey's yellow coach drawn by a team of \"six horses, richly caparisoned, and attended by liveried servants.\"5 In his seventies, Bussey placed the farming operations under the direction of his grandsonin-law, Francis Head. Comfortably settled in their mansion, the Busseys enjoyed their Peale paintings along with Gilbert Stuart's portraits of the family, the busts of John Adams, General Henry Jackson, George Washington, and one of Benjamin himself. Outdoor sculptures, Ital- Benjamin Bussey 7 PHOTOGRAPH BY KENNETH R. ROBERTSON. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Benjamin Bussey planted this American elm (Ulmus americana) in front of his mansion, where it remained for a century and a half, until the mid 1970s, when it became one of the last of its kind in the Arnold Arboretum to succumb to Dutch elm disease. ian marble statues and vases, were set along the carriage turnaround and at the mansion's entrance. The orchards produced acceptable apricots and juicy plums and massard cherries that Bussey said were \"for the birds because they took their full share.\" He added to the beauty of the rhododendrons, tulip trees, and lilacs with trails that wound through the woods, rude bridges that crossed Bussey Brook, and gold and siver fish that swam in a willow-bordered pond.6 He continued building a fence of giant ashlars to encompass the entire estate. Some stones were two to three feet in length. By 1841, when Woodland Hill had reached a pleasing maturity and had grown in size through the purchase of several additional farms, Bussey opened the gates to the public so that others 8 Arnoldia 64\/1 might share in the beauty of the land. In May of that year, the final codicil of his will was signed. After generously providing for his family, for three good friends, and for the Boston Female Asylum, Bussey set forth a plan to benefit his fellow man through Harvard University. First, he directed a large portion of his estate to Harvard's schools of law and theology, the two branches of education he considered most important in advancing \"the prosperity and happiness of our common country.\" Second, he provided for a school of agriculture and horticulture. Following the deaths of any heirs and their families, Woodland Hill and his Boston real estate were to be conveyed to the President and Fellows of Harvard College. He ordered the trustees to retain the estate and with the monies and other properties he conveyed to them ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM to establish \"a course of instruction in practical agriculture, ornamental gardening, botany, and other branches of natural science . . . to be called the Bussey Institution . . .\"7 One-half of the income from his estates and property was to be used to support the institution; the other half was for the endowment of professorships or scholarships in the law and divinity schools. On the evening of January 13, 1842, Benjamin Bussey Esq. died at his seat in Jamaica Plain, aged eighty-five years, a distinguished merchant of Boston, manufacturer of Dedham, benefactor of New England, and master of Woodland Hill. The deed for the Woodland Hill estate was conveyed to Harvard College by the trustees of the Bussey estate on August 28, 1861. The Bussey Institution's School of Agriculture offered a This Gothic Revival building housed the Bussey Institution of Harvard University beginning in 1871, as directed by Bussey's will. It was demolished after a destructive fire in 1971. Benjamin Bussey 9 three-year program in farming, horticulture, agricultural chemistry, economic zoology, and entomology. Students were taken into the fields as an introduction to practical farming and later to the Arboretum to study and collect plant specimens. The enrollment was small and decreased even more after land-grant colleges were established. In 1908 the Bussey was reorganized as a research institution with graduate instruction only, and in 1936 its activities were integrated with the biology laboratories of Harvard and the Institution itself was closed. In the 1870s, just after the Bussey Institution's inception, a portion of Woodland Hill was incorporated by Harvard as part of a new venture, the creation of an arboretum. The nation's first public arboretum was named, not for Bussey but for James Arnold, the New Bed- Remnants of Bussey's outbuildings stood on Bussey Hill into the 1990s. ford merchant who donated the 3 Letters #46, Aug. 2, 1813, and #45, Aug. 13, 1816, funds for its development. Although Bussey's Bussey Collection, William L. Clements Library, connection to the land was obscured, the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor. Arnold Arboretum offered in great measure 4 what he had desired--education and recreation Peale letter to Bussey, Nov. 3, 1832, Special Collections, Getty Center Institution for History of Art and the to untold numbers of citizens who daily walk Humanities, Los Angeles, California. the grounds and know its beauty. Benjamin 5 Bussey's name lives on through the remaining Annals and Reminiscences of Jamaica Plain, Harriet Manning Whitcomb (Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press, professorships endowed by his will, through the 1897), p. 54. learning passed on by the hundreds of students 6 of the Bussey Institution, and through the work Ibid., p. 53. of Harvard's Biological Laboratories. 7 Endnotes 1 Wi l l o f B e n j a m i n B u s s e y, N o r f o l k C o u n t y, Massachusetts, Probate Court. \"The Bussey Institution 18711929,\" William Morton Wheeler, in The Development of Harvard University Since the Inauguration of President Eliot 18691929, ed. Samuel Eliot Morison (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1930), p. 508. Bussey letter, Jul. 1816, Bussey Papers, Dedham Historical Society. 2 Mary Jane Wilson is a Michigan native with a lifelong interest in Michigan history. Her local and state involvement includes the establishment of the Friends of the Capitol, Inc., and the Docent Guild of the Michigan Historical Center. Her writings include \"The Watch of the Capitol,\" \"Lansing, A Look to the Past,\" and \"The Junior League of Lansing 19482003.\" RACZ & DEBRECZY. ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Founding of the Tree Museum in Bussey Park","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25409","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25e8528.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gilchrist Low, Mrs. Edward","article_content":"THE FOUNDING OF THE TREE MUSEUM IN BUSSEY PARK Jamaica Plain, Boston, Mass Commonly Known as The Arnold Arboretum From an Address Delivered Before The Garden Club of Alameda County June 11, 1922* By Mrs. Edward Gilchrist Low I n 1842 Benjamin Bussey died at his country estate, Woodland Hill, leaving most of his property to Harvard College. His town house of Colonial type, with large gardens and stables in Summer Street, in the very centre of the city of Boston, was sold and the proceeds given to Harvard College. His widow was to continue to live at their country estate, Woodland Hill, Jamaica Plain. In 1849 the widow died. Then a grand-daughter came into possession, having life tenure of the place. Eventually the greater part of the property was to be used for a School or College, where agriculture, botany and all scientific studies pertaining thereto should be established at Woodland Hill. This place had upon it a Mansion House, four cottages, stables, farm, barns and outbuildings. There were 360 acres. In 1815 the place had been laid out by an architect, who evidently had great artistic taste. To approach the house from the street there was a fine avenue, fairly steep in ascent, bordered on either side by white pines and horse chestnuts, and on the west side of these were cherry and mulberry trees. The view from the Mansion House was very pleasing. To the south on the horizon line stretched the Blue Hills in Milton; in the immediate foreground was an oval of grass, decorated with marble statues and marble vases on which were carved masks; these came from Italy. Behind the house there were stone steps leading to a path winding round a hill for three quarters of a mile; it was bordered by trees--pines, beeches, wild cherry, Cercis canadensis, yellow laburnum, syringas and lilacs, and under these were many flowering plants--lilies-of-the-valley, periwinkle, Lilium flavum and others. On the summit of the hill was an octagonal room called the Observatory, for the extended view which spread out before one's eyes--to the south the Blue Hills, the Hemlock Hill, the undulating country, pasture land, and to the east the State House and Boston Harbor. Near the house were herbaceous borders interspersed with shrubs--Magnolia, Umbrella tripetala, weeping cherry, a fine tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera, Narcissus poeticus, tulips, crocuses, Stars of Bethlehem, Cinnamon roses, etc. There were vegetable and fruit gardens and a cold glass house, where large plants oleanders and other kinds, used to decorate the piazza, were wintered. The woods Benjamin Bussey 11 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM \"Bussey's Woods,\" now known as Hemlock Hill, became a favorite site for recreation among nineteenth-century Bostonians. Century Magazine published this view in 1892. were filled with wild flowers. There were picturesque stone bridges with round arches, under which the brook babbled. This was fed by a living spring, whose fresh water ran through a fish pond, where gold fish swam about, then by a narrow marble trough, down a small bank; soon it leaped over rocks and stones until, checked in its swift course by the meadowland, it meandered slowly to join the larger streams far away. There was a legend that the Indians in the early part of the eighteenth century came from afar to drink of this water, and it was always called The Indian Spring. There were pleasure grounds, fish ponds, orchards and the wondrous Hemlock Hill, designated by Sir Joseph Hooker of Kew Gardens, England, the finest in the world. This is a description of Woodland Hill, now known in the archives at the City Hall, Boston, as Bussey Park, in 1842, at the time of Benjamin Bussey's death. * The typescript in its entirety is in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1901 Mrs. Low, a great-granddaughter of Benjamin and Judith Bussey, established on her land in Groton, Massachusetts, \"a college where instruction [was] given to women in Landscape Gardening, Elementary Architecture, Horticulture, Botany and allied subjects.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Century of Breeding Bird Data-Changes Over Time at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":12,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25406","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25ebb26.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mayer, Robert G.","article_content":"A Century of Breeding Bird Data--Changes Over Time at the Arnold Arboretum Robert G. Mayer ROBERT G. MAYER T he area that is now home to the Arnold Arboretum attracted resident and migrating birds long before it was officially established in 1872. Birds beget birders, who in turn keep records of the species that visit and nest in a given location. By 1895, when the first known report of breeding populations was compiled, the Arboretum encompassed all but fifteen of its current 265 acres. While the landscape has not changed much over the intervening century, the living collections-- now comprising over 4,500 woody plant taxa-- have changed dramatically. Habitats within the Arboretum's boundaries include marshland, deciduous woods, coniferous areas, streams, and three manmade ponds surrounded by lawns, providing hospitable sites for many diverse species of birds to raise their young. Lists drawn up by regular birders show that while the number of nesting species at the Arboretum has remained quite stable since 1895, many changes have occurred in the lists' components. In this article I review those changes and speculate on their causes, as well as on prospects for the future. The Listers In 1895, Garden and Forest published a short article in which Charles E. Faxon documented his bird sightings in the Arboretum over a period of several years. 1 According to the article, fifty species of birds were then nesting in the Arboretum. Sixteen years later, Faxon added another five species to the list.2 For the better part of his career at the Arnold Arboretum (18821918), Faxon was in charge of the library and herbarium, but it is as a botanical illustrator that he has been remembered. His publication list approaches two thousand drawings. In a review of Charles S. Sargent's Silva of North America, where many of these Yellow warbler sitting on nest in a mockorange on Bussey Hill Road. drawings were published, naturalist John Muir declared him \"the foremost botanical artist in America.\"3 Like that of many other scientists of his era, Faxon's interest in natural science was broad; he was an enthusiastic birder as well as a botanist. Recognizing the importance of the Arboretum as a birding site, he set about to \"put on record a statement of the present bird population of the place\" so that future observers \"[could] see how many of the present feathered tenants will remain.\"4 Faxon is memorialized at the Arboretum by the name of one of the three manmade ponds near the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants. Miriam E. Dickey, for many years head of the education department of the Boston Children's Museum, led bird walks in the Arboretum Breeding Bird Data 13 nearly every Saturday for 35 years, from 1939 through 1976. In 1976 she reported in an article for Bird Observer of New England 5 that she and her group of regular birders had seen nearly 150 species of birds at the Arboretum, of which 45 \"[had] been seen on a nest with eggs or young.\" Many of the observers were children from the summer day camp that Dickey ran for nearly thirty summers. Her efforts to educate children about natural science also included teaching in the Boston Public Schools and in a Massachusetts Audubon Society program for inner-city children. She remained active in both birding and teaching until her retirement in 1997 at the age of ninety and in 1998 was inducted into the Massachusetts Hall of Fame for Science Educators. In 1971 Arnoldia published a report about birds nesting at the Arboretum written by Richard E. Weaver. Weaver, who played a key role in shaping the Arboretum's grounds during his thirteen-year tenure as horticultural taxonomist and assistant curator,6 included in his article not only his own observations but a list drawn from Faxon's and Dickey's observations as well. His list totals 44 species.7 And finally, the last report in this overview was compiled by the writer. I have been birding at the Arnold Arboretum almost weekly for nearly five years. With the contributions of several other experienced birders, I have documented forty-six confirmed breeders and another five probable breeders during that period.8 The combined list from these four reports is presented in the table that appears on page 14. The Losses As the list shows, the number of breeding species at the Arboretum has decreased somewhat over the century. Twenty-seven species that were recorded by previous observers are most likely no longer nesting on the property. Two game birds, bobwhite and ruffed grouse, may have been extirpated early on by hunting or by habitat loss; another, ring-necked pheasant, was last seen in 2000. The spotted sandpiper, black- and yellow-billed cuckoos, least flycatcher, barn swallow, and eastern bluebird have not nested there since the middle of the twentieth century, probably owing to the loss of suitable habitat and nesting sites and to a reduction in the overall population of some of these species. Seven warbler species, as well as yellow-throated vireo and veery, have stopped nesting in the Arboretum. Some of these species have experienced significant population decreases throughout Massachusetts, while others may no longer be able to find hospitable nesting sites in the increasingly urban habitat. Ground nesting species, such as bobolink and field sparrow, have lost habitat since the Arboretum staff began cutting the grass shorter at the beginning of the twentieth century; increasing numbers of dogs and walkers in the meadows may also have discouraged nesting. That bobolinks have recently begun breeding again on Peters Hill, discussed below, indicates that these trends can be reversed. The Gains On the positive side, seven species that did not appear on previous lists have been documented as confirmed or probable breeders at ROBERT G. MAYER Yellow warbler nestlings surrounded by mockorange. 14 Arnoldia 64\/1 List of Breeding Birds by Reporter Species Green Heron Mallard American Black Duck Wood Duck Cooper's Hawk Red-tailed Hawk American Kestrel Ring-necked Pheasant Ruffed Grouse Northern Bobwhite Spotted Sandpiper Rock Pigeon Mourning Dove Yellow-billed Cuckoo Black-billed Cuckoo Eastern Screech-Owl Great Horned Owl Chimney Swift Ruby-throated Hummingbird Downy Woodpecker Northern Flicker Eastern Wood-Pewee Least Flycatcher Eastern Phoebe Great Crested Flycatcher Eastern Kingbird Barn Swallow Blue Jay American Crow Black-capped Chickadee Tufted Titmouse White-breasted Nuthatch Carolina Wren House Wren Eastern Bluebird Veery Wood Thrush American Robin Gray Catbird Northern Mockingbird Brown Thrasher X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X * = probable breeder 55 45 44 51 X X X* X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X* X X X X X X X X X X X* X X X X X X* X X X X* X X X X X X X X X X X X* X* X X X X X X X X Faxon Dickey Weaver Mayer X X Species Cedar Waxwing European Starling Yellow-throated Vireo Warbling Vireo Red-eyed Vireo Blue-winged Warbler Golden-winged Warbler Brewster's Warbler Yellow Warbler Chestnut-sided Warbler Black-throated Green Warbler Pine Warbler Prairie Warbler Black-and-white Warbler American Redstart Ovenbird Common Yellowthroat Yellow-breasted Chat Scarlet Tanager Northern Cardinal Rose-breasted Grosbeak Indigo Bunting Rufous-sided Towhee Chipping Sparrow Field Sparrow Vesper Sparrow Song Sparrow Bobolink Red-winged Blackbird Common Grackle Brown-headed Cowbird Orchard Oriole Baltimore Oriole Purple Finch House Finch American Goldfinch House Sparrow X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X X* X X X X X* X X X X X X X X* X X X X X X X X X* X* X X X X X X X X X X X X X Faxon X Dickey X X X X Weaver Mayer Breeding Bird Data 15 the Arboretum in recent years. Nesting green herons have been seen several times near the ponds, most recently in 2003. A pair of Cooper's hawks was seen together in the Hemlock Hill area throughout the summer of 2004, and later with a juvenile. Some birders speculate that the woolly adelgid infestation may have indirectly encouraged the hawks to breed at the Arboretum by decreasing the density of the hemlock stand; the species' overall population increase in Massachusetts may also account for this new record. Tufted titmouse, another recent addition to the list, has become a common nester in the state as it extends its range northward. In 2003 a pair of blue-winged warblers nested in a shrub in the Bradley Garden, but we don't know whether their young fledged and they have not been found nesting again. Pine warbler has shown a trend toward nesting in both coastal and interior areas of Massachusetts; in the Arboretum they are probable nesters in the conifer collection as well as in the pines on Peters Hill. An orchard oriole nest was discovered in June 2004 in a stewartia next to the wet meadow near the main entrance. The same pair of birds, or another pair, returned in 2005 to nest in a katsura less than 15 feet away. Orchard orioles had been sighted in late May several years earlier, suggesting that nesting may have occurred even before 2004. Finally, house finches have replaced purple finches as nesters in the Bradley Collection, as they have throughout much of the eastern United States. Other species now missing although present on previous lists may simply have been overlooked in the surveys of the last five years. In this category are cedar waxwing and scarlet tanager, both of them likely species for breeding in the Arboretum. Red-bellied woodpecker, known to nest in nearby Franklin Park, and willow flycatcher, which is heard increasingly late into the spring, especially in the new Stony Brook Marsh section of the Arboretum, are both good candidates for turning up in surveys within the next decade. An Exciting Case History: Bobolinks In late May of 2005, a flock of forty or more migrant bobolinks was seen on the grassy slopes of Peters Hill, considerably more than usual for that area. Hoping to encourage the birds to nest, the Arboretum staff stopped mowing in that area and posted signs urging dog walkers to avoid the tall grass and keep their dogs leashed. The effort was rewarded: by mid June at least one pair of bobolinks had nested near the top of the hill. The pair was later observed bringing food to hatchlings and there was evidence that young birds had crawled out of the nest, but no confirmed sightings of fledglings were reported, perhaps because the intense heat wave in late June led to the hatchlings' demise. Nonetheless there is hope that continued protection and delayed mowing will attract more nesters next year and that bobolink breeding will be firmly reestablished in the Arboretum after more than a century. Endnotes 1 C. E. Faxon, \"Birds of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Garden and Forest (July 1895) 8(387): 29293. -- -- -- \"Birds in the Arboretum,\" A Guide to the Arnold Arboretum, 1911: 3133. John Muir, \"Sargent's Silva,\" Atlantic Monthly, July 1903. Faxon, \"Birds of the Arnold Arboretum.\" Miriam E. Dickey, \"The Arnold Arboretum as a Birding Area,\" Bird Observer of Eastern Massachusetts (Jan-Feb 1976) 4(1): 47. R. E. Weaver, \"Birds in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Arnoldia (Nov 1971) 31(6): 349365. Papers of Richard E. Weaver, Jr., 19701983, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain. Using the definition of \"probable\" applied in the Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas, which includes (1) singing male present or mating calls heard on more than one date in same place; (2) a bird or pair of birds apparently holding territory or visiting probable nest site; (3) courtship and display or aggressive behavior or anxiety calls from adults, suggesting probable presence of nest or young nearby; (4) nest building by some wren and woodpecker males, birds known to build multiple nests in a flurry of eager optimism, which is sometimes entirely unwarranted. 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Robert Mayer has been birding, photographing, and volunteering as a docent and field study guide for five years at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The (un)Natural and Cultural History of Korean Goldenrain Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":16,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25410","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25e856d.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.; Whitlow, Thomas H.; Ho-Duck, Kang","article_content":"The (un)Natural and Cultural History of Korean Goldenrain Tree Michael S. Dosmann, Thomas H. Whitlow, and Kang Ho-Duck T ALL PHOTOGRAPHS, EXCEPT OTHERWISE INDICATED, ARE BY THE AUTHORS. he midsummer floral and autumnal fruit displays of goldenrain tree, Koelreuteria paniculata, have caught the eye of Western botanists and gardeners alike since 1747, when Pierre d'Incarville, a Jesuit priest, introduced the species to Europe from northern China. By 1763, this charming tree was being grown in the Jardin du Roi in Paris, and in 1809 it made its first known appearance in the United States when Thomas Jefferson received a shipment of seeds from Madame de Tesse, a French aristocrat and fellow botany lover with whom he often traded plants. It has since become a popular garden ornamental and is much appreciated for its tolerance of urban conditions. Goldenrain tree's Chinese distribution lies in the eastern half of temperate China, extending from Sichuan Province northeast to Liaoning Province, where it is frequently found growing in dry streambeds and valleys. About a dozen separate populations have been discovered on Goldenrain trees in bloom above their namesake restaurant--Mogamchoonamu--in Balsan 1-Ri, a fishing village near Pohang on the eastern coast of the Korean peninsula. Koelreuteria 17 the Korean peninsula as well as in Honshu, Japan. Several theories about the origin of these populations have been proposed. The close proximity of most populations to the Yellow Sea suggests a likely route for Chinese propagules dispersed by water, man, or some combination of the two. In his 1976 monograph of the genus, Frederick Meyer of the U.S. National Arboretum states convincingly that the species' appearance outside of China was due solely to man.1 The species was not encountered during Japanese botanist Takenoshin Nakai's thorough survey of the Korean peninsula (19151936). 2 However, we cannot assume they were not Red dots mark the five Koelreuteria paniculata populations the authors present at the time, as the small, visited in South Korea. Locations, counterclockwise from top left: Anheung, isolated populations could easily Anmyondo, Wando, Pohang, and Woraksan. have been overlooked. Contrary to the view that the species was introduced Their origin is not the only aspect of the Japafrom China, the recent discovery of several nese and Korean populations that has puzzled inland populations has led to speculation by botanists. Their ability to survive the stressful some that it was once naturally widespread conditions at the ocean's edge has also been throughout the Korean peninsula and that only of interest. In 1979 the Morris Arboretum's a few remnant populations remain.3 Paul Meyer collected from trees in Paengnipo The cultural significance of goldenrain tree in (also known as Panjikol) on the west coast of Asia lends support to the argument for humanSouth Korea. He described the population as \"a mediated origins. Chow noted that in China dense scrubby thicket with few plants reaching it was common around temples, palaces, and more than two meters, the plants growing on gardens and was used to mark the tombs of sand dunes, just above the high tide level.\"8 He 4 important officials. Likewise in Japan, the use depicted the site as \"exposed to periods of sea of goldenrain tree is linked to religious pracwater inundation, wind, drought and salt spray.\" tices. An early researcher posited that it may Their unusual character also prompted collechave first appeared in a Buddhist monastery tion by Arnold Arboretum botanists Richard in Kyoto around 1220 AD, grown from seeds Weaver and Stephen Spongberg in 1977.9 brought from China.5 Ohwi, a prominent JapRecent studies of Korean populations, most of anese botanist of the twentieth century, also which now have government protection because believed in the Buddhist connection, pointing of their biological and cultural significance, have out that the species had naturalized near temfound high genetic differences among populaples along the shoreline.6 (Buddhism arrived in tions but low levels of genetic diversity within Japan in the mid sixth century, most likely by them, suggesting local inbreeding and little gene way of Korea, where it can be traced back to the flow between populations.10 To date, however, mid-to-late fourth century.) In Korea, the spethe comprehensive phylogenetic study that cies has been preserved in local forests by vilwould be required to establish the relationships lagers for use in shelterbelt plantings to protect of all the Korean populations--as well as those homesteads from salt spray.7 of China and Japan--has not been undertaken. 18 Arnoldia 64\/1 The first sighting of goldenrain trees was outside several marina buildings on the island of Anheung. The Urban Horticulture Institute (UHI) at Cornell University has been studying the goldenrain tree for several years, in particular because of its tolerance of the stresses of urban landscapes. The UHI staff has assembled a diverse germplasm repository of living plants from Asia as well as from Western gardens, and has been conducting experiments in the field, greenhouse, and laboratory to better understand the species' natural variation and its physiological response to varying environments. Asia's coastal populations have been targeted to test hypotheses related to microevolution and adaptation to salt spray. However, results of ex situ experiments, no matter how compelling, are best viewed in light of the plant's natural habitat. Therefore, during the summer of 2004 the three authors visited five populations of goldenrain tree in South Korea, one inland and four along the coast. In addition to describing the sites and the condition of the trees, we collected tissue for future molecular analyses, measured photosynthesis to assess plant performance using a portable gas-exchange system (LiCor 6400), and, when possible, interviewed local people. Anheung Michael and Tom arrived in South Korea on the evening of June 14, 2004, and met Kang the following morning. During the ninety-minute drive to Seoul, we discussed woody plants of mutual interest--in particular, mogamchoonamu (the goldenrain tree). Once at Dongguk University, we toured Kang's laboratory, readied our expedition supplies, and met his graduate Koelreuteria 19 students, including Kim Tae-Young, who joined us on our trip. The next morning, we left for the province of Chungchan Namdo, west-southwest of Seoul. In the small town of Mollipo 11 we joined Chang Kyon-Wan, chief of the western branch of the Korea Forest Research Institute (KFRI). We had intended to visit the nearby population at Paengnipo but learned that it had recently been destroyed for resort construction. (Government protection is at times more theoretical than real.) Mr. Chang recommended that we instead visit another population in the region, near the island fishing village of Anheung. None of us had heard of this population, but we eagerly hopped in our car and headed south, following Mr. Chang to our destination. Upon arrival, our guide provided us with a general lay of the land, told us where to find our target species, and then had to depart. A view with binoculars of a distant wooded hill revealed trees with pinnately compound leaves. But after rushing over we identified it as Platycarya strobilacea, of the walnut family, a common species in the region. This was only after discovering its strobiles, peculiar dried, five-centimeter (cm)-long, conelike fruits. We also saw a great deal of Pinus densiflora (Japanese red pine) and of shrubs such as Rhus chinensis (Chinese sumac) and an Asian species of spicebush, Lindera obtusiloba--but no goldenrain trees. A bit disgruntled, we made our way along a bumpy dirt road to the very tip of the island where we had our first sighting: two multistemmed trees growing among fishnets, traps, and a rubbish heap outside a boat rental business. They stood 4 to 5 meters (m) tall and had a dense canopy of conspicuously cupped leaves, a response to salt-spray stress. With rising spirits we followed the road a kilometer (km) up and over a final hill, past a copse of Pinus densiflora to the ocean's edge, where we found the actual population. We had no trouble identifying the species, for not only were the trees protected by a chainlink fence 1.5 m high, but little yellow signs labeled \"Koelreuteria paniculata\" hung from nearly every tree. Such is the nature of plant exploration in the twenty-first century. Despite being protected, the population had not been mentioned in any previous reports, so it was important that we census the site in the few hours remaining before dusk. The trees were growing 8 to 10 m from the harbor's edge, covering about half a hectare (ha). Goldenrain tree was the dominant species, with a few small Platycarya strobilacea, Rhus chinensis, Elaeagnus macrophylla, harlequin glorybower (Clerodendrum trichotomum), and the viney Hedera rhombea mixed in. We counted 25 adult goldenrain trees ranging from 3 to 4 m in height but no juveniles despite evidence of fruiting the previous year. There were both single- and multistemmed trees; most were growing upright although on the stand's windward edge we found a few prostrate individuals. To describe the trees as vigorous would be an overstatement: There was widespread evidence of salt injury on the leaves, including leaf-rolling (cupping) and surface puckering. Over time, leaves exposed to salt can become chlorotic (yellowed) or even die, and we saw both. We also found misshapen branches that had shortened internodes (spaces between leaves), resulting in leaves growing abnormally close together. This, when accompanied by a windswept form, is the syndrome referred to as elfinwood, which is akin to the krumholz commonly seen in conifers at high altitudes. At this site as elsewhere, we recorded height and stem diameter and attempted to estimate the age of the trees through increment coring. The largest diameter at breast height (dbh) was 34.5 cm and we ascertained that this stem was 72 years old. Quite a few of the multistemmed trees were noticeably larger at the base; coring one tree's base and largest stem yielded 84 and 38 annual rings, respectively. Most of the trees were similar in size and habit, suggesting an even-aged stand that may have had most of its stems cleared several decades ago. The substrate, unexpectedly, consisted mainly of cobblestones, perhaps ship bilge or dredge spoil from the nearby harbor. The next morning we made our way to the nearby Chollipo Arboretum. This famous plant collection, situated among the coves at the ocean's edge, was founded by the late Carl Ferris Miller in the early 1970s and is at the top of the must-see list for any connoisseur of woody plants.12 Chong Mun-Yong, the hor- 20 Arnoldia 64\/1 ticultural director, gave us a warm welcome and a complete tour, despite the torrential rain that marked the beginning of the monsoon season. The collections of magnolias and hollies were impressive, and the heady aroma from the blooming chinaberry (Melia azederach) was nearly overpowering. We also saw a number of goldenrain trees that had been collected from the now extirpated Paengnipo site; had it not been for Mr. Miller's efforts, it is doubtful that germplasm from this population would still exist. At the end of our visit, when Mr. Chong invited us to sign the institution's visitors' book, Michael and Tom laughed at how small the botanical world was--just two days before, the Arnold Arboretum's Peter Del Tredici had signed the book during his visit. Anmyondo Our next destination was a site near the seaside resorts of Bangpo Beach and Bangpo Harbor, on the western edge of Anmyondo, an island in the Yellow Sea to the south of the Taean Peninsula. After arriving on the afternoon of June 16 and dropping our things at the hotel, we decided to explore the area while there was still daylight. To aid in our search for the goldenrain trees, we had brought photographs taken by Paul Meyer during his 1984 visit. They showed a remote population of several hundred windswept trees at the ocean's edge, with a steep hill in the background. Not five minutes after we set off on foot along the high-tide line from Bangpo Beach south toward Bangpo Harbor, we were surprised to stumble upon a cluster of scrubby Koelreuteria paniculata scattered across the base of a hill--but it was clearly not the population shown in Meyer's photos. This group consisted of about 20 small trees, all less than 2 m tall. Leaf injury from salt spray was more severe than at Anheung, but it was largely confined to the outermost leaves, and a recent second flush had produced substantial new growth. We found a motley assortment of other species growing here, including the vines Pueraria lobata (kudzu, the \"vine that ate the South\"), Lonicera japonica (Japanese honeysuckle), and shrubs such as Ligustrum obtusifolium (border privet), Eleaegnus macrophylla, and a shrubby member of the linden family, Grewia biloba var. parviflora. While all showed some salt damage, their growth seemed only marginally compromised. The most common symptom among these species, in addition to leaf yellowing, was succulence: many leaves become thicker when exposed to salt spray. (The Grewia were particularly resilient.) The substrate along the tidal marks was the same as at Anheung: large cobblestones. These stones had clearly washed ashore from the ocean, prompting us to reconsider our earlier hypothesis that the Anheung population was growing on dredge spoil or ballast rather than on naturally deposited stones. Farther down the beach, we got our first view of Bangpo Harbor and our original target population. The site looked very different from the 1984 photos. The beach and high-tide mark, just a few meters from the population's edge in 1984, were now 75 to 100 meters away. Between the trees and the sea, parking lots, boardwalks, hotels, and restaurants had been built to accommodate the flourishing tourist and fishing industries. The goldenrain trees, covering nearly a hectare (1.47 acres), were surrounded by a formidable 1.5-m-tall wrought-iron fence painted grass green. Two large interpretive signs, in both Korean and English, described the species and the population's designation in 1962 as a monument (number 138). We laughed at our achievement in finding such an isolated population; a glowing neon sign would not have made it more obvious. Unlike the Anheung population, this one was actively managed by local authorities. All understory vegetation had been removed and many of the trees were propped up with metal braces and cables to force upright growth. All of this had been done since 1984, when few trees were taller than 3 m; they now generally ranged between 5 and 7 m in height. Their growth and increased vigor probably resulted from the decline of salt spray over the past two decades: a breakwater now lessens the intensity of wave action, the waves themselves are farther away, and in some parts of the site, buildings now block spray completely. We were assisted over the next few days by Kang's colleague Woo Su-Young, a professor in the Department of Environmental Horticul- Koelreuteria 21 PAUL MEYER The western edge of the Bangpo Harbor goldenrain tree population on Anmyondo as it appeared in 1984, above, and in 2004, below. 22 Arnoldia 64\/1 cm. We tried to age individuals by coring stems and bases but found internal rot in most trees beyond 25 to 30 annual rings. Despite finding copious seeds from the previous year, we found no evidence of seedling recruitment, which could be the result of poor germination and\/or the removal of juveniles during clearing. This failure of seedlings to regenerate, particularly if over a prolonged period of time, constrains a population's ability to survive. Despite this lack of sexual reproduction, we found conclusive evidence of clonal regeneration. One rainy afternoon, as we cored the base of a multistemmed tree, we removed a bit of soil from around the base and saw what appeared to be a horizontal stem leading away from it. With trowels, penknives, and fingers, we carefully excavated the sandy loam from the stem and at its end, 1.2 m away from the trunk, we found another, slightly smaller tree. Curious to explore the network further, we excavated the opposite side of the original tree and found another lateral stem, this one leading to a prostrate individual. Two other trees within 2 m of the original stem also turned out to be vegetative clones. In response to disturbance and other stressors, many temperate trees form basal sprouts.13 To our knowledge, this is the first documented observation of stem or root suckering in Koelreuteria paniculata. In light of the stand's poor sexual reproduction, clonal reproduction would seem to play a critical role in its persistence and might also explain the low levels of within-population genetic diversity reported in earlier studies of coastal populations. Soil cores taken near the central stem showed a marked difference between the windward and leeward sides of the clump. The leeward side was topped by an organic layer at least 6 to 8 cm thick, whereas the windward side had a very shallow organic layer, typically of less than 2 At the population on Anmyondo, we discovered that goldenrain tree can cm. This kind of soil profile is similar to that of dune-forming vegetatively reproduce from stem and root suckers. ture, University of Seoul. We had intended to measure foliar salt deposition, but recent rains had washed all the salt from the leaves. However, especially on the farthest windward canopy edges, leaf damage from earlier exposure was substantial, mostly limited to cupping\/ rolling and puckered (bullate) surfaces, which allowed us to assess the stress. Some leaves had been killed, but in many of these cases new growth was emerging from buds lower on the branch. We also found that looks can be deceiving, as gas-exchange measurements on mature leaves--even those with significant injury--had moderate to high photosynthetic rates. Stem size was fairly uniform throughout, though the trees on the farthest windward edge were smaller. The stand's basal area, which is an estimate of the total cross-sectional area of all trees in the stand (here only goldenrain tree), was 14.2 m2\/ha. While we do not know what the basal area had been in previous years, we could compare dbh values. Mean dbh was nearly twice that reported by Lee et al. in 1997, supporting our view that the trees had grown significantly as the amount of salt spray had declined recently. Most of the trees had multiple stems that separated 20 to 30 cm above the base, and the mean basal diameter was 21.8 Koelreuteria 23 species whose networks of roots and stems capture organic matter, often their own fallen leaves. Nearer the ocean's edge of the stand, we found that soil had lower organic matter and was coarser, in many cases comprising stones similar to those we had observed at other sites. We had wonderful meals at the Marine Motel, just a stone's throw from the goldenrain tree population. One evening, after sampling a fruity North Korean alcohol made from bilberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), we interviewed the proprietress, Mrs. Choi. Her family had lived at Bangpo Harbor for many generations, and she considered herself the trees' caretaker, A large flowering goldenrain tree growing near the fishing hamlet of Kalmunmuch to the chagrin of the local ri, Wando. During our visit, only about half of the population had been protected by a fence; the remaining areas were used by local fisherman to store authorities. She told us that the floats and nets. population had been there for as long as her family could recall, at least 150 near Kalmun-ri. He described the population years. When her grandfather was a boy, it had there as the healthiest he had seen in Korea, been much larger and was managed by the famattributing the trees' vigor to the microclimate ily as a windbreak to protect the homestead and of the site: it is on the island's northwest side, garden from salt spray. She was quick to point separated from the mainland by only 2.5 km out that it was not until the population was desand therefore protected from harsh winds off ignated a cultural landmark in the 1960s that the ocean. The population came under governit shrank in size and became a monoculture. ment protection as recently as 2002 (monument We asked about the goldenrain trees' origin, number 428), and at the time of our visit only but she had no answer beyond the traditional half of the area had been fenced in. local explanation--that the trees came from After our chat with Mr. Oh, we drove the China--and had no idea of whether they had short distance to the hamlet of Kalmun-ri, been deliberately planted or had grown from where the woods spanned several hectares along seed that floated across the sea. nearly a kilometer of shoreline, with most of the Koelreuteria in a strip running about half Wando that distance. At the high-tide mark, a 1.5-mThe island of Wando is positioned off the southhigh stone retaining wall had been erected along southwest edge of the Korean peninsula and is much of the site's length. Jutting from the wall home to an array of warm-temperate woody spewas a 50-m quay, to which several boats were cies such as Camellia japonica, Actinodaphne moored and where local fishermen unloaded lancifolia, an evergreen member of the laurel their daily catches. family, and Cinnamomum japonicum, someThere was much greater species diversity here times called the Japanese camphor tree. On the than at the previous sites, which were essenmorning of June 21 we met Oh Chan-Jin of the tially monocultures. Bigleaf dogwoods (Cornus Wando Arboretum, which has been coordinatmacrophylla) were in full bloom, the largest any ing goldenrain tree preservation efforts at a site of us had seen (several over 50 cm in dbh and 24 Arnoldia 64\/1 Summary of Populations Visited and Primary Sampling Data Location and description Anheung, protected population near harbor Anmyondo, small feral population near Bangpo Beach Anmyondo, protected population at Bangpo Harbor Wando, protected population at Kalmun-ri Pohang, westernmost edge of population near Mason-Ri Pohang, site near Balsan 1-Ri Pohang, easternmost edge of population near Tae Bo 1-Ri Worakson, population near Podogam hermitage Worakson, population on Joonbong Valley Ridge Worakson, population in Joonbong Valley a b Latitude (N) 36 40.922' 36 30.423' Longitude (E) 126 07.190' 126 20.0' Number of individuals 25 15 to 20 Average dbh (cm) 12.8 -- Largest dbh (cm) 34.5 -- Oldest stem 86 -- Average height (m) 3.5 1.5 36 30.275' 126 20.124' ca. 375 12.4 20.6 36a 6 34 21.864' 36 0.824' 126 38.507' 129 28.723' ca. 800 --b 18.7 11.5 46.7 18.4 53a 29a 8 6 36 1.614' 36 4.543' 129 30.157' 129 32.721' --b --b 19.6 8.6 32.4 14.6 45a -- 10 2.5 36 54.026' 36 53.431' 36 53.360' 128 5.405' 128 5.316' 128 5.314' 36 20 to 25c 300 < 13.2 11.8 20.3 24.3 12.8 35.5 27a 21 -- 8.5 5 8.5 rotting of internal core limited age estimation continuous population comprising 1000s of trees c mostly juveniles 10 m tall), their scaly, alligator-like bark and canopies of creamy white flowers prominent everywhere. Acer pseudosieboldianum (Korean maple) were also very large, one measuring 44 cm in diameter. Also present in large numbers were Korean plum yew (Cephalotaxus koreana), Chinese quince (Pseudocydonia sinensis), and Chinese hackberry (Celtis sinensis). The multistemmed Korean hornbeam (Carpinus coreana var. major) were particularly striking with their glossy, fluted, muscular bark frequently covered with moss and lichen. (This species has significant ornamental potential but is rarely seen in cultivation.) The understory in these woods was also rich, with an assortment of species including Cinnamomum japonicum, Eleaegnus macrophylla, Grewia biloba var. parviflora, and juveniles of Cudrania tricuspidata, a relative of the North American osage orange. We concentrated most of our sampling efforts in a part of the fenced section that had not been cleared or otherwise recently disturbed. Mean basal area values for two parallel transects, 5 and 20 m from the beach, were 28.7 and 21.8 m2\/ha, respectively. These values, when compared to those from the Anmyondo site, illustrate the greater volume in the Wando stand. The dominance of Koelreuteria in the shoreline transect was easily apparent: this species' mean basal area was 15.5 m2\/ha at the edge and 1.7 m2\/ha deeper into the stand. Compared to other tree species present, goldenrain tree was the greatest in relative density (42 percent) and frequency (27 percent). Overall, the goldenrain trees here were larger than those at previous sites, some exceeding 10 m in height. Once again, we saw evidence of clonal regeneration, but we also found considerable seedling regeneration. As Koelreuteria 25 at the other sites, recent rains prevented us from quantifying salt deposition on leaves, but even on robust trees we found clear evidence of salt-spray injury, mostly cupping with a minor amount of necrosis and defoliation. As might be expected, the damage was most evident where exposure was greatest, on the outer edge of the canopy and on trees nearest the ocean. Surprisingly, even the injured leaves showed moderateto-high photosynthetic rates. An interpretive sign near the entrance to the site described in both Korean and English the special nature of Koelreuteria paniculata, noting that their seeds had once been used to make rosaries. Our queries of local residents produced answers similar to those of Mrs. Choi in Anmyondo: the stand had been there for generations, likely planted as a windbreak centuries ago. Pohang On June 23, we left Wando driving east along the peninsula's southern coast, then north to the industrial city of Pohang, on the east coast. It was just beyond the city, at the edge of Yongil Bay and facing the open ocean, that we found the next population. We knew very little about this site and no local authorities were scheduled to meet and guide us. Instead, we relied on a set of GPS coordinates. After a few wrong turns we found ourselves on a narrow, twisting road that wound through small fishing villages along the rocky coastline. About 3 km from our target coordinates, we saw the first Koelreuteria, in dramatic full flower. The trees dotted the landscape for a stretch of about 10 km, between the village of Mason-Ri eastward to Tae Bo 1-Ri. In some areas, steep hillsides were blanketed with large, healthy trees in full From left, Kim-Tae Young, Ho-Duck Kang, and Michael Dosmann conduct a vegetation survey on Wando. Kang is measuring the diameter at breast height of a Cornus macrophylla. 26 Arnoldia 64\/1 Goldenrain trees in full flower growing above the ocean near Mason-Ri, outside Pohang on the east coast of the Korean peninsula. flower; in others the trees were stunted, flowerless, and almost completely defoliated. We were surprised to see a number of recent roadside plantings, not just single rows, but groves of trees planted by the dozen. We hoped that the trees had come from a local source so that the local wild population would not be threatened by genetic contamination. A wet, gusty typhoon limited our activities over the next few days. The gas-exchange system does not work well in a downpour, and the steep and rocky slopes would have been difficult to traverse even in the driest of weather. We spent most of our time delimiting the boundaries of the population and taking samples for future genetic analysis. Trees at this site grew both on the shore--or, rather, on the cliffs above it--as well as up to a kilometer inland, in valleys protected from the marine environment. In these valleys we found many trees exceeding 12 m in height and 30 cm in dbh--by far the largest we had seen so far and all in full bloom. By contrast, near Tae Bo 1-Ri, where the ocean spray was greatest, we found fewer than 20 windswept trees, all stunted, none more than 3 m tall and 15 cm in dbh, and all lacking flowers as well as most of their leaves--good examples of elfinwood. In Balsan 1-Ri, one of the fishing villages that lay along the road beneath the steep slopes, we stopped at a restaurant named Mogamchoonamu, after the goldenrain tree. Beaming with pride at our interest in the trees, the owner told us the same thing we had heard elsewhere: she did not know their origin but it was common knowledge that they had been there longer than anybody could remember. Although some trees were being lost as hillsides crumbled under the pressure of increased development, the Pohang population was large Koelreuteria 27 and thriving compared to those we had previously visited and appeared to be confronting fewer threats from either nature or humans. Whereas elsewhere the trees grew in small patches at the very edge of the beach, here they spread from shoreline to inland valleys. Another difference was that many of the trees here grew atop crags and rocky outcroppings, high above the surf where they were not likely to have been planted to protect homes and gardens. In fact, as we gazed at these trees, glowing golden even in the rain and mist, we wondered if they had been planted at all. Woraksan With its mixture of coastal and inland environs, Pohang was a perfect transition to our final destination: Woraksan, the 1,093-m-high mountain located in central South Korea. On June 25, as we headed west through spectacularly beautiful mountains, the fishing villages soon gave way to agriculture. Woraksan (\"Moon Crags Mountain\") lies within a national park that encompasses temples, stone Buddha statues, and a fortress dating from at least the seventh century. Koelreuteria grows in two areas on the mountain, one near the Buddhist hermitage of Podogam and the other in Joonbong Valley, several kilometers away. Getting to Podogam required a treacherous drive up a rugged road followed by a hike up the steep trail that leads to the mountain's peak. The hermitage, perched on one of the mountain's western ridges at about 400 m, comprised a temple, two lodges for visitors, and several small outbuildings. The site's rich history includes an account from the Unified Shilla Dynasty (668 to 918 AD) of an exiled emperor's son who took refuge in the adjacent Wang Li Cavern. We found 36 mature trees here, mostly along the crest of the ridge. Like the trees on Yongil Bay, they grew on steep, rugged terrain, with many sprouting from cracks in the cliffs and between large rocks. They were smaller in girth than the trees at Pohang and Wando yet far more upright, likely the combined result of competition for light and absence of salt spray and wind. A precipice above the upper canopy of one of the larger trees allowed us to measure its photosynthetic rates. From this perch we got not just vertigo but also a good view of the early flowering in the trees below; we estimated that they were about a week behind those in Pohang. The flora at this site included many species we had not seen on the coasts. We counted many Amur maples (Acer tataricum ssp. ginnala), kousa dogwoods, and a few large, flowering Tetradium danielli (a close relative of the Amur cork tree, Phellodendron amurense) and Ailanthus altissima (tree of heaven). The rich shrub layer contained such familiar garden taxa as Korean boxwood, spireas, Euonymous alatus (burning bush), and Philadelphus (mockorange). There were also vines such as Parthenocissus tricuspidata (Boston ivy), Akebia quinata, and the ever-present kudzu. In the hot afternoon sun, we took a break from measurements and enjoyed a cold watermelon with the monk, Sung Kwan. He began our discussion with a synopsis of the web of all living things: plants, insects, a nearby family of black-and-white rabbits, ourselves. We hoped that our questions about goldenrain trees would elicit local legends, but instead he matter-of-factly told us that they were obviously natural elements of the mountain. When we probed further, he said that he found the trees unattractive and of so little value that he could see no reason anybody would have introduced them. He was also certain that the seeds were far too small to make Buddhist rosaries, contrary to what we had read earlier. Certainly not the responses we had anticipated. After our chat, he led us down the path through the Koelreuteria grove to the Wang Li Cavern, the site of a Buddhist shrine and a spring. Directly in front of the cavern was a pool of water spanned by a rustic wooden bridge and surrounded by a dense colony of Artemisia vulgaris (mugwort). On the right side of the cave's mouth stood a Taxus cuspidata (Japanese yew) and on the left, a goldenrain tree. Suspended from a branch of the latter was a small brass bell that jingled in the breeze, adding to the atmosphere created by the spectacular valley view and the strong smell of camphor from the mugwort. The human footprint on this mountain stretches at least back to the Goryeo 28 Arnoldia 64\/1 Dynasty (57 BC to 668 AD), when the nearby Dongmun fortress was built, and contrary to the monk's assertion we were quite sure that at some time in that long history Koelreuteria was introduced at Woraksan. We spent the next day, our last on the mountain, investigating a population of goldenrain trees in the nearby Joonbong Valley. In an earlier report 14 Son numbered this population in the hundreds, but after an arduous hike we found only about 25 individuals in an isolated patch on a ridge at 395 m. Most were juveniles; only a few of the larger trees had flowers. Certain that this could not be the population mentioned by Son, we spent several more hours exploring the area but failed to find more Koelreuteria, and we headed back down the mountain at dusk. Before leaving for Seoul the next morning (June 28), we returned to the valley for a quick examination of a streambed to the south of the ridge where we had found the small population the day before. Almost immediately, we found hundreds of Koelreuteria lining the very edges of the rocky waterway. Many were exceptionally large, a few exceeding 15 m in height and 35 cm in dbh. Nearly all were multistemmed, and again we saw evidence of basal sprouting following disturbance, in this case subsidence of the unstable banks. In fact, we saw very large trees, some still alive, that had been uprooted and washed downstream. Water, wind, and gravity are known dispersal agents for the marble-like goldenrain tree seeds; here we saw that entire trees, not just seeds, could be dispersed by flowing water. Although we Tom Whitlow uses the LiCor 6400 to measure photosynthesis on a tree growing near the Buddhist hermitage at Podogam on Woraksan. The real-time photosynthetic rate (expressed as the rate of CO2) is determined after inserting a leaf in the unit's cuvette, seen attached to a tripod on the righthand side of the image. Koelreuteria 29 never determined the entire size of this population, we were confident that it continued for a considerable distance toward the crest of Woraksan. On June 30, we visited the Korea National Arboretum, about an hour's drive north of Seoul. After a wonderful tour of the grounds, we met with several KFRI research scientists who were familiar with Koelreuteria paniculata. We were surprised to learn from Kim Sung-Sik that two bird species, the brown-eared bulbul (Hypsipetes amaurotis) and the rufus turtledove (Streptopelia orientalis), have occasionally been observed foraging in the Arboretum's goldenrain trees. Rather A goldenrain tree stood at the mouth of the Wang Li Cavern, near Podogam, than eat the seeds, the birds usu- the Buddhist hermitage on Woraksan. ally drop them short distances away. None of the literature on goldenrain that should be preserved, just as we preserve tree mentions seed dispersal by birds, but this landraces of crop plants. behavior could explain the presence of populaThe second reason for our trip was to learn tions on the high cliffs of Pohang and on the how goldenrain tree responds to a coastal isolated ridge at Woraksan, making birds yet environment where it must cope with the another dispersal vector in addition to wind, stresses of salt-spray and other disturbances. water, gravity, and people. The intense monsoon rains we encountered on many days actually provided valuable Our first goal when we embarked on this tour insights in this regard. As tender leaves emerge had been to study the Korean goldenrain trees in spring, they become stressed from the conin their natural (or unnatural) environs. We stant salt spray. This progresses from chlorosis were expecting to find uncultivated populaand cupping to death in severe cases, particutions regenerating on their own and blending larly in leaves at the windward edges of the with other natural elements of the landscape. canopy. When these early leaves are damaged, At two locations, Pohang and Woraksan, this as we observed during our visit, a second set of is exactly what we found. We were not expectbuds below them is released from dormancy and ing the heavy human influences we found at a new flush occurs with the onset of the monAnheung, Anmyondo, and Wando, however, soon season, producing leaves that are likely to where the populations resembled plantations last through the rest of the summer. Although not long out of management. Nevertheless, we salt is no doubt deposited on the new leaves, the concluded that all the sites we visited reflected frequent rains rinse much of it away, a process the essential nature of Koelreuteria in Korea: all likely facilitated by the curling of the leaves. are components of cultural landscapes that are And, we learned that despite visible signs of intertwined with local traditions ranging from salt injury, leaves could still photosynthesize Buddhism to coastal homesteading. And we at moderate to high rates. Stem- and rootbelieve that each population, whatever its orisuckering, a strategy for mitigating the effects gin, now represents a unique cultural landrace of stress and disturbance, help the trees survive 30 Arnoldia 64\/1 in these sites and may explain the low levels of within-population genetic variation reported in earlier studies. The combination of all these factors may be the source of the species' survivability at these coastal sites. Regardless of how Koelreuteria paniculata arrived on the Korean peninsula, the trees are entrenched in local custom and deserve to be preserved for generations to come, for their cultural as well as scientific significance. The South Korean government's protection of most of these populations is commendable, but the lack of appropriate management threatens the trees' long-term survival. For example, clearing the understory at Anmyondo has limited potential regeneration, both seedling and clonal, and the roadside trees planted near Pohang could contaminate the local gene pool if they are not derived from local source. We strongly recommend a centralized management plan that includes long-term demographic monitoring and evaluation, less intrusive maintenance measures, and preservation of germplasm in ex situ repositories. Endnotes 1 (KT 74) yielded Morris Arboretum accessions 81-333 ADEFH, and Spongberg and Weaver's collection (SW 356) produced accessions 1605-77ABC for the Arnold Arboretum. 10 S. W. Lee et al. 1997. Characteristics of leaf morphology, vegetation and genetic variation in the endemic populations of a rare tree species, Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. Journal of the Korean Forest Society 86: 167176; Son et al., 2000; K. B. Yim, et al. 1994. RAPD variation in three distantly isolated populations of Koelreuteria paniculata growing in Korea. Research Reports of the Forest Genetic Research Institute of Korea 30: 9398. The names for the local sites (Mollipo, Chollipo, and Paengnipo) reflect the relative sizes of their bays: the suffix \"-po\" means bay, while the prefix \"moll-\" means large (c. 10,000), \"choll-\" means medium (1,000) and \"paengni-\" means small (100). Spongberg, 1978, describes both the young garden and their host of 25 years ago. P. Del Tredici. 2001. Sprouting in temperate trees: A morphological and ecological review. The Botanical Review 67: 121140. Son, 2000. 11 12 13 14 F. G. Meyer. 1976. A revision of the genus Koelreuteria (Sapindaceae). Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 57: 129166. T. Nakai. 19151936. Flora Sylvatica Koreana. Keijo. S. G. Son et al. 2000. Survey of the populations of Koelreuteria paniculata Laxm. including Mt. Worak group. KFRI Journal of Forest Science 63: 1423; Lee Seok-Woo, pers. comm. H.-F. Chow. 1934. The familiar trees of Hopei. Peiping: Peking Society of Natural History. C. L. Blume. 1849. Rumphia: sive, Commentationes botanic imprimis de plantis Indi Orientalis, tum penitus incognitis tum qu in libris Rheodii Rumphii, Roxburghii, Wallichii aliorum recensentur. Amsterdam. J. Ohwi. 1965. Flora of Japan [in English]. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution. K.-K. Oh and Y.-S. Kim. 1998. Vegetation structure of Chongdo-ri and Kalmun-ni, Wando [Island], Korea. (http:\/\/ynucc.yeungnam.ac.kr\/~llape\/IUFOR.htm). P. W. Meyer. 1987. Koelreuteria paniculata. Public Garden 2: 14. S. A. Spongberg. 1978. Korean adventure. Arnoldia 38: 132152. Specimens from these two separate collections can be admired at both arboreta. Meyer's collection 2 3 4 Acknowledgments Our trip would have been impossible without support for the American participants. Tom Whitlow received funding from the International Travel Grant Program of the College of Agriculture and Life Sciences (Cornell University), and Michael Dosmann received funding from the Mario Einaudi Center for International Studies (Cornell University) as well as a Deland Award from the Arnold Arboretum. We are grateful to these institutions for their assistance. The Americans also thank their very gracious colleagues, Dr. Kang and Mr. Young, for their friendship and assistance. Thanks also to Jacob Barney for his assistance in creating the map and for providing insightful comments on the manuscript. Michael Dosmann in a PhD candidate in the Urban Horticulture Institute at Cornell University; he is also a Putnam Fellow and current Arnold Arboretum Associate. His research interests include the ecophysiology of woody plants as well as methods of improving collections management in arboreta and botanic gardens. Thomas Whitlow is a plant ecologist with broad interests in stress physiology, especially relating to plants in urban and other human-dominated landscapes. He teaches courses in restoration ecology, woody plant physiology, and a graduate seminar. Kang Ho-Duck is an assistant professor in the Department of Forest Resources, Dogguk University, Seoul. He has particular interests in forest genetics; the conservation of rare Korean plants; and the rehabilitation of vegetation in the semiarid areas of the Gobi Desert of China. 5 6 7 8 9 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Che: Chewy Dollops of Maroon Sweetness","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25408","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25e816f.jpg","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reich, Lee","article_content":"Che: Chewy Dollops of Maroon Sweetness Lee Reich A mong the attractive qualities of Cudrania tricuspidata, the fruit--for me--is the main draw. In fact, I wish that I had become better acquainted with che, one of the plant's common names, soon after our introduction. That first meeting was in 1979 at the home of renowned fruit breeder George M. Darrow, then ninety years old and retired from the U.S. Department of Agriculture. His dooryard che, unfortunately, had no fruits ripe for sampling. In the years that followed, I occasionally happened upon the plant on the printed page where I found lukewarm descriptions of the fruit's flavor--\"mild watermelon,\" for example. Almost twenty years after our introduction I decided, finally, to plant a che and evaluate the fruit for myself; a year later I tasted my first fruit. It was very good and nothing like a \"mild watermelon.\" Were you to meld all the characteristics of a fresh fig and a mulberry--both, incidentally, relatives of che--you would end up with someLEE REICH Che's aggregate fruits combine the flavors of fresh figs and mulberries: neither quite as rich as a fig nor quite as sweet as a mulberry. 32 Arnoldia 64\/1 thing very close to a che fruit. To wit, che is an inch to an inch-and-a-half across, round, and a dull maroon with a rich red interior, a slightly chewy texture, and a few edible seeds. The flavor is most definitely fresh fig plus mulberry although neither quite as rich as the fig nor quite as sweet as the mulberry. Che, like mulberry and fig, is an aggregate fruit, the individual fruitlets more or less coalesced. The surface texture most closely resembles that of yet another relative, the osage orange (Maclura pomifera), whose four-inchdiameter, green-skinned orbs are completely inedible. Deliberate hybrids--with the euphonious and likewise hybrid name Macludrania hybrida--have been created between osage orange and che, the first in France in the latter half of the nineteenth century. The goals for creating such hybrids were not specified--perhaps a baseball-sized che fruit?--but the original ones, using che as the male parent, most closely resembled their father in plant form. Hybrids derived from those French plants were planted at the U.S. National Arboretum in 1960 and were said to look like thornless osage orange trees. Their hybrid origin has since been questioned and, in any case, little mention has been made of their fruits. Che fruit itself is rarely mentioned, even in writings from China where che is native. The plants have been valued by the Chinese for their leaves, as feed for silkworms. Although the silk produced from them was said to produce lute strings with a particularly clear sound, their leaves were used only to supplement mulberry leaves as feed, perhaps because thorny stems make picking them more difficult. It was in the latter half of the nineteenth century that che first made its way to the Western world. It has been grown in France since 1862 and in England since 1872 with no mention made of its fruit production or use. It first arrived in America in 1909 among a few thousand other cuttings and live plants sent over from China by E. H. Wilson. By 1912, a tree at P. J. Berckman's Nursery in Augusta, Georgia--presumably derived from that introduction--was twelve feet high and bearing a bushel and a half of fruit. The following year another shipment arrived from China, sixteen rooted plants sent over by the U.S. Department of Agriculture's plant explorer Frank N. Meyer for testing in drier regions as a hedge plant for gardens and a living fence for farms and, in less arid regions, for bank stabilization. Today, che remains relatively unknown as a fruit or a plant, despite the plant's early and reliable fruit production, its resistance to pests, and its probable (judging by the closely related osage orange) wide adaptability. It even lacks a widely accepted common name, having been also called cudrang, mandarin melonberry, silkworm thorn, and--derivation unknown-- storehousebush in English, and in China, tcho sang (wild mulberry), tsa, tse-tsang (thorny mulberry), cha-shu, poh-hsi, shih, nu-che, and, of course, che. Yet, given the quality and productivity of even unselected seedlings, che is surely an uncommon fruit worthy of attention, especially if some of that attention were directed to selecting or breeding plants that were thornless, bore well without pollination, and ripened earlier. The Plant Cudrania triloba has been variously described as a large shrub or a small tree usually growing to a height of about twenty feet, occasionally soaring to sixty feet. Some suckers are produced at the base of the plant and, with age, the tree develops a spreading, flattened top and a bark that ripples with deep furrows. A sprawling, almost vine-like habit has been ascribed to some of the shrubbier sorts. But many kinds of plants change morphologically (beyond attaining the capacity to flower) as they transition from juvenility to maturity. As examples, citrus lose their thorns and English ivy changes from a vine to a woody shrub. Vining behavior and increased thorniness could merely be descriptions of juvenile che plants. Che's thor ns are an unresolved issue. Although the plant is typically thorny, branches higher up in older plants frequently are thornless. Dr. Darrow propagated two plants from thornless branches and, while one of the two remained thornless, the other eventually grew thorny new shoots. The question arises, then, whether we have here a chimera--a plant made up of two kinds of genetically dissimilar cells, Cudrania 33 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM E. H. Wilson photographed these two Cudrania tricuspidata in August 1918 in Japan, where they had been planted roadside. He noted that they were forty feet in height and in girth of trunks, four and seven feet. 34 Arnoldia 64\/1 ARCHIVES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Frank N. Meyer's photograph of this very interesting trunk is dated January 1914. His legend reads, \"Cudrania triloba. Village of Yo tze ko, south of Sianfu, Shensi China. The peculiar looking trunk of a Chinese osage-orange called `Teho che shu.' The leaves are occasionally used for feeding silkworms. Locally the small red fruits are considered unwholesome.\" Cudrania 35 in which new plants propagated from one set of cells may be thornless and from the other set thorny--or perhaps it is merely a question of juvenility versus maturity, with juvenile stems, as in citrus, being the thorny ones. In that case, plants propagated from vigorous stems near the base of a seedling tree will be juvenile and thorny while those propagated from stems higher in the tree will be mature and thornless. Cytological studies and observation of seedling plants as they mature would resolve this issue. The shape--or, I should say, shapes--of che's leaves are similarly variable. In 1877, a Dr. Hance, who had assigned to che the botanical name Cudrania triloba, wrote that it was \"an unfortunate specific name, as the foliage seems highly variable.\" The plant's specific name was later changed to tricuspidata although the leaves are sometimes entire or indistinctly lobed and sometimes three-lobed. Increased lobing of leaves, incidentally, is another characteristic of plant juvenility that might be lost with maturity, another change exemplified in maturing English ivy plants. Che leaves remain healthy and green throughout the growing season, then drop without fanfare. Che flowers are as hard to pin down morphologically as are the leaves. Mostly, plants are either male or female (dioecious), but male trees frequently bear some fruits (which only follow female flowers) and female trees frequently yield good crops without male pollinators. Like some varieties of persimmon, male or female che plants might bear a few flowers, perhaps whole branches, of flowers of the opposite sex. This explanation seems more likely than parthenocarpy because ripened fruits typically have a few seeds in them, which indicates that pollination did occur--unless che is among the few plants capable of producing seeds solely from mother plant tissue, without pollination (i.e., it is apomictic). The waters are further muddied by a possible link between thorniness and gender; Dr. Darrow observed that, on one plant at least, thorny stems acted like males: they were fruitless but their presence made female stems fecund. Gender questions could be answered with close observation and controlled pollinations. Che flowers--small, yellowish-green in rounded heads--are reliably borne, either singly or in small groups, in the axils of leaves on growing shoots. Fruiting is equally reliable because the flowers open late, about the time that mulberry fruits are just starting to ripen. Plant a che tree and it will not have you waiting long for those first flowers or fruits; my plant--a clone--yielded both the year after planting. Cultivation The etymological meaning of \"che\" is \"stony ground,\" indicating its natural habitat. Just because it tolerates drought and poor soil does not mean that it would thrive best and yield the most luscious fruits on such ground. I give my che the same good soil--well cultivated, moderately fertile, and humus-rich--enjoyed by my other fruits. Good drainage is important. Che is said to prefer a warm soil. This requirement probably has basis, especially if a warm soil infers also a warm site, because in northern regions such a site would be needed to ripen the relatively late ripening fruits. The plant itself is hardy to USDA zone 5 or 6 and also grows well into subtropical regions, although individual clones might better tolerate either end of this climate spectrum. Che is a plant that performs well with little or no regular pruning. Prune the young plant so that each of its main branches has plenty of room, then, when the plant matures, do nothing more than cut off any dead, broken, or out of place branches that you might find. Drastic shortening of any branches that become decrepit will stimulate vigorous, new shoot growth on which flowers and fruits are borne. You may want to prune the tree more heavily if you are feeling regal, in order to extract a reddish yellow dye from the pruned stems. The Chinese used so-called \"che yellow\" for coloring imperial garments. Propagation Che is easy to propagate by any one of a number of methods. Seeds germinate readily if sown immediately upon removal from the fruit, or, if stored, after a period of cool, moist stratification. Be forewarned, though: seedlings may take up to a decade to bear fruit. 36 Arnoldia 64\/1 LEE REICH The leaves on these branches of Cudrania tricuspidata appear to have lost their juvenile variability. As previously mentioned, cloned plants bear at a very young age. Take semi-hardwood cuttings after midsummer, ideally treating them with rooting hormone and then putting them under mist. Root cuttings are another method of clonal propagation. Che takes well to all sorts of grafting techniques. Grafting seedlings onto mature plants is one way to shorten the juvenility period and so more quickly evaluate their fruits. Create more robust and tree-like specimens by grafting che on osage orange rootstock. Harvest and Use Although che fruits ripen late in the growing season, be patient with their harvest because they are tasteless until softened and dead ripe. Do not expect the fruits to drop into your hands at that time; each che has to be plucked individually (a case for parthenocarpy). Likewise, do not expect to pick the fruits all at once, because they have a long ripening season, a month or more. Here in New York (zone 5), my che fruits begin ripening about the middle of October, about the same time as has been reported from the mountains of Virginia and a couple of weeks after times reported from near Washington, DC. Reports of first ripening in November in California and August in Georgia possibly highlight different ripening seasons for different clones. Che bears heavily--Darrow reported hundreds of pounds on a mature female tree. What fruits you cannot eat at one sitting will keep for several days under refrigeration. Still more than you can eat? Blend the fruits, then strain out the seeds for a delicious nectar. Formerly a fruit researcher for the United States Department of Agriculture and Cornell University, Lee Reich, PhD, is currently a garden writer and consultant (www.leereich.com). Che is one of the fruits featured in his book Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden (Timber Press, 2004). "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23400","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eb328.jpg","title":"2006-64-1","volume":64,"issue_number":1,"year":2006,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Against all Odds: Growing Franklinia in Boston","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25394","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24e8928.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Against All Odds: Growing Franklinia in Boston Peter Del Tredici hisit marks the significant plants: centennial of the Franklinia alatamaha located along Chinese Path, on the southwest slope of Bussey Hill. Two specimens, growing side by side, were propagated in 1905 as cuttings from a tree received by the Arboretum in 1884. Since then, the plants have become giant shrubs that sprawl across the landscape, taking root wherever their branches touched the ground. This \"selflayering\" habit of Franklinia is an important to he year 2005 excuse torically gives the Arboretum two an celebrate of its most part of its growth strategy and gives the plants an air of dynamism that suggests they will have moved to a completely different part of the Arboretum by the time of their next centennial. The larger of the two plants (#2428-3-B) is now 21 feet (6.3m) tall by 53 feet ( 16m) wide and has eight more-or-less vertical \"trunks\" greater than 5 inches (12cm) in diameter (the largest is 7 inches, or 18cm). The smaller plant (#2428-3-A) is also 21 feet tall but just 30 feet (9m) wide, and has six stems larger than 5 inches in diameter. In the ranks of monumental trees, these are not Franklima alatamaha, # 2428-3-B, at the Arnold Arboretum. 3 The spectacular flower of Franklinia. are impressive dimensions, but they enough to them among the largest Franklinias anywhere in the world. More important, they are the oldest Franklinias of known, documented lineage. To put it another way, we know where the plants came from and when, which is more than most people can say about their Franklinias. The title of \"oldest documented Franklinia\" was bestowed on the Arboretum's plants in 2000 after a two-year survey of cultivated Franklinias throughout the world that was conducted by Historic Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia.' To appreciate the significance of this finding, we must review the plant's colorful history. The species was discovered in southeast Georgia, along the Altamaha River near Fort Barrington, on October 1, 1765, by John Bartram and his son William. The plant was not in flower at the time, so its identity remained uncertain. William returned to the area in 1773 and produced a beautiful illustration of the plant in flower that he ranked as being \"of the first order for beauty and fragrance.\" In 1776, William was place able to collect seed from the plants, which he took back to Philadelphia. Several other collectors later visited the Bartram's Franklima site along the Altamaha River, the last being the English nurseryman John Lyon in 1803.2 Since then, no one has reported finding Franklinia .3 growing in the wild.3 The species was first described and given the name Franklinia alatamaha in 1785 by William's cousin Humphry Marshall in his groundbreaking book, Arbustum Americanum: The American Grove. William's own description of his encounter with Franklinia in the wild did not appear until 1791, when he published Travels after a long series of delays. Unfortunately Bartram's very American name did not take hold in Europe, where botanists chose to refer to Franklinia as Gordonia pubescens.4 This name stuck until 1889, when Sargent changed it to Gordonia altamaha.5 It wasn't until after 1925 that Humphry Marshall's original name for the plant, Franklinia alatamaha, was widely recognized by botanists as legitimate.6 4 William sowed the Franklinia seed he had collected shortly after his Philadelphia in January 1777, they germinated soon after. The resultmg plants produced their first flowers four years later, in 1781, and return to and their first seed in 1782.' On August 16, 1783, William wrote to Linnaeus that he had raised a total of five Franklinia seedlings-two he sent to France and two he planted in his own garden, which were currently flowering and \"full of seed nearly ripe.\"8 In November 1831, William Wynne, the foreman at Bartram's Garden, reported that one of the original seedlings was fifty feet tall,9 and in 1832, the botamst Constantine Rafinesque visited the garden and described a specimen that was \"nearly 40 feet high.\"' In 1846, D. J. Browne noted a Franklinia in Bartram's garden that was \"fifty-two feet in height, with a trunk three feet and nine inches in circumference [which equals a diameter of 14 inches].\"\" Seven years later, Thomas Meehan measured one of Bartram's Franklinias at \"about thirty feet high [with] a diameter of from (received 1884 The Arboretum's original accession card for the Franklinia alatamaha as Gordonia pubescens) from Thomas Meehan m December rev. Thomas Meehan ). (1826-1901). Cyclopedia of Horticulture, tree bound m branches of hemlock. The protected tree is a specimen of gordoma [Frankhnia] about 10 feet high, at Arnold Arboretum, Boston. drawmg ed., 1916, with this caption : \"A tender \" This appears in The Standard 5 nine to twelve inches.\" He went on to note that \"the finest specimen lately blew off in a gale,\"'zastatement that clearly indicates that only one of Bartram's original seedlings-the smaller of the two-was alive in 1853. The last measurement of the original trees was in 1890, by Joseph Meehan, Thomas' younger brother, who reported in Garden and Forest: This tree was supposed to be dead, and in fact it did die to the ground, but on a recent visit to it I observed a sucker of several feet m length from a portion of the stump beneath the ground. In this same article, Meehan reported the existence of a 25-foot-tall specimen of Franklinia growing in the garden of William De Hart in Phila- delphia that was \"raised by layering a branch of the original tree in Bartram's Garden.\"13 Unfortunately this tree no longer exists. The two plants that grew in Bartram's garden were a ready source of Franklinia seed-indeed, the only source-and they were distributed by William and later by his nephew, Robert Carr.'4 As Franklinia became more common in the Philadelphia area, a number of local nurseries began propagating it. Foremost among the early propagators was Thomas Meehan, who had immiC. E. Faxon's illustration of Franklima alatamaha (Tab XXII) from volume grated to the United States in 1848 one of Silva of North America by C. S. Sargent (1890). and worked as the gardener at BarIt was therefore appropriate that Thomas tram's Garden before establishing his own nursMeehan should have donated a Franklinia plant in Germantown in 1853.'S In that same year, ery to the Arnold Arboretum. It was accessioned Meehan published The American Handbook of under #2428 as Gordonia pubescens in DecemOrnamental Trees in which he described the ber 1884. Meehan's donation was most likely cultivation and propagation of Franklinia: \"It seems to thrive best in a light rich loam, conpropagated from a specimen of Franklinia growing in his nursery in Germantown, just outside tiguous to moisture; and may be propagated by either seeds or layers.\"'~ During the 1870s and Philadelphia. Sargent mentions this tree in the Franklima entry of the first volume of Silva of the Arboretum's first director, C. S. Sargent, 80s, North America where he published a beautiful worked closely with Meehan to save Bartram's illustration of it.l8 The specific technique that house and what was left of the garden from was probably used to propagate this plant was a goal that was accomplished in destruction, described by Thomas Meehan's younger brother 1891 when the property officially became part 7 of the Philadelphia park system.\" Joseph in Garden and Forest: \"The tree can be 6 necessary every autumn here to bend its stems as near the ground as possible, and protect them from the rigors of wmter with leaves, soil is over, to or other protecting matemal. After pegging the branches down, the best protection is afforded by putting dry leaves over and among them, and then covering the whole with soil thrown up m the form of a little mound, so as to shed the rams. It might pass the winters without such protection if planted m the shelter of some warm walls. In any case, it is well worth any extra care bestowed upon it ... It may be propagated by layers or cuttmgs.2' Jack's reference to the propagation of Franklinia by cuttings was later corroborated by Sargent, also in the pages of Garden and Forest, where he noted: Two now or three plants of Gordoma altamaha are in flower in the Arnold Arboretum. The plants are only about three feet high and are from cuttmgs taken in July, 1891. They have stood out two wmters without protection and nothmg but the new growth was killed.22 Frankhma's fall fohage. increased by layering. If good soil be placed about it, and the layer not disturbed for strong, well-rooted plant results.\"'9 Franklinia In at two years, a the Arnold Arboretum 1889, Sargent announced in the pages of Garden and Forest that: Gordonia pubescens has flowered this year at the Arnold Arboretum, growing in the open ground. The plant was bent over and covered with soil last wmter. Though not hardy at Boston, it might do well when tramed agamst a sheltering wall. A few of its beautiful flowers would well repay a little trouble and care.2 The following year, in the September 24, 1890, issue of Garden and Forest, the Arboretum's dendrologist, J. G. Jack, reported that Franklinia was again flowering at the Arboretum, and in 1893 he elaborated on the technique used to protect the plant in winter: [A]t the Arboretum, after growmg m its present position for about eight years, it is a severalstemmed shrub eight or ten feet high. Moreover, it Indeed, a check of the Arborctum's records shows that cuttings from #2428 were taken in July 1891 and given a new accession number, 2428-1. And it's a good thing, too, because the original plant from Meehan died in 1896. Cuttings from #2428-1 were successfully rooted in July 1900, on July 5, 1905, and finally in 1908. The plants from both the 1905 and 1908 cuttings were given the accession number 2428-3. Two of the plants from this third-generation accession of Franklinia are still growing on Bussey Hill, one hundred and twenty-one years after their arrival at the Arnold. The decision to plant Franklinia on the southwest slope of Bussey Hill was based on the knowledge-gained from experience-that this was one of the best locations for growing plants in the Arboretum's 260 acres. Over the years, this area (now known as \"Chinese Path\") has consistently provided Arboretum staff with a perfect location for growing plants whose hardiness is either marginal or unknown. The soil, which is deep and relatively free of stones, provides an excellent balance of moisture retention and drainage, and the mid-slope location gives protection from both the cold winter winds and the unpredictable frosts of spring and fall. The Arboretum's early experiments with cultivating Franklinia were primarily focused on 7 perspective of 120 years' the plant's susceptibility to hindsight, however, disease-especially from the wilt-causing fungus Phytophthora cinnamoni-appears to be a more critical problem. This pathogen is particularly troublesome in heavy, wet soils, but even where drainage is not an issue, Franklmia has the well-deserved reputation of being difficult to keep alive-a \"miffy\" plant, to use an English horticultural term. A second factor that makes Franklinia tricky to grow is its requirement for acid soil-with a pH between 5 and 6-an observation that was not documented until 1927.23 This reconstruction of Franklinia's long history at the Arboretum makes it obvious that much of the horticultural knowledge that we take for granted today exists only because of the work of persistent staff members constantly pushing the limits of what they could cultivate. The Franklinia growing today on Bussey Hill are a living legacy to the untiring efforts of John Bartram and his son William, Thomas Meehan, Charles Sargent, and John Jack. Indeed, on a crisp fall day m October, a knowledgeable visitor to the Arboretum can sense the presence of these men amidst the stunning display of pure white flowers and rich crimson foliage. They were able to accomplish great things because they believed in the importance of their work and stuck with it through all kinds of adversity. Without their concerted efforts, Franklinia might never have survived into the twenty-first century, let alone come into flower on Bussey Hill in the year 2005. Endnotes ' Historic Bartram's Garden. 2000. Franklinia Census. Special publication of the John Bartram Association 2 its hardiness. From the species of Theaceae indigenous to the Umted States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 32: 123-138. ' H. Marshall 82\/G~: 6. 1785 Arbustum Amencanum: the Amencan Grove. Joseph Crukshank: Philadelphia. J.J. T. Fry. 2003. More on Frankhmas The American Gardener W. Wynne 272-277. 10 1832. Gardener's Magazme (London) 8: C. S. Rafinesque. 1832. New plants from Bartram's Botamc Garden. Atlantic journal 1, 2: pp 79-80. \" D. J. Browne 1846. Trees of America. Natme and Foreign New York. Harper Brothers. 'z T. Meehan. 1853 Ornamental Trees. and Co. '3 The Amencan Handbook of Philadelphia: Lippincott, Grambo, J. Meehan. 1890. Gordoma Altamaha (pubescens\/. Garden and Forest 3\/133~: 445. See also J. Meehan. 1888. Garden and Forest 1(36) : 429. \" J. Fry. 1996. American 16. plants, Bartram's garden catalogue of North 1783. Journal of Garden History 'S L. H. Co. Bailey. 1916. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, pp. 1587-88. New York: The Macmrllan '~ T. Meehan. 1853. The Amencan Handbook of Ornamental Trees. Philadelphia: Lrppmcott, Grambo, and Co. \" J. Meehan. 1897. In Bartram's Garden. Meehans' Monthly 7' 'n C. S. 50. 1890. Silva of North Amenca 1~ 45-4G Boston Frankhma is classified as in Sargent. Houghton Mifflin, Gordonia altamaha this work. z 1vJ. Meehan. 1888. Garden and Forest 1(3G~: 429. C. S. Sargent. 1889. Notes. Garden and Forest 2(84) 480 --- z' Garden and Forest 22 C. S. 390. Noteworthy late-flowering shrubs. 6(295): 436-437. Sargent 1884. Notes. Garden and Forest 7(344): 1893. ~ 3 Harper, ed. 1958. The Travels of Wilham Bartram, Naturahst's Edition New Haven: Yale Umversity Press; J. Ewan. 1968. Wilham Bartram. Botanical and Zoological Drawings, 1756-1788 Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society. F. Harper and A. N. Leeds. 1937. A supplementary F. F. V. Coville. 1927. The effect of alummum sulfate on rhododendrons and other acid-soil plants. Smithsonian Institution 1926 Annual Report, Washington, D.C., pp.369-382. Acknowledgments The author would especially like to thank Joel T. Fry, Curator of Historic Collections at Bartram 's Garden, for directing him to the articles in Garden and Forest describing the Arnold Arboretum's efforts at cultivating Frankhnia. chapter on Frankhma alatamaha. 4 Bartonia 19: 1-13. J. Fry. 2000. Franklmia alatamaha, a history of that \"very curious\" shrub. Bartram Broadside, Spring 2000. C. S. Sargent. 1889. Gordoma Forest 2(96): 616 5 pubescens. Garden and Peter Del Tredici is a senior research scientist at the 6 C. E. Kobuski. 1951. Studies in the Theaceae, XXI: the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Silver Anniversary: The Fall Plant Distribution and Sale, 1980-2005","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25395","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24e896d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"A SILVER ANNIVERSARY The Fall Plant Distribution and In 1980 the Sale, 1980-2005 the Fall Plant Distribution and Sale -the first-noted that many of the species being offered were rarely seen even in the botanical gardens of North America. Members were encouraged to take their time and browse carefully, \"so that you don't overlook those rare gems seldom found in private gardens.\" That advice is just as apt today, as many of these unusual plants remain hard to find. In honor of the sale's silver anniversary, Arnoldia asked notable plant people to contribute comments on their favorites from the list of plants at this year's sale. Photographs of many of the plants to be offered are displayed on the inside front covers as well as on this page. Arboretum's flyer for "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Dove Tree: A Long Journey West","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25404","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eb728.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schulhof, Richard","article_content":"The Dove Tree: A Long journey West Richard Schulhof a plant collector or with a taste for the gardener there is much to recommend in a tree that combines a curious beauty with a storied past. For those interested in the history of plant introduction, few species conjure more images of turn-of-the-century exploration than the famed dove tree (Davidia involucrata). And for horticulturists, the first encounter with the dove tree is often like one's first taste of champagne, initially peculiar to the palate but greatly prized by the end of the glass. It was like that for me. The occasion was a student field trip on a blustery hether for Wa remarkable, spring day in Boston, Massachusetts; An the location was the Arnold Arboretum. After a long search for the tree, we were a little disappointed with our first glimpse of a specimen that was surprisingly inconspicuous from a distance-the many white, fluttering bracts might have been mistaken for leaves with a pale underside. Closer examination, however, revealed inflorescences of exquisite complexity. Uneven pairs of improbable greenish-white bracts ~\"doves\") hung dramatically from maltball-sized globes of a wonderful chocolate brown. With my hand lens I made out scores of small male flowers covering these balls like the florets of a dandelion; near the center stood the single female flower. I had never seen anything quite like it. But the experience was especially memorable because we believed the tree before us was not just any dove tree but a historic specimen grown from seed collected by Ernest H. Wilson, the celebrated plant explorer most closely associated with the Arnold Arboretum. Ironically, however, the tree in question-the Arboretum's best specimen-results not from a Wilson expedition but from that of an earlier plant explorer, French missionary Pere Paul Guillaume Farges. outstandmg specimen of Davidia mvolucrata var. vilmonniana, m ~11 hkhhood the oldest m North America, accession #5159, resides on Bussey Hill's Chmese Path. I was familiar with the story of Wilson and the dove tree, having recently read Stephanne B. Sutton's marvelous biography of the Arboretum's founding director, Charles Sargent. In 1869, the species was first discovered by French missionary Pere Armand David in Sichuan Province, near the Tibetan border. Described and named after its discoverer in 1871, the Davidia was subsequently sighted by Augustine Henry, an English physician with a great passion for botany then stationed in China. In 1893, he wrote enthusiastically, \"Davidia is worth any amount of money. I saw only one tree of it, but doubtless there are others in the district ... Davidia \/I is wonderful.\" Sir Harry Veitch of the prominent Veitch Nursery in Chelsea, England, read Henry's encomium and resolved new to be the first to offer the heralded He hired species commercially. Wilson, then a twenty-two-year-old horticulturist, to travel to China, giving him clear instructions: \"The object of the journey is to collect a quanThis is the tity of seeds of a plant (Davidia) ... object-do not dissipate time, energy or money 10 anything else.\" Beginning in the spring of 1900, Wilson, working from a map provided by Henry, searched a large area of central China on to discover that the one tree of known location had been cut for lumber. Undeterred, he eventually found several fruiting trees, and he sent hundreds of seeds back to England. The first plant came into bloom at the Veitch Nursery in 1911. However, unbeknown to both Wilson and Veitch, Pere Farges had in 1897 sent 37 seeds to the arboretum of Maurice de Vilmorin in Les Barres, France. In 1899, one of those seeds germinated and the resulting tree bloomed in 1906. So even though Wilson could claim responsibility for broadly distributing the dove tree, thanks to the large quantities of seed he had gathered, the credit for introducing the first specimen to the west belonged to Farges. Smarting from the loss of greater glory, Wilson wrote, \"After my successful introduction of Davidia in 1901, and its free germmation in 1902,I had yet one little cup of bitterness to drain.\" It is from the one plant germinated from Farges' seed that the outstanding specimen at the Arnold Arboretum (accession #5159*A~ originated. The plant, a rooted layer, was obtained by Charles Sargent and planted at the Arboretum in 1904. Injured by severe cold early m life, the tree resprouted from its base to form the multi-stemmed specimen we know today. When it bloomed for the first time in 1931, then Arboretum director Oakes Ames, writing in the Arboretum's Bulletin for Popular Information, declared that the specimen was notable more for its botanical novelty than for its beauty: only The distmctme bark of the dove tree \" are told that in its native land, when laden from top to bottom with enormous white floral bracts, some of them attammg a length of eight mches or more, D. mvolucrata presents a wonderful aspect. But from an aesthetic pomt of view it has httle to recommend it. Its claim to a place in the garden rests on the bizarre form rather than the beauty of the mflorescence. We about Lilac Sunday, perched on the west-facing slope of Bussey Hill along Chinese Path near several other spectacular specimens of similar vintage. Interestingly, a few feet away grows a dove tree that originated from the seed collected by Wilson for the Veitch Nursery and sent to the Arboretum as a sapling in 1911. A somber reminder of failed expectations, the Wilson specimen (accession #14473*A) resides in the shade of stewartias and has never attained the physical prominence of its nearby neighbor. Like most dove trees in cultivation, both specimens are of the botanical variety Davidia involucrata var. vilmoriniana, which differs from the species in having smooth rather than felted leaves. Still rare in gardens, Davidia is unrivaled among hardy trees for historical, botanical, and horticultural distinction. More than a one-season ornament, it offers attractive mottled, reddishgray bark along with three- to five-inch leaves that are a bright green and usually free of pests or disease. The large round fruits, roughly oneand-one-half inches in diameter, dangle singly and often persist into the winter. Although once established it is hardy to USDA zone 6, on or flower young plantmgs may require some protection in extreme winters. Please note that if you plant a If he could see the fully mature specimen of today, Oakes Ames might very well revise his opinion. Now over 30 feet in height, the tree in bloom is without question an outstanding feature of the Arboretum's spring landscape (remember, though, the dove tree is an alternateyear bloomer). You can usually find it in full seedling from the Arboretum plant sale, you will wait up to ten years before seeing a bloom. Yet according to E. H. Wilson, the flowers of \"the interesting and beautiful of all trees of the north temperate flora\" are well worth the wait. most Richard Schulhof Arboretum. is deputy director of the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ilex pedunculosa: The Longstalk Holly","article_sequence":4,"start_page":11,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25400","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eab6d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Ilex pedunculosa: The Phyllis Andersen In the fall of Longstalk Holly 1892, during his first plant coltrip to Japan, Charles Sprague Sargent admired a distinctive holly growing along the Nagasendo Highway, the famous mountain road connecting Kyoto to Edo (now Tokyo). He found the plant growing both in the wild and in the gardens of local inns, sometimes as a shrub only two to three feet high and sometimes as a well-formed tree as tall as twenty to thirty feet, with a narrow, round-headed top. Its oval leaves were a lustrous, dark green. But its most distinctive feature was its long flower stems, or peduncles, which in the early fall drooped under the weight of bright red fruit, not unlike the stems of fruiting cherry trees. Ilecting The plant that had so impressed Sargent was Ilex pedunculosa, the longstalk holly, first described for publication by the Dutch botanist Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel in 1868. Its affinity with the hollies of New England made it of particular interest to Sargent, who was committed to researching the similarities between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America. The plant's appeal was further enhanced by Sargent's desire to add plants of significant ornamental value to the Arnold Arboretum's collection. Later Sargent hired the British plant explorer E. H. Wilson to further pursue the study of Asian flora, and in 1907 Wilson sent seeds of I. pedunculosa from China back to Boston. With lustrous leaves, bnght red frmt, and dependable hardmess broadleaf evergreen that fewm New England can nval throughout zone 5, the longstalk holly is a 12 resemblance to those of mountain laurel (Kalmia latifoliaJ; Sargent, on the other hand, compared them to those of \"our wild cherry.\" In the Boston area, the plant produces inconspicuous white flowers in mid June. The bright red berries, drupes, as they are called, are as large as those of I. aquifolium, nearly one inch long and one-quarter inch in diameter. They appear in early fall and persist on the plant throughout the season if not eaten by the birds. The branching pattern of the longstalk holly is generally upright, becoming more open as the plant matures. While plants or often in the wild can attain up to 30 feet in height, they are smaller in cultivation, reaching at most 15 E. H. Wilson photographed this 25-foot-tall longstalk holly in China, 1909. In cultivation the plant attams httle more than half that helght feet. Like all hollies, Ilex pedunculosa prefers a well-drained, slightly acidic soil and thrives in partial shade. It has few disease or pest problems. In common with other hollies, it is dioecious, having male and female reproductive structures on separate plants; for a good fruiting display on female plants, grow a small male plant in the same general area. (A ratio of one male to up to six females is recommended.)\/ Having observed was that in Japan elevations \/I from this seed were set out on the Arboretum's Hickory Path, where their ornamental qualities and hardiness were evaluated for many years. Having performed well at that site, they were moved in 1970 to an area near the Arboretum's administration building, where they still form a distinctive part of the setting. The first plants propagated llex pedunculosa tound at high that subject to \"excessive winter cold,\" Sargent hoped that the plant would thrive in New England, where the traditional English were are prone to winter His hopes were fulfilled: I. penduninjury. culosa is dependably hardy through USDA zone 5 and has survived severe winters at the and American hollies The evergreen leaves of Ilex pedunculosa are oval in shape, one to three inches long and threefourths to one-and-one-quarter inch wide. They lack the spines so characteristic of the American holly (I. opaca) and the European holly (I. aquifolium). Several writers have noted the leaves' Arnold Arboretum better than many other broadleaved evergreens. Phyllis Andersen is a landscape historian and instructor in the Landscape Institute of the Arnold Arboretum. She was the director of the Arboretum's Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Yoshino': An Outstanding Cultivar of the Japanese Cedar","article_sequence":5,"start_page":13,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25405","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eb76d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Tripp, Kim E.","article_content":"`Yoshino': An Outstanding Cultivar of the Japanese Cedar Kim E. Tripp regions of the mont. It undreds of exceptional conifers exist, combines great beauty and diverof form with ease of propagation and tough sity adaptability. I refer to Cryptomeria japonica, or Japanese cedar. Japanese cedar is a monotypic genus native to Japan and southern China. In Japan, it has been grown and selected for hundreds of years as an important forestry crop, a valuable ornamental, and a bonsai subject. Revered plantings of Japanese cedar, or sugi, surround several of the oldest monastery temples. Many of them are over 300 years old and reach well over 100 feet in height, with trunk diameters of 10 feet. But these massive trees bear little resemblance to the average Japanese cedar on this continent. Nor are these venerable specimens similar to the Japanese cedars often seen languishing in established landscapes. In North America the oldest specimens are usually seedlings that have aged into thinning, gangly individuals. They do not represent the handsome forms now available, and unfortunately, they have given Japanese cedar an undeserved reputation for tattiness. The \"classic\" Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria that but one among them stands out: a plant eastern coastal plain and piedprefers a rich, deep, acidic soil, but it has performed well in many soil types through- the country. One of its great attributes is its range of adaptability, extending from the cool, moist Northwest to the hot, wet Southeast. It prefers higher soil moisture than many other conifers and suffers during extended dry periods. Its root system is a vigorous, fibrous mass, and even large trees transplant readily with minimal browning and dieback if adequate water is reguout ~aponica var. japomca, takes on a loosely conical, semiformal shape and can reach heights of 50 to 80 feet. The short, flexible, somewhat incurved needles give the foliage a soft, refined appearance and an easily handled texture. (Most people begin unconsciously stroking the branches of Japanese cedar within minutes of standing next larly provided following transplanting. Like almost all conifers, Japanese cedar needs full sun for rapid growth, but it also grows well in partial shade. Deep or constant shade, however, will lead to thinning and interior dieback. Avoid planting Japanese cedars in exceptionally windy sites, too, especially in borderline coldhardiness areas where excessive winter bronzing may be a problem. Partial shade will minimize winter bronzing. Japanese cedar is a problem-free plant with one exception: Stressed plants can be susceptible to the fungus Phyllosticta aurea (redfire\/. It causes foliage to die and branches to turn a bright reddish brown. It generally attacks older foliage on individual branches first, then-in severe cases-progresses throughout the tree until only the actively growing tips remain green. However, susceptibility is highly variable among cultivars, and 'Yoshino' is one of the most resistant. Cold can be another of Japanese cedar's adversaries. From time to time, late spring freezesor fall freezes on actively growing, unhardened imported plants-will kill the soft tip growth of the branches. Happily, this is never serious because it has a wonderful ability to regrow after dieback or cutback. (I have seen a 4-foottall plant of 'Benjamin Franklin' reduced to 4 inches by a large mower twice in three months; the unrepentant operator of the mower dubbed it.) As it matures, C. japonica var. japonica and related types (including 'Yoshino') resemble tightly knit, forest-green clouds billowing up from the ground. However, this characteristic varies greatly among its many cultivars, which differ so much from one to another that they hardly seem to be the same species. Japanese cedar is hardy throughout zones 6 to 9-even in mountainous areas and hot to 14 plant.\") Frost or freeze soft tip growth is easily differentiated from the symptoms of redfire fungus. Redfire usually progresses from older to younger tissue along a branch and up the tree. Insects are seldom a problem. Since bagworms, which plague Leyland it \"the bionic damage to cypress in some areas, are not nor- mally a pest of Cryptomeria, the fullsize forms of an Japanese cedar make excellent alternative to Leyland cypress. Almost all forms of Japanese cedar be propagated easily from cuttings, which are best taken from November through February but will root at almost any time of year if mature, hardened wood is available. Full-size cultivars like 'Yoshino' will usually root even if no visible mature wood is available (albeit more slowly\/, but avoid cutting during active flushes of growth. Wound cuttings minimally and treat them with moderate concentration of rooting hormones and place them under mist. (In winter, bottom heat can help.) As one might expect in a hydrophilic plant, it roots faster at higher mist frequencies than those used for other conifers. The cultivar 'Yoshino' is a fullsized form that will reach 50 feet quite rapidly and retain a uniform, can . -=>0 \"'~J 1 11 . ~ I ~ I . I I Cryptomeria japonica growing in most a nursery in Maryland. mormamy pyramiaai namt mtn tne type species' cloudlike silhouette. It is the Dirr, reliably cold-hardy cultivar and the best choice for zone 6 gardens. A beauty as a specimen, in numbers it will also rapidly make a handsome 'Yoshino' has been used to create a lush background to the waterfall and mountain paths of Tenshin-en, the Japanese garden at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts. screen. M.A. 1990. Manual Stipes Pub. Co. of Woody Landscape Plants. Hornibrook, M. 1938. 2nd ed. Dwarf and Slow-Growmg Comfers, Theophrastus, Noble. Krussmann, G. 1985. Manual of Cultivated Comfers. Timber Press. Van Gelderen, D.M., and I. R. P. van Hoey Smith. 1986. Conifers Timber Press. 1991 References Vidakovic,M. Graficki Zavod Bailey Den Hortorium. 1976. Hortus Third MacMillan Pub. Co. 341 B. K. Boom. 1965. Manual of Cultivated Conifers The Hague, Martinus Ni~hoff, Netherlands. Com fers, Morphology and Vamation. Hrvatske, Zagreb. Ouden, P, and Kim Tripp, a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, 1994-1995, is now director of the New York Botanical Garden. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Microbiota decussata: A Versatile Conifer","article_sequence":6,"start_page":15,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25402","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eaf6b.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Microbiota decussata: A Versatile Conifer Nancy Rose ~\/ \/~\/icrobiota V growing decussata is an elegant, low- evergreen shrub that is finding -L 1 its way into more gardens every year. Its combmation of graceful form, attractive foliage, cold hardiness, and landscape value earned it a 1998 Cary Award, which annually honors outstanding woody plants for New England gardens. Microbiota decussata has gamed favor well beyond New England, however, and gardeners in many states may find it an excellent addition to their landscapes. This unique conifer has a remote and limited native range: the Sikhote Alin mountain range in the southeastern leg of Siberia, bordering the Sea of Japan. It is often found growing above the treeline, frequently in association with Pinus pumila, a shrubby pine species, and in shrubland areas m the upper mountain valleys of the region. The species was first recorded by botamst I. K. Shishkin in 1921, in the mountains northeast of Vladivostok, and named by botanist V. L. Komarov in 1923. different enough to designations. With a height at maturity averaging only ten to eighteen inches in most landscape plantings, the plant's low, widespreading form resembles that of spreading junipers. (Interestingly, native Siberian specimens with heights ranging from eight inches to over three feet have been reported, indicating that it may be possible to arborvitae), but the two are maintain their separate select shorter or taller types from wild popu- lations.)Many long stems radiate horizontally from the plant's crown, creating a spread that can reach ten feet or more. As these main gently arching them, developing first near the center of the plant. Since all of Microbiota decussata's branch tips nod downward, the result is a wonderfully graceful, softly layered appearance. The nodding branch tips are characteristic of the species and make it easy to differentiate it from spreading jumpers, whose branch tips tend to flare upward stems grow numerous outward, secondary branches rise from Despite being discovered and named over 80 years ago, Microbiota decussata is often described in garden catalogs as \"new\" or \"recently discovered.\" This claim is actually not so far off, since there was a significant lag between the plant's discovery and its introduction to gardeners in North America. The species was not mentioned in Hortus Third, the 1976 edition of the venerable tome that lists cultivated plants of the U.S. and Canada. It has slowly become more available in the nursery trade over the past 20 years, however, and is clearly now here to stay. Microbiota decussata is the lone species in its genus, but it is not without relatives. It belongs to the cypress family, a wide-ranging group of coniferous trees and shrubs that includes wellknown evergreen genera like Jumperus, Thu~a (arborvitae), and Chamaecyparis (false cypress). Taxonomically, M. decussata is perhaps most similar to Platycladus orientahs (oriental The individual branchlets of Microbiota decussata are arranged in lacy, fernlike sprays, much like those of arborvitae; no doubt this accounts for another common name for the plant, \"Russian arborvitae.\" The branchlets are covered with closely pressed, scale-like needles arranged in opposite pairs. The pairs emerge at 90-degree angles from each other, resulting in a neatly layered, four-ranked arrangement termed decussate-hence the plant's specific epithet decussata. The individual needles are tiny (oneeighth inch or less), with convex outer surfaces, a triangular shape, and tips that feel slightly sharp when you run a finger down the branchlet backwards, from tip to base. The foliage can safely be described as a pleasant bright green during the growing season but describing its winter color is a highly subjective exercise. Those who don't like the plant use terms like \"dull brown\" or \"dirty purplish 16 of organic mulch-wood chips, shredded bark, or pine needlesapplied in a wide circle around the plant will help keep the root zone cool and moist. So far M. decussata has not shown susceptibility Phomopsis tip blight, a comdisease problem for some of the spreading junipers, and appears to be free of other major disease or insect problems. to mon Microbiota decussata has a natural affimty for rocks brown\" while those who find it appealing describe the color as anything from \"magnificent copper\" to \"rich bronze\" or \"burgundy purple.\" Beauty (and color descriptions) are clearly in the eye of the beholder. Plants grown where they are shaded during the winter show less bronzing than those in full sun. Some plants seem to green up more quickly than others in the spring; perhaps in the future nursery growers should select for this trait in new cultivars. Being a conifer, Microbiota decussata does of course bear cones, but they are so small as to be hardly noticeable. Male and female cones occur on the same plant-in other words, it is monoecious. The male cones are the smaller, about one-sixteenth to one-eighth inch long; they release pollen in the spring. Female cones, about one-eighth inch long, consist of a single naked seed held within two to four leathery scales; the seeds mature in late summer or early autumn. It is a very cold hardy plant, surviving through USDA zone 3 (average annual minimum temper\" When Microbiota decussata started to become available in nurseries it was often touted as extremely shade tolerant. This was seen as a great advantage over spreading junipers, which grow poorly and exhibit thinning foliage in shade. More experience with M. decussata has led to modified recommendations, however. It too is prone to limited growth and thinner foliage when grown m dense, full shade, so the better choice seems to be partial shade or full sun exposure. In regions with hot summers this Siberian native appears to benefit from partial shade, especially in the afternoon. Microbiota decussata is usually sold in containers at nurseries and garden centers, but is also available from a number of mail order garden catalogs. While it can be grown from seed, most commercial propagation is by rooted stem cuttings. a plant with multiple uses in the landscape. Because of its low height and wide spread, it makes an ideal evergreen groundcover, its ferny, This is ature minus 30 fact, it seems to degrees to minus 40 degrees F). In prefer cooler climates and may fail to thrive in areas warmer than USDA zone 6. Excellent soil drainage is a must, but as long as the site is well drained the plant can adapt to a range of soil types and pH levels. It grows well in evenly moist soil, but once established it also tolerates drier conditions. An inch or two layered foliage creating a three-dimensional effect that is lacking in many groundcovers. It has a natural affinity for rocks, whether sweeping around the base of a well-placed decorative boulder or spilling over the top of a stone retaming wall. Attractive alone, it also combines well with small deciduous shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and other conifers. Even its bronze winter color shows to advantage when contrasted with the dark green foliage of evergreens, the colorful fruit of shrubs like Ilex verticillata 'Red Sprite', or the light tones of ornamental grasses. For a note about the author, see page 25. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chionanthus retusus: The Chinese Fringetree","article_sequence":7,"start_page":17,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25398","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25ea76f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter; Li, Jianhua","article_content":" Chionanthus retusus: The Chinese Peter Del Tredici ~ Fringetree jianhua Li T Tandsome is a word often used to planted in the open, this species develops into an elegant small tree, twenty to thirty feet high with approximately the same spread. A century-old specithe Arnold Arboretum is about feet tall by thirty feet wide, and twenty when in bloom from late May through mid June is totally covered with showy, white flowers. It is no exaggeration to say that this tree is capable of putting on one of the Arboretum's best floral displays. The blue-purple fruit, which matures from late September to October, provides a second season of interest. Chinese fringetree is more tree-like and graceful than its straggly American cousin, C. vmginicus, and is not nearly so late to leaf out in the spring. The species has a broad distribution m Asia, where it shows considerable variation in its growth habit. In cultivation at the Arnold, some specimens are multistemmed, while others-especially those raised from Korean seed-are distinctly single-stemmed. The plant seems to have broad ecological adaptability, growing equally well in the warm, dry climate of southern California (USDA zone 9) and the cold, moist climates of men ~. -L (Chionanthus fringetree describe retusus). the Chinese at When An eighteen-year-old specimen of Chionanthus retusus growmg at the Arnold Arboretum. Note the smgle-stemmed growth habit that has developed without prunmg. New ( England (USDA zone 5).. the ends of the branches and completely hide the foliage when the tree is in bloom. In New England the fall color, being pale yellow, is hardly spectacular; in warm climates, there is no fall color to speak of and green leaves stay on the tree through December. It is adaptable in its environmental responses, being tolerant of full sun to partial shade, moderate summer drought, and a wide range of soil con- When young, the Chinese fringetree's bark is a pale buff color, peeling off in papery strips. On mature trees, the bark is tight, with distinct ridges and furrows. The lustrous leaves are elliptic to ovate in shape, three to eight inches long and one-and-one-half to four inches wide. The white flowers, each with four straplike petals, are about an inch across and give off a delicate fragrance. They are produced at 18 s The showy flowers and blue-purple fruit of Chionanthus retusus. to 4 cm~ to Chionanthus and evergreen species with small flowers (corolla less than I cm) to Linociera. However, a small-flowered Ecuadorian species (L. pubescens) is a deciduous tree while a deciduous Florida species (C. pygmaeus) has small flowers. Other morphological traits overlap between Chionanthus and Linociera, and no clear-cut differences separate the two. Therefore, Stearn's proposal to unite them has been widely accepted in the botanical community. The combined group is referred to as Chionanthus because this name was published earlier than Linociera. The union has led to the transfer of numerous species from Linociera to Chionanthus even though genetic studies have not been performed to determine the evolutionary relationships of deciduous and evergreen species. Modern DNA research will surely help clarify the taxonomy of Chionanthus and Linociera. ditions. It is generally not bothered by insect pests or diseases. The Chinese fringetree belongs to the genus Chionanthus, which was described by Carl Linnaeus m his Genera Plantarum ( 1737, 1754). The name was based on the American fringetree, which had been introduced to Europe before 1736. Like the Chinese fringetree, Chionanthus virginicus produces a profusion of showy, white flowers in spring, which explains Linnaeus' choice of name for the genus ( chion snow; anthos flower). The taxonomic history of the genus is also interesting. In 1788, Swartz described a small, evergreen, Jamaican tree with small corolla lobes, naming it Thouinia to commemorate the French gardener Andre Thouin (1747-1824). However, Linnaeus had already used this name in 1781. Accordingly, Swartz gave his new genus a different name, Linociera, in honor of a sixteenthcentury French physician, Geoffrey Linocier. Between 1791 to 1976 many species of Linociera were described from both the old world and the new. In 1976, William Stearn proposed the union of Linociera and Chionanthus. The difficulty of distinguishing species of Loniciera and Chionanthus had been recognized as long ago as 1860 by George Thwaites, who suggested the two genera be merged but did not present a formal proposal. Thus, prior to 1976 botanists generally referred deciduous species with big flowers (corolla 1.5 = = References Dirr, M. A. 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 5th ed. Stipes Publishing, Champaign, IL. Gilman, E. F., and D. G. Watson. 1993. Chionanthus retusus, Chinese Frmgetree. Fact Sheet ST-160. Department of Environmental Horticulture, Flonda Cooperative Extension Service, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida. Peter Del Tredici is a senior research scientist and Jianhua Li is a taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Beach Plum: A Shrub for Low-Maintenance Landscapes","article_sequence":8,"start_page":19,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25396","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25ea326.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Uva, Richard H.; Whitlow, Thomas H.","article_content":"Beach Plum: A Shrub for Low-Maintenance Landscapes Richard H. Uva and Thomas H. Whitlow each plum (Prunus maritimaJ, shrub native to the Atlantic coast, is familiar to beachgoers from southern Maine through Maryland, where populations can be found on and near the coastal dunes. Since colonial times its fruits have been collected in the wild for preserves and jelly and were reportedly used even earlier by Native Americans. Nowadays, although beach plum is occasionally found in the nursery trade, it is rarely grown in cultivation. Demand is increasing for native species that can thrive in low-maintenance, poor--------------------------- B landscapes-reclamation Prunus mantima. sites, roadsides, sand dunes in need of stabilization-and beach plum is an excellent we would appreciate hearing about it.) More candidate to fill that need. By virtue of its showy recently, the Cape May (New Jersey) Plant Materials Center of the Natural Resources Conspring flower display and colorful fruits, beach servation Service (NRCS) has released a selecplum also warrants increased use in more intention known as 'Ocean View'; it was developed sively managed ornamental landscapes. Beach plums have extensive root systems, no for stabilizmg coastal sand dunes, but could doubt an adaptation to a habitat that is characterbe used in any sunny, well-drained location. ized by high wmds, blowing sand, unstable subThe information below has been adapted from wind-borne salt, and soil that is low in NRCS' \"Notice of Release of 'Ocean View'.\" strates, nutrients and water-holding capacity. It should A New Cultivar of Beach Plum be noted that beach plum's distribution is not 'Ocean View' is a cross of four wild-growing limited to sandy soils, however; it also thrives strains from Delaware, New Jersey, and Massaunder cultivation on moist, rich soil as long as chusetts that were selected for their exceptional it has good drainage and full sun. Today, jelly seedling vigor, foliage abundance, disease and production from wild-growing shrubs is a small insect resistance, leaf retention, fruit producbut thriving cottage industry in the Northeast, and farmers are beginning to plant beach plum tion, and cold tolerance. It has been field-tested on sandy coastal sites from North Carolina to to make fruit more readily available. nutrient 1\/ The horticultural literature of the 1940s plum that had been selected for fruit production at that time, but we have been unable to locate specimens. (If a reader knows of any still existing, mentions several cultivars of beach Maine and is recommended for zones use within 5b to 8b. This new cultivar is an upright, densely branched shrub with pale green foliage. Its alternate, serrated leaves are elliptical to ovate 20 Beach plum on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. shape and range from about 1.5 to 2.5 inches length and half that in width. In early spring, before the leaf buds unfold, clusters of snowyin in white blooms emerge to cover the crown of the availability of this new cultivar gives gardeners in the Northeast an opportunity to enjoy a bit of native beach vegetation in their backyards without adding to their list of maintenance The shrub, creating a frothy splash in the otherwise gray landscape. The individual flowers, only about one-quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter, take on a pink hue before dropping off to be replaced by the emerging leaves. The round fruits ripen to a bright red in late August or early September. 'Ocean View' seedlings should be planted at a depth of approximately two inches above the root collar on stable sand dunes and no deeper than the root tasks. And if you don't care to use the fruit yourself for jelly, wildlife will appreciate it. References James B. Newman and Cecil B. Currin. 1994. Notice of release of 'Ocean View' beach plum. U S. Department of Agriculture, Soil Conservation collar on inland soils. Fertiliza- For tion helps with good establishment and vigorous Service, Technology Development and Apphcation, Ecological Science, Washington, D.C. http:\/\/www.plant-materials.nrcs.usda. gov\/njpmc\/releases.html information on beach plum fruit crop development please visit our website: www.beachplum. cornell.edu See also Arnoldia 62 4, \"Taming the Wild Beach Plum\" by R. H. Uva. plant growth. Recommended spacing of plants varies with intended use: to provide a dense barrier of protective vegetation, seedlings should be placed about four to six feet apart, and when used inland for residential areas or wildlife plots, about six to eight feet apart. Dr. Uva and Professor Whitlow have collaborated development years at of beach plum Cornell University. as a on the fruit crop for several "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Calycanthus chinensis: The Chinese Sweetshrub","article_sequence":9,"start_page":21,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25397","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25ea36b.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Li, Jianhua; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Calycanthus chinensis: The Chinese Sweetshrub jianhua Li ~ Peter Del Tredici distribution m Zhejiang Province, China. It grows up to ten feet tall with a broad profile. The leaves are oppositely arranged with short petioles and are glossy green with a touch of roughness on the upper surface. In the Boston area its nodding flowers appear in mid to late spring. Appearances notwithstanding, the sepals and petals are not differentiated (therefore termed tepals): the outer tepals are a silky white with a tinge of pink and a diameter of two to three inches, while the inner tepals are a waxy pale yellow to white with maroon markings. Unlike the native Calycanthus floridus the flowers are not fragrant and are pollinated by small beetles. Tepals and stamens occupy the rim of a deep floral cup; the ovaries are attached to the side of the cup. The fruits, top-shaped with many seeds, overwinter on the shrub. In its natural habitat, it grows underneath a canopy and therefore is best cultivated in partial shade with wind protection and good soil moisture. In 1998 Michael Dirr described it as \"a unique plant but doubtfully with alycanthus ~ chinensis is a beautiful deciduous shrub a narrow geographic worthy as Calycanthus floridus. Opinions may vary as to the species' The pendant flowers of Calycanthus chinensis have an unusual, waxy texture. comparative garden worthiness, but where evolutionary and taxonomic histories are Calycanthus chinensis belongs to Calycanthaceae, which includes two genera and about concerned, C. chinensis definitely provokes more ten species.' Chimonanthus (wintersweet) is interest. As a practical matter, the species is rare the other genus; it differs from Calycanthus in in the wild and needs our help to survive. as \" 22 In this and outer closeup of a Calycanthus chinensis flower, whorls of tepals are clearly msible. the mner The flowers of our natme eastern sweetshrub differ from those of their Chinese relatme both in form and fragrance. features, including morphology, wood anatomy, pollen, and embryology. Species of Chimonanthus are literally called \"waxy prunus\" in Chinese because it blooms in winter with waxy yellow flowers that resemble cherries. C. chinensis was first described as a species of Calycanthus2 and was later recognized as a separate genus, Sinocalycanthus.3 Morphologically, this species differs from other species of Calycanthus in its white flowers and dimorphic many ing survived temperatures of minus F in 2003. The raised from outdoors at the Arnold Arboretum since 1998. The parent plants were raised from seeds collected at the Nanjing Botanical Garden in 1994. Endnotes ~ 10 degrees plants being offered for sale were seeds produced by plants growing `Li, J. Ledger, (two forms), broadly treat ovate tepals. Therefore, 2 3 T. Ward, and P. Del Tredici. 2004. Phylogenetics of Calycanthaceae based on molecular and morphological data, with a special reference to divergent paralogues of the nrDNA ITS region. many authors recognize this species as a separate genus from Calycanthus.4 However, we prefer to this plant as a species of Calycanthus for the following reasons. First, it is rare that species of different genera hybridize successfully, but Calycanthus chinensis has been successfully crossed with C. floridus and C. occidentalis.s Second, differences in DNA sequences are few among C. floridus, C. occidentalis, and C. chinensis.6 Third, this treatment shows Calycanthus' disjunct distribution in eastern Asia and North America. And a final consideration-hardly a serious one-is the tongue twisting required to pronounce the - Harvard Papers m Botany 9: 69-83. W. C. Cheng and S. Y. Chang. 1963. Scientia Srlvae 8: 1. 1964. Genus novum calycanthaceaearum chmae onentahs Acta Phytotaxonomica Smica 9: - -. 135-138. ' L Li 1989. Cytogeographical study of Calycanthus Lmnaeus. Gmhaia 9: 311-316; Y. Li and P. T. Li. 2000. Cladistic analysis of Calycanthaceae. journal of Tropical and Subtropical Botany 8: 275-281; M. Dirr. 1998. Manual of Woody Plants, 5th ed. Stipes, Champaign, IL. 5 F. T. Lasseigne, P. R. Fantz, and J. C. Raulston. 2001. ~ Smocalycalycanthus raulstonn (Calycanthaceae\/: A new mtergeneric hybrid between Sinocalycanthus chinensis and Calycanthus flondus HortScience 36: 765-767; Todd Lasseigne, pers. comm. long hybrid name Sinocalycanthus. When Calycanthus chinensis was first introduced into cultivation in North America in the `Li et al. 2004. 7 G. H. Straley. 1991. Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis. Arnoldza 51 \/ 118-22. Jianhua Li rs a taxonomist and Peter Del Tredici is a semor research scientist at early 1980s, its hardiness was unknown.But experience at the Arnold Arboretum has shown the plant to be fully hardy in USDA zone 6, hav- the Arnold Arboretum "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rhus trilobata: Worthy Plant Seeks Worthy Name","article_sequence":10,"start_page":23,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25403","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eb36f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rose, Nancy","article_content":"Rhus trilobata: Nancy Rose Worthy Plant Seeks Worthy Name addled with common names like skunkbush, stinking sumac, and ill-scented Rhus trilobata is clearly a shrub good public relations agent. Those unflattering names refer to the strong scent its foliage and stems emit when crushed. Ignore the unappealing monikers, and you will find that its ornamental and environmental assets are more than sufficient to make R. trilobata a valuable landscape plant. Rhus trilobata has a wide native range in western North America, reaching from the Canadian in need of a sumac, to Texas and moist coastal areas of the Pacific Northwest. It grows in many ecological regions, from the Great Plains grasslands to mountain shrubland, chapparal, and forest areas, and is found in association with numerous species of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs province of Saskatchewan south Mexico but skipping the well as with grasses and forbs. Within its native range this deciduous shrub can grow from two to twelve feet tall, with four to six feet being typical in most landscape settings; its height is determined in part as A lemonade-hke drmk can be made from the attractme red fruits. 24 by moisture availability. Its form ranges from irregularly upright to mounded, with numerous slender, branched stems rising upward from the crown. stems These flexible young have been used in basketry by for Native one Americans, accounting of the plant's lesser-known basketbush. Shoots also emerge from the extensive system of woody rhizomes that spread laterally below ground, creating a dense thicket that in width can equal two or more times the plant's height. A taproot together with a large mass of more shallow fibrous roots anchor the shrub. The leaves of Rhus trilobata, compound and alternately arranged on the branches, consist of three subsessile (nearly stalkless) leaflets that are generally ovate or rhomboidal in shape. The terminal leaflet is the largest, with a length of one to two-and-one-half inches; it is often distinctly three-lobed (hence the specific epithet trilobata) but at times displays only shallow or negligible lobing. Its leaf margins are coarsely toothed, most teeth being rounded although some are slightly pointed. Leaf surfaces, while variably pubescent on young leaves, usually become smooth and slightly glossy as the foliage common names: New leaves are downy, usually becommg smooth and glossy mth matumty. In fall the green gives way to yellows, orange, reds, and reddish purple. matures. Medium to dark green in summer, the leaves often develop excellent fall foliage color that ranges from yellow to orange, red, and reddish purple. In spring Rhus trilobata blooms before its foliage appears, the flowers emerging from short, catkin-like spikes borne at the branch tips. Individual flowers may be unisexual or bisexual, with both types occurring on most plants. Only about one-eighth inch long, they are light yellow or greenish yellow and have five petals. The fruit is a red, subglobose (not perfectly round) drupe about one-quarter inch long, slightly hairy and a bit sticky on the surface and containing a single dark brown nutlet. Mature fruits have a tart taste; a tangy lemonade-like drink can be made by steeping them in water. The fruits, leaves, stems, and roots of R. trilobata have been used for various culinary, medicinal, and other utilitarian purposes by native cultures in the western United States. Six naturally occurring varieties of Rhus trilobata are recognized: var. anisophylla, var. pilosissima, var. quinata, var. racemulosa, var. simplicifolia, and var. trilobata. R. trilobata trilobata-so named to indicate that it displays the species' typical morphology-covers the entire native range. The other varieties vary in such features as height, growth habit, leaf size and form, and fruit pubescence. Where the var. 25 overlap, plants often show mtermediate morphological characteristics. Rhus trilobata looks very much like its more widely available cousin, R. aromatica. The resemblance is close enough that skunkbush was previously listed in taxonomic references as a variety (R. aromatica var. trilobata) rather than as a separate species. Morphological differences between the two are few. R. trilobata's leaves, flowers, and fruits are generally smaller and its terminal leaflets more distinctly lobed than those of R. aromatica, but these features show enough variability to make them unreliable as diagnostic tools. It is in geographic distribution that the two species show clear differences, with R. trilobata occupying a western range while R. aromatica is found east of the Great Plains. A corresponding difference is found in their environmental adaptations: R. trilobata tolerates fairly dry, alkaline soils while R. aromatica prefers moist, slightly acidic sites. The leaves of both species emit a distinct odor when crushed, but the somewhat less pungent scent of R. aromatica earned it the common name \"fragrant sumac\" while R. trilobata is stuck with its lessthan-flattering nicknames. As its wide natural range might indicate, Rhus trilobata is an adaptable plant. It grows well in somewhat alkaline soils but also appears to tolerate neutral to slightly acidic soils. Most references list it as winter hardy to USDA zone 4 (average annual minimum temperature minus 20 to minus 30 degrees F), but the hardiness of individual plants is likely to vary depending on seed provenance. It thrives in either full sun or partial shade, but fall foliage color is usually better in full sun. Because it is well adapted to drier climatic conditions, Rhus trilobata is an excellent choice for xeriscaping. Annual precipitation in most of its range averages just 10 to 20 inches; by contrast, the average is 42.5 inches in Boston and 29.4 inches in Minneapolis-St. Paul. In USDA ranges of these varieties Rhus trilobata ways. One of the propagated in several simplest is by root (rhizome) can be spring, sections of rhizome can be sections, and potted or planted in a propagation bed. Alternatively, softwood stem cuttings taken in early to mid summer can cuttings. In dug up, cut into be rooted in a peat-perlite medium under mist. For seed propagation, the fleshy pulp should first be removed from the seeds of ripe fruits. The seeds (nutlets) have a very hard coat that must be cracked by mechanical or chemical scarification, after which they can be planted directly in a seedbed. Plants of R. trilobata can most easily be found in nurseries in western states, but several mail-order garden catalogs offer container-grown plants for sale. This sumac can be used effectively in several ways. Its dense network of roots and rhizomes makes it an ideal plant for holding soil on steep slopes, banks, and terraces. It also works well in large-scale mass plantings since its suckering habit allows it to fill an area quickly. Its ability to tolerate drought and grow in rocky or gravelly soil makes it a good choice for dry, difficult sites. New England gardeners should not be put off by Rhus trilobata's affinity for arid soils, however. As long as it is planted on a sunny, well-drained site where flooding is not a problem, it will do well in those hilly or rocky areas that are common in the Northeast but less than ideal for more common garden shrubs. Once established, R. trilobata requires little maintenance ; pruning to control height and improve appearance can be done as needed. With its attractive spring flowers, colorful fruit, and bright fall color, R. trilobata is a worthy addition to native plant displays, naturalized gardens, commercial properties, and other sites in need of a tough, adaptable shrub. Nancy Rose is a horticulturist and educator with the University of Minnesota Extension Service. She has been growing and evaluating woody ornamental plants for many years, most recently at the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum and previously at the Morton Arboretum near Chicago. She is also a garden and photographer, writing a gardening column for the Mmneapol1s Star-Tmbune and wriring and editmg for several gardemng magazines. Nancy is co-author of the books Shrubs and Small Trees for Cold Chmates and The Right Tree Handbook. writer regional evaluations, a seed-grown selection of R. trilobata from Bighorn County, Wyoming, fared best at evaluation sites with drier climatic conditions. Specimens failed to thrive and\/or showed higher incidence of fungal leaf spots in sites with poorly drained soils, higher rainfall, and higher humidity. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Demystifying Daphnes","article_sequence":11,"start_page":26,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25399","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eab28.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hyland, Bob","article_content":"Demystifying Daphnes Bob Hyland cancer, which seems odd since all parts of the plant are poisonous. In the Northeast several Daphne species are hardy and have long been cultivated for their handsome foliage and intoxicating fragrance. Daphne flowers are tubular and flare at the mouth into four spreading lobes. They appear on small to mid-sized shrubs that make superb garden plants. Their dense, broad, mounded form is particularly well suited to small, intimate gardens where they can be viewed closeup, but daphnes have a place in any landscape. They combine nicely with many perennials that tolerate sun or partial shade. Good bedfellows include low-growing thymes and sedums, variegated hakone grass (Hakonocloa macra 'Aureola'\/, sedges jCarexj, hostas, coral bells (Heuchera), and hardy geraniums. Most of their alleged unpredictability can be overcome with careful placement in the garden and good culture. I heartily agree with Michael Dirr and other daphne-philes-a single flowering season would justify their use. even have been a fan of shrubby daphnes for a long despite their reputation as persnickety unpredictable garden plants. I love to drink in their heady fragrance when they are in bloom. My first encounter with the genus was with Daphne odora (winter daphne)-to be exact, a handsome cultivar called 'Aureomar- time and ginata'. It's a deliciously sweet-smelling shrub, very reminiscent to me of jasmine. Its leathery leaves are evergreen, a deep, shiny green edged with yellow. The almost white flowers are an attractive reddish purple on the outside. Daphne odora is hardy to USDA zones 7 to 9. With careful siting, a little extra winter protection, and some tender loving care, I was able to coax it into overwintering in my garden in Wilmington, Delaware. Later, in my San Francisco the generally frost-free, Mediterranean climate made the ~ob much easier; m fact, some of my snobbier gardening friends considered it a bit pedestrian. Daphne serves as both the common name and genus epithet of some fifty species of deciduous, semi-evergreen, or evergreen shrubs native to Eurasia (Europe, N.Africa, and temperate and subtropical Asia). The genus is a member of Thymelaeaceae (mezereum family), which includes about forty genera of deciduous and evergreen trees and shrubs native to temperate and tropical regions of both hemispheres. Other lesser-known cultivated ornamental plants in this family include Dirca and Edgeworthia. The plant's name may have come from the nymph of classical Greek mythology. As the story is told, Daphne was loved and relentlessly pursued by Apollo, the god of prophecy, music, medicine, and poetry, whose advances she tried to thwart. After praying for help to Gaia, goddess of the earth, she was changed into a laurel tree and evaded her pursuer. It is more likely, however, that the name comes from an Indo-European word meaning \"odor.\" The root and bark of Daphne are said to have been used for toothaches, skin diseases, and garden, Growing Daphnes Daphnes are widely thought to be unpredictable and subject to dying for no apparent reason : many a gardening friend has told me not to get too attached to one. It is true that daphnes dislike extremes of moisture or temperature. Their root systems are picky, preferring not to sit in water or to dry out. Moist but well-drained, humus-rich soil is ideal, and mulching helps keep roots cool in summer. Some English garden books suggest that daphnes do best in limestone soils, but this has not been my own experience. I recommend acidic to slightly alkaline soils. At the Arnold Arboretum, several Daphne species grow well in acid soils of pH 4.5 to 5. in full to \" Generally speaking, you can plant daphnes sun to partial shade, but the foliage, particularly on the variegated leaves, does not like bake in hot summer sun-afternoon shade is ideal. Daphnes also do not take kindly to trans- 27 The '. variegated leaves of Daphne x burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie'. planting once established m the garden; it is best to plant container-grown stock in a permanent location. Keep pruning to a minimum, with judicious deadheading and light tip pruning. Do not try to rejuvenate plants by cutting back hardthis can easily sound the death knell. Besides this basic knowledge, all that's needed for successful daphne culture is planning ahead and some extra tender loving care. Find just the right spot, take the time to prepare and amend the soil, monitor moisture levels, provide a winter mulch over the roots, and daphnes will generally flourish and bloom for many years. The Arnold Arboretum will offer the followdazzling daphnes at their fall 2005 sale. plant ing three gardener and a very active member and officer of the Garden Club of Short Hills and the Garden Club of America. She developed a deep mterest in unusual plants and a very keen eye for the rare and unusual. Her namesake cultivar is highly prized for its small, intensely green leaves that are handsomely edged in a creamy white to golden yellow. In May and June in New England, the foliage is enhanced by rose-pink buds that unfold to star-shaped, richly fragrant, pale pink flowers borne in dense, terminal umbels, two inches in diameter. Individual flowers are about a halfmch in diameter and are followed by small, red, drupehke fruits. 'Carol Mackie' matures into a dense, mounded shrub that ultimately reaches three to four feet m height and width. It exhibits a tough constitution and is hardy to USDA zones 4 to 8; it was once listed as a \"Top Ten\" ornamental plant in Vermont. Accordmg to Michael Dirr m the fifth edition of his Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, Daphne x burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie' survived minus 30 degrees F without injury in the Umversity of Maine's display gardens. In Daphne x burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie' This is one of the most striking of all daphnesfor that matter, of all variegated shrubs. A genetic mutation, or sport, of hybrid Daphne x burkwoodii (D. cneorum x D. caucaslca\/, this cultivar was discovered and originally propagated by Carol Mackie in her Far Hills, New Jersey, garden in 1962. Carol Mackie was a passionate 28 more southerly parts of its hardiness range, the plant remains evergreen through winter. Tom Ward, co-director of living collections at the Arboretum, holds D. x burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie' in high esteem. He reports that it has performed well both at the Arboretum and in his own New England garden. If you've had the same success with'Carol Mackie', you might try a newer cultivar, 'Briggs Moonlight'. Introduced by Briggs Nursery, Elma, Washington, it offers the reverse leaf variegation of 'Carol Mackie', with creamy yellow centers and narrow, dark green margins. Daphne x transatlantica 'Summer Ice'. '. Daphne genkwa (Lilac Daphne) Daphne genkwa hails from China; introduced into cultivation in the United States in 1843. An open, deciduous shrub with erect, slender, sparsely branched stems, it is a gem in the was it records also indicate that wild-collected seed of D. genkwa from China was received from E. H. Wilson in 1907. spring garden. Axillary clusters of two to seven lovely, one-fourth-to-three-fourths-inch diameter, lilac-colored flowers bloom during May on naked stems of the previous year's growth, just before and while new foliage is beginning to emerge. Floral fragrance is very subtle to nonexistent. Dry, ovoid fruits develop after flowering; they are grayish white and nothing to write home about. Daphne x transatlantica `Summer Ice' Daphne x transatlantica is a newly found hybrid, the result of a naturally occurring cross between D. collina and D. caucasica (caucasian daphne). it combines the small stature and strong fragrance of D. collina with the fragrance and long blooming period of D. caucasica. D. x transatlantica is a compact, semi-evergreen, mounded shrub that blooms continuously in New England Mid-green, one- to three-inch-long leaves, lance-shaped to ovate, are arranged oppositely (occasionally alternately) on stems. This is unusual among daphne species, which nor- mally sport alternately arranged leaves. Leaves are softly silky when first unfurling. Daphne genkwa is hardy to USDA zones Daphne genkwa. 5 to 7 and generally matures to three to four feet in height and width. Currently no specimens of D. genkwa are planted out in the Arboretum's living collec. I' . 11. 11 , ... from May to frost with small, delightfully fragrant, white flowers. The late Jim Cross, founder of Environmentals Nursery in Cutchogue, Long Island, is responsible for introducing this hybrid into the nursery trade. He originally sold it as a form of D. caucasica, but molecular studies later proved it to be a hybrid that has been named D. x transatlantica. The cultivar 'Summer Ice' grows into a wellbehaved, domed shrub that reaches three to four feet in height and width. The delicately variegated leaves sport fine, creamy white edgessimilar to but more demure than D. burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie'. Its spicy white flowers are borne abundantly at the ends of branches in late spring, followed by sporadic summer bloom and a strong fall show. 'Summer Ice' is hardy to zone 5. Bob Hyland is co-owner and manager of Loomis Creek tions, but one-descendant of wild-collected plants from the former Czech Republic -is growing in the nursery. The Arboretum's plant York, pubhc garden consultant, and former vice president of horticulture and operations at Brooklyn Botanic Garden. He frequently writes about plants when not watering. New Nursery, Hudson, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 63","article_sequence":12,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25401","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed25eaf26.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 63 Bartram, John 3: 29; 4: 3, 7 Bartram, William 4: 3, 4, 5, 7 Bartram's Garden 4: 4, 5 \"Beach Plum: A Shrub for Low-Maintenance Landscapes,\" Richard H Uva & Thomas H. Whitlow 4: 19-20 beach plum 4. 19, 20 beautybush 4' 8 Betula ermannn 3: 26 platyphylla 3 : 25 Bhthdale Romance [Nathaniel Haw- parentheses refer to issues, those m boldface to illustrations of the entnes. 8 vmgmicus 4: 17, 18 \"Chosenia: An Amazing Tree of Northeast Asia,\" Inna Kadis 3. 8-17 7 chosema 3: 8-9, 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 23, 24 Chosema 3: 21, 22, 23, 24 -arbutifoha 8, 9, 10 13 Cmnamomom camphora 3: 36 sp. 2: front cover - \"A Good Day Plant-Collecting in Taiwan,\"Rob Nicholson 1. 20-27 Abies nephrolepis 3: 26 Abies nordmanmana 4. 8 Abraham J. Miller-Rushing, \"Herbarium Specimens as a Novel Tool for Climate Change Research,\" with Damel Pnmack et al. Acer alleghamensis 4: inside front cover - Concord, MA 2: 14 - negundo 1: 28 pensylvamcum 1: -platanoides 1~ 28 - Connor, Sheila, \"The Archmes\" 3: 34-44 28 Nature of East Asia: Botanical and Cultural thorne] 3 : 28, 30 Book of Fruit 3: 28 box elder 1: 28 Brook Farm, West Images from the Arnold Arboretum - ru brum 1: 29 Aceraceae 1: 28 Adelges tsugae (HWA) 2: 33 Aesculus 1: 3, 4 -hippocastanum 1: 3, 4, 5 hippocastanum cv. 'Baumanml' 1: 3 -pama 1: 3, 4, 5 -x x carnea 1~ 3, 4, 5, 6 \"Agamst All Odds: Growing Franklmia in Boston\" 4: 2-7 Alisan National Scemc area [Taiwan] 1: 23 Alpinia speciosa 1: 24 Amentotaxus Preserve [Taiwan] 1: 24 Amentotaxus formosana 1: 22-25 Ames, Oakes 4: 10 - Corlett, Richard, \"Dipterocarps: Trees Roxbury, MA 3: , 29,30 Browne, D J. 4: buckeye 1: 3, 5 - red 1: 3, 4, 5 4 Bull, Ephraim Wales 2: 14, 15, 17 7 Caesalpmioideae 3: 6 \"Calycanthus chinensis The Chmese Sweetshrub,\" Jianhua Li & Peter Del Tredici 4: 21-22 - Calycanthus chinensis 4: 21, 22 flondus 1 : 4; 4: 21, 22 Calhcarpa dichotoma 'Issai' 4: inside back cover That Dominate the Asian Ram Forest\" with Richard Pnmack 3: 2-7 Cornales 1: 9 cornel, Japanese 1: 9 cornelian cherry, European 1: 9 Cornus altermfoha 1: 9 flonda 1: 9 kousa 1: 9 -mas 1 : 9 -nuttallm 1: 9 officmalls 1 : 9 crabapples 1: 8 - - - cranberry 2: 19, Cryptomena 20 cryptomena, Japanese 1: 8 japonica 1: Andersen, Phyllis, \"Ilex pedunculosa The Longstalk Holly\" 4: 11-12 Anemone 'Groene Ridder' 1: inside front cover amse, false 1: 10 arbormtae, oriental 3: 41, inside back cover - 8; 4: 13, 14 camphor tree 3: 4, 36 \"Capturing and Cultivating 5 Carr, Robert 4: --'Yoshmo' 4. 14 Chose- Cycads cypress, - 1: 25 nia,\"Peter Del Tredici 3: 18-27 Carya ovata Cycas taitungensis 1: 25, 26, 27 Leyland 4: 14 4 3: 9 sawara false 1: 6, 7 Russian 4: 15 Arnold Arboretum 1: 32, 2: 16, 26, 27 -- Caryophyllus florepleno 1 : 1 cedar, Japanese 4: 13, 14 Cephalotaxus mlsomana 1: 22-24 Cercis canadensis 1: 8 Chamaecypans 1 : G, 10 dammar [resm] 3: 4 daphne, lilac 4: 28 - winter 4: 26 Bussey Hill Center for 3: 7 4: 2, 6, 9 Forest Sci- Daphne x burkwoodm 'Carol Mackie' 4: 27 - - - Tropical - pisi f era - ence -- cvs. 1. 6, 1: 6, 7 7 genkwa 28 Chinese Path 4: 2, 6, 9 collection of eastern Asian photographs 3' 34 Dana Greenhouses 2: 3; 3: 22 Fall Plant Distribution and Sale, 1980-2005 4: 8 Hemlock Hill 2: 35-36, 37, 38 Leventritt Garden 1: 8 --Phellodendron amurensis collection 1: front and back covers Weather Station Data-2003 63:2 ------ Changbai 25-27 Shan 3- 13, 16 18-19 20 21 - - 4. 28 odora 4: 26 x transatlantica 'Summer Ice' 4: Chatsworth Bakewell, Derbyshire 2: inside front and back covers Chaw, Shu-Mlaw 1: 22-24, 25, 26 Chen, Chih-Hui 1: 24-26 chestnut 3: 3 Chimonanthus 4: 21, 22 China 3: 9, 10, 16,34,38,43 \"Chionanthus retusus. The Chmese Fnngetree,\" Peter Del Tredici & Jianhua Li retusus Damdia mvolucrata 3: 37; 4: 8, 10 - - var. mlmonmana 4: 8, 10 De Hart, William 4: 4 Del Tredici, Peter 3: 26; photos by 2: front cover; 4: front cover \"Agamst All Odds: Growmg Frankhnia m Boston\" 4: 2-7 \"Calycanthus chinensis: The Chinese Sweetshrub,\"with Jianhua - --- Astragalus 3: 14 Chionanthus 4: 17, 18 Li 4: 21-22 30 - --- \"Capturing and Cultivating Chosema\" 3: 18-27 \"Chionanthus retusus: The Chinese Fnngetree,\" with Jianhua - Formosa, see Taiwan Hovey, Charles 2: 15 Frankhma alatamaha 4: 2-6, 7 fringetree, Chmese 4: 18 genetic variation, mutational 1: 2 Gondwana 3: 3 Li 4: 17-18 - \"Finding a Replacement for Arboretum,\" with Alice Howard, Richard Alden 2: 2-7 HWA (Adelges tsugae~ 2: 33-36 Hwang, Shy-Yuan 1: 26 hybridization 1: 3-6 Hyland, Bob, \"Demystifying Daphnes\" 4: 26-29 Eastern Hemlock: Research at the Arnold - Gore, Christopher 2: 10 grape, Concord 2: 9, 15, cover - 16, back Ilex aqmfolmm 1 : 8; 4: 12 2 - Kitayma 2: 33-39 \"Herbarium Specimens as a Novel Tool for Climate Change Research,\" with Abraham J. MillerRushmg et al. 2: 26-32 \"Demystifying Daphnes,\" Bob Hyland 4: 26-29 - European wme 2: 14 4 opaca 1: 8; 4: 12 - fox 2: 14 4 - Greeley, Horace 2: 15 gum, East Asian 1: 9 eastern American black 1: 9 Hamamehs x intermedia 1 : 4 japonica 1 : 4 molhs 1: 4 pedunculosa 4: 12, back cover \"Ilex pedunculosa. The Longstalk 2 Holly,\" Phyllis Andersen 4: 11-12 illipe nuts 3: 6 Imbres, Caroline, \"Herbarium Speci- Diospyros 3: 4 kaki 3: 38, 39 mens as a Novel Tool for Chmate - Diploblechnum frasem 1 : 24 - Change Research,\" with Abraham J. Miller-Rushing et al. 2: 26-32 \"In Favor of Trees,\" John Bnnckerhoff Jackson 1: 13-19 \"In Memonam : Richard Alden Howard, 1917-2003,\"Judith A Warnement and Carroll E. Wood, Jr. 2: 2-7 \" \"In the Library: Hortus Nitidissimis, Sheila Connor 1: 32 Indonesia 3: 3 International Umon for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources Red List of Threatened Plants 1: 21 1 Ishikawa, Shmgo 3: 22 Dipterocarp 3: 2-6, 7 Dipterocarpaceae 3: 3 \"Dipterocarps: Trees That Dominate the Asian Ram Forest, \" Richard Corlett and Richard Primack 3: 2-7 Dipterocarpus 3: 3 costulatus 3: back cover Dirr, Michael 4: 21, 26, 27-28 disjunct species, East Asian-eastern North America 1: 10 dogwood, alternate-leaved 1: 9 East Asian giant 1: 9 flowering 1: 8 - kousa 1: 9 western flowering 1: 9 \"Dove Tree: A Long Journey West, Richard Schulhof 4: 9-10 0 dove tree 4: 9, 10 - 0 Hamilton, William 2: 10 Hammond Woods, Newton, MA 1: 28, 29 - Harvard University 1: 29 Herbaria 2: 3 Hawthorne, Nathaniel 3: 28-30, 31, - 32-33 - - - - - Heather 2: 22 Hedysarum 3: 14 hemlock woolly adegid 2: 33 hemlock, Carolina 2: 33 Chinese 2: 33, 34-36, 39 eastern or Canadian 2: 33, 35, 36 mountain 2: 33 northern Japanese 2: 33, 34 southern Japanese 2' 34 western \" - 2: 33 10 \" Henry, Augustine 4: 9, Dryobalanops aromatica 3: 4 East Tennessee State University 1: 2, 8 7,8 El Niiio-Southern Oscillation events 6 3: 5, 7 elm, American 2: 9, 11, 12, 13, 16-17 1 - Enghsh 2: 11 \"Herbarium Specimens as a Novel Tool for Climate Change Research,\" Abraham J. Miller-Rushing, Damel Pnmack, Richard B. Pnmack, Caroline Imbres, and Peter Del Tredici 2: 26-32 Jack, John George 3: 34, 35-36; 4: 6, 7; 6 photos by 3: 36 Jackson, John Brinckerhoff, \"In Favor of Trees (1994)\" 1: 13-19, drawmgs by 1: 15, 16 Japan 3: 9, 22, 35 Jefferson, Thomas 2: 10 Johnson, Ethan W., photo by 4: back cover Juniperus squamata var. 41 meyen 3: 41 herbarium specimens 2: 26-32 Hers, Joseph 3: 35, photos by 3: Kadis, Irma 3: 21, - 22 hickory, shagbark 3: Hippocastanaceae \"Elms at Yale College,\" engraving by 9 1: 5 W. H. Bartlett 2: 8-9 Ericaceae 2: 18 8 Evelyn, John 1: 14, 16-17, 19 7 Famchild, David 2: 3, 17 Farges, Paul Guillaume 4: 9, 10 1 Farrar, Reginald 3: 41 Faxon, C. E., illustration by 4: 5 Fernald, M. L. 1: 29 \"Finding a Replacement for Eastern Historic Bartram's Garden 4: 3 2 holly, American 4: 12 2 European 4: 12 evergreen American 1: 8 European 1: 8 Hopea 3: 4 ponga 3 : 5 horse chestnut 1: 3, 4, 5 --red 1:3 3 - \"Chosema: An Amazing Tree of Northeast Asia\" 3: 8-17 7 Kalmia latifoha 'Comet' 4: inside back cover 2014 2014 'Raspberry Glow' 4: 8 kapur tree 3: ment 4 a Kitajima, Ahce, \"Finding Replace\" for Eastern Hemlock: Research at the Arnold Arboretum,\" with Peter Del Tredici 2: 33-39 Kolkmtzla amabihs 'Pink Cloud' 4:8 Korea 3: Hemlock: Research at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Peter Del Tredici and Alice Kitajima 2: 33-39 Flora of the Lesser Antilles 2 : 6 \"Horticulture and the Development of American Identity,\" Philip J. 9, 18, 20, 35 Pauly 2: House 8-17 7 of Seven Gables [Nathaniel Hawthorne] 3: 32 Lan Lee 3: 42 Larix olgensis 3 : 27 Lenox, MA 3: 32 31 Levy, Foster, \"Using Arboreta to Teach Biological Concepts\" 1: 2-12 with Tim McDowell mezereum family 4: 26 Li, Jianhua, \"Calycanthus chinensis The Chinese Sweetshrub, \" mth Peter Del Tredici 4. 21-22 \"Chionanthus retusus. The Chinese Fnngetree,\" with Peter Del Tredici 4~ 17-18 Lilmm regale 3: 37 -- Easter 3: 37 lime tree 1. 17 linden 17 lrly, \"Microbiota decussata A Versatile Conifer,\" Nancy Rose 4' 15-17 Microbiota decussata 4: 15-16 Nhquel, Fnednch Anton Wilhelm 4: 11 Mongohan athletes 3 40 morphological variarion 1: 6-8 Mosses from an Old Manse [Nathaniel Hawthorne] 3: 30 mountain laurel 4. 8 Mussaenda pubescens 1~ 24 - Lombardy 2: 10 Poncirus tnfol1ata cover 4' inside back Populus 3: 21 Primack, Damel, \"Herbarium Specimens as a Novel Tool for Chmate Change Research,\" with Abraham J. Miller-Rushing et al. 2: 26-32 Pnmack, Richard, \"Dipterocarps: Trees That Dominate the Asian Ram Forest\" with Richard Corlett 3.2-7 - Nakal, Takenoshm 3: 10 \"Lmgonberry: Dainty Looks, Sturdy Disposition, and Tasty Berries,\" Lee Reich 2' 18-25 Nanjing Botanical Garden 3. 19; 4: 22 Natural History Museum, London 1: 32 Nature of East Asia: Botanical and - lingonberry 2 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, \"Herbamum Specimens as a Novel Tool for Climate Change Research,\" with Abraham J. MillerRushing et al. 2: 26-32 \"The Sex Life of the Red Maple\" - - 24-25 Lmociera 4' 18 Cultural Images from the Arnold Arboretum Archrves,\" Sheila Connor Lmodendron chmense 1. 12 3: 34-44 - tuhpifera -- 1: 8, 12 4 x chmense 1: 12 Nicholson, Rob, \"A Good Day: PlantCollectmg m Taiwan\" 1 ~ 20-27, 25 North American-Chinese Plant Ex- - locust, black 1: bristly 1: 4 ploration 12, back cover - Consortium (NACPEC) - casque rouge 1: 4 longstalk holly 4: 11, Lyon, John 4: 3 3: 18, 20 Nyssa smensls 1: 9 sylvatica 1. 9 1: 28-31 Prince family nursery 2: 10, 14 Pnnceton Nurseries 2: 16 Prunus mantima 4: 19 -- `Ocean View' 4: 19 Pseudodrynana coronans 1: 26 Purdom, William 3: 34, 35, 39-41; photos by 3: 40 Pusey, Nathan 2: 3 Pyrus 2: 27 Madsen, Karen, photo by back covers 1 ~ front and magnolia, lrly-flowered - saucer 1: 3, 4 oak 3: 3-4, 6 Old Manse, Concord [MA] 3. 30 Our Old House [Nathaniel Haw- Rafinesque, Constantine 4: 4 rain forest, Amazoman 1. 14 -- Asian 3: 4 1: 4 thorne] 3 : 33 Oxytropis 3: 14 Panax gmseng 3: 20 - Yulan 1. 3, 4 Magnolia denudata 1: 2, 3, 4 redbud 1:8 redfire 4: 13 Rehder, Alfred 3: 35 - hlnflora 1: 2, 3, 4 x soulangiana 1: 3 - ---'Alexandrma' 1: 2, 3, 4 - stellata 'Centennial' 4: 8 - vmgmana 'Moonglow' 4: inside front cover Malay Peninsula 3: 3 parent-hybnd combinations 1: 4 Pauley, Philip J., \"Horticulture and the Development of American Identity\" 2: 8-17 Peabody,Sophia 3'29 30 pear tree 2: 27 Perry, Lily M. 2: 2 persimmon sugar 3: 38 Philippines 3' 3 Phomopsis 4: 16 Phyllosticta aurea 4: 13 Reich, Lee \"Lingonberry Dainty Looks, Sturdy Disposition, and Tasty Berries\" 2: 18-23, 24, 25 Rhododendron dauncum 1: 11 -mmus -'P.J.M.' - 1: 11 1: 11 vasey 2: 28 Malaysia 3: 3 Manmng, Robert 3. 28 maple, Norway 1: 28 - red 1 ~ 8, 29, 30, 31 - striped 1. 28 Marble Faun [Nathaniel 3: 33 Marshall, Humphry 4: 3 Hawthorne] Letters: phylogenetic biogeography 1: 2, Phytophthora cmnamom 4: 7 Pierce, Franklin 3: Pmus - 8-10 Rhus aromatica 4' 25 \"Rhus trilobata- Worthy Plant Seeks Worthy Name,\" Nancy Rose 4: 23-26 Rhus trilobata 4: 23-24, 25 Robmia hispida 1: 4 - pseudoacacia x 1: 4 McDowell, Marta, \"Verdant x acenfoha 32 1: 4 - margaretta 1: 4 Hawthorne and Horticulture\" 3: 28-33 McDowell, Tim, \"Usmg Arboreta to Teach Biological Concepts\" 1: 2-12 with Foster Levy koraiensis 3: 25 - pumila 4: 15 sylvestmformis 3: 3' 42~13 Rosa 'L'admirable' 1 ~ inside back cover Rock, Joseph 3: 34, 35; photos by 25 Meehan, Joseph 4: 4 Meehan, Thomas 4: 4, 5, 6, 7 Meyer, Frank Nicholas 3: 34, 38-39; photos by 3: 38, 39 Meyer, Paul 1: 22 occidentahs 1: 4 onentalls 1: 4 Platycladus omentahs 3: 41, inside back cover plum yew, Wilson's 1. 22, 23 Polygonatum alte-lobata 1: 23 - Rose, Nancy, \"Microbiota decussata~ A Versatile Comfer\" 4: 15-17 - - \"Rhus tmlobata: Worthy Plant Seeks Worthy Name\" 4: 23-26 - Royal Botamc Gardens, 37,39 Rutgers Umversity 2: 16 Kew 1: 32; 3: poplar 3: 9, 13 l 32 - \"Salem Common on Training Day,\" painting by George Ropes, Jr. 2: 10 Salem, MA 3: 28, 32 Salicaceae 3: 10, 13, 21 Sahx 3: 21 tnandra 3: 9 Sargent, C. S. 1: 32; 3: 32, 27, 28, 41, Taxus chinensis 1 : 22-23 Taylor, George 2: 3 Thoreau, Henry 2: 13 Thymelaeaceae 4: 26 Tomlinson, P. Barry 1: 29 tree as symbol 1: 17 7 8 tree, culture of 1: 18 Tripp, Kim E., \"'Yoshino': An Outstanding Cultivar of the Japanese Cedar\" 4: 13-14 - viburnum, Chmese snowball fragrant snowball 1: 4 Korean spice 1: 4 1: 4 - - - Viburnum x carlcephalum 1 : 4 carlesil 1 : 4 dilatatum 'Erie' 4: inside front cover 42 ; 4 : 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12 Scarlet Letter [Nathaniel Hawthorne] 3: 30-31 scholar tree, Chinese 3: 36 Schulhof, Richard, \"The Dove Tree: A Long journey West\" 4: 9-10 \"Sex Life of the Red Maple,\" Richard Pnmack 1: 28-31 Shanghai Plant Physiology Institute 2: 2 Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology 3: 19 Shorea 3: 3 Siberia 3: 8, 9, 10 macrocephalum 1: 4 Vilmorin, Maurice de 4: Vitexrotundifoha 4: 8 - 10 0 Tsuga 2: 34 - canadensis 2: 33-34, 36 carohmana 2: 33 chinensis 2: 33-34, 38 Vitis labrusca 2: 14, 7 -vmifera 2: 14, 17 17 7 - - dmersifoha 2: 33 heterophylla 2: 33 Ward, Alan, photos by 2: inside front and back am : covers \"Silver Anniversary: The Fall Plant Distribution and Sale, 1980-2005\" 4: 8 Sm No 3: 42 mertensiana 2: 33 sieboldn 2: 33, 34 tulip poplar, American 1: 8 --Chmese 1: 8 9 tupelo 1: 'I'mce Told Tales 3: 29 - Warnement, Judith A., \"In MemoriRichard Alden - 2003,\" with Carroll 2: 2-7 Howard, 1917E. Wood, Jr. U.S. 38 Department of Agriculture 38,42 amencana 3: Washburn, Bradford 2: 3 'Wayside', Concord, MA 3: 31, 32 7 Welch, Thomas 2: 16, 17 Whitlow, Thomas H., \"Beach Plum: A Shrub for Low-Maintenance LandH. Uva 4: 19-20 willow 3: 8-10, 13, 16, 20-21 Wilson, E. H. 1: 21-23; 2: 35; 3: 34, 37-38; 4: 9, 10, 11; photos by 3: 11, 37; 4: 12 1 wintersweet 4: 21 witch hazel 1 : 4, 10 0 Chmese 1: 4 --Japanese 1:4 Wong, K. M., photo by 3: back cover Wood, Carroll E. Wood, Jr. 2: 2 ----- \"In Memonam: Richard -- Singapore Botanical Garden 3: Sinocalycanthus 4: 22 - Ulmus - 2: 11 1 scapes,\"with Richard cAjnensn 1. 4 1 procera 2: 11 Umi Hachiman Shr~ne 3: 36 species, mcanant 1: 10 Skinner, Francis 1: 32 Skinner, Jr., Francis 1: 32 sister \"Using Arboreta to Teach Biological Concepts,\" Foster Levy and Tim McDowell 1: 2-12 2 species concepts 1: 2 spruce, Mornson's 1: 23 Stewartia ovata forma grandiflora 4: Uva, Richard H., \"Beach Plum: 4: 19-20 A Shrub for Low-Maintenance Landscapes,\" with Thomas H. Whitlow front Sun cover Styphnolobmm ~apomcum 3: Long Xing 3: 21, 22 Sutton, Stephanne B. 4: 9 sycamore, eastern 1: 4 36 - London 1: 4 oriental 1:4 - Sylva [John Evelyn] 1: 14 Syringa vulgans 'Krasavitsa 4: inside back cover Syzygium 3: 4 Taiwan - Moskvy' angustifoha 2: 21 9 macrocarpon 2: 19 uhgmosum 3: 27 vitis-idaea var. minus 2: 18, 21, 25 cvs 2: 25 - - var. mtis-idaea 2: 18, 21, 25 ----cvs 2: 25 Van Mons, Jean Baptist 2: 14-15 5 Vatica 3: 3 Veitch Nursery 2: 35; 3: 37, 39; 4: Vaccmmm - Alden Howard, 1917-2003,\" with Judith A. Warnement 2: 2-7 Wynne, Wilham 4:4 Yalu River 3: front cover, 21, 38 yew 1: 17, 22 - Chmese 1: 1: 22 Taiwan catkin 1: 24 Ym Hung-chang 2: 2 \"'Yoshino': An Outstanding Cultivar of the Japanese Cedar,\" Kim E. Tripp 4: 13-14 - 1: 20-21, 35 9, 10 \"Verdant Letters: Hawthorne and Horticulture,\" Marta McDowell 3: 28-33 conifers of 1: 21 taiwania 1: 21-22 Taiwania cryptomemoides 1: 21 Taxaceae 1: 24 via.harvard.edu 3: 35, 42 YuShan National Park [Taiwan] 1: 23 On the inside front cover, clockmse from top left: Magnolia virginiana 'Moonglow', courtesy of Broken Arrow Nursery; Betula alleghaniensis, photo by Peter Del Tredici; Viburnum dilatatum `Erie', courtesy of Sprmg Meadow Nursery; the habit of Betula alleghaniensis, photo by Peter Del Tredici. On the inside back cover, clockwise from top left: Syringa vulgaris 'Krasavitsa Moskvy', photo by John H. Alexander III, Poncirus trifoliata, the hardy orange tree, and Kalmia latifolia 'Comet', both by Peter Del Tredici; Callicarpa dichotoma `Issai', courtesy of Spring Meadow Nursery. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23540","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260b328.jpg","title":"2005-63-4","volume":63,"issue_number":4,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dipterocarps: Trees That Dominate the Asian Rain Forest","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25391","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24e8126.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Corlett, Richard; Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"m Dipterocarps: Trees That Dominate the Asian Rain Forest Richard Corlett and Richard Primack irst-time visitors to the rain forests of ancient southern supercontiof Gondwana. The dipterocarps appear to have reached Southeast Asia from Africa via the Indian plate and did not arrive until the middle Eocene (45 million years ago), when a moist corridor between India and Southeast Asia resulted m a major influx of plants with Gondwanan affinities. Despite this relatively late arrival, the dipterocarps underwent a massive evolutionary radiation in Southeast Asia. Enumerations of research plots in Southeast Asian forests show a conspicuous proliferation nent and Malaysia will be amazed to turn around and realize that virtuslowly ally every giant tree is a member of the dipterocarp family, and yet that they belong to several separate genera and dozens of distinct species. The tree family Dipterocarpaceae (literally \"twowinged fruits\") plays a dominant role in the ecology and economics of Asian forests in a way that no comparable family plays in other rain forest regions. Dipterocarp trees dominate forests in Borneo, Sumatra, Java, the Malay Peninsula, and the wetter parts of the Philippines, where the majority of the large trees are members of this one family and account for the majority of the biomass. Outside this FIndonesia and spread on the dipterocarps gradually decline in diversity and abundance. A secondary center of dipterocarp diversity exists in Sri Lanka. In total, core everwet area, there are at least 500 Asian trees species. Dipterocarp also have excellent timber qualities, and they are marketed mternationally as luan of dipterocarp genera illustrate plywood and as sawn timber The ranges hes m Indonesia's Sundaland that the center of distribution of this tree family region Sri Lanka, 7ust offthe southern under names such as Philipcoast of Afnca, is a secondary center. Each Ime encloses the distmbution of all pines red mahogany, meranti, species in one genus. keruing, and kapur. A few species of dipterocarp trees are found of tree species within the individual genera Shoin the African tropics and Madagascar, though rea, Hopea, Dipterocarpus, and Vatica. In any not in rain forests, and in the highlands of South one forest in the Malay Peninsula, Sumatra, or testament to the family's origin America, giving Borneo, it would be common to find 25 or more species of Shorea, and six or more species of the other three genera. Imagine going into a small Giant dipterocarp trees, such as this one m Borneo, dominate the forests of Southeast Asla. Photo by patch of forest in North America and finding 40 Richard Pnmack species of oaks and chestnuts. More recently, in 4 geological terms, a few dipterocarp species have managed to disperse from island to island across the narrowing water gap to New Guinea, where they dominate in scattered patches. This proliferation of closely related tree species is found in a few other Southeast Asian groups as well, such as Syzygium, in the myrtle family, and Diospyros, in the ebony family. The proliferation of distinctive but closely related of individual dipterocarp trees. Because of these growth characteristics and the abundant yearround rainfall, the dipterocarp trees often reach heights of 50 meters (150 feet) or more, which is higher than rain forests elsewhere. Also, trees do not typically fall over or get blown over as is seen in many Neotropical trees. Rather, dipterocarps often die standing, gradually losing their branches until only the trunk remains. As a result, the dipterocarp forest tends to be darker and more stable than forests in Africa (where the trees are shorter and are killed by periodic drought) and the Amazon (where trees may have a greater tendency to fall over and large canopy gaps soon occupied by sun-loving trees and vines). Once dipterocarp create trees a reach the canopy and emerge from it, they produce Lookmg Borneo. up at the cauliflower-like branchmg pattern of dipterocarp trees, characteristic crown that is shaped like a cauliflower, with clusters of leafy branches evenly spaced around a dome. A tendency toward lower wind speeds in Southeast Asian rain forests than in the other regions may favor this growth habit. Another possible key to the in one place is a special feature of the Asian rain forests, not as common in rain forests elsewhere. Scientists tree species growing together dipterocarps' success in Asian rain forests and the long lives of individual trees is the presence in all plant parts of an oily, aromatic resin that presumably aids the plant in defense against attack by bacteria, fungi, and animals. This resin often accumulates where the bark is bruised and is encountered as hard, crusty, glass-like pieces on the trunk or on the ground. This resin, called dammar, is collected by the local people and used in varnishes or as boat caulking. The value of this resin is illustrated by the kapur tree, also known as the are still debating the arguments to explain this local abundance of closely related tree species. One example of this phenomenon in the temperate zone is the numerous species of morphologically distinct oaks (family Fagaceae) found growing together in the dry forests of southeastern United States. Why should the dipterocarps in particular be so dominant in Asian rain forests? There is no obvious single answer, but certain common features hint at the reasons behind their success. Dipterocarps tend to have smooth, straight trunks rising to great heights without side branches or forks until the canopy is reached. The base of the tree is often buttressed. These growth characteristics emphasize the strength and stability camphor tree (Dryobalanops aromatica). Historically, this species has been one of the main commercial sources of camphor, an essential oil of importance for its use in medicine Bornean and as a preservative. The crushed leaves have a distinctive camphor or kerosene-like smell. Dipterocarps also contain bitter-tasting tannins as a further deterrent to attack. Although 5 nondipterocarp trees also have chemical defenses in their foliage, dipterocarp leaves do seem peculiarly inedible, at least to vertebrates. This is illustrated by the colugo, a leaf-eating, gliding mammal that lives in dipterocarp forests and forages widely in the tree canopy for new leaves but does not eat dipterocarp leaves. The orangutan and proboscis monkey, which also eat young leaves, again do not eat dipterocarp leaves. The flowers of dipterocarps vary in size, some being small and others being relatively large and showy with five white, yellow, or pink petals and often with numerous stamens. The flowers are also often scented and are adapted for pollination by a variety of insects-thrips, beetles, bees, or moths-depending on the species. Following flowering, a fruit is produced consisting of a single-seeded nut with a membranous winglike calyx that looks like a badminton shuttlecock. The ratio of the fruit weight to the total wing area-known as the wing loading-is much higher m dipterocarps than in most other winged fruits, so they spin to the ground within a few meters of the parent tree. At least this is what Flowers India. of a dipterocarp species, Hopea ponga, from including the amount of resources the trees have accumulated since the last Two main event. usually happens. Certain dipterocarp species have crossed major water barriers to reach New Guinea and the Philippines, which suggests that they sometimes travel long distances. The key to their success must lie in occasional windstorms plucking the winged fruits off the tall trees and transporting them across rivers and seas. A further reason for the success of the dipterocarps in the everwet areas of Southeast Asia may be the way most of the dipterocarp species over a wide region flower and fruit simultaneously advantages to this type of masting behavior have been suggested. First, in the Asian everwet climate, with no distinct wet and dry seasons, plants need some cue to trigger the onset of reproduction. In this way, all the individuals of a species can flower at the same time, and cross-pollination among trees of the same species can occur. The multiyear seasonality of the El Nino cycle provides the distinct set of conditions needed to coordinate reproduction, and it is used by almost every species of dipterocarp in these forests. Second, and perhaps more important, mass fruiting at long intervals may prevent the build-up of the populations of insects, birds, and mammals that would destroy the large and highly nutritious, oil-rich fruits. Synchronization of fruiting by many dipterocarp species across large areas is necessary for this to work, otherwise nomadic seedeaters, such as wild pigs, could simply move to wherever the trees were fruiting and destroy the whole crop. Thus, it is only in the mast years that any seeds survive long enough to germinate and grow mto seedlings. And during these flowering years, dipterocarp trees make a full commitment to reproduction. Dipterocarps invest so much energy in reproduction during flowering years that they only once every two to seven years. In an entire only a few dipterocarp trees will flower in an ordmary year, but during a so-called \"mast\" year almost every large tree reproduces. Individual plant species have mast years in all rain forests, but only in Southeast Asia do forest the mast years of so many species coincide over such a large area. The trigger for the initiation of flower development may be a brief episode of low nighttime temperature caused by strong radiative cooling under cloudless conditions during a drought two months before flowering. However, these meteorological conditions do not always trigger mass flowering, showing that other factors are also important, presumably 6 deep shade and in how rapidly they can increase their growth rate in response to an increase in light levels allows the family as a whole to take advantage of a wide range survive in of conditions. Dipterocarp seedlings may also have an increased chance of survival as a result of a special form of the mutualistic relationship between roots and the fungi called mycorrhizae (literally, \"fungus roots\"), in which the plant receives mineral nutrients and water from the fungus in exchange for carbohydrates. Almost all plants form mycorrhizae, but unlike most other rain forest trees, dipterocarps are ectomycorrhizal-that is, the fungus forms a sheath over the outside of the roots. Ectomycorrhizal trees and their seedlings are linked by a network of fungal hyphae that transfer nutrients from decaying organic matter to the plants. As soon as Dipterocarp trees mass-flower once every two to seven years with little or no flowenng dunng the mtervenmg years. This is lllustrated by the export figures for ilhpe nuts (Shorea spp., secuon Pachycarpae), oil-nch seeds of a common group of dipterocarp species, from West Kalimantan, Indonesian Borneo, from 1968 to 1997. Years with El Niiio-Southern Oscillation (ENSO) events are shown in bold; strong flowering years are associated with ENSO events. From L. M. Curran ~ M. Leighton, 2000. stop growing; in practice, they often have several years of growing without reproducing, followed by a heavy flowering year with no growth. Producing successful crops of seedlings only every two to seven years could be a major disadvantage in responding to the short-term recruitment opportunities that occur following the death of adult trees. Therefore, another important element in the success of dipterocarps is the ability of seedlings of some species to survive for many years under the dense, shady canopy of established trees. The resources provided by a large seed are an obvious advantage here. This effectively creates a \"seedling bank\" that can respond to opportunities created by an opening in the canopy overhead. In forests in Borneo, the seedlings of some dipterocarp species last for more than fifteen years on the forest floor after a single fruiting event. The variation among dipterocarp species in how well the seedlings can it germinates, a dipterocarp seedling may be able to plug into the existing network and may obtain resources from its nearby parent, although this has not yet been convincingly demonstrated. Whether this suggested ectomycorrhizal advantage exists or not, it is very striking that the same fungal association occurs in the oak family, which often dominates Southeast Asian montane forests, and in legume trees in the subfamily Caesalpinioideae, which form extensive stands dominated by single species in parts of Africa and South America. Ectomycorrhizal associations are also the norm in low-diversity, temperate-zone forests. It is striking too that many of these ectomycorrhizal tree species follow a pattern of heavy fruiting at multiyear intervals-mast fruitingthat is similar to that shown by the Southeast Asian dipterocarps. Many of these elements of the dipterocarp strategy for rain forest success seem to fit 7 weather changes. In the rain forest at Sinharaja, in southwest Sri Lanka, which has a brief annual dry period, some dipterocarps have annual cycles while other show synchronized masting at multiyear intervals. Over the last few decades, many scientists have speculated about how one family of trees could be so dominant in the forests of Southeast Asia. Careful comparisons are now needed among rain forest regions to determine if dipterocarp trees really are different m their growth habitats, masting behavior, and seed biology from rain forest trees in other plant families. Of special interest would be comparative studies of the animal communities: do dipterocarp forests really have lower densities of insects and other animals due to the absence of flowers, fruits, and seeds during the long periods between masting years? Our ability to answer these questions is being facilitated by the network of rain forest plots being established by the Center for Tropical Forest Science, a joint project of the Smithsonian Institution and the Arnold Arboretum. Perhaps in the years to come we will be able to understand the amazing dominance of the dipterocarp family. Select An assortment nndely m of dipterocarp frmts, Borneo. Species the size and shape of the ~nnngs. Bibliography to vary Curran, L. M., and M. Leighton. 2000. Vertebrate responses together. Wind-dispersed fruits are only practical in the rain forest for very tall trees that emerge from the forest canopy: there is too little air movement inside the forest. Large seeds produce seedlings that can establish and survive in deep shade. What is food for a seedling is also food for a beetle, rat, pheasant, or a pig, but mast fruiting at long time intervals can satiate these seed predators so that many seeds escape consumption to grow into seedlings. forest, however, there are of these generalizations, exceptions including dipterocarp trees too small to emerge from the canopy and species that flower every Even in the rain to some spatiotemporal variation in seed production mast-fruiting Dipterocarpaceae. Ecological Monographs 70: 101-128 Losos, E. C., and E. G. Leigh \/eds.\/. 2004. Tropical Forest Diversity and Dynamism~ Fmdmgs from a Large-Scale Plot Network University of Chicago Press Pmmack, R., and R. Corlett. 2005. Tropical Ram Forests: An Ecological and Biogeographical Companson. Blackwell Pubhshmg I. M. 2001. The Ecology of Trees m the Tropical Turner, Ram Forest. Cambridge University Press Whitmore, T. C. 1984. Tropical Ram Forests of the Far of East. 2nd edition. Clarendon Press year. Their strategies for survival must be different and require further research. Moreover, areas outside of the everwet zone, such as in Thailand and the Western Ghats, a hilly region of southwestern India, dipterocarps flower and fruit on annual cycles in response to seasonal a professor at the University of Hong investigating the role of seed dispersal in ram forest recovery after deforestation Richard Primack, a Richard Corlett, at Kong, is in professor Boston University, is currently conducting research on the effects of climate change on plants and birds. Both authors have worked and traveled m Asian forests and are the co-authors of a recent book on ram forests, cited above, from which this essay is adapted. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chosenia: An Amazing Tree of Northeast Asia","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25390","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ebb6d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kadis, Irina","article_content":"Chosenia: An Irina Kadis Amazing Tree of Northeast Asia to Northeast Siberia with fond memories of the chosenia groves they have seen. These riverside communities harbor many showy flowering herbs that stand out brightly against the otherwise monotonous background of the Siberian taiga. Even more striking are the groves of mature chosenias with trees of a colossal size that is unusual not only for Yakutia, the coldest place on the continent of Eurasia, but even for lushly productive regions like Manchuria. The chosenia groves miraculously emerge on lifeless river pebbles in just ten to twelve years. Mreturn young any travelers The entire transformation from tiny seedlings to majestic 60-foot trees on fertile soil normally takes only sixty to seventy years. By then, the total organic mass of the grove may equal the amount accumulated by any other taiga forest in one hundred fifty to two hundred years. Chosenia arbutifolia (Pall.) A. Skv., one of the fastest-growing trees of Northeast Asia, is closely related to the willows. Indeed, it has often been mistaken for a large willow even by experienced botanists. However, a close look at its catkins and flowers reveals clear differences from willows. The nectaries, or glands-structures Chosenia seeds typically germinate on fresh pebble deposits such as these along a tributary of the Kamchatka River. 9 that are found in any willow flower-are missing. The stamens, pistils, and bracts look different from those found in the flowers of both the willow and poplar: the male flower of chosenia has five stamens hiding under the bract, partially fused with it in the lower filaments; and the female flower has two styles, each with a two-lobed stigma. Like poplars, chosenia is wind pollmated, whereas all willows are insect pollinated. These peculiarities alone were enough for botanists to place chosenia in its own, monotypic (single-species) genus. But the list of this tree's interesting traits isn't yet exhausted. Cho- A frmtmg branch senia also surprises us with a distinctive root system featuring a taprootpossessed by none of the willows-along with unique anchoring structures. And whereas the wood of willows has the so-called heterogeneous rays, chosenia's wood has the more phylogenetically advanced homogeneous rays. Chosenia's leaves are also quite special. Like the xeromorphic (water-saving) leaves of the primitive Turanga poplars and willows of the section Longifoliae, they are somewhat fleshy and covered with a bluish bloom, especially on young plants. This bloom also covers the tender, young twigs, which gives chosenias their peculiar appearance. The twigs remain without bark for a few years, contributing to the tree's photosynthesis. Later, they develop brownish bark that darkens with age. The bark on the trunks of old trees exfoliates much like that of shagbark hickory (Carya ovata) but unlike that of any willow. (Granted, the bark of Salix triandra also exfoliates but in a different pattern.) Being strictly confined to a certain type of habitat-sandy-pebbly deposits on the banks of mountain rivers-chosenia, like many other riverine plants, always finds itself in a rather uniform environment of river valleys where climatic and soil differences between zones are alleviated. Because of this confinement, chosenia has been able to claim a huge geographic area of chosema. - ranging from the broadleaf forests of Honshu to the harsh tundras of the Anadyr River watershed in Siberia and extending along rivers beyond the Arctic Circle, where no other tree of such magnitude can grow. This vast range-comparable to the entire area of the United States west of the Mississippi River-comprises a major part of Siberian Russia east of Lake Baikal and the Lena River, the Russian Far East, including Sakhalin Island and the Kamchatka Peninsula, northeastern China, northeastern North Korea, and Hokkaido and Honshu Islands of the Japanese archipelago. The multipurpose tree: From sandals to telegraph poles The peoples of Northeast Asia have long known, loved, and exploited chosenia for all kinds of industries, from sandal-, clog-, and rope-making to dwelling- and bridge-building. Chosenias have been used for making dugout boats with a displacement capacity of up to one ton; this fact alone gives a sense of the impressive dimensions these trees can attain. Among northern reindeer breeders, chosenia is particularly valued as forage. In the wintertime, the reindeer dig diligently under the snow for fallen chosenia leaves, which contain unusually high amounts of calcium and thus serve as a winter food supplement. 10 The geographic distmbution of Chosenia arbutifolia. Redrawn from Norin 1958, Makry & Bardunov 1977. The most ambitious commercial venture in which chosenia played a role was a bold attempt in the 1860s by the Western Union Telegraph Company to build a telegraph line connecting North America with Europe via the Bering Strait and Siberia. When a competing company succeeded in dragging a telegraph cable across the Atlantic, however, Western Union gave up the entire project, and after several years of hard work the indefatigable leader of the Siberian expedition, George Kennan (a distant relative of the later diplomat and historian of the same name), had to abandon thousands of telegraph poles that had been prepared along the proposed telegraph line with great difficulty. Many of those poles were made from the trunks of chosenia, which Kennan apparently considered to be a kind of large willow or poplar. In the farthest northeast portion of his route, along the lower Anadyr River, it was probably the only suitable tree he could find. By the time the construction was canceled, this remarkable man had bravely surveyed the wildest and most remote regions of Northeast Siberia, notorious for their extremely harsh climate and only sparsely inhabited by nomadic tribes. old friend Little wonder that Kennan mistook chosenias for willows. Russian settlers of the Kamchatka Peninsula, where chosenia grows abundantly, have always called the tree vetla (a tree willow). Topol (poplar), its other Russian name, is used in Northeast Siberia, whereas real poplars are called \"aspens\" there. The Yakuts call it tiryakh, A new name an which is also their name for a poplar (Populus suaveolens) that often grows in mixed groves with chosenia; for willows they have a different word, talakh. Chosenia's colloquial names also include seiakhta and sikhta, in Nanayan and Udegeyan respectively-the languages of some of the ethnic groups in the Far East. Leomo and zhuantianliu (the willow that pierces the sky) are Chinese names, and kesho-yanagi (the beautiful willow) and karafuto-kuroyanagi (Sakhalin black willow) are the names used in Japan. The confusion about this tree's identity lasted well beyond the time of the telegraph project. By the beginning of the twentieth century chosenia had been observed by many botanists. However, some mistakenly took it for a willow species familiar to them, others described it as a previously unknown willow, and no one realized that the proliferating names all referred to a single species. for The Japanese botanist Takenoshin Nakai was first to recognize chosenia's uniqueness. At the time of his first encounters with the tree, in Korea from 1911 to 1918, he too had taken it for a willow he already knew. He gradually came to the conclusion that he was dealing with something unlike all willows, and in 1920 he proudly introduced the tree to the scientific world as a new genus of the willow family (Salicaceae), Chosenia. The discovery of a new genus in such a well-known family produced a sensation in the field of botany. Educated Russians started to call the tree koreyanka, a Russian translation of the name Chosenia, which literally means \"an inhabitant of Korea.\" (This name didn't take, however, and was gradually supplanted internationally by chosenia. ) Nakai did not identify his finding with all the scientific names previously given to the tree, and it took nearly forty years to completely clear away the confusion and to choose the correct species epithet according to the rules of priority. Chosenia Let's now begins life: The first three hurdles take a closer look at the tiny chosenia and the intricate path they must folseedlings low to survive and develop into majestic trees. At the very beginning of its life, this remarkable plant depends completely on the water flow and sediment accumulation that occurs in 11 I E H Wilson photographed this of trunk at nine feet freestandmg chosema in Korea, August 1917. He recorded its height at fifty feet and girth floodplains. The Far East is famous for its spectacular floods-severe, abrupt, and overwhelming, sometimes even catastrophic. They river rather than in spring, usuthree times during the season. As ally the snow melts on the hills and mountains, it adds to the drenching rains brought by the summer monsoon, turning each river into a powerful stream that soon leaves its bed and fills the entire floodplain. Near the bottom of the riverbed the water is filled with great numbers of drifting pebbles that originate in the river's upper reaches: the noise produced as the river drags them along sometimes becomes so loud that a person talking at the streamside can't hear his own voice. Each flood forms fresh pebble occur in summer two or deposits along the riverbanks and may cause to change its direction. During late July to early August-often immediately following a summer flood-chosenia trees disseminate their abundant, minute seeds, each weighing no more than 0.25 mg and bearing the river of white hair. The seeds cover the entire surface of the water, crowd the riverbanks, and accumulate along the water's edge. It is mostly on newly deposited pebbles that the seeds succeed in taking root. They germinate right away, and multitudes of seedlings appear on bare, moist pebbles at the very edge of the flowing water, where the most favorable conditions for germination are found. Along the banks of meandering rivers, seedlings of different generations a crown 12 A tree that provides for itself The exfoliating bark of an old chosenia. sometimes appear as distinct stripes: the older the plants, the farther away from the water they are located. The young chosenia seedling is tiny: only one centimeter tall. The root, however, extends down between the pebbles as much as three to four centimeters (just over an inch to one and one-half inch). Most of these little plants do not survive the next flood, but those that hang on for at least a month become so firmly anchored between the pebbles that you cannot pull or even dig them out without breaking the root. During the second year, the primary shoot dies back, and another shoot, larger than the first, starts growing. By the end of the second growing season, this new shoot becomes prostrate, with just the very tip extending above the pebbles. Finally it too dies off to be replaced during the third summer by three or four virgate (long and flexible) shoots that avoid damage from severe floods by lying flat on the pebbles, giving the entire plant the look of a prostrate rosette. Juvenile chosenia leaves are even more succulent than adult leaves-fleshy and juicy and covered with pruinose bloom as if they were leaves of some desert species. There is nothing strange about this resemblance, since during the periods of drought between floods the bare pebbles around the young plants may become as hot as 50 degrees C (120 degrees F). It is only during its third and fourth years that chosenia gradually abandons the prostrate habit and starts to grow as an upright shrub. By this time, the young chosenia already finds itself a few feet away from the flowing water's edge. Of course, this happens because of the river's meandering rather than any movement of the plant. Yet another important process contributes to \"moving\" the young chosenia plants away from the running water. Their long, vigorous shoots, especially the lower ones, are damaged during floods and die, but they don't fall off. Instead, they form a thick, brushlike network that functions very much like whalebone, efficiently catching alluvial material and forming large sediment deposits around the tree. This nourishing soil layer may grow as much as a foot or more during a single flood. Generally speaking, the older the plant, the higher its position is and the greater its distance from the edge of the open water where it began life. If you dig into the soil in an old chosenia grove, you will find it to be layered like a cake, with each layer representing a single flood, its lower parts consisting of coarse material and the upper ones of fine particles. A chosenia seedlmg growing on pebbles Mamtime Province, Russian Far East. m the 13 The champion of the neighborhood Every lose a year the chosenia saplings share of their branches. Young branches are brittle and break off easily, which is not unusual in the Salicaceae. During the summer floods, many branches are scratched by moving pebbles, but even more of them-up to half of all the branches-do not survive the harsh winters. Anything that protrudes from the snow dies back, if it is not consumed by moose or reindeer. This huge dieback doesn't hinder the sapling's growth, however. During its early years, this amazing tree performs rather like large semishrub, producing one generation of branches after another. Every year the new growth becomes more a vigorous, and the growth accelerates accordingly. By the age of five, a young chosenia may be adding up to a full meter to its height in a single season. About this time, the sapling \"realizes\" that it is destined to develop into a majestic tree and produces a leader with a crown of powerful virgate shoots around it, all densely covered with thin and slender pruinose leaves. At this point the plant's habit is intermediate between those of a tree and a shrub. A few years later, when the crowns of the young chosenias Chosenia arbutifolia m the wild at Changbal Shan, Chma merge, the trees start to thin out and develop into a grove typically consisting the stems. These remnants continue to serve as of some thirty to one hundred trees. The grove alluvium traps during floods. still endures floods, but since the trees are now A grove of young chosenias with its open canfarther from the river, the water flows much opy and fertile alluvial soil produces a showy more slowly and deposits fine particles rather plant community that is brightened by abundant than heavy pebbles. By the age of eight to ten, grasses, flowering legumes, and other herbstrees normally reach 7 to 8 meters (22 to 26 feet) plants not specific to chosenia groves but also in height, their stems 10 to 15 centimeters (4 occurring in willow, poplar, and other riverine to 6 inches) in diameter. The leader starts to woods. Some of them have a much wider disdominate; the only trace remaining of virgate tribution than chosenia and can be found even branches is the dense brush at the bottoms of outside the river valleys. In northern Yakutia, for more and rate 14 example, the legumes found in chosenia groves (species of Astragalus, Oxytropis, and Hedysarum) are also widely distributed in sparse larch forests and mountain tundras. Chosenia's period of intensive growth lasts until the trees are about thirty years old. By then most attain heights of 25 to 30 meters (80 to 100 feet) and trunk diameters of almost half a meter. Records exist of chosenias as tall as 40 meters (130 feet) and as thick as 1.5 meter (5 feet). The root system of an adult tree consists of a central taproot that extends as far as 3 meters to reach the underground water table; its entire surface bears scars left by moving pebbles. Many thread-like roots grow downward from all sides of this \"carrot.\" In addition, at a depth of 30 to 40 centimeters(12 to 16 inches), the taproots of adult trees develop three to five horizontal appendages, each shaped like and serving as an anchor. This system stabilizes the tree in its very unstable environment: adult chosenias remain standing even in strong winds and through the majority of severe floods. The lower branches of a young adult tree reach upward at a 60- to 70-degree angle, whereas the upper branches are more nearly vertical. This branch arrangement, typical for a tree growing in open space, makes the shape of the crown pyramidal. When the trees grow in dense groups, their crowns are umbrella-shaped. During the drop the tender top portions of their branches. This enables them to conserve water during extreme Siberian winters. The deadwood brush at the lower trunks persists for a long time, but as the trees \"move\" farther away from the riverbed to the center of the floodplain, it gradually loses its importance; by then the trees are situated as high as 1.5 meters above the water level and are flooded only once or twice a year. It is dark and damp underneath the canopy of a mature chosenia grove. Only shade-loving grasses and herbs survive here. The majestic trees are not long-lived: they start to decline at the age of seventy to eighty. First the top dies back. Then pieces of the trunk start to break off, beginning at the top and working down. Ugly outgrowths caused by bacterial attacks replace the brush at the bottom of the trunk. On average, if a thirty-year-old grove contains some 30 to 50 trees, then by the age of one hundred there normally remain only three to five venerable patriarchs that stand as far as 150 to 200 meters away from the river and almost never experience floods. Poplar and larch trees tend to take over and succeed the chosenia groves. winter the trees Cultivated chosenia: A very different story Chosenia's life cycle in nature suggests that it belongs to a certain type of plant called explerents, R-strategists, or opportunists in accordance with 15 16 oped its peculiar traits: tem a root sys- that features a strong taproot along with anchoring structures; a prostrate habit at a tender age followed by semishrub-like behavior for a few years; succulent, water-saving foliage; the ability to collect and preserve nutritious material for itself by means of a brushlike network of dead and broken lower branches. Yet another distinctive character of the chosenia is its plasticity-its ability to suppress many of these adaptations when they are not needed. To grow a chosenia you needn't provide bare pebbles, Siberian winter temperatures, or harsh floods. With adequate moisture, light, and good drainage, it will do well in an average garden. When it is not forced to meet the challenges of life in the wild, it demonstrates its unique abilities in a very subtle manner. In cultivation it starts life as a \"normal\" tree seedling : though the seedlings easily become distorted, they never develop a truly prostrate habit and tend to produce a few weak roots rather than one taproot. Their juvenile leaves don't look much different from the leaves of adult trees. The young tree does retain a tendency to cast off branches even in cultivation, with new generations of more and more vigorous branches A chosenia begmnmg to declme, Changbai Shan, Chma. their biological strategy. Opportunists yield favorable places to other, more competitive species and thus avoid competition. Ruderal weeds as well as species of the early successional stages belong to this group. However, avoiding competition requires a trade-off: opportunists must face rather difficult growing conditions, unsuitable for the majority of species. In order to survive on the bare pebbles, chosenia has devel- being produced yearly. However, this tendency never reaches the point where the plant acts like a semishrub. It usually develops a leader and starts earlier in cultivation than in most challenging part of growing a chosenia in the garden is the propagation itself. Unlike most willows, chosenias are difficult to grow from cuttings, and because the seeds lose viability very quickly, there is little hope for successful propagation when the seed to grow into a tree the wild. Indeed, the source is remote. 17 7 Sources ' Little is known about this interestmg plant in the West since most publications about chosenia are in Russian, Chinese, Japanese, and Korean. This narrative is based on the Russian literature and incorporates data on chosenia published m a few articles written over a period of more than half a century. The earliest of the articles was written in 1937 by Boris P. Kolesnikov, then a PhD student who was to become a promment botanist and a famous researcher in the forests of the Far East. Only during his later years did he leave the Far East for the Urals, where he developed the Forest Science Laboratory at the Institute of Biology in Sverdlovsk (Ekaterinburg). Kolesnikov represented Russian forest science at many mternational forums. Vera A. Sheludyakova, who wrote about chosenia growing in Yakutia as early as the time of World War II, founded the main herbarium depository in the Republic of Yakutia, for which she collected thousands of specimens during her daring field trips across the territory of this wild, remote region. Alexey K. Skvortsov, whose eighty-fifth birthday was celebrated m February 2005, is a worldclass specialist on the amentiferous plants (i.e., plants that produce catkins) and is also renowned for his floristic studies. It was Skvortsov who found the correct species epithet for chosenia in 1957. Skvortsov has worked for many years at the Main Botanic Garden in Moscow. Boris N. Norin (1924-2001)is another promment Russian botamst. He is credited with origmal approaches to the study of the vegetation structure in the tundra and forest belt. Boris Nikolayevich worked at the Botanical Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. A few articles produced by the younger generation of investigators have played an important role m the contemporary understandmg of the species' biology, life cycle, phytosociology, and distribution details. The majority of articles were published in Botanicheskiy zhurnal, the chief organ for botanical science m Russia. I gratefully acknowledge the article by M. T. Mazurenko and T. A. Moskalyuk1992) that has largely made the spine of this story. Maya T. Mazurenko (born 1935), PhD m biology, works at Tver University. Tatyana A. Moskalyuk (born 1947), PhD, works at the Montane Forest Station of the Far East Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences. Citations [On the structure and formation Golysheva, of the leaf in Chosenia arbutifolia \/Pall.~ A. Skvorts]. Bot. zhurn 58(12): 1764-1774. G. 1910. Tent life in Sibena. A new account of an Kennan, old undertakmg. Adventures among the Koraks and other tnbes m Kamchatka and northern Asla Gutenberg eBook Project. Release date: M. D. 1973. 12 May 2004. Kolesnikov, T. B. P. the Far 1937. [Chosema and its commumties m East]. USSR Acad. Sci Far East Branch Proc., ser. bot. 2: 704-800. Makry, V., and L. V. Bardunov. 1977. [A discovery of Chosema arbutifoha \/Pall.~ A. Skv. (Sahcaceae) of the Baikalsky Mountam Range (CisBaikal Region)]. Bot. zhurn 62(11) 1669-1671. Mazurenko, M. T., and T. A. Moskalyuk. 1989. Ontogeny of Chosema arbutifolia (Salicaceae\/ in the Magadan Region. Bot. zhurn. 74(5): 601-613 Moskalyuk, T. A., and M. T. Mazurenko. 1992. [An amazing northerner-chosema]. Priroda 12: 52-59 Norin, B. N. 1958. [Some characters of chosenia communities (Chosema macrolepis Ass.) at the west northwest of their area]. Bot. zhurn. 43(6): 847-850. Sheludyakova, V. A. 1943. [Chosenia in the Republic of Yakutia]. Bot zhurn. 28\/1\/: 30-33. Skvortsov, A. K. 1957. Commentauones de morphologra et systematica salicarum. IV. [On the correct species epithet for Chosema]. Bot. matenaly Gerbariya Bot m-ta AN SSSR 18: 42~7. Trofimov, T. T. 1964. [Some interesting Far East plants m the Moscow University Botanic Garden] Bot zhurn. 49~ 111563. Yegorov, A. D., and V. B. Kuvayev. 1958 [Chosema and broad-leaved fireweed-promising forage plants for the reindeer]. USSR Acad Sci Yakut Branch extreme Reports Irina Kadis, 1: 92-95. a curatorial assistant at the Dana Greenhouses, has been workmg at the Arnold Arboretum smce 1994. She is a graduate of St. Petersburg University with a major m plant ecology. A student of the willow family, she translated mto English a major Russian monograph on Eurasian willows, which was published m 1999. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Capturing and Cultivating Chosenia","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25389","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ebb28.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Capturing and Cultivating Chosenia Peter Del Tredici Changbai Shan northeast China with colleagues from other botanical gardens, all members of the North American-Chinese Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC), as well as botanists from the Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology and the Nanjing Botanical Garden.* We were there to collect a wide variety of woody plants but were open to anything we came across that was producing mature seed. Changbai Shan is interesting for a number of reasons. From the geological perspective, the mountain is an active volcano that has erupted four times since the fifteenth century, in 1413, n the fall of 1997 I visited four in most recently, in 1702. Botanithe mountain is famous for the cally speaking, diversity of its vegetation and the size of its forest trees, which have never been heavily logged. Recognizing this, the Chinese established the Changbai Mountain Reserve in 1960 and, in 1979, expanded it to cover 190,000 hectares (475,000 acres) when it became part of UNESCO's \"Man and the Biosphere\" program. The mountain is located in the southern portion of Jilin Province and stretches along the border between China and North Korea. Changbai translates literally as \"eternally white mountain\" and refers not to its snow-capped summit but to the layer of light-colored pumice that shrouded it after its most recent eruption. Today, this layer of pumice is covered by vegetation. The entire Changbai Shan range covers an area of about 8,000 square kilometers (742 square miles) with altitudes that vary between 500 and 2,691 meters (1,640 and 8,825 feet). The highest 1597, 1668, and, * Paul Meyer, Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania; Kris Bachtell, Morton Arboretum; Jeff Lynch, Longwood Gardens; Charles Tubesing, Holden Arboretum; Wang Xianli, Cao Wei, Zhao Shuqing, and Zhong Linsheng, Shenyang Institute of Applied Ecology ; Sheng Ning, Nanjing Botanical Garden; and Sun Long Xing, Changbai Xian Forestry Department. Changbai Shan, counterclockwise from above: A distant view of the surrounding countryside from the summit; t; the lake in Baitou Shan's crater; the lake's outlet. 19 9 20 peak, Baitou Shan, is a volcano rising from a lava plateau. Inside the crater is a large lake, Tian Chi-the \"Heavenly Lake\"-between 200 and 350 meters (655 and 1,150 feet) deep. The border between China and North Korea runs straight through the middle of this spectacular lake, the outlet of which forms a 68-meter- (225-foot-) high waterfall. Both the lake and its waterfall are famous scenic spots in China and popular with tourists from all over Asia, especially those from South Korea, who consider the mountain to be the epicenter of their ancestral homeland. The South Koreans, who make the pilgrimage to Changbai Shan by coming up from the Chinese side of the mountain, stay in fancy new hotels and shop at the flourishing herbal markets that sell every imaginable herb or animal product-with real or imagined medicinal properties-that are collected or cultivated on the mountain. The most popular medicinal product is the ginseng root, which is considered the best in all Asia. While the cultivation of this plant on Changbai Shan goes back many hundreds of years, its extent has increased dramatically in recent years, resulting in the clearing of large tracts of land on the lower slopes of the mountain. Such practices are ecologically destructive, given that they involve the removal of all existing vegetation, including the stumps, followed by a thorough plowing of the land. Because of disease organisms, only two five-year crop cycles of ginseng can be grown on a typical site before it has to be abandoned for other purposes. Since the land is usually not replanted with trees, this pattern of use has led to serious erosion problems throughout the area. The NACPEC group selected Changbai Shan target for collecting because of the richness and hardiness of its vegetation, and we were not disappointed. Our sampling strategy was fairly simple: to more or less follow the course of the Yalu River, which separates China from North Korea, stopping wherever the vegetation looked promising. On our very first day of collecting, just outside the county seat of Changbai Xian, we spotted a tree growing along the Yalu that roused everyone's curiosity. It was early in the morning and the sun was rising up over the hills. The light was such that it was reflecting off hundreds of tiny seeds blowing in the breeze. Against the shady black background, the seeds stood out like tiny silver fireflies. \"Stop the van,\" we all shouted, \"there's a willow shedding its seed.\" And out we piled to examine this tree that none of us could quite identify. Clearly it was a willow, but one with a tall, straight trunk and a strong conical growth habit. It also had a distinctive bark that was flaking off in long, thin plates. We collected as many seeds as we could find, along with some stem cuttings, hoping they as a 21 would it got them home. After all, willow and everyone knows how easily they grow from cuttings. We continued to see the mystery willow throughout our trip, its distinctive conical shape always along the river, which is around 700 meters (2,300 feet) in altitude. The largest specimen we encountered had a ramrod-straight 1 trunk with a diameter at breast height of 1.1 meters (3 1\/2 feet). But none of the assembled collectors, including our Chinese hosts, could say for sure what species it was, and we never found another tree in seed after that first day. The scientific identity of the mystery willow remained unknown until I got back to the Arboretum with my seeds and cuttings. In talking with the greenhouse staff about my collections I described the plant, at which point Irina Kadis, a native Russian who has worked in the far eastern part of that country, said matter-offactly, \"Oh, that's Chosenia. I saw it a lot when I was doing ecological work in Russia.\" A quick check of the descriptions in various reference books showed that Irina had nailed the identifiroot once we was a about the plant that, along with Salix and Populus, is the only other genus in the willow family, Salicaceae. The plant is distinguished from the willows and the poplars by the structure of its flowers, which bloom in early spring. It typically sheds its tiny, plumed seeds anywhere from late spring to midsummer depending upon latitude, a time when few plant collectors are out and about. And finally, it doesn't seem to root from cuttings, another trait that clearly distinguishes it from the willows and poplars. more To my utter amazement, I also discovered that the plant did not appear to be presently in cultivation in either North America or western Europe. The Arnold Arboretum once had a plant labeled as Chosenia bracteosa that we got from the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, in 1952 (#805-52-A). However, subsequent research in 1985 by George Argus of the National Museum of Canada, Ottawa, showed that the plant was not Chosenia at all, but Salix daphnoides, a cation in an instant. Unfortunately, none of the cuttings we brought back rooted and none of the seed germinated, having spent too long in transit. Now at least I knew what the plant was even though I failed to bring it back alive. But my imagination had been fired up by the encounter, and I decided to learn shrubby European species. Here was a plant-a magnificent tree-that had somehow fallen through a rather large horticultural crack. Not one to shy away from a challenge, I determined to bring the plant into cultivation. So I wrote tor at to our Chinese collabora- Changbai, Sun Long Xing, and asked him to collect seed when they were likely to reach full maturity in early summer. Later that spring, while doing a literature search on Chosenia, 22 Propagation from Cuttings While Chosenia is notoriously difficult to root from cuttings of a mature plant, I experimented with taking cuttings from the plants when they were only three years old, on March 29, 2001. The results of the experiment, evaluated on June 17, 2001, indicated that cuttings taken from young plants are relatively easy to root. Treatment seedlings grew extremely fast throughout the summer, and when they were several inches tall, I carefully transplanted them into individual pots. Based on her experience, The Irina had warned me that Chosenia # cuttings 24 75 50 24 Results 1 15 5 % rooting 4.2 20.0 26.0 25.0 control HRB ~powder) 2500 ppm KIBA 13 3 6 (quick dip) 5000 ppm KIBA produces a long taproot that, when damaged, usually results in death, so I treated them with kid gloves. The seedlings were big enough to be planted outside in the nursery a year later, during the spring of 1999, and they were moved to their permanent locations on the grounds in the spring of 2001. From what I could was a see, Chosenia (quick dip) plant that was published in 1994 by Japanese scientist, Shingo Ishikawa, who I came across an a article described a series of experiments he had performed with Chosenia that he had raised from seed collected from an isolated population growing in the Azusa River floodplain in Nagano Prefecture in central Honshu. I wrote to Professor Ishikawa and asked whether it might be possible to send me seeds for my introduction project. Fortuitously, he wrote back in the affirmative, and seeds from the Nagano population arrived by DHL express a month later. The seeds-which were assigned the accession number 176-98-were collected on June 15 and arrived at the Dana Greenhouses eight days later, June 23. I immediately sowed them in a coarse, sandy mix and placed them under the intermittent mist system we use for rooting softwood cuttings. Within three days, the cotyledons shot up above the soil surface and I had seedlings growing as thick as dog's hair. Not having much experience growing willows from seed, I was amazed at this incredible burst of like crazy. In the spring of 2004, the seedlingsnow six years old and between eight and twelve feet tall-produced their first flowers, which opened on April 21. Nine plants had been set out and eight of them produced flowers in 2004; three were females and five were males. To my delight, the female plants set mature seed, which I collected on June 9, 2004. After letting the seed air-dry for a few days, I sowed them as I had sown their parent's seed, under intermittent mist in the greenhouses. And again, the result was dog-hair germination within a few days. So the cycle is complete with the production of the second generation of seedlings in the Arboretum and with the promise of many more programmed to grow generations to come. The Arnold Arboretum is pleased to offer to our Friends plants of Chosenia arbutifolia. The plants were raised from seed produced by Arboretum plants and are between 2 and 8 inches tall. A donation of $40 per plant or three for $100 will cover the cultivation, handling, and postage. Shipment will be in the spring of 2005. Send orders ASAP to: Chosenia Distribution Dana Greenhouses germination energy. About two weeks after the seeds arrived from Professor Ishikawa, a second package of seed arrived from Professor Sun (AA #184-98). Unfortunately, these had spent more time in transit than Professor Isikawa's. Consequently they arrived desiccated and failed to germinate. But at least I had Chosenia, albeit from a wild The Arnold Arboretum 125 Arborway Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 Japanese population. 23 Chosenia seeds carned by the cvind. Chosema seedlings growing like \"dog's hair\" in the Dana Greenhouses. 24 Two Arboretum. seedlings of Chosema arbutifolia (AA#176-98J growmg side by side at the Arnold They were sown from seed m1998 and photographed in February 2004. 25 Trees of Changbai Shan The climate of Changbai Shan is continental and dominated by monsoons, which means cold, dry winters and warm, moist summers. Its vegetation includes 1,500 species of vascular plants and 500 species of cryptograms. It is also famous for the imposing stature of its trees, particularly the Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis). Moving up the north side of the mountain, botanists have identified four distinct vegetation belts. At the lowest elevations, starting around 550 meters (1,800 feet) and extending to 1,150 meters (3,770 feet), is the mixed forest of broad-leaved deciduous trees and conifers dominated by magnificent specimens of Pinus koraiensis along with Acer mono, Tilia amurensis, Fraxinus mandshurica, Quercus mongolica, Betula platyphylla, and Ulmus japonica with Acer pseudosieboldianum and A. triflorum in the understory. Betula platyphylla. the conifer forest, from 1,150 to (3,770 to 5,575 feet), where large trees of Abies nephrolepis, Picea jezoensis, Pinus koraiensis, and the rare Pinus sylvestriformis dominate, with Betula costata and various maples in the understory. The subalpine birch forest, between 1,700 and 2,000 meters (5,575 to 6,560 feet), is dominated by pure stands of Next comes 1,700 meters Pinus koraiensis and on the right, P. sylvestriformis. windblown Betula ermanii with Rhododendron dauricum in the understory and R. aureum growing in open, exposed sites. At the highest levels of the mountain, from 2,000 meters to 2,300 meters (6,560 to 7,545 feet), is an alpine tundra covered with herbaceous plants and dwarf shrubs, including Vaccinium vitisidaea, Phyllodoce coerulea, and Rhododendron redowskianum. 26 The author harvesting cones from Abies nephrolepis. Wmdswept specimens of Betula ermann below the summit of Changbal Shan. 27 Temperature records for Changbai Shan between 1980 and 1983 (from Oberg and Bdck 1996). 1999. References Flora of Chma. Sahcaceae, Chosema, vol. 4, p. 162. Fu, L.-K. 1992. China Plant Red Data Book: Rare and Endangered Plants, vol. 1. Science Press, Beijing. Ishikawa S. 1994. water Seedlu~g growth traits of three Salicaceous Ecological Review 23~ 11-6. species under different conditions of soil and level. Oberg, E., and J. Back. 1996. A Vegetation Field Study in Changbai Shan, Manchuma Stiftelsen Arboretum Norr, Umea, Sweden. Sugaya, S. 1961. An account of the propagation of Chosema macrolepis 149-154. Komarov. Ecological Review 15~3\/: Tao, Y. 1987. Preservation of the forest resource of Changbal Mountain in relation to human activities. The Temperate Forest Ecosystem, pp. 21-22. Proceedmgs of the ITE Symposmm no. 20, 5-11 July 1986. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology: Grange-Over-Sands, Cumbria, England. Woeikoff, Zhao, D. A. D. 1941. What Can the Manchunan Flora Give to Gardens. Privately printed: Harbin, 1987. Prelimmary studies on volcanic eruptions and historical vegetation succession m the eastern area of northeast Chma. The Temperate Forest Ecosystem, pp.27-28. Proceedings of the ITE Symposmm no. 20, 5-11 July 1986. Institute of Terrestrial Ecology: Grange-Over- Sands, Cumbria, England. Peter Del Tredici is Semor Research Scientist Arnold Arboretum. at the Vaccinium uliginosum under Larix olgensis. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Verdant Letters: Hawthorne and Horticulture","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25393","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24e856f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"McDowell, Marta","article_content":"Verdant Letters: Hawthorne and Horticulture Marta McDowell -- ----- , block is not a new thing. Once when addressing his editor, Hawthorne explained his reluctant pen. \"An engagement to write must in its nature be conditional; because stories grow like vegetables, and are not manufactured like a pine table.\" Throughout his life Hawthorne both laced his writing with horticultural references and grew actual vegetables. Even his name has a horticultural ring to it. On reaching the age of majority, Nathaniel Hathorne changed the spelling of his family name. He chose an archaic spelling of a thorny tree, \"hawthorne,\" common name for Crataegus, a genus grown across England and America. In his writings, Hawthorne grafted his own brand of nineteenth-century Transcendentalism onto Puritanism. His novel-length romances, short stories, and sketches use landscape imagery to evoke atmosphere, like the misty quality of Hudson River School paintings. Flowers in his writing signal beauty, innocence, and the ephemeral qualities of youth. Nature can be mysterious or euphoric. If Hawthorne's houses are haunted, his New England gardens are transcendent. Hawthorne had a legitimate claim to a Yankee pedigree. Born on the Fourth of July, 1804, his roots ran deep into Massachusetts soil. \"The spirit of my Puritan ancestors was mighty in me,\" Hawthorne declared, still clinging \"with oyster-like tenacity.\" His notorious great-grandfather, John Hathorne, was a judge at the Salem witch trials; his grandparents were farmers. His father was a sea captain who died of yellow fever in Surinam when Nathaniel was four years old. He was raised by his mother and her siblings, especially his uncle Robert Manning, a horticulturist and nurseryman whose Book of Fruits (1838) was the standard text for midcentury Americans. In a letter to her brother, Hawthorne's Aunt Priscilla said, \"Be so good Robert as to favour him with your advice (which I think will not fail to be influential) with regard to attending to writing and some of his lessons, regularly ... However rich the soil, we do not expect fruit, unless good seed is sown, and the plants carefully cultivated.\" Years later in The Blithedale Romance, Hawthorne acknowledged his uncle's legacy in this description of an orchard. Nathaniel Writer's There were apple-trees, and pear and peach-trees, too, the fruit on which looked singularly large, luxuriant, and abundant; as well it might, m a situation so warm and sheltered, and where the soil had doubtless been 29 vines clambered upon In two or three places, grapeand bore clusters already purple, and promising the richness of Malta or Madeira in their ripened juice. The blighting winds of our rigid climate could not molest these trees and vines; the sunshine, though descending late into this area, and too early intercepted by the height of the surrounding houses, yet lay tropically there, even when less than temperate in every other region. enriched to a more than natural fertility. trellises, Manning cultivated his nephew's future, creating a microclimate with steady education: tutors, boarding school, and a rich library. Hawthorne fond of travel books, including the writings of American botanist John Bartram. His formal education culminated at Bowdoin College in Maine. There young Hawthorne decided that being a minister was \"too dull a life\" and \"as to Lawyers there are so many of them already that one half of them (upon a moderate calculation) are in a state of actual starvation.\" Being a physician was out of the question since he \"should not like to live by the diseases and Infirmities of my fellow Creatures.\" Finally, he preferred \"becoming an Author and relying for support upon my pen.\" His first major milestone was the publication of 'It.vice Told Tales (1837). This collection of short stories, originally written for magazines, was well received by the critics. Of it, Longfellow, a Bowdoin classmate and already acclaimed poet, wrote, \"A rose bathed and baptized in are types dew - a star in its first gentle emergence above the horizon a was \" \" - of the soul of Nathaniel Hawthorne.\" The tales included \"The Hollow of Three Hills,\" an early example of Hawthorne painting a landscape as a backdrop for a plot. Three little hills stood near each other, and down in the midst of them sunk a hollow basm, almost mathematically circular, two or three hundred feet in breadth, and of such depth that a stately cedar might but just be visible above the sides. Dwarf pines were numerous upon the hills, and partly fringed the outer verge of the mtermediate hollow, within which there was nothing but the brown grass of October, and here and there a tree trunk that had fallen long ago and lay mouldering with no green successor from its roots. Even after the unsure warm reception of his first book, Hawthorne was full-time living from his pen. After a ability stint as a political appointee to the Salem Custom House, he spent part of 1841 as a member of the fledgling Brook Farm, a utopian experiment in West Roxbury, Massachusetts, hoping to find a bucolic situation for himself and his betrothed, Sophia Peabody. He arrived in spring with snow falling. In the six months from April to October, he worked the fields, milked cows, and spread mountains of manure. In the early weeks, he signed his letters \"Nathaniel Hawthorne, Ploughman.\"But he quickly discovered that agricultural labor and intellectual pursuits don't about his to earn a 30 necessarily mix. Writing to Sophia, he moaned, \"A man's soul may be buried and perish under a dung-heap or in a furrow of the field, just as well \" as under a pile of money.\" In the short months he spent at Brook Farm, Hawthorne did gather much of the material that appears later as The Blithedale Romance. Blithedale, a fictional but thinly disguised Brook Farm, is the stage set for the novel. The poet-protagonist, Miles Coverdale, meets two women there: Zenobia, daily adorned with an exotic hothouse flower, and Priscilla, who reminds him of \"plants that one sometimes observes doing their best to vegetate among the bricks of an enclosed court, where there is scanty soil, and never any sunshine.\" Weeds, symbolic and real, grow at Blithedale, and Coverdale's enthusiasm for the project is \"exhaled, together with the perspiration of many a hard days toil.\" Coverdale concludes, \"Burns never made a song in haying time. He was no poet while a farmer, and no farmer while a poet.\" At the end of the story, Coverdale packs his bags and departs from his tarnished Arcadia, just as Hawthorne took his leave from Brook Farm. After marrying in Boston the following year, Sophia and Nathaniel rented the Old Manse in Concord. The property boasted an ancient apple orchard installed by Emerson's stepfather, a Unitarian minister. They could hear apples falling, \"from the mere necessity of perfect ripeness.\"Their vegetable garden had been planted by Thoreau. Ralph Waldo and Henry David were regular visitors, and the latter, describing the Hawthornes' home, said, \"They had taken their Eden furnished.\" During their Concord sojourn they had their first real garden. Their daughter Una was born, the first of their three children. Hawthorne wrote many stories, collected and published as Mosses from an Old Manse. It includes \"Rappaccini's Daughter,\" a tale in which evil, mad-scientist father Signor Rappaccini hybridizes his daughter with a poisonous shrub. \"Flower and maiden were different, and yet the same, and fraught with some strange peril in either shape.\" In the introduction to Mosses from an Old Manse, he gives us a glimpse into his own garden routine, much more benign than Rappaccini's. \" ~ My garden, that skirted the avenue of the Manse, was of precisely the An hour or two of morning labor was all that it required. But I used to visit it and revisit it a dozen times a day, and stand in deep right extent. contemplation over my vegetable progeny with a love that nobody could share or conceive of, who had not taken part in the process of creation. This fertile Concord ground also yielded Hawthorne's first and arguably most famous novel, The Scarlet Letter. Action opens in front of the seventeenth-century Boston prison door. A wild rosebush blooms. The rose \"may serve, let us hope, to symbolize some sweet moral blossom, 31 A postcard rendering of Nathaniel Hawthorne's Wayside, portrait is inset. on Lexington Road in Concord, Massachusetts. His that may be found along the track, or relieve the darkening close of a tale of human frailty and sorrow.\" Hester Prynne, wearing her embroidered scarlet A and carrying her daughter, Pearl, emerges from the prison to encounter her cowardly secret lover, Minister Arthur Dimmesdale, and her long missing husband, Roger Chillingworth. These four characters are locked together throughout the novel. \"Let the black flower blossom as it may!\" Chillingworth intones. Hawthorne, ever critical of the Puritan hierarchy, pokes fun at it by describing the Governor's garden, where Hester and Pearl encounter Governor Bellingham in conversation with Dimmesdale and Chillingworth. [T]he proprietor appeared already to have relinquished, as hopeless, the effort to perpetuate on this side of the Atlantic, in a hard soil and amid the close struggle for subsistence, the native English taste for ornamental gardening. Cabbages grew in plain sight; and a pumpkin-vine, rooted at some distance, had run across the intervening space, and deposited one of its gigantic products directly beneath the hall-window; as if to warn the Governor that this great lump of vegetable gold was as rich an ornament as New England earth would offer him. After the publication of The Scarlet Letter in 1850, the Hawthornes moved west to the Berkshire Mountains to a small farmhouse \"as red as the Scarlet Letter\" called \"Tanglewood.\" It was on a Lenox estate, now 32 a venue of the Boston Symphony Orchestra's famous summer music festival. Hawthorne \"planted vegetables enough to supply all Salem.\" Sophia planted a flower garden overflowing with tiger lilies, peonies, and columbine. In Lenox, Hawthorne befriended Melville and began work on The House of the Seven Gables. The gabled house with its elm \"of wide circumference\" holds a curse from the days of the early Puritan settlement. Its inhabitants, retiring and impoverished sister and brother, are Hepzibah and Clifford Pyncheon. They are joined by young, \"blossoming,\" country cousin Phoebe. Phoebe finds the garden. It fascinates, with its ancient rosebush and several \"species of flowers growing there in a wilderness of neglect, and obstructing one another's development (as is often the parallel case in human society) by their uneducated entanglement and confusion.\" But someone is tending an assortment of summer vegetables there. \"It being her first day of complete estrangement from rural objects, Phoebe found an unexpected charm in this little nook of grass, and foliage, and aristocratic flowers, and plebian vegetables.\" She discovers that the tenant, a daguerreotypist named Holgrave, is the secret gardener. Her cousin Clifford, recently and of course unjustly incarcerated, revives under the influence of the flowers, bees, and hummingbirds. The House of the Seven Gables contrasts the garden with the decayhouse. Hawthorne, while writing the novel, also contrasted his mood ing with the task at hand. \" The summer is not my natural season for work; and I often find myself gazing at Monument Mountam broad before my eyes, instead of the infernal sheet of paper under my hand. However, I make some little progress; and shall continue to lumber along with accelerated velocity; so I should not much wonder if I were to be ready by November. If not, it can't be helped. I must not pull up my cabbage by the roots, by way of hastening its growth. Even with Monument Mountain and the attractions of the western Massachusetts landscape, Hawthorne managed to finish his book that year. But his wanderlust resurfaced. He missed the sea. \"Oh that Providence would build me the merest little shanty, and mark me out a rood or two of garden-ground near the sea-coast,\" he wrote to a friend. And so the Hawthornes moved again, not, as it turns out, to the sea. Eventually they bought their first property, \"The Wayside,\" the former Concord home of Bronson Alcott. It turned out to be a temporary wayside, since the next year his friend and fellow Bowdoin alumnus Franklin Pierce was elected President of the United States and appointed Hawthorne U.S. Consul to England. Off the 33 Hawthornes went, bag and baggage to Liverpool. In addition to his duties, Hawthorne enjoyed excursions to English gardens such as Blenheim. But for the next four years his literary output was almost nothing. Evidently the diplomatic service sapped his pen just as much as farm labor. After his term as Consul expired, Hawthorne chose the route of many artists in midcentury and transferred his household to Italy. In Florence, the Hawthornes occupied the ground-floor suite of the Casa del Bello. It had a garden, \"a little wilderness of shrubbery and roses,\" Sophia wrote, with a terrace and summerhouse where her husband could sit \"dreaming of a story.\" His study overlooked the garden. The next year they lived in Rome and spent time strolling the villa gardens of the Medici and the Borghese. In Italy, Hawthorne conceived his final novel, The Marble Faun. In its introduction he notes, \"Romance and poetry, ivy, lichens, and wall-flowers, need ruin to make them grow.\" The Marble Faun, like all of Hawthorne's fiction, asks the reader to suspend disbelief. In this case, we are asked to accept the young Count Donatello as an actual descendant of a faun, a sort of demigod. This faun, and the artist-expatriates that surround him, stroll through many famous Italian sites, including the Medici garden: \" \" - The grounds are there laid out in the old fashion of straight paths, with borders of box, which form hedges of great height and density, and are shorn and trimmed to the evenness of a wall of stone, at the top and sides. There are green alleys, with long vistas overshadowed by ilex-trees; and at each intersection of the paths, the visitor finds seats of hchen-covered stone to repose upon, and marble statues that look forlornly at him, regretful of their lost noses. In the more open portions of the garden, before the sculptured front of the villa, you see fountams and flower-beds, and, in their season, a profusion of roses, from which the genial sun of Italy distills a fragrance, to be scattered abroad by the no less genial breeze. This description, written in the late 1850s, predates the observations of Charles Platt and Edith Wharton, who popularized the Italian villa-style garden in America at the turn of the century. From Italy, Hawthorne moved first to England and then back to Concord, rounding out the travelogue that is his biography. Still he enjoyed his plants and gardens. In his final collection of stories and observations, Our Old House, Hawthorne, whose language has always struck me as vaguely archaic, sounds like an ecologist quoted on yesterday's New York Times science page. \"Perhaps if we could penetrate Nature's secrets we should find that what we call weeds are more essential to the well-being of the world, than the most precious fruit or grain.\" \" Marta McDowell is a Garden. This article freelance garden writer and a originally appeared m Hortus 70, lecturer at the New York Botamcal Summer 2004. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Nature of Eastern Asia: Botanical and Cultural Images from the Arnold Arboretum Archives","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25392","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24e816b.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"The Nature of Eastern Asia: Botanical and Cultural Images from the Arnold Arboretum Archives Sheila Connor Arnold Arboretum's collection of Asian photographs represents the of several intrepid plant explorers who traveled to exotic lands in the early years of the twentieth century and returned with not only seeds, live plants, and dried herbarium specimens, but with stunning images of plants, people, and landscapes as well. We owe these images to the foresight of Charles Sprague Sargent, the director of the Arboretum during its first fifty years. In December 1906, when E. H. Wilson signed an agreement to collect in China for the Arboretum, Sargent set the precedent of asking all his explorers to document their expeditions with photographs: \"A good set of photographs are really about as important as anything you can bring back with you,\" he wrote. He would later urge William Purdom to \"take views of he eastern work villages and other striking and interesting objects as the world knows little of the appearof those parts of China which you are to Joseph Rock, the last of the great who would work for him, Sargent explorers wrote, somewhat peevishly, \"I don't know how you got the idea that we didn't want scenery. These are always important and interesting additions to our collection, and you may be sure you cannot send us too many of them.\" Sargent's repeated insistence that these plant collectors document their travels in photographs resulted in a collection of more than 4,500 historic images of eastern Asia. With the exception of the E. H. Wilson collection, which we have just begun to process (and some of which can already be viewed at arboretum.harvard.edu\/ programs\/eastern asia\/wilson.html\/, all of these ance visit.\" And to \" From left to right: J. G. Jack with one of his Chmese students, E. H. Wilson, and Frank Meyer. 35 images are now available on VIA, the Harvard University Library catalog of visual resources, via.harvard.edu. We invite all armchair travelwho have become desktop explorers to see Asia through the photographs of our earliest plant collectors. at ers John George Jack (1861-1949) 167 images (1905) J. G. Jack was already experienced in plant exploration when he became the first staff member after Sargent to visit Asia. Jack had joined journey to the East to obtain material for the Arboretum in Japan, Korea, and northern China,\" no record of the Arboretum underwriting this expedition appears in the archives. Jack's introduction to an undated, unpublished manuscript entitled \"Notes on Some Recently Introduced Trees and Shrubs\" may explain why. on a July, 1905,I left Boston for Japan object of my trip was primarily rest and recreation for three or four months, combmed ... On the first of The began collecting the Arboretum in 1886 and almost immediately and photographing plants m the U.S. and abroad. Between 1898 and 1900 he spent summers working for the U.S. Geological Survey, exploring and photographing the forests of Colorado and the Big Horn Mountains of Wyoming. In 1891, he visited botanic gardens and nurseries in England and on the continent, and in 1904, he and Arboretum taxonomist Alfred Rehder collected specimens in the western United States and m Canada. It is likely that his year- with a desire to observe some of the mterestmg arborescent flora of central and northeastern Japan ... A short visit was also made to Korea and to Peking m China. Apparently Jack wanted to travel at his own pace. Perhaps he also wished to spend time with his younger brother, the Reverend Milton Jack of long Asian journey was self-financed; although Sargent's Annual Report for the Year Ending July 31, 1905, states that \"Mr. J. G. Jack has started the Presbyterian Foreign Ministry, who had long been stationed in Taiwan. Forestry was a lifelong interest for Jack. Covering some of the ground that E. H. Wilson would later visit, Jack photographed the forest preserves around Mt. Fuji and elsewhere in Japan, as well as the forests of Taiwan and Korea. The scenes he captured in Beijing include formal portraits of people in traditional costumes. William Pmdom, Joseph Hers, and Joseph Rock. 36 Chmese scholar trees (Styphnolobmm japonicum) are used extensively as street trees. Jack photographed these m Beijing, where they had been planted m Immense pots for protection. In 1905 when Jack photographed this camphor tree (Cinnamomom camphora) at the Umi Hachiman Shrme on Kyushu Island, he estimated it at 100 feet tall and 45 feet m diameter at breast height. In 2001 a national survey listed it as Japan'sseventh largest tree (65-foot diameter at 4.3 feet from the ground). The survey notes that Japan's big trees \"furmsh regional symbols and nounsh the soul. specimens representreturned with 171 images, many of them in a format especially useful for him-lantern slides. Jack had been appointed Harvard University lecturer on arboriculture in 1890 (the title was changed to lecturer in forestry in 1903) and he continued teaching throughout his career. In the fall and spring of each year he taught courses in dendrology to students and teachers using the Arboretum's living collections as his classroom, and he taught forestry both at Harvard (often with Richard T. Fisher, the first director of the Harvard Forest) and at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, where he also held a lectureship. ing 258 In addition to herbarium plants, Jack 37 Ernest Henry Wilson (1876-1930) 2,488 images (1907-09, 1910-11, 1914,1917-19,1920-22) Born in England in 1876, Ernest Henry Wilson received his training in horticulture at the Birmingham Technical College and at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. His career as an explorer began in 1899 when he traveled to China seeking the dove tree, Davidia involucrata, for the Veitch Nursery in England. A visit to the Arnold Arboretum on his way to China initiated a lifelong collaboration with Charles Sargent. As Wilson was preparing for his first Arboretum journey, Sargent insisted that he take along a largeformat, Sanderson whole-plate field camera capable of recording both great detail and broad perspectives without distortion. The rest of his camera gear included a cumbersome wooden tripod and crates of heavy, fragile, 6 1\/2-x-8 1\/2inch glass-plate negatives. For three years Wilson explored western Hupeh and western Szechuan. He returned to Boston in 1909 via Beijing, Moscow, St. Petersburg, Berlin, Paris, and finally London, where he spent several months developing the glass-plate negatives and seeing for the first time his 720 images. The purpose of his second Arboretum expedition, which began in 1910, was to collect and conifer seeds in the central and southof China. In September of that year, while he was traveling between Sungpan and Chengdu, a landslide hit the expedition group, crushing Wilson's leg. After several months in a hospital at Chengdu, Wilson returned to Boston in March 1911, much earlier than planned. Before the accident, however, he had managed to take 374 images and to collect and ship bulbs of Lilium regale, the Easter lily. cones western parts We began the process of putting these photographs online by digitizmg both the print and negative of several images m order to compare them quality. When the glass-plate negative of E. H. Wilson's \"memomal arch to the memory of a virtuous woman\" (above) was digitized, revealmg the remarkable detail m the stonework, it was clear that we should use the original glass plates for all of his photos. Wilson described the beautiful photograph at nght, taken during his first Arboretum expedition m June 1910, as simply \"Sandstone bmdge with Cypress, Bamboo, and Pistacia chinensis. 38 January 1914, accompanied by his wife and daughter, Wilson sailed for Japan, where he In would focus his attention on horticulture and cultivated plants including conifers, Kurume azaleas, and Japanese cherries. By the time the Wilsons returned to Boston at the beginning of 1915, there were 619 new images to add to the photograph collection. Wilson next undertook a \"systematic exploration\" of Korea. Beginning in 1917 with the Japanese islands and Taiwan, he then traveled along the Yalu River into the far northern reaches of Korea, returning to Boston in 1919 with seeds, living plants, 30,000 herbarium specimens, and 700 photographs. His last expedition, a tour of the gardens of the world, took place from 1920 to 1922 and included a stop at the Singapore Botanical Garden in June of 1921. Of the 250 images he shot during this journey, 15 were taken in Asia. Frank Nicholas Meyer In collecting strategies. Occasionally their letters touched on personal matters. In a letter from Beijing in 1907 Meyer wrote, \"This roaming about, always alone, takes lots of energy away from a fellow, don't you agree with me too, in this respect?\" On June 2, 1918, Meyer disappeared from a steamer and although his body and (1875-1918) 1,310 images (1905-08, 1909-12, 1912-15, 1916-18) 1905, the United States Department of Agriculture's Office of Seed and Plant Introduction recruited Frank Meyer, a native of Holland who had immigrated to America in 1901, to gather economically useful plants m China. Through an arrangement worked out between Sargent and David Fairchild of the USDA, Meyer was to send to the Arboretum trees and shrubs of ornamental value along with images of his travels. The photographs in the Meyer Collection document his four expeditions to western China and Manchuria. Unlike Wilson's highly composed photographs, Meyer's images have an immediate and spontaneous quality, perhaps because they document daily life in this remote region: farmers and other people going about their work, manufacturing techniques, and markets were all captured through his lens. Even his images of plants often include local people or architectural backgrounds. Meyer and Wilson corresponded occasionally, trading information on routes, travel conditions, 39 was eventually recovered, the a circumstances of regions with climates those of New even more severe than his death remain mystery. William Purdom 161 In ern (1880-1921) images (1909-11) 1909, with Wilson about to return from south- place China and the agreement with the USDA in to ensure that Frank Meyer's Asian collections would be shared with the Arboretum, Sargent was eager to dispatch yet another plant collector to the largely unexplored northeastern provinces of China. Hoping, in Sargent's words, to \"bring into our gardens Chinese plants from England,\" William Purdom-the most inexperienced of Arboretum explorersembarked on his first expedition in February of that year. Like Wilson, Purdom had worked at Kew and had once been employed at the Veitch Nursery, which cosponsored this expedition as they had Wilson's. For three years the shy and retiring novice followed the Yellow River north, his work always overshadowed by, and his meager results compared to, the successful exploits of the gregarious, prolific Wilson. His collection techniques improved, however, and he is now Opposite above: These square, stamped tablets of persimmon sugar, photographed m 1912, are rare today Unhke contemporary \"moon cakes,\"these were made from dned fruits of an exceptionally sweet vanety that Meyer described as Diospyros kaki 'Pen sze sse'. '. Opposite below Meyer collected a specimen of this persimmon, which he labeled \"Diospyros kaki. Siku, Kansu, China. Persimmons strung on strong strings to dry in the sun and wmd on the top of the mn at which we stayed in Siku. This variety is locally called Fang sze tze or square persimmon It contains considerable pucker when fresh; when dried, however, all traces have disappeared. November 16, 1914.\" Above: Meyer was as mterested in how plants were used as he was in the plants themselves. This \"strong bamboo fence along a canal near Tang hsi\"captured his attention m February 1906. \" 40 At top: Purdom msited the \"palace grounds mth wall and large temple m the distance\" sometime between 1909 and 1911 His image of Chengde m Hebei Province captures part of the six-mile-long wall that encloses the imperial ~ehol Summer Palace. Placed on the World Cultural Heritage hst m 1994, the palace was begun m 1703, cmth construction continumg until 1790. Purdom labeled the photograph below, \"Strong men at August games. \" Mongohan athletes m traditional clothmg were preparing for wrestlmg games at a harvest fam. Usually lastmg several days, these fairs also mcluded archery and horse-racmg. 41 known for his later successes, when he worked with Reginald Farrer. Eventually he accepted a post as inspector of forests for the Chinese government. He must have been glad to be relieved of Sargent's exactmg photographic demands, for although he never complained to Sargent himself, m 1909 he wrote to Veitch: am not a specialist at photography and do not wish to infer that my camera is not a good one but I do now believe that a camera to carry on one's back with films is the most serviceable thmg out here on these rough roads for it is nearly impossible to carry the plates. No end of mine got smashed. I , ' Joseph Hers (1884-1965) 63 images (1919, 1923-24) It . Hers, a railroad engineer and administraof the Lung-Hai and Pien-Lo railways, who approached Sargent with a proposal to collect was tor ' These photographs are of Beijing's Central Park, which dates from 1429. Hers' photo below, dated July 1923, shows potted ornamentals, most of them a jumper-Jumperus squamata var. meyeri-mtroduced into Western gardens by, and named for, Frank Meyer. Three years later, m August 1926, Hers highlighted a large oriental arbormtae, Platycladus orientalis (formerly Thu~a orientalise In1928 the garden was renamed Zhongshan Park, thus becommg one of 35 Chmese parks that commemorate Dr. Sun Yat-sen ~'I II I i I i ) ' i (Sun Zhongshan) 42 specimens for the Arboretum. Stationed in Chengchow, a city on the Huang Ho River that had become an important railroad center thanks to its position at the junction of the Longhai (east-west) and the Beijing- Guangzhou (north-south) lines, was superbly situated, with a job that enabled him to range far and wide collecting plants. In a letter of July 18, Hers 1919, he wrote, [Although my] own knowledge of botany is, I regret to say, very limited, I happen to live m a part of Chma where very few botamcal collections, if any, have been made, and as I enjoy frequent opportunities to travel m httle known districts ... Enclosed with the letter was a list of trees and shrubs that included a number of new species, and Hers offered to send \"seeds, or cuttings, or photos.\" After he had done so, Sargent wrote him that \"this is one of the most important collections of Chinese plants which has been sent to the Arboretum and I am extremely obliged to you for sending it to us.\" Although we have only 63 of his images, Hers went on to collect seeds and specimens of more than 2,000 species, most of them sent to the Arnold Arboretum. plant collector spends as much time, If not more, processing the fruits of his labor as he does searchmg for them. The tedium of making hsts, annotatmg labels, cleamng and packagmg seeds, and drymg and pressmg herbarium specimens is expenenced today just as it was when Rock's assistants Lan Lee and Sm No worked m the courtyard of his Moso house m Yunnan m 1922 Accordmg to Rock's legend they are changmg dners on plants collected m the Lichiang snow range top' Rock attmbuted the rumation raids by the Pei-lang, the White Wolves. He took this hauntmg photograph of the walled city of Tao-chowm July 1925 Opposite below- Photographed m July 1925 by Joseph Rock, this view of the densely forested Ta Ku, Above~ The Opposite at of these houses to Joseph Charles Francis Rock (1884-1962) 320 images (1920-22) Botanist, anthropologist, explorer, linguist, and author, Rock was the last of the great plant hunters employed by Sargent, who by then was elderly. Rock had immigrated to the United States from his native Austria in 1905, but between 1920 and 1949 he lived in China for extended periods, exploring, collecting plants and animals, and taking pictures for various United States agencies and other institutions, including The National Geographic Society, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, and the Arnold Arboretum. He is still remembered by the older villagers in the city of Lijiang, which was his home base for many years. The 653 photographs that Rock took during the Arboretum's 1924-27 Big Gorge Valley (Da Gorge, Mm Mountains, Gansu ShengJ, shows a spruce forest made up pnncipally of another comfer named for Frank Meyer, Picea meyem, one of Chma's sixteen endemic spruce species. or have already been digitized and are the VIA website; the remaining 320 photographs document his 1920-22 expedition to Thailand, Myanmar, and the Yunnan Province of China and include images of plants, landscapes, villages, architecture, and the ethnic minority peoples of the region. expedition available on Sheila Connor archivist. is the Arboretum's horticultural 43 44 Digitizing E. H. Wilson's Glass Plates Digitizing and cataloguing the Arboretum's photographs is a multistep, multiperson procedure. In the case of our eastern Asian collections, the image scanned was usually in the form of a print, often available artifact. However, the clarity of detail captured m E. H. Wilson's glass-plate negatives dictated that we digitize directly from these fragile, almost century-old plates, making the process even more labor intensive and far more fraught with anxiety. The first step is to catalog each Wilson image and document its many surrogates: the 6-x-8-inch glass-plate negative; the print bound in one of sixteen chronologically arranged albums; the mounted print stored in vertical files arranged either by genus and species or, in the case of landscape views, by place name. Duplicates as well as oversize prints are also counted, as are the black-and-white and hand-colored lantern slides made from Wilson's photographs. After assigning an accession number to the image, the cataloguer describes it online in Harvard's database (OLIVIA), including enough detail to facilitate access. Villages are identified and located within provinces, if possible, and plant nomenclature is checked and updated when necessary. Each glass plate is then Inserted-very gently-between pieces of rigid foam in one of twelve special boxes, custom designed and bmlt by our talented facilities manager. Each 14-x-10-x-8-mch box is snugly padded and holds thirty glass plates. Two members of the library staff (carefully) drive six boxes to the Digital Imaging Group (DIG) laboratory m Widener Library, located on Harvard's Cambridge campus, at the same time retrieving plates that have already been scanned. Once scanned, the images and data are deposited in the Digital Image Repository (DIR) and linked to the record previously created in OLIVIA. Once linked they are available online in VIA (Visual Information Access) and searchable by photographer, location, date, and keywords. The success of this digitizing project required the skills of many people. Lisa Pearson and Beth Bayley organized, catalogued, and transported all of the material to the DIG, where David Remington oversaw the actual digitizing. Dave Russo built the safe and sturdy (and beautiful) boxes for transportmg the glass plates. Wendy Gogel and Sue Knegsman of Harvard's Library Digital Initiative gave guidance and assistance, and Harvard College Library, an anonymous donor, and several generous friends provided the funding. Wendy Duan, the library's newest staff member, provided invaluable assistance by interpreting Chmese customs and identifying Chinese place names for this article. the only 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1 Publication Title Arnoldia 2 Publication No 0004-2633 3 Filing Date 10 March 2005 4 Issue Frequency Quarterly 5 No of Issues Pubhshed Annually 4 6 Annual Subscription Pnce $20 00 domestic, $25 00 foreign 7 Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 8 Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Busmess Office of Publisher Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 9 Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Pubhsher, Editor, and Managmg Editor Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, publisher, Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3500, editor 10 Owner The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 11 Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Secunty Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities none 12 The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed dunng the preceding 12 months 13 Publication Name Arnold~a 14 Issue Date for Cmculatton Data Below March 2005 15 Extent and Nature of Ctrculauon a Total No Copres Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 3,325 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date 3,200 b Paid and\/or Requested Circulation 1 Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months 2,511 No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Frhng Date 2,485 (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions none ~3\/ Sales Through Dealers and Carners, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales none ~4~ Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS none c Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months 2,511 Actual No Copies of Srngle Issue Published Nearest to Frhng Date 2,485 d Free Dtstnbunon by Mail Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 124 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 150 e Free Distribution Outside the Mail Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 195 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 198 f Total Free Distribution Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months 319 Actual No Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 348 g Total Distribution Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 2,830 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date 2,833 h Copies Not Distributed Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months 495 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 367 r Total Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 3,325 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Frhng Date 3,200 1 Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months 89% Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 88% I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete Karen Madsen, Editor "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23539","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260af6e.jpg","title":"2005-63-3","volume":63,"issue_number":3,"year":2005,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Memoriam: Richard Allen Howard 1917-2003","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25387","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eb36b.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Warnement, Judith A.; Wood Jr., Carroll E.","article_content":" IN MEMORIAM - RICHARD ALDEN HOWARD 1917-2003 hit Massachusetts in September 1938. The Great swept through on the 22nd, dramatically altering New England's landscape. Richard Alden Howard arrived in Cambridge that same week to make his own, far more positive, impact on Harvard's landscape and, later, on the 265 acres at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Howard was born in Stamford, Connecticut, and reared in Warren, Ohio. He graduated from the Botany Department at Miami University in Ohio in 1938. Afterward, unable to afford graduate school, he accepted a position as a technician at Harvard University under Irving W. Bailey. Bailey put him to work on a littleknown group of tropical flowering plants, the Icacinaceae. Howard also attended classes, and in 1939 the Society of Fellows awarded him a Junior Fellowship that supported his postgraduate training. As a graduate student, he had the opportunity to visit Harvard's Atkins Garden at Soledad, near Cienfuegos, Cuba. The experience inspired both his life-long interest in tropical plants and his relationship with the scientists in the Caribbean. It was also where he met one of the great plant explorers, David Fairchild. After travel to Cuba became restricted, Howard continued his tropical research and teaching efforts at the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Miami and visited Fairchild's estate, the \"Kampong,\" in Coral Gables, Florida. Howard continued the work he had started under Bailey on the Icacinaceae and completed his doctorate in 1942. His thesis, entitled \"Studies of the Icacinaceae: A monograph of the New World species,\" was later published in a series of papers. The country was at war. Howard wanted to enlist in the United States Navy but was rejected because his height of six-feet-five-inches exceeded U.S. Navy limits. Instead, he entered the Army Air Corps where his combination of leadership and teaching skills and practical knowledge of tropical plants led to his assignment WO forces of THurricane nature Clock~nnse from top left: On a field trip m the Lesser Antilles, Richard Alden Howard holds specimens of a plant so rare it defied identification. He located it on a spur of St. Vincent's original volcano, north of the then-active crater lake. Dr. Plant Yin Hung-chang, director of the Shanghai Physiology Institute, photographed during the 1979 msit to the Arboretum of a delegation of botamsts from the People's Repubhc of Chma. Colleagues Carroll E. Wood, fr., and Howard mth plant specimens in Professor Howard's office m the Harvard University Herbaria Howard, at left, as a graduate student in Cuba. Director Howard takes his turn with a spade at the 1961 groundbreakmg ceremonies for the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. At his left are George Taylor, director of the Royal Botamc Gardens, Kew; Bradford Washburn, director of Boston's Science Museum; and Nathan Pusey, president of Harvard University. All photographs are from the Archives of Howard, Harvard botanist Lily M Perry, and the Arnold Arboretum 4 with the newly established Research and Rescue Program of the Air Force. He was appointed its first director and devoted the rest of his time in service to teaching airmen how to survive adrift on desolate oceans, in freezing snow, scorching sands, and sweltering jungles. He wrote survival manuals (some published by the Arctic, Desert, Tropic Information Center (ADTIC). When he left the service, he was a captain, and he continued as a consultant to ADTIC for several years. The Air Force recognized his contributions by presenting him with the Legion of Merit award in 1947. Howard continued not only to write but also to collect survival manuals, and amassed a unique collection that he donated to Harvard's Houghton Library in 1998. Following the war, Howard and his bride, Elizabeth \"Betty\" Solie, moved to New York, where Howard worked as a curatorial assistant at the New York Botanical Garden. In 1948 he was called back to Harvard as an assistant professor responsible for the botanical semester of the large introductory biology course. He proved to be a popular and innovative lecturer who often provided generous supplies of edible plants to demonstrate his belief that the best way to a student's mind was through his stomach. At the same time, he published papers on the floristics of the West Indies and New England. In 1953 the University of Connecticut appointed Howard professor of botany and department chair. His stay in Connecticut was short-lived since he was recruited back to Harvard in 1954 as director of the Arnold Arboretum and the Arnold Professor of Botany. Howard's new challenge was to guide the Arnold Arboretum through a period of tremendous change and turmoil. Controversy surrounded Harvard's decision to move portions of the Arboretum's herbarium and library from Jamaica Plain to a new facility in Cambridge. Despite an atmosphere charged with tension, Howard forged ahead. He possessed the stamma, integrity, and sense of humor to carry him through a contentious decade. Critics were won over by his zealous promotion of the Arnold Arboretum and all things botanical and horticultural. He gave countless lectures at garden clubs and cultural organizations and presented his lecture \"A Botanist in Your Grocery Store\" more times than he could recall. Among his other favorite talks were \"Botany in Boston Restaurants,\"\"Jungle Housekeeping,\" and \"South to the Antilles.\" He was in such demand that he often joked about \"living out of a suitcase for weeks on end,\" but he knew that he was rebuilding a support network and he channeled all of the honoraria back into the Arboretum's public education programs. Howard encouraged the Arnold Arboretum staff to become active in local, national, and international botanical and horticultural organizations. He and staff members were soon involved in the Horticultural Club of Boston, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the New England Botanical Club, the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, the American Society of Plant Taxonomists, the Botanical Society of America, the International Association of Botanical Gardens, and the International Society of Plant Taxonomists. Howard served as an officer for many of these organizations. He also encouraged the library \" , - 5 staff to join the newly organized Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries when it held its first meeting in Boston in 1968. During his twenty-four years as director, Howard assembled a capable team to advance the mission of the Arnold Arboretum. He was interested in every aspect of the operation and made himself available to his staff when decisions were needed. He acknowledged both personal and professional achievements and milestones of the staff and volunteers in the Arboretum Newsletter and in his annual Director's Report. He restored the botanical and horticultural reputation of the institution, improved the grounds, and built greenhouses. While cultivating mutually beneficial relationships with the City of Boston and its Parks Department, at the same time he thwarted attempts by the city to reclaim portions of the Arboretum for other purposes. Computerization of botanical records was in its infancy, and Howard was among the first to introduce this new recordkeeping system to the Arboretum. He bolstered the Arboretum's public education program, introduced innovative uses for the Arboretum's Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, and promoted major research projects like the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Howard shuttled from his home at the Case Estates to Jamaica Plain and then on to Cambridge nearly every day for almost twenty-four years. He maintained two offices and supervised staff on both sides of the river. His motivation was clear, his energy boundless. He considered his success at the Arnold Arboretum to be his greatest professional achievement. Howard was not content to limit the Arnold Arboretum's research program to his own sphere of interests. In the early 1970s he took every opportunity to rebuild relations with botanical institutions in China. By the mid-1970s he had succeeded in renewing the exchange of specimens, and in 1978 he was able to visit colleagues there as a member of the Botanical Society of America's delegation. In 1980 the Arnold Arboretum resumed its botanical work m China by sending a new team of botanical explorers and hosting a stream of Chinese botanists in Cambridge to collaborate on the Flora of China project. Professor Howard continued to teach in Cambridge and to lead Harvard students on field trips to Cuba until the formal relationship with the Atkins Garden ended m 1961. From then on, he conducted his field studies m the Everglades and elsewhere in subtropical Florida but continued to correspond and exchange materials with his Cuban colleagues. Howard also devoted time to collecting on islands throughout the Caribbean, frequently traveling with colleagues and family members. He joked about the wisdom of choosing to explore the tropics, but the work was often dangerous. He and his team worked in remote locales, trekked over rough terrain, and scaled slick volcanic mountainsides. Howard's extensive knowledge of tropical vegetation was put to practical use. Aluminum companies sought his help in the revegetation of strip-mining sites in Jamaica and later in Hawaii. A grant from the National Science Foundation permitted him to study the montane elfin forests at Pico del Oeste in the Luquillo - 6 Mountains of eastern Puerto Rico, a project that resulted in seventeen papers. The Boston Poison Information Center relied on his advice about poisonous plants, and he was \"on call\" to them for many years. The work that represents the culmination of Howard's research in the West Indies is the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Antilles1974-1989\/. In the foreword to Volume One, Howard wrote, \"Since the time of the voyages of Columbus much botanical data has been assembled from the various islands of the Lesser Antilles. Yet, after almost five hundred years, a unified and comprehensive account of the specific components of the vegetation that flourishes on that chain of islands is still wanting. The launching of the publication ... is aimed to fill this gap just before the last steadfasts of our natural vegetation succumb to the recklessness of man and his civilization ... The undertaking of the preparation of a definitive flora dates back to some twenty years involving both extensive field work, combined with exploration, and intensive research in herbaria.\" The series was completed in 1989 and it is still a standard reference work on Lesser Antilles flora. Professor Howard asked to be relieved of his administrative duties in 1978. He continued his teaching and research as professor of dendrology in Cambridge. His courses ranged from introductory botany to graduate level classes in advanced plant anatomy and the phylogeny of flowering plant families, and he was proud to have supervised three graduate students. In 1988, when he reached mandatory retirement age, he taught his last course at Harvard: \"Plants and Human Affairs.\" He was asked to substitute at the last minute but did not hesitate to accept since it was a course that he had always wanted to teach. His research during this period focused on his extensive survey of the nodal and petiolar structure of the vascular conducting system through which plants move materials between leaf blade and stem. Howard left Cambridge briefly from July 1989 until September 1990 to serve as the vice president for science at the New York Botanical Garden. Howard was an international goodwill ambassador for the botanical and horticultural sciences. In 1963 he made a world tour, visiting gardens and herbaria at every stop, collecting whenever he could, and photographing plants and people to add to his already voluminous collection of Kodachrome slides. He served on boards and consulted at established or new botanical and horticultural organizations like the Pacific Tropical Garden based in Kauai, Hawaii (now the National Tropical Botanical garden), the Acton (Massachusetts) Arboretum, the Coastal Maine Botanical Garden, the Fairchild Botanical Garden, and the beloved Kampong. He was thrilled to return to Cuba and the garden at Soledad in 1999 with a delegation sponsored by Harvard's David Rockefeller Center for Latin American Studies. In a surprise finale to the conference, the Cuban delegation planted two new palm trees in his honor. Over a sixty-year period Howard published thirteen books and more than three hundred papers. Their depth and breadth reflect his eclectic interests. He wrote on plant anatomy and morphology, floristics, cultivated plants, economic botany, tropical ecology, biogeography, the social and economic history of the West Indies, the lives of botanists, and botanical trivia. Even in his later years, when \" ~ _ 7 his eyesight and general health began to fail him, he spent his good days working in the library on various projects and manuscripts. During his long career Howard received many awards. The Jamaica National History Society, the Montserrat Natural History Society, and the Montserrat National Trust acknowledged his botanical contributions to their islands. The American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, the American Herb Society, the American Horticultural Society, the Garden Club of America, the City of Boston, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and the National Council of State Gardens bestowed horticultural awards upon him. He was named an honorary fellow of the Danish Royal Academy of Arts and Sciences and received the Distinguished Citizen Award from his hometown of Warren, Ohio. He was named an honorary Doctor of Science at Framingham State University in 1977. In 1999 the National Tropical Botanical Garden awarded him the Allerton Award in recognition of his decades of service in the advancement of tropical horticulture and the understanding of tropical plants. Howard was a member of the New England Botanical Club from 1940 until his death. He served as president in 1953 and held the record of most-often-featured speaker at the Club's milestone meetmgs-the 700th, the 800th, and the Centennial. At the centennial meeting Howard was not content merely to summarize the highlights of one hundred years of the organization; he commissioned noted author Maurice Sagoff to compose a poem about the NEBC, which he read at the end of his speech. The Howards reared four children, Jean, Barbara, Bruce, and Philip, and the family shared many botanical adventures. Betty co-authored several papers with her husband and edited many more. She co-hosted open houses, exotic botanicaltheme dinners for international digmtaries, impoverished students, and prospective faculty and staff. She was a true partner in Howard's life, traveling the world with him and managing their family and home when he was off on his own. They were proud of their children and eight grandchildren and m later years looked forward to annual family reunions in Florida. (Of course, Howard timed the reunions to coincide with his work on the inventory of plants at the Kampong.) Richard Alden Howard's legacy to Harvard and to the fields of botany and horticulture are as large as his life. The citation presented to him by Framingham State College in 1977 is an apt tmbute. It reads, \"Scholar, interpreter of the world of plants to people of all ages, botanical explorer of the world's remote corners, entrusted with the care of our botanical treasures, he has taught us survival in the wilderness and the beauty of civilized nature.\" \" -Judith A. Warnement, Librarian, Harvard University Herbaria, Wood, Jr., Professor of Biology emeritus, Harvard University. Acknowledgments and Carroll E. Special thanks are due to Bruce Howard and staff of the Arnold Arboretum and the Harvard University Herbaria for contributions and corrections. The memorial was previously published m Rhodora (2004) 106(926): 178-184. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Horticulture and the Development of American Identity","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25386","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eb326.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pauly, Philip J.","article_content":"Horticulture and the American Identity Philip j. Pauly Development of same in nineteenthcentury America as it is today. This statement is so obvious as to be banal, whether the subject is painting, clothing, sport, or slang. One difference, however, stands as prominent yet unexplored: the word culture itself. In the Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, a massive scholarly compendium of the 1880s, the primary meanings of culture involved \"tillage,\" controlled breeding, and techniques used in the new science of bacteriology. Only with apologies did the editors extend their definitions of the word to describe, on the one hand, the individual and collective improvement of the mind, and, on the other, the ethnographic whole.' This essay sketches aspects of a world where culture was a verb that referred primarily to activities that are now considered parts of biotechnology. Well into the nineteenth century, Americans could speak unselfconsciously about strawberry culture, pear culture, and arboriculture. More tellingly, high culture meant, not sweetness and light, but manure, hand weeding, and controlled pollination. The primary sites of culture were rural pastures and suburban gardens, not opera houses or Polynesian villages. This is not to say that the meaning of culture then was either completely different from now, or that it was more precise. Horticulturists in particular were aware that they stood hip deep in a linguistic compost redolent with metaphors that sprouted like mushrooms and with meanings that hybridized uncontrollably. Even if they did not read Virgil or Alexander Pope, they knew that gardening was as much about culturing themselves as their shrubs, and -1 ulture was not the ~ \"Elms at Yale College,\" ca. 1840, engraving by William Henry Bartlett (1809-1854), from Nathamel Parker Willis' Amencan Scenery, or, Land, Lake, and River Illustrations of Transatlantic Nature, 1857. 9 that a man's pears, pines, and peonies were indices of his taste. I take advantage of these many connotations of culture but hold to the idea that its primary meaning in mneteenth-century America was the use of intelligence to improve One way to understand the particular is to focus on certain exemplary plants. This essay focuses on two characteristic but cally specific. contrasting elms living things. Some elements of culture were universal, while others were geographically and histori- England types-American (found objects that were used as street ornaments) and the Concord grape (a constructed variety with horticultural uses). Comparing the histories of these two Yankee plants gives New Z O 6 p Z 5 z ~ z n z \" 0 F a r z a z : J 2 Y Y Z ,W~' F~ IO g j ~I I ) ,g 1 ~ ~ , j0.' .4 > i^ d F W O F z a z% A 0 8 z 0 9 i~ ! a W E 10 \"Salem Common on Trammg Day\" by George Ropes, Jr 1808 States was linked to both European traditions and to the progress of civilization. In New York, Washington, and elsewhere, they designed public buildings in classical styles to proclaim that Americans had taste. Gentlemen such as Thomas Jefferson in Virginia, William Hamilton in Pennsylvania, and Christopher Gore in Massachusetts built villas that advertised classical values. Landscaping and planting were integral to these displays: Hamilton initiated a broad movement when he planted the drive leading to his Philadelphia estate, The Woodlands, with Lombardy poplars he imported from Europe. The pioneering Prince family nursery on Long Island soon marketed these columnar exotics widely; by the 1810s symmetrical rows of poplars marked dozens of cities, displaying, more visibly than any pillared stone building, the affiliation between the United States and both the Roman and Florentine republics. Fruits were surprisingly significant elements within this complex of anxieties and desires. fresh shape to an old and brambly theme-the role of New England culture in forming American national identity. Political independence separated the citizens of the new United States of America from their European roots. They were no longer ordinary members of transatlantic British imperial networks, and their ad hoc alliance with the French grew tortured after 1789. The possibility of a national future of drift and degeneration loomed in Americans' increasing tendency to disperse across the countryside to isolated farmsteads and barren frontier settlements; in the new nation's vast swamps and increasingly virulent fevers (yellow fever struck New York and Philadelphia heavily in the 1790s) ; in many Americans' unrefined diets of corn and potatoes; and in the surplus of cheap and crude whiskey, punch, and cider, and shortage of good wine to be drunk in moderation. Within this context, American leaders sought to reaffirm that the development of the United 11 1 :s North American \"fruits of nature\"-huckleberries, cranberries, crabapples, and strawberrieswere either small, puckery, or only fleetingly productive; they provided little stimulus to sophisticated tastes. The introduction of Old World \"fruits of culture\" had been an integral part of early colonization. Apples were particularly successful immigrants, but the vast majority of trees were undistinguished ciderproducing varieties. In the late 1700s British, French, and Dutch fruit growers were making H z O m J x O o z x w x H c w > _ u major improvements in pears, peaches, plums, grapes, and strawberries through a combination of selection, hybridization, and grafting. The few Americans who traveled to Europe could experience these products of modern high culture, but such people were too preoccupied to raise American horticulture to the European level. In the 1820s, gentlemen and nurserymen in New York, Pennsylvania, and (most consequentially) Massachusetts organized to collect and distribute the fruits of European culture as well as to identify and improve American plants. They imported scions, selected vigorous varieties, compared fruits, and encouraged emulation. The American elm (Ulmus americana) became iconic within this cultural landscape. In the early nineteenth century this previously unremarked swamp dweller became a special tree in New England, transforming village and city streets into cool gothic archways. Because the elm could survive in places as diverse as Maine, Texas, Virginia, and Oregon, its appearance, identified with the New England village, could be replicated throughout the nation. Elm culture thus became part of the construction, both real and ideal, of a common American experience.z Puritans imported the in ~i The tt u~r ~tr Im, Ulmus amcncana, photographed 1893 showing the trunk cavity after dressing and an apphcation of coal-tar. English elm (Ulmus procera, a continental species probably brought to Britain by the Celts or Romans) to Massachu- part of their colonization toolkit. These familiar trees shaded yards and produced a splitresistant timber that was used for specialized purposes such as wagon hubs. Scattered specimens of the related North American species grew in wet areas. Because these trees seemed inferior to English elms in growing less straight, because they did not occur in large stands accessetts as sible to cutters, and because isolated specimens innocuous-casting only light shadows that did not hamper surrounding crops-they were almost the only trees not systematically lumbered in the New England lowlands in the 1600s. By default elms became a prominent and therefore characteristic element of rural nature in the Connecticut River Valley and in other settled parts of New England. In towns and villages, particularly as surroundmg forests disappeared in the 1700s, individual trees became community pets. Certain magnificent specimens of great size and presumably great age (such as the Great Elm on Boston Common or the elms named for Pittswere 12 An allee of elms m Sandwich, Massachusetts, photographed by E. H. Wilson m September 1929. 13 field, Sheffield, or Weathersfield) were revered as living relics of presettlement times. During the Revolution, particular trees also became semi-pagan symbols of liberty (and were sometimes cut down by royal troops for that reason). Finally, trees could become markers for remembered or imagined historic events: Cambridge residents revered the elm under which George Washington supposedly accepted his commission as head of the revolutionary army, and other towns preserved elms associated with Washington, Franklin, and Lafayette. (Farther west, in my hometown of Cincinnati, we had to be satisfied with the General \"Mad Anthony\" Wayne Elm.)Not all these special trees were elms: Marylanders celebrated the large and old Wye Oak, and Hartford claimed the Charter Oak, associated from the late 1600s with the preservation of Connecticut autonomy.3 Local people often went to great lengths to preserve these specimens. With the short-lived, top-heavy elm, these struggles were predictably tragic. Illustrations of Cambridge Common in 1839, 1861, and 1908 show the Washington Elm increasingly contorted and cut back, hemmed in by streets; it toppled in 1923 while undergo- landscape theorist Andrew Jackson Downing, the vase-shaped American elm, with its pendulous branches and dappled shade, expressed the truth that the Gothic was the aesthetic appropriate for modern America. And as Yankees began to worry about their region's decline relative to the Midwest, rows of elms expressed their towns' supposed organic traditions, distinctive cultural maturity, and appeal as summer residences for prosperous Manhattanites and Southerners. Elms thus shifted from being trees that grew in New England to the trees that, to a substantial degree, defined New England. After midcentury, village improvement societies, aided by nurseries, initiated elm-planting programs that soon made the region's villages look as if they had been cloned. Elm monocultures spread, along with copies of Downing's books, along streets in the Midwest and beyond. In his journals, Henry Thoreau expressed the implications of these movements. On the one hand, he imagined that New England was its elms: his idea of a village included \"more of the elm than of the human being.\" On the other, he understood that New England, like the elm, could reproduce itself and migrate: that \"Free Soil\" principles, like elms, would spread across the continent, outcompeting the decaying slave South. The importance of questions regarding different plants' American identities, and the difficulty in providing answers, become evident if we turn from shade trees to the domesticated species that provided people with food and fiber. Cultivars (named varieties of cultured plants) were products of particular places, histories, and values. Choice of a cultivar could be a major practical issue: the economic survival of a plum grower, for example, could depend on the hardiness, productivity, and taste of the stick-like slips planted years before. No plants that had evolved in temperate North America were cultured prior to 1800. Angloamerican colonists grew either cultivars from such New World tropical regions as Mexico (corn) and Brazil (tobacco), or some fraction of the grains, beans, and fruit trees that Old World farmers had developed over previous millenia. The degree to which Eurasian ing surgery following a rainstorm. Elms were easy to move in quantity from roadsides; sometimes-as in Litchwhere thirteen sycamores planted to celfield, ebrate the new republic soon died-they were a second choice. The realization that double rows of American elms produced a particularly impressive effect emerged gradually. Only after 1820 did travel writers (including the generally disdainful Charles Dickens) begin to emphasize that elms in quantity transformed some otherwise ordinary New England towns into distinctively beautiful blends of country and city. The apotheosis of the American elm occurred in the 1840s. Emersonian Transcendentalism elevated communion with trees to a religious experience. Nationalistic garden writers argued that planting and experiencing common American, rather than rare Eurasian, trees and shrubs would advance American identity and promote democratic values. On a more practical level, the Lombardy poplars planted in the Federalist period were becoming tatty from age and diseases that killed the tops. For the influential swamps to 14 and African cultivars could be \"naturalized,\" or grown successfully, in North America varied greatly. The apple, originally from central Asia, was a paradigm of effortless naturalization. Recent books by Michael Pollan and Sue Hubbell both describe how this highly variable species evolved rapidly into forms that flourished in New England and beyond.4 Pears, although closely related to apples, seldom grew well in the Northeast. Maintaining wheat culture was a continual struggle. The most fraught situation symbolically-one element in my ongoing research on the history of American horticulture-involved grapes. The European wine grape, Vitis vinifera, was by far the most \"cultured\" plant in the world in the 1800s. Domesticated in the Near East four to six thousand years ago, it had been altered through selection by generations of vinegrowers into a plant that could only live and bear fruit with constant and careful attention. Its qualities were the result of tastes that changed in unrecorded ways from the times of Hesiod and Pliny up to the emergence of the great Bordeaux chateaus in the 1700s. The English, while avid consumers of wine, were unable to participate in viticulture for lack of summer heat. As a consequence, the early promoters of Virginia and New England, who (like the Vinlanders six hundred years earlier) learned that grapevines grew rampantly along North American shorelines and riverbanks, anticipated that Vitus vinifera could be made to prosper there and that wine would soon be flowing from America to England. Colonists, however, failed repeatedly in their efforts to establish viticulture. Thomas Pinney explains that imported vinifera vines would readily take root and grow vigorously but would fruit for only a few years before fading away.5 The reason for these failures, not understood until the late nineteenth century, was that American grape species supported bacteria (black rot), fungi (downy and powdery mildews), and root aphids (PhylloxeraJ that reliably destroyed the evolutionarily defenseless vinifera vines. Prior to the 1870s, local and English commentators debated whether the difficulty in growing vinifera lay in the particular soils chosen, problematic local climates, the lack of vineyard experience of Anglo-American or the lack of American experience with French or Italian viticulturists imported for the purpose. The more ominous argument, in retrospect understandable and close to the truth, was that eastern North America was somehow inherently inhospitable to the high culture of winemaking. In the early 1800s, scattered American wine enthusiasts gave up on vinifera and sought instead to culture the vines already growing wild in North America. The common northgrowers, eastern species, of Vitis labrusca, produced good yields large fruits but it was singularly unpromising from the standpoint of taste. Its common name, the \"fox grape,\" referred to a distinctive odor that was linked with varying degrees of specificity to anal secretions. Culturing vinifera had taken millenia; the idea that a grape as rank as labrusca could in a few years be sufficiently tamed to serve to ladies was only imaginable among men who believed in the heroic potential of horticulture. Such men existed in Massachusetts in the 1840s. With symbolism so weighty it could split an elm, the birthplace of the great American grape was Concord-the reputed birthplace also of American freedom, American philosophy, American environmentalism, and, in some interpretations, American fiction. Wales Bull (1806-1895), the develof the Concord grape, was a fine craftsman oper from Boston with liberal religious leanings, good social connections, and a longstanding interest in gardening. At the age of thirty he moved to a hobby farm just east of Concord where his acquaintances included Thoreau, the vegetarian Transcendentalist Bronson Alcott (and his teenaged daughter Louisa Mae), agricultural editor Simon Brown, and Nathaniel Hawthorne. Bull was an avid reader of nursery catalogs and annually purchased a diverse lot of material from the Prince nurseries, the leading supplier of new and exotic plants. The Concord, however, began mythically, with a seed dropped in a corner of Bull's garden around 1840 by a passing bird or local boys. Following theories articulated most prominently by Belgian medical scientist and pear culturist Jean Baptist Van Mons, Bull believed that Ephraim 15 Alfred W. Hosmer photographed Ephraim Wales Bull grapevme m Concord, Massachusetts. m the 1890s standmg next to the ongmal 'Concord' culture involved a combination of gentleness, selectivity, and patience. He moved his volunteer seedling to a comfortable bed in the center of his garden, tended it carefully, and planted the seeds it produced. The crucial step was to select the offspring most susceptible to culture. The quickest-sprouting seedlings were rejected as close in type to their wild parent; those that were slower to germinate, or more \"feeble,\" were considered more likely to put their energy into the production of fine fruit. One of these plants rewarded Bull's efforts by producing, at the end of the 1840s, grapes that were early, large, and, Bull claimed, tasty. He shared the news of his new fruit with neighbors such as Thoreau and, naming the vine for his adopted village, arranged to market cuttings through Charles Hovey, the leading plant promoter in Massachusetts. The variety gained national prominence thanks to favorable press coverage by Alcott's former commune companion Horace Greeley, who was editor of the New York Tribune and a weekend farmer in Chappaqua, New York. The identities of Bull, his grape, his village, and his nation fused rapidly in the mid 1850s. \" Bull advertised the Concord as a \"native grape\" with a decidedly Yankee character-it was early, versatile, did not wilt, and had \"good shoulders\" (that is, the bunches were neither small nor spindly). This hardy \"American\" fruit was contrasted to its \"too tender Syrian brothers\" (a coded reference to Semitic\/Jewish degeneracy). Bull's reputation as a hero of American horticulture enabled him to gain election to the Massachusetts legislature under the auspices of the nativist American Party (the so-called Know-Nothings) and then appointment to the State Board of Agriculture. There he became an archetypical village Yankee, noted for blunt attacks on sharp businessmen who controlled the distribution of new varieties and who unfairly captured profits that should go to farmers and local innovators. After the Civil War, increasingly sophisticated tastemakers like Horace Greeley rejected the still-foxy and highly tannic Concord as crude. But the variety continued to solidify its position as the standard American grape. Provincial backyard growers appreciated its reliability and good looks, and rapidly expanding commercial producers in upstate 16 6 turned to readily available Concords. Makmg this leathery liquid palatable required the addition of large quantities of sugar; the consequence was that a beverage sold originally in drug stores as \"Dr. Welch's\" tonic for the elderly succeeded because it appealed to the naive tastes of children. While Welch's was not, as one ad claimed, \"the national drink,\" it was nationally specific. Imagining an Angloamerican family around 1900, sitting on a porch and sipping Welch's grape juice while looking out onto an elm-shaded street in a suburban town-whether in a or Oregon-is remarkably easy exercise.6 Connecticut, Illinois, What happened to this idyllic picture? Elm culture declined dramatically in the decades after 1930. The most visible reason was the introduction of an Asian fungus misleadingly named Dutch elm disease. But in contrast to the almost complete disappearance of the mature American chestnut due to another Asian fungus, elms were not completely at the mercy of their new parasite. In particular, a cultivar sold widely by New Jersey's Princeton Nurseries prior to the 1930s happened to be particularly resistant. As a consequence, scattered sites-including the quadrangle at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey, where my office is located-are still filled with Concord grapes as illustrated m Les Vignes Americaines, 1876. saw the value of marketing a sinnamed product that could be identified by gle urban consumers. In addition, the Concord became the basis for a technologically grounded, clear-headed grape culture different from any that had existed since the pre-Sumerian development of controlled fermentation. In 1869 the New Jersey Methodist dentist, Thomas Welch, used the new technology of pasteurization to make a non-alcoholic church wine. When his son Charles decided to target a larger market, he New York plantings of mature American elms. The appeal of such groves in the twenty-first century derives, to a significant degree, from a their uncommonness. century ago, tastemaking chafed under elm monoculture were promoting alternatives. The Arnold Arboretum was established in the 1870s explicitly to test any tree that could grow in Massachusetts. These included both southern and western North American species (such as sequoia and various magnolias) and, especially after 1890, plants from China (including the dove tree and dawn redwood). The renewed interest in exotic More than Americans who 17 7 plants may have directly impacted elms. The cosmopolitan horticulturist David Fairchild re-imagined the nation's capital in the early 1910s by planting flowering cherries around the newly built Tidal Basin in place of a grove of elms. These contorted Japanese cultivars, dripping with both imperial tradition and orientalist romanticism, played a role m freeing the cultural landscape of the United States from the bland symmetries of nineteenth-century New England. Similar but more complex transformations occurred in American grape culture. Ephraim Bull had achieved fame and influence by identifying both himself and his grape as Yankee as that term was understood in the 1850s. The constraints of this identification became evident to Bull after the Civil War. natives, Concord evolved from a rural center with an overlay of authors and bohemians to a suburb of Boston with historic weekend homes. The house next to Bull's, previously occupied by Alcott and Hawthorne, became the part-time residence of Harriet Lothrop, the wealthy writer who sentimentalized antebellum village poverty m The Five Little Peppers and How They Grew. Bull, however, did not change with the neighborhood. He grew his hair and beard long, tended his garden, tinkered with his grapes, and railed at the businessmen who, he believed, had taken advantage of him. His socially proper wife, unable to abide his eccentricities, left him around 1870. When, at age 87, he fell while trying to patch his leaky roof, he was put into a rest home, and the plants he had nurtured during the past fifty years soon died. The cranky epitaph on his tombstone was, \"He sowed, others reaped.\" The Concord, like Bull, was native only in a historically constrained sense. Bull classified it as a variety of labrusca because, like its wild relatives and unlike vinifera, it was selfinfertile. But as culturists understood by the 1850s, species of Vitis hybridized readily. Bull believed that one parent of the Concord was a Catawba, a variety believed then to be native but in fact a Euro-American hybrid. He asserted that the original bird-dropped seed was wild; but since he and probably other Concord gardeners were enthusiastic planters of grape JJ imported from Europe by the Prince there is considerable likelihood that his family, unusually early and sweet volunteer was also hybrid. The original Concord, in sum, was probably the result of at least two generations of mixed breeding. This revision of the Concord's genealogy provides a congenial avenue for reinterpreting its identity in the twentieth century. Traditionalist Jewish immigrants to New York needed a ceremonial wine that would be both kosher and inexpensive; to produce it, they turned to the grapes that were available on the Lower East Side-Concords-and, like Welch, added sugar to make the product drinkable. Schapiro's Kosher Wines, forthrightly advertised their syrupy beverage as \"wine so thick you can cut it with a knife.\" The nativist Bull would likely turn farther in his grave were he to know that his grape was identified as much with Schapiro and Manischewitz as with Welch. But cultural hybridization has been a characteristic phenomenon in the history of North America during the last four hundred years; it would be surprising if grapes were different. varieties Notes Adapted from \"The Interpretation of Horticulture,\" Rantan 23 \/2004\/: 111-124; reprinted with permission. ' W. D. Whitney, ed., The Century Dictionary An Encyclopedic Lexicon of the Enghsh Language, 9 vols. (New York. The Century Co., 1889) 2: 1393. 2 My discussion of elms is drawn largely from Thomas J. Campanella, Repubhc of Shade New England and the American Elm (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2003). ' For more information, see \"The Charter Oak\" by Gayle Barndow Samuels m Arnoldia(1999-2000\/ 59(4) : 2-9. 4Michael Pollan, The Botany of Desire (New York: Random House, 2001),1-58; Sue Hubbell, Shnnkmg the Cat (Boston: Houghton Mifflm, 2001),121-154. Thomas Pinney, A History of Wine in Amenca (Berkeley University of Cahforma Press, 1989). For the information on the Concord grape and who developed it, see \"He Sowed; Others Reaped\": Ephraim Wales Bull and the Origins of the 'Concord' Grape\" by Edmund A. Schofield m Arnoldia (1988) 48(4\/: 4-15. more man New Philip J. Pauly is a histonan of science at Rutgers Umversity, Brunswick, New Jersey He is completing Fruits and Plams~ Horticulture and the Meaning of Amenca. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lingonberry: Dainty Looks, Sturdy Disposition, and Tasty Berries","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25388","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eb76f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reich, Lee","article_content":"Lingonberry: Dainty Looks, Sturdy Disposition, and Tasty Berries Lee Reich lingonberry (Vaccimum vitis-idaea) is only now being recognized in the U.S. for its lovely appearance and good taste. Those qualities should come as no surprise since lingonberry is a member of the heath family (Ericaceae), a t world, ong popular the in other parts of the close relative of such beauties as rho- dodendron, pieris, and, of course, heath (Erica) and heather (Calluna) as well as to the delectable blueberry and our Thanksgiving cranberry. Vaccmium vitis-idaea is separated into two botanical varieties with natural hybrids occurring in Scandinavia. The larger of the two, V. vitis-idaea var. vitlsidaea, is a spreading subshrub that grows to about two feet high and has inch-long, pointed leaves. The more diminutive lingonberry, V. vitis-idaea var. minus, stays under eight inches in height and has commensurately smaller leaves, onethird by one-sixth of an inch, oval, and rounded at the tips. Although fragile in appearance, leaves of both varieties are evergreen, with a green gloss similar to that of holly leaves. The larger lingonberry, hardy to USDA zone 4, is native to the lowlands of Europe and northern Asia. minus grows wild in the mountams of Scandinavia and extends westA Swiss Army pocketkmfe takes the measure of a flowenng ward to Iceland, Greenland, and northern Imgonberry plant. t. portions of North America; it is hardy to zone 2. Both botanical varieties can be grown 1651 by Andre Mollet, the French gardener to as far south as USDA zone 7 provided summers Queen Christina of Sweden. are not too hot for too long; nonetheless, they Lingonberry can be enjoyed in one way or are at their best in cooler areas. In fact, as an another year-round. Let's start in spring, when ornamental plant in cold climates lingonberry small, urn-shaped blossoms dangle singly or in stands in well for low-growing boxwood-in clusters near the ends of the thin, semiwoody stems. The urns hang upside down and are parterres, for example, a use first suggested in Variety 19 white with a pink blush. They're not going to stop traffic from the street, so the plants should be grown where they can be looked at up close. Don't worry if you miss the spring floral show because lingonberries blossom twice each season. The second show, appearing in mid to late summer on young stems, is absent at far northern latitudes. The pea-sized fruits that follow the flowers are a show in themselves. The bright red-or, rarely, white-berries hang on the plants for a long time, well into winter, making a perfect Christmas decoration in situ. Fruit yields are greater from the second flowering than from the first, and although cold and time will eventually darken and shrivel the berries, I find them tasty at whatever season I find them. Vitamin C concentration in the fruits, at 25 milligrams per 100 grams, is Attempts have been made to hybridize lingonberry with cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon) in order to combine the taste of the small lingonberry fruits with the large size of cranberries. Thus far, success has been achieved only when cranberry was the pollen parent, and the resulting plants showed characteristics intermediate between the two parents (except that none produced underground runners). But like mules, the hybrids have all been sterile and therefore bear no fruit. THE FRUIT moderately high. may be a pomological upstart in but this is not the case elsewhere in the U.S., the world. Merely utter its name to Scandinavians and watch for a smile on their lips and a dreamy look in their eyes. Each year, thousands and thousands of tons of lingonbernes are har- Lingonberry A bed of lmgonbernes m frmt. 20 . vested from the wild throughout Scandinavia, destined for sauce, juice, jam, wine, and baked goods. And of course, a fair number of these berries are just popped posthaste into appreciative mouths. Lingonberry has long been a favorite not only of Scandinavians but of northern peoples throughout the world. It grows in climates so rigorous that any palatable fruit is appreciated, making the delicious lingonbernes all the more cherished. So important was the fruit in thirteenth-century Iceland that laws limited berry-picking on other people's lands to what could be eaten on the spot. This fruit is the Preiselbeere of the Germans, the kokemomo of the Japanese, the puolukka of the Finns, the msakimin of the Cree, the airelle rouge of the French, the keepmingyuk of the Inuit-and the lingon of the Swedes. In English, the plant has a number of monikers, including partridgeberry (Newfoundland), cowberry (Britain), foxberry (Nova Scotia), mountain cranberry, and rock cranberry. I don't wish to seem unpatriotic, but the cosmopolitan lingonberry outshines our native cranberry in a number of respects. A lingonberry couples just enough sweetness with a rich, umque aroma so that the fruits-if picked dead ripe-are delicious eaten right off the plants or mixed with morning cereal. A cranberry, in contrast, is never palatable until doctored up with plenty of sugar and cooked. Lingonberry also beats the cranberry as an ornamental, its leaves retaining their lush, green color through winter-long after the cranberry's leaves turn a muddy purple. Along the front of my home, a rock retaining wall anchors a bed of lingonberries whose glossy greenness is enlivened in autumn by the red leaves of interplanted lowbush blueberries, and then, in winter, by the red stems. CULTIVATION where they are sheltered from wind and close to the earth's warmth, and often further protected by snow cover. All the soils that lingonberry inhabits are extremely rich in humus, thus providing good drainage and at the same time holding moisture. In addition to having good drainage and abundant organic matter, the soil must be very acidic, with a pH ideally between 4.5 and 5.5. These conditions-similar to those needed by blueberry, cranberry, mountain laurel, rhododendron, and other lingonberry relatives-must be met for lingonberry to thrive. Adapting site conditions to suit lingonberry is not at all difficult on the scale of a garden, or even a small farm, as long as natural conditions are not too far off the mark. After ridding an area of weeds, against which lingonberries are poor competitors, a bucketful of acidic peat moss mixed into each planting hole provides the needed humus and helps acidify the soil. Peat moss, hug the ground, being poor in nutrients, is especially Lingonberries grow naturally on raised bogs, rocky barrens, lichen woodlands of boreal taiga, dry heaths, tundra, mountaintops, and other cold, sometimes exposed habitats-that is to say, among the harshest conditions in the world, especially for an evergreen. One reason the plants tolerate such conditions is that they suitable for lingonberries; rich soils can burn their delicate roots and promote more vigorous weeds. The soil behmd the rock wall where I planted my lingonberries and lowbush blueberries was nothing more than a great quantity of old potting soil that was almost fifty percent peat moss. Where soil pH is not low enough-that is, below about 6.5-elemental sulfur should be applied before or when planting. Threequarters of a pound of sulfur per hundred square feet in sandy soils, or two pounds per hundred square feet in loams, will change the pH by one unit. Where soils are naturally very alkaline (pH higher than 8), such as in many parts of the western U.S., native soil should be excavated from the planting site and replaced with a fiftyfifty mix of peat moss and sand. If the planting site has poor drainage, mounds of soil and peat can be built up to keep the lingonberries' shallow roots above water level. Lingonberries can thrive in full sun but as a plant of northern climes, it will appreciate the coolness of some shade or-like the lingonberries on the east side of my house-a site shielded from hot afternoon sun. Too much shade, on the other hand, will produce lusty stem growth at the expense of yield. 21 The shmy leaves of the evergreen Imgonbernes set offthe bmght fall red of Vaccmium angustifolia, and mce versa. If you grub beneath lingonberry plants, you will find a dense mat of fine roots growing just beneath the soil surface. Aboveground shoots originate from buds near the ends of rhizomes; they are responsible for the plant's spread. Plants that are raised from seed, in contrast to those propagated from rooted cuttings or runners, also have taproots. Lingonberry looks and feels at home in a rock garden. It also makes an attractive, edible groundcover if plants are placed equidistant in all directions to eventually fill a bed with a uniform mat of stems. Vaccinium vitis-idaea var. vitis-idaea, being more vigorous, can fill an initial spacing of eighteen inches within three to five years; plants of V. vitis-idaea var. minus need to be set about ten inches apart. When farmed, lingonberries are planted in rows four to five feet apart, then-like strawberries-maintained as solid ribbons thirty inches wide. Lingonberry plants are partially selffertilizing, though cross-pollination results in increased yield and berry size. Pollination occurs best at about sixty degrees Fahrenheit; very little takes place at temperatures below fifty degrees, which are common during the early bloom period in spring. Fortunately, when the plants bloom for the second time in a season, conditions are more conducive to good pollination. The plants benefit from annual applications of mulch, the ideal being a two-inch layer of finely divided, organic material that is not too rich in nutrients: sawdust, woodchips, chopped straw, or shredded leaves, for example. Such mulches sift down through the leaves and stems, keeping the ground cool and moist, preventing frost from heaving plants in winter, and decomposing to maintain high humus levels in the soil while at the same time providing 22 limited nutrients and buffering changes in soil acidity-all of which translates into larger berries and more of them. New roots, which form mostly in spring and autumn, will eventually form along covered portions of stems. Sand can also be used as an annual mulch, as it is for cranberries, but it has the drawbacks-espe- maintenance applications of organic mulches should eliminate the need for further watering once plants are established. Just because lingonberries thrive in lean soils does not mean that they never get hungry. cially in a backyard garden-of being heavy to move and providing no nutrition or buffering of changes in soil acidity. Plants need care their first season if they are to thrive, perhaps even to survive. Most of that be summed up in one word: water. gallon per week per square foot of planted area, the equivalent of an inch depth of water, keeps plants happy whether it comes from the sky, a sprinkler, or drip irrigation. Except in drought conditions high levels of soil humus from initial additions of peat moss and care can help supply many nutrients, however, so nitrogen may be the only additional nutrient needed, if any. One indicator of nitrogen deficiency is yellowing of the oldest leaves. Soybean meal, available at Annual additions of organic materials feed stores, is an ideal source of nitrogen for lingonberry: it is inexpensive and doles out its nutriment slowly and in synch with growing conditions because these are the same conditions-heat and moisture-that stimulate soil microbes to work on the soybean meal. In acidic soils, the nitrogen from soybean meal ends up as ammonium ion, which is the form of nitrogen that suits lingonberry and other acid- One-half Heathers and Imgonbernes make good neighbors. 23 loving heath plants. As a general rule, a pound of soybean meal per hundred square feet per year, spread sometime between late fall and spring, will fulfill the plant's nitrogen needs. Avoid overfertilization because lingonberries' fine roots are especially susceptible to fertilizer burn and because it encourages the growth of weeds. Soils that are not sufficiently acidic require periodic adjustments to keep acidity in lingonberry's preferred range. Every few years I spread elemental sulfur over the ground. Yellowing of the youngest leaves while their veins remain green is a sign of iron deficiency, the result of insufficient acidity among other things. Lingonberry bears flowers and fruits on its youngest shoots, so pruning will stimulate the growth of young, fecund stems, as it does for lowbush blueberries. Plants are slow to establish themselves and need no pruning for the first five or six years. Then, while the plants are dormant, mow or cut a portion of the planting down to within an inch of the ground (leaving an unpruned portion so that you can still harvest that year). Current recommendations for the frequency of this drastic pruning range from every three or four years for the slower-growing minus-every two to three years for the more vigorous idaea-to as long as every fifteen years for either variety. Being evergreens, lingonberries will not bounce back from drastic pruning with as much enthusiasm as do their deciduous relatives the lowbush blueberries. Except for needing annual mulching, occasional pruning, and perhaps additions of fertilizer and sulfur, lingonberry is a carefree plant. Problems with insects or diseases are A one-to-one mixture of sand and peat moss, equal parts sand, peat, and soil, or one-hundredpercent milled sphagnum moss are all good sowing media. Barely cover the seeds because they need light to germinate. A period of about three months of cool, moist stratification seems to improve germination, although fresh seeds may sprout without it. Seeds sprout within a few weeks, after which the seedlings grow slowly and begin fruiting, on average, within three years. It is probably because of that threeyear juvenile period-when all of a plant's energy is directed to growth and none to fruit- ing-that seed-propagated plants spread faster than plants grown by other methods. Cuttings have several advantages over seeds: they are easy to root, bear fruit a year after rooting, and replicate genetically the plant they orignew shoots shoots (the younger just ripened, the better) are the most successful. Two-inch lengths treated with rooting hormone and kept in a humid atmosphere, preferably with bottom heat, root in about two months. Rhizomes tend to develop slowly on rooted stem cuttings. Pieces of rhizomes two to four inches long can also be used to grow new plants. The best times to propagate from rhizomes are spring and fall, probably because these are peak periods for new root growth. If you want to create just a few new plants, you can dig up older plants in spring or late summer and divide them just like any perennial. Take clumps having both roots and shoots for replanting. The same technique can be used to move plants or parts of plants from the wild, success being largely a function of the soil in which they are growing; damage to the thin, fragile roots can most easily be minimized when the plants are taken from soil rich in humus. Micropropagation-cloning-is the creation of new plants from just a few cells of a mother plant. When used with lingonberry, it produces more plants in less time than any other technique, but it requires specialized equipment and sterile conditions. Small plants, whether seedlings, cuttings, or micropropagated plants, do best if grown for a year or two in a nursery bed enriched inate from. or Cuttings of succulent mature rarely significant. PROPAGATION A number of techniques can be used to propagate lingonberries, each with its advantages and disadvantages. Sowing seed can produce many plants, but the seeds do have their quirks. Fresh seeds are best, averaging about eighty-percent germination. To extract seeds in quantity, crush the fruits in water and let the mix ferment for a few days. Then wash away the pulp and skins. Sound seeds sink. 24 ditions. Under suboptimal condi- tions-in fertilized forest stands, A berry-hungry author with abundant humus. Spread mulch over the plants in the dead of winter and, perhaps, coverings of glass or plastic to help them keep their still-fragile roots in the ground as it freezes and thaws. HARVEST AND USE Three to six years is needed before a reasonable crop can be expected and even then yields vary considerably depending on growing con- for example-yields might be five to ten pounds per hundred square feet (one to two tons per acre). Skillful cultivation and the use of better cultivars can yield twentyfive pounds or more per hundred square feet (five tons per acre). A berry comb like that used for lowbush blueberries speeds the task of picking fruit, but the resultant harvest needs to be cleaned of leaves and unripe fruits. A berry-hungry Scandinavian can rake about five pounds of fruit in an hour. But there's no need to rush the picking or eating of lingonberries. They keep well on or off the bush, in part because they contain benzoic acid, a natural preservative. Refrigerated, they can be enjoyed for at least eight weeks, longer for the variety idaea than for minus. In nineteenthcentury Sweden, lingonbernes were kept from one year to the next as \"water lingon,\" made by simply filling a jar with berries, then pouring water over them. There seems to be no end to the uses for lingonberries. In Finland, for example, the berries are the traditional accompaniment to blood sausage or blood pancakes. They also find their way into meat stews, sauces, juice, and wine. They make excellent jam alone and an even better one when combined with rosehips. The juice is delightfully refreshing mixed with that of other berries. A refreshing, albeit potent, drink can be made from lingonberries and vodka. One recipe calls for soaking a quart of berries in a quart of vodka for two months, then pouring off the liquid into a bottle and adding two cups of sugar to the berries. Let the berries and sugar sit for about a week while the sugar draws out more liquid, _- 25 then add it to the vodka. Let that mix age for a month before tippling. Lingonberries also find their way into the dispensary. Arbutin, the hydroquinone glycoside, in a tea made from the leaves is reputedly good for intestinal and bladder disorders, and the fruits are said to combat bladder and kidney infections, lower cholesterol levels, and treat rheumatic diseases. I have never used lingonberries for curative purposes, nor have I tasted them in all their culinary incarnations. But I do have great affection for the bernes plucked right from the plants-at their peak of ripeness-mto my eagerly waiting mouth. CULTIVARS OF VACCINIUM IDEAE VAR. VITIS-IDEAE 'Masovia', a 1985 selection from Poland, vigorous with heavy yields. is 'Red Pearl', a 1981 selection from Holland, is not the most productive cultivar, but it spreads rapidly and gives consistent yields. Stems are upright, reaching sixteen inches; the dark red fruits excellent flavor. are medium sized and have 1988 Swedish introduction, spreads moderately fast, with erect stems that grow eight to twelve inches high. Its productivity is excellent, perhaps the highest of any variety to date. It bears attractive crops of bright red berries in both the summer and the fall. 'Sanna', a 'Ammerland', introduced from Germany, spreads at only a moderate rate and is productive if given suitable soil; stems are upright and bushy, reaching twelve inches in height; berries are bright red and small to medium sized, ripening midseason. 'Scarlet', a Norwegian selection, to eighteen inches high. grows twelve CULTIVARS OF VACCINIUM VITIS-IDEAE VAR. MIlVUS a Swedish selection introduced in 1977, stands out for its beautiful leaves and abundant and repeated bloom. It is a vigorous, compact plant of about eight inches in height with a precocious first bloom and a profuse second bloom; its large fruits ripen early. 'Ida', 'Erntedank', also from Germany, introduced by Zillmer in 1975, has relatively pale leaves and poor growth. It produces very heavy yields of small- to medium-sized berries. 'Erntekrone', yet another introduction from Germany, also introduced by Zillmer-in 1978-is vigorous and stiffly upright with roundish, dark green leaves. It produces high yields of large, dark red fruits. 'Regal' was selected in Wisconsin in 1990 from Finnish seeds. Plants spread moderately fast with stems growing eight inches high; it is precocious and produces a low yield of small red fruits. was also selected in Wisconsin in 1990 from Finnish seeds and is also moderately fast spreading. The stems grow six to eight inches high; it is precocious, with a low yield of medium-sized carmine berries. 'Splendor' 'Erntesegen', likewise from Germany and another 1978 introduction by Zillmer, won a Gold Medal in the 1981 German Garden Show. It is a very vigorous plant with large leaves, growing sixteen inches tall; productive, with profuse second bloom and late-ripening berries that are bright red and very large. 'Sussi', introduced from Sweden in 1985, is a low-growing variety with stems of only four to 'Koralle', introduced from Holland in 1969 by H. van der Smit, represents a seedling population of thirty-five plants that produces some variation depending on the clone a plant was propagated from. It is Europe's most popular lingonberry and winner of a prestigious award of merit in 1976. In growth and yield it is very similar to'Ammerland', with slightly smaller berries. eight inches high. It spreads rapidly; production of the dark red, medium- to large-sized berries is moderate. Lee Reich was formerly a fruit researcher with the U.S. He is Department of Agriculture and Cornell University. currently a garden writer and consultant (www.leereich. com). This article is adapted from his book Uncommon Fruits for Every Garden (Timber Press, 2004). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Herbarium Specimens as a Novel Tool for Climate Change Research","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25385","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eaf6d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller-Rushing, Abraham J.; Primack, Richard B.; Imbres, Caroline; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Herbarium Specimens Change Research as a Novel Tool for Climate Abraham j. Miller-Rushing, Daniel Primack, Richard B. Primack, Caroline Imbres, and Peter Del Tredici any changes in plant and animal point to the effects of Boston, like other large cities, is an especially good place to study climate change because its average annual temperatures have risen over the last hundred years by 1.5 degrees centigrade (2.7 degrees Fahrenheit)-more than in less Mbehavior -L v global years, biologists climate change. In recent have observed birds migrat- spring, tropical frog populadeclining, and insects relocating to higher altitudes on mountain slopes. Yet the most convincing evidence that living organisms are responding to global warming comes from flowering plants, which are especially responsive tions to warm ing earlier in the urbanized parts of the world. Only half of Boston's increase corresponds to the increase in the average global temperature. The other half is related to urbanization-more paved surfaces to absorb sunlight and radiate it as weather in the spring. The data on plant flowering times is particularly compelling because there is so much of it. Thanks to the professional and amateur botanists who have kept annual records for a variety of plant species and locations, there exists more long-term data on first flowering dates than on other biological phenomena. As described in a 2003 article in Arnoldia, analyses of these records show conclusively that both wild and cultivated species are flowering earlier than in the past because of warmer growing conditions. Although these data sets have proven valuable for understanding how certain plants in certain places have already been affected by global climate change, there are too few long-term data sets available to predict future impacts worldwide. To build a more heat, less plant cover to remove heat through transpiration, and more sources of greenhouse gas emissions, such as buildings and cars-a phenomenon collectively labeled as the \"urban heat island effect.\" As a result, the increase in Boston's average temperatures has already reached the magnitude expected for the Thus, Boston provides a preview of the warming that will entire planet later in this century. occur geographically complete picture, new sources scien- of data. Botanical gardens and museums might be those sources. In the spring of 2002, we decided to mvestigate whether the extensive collection of herbarium specimens at the Arnold Arboretum could be used in conjunction with the Arboretum's living collections to determine how plants in Boston are responding to global warming. If so, our study would show that herbarium collections throughout the world could be valuable tools for studying plants' responses to climate change. tists must seek elsewhere in the world. 2002, the Arnold Arboretum did not systematically collect phenological data-that is, records of the dates of seasonal biological events such as flowering or fruiting, which have been used in previous studies of climate change. However, the Arboretum does possess an alternative source of phenological data extending well over a hundred years: the Arnold Arboretum Herbarium, a collection of 80,000 dried plant specimens, most of which were taken from the woody plants of the living collections as part of the Arboretum's standard documentation process. The record that accompanies each dried and pressed specimen includes the name of the species, the identification number of the plant, the date of collection, andimportantly-the phenological state of the plant on that date, such as flowering, past flowering, or in fruit. Many of the plants from which Prior to 27 the specimens were taken are still among the 15,000 plants growing on the grounds of the Arboretum. Together with the 80,000 herbarium specimens, of which a large number were collected while the plant was in flower, the Arboretum's living collections provided a potential sample size large enough to compensate for any species-specific phenological changes unrelated to temperature change. Thus, we could detect general patterns of response common to most of the species despite occasional anomalies. Studies published by other researchers have typically tracked the date of first flowering within a certain population to measure a species' response to climate change. This method is the controlled environment found there. Individual plants are well spaced and grown under conditions considered ideal for their species, with the grounds being carefully mulched, weeded, fertilized, and kept free of pests. This level of care probably reduces the possibility of unrepresentative flowering times that might result elsewhere from crowding, scarcity of nutrients or light, or other suboptimal conditions. Finally, one would expect the relatively high temperature increase in metropolitan Boston to have produced a greater magnitude of phenological change at the Arboretum than in rural areas, making it easier to detect changes in flowering times. potentially sensitive to changes in population size: if the population is growing over time, or plants getting larger and producing more flowers, first flowering dates might come earlier even without a warming trend and even though the average flowering time within the population remains constant. (Increasing population sizes and larger individual plants tend to cause the HOW WE WENT ABOUT IT 2003, using a computerized list of all plantings currently in the living collections and of all specimens in the herbarium, we selected herbarium specimens and corresponding plants on In the first flower to appear earlier and the population to flower for a longer duration.)Herbarium specimens, however, are generally taken when the flowers are most visible and interesting to collectors-that is, when the plant is in full flower. As a result, a herbarium specimen reflects more accurately the date of peak flowering, a measurement that is not affected by the size of the population or the individual plants. Another advantage of using the plants at the Arboretum for climate research derives from the Arboretum grounds for our study sample. We chose only living plants that are represented in the Arboretum's herbarium by at least one preserved specimen taken between 1880 and 2002 when the plant was in peak flowering condition-that is, with most of its flowers open and in good condition. Our second criterion was that the plants had to have flowers that were easy to recognize, observe, and census; we typically chose plants with large, dramatic flowers, such as cherries and magnolias, and usually avoided plants with small flowers lacking petals, such as birches 25 April 2004 30 April 2004 Almost flowenng Full flowermg 7 May 2004 Past flowenng Weekly monitoring of a pear tree (Pyrus) progressing through its seasonal stages demonstrates that it has a short flowermg pemod that peaked on April 30 Monitormg once a week appears to be sufficient to determme flowenng phenology. 28 Researchers at the Arnold Arboretum standmg m front of Rhododendron vaseyi on May 11, 2004, holdmg a herbamum specimen collected from the same plant on May 19, 1938. Both Imng plant and specimen were captured m full flower This is a visual demonstration that plants are now flowermg earlier than they did in the past. and oaks. Third, we selected primarily springblooming species; these were likely to show greater response to increases in spring temperatures than later-blooming plants because their flower buds are preformed the season before. Fourth, we selected plants known to have short flowering cycles, which would permit us to more accurately estimate a single date of full flowering by calculating the average between the dates on which the plant was observed in full flower. We could be reasonably confident that herbarium specimens taken from plants that flower for less than three weeks-azaleas and apple trees, for examplehad been collected within a week of the time of peak flowering. Specimens taken from species with longer flowering times, on the other hand-spring-flowering witch hazel, for example, which flowers for a month or more-could have been collected up to two or three weeks from the plant's peak flowering date. Finally, in order to minimize possible phenological effects caused by unknown alterations to plant physiology, we selected plants that are representative of wild species, whether native to the New England region or introduced, rather than cultivars or hybrid plants. Using these criteria, we selected 229 living plants encompassing 35 different genera. Major genera (represented by ten or more indi- viduals) were Amelanchier (shadbush), Cornus (dogwood), Corylopsis, Enkianthus, Halesia (silverbells), Magnolia, Malus (apple), Prunus (cherry), Rhododendron (including azalea), and Syringa (lilac). Because multiple herbarium specimens were often collected from the plant, we found 372 herbarium specimens taken from these 229 plants. (A complete list of same 29 specimens and species is available online at the Arboretum's website, http:\/\/www.arboretum. WHAT WE FOUND harvard.edu\/). We readily located the 229 selected plants using the Arboretum's computer-generated map of the living collections. Then, during the spring and summer of 2003 two people observed the individually numbered plants weekly between April 13 and July 14. Plants were recorded as being in one of four stages: not flowering, almost m full flower, full flower, or past full flower. (A plant in full flower was defined as having at least fifty percent of its buds in full bloom and being suitable for herbarium specimens.) Once a plant was recorded as past full flower it was no longer observed because the plants in our sample flower only once a year. These weekly observations enabled the observers to determine the peak flowering date and duration of flowering for each plant in 2003. We also determined a single Julian date (day numbers that run from 1 to 365 over a year) of full flower for each plant, although this date could have missed the true flowering peak by several days because of sampling only once a week. For example, if a plant reached its highest number of flowers on day 110 but was sampled on days 108 (when it had lots of flowers) and 115 (when it retained only a few flowers), then the day of peak flowering would be listed as day 108 rather than the true peak flowering day of 110. In cases where full flowering was observed on multiple dates, the mean of the Julian dates for those days was used. If a plant was recorded as being in peak flower on days 121 and 129, its date of full flowering would be calculated as day 125. Once the Julian date of full flowering in 2003 was determined for each plant, we subtracted it from that of the corresponding herbarium specimen to estimate a change in flowering time. If a plant was observed in peak flower on day 120 in 2003 and flowered on day 110 in 1990 according to the herbarium specimen, then it flowered 10 days earlier (-10) in the past than it did in 2003. We then investigated how changes in spring flowering times The spring of 2003 (February through May) was colder than in any previous year since 1967, with temperatures typical of the early twentieth century. As a result, the 229 plants examined in this study flowered at about the same time in 2003 as they had between 1900 and 1920. In contrast, typical plant flowering times between 1980 and 2002 were about eight days earlier than in 2003, and eight days earlier than between 1900 and 1920, thereby showing a significant trend toward earlier flowering over the last one hundred years (Figures 1 & 2). While the data showed wide variations in historical plant flowering times, it is clear that plants have been flowering earlier in recent years than they did in the past because of warming temperatures in Boston. Eight days may not seem like much, but it constitutes a major change. For plants that flower for three weeks, it represents more than one third of the entire flowering season. Changes of this magnitude can significantly affect relationships between plants and the animals that pollinate their flowers, eat their leaves and seeds, and disperse their fruits. In many cases these relationships rely on a synchrony between the phenology of the plant and that of the animal-for instance, between the flowering of a plant and the activity of a pollinator-which may be disrupted if the timing of events shifts too quickly. Evidence from elsewhere in the world shows that some of these relationships are already changing. CAVEATS AND STATISTICAL CONSIDERATIONS correlated with the temperature differences between individual years as recorded at the Boston weather station. Although we found a significant correlation between changes in temperature and flowering times, the use of herbarium specimens raised several questions. First, as noted earlier, we could not be certain that the herbarium specimens were all collected on the exact day of peak flowering. Specimens identified as \"flowering\" may have been collected when the plant first started to flower or when it had just finished flowering. In the case of short-flowering plants, the error would be small: if the collector took a sample from a plant with a one-week flowering period, for example, the collection date would 30 Figure l. Boston temperatures from 1885 to 2003 as reported by the National Oceamc and Atmosphemc Admmlstration m 2004. The top senes (diamonds) represents mean annual temperatures. The bottom semes (squares) represents mean temperatures m February, March, April, and May Boston temperatures are clearly increasmg over time. The two homzontal hnes represent the long-term mean temperatures for each semes (annual = 10.3 Fahrenheit; F = (C x 1.8J degrees centigrade or 50.5 degrees Fahrenheit; February through May + 32). = 1 6 degrees centigrade or 43 degrees Figure 2. This graph tracks changes m flowenng times of plants at the Arnold Arboretum over time: The dots mdicate the number of days plants flowered earher or later in the past than they did m 2003 calculated as the Julian date the herbamum specimen was collected subtracted from the peak Jlowenng date m 2003 Negative values indicate that a plant flowered on an earher date than it did m 2003. Note that 2003 was a relatively cool year; plants from the cool 1900 to 1920 pemod flowered about the same time that they did m 2003 In contrast, plants flowenng m the warm pemod of1980 to 2002 flowered about 8 days earlier than they did m the cool year of 2003 The Ime is the best fit Ime for the senes. 31 only 3.5 days away from the actual date of peak flowering. In the case of a plant with a 20-day flowering period, on the other hand, the amount of error would be 10 days. However, be statistical tests found no evidence of this type of bias; data were no more variable over time for long-flowering plants than for shortour specimens were collected, creating gaps in the period between 1940 and 1960 that could give disproportionate weight to certain years in our analysis. We resolved this problem by dividing the data into two subsets, one on either side of the 1940-1960 gap, and separately analyzing each subset using the same methods that were used for the entire group. In each subset, we found the same significant trend toward earlier flowering times, indicating that the irregularity in specimen collection (i.e., the gap in collection) did not affect the outcome. Given these concerns about the quality of data from herbarium specimens, our results are quite striking and show clearly that plant flowering plants. A second concern was that trends would be obscured by outlying data points resulting from plants that had flowered many weeks earlier or later in the year that they were collected for the herbarium than they did in 2003. Examples of outlying data points include a dogwood (Cornus mas) that flowered 27 days later in 1965 than in 2003 and a cherry tree (Prunus apetela) that flowered 24 days later in 1987 than in 2003. These apparent anomalies may have been caused by someone collecting the specimen at the very end or very beginning of an unusually long flowering season in those years. But again, thanks to our large sample size the few outlying data points did not have a statistically significant effect on the results. Finally, we were concerned about the uneven collection of herbarium samples: in different years, different numbers of herbarium flowering times are highly responsive to changes in average temperatures in the four months before and during flowering. (For the springflowering species we studied, we used the mean temperature for February, March, April, and May to calculate changes. See Figure 3.)In general, flowering times advance 3.9 days per one degree centigrade increase in mean spring temperature, as calculated using a statistical technique known as multiple regression that considers the flowering time of plants in warm years and cold years. This rate falls within the Figure 3 This graph demonstrates changes m flowering times of plants at the Arnold Arboretum as temperatures increase, shou~ng the number of days plants flowered earher or later m the past than they did m 2003 m relation to the average temperatures m the February through May preceding flowenng. Plants flower earher m warm years, and later m cool years. Years mth many specimens the best fit lme for the senes. or with extreme temperatures are noted. The Ime is 32 findings of other published studies from the U.S. and Europe, which record flowering times occurring from two to ten days earlier for each degree centigrade of increase in temperature. Since Boston's temperatures in February through May have warmed approximately 1.5 degrees centigrade over the past hundred years, the recorded temperature increase can account for nearly six (5.85) of the eight days that flowering time has advanced over the past hundred years. Factors other than the temperature increase recorded at the Boston weather station must account for the other three days of increase. These other factors might include temperatures during other months of the year or other climatic variables such as rainfall and humidity. Local conditions within and around the Arboretum may also be affecting flowering times. Construction of roads and buildings on adjacent land, for example, may have led to a very localized mcrease in temperature that was not registered at the Boston weather station. Finally, if plants were flowering over a longer period as they increased in size and age and were consistently collected for the herbarium at the beginning of their flowering periods-while our baseline observations in 2003 were made at peak flowering-there could be a false trend toward earlier flowering over time. Further investigations are needed in order to determine the relative importance of these factors. range of tip of Newfoundland, and Cape Cod in Massachusetts. If information on flowering times from one of these locations could be gathered into one data set, an analysis could assess the responses of native species to local climate change and improve our capacity to predict the effects of future climate change on biological communities. We believe that many data sets of this sort could be assembled from around the world, covering the last one hundred to one hundred fifty years. Botanical gardens are an especially promising source for these dispersed specimens. We hope that our own study will contribute to the ongoing discussion of global climate change and encourage others to take advantage of this novel methodology of documenting biological response to climate change. ern For Further Reading on Climate Change species. Jensen, M. N. 2004. Chmate warmmg shakes up BioScience 54\/8\/: 722-729. Ledneva, A., A. J. Miller-Rushing, R. B. Pnmack, and C Imbres. Climate change as reflected in a naturalist's diary, Middleborough, Massachusetts. Wilson (Ormthological SocietyJ conservation: Bulletm, Miller-Rushmg, change and plant conservation in press. A. J., and R. B. Pnmack. 2004. Climate plant strategies need to anticipate climate change. Plant Talk 35: 34-38. A globally coherent of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature 421: 37-42. Pnmack, D., C. Imbres, R. B. Pnmack, A. J. MillerRushing, and P Del Tredici. 2004. Herbarium specimens demonstrate earher flowenng time Parmesan, C , and G. Yohe. 2003. fingerprint WHERE WE GO FROM HERE We have shown that herbarium collections ~ in response to warming m Boston. Amencan and data collected by botanical gardens can be used to measure the effects of climate change on phenological events, and we know that many large collections of herbarium specimens exist at other institutions. Even more collections probably exist in dispersed form as samples collected at different times by many individuals from a single location and now held at multiple storage sites. In the past, biologists have collected intensively in places with unusual concentrations of endemic or rare Journal of Botany 91: 1260-1264. Pnmack, R. 2003. The special role of historical plant records m monitoring the impact of climate C. Root, T. 5 change. Arnoldia 62(3): 12-15 L., J. T. Price, K. R. Hall, S. H. Schneider, Rosenzweig, and J. A. Pounds 2003. Fingerprints of global warmmg on wild animals and Nature 421:57-60. plants. Walther, G., E. Post, P. Convey, A. Menzel, C. Parmesan, T. J. C. Beebee, J. Fromentm, O. Hoegh-Guldberg, and F. Bairlein. 2002. Ecological responses recent climate change. Nature 41G: 389-395. to species, especially mountain peaks, islands, swamps, lake shores, and dunes; examples include the top of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, the Florida Everglades, the north- Abe Miller-Rushing, Dan Primack, Richard Pnmack, and Carolyn Imbres are all at Boston University. Peter Del Tredici is a senior research scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Finding a Replacement for the Eastern Hemlock: Research at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25384","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eaf28.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter; Kitajima, Alice","article_content":"Finding a Replacement for the Eastern Hemlock: Research at the Arnold Arboretum Peter Del Tredici and Alice Kitajima he hemlock woolly adelgid is an introduced insect from Asia that was first (Adelges HWA) ous tsugae, hereafter discovered feeding on eastern (or Canadian) hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) in Virginia in the 1950s.1 It did not become a seriproblem on the East Coast until the 1980s, when it started killing entire populations of both wild and cultivated trees in the mid-Atlantic region. HWA is now well established in the eastern portion of the range of eastern hemlock, from south to New Hampshire North Carolina,z as well as in most of the range of Carolina hemlock (T. caroliniana). While considerable research has been directed toward developing chemical and biological controls for HWA on eastern and Carolina hemlock,3relatively little work has been done to determine the resistance of other hemlock species. In one experiment, McClure' found that one Japanese species, T. nese diversifolia (northern Japahemlock), and two species western from North America, T. This specimen heterophvlla and T. mertensiana (western hemlock and mountain hemlock) showed more resistance to of Tsuga chinensis in HWA than Carolina and Province, Chma 1910 It Is now was collected by E. H Wilson m Hubei growmg at the Arnold Arboretum. east- hemlock when all tive species were cultivated outdoors in Connecticut for one year. Subsequent fieldwork on native hemlock populations in Asia has shown that HWA occurs ern only infrequently in natural populations of T diversifolia and T. sieboldii in Japan~ and in a subspecies of T. chinensis (Chinese hemlock), in China.b These results have been attributed to 34 combination of host resistance and the presof natural predators. Bentz et al.' reported that cultivated specimens of northern Japanese hemlock and Chinese hemlock growing in close proximity to infected eastern hemlock in Washington, D.C., and in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, showed strong resistance to HWA over an eight-year period of exposure, while a a ence second Japanese species, T. sieboldil (southern Japanese hemlock), showed variable levels of damage. The existing literature on HWA resistance of various hemlock species is summarized in Table 1. At the Arnold Arboretum we have been studying the Chinese hemlock as a possible replacement for eastern hemlock in landscape settings. at Table 1. Comparison of the environmental tolerance factors of various Tsuga species cultivated the Arnold Arboretum. Table 2. This hst of Tsuga chinensis accessions received by Arnold Arboretum and ongmatmg m Chma between 1901 and 2002 documents the Arboretum's persistence m mtroducmg specimens from diverse parts of T. chmensis's native range. See text for details. 35 project has focused on three primary goals: reconstructing the history of the introduction of Chinese hemlock into cultivation in North America; documenting its resistance to HWA; and delineating its environmental tolerances. CHINESE HEMLOCK IN CULTIVATION IN NORTH AMERICA Our ten-year research 'Excellent or outstandmg specimen, good healthy specimen, no evidence of disease physical damage, fair specimen in decline, evidence of disease or physical damage, poor spectmen m poor condtuon, more dead branches than Itvtng = = = = Chinese hemlock is widely distributed at elevations between 3,282 and 11,487 feet (1,000 and 3,500 m) in mountainous regions of eastern, central, and southwestern China.8 E. H. Wilson is credited with introducing the species into cultivation in North America with seed he collected in Xing Shan, Hubei Province (collection #952), in October 1901, while working Table 3. Changes m the condition ratmgs of the 1,905 eastern hemlocks (i.e., those mth dbh's greater than 2 mches (5 cm~J growmg on Hemlock Hill at the Arnold Arboretum between 1998 and 2002 Plant condition was rated both years by the same staff members. collected and distributed seeds from wild populations growing at altitudes between 3,282 and 8,697 feet (1,000 and 2,650 m) m the provinces of Sichuan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Fu~ian, Zhejiang, and Yunnan (Table 2). ). THE ARBORETUM'S RESEARCH for the Veitch Nursery Company of Chelsea, England.9 Despite this early introduction, Chinese hemlock remains poorly represented in North American botanical gardens. One of the very few specimens of known provenance was collected by Wilson as a seedling in Fang Xian, Hubei Province, China, in September 1910. He sent it to the Arnold Arboretum, where it arrived in February 1911.' As of the winter of 2004, Wilson's tree was growing under accession #17569 and was 49.2 feet (15 m) in height with a diameter at breast height of 14.4 inches (37 cm) and a branch spread of 39.4 feet (12 m). It showed no sign of HWA infestation. Over the years, the Arboretum's staff has propagated both seedlings and cuttings from the Wilson tree and distributed them to various botanical gardens and nurseries throughout the United States; records show at least sixteen separate distributions involving twenty-eight plants between 1915 and 1945. Many of the older Chinese hemlocks now growing in botanical collections in the United States are direct descendants of Wilson's Hubei seedling. Apart from Wilson's collections in 1901 and 1911, wild-collected germplasm of Chinese hemlock appears not to have entered North America again until 1979 and 1980, when visiting delegations of Chinese botanists presented their hosts with seed from the Chinese Academy of Forestry. Since then, numerous American and European expeditions to China have PROJECT The north-facing slope called Hemlock Hill approximately 22 acres (10 ha) covered with a nearly pure stand of eastern hemconsists of lock. Bedrock is close to the surface on much of the hill, and the soils that overlay it are well drained but poor in nutrients. When HWA was first discovered there in April of 1997, the hemlock population numbered 1,905 individuals with diameters at breast height greater than two inches (five cm). Smce then the pest has spread rapidly. The entire population was labeled, mapped, and qualitatively assessed for condition and HWA damage during the winter of 1997-1998. The trees along the base of Hemlock Hill have been sprayed annually in the fall with dormant oil since 1997, which has effectively protected them from HWA, but those in the out-of-reach interior portions have been left untreated and are now m a serious state of decline. By the winter of 2002-2003, when the entire population was recensused, 263 trees had been removed (all were either dead or nearly dead), and those remaining had lost foliage and were in poor health.\" Table 3 shows the dramatic decline in the hemlocks' condition that occurred between 1998 and 2002 as a result of the HWA infestation. For our study of Chinese hemlock's resistance to HWA, we used seedlings that were raised from a seed lot purchased in February 36 'Based on samples of 12 shoots per tree Table 4 Performance of Tsuga chinensis versus T. canadensls m the Arnold Arboretum study. 1994 and known to have been collected in China in the wild (AA accession #100-94\/. After a three-month period of cold stratification, seed was sown m a warm greenhouse. In April 1999, when the five-year-old seedlings were between 23.4 and 42.9 inches (60 and 110 cm) tall, we planted 42 of them in scattered light gaps of the interior portions of Hemlock Hill, in groups of three to six individuals. The canopy for all the seedlings consisted of eastern hemlocks that were badly infected with HWA. At the same time, we established a control group by tagging 33 seedlings of eastern hemlock that were growing spontaneously on the north-facing slope of Hemlock Hill, adjacent to the newly planted Chinese hemlocks. Unlike the majority (68 percent) of the Chinese hemlock seedlings, which were growing in light gaps with at least some direct sunlight during the day, the majority of eastern hemlock seedlings (94 percent) were in understory positions that received no direct sunlight at all. Four years later, on June 25 and 26, 2003, we evaluated the growth and extent of HWA infestation of the control group and of 38 of the 42 Chinese hemlocks that had been planted in 1999. By this time the Chinese hemlock seedlings had had four years of exposure to HWA and the eastern hemlock seedlings six years. We measured the heights of all the seedlings in both groups and rated their canopy positions as \"sun\" (growing in a large canopy gap with moderate amounts of direct sun), \"gap\" (growing in a small canopy gap with minimal amounts of direct sun), or \"shade\" (growing in complete shade). To assess the level of HWA infestation, we selected at random two branches on opposite sides of each tree, taking for evaluation the on each branch (consisting from both 2002 and 2003). The folgrowth lowing was then recorded for all the shoots: (1)shoot length to the nearest millimeter; (2) the number of HWA egg sacs found on the undersides of the 2002 shoots; (3) the presence or absence of new (2003) growth; and (4) the presence or absence of spider mite damage, assessed by looking for the characteristic leaf stippling on the upper sides of the 2002 shoots. 12 The 38 Chinese hemlock seedlings were recensused on March 9, 2004, to obtain final height measurements for the 2003 growing season and to learn how many had survived after an unusually cold winter that saw the temperature at the Arboretum reaching a low of -8.5 degrees Fahrenheit (-22.5 degrees centigrade) six topmost shoots of on January 16. RESULTS OF THE STUDY Results of the study are summarized in Table 4. The most dramatic finding was the total absence of HWA egg sacs on all of the 38 Chinese hemlock seedlings, in contrast to a mean of 45.9 egg sacs per 12-shoot sample for eastern hemlock. Another indicator of Chinese hemlock's resistance to HWA was found in the measurement of new growth: 100 percent of the terminal buds on the sampled shoots of Chinese hemlock had produced new growth in 2003, compared with only 45 percent for eastern hemlock. Finally, the mean shoot length for Chinese hemlock was 4 inches (10.3 cm), more than twice the 1.9 inches (4.9 cm) recorded for eastern hemlock. These results clearly show that Chinese hemlock possesses a high degree of resistance to HWA when growing in conditions that are optimal for infestation of eastern hemlock. 37 , ~~ --- Hemlock Hill as photographed m 1905 by T. E. Marr 38 One of the Tsuga chinensis seedlings (AA #100-94) growmg m the Arnold Arboretum, photographed in summer 2003. a canopy gap on Hemlock Hill at 39 The remeasurement of the 38 Chinese hemlocks on March 9, 2004, showed them to be 17 7 taller than they had been the previous percent summer when their shoot tips were drooping, with an average height of 77.1 inches (197.8 cm) within a range of 57.3 to 96.9 inches (147.1 to 248.5 cm). The seedlings had averaged between 31.2 and 35.1 inches (80 and 90 cm) in height when they were planted out in April 1999; their average growth over four growing seasons was therefore more than a meter. This is a remarkable figure, considering the stressful conditions on Hemlock Hill and the minimal aftercare the plants received. It should also be noted that the plants showed very little winter damage at the time of the March resurvey, despite the low temperatures recorded in January 2004. These results show that Chinese hemlock is fully hardy in USDA Zone 6 and is a suitable replacement for eastern hemlock in landscape situations thanks to its relatively rapid growth rate, its tolerance of shade, and its resistance to HWA. Endnotes ' R. J. Gouger. 1971. Control of Adelges tsugae hemlock m Pennsylvania. Sci Tree Topics 3 1-9. on 6 M. E. Montgomery, D. Yao, and H. Wang. 2000. Chmese Coccinellidae for biological control of the hemlock woolly adelgid: Description of native habitat, pp 97-02. In K. A. McManus et al. 1999. S. E. Bentz, L. G. H. Riedel, M. R. Pooler, and A. M. Townsend. 2002. Hybndization and self-compatibillty m controlled pollinations of eastern North American and Asian hemlock (Tsuga) species. Journal of Arbonculture 28~4\/: 200-205. ' Z.-Y. Wu and P. H. Raven, eds. 1999. Flora of Chma, Vol. 4. Science Press, Beyng, Chma, and Missouri Botamcal Garden Press, St. Louis, MO. 9 C. S. Sargent, ed. 1913-1917. Plantae Wilsonianae An Enumeration of the Woody Plants Collected m Western Chma for the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University During the Years 1907, 1908, and 1910 by E H. Wilson Cambndge University Press, Cambndge, MA; A. Rehder. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, 2nd ed. Macmillan, New York, NY; K. S. Clausen and S. Y. Hu. 1980. Mappmg the collectmg localities of E. H. Wilson m Chma. Arnoldia 40~3\/: 139-145, R. A. Howard. 1980. E. H. Wilson as a botamst (part I). Arnoldia 40\/3\/: 102-138. ~ ' Sargent 1913-1917, 3:446; Howard 1980 \" P. Del Tredici, T. Akin, J. Coop, J. DelRosso, R. Ervm, S. Kelley, A. Kitayma, J. Papargirls, and K. Port. 2003. Proposed Hemlock Hill Management Plant. Arnold Arboretum Living Collections Department, internal report. Jamaica Plain, MA. *. 2 M. S. McClure. 1990. Role of wind, birds, deer, and humans m the dispersal of hemlock woolly adelgid (Homoptera: Adelgidae). Environ Entomol 20: 258264, D. A. Ormg, D. R. Foster, and D. L. Mausel. 2002. Landscape patterns of hemlock decline m New England due to the mtroduced hemlock woolly adelgid. Journal of Biogeography 29:1475-1488. 3 McClure. 1995. Managing hemlock woolly adelgid in ornamental landscapes. Bulletm of the Connecticut Agnculture Experiment Station # 925. New Haven, CT; McClure, C. A. Cheah, and T. C. Tigner. 2000. Is Pseudoscymnus tsugae the solution to the hemlock woolly adelgid problem? An early perspective, pp 89-96. In K. A. McManus, K. S. Shields, and D. R. Souto, eds. Proceedmgs. Symposmm on Sustamable Management of Hemlock Ecosystems in Eastern North America, 22-24 June 1999, Durham, NH. GTRNE-267. USDA Forest Service, Northeastern Research 'z Montgomery. 2003. Research scientist, USDA Forest Service, Camden, CT. Personal communication. M. E. Acknowledgments The authors would hke to thank Arnold Arboretum staff members Tom Akm, Julie Coop, John DelRosso, Bob Ermn, Susan Kelley, Jim Papargms, and Kyle Port, whose work on the Hemlock Hill project made this study possible; Mike Montgomery of the USDA Forest Service, Northeast Region, for providing details on protocols for countmg HWA; and Nathan Havill for his helpful comments on a draft of the manuscript. Peter Del Tredici is a senior research scientist at the Arnold Arboretum. Ahce Kityama now coordinates plant records at Descanso Gardens in La Canada Flintndge, Cahforma. This article is adapted from \"Introduction and Cultivation of Chinese Hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) and Its Resistance to Hemlock Woolly Adelgid (Adelges tsugae),\" published in Journal of Arbonculture (2004) 30~5\/: 282-287. Station, Newtown Square, PA. ' McClure. 1992. Hemlock woolly adelgid. American Nurseryman 175\/6\/: 82-89. 5 McClure et al. 2000. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 2003","article_sequence":6,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25383","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24eab6f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"40 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 2003 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 60 40 50 52.59 inches 80.2 inches Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost 99 -6 32 29 on on June 27 and 28 February May 18 14 on on October 20 . Growing Season 163 days Note: Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 2003 was quite sunny although colder than normal with above-normal levels of precipitation. The temperature averaged 50.2 degrees Fahrenheit for the year, 1.4 degrees below normal. This was 2.7 degrees colder then 2002 and the coldest year since 1992. The total precipitation of 52.59 mches was 9.76 inches above normal, which is 42.53 mches a year. Our snowfall total of 80.2 mches was 38.2 inches more than the past average of 42 mches. The snowiest month was February with a record-breaking storm that came on the 17th and 18th and dropped 27.6 mches. The coldest month was January when the state recorded 308 hours of continuous temperatures below freezing. Nonetheless, the growing season at the Arnold Arboretum was a very good one. Cooler summer temperatures and consistent levels of precipitation allowed the plants to put on above-average amounts of new growth. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23512","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070a328.jpg","title":"2004-63-2","volume":63,"issue_number":2,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Using Arboreta to Teach Biological Concepts","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25382","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ea76b.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Levy, Foster; McDowell, Tim","article_content":"Using Arboreta to Teach Biological Concepts Foster . ~- Levy and Tim McDowell ver fifty universities, colleges, and comt munity colleges are listed among the of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta; an internet search uncovers many more campus arboreta, whether planted in discrete areas or dispersed throughout the campus. Biology teachers commonly use their arboreta for instruction in tree identification or to provide live material for studying plant morphology. In general, members however, the myriad examples of evolutionary and horticultural diversity in these arboreta remain an underutilized resource. At East Tennessee State University we have successfully used arboretum-based activities to illustrate such biological fundamentals as species concepts, phylogenetic biogeography (the use of evolutionary relationships to infer the origin of current distribution patterns), and mutational genetic variation. The three Above is Magnolia x soulangiana `Alexandrma', M. denudata, of many crosses between M. denudata and M. lililflora. and M. hlmflora. The cultmar `Alexandnna' is just one 3 Aesculus hippocastanum, A. x carnea, and A. pavia. ern exercises described below should be of interest not one European horse chestnut (A. hippocasta- only to biology teachers but also to any- whose interest in trees goes identifying and admiring them. Exercise 1: What Makes a beyond simply Unlike animal mon, Hybrid? hybrids, plant hybrids numJ, is clearly a more showy and versatile landscape tree than either of its parent species, mtermediate in size between them, and displaying a pink flower color that blends the deep scarlet and creamy white of the parents. Unlike most interspecific hybrids, individuals of A. x carnea are fertile, the result of a chromosome-' doubling event in the hybrid lineage that permits all chromosomes to pair with its homolog and thereby complete the meiotic cell division that precedes gamete formation.3(Most hybrids have single chromosomes and are therefore unable to reproduce.)( Buckeyes and horse chestnuts are particularly useful examples for classroom study because the identities of the parents as well as the hybrids can be deduced from bud and twig characters; this frees the teaching module from seasonal dependence and eliminates the need for mature specimens, although when present, flowers and fruits provide a wealth of additional evidence for the hybrid origin of the red horse chestnut. Another advantage is that both the red horse chestnut and one of its parents, the red buckeye, flower and fruit when small and relatively young (three to six years of age); and although sterile and therefore fruitless, the other parent, the double-flowered horse chestnut cultivar (A. hippocastanum cv. 'Baumanii'), may also flower when very small. At the beginning of the exercise, students receive basic instruction in the morphology of are com- they are often vigorous and sometimes fertile as well. Hybridization occurs both naturally, where species' ranges overlap,' and artificially, when plant breeders conduct crosses in hopes of combining the desirable characteristics of two or more lineages in a single plant. The highly popular saucer magnolia (Magnolia x soulangiana), for example, combines the early flowering characters of the Yulan magnolia (Magnolia denudata) with the purple flower color of the lily magnolia (Magnolia liln flora). Other examples of parents and hybrids that thrive in a moist, temperate climate are listed in Table 1. To demonstrate that species can maintain the capacity to interbreed even when their current ranges are widely separated and their morphological features have diverged widely, we use members of the genus Aesculus (buckeyes and horse chestnuts). In the southeastern United States, hybrids in this genus occur naturally in regions where ranges overlap,zand hybrids generated by controlled crosses have produced many horticulturally useful forms. The red horse chestnut (A. x carnea), a hybrid of the American red buckeye (A. pavia) and the east- 4 Branches with termmal buds and leaf scars of horse chestnut (left), red horse chestnut (center), and red buckeye (right). Note parental differences and hybnd intermediacy m bud size, bud-scale coloration, bud stickmess, leaf-scar shape, and tmg diameter flowering plants-leaf types, bud and flower structures-with particular emphasis on the characteristics that delineate the genus Aesculus: opposite, palmately compound leaves; large, scaly terminal buds; flower or fruit charTable1. acters, if present. They are then shown four tree specimens and told that two are parent species A, one is parent species B, and one is a hybrid of A and B. (We use two rather than one representative of one species to illustrate the relative constancy of distinguishing characters.) Working in small groups, students learn to distinguish the parent species from the hybrid by looking for the intermediacy between parental features that most hybrids show. Each group then constructs a taxon\/character matrix for use in discussing their conclusions with the entire class. The taxon\/character matrix in Table 2 highlights some of the easily observable differences among the three taxa of Aesculus. When leaves and\/or flowers are available, we also teach the students how to determine whether the fertile hybrid species A. x carnea is a polyploid-that is, whether it has more than two copies of each of its chromosomes. A high proportion of species of modern flowering plants owe their origin to hybridization Examples of parent-hybrid combinations suitable for planting in USDA zones 5-8. 5 Table 2. buckeye Comparison of traits in the hybrid red horse chestnut and its parents, the American red and the European horse chestnut. Red Buckeye Red Horse Chestnut Horse Chestnut (A. pamaJ (A x carnea) (A. hippocastanum) followed by polyploidization to restore fertility. Polyploid plant species often have significantly larger stomata and pollen grains than their diploid relatives. Indeed, some polyploid species have been shown to have stomata that are more than fifty percent wider in diameter than those of their diploid relatives,4 but no comparisons have been reported for A. x carnea and its parents. To investigate the question, students prepare a section of the lower leaf epidermis from each parent species (both diploids) and from the hybrid, A. x carnea (a tetraploid, which has four sets of chromosomes); then, using a simple eyepiece scale bar on a compound microscope at 100 to 400x stomate magnification, they measure diameters for each taxon's leaves and compare averages. If flowers are available, they measure pollen sizes in the same way after preparing wet mounts of pollen. Compared to related diploid species, pollen of polyploids is often twenty percent wider in diameter.s A survey of pollen in the horse chestnut family (Hippocastanaceae) reported slightly larger polii.W diameters (three to ti,W percent greater) for the polyploid A. x carnea compared to the larg_..\".._ c...._... i.jt Yvm.m ~.. ,.mvm yniim e 4~\"... ~\"~ \"~ ,. um. form of many species in addition to artificially generated horticultural selections of the same species. We give our students a map showing the locations of several forms of a species and ask them to document the traits that distinguish them from each other. An example is the sawara false cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera), a large species (more than 65 feet, or 20 meters, tall) native to Japan that is now common in our cultivated landscapes. In the typical form, needles are scale-like, pointed, and arranged in flat green sprays. In contrast, the cultivars C. pisifera cv. 'Plumosa' and C. pisifera cv. 'Squarrosa'-both large trees-have softer and more pointed leaves, respectively. The 'Boulevard' cultivar (C. pisifera cv. 'Cyano-viridis') is a small tree (10 to 30 feet, or 3 to 10 meters, tall) whose needles are soft and bluish. Smaller, \"bun-shaped\" selections, some with variegated foliage, are often grown in dwarf conifer gardens or used as foundation plantings. This series of species and cultivars allows students to observe mutant forms that encompass wide variations t ' rt n~ texture,and in leaf coloration, positioning, and textore nn iv.af rr'ivrativn a range in height from tall through smaller to '~ rari.Wm o~rCi.iCo. nv4vnrrw VAW a: 11a: ~wrnr~~-\"~rY vxYYUW i b. Morphological Variation Within Species Although biology curricula emphasize the principle that natural selection shapes populations by acting on variations arising from mutations, examples of actual mutations in multicellular living organisms are seldom provided in Exercise 2: a After surveying and describing the variations, the students construct a hypothesis to explain their rarity in natural populations. One hypothesis might be that selection acts against dwarfs or plants that are deficient in chlorophyll (as evidenced by their lighter-colored foliage). Chlorophyll is crucial to survival because it mediates the conversion of the sun's energy into the classroom. Students therefore have little opportunity to assess the range of morphological variations that exists within a single species. In contrast to biologists, horticulturists actively seek out and propagate naturally occurring, rare variants, using selective breeding to develop more extreme forms. An exercise that bridges the intellectual divide separating the disciplines of horticulture and biology can help students develop an appreciation for the range of observable variation and at the same time introduce them to two other topics in evolutionary and systematic biology: character correlations and evolutionary parallelisms. The arboretum on our campus, like most, includes specimens of the typical (\"natural\") plant sugars. are Next, with their lists of characteristic traits in hand, students seem asked to judge which traits correlated, as opposed to occurring independently. In the Chamaecyparis examples, we look for relationships between pairs of observed variant characteristics, i.e., between to be color and texture, between color and size, and between size and texture. It is well known that correlations among characters can act as a constraint on evolution, but students are seldom given firsthand views of these correlations .' In Chamaecyparis and other taxa, leaf variegation is often correlated with small stature. The reduction in chlorophyll (evidenced by the white\/yellow leaf coloration) limits the plant's 7 photosynthetic capacity and growth potential. Hence, strongly variegated individuals are usually small plants. In another variation of this exercise, each student group analyzes a different species group to address the question of whether similar variations occur in unrelated species. If so, the reason may be evolutionary parallehsmvariations caused by parallel, but independent, mutations in different species. Once again, leaf variegation provides an instructive example. The variegated phenotype (outward appearance) can be caused by mutations in several different genes. These mutations are not uncommon and they are found throughout the world of green plants, in ferns, gymnosperms, monocots, and dicots. Within the angiosperms, the genus Ilex (the hollies) is a good source of examples of intraspecific variation. Ilex cultivars present a fantastic array of remarkable traits selected by horti- culturists. Variegated leaf forms display contrasting patterns of yellow, white, and green. Leaf spines may be totally absent, or few and marginal, or abundant on margins and extending into the middle of the leaf. The varied and distinctive growth habits within Ilex include narrow columnar forms, contorted forms, and extreme dwarf forms. Besides demonstrating a broad range of mutational variations, the hollies provide lessons on floral and reproductive biology. Because most hollies are dioecious (unisexual), most cultivars are also either female (having berries) or male (bearing pollen). At the ETSU Arboretum we have planted dozens of cultivars of dwarf evergreen hollies together with our dwarf conifers, providing a tremendous diversity of forms within a small outdoor space. It is not difficult to develop a small collection of intraspecific forms. Nurseries now carry dozens of cultivars of sawara false cypress, of position relat1ve Leaf variation in cultivars of the sawara false cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera). Note differences in leaf size, density, to the trnng, disposition around the tmg, and flexibihtv. A frmtmg cone appears above 'Plumosa'. '. 'Plumosa' 'Squarrosa' tall 'Cyanoviridis' medium sparse 'Green Snow' 'Minima' Height Leaf Density Leaf Position tall (>20 m) (> 20 m) (< 10 m) short dense (<6 m\/ dwarf sparse (< 1 m) very dense very sparse appressed short firm green Leaf Length spreading long stiff spreading long soft blue tips spreading short firm green spreading medium Leaf Texture Leaf Color stiff blue-gray blue Ranges of the Amemcan and Chmese tulip poplars. Japanese cryptomeria (Cryptomeria japonica), and of the evergreen American and European (Ilex opaca and 1. aquifolium). Evergreen species are useful in allowing these exercises to be conducted throughout the year, but hollies common deciduous species be added to demonstrate the highly diverse may horticultural variants of flowering dogwoods, red maples, and crabapples. At the Arnold Arboretum, plantings of wild and cultivated forms of Cercis canadensis (redbud) will help fulfill the educational goals of the Leventritt Garden. representatives of Exercise 3: Biogeography of Asian-American Disjunct Distributions The evolution of new species has often resulted from extreme climate change or geological processes like continental drift. The extraordinarily broad spans involved in space and time are difficult to grasp, but clear evidence of these remote processes exists in 16 to 65 million years ago. The distribution of temperate deciduous forests reflects several dramatic changes that occurred in subsequent periods. Climatic shifts diminished the range of suitable habitat, and glaciations caused species migrations and extinctions. Most important for understanding the relationships between the floras of East Asia and eastern North America, however, were changes in sea level that severed intercontinental links. At the ETSU Arboretum, we have several side-by-side plantings of sister species that illustrate the results of this history, as does the Arnold Arboretum's Leventritt Garden.9 Students in our classes study the morphology of live specimens of these species and then con- ing the Tertiary, present-day geographically separated pairs of related plant species. A hands-on view of these pairs, known as \"vicariants,\" provides vivid proof that species inhabiting different continents may be closer relatives than species of the same genus that live near one another. The closely related floras of eastern North America and East Asia comprise one of the most thoroughly documented examples of vicariant species. The disjunct distribution of these evolutionary \"sister species\" has fascinated botanists for over 250 years.8 A continuous temperate flora is believed to have covered much of North America, Europe, and Asia dur- a phylogenetic tree-a diagram showing evolutionary relationships among the species. Our investigation of intercontinental disjuncts begins with a discussion of the two species in the Liriodendron genus of the magnolia family, the widespread eastern American tulip poplar (L. tulipifera) and its closest relative, the Chinese tulip poplar (L. chinense), a species struct with a narrow distribution in central China. After defining the differences and similarities in the vegetative morphology of the two species, students are given a species distribution map and a phylogenetic diagram-a family tree-of the entire magnolia family to demonstrate the close evolutionary relationship of the two tulip poplars. Students then collect the morphological data needed to perform their own phylogenetic anal- 9 ysis on other pairs of disjunct species, three pairs from the genus Cornus (dogwood) and one from Nyssa (gum trees), both in the order Cornales. Each genus has representatives in both eastern Asia western flowering dogwood (C. nuttallii), and eastern North America, but Cornus also includes representatives native to western North America and Europe. Although flowering material is preferred, vegetative char- native to the Pacific states. Another sisterspecies relationship includes the eastern American alternate-leaved dogwood (C. alternifolia) and the East Asian giant dogwood (C. controversa), the only two species in the genus with such as leaf arrangement and bud scales also informative; in any case, reproductive characters of many dogwood species are on view much of the year because fruits persist from summer into winter and flowers are available acters are alternately arranged leaves. The European cornelian cherry (C. mas) and its closest relative, the Japanese cornel (C. officinalis), demonstrate the European-Asian historical connection through their similar umbellate inflorescences with four non-showy bracts and yellow flowthat appear before the leaves. Within the Nyssa, the close relationship between the widespread eastern American black gum, or tupelo (N. sylvatica), and the East Asian gum (N. sinensis) is revealed by scaly, ovoid, terminal buds; axillary flowers; and single, dark-blue, stone fruits. Students invariably uncover the sister-species relationships linking the pairs of ers in early spring. genus Within Cornus, one intercontinental grouping is made up of the big-bracted species, a group that includes the well-known flowering dogwood (C. florida) native to the eastern United States and its Chinese counterpart, the kousa dogwood (C. kousa) as well as the Phylogenetic tree (based on morphological data collected by students) showing relationships and distribution of selected species in Cornus and Nyssa. 10 big-bracted species and alternate-leaved spe- cies, cornelian cherries and gums. With their firsthand knowledge of the taxa and the phylogenetic diagrams they have drawn, students can then refer to the scientific literature, either in libraries or on the internet, and compare their diagrams to those generated by experts who analyzed both morphological and molecular characters.' This exercise not only enhances students' awareness of the morphological bases for defining species but it also demonstrates vividly the concept of descent of species from a common ancestor. Many native tree species besides those in Cornus and Nyssa demonstrate the East Asianeastern North American distribution; Table 3 lists other pairs of vicariant sister-species growing in our campus arboretum. More exhaustive lists can be found in Li and Wen.\" Examples of vicariant pairs are also available for western North America 12 and Europe. Logistics established campus arboobvious, but if none is available, these exercises can be conducted with a limThe benefits of retum are an Table 3. Examples of East Asian-eastern North American each region. disjunctions. Number of species are shown for 11 1 From left, Rhododendron `P.J.M.', R. minus ~= R. carohmana), and R. dauncum. `P.JM.' is the result of a Endnotes cross between the two species. ited number of plants, including many of small or dwarf stature that are inexpensive and can be confined to a relatively small area. A minimum of just three plants is required for the hybrid exercise, four for the variation exercise, and two or three pairs for the intercontinental disjuncts exercise. At an average of 25 dollars a plant, the entire suite can be obtained for less than 300 dollars. We recommend that plants be purchased from local nurseries to avoid shipping costs, but excellent mail order sources are available for harderto-find specimens, including Arbor Village (arborvillagellc.com), Forestfarm Nursery (www.forestfarm.com), Greer Gardens (www. greergardens.com), and Woodlanders Inc. (www.woodlanders.net). Unlike a collection of multicellular animals, a small collection of hardy woody plants needs no day-to-day care, and long-term maintenance requires only occasional mulching, fertihzing, and pruning, as well as watering during droughts. Woody plant collections are thus ideally suited for hands-on investigations into variation, hybridization, and phylogenetic descent. ~ G. L. Stebbms. 1950. Vanation and Evolution Plants. Columbia University Press, New York. in z C. W. DePamphilis and R. Wyatt. 1990. Electrophoretic confirmation of hybridization in Aesculus (Hippocastanaceae) and the genetic structure of a broad hybrid zone. Evoluuon 44: 1295-1317. 3 M. Upcott. 1936. The parents and progeny of Aesculus x carnea. Journal of Genetics 33: 135-149 4M. K. Mishra. 1997 Stomatal characteristics at different ploidy levels in Coffea L. Annals of Botany 80: 689-692; B.-Y. Sun, T. J. Kim, and C. H. Kim. 1997. A biosystematic study on ploidy populations of the genus Spmea (Rosaceae). Korean Journal of Plant Biology 40:291-297. 5 M. Chaturvedi, K. Datta, and M Pal. 1999. Pollen anomaly: A clue to natural hybmdity in Agremone (Papaveraceae). Grana 38: 339-342; M. Yayma et al. 2003. Comparison of pollen characteristics, meiotic division and chromosome pairing between diploid and tetraploid Shinano walnut (Juglans regia L. cv. 'Mitsuru'). Journal of the Japanese Society for Horticultural Science 72: 134-140. 6 Kim, F. A. Aravanopoulos, and L. Zsuffa 1997. A contribution to the pollen morphology of Hippocastanaceae. Journal of the Korean Forestry Society 86: 251-258. K.-H. 12 .m....,... a.........,....~,... \"f.W . , y ..,a...av,..~~. ~.~ `Chapel Hill', between ' M. them.~ m.~ ~, , m..r....a~. m iy ..., ..u mw my ~mu, L. ,,uaarw.acu m,auam.aaav, Lynch and B. Walsh. 1998. Genetics and Analysis of Quantitatme Traits Smauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, MA. North America, m P. C. Holt (ed.), The Dzstnbutional History of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians, Part II: Flora. Virginia Polytechmc Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA. ~ H.-L. Li. 1952. Florrstrc relationships between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Transactions of the Amencan Philosophical Society 42: 371-429. 9 Acknowledgments We thank the Tennessee Department of Agriculture Urban P. Del Tredici et al. 2003. Sun-loving shrubs and vines for the Leventritt Garden. Arnoldia 62 (2): 20-26. Forestry Program and the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust for financial support, the U.S. National Arboretum, the J. C. Raulston Arboretum, Highland Creek Nursery and Holly Haven Nursery for donations of plants, and E. S. Walker for helpful comments on the manuscript. 'o Q._y. Xiang, and P. S Soltis. 1998. of Cornaceae and close relatives inferred from matK and rbcL sequences. Amemcan Journal of Botany 85 285-297; C. Fan and Q.-Y. Xiang. 2001 Phylogenetic relationships within Cornus (Cornaceae) based on 26S rDNA sequences. D. E. Soltis, Phylogenetic relationships American Journal of Botany 88:1131-1138. Foster Levy, Ph.D., a population geneticist, and Tim McDowell, Ph.D., a plant systematist, are both associate professors in the Department of Biological Sciences at \" H.-L. Li. 1952; J. Wen. 1999. Evolution of eastern Asia and eastern North America disjunct distributions m flowering plants. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematlcs 30: 421-455. '2 C. E. Wood, Jr. 1970. Some floristic relationships and western between the southern Appalachians Umversity. Dr. Levy's research has exammed the genetic basis of hybrid stemhty among species of Phaceha (Hydrophylaceae) Dr. McDowell has studied relationships among New World species of Exostema (Rubiaceae). They co-founded the ETSU Arboretum, making particular use of their southern Appalachian Mountam climate to emphasize elements of the East Asian and eastern North American floras. East Tennessee State "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Favor of Trees (1994)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25379","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ea328.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jackson, John Brinckerhoff","article_content":"IN FAVOR OF TREES john Brinckerhoff jackson LIKE millions of other Americans I have no great liking for wilderness and forest, but like the majority of Americans I am fond of trees: individual trees, rows along the street or in orchards, trees in parks. I continue to plant them when and where I can-to such an extent that when their leaves start to fall I look forward to many months of raking and transplanting in preparation for the spring. The value of trees is not only that they can be beautiful and that they give us shade and privacy and coolness in the summer; they also demand our attention and care. We are constantly interacting with trees: some of them give us fruit, others give us firewood, and all have to be thought about and even worried about when we consider the future. In brief, trees give us a sense of responsibility and sometimes a kind of parental pride; each domesticated tree calls for an individual response, a response far richer, far more rewarding than a strictly passive-aesthetic or ecological-response to the forest. What geographers call the Atlantic landscape stretches across northwestern Europe-England, France, the Lowlands, Germany, and Scandinavia; and in the course of the last three centuries it has been transplanted to Canada and the United States. It can be thought of as the gradual creation of those Indo-European migrants who came out of Asia some seven thousand years ago with their livestock and who eventually occupied all of Europe. In addition to the Atlantic landscape north of the Alps, they also produced the Mediterranean landscape-equally varied and beautiful, but adjusted to a mountainous terrain, hot dry summers, and no great abundance of moisture. By contrast, the Atlantic landscape-both in America and in the Old World-is characterized by a green, rolling topography with many rivers and plenty of rainfall. Mexico has a version of the Mediterranean countryside, and so have parts of New Mexico and California. Century after century the early Indo-Europeans wandered from the Ukraine to Greece and Norway and even Ireland. When they occasionally settled down, their livestock grazed in the surrounding forests and grasslands, and families raised small crops of wheat or rye or barley. They brought with them out of Asia certain fruit trees. Alma-Ata, the capital of Kazakhstan, means \"father of apples,\" for the mountains in that part of Central Asia once contained immense forests of nothing but apple trees, as well as forests of pear trees and apricot trees. Those fruit trees, as well as certain nut trees, were greatly prized by the migrants, for trees in The author's pastels, seen on pages IS and 16, are used by courtesy of Helen Horowitz The essay is reprmted by permission of Yale University Press from A Sense of Place, A Sense of Time, published and copymghted m 1994. 14 they provided sugar and oil, as well as calories, and when planted (or transplanted) they symbolized the permanent home and family. The forest was, of course, the dominant element in that prehistoric landscapeeven the landscape of what we used to call the Dark Ages: the period between the fall of Rome in the fifth century A.D. and the Norman Conquest of England six hundred years later. It was a frightening and inhospitable place, extending from Poland on the east all the way (with numerous breaks, to be sure) to Holland-which, paradoxically enough, means \"land of woods.\" We hear much about the density and extent of the Amazonian rainforest, but one of the largest and most impenetrable forests in the world is in northern Russia, of which it is said no one knows what fear is who has not been within its dark and tangled precincts. Nowhere was the early forest looked upon with anything but awe. Legend depicted it as the habitat of giants and elves and mythical creatures, a refuge for outlaws and dangerous spirits; and some of that legend persists in familiar fairy tales. Nevertheless, the forest played an important role in peasant economy. It provided firewood, wood for building, and a variety of herbs and wild fruits; cattle from the village grazed in the grass-grown clearings, and under the many oak trees herds of pigs ate acorns and mast. Cultivation in the forest was forbidden, and the small stockman, the small farmer was largely dependent on the garden, the common grazing land, and on the trees planted by the family or the village. One of the attractive features of the Atlantic landscape in the Middle Ages was its popular culture based on wood: the planting and care of trees which produced fruit or provided material for a great number of crafts. The forest still contained _ much oak, the most prestigious of trees; but the open landscape, the landscape of fields and meadows and houses and gardens, contained an increasing variety of fruit trees imported from elsewhere; trees whose wood could be used for household needs and for wagons and plows; trees which, because of their everyday importance, eventually acquired symbolic value. In the book Sylva, the seventeenth-century Englishman John Evelyn mentions an old German law which stipulated that \"a young farmer must produce a certificate of his having set a number of walnut trees before he have leave to marry.\" Since the smelting of iron threatened in the seventeenth century to destroy many English forests, Evelyn suggested that what he called \"iron mills\" be established in New England. \"`Twere far better,\" he wrote, \"to purchase all of our iron out of \" America than to exhaust our woods here at home.\"I Sylva, originally in four volumes, is an encyclopedia of arboriculture as practiced in pre-industrial Europe. Evelyn tells how to collect and plant the seed of numerous \"useful\" trees, when and where to plant, how to protect, trim, and feed them, and how finally to cut them and process the wood. Though the oak remained the king of trees-Evelyn devotes twenty pages to describing and praising it-he has much to say about each of the others: a timber of most smgular use, especially where it may be continually dry, or in extremes; therefore proper for water works, mills, the ladles and soles of the wet, Elm is wheel, pipes, pumps, aqueducts, ship planks below the water line ... also for wheel- 15 16 wrights, handles for the single handsaw, rails and gates. Elm is not so apt to rive [spht] and is used for chopping blocks, blocks for the hat maker, trunks and boxes to be covered with leather; coffins and dressers and shovelboard tables of great length; also for the carver and those curious workers of frmtages, foliage, shields, statues and most of the ornaments appertaining to the orders of architecture ... And finally (which I must not omit) the use of the very leaves of this tree, especially of the female, is not to be despised ... for they will provide a great relief to cattle in the winter and scorching summers when hay and fodder is dear.... The green leaf of the elms contused [crushed] heals a green wound or cut, and boiled with the bark, consolidates fractured bones.2 .2 ... 17 In reading Evelyn, we discover two kmds of pleasure. One comes from reading wonderfully idiomatic English, clear and unaffected, emphasizing the visible, tangible everyday aspects of his topic. The second comes from many glimpses of a vernacular, country way of life based on the skillful exploitation of a local resource: the growing and cultivation and processing of trees used for making houses and furniture, in home remedies, in food and liquor and cooking; trees planted in farm gardens, in orchards, along country roads, in clusters to provide shade for cattle, trees in stately double rows to mark the avenue leading to a noble mansion, or to a town; each with its own traditional value to the craftsman, the artist, the housewife, the builder. Many retained from the remote past a powerful symbolism. The linden or lime tree was the tree of justice, local courts being held in its shade; the yew and the cypress symbolized immortality, and the apple tree stood for domesticity: so much so that a French geographer suggests that the apple tree is a prime symbol of the Atlantic landscape, just as the olive tree symbolizes the landscape of Mediterranean Europe.3 Evelyn wrote his book because of his concern over the increasing scarcity of certain essential types of wood. The king's navy and the growth of transatlantic commerce threatened the English supply of oak. Foundries and mills and furnaces consumed more and more forest wood, and the needs of a growing urban population for fuel, as well as the destruction of many forests in wartime, all threatened the existing stands. Sylva was accordingly addressed to the great landowners of England, urging them to plant as many trees as possible in a wholesale manner. It should be noted that Evelyn nowhere recommends the traditional forest of mixed woods, the hunters' forest. What he advised, not only for England but also for the Continent, was the creation of systematic, commercial forestry; and that was the type of forestry which evolved in the eighteenth century. It was in the English colonies in North America that the old vernacular culture of trees was given a fresh lease on life. The early settlers lost little time before destroying (for commercial use as well as for clearing land for farming) immense areas of virgin forest. That, in fact, is what had happened to the forests of medieval Europe, but in America-again as in Europe-the planting and cultivation of trees flourished as never before. For that is a distinction we must always make: a the forest as an massive collection of trees of all varieties is seen as a resource, not environment. Whereas the single or planted tree is seen by most of us as a as a permanent, carefully tended element of the human landscape, valued as an object both of beauty and of sustainable exploitation. In any case, colonial America found several new ways of using trees. We developed an improved type of ax, the water-powered sawmill, and learned to build houses and bridges and dams and even roads entirely out of wood. Following the example of the native Indians, colonists extracted sugar from maple trees. Early in colonial history, we undertook to plant trees along our streets and roads, for shade and shelter, and when independence came, many towns and villages celebrated the event by erecting liberty trees. When the Midwest was settled 18 in the a early nineteenth century, immigrant handbooks and other periodicals advised the settlers to plant orchards first of all, even postponing the planting of vegetable garden. We soon had plenty of food on the market, and plenty of wood was still avail- able in the forests. So the culture of trees in America took a new turn: trees were planted chiefly for their beauty and symbolism. Starting in New England in the 1850s, where women's organizations were dedicated to the beautifying of towns and cities, a national enthusiasm for ornamental trees everywhere transformed the village square, the college campus, many country roads and graveyards. The landscaped cemetery composed of winding roads, groups of trees, and expanses of lawn was in a sense the reconstruction of the old pre-industrial landscape of legend. On the treeless prairie the farmhouse was surrounded by a grove of trees, and their bright autumn colors gave certain trees an almost symbolic value, unique to America. This widespread cult of ornamental trees brought about an immense increase in the number of nurseries and tree farms. At the same time, the nation as a whole became increasingly aware of deforestation in many regions. Beginning more than sixty years ago, at the time of the Great Depression, state and federal government agencies launched vast programs of tree planting. Hundreds of thousands of saplings were planted to check erosion, to break the force of the wind, to provide habitats for wiidiife, to control flood waters, to modify the climate. Millions of trees, whole forests, were planted for ecological reasons. Two generations ago the word ecology was rarely heard, and to most Americans the very notion that forests-natural or artificial-could serve other than human needs was a revelation. I am old enough to have lived through those first largescale ecological experiments, and in retrospect I think we generally approved of them-though there still lingers among Americans the ancient belief that the forest is there for us to exploit in the meeting of daily needs: for fuel, for food, for grazing, for hunting, and for escape from social restrictions. The national park or forest is still thought of in terms of recreation and camping, and to be reminded of the many ecological benefits of the forest simply confirmed the reality of that prehistoric prototype. As a result, those numerous planted groves and belts and forests were quickly assimilated into the landscape and their recent origin forgotten. In fact, many of the windbreaks have been destroyed-or harvested-by farmers totally unaware of their original purpose. It could be said that the reforestation or tree-planting programs of the Depression years helped inaugurate the environmental movement m this country. In that sense they were part of a worldwide shift in attitude toward the natural environment. Here for the first time on an extensive scale, the landscape, or part of it, was being deliberately altered not to serve immediate human needs but to preserve the natural order. It is quite true that in the course of planting and reforestation many highways were landscaped, many rest areas and recreational facilities came into being. It is also true that our national parks, even when overrun with visitors, 19 citizens we are inspecting one sample of our national national and state parks actually provide us with only Nevertheless, the faintest reminders of our earlier forest or wilderness experience. The contemporary forest experience emphasizes the visual aspect, the scenic, the ecological, the photogenic. We are not to touch, much less pick up and carry away, any object we find of interest. We are tactfully told that we are not at home but in a museum; a museum, moreover, which is increasmgly concentrated on ecological or geological or botanical phenomena. The risk of vandalism and destruction helps justify this hands-off policy, though the influence of current environmentalist policy-the determination to preserve nature totally undisturbed by man-has had its effect. For the fact of the matter is, humanity's closest and most productive relationship with nature derives from personal, physical contact, and from a desire to appropriate whatever attracts us. \"Leave nothing behind, not even footprints,\" the environmentalists advise those of us who go into the wilderness. \"Take nothing except photographs.\" The visual experience, the spectator experience, is the only one permitted. Our true feeling for trees derives from an ancient source-from centuries of domesticating, improving, protecting, and loving those other forms of life which are part of our daily existence. Looking back over more than half a century, I am struck by our growing desire for trees in our domestic environment, by our desire to plant trees, regardless of their economic value, in order to express a variety of basic emotions: the need to celebrate the home, the need for beauty, the need for some living thing to protect and transform, the need to pass on to the future some sign of our existence. Ecologists encourage us in this enthusiasm, assuring us that the tree we plant will help cleanse the atmosphere, moderate the climate, and close the gap in the ozone layer. But John Evelyn, nearly 350 years ago, provided us with a better justification: \"Men seldom plant trees until they begin to be wise; that is, till they grow old and find by experience the prudence and neces'Tis observed that such planters are often blessed with health and sity of it old age.\" He added, in a passage I take very much to heart, \"I am writing as an octogenarian, and shall, if God protract my years, and continued health, be continually planting till it shall please him to transplant me to those glorious regions above, the celestial paradise-for such is the tree of life, which those who do his commandments have right to.\" try to make us feel that as estate. our ... \" Notes John Evelyn, Sylva~ or a Discourse of Forest z Ibtd., 114, 20. ' Trees (1664; London, 1679\/, 118. Daniel Faucher, Geographie agraire. Types des cultures \/Parrs: Librairie des Medicis, 1949\/. John Brinckerhoff Jackson (1909-1996), a geographer by trarnrng, was a pioneer in the field of landscape studies. He founded Landscape magazine and taught the history of the vernacular American landscape at Harvard University and the University of California, Berkeley. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Good Day: Plant-Collecting in Taiwan","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25378","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270896f.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"A Good Day: Plant-Collecting in Taiwan Rob Nicholson ne of the greatest plant hunters of the hundred years was E. H. Wilson, t Enghshman who spent years in East Asia collecting plants for the nursery trade and for the Arnold Arboretum. Thanks to his perseverance, thousands of plants were introduced into cultivation in the United Kingdom and the United States. Since Wilson's six collecting trips to Japan, China, Korea, and Taiwan, many botanists have covered the same ground that he did, often using his maps and books as guides for re-collecting the plants he found there. The tales of his collecting adventures often spark envy in latter-day plant collectors like me: Wilson got there first, and he got there when the hunting was far better. The thick forests Wilson bushwhacked his way through are being overrun by human populations, and some of the species he collected are now endangered and possibly extinct in their former habitats. Of the eighteen genera and twenty-four species of conifers known in Taiwan, for example, the Red List of Threatened Plants of the IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources) classifies twelve species as vulnerable, rare, or endangered. One has only to look at beforeand-after satellite photos of the last twenty years to realize that within the next hundred years the world's forests will be reduced to the weeds and scraps left behind from a once great the crest of the wave well to shore. As the wave recedes one jumps ashore and races to safety.\" Wilson's party included botanists and soldiers from Japan, which then ruled the colony called Formosa. The soldiers had been brought along to fight off mountam tribes that were said to practice headhunting. It is a measure of Taiwan's remarkable economic explosion that eighty years later the only headhunters in evidence are of the corporate variety. Taiwan was a plant hunter's paradise in Wilson's day and much of it remains so today. Its mountains rise to over 13,000 feet (the highest between the Sierra Nevada Mountains of California and the Himalayas) and harbor lush conifer forests and alpine plants on their flanks and summits. Most of the terrain is so steep that landslides are frequent; development in regions other than the western coastal plain is therefore minimal. So rugged are the interior mountains that only three roads connect the east and west sides of the 244-mile-long island. At lower altitudes an intergrading mix of temperate, subtropical, and tropical floras grow, with a number of species endemic to Taiwan. Taiwan is particularly rich in gymnosperms, the cone-bearing plants such as conifers and cycads. Wilson collected twenty species in fourteen genera of gymnosperms. Among the most remarkable is the massive conifer taiwania (Taiwania cryptomerioides), which rivals the redwoods and giant sequoias for size. The taiwania, named for the island, is the loftiest tree m the forests, rearing its small, moplike crown well above its neighbors. The average height of this tree is from 150 to 180 feet but specimens exceeding 200 feet are known. The trunk is sometimes as much as 30 feet in girth, quite straight and bare of branches for 100 to 150 feet. It is a strikmgly distmct tree, singularly like a gigantic club moss or lycopod. In the dense forests the crown is small, dome-shaped or flattened, the branches few and short, and last an cornucopia. Wilson's first visit to Taiwan began in January 1918. From his ship rocking on the waves of the Pacific Ocean off the eastern coast of the island, he could see the 7,000-foot mountains meet the water's edge, leaving only the narrowest strip of beach or coastal plain, if any at all. The small boat that took him into shore was manned by \"half-breeds of Chinese and savages [who] work the boats ashore, yelling as loudly as possible all the time. They maneuver the boat so as to get it carried stern first on 22 Beginning in 1997 I undertook a series of collecting trips to Taiwan myself, often following in Wilson's footsteps and, like him, concentrating on conifers and cycads. A number of the plants I wanted to collect contain powerful chemical compounds that pharmaceutical trials have shown to be useful against various cancers and leukemias. Other species on my target list were rare and endangered; one, Amentotaxus formosana, is on the IUCN's shortlist of the planet's sixty most rare and endangered conifers. Many institutions worldwide are attempting to establish ex situ collections of these highly endangered plants to prevent their total extinction. On my most recent trip, the second in the series, I collaborated with Shu-Miaw Chaw of the Academia Sinica Taipei, a specialist in the molecular genetics of gymnosperms, who would be collecting DNA samples from various species. The pleasures of hunting for plants in a tract of unspoiled forest are many: every few yards the landscape gives up another treasure or anothcr mystcry, making the forest seem like an enigmatic box of wonders. However, find.1..,.:.....7 1 ..t, \" t .. ~,f ., forest canopy is not the easiest of occupations. This expedition, hke most, involved both the joys and the miseries of collecting in the wild. On the first day of our expedition, we headed up Taiwan's western coast, the wide plain that faces the Taiwan Strait and that supports the vast A nverwlc Ta~u, ~lumusis-lhe sole surmvor of a stand one of nme. wonders how so httle leafage can support so When the top is broken by storms, the lateral branches assume an erect position. In the more open forest the branches are massive, widespreading, with an oval or flattened crown. On small trees the branches [are] often pendant. When young it is singularly beautiful m habit of growth. large a tree. majority of the island's human population. Our group included Dr. Chaw, three of her on our students, Taxus and me. Many of the plants Wilson brought back seven herbarium collecas well as a few young trees from which cuttings were propagated and distributed in the United States. One propagule was given to Pierre S. du Pont (1870-1954) of Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania, and he passed it along to the Fairmount Park of Philadelphia. Paul Meyer of the Morris Arboretum, however, tells me that no taiwanias are known to exist in the Philadelphia area today. tions of taiwania target list were in the yew and plum yew families, of which Taiwan boasts a great number: chinensis, Cephalotaxus wilsoniana, and the rare Amentotaxus formosana can be found in its forests. The latter two genera grow throughout Southeast Asia but occur only sporadically and never, to my knowledge, in large populations. Our first collections were of the Chinese yew, Taxus chinensis, known for the powerful anticancer taxane compounds like water. taxol and bacAll photographs are Overleaf : On the eastern by the author. coast of Taiwan 7,000-foot mountams drop straight mto the 23 catin III that are found in its bark and needles. A stand that Dr. Chaw had seen on previous trips now consisted of a single tree. We were told that eight trees had been illegally harvested within the last year, probably for sale in Japan, where yew-wood desks bring exorbitant sums from business executives. We continued driving through the rain to 7,800 feet, our driver clearly uneasy about landslides. I was stunned by the giant T. chinesis we next stopped at, a stout colossus eighty feet high with a trunk that measured eight feet in diameter-the largest yew I have ever seen in my collection trips around the world. On our target list for the second day was a plum yew named for E. H. Wilson, who was the first to bring specimens out of Taiwan: Cephalotaxus wilsoniana (Wilson's plum yew~, named by Japanese taxonomist Bunzo Hayata (1874-1934). While similar to yews in appearance, plum yews belong to a different family and have very different chemical compounds. Its foliage can be mistaken for yew, but it has much larger fruits, held in clusters, and its seeds are entirely enclosed by the fleshy aril. Chinese researchers have isolated a number of chemicals from Cephalotaxus that show promise in treatments for granulocytic and Cephalotaxus wilsomana seedlmgs. a myelocytic leukemias; Western pharmaceutical researchers have also shown interest in it. Of the six to eight species known, C. mlsoniana is the only one considered endangered, so we wanted to collect the species both for its rarity and its efficacy. On the day we planned to search for Cephalotaxus wilsoniana, we left Taipei in the usual Taiwanese drizzle, our highway winding past blocks of gray, factory-like apartments that sprouted beneath the lush green hills. Ornately painted temples with upcurved corners provided the only refreshment for the eyes in this soggy urban landscape. The road wound upward, switchback after switchback, frequently passing scars from past landslides; in one area an entire village had been covered. At 4,600 feet we entered the YuShan National Park and soon began to see conifers, among them pine, spruce, and hemlock. After parking at the highest point of the road, 8,456 feet, we walked into a restricted research area, rich torest with some a dense understory ot terns and forbs beneath towering conifers, includ- Morrison's spruce that were six feet and 150 feet high. Where slides had occurred, thick brambles of roses and blackberries had sprouted. We bushwhacked through the trackless forest, looking for the stand of plum yew that was said to be there, but after hours of fruitless hand-to-thorn combat we surrendered. The effort was not a total loss, however, since I collected a beautiful plant of the lily family, Polygonatum alte-lobata, with large violet fruits dangling beneath the arching stem. We drove on toward the Alisan National Scenic area, where Wilson himself had found Cephalotaxus wilsoniana. Spotting a large plum yew from the roadside, we clambered up a steep embankment of underbrush into the forest's dark and moist understory. C. wilsoniana abounded here, most of them with stems bent to horizontal and hanging over the steep slope. The largest had three trunks that com- ing across 24 at the base to form a twenty-inch trunk. few female plants we found fruits, greenish drupes the shape and color of small olives. I knew from other species of Cephalotaxus that when the pulp is ripe, it has an amazingly heady aroma that in Taiwan attracts macaques to feed. Back at the roadside, Dr. Chaw and I divided the seeds and cuttings from two dozen trees, potential ex-situ collections for both our institutions. The day's successes were topped off by the sight of an endangered Mikado pheasant, Syrmaticus mikado, a black, white, and red beauty. We ended with an evening meal at a truckstop in Alishan, where Wilson had his base camp and where we also purchased plants of wasabi, the fiery oriental horseradish. On the third day, our target was a member of the yew family (Taxaceae) that not even Wilson had collected in Taiwan, Amentotaxus formosana (Taiwan catkin yew). The genus Amentotaxus is comprised of only four to six species; bined On a and east though found Asia, it is over a wide area rare throughout. in SouthTwo popula- tions of A. formosana are known and accessible in Taiwan, and we planned to collect from both of them. Our drive to the first location was halted abruptly by a fresh landslide. We could have dug our way through it, but a large boulder perched on the steep slope above persuaded us to backtrack quickly and head toward the second stand, farther north on the main coastal road. We cut eastward onto the craggy spine of the island along a typical mountain road: two parallel concrete strips to aim your tires Foliage of catkm yew. Amentotaxus formosana, the Taiwan at, with lush vegetation growing between them and on the sides. We passed gorgeous tropical gingers, Alpinia speciosa, and the curiously flowered Mussaenda pubescens. By the time we reached the boundary of the Amentotaxus Preserve, marked by a sign announcing its protected status, the day had become cloudy and dark with misty rain falling. Setting out on the trail, we immediately spied examples of the beautiful ferns to be expected in this environment: two large tree ferns; another ~~... :..t~re~i o;o.htPPn_inr,h tree fern, Diploblechnum frasem; epiphytic bmd's-nest ferns resting on tree branches; and everywhere the fronds of numerous terrestrial ferns slowly waving in the mist. Each specimen of Amentotaxus formosana in the preserve had been tagged and numbered, and we planned to take a few cuttings from as many as we could find. We thrashed our way through the fog into the forest, not knowmg whether we had already passed by some of the trees we were looking for or even whether we were in the right area to find them. Each glance at our watches told us that dusk was approaching, and none of us relished the thought of navigating the twisting ribbons of road in the dark fog. There was little choice but to split up, with Dr. Chaw and her student Chih-Hui Chen heading down the slope and me covering higher ground. As it grew darker our botanizing trek turned into a frenzy of activity, with all of us running along the fogbound trails, occasionally calling out for one another, desperately peering at the trees' darkening silhouettes in search of one particular shape and texture. After twenty 25 Botamst Shu-Miaw Chaw displays a hard-won branch of Amentotaxus formosana. The author is at her mght. have any collections at all for the effort. We packed up and bumped down day's the twin strips of concrete, our headlights illuminating the wild tangle of leaves and grass blades. We burst through the green dome of the forest and instantly found ourselves back in the urban sprawl of the coastal plain where we rewarded ourselves with a feast of shrimp, eel, and miso soup. That night we pressed on around the bottom tip of the island and then up the Pacific-facing eastern coast to Taitung. Here the mountains come all the way down to the sea, leaving the area unpopulated and free of the stressful hustle of the western coastal plain. Our collecting goal for the next day was the one known population of Cycas taitungensis, the only cycad native to Taiwan. Cycads are remarkable organisms that defy our limited understanding of plants. Though most people guess them to be palms, they are gymnosperms, carrying naked seed that is held m a cone scale and not enclosed by a fleshy fruit. The fossil record shows cycadlike plants present in the early Permian Epoch, tunate to muffled cry came from down the had found Amentotaxus formosana. slope: they I ran toward the cries, and we quickly took cuttings from as many trees as possible in order to get maximum genetic representation for the ex-situ collections. Stopping for breath, we gazed at the trees stretching upward in the crowded forest, battling for light, their foliage as beautiful as that of any conifer I'd seen: seven-inch, dark green, stiletto blades marked on their undersides by pairs of dramatically white stomatal bands. Chih went farther downhill while Dr. Chaw and I collected cuttings and labeled each bag with the mother plant's identification number. The largest tree we saw was thirty-five feet high with a basal trunk diameter of eight inches, but Chih reported seeing a cut trunk fifteen inches in diameter farther down the slope. We managed to find twenty trees in the sliver of remaining light and then reassembled to hike back out to our vehicle. Having failed to reach the first population and almost missing the second, we felt forminutes a 26 Home on the ravine's of Cycas taitungensis. At left, the narrowravme of a whitewaternver Center, the cllf fside path. Right, slope. C. taitungensis contemporaneuus with the dinosaurs that were roaming around 250 million years ago. This was to be a first for II1C J11W C i ilau llcvcl ucivic i,uilected a plant with so long a history. In the morning we drove from the coast into the foothills along the course of the Lu Yeh River and began a four-mile hike up to the cycad population. At the lower elevations we passed through a lowland tropical rainforest, still glistening from the night's rain. One giant fern stood out, the epiphytic Pseudodrynaria coronans with its four-foot fronds, of which a specimen is now growing in the Smith College conservatory. An hour into the hike, we began to get sporadic glimpses of cycads m the forest shade, looking like old hermit gymnosperms in this forest of flowering trees. Chih spotted a cluster of germinating seedlings at the base of a tree, clear evidence of an animal or bird caching the seeds. Dr. Chaw said the main stand was farther on, and another student, Shy-Yuan Hwang, pressed on alone; the rest of us followed after stopping for a snack. The path soon broke out of the forest been carved through the shale by a whitewater river. We found hundreds of Cycas taitungensis 111 1.:,. J11VLL JLr~.OB11, 1:FC .at~,~lle:S Y~ ~ Y ' 1.111J 1.....4 . l. (iuil rCl:~ 3tn\" the chasm or even growing on its sheer walls. Their habitat, a combination of extreme heat and dry rocky soils, is unusual in monsoonsoaked Taiwan but a niche that cycads occupy in many parts of the world. So far we'd found none of the fecund females we were looking for, easily identified by their crowns of massive seed-bearing cones. We continued up the river valley, by now looking for the long overdue Shy-Yuan as well. The path began to deteriorate, showing few signs of use, and before long we came to a spot where a large rockslide of many acres had cut through the forest long ago, leaving the slope covered by a million plates of shale. We could see the trail winding over this heap of sliding, slippery shards and up the side of a sheer cliff, becoming a hand-carved half-tube 150 feet above the roaring rapids. We all looked at one another. Had Shy-Yuan gone on? Numerous calls brought no answer. We decided that Dr. Chaw and I would go on into a sun-baked, rocky landscape through which a narrow gorge, 100 to 150 feet deep, had while the others stayed and searched for seeds. 27 our way across the slate pile, sending an burning occasional rockslide to the river below, and finally reached the cliff path, which tilted toward the water so that we had to walk in a crouch, grabbing onto whatever roots and crannies we could. Any glance downward set my knees to wobbling. The trail curved, following the river, cutting into the cliff, and passing under some cliff-dwelling cycads-old Methuselahs anchored in the rock-and after the longest 100 yards of my life, it flattened out into the forest. The cycads soon disappeared, and we came to the obvious conclusion : Dr. Chaw's student would not have gone any farther. When our calls were met with silence we reversed our course. On our return, we found him with the rest of the group. The rapid-fire lecture that Dr. Chaw delivered to her wayward student was made only slightly less embarrassing by my ignorance of Chinese. After lunch, I ambled down onto a bluff overlooking the river. A few dozen cycads grew there, some old eight-foot-long leaners and younger, upright umbrellas of five feet. And there, at the very edge of the cliff in full sun, stood a magnificent female Cycas tai- We threaded A fifteen-mch frmtmg cone of Cycas taitungensis. up fifteen-mch-wide, tungensis, minaret-shaped cone topping the trunk-a resplendent cluster of golden-furred cone scales with large, crimson, egg-shaped seeds. its through the soil. It now graces our conservatory.) As we left the cycad valley, I thought to take a picture of Dr. Chaw, who was walking on the trail ahead of camera and call to her, she suddenly turned with a big smile and said, \"This has been a good day.\" I clicked in agreement. Still alive, seed in the bag, a good day indeed. me. Plucking seeds from the cone felt a bit like robbing eggs from a dinosaur's nest. The small number we collected would be used for germinating trials at our own institutions and for limited distribution to botanic gardens that specialize in ex-situ cycad conservation, such as Miami's Montgomery Center. (After six months in a seed pot, my seeds began to crack their thick coats and the first wisp of a leaf came curling I readied my just as I was going to Rob Nicholson manages the conservatories of the Smith College Botanic Garden in Northampton, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Sex Life of the Red Maple","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25381","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ea726.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"The Sex Life of the Red Richard Primack carefully craftthe mating systems of ed and animals to insure diversity in their offspring. genetic Many plants, like some animals, occur as separate male and female individuals to make self-fertilization (which does not promote diversity) less likely. But beyond mere gender differentiation, plants have a wide variety of mating systems. In particular, members of the maple family, Aceraceae, are renowned for their diverse sexual systems; maples run the gamut of sexual reproduction. \"Perfect\" flowers-those with both slanielis and pistils-occur in certain species, such as the Norway maple (tiLL'1 ~llL1LL111V1LLGJ~. YY1L11 ~7 ,1fect flowers self-pollination could occur if the plant's pollen reaches one of its pistils. Other species, such as the box elder (Acer negundo), occur as separate male and female trees; the male trees' flowers have only stamens and the females' flowers only pistils. This separation of the sexes ensures that pollen must move between plants, ruling out self-fertilization. Between these extremes, we find the especially unusual sexual system of the striped maple (Acer pensylvanicum). Individuals of this species often form clumps of woody shoots that produce male flowers for a few years, followed by female flowers and fruit production for a few years, until the shoot dies. The rootstalk ature has Maple plants Newton, swamp produces many shoots, this site the combination of surface rocks, standmg water in wmter, and each one going through this cycle, dry conditions m summer limit the size of the trees. As a result, the keeping the plant alive even though flowers can be readily observed, and the trees bent over if needed sometimes were a in Observations made in Massachusetts. At individual shoots die. for closer exammation. 29 in terminology. Individual plants have behaved in perplexing ways: individuals that were A branch of red maple female flowers above and below branch of male flowers. Flowers are produced a in clusters of about flve at nodes along the tmg. Note the male flowers, which have long stamens extending beyond the red petals In these older female flowers, the sides of the ovaries have already begun to take on the charactenstic shape of the maple frmt and the stigmas have begun to mlt Botanists have long studied the reproduction of the red maple tree (Acer rubrum), but until recently there was no consensus on its reproductive biology. The red maple is an abundant, wide-ranging tree of moist woodlands and other habitats. It was described by the Harvard botamst M. L. Fernald (1873-1950) as bemg \"polygamodioecious,\"meaning that some plants have just male flowers, others just female flowers, and still others have perfect flowers. P. Barry Tomlinson, professor at Harvard University, considered the plant to be \"polygamomonoecious,\" a term indicating that a red maple plant may be entirely male, entirely female, or ambiguous in gender, producing both male and female flowers. Other terms have also been applied to the species. It is the unusual sexual system of the species that causes the confusion thought by naturalists and homeowners to be male trees sometimes produced fruit. The problem was that no one looked at trees in detail over a long enough period to figure out what was going on. Such long-term monitoring is usually not undertaken by taxonomists, who are generally more concerned with developing methods for identifying and classifying species. As a population biologist, I felt it was important to learn more about the reproductive biolI ogy of this common species. Starting in 1979, monitored 79 small trees for the type and number of flowers that each produced as well as for other demographic characteristics. I checked plants carefully in 1980, 1982, 1983, 1984, and irregularly in subsequent years. All of the trees that I monitored inhabited a rocky, seasonally flooded swamp in which the red maples typically attain a height of only 6 to 30 feet (2 to 10m), allowing all of the flowers to be completely counted and the stems to be bent over for close inspection of flower types. The site is located in the Hammond Woods, in Newton, Massachusetts, on the west side of the Hammond Pond Parkway. The maples here begin to flower between early and late April, as soon as the weather starts to get warm. The flowers, almost exclusively either male or female, are red to orange to yellowish in color, with five small sepals and petals. They are produced in bunches of about five, with all the flowers in a bunch being either male or female. Male flowers have long, extended stamens with abundant, dusty-yellow pollen and a reduced, nonfunctional pistil. Female flowers have a well-developed ovary, with two long stigmas and reduced, nonfunctional stamens. The length of the stamens and stigmas suggests that the plants are sometimes windpollinated, although the flowers are also visited by bees and other insects. Female flowers rapidly develop into flattened, winged fruits with zero, one, or two seeds. The fruits mature quickly and disperse by wmd during the summer. Germination is rapid, and there seems to be no seed dormancy. The 79 trees in my study fell into five gender categories. Fifty-three produced exclusively 30 close-up of two flowers, one female, on the left, and the other male. The stigma has begun to mlt m the female flower, and the pollen has been shed from the anthers of the male flower. A male flowers in every year of the study. Another six individuals were inconstant males, producing male flowers exclusively in most years but occasionally producing some female flowers. For example, for four years plant #28 produced only male flowers, but in 1980 it produced 46 male flowers and one female flower. Another plant produced male flowers in every year i except 1 J%y, when it produced 37 male and 137 female flowers. Most flowers from these inconstant male trees failed to develop into fruits, no doubt because the plants have a fundamental chromosomal abnormality that prevents fertilization or subsequent fruit development. Twelve individuals were constant females, producing only female flowers in every year. Six were inconstant females, producing mostly female flowers in every year with some male flowers in one or more years. And of the 79 plants, two were highly variable in sexual expression, producing only male flowers in some years, only female flowers in other years, and mixtures of male and female flowers in yet other years. Overall, in a typical year the 79 plants produced a total of approximately 21,000 inflorescences of which 18,000 were male and 3,000 were female. One year I enclosed the flowering branches of some trees in paper bags before they flowered to determine whether the plants were capable of self-pollination or required cross-pollination. All bags contained both male and female flowers. I cross-pollinated some of the bagged flowers using pollen from nearby trees, selfpollinated others using pollen from elsewhere on the same tree, and left others as unpollinated controls. Fruit set was over 90 percent in all three treatments, and most fruits had two seeds. This result indicates that the species is probably capable of automatic self-pollination since experimental self-pollination and crosspollination did not improve fruit production. Many of the trees at the study site had two or more stems coming from a common rootstock. In addition to the physical connection, the common origin of stems from a single plant could be identified by the distinctive color patterns of green, red, and yellow on the young leaves. In general, individual stems from the same rootstock confirmed the gender characteristics of the whole plant; that is, in constant male plants, all of the stems had only male flowers, while in constant female plants, all of the stems had only female flowers. However, in the inconstant and variable plants, some individual stems were very different from the others in some years. Foi example, in 1983 one inconstant female had four flowering stems with percentages of 1V, 10, 70, diid ou fC,rriaiv. iivv'vCiS, and in i9Q^ its remaining three flowering stems had percentages of 35, 86, and 89 female flowers. Growth and reproduction characteristics were compared across plants in the five gender groups. The most instructive difference was that constant female plants were more variable in flower production than were male plants. This makes sense biologically, as female plants producing large numbers of flowers in good years typically go on to produce large numbers of fruit and so may exhaust their energy reserves and be unable to flower well the following year. Overall, the population is clearly bimodal in sexual expression. Male plants made up 75 percent of the population, 23 percent of the population were females, and 2 percent of the population varied in sex expression. However, of the 77 plants that could be clearly designated as either male or female plants, 12 plants were inconstant in gender and showed at least some evidence of producing flowers of the opposite sex. Such imprecision in dioecious species is known in other species as well; sometimes male plants make a few fruits and female plants 31 A male flower in side view and in longitudinal section at the stage of pollen dispersal The long stamens are held out beyond the short petals The ovary is small and undeveloped. A female flower in side view and in longitudinal section, at the stage of pollen receptmty. Note the reduced, nonfunctional stamens and the short petals. The sugma has two branches and is at the top of the flattened ovary The ovary mll later develop mto the characteristic maple frmt. produce some male flowers. In this red maple study, individuals of both sexes could produce flowers of the opposite sex. Female plants had a greater tendency for variability than the males, with 33 percent of the females varying in sex expression whereas only 10 percent of the males varied in sex expression. This study demonstrates the importance of checking for fruit production in investigations of plant gender. For example, inconstant males on occasion produced numerous female flowers, and so these plants were recorded as having some level of female fitness. Yet in some cases very few of the female flowers developed mto fruits, indicating a genetic malfunction. Further, certain plants were recorded as having only male flowers even though subsequent checks showed that these plants produced some fruit. It is certainly easier in red maples, and probably in most other species, for a few inconspicuous female flowers to go unnoticed on an otherwise male tree than it is for a few of the conspicuous male flowers-with their strongly extended stamens and yellow anthers-to go unnoticed on an otherwise female tree. Three unanswered questions remain: What is the genetic basis for the differences between male and female plants? Do all red maple popu- lations include more male plants than female plants? Most important, how many years need a study last to determine these plants' complexities in gender expression? More work is needed to determine what chromosomal and physiological mechanisms determme sex expression m red maples. More populations need to be studied to determine whether the results obtamed in this one population of small individuals are applicable across the range of this widespread and variable species. Field work in this most useful next step in red maple studies requires only a pair of good binoculars, some way of marking or tagging individual trees, and a notebook. And last, studies of sexual expression in red maple need many years to complete. It is clear that a study of one or two years' duration would be inadequate for this species. Careful counting and patience over many years are needed to understand the otherwise confusing patterns of reproduction in this fascinating and ecologically important species. Richard Pnmack is a professor at Boston University and a member of the Visiting Committee of the Arnold Arboretum Along with several Boston University students, he has been conducting observations on flowering times at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In the Library: Hortus Nitidissimis","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25380","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed24ea36d.jpg","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"In the Library Superbiens Floribus Sive Amoenissimorum brilliant garden of exquisite flowers represented Sheila Connor Hortus Nitidissimis Omnem Per Annum Florum Imagines, or A year in a in beautiful pictures n about our copy of Hortus Nitidissimis, one of the great florilegias of the 1700s. Because the Hortus was issued serially over a span of fortytwo years (1750-1792), few if any extant copies are complete. In 2002, however, funding was provided by the Andrew W. Mellon Foundation to create a complete online Hortus by digitizing illustrations and text from copies held by the Natural History Museum, London, and the Royal Botanic Gardens. Because the Arboretum's copy includes ten plates (numbered 181190) not found in either of the other two, these also became part of the \"virtual\" edition, and ian received September 2002, the Arnold Arboretum a query from John Flanagan, librarat the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, , with the Arboretum's participation Kew was able to create an \"Ideal Hortus,\"now online at www.kew.org\/data\/trew. The extant copies of Hortus Nitidissimis, estimated to number fewer than twenty, vary widely since each of the engraved plates was hand colored, often by different artisans. The Arboretum's copy, accession number 16,641, is bound as a single volume rather than as three, as is the case with most. It was added to the library in October of 1907 through the generosity of the Skmner family, as attested by the bookplate, which states that the 22.10 pounds paid for the book to William Wesley and Sons, a British book dealer, came from Skinner funds. In 1904, Francis Skinner, a friend and neighbor of Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, donated five thousand dollars for the \"purchase of books for the Arnold Arboretum.\" Skinner often volunteered at the Arboretum and for four months in 1880 had traveled with Sargent through the Far West, examining and comparing forests for the nation's tenth forest \" Early in 1907, Skinner's son, Francis Jr., contributed an additional five thousand dollars, suggesting that the books purchased with the money be considered a memorial to his father's interest in the Arboretum and its work. Sargent used these donations frequently to order books, selecting many titles from Wesley's \" \"Natural History and Scientific Book Circular.\" Excerpts from his orders and from the published Wesley catalog have occasionally been \"tippedin\" to books that were purchased. A typed note tipped-in inside the cover of the Hortus, for example, states: \"Trew, Hortus nitidissimis, the copy forwarded is more perfect than that in the Kew library, and has ten plates more than \" under Pritzel No. 9,500. Wesley [handwritten].\" In fact, according to Stafleu and Cowan's Taxonomic Literature, the Arboretum's is the most complete set known to exist. Kew's website includes a wealth of information about this great flower book, mcluding a detailed history of its publication by W. J. Tjaden along with information about the physician and amateur botanist and horticulturist C. J. Trew, in whose garden the plants illustrated in the Hortus grew and who is often listed as its author. Of special value on the website is the translation of the Hortus into English. Readers can choose to view either the Latin transcription or its English equivalent, \"which makes the rarest and most famous antique botanical books\" accessible to a broad audience. Two of the Arboretum's ten singular illustrations are printed on the inside covers of this issue. The Arboretum's Hortus itself can be seen in the Horticultural Library in Jamaica Plain. census. Sheila Connor is Horticultural Librarian and Archivist the Arnold Arboretum. at "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23510","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0608928.jpg","title":"2004-63-1","volume":63,"issue_number":1,"year":2004,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Conservation for Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25373","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270bb6f.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kobori, Hiromi; Primack, Richard B.","article_content":" Conservation for Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan Hiromi Kobori and Richard B. Primack and biodiversity with \"natural\" areas-those that have been minimally affected by human activities. In many parts of the world, however, much species diversity can be found in traditional agricultural landscapes that people have cultivated for hundreds or thousands of years. Japan, for example, is a densely populated archipelago that has experienced the impact of human activities for millennia; it nevertheless has species and ecosystems of great diversity and unique character. Since ancient times, the Japanese people have respected and preserved the natural resources of their country. The traditional agricultural and forest landscape of Japan, known as satoyama, a mosaic of fields, ponds, forests, and villages, enabled this chain of mountainous islands to support not only a large human population but also a great variety of plant and animal species in a sustainable manner. When we see photographs, paintings, and films about the ost conservation V1 people associate the notion of Two recent projects have been effective in restoring and protecting satoyama landscapes, even within densely settled urban Crucial to the projects' success have been efforts to increase public awareness of the need for conservation and to promote participation by local citizens. however, areas. Satoyama: What Is It? In the broadest sense of the term, satoyama is a mixture of forests, wet rice paddies, culti- vated fields, pastures, streams, ponds, and irrigation ditches surrounding a Japanese farming village-the entire landscape necessary to supply the needs of a community. In the Edo era ~ (1603-1867), around five hectares (over twelve ~ acres) of satoyama landscape was needed to support each farm family of seven or eight persons. The grasslands were maintained for the horses r Japanese countryside, satoyama we are usually seeing a landscape. Today, however, the Japanese are struggling to balance rapid economic growth with protection for their rich cultural and natural heritage. Modernization has led to new ways of farming and encouraged urban expansion, together with large-scale civil engineering projects like dam construction and wetland filling. The result has been neglect of satoyama landscapes and a reduction of the overall farm area where many species of plants, mammals, reptiles, amphibians, and freshwater fish previously thrived. Twenty percent of these species, many of them significant in Japanese culture, are now under threat of extinction.'1 and cattle that served as sources of power. Streams, ponds, and ditches were managed to maintain appropriate water levels in the rice paddies and to supply fish to eat. In a typical satoyama community, the rice fields were located next to the village houses, adjacent to the grasslands and the forests, which often formed the boundary with the next village.2 The word satoyama is sometimes used more narrowly in Japan to designate only the forest component of the traditional landscape. These forests, managed by local agricultural communities, are not wild but have developed through human intervention in natural systems over the centuries. The villagers gathered the leaves of community forests for use as fertilizer in the rice paddies; wood was used for construction and for cooking and heating; and bamboo shoots were collected for food. For each hectare of rice Diagram of typical landscape of satoyama with villages surrounded by paddy fields, dry fields, and forest From H. Moriyamn, 1997, Reviving Nature of Rural Areas. 4 Typical land use of satoyama m Kanto distmct near Tokyo mth villages (black); hayfields (white); secondary forests (gray shadmgJ; mce paddles (crosshatchmg) Modified from K Yamaoka, H Monyama, and T Shigematsu, 1997, m Bulletm of Toyo University 20. 373-384 several hectares of community forneeded.3 The constant collection of leaves and wood kept the forest open and prevented succession to large trees and dense shade. However, in the late Edo era and in the Meiji era ( 1868-1912~, farmers began to buy commercial fertilizers; when leaves were no longer needed for the rice paddies, management of the forest became less intensive. cultivated, ests were the next. Though not \"natural\" in the usual sense, therefore, the satoyama helped to maintain a rich biodiversity in the Japanese to countryside. Active management of satoyama forests for agricultural purposes, for example, promoted biodiversity by creating open, sunny habitats. communities, farmers maintained a mixed forest of deciduous, broadleaf trees, with the most common being Japanese oak (Quercus serrata) and Japanese chestnut oak (Q. acutissima). The trees were harvested in 15- to 20-year cycles for fuel wood and charcoal. This regular cutting, resprouting, and replanting prevented succession to the densely shaded, evergreen laurel forest-dominated by such species as chinquapin (Castanopsis sieboldii in the oak family), red machilus (Machilus thunbergii in the laurel family), and Japanese acuba (Aucuba In most Biodiversity in Satoyama and its Cultural Dependence As an indirect consequence of the agricultural practices associated with satoyama, these land- _ supported a great diversity of plant and animal species. Their mosaic structure provided a variety of habitat types-ponds, rice paddies, grasslands, forests-and facilitated movement among habitats and from one village satoyama scapes 5 japonica in the dogwood family)-which, being native to the area in pre-satoyama times, is the usual climax forest in much of Japan. Compared laurel forests, the managed and mixed forests supported much more open wildlife, much of which is familiar to the Japanese people and important to their culture. The national butterfly, the giant purple butterfly (Sasakia charonda), the large horned beetle (Allomyrina dichotoma), and the stag beetle (Dorcus curvidens) are some of the betterknown species that are found in sunny, mixed deciduous forests but are absent in shady to unmanaged more Landscape of a well-managed satoyama: at top, satoyama forest managed by selective loggmg creates an open understory suitable for the production of edible bamboo shoots; below, paddy connected to mixed forests The giant purple butterfly ~Sasakia charonda). laurel forests. Other beneficiaries of traditional forest management included many species of spring and summer wildflowers that can survive only when the foliage is thin and sunlight is able to reach the forest floor. Since these species cannot push their way through a deep layer of fallen leaves or grow in the darkness of evergreen forest, they are dependent on the traditional practices of collecting fallen leaves for fertilizer and the regular cutting of trees. In addition, grasslands that were regularly cut for fertilizer, thatching, bedding, or hay provided a rich habitat for wildflower and insect species. When grasslands are not cut, they undergo succession to forest and many species are lost. And thanks to the requirements for growing rice, satoyama helped preserve wetlands where many aquatic species thrive. The rice paddies themselves comprise half of all freshwater wetlands, and together with the associated ponds and reservoirs, they serve as a crucial habitat for most frogs found in Japan, being used throughout the year by numerous species for mating, egg maturation, larval growth, and adult feeding. Many bird, fish, insect, and mollusk species are also found primarily or even exclusively in the wetlands of the satoyama. In particular, these wetlands provide habitat for insect species that live in water during the early stages of their life cycle; these include fireflies and dragonflies, which are important in Japanese culture and frequently serve as motifs in poetry, painting, textiles, and toys. Since many smalland mid-sized dragonflies can migrate only short distances of a few kilometers, the creation of 6 networks of ponds and other wetlands for traditional agriculture have favored their survival.4 Loss of the Satoyama and its Biodiversity at cutting by farmers have drastically diminished its numbers. Altogether, 79 of Japan's total of 200 native freshwater aquatic in grass plants are now facing extinction, according to both the national and international levels have transformed the traditional Japanese landscape over the past several decades. Because of Japan's high cost of labor, its agriculture and forest industries are not able to compete in international markets, making farming less attractive economically, and many farmers have abandoned their satoyama to find jobs in cities. Many satoyama located in urban areas have been converted to residential or industrial uses, with the subsequent loss of natural habitat; the satoyama area in Yokohama, for example, has decreased from 10,000 hectares in 1960 to only 3,000 at present. Outside urban areas, the decline in the rural population and the aging of the remaining farmers make it physically difficult if not impossible-as well as economically unappealing-to maintain satoyama as a communal village activity. The individual farmers who remain have introduced modern technology to reduce costs and to compensate for the lack of labor, often with financial support from the central government. All components of the satoyama system have suffered from these innovations, but wetlands in particular are rapidly disappearing. One of the programs most favored by farmers, the construction of new irrigation systems, has resulted in the loss or fragmentation of wetland habitat; in addition, farmers have increased their use of herbicides, pesticides, and commercial fertilizers, inadvertently killing off many insect and aquatic species. The \"seven autumn wildflowers,\" for example-a beloved symbol of nature's beauty and a focus since ancient times for poetic sentiment-are included among the threatened species. Indeed, two of the seven, fujibakama (Eupatorium fortunei, a relative of joe-pye-weed in the sunflower family) and kikyo or balloon flower (Platycodon grandiflorum in the bellflower family), face almost certain extinction in the wild within the next century. Fujibakama grows on river banks and flood plains and depends on natural and humancaused disturbances such as spring floods and grass cutting for its survival; increased river management for flood control and a decline Many forces the latest Red List.' Many freshwater fish have also been severely affected by changes in agricultural practices. Among these is the Japanese killifish (Oryzias latipes), a species so familiar to the Japanese people that it has more than 5,000 local names, and a folk song about it remains popular among small children. Most Japanese believe that it is still a common fish in satoyama, present in wetlands throughout the country. In reality, however, many wetlands suitable for the killifish have been degraded or entirely wiped out by drainage, reclamation, or other civil engineering projects, a situation made worse by water pollution and invasion by exotic species. Modernization of agriculture has also had negative consequences for satoyama forests. Coal and oil have replaced wood and charcoal as the primary source of energy, and trees are no longer cut regularly for fuel. As the forests become overgrown and more shaded, many plant and animal species are being lost; forest wildflowers in particular are rapidly declining in abundance. Satoyama Conservation in Urban Areas: The To counter the Tokyo Example steady loss of traditional agricultural landscapes and wildlife habitat, the Totoro Hometown Fund Campaign was founded in 1990 as an effort to save areas of satoyama located in the Sayama Hills on the outskirts of Tokyo, in the Saitama Prefecture.~ Initiated by local residents together with a private environ- mental organization, the project later received support from the National Environmental Agency and the local government as well. The Sayama Hills, about 3,500 hectares in area, are home to roughly a thousand species of vascular plants, eleven species of mammals, and 210 species of birds. Not only is this small area a remarkable refuge for wildlife, but it is also an important repository of Japan's cultural heritage, with 114 shrines and temples. Humans have occupied the region from the time of the Stone Age, and 235 sites of ancient villages have been found there. Yet without an effective con- 7 Conversion of forests, farmlands, and parks (black) to industmal and residential use (hght shade) m the metropolitan Yokohama area from 1960 to 1990. The diagrams also show how the natural landscape is increasmgly fragmented by development. Each map represents an area of approximately 50 by 65 miles (78 by 105 kmJ. Yokohama City Environmental Protection Bureau. 8A and harvest rice. Volunteers also planted tree seedlings, mowed grassland, cut trees, and removed undergrowth from the forests. For many city people this was the first opportunity to work on a farm, and they found great satisfaction in reconnecting to the agricultural traditions of their culture. Third, researchers and local residents worked together to gather information about the area's endangered Publicity for the Totoro Hometown Fund Campaign Totoro attracts many people species as well as about the to support the national trust acumties. cultural history of its people servation program, the entire area would have and landscape. And finally, an environmental been rapidly converted into residential housing, education program was designed to help industrial sites, and roads. Japanese children become familiar with the The campaign used as its mascot \"Totoro,\" landscapes and the species that figure so promithe central character from an extremely popular nently in their culture. The program includes animated film called \"Tonari no Totoro\" (My guided tours, watching birds and other wildlife, Totoro is an imaginary furry and seasonal harvest events. Neighbor Totoro). rounded in shape and pleasantly naive The key to the success of the Totoro Homeanimal, in demeanor, that lives in the forests of town Fund Campaign has been the combination of energetic citizen involvement along with satoyama, helping children who get into trouble when adults are absent. The movie is set in an governmental encouragement and support. Since its inception, the project has been characimagined time of innocence in the 1950s, when terized by a strong sense of local control: it is farms, rice fields, and managed forests covered local residents who direct the management and the Sayama Hills-some of the place names used are those of actual sites in the hills-and volunteer programs. Municipal and prefectural depicts a simple agricultural community in governments of the region have responded which villagers work together for the good of to their efforts by buying additional land surall. The movie has served as a powerful focus rounding the satoyama trust areas. In addition, for the positive feelings of the Japanese toward both the National Environmental Agency and the government of Saitama Prefecture have satoyama and traditional village life. The project was built around four major launched their own Sayama Hills conservation activities. During the initial phase, a broad efforts through such campaigns as \"Hometowns of people were encouraged to contribute in Contact with Traditions and Nature.\" range money to buy land for conservation as Satoyama Conservation in Urban Areas: The satoyama. In the first two years of the campaign, Yokohama Example 110,000 people-40 percent of them younger than seventeen-donated approximately 110 Another approach to conserving agricultural million yen (equal to one million USD). landscapes has involved cooperation between volunteers and university researchers. A sucSecond, the organization called for volunteers to restore satoyama landscapes with the help of cessful example of this approach can be seen at the Musashi Institute of Technology in local farmers. A total of two thousand people worked together to rebuild rice paddies Yokohama. In 1997, when a new campus of the and water reservoirs and, later, to cultivate Institute's Department of Environmental and 9 Farmers and urban citizens working to conserve and manage the satoyama landscape m Sayama Hills clockwise from top left, children managmg mce paddles m summer, fall mce harvest, collectmg fallen leaves m a mixed forest to encourage spnng wildflowers, children and adults identlfymg dragonfly nymphs and removmg exotic fish and crayfish Information Studies was established on the site of neglected satoyama land, a little more than one hectare of forest was set aside for conservation. The area, which had been abandoned more than thirty years earlier, consisted mostly of deciduous and evergreen trees and a fruit orchard, all overgrown by a dense tangle of vines, bamboo, and weeds. The forest is now being restored and managed by university researchers with two closely associated objectives. The first is to use the forest for teaching and directing research about satoyama ecology, management, and restoration. Students are able to access data accumulated in past years in order to make comparisons over time. The second objective is to establish educational links between the university community and the citizens of Yokohama. A group of volunteers that included local citizens, faculty, and university administrators began the restoration project by surveying and inventorying the area's resources. The area was then divided into five zones, each with its own conservation goals and management program. For example, a zone of mixed deciduous broadleaf trees was restored by removing the vines, bamboo clumps, and other plants that covered the entire forest floor. It is now bemg monitored to document changes in the wildflower community. Just a few years after restoration, many spring wildflowers, such as the orchids Cymbidium goeringil and Cephalanthera falcata-both widely appreciated for their great beauty-have started to appear, apparently growing from small, suppressed plants or dormant seeds. Another zone is being managed for bamboo, with bamboo poles and edible shoots being harvested in a controlled students, 10 to the need for conservation and if the offer volunteer opportunities that allow projects citizens to renew their sense of identification with traditional agriculture. Given that the rich biodiversity of traditional agricultural landscapes is being threatened in many parts of the world, these examples may serve to promote conservation efforts in other densely populated, rapidly modernizing parts of the world. directed Notes This essay draws was The shpper orchid Cypripedium japonicum. The bamboo shoots are later used in traditional Japanese recipes at the volunteers' social gatherings. While this conservation project is very small in area, it has received considerable local support and publicity. Many people living in the vicinity value the project as a local resource for education and recreation and as a point of contact with the university community. The social activities of the project, especially the bamboo shoot meals, are also attractive. The Musashi project is linked to more widespread conservation efforts undertaken by the Yokohama city government, which has now preserved 1,267 hectares of the city's remaining 3,000 hectares of satoyama wooded areas by designating them as citizens' forests, parks, or reserved areas. The government's efforts, however, have been restricted to setting aside the manner. on the authors' earlier work, which published m 2003 in Ambio 32~4): 307-311, as \"Participatory Conservation Approaches for Satoyama, the Traditional Forest and Agncultural Landscape of Japan.\" 1 Environment Agency, Government of Japan, 2000, Quahty of the Envmonment m Japan (in Japanese). z K. Yamaoka, H. Monyama, and T. Shigematsu, 1997, Ecological role of secondary forests m the traditional farming area m Japan, Bulletin of Toyo University 20: 373-384 (m Japanese). ~ T. Shidei, 1993, Learning From Forests (Tokyo. Kalmei Publishing Co. Ltd., m Japanese). 4 R. Pnmack, H. Kobon, and S. Mon, 2000, Dragonfly pond restoration promotes conservation awareness m Japan, Conservauon Biology 14. 1553-1554, H. Monyama, 1997, Reviving Nature of Rural Areas (Tokyo. Iwanami Publishing Co. Ltd), p. 4; and ibid., 1998, Satoyama as reservoir of fauna and flora, Landscape Studies 61: 281-283 (both m Japanese). R. Pnmack and H. Kobon, 1997, Introduction to Conservation Biology ~Tokyo~ Bumchr-Sougou Publishing Co. Ltd.), p. 94; Ministry of the \" areas; plans are now being developed to restore and maintain the forests' quality by turning management over to citizen groups and conservation organizations in order to reduce costs to the government and to increase public support for satoyama. The potential for expansion of conservation activities is indicated by a survey showing that 45 percent of Yokohama citizens would be willing to participate in this and similar activities. Environment, Government of Japan, 2000, Threatened Wildhfe of Japan, Red Data Book, 2nd ed (both m Japanese). 61998, Totoro Japanese). Hiromi Kobon Hometown Foundation News ~ (m is a now active in conservation specialist m marine microbiology, research, river restoration, Satoyama Conservation: A Model for Others? These two programs have shown that traditional satoyama ecosystems can be restored and maintained even within the densely settled urban Japanese landscape if public attention is and environmental education. She is the co-author of a Japanese textbook m conservation biology and is Professor of Environmental and Information Studies Musashi Institute of Technology, Yokohama. Richard Pnmack is Professor of Plant Ecology at Boston University, focusing on rare plants and tropical forests. He is the author of two textbooks m conservation biology, which have been widely translated mto other languages. His current research focuses on the impact of climate change on plants, including those at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Taming the Wild Beach Plum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25376","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed2708526.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Uva, Richard H.","article_content":"Taming the Wild Beach Plum Richard H. Uva Beach plum is a conspicuous shrub of coastal plant communities in the north- United States because of its prolific bloom, prized fruit, and perseverance in a seemingly hostile environment. Several attempts have been made to bring this wild fruit into cultivation. eastern 've known the beach plum Marsh.) I childhood on Cape Cod, where it was the only woody plant since I (Prunus maritima sea of dune grass that separated the ocean from the rest of the world. Michael Dirr writes in his Manual of Cultivated Plants that \"This species abounds on Cape Cod, Massachusetts, and is one of the Cape Codder's cherished plants.\" In fact, I would say that Cape Codders feel a sense of entitlement to the species and its fruit. The beach plum is much appreciated for its profuse white bloom m spring, but it is in late summer, when people gather the fruit from the wild for jelly and other preserves, that its impor- The frmts of Prunus mamtima are small plmns-one-half to an inch (1 5 tance to the local culture becomes 2 5 cmJ m diameter-that npen from late August through September. most apparent. The long-time breviligulata), beach pea (Lathyrus maritimus), gatherers have secret spots and favorite bushes, and seaside goldenrod (Solidago sempervirens). and strangers carrying pails in the dunes are When I learned that William Clark of the Cape viewed with suspicion. In a good crop year the Cod Cooperative Extension and a small group of race to harvest is so competitive that the fruit farmers in Barnstable County, Massachusetts, is sometimes picked when barely ripe. were working to bring beach plum into cultivaIn 1996 I began to study Prunus maritima for my doctoral dissertation in horticulture at tion, I focused on fruit production methods and the ecology of the species, together with its useCornell University. I was fascinated by this fulness for land restoration.'1 to thrive in environlong-lived species' ability Beach plums were noted by several European ments with salt, apparent drought, and frequent disturbance, where its neighbors are often explorers, conspicuous, perhaps, because of their location along the coast. The earliest short-lived, stress-tolerant herbaceous plants account is from Giovanni da Verrazano, who in like American beach grass (Ammophila in the to 12 hotspots on Cape Cod, eastLong Island, and at the New Jersey Shore's Island Beach State Park and Cape May. It is also used ern with for dune stabilization and other conservation programs. The Extreme Variability of Prunus maritima please and the botamst - Plums grow pretty much as they has to take them as he fmds them. F. A. Waugh, Plums and Plum Culture, 1901 was first named in there has been confusion 1785, over whether Prunus maritima is indeed a single species, presumably because of its many variations in habit, fruit color, and size. In 1897 J. K. Small described as a new species a specimen that he had discovered in Connecticut, on a ridge near Long Island Sound, and named it Prunus gravesii in tmgs. They are honor of Charles B. Graves, a Connecticut physician and amateur botanist.4 P. gravesii still appears as a separate species in manuals today, although Small's was the only individual ever found. Described as having orbiculate rather than the usual lanceolate leaves, it was recently determined to have been a mutant of P. maritima and therefore a variety rather than a species.s One early attempt to document the beach plum's many variations in the wild was that of J. M. MacFarlane, who was inspired by reading Darwin's Animals and Plants Under Domestication and by the wide variation in fruit quality he had found within individual sites.6 Later a student of MacFarlane, John Young Pennypacker, drew up an evolutionary hierarchy based on fruit variations, but the nine taxonomic varieties he proposed were never 7 accepted in the horticultural literature.' Edgar Anderson, a geneticist on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, saw in beach plum variation an opportunity to explore such questions as, is a species more variable at the center of its Ever since it White flowers appear m mid May on reddish-brown pollinated by msects 1524 recorded \"damson trees\" in what today is southern New York State.2 Since then, several coastal land masses have been named after the beach plum: Plum Island, a barrier beach and conservation area near Newburyport, Massa- chusetts ; Plum Island, an isolated speck of land off the northeastern tip of Long Island, New York, which is home to the USDA's Plum Island Animal Disease Center; and Prime Hook, a barrier beach in Delaware whose anglicized name is derived from the Dutch settlers' Pruime Hoek, which would more correctly translate to Plum Point. Several species of native plums were used by indigenous people and by settlers across North America.3 The fruits are cherry-sized plums with a flavor that varies from astringent to relatively sweet when ripe. Plums are rarely eaten raw, but their tartness gives jam and jelly a distinctive taste. Today, jelly production from wild fruit persists as a cultural tradition in coastal communities throughout the species' range, 13 population from the air mid May when the prolific, bright-white bloom revealed the species' location. In 1932 Anderson and Ames published \"Botanizing from an Airplane\" in The Bulletin of Popular Information, the forerunner to Arnoldia.8 The article included a detailed map of beach plum distribution, along with the claim that the two authors were the first to map a species' distribution from the air. Any further work that Anderson may have done on variation in beach plum was never published. map the in Cultivating Beach Plum: Attempts Commercial production of native plums began in the 1800s. Over Previous In the map is chiefly mld, beach plums occur only on North Amenca's Atlanuc Coast, m Massachusetts, New York, and New Jersey This distnbution Bulletin of from Anderson and Ames' Popular Information. 1932 article m the Arnold Arboretum's 's the course of the century, as many as two hundred native species may have been selected for cultivation.9 More than seventy bulletins devoted wholly or in part to native plums and cherries appeared between 1888 and 1900. Passage in 1897 of the Hatch Act, which funded agricultural experiment stations, led to even more research and more additions to the literature. But no publication influenced the culture of the native species more than the 1892 Cultivated Native Plums and Cherries by L. H. Bailey distribution or at the periphery? Are unusual forms found with greater frequency in one part of its range than in another? Using beach plum as his core model, he might even get at one of the questions of biology: What is a species? To address these questions Anderson first needed to map the beach plum's range, but after a week of driving around Boston's South Shore he had located few large colomes. To save time, he enlisted Oliver Ames (son of Oakes Ames, then head of the Arboretum) as pilot in order to (Wight 1915\/.' F. A. Waugh, U. P. Hednck, and W. F. Wight also produced encyclopedic works that appeared early in the twentieth century.\" Beach plum, however, was not among the first native plums selected for cultivation, even though its distribution on the East Coast made it better known than plums native to areas settled later. According to Bailey, the beach plum, along with all other species native to the East Coast, was passed over because imported European plums were already thriving there, and little need was seen for \"inferior\" native 14 . i The shlftmg sand of coastal dunes often partially bunes the plants. commercial product. California in 1875 from Worcester County, Massachusetts, and established a nursery in Santa Rosa, where he went on to become a famous horticulturist and plant breeder. He described his work with beach plum m his 1914 book, How Plants Are Trained to Work for Man, attributing his interest in the species to its hardiness, late blooming, and productivity, as well as its ability to withstand adverse conditions. He reported that he grew beach plum seedlings by the hundred thousand and by continuous selection had produced varieties bearing fruits nearly an inch in diameter, pleasing in form and color and delicious in flavor. He crossed his improved varieties with a hybrid Japanese plum to produce what he called the 'Giant Maritima' and reported fruit up to eight-and-one-quarter inches in circumference. Unfortunately, 'Giant Maritima' could not be commercialized-it lacked the firmness necessary for long-distance transport. It was by crossing the Japanese Prunus salicina with the Chinese P. simonii and P. americana that Burbank achieved a plum with the qualities species. Improvement of into climates such native plums began only when the population of the country spread as that of the prairie states and the South, where old-world plums could not survive.'z The first sign of interest in beach plum as a cultivated crop dates to 1872, when an article in American Agriculturist displayed an illustration of beach plum and noted its potential for plum as a potential Burbank had moved to hybridization. Our principal object m calling attention to this plum is the promise it holds out of being useful as a stock on which to bud or graft the cultivated varieties ... it would flourish upon the poorest soils and it is very hkely that it would prove a 1, dwarfing stock.\" year, the first cultivar of beach introduced: 'Bassett's American', a chance seedling with large fruit found in Hammonton, New Jersey; it seems to have been largely ignored by both planters and horticulturists. But it wasn't until the 1890s, when Luther Burbank began to hybridize them with Japanese plums, that serious work was done on beach In that same plum was 15 required for shipping, thereby initiating a new industry in California that sent plums all around the world and led to the demise of plum growing in most other states. 14 The second attempt to commercialize beach plum was initiated in the 1930s in hopes of adding \"a drop in the dry old bucket of New England industry,\" in the words of one beach plum enthusiast, Ruth Eldridge White. She summered on Martha's Vineyard and had observed the success of the cranberry industry on the Massachusetts mainland and wanted to see a similar industry evolve from the beach plum on the Vineyard, where bad economic times had already led to an increase in the number of people selling jelly from wild beach plum. development of an mdustry from this native product seemed a sensible practical idea to me. A great mdustry had been developed on the Cape through the Cranberry ... Why shouldn't the beach plum make as important an industry as the cranberry? The flavor is certainly more appealing. That sweet bitterness comes from a life of hardship, I guess.'S The After unsuccessful attempts to persuade government agencies (the Massachusetts Department of Agriculture, the Commissioner of Conservation, the WPA, and the County Commissioners) to promote beach plum as a crop, White purchased a farm on the Vineyard's shore and leased it to Dukes County for a beach plum nursery to be operated under the aegis of the State Extension Service. Wilfrid Wheeler of Falmouth, Massachusetts, a former state commissioner of agriculture, was installed as director, and plant- Durmg wartime J. M Batchelor accepted the james R. Jewett Pnze for his work on beach plum at the USDA Soil Conservation Sermce. director of the new nursery on Martha's Vine- yard ; ing began in 1938. In 1941 White obtained funds for beach Tomlinson, county agricultural agent for Barnstable County, Massachusetts; and Jackson M. Batchelor, associate horticulturBertram ist in the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. research from the Massachusetts and soon thereafter reports began appearing in horticultural journals on propagation;'6 on culture;\" on processing; 18 and on the history of the species itself.19 Interest in beach plum was further spurred by the James R. Jewett Prize, established in 1940 at the Arnold Arboretum for research on the species. Jewett, a professor emeritus of Arabic at Harvard University, had become involved with beach plum after learning about it that spring from three men in the region who had experience with the species: Wilfrid Wheeler, the plum legislature, Jewett hoped to render good service to Cape Cod by working for the development of the beach plum industry ... these prizes [are to] be offered primarily for the scientific and empirical improvement of the beach plum (Prunus mantima), including however, the social significance of work with this native species or its products.2o The Jewett Prize was awarded regularly throughout the 1940s and early 1950s but was then suspended for some time because of waning interest in the plant. (In 1972 it was awarded 16 as I feel the research work has not progressed far enough to give us practical information the commercial grower would need.\" His request that more research be done on beach plum by the state experimental facility was refused because of limited funds. However, Tomlinson began forming the Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Association with a group of fruit collectors, jelly makers, and farmers. An initial meeting was held in October 1941, but interest in beach plum was soon overin 1952-to protect identity and guarantee quality-the Cape Cod Beach shadowed by the need to concenPlum Growers Association obtamed a Massachusetts Department of trate on standard crops during 4gmculture state grade label for them products. the war and the new organization for work done on other native fruits-a stipuladid not officially form until 1948. By 1952 the tion Jewett originally included on advice of Association had over ninety members, and the Arboretum staff.)\/ Massachusetts Department of Agriculture had tutors had already done substantial Jewett's granted a state grade label as an assurance of research on beach plum. Batchelor had selected product quality for beach plum fruit. By 1955, ten beach plum genotypes from collections however, after three poor crop years, interest throughout its range and distributed five of had waned again and the Association became inactive.z~ In its last bulletin, the association them to the Arnold Arboretum and other institutions to evaluate for erosion control and fruit reported that beach plum suppliers had not been able to satisfy market demand because quality when World War II interrupted his work. Nevertheless, after receiving the Jewett Prize in rapid land development was taking \"good beach 1942 Batchelor wrote to E. D. Merrill, Arnold plum land\" away from pickers.23 Apparently and director of the Arnold Arboretum, most fruit was still being collected from the professor from the Air Force Officers' Training School: wild, with very few beach plum plants under cultivation.24 I trust that when world peace once agam prevails that it will be possible to continue my much unfinished research on the development of the beach plum as a rugged, erosion-resistant, woody crop for erodible lands of the Northern United States.2' Cultivating Beach Plum: To the The Current Efforts Another of Jewett's advisors, Tomlinson, had assembled information on the species in 1938 and passed it on to hundreds of residents in the Cape Cod area. In 1941 he reported that he had received over 500 requests for information about beach plum-more requests over the past twelve months than for any other crop. Tomlinson was nevertheless cautious about promoting commercial beach plum cultivation to growers. In a letter to Mernll, he wrote: \"I have consistently discouraged such projects, student, our native and domestic plum flora will long remain the most inviting, perplexed and virgin field in American pomology. L. H. Bailey, 1898, The Evolution of Our - Natme Fruits funding from the Jewett Fund for work on my dissertation, done under the direction of Thomas Whitlow at Cornell University. That research has since been expanded mto a full-fledged program led by Professor Whitlow and myself to develop this species as a commercial crop. Today, plenty of plums are produced in California and cultivation of native American selecIn 1997I received 17 7 special place by east the shore. To be this kind of we believe competitive, farmers in the Northneed to supply high-end that beach a crop, and plum can develop into specialty product suitable for diversified farming operations. The goal of our program, then, is to develop a sustainable beach plum industry that covers the gamut from fruit growing to pro- marketing, along with the required education of growers, processors, and marketers. The research falls into three main categories: fruit production; quality evaluation and processing; and economics and marketing. Our research so far has borne out our optimism about the potential for this new industry. Horticultural research has shown that plant size and fruit production are increased by fertilization, while irrigation and mulch have no effect; this finding confirms that beach plum is a stresstolerant crop that can be grown successfully without irrigation, even on sandy, low-nutrient soils. (Beach plum also flourishes away from the shore, on typical orchard soil, but good drainage is a must.) cessing to Brown rot was fungus (Monilinia sp.) found to be the most serious disease problem for fruit production. Growers can be reluctant to accept a new crop if pest control practices are not well develA 20-year-old beach plum m a mature orchard at Briermere Farms, oped. Fortunately, however, beach Rmerhead, Long Island. plum's pests are similar to those tions has nearly ceased. So why develop beach of commercial plums and control techniques are already available. plum as a new crop? The increased income enjoyed by consumers Preliminary market research on processed in the second half of the twentieth century products has also had favorable results. In focus in the way they view food, brought changes group discussions held in New York City, beach it to satisfy not only their hunger, but also using plum products evoked positive associations their emotional and social needs. Beach plum with beaches, New England, Cape Cod, vacafits with this view because it is seen as a unique tions, and summertime and indicated that at least among gourmet consumers in coastal product-a heritage crop that comes from a 18 . critical factor, since cold, wet weather inhibit pollinating insects. Or beach plum's pattern of alternate-year ORIGIN bearing (biennial bearing) may be at Northeast U.S. coastal sand dunes fault. This term is used for a phenomenon common in many perennial fruit HABIT species in which flower buds for the Sprawling shrub to small tree, with a large taproot system on coarse soils following spring develop as the current year's fruit is ripening; a heavy fruit set CULTURE during one year can therefore lead to a Tolerates coarse, low-nutrient, low water-holding carbohydrate shortage and fruit scarcity the next year. It is hoped that when soil; thrives on rich soil but not on wet sites or in shade beach plum is grown under cultivation, away from the rigors of the dune enviINTEREST ronment and with adequate nutrition Profuse white bloom mid May. Edible fruits (1.5and pruning to avoid unusually heavy 2.5 cm), purple (rarely yellow), ripening in early crops, yields will become more regular. September in the northeastern U.S. The program is also placing heavy emphasis on cultivar selection. Wild HARDINESS fruit has been sampled throughout the USDA plant hardiness zones 4-7 reported species' range to delineate the desirable traits available for selection in this PROPAGATION highly variable species. Fruit color in Four months' cold, moist stratification after seed our samples has shown differences in is hydrated, softwood cuttings early in the season intensity and in hue (red to dark blue, or late-summer budding. rarely yellow). Fruit size has ranged from 13.5 to 25 mm in diameter, with SIMILAR SPECIES pulp yield varying from 81 to 91 perSeveral species of plum are distributed across cent. All samples were high in phenolic North America and have a similar history of wild content and acidity and showed good collection. Prunus subcordata, Oregon and Calipotential as a source of antioxidants. fornia ; P. americana, central and eastern U.S.; Wild seed from 21 sites across the P. angustifolia, southern U.S.; P. nigra, northern species' range was also collected to U.S. and Canada. screen for variations in resistance to brown rot, consistency of yield, and level of antioxidant content. In the spring of metropolitan areas, potential exists for expand2003, these seeds were planted in trial plots at ing into new product categories such as sauces, research facilities and on private farms in Massorbet, ice cream, and blends with other fruits. Market research is continuing and a beach sachusetts, New York, Connecticut, and Maryland. We would also like to include in our consortium is being developed under the plum of the USDA's Sustainable Agriculevaluations some cultivars from the 1940s that sponsorship ture Research and Education Program (SARE). are mentioned in the literature of that time, but One important question that remains to be I have been unable to locate many of them. answered concerns beach plum's tendency to If a reader knows of the existence of any of this bear irregular fruit yields: can it be controlled? material, I would appreciate hearing about it. As noted earlier, a wild beach plum may fruit Once horticultural trials are finished, reliable profusely one year and not at all the next. Varitechniques for cloning our final selections will ous hypotheses have been proposed to explain be needed. Keith Vanderhye, who received the this. The weather at blossoming time may be a Jewett Award in August of 2003, has begun tackRosaceae BEACH PLUM, Prunus maritima Marsh. (Rose Family) can 1 19 problem under the direction of KenMudge as part of his work for a master's degree at Cornell University; he will investigate both vegetative propagation and grafting. ling this ~ L. H. Bailey. 1898. Sketch of the Evoluuon of Our Natme Fzmts. 10 l neth Wight. 1915. Waugh. Bailey. It is obvious that we have not yet solved all the 1901. Plums and Plum Culture, Hednck. 1911. Plums of New York; Wight. 1915. 1898. or problems associated with commercializing beach plum, but successful orchards have already been established and approximately forty farms are growing beach plum in the eastern United States. Individual plantings are relatively small, the largest being 0.5 hectares and the smallest having only ten to fifteen plants. In addition, the Cape May Plant Materials Center (Natural Resources Conservation Service) has released a cultivar of beach plum known as 'Ocean View' that was selected for coastal sand dune stabilization and is being distributed as open-pollinated seed to nurserymen. Readers are invited to visit our website (www.beachplum.cornell.edu), which serves as our primary outreach tool and is intended to bring together everyone with an interest in beach plum. It includes photos, contacts, reports, a grower's guide, and news articles. Notes 1 12 131g72. The beach sand plum. Amencan Agncultunst 31. ia 424. W. R. Okte and D. W. Rammmg. 1999. Plum breeding 162-176. worldwide. 15 HortTechnology 9~2\/: [R. E.] White. 1940. The beach plum. Bulletin of the Garden Club of Amenca, senes 7, no 7~ 50-56. Mrs. W. O. 16 Graves. 1940. Beach plums are being favored. Horticulture 18\/19\/: 389; W. L. Doran and J. S. Bailey. 1942. Propagating beach plums by cuttings. Amemcan Nurseryman 76[6\/: 7; Doran and Bailey. 1943. Beach plums from softwood cuttings, Amemcan Nurseryman 78[8\/: 7-8. 1944 The beach plum in Massachusetts. Massachusetts Agncultural Expenment Station Bulletm No. 422. S. G. Davis and A. S. Levine. 1942. Composirion and Utilization of the Beach Plum. Frmt Products Journal 1~J. S. Bailey. 18 21 [August\/: 19 361-364. Graves. 1944. The beach plum, yield of beach plum (Prunus mamtima Marshall) m horticultural, land restoration, and ecological systems. Ph.D. dissertation, Cornell Uva. 2003 Growth and The National Horncultural Magazme 2o its wntten record. Aprrl~ 73-79 J. R. Jewett. 1940. Jewett. Letter to E. D. Mernll. Archives of the Arnold Arboretum VII A-JRJ 21 z2 (hereafter AAA). University. z W F. Wight. 1915. Native American species of Prunus Bulletm of the U.S. Department of 1942. AAA. B Tomlinson. 1941. The Culture of Beach Plums Extension Agriculture 3 179: 1-75. Wight, 1915. (Prunus manuma) in Massachusetts, Cape Cod (MA) Service, Special Circular No. 46 (Revised), November; 1946. Letter to E. D. Mernll. AAA; 1955. Letter to K. Sax. AAA. 4 Small. 1897. An apparently undescnbed species of Prunus from Connecticut. Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 24: 42-45 5 G. J. Anderson. 1980. The status of the very Prunus gravesm Small. Rhodora 82: 113-129. 6 rare z3 Jones and 1. S. Snow. 1958. Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers' Association Bulletm, no. 10. F. H Graves. za 1949. cultivation. Arnoldia Looking towards beach plum 9~11-12\/: 53-64. MacFarlane. 1901. The beach plum, viewed from botanical and economic aspects. Contmbuuons From the Botamcal Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvama 2\/2\/: ~ 216-230. Pennypacker. 1915. Observations on the beach plum. a study in plant vamauon. Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania. Anderson and Ames. 1932. Bulletm Information, serres 3, vol. 6: 37~4. 8 of Popular Richard H. Uva is the principal author of Weeds of the Northeast, a field guide wntten for growers and botanists. In addition to managmg the beach plum sustamable agriculture project m the Horticulture Department at Cornell University he is Interpretation Coordmator at Cornell Plantations-the botanical garden, arboretum, and natural areas of Cornell University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Native Plant Enthusiasm: Ecological Panacea or Xenophobia?","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25377","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270856b.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim","article_content":"The Native Plant Enthusiasm: Ecological Panacea or Xenophobia? Gert Groning and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn two ver the last designers have tended to avoid the use plants that are labeled exotic, or nonnative. Many professionals and laypeople who are interested in nature, landscape, and gardens assume that what they believe are indigenous, or native, plants are unquestionably better than those that are not. A number of years ago(1986) Reinhard Witt, a German biologist and advocate of \"nature gardens,\" published an article entitled \"Tear the rhododendrons out!\" Witt demanded the liberation of gardens in Germany from foreign trees and shrubs, especially rhododendrons. Similarly, Leslie Sauer, an American landscape architect, wrote that only the North Woods area of New York's Central Park was \"healthy\" since it was free of exotic plants; she rated other parts of Central Park as \"degraded areas.\" This hostility toward foreign plants appears to be a phenomenon in many countries around the world. The distinction between native and nonnative plants has a long history; it may be as old as concepts of nations and of native and foreign people. For example, in 1629 the Englishman John Parkinson published his book Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris. Parkinson presented plants \"that are called usually English flowers\" and \"outlandish flowers\" in a remarkably unbiased way. He knew already that t those flowers that have been usually planted m former times m Gardens of this Kingdom ... have by time and custome attamed the name of English flowers, although the most of them were never naturall of this our Land, but brought in from other countries at one time or other, by those that tooke pleasure in them where they first saw them. of decades, landscape became native seems to have faded. Not long ago the late Stephen Jay Gould offered a fascinating discussion of the concept of native plants: \"this notion encompasses a remarkable mixture of sound biology, invalid ideas, false extensions, ethical implications, and political usages both intended and unanticipated.\" Natives, according to Gould, are only those organisms that first happened to gam and keep a footing ... In this context, the only conceivable rationale for the moral or practical superiority of \"natives\" (read first-comers) he in a romanticized notion that old mhablearn to live m ecological harmony with surroundmgs, while later interlopers tend to be exploiters. But this notion, however popular among \"new agers,\" must be dismissed as romantic drivel.' must itants Those who doctrinarily plead for native plants often also condemn foreign or exotic plants as aggressive intruders, thus suggesting that native plants are peaceful and noninvasive. Numerous publications give evidence of this biased viewpoint. In an article \"Wildflowers: the case for native plants,\" for example, it is stated that some nonnative, naturalized wildflower species in the United States exhibit \"aggressive, weedy behavior.\" Characterizations such as \"invasive exotic weeds,\" \"non-indigenous invasive weeds,\" \"exotic species invasions,\" and \"foreign invaders\" are common. Advocates ot native-plant use tend to ascribe high moral qualities to themselves and to their followers. An essential part of this realm of moral qualities is the idea of the nation. This idea developed in the Western world in the course of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries at the same time as disciplines such as plant geography, plant ecology, and plant sociology were being established. At the beginning, scholars in these disciplines were internationally Although there are a few studies along similar lines published in the late twentieth century, this historical knowledge of how foreign plants 21 \"Valley m Somersetshire, wmh Narclssi, Marsh Wilham Robinson's The Wild Garden, 1883. Mamgolds, and Pmmroses from 22 . oriented. However, by the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries some of their writing turned increasingly nationalistic. This article explores examples of this nationalistic ideology in landscape design in two countries, Germany and the United States, focusing in particular on points of connection between their national landscape cultures. The Doctrine of Natural Plant Use in Germany From the seventeenth century was an , onward, there in the cultivation of plants from other countries. However, this interest faded in the early part of the twentieth century. For example, since the early nineteenth century, many \"foreign\" trees had been planted in Herrenkrugwiesen, a park near Magdeburg, Germany, for scholarly rather than merely design interest. In the early 1900s, however, it was decided that the park should be changed to a meadow-park, and public pressure forced the then garden director, Wilhelm Lincke (1866-1912), to remove already-planted interest, both scholarly and lay, \"foreigners.\" With regard to the actual design of parks and gardens in Germany, such public pressure was not predominant, but it can be seen as an aspect of a reactionary national ideology that would dominate German society. Similar trends might be seen in other industrial countries in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, at the high point of imperialism. In England, for instance, William Robinson and others searched for the truly English garden. In France, Andre Vera was looking for the truly French garden. In the United States, as we will see later, Jens Jensen, Wilhelm Miller, and Frank A. Waugh tried to pull away from the garden design of the Old World in order to establish a genuinely American garden style clearly distinguished from the European. Only in Germany, however, did this interest become part of a radical nationalistic movement that emerged in the early twentieth century. It was enforced when, in January 1933, the National Socialist German Workers' Party came to power. Then, a nationalistic antagonism toward anything foreign and nonGerman, which had been common in factions of German society, turned into a powerful soon \" garden motifs by Willy Lange. Above, from Lange's Gartengestaltung der Neuzeit, 1907 and Nature 1928, and und seme on the facmg page, from his Der Garten Bepflanzung, Das Leben der Pflanze, 1913. In the man early twentieth century, modern Gergarden design followed trends in architecand the as ture were arts. New ways of aesthetic expression well as new forms of social life being explored. Many people attempted to escape what were perceived as outdated, latenineteenth-century customs. The new approach was associated with, for instance, Cubism, Expressionism, and Functionalism, which to some extent found their way into garden design. In reaction to that modern aesthetic, others advocated the modern concepts of \"natural\" garden design and claimed to apply the most recent scientific findings of ecology and plant sociol- Willy Lange (1864-1941)presented approach in landscape architecture.2 Lange's \"biological aesthetic\" was modern in the sense that it applied science to design. But ogy. In 1913 such an public movement. from a social perspective it was reactionary, promoting dubious ideas about the assumed relationship between the German people and nature and provoking within particular groups hostility 23 architects such as Jens Jensen also saw analogies between landscape associations of plants and human society. For example, Jensen believed that plants communicate and associate like humans. In 1939 he wrote to a German colgroup league, \"Plants, like ourselves, together and have their toward the \"international\" by excluding foreign The emerging science of ecology was the instrument for this naturalistic trend in garden design, which depended on the notion of natural associations of plants. The starting point for ecology as \"a definite science\" was the publication in 1895 of Ecology of Plants: an mtroduction to the study of plant commumties by the Danish scientist Eugen Warming(18411924), subsequently translated into German and English. Around 1900 the term plant sociology was coined and was most influentially developed by Josias Braun-Blanquet, who published his book Plant Sociology: the study of plant communities in 1928. In this book he popularized the doctrine of plant sociology and defined its subject as follows: \"Every natural aggregation of plants is the product of definite conditions, present and past, and can exist only when these conditions are given. The whole structure of plant sociology rests upon this idea of sociological determination.\" Braun-Blanquet maintained that sociology and plant sociology \"have one important point of contact: they are concerned not with the expression of life of the individual organism as such but with groups or communities of organisms having more or less equivalent reactions, bound together m mutual plants. likes and dislikes. \"3 For the German landscape architect Willy Lange, writing in 1928, a \"nature garden\" would have an informal rather than a geometric or architectural design. Native plants would be preferred to foreign ones.4 Moreover, the garden had to be subordinated to the surrounding landscape. Lange considered the centuries-old art of topiary as evidence of human hegemony over nature. For him, cutting trees, shrubs, and hedges was a form of anthropocentric dominance over nature and an expression of the unnatural attitudes of other cultures that were at lower stages of cultural evolution. Instead, humans should follow and augment the so-called laws of nature spiritually, arranging nature artistically in the form of the nature garden. For a \"true\" German in those days, culture could only be national culture.s Consequently Lange saw garden art as a constituent of national culture. He strongly rejected the idea that \"art could be international\" and proclaimed : \"Let us find the national style for our gardens, then we will have art, German garden art. As long as different nations exist, there must exist different national styles.\" Lange's idea of nationality assumed that there was a ranking of cultures: for him the superiority of the German people was part of their national identity. For Lange, the German people were rooted in the soil, and every German required and deserved an appropriate natural-spatial environment. In 1907 he wrote: of \"blood and soil\" was taking hold in Germany in a context of increasing racism and nationalism in Europe, and the doctrine of plant sociology fascinated many a landscape architect. As we shall see later, American dependence. The ideology \" feelings for our homeland should be rooted the character of domestic landscapes; therefore it is German nature that must provide all ideas for the design of gardens. They can be heightened by artistic means, but we must not give up the German physiognomy. Thus, our gardens become German if the ideas for the Our m 24 intended to strengthen a nationally oriented culture against modern and international tendencies in the arts. Seifert deliberately introduced the \"rootedness\" category into the art of gardening because he \"wanted to bring garden art into the struggle in all living spaces which has broken out in our days between 'rootedness in the soil' and 'supranationality.\"' Later, when Seifert became one of the leading landscape architects of National Socialism, he elaborated on this struggle as \"a fight between two opposing Weltanschauungen: on one side the In July 1932 Seifert recommended these natmes of Germany's striving for supranationality, for levelmountam forests to the readers of Gartenschonheit, wntmg, \"We ing down of huge areas, and on the other have no overabundance of summer-blooming perenmals for the rock the elaboration of the peculiarities of garden It is amazmg that such an attractive and easy-to-care-for small living spaces, emphasizing that httle herb hke Circaea [enchanter's mghtshade) is so httle known which is rooted in the soil.\" Seifert echoed Lange, who in 1907 had praised the design are German, especially if they are borrowed from the landscape m which the garden \"rediscovery of so-called folk art; the stressing is located. of one's own folk character-in opposition to the glorification of the international, in reality Such a view was popular not only during the non-national.\" Reich in Germany, but continued Imperial During National Socialism, the subordination through the Weimar Republic and became part of the design to the dictates of what were then of the state doctrine during National Socialism. considered national landscapes and native Given the variety of what could have been as landscape in Germany, we might plants turned into a doctrine. Racist, nationalisregarded tic, and so-called ecological vocabulary served expect Lange to have suggested a matching number of natural garden designs. However, landscape architects in their attempts to eliminate foreign plants from German soil. For he believed three types to be sufficient for all German natural garden design: a \"mountain,\" a example, in 1936 the German landscape architect Albert Kramer argued that the Germans \"middle,\" and a \"plains\" landscape. The American landscape architect Frank A. Waugh (1869still lack gardens that are race-specific, that have their origins in nationality and landscape, in 1943), who had studied garden design with blood and soil. Only our knowledge of the laws Lange in 1910 at the institution for teaching of the blood, and the spiritually inherited propand research in horticulture (Gartnerlehranstalt) erty and our knowledge of the conditions of the in Berlin-Dahlem, similarly distinguished for home soil and its plant world (plant sociology) the United States just four \"principal types of enable and oblige us to design blood-and-soilnative landscapes: the sea landscape, the mounrooted gardens. tains, the plains, and the forests.\" As a result of this narrow range of recognized landscapes, Similarly, a team of Saxon botanists militantly nature garden advocates such as the German equated their fight against foreign plants with the fight of Nazi Germany against other Alwin Seifert (1892-1972) felt they had to work with a \"fate-determined poverty of plants\" in a nations, especially \"against the plague of Bolshevism.\" The team demanded \"a war of exter\"nature garden.\" mination\" against Impatiens parviflora, a little In 1929 Seifert used the term \"rootedness herb that grows in lightly shaded areas in forin the soil\" for his concept of a natural garden ests. These professionals regarded I. parviflora design in two articles published in Die as a stranger that dared to spread and even Gartenkunst (Garden Art). Such a garden was \" 25 compete with I. noli tangere, a similar but larger species that was considered native. Presumably, the stranger endangered the purity of the German landscape, and in their final sentence the botanists extended their claim dramatically : \"As with the fight against Bolshevism, our entire occidental culture is at stake, so with the fight against this Mongolian invader, an essential element of this culture, namely, the beauty of our home forest\" is at stake. Concepts of Natural Garden Design in the United States The concern that emerged in Germany for a national style of garden was also evident among some U.S. landscape architects. They preferred native plants in their early twentieth-century American garden and landscape designs. Some even believed in the exclusive use of native plants. Such claims in the United States were made most emphatically In his 'Illinois' Way of Beautifymg the Farm, 1914, Miller captioned this photo, \"A Woodlot Full of Wild Flowers-No Cows, \" notmg that t \"The wild blue phlox (Phlox dmamcata) once carpeted the woodlands tens of thousands of them thrillmg blue flowers could be seen m May They mll come back and stay, if you will spend $2 for enough three-strand wire to mclose an acre of Illinois and \" by Jens Jensen(1860-1951),Wilhelm Miller (1369-1938), and Frank A. Waugh1869-1943~. Here we will discuss Miller's and Jensen's ideas. In 1915 Wilhelm Miller published a booklet, The Prairie Spmit in Landscape Gardening, in which he outlined his idea of a regional garden style that he felt was representative of midwestern landscapes. For him, \"the prairie style of landscape gardening is an American mode of design based upon the practical needs of the middle-western people and characterized by preservation of typical western scenery, by restoration of local color, and by repetition of the horizontal line of land or sky which is the strongest feature of prairie scenery.\" The disciplines that should assist the design of this garden style were systematic botany, state and local history, and ecology. For Miller, ecology was \"a new and fascinating branch of botany that deals with \/I porch decorauon Miller also recommended another prame \"This country home has pmvacy enough mthout traimng the roses up to hide the porch. The object here is to decorate the porch, and this shows what kmd of garland you can make mth the Illmois or prame rose (Rosa setigera). The bushes m the foreground are rhododendrons, which are impractical for Illmois, but we can get a umque effect by replacmg them with Illinois roses. Let most of them make compact bushes to hide the foundauon, and tram a few to make garlands. Why not a whole porch, now and then, planted exclusively or chiefly mth lllinois roses2 For nauve \" plant societies.\" Thus not only science and history were incorporated into garden design, but also the sense of a region-the Midwest, not in fact a particularly geographical area, but certainly a relative to the size of some European states. With his proposal for a regional garden style for the Midwest, Miller reacted against the garden design that had become popular among wealthy garden owners in the Northeast and that he feared would become the prevailing large region well-defined 26 style. He complained, for instance, about \"great excesses of artificiality, especially in the East, where rich men's gardens are often loaded with globes, cones, pyramids, cubes, and columns of evergreen foliage.\" Miller wanted the design of gardens to correspond to what he believed were the more modest means of the Midwest. Like Miller, the American landscape architect Jens Jensen opposed the use of nonnative plants in American parks and gardens and promoted the regional prairie style. To understand Jensen's work, his plea for the use of native plants, and his concept of garden design, we need to consider his ideas about the relationships among people, races, and nature. Jensen believed that ideas about nation, race, and the natural environment are closely interwoven. In an article on the art of landscaping published in 1923 in the German journal Die Gartenschonheit (Garden Beauty), Jensen drew a parallel between races and plant species: which are, and shall always remain so, novelties.\" The fact that Jensen himself was born in Denmark and had lived there for more than twenty years, yet could presume to develop the American \"Prairie Style,\" might cast some doubt on the idea of any congenital relationship of humans to particular landscapes. In 1939, at the high point of National Socialist power in Germany, Jensen wrote a letter to his German colleague Camillo Schneider in Berlin. His letter discussed Alwin Seifert, who as noted above, fully supported National Socialism and was arguing that landscape design in Nazi Germany must stand by the \"fatedetermined poverty of plants.\" But where Seifert allowed slightly fewer native plants in a garden, Jensen took a more uncompromising position: Seifert seems to distinguish between the garden inside an enclosure and the landscape-here he submits to compromise ... I cannot see how you can compromise on a difference between the garden and its surroundmgs, then the garden remams a stranger m its own land. To be true to Perhaps it may be too restricted to design a landscape picture only by the means of simple indigenous plants. But please consider that it was them amongst whom out we yourself, I mean true to your native landscape is grew up, that they taught us a particular language withmterruption smce the earliest days of our tribe, that they are mterwoven with the soul of our race and, indeed, no art of landscape gardening will be called true art and will be able to reflect the soul of a tribal people, if it does not take its means of expression from the environment of these people. These ideas were further developed in his 1939 book Siftings. In drawing a connection between race and landscape, Jensen wrote of \"the soul of our native landscape. Nothing can take its place. It is given to us when we are born, and with it we live.\" With respect to the art of garden design he ruled, \"art must come from within and the only source from which the art of landscaping can be landscape. It cannot imported foreign shores and be our own.\" For Jensen, \"no plant is more refined than that which belongs. There is no comparison between native plants and those imported from foreign shores come is our native from Both Waugh and Miller used illustrations of Jensen s designs in their books. This is from Waugh's 1917 The Natural Style m Landscape Gardening, where he captioned it, \"Naturalistic Composition. Back Yard Garden. \" Elsewhere m his text he wrote, \"Certainly he would be a hard theorist and an mtolerable puntan who would exclude the common hlac and the homely apple tree from his grounds simply because they are not natme to Amenca. It wouldn't be good democratic Americamsm, either, for the great bulk of our citizens are derived from foreign stocks. \" 27 whole-that is art. The other is science or decoration. It takes a higher mtellect to create a garden out of a few plants than of many. Jensen had clearly indicated how racism was an important motif his plea for native plants in his 1937 article \"Die 'Lichtung\"' in [The Clearing], published Gartenkunst: in Die The gardens that I created myself shall ... be m harmony with their landscape environment and the racial characteristics of its inhabitants. They shall express the spirit of America and therefore shall be Miller, agam m 1914, presented a photograph of Jensen's Humboldt Park m free of foreign character as far as Chicago, wmtmg \"The people of Chicago have created at great expense the possible ... The Latin and the Onental crept and creeps more and sort of thing every farmer can en7oy for nothmg This prame nver landscape more over our land, commg from was designed by Jensen, and planted with common Illmois flowers, e.g., the South, which is settled by rose mallow, blue flag, water-hly, calamus, phlox, etc swamp Latin people, and also from other a very fundamental issue-it is to be, or not to centers of mixed masses of immigrants. The be. In the garden you give assent to one idea and Germamc character of our race, of our cities and outside its boundary to another. Strange thmgs, settlements was overgrown by foreign character. Latin spirit has spoiled a lot and still spoils grotesque things, usually attractive to the novice will creep in and the purity of thoughts things every day. in garden makmg suffers. Freaks are freaks and Such ideas about the alleged negative influence often bastards-who wants a bastard in the garof so-called Latin people were clearly in line den, the out of door shnne of your home? with the National Socialist agenda. But Jensen In his return letter, Schneider rejected Jensen's was forced to step back from further expression view of the \"native landscape\" and wrote that, of his racist ideas by correspondence from if one agreed with Jensen's point of view, one Harold LeClaire Ickes (1874-1952), the U.S. would have to get rid of all English gardens and Secretary of the Interior from 1933 until 1946, would have to switch off all joy in the'foreign\"' \" which \"would mean a severe impoverishment.\" Schneider also believed it necessary who had learned about Jensen's anti-Semitism. leanings toward clearly separate the notions of \"landscape\" In a garden one consciously \"garden\" wants to create something completely different to and ... from what can home can offer which one rides and hiking tours. Where else would one enjoy what beautiful thmgs we happen to have received from foreign nature at enjoy during car countries ? But Jensen saw this as a failure of intellect. The garden is a fme barometer by which to ~udge the intellect of a people. If the garden which is a true expression of the life of a people will not consist simple of horticultural specimens, rather of a arrangement of plants in a harmonious Germany as well as in the United States, a critical discussion of the enthusiasm for native plants often provokes emotionally loaded responses. Two examples might illustrate this. The first one is a series of papers and letters published in the Landscape Journal that began in 1992 with our article \"Some notes on the mania for native plants in Germany.\" This article was the starting point for a heated debate in the journal that lasted for several years. The title of one of the responses may indicate the trend, \"Natives and Nazis: an imaginary conspiracy in ecological design.\" The author, professor of In 28 natural systems in the School of Architecture and Planning at the Umversity of New Mexico, began with \"Rhododendrons in the gas chambers! Kristallnacht against Kudzu! Gert Groning and Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn attempt to link native-plant advocates with Nazism.\" The second example is a response to Michael Pollan's article \"Against Nativism,\" published in 1994 by the New York Times Magazme, which became the target of highly emotional attacks. William K. Jordan III, for instance, opened his \"The Nazi Connection\" with this \" native-plant wrote use that is still relevant today. He in 1938: complaint: Several times in the past few years I have been If this kind of garden-owning barbarian became the rule, then neither a gillyflower nor a rosemary, neither a peach tree nor a myrtle sampling nor a tea rose would ever have crossed the Alps. Gardens connect people, time, and latitudes. If these barbarians ruled, the great historic process of acclimatization would never have begun and today we would horticulturally still subsist on acorns ... The garden of humanity is a huge democracy. It is not the only democracy that such clumsy advocates threaten to dehumanize. Notes brought up short by the suggestion that ecologiform of nativism-the ecoversion of the sort of racist policies logical espoused by the Nazis or the Ku Klux Klan. Like the Nazis and the Klan, restorationists espouse the exclusion and removal of immigrants, and even a program to ensure genetic punty of stock in order to protect the integrity of the native, the true-born, the Blut und Boden. Hence restoration offers a disturbmg resemblance m the ecological sphere to policies of nativism, racism, and sexism in the social sphere-so the argument goes. restoration ~ Stephen Jay Gould's \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, of Native Plants\" was cal is a and Confusions in the Concept reprinted in Arnoldia (1998\/ First World 58\/ 1 \/. Z In a statement shortly before the War, Lange claimed that scientific progress If there is a future to garden culture and garden design, then new ideas, new concepts for gardens, new plants, and new materials are essential. The history of garden culture provides ample evidence for the multitude of connections among people, politics, design, and plants. Militant calls such as \"foreigners out\" or, more specifically, \"Tear the rhododendrons out\" seem not particularly well-considered solutions to what are called ecological problems. Such calls transmit reactionary ideas about society as well as nature, the design of gardens, parks, and other open spaces. Rather, a temperate and informed discussion about plants, trees, shrubs, their value, and their significance for design should develop, and for that a look into history may be helpful. There is no need to glorify historical events. Professional development could profit from critical analyses of the work and ideas of predecessors in biology, botany, garden and landscape design. The Jewish writer Rudolf Borchardt, who was persecuted by the National Socialists, offered an important criticism of doctrinaire advocates of influence garden design: \"Today we have a science that is based on the history of development. It teaches us, as far as the interrelations between creatures with their homeland and their fellow creatures are concerned, to understand the laws of hfe. Biology penetrates all previous knowledge, which was only superficial. Biology, apphed to art, establishes a new, a biological aesthetic\" (The Garden and Its Planimg, 1913\/. would natural ' The source of all references to Jens Jensen's correspondence is the Jens Jensen Collection, Sterhng Morton Library, Lisle, Ilhnots. ' it must be mentioned that Lange and other landscape architects who promoted ideas about natural garden design created formal gardens also and often used foreign plants. In particular, Lange recommended foreign plants that he believed matched the native plant associations physiognomically and that would heighten the artistic effect of native plant associations. Nevertheless, 5 For various attempts to connect garden architecture and national identity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, see G. Gromng & U. Schneider, Garden Culture and Nauonal ldentity, 2001. Gert Gromng is professor of garden culture and open space development at the Institute for History and Theory of Design, University of the Arts Berlm. Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn is a professor at the Institute for Planning and Garden Architecture, University of Hannover \"The Native Plant Enthusiasm\" originally published in Landscape Research ~www.tandf.co.uk\/~ournals\/carfax\/01426397.htm1\/ vol. 28, no. 1 (2003), where a comprehensive set of notes and references are provided. was "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Parthenocissus tricuspidata 'Fenway Park'","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25375","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270816d.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Parthenocissus Peter Del Tredici tricuspidata'Fenway Park' he 'Fenway Park' cultivar Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata) is umque in producing yellow-green foliage throughout the growing season. It originated from a of branch on a normal speciof Boston ivy that was growing on the west-facing wall of an apartment complex a few blocks from Fenway Park, in Boston, Massachusetts. I discovered the plant one evening in September of 1988 while walking to a Red Sox baseball game with my son. The sun was just setting and the upper portions of the ivy-covered building seemed to glow in the fading mutant men light. Looking more closely, I saw that the upper portions of the vine-mostly green elsewherehad bright yellow leaves. A few weeks later I returned to the site, and with the cooperation of the building's superintendent I collected eighty-one cuttings from the yellow portion of the plant, which appeared to be a \"budsport\" mutation on what was otherwise a typical Boston ivy. The sport had originated at the level of the third story and eventually produced a branch that covered the entire right-hand corner of the building. (The entire plant-yellow sport and all-was removed from the building in the late 1990s.) I took the cuttings of the yellow sport to the Arboretum, where they were accessioned under the number 865-88, treated with a powdered rooting hormone, and placed under intermittent mist in a heated greenhouse. Only a few of the eighty-one cuttings rooted over the course of the fall, but they produced enough new growth to provide fifty-seven softwood cuttings on 12 January 1989. After being treated with rooting powder and placed under a polyethylene tent, most of these cuttings generated new roots within a few weeks. This is a typical pattern for 30 --- --- ------ - - -- - -- --------- - --- plants m which the \"mature\" cuttings taken from the original plant root slowly and in low percentages, while second-generation \"juvenile\" cuttings root quickly and in high percentages. The name 'Fenway Park' was assigned to the plant on 23 August 1991 after John F. Donovan, Executive Vice President and Counsel for the Boston Red Sox, granted the Arboretum permission to \"use the name 'Fenway Park' in conjunction with commercialization of the plant.\" By the spring of 1992 we had produced over a thousand containerized plants of 'Fenway Park' and distributed them to a number of nurseries for evaluation and further propagation. Despite this distribution, the plant remained more or less invisible to the gardening public until 19971998, when it was finally listed in a few mailorder nursery catalogs. It hit the big time in the fall of 2002, when it appeared with a color illustration in the Wayside Gardens catalog. In spring 2003, Plant Delights owner Tony Avent referred to it as \"the top conversation piece in our garden.\" 'Fenway Park' was formally described in 1998 in the Combined Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators Society many The most salient characteristic of 'Fenway Park' is the color of its leaves during the growing season, which can vary from yellow to chartreuse depending on the amount of light the plant receives. When grown in full sun, the color comes close to the Royal Horticultural it is Society (RHS) yellow-green 151A to C; in shade, a uniform lime green (RHS 154C to D). This coloration has remained stable throughout the fifteen years that 'Fenway Park' has been propagated. In the fall, the plant's foliage turns brilliant shades of orange, scarlet, and yellow, which is typical of the species. The distal portion of the oldest leaves of 'Fenway Park' may lose all their chlorophyll, making them susceptible to sunscald, especially during hot, dry summers. For this reason, the plant is best grown on a north- or westfacing wall. 'Fenway Park' is hardy within USDA hardiness zones 4 through 9 and is often used as a climbing vine to brighten up walls, fences, or buildings that are located in dark, shady places. Peter Del Tredici is Arnold Arboretum. semor research scientist at the 48: 658-659. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 62","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25374","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed2708128.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 62 to issues, parentheses refer those m boldface to illustrations of the entnes. Education in America,\" 1 Andersen 3: 2-11 Art Out , Abehophylum distichum 2: 23 Acomtum smomontanum 2: 20 Acumdia 2: 24 Acuba, Japanese 4: 4 Akebia 2: 24 qumata 2: 24 Allomynna dichotoma 4: 5 Almond 2. 27 Amelanchier nantucketensis 2: 23 - -- Institute for Cultural Land7 scape Studies 1: 11, 12, 17 Phylhs -- James R. Jewett Prize 4: 9 15, 19 - landscape - construction Arrhemus, Svante 3: 25 of Doors 3: 6 projects 1: 4-5 landscape design program marketing survey landscape system 1. 5-6 - 1: 1 15-17,21 - 1 ~ 17 7 2014 2014 American Museum of Natural -- Leventritt Garden 2' 16-19, History [NY] American Society of Landscape 2: 6 1 Architects 3: 11 1 Ames, Oakes 2: 11 3 Ames, Oliver 4: 13 9 17,19 - botanical criteria 2: 21-22 educational opportum- Asarum canadensis 2: 22 -splendens 2' 22 Ash 2: 27 Ashton, Peter 1: 9, 10, 3, 22; 2: 15 Aster 2: 31 Aucuba ~apomca 4:4 Avent, Tony 4: 30 Azalea 2: 9, 13 pmkshell 3: 15 - ties 2: 22 - horticultural display 1: Bailey, Liberty Hyde 3: 11; Balloon flower 4: 6 Bamboo 4: 9-10 Barberry 2. 7 4: 13, 16 Ammophila bremhgulata Ampelopsis 2. 25 Andersen, Phylhs, \"The Arnold Arboretum and the Early Years of Landscape Design Education m 4: 11 1 1 America\" 3: 2-11 criteria 2: 21 1 - long-range plan - 3-4, 6, 15 5 ' -- 3 Meadow Road 2: 13 National Science Foundation Batchelor, Jackson M. Bean, W. 4: 15-16 \" ` grant 1: --- 3 13 J. 2: 9 nursery 2: 4, 5 Anderson, Edgar 4: 12 Anderson Bonsai Collection, Larz 1: inside front cover Andromeda glaucophylla 2: 23 Angelica 2: 7 \"Announcing a Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 1970-2000\" 3: 26 Apomixis 2: 27 Aqmlegia canadensis 3: oak collection 1. 16 3 organizational chart 1: 13 Peters Hill 1: 20; 2: 13 plant studies 3: 5-9 8 -- \"Professional School\"1 16-18 program for Boston-area schoolchildren 1: 13 public and professional 2014 2014 -2014 2014 -- Beetle, large horned 4: 5 Beetle, stag 4: 5 Behn, Kirstin, photo by 1: inside front cover Bennett, Ellen 2: 21 Bentham and Hooker cation plant classifi- -- 14 4 programs -- department 1~ 11, 12-20 Anstolochia 2~ 24 Arnold Arboretum 2' 4 [c.1880s] \"Science in the Pleasure 9 Ground\" [exhibit] 1 19 7 adult education program 1: 13, 17 --Arnoldia 1: 13 9 Blackwell Footpath 1: 4-5, 19 Bradley Garden of Rosaceous Plants 1 : 20, 2 3 : 3 Bridal Path 2: 13 3 Bussey Hill 2: 9, 13 7 Chmese Path 3: 17 -- - - - research 1: 6-12, 21 - -facilities 1: 10 history of 1: 7-8 science education 1: 13 shrub and vme collection 2 2 --- [ 1969], 8 [ 1905-1906], 9 [ 1916], 10, 13 3 --- 2014 2014 -- shrub collection 2: 3 staff list 1: 24 - - -- -- -- published wntmgs 1: 9, 27-35 undergraduate education 1: - 2: 5, 13 Berchemia scandens 2 24, 25 Berghammer, Stacey 2: 21 Bignoma capmoleta 2: 25 Biltmore Estate, NC 2: 24 Biodiversity 4: 2-10 Biological aesthetic 4: 22 Bisgrove, Richard 3. 27 Bittersweet vine 2: 24 \"Book Note\" [Wild Flowers of Yunnan and Central Chma by Beryl M Walden and Shui-ying Hu], Karen Madsen 2. 31 Borchardt, Rudolf 4: 28 Boston ivy 2: 25 -- -- Community 1: 15 5 Science Connec- tion - - - - - - - Hemlock Hill 1 23 1 Hunnewell Building 1-21 9 mformal education 1: 18-19 mfrastructure 1 ~ 5-7, 20-22 19-20 1 Weather Station Data-2001 1: 36 ----- 2002 2~ 32 website 1 ~ 6 \"Arnold Arboretum and the Early Years of Landscape Design -- - -'Fenway Park' 4' 29-30, inside back - cover - propagation 4: 30 Boston Public Garden 3: 4 \"Botamcal Art of Ida Hrubesky Pemberton,\" Karen Madsen 3: 28 Bradley, Eleanor Cabot 2: 15 32 Bradley, Nina Leopold 3: Braun-Blanquet, Josias 4: Briar 2: front Briermere 4 17 cover 13 23 \"Climate Change Symposium: A - genkwa x 2: 26 Farms, Riverhead,NY Brogna, Laura Tenny 2: 21, 23 CT 3: Broken Arrow, Hamden, B. 3: 28 20, 22 Bruno, Lugene Buddleia 2: 22 Burbank, Luther 4: 14 Summary,\" Abraham MillerRushmg 3: 26 Cocculus carolmus 2: 24 Codman, Henry Sargent 3: 5 Codman, Philip 3: 5 Coffin, Marian C. 3: 7 Colchicum autumnale 3: 28 Columbme 3: 14 - burkwoodn 'Carol Mackn' 2: 26 Dawson, Jackson 2: 4 Del Rosso, John 1: 23 Del Tredici, Peter 1. 20; 3: 12 --- \"Parthenocissus 4: tricuspidata 'Fenway Park\"' 29-30 - photos by 1: inside front Columbus, Christopher 3: 3: 16 cover, inside back cover; 2: front cover, back --- Bussey Institution 2: 3, 15; Bussey, Benjamin 2: 4; 3. 9 - 3, 6 estate of 2: 5 5 26 Compost 3: 23-26 Comptoma peregrma : 2: 22 Connor, Sheila, \"Shrubs and Vines at cover Butterfly, giant purple 4: Buxus 2: the Arnold Arboretum: A 2-15 S \"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventntt Garden,\" with Michael Dosmann, Tom Ward & Juhe 22, History 2: Coop 2: 20-26 --- Cambridge School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture 3: 9 Camellia 2: 31 Campsis radicans 2: 24 - Cape Cod, MA 4: 11, 12, 15, 16 i Cooperative Extension 411 - - Beach Plum Growers Association 4~ 16 Cape May [NJ] Plant Materials Center 4: 19 Caragana arborescens 'Nana' 2: 20 Carnegie Mellon University 3: 28 Carolina moonseed 2 25 Carr, Ethan 3: 6 Castanopsis sieboldm 4: 4 Celastrus 2: 24 Central Park [NY] 2: 3, 4, 3: 4, 10 North Woods 4: 20 Cephalanthera falcata 4: 9 Cercis 2: 7, 22, 23 - canadensis 'Alba' 2' 22 - Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan,\" Hiromi Kobori & Richard B. Pnmack 4: 2-10 Cook, Chmstma 1: 5 Cook, Katherine 1: 5 Cook, Robert E , Director's Report 1999-2002 1 ~ 2-23 Coop, Julie, \"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventntt Garden,\" with Peter Del Tredici, Michael Dosmann & Tom Ward 2: 20-26 Cornell University 4: 11, 16, 19 \"Conservation for \"Stewartia 'Scarlet Senti- nel\"' 3: 16-22 Deutzia 2: 7 Diermlla 2: 7 Director's Report 1999-2002, Robert E. Cook 1: 2-23 Dogwood 2~ 9 - flowering 2:7 Dorcus curmdens 4: 5 Corydahs 1: 9 Crabapple 2: 10; inside back cover Cranberry bush, European 2: 22 Crawford, Carolyn 3: 28 Crocus, Cross autumn Dosmann, Michael, \"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventntt Garden,\" with Peter Del Tredici, Tom Ward & Julie Coop 2: 20-26 Downing, Andrew Jackson 3: 4, 10 Dracocephalum bullatum 1: 9 Dragonfly 4: 5 Dutchman's pipe 2: 24 3: 28 vine 2: 25 Ecology 4: 23, 25, 28 Cryptomena fortunel 2: 24 Cupressus dupreziana 2: 27, 28 29 tissue DNA markers 2: 30 pollen 2: 29 - sempervmens 2: 29 tissue DNA markers 2: 30 Cymbidmm goeringil 4: 9 Cypress, common 2: 29-30 Japanese 2: 24 Mediterranean 2: 30 Cypripedium japonicum 4 10 Cytisus 2: 22 -2014 2014 2014 2014 -- atypical meiosis 2' --'Kovey' 2: 22 El Maataom 2: 29 Eliot, Charles 3: 4, 6 Eliot, Charles W. 3: 6 Elhotua racemosa 2: 20, 23 Cherry 2 10, 27 - natme Elm, American 2: 5 4 13 1. 9 Enkianthus perulatus 2: 20 Chma, Hengduan Mountains Chinquapin 4: 4 Chionanthus, American 2: 7 Chionanthus - Euonymus fortunei 2. 24 Eupatonum fortunei 4: 6 Fabaceae 2: 22 retusus 2: 22, 23 vmgmicus 2: Circaea 4: 24 22, 23 Clark, William 4: Clematis 2: 10 Clematis 2: 21, 25 Clethra 2: 22 1 11 Fagus grandifoha 1: 21 Farrand, Beatrix 2: 12-15; 3: Fenway Park, Boston 4: 19 Fick, Adolph, laws 3: 24 5 Firefly 4. 5 _ Damson trees 4. 12 Daphne 2: 22 11 1 Flora, - eastern North America Cleveland, H. W. S. 3: 4, 6, Climate change 3: 12 - Daphne 2 - 26 'Eximia' 2: 26 altaica 2: 26 cneorum temperate east Asia Forest management, Japanese 4: 29 10,5,9 effect on native species 3: 13 33 Forsythia 2. 7, 9 9 Frost, Henry Atherton 3: Fujibakama 4~ 6 7 Fungus, brown rot 4: 17 Furlong, John 1. 16 -- Ganshaw, - Kit 1: 20 Garden and Forest, 2: 7; 3: 5-6 Garden art 4: 23-24 culture 4: 28 4 22 26 Discov- - design 4. 28 - style, American -- prairie 4: 25, - - regional 4: 25 \"Genetic Piracy: A Newly ered Marvel of the Plant World,\" Richard B. Pnmack 2: 27-30 Gemsta 2: 22 Gentian 2: 31 Geometry 3: 23 - fractal 3: 26 Faculty of Arts and Sciences 1: 7-10 Herbaria (HUH) 1: 8-9, 18 Lawrence Scienuftc School 3: 6 3, Library Digital Imtiatme 1~ 2, 18 --Map Collection 1 18 Museum of Comparative Zoology 1. 18 Harvard-Yenching Institute 1: 18 Hay, Ida 2: 4, 12; 3: 3 Healmg Plants of Ida Hrubesky Pemberton 3' 28 \"Heat-island effect\" 3 14 Hedera 2' 24 Hednck, U P. 4. 13 Hemlock Hill 1 ~ 23 Hemlock woolly adelgid 1: 23 2014 2014 --- -parmflora Ins 2: 31 4~ 24 Ivy 2 ~ 24 Jack, John G. Japan 4: 2-10 Jasmme - 1: 9 12; 3: 3, 7, 2: 22 22 star 2. 24 Jaynes, Richard 3: Jefferson, Thomas 2~ 18 Jensen, Jens 4: 22, 25, 26, 27 garden design 4: 26 --park design 4: 26 Jesup, Morris K. 2: 6 Jewett, James R. 4: 15-16 1 Jones [Farrand], Beatrix 3 5, 11 Jordan III, William K. 4: 28 ~uglans mgra 1 15 Kalmia 2: 9 Herrenkrugwiesen park, Germany 4: 22 \"Hidden Mathematics of the Georgia plume 2: 20 Germany 4. 20, 22-25, 27-28 - - plants 4: 27 plant use, natural 4: 22-25 Gillyflower 4 : 28 Gilpm, William 3: 4 Gmkgo 2: 27 Goldenrod, seaside 4: 11 native Garden,\" Peter J. James 3: 23-26 Highlands, NC 3: 18 Hilderbrand, Gary, \"Ordering and Terracing m the 16-19 Leventntt P. Reed 2 Keeler, Harriet 2: 21 Kessler, George 3: 6 Kikyo 4: 6 Kilhfish, Japanese 4. Kiwi vine 6 2. 24 \"Conservation for Garden,\" with Douglas Holm Lea, cover, Kobon, Hiromi, Brookline, 4 MA 3: front Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan,\" with Richard B. Pnmack 4: 2-10 2-3, Gore, Samuel 2: 4 20 4: 11 1 Honeysuckle 2: 22, 24; 3: 12 - Gould, Stephen Jay 4. Grape 2: 25 Grasslands 4 5 trumpet 2: front cover Kramer, Albert 4: 24 Kudzu 2: 23, 24, 25 Lambir Hills National Sarawak 1: 11 term Hops, Japanese Hotbed 3. 26 2: 24 Grass, American beach Park, Grasso, Bethany 2. 17, 21, 23 Graves, Charles B. 4: 12 5 Gray, Asa 2: 3, 4, Greenbnar 2: 23, 25 Gromng, Gert, \"Native Plant Enthusiasm: or Howard, Richard 1: 9; 2: 11, 15 Hu, Shtu-ying 2: 31 1 Hubbard, Henry Vmcent 3: 4, 11 Humboldt Park, Chicago 4: 26 Humulus ~apomcus 2' 24 Landscape architect, history of 3: 10-11 1 3' 10-11 1 Landscape architecture, history of term Hunnewell, H. H. 3: 4 Ecological Panacea Xenophobia?\" with Joachim Hunt Institute for Botamcal Documentation 3: 28 - Wolschke-Bulmahn 4: 20-28 Hamamelis molhs 2: front cover x mtermedia 'Diane' 2. 20 Harbison, T. G. 3: 18 Harvard Botamc Garden 2: 3, 5 Harvard Lawrence Scienufic School Harvard Management Company 1. 21 Harvard University Botany Libraries 1: 18 Central Administration 1: 8, 10 Corporation 1: 8 -2014 2014 - Hutcheson, Martha Brookes 3: Hybrid, spontaneous garden 3: Hydrangea 2: 22 Hydrangea 2: 26 Ickes, Harold LeClaire 4' 27 - 7 16 -- -- 1 Landscape design education 3: 3-11 3: 4-5 apprenticeship period Lange, Willy 4: 22, 24 natural garden design 4: 24 nature garden motifs by 4: 22, 23 1 Lathyrus mantimus 4: 11 1 Lay, Charles Downing 3: 11 Leopold, Aldo 3: 13 - Leventntt Garden 1 Ilex collma 2: 23 cornuta 2: front crenata cover - 4-5, front and back covers; 2: 15-26, back cover vines, growth patterns 2: 24-25 - - 2: 26 - glabra 2: 22, 26 Imbres, Carolyn 3: 15 Leventntt, Frances 1: 4-5, 19, 2: 15 Lewis, Cohn 1~ inside front cover Li, Jianhua 3: 18 Lilac 2: 7, 10; 3: 12 Impauens noh tangere 4: 25 34 ~3#& x E; Lilac Sunday 1: 17 Lihum bakemanum delavay 2. 31 Lmcke, Wilhelm 4: 22 Lomcera 2: - Kenneth 4: 19 Mulch 3: 26 Musashi Institute of Technology Mudge, Philadelphus 2: 7 7, 21, 24 - zebelh sempervmens 2~ front cover tartanca cv. 'Arnold Red' 0 Loudon, John Claudms 3: 10 korolkowm var. [Yokohama] 4: 8, 10 Myrtle 4: 28 \"Native Plant Enthusiasm: Ecological Panacea or Xenophobia?,\" Gert Gromng & Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn 4: 20-28 Natural garden design m US 4: 25-28 Nature garden motifs by Willy Lange 4: 22, 23 Phlox dmancata 3: 14; 4: 25 Phlox, blue 4: 25 - forest 3: 14 Physic gardens 2: 16 Phytolacca amencana 3: 28, inside back cover Pichot, Low, Judith Motley 3: 9 7 Lowell, Guy 3: Lowthorpe School of Landscape C. 2: 29 Pierce's disease 3: 22 Pme, white 2: 5 Pipevme 2: 7 Architecture 3: 9 Plant - reproductive systems sociology 4: 23 2: 27-30 - MacFarlane, J. M. 4: 12 Machilus, red 4: 4 Machilus thunbergm 4: 4 Madsen, Karen, \"The Botamcal Art of Ida Hrubesky Pemberton\" 3: 28 photos by 2: inside front cover, - Network of International cal Gardens 3: 14 Nicholson, Rob 3: 18 Phenologi- - 4: 20, 23 nonnative 4: 20 native Platycodon grandiflorum 4: 6 Olmsted Brothers 3: 5 Olmsted, Frederick Law 1. 16; 2: 3, inside back cover, back cover Malus sp. 2: inside back cover -' Wyema' 2: inside front cover 5, 6, 7, 15; 3: 4, 6, 10, 11 - Plum hybrid 'Giant Mantima' 4: 14 Plum Island, Massachusetts 4~ 12 Plum Island, New York 4: 12 Plum, beach 4: 11-19 2014 2014 'Bassett's American' 4: 14 --'Ocean View' 4. 19 cultivation of 4: 13-19 -- National Historic Site 2: 15 -prumfoha var xanthocarpa inside front cover 2: Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr 3: 4, 6 Olmsted, John Charles 2: 5; 3: 4 Orchid 2: 31; 4. 9 Mandelbrot, Benoit 3: 26 Manning, Warren 3: 4 Marr, T. E., photo by 3: front cover Marsham family 3: 13 Massachusetts Institute for Technology 3: 3 - - slipper 4. 10 \"Ordering and Terracing in the Leventntt Garden,\" Douglas P. Reed & Gary Hilderbrand 2~ 16-19 Oryzias laupes 4: 6 Agriculture state grade - Massachusetts Department of label 4: 16 propagation 4: 18 - European 4: 14 -Japanese 4. 14 - native 4: 13 3. 28 cover Podophyllum peltatum Pachysandra procumbens 2: - Program Landscape 9 Architecture 3: 7, Matthews, Victoria 3: 28 Mayapple 3: 28 Mayer, Robert G., photos by 2: front - m 22 termmahs 2~ 22 Pagoda tree 1: 26 Parkinson, John 4: 20 Parkman, Francis 2: 3 Parsons, Samuel 3: 4 Pokeweed 3: 28, inside front Pollan, Michael 4. 28 Polygomum aubertm 2: 25 Porcelam vine 2: 25 Price, Uvedale 3: 4 cover McFarland, J. Horace, photo by 0 Meason, Gilbert Lamg 3: 10 Memspermum canadense 2: 25 - 2: 8 Parthenocissus 2: 25 - \"Parthenocissus 4: 29-30 Pea tree 2: 20 1 Pea, beach 4: I Peach tree 4: 28 Pear 2: 10 Pediculans 2: 31 dauncum 2: 25 1: tmcuspidata 'Fenway Park' 4: 30 tricuspidata 'Fenway Park', Peter Del Tredici Pnmack, Dan 3: 15 Pnmack, Richard B., \"Conservation for Satoyama, the Traditional Landscape of Japan,\" with Hiromi Kobon 4: 2-10 --- Mernll, Elmer Drew 10, 2' 11, 12, \"Genetic Piracy: A Newly 15, 31; 4: 16 Microoiganisms 3 23 Miller, Wilhelm 4. 22, 25, 26 --- Miller-Rushmg, Abraham, \"Climate Change Symposium: A Summary\" 3: 26 Discovered Marvel of the Plant World 2: 27-30 \"The Special Role of Historical Plant Records m Monitoring the Impact of Climate Monet, Claude, garden 2: 18 at Giverny Momhma sp 4: 17 7 Monkshood, Chmese 2: 20 Monticello [VAJ 2: 18 Moonseeds 2: 25 Mount Vernon Pediculams scolopax 1: 9 Pemberton, Ida Hrubesky, watercolors by 3. inside front cover, 28, inside back cover Pnme Change\" 3: 12-15 Hook, Delaware 4: 12 Primula 2: 31 Privet 2' 7 Pennypacker, John Young 4: 12 Peters Hill, restoration 1: 4, 19 Phenological events, observation 3: 12-15 Prospect Park, Brooklyn 2. 7; 3: 4 Prunus 'Karl Sax' 1 inside back of - cover amencana [VA] 2: 18 8 4: 14, 18 35 - 4: 18 8 23 2 -gravesn 4: 12 mamuma 4: 11, 12, 13-19, 14, 17 distribution 4: 13 2 variability 4: 12 8 - mgra 4: 18 - sahcma 4: 14 - simomi 4 14 4 8 - subcordata 4: 18 Pteha 2: 7 Puerana 2: 24 - lobata 2: 24 - angustifoha Sargent, Henry Winthrop 3. Sasakia charonda 4: 5 Sauer, Leshe 4' 20 4 - depressa 2: - -- Sax, Karl 2: 13-15 Sayama Hills 4: 7, 8, 9 2014 2014 Schisandra 2: 24, 25 Schneider, Camillo 4: 26 I Schulhof, Richard 1: 11 Scrub hen, Australian 3: 26 Seifert, Alwm 4' 24 Shaler, Nathamel 3. 6 - smensis 3: 17 \"Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentinel', Peter Del Tredici 3: 16-22 Stiles, William 2: 6; 3: 5 Styphnolobmm japonicum 1: 26 Substrate succession 3: 25 Sumach 2: 7 Supplejack 2: 24 Syrmga 2: 7 vulgans f. purpurel 3: 12 Sheehan, Maurice 1: 16 \"Taming the Wild Beach Plum,\" Richard H. Uva 4: 11-19 Tasili N'A~~er desert, Algeria 2: 29 Thahctrum 2: 31 Thermodynamics, laws of 3: 25 Tokyo 4. 6 \"Shrubs and Vines at the Arnold Arboretum A History,\" Sheila Connor 2: 2-15 5 Quercus - acutissima 4: 4 serrata 4: 4 Radcliffe College 1: 15 Radchffe Institute for Advanced Studies 1: 15 Radchffe Semmars Program m Landscape Design and Landscape \"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventntt Garden,\" Peter Del Tredici, Michael Dosmann, Tom Ward & 20-26 Silver fleece vine 2: 25 Small, J. K. 4: 12 Smilax 2: front cover, 25 Smithsoman Institute Archives of American Gardens 2. 8 Tomlinson, Toste, Julie Coop 2: History 3: 3 Bertram 4 15-16 Lisa 1: 21 Totoro Hometown Fund campaign publicity [Tokyo] 4: 8 Trachlospermum asiaticum 2: 24, 25 Tnlhum erectum 3: 28, inside front cover Raspberry 2: 27 Redbud, eastern 2: 23 Reed Hilderbrand Landscape Architects 2: 23 Smithsoman Tropical Research 21 Institute 1: 10 1 Sohdago sempermrens 4: 11 Somersetshire [UK] valley 4~ Tnpterygmm regehi 2: 25 Trumpet creeper 2~ 24 Umted Nations Environmental Reed, Douglas P, \"Ordering and Terracing Garden,\" the Leventntt with Gary Hilderbrand m 2: 16-19 Resource succession 3: 25 Rhododendron 2: 7, 9, 31; 4: Rhododendron vasey 3 : 15 Rhus aromatica 2. 22 Rice harvest [Tokyo] 4: 9 9 - paddies 4: 2-10, 5, Robmson, William 4. 21-22 Rock, Joseph 1 2, 18 Rosa 2: 25 5 pendulma 3: 15 setigera 4: 25 Rosaceae 2: 7 1 Rose 2: 10, 31 Illinois or prairie 4' 25 prairie 4. 25 tea 4: 28 Rosemary 4: 28 Rubus 2: 27 - 20, 25 Southeast Asia 1: 10 \"Special Role of Historical Plant Records m Monitoring the Impact of Climate Change,\" Richard Pnmack3: 12-15 5 Program 3' 12 University of Colorado Museum of Natural History 3 28 USDA Soil Conservation Service 4: 15 USDA Sustamable Agriculture Spirea 2: Stevens, 7 18 8 Research and Education Program 4' 18 Spongberg, Stephen 3 - - - - Peter 1: 9 Stewartia 2. 22 7 - Chmese 3. 17 7 Japanese or Korean 3: 17 mountam 3: 17 7 - tall 3: 17 7 1 Stewartia 3: 16-21 7 malacodendron 3: 17 7 monodelpha 3: 17 ovata 3: 17 7 var. gran diflora 3: 16, 17, 1 morphology 3: 21 - Uva, Richard H., \"Taming the Wild Beach Plum\" 4. 11-19 - Rensselaer, Marianna 3: Vanderhye, Keith 4: 19 Van 1 Vaux, Calvert2 7; 3 10, 11 Vera, Andre 4: 22 Verrazano, Giovanm da 4: 11 Viburnum 2: 9, 31 6 - - - - - 20, 22 - - - - Sargent, Charles 2: 3: 16; 5 14; 3, 4, Sargent, Henrietta 3: 7 Sprague 1: 3, 7, 12, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9-10, 12, 13, 7 ovata 3:17 3: 17, 18, 20, 22 - pseudocamelha morphology 3: 21 -'Scarlet Sentinel' 3: 17-21, 19, 20, 22, back cover 2014 2014 var. -- forked 2~ front cover - Hubei 2. 22 linden 2: 22 Viburnum 2: 26 dilatatum 2: 22 furcatum, 2: front cover; 3. 15 - - - - - - - morphology 1 propagation 3. 21 hupehense 2'22 opulus 2' 22 -phleobotnchum - 2: 22 - - - - scabrellum 3: 15 36 Virginia - creeper 2: 25 VW s 2~ 25 coignetiae 1: 17 Wayside Gardens 4: 30 -- Chmese 2. front cover Weather Regional Phenological Network 3: 12-13 - - hybrid 2. 20 20 Witt, Remhard 4: Wake, Cameron 3: 27 1 Walden, Beryl M. 2: 31 Walnut, black 1: 15 Ward, Alan, photos by 1: front and back covers Weidenmann, Jacob 3: Weld, Joseph 2: 4 5 Wolschke-Bulmahn, Joachim, \"Native Plant Enthusiasm: \"Western Chma and Tibet: Hot Spot of Diversity\" [web project] 1: 18 8 5 Wheeler, Wilfrid 4: 15 1 Wheelwright, Robert 3: 11 Ecological Panacea or Xenophobia?\" with Gert Gromng 4: 20-28 Wood, Carroll 1: 9 World Meteorological Organization, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change 3: 12 Wyman, Donald 1: 8; 2: 3, 11-15; 3: 27 Ward, Frank Kmgdon 2: 31I Ward, Tom, \"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventntt Garden,\" with Peter Del Tredici, Michael Dosmann & Julie Coop 2: 20-26 Warmmg, Eugen 4: 23 8 Washington, George 2: 18 Watson, Benjamin 3: 3, 6-7 Waugh, Frank A. 3: 6; 4' 12, 13, 22, 24,25 White, James J. 3: 28 White, Ruth Eldridge 4: 6 Whitlow, Thomas 4: 16 15 5 18 8 Wmter creeper 2: 24 Wisteria 2: 25 Wistena 2: 21 Witch hazel 2: 22 6 - -'Arnold Promise' 3' 16 Wight, W. F. 4: 13 Wilson, E. H. 2: 3, 11; 3: Xylella fasudiosa 3: Yokohama 4: 6-10 22 Yunnan Province 2: 31 Zaitzevsky, Cynthia 3: 4 STATEMENT OF 36673667 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia 2. Publication No: 0004-2633. 3. Filing Date: 24 January 2004. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication' Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publtsher, Editor, and Managmg Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500, pubhsher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, MA 02130-3500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securrties. none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed dunng the precedmg 12 months. 13. Publication Name~ Arnoldia. 14 Issue Date for Circulation Data Below. March 2004. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No Copies Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,667. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,200. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. \/ 1 ~ Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 2,493 No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,580. ~2\/ Paid In-County Subscriptions: none. (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carmers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed Through 2 the USPS: none. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months~ 2,493. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,580. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months~ 171. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 171. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months: 269. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 205. f. Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 440. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 376. g. Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months: 2,933. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,956. h. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 734. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: 244 1. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,667 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Fil2 ing Date: 3,200. ~. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 85%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: 87%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23305","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15eb325.jpg","title":"2003-62-4","volume":62,"issue_number":4,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum and the Early Years of Landscape Design Education in America","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25370","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270b36d.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum and the Early Years of Landscape Design Education in America Phyllis Andersen gay with carriages in lilac time, and the attendance of students was frequently noted. It was now Every spring and fall, John G. Jack could be seen leading a coterie of teachers and the horticulturally inclined from plant to plant. At times in between, Benjamin M.Watson's horticultural students from the Bussey Institution, or scholars of landscape gardening from Harvard's Lawrence Scientific School or the Massachusetts Institute for Technology, were observed, notebook in hand, pacing up and down the shrub collection rows or scrutinizing a label on the trunk of a healthy specimen tree. -A scene described by Ida Hay in her 1995 history of the Arnold Arboretum, Science in the Pleasure Ground n July 1, 2002, the thirty-four-year-old Radcliffe Seminars Program in Landscape Design and Design History became the Arnold Arboretum's first formal program in landscape design. Landscape t However, in the years between the Arboretum's founding in 1872 and the death in 1927 of its first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum was at the center of efforts to transform the practice of landscape gar- dening into the profession of landscape architecture. The Arnold Arboretum's initial involvement in the education of landscape designers was spurred by the interests of Sargent himself. To most people outside the Harvard community (and to many within it), Sargent was the Arboretum: it was his perspective, his personalHolm Lea, the to estate of Charles Sargent, m 1900, looking across the pond and Sargent's edge plantmgs the main house. 4A ity, and his research interests that defined the institution. Sargent brought to his position an unshakable commitment to the picturesque landscape sensibility as espoused by William Gilpin, Uvedale Price, and Andrew Jackson Downing. Like his colleague Frederick Law Olmsted, Sargent was contemptuous of excessive horticultural display, controlled formal patterning, and showy floriferousness. His commitment had been formed by European travel, by his reading of Downing and others, and by his admiration for the country estates of his cousins In 1932 Henry Vincent Hubbard, a landscape architect and longtime faculty member in Harvard's Department of Landscape Architecture (and, in 1901, the program's first graduate), reflected on the early years of his profession: landscape architecture was beginning rightful place as one of the arts in Amenca, recalling its traditional status of honor m Italy, France, England and Germany, and its In 1880 to ... take its Henry Winthrop Sargent and H. H. Hunnewell. During his early years at the Arboretum, Sargent transformed Holm Lea, his own 150acre one of the a estate in Brookline, Massachusetts, into most admired country places in America. He creating framed experimented freely at Holm Lea, landscape of open pastoral views by groves of native trees, drifts of wildflowers, a bucolic pond with cattle grazing at its edges. In the words of landscape historian Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Sargent was \"the last in the great tradition of gentlemen landscape gardeners, at least in this region.\" Holm Lea, with all its apparently effortless scenery and its references to the pastoral, was no less manmade than the formal displays in Boston's Public Garden. By the 1880s, a growing market in both public park and estate design was pointing to a need for training more American landscape designers. The success of Central Park and Prospect Park in New York had been publicized by many articles and illustrations in popular magazines, and planners in other cities had begun to recognize the need for parks to provide outdoor activities and a healthy environment for their own growing urban populations. At the same time, designers like Frederick Law Olmsted, Samuel Parsons, and Horace Cleveland, writing in hterary magazines and journals of public affairs, were articulating a role for landscape designers in the public sphere. As a group they felt a need to assert their special knowledge of land planning, planting schemes, and their advocacy for both scenery and recreation. They felt they had to differentiate themselves from the architects, civil engineers, and horticulturists against whom they were competing for public contracts. still more ancient role in China and Japan. Olmsted and Vaux, drawing inspiration from the legacies of Michaelangelo, LeNotre, Repton, and Pnnce Puckler, had departed from the horticultural taste lingering in the works of Andrew Jackson Downing, and had given m the Central Park, New York, and Prospect Park, Brooklyn, a great public object-lesson in the differentiation of the landscape art from horticulture on the one hand and from architecture on the other, as well as from the basic and contributory science of engineering.' The Apprenticeship Period of Landscape Design Education By 1883 Frederick Law Olmsted had moved his home and office from New York City to Brookline, Massachusetts, in order to deal more efficiently with his firm's many projects in the Boston area. The Olmsted office quickly became the training ground for a generation of landscape architects that included Charles Eliot, Warren Manning, and the Olmsted sons, Frederick Jr. and John Charles. In 1895, near the end of his professional career and with weakening health, Olmsted concentrated on making his office a disciplined training ground. \"We are gradually preparing a grand professional post-graduate school here,\" he wrote to his son Frederick Jr. In the absence of academic programs in landscape a period of apprenticeship, combined with travel and supervised reading, was the only way to enter the profession. Working without pay or for a nominal stipend, apprentices trained with senior designers while providing a substantial service to the firm by taking on the time-consuming tasks of surveying, drafting, and various kinds of fieldwork. Sargent encouraged young men who wanted a career in landscape architecture to ~oin the Olmsted firm for the educational expenence. Two of his neph- architecture, 5 ews, Henry Sargent Codman (1864- 1893) and his younger brother Philip (1867-1896), joined Olmsted and Company after a rigorous tour of Europe dur- ing which their itinerary was closely supervised by their uncle. Sargent also guided the early training in landscape design of Beatrix Jones (Farrand) (1872-1959). In the early 1890s-a time when few opportunities for formal education were available to women-Ms. Jones became a private student of Sargent, using the Arnold Arboretum as a laboratory for studying horticulture and design. seems almost funny to look back on the haphazard way in which we forerunners of the army of women landscape architects It got our education. My own work was started at the suggestion of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum who, knowing my great interest in plants, suggested that I begin studying them with the idea of later practicing landscape architecture or, as we called it then, landscape gardening. The whole scheme seemed to me so wild that it took some time to appreciate Professor Sargent's earA 1903\/04 cartoon from the scrapbooks of the office of Olmsted nestness. Thanks, however, to his kindBrothers The Olmsted office contmued to be a trammg ground for ness and the hospitality of his family, I students even after the founding of the program m landscape several months working at the Arbospent architecture at Harvard. retum under his enthusiastic direction and with the benefit of his cmticism. Garden and Forest: A Journal of Horticulture, -Letter from Beatrix Farrand to Clarence Fowler, a trustee of the Cambridge School of Landscape Art and Forestry 1888-1897 z Architecture and Landscape Architecture, n.d Sargent did not set up an academic curriculum Male practitioners, too, were growing weary of \"haphazard\" training and looking for ways to elevate their profession to an academic discipline. Jacob Weidenmann, an early partner of Olmsted, then with his own office in Chicago, believed that Sargent should fill the void: If a learned and scientific man like Sargent wishes, he would succeed in estabhshmg a Public Institute for Landscape gardening and by chance Landscape Architecture would soon have to give way to real qualified talents. -Letter from Jacob Weidenmann to John Charles Olmsted, December 14, 18873 Arboretum, but he did found Garden and was not technically an official publication of the Arnold Arboretum, it was perceived as such by the general public and by the Harvard administration. Subtitled \"A Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry,\"it offered the then (and now) unique perspective that the three fields were inextricably linked. Sargent listed himself as \"conductor,\" but the editor was William Stiles, an experienced New York journalist with a strong interat the Forest in 1888. While it est in public park design. The magazme became the voice of the emerging profession. Articles by leading landscape 6 (Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles Eliot, H. W. S. Cleveland, George Kessler, Frank Waugh) began to define the field for an American audience as well as offer new strategies for land stewardship and preservation. Garden and Forest also published carefully crafted essays on landscape gardening by the art critic Marianna Van Rensselaer, later gathered in her book Art Out of Doors (1893). It made recommendations for readings on landscape gardening, described educational opportunities, and discussed the need for quahfied practitioners. As landscape architect and historian Ethan Carr has written, \"In an era before a professional organization or academic instruction existed in the field of landscape architecture, Garden and Forest took on aspects of both.\"4 architects and laboratory work in Botany, supplemented by study of plants and garden-work at the Botanic Garden. The second year includes a course in Horticulture at the Bussey Institution, consisting of lectures, with study and practice in the greenhouses and in the field and garden. In the third and fourth years will be given successive courses on Plants in Relation to Landscape Planting, conducted mainly at the Bussey Institution and the Arnold Arboretum. -Announcement of the Programme of tures Courses in Scientific Landscape Architecture, School, March 1900.5 Lawrence A one-year graduate program was instituted in 1906 with previous courses in both horticul- The Arnold Arboretum and Landscape Architecture Studies at Harvard By the early 1890s, many people that Harvard were urgmg landscape architecture program, a notion supported by President Charles W. Eliot and by the geologist Nathaniel Shaler, the very popular dean of Harvard's develop a ture, botany, and geography recommended for admittance. Agam, the Arnold Arboretum was to be a venue for plant courses. From the beginning, the Arboretum's collection was of significant pedagogical value to students. The full spectrum of Amencan species would eventually form the backbone of the collection, but the Arboretum focused first on Lawrence Scientific School. Since at that time it the only department of the University that offered advanced instruction in the physical and natural sciences, the Lawrence Scientific School was the logical home for such a program, and m 1900 Harvard launched the first degree-granting program in landscape architecture in the Umted States in that school. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. was named its first director; his appointment honored the legacy of Frederick Law Olmsted Sr. and set a precedent for practitioner\/academic faculty appointments that is still followed by landscape architecture programs across the country. The University aligned the landscape architecture program with the newly established program in architecture, indicating an expectation of a close collaborative relationship between the fields, a collaboration that drew on science, engineering, and fine art. The Arnold Arboretum and its allied mstitution in Jamaica Plain-the Bussey Institutionplayed integral roles in the new program. was assembling plants native to New England. Since students in the early years of the Harvard program were drawn primarily from the New England region, where they often began their practice, their plant study at the Arboretum was immediately useful to them after graduation. The Bussey Institution was also well positioned to serve as a resource for the new landscape program. The Bussey was Harvard's experiment in scientific agriculture and husbandry from 1871 to 1908 when it was converted to a graduate school in applied biology. Describing its mission as \"not educating farmers' sons in a knowledge of their fathers' trade ... but ... recognizing the high and difficult character of husbandry,\" it had been the only Harvard program offering training in horticulture to landscape architects before the design program was established. It was unique at Harvard for allowing women to attend classes from time to time; Benjamin Watson, who taught horticultural classes at the Bussey, was particularly supportive of women students: Mr. Watson would also like to receive women in his course on Trees and Shrubs, or in the course on general Horticulture. He says that he has one good woman student in Landscape Gardening, and that another woman has applied for the course in gen- Particular attention will be given to the study of plants both as individuals and as elements of landscaping. In the first year will be given lec- 7 gram]. Horticultural and botanical studies in the laboratory and the field will extend through three years, and ample opportunities will be offered not only to learn the habits of trees, shrubs and plants but also to study landscape gardening effects in the park of the Arboretum ... We are fortunate in being able to estabhsh a connection to the Arboretum, which Mr. Sargent's publications have made known throughout the world as a great horticultural station.' The Arboretum's courses for MIT were taught by Sargent, who demurred at both formal teaching and lecturing, but by John George Jack (1861-1949), a Quebec native who had joined the Arboretum in 1886 to handle plant records. Because he showed a talent for working with the public, Sargent soon entrusted him with full responsibility for both public and academic education. Jack's lectures and field walks were always well attended and he was eventually given the title of Lecturer. Unlike Harvard in the early years of its program, MIT admitted several women. The landscape architect Martha Brookes Hutcheson said of her MIT education: not I saw at once that the curriculum did not give John George Jack mstructmg students Arboretum. at the Arnold women eral Horticulture. Watson is in favor of giving the same opportunities that he gives men. -Letter from Harvard President Charles W. Eliot to Professor Frank Storer, October 18, 1898~ nearly enough time to what must be known of the \"plant world,\" the riches in material and easy study obtamable in the nearby Arnold Arboretum were too during three great to be but half known so, summers, I made exhaustive notes there for my card catalog. -\"Three Women in Landscape Architecture\"g at The MIT Program in Landscape Architecture The Arnold Arboretum had a direct link to the program in landscape architecture at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), which began in 1900 and ended in 1908: it was developed by Guy Lowell, who was married to Charles Sargent's daughter Henrietta. The MIT program, one of two options offered to architecture students, was open to both undergraduates and graduates until around 1904 and to graduates only from then until 1908, when the program was discontmued. The importance of the Arboretum's role in the program was clearly outlined in the program description: Marian C. Coffin also valued her experience the Arnold Arboretum as an MIT student: At that time the course given at \"Tech\" was thorough course m Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum which is under the direction of Mr. Charles S. Sargent [will be part of the proA very and was an option in the architectural course and under the guidance of Guy Lowell ... The last year we diverged into purely landscape problems, while during the entire four years, we had engineering problems and attendant mathematics of our own, as well as at least two days a week for study in the Arnold Arboretum and for various trips about Boston to see fine examples of landscape design ... To the splendid training in design we were given, to the three years of such hard work as I fancy few of the schools now insist upon, as well as to the patience and enthusiasm of Prof. Jack who guided our steps through an intensive training in y plant material, I feel more than grateful termed \"Landscape Architecture\" 8 Ida Hay chose this contemporary mew of the Arnold Arboretum for the cover of her book, Science in the Pleasure Ground. It bears a stnkmg similamty to a mew of the Ramble in Central Park prmted m Garden and Forest (1888). 9 Reminiscing about his Arboretum teaching responsibilities later in life, John Jack speculated that MIT dropped the landscape architecture option in 1908 because MIT was working closely with Harvard to avoid duplication of small, speprograms. Since Harvard's program was well financed and thriving, it seemed prudent for MIT to end their involvement in the field. With Harvard's program closed to women until the early 1940s, some regretted the closing of MIT's program, which removed the only option for women in the region. Two independent schools of landscape design in the Boston area filled the gap. The Cambridge School of Architecture and Landscape Architecture was founded in 1916 and based in Harvard Square. Under its director, Henry Atherton Frost, a member of Harvard's Department of Landscape Architecture, the School offered women a shadow version of the Harvard curriculum. The Lowthorpe School of Landscape Architecture was founded by Judith Motley Low, a descendant of Benjamin Bussey, and based at her country home in Groton, Massachusetts. The program emphasized residential design and offered intensive study of plant form, planting design, and horticultural skills. Students at both schools used the Arboretum extensively to study woody plants both as mdividual species and in a design context. cialty lection less relevant to those studying plants from an ecosystem perspective. Unhke museum collections of paintings, sculpture, or artifacts the Arboretum's living collections cannot be realigned or portions stored until their unique value is rediscovered by new generations of scholars and students. The Arboretum's collections of native trees and shrubs in many stages of maturity, its display of rare species from all over the temperate world, and its high curatorial standards for individual specimens remain a unique international resource for plant study. Many have called the Arboretum's landscape one of the best-preserved examples of the work of Frederick Law Olmsted. It is now the responsibility of faculty and staff to interpret all of these resources for a new generation of students. Endnotes publications explore the history of landscape architecture at Harvard m great detail Anthony Alofsm. The Struggle for Modernism: Architecture, Landscape Architecture, and City Planning at Harvard (New York W.W Norton), 2002. Melame Simo The Coalescing of Different Forces and Ideas A History of Landscape Architecture at Harvard, 1900-1999 (Cambridge : Harvard University Graduate School of Design), 2000. Two recent 1 Henry Vincent Hubbard. \"Landscape Architecture.\" In Fifty Years of Boston: A Memonal Volume Issued in Commemoration of the Tercentenary of 1930 (Boston, 1978\/, p. 347 Clarence T. Fowler. \"Three Women m Landscape Architecture.\" Alumnae Bulletm of the Cambridge School of Domestic and Landscape Architecture Charles Sargent's death in 1927 coincided with a shift in the landscape architecture curriculum at Harvard to embrace town planning and the rebuilding of cities. Plant studies continued to be part of the curriculum but their value diminished as the scale of projects increased and the sites studied were no longer regional. Students came from many parts of the country with a growing contingent of international students, many leaving the region upon graduation. The Arboretum continued to be a resource for the program with field walks and courses taught by both Arboretum staff and Harvard faculty but, ironically, despite enhanced public transportation and improved roadways, the six-mile distance between Cambridge and Jamaica Plain seemed, at times, an insurmountable barrier. More significantly, the taxonomic arrangement of the Arboretum, which places plant families together disregarding native growing conditions and plant associations, made the col- z 3 (April 1932) 4(2): 7. Jacob Weidenmann Congress to December 1887. Manuscript 4 John Charles Olmsted 14 Collection, Library of and'Landscape Art\"' Ethan Carr \"Garden and Forest (2000). Arnoldia 60~3\/: 5. 5 Lawrence Scientific School Announcement of a Four Years' Programme of Courses m Landscape Architecture (March 1900), 4. ~ Charles W Eliot to Frank Storer 18 October 1898 Archives of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. ~ 8 9 Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Class of 1894 Decennial Catalogue (June 1904), 35. Fowler. \"Three Women in Landscape Architecture,\" 9. Ibid., 11. Phyllis Andersen is fellow for cultural landscape studies in the Landscape Institute of the Arnold Arboretum. 10 . Landscape Architect\/Landscape Architecture: A Short History of the Terms The ing. terms used to describe the process and profession of designing the landscape can be confusIn the late nineteenth century the Anglo-American term landscape gardening evolved into the professional and academic discipline of landscape architecture and took on precise professional and legal boundaries. Landscape design is a designation that continues to transcend disciplinary and professional boundaries and captures the essence of the process. Contrary to popular opinion, Frederick Law Olmsted did not invent the term landscape architecture nor was he particularly partial to it when it was used by the architect Calvert Vaux, his partner in the design of Central Park. am all the time bothered with the miserable nomenclature of L.A. Landscape is not a good word, Architecture is not; the combination is not-Gardening is worse ... The art is not gardening nor is it architecture. What I am doing here in Cahfornia, especially is neither. It is sylvan art, fine art in distinction from Horticulture, Agriculture, or sylvan useful art ... If you are bound to estabhsh this new art, you don't want an old name for it. And for clearness, for convenience, for distinctness, you do need half a dozen technical words at least. -Frederick I Law Olmsted to Calvert Vaux, Olmsted did adopt its use near describe his work. August 1865 the end of his professional I career as he found no better < term to With reference to your undertaking there is less room for choice than may be supposed among the landscape gardeners or landscape architects of the country (I have come to prefer the latter term, tho' I much objected to it when it was first given to me. I prefer it because it helps to estabhsh the important idea of the distinction of my profession from that of gardening, as that of architecture from building-the distinction of an art of design. -Fredenck Law Olmsted to the Board of Parks Commissioners, Rochester, New York, 1888 ' '; ~ The use of the term century literature. 1828 landscape architecture can be traced back at least to early nineteenth- Gilbert Laing Meason. The Landscape Architecture of the Great Paintings of Italy (London). One of the first uses of the term by the Scottish writer, a friend of Sir Walter Scott. However, Meason was referring to the appropriateness of buildings in the landscape not the landscape itself: the Roman villa, towers and turrets, picturesque country houses. 1840 John Claudius Loudon, editor. The Landscape Gardening and Landscape Architecture of the Late Humphry Repton (London\/. This was Loudon's title for his compilation of the writings of Repton; again, Loudon was referring to buildings in the landscape. Landscape architecture was Loudon's term, 1841 not Repton's. Andrew Jackson Downing. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (London). In Section IX, \"Landscape or Rural Architecture,\" Downing writes that \"architectural beauty must be considered cojointly with the beauty of the landscape or situation ... the harmonious union of buildings and scenery.\" But like Loudon, Downing was referring to building style and landscape compatibility. 11 I 1858 Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux use the 1863 term in Central Park documents. The title landscape architect City. is used for the first time by the Board of Central Park Commis- sioners in New York 1873 Horace William Shaler Cleveland. West (Chicago): Landscape Architecture as Applied to the Wants of the Landscape Gardening, or more properly Landscape Architecture, is the art of arranging land so as to adapt to it most conveniently, economically and gracefully, to any of the vaned wants of civilization ... The term \"landscape architecture\" is ob~ectionable, as being only figuratively expressive of the art it is used to designate. I make use of it, under protest, as the readiest means of making myself understood, in the absence of a more appropriate term. If the art is ever developed to the extent I believe to be within its legitimate limits, it will achieve for itself a name worthy of its position. 1899 The American Society of Landscape Architects is formed at a meeting in New York. It was organized to include only professional landscape architects as full members and to exclude nurserymen, contractors, builders, and others engaged in commercial work. The group did allow those calling themselves landscape gardeners, such as Beatrix Farrand, to join. 1910 Landscape Architecture magazme is founded by three graduates of Harvard's landscape architecture program, Robert Wheelright, Charles Downing Lay, and Henry Vincent Hubbard. 1916 Liberty Hyde Bailey attempts to clarify the continuing confusion in terminology in his Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Vol. IV. The art that designs and makes landscapes is known mostly by the name landscape architecture, although there is now a tendency to call it by other names. Landscape gardening is the older term; but this is considered not to be broad enough or bold enough to suggest the large elements of design that form an underlying part of the art. 2003 Society of architecture: scape American Landscape Architects website (www.asla.org) offers this definition of land- the art and science of analysis, planning, design, management, preservation and rehabilitation of the land. The scope of the profession includes site planning, garden design, environmental restoration, town or urban planning, park and recreation plan- Landscape architecture is ning, regional planning, and historic preservation. PA "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Special Role of Historical Plant Records in Monitoring the Impact of Climate Change","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25372","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270b76b.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"Special Role of Historical Plant Records in Monitoring the Impact of Climate Change Richard Primack he best available scientific evidence that the world's climate will change significantly over the present century because of increases in the greenhouse gases that result from burning fossil fuels and destroying tropical forests. Worldwide temperatures have already risen by sixth-tenths of one degree centigrade over the last four decades, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change of the World Meteorological Organization and the United Nations Environmental Program. Estimates of the increase to be expected over the next hundred years range from three to ten degrees Fahrenheit. This change is comparable to the one that occurred after the last ice age. The warmer temperatures will have a radical effect on many plant species. Some will no longer be able to grow at their present locations and will either migrate or go extinct. Others will be able to maintain their present ranges but will change their behavior-leafing out earlier, flowering and frmting earlier, and holding their leaves later in autumn. Indeed, earlier flowering times will be one of the first indications that the climate is changing. This may at first strike some people as a pleasant change, but warmer summer temperatures, especially in dry years, are likely to reduce populations of many sensitive native plant species while favoring more heat-tolerant species. There are already signs that certain drought- and temperature-sensitive species could experience higher than normal mortality rates, as Peter Del Tredici described in a recent article in the New York Times. To put it another way, horticulturists' longstanding concern about plants' winter hardiness is being displaced by concerns about droughtand heat-tolerance. Taking a larger view, the expected increases in temperatures will have The suggests huge implications not just for horticulture but for agriculture, forestry, and wildlife conservaas well. Behavior changes of this sort are the raw material of the science of phenology, the study of how biological phenomena are affected by climate and seasonahty. Clearly, observations of phenological events in plants will play an important role in our efforts to evaluate the effects of rising temperatures. Climate change will affect the full range of organisms-plants, fungi, animals, and even microorganisms-but the sudden onset and cessation of flowering in plants make them particularly well suited to research on its effects. More important, we have extensive records of plant flowering times gomg back decades and even centuries, many of them gathered by government weather bureaus for agricultural purposes and others maintained by private individuals. By comparing current flowering times with historical records of this sort, a network of observers at European botanical gardens has found that European plants are now flowering six days earlier than they were in the 1960s and that the overall growing season has increased by one or two weeks. The most comprehensive attempt to correlate weather and flowering times in North America was made by the Weather Regional Phenological Network (WRPN) between 1957 and 1994. The network spanned the United States, eventually including two thousand observers who monitored the behavior of three designated cultivars: the common lilac, Syringa vulgaris f. purpurei, and two honeysuckles, Lonicera tartarica cv. 'Arnold Red' and L. korolkowii var. zebelli. The observers were given specific instructions on how to record the dates of leafing out, of first flowering, of peak flowering, and of flower withering. tion 13 Average monthly temperatures with Imear trendlmes. The data States National Weather Service Whlle the temperatures are was taken from online records of the Umted vanable from year to year, temperatures are getting warmer durmg this penod. The WPRN project was closed down in 1994 for lack of permanent institutional backing, but the massive data sets it generated are still being analyzed. Thus far, the major finding is that plants across the United States are now flowering about one week earlier than in the 1950s when the WPRN observations began. The data also showed a high degree of correlation among the various phenological events-in years with earlier first flowering, leafing out also occurred earlier-indicating that the events are developmentally linked. This finding can largely be explained by the responsiveness of the observed species to spring temperatures: they flower earlier when there are warm springs, and warm springs have become more common. Unfortunately, all the plants observed by the WPRN were exotic cultivars, which may respond to climatic variation differently from our native species. To understand the impact of climate change on native species, we need long-term observations of species living in their native habitats. Not all recording of phenological events has been done by large organizations. In the Umted Kingdom, for example, there is a long tradition of families carrying out observations on their farms and estates. From 1736 to 1947 the Marsham family of Norfolk County observed and recorded the times of leafing out and flowering for a variety of plant species as well as of bird migrations. Their records show clearly that plants respond to annual fluctuations in climate ; presumably they will continue to do so as the climate gradually warms. In the United States, one of the most complete sets of observations was recorded by the famous naturalist Aldo Leopold from 1936 to 1947 and continued from 1976 to 1998 by his daughter, Nma Leopold Bradley, at their farm m southern Wisconsin. Of the fifty-five phenological events they followed, thirty-six were the 14 . Sites of European botanic gardens participating m the Network of International Phenological Gardens Solld black circles mark gardens still m the network; nngs mark gardens that have dropped out of the network Drawn from \"Trends m phenological phases m Europe between 1951 and 1996,\" A numbered. By comparing the current flowering time of a plant with its past flowering time (indicated by the collection date on its herbarium specimen), we can determine the impact of climate change on its behavior. And because of the \"heat-island effect\" common to large cities-which has helped to raise average temperatures in Boston by about five degrees Fahrenheit over the last 120 years while that of eastern North America overall has risen by only two degrees *-the behavior of plants growing on the Arboretum's grounds may give an early warning of what will happen to plants growing in less urbanized locations in later decades. In 2002 a group of Boston University students and I began to test this methodology at the Arnold Arboretum by making weekly observations of 67 plants for which the herbarium has flowering specimens. The sample size is not large, but the results were clear: plants did not flower any earlier in the warm year of 2002 than Menzel, International Journal of Biometeorology (2000) 44: 76-81. first flowering of plants. A significant trend toward earlier flowering was shown in ten of the thirty-six plant species, including forest phlox (Phlox divaricatusJ and columbine (Aqmlegia canadensis). An analysis of all their plantrelated data showed that on average, the phenological events observed advanced by 0.12 days a year, the equivalent of about six days over a fifty-year period. Historical records of this sort are of great value in tracking the effects of climate change. Another important resource is found in the herbaria of botanical gardens like the Arnold Arboretum, where extensive records of flowering times are preserved on the mounted sheets of flattened specimens. Many of the Arnold's approximately 80,000 herbarium specimens were collected on the grounds from flowering individuals that are tagged and individually * As shown more Among thmty-six plants observed by the Leopolds, Aldo and his daughter Nina, over a sixty-one year period, Phlox dmancata (forest phlox) was one of ten that showed a signi ficant trend toward earher flowering Plants are clearly flowermg earher In the 1976 to 1998 period m compamson mth the 1936 to 1947 period; the overall change is about 10 days Each dot represents the fmst flowermg date observed m one year. From N. Leopold et al., \"Phenological changes reflect climate change in Wisconsm,\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (1999) 96: 9703. \" by the National Weather Service. See also Roetzer et al. 2000, which points out that as cities become urbanized, paved surfaces and buildings tend to absorb and retain heat from the sun, making the city warmer than the surrounding countryside. 15 5 they had in the similarly warm period of 1990 to 2001. However, they flowered an average of four days earlier than they had in the 1980s, and fifteen days earlier on average than they had in the years before 1980. For example, a flower was collected from a Rosa pendulina plant on June 19, 1916; the same plant was in peak flower on May 25 in 2003, 25 days earlier. A Viburnum furcatum plant flowered 23 days earlier in 2002 than it had in 1937; and a V scabrellum plant flowered 24 days earlier than in 1973. During the growmg season of 2003 we expanded the study to include a much Boston University students Dan Primack and Carolyn Imbres recordinl larger sample of plants, espe- flowering times-in this case, Rhododendron vasey (pmkshell azalea)-or cially older ones for which we Meadow Road at the Arnold Arboretum, May 2003. have herbarium specimens for more than one year. Changes m the onset of spring m the western United States. Bulletin of the Amencan These comparisons from the Arnold ArboreMeteorological Society 82\/3y 399-415. tum, together with others being made throughDel Tredici, Peter. 2002. A Camellia Grows in Boston. out the world, will quantify and highlight the New York Times, 26 November 2002. of climate change on biological comimpact munities. But much more historical data on Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, World Meteorological Organization and the Umted events, whether collected by prophenological Nations Environmental Program. 2001. fessionals or dedicated naturalists, is needed to Climate Change 2001 Synthesis Report expand our knowledge about plants' responses Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK to warmer temperatures. Especially, we need to Parmesan, C., and G. Yohe. 2003. A globally coherent increase the number of localities for which fingerprint of climate change impacts across there are good long-term records on phenomena natural systems. Nature 42: 37-42 such as flowering and leafing times, bird and Roetzer, T., M. Wittenzeller, H. Haeckel, and J. Nekovar. fish migrations, insect appearance, and amphib2000 Phenology in central Europeian calling and movement. Any readers of this differences and trends m spring phenophases m urban and rural areas. International Journal of article who have recorded their observations Biometeorology 44: 60-66. over past decades are urged to get in touch with me. Perhaps by analyzing our data together Sparks, T. H., and P. D. Carey. 1995. The response of species to climate over two centuries: an we can make a valuable contribution to this analysis of the Marsham phenological record, research. important 1736-1947. Journal of Ecology 83~ 321-329. References Bradley, N. L., A. C. Leopold, J. Ross, and W. Huffaker. 1999. Phenological changes reflect climate change in Wisconsin Proceedings of the National Academy of Science (USA) 96: 9701- 9704. Cayan, D R., S. A Kammerdiener, J. M. Capmo, and D H. M D. Dettmger, Peterson. 2001 Richard B. Pnmack is a professor at Boston University and a member of the Visiting Committee of the Arnold Arboretum. Along with several Boston University undergraduates-Carolyn Imbres, Luba Zhaurova, Anna Ledneva, and Dan Pnmack, he has been conducting observations on flowering times at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentinel'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25369","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270b328.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Stewartia `Scarlet Sentinel' Peter Del Tredici cultivation of plants different parts of the -L world in specialized gardens is a tradition that dates back at least to the time of the ancient Egyptians. Migrating from place to place, people carried along their plants, animals, and technologies and exchanged them with the people they met. More than anything else, the evolution of modern human culture is characterized by the free flow of information, products, and living organisms. Christopher Columbus'\"discovery\" of the new world in 1492 provided endless opportunities for plant exploration and stimulated the development of botanical gardens throughout Europe for the cultivation of these new, exotic plants. With each advance in transportation and information technology, the process of transferring plants from one part of the world to another became less time- The flower of Stewartia ovata f grandiflora. consuming and consequently more successful. In our own time, airplanes have Many of our important food plants origireduced travel time to far-flung destinations nated as spontaneous hybrids in botanical from weeks or months to hours or days. gardens-strawberries and rhubarb are modern The biological implications of the transportaexamples-as did many ornamental plants. tion revolution have been profound. Species Like its European counterparts, the Arnold that evolved over millions of years-isolated Arboretum has produced its share of spontanefrom one another by mountains, rivers, deserts, ous garden hybrids, including the famous or oceans-could now be cultivated together 'Arnold Promise' witch hazel, a cross between in a \"common garden.\" In these gardens, the the Japanese and Chinese witch hazels. This barriers that separated plants in nature were article introduces the latest Arnold Arboresuddenly gone, leaving the plants to interbreed tum hybrid, in the genus Stewartia, in the tea freely. Like it or not, botanical gardens have family (Theaceae). Members of the Stewartia genus are among always been centers of uncontrolled experiments in genetic recombination. the choice ornamental plants that are avidly he from 17 7 The \"camouflage\" bark of Stewartia pseudocamellia. the Arboretum call it the \"camouflage\" typically tree, while mature horticulturists develop a faraway look in their eyes as they stroke the trunk. The Korean stewartia is the best-known member of the genus, but others are worthy of note: Chinese stewartia (Stewartia sinensis) has smaller flowers and exfoliating bark with the look and feel of alabaster; the bark of the tall stewartia, the Japanese species S. monodelpha, is smooth and cinnamon-colored. Two species are native to North America. One is S. malacodendron from the mid-Atlantic coastal plain, which has four-inch flowers with showy, bright purple anther filaments ; unfortunately it is not reliably hardy in Boston's climate. The other is the mountain stewartia (S. ovata), which is a hardier, more upland species that produces flowers about three inches across with white or yellowish anther filaments. There are two varieties of mountain stewartia-var. ovata with yellow anther filaments and the more striking var. grandi flora with dark purple anther filaments. Neither of the American species possesses the exfoliating bark that is characteristic of the three Asiatic species described above. see the tree at \" sought by connoisseurs. The most widely grown species, S. pseudocamellia-commonly called the Japanese or Korean stewartia-is the quintessence of the horticultural Holy Grail, with multiseason interest and stately elegance rolled into one plant. A medium-sized tree that grows to twenty to forty feet, it produces an abundance of gorgeous flowers in early summer, rich color in the red-burgundy-purple range in autumn, and most famously, spectacular exfoliating bark in shades of ivory, buff, and tan that enlivens the winter and early spring landscape. Children who The Arboretum's new hybrid stewartia has been given the cultivar name 'Scarlet Sentinel' and was formally described in a recent issue of HortScience-37 (2~: 412-414. Initially the plant's heritage was unknown, but subsequent research has demonstrated that its parents are Stewartia pseudocamellia and S. ovata var. grandiflora. The original plant was collected in late spring of 1982 as one of a group of spontaneous seedlings growing beneath two mature specimens of S. pseudocamellia on Chinese Path. 18 . rolled over it on its way down to the bottom of the hill the house is perched on. But the tree sprang back to park, rapidly. disappointed because it failed to show the beautifully patterned bark that I had expected. In fact, after waiting expectantly for nearly ten years, I began to contemplate replacmg it with a \"proper\" Korean stewartia with the exfoliating bark I so coveted. Such thoughts evaporated one early morning in July 1992 when I grew life-quite literally-and I Despite its tenacity, was noticed a spent stewartia flower on the ground, the first one the tree had ever produced. I picked it up and to my utter that unlike the flower of Stewartia pseudocamellia, which has a ring of yellow anther filaments, this one had bright, cherry-red anther filaments, quite unlike any stewartia flower I had ever seen. I collected the few flowers still on the tree and brought them to the Arboretum for more careful study. Based on their comparative morphology, I decided that the plant was probably a hybrid between Stewartia pseudocamellia and S. ovata var. grandiflora, a specimen of which was growing between the two Korean stewartias that E. H. Wilson had collected. This plant (AA 18244-C), which had been collected by a Mr. T. G. Harbison in 1925 from the wilds of Highlands, North Carolina, has striking purple anther filaments and tight, nonexfoliating bark. 'Scarlet Sentinel' is intermediate between the two in most of its morphology including its bark, which flakes off in thin, linear strips. Stephen Spongberg, then taxonomist at the Arboretum, agreed with my opinion about the new hybrid's parentage and showed me another plant at the Arboretum with similar characters, which he had determined to be a hybrid between S. pseudocamellia and S. ovata var. ovata. It had the same bark as my plant, but the flowers had yellow rather than red anther filaments. This independent corroboration made me even more certain about my tree's parentage, but absolute confirmation had to wait for several years, until Jianhua Li, amazement I saw The flower of Stewartia pseudocamellia. (These plants, AA 11440-A & B, are among the handsomest trees in the Arboretum; they were collected in Korea by E. H. Wilson in 1918.) Fellow propagator Rob Nicholson and I were collecting the stewartia seedlings for distribution at the Arboretum's annual fall plant sale. The seedlings, presumed to be S. pseudocamellia, were given the Arboretum accession number 538-82 and were potted up and placed under shadecloth in an alleyway between two greenhouses. Over the course of the summer the seedlings flourished, growing several inches taller. As I was loading the flats of seedlings onto the truck for delivery to the Case Estates, I remembered that I \"needed\" a Korean stewartia for the front yard of the house I had recently purchased in Harvard, Massachusetts. Without thinking much about it, I scanned the flat of seedlings and quickly selected the one plant that stood out above the rest. Later that week I planted the seedling about ten feet from my front door, intendmg to admire its exfoliating bark in my dotage. The little seedling flourished in its new home and even survived a close brush with death when my car, which I had forgotten to put in 19 The flower of Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentmel'. the Arboretum's present taxonomist, performed the detailed genetic analysis that confirmed my The bark of Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentmel original hypothesis. Description 'Scarlet Sentinel' has a narrow, upright growth habit. At twelve years of age, when it bore its first flowers, the plant was twenty feet tall by eight feet wide. At twenty-two years of age the tree is about thirty feet tall and fifteen feet wide, having become more wide-spreading following the loss of its leader in a heavy snowstorm in December 1996. Its leaves are alternate, simple, and ovate-to-broad-elliptic in shape. Both the upper and lower leaf surfaces are smooth or slightly pubescent and waxy to the touch. The petiole is less than one-half-inch (one cm) long, with slight wings that enclose the developing bud. The leaves are three to four-and-a-half inches (8 to 12 cm) long by one-and-one-half to just under three inches (4 to 7 cm) wide, with a pointed tip and a rounded base. The leaf margins are finely serrated. 'Scarlet Sentinel' produces large flowers that are between three and four inches (8 to 20 cm) wide when fully open. The most conspicuous feature of these flowers is their scarlet-colored anther filaments (Royal Horticultural Society color chart #58B in the red-purple group). The ovary in the center of the flower is about one quarter-of-an-inch (6 mm) long and covered with dense hairs; its five styles are fused for the lower third of their length, the upper twothirds being free. The flowers typically have 20 five petals, but many of them also have an extra one or two small, petal-like structures. The flowers appear to be sterile, producing little, if any, viable pollen and no mature fruits despite the presence nearby of a flowering specimen of S. pseudocamellia (which I finally went out and purchased). Table 1 summarizes the morphological intermediacy of 'Scarlet Sentinel' relative to S. pseudocamellia and S. ovata f. grandiflora. Propagation The of frustration the development of 'Scarlet Sentinel' has been its one source surrounding propagation. Despite repeated efforts dating back to 1992, I have been unable to produce a single propagule that has lived longer than two years. This despite the fact that softwood cuttings collected between mid June and early August and placed under intermittent mist root in the range of sixty to one hundred percent. While most of the rooted cuttings initiated growth the following spring, many of them died during the following summer after producing two to four inches (5 to 10 cm) of new growth. Modification in the rooting medium, The upnght growth habit of Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentmel' prior to losing its the type of container, the mode leader m an ice storm. of overwintering, and the timacteristic feature of the dead 'Scarlet Sentinel' ing of transplanting increased the longevity of some of the cuttings, but all were dead by the cuttings at the Arboretum is that the tips die end of their second summer (see table 2). before the roots do. The first symptom of No doubt the rarity of stewartia cultivars in trouble is the browning of the leaves, starting the nursery trade is the result of problems assowith the tip and working back toward the petiole. The leaves then wither and fall, one by one, ciated with vegetative propagation. At present, over a period of weeks or months, eventually only one commercial nursery, Broken Arrow in leaving a lifeless, desiccated twig. The most Hamden, Connecticut, has been able to propacurious aspect of this demoralizing sequence and offer 'Scarlet Sentinel' for sale. A chargate 21 Table 1. Morphology of 'Scarlet Sentinel' in comparison to its parents, Stewartia ovata f. grandiflora and S. pseudocamellia. Measurements represent the range of variation observed in ten flowers per taxon. Table 2. The history of efforts to propagate 'Scarlet Sentinel' at the Arnold Arboretum, 1992 to 2002. 22 A companson of the flowers S. pseudocamellia (nghtJ. of Stewartia 'Scarlet Sentmel' (center) with its parents, S. ovata f grandiflora (left) and becomes evident when the pot is tipped over and the plant is removed with its root system fully intact, healthy and turgid, with bright white, vigorously growing root tips. This is especially surprising because in my experience root system failure is the usual cause of death for rooted cuttings. We have screened many of the dying and dead plants for a variety of bacterial and fungal pathogens-including the dreaded Pierce's disease, which is caused by the bacteria Xylella fastidiosa-and have so far come up empty. While this propagation failure has been personally frustrating, the success that Richard Jaynes of Broken Arrow Nursery has had with the plant indicates that the problems are not insurmountable. Currently two young plants of 'Scarlet Sentinel' from Broken Arrow are growing at the Arboretum and perhaps cuttings taken from them will improve our chances for propagation success in the future. positive note, the author all readers of Arnoldia who might encourages have purchased a stewartia seedling at the Arboretum's 1982 plant sale to check their plants to see if they might, perhaps, have a hybrid seedling like 'Scarlet Sentinel'. If you do, please let me know and I'll come by to check it out. To end on a more Peter Del Tredici is Arnold Arboretum. semor research scientist at the I "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hidden Mathematics of the Garden","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25371","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270b726.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"James, Peter J.","article_content":"The Hidden Mathematics of the Garden Peter j. james at laude Monet's exuberant garden far removed the severe mirrors and stainless steel of a modern Chelsea show garden as it is possible to be. Yet at the heart of both there lies a fundamental geometry. The word geometry means land measurement, and certainly the great landscape gardeners knew their geometry and how to apply it. Le Notre's complex parterres, \"Capability\" Brown's sweeping vistas, and Victorian \"carpet bedding\" all depended on the use of compass, ruler, and French curves. There were even manuals on garden geometry, such as Charles Hayward's Geometrical Flower Beds for Every Body's Garden (1853). For all the visual appeal of the end products of this geometry, they represent only the static orderliness of a stage set as the curtain rises. There is, however, a deeper, darker, more dynamic form of geometry that influences our understanding of from t Giverny is, perhaps, as and to look at the mathematical relationship between them. As with any process, its effectiveness depends absolutely upon the ratio of supply to demand, which m this case is reflected in the surface-to-volume ratio. Bulky material has a low surface-to-volume ratio; when that bulk is divided into smaller fragments, the volume remains the same while the surface area increases and the ratio of surface to volume, or supply to demand, therefore also increases. This simple mathematical logic suggests that the most effective composting process is to be achieved by minimizing the size of the plant fragments: unfortunately, things are plant growth. physical and chemical processes which gardeners depend occur at surfaces; soil particles, plant roots, and compost heaps are all examples of such surfaces and the compost heap in particular repays deeper study. These heaps consist of dead plant remains that are gradually decomposed by the action of microorganisms; the result of this decomposition is a complex cocktail of products, but the one of greatest practical importance to the gardener is humus. The microorganisms carry out these processes of decomposition by secreting exoenzymes that diffuse into the plant remains, but these exoenzymes can only gain access to the plant cell contents through their surfaces. It is a complex and multistage process, and it is subject to strict mathematical laws. In order to understand how these laws operate it is useful to regard the surface of the plant debris as the supply and its volume-or bulk-as the demand on Most of the straightforward. produce good-quality compost, oxygen is required for the breakdown of the simple sugars, proteins, celluloses, and hgnins that constitute the bulk of plant material; oxygen must therefore have free access to the plant debris. Yet small fragments closely packed together will impede this aeration while water, obeying the mathematical rules of surface tension, will tenaciously remain in tiny pores or spaces between the fragments and further not quite so To inhibit the free diffusion of oxygen. The solubility of oxygen, even in pure water, is very low, and decreases as temperature rises, so that oxygen present in the water between the fragments is quickly exhausted and, if the pores are too small to allow free drainage, the oxygen-bearing water is not replenished. are, therefore, intimately connected and are both dependent on the surface-to-volume ratio. So, finely chopped, compacted, airless, and waterlogged compost heaps quickly become anaerobic, a condition easily detectable by the smell of ammonia. To avoid this, another aspect of mathematics must be invoked, namely, optimality theory. This is the algebraic way of expressing a compromise Oxygen and water availability 24 situation. What it amounts to here is insuring that fragment size is large enough to result in corner of the Venetian Adriatic, on the mudbanks of the lagoon, where for a thousand years pores that are not too small (not less than about fifty microns in diameter), but not so large as to create a disadvantageous surface-to-volume ratio. All these mathematical threads-surfaceto-volume ratios, fragment size, pore diameter, the laws of surface tension, and water availability plus Adolf Fick's laws of diffusion and optimality theory-become woven into an awemathematical Gordian knot. However, it knot that, mercifully, can be cut through in a practical sense not by a computer but by a humble manure fork and a piece of old carpet, the first to break up and aerate the heap, the second to protect the compost from becoming saturated with rainwater. Alternatively, you could rely on those wonderful but unsung mathematicians of the garden: the insects and the worms, who know exactly the size and number of pores to create in your compost heap. While good compost requires aerobic conditions for its production, there are other circumstances in which the presence of oxygen is anathema. An example is in the northwest some is a \"the stones of Venice\" have rested securely on wooden (that is, lignin) props driven deep into the anaerobic mud. It is as well that these props are deeply buried, for were they more superficial and therefore exposed to the aeration produced by algal photosynthesis and (later) the churning propellers of passing shipping and (now) vaporetti, La Serenissima would long since have vamshed beneath the waves. Exactly this piece of chemistry was involved when England's East Anglian fens were drained, exposing the anaerobic peat-a form of compost-to the oxygen of the atmosphere. Since the fens are all surface, an enormous surface-to-volume ratio was produced and, albeit very slowly, the rich peat was oxidized to carbon dioxide and water. The final outcome has been the gradual sinking of the land below sea level, and all the historical and economic consequences thereof. Long-term observation of any compost heap beautifully demonstrates this process in miniature. Just note the gradual contraction of the heap over the months. 25 All this, however, is only the beginning of the mathematics of the compost heap. The decomposition of plant remains is an example of a process known to ecologists as a \"resource\" or \"substrate\" succession. In this type of succession the available nutrients-the substrates- large, heat-retentive heaps will be more efficompost-makers than small heaps, which lose heat too quickly to allow the core temperature to rise significantly. The usual recommendation is that compost heaps should have a so cient progressively depleted. Decomposition is initially very rapid, but gradually slows down as the more readily available substrates such as proteins and simple sugars are consumed. Physiare cal chemists call this a \"first order reaction\": they have their own mathematics to deal with it, and these too can be applied to the compost heap. After all the simple chemicals have been consumed, only the more recalcitrant biopolymers such as the celluloses and lignins remain. These latter are so difficult to break down that only a few microorganisms (fungi) have evolved the means by which to carry out the process and, happily, Venice remains standing and peat accumulates. The mathematics used to describe the kinetics of these various breakdown processes are too complex to go into here, but there are two ratios of great practical significance. The first is the familiar surface-to-volume ratio, but in a different minimum volume of one cubic meter, giving a surface-to-volume ratio of 6:1. The demand for oxygen must be borne in mind: the larger the heap, the longer it takes for oxygen to diffuse into the core, and at the same time it must be remembered that active microbial growth increases the oxygen demand still further. But guise. The breakdown of proteins and simple sugars is one of many chemical processes that generate heat and are known as exothermic reactions. The first stages of compost production involve bacteria and fungi, which promote these exothermic reactions and thus raise the temperature of the compost, sometimes quite dramatically. In the case of a pile of grass cuttings, for example, temperatures may reach 175 degrees Fahrenheit. The laws of thermodynamics mean that this heat flows toward regions of lower temperature, in the case of compost from the core of the heap outwards. This heat flow is again dependent on surface-to-volume ratio. Because small objects have a higher surfaceto-volume ratio than large ones, and compost heaps are no exception to this rule, it follows that-since heat generation is a function of volume and its dissipation a function of surface area-a small compost heap will lose heat more rapidly than a large one. Higher temperatures speed up chemical and biochemical reactions, the mathematics of these processes, like the oxygen demand, are spiraling out of comprehension and control and are perhaps best left to the heirs of the Swedish physical chemist Svante Arrhenius(1879-1927), who first developed the appropriate equations-which may certainly be ignored by the average gardener. The second ratio is that of carbon to nitrogen, usually written C:N. Carbon and nitrogen are essential elements in all living organisms, and the compost heap reflects in small the global cycling of these elements. Because of the low nitrogen content of the celluloses and lignins in plant cell walls, the average value for the C:N ratio of plant debris is about 30:1, a figure that varies considerably according to the woodiness of the plant material. Fresh leaves or grass cuttings may have a ratio as low as 10:1, whereas it might rise to 100:1 in woody twigs. Humus has a C:N of 10:1. If 30:1 is taken as being the rough average, the process of composting results in a reduction of the C:N ratio from 30:1 to 10:1. Where does the nitrogen come from to achieve this reduction? Farmers and gardeners of old may not have known the biochemistry involved but they were very well aware that first-class compost could only be produced by adding animal waste to the mix. Animal manure has a C:N ratio of about 12:1 (for reasons of anatomy and physiologywhich have been implicated in changing the course of history-horse dung has a higher absolute nitrogen content than that of cows). The nitrogen in dung (or from other sources) is immobilized m the bodies of the compostproducing microorganisms and these, as they die off and m their turn decompose, provide a 26 r slow nitrogen fertilizer when the compost is eventually spread on the soil. It should be remembered that a mulch of undecomposed plant material, such as bark, will consume nitrogen during its decay, a loss that can be offset by a top-dressing of ammonium sulphate. Legume debris, with a C:N ratio of about 15:1, will do the opposite, releasing, or mineralizing, nitrogen in the course of its decay-but this soluble nitrogen can easily be lost by leaching, another reason why compost heaps should be protected from heavy rain, particularly if a high proportion of leguminous material has been incorporated. These days, of course, it is quite difficult for the urban or even suburban gardener to obtain sufficient good-quality animal manure to provide the sole nitrogen source for a compost heap, and ammonium salts from the local garden center have to serve. However, whether the nitrogen comes from Buttercup and Black Beauty or from Monsanto, the mathematics of the C:N ratio remain vahd. The exploitation of the combined effects of surface-to-volume and carbon-to-nitrogen ratios carries us back into gardening history and folklore and has its apotheosis in that wonderful feature of gardens on great estates, the hotbed. The head gardeners of these estates may not have been familiar with the mathematics in question, but they were certainly able to manipulate the practicalities in order to raise exotic blooms and out-of-season fruits to supply the table of the big house. Hotbeds were basically compost heaps that were artificially maintained at an early, hot stage of the ecological succession. Since their primary function was to generate and retain heat, aeration of the heap was more for the purpose of sensitive temperature regulation than for oxygen supply, although this was still important because anaerobic reactions produce little heat. Here again, the mathematics of optimality theory were intuitively applied: it was discovered that provided they were properly ventilated, the hotbeds could be made as large as necessary, with a low surfaceto-volume ratio. The hotbed's composition was a carefully calculated mixture of horse and cow (and possibly some sheep) manure and nonwoody plant By this means heat production was maximized to provide a high and constant temperature for the growth of plant housed in a frame on the surface of the bed. Constant maintenance-watering, aerating, and toppingup of compostable materials-was required to keep these hotbeds functioning. The garden boys who were responsible for these jobs knew nothing of the underlying mathematics and allimportant ratios but these operated all the same. Equally ignorant of these is the Australian scrub hen, which builds itself a hotbed from plant detritus, leaves it to heat up, and then lays its eggs deep inside the mound, where the heat generated, and retamed, is sufficient to hatch the eggs. The male bird acts as garden boy, attending to the needs of the heap. Nature was, as ever, long before us in exploiting these mathematics, which are in any case her own. The latest application of mathematics to gardening originates from the work of Benoit Mandelbrot, the discoverer of fractal geometry. This geometry, unlike that of Euclid, is able to deal with the irregular shapes that are so characteristic of nature, such as those of soil particles or plant fragments. Fractal geometry enables us to calculate a parameter of such objects, known as the fractal dimension. The fractal dimension of soil particles has a close correlation with soil fertility: the higher this fractal dimension, the higher the fertility (an optimum value for good garden soil is 2.6). As an index of irregularity, fractal dimension reflects both the particles' surface-to-volume ratio and their ability to pack together and all that that implies about water-holding, aeration, and microbial population growth. The fractal dimension is thus an extremely useful index for the gardener-but its calculation is very technology intensive. In the end, although we may perhaps gain a deeper understanding of compost by examining Nature's mathematical laws, for practical purposes the manure fork and the old carpet will serve us for some time yet. remains. Peter James is a retired microbiologist and historian of science. A Fellow of the Lmnaean Society, he lives in Norfolk, England, where he works and writes on historical aspects of botany and horticulture. \"The Hidden Mathematics of the Garden\" was originally published in Hortus. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"End Notes","article_sequence":5,"start_page":27,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25368","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270af6f.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller-Rushing, Abraham J.","article_content":"Climate Change Symposium: A Summary cussed the new challenges faced by people trying to conserve rare plant species and important plant collections. His findings indicate that many species can no longer grow in their current locations what may be the first meetits kind anywhere, a multidisciplinary group of sci- At ing of entists recently met in Providence, Rhode Island, to examine the implications of climate change and increased atmospheric C02 on industries involved with fruit and vegetable crops and ornamental horticul- The symposmm-Impacts on Horticulture, held in conjunction with the centennial conference of the American Society for Horticultural Science-brought together ture. of Climate Change climatologists, plant ecologists, policy specialists, and horticulturists to review the impact that global warming and changing rainfall patterns have already had on plant conservation, crop yields, water supphes, disease proliferation, and invasive species management; to make predictions about changes to be expected in the future; and to identify research and education and will have to be moved to cooler chmates if they are to survive. He also pointed out, however, that the warming trend will provide new opportunities to grow plants in areas that were formerly too cold. Cameron Wake of the University of New Hampshire put Bisgrove's findings into clear perspective : if current warming trends continue, in 100 years the chmate of eastern Massachusetts will resemble the present chmate of eastern Virginia, a pattern of change that is likely to be repeated around the world. The resultant northward expansion of plant species-as Bisgrove and several other speakers notedwill be accompanied by parallel migrations of pests and plant host species. Another conthat pests and pathogens imported with plants will be able to thrive in areas that were previously too cold for them to thrive. Speakers and audience members emphasized the need for scientists to work toward broader public awareness of the problem in several ways: by participating in public discussions of climate change; by organizing and making use of volunteer phenological networks and data collection programs in schools; and by making the results of their research more accessible to the general public. Participants expressed hope that a better-educated pubhc will help define rational goals for addressing the biological effects of climate change and will cooperate in achieving those goals. new cern is Abraham The author at is a Miller-Rushing student is graduate Boston University who priorities. note, Richard of the Centre for HortiBisgrove culture and Landscape at the University of Reading, UK, dis- Of special pathogens. Some speakers suggested that since plant species will not all migrate at the same rate, pests and pathogens are hkely to encounter and infect mg the effects of climate on studychange plants. For more information related the symposium, contact the organizer, David Wolfe of Cornell to University (dwwSC~cornell.edu~. Announcing a Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 1970-2000 cumulative index to Arnoldla-volumes 30-60-is now in print. the plants, people, and places written about in Arnoldia from 1970 through 2000, and is preceded by a chronological list of the articles pubhshed in these thirty-one volumes. This is the second cumulative index to Arnoldia. Its predecessor, which covered volumes 1-29, was published in 1969 and marked the retirement of Arboretum horticulturist and Arnoldia editor and principal contributor Donald Wyman, who had edited the magazine since 1936. Arnoldia was created in 1941 via a name change of the Bulletin of Popular Information, which had been pubhshed since 1911. Copies of the new index can be obtained for $10: E-mail arnoldia @arnarb.harvard.com or write to Arnoldia Index, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. A limited number of the 1941-1969 index ($5) are also available. A148-page references It The Botanical Art of Ida Hrubesky Pemberton he remarkable images that here and on the inside covers of this issue of Arnoldia are from the current exhibition at Pittsburgh's Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation,* The Healing Plants of Ida Hrubesky Pemberton and are included in the exhibition catalog by James J. White and Lugene B. Tappear (64 pages, paperback, $12; http:\/\/huntbot.andrew.cmu.ed). We learn in a biographical essay by Carolyn Crawford-herself a Bruno botanist and botanical artistthat Mrs. Pemberton( 1890-1951 ~( attended the Art Institute of Chicago for a time before her mar- riage in 1918. It wasn't until 1935, when her only child, a four-year- old, was struck and killed by \" a car, that she began to paint. By 1942 she had completed her 65 \"drug plants.\" Crawford tells us that informa- tion about Pemberton is scarce, but that bit of history is and over in all availrepeated able sources: She was an avid gardener, and \"she grew all of the plants she painted from seed and bulbs she acquired from around the world.\" The intimate knowledge of her subjects that she gained from gardening as well as from her extensive collection of botanical and horticultural books is manifest in the paintings themselves, in what Crawford calls \"the singularity of her thorough approach to botanical \" illustration. one over Pemberton's \"outstanding ability to show great detail and produce representative paintings in which identification is m no doubt.\" She directs attention to the remarkable detail of minute dissections of flowers and fruits, praising \"a technique that could express both strength and subtlety,\" and a sense of life as well: She painted m relatively broad strokes, refined by overpainting in more detail, yet without the tiny, often labored brushstrokes used by some artists-brushstrokes that sometimes kill the vitality of an illustration. Her paintings demonstrate her meticulous observation of the form and structure of plants and her accurate use not only of color but also of light and shade, both m the main plant portraits and in the dissections. parts. Her is compositional mastery perhaps best demonstrated in her book jacket, above, where she joins elements from her paintings of autumn crocus (Colchicum autumnale) and pokeweed (Phytolacca americana) with the roots of the mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum) to link front and back covers. Pemberton worked hard but unsuccessfully to have her drug plants published and never painted other groups of plants, as she had planned. After her death, her paintings were sold to the University of Colorado Museum of Natural History in Boulder, and from the 1950s to the 1970s were exhibited by the Smithsonian Institution at several locations across the country. Before the current exhibition in Pittsburgh, which will run through 29 February 2004, the illustrations had not been seen in 21 years. The catalog includes 45 of them, beautifully printed in color. Victoria Matthews, botanist, editor, and longstanding collector of botanical illustrations, contributed \"An Appreciation\" to the catalog in which she points out * The artist's compositional skills can be seen in paintings such as the Tnllium erectum (front inside cover) where a pale monochrome of the underside of a leaf integrates and frames the The Hunt Institute, a research division of Carnegie Mellon University, holds books, plant images, manuscripts, and portraits. Their data files encompass botanical art and illustration, history of science, horticulture, botanic gardens and gardening, scientific education and exploration-all of increasing value to plant scientists and researchers. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23304","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15eaf6f.jpg","title":"2003-62-3","volume":62,"issue_number":3,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Shrubs and Vines at the Arnold Arboretum: A History","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25366","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270ab26.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"Shrubs and Vines A at the Arnold Arboretum: History In the Arboretum every effort has been made to foster the natural beauty of landscapes and add to them wherever possible, but it has not been able to Sheila Connor the disadvantage of being a public garden. In the arrangement of the collection of shrubs the aesthetic has had to give way to the practical. Even in the matter of place there was no option since a considerable flat area of land overcome the was necessary and there is but one in the Arboretum. -E. H. Wilson, America's Greatest Garden (1925) hundred years, gardeners, and students who wanted to J-. learn about shrubs made their way to a gently sloping plot of land just inside and to the right of the Arboretum's Forest Hills gate. Bounded by the Arborway and Forest Hills Road on the north and east and by the ponds, natural woods, and maple collection on the south and west, the linear arrangement of the three-acre shrub collection made it easy to identify. Today the site hosts the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants, but-as directors' reports and archival records document-before this transformation began in 1981, it had been home to the oldest continually maintained collection in the Arboretum's landscape. Visually, it was perhaps also the most distinctive. Completely different from the rest of the Arboretum, where the picturesque reigns supreme despite the collection's taxonomic arrangement, the shrub collection's rows of formal, parallel beds probably confounded most visitors. The very existence of a separate shrub collection is a reminder of the difficulty of accommodating in a single design the disparate requirements of a scientific collection and a public park. It also reminds us of the sometimes opposing views held by the two men who or homeowners, almost one that task, Charles Sprague and Frederick Law Olmsted. Sargent In 1874, when he first approached Olmsted with the notion that an arboretum would be a valuable addition to the plan for the Boston park system, Sargent was 33 and although he had only \"a modest reputation as gentleman landscape gardener,\" his professional standing was impressive and growing. In May of 1872 he was appointed professor of horticulture at the Bussey Institution (founded 1869; closed 1940s), a position first held by his friend, neighbor, and mentor Francis Parkman. (Sargent resigned this position at Harvard's school of scientific agriculture, which abutted on the Arboretum's land, in 1877.) In November of 1873 he became director of Harvard's botanic garden in Cambridge, working under Asa Gray, the father of American botany, and at the same time, he was named director of Harvard's newly established Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain; it was in hopes of linking the new arboretum to the Boston park system that he addressed his proposal to Olmsted. Olmsted, then 55 and still working in New York-on Central Park, among other projectshad a national reputation in landscape architecture and had been a proponent of arboreta since accomplished The Arboretum's shrub and vme collection as photographed from a hehcoptor by Massachusetts State Department of Publ1c Works aenal photographers m june 1969, the year horticulturist Donald Wyman retmed. The trellis, overwhelmed m places by vmes, can be seen at mght. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum 4 beginning of his career. Sargent's proposal appealed to him because an arboretum had been included, though never realized, in the Olmsted and Vaux 1858 plan for may have the on Early in the planning process, Sargent insisted accommodating \"a working or experimental Central Park. SARGENT, OLMSTED, SHRUB GARDEN AND THE The collaboration between the novice botanist and well-established landscape designer worked. Under Asa Gray's tutelage, Sargent had learned the importance of the individual elements within a landscape, and he valued the ability to recognize, identify, and compare each plant to all others. Olmsted, by contrast, looked beyond individual plants; for him, they were subordinate to the overall design and composition. But the two men agreed that the design for the Arboretum's landscape would have to satisfy both scientific and aesthetic requirements. And as Ida Hay writes in her preface to Science in the Pleasure Ground (1995) \"the dynamic tension between science and aesthetics turned out to be one of the most interesting themes of Arboretum history.\" collection\" within the otherwise wooded and naturalistic design. The idea may in fact have begun as a practical method for dealing with the abundance of shrubby plant material already on hand soon after the Arboretum's founding. Months before Olmsted's involvement and before any work had been done on the design, the future site of the shrub collection served as a nursery and a holding area for the thousands of plants intended for the rest of the grounds. Establishing a nursery and making an inventory of plants on hand were among the few projects that Sargent could undertake with \"the very limited means at the disposal of the Director\" during 1873, the first year of the Arboretum's existence. The nursery site was possibly one of the most fertile areas of what an elderly Sargent much later recalled as the \"worn-out farmland\" on which the Arboretum was established. Described in 1692 as upland and meadow by its first recorded owner, Samuel Gore, the land became part of the farm of Joseph Weld in 1718 8 and remained in the Weld family until purchased by Benjamin Bussey in 1810. It was also conveniently adjacent to the Bussey Institu- tion, where Sargent had established an office for himself and commandeered space in the greenhouses that were now to be \"devoted to the raising of forest and ornamental trees and shrubs for future plantations\" at the Arboretum. Seed for the new arboretum was pouring in from other institutions throughout the world, and Jackson Dawson, the Arboretum's first propagator (originally the Bussey's), was making ambitious collections of native plants. Within just three years, Sargent would report that \"to relieve the overcrowded nurseries, 3,181 forest trees have been ~ ------- Taken from the hillside Just above the hlac and forsythia collections, this is one of the earhest known Images of the Arboretum. The upland m the middle distance became the site of the shrub collection, and the treelme represents the future route of the Arborway, constructed m the early 1890s. Puttmg Olmsted's design mto effect transformed the standmg water of the low-lymg, wet meadow mto three distinct ponds, two of which were bisected by Meadow Road. This image is from the Lantern Shde Collection at the Harvard Design School, an especially comprehensive assemblage of images of early Amencan landscape design. They were taken between 1850 and 1920 and digitized m 1996 through a Library of Congress-sponsored competition. The 2,800 lantern shdes can be accessed through the Amencan Memory Page of the Library of Congress (http:\/\/ memoryloc.gov\/ammem\/award97\/mhsdhtml\/aladhome.html). planted out.\" Published in the October 1898 issue of New England Magazme, this image shows an early version of the 's collection's layout when the rows of \"young shrubs\"extended mght up to the edge of the roadbed. Each plant's identity was pamted on a wooden stake as the signage had not evolved to the \"boldly lettered stand labels\" that became the norm for the collection. Taken ~ust inside the Forest Hills gate, the long view shows the remnant flora of \"Woodland Hill, Ben~amm Bussey's estate Several of the mature trees at the crest of the hill have the charactenstic shape of Amencan elms, while the conifers on the mght appear to be white pmes The group of trees in the middle distance occupies the present site of the ash collection ~ust above the hlacs \" Law Olmsted began work on a planting arrangement for the Arboretum, the nursery area had been under cultivation for five years and occupied much of the open land near the present-day ponds. Although one of his early studies suggests that Olmsted had considered a formal \"greeting,\" or promenade, for this location, it is only in the last design, dated August 29, 1885, and signed by John Charles Olmsted, nephew and stepson of F. L. Olmsted, that the first reference to a plan for the area appears. In the Bentham and Hooker plant classification sequence, which was used to arrange plant families within the Arboretum's landscape, the rose family should have been placed where it is today, near the ponds. Surprisingly, however, the plan calls for orchard-like rows of plants at to By 1878, when Frederick that location. A likely explanation for this anomaly is that not only a nursery, but a collection of shrubs-arranged in rows-already occupied the site. While at the botanic garden in Cambridge, Sargent had completed a successful and handsome renovation of the systematic beds. He had weeded duplicate specimens, increased the number of species, reordered the collection to correspond with the organization of specimens in the herbarium, and added grass paths to provide easy and attractive access to the plants. In Sargent's estimation he had \"brought order out of Chaos.\" Faced with a \"large and rich collection of shrubs located in the nursery\" at the Arboretum, it is no wonder that he proposed in 1884 \"to arrange this collection ... in systematic order ... until the completion of roads by 6 the city on the east side of the grounds make it possible permanently group the different shrubs upon a [more] picturesque and natural plan than can now be adopted.\" Although doing so required draining the ground below the nursery and relocating all the shrubs, within a single year he could claim that the \"provisional or tentative arrangement of the shrub collections referred to in my last report has been completed. These now occupy thirtyseven parallel beds, each ten feet wide and three hundred feet long. This collection now contains about eleven hundred species and varieties arranged in botanical sequence, with provisions for a considerable further increase.\" Thus came into being the shrub collection whose design would simultaneously please botanists and horticulturists, irritate directors and superintendents, challenge landscape architects and students, and mystify many visitors throughout its century-long lifetime. That year, 1885, was in general a momentous one for Sargent, with several projects begun during the previous decade now coming to culmination. In 1879, on the recommendation of Asa Gray, Sargent had been appointed to manage the nation's tenth forest census, and the results of that study had just been published as The Report of the Forests of North America. At the same time, an exhibit of over 500 samples of wood, amassed by Sargent for Morris K. Jesup, was about to open at the American Museum of Natural History in New York; the exhibit, called \"The Woods of the United States,\" displayed Sargent's notes on each species' structure, qualities, and uses. Lobbying for the Arboretum to be included in the Boston park system had succeeded, and the indenture between the city and Harvard had been signed three years earlier. And, most significant of all for the Arboretum, the city had finally built enough roads so that the systematic planting of the \"permanent\" collection could begin. At the end of the year, a confident Sargent described his vision for a public arboretum in the 1884-1885 Annual Report of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum to the President and Fellows of Harvard College; he had formally accepted the Olmsted firm's final plan for the planting arrangement and declared the first to of the Arboretum's collections-the shrubscompleted. By this time he had decided that two distinct collections should be maintained within the Arboretum: the first, or \"permanent collection for display, [would consist] of a selection of species intended to illustrate ... the most important types of arborescent vegetation\" ; while the second, a \"collection for investigation, which need not necessarily be permanent ... should be arranged in a manner to permit the admission of new forms and the removal of others which have served their purpose. To this second collection would naturally be joined all minor collections like that of shrubs and other plants of less enduring character than trees.\" Olmsted's feelings about the displacement of Rosaceae by Sargent's shrub collection are unknown. Little correspondence between the ... \" two men survives-perhaps because, as Sargent testified many years later at a Park Department hearing, the two \"spoke daily.\" The conversations between Olmsted and Sargent about the placement of shrubs must have been interesting. One letter, written by Sargent to Olmsted on April 22, 1888, when the tree groups were being set out on the hillside above the ponds, suggests that discussions about plant placement continued for years after Olmsted's final plans had been accepted. Of today's much beloved lilac collection and its bright yellow companions and fellow harbingers of spring, Sargent wrote, \"Isn't it a mistake to plant forsythia, syringa [lilacs] and other showy flowered garden shrubs on the Arboretum Hill? I should be afraid that they would not harmonize with the general scheme of planting ... How will a mass of bright colored garden flowers look rising above the softer first tints seen everywhere else \" in the Arboretum?\" Four months later the debate about the use of \"showy\" exotic shrubbery spilled over into the pages of Sargent's newly founded Garden and Forest, a Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art, and Forestry. The first sally in the debate, appearing in the issue of August 1, 1888, was an unsigned note placed among the editorial articles. The sentiments may have come from the journal's knowledgeable New York editor, Williams Stiles, but they are as likely to have 7 originated with the journal's \"conductor,\" Charles Sprague Sargent: is not easy to explain why certam plants look distinctly m place m certam situations and why other plants look as distinctly out of place m the Perhaps the debate had ranged too widely-or come too close-for at this point the editor It stepped in: Mr. Olmsted's letter should be read with the greatest care and attention. No man now living same situations. This is a matter which nature perhaps has settled for us. It is certam at any rate that combinations of plants other than those which nature makes or adopts inevitably possess mharmonious elements which no amount of familiarity can ever quite reconcile to the educated eye. Examples of what we wish to explam abound in all our public parks, and especially m Prospect Park m Brooklyn ... where along the borders of some of the natural woods and m connection with native shrubbery great masses of garden shrubs, Diervillas, Philadelphus, Deutzias, Forsythias and Lilacs, have been rnserted. These are all beautiful plants. They never seem out of place m a garden; but the moment they are placed m contact with our wild plants growing naturally as they do, fortunately, m the Brooklyn park, they look not only out of place, but are a positive mjury to the scene. As the designers of Prospect Park had been Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, it is not surprising that the editorial elicited a prompt reply from Mr. Olmsted. To the Editor of GARDEN AND FOREST: has created so much and such admirable landscape, and no man is better equipped to discuss all that relates to his art. The position which GARDEN AND FOREST has taken upon the question of composition in plantations made with the view of landscape effect is embraced m the following sentence, extracted from the article to which Mr. Olmsted refers: \"It is certain, at any rate, that combinations of plants, other than those which nature makes or adopts, inevitably possess inharmonious elements which no amount of familiarity can ever quite reconcile to the educated eye.\" This sentence was written with special reference to the fact that in Prospect Park, in Brooklyn, various showy flowered garden-shrubs of foreign origin had been massed among native shrubs growing apparently spontaneously along the borders of a natural wood m the most sylvan part of the park. The effect which this combination produced appeared to us mharmomous, and therefore less pleasing than if the plantation had been confined to such shrubs as may be found growing naturally on Long Island in similar situations. How far the idea of harmony in composition in Sir.- In GARDEN AND FOREST of August lst, page 266, the law seems to me to have been landscape is dependent is can upon association it is laid down that the mtroduction of foreign plants m our scenery is destructive of landscape repose and harmony. No exception was suggested, and the word harmony was used, if I am not mistaken, it commonly is m criticism of landscape paintmg, not of matters of scientific mterest. The question, as we understand it, is essenas hard to say. The truth tially this: Would all of the trees and bushes that had come of a foreign ancestry be noted before of the old native stock? any It appears to us that the American ... Chionanthus, Angelica, Cercis, Pteha, Sumachs, Flowering Dogwood, Pipevine and Rhododendrons would be placed before some of the foreign Barbernes, Pmvets, Spireas, Loniceras, Forsythias, Diervillas or even Lilacs. We doubt if the stranger, seeing some that great masters of landscape combme material drawn from many climates and many countnes mto one harmomous whole, but the masters of the art are not many, and the planter who is not sure of his genius can wisely follow nature m her teachings of harmony m composition. Had this reservation been made in the article referred to, our statement that \"all attempts to force Nature, so to speak, by bringing in alien elements from remote contments and climates, must inevitably produce inharmonious results,\" would, perhaps, have been less open to criticism. -ED. construction of these latter bushes forming groups spontaneously with the natives, would suspect them to be of foreign origin ... Frederick Law Olmsted, Brookline, September 1888 by then the Arboretum's Diervilla, Philadelphus, and Deutzia (though not the large collections of Syringa and Forsythia) had been relegated to the shrub collection, away from the more \"naturalistic\" and \"permanent\" plantations. But this disposition may only have brought more trouble for Sargent. In almost every succeeding annual report he showed his But 8 Although undated, this photograph from the J. Horace McFarland Collection was probably taken during the wmter of 1905-1906, shortly after the construction of the vme trelhs that enclosed the shrub garden on three sides McFarland (1859-1948J, a hfelong fmend of Charles Sprague Sargent and a well-known author, pubhsher, horticulturist, and rosanan, wrote as flondly on the Arboretum as he did on roses In \"A Tree Garden to Last a Thousand Years, \" an article pubhshed m the first volume of \"The Country Calendar\" m 1905, he emphasized that \"Even in the 'Order,' which is the name of the amphitheater of smgle specimens of shrubs, arranged m botamcal order for easy compamson and study, there is mformal formahty and contmuous beauty Part of the Smithsoman Institution Archives of American Gardens, which hold approximately 80,000 photographic images and records documenung histomc and contemporary Amencan gardens (available onhne at http:\/\/gardens.si edu\/horticulture\/res_ed\/AAG\/coll-mcf htm) the McFarland Collection mcludes over 3,100 black-and-white mounted photographs and 445 glass lantern shdes of gardens throughout the Umted States and dates from 1900 to 1962. \" obsession with the collection's ongoing needs and with his pursuit of the perfect design. If he was not \"improving its arrangement,\" he was \"devoting more time to studying and improving\" it, or had to \"extend and rearrange\" it by \"lifting every plant and rearranging the beds.\" One design revision-presumably made to accommodate more plants-changed the arrangement from 37 seven-foot beds to 15 eleven-foot beds, achieving an increase of only five feet (from 8,325 to 8,330). The collection was clearly \" \"suffering from the want of proper space,\" and he worried how it would be \"adequately provided for in the future.\" By 1906, the collection had undergone three complete rearrangements, and Sargent admitted that although it was a principal feature of the Arboretum and its most complete collection, \"the arrangement has not, however, proved entirely satisfactory.\" After one last attempt at redesign, this time with the plants displayed in 19 beds, each ten feet wide, and occupying a total of only 7,765 9 linear feet, Sargent conceded defeat. In 1907, he reports that it has been necessary to plant genera formerly accommodated in the shrub collection along the drives and in other parts of the arboretum. The \"excluded\" groups include the rhododendrons, azaleas, kalmias, and viburnum and dogwood collections. Mention of the shrub collection subsequently disappears from his annual reports. He does, however, introduce a new element into the design. A ten-foot tall, 1,280-foot-long vine trellis was erected to provide shelter for the beds along the northern and eastern sides of the collection. Made of concrete posts strung with galvanized wire, it was the Arboretum's first attempt to bring together a collection of vines and other climbers. The trellis itself, not unlike the layout of the shrub collection, would be modified and rebuilt, but the two collections would soon be thought of as one: the shrub and vine collection. As for those conspicuous plantings on Bussey Hill, by the 1920s Sargent appears to have had a change of heart. Writing in The Bulletin of a seasonal guide to plants made available to Arboretum visitors for a dollar a year, he notes, \"Forsythias are often badly planted; they require space in which to spread Popular Information, \"The shrubs are brought together m them respective genera and natural orders and there is only a single row of plants down the centre of the border This allows each plant to stand on its own ground without mterference from its neighbor, and the convemence of the student is further aided by each specimen havmg a label on either side The general idea is somewhat similar to that of the arrangement of the herbaceous plants at Kew. Considered as part of the landscape this system is not beautiful, especially m the early stages, when the plants are not fully grown and bare spaces yet await their destmed occupants. But for purposes of botamcal study no other arrangement is so convement.\" So wrote W ~. Bean, Curator at the Royal Botamc Gardens, Kew, and author of Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, m the Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information of the Royal Garden, Kew, m October 1910, after his msit to the Arnold Arboretum. 10 . their long, gracefully arching branches and are suitable for small gardens. To be most effective they should be planted as in the Arboretum, in a great mass on a bank or hillside.\" The lilacs were also given their due by Sargent in the Bulletin, \"The flowers of no other plant bring so many visitors to the Arboretum.\" Beginning in 1915, in what surely gave rise to the now famous Sunday celebration, Sargent began predicting when the lilacs would attain their fullest bloom. In 1920 he forecast that not \" \" \"Most of the varieties of the common lilac will be in flower when this Bulletin reaches its readers living near Boston.\" In May of 1920, he wrote, \"The plants will be in full bloom by Saturday, the 29th,\" and when the spring of 1924 proved to be slow in coming, he commented that \"They are late blooming this year but are now fast opening their flowers, and it is possible that Sunday, the 25th, will bring the largest number of visitors of the year to the Arboretum.\" \" The first trellis, constructed of ten-foot high posts of remforced concrete set fifteen feet apart, promded seven parallel strands of wire for the vmes to chmb Accordmg to E. H. Wilson, with this layout, all that was needed to keep the shrubs from mterfermg mth them neighbors was the use of \"a knife in late wmter.\" Apparently some did overstep their bounds. Begmmng m the mid 1930s, many of the most \"aggressme\" were removed and grown on the stone walls. While workmg on the rearrangement of the shrubs m 1950, Farrand proposed lettmg g \"dehcate creepers\" such as species clematis and smgle roses scramble over the rock walls or chmb trees She thought that \"loose growing crabapples, small chernes, or pears would please the clematis tmbe\" and asked to be promded with a hst of \"tree-climbing creepers. \" 11 1 WILSON AND THE SHRUB GARDEN also liked were to When E. H. Wilson's book about the Arboretum, America's Greatest Garden, was published in various Asiatic point out the attractiveness of representatives, many of which his own introductions. 1925, such most as of the chapters had fanciful titles \"Summer Luxu- \"Spring Pageantry,\" WYMAN AND THE SHRUB GARDEN ries,\" \"Cherry Blossom Festival,\" \"Crabapple Opulence,\" and \"Azalea Carnival.\" By contrast, the chapter appearing second to last had the unadorned title \"The Shrub Garden,\" followed only by \"What the Arboretum Does.\" The chapter on the shrub collection opens with Wilson's declaration that \"A garden where the convenience of the public has to be shown preference, labors under disadvantages unknown to private gardens where landscape effects alone have to be considered.\" Acknowledging that the shrub garden was established for the instruction of students, landscape gardeners, and plant lovers, and that its long, formal beds gave each plant ample room to develop, he described its arrangement as practical, convenient, and useful. The design, he thought, did have some drawbacks : although every shrub was identified by name on two \"boldly lettered\" labels, one facing the grass paths on each side of the plant, some careless visitors made shortcuts across the beds and \"many a small plant has carelessly been trodden to death as a consequence.\" As to its location, he could not say enough. It was the coldest spot in the Arboretum in the winter, and the hottest in the summer; and because it was low-lying, its air drainage was the poorest, so that it suffered the first frosts in fall and the last frosts of spring. If nothing else, it made an splendid testing ground for plant hardiness-in Wilson's estimation, if a plant could survive in the Arboretum's shrub collection it would \"withstand the winter's cold and summer's heat of any part of New England.\" Regardless of its lack of \"landscape beauty\" and its lessthan-ideal site, he thought there was probably \"no more instructive a collection of shrubs \" in existence.\" Between Sargent's death in 1927 and his own in 1930, Wilson, as \"Keeper of the Arboretum,\" dutifully took up authorship of the Bulletin. Of the shrub collection he wrote that it \"is a never failing source of interest to all visitors, filled as it is with a general miscellany of shrubs.\" He The collection's greatest champion since Sargent, Donald Wyman, was appointed horticulturist, a newly minted position, in 1936. In 1970, a year after his retirement, Wyman reflected on the state of horticulture at the Arboretum when he first arrived there, shortly after the deaths of both Sargent and Wilson, describing it as at an \"all time low,\" with a pronounced \"lack of staff interest in the living collection.In his opinion, \"there was much work to be done.\" Oakes Ames had replaced Sargent, though as supervisor rather than director. During his administration, from 1927 to 1935, specialists in plant pathology, wood anatomy, and genetics filled new staff positions. Elmer Drew Merrill, who succeeded Ames in 1935 and led the Arboretum until 1946, created the position of horticulturist and hired Wyman, who remained to serve under two more directors, Karl Sax (19461954) and Richard A. Howard (1954-1978). Wyman valued shrubs, as well as groundcovers, hedges, vines, small trees, \"choice evergreens that never grow tall,\" the best of flowering crabapples and lilacs, and all plants ornamental. As Sargent had championed trees, Wyman carried the banner for shrubs-his Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens came out two years before its much slimmer companion volume, Trees for American Gardens. A prolific author, his bibliography reflects his leanings: generally, the more ornamental a plant, the better, and even better yet if the plant was a shrub. He wrote articles about shrubs on the color, sequence of bloom, and seasonal interest of early, late, and summer blooming ones; he wrote about those not to be overlooked; those that were dwarf, fruited, and rare; and those that could be used for hedges or in the shade. He listed \"Forty-five of the Best Shrubs for Massachusetts Gardens\" in Arnoldia ( 1951, vol. 11, no. 1),suggesting that shrubs could \"fill your garden with color,\" but cautioning, in an October 1950 issue of Horticulture magazine \" 12 . z \"Be Careful with These Colored FoliShrubs.\" His advice in a November issue age ( 1947, vol. 25) was to \"Look \"Around This Month for Fruited Shrubs to Plant.\" He introduced the practice of displaying \"the best, most ornamental\" plants in the Arboretum. From a horticultural standpoint, the (vol. 28), A NEW COLLABORATION: WYMAN AND FARRAND To help restore to was \"added the collection, Beatrix Farrand the staff, on a retainer basis, as a to consulting landscape gardener.\" According opportunity to compare plants growing side-by- side-especially mature the many that were by now specimens-was distinctly useful. So valuable did he find the shrub collection, now numbering over a thousand plants, that in \"How to Spend an Hour in the Arboretum,\" published in 1945 in Arnoldia (the renamed Bulletin of Popular Information), he suggested that visitors with only a limited amount of time could best spend it \"examming the long rows of shrubs many of which are commonly grown in nurseries and hence are available to every homeowner.\" He concluded the article with these remarks: \"This shrub collection is one of the very few places in this country where so many different kinds of woody plants can be seen and closely examined in such a small area. An hour spent here is well worth while to both amateur gardeners and professional plantsmen.\" An additional motivation for writing the article may have been that Wyman now knew each of the shrubs intimately, having just completed his own revamping of the collection. This rearrangement was driven more by the necessity to reduce the amount of hand labor needed to manage the collection than to increase its numbers or to enhance its display. The institution was on the cusp of recovering from war-related labor shortages that had exacerbated the effects of the hurricane of 1938 as well as ongoing seasonal damage due to \"snow and ice ... storm and fire.\" In Merrill's annual report for 19451946 he decries the condition of the grounds, admitting, \"some of the plantings actually approached a deplorable condition\" and hoped to \"go far in repairing the ravages due to neglect.\" One laborsaving cost reduction Merrill could report on was that \"through the rearrangement of the very large shrub collection, permitting the use of mechanical equipment, the actual maintenance cost has been reduced to one-fifth of what it was.\" \" \" Donald Wyman, \"Although many had tried to obtain permission to become consulting landscape architects,\" she was the first landscape architect since Olmsted to work at the Arboretum. Farrand's association with what she considered her alma mater had begun in the 1890s, when as a young student she had studied at the Arboretum under Sargent's guidance. While Farrand may have known the collections well, in Ida Hay's estimation her \"grasp of the raison d'etre behind the Arboretum's original layout and subsequent development was somewhat sketchy.\" The Arboretum's archives include much of Farrand's correspondence and other writings regarding her plans for rejuvenating the collections. The notes she made after a visit to the Arboretum in the spring of 1947 include her first mention of possible changes to the shrub collection. \"The remodelmg of the present shrub collection should be done as soon as financially possible. All the formal beds in straight rows should be removed and the space now occupied by their stiff lines made into a big meadow, where moisture loving trees might be planted...\" She pointed out that there was sufficient space nearby \"to exhibit a collection of the best shrubs, choosing the most attractive varieties and relegating the less good sorts to the 'study' nursery whether at Weston [the recently acquired Case Estates] or elsewhere.\" She also asked for a list of the shrubs (presumably from Dr. Wyman) \"with comments on their attractiveness and their size and condition ... some would be banished ... and others, perhaps the newer sorts, would be added.\" Wyman, just having successfully laid the shrub collection \"to rest,\" must have wondered just exactly where the role of the horticulturist intersected with that of the consulting landscape gardener. The Wyman-Farrand collaboration was to prove every bit as challenging as that of the earlier team of plantsman and landscape architect, Sargent and Olmsted. \" 13 Donald Wyman and Beatrix Farrand did agree on the state of the grounds. Faced with an overcrowded and undermaintained landscape, they both saw a need for better management. While Wyman wanted to select the most ornamental material and weed out the rest. Farrand wanted to eliminate \"duplicate and over-aged plants.\" But she too wished to \"display to advantage the best and most ornamental of the plants now growing at the arboretum,\" according to her 1946 article \"Contemplated Landscape Changes at the Arboretum.\" effort ehmmate hand labor and reduce costs, a \"~udicious arrangement\" of the shrub collection's beds coupled with replacement of alternate grass walks with harrowed swaths and reposmoned labels enabled the use of mechanized equipment and weed killers A Ford-Ferguson tractor is seen here harrowing between the rows for weed control In 1946, m an to expemmented with a senes o\/ weed killels thut ruu the gctmut flame throwers to \"burn off\" poison my to spraymg sodmm arsenate and sodmm chlorate on annual weeds. He also mtroduced spent hops (probably acquired from local brewemes m Jarnaica Plam) as a weedcontrolhng mulch. In this photograph \"Dowpon\"(2,2-dichloropropiomc acidJ sprayed on the grass is used to edge the beds. from usmg Donald Wyman Wyman did act on many of Farrand's suggestions. Although it bore no relationship at all to the Bentham and Hooker system, the azalea border along Meadow Road, arranged by color and designed by Farrand to present a sequence of bloom, was attractive and an instructional addition. The north slope of Peters Hill was rehabilitated, as was part of the top of Bussey Hill. The dogwoods were relocated, some along Bridal Path and others on Bussey Hill. The shrub collection itself, however, remained inviolate. Between 1947 and 1952, while her other suggestions were being carried out, Farrand's proposed renovation of the collection was the subject of over fifteen letters between her and Karl Sax, the Arboretum's director. Sax thought at first that there \"were some differences of opinion regarding this project. Wyman thinks that the present arrangement is much less 14 The next year, however, he wrote, \"I can assure you that none of us like the rigid arrangement of the shrub collection, but if we are going to maintain the shrub collection on the Arboretum grounds there is not much alternative.\" She argued the need \"to consider the eventual elimination of these rigid beds, situated where they wisely placed from the point of view of design.\" By 1950 Sax was asking if Farrand had \"figured out how were not \" Professor Sargent felt our 600-700 shrubs can in properly arranged be the available space?\" She replied that \"indeed I am struggling with the monumental problem of how to rearrange the 600-700 shrubs in a less gridiron manner\" and asked, \"Do the beds really need to be 20' wide or could 10' beds and 8' walks be substituted?\" She had calculated that she could fit in 665 shrubs, feeling that the number \"can probably be squeezed up to the 700 by crowding some of the smaller species,\" and she sent him a Beatrix Farrand envisioned a delicate rose arbor to replace the trellis, but the unanticipated relocation of the wistena collection in 1951 required the construcuon of a very long, substantial edifice of cedar posts. Farrand, ever gracious, wrote to Sax mqumng about its design. \"The news you have finished the arbor and planted the wistenas is thmllmg. You are most secret as to what the arbor is made of, how large and long it is, so I am in a twitter to hear more about it.\"Sax's reply was less than enthusiastic \"The new arbor in the shrub collection looks a bit raw at present, but it will mellow with time, I hope. As is the case in all our work we have to make some compromise between expense, botanic garden ob7ectmes and landscape design. \" quick drawing. Receiving no reply she wrote, \"Was the plan so bad that it has caused you to faint and fall by the wayside, or have you any comment on start our which \" we can drawing?\" Actually faced with a plan, even though it was only a sketch, Sax changed the thrust of his argument, now expensive to maintain,\" and though Sax is clear that he had \"never liked the present arrangement some of the other people seem to like to have the shrubs in an orderly catalogue collection as they are at present.\" ... emphasizing maintenance costs as the reason for squelching the project. \"Certainly the revised plan of the shrub collection is a great improvement in design, but the initial cost would be high and the subsequent maintenance 15 s would be increased at least three-fold.\"His next letter assured her that \"we realize the need for re-vamping the shrub collection ... but it looks as though we are due for a continued and perhaps severe inflation. We do not want to develop projects which would add materially to future maintenance costs until we can see some way of meeting these financial obligations.\" She replied, \"Indeed your dilemma and problem are most sympathetically understood here by a very aged and devoted friend of the Arboretum,\" but \"Perhaps-and this is but a suggestion-it might be worth thinking over doing over a small \" time ...\" Only one more mention of the shrub collection appears in their correspondence. Sax wrote, in 1951, that another problem had arisen that would further complicate her revision: the wisteria collection had to be moved from the sharply edged grass paths had long since disappeared. Mechanized cultivators (rather than more careful human hands) had been used since the mid 1940s to keep weeds between the rows to a minimum; nonetheless, woody weeds began to overtake some of the specimen plants and the entire collection took on a forlorn and unkempt appearance. THE FINAL CHAPTER Peter Ashton's arrival from Britain in 1979 to section at a of the Bussey Institution, requiring arbor be quickly constructed adjacent to the shrubs. As Farrand's plans had always included a design for the arbor-a very delicate design-the wisterias' needs finally brought an end to the project. Wyman's recollections in \"Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970\" (Arnoldia vol. 30, no. 3) support the maintenance issues and raised additional objections that were perhaps not voiced in the 1950s. \"When [Farrand] recommended that the shrub collection be removed and the shrubs planted in small groups in the same area, it became obvious to both Dr. Merrill and Dr. Karl Sax that some of her ideas, if carried out, would cost far too much in day-today maintenance. It has always been my strong conviction that landscape planning should be left to those on the staff who have had landscape training and who understand the diverse practical problems of maintaining the plantings.\" Wyman used the shrub collection as a teaching tool and as an important resource in his famous series of Friday morning Arboretum \"walks.\" But with his retirement in 1969 the collection lost its spokesman and defender, and the next decade saw a decline in the number of new plantings. The diversity of the collectionalways noted for its encyclopedic content-began to diminish, with large gaps appearing when aging plants died and were not replaced. The grounds that a new Richard Howard, coincided with a renewed mterest in the design legacy of Frederick Law Olmsted. Assessing the grounds from this point of view, and with a knowledgeable and practiced eye for naturalistic landscapes, Ashton was astounded by the sight of the shrub collection. It had been so much a part of the Arboretum's landscape for so long that no one on the staff questioned its existence, location, or design, but Ashton felt strongly that it not only jarred with the Olmsted design it replace the retiring director, was, in fact, an eyesore. \" at what was soon to become the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site turned up a full set of plans for the Arboretum that showed Olmsted's original intentions for this part of the grounds. Ashton was excited by the opportunity to finally put the rose family in its rightful place, considering this a project that could initiate a restoration of the entire grounds to the Olmsted-Sargent plan. Through the generous bequest of Eleanor Cabot Bradley, a longstanding member of the Arboretum's visiting committee and an avid plantswoman in her own right, the garden of rosaceous plants took shape on the site of the shrub collection. It had taken over a hundred years to implement the last piece of Olmsted's plan; it would take two more decades, a new director, and another generous woman, Frances Leventritt, to find a new site and to perfect a design for the shrub and vine collection that realized Sargent's goal for \"a collection for investigation, which need not necessarily be permanent, and which should be arranged in a manner to permit the admission of ... new forms and the removal of others which have served their purpose.\" Investigations Sheila Connor is horticultural research archivist Arnold Arboretum. at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ordering and Terracing in the Leventritt Garden","article_sequence":2,"start_page":16,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25365","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270a76d.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hilderbrand, Gary","article_content":"Ordering and Terracing in the Leventritt Garden ~ Douglas P. Reed and Gary Hilderbrand . think of gardens as one of our fundameans of cultural expression: embody particular ideas of use, or cultivation, commemoration, or other aspects of human enterprise. The Arnold Arboretum's new M. Victor and Frances Leventritt Garden for sun-loving shrubs and vines, as an enclosed garden-a hortus conclusis-mthin the larger Arnold Arboretum landscape, gives expression to an essential question of botanical and horticultural purpose: How should plants be arranged for study and display? The garden's layout pursues the question with directness in two ways. First, the land, a fan-shaped parcel that slopes more than thirty feet, has been reshaped into level terraces of varying width to fit the site's irregular outline. This reshaping is rooted in the ancient practice of levelmg ground for cultivation where the land is not naturally flat. Second, plants are arranged in rows or within geometric groups, a familiar method stemming from the most basic of horticultural traditions. Geometry aids in our work with nature. Anyone who has grown their own lettuce or apples or corn knows the importance of this practice: for planting, for harvesting, for prumng and irmgating, some system of order is required; planting in rows on level ground makes sense. During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, when emerging medical faculties in European universities began to build knowledge in plant culture and taxonomy, they orgamzed \"physic gardens\"-at St. Galls, Oxford, Leiden, Paduain rectilinear or curving rows, with an eye to the aggregate pattern as an artful exercise in order. The Italians, who possessed almost no flat land, We Vmental they Bethany Grasso, shrub and vme gardener, plantmg the Leventmtt Garden The Inth house of the Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection is at center, to the left of an imposing sugar maple. Metal trelhses, soon to be covered m vmes, range along the top two walls 17 7 18 8 on large landholdings, carving mag- nificent estates out of old growth forest and patchwork farms. They organized portions of their land to capture views and exploit scenic possibhties, and with the luxury of vast more holdings, they anticipated a romanticized view of the landscape for Americans. Yet when it came to planting for production or display, both relied on practical linear arrangements and simple terracing. The rational beauty of these devices can be seen today in the restored gardens of Monticello and Mount Vernon. The vine supports in Claude Monet's garden at Gmerny, France, is one of For us, the task of designing a new many precedents for simple, straightforward, metal trellises shrub and vine garden at the beginning of the twenty-first century presented a clear challenge: to provide an arrangement that would satisfy the curatorial needs of the Arboretum staff and to develop a memorable spatial experience of the site. Here we found a convergence of horticultural science and landscape design that evolved into a unique expression of program and site. The advantages of terracing the site were obvious. Level terraces accommodate the planting beds; slopes, ramps, and stairs provide accessible routes throughout. A main terrace, separated from the adjacent drives and greenhouse area by a stone At Monticello Thomas Jefferson designed a thousand-foot-long terrace wall nearly 500 feet in length, profor his vegetable garden, which was both practical-a source of foodvides a setting for the garden's outand expenmental. door pavilion and principal space for mastered the art of terracing as their primary public events. This terrace also organizes the spatial means in display gardens, meanwhile majority of trellises for vine display. From here, developing a tendency toward aggrandized prosuccessively wider terraces descend toward the cessional space across and between terraces for lower portion of the site. The outlines of these terraces reflect the topographic form of the site, spectacle and ceremony. French seventeenthand the shrub beds also conform in shape and century garden designers elaborated these patterns to the point of extreme formalism, but proportion. A gently sloping arc of lawn, also envisioned as a gathering space, cuts across always rooted their gardens in the measured each terrace and provides a visual center to logic of ordered planting. the garden. Garden traditions were carried to the New With the shape and orientation of display terWorld by collectors and farmers alike. Planters races established, the collections were orgasuch as Thomas Jefferson and George Washingnized according to horticultural criteria-soil ton pursued an American model of husbandry ---------- 19 9 The Leventntt Garden m plan A is the central lawn; B is left of the D the Larz Anderson Bonsai House; E the Dana Greenhouse complex pamhon; C marks the vme structures; and moisture requirements, exposure and shade tolerance, size and growth habit-to reinforce the spatial form of the site. A distribution of small deciduous trees and groups of broadleaf evergreens are distributed across the scheme to amplify the garden's structure and add winter interest. The garden's edges are used to fulfill certain curatorial objectives, including the display of plants from the woodland edge community, and also accommodate relocated plants from the dwarf conifer collection that inhabited the site prior to construction. Seen from the vantage point above the garden's main terrace, the scheme is expansive and directional, with the site's roughly triangular shape emphasizing an arcing lawn and path that gesture back toward the Arboretum's open lawns and pervasive canopy trees. Yet when viewed from below, as the true breadth of terraces and masonry walls becomes more apparent, the scheme's dual nature is realized: it is both a traditional terraced display and an active, modern sculptural form whose essential expression is derived from the site's specific conditions. These design intentions bring coherence to the garden and establish an identifiable spatial image for the site. The earthwork and masonry efforts required to achieve this were monumental, but they were well within the enduring traditions of garden making. Planting the collections and bringing them to maturity will take time, but the order and structure are visible at the outset and the real work of the garden-research and display, cultivating and maintaining-is well under way. Douglas Reed and Gary Hilderbrand are pnncipals of Reed Hilderbrand, the Leventntt Garden's landscape architects They collaborated with Maryann Thompson, Architect. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Shrubs and Vines for the Leventritt Garden","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25367","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270ab6b.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter; Dosmann, Michael S.; Ward, Tom; Coop, Julie","article_content":"Sun-Loving Shrubs and Vines for the Leventritt Garden Peter Del The Tredici, Michael Dosmann, Tom Ward, and julie Coop position of the shrub is distinctly secondary, and the burden of the inferior race is upon it. A tree may be valued for what it is, but a shrub is rated for just can do. It must render a service to compensate for its cultivation. This service may be one of beauty, through its flowers; or of use, by its fruit; or its foliage or habit of growth may be especially attractive, or of such a nature as will what it give it value as a shield or a cover for waste and barren places. -Harriet Keeler, Our Native Trees and How to Identify Them,1900 he Leventritt Garden adds a new compoto the Arboretum's collections-a display of sun-loving shrubs and vines suitable for southern New England. Unlike the main Arboretum collections, which are principally intended for scientific research, the new garden has been designed to demonstrate the horticultural qualities of both species and cultivars. Nonetheless, it will contribute to the Arboretum's scientific mission by adding genera-particularly vines and herbaceous perennials-m botanical families that are important to our research. nent Criteria for Horticultural Display MULTISEASONALITY. In most instances, plants of single-season interest will not be included. To ensure interest year-round, preference will be given to plants with a minimum of two, if not three, seasons of ornamental interest, whether bloom, fruit display, autumn leaf color, or texture. PERFORMANCE. Most shrubs will be selected for outstandmg horticultural merit, that is, nursery selections that are superior in size, color, or persistence of bloom; in texture, form, or color of foliage; or form and stature of habit. Choices will be determined by performance in the Arboretum as well as in other botanical gardens and landscapes. These will include the best of the dwarf conifers previously located on this site. Some of the vines will also be chosen for horticultural merit; the genus Clematis will be well represented, as will Lonicera and Wisteria. PROVEN Selecting the Plants Working from fall 2000 through spring 2001, our plant selection committee-the authors, landscape projects manager Laura Tenny Brogna, former assistant education director Ellen Bennett, gardener Bethany Grasso, and intern Stacey Berghammer-generated the list of plants to be included, first establishing our criteria. We agreed to give preference to plants Botanical Criteria GENERA AND SPECIES THAT ARE PART OF IMPORTANT BOTANICAL FAMILIES BUT ARE NOT WELL that meet at least two and preferably three of the criteria in any of the three categories, horticultural, botanical, and educational. Many of our selections already exist in the Arboretum's collections, and many more will be acquired from other botanical collections and commercial sources. These include shrubs that do not prosper in the main collections because they lack sun or because small stature or slow growth rate exposes them to damage by dogs, humans, and mowers. REPRESENTED IN THE MAIN COLLECTIONS. Left to mght, top row: Enkianthus perulatus form and flower; middle row, Aconitum smomontanum (Chmese monkshood), Elliotia racemosa (Georgia plume), Hamamehs x mtermedia `Diane' (hybmd witch hazel); bottom row, Caragana arborescens `Nana' (low-growing pea tree) form and flower. Photographs by Peter Del Tredici, Gary Koller, John Alexander III, Robert G Mayer. 22 From left to V. dilatatum mght, Viburnum opulus (European cranberry bush), (lmden mburnum). V. hupehense (Hubei mburnumJ, V. phleobotnchum, of those that will find a home in the raised beds of the Leventntt Garden are Buxus and shrubby members of Fabaceae such as the brooms, Cytisus and Gemsta. Many of the vines will be selected for their botanical value rather than ornamental interest. Structures for growing vines in the Arboretum's main grounds were heretofore limited to the few remaining perimeter fences. The Leventritt Garden will accommodate many vines new to the Arboretum. Several important botanical families in North Temperate floras are represented primarily by herbaceous plants, including some that were cultivated at the Arboretum in earlier years. The garden provides the opportunity to augment the botanical collections of these families and genera. Examples In summer, the differences between species hydrangeas, clethras, and stewartias and their respective cultivars PLANT can be studied. SOLUTIONS FOR LANDSCAPE PROBLEMS. Ilex glabra and Rhus aromatlca can stop bank erosion. Ericaceous plants grow well in acid soils. Comptonia peregrina tolerates poor soils. Vines can create wonderful vertical screens, and for horizontal screens, shrubby hedges are superb. SPECIAL ORNAMENTAL QUALITIES. For ornamen- tal winter interest, witch hazels lead the list. Buddleias are just one example of a widely adaptable plant that sustains flowering over much of the summer. For fragrance, the daphnes, jasmines, and honeysuckles are prime performers. Plants with colored foliage and bold textures will also be highhghted. BIODIVERSITY AND BIOGEOGRAPHY. Educational Opportunities Biogeogra- These selections will determine the opportunities for learning that the garden will offer. The range of subjects will expand over time; below are some of the areas of interest that our plant selections will support. Orientation and storytelling signs, informational pamphlets, identification labels, and docent tours will be used as interpretive aids. COMPARISONS VATED TAXA. OF WILD TAXA WITH THEIR CULTI- of disjunct populations in Asia and North America-has been central to the Arboretum's research for more than a century. It will be demonstrated on the ground in the Leventritt Garden, where the native Chionanthus virginicus will be compared to its Asian counterpart, C. retusus, as will Asarum canadensis with A. splendens and Pachysandra procumbens with P. terminalis. phy-specifically the study For instance, the flowering of Cercis canadensis and its cultivars redbuds, 'Kovey' and 'Alba', can be contrasted in spring. PLANT CONSERVATION. Another area of longterm interest has been the conservation of endangered plants by growing them ex situ, 23 the Arboretum. Elliottia depressa, and Andromeda glaucophylla head a long list of species m this category; among others to be included are Amelanchier nantucketensis, Ilex collina, and Abeliophylum distichum. At the other end of the spectrum, plants that thrive too well-often on what were the sites of presently endangered species-will also be available for study, kudzu and greenbriar among them. namely, here at racemosa, Prunus Placing the Plants In autumn 2001, Reed Hilderbrand Landscape Architects submitted a set of concepts for the planting plan that included locations and distributions of small evergreen shrubs as well as small- to medium-sized trees (arrayed for visual spatial and rhythmic patterns) and of microclimate variations, optimum shrub sizes (varying by bed and terrace position), and traffic flow. The planting design committee-the authors along with Laura Tenny Brogna and Bethany Grasso-began its task by considering the distribution and size constraints of evergreens and small trees. We placed larger plants at the sides and toward the middle of each terrace, and slotted a high proportion of low-growing plants in the lower terraces. Microclimate variations (sun\/shade, dry\/mesic soils) in the garden are minor and we assigned them a low priority with a single exception. We designated the lower, northernmost end as a frost pocket. Tender material, if included at all in this garden, will be placed in the uppermost terrace and above the great wall. With these considerations in mind, the committee began to partition the entire plant list into manageable groups and to locate individual taxa and groups in plan. Vines were sited in the upper terraces according to their growing requirements and their collections and ornamental value. Because wisterias require a high degree of structural support, they are primarily clustered on and around the pavilion; the remaining plants climb on trellises, columns, and\/or wall bases. Small- to medium-sized trees were included on our list specifically for design effect. We followed the landscape architects' proposals in locating most of them within the terraces or at the garden edges with individuals extending from the ravine area across the terraces. Eastern redbud (Cercis canadensisJ and a few of its variants were selected as the primary tree candidates. We sited deciduous and evergreen shade trees drawings along Centre Street C. retusus effects in from top, Chionanthus virginicus (white fringetreeJ flowers, (Chmese frlngetreeJ flowers and frmt Clockwise sound and visual barriers. to serve as 24 Growth Patterns of Vines for the Leventritt Garden The plants that we call vines have in common a climbing habit, but how The major mechanisms will be represented in the Leventritt Garden. they climb varies widely. Adventitious Root Climbers These plants climb masonry walls or the trunks of trees; they can also grow as groundcovers. Campsis radicans (trumpet creeper) Euonymus fortunei (winter creeper)-many cultivars Hedera (ivy)-two species and many cultivars Hydrangea anomala subsp. petiolaris (climbmg hydrangea) Schizophragma hydrangeoides Twining Woody Vines Some of these vines, including Celastrus, Pueraria, Wisteria, require heavy posts or trellises to climb on; others do better on a mesh support such as chainlink. Akebia quinata on Cryptomena fortunei cypress) m Chma. (Japanese Actinidia (kiwi vine)-four species and several cultivars Akebia-three species Aristolochia (dutchman's pipe)-two species Berchemia scandens (supplejack) Celastrus (bittersweet vine)-three species Lonicera (honeysuckle)-five to ten species and cultivars Pueraria lobata (kudzu) Schisandra-two or three species Trachlospermum asiaticum (star jasmine) , Wisteria-four species and many cultivars ' Campsis radicans (trumpet creeper) Estate, North Carolma at the Biltmore Twining Herbaceous Vines These vines need nylon mesh to climb. Cocculus carolinus (Carolina moonseed) Humulus japonicus (Japanese hops) 25 Menispermum canadense and dauricum (moonseeds) Polygonium aubertii (silver fleece vine) Vines with Coiling Leaf Petioles nylon A wall or other flat surface covered with mesh suits these vines. Clematls-fifteen cultivars Vines with to twenty species and Coiling Tendrils on Most of these do well trellises. Ampelopsis (porcelain vine)-four species Smilax (greenbriar)-species will be grown as examples Vitis (grape)-many species and cultivars Vines with Adhesive Tendrils These should be grown Parthenocissus on stone or masonry. Bignoma capnoleta (cross vine) \/Virginia creeper and Boston my) Wistena mtertwmed mth Parthenocissus at Rockefeller University, New York City. Scandant Shrubs (also known as Weavers) The growth habit is sprawling but with support these can \"climb\" to some extent. Clematis-nonclimbing, \"shrubby\" species Rosa-many species and cultivars Tnpterygium regelii Many of these and several are vines very can cover large areas vigorous, even rampant; others-kudzu, Schisandra, Trachlospermum asiaticum, Carolina moonseed, silver fleece vine-lack vigor or die back in Boston. This classification system is taken from \"Physiological ecology of mesic, temperate woody vines\" by A. H. Teramura, W. G. Gold, and I N. Forseth, in The Biology ~. of Vmes, ed. F. E. Putz and H. A. Moody (1991). Berchmia scandens (supple~ack) 26 Viburnum primarily extends down the ravine and across the eastern terraces, while Hydrangea has been massed at the northernmost edge of the garden and then across the western terraces. Species and genera with fewer representatives are integrated according to their growing requirements and aesthetic compatibility with surrounding plants and features. Plants that grow best and look best when sited as individuals (such as Japanese maple) are so treated, and those best used masses (for ample, brooms) in exare from upper left, Daphne x burkwoodm `Cnrol Mackm', (garland flower vametyJ, D. genkwa, D. altaica. Clockmse D. cneorum `Eximia' massed. A few areas have been reserved for , , . specialized plantings. Most of the sixty We selected several broadleaf evergreen shrubs (e.g., Buxus spp., Ilex crenata, Ilex glabra) to act as green foundations year-round throughout the garden, communicating much the same way as the stone walls do. The chosen plants share many features and characteristics (fine texture, ease of manipulation, similar form and habit). These evergreens were sited linearly in plan. Next, the remaining shrubs, both deciduous and evergreen, were added to the plan. Because their eventual sizes at maturity limit their we gave the largest shrubs first priority. Some genera on the plant list are heavily represented and prominently featured (for example, Daphne, Viburnum, and Hydrangea). Members of these genera will form patterns that diffuse across and down the terraces, interspersed with other shrubs. For example, placement, dwarf conifers have been sited above the garden, adjacent to the bonsai house and the large sugar maple. As a group, these plants tend not to integrate well with plants of different habits and architectural forms, and therefore new plantings of dwarf conifers will also be sited there. In the lower garden terraces, several beds have been prepared with acidic soils for ericaceous plants. The last group-low shrubs, groundcovers, and herbaceous perennials-will be placed at the time of planting. Large and prominent plants have been sited for specific reasons, but flexibility is valuable when placing smaller plants around these anchors. Peter Del Tredici is director of living collections; Michael Dosmann is a former Putnam Fellow, Tom Ward is greenhouse manager and propagator; Julie Coop is supenntendent of grounds. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Genetic Piracy: A Newly Discovered Marvel of the Plant World","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25364","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270a728.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"Genetic Piracy: A Newly Discovered Marvel of the Plant World Richard B. Primack a variety of reproduclants have evolved trees of some The systems. species, -L such as ash and ginkgo, are differentiated by gender, with both a female and a male individual required for seed production. Other species, such as cherries and almonds, ensure cross-pollination without separating individuals by gender: each plant is self-incompatible, so that stigmas cannot be fertilized by pollen produced on the same plant. And then there are species that don't require cross-pollination, including the many weedy species and annuals that can produce seeds even when stigmas and pollen are from the same plant. tive Yet another reproduction system, called apo- mixis, involves seed production with no fertilization at all. Apomixis occurs inside the ovary of the flower when a cell divides to become an embryonic seed. The resulting seed looks quite normal but is in fact a clone that is genetically identical to the parent plant, with slight differences arising from the peculiarities of cell division. Apomixis occurs in many plant families and is especially common in the raspberries of the genus Rubus. It is thought to confer certain advantages: no other plant is required for fertilization, and the seeds produced belong to a genotype of proven success. The cypress Cupressus dupreziana is species remain alme m the world. found only m the desert of Algena. Just 231 mdmduals of this endangered 28 Cupressus dupreziana. 29 recently, all known examples of apoproduction of seeds from cells of the female plant, that is, the plant that actually makes the seeds, although male (pollen-producing) plants existed, they made no genetic contribution to the embryo. Now, however, a group of French scientists headed by C. Pichot and M. El Maataoui have found an example of apomixis in which the seeds are identical to the pollen-producing plant, rather than the female plant. The species involved is a rare cypress, Cupressus dupreziana, that occurs only in the Tassili N'Ajjer desert of Algeria, in extremely hot, arid conditions. Because of its small population size and poor regeneration rate, it has been classified as endangered and studied intensively. Field research has shown that only around ten percent of wild seeds have a viable embryo; and since the same low rate has been observed in trees being cultivated in France, the problem was assumed to result from mixis involved the Until the intrinsic nature of the species, rather than simply from inadequate pollination. But further study showed that the low rate of seed viability was related to Cupressus dupreziana's atypical meiosis process. In most diploid plant species (those with two sets of chromosomes), meiosis of the male reproductive cell results in the cell splitting to form haploid pollen grams-that is, grains with only one set of chromosomes, half the number of the parent plant. Seeds result from the merger of the haploid pollen grains with haploid egg cells produced in the ovule. In C. dupreziana, however, chromosome behavior and cell division are erratic: sometimes a nucleus divides, but the two resulting nuclei fuse together again; and instead of producing a uniform mass of haploid pollen, the male cones produce pollen of widely varying sizes, many with no chromosomes at all and some with one, two, or four sets of chromosomes. Laboratory studies have shown that only the diploid pollen is capable of germinating. This pollen is almost identical genetically to that of the pollen-producing tree itself, with slight variations arising during meiosis. And it plays a role in seed formation that is unique among known plants-male apomixis. Analysis of seeds from a plantation of Cupressus dupreziana trees showed that the The pollen of Cupressus dupreziana is vanable m size and shape, as shown m this section taken through a microsporangmm before the pollen is shed. Only the larger, round pollen would be mable, the other pollen grams will not germmate. The epidermal wall of the pollen sac is shown on the mght side. DNA markers of the seeds did not match those of the mother tree-that is, the female tree on which the embryonic seeds developed. In typical diploid species, each seed contains half of the identifying DNA markers of the mother and half of those of the pollenproducing parent. The fact that the DNA markers of C. dupreziana's seeds match those of only one parent-the father tree-shows clearly that this species uses apomixis to produce seeds. Presumably, a diploid nucleus in the pollen tube enters the ovule within the young cypress cone and, instead of combining with a female nucleus, begins to divide on its own, taking on the appearance of an embryo. If there is a female nucleus present, it simply deteriorates. The ability of the pollen of Cupressus identifying dupreziana to produce new offspring via apomixis was further examined in a special plantation of hybrid trees that had been created by dusting pollen of C. dupreziana onto the receptive female cones of C. sempervirens, the com- 30 or Mediterranean, cypress. The seeds produced by these crosses were germinated and then grown for fifteen years. The resulting \"hybrids\" were identical to C. dupreziana in twig orientation, female cone size, and pollen diameter; they bore no visible resemblance to C. sempervirens, suggesting that no genetic material had come from C. sempervirens. And in fact, the DNA markers of the hybrids were identical to those of C. dupreziana, but completely unlike C. sempervirens. These surprising results demonstrated conclusively that C. dupreziana pollen is able to produce seeds with no genetic contribution from the female plant, not only within its own species but also when \"crossed\" with other species. This is the only known example of apomixis involving the pollen parent. In human terms, this is equivalent to a human mother giving birth to a baby that is genetically unrelated to herself, but genetically identical to the father. The evolutionary advantages of this method of reproduction are not evident. One possibility is that isolated trees of this rare species can use the female cones of other cypress species growing in the vicinity as vessels for producing copies of its own genotype. This \"genetic piracy\" might allow the species to survive at low densities ; however, at present no other cypress species grows nearby in C. dupreziana's wild habitat. But even if genetic piracy were feasible, this unusual reproductive system has its shortcomings : it cannot generate the genetic variations that allow sexually reproducing organisms to adapt as environmental conditions change. mon, References El Maataoui, M., and C. Pichot. 2001. Microsporogenesis in the endangered species Cupressus dupreziana A. Camus: evidence for meiotic defects yielding unreduced and abortive pollen. Planta 213. 543-549. Pichot, C., M. El Maataoui, S Raddi, and P Raddi. 2001. Surrogate mother for endangered Cupressus. Nature 412: 39. , B. and I. Hochu. 2000. Lack of mother tree m zymograms of Cupressus dupreziana a A. Camus embryos. Annals of Forestry Science 57: 17-22. Fady, alleles gel showing DNA markers of tissue taken of Cupressus dupreziana (Cd) and C. sempervirens (Cs), as well as from trees produced by cross-pollmatmg them. Pollen from one tree of C. dupreziana was used to fertilize four trees of C. sempervirens. Seeds from each of these hybmdizations were used to grow three progeny trees from each mother tree. For each of the four crosses, ussue taken from the offspnng is genetically identical to C. dupreziana, as shown by them DNA bands bemg exactly like C. dupreziana but unlike the DNA bands of C. sempervirens. These results clearly demonstrate that the mhentance of genetic t. material is stmctly from the pollen-producing parent. This is a from trees Acknowledgments Helpful comments on the manuscript were provided by Ehzabeth Platt, Spencer Barrett, and Christian Pichot. is professor of biology at Boston currently conducting research at the Arnold Arboretum and m Concord, Massachusetts, on how chmate change affects the flowering time of plants. Richard Pnmack He is University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Note","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25363","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed270a36f.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"Book Note Karen Madsen Wild Flowers of Yunnan and Central China by Beryl M. Walden and Shui-ying Hu. Hong Kong: B. M. Walden, 2000. he authors of this attractive volume tell us that of the recogmzed plant species in China, 16,000 occur in Yunnan, a provmce that comprises only four percent of the country's land area. In an effort to promote conservation by increasing public awareness, the authors have given us watercolor images and botanical descriptions of 516 of these 30,000 plants, most of them from cold-temperate areas and nearly all from Yunnan Province. (The \"Central China\" of the title refers to Jiangxi Province, where a small number of the book's plants originate. ~I Both images and descriptions testify to the lavish diversity of the region. Included are seven each of asters, camellias, irises, and thalictrums; eight viburnums; ten pedicularises; thirteen each of gentians and roses; fourteen orchids; seventeen pmmulas; and an astomshing twenty-seven species of rhododendron. Many of the 516 taxa-150 of them-are endemic to Yunnan, some occurring only in one portion of a mountain range. Yunnan's botanic diversity mirrors its spectacular range of climates and topography, which includes \"lateral and vertical zones and mini-zones.\" The authors quote the English plant explorer Frank Kingdon Ward as he described northwestern Yunnan a century ago: \"You will see flowers growmg in reckless profusion ... For days on end you may tramp over carpets of flowers. Rhododendron in incredible variety, yet no taller than heather in Scotland, though of every conceivable colour.\" Already at that time 5,000 plants had been introduced in the West from Yunnan. Shiu-ying Hu, author of the botanical descriptions, has had a long and distinguished career and is well known at the Arnold Arboretum. An accomplished botanist and fieldworker when she arrived in the U.S. from China in 1946, she carried out her doctoral dissertation on the Chmese hollies under the direction of E. D. Merrill, director of the Arboretum, 1935-1946. Her many publications on the flora of China, especially of Hong Kong, include works on Malvaceae, Compositae, Orchidaceae, the Chinese material medica, and food plants. Beryl M. Walden provided the watercolors of the plants in Wild Flowers of Yunnan and Central Chma, as she did for earlier collaborations with Hu, Wild Flowers of Hong Kong (1977) and a two-volume Wild Flowers of South China and Hong Kong (1983, 1987). Beryl Walden's watercolor of Lilium bakenanum delavayi, endemic to Yunnan. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 2002","article_sequence":6,"start_page":32,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25362","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260896b.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"32 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 2002 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 63 42 . 53 49.08 inches 31.6 inches Temperature - Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost 105 on July 4 0 on February 12 and December 10 30 on April 27 9 32 on October 18 Growing Season Note: 173 days Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 2002 was warm and sunny with above-normal levels of precipitation; growing days numbered 173 compared to 132 in 2001. It was the warmest year since 1998 and ranks tenth m 132 years of weather records. With a total precipitation of 49.08 inches we were 5.5 mches above normal and well over the total of 45 inches m 2001. May and June were cool and moist, followed by recordbreaking temperatures in July, August, and September. Year's end-October, November and December-was very cold; the first ten days of December averaged 10 degrees below normal. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23303","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15eab6d.jpg","title":"2003-62-2","volume":62,"issue_number":2,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum Director's Report 1999-2002","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25361","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed2608926.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":1,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Cook, Robert E.","article_content":".~ ~ - u-.. ~ - ..,.. -=-~-\" .,,~ M_r~ . E.--Z~~ ,,\"'.. - ~ ~~--'\"~~~\"'~'~--- -\"''''''-'''-~ .........~~ ~ [T]he Arboretum... should be a - dendrological investigation and research. Charles Sprague Sargent, Letter to the Corporation, Harvard University, 1879 center of However, [the Arnold Arboretum] does a not serve merely as plant collection of high horticultural merit and a fine public amenity; it has an international reputation as a university institution for research and education. - Peter Shaw Ashton, A Message from the New Director, Arnoldia (1979) 39(3): 67 ' . hat is the Arnold Arboretum and what should it be? These questions featured prominently in the yearlong discussion produced a document called \"A Time for Change: A Plan for the Arnold Arboretum's Next Quarter Century.\" This document, perhaps the Arboretum's most important achievement of the past three years, outlines a long-range plan that by virtue of its significance will be the primary focus of this report. Other accomplish- that V ments since my last report, for the fiscal years 1997-1999, include the successful completion of a ten-million-dollar fundraising campaign, the initiation of several major capital projects on the grounds, and the construction of a three-million-dollar garden for a collection of sunloving shrubs and vines. The long-range plan responds to two major challenges that confront the organization at the turn of the new century. First, for a growing number of individuals, education is increasingly seen as an activity to be continued throughout one's life, building on the foundation established during one's youth and reflecting the changes in values that often accompany middle age. The Arboretum possesses unique resources with which to address this need. Second, although scientific research was central to the Arboretum's original mission, changes in our research activity in recent years portend 3 long-term decline. Without concerted action, the Arboretum's reputation as a scientific institution could be greatly diminished and its standing within Harvard University and among its peer organizations compromised. a much about the future in this report as about the accomplishments of the past three years. \"A Time for I have therefore chosen to write as will be cited again and again as the foundation for new initiatives that will transform the institution and allow it to meet the challenges of this new century. We are a strong, confident organization, Change\" dedicated to a mission begun 130 years ago, but we must build on this strength with new energy to ensure the future significance of our work. LIVING COLLECTIONS Between July 1, 1999, plants taxa were new and June 30, 2002, 509 accessions totaling 916 added to the permanent collections; of these, 76 were to the Arboretum. At the end of June, the collections included 14,734 plants belonging to 4,345 taxa: 1,930 species, 557 taxa, 1,598 cultivars, and 260 hybrids. tion The Blackwell a new infraspecific Five years ago the Arboretum began a series of landscape construc- projects that have now been completed. Beginning with the resto, , _ _ Footpath, , route from the ration of Peters Hill in 1998, these projects also include a pedestrian s pathway through a wetland recently added to the Arboretum's Forest Hills train station to the Arboretum. leaseholdings with the City of Boston; gate restoration and other improvements on Bussey Street; and a four-acre facility for a sun-loving ) . ' shrub and vine collection, now named the M. Victor and Frances Smaller projects, undertaken in collaboration with the Boston Water and Leventritt Garden. ', Sewer Department, have begun to ~i long-standing drainage problems on the grounds. I~ The \"Blackwell Footpath,\" ', ~ formally dedicated in May 2002, ' recognizes the work of John Blackwell, whose patient efforts resulted in the addition of 25 acres address 4 of degraded wetland to the Arboretum. Last winter we initiated projects to restore the site's natural character and enhance its educational value. The Leventritt Garden, sponsored in memory of M. Victor Leventritt (Harvard Class of 1935) by his wife Frances and his dedicated in early September 2002. The completion of construction will be followed over the next two or three years by extensive plantings of shrubs, vines, and small trees. The garden's many significant features include beautifully crafted stonewalls that define a series of terraces containing planting beds, and a wood-covered steel pavilion that overlooks a sweeping central lawn bisecting the terraces. The collections in this garden will constitute a major resource for our teaching and professional programs in the future. son Daniel, was left, Christina Cook, Frances Leventritt, From and Katherine Cook at the opening of the Leventritt Garden. The Landscape System For much of its history, the Arboretum has focused most of its curatorial energy on the care and documentation of individual plants. Indeed, the great value of the Arboretum's living collections lies in the quality of the records that document the identity, origin, and location of each specimen. Yet these specimens grow in a landscape system whose infrastructure-both natural and manmade-support their survival and enhance the appreciation of our visitors. The most important natural elements in this system are the hydrology (the movement of water by rainfall, stream flow, irrigation, plant transpiration, evaporation) and the soils, with their differing nutrient and water retention qualities. Other natural elements, such as the topographic diversity and the many rock outcrops and boulders, give shape and add geological interest to the landscape. However, most of the infrastructure is manmade: the stonewalls; the roadways, gateways, and footpaths; visitor amenities such as benches, signage, and water fountains; and the diverse patterns of growing plants that reflect the cumulative decisions of the horticulturists who have chosen locations for each individual. , After careful consideration during the long-range planning process, we concluded that our historical emphasis on curating individual specimens needs to be balanced with increased attention to the overall landscape system that sustains the collections and shapes the experience of our visitors. Our stewardship will be enhanced through two initiatives. First, we will establish a program of environmental monitoring to document natural variations in ecological processes that affect the collections. This data can guide decisions about and maintenance practices, priorities, repair planting plans. It will also provide a foundation for research projects involving the living collections and related restoration and ecological elements. A second initiative will A page from the Arboretum's newly redesigned website: http:\/\/arboretum. harvard.edu\/ improvements physical infrastructure, an issue that is complicated by the historical responsibility of the City of Boston for maintaining certain elements (stonewalls, gates, roads, benches) that are used by the public. The reaction of visitors to our landscape is unfavorably influenced by infrastructural elements that are inadequately maintained. This is especially true at the Arboretum's boundaries, where the physical infrastructure dominates the face that we present to our neighbors. To address this problem, we will conduct a comprehensive invento our undertake needed tory of all infrastructural elements and each one's contribution to the public's image of the Arboretum. With this inventory in hand, we will review with the City of Boston the responsibilities for maintenance and repair and draw up a long-term plan for restoration. RESEARCH \"A Time for Change\" calls for a major investment in research over the scientific institution if actions next decade. This recommendation grew out of a historical analysis of research at the Arboretumand a concern about the sustainability of our reputation as a no new are taken. As * \"A Brief History of Scientific Research at the Arnold Arboretum,\" prepared Robert E. Cook for the Long-Range Planning Committee, January 15, 2002. by implied by the quotations at the start of this report, it involves issues that are central to our mission and the identity of the institution. For Charles Sprague Sargent, our first director, and for each of the directors who followed, the Arnold Arboretum was fundamentally and unambiguously a research institution even though its grounds were open to the public as part of the Boston system of parks. Scientists on the Arboretum's staff used the collections for their research and enjoyed reputations within their peer community commensurate with their positions at a major research institution managed by Harvard University. One measure of the Arboretum's stature was the number of the published writings listed in the director's report. Most of these writings were by Harvard faculty members who held appointments on the Arboretum staff; their salary was paid with income from our endowment under the supervision of the dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences (FAS), who also appointed the director. As research faculty these staff members applied for peer-reviewed grants from federal agencies that awarded funds to support research, including the costs of graduate students and postdoctoral fellows. Over the past half century, this picture of the Arboretum has slowly changed to an extent that one must ask: Is the Arnold Arboretum still primarily a research institution? I believe the answer is no. Today it operates largely as a curatorial and educational organization whose collections, particularly its living collection of woody plants, provide material for research conducted by individuals who are not staff members. Professors are no longer on the staff, and critical elements of infrastructure required by research (laboratories, herbarium collections, library collections) are no longer under the control of the director. Only a handful of our staff members would claim expertise in research; curators, educators, or administrators. While our curators maintain the collections in an exceptional state of curation, only a few conduct research that is supported by grants and that yields peerreviewed publications. most are A Short History The current situation has its historical roots in three critical junctures in the past. First, in the decade following Sargent's death in 1927, botanical research at the Arboretum shifted its focus from investigations of temperate species to the richer and largely unknown floras of tropical regions. Since tropical plants cannot be grown in the open air in Boston, 7 such research was necessarily based on fieldwork and on the extensive collection of dried specimens in the herbarium. At the same time, in 1935, Donald Wyman was appointed staff horticulturist. His prolific writings about the living collections began to transform the Arboretum's identity as a resource for botanical research into that of a display collection and a source of horticultural information for the general public. This diminished the perceived value of the living collections for botanical research. junction occurred in 1954 when the bulk of the and herbarium holdings of the Arboretum (at the time referred library to as \"the research collections\") was transferred from Jamaica Plain to Cambridge. This move was vigorously but unsuccessfully opposed by A second critical the many friends of the Arboretum who believed that it violated the originally established the Arboretum through an endowment gift to Harvard University. intentions of Sargent and of the trustees who had Over time, these collections have become fully integrated into a unified library and herbarium within the Harvard University facility that the Faculty of Arts and Sciences has constructed modern research laboratories for its professorial appointments. The final juncture occurred in 1988. Following an extensive review of the Arboretum's mission, the Harvard Corporation approved the administrative transfer of the Arboretum from FAS to the central administration of the University under the office of the Vice President for Administration. Concurrent with this transfer, the Corporation decided that any future professorial appointments in FAS should no longer draw salary from the Arboretum's endowment income. Consequently the Arboretum would no longer have professors on staff once current commitments ended. In Herbaria (HUH). It is within this addition, the director would be an administra- professorial, appointment beginning in 1989. These decisions reflected an implicit judgment about the declining value of the living collections in Jamaica Plain for research by FAS faculty and students, and the conclusion that the important \"research collections\" in Cambridge were effectively under FAS control. tive, not Where We Find Ourselves Now At Harvard, it is usually professors, rather than administrators, who define the nature of research projects because it is they who are able to compete successfully for large federal grants and attract students and 8 research fellows. The resulting research is published in journals and books after rigorous review by peer researchers. Over many years the Arboretum's reputation as a scientific institution was largely built by professors on staff, along with their students, research fellows, and collaborators. With the departure of Professor Peter Stevens, who left Harvard in 1999, and the retirements of Professors Carroll Wood, Richard Howard, and Peter Ashton in the last decade, the Arboretum no longer employs research professors. complicate matters further, HUH is itself undergoing significant change. The last decade has seen the departure of several important members of the botanical faculty with whom we collaborated. Having no voice in their replacement, the Arboretum will be greatly challenged to establish successTo ful new collaborations. Even the Arboretum's future access to the laboratory facilities housed in HUH is uncertain. As part of a larger plan for the future of science at Harvard, the collections and laboratories housed in HUH are to be relocated to a new facility where research space for professorial appointments is at a premium; the 50-year-old herbarium building will then be torn down. Since research space in the building will be limited and allocated preferentially to Harvard faculty, the Arboretum may no longer have access to the collections and laboratories new housed in HUH; in that case, the Arboretum's connection to professorial research interests may be completely severed. From top to bottom, by these changes are demonstrated by our most recent list of published writings. The last director's report identified 102 publications for the two-year period between July 1997 and June 1999. The research described in the majority of these papers was conducted by individuals whose offices and laboratories were located in the HUH building in Cambridge, a building now managed by FAS under its own director rather than by the Arboretum. Over half of these publications were authored by faculty members who have left (or soon will) or by their students and research fellows. The problem created Corydalis sp., Pedicularis scolopax, Dracocephalum bullatum, inventoried on the 2000 field trip to China's Hengduan Mountains (http:\/\/ www.huh.harvard.edu\/ research\/china\/ China.html). 9 In summary, then, the loss of faculty as staff members, the transfer of the Arboretum to the central administration, and the uncertainties of research facilities associated with HUH in Cambridge all threaten our future as a scientific institution. Major investments in research activities are required to counteract this threat. We will probably need to establish strategic collaborations with new professors at the Univert sity and with researchers elsewhere. We may need to create independent research facilities under Arboretum management. And we will undoubtedly need to continue conversations with FAS regarding future of our library and herbarium collections in HUH. Research Renewed the Overcoming the challenges described above will require administrative and political assistance from our colleagues in the central administration and in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences. The long-range plan calls for the development of new research initiatives that hold the promise of securing peer-reviewed grant funding. Three particular opportunities have been identified. First, the Arboretum, with its exceptional living collection of trees, become the center of a multi-institutional program to examine the changes in diversity and distribution of North Temperate can floras that have occurred in response to the movement of continents and changes in climate around the globe. This initiative would use modern phylogenetic systematics, paleobotany, and comparative reproductive ecology to analyze the species distribution patterns of today and the probable patterns of the past. The Arboretum's longstanding interest in the flora of temperate east Asia and its relationship to the flora of eastern North America make this research program particularly appropriate for Arboretum leadership. opportunity builds on the studies of Asian tropical forests begun by E. D. Merrill in the 1930s and expanded by my predecessor, Peter Ashton, in partnership with the Smithsonian Tropical Research Institute. Designed to increase our understanding of tropical forest dynamics, this research is based on multiple demographic censuses of all the trees that are in 50-hectare (124-acre) plots in the forests of five different countries of Southeast Asia. By forming a strong collaboration with the Smithsonian Institution, we A second will ensure continued support 10 for this important, long-term ecological research program. Finally, the size and diversity of specimens in our living collections make the Arboretum an excellent site for collaborative research with new faculty at Harvard on the comparative physiology and development of woody plants. Of particular interest would be studies of the leaf and canopy development that leads to the distinctive architectures of different tree species and the diverse patterns of greening seen each spring. To encourage these new initiatives and provide additional administrative support, the Arboretum implemented a number of organizational changes as of July 1, 2002. A new research department has been created and will be led by a director to be appointed at a later date. This department will become one of four forming a restructured organization chart (see page 14). The Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies and the membership department will be merged with the education department to form a new public and professional programs department, as described below. A Inventorying plants in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, possibly the world's most rich forest. species- newly created position of deputy director has been filled by Richard Schulhof, recently director of Descanso Gardens in Los Angeles and formerly a Putnam Fellow and director of education and public affairs at the Arboretum. He assumed the position in September 2002. For the foreseeable future, the deputy director will also serve as the director of public and professional programs. Additional organizational changes to be undertaken coming years include the following: over the We will review our collections policy to determine whether modi- fications are needed for the collections to future research programs. play a greater role in We will evaluate the potential of existing staff positions to contribute to ongoing and new research. I also anticipate that new posi- tions dedicated to research will be created. 11 Finally, new research initiatives will likely require new facilities to provide space for laboratories, offices, and meetings. The personal research activities of existing staff members continue to make contributions to the institution's reputation (see Staff Publications on page 27). The development of new research programs promises to create even greater opportunities for such contributions. PUBLIC AND PROFESSIONAL PROGRAMS Throughout most of its history the Arboretum has engaged in educational activities that serve the public directly. In 1891 the plantsman J. G. Jack first began to provide public lectures, largely attended by schoolteachers, using the living collections and grounds of the Arboretum. For a decade beginning in 1888 C. S. Sargent published Garden and Forest: An Illustrated Weekly Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry; this was followed by the Bulletin of Popular Information (1911) and Arnoldia (1941). In the 1990s, the Arboretum began publishing information on its own internet website and Cultural Landscape Studies. on that of the Institute for These publications bring high-quality botanical and horticultural information to our friends and supporters, with the costs largely borne by the institution. Ever since the Hunnewell Building opened in 1892, the Arboretum's exceptional library collections have also been available without cost to the public. Perhaps our greatest contribution has resulted from the generous willingness of the Arboretum's staff to answer queries from individuals interested in learning about trees. During its first century, the Arboretum's educational activities were an adjunct to the primary work of research. Staff members were hired to curate collections, conduct scientific studies, and publish technical articles that were largely intended for other scientists; they were also asked to create lectures and publications for popular audiences. With the approach of the centennial in 1972, the Arboretum began hiring nonresearch professionals whose training and experience were appropriate for managing full-fledged programs in public relations, membership services, adult education, popular horticultural information, and children's programs. Research staff, always protective of their research time, were now free to moderate their public service contributions and spend more time curating their collections. 12 These many educational endeavors grew into programs in a relatively independent and self-defined way. The number of educational and public service staff has continued to grow over the past three decades. Today the Arboretum engages in a broad range of activities that serve multiple constituencies in diverse ways: Education programs for children, adults, teachers, docents, and interns Teaching in Harvard's professional schools (education, design) Lectures, symposia, and roundtables (Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies, Landscape Design Program) Publications (Arnoldia, internet website, brochures, maps) Membership events and benefits (plant sale, plant dividends) Public events and exhibits (Lilac Sunday, New England Flower Show) Visitor's Center exhibit, bookshop, and information desk Interpretive signage and labels Tours Each year more than three thousand schoolchildren visit to learn about trees under the guidance of Arboretumtrained volunteers. Last year, for example, 2,700 children from Boston area schools experienced a formal interaction with our landscape led by volunteer , program managed by a professional educator. Arnoldia continues to publish four issues each year containing a diverse array of articles on botany, horticulture, landscape design, history, and conservation, many written by staff members but most solicited from outside authors by a professional editor. In our adult education program, approximately 1,600 individuals chose from among 150 educational offerings, usually presented in evening or weekend classes; this program is also managed by a professional educator. instructors in a Although most programs, once begun, grow through staff energy and commitment, educational efforts have been sustained. In 1995 we received a successfully five-year grant from the National Science Foundation to develop a program designed to improve science education in schools not all our Arnold Arboretum Organizational Chart 14 through new computer technology and teacher training (see the discussion of the Community Science Connection in my last director's report). We learned a great deal from the experience; but the program did not receive the favorable peer reviews required for renewed funding in 2001; and it failed to produce any peer-reviewed publications. Last year we closed down its website, and we are re-evaluating our commitment to research on science education in the schools. The long-range planning process of the past raised a number of questions about our eduyear cational activities and our services to the public. Is education How do an important part of our mission and how should it relate to research? we balance the allocation of resources for education with our commitment to the collections and to scientific research? What goals should we establish for educational programs and public service? Should these diverse activities represent a more unified, coherent approach to achieving defined educational objectives? These questions were not completely answered in the planning process. Education, including public education and related support services, is clearly an important part of our mission. Less clear is the philosophy that guides our educational efforts and prioritizes the allocation of resources. Nor are we clear about who we should be educating and how this can be accomplished efficiently. As a consequence, the long-range plan has initiated a continuing review of all educational and public service activities under the management of the new deputy director. Black walnuts, Juglans nigra, between Valley Road and Oak Path. The Landscape Design Program of these In the midst of our planning, an opportunity appeared that promised to answer some challenging questions. In 1999 Radcliffe College merged with Harvard University to become the Radcliffe Institute for Advanced Studies. The Institute's mission focuses its resources on postgraduate research in a wide array of scholarly fields and away from the set of traditional educational programs called the Radcliffe Semi- 15 One of its programs offered an advanced certifinars. cate in landscape design and Over the landscape design history. thirty-four years since its creation in 1968, this program has acquired a national reputation for excellence, particularly in the last twenty years under ~ Working foreman Maurice Sheehan spreading compost in the oak collection. leadership of John Furlong. Many of its graduates have developed professional careers in landscape design and land-use planning. Wishing to place the program in a setting that would sustain its excellence, the Radcliffe Institute suggested in the fall of 2001 that the Arboretum undertake its management. The offer required an immediate decision. In December the Arboretum accepted responsibility for the landscape design program, and it, along with its the officially transferred to us on July 1, 2002. Although the Arboretum has never offered a formal degree, it has a long history of support for education in the fields of landscape design and planning. C. S. Sargent worked closely with Frederick Law Olmsted, the father of landscape architecture, on the design of the Arboretum and encouraged professional training in \"landscape art\" throughout his life. The decision to transfer the landscape design program presented the long-range planning committee with the question of how it might fit with the array of other educational activities we currently offer. At the same time, it presented an opportunity to use this professional program as a guide to organize and unify our overall approach to education and public service. director, were The Creation of a \"Professional School\" \" Out of this opportunity has evolved the concept of a professional school with the landscape design program at its center. This will not be a formal, degree-granting school in the sense of Harvard's School of Public Health, but rather an institution-unified by its educational philosophy and the content of its curriculum-that provides advanced education to diverse audiences. The term professional school reflects a 16 commitment to intellectual rigor based on scholarship and a disciplined approach to learning, qualities usually associated with professional degree-granting organizations. At the same time it acknowledges the educational value of the practitioner who also teaches. During the past year we have been preparing for the transfer of the landscape design program and the creation of the professional school. We have developed new software to manage the registration of students, and we have conducted a marketing survey among alumni and students to gain insight into the factors that have led to the program's success. We have also begun preliminary planning for the facilities that will be required to accommodate the program's students in the future. In the coming year we will focus on integrating three Arboretum programs in accordance with our concept of a professional school. We will review the class offer- of our highly successful adult education program to establish the most appropriate relationship between those classes and the courses of the ings landscape design program. We will also review the mission of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies in light of our plans for a professional school. Over the past three years, the Institute has steadily expanded its program of public lectures and roundtable discussions, the substance of which is then published on the Institute's website (www.icls.harvard.edu). In 2000 we evaluated the needs of the Institute's target audience by interviewing two dozen staff or board members of not-for-profit and public agencies engaged in conservation, historic preservation, and land-use planning in New England. This assessment confirmed the importance of the Institute's interdisciplinary approach to landscape issues, but left uncertain whether a website alone can successfully build a community of landscape practitioners. The creation of a professional school may provide an opportunity to merge the goals of the Institute with those of the landscape design program. Vitis coignetiae. 17 We will review the operations and collection policies of the library in Jamaica Plain in light of the transfer of the landscape design Picknicking on Lilac Sunday, now held on the second Sunday in May. program. The influence of changing electronic technology must also be taken into account. During the past two years, we have participated in Harvard University's Library Digital Initiative. Our project, \"Western China and Tibet: Hot Spot of Diversity,\" involves digitizing a diverse array of historical and contemporary material from the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, the Botany Libraries, the Harvard University Herbaria, the Harvard Map Collection, the Harvard-Yenching Institute, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology. The historical component focuses on the work of legendary plant collector and anthropologist Joseph Rock. His plant specimens, correspondence, maps, and photographic images will be linked to materials that describe the accomplishments of contemporary Arboretum collecting expeditions in the same floristic regions of China. Once completed, this project will connect students, researchers, and the general public via the s integrated database of the area's natural and ecological resources, as well as the social and cultural history of the region. In the future, the library will increasingly be called upon to serve the needs of the landscape design program. This will inevitably require a comprehensive assessment of the role of technol- internet to an ogy in support of instruction as well as access to scholarly resources for education and research. Undergraduate Education formulating the long-range plan we also examined the Arboretum's role in the education of undergraduates, particularly those at Harvard In College. Although formally a part of Harvard University, the Arboretum has only sporadically participated in undergraduate coursework. At a time of enormous interest in botanical science and environmental education, the Arboretum should not ignore the value to college students of instruction about trees and their natural history. Therefore, in 18 the near future we will evaluate the possibilities for expanding role in the coursework and campus life of Harvard undergraduates. To do so will require our a closer with Harvard working relationship faculty. Informal Education In this and earlier director's reports, the our I have written about II'~, enormous investments in buildings and grounds A tour of the \/ made over the past ten years-the Hunnewell Building renovation, the creation of the exhibit \"Science in the Pleasure Ground\" with its largescale model of the Arboretum, the restoration of Peters Hill, the con- Bradley Garden of Rosaceous Plants with Peter Del pedestrian Blackwell Path, and the creation of the sun-loving shrubs and vines. All of these projects have produced new opportunities for educating our visitors both formally in classes, and informally through interpretation with brochures, signage, and tours. Despite these investments, the Arboretum has never articulated a coherent philosophy to guide our offerings of noncurricular instruction Leventritt Garden of struction of the Tredici, living collections director, and the collection's gardener Kit Ganshaw. and information to our audiences, which range from school groups to the casual visitor. It is especially important for us to do so because the public image of the Arboretum is shaped by the many ways we offer information about our landscape, our history, and our work. Therefore the long-range plan calls for creating a master plan for informal education that includes four objectives. To To articulate clearly identify our most important educational values a coherent philosophy for the delivery of educashaped tional information To describe how the public's image of the Arboretum is by the content of informal education To establish the public priorities among the many possible ways to reach This master plan constituencies to receive and the will define the messages we want important means for managing their design and 19 delivery. A coherent philosophy of informal education will also provide guidance for allocating investments to ensure that public amenities support our educational programs and enhance our image as an institution committed to public service. ` ADMINISTRATION AND INFRASTRUCTURE ambitious agenda and will require dedicated resources to support planning and execution. Fortunately, the Arboretum is in a healthy financial position, with sufficient reserves to \"A Time for Change\" presents an ' undertake implementation of the plan. Major steps have already been taken: transfer of the Radcliffe landscape design program; creation of a new organization chart; appointment of a deputy director. Further organizational changes may be anticipated during the coming year. All of this has been made possible through the generosity of the past and present friends of the Arboretum, who have sustained the growth of our endowment with their continuing financial support. Summary of Operations 20 Over the past three years, income from investments made by the Harvard I Management Company, stewards of our endowment, by 65 percent Summary of Operations). Expenses over the same period increased by 24 percent. As a consequence, we have each year netted substantial surpluses that have been added to the endowment's reserve funds. has increased (see table 3, I I I Fagus grandifolia in winter. Annual gifts have returned to the levels that we experienced before the most recent fundraising campaign. As noted in the last director's report, grant support has continued to decline; but I hope that a significant investment in peer-reviewed research will reverse this trend in the future. A decade ago, the Hunnewell Building was completely renovated, and the additional staff space created by that project is now fully occupied. As early as July 2003, the landscape design program may need to leave its temporary quarters in Cambridge in search of a new home. New research programs, especially those based on the living collections, will require high-quality research facilities that might appropriately be located adjacent to the collections. In short, our most immediate need will soon be new facilities to house expanded staff, new students of landscape design and botany, and a growing research program. We have taken preliminary steps to define a plan for these facilities. Throughout the long-range planning process we have examined the way we as a staff relate to each other and work together as a team. Self-critical examination of this sort is consistent with a larger university initiative to improve the quality of the workplace for all employees and to acknowledge the value of everyone's contribution. To support the vision embodied in \"A Time for Change\" and its core values of stewardship, respect, and citizenship, we have created a new position at the Arboretum, director of human resources, and hired Lisa Toste to fill it. 21 She will be working closely with me and the deputy director to facilitate continuing improvement of the working culture. Successful achievement of the ambitious goals of the long-range plan-the creation of a professional school, enhanced stewardship of our landscape, revitalization of our research mission, a master plan for informal science education-will require changes to the existing culture of the institution. The deep commitment of our staff to the collections and landscape and to their historical significance has sometimes obscured our dependence upon and service to the larger community, whether this be our immediate neighbors, our colleagues at the University, or the many friends around the world who regard the Arnold Arboretum with the highest respect. Implementing our plans will require that we balance our introspection with a measure of greater worldliness and an expanded perspective. I shall end with another quotation from my predecessor, Peter Ashton, who for the over the twenty years ago set out the intellectual foundation changes we are about to undertake. Shortly after arriving as director, he said: The Arboretum has been and always will be in the first instance a Umversity museum: a collection of living and preserved woody plant species which, with its libraries and in combination with the other University herbaria, provide Harvard with the outstanding facilities of their kind in the world for research and education. Only if it maintains its preeminence in research and education can the Arnold Arboretum continue to develop its complementary function as a unique public amenity and an authoritative source for information on the culture of woody plants. -The Director's Report, Arnoldia (1979) 39(6): 330. ~~ Robert E. Cook 11 September 2002 22 23 STAFF OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM* ADMINISTRATION Rose Balan, Staff Assistant, H.U.H Donna Barrett, Financial Assistant Sheila Baskin, Membership Staff Assistant Kenneth Clarke, Custodian Robert Cook, Director, Arnold Professor Ann Marie Countie, Systems Administrator William Hays, Database Applications HERBARIUM David Boufford, Assistant Director for Collections, H.U.H. Noel Cross, Internet Server Systems Administrator (left 8.28.00) Lihong Duan, Curatorial Assistant (hired 12.10.01) Alexander Dukas, Secretary (hired 9.29.97) Susan Hardy Brown, Curatorial Assistant Maureen Kerwin, Curatorial Assistant (left Developer Margaret Hedstrom, Development Officer (left 10.15.99) Jon Hetman, Staff Assistant, 7.13.00) Walter Kittredge, Curatorial Assistant Kristin McDonnell, Curatorial Assistant Development (hired 4.12.99) Andrew Hubble, Network Systems Manager Anne Jackson, Membership Coordinator (hired 9.17.01) Karen Madsen, Editor of Arnoldia Frances Maguire, Director of Finance and Administration Karen Pinto, Staff Assistant (hired 8.21.00) Karen O'Connell, Membership Coordinator (left 11.14.00) Jude Mulle, Curatorial Assistant (hired 6.15.98) Melanie Schori, Editorial Assistant (hired 8.27.01) Emily Wood, Manager of Systematic Collections LIBRARY Sheila Connor, Horticultural Research Archivist Carol David, Library Assistant Joseph Melanson, Library Assistant Cathleen Pfister, Serials Assistant Christy S. Robson, Serials Assistant Gretchen Wade, Library Assistant Judith Warnement, Librarian Elizabeth Wellborn, Archival Fellow (appointment ended 5.31.00) Winifred Wilkens, Library Assistant (left 5.18.01) David Russo, Facilities Supervisor Christine C. Santos, Director of Development (1.4.00-6.30.02) EDUCATION Ellen Bennett, Acting Director of Education Kirstin Behn, Staff Assistant Sonia Brenner, Staff Assistant (hired 7.17.00) Candace Julyan, Director of Education (left 9.30.01 ) Joseph Melanson, Staff Assistant (transferred to Library 7.1.00) Sandra Morgan, Staff Assistant (hired 7.17.00) Nancy Sableski, Children's Education Coordinator (hired 7.24.00) Diane Syverson, Manager of School LIVING COLLECTIONS Thomas Akin, Assistant Superintendent of Grounds John Alexander, Chief Plant Propagator Stacy Berghammer, Grounds Staff (hired 6.3.02) Programs (left 12.31.00) Pamela Thompson, Adult Education Coordinator Sheryl White, Staff Assistant (hired 7.24.00) Tenny Brogna, Landscape Project Manager (hired 11.1.99) Todd Burns, Arborist (left 3.17.00) Julie Coop, Superintendent of Grounds John DelRosso, Arborist Peter Del Tredici, Director of Living Collections Robert Famiglietti, Grounds Staff Laura * 1 July 1999 through 30 June 2002 24 Kirsten Ganshaw, Grounds Staff Donald Garrick, Grounds Staff Bethany Grasso, Grounds Staff (hired Ellen Doris, Mercer Fellow (appointed 9.1.00-8.31.01) Michael Dosmann, Putnam Fellow 6.5.00) Dennis Harris, Grounds Staff Irina Kadis, Curatorial Assistant Susan Kelley, Curatorial Associate Jianhua Li, Botanical Horticultural Taxonomist Damel March, Grounds Staff (hired 9.4.01) Midori Matsuoka, Grounds Staff (hired (appomted 9.5.00) Hans-Joachim Esser, Mercer Fellow (appointed 4.1.00-5.31.02) Maria A. Jaramillo, Mercer Fellow (appointed 1.16.02) Youngdong Kim, Putnam Fellow (appointed 8.1.01-2.28.02) Stuart Lindsay, Mercer Fellow (appointed 10.1.00) David Middleton, Tropical Plant Systematist (appointed 11.8.99) Reto Nyffeler, Mercer Fellow (appomtment ended 9.30.99) Nallamilli Prakash, Mercer Fellow 5.17.99-4.14.00) Bruce Munch, Grounds Staff James Nickerson, Grounds Staff John Olmsted, Head Arborist (left 3.1.02) James Papargiris, Grounds Staff Thomas Por, Grounds Staff Kyle Port, Curatorial Associate Stephen Schneider, Grounds Staff (hired (appointment ended 10.31.99) Elizabeth Kolster, Information Systems Lisa Schultheis, Putnam Fellow 9.5.00) Maurice Sheehan, Grounds Staff, Working Foreman Mark Walkama, Grounds Staff Thomas Ward, Greenhouse Manager and Project Manager (left 12.16.99) (appointed 1.18.00-1.17.01) Propagator INSTITUTE FOR CULTURAL LANDSCAPE STUDIES Phyllis Andersen, Director of Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies Sheryl Barnes, Web Project Manager (hired Wayne Takeuchi, Tropical Forest Biologist (appointed 5.1.02) Sonia Uyterhoeven, Putnam Fellow (appointed 1.1.02) Ellen VanScoyoc, Staff Assistant (hired 11.13.01) Campbell Webb, Mercer Fellow (appointed 8.11.99-8.10.00) Christopher Woods, Staff Assistant (10.14.99-7.31.01) 4.10.00) Alice Ingerson, Associate Director of Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies (left 6.30.02) Kirsten Thornton, Landscape Preservation Assistant (left 1.17.00) RESEARCH Chang Chun Yuan, Mercer Fellow (appointed 10.1.01-3.31.02) Donglin Zhang, Putnam Fellow (appointed 6.1.01-8.31.01) RESEARCH AFFILIATES Peter Ashton, Charles Bullard Professor of Forestry, emeritus (retired 12.31.99) Alexander Brownlow, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 6.28.99-12.31.99) Thomas Campanella, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 2.1.02) Wei Cao, Arnold Arboretum Associate Tenny Brogna, Putnam Fellow (appointed 9.1.98-10.31.99) Thomas Campanella, Mercer Fellow (appointed 6.1.01-11.30.01) Yueqin Chen, Putnam Fellow (appointed Laura 3.1.01-7.31.01) Zhiduan Chen, Mercer Fellow (appointed (appointed 3.1.99-9.1.99) Robert France, Arnold Arboretum Associate 6.1.02) Stuart Davies, Research Fellow (appointed 3.1.99), Senior Research Associate (appointed 5.1.01-4.30.02) (5.1.01) Irwin L. Goldman, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 2.1.02) 25 Richard Howard, Professor of emeritus Shiu-Ying Hu Hsu, Botanist, emerita Gary Koller, Horticultural Fellow (appointment ended 2.29.00) Timothy Laman, Arnold Arboretum Associate Norton G. Miller, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 1.1.00-12.31.00) C. Donald Pigott, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 7.1.99-6.30.00) Bernice Schubert, Curator, emerita (died Dendrology, Donglin Zhang, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appomted 9.1.01) VISITING COMMITTEE Gregory J. Anderson Henrik Blohm Christopher S. Campbell A. David Davis 8.14.00) Terry L. Sharik, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 9.15.00-9.14.01) Stephen Spongberg, Curator, emeritus Kim Tripp, Arnold Arboretum Associate Richard Uva, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointment ended 3.31.00) Campbell Webb, Arnold Arboretum Associate (appointed 8.10.00) Carroll Wood, Jr., Professor of Biology, emeritus Michael J. Donoghue Francis O. Hunnewell Joan Morthland Hutchins (chair) Robert K. Jansen Matthew J. Kiefer Ellen West Lovejoy Janine Evnin Luke Paul W. Meyer Edith Noyes Knight Meyer Richard B. Primack Richard Schulhof Roger B. Swain Morgan D. Wheelock, Jr. Paul J. Zofnass Judith D. Zuk Styphnolobiurn (formerly Sophora) japonicum, the pagoda tree, on Bussey Hill Road. 26 PUBLISHED WRITINGS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM STAFF J. H. ALEXANDER 1999. Honey Plant Propagation by Seed, Part 1: Procurement and Seed Biology. American Bee Journal 139(9): 700-706 (with T. Ward and G. Ayers). 1999. Honey Plant Propagation By Seed, Part 2: The Practical Practice of Propagating Honey Plants by Seed. American Bee Journal 139(11): 857-865 (with T. Ward and G. Ayers). 2000. Propagation of Woody Honey Plants by Budding, Part 1: The Preparation for Budding. American Bee Journal 140(5): 391-399 (with G. Ayers and T. Ward). 2000. Propagation of Woody Honey Plants by Budding, Part 2: The Art of Budding. American Bee Journal 140(7): 573-580 (with G. Ayers and T. Ward). 2001. Modified Nurse Seed Grafting of Aesculus. The International Plant Propagators' Society Combined Proeeedtngs. 51: 51-54. 2001. Classification of tree lilacs (subgenus Ligustrina, Syrtnga, Oleaceae): morphology and DNA sequence tell a similar story. Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 543-555 (with J. Li and D. Zhang). 2000. NrDNA sequences and their taxonomic implications in the series Pubescentes. Journal of the Internattonal Lilac Society 29: 105-109 (with J. Li). 2001. One unusual lilac is indeed a privet: evidence from DNA sequence data. Lilacs 30: 4749 (with J. Li and D. Zhang). 2001. Tree lilacs: evidence from morphology and DNA sequences supports McKelvey's taxonomic treatment. Lilacs 30(1): 9-14 (with J. Li and D. Zhang). P. ANDERSEN 1999. Fitness, Taste, Harmony and Art: Charles Sprague Sargent and the Origms of Landscape Architecture in America. American Society of Landscape Architects 1999 Annual Meeting Proceedtngs. Washington, D.C.: ASLA (with L. R. Brogna). Master of a Felicitous English Style: William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and 2000. Forest. Arnoldia 60(2): 39-43. 2000. Samuel Pike Negus, William Punchard, Charles Sprague Sargent. In Pioneers of American Landscape Design, ed. C. Birnbaum and R. Karson. New York: McGraw-Hill. 2001. Mon cher ami: I'amitie entre Edouard Andre, Charles Sprague Sargent et Frederick Law Olmsted. In Edouard Andre: Un paysagiste botantste sur les ehemtns du tnonde, ed. F. Andre and S. de Courtois. Besan~on, France: Les Editions de L'Imprimeur. 2002. Of (Two) Gardens: Review of The Greater Perfectton: The Story of the Gardens at Les Quatre Vents, F. H. Cabot, and The Garden at Highgrove, H.R.H. Prince of Wales and C. L. Green. Arnoldia 61(3): 30-32. P. S. ASHTON 1999. Ecological theory of diversity and its application to mixed-species plantation systems. In The Silvicultural Basis for Agroforestry Systems, ed. P.M.S. Ashton and F. Montagnini. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. 1999. Dynamics of the forest communities at Pasoh and Barro Colorado: comparing two 50ha plots. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London: Biological Sciences 354(1391): 1739-1748 (with R. Condit et al.). 1999. The 52-ha forest research plot at Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Vol. 2: Maps and diameter tables. Kuching, Sarawak: Sarawak Forest Department (with H. S. Lee et al.). 1999. A global program in interdisciplinary forest research: The CTFS perspective. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 11(1): 180-204 (with M. Boscolo et al.). I 27 Phenology and fecundity in 11 sympatric pioneer species of Macaranga in Borneo. American Journal of Botany 86: 1786-1795 (with S. J. Davies). 1999. Phylogeny of the tropical tree family Dipterocarpaceae based on nucleotide sequences of the chloroplast rbcL gene. Amertcan Journal of Botany 86(8): 1182-1190 (with S. M. Dayandan et al.). 1999. Simulating effects of landscape context and timber harvest on tree species diversity. Ecological Applications 9(1): 186-201 (with J. Liu). 1999. Spatial and temporal impacts of adjacent areas on the dynamics of species diversity in a primary forest. In Advances in Spatial Modeling of Forest Landscape Change: Approaches and Applications, ed. D. Mladenoft and W. Baker. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Univer1999. sity Press (with J. Liu et al.). 2000. The Indo-Burma region. In Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions, ed. R. Mittermeier et al. Mexico City: CEMEX Conservation International (with P. O. Van Dijk and J. Ma). 2000. Local and geographical distributions for a tropical tree genus, Scaphtum (Sterculiaceae) in the Far East. Plant Ecology 148: 23-30 (with T. Yamada et al.). 2000. Mortality rate estimation when inter-census intervals vary. Journal of Tropical Ecology 16: 753-756 (with T. Kubo et al.). 2000. Predicting species diversity in tropical forests. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, U.S. 97(20): 10850-10854 (with J. B. Plotkin et al.). 2000. Reproductive biology and genetic diversity of selected rain forest species of Sri Lanka: implications for management. In Forests and Society: The Role of Research, ed. B. Knshnapillay et al. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: 21st IUFRO World Congress (with I. A. U. N. Gunatilleke et al.). 2000. Spatial patterns in the distribution of common and rare tropical trees: a test from large plots in six different forests. Science 288: 1414-1418 (with R. Condit et al.). 2000. Species-area curves, spatial aggregation, and habitat specialization in tropical forests. Journal of Theoretical Biology 207: 81-99 (with J. M. Plotkin et al.). 2001. Sampling biodiversity: effects of plot shape. The Malaysian Forester 64: 29-34 (with M. D. Potts et al.). 2001. Standards on archiving and sharing data: a reply. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 82(3): 207 (with E. Losos et al.). D. E. BOUFFORD 1998-2002. 2000. 2000. \/ Biodiversity of the Hengduan Mountains Regton, China. http: maen.huh.harvard.edu:8080\/china (with M. J. Donoghue et al.). Angiosperms, Monocotyledons [Alismataceae-Triuridaceae]. In Flora of Taiwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Taipei: National Taiwan University (with C. F. Hsieh et al.). Atlas of the Flora of New England: Monocots except Poaceae and Cyperaceae. Rhodora 102:1-119 (with Ray Angelo). - 2000. Cannaceae. In Flora of Taiwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Taipei: National Taiwan University (with T. Koyama). 2000. Charles Sargent's type concept: a guide to interpreting his names in Crataegus (Rosaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 123-128 (with J. A. Macklin and J. B. Phipps). 2000. Cyclanthaceae. In Flora of Taiwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 5 (with T. Koyama). 2000. Marantaceae. In Flora of Tatwan, 2nd ed. Vol. 5. Taipei: National Taiwan University (with T. Koyama). 2000. Phylogenetic analysis of the Sonneratiaceae and its relationship to Lythraceae based on ITS sequences of nrDNA. Journal of Plant Research 113: 253-258 (with S. H. Shi et al.). 2000. Phylogenetic relationships of Magnoliaceae inferred from cpDNA matK sequences. Theoretical and Apphed Genetics 101: 925-930 (with S. H. Shi et al.). 28 2000. South-Central China. In Hotspots: Earth's Biologically Richest and Most Endangered Terrestrial Ecoregions, ed. R. A. Mittermeier et al. 338-351. Mexico City: CEMEX Conservation International (with P. P. Van Dyck). 2001. Introduced species and 21st century floras. Journal of Japanese Botany 76: 245-262. 2001. Niju Seiki no Shokubutsu to Inyushu. In Inyu Gatrai Shinnyushu, ed. M. K. Kawamichi et al. Tokyo: Tsukijishokan. In Japanese. 2001. Angiospermae; Dicotyledonieae; Archichlamideae. Flora of Japan. Vol. IIb. Tokyo: Kodansha, Ltd. (with K. Iwatsuki and H. Ohba). 2001. Mahonia cardiophylla Ying & Boufford, sp. nov. In Flora Reipublicae Popularts Sinicae, Vol. 29, ed. T. S. Ying. Beijing: Ke xue ban she (with T. S. Ying). 2001. Mahonia imbrzcata Ying & Boufford, sp. nov. In Flora Retpubhcae Popularis Sinica, Vol. 29, ed. T. S. Ying. Beijing: Ke xue ban she (with T. S. Ying). 2001. Plant diversity in the Hengduan Mountain region, China. International Symposium on Man and Nature. Kunming: Kunming Institute of Botany; Osaka: Commemorative Foundation for International Garden and Greenery Exposition (with R. H. Ree). 2001. Phylogenetics of Buckleya (Santalaceae) based on ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Rhodora 103: 137-150 (with J. Li and M. J. Donoghue). 2001. Phylogeny of the Altingiaceae based on cpDNA matK, PY-IGS and nrDNA ITS sequences. Plant Systematics and Evolutton 230: 13-24 (with S. Shi et al.). 2001. Sino-Japanese-American Expedition to Tibet, 2000. Newsletter of Himalayan Botany 28: 1-2 (with S. Akiyama and S. G. Wu). L. T. BROGNA 1999. Fitness, Taste, Harmony and Art: Charles Sprague Sargent and the Origins of Landscape Architecture in America. American Society of Landscape Architects 1999 Annual Meeting Proceedings. Washington, D.C.: ASLA (with P. Andersen). T. J. CAMPANELLA 2001. Henry David Thoreau and the Yankee Elm. Arnoldia 61(2): 26-31. Y. Q. CHEN 2001. Anamorph determination of Cordyceps sinensis inferred from the sequence analysis of internal transcribed spacers and 5.8S ribsomal DNA. Btochemical Systematics and Ecology 29(6): 597-607 (with N. Wang et al.). 2001. Identification of 10 novel SnoRNA gene clusters from Arabidopsis thaliana. Nucleic Acids Research 29(7): 1623-1630 (with L. H. Qu et al.). 2001. Sequence determination and analysis of 18S rDNA and internal transcribed spacer regions of red tide-related Ceratium furca. Oceanologia et Limnologia Sintca 32(2): 148154 (with L. Zhuang et al.). R. E. COOK 1999. The Director's Report of the Arnold Arboretum: 1997-1999. Jamaica Plain, MA: The Arnold Arboretum. 2000. Do Landscapes Learn? Ecology's \"New Paradigm\" and Design in Landscape Architecture. In Environmentalism in Landscape Architecture, ed. M. Conan. Washington, DC: Dumbarton Oaks. S. J. DAVIES 2001. Tree mortality and growth in 11 sympatric Macaranga species in Borneo. Ecology 82: 920-932. 2001. Fires and smoke: effects on tropical rain forests in South-East Asia. In Forest Fires and Regional Haze in Southeast Asta, ed. P. Eaton and M. Radojevic. New York: Nova Science. 29 2001. Systematics of Macaranga sects. Pachystemon and Pruinosae (Euphorbiaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 371-448. 2001. An account and preliminary checklist of the angiosperms and gymnosperms of Crocker Range, Sabah. In Crocker Range National Park Sabah [Borneo]. Vol. 1: Natural ecosystem and species components, ed. I. L. Ghazally and A. Lamry. London: Asean Press (with A. Latiff et al.). 2001. Cospeciation in an ant-plant defensive mutualism. Ecological Research 16: 787-793 (with T. Itino et al.). 2001. Early stages of rain forest regeneration after logging and shifting agriculture in Sarawak, Malaysia. In Tropical Ecosystems: Structure, Diversity and Human Welfare: Proceedings of the International Conference on Tropical Ecosystems, ed. K. N. Ganeshaiah et al. New Delhi: Oxford-IBH (with N. R. Hashim et al.). 2001. Evolution of myrmecophytism in Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae). Evolution 55(8): 15421559 (with S. K. Y. Lum et al.). 2001. A new giant-leaved Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) from the dry seasonal evergreen forests of Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin 29: 43-50 (with S. Bunyavejchewin and J. V. LaFrankie). 2001. Standards on archiving and sharing data: a reply. Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America 82(3): 207 (with E. Losos et al.). 2001. Studies in Macaranga XIII: A novelty from northern Borneo. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 269-272 (with T. C. Whitmore). 2002. Ethnobotany of Macaranga (Euphorbiaceae) among the Kedayan of Brunei Darussalam. Harvard Papers in Botany 7: 7-12. 2002. Floristic and structural diversity of 52 ha of mixed dipterocarp forest in Lambir Hills National Park, Sarawak, Malaysia. Journal of Tropical Forest Science 14(3): 379-400 (with H. S. Lee et al.). P. DEL TREDICI 1999. Aging and rejuvenation in trees. Arnoldia 59(4): 10-16. 1999. Redwood burls: immortality underground. Arnoldia 59(3): 14-22. 2000. The evolution, ecology, and cultivation of Ginkgo btloba. In Ginkgo biloba, ed. T. van Beek. Amsterdam: Harwood Academic Publications. 2000. Plant exploration: a historic overview. In Plant Exploration: Protocols for the Present, Concerns for the Future. (Symposium Proceedings, March 18-19, 1999), ed. J. R. Ault. Glencoe, IL: Chicago Botanical Garden. 2000. Woody plants-a blast from the past. American Nurseryman 192(9): 56-63. 2001. Nature abhors a garden. Pacific Horticulture 62(3): 5-6. 2001. Sprouting in temperate trees: a morphological and ecological review. Botanical Review 67(2): 121-140. 2001. The Arnold Arboretum. In Encyclopedia of Gardens: History and Design, ed. C. A. Shoemaker. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publications (with S. A. Spongberg). 2001. Phylogenetic relationships of Torreya (Taxaceae) inferred from sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA ITS region. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 275-281 (with J. Li et al.). 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of Taxus (Taxaceae) inferred from sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 267-274 (with J. Li et al.). 2002. Gestalt dendrology: looking at the whole tree. Arnoldia 61(4): 2-8. 2002. Stewartia x 'Scarlet Sentinel'. HortScience 37(2): 412-414 (with J. Li). 2002. Systematic relationship of weeping katsura based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. HortScience 37: 595-598 (with J. Li et al.). ~ _ ~ _ ~ _ 30 M. S. DOSMANN 2001. Actimdia kolomlkta. American Nurseryman 194(7): 106. 2001. Betula albo-sinensis. American Nurseryman 195(8): 90. 2001. Book review: Growing Shrubs and Small Trees in Cold Climates, N. Rose et al. Arnoldia 61(10): 35-36. 2001. Carolina buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana). Landscape Plant News 12(2): 8-11. 2001. Dlsanthus cercidifolius. Amertcan Nurseryman 194(7): 106. 2002. Shrubs for the masses. American Nurseryman 195(5): 28-35. 2002. Stratification is required and improves germination of Aconitum sinomontanum Nakai. HortTechnology 12(3): 423-425. 2002. Systematic relationship of weeping katsura based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. HortScience 37: 595-598 (with J. Li et al.). _ H.-J. ESSER 2000. Various genera of Hippomaneae. In World checklist and bibliography of Euphorbiaceae (with Pandaceae), ed. R. Govaerts et al. Richmond, UK: Royal Botanic Gardens. 2001. New combinations in African Shtraktopsts (Euphorbiaceae). Kew Bullettn 56: 1017-1018. 2001. Proposal to reject the name Croton racemosus Burm.f. (Euphorbiaceae). Taxon 50: 1211-1212. 2001. Tribes Hippomaneae, Hureae, Pachystromateae. In Genera Euphorbiacearum, A. Radcliffe-Smith. Kew: Royal Botanic Gardens. 2001. Aralia ktngdon-wardii J. Wen, Lowry & Esser, a new name for an Asian Araliaceae. Adansonia (series 3) 23(2): 307-310 (with J. Wen and P. Lowry II). 2001. Breynta, Excoecaria. In Checklist of the genera of Thai Euphorbiaceae, ed. P. C. van Welzen et al. Thai Forest Bulletin (Botany) 28: 74-81 (with P. C. van Welzen). 2001. Colobocarpos, a new genus of South-East Asian Euphorbiaceae. Kew Bullettn 56: 657659 (with P. C. van Welzen). 2001. Croton. In Medicinal and poisonous plants, ed. J. L. C. H. van Valkenburg and N. Bunyapraphatsara. Plant Resources of South-East Asia 12(2): 2. Leiden: Backhuys (with P. C. van Welzen). 2001. Notes on Euphorbia (Euphorbiaceae) in Thailand. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 261-266 (with K. Chayamarit). 2001. Proposal to reject the name Euphorbia pilulifera L. (Euphorbiaceae). Taxon 50: 925-927 (with S. Cafferty). ,~ 2001. Two new species and a new name in Thai Croton (Euphorbiaceae). That Forest Bulletin (Botany) 29: 51-57 (with K. Chayamarit). 2002. Novelties in Croton (Euphorbiaceae) from Southeast Asia. Novon 12: 42-46. 2002. A revision of Triadlca (Euphorbiaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 7: 17-21. \" ' \"\" A. INGERSON 2000. Stop the Region, I Want to Get Off! Environmental Governance as a Common Property Problem. In Colloquium on Environmental Regtonahsm, ENRP Discussion Paper E-2000-09, ed. C. H. W. Foster et al. Cambridge: Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University. 2000. The \"Giving\" Issue: Reasserting the Social Contribution to Property Values. In Property and Values: Alternattves to Public and Private Ownership, ed. C. Geisler et al. Washington, DC: Island Press (with C. F. Runge et al.). 2001. Book review: At Home on the Earth: Becoming Native to Our Place, A Multicultural Anthology, ed. D. L. Barnhill. Quarterly Review of Biology 76(2): 255-256. 2001. Getting the Dirt Out: The Culture and Political Economy of Urban Land in the United States. In Anthropology and Environmental Issues, ed. C. Crumley. Walnut Creek, CA: Altamira Press. , \"\",,\" >~\"'l!t><~ 31 S. KELLEY 2001. Plant Hunting on the Rooftop of the World. Arnoldia 61(2): 2-13. 2001. Phylogenetic Relationships of Torreya (Taxaceae) Inferred from Sequences of Nuclear Ribosomal DNA ITS Region. Harvard Papers tn Botany 6(1): 275-282 (with J. Li et al.). 2002. Essential Resources for Plant Curators: For the Northeast. Public Garden 17(1): 27-28 (with Kyle Port). T. LAMAN 2001. Night Shift in the Rain Forest. National Geographic 201(4): 32-47. 2002. Borneo's Proboscis Monkeys Smell Trouble. National Geographic 202(2): 100-117. J. LI 1999. More molecular evidence for interspecific relationships of Ltqutdambar (Hamamelidaceae). Rhodora 101: 37-41 (with M. J. Donoghue). 1999. Phylogenetic relationships in the Hamamelidoideae inferred from sequences of TRN non-coding regions of chloroplast DNA. Harvard Papers in Botany 4: 343-356 (with A. L. Bogle and M. J. Donoghue). 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of the Hamamelidaceae: evidence from the nucleotide sequences of the plastid gene matK. Plant Systematics and Evolution 218: 205-219 (with A. L. Bogle and A. S. Kein). 1999. Phylogenetic relationships of the Hamamelidaceae inferred from sequences of internal transcribed spacers (ITS) of nuclear ribosomal DNA. American Journal of Botany 86: 1027-1037 (with A. L. Bogle and A. S. Kein). 2000. Classification of tree lilacs (subgenus Ltgustrina, Syringa, Oleaceae): Morphology and DNA sequences tell a similar story. Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 517-529 (with D. Zhang and J. H. Alexander). 2000. A new suprageneric classification system of the Hamamelidoideae based on morphology and sequences of nuclear and chloroplast DNA. Harvard Papers tn Botany 5: 499515 (with A. L. Bogle). 2000. NrDNA sequences and their taxonomic implications in the series Pubescentes. Journal of the Internattonal Lilac Society 29: 105-109 (with J. H. Alexander). 2000. Phylogeny and biogeography of Hamamelis (Hamamelidaceae). Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 171-178 (with A. L. Bogle et al.) 2001. Hemisphere plant geography. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162 (Suppl.): S41S52 (with M. J. Donoghue and C. D. Bell). 2001. One unusual lilac is indeed a privet. Journal of International Lilac Society 30: 47-49 (with D. Zhang and J. H. Alexander). 2001. Phylogenetic relationships of Torreya (Taxaceae) inferred from sequences of nuclear ribosomal ITS region. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 275-281 (with C. C. David et al.). 2001. Phylogenetics of Buckleya (Santalaceae) based on ITS sequences of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Rhodora 103: 137-150 (with M. J. Donoghue and D. E. Boufford). 2001. Phylogeny and biogeography of Taxus (Taxaceae) inferred from sequences of the internal transcribed spacer region of nuclear ribosomal DNA. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 267-274 (with C. C. Davis et al.). 2001. Tree lilacs: evidence from morphology and DNA sequences supports McKelvey's taxonomic treatment. Journal of International Lilac Society 30: 9-15 (with D. Zhang and J. H. Alexander). 2002. Phylogeny and biogeography of Cercis (Leguminosae). Systematic Botany 27: 289-302 (with C. C. Davis et al.). 2002. Stewartia x 'Scarlet Sentinel'. HortScience 37: 412-414 (with P. Del Tredici). 2002. Systematic relationship of weeping katsura based on nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. HortScience 37: 595-598 (with M. Dosmann et al.). 32 S. LINDSAY 2000. Allozyme, spore and frond variation in some Scottish populations of the ferns Cystopterts dicktenwa and Cystopteris fragtlts. Edtnburgh Journal of Botany 57(1): 83-105 (with J. C. Parks and A. F. Dyer). 2000. Historical review of the uncertain taxonomic status of Cystopteris dickieana R.Sim (Dickie's Bladder fern). Edinburgh Journal of Botany 57(1): 71-81 (with A. F. Dyer and J. C. Parks). 2001. Review of Pteridophytes in Thatland, T. Boonkerd and R. Pollawatn. Pteridologtst 3(6): 164. 2001. The fall and rise of the Oblong Woodsia in Britam. Botanical Journal of Scotland 53(2): 107-120 (with A. F. Dyer and P. Lusby). 2001. Woodsia ilvensis in Britain-Last Chance or Lost Cause? Pteridologist 3(6): 137-142 (with A. F. Dyer and P. Lusby). K. H. MADSEN 2000. In Pursuit of Ironclads. Arnoldia 60(1): 29-32. 2000. Preface. Garden and Forest (1888-1897): Part One. Arnoldta 60(2): 2-3. 2000. Review of Nature and Ideology: Natural Garden Design in the Twentieth Century, ed. J. Wolschke-Bulmahn. Journal of the New England Garden History Society 8: 78-79. D. J. MIDDLETON 2000. Revision of Alyxia (Apocynaceae), Part 1: Asia and Malesia. Blumea 45: 1-146. 2001. The Apocynaceae of the Crocker Range National Park. In Crocker Range National Park, Sabah [Borneo], Vol. 1: Natural ecosystem and species components, ed. 1. L. Ghazally and A. Lamry. London: Asean Academic Press. 2001. Alyxia R.Br. In Plant Resources of South-East Asta, vol. 12(2): Medicinal and poisonous plants, ed. J. L. C. H. van Valkenburg and N. Bunyapraphatsara. Leiden: Backhuys (with H. M. Sangat-Roemantyo). 2001. Apocynaceae. In Plants of Mount Ktnabalu Vol. 4: Dicotyledon families Acanthaceae to Lythraceae, ed. J. H. Beaman et al. Richmond, Surrey: Royal Botanic Garden, Kew (with J. H. Beaman). 2001. A new species of Pottsta (Apocynaceae: Apocynoideae) from Thailand and Lao PDR. Harvard Papers in Botany 6: 285-287. 2001. A new species of Wrightia (Apocynaceae: Apocynoideae) from Thailand. Thai Forest Bulletin 29: 1-10 with T. Santisuk). 2002. Revision of Alyxia (Apocynaceae), Part 2: Australia and Pacific Islands. Blumea 47: 1-93. N. G. MILLER 2000. Web-site and unpublished data sets for the Southeast flora. Sida Bot. Misc. 18: 83-96 (with J. E. Arriagada). 2001. The Callitrichaceae in the southeastern United States. Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 277-301. R. NYFFELER 1999. A new ordinal classification of flowering plants. Trends itt Ecology and Evolution 14(5): 168-170. 1999. Phylogeny of the core Malvales: evidence from ndhF sequence data. American Journal of Botany 86: 1476-1486 (with W. S. Alverson et al.). 2000. Phylogenetic relationships of the durians (Bombacaceae-Durioneae or \/Malvaceae\/ Helicteroideae\/Durioneae) based on chloroplast and nuclear ribosomal DNA sequences. Plant Systematics and Evolution 224: 55-82 (with D. A. Baum). 2001. Systematics and character evolution in Durto s.lat. (\/Malvaceae\/Helicteroideae\/ Durioneae or Bombacaceae-Durioneae). Organisms Diversity & Evolution 1 : 165-178 (with D. A. Baum). 33 K. PORT 2002. Essential Resources for Plant Curators: For the Northeast. Public Garden (with Susan Kelley). N. PRAKASH 1999. Flora. In The 17(1): 27-28 Shaping of Malaysia, eds A. Kaur and I Metcalfe. Macmillan Press; NY: St. Martin's Press. Basingstoke, UK: S. A. SPONGBERG 2001. The Arnold Arboretum. In Encyclopedia of Gardens: History and Design, ed. C. A. Shoemaker. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publications (with P. Del Tredici). W. TAKEUCHI 2002. Notes and new species in Papuasian Syzygium (Myrtaceae). Edinburgh Journal of Botany 59(2): 259-272. 2002. A generic record for Faika (Monimiaceae) in Papua New Guinea. Flora Malesiana Bulletin 13(1): 54-55 (with S. S. Renner). 2002. The identity of eaglewood, a new economic resource for Papua New Guinea. SIDA, Contributions to Botany 20(1): 261-267 (with M. Golman). 2002. New and noteworthy orchids from the Bismarck Archipelago, Papua New Guinea. SIDA, Contributions to Botany 20(2): 461-486 (with N. H. S. Howcroft). 2002. The present status of Ledermann's April River localities in Papua New Guinea. SIDA, Contributions to Botany 20(1): 55-70 (with M. Golman). T. WARD Honey Plant Propagation By Seed, Part 1: Procurement and Seed Biology. American Bee Journal 139(9): 700-706 (with J. Alexander and G. Ayers). 1999. Honey Plant Propagation by Seed, Part 2: The Practical Practice of Propagating Honey Plants by Seed. Amencan Bee Journal 139(11): 857-865 (with J. Alexander and G. Ayers). 1999. Viburnums That Have Prospered At and Around the Arnold Arboretum and the Threat of the Viburnum Leaf Beetle. Combined Proceedmgs International Plant Propagators' Society. 49: 340-43. 2000. Propagation of Woody Honey Plants by Budding, Part 1: The Preparation for Budding. American Bee Journal 140(5): 391-399 (with G. Ayers and J. Alexander). 2000. Propagation of Woody Honey Plants by Budding, Part 2: The Art of Budding. American Bee Journal 140(7): 573-580 (with G. Ayers and J. Alexander). 2002. Field Notes: Daphne caucasica. American Nurseryman 195(2): 94. 1999. C. O. WEBB Seedling density dependence promotes coexistence of Bornean rain forest trees. Ecology 20: 2006-2017 (with D. R. Peart). 2000. Exploring the phylogenetic structure of ecological communities: an example for rain 1999. forest trees. American Naturalist 156: 145-155. Experimental tests of the spatio-temporal scale of seed predation in mast-fruiting Dipterocarpaceae. Ecological Monographs 70: 129-148 (with L. M. Curran). 2000. Habitat associations of trees and seedlings in a Bornean rain forest. Journal of Ecology 2000. 88: 464-478 (with D. R. Peart). High seed dispersal rates in faunally intact tropical rain forest: theoretical and conservation implications. Ecology Letters 4: 491-499 (with D. R. Peart). 2002. Sizing up the shape of life. Science 295: 1475-1476 (with M. S. Zens). 2001. 34 D. ZHANG 2001. Classification of tree lilacs (subgenus Ligustrtna, Syrtnga, Oleaceae): morphology and DNA sequence tell a similar story. Harvard Papers in Botany 5: 543-555 (with J. Li and J. H. Alexander). 2001. One unusual lilac is indeed a privet: evidence from DNA sequence data. Lilacs 30: 4749 (with J. Li and J. H. Alexander). 2001. Tree lilacs: evidence from morphology and DNA sequences supports McKelvey's taxonomic treatment. Lilacs 30(1): 9-14 (with J. Li and J. H. Alexander). 2002. The Origination of a New Chamaecyparts Cultivar-'Qiana'. HortScience 37(3): 442. 2002. Improving vegetative propagation techniques of sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina). Growing ME Green 6(3) : 9-14 (with Stacy Ruchala et al.) U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia 2. Publication No. 0004-2633. 3. Filing Date. 20 December 2002. 4. Issue Frequency. Quarterly. 5. No of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price. $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Maihng Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Busmess Office of Pubhsher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 9 Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managmg Editor. Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, pubhsher, Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3500, editor. 10. Owner. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities~ none. 12. The purpose, . function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name. Arnoldia. 14 Issue Date for Circulation Data Below. January, 2003. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 4,150. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,400 b Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1) Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,779. No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,859. (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions. none. (3) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. (4) Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS. none. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,779. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 2,859. d Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months' 235. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date~ 229. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 205. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date'205 f Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. 440. Actual No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 434 g Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 3,219. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: 3,293 h. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months. 931. Actual No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 1,107. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 4,150. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,400 j. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 86%. Actual No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 87%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. 35 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 2001","article_sequence":2,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25360","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260856d.jpg","volume":62,"issue_number":1,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 2001 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 63 42 53 45.04 inches 35.4 inches 101 on 9 on Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost 30 30 132 August 10 January 13 on May 30 on October 9 Growing Season ~J Note: days 2001 brought above-normal precipitation and temperafor the 12th warmest year m Massachusetts' 130 years of weather-keepmg. March entered hke a hon tures, tymg on a northeaster, bringing near record precipitation from the 5th to the 7th, with floodmg rams agam on the 21st, 22nd, and 30th. May presented an early-season heat wave followed by temperatures well below normal m its second half. A significant drought began m October and lasted mto the early months of 2002. Consistent rams through spring and summer made it a very good planting year at the Arboretum. Trees and shrubs grew well and appeared to be recovering from the droughts of the past few years. According to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 36 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23302","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15ea76c.jpg","title":"2003-62-1","volume":62,"issue_number":1,"year":2003,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gestalt Dendrology: Looking at the Whole Tree","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25355","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260b76d.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Gestalt Dendrology: Looking at the Whole Tree Peter Del Tredici remarkable thing about trees is they develop and change over time. Every year they add height and girth in a flush of new growth. They are forever expandhe most how to to the top and from the the outside-a tree that is not expanding is a tree that is dying. The growth of trees is totally different from that of vertebrate animals, which tend to reach their full developmental potential relatively early in life, and then maintam themselves in the mature stage for as long as possible. To put it another way, animals are closed and entire in their development while trees are open and expansive. The easiest way to visualize what is meant by open development versus closed is to look at the different approaches to dealing with bodily injury. In trees, if a limb is broken off, then so be it; the trunk will grow around the break and attempt to cover over the dead branch by producing callus tissue that grows inward from the outer edges of the wound. In many cases, the tree will also produce a new branch just below the location of the old one. Some people call this response wound-healing, but in reality the tree is simply walling off the damaged or dead tissue-compartmentalizing it-in an effort to protect the undamaged portions of the trunk. Dead tissue embedded within the trunk is of little consequence so long as rot does not spread into the living wood (Shigo 1986). Mammals, of course, cannot tolerate the presence of dead tissue within their bodies. If they are to survive, they must repair the injured body part; growing ing, from the bottom inside Wound healing revealed in the trunk of an umdentified comfer that is supportmg a porch m downtown Skagway, Alaska. The naked wood clearly shows the complex mterlockmg gram that forms where the branch is attached to the trunk, as well as where wound-healmg callus tissue has been produced after the branch died. a new one is not an option. Understanding what trees are and how they grow is central to the discipline known as tree architecture, which was developed durmg the 1970s by a Frenchman, Francis Halle, a Dutchman, Roulof Oldeman, and an Englishman (and Harvard professor), Barry Tomlinson. As these three scientists have defined the field, tree architecture describes the processes that regulate the growth and development of trees. Contrary to the meaning of the term architecture when applied to buildings, tree architecture is about dynamic change in tree form over time; it is not about the static, geometrical shapes of mature The distmctme, \"layered\" architecture of the pagoda dogwood, Cornus controversa, growmg at the Arnold Arboretum. This type of model is displayed by many understory trees found m temperate, deciduous forests. 4 field guides. To it another way, tree archiput trees seen in tecture describes how trees develop their shapes, not what shapes they display. The discipline is particularly exciting because it deals with trees holistically, as intact, well-integrated organisms that are greater than the sum of their parts. Compared to most modern biology with its fixation on DNA sequencing, tree architecture takes a refreshingly nonreductionist approach to development. The Meristem term used for the specialized tissue that allows trees to continue expanding throughout their entire life span. This meristematic tissue produces the leaves, the stems, the flowers, the bark, and the rootsthe differentiated tissues of the plant-while remaining undifferentiated itself. What makes meristematic tissue unique is that it exists in a Meristem is the perpetually embryonic state that allows the tree to be reborn every spring throughout its entire life. Four different types of meristems are produced by trees. Tree growth is contmuously embryonic, with meristematic centers locahzed m the shoot and root tips and m the vascular and cork cambmms. Clockmse from top left: Expandmg buds of Fraser's magnoha, Magnolia frasem, showmg promment, fohaceous stipules that protect the expandmg leaves. All leaf tissue, as well as floral, is produced by the shoot menstem. The pmmary and lateral roots of the red mangrove, Rhizophora mangle. The brackish water the tree grows in makes it easy to observe the branchmg of the root system The cambium layer of the japanese maple, Acer palmatum, made msible by the growth of wound-mduced callus followmg a botched attempt at graftmg. The dramatic, exfohatmg bark of the paperbark maple, Acer gmseum. The more extensive the cambium growth, the more extensive the exfohation. The most obvious one is the shoot meristem, or growing point, which is located at the heart of every bud on every a mature specimen oak, for example, there can be thousands, if not tens of thousands of buds, each with a tiny dome of embryonic tree. On tissue that is the meristem. Shoot meristems produce leaves, flowers, and primary twigs. Located at the tip of 5 every root-and again, there are thousands of root tips on a mature tree-is a root meristem that, over massme, time, produces the tree's underground root system. The third type of meristem is the vascular cambium, a column of tissue that sheaths the trunk, the branches, and the roots of the tree, and is responsible for the secondary increase in girth m all these parts. The vascular cambium is basically a gigantic cylindrical meristem that outlines the periphery of the entire tree and produces the wood that forms the bulk of the tree. When mjury-such as that broken branch A fence post trom lodgepole pme, Pmus contorta, m Yellowstone mentioned earlier-exposes the National Park, clearly showmg the vamation m annual growth rmgs. cambium layer to the elements, it is the vascular cambium that produces the calprints of vascular cambium activity, with each lus tissue that overgrows the wood. The last ring accurately recording the amount of growth a tree makes in any given year. Because tree of meristem found m trees is the cork camtype bium, which produces the bark that protects growth is mostly a function of rainfall, the width of an annual growth ring provides an indirect and insulates the tree. In general, the growth of measure of the moisture available to the tree the cork cambium keeps pace with the growth that year. Scientists have used the information of the vascular cambmm, sloughing off the old embedded m the width of growth rings to recrelayers of bark as it produces new ones. ate past rainfall patterns that go back, quite literWhereas the specialized cells that compose meristems retain their full developmental ally, thousands of years (Cohen 1998). Similarly, the life of the tree, cells in for trees that shed portions of their bark in discapacity throughout crete plates, such as london planes, stewartias, mammals can express their full developmental potential only in very young embryos. As the and ponderosa pines, the size of the plates that are sloughed off each year serve as an mdirect mammalian embryo ages, a liver cell can only measure of the trunk's expansion: the greater the produce a liver cell and a brain cell a brain cell. cambium expansion the larger the plates. Bark This closed system of development, which limits the potential of any given cell early in its life patterns are distinctive for each species. stands in contrast to the open system of span, plants, in which cells located at the periphery of Growth Rings and Goethe Growth rings and bark plates are just some of the plant body retain their full developmental the more obvious indicators of the principle that throughout the life of the tree. Theopotential retically speaking, a tree's life span is limited everything that happens to a tree over the course of its life is embedded in its form. To put only by environmental disaster or predation by it another way, both the external and internal other orgamsms (Kaplan and Hagemann 1991). (. structure of trees are manifestations of basic A direct consequence of the meristematic structure of trees is that everything that has ever physiological processes. It was the German to them over the course of their long poet, philosopher, scientist Johann Wolfgang happened von Goethe who developed this concept and lives is embedded in the very fiber of their being, which is to say, the structure of their wood. The pioneered its use in science. The word he coined for this type of analysis-morphology-is still growth rings in nontropical trees are the foot- Tree growth is structurally optmnzed to promote stability and to reduce mechanical stress on all parts Left, bnstlecone pme, Pmus amstata, interacting mth a rock on a Mt. Evans m the Colorado Rockies close-up of the pine at left, showmg the adaptme growth that the tree produced in order to deal with the immovable rock. use today. Morphology, literally, is the study of the development of form. Indeed, it was Goethe who, in 1790, first published the revolutionary idea that the various components of flowers are actually modified leaves-an idea that modern genetic analysis has come around to supporting some two hundred years later Above, in wind, and that these responses are embedded in the tree's external form. For trees, the problem is balancing the need to expand its surface area as it searches for light and water with the need to remam stable m relation to the force of grav- ity. In the real world, where destabilizing forces abound, the necessity for expansion is often in conflict with the necessity to remain upright. Trees have resolved this dilemma by employing a process known as adaptive growth, which allows trees to add extra tissue (i.e., wood) to (Arber 1950; Kaplan 2001). ~. Goethe's ideas about morphology have mostly been forgotten by modern science, but they can be powerful analytical tools for anyone who takes the time to learn how about them. Indeed, within the field of mechamcal engineering Goethe's concept of \"reading nature\" is making a comeback thanks to the development of sophisticated computer programs that can accurately model the dynamic growth processes of living organisms. What these models demonstrate is that the growth of a tree is responsive to external stimuli, especially light, water, gravity, and reinforce those parts of the trunk that are overloaded, while ignoring those parts that are underloaded. To put it another way, adaptive growth allows trees to structurally optimize their trunks, branches, and roots in order to reduce the chances of mechanical failure under conditions of extreme loading such as wind, snow, and ice. By carefully studying the growth of trees, Claus Mattheck, a professor of biomechanics at 7 the University of Karlsruhe, and his colleagues have developed a sophisticated computer pro- gram-known or as Computer-Aided Optimiza- CAO-that accurately describes the tion, of real trees in real situations. By adaptgrowth ing this program to industrial design problems, engineers are now able to analyze the stresses experienced by various machine parts that tend to break frequently and to \"grow\" new parts that add extra material only to locations where it can have the greatest impact in terms of reducing mechamcal stress. In other words, they reinforce only those sections of the part that typically fail as opposed to making the entire part heavier. It is a remarkable and important engineering breakthrough that specifically mimics the adaptive growth processes that trees use to minimize the stresses they experience in their natural habitats. From Meristems to Modules Another consequence of the meristematic nature of trees is their modular growth, a concept that refers to the construction of a tree through the repetition of uniform structural units. For every tree, these basic modular units remain consistent through its life and are composed of a segment of stem that produces leaves, branches, andwhen sexually matureflowers. When trees are young, the modular units that they produce are relatively large in size and few in number. As trees age, however, the modular units become smaller and more A Liriodendron Arboretum. It stmkmg example of reiteration m tuhp poplar, tuhpifera, growmg at the Arnold was probably mduced by a dramatic mcrease m hght following the death of a nearby specimen of the same species. both tropical and temperate-based on branching pattern of their twigs and on numerous, in an resulting increasingly finer The basic architectural \"module\" in frangzpam, Plumena rubra, conszstmg a of terminal znflorescence and four subtending branches and more ramified network of branches, as seen on the cover of this issue. Every tree species has its own characteristic module that helps to define its architecture. Halle, Oldeman, and Tomlinson have identified twenty-three models that describe the architecture of all known trees- the the position of their flowers. While somewhat theoretical in concept, these architectural models are useful in categorizing the known array of growth forms displayed by trees. Relatively few of the twenty-three models are required in order to describe the vast majority of temperate trees. One corollary of the modular nature of tree growth is that most trees have the capacity to repeat their basic architectural model during the course of their lives. Such repetition of the basic model can happen either because of traumatic injury to the tree's framework, or because the tree is experiencing conditions that are particularly favorable to its growth. Regardless of the cause, such reiteration, as it is called, is an important part of tree growth in in a world fraught with diseases, insects, snow, ice, drought, and hurricanes that threaten the health and stability of trees. 8 At the risk of sounding anthropomorphic, one might say that the shape of an individual tree is analogous to the personality of a human, being the product of the complex interaction between genetic endowment (nature) and environmental pressures (nurture). Quite literally, everything that ever happens to a tree in the course of its long life is embedded in its form, even the little things that might have happened to the tree when it was just a sapling. The body language of trees speaks not only to the influence of the past in the present, but also to the promise of the future. Bibliography Arber A. 1950. The Natural Philosophy of Plant Form Cambndge : Cambndge University Press - A. D. 1991. Plant Form Oxford: Oxford University Press. Cohen, M. P. 1998 A Garden of Bmstlecones Tales of Change m the Great Basin Reno: University of Nevada Press. Del Tredici, P. 2000. Aging and Rejuvenation m Trees. Arnoldia 59(4): 10-16. 2001. Sprouting in temperate trees: A Bell, - . A tmsted white spruce, Picea glauca vnr albertiana, m Canada's Banff National Park, showmg the effects of several episodes of snow-loadmg and recovery At its most basic level, the process of reiteration allows trees to expand indefinitely when and ecological review. Botanical Review67: 121-140. Femmger, A. 1968. Trees New York: Viking Press, New York (reprinted 1991 by Rizzoli Books, New morphological York) Goethe, J. W. v. good, or to start over after they severely damaged. Following this logic to its conclusion, one can say that trees, as they age, have the potential to develop into a colony of reiterated subunits, linked together by a common trunk and root system. Under extreme conditions, some trees that sucker from the base of the trunk literally fragment into segments that develop their own roots systems and establish complete autonomy from their original parent (Del Tredici 2001). ~. In order to reconstruct the history of any given tree, it is particularly important to be able are conditions have been 1952. Goethe's Botanical Writings, trans. B. Mueller. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press (reprinted 1989 by Ox Bow Press, I. Woodbndge, Connecticut). Hallc, F., R., A. A. Oldeman, and P B. Tomlinson. 1978. Tropical Trees and Forests Berlin. SpnngerVerlag. Kaplan, Kaplan, D. R. 2001. Fundamental concepts of leaf morphology and morphogenesis~ a contribution to the mterpretation of molecular genetic mutants. International Journal of Plant Sciences 162: 465-474. D. R., and W. Hagemann. 1991. The relationship of cell and organism m vascular plants. to recogmze the occurrence of reiteration, even if one don't know what type of event mduced the reiterative response. On the negative side, it might have been caused by a weather event, a biological attack, or some human intervention. On the positive side, reiteration could be the result of being grown in full sun as a specimen tree or being exposed to additional sunlight following the death of a nearby dominant tree. BioScience 41~ 393-703. C. 1998. Design in Nature. Learmng from Trees Berlin: Sprmger-Verlag. Shigo, A. 1986 A New Tree Biology Durham, NH: Shigo and Trees, Assoc. Thomas, P. 2000. Trees. Their Natural History Cambndge : Cambndge University Press. Zimmermann, M. H., and C. L. Brown. 1971. Trees Structure and Function Berlin: Spnnger- Mattheck, Verlag. Peter Del Tredici is director of Arnold Arboretum. living collections at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"John Adams: Farmer and Gardener","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25356","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260bb26.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Engle, Corliss Knapp","article_content":"John Adams, Farmer and Gardener Corliss Knapp Engle The \"Old House,\"the Adamses' home in Qumcy, Massachusetts, pamted by E. Malcom, ca 1798. he role that gardens played in the private of George Washington and Thomas Jefferson is well documented, but less is known about the gardening interests and activities of our second president, John Adams. Like most Americans of his time, John Adams began life with the heart of a farmer rather than a gardener, but in the course of traveling in the United States and in Europe he developed an appreciation of ornamental gardens that inspired efforts to imitate many of their features lives his own home. Adams had no influence on the White House garden, however; he spent only four months there, as its first occupant, from November to March of 1800-1801, and had time only to ask that a vegetable garden be planted before his failure to win reelection forced him to return to Massachusetts. John Adams' childhood was spent hunting, fishing, and exploring the wilds of what is now called Quincy, south of Boston. He loved his family farm, and the influence of his early expeat 10 wrote a thirty years.) In 1771 he recipe for compost that would delight organic gardeners today. Ingredimore than include \"20 loads of sea weed, i.e. Eel Grass, and 20 Loads of Marsh Mud, and what dead ashes I can get from the Potash Works and what Dung I can get from Boston, and What Rock Weed from Nat. Belcher or else where.\" This mixture, combined with livestock waste, weeds, and kitchen scraps \"in the Course of a Year would make a great Quantity of Choice manure. \"' In a letter to his wife Abigail during one of his many absences over the years, he wrote that he was leaving the farm's management to her good judgment and the advice of those working for the family, but instructed her to \"Manure in hills if you think best, but manure your barley ground and harrow it well.\"5I As the Revolution wore on into the late 1770s, Adams was appointed to a The Signing of the Treaty of Paris,1783, by Benjamin variety of consular posts in Europe. West. The artist began with portraits (left to nght) of john jay, John a break from his duties in LonAdams, Benjamin Franklm, Henry Laurens, and William Temple Taking don in 1786, he took a walk, inspecting to pose. Franklin. However, the Bntish commissioners refused on the way a piece of land belonging to a \"cow keeper.\" \"These Plotts are plentifully riences in the outdoors stayed with him manured,\" he wrote in his diary. \"There are on throughout his life. Early in his working life the side of the Way, several heaps of Manure, an he wrote for the Boston Gazette and Boston hundred Loads perhaps in each heap. I have Post as \"Humphrey Ploughjogger,\" Evening carefully examined them. This may be good extolling the virtues of the farming life and urgthe cultivation of hemp, Cannabis sativa manure, but is not equal to mine.\" In France he ing went twice to see the gardens of the writer (marijuana), for the manufacture of cordage and cloth; high on the list of actions he wanted Boileau, which he estimated to be five or six acres in size. \"It is full of Flowers and of Roots Congress to take in 1771 was promotmg hemp for use in making duck.' He also referred to and Vegetables of all Kinds, and of Fruits. hemp's mind-altering capability, writing, as Grapes of several sorts and of excellent Quality. \"Seems to me if grate Men dont Ploughjogger: Pears, Peaches, etc. but every Thing suffers for leeve off writing Pollyticks, breaking Heads, want of Manure. \"6 boxing Ears, ringing Noses and kicking Breeches, we shall by and by want a world of Separations were many and long in the lives of Hemp more for our own consumshon.\"Z He Abigail and John Adams, and we've profited described hemp's culture in great detail, from those separations in their diaries and letexplaining how to propagate it, how to treat the ters. Nonetheless, John could not always find time to write as often as he-and Abigailseed, and how to harvest the mature plant.~ As a farmer, Adams was naturally interested would have liked, and she often complained in increasing the fertility of his land, and theoabout it. His answer to one such complaint ries about compost pepper his letters. (He shared bespoke his sense of priomties: \"Suppose I this interest with George Washington, who should undertake to write the Description of recorded his experiments with compost over every Castle and Garden I see as Richardson ents ----o~ .. , .........., ,.~- ..,.... unfinished , 11 1 is The East Front of Mount Vernon pamted by Edward Savage, ca1792 The ha-ha bmlt by George Washmgton marked by the bmck wall that cuts across the lawn m the foreground Adams may have learned about this garden feature from Washmgton did in his Tour through Great Britain, would I blush at such a Waste of my time.\" But Adams did enjoy his garden visits and wrote approvingly of the ornamental \"pleasure grounds\" of England and France. Remarking on a French garden, he wrote: \"The Shade, the Walks, the Trees, are the most charming that I have seen.\" In another garden, seeing a collection of rocks that \"[had been drawn] together at vast Expense,\" Adams offered to sell the owner \"1000 times as many for half a Guinea\" from his fields in New England. (This humorous comment was no mere jest, since the hills of Quincy were at that time a major source of granite for construction in Massachusetts.) Visiting an ornate castle garden, complete with grottoes and water spouts, Adams took delighted interest in the fish ponds, where carp and swans swam over to be fed. \"Whistle or throw a Bit of Bread into the water, and hundreds of Carps, large and fat as butter, will be seen swimming near the top of the water towards you ... Some of them then will thrust up their Mouths to the Surface, and gape at you like young birds in a Nest to their Parents for Food.\"g not yoo time, however, these European aroused the moralist in Adams. While gardens on an excursion outside London with Thomas Jefferson, he was charmed by the greenness and the bird songs of Osterley, the Middlesex country house of Robert Child, but he remarked that these country homes were \"not enjoyed by the owners ... They are mere Ostentations of Vanity.\" He felt that the English \"temples to Bacchus and Venus are quite unnecessary as mankind have no need of artificial Incitements,\" and hoped that English-style gardens would never become fashionable in America 9 because \"Nature has done greater Things.\"~ Nevertheless, back home in 1796 he succumbed to his own desire for \"ostentation of vanity\" by installing in Quincy a feature popular in England at the time, the ha-ha.' Used to create the effect of a long vista uninterrupted by fencing, with livestock grazing peacefully in the distance, the ha-ha is a banked ditch, five or six feet wide and five to seven feet deep. The higher bank of the ditch, closest to the house, is supported by a wall of planking or masonry and conceals a fence that keeps the cattle and sheep away while giving the impression that they can From time to 12 z wander freely onto the house lawn. Perhaps Adams learned about the ha-ha from George Washington, who had one built at Mount Vernon. Ha-ha's can still be seen today in Virginia horse country. Adams seems to have overcome his moral objections to English garden fashion during the years he spent in Philadelphia serving as vice president (1789-1797). There, he and Mrs. Adams leased a small house from William Hamilton, a wealthy man of property whose large estate, The Woodlands, was laid out in the \"natural\" English manner and planted with unusual native and exotic trees and shrubs. Yet even during this period, Adams remained a farmer at heart. He shared his interest in soil improvement with John Rutherford, the U.S. senator from New Jersey, who told him all about lime, which \"dissolves all vegetable Substances, such as Leaves, Straws, Stalks, Weeds, and converts them into an immediate food for vegetables. It kills the Eggs of Worms and Seeds of Weeds. The best method is to spread it in your Barn Yard among the Straw and Dun,\" and added a warning: \"The German farmers say that Lime makes the father rich, but the Grandson II poor i.e. exhausts the Land.\"\" Adams remarked on the lack of trees everywhere in France but in the parks. To him, a \"country of vineyards without trees ... has always [seemed] to me an appearance of poverty.\"'S American forests impressed him both as signs of the richness of nature and as an economic resource. While ridmg the circuit in coastal Maine as a young lawyer m 1765, he noted with wonder \"all the varieties of the Fir, i.e., Pines, Hemlocks, Spruces, and Firs.\" His description of a felled hemlock he found lying across a road evokes the vast forests of the East Coast that are now gone forever: \"They had cutt out a logg as long as the road was wide. I measured the Butt at the Road and found it seven feet in Diameter, Twenty one feet in circumference. We measured 90 feet from the Road to the first Limb.\" He estimated the tree to have been 130 feet tall.'6 II John Adams did not have the passionate mterest in large trees that was to provide the focus of garden-building for his son John Quincy. On the Qumcy farm, Adams' practice was to trim or remove trees to keep the land open for crops and livestock, and he appreciated trees mamly for their economic value. Writing in his diary about a grove of red cedars, he noted that the \"prunings would be good browse for Cattle in Winter and good fuel when the Cattle have picked off all they will eat.\"'z Adams nevertheless was very observant of during his travels and often commented on them in his letters and diaries. When he stayed at The Hide m Middlesex while in England m 1786, Adams noted that the grounds \"are full of rare Shrubbs and trees, to which Collection America has furnished her full Share, [including] Larches, Cypruses, Laurells.\"'3 Abigail, who had joined him on this visit, wrote in a letter that their host \"called his tall cypress General Washington and another by its side Colonel Smith as his aide-de-camp.\"la trees Although absent from Quincy for most of his working life, Adams kept his emotional roots firmly planted there. In 1787 he and Abigail purchased the Old House m Quincy, where, following his defeat m 1801 for a second presidential term, he would spend the remamder of his life. In January 1794 he wrote: \"I begin now to think all time lost that is not employed in farming; innocent, healthy, gay, elegant amusement! Enchanting employment! How my imagination roves over my rocky mountams, and through my brushy meadows.\" 17 Three years later, miserable with a cold and sounding like quite the gentleman farmer, he wrote: \"Oh! My poor meadow and wall, etc. etc., etc. It would do me good like a medicine to see [my gardener] one hour able at any sort of work.\"I~ a garden has always been a fashionIn 1796, at the end of a gloriously happy summer in Quincy, John Adams proposed Naming custom. to name the land around the Old House \"Peacefield,\" for the sense of peace he enjoyed there, but also in commemoration of the peace he had helped to win for his country in 1783 and to preserve for the thirteen years following.'~ However, upon his unhappy return in 1801 he instead called the property \"Stony Field, Quincy,\" an appropriate name given the rocky soil of the area. After he and Thomas Jefferson had mended their broken relationship in 1812, he jokingly began referring to his property as 13 hippocastanum, which came the United States via England nuts to in 1741. In 1821 those horse chest- shaded the two hundred West Point cadets who rested on the grass after their seven-mile march from Boston, while the 86-year-old former president addressed them from the porch of the Old House.21 Some of the ornamentals from the time of John and Abigail Adams still exist today at the Old According to family lore, clump of Magnoha vmgmiana (sweet bay magnolia) next to the front wall was planted by Abigail.22 A black willow, Sahx nigra, grows at the very edge of House. the the property, close to where the Furnace Brook runs. Because of its age, and because black willows persist from rootstock, it is highly probable that this very tree is the one Abigail mentioned in A modern mew of the \"Old House\" m the Adams National Histoncal Park a letter to her sister on April 7, mamtamed by the U.S. National Park Sermce. 1800: \"The verdure of the feilds and the bursting of the Buds, with which he translated as \"Little [sic] \"Montezillo,\" the foilage of the weeping willow, which you Hill\" in contrast to the \"Little Mountain,\" Jefferson's Monticello. (The distinction is purely have heard me admire and which is the first tree to vegetate in the spring, all remind me fanciful, of course. The root in both cases is of Quincy, my building, my Garden.\"z3 In a \"monte,\" meaning either hill or mountam in is later letter she remarked on the \"gracefulness both Spanish and Italian.) Today the property of its slender branches which float and wave to called the Old House and is part of the Adams National Historical Park maintained by the U.S. every breeze. 1124 The white York rose, Rosa x alba, which National Park Service. Abigail Adams brought back from England in However much their land may have been a 1788, still grows at the Old House from cuttings working farm with fields and orchards, John and propagated over the years. A European rose Abigail Adams enjoyed having ornamental known from at least the sixteenth century, it is seldom seen in gardens today, but in 1917, the plants near the house. When they purchased beds to the Arnold Arboretum's first director, Charles the Old House, long triangular southeast were bordered with low hedges of Sprague Sargent, wrote of his plans to propagate it for Mount Vernon. He considered it \"a very Buxus sempermrens (common boxwood\/ and planted with fruit trees. These boxwood-lined appropriate plant for the Mount Vernon garden both historically and because Washington might beds exist today, though their plantings were changed from trees to perenmals by succeeding very well have had it in his garden. \"25 Other plants that John and Abigail enjoyed do generations of Adamses. After 1800, Adams planted one or two specimens of horse chestnut not survive. Writing to his granddaughter's husband in 1817 regarding a gift the couple had in front of the house.z We must assume they made to him, Adams observed: \"You would be were the European horse chestnut, Aesculus 14 pleased to see the pritty Figure your Peach Trees and Cherry Trees make in my Garden. Their buds are at least a fortnight more forward than any of our native Trees. I hope you will contrive to come 7 and see them next fall. Be sure and 8 John Adams to Abigail Adams February 26, 1779, The Book of Ablgail and John Selected Letters of the Adams Family 1762-1784, ed. L. H. Butterfield, M. Fnedlaender, and Mary-Jo Kline (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1975), 241. Ibid., 2:316; 2:314; 3:35. 3 189; 3:186. 3.231. bring the Sprightly Elizabeth with you. Tell her never to forget how her great grandfather smoked his Segar.\"z~ The peach and cherry trees are gone, but the \"sprightly\" Elizabeth is remembered as the wife of Andrew Jackson Downing, the nurseryman and landscape gardening theorist. Certamly Adams was no landscape gardener on 9 Ibid., ~ Ibid., \" 'z Ibid. the scale or with the intensity of George Washington or Thomas Jefferson; the ha-ha was his first and last gesture toward \"ostentation of vanity.\" Perhaps with greater means he would have done more, as Abigail suggested in a letter, saying \"he cannot indulge himself in those improvements upon his farm, which his inclination leads him to, and which would serve to amuse him, and contribute to his health. \"2' Still, his farmer's heart and his creative mtellect come together in an observation that remains true to this very day. In a letter to Abigail he muses, \"Mr. Madison is to retire [from Congress]. It seems the mode of becoming great is to retire. Madison, I suppose, after a retirement of a few years, is to be President or Vice President... It is marvellous how political plants grow in the shade. Continual daylight and sunshine show our faults and record them. Our persons, Ibid., 2.88. Ibid., 3:197. la Abigail Adams to John Qumcy Adams, September 27, 1786, Letters of Mrs Adams, The Wife of John Adams, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston Charles C Little and James Brown, 1840), 2~ 154. 15 Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 4:40. 1~ Ibid., 3:281. '~ Letters of John Adams Addressed to His Wife, ed. Adams, 2:139. '8 Ibid., 2.251. 1~ Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 3:247. z Helen Nelson Skeen, \"Documentary Narrative of Buildings Shown on Historic Base Map of the Adams National Historic Site,\" report prepared for the National Park Service (1964), 51 1 Z~ Josiah Quincy, Figures of the Past (Boston Little, Brown, & Co , 1926), 77-78. zz Skeen, 58 z3 Abigail Adams to her sister Mary Cranch, Philadelphia, April 7, 1800, New Letters of Abigail Adams, 1788-1801, ed. Stewart Mitchell (Boston: Houghton Miffhn, 1947), 244. za Abigail Adams to Mary Cranch, Philadelphia, April 16, 1800, Adams Papers, microfilm edition, i3 z5 voices, clothes, gait, air, sentiments, etc. z~ Massachusetts Historical Society, Boston, reel 391 Charles Sprague Sargent to Miss Comegys, July 9, 1917, Archives of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Mount Vernon, Vrrgima. John Adams to his granddaughter's husband, John P. DeWmt, May 1, 1817, Cedar Grove, near Fishkill, N.Y., John Adams Letter Book, Adams Papers, reel all become familiar to every eye and ear and understanding, and they dimmish in proportion, upon the same principle that no man is a hero to his wife or valet de chambre.\"2~ Endnotes Association, 123. z~ 1 John Adams, Diary and Autobiography of Adams, ed L. H. Butterfield (Cambndge, Mass.. Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 1961), 2.234 2 Adams to Thomas Boylston Adams, November 13, 1800, Letters of Mrs Adams, 2: 237. z~ John Adams to Abigail Adams, January 14, 1797, Letters of John Adams Addressed to His Wife, 2~240. Abigail \"Humphrey Plough~ogger,\" June 20, 1763, Boston. copy m rn Boston Evemng Post Massachusetts History Society, Corhss Knapp Engle has been an enthusiastic gardener and flower show exhibitor in the Boston area for nearly thirty years. She photographs, lectures, and wntes for horticultural organizations across the country, and has served as chairman of the Garden History and Design Committee of The Garden Club of America. This is an adaptation of an article first published m White House History with the permission of the White House Historical Association. 3 Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 1:249. Ibid., 2 49. 5 John Adams to Abigail Adams, April 3, 1794, Letters of John Adams Addressed to His Wife, ed. Charles Francis Adams (Boston. Charles Little and James Brown, 1841), 2:151. 6 Adams, Diary and Autobiography, 3:194; 3:14G. 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Discovery and Rediscovery of the Horse Chestnut","article_sequence":3,"start_page":15,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25357","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260bb6b.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lack, H. Walter","article_content":"The Discovery and Rediscovery of the Horse Chestnut H. Walter Lack nuts 'Vwithout TT 7e have only the to imagine Paris in May man Empire had reached the climax of its politi- blossoming (Aesculus hippocastanum) linmg its avenues to appreciate a statement attributed to Thomas Jefferson: \"The greatest service which can be rendered to any country is to add a useful plant to its culture.\" It was not until the sixteenth century that the horse chestnut was cultivated outside the Ottoman Empire, but once the first twigs and seeds had arrived from Istanbul, it quickly found its way into gardens throughout western Europe and is now in cultivation in temperate regions all over the world. The horse chestnut's native distribution is restricted to the Balkan peninsula; however, knowledge of its native habitat remained confused until the late nineteenth century, with most botanists believing its origms to be in Asia. Linnaeus, for example, wrote in 1753 that the horse chestnut grows in the more northern regions of Asia; and the tree's common name in French-marronier d'Inde-still refers to a supposed Asian origin. In fact, so strong was the belief in the Asian origin of horse chestnut that in the early 1800s, when the report of an Englishman's discovery of horse chestnut growing wild in the Pindus Mountains of Greece was published, it was not believed; and it was not until eighty years later that the Balkan origin of horse chestnut was finally accepted. The Introduction of Horse Chestnut Western to hQrse chest- military power, extending at that time through most of the Balkan peninsula and mcluding all of what is now Hungary as well as parts of modern Romania, Slovakia, Moldavia, and Ukraine. Quackelbeen's letter to Mattioli mcludes the following statement: cal and A species of chestnut is frequently found here [m Istanbul], which has \"horse\" as common second name, because devoured three or four at a time they [the horse chestnuts] give relief to horses sick with chest complamts, and worm diseases. m particular cough Since the horse chestnut does not occur naturally in Istanbul or its surroundings, Quackelbeen was almost certainly referring to a cultivated in Istanbul, where it is still popular today and where many specimens of considerable size can be seen. Mattioli's answer to Quackelbeen, dated Prague, 4 December 1557, includes several questions concerning the novel tree and implies that Quackelbeen may have included seeds with his letter. Earlier, Mattioli had written about Quackelbeen's finding to Ulysse Aldrovandi ~ 1522-1605awell-known naturalist who in 1567 would become co-director of the newly founded botanic garden of the University of Bologna. In his 1561 letter to Aldrovandi in Bologna, Mattioli mentioned specifically the \"very large leaf consisting of five leaflets\" and wrote that \"the fruit [seed] does not differ much from our common chestnut [Castanea sativa], but is only somewhat more round.\" This may indicate that Mattioli had also received a branch of the horse chestnut from Quackelbeen or a drawing based on it, since leaf characters are not mentioned in Quackelbeen's letter. The first printed illustration of the horse chestnut was published by Mattioli in Prague in 1563. It is a woodcut included in his New Kreuterbuch. The accompanying text merits tree Europe The first written report on the horse chestnut is found in a letter that Willem Quackelbeen (1527-1561) wrote from Istanbul in 1557 to Pietro Andrea Mattioli (1501-1578), a physician then living in Prague. Quackelbeen was at the time physician to Augier Ghiselin de Busbecq (1522-1592), ambassador of Ferdinand I, the Holy Roman Emperor, to Sultan Suleyman II, \"the Magnificent,\" under whose reign the Otto- 16 2 From Joseph Jacobi Plenck, Icones Plantarum Medicmalium, Centuna III, pubhshed m Vienna, 1790 attention: \"There is also another foreign genus of chestnuts which I have had depicted here because of its beautiful form. The very famous rounder than ours. The rind [testa] of this chestnut is blackish with the exception of the front part where it is attached to the spiny shells, where it is whitish and has the form of a heart. Below this rind there is no further skin as is the red wrinkled skin of ours. They taste nearly like ours, but sweeter and not so good to eat. The Turks call them horse chestnuts because they help panting horses.\" Mattioli thus provided an excellent description and a good comparison with a tree he knew well; born in Siena and later living in Gomzia, near the border that separates modern Italy from Slovenia, he must have been familiar with the European sweet chestnut from childhood. It is clear from the woodcut that unripe fruits of the horse chestnut were used for the drawing; and since Mattioli describes the testa as blackish, it may mdicate discoloration of the immature fruits when dry. The possible sources of the materials used for Quackelbeen's description and for the woodcut are of interest because they bear on the question of when and where the horse chestnut was first cultivated in Western Europe. A close study of the material in various archives provides some clues. The first clue appears m the introduction to Mattioh's New Kreuterbuch of 1563. In it the author thanks his correspondents for sending plant material, the first mentioned by name being Jacob Anton Cortuso (1513-1603), a pretect of the Padua patrician of Padua and later the fourth Botanic Garden. Cortuso in 1563 that he had sent a drawing of reported Augherius [Ghiselin de Busbecq], the legate of the Christian Emperor at Istanbul, has sent me this twig with fruit from there. It is a tall tree, it has leaves similar to those of the castor bean the horse chestnut from Padua to Ulysse Aldrovandi in Bologna. This drawing may have been based on a specimen that Cortuso had received from the Levant, but it is not impossible that Cortuso already had a cultivated plant [Ricinus communis], they have six splits down to the petiole, which is long and thm. The spiny shells are similar in size to ours [those of Castanea sativa], but they are yellowish, in each of them there is a specimen in his garden. Another correspondent mentioned by Mattioli was Ulysse Aldrovandi himself. In Aldrovandi's famous Erbario Dipinto, also called Iconographia Plantarum and now at the chestnut thicker and 17 7 Biblioteca Umversitaria in Bologna, we find an illustration of the horse chestnut annotated \"Kananon Ippeion. Castanea sativa.\" This watercolor is a precise match of the woodcut published in Mattioli's New Kreuterbuch and may be either a copy of the woodcut, the pattern on which the woodcut was based, or a copy of the pattern. Whichever it was, one aspect of the woodcut and of its twin, the Bologna watercolor, remains enigmatic: since both illustrations show a fresh specimen (in the watercolor of the Erbamo Dipinto the leaves are painted greenish), the drawing could not have been made from material transported by sixteenthcentury means from Istanbul to either Vienna or Bologna; after a ~ourney of that duration the horse chestnut twig would have arrived wilted, if not totally dry. It seems that the illustrator either worked in Istanbul and sent his painting to a correspondent in the West (Mattioli in Prague, Aldrovando in Bologna, Cortuso in Padua, or someone else); or he worked in the West, managing to make a dried twig appear alive or using a live specimen already growing there. Available documents do not allow us to know which of these possibilities is correct. However, Aldrovandi's herbarium, kept today at the Istituto Botanico of the University of Bologna, contains yet another clue: a leaf of the horse chestnut annotated \"Castanea equina flore albo.\" This specimen can neither be dated nor the provenance given, but it must have been incorporated into the herbarium prior to Aldrovandi's death in 1605, making it one of the oldest leaves of this species m existence. It may have been sent to Bologna by one of Aldrovandi's correspondents in the Ottoman Empire, but it may also have come from a tree cultivated in western Europe-in Bologna itself, or Aesculus hippocastanum L Illustrated in Ulysse Aldrovandi's Erbamo Dipinto, Vol 5, f 167, ca. 1560. Imperial Majesty Maximilian II, background in his Rariorum aliquotstirpmm historia, published in 1583. Writing about Prunus laurocerasus (cherry laurel), Clusius says that a specimen \"was sent here [to Vienna] from Istanbul at the beginning gives of His Roman us the in Cortuso's Padua, or perhaps in Florence, m the garden of the Duke of Tuscany, where Jean Bauhin (1541-1612), another famous physician and naturalist, mentions having seen a horse chestnut, apparently before 1569. (In fact, a short biography of Bauhin written in 1963 mentions that he had visited the Tuscany region m 1562.) No city, however, has better documented evidence for cultivation of the horse chestnut at an early date than Vienna. Clusius, a court servant of the year 1574, and again in the year 1581 at the beginmng of January 1576,I received from the very famous David Ungnad, Imperial Ambassador to the Emperor of the Turks, his small tree.\" The implication is that living trees were indeed transported in winter from Istanbul to Vienna, no doubt on the backs of horses, mules, or camels. Four pages later Clusius reports on the horse chestnut: \"I have not seen its flower or fresh fruit; it was brought here [to Vienna] from Istanbul in 1581 under this name [castanea equina].\" Since Clusms describes the unfolding of the leaves in spring, there must have ... Maybe two years later, 18 8 been a living specimen in cultivation in Vienna at that time-and one may assume that Aesculus hippocastanum, like Prunus laurocerasus, had originally been sent there by David Ungnad Graf von Weissenfels (d. 1601\/, one of Busbecq's successors as ambassador to Istanbul. From capitals like Vienna and Florence or towns with famous botanic gardens like Padua and Bologna, horse chestnuts could be quickly distributed to other regions in central and western Europe, as was indeed the case. SEMANTICS Balkan semantics are complex: several languages are spoken in the area; for many centuries four scripts were used; and all Balkan languages comprise many words taken over from other tongues. This last observation applies to the common name of the horse chestnut. The similarity between the fruits of the widespread sweet chestnut and of the much more local horse chestnut is reflected in the common names of the latter. In its native area the following names are used: Serbia: divljl kesten, wild chestnut; beli divlji kesten, white wild chestnut; gorki kesten, mountain chestnut Macedonia: divlji kesten, wild chestnut Rediscovery in the Wild Little is known about the discovery in the 1790s of horse chestnut growing in its native habitat by John Hawkins, a many-sided gentleman trav- eler from Cornwall. His diaries and notes were ruthlessly burnt in 1903 (although his hippocastanon, horse chestnut Bulgaria: konski kesten, horse chestnut Albania: geshtenja e kalit, horse chestnut Surprisingly, Quakelbeen's association of Aesculus hippocastanum with horses has also survived in most languages spoken outside the Balkan peninsula-in the German Rosskastame, spelled today almost precisely as it was spelled by Mattioli in 1563; in the English horse chestnut; and in the Italian Ippocastano and castagno equino. Among the few exceptions to the general rule are the French Greece: marronier d'Inde and Italian castagno correspondence survived) by the owner at that time of Bignor Park, Hawkins' residence in Sussex, and the only known reference to his finding the horse chestnut is the cryptic note \"Ae. HippoIn Pindo et Pelio montibus. castanum D. Hawkins,\" found in the Florae Graecae ... d'India, both of which reflect the earlier belief m a more easterly habitat. It should be noted, however, that seventeenth-century sources give chastagne de cheval as the French name for the horse chestnut, indicating that the nomenclatural association of the tree with India is of a more recent date. there that he to Mount probably first encountered this spectacular tree. A record of a visit by Hawkins Prodromus, published in England in 1806. Did Hawkins visit these two mountains situated in the remote parts of modern Greece and, if so, at what time? 4 A letter from Hawkins to his mother dated 14 1795 shows that he had visited the September mainland of Greece in the late spring of 1795, and a note in one of his archaeological papers published many years later (1820) makes it clear that he had been as far as \"Yannina\" (Ioannina, in the center of the peninsula), which is very near the Pindus Mountains and within the range of the horse chestnut's natural distribution. It is Pilion also exists, found among the recollections of James Thoburn, his servant. In this region, which according to Thoburn he visited in late spring of 1797, Hawkins may have seen the horse chestnut again. And, while passing a second time through the contemporary province of Epirus in the spring of 1798 on his way from Mesolongion via Ioannina to Durres in modern Albania, Hawkins may have seen natural stands of the horse chestnut yet a third time. Hawkins is not known to have collected herbarium material of the horse chestnut, however, and although his finding was properly 19 published in the Florae Graecae Prodromus, the botanical community did not believe it, no doubt remembering earlier errors in the literature. Even well-known dendrologists like Carl Koch (1809-1867), then at the University of Berlin, believed the horse chestnut to be native to lower zone of the silver fir, at an altitude of 1000 to 1300 m [3,300-4,250 feet]. They are shady, more or less humid ravines amidst woods. regions much further east, such as the Himalayas, and a specialist of the Balkan flora, Heinrich Rudolf August Grisebach( 1814-1879~, professor of botany at the University of Gottingen, did not even mention Hawkins' claim in his Spicilegmm florae rumelicae et bithvmcae (1843-1844). Edmond Boissier (1810-1885), on the other hand, mentioned Hawkins' discovery only to refute and even misattribute it. He wrote in his monumental Flora onentalis (1867) that the horse chestnut had allegedly been found growing wild \"in the mountains of northern Greece ... by Sibthorp [read Hawkins], but I have nowhere seen spontaneous specimens. Probably origmatmg m the mountains of India, everywhere cultivated.\" It was only m 1879, more than eighty years after Hawkins' discovery, that Theodor von Heldreich (1822-1902), then director of the botamcal garden m Athens, was able to confirm it. In 1878, the Treaty of Berlin that followed the Russo-Turkish War had resulted in parts of modern Greece (Thessaly and the southern part of Epirus) being ceded by the Ottoman Empire to the Kingdom of Greece. Heldreich made use of this change in Balkan affairs to visit the area, still wild and unsafe, in the summer of 1879. Since his report, published in Berlin in 1880, comprises the first known description of the horse chestnut's native habitat, it is quoted here at length: \" Heldreich lists five localities, all in \"Eurytamen\" and \"Phthiotis,\" where he was convinced that the horse chestnut was truly wild and indigenous, growing \"in the most remote, uninhabited mountain regions.\" He reports the common name then used among the Greeks of the area (wild chestnut) as well as the local use of the fruits, which were fed to horses to cure them of a cough. A specimen collected by Heldreich and kept in the Naturhistonsches Museum in Vienna corroborates this second rediscovery; it is labeled \"Evritania, on Mount Chelid6n in the silver fir zone above the village Mikrochorio, c. 10001750 m. [3,300-5,800 feet], spontaneous in shady ravines, at a locality called Kephalovoysi, even August 1879.\" It should be noted that in its native habitat the horse chestnut is never found as the solitary, monumental tree of considerable age that is so common nowadays in parks and gardens, but as one of the many elements of a mesic wood and not 11 growing to be very old; this may explain the years difficulty of finding it in the wild. In subsequent (1950, 1980, and again in 1990) the ecology of this tree has been studied repeatedly and When my guide Nikitas told me m the Chelid6n Mountams m Evntania of a \"species of wild chestnut\" growmg m a ravine m the lower zone of the silver fir I thought of the Castanea vulgaris, sometimes common here, the wild form with its smaller fruits here called \"wild chestnut,\" in contrast to the pruned variety with bigger fruits, but smce he stated the leaves also to be different, the fruits very bitter and not to be eaten, I did not shy at the detour any more. How great was my surprise to see here m the wilderness on rocky outcrops of a ravine a group of horse chestnut trees covered with half-ripe All these localities are situated m the fruits ! ... Heldreich's report confirmed many times. In May of 1881, central Greece was also transferred from the Ottoman Empire to the Kingdom of Greece, resulting in yet more confirmations of Heldreich's rediscovery and more searching in adjacent areas for Aesculus hippocastanum. In 1883 it was Georgios I, king of Greece, visiting his new provinces accompanied by a \"Mr. Munter, director of the royal estates.\" The latter confirmed Heldreich's report-in the steep valley of the river Arakhthos and on the southern slopes of the Pindus Mountains they, too, observed natural stands of the horse chestnut. H. Walter Lack is Professor of Botany at the Freie Umversitat Berlin and Director at the Botanrscher Garten und Botanrsches Museum Berlm-Dahlem This article is adapted from his \"Lilac and Horse-Chestnut: Discovery and Rediscovery,\" Curtis's Botamcal Magazine ~2000~ 17~2\/: 109-137, with the kind permission of the publisher "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Handsome (and Useful) Horse Chestnut","article_sequence":4,"start_page":20,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25358","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260816f.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Loenhart, Klaus K.","article_content":"Aesculus hippocastanum: The Handsome (and Useful) Horse Chestnut Klaus K. Loenhart trees, and keeper of the Arnold Arboreonce wrote that \"if a census of opinion were taken as to which is the most handsome exotic flowering tree in the eastern part of the United States there is little doubt but that it would be overwhelmingly in favor of the Horsechestnut.\"' Certainly my vote for the most exotic flowering tree anywhere would go H.Wilson, plant collector, tum, of connoisseur Aesculus hippocastanum: it was the first tree species to catch my attention when I was a child and later acquaintance has only strengthened my attachment. Perhaps the most striking feature of the tree is its blossoms: upright candelabra distributed in a pattern of almost geometric precision throughout the towering mounds of foliage. My childhood interest was only incidentally related to the flowers however. I grew up in to Aesculus hippocastanum the 1920s. on the banks of the Thames, Cookham, England, photographed by E. H. Wilson m 21 the countryside of Bavaria, where as kids we collected huge numbers of horse chestnut seeds to feed to deer during the winter. Later I became familiar with the horse chestnut in another context. An unwritten rule m Bavaria decrees that the horse chestnut-and only the horse chestnut-must be planted in all beer gardens, both to provide shade and to demonstrate that the establishment properly upholds the traditions of beer and beer gardens. Horse chestnut trees, many of them the variety Aesculus x carnea 'Briotti', can therefore be found in all of the 172 beer gardens within the city limits of Munich-even those in the most crowded central area. The largest of them can be a hundred feet tall with a single tree sometimes shading the entire garden. The horse chestnut, rather than some other tree, became the symbol of Bavarian beer gardens for several good reasons. It is easily raised from seeds; it can be transplanted without great difficulty if the seed- properly handled; it is adaptable to a values; and it grows rapidly. Not least, its flowering season, in mid May, coincides with the beginning of the beer garden season, which draws huge crowds of people mto lings are range of pH the breweries' outdoor spaces. But the very specific preference for horse chestnut also has historical roots. Beer gardens were founded around 1720, when the brewing industry began to flourish. Because brewers needed to keep huge amounts of ingredients on hand, they built underground vaults to provide the required space and moisture. Constant temperatures are critical during storage, and since Aesculus hippocastanum comes mto full leaf just as the May sun begins to heat up the ground, groves of horse chestnuts were planted on top of the cellars to guarantee consistent temperatures in all seasons. Thus, Bavaria's beer gardens became some of the first rooftop gardens known, and the horse chestnut an early device for passive air conditioning. Because the horse chestnut has been so successfully grafted onto the important tradition of assume that it Aesculus hippocastanum is species. native to the Balkan peninsula, however, and was not mtroduced m western Europe until the mid 1550s, where it was quickly adopted. In 1664 John Evelyn was writing, \"This tree is now all the mode for the Avenues to their Countrey Palaces in France.\"z And it has not lost favor in Europe despite its many shortcomings, as noted by John James in 1712: the beer garden, most Bavarians is a native deny but the Horse-Chestnut is a hand'tis certam it grows very upright, has a fine Body, a polish'd Bark, and a beautiful Leaf; but the Filth it makes contmually m the Walks, by the Fall of its Flowers m the Spnng, its Husks I cannot some Tree; and Fruit m the Summer, and its Leaves m the Begmnmg of Autumn, mightily lessens its Memt: Add to this, that it is very subject to MayBugs and Caterpillars ... that it grows but to a moderate Stature, lasts but a very little while, and that its Timber is of no manner of Proht.3 It is true that the wood of the horse chestnut has little or no commercial value: it is soft, lacks strength and durability, and burns badly. Furthermore, it does not cut cleanly and decays rapidly. Nor are horse chestnuts used in refores- 22 during World War II the nuts were roasted and combined with various kinds of grain for in Ersatzkaffee (coffee substitute). Today Ersatzkaffee, still containing roasted horse chestnuts, is offered at high prices in Germany's eco-stores. It would be unthinkable in Bavaria, use tation, being considered \"principally unimporforest trees, with light, soft, coarse-grained, perishable wood. \"4 But ever since the horse chestnut was introduced, Europeans have found countless uses for it. In the form of charcoal, its wood has provided both fuel and gunpowder. Tanners and dyers (yellow) have used the bark, and its grated nuts will bleach flax, hemp, silk, and wool. An infusion of horse chestnuts will expel worms from the soil and kill them when soaked in it. Vermin find highly offensive the combination of a powder of its dried nuts with alum-water. Add to that combination two parts of wheat flour and you have a strong paste for bookbinding. It is reported that when the horse chestnut's fruits are given to cows in moderation, both the yield and the flavor of their milk is enhanced. Bavarian deer relish the horse chestnut's fruits, but before pigs will ingest them, they must be steeped in lime-water.' Humans too find it hard to get excited about their taste. Nevertheless, tant but in Ireland the aromatic young buds have been used in beer as a substitute for hops. Those uses aside, perhaps the greatest demand for the tree's products has come from pharmacology. The horse chestnut's seeds and bark have long been widely used m European traditional medicine, and a visit to a medical database such as BIOSIS will show that the practice continues today, chiefly for relief from edema but also for hemorrhoids. Extracts of horse chestnut are also recommended for certain cosmetic problems, among them cellulite and hair loss. Another extract of the bark has been shown to protect against UV damage, chiefly because of its antioxidizing properties. And I should add a use that the scientific literature does not mention. My own greatgrandmother ferments the nuts for a liquor that yields not only alcohol but also serves to relieve arthritic pain. E. H. Wilson made the case for the beauty of Aesculus hippocastanum. I hope I've made a convincing, if not exhaustme, case for its usefulness, and that if a census of opinion were to be taken as to which is the most useful exotic flowering tree, if not in the eastern part of the United States then in Europe, you would find ample reason to vote for the handsome horse chestnut. Endnotes 1 of Our Trees, 1920 of Forest-Trees ~ A.J Dezallier d'Argenville, Theory and Practice of 2 Gardenmg, translated by John James, 1912 4 George Rex Green, Trees of North Amenca, 1934 5 The Encyclopaedia Bntanmca, l lth ed., vol. VI, z The Romance Silva Or, A Discourse 1910. Klaus K. Loenhart is a practicing landscape architect and architect. He holds a diploma m architecture from the FHM Architecture School m Mumch, as well as master's degrees in architectural theory and in landscape architecture, both from the Harvard Design School. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Horse Chestnut: Accolades from Charles S. Sargent","article_sequence":5,"start_page":23,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25359","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed2608528.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"THE HORSE CHESTNUT ACCOLADES FROM CHARLES S. SARGENT titled Bulletin of Popular Information.Its purpose was to call attention \"to the flowering of important plants and other matters connected with them.\" Initially published every Saturday during spring and autumn and from time to time during the remainder of the year, Charles S. Sargent wrote every issue of the Bulletin from its inception in The forerunner of Arnoldia was 1911 to the year before his death in 1927. Not until 1918 did he feature Aesculus hippocastanum, when he included it in a review of large exotic trees that he could recommend for the northern United States for ornament or timber. He concluded that \"from the experience gained in Massa- chusetts during on about From then he century\" only about twenty had proved themselves worth planting.2 expressed his admiration for the horse chestnut annually and enthusiastically. a of its flowers with the V No o American Horsechestnut j or Buckeye or in size compare in the beauty can species of southwestern Europe (Aesculus hippocastanum), which is well known to many Americans who have never heard there were Horsechestnut-trees growing natu- rally European Horsechestnut is another of the great trees of the world. It is as much at home here and grows to as large a size as it does in western in the United States. The Europe. Few trees have more conspicuous flowers or foliage of deeper green.... When it is covered from top to bottom, as it is this year in the neighborhood of Boston, with its great erect clusters of white flowers, it is the most splendid object among the trees hardy in the northern states.... The finest plant in the E. H. Wilson photographed Salem's acclaimed horse neighborhood of Boston known to chestnut in 1925. 24 garden in Salem, Massachusetts, believed to have been planted one huna the Arboretum is in dred and ten years ago and now seventy feet high with a trunk ten feet in girth, and a perfectly shaped head eight feet across. It was a favorite tree with his Benjamin Bussey who bought place in Jamaica Plain in 1806 and probably planted a are on Horsechestnut trees there little later. A few of them the walk which led from his house to are no Bussey Hill, and these doubt the oldest planted trees in the Arboretum.3 European Horsechestnut only flourishes in deep cool soil, and although it has been largely used to shade city streets in this The country and in Europe, it is a not suited for such purpose for the heat and drought Its of cities often is in cause it to lose its leaves in midsummer. place parks and gar- dens and by country roadsides. titles, changed the name in 1941. z Also on Sargent's list are ginkgo, european larch, three species of poplar, three willows and their hybrids, katsura, white mulberry, ailanthus, european beech, english elm, one birch, three lindens, and the norway maple. 3 The plant records of the Arnold Arboretum-although comprehensive from its founding in 1872 and now inclusive of some preexisting plants-say nothing about preexisting horse chestnuts except to note that the first Aesculus hippocastanum planted since the 1872 was propagated from seed collected on the grounds of the Bussey Institute (once part of Bussey's estate) and accessioned as number 266 in 1880. a ' Arboretum director E. D. Merrill, believer in one-word magazine "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23279","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170a728.jpg","title":"2002-61-4","volume":61,"issue_number":4,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nexus of the Underground: A Tale of Mycorrhizae","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25351","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260af26.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wolfe, David W.","article_content":"Nexus of the David W. \"In the Underground: A Tale of Mycorrhizae v Wolfe days when the 'information superhighway' is the buzz phrase, we would do well to look at our inventive fungal predecessors who, for four hundred million years, have already been leading the communication network of life on land.\"-Lynn Margulis (1994), in the Foreword to Hypersea by Mark and Dianna McMenamin sense of a \"connection\" between living things. Science is now revealing how very real and intimate some of these connections are. In many of our forests, grasslands, and other natural ecosystems, if it were possible to gaze down and witness all that is below, one of the most striking things we would see is the vast network of gossamer-like fungal threads linking the roots of plants of different species. We have only recently learned that the expansion of life up and out of both the sea and the deep Earth was founded on this very important symbiosis between plant and soil fungus. It has been just as fundamental to the evolution of life on our planet as the relationship between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and legume plants. The roots of almost all plant species in the world today are ~omed with these specialized fungi that help them obtain water and nutrients from the soil (and sometimes from neighboring plants), in exchange for the carbon- and energyrich sugars produced by the plant during photosynthesis. It's a connection that began long ago, when life on the land surface was just getting started. The colonization of Earth's land surface did not begin in earnest until the early Devonian period, a little over 400 million years ago. This land invasion was more than three billion years in the making, during which time the subterranean creatures that would be required to support surface life had become established. ver the centuries, naturalists and poets t have often attempted to describe their intuitive The first photosynthetic organisms to attempt life on land came ashore from marine environments as rootless, green algae-like creatures. Needless to say, these sea dwellers were in for quite a shock when they tried their luck on land. Most quickly shriveled up and died. Over the course of millions of years, however, some managed to survive by being the first to establish a successful partnership with soil fungi. The fungi functioned as surrogate roots, supplying their algal partners with water and nutrients mined from the underground, while the algae collected solar energy at the surface and supplied the fungi with the products of photosynthesis. The descendants of those first photosynthetic species gradually evolved into primitive plants with roots of their own. The symbiosis with fungi did not end, however. Today, more than 400 million years after the first tentative union between alga and fungus, you are likely to find descendants of those beneficial fungi growing on almost any plant you yank up by the roots, regardless of where on Earth you might be. In many cases you would need to use a microscope and special staining procedures to spot the delicate fragments of threadlike hyphae dangling from the roots, but they would be there. These fungi-root associations are referred to as \"mycorrhizae\" (from the Greek, mykos fungi, rhiza root). More than 90 percent of the approximate 230,000 species of vascular plants on our planet today have found it advantageous to continue this mutually beneficial partnership. In fact, the = = 3 The aboveground frmtmg bodies-or mushrooms-of the genus Amamta, common types of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Many fungi the in the Boletus genus are ectomycorrhizal, formmg a mutually beneficial partnership with plants m which plants provide the fungi with the products of photosynthesis (carbon-rich sugars) while the fungi help the plants acquire water and nutrients. majority of these plant species could not survive in nature without it. scope, one can see their unique hyphal branch- Many of the mycorrhizal fungi on are just as ing structures, resembling miniature tree shapes, that form just within the root tissues. These structures, called \"arbuscles\" (from the Latin, arbor tree), are the interface for exchange of nutrients with the plant host. In 1994, fossils from an important archaeological site called the Rhynie Chert, near Aberdeen, Scotland, were re-examined and found to contain evidence of arbuscles. The rocky layers in which these fossils were discovered are just over 400 million years old, from the early Devonian period. Along with the fungi, fossil evidence of primitive, pioneer land plants was also found. = plant partners as the plants dependent are on them. We are unable to culture some of the most common types in the laboratory, even with our most sophisticated concoctions of sugars and nutrients. Scientists have speculated that these fungi depend on plants not only for a share of the products of photosynthesis, but also for some as yet unidentified essential growth hormones. The fossil record confirms that the first mycorrhizal fungi evolved at just about the same time as land plants. Viewed through a microtheir 4 Genetic analyses have provided additional evidence of the long history of this symbiosis. In the early 1990s, the first sequencing and evolutionary classification of ribosomal DNA collected from arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi confirmed that they originated between 350 to 460 million years ago, coincident with the estimated time of origin of the first land plants. Today, arbuscular mycorrhizae are found almost everywhere except in some arctic regions, and the list of plant species involved as hosts is a very long one. Most temperate and tropical nonwoody plants, such as grasses, wildflowers, and our most important crop plants are host to this type of mycorrhizae, as well as woody perennials such as azalea, apple, grape, cedar, maple, ash, and many tropical trees. We have not yet found a single arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus that grows independently of a plant host. The fossil record as well as other DNA studies reveal that a second major group of mycorrhizal fungi, called \"ectomycorrhizae,\" evolved about 160 million years ago. The ectomycorrhizae are unique in that they do not form arbuscles inside the root tissues, and their silken hyphal filaments extend out farther from the roots (often several yards) compared to arbuscular mycorrhizae. The ectomycorrhizal fungi release a plant hormone that causes the growth of short, stubby, branching rootlets here and there along the main roots of the plants they The scannmg electron micrograph at top shows an arbuscular mycorrhizal fungus (Glomus intraradices) on the surface of a root from grapefruit plant (Citrus paradisi). of the threadhke hyphae (H) and arbuscles (A) into the root cells is shown at a Penetration center At note the pomts where the and penetrate between rhizodermic cells. In this symbiosis, the fungus helps the plant roots gather water and nutments from the soil or ad7acent plants, and the plant provides the fungus with carbon and energy captured via bottom, hyphae branch photosynthesis 5 inhabit. These characteristic multibranched rootlets are about oneeighth of an inch long (about three millimeters), so can usually be identified in the field without the aid of a microscope. The mycorrhizal roots are composed of a central core of plant tissue, completely encased by a dense mat of fungal hyphae. The ectomycorrhizae are particularly important in many temperate and arctic forests. They form symbioses that are crucial to many economically important timber trees such as pine and other conifers, oak, beech, chestnut, and birch. Their list of plant hosts is not as long as the more ancient arbuscular mycorrhizae, but they have a wide geographic range and are found growing with woody perennials and even a few nonwoody species from the tropics to the arctic. There is a great deal of overlap between the ectomycorrhizae and the more ancient arbuscular mycorrhizae with regard to their geographic range and plant hosts. Both types of root fungi can often be found in the same forest, meadow, or crop field, and even growing on the same plant. Maples and poplar trees, for example, are sometimes simultaneously a host to representatives of both major groups of mycorrhizal fungi. The mycorrhizal fungi are so comAt top, ectomycorrhlzae on pme mth the characteristic shortened, thick mon and abundant in nature that it roots covered by fungal hyphae; and at bottom, a magmfied view of the is very difficult to find or create an thick hyphal mat surroundmg a modified root hair environment without them. Those Prussia commissioned one of the world's leaddoing research with mycorrhizae have sometimes found it necessary to not only sterilize the ing forest biologists, Professor A. B. Frank of the soil to create a \"no mycorrhizae\" control treatLandwirtschaftlichen Hochschule in Berlin, to ment, but they also must filter the air entering study, of all things, truffles. These highly prized the greenhouse to prevent free-floating volundelicacies are the belowground fruiting (sporeteer spores of mycorrhizae from contaminating forming) body of a rare type of aromatic fungus their experiments. (Tuber melanosporum and T. magnatum species) found in some hardwood forests of western The discovery of mycorrhizae was, as is often Europe. Then, as now, truffles sold at incredibly the case, serendipitous. The road to discovery high prices because of their rarity and their began in the early 1880s, when the king of unique aroma and dehcate flavor. The hope of the Prussian government was that Frank would develop a way to produce truffles on a commercial scale, like the common (and much less expensive) grocery store mushroom, which is the aboveground fruiting body of another type of fungus (Agaricus brunnescensJ. Professor Frank failed rather at coming up with a commercial method for cultivation of truffles. (Incidentally, so have all others who followed him, which is why, if I wanted to buy a pound of truffles today, I would have to be willing to pay close to Chnnterelles (shown above) and truffles have a umque and dehghtful flavor one thousand dollars per pound!)\/ pnzed by gourmets around the world. They also play an important There are two edible speciesecological role: the belowground hyphae of these mycorrhizal fungi attach black (Tuber melanosporum), to the roots of nearby plants and assist the plants in mimng the soil for native to Germany, France, and water and nutnents. Spain, and white (T. magnatum), found in northern Italy. Both types are still fully conducted experiments, he was able to rare. They have been sought after for prove that the belowground hyphae of the extremely truffles formed a very important mutually bentheir culinary qualities since Roman times. The eficial symbiosis with the roots of the trees they black \"Perigord\" truffle is reported to have been inhabited. It was Frank who coined the term hunted down in fifteenth-century France with the use of trained, muzzled pigs that could sniff \"mycorrhizae\" to describe this fungus-root out the smelly fungi. The highly competitive partnership in a classic paper published in 1885. In his own words, he concluded that the mycor\"truffle hunters\" of today, or \"truffiers\" as they rhiza \"functions in a nutritional capacity as a called in France, roam their secret forest are wet nurse of the tree.\" haunts with trained dogs instead of pigs, but little else has changed. Humans and their Although Professor Frank is given credit for the discovery of mycorrhizae, scientific historitrained animals aren't the only truffle huntersans have found that others had studied other voles and other rodents seek them out by smell, kinds of mycorrhizae before him. Frank was and spread the spores as they take the truffles aware of this earlier work, and it undoubtedly back to their underground burrows. laid the groundwork for his more conclusive What Frank did discover launched a century's worth of research, the results of which we are experiments. In the mid 1800s scientists had identified a fungus growing on the roots of small now beginning to fully appreciate. \"We only should all fail so nobly,\" as Michael Allen, one nongreen plants in the genus Monotropa, and another typ~ associated with orchids, both of of today's leading mycorrhizal researchers put which we now know to be mycorrhizal. Several it. Frank was a meticulous and very observant of these researchers suspected some type of scientist, and fairly quickly came to realize that truffles were never found growing indepenreciprocal relationship between the fungi and their plant hosts, but their experiments were dently, but were always in the vicinity of oaks, inconclusive, and the subject remained controfilberts, and certain other forest trees. At first he versial until Frank came along. In addition to weak parasites, suspected the truffles of being but eventually, through well-designed and carestudying truffles, Frank also spent a great deal of miserably \" 7 It is impressive that within just a decade of Frank's pioneering work with ectomycorrhizae, scientists also discovered the arbuscular mycorrhizae, which can only be seen with a microscope. However, the latter were initially thought to be parasitic. In 1905, a French researcher named I. Gallaud published a set of outstanding drawings of his microscopic observations of this fungal-root interaction, which he referred to as \"endomycorrhizae.\" These drawings were our first view of this most ancient type of mycorrhizae, and Gallaud's drawings are still used in some modern textbooks to depict them. Some paleobiologists have made the roots intriguing speculation that plant may have of the first mycorrhizal fungi were discovered growmg on the of plants m the genus Monotropa (also known as Indian pipesJ. These plants lack chlorophyll and a well-developed root system. They rely on their belowground partners not only for water and nutnents, but also for carbon-rich sugars that the fungus obtams by tappmg into the root systems of adjacent trees or other photosynthetic plants. Some roots studying Monotropa plants and their associated fungi, which helped him elucidate the function of mycorrhizae. The mutually beneficial root fungi that Frank and the other nineteenth-century biologists discovered were all ectomycorrhizal. Although these were the latest to evolve, it is not surprising that they would be the first to be discovered since the short stubby roots and thick hyphal covering they produce are visible to the naked eye. Also, their reproductive structures are quite large and obvious, many even more so than truffles, because they form as aboveground mushrooms. time that material that is separate from the genes contained in the nuclei of the plant cells they inhabit. Recent comparative analyses of the nucleotide sequences of chloroplast and cyanobacteria genetic material have revealed a remarkable similarity. This more or less settled the matter, and most now accept the endosymbiotic pathway for the evolution of photosynthesizing plant cells. However, in the case of plant roots, no trace of genetic material to prove a fungal heritage can be found, and few plant biologists are convinced that roots evolved from fungi. actually evolved from the earliest fungal symbionts of rootless green algae. The evolutionary progression from an intimate symbiosis between two species to their complete integration into a single organism has been documented in other cases. The biologist Lynn Margulis was one of the early proponents of this form of evolution, and argued for many years that the green chloroplast organelles (where photosynthesis takes place) found in the cells of green plants originated from an ancient symbiosis between a photosynthesizing cyanobacteria and a larger, single-celled (eukaryotic) organism. Many were skeptical of Margulis' \"endosymbiosis\" theory, even when it was discovered chloroplasts contain their own genetic 8 groups, are probably thriving through the good graces of their subsurface symbiosis with root fungi. Mycorrhizae are particu- larly essential for survival during those periods of water and nutrient stress that almost every plant must occasionally face-the \"ecological crunch,\" as mycorrhizal researcher, Michael Allen, calls it. Without the fragile, gossamer-like net of subterranean fungal hyphae at their base, the towering redwoods, oaks, pines, and eucalyptus of our forests would collapse during hard times. Beneath every great tree there is a fungus, you could say. And the same can be said of most other plants as well. Mycorrhizal fungi form the foundation of most terrestrial ecosystems on the planet, from our orchards, vineyards, and other farmlands, to the vast savannas of Africa, the heathlands of Scotland, the tropical rainforests of South America, and the deserts of the American Southwest. mycorrhizae that devote as much as 20 to 30 percent of their carbon and energy to support them? What are they doing that plant roots alone cannot? The secret lies in of the fungi themMicroscopic images of arbuscular mycorrhizae as drawn by the unique structure selves : the hyphal threads are an order of the pioneer researcher I Gallaud and first pubhshed m Revue Generale de Botanique 17 (1905). magnitude finer than the finest of root hairs and thereby provide access to nooks and crannies in the soil that could not otherwise It is only in the relatively recent evolutionary be penetrated. This is especially helpful in past that a handful of plant families have gained acquiring certam nutrients, such as phosphorus, independence from the symbiosis with fungi. The exceptions to the rule can literally be potassium, copper, and zinc, that do not move counted on one hand, and include Chenofreely with the flow of water being taken up by roots. The finest of root hairs will have a diamcommon species being spinach and podiaceae, the weed known as lambsquarters; Brassicaceae, eter of 20 to 30 micrometers (about the diameter such as cabbage, broccoli, and wild mustard; and of a hair pulled from your arm), while the diameter of a strand of mycorrhizal hyphae is only such as edible amaranth and Amaranthaceae, one to two micrometers. pigweed. Even among these plant families, some The capacity for a plant to exploit a given particular species are mycorrhizal. Next time you are walking among the mighty patch of soil expands tremendously with the giants of a temperate or tropical forest, hiking prolific growth of their subterranean fungal a grassy meadow, mowing your lawn, or through partners. If one were to take a cubic centimeter of soil (about a teaspoonful) from the root zone in the flower or vegetable garden, take puttering of a mycorrhizal plant and spread all of the bits a look around. Most of the plants you see, if they and pieces of root and root hairs end-to-end, the don't fall into one of those three exceptional So just what is it about make plants willing to 9 mid 1960s. Researchers applied radioactively total length might measure a few inches. In labeled calcium and phosphorus to the cut that same volume, the length of mycorrhizal stump of a maple tree and then tracked the hyphae, if completely unraveled, might range movement of the calcium and phosphorus into from 60 to 120 feet (20 to 40 meters)! It is primaattached mycorrhizae and eventually into adjarily the superiority of mycorrhizae at mining the soil for water and nutrients that makes it cent plants. Since then, the movement of calworth the cost to the plant. Some have speculated that in some mycorrhizal associations the roots are doing little more for the plant than serving as a vehicle to transport the attached fungi to deeper soil layers. In some ecosystems the mycorrhizal fungi do not just function as passive absorbers of nutrients but also as active decomposers. Like many other fungi involved in decomposition, they are capable of releasing powerful enzymes that can externally \"digest\" wood and other organic matter. Before the liberated The threadlike hyphae of mycorrhizal fungi somenmes connect nutrients have a chance to float away in roots to each other and can serve as a belowground condmt of water the soil environment, they are immedi- and nutments from one plant species to another. ately snapped up by the fungus and directly transmitted to the plant hosts. This cium, phosphorus, carbon, and nitrogen from of the nutrient cycle is particushort-circuiting plant to plant has been demonstrated among valuable to plants in tropical ecosystems, larly many plant species and in many ecosystems. where heavy rains often wash free-floating In several studies scientists have documented soil nutrients below the root zone before they the movement of atmospheric nitrogen fixed by can be absorbed. legume plants to adjacent nonlegume plants via Evidence has been accumulating over the a mycorrhizal conduit. Nitrogen transfer from clover and soybean to maize has been demonpast several decades that, in addition to enhancthe function of the individual roots they strated, and in one study, as much as 15 percent ing also often serve as a living of the nitrogen fixed by a species of alder tree inhabit, mycorrhizae subterranean connection between plants of difwas transferred to nearby pine trees through a ferent species through which water, nutrients, fungal connection. This is an amazing phenomand possibly other substances can be transenon of unwitting cooperation. It requires the ferred. Mycorrhizal fungi are not nearly so hostsymbiosis between nitrogen-fixing bacteria and specific as the nitrogen-fixing bacteria discussed their legume host plant, as well as a willing earlier, and because of this they often spread mycorrhizal fungus attached simultaneously to from plant to plant and species to species. The the legume and nonlegume plant to act as the do this for purely selfish reasons, of fungi pipeline for transport of the nitrogen. The importance of the underground plant-tocourse, not with the objective of creating a pipeline between plants. For the fungi it is to plant mycorrhizal condmts remains a matter of their advantage to attach to any plant that will debate, but many are convinced that in some have them, as a means of maximizing their ecosystems the sharing of resources through intake of the products of photosynthesis. such networks is so great that the plant commuThe movement of nutrients from plant to nities function as a unified \"guild\" and the distinction between individual plants becomes plant via mycorrhizae was first clearly demonstrated in a field experiment conducted in the blurred. 10 bulbosa, collected in a Michigan hardwood forest over an area equivalent to several football fields, showed that it was a single organism that had been alive and had remained genetically stable for more than 1,500 years. The estimated weight of this individual fungus was 220,000 pounds (100,000 kilograms), equivalent to weight of a blue whale! So far, no beneficial mycorrhizal funthe gus has yet been found that is as large as this hefty monster, but undoubtedly a series of mycorrhizae, networkmg from root to root and plant to plant, could encompass a very large area. Even in the absence of physical Like many soil fungi, the aboveground frmtmg structures (mushrooms) of plant-to-plant hyphal connecectomycorrhizal fungi often appear m a \"fairy-ring\" pattern This pattern is the ubiquitous mycorrhizal formed as the fungus grows slowly outward from a central pomt, with tions, symbiosis between individual bodies produced only at the active growmg pomts along the frmtmg plants and fungi plays a key role in penmeter. The pen at center gives scale. linking the activities of subterraHow large are these underground networks? nean creatures with life at the surface. In the No one knows for sure. It is quite possible that broadest terms, it provides aboveground life plants and mycorrhizae of many species could with greater access to water and nutrients be loosely linked together over tracts of land stored in the soil, while supplying life in the measuring many acres. The maximum distance underground with greater access to the carbon nutrients or other substances can be transported and solar energy collected by plants. The provia mycorrhizae, and to what extent this might ductivity of virtually all terrestrial ecosystems lead to a sharing of resources among plants, is relies on this exchange of energy, water, and still poorly understood. What we do know is nutrients between the surface and subsurface. that the spread of an individual fungus organism can be substantial-for example, \"fairy rings\" of Although mycorrhizae have been known for over a hundred years, it is only very recently ectomycorrhizal mushrooms several meters in diameter are commonly observed surrounding that their essential role in the functioning of most terrestrial ecosystems, and in the evolupine, oak, or other host trees. A fairy ring is the tion of land plants, has come to be fully appreciaboveground manifestation of an individual subterranean fungus that may be several hunated. For much of the twentieth century, most dred years old. The fairy ring pattern is formed scientists adopted a very skeptical view of coopas the fungi grow slowly outward from a central eration between species. The reports of mycorand the reproductive structures (mushrhizae were seen as isolated incidents. They point, were considered intriguing but of ecological sigrooms) pop up from the perimeter where the nificance only in very special environmental most active, healthy parts of the fungus are. Some nonmycorrhizal types of soil fungi are circumstances. When I was in graduate school in the early 1980s, a small number of ecologists among the oldest and largest living creatures on had begun to recognize that we had underestiEarth. For example, in 1992, genetic analysis of mated the prevalence and importance of mycorof the wood-eating fungus Armillaria samples 11 I but it is only in the past ten years or so that the textbooks have caught up. For a long time scientists had trouble reconciling the coevolution of mutually beneficial symbioses with twentieth-century discoveries of the \"selfish\" mode of gene action. Also, mathematical models, which were new to ecology in the 1970s and 80s, \"proved\" that mutually beneficial symbioses between two species were inherently unstable. The outcome of these computer simulations led to the conclusion that successful cooperation between species would seldom persist because \"cheating\" was usually too advantageous, at least at the individual level and in the short term, which is the level at which evolutionary forces operate. Today, less than twenty years later, there has been a complete turnaround in our thinking. This has been due in part to the sheer weight of empirical evidence that has demonstrated the essential function and ubiquity of mycorrhizal associations with plants. This research was carried out primarily by a handful of dedicated soil ecologists during the 1970s and 80s who were not dissuaded by the majority opinion that their work with root fungi was esoteric and insignificant. Over and over again they showed that as long as samples were handled correctly to preserve their integrity, wherever there were active plant roots, there were active mycorrhizal fungi collaborating with them. The \"icing on the cake\"-the genetic evidence-has only been attainable in recent years. With today's technology, we can grind up a tiny sample of root or soil, isolate the fragments of DNA released, and if mycorrhizal DNA is present, it will pair up with \"fingerprint\" nucleotide sequences of known mycorrhizal DNA that are added to the mix. This sounds complex, and it is, but with today's automated genetic analysis methods, it is much faster than tedious rhizae, and profound importance of this subterranean symbiosis has had an impact beyond soil ecology. Our understanding of the forces of evolution and our mathematical models used to depict species interactions have matured as a result of this work. Evolutionary biologists now recognize that \"even with selfish genes at the helm, nice guys can finish first,\" as Richard Dawkins, author of The Selfish Gene, so aptly put it. The mathematical population models used by ecologists have been improved to better reflect this reality. The early models were mostly \"equilibrium\" models, which assumed that nature reached a more or less steady-state situation with regard to population levels of species. Today we better appreciate the fact that in the real world there are simply too many natural disturbances-invasions by new species, dramatic weather events, forest fires, plagues-for equilibrium to ever be reached. And it turns out that when disturbance is commonplace, cooperation, both in our mathematical models and in the natural world, can persist and often flourish. We have also learned that dominance of one partner over another can be prevented when there are \"third party\" species that are predators of species involved in the symbiosis. For example, in nature, small soil arthropods such as springtails often feed on mycorrhizal fungi, perhaps keeping them in check so that they do not become pathogenic to their plant hosts. The newer models have also been reconfigured to take into account the fact that a little bit of \"cheating\" is tolerable when the partners are as distinct in size and morphology as are plants and fungi. All of these changes have led to a better match between the real world, where symbiosis clearly thrives, and the simulated world predicted by mathematical models. prevalence microscopic examination. Most important, it allows positive identification even in samples where most of the fungi have been lost or killed by mishandling, and would never be identified otherwise. Today it is widely accepted that nearly 90 percent of plant species enter into mycorrhizal associations with fungi. This recognition of the David W. Wolfe is associate professor of plant ecology m the Department of Horticulture at Cornell University and a member of Cornell's biogeochemistry program. Much of his research is focused on soil conservation and the impact of climate change on plants and soil This article is from his book Tales From the Underground~ A Natural History of Subterranean Life, 2001, and is repnnted by permission of Perseus Publishmg. All rights reserved. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wilson's Lost Tree","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25354","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260b728.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flanagan, Mark","article_content":"Wilson's Lost Tree Mark Flanagan as few modern names resemble those he cites. In addition, his narrative ends when he reaches Tachienlu on July 23, 1908, though it is clear from his photographs that he continued traveling through the rest of the summer and retraced some of his steps in the autumn to collect seeds. My own trip to this region, under the auspices of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, was part of a collaboration between Kew and the Institute of Biology in Chengdu that since 1987 has sponsored seven expeditions to Sichuan for collecting plants of horticultural value. Our team was headed by Tony Kirkham, head of the Arboretum at Kew, and also included Steve Ruddy, an information technology specialist from Kew, and Bill McNamara, director of the Quarryhill Botamcal Garden in Sonoma, California. Bill is among the most experienced of modern-day travelers in China, having visited the country more than fifteen times. Though we intended to visit Kangding, we had little expectation of finding any signs of E. H. Wilson's passing. Starting at Chengdu, we took the recently constructed expressway to Ya'an and continued on into the valley of the Dadu River (in Wilson's day, the Tung River) via a tunnel that cuts through the lowering bulk of Erlang Shan. Our first overnight stay was m Luding, well known to plant hunters past and present and famous for its old iron bridge, which spans the Dadu River. It was over this bridge that in 1935 troops of Mao Zhedong's Red Army launched a heroic and successful assault on Kuomintang positions on the opposite hillside. The next day we drove north to Kangding, our base for a week or so while we collected in the mountains to the northwest and west. From there we returned to the Dadu River valley and headed towards the ancient town of Moxi. On the way we stopped to admire the huge, ancient ginkgo tree at Lengji. We were told that it is at Wilson during his plant-collecting trips China between 1899 and 1911 are notoriously difficult to reconstruct. He ranged widely over huge areas, often where maps were rudimentary or nonexistent. Many of the placenames of locations he visited-for the most part settlements comprising a few houses-were obtained from local people and written down phonetically. Added to this, the later changes in Chinese-to-English transliteration make it almost impossible to identify these places. To make things even worse, although Wilson wrote prolifically, he never produced a chronological narrative of his journeys. His primary account of the time he spent in ChinaA Naturalist in Western China (1913; later revised and republished as China, Mother of Gardens, 1929~-is more a series of vignettes than a travelogue. Furthermore, his personal journals are not in diary format, with one day followmg another, and his field notes are of little value to people trying to retrace his steps. I have traveled in China on three occasions, but it was not until my third trip, last autumn, that I visited the western part of Sichuan province, where Wilson traveled extensively on his second and third trips. This area lies in the Da Xue Shan (Big Snow Mountains), dominated by the giant peak of Gongga Shan, at nearly 25,000 feet (7,556 m) by far the highest mountain in Sichuan. In China, Mother of Gardens, Wilson's travels in this area are described in the chapters entitled \"Across the Chino-Thibetan Borderland\" and \"Tachienlu: The Gateway to Thibet,\" which deal with the journey that he undertook for the Arnold Arboretum in the summer of 1908. In general, his route ran due west from Chengdu to Tachienlu, the latter town well known to other botanical explorers and today called Kangding. His exact course is impossible to puzzle out, he itineraries followed by Ernest Henry to t however, 14 15 least two thousand years old. Like the old oak trees I know from Windsor Great Park, this veteran continues to defy the years despite being full of dead branches. The tree, with small buildings nestling in the folds of its trunk, is very much a part of the local community. A 76-year-old Chmese lady called Mrs. Wang related its history for us with evident pride. We arrived in Moxi in the late afternoon of September 16. Moxi occupies a beautiful site in a deep valley, with large, snowcapped mountains to the west and rich, mixed forests covering the nearby hillsides. The town sits on an island between two arms of the Moxi River, a position that in the past was important for defensibility. Over dinner in the recently built Red Army Hotel, we asked whether there were any old trees in the vicinity. Yin Kaipu, our expedition guide, replied that yes, there was a famous old sha shu at the top of the town. Sha shu, the chinese fir (Cun- ninghamia lanceolata, Cupressaceae), very common is a in the temperate regions of China. Its timber is so highly valued that it is grown in plantations and large trees are rare. We therefore expressed an interest in visiting the tree. \"Fine,\" said Professor Yin, \"but it died several years ago.\" We were disappointed but still tree wanted to see the tree. So after dinner we walked through The Cunninghamia lanceolata at Moxi on 29 September 2001, now up the main surrounded by recent bmldmgs. This is as close as it is possible to street of old Moxi. As the tree's silhouette get to Wilson's ongmal position. came into view above the surrounding Isles (8th edition revised, 1970). But how was buildings, I felt a strange sense of recognition. when we had cleared the last of the buildI to prove it? Then, I blurted out, \"I know this tree.\"As my Steve Ruddy quickly came to my assistance. ings, knew I had never been anywhere companions Using a satellite telephone linked to a laptop near Moxi before, they were rightly incredulous. computer, he e-mailed the Gardens Develop\"I know this tree,\" I repeated. \"It was photoment Unit at Kew and asked the staff to look graphed by Wilson.\" The characteristic shape for the photograph in Bean and, if successful, to and distinctive leaning posture of the tree e-mail it to us. made me certain that it was the same one The following morning there was nothing I had seen in a photograph by Wilson in W. J. from Kew. We spent the day trekking up the Bean's Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British nearby Yanzi valley, partly on foot and partly on rapidly gathering twilight Cunninghamia lanceolata at Moxi m western the Sichuan Provmce as photographed by E H. Wilson, 17 July 1908 16 had seen. What's the foot of the image read: \"Cunninghamia lanceolata. A photograph taken by E. H. Wilson southeast of Tatsien-lu in 1908.\" Moxi does indeed lie to the southeast of Tatsien-lu was that it the tree we more, the caption at (Tachienlu, Kangding). We hurried out to compare the image with what remains of the tree, debating about where Wilson was actually standing when he took the photograph. The town has expanded considerably since Wilson's time, and the view he captured is now partly obscured by buildings. Wilson's photograph shows a small temple at the foot of the tree and a field of maize all around it. Amazingly, the temple remains, though much changed, and the surrounding fields are still full of Through our interpreter, Zhong Shengxian, we spoke with the caretaker of the temple, Feng Wan Lin. He told us that maize. A second view of the tree and its attendant temple. horseback, to just below 10,000 feet (3,000 m). Along the way we made some wonderful collections. The forests, almost pristine, have a huge variety of broadleaved trees and shrubs. Higher we encountered massive specimens of chinese hemlock trees and, eventually, Picea asperata, the dragon spruce. Back at the hotel that evening, there was still nothing from Kew. But early the next morning, Steve woke me to say that an e-mail and the image had arrived from Kew. When the full image was finally downloaded onto the screen, the configuration of the hill in the background and the leftward lean of the tree left little doubt up the tree was more than a thousand years old and that the original settlement of Moxi grew up around it. He said that it had caught fire in 1992-scorch marks can be clearly seen on the trunk-but there is no plan to cut it down since it is still revered despite its moribund state. In a buoyant mood we continued our journey. For the next three weeks we skirted the great mountain of Gongga Shan, visiting several of the river valleys that discharge meltwater from the snows and glaciers of the peak. Back in England, I began serious research into Wilson's movements during his 1908 trip to Chma. Though I suggested earlier that nothing in Chma, Mother of Gardens links Wilson to Moxi, this is not strictly true. In a later chapter, \"The Principal Timber Trees,\" Wilson speaks of Cunninghamia and of its use by the Chinese for coffins. He discovered that the preferred timber for making coffins was called hsiang-mu (fragrant wood), which was Cunninghamia that had been buried either deliberately or by landslides. Wilson had seen coolies excavating very large trunks of hsiang-mu near the hamlet of WanTing-Dung, between Fulin and Mohsi-mien 17 7 in 1904. \/Moxi~ while on his way to Tachienlu Intriguingly he added, \"In all my travels in China I have seen only one living specimen of Cunninghamia approaching the size of these long-buried giants.\" Surely this must have been the tree at Moxi. I then looked at Wilson's original expedition photographs, which were bound in ten volumes by the Arnold Arboretum and which include the photo of the Moxi tree that I had remembered from Bean. Wilson was an excellent photographer, and these images provide an invaluable record Caretaker Feng Wan Lm outside the temple at the base of the of his third and fourth journeys to tree in Moxi. China, as well as of his subsequent Sargent, the Arboretum's director. The letter trips to Korea, Japan, and Taiwan. Unfortunately, adds important information about the tree in though they are dated and the locations are given, they are not arranged in chronological order, so Wilson's photograph: I had to look through all the pictures to establish In all my wanderings I have only met with one the sequence of events and correlate them with really large (cunmnghamia) tree. This occurs the text of Chma, Mother of Gardens. two and a half days south-east of Tachienlu at The itinerary that I reconstructed is as folan altitude of 5,000 ft. When photographing this tree I estimated it at 120 feet by 20 feet. lows, with modern placenames included in Seed no. 794a is from this particular tree.\"(ItalWilson's party left Chengdu on parentheses. ics are mme.] June 15, 1908, traveling northwest to Kuan Hsien (Guan Xian). Within a few days they were I now felt that the evidence showed overin the mountains, crossing a pass m the Pan Lan whelmingly that the dead tree we saw at Moxi Shan (Qionglai Shan) on June 21. From there is the same tree that Wilson visited, photothey continued west, arriving at Monkong Ting graphed, and collected seeds from. (Xiaojin) on June 27 and Romi Chango (Danba) One small detail remains. Remarkably, a livon June 30. Wilson spent the next ten days traving tree from Wilson's collection 794a is repreeling south through the Da Xue Shan, arriving sented in the collection at the Younger Botanic in Tachienlu (Kangding) on July 11. Within Garden at Benmore, an outstation of the Royal two days he was on the road again, crossing into Botanic Garden Edinburgh, near Dunoon, Scotthe Tung (Dadu) River valley and arriving at land ; there may also be representatives in other Moxi on July 16 or 17. The photograph of the gardens. Peter Baxter, the curator at Benmore, Cunninghamia is dated July 17, 1908. reports that the tree is about ten feet (three m) To confirm matters beyond doubt, I enlisted tall and in good health. Its history is somewhat the help of Peter Del Tredici, director of the Livobscure, but it is known to be a propagule from ing Collections at the Arnold Arboretum, who an older tree, presumably now dead. It would kindly looked into the Wilson archive for me. be a fine gesture to propagate a sapling from this Wilson's journal contains very little informatree to take to Moxi in honor of the greatest tion for the period in question, merely stating plant collector of them all. that the time between July 13 and 20 was spent on a trip to Moshi-mein and Ya-chia-k'an. Peter also found a letter dated December 19, 1908, Mark Flanagan is Crown Estate Keeper of the Gardens at Windsor Great Park, England. and written in Kiating (Leshan) to Charles S. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Across the Chino-Thibetan Borderland to Tachienlu","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25350","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260ab6d.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ACROSS THE CHINO-THIBETAN BORDERLAND TO TACHIENLU* E. H. Wilson uring the summer of 1908, in Chengtu, I deter~ mined upon a journey to Tachienlu. Previously, in 1903 and again in 1904,I had visited this town by three different routes. This time I decided upon traversing the road leading from Kuan Hsien via Monkong Ting and Romi Chango. The only published account of this route that I have knowledge of is in a report by Sir Alexander Hosie [1905], erstwhile H.B.M.'s ConsulGeneral at Chengtu, who returned when from Tachienlu over this road in October 1904. What is written in this report about the forests of that region created an appetite within me which nothing short of actual expericould satisfy. Again, this route promised further acquaintance with ence the tribesfolk inhabiting the hinterland. Sir Alexander's description of the road portrayed a difficult journey, but I felt sure that by taking time and but lightly burdening my men -----~------_.~--~---~ - -_._.----.-._---- Larix potaninii. Tree 60 ft shan. Altitude 12,800 ft. x 8 ft. Forests of the Ta-p'ao- I could get through all right. This confidence was fully justified, as events proved, and what I saw of the forests and mountain scenery, together with the quantity and variety of plants discovered and collected, * abundantly repaid for the hardships experienced. photographs are from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum and were taken by E. H. Wilson in 1908 during his first plant-hunting expedition for the Arnold Arboretum. The text, which is excerpted from his China, Mother of Gardens (1929), sketches the journey that took him to Moxi and its giant Cunninghamia lanceolata. A 1976 issue of Arnoldia, volume 36, number 5, was devoted to \"E. H. Wilson, Photographer\" by Peter J. Chvany; copies are still available. All 19 morning we continued our journey, spending the whole day toiling up the ravine through savage, yet wondrous, Early next scenery, with a profusion of veg- etation trees on all sides. Coniferous preponderate ... Yew is less abundant, but Larch (Larix Potaninii) much more so, though large trees are very scarce. To my astonishment the Larch of seed. A ripe, and I collected a Poplar quantity szechuanica) with large (Populus leaves, silver gray on the under side, is very common, and we passed some very large specimens. A Rose with large bright red flowers made a fine display, so also did the pink flowered cones were Deutzia mentioned above.... Many kinds of and Mountain Ash Maple, Linden, are plentiful, an and Tetracentron sinense, Populus szechuanica. Tree 60 ft x 10 ft. Altitude 8,400 ft. interesting tree exceeding in size all other deciduous trees of this particular region, occurs sparingly. Hydrangeas, Spiraeas, Honeysuckles, Mock-oranges, Brambles, Roses, Actinidia, Clematoclethra, Viburnum, and other ornamental for shrubs of every struggle possession available spot. The variety and wealth of bloom was truly astonishing, and I know of no region in western China richer in Actinidia chinensis (now A. deliciosa). Flowers 1 1\/2 inches across. Altitude 4,600 ft. woody plants than that traversed during the day's march. 20 21 22 Picea retroflexa (now P. asperata var. retroflexa), a Chinese spruce. Altitude 10,500 ft. Photography in the forests is no mere pastime. It took over an hour on three occasions clearing away brushwood and branches to admit of a clear view of the trunk of the subject. I secured a dozen photographs, which entailed a hard day's work. 23 Chinese roads make a lasting impression on all who travel over them, and the vocabulary of the average traveler is not rich enough to thoroughly relieve the mind in this matter.... Just outside Hsin-kai-tsze the road crosses over by a log bridge was to the right bank of the [Hsaochin being repaired, and only two very uneven logs were in position. A thin rope was Ho]. This bridge stretched on across to serve as a handrail was the left side. and Crossing ous, the waters below really dangerbeing deep The official kindly provided local experts to carry our gear over, and the way these men accomplished the task filled me with admiration. I rewarded them with 1000 cash, to their astonished delight. My turbulent. dog was lashed firmly to a flat board and carried across on a man's back. He struggled violently, and the man only just managed to get him over before he got half loose. I walked over behind the dog and was relieved when the 30 yards across the yawning gulf were safely passed. Everything came over all right, but my followers clung to the local men like grim death, the majority shaking in their nervous fright. Such dangerous entertainments are not desirable, and I heartily hoped that we had no more such bridges to cross. 24 The main road China to Lhassa blasted out of hard rocks. (capital of Thibet) hereabouts Men laden with \"Brick Tea\" for Thibet. One man's load weighs 317 lbs. Avoird; lbs Avoird!! Men far as Tachienlu accomplishing about 6 miles per day over vile roads. Altitude 5,000 ft. the other's 298 carry this Tea as 25 With the weather conditions so favorable the view from the summit of the [Ta-p'ao shan] pass far surpassed my wildest dreams. It greatly exceeded anything of its kind that I have seen, and would require a far abler pen than mine to describe it adequately. Straight before us, but a little to the right of our viewpoint, was an enormous mass of dazzling eternal snow, supposed to be, and I can well believe it, over 22,000 feet high.... Looking back on the route we had traversed we saw that the narrow valley is flanked by steep ranges, the highest peaks clad with snow, but in the main, though bare and savage-looking, they scarcely attain to the snow-line. On all sides the scenery is wild, rugged, and severely alpine. A cold wind blew in strong gusts across the pass, and we were glad when our photographic work was finished, so that we could hurry down. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Response to Pruning Cuts","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25353","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260b36f.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reich, Lee","article_content":"Plant Response Lee Reich to Pruning Cuts result many of them approach the -L job with too much timidity, wincing with pain at each cut; or else they go to the other extreme. No wonder, given all that's been written about the pruning needs of specific plants or groups of plants. In fact, though, all plants respond to pruning in qualitatively the same manner. Once we understand just how the stems of plants respond to bemg cutwhether they are mighty oaks or midget marigolds-we can better (and a runing causes anguish in many gardeners. -~ As dwarfing the plant, pruning local effects, including changes in plant form as well as in the quantity of fruits and flowers. Often we may be willing to accept some amount of undesired dwarfing just because we want to prune for these local effects. By understandmg how a plant responds to cuts, the gardener can achieve the desired result whether or not a general dwarfing of will cause In addition to more confidently) prune. The Effects of Pruning: General vs. Local Pruning stems dwarfs plants. Leaves produce food for a plant, and the stems are one place where plants squirrel it away for later use. Cut away a stem, and you leave the plant with less food. Many gardeners might argue with my assertion that pruning dwarfs plants. Who hasn't drastically cut back a tree or branch in late winter, only to watch new shoots grow with great vigor when compared to their more sedate, unpruned counterparts? And the more severely the tree or branch was cut back, the more energetic the response of the remaining buds. But pruning has not stimulated growth; it has caused \"local stimulation,\" that is, stimulation of the buds just below the point where pruning occurred. If you were to add the weight of the pruned stems to the weight of new growth that the tree would have made had it not been pruned, you would find the total to be sigmficantly greater than the actual weight of new growth on the pruned tree. 27 of the aims. Pruning a strengthen it, induce flower buds, and\/or cause branching, but the effect depends on both the degree and timing of your cut. the plant is one stem can Response to Two Degrees of Heading Cuts Effect of the Degree of Cutting Plants do show some differences when their stems are pruned, but the differences are quantitative rather than qualitative, so general rules are useful. For example, picture a young shoot, less than a year old, be it the main stem of a tomato plant or an apple tree. Unpruned, the stem will continue to grow from its tip, and side branches may or may not grow out farther down along the stem. The number and the vigor of side branches depends on the vigor of the plant. Those on a tomato plant, for example, may be numerous and strong enough to match or overtake the length of the main stem. On the apple tree, though, side branches might push out only a few inches of new growth. Pinching For the least pruning possible on any stem, pinch off the growing point of a shoot with your thumbnail. This causes growth to falter briefly but has another effect as well. The tip of any stem releases a hormone called auxin that moves down the stem, inhibiting the growth of lower buds. Remove the stem tip and you stop the flow of auxin, awakening lateral buds that were dormant and inducing existing side shoots to grow more vigorously. Pinching is useful generally for slowing stem growthto direct the energies of a tomato plant in late summer to ripening fruits, for example. It also encourages branching, as, for instance, on a potted avocado tree whose single, lanky stem looks ungainly. Heading A also be shortened more drastically or a knife. This is called a and the plant's response depends on heading cut, stem can using pruning shears the degree of headmg. If you cut a young stem back by a third, buds that might have stayed dormant on the remaining part of the stem will now be prompted to grow more enthusiastically than if the stem had been left alone. Shorten that same stem by two-thirds and the resulting new growth will be even more vigorous. (Remember: all this stimulation applies only to the cut stem; the plant as a whole is dwarfed by pruning.) Those buds nearest a heading cut are the ones that make the most vigorous, upright shoots; lower down, buds will push out growth that is less vigorous and comes out at wider angles to the cut branch. Several general rules can predict the stem's reaction to heading. The more vigorous a young 28 Effect of Pinching thinning cut, and the plant's response is: nothmg, near the cut. Or, at most, very little. (But remaining shoots on the plant will grow more than they would have otherwise.)( So use thinning cuts to remove unwanted growth, such as in the center of a tree or shrub where growth is too dense, and reserve heading cuts for situations where you want lush regrowth or branching. called a The Time of Year \"Prune when the knife is sharp,\" goes the old saying. Not true. (But don't ever prune if the knife is not sharp.) A plant's response to on pruning depends not only ' Pinching out the tip of a stem encourages branching. stem before it is headed back, the more vigorous the response to such pruning. Also, the more vertical the orientation of a stem, the greater its vigor. And a heading cut into one-year-old wood elicits a more vigorous response than does a cut into older wood. Too many gardeners carelessly hack back their plants in an effort to get rid of unwanted growth, then bemoan the dense and vigorous regrowth from the heading cuts. In the right situation, however, a heading cut can be very useful. There are times when vigorous new growth is needed: to strengthen the trunk of a young tree; to create new bearing wood for fruits or flowers; for a decorative effect; to invigorate a frail stem. A heading cut is also the best prunmg technique when branching is wanted, such as on a newly planted tree that has only a single how much you cut off a stem but also on when you do it. In temperate climates, as each growing season draws to a close, trees, shrubs, and vines lay away a certain amount of food in their above- and belowground parts. This food keeps plants alive through winter, when they cannot use sunlight to make food because of cold temperatures or, in the case of deciduous plants, because they lack leaves. The stored food also fuels the growth of the following season's new shoots and leaves, which eventually, as they mature, start manufacturing their own food and pumping the excess back into the plant for use in the stem removes buds that would have grown into shoots or flowers. Because food reserves within the plant are then reapportioned among fewer buds, the shoots from the remaining buds grow with increased vigor. As the growing season progresses, a plant's response to pruning changes. Shoot growth of woody plants generally grinds to a halt well before leaves fall in autumn. In fact, growth commonly ceases by midsummer, so the later in the growing season that you prune, the less inclined a woody plant is to regrow, at least during the year of pruning. Traditional theory holds that summer pruning is more dwarfing than dormant pruning, but recent research puts this theory on shaky coming winter. Pruning a dormant upright stem. Thinning What happens if instead of cutting off only part of a stem, you remove it completely, or cut it back to a larger branch? This type of pruning is 29 Heading vs. Thinning Cuts if you shorten a stem while it is dormant-in February, for example-buds that remain will begin to grow into shoots by March and April, whereas cutting back a shoot m midsummer might result in no regrowth. Ah, but what about next spring? That's when, according to this recent research, the summer-pruned shoot will respond. Plants have an amazing capacity to act however they please no matter what we do to them. What are the practical implications of this? First of all, if you want to stimulate bud growth, prune a stem when it is dormant. Summer, on the other hand, is the time to remove a stem to let light in among the branches (to color up ripening apples or peaches, for example), or to remove a vigorous stem that is in the wrong place. Upright watersprouts, for example, are less likely to regrow if snapped off before they become woody at their bases. Summer pruning can sometimes prompt the formation of flowerbuds rather than new shoots-just what you want for solidly clothing the limbs of a pear espalier with fruits or the branches of a wisteria vine with flowers. The response to summer pruning also depends on the condition of the plant and on the weather. A weak plant may be killed by footing. True, A late-summer wet spell, if it follows weeks of dry weather, especially may awaken buds that without pruning would have remained dormant until the following spring. And these responses interact with the plant's response to various degrees of pruning. You also must consider the effect on the plant's health when deciding when to prune. Although immediate regrowth rarely occurs after late-summer or autumn pruning, cells next to the cut come alive to close off the wound. Active cells are liable to be injured by cold weather-a good reason to avoid pruning in late summer or autumn except in climates with mild wmters, or with plants that are very hardy to cold. Dormant pruning just before growth begins leaves a wound exposed for the minimum length of time before healing begins. Some plants-peach and its relatives, for example-are so susceptible to infections at wounds that they are best pruned while in blossom. On the other hand, the correct time to prune a diseased or damaged branch is anytime summer pruning. you notice it. Also consider yourself (and your own welfare~( when timing your pruning. Depending on the number of plants you have to prune, as well as other commitments, you may not be able to prune all your plants at each one's optimum moment. (they just I prune my gooseberries in autumn suffer winter damage), my apples after the most bitter winter cold has reliably never passed, and my plums (a peach relative) while they are blossoming. Plants such as maples, birches, grapes, and kiwis bleed sap profusely if pruned just as their buds are swelling in spring. The way to avoid this is to prune either in winter, when the plants are fully dormant, or in late spring, after growth is underway. The sap loss actually does no harm to the plants, so you need not rush or delay pruning for your plant's health, but rather for your own peace of mind. Lee Reich, PhD, is the author of Weedless Gardemng, Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention, A Northeast Gardener's Year, and Growing Fruit in Your Backyard This article was adapted from published by Taunton Press. The Pruning Book, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Of (Two) Gardens: Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25352","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260af6b.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Of (Two) Gardens: Book Review Phyllis Andersen stately, sooner than to garden finely; as the greater perfection.-Francis Bacon, Of Gardens (1625) Men come to build if gardening were The Greater Perfection: The Story of the Gardens at Les Quatre Vents. Francis H. Cabot. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2001. Hardcover, 327 pages, $75.00. The Garden at Highgrove. H.R.H. The Prince of Wales and Candida Lycett Green. New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000. Hardcover, 176 pages, widely on his gardenmaking efforts at both Les Quatre Vents and Stonecrop, his home in Cold $35.00. to A Greater Perfection, landscape architect Laurie Olin notes that being well connected to situation and setting is one of the most compelling ideas in garden design. Both Les Quatre Vents, Francis Cabot's magnificent garden on the Saint Lawrence River in Quebec, and Highgrove, the n his introduction the Spring, New York. We profit greatly from his decision to write this book after years of demurring (\"too many books about gardens\"). We learn here of his early ties to this piece of land-the childhood summers exploring the spruce and balsam fir forests-and of his own decision to expand his parents' simple garden when he inherited their property m the 1960s. Les Quatre Vents sits withm a thin slice of Zone 4, warmed by the river but surrounded by the daunting Zone 3 climate of the Laurentian Mountains. Cabot is an avid plantsman who clearly enjoys the challenge presented by the area's restrictive growing conditions: If the snows arrive before the ground freezes and last throughout the winter, the horticulturist can proudly display plants that thrive only m the Himalayas or m Scotland. In the worst of years, when the snows don't come until it is too late, or even when an atypical wmter thaw destroys the snow cover, it is another story, and a humbler horticultural outlook prevails. * country estate of the Prince of Wales in the British Cotswolds, illustrate the essence of being \"of a place.\" Both properties were developed as a personal journey through gardenmaking. Neither Cabot nor the Prince of Wales worked from a professional master plan, although both called on expert advice from time to time. Both of these books reveal much about the gardens' creators as well as about their gardens. Francis Cabot appears to be a forthright and exacting individual. The challenge of his remote site suits him well. The Prince exhibits a playful modesty, a concern for both nature and art, and a surprisingly hands-on approach to enhancing his property. Les Quatre Vents is well known in the garden world, since Mr. Cabot is the founder and chairman of The Garden Conservancy, an organization devoted to preserving exceptional private gardens in North America. He has lectured * Francis H. his telling us how he framed the structure of garden, Cabot refers frequently to the dramatic topographic conditions of the site and to In the native forest that surrounds it. He created a series of garden spaces using native species as his framework, counting on their hardiness to free him to give special care to the more vulnerable plants that create the lush displays within each garden room. Although spruce budworm undermined this strategy for a while, he continues to build allees and hedges of thuja, paper birch, amur maple. Some garden rooms have historic associations: a white garden was Cabot, \"'Les Quatres Vents,' a Far-Northern Garden,\" Arnoldia (1985) 45(4) : 22. 31 by photographs that show a perfect garden, but it gives a sense of the growth and change that are an integral part of any garden. Les Quatre Vents is the summer home of Cabot's family, but it is used for cultural events and is open to the public on appointment. In the book's afterword Cabot gives some valuable advice to garden visitors, based on his own experience as owner and traveler: avoid traveling in large groups, but if you must, break off and enjoy the garden as a solitary experience. Unlike Francis Cabot, the Prince of Wales does not have multigenerational ties to his land. He purchased Highgrove in 1980 when it was a rather simple, late-eighteenthcentury manor house set in a featureless landscape-just what the Prince was looking for, as he \"didn't want other people's dreams and ideas.\" His goal was to anchor the house with a series of linked garden rooms. The boundaries between the garden and the working farmland that forms part of the property are blurred. This results in part from the gentle topography of the site, but certain garden features also help integrate the formal garden scheme into its country setting: the linden-lined entry drive underplanted with wildflowers; the fenced pasture, visible from the house, for Aberdeen Angus cattle and black Hebridean sheep; the wildflower meadow, an area of much experimentation that is closely monitored by the Prince. The Prince of Wales has a very public mterest m organic gardening and in natural history studies. His inspired by Sissinghurst, and a watercourse emulates Geoffrey Jellicoe's work at Shute. Some features evoke exotic locales-a swinging rope bridge modeled on those in Nepal; a series of Japanese structures bmlt by a master carpenter from Japan; a Chinese moon bridge constructed over a woodland stream against a background of amur maple, golden aspen, and dark green thuja. In recreating the life of this garden Cabot gives credit to the gardeners, craftspeople, consulting architects, and artists who offered advice, designs, or hands-on labor, and he is careful to reveal his own mistakes (and those of others). He notes his debt to Rosemary Verey's Engllshwoman's Garden and tells a delightful story of following Russell Page as he walked around the garden giving an intensive, two-day critique. \"Get rid of the fuzz,\" admonished Page, referring to plants that interfered with vistas, or paths that meandered awkwardly and detracted from important features. Cabot's text of struggle, gain, and loss in the garden is belied complex composting program produces both high-quality leafmold for potting mixes and a less nutrient-rich product for mulches. The local constable assigned to the property for security reasons collects data on dragon and damsel flies while makmg his daily rounds. The Prince maintains an orchard of rare apple varieties from the National Fruit Collection. He had the expert advice of the Marchioness of 32 Salisbury, a noted organic gardening specialist, and Miriam Rothschild, the British naturalist, early in the planning process. At the end of this book, the head gardener, David Howard, gives a short overview of organic gardening at den elements of great originality. The column bird-a gigantic storkcum-heron poised on a nest atop a column-was rescued from Victoria station in London; the stumpery is an artfully arranged tangle of upended stumps that support a lush display of hostas, hellebores, ferns, and euphorbia. Small touches by other artists and craftspeople-a Chippendale bench with bright blue struts, small wall plaques designed by contemporary artists using classical themes-make this garden intimate and intriguing. The Prince takes his role as patron very seriously, and it is to his great credit that the artists, gardeners, and assorted other experts who helped plan and make the garden are not only named and mcluded m the photographs, but also identified by their previous experience and training. Like Francis Cabot, the Prince of Wales opens his property to public tours and to a growing number of small conferences related to programs he supports. A conference center of golden Cotswold stone, called the Orchard Room, is a recent addition to the property. The gardens described m both these books draw on traditional garden forms and historical references. While they cannot be called modern, they are clearly gardens of their own time. Both translate local vernacular forms and materials into original garden features. Both owners continue to experiment with plantings and structures-the Prince of Wales, for example, contmually edits his plantings in an effort to find disease-resistant varieties with significant ornamental value, and Francis Cabot rethinks color schemes and plant combinations as new cultivars become available. One hopes that this personal quest for perfection is captured if these gardens take on a greater public role. Highgrove. Nevertheless, the contrivance: the garden itself is an inspired golden yews lining the central thyme walk-each trained into an cccentric shape by the staff gardeners; a ten-foot-high glass pyramid filled with ferns in the woodland; the \"park pale\" deer fence of cleft oak, adapted from a Roman design, that encloses the chicken run. Even the walled kitchen garden, cultivated according to strict organic principles, rivals the potagers at Villandry in formality of design. The garden reflects the Prince's strong support of traditional architectural forms and of the British craft tradition. In the designers Julian and Isabel Bannerman he has found sympathetic minds that can adapt traditional forms into gar- Phyllis Andersen is director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23278","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170a327.jpg","title":"2002-61-3","volume":61,"issue_number":3,"year":2002,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Hunting on the Rooftop of the World","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25349","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260ab28.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kelley, Susan","article_content":"Plant Susan Hunting on the Rooftop of the World Kelley almost 3,500 endemic species and at least 20 endemic genera. Although some botanical exploration has previously been carried out in the Hengduan Mountains, the region has never been fully inventoried because of the sensitive political atmosphere in Tibet and because the rugged terrain makes much of the area extremely difficult to traverse. Elevations range from 3,300 feet (1,000 m) to over 25,000 feet (7,556 m\/ at the summit of Gongga Shan in western Sichuan. Average elevation is 10,000 to 13,000 feet (3,000 to 4,000 m) with precipitous drop-offs of 1,000 to 3,000 feet (300 to 900 m) not uncommon. No one, however, has yet identified the full extent of the geography and plant life of this has always played an role in shaping the Arnold important Arboretum's collections and has been the driving force behind the many Arboretumsponsored trips to the Far East and within North America. Living plants grown from seeds gathered on these expeditions grow on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, in the collections of other botanical institutions in North America and abroad, in the stock inventories of nurseries across the country, as well as m our own home gardens. Although new plant material from expeditions is added to the living collections each year, the main goal of the majority of Arboretum-sponsored fieldwork is the creation of botanical inventories of eastern and southeastern Asia in the form of herbarium vouchers. In fact, few people familiar with the Arboretum's collections in Jamaica Plain are aware of the institution's collection of approximately 1.4 million herbarium specimens housed in the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambridge, Massachusetts (http:\/\/www.huh.harvard.edu\/). In 1997, under the auspices of the Biotic Surveys and Inventory program of the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Arnold Arboretum began a three-year collaborative effort to inventory the plant and fungal diversity in the Hengduan Mountains of south-central China, one of the unique biological regions of the world. Lying at the eastern end of the Himalayas between the edge of the Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) Plateau and the central plain of China, these spectacular north-south trending ridges contain the most diverse vascular plant flora of any region of comparable size in the temperate zone. Identified as one of twentyfive biodiversity \"hotspots\" on earth,' this vast region, covering an area of approximately 300,000 square miles (500,000 sq km), contains over 12,000 species of vascular plants, with lant exploration JL particular \"hotspot.\" The term \"hotspot,\"coined in 1988 by British ecologist Norman Myers, is used to designate areas that have a high number of endemic species (those whose distribution is limited to a single region) and that are under severe threat of destruction because of human activities. These threatened regions cover less than two percent of the earth's land area, but are home to more than sixty-five percent of all vascular plant species. Of the twenty-five designated hotspots, the Hengduan Mountains and the California Floristic Province are the only two located in the Northern Hemisphere. All other hotspots, with the exception of central Chile, the Cape Province of South Africa, and southwestern Australia, are located in the tropics. The Hengduan Mountain region, as currently defined, constitutes only five percent of China's land area, occupying portions of southeastern Xizang (Tibet), western Sichuan, and northern Yunnan, but it contams almost half the total number of all Chinese flowering plant species. The extremes in climate and topography almost certainly contribute to the diversity of plant life The upper reaches of the Mekong River and one of its tributaries. 4 thesesZ: Rhododendron-224 (850); Androsace-28 ( 100\/; Pmmula-113 (400) ; Gentiana-117 (350\/; Saussurea101 (300); Impatiens-45 (850); Pedicularis-250 (350+); Aconitum104 (100+); Delphinium-71 (250\/; Arisaema-39 (150) ; Cotoneaster-41 (50) ; Astragalus-98 (2,000) ; Ilex-44 (400) ; Corydalis-85 (300); Sorbus-36 (85\/; Anaphalis-33 \/100\/. The table on the opposite page compares the levels of diversity and endemism in the Hengduan region with those of other nontropical areas, providing another indication of its richness.3 Four of the great rivers of Asia, the Yangtze (Jinsha Jiang), the Mekong (Lancang Jiang), the Salween (Nu Jiang), and the Brahmaputra (Yarlung Zangbo The Hengduan Mountain region, one of the twenty-five biodiversity Jiang), flow through the valleys of these hotspots of the world. dramatic mountains. All of these rivers there. More than a quarter of the world's Rhodoorigmate on the 16,500-foot (5,000-m) high dendron, Primula, Corydahs, Delphinium, Qinghai-Xizang (Tibetan) plateau, and, far downstream, all are of great economic imporAnaphalis, Gentiana, Saussurea, and Sorbus tance to the people who live along them. The species and over half the species of Ligularia, Cremanthodium, Cotoneaster, and Pedicularis rapidly increasing human impact on the region have been recorded here. In addition, there may threatens not only the diversity of plants and be as many as fifty species of endemic mosses. animals there, but also the survival of indigA few numbers will illustrate the extent of enous cultures that define much of eastern and some particularly species-rich groups in the southeast Asia. diverse Hengduan region (approxiIn the summer of 2000, the third year of the spectacularly mate numbers of species worldwide in parenNSF project, fieldwork was conducted for two --. - - ~~ - ------ Three species of Saussurea, a member of the aster family: above, a cushion form growing on scree slopes at 17,000 feet, left and boulders center, two species grow among at 15,000 feet months in southeast Xizang (Tibet) by a team of four American, one Tibetan, and four Chinese botanists. Dave Boufford, assistant director of the Harvard University Herbaria and an author of the NSF grant proposal, headed the American team. I was fortunate to be part of that team, along with Rick Ree, who received his Ph.D. from Harvard this year and works on the genus Pedicularis (lousewort), and Brian Perry, a doctoral student at Harvard in mycology. Four Japanese botanists traveled and collected with the group as well, but were not working under the auspices of the NSF grant. The logistics of the expedition were coordinated by Wu Sugong of the Chinese Academy of Science Institute of Botany in Kunming in Yunnan Province. Professor Wu had done fieldwork in the area in the 1970s and 1980s and helped compile the two-volume checklist Vascular Plants of the Hengduan Mountains.' His position was not an enviable one, smce efforts to arrange permits, lodging, and rations were continually complicated and delayed by landslides, broken-down vehicles, massive roadway projects, obstinate local and inclement weather. construction officials, The expedition team assembled at the Kunming Botanical Garden on June 28, 2000. There we handed over our passports to a young Tibetan woman, Yang Zhen, who was to fly them to Lhasa to obtam permits for travel in the Tibet Autonomous Region. While waiting for her return, we drew up the final itinerary and gathered equipment: plant presses, ventilators, portable dryers, kerosene burners, a fifty-gallon drum of kerosene, food, camping gear, and even an extra pair of springs for the rather rickety bus that was to transport much of our equipment. Little did I suspect how valuable these springs would prove to be weeks later down the incredibly rough road. Finally, on July 4, with three SUV's and a small bus, we began our journey north. The fully loaded truck remained m Kunming to wait for our passports and the all-important permits to arrive from Lhasa. For the next several days we headed north, stopping in the towns of Dali, 6 Yunnan is limestone, the flora of Diancang Shan is distinctive and interesting in and of itself. In 1984 Dave Boufford spent six weeks collecting herbarium specimens there; on this trip we could spend only a day on the mountain. Heading north we saw fields of tobacco, corn, rape seed (used for cooking oil), cabbage, beans, and peas. Large Populus yunnanensis grew along the roadsides, but most of the land was stripped completely of woody vegetation. Joseph Rock, the Viennese-born botanist, ethnologist, and linguist, made his home in Lijiang for some thirty years. Between 1924 and 1927, he collected hundreds of herbarium specimens for the Arnold Arboretum and sent back seed of many new plants for its living collections.s For more than an hour the road followed the Yangtze River (Jinsha Jiang), a broad, muddy expanse. The weather was warm, but clouds prevented us from seeing Yulongxue Shan (Snow Mountain), at 18,467 feet (5,596 m) the highest in Yunnan. Growing on the roadside were species of Philadelphus (mock orange), Sambucus (elderberry), Pyracantha, Indigofera (indigo), juniWu Li Sugong and Dave BoufroW per, and an evergreen oak with a dense Zhongdian, nese and Deqen. In Dali, a popular Chitourist destination situated next to Lake we encountered a few Tibetan vendors included fruiting bodies of the Cordyceps fungus, a dried tiger penis (\"For your health!\"), and the antlers of an unidentified antelope. We took advantage of the town's internet cafe, which would be the last we saw until we reached Lhasa on August 17. During the eighth and ninth centuries, Dali was the capital of a separate kingdom, Nanzhou. The local Bai people-who ruled from 902 until 1252, when Kublai Khan conquered the arearenamed it the kingdom of Dali. Diancang Shan, an uplifted mountain of granite and marble, rises 13,500 feet (4,100 m) just west of the city. Since most of the remainder of the province of Erhai, whose wares covering of yellow-brown hairs on the underside of the leaves. By the time we reached Zhongdian early in the evening, we had gone from an elevation of 7,000 feet (2,100 m\/ in Dali, to about 10,500 feet (3,200 m). Zhongdian, close to the Tibetan border, was the first town in which we saw a sizable population of Tibetans. Some of the shops had Tibetan goods for sale, such as silver bracelets, coral and turquoise necklaces, daggers, and clothing. The architecture of the town, however, was typical Han Chinese white tile bmldings. Alongside the modern food shops, banks, restaurants, hotels, and CD and DVD shops, pigs ran in the muddy streets and vendors in open-air markets offered housewares, horse blankets and saddles, fresh yak meat, live chickens and fish, vegetables, brooms, baskets, pots and pans. One vendor had 7 Rheum nobile, a type of rhubarb Tiensi Lake m northern Yunnan. (also seen in closeup at right), and several species of Pmmula grow near stacks of fresh yak butter, which I had tasted that m a bowl of tea. In the outlying areas, we saw the first signs of Tibetan architecture, square, two-story stucco structures, painted white but with colorful decorations around the doorways and windows. Buddhist prayer flags flew from the rooftops. We spent two days in Zhongdian, waiting for Yang Zhen to arrive with our passports and the permits needed to cross the provincial border into Tibet. We spent the time exploring the vegetation in the mountains outside Zhongdian. Lake Tiensi, at 13,500 feet (4,100 m), is a beautiful alpine lake about two hours from Zhongdian. Growing there among grazing yaks, we found Rhododendron wardii, a tall rhododendron with pale yellow flowers named for British botanist Frank Kingdon-Ward. Between 1909 and 1957, Kingdon-Ward introduced hundreds of new species into cultivation (rhododendrons, primroses, gentians, the Himalayan blue poppy) from here and other parts of western China and from upper Burma and French Indochina. We also found the distinctive Rheum nobile, a rhubarb with large, pale yellow bracts; purple and yellow species of Primula; and a yellow Mecanopsis, the Himalayan poppy. Two curious Tibetan boys, perhaps nine or ten years old, appeared seemingly out of nowhere. Although initially quite shy, they followed us at a distance and eventually helped our mycologist find several interesting fungi. morning Our second day in the Zhongdian area was spent in drizzling rain at Shudu Hu, another alpine lake, this one surrounded by heavily grazed meadows with patches of cut-over spruce forests. Scattered m the meadows were primroses, asters, gentians, and Stellera chamaejasme, a member of the thyme family whose corolla color varies from yellow to pink across its geographic range and even m smgle we drove toward Deqen, the Tibetan border. In the early afternoon we reached a 14,000-foot (4,250-m) pass where for the first time we saw Tibetan nomad tents woven of black yak hair, with large branches of juniper propped against the doors for insulation. A few specimens of Pinus armandii, almost 60 feet (18 m) high, with bright green, pendulous cones, were growing there along with a few specimens of P. yunnanensis and P. densata, but most of the woody vegetation had been cut for fuel or lumber. (There is a nice 65foot [20-m] specimen of P. armandm on Peters Hill that was grown from seed collected in 1909 by William Purdom m Shaanxi Province, to the northeast of the Hengduan Mountains.) On July 11we finally crossed into the province of Xizang (Tibet), descending from almost 11,000 feet (3,265 m\/ in Deqen to 7,000 feet (2,100 m\/ on the banks of the upper Mekong River. The landscape here was dry and sparsely covered with scrubby vegetation, with a few populations. From Zhongdian closer to 9 shrubs and many herbaplants growing along the road. Following the road up from the Mekong, we came to the village of Yenyng where we had lunch in a low, dark, wooden dwelling (complete with satellite dish on the roof~, with almost unbearable smoke flowing from the low, cut-over ceous cooking area. Within fifteen minutes of leaving town, we climbed another 1,000 feet (300 m) and soon began seeing mixed broadleaf deciduous and conifer forests of Salix, Ables, Populus, Cornus, and Quercus, along with many herbaceous alpine plants growing by the roadside. After two hours we reached yet another 14,000-foot (4,250-m) pass, Hong La, and began the descent to the town of Markam. The fifty-four-mile journey from our lunch spot had taken more than three-and-a-half hours over rough, narrow roads that required our drivers to negotiate numerous hairpin turns landslides overlooking precipitous drops of more than 1,000 feet (300 m\/. Markam, lymg in a long, wide valley created by a tnbutary of the Mekong, is truly a Tibetan outpost, a primitive, extremely poor town with red mud Dave Boufford bargaining with Tibetan men m Markam. everywhere and a wild west look to it. It seemed strange amidst the squalor to hear influence. In fact, this would be the only town chants emanating from the walls of a Buddhist in which we saw vestiges of the Tibetan culture, While most Tibetan men wore tradialbeit in shambles. temple. tional long, fur-lined coats with one sleeve The following day we retraced the road to off the shoulder, a few wore Chicago hangmg Hong La (Pass), south of Markam, and made Bulls ~ackets. The women, in traditional dresses ninety-six collections of vascular plants and called chhubas, stared at us as we walked down mosses in a mixed broadleaf deciduous and the street. A large group of local people followed conifer forest. Two government officials accomus to our Chinese guesthouse. It was a bit panied us, but they seemed quite uninterested in our work. For two more days we collected m unnervmg to have five or six of them watching from the doorway, long silver daggers hanging different habitats around Markam. Heavily from their belts, as we pressed plants and grazed meadows of grass and Kobresia, a type of entered data into our laptop computer. Another alpme carex, were dotted with scrubby rhododendrons and remnants of spruce and juniper guesthouse-a government-sponsored templeforests. Many genera were very familiar to restoration pro~ect-and the early-morning radio news that blared out from speakers on Western eyes: Gentiana, Ligulana, Lomcera, tall poles were the only signs of non-Tibetan Berberis, Carex, Clematis, Rubus, Anemone, recent A small Tibetan and the remains of village In a valley near Markam. 10 in the three of Zogong, over we days that we spent around the town collected 57 flowering plants and 140 mosses. Flowers of Clematis chmbmg on shrubs at a forest's edge near Nyingchi m southeastern Tibet. While we collected in the field, Wu Sugong drove to Changdu (Qamdo) to obtain permits for traveling west to Lhasa across the northern road of the Plateau. The local officials in Zogong had informed us that a major bridge had washed out west of the town of Bomi, so the southern route would be impossible to negotiate. On July 19 the entire team set out for Changdu, a 45-mile (75-km) trip that would take six hours because of the now familiar delays caused by road construction, landslides, and generally rough roads. Changdu, the second largest town in Tibet, lies on the banks of the muddy Mekong and was once a Trollius, Potentilla, Pedicularis, Picea, Cam- thriving population center. Its large mon- panula, Cerastium, Polygonum. Three days and fifty-some collections later, we headed northwest, climbing another pass above the Mekong River. Apricots were ripening above 12,000 feet (3,665 m), as well as dark blue Delphinium, tall Thalictrum, and several ferns. The landscape was vast, and although a few scattered pine, spruce, and juniper remained, there was much evidence of clear cutting. Our sense of the strangeness of this land was intensified by the sight of three monks on the road in long, heavy carmine robes, making their pilgrimage to Lhasa, some 400 miles (250 km) away. It was at Dongda La, south of Zogong, that we hiked to 17,500 feet (5,300 m~ to collect alpine perennials from the scree slopes. In the level areas of the glacial cirques, collected blue two we Himaan layan poppies (one and one yellow), a creeping willow, sevintense A species of Meconopsis, the Himalayan blue poppy, growing at 17,000 feet at Dongda La. eral species of rhododendron, and dozens of tiny herbaceous plants. The diversity in this barren landscape was amazing: astery complex, dating to 1444, formerly housed more than 5,000 monks. Only a few hundred monks remain today, but the Chinese government is providing funds to restore their living quarters and the many temples of the lamasery. Elsewhere in the town, however, all traces of Tibetan culture are being destroyed to make room for more modern Chinese architecture and goods. Although Changdu lies on the main road from Sichuan and attracts many tourists from that province, its best hotel can offer hot running water for only one-and-one-half hours each night, and even that isn't guaranteed. Massive construction projects throughout the city often disrupt the basic services that Westerners take for granted. Our group was able to spend only one day collecting along the Mekong River south of Changdu. The dry slopes and ravines harbor a xeric shrub vegetation dominated by herbs and grasses. Among the thirty-four species we collected were Salweenia wardii, an endemic member of the pea family, and Tribulus terrestris (devil's thorn), which grew for many years m California as a noxious weed that has only recently been eradicated. Most of the expedition's fieldwork had been scheduled to take place around the southern townships of Bomi, Yigong, and Nyingchi. The news about bad road conditions west of Bomi now made a long stay there unfeasible if we were to arrive in Lhasa on schedule, but we were determined to spend at least a few days in the area. 11 I The trip to Bomi from Changdu took ten days, but along the way we collected in a number of interesting habitats. On the outskirts of Banda, a tiny outpost consisting of two restaurants, a few shops, a primitive guesthouse, and a Chinese army base, we collected for two days. We spent the first day along a steep, gravelly mountain slope (15,700 feet; 4,760 m~ and at the crest of a limestone ridge in a Kobresia meadow with Potentilla, Sibiraea, Rhododendron, and Salix shrubs interspersed with species of Corydahs, Lonicera, Caragana, Spiraea, the Mekong, but the land around it is as dry as any desert, and the vegetation is sparse. In the small village of Rawu we saw evidence that deforestation was occurring to the west. Large trucks were unloading logs up to three feet (one m\/ in diameter in the local lumberyard. Our accommodations in Rawu were in the military compound, where we took our meals with members of the Chinese army and watched them perform their early morning drills. We spent four and a half days in and around this beautiful valley: on the moist, open slopes along Rawu Lake; in alpine Paraquilegia, Lepisorus, Cryptogramma, Pedicularis, and Draba. On the second day we ventured east of Banda to a dry ravine and slope just above the Mekong River. There we encountered a family of Tibetan children collectmg firewood, and throughout the day we could hear them laughing, talking, and singing. The woody plants had all been cut by the local people, but a rich flora remamed. Among the fifty taxa we collected that day were Gentiana, Geranium, ten species of Pedicularis, Ranunculus, Stipa, Rheum, Allium, Artemisia, Silene, and Astragalus. On July 24 we began our serious push west to and the other vehicles travthis road were forced to negotiate around numerous landslides and road construction projects. Indeed, the sixty-mile journey to the town of Baxio took almost ten hours. Having crossed several more mountain passes, we were now in the Salween River valley. The Salween is as muddy a river as the Yangtse or Bomi. Our caravan meadows; on grazed slopes eling along dotted with Juniperus, Rhododendron, Salix, Sorbus, and Potentilla glabra; on a boulderstrewn mountain slope along the Palongzang River; and m a broad, gravelly floodplain dominated by small specimens of Hippophie. (This genus, a member of Elaeagnaceae, contains three species. The Arboretum has made several attempts to grow H. rhamnoides (sea buckthorn) and H. salicifolia, but conditions in the Boston area do not appear to be ideal for these taxa.) One particularly cold, miserable day, we were invited into the tent of a Tibetan family to sit by an open fire and drink fresh, hot yak milk and eat tsampa, a mixture of ground, roasted barley and warm yak milk. We watched with fascination as the family made fresh yak cheese and accepted their gracious offer to share it with us. The region around Bomi, which we finally reached on July 30, supports mixed semi-humid broadleaf forests of deciduous species such as Two species of gentian, both growmg in thm centimeter across mountain soils The blue flowers, m photo at mght, are scarcely larger than one 12 A hospitable Tibetan family boiling fresh yak milk mside them tent. higher we Betula, Alnus, and Sorbus. Conifer forests at elevations are dominated by Abies, On August 4, we retraced our steps toward Banda and then headed north again to Changdu, where we remamed for two days while Wu Sugong again met with local officials and made plans for the difficult road ahead. The fiveday, 750-mile (465-km) journey from Changdu to Lhasa featured several of the by-now-all-too-familiar hazards of bad roads and washed-out bridges. Twice (once in the dark) we were forced to ford rivers so deep that the water poured over the hood of the vehicles and then rose up through the floorboards. After one night in Lhasa we headed southeast, back toward the Bomi region, to spend four final days in the field. Tsuga, and saw Pinus densata. Other familiar taxa included Rosa, Populus, Lonicera, Ribes, Rubus, Pmmula, Gentiana, Rhododendron, Cornus, Potentilla, Sambucus, Viburnum, Berbens, Rhus, Elaeagnus, Quercus, Philadelphus, Clematis, Prunus, and Daphne. nice surprise was finding Lindera obtusiloba growing wild. (A 100-year-old specimen of this species, grown from seed collected in 1892 in Japan by Charles Sargent, stands across from the lilacs in the Arboretum.) Unfortunately, an unwelcoming attitude on the part of local officials forced us to cut short our time in Bomi; nevertheless, we collected about 125 taxa in the course of our three days there. One The more than 6,700 specimens (18,883 sheets) collected over the course of this three-year NSF project will no doubt help to define more precisely this critical biodiversity hotspot. All of the collection and locality data, as well as the images from these trips and others in the region, are linked to a geographic information system (GIS) and are available over the worldwide web \/http:\/\/maen.huh.harvard.edu:8080\/china\/. Specimens collected earlier in the region and now housed in the Harvard University Herbaria will be entered into a database and linked to the website in the near Fruit near of a Viburnum Bomi. growing at the edge of a forest future. By providing training and computer equipment for American and Chinese students and professionals, the project laid the foundation for future long-term research projects on China's biodiversity. In addition, the research may have paved the way for conservation efforts and for detailed analyses of biogeographic patterns and processes of diversifica- Frmt on stump sprouts species growmg near Rawn of a on Sorbus grazed slopes 13 --------------------- The author collectmg in a meadow outside Markam. tion in the region. Conservation International (http:\/\/www.conservation.org\/xp\/CIWEB\/ \/ home), an organization that is currently working closely with Chinese botanists and governofficials in western Sichuan to prioritize for conservation, has sought the expertise of Dr. Boufford, who has over twenty years of field experience in China. Now, after a year's work, we have finished sorting these specimens and dividing them into sets for distribution to over a dozen other botanical institutions. The hardships of the trip are long forgotten, and the magic and richness of this remote, exotic land once known as ShangriLa beckons again. Who knows what other botanical treasures are still to be discovered on the rooftop of the world? ment areas Wilson, 1992, The Dmersity of Life, Harvard University Press (Cambridge). E O. 2 From D. J. Mabberley, 1987, The Plant Book, 3 Cambridge University Press. P. H. Raven and D. I. Axelrod, 1978, Origin and relationships of the California flora, University of Cahforma Pubhcatlons m Botany 72. Wang, S G. Wu, K. Y. Lang, P Q Li, F. T. Pu, and Chen, eds., Vascular Plants of the Hengduan Mountams, 1993, Vol. 1, Ptendophyta, Gymnospermae, Dicotyledoneae (Saururaceae to Cornaceae~; 1994, Vol. 2, Dicotyledoneae (Diapensiaceae to Asteraceae) to Monocotyledoneae (Typhaceae to W. T. S. K 4 Orchidaceae). 5 S. B. Sutton, 1974, In Chma's Border Provmces the Turbulent Career of Joseph Rock, Hastings House, (New York). Susan Kelley is an associate curator and responsible for Notes 1 N. Meyers, 1988, Threatened biotas: 'Hot spots' in tropical forests, Envmonmentahst 8: 187-208; managmg and developing the Arnold Arboretum's digital mapping system, which tracks the ca 15,000 plants m the living collections. Her previous experience planthunting m Asia was m the central mountams of Taiwan "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Anachronistic Fruits and the Ghosts Who Haunt Them","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25345","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070896d.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Barlow, Connie","article_content":"Anachronistic Fruits and the Ghosts Who Haunt Them Connie Barlow hirteen close in the Western Hemisphere. Lost were the giants of the elephant clan: the mammoths, mastodons, and gomphotheres, which had maintained a presence in North America for twenty million years. The native horses, a tall camel, and all but one species of pronghorn-each group from a here is osage orange and lineage thought to have originated Reumted:thirteen thousandmastodon. Shownfruit of surely the first time m osage orange, years that the in North America-vanished from Maclura pomifera, has touched a molar of its missmg partner in the plains. Gone, too, were the evolutlon, Mammut amencanum. strange beasts that had evolved in South America during millions of years of confers, and many deciduous trees of our temperate tinental isolation: ground sloths as massive as forests. (And of these, some produce pollen that can be distinguished only at the genus or even elephants, hippo-like toxodons, and lumbering, which looked uncanfamily level.) Indeed, fossil pollen from stratispike-tailed glyptodonts, fied bog and lake sediments is the primary evilike the ankylosaurs that had shared the nily dence used to reconstruct the vegetational shifts Cretaceous landscape with T. rex. that accompanied the repeated coolings and These large herbivores (along with the biggest warmings of the Pleistocene epoch. bear, the biggest canid, and several big cats, all The Pleistocene pollen record shows only one of which depended upon the plant eaters) disaptree extinction (a species of spruce) in North peared in a geological instant. Evidence is America near the end of the epoch.z Is there reamounting that newly arrived humans with forson to suspect that plants pollinated by insects, midable stone-tipped spears of Clovis design were to blame.' This \"extinction of the masbirds, or bats-that is, plants with little or no sive\" that marks the end of the Pleistocene pollen record-might have been more vulnerable to extinction? the megafauna. What happened epoch ravaged The answer is yes, but vulnerability to extincto the plants? tion in this case has nothing to do with the mode We cannot be sure. Leaves and flowers and of pollination. Many plants that are pollinated by seeds are not preserved as readily as bone. Plant lineages restricted to upland habitats may come animals rather than by wind produce fleshy fruits whose seeds are dispersed by other, larger aniand go without a trace. Bogs and lakes, of mals. Plants dependent on megafauna for discourse, receive a shower of pollen, often from vast distances. But detectable quantities of polpersal would indeed have been vulnerable to len preserved in sediments are restricted to range reduction or even outright extinction when conitheir partners in evolution and ecology vamshed. wind-pollinated plants-notably, grasses, to a ago, Mammals thousand years the Age of Great came crashing 15 s Rotting Fruit Ecologist Dan Janzen speculates that although fossil evidence is lacking, some fruit-bearing plants probably did follow the megafauna into extinction. These plants would have begun to decline when their megafaunal seed dispersers vanished. Some might have gone extinct relatively soon after losing their partners. Others, especially the long-lived and those that regenerate clonally from their roots as well as from seed, still survive but may ultimately be on Riddle of the plants are living in a time warp; they are adapted for lost world. Their missing animal partners \"the ghosts of evolution.\" Anachronisms and ghosts caught the early attention of Robert E. Cook, who is the director of the Arnold Arboretum. Citing Janzen and Martin, Cook published an essay in 1982 in Natural History that described the avocado, Persea americana, as an ecological anachromsm that has been stunningly successful in attracting a replacement dispersal agent: us.~ Within the past few hundred years, avocado has been taken from the New World tropics to orchards in Florida, California, northern Mexico, and far beyond this hemisphere. Wild elephants who raid village fruit trees in Africa are now \"planting\" American avocado on that continent.' In their landmark paper, Dan Janzen and Paul Martin concentrated on Costa Rican plants. But in the final paragraph they extrapolated the anachronism concept to large-fruited plants of a are track for extinction. Still others have been regenerated as domesticated cultivars by humans fond of their fruit or other botanical qualities. But by and large Janzen thinks that those that are still here today suffered significant reductions in range when important members of their disperser guilds were extinguished. The narrowly restricted ranges of some of today's big-fruited plants suggest that Janzen may be right: plant extinctions may, in fact, have stemmed from the animal extinctions. An indicator that something is amiss is evident in the case of trees whose fleshy fruits fall and rot beneath the canopy of the parent. It was this \"riddle of the rotting fruit\" that captured Janzen's attention twenty-five years ago while he was studying the ecology of Costa Rican plants. It made no sense for plants to waste energy by building pulp that attracted few if any dispersers. Worse, in the case of many fleshy fruits, when the pulp rots, the embedded seeds are killed as well. What was going on here? In 1982 Dan Janzen, with paleoecologist Paul Martin, published a paper in Strategies of the megafaunal dispersal syndrome. Domesticated the journal Science titled \"Neotropical vaneties of three tropical fruits native to the New World demonstrate a range of pulp attractions and seed defenses Ripe Anachronisms: The Fruits the papaya frmt, Canca papaya, is soft enough to mash rather than Gomphotheres Ate.\"' Janzen had car- chew, so the tmy seeds require no physical protection A ried out field studies in Costa Rica to mammal that madvertently crushes a papaya seed is, however, learn whether introduced livestock deterred by a sharp, peppery flavor-and thus the toxms so (horses and cattle) served as surrogate signaled. Pmmate fruit thieves (hke us) can eat around and 's Pleistocene megafauna for the bereft discard the concentration of seeds, thus foiling the papaya's The result: a list of some thirty mtent Avocado, Persea americana, produces a shppery and plants. dense seed, whose potent toxms taste bitter to mammals In species of trees and vines of the Costa contrast, the seeds of the camstel tree, Poutena campechmana, Rican dry forest whose fruits bear the have a mild flavor and are protected mstead by a tough coatmg. physical and ecological characteristics All but the biggest frugmores could be expected to eat around of \"ecological anachronisms.\"' These or spit the seeds of avocado and camstel 16 6 anachronisms in the forests and fields of North America. Indeed, scientists currently breeding honey locust trees to increase the fodder value of their pods, and those developing improved pawpaw cultivars and promoting the use of their fruit, have been doing so unaware that the fruits are anachronistic. Osage Orange-An Extreme Anachronism Honey locust and her new partner m evolution. Strung along the top are the usual number of seeds m a honey locust pod, such as the one restmg on the author's arm. Recently, I spoke with an archeologist, Frank Schambach, who felt frustrated because nowhere in the published literature could he find the information he needed to solve the ecological puzzle of osage orange-information crucial for validating his thesis that before settlers began rearranging the landscape, the wood of this tree, highly valued for making hunting bows, may have been traded far and wide in North America under the complete control of a single indigenous tribe.8 Schambach suspected that osage orange (also known as bois d'arc, \"wood of the bow\") occupied a very constricted range that could in fact be claimed by a single tribe. Osage orange would more appropriately have been named osage breadfruit. A close relative to Maclura, of America, and to its sister genus Cudrama, of eastern Asia, is the breadfruit genus, Artocarpus. All are linked through the The most anachromstic legume m North Amemca. The mpe pod of kentucky coffee tree is toughened byresms, and the seeds are mvulnerable to msect attack The green pulp is sweet but reputedly poisonous to humans Early colomsts m Kentucky roasted and ground the seeds to make a coffeehke brew. The ground \"cof fee\" shown here is courtesy of Carl Mehling. mulberry family, a largely tropical family dominated by the figs and striking for its members' compound the eastern and central United States: kentucky coffee tree (Gymnocladus dioicusJ, honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and the notion that ghosts may of the most magnificent native fruits of one's homeland is a revelation. It was quite a surprise, therefore, when I began the library research four years ago for my book The Ghosts of Evolution (2001) to discover that virtually no effort had been made to test these five temperate plants or to identify other possible osage orange To a plant (Maclura pomi fera). ). lover, be haunting some fruits and the white latex some exude when cut. Osage orange was named after the Osage Indians of Missouri, who first introduced white traders to this strange fruit-the color of a glowgreen tennis ball and about the size and firmness of a softball. Inhabitants of the plains and prairie states know this fruit by another name: hedge apple. Until the invention of barbed wire in 1874, there was no more effective or economical way to fence free-ranging livestock out of one's vegetable garden or cornfield than to plant a hedge of thorny osage orange stems, later interweav- 17 7 been reintroduced into North America in the sixteenth century. Surely amateur naturalists and people living wherever osage orange and ranch horses co-exist know the answer to the question-it seems to be yes. But the matter isn't discussed in the published literature. Thus a core contention in Schambach's \"Spiroan trader\" theory rests on what he has been able to glean from Red River ranchers and his own casual observations. The search continues. A year after publication of his \"Spiroan trader\" theory, Schambach obtained crucial An elephant fruit m a land without elephants The bnght green anecdotal information: \"A volunteer at fruit of osage orange was shaped by the now extinct megafauna my dig this summer lives on a ranch on of North Amenca. the Blackland Prairie in east Texas,\" Schambach wrote me. \"She has a small herd of ing the abundant root suckers that the trees send up in response to severe pruning. Thus horses which, she assures me, routinely eat osage orange gained a replacement dispersal osage orange fruits on their own. Furthermore, she knows for a fact that horses spread the tree agent, and its range expanded rapidly. Maclura pomlfera, a wind-pollinated tree, is via their manure because when she and her husknown from pollen samples to have been wide band acquired their property there was no osage in North America during earlier ice-free rangmg orange growing on the upland (prairie) parts of phases of Cenozoic history. But by the time of it, only in the bottomlands along the creeks. But soon after they began pasturing horses on the European contact, its range had shrunk considland, the osage orange began to migrate out of erably : just before its transformation into a common hedge plant, it inhabited only a small the bottoms, and it is now growing all over their stretch of the Red River watershed near the prairie areas, to their dismay.\" Here's another intriguing story that came my junction of Texas, Oklahoma, and Arkansas. Frank Schambach suspects that at its nadir the way while I was writing this article-this one was even more restricted-possibly from Robert M. Timm, professor of ecology and range limited to the Bois d'Arc tributary of the Red evolutionary biology at the Umversity of KanRiver in Texas and nearby creeks of the adjacent sas. Timm has horses and one mule on his farm Blackland Prairie. Such isolation would explam in Kansas. They all \"love the fruits\" of osage how a single tribe-the Spiroans of Mississipian orange, he wrote me. \"The mule is the best at culture-could have controlled the entire bow locating them, but if you are experienced with wood trade. And this, in turn, would explain the mules that wouldn't be a surprise. They are archeological evidence of extraordinary wealth always much more curious and more exploraccumulated by this people in the centuries atory than horses. I'd say of all the natural foods to European contact. around here, osage orange fruits are the mule's prior What ecological information did Schambach favorite. He seems to remember them from one need to solve his archeological puzzle? He year to the next, but that too is typical of mules. wanted to know whether horses spread osage I have no doubt that Pleistocene horses would orange-that is, do horses eat the fruit and have long-term memory of favorite trees to feed defecate viable seeds? If so, then by the time at every fall.\" naturalists got around to documentmg the geoTimm is very familiar with Dan Janzen's reach of osage orange, its renaissance anachronism theory and has been casually graphic had already been initiated by horses, which had observing mice, rabbits, and tree squirrels feed\" II 18 8 no coincidence that the five species of temperate American trees judged anachronistic by Dan Janzen and Paul Martin are all prodigious cloners. Vegetative means of reproduction would have helped these trees persist for the thirteen thousand years that sexual reproduction has been disrupted for want of adequate seed dispersal. Kentucky coffee tree, honey locust, pawpaw, persimmon, and osage orange all send up root suckers-prolifically so when the main stem is pruned or otherwise damaged. Kentucky coffee and pawpaw are extraordinarily skilled in growing lateral root runners that sprout new stems many meters from the elder stem, supported by photosynthates supAn extreme anachromsm. Osage orange is one of North plied by the parent. Indeed, a few years America's most anachromstic frmts. Freshly sliced fruit oozes a white latex, which has been wiped clean from the slice on ago when a pawpaw tree \"died\" of old the left. Honey locust seed (1 cm) for scale age in the Arnold Arboretum, more and seeds. \"They don't cache he observes, \"they eat it on the osage orange,\" spot.\" Most intriguing is his discovery of large quantities of shredded, freshly fallen fruit in the stomachs of deer. All these mammals great and small are indeed eating the fruit, but are they dispersing the seed? Timm concludes no. Timm acquires buckets of osage orange fruits from neighbors and spreads them on the unpastured sections of his own property as supplemental feed for wildlife. Nevertheless, he has encountered no seedling trees. \"I picked up another five gallon bucket of fruits this morning,\" Timm wrote me as this article went to press, \"and I'll check here in a few weeks to see if the seeds make it intact through a mule's digestive tract. I'll pull the mule and horses off the pasture later this month and keep them in a paddock for the winter and give the mule fruits where it will be easy for me to retrieve the seeds.\" Overall, anachronism theory seems to be anecdotally well supported for horses as dispersal agents of osage orange. Are there any other plausible ghosts to pair with this native fruit besides Pleistocene horses? Paul Martin and I had a chance to test osage orange vicariously on a much bigger Pleistocene surrogate: African elephants at the Brookfield Zoo in Chicago. Almost surely this was the first time since the Pleistocene that the fruit of ing on the pulp Maclura pomifera had met the molar of a proboscidean. I sent a box of freshly fallen fruit to Martin, which he in turn forwarded to the Brookfield Zoo. After a search of the literature, zoo staff decided that there was no danger in offering the elephants a few fruits. The results were inconclusive. At first, the youngest two elephants didn't want to even touch the fruits offered by their keepers. Finally, each curled a trunk around a sphere and hurled the offensive object out of their habitat. The matriarch, however, chose to sample the first fruit offered, chewing and swallowing. But she would then accept no more. Herbivores are known to be wary of novel foods. Cultural knowledge of gastronomic possibilities, passed from one generation to the next in social animals, would not be available to zoo elephants. Then too, well-fed captive ammals will often turn up their noses at foods that their wild counterparts would happily consume. The case is therefore still to be made that Pleistocene mastodons and mammoths would have joined horses in dispersing osage orange fruits in North America. But it will be a most interesting hypothesis to pursue-for anyone excited by the theory and who has access to elephants! Powers of Persistence It is perhaps 19 hundred fresh stems popped up almost immediately from a vast network of root runners. And although the Arboretum isolates its mature kentucky coffee specimens by encircling the trees with a wide buffer of mowed lawn, grounds staff must periodically rid neighboring beds of the vigorous fresh stems emanatmg from hidden root runners. As the ice retreated from its last southward advance, which peaked about twenty thousand years ago, four of the five above-mentioned anachronistic trees of eastern and central North America would have been helped to reclaim former territory by newly arriving humans. Pawpaw and persimmon fruits would have been carried back to camp, their seeds removed or spit out at the time of eating. Honey locust pods would have been opened and licked for their sweet matrix, the hard seeds discarded. Kentucky coffee trees were valued not for their fruit but for their large, nearly spherical seeds, which took a lovely polish and were used for gaming tokens. Although the wood of osage orange was highly prized and known to have been traded across great distances in the time just prior to European contact, the fruits held little if any value. Does this perhaps explain why the range of osage orange became so constricted? a than culprit.9 Once common Apalachicola River of northern Florida, adult specimens growing in the wild suddenly began to die in the 1950s, and none remam today. Like the American chestnut that was destroyed by (an imported) blight during the early years of the twentieth century, torreya survives only because new stems keep sprouting from the same rootstock. Sadly, each seems to disease be the in the rich soils of the Is the Endangered Torreya Tree Anachronistic? Coming to terms with the likelihood that native were horses almost certainly and elephants probably effective seed dispersers of osage orange during the Pleistocene and for several tens of millions of years before that provides fresh insights into how to rescue from extinction a severely endangered American tree, Torreya taxifolia (florida torreya). Torreya is a conifer of the plum yew family, Cephalotaxaceae, and thus bears no fruit as botanically defined. Nevertheless, the fleshy design of its diasporeecologically a fruit-is an obvious lure for ammals. Like a yew or a gmkgo, torreya produces single large seeds enveloped in what ought to be viewed as fruits by vertebrate dispersers. The proximate cause of Torreya taxifoha's imminent extinction, and thus the cause that gets all the attention, is disease. Some thirty pathogens are known to infest it, but no single fresh sprout of torreya is doomed to die before it is old enough to produce pollen or ova. Energy stored in the roots will eventually give out, since new starts in the shady forest may consume more photosynthate than they can return to the roots before their demise. The genus Torreya was once distributed throughout the Northern Hemisphere. Range fragmentation has created distinct species in eastern China, patches of the Coast Range and the Sierras of California, and the Apalachicola of Florida. The geographic range of the Florida species is today restncted to the cool ravines along the east side-only the east side-of a 22mile (35-km) stretch of the Apalachicola River in northern Florida. During the coldest times of the Pleistocene, the Apalachicola, with its moderate climate and rich soils, was a refuge for the trees and forbs that now enrich the Cove Hardwood forest of Great Smoky Mountains National Park, 375 miles (600 km) to the north. After the ice retreated, most of the plants hitched rides from wind and animals and moved back north to their pre-glacial home. Torreya seems to have been left behind. Some experts confirm that the tree's troubles may have begun for want of a disperser. 10 Global or regional extinction of an animal partner (or partners) may be the root cause of the tree's current distress. Torreya is probably not ideally suited for the warmth and humidity of today's Apalachicola region. It wants to head north, but it hasn't found a vehicle. That florida torreya may be haunted by the ghosts of extinct dispersers is suggested by a host of clues. First, the diaspore of all species of Torreya is distasteful or toxic to many (possibly all) mammals who normally consume fruits. The pulp has a high terpene content and it leaves a sticky residue on one's skin. Squirrels treat the fruit as they treat gmkgo fruit m New 20 Perhaps the best evidence that florida torreya may be suffering from an mability to track climate change is that before the blight took hold, this tree was planted hundreds of miles north of its Florida habitat in the mountains of North Carolina, near Asheville. There, on the Biltmore Estate, the torreyas are thriving, and the females produce abundant seeds. \"Flower beds often abound with seedlings 'planted' by squirrels,\" reports Bill Alexander, landscape historian at the Biltmore. During his 23 years there, Alexander has watched the torreyas stand up well to a five-year drought. And in the winter of 1985 the thermometer plunged to minus-20 degrees Fahrenheit, yet \"our trees smiled right through,\" he told me. For a number of years, Alexander had been thinking that \"florida\" torreya really belonged back in North Carolina. So he was delighted to hear of the lostIf so, the extinct are disperser theory. ghost A megafaunal ghost? may well be a large as tortoise, I suggested, reptiles florida torreya photographed well north of its \"native\" grounds, near Philadelphia, Pennsylvama, at the Henry Botamc Garden, near Gladwyne. A far more tolerant of plant terpenes than are mammals, and as the thin \"shell\" protecting the large single seed of this conifer offers scant protection against molars. One must not, however, ponder the plight of the florida torreya in isolation from its sister species. In contrast to Torreya taxifolia, California's torreya is York City's parks: they discard the flesh and steal the seeds. Squirrels that fed on torreya seeds on the east side of the river would be unable to carry them across water to the west side, and if the rich soils of the Apalachicola are isolated from rich soils to the north by a barrier of sandy soils, then the squirrels would also be unable to disperse the seeds farther north. Squirrels may thus be a disperser, but they apparently are not the right disperser for helping this tree reclaim its pre-glacial range. This explanation would account for the seemingly paradoxical fact that until the 1950s, florida torreya was the seventh most abundant tree species in an astonishingly small patch of \"native\" habitat. (Torreya californica) tion, as are maintaining its popula- the several Asian species of of which bear nearly identical Torreya-all propagules. Nevertheless, all occupy restricted geographic ranges. What if the entire genus lost its key dispersers and now depends on the local activities of squirrels? Bill Alexander and I easily came up with two plausible explanations for the differences in endangerment, based strictly on geographic differences. In eastern North America, the climatic effects of the Ice Sheet reached much farther south than was the case in either western North America or eastern Asia, forcing the Appalachian species to take refuge at a lower 21 latitude. Perhaps even more significant is that latitudinal migration was the only option for florida torreya as the climate warmed. In contrast, torreya species in California and in Asia could head upslope. These torreyas are native to mountainous regions, where altitudinal gain facilitated by nothing more than squirrels could help the trees keep pace with a warming climate. Such unsubstantiated and untested leaps of speculation are normally not well received within the scientific commumty-but these are not normal times. Without some drastic breakthrough in the management of Florida's wild population of torreya trees, Torreya taxlfolia will, within fifty years, almost surely be extinct outside of botanical gardens. Perhaps it is time to help this torreya gain rootholds of wild populations in the mountams of North Carolina. Such is not, alas, how things are done with endangered species-the exception being the recent return of the california condor to its Pleistocene home near the Grand Canyon. Native territory is regarded as the last best place to be. But what is \"native\"? How far might we justifiably reach back in time for a benchmark? In a study of endangered species published in 2000, Rob Channell and Mark Lomolino concluded that \"most species examined persist in the periphery of their historical geographic ranges.\"\" If habitat at the periphery of historical range is adequate but not ideal, then the last place a troubled species is found may not, in fact, be the best place to assist its recovery. Transplantation across great distances is an uncommon and controversial technique for biodiversity conservation today. But as the greenhouse effect ratchets up temperatures and reroutes ramfall, and as botanical preserves become even more isolated islands in a sea of human development, long-distance transplantation will become the norm. If gardening a few local patches of endangered plants is tough today, it's gomg to get a lot tougher when, like it or not, we become gardeners of the planet.l2 Helping plants track climate change from one patch of habitat to another will be a routine tactic for conserving biodiversity decades hence. Is it too early to begin now with florida torreya? Notes 1 In the June 8, 2001, issue of Science, two papers confirmed the \"overkill hypothesis\" of endPleistocene extinctions, one for Australia and the other for North America. The North American paper John Alroy, 2001, \"A multispecies overkill simulation of the end-Pleistocene megafaunal mass extinction,\" 292 1893-1896. A news report by Leigh Dayton pubhshed in the same issue (p. 1819), \"Mass extinctions pmned on ice age hunters,\" suggests that this view is now the majority position. 2 Stephen T. Jackson and Chengyu Weng, 1999, \"Late Quaternary extinction of a tree species in eastern North America,\" Proceedings of the National Academy of Scsence 96. 13847-14852. is 3 Dan Janzen's suggestion that fleshy-fruited plants may have gone extinct smce the end of the Pleistocene is m Connie Barlow, 2001, The Ghosts of Evolution (New York: Basic Books~, 88 D H. Janzen and P. S Martin, 1982, \"Neotropical anachromsms: The fruits the gomphotheres ate,\" Science 215: 19-27. 4 5 For the story of how Janzen and Martin developed their ideas and conducted their fieldwork, see chapters 1-3 of the author's Ghosts of Evoluuon, op cit. 6 Robert E. Cook, 1982, \"Attractions of the flesh,\" Natural History 91 \/ 120-24. ~ Martrn N. Tchamba and Prosper M. Seme, 1993, \"Diet and feedmg behavior of the forest elephant m the Santchou Reserve, Cameroon,\" Afncan Journal of Ecology 31: 165-171. 8 The theory that osage orange, prior to European colonization, occupied a very restricted range is presented in Frank F. Schambach, 2000, \"Spiroan traders, the Sanders Site, and the Plams Interaction Sphere,\" Plains Anthropologist 45 7-33. 9 Mark W Schwartz, Sharon M. Hermann, and Philip J. Van Mantgem, 1999, \"Population persistence in Florida Torreya,\" Conservation Biology 14. 1023-1033. lo See p. 229 of The Ghosts of Evolution. l Rob Channell and Mark V. Lomolino, 2000, \"Dynamic biogeography and conservation of endangered species,\" Nature 403: 84-86 'z D. H. Janzen, 1998, \"Gardemfication of wrldland nature and the human footprint,\" Science 279: 1312- 1313. Acknowledgments I wish to thank Dan Janzen, Paul Martm, Bill Alexander, Robert Timm, and Frank Schambach for helpful critiques, comments, and anecdotes. Connie Barlow is a science writer and author of The Ghosts of Evolution Nonsensical Frmts, Missing and Other Ecological Anachromsms, published in 2001 by Basic Books. Partners, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pastures of Plenty: A Case Study in Field Biology","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25348","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260a76f.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Marks, P. L.","article_content":"Pastures of P. L. Marks Plenty: A Case Study in Field Biology or their equivalent. Thistles (Circium spp.)are common in many pastures. And among woody plants that tend to catch our attention visually, wild or volunteer (not planted) apple trees (Malus spp.) and hawthorns (Crateagus spp.) stand out. Apple trees do not have true thorns, but their short side branches are sharp at the tips and function as thorns. These distinctive thorny woody plants allow many pastures to be recognized as such as we drive or walk along country roads. Pastures with hawthorns are especially easy to recognize at a distance because the hawthorn bark is light gray and the branches are horizontal in orientation, producing a distinctive growth form. Because they ow pastures are taken for granted in rural parts of the northeastern United t where they are common. We don't think of them as special habitats, yet they are. Cow pastures have been present in the northeastern landscape since the earliest farm families first carved agricultural lands from the forests. The best land in terms of soil fertility and drainage generally became arable fields, whereas more marginal lands went into pastures. Other marginal lands, often wetter, steeper, or more remote from the main property, were left as forest. But historically, every dairy farm had at least one pasture. Field biologists work to discover patterns in nature-usually by observation-and then to understand the causal influences behind those patterns. More often than not, the explanations for patterns in nature are complex, a result of multiple factors interacting in various ways over time. Often it is not possible by observation alone to fully understand the cause of a given pattern. Cow pastures are interesting from a scientific point of view because one factor-the presence of many large, hungry cows-is of overriding importance in determining the abundance and kinds of plants that occur. Whether a pasture began as a natural meadow or as planted forage, the grazing and trampling activities of cows, carried out over years or decades, produce a habitat of closely cropped edible plants interspersed with taller plants that are avoided by the cows due to their physical or chemical properties. Pastures can be surprisingly beautiful, perhaps because they take on some of the features of landscaped yards and public gardens: large areas of mowed green grass with scattered drifts of taller herbs and small flowering treessometimes dramatically pruned into unusual shapes. How does this happen? In active pastures, the most conspicuous plants are those not eaten by cows. A striking feature of many of these plants is the presence States, of thorns persist for many decades after a pasture is aban- doned, the apples and hawthorns also provide a diagnostic legacy of former land use. We now have a pattern to explain. Why are thorny woody plants so common in cow pastures ? An obvious and important first thought is that the thorns prevent or reduce cows' feeding on these plants. This is consistent with other related observations. One is that a variety of non-thorny woody plants invade abandoned pastures, but not pastures where cows are still present. Another observation is that the apples and hawthorns that commonly invade pastures do so when the pastures are active. However, other thorny plants, such as multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), invade a variety of open habitats, not just active pastures. The implication is that pasture cows are a dominant influence. In their presence thorny plants hold an advantage, whereas on the same land without cows non-thorny plants have the edge. Presumably, plants without thorns cannot invade active pastures because cows eat them. In pastures abandoned for decades one can sometimes see both thorny and non-thorny woody plants. There are dense patches of thorny scrub where plants that started when the pasture was active have grown larger and taller; here few other woody plants have been able to invade. 23 An active cow pasture in spring, showing cows, closely cropped grass, and a mixture trees range from closely pruned cones to larger trees In flower. of apple and hawthorn trees. The apple Other areas, where no apples or hawthorns were present at the time of abandonment, now have a variety of non-thorny trees and shrubs such as white ash (Fraxinus amencana) and gray dogwood (Cornus racemosa). A careful accounting of plant ages should reveal differences between the groups: the thorny plants that invaded when the pasture was active should be ten or more years older than the non-thorny trees that invaded after its abandonment. But inferring plant ages from plant sizes can be misleading. Decades after pasture abandonment, ash trees, which grow faster than apples, will be taller but younger. Although thorns reduce the feeding pressure from cows, they do not prevent feeding alto- gether. Indeed, the closely pruned hawthorn and apple plants are perhaps the most spectacular aspects of an active pasture. From a distance, it is difficult to believe these are wild plants, so exquisitely shaped are their crowns. Many look like inverted bowls or cones, whereas others look like old-fashioned hourglass timers. Closer inspection reveals that these geometrical shapes are made up of a proliferation of branches caused by the repeated release of side branches, which, in turn, is caused by cows eatmg the branch tips year after year. The resulting protective matrix of short, interwoven branches is so dense and rigid that cows can feed only on the plant bits that protrude from it. Conversely, leaves that are near the exterior of the matrix 24 ~1iJ the bovine pruners. Much of this growth occurs in the lower half of the crown so that after twenty or thirty years of modest annual gains plants attain an inverted cone shape. Eventually, this slow lateral expansion reaches a point where cows can no longer reach the tops. This marks an important transition in the lives of these plants. After decades of tortuously slow growth, plants whose tops are beyond the reach of cows suddenly escape much of the bovine influence. Rapid shoot growth begins atop these plants and, in subsequent years, lateral growth increases A typically cone-shaped, closely pruned apple tree, photographed in once it is above the reach of the cows. winter, resides m an active cow pasture. The glove m the foreground Eventually a bizarre new growth form promdes scale. is achieved: the shape approximates an hourglass, consisting of a lower inverted cone whose closely cropped outer surface is still maintained by the cows, an upper upright cone that has rapid growth on the inside where the cows cannot reach, and a smoothed lower outer surface where protruding twigs are removed by the cows. I have walked through a number of pastures, making observations and trymg to understand more about the issues discussed above. In active pastures in early spring I have seen seeds from nonthorny trees like white ash scattered within the close cropped turf. Yet seedlings of the same non-thorny species are that the The top pctrt or thrsapple tree, now beyonci the reach of hungry notably absent, suggestmg bottleneck for the establishment of cows, shows a spurt of new growth, the tree takes on a characteristic these plants is at the seedling stage. In hourglass shape contrast, seedlings of apples and hawbut rccessed from the edge are protected from thorns must at least occasionally become estabcows while still exposed to sunlight. The densely lished in pastures in order to account for the cropped apples and hawthorns and the cows larger plants that are so conspicuous later on. achieve a kind of equilibrium, with the cows Interestmgly, hawthorn and apple seedlings lack unable to penetrate the \"shell\" and the plants thorns. Why then can these seedlings survive in unable to grow beyond it. One of my students active pastures while other non-thorny seedproposed the term \"bovine bonsai\" to describe lings cannot? Why doesn't eating and trampling this lovely piece of pasture horticulture. by cows eliminate apple and hawthorn seedThe balance between the growth of plants and lings, as it apparently does the seedlings of nonthe cropping by cows sometimes tips in favor of thorny species? We don't know all the answers, the plants-though just barely. Some thorny but our understanding of how young plants get started in pastures is more complete for apples woody plants in active pastures expand the volume of their crowns slightly each year, despite than for hawthorns. -- ~..._._-_.__._._~....~.,-~-- , . ~~~~_~ . , 25 trees around the old apple trees within the edges large, pasture proper. In autumn, the fruits ripen and cows eat the apples that fall to the ground. The seeds pass through the cow unharmed and are deposited in \"cow pies,\" where they spend the winter. Come spring, these seeds germinate into seedlings that grow directly from the cow pies. The rotting manure provides a locally fertile environment for apple seedlings in cow pastures. In addition, cows typically do not feed on plants growing in or near cow pies. This reprieve from feeding damage, which may last through the first growing season, allows apple seedlings to grow and create energy reserves so that they are more likely to recover the first time they are or a Many pastures have apple few intolerant of cattle grazing can generally grow only within the refuge provided by pruned apples and hawthorns. This essay focuses on cow pastures in central New York State, but the issues raised here apply, to some extent, to cow pastures around the world. Elsewhere there are species equivalent to our hawthorns and apples, such as junipers. There are other kinds of pastures as well, and what is true of cow pastures is not necessarily true of sheep or horse pastures. Both the number of animals and the continuity of the grazing can influence the numbers and kinds of plants that are able to invade. Finally, the function of cow pastures seems to be changing in the Northeast as dairy farming becomes more trampled upon by cows. Since not all pastures have apple trees, and since only those cow pies produced when apples are ripe contain eaten or seeds, most cow pies do not have apple seedlings. But examining many cow pies in the spring should yield some with apple seedlings, which are recognizable by their two large rounded seed leaves, or cotyledons. One study conducted by Cornell thirty years ago found as many as 250 apple seedlings in a single cow pie! I once harvested a closely cropped apple tree about five feet1.5 ml tall in order to estimate its age by counting the Apple seedlmbs emerynd m sprmg from cow manure deposited annual growth rings on a cross section the preceding fall. of the trunk. (Gaining access was not intensive. Historically, pastures provided forage easy-I had to saw a hole in the side of the for dairy cows during the warm parts of the year. branch matrix before dense, rigid, sharply tipped I could reach the trunk.) The tree was about On today's large dairy farms, cows may not be thirty years old, which was consistent with the pastured at all, and since many dairy cows now receive all their food indoors, cows that are pasages reported in the Cornell study. However, even more interesting was the new dimension tured may not crop apples and hawthorns as of pasture ecology it revealed: inside the protecclosely as they did in the past. Even so, evidence tive branch shell of this apple tree grew several of former pastures still remains in the large non-thorny woody plants. plants left behind. I have since found a number of non-thorny woody species, including white ash, honeyPeter L. Marks is a professor m the department of suckle (Lonicera spp.), and chokecherry (Prunus ecology and evolutionary biology at Cornell University. This article is number six in the author's series vmgmianaJ, growing inside the protective shell \"Reading the Landscape\" (another, on primary vs of several apple and hawthorn trees in pastures. secondary forests, appeared in Arnoldia Vol 55, No. 3.) These species of trees and shrubs are among the It is reprinted from Cornell Plantauons Magazme, same species that invade abandoned arable Summer 2001, courtesy of Cornell Plantations, 607.255.3020 or www.plantations.cornell.edu. fields and pasture. In active pastures, species "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Henry David Thoreau and the Yankee Elm","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25346","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260a326.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Campanella, Thomas J.","article_content":"HENRY DAVID THOREAU THE YANKEE ELM Thomas j. AND Campanella elm (Ulmus americana) has always occupied a hallowed place in of our native trees, and nowhere was its presence greater than in New England. Planted by the thousands on streets and town commons throughout the region, the elm was a defining symbol of Yankee life. Charles Joseph Latrobe, a Briton who toured New England m the 1830s, summed it up best when he chmstened the Yankee elm \"the glory of New England.\"' Indeed, elms moved pens. Paeans to the tree and its beauty abound in the literature of nineteenth-century New England. Hawthorne, Lowell, Longfellow, Holmes, and Henry James all penned eloquent tributes to the tree. So did literary visitors such as Trollope and Dickens. But no wnter who lifted pen to elm did so with more grace and insight than the bearded scnbe of Walden Pond. Henry David Thoreau was the poet laureate of the Yankee elm. A prolific writer, Thoreau's pen roved far beyond his celebrated sojourn at Walden. His journals record nearly twenty-five years of observation and bristle with exacting detail. These books map the geography of Thoreau's intellect, a terram well timbered with elms. To Thoreau, elms consecrated the landscape. Mircea Eliade has written m The Sacred and the Profane that we \"found\" the world by investmg it with religious meaning, and fix sacred space with signs and totems.z In the traditional New England landscape, writes John Stilgoe, meetinghouse spires and church steeples functioned as architectural exclamation points that \"made the cellular countryside intelligible to resident and traveler ahlce.\"3 Thoreau's leafy steeples were rougher hewn, but they too linked earth and soul. For in Thoreau's church of nature, elms were the beacons of moral and spatial order. If they rose more leisurely to the sky, once there the elms challenged the lofty white spires themselves. \"Some are so lifted up m the horizon,\" he wrote of elm crowns spied from afar, \"that they seem like portions of the earth detached and floating off by themselves into space.\" Below, Thoreau imagined harmony and spatial order, for where elms brushed the sky, below lay a town or home. \"When I see their magnificent domes, miles away m the homzon, over intervening valleys and forests,\" wrote Thoreau, \"they suggest a village, a community, there.\" Spying the \"dark little dome\" of a far-off elm, Thoreau was reminded of the \"rural and domestic life passing beneath it.\" HE American Tthe pantheon \" Homestead telegraphs to homestead through these distant elms seen from hilltops. I fancy I hear the house-dog's bark and lowmg of the cows asking admittance to their yard beneath it. The tea-table is spread; the master and mistress and the hired men now have just sat down m their shirtsleeves. In summer the great canopies cast shelter over house and town, harboring a chorus of insects whose gentle hum mduced in Thoreau \"contemplation and philosophic thoughts.\" The \" \"Washington\" elm (a misnomer; see Sheila Connor, New England Natives, page 111) on Cambridge Common, Massachusetts, and the \"Whitfield\" elm on the right, photographed in 1860. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 28 But Thoreau's tree was no mere totem of pastoral retreat from the \"great world.\" For him, elms objectified a range of human values. He saw m the elm stoicism, perseverance m the face of adversity. Elms \"adjourn not mght nor day,\" he wrote, \"they stand for magnificence; they take the brunt of the tempest; they attract the lightning that would smite our roofs, leaving only a few rotten members scattered over the highway.\" Thoreau was hardly a misanthrope-he attended dinner parties even during his Walden so~ourn-but he did favor the company of trees. When comparing elms with men, however, Thoreau could not help but see the former as more worthy. \"I have seen many a collection of stately elms,\" he confided to his Journal in January 1856, \"which better deserved to be represented at the General Court than the mamkins beneath.\" Elms may have been set out by villagers, but they towered-literally and figuratively-above mere mortals. \"I find that mto my idea of the village,\" he wrote, \"has entered more of the elm than of the human being.\" Indeed, the elms were \"worth many a political borough,\" and certainly more than most politicians. \" The poor human representative of his party sent out from beneath their shade will not suggest a tithe of the dignity, the true nobleness and comprehensiveness of view, the sturdiness and mdependence, and the serene beneficence that [the elms] do. They look from township to township. A fragment of their bark is worth the backs of all the politicians m the umon. Thoreau then extended his metaphor far beyond the environs of Concord. Elms became a medmm through which he channeled his outrage over slavery, particularly over the Fugitive Slave Law, which authorized federal agents to return to their owners slaves who had escaped to north of the Mason-Dixon line, and the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which cleared the way for extending slavery into territories not yet granted statehood. Passage m 1854 of the Kansas-Nebraska Act prompted outbreaks of violence across Kansas and drew an impassioned response from Thoreau-\"Slavery in Massachusetts\"-which he delivered to a convention of abolitionists.4 .4 In Thoreau's wntings, the Concord elms are a metaphor for the abolition movement, particularly for the Free Soil Party, which had been formed m response to the indecisiveness of the Whigs and Democrats on the expansion of slavery. In a remarkable passage, Thoreau implores the freedom-lovers to remain true to their principles and to seek equilibrium between old and new, past and progress, conservative and radical. The elms, writes Thoreau, \"are free-soilers in their own broad sense.\" \" north and south and east and west mto many a Carolina, who does not suspect such underground railroads-they improve the subsoil he has never disturbed-and many times their length, if the support of their principles requires it. They battle with the tempests of a century. See what scars they bear, what limbs they lost before we were born! Yet they never adjourn; they steadily vote for their principles, and send their roots further and wider from the same centre. They die at their posts, and they leave a tough butt for the choppers to exercise themselves about, and a stump which serves for their monument. roots They send their conservative's Kansas and Writing of the relationship between the living sapwood (alburnum~ and the dead heartwood (duramen), Thoreau contmues to develop his metaphor. The elms \"combine a true radicalism with a true conservatism.\" Yet, 29 Their radicalism is not cutting away of roots, but an infinite multiplication and extension of them under all surrounding institutions. They take a firmer hold on the earth that they may nse higher mto the heavens. Their conservative heartwood, m which no sap longer flows, does not impoverish their growth, but is a firm column to support it; and when their expandmg trunks no longer require it, it utterly decays. Their conservatism is a dead but solid heart-wood, which is the pivot and firm column of support to all this growth, appropriatmg nothmg to itself, but forever by its support assistmg to extend the area of their radicalism. Half a century after they are dead at the core, they are preserved by radical reforms. They do not, like men, from radicals turn conservative. Their conservative part dies out first; their radical and growmg part survives. (and Free Sellers) will \"acquire new States and Territories, while the old dominions\"-the slaveholdmg South-\"decay, and become the habitation of In the end the elms bears and owls and coons.\" days, however, the elms of Concord were simply Thoreau's companions, he loved and mourned. In January of 1856 Thoreau witnessed the felling of a great elm. The tree, which measured more than fifteen feet in circumference, had made creaking noises in a recent storm, frightening neighboring homeowners into believing that the great mass of wood was about to crash onto their roofs. For Thoreau, the destruction of this tree represented the slaughter of a priceless witness to the history of the commumty. \"I have attended the felling,\" he wrote m his Journal, \"and, so to speak, the funeral of this old citizen of the town ... I have not known a fitter occasion for a sermon of late.\" Having \"taken the measure of his grandeur,\" Thoreau spoke \"a few words of eulogy at his grave, remembering the maxim de mortms nil nisi bonum (in this case magnum)\" [speak nothing but good of the dead (m this case the best\/]. But only the woodchoppers and passersby heard his words. The shattered tree had hardly come to rest than the \"axe-boys had chmbed upon it like ants\" and begun hacking at its limbs. \"How have the mighty fallen!\"eulogrzed Thoreau, \"Methmks its fall marks an epoch m the history of the town.\" On most mates soul How much of old Concord falls with it! The town clerk will not chromcle its fall. I will, for it is of greater moment to the town than that of many a human inhabitant would be. Instead of erecting a monument to it, we take all possible pams to obliterate its stump, the only monument of a tree which is commonly allowed to stand. How much of old Concord was cut away with it! A few such elms would alone constitute a township. They might claim to send a representative to the General Court to look after their mterests, if a fit one could be found, a native American one m a true and worthy sense, with catholic principles. one of its venerables.\" The woodcutters of the king-posts of the town.\" \"Is it not sacrilege,\" he \" asked, \"to cut down the tree which has so long looked over Concord beneficently?\" Once the tree had been felled, its great size awed even Thoreau. His fellow Concordians seemed oblivious to the glory of the living elm and would not appreciate this magnificent specimen of plant life until it lay prostrate on the earth. At a dinner party shortly before the woodchoppers laid low the tree, he tried to convey the sense of wonder that the behemoth stirred m him. \"I surprised some the other day,\" he wrote m his journal, recountmg the mcident, \"by saying that when its trunk should lie pros- \"Our town,\" concluded Thoreau, \"has lost axe ... \"have laid the to one 30 would be higher than the head of the tallest man in the town, and that two such trunks could not stand in the chamber we were then in, which was fifteen feet across; that there would be ample room for a double bedstead on the trunk, nay, that the very dinner-table we were sitting at, with our whole party of seven, chairs and all, around \" it, might be set there.\" Just as he had plumbed the depths of Walden Pond, Thoreau recorded the girths of the elms of Concord.~These records were for him \"the quantitative expression of his immersion in Nature,\" writes Alfred Kazin, \"proof positive that he touched Nature on every side.\"' In the winter of 1846, Thoreau had measured the waters of Walden Pond, in part to prove that local wisdom regarding its depth was utterly in error. \"It is remarkable how long men will believe in the bottomlessness of a pond,\" he wrote, \"without taking the trouble to sound it. \"8 With its annual rings exposed by the axe, the trunk of the great elm offered a precise record of the tree's journey in time. Yet it seems that only Thoreau possessed the imagination to count them. \"Men have been talking now for a week at the post office about the age of the great elm,\" he wrote, \"as a matter interesting but impossible to be determined.\" Even the very men who felled the tree \"stood upon its prostrate trunk and speculated upon its age, as if it were a profound mystery.\"He endeavored to show them that in fact there was no mystery at all, but his words fell on deaf ears. By Thoreau's measure, the elm had lived 127 years, but no one took seriously his method or his result. Some villagers insisted that the tree was 200 years old; one maintained it was closer to 150 years, having spent 50 years growing, another 50 standmg still, and a final 50 dying. (\"Wonder what portion of his career he stood still!\"Thoreau wrote.)As with the storied depths of Walden Pond, Thoreau was incredulous that men would choose to remain ignorant when the truth lay within easy reach, requiring but a simple act of measurement to bring forth. \"Truly they love darkness rather than light,\" he wrote in his journal. trate it ~ They dwell within an mtegument of prejudice thicker than the bark of the corktree, but it is valuable chiefly to stop bottles with. Tied to their buoyant prejudices, they keep themselves afloat when honest swimmers smk. Mary Emerson alone offered this rational poet a measure of consolation: \"It was not the fashion to be so original when I was young,\" she told Thoreau, before agreeing that mdeed the fallen elm had revealed its truths only to him. The autumnal elm, with its \"early and golden maturity,\" made a particularly strong impression on the Concord naturalist. \"It would be worth the while,\" he wrote in \" Autumnal Tints, \"to set out these trees, if only for their autumnal value.\" Think of these great yellow canopies or parasols held over our heads and houses by the mile together, making the village all one and compact-an ulmanum, which is at the same time a nursery of men! And then how gently and unobserved they drop their burden and let m the sun when it is wanted, their leaves not heard when they fall on our roofs and m our streets; and thus the village parasol is shut up and put away' \" \" \" Thoreau saw autumn as States. It was an symbolic of the glorious destiny he predicted for the United appropriate metaphor, for the vibrant colors of the northern decidu- ous forests rank among North America's greatest natural wonders. The seasons of human progress had brought the American to these autumnal shores, where a rich bounty would be harvested as its people grew m wisdom and maturity.9 31 The great fall of elm leaves in October transformed Concord mto \"a scene of a great harvest-home,\" its paths and walks strewn with the summer's spent array. In their form and color, the great yellow masses remmded Thoreau of sheaves of wheat; it was \"as if the harvest had indeed come to the village itself.\" Now, he suggested, \"we might expect to find some maturity and flavor in the thoughts of the villagers at last.\" Would there be, he wondered, an \"answering ripeness\" in the lives of the men who lived beneath these glorious domes. He found it untenable that such beauty could accompany mean and illiberal thoughts. \"Under those bright rustling yellow piles ...\"wrote Thoreau, \"how can any crudity or greenness of thought or act prevail?\" As he watched a farmer disappear beneath the village elms, his wagon creaking beneath the fruits of his summer, Thoreau was tempted to follow the man to the granary, perchance to witness a \"husking of thoughts, now dry and ripe, and ready to be separated from their integuments ...\" But he turned away, knowmg it would be \"chiefly husks and little \" thought ... for, as you sow, so shall you reap.\" For all his seriousness of purpose, Thoreau never lost his playful, rhapsodic voice. Standing beneath a cluster of October elms, \"warm from their September oven,\" he imagined that he stood \"within a ripe pumpkin-rind\"; \"I feel as mellow as if I were the pulp,\" he quipped, \"though I may be somewhat stringy and seedy withal.\" For this man, walking beneath the October elms of Concord was itself a harvest-of seeds and thoughts he had sown himself-and which many generations would reap. NOTES Unless otherwise noted, quotations from Henry David Thoreau can be found m the Riverside editions of The Journals of Henry David Thoreau, VIII (Nov. 1, mches m circumference at six feet from ground, the size of one of the branches of the Davis elm Cheney's largest m front of Mr. Frost's, 12 feet 4 mches, at six feet, 16 feet 6 mches, at one foot. The great elm opposite Keyes's land, near by (call it the Jone's elm): 17 feet 6 mches, at two behmd and one plus before; 15 feet 10 mches, at four, 15 feet 5 inches, at six; 16 feet at seven and a half, or spike on west side. At the smallest place between the ground and branches, this is a httle bigger than the Davis elm, but it is not so big at or near the ground, nor is it so high to the branching ... nor are the branches so big, but it is much sounder, and its top broader, fuller, and handsomer.\" See Thoreau, \/ournal, 135-136. ... 1855-Aug. 15, 1856). 117, 130-132; 139-142; X (Aug. 8, 1857-June 29, 1858): 89 (edited by Bradford Torrey and Francis H and \"Autumnal Tmts\" 1883), Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1906); in Excursions (Houghton Miffhn, pages 233-234. Allen, 1 Charles Joseph Latrobe, The Rambler m North Amemca, vol. 1 (New York: Harper & Brothers, 1835), (, 43-44. z Mircea Eliade, The Sacred and the York: Harcourt Brace, 1959), 20-31. Profane (New 7 3 John R. Stilgoe, Common Landscape of Amenca (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1982), 57. William Howarth, ed. Walden and Other Wntmgs (New York: Modern Library, 1981),xxiv Alfred Kazm, A Wmter's America Landscape Literature (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1988), 61. m 4 8 5 Robert L. Gale, A Cultural Encyclopedia of the 1850s m Amenca (Londom Greenwood Press, 1993), 139140 The Free Soilers, established m 1848, \"adopted a platform with three mam planks. no slavery m the territories, no slavery in any new state, and free Henry David Thoreau, \"The Pond in Winter,\" in Walden and Other Wmtmgs, William Howarth, ed. (New York: Modern Library, 1981), 256. William 9 Howarth, xxvn. homesteadmg rights for public domam settlers. The spirited slogan of the new party-'Free Soil, Free Speech, Free Labor, Free Men'-gave the party its 6 name.\" \" Thoreau made the followmg entry on 23 January, 1856: \"Holbrook's elm measured to-day 11 feet 4 Thomas J. Campanella is an urbamst and historian. His books mclude Cities from the Sky (Pnnceton Architectural Press, 2001) and Repubhc of Shade (Yale University Press, forthcoming). He teaches m the department of urban studies and planning at MIT, and is a Mercer Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News From The Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25347","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d4eed260a36b.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"The Arnold oretum , , \/ ~, N E W 5 . 2 0 0 1 Projects, Programs, and Research: Planning for the Future Robert E. Cook, Director Rising out of the ground below the Dana Greenhouses is a visible harbinger of change at the Arnold Arboretum. On a sloping, threeacre site, massive fieldstone walls that were constructed over the summer have formed a series of terraces to hold a new collection of sun-loving shrubs and vines Soon a steel-framed, wood-covered pavilion will be erected to provide a shady resting place overlooking the collection beds and the great lawn that runs down the center of the garden. This project is one of several major landscape improvements that will be completed over the next two years. These physical transformations will be accompanied by other significant changes in the programs and operations of the Arboretum. New goals, consistent with our traditional mission of research and education, are emerging from the long-range planning process that have engaged the staff over the past ten months. One goal will include a renewed commitment to improve the physical setting and, therefore, the image of the Arboretum in the eyes of the public. The shrub and vine garden described above will set a new standard of excellence to be followed in renewing the older parts of the grounds-the gates and walls, the benches and pathways, location and directional signage. We are also contemplating a significant expansion of the Arboretum's public and professional education programs. The Radcliffe Institute (formerly Radcliffe College) has approached us about the possibility of merging their programs in landscape design and landscape design history with our existing adult education programs. Through a series of rigorous courses and studios, the Radcliffe programs have for 35 years offered part-time and continuing education students a curriculum that leads to a certificate in landscape design and landscape design history. Providing a home at the Arboretum for the programs would greatly enhance our educational acumues. Finally, the planning process has revealed significant dissatisfaction with the future prospects for scholarly work at the Arboretum, which currently includes research on the lmmg collections in Jamaica Plain, herbarium and library research in Cambridge, and research conducted in foreign settings such as the tropical forests of Southeast Asia. It is unclear that the existing criteria for research appointments and the related support systems truly serves the longterm interest and international reputation of the institution. Alternative configurations of the research model are not easy to envision because of the complicated relations between the Arboretum and academic units at Harvard At the very least, the long-range plan will include a call for change in the model and an outline of the benefits that such a change might bring to our programs of research and education on woody plants around the world. Mary Gibson Henry Medal Honors Carroll Wood Carroll E. Wood, Jr., professor of biology emeritus at Harvard University, is among the first recipients of the Mary Gibson Henry Medal, presented on September 7 at the Henry Botanic Garden in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. Dr. Wood has enjoyed a long association with Harvard Univer- ~ contznued on page 2 . from page1 sity and the Arnold Arboretum. He received a master of arts from Harvard in 1947 and a doctorate in 1949. After serving as a biology instructor for the Faculty of Arts and Sciences from 1949 to 1951, Dr. Wood became an associate curator for the Arboretum in 1954 and a curator in 1970, a position he held until his retirement in 1988. He lectured on taxonomy at Harvard between 1964 and 1972, when he was named a professor of biology. Dr. Wood continues to focus his energies on the completion of his Generac Flora of the Southeastern United States. Smce its begmmng in 1954, 162 papers of this prodigious work have been published, both in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum and the Harvard Papers zn Botany. While a student at the Umversity of Pennsylvania in 1942, Dr. Wood became acquainted with Mary Gibson Henry during a collecting trip for the University's Flora of Pennsylvania. Their common interest in native plants kept them in contact over the years, beginning with a gift of Arizona yuccas and cacti he sent to Mrs. Henry during the war years. Later, he provided scientific support for some of her plant discoveries, including writing the Latin description for Lzlrum zrzdollae, the pot-of-gold lily. (See Mary Harrison's article \"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire\" in Arnoldia, vol 60, no. 1.) Around the time of Mrs. Henry's death in 1967, Dr. Wood became a member of the Board of the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research and has been instrumental in the acquisition of additional land and of nonprofit status for the Foundation's gardens. The Henry Botanic Garden honored Dr. Wood and three other medal recipients with a ceremony and reception at the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, where, on 50 acres, a wide variety of plants grow in naturalistic woodland and hillside settings and research gardens promote genetic diversity. Dr. Wood, who contributed wildcollected plant material to the garden's collections, was cited for his \"extraordinary contributions to botanical research.\" Albert J. Fordham, 1911 -2000 Al Fordham, who retired in 1976 as head propagator and research horticulturist of the Arnold Arboretum, passed away last December at the age of 89 in Norwood, Massachusetts. He had been affiliated with the Arboretum for nearly 50 years. Al will be remembered for his many contributions to horticulture, including the many new cultivars of dwarf conifers he developed and his work on woody plant seed germination. Al began his career at the Arboretum in 1929 as a student intern to propagator William H. Judd. In 1936 he spent a year studying European horticultural practices at the Royal Botanic Garden in Kew. After three years of service in the U.S. Army Infantry during World War II, Al returned to the Arboretum as assistant superintendent of grounds. From 1958 to 1976, he was the sole plant propagator at Harvard University, and it was during this period that the propagation department of the Arboretum was reorgamzed and the Dana Greenhouses were designed and built. Al's work was distinguished by a willingness to test new methods of propagation and by his fastidious recording of experimental results. In addition to teaching and lecturing extensively on propagation, he published more than 100 research papers between 1958 and 1975, many in the pages of this magazine. His research topics included the barriers that hinder germination of woody plant seeds, the role of physiological juvemlity in plant propagation, and methods of seed dispersal. He also studied microclimates as they relate to plant survival. In 1963 Al began collecting and experimenting with seed from witches' brooms, which resulted in the introduction of several new cultivars of Pznus bankstana, P. strobus, and P. resznosa. He gave his cultivars native American names such as \"Merrimack,\" v v contznued on page 3 IMLS Grant Integrates Past and Present Collections The Arnold Arboretum was recently awarded a $49,000 conservation support grant from the federal government's Institute of Museum and Library Services in Washington, D.C. As outlined in the proposal, written by Jianhua Li and Peter Del Tredici, the grant will be used to finish integrating data from the Arboretum's herbarium specimens into the living collections database (BG-Base). The project will proceed in three interrelated steps. The first is to enter information into the database from each sheet (voucher) of specimens that have been collected on the Arnold Arboretum's grounds. The staff will then be able to generate a list of plants that have not been vouchered or whose specimens do not include diagnostic structures (mostly flowers and fruits), leading to the second step: specimen collection, preparation, and data entry for those plants. In the third step, data will be entered for existing herbarium specimens representing plants no longer growing on the grounds. At its most basic level, the project will allow the staff to learn which plants now growing on the grounds are not adequately represented by specimens in the herbarium. In addition, it will expand the database to include not only plants currently living on the grounds, but also those that have ever grown here and are represented by an herbarium specimen. Our services to botanical and horticultural communities at home and abroad will also be enhanced since the database will be one of the most comprehensive voucher systems for large living collections in the world, a crucial component of meaningful scientific Botanical drawing of Salisburia adiantbifolia (Ginkgo biloba) from Siebold and Zuccarini's Flora Japonica, courtesy of the Arnold Arboretum Library. research. The Arboretum staff have been working slowly and deliberately to achieve this goal for over ten years, but the IMLS grant will allow us to incorporate the last 24,000 herbarium specimens into the living collections database in timely fashion. The project team, to be coordinated by Jianhua Li, will include Kyle Port, Susan Kelley, Irtna Kadis, and Sara Straate. ~ ~ from page2 'Chippewa,' and 'Neponset' in recognition of New England's tribal heritage. In 1985 Al himself was recognized for his pioneering work with conifers by the naming of Prnztr parvzflora 'A1 Fordham'. Over the years, Al was honored for his achievements by a number of amateur and professional organizations. He was an honorary member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, which awarded him its Jackson Dawson Medal in 1965. Other honors included awards of merit from the International Plant Propagators Society (1971), from the International Lilac Society (1973), and the American Conifer Society (2000). He also received a professional citation and certificate of appreciation from the American Horticultural Society. In 1976 Al retired from his Arboretum duties but continued his horticultural research as well as writing, lecturing, and consulting. Among other post-retirement achievements, he published the Arnoldia Manual of Propagatzon of Selected Conzferr in 1977 as a separate issue of this magazine. Al Fordham's expertise and his insatiable curiosity about all aspects of plant development proved a timely fit for an institution that required a master propagator and a steady stream of new material for its living collections. Through his published work, his classes, and his lectures, he taught a generation of New England gardeners about plant propagation and left a legacy to horticulturists throughout the world. E8 Summer Interns The 2001 Summer Interns in the Arboretum's largest white oak (Quercus alba), from left to right: John Backer, Rose Morgan, Sarah Carter, Sara Straate, Dan March, Bethany Knorr, Emma Stark Schiffman, Kim Rennick, Steve Egger, Nicole Napoleon, Marissa Farris, Whitney O'Hanian. Not pictured: Jean Gauthier. Tides Foundation to Receive Plant Sale Donation The Tides Foundation's 9\/11 Fund will receive $5,000 from the Arnold Arboretum to support relief efforts for the events of September 11. Director Robert E. Cook announced at the annual fall plant sale that proceeds from the live auction would be donated to assist those immediately affected by the tragedy, and that a Quercus coccznea (scarlet oak) would be planted on Peters Hill to commemorate the victims. The Tides Foundation was chosen by Arboretum staff as the recipient of the Arboretum's gift. The Tides 9\/11 Fund was established to meet immediate and long-term needs in the wake of September 11 and to promote a just and peaceful national response to this cmsis. As of October 22, over $335,000 had been raised for this fund, and $215,000 in grants had been allocated to 18 organizations. In crafting their grant-making strategy, the Tides Foundation has worked to blend their core values of social and economic justice with the pressing needs created in the aftermath of the attacks. For more information about this fund or for a complete list of grantees, contact the Foundation at mfoC~tides.org. The James Arnold Society The Arnold Arboretum is proud to announce the formation of the James Arnold Society, named for the benefactor whose bequest made possible the Arboretum we value so much today. This new society will recognize those who have made life income gifts or bequest provisions for the Arnold Arboretum. If you have included the Arboretum in your long-term charitable plans, we would like to welcome you into this special group. Members of the James Arnold Society will be invited to events at the Arboretum and receive a complimentary invitation to any one of the Harvard University-sponsored financial and estate-planning seminars. Please contact Anne McClintock or Amy Goldman of University Planned Giving at 800.446.1277 or pgo@harvard.edu to discuss your current gift arrangements or to explore ways to benefit the Arboretum through a life income gift or bequest. Your inquiry will be held in the strictest confidence. For more information, please visit www.haa.harvard.edu\/pgo."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23345","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260bb6e.jpg","title":"2001-61-2","volume":61,"issue_number":2,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Splendid Haul of Cyrus Guernsey Pringle","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25343","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070856f.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"The Splendid Haul of Cyrus Guernsey Pringle good active collector could make a Rob Nicholson A splendid haul by putting in a season between Monterey and Saltillo including high mountain valleys not hard to reach but involving hard work and some risks.-C. C. Parry to Asa Gray,1878 Pringle and two other Vermont Quakconscripted and sent to a military camp on an island in Boston harbor in late August of 1831, they were thrown into the guardhouse: When ers were f Henry David Thoreau created the model England activist-biologist, then perhaps its finest exemplar was a modest man from the hills of Vermont, Cyrus Guernsey Pringle, whose very name resonates with agrarian Yankee rectitude. Beginning in humble circumstances, Pringle went on to capture the attention of an American president, work with legendary Harvard botanists, and achieve a the New for record of botanical fieldwork in Mexico that is prison in our own land for no offence to God nor man: nay, more: we are here for obeymg the commands of the Son of God and the influences of his Holy Spirit. I must look for patience m this dark day. I am troubled too much and excited and perplexed. Here we are m crimes, no unsurpassed today. C. G. Pringle was born into a farming family in East Charlotte, Vermont, on May 6, 1838. After attending local secondary schools he enrolled at the University of Vermont in 1859, but soon had to return to the farm because of a death in the family. Pringle became an avid and skilled horticulturist at a young age, developing new strains of vegetables and reporting his results in horticultural journals. His hybridizing work with potatoes was so successful that a seedhouse in New York purchased the marketing rights for new varieties. It was not his commingling of plant genes that first brought Pringle public attention, however, but his refusal to be drafted into the Union Army during the Civil War. A devout Quaker and pacifist, he refused to perform any task that would support the war effort, and although draftees could hire proxies to fill in for them, he also refused an uncle's offer to pay his commutation money. The diary of his wartime experience, published in 1918, portrays a strongwilled man of deep faith who remained uncompromising even while sometimes questioning his own zealousness. Over the next few weeks the prisoners were bullied by their military guards and urged even by other Quakers to agree to hospital work in lieu of active service. Still adamant, Pringle and his fellows were sent to Virginia, and guns were \"thrust over our heads and hung upon our shoulders.\" As they marched toward the battlefront, Pringle had his first glimpse of the aftershocks of battle: a country made weary country once adorned with groves and green pastures and meadows and fields of wavmg gram, and happy with a thousand homes, now laid with the ground, one realizes as he can m no other way something of the ruin that lies m the trail of a war. But upon these fields of Virginia, once so fair, there rests a twofold blight, first that of slavery, now that of war. When one contrasts the face of this country with the smiling hillsides and vales of New England, he sees stamped upon it m characters so marked, none but a blind man can fail to read, the great irrefutable arguments against slavery and against war too: and must be filled with loathmg for these twin relics of barbarism, so awful m the potency of their consequences that they can change even the face of the country. Seeing for the first time, with war-blight, a 3 For twenty-six years beginning in 1885, C. G. Pringle explored the flora of Mexico as a botanical collector for Harvard's Gray Herbarium. Although he hired assistants from both Vermont and Mexico, Filemon Lozano, seen here with Pnngle, was his principal assistant from 1902 on. 4 Despite punishments that included at one point ing on Sargent to direct his cadre of plant collecbehalf of his wood collection, but the disagreed about which species to prioritize, and Jesup bristled at what he saw as extravagant expenses. As a result of these disputes Sargent began pressing Pringle for faster results, and after receiving a particularly bullying set of demands in October of 1882, Pringle cabled his resignation from Arizona. Explaining the conflict in a letter to Asa Gray, he wrote: tors on two men being staked to the ground in the summer sun, Pringle would not relent. Through the intervention of Isaac Newton, the Secretary of Agriculture, who was sympathetic to the Quaker cause, Pringle and his fellows were taken to Washington where their case was brought before President Lincoln. When Pringle's health began to deteriorate, Lincoln \"was moved to sympathy on my behalf\" and he was paroled on November 6. After his three-month ordeal, Pringle returned to the family farm in East Charlotte and to his horticultural pursuits. He collected new varieties of grapes, currants, plums, tomatoes, and corn and resumed his hybridizing work with oats, wheat, tomatoes, plums, currants, gooseberries, and potatoes. During the 1870s he began to receive requests from the Boston area for specimens of native Vermont plants. The fern expert George Davenport of Medford, Massachusetts, for example, asked him for rare ferns from the Vermont woods. As a result of joining the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and other local botanical groups, Pringle met Asa Gray, the Harvard botanist who is often called the father of North American botany and whose family were to become lifelong supporters of Pringle's collecting efforts. In 1880 Pringle was given three commissions to collect in the western United States. For Dr. Gray he was to collect plants of general botanic interest; for the U.S. Census Department, he was to explore the region's forests under the direction of the Arnold Arboretum's Charles Sprague Sargent and submit systematic, geographical, and economic data; for the American Museum of Natural History's Jesup Collection of North American Woods, he was to obtain large samples of wood, also under Sargent's direction. This work would keep him in the West from 1880 until the fall of 1882. But during the course of Pringle's expedition, disputes arose between Sargent and Morris K. Jesup. Jesup was a wealthy New Yorker who had helped found the American Museum of Natural History and who was underwriting the Museum's effort to collect logs from every tree species in the United States. Jesup was depend- All season [Sargent] has goaded me on to completion of the Museum work, demanding impossibilities of me. He wished me to suspend m great measure (or entirely so) my own collectmg, but offered no terms to compensate me. I suspended the Museum work for my own but thirty-three days in an entire season. Yet I am charged with unfaithfulness, incapacity, and even, as I understand it, with dishonesty. I recollect saying I should endeavor to please Mr. Sargent but that he should never make me his hack. I expect him to be terribly angry and give me a bad name [13 November 1882]. as Pringle's patron and him to the Gray Herbarium as a appointed botanical collector. Gray wrote to Pringle saying that he preferred him to collect in Mexico, \"in new ground.\" From then on, Pringle's arena for plant collecting would be Mexico, where he undertook 39 expeditions between 1885 and 1909, some lasting as long as ten months. Pringle did continue to collect for Sargent occasionally. His field entry of November 10, 1907, reads: Gray continued spend another happy day on the mountainside above the Valley of Mexico ... I collect a half dozen species in scores and cones of two pines for Professor Sargent, P. teocote and Once again I P. pseudostrobus. on And through four occasions Pringle shepherded Mexico the eminent pine taxonomist George Russell Shaw, helping him find and identify a large number of Mexican pines, an exceedingly complex group. In 1909 the Arnold Arboretum published Shaw's work as The Pines of Mexico. Cyrus Pringle always began his expeditions by boarding the train at Charlotte for the long trip C. S. Sargent called Pachycereus pringlei one of the most interestmg of Prmgle's many Mexican discovemes. This drawmg, made from a photograph taken on San Pedro Martm Island, shows what is surely one of North Amenca's strangest and most remarkable forests. Sometimes more than thirty feet m height, P. pringlei is thicker and more ponderous than any other known cactus. Its flowers are scattered along the ribs, two or three feet from the top. southward. He usually brought with him some young men from the local area as assistants, but these Vermont farmboys often wilted in the heat and difficult conditions of Mexico. 1886 bad year, with two expedithat Pringle could return home with sick assistants. His journal entry for Sunday, July 25, reads like a Vermonter's haiku: was a particularly tions cut short so It may be a measure of the botanist's iron constitution that three weeks after his return to Vermont he boarded a train for Mexico a third time that year. O. W. Barrett, a Vermont botanist who had collected with Pringle both m Mexico and Vermont, described the difficulties faced by Pringle and his assistants: The worse. boys rested, I dried plants. Elmer Fred disgusted with Mexico. the gettmg Usually, one Mexican helper would be left at the \"base\" to guard the property and to \"change dryers,\"while an American assistant and perhaps a peon or two would \"fare afield.\" The \"base\" And It on following day, the surrender: having become apparent that Elmer could not stand the water, food, and climate of Mexico, it was decided best for him to return home: and as it seemed unsafe to send him alone, I could see no way but to take him home. Fred was ready to go, too, so we packed up and took the tram m the evening. might be a hacienda, a village mn, or a way station or water-tank on some railway. Changmg the dryers two to four times a day, for 500 to 1,000 specimens, was a tedious, though not difficult task in the \"Mesa\" regions during the \"dry season\"; but plant m the \"Tierra Cahente\" valuable material sometimes \"sweat\" and blackened when hot dryers were insufficient. Nearly all the field work was done between nine and 6 noon; rains were liable to come on suddenly m the afternoon, and hail, terrific lightning, and blinding dust from the Rio most of the year. To tramp an hour, often over rough Indian trails carrying three to four quarts of water (in the largest canteen he could obtain), a plant press full of paper, and the lunch, was just a prelude to the three hours or more of active collecting over the chosen ground. Usually fifty to seventy specimens of each of the two to five species were taken each field day ... [Davis storms were not rare to Grande Oaxaca, during 1936, 9-10]. Asa Gray had hired Pringle for a maximum salary of $800 a year from the Gray Herbarium and $200 from Harvard's Botanical Museum. After the death of Gray in January of 1888 and of Sereno Watson, curator of the Gray Herbarium, in 1892, support from Harvard disappeared, although Gray's widow, Jane Loring Gray, tided Pringle over with a personal loan, later burning the note m honor of her husband's memory. In 1893 Pringle was reinstated at Harvard with a reduced salary that fluctuated through the years. He supplemented his stipend in a variety of ways. Interestingly, he was an early worker in the field of bioprospecting, supplying specimens for the Instituto Medico National de Mexico and for two Eli American pharmaceutical firms, Lilly & Co. and Parke, Davis and Co. In his diary, Pringle wrote that: the University of of his specimens approached 155,000. \"(HeJ hked to boast-his only jest of this sort-that he could call over 10,000 plant acquaintances, and a few botanical fnends, by them proper names-though he was not certam as to who the president in Washington might happen to be\" (O. E. Barrett m Dams 1936, 13). J. Prmgle m his herbarium, which m was installed m at Vermont, Burlmgton, 1902. At his death 1911 the number [T]he Instituto Medico National is not a medical school but an mstitution endowed by the nation for botanical study and the investigation of the remedial values of plants by the physicians of the city. Extensive collections of plants are bemg gathered here, and there are laboratories for chemical and bacteriological study. I was gratified to find my Chihuahua herbarium preserved here intact and to learn it was esteemed of highest value, that it is to be kept separate, and to be extended by my present and future collections [7 September 1891]. More income regularly, however, he earned extra by selling mounted duplicates of his to subscribers in the U.S. and abroad-thus the fifty to seventy specimens of each species mentioned by Barrett above. Pringle referred to this added burden in a letter of 1887: specimens Would and to pointed subscribers. hear the howl of forty disapYet to travel free and light collect but a few specimens, how easy! not like to 7 The list of recipients of Pringle's specimens, in the archives of the Pringle Herbarium at the University of Vermont in Burlington, includes leading botanists and forty herbariums, among them the Smithsonian Institution, the British Museum, the California Academy of Science, the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and Edinburgh, the New York Botanic Garden, and the Missouri Botanic Garden. Sets were sold from each year's haul and although the numbers of specimens offered each year varied, the price was always ten cents per herbarium sheet. It was not a lucrative business, and Pringle struggled financially for most of his life. The list of Pringle's Mexican specimens numbers 15,719 separate taxa, with representatives from 21 of the 30 Mexican states. In all of North America, he collected a phenomenal 500,000 herbarium specimens of 20,000 different species during the course of his thirty-five-year career. Because so much of his work was done in remote areas of Mexico, these included approxinow weekly under the guidance of C. S. Sargent from 1888 to 1897. Its first issue included Pringle's notes on his discovery of extreme northern populations of Begonia gracilis var. maritima and Dahlia coccinea. Of the begonia he wrote: When botamzmg last September upon the cordilleras of North Mexico some two hundred miles south of the Umted States Boundary, I found growmg m black mould of shaded ledges-even m the thm humus of mossy rocks-at an elevation of 7,000 to 8,000 feet, a plant of striking beauty, which Mr. Sereno Watson identifies as Begonia gracihs, HBK., From a var. Maritima, A.DC. world's best collections of Mexican flora in an old brick building that is surrounded by powdery snow through much of the year. The Pringle Herbarium at the University of Vermont holds many Mexican type specimens (the initial collection of a plant), and even today taxonomists working on the Mexican flora depend on loans from this repository to establish accurate mately 1,200 species new to science. It is incongruous to find one of the small tuberous root it sends up to a height of one to two feet a smgle crimson-tinted stem, which terminates in a long raceme of scarlet flowers, large for the genus and long enduring. The plant is still embellished by clusters of scarlet gemmae in the axils of its leaves. Mr. Watson writes: \"It was in cultivation fifty years or more ago, but has probably been long ago lost. It appears to be the most northern species of the genus and should be the most hardy.\" Certainly the earth freezes and snows fall m the high region, where it is at home [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 7]. more than thirty articles Pnngle wrote for Garden and Forest, other botanists, including Sereno Watson and the fern In addition to the that generic relationships. For example, Pringle's herbarium contains five type specimens of Tigridla, a member of the iris family that is also known as clownflower because of its spectacularly colored blossoms. The botanist Elwood Molseed used these and many of Pringle's other Tigridia specimens to make taxonomic revisions of the genus in 1965. They were used again in 1994 by A. Espejo and A. R. Lopez-Ferrari, two researchers from the Universitad Nacional Autonoma Mexico. Given the availability of new expert George Davenport, contributed articles based entirely on Pringle's Mexican collections. In fact, Pringle's work in Mexico and the plants he found there constitute a running theme throughout the life of the journal. In the sixth issue he began \"The Forest Vegetation of Northern Mexico,\" the first of four series of articles on the Mexican flora; for those who plan to collect there, it is an invaluable primer. Another series, \"Notes on the Ligneous Vegetation of the Sierra Madre of Nuevo Leon,\" shows Pringle writing for his armchair audience, people who would probably never follow in his tracks: Across this Sierra Madre range the traveler by train of the Mexican National Railroad between Monterey and Saltillo is borne almost as swiftly technologies, Cyrus Pringle's complete to collections may one day return digitized form via CD-Rom. Mexico in The journal that served as the principal outlet for Pringle's writings about the Mexican flora was Garden and Forest, which was published and gently as though by the enchanted tapestry of the Arabian Nights. Looking backward and to the south-east as the train mounts the mesas of Garcia and nears the base of the mountains, he sees several successive ranges with serrated summits nsmg one above the other and recedmg 8 HE Tiger-flower, Mexico, T Pavonia, early the well known Tigridis native of the valleys of southern attracted the attention of the Spana ish conquerors, and became known by reputation under the name of Tigridis flos long before it had been seen by any botanist. It was first described by L'Obel (Lobelius) in his Plantarum Historia, published at Antwerp in 1576, where he gives a very rough but recognizable wood-cut of the plant ... Hernandez also describes it in the Historia Plantarum Navx (1651), ~, same Hispanm giving the Latin name, Flos tigndis, and the Aztec name, Oceloxochitl. He speaks of it as growing in gardens though it and cultivated fields about the City of Mexico, were as cultivated both for its flowers and for its edible bulbs.... Upon the description by L'Obel, and on account of its bril- Oceloxbchitl liant, though fugitive, flowers, it has maintained its place m gardens ever since. This species is the only one hitherto known belonging to the true Tigridia section of the genus, havmg large flowers and decurrent stigmas.... T. Pringlei is a recent discovery made by Mr. C. G. Pringle in the mountains of Chihuahua, much farther to the north than any other species has ever been found.... it is very closely related to T. Pavonia, and if color alone were to decide, it might be considered a variety of it, though differing markedly even in that respect from the old species.... In cultivation at Cambridge [Massachusetts] this season the bulbs commenced to bloom in July and continued to flower for several weeks. S(ereno) W(atson) J [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 388-389] 9 far away est m the soft blue haze [Garden and For- 3 (1890) : 337-338]. A short note, \"The Home of the Jacobean at the Pringle Herbarium bears a from his old mentor, Asa Gray, calling quote him \"the prince of botanical collectors.\" Again oring him shows that not only did Pringle collect and distribute bulbs (without being sure of their identity), but that he sent them as far away as Kew Gardens in London for trial. It is with some surprise that I hear that bulbs collected last autumn on the foothills of the Cordilleras of western Chihuahua, having flowered Lily,\" O. W. Barrett: m the Mexican \"make a clean sweep\"-taking specimens of all the species of trees, shrubs, and herbs in each region he \"worked,\" not merely \"skimmmg\" the area for likely \"cream\" of new species. He easily could have gleaned a much greater percentage of new species m the same regions m half the time he did spend; but he conscientiously adhered to his principles, from his deep love and respect for his chosen work-hence the world today has what might be called true Pringle photographic records of Mexican florae mstead of mcomplete and personally biased sketches of scattered areas. By grouping the Pringle herbarium sheets from a given locality, we have an accurate panorama of the plant population thereof. Probably no other plant collector has ever followed this plan so well over such a vast territory (Davis 1936, 9-11]. ]. Doctor Pringle, unhke his rivals to field, was wont to be Sprekeha formosissima. So borders! The bulbs were found about six inches deep in light brown soil of ledges or rocky hills, dry situations, where the soil of ledges were not crowded upon by many other species. Buried at this depth it is very likely that the bulbs are out of reach of frost. The plants were m leaf throughout the autumn, and grew sometimes even m beds, which at flowering time, probably when the first rams came early m July, must be a brilliant sight [Garden and Forest 1 at Kew prove near our (1888~: 309]. While Pringle did occasionally collect live plants for the commercial nursery market, especially Tigridia bulbs and orchids, he was primarily a botanical collector. Having seen many of his specimen sheets at the University of Vermont, I can vouch for their being not only of highest quality in terms of mounting and character sets (important identifying floral features), (, but also tantalizing as potential garden plants. His Salvia collections would put to shame the selection currently available in nurseries. Salvia roeneriana \/#10,160) shows beautiful Heucheralike felted leaves in a basal rosette with a spike of cardinal red flowers. In Iguala Canyon in Guerrero State he found Salvia muralis (#10,328) with two-and-a-half-inch flowers of reddish-orange. My favorite is Salvia sessel (#8,378\/, with its huge balloonish bracts of pink, but I would like to propagate them all. Despite poverty and physical hardship, Pringle continued to work in Mexico even after his trusted assistant Filemon Lozano, in 1909, \"reasons with me out of the kindness of his pressed only of an assemblage of plants at a certain place and time, but of the man himself-industrious, enraptured by nature, and above all else, the consumtens Pringle's of thousands of dried and us a specimens give portrait not mate field botanist. Sources Davis, Helen Burns. 1936. Life and Work of Cyrus Guernsey Pringle. Burlington. University of Vermont. Pringle, C. G. 1885-1909. Field Notes Archives of the Pringle Herbarium, University Burlington. . 1918. The Record of Vermont, a of Quaker Conscience~ Cyrus Pringle's Diary. New York. The Macmillan Company. Sargent, C. S., and W. A. Stiles, eds. 1888-1897. Garden and Forest http:\/\/lcweb.loc gov\/preserv\/prd\/ gardfor\/gfhome.html. Sutton, S. B. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge : Harvard University Press. heart, advising me to come no more.\" Pringle Rob Nicholson, who manages the conservatones of the Smith College Botanic Garden, Northampton, Massachusetts, has made several plant-collecting trips to returned for two more short visits, making the last of his 39 expeditions m October 1909. He passed away at the age of 73, on May 25, 1911, after a short bout of pneumonia. A plaque hon- Mexico. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes of Mexican Travel [1888, 1893, 1894]","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25340","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070bb6d.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pringle, Cyrus Guernsey","article_content":"NOTES from Fremontii, var. OF MEXICAN TRAVEL THE FOREST VEGETATION OF NORTHERN MEXICO.-II. Wislizeni, Watson Cottonwood. - Though the impression that the high plains of North Mexico are destitute of few unimportant exceptions must be mentioned. Conspicuous arborescent vegetation, among these is this Cottonwood, which rears high its rounded head of abundant bright green foliage, in striking contrast throughout most of the year with the gray and brown tints of the surrounding landscape. This tree is not abundant, because water is not abundant ; for it is a sure index of the presence of living water either on the surface of the soil or not far below it. It grows scatteringly along streams or clustered about springs. Its centre of distribution is on the Rio Grande, and it follows this river northward to its upper waters in south Colorado and the Tributaries of this river from whatever direction into their narrower mountain canons. Westward it ranges along the boundary quite to the Pacific, and southward extensively through the valleys of Mexico, and there often carried by man considerably beyond its indigenous limits. Cheering to the traveler over heated and dusty hills and plains is the sight of its shining leafage with promise of refreshmg shade and water. The Mexicans seem to regard this tree with sentiments similar to those cherished by the Orientals for the Palm or the New Englander for the Maple. They plant it by the water, convement to which they have built their dwellings, and set it along their irrigating ditches. No visitor to Mexico but has noticed and admired that peculiar feature of Mexican cities, the avenue of grand old Poplars, double-lined on each side it may be, kept alive and flourishing, if on high ground, by streams of water conducted along the rows. The Spamsh name for the Cottonwoodfor any species of Poplar, in fact-is Alamo, that for this avenue Alameda, a noun having the form of the perfect participle-that is to say, the Poplared place.... a Pwas purposely OPULUS conveyed ... C. G. Pringle [Garden and Forest 1 (1888\/: 104, 105] The Alameda of Chihuahua. Populus Fremontii. Var. 11 1 IN A MEXICAN GARDEN few hours of a sunny day in October last I was a guest m an old garden in a situated by the base of the volcano of Toluca, fully 8,500 feet above the sea; and I found interest in observing what plants are employed by the Mexicans to form a flower-garden and how these succeed at so high an altitude. Light frosts fall m the region, but snows never. The season of growth extends from June to October, a short summer; and the sun during this period is obscured one-third of the time, while the temperature scarcely mounts above eighty degrees, Fahrenheit. The garden was a qumta, that is, a large garden in the suburbs of a town, devoted usually to flowers, fruits and vegetables, mixed. In the little interior court of their town-house the ladies of the family who entertained, cared for a similar collection of plants, growing m beds in the soil around the central fountam or in great red vases set in a line just under the colonnade surrounding the court-vases of Hydrangeas, Tuberoses, Lilies, Irises, Geraniums, Fuchsias, Roses, etc. The quinta was ampler, an acre or more in extent, and was located by the threshing-floor and granaries of the hacienda, where it joined the vilIt was enclosed with a high wall of adobes, more to afford seclusion and security than lage. shelter for the plants. Hither came the family with their friends, whenever they wished to leave their close house for a ramble and an hour in the open air. To serve this use is the design of the quinta. It was laid out with broad walks and borders and was shaded by a few trees. There was the Australian Gum-tree, the furor for which of twenty years ago the Mexicans shared, having been induced to plant it to the exclusion of more beautiful native trees by a German, who had a nursery m the capital city. It succeeds here only too well; there was the Montezuma Pine, Bentham's Cypress, Bonplant's Willow, of erect growth and dark green foliage, the Weeping Willow and the Pepper-tree, with drooping branches quite as graceful as the last and with finer foliage. Of shrubs I noted Viburnum Opulus, Datura arborea, a variety with blood-red flowers, the Crape Myrtle, the common Philadelphus, Cassia bicapsularis, with abundant yellow flowers long maintained; there were great clumps of a double-flowered Hibiscus ten feet high, Roses of choicest varieties scattered here and there, with a hedge of them hiding the back wall and overtopping it; Fuchsias in variety, six or eight feet high and woody with age, all blooming throughout most of the year, and Hydrangeas, favorite flowers with the Mexicans. Geraniums with double and with single flowers, and Pelargomums in variety stood, shrub-like, two to five feet high. There were Cactuses leaning agamst the walls or climbing over them; slender-stemmed species of Cereus and thick flat-jointed Opuntias, whose flowers are among the most striking, and whose fruits are edible. The tall grass, Arundo Donax, which is not uncommon in northern gardens, stood in large old clumps, and there were patches of Ribbon Grass (Phalaris arundinacea). Here, too, were large old masses of Agapanthus umbellatus, Mirabilis multiflora, Callas, Cannas, Crinums, Tigridias, Gladioluses and Irises, all alike thriving in the open soil. Among pretty native flowers, such as species of Salvia, Cuphea and Ipomoea, mingled many flowers whose acquaintance I made in the old-fashioned gardens of my New England home, such as Larkspurs, Marigolds, Pinks, Chrysanthemums, the Mullem Pink, the Jerusalem Cherry, the Everlasting Pea, the Bugloss, Viola odorata, V. tricolor, CEnothera bienms, Euphorbia, Lathyrus, Saxifraga crassifolia and Vinca major. To meet with these familiar flowers amid foreign scenes was like falling in with old friends abroad. F OR village a Charlotte, Vt. [Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 283] C. G. Pringle 12 IN JALISCO (1895) its varied flora, held me closely ninth season of botanical exploration m the my Mexican Republic. I arrived in Guadalajara, its capital, at the beginning of May last, and kept that base until I left the country in the middle of November. j The rains had not commenced when I entered the state, and its plains and hill-sides were brown and dry, as I had never before seen1 them, for the springs and rills were nearly all dry, and most of theI I trees and shrubs were still leafless. The few plants gathered during months of my stay were dearly won by diligent gleanthe first two ing of wide wastes. By the second week of June thunderstorms were advancing, evening by evening, from the southeast over the coast mountains of Michoacan. These soon traversed the entireI state, and were seen, if not encountered, each afternoon with unfailing certainty. About the lst of July all the landscape was covered with unfolding verdure, and from the middle of that month to the middle of October hosts of plants crowded upon the collector wherever he wandered. The last thunder-shower of the season , occurred on the 7th of October, and then followed almost cloudless days in long succession. The sunshine was still warm even on the table-lands, and under its influence the soil rapidly dried again, the springs and brooks ceased to flow, and the ripening and pass- \"For a hundred miles toward the ing of the vegetation was as swift as had been its rise and unfold- coast there is a labyrinth of ing. On the highlands a few light frosts fell during early November barrancas, whose wildness and to complete the destruction of the plants and to turn the botanist grandeur are wonderful....\" homeward, unless he chose to glean in the coast regions. Next to the four great states of the arid regions of the north-Sonora, Chihuahua, Coahuila and Durango-this state of Jalisco is the largest within the Republic. It is certamly the most populous and wealthy of all, and is second to none m fertility of soil. During the six years of my visiting it I have never known its varied harvests to fail in any degree. I have turned from other districts in years when rain failed to visit them, distressed by the sight of the hunger and squalor of their inhabitants, to find the Jaliscenses as well fed and as happy as ever. Lying upon the southern verge of the table-land and bordering the Pacific, this state is within the belt of abundant and unfailing summer rains, and this situation also ensures a climate which is nearly perfect. Its winter frosts are restricted to the higher lands, and even there are few and light. The Andean system, when passing through Jalisco, appears to be depressed or broken up. There are few elevations above 9,000 feet over sea-level, or 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the average of its plains. Here are many extensive plains, valleys and slopes of excellent fertility, and all of these are natural grazing-grounds in summer and winter. Wide fields of Wheat whiten the valleys in spring-time, and yield place to luxuriant crops of Maize in autumn, when the hill-sides up to the very summits are checkered with grain-fields. Toward the coast Cane-fields and Coffee-plantations abound, and in the various conditions offered by this state flourish the fruits of the entire list, tropical and temperate. Yet, notwithstanding so great prosperity, there is forced upon the observer the fact that the capacities of the HE T throughout state of Jalisco, by i soil are but half-developed. Until within a few years Jalisco has lain remote from the activity and progress of the world. Its capital was only reached by a journey of several days by diligence from the city of 13 Mexico, Blas. by long rides in saddle and diligence from the seaports of Manzanillo and San To-day the tourist is conveyed in a Pullman car over a branch of the Mexican Central, diverging from the main line at Irapuato. A ride thence of only seven or eight hours along the fertile valley of the Lerma brings him to Guadalajara, the proud \"Pearl of the West,\" as the Mexicans style this beautiful city with white-walled palaces and churches and flowery, umbrageous parks, a city second in size only to the national capital. It is situated on an undulating plam at an elevation of 5,000 feet above sea-level. In all directions from the city the view is bounded by hills either of volcanic or of granitic formation, five to ten miles distant, and 1,000 to 2,000 feet higher than the plain. Some of these hills appear of the most rocky and rugged character; others show softer lines, and are covered with a sparse and low forest composed chiefly of Pinus oocarpa and Quercus fulva. Twenty-five miles away to the south, beyond several small lakes, rises a chain of mountams some 8,000 feet in altitude, while in the west and north-west, thirty to forty miles distant, appear summits quite as elevated. These higher mountains are clad with forests in which Pinus Montezumae, or are the more important species. the great barranca. Passing northward over gravelly Guadalajara Every swells for five or six miles, one comes to the brink of a river-cut 1,500 feet deep. In the bottom he sees the Lerma, or Santiago, foaming white in its swift descent to the sea. The width of this barranca, from plain to plain, is about a mile. On its sides steep slopes alternate with sheer precipices hundreds of feet in height. The upper slopes are either open and grassy, or are covered with woody growths of numerous species. The lower or more accessible slopes are occupied by plantations of Bananas, Oranges, Mangoes and other tropical fruits; for into this gorge, where are gathered the warm rays of the sun, frosts and mountain breezes cannot descend. A paved trail, two miles in length, leads down to the river by zigzag windings over successive terraces, along the verges or bases of cliffs, and through dark alleys in Banana fields. The banks of the river are shaded by immense wild Figs and Cypresses. Beneath the shade is an Indian village, the huts being of the simplest construction, loose walls of rock surmounted by a thatch of coarse grass. Here, despite the shade, we find ourselves in the oppressive temperature of the tierra caliente. Passengers and freight are ferried across the river in rude canoes, while the beasts of burden are made to swim over. From the farther side of the river the traveler climbs out of the barranca by a trail equally long and difficult. During all the day there is a ceaseless stream of travel crossing this frightful chasm. As I have descended into this barranca almost daily for weeks of several different seasons, and have searched about its cliffs of various exposures, clambered over its dizzy slopes, or crowded through its thickets, it has seemed that the number of plants which it holds must be mexhaustible. Each year it has yielded new species. Yet this is but the first and uppermost of the barrancas of the Santiago and its tributaries. For a hundred miles toward the coast there is a labyrinth of barrancas, whose wildness and grandeur are wonderful, and similar barranca systems have been formed by every stream which flows down from the table-lands. During five seasons I had sojourned in Guadalajara for a few days or a few weeks at a time in different months of the year to work the surrounding country, its hills and plains, as well as its barrancas, and had taken out many hundreds of species; so my return last May was only to secure for general distribution certain new or rare species known to me, and to make one or two trips toward the sea before moving to a distant and fresh field. But while this object was being accomplished, so many plants offered themselves to my hand which were strange to me and promised novelty, that I kept to this field until the end of the season, and then brought out a richer harvest than ever before ... Quercus reticulata and Q. grrsea, and Arbutus varians visitor to must see C. G. Pringle [Garden and Forest 7 (1894) : 152-153] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Shapes of Trees: A Matter of Compromise","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25342","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070816b.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Thomas, Peter A.","article_content":"The Shapes of Trees: A Matter of Compromise tree's Peter Thomas he whole point of leaves get as much light as possible. At the same time, the tree must attend to its needs for pollination and seed dispersal and cope with environmental challenges like high winds and poor soil-all the while investing as efficiently as possible in its woody structure. The enormous range of tree shapes that we see-from the unbranched stems of palms and tree ferns to the tall spires of conifers, the oaks' broad, spreading crowns, and the multiple stems of old yews-all represent compromises among these often conflicting skeleton a woody is to ensure that the goals. The nature of the compromise can be hard to pinpoint, but some gross generalizations are possible. Tree shapes can be divided simplistically into two categories: the conical outline of comfers and the rounded dome of hardwoods. Comfers of high latitude and altitude are typically steeply pyramidal with short branches that slope downwards to help shed snow and to intercept the maximum amount of light from a sun that is low on the horizon. The very similar shape found on conifers in dry regions, by contrast, appears to be an adaptation for intercepting the least amount of light (and there- Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis) mth the typical spire of comfers with fore the least heat) when the sun is at its whorls of short branches. Perthshme, Scotland noonday hottest, thereby reducing the where the light is diffused and in effect comes amount of water loss needed for cooling. from over the whole sky-the environment of Pines farther south in savanna-type climates, most of Great Britain and the Pacific coast of such as the Mediterranean stone pine (Pinus North America, where most trees take on the pmea), develop a flat-topped, umbrella shape same roughly spherical shape. that helps resist drying winds by allowing leaves to hide behind one another and at the same time The Biomechanics of Shapes maximizes heat loss by allowing free passage of The principles of biomechanics play a large part air up through the canopy. in determining the sorts of compromises that The broad crowns of most hardwoods, on the trees must make. The longer a branch, the more other hand, are associated with cloudy climates, 15 Stone pme the ~Pmus pmea) growmg m Tuscany, Italy, showmg aerofoll shape of the canopy, which helps m conservmg g water. of two enghsh oaks (Quercus robur) grafted together. Tust as roots pressmg against each other will weld together, so mll branches This is often claimed to be impossible because the constant movement by wind prevents the tlssues 7ommg, but with enough pressure the umon is possible, as demonstrated by the photograph. Cheshme, England. Branches The distmctme shape of european lmden (Tilia x europaea\/. At left, note the typical ar ~ ~ ~ ~~s of the mam branches. Because the end buds tend to tlie, new growth comes from near the branch end, resultmg m another arch, creatmg the effect of multiple rambows ~omed together at them ends. The tree at mght has the charactemstic congested growth of small twigs m the center of the canopy. What you can't see are the mass of shoots that normally spnng from the base of the tree Staffordshire, England. 16 The same principle applies when entire trees lean. The leaning tree shown m the drawing below will gradually bend to bring its center of gravity above its base, thereby reducing the danger of falling over. We do the same thing when carrying a heavy load on our backs, bending forward to get the center of gravity above our feet. Here again, however, the tree may need to compromise between conflicting goals: in order to reach extra light, it may undergo the strain of unbalanced weight by leaning out mto the center of a gap in the forest. Buds, Branches, and Tree Shapes How do trees manage to grow into their characteristic shapes? The question is best answered by examining the building blocks used. While animals basically have a fixed shape that simply gets bigger as they grow to adulthood, plants grow by repeatedly adding small modules. The basic module of a tree is the portion of a twig that bud at it grows each year from the terminal the end of the previous year's growth. After the loss of the top part of the tree, a smgle branch acts hke a lever, bendmg the stem where the tmstmg force exerted (M\/ is the weight of the branch (F) multiphed by the length of the lever (I, branch base to the branch's center of gramty\/. The tree reacts by bendmg the branch to reduce the length of the lever (the tmstmg force becomes zero), thus brmgmg the center of gravity of the branch over the base of the trunk. This is analogous to the ease with which we can carry a bucket of water. break under the pull of gravity, in a longer wrench puts more turning force on a stiff nut. The tree must therefore compromise between displaying as many leaves as possible and limiting the growth of the branch to a manageable length. There are ways of cheating, of course. If branches graft together, the additional support can allow them to become abnormally long without breaking. But trees also try to balance their weight on all sides, with no net force acting to bend the trunk. The drawing above shows a tree that has lost its top, leaving one branch sticking out sideways. To reduce the strain on the trunk imposed by this lopsidedness, the branch will soon begin to bend upright even if the tree is in the open and gets no additional light by doing so. likely it is the same to way that leamng tree will straighten to reduce the tmstmg force exerted by gravity, m the same way that we bend forward when carrymg a heavy pack to bnng the center of gravity over our feet. A 17 7 t obvious, the shape is tree of course, that of an individual will vary with conditions. Light, wind, snow, herbivory, fire, root health, and many other factors can mfluence shape. For example, in an effort to reach more light, species that form a bushy crown when grown in the a taller and narform with fewer side branches when grown in the shade. Mountains provide ample evidence of the effect the environment has on the shapes of individual trees. Because of increased wind, conifers become shorter and squatter the higher open may take rower they grow on a mountain. Quite literally, shaking, or even rubbing, a tree stunts its growth: a greenhouse study showed that shaking sweetgum trees (Liqmdambar styraciflua) for just thirty seconds a day reduced their vertical growth to less than third that of the unshaken good mechanical sense: the stronger the wind the more leverage is exerted on the tree so its optimum design will be squatter. a trees.*This makes Higher trees up on a mountain, survive only in tight, isolated clumps usually called Subalpme fzr (Abies lasiocarpal m the Canadian Rocky Mountams hostile condmons at high altitude. Above, Krummholz (German for demonstratmg the effect of on the side a \"flagged\" specimen, bare facmg prevailmg wmds. Below, \"crooked wood\").In winter, a larger clump of Krummholz with the prevailing wmds movmg mto harsh winds carrying ice par- the picture Note the skirt of healthy fohage around the bottom, ticles wear away the waxy coat- showing where snow protects agamst wmter wmds. ing on needles, leaving them new adventitious buds. Or an existing branch open to death by dehydration. This often produces \"banner\" trees that look like flags blowcan fill the gap, perhaps by bending or taking on in the wind, with branches surviving only in a different role. This is seen to perfection when ing a tree falls over but remains at least partly the lee of the prevailing wind. Flagging can also rooted. What were minor side branches become be seen on cliffs by the sea, where the effect of wmd is exacerbated not by ice but by salt spray. the new leaders, eventually producing a row of But trees are not passive in the face of the what appear to be individual trees. environment: they react. If branches are lost, * Neel and Harms 1971 1 new ones can be grown from stored buds or from 18 8 five to most four. eight orders and tropical trees have at (Tropical trees generally have bigger leaves, requiring a less dense network of to hold them.) A tree has three major strategies for limiting the number of branches: getting rid of its excess buds, shedding branches, and altering the length of branches. Environmental conditions sometimes help the tree get rid of excess buds. Spring frosts may kill them, or neighboring trees or branches may rub against them in the wind, causing them to fall off. But trees have methods for solving the problem of excess buds themselves. European white birch (Betula pendula)-and undoubtedly other trees-develops fewer buds in parts of the crown that are already dense, or where the branches crowns of different trees meet. In shaded parts of the tentrees many buds which of trees in close proximity to grow more die, explains dency on some A branch scars m wmter The successive sets of bud scale mark how much of the branch grew each year. The leaf scars mark the positions of the previous year's leaves and the bud associated with each leaf can be seen clearly. The young twig bears a number of leaves that leave behind a scar to mark the year's growth when they fall off, as well as a lateral (or axillary) bud that contains next year's growth-a new twig complete with leaves and new buds. New leaves can only be grown on new twigs, although the twig is sometimes inconspicuous. Each new module, or new addition to a twig, is the fingerlike projection of the new coat of wood that is added every year over the entire tree, so last year's twig will be fatter this year and will have two rings. The twig from the year before will be fatter still and will have three rings, and so on, the branch getting thicker as you trace back to the trunk. But if every bud on a tree grew into a branch, the canopy would soon become a hopeless tangle, and a hundred-year-old oak would have ninety-nine orders of branching, whereas in reality temperate trees rarely show more than the sides that face away from neighbors. In species, such as oaks, surplus buds are deliberately aborted. In fact, there is a steady rain of aborted buds from oak canopies throughout the growing season, representing as much as 45 to 70 percent of all buds produced. Or the buds may be \"stored\" unopened for future years. In addition, some buds simply fail to develop as a normal part of the tree's lifecycle. The spines of hawthorn and honey locust and the bundles of needles on pines are all modified branches that eventually lose the ability to produce new buds. Conifers with many small, needlelike leaves, like spruces and firs, concentrate resources in relatively few buds at the end of each year's branches; if they produced a bud in the axil of every leaf, they would end up with an impossible number of buds and potential branches. Trees can also avoid clogged canopies by getting rid of branches once they have achieved their purpose. As a tree gets bigger, it continues to grow new layers of foliage. If you look up through the canopy of a large tree, you will see that its center is made up of large branches (the \"scaffold branches\"), with small branches only at the edge of the canopy; those that once occupied the shaded center (the \"dysphotic zone\") are long gone. In many trees, branch sheddmg is a regular, seasonal act, just like leaf 19 flowers, at more or less the same position every year. They can be distinguished by the proximity of their annual bud scales, since they grow in length each year only enough to produce closely packed leaves and the next set of buds. The bundles of needles on pines, cedars, and larches are often also borne on short shoots. Flowers and Tree is an Shapes Flowering important determinant of tree because the shoot that produces a flower shape dies when flowering and fruiting end and consequently does not produce a new bud. In magnolias, dogwoods, maples, and horse chestnuts, the flowering tip is replaced in the next year by two side buds, leaving a fork to mark where the flowers were. In elms and cherries, on the other hand, the terminal bud of each twig, and perhaps of one or more farther back, produces only leaves, while the buds still farther back on the twig produce only flowers. More complicated patterns exist in which trees produce mixed buds containing both flowers and leaves (plums, pears, blackcurrant). In all cases, however, it is clear that different patterns of flowering produce different patterns of branching, thereby affecting the overall shape of the tree. How Does the Tree Control Shape? A shoot of purgmg buckthorn (Rhamnus catharticus) made up of long shoots and short shoots shedding in autumn. Some species regularly shed small twigs complete with leaves toward the end of summer; others shed only the twigs that do not produce enough carbohydrate to cover their own running costs, perhaps because of inadequate light. A less drastic way for trees to avoid congestion in the canopy is to regulate branch length. In many trees there is a clear distinction between \"long\" and \"short\" branches, or shoots. This is true of apple, birch, beech, hornbeam, katsura, gmkgo, pines, larches, and cedars, and to a lesser extent of elm, poplar, and linden. The long branches form the framework of the tree, making it bigger. The job of the short branches (called \"spur shoots\") is to produce leaves, and that the shape of a tree is governed by the way buds and branches grow and die. How does the tree control this? In the simplest terms, the end, or apex, of each branch governs what happens farther back along the branch, or lower down in the tree, in a process influenced by the amount of available light: the more light it gets, the more power an apex has. The topmost growing tip-the leader-has the most power of all. In turn, the strongly growing ends of side branches have great influence over the buds and smaller branches near them, but they themselves are still influenced by the leader. In effect, every growing tip from the very top apex to the most insignificant branch end exerts some control, albeit greatly varying in importance. The more minor the bud, the more likely it is to be suppressed or to result in a small, slow-growing branch. Complete removal of the leader or of another powerful branch by pruning seen We have 20 Cherry (Prunus). Termmal buds, and the next one farther back on the end shoot, have produced 7ust leaves (marked a and b respectmelyJ. Buds farther back along the twig have produced lust flowers. or by accidental damage means that one or more lesser branches-or a completely new branch from a previously suppressed bud-will bend upwards and compete to be the new leader. This is the reason that clipping young Christmas trees results in bushier trees. Two terms are used to describe this hierarchical control. Apical dominance refers to the ability to prevent buds from developing in the first place and is the force leading to the rounded ovals of hardwoods. Apical control refers to the ability to govern the growth from nonsuppressed buds and is responsible for the spire shapes of conifers. In rounded trees with high apical dominance, like the oak, lateral buds are often suppressed until they are left so far behind the terminal end of the branch that they are finally able to develop into branches themselves, and the spire shape of the young tree gradually disappears into a rounded mass of strong branches. Conversely, in conifers with weak apical dominance, most of the buds are allowed to grow, but because of strong apical control, the leader keeps the new branches shorter and more horizontal. Because the older branches lower down continue to grow, the conifer's spire shape is maintained throughout the life of the tree. The mechanism by which bud growth is regulated is not perfectly understood. It is known that the hormone auxin, and perhaps other hormones such as cytokinins, play a fundamental role. Auxin is produced at the apices and is transported through the phloem. Internal competition for minerals and sugars no doubt also plays a part. A number of studies have shown that \"shoot inversion\"-bending the upper shoot over to point downwards-can weaken apical regulation. This undoubtedly explains the old country custom in Great Britain of snapping over the top branches of hazel trees to improve fruiting: hazelnuts are borne on short shoots, which will grow and fruit more prolifically once apical regulation is partly removed. It also explams how true weeping trees grow taller: as the leader gets longer and flops over, it loses apical dominance and releases lateral buds to produce new branches that grow upwards and eventually flop over in turn. 21 Changes with Age Because of the modular growth patterns of trees, a characterization of the phenomenon and the influence of wind. International Journal of Plant Science 153: 556-564 mature tree is not just a seedling writ large; its Fink, S. 1984. Some cases shape changes with age. The branching in young trees is usually much less dense than in older trees, especially in species with compound leaves (which in effect are cheap, throwaway branches, as in horse chestnut), or that selfprune (as do tulip trees [Liriodendron tulipifera~, easily identified by them long straight, unbranched trunks). Tropical trees, which can sometimes be aged purely by their shape, may reach 25 feet in height before branching. The speed with which the shape changes depends on the species (early in horse chestnuts, late in poplars, never m many conifers) and on the soil (earlier on drier, poor soils). Branch angles also change with age. Over the short term, branches have a set angle to which they try to return if bent, by the weight of snow, for instance. But over the long term, branches tend to sag as they get longer and heavier, a change that intensifies as more new wood is added to the crotch-just as putting on more and more coats forces a person's arms to be more and more horizontal. Thus younger branches at the top of the tree are the most upright, while the increasingly older branches farther down become more and more horizontal. One may think of the sagging of old branches as one of the disadvantages of age, like wrinkles and an expanding waistline, but in fact trees may benefit from these changes. The erect shape of a young tree encourages rainfall to run down the trunk, concentrating it on the developing roots at the base. In an older tree, however, the sagging branches and weeping tips encourage most of the water to drip off the edge of the canopy onto the area where it is most needed-above the absorbent ends of the tree's growing roots. Further of delayed development detached of axillary menstems in or induced buds from persisting conifers. American Journal of Botany 71 Fisher, J. B., and J. 44-51. W. Stevenson. 1981. Occurrence of reaction wood in branches of dicotyledons and its role in tree architecture Botamcal Gazette 142: 82-95. R. A. A. Halle, F., Oldeman, and P. B Tomhnson. 1978. Tropical Trees and Forests An Architectural Analysis Berlin. Springer. L. Jones, M., and J Harper. 1987. The influence of neighbours on the growth of trees: [I ]The demography of buds in Betula pendula, [II ]The fate of buds on long and short shoots in Betula pendula Proceedmgs of the Royal Society of London B232: 1-18; 19-33. Maillette, L 1982. Structural dynamics of silver birch I. The fates of buds; II. A matrix model of the bud population. Journal of Apphed Ecology 19: 203-218; 219-238. Neel, P L , and R W. Harris. 1971. Motion-induced inhibition of elongation and induction of dormancy in Liqmdambar Science 173: 58-59. Putz, F. E., G. G. Parker, and R. M. Archibold. 1984. Mechanical abrasion and intercrown spacing. American Midland Naturahst 112. 24-28 Tsiouvaras, C production coccifera). Walker, D. Long-term effects of clipping on and vigor of Kermes oak (Quercus Forest Ecology and Management 24~ 159-1GG. N 1988. J., and N. C. Kenkel. 2000. The adaptive geometry of boreal conifers. Commumty Ecology 1 13-23. G. 1991. Watson, landscape 211-216. Attaining root'crown balance in trees. Journal of Arbonculture 17: Reading E. Berninger, F., M. Mencuccmi, Nikinmaa, J. Grace, and P. Hari. 1995. Evaporative demand determines branchiness of Scots pine. Oecologia Dewit, L., and in 102: 164-168. D M. Reid. 1992. Branch abscission a lecturer in environmental science at Keele University, United Kingdom, where he teaches tree ecology, tree design and biomechanics, wood structure, and woodland management. This article was adapted from his book Trees Their Natural History, published in 2000 and repnnted with the permission of Peter Thomas is balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera). Cambridge University Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Designing Woman: Martha Brookes Hutcheson","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25339","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070bb28.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Davidson, Rebecca Warren","article_content":"Designing Woman: Martha Brookes Hutcheson Rebecca Warren Davidson A number of America's first women landscape architects depended on informal learning at the Arnold Arboretum as part of their professional training, and Martha Brookes Hutcheson (1871-1959) was among the most talented of them. examples of her work in Massachusetts gardens are now open to the public-Maudslay State Park in Newburyport and the Longfellow National Historic Site in Cambridge-as well as a third, her own home in Gladstone, New Jersey, now Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center. Even as the Longfellow Site is being restored, the Library of American Landscape History has reprinted Hutcheson's widely praised articulation of the architectural principles of garden design, The Spirit of the Garden. The following essay on her training and practice is excerpted from the introduction to the new edition. Two appeared 1923, number of books already available brimming with advice for the amateur gardener might have daunted a less assured writer.' As Hutcheson observed in her foreword, there already existed a proliferation of literature that provided \"comprehensive and helpful plantingcharts, color-schemes and lists of valuable varieties of plants\"-information, in other words, to enable the amateur to create hen Martha Brookes Hutcheson's The the Garden in V the Spirit of knowledgeable advocacy of the use of native plants. History has proved Hutcheson correct. Although she maintained that her book was neither a practical manual of instruction on how to make a garden nor a substitute for employing the services of a professional landscape designer, nevertheless it clearly filled such a need, particularly for the many Americans in the 1920s who were becoming homeowners for the first time. And The Spirit of the Garden continues to be read and valued, not only for its clear explanation of landscape design concepts but also for Hutcheson's ideas on the social and cultural importance of gardens to individuals and to their communities. tic and interestmg and art. attractive set was pieces of garden Hutcheson, confident that her book would however, find a place on the shelves of many newly prosperous, upwardly mobile Americans who were avidly seeking advice on homebuilding, decorating, and especially gardening. Her contribution offered something unique: a straightforward articulation of the basic architectural principles of the design of space and their application in the small garden, combined with an enthusias- 23 m Detail of the pergola the rose garden at t as rt Maudesleigh, appeared m the1920s. The Newburyport, Massachusetts, estate, which was designed by Martha Brookes Hutcheson for Fredenck Moseley, is now open the pubhc as Maudslay State Park. Photograph by Martha S to Brookes Hutcheson, courtesy of the Morris County Commission, New Jersey. twentieth-century America, and their built works-urban parks, cemeteries, parkways, and subdivisions-have also, quite naturally, been of most historical previous research.2 The smaller, domestic garden in the United States was generally left to the care of women, and the work of those who did create successful careers for themselves as designers, photographers, and writers focusing on these small private spaces has been marginalized because of its perceived lack of social relevance as well as its association with \"women's work.\" \" the focus That Hutcheson is little known today has to do in part with the fact that Hutcheson's active career lasted a short time: her first documented work dates from 1901, and she seems to have built little after her marriage in 1910. Another contributing factor is that her work, almost without exception, consisted of private, domestic gardens for wealthy Northeasterners. The design of large-scale landscape projects was the nearly exclusive purview of men in early Martha Brookes Brown Hutcheson was born in New York City on 2 October 1871. She grew up in a family of avid gardeners, and as an adult she 24 recalled among her earliest pleasurable experiences working in the gardens and fields of her great-uncle John Pomeroy's farm, Fern Hill, near Burlington, Vermont, where her family spent every summer.3From 1893 to 1895 she attended the New York School of Applied Design for Women. Like many other young people of the day with the means to do so, she augmented her formal education by undertaking the American equivalent of the grand tour, studying and making notes on gardens in England, France, and Italy during the late 1890s. In 1900 the in country's first academic programs landscape architecture were instituted, at Harvard (restricted to male applicants only4)( the Massachusetts Institute of TechnolHutcheson enrolled at MIT where, ogy. although official policy did not exclude women, they found gaining admission difficult because of their lack of opportunity to study the mathematics and sciences that were vital parts of the entrance requirements and the curriculum. Undoubtedly Hutcheson's family expected her to marry or perhaps pursue a career in the decorative arts, but Hutcheson had other ideas, as she later recalled: at r and r m ~ About 1898, one day I saw the grounds of Bellevue Hospital in New York, on which nothing was planted, and was overcome with the terrible waste of opportunity for beauty which was not bemg given to the hundreds of patients who could see it or go to it, in convalescence. In trying to find out how I could get in touch with such authorities as those who might allow me to plant the area of ground, I stumbled upon the fact that my aim would be politically impossible, but that there was a course m Landscape Architecture being formed at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, the first course which America had ever held. After a conference with those in connection with this training, and with Mrs. Farrand, who was then practicing alone in the field, I was fired with the desire to enter the Institute ... [and] I began at once to study the mathematics which were required for entrance, and to put my private-school-tutored mind into as good shape as I could on the various subjects before entering the second year of the course.' 5 MIT's program strongly emphasized the architectural and scientific aspects of landscape design, with courses such as perspective and Charcoal sketch of Martha Brookes Hutcheson Jane de Glehn, 1922. by topographical drawing, geometry, physics, and structural geology composing a major portion of the curriculum. Only in the second term of the fourth (and final) year was any requirement listed that focused on the social importance of landscape architecture: a course in public health and sanitation.b Although horticulture was offered in each term of the second, third, and fourth years, Hutcheson found MIT's program inadequate in this respect, and later wrote, \"I saw at once that the curriculum did not give nearly enough time to what must be known of the plant world.\" Accordingly, she took the course of lectures offered by Professor Watson at Harvard University's Bussey Institution and made further studies at local commercial nurseries to \"note periods of bloom, combinations in color, variety of species in flowers, and the effects of perennials after blooming. \"' Hutcheson left MIT in 1902 without taking a degree and opened her own office in Boston that 25 year. The Spimt of the Garden, published twenty-one years later, showcases-with Hutcheson's own photographs-the best of the more than fifty private gardens she designed and built during the career that ensued and summarizes the skill and knowledge accumulated over the course of her professional life.\" The fundamental tenet of her design philosophy, namely, to combine elements of European same (and more specifically Italian) design-axes, vistas, and an architectural framework-with the richness and variety of native plant material and a freer planting style, is alluded to in her foreword. \"As individuals,\" she writes, \"we are slowly becoming conscious of the value of cul- tivated and aesthetic knowledge in adapting to our home surroundings the good principles in planning which have been handed down to us from the Old World.\"' To this emphasis on the importance of studying historical precedent and reshaping the best of this legacy in contemporary gardens, Hutcheson added three guiding principles: the necessity of a strong relationship between house and garden; the idea of the garden as an \"outdoor room\" whose hedges, walls, and paths blend the disparate elements of the garden into a harmomous whole; and the use of less structured plantings in more informal areas to blend the garden naturally with the surrounding landscape. The Spirit of the Garden mcludes three of Hutcheson's own site plans of gardens to illustrate how it might be possible to create a system of logical relationships among house, garden, and surrounding landscape. These relationships not only would \"tie everything together\" but would also provide what she memorably termed the \"reasonable complexity of a garden\"'-in other words, the variety and mterest that can result from revealing controlled vistas or glimpses from one part of the garden into another, making the farther rooms or reaches seem mysterious and inviting. She believed, for example, that the designer should always include some changes in ground level-even if slight and unobtrusive-both within the garden and between the garden and its surroundings. Well-orchestrated changes in level can be used to give a sense of intimacy to certain chosen Martha Brookes Hutcheson actively promoted many landscape-related progressive causes. She was one of the founders of the Woman's Land Army of Amemca, which attempted to alleviate the shortage of farm labor dunng World War I by employzng women. Seen here are members of the Women's 's Land Army at her summer home. Today Merchiston Farm is in the care of the Morms County Park Commission as Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center. It offers an excellent opportumty to experience Hutcheson's bmlt work and to understand her design mtentions m three- spaces, providing to contrast a and surprise the walk dimensional form. through garden. Terrac- 26 Plan of gardens at inside front cover, Maudesleigh, ca 1902, drawn by Hutcheson. corresponds to D on the plan. Her photograph of the formal flower garden, seen on the \"Roses, \" sketch made while Martha Brookes Brown was a student at the New York School of Applied Design for Women, ca 1895 A number of her omgmal sketches and fimshed designs are preserved m her former home, Merchiston Farm, near Gladstone, New Jersey, now admimstered as the Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center by the Morms County Park Commission, to whom the property and Hutcheson's papers were bequeathed by her daughter and son-m-law m 1972 27 ing, steps, and pathways can be understood not only as tools for solving the practical problems of getting from one space to another; they also help set the garden apart from both architecture and nature as a distinct and fortunate place. Indeed, the separation of the garden from its surroundings, as \"a place apart,\" to was as Hutcheson as the connections with them. What she calls the \"green elements\" of a garden-trees, shrubs, and hedges-are given their own chapter in the book [see reprint following this article]. They are also, of course, basic structural elements, and here Hutcheson's knowledge and experience of Italian gardens provided her with particularly instructive examples. The hedges at the Boboh Gardens m Florence and the Villa d'Este at Tivoli-to mention just two of the best examples-are chosen to illustrate how \"the green used ... in the construction of gardens important Hutcheson's work at the Craigie-Longfellow House m Cambndge, Massachusetts, which she herself called a \"restoration,\" is mcluded m the garden restoration now in progress at what is now the Craigie-Longfellow National Historic Site gives us our backgrounds, proportions, our our our contrasts, our perspective-above all, phasized at shadows.\" Hutcheson believed that flowers had been overemin American gardens the expense of basic structure and form, leading to \"too solid a mass of color and too I little well-planned green.\"I Her photographs and discussion of Maudesleigh prove the effectiveness of her approach. A gateway and border m the flower garden at Maudesleigh. At Maudesleigh, the estate of Frederick S. Moseley in Newburyport, MassaBecause of its size and visibility within the comHutcheson created a number of garchusetts, mumty of wealthy New England garden buildthe approach drive to the ers, Maudesleigh was a tremendously important dens, redesigned commission for Hutcheson. It is also significant house, and made various other changes to the as one of the few remaining Hutcheson designs landscape over a period of some twenty years. 28 trees were also made on the for- merly bare hillside between the garden and the unfortunately prominent water tower. resulting changes in garden to the greenhouse are dramatically illustrated in photographs that show how the original bare view from the formal was transformed into a sheltered space whose arbors and luxuriant plantings almost totally obscured any intrusion from the outside world, except through the arched openings cut in the hedge for paths. Hutcheson's other major achievement at Maudesleigh also affected the relationships among house, gardens, and landscape. She persuaded her client to relocate the main approach drive from the side of the house that faced the Merrimack River to the opposite \"land\" side, thereby separating the views of the architecture from the most dramatic views of the river, to the advantage of each. The site Gates along an in any axis m Maudesleigh's flower garden. degree intact today and open to the public. Although the house is no longer extant, the drives and gardens she designed for it are now part of Maudslay State Park. Hutcheson faced a difficult challenge at Maudesleigh. Both the site of the house and the location of the new garden (with no obvious or coherent relationship to each other) had already been determined by the client.'z These constraints not only made it impossible to join the garden directly with the house, they necessitated a major project to screen the view of the greenhouses and a water tower north of the garden. Hutcheson's solution was to design a long, curving path from the entrance to the house, which straightened as it approached and again as it left the garden, providing the illusion of axial connection but also an aura of mystery and surprise as it eventually led to \"a natural wooded walk of great beauty beyond.\"13 Having achieved this atmosphere, Hutcheson created an enclosed garden-analogous to the Italian giardino segreto-filled with roses, perennials, arbors, fountain, sundial, and birdbath, and surrounded by a hedge to hide the greenhouses and promote a general feeling of peace and seclusion. Substantial plantings of native shrubs and Maudesleigh is just one of the many specific examples included in the narrative and illustrations of The Spirit of the Garden to show how the general principles that Martha Brookes Hutcheson defined were to be carried out. Regrettably little physical evidence remains, but it is clear from the pictures and written record that she was a skillful gardenmaker and-perhaps of even more significance-an articulate and influential advocate for good design. Her most important contribution arguably was her understandable articulation of a set of architectural, rational principles of design, expressed both in the gardens she created and in her writings. These principles-the ideal unity of house, garden, and landscape; the garden as an outdoor room, with a structure of walls, hedges, paths, and ornamentation that could be the focus of a logical planning scheme; and the integration of both formal and informal elements, often through the use of naturalized MARTHA BROOKES BROWN HUTCHESON KNOWN GARDEN CONNECTICUT COMMISSIONS, CONSULTATIONS, AND EXECUTED WORK 1901-1934 Red Bank Mr. Andrew V. Stout, \"Brrck House\" Mr. Herbert N. Straus NEW YORK Stonington Miss Mary E. Dreier MASSACHUSETTS Beverly Mr. Robert Hooper Boston Mr. Charles C. Walker Bedford Hills Mr. William Borland Mrs. Henry Marquand, \"Whitegates Farm\" Brookline Miss Elizabeth Head Cambridge Miss Alice Longfellow, \"Craigie House\" (now Craigie-Longfellow National Historic Site) Brookville Mr David Dows Glen Cove Mr. Frederick B. Pratt, \"Poplar Hill\" Mrs. Harold 1. Pratt, \"Welwyn\" Great River Mr Mr. Edward C. Moore Danvers Mr. Francis Peabody Dover Mr. Arthur E. Davis Julien T. Davies Lawrence Mrs. Daniel Lord, \"Sosiego\" Mr. Hobart Porter Manhassett Mr. Gloucester Miss Payne Whitney Myra Tutt, \"Eastern Point\" Millbrook Mrs. Oakleigh Thorne Mt. Kisco Mr. Reginal H. Bishop Mr. Louis Boissevam Mr. Carl Petrasch Hamilton Mr. A. Lithgow Devens Ipswich Appleton Mr. Eugene A. Crockett Mr. Robert G. Dodge Lancaster Mr. Eugene Thayer Oyster Bay Mrs. Charles Tiffany Plandome Mr. W. B. Leeds Suffern Dr. Manchester Mr. Charles Mr. Francis M. Head, \"Undercliff\" Whitehouse, \"Crowhurst\" Henry Patterson Newburyport Westbury Mrs. Robert Moseley, \"Maudesleigh\" (now Maudslay State Park) North Beverly Mr. John Philips Mr. Frederick S. Bacon, \"Oldfields\" Westport Mr. Charles Head, \"Headlands\" Petersham Simes OHIO College Hill Mr. Peter G. Thomson Prides Crossing Mr. Charles Head Mrs. Oliver Ames, \"Highwall\" Readville Amory Wareham Mr. PENNSYLVANIA Bryn Mawr Mrs. Charles Tiffany Sewickley \"Indian Neck\" Mr. Stephen M. Weld, J. H. Tate J. G. Pontefract Wellesley Mr. Walter Hunnewell West Manchester Mr. Robert C. Hooper Shields Mr. RHODE ISLAND Yarmouth Mr. Gorham Bacon Unknown city in Massachusetts Miss M. Pierce NEW Newport Miss Susan Travers VERMONT Bennington JERSEY Mr. William A. Gladstone Bennington College Mrs. James A. Eddy Mr. Howard H. Shields Hutcheson, \"Merchiston Farm\" (now Bamboo Brook Outdoor Education Center, Morris County Park Commission) Mr. John Sloane Putney Andrews Woodstock Miss Elizabeth Billings (now Marsh-BillingsRockefeller National Historic Site) UNKNOWN LOCATION Mr. Everett V Macy Mr. Frederick Peterson Morristown Fraser New Vernon Mr. Thomas M Debevolse Princeton Dr. Stewart Paton 30 plantings within architectural frameworkstill inform domestic gardenmaking in the United States today. Although many of her basic ideas were derived from Italian and English traditions, Hutcheson's advocacy of native scenery and her use of local plant materials made her gardens distinctly \"American\" and helped foster an appreciation for what, even in the early twentieth century, was a rapidly vanan 4 Only under wartime duress in its 1942 did Harvard open 9. doors to women. 5 Hutcheson, quoted in Fowler, \"Three Women,\" 6 \"Option 3. Landscape Architecture,\" Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Boston, Department of Architecture ~ [course catalog] (Boston, 190175 Hutcheson, quoted in Fowler, \"Three Women,\" In her 10. 8 application for membership in the American ishing landscape. Endnotes Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA), dated 3 March 1920, Hutcheson stated that during the time she was head of her own office in Boston and New York\/ 1901-1910~, were \"some 83 private places or gardens Some idea of the amount and variety of this literature may be glimpsed m Anna Gilman Hill, \"The Miscellany: The Literature of Amencan Gardening,\" Garden Club of Amenca Bulleun, ns., no. 20 (November 1924): 47-53, and in Stephen F. Hamblin, \"Gardening Books for the Chent,\" Landscape Architecture 10 (April 1920~: 122-123. Hill actually mentions Hutcheson, on p. 53, along with Fletcher Steele and Grace Tabor, as the authors she finds most helpful on the subject of design. See also Elisabeth Washburn, \"Addendum of Books Pubhshed from 1861-1920,\" in U. P. Hedrick, A Gardener's laid out from my plans under my supervision.\" Her \"Professional Record,\" however, lists only 48 clients. Undoubtedly, more gardens designed by Hutcheson remain to be discovered. ASLA applications and typescript \"Professional Record\" are among the papers held in MBHA. 9 Martha Brookes Hutcheson, The Spmt of the Garden (Boston: Atlantic Monthly Press, 1923). For a more extensive discussion of Hutcheson's contribution in this regard, and the importance of the Italian model in American landscape design, see Davidson, \"Images 14. History of Horticulture m America, rev. ed. (Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1988): 557-566; and Beverly Seaton, \"Gardening Books for the Commuter's Wife, \/1985~: 41-47. 2 and Ideas.\" 10 \" 12 The Spirit of the Garden, 1900-1937,\" Landscape 28, no 2 The Spirit of the Garden, 15. Some exceptions are Beatrix Farrand's work on the campuses of Pnnceton and Yale, Ellen Shipman's design for Lake Shore Drive in Grosse Pointe, Michigan, and Mar~orie Sewell Cautley's landscaping for such planned developments as Sunnyside Gardens, New York, and Radburn, New Jersey As she later descnbed: \"In 1902 I was called upon to locate and plan a garden for Mr. Frederick S. Moseley, the only stipulated requirement being that I should make the garden a part of an approach to the already 3 Biographical American information has been compiled from Society of Landscape Architects in membership application forms, letters, documents held Archives, currently and other the Martha Brookes Hutcheson in the care of the Morris County established greenhouses and fruit and vegetable gardens.\" Martha Brookes Hutcheson, \"Report of Work Done on Estate of Frederick S. Moseley, Esq., Newburyport, Massachusetts,\" typescript draft of documentation submitted to the Secretary of the Examining Board, American Society of Landscape Architects, 12 May 1920, in support of her application for membership, MBHA. 13 Ibid. Park Commission, Mornstown, New Jersey; hereafter cited as MBHA. Hutcheson herself supplied bnef biographical data for Clarence Fowler's \"Three Women in Landscape Architecture [Beatrix Jones Farrand, Martha Brookes Hutcheson, Marian Cruger Coffm],\" Cambridge School of Domesuc and Landscape Architecture Alumnae Bulletin 4 (Apml 1932): 7-12 Fuller discussions of Hutcheson's hfe and work are in Rebecca Warren Davidson, \"Images and Ideas of the Italian Garden in American Landscape Architecture\" (Ph.D. diss., Cornell University, 1994), esp. 322-378; idem, \"The Spirit of the American Garden. Landscape and Cultural Expression in the Work of Martha Brookes Hutcheson,\" Journal of the New England Garden Davidson, an architectural and landscape historian, is Curator of Graphic Arts in the Department of Rare Books and Special Collections at Pnnceton University. This article is excerpted from her introduction to the reprint of Martha Brookes Hutcheson's 1923 The Spirit of the Garden, pubhshed by University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, in association with the Library of American Landscape Rebecca Warren History, 2001. Martha Brookes grateful to hear from anyone with additional information about her work at any of the above properties. Rebecca Davidson, on In her continuing research Hutcheson, the author would be most History Society 4 (Spring 1996): 22-29. damdsonC~?pnnceton.edu\" (609[ 258-3197 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Use of the Hedge [from The Spirit of the Garden, 1923]","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25344","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd0708928.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hutcheson, Martha Brookes","article_content":"THE USE OF THE HEDGE Martha Brookes Hutcheson that formality of green growth most nearly -L related to architecture. Indeed, there is so very fine a line between their artificially produced form and proportion and that of an architectural detail that practically they may be thought of as part of the general architectural scheme. It HEDGES might be described as is the meeting-point of architecture and the green world-one of the instances where Nature, harnessed to civilization, does not lose in value. We might compare the hedge to the magic-though artificial-touch which transforms the great forest tree, with all its freedom of growth and beauty of line, into a splendidly wrought column, so full of proportion and dignity that the sisters of the forest, from which it came, might almost envy it. The hedge is essentially artificial in its original treatment and also in its preserand left untouched for a short period, goes back with amazing alacrity to vation, the freer growth which the Lord intended. Let us begin with our low flower-bed borders, our box and our barberry, and think of them as hedges. They are the little ones, and they creep up in size to those which we look over-which are of enormous use-and to those which are higher than ourselves ; land and England, and the wonderful yew and ilex hedges which we find in Italythe backgrounds for the statues; the enclosures for the amphitheatres; the protecting walls behind which romance and intrigue have been born and cardinals have walked. The hedge is no upstart; it has accentuated scenes of splendor from the earliest times of planting. It has lent itself as gracefully to the merrymakings of the maze as to the gardens of the Roman Emperors. The great note of all the famous villas of Italy-so wonderful in their outline and proportion that no flowers are needed to make them gardens-is the perfect harmony of idea between the architectural details of steps, pools, and pathways and the walls formed by hedges. The use of the hedge is a very valuable asset which came into existence as civilization advanced to the point where man first grasped the idea of privacy and individuality about his home. In the very earliest records of gardens there are illustrations of the hedge in the quaintest perspective. and then we begin to think of the stately hedges of box and holly in Scot- 32 The hedge is an accent, first and fore- most, and its purpose is either a background or a barrier. Being artificial, it of necessity should be planted to architecture-that term to denote the formalities in relation being used of garden or as parterre arrangement as well of the buildings proper. A hedge must have a purpose, just as much as a balustrade or a flight of steps; it must be in proportion to its environment, just as much as the house or its garden. It should be looked upon, where it is used as a background, purely as a flat surface against which the informal growth of flowers or the moving figures of people are accentuated. When considered in the larger scheme, where trees in the distance and the perspective of diminishing lines are seen in relation to it, its own sharp outline becomes an important factor. Therefore, two uses are found in the same hedge: in relation to smaller things it is a background, and in relation Boboli Gardens, Florence. Green walls formed by clipped shrubbery. to larger things, an accent. When in front of old trees, the hedge makes in its contrast, in rigidity of form, a planted note so firm and controlled as to accentuate the freedom of growth in the trees. It lends a note of variety while suggesting an important one in composition. As a barrier, the hedge is of practical use and more pleasing to the eye than any other form of fencing. Its most important use is found when planted in front of the houses on a village street. It gives to the street itself, as does nothing else, a style in composition; and from the owner's view within the grounds it makes the place seem larger and more important by cutting off the highway as well as providing a background. When service-wings of houses lie in close proximity to the garden or terrace, and privacy must be secured though there is limited space, the hedge is of great advantage, as a strip of land from four to six feet wide is all that is needed to screen off that part of the house and to create a background for the terrace or the garden. In the plantings of gardens, clipped blocks of hedge may be introduced for the purpose of accent or contrast at the crossing of paths and sides of gateways, or 33 backgrounds for seats or fountains. Niches for the placing of statfrequently found abroad cut into the surface of the hedge and are sometimes carried out in this country with marked success. In the bounding of terraces, where used alone or planted behind a balustrade, a hedge is always dignified, and an important note. There is a prevalent idea that hedges require great time and care in this country where very high wages are to be considered, but anyone who has had them knows that for what they lend in effect they take comparatively little time. If a hedge is well kept from the beginning, three to six clippings a year are all that are required for the most vigorous. We spend an infinitely greater proportion of time on vast extent of lawns, in relation to the amount of pleasure we derive from them. If there is to be any choice in the things which require labor, do without some unnecessary areas of lawn which take weekly attention, and give a fraction of that labor to hedges. , Climbing roses, if not allowed too much liberty in their growth, make a wonderfully lovely hedge when I other blocks ues are as grown over some artificial support of the shape and height required. Hornbeam, cherry, dogwood, laburnum, ', arborvitae and dozens of other small trees lend themselves I being bent into the form of hedge-like A pleached alley. arbors, and with so delightful an effect, that one wonders the charming sense of frolic and surprise is not more sought after by us all. Why are we so contented to pass from one scheme of arrangement to another through barren treatment, when it takes but a hedged-in walk to give us the sensation of a marked place-apart, and makes all the difference in the world in the overlapping interests to be gained by a bit of imagination? Is there nothing more to be desired in the formal approach to a garden than a gravel path, flanked with the neatly kept turf-edging of a lawn? The path, it is true, is the only bare necessity; but is that all we have to consider? Suppose the path is looked upon as but the backbone of the approach, and we add a broad hedge of great height on either hand, perhaps so planted that three to six feet of margin are left on each side of the pathway for shade-loving flowers? We thus create shadows, a mossy path, an invitation for birds, an increased sense of distance, a vanishing point in perspective, an added lovable feature about our home; and the pathway easily to I 34 . a romantic introduction of shade between two interesting open Children grown to men and women fifty years after will remember the spaces. spot with a glow of mystery and pleasure, whereas the barren, well-kept path would be quite forgotten. If a pathway for some reason should not be bordered by a high unbroken line of this kind, it can be flanked by regularly or irregularly planted shrubs, placed as far apart as desired. Cedars, dwarf fruits, thorns, or poplars all form beautiful path-margins of a broken formal type. In England I remember a wonderful hedge on either side of a wide grass-path joining an artist's studio, which was built on the edge of a little wooded piece of land, and his garden, which was by his house some distance away. The path lay in a graceful curve through a grain-field terminating at the studio door. The hedge was formed of sweetbriar rose, kept clipped to a rounded top, standing about four to five feet high. The perfume from the young shoots was pungent and delightful as one passed along the path, and the ripening grain, seen on either side of it, made a fine waving background for the bright green color and formal outline of the hedge. Clipped perpendicular walls of hedge can be made when a pathway should be introduced through tall swamp- or wild wooded-growth. By introducing a dense natural planting of high-bush blueberry, clethra, the various viburnums and thorns, wild roses, azaleas, barberry, and spice-bush, and by constantly cutting their growth to a true vertical line on each side of the path, a tall and interesting enclosure for a green walk can be formed in a few years. The constant pruning induces a vigor of growth on the face of the green wall which is very beautiful. A consistent choice of natural plants can in this way create a feature leading from one important point to another. The setting of a house, for instance, can-with no false introduction of planting-be connected with an equally architectural garden or tennis court, through a stretch of natural woodland which demands some continuity of treatment. When entrances through hedges are to be cut in semicircular or \"vaulted\" arches, it is well to have a frame made of the desired shape and have the hedge-opening cut by this frame year after year. Curved lines when left to the accuracy of the eye are not true, and the general outline suffers in consequence. Our old, much abused friend, the privet, is so inexpensive and so dependable that no one is left with an excuse for going without a hedge wherever one can be tucked in. Arborvitae, buckthorn, hemlock, hornbeam, barberry, beech, and some of the viburnums are more to be desired when one's choice alone is to be considered. Nothing is more tranquil than the quality of green form which good hedge-pruning gives to a composition, and it is far better to have a thousand feet of privet than a few hundred feet of some rarer hedge. The composition comes first and the material used, second, in the importance of hedges. has been made From The Spirit of the Garden, 1923. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Growing Shrubs and Small Trees in Cold Climates","article_sequence":6,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25338","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070b76f.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dosmann, Michael S.","article_content":"Book Review: Growing Shrubs and Small Trees in Cold Climates Michael S. Dosmann Growing Shrubs and Small Trees in Cold Climates. Nancy Rose, Don Selinger, and John Whitman. Contemporary Books, 2001. 431 color photographs. pp., 250+ Hardcover. $49.95. ISBN 0-8092-2491-7 A number of books dedicated to ornamental trees and shrubs rest on my bookshelf gathering dust. Some were valuable in their day but have become out of date with time. Others, though published recently, offer little tion than informafrom other references, or anecdotal information of no use to the serious gardener or horticulturist. But then, much to my surprise and delight, along comes a book like Growing Shrubs and Small Trees in Cold Climates. The authors, all seasoned horticultural professionals, present their collective knowledge about ornamental shrubs and small trees m an easy-toread format. And although gardeners are targeted as the more recycled primary audience, any person who deals regularly with ornamental woody plants will find the book useful. Readers can feel assured that the information is accurate, based as it is on the authors' many years of personal observations and experiences, not Hasselkus, professor emeritus of horticulture at the University of Wisconsin. The theme of cold hardiness is woven into the entire text. As indicated by the title, the book is intended for use in cold climates, primarily the regions encompassed by USDA hardiness zones hearsay or further credence is suppliers' promises. Adding a foreword by Edward 36 1 through 5. Proven hardiness is the major criterion for the authors' recommendations, and their discussion of the topic will be valuable for laypeople and professionals alike. The book is divided into two parts. Part I, \"The Most Popular Shrubs and Small Trees,\" comprising the bulk of the volume, is organized around fifty woody plant genera within which over 750 different taxa are discussed. I was a bit skeptical at first about the authors' attempt to categorize an entire genus as a single unit, but they are careful to highlight any atypical members. Accompanying each genus entry are outstanding color photographs-a total of more than 250-that include close-up shots of foliage, flowers, and fruit as well as form and habit. The format is consistent for all entries, with information arranged in clearly defined sections. The section on growth (\"How Hydrangeas Grow,\" for example) provides a good summary of root systems, branching patterns, form and habit, phenology, flowers, and fruiting. The section \"Landscape Use\" is particularly valuable. Plant uses are classified by the usual categories such as hedges, specimens, groundcovers; more unusual is a list of recommended companion plants that might enable the reader to enhance design effects using complementary textures and flower colors. The \"Where to Plant,\" \"Planting,\" and \"Transplanting\" sections give thorough details about proper siting and planting methods. The \"Problems\" section reviews the susceptibilities specific to each genus: insects, diseases, and-a novel categorymarauders (primarily deer). Another useful section is \"Sources,\" where specialty nurseries are listed with their addresses and phone numbers. Other topics, all covered in sufficient depth for the layperson, include \"How to Care for These Plants\" (with clear recommendations for maintenance \" The final part of each entry, \"Varieties,\" is arranged in chart format and lists recommended species, varieties, and selected clones in addition to giving standard data for each that includes size, flower and fruit color, and hardiness. Almost all taxa are rated on a scale of one through five based on ornamental appeal and performance in cold climates. Additional information provided in the charts or captions might include separate hardiness temperatures for plants and flower buds (Forsythia, for example) or recommended male pollinators (llex verticillata). Missing, unfortunately, is the kind of information that would allow the reader to make clear distinctions among the various cultivars of comprehensive genera like Syrmga. The task of deciding which taxa to include in a book like this is a daunting one. While one could identify an omission or two, on the whole the authors have made excellent choices: virtually all the plants covered are deserving of inclusion. Part II of the book, \"The Basics of Growing Shrubs and Small Trees,\" consists of well-written chapters that discuss in general terms the topics already covered for individual genera: plant selection, site selection and preparation, planting, maintenance, and the like. Terms and concepts are defined with care and clarity, and the glossary at the end of the book is a helpful reference tool. I would have liked the authors to include a \"References Used\" section with a list of sources for taxonomy and nomenclature, but this is a minor omission; in no way does it affect my hearty recommendation of the book. It has already found a place on my shelf, within arm's reach, and has little chance of collecting dust. regimes); \"Propagation\" (discussing suckering, cuttings, and seed); and \"Special Uses\" (with instructions for preserving cut or dried flowers). ). Michael Dosmann is a Putnam research fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, where he writes and conducts research on woody plants in addition to coordinating the plant selection for the new Shrub and Vine Garden. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25341","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd0708126.jpg","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hetman, Jon","article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum Vo I . 61 \/ No.1. N E W 5 . 2 0 0 1 Summer Storms Leave Their Mark The collections have benefited from the frequency of heavy rains this summer, particularly in the wake of several dry seasons. However, when accompanied by severe thunderstorms, the rains can have negative consequences. In June and July, the Arboretum suffered four major lightning strikes. Damage caused by these strikes has been significant enough to require heavy pruning on several trees and the removal of two. Along Meadow Road, specimens of amur cork tree were the first trees to be damaged by lightning this season. The injury to one was eye-catching: when the strike stripped off a wide swath of bark, it exposed a patch of bright yellow and split one major limb down the middle. Two subsequent strikes disfigured a pair of red oaks and a tulip tree. All three lost significant amounts of bark. The most dramatic event occurred on Hemlock Hill, where two hemlocks were hit and literally blown apart; one is pictured at left. These trees were removed immediately. Past experience shows that the cork, oak, and tulip trees may survive. Two years ago lightning struck an old black walnut, leaving a large wound running down its trunk. The wound has developed a callus to ward off disease and appears to be recovering. New Home for a Grand Cherry A vigorous 60-year-old specimen of Prunus 'Karl Sax', originally located m the dwarf conifer collection below the Dana Greenhouses, was moved this spring to its new home in the Eleanor Cabot Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants. A cultmar named for former Arboretum director Karl Sax, the tree was moved during site preparations for the Shrub and Vine Garden. Full-grown trees are rarely moved on the grounds, due to their unwieldy weight and the possibility of incurring damage to both limbs and roots. This cherry, in full bloom the week of its relocation, was moved by forklift to the Prunus collection near Dawson Pond on Meadow Road. Arborists and members of the grounds staff carefully replanted the tree, which seems to be adjusting well to its new home. Dave Russo Distinguished as Harvard Hero Each year Sally Zeckhauser, Harvard's Vice President for Administration, hosts a reception for individuals designated as Harvard Heroes, an employee recognition program currently in its sixth year. This year Dave Russo, facilities manager, was recognized as the Arboretum's Hero for his exemplary service over the past year. Since his arrival at the Arboretum in March 1999, Dave's diligence, resourcefulness, and indomitable humor have made him an invaluable part of day-today operations at the Arboretum. In a position that requires he be on 24-hour call, Dave has proven himself an inventive problem solver and dedicated team player. At the ceremony, held at Harvard's august Sanders Theater, Dave was ~omed by family and coworkers to honor his outstanding contributions to the Arboretum and the Harvard community. New Staff Judy Greene joined the Arboretum in April as a project image cataloger in the Arboretum's Horticultural Library. Under a grant from Harvard's Library Digital Initiative, she is cataloging photographs taken by Joseph Rock during the Arnold Arboretum's 1924-1927 expedition to western China and Tibet as well as those taken in the 1990s dunng Harvard University Herbana collecting trips to these same areas. The images Judy catalogs will be available through VIA, Harvard's onlme catalog for visual materials, and through a future \"Hotspots of Diversity\" website. Judy comes to the Arboretum with an MS in library science from Simmons and an MA in history from the University of Rochester. She has cataloged visual and archival materials for a number of local institutions, most recently Hedda Morrison's photographs of China for the Harvard-Yenching Library and slides of African art for the Fine Arts Library at Harvard. This year Judy was the recipient of Harvard University Library's Bryant Fellowship for her work on the African-American architect Thomas Wilson Boyde, Jr. Collections Provide Backdrop for Solstice Legends On two evenings in June storyteller Diane Edgecomb and Celtic harpist Margot Chamberlain entertained Arboretum friends with evening performances of stories and songs celebrating the summer solstice and illustrating-with the help of the Arboretum's living collections-the importance of trees to a variety of cultures. Leading the group out of the Hunnewell building like the Pied Piper, Diane began by recounting an Australian aborigine legend near the cedar of lebanon just outside the visitor center. The group then moved along Meadow Road to enjoy a Native American legend near the giant silver maple and a Japanese tale of love under a Sargent's cherry. Next Diane and Margot led the group onto Beech Path for a Celtic tale of tree spirits entitled \"Three Green Ladies,\" followed by a streamside performance under a hemlock tree in Rhododendron Dell and a Welsh song about the cuckoo on Valley Road. At the final stop, among the birches on Valley Road, the performers enchanted the audience with a Czechoslovakian story told in song and dance about how birches got their stmpes. Both evenings were a great success. Stone Walls Erected in Shrub and Vine Garden Construction of the new shrub and vine garden has been swiftly gaining momentum since it was begun ern Massachusetts and Connecticut-a common source of fieldstone used for construction in the Boston area. m May 2001. Dramatic changes become evident almost daily, but perhaps the most satisfying has been the emergence of the stone walls that will hold the planting terraces. A crew of five to eleven masons from Portsmouth, Rhode Island, have been working their way uphill on the site, transforming loose piles of rounded, weathered fieldstones into walls of broadly curving arcs with crisp, square corners. Each stone is shaped, placed, and mortared by hand. Larger stones weighing 200 to 300 pounds require two men to heave them into position. Much of the fieldstone is purchased and moved from old farm pasture walls in west- An Evening of Discovery Among the Roses gered. The tour began with Rosa 'Duchesse de Montebello', a favonte of the collection's benefactor, Eleanor Bradley, that was originally grown in her garden in Canton, MA. Affectionately referred to as \"Mrs. Bradley's rose\" by members of the staff, this fragrant pink rose has almost completely thornless stems. Many guests on the tour took the opportunity to chat with Kirsten Ganshaw, the gardener of the collection, whose hard work and expertise were evident throughout the collection. On a splendid evening in June, members of the Director's Advisory Board and the Arboretum Council gathered with friends of the Arboretum in the Eleanor Cabot Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants. Guests were offered a tour of the collection led by members of the living collections staff, who discussed the origins and growth habits of a wide variety of rosaceous plants. The plants included in the tour were chosen to illustrate the broad diversity of this plant family as well as to highlight members that are particularly beautiful, adaptive, or endan- After the tours, guests were formally welcomed to the festivities by director Robert E. Cook and Director's Advisory Board co-chair A. David Davis. Informal presentations by Elizabeth C. Sluder, daughter of Eleanor Cabot Bradley, and Stephen Spongberg, executive director of the-Polly Hill Arboretum and one of the architects of the collection, added a historical perspective. A map of a self-guided tour of the Bradley Collection is on sale at the Hunnewell Visitor Center. Take a walk and learn more about this fragrant and fascinating plant family! 21st Annual Fall Plant Sale Rain or shine, you're sure to find something spectacular for your garden at the Annual Fall Plant Sale on Sunday, September 16, 2001, at the Case Estates in Weston. One of the most anticipated horticultural events in New England each year, the Plant Sale is an Arboretum tradition currently in its 21st year. Over 100 varieties of trees, shrubs, vines, and perennials, many cultivated from clippings and seeds from the Arboretum's living collections, will be sold in and around the barn. Featured this year are two new Arboretum plant introductions, Liquidambar acalyczna and Fothergzlla gardenii 'Harold Epstein', as well as beautiful specimens of Cornus controversa, Acer trzflorum, and Euonymous carno.ru.r, to name a few. The barn will open to members at the sustaining level and above at 8:00 a.m., to all members at 9:00 a.m., and to the general public at 10:30 a.m. This year's sale will also feature the return of the Collector's Choice tent and the Live Auction, which includes choice and unusual plants generously donated by nursenes and individuals nationwide. Arbonsts from the staff will be on hand to answer questions about the care of woody plants. Further expert advice and specialty plants may be garnered from the propagators on 'Society Row', representing over twenty plant societies from all over New England. For more information about the plant sale, to donate plants, or to become a member or upgrade your current membership with the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, please call Jon Hetman at 617.524.1718 x 145 Members will receive a catalog of plants to be offered in the barn in August and will receive free plants and a discount on plant purchases at the sale! Staff Photo On the facing inside cover is the staff of the Arnold Arboretum as it was photographed recently for the first time in many years. Below is a key for linking names to faces. Absent on that day were Tom Akin, Kenneth Clarke, Carol David, Hans-Joachim Esser, Stuart Lindsay, Sandra Morgan, Bruce Munch, Jim Nickerson, Karen Pinto, Dave Russo, Lisa Schultheis, and Emily Wood. 1. Andrew Hubble 2. Terry Sharik 3. Sheryl Barnes 4. Nancy Sableski 5. Julie Coop 6. Tom Ward 7. Ellen Bennett 8. Jon Hetman 9. John Olmsted 10. Kyle Port 11. Susan Kelley 12. David Boufford 13. David Middleton 14. Dennis Harris 15. Moe Sheehan 16. Karen Madsen 17. Stephen Schneider 18. Phyllis Andersen 19. Michael Dosmann 20. Candace Julyan 21. Jack Alexander 22. Irina Kadis 23. Joseph Melanson 24. Thomas Por 25. Donna Barrett 26. Kirsten Ganshaw 27. Bob Cook 28. Mark Walkama 29. Judy Warnement 30. Sheila Connor 31. Bob Famiglietti 32. Laura Tenny Brogna 33. Susan Hardy Brown 34. Alice Ingerson 35. Judy Greene 36. Donald Garrick 37. James Papargiris 38. Bethany Grasso 39. Chris Santos 40. Frances Maguire 41. Sheila Baskin 42. Pamela Thompson 43. Jianhua Li 44. Sheryl White 45. John DelRosso 46. Sonia Brenner 47. Kirstin Behn 48. Peter Del Tredici"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23344","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260bb28.jpg","title":"2001-61-1","volume":61,"issue_number":1,"year":2001,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - A","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25320","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060b36d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"A Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Aaron's rod (31) 191 ABC of Indoor Plants, Jocelyn Baines and Katharine Key [review of] (34) 434 Aber, John, \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58) [2] 3540 Aberdeen [Scotland] (48) [2] 18 Abies (32) 65, 76; (37) 9, 4042; (48) [1] 148; (57) [1] 24; [2] 15, 16 -- bark of (48) [1] 4, 6, 12 -- branchlets of (48) [1] 4, 6, 12 -- buds of (48) [1] 4, 6, 12 -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 6 -- cones of (48) [1] 5, 6, 11, 12 -- distinguishing characters of (48) [1] 5 -- foliage of (48) [1] 4 -- habit of (48) [1] 4 -- leaves of (48) [1] 4, 12 -- resin canals of (48) [1] 4, 6 -- similar genera (48) [1] 5 -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- alba (42) [1] 16, 18, 19, 38; [3] 104 -- -- branchlet hairs of (48) [1] 9 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- buds of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- var. acutifolia (48) [1] 19 -- amabilis (48) [1] 16, 17, 18, 38 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- `Spreading Star' (48) [1] 17 -- balsamea (48) [1] 16, 18, 28, 34, 46; (53) [1] 27 -- -- bark of (48) [1] 8 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- x boristii-regis (48) [1] 19, 21, 30 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- x bornmulleriana (48) [1] 15, 20, 21; (50) [3] inside back cover -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- bracteata (48) [1] 5, 30 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- brachyphylla (48) [1] 31 -- cephalonica (48) [1] 19, 20, 21, 40 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- buds of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6, 10 -- -- var. apollinis (48) [1] 21 -- -- var. graeca (48) [1] 21 -- chensiensis (48) [1] 5, 25, 27 -- chinensis var. fabri (48) [1] 25 -- -- var. georgii (48) [1] 25 -- -- var. smithii (48) [1] 25 A 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- cilicica (48) [1] 22, 30; (50) [4] 37 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- buds of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- concolor (48) [1] 4, 7, 15, 18, 23, 30, 31, 35, 43, front cover -- -- bract scales of (48) [1] 10 [Note: The caption should read scales, not cones.] -- -- branchlet hairs of (48) [1] 9 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6, 8 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaf attachments of (48) [1] 7 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 10, 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- `Candicans' (48) [1] 7, 23 -- -- `Conica' (48) [1] 23 -- -- `Gables Weeping' (30) 251 -- -- `Glenmore' (57) [1] 26 -- -- var. lowiana (48) [1] 24, 29 -- -- `Violacea' (48) [1] 23 -- delavayi (46) [4] 32; (48) [1] 5, 46 -- durangensis (48) [1] 5 -- equi-trojani (48) [1] 3 -- ernestii (48) [1] 5 -- fargesii (48) [1] 25; (58) [3] 13 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- var. faxoniana (48) [1] 25 -- -- var. sutchuensis (48) [1] 25 -- firma (44) [3] 15; (48) [1] 26, 31, 32 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- fraseri (48) [1] 18, 28 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- grandis (42) [4] 149; (48) [1] 2, 24, 29, 30 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- guatamalensis (48) [1] 3, 5 -- hickeli (48) [1] 5 -- holophylla (48) [1] 19, 30, 32, inside back cover; (57) [2] 21 -- -- bark of (48) [1] 6, 8 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- buds of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- homolepi, bark of (48) [1] 6, 8 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6, 8 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- f. tomomi (48) [1] 31 -- -- var. umbellata (= x umbellata) (48) [1] 31 -- -- -- cones of (48) [1] 5 -- kaempferi (31) 17 -- kawakamii (48) [1] 5 -- x insignis (48) [1] 40 -- koreana (48) [1] 4, 33, 47; (60) [4] inside front cover, 17 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 A Cumulative Index -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 10, 11 -- -- `Aurea' (48) [1] 33 -- -- `Prostrate Beauty' (48) [1] 33 -- lasiocarpa (48) [1] 4, 18, 34, 43, back cover -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6, 10 -- -- var. arizonica `Compacta' (48) [1] 34 -- magnifica (48) [1] 4, 35, 36, 42, 43 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- `Nana' (48) [1] 36 -- -- var. shastensis (48) [1] 36, 43 -- mariesii (38) 30, 93; (47) [2] 12; (48) [1] 5 -- x marocana (48) [1] 40 -- maximowiczii (47) [2] 14 -- mexicana (48) [1] 5 -- nebrodensis (48) [1] 5 -- nephrolepsis (48) [1] 33, 37, 44, 45, 46; (49) [1] 21 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- f. chlorocarpa (48) [1] 37 -- -- -- cones of (48) [1] 5 -- nobilis (48) [1] 42 -- nordmanniana (41) 231; (48) [1] 4, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 38, 39 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- buds of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- `Pendula' (48) [1] 38 -- numidica (48) [1] 5 -- pardei (48) [1] 5 -- pindrow (48) [1] 5 -- pinsapo (48) [1] 4, 21, 35, 39, 43, inside front cover -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- `Glauca' (48) [1] 39 -- -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- f. glauca (48) [1] 14 -- -- var. tazaotana (46) [1] 1 -- procera (48) [1] 4, 17, 35, 36, 37, 41, 43 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- `Glauca' (48) [1] 41 -- -- `Glauca Prostrata' (48) [1] 41 -- recurvata (48) [1] 25, 26, 43 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- leaves of (48) [1] 9 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- religiosa (48) [1] 5 -- sachalinensis (47) [2] 5; (48) [1] 33, 37, 44, 45, 46 -- -- bark of (48) [1] 6 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 3 A 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- var. mayriana (48) (48) [1] 44 -- -- var. nemorensis (48) [1] 44 -- shikokianum (47) [2] 12 -- sibirica (48) [1] 3, 37, 4446 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- stomata of (48) [1] 6 -- -- var. nephrolepsis (48) [1] 37 -- squamata (48) [1] 5 -- veitchii (47) [2] 12, 14; (48) [1] 1618, 33, 46 -- -- bark of (48) [1] 6 -- -- branchlets of (48) [1] 6 -- -- cone bracts of (48) [1] 11 -- -- foliage (48) [1] 1 -- -- habit (48) [1] 1 -- -- leaf attachments of (48) [2] 7 -- -- resin canals of (48) [1] 11 -- -- var. olivacea (48) [1] 46 -- -- -- cones of (48) [1] 5 -- -- var. sachalinensis (48) [1] 44 -- vejari (48) [1] 5 -- x vilmorinii (48) [1] 40 Aboriginal people, and forests (58) [2] 811, 27, 33; (58) [3] 9; (59) [4] 6, 8 \"Abnormal Leaf Retention on Introduced Trees in Autumn\" [1971], Alfred J. Fordham (32) 290 Abrus precatorius (34) 45; (35) 95, 96 Abscisic acid (45) [2] 28, 31 -- -- structure of (45) [2] 29 Abutilon avicennae (31) 11, 17 Acacia, East African (50) [1] 19 -- Egyptian (31) 232 Acacia (36) 7 -- baileyana (36) 5, 18 -- farnesiana (31) 232; (36) 18 Academia de Ciencias de Cuba (51) [3] 32 Academia Sinica Institute of Botany [China] (35) 272, 276; (48) [2] 4 Academy of Natural Sciences [Philadelphia] (60) [1] 4, 5, 8, 9 Acanthopanax (55) [3] 18 -- sciadophylloides (38) 93 -- sieboldianus (41) 170; (44) [4] 22; (45) [2] 25 Acanthosicyos horrida (54) [2] 4 Acanthus (34) 267 Accents as Well as Broad Effects: Writings on Architecture, Landscape, and the Environment 18761925, Mariana Griswold Van Rensselaer [review of] (57) [4] 3032 Acclimation (45) [4] 36 -- environmental cues for (54) [3] 2526 -- relationship to hardiness (54) [3] 2231 Acer (32) 241247; (36) 146176; (53) [4] 30; (55) [4] 12; (57) [1] 24; (59) [1] 49 -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- alpina (47) [2] 8 -- buergerianum (36) 156, 157; (38) 84, 85, 223; (44) [3] 24; (47) [2] 4; (49) [3] 11, 18, 22, 23; (60) [4] 26 -- campestre (39) 85, 86, 225; (53) [1] 21, 22 -- capillipes (36) 162, 166, 170 -- cappadocicum (39) 169, 225 -- carpinifolium (36) 162, 166, 171; (47) [2] 12 -- circinatum (36) 150, 151, 160; (58) [3] 3, 4 -- -- `Monroe' (36) 151, 171 -- cissifolium (57) [2] 24 -- dasycarpum (59) [3] 31 -- davidii (36) 156, 162, 170; (43) [1] 8; (55) [1] 15, 18; (59) [1] 43 -- diabolicum (36) 158, 159; (55) [4] 8 -- distylum (38) 30 -- ginnala (36) 154, 162, 165, 170; (39) 139, 140, 223; (44) [3] 6 [4] 15, 16; (45) [4] 2223, 27 -- glabrum (42) [4] 140 -- griseum (30) 26, 210; (32) 290, 291; (34) 397; (36) 150, 156, 157, 166, 169; (38) [1] front cover; (39) 140, 141, 223; (43) [1] 7, 8; (51) [4] inside back cover; (52) [4] 24; (55) [1] 9, 12, 1416; (57) [2] inside front cover; 18, 19, 24; (60) [4] 15 A Cumulative Index 5 -- grosseri (36) 156, 162, 170 -- -- var. hersii (43) [1] 8 -- henryi (55) [1] 15, 18; (57) [2] 23, 24 -- hyrcanum (49) [4] 35 -- japonicum (30) 168; (32) 70; (36) 150, 151, 160, 171; (47) [2] 14; -- -- assorted leaves (54) [4] cover -- -- `Aconitifolium' (33) 200; (36) 151 -- -- `Green Cascade' (33) 200 -- kansuense (57) [2] 23 -- laxiflorum (43) [1] 8 -- macrophyllum (42) [1] 8; (58) [3] front cover, 5 -- mandshuricum (36) 150, 169; (57) [2] 2022 -- -- ssp. kansuense (57) [2] 23 -- maximowiczianum (39) 141, 142, 223; (57) [2] 1718, 20, 24 -- -- var. megalocarpum (57) [2] 24 -- mono (36) 154, 166, 169; (55) [1] 15, 1718 -- -- var. mayrii (47) [2] 7 -- montanum (47) [3] 8 -- negundo (31) 237; (32) 65, 66; (35) 117; (36) 154; (57) [1] 25; [2] 21 -- -- `Aureum' (36) 154 -- -- `Variegatum' (36) 154 -- nikoense (30) 168; (33) 16; (36) 150, 169; (39) 141, 142; (57) [2] 17 -- palmatum (30) 169; (32) 70, 290; (36) 150152, 156, 160, 171; (44) [4] 15, 16; (49) [3] 11, 18; (50) [3] 8; (55) [2] 29; (56) [2] 27; (60) [4] 15 -- -- assorted leaves (54) [4] cover -- -- cvs. (36) 152153, 171 -- -- `Aoyagi' (43) [1] 8 -- -- `Burgundy Lace' (33) 200; (36) 151, 153, 164 -- -- `Dissectum' (49) [3] 18 -- -- var. heptalobum (36) 151, 152, 166 -- -- `Linearilobum' (36) 151 -- -- `Senkaki' (43) [1] 8 -- -- `Sherwood Flame' (33) 200 -- pensylvanicum (30) 169; (31) 241; (32) 70; (36) 154156, 162, 165, 170; (43) [1] 8; (45) [4] 22 -- -- `Erythrocladum' (43) [1] 8 -- pentaphyllum (57) [2] 22 -- platanoides (31) 241; (32) 69, 290; (34) 240, 241; (36) 148, 158160, 162, 166; (38) 157; (39) 86, 87, 228; (44) [4] 16; (49) [2] 21; (56) [1] 16; [2] 27 -- -- cvs. (36) 160, 166, 168 -- -- `Crimson King' (33) 200 -- -- `Crimson Sentry' (33) 200 -- -- `Erectum' (39) 87 -- -- `Schwedleri' (36) 161, 166, 168 -- pseudoplatanus (32) 70; (34) 240; (36) 158, 159, 168; (39) 88, 89, 225; (42) [1] 8; (44) [4] 16; (53) [4] 28; (56) [2] 19; (57) [2] 7 -- -- var. purpureum (44) [4] 16 -- pseudosieboldianum (36) 150, 151, 156, 160, 164, 166, 171; (38) 143; (57) [2] 20, 21; (60) [4] back cover, 15 -- rubrum (30) 169; (31) 218; (32) 69; (34) 240; (36) 147, 156, 157, 160, 162, 163, 166168; (38) 157; (39) 89, 90, 228; (54) [1] 67; [3] 28; (55) [3] 56; (56) [1] 16; (57) [1] 14; [2] 29; (58) [2] 36; (59) [1] 49; [3] 23, 25; (60) [4] 23 -- -- cvs. (36) 168 -- -- `Armstrong' (54) [1] 32, 33 -- -- `Columnare' (36) 167; (39) 90 -- rufinerve (36) 156, 170 -- saccharinum (31) 241; (32) 69; (34) 240; (36) 148, 149, 160162, 166; (41) [6] inside back cover; (42) [2] 8991; (57) [1] 16; (59) [3] 2331, inside back cover -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- -- columnare (43) [3] 29 -- -- monumentale (43) [3] 29 -- -- `Pyramidalis' (59) [3] 31 -- -- `Silver Queen' (59) [3] 31 -- saccharum (31) 241; (32) 69; (36) 148, 160162, 168; (38) 157; (39) 142, 143, 228; (42) [2] 9192; (43) [3] 2930; (54) [1] 7; (55) [3] 56; (56) [1] 16; (57) [2] 22 -- -- cvs. (36) 168 -- -- ssp. leucoderme (57) [2] 29 -- -- `Newton Sentry' (36) 167; (39) 142; (43) [3] 2831 -- -- var. nigrum (59) [1] 13 -- -- `Temple's Upright' (36) 167; (43) [3] 2931 A 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- sieboldianum (32) 70; (36) 150, 171 -- spicatum (36) 154, 162; (45) [4] 22, 28 -- sutchuenense (57) [2] 23 -- tataricum (32) 70; (36) 162, 166, 170; (39) 143, 144, 223; (44) [4] 16 -- tegmentosum (36) 156, 159, 162, 166, 170 -- triflorum (36) 150, 156, 157, 166, 169; (38) 141, 175; (53) [4] 21; (55) [1] 9; (57) [2] inside back cover; 20, 23, 24; (60) [4] 15 -- -- var. leopodum (57) [2] 23 -- -- var. subcoriacea (57) [2] 23 -- truncatum (44) [3] 5 -- tschonoskii (38) 93 -- ukurunduense (38) 90, 93; (57) [2] 21 -- velutinum (39) 170, 228 \"Acer saccharum `Newton Sentry': Setting the Record Straight,\" Michael Dathe (43) [3] 2931 Aceraceae (57) [2] 17 Acetaria, A Discourse of Sallets [John Evelyn] (30) 115 Achasma yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Achillea (31) 25; (34) 267 -- ageratifolia (31) 26; (34) 269 -- argentea (39) 249 -- decolorans (39) 249 -- filipendulina (31) 25; (34) 267 -- -- `Coronation Gold' (31) 25; (34) 266 -- -- `Gold Plate' (31) 25 -- -- `Moonshine' (31) 25 -- -- `Parker's Variety' (31) 26 -- fischeri var. wilsoni (31) 26 -- millefolium (31) 26, 197, 202; (34) 154, 155, 268; (39) 249; (42) [3] 143 -- -- `Cerise Queen' (31) 26 -- -- `Crimson Beauty' (31) 26 -- -- `Fire King' (31) 26 -- -- f. rosea (31) 26 -- napellus (31) 26 -- ptarmica (31) 25, 175; (34) 269; (45) [4] 3031 -- -- `The Pearl' (31) 25 -- -- `Perry's White' (31) 25 -- -- `Snowball' (31) 25 -- taygeta (45) [4] 21 -- tomentosa (31) 26; (34) 269; (39) 249 Achiote (50) [2] 2324 Acocotli (30) 129, 133 Acocoxochitl (30) 131 Aconite (31) 26; (34) 271 -- winter (31) 174; (37) 95 Aconitum (31) 26, 174; (34) 46, 271; (45) [4] 26; (55) [1] 15, 17 -- carmichaelii (34) 272 -- -- var. wilsonii (34) 272 -- -- -- -- `Barker's Variety (34) 272 -- fischeri (31) 26 -- -- var. wilsoni (31) 26 -- napellus (31) 2627, 174; (34) 270, 272; (39) 249 -- -- var. bicolor (34) 272 -- -- `Bressingham Spire' (31) 27 -- -- `Spark's Variety' (34) 272 Acorus (31) 267 -- calamus (43) [2] 7 Act to Protect Public Forest Reservations (60) [2] 35 Acta Botanica Sinica (35) 277 Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica (35) 277 Actaea (34) 47 -- pachypoda (45) [4] 28 -- rubra (45) [4] 28 Actinidia, bower (56) [2] 13; (60) [1] 18 Actinidia (42) [4] 103; (56) [2] 30 -- tissue culture of (46) [1] inside front cover -- arguta (38) 145; (42) [4] 121128; (56) [2] 13, 27, 31; (60) [1] 18 -- chinensis (30) 180185; (38) 88; (40) 182; (42) [4] 121, 123, 126127; (43) [4] 2435; (52) [3] 27; (55) [1] 17 A Cumulative Index -- deliciosa (55) [3] 18 -- kolomikta (38) 88; (42) [4] 108; (50) [1] 3640; back cover -- laevis (39) 96 -- polygama (42) [4] 127 Actinostrobus (37) 42 Adair, Miss (31) 47 Adair, Robert (57) [4] 15 Adam's needle (39) 269 Adams, Abigail, rose of (59) [3] 8 Adams, Charles Francis (53) [4] 2, 11; (59) [2] 15 Adams, Henry (53) [4] 2 Adams, Marshall (57) [2] 29 Adams, Sally Aldrich, \"Interview: Chinese Botany and the Odyssey of Dr. Shiu-ying Hu\" (48) [2] 3031 Adams, William (47) [4] 10 Adams-Nervine property (39) 342 Adder's tongue (37) 95 Addis, J. M. (48) [2] 37 Addison, Joseph (31) 156 Adelges tsugae (58) [2] 41 Aden, Paul (52) [1] 29 Adenophora (34) 273 Adiatum pedatum (31) 229; (55) [1] 8 -- -- var. aleuticum (55) [1] 6 -- -- var. subpumilum (55) [1] 6 -- venustum (55) [1] 5 Adler, David (59) [4] 28, 29 Adonis amurensis (52) [2] 36 -- bonsai (32) 245 -- cvs. (52) [2] 37 -- `Fukujukai' (37) 89, 90 Advanced Revelation database (49) [1] 52, 53 Aegopodium podagraria `Variegatum' (44) [4] 42 Aesculus (32) 63; (60) [1] 17 -- x carnea `Briotii' (39) 91, 225 -- chinensis (44) [3] 5 -- glabra (42) [2] 91, 92 -- hippocastanum (31) 239; (33) 107; (52) [4] 29; (54) [1] 4, 14; (55) [4] 12; (57) [2] 7 -- octandra (31) 233; (52) [4] 29 -- parviflora (38) 104, 106, 178; (41) 171, 172; (55) [2] 29; [3] 18; (60) [4] 13, 14 -- -- `Rogers' (33) 199 -- -- var. serotina (38) 104 -- pavia (31) 239; (60) [1] 17 -- x planteriensis (60) [1] 17 -- turbinata (38) 95; (55) [4] 13, 14 Aethionema (34) 273 -- oppositifolium (55) [1] 6 African hemp (36) 6, 20 -- tulip tree (37) 218, 219 \"African Tropical Forest in Boston,\" Matthew A. Thurlow (50) [1] 2223 After-Dinner Gardening Book, Richard W. Langer [review of] (35) 132 Agapanthus (32) 220 Agassiz, Louis (47) [4] 11; (50) [3] 5 Agassiz Peak [AZ] (42) [4] 136, 137, 146 Agassiz School (33) 313, 314 Agastache foeniculum (39) 249 Agathis (37) 42 Agave (52) [2] 17 Agave (33) 137; (46) [3] 38 -- at risk (46) [3] 45 -- arizonica (46) [3] 3 -- bahamense (52) [2] 18 -- cf. harvardiana (46) [3] 36 -- mckelveyana (46) [3] 36 -- missionum (52) [2] 18 -- murpheyi (46) [3] 43 -- parviflora (46) [3] 36 -- utahensis var. kaibabensis (46) [3] 36 7 A 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Ageratum, hardy (31) 73; (34) 339 Ageratum conyzoides (32) 25 Aglaonema (47) [2] 27 \"Aging and Rejuvenation in Trees,\" Peter Del Tredici (59) [4] 1016 Agriculture, slash-and-burn (50) [1] 18 Agrilus anxius (38) 120 Agrimony (31) 291, 293 Agrostis (34) 218, 219 -- alba (34) 218 -- tenuis (31) 227 Ahipa (50) [4] 10, 11 Ailanthone (57) [3] 2935 Ailanthus altissima (30) 170; (32) 67, 68; (34) 226, 227; (38) 46; (39) 2950, 82, 92, 93, 228; (44) [4] 35; (49) [2] 21; (50) [1] 7, 17; (52) [4] 26, back cover; (55) [3] 17, back cover; (57) [3] front cover, inside front cover, 28, 2934, 3536, back cover; (60) [4] 26 -- webworm (57) [1] 17 -- f. altissima (39) 36 -- var. aucubaefolia (39) 35 -- f. erythrocarpa (39) 36 -- integrifolia (39) 33 -- var. pendulifolia (39) 35 -- var. rubra (39) 35 -- vilmoriniana (39) 36 Air pollutants, phytotoxic (45) [1] 1518 -- pollution (30) 4044; (32) 228; (33) 162 -- -- effects on lilacs (49) [2] 2 Airelles rouges (45) [4] 25 Airy Shaw, Henry Kenneth (46) [4] 3; (50) [3] 29 Aiton, William (53) [3] 13 Ajes (52) [2] 2324 Ajuda Royal Botanical Garden [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] inside front cover, 3038, back cover -- -- -- -- original plan of (47) [3] 33 Ajuga (34) 273 -- genevensis (39) 249 -- reptans (39) 249 Akebia quinata (30) 158; (55) [1] 17; (56) [2] 24 -- x pentaphylla (32) 35 Akiba, David, photos by (53) [2] front cover; [3] front cover; [4] front cover Alangium platanifolium (38) 88 -- -- var. trilobum (38) 30 Alaska (48) [1] 34 Alaska-Yukon Wild Flowers Guide, Helen A. White [review of] (36) 178 Alberta (48) [1] 18 Albizia chinensis (44) [3] 18 -- julibrissin (31) 241, 288, 290, 293; (32) 69, 85; (36) [4] inside back cover; (38) 107, 109, 112; (49) [4] 35; (50) [1] 19; (55) [2] inside back cover; [3] 17 -- -- `Ernest Wilson' (30) 252 -- -- `Rosea' (55) [2] 28, 30 Alborz mountains [Iran] (49) [4] 35 Albuquerque [NM] (47) [4] 14 Alchemilla (34) 273; (43) [3] 3 -- alpina (39) 249 -- mollis (55) [1] 9 -- pubescens (52) [3] 10 -- vulgaris (39) 244, 249 -- -- var. mollis (39) 249 Alder (31) 232; (32) 82; (55) [3] 7; [4] 1630; (56) [3] 16 -- European (39) 171, 172; (44) [1] 11 -- Italian (39) 170, 171 -- red (56) [3] 8 Aldrich, Chester Holmes (47) [4] 10 Alehoof (31) 185 Alerce (59) [2] 2731 -- fossil record (59) [2] 30 Alerce Andino National Park [Chile] (59) [2] 2830 Aleurites fordii (31) 8, 16 Alexander, John H. [Jack], III (39) 344, 347, 354, 359; (49) [1] 73; (50) [4] 30; (51) [3] 18 A Cumulative Index 9 -- -- -- \"Allegheny Pachysandra,\" with Michael A. Dirr (39) 1621 -- -- -- book review by (44) [2] 3132 -- -- -- \"Ilex glabra-- the Inkberry Holly,\" with Michael A. Dirr (51) [2] 1622 -- -- -- \"`Lilac Sunday'--The Cultivar\" (57) [1] 1213 -- -- -- \"Raisin Tree--Its Use, Hardiness, and Size,\" with Gary L. Koller (39) 715 -- -- -- \"Quest for the Perfect Lilac\" (49) [2] 27 -- -- -- \"Uncommon Lilacs: Something Old, Something New\" (38) 6581 -- -- -- Weather Station Data, for 1978 and JanuaryJune 1979 (39) 368 -- -- -- \"Would a Lilac by Any Other Name Smell So Sweet? A Search for Fragrance\" (56) [1] 2528 \"Alfred J. Fordham, Portrait of a Plant Propagator,\" Margo W. Reynolds (37) 283, 284 Algiers, botanic garden in (51) [3] 9 Alisma (43) [2] 10, 13 -- subcordatum (43) [2] 12 -- triviale (43) [2] 10 Alkanet (31) 27, 199 -- Italian (31) 27; (34) 279 Allandale Spring [Brookline, MA] (51) [2] 33, 34 \"Allandale Woods: A Fragment of the First Families of Boston,\" Richard Heath and Richard B. Primack (51) [2] 3339 All-China Federation of Scientific Societies (48) [2] 22 Allee (54) [1] 1323; (56) [2] 10; (57) [2] 210 \"Allegheny Pachysandra,\" Michael A. Dirr and John H. Alexander III (51) [4] 4346 Allelopathy (44) [1] 34; (57) [3] 2836 \"Allelopathy and the Secret Life of Ailanthus altissima,\" Rod M. Heisey (57) [3] 28 Allium (30) 97; (39) [4] front cover, 248250 -- cepa (31) 208 -- christophii (45) [4] 21, 28 -- porrum (31) 208; (39) 250 -- sativum (31) 206 -- schoenophrasum (31) 199; (33) 254 -- tuberosum (39) 250 Allozyme electrophoresis (57) [4] 25 Allspice, Carolina (31) 89, 234; (53) [1] 13 Allyn, Abigail Bradford (56) [4] 1721, 23 Almeida Monteiro, Antonio de, and Jules Janick, \"The `Tapada da Ajuda': Portugal's First Botanical Garden\" (47) [3] 3038 Almond (31) 222 -- bush (44) [3] 19 -- flowering (56) [2] 25; (57) [1] 10 -- -- dwarf (31) 238 -- tangutian (44) [3] 19 Alnus (32) 82 -- cvs. and spp. (55) [4] 1625, 27, 29 -- acuminata var. multinervis (55) [4] 18, 21, 22 -- cordata (39) 170, 171, 225 -- glutinosa (31) 232; (39) 171, 172, 225; (44) [1] 11 -- -- `Fastigiata' (39) 171 -- hirsuta (55) [4] 16, 1924 -- japonica (38) 89; (55) [4] 1819, 2224 -- maximowiczii (38) 89; (55) [4] 21, 22, 24 [Note: On page 22, the photo identified as Alnus japonica is A. maximowiczii] -- rubra (56) [3] 8 -- subcordata (49) [4] 35 Aloe (52) [2] 1719; (54) [2] 5 Aloe barbadensis (52) [2] 17, 18 -- divaricata (32) 25 Aloysia triphylla (39) 250 Alpert, Peter (39) 356 Alphand, Jean Charles Adolphe (48) [4] 34; (54) [2] 1213, 18 Alpine Gardens of Mt. Rokko [Japan] (30) 19, 20 Alpinus, Prosper (31) 118 Alsophila spinulosa (48) [2] 6 Alston, Charles (56) [4] 19 Alstroemeria haemantha (47) [3] 15 Altamaha River [GA] (46) [3] 7; (47) [4] 4 Althea arborescens provincialis (31) 214 -- frutex (31) 214 -- officinalis (39) 250 A 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- rosea (31) 186; (34) 167, 274276; (39) 250 Altingia excelsa (48) [2] 4 Alum root (31) 79; (34) 359 Alvarez de Faria, Manuel Godoy (47) [3] 19 Alyssoides utriculata (37) 89 Alyssum, goldentuft (34) 277 -- sweet (56) [2] 18 Alyssum saxatile (34) 277 Amaranthus (31) 18, 168, 174 -- cvs. (31) 177 -- caudatus (31) 174; (50) [4] 10, 12 -- hybridus var. hypochondriachus (39) 250 -- oleraceus (31) 18 -- tricolor (31) 174 Amaryllidaceae (44) [3] 32 \"Amazing Grace: The Cutleaf Maples,\" Rob Nicholson (57) [2] 1724 Amazon flora (50) [2] 2134 -- plant lore of indigenous peoples (46) [4] 5259 Ambrosia (55) [2] 25 -- artemisiafolia (34) 206; (55) [2] 25 Amelanchier (30) 169; (45) [4] 22; (31) 90; (32) 84; (43) [3] 3; (48) [3] 47; (55) [3] 17; (57) [1] 26 -- in cultivation (34) 2231 -- arborea (34) 23, 25, 27, 30; (39) 9395, 223; (40) 9497; (53) [1] front cover -- bartramiana (45) [4] 23 -- canadensis (31) 243; (34) 25; (38) 36; (39) 94, 95; (45) [2] 25 [4] 24, 28 -- florida (60) [1] 7 -- laevis (39) 95; (40) 96 -- stolonifera (31) 241, 244 America's Greatest Garden, E. H. Wilson (32) 51 American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (32) 251, 253; (33) 311; (49) [1] 42 American Association of Zoological Horticulture (50) [1] 12 American Bonsai Society (31) 262 American Conifer Society (43) [3] 3 \"American Elm,\" L. L. Dame and Henry Brooks (42) [2] 4959 AMERICAN ELMS (42) [2] 46100 American Garden [1891] (39) 9 American Gardener [Cobbett, 1821] (30) 115 American Gardener's Calendar [M'Mahon, 1806] (47) [4] 28; (49) [2] 19 American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century, Ann Leighton [review of] (38) 34 American Genetic Association (52) [3] 26 American Hemerocallis Society (30) 9, 19 -- -- -- Junior Citation received by George Pride (32) 261 American Horticultural Society (49) [1] 43, 56; (53) [3] 3; (60) [1] 9 American Museum of Natural History (30) 7779 American Park & Outdoor Association (59) [2] 18 American Society of Horticultural Sciences, N. E. Section Meeting at the Arnold Arboretum (32) 126, 268 American Society of Landscape Architects (51) [3] 7, 9 American-Japanese congeners (60) [2] 1113 Amerongen park [Holland] (54) [2] 14 Ames, Blanche (51) [1] 1, 33 -- -- drawing by (56) [1] 9 Ames, Esther (48) [4] 18 Ames, Oakes (32) 5, 8, 9; (49) [4] 30; (51) [1] 33; [3] 22, 23, 27, 31 Ames, Oliver S. (48) [4] 18 Ames fir collection [North Easton, MA] (48) [1] 30 Amethyst Lakes region [Canada] (48) [1] back cover Ammi visnaga (32) 201 Amomum villosum (48) [2] 4 Amoora calcicola (48) [2] 7 Amorpha (31) 232 Amorpha (55) [3] 18 -- fruticosa (31) 232; (39) 275 Amoy [China] (48) [2] 26 Amsonia, willow (34) 278 Amsonia (31) 27 -- tabernaemontana (31) 27; (34) 278; (45) [4] 24 Amur cork tree (60) [4] 11 A Cumulative Index 11 \"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall From Grace,\" James O. Luken and John W. Thieret (57) [3] 212 Amur maackia (32) 67 Amur River [China] (30) 163 Amyema (51) [3] 16 Amyris balsaminifera (46) [3] 7 Anacardiaceae (54) [2] 21 Anacardium occidentale (35) 95, 96 Anadenanthera colubrina (32) 208 -- peregrina (41) 86, 87 Anagallis arvensis (48) [3] 23, 24 Anagnostakis, Sandra L., \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight,\" with Bradley Hillman (52) [2] 210 -- -- -- photo by (52) [2] back cover Ananas ananassoides (50) [2] 22 -- comosus (50) [2] 2223 -- microstachya (50) [2] 22 Anaphalis margaritacea (31) 196 -- yedoensis (34) 278 Anatolia (48) [1] 3 Anchangiopteris henryi (48) [2] 6 Anchor tree (31) 237 Anchusa, dwarf (31) 27; (34) 299 Anchusa (31) 27 -- azurea (31) 27; (34) 279 -- myosotidiflora (31) 28, 31; (34) 279 -- `Royal Blue' (31) 28 -- sempervirens (31) 199 Ancient forests (56) [4] 29 Ancient Trees Management Group [Shanghai] (51) [2] 5 Ancistrocladus korupensis (58) [1] 20 Andersen, Phyllis, book notes (53) [3] 31; (54) [3] 3536 -- -- \"Art and Nature in a Garden\" [review] (56) [1] 2932 -- -- \"Charles Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon\" (59) [3] 213 -- -- \"Full Foliage and Fine Growth: An Overview of Street Tree Planting in Boston\" (48) [4] 3237 -- -- \"Lives of New England Gardens\" [review] (56) [3] 2628 -- -- \"`Master of a Felicitous English Style': William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest\" (60) [2] 3943 -- -- \"Mon cher ami: The Letters of Edouard Andre to Charles Sprague Sargent\" (54) [2] 1119 -- -- \"Trees as Urban Infrastructure\" [review] (53) [1] 3235 Anderson, Alexander (57) [4] 15, 1720 -- -- drawing by (57) [4] 16 Anderson, Edgar (32) 53 -- -- \"Islands of Tension\" [1966] (48) [3] 2831 -- -- \"Rhododendrons\" [1934] (60) [1] 2728 Anderson, Rob (60) [4] 6 Anderson, Isabel Perkins (49) [3] 4, 6, 7, 9 Anderson, Larz (31) 268; (49) [3] 24, 611, inside front cover -- -- Bonsai Collection (53) [1] 19 Andersonia (57) [4] 20 Andes Mountains (33) 192195 -- -- environment (50) [4] 3, 5 Andrade, Corvo, Joan de (47) [3] 37 Andre, Carl (47) [2] 9 Andre, Edouard (54) [2] 1119 Andre, Rene (54) [2] 11 Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (49) [1] 52 Andrew's Botanist's Repository [1804] (30) 137 Andrews, Henry, \"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils\" [1948] (59) [1] 3334 Andrews, Roy Chapman (44) [3] 15 Andromeda (31) 232; (52) [3] 3, 12 -- Japanese (43) [1] 1516 -- mountain (43) [1] 1516 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as false cypress; see page 19 for the correct caption.]; (56) [2] 28 Andromeda polifolia (45) [2] 19 -- -- `Nana' (37) 104 Andropogon (54) [3] 89 -- virginicus (54) [3] 11 Androsace (55) [1] 3, 6 -- `Millstream' (55) [1] 10 A 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Anemone (31) 172, 174; (55) [1] 9 -- blanda (37) 90, 91 -- -- `Atrocaerulea' (45) [4] 30 -- -- `Radar' (37) 90 -- -- `White Splendor' (37) 90, 102 -- canadensis (51) [1] 16; (52) [1] 25 -- coronaria (31) 174 -- filisecta (48) [2] 6 -- hortensis (31) 174 -- x hybrida (34) 280, 281 -- nemorosa (37) 90 -- pulsatilla (37) 106 -- -- `Camla' (37) 90, 91 -- quinquefolia (55) [1] 5 -- ranunculoides (37) 90, 93 -- vitifolia (34) 282 Anemonella thalictroides (37) 92; (55) [1] 10 Anethum graveolens (31) 200, 213 Aneuploidy (33) 137, 138 Angel's hair (34) 288 -- trumpet (34) 59 Angelica (39) 240, 250 -- archangelica (31) 199; (39) 250 -- gigas (52) [2] 38; (54) [3] 9 Angelica tree, Japanese (30) 170 Angelo, Ray, book review by (45) [2] 3638 -- -- \"Botanical Index to the Journal of Henry David Thoreau\" [reviewed] (45) [3] 3032 -- -- \"Thoreau as Botanist: An Appreciation and a Critique\" (45) [3] 1323 -- -- \"Thoreau's Climbing Fern Rediscovered\" (45) [3] 2426 Angels-tears (31) 180 Angiosperms (60) [1] 13, 14 Angoissus acuminata var. lanceolata (48) [2] 7 Anguria (32) 213 Anise (31) 199 -- hyssop (39) 249 Annatto (37) 219, 226 Annona cherimola (50) [4] 13, 15 Annonaceae (48) [2] 3; (52) [3] 21 Annual Reports of the US Patents Office (31) 10 \"Another `Living Fossil' Comes to the Arnold Arboretum,\" E. D. Merrill [1948] (59) [1] 1719 Antennaria (31) 177; (34) 282 Anthemis (35) 76 -- biebersteiniana (34) 283 -- nobilis (31) 199 -- sancti-johannis (34) 283 -- tinctoria (34) 282; (39) 250 Anthiaris toxicaria (48) [2] 7 Anthocephalus chinensis (48) [2] 4 Anthracnose (33) 11 \"Anthracnose Threatens the Flowering Dogwood,\" Craig R. Hibben (50) [2] 1620 Anthroensen, Frederick W. (47) [4] 21 Anthroensen Press (47) [4] 21 Anthurium (47) [2] 27 -- tessmannii (32) 216 Antiaris (48) [2] 3 Antibiotics (32) 201 Anti-cancer plants (58) [1] 2026; (59) [2] 29 Anti-ethylene compounds (45) [2] 32 Anti-HIV plant compounds (58) [1] 2026 Anti-hemorrhagic agents (32) 27, 46 Antirrhinum majus (31) 194; (39) 250 Antispasmodic agent (32) 25 Antisyphilitic agent (32) 25 Antwerp [Belgium] (57) [2] 4 Apache Lodge [AZ] (47) [4] 15 Aphanamixis (48) [2] 3 Apical dominance (44) [3] 2931 A Cumulative Index 13 -- -- and fruiting (59) [4] 1718, 20, 21 Apium graveolens var. dulce (31) 231 Appalachian Mountains (48) [1] 27; [4] 56 Apple (31) 222; (32) 84; (57) [1] 5; [2] 14 -- growing (32) 126132 -- scab (32) 127; (51) [1] 35 -- scald (32) 131 -- Cortland (32) 126, 132 -- Fameuse (45) [4] 23 -- Golden Delicious (32) 130 -- Golden Russet (32) 130 -- McIntosh (32) 128, 130132 -- Paradise (44) [3] 11 -- Roxbury Russet (32) 130 Applebaum, Bruce, photo by (44) [4] inside back cover Apples, espaliered (59) [4] 17, 2224 Apples, Peter Wynne [review of] (37) 167 Appleton Street [Boston] (48) [4] 36 Apricot (or aprecok, apricock) (31) 222, 230; (32) 282 \"Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Patricia A. Dalton and Alejandro Novelo R. (43) [2] 744 AQUATIC PLANTS (43) [2] 344 Aquilaria sinensis (48) [2] 7, 8, front cover Aquilegia (31) 28; (33) 245, 259; (34) 283, 284; (53) [1] 10 -- canadensis (31) 228 -- chrysantha (34) 284 -- coerulea (34) 284 -- `Copper Queen' (31) 28 -- `Crimson Star' (31) 28 -- flabellata (34) 285 -- `McKana's Giants' (31) 28 -- `Mrs. Scott Elliot' (31) 28 -- pallens (42) [4] 143 -- `Rose Queen' (31) 28 -- `Snow Queen' (31) 28 -- vulgaris (31) 179 Aquilina multiplex (53) [1] 10 Arabian pipe (31) 255 Arabidopsis (52) [4] 1216 Arabis (34) 285 Araceae (47) [2] 27 Aralia (55) [3] 13; 18 -- five-leaf (44) [4] 22 Aralia californica (55) [4] 13 -- elata (30) 170; (38) 86, 112; (50) [1] 17, 18 -- spinosa (31) 232; (32) 68; (38) 112; (50) [1] 18 Ararat, Mount [Turkey] (49) [4] 37 Araucaria (36) 12 Araucaria (37) 43 -- araucana (59) [2] 2627, 3034 -- cunninghamia (55) [3] 13 -- excelsa (47) [3] 36 -- heterophylla (59) [2] 31 Arawaks (52) [2] 2027 Arbol de Los Brujos (32) 209 Arbor-Judae (31) 214 \"Arboreta, Genes and Plant Improvement,\" Frank S. Santamour, Jr. (33) 127134 \"Arboretum Administrators: An Opinionated History,\" S. B. Sutton (32) 320 \"Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis,\" William Flemer, III (35) 181186 Arboretum Committee (48) [4] 26 Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum [John Claudius Loudon, 1838] (32) 185; (54) [1] 25, 27 \"Arboretum's Labels: A Valuable Teaching Aid,\" Jack Link (33) 239244 \"Arboriculture in Its Relations to Landscape: `All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit,'\" Charles Eliot [excerpt, 1892] (59) [2] 2225 Arboriculturists Companion, N. D. G. James [review of] (32) 292 Arborvitae (31) 214; (32) 65; (37) 75, 76 -- American (39) 220, 221 -- eastern (33) 208; (60) [4] 18 A 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- hiba (37) 76; (50) [3] 2 -- western (39) 221; (60) [4] 18 Arbustum Americanum [Marshall, 1785] (49) [2] 20 Arbutus, trailing (56) [3] 16 Arceuthobium (33) 58; (51) [3] 11 -- pusillum (45) [3] 17 Archangel (39) 257 -- purple (31) 181; (39) 257 -- red (31) 181 -- white (31) 182 -- yellow (44) [4] 51 Archbold Expeditions (32) 53 Arcterica nana (38) 91 Arctium minus (34) 176, 177 Arctostaphylos (46) [3] 6, 38 -- uva-ursi (31) 227; (35) 234; (37) 104; (39) 250 Arcto-tertiary flora (37) 169; (59) [1] 2327, 34, 6071 Ardisia japonica (43) [4] 5 -- -- `Amanogawa' (45) [2] 8, 9 -- -- `Beniyuki' (45) [2] 8, 9 -- -- `Chirimen' (45) [2] 10, 11 -- -- `Chiyoda' (45) [2] 8, 10 -- -- `Hi-no-Tsukasa' (45) [2] 11 -- -- `Hinode' (45) [2] 10, 11 -- -- `Hokan Nishiki' (45) [2] 11, 12 -- -- `Hoshiami' (45) [2] 12, 13 -- -- `Ito Fukurin' (45) [2] inside front cover, 12, 13 -- -- `Kimigayo' (45) [2] 13 -- -- `Koganebana' (45) [2] 13, 14 -- -- `Shirofu Chirimen' (45) [2] 14, 15 Arenaria (34) 285 Arens, George (31) 29 Argemone mexicana (31) 229; (48) [2] 7 Argyle, Duke of (32) 185 Arisaema (37) 170172; (47) [2] 27, 2933; (55) [1] 4, 15 -- flowering of (47) [2] 29 -- austroyunnanensis (48) [2] 7 -- candidissimum (47) [2] 30, 32 -- consanguinium (55) [1] 17 -- dracontium (37) 171, 172; (47) [2] 29, 30 -- fargesii (47) [2] 32, 33 -- francheticum (46) [4] 17 -- japonica (47) [2] 31, 33 -- proboscideum (47) [2] 32 -- ringens (47) [2] 31, 32 -- -- f. praecox (47) [2] 32 -- -- f. sieboldii (47) [2] 32 -- serratum (47) [2] 30, 31 -- sikokianum (37) [4] front cover, 171, 189; (47) [2] front cover, 29; (55) [1] 10, 11 -- thunbergii (37) 171; (47) [2] 31 -- -- ssp. pusillum (47) [2] 30 -- -- var. quinatum (47) [2] 30 -- -- var. urashima (37) 171, 197; (47) [2] 30 -- triphyllum (34) 48; (37) 171, 197; (39) 250; (47) [2] 29 -- -- ssp. stewardsonii (47) [2] 2930 -- -- ssp. triphyllum (47) [2] 29 -- -- -- `Zebrinum' (47) [2] 29 Aristocrats of the Garden, E. H. Wilson (32) 51 Aristolochia (55) [3] 18 -- macrophylla (56) [2] 13, 30; (60) [4] 11 -- mandshuriensis (60) [4] inside front cover, 11 -- medicinalis (32) 214 Aristolochiaceae (50) [3] 29 Arizona (47) [4] 18 Arizona Arboretum at Flagstaff (46) [3] 8 Arizona Native Plant Law (46) [3] 39 \"Arlington\" [design for Public Garden, Boston] (48) [3] 35 A Cumulative Index 15 Arlington [MA] (44) [4] inside back cover Arlington Street [Boston] (48) [3] 47 [4] 23 Arlington Street Church [Boston] (48) [3] 16, 38, 39; [4] 23 Armenia (31) 174 Armeria (34) 286 -- maritima (34) 286, 287; (39) 250 -- plantaginea (34) 286 -- pseudoarmeria (34) 286 Armillaria, root rot (50) [2] 18 Armitage, Allan M. (49) [4] 4041 Armoracea lapathifolia (48) [3] 24 Arnim, Count Hermann von (32) 149 Arnold Arboretum (38) 173179; (44) [3] 2733; (48) [2] 20, 31, 35, 37; [4] 2629, 35; (50) [3] 4, 7; (51) [2] 33, 38; [3] 3, 8, 14, 29; [4] 2; (52) [1] 1216, 18; [2] 20; [4] 29; (53) [1] 30; [2] front cover, 22, 23; [3] 3, 1719, 22; [4] front cover, 18, 2025, 3132, 34, 36, inside back cover, back cover; (54) [1] 3235; [2] 11, 20, 21; (55) [1] 3, 7, 9, 12, 19, 2223, 25, 31, 33, 37; [2] inside front cover, 8, 12, 1517, 2732; [3] inside back cover, 3, 1314, 2224; [4] 215, 5, 911, 1314, 2324, 3435; (56) [1] 2, 4, 2223, 25; [2] 4, 9, 28, 3137; [3] 15, 21, 25; (57) [1] inside back cover, 12, 14, 1617, 22 24, 25, 2632; [2] 1920, 2224; [3] 5; [4] inside back cover; (58) [1] 1920; (58) [3] 1124; (59) [1] 1214, 2022; (59) [2] 3, 11, 33; [3] 38, 12, 13, 15, 23; [4] inside back cover; (60) [1] 7, 8, 1319, 29, 32; [2] 7, 8, 39, 42, 44, 45; [4] 3, 10, 12, 1416, 18 -- -- accessions policy (49) [1] 2021, 36, 39, 4142, 4950 -- -- Adams-Nervine property (39) 342 -- -- administrators (32) 320 -- -- Anderson Bonsai Collection (49) [3] 237; (53) [1] 19 -- -- -- -- -- house for (30) 227; (31) 311 -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 30 -- -- -- inventory (49) [3] 18 -- -- maintenance (49) [3] 1319 -- -- portraits of (49) [3] 2135 -- -- archives (49) [1] 58 -- -- artifacts (31) 109 -- -- autumn interest (30) 168173 -- -- bamboo collection (49) [2] 2836 -- -- behind the scenes (49) [2] 3, 4 -- -- Bentham and Hooker planting sequence (49) [1] 16 -- -- bookplate (41) 35 -- -- Bradley Rosaceous Plant Collection (50) [3] 12 -- -- Bulletin of Popular Information (60) [1] 32 -- -- Bussey Brook (48) [4] 27; (54) [3] 19 -- -- -- -- Valley (39) 341 -- -- Bussey Hill (34) 385, 391393, 395, 418; (35) 245; (49) [1] 62, 63; (54) [3] 19 -- -- -- -- Overlook (39) 339 -- -- cacti collection (32) 259 -- -- card index of plants (30) 81 -- -- Case Estates [Weston, MA] (30) 9299, 166; (31) 34; (32) 14, 260; (33) 322; (34) 401, 402, 410; (35) 246; (48) [1] 44; [2] 10; (49) [1] 20; (54) [3] inside back cover; (56) [1] 1011, 25 -- -- -- -- experimental research at (30) 97 -- -- -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 33 -- -- -- -- lily demonstration plots (34) 126, 128, 130, 131 -- -- -- -- low-maintenance garden (31) 30 -- -- -- -- park (32) 252, 261; (33) 322 -- -- -- -- small tree demonstration plot (30) 95 -- -- -- -- special collections (30) 96 -- -- -- -- temperatures (30) 193 -- -- Centennial Committee (32) 250 -- -- -- film (33) 330 -- -- -- week (32) [4 ] front cover, 157159, 249 -- -- -- year [1972] (32) 249; (33) 309 -- -- cherries at (32) 50 -- -- Chinese Walk (49) [1] 14 -- -- computer operations (49) [1] 5460 -- -- conifer collection (31) 342; (33) 318; (49) [1] 16, 17; (50) [2] 2; (53) [3] 18 -- -- -- -- renovation of dwarf (33) 318 -- -- Crataegus collection, maintenance and removal (30) 84 -- -- Dana Greenhouses (30) 186; (31) 344; (32) 259, 260; (35) 185, 245; (49) [3] 41; (51) [1] 2, 13; (56) [2] 31, 37 -- -- Director, new [Ashton] (38) 180, 181; [Cook] (48) [4] 2, 3 A 16 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- Director's Report [Howard] (30) 201259; (31) 307338; (32) 249272; (33) 309337; (34) 385419; (35) 241258; (36) 237258; (37) 253277; (38) 185209; [Ashton] (39) 330365; (40) 238289; (41) 197248 -- -- education at (30) 197199; [2] inside back cover; (31) 24, 89, 317; (32) 265; [6] front cover -- -- elm collection (49) [1] 13 -- -- establishment of (49) [1] 11, 12; (54) [3] 1221, 3234 -- -- exhibits (30) 9192; (32) 250, 268, 269; (33) 330; (35) 255 -- -- Summerthing Bloom, in (31) 315 -- -- expeditions for (49) [1] 14 -- -- experiments at (49) [3] 12 -- -- forsythia plants introduced by (31) 63 -- -- friends group (32) 55; (33) 245 -- -- Garden Club of America visit to (30) 243 -- -- gifts and grants (32) 270; (33) 213215; 335; (34) 417; (35) 258 -- -- grounds staff schedule (49) [1] 71 -- -- hardiness zone map (30) 83 -- -- Harvard University visiting committee (47) [4] 13, 22 -- -- Hemlock Hill (54) [3] 19 -- -- Herbarium (34) 402407; (35) 248250; (36) 33; (49) [1] 29, 51 -- -- Hunnewell Visitor Center (50) [3] 4, 7 -- -- Indian (native American) relics of (31) 99107, 106 -- -- Indonesia, exploration in (55) [2] 8 -- -- introductions by, 2nd 50 years, 19231972 (32) 3043; (38) 1225 -- -- International Plant Propagators' Society Award to (32) [4] inside back cover -- -- Iran, taxa from (49) [4] 35 -- -- James R. Jewett Fund Awards (32) 258 -- -- Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (32) 52, 271; (47) [4] 18, 19; (49) [3] 41, 42; (50) [3] 29 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- illustrations from (50) [3] 30, 31 -- -- labels, display (33) 214, 239244; (38) 5559; (49) [1] 22, 57, 66 -- -- -- -- lilacs (49) [1] 22 -- -- -- -- maples (49) [1] 22 -- -- larch collection (39) [6] back cover -- -- lawsuit vs. Harvard University (32) 19 -- -- lectures (30) 90, 199; (31) 88; (32) 267 -- -- Leitneria in collection (49) [1] 68 -- -- library (32) 265 -- -- -- catalog of [Ethelyn Tucker] (32) 54 -- -- -- report on (35) 250252 -- -- lilac collection (32) 50, 125; (35) 182; (49) [2] 27, back cover; (56) [1] back cover -- -- litter (33) 311, 317 -- -- living collections (49) [1] 36, 8, 10, 12, 13, 1720, 22, 27, 28, 36, 38, 40 -- -- -- -- committee on (49) [1] 58 -- -- -- -- maintaining (49) [1] 6572 -- -- map of grounds (30) 82 -- -- maples collection (49) [1] 22 -- -- Meadow Road (54) [2] 23, 24, 28, 29, 32, 34, 36 -- -- memorial gifts and plantings (33) 213215 -- -- Oak Path (39) 336 -- -- -- -- restoration (40) 294300 -- -- Parrotia persica, accessions of (49) [4] 37 -- -- Perry Wood Collection (33) 231234 -- -- Peters Hill, hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 33 -- -- -- -- view from (50) [3] front cover -- -- Pinetum (42) [3] 103; (48) [1] 7, 31; (49) [1] 17 -- -- plant-collecting in (31) 326 -- -- plant-numbering system (33) 240 -- -- plant records office (49) [1] 28, 29, 39, 5659 -- -- system (49) [1] 42, 54 -- -- planting plan (49) [1] 63 -- -- prehistoric land use (31) 108113 -- -- propagation (49) [1] 7071 -- -- -- unit at Dana Greenhouses (35) 185 -- -- pruning, of lowbush blueberries (49) [3] 39 -- -- -- post-World War II program (30) 84 -- -- publications (35) 257258 -- -- purpose (49) [1] 12, 18, 19 -- -- rabbit damage (30) 207 -- -- research, staff, 1970 (30) 215217 A Cumulative Index 17 -- -- retirement of Wyman (30) 200, 202 -- -- rose collection (43) [3] 15; (50) [3] 12 -- -- Saw Mill Brook (54) [3] 19 -- -- scale model (56) [3] inside front cover -- -- South Street Tract (34) 385, 387; (35) 241; (54) [3] 19 -- -- spruce collection (42) [3] 102129 -- -- staff, past and current (32) 5658, 276 -- -- -- bibliographies of published writings of July 1, 1974June 30, 1975 (35) 260261; July 1, 1975June 30, 1976 (36) 260262; July 1, 1976June 30, 1977 (37) 281, 282 -- -- -- scientific contributions of (32) 5658 -- -- surrey rides in (33) 31 -- -- temperatures at (30) 189193 -- -- -- difference in (30) 192 -- -- -- gradients (30) 189 -- -- Tilia collection (53) [3] 22 -- -- vandalism (31) 314 (33) 316; (44) [4] 22, 26 -- -- verification project staff (49) [1] 73 -- -- volunteers (33) 309, 333, 334; (34) 386, 396, 400, 408, 413, 416; (49) [1] 21, 22, 2835 -- -- -- list of (49) [1] 35 -- -- -- program (39) 2224, 362 -- -- voucher specimens (49) [1] 2127, 37, 3941, 59 -- -- war years (19411945) (30) 84 -- -- Weather Station (30) 186, 188 -- -- data for conditions during: Jan. 1968 to Nov. 1969 (30) 26 -- -- -- -- -- Dec. 1969 to Jan. 1970 (30) 74 -- -- -- -- -- Feb. to Mar. 1970 (30) 119 -- -- -- -- -- Apr. to May 1970 (30) 154 -- -- -- -- -- July 1, 1970 to June 30, 1971 (31) 368 -- -- -- -- -- Aug. to Sept. 1970 (30) 260 -- -- -- -- -- 1969 to 1970, summary (30) 199 -- -- -- -- -- Oct. to Dec. 1970 & Jan. 1971 (31) 38 -- -- -- -- -- 1971 (32) 289 -- -- -- -- -- 1972 (33) 342 -- -- -- -- -- 1973 (34) 425 -- -- -- -- -- 1974 (35) 263 -- -- -- -- -- 1975 (36) 263264 -- -- -- -- -- 1976 (37) 278, 279 -- -- -- -- -- 1977 (38) 216, 217 -- -- -- -- -- 1978 (39) 368, 369 -- -- -- -- -- 1990 (51) [1] 40 -- -- -- -- -- 1991 (52) [1] 36 -- -- -- -- -- 1992 (53) [1] 36 -- -- -- -- -- 1993 (54) [1] 36 -- -- -- -- -- 1994 (55) [1] 40 -- -- -- -- -- 1995 (55) [4] 36 [Erratum: Length of growing season should read 187 days.] -- -- -- -- -- 1996 (56) [4] 28 -- -- -- -- -- 1997 (57) [4] 36 [Erratum: Date of last spring frost should read 29 degrees on April 16.] -- -- -- -- -- 1998 (59) [2] 44 -- -- -- -- -- 1999 (59) [4] 33 -- -- -- -- -- 2000 (60) [4] 34 -- -- -- -- -- equipment used in 1974 (34); 426, 427, 429 -- -- WGBH crew at (32) 266, 267 -- -- willow collection (46) [1] 34; (49) [1] 16, 65 -- -- -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- -- winter in (30) 2526; (50) [1] 2429 -- -- Wyman and horticulture at [19361970] (30) 81, 200, 202 -- -- Yukon, collecting in (47) [4] 12 Arnold Arboretum Achievement Award (32) 165, 260; (33) 314 \"Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park Partnership,\" by Sheila Connor (48) [4] 2628 Arnold Arboretum Associates (49) [3] 10, 19 Arnold Arboretum Award [Flower Show] (41) 34 Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information (30) 1, 200 Arnold Arboretum Committee (48) [4] 26 Arnold Arboretum Fund (32) 175 \"Arnold Arboretum in Winter: A Photo Essay,\" Istvan Racz and Zsolt Debreczy (50) [1] 2429 \"Arnold Arboretum Plant Introductions: The Second Fifty Years 19231972,\" Part I, Donald Wyman (32) 3043 \"Arnold Arboretum Introductions: The Second Fifty Years 19231972,\" Part II, Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 1225 A 18 Arnoldia, 19702000 Arnold, Henry, \"Sustainable Trees for Sustainable Cities\" (53) [3] 412 Arnold, James (32) 4; (48) [2] 9; (49) [1] 11; (54) [3] 1213, 1819 Arnold, Sarah Rotch (54) [3] 13 Arnold Professor (32) 175 \"`Arnold Promise,'\" Richard Weaver, Jr. (51) [4] 3033 \"Arnold's Promise Fulfilled,\" James L. Jones (55) [2] 2732 Arnoldia (30) 1; (32) 51, 271 Arnoldia in the Kitchen, Helen Roca-Garcia, \"Linden Tea\" (32) 166 -- -- -- -- \"Persimmon Pudding\" (32) 98 \"Aromatic Pelargoniums,\" Roger Swain (34) 97124 Aronia (30) 171; (55) [3] 18 -- arbutifolia (31) 236 Arrabidea xanthophylla (32) 214 Arracacia xanthorrhiza (50) [4] 11 Arrangements, dried (37) 285304 Arrhenatherum (54) [3] 8 -- elatius (35) 62 -- -- var. bulbosum `Variegatum' (35) 61; (54) [3] 10 Arrow-arum (43) [2] 1516 Arrowhead (34) 158; (43) [2] 8 Arrow poisons (32) 201 [South America]; (50) [2] 2426 Arrowwood (31) 232; (44) [4] 26 -- downy-leaved (41) 193 -- in flower (44) [4] 25 Arsenicals (30) 4445 \"Art and Nature in a Garden\" [review], Phyllis Andersen (56) [1] 2932 Art des Jardins [Edouard Andre] (54) [2] inside front cover, 11, 18 Art of Simpling [Wm. Coles, 1656] (31) 37 Artemisia (31) 28 -- abrotanum (31) 202; (34) 288; (39) 250 -- absinthicum (34) 288 -- albula (34) 288 -- -- `Silver King' (31) 29 -- -- `Silver Queen' (31) 29 -- arborescens (39) 251 -- dracunculus (31) 202 -- frigida (34) 290; (60) [1] 7 -- lactiflora (34) 290; (39) 251 -- ludoviciana var. albula (39) 251 -- pontica (39) 251 -- -- var. nana (31) 29 -- -- schmidtiana (34) 288 -- -- `Silver Mound' (34) 289; (39) 251 -- stellerana (34) 290; (39) 251, 266 -- -- `Silver Brocade' (52) [1] 25, 26 -- vulgaris (34) 207 Artocarpus altilis (57) [4] 18 Arthraerua leubnitziae (54) [2] 4 Artichoke (31) 146, 203 -- Jerusalem (31) 203 Artocarpus (48) [2] 3, -- altilis (55) [3] 12 -- lakocha (48) [3] 7 Arum family (47) [2] 27 -- mousetail (47) [2] 3233 Arum (47) [2] 27, 3334 -- italicum (47) [2] 29, 33; (52) [2] 37, 38 -- -- var. italicum (47) [2] 33 -- -- `Marmoratum' (47) [2] 33 -- -- ssp. neglectum (47) [2] 33 -- -- `Pictum' (47) [2] 33 -- maculatum (47) [2] 33 Aruncus (45) [4] 28 -- canadensis (52) [3] 10 -- dioicus (44) [4] 39; (45) [4] 21, 24; (51) [1] 16; (56) [2] 25 -- sylvester (34) 290 Arundinaria (58) [3] 12, 14, 15 A Cumulative Index 19 -- gigantea (49) [2] 28 -- humilis (49) [2] 30 -- niitakayamensis (58) [1] 24 -- pumila (49) [2] 31 -- pygmaea (49) [2] 31 -- simonii (49) [2] 31 -- variegata (49) [2] 31 -- viridistriata (44) [4] 30, 4951; (49) [2] 31; (52) [1] 29 Arundo (54) [3] 3 -- donax (35) 6163 -- -- `Variegata' (54) [3] 11 \"`As remarkable as discovering a living dinosaur': Redwoods in China,\" Ralph W. Chaney [excerpt, 1948] (59) [1] 2327 \"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia,\" Charles F. Jenkins (51) [4] 411 Asahi, Mount [Japan] (47) [2] 5 Asarum (43) [1] 39; (47) [2] 3233 -- canadense (43) [1] 41; (39) 251; (52) [1] 26; [3] 10 -- chingchengense (50) [3] 29, 30, 32 -- europaeum (39) 251; (55) [1] 9 -- magnificum (49) [3] 41, 42, inside back cover; (50) [3] 29, 31 -- proboscideum (47) [2] 32 -- splendens (50) [3] 29, 30, 32 Asclepias fruticosa (37) 221, 229 -- physocarpus (37) 229 -- syriaca (31) 219; (34) 172 -- tuberosa (34) 290, 291; (39) 244, 251; (44) [2] 28 Asexual propagation (37) 2939 Ash (32) 66; (54) [3] 16; (55) [3] 89; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 24 -- hurricane damage to trees (46) [1] 34 -- American (31) 232 -- black (39) 183, 184 -- blue (39) 185, 186 -- European (31) 232; (32) 67 -- -- Hesse (39) 183 -- flowering (39) 184, 185 -- green (32) 67; (34) 238; (39) 107, 108; (42) [2] 94; (44) [4] 18; (48) [4] 33, 3536; (56) [1] 21 -- Manchurian (48) [3] 29 -- pumpkin (57) [1] 14 -- Wafer fruit (32) 66 -- white (31) 232; (32) 67; (34) 238; (39) 106, 107; (42) [2] 94; (44) [1] 8, 9; [4] 18; (55) [3] 6; (56) [2] 30 Ash, mountain (32) 68, 79; (45) [4] 22; (52) [3] 11 -- -- Chinese (39) 199 -- -- European (30) 169; (44) [4] 46 -- -- Korean (30) 169; (38) 170172; (39) 164, 165; (51) [1] 5 Ash dieback (33) 43; (49) [2] 10, 11 -- yellows (49) [2] 10, 11 Asheville [NC] (47) [4] 4 Ashley River [SC] (31) 21 Ashton, Peter Shaw (38) 181; (39) 330, 353, 354; (46) [3] 5; (49) [1] 3, 21, 34, 47, 73; (60) [2] 44; (60) [4] 3, 6, 9 -- -- -- \"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees,\" with Alice Davies and Seymour Slive (42) [1] 2 -- -- -- \"The Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification Projects\" (49) [1] 710 -- -- -- Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (39) 6770 -- -- -- The Director's Report, (39) 330365; (40) 238293; (41) 197254 Asia Minor (48) [1] 20 \"Asian Connection,\" Robert E. Cook (53) [4] 2630 Asimina (44) [4] 39; (52) [3] 2123 -- incarna (52) [3] 2122 -- longifolia (52) [2] 2223 -- x nashii (52) [3] 2223 -- obovata (52) [3] 2223 -- parviflora (52) [3] 2223 -- pygmaea (52) [3] 2223 -- reticulata (52) [3] 2223 -- tetramera (52) [3] 2223 -- triloba (31) 242; (44) [4] 37, 39; (52) [3] front cover, 2028; (55) [3] 12, 17 -- -- range of (52) [3] 25 Asociacion Mexicana de Orquideologia (49) [1] 47 Asparagus officinalis (31) 203 A 20 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- plumosa (47) [3] 38 Aspen (58) [3] 9; (59) [4] 10 -- big-tooth (32) 80 -- quaking (32) 80; (34) 229; (45) [4] 22; (55) [3] 12; (56) [3] 9 -- trembling (45) [4] 36, 37 -- upright European (39) 193; (54) [1] 31 Aspergillus niger (54) [2] 8 Asperula nitida ssp. hirtella (55) [1] 3 -- -- puberula (55) [1] 3 -- odorata (39) 251, 252 Asphodel (31) 175 -- lilies (31) 181 Asphodeline luteus (31) 175 Asphodelus albus (31) 175 Aspidosperma (32) 213 Asplenium ceterach (55) [1] 10 -- montanum (46) [3] 20 -- trichomanes (55) [1] 6 Aster (32) 113; (34) 164 -- China (31) 169, 227; (53) [1] 11 -- cornflower (35) 44 -- fall-blooming types (51) [2] 2331 -- hardy (31) 24, 29; (34) 292 -- heart-leaved (34) 164 -- heath (34) 164, 292 -- New England (47) [2] 18; (53) [1] 11 -- New York (31) 29; (51) [2] 25 -- Stokes (31) 227; (35) 44, 45 Aster (31) 29, 175; (33) 192; (34) 164, 292; (44) [2] 28, 29 -- amellus (31) 175 -- concolor (44) [2] 29 -- divaricatus (34) 164 -- ericoides (34) 164, 292 -- x frikartii (34) 293 -- novae-angliae (47) [2] 18; (51) [2] 24, 25; (53) [1] 11 -- novi-belgii (31) 29; (51) [2] 2326 -- solidagineus (44) [2] 29 -- tradescantii (31) 175; (51) [2] 25; (53) [1] 11 Asticou Azalea Garden [ME] (57) [4] 35 Astilbe (31) 29; (34) 293; (45) [4] 21 -- x arendsii (31) 29 -- -- `Deutschland' (34) 295 -- chinensis `Pumila' (34) 294; (52) [3] 10 -- -- `William Buchanan' (52) [3] 10 -- `Etna' (31) 31 -- `Faanal' (45) [4] 28 -- `Federsee' (31) 31 -- `Fire' (31) 31 -- `Garnet' (31) 31 -- `Irene Rotseiper' (31) 31 -- koreana (57) [2] 21 -- `Red Sentinel' (31) 31 -- `Rheinland' (31) 31 -- `Vesuvius' (31) 31 Astragalus (44) [3] 14 Astrantia (45) [4] 26 -- carniolica var. rubra (45) [4] 28 \"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the United States and Mexico,\" Gary Paul Nabhan, Ruth Greenhouse, and Wendy Hodgson (46) [3] 3646 Atanoushi Province [Madagascar] (32) 23 Athrotaxis (37) 44 Athyrium goeringianum `Pictum' (47) [2] 30; (49) [3] 43 Atkins, Edwin F. (51) [3] 22, 2628, 31 Atkins, Elisha F. (51) [3] 23, 26 Atkins Fellowships (51) [3] 30 Atkins Garden [Cuba] (32) 10, 13; (51) [3] 2232 Atropa mandragora (55) [2] 4 A Cumulative Index 21 Atteva punctella (57) [1] 17 Aublet, J. B. C. F. (44) [2] 4, 10 Aucuba (32) 241 -- japonica (45) [2] 17, 19 -- -- `Meigetsu' (45) [2] 17 -- -- `Sun Dance' (43) [4] 56 \"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chinese Flora,\" E. Charles Nelson (43) [1] 2138 Auricula (31) 192; (35) 30 \"Austral Weeks: Botanizing in the Southern Hemisphere,\" Rob Nicholson (59)[2] 2634 Australian pine (55) [4] 27, 30 Austrich, Ricardo R., \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio,\" with J. Walter Brain, (47) [3] 2529 -- -- -- \"El Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid and the Glorious History of Botany in Spain\" (47) [3] 224 Austrobaileye (38) 115 -- maculata (38) 114 -- scandens (38) 114 \"Austrobaileye,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 114115 Austrocedrus (37) 44 AutoCAD (49) [1] 62, 63 Autumn crocus (34) 55 Auxin (44) [3] 31 (45) [2] 2833; (59) [4] 1718, 20, 21 -- effects of (45) [2] 30 -- structure of (45) [2] 29 Avena sativa (31) 208 Avens (31) 76; (34) 346 Averrhoa carambola (53) [1] 22 Avery, Susan (49) [1] 23 Awa Odori (47) [2] 11 Awano, Rainosuke (49) [3] 8 \"Axe in Its Relation to Ornamental Trees\" [1890] (60) [2] 21 Azakusa Park [Japan] (31) 269 Azalea (34) 80; (36) 19; (37) 124, 125; (52) [3] 3, 12; (54) [3] 26; (55) [3] 18; (56) [2] 25; (57) [4] 24; (60) [1] 2425, 31 -- alpine (38) 191 -- bonsai (32) 242 -- border (30) 85 -- cascade (42) [4] 135, 137138, 143 -- deciduous (60) [1] 24, 25, 26 -- evergreen (60) [1] 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 -- Exbury (60) [1] 20, 25 -- flame (31) 232; (60) [4] 12 -- Glenn Dale (33) 15 -- indica (31) 233 -- Korean (52) [3] 12; (60) [1] 24 -- kurume (32) 245 -- Kyushu (60) [1] 25 -- Oconee (60) [1] 5 -- pinkshell (30) 171; (47) [4] 3 -- pinxterbloom (31) 239 -- plumleaf (38) 107 -- roseshell (45) [3] 16 -- swamp (31) 233; (56) [3] 16 -- sweet (60) [4] 15 -- torch (52) [1] 12; (55) [4] 12; (57) [1] 23 \"Azalea Border,\" Beatrix Farrand (52) [1]; 13 Azaleas, Fred C. Galle [review of] (35) 194 Azaleastrum warrenii (42) [4] 140 Azolla (43) [2] 8 Aztec gardens (30) 123125 -- herbal (30) 126 Azuma [Japan] (30) 163 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - B","article_sequence":2,"start_page":1,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25321","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060b726.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"B Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Babiana villosa (32) 222 Baby's breath (31) 35, 76, 129; (34) 347 -- -- creeping (34) 349 Baccharis halimifolia (30) 172; (31) 238 Bachelor's button (31) 168, 172, 175, 179 -- -- hardy (34) 305 -- -- yellow (31) 193 Bacillus amylovorus (44) [3] 21 Back Bay, Boston (48) [3] 38 [4] 1725, 29, 3234; (54) [1] 32; [3] 30 -- -- -- Neighborhood Association of (48) [4] 17, 18 Back Bay Garden Club [Boston] (48) [4] 21 Bacon, Lord (31) 116 Bacteria, in soil (59) [2] 3640, 42 Badianus, Juannes (30) 125 -- -- Manuscript [1552] 30: 126 Baeomyces roseus (35) 147 Bagasse: Kraft Ayensee (30) 5859 Bailey Arboretum [Locust Valley, NY] (47) [1] front cover Bailey, Irving W. (32) 12, 53; (33) 75, 78 Bailey, Liberty Hyde (44) [3] 22, 23; (49) [1] 17; (51) [2] 26; (54) [1] 28; (60) [2] 41; [3] 30 Bailey Plan (47) [4] 21 Baillon, H., Histoire des plantes (39) 4 Balick, Michael J. (56) [2] 3839 Baker, Dwight (39) 356 Bako National Park [Malaysia] (60) [4] 7 Balboa Park , San Diego, CA (60) [2] 41 Bald cypress (32) 283; (36) 20; (37) 73; (57) [1] 14; [4] 8, 9 -- -- common (39) 166, 167 -- -- Mexican (57) [4] 2, 10 -- -- Montezuma (57) [4] 6, 10 Bald [or Roan] Mountain, NC (60) [1] 27 Balloon flower (31) 136; (35) 26; (37) 218; (39) 264 -- vine (37) 218, 221, 227 \"Balloon Flowers, Bladdernuts, and Rattle-boxes,\" Richard A. Howard (37) 217229 Balm (31) 199 -- lemon (39) 260 Balsam (31) 168, 175 -- double (31) 227 -- fir (45) [4] 22 -- garden (39) 257 Bamades, Miguel (47) [3] 9 -- -- death of (47) [3] 9 Bamboo (48) [2] 27; (50) [1] 4, 5, 9, 18; (52) [1] 29, 3031; [4] 4, 32; (56) [2] 25 -- at the Arnold Arboretum (49) [2] 2836 -- -- -- -- -- map of (49) [2] 36 -- culm habit (49) [2] 29 -- garden in Canton [China] (35) 283 -- rhizome types (49) [2] 30 -- arrow (49) [2] 34 -- dwarf blackstem (49) [2] 33 -- dwarf whitestripe (49) [2] 31 -- false (57) [3] 14 -- flowering (58) [3] 1112, 16 -- Fargesia (49) [2] 31 -- giant timber (49) [2] 32 -- golden stripe (44) [4] 4951 -- heavenly (44) [3] 17 -- Kumazasa (49) [2] 34, 35 -- Mexican (52) [4] 23; (57) [3] 14 -- Meyer (49) [2] 33 -- Muriel's (58) [3] 11, 12, 13, 1415, 1617 B 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- Narihara (49) [2] 35 -- Okamezasa (49) [2] 35 -- Simon (49) [2] 31 -- sweetshoot (49) [2] 33 -- umbrella (49) [2] 32 -- yellowgroove (49) [2] 32 \"Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum: A Midwinter Performance Evaluation,\" Gary L. Koller (49) [2] 2836 Bamhart, John Hendley (47) [4] 19 Baneberry (34) 47 Banister, John (39) 319 Banisteriopsis (32) 205, 210 -- caapi (32) 211, 215; (41) 92, 93 -- inebrians (32) 211 -- rusbyana (32) 211, 215 Banks, Joseph (57) [4] 16, 19 Banvel (49) [4] 16 Baptisia (31) 31; (44) [2] 28 -- alba (44) [2] 28 -- australis (31) 31; (34) 296; (39) 252; (44) [2] 28, 29 -- tinctoria (31) 31; (37) 222 Barasaba Indians (50) [2] 26 Barbarea (34) 191 Barberry (31) 173, 222; (52) [3] 13; (53) [2] 1718; [4] 23; (57) [1] 5 -- common (56) [2] 24, 25 -- Japanese (30) 172; (44) [4] 23 -- Korean (30) 172 -- warty (30) 172 -- wintergreen (30) 172 Barbour, Thomas (51) [3] 31; (58) [1] 17 Barcelona, Montjuic park (53) [1] 34 Bard, Samuel (55) [2] 22 Bark beetle (42) [2] 76 Bark, curious (36) 3132 -- exfoliating (36) 31, 156 -- formation (33) 4666 -- red winter (36) 2830 Barley (31) 203 Barnard, Charles (Rev. ) (48) [3] 34 Barrenwort (31) 72, 182; (34) 332; (39) 5160, 255 Barretto, Gloria (30) 19 Barro Colorado Island [Panama Canal] (33) 190 Barstow, John, and Kate Gridley, book review by (47) [3] 3940 Bartholomew, Bruce (46) [4] 4, 21; (59) [1] 48 -- -- \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides--Its Status in Central China in 1980,\" with David Boufford and Stephen Spongberg [excerpt] (59) [1] 4752 -- -- \"The Chinese Species of Camellia in Cultivation\" (46) [1] 215 -- -- \"The 1983 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Yunnan, China,\" with David E. Boufford (46) [4] 1536 -- -- photos by (46) [4] inside back cover, back cover Barton, B. S. (50) [4] 27 Barton, W. P. G. (31) 119 Bartram, John (31) 89, 119; (32) 184; (39) 319, 321; (46) [3] 7; (49) [2] 20, 23; (53) [1] 11, 1315; [4] 22; (55) [2] 19, 2123; (60) [1] 2 Bartram, John and William (31) 89 Bartram, William (31) 89, 90; (39) 321; (46) [3] 7; (47) [4] 3; (51) [2] 5; (53) [4] 22; (54) [2] 31; (55) [2] 22; (56) [3] 4, 8; (60) [1] 4 -- -- Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida [1791] (39) 321, 323, 326 Bartram Ginkgo (51) [2] 6 Bartram's Garden [Philadelphia] (54) [2] 16 Bartram's ixia (46) [3] 28 Basal chichi (52) [4] 8 \"Basic Books for the Library,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (30) 107 Basil (31) 199 -- sweet (33) 21 Basket-of-gold (34) 277 Basswood (52) [4] 28; (55) [3] 67; (56) [3] 15 Bastard indigo (31) 232 Baster, John (53) [1] 13 B Cumulative Index 3 Basul (50) [4] 12, 13 Bates, Henry Walter (50) [2] 27 Battery Park [NY] (57) [2] 9 Bauhin, John (31) 118 Bauhinia (53) [3] 11 Baum (31) 199 Baxter, Sylvester (48) [4] 47; (53) [4] 24, 68, 10, 14, 16, 19 -- -- \"Climbing Plants on Boston Buildings\" [1894] (60) [3] 4244 -- -- Lynn's Public Forest: A Handbook Guide to the Great Woods Park in the City of Lynn (48) [4] 47 Bay, red (31) 90, 243 Bay State Nurseries (57) [3] 18 Bayberry (30) 173; (31) 214; (35) 234; (43) [4] 2021, cover; (44) [4] 24; (55) [4] 26, 29; (56) [3] 9 -- southern (43) [4] 20; (55) [4] 26, 28 Bazzas, Fakhri, \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58) [2] 3540 Beacon Hill [Boston] (48) [3] 34 [4] 35, 36 Beacon Street [Boston] (48) [4] 33 Bead tree (31) 236 Beal, F. E. (56) [3] 6 Beal, Helen (50) [3] 11 Bean, W. J. (32) 185; (52) [1] 10; (57) [3] 3; (58) [3] 14, 16 Bean (31) 146 -- French (31) 203 -- kidney (31) 203 -- red (32) 207 -- scarlet (31) 204 Beans, Mediterranean and New World (52) [2] 25 Bearberry (31) 227; (35) 234; (37) 104; (39) 250 Beare's Ears (31) 192 Beattie, R. Kent (33) 15 Beautyberry (32) 71, 86; (55) [1] 18 -- American (31) 233 -- Japanese (30) 172 Beautybush (44) [4] 43; (55) [1] 18 Beaux Arts style (57) [2] 10 Beaver Brook [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44; (53) [4] 6, 11, 1819 -- -- Reservation [MA] (59) [2] inside back cover Beaver tree (31) 218 Bebb, Michael S. (49) [1] 13 Becking, Rudolf (59) [3] 17 Bedford, Sixth Duke of, John Russell (32) 188; (47) [4] 32 Bedker, Peter (52) [2] 8 Bedstraw, yellow (31) 227 Bee balm (31) 2, 132, 227; (35) 10; (39) 245, 261 Beech (42) [1] 15, front cover, 10, 1417, 33, 35, 39; (43) [3] 17; (55) [3] 2, 610; (57) [1] 2628; [2] 9; (58) [2] 7, 9, 23; (59) [4] 11, 12 -- American (31) 233; (32) 83; (38) 32; (43) [1] 11; (49) [4] 24; (55) [3] 6, 12 -- copper (42) [1] 33 -- Dawyck (54) [1] 32, 33 -- European (30) 169; (31) 233; (32) 83, 91; (33) 202, 203; (42) [1] 14, 3233, 42; (43) [1] 11; (49) [4] 28, 29; (54) [1] 9 -- fastigiate (54) [1] 32, 33 -- fernleaf (32) 73 -- purple (46) [1] 35 -- southern (59) [2] 30, 32, 33 Beech-bark disease (58) [2] 24 Beech, blue (43) [1] 11 -- water (31) 220 \"Beech in Boston,\" Cornelia Hanna McMurtrie (42) [1] 3244 Beecher, Catherine (56) [2] 7 Bee-flower (31) 199 Beet (31) 204 Beetle, ambrosia (52) [1] 7 -- cockchafer (32) 179 -- elm-leaf (44) [4] 21 -- Japanese (36) 27; (38) 42 Befaria (33) 192 Beggar-ticks (34) 205 B 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Begonia, Rieger (37) 211 -- tuberous (56) [2] 18 Begonia (60) [2] 44 -- discolor (47) [4] 3 -- versicolor (37) 214 \"Behind the Scenes at the Arnold Arboretum,\" David Michener (49) [1] 34 Beijing [China] (48) [2] 9, 14, 21, 31, 33, 37, inside back cover -- imperial gardens (48) [2] 35 Beijing Botanical Garden and Institute of Botany [China] (46) [4] 15, 21; 34; (48) [2] 35; (51) [1] 13 Beissner, Ludwig, Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde (46) [1] 45 Belamcanda chinensis (34) 296 Belem, Palace of [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] 37 Belgium National Botanic Garden (57) [2] 19 Belle Isle Marsh [Boston] (48) [3] 11, 12 Bellflower (31) 175; (34) 301; (60) [1] 6 -- carpathian (34) 303 -- chimney (31) 175 -- clustered (34) 302 -- great (34) 302 -- milky (34) 302 -- peach-leaved (31) 175; (34) 301 -- rover (34) 303 Bellis perennis (31) 181 -- cvs. (31) 189 Bellwort (52) [1] 32 Belon, Pierre (31) 114 Belson, Mark (39) 352 Benech, Louis (54) [1] 15 Benguela Current [southwest Africa] (54) [2] 2 Benlate (33) 41 Bent, Arthur Cleveland (31) 358 Bentham, George (49) [1] 16; (53) [3] 14 Bentham and Hooker, classification (49) [1] 7, 14, 16, 65; (53) [3] 14, 15, 17, 18, 20; [4] 20 -- -- -- -- planting sequence (49) [1] 16, 54 Benthamia fragifera (45) [4] front-cover foldout, 8 Berberis (45) [4] 23; (53) [4] 23; (55) [3] 18 -- amurensis var. japonica (38) 87 -- julianae (30) 172; (45) [2] 24 -- koreana (30) 172 -- x mentorensis (45) [2] 26; (52) [3] 13 -- thunbergii (30) 172; (44) [4] 23; (45) [2] 20, 26; (52) [3] 13 -- verruculosa (30) 172 -- vulgaris (31) 222; (53) [2] 1718; (56) [2] 24 Berckmans' Nursery, P. J. (47) [4] 4 Bergamot (31) 132; (35) 10 -- wild (31) 191; (39) 261; (51) [1] 16 Bergenia (34) 297 -- cordifolia (30) 240; (34) 298; (45) [4] 29 -- crassifolia (34) 299 Berkeley Botanic Garden [CA] (54) [3] 5 Berkeley Square [London] (57) [2] 7 Berkeley Street [Boston] (48) [4] 23 Berlin [Germany] (48) [2] 18 -- Greater, 1910 planning competition (53) [4] 13 Berlin-Dahlen Royal Botanic Garden [Germany] (30) 166; (32) 151; (33) 161 \"Bernice Giduz Schubert, 19132000,\" Richard A. Howard (60) [2] 4445 Berry Botanic Garden [Portland, OR] (46) [3] 9, 10 Bertholletia excelsa (50) [2] 23 Besler, Basil (31) 116 Beta vulgaris (31) 204 Bethlehem sage (35) 33; (39) 264 Betonica grandiflora (34) 299; (35) 42 Betony (35) 42 -- big (39) 266 -- woolly (39) 268 Betula (30) 169; (32) 93; (49) [4] 35; (52) [4] front cover; (59) [1] 25 -- leaves and catkins (38) 118 B Cumulative Index 5 -- alba (38) 122 -- albo-sinensis (38) 125, 129; (43) [1] 78 -- -- var. septentrionalis (43) [1] 7; (52) [2] 30 -- alleghaniensis (38) 127, 128; (49) [4] 27; (58) [2] 36 -- apoiensis (38) 87 -- corylifolia (38) 30 -- davurica (38) 121, 126, 127, 130; (57) [2] 21 -- ermanii (38) 90, 124, 125, 126, 143; (47) [2] 7 -- grossa (38) 127 -- x jackii (38) 121 -- jacquemontii (43) [1] 7 [2] cover; (50) [1] 9 -- lenta (31) 233; (32) 81; (38) 126, 127; (47) [2] 27; (52) [4] 30; (55) [4] 12; (58) [2] 36, 43 -- luminifera (59) [1] 43, 51 -- lutea (32) 82, 93; (38) 127; (45) [4] 22 -- maximowicziana (38) 88, 121, 131 -- nana (37) 104 -- nigra (31) 233; (38) 128, 129; (39) 172, 173, 228; (42) [2] 9192; (44) [1] 28, 2931, inside back cover; (49) [1] 65; (54) [1] 9; (59) [1] 49 -- -- bark (44) [1] inside back cover, 31 -- -- leaves (44) [1] 30 -- papyrifera (32) 81; (38) 117, 120, 121, 125; (43) [1] 7; (45) [4] 22, 27, 28, 36, 37; (49) [1] inside front cover; [4] 4; (57) [2] 15; (58) [2] 36 -- pendula (32) 73, 80, 81, 93; (38) 120, 122; (43) [1] 7; (44) [3] 36 -- -- `Fastigiata' (38) 122, 125 -- -- `Gracilis' (38) 123 -- -- `Tristis' (38) 123 -- -- `Youngii' (38) 122, 123 -- platyphylla (43) [1] 7; (60) [4] back cover -- -- var. japonica (43) [1] 7; (44) [3] 36 -- -- -- `Whitespire' (44) [3] 3638, 37, inside back cover -- -- var. szechuanica (43) [1] 7 -- populifolia (34) 231; (38) 119, 120, 124, 125, 126; (56) [3] 9; (58) [2] 33 -- pubescens (44) [3] 36 -- schmidtii (38) 128, 130, 143; (57) [2] 21 -- utilis (43) [1] 7; (44) [3] 36 -- verrucosa (38) 122 BG-BASE (49) [1] 4, 22, 25, 27, 37, 39, 41, 5153, 61, 63 -- -- file structure (49) [1] 48 -- -- functions (49) [1] 4751 -- -- future of (49) [1] 5153 -- -- history of (49) [1] 4547 -- -- record keeping of (49) [1] 5960 Bibleleaf (31) 200 Bibliography of Books and Pamphlets on the History of Agriculture in the United States . . . 16071967, John T. Schlebecker [review of] (36) 125 Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, Alfred Rehder (32) 51; (49) [1] 18 Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany, Merrill and Walker (32) 54 \"Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff,\" July 1, 1974June 30, 1975 (35) 260261 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- July 1, 1975June 30, 1976 (36) 260262 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- July 1, 1976June 30, 1977 (37) 281, 282 Bibliotheca Botanica [1751] (47) [3] 3 Bidens (33) 192 -- frondosa (34) 205 Bienville National Forest [MS] (57) [2] 29 \"Big Cedar\" [Lynn MA] (48) [4] 44 Big Hammock Natural Area [GA] (47) [4] 4 Big tree (37) 72, 73; (60) [2] 19, 32, 34 Bigelow, Jacob (32) 187; (47) [4] 29 Bignonia capreolata (31) 237; (55) [3] 18 Biltmore Estate [Asheville, NC] (52) [1] 31; (53) [3] 20; (56) [2] 12; (57) [2] front cover; [3] 17 Biltmore Forest [NC] (47) [4] 4 Bindweed, blew (or blue) (31) 176 -- field (34) 152 Biodiversity (58) [2] 41 \"Biology of Aquatic Plants,\" P. B. Tomlinson (43) [2] 36 Bioregulators (45) [2] 33 \"Biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum,\" John Einset (44) [3] 2733 B 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Biota orientalis (39) 275 Birch (30) 169; (32) 93; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 26, 31; (58) [2] 36, 37 -- American (43) [1] 7 -- Asiatic spp. (38) 124131; (43) [1] 7 -- black (31) 233; (38) 127; (47) [2] 27; (52) [4] 30; (58) [2] 7, 36, 43 -- canoe (38) 117, 121 -- cherry (38) 127; (52) [4] 30 -- Chinese paper (38) 125 -- copper (52) [2] 30 -- European (43) [1] 7 -- -- columnar (38) 122 -- -- cutleaf (32) 73; (38) 123 -- -- silver (38) 122 -- -- slender (38) 123 -- -- weeping (32) 80, 81, 93 -- -- white (38) 122 -- gray (34) 231; (38) 124; (56) [3] 9; (58) [2] 33 -- Japanese cherry (38) 127 -- Japanese white (43) [1] 7 -- monarch (38) 88, 131 -- paper (38) 121; (45) [4] 22, 36, 37; (49) [4] 4 -- -- and disturbance (58) [2] 7 -- paperbark (32) 81 -- river (31) 233; (38) 128, 129; (39) 172, 173; (42) [2] 9192; (44) [1] 28, 2931, inside back cover; (54) [1] 9 -- -- bark (44) [1] inside back cover -- -- leaves (44) [1] 30 -- sweet (32) 81; (38) 127; (52) [4] 30 -- white (38) 121 -- yellow (32) 82, 93; (38) 127, 128; (45) [4] 22; (49) [4] 27; (58) [2] 7, 9, 36 Birch, William R. (49) [2] 17 -- -- -- engraving by (49) [2] 18 Birch leaf miner (38) 119 Birch Brook [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44 Bird cherry, European (39) 195 Birds (58) [2] 25; (59) [3] 25 -- at Arnold Arboretum (31) 349363 -- -- -- -- Christmas Count (31) 68 -- -- -- -- yellow-shafted flicker (56) [3] 6 -- -- -- -- food for (30) 116 -- -- -- -- rooks (32) 179 -- -- -- -- sparrows (34) 132 -- -- -- -- -- English (31) 349, 357, 358, 360 -- -- -- -- -- fox (31) 350 -- -- -- -- -- song (34) 132 -- -- -- -- -- vesper (31) 355 -- -- -- -- -- white-crowned (31) 349 -- -- -- -- warbler (31) 350, 351, 355 -- -- -- -- -- yellow (31) 352 -- -- -- -- cedar waxwings (31) 348, 350 -- -- -- -- downy woodpecker (31) 69, 349; (34) 40 \"Birds in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Richard E. Weaver [with lists] (31) 349360 Birkenhead Park [England] (48) [3] 34, 35; (57) [2] 8 Biro, GyOngyver (50) [3] 21, 22, 23 Bishop, D. D. (31) 13 Bishop Museum (58) [1] 19 Bishop's hat (31) 72; (34) 332; (39) 255 Bittersweet (34) 53; (39) 252; (44) [4] 48; (56) [3] 16 -- American (31) 233; (56) [2] 13 -- evergreen (30) 166 Bixa orellana (37) 219, 226; (48) [2] 3; (50) [2] 2324 Bixaceae (50) [2] 23 Black cohosh (39) 254 -- gum (32) 91; (54) [1] 9 -- haw (30) 172 -- locust (34) 83, 234, 235; (39) 161, 162, 312 -- nightshade (34) 86, 87 -- olive (36) 18 B Cumulative Index -- snakeroot (31) 32 Black knot (38) 39 -- stem root disease (53) [2] 1718 -- vine weevil (38) 44, 45 Black Sea (48) [1] 20 Blackberry (31) 246; (34) 246 -- vines (56) [2] 16 -- cut-leaved (48) [3] 24 -- giant Columbian (50) [4] 9 -- lily (34) 296 Black-eyed Susan (31) 173, 227; (34) 200, 201 Blackhaw viburnum (31) 238 Bladder campion (37) 218 -- senna (37) 223 Bladdernut (31) 214; (32) 65, 77; (35) 117; (37) 218, 227, 228; (40) 7693 Bladderwort (43) [2] 2, 5, 8, 27, 29 Blakea gracilis (41) 24, 2529, 27, 28 Blanade, engraving by (54) [2] inside front cover Blanketflower (31) 75; (34) 341 Blazing-star (31) 128; (34) 379 Bleeding-heart (31) 34, 35; (34) 321; (39) 254; (52) [3] 10 -- -- common (44) [4] 51 -- -- fringed (34) 322, 323 -- -- plume (34) 322 -- -- western (34) 323 Blenheim [England] (54) [1] 24, 27 Blessed-milk thistle (39) 266 Bletilla (37) 187; (44) [1] 32, 33 -- striata (37) 187, 191; (41) [4] front cover, 129, 130, 131; (44) [1] 32; (52) [2] 38 -- -- f. gebina (41) 131 -- tankervilleae (47) [4] 32 Bligh, William (57) [4] 1819 Bliss, Mildred (52) [1] 9 Blister rust fungus (53) [1] 26 Bloedel Reserve, Bainbridge, WA (57) [2] 15, 16 Blois, Garden of Louis XII [France] (54) [2] 16 Blomfield, Reginald (59) [4] 26 Blood Swamp [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 46 Bloodroot (31) 173, 176; (34) 84; (37) 190; (39) 265; (47) [2] 27; (52) [3] 10 Blue Hills [MA] (53) [4] 5, 6, 12, 13 Blue [or blew] bindweed (31) 176 -- bottle (31) 179 -- grape flower (31) 185 -- indigo (34) 296 -- sand lily (46) [3] 39 Bluebead lily (37) 179 Bluebells (31) 186 -- Virginia (31) 230 -- of Scotland (34) 303 Blueberry (30) 172; (52) [3] 27; (56) [3] 9, 16 -- barrens (49) [3] 3840 -- lowbush (45) [4] 24; (49) [3] 3840 Bluebonnet (31) 179 -- jasmine (31) 166 Bluemel, Kurt (54) [3] 45 Bluestem, little (54) [3] 11 Bluet, mountain (34) 305, 306 Blushing-bride (32) 220 Bobbink and Atkins (57) [3] 18 Bocconia (39) 260 -- cordata (31) 131; (35) 9 Boehmeria nivea (31) 9, 18, 292 Bog laurel (34) 68 Bogle, A. Linn (49) [4] 37 Bohm, B. A. (39) 358 Bois de Boulogne [Paris] (54) [2] 13 Bois de Vincennes [Paris] (54) [2] 13 7 B 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Boissier, Pierre (48) [1] 39 Bok Tower Gardens [FL] (46) [3] 6 Bolander's clover (46) [3] 14 Boletus viscidus (33) 304 Boltonia (34) 299 -- asteroides (34) 299 -- -- `Pink Beauty' (52) [4] 30 -- latisquama (34) 299 Bomarea (33) 192 Bombax insignis (48) [2] 7 Bonhof, Hugo (51) [3] 27 Bonpland, Aime (47) [3] 16 BONSAI (31) [5] 261301 Bonsai (31) 261273, 263, 265, 269270, 272; 274282; (32) 241249, 242244, 247, inside back cover; (35) 267, 282; (49) [3] 237, 35, 8, 11, 14, 17, 2235, 37; (53) [1] 1923 -- buna (32) 247 -- Chinese (38) 230 -- collection at Arnold Arboretum (30) 227; (31) 311; (46) [1] 30; (49) [3] 237, 9, 10, 16; (53) [1] 19 -- exhibition, Shanghai (35) 268, 282 -- ezo-matsu (32) 246 -- fertilizer (49) [3] 15, 17, 18 -- goyo-matsu (32) 246 -- hachi-no-ki (31) 265; (49) [3] 2,11 -- Imperial Japanese collection (31) 266 -- in old prints (31) 263, 265 -- ishi-tsuki (31) 280 -- Japanese (51) [3] 6 -- keyaki (32) 247 -- kuro-matzu (32) 246 -- kurume (32) 245 -- -- Yokohama Nursery (49) [3] 3637 -- miniature (32) 247 -- momiji (32) 247 -- nanga (31) 266 -- nezu (32) 240 -- pruning (49) [3] 15 -- and rejuvenation (59) [4] 1516 -- repotting (49) [3] 10, 1314, 3637 -- Rhododendron indicum (30) 227 -- senkai (31) 267 -- subtropical (36) 121 -- tako shape (49) [3] 2 -- vendor at Yasukuni National Shrine (32) [5] inside back cover -- winter storage of (49) [3] 18 -- wiring (49) [3] 15 -- yose-ue (31) 277 Book of Edible Nuts, Frederick Rosengarten, Jr. [review of] (45) [2] 3839 Book of Spices, Frederick Rosengarten, Jr. [review of] (30) 2931 Book review, by Peter Del Tredici (57) [1] 2 -- -- \"Mosses in the Garden,\" by Benito C. Tan (57) [2] 3132 \"Books\" [column] (44) [1] 3435; [2] 3132; [3] 3840; [4] 55; (45) [1] 2831; [2] 3539; [3] 3032; (46) [1] 4547; [2] 46 47; [3] 6364; [4] 6470; (47) [1] 2632; [2] 3536; (47) [3] 3940; (48) [2] 39; [4] 5860; (49) [3] 44; (49) [4] 4041; (51) [1] 3839; (51) [2] 40 Books for gardening libraries (30) 107; (32) 116125 Boott, Francis (47) [4] 2534 Boott, J. Wright, Esq. (47) [4] 31 Boott, James (47) [4] 30 Boott, Kirk, Jr. (Mrs. ) (47) [4] 31 Boott, William (47) [4] 30 Boottia cordata (47) [4] 30 Borage (31) 199; (33) 255; (39) 252, 253 -- white (39) 245 Borago (39) 253 -- officinalis (31) 199; (33) 255; (39) 252 \"Borderland\" [North Easton, MA] (51) [3] 31 Borderlands region (US and Mexico) (46) [3] 3646 Borneo (60) [4] 3 B Cumulative Index 9 Borer, peduncle (52) [3] 24 Borers (56) [1] 21 Boris, King of Bulgaria (48) [1] 19 Bornmann, C. H. (54) [2] 5 Bornmuller, Joseph (48) [1] 20 Bornstein, Carol (54) [3] 5 Borreria verticillata (32) 25 Borrowed scenery (47) [2] 11 Borthwickia trifoliata (48) [2] 6 Borya distichophylla (37) 151 Boston [MA] (47) [3] 7; [4] 24, 26, 27, 28, 29; (48) [3] 23; [4] 54 -- botanic garden, proprietors of (48) [3] 33, 46 -- Greater (53) [4] 4, 5, 79, 13, 1415, 16 -- map of (48) [3] 33 Boston Athenaeum (47) [4] 21, 22 Boston Basin (48) [3] 18 Boston Center for Adult Education (48) [4] 18 Boston Center for the Performing Arts (32) 252 Boston City Council (48) [3] 34, 35, 43, 44; [4] 27, 45 -- -- -- Budget Committee (48) [3] 44 Boston Climatological Data, Summary of (30) 191 Boston Common (48) [3] 23, 32, 36; (57) [2] 8, 9 -- -- renewal of (48) [3] 13 Boston Globe (48) [2] 12 [4] 21 Boston Harbor (48) [3] 23 -- -- islands of (48) [3] 23, 20 -- -- -- flora of (48) [3] 1823 -- -- -- friends group (48) [3] 21 -- -- -- map of (48) [3] 19, 21 \"Boston Harbor Islands State Park\" [reprinted] (48) [3] 2022 -- -- -- -- -- master plan (48) [3] 16 Boston Herald (48) [4] 27, 28 Boston Metropolitan Park Commission (53) [4] 217, 1415; (59) [2] 34, 6, 8, 1218, 20 Boston Natural Areas Fund (BNAF) (51) [2] 33, 39 Boston Park Department (32) 251 Boston Park Rangers (48) [3] 42 Boston park system (56) [2] 4, 7, 12 Boston Poison Center (30) 213; (32) 254; (33) 312 Boston Public Garden (32) 252; (48) [3] 3247; (53) [3] 16; (54) [3] 18 -- -- -- Lagoon of (48) [3] 36, 37, 44, 45 \"The Boston Public Garden, Showcase of the City,\" by Mary M. B. Wakefield (48) [3] 3247 Boston and Roxbury Corporation (48) [4] 23 Boston Schools, survey (33) 314 Boston Society of Landscape Architects (32) 254 Boston Society of Natural History (47) [4] 30; (54) [3] 1213, 1920 Boston Symphony Orchestra (48) [4] 21 Boston Urban Gardeners (39) 365 BOSTON'S PARKS AND OPEN SPACES, Part I [including BOSTON'S HARBOR ISLANDS] (48) [3] 447; Part II (48) [4] 1757 Botanic garden [by name or location] -- -- Ajuda Royal (=Jardim Botanico da Ajuda) [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] inside front cover, 3038, 34, back cover -- -- Algiers (=Jardin d'Essai) (51) [3] 9 -- -- Beijing [China] (46) [4] 15, 21, 34; (48) [2] 35; (51) [1] 13 -- -- Belgium National (57) [2] 19 -- -- Berlin-Dahlem Royal [Germany] (30) 166; (32) 151; (33) 161 -- -- Berry [Portland, OR] (46) [3] 9, 10 -- -- Boston, proprietors of (48) [3] 33, 46 -- -- British Columbia, University of (51) [1] 18, 19, 22; (52) [1] 26, 30 -- -- Brooklyn [NY] (31) 268; (33) 160; (53) [3] 18 -- -- Bucharest, University of [Hungary], at (30) 166 -- -- California, University of [Berkeley] (46) [4] 4 -- -- Cambridge [England] (32) 190 -- -- Chelsea Physic [London, England] (51) [1] 10; (53) [1] 12, 13; (57) [3] 22; [4] 15 -- -- Cuba, Harvard station and tropical [Cienfuegos] (51) [3] 2232, front cover, 2326, 29, 30 -- -- Denver [CO] (46) [3] 6 -- -- Desert [Phoenix, AZ] (46) [3] 3, 6, 10 -- -- Dortmund [Germany] (31) 50 B 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- Duke, Sarah P. [Durham, NC] (57) [1] 11 -- -- Edinburgh Royal [Scotland] (31) 371; (32) 190; (46) [4] 12; (47) [3] 12; (49) [1] 47; (52) [2] 31 -- -- Elgin Botanic [NY] (41) 159; (51) [4] 25 -- -- Fairchild Tropical [FL] (46) [3] 7 -- -- Foster [Honolulu, HI] (53) [3] 21 -- -- Gottingen [Germany] (31) 45 -- -- Halifax Public [Canada] (53) [3] 16 -- -- Hamilton Royal [Ontario, Canada] (49) [2] 4 -- -- Hangzhou (or Hangchow) [China] (35) 268, 282283; (46) [4] 4, 5, 7; (55) [2] 14, 17 -- -- Harvard [Cambridge, MA] (30) 166; (32) 10, 49; (46) [2] 9; (49) [1] 11, 12; [4] 37; (50) [3] 4; (51) [3] 22, 27, 28; (54) [3] 20; (56) [2] 9; (56) [4] 19, 22, 23 -- -- Hokkaido University [Japan] (38) 84, 85 -- -- Hong Kong (48) [2] 17 -- -- Imperial at Beijing [China] (48) [2] 35 -- -- Imperial at St. Petersburg\/Leningrad [Russia\/USSR] (30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 -- -- Jardin des Plantes [Paris] (31) 118; (32) 103; (56) [4] 22 -- -- Jiangsu, and Institute of Botany [Nanjing, China] (49) [2] 25 -- -- Kew, Royal [London, England] (30) 137; (31) 10; (32) 103, 189, 251; (33) 160161; (46) [4] 12; (47) [4] 4, 13, 28, 30, 32; (48) [2] 19; (49) [1] 16, 38, 43, 45, 53, 66; [4] 37; (51) [2] 5; (53) [1] 16; [3] 13; [4] 31; (54) [2] 2, 8; (57) [3] 4, 16 -- -- in Kiev (56) [1] 5 -- -- Kirstenbosch National [South Africa] (32) 221; (54) [2] 8 -- -- Komarov [Leningrad] (33) 161 -- -- Kwangtung [China] (35) 285 -- -- at Kyoto, University of [Japan] (30) 20 -- -- Leiden University [Holland] (47) [2] 32, 33; (53) [1] 11 -- -- in Lisbon, Portugal (47) [3] inside front cover, 3038, 33, 35, back cover -- -- at Longwood [Kennett Square, PA] (49) [1] 43; (51) [2] 17, 20; (54) [3] covers, 45, 11 -- -- Lushan [China] (48) [2] 35 -- -- Madrid Royal (=Real Jardin Botanico) [Spain] (47) [3] 224, 12, 23, 2529 -- -- -- -- plan of (47) [3] 11 -- -- on Martinique (32) 263 -- -- Matthaei [Ann Arbor, MI] (49) [1] 47 -- -- Mexico City, Royal (47) [3] 16 -- -- Migas Calientes, Real Jardin Botanico del Soto de [Madrid] (47) [3] 5, 6, 8, 9, 10 -- -- Missouri [St. Louis] (33) 160; (46) [3] 8; [4] 21, 34; (47) [4] 17; (49) [1] 3, 53; (51) [3] 14; (53) [3] 20 -- -- Monte Carlo [France] (54) [2] 14 -- -- Montpellier [France] (51) [2] 5 -- -- Montreal [Canada] (54) [2] 8 -- -- Moscow Main, at Academy of Science (36) 112 -- -- Nanjing [China] (52) [4] 5; (54) [2] 36 -- -- New York (30) 6; (31) 45; (33) 158159; (46) [4] 15; (47) [2] back cover; [4] 21; (48) 2] 19; (53) [3] 18; (54) [2] 25, 35; (57) [3] 5, 6 -- -- Nikita [USSR] (36) 110118, 111, 113, 114, 116 -- -- North Carolina [Chapel Hill] (46) [3] 6, 8, 10; (47) [2] 21; (53) [3] 21 -- -- Osaka City University [Japan] (30) 20 -- -- Oxford [England] (32) 190 -- -- Pacific Tropical [HA] (46) [3] 8 -- -- Padua [Italy] (47) [3] 8 -- -- Paris [France] (31) 118; (32) 103; (56) [4] 22 -- -- Pretoria National [South Africa] (32) 223 -- -- Rancho Santa Ana [CA] (46) [3] 6, 11; (53) [3] 20 -- -- Rouen [France] (31) 119 -- -- Santa Barbara [CA] (54) [3] 5 -- -- St. Petersburg\/Leningrad Imperial [Russia\/USSR] (30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 -- -- St. Pierre [Martinique] (32) 263 -- -- St. Vincent (57) [4] 12, 14, 1516, 1720, 21 -- -- Sapporo [Japan] (47) [2] 45, 6 -- -- Shanghai [China] (51) [1] 18; (54) [3] 32 -- -- Smith College [Northhampton, MA] (53) [3] 14; (57) [2] 20 -- -- Soochow (or Suzhou) Garden [China] (37) 161, 162 -- -- Stellenbosch, University of [South Africa] (54) [2] 8; (54) [2] 8 -- -- Tehran [Iran] (49) [4] 37 -- -- Tokyo, University of [Japan] (30) 20 -- -- Tours [France] (54) [2] 16 -- -- US [Washington, DC] (31) 13 B Cumulative Index 11 -- -- Van Dusen [Vancouver, BC] (52) [2] 43 -- -- Waimea Arboretum and [Hawaii] (46) [3] 6, 8 -- -- Xishuangbanna [China] (48) [2] 5 Botanic gardens (58) [3] 2829 -- -- historical development of (53) [2] 19 -- -- Lisbon and Madrid (47) [3] 238 -- -- physic (51) [1] 10; (53) [1] 12, 13; [2] 19; (57) [3] 22; [4] 15 -- -- role of lower plants in research programs at (33) 157168 -- -- Russia (or USSR) (36) 110118 -- -- -- Kiev (56) [1] 5 -- -- -- Komarov [Leningrad] (33) 161 -- -- -- Moscow Main at Academy of Science (36) 112 -- -- -- Nikita, Yalta (36) 110118 -- -- -- -- herbarium at (36) 115 -- -- -- St. Petersburg\/Leningrad Imperial (30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 -- -- South Africa (32) 220225; (54) [2] 8 Botanic Gardens, American Association of (32) 251, 253; (33) 311; (49) [1] 42 Botanic Gardens, Conservation Secretariat, International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (49) [1] 53 Botanic Gardens, International Association of [European Mediterranean Division] (47) [3] 38 Botanic Gardens, Soviet Council of [Moscow] (36) 112 Botanical collecting, Hong Kong (30) 919 -- -- Japan (30) 1920 -- -- Korea (30) 19 Botanical Congress, Fifth International [Cambridge] (48) [2] 18 Botanical Congress, First Latin American and Fifth Mexican (33) 332 \"Botanical Embedding,\" Sheila Magullion (36) 265275 Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West 17901850, Susan Delano McKelvey [1955] (47) [3] 21 [4] 21 \"Botanical Gold: Exploring the Treasures of the Harvard University Herbaria,\" Caroline J. Swartz (46) [2] 3538 \"Botanical Impressions of the People's Republic of China,\" Richard A. Howard (38) 218 Botanical Index to the Journal of Henry David Thoreau, Ray Angelo [review of] (45) [3] 3032 Botanical Institute of Leningrad (30) 166 \"Botanical Legacy of Joseph Rock,\" Jeffrey Wagner (52) [2] 2935 Botanical Libraries of Harvard University (49) [1] 40 The Botanical Magazine of Tokyo (39) 9 Botanical Museum [Harvard] (32) 10, 12 Botanical nomenclature (49) [1] 40, 41 -- -- diversity of (49) [1] 39 -- -- international code for cultivated plants [1980] (49) [3] 13; (54) [4] 3, 4, 6 -- -- of hybrids (36) 131, 132 -- -- reference files to (49) [1] 29 -- -- Tournefortian (47) [3] 7, 8 Botanical Research, Henry Foundation for [PA] (33) 88; (47) [4] 4, 5 Botanical Research Institute of Texas (58) [1] 19 Botanical Register (39) 2; (53) [1] 16 Botanical Society of America (49) [3] 41 Botanical Society of China (35) 277 Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum (B-P-H) (30) 7 \"The Botanist and the Computer,\" Gilbert S. Daniels (33) 2636 Botanists in China, list (35) 285297 Botany, in China (48) [2] 239 -- Chinese-American (59) [1] 1222, 4052 -- emergence of as a science (53) [2] 20 -- history of (30) 115; -- schools, Madrid (47) 3, 11, 22, 28 \"Botany: The State of the Art\" [column] (45) [2] 2834; (46) [1] 3644; [2] 4245; [4] 6063; (47) [1] 2025 Botany, Tropical Yunnan Institute of [China] (48) [2] 5 Botrychium virginianum (55) [3] 6 Bottlebrush buckeye bush (31) 89 Bottle-tree, Chinese (60) [4] 26 Boufford, David E. (46) [4] 4, 21; (59) [1] 48 -- -- -- \"Metasequoia glypto-stroboidesIts Status in Central China in 1980,\" with Bruce Bartholomew and Stephen Spongberg [excerpt] (59) [1] 4752 -- -- -- book review by (47) [1] 2627 -- -- -- \"The 1984 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Yunnan, China,\" with Bruce Bartholomew (46) [4] 1536 -- -- -- photos by (46) [4] inside back cover, back cover Bounty, H. M. S. [the ship] (57) [4] 18 B 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Bougainvillea (36) 11, 18 Bouncing bet (31) 227; (32) 136, 137; (34) 170, 171; (39) 266 Bowden, Richard D., \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58) [2] 3540 Bowditch, Nathaniel (53) [4] 6 Bowker Street [Boston] (48) [4] 36 Bowling Green [NY] (57) [2] 9 Box elder (32) 65, 66; (35) 117; (36) 147, 154; (57) [1] 25; [2] 24 Box[wood] (34) 49; (36) 18; (52) [4] 17; (54) [3] 23; (56) [2] 10; (57) [1] 5, 11 -- English (31) 215 Boxer War (48) [2] 17 Boyce Thompson Arboretum [NY] (31) 45 Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research (49) [4] 5 Boylston Street [Boston] (48) [3] 46 [4] 33 Boynton, Frank Ellis (46) [3] 2831 Bozeman, John (Dr. ) (47) [4] 4 Bradford, Gamaliel (56) [4] 18 Bradford (Ripley), Sarah Alden (56) [4] 17, 1821, 2324 Bradley Bibliography, Alfred Rehder (32) 54, 153, 185; (49) [1] 17, 18 Bradley Rosaceous Plant Collection (50) [3] 12 Bradley Rose Garden, hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 33 Brain, J. Walter, and Richardo R. Austrich, \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio\" (47) [3] 2529 Brambles, double flowering (56) [2] 24 -- dwarf (56) [2] 24 -- ghost (50) [3] 12, 13, 1415 Branch-bending, and fruiting (59) [4] 1718, 20, 21 Branching (41) 18, 19, 20 Brandegee, Edward (51) [2] 35 Brass, Leonard (32) 53 Brassica campestris (31) 6, 16 -- chinensis (31) 5, 16; (44) [3] 16 -- napus (31) 231 -- nigra (31) 201 -- oleracea var. botrytis (31) 204, 231 -- -- var. capitata (31) 204 -- pekinensis (44) [3] 9, 21 -- Pompeiana (31) 217 -- rapa (31) 212 -- tritianna (31) 217 Brassicaceae (44) [3] 32 Braun, E. Lucy (46) [3] 24 Brazil nut (50) [2] 23 Breadfruit (57) [4] 1820 Breck, Joseph (48) [3] 34 Breed's Pond [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44, 46 -- -- Reservoir [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44, 46 Breeding woody plants (33) 127134 Breiter, Christian August (31) 42 Bretschneider, Emil (48) [2] 9; (49) [1] 13 Brexia madagascariensis (32) 29 Breynia disticha (36) 5, 18 Briand, Christopher H., \"Cypress Knees: An Enduring Enigma\" (60) [4] 1925 Bridal-wreath spiraea (30) 172 Bridgeman [Charles] (31) 156 Brighton Meadows [Boston] (54) [3] 20 Bristol, Peter (52) [1] 3 Britain (48) [1] 16, 29 British and American Steam Navigation Co. (31) 22 British Columbia forests (58) [3] 2, 3, 5, 810 British Columbia Botanical Garden (46) [4] 910; (51) [1] 18, 19, 22; (52) [1] 26, 30 British East India Company (31) 21 British Iris Society (47) [4] 15 British Museum [Natural History] (47) [4] 13; (60) [2] 34 British Oak, M. G. Morris and F. H. Perring, eds. [review of] (35) 187 British soldiers [lichen] (35): 147 Britton, Elizabeth Gertrude (33) 159 B Cumulative Index 13 Britton, Nathaniel Lord (47) [4] 16; (54) [2] 35 Broadbalk Wilderness (32) 176 Broadmoor Audubon Sanctuary, Natick, MA (56) [1] 1213 Broccoli (31) 231 Brodiaea, Kaweah (46) [3] 15 Brodiaea insignis (46) [3] 15 Boertjes, C. (Dr. ) (33) 186 Bromeliaceae (50) [2] 21 Bromeliad Society (32) 260 Bromelin (50) [2] 23 Bromfield, Louis (30) 100 Bronx Park [NY] (60) [2] 43 Bronx Zoo [NY] (50) [1] 5, 7 Bronze bells (37) 179 -- birch borer (38) 177, 120 Brook Farm [Boston] (48) [3] 14, 16 Brook Place [Plainfield, NH] (57) [1] 3, 4 Brookline [MA] (48) [4] 33; (56) [2] 34, 21, 26 Brookline Village [MA] (48) [4] 24 Brooklyn Botanic Garden [NY] (31) 268; (33) 160; (53) [3] 18 Brooks, E. Bruce, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., and George E. Potter, \"Japanese, Latin, and English Names of Plants in Early Japanese Poetry\" (31) 292 Brooks, Edward (47) [4] 33 Brooks, Eliza (47) [4] 32 Brooks, Henry, photo by (60) [2] 18 Brooks, Henry, and L. L. Dame, \"The American Elm\" (42) [2] 4959 Brooks, Richard [Dick] (49) [1] 33 -- -- -- \"A Fresh Look at a Traditional Favorite: Rhododendrons\" (60) [1] 2026 -- -- -- photo by (60) [1] front cover Brookside Gardens (52) [1] 7, 8 Broom (36) 30 -- butchers (31) 234 -- Scotch (31) 233; (60) [1] 18 -- Spanish (31) 215 Brotero, Felix da Sila de Avellar (47) [3] 37 Broussonettia papyrifera (31) 242, 286, 292; (55) [3] 17 Browallia, spreading (53) [1] 12 Browallia (48) [3] 44; (53) [1] 12 -- alienata (53) [1] 12 -- demissa 53) [1] 12 -- elata (53) [1] 12 -- grandiflora (53) [1] 12 Brown, Harry P. (33) 7172, 78 Brown, Jane, \"Lady into Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand's Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Part I (51) [3] 220 -- -- \"The Lady as Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Part II (52) [1] 917 Brown, Lancelot \"Capability\" (31) 156 Bruckenthalia spiculifolia (37) 104 Brugmansia (32) 209 -- sanguinea (41) 108, 109; (47) [3] 15 Brumback, William E., \"Endangered Plants at the Garden in the Woods: Problems and Possibilities\" (46) [3] 3335 -- -- -- \"Raising the Climbing Fern from Spores\" (45) [3] 2729 Brunfels, Otto, Herbarium vivae ericones (39) 269 Brunfelsia (32) 209, 216, 217 -- grandiflora (41) 110, 111 Brunnera (31) 31; (45) [4] 26 -- macrophylla (31) 28, 31; (33) 258; (34) 299, 300 Bruns, Pamela (32) 250 Brush cherry (36) 18 Brush chipper (30) 220 Brushes and combs (39) 254 Bryan, John E. (50) [2] 3536 Bryanthus gmelinii (38) 92; (47) [2] 5 Bryn Mawr College (47) [4] 9, 10 Buartnut (44) [1] 15, 18 -- `Corsan' (44) [1] 18 -- `Dunoka' (44) [1] 18 B 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- `Fioka' (44) [1] 18 -- `Hancock' (44) [1] 18 -- `Leslie' (44) [1] 18 -- `Mitchell' (44) [1] 18 -- `Wallich' (44) [1] 18 Buchanania yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Bucharest, botanic garden at (30) 166 Bucida spinosa (36) 6, 18 Buck Garden, Far Hills, NJ (52) [2] 37 Buckeye, bottlebrush (33) 199; (38) 104 ; (60) [4] 13 -- Ohio (42) [2] 9192 -- red (31) 239; (60) [1] 17 -- sweet (31) 233 Buckleya distichophylla (37) 151155, 153; (46) [3] 26, 29, 32 -- graebneriana (37) 154 -- lanceolata (37) 155 \"Buckleya--The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Richard A. Howard (37) 151155; [reprinted] (51) [4] 3842 Buckthorn (43) [1] 6, 41; (57) [3] 3 -- alder (34) 243 -- common (34) 243 Buckwheat (31) 17, 204 Buddhism (31) 264 Buddhist shrine (56) [1] 14 Buddleia (32) 160 -- alternifolia (32) 41 -- davidii (43) [1] 22; (46) [4] 19 -- `Hever Castle' (38) 109 Buffalo-berry (56) [2] 25 Buffalo, NY, Goat Island (54) [2] 17 Bugbane (31) 32; (34) 312, 313; (39) 254; (44) [4] 51 -- Dahurian (34) 314 -- Kamchatka (34) 314 Bugle (34) 273; (39) 249 Bugleweed (34) 273; (39) 249 Bugloss (31) 27, 199 -- Italian (34) 279 -- Siberian (31) 31; (34) 299 -- viper's (34) 180 Buikema, William (49) [4] 37 Buitzenborg Botanic Garden (58) [1] 14 Bukit Mersing Protected Forest [Sarawak, Malaysia] (60) [4] 9 Bulbous violet, great late-flowering (31) 188 Bulbs (32) 275 Bulfinch, Charles (47) [4] 27 Bull, Ephraim Wales (48) [4] inside front cover, 516, 9 Bull-bay (36) 135 Bull-thistle (34) 178 \"Bulldozers and Bacteria: The Ecology of Sweet Fern,\" Peter Del Tredici (56) [3] 211 Bulletin of Popular Information (32) 51 Bulletins of Reef Point Gardens, Beatrix Farrand [review of] (57) [4] 3335 Bulley, A. K. (31) 51 Bulrush (34) 218, 221 Bumelia languinosa (55) [4] 13 Bumpkin Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 21, 22, 23 Bunchberry (45) [1] inside front cover, 1822; [4] 25; (58) [3] inside back cover -- seedling of (45) [1] 19 Bunge, Aleksandr von (48) [2] 33 Burbank, Luther (52) [2] 5 Burch, Ida Hay [see also Hay] \"News from the Arnold Arboretum\" (36) 33; (39) 357, 359, 361, 362, 365 -- -- -- -- -- -- \"Summer Bloom in the Arnold Arboretum\" (38) 102113 Burdock (34) 176, 177 Bureau of Land Management (46) [3] 4 Burggren, Michael (59) [2] 26, 33 Burley, John (51) [3] 17 Burls, redwood (59) [3] 1521, 22 Burma (48) [2] 3 B Cumulative Index 15 Burma Road (46) [4] 22, 25 Burmannia disticha (46) [4] 30 Burnett (31) 199 Burnham, Charles (52) [2] 6 Burningbush (30) 171; (31) 70, 234; (34) 63; (36) 31 -- broadleaf (32) 70 Bur-reed (43) [2] 7, 24 Burretiodendron hsienmu (46) [3] back cover \"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection,\" Wang Xianpu, Jin Xiaobai, and Sun Chengyong (46) [4] 4651 Burrows, James A., \"Weather Station Data\" (36) 263264; (37) 278, 279; (38) 216; (39) 330, 346, 359 Bursera simaruba (36) 2; (52) [2] 19, 20 Burton, G., drawing by (57) [2] 23 Busbecq, Augier de (31) 114 Bush, B. F. (57) [1] 14 Bushclovers (31) 290, 292 Bush-honeysuckle, southern (41) 177 Bussewitz, Albert W., book review by (45) [3] 3032 -- -- -- photos by (44) [1] front cover, inside front cover, 3; (45) [1] 25; (46) [3] 33, 47; (50) [4] back cover; (51) [2] front cover; [4] front cover, back cover; (52) [3] front cover, 23, 26; (53) [1] front cover, back cover; [4] front cover, back cover; (55) [2] back cover Bussey, Benjamin (49) [1] 11; (51) [2] 34; (54) [3] 12, 20 Bussey Brook Institute for Research in Applied Biology (48) [2] 11, 13, 14 Bussey Institution (30) 9798; (32) 12, 49; (33) 176; (40) 56; (49) [1] 11; [3] 9; (53) [4] 7; (54) [3] 21; (59) [1] 13, 14; [2] 8, 10; [3] 11 Butter-and-eggs (31) 196; (34) 192 Butterbur (44) [4] 5253 -- large-leaved (55) [1] 3 Buttercup (31) 168; (34) 78 -- bulbous (34) 184, 185 -- common (34) 184 -- family (54) [2] 31 Butterfly bush (46) [4] 19 -- weed (34) 290, 291; (39) 244, 251; (44) [2] 28 Butterfly Garden, by Mathew Tekulsky [review of] (46) [2] 4647 Butterfly, monarch (34) 133 Butterflies East of the Great Plains: An Illustrated Natural History, by Paul A. Opler and George O. Krizek [review of] (46) [2] 4647 Butternut (31) 234; (32) 68; (44) [1] 3, 1214, 15, 17 -- canker (44) 14 -- dieback (44) [1] 14 -- diseases (44) [1] 14 -- nuts (44) [1] 13 -- `Ayers' (44) [1] 17 -- `Booth' (44) [1] 17 -- `Chamberlin' (44) [1] 17 -- `Craxezy' (44) [1] 17 -- `Creighton' (44) [1] 17 -- `Kenworthy' (44) [1] 17 -- `Kinnyglen' (44) [1] 17 -- `Love' (44) [1] 17 -- `Van Sickle' (44) [1] 17 -- `Weschcke' (44) [1] 17 Buttonbush (31) 234; (56) [3] 16 Buttonwood (31) 220; (36) 18 Buxus (30) 15; (31) 310; (34) 49; (45) [2] 19 -- bonsai (31) 271 -- japonica (36) 18 -- microphylla nana (36) 18 -- sempervirens (31) 215; (49) [4] 35; (52) [4] 17; (54) [3] 23 -- -- `Vardar Valley' (55) [2] 32 Bye, A.E., photo by (59) [2] cover Byrnes, Todd (57) [1] 22 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - C","article_sequence":3,"start_page":1,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25322","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060b76b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"C Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Caapi (32) 205, 210 Cabbage (31) 146, 204 -- Chinese (44) [1] 9, 16 Cabot Foundation (30) 98 Cabot, Francis H., \"`Les Quatre Vents': A Far-Northern Garden\" (45) [4] 1931 -- -- -- photo by (45) inside back cover Cacti collection [at Arnold Arboretum] (32) 259 Cactus, pincushion (47) [2] 23 Cactus triangularis (47) [4] 31 Cadwalader, John Lambert (51) [3] 4 Caesalpinia (31) 18 Caffe weede (32) 45 Cahan, Marion D., book reviews by (48) [2] 39; [4] 5960 -- -- -- \"The Harvard Garden in Cuba--A Brief History\" (51) [3] 2232 Cailiang, Mao, \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" with other contributors (55) [1] 1220 Cajanus cajan (32) 27 Calabash tree (52) [2] 25 Caladium (34) 50; (47) [2] 27 Calamagrostis x acutiflora (54) [3] 8 -- brachytricha (54) [3] 4, 7 -- foliosa (54) [3] 5 -- -- `Karl Foerster' (54) [3] 4, 9, 11 Calamint, lesser (52) [2] 39 Calamintha nepeta ssp. nepeta (52) [2] 39 Calamondin (36) 18 Calamus (43) [2] 7 -- flagellum (48) [2] 4 -- nambariensis (48) [2] 4 -- palustris (48) [2] 4 Calanthe (41) 132137; (44) [1] 3233 -- discolor (37) 187, 189; (41) 135; (44) [1] 32 -- -- var. bicolor f. sieboldii (41) 135 -- x harryana (41) 134 -- japonica (41) 136 -- masuca (41) 133 -- nipponica (37) 187; (41) 136; (44) [1] 32 -- reflexa (41) 136 -- torifera (37) 189; (41) 134 -- tricarinata (41) 133, 134; (44) [1] 32 -- vestita (41) 132 Calcium arsenate (30) 44 Calea zacatechichi (32) 207 Calendula (31) 168, 172, 176 Calendula officinalis (31) 176, 198 Caley, George (57) [4] 20 Calf Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19, 23, 25 California (47) [4] 17; (48) [1] 17, 23, 41 \"California AcademyLingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition,\" J. Linsley Gressitt [excerpt, 1953] (59) [1] 3539 California Academy of Sciences (46) [4] 21, 34; (47) [4] 12 California Bonsai Society (31) 262 California, University of (48) [2] 17, 19 -- -- -- at Berkeley (48) [2] 14 -- -- -- Botanical Garden (46) [4] 4 -- -- -- College of Agriculture (48) [2] 16 Calla (47) [2] 27 -- palustris (43) [2] 15 Callaham, Dale (56) [3] 7 Callaway, M. Brett, and Dorothy J., \"Our Native PawPaw: The Next New Commercial Fruit?\" (52) [3] 2029 Calliandra (36) 1, 10, 12 -- haematocephala (36) 18 -- -- nana (36) 8, 18 C 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Callicarpa americana (31) 233 -- japonica (30) 172; (55) [1] 18 -- yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Callistephus chinensis (31) 227; (53) [1] 11 Callitris (37) 44, 45 Calluna vulgaris (39) 252 -- -- `Foxii' (37) 104 Calocedrus (37) 45 -- decurrens (60) [4] 17, 18 Calochortus (46) [3] 38 -- obispoensis (46) [3] 4 Calolisianthus (31) 316 Calophyllum (58) [1] 20 -- polyanthum (48) [2] 7 Caloplacea elegans (35) 151, 152 Calotropis procera (37) 229 Caltha palustris (31) 172; (34) 51; (39) 252; (42) [3] 140141 -- -- `Nana Plena' (37) 92 Calycanthus (53) [1] 9 -- chinensis (51) [1] 1822 -- floridus (31) 89, 234; (43) [1] 41; (44) [4] 41, 49; (45) [2] 26; (53) [1] 13; (56) [2] 25 Calypso bulbosa (45) [4] inside back cover Camassia cusickii (46) [3] 7 -- scilloides (46) [3] 8 \"Cambial Activity in Trees,\" Lalit M. Srivastava (33) 4666 Cambium (59) [4] 10 Cambridge [MA] (48) [1] 33 -- Park Commission (53) [4] 11; (59) [2] 13, 19 Camellia (43) [1] 12; (55) [3] 18 -- bonsai (32) 241, 246 -- Chinese spp. (46); [1] 315 -- euryoides (43) [1] 22; (46) [1] 9 -- granthamiana (30) 10, 11, 12 -- japonica (31) 20 -- reticulata (46) [1]8, 912 -- -- 'Baozhu Cha' (46) [1] 10 -- -- `Daguiye' (46) [1] 10 -- -- 'Jiangjia Cha' (46) [1] 10 -- sasanqua (36) 18 -- sinensis (31) 20; (50) [4] 16 -- -- var. assamica (31) 20; (48) [2] 4, 7 -- taheishangensis (48) [2] 6 \"Camellias, Chinese New Year, Samurai Warriors, and the Arnold Arboretum\" [excerpts] (46) [1] 1619 Campanula (34) 301 Campanula (31) 178; (45) [4] 31 -- carpatica (34) 303 -- glomerata (34) 302 -- lactiflora (34) 302; (41) 231 -- latifolia (34) 302 -- medium (31) 178; (34) 303 -- persicifolia (31) 175; (34) 301; (45) [4] 28 -- -- `Alba' (34) 301; (45) [4] 28 -- pyramidalis (31) 175 -- rapunculoides (31) 176; (34) 303 -- rapunculus (31) 210 -- rotundifolia (34) 303 -- takesimana (52) [1] 26 -- trachelium (31) 175, 176, 178 Campanumoea parviflora (48) [2] 6 Campbell, Archibald (32) 185 Campbell, Christopher (39) 358 Campbell, Douglas (48) [4] 21 Campernelle jonquil (31) 180 Campanula (60) [1] 6 Camphor, (60) [4] 28, 30 -- tree (31) 12, 17; (48) [2] 27; (53) [3] 27 Campion (31) 130; (35) 4; (39) 260 C Cumulative Index -- bladder (34) 162 -- morning (31) 227 -- red (31) 227 -- white (34) 161 Campsis grandiflora (38) 110 -- radicans (31) 221; (38) 109, 110; (44) [4] 54; (50) [1] 18; (55) [3] 18 -- x tagliabuana `Madame Galen' (38) 110; (44) [4] 54 Campsoneura capitellata (32) 216 -- delilis (32) 216 Can Man Survive? [Exposition at American Museum of Natural History] (30) 7779 Canada (48) [1] 18; [4] 54 Canada hemlock (45) [4] 25 Canadensium Plantarum [review of reprint], Jacques Philippe Cornut (34) 37 Canadian Department of Interior (60) [1] 7 Canadian Forestry Service (50) [2] 7 Canadian Pacific Railway (60) [1] 7 Cananga odorata (48) [2] 3 Canary Islands (47) [3] 13 Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Centre of the National Institutes of Health (32) 200 Candelaria concolor (35) 153 Candolle, Alphonse de (30) 114, 136; (50) [2] 21 Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de (49) [4] 37; (53) [3] 14 Candollean classification system (53) [3] 14, 15, 16, 17 Candytuft (31) 178; (34) 371; (39) 257 -- evergreen (34) 372 -- Gilbraltar (34) 372 -- purple (31) 178 -- Tenore (34) 372 Canephora madagascariensis (32) 27 Canker, Cryptodiaporthe (54) [1] 29 -- Dothichiza (54) [1] 29 -- worm (33) 318 Canna edulis (50) [4] 11 Cannabis sativa (34) 52 Canoewood (36) 119 Canoochee River [GA] (47) [4] 4 Canopy decline (56) [1] 16, 1819 Canterbury bells (31) 175, 178; (34) 303 Canton [China] (48) [2] 30, 31 -- liberation of (48) [2] 21 Canton Christian College [China] (48) [2] 13, 30 Capability Brown and Humphrey Repton, Edward Hyams [review of] (33) 302 Caparn, Harold A. (60) [3] 5 -- -- -- \"Correspondence: Madison Square Again\" [1896] (60) [3] 19 Cape Cod [MA] (46) [3] 9; (48) [3] 18; [4] 52, 55, 56 Cape Cod National Sea Shore Visitor Center (51) [2] 17 Cape gooseberry (30) 180; (37) 220 Cape Negro [Angola] (54) [2] 2 Capelli, Jerome (31) 118 Capparis fohaiensis (48) [2] 6 Caprifoliaceae (50) [3] 29; (57) [3] 3 Capsella bursa-pastoris (32) 44, 45; (34) 214 Capsicum (50) [2] 33; [4] 13; (52) [2] 21 -- annuum (52) [2] 22 -- frutescens (32) 25; (52) [2] 22 -- -- var. longum (31) 231 Captan (32) 163 Caragana (44) [2] 30; (45) [4] 23; (55) [3] 18 -- arborescens (31) 242; (32) 67; (45) [2] 19 -- frutex (41) 173 -- sinica (41) 174 Carallia lanceaefolia (48) [2] 7 Carambola (53) [1] 22 Caraway (31) 199 Carbaryl (Sevin) (30) 45 Carbon cycling (58) [2] 2829, 3940; (59) [2] 36, 37 Carcinogen, sassafras as (36) 25, 26 3 C 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 \"Cardamindum ampliori\" (47) [3] 7, 9 Cardamine pentaphyllos (55) [1] 4 Cardinal flower (31) 178; (35) 2, 3; (39) 258; (43) [2] 7 -- -- blue (39) 260 Cardiocrinum cathayanum (55) [1] 17 -- giganteum (46) [4] 30 Cardiospermum halicacabrum (37) 221, 227 Cardish, A., photo by (50) [4] inside front cover Cardoza, Yvette (49) [4] 32 \"Care and Feeding of the Noble Allee,\" Marc Treib (54) [1] 1323 \"Care and Preservation of Library Materials,\" George H. M. Lawrence (30) 5666 Carex (47) [4] 30 -- conica `Variegata' (52) [3] 10 -- crinita (43) [2] 3334 -- morrowii `Variegata' (35) 56 -- phyllocephala `Sparkler' (45) [2] 15 -- siderostricta `Variegata' (52) [1] 26, 28 -- spissa (54) [3] 5 -- stricta `Bowles Golden' (52) [2] 39 Carica (50) [4] 13 Carissa (36) 12 -- grandiflora `Seminole Queen' (30) 251; (36) 1, 9, 18 Carlsmith, Anne (44) [1] 2831 Carmichaelia enysii (37) 104 Carnation (31) 24, 28, 29, 34, 227; (34) 320 Carnegie Museum of Natural History (46) [4] 15 Carolina allspice (31) 89, 234 -- hemlock (46) [1] 35 -- laurel (31) 241 Carolinae (43) [3] 6, 10, 11 Carolinella henryi (43) [1] 26 Carpathian harebell (34) 303 -- walnut trees (44) [1] 6 Carpinus (32) 82, 93 -- betulus (32) 101; [6] inside back cover; (39) 25, 95, 97, 225; (49) [4] 36; (57) [1] 27 -- -- `Columnaris' (39) 96; (54) [1] 33, 34, 34 -- -- `Globosa (39) 96 -- -- `Fastigiata' (39) 96 -- caroliniana (31) 239; (43) [1] 11 -- japonica `Ebi Odori' (43) [4] 6 -- koreana (38) 138 -- orientalis (49) [4] 35 -- tschonoskii (39) 173, 174, 225 Carpolithus natans (45) [4] 7 Carr, Ethan, \"Garden and Forest and `Landscape Art'\" (60) [3] 5, 78 Carrot (31) 146, 204 \"Cartographic Records of the Living Collections,\" Ethan W. Johnson (49) [1] 6164 Carum carvi (31) 199, 211 Carvalho e Mello, Sebastiao, Jose de (Marques de Pombal) (47) [3] inside front cover, 30, 31 Cary Arboretum [NY] (33) 45; (46) [4] 4 Carya (34) 14; (39) [2] inside back cover; (51) [1] inside front cover; (52) [4] 31; (55) [3] 17; [4] 1112; (57) [1] 24; (59) [1] 49 -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- x brownii (57) [1] 31 -- cathayensis (44) [3] 21, 24; (50) [4] 16 -- glabra (32) 68; (34) 14 -- illinoensis (31) 242; (39) 272, 275; (56) [2] 24; (59) [3] back cover -- laciniosa (31) 239; (34) 14; (52) [1] front cover; (57) [1] 24 -- x laneyi (57) [1] 26 -- ovata (31) 239; (32) 68, 79; (34) 14, 18; (52) [4] 31 -- -- `Holden' (30) 251 -- tomentosa (32) 68 Caryocar (32) 212 Caryophillidae (47) [3] 27 Caryophyllaceae (32) 136 Caryota urens (48) [2] 5, 7 Cascade Mountain Club [CA] (48) [1] 41 Cascais [Portugal] (47) [3] 37 C Cumulative Index Case Estates [Weston, MA] (30) 9299, 166; (31) 34; (32) 14, 260; (33) 322; (34) 401, 402, 410; (35) 246; (48) [1] 44; [2] 10; (49) [1] 20; (54) [3] inside back cover; (56) [1] 1011, 25 -- -- experimental research at (30) 97 -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 33 -- -- lily demonstration plots (34) 126, 128, 130, 131 -- -- low-maintenance garden (31) 30 -- -- park (32) 252, 261; (33) 322 -- -- small tree demonstration plot (30) 95 -- -- special collections (30) 96 -- -- temperatures (30) 193 \"Case for Monkey-Mediated Evolution in Big-Bracted Dogwoods,\" Richard H. Eyde (45) [4] 29 Case, Louisa (30) 92 Case, Louisa & Marian [sisters] (32) 14 Case, Marion R. (30) 92; (48) [2] 10, 16 \"Case of the Dunbar Dogwood: A Neglected Hybrid,\" C. Lewis Kehne (38) 5054 \"Case Studies in Forest History and Ecology,\" David R. Foster, with other contributors (58) [2] 3244 Cashew family (54) [2] 21 -- nut (35) 95, 96 Casoron (49) [2] 3 Caspian forest [Iran] (49) [4] 35, 36 Cassava (50) [2] 3132; (52) [2] 22, 23, 24 -- detoxification of (50) [2] inside front cover Cassia hebecarpa (44) [2] 28; (52) [2] 39, 40 -- marilandica (34) 304; (39) 252; (44) [2] 28; (55) [2] 32 -- occidentalis (32) 25 -- siamea (48) [2] 3 Cassine (31) 234 Cassioberry (31) 234 Cassiope (37) 104 Castanea (32) 83; (52) [2] 6; (59) [1] 25, 44; (60) [4] 26 -- cvs. and taxonomy (52) [2] 7 -- americana (48) [3] 118 -- crenata (33) 15; (43) [3] 17; (52) [2] 3; -- -- cv. (52) [2] 7 -- dentata (31) 246; (33) 40, 83; (43) [3] 17; (52) [2] 2, 3; (53) [2] 27, inside back cover -- -- cv. (52) [2] 7 -- equina (31) 254 -- henryi (52) [2] 5; [4] 29; (55) [1] 18 -- -- cv. (52) [2] 7 -- mollissima (33) 15; (43) [1] 41; [3] 1718, inside back cover; (44) [3] 15, 16; (50) [1] 21; (52) [2] 5, 6; (58) [3] 31 -- -- cv. (52) [2] 7 -- pumila (31) 236; (52) [2] 3 -- -- cvs. (52) [2] 7 -- sativa (31) 246; (43) [3] 17; (51) [2] 10; (52) [2] 3, 7; (53) [2] 13 -- -- cv. (52) [2] 7 -- seguinii (52) [2] 5; (59) [1] 43 \"Castanea mollissima: A Chinese Chestnut for the Northeast,\" Edward Goodell (43) [3] 1727, 18, 22 Castanopsis ssp. (48) [2] 27 -- cuspidata (31) 285, 292 Castilleja coccinea (45) [3] 16 Castle Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19, 31 Castor bean (34) 82; (47) [4] 28 Castor-aralia (30) 171; (39) 188, 189 Castroviejo, Santiago (47) [3] 22 Casuarina (55) [4] 2729 -- bonsai (31) 271 -- equisetifolia (55) [4] 30 Cat's ear (34) 282 Catalogue of the Library of the Arnold Arboretum [Ethelyn Tucker] (32) 54 Catalpa, southern (31) 234 -- western (60) [1] 17 Catalpa (32) 69, 71, 86; (55) [3] 17 -- bignonioides (31) 234; (33) 107; (39) 320 -- bungei (44) [3] 5 -- ovata (39) 173, 175, 223 -- speciosa (39) 174, 175, 272; (50) [1] 17; (54) [1] 4; (60) [1] 16, 17 Catananche coerulea (34) 304 5 C 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Catbriar (31) 90 Catchfly (31) 130, 227; (39) 260 Caterpillar, tent (38) 39 Catesby, Mark (48) [4] 53; (53) [1] 13, 15 -- -- The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (39) 297, 317, 319, 320 Catharanthus roseus (32) 27; (55) [2] 7 -- -- as treatment for cancer (44) [1] 35 Cathaya argyrophylla (59) [1] 67 Cathey, Marc (50) [3] 16 Catmint (31) 199; (35) 12; (39) 261 -- Persian (39) 261 Catnip (31) 199; (35) 13 Catskill Mountains (48) [2] 10 Cattail (31) 227; (34) 17, 224; (43) [2] 8, 10, 11, 18, 29 Cattleya (37) 187; (47) [4] 32 -- crispa (47) [4] 33 Caucasian wingnut (39) 196, 197 Caucasus Mountains (49) [4] 36, 37; (54) [2] 20 Caulanthus inflatus (37) 218 Cauliflower (31) 204 Caulophyllum thalictroides (55) [3] 6 Cautchouc (50) [2] 31 Cavanilles, Antonio Jose (30) 122, 135; (47) [3] 1921 Cayaponia ophthalmica (32) 214 Cayenne pepper (31) 231 Cazabe (52) [2] 24 Ceanothus (46) [3] 6 -- spp. and cvs. (55) [1] 2123; [4] 26, 27, 29 -- americanus (31) 241; (56) [2] 25 -- -- `Roseus' (55) [1] 21, 22, 23 Cebil (32) 208 Cecropia peltata (52) [2] 20 Cedar (31) 17; (37) 9, 46, 47; (57) [1] 5; (60) [4] 28, 30 -- Atlantic white (31) 234; (39) 207, 208 -- atlas (39) 205, 206 -- Chinese (38) 158161 -- deodar (42) [4] 153; (57) [2] 12; deodar (60) [4] 18 -- incense (37) 45 -- Japan (31) 18 -- Mount Atlas (60) [2] inside back cover -- northern white (56) [4] 5, 7 -- of Lebanon (32) 64 -- red (31) 216; (43) [1] 44; [4] 21; (56) [3] 9; [4] 3, 8; (58) [3] 31 -- -- eastern (39) 212, 213 -- -- western (58) [3] 2, 36, 7, 810, back cover -- -- -- branchlets and cones (58) [3] inside front cover -- salt (48) [3] 23 Cedrela sinensis (38) 158161, 159, 160, 161; (39) 41, 144, 145, 228; (50) [1] 21; (55) [3] 17 Cedrus (37) 9, 46, 47; (48) [1] 14 -- atlantica (39) 205, 206, 232 -- deodara (42) [4] 153, 155156, inside back cover; (50) [1] 8, 9; (57) [2] 12 -- -- `Kashmir' (42) [4] 153154 -- -- `Kingsville' (42) [4] 153154 -- -- `Shalimar' (42) [4] 154156; (60) [4] 18 -- libani (32) 64; (48) [1] 22; (49) [1] front cover, 8, 9; (50) [4] 34, 35; (55) [4] 3; (57) [1] 24; -- -- ssp. atlantica (60) [2]: inside back cover -- -- var. stenocoma (37) [1] front cover Ceiba pentandra (52) [2] 26, 27 Celandine (31) 176; (34) 186, 187 -- great (31) 178 -- lesser (52) [2] 43 -- poppy (31) 178 Celastrus (30) 98; (34) 53; (55) [3] 18 -- scandens (31) 233; (39) 252; (44) [4] 48; (56) [2] 13 \"Celebration of Crabapples: Book Review,\" Richard Schulhof (55) [4] 3435 Celery (31) 231 Cell differentiation (59) [4] 10, 11 C Cumulative Index 7 Celosia argentea v. cristata (31) 228 Celtis (32) 84 -- jessoensis (39) 175, 176, 225 -- laevigata (39) 146, 228; (54) [1] 7; (57) [2] 29 -- x `Magnifica' (54) [1] 6 -- occidentalis (31) 216; (39) 97, 98, 146, 176, 228; (44) [4] 16, 17; (54) [1] 7; (56) [2] 24 -- wightii (48) [2] 7 Cenocentrum tonkinense (48) [2] 6 Census, of North American trees (49) [1] 13 -- 10th United States (49) [1] 13 Centaurea (31) 178; (34) 305; (45) [4] 26 -- centaurium (31) 178 -- cyanus (31) 172, 175, 179 -- dealbata (34) 305 -- macrocephala (34) 305 -- montana (34) 305, 306 -- ruthenica (34) 305 Centaury (31) 178 -- corn (31) 179 Centennial Exhibition, Philadelphia (60) [1] 32 Center for Conservation Biology [Stanford University] (46) [3] 12 Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) (46) [3] 217, 23, 24, 3335, 45; (49) [1] 4, 10, 45, 52, 53 -- -- -- -- regions of (46) [3] 16 Central Artery [Boston] (48) [3] 17 Central Park [NY] (48) [3] 34 [4] 30, 31; (54) [2] 19; [3] inside front cover, 18; (56) [2] 7, 9, 13; (57) [2] 8; [3] 17; (59) [2] 10, 36; (60) [2] 40, 42, 43 Central Park Arboretum (53) [3] 16, 17 \"Century of Grasses,\" Rick Darke (54) [3] 211 Centranthus ruber (39) 252 Cephaelis ipecacuanha (55) [2] 6 Cephalanthus occidentalis (31) 234; (38) 112 -- -- var. pubescens (30) 257 Cephalostigma hookeri (48) [2] 6 Cephalotaxaceae (50) [2] 2 Cephalotaxus (37) 48 -- cvs. and spp. (55) [1] 2439 -- drupaceae (55) [1] 27, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36, 37 -- fortunei (31) 17; (55) [1] 28, 29, 30 -- harringtonia (55) [1] 25, 28, 3033, 37 -- -- `Fastigiata' (43) [4] 6 -- -- `Fastigiata Aurea' (43) [4] 6 -- -- `Korean Gold' (43) [4] 6 -- -- var. nana (38) 30 -- koreana (55) [1] 30, 31, 32, 33, 37 -- oliveri (48) [2] 6; (55) [1] 27, 29, 31, 3334, 37 -- sinensis (55) [1] 15, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, 34, 37 \"Cephalotaxus: The Plum Yews,\" Kim E. Tripp (55) [1] 2439 Cerastium (33) 192; (34) 306 -- biebersteinii (34) 306 -- tomentosum (31) 28; (34) 306 Ceratiola (31) 316 Ceratocystis fagacearum (33) 42 -- ulmi (33) 40, 44, 83; (38) 40; (42) [2] 61, 7071 Ceratostigma (31) 31 -- plumbaginoides (31) 31; (34) 307, 309 Cercidiphyllum (32) 271 -- japonicum (30) 169; (32) 70, 80, 250; (36) 205; (39) 147, 148, 225; (54) [1] 9 -- -- `Morioka Weeping' (60) [4] inside front cover, 14 Cercis (32) 91, 97 -- canadensis (30) 169; (31) 214; (36) [2] front cover, 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46; (43) [1] 39; (44) [2] 19; (48) [4] 54; (56) [1] 21; (57) [2] 14 -- -- cvs. (36) 46 -- -- var. mexicana (36) 44 -- -- `Royal White' (30) 252 -- -- `Silver Cloud' (30) 253 -- -- var. texensis (36) 44 -- chinensis (36) 42, 45, 46 C 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- glabra (55) [1] 18 -- occidentalis (36) 44 -- racemosa (36) 46; (43) [1] 31 -- reniformis (36) 44 -- siliquastrum (31) 214; (36) 39, 44, 49 \"Cercis: The Redbuds,\" Kenneth R. Robertson (36) 3749 Cercocarpus (55) [4] 27 Cereus giganteus (47) [2] 22, 24 Cerinthe major (39) 252 Cervantes, Vicente (47) [3] 16 Cetraria ciliaris (35) 154 -- islandica (35) 143 Cha (or chaa) (31) 20 Chaenomeles (30) 97; (31) 314; (38) 108; (43) [3] 3; (55) [3] 18 -- japonica (55) [4] 7, 8; (56) [2] 25 -- lagenaria (44) [4] 23 -- speciosa `Nivalis' (55) [4] 8 \"Chaenomeles x superba `Mandarin',\" Gary L. Koller (53) [4] 3436, 35 Chaetocarpus castanocarpus (48) [2] 7 Chai, Paul (60) [4] 4, 7 Chain of Friendship, Betsy C. Corner and Christopher C. Booth, eds. [review of] (35) 187 Chair seat weaving, plant materials for (34) 1221 Chalcedonian iris (31) 187 Chalk plant (31) 76; (34) 347 Chamaecyparis (31) 294, 295; (32) 65; (37) 4850; (43) [1] 11, 17; (55) [1] 7; (55) [1] 7; (57) [1] 28; (59) [4] 12 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- funebris (31) 18 -- lawsoniana (39) 274; (52) [4] 24 -- -- range of (52); [4] 25 -- obtusa (31) 298, 299; (44) [3] 15; (47) [2] 14; (49) [3] 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 18, 36; (50) [3] 7, 9 -- -- bonsai (32) 242, 246 -- -- morphology of horticultural forms (49) [3] 19 -- -- breviramea (49) [3] 13, 19 -- -- `Chabo-hiba' (49) 11, 12, 13, 17, 18, 2427, 30, 31, 34, 35; (53) [1] 19; (52) [3] inside back cover -- -- compacta (49) [3] 13, 19 -- -- `Crippsii' (44) [4] 50 -- -- f. gracilis (43) [1] 17 -- -- `Gracilis Nana' (43) [1] 17 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as Tsuga; see page 16 for the correct caption.] -- -- `Graciosa' (49) [3] 19 -- -- var. nana (49) [3] 5, 13, 14 -- -- `Nana Gracilis' (49) [3] 19 -- -- `Verdoon' (49) [3] 19 -- pisifera (39) 206, 207; (41) [6] inside front cover; (43) [1] 17; (44) [4] 38, 3940; (49) [3] 12; (50) [3] 2, 7 -- -- dwarf cvs. of (44) [4] 3940 -- -- f. filifera (43) [1] 17 -- -- `Filifera Aurea' (43) [1] 17 -- -- `Filifera Nana' (43) [1] 17 -- -- `Plumosa' (44) [4] 40 -- -- `Squarrosa' (31) 297, 299; (44) [4] 40; (49) [3] 11, 18 -- thyoides (31) 234; (39) 207, 208, 231; (50) [2] 5 Chamaedrys (31) 184 Chamaerops (31) 17 Chamelaea (31) 218 Chamomile (31) 199 -- false (34) 299 -- golden (34) 282 -- ox-eye (34) 282 -- St. John's (34) 283 Champs Elysees [Paris] (48) [4] 34; (53) [3] 7; (57) [2] 5 Chaney, Ralph W. (59) [1] 57, 15, 22, 23, 25, 2629, 30, 32, 37, 40, 48, 49 -- -- -- \"`As remarkable as discovering a living dinosaur': Redwoods in China,\" [excerpt, 1948] (59) [1] 2327 -- -- -- theories (59) [1] 6061, 63, 69 -- -- -- photos by (59) [1] 2427 Chang, W. C. (51) [1] 18 Chang, Young June, drawings by (45) [2] 914 \"The Changing Flora of the Boston Harbor Islands,\" by Dale F. Levering, Jr. (48) [3] 1821, 23, 25 \"Changes After European Settlement,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2] 1125 C Cumulative Index Changyang Hsien, Hubei (57) [2] 23 Channel 2 crew at Arnold Arboretum (32) 266, 267 Chanyuan temple (50) [4] 16 Chapote (39) 293, 306 Chapultepec Hill [Mexico] (47) [3] 16 \"Charles Edward Faxon, delineavit\" (46) [3] 1922 Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, Charles W. Eliot [1902] (59) [2] 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 19, [excerpt] 2225 \"Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect: An Introduction to His Life and Work,\" Keith N. Morgan (59) [2] 221 Charles I [King of Spain] (47) [3] 9 Charles III [King of Spain] (47) [3] 6, 10, 11, 12, 15 Charles IV [King of Spain] (47) [3] 18 Charles River [MA] (48) [3] 23, 18 [4] 23; (53) [4] 5, 6, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 -- -- basin (59) [2] 12, 16, 18, 19 -- -- Esplanade [Boston] (54) [1] 31, 32 Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum, by Stephanne Sutton [review of] (31) 23 \"Charles Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon,\" Phyllis Andersen (59) [3] 213 Charles Sprague Sargent Memorial Fund (47) [4] 13, 2122 Charles Street [Boston] (48) [3] 33, 34, 36, 42, 46 Charlestown [MA] (48) [4] 36 Charlton [MA] (48) [4] 41, 42 Charlwood and Cummins (31) 1, 4, 5 \"Charter Oak,\" Gayle Barndow Samuels (59) [4] 24, 5, 6, 79 Chase, Mark (57) [4] 24, 28 Chase, Philip A. (48) [4] 46, 50 Chasmanthium (54) [3] 11 -- -- latifolium (54) [3] 7 Chaste tree (31) 234; (38) 109 Chater, Clifford S. [Prof. ] (48) [3] 42 Chaulamoogra tree (52) [2] 29 Chaw (31) 20 Checkerberry (39) 293, 306 \"Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima,\" Behula Shah (57) [3] 2027 Checkered lily (31) 178; (37) 96 Cheiranthus cheiri (31) 197; (39) 252 Cheju Do Island [So. Korea] (48) [1] 33 Chekiang [China] (31) 5 Chelidonium majus (31) 178; (34) 186, 187 Chelonanthus alatus (33) 196, 197 Chelone (34) 308 -- glabra (31) 230; (34) 308; (37) 220; (39) 252 -- lyonii (34) 308, 309; (44) [4] 51 -- obliqua (31) 230; (34) 308 Chelsea [MA] (48) [4] 39 Chelsea Physic Garden [London] (51) [1] 10; (53) [1] 12, 13; (57) [3] 22; [4] 15 Chemical injury to plants (33) 3839 Chen Huanyong (or \"Chun\")48) [2] 925, 12, 21 -- -- death of (48) [2] 23 Chen Shuzhen (48) [2] 19 Cheng, C. Y. (49) [3] 41 -- -- -- and C. S. Yang (50) [3] 29, 32 Cheng, Peter (30) 15 Cheng, Wan-Chun (49) [2] 25, 27; (59) [1] 46, 7, 8, 17, 18, 20, 21, 33, 40, 4446 Chengtu [China] (48) [2] 30 Chenopodium album (34) 209 -- botrys (39) 254 -- pallidicaule (50) [4] 12 -- quinoa (50) [4] 4, 12 Cherimoya (50) [4] 13, 15 Cherries, at Arnold Arboretum (32) 50 Cherry (31) 222292; (32) 84; (34) 242; (43) [1] 4; (44) [4] 2; (57) [1] 31; (60) [4] 26, 28 -- amur (40) [1] front cover -- autumn-flowering (55) [4] 8 -- black (34) 242 -- blossoms (31) 290 -- choke (31) 215; (34) 77, 242 -- cyclamen (40) 146151, 147148 -- Daybreak (41) 162166 9 C 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- Higan (49) [3] 11, 18, 2829 -- Japanese (49) [1] 19, 31; [4] 14 -- Kwanzan (39) 158, 159 -- laurel (31) 234 -- Manchurian (43) [1] 10 -- October (52) [3] 11 -- Okame (39) 194, 195 -- paperbark (43) [1] 10 -- pin (43) [1] 42 -- rum (34) 242 -- Sargent (30) 169; (39) 123, 124; (52) [3] 11 -- Siberian bush (44) [3] 12 -- sour (31) 222 -- Takane (55) [4] 8 -- Tangsi (44) [3] 21, 24 -- weeping (52) [3] 11; (55) [4] 8 -- wild (31) 215 Cherry, cornelian (44) [4] 15, 1718 Chervil (31) 199 -- giant (39) 261 Chestnut (31) 246; (32) 83; (33) 15; (43) [1] 41, [3] 1720, 2526; (48) [2] 27; (52) [4] 29; (52) [4] 210, 2, 6, inside back cover; (60) [4] 26 -- seeds and seedlings, sources for (43) [3] 27 -- American (33) 83; (43) [1] 41 [3] 1720; (44) [3] 15; (48) [3] 18; (52) [2] inside back cover, 39, 8; (53) [2] 2627, inside back cover; (56) [3] 15; (58) [2] 8, 2324; [3] 31 -- -- range of (52) [2] 4 -- Chinese (44) [3] 15; (52) [2] 5; (58) [3] 31 -- -- cvs. (43) [3] 22, 2526 -- European (43) [3] 17, 18, 20; (52) [2] 3, 7 -- French (31) 246 -- Japanese (43) [3] 1720; (52) [2] 3, 5 -- -- cvs. (52) [2] 5 -- sweet or Spanish (53) [2] 13 Chestnut blight (44) [3] 15; (52) [2] 210, 2, 4, 6, 8, back cover; (58) [2] 8, 2324, 43; [3] 31 -- -- hypovirulent strain (52) [2] 79, back cover -- -- resistance to (58) [3] 31 Chestnut, three- (31) 292 Chibbals (31) 199 Chichi (52) [4] 7, 9 Chickweed (34) 160 Chicory (31) 206; (34) 181 Chieh-Hsiu (48) [2] 34 Chieh Tai Ssu temple [China] (48) [2] inside back cover Chien, S. S. (48) [2] 11 Chile (47) [3] 12, 13, 14, 15 -- flora of (59) [2] 2634 Chilling-resistant plants (45) [4] 35 Chilling-sensitive plants (45) [4] 35 Chillingham Park, Northumberland [UK] (32) 180 Chiloe (59) [2] 30 Chimaphila maculata (35) 130 Chimonanthus (50) [4] 2431 -- propagation of (50) [4] 3031 -- praecox (31) 245; (37) 113, 114; (43) [1] 3 -- -- var. concolor (37) 114 -- -- var. grandiflorus (37) 114 -- -- var. luteus (37) 114 -- pygmaea (50) [4] 2728 -- retusus (50) [4] 25, 2830, 28, 29, 30, back cover -- virginicus (50) [4] 2427, 27, inside back cover Chin Ying (31) 270 China (48) [1] 25, 30 -- bamboo from (58) [3] 1117 -- botanical tour (37) 156163 -- collecting localities (40) 139145 -- crop plants in (35) 266, 269, 270 -- customs service in (48) [2] 13 C Cumulative Index -- development of botany in (48) [2] 18 -- Great Wall (54) [2] 21 -- Jiangsu Province (49) [2] 25 -- ligneous flora of (49) [1] 17, 18 -- map (32) 105 -- medicinal gardens in (35) 280, 282 -- -- Hangchow (35) 282 -- -- Nanking (35) 280 -- National People's Congress, First (48) [2] 2122 -- North American trees in (39) 271276 -- plant discoveries in (49) [2] 25 -- plant exploration (33) 1525; (49) [1] 14; (58) [3] 1116; (59) [1] 452, 6568 -- South (48) [2] 3 -- -- Agricultural University and Institute (48) [2] 21, 31 -- -- Institute of Botany (48) [2] 21 -- Science Society (48) [2] 15 -- tour of a botanist in (35) 265295 -- Wilson, Ernest Henry in (36) 181236 -- -- first trip to (32) 103114 China root (35) 280 China-fir (37) 50, 51 China Foundation (48) [2] 17, 18, 19, 20 China Merchants Steamship Navigation Company (48) [2] 13 \"China, Mother of Gardens,\" E. H. Wilson (32) 51 Chinaberry (31) 236 Chinese cork tree (30) 163 -- gooseberries (30) 180 -- jute (31) 17 -- lantern (31) 172, 179; (37) 218, 220, 221 -- strawberry tree (31) 8 -- turnip-radish (31) 5 -- wax shrub (51) [1] 1822 Chinese garden (53) [1] 27 -- herbaria (35) 276283 -- medicine, traditional (35) 277278; (55) [2] 1218 -- spp., recent introductions (51) [1] 2, 3, 1822 Chinese Academy of Sciences (48) [2] 4, 21, 22 Chinese Economic Trees [Chen, 1922] (48) [2] 15 \"Chinese Names in Transliteration: A Conversion Table\" (59) [1] 84 \"The Chinese Species of Camellia in Cultivation,\" Bruce Bartholomew (46) [1] 215 Chinese Students' Alliance (48) [2] 10, 11 Chinese Students' Monthly (48) [2] 10, 11 Ching Period (31) 271 Ching, R. C. (48) [2] 13 Chingbiqi [China] (46) [4] 27 Chinquapin (31) 236 -- American (52) [2] 3 -- Chinese (52) [2] 3 Chiogenes hispidula (45) [4] 24 Chionanthus (50) [4] 2431 -- propagation (50) [4] 3031 -- pygmaea (50) [4] 2728 -- retusus (32) 72; (38) 177; (39) 176, 177, 223; (50) [4] 25, 2830, 28, 29, 30, back cover; (55) [1] 9; [4] 13; (60) [4] 12 -- virginicus (31) 237, 366; (32) 72, 88; (50) [4] 2427, 27, inside back cover; (60) [4] 11 -- `Floyd' (30) 253 Chionodoxa (38) [2] front cover; (45) [4] 30 -- forbesii `Pink Giant' (37) 92, 93 -- gigantea (37) 92 -- luciliae (37) 92 Chiric-kaspi (32) 216 Chittamwood (54) [2] 2122 Chives (31) 199; (33) 254 -- garlic (39) 250 Chlordane (31) 355 Chlorinated hydrocarbons (31) 355, 357 Chloroplast DNA [cpDNA] (57) [4] 24 -- gene rbcL sequencing (57) [4] 26 11 C 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Choanji, Kongo-san [Korea] (48) [1] inside back cover Chocolate (50) [2] 3233 Choix des plus belles fleurs, by Pierre-Joseph Redoute (48) [4] 23 Chokeberry (30) 171 -- amur (43) [1] 42 -- red (31) 236 Chokecherry (34) 77 Chollipo Arboretum [Korea] (38) 30, 135, 136, 137; (53) [4] 32; (57) [2] 20 Ch'on Ying (31) 270 Chondrodendron tomentosum (50) [2] 2426 Chonthal Indians (32) 207 Chorizema henchmannii (47) [4] 31 Christianson, Jeanne, and Sandra Elsik, \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal Benefits\" (49) [1] 2835 \"Christmas Green\" [1888] (60) [3] 38 Christmas rose (31) 185; (34) 354; (37) 96; (39) 1, 2, 256 \"Christopher Columbus as a Botanist,\" John M. Kingsbury (52) [2] 1128 \"Chromosome Cytology and Arboreta: A Marriage of Convenience,\" Otto T. Solbrig (33) 135146 \"Chronicling the Living Collections: The Arboretum's Plant Records,\" Jennifer Quigley (49) [1] 5460 Chrysanthemum (31) 29, 32; (34) 310, 351 -- bonsai (32) 245 -- cushion varieties (31) 32 -- hardy (31) 32 \"Chrysanthemums\" [1888], John Thorpe (60) [3] 37 Chrysanthemum balsamita (31) 200 -- coccineum (31) 32; (34) 310 -- leucanthemum (31) 173, 181; (34) 163 -- maximum (31) 32; (34) 311 -- morifolium (34) 310, 351 -- parthenium (31) 183 -- -- `Aureum' (39) 245, 254 -- segatum (31) 176 Chu, Kwei-ling (59) [1] 20, 40, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52 -- -- \"An Ecological Reconnaissance in the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" with William S. Cooper [excerpt, 1950] (59) [1] 4046 Chukrassia tabularia var. velutina (48) [2] 4 Chun, Woon-Young (= Chen Huanyong) (48) [2] inside front cover, 925; (59) [1] 1315 Chung Chi College (30) 918, 22 Chung, H. H. (48) [2] 11 Church, Frederick (59) [4] 56 -- -- painting by (59) [4] 23 \"The Churchyard Yews and Immortality,\" V. Cornish (30) 140 Chusan palm (31) 17 Chuxiong [China] (46) [4] 23 Chvany, Peter J., \"E. H. Wilson, Photographer\" (36) 181236; (39) 361 -- photos by (39) [2] inside back cover; (51) [1] inside front cover; (52) [1] inside back cover Cibotium barometz (30) 13 Cicely, sweet (31) 202 Cichorium endivia (31) 205 -- intybus (31) 206; (34) 181 Cicuta maculata (34) 54 Cider making (33) 228230 Cienfuegos [Cuba] (51) [3] 22, 23, 26, 27, 32 Cimicifuga (34) 312; (45) [4] 26, 28; (55) 9, 15 -- acerina (55) [1] 17 -- dahurica (34) 314 -- foetida (34) 314 -- racemosa (31) 32; (34) 313, 314; (39) 254; (45) [4] 21 -- simplex (31) 32; (34) 314; (55) [1] 16 Cimora (32) 211 Cinchona (47) [3] 15; (55) [2] 13 -- officinalis (55) [2] 6; (57) [4] 16 -- santaeluciae (57) [4] 16 Cineraria maritima (39) 266 Cinnamomum austroyunnanensis (48) [2] 6 -- camphora (31) 17; (36) 24; (48) [2] 27; (53) [3] 27; (60) [4] 28 -- mollifolium (48) [2] 4, 6 C Cumulative Index 13 -- zeylanicum (52) [2] 21 Cinnamon (52) [2] 21; (57) [4] 13 Cinquefoil bush (44) [4] 24 -- silvery (46) [3] 52 -- three-toothed (48) [3] 23 Cirsium vulgare (34) 178 Cissampelos paraira var. hirsuta (48) [2] 4 Citizens for Clean Air [Boston] (48) [4] 21 Citrullis ecchirrosus (54) [2] 4 -- lanatus (31) 208 -- vulgaris (44) [3] 17 Citrus (36) 18 -- aurantium (31) 224 -- grandis (48) [2] 4, 7 -- ichangensis (44) [3] 22 -- x meyeri (44) [3] 9, 24, 25 -- tachibana (31) 292 City Beautiful movement (53) [4] 2 City gardening (33) 128, 148, 210 -- trees, identification (32) 5997 City Hall Park [NY] (57) [2] 8, 9 City Leaves, City Trees, by Edward Gallob [review of] (35) 240 Civet, masked palm (52) [4] 9 Civil War (31) 13 Cladonia (35) 134, 135 -- alpestris (35) 146 -- arbuscula (35) 144, 145 -- bacillaris (35) 148 -- chlorophaea (35) 143, 144 -- cristatela (35) 146, 147 -- evansii (35) 146 -- furcata (35) 145 -- mitis (35) 145 -- rangiferina (35) 144, 145 -- squamosa (35) 148 -- subtenuis (35) 146 -- uncialis (35) 146 -- verticillata (35) 138, 143, 144 Cladrastis (55) [3] 17 -- kentukea (37) 138; (49) [1] 44; (60) [1] 16 -- lutea [= kentukea] (32) 67; (37) [3] front cover, 137150, 139, 141, 143, 144, 146; (39) 148, 149, 225; (43) [1] 39, 40; (49) [1] 43, 44; (54) [1] 7, 9 -- platycarpa (37) 141, 147 -- shikohiana (37) 147 -- sinensis (37) 147, 148 -- tinctoria (37) 138 -- wilsonii (37) 147 \"Cladrastis: The Yellow-Woods,\" Kenneth R. Robertson (37) 137150 Clappe de pouch (32) 45 Clarendon Street [Boston] (48) [4] 23 Clark, Frances (52) [2] 42 Clark, James (42) [3] inside back cover Clark, Robert B., \"The `Rochester' Strain of Lilacs\" (32) 133135 Clark, Sandra, \"When the Roots Go Round and Round,\" with Gary W. Watson (56) [1] 1521 Clark, William Smith (30) 163; (49) [1] 13 Clarkia fossil site [ID] (53) [2] 39, 4; (59) [1] 60, 63 Classification systems, taxonomic (53) [3] 1323 Clary (31) 199; (39) 265 Clausen, Kristen S., and Shiu-ying Hu, \"Mapping the Collecting Localities of E. H. Wilson in China\" (40) 139145 Clausen, Ruth R. (49) [4] 4041 Claviceps purpurea (32) 207 Clavigero, Abbe Francisco (60) [3] 4446 Clay, Henry (51) [2] 6 Clayton, John (53) [1] 15 Claytonia (37) 93 -- megarhiza (33) 252 -- virginica (55) [1] 5 C 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 Clear Fork River [TN] (46) [3] 23, 24 Clematis (56) [2] 24; [3] 16 Clematis (31) 32, 236; (55) [1] 2; [2] 25; [3] 18 -- dioscoreifolia var. robusta (30) 172 -- heracleaefolia (34) 315 -- -- var. davidiana (31) 33 -- integrifolia (34) 315 -- -- `Coerulea' (31) 33 -- paniculata (50) [1] 18 -- recta (34) 315; (45) [4] 27; (55) [2] 32 -- -- var. mandshurica (31) 33 -- `Sweet Autumn' (30) 172; (50) [1] 18 -- tangutica var. obtusiuscula (52) [1] 11 -- virginiana (31) 236; (35) 118; (55) [2] 25 Clement, Duncan (51) [3] 29, 30 Clement, Harmony (32) 250 Cleome spinosa (39) 254 Clerodendrum (55) [3] 18 Clerodendron (36) 11 -- thompsonae (36) 18 -- trichotomum (38) 108; (41) 175; (55) [1] 15; [2] 28, 29, 30 Clethra (55) [3] 13 -- acuminata (38) 107 -- alnifolia (31) 236; (44) [4] 49; (45) [2] 20, 25; (51) [3] 1821; (55) [3] 18; [4] 3, 12; (56) [2] 12, 25 -- -- var. rosea (38) 106 -- barbinervis (38) 107 -- delavayi (46) [4] 20 Clethropsis (55) [4] 18 Cleveland, Horace W. S. (54) [2] 17; [3] 1718; (60) [3] 5 Cliff fendler bush (42) [4] 141, 143 Cliffbrake, purple (46) [3] 19 \"Climate at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Alfred James Fordham (30) 186193 Climbing Plants in Eastern Maine, Beatrix Farrand [1954] (52) [1] 11 \"Climbing Plants on Boston Buildings\" [1894], Sylvester Baxter (60) [3] 4244 Cline, Al (58) [2] inside front cover Clintonia (37) 179181; (43) [2] 37; (55) [1] 11 -- alpina (37) 181 -- andrewsiana (37) 180 -- borealis (37) 179 -- udensis (37) 181; (38) 87 -- umbellulata (37) 179, 180 -- uniflora (37) 180 \"Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Cuttings,\" John E. Kuser (47) [1] 1419 Cloudberry (45) [4] 2425 Clove-gilliflower (31) 168, 179 Clover, Bolander's (46) [3] 14 -- red (34) 173 -- sweet (34) 156 -- yellow sweet (34) 156 -- white (34) 157; (35) 191 Clusia rosea (52) [2] 28 Clusius, Carolus (53) [1] 11 Coates, Charles (49) [4] 38 Coates, W. Nigel, \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak,\" with Allen J. Coombes (57) [2] 2530 Cobbett, William (48) [4] 56 Coca leaf (50) [2] 2627 Cocaine (50) [2] 26 Coccoloba uvifera (36) 10, 18 Cochineal insect (30) 134 Cochlearia officinalis (31) 231 Cochlospermum vitifolium (48) [2] 7 Cockchafer beetle (32) 179 Cockscomb (31) 228 Cockspur thorn (30) 170 Cocoa (50) [2] 32 Cocoxochitl (30) 129, 133 Codd, E. F. (49) [1] 45 C Cumulative Index Codman, Henry S. (49) [1] 54, 61; (51) [3] 7; (54) [2] 16; (59) [2] 1112; (60) [2] 41; [3] 5, 31 -- -- -- \"The Squares of Paris\" [1888] (60) [3] 9 Coe, Charles H., \"The Floating Gardens of Mexico\" [1895] (60) [3] 4446 Coevolution, in Thoreau's writings (53) [2] 24 Coffee substitute, Madagascar (32) 25 Coffee tree, Kentucky (54) [1] 7 Coffin, Marian (57) [1] 5, 10 Coggeshall, Roger (32) 51; (50) [2] 9 Cohort (49) [1] 16 Cohosh (31) 32; (34) 312, 313 Cohuanenepilli (30) 126 Coix lacryma-jobi (48) [2] 4 Coker Arboretum [NC] (53) [4] 21 Colaptes auratus (56) [3] 6 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste (54) [1] 17 Colchicine (31) 47, 54; (37) 203 Colchicum autumnale (31) 179; (34) 55 \"Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds,\" Alfred J. Fordham (31) 6466 \"Cold Hardiness of Woody Plants,\" John R. Havis (33) 113118 Cold-hardy plants (45) [4] 35 Cold-stratification treatment (49) [2] 25 Colden, Cadwallader (53) [1] 14; (55) [2] 19, 2123 Colden, Jane (53) [1] 14; (55) [2] 1926; (56) [4] 17; (60) [1] 2 Cole, Thomas (59) [4] 5, 6 Cole-flower (31) 204 Cole-wort (31) 204 Coles, William (31) 37 Coleus (32) 207 Collecting cart for specimens, and construction of (49) [1]23, 24 \"Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea,\" Stephen A. Spongberg and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 2831 \"Collecting Herbs in Madagascar,\" David Seligson (32) 2329 \"Collecting in the West,\" Robert Nicholson (42) [4] 135152 Collecting Plants Beyond the Frontier [Mary G. Henry] (60) [1] 8 \"Collecting Rare Conifers in North Africa,\" Robert G. Nicholson (46) [1] 2029 \"Collector's Notebook\" [column] (44) [1] 3233; [2] 2829; [3] 3435; (45) [1] 2527 College of Environmental Design [Berkeley, California] (49) [4] 22 Collins, James (44) [2] 5, 6 Collinson, Peter (31) 119; (32) 184; (39) 320, 321; (53) [1] 11, 13, 15; (55) [2] 19, 2122; (57) [3] 21; (60) [1] 27, 28 Collinsonia canadensis (39) 310 Collet, Lady (47) [4] 15 Collet, Sir Mark (47) [4] 15 Colocasia esculenta (47) [2] 27 Cologne, Germany, plan of (57) [2] 4 Colombia (47) [3] 16 Colona sinica (48) [2] 7 COLONIAL GARDENS (31) [4] 145255 \"Colonial Gardens,\" Rudy J. Favretti (31) 145171 Colonial garden plants, at historic houses in New England (31) 166 -- -- -- old names for (31) 172249 \"Colonial Garden Plants,\" Rudy J. Favretti and Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (31) 172249 Colonial revival style (57) [1] 2, 5 Color charts (30) 83 Color in the Sky, Flowering Trees in Our Landscape, Edwin A. Menninger [review of] (36) 177 Colorado (47) [4] 19; (48) [1] 23 Colorado potato beetle (38) 40 Coltsfoot, little (46) [3] 26 Columbia University (48) [2] 22 -- -- School of Architecture (47) [4] 10 Columbian Exposition [Chicago] (60) [3] 8, 11 Columbine (31) 28, 179, 228; (34) 283, 284; (53) [1] 10 -- Colorado (34) 284 -- fan (34) 285 -- feathered (31) 190 -- golden (34) 284 Columbus Avenue [Boston] (48) [4] 34 Columbus, Christopher (50) [2] 22, 24; (52) [2] 1128 Columella (56) [1] 7 15 C 16 Arnoldia, 19702000 Colutea arborescens (37) 223; (44) [4] 41 -- x media (44) [4] 4142 -- orientalis (37) 224; (44) [4] 41 Combretum olivaeforme (48) [2] 7 Comegys, Harriet (59) [3] 35, 7, 8, 12, 13 Comenius, John Amos (58) [3] 19 Comfrey (31) 200; (39) 247, 268 Commelina communis (34) 182 Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion [Washington, DC] (47) [4] 11 Commissioner of Patents [US] (31) 1, 5 Commissioner's Report on Agriculture for the year 1859 [US] (31) 12, 13 Committee on Bowlders and Erratic Rocks [Lynn Woods] (48) [4] 43 \"Common Pines of Massachusetts,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (35) 197228 Commonwealth Avenue [Boston] (48) [3] 42, 48, front cover, [4] 1725, 24, 3233 Commonwealth Avenue Mall [Boston] (48) [4] 33 Community service (33) 311; (34) 388 -- \"Tree Giveaway,\" Nancy M. Page (33) 210212, 211 Compleat Naturalist, Wilfrid Blunt [review of] (33) 300301 Complete Book of Everlastings, Mark and Terry Silber [review of] (49) [3] 44 Complete Book of Flower Preservation, Geneal Condon [review of] (33) 299 Complete Book of Terrarium Gardening, Charles M. Fitch [review of] (34) 439 Complete Flower Arranger, Amalie Adler Ascher [review of] (35) 238 Complete Garden, Arnold Leggett and Pat Falge [review of] (37) 252 Complete Handbook of Plant Propagation, R. C. M. Wright [review of] (37) 134 Complete Handbook of Pruning, Roger Grounds [review of] (36) 66 Compositae (48) [2] 31; (51) [2] 2331 Compost Gardening, W. E. Sherwell-Cooper [review of] (38) 239 Compression wood (53) [1] 27 Compton, Henry (32) 179; (39) 319 Comptonia (32) 180; (49) [3] 40 -- peregrina (31) 238; (35) 116; (52) [4] 29; (55) [3] 13, 18; [4] 26, 27, 28, 29; (56) [3] 211, 5, 7, 8, 10 Computer, botanical applications (33) 311, 2636 Computer-based plant records systems (49) [1] 43 Computerized mapping system (49) [1] 6163 Comstock, Anna (58) [3] 20, 24 Concord Area Trees, Ray Angelo [review of] (38) 33 Concord, MA (56) [3] 3, 5, 10; [4] 24 Coneflower, purple (34) 329, 330; (35) 3334; (51) [1] 16 -- Tennessee (46) [3] 7, 34; (47) [2] 20, 23 Conguillio National Park [Chile] (59) [2] 33 Conifer (30) 27; (39) 273275; (43) [1] 35; (58) [3] 3, 89; (59) [1] 3334, 63; [2] 31 -- collection at Arnold Arboretum (31) 342; (33) 318; (49) [1] 16, 17; (50) [2] 2; (53) [3] 18 -- dwarf cvs. (49) [3] 12; (59) [4] 12 -- northern (58) [2] 4 -- northwestern (58) [3] 210 -- pollination of (50) [2] 2, 3 -- rare (59) [2] 2634 -- regeneration in (59) [3] 14 Coniferae, leaf attachments of (48) [1] 7 Conifers for Your Garden, Adrian Bloom [review of] (36) 127 Coniothalamus chinensis (48) [2] 6 Conium maculatum (34) 56; (45) [1] 28 Connarus opacus (32) 212 -- sprucei (32) 212 Connecticut (48) [1] 18; (59) [4] 29 -- hemlocks in (58) [2] 4244 Connecticut College Arboretum (56) [3] 9 Connelly, Patrick J. (48) [3] 28 Connor, Sheila [see also Geary] (49) [1] 58, 73; [2] 3 -- -- \"The Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park Partnership\" (48) [4] 2628 -- -- \"Mystical, Medicinal Witch Hazel\" (55) [3] 2021 -- -- \"The Flying Dogwood Shuttle\" (52) [4] 1722 Conocarpus erectus (36) 12, 18 Conocybe (32) 205 Conomorpha lithophyta (32) 213 -- magnolifolia (32) 213 Conospermum [Australia] (58) [1] 20 C Cumulative Index 17 Conrad, Kevin, \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" with other contributors (55) [1] 1220, 13, 16 Conradi Gesneri Historia Plantarum, H. Zoller, K. Steinmann, and K. Schmidt, eds. [review of reprint] (34) 437 Conradina (46) [3] 23, 24 -- propagation of (46) [3] 24 -- verticillata (46) [3] 2325 Conservancy Society of Hong Kong (30) 18 Conservation, of Himalayan spp. (50) [1] 5 -- in Hong Kong (30) 18 -- of spp. (33) 82 -- of trees (54) [3] 15 Conservation of Germplasm Resources [1978 report] (46) [3] 11 \"Conservation of Plant Lore in the Amazon Basin,\" Richard Evans Schultes (46) [4] 5259 \"Considering Cotinus,\" Kim E. Tripp (54) [2] 2030 Constable, John (32) 183 \"Constant Nymph, Updated,\" George H. Pride (35) 124127 Container Gardening Outdoors, George Taloumis [review of] (36) 66 Container planting (33) 115, 261283; (37) 234, 238, 242, 245, 246, 247 -- -- Minnesota system (44) [2] 26, 27 Contributions from the Arnold Arboretum (32) 52 Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the Science Society of China [periodical] (48) [2] 15 Controlled atmosphere storage, of fruit (32) 131 Convallaria (43) [2] 37 -- majalis (31) 188; (34) 57, 316; (39) 254; (43) [1] 41 -- -- var. keiskei (38) 87 \"Convenience of Arabidopsis,\" Elizabeth A. Kellogg (52) [4] 1216 Convolvulaceae (52) [2] 23, 24 Convolvulus (31) 176 Convolvulus arvensis (34) 152 Conyza canadensis (34) 208 Cook, James (57) [4] 19 Cook, Robert E. (46) [3] 12; (48) [4] 2, 3; (60) [2] 3 -- -- -- \"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small?\" (53) [1] 1923; -- -- -- \"The Asian Connection\" (53) [4] 2630 Cooley, George R. (32) 270 [Coolidge], Charles (60) [2] 41 Coolidge, Joseph (47) [4] 31 Coombes, Allen J., \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak,\" with W. Nigel Coates (57) [2] 2530 Cooper, A. S. (33) 15 Cooper, William S. (59) [1] 48, 49, 52 -- -- -- \"An Ecological Reconnaissance in the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" with Kwei-ling Chu [excerpt, 1950] (59) [1] 4046 Cooper-Driver, Gillian A., \"Welwitschia mirabilis--A Dream Come True\" (54) [2] 210 Cooperating Nurseryman's Program (32) 51 Copeland and Cleveland [firm] (48) [4] 23 Copeland, E. B. (58) [1] 12 Copeland, Robert Morris (53) [4] 6, 8; (54) [3] 17 Copenhagen [Denmark] (48) [2] 18 Copley Plaza [Boston] (54) [3] 27 Copley Square [Boston] (48) [3] 1314 -- -- restoration of (48) [3] 13 Coptis (55) [2] 24 Coral bells (31) 79; (34) 359 Coralberry (31) 236; (35) 235, 236 -- Chenault (30) 173 -- Hancock (44) [4] 2526 Corchorus japonicus (35) 160, 161 Coreopsis, thread-leaf (31) 33 Coreopsis (31) 33, 228; (34) 316 -- auriculata (34) 317 -- grandiflora (31) 33 -- lanceolata (31) 33, 228; (34) 317 -- tripteris (31) 34 -- verticillata (31) 33; (34) 317 -- -- `Golden Shower' (31) 33 Corey, E. J. (51) [2] 11 Coriander (31) 200 Coriandrum sativum (31) 200 C 18 Arnoldia, 19702000 Coriaria thymifolia (32) 211 Cornish Colony [NH] (59) [4] 2628, 32 Cork tree (32) 66; (36) 2, 19; (55) [3] 2324 -- Amur (30) 162, 171; (39) 157, 158; (43) [1] 43; (44) [4] 19; (48) [3] 29 ; (55) [3] 22 -- Japanese (30) 166 -- Lavalle (30) 163 \"Cork Trees,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (30) 162166 Corn (31) 205; (39) 313; (52) [2] 26 -- centaury (31) 179 -- flag (or corne flagges) (31) 184, 206 Cornflower (31) 179 -- perennial (34) 305 Cornel (31) 215; (36) 52 -- white (31) 236 \"Cornelian Cherries,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (36) 5056 Cornelian cherry (31) 41, 215; (39) 100, 101; (44) [4]; 15, 1718; (56) [1] 27, 4, 5; [2] 25 -- -- bonsai (32) 246 -- -- cvs. (56) [1] 5 -- -- cultivation (56) [1] 6 -- -- harvest and use (56) [1] 6 -- -- propagation (56) [1] 6 \"Cornelian Cherry: From the Shores of Ancient Greece,\" Lee Reich (56) [1] 27 Cornell University [Ithaca, NY] (48) [2] 11; (60) [3] 30 Cornell University Plantations (46) [3] 12, 13; (48) [4] 3 Cornels (60) [2] 17 Cornish [NH] (54) [1] 28 Cornus (32) 71; (36) 50, 52; (44) [1] 22; (45) [2] 25; [4] 23; (49) [4] 35; (55) [3] 18 -- subgroups and their evolutionary relationships (45) [4] 4; (60) [4] 26 -- alba (31) 236; (43) [1] 8, 10 -- -- var. kesselringii (43) [1] 10 -- -- var. sibirica (32) 278; (36) 29; (43) [1] 10 -- alternifolia (39) 177, 178, 223 -- amomum (31) 215; (38) 51, 52 -- x arnoldiana (38) 50, 52 -- asperifolia (38) 52 -- baileyi (32) 278 -- bretschneideri (38) 52 -- canadensis (45) [1] 1922, inside front cover, 19, 20, 21; [4] 3, 25, 27, back cover; (58) [3] inside back cover -- -- relay buds of (45) [1] 20, 21 -- -- rhizomes of (45) [1] 19 -- -- seeds of, germination of (45) [1] 20 -- capitata (45) [4] front-cover foldout, 3, 4 -- -- fruit of (45) [4] 5 -- chinensis (36) 56 -- controversa (38) 93; (39) 178, 179, 225; (55) [1] 15 -- disciflora (45) [4] 3 -- dubia (38) 51 -- dunbarii (38) 51, 52, 53 -- florida (30) 169, 170; (31) 215; (32) 71, 87; (33) 336; (36) 50; (38) 157; (43) [1] 3; [3] 33; (44) [4] 15, 17, 18, 40; (45) [1] 1922, 21; [4] front cover, 3, 6; (47) [2] 27; (48) [4] 18; (50) [2] 10, 11, 1420, inside back cover; [3] 5, 6; (52) [4] 1722, 18, 21, 29; (53) [3] front cover; (55) [2] 28; (56) [2] 16 -- -- `Rainbow' (33) 201 -- -- `Welchii' (33) 202 -- x horseyi (38) 52 -- kousa (32) 72, 88; (36) 50; (39) 98, 99, 223; (43) [1] 3, 11; [3] 33; (44) [4] 40; (45) [4] front cover, 3; (50) [2] 1, 819, 10, 11, 12, 13, inside back cover; [3] 5, 6; (52) [4] 29; (55) [1] 9, 14, 15; [2] 28 -- -- fruit of (45) [4] 7 -- -- var. chinensis, 101 -- -- `Gold Star' (43) [4] 6, 7 -- -- `Snow Boy' (43) [4] 6, cover 4 -- -- `Steeple' (32) 277 -- -- `Summer Stars' (33) 202 -- macrophylla (38) 52, 54; (39) 179, 225; (44) [4] 40 -- mas (31) 41, 215; (32) 39; (36) 50, 51, 53, 54, 55; (39) 100, 101, 223; (44) [4] 15, 1718, 18; (45) [4] 4; (56) [1] 27; [2] 25 -- -- cvs. (36) 54 -- -- `Flava' (36) 53; (56) [1] 4, 5, 6 -- nuttallii (33) 91; (42) [4] 147151, 147, 150; (43) [3] 3233; (45) [4] 2, 3; (50) [2] 15, 19; (52) [4] 29 C Cumulative Index -- obliqua (38) 50 -- officinalis (36) 50, 51, 53, 54, 55; (39) 101, 223 -- paucinervis (38) 51 -- racemosa (38) 50; (45) [2] 24, 26; (55) [3] 56 -- rugosa (38) 51 -- sanguinea (56) [1] 6 -- sericea (30) 26; (36) 29; (43) [1] 8, 10; (44) [4] 40; (45) [2] 19, 25, 26; (56) [2] 24 -- -- `Flaviramea' (30) 26; (36) 29; (43) [1] 10 -- -- `Kelseyi' (35) 235, 237 -- -- `Nitida' (36) 29 -- sessilis (36) 56 -- x slavinii (38) 51 -- stolonifera (31) 215; (32) 41, 278; (38) 51; (60) [1] 7 -- -- `Cheyenne' (32) 277 -- -- coloradensis (32) 277 -- -- `Isanti' (30) 253 -- ulotricha (36) 189 Coronilla (31) 18 Coronilla emerus (31) 237 -- varia (44) [3] 14; (57) [3] 9 -- -- `Penngift' (30) 158 \"Correspondence. Madison Square Again\" [1896], H. A. Caparn (60) [3] 19 \"Correspondence. The Plans of Madison Square\" [1896], S. A. (60) [3] 1719 Corsican mint (37) 105 Cortaderia (54) [3] 3, 8 -- argentea (35) 62 -- jubata (54) [3] 8; (58) [1] 5 -- selloana (35) 62 Cortes, Herman (30) 123, 125 Cortisone (32) 201 Cortusi, Giacomo (31) 116 Corydalis bulbosa (37) 93, 94 -- cashmeriana (45) [4] 30 -- densiflora (37) 93 -- lutea (52) [2] 39, 41 -- sempervirens (37) 93 -- solida var. transylvanica (45) [4] 30 Corylopsis (36) 7376, 107; (49) [4] 34 -- glabrescens (36) 70; (60) [4] 12 -- gotoana (36) 75 -- pauciflora (36) 70, 75, 77 -- platypetala (36) 70, 75 -- sinensis (36) 75 -- spicata (36) 70, 76, 77; (60) [4] 12 -- veitchiana (36) 70, 76, 77 Corylus (37) 118120 -- americana (45) [4] 24 -- avellana (31) 223; (37) 118, 119; (53) [2] 13, 14 -- -- `Contorta' (37) 120; (55) [4] 3233 -- -- var. contorta (43) [1] 11 -- -- `Pendula' (37) 120 -- colurna (39) 180, 181, 225; (44) [4] 4041; (53) [2] 13 -- heterophylla (47) [2] 7 -- maxima (53) [2] 13; (55) [3] 18 -- sieboldiana (47) [3] 40 -- tibetica (44) [3] 19 Cosmos (47) [3] 19 -- spp. (47) [3] 18 -- sulphureus (47) [3] 13 Costmary (31) 200 Cotinus (32) 91, 97; (44) [2] 17; (55) [3] 18 -- coggyria (31) 220; (35) 93; (38) 104, 105; (44) [2] 17, 20, 22; (45) [2] 26; (51) [4] 55; (54) [2] 20, 2130, 23 -- -- `Velvet Cloak' (44) [2] 22 -- nana (54) [2] 26 -- obovatus (30) 171; (35) 93; (38) 104; (44) [2] 1722, 18, 20; (51) [4] 5558; (54) [2] 2122, 27, 28, 29 -- -- bark (44) [2] inside back cover -- -- leaves (44) [2] front cover 19 C 20 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- trunk (44) [2] back cover -- szechuanensis (54) [2] 27 -- -- propagation of (54) [2] 2728 Cotoneaster, small-leaved (56) [2] 25 Cotoneaster (30) 172; (31) 314; (43) [1] 5; (44) [2] 30; (45) [2] 19, 20; (54) [2] 15; (48) [2] 34 -- divaricatus (55) [2] 30 -- `Firebird' (43) [1] cover -- horizontalis (35) 231, 232; (54) [2] 14 -- microphylla (35) 231, 232; (56) [2] 24 -- -- var. thymifolia (35) 232 -- microphyllus (43) [1] 5 Cotton (31) 231; (52) [2] 26 Cottonwood (56) [2] 22 -- eastern (31) 243; (32) 81 Cottonwood Vista, Gwinn [OH] (56) [1] inside back cover Cotyledonary node (59) [3] 1516, 20; [4] 10, 13 Cotylelobium malayan (60) [4] 6 Cough remedy [Madagascar] (32) 25 Coulston, Mary B. (60) [2] 41 Council on the Arts and Humanities of Massachusetts (32) 265 Country Garden, Josephine Nuese [review of] (33) 305 Country Seats of the United States [Birch] (49) [2] 23 Cours de la Reine [Paris] (57) [2] 5, 7 Covent Garden Marketplace [London] (47) [4] 32 Coventry bells (31) 178 Cowan, Richard S., \"The Herbarium As a Data Bank\" (33) 312 Cowania, endangered spp. of (46) [3] 8 Cowberry (31) 236 -- mountain (35) 233 Cowslip (31) 168, 172, 192 Cowslips of Jerusalem (31) 188 Cox, E. H. M. (44) [3] 25 Cox, Paul Alan (56) [2] 3839; (58) [1] 22, 26 Cox, Paul C. (39) 355 Cox, Reginald (49) [1] 13 Crab Apples for America [1943] (30) 84 Crabapple (30) 84, 94, 171; (31) 237, 246; (38) 157; (43) [1] 41; (55) [4] 13, 3435; (57) [1] 24, 31 -- Asian (43) [1] 44 -- carmine (39) 118 -- flowering (53) [3] back cover -- -- Japanese (39) 119 -- Parkman (33) 174 -- Sargent (39) 119 -- Siberian (44) [4] 19 -- -- columnar (39) 118 -- tea (39) 119 -- Tschonoskii (39) 119 -- wild sweet (31) 237 Crabgrass (34) 218, 219 Cragg, Gordon (58) [1] 20 Cramer, P. J. S. (44) [2] 10, 11, 11, 13 \"Cranberries: The Last One Hundred Years,\" Chester E. Cross (33) 284291 Cranberry (31) 236, 246; (33) 284, 289 -- bog (33) 289 -- European (30) 173 -- mountain (35) 233 Cranberrybush, American (30) 173 -- European (35) 233; (53) [2] 18 Cranesbill (31) 75, 183; (34) 97124, 343, 345 -- Iberian (34) 344 -- lilac (34) 344 -- long-rooted (31) 183 -- tuberous-rooted (31) 183 Crapemyrtle (36) 19; (43) [1] 3 -- common (31) 237 Crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM) (54) [2] 6 x Crataegosorbus miczurinii (46) [1] 35; (57) [1] 26 C Cumulative Index Crataegus (32) 9, 73, 81, 84; (55) [3] 17; (56) [2] 24 -- collection at Arnold Arboretum, maintenance and removal (30) 84 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- berberifolia (46) [3] 22 -- brachyacantha (43) [1] 5 -- crus-galli (30) 170; (31) 238; (38) 157; (39) 102, 103, 149, 223; (44) [4] 18; (50) [1] 20; (56) [2] 24; (57) [1] 24 -- foetida (45) [4] 25 -- -- var. inermis (44) [4] 18 -- laevigata (53) [2] 14; (55) [3] 14 -- -- `Crimson Cloud' (39) 181 -- -- `Paulii' (39) 149, 223 -- -- `Superba' (39) 181, 223 -- x lavallei (30) 170; (39) 150, 223; (43) [1] 5 -- marshallii (43) [1] 7 -- meyeri (44) [3] 11, 24 -- microphyllus (43) [1] 5 -- monogyna (30) 170; (31) 223; (42) [1] 17 (misprinted as C. monogylnia) -- nitida (30) 169, 170 -- oxycantha (30) 170; (31) 238; (53) [2] 13 -- oxycanthoides (31) 223 -- phaenopyrum (30) 169; (31) 238; (38) 157; (39) 103, 104, 149, 223; (44) [4] 18 -- pinnatifida (44) [3] 9 -- punctata (31) 244; (55) [3] 13 -- --'Ohio Pioneer' (39) 149, 181, 224 -- spathulata (43) [1] 6, 7 -- viridis `Winter King' (39) 104, 105, 149, 224; (43) [1] 5 Craul, Philip J., \"Urban Soil: Problems and Promise\" (51) [1] 2332 Creech, John L. (33) 25; (44) [3] 24, 36; (47) [2] 31, 33; (49) [3] 36; (54) [3] 4; (56) [3] 21, 25 -- -- -- \"Ornamental Plant Introduction: Building on the Past\" (33) 1325 Creeping Charley (31) 228 -- Jenny (31) 131, 228; (35) 6 -- snowberry (45) [4] 24 Cremastra (41) 137138 -- variabilis (41) 137 Crescentia cujete (52) [2] 25 Cress (31) 200 -- garden (31) 231; (57) [3] 29, 30, 31, 32 -- winter (34) 191 Creve Coeur, Jean Hector Saint-Jean de (48) [4] 52, 53, 55, 56 Cribier, Pascal (54) [1] 15 Crichton-Harris, Ann, \"Lowbush Blueberries: Out of the Barrens and into the Garden\" (49) [3] 3840 Crinum asiaticum (48) [2] 3 Critical daylength, relationship to plant hardiness (54) [3] 26 Crocker, Uriah (53) [4] 8 Crocus, autumn (34) 55 Crocus (37) [3] front cover -- chrysanthus & cvs. (37) 94, 95; (45) [4] 30 -- purpureus (31) 180 -- sativus (31) 201 -- tomasinianus (37) 95 -- vernus (31) 180 Croizat, Leon (49) [1] 61 Cronartium comptoniae (56) [3] 9 Cronk, Gertrude (39) 352 Crook, A. H. (30) 22 Croomia (36) 60 Crop protection (30) 44 Crosby, Irving B., \"The Making of Boston Harbor\" (48) [3] 24 Cross, Chester E., \"Cranberries: The Last One Hundred Years\" (33) 284291 Cross, Jim (51) [2] 18 Cross-pollination (36) 131; (49) [3] 39 Cross vine (31) 237 Crossdating (56) [4] 4 Crotalaria spp. (37) 223 Crow Castle [Japan] (47) [2] 13, 13 Crowfoot (31) 192 -- aconite-leaved (31) 193 21 C 22 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- bulbous (31) 193 -- grassy (31) 193 Crown dieback (56) [4] 4 -- gall (38) 49 Crown-flower (37) 229 Crown imperial (31) 180; (53) [1] 11 Crown-of-thorns (34) 65 Crownvetch (57) [3] 9 Cruso, Thalassa (32) 266, 267 -- -- Making Things Grow [reviewed] (30) 28, 29 Cryphonectria parasitica (52) [2] 3, 69 Cryptodiaporthe canker (54) [1] 29 Cryptogam, lower (33) 160161 Cryptogamic botanists (33) 158, 160 -- botany (33) 158, 160 -- plants (33) 157 Cryptomeria (32) 241; (37) 50, 115 -- japonica (31) 18, 285, 292; (38) 29; (44) [3] 15, 20; (47) [2] 12; (49) [3] 18, 37; (60) [2] 30, 31, 32; [4] 28 -- -- `Elegans' (43) [1] 12 -- -- var. fortunei (50) [4] 16, 20, 21 -- -- `Yoshino' (52) [3] 11 -- paniculata (48) [2] 7 -- sinensis (52) [4] 4, 10 Csapody, Vera (50) [3] 21, 22 Cuba (47) [3] 12 -- Harvard botanic garden at Cienfuegos (51) [3] front cover, 2232, 2326, 29, 30 Cuban National Exposition (51) [3] 28 Cucumber (or cowcumber) (31) 205 -- tree (32) 90; (36) 143; (54) [1] 8; (57) [4] 22 -- --large-leafed (57) [4] inside back cover Cucumis -- hystrix (48) [2] 7 -- melo (31) 208 -- sativus (31) 205 Cucurbita (52) [2] 25 -- lagenaria (31) 206 -- maxima (50) [4] 5, 13 -- pepo (31) 210 -- -- var. melopepa (31) 212 Cudweed (31) 196 Cuevas, Angel Salas, drawing by (57) [4] 8 Culebra-borrachero (32) 209 Cullen, James (49) [1] 47 Cultivar (39) 370376 -- identification of (49) [1] 19, 20, 27, 39 -- names (36) 132 -- nongenetic (59) [4] 12 \"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens,\" Barry R. Yinger and Carl R. Hahn (43) [4] 319 \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities,\" Susan Storer (47) [2] 1619 Cumulative temperatures, relationship to plant hardiness (54) [3] 27 Cunningham, Isabel Shipley, \"Frank Meyer, Agricultural Explorer\" (44) [3] 226 Cunninghamia (37) 50, 51; (59) [1] 35, 36, 44, 54, 56, 57 -- lanceolata (36) 224; (44) [3] 20; (48) [2] 26; (55) [1] back cover; (59) [1] 43, 45, 50 Cuphea hyssopifolia (36) 11, 18 Cupid's dart (34) 304 Cupressaceae (50) [2] 2, 3, 4; (59) [1] 6, 5457, 63 x Cupressocyparis (37) 52 Cupressus (37) 51, 52; (48) [2] 34 -- arizonica (39) 272, 274, 275 -- funebris (39) 275 -- lusitanica var. benthamii (39) 274, 275 -- macrocarpa (47) [2] 15 -- sempervirens (49) [4] 35; (54) [1] 28 -- -- var. sempervirens (42) [1] 5 Curare (32) 201, 212; (50) [2] 2426, 25 CURATING THE LIVING COLLECTIONS (49) [1] 275 Currant (31) 222 C Cumulative Index 23 -- European black (31) 246 -- Missouri (56) [2] 25 Curtis, George Carroll (53) [4] 1415 Curtis, John (53) [1] 15 Curtis, Will C. (47) [2] 16 Curtis, William (53) [1] 16 Curtis primrose (31) 180 Curtis's Botanical Magazine (39) 11, 53, 61; (46) [1] 5; (49) [4] 38; (53) [1] 11, 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 Cuscuta (33) 43, 58 -- subinclusa (49) [2] 11 Cushing, Elizabeth Hope, \"So Near the Metropolis: Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting\" (48) [4] 3751 Custis, Colonel (31) 119 -- John (39) 321; (53) [1] 11 Cuticle studies (59) [1] 6668 Cutler, Manasseh (Rev. ) (49) [2] 17, 18 -- -- \"Account\" (48) [4] 55 Cuttings, as propagation technique (37) 2130, 22, 24, 25, 28 -- rooting (33) 120123 -- softwood (32) 160 -- structures for (37) 2729 Cyanophoric glucosides (49) [4] 14 Cyathea species (43) [4] 25 Cyathocalyx yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Cycas pictinata (48) [2] 2, 4, 6 -- revoluta (32) 243; (59) [3] 10, 12 -- -- bonsai (32) 243 -- siamensis (48) [2] 6 Cyclamen cherry (60) [4] 12 -- Italian (54) [1] 28 -- -- columnar (42) [1] 5 Cyclobalanopsis rex (48) [2] 7 Cyclocarya paliurus (52) [4] 4 Cyclopedia of American Horticulture [Bailey] (49) [1] 17 Cydonia oblonga (31) 226; (55) [3] 17 -- sinensis (43) [1] 11 Cymbidium (37) 187; (41) 138 -- goeringii (37) 187, 196; (41) 138, 139 Cynara cardunculus (54) [3] 9 -- scolymus (31) 203 Cynodon dactylon (32) 27 Cynoxylon (45) [4] 3 Cyperaceae (34) 222, 223 Cyphomandra betacea (50) [4] 14 Cypress (37) 51, 52; (60) [3] 4 -- bald (31) 237; (49) [4] 13, 14; (56) [4] inside back cover, 6, 7; (59) [1] 34, 54; (60) [2] 1417; [4] 1924, 25 -- -- roots (60) [2] 15; [4] 19, 20, 2124 -- -- -- looping (60) [4] 23, 24 -- deciduous (31) 237 -- dome (60) [4] 24 -- funeral (31) 18 -- hinoki (43) [1] 17; (44) [1] 27; (49) [3] 3, 9, 12, 15, 18; (50) [3] 9; (53) [1] 19 -- -- compact (49) [3] 18, 25, 26, 27, 30, 31 -- -- false (31) 298; (43) [1] 16, 17 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as hemlock; see page 16 for the correct caption.] -- Japanese (52) [3] inside back cover -- knees (60) [2] 1417; [4] 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 -- Lawson (52) [4] 24 -- -- range of (52) [4] 25 -- Leyland (37) 52 -- pine (37) 44, 45 -- pond (32) 283, 284; (56) [4] 4; pond (60) [4] 19, 22 -- sawara (44) [4] 38, 40; (49) [3] 11; (50) [3] 2, 7 -- swamp (60) [4] 19 Cypress Hill Cemetery [Philadelphia] (54) [2] 16 \"Cypress Knees: An Enduring Enigma,\" Christopher H. Briand (60) [4] 1925 Cypripedium (37) 182186; (41) 140143; (47) [2] 22, 23 -- acaule (37) 185; (56) [1] inside front cover, 8, 9, 1013 C 24 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- arientinum (37) 185 -- calceolus (37) 182; (47) [2] 21, 22 -- -- var. parviflorum (37) 182 -- -- var. pubescens (37) 182, 183; (44) [1] 32 -- californicum (46) [3] 9 -- candidum (37) 185 -- cordigerum (37) 186 -- debile (41) 140, 141 -- japonicum (37) 184, 186; (41) [3] inside back cover. 142 -- macranthum (37) 186 -- montanum (37) 185, 188 -- plectrochilon (37) 185 -- tibeticum (36) 207; (46) [4] 30, back cover Cyrilla, swamp (31) 237 Cyrilla racemiflora (31) 237; (55) [3] 18 Cystopteris bulbifera f. crispa (55) [1] 6 Cytisus, Spanish (31) 215 Cytisus (31) 310; (36) 30 -- x praecox (30) 86; (36) 30 -- scoparius (31) 233; (33) 99, 101; (36) 30, 31; (45) [2] 19; (60) [1] 18 Cytokinin (44) [3] 31; (45) [2] 2831, 3334 -- structure of (45) [2] 29 Cytology (33) 135146 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - D","article_sequence":4,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25323","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060bb6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"D Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 2, 4-D (2, 4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) (45) [2] 29 Dacrydium (37) 52, 53 -- zanthandrum (55) [3] 13 Daffadown dillies (31) 172, 180 Daffodil (31) 172, 180 (34) 72 -- checkered (31) 178 -- common (31) 181 -- fall (31) 228 -- pale (31) 180 -- rush-leaved (31) 180 -- wild (31) 181 Dahlen, Martha, \"Willow Oak (Quercus phellos) A Fenway Jewel\" (33) 292294 Dahlia (47) [3] 18, 19 \"Dahlia: An Early History,\" Paul D. Sorenson (30) 121138 Dai minority [China] (48) [2] 2, 5 Dacrydium zanthandrum (55) [3] 13 Daisetsuzan National Park [Japan] (47) [2] 46, 5 \"Daisies of Autumn,\" Judy Glattstein (51) [2] 2331 Daisy (31) 181 -- English (31) 182 -- fleabane (34) 165 -- garden (31) 181 -- gloriosa (33) 39 -- great (31) 181 -- michaelmas (34) 292; (44) [2] 28 -- -- cvs. (51) [2] 23, 25 -- orange (34) 336 -- ox-eye (31) 173; (34) 163 -- painted (31) 32; (34) 310 -- perennial (31) 181 -- shasta (31) 32; (34) 311 Dalbergia fusca (48) [2] 7 -- -- var. enneandra (48) [2] 4 Dali [China] (46) [4] 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 33 -- autonomous region (46) [4] 23, 24 Dali seki (46) [4] 32 -- shi (46) [4] 28, 32 Dall, Curtis B. (47) [4] 11 Dall, Mr. (47) [4] 11 Dall, William Healy (47) [4] 11 Dalton, Charles (48) [4] 33; (53) [4] 11 Dalton, Patricia, and Alejandro Novelo R., \"Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Arnold Arboretum\" (43) [2] 744 Dame, L. L., and Henry Brooks, \"The American Elm\" (42) [2] 4959 Dame's-rocket (39) 256 Dames-violet (31) 193 Damping-off disease (33) 119; (47) [4] 7 Dana, Richard Henry (53) [4] 11 Dandelion (31) 168, 205; (34) 199 Dandy, James E. (52) [1] 18 Danesblood (34) 302 Daniels, Alanson 957) [1] 56 Daniels, Gilbert S. (33) 35 -- -- -- \"The Botanist and the Computer\" (33) 2636 Daphne (57) [1] 10 -- Mezereon (56) [2] 25 Daphne (55) [1] 9; [3] 18 -- alpina (55) [1] 3 -- altaica (44) [3] 13 -- arbuscula (55) [1] 6 -- blagayana (37) 105 -- burkwoodii `Carol Mackie' (30) 253; (52) [3] 13 D 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- cneorum (34) 58; (37) 104; (56) [2] 25 -- -- `Eximia' (55) [1] 3 -- mezereum (31) 218; (34) 58; (37) 117, 118; (45) [4] 26; (56) [2] 25 -- -- cvs. (37) 118 -- -- f. alba (37) 117 -- odora `Ringmaster' (45) [2] 14, 15 -- tangutica (44) [3] 19 -- -- `Zuiko Nishiki' (45) [2] 14, 15 Daphniphyllum macropodum var. humile (38) 30 DAPII fluorescence test (49) [2] 8, 11 Darke, Rick, \"A Century of Grasses\" (54) [3] 211 -- -- photo by, (54) [3] cover Darrow, George (30) 19 Darthuizer Nursery [Leersum, Holland] (46) [4] 12 Dartington Hall [England] (52) [1] 10 Dartmouth Street [Boston] (48) [4] 23, 33 Darwin, Charles (50) [1] 31; (52) [4] 13, 16; (53) [3] 15, 17; (58) [1] 210; (59) [2] 28; (3) 25 -- -- theory of evolution (50) [3] 5 Darwin, Erasmus (53) [3] 13; (56) [4] 18 Dashujiao Reserve [China] (48) [2] 5 Database management software (DBMS) (49) [1] 45 -- design, relational (49) [1] 46 Data-control systems (33) 312, 2636 Date plum (39) 300, 301, 302 Dathe, Michael, \"Acer saccharum `Newton Sentry': Setting the Record Straight\" (43) [3] 2931 Datura (31) 181; (32) 205; (34) 59 -- candida (32) 209 -- inoxia (41) 112, 113 -- sanguinea (47) [3] 15 -- stramonium (31) 196; (34) 59 Daucus carota (31) 204; (34) 153 Davenport, Charles (53) [4] 8 David, Abbe Armand (Pere David) (32) 103; (46) [4] 16 Davidia (36) 190 -- involucrata (32) [3] front cover, 103; (33) 331; (40) 103, 104, 108, 110; (43) [1] 33; [4] 28, 30; (46) [4] 41 -- -- var. vilmoriniana (49) [1] 38, 39 Davies, Alice, Peter Shaw Ashton, and Seymour Slive, \"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees\" (42) [1] 231 Davis, Wade, \"In the Shadow of Red Cedar\" (58) [3] 210 Dawn redwood (32) 55; (36) 117; (37) 59, 60; (44) [4] 53; (53) [2] front cover; (57) [1] 31; (59) [1] 484 Dawson, Jackson Thornton (32) 4, 51; (40) 5175, 50, 51, 69, 73; (44) [3] 15, 21; (49) [1] 14, 54, 55; (51) [3] 8, 9; (52) [1] 20 Dayflower (34) 182 Daylength, critical, relationship to plant hardiness (54) [3] 26 Daylily (31) 78, 173, 181; (34) 355; (37) 199209; (39) 41, 256 -- buds (37) 200 -- orange (31) 181 -- yellow (31) 181 DDT (31) 355 Deacclimation (45) [4] 36 Dead nettle (31) 181; (39) 257 -- -- purple (31) 181 -- -- red (31) 181 Deadly nightshade (34) 87 Debreczy, Zsolt [see Racz] (50) [3] 2123 -- -- \"Arnold Arboretum in Winter: A Photo Essay,\" with Istvan Racz (50) [1] 2429 -- -- \"El Arbol del Tule: A Giant Cypress Among the Cattails,\" with Istvan Racz (57) [4] 211 Decaisnea fargesii (52) [1] 11; (55) [1] 15; 18 \"Decline of the Apple,\" Fred Lape (33) 217227 Decodon (43) [2] 3 -- verticillatus (43) [2] 2122 Deer Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 31 Deer park, English (32) 174, 180 -- -- -- woodlands of in 16th and 17th centuries (32) 176 Deering, Charles (49) [4] 32 Defoliants (45) [2] 3132 -- in tropical jungles (32) 53 Deforestation (58) [2] 1117, 3740; (59) [2] 34 Degen, A. von (31) 50 D Cumulative Index 3 Dehardening (45) [4] 36 De Vries, Hugo (44) [3] 3, 4, 9, 14 Del Rosso, John (56) [1] 23; (57) [1] 23 Del Tredici, Peter (39) 346; (46) [4] 5, 10; (47) [3] 39; (49) [1] 73; (50) [1] 36 -- -- -- book reviews (44) [4] 55; (53) [2] 2429; (54) [3] 36; (57) [1] 21 -- -- -- \"Aging and Rejuvenation in Trees\" (59) [4] 1016 -- -- -- \"Bulldozers and Bacteria: The Ecology of Sweet Fern\" (56) [3] 211 -- -- -- \"Dendrological Atlas: A Legacy in the Making\" (50) [3] 2128 -- -- -- \"Ecology and Economics of Elm Replacement in Harvard Yard\" (58) [1] 2732 -- -- -- \"The Fate of a Ficus\" (49) [4] 3033 -- -- -- \"First and Final Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo\" (58) [3] 1117 -- -- -- \"The Ginkgo in America\" (41) 150161 -- -- -- \"Ginkgos and People--A Thousand Years of Interaction\" (51) [2] 215 -- -- -- \"The Great Catalpa Craze\" (46) [2] 210 -- -- -- \"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima,\" with Hiromi Tsuchida (53) [3] 2429 -- -- -- \"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Landscape,\" with S. A. Spongberg (53) [4] 2025, -- -- -- \"The `Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston,\" with S. A. Spongberg 52) [1] 1823 -- -- -- \"The Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection\" (49) [3] 237 -- -- -- \"The Layered Look\" (45) [1] 1922 -- -- -- \"Lost and Found: Elliottia racemosa\" (47) [4] 28 -- -- -- \"Magnolia virginiana in MA\" (41) 3649 -- -- -- \"Make Mine Mulch\" (52) [3] 3032 -- -- -- \"A New Magnolia Blooms in Boston,\" with S. A. Spongberg (49) [2] 2527 -- -- -- \"New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map\" (50) [3] 1620 -- -- -- \"A Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia Symbiosis\" (55) [4] 2631; -- -- -- \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" with other contributors (55) [1] 1220, 13 -- -- -- \"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Humility\" (44) [1] 2023; [reprinted] (51) [4] 6366 -- -- -- \"Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground\" (59) [3] 1422 -- -- -- \"Requiem for a Cork Tree\" (55) [3] 2224 -- -- -- \"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape,\" with Michael Van Valkenburgh (54) [1] 311 -- -- -- \"Sargent's Weeping Hemlock Reconsidered\" (40) 202223 -- -- -- \"Shoots From Roots: A Horticultural Review\" (55) [3] 1119 -- -- -- \"The Trees of Tian Mu Shan\" [photo essay] (50) [4] 1623, 1722 -- -- -- \"Typical Elms of Yesterday\" (42) [2] 4748 -- -- -- \"The Upright White Pine\" (53) [1] 2431, 3, 5, 6, 7 -- -- -- \"What's in a Leaf?\" (45) [2] 26 -- -- -- \"Where the Wild Ginkgos Grow\" (52) [4] 211, 7 -- -- -- photos by (40) 208, 211, 212, 214, 215; (41) 39, 42, 43, 45, 151, 157, 158; (44) [4] front cover; (45) inside front cover, 19, 20; (46) [2] 7, 8; (47) [4] 6,7; (48) [3] front cover; (49) [3] inside front cover, inside back cover; (50) [2] back cover; [3] inside front cover; (51) [2] inside front cover, inside back cover; (52) [1] front cover, back cover; [3] back cover; (53) [3] back cover; [4] back cover; (55) [1] back cover; [3] inside front cover, inside back cover; [4] cover, back cover; (56) [1] front cover; [2] inside front cover; [3] front cover; [4] front and back covers; (57) [1] front cover, inside back cover, back cover; [2] back cover; [3] front cover, inside back cover; [4] inside back cover; (58) [1] front cover, 28, 29, 30, 31, inside back cover; [3] inside front cover, 11, 16, 17; (59) [1] 74, back cover; [3] inside front cover, 15 21, back cover; [4] inside front cover, 1016, inside back cover Delano & Aldrich [architectural firm] (47) 10 Delano, Eugene (47) [4] 10 Delano, Frederic Adrian (48) [2] 8 Delano, Moreau (47) [4] 10, 13, 17, 18, 19 Delano, Susan Adams (47) [4] 9 Delano, Susan Magoun (47) [4] 9, 10 Delano, Warren (48) [2] 8 Delano, William Adams (47) [4] 1011, 13 Delavay, Pere Jean Marie (46) [4] 20 Delaware River (48) [4] 55 \"Delights of a Rough Garden\" [1896], D. H. R. Goodale (60) [3] 35 Delphinium (31) 24, 26, 29, 34, 169, 171, 187; (34) 60, 318; (45) [4] 26; (60) [1] 6 -- ajacis (31) 188 -- x belladonna (34) 320 -- consolida (31) 187 -- elatum (31) 34; (34) 319 -- grandiflorum (34) 320; (39) 254 Dempsey, Marie (49) [1] 30 Dendrobenthamia (45) [4] 3 Dendrobium (47) [4] 32, 33 Dendrochronology (56) [4] 2, 4, 7 D 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Dendrological Atlas (50) [3] 2128, inside back cover \"Dendrological Atlas: A Legacy in the Making,\" Peter Del Tredici (50) [3] 2128 Dendrophthora (51) [3] 11, 14 Deng Xiao Ping (48) [2] 28 Dennstaedtia punctilobula (34) 248; (48) [3] 24; (56) [2] 16 Denny, Judge Owen N. (31) 357 Dentaria diphyllum (55) [3] 6 Denver Botanical Garden [CO] (46) [3] 6 Derby [England] (47) [4] 24, 25 Derby Arboretum (53) [3] 15, 16 Derderian, Constance E. (32) 269; (49) [3] 10, 11, 31 -- -- -- \"Japanese Theory--American Practice\" (31) 294; (32) 269 -- -- -- \"Subtropical Bonsai for Indoor Gardening\" (36) 121 Dermatitis-causing plants (35) 93121 DeSandro, Cynthia, drawing by (45) [3] 14 Desanos Indians, Columbia (32) 213 Descanso Gardens [CA] (58) [3] 23 Deschampsia caespitosa (54) [3] 10 --flexuosa (54) [3] 7 Descripciones de las Plantas Demonstrandas en las Lecciones Publicas [Antonio Jose Cavanilles, 1801] (47) [3] 19 Description and Classification of Vegetation, David W. Shimwell [review of] (36) 180 Desert Botanical Garden [Phoenix, AZ] (46) [3] 3, 6, 10 -- -- -- photo by (47) [2] 23 Desert candle (37) 218 Desfontaines, Rene, (57) [3] 22 Desfontainia spinosa (41) [3] front cover, 100, 101 -- -- var. hookerii (32) 211 Desfontainiaceae (41) [3] 101 Desiccation theory of leaf curling (50) [1] 32 Design for Survival,\" Anne Whiston Spirn (44) [4] 2936 \"Designing a Computer-Software Application to Meet the Plant-Record Needs of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Kerry S. Walter (49) [1] 4253 \"Designing Plants with Rare Genes,\" John W. Einset (46) [4] 6063 Desmos yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Deutzia (32) 113 -- slender (41) 176; (44) [4] 23 Deutzia (43) [1] 3; (56) [2] 9 -- crenata `Summer Snow' (43) [4] 7 -- gracilis (41) 176; (44) [4] 23; (56) [2] 25 -- scabra (56) [2] 24 Devil's walking stick (31) 232; (32) 68; (38) 112 DeWit, plan by (57) [2] 4 DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr. (30) 2; (32) 254; (49) [1] 20 -- -- -- -- \"Basic Books for the Library\" (30) 107 -- -- -- -- \"Colonial Gardens, Some Additional Sources of Information Chronologically Arranged\" (31) 250253 -- -- -- -- \"Common Pines of Massachusetts\" (35) 197228 -- -- -- -- \"Gardening Books for Libraries\" (32) 115125 -- -- -- -- \"Guide to Potentially Dangerous Plants\" (34) 4991 -- -- -- -- \"Japanese, Latin, and English Names of Plants in Early Japanese Poetry,\" with George E. Potter and E. Bruce Brooks (31) 292 -- -- -- -- \"Notes on the History of Tea\" (31) 2023 -- -- -- -- \"The Story of Forsythia,\" with Robert S. Hebb (31) 4161 -- -- -- -- \"Suburban Economics\" (30) 175179 -- -- -- -- \"What Can We Do About Pollution?\" (30) 3335 -- -- -- -- \"Yews in Fiction and Fact,\" with Mark Silber (30) 139 Dhobi-nut (35) 96, 97 Dianthus (31) 28, 34, 168, 173, 189; (34) 320 -- barbatus (31) 174; (39) 254 -- caesius (31) 34 -- caryophyllus (31) 179, 227 -- gratianopolitanus (31) 34 -- plumarius (31) 229; (39) 254 -- superbus (31) 292 Diarrhea remedy (32) 25, 46 Dicamba (49) [4] 16 Dicentra (31) 34; (34) 321 -- canadensis (37) 95 D Cumulative Index -- cucullaria (31) 35; (37) 95 -- eximia (31) 35; (34) 322, 323 -- -- `Bountiful' (31) 35 -- -- `Zestful' (52) [3] 10 -- formosa (34) 323 -- oregana (31) 35; (34) 323 -- peregrina (= pusilla) (49) [3] 1, back cover -- spectabilis (31) 34; (34) 321; (39) 254; (44) [4] 51; (49) [2] 4 -- -- var. alba (31) 35 Dichondra caroliniensis (46) [4] 26 -- repens (46) [4] 26 Dickey, Miriam (31) 354 Dickinson, Leonore (39) 349 Dicofol (30) 45 Dicranopteris linearis (48) [2] 26 Dictamnus (31) 70 -- albus (31) 70, 183; (34) 324, 325; (44) [4] 51 -- -- var. ruber (31) 71 -- fraxinella (31) 70; (34) 324 Dictionary of Useful and Everyday Plants and Their Common Names, F. N. Howes [review of] (35) 192 Die-back (31) 61 Dieffenbachia (34) 61; (47) [2] 27 Dieldrin (31) 355 Dielsma (37) 53 Diencang, Shan [China] (46) [4] 1, 20, 2333 Diervilla lonicera (44) [4] 42 -- sessilifolia (41) 177; (44) [4] 42; (56) [2] 25 Digitalis (31) 71, 182; (34) 326 -- grandiflora (34) 326 -- lutea (39) 254 -- purpurea (31) 71, 182; (34) 62, 327, 328; (37) 220; (39) 254; (55) [2] 13 -- thapsi (34) 328 Digitaria (34) 218, 219 Dill (31) 200 Dillard, Shelly (52) [1] 7 Dilleniaceae (48) [2] 3 Dilleniidae (47) [3] 27 Diller, J. D. (52) [2] 6 D'Incarville, Pierre Nicholas (or Father) (30) 180; (57: [3] 21 Dincauze, Dena Ferran, \"Prehistoric Land Use in the Arnold Arboretum\" (31) 108113 Dinitro-ortho-cresol (32) 129 Dionaea muscipula (47) [2] 21 Dioscorea (31) 316 -- alata (31) 231 Dioscorides (30) 23; (31) 114 Diospyros (39) 290309; (57) [1] 17 -- key to spp. in cultivation (39) 296 -- atrotricha (48) [2] 7 -- ebenum (39) 293 -- kaki (32) 98; (38) 31, 145; (39) 290, 291, 292, 296, 302306, 303, 304, 306; (42) [4] 104, 106; (44) [3] 16; (51) [4] 47, 5253 -- -- var. sylvestris (39) 302, 305 -- lotus (38) 141; (39) 295, 296, 300, 301, 302; (49) [4] 35; (51) [4] 5152; (55) [1] 18 -- roxburghii (39) 302 -- texana (39) 293, 296, 306, 307 ; (51) [4] 47, 5354 -- virginiana (30) 170; (31) 242; (32) 91, 98; (39) 292, 293, 296, 297, 298; (42) [4] front cover, inside front cover, 102, 104105, 107, 114, 118120, back cover; (51) [4] 47, 48, 5051 -- -- f. atra (39) 299 Dioum, Baba (50) [1] 12 Diphenylamine (32) 132 Diphylleia cymosa (37) 190, 191; (46) [4] 19 -- grayi (37) 190; (46) [4] 19 -- sinensis (37) 190; (46) [4] 19 Dipsacus sylvestris (39) 254 Dipterocarpaceae (48) [2] 3; (58) [1] 14 Dipteronia (57) [2] 17 Dirca palustris (31) 240; (44) [1] 2023, 21; [reprint] (51) [4] 6366 5 D 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- flowers (44) [1] 23 \"Directory of Information Sources on Forestry Management\" (45) [1] 1114 Dirr, Bonnie (49) [4] 40 Dirr, Michael (39) 327, 328, 344; (52) [1] 7; (54) [1] 32 -- -- \"The Allegheny Pachysandra,\" with John H. Alexander, III (39) 1621; (51) [4] 4346 -- -- \"First Impressions of the Arnold Arboretum\" (38) 173179 -- -- \"Ilex glabra--The Inkberry Holly,\" with Alexander (51) [2] 1622 -- -- \"Street Trees for Home and Municipal Landscapes,\" with Gary L. Koller (39) 73237 -- -- \"Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation\" (51) [3] 1821 -- -- photo by (45) [2] front cover Disanthus cercidifolius (36) 71, 76, 77, 79 \"Discovering Blakea gracilis,\" Barbara O. Epstein (41) 2529 Discula fungus (50) [2] 1720, 19 Disease and insect susceptibility (58) [3] 31 Disease control (37) 19, 20, 232 -- damping off (33) 119; (47) [4] 7 -- Dutch elm (32) 54; (33) 4042; (38) 40; (42) [2] 6069, 7275, 7887, 90; (44) [4] 21, 22; (48) [4] 33; (50) [3] 8; (53) [1] 32; (54) [1] 3, 9; (56) [1] 15, 21; [2] 30; (58) [1] 2732; [2] 24; [3] 31 Diseases of the Cultivated Plants of the Southwest, Rubert Burley Streets [review of] (32) 293 Diseases of pines (35) 226228 -- of plants (33) 3745 Disilopsis yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Disjunct plant distribution (53) [4] 2630 Disporum (37) 176, 177 -- flavum (37) 176, 179; (52) [2] 40 -- lanuginosum (37) 176, 178 -- maculatum (37) 176, 177 -- sessile (37) 178 -- smithii (37) 177, 178 \"Disturbance Prior to European Settlement,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2] 810 Distylium racemosum (36) 71, 78, 80 -- -- `Akebono' (45) [2] 15, 16 -- -- `Guppy' (45) [2] 1516 Dittany (31) 70, 183; (34) 324, 325 \"A Diversity of Hollies,\" Polly Hill (47) [1] 213 Division, perennials (35) 7679 Dixwell, John James (32) 175; (54) [3] 19 DNA (53) [2] 3; [4] 29 Dock (31) 200 -- curly (34) 210 -- seabeach (48) [3] 23 -- yellow (34) 210 Dodder (33) 43, 58 Dodecatheon maedia `Album' (55) [1] 4, 5 Dodge, Harrison Howell (59) [3] 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12 Dodonaea viscosa (46) [4] 23 Dodoneus, D. Rembertus (32) 45 Dogtooth violet (31) 182; (37) 95 Dogwood (32) 71; (33) 91, 201, 202, 272, 273, 277; (35) 235; (36) 29, 50, 56; (43) [1] 3, 8; (44) [4] 40; (45) [4] 3; (47) [2] 27; (52) [4] 1722, 29; (56) [1] 3; (57) [1] 24, 31; (60) [4] 26 -- and herbicides (49) [4] 17 -- big-leaf (44) [4] 40 -- Chinese pagoda (55) [1] 15 -- Dunbar (38) 31 -- flowering (30) 169, 170; (31) 215; (32) 71, 82; (36) 50; (49) [1] 16; (50) [1] 7; [2] 1620; [3] 5, 6; (53) [3] front cover; (55) [1] 2 -- -- eastern (44) [4] 15 -- giant (39) 178, 179 -- gray (55) [3] 56 -- Japanese (32) 277; (39) 98, 101 -- kousa (32) 72, 88; (36) 50; (44) [4] 40; (50) [2] 8, 915, 10, 1113, back cover; [3] 2, 4, 5, 6; (55) [1] 14 -- largeleaf (39) 179 -- miner's (36) 56 -- Pacific (42) [4] 147148, 147, 150 -- pagoda (39) 177, 178 -- red osier (36) 29; (44) [4] 40; (49) [3] 39 -- red-twigged (56) [2] 24, 25 D Cumulative Index 7 -- Siberian (36) 29 -- silky (31) 215 -- variegated (43) [4] cover -- yellow-twig (49) [3] 39 Dogwood anthracnose (50) [2] 1520, 16, 17, 18 Dollar bush (54) [2] 3, 5 Dombey, Joseph (47) [3] 15 Dominion Arboretum, Ottawa, Ontario [Canada] (57) [3] 5 Don, David (47) [3] 21 Donoghue, Michael (39) 358 -- -- \"Flowering Times in Viburnum\" (40) 222 -- -- \"Growth Patterns in Woody Plants with Examples from the Genus Viburnum\" (41) 223 Dongting Mountain [China] (51) [2] 8, 9 Doogue, William (48) [3] 36, [4] 34 Dopodomys ingens (57) [3] 10 Dorchester [Boston, MA] (48) [4] 22, 29, 30, 36 -- Shores (48) [3] 14 Doronicum (34) 328; (45) [4] 26 -- caucasicum (34) 328 -- -- `Finesse' (37) 95 -- cordatum (37) 95 -- plantagineum (34) 329 Dorr family (51) [3] 5 Dortmund Botanic Garden [Germany] (31) 50 \"Double Jeopardy for Elms: Dutch Elm Disease and Phloem Necrosis,\" David F. Karnosky (42) [2] 7077 Douglas, David (48) [1] 41 Douglas, Robert (48) [3] 27 Douglas fir (37) 69, 70; (48) [1] 5 Douglass, Andrew E. (56) [4] 34 Dove tree (32) 103; (40) 103; (43) [1] 31 Downing, Andrew Jackson (32) 174, 185, 187; (48) [3] 34; (49) [2] 21; [3] 6; (50) [3] 6; (53) [1] 25; [3] 16; (54) [1] 24, 26; [3] 18; (56) [2] 5; (57) [3] 21, 2325; [4] 31; (60) [1] 28 -- -- -- Neglected American Plants [excerpt from 1851 article] (51) [2] 27 -- -- -- Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening [1859] (50) [4] 36 DPA (diphenylamine) (32) 132 Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town, Edmund Berkeley & Dorothy Smith [review of] (30)75 \"Dr. Robert E. Cook Is New Director of the Arnold Arboretum\" (48) [4] 23 Dracaena draco (47) [3] 38 Draba (33) 192 -- sibirica (37) 93 -- verna (31) 230 Drainage (30) 103; (56) [4] 13 -- improving (51) [1] 2831 -- subsurface (51) [1] 29 Draper, Henry (30) 94 Drawn from Nature: The Botanical Art of Joseph Prestele and His Sons, Charles van Ravenswaay [review of] (45) [1] 2830 Drepanocladus uncinatus (57) [2] 32 Dried arrangements (37) 285288, 289304 Dried Flowers, From Antiquity to the Present, Leonard Karel [review of] (36) 35 The Drooping Pine [painting] (31) 269, 271 Dropseed, prairie (54) [3] 11 Dropwort (31) 74; (34) 340; (39) 255 Drosera peltata var. lunata (46) [4] 30 Drought stress (56) [4] 1112 Drug plants, Chinese (35) 278281 Druid Hills Park [Baltimore, MD] (54) [2] 16 Dry landscape (47) [2] 9 Dryopteris austriaca var. spinulosa (55) [3] 6 -- boottii (47) [4] 30 Dryosma (37) 189 -- pleiantha (37) 185 D-tubocurarine (50) [2] 26 Du Pont de Nemours, Eleuthere Irenee (52) [2] 3 Duck-potato (43) [2] 1315, 14 Duckweed (43) [2] 8, 2729, 28 Duda, Heidi (32) 252 D 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Dudley, Theodore R. (46) [4] 4; (49) [1] 20, [2] 25, 26 Dudleya (46) [3] 6; (46) [3] 38 \"Dugout Canoes, Arrow Poisons, and the Cure for Cancer: Book Review,\" Todd Forest (56) [2] 3840 Dukakis, Michael S., Gov. [quoted] (48) [3] 21 Duke Gardens, Durham, NC (57) [1] 11 Dumaine, Susan (49) [1] 29 Dumb cotton (37) 229 Dumbarton Oaks [Washington, DC] (51) [3] 9; (52) [1] 9; (57) [2] 12 Dumbcane (34) 61 Dummer Academy [Byfield, MA] (54) [3] 12 Dunbar and Hunter (52) [3] 14 Duncan,Wilbur H. (57) [2] 28, 29 Dunesilver (34) 290 Dungeon Rock [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 40, 41, 42, 46, 48 Duroia (32) 213 Durrant, Tom (46) [1] 10 Dusty miller (34) 290; (39) 266 Dutch elm disease (See \"elm disease\") \"Dutch Elm Disease: A Postscript,\" Gerald N. Lanier (42) [2] 7887 \"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know,\" D. Newbanks, D. N. Roy, and M. H. Zimmermann (42) [2] 6069 Dutchman's breeches (31) 34, 35; (37) 95 -- pipe (56) [2] 13, 30 -- -- Manchurian (60) [4] 11 Duxbury [MA] (56) [4] 1719 Duzhong (48) [2] 22 Dwarf conifer collection (33) 318 -- gayfeather (31) 129 -- mistletoe (45) [3] 17 \"Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs,\" Margo W. Reynolds (35) 230237 Dwarfing trees (31) 293 Dwight, Frances (48) [4] 18, 20, 22 Dwight, Grace Buel (48) [4] 20 Dwight, John (48) [4] 20 Dwight, Laura (48) [3] 1, 42; [4] 1725, 16, 21 Dwight, Percy (Col. ) (48) [4] 20 Dwight, Richard W. (49) [2] 5, 7 Dwight, Timothy (48) [4] 20 \"Dykes Medal Iris at the Case Estates,\" George H. Pride (34) 3234 \"Dynamics in the Postglacial Era,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2] 47 Dysoxylum (48) [2] 3 -- bineceaefolium (48) [2] 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - E","article_sequence":5,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25324","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd0608128.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"E Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 \"E. D. Merrill, From Maine to Manila,\" Ida Hay (58) [1] 1119 E. H. WILSON, PHOTOGRAPHER, Peter J. Chvany (36) [5] 181237 \"E. H. Wilson, Yichang, and the Kiwifruit,\" A. R. Ferguson (43) [4] 2435 \"E. H. Wilson's First Trip to China,\" William Gardener (32) 103113 E. I. du Pont Botaniste, Norman B. Wilkinson [review of] (37) 251 Earache remedy, Madagascar (32) 27 Earle, Theresa (51) [3] 9 Early American Gardens, \"For Meate or Medicine,\" Ann Leighton [review of] (31) 140 Early botanical books (32) 249, 272 Early Gardening Catalogues, John Harvey [review of] (33) 297 Early Horticulturists, Ronald Webber [review of] (30) 7577 \"The Early Rock Garden,\" George H. Pride (37) 89109 Earthquake of 1755 [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] inside front cover East India Company (31) 4, 6, 21 East River Park [NY] (57) [3] 26 Eastern deciduous forest (48) [3] 18, 23, 25, 26 \"Eastern Hop Hornbeam: Its Natural History and Landscape Potential,\" William E. Fehrenback, Jr. (44) [2] 2327 \"Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation,\" Carroll E. Wood (33) 8196 Eastwood, Alice (47) [4] 1220, back cover Ebony (36) 5, 19; (39) 293 Echeveria, by Eric Walther [review of] (33) 295296 Echeveria linguaefolia (33) 295 Echevarias, L. Carruthers and R. Ginns [review of] (39) 72 Echinacea purpurea (34) 329, 330 -- tennesseensis (46) [3] 7; (47) [2] 20, 23 Echinocactus (46) [3] 38 Echinops (31) 71; (34) 331 -- exaltatus `Taplow Blue' (31) 71 -- ritro (34) 331, 332; (39) 255 -- sphaerocephalus (34) 332 Echium vulgare (34) 180; (39) 255 Eck, Joe (52) [1] 29 Ecole d'Horticulture de Versailles (54) [2] 11 Ecole des Beaux-Arts [Paris] (47) [4] 10 Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2] 231 \"Ecological Reconnaissance in the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" Kwei-ling Chu and William S. Cooper [excerpt, 1950] (59) [1] 4046 Ecological Studies, Analysis and Synthesis, J. Jacobs, O. L. Lange, J. S. Olson, W. Wiser, eds. [review of] (31) 302 \"Ecology and Economics of Elm Replacement in Harvard Yard,\" Peter Del Tredici (58) [1] 2732 \"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" David R. Foster and David A. Orwig (58) [2] 4144 Ecosystems, of soils (59) [2] 3642 Ecosystem, enclosed (50) [1] 2223 \"Edible and Poisonous Plants of the Islands of the Pacific,\" E. D. Merrill (32) 53 Edible and Useful Plants of California, by Charlotte Bringle Clarke [review of] (38) 156 Edible Nuts of the World, by Edwin A. Menninger [review of] (38) 60 Edinburgh [Scotland] (48) [2] 18; (57) [2] 6 -- -- Royal Botanic Garden (31) 371; (46) [4] 12; (47) [3] 12; (49) [1] 47; (52) [2] 31 Edlmann, Violet F., (Lady Collet) (47) [4] 14, 15 Edo [Japan] (47) [2] 3 Edo Period (47) [2] 9 Education, horticultural (33) 147155 Edwards, Sydenham T. (53) [1] 11, 12, 13, 16 Eelgrass (43) [2] 4, 5 \"Effect of Gardening Upon the Mind\" [1891] (60) [3] 33 Eglantine (39) 265 Egler, Frank (56) [3] 9 Ehret: Flower Painter Extraordinary, by Greta Calmann [review of] (38) 183 Ehret, George Dionysius, drawing by (55) [2] 20 Ehretia thyrsiflora (37) 164 Ehrlich, Paul R. (32) 237 E 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- -- \"The Hysteria Against the Case: The Population-Environment Crisis--Where Do We Go From Here?\" (32) 226240 Eichomia (43) [2] 8 \"Eight Views of Nippon,\" Robert G. Nicholson (47) [2] 215 Einset, John, \"Biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum\" (44) [3] 2733 -- -- \"Botany: The State of the Art\" [column] (46) [1] 3644; [2] 4245; [4] 6063; (47) [1] 2025 -- -- \"Chemicals That Regulate Plants\" (45) [2] 2834 -- -- \"Designing Plants with Rare Genes\" (46) [4] 6063 -- -- \"How Development's Clock Guides Evolution\" (47) [1] 2025 -- -- \"Listening to Thirsty Plants\" (46) [2] 4245 -- -- \"A Practical Guide to Woody Plant Micropropagation\" (46) [1] 3644 -- -- \"What Determines a Plant's Cold Hardiness?\" (45) [4] 3538 Eisenberg, Amy (46) [4] 14 -- -- illustrations by (46) [3] 13, 14, 15; [4] front cover Ekeberg, Carl Gustavus (31) 21 Ekman, E. L. (51) [3] 14 Ekstrom, Nicholas H. (49) [4] 4041 \"El Arbol del Tule: A Giant Cypress Among the Cattails,\" Zsolt Debreczy and Istvan Racz (57) [4] 211 Elaeagnus, autumn (30) 172 Elaeagnus (55) [3] 18; [4] 29 -- angustifolia (31) 242; (32) 90; (39) 151, 224; (44) [3] 12; (55) [4] 27, 30; (57) [3] 3 -- macrophylla (38) 138 -- multiflora (30) 174 -- pungens (55) [1] 15 -- umbellata (30) 172; (38) 138, 145; (44) [1] 11, [4] 23; (45) [2] 25; (55) [4] 27; (57) [1] 21 -- -- `Cardinal' (44) [4] 23 Elder (42) [1] 10, 19, 24 -- American (31) 237 -- box (31) 237 -- rose (31) 216 Elderberry (31) 223; (33) 47 -- Turkish (31) 114 Eldern (31) 223 Elecampane (31) 182; (39) 247; (39) 247 Eleocharis dulcis (31) 292; (43) [2] 24 Eleococcus oliifera (31) 16 Elfin forest (33) 195 Elgin Botanic Garden [NY] (41) 159; (51)[4] 25 Elias Haskett Derby Mansion [Salem, MA] (31) 157 Elias, Thomas (Dr. ) (32) 252; (46) [3] 11 Eliot, Charles (32) 6; (48) [4] 47; (51) [3] 7, 9; (53) [4] 216, 7; (54) [2] 16, 20; (59) [2] 2, 3, 4, 5, 621; (60) [2] 41; [3] 5, 7 -- -- \"Arboriculture in Its Relations to Landscape: `All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit'\" [excerpt] (59) [2] 2225 -- -- drawings by (59) [2] inside front cover, 710, 22 -- -- family (59) [2] 3, 4, 58, 10, 11, 19 -- -- memorials to (59) [2] 18, 19 -- -- \"The Necessity of Planning\" [1896] (60) [3] 1415 \"Ellen Biddle Shipman's New England Gardens,\" Judith Tankard (57) [1] 211 Elliott, Stephen (47) [4] 3, 4; (60) [2] 9 Elliottia racemosa (33) 95; (46) [3] 6; (47) [2] 5; [4] front cover, 2, 28, 5; (55) [3] 17 -- -- cultivation of (47) [4] 7 -- -- distribution of (47) [4] 3, 4 -- -- ecology of (47) [4] 45 -- -- seeds of (47) [4] 6 -- -- -- germination of (47) [4] 57 \"Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation,\" Alfred J. Fordham (51) [4] 5962 Ellis, John (31) 94; (53) [1] 13; (55) [2] 19, 2324; (57) [4] 13, 14 Ellwanger and Barry's Mt. Hope Nursery [NY] (52) [2] 5 ELM, AMERICAN (42) [2] 46100 Elm (32) 81, 82; (42) [1] 10, 17, 1820, 27; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 26; [2] 7; [3] 24 -- collection at Arnold Arboretum (49) [4] 13 -- hybrids (33) 44 -- trees (31) 289 -- American (31) 237; (33) 4042, 83; (34) 244, 245; (38) 157; (41) 3; (42) [2] inside front cover, 46100, 67, 84, 86; (43) [1] 41; (48) [3] 38; [4] 33, 34; (49) [4] 23, 25; (53) [1] 32; [3] 6; (54) [1] 3, 5, 8; [3] 14; (56) [1] 15, 21, 31; [2] front cover, 6, 24, 26, 30; [3] 15; (58) [1] cover, 27, 2831, 32, inside back cover; [3] 31; (59) [3] 3940 -- Brooks (42) [2] 5152 -- Chinese (36) 20; (39) 136, 137; (42) [2] 9799 E Cumulative Index 3 -- -- evergreen (36) 20 -- Christine Buisman (39) 167 -- Clark (42) [2] 51, 57 -- Dexter (42) [3] 151 -- English (58) [1] 29; (48) [3] 38; [4] 33 -- European (58) [1] 27, 29; (33) 83; (48) [4] 33 -- -- smooth (42) [1] 19 -- feathered (42) [2] 55 -- Kashgar (44) [3] 12 -- lacebark (54) [1] 9; (58) [1] 31 -- Lancaster (42) [2] 51 -- -- \"The Big Lancaster Elm\" (42) [2] 50 -- Pratt (42) [2] 51, 54 -- Rugg (42) [2] 48 -- Scamston weeping (59) [3] 3940 -- Siberian (34) 244; (39) 137; (58) [1] 31 -- wahoo (56) [2] 24 -- the \"Washington\" (59) [3] 1112 -- Wethersfield (42) [2] 59 -- winged (31) 237 Elm disease [Dutch] (32) 54; (33) 4042; (38) 40; (42) [2] 6069, 7275, 7887, 90; (44) [4] 21, 22; (48) [4] 33; (50) [3] 8; (53) [1] 32; (54) [1] 3, 9; (56) [1] 15, 21; [2] 30; (58) [1] 2732; [2] 24; [3] 31 -- -- injection control (42) [2] 65 -- -- and resistant plants (58) [1] 2732; [2] 24, 41; [3] 31 Elm-leaf beetle (44) [4] 21 Elmhirst, Leonard, and Dorothy Whitney Straight (52) [1] 10 ELMS (42) [2] 46100 Elodea canadensis (43) [2] 7 Elsholtzia blanda (48) [2] 4 -- stauntonii (30) 168; (38) 112 Elsik, Sandra (49) [1] 3, 23, 73 -- -- \"From Each a Voucher: Collecting in the Living Collections\" (49) [1] 2127 -- -- \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal Benefits,\" with Jeanne Christianson, (49) [1] 2835 Elwes, Henry John (32) 185, 188, 189 Elymus arenarius (35) 57; (54) [3] 11 -- condensatus `Canyon Prince' (54) [3] 5 -- glaucus (35) 57 Embedding, botanical (36) 265275 \"Emerald Metropolis,\" Karl Haglund (53) [4] 217 Emerald Necklace [Boston] (48) [3] 1, 20, [4] 28; (50) [3] 3; (52) [4] 23; (53) [4] 6; (57) [3] 17 -- -- -- restoration of (48) [3] 13 Emerson, George Barrel (32) 174; (54) [3] 1221, 13 -- -- -- Report On the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts [1846] (48) [4] 55; (52) [2] 3 Emerson, Nanette Snow, The History of Dungeon Rock [1856] (48) [4] 42 Emerus (31) 237 Emily Renwick Achievement Medal [Garden Club of America] (47) [4] 14 Emmart, Emily (30) 126 Emmenopterys henryi (43) [1] 26; (52) [4] 4; (54) [2] inside back cover, 36; (55) [1] 17 Emmet, Alan (47) [4] 2434 -- -- \"A Park and Garden in Vermont: Olmsted and the Webbs at Shelburne Farms\" (56) [3] 1220 Empetrum sp. (47) [2] 14; (59) [2] 27, 33 -- nigrum (47) [2] 7 -- -- var. japonicum (47) [2] 5, 14 Empress tree (57) [3] 22 Encalypta ciliata (57) [2] 32 Enchanted World of Alpine Flowers, Elfrune Wendelberger [review of] (36) 276 Encyclopaedia of Ferns: An Introduction to Ferns, Their Structure, Biology, Economic Importance, Cultivation, and Propagation, by David I. Jones [review of] (48) [4] 5859 Endangered plants (46) [3] front cover -- -- in China (48) [2] 25 \"Endangered Plants at the Garden in the Woods: Problems and Possibilities,\" William E. Brumback (46) [3] 3335 Endangered species (46) [3] 8 -- -- conservation of (46) [3] 5 -- -- horticultural value of (46) [3] 910 -- -- research on (46) [3] 5, 1213 Endangered Species Act (46) [3] 4, 5, 6, 13, 34, 37 E 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Endive (31) 205 Endo, S. (59) [1] 5 Endothia parasitica (33) 40, 83; (44) [3] 15; (52) [2] 3 Endymion hispanicus (49) [2] 4 -- nonscriptus (31) 186 Englemann, George (49) [1] 13 Engler, Adolph (53) [3] 14, 15, 20 English Classical School [Boston] (54) [3] 12 English Pleasure Gardens [Nichols, 1902] (59) [4] 27 English High School [Boston] (54) [3] 12 Engstrand, Iris H. W. (47) [3] 18 Enkianthus, white (60) [4] 15 Enkianthus campanulatus (45) [2] 26; (52) [3] 13; (53) [4] 21 -- perulatus (47) [2] 4; (53) [4] 21; (55) [4] 13; (60) [4] inside back cover, 15, 16 Ensenada, Marques de la (47) [3] 5 Enterolobium cyclocarpum (51) [3] 23 Environment, changes in (30) 176 -- early New England (30) 176, 177 -- preservation of (30) 176, 177 -- -- -- relationship of property taxes to economics of (30) 175176 -- value of urban street trees to (53) [3] 10 Environmental Boomerang, by Leonard J. Webb [review of] (34) 435 Environmental deterioration (32) 228 -- pollution (30) 3355 -- stress (59) [4] 1116 Environmental Management, Department of [MA] (48) [3] 21; [4] 38, 51 Epacridaceae (57) [4] 20 Epena (32) 207 Ephedra (37) 53; (54) [2] 9 -- sinica (55) [2] 14 Ephedrine (55) [2] 14 Epicormic branches (50) [2] 18, 19 Epigaea asiatica (37) 195, 196 -- repens (37) 194196; (56) [3] 16 Epilobium angustifolium (39) 255 -- f. albiflorum (45) [4] 27 -- blinii (46) [4] 30 Epimedium (31) 72, 182; (34) 332; (39) 5166, 53; (52) [1] 27; (55) [1] 9, 15 -- key to cultivated spp. and hybrids (39) 54, 55 -- acuminatum (37) 194; (39) 66 -- alpinum (31) 182; (37) 194; (39) 51, 55, 58, 59, 64, 66 -- -- var. rubrum (39) 64 -- diphyllum (37) 193; (39) 54, 55, 62 -- -- var. roseum (39) 62 -- fargesii (39) 66 -- grandiflorum (31) 72; (34) 333, 334; (37) 193, 195; (39) 54, 56, 57, 59, 62, 63, 255 -- -- f. flavescens (39) 57 -- -- var. niveum (39) 61 -- -- `Rose Queen' (39) 56 -- -- var. violaceum (31) 72 -- koreanum (39) 54, 57, 58 -- lilacinum (39) 62 -- macranthum var. lilacinum (39) 62 -- -- niveum (34) 335; (39) 61 -- perralderianum (37) 194; (39) 54, 60, 61 -- pinnatum (31) 72; (34) 334; (37) 194; (39) 54, 60, 61, 63, 66 -- -- ssp. colchicum (39) 61 -- -- var. colchicum (31) 72; (37) 192, 194; (52) [1] 24 -- -- var. sulphureum (39) 63 -- pubigerum (39) 55, 59, 60 -- x rubrum (31) 72; (34) 334; (37) 194; (39) 54, 59, 60, 64, 66, 255 -- sagittatum (39) 55, 59 -- sempervirens (39) 54, 57, 58 -- setosum (39) 66 -- stellatum (55) [1] 15 -- sulphureum (39) 63 -- trifoliatobinatum (39) 66 E Cumulative Index -- x versicolor (34) 334; (39) 54, 63 -- -- `Cupreum' (39) 63 -- -- `Neo-sulphureum' (39) 63 -- -- `Versicolor' (39) 63 -- -- `Sulphureum' (39) 63, 64 -- x warleyense (34) 334; (39) 54, 65, 66 -- x youngianum (34) 335; (37) 193; (39) 54, 61, 62, 63 -- -- `Niveum' (39) 61 -- -- var. niveum (31) 72 -- -- `Roseum' (39) 62 Epinasty, delayed (53) [1] 27 Epipactis (41) 143, 144 -- thunbergii (41) 144 Epstein, Barbara O. (39) 365; (49) [1] 30, 33 -- -- \"Discovering Blakea gracilis\" (41) 2529 Eranthis hyemalis (37) 95 Eranthus hymalis (31) 174 Eremochloa ophiuroides (44) [3] 22 Ergot (32) 207 Erh-Ch'i (31) 271 Erhia Lake [China] (46) [4] 24, 25, 31 Erianthus ravennae (35) 57, 58; (54) [3] 7 Erica (31) 310 Erica (37) 114116 -- carnea vars. (37) 105, 115, 116; (43) [1] 5 -- darleyensis & vars. (37) 116 -- herbacea (43) [1] 5 -- mediterranea (37) 116 Ericaceae (44) [3] 28 Erigeron (34) 335 -- annuus (34) 165 -- aurantiacus (34) 336 -- compositus (34) 336; (55) [1] 6 -- linearis (34) 336 -- `Pink Jewel' (34) 335 -- speciosus (34) 336 Eriobotrya japonica `Yukige' (43) [4] 7 Ermenonville [France] (54) [1] 26 Erodium (34) 98 Errata (32) 114 Erwin, Susan (49) [1] 33 Erwinia amylovora (33) 37 Eryngium (34) 336 -- alpinum (34) 338 -- amethystinum (34) 338; (39) 255 -- bourgati (34) 338 -- maritimum (31) 194; (39) 255 -- planum (34) 337, 338 -- `Violetta' (34) 338 Eryngo (34) 336; (39) 255 -- bluetop (34) 338 Erythrina edulis (50) [4] 12, 13 Erythronium (43) [2] 37; (55) [1] 4 -- americanum (55) [1] 5; [2] 25 -- dens-canis (31) 182; (37) 95 -- hendersonii (37) 95 -- japonicum (37) 95 -- revolutum (45) [4] 30 Erythroxylaceae (50) [2] 26 Erythroxylon (32) 25 -- coca (50) [2] 2627; (55) [2] 6 -- novogranatense (50) [2] 26 -- -- truxillensis (50) [2] 26 Erythroxylum kunthianum (48) [2] 7 Escola Politecnia [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] 38 Espalier, fruiting (59) [4] 17, 18, 1924 -- yew (59) [4] inside back cover 5 E 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Espeletia (33) 192 Espeletia schultzii (33) 193 Esplanade [Boston] (48) [3] 23; (53) [4] 6, 11, 15 Essex County [MA] (48) [4] 41 Establishment after transplanting (56) [4] 1416 Estoril [Portugal] (47) [3] 37 Ethephon (45) [2] 3233 6-ethoxyl-1, 2 dihydro-2, 2, 4-trimethyl quinoline (32) 132 Ethoxyquin (32) 132 Ethnobotany (56) [2] 3840 Ethylene (59) [4] 1718, 20, 22 Eucalyptus (53) [3] inside back cover -- sprouting in (59) [3] 15; [4] 12 -- globulus (58) [1] 8 Eucomia (48) [2] 22 -- ulmoides (38) 162164; (39) 182, 225; (55) [2] 1218, 14, 15 Eugenia myrtifolia (36) 12, 18 -- uniflora (36) 18 Eulalia grass (44) [4] 5152, 53 Eulalia japonica (35) 57 Euodia daniellii (38) 138 (See also \"Evodia daniellii\") Euonymus, glossy (60) [4] 16 -- winged (30) 171; (36) 31 -- winterberry (41) [6] inside front cover; (55) [4] 8 -- winter-creeper (56) [2] 30 -- -- Japanese (56) [2] 13 Euonymus (30) 172, 173; (32) 241; (34) 63; (43) [1] 41; (55) [1] 18; [3] 17 -- alatus (30) 171; (36) 31; (44) [4] 48; (45) [2] 19, 24, 25 -- -- `Compactus' (45) [2] 24 -- atropurpureus (31) 234 -- bungeanus (41) [6] inside front cover -- -- v. semipersistans (55) [4] 8 Euonymus carnosus (60) [4] 16 -- elegantissima (55) [1] 18 -- fortunei (50) [4] front cover -- -- `Coloratus' (30) 158; (43) [1] 42 -- -- var. radicans (56) [2] 13, 30 ------'Harlequin' (43) [4] 8 -- -- var. vegetans `Duet' (43) [4] 8 -- hamiltonianus ssp. sieboldianus (55) [2] 30 -- latifolia (32) 70 -- macropterus (38) 88 -- radicans (51: [3] 7 -- -- var. vegeta (30) 166 -- sieboldiana `Shimoyo' (43) [4] 8 -- yedoensis (55) [2] 30 Eupatorium (31) 73; (39) 247 -- chinense var. simplicifolium (31) 291, 293 -- coelestinum (34) 339 -- -- `Wayside Variety' (31) 73 -- purpureum (39) 255 Euphorbia (34) 339 -- family (58) [1] 22 -- corollata (34) 340 -- cyparissias (31) 73 -- epithymoides (31) 73, 74; (34) 340 -- marginata (31) 73; (34) 64, 65; (39) 255 -- milii (34) 65 -- myrsinites (31) 73; (34) 340; (37) 96 -- polychroma (31) 73 -- pulcherrima (34) 64, 65 -- wulfenii (31) 74 Euphorbiaceae (50) [2] 27 Euptelea, hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 33 -- polyandra (38) 96; (46) [1] 35; (57) [1] 26 European larch (46) [1] 35 Eurya japonica (36) 18 E Cumulative Index -- -- `Confetti' (43) [4] 8, inside front cover -- -- `Harmony' (43) [4] 89 Eurytides marcellus (52) [3] 24 Eustoma grandiflorum (38) 83 Eutin, Germany (32) 143 Evans, Marc (46) [3] 24 Evelyn, John (32) 177, 183; (35) 163; (55) [3] 1112 \"Evergreens for the Retired Gardener's Garden,\" Donald Wyman (43) [1] 1320 Everlasting (31) 194 -- American (31) 196 Everybody's Ecology, Clay Shoenfeld [review of] (33) 251 Evodia, Korean (30) 170 Evodia (55) [3] 17 -- danielli (30) 170; (38) 138 (See also \"Euodia daniellii\") Evolution, floral (60) [1] 14 \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight,\" Sandra L. Anagnostakis and Bradley Hillman (52) [2] 210 \"Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants,\" Stephen Jay Gould (58) [1] 210; [letters to editor] [3] 2529 Ewan, Joseph (47) [4] 21 Exeter Street [Boston] (48) [4] 33 Exochorda `Carol Ann Bianco' (30) 254 -- racemosa (57) [4] 16 Exopolysaccharides (59) [2] 40 Exotic House Plants, A. B. Graf [review of] (34) 136 Exotic Mushrooms, Henri Romagneis, ed. [review of] (33) 304 \"Exotic Orchids in the Garden,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (41) 128149 Expedicion Botanica al Reino de Nueva Espana (47) [3] 16 Exploration for plants (33) 1325 Exploring Circle [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 41, 4344, 45 \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness,\" J. C. Raulston and Kim E. Tripp (54) [3] 2231 Exponential growth (32) 234 Extinction (46) [3] 3 Eyde, Richard (50) [2] 11 Ezust, Miriam Z., book review by (48) [4] 5859 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - F","article_sequence":6,"start_page":1,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25325","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060816d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"F Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Fabaceae (48) [4] 52; (60) [1] 6 Fagopyrum esculentum (31) 17, 204 Fagus (57) [2] 9 -- crenata (38) 95; (47) [2] 12 -- -- bonsai (32) 242, 247 -- grandifolia (30) 169; (31) 233; (32) 83; (38) 32; (49) [4] 24; (55) [3] 6, 12; (59) [2] 37; [4] 11, 12 -- orientalis (49) [4] 35 -- sylvatica (30) 169; (31) 233; (32) 83, 91; (42) [1] 14, 3233, 3536, 38, 4041, 43, inside back cover -- -- `Atropunicea' (33) 203; (42) [1] 33, 36, 38, 40, 42; (46) [1] 35 -- -- `Dawyck Gold' (33) 202 -- -- `Dawyck Purple' (33) 203 -- -- `Fastigata' (33) 203; (54) [1] 32, 33 -- -- var. laciniata (32) 73 -- -- `Rohan Gold' (33) 203 -- -- `Rohanii' (33) 203 -- -- `Tortuosa' (39) 28; (49) [1] inside back cover -- -- `Zlatia' (33) 203 Fairchild, David (31) 8; (33) 16, 18; (44) [3] 4, 711, 14, 15, 20, 22, 23; (58) [1] 17 Fairchild Tropical Garden [FL] (46) [3] 7 Faire haird iacinth [Gerard] (31) 184 Fair-maids-of-France (31) 168, 193 Fairmount Park [Philadelphia, PA] (57) [2] 8 Fairsted [Brookline, MA] (51) [3] 8; (56) [2] front cover, 220, 8, 13, 17, 19, 2627, 3031, inside back cover, back cover -- Hollow (56) [2] 6, 7, 9, 1213 -- -- planting plan (56) [2] 1415, 16, 17; 2728, 29 -- plan (56) [2] 6 -- rock garden (56) [2] 6, 9, 12, 27 \"Fairsted: A Landscape as Olmsted's Looking Glass,\" Mac Griswold (56); [2] 220 Fairy-bells, Korean (52) [2] 40 \"Faith in a Seed and a Squirrel: Book Review and Excerpt,\" Peter Del Tredici (53) [2]2429 Fakuda, hybrid (50) [1] 31 Falk, Donald A., and Francis R. Thibodeau, \"Saving the Rarest\" (46) [3] 218 Fallopia japonica (57) [3] 1314, 1519 -- -- `Crimson Beauty' (57) [3] 18 False cypress (32) 65; (37) 4850 -- -- sawara (39) 206, 207 -- dragonhead (31) 135, 136; (35) 24 -- hellebore (34) 90; (38) 87 False-spirea (38) 108 -- Ural (41) 190; (44) [4] 46, 48 -- -- flowers (44) [4] 47 Fan Memorial Institute of Biology [Beijing] (35) 276; (48) [2] 17, 21 Faneuil Hall [Boston] (47) [4] 31 Farges, Paul Guillaume (Pere) (48) [1] 25; (57) [2] 23 Fargesia murielae (58) [3] 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17 -- -- history (58) [3] 15 Fargesia spathacea [= F. murielae] (49) [2] front cover, 32 Farlow, William G. (60) [2] 8 \"Farming on Vacant City Lots\" [1896] (60) [3] 3536 Farquhar, R. and J., and Company (57) [3] 18 Farrand, Beatrix Jones (30) 85, 157; (31) 55; (39) 332; (51) [3] 210; (52) [1] 917; (57) [1] 3, 5, 10, 11; (59) [3] 26; (60) [3] 5 -- -- -- The Bulletins of Reef Point Gardens [review of] (57) [4] 3335 -- hybrids (31) 55 Farrand, Max (52) [1] 9, 11, 16; (59) [3] 10 Farrer, Reginald (31) 51; (33) 14, 15, 18; (44) [3] 18, 19, 25 \"Fascination with Dogwoods,\" Mary M. B. Wakefield (50) [2] 815 Fastigiate trees (54) [1] 3134 \"The Fate of a Ficus,\" Peter Del Tredici (49) [4] 3033 Fatsia (32) 241; (55) [3] 18 Faull, J. Horace (32) 12, 54; (33) 43 Fauria crista-galli (38) 94 F 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Favretti, Rudy J., \"Colonial Gardens\" (31) 145171 -- -- -- \"Colonial Garden Plants,\" with Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (31) 172249 Faxon, Charles Edward (31) 349, 354; (32) 7, 20, 52, 189; (46) [3] 18, 1922; (49) [1] 15 -- -- -- drawings by (46) [3] 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 19, 21, 22, 27, 29, 39; (47) [3] inside back cover, 2; (48) [1] 2; (52) [3] inside front cover; [4] inside front cover; (53) [2] inside front cover, inside back cover; (54) [2] 14; (55) [4] 19; (57) [1] 19; (60) [2] 6, 8, 10 -- -- -- -- -- for Christmas cards (30) 195 Fay, Joseph Story (48) [3] 27 Featherbells (37) 178 Featherfew (31) 168 -- golden (39) 245 Feder, Dr. William (30) 43 Fehrenback, William E., Jr., \"The Eastern Hop Hornbeam: Its Natural History and Landscape Potential\" (44) [2] 2337 Felis bengalensis (52) [4] 9 Fendlera rupicola (42) [4] 141, 143 Fenicchia, Richard A. (32) 133 Fennel (31) 200 -- common (39) 255 -- flower (31) 191; (39) 261 Fenusa pusilla (38) 94 Fenway, Boston (54) [1] 25 Fenzel, G. (57) [2] 23 Ferdinand VI [Spain] (47) [3] 4, 5 Ferguson, A. R., \"E. H. Wilson, Yichang, and the Kiwifruit\" (43) [4] 2435 Ferguson, Al (52) [3] 17 Fermate (32) 128 Fermentation (49) [4] 14, 18 Fern, Christmas (55) [3] 6 -- climbing (45) [3] 1, inside back cover -- -- distribution of in New England (45) [3] 27, 28 -- -- fertile pinnae of (45) [3] 29 -- -- frond of (45) [3] inside back cover -- -- spore of (45) [3] 29 -- grape (55) [3] 6 -- hay-scented (34) 248; (48) [3] 24; (56) [2] 16 -- interrupted (52) [2] 42 -- Hong Kong (30) 2122 -- Japanese (47) [2] 30 -- -- painted (49) [3] 43 -- maidenhair (31) 229 -- ostrich (55) [1] 9 -- royal (48) [3] 24 -- sensitive (34) 249; (48) [3] 24 -- spinulose wood (55) [3] 6 -- sweet (31) 238; (52) [4] 29; (55) [3] 13; [4] 26, 2729 Fern Growers Manual, Barbara Joe Hoshizaki [review of] (36) 179 Ferns (52) [3] 10 Ferns and Palms for Interior Decoration, Jack Kramer [review of] (33) 308 Fernald, Merritt L. (32) 13; (60) [2] 44 Fernow, Bernard (60) [2] 21, 22, 23 Fertilization (37) 240241 Fertilizer, for bonsai (49) [3] 15, 17, 18 -- slow-release vs. broadcast (49) [4] 16 -- tree spikes (49) [4] 16 Fescue, red (50) [1] 11 -- tall (44) [1] 3 Festuca (54) [3] 8 -- arundinacea (44) [1] 3 -- californica (54) [3] 5 -- ovina (35) 63 -- -- var. glauca (35) 63 Fether-few (31) 183 Fever remedy, Madagascar (32) 27 Feverfew (31) 168, 183 -- golden (39) 254 A Few Suggestions on Tree Planting [Charles Sargent, 1875], comments on (54) [3] 21 Fiala, Father John (55) [4] 3435 F Cumulative Index Ficus (36) 10 ; (48) [2] 3; (60) [4] 2 -- aurea (36) 17, 18; (49) [4] 30, 31, 32, 33 -- benjamina (36) 14, 18; (47) [3] 38; (49) [4] 32 -- carica (31) 223; (55) [3] 17 -- diversifolia (36) 18 -- elastica (47) [3] 36; (50) [1] 22 -- lacor (36) 191, 218 -- lyrata (50) [1] 22 -- macrophylla (47) [3] 38 -- neriifolia regularis (36) 12, 13, 15, 18 -- pumila (50) [1] 22 -- -- minima (36) 18 -- repens (36) 11 -- retusa (50) [1] 22 -- -- nitida (36) 18 Field Guide to Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms of North America, Charles Kingsley Levy and Richard B. Primack [review of] (45) [1] 30 Field Museum [Chicago] photo from (54) [2] cover \"Field of Landscape Art\" (60) [1897] [3] 8 Fig (31) 223; (56) [2] 25 -- Indian (56) [2] 25 -- mistletoe (36) 18 -- strangler (36) 17, 18; (60) [4] 2 -- strangling (49) [4] 3033 -- weeping (36) 14, 18 Figlar, Richard B., \"Molecular Analysis: A New Look at Umbrella Magnolias\" (57) [4] 2229 -- -- -- \"Stone Magnolias\" (53) [2] 39, 4 -- -- -- photo by (53) [2] back cover; (57) [4] inside front cover Filago (31) 262 Filbert (or filbeards) (31) 223; (53) [2] 13 -- corkscrew (43) [1] 11 -- Turkish (39) 180, 181; (44) [4] 4041 Filipendula (31) 74; (34) 340; (43) [3] 3; (45) [4] 31 -- camtschatica (52) [2] 41 -- hexapetala (31) 74; (34) 340 -- -- `Flore-Plena' (31) 74 -- purpurea (34) 341 -- rubra (31) 74; (34) 341 -- -- var. venusta (34) 341 -- ulmaria (31) 74; (34) 341 -- vulgaris (39) 255 Filmore, Richard (32) 51 Fink, Jerry (52) [4] 14 Fir (31) 215; (32) 65, 76; (37) 9, 4042; (44) [1] 27; (48) [1] 248; (52) [2] 30; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 24; [2] 15, 16; (58) [3] 3 -- needles (32) 64 -- various spp. known as (48) [1] 5 -- balsam (45) [4] 22; (48) [1] 18; (53) [1] 27 -- Bulgarian (48) [1] 19 -- Caucasian (48) [1] 38 -- Chinese (48) [2] 26 -- Cilician (48) [1] 22 -- cork-bark (48) [1] 34 -- Douglas (32) 65, 185; (42) [4] 138139; (48) [1] 4; (49) [3] 10; (55) [4] 29; (56) [3] 16; [4] 8; (57) [1] 24; (58) [3] 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 -- European silver (48) [1] 16 -- Farges's (48) [1] 25 -- Fraser (48) [1] 28 -- grand (48) [1] 2, 29 -- giant (42) [4] 149 -- Greek (48) [1] 21 -- hedgehog (48) [1] 39 -- Japanese (44) [3] 15 -- joint (55) [2] 3, 14 -- Khinghan (48) [1] 33 -- Korean (48) [1] 33; (60) [4] 17 -- lovely (48) [1] 17 -- Manchurian (57) [2] 21 -- Min (48) [1] 43 3 F 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- momi (48) [1] 26 -- needle (48) [1] 30, inside back cover -- Nikko (48) [1] 31 -- noble (48) [1] 41 -- red (48) [1] 17, 36 -- Sachalin (48) [1] 44 -- Shihoku (47) [2] 12 -- Siberian (48) [1] 45 -- silver (48) [1] 3; (49) [2] 19 -- Spanish (48) [1] 39, inside front cover -- -- blue (48) [1] 14 -- subalpine (48) [1] 34, back cover -- Turkish (48) [1] 20 -- Veitch's (48) [1] 2, 46 -- water (59) [1] 4, 8 -- white (48) [1] 23, inside front cover Fire, soil and (59) [2] 43 -- trees and (58) [2] 811, 23, 27, 3334; (59) [3] 18, 21; [4] 8, 11, 13 \"Fire Pines,\" Richard Warren and Alfred J. Fordham (38) 111 Fire-blight (33) 37; (44) [3] 21; (51) [1] 34 Firecracker plant (37) 220 Fires (30) 84 Firethorn, bonsai (32) 247 Fireweed (39) 255 Firmiana platanifolia (31) 16 -- simplex (31) [1] front cover, 910, 15, 16; (38) 140; (60) [4] 26 FIRS (48) [1] 248 \"First and Final Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo,\" Peter Del Tredici (58) [3] 1116 \"First Impressions of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Michael Dirr (38) 173179 \"First Japanese Plants for New England,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (50) [3] 211 Fischer, Cecil E. C. (47) [4] 13 Fish and Wildlife Services [US] (46) [3] 3, 5, 6, 13, 26, 34; (47) [2] 20, 21, 23; [4] 4 Fisher, Joshua Francis (49) [2] 23 Fitch, John Nugent (53) [1] 16 Fitch, Walter Hood (53) [1] 16, 17 Fitzpatrick, John C. (59) [3] 10 Fitzroy, Robert (59) [2] 2829 Fitzroya (37) 53 -- cupressoides (59) [2] 2729, 3031 Five Finger Mountains [China] (48) [2] 13 Flacourt, Etienne (Stephenne) de (32) 23 Flacourtia (32) 23 -- indica (32) 23 Flacourtiaceae (54) [3] 32 Flag [or flagg] (39) 257 -- \"Blue & Varied\" (31) 187 -- common blue (43) [2] 18, 19 -- yellow (31) 187 Flat-file database design (49) [1] 44 Flax (31) 200; (35) 1 -- perennial (39) 258 -- toad (31) 196 -- wild (31) 196 Flaxweede (31) 196 Fleabane, daisy (34) 165 -- fern leaf (34) 336 -- narrow leaved (34) 336 -- orange (34) 336 -- Oregon (34) 336 Fleeceflower (57) [3] 14 Flemer, Bert (51) [2] 20 Flemer, William III (32) 250; (51) [2] 8, 19 -- -- -- \"The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis\" (35) 181186 -- -- -- \"Island and Median-Strip Planting\" (44) [4] 428 -- -- -- \"Plant with Nature\" (30) 100 Fleming, Helen (39) 359 Fleming, Mary Rotch (54) [3] 13 F Cumulative Index 5 Flesh of the Gods (mushroom) (32) 205 Fleur-de-lis (31) 127; (34) 372 Fleutharrhane macrocarpa (48) [2] 7 Flick, John (52) [3] 17 Flint, Harrison L., \"Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, Exclusive of Florida and the Immediate Gulf Coast\" [reviewed] (44) [4] 55; 2nd ed., (57) [1] 21 -- -- -- \"Native Plants: Another View\" (43) [1] 3944; [reprint] (58) [3] 3032 -- -- -- \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" with Donald Wyman (45) [4] 3234 \"Floating Gardens of Mexico\" [1895], Charles H. Coe (60) [3] 4446, 45 Flood-plain trees (49) [4] 13, 14, 20 -- specialized adaptations of (49) [4] 8, 13 Flor de cacao (50) [2] 33 Flora, definition of (49) [1] 41 -- of eastern Asia (49) [1] 14 -- of North America (49) [1] 13, 14, 53 Flora Americae Septentrionalis [Pursh, 1814] (49) [2] 20 Flora Espanola [Jose Quer y Martinez, 1762] (47) [3] 47, 8, 9 Flora Hainanica [1965, 1974] (35) 284 Flora Iberica (47) [3] 22 Flora Japonica [18261870] (30) 145; (31) 42 Flora Mexicana [1893] (47) [3] 18 Flora North America database (49) [1] 53 -- -- -- program (33) 9, 10 Flora of Canton [1956] (35) 284 Flora of China [work in progress] (46) [4] 34; (50) [3] 29 Flora of Essex County, Massachusetts, Stuart K. Harris [review of] (36) 127 Flora of Japan [Jisaburo Ohwi, 1965] (47) [2] 32, 34 Flora of New Zealand, Vol 2: \"Indigenous Tracheophyta, Monocotyledons except Graminae,\" Lucy B. Moore and Elizabeth Edgar [review of] (31) 303 Flora of Okinawa and the Southern Ryukyu Islands, Egbert H. Walker [review of] (38) 116 Flora of Tropical Florida, Robert W. Long and Olga Lakela [review of] (35) 127 Flora of Yunnan (46) [4] 33 Flora of the Galapagos Islands, Ira L. Wiggins and Duncan M. Porter [review of] (33) 250 Flora of the Lesser Antilles [R. A. Howard, 1988] (51) [3] 13 Flora of the State of New York [John Torrey, 1843] (48) [4] 55 Flora of the White Mountains, California and Nevada, Robert M. Lloyd and Richard S. Mitchell [review of] (35) 190 Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis [17981802] (47) [3] 15 Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae (35) 277; (47) [2] 32 Floral dimorphism (31) 56 Florence [Italy] (48) [2] 18 Florida Gardening Month by Month, Nixon Smiley [review of] (32) 139 Flos Africanus (31) 190 -- multiplex (31) 190 Flower de Luce (31) 187 -- -- -- great Turkie (31) 187 -- -- -- white (31) 187 -- -- -- yellow (31) 187 -- gentle (31) 174 -- of Bristol (31) 193 -- of Constantinople (31) 193 Flowering Cherries, Geoffrey Chadbund [review of] (35) 189 \"Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum,\" David Giblin (60) [1] 1319 Flowering Plants of Hong Kong (30) 22 Flowering Trees and Shrubs: The Botanical Paintings of Esther Heins,\" Judith Leet [review of] (47) [3] 3940 \"Flowers--Art or Science?\" Margo W. Reynolds (37) 210211 Flowers for the King [Arthur Robert Steele, 1964] (47) [3] 4, 6, 15 Flowers of the Canyon Country, Stanley L. Welsh [review of] (33) 257 Flowers of the Wild: Ontario and the Great Lakes Region, Zile Zichmanis and James Hodgins [review of] (44) [1] 34 Fluorescence test for MLO (49) [2] 8, 10, 11 Fluorescent light (30) 64 Fly, lacewing (60) [1] 29 \"Flying Dogwood Shuttle,\" Sheila Connor (52) [4] 1722 Flyspeck (52) [3] 24 Foamflower (31) 228; (39) 268 Foeniculum vulgare (31) 200, 213 -- -- var. dulce (39) 255 Foerster, Karl (54) [3] 3, 6 F 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Foliage, autumn, 1971 (32) 290 -- preservation (37) 285288, 289304 Folk medicine (56) [1] 7 Foochow [China] (48) [2] 26 Forbes, James (32) 188 Forcing cut branches (31) 61 Ford Tropical Rain Forest [Atlanta] (50) [1] 14 Fordham, Alfred J. (30) 20, 182; (31) 294; (32) 51, 105, 165; [4] inside back cover, 253; (33) 43; (37) 254, 283, 284; (47) [4] 5; (55) [1] 3; [4] 4 -- -- -- \"Abnormal Leaf Retention on Introduced Trees in Autumn 1971\" (32) 290 -- -- -- \"Of Birds and Bayberries: Seed Dispersal and Propagation of Three Myrica Species\" (43) [4] 2023 -- -- -- \"Climate at the Arnold Arboretum\" (30) 186193 -- -- -- \"Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds\" (31) 6466 -- -- -- \"Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation\" (51) [4] 5962 -- -- -- \"Equipment Used at the Arnold Arboretum Weather Station in 1974\" (34) 426430 -- -- -- \"The Fire Pines,\" with Richard Warren (38) 111 -- -- -- \"International Plant Propagators' Society, 19th Annual Meeting,\" with Robert C. Kennedy (30) 117119 -- -- -- \"Propagating Prunus maackii\" (46) [2] 2527 -- -- -- \"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms,\" with Leslie J. Spraker (37) 188 -- -- -- \"Propagation of Fothergilla\" (31) 256259 -- -- -- \"A Simple Frame for Softwood Propagation\" (32) 160164 -- -- -- \"Stewartias--Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons,\" with Spongberg (35) 165180 -- -- -- \"Struggle for Survival\" (33) 235238 -- -- -- Weather Station Data, July 1970 to June 1971 (31) 368 -- -- -- -- -- 1971 (32) 289 -- -- -- -- -- 1972 (33) 341342 -- -- -- -- -- 1973 (34) 425 -- -- -- -- -- 1974 (35) 263 \"Foreign Plants and American Scenery\" [1888] (60) [3] 22, 2425 Forest Cutting Practices Act [MA] (45) [1] 10 Forest Department [Fujian, China] (48) [2] 27, 28, 29 Forest, eastern deciduous (48) [3] 18, 23, 25, 26 -- ecology (58) [2] 244; [3] 210 -- elfin (33) 195 -- flora of Japan (31) 23 -- hardwood (58) [2] 4, 67, 910, 1921, 34, 38, 39 -- remnants (59) [2] 4, 30; [4] 56, 8 -- soils (58) [2] 4, 68, 1315, 3334, 3741, 43; [3] 48; (59) [2] 3643 -- succession, Thoreau's concept of (53) [2] 24 Forest Environments in Tropical Life Zones, L. R. Holdridge, and other contributors [review of] (33) 298299 Forest Products Laboratory [US] (33) 73 \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" David R. Foster, and other contributors (58) [2] 3540 Forest Service [US] (46) [3] 4, 11 Foresters, Society of American (49) [4] 16 Forestier, Jean-Claude Nicolas (54) [2] 14 \"Forestry in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China, during the Cultural Revolution,\" Richard B. Primack (48) [2] 2629 Forestry management (45) [1] 1114 Forests, American (59) [4] 3, 5, 6, 8 -- Pacific Northwest (58) [3] 210 -- storms and (58) [2] 89, 2022, 3637, 40 Forests, ancient (56) [4] 23, 49 \"Forests of the National Domain\" [1895] (60) [2] 3437 Forests of Nepal, J. D. A. Stainton [review of] (35) 190 Forget-me-not (60) [1] 6 Forrest, George (33) 14, 15, 18; (44) [3] 26; (47) [2] 30 Forrest, Todd, \"Dugout Canoes, Arrow Poisons, and the Cure for Cancer: Book Review\" (56) [2] 3840 -- -- \"Nature's Relentless Onslaught, Redux\" (56) [1] 2224 -- -- \"Nature's Vagaries: The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections\" (55) [4] 215 -- -- \"Two Thousand Years of Eating Bark: Magnolia officinalis var. biloba and Eucommia ulmoides in Traditional Chinese Medicine\" (55) [2] 1218 Forsyth, William (31) 42; (57) [4] 15, 17, 19 Forsythia (31) 4163, 167; (32) 50; (43) 32; (56) [2] 25 -- early (43) [3] 32; (44) [2] 30 -- plants introduced by Arnold Arboretum (31) 63 -- Albanian (43) [3] 32; (44) [2] 30 F Cumulative Index 7 -- showy border (44) [4] 2324 -- Siebold (57) [3] 15 Forsythia (55) [3] 18 -- culture (31) 56 -- flower buds, cold damage to (31) 6466 -- habitat (31) 4849 -- key to (31) 6768 -- densiflora (31) 54 -- europaea (31) 50, 54, 57, 59; (43) [3] 32; (44) [2] 30 -- giraldiana (31) 51; (55) [1] 15 -- giraldii (51) [4] 35 -- x intermedia (31) 41, 45, 54, 55; (44) [4] 2324; (51) [4] 31, 35, 37 -- -- `Aurea' (51) [4] 37 -- -- `Arnold Giant' (31) 47, 53, 55, 56, 59 -- -- `Arnold Dwarf' (31) 45, 52, 55, 56; (52) [3] 13 -- -- `Beatrix Farrand' (31) 54, 55 -- -- `Densiflora' (31) 46 -- -- `Karl Sax' (31) 54, 55, 56, 59 -- -- `Lynwood' (31) 47; (='Lynwood Gold') (51) [4] 36 -- -- `Nana' (31) 41, 59 -- -- `Primulina' (31) 46 -- -- `Spectabilis' (31) 41, 46, 50, 55, 57, 59; (43) [3] 32; (44) [2] 30; (51) [4] 3435 -- -- `Spring Glory' (31) 47 -- -- `Tremonia' (31) 50 -- -- `Vitellina' (31) 45, 46 -- japonica (31) 51; (51) [4] 35 -- -- var. saxatilis (31) 52, 55, 57; (51) [4] 35 -- x kobendzae (31) 54 -- koreana `Bandal' (43) [4] 810 -- -- `Ilgwang' (43) [4] 910 -- makai (31) 54 -- mandschurica (31) 54 -- ovata (31) 41, 52, 53, 56, 57, 59; (43) [3] 32; (44) [2] 30; [4] 2324; (51) [4] 35,37 -- -- `Meadowlark' (44) [2] 3031 -- -- `Robusta' (31) 56 -- suspensa (31) 42, 43, 51; (39) 312; (51) [4] 35, 37; (56) [2] 24; (57) [3] 15 -- --'Decipiens' (51) [4] 36 -- -- var. fortunei (31) 42, 46, 57 -- --'Pallida' (51) [4] 3637 -- -- var. sieboldii (31) 41, 42, 46, 57, 58, 60 -- x variabilis (31) 54 -- viridissima (31) 42, 44, 46, 56; (51: [4] 35, 37 -- -- `Bronxensis' (31) 41, 45; (51) [4] 36 -- -- var. koreana (31) 45, 52 \"Forsythia Story,\" Donald Wyman [reprint] (51) [4] 3437 Fort Andrews [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 22 Fort Strong [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 22 Fort Warren [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19 Fortunaria sinensis (36) 78; (52) [1] 18; (55) [1] 17 Fortune, Robert (30) 180; (31) 118, 2, 44, 120, 267, 271; (48) [2] 33, 34; (50) [3] 11, [4] 28; (57) [3] 4 -- -- and cultivation of tea in US (31) 118 -- -- Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China [1847] (31) 293 Fossil Bowl [Clarkia, ID] (53) [2] 4, 5 Fossil leaves (53) [2] 1, 2, 39, 7, back cover; [4] 30 -- poison-ivy (35) 114, 115 -- site, P33 Miocene [Clarkia, ID] (53) [2] 39, 4 Foster Botanical Garden [Honolulu, HI] (53) [3] 21 Foster, David R. (52) [2] 3; FOREST HISTORY (58) [2] 244 -- -- -- \"An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests,\" with John O'Keefe (58) [2] 231 -- -- -- \"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" with David A. Orwig (58) [2] 4144 -- -- -- \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58) [2] 3540 -- -- -- \"How Land Use Determines Vegetation: Evidence from a New England Sand Plain,\" with Glenn Motzkin (58) [2] 3334 -- -- -- photos by (58) [2] front cover, inside back cover, back cover Foster, Elaine (49) [1] 29 F 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Foster, H. Lincoln, (55) [1] 2, 5 -- -- -- garden of (47) [2] front cover, 32, 34 Foster, Laura Louise (47) [2] 34 Fothergill, Dr. John (31) 89, 90; (35) 188; (47) [3] 1112; [4] 32; (53) [1] 14; (55) [2] 19, 2324 Fothergilla (30) 171; (36) 78, 107; (49) [4] 34, 37; (53) [1] 9, 14; (55) [3] 18 -- dwarf (31) 238 -- propagation of (31) 256259 -- seedlings two months old, 258 -- alnifolia (31) 90; (36) 83 -- carolina (31) 90 -- gardenii (31) 90, 93, 94, 95, 238, 256, 257; (36) 70, 83; (45) [2] 26; (53) [1] 14; (55) [1] 9 -- major (30) 157; (31) 90, 91, 93, 94, 97, 256, 257; (36) [3] front cover, 70, 81, 82, 83; (53) [1] inside back cover; (55) [1] 9 -- -- `Mt. Airy' (60) [4] 12 -- -- habitat (31) 92 -- monticola (31) 90, 93; (36) 81 -- parviflora (36) 83 \"The Fothergillas,\" Richard E. Weaver (31) 8996 Four-o'clock (31) 168 Fox, George (60) [1] 28 Fox Hill [Boston] (48) [3] 32, 33 Foxglove (31) 71, 182; (34) 62; (37) 220; (39) 254 Fragaria chiloensis (31) 226; (47) [3] 8 -- major (32) 272 -- vesca (39) 256 -- virginia (31) 226 -- virginiana (39) 256 Fragrance, in lilacs (56) [1] 2528 Fraim, Mrs. Irving (32) 270 \"Frances Williams and Her Garden Adventures,\" Gertrude S. Wister (30) 148154 Franchet, Adrien (46) [4] 20 \"Francis Parkman as Horticulturist,\" Walter Muir Whitehill (33) 169183 Franco, Francisco (47) [3] 22 Francs, Ernest, bonsai collection (31) 368 \"Frank Meyer, Agricultural Explorer,\" Isabel Shipley Cunningham (44) [3] 226 Frankia (55) [4] 2629; (56) [3] 4, 8 Franklin, Benjamin (53) [4] 22 Franklin, H. J. (33) 285 Franklin Park [Boston] (48) [3] 36, 43; [4] 2931, 29, 30, 31 -- Scarborough Pond (48) [4] 29 -- Zoo (50) [1] 2223 \"Franklin Park, Boston's `Central' Park,\" Richard Heath (48) [4] 2931 Franklin tree (39) 321, 325; (46) [3] 2; (53) [4] 22 Franklinia (30) 168, 169; (46) [3] 2, 7 Franklinia alatamaha (30) 168, 169; (31) 89, 238; (33) 83, 84; (35) 183, 184; (39) 321, 325; (46) [3] 2, 7; (49) [1] 5; [2] 23, 31; (53) [4] 22; (55) [4] 8 Fraser, John (41) 61; (60) [1] 27; [2] 10 Fraxinella (31) 183 Fraxinus (31) 17; (32) 66; (44) [4] 35, inside back cover; (49) [1] 36; [2] 8, 10, 11; (57) [1] 24; (59) [2] 37; (60) [4] 26 -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- americana (31) 232; (32) 67; (33) 43; (34) 238; (38) 157; (39) 106, 107, 228; (42) [2] 94; (44) [2] 8; [4] 18; (49) [2] 10, 11; (54) [3] 16; (55) [3] 6; (56) [2] 30; (58) [2] 36 -- angustifolia ssp. oxycarpa (49) [1] 39 -- chinensis (31) 17 -- excelsior (31) 232; (32) 67 -- -- `Hessei' (39) 183, 228 -- nigra (39) 183, 184, 225; (49) [2] 11 -- ornus (39) 184, 185, 226 -- pennsylvanica (32) 67; (34) 238; (38) 157; (39) 107, 108, 227; (42) [2] 94; (44) [4] 18; (49) [2] 10; (56) [1] 21; (57) [2] 29; (59) [3] 23 -- -- `Marshall's Seedless' (44) [4] 18 -- -- var. lanceolata `Honey Shade' (33) 204 -- profunda (57) [1] 14 -- potoamophila (44) [3] 12; (49) [1] 37 -- quadrangulata (39) 185, 186, 227; (49) [1] 55; [2] 11 Frederick, Prince of the Netherlands (32) 145 Free Public Forest [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 45 -- -- -- -- -- trustees of (48) [4] 45, 46 F Cumulative Index 9 Freesia (32) 220 Freezing damage theory of leaf curling (50) [1] 3435 French, Joseph (58) [1] 12 French, Peggy (47) [2] 29 \"Fresh Look at a Traditional Favorite: Rhododendrons,\" Richard Brooks (60) [1] 2026 Frey, Eugenia (39) 359 Friedland, LeeEllen, \"Garden and Forest's Journey to Cyberspace\" (60) [3] 23 Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands (48) [3] 21 Friends of the Public Garden [Boston] (48) [3] 4147; [4] 21 -- -- -- -- -- -- Committee on Horticultural Planning (48) [3] 4246 -- -- -- -- -- -- Memorial Tree Planting Program (48) [3] 44 Friends of the Urban Forest [San Francisco] (48) [4] 36 Friesenborg [Denmark], park of Count de Friese (54) [2] 1314 Fringe tree (31) 237, 366; (50) [4] 2431 -- -- American (50) [4] 2427, inside back cover -- -- Asiatic (50) [4] 25, 28, 2930, back cover -- -- Chinese (32) 72; (39) 176, 177; (55) [4] 13; (60) [4] 11 -- -- pygmy (50) [4] 2728 -- -- white (32) 72, 88 \"Fringe Tree and Its Far-flung Cousins,\" Rob Nicholson (50) [4] 2431 Fringed pink (31) 289, 291, 292 Fritillaria camtschatcensis (47) [2] 7 -- imperialis (31) 180; (53) [1] 1112 -- meleagris (31) 178; (37) 96 Froebel, Otto (31) 50 \"From Each a Voucher: Collecting in the Living Collections,\" Sandra Elsik (49) [1] 2127 \"From Fossils to Molecules: The Metasequoia Tale Continues,\" Hong Yang (59) [1] 6071 \"From Medieval Park to Modern Arboretum: The Arnold Arboretum and its Historic Background,\" William T. Stearn (32) 173197 \"From Private Allee to Public Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest,\" Henry W. Lawrence (57) [2] 210 \"From Witch Doctor to Modern Medicine: Searching the American Tropics for Potentially New Medicinal Plants,\" Richard Evans Schultes (32) 198219 Frost, Robert, Evil Tendencies Cancel [quoted verse] (52) [2] 9 Frost injury prevention, cranberries (33) 287 Fruit of China (31) 236 \"Fruiting Espaliers: A Fusion of Art and Science,\" Lee Reich (59) [4] 1724 Fruiting shrubs, dwarf (35) 230237 Fuchs, Leonhard, De historia stirpium [1542] (39) 237, 259, 288 Fuchsia corymbiflora (47) [3] 15 -- magellanica var. macrostema (47) [3] 15 Fuelwood (58) [2] 1520 Fuga daemonum (31) 216 Fugi (47) [2] 15 Fujian Forestry College (48) [2] 27, 28, 29 Fujian province [China] (48) [2] 26, 29 Fujiyama rhododendron (50) [3] 2 Fukien province [China] (48) [2] 26, 29 Fulham [England] Arboretum (32) 179, 192195 \"Full Foliage and Fine Growth: An Overview of Street-Tree Planting in Boston,\" by Phyllis Andersen (48) [4] 3237 Fuller's herb (32) 136 Fun with Terrarium Gardening, Virginie and George A. Elbert [review of] (34) 439 Fundamentals of Horticulture, J. B. Edmond, T. L. Senn, and F. S. Andrews [review of] (36) 36 Fung, Theresa (30) 18, 22 Fungi, soil (56) [1] 9 Fungicide (42) [2] 65; (50) [2] 18 Fungus disease (53) [1] 24 -- in forest soil (58) [2] 68, 43; (59) [2] 3640, 4243 Funkia (34) 364 Furlong, John, photos by (56) [2] front cover, inside back cover; (59) [2] back cover Furness, Fairman (60) [1] 10 Fuzhou [China] (48) [2] 26 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - G","article_sequence":7,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25326","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd0608526.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"G Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Gaillardia (31) 75; (34) 341 -- aristata (34) 342 -- `Burgundy' (31) 75 -- `Goblin' (31) 75 -- `Sun Dance' (31) 75 -- `Sun Gold' (31) 75 Galanthus caucasius (30) 78 -- nivalis (31) 229; (36) [2] inside back cover; (37) 96 Galax (31) 228; (43) [1] 41 Galax aphylla (31) 228; (43) [1] 41 Galinsoga ciliata (34) 159 Galium vernum (31) 227 Gallagher, Percival (56) [2] 9 Gallberry holly (51) [2] 1622 -- cvs. (51) [2] 1922 Gallop's Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19, 21, 22, 23, 29 Galphimia gracilis (36) 18 Galvin, John (48) [3] 34, 36 Gamble, Anne (49) [1] 31 Gang of Four (48) [2] 28 Gansu Province (57) [2] 23 Garcinia lancilimba (48) [2] 6 -- xishuangbannaensis (48) [2] 6 The Garden [British] (49) [1] 18 Garden, Alexander [Dr. ] (31) 94; (53) [1] 13, 14; (55) [2] 19, 2223 Garden and Farm Books of Thomas Jefferson, Robert C. Baron, ed. [review of] (48) [4] 5960 Garden and Forest (31) 23; (32) 51; (51) [3] 9; (53) [4] 3, 18; (54) [2] 14; (56) [2] 21; (59) [2] 3, 9, 16; (60) [1] 32; [2] 242; [3] 248 \"Garden and Forest and `Landscape Art,''' Ethan Carr (60) [3] 5, 78 \"Garden and Forest: The Botanical Basis of It All,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (60) [2] 79 Garden and Forest's Journey to Cyberspace,\" Lee Ellen Friedland (60) [3] 23 Garden Club of America, Emily Renwick Achievement Medal (47) [4] 14 -- -- -- -- Medal of Honor (32) 165 -- -- -- -- visit to the Arnold Arboretum (30) 243 Garden clubs, history (33) 104 Garden Conifers in Colour, B. and V. Proudly [review of] (39) 28 Garden design (59) [4] 2532 Garden Design: History, Principles, Elements, Practice, William Lake Douglas, Susan R. Frey, Norman K. Johnson, Michael Van Valkenburgh and other contributors [review of] (45) [2] 3536 Garden in the Heart of Heaven [Museum of Fine Arts, Boston] (52) [3] 3 Garden in the Woods [Framingham, MA] (46) [3] 6, 7, 10, 12, 3335; (47) [2] inside front cover, 16, 17, 22; (49) [3] 42; (51) [1] 15, 16; (52) [2] 42 Garden Pests and Diseases of Flowers and Shrubs, Mogens Dahl and Thyge B. Thygesen [review of] (36) 35 Gardener, William, \"E. H. Wilson's First Trip to China\" (32) 103113 -- -- \"Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea in the United States\" (31) 118 Gardener's Catalogue [review of] (37) 167 Gardener's Dictionary, Philip Miller (30) 144; (31) 90; (48) [4] 54; (54) [4] 4, 6 Gardener's Guide to Plant Names, B. J. Healey [review of] (33) 393 Gardenesque style (47) [2] 10; (48) [3] 36 Gardenia (56) [3] 16 Gardenia (36) 12; (53) [1] 14; (55) [3] 18 -- jasminoides (36) 6; (55) [2] 23 -- -- nana (36) 18 -- radicans (36) 6, 18 \"Gardening Books for Libraries,\" Gordon P. DeWolf (32) 115125 Gardening Off the Ground, Art C. Drysdale [review of] (38) 116 Gardening with Herbs for Flavor and Fragrance, Helen Morgenthau Fox [review of] (33) 254 Gardening with Perennials Month by Month, Joseph Hudak [review of] (37) 166 \"Gardening with Species Roses,\" Jonathan Shaw (43) [3] 316 Gardening with Wild Flowers, Frances Tenenbaum [review of] (34) 437 \"Gardens at Monte Carlo\" [1891] (60) [3] 1213 G 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Gardens in New England (56) [3] 2628 Gardens, Plants, and Man, Carleton B. Lees [review of] (31) 141 Gardens without Soil, Jack Kramer [review of] (37) 166 Gardoquia (31) 316 Garlic (31) 146, 206; (44) [3] 25 Garnier, Francis (32) 109 Garroway's Coffee House (31) 21 Garuga pierrei (48) [2] 7 Gas plant (31) 70; (34) 324, 325; (44) [4] 51 Gathering the Desert, by Gary Paul Nabhan [review of] (47) [2] 3536 Gaultheria forrestii (46) [4] 23 -- hispidula (45) [4] 24 -- miqueliana (38) 91 -- procumbens (39) 246, 256; (58) [2] 33 Gayfeather (31) 128; (34) 379, 381, 382; (39) 258; (44) [2] 28, 29 -- dwarf (31) 129 Gaylussacia brachycera (43) [1] 41; (58) [2] 33 Ge Hong (53) [1] 2, 3 Geary, Sheila Connor [see also Connor] (32) 265; (39) 351 -- -- -- -- -- -- \"Mr. Dawson, Plantsman,\" with B. June Hutchinson (40) 5175 Gebfert, C. H. L., paintings by (60) [1] inside front and back covers Gebhard, David (57) [4] 3032 Gelseminum sempervirens (31) 216 Genera Plantarum [Bentham and Hooker] (49) [1] 16 General Catalogue of All Plants in the Royal Botanical Garden of Ajuda, by Felix da Silva de Avellar Brotero (47) [3] 37 Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States (32) 55; (49) [1] 20 \"Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification Projects,\" Peter S. Ashton (49) [1] 710 Genetic resources (33) 23 -- variation of seedlings (37) 35 Genetic Resources in Plants, O. H. Frankel and E. Bennett, eds. [review of] (35) 238 Genetics, woody plants (33) 127134 Gentian, Plymouth (46) [3] 7, 9 Gentiana (45) [4] 29 -- acaulis (55) [1] 6 -- nipponica (38) 94 -- scabra (38) 83; (55) [1] 6 -- sedifolia (33) 191, 192 -- triflora var. japonica (38) 83, 90 -- venosa (43) [1] 37 Gentianaceae (31) 316 Gentianella (33) 193, 198 -- nevadensis (33) 191, 193 Gentians (32) 113; (33) 189198 Gentians, Mary Bartlett [review of] (38) 184 \"The Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens,\" Nils Hylander (30) 150 \"George Barrell Emerson and the Establishment of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Ida Hay (54) [3] 1221 George Robert White Medal (30) 156 George's Island [Boston] (48) [3] 19, 21, 2225, 31 Georgetown Cemetery [Washington, DC] (54) [2] 16 Georgia plume (46) [3] 6; (47) [4] front cover, 28, 5, 7 -- -- cultivation of (47) [4] 7 -- -- ecology of (47) [4] 45 Georgina (30) 136 Geranium, scented (34) 97124; (39) 245, 263 Geranium (31) 75, 183; (34) 98, 343 -- cinereum (34) 343 -- dalmaticum (34) 344 -- endressii (34) 344 -- --'Johnson's Blue' (52) [3] 10 -- grandiflorum (31) 76; (34) 344 -- -- var. alpinum (31) 76 -- himalayense (50) [1] 4, 9 -- ibericum (34) 344 -- lancastriense (31) 75 -- macrorrhizum (31) 183 -- meeboldii (34) 344 -- robertianum (31) 184 G Cumulative Index -- sanguineum (31) 75, 76, 183; (34) 346; (52) [3] 10 -- -- var. album (31) 75 -- -- `Johnson's Blue' (31) 75 -- -- var. lancastriense (31) 75 -- -- var. prostratum (31) 75; (34) 345, 346 -- tuberosum (31) 183 Gerard, John (30) 24; (31) 37, 116; (32) 136; (39) 316; (55) [2] 4; (56) [1] 3 -- -- Herball or Generall Historie of Plants (or Gerard's Herbal) (32) 166; (53) [1] 9, 10, 16 Gerbera (32) 220 Gerberia crenata (32) [5] front cover Germplasm repositories (58) [3] 32 German catchfly (35) 4 German Herbarius (39) 253 Germander (31) 184; (39) 241 -- wild (39) 268 Germination, seed (37) 1420 Geum (31) 76; (34) 347 -- borisii (34) 347 -- chiloense (31) 76; (34) 346 -- -- `Lady Stratheden (31) 76 -- -- `Mrs. Bradshaw' (31) 76 -- coccineum (31) 76; (34) 346 -- -- `Dolly North' (31) 76 -- -- `Fire Opal' (31) 76 -- -- `Princess Juliana' (31) 76 -- -- `Red Wings' (31) 76 -- -- `Wilton Ruby' (31) 76 -- macrophyllum (42) [3] 141 -- pentapetalum (47) [2] 5 Ghost bramble (51) [1] 3 \"Ghost Bramble: Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis,\" Richard Schulhof (50) [3] 1215 -- plant (34) 288 Giant chervil (39) 261 Gibberellic acid (45) [2] 2833; (59) [4] 22 -- -- effects of (45) [2] 32, inside back cover -- -- structure of (45) [2] 29 Giblin, David, \"Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum (60) [1] 1319 Gibson House [Boston] (48) [4] 21 Gifford, John C. (49) [4] 32 \"Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World,\" Richard Evans Schultes (50) [2] 2134 Gilliflower (31) 173 Gilliland, Frank (59) [1] 74 Gillis, William T., \"Poison-ivy and Its Kin\" (35) 93123 Gill-over-the-ground (39) 261 Gillyflower (39) 252 Gilman, Arthur (48) [4] 23, 32 Gilpin, William (54) [1] 31 Ginger (43) [1] 39 -- cultivation of (49) [3] 41 -- propagation (49) [3] 42 -- rhizomes (49) [3] 42 -- Canadian (52) [1] 26 -- European (47) [2] 17 -- magnificent (49) [3] 4143, 42, inside back cover -- wild (39) 251; (52) [3] 10 Ginkgo (41) 150161; (52) [4] 24; (60) [4] 2633 -- as street tree (60) [4] 2629 -- geologic age (59) [1] 34 Ginkgo (30) 169; (32) 285; (37) 5, 54, 55; (48) [4] 36; (51) [2] 215 -- and blood-flow (51) [2] 11 -- correction (51) [3] 32 -- cultivation for leaf production (51) [2] 1113 -- giant (60) [4] 3031 -- in legend (60) [4] 3133 -- medical use (51) [2] 1011 -- nut production (51) [2] 810 -- orchards (35) 269 3 G 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- plantation [Sumter, SC] (51) [2] 12, 13 -- pollination (51) [2] 9 -- shrine in China (31) 18 -- street tree (51) [2] 4 -- vegetative propagation (51) [2] 68 -- biloba (30) 169; (31) 18; (32) 63; (38) 143, 144, 157; (39) 108, 109, 228; (40) 175; (41) 150161, 151, 153158, 160; (44) [3] 4, 21, 22, 24; [4] inside front cover; (47) [2] 4; [4] 3; (48) [4] 36; (49) [2] 21, 23; (50) [4] 16, 17, 19; (51) [2] front cover, inside back cover; (52) [4] 210, 69; (53) [1] 21, 22; [3] 29; (55) [1] 34; [2] 13; [3] 13; (54) [1] 9; (57) [3] 22; (59) [1] 50; [3] 14, 15, 20; (60) [4] 34 -- -- `Fastigiata' (51: [2] 8 -- -- `King of Dongting Mountain', nuts of (51) [2] 10 \"Ginkgo biloba in Japan,\" Mariko Handa (60) [4] 2633 \"The Ginkgo in America,\" Peter del Tredici (41) 150161 Ginkgolide compounds (51) [2] 1113 \"Ginkgos and People--A Thousand Years of Interaction,\" Peter Del Tredici (51) [2] 215 Ginseng (53) [4] 30 -- American (39) 263 Giraldi, G. (31) 51 Girdling roots (33) 275; (56) [1] 1517, 18 -- vines (30) 91 \"Girdling Roots,\" Kenneth Shaw (37) 242247 Glacial action (58) [2] 47, 13; [3] 89 Glacier National Park [MT] (47) [4] 1112 Gladiolus (31) 184; (32) 220 Gladiolus byzantinus (31) 184 -- carneus (32) 222 -- communis (31) 184 -- recurvus (32) 222 Gladwyne [PA] (47) [4] 4; (60) [1] 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12 Glasnevin (47) [3] 36 Glattstein, Judy, book review by (47) [1] 2930 -- -- \"Hardy Aroids in the Garden\" (47) [2] 2734 -- -- \"The Daisies of Autumn\" (51) [2] 2331 -- -- photo by (47) [2] back cover Glaucidium (45) [4] 29 -- palmatum (37) 194, 195; (55) [1] 4, 5 Gleason, Herbert Wendell (46) [3] 5960 -- -- -- photo by (48) [1] front cover; (57) [1] 9 Glechoma hederacea (31) 185; (39) 261 Gleditsia (36) 194 -- caspica (49) [4] 35 -- heterophylla (44) [3] 9 -- japonica (60) [1] 6 -- -- var. koraiensis (38) 139 -- sinensis (31) 18; (44) [3] 17 -- triacanthos (30) 170; (31) 239; (32) 67, 68; (34) 236, 237; (52) [4] 26; (54) [1] 56; (55) [3] 17; (58) [1] 31, 32 -- -- range of (52) [4] 27 -- -- `Inermis' (59) [4] 10 -- -- var. inermis (38) 157; (39) 110, 226; (44) [4] 1819; (50) [1] 19; (54) [1] 7 -- -- -- -- `Emerald Lace' (33) 204 -- -- inermis `Royal Green' (32) 278 Glen Road Iris Gardens (47) [4] 15 Global warming (50) [3] 16; (58) [2] 2829, 36, 3940 Globe amaranth (31) 168, 184 -- flower (35) 49; (39) 268, 269; (44) [3] 13 -- thistle (31) 71, 72; (34) 331 -- -- small (39) 255 -- -- steel (39) 255 Globeflower, spreading (46) [3] 7, 13 Globularia (31) 189 Glory of the snow (37) 92 Glorybower (36) 18; (55) [1] 15; [2] 29 Glyceria maxima (54) [3] 8 -- `Variegata' (54) [3] 1011 Glycerine treatment (37) 285288, 289304 Glycyrrhiza glabra (31) 200 Glyphosate (49) [4] 17 G Cumulative Index 5 Glyphosates and soil fungi (59) [2] 39 Glyptostrobus (59) [1] 4, 54 -- clade (59) [1] 57 -- pensilis (59) [1] 8, 35, 36, 54, 56, 57 Gmelina arborea (48) [2] 4, 7 Gnetophyta, orders of (54) [2] 9 Gnetum (54) [2] 9 Goanikontes [Namibia] (54) [2] 4 Goat willow (30) 141 Goatsbeard (or goat's beard) (34) 290; (52) [3] 10 -- false (34) 293 -- spirea (56) [2] 25 God's carpet (39) 268 Goetzia elegans (46) [3] 7 Goff, Captain (31) 21 Goh, Melvin, \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Richard Primack and Meekiong Kalu (60) [4] 39 Gold moss (39) 266 Golden chain tree (32) 66, 77; (34) 69 -- needles (37) 200 Golden rain tree (30) 171; (31) 238; (32) 69, 85; (34) 134, 135; (37) 223, 226; (38) 30, 102, 105; (39) 112, 113; (56) [2] 32 37; (60) [1] 18 \"Golden Waterworks: Toraja Rituals of the Wet-Rice Landscape,\" Charles Zerner (45) [3] 212 Goldenrod (35) 41; (39) 266; (51) [2] 23, 2631; (52) [4] 29; (56) [2]; 24 -- Canada (34) 195 Goldenseal (46) [3] 9 Gomez-Ortega, Casimiro (30) 137; (47) [3] 6, 911, 1319 Gomez-Pompa, Arturo (32) 263 Gomortegaceae (59) [2] 27 Gomortega keule (32) 211; (41) 84, 85 Gomphrena (31) 168 Gomphrena globosa (31) 172, 175, 184 Gonolobus obliquus (33) 307 Goodale, D. H. R., \"Delights of a Rough Garden\" [1896] (60) [3] 35 Goodale, George L. (51) [3] 22, 23; (60) [2] 7; [3] 32 Goodell, Edward, \"Castanea mollissima: A Chinese Chestnut for the Northeast\" (43) [3] 1727 -- -- \"Two Promising Fruit Plants for Northern Landscapes\" (42) [4] 103133 -- -- \"Walnuts for the Northeast\" (44) [1] 219 Goodell, Hank (49) [1] 73, [4] 10 Goodell, Henry Staunton (31) 294; (39) 343, 346; (41) 240 Goodwin, Joan W., \"A Kind of Botanic Mania\" (56) [4] 1724 Goodyear, Charles (44) [2] 5, 10 Goodyera oblongifolia (45) [4] 23 -- pubescens (37) 186 -- repens (37) 186; (45) [4] 23 -- tesselata (45) [4] 23 Gooseberry (31) 223 -- Chinese or Ichang (30) 181 Gordon, George (49) [3] 13 Gorilla, lowland (50) [1] 14, 15, 23 Gosnold, Bartholomew, and sassafras (36) 26 Goss and Munson [firm] (48) [4] 23 Gossypium (52) [2] 26 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- herbaceum (31) 231 Gottingen, Botanic Garden of [Germany] (31) 45 Gould, Augustus Addison (Dr. ) (48) [3] 3536 Gould, Ernest, \"Managing a Small Woodlot\" (45) [1] 210 Gould, Stephen Jay, \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants\" (58) [1] 210; [letters to editor about] [3] 2529 Gouldes (31) 176 Gourd (31) 206 -- English (31) 146 -- tree, wild (52) [2] 25 Gourlay, Robert (53) [4] 8 Government Center [Boston] (48) [4] 36 Government Experimental and Propagating Garden [Washington, DC] (31) 10, 12 Governor's Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 31 G 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Grafting, propagation technique (37) 3138, 35, 36, 39 Gramercy Park [NY] (57) [2] 9 Grand Canal, Sceaux [France] (54) [1] 1722, 1921 Grand Couvert, Tuileries [Paris] (54) [1] 13, 14, 17 Grandfather Mountain [NC] (31) 97 Granny gray-beard (31) 89 Grape (31) 223, 238; (48) [3] 24 -- bird (36) 20 -- `Concord' (48) [4] 516, 9 -- fox (39) 269 -- `Thompson Seedless' (45) [2] inside back cover -- vine (39) 269 -- wild (39) 269; (49) [2] 19; (56) [3] 16 Grape-flower (31) 185 Grapefruit (36) 18 Grape hyacinth (31) 184; (37) 97 Grape Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 21, 22, 23, 25 Grass (34) 218 -- bent (34) 218, 219 -- centipede (44) [3] 25 -- Chinese silver (44) [4] 5152, 53 -- crab (34) 218, 219 -- deer (54) [3] 6 -- giant feather (52) [2] 45 -- pampas (54) [3] 9 -- red-top (34) 218 -- ribbon (44) [4] 5354 -- squirrel-tail (34) 218, 219 -- susuki (31) 287, 292 -- tall fescue (44) [1] 3 -- Whitlow (31) 230 Grass cloth (31) 18 Grasses, as groundcovers (54) [3] 11 -- grown in containers (54) [3] 11 -- ornamental (54) [3] 211 -- -- hardy (35) 5663 -- perennial, culture of (54) [3] 611 -- true, general description of (54) [3] 6 Grasswort, starry (34) 306 Graves, A. H. (52) [2] 6 Gray, Asa (32) 6, 49, 175; (36) 57, 58; (45) [1] 2829; [3] 14, 15, 17, 18; (46) [3] 26, 28, 30, 31; (47) [4] 4, 32; (48) [2] 9; [4] 34; (49) [1] 1114; (50) [3] 4, 5; (51) [4] 411; (53) [4] 20, 26; (54) [3] 16, 20; (56) [4] 23; (60) [2] 7 Gray, E. S. photos by (39) [3] inside front cover; [3] inside back cover Gray, Horace (48) [3] 33, 34 Gray, William (48) [3] 33 Gray Herbarium [Harvard University] (47) [4] 13; (48) [2] 13, 19; (50) [4] 28; (60) [2] 44, 45 Great American Forest, Rutherford Platt [review of] (32) 47 Great Brewster Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19, 21, 22, 25 Great Britain (48) [1] 41 \"Great Catalpa Craze,\" Peter Del Tredici (46) [2] 210 Great Hurricane [September 1938] (46) [1] 30 Great Northern Railroad (47) [4] 12 Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution [China] (48) [2] 2223, 26, 27 Great Smoky Mountains [NCTN] (48) [4] 52 Greece (48) [1] 19 Green dragon (37) 171 -- dye (31) 17 -- revolution (32) 230 Green Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 25 Green Park [London, England] (57) [2] 8 Green, Peter (49) [1] 20 Green Swamp [NC SC] (47) [2] 21; (49) [4] 8 Greene, Gardiner (47) [4] 27, 28 Greenhouse, Ruth, Gary Paul Nabhan, and Wendy Hodgson, \"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the United States and Mexico\" (46) [3] 3646 The Greening of Boston: An Action Agenda [excerpts from] (48) [3] 5, 17, 2122 Greenough, Mrs. Henry V., garden of (56) [2] 11; (57) [1] 68 G Cumulative Index Greenworks, Judith Handelsman and Sara Baerwald [review of] (34) 436 Grenville, Lord of Dropmore (32) 185 Gressitt, J. Linsley (59) [1] 35, 36, 4851 -- -- -- \"The California AcademyLingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition\" [excerpt, 1953] (59) [1] 3539 -- -- -- photos by (59) [1] 3639, 50 Grevillea (36) 6, 7 Grewia biloba (38) 135 -- falcata (48) [2] 6 Grey, Robert M. (51) [3] 23, 27, 28 Grey Towers [PA] (59) [4] 2931, 32, Greylock, Mount [MA] (49) [4] 27 Gridley, Kate, and John Barstow, book review by (47) [3] 3940 Griffin, Frank (46) [1] 10 Griffin, Ruth (49) [1] 33 Grimaldi, Marques de (47) [3] 10 Griswold, Mac, \"Fairsted: A Landscape as Olmsted's Looking Glass\" (56) [2] 220 -- -- \"The Influence of Garden and Forest on the Development of Horticulture\" (60) [3] 2932 Groff, Paul (39) 358 Gronovius (55) [2] 2124 Grosvenor Square [London, England] (57) [2] 7 Groundcover (30) 95; (49) [3] 3940 -- plots (31) 34 \"Groundcovers for the Garden Designer,\" Gary Koller (52) [1] 2433 Groundsel bush (30) 172 -- tree (31) 238 Groves, Kathy (49) [1] 29 \"Growgun\" machine (51) [1] 26 Growing season (30) 191 Growth, monopodial (44) [3] 2930 -- -- and sympodial (41) 13 -- rings (56) [4] 34, 10 -- -- eccentric (33) 58 -- sympodial (44) [1] 33, [3] 30 \"Growth Patterns in Woody Plants with Examples from the Genus Viburnum,\" Michael Donoghue (41) 223 Grunfeld Park [Saxony] (32) 149 Guaiacum officinale (36) 5, 18 Guang, Yang (50) [4] 17, 19; (52) [4] 5 Guangdong [China] (48) [2] 13, 18, 19 Guangxi Province [China] (46) [4] 49; (48) [2] 19 Guangxi, University of (48) [2] 19 Guangzhou [Canton, China] (48) [2] 14 -- liberation of (48) [2] 21 Guava (42) [1] 3 Guelder (or gelder) rose (31) 216 Guest tree (37) 226 Guide and Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers 18581957, Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten E. Lewis, eds. [review of] (46) [4] 6470 \"Guide by Plant Family to Foliage Preservation,\" Sheila Magullion (37) 289304 Guide program (32) 252 \"Guide to City Trees in the Boston Area,\" Richard E. Weaver (32) 5997 GUIDE TO THE FIRS [ABIES] OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM, Richard Warren and Ethan W. Johnson (48) [1] 248 \"Guide to Metasequoia at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Karen Madsen (59) [1] 8084 \"Guide to Potentially Dangerous Plants,\" Gordon P. DeWolf (34) 4591 \"Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree,\" Nancy M. Page (33) 261283 Guide to the Wildflowers and Ferns of Kentucky, Mary E. Wharton and Roger W. Barbour [review of] (32) 170 Guilding, Landsdown (57) [4] 20 -- -- lithographs by (57) [4] 13 Guilielma insignis (50) [2] 27 -- mattogrossensis (50) [2] 27 -- microcarpa (50) [2] 27 -- speciosa (50) [2] 27, 28 Guinea-hen flower (31) 178 Gum, black (30) 169; (31) 233 -- red (36) 98 -- sour (31) 233 -- sweet (30) 169 Gumbo limbo (36) 2 7 G 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- tree (52) [2] 19, 20 Gumwood (36) 98 Gunnera (54) [3] 9 Gunnera manicata (45) [4] 29 Guo Bingwen (48) [2] 14 Gurania (32) 213 Guthrie, Elinor (31) 268 Guyette, Richard P., drawings by (56) [4] 79 Gwinn [OH] (56) [1] inside back cover, 2932 -- -- plan of (56) [1] 30 Gwynne, John, \"Wilderness Horticulture: Himalayan Highlands on the Hudson\" (50) [1] 412 Gymnocladus dioica (30) 170; (31) 236; (32) 69; (39) 111, 112, 228; (42) [2] 95; (54) [1] 7; (55) [3] 17 Gymnosperms (60) [1] 1314 -- propagation manual (37) 188 Gypsophila (31) 35, 76, 129 -- paniculata (31) 35, 77; (34) 348 -- -- `Bristol Fairy' (31) 77; (34) 349 -- -- `Perfecta' (31) 77 -- -- `Pink Fairy', 77 -- repens (34) 349 Gypsy moth (38) 41, 42; (42) [3] 148149, 154, inside front cover; (53) [2] 16; (58) [2] 8, 2223, 41 Gymnosperms (59) [1] 8, 10, 42 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - H","article_sequence":8,"start_page":1,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25327","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060856b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"H Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Haas, William J., \"Transplanting Botany to China: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong\" (48) [2] 925 Habenaria davidii (46) [4] 30 \"Habit to Cultivate,\" Gary Koller (53) [2] 2123 Habitat, conservation of (46) [3] 14 Hackberry (32) 84; (39) 97, 98; (44) [4] 16, 17; (54) [1] 6, 7; (57) [1] 26 -- common (31) 216; (39) 176 -- Jesso (39) 175, 176 -- sugar (39) 146 Hagar, Adel, drawing by (46) [3] 12 Haglund, Karl, \"Emerald Metropolis,\" (53) [4] 217 Hagopian, Helen (49) [1] 28 Hagopian, Lillian (49) [1] 30 Hahn, Carl R., \"Winter Gardens\" (43) [1] 312 -- -- -- \"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens,\" with Barry R. Yinger (43) [4] 319 Hainan [China] (48) [2] 19 -- -- islands (48) [2] 13 Hair-oil (31) 6 Hairy honeysuckle (46) [3] 10 Hakonechloa macra (54) [3] 11 -- -- `Aureola' (54) [3] 10 Hale, J. H., nursery [CT] (52) [2] 5 Halenia (33) 192, 198; (47) [2] 14 -- asclepiadea (33) 198 -- deflexa (33) 195 Halesia (32) 95; (53) [4] 30; (55) [3] 17 -- carolina (31) 89, 244; (32) 84; (39) 186, 187, 226 -- monticola (30) 170; (33) 87 Halifax Public Garden [Canada] (53) [3] 16 Hall, George B. (33) 174 Hall, George Rogers (50) [3] 2, 5, 6, 8, 1011 -- -- -- estate of (50) [3] 6, 7 -- -- -- Shanghai residence of (50) [3] 10 Hall, Helen Beal (50) [3] 11 Hall, Norton [Mrs. ] (32) 265 Hall, Pamela (56) [1] 12; (60) [4] 9 Hall's honeysuckle (50) [3] 8 Halle, Francis (45) [1] 19, 20, 22 Hallucinogens, plant (32) 204211; (41) 80125 Hamamelidaceae (31) 89; (36) 69109; (49) [4] 38 Hamamelis (30) 171; (31) 94, 310, 314; (32) 81, 82; (36) 69, 8491, 107; (37) 112113; (41) 33; (49) [4] 37, 38; (53) [4] 30 -- cvs. (37) 112 -- x intermedia (36) 84, 8688; (51) [4] 31 -- -- -- `Arnold Promise' (32) 39, 51; (36) 84, 86, 87; (37) 112; (41) [1] front cover, 31; (43) [1] 4; (49) [1] 55 -- -- -- `Diane' (43) [1] 4 -- -- -- `Jelena' (36) 86, 89 -- japonica (36) 70, 86, 88; (38) 30, 94; (43) [1] 4; (51) [4] 31 -- -- `Flavo-purpurascens' (36) 88, 89 -- macrophylla (36) 91 -- mollis (30) [3] front cover; (36) 69, 70, 86, 88, 91; (37) 112; (43) [1] 4, 24; (51) [4] 3; (55) [1] 15 -- -- cvs. (36) 88, 91 -- persica (= Parrotia persica) (49) [4] 37 -- vernalis (33) 86; (36) 69, 70, 85, 90, 91; (37) 112 -- virginana (30) 168; (31) 93, 221, 258; (36) 69, 70, 85, 91; (37) 112; (43) [1] 2, 4; (44) [4] 4243; (45) [2] 24; 55) [3] front cover, 2021; [4] 13 \"Hamamelis `Arnold Promise'\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (41) 3033 Hamberg, Barth, photo by (44) [2] inside back cover Hamburg, Germany, waterfront (59) [2] 12 Hamelia (31) 316 Hamilton Royal Botanic Garden [Canada] (49) [2] 4 Hamilton, Oscar Edward (47) [4] 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22 Hamilton, William (41) 155; (49) [2] 1423, 19; (51) [2] 5; (54) [1] 2425; (57) [3] 22; [4] 17 H 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Hammond Woods, Newton, MA (56) [1] 1011, 1314 Hance, J. F. (Dr. ) (32) 109 Hancock County [ME] (49) [3] 38 Hancock, William (32) 109 Hand pollination (56) [1] 10, 11, 12 Handa, Mariko, \"Ginkgo biloba in Japan (60) [4] 2633 Handbook of Hollies [notes and discussion] (30) 6771 Handbook of Wild Flower Cultivation, Kathryn S. Taylor and Stephen F. Hamblin [review of] (36) 177 Hangchow (or Hangzhou) Botanical Garden [China] (35) 268, 282283; (46) [4] 4, 5, 7; (55) [2] 14, 17 Hanke, Thaddaus (47) [3] 1, 19, 21 Hansen, Niels E. (57) [3] 6 Harbison, John (49) [1] 13 Hardening [off) (45] [4] 36 -- relationship to hardiness (54) [3] 23 Hardhack (31) 244; (38) 108 -- fountain (53) [2] 2123 Hardiness, effects of human intervention on (54) [3] 2831 -- in plants (54) [3] 2231 -- in woody plants (33) 113118; (45) [4] 3538 -- zone maps, discussion of (45) [4] 3234; (54) [3] 24 -- -- -- new USDA (50) [3] 1620, 17, 20 -- -- -- Arnold Arboretum's (30) 83 Hardwood forest (58) [2] 4, 67, 910, 1921, 34, 38, 39 Hardt, Richard A., \"Japanese Honeysuckle: From `One of the Best' to Ruthless Pest\" (46) [2] 2734 \"Hardy Aroids in the Garden,\" Judy Glattstein (47) [2] 2734 \"Hardy Asian Alders,\" Kim E. Tripp (55) [4] 1625 Hardy Brown, Susan (49) [1] 26, 30, 33, 73 Harebell (31) 186 Harlequin glorybower (38) 108; (41) 175 Harrimenella stelleriana (38) 91 Harrison, J. B., \"Value of Mountain Forests [1890]\" (60) [2] 2425 Harrison, Jim, photo by (56) [3] inside front cover Harrison, Joseph (48) [4] 53 Harrison, Mary (49) [1] 31 -- -- \"Jane Colden: Colonial American Botanist\" (55) [2] 1926 -- -- \"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire\" (60) [1] 212 -- -- \"Plant History: Expanding the Horizons of a Small Garden\" (53) [1] 818 Harry Lauder's Walking Stick (37) 120 Hart, Jeffrey (39) 358 Harvard, and botany in China (59) [1] 1216 and landscape architecture (59) [2] 13, 16, 19 Harvard Alumni Bulletin (47) [4] 19 Harvard Biological Laboratory [Cuba] (51) [3] 28 Harvard Botanic Garden [Cambridge, MA] (30) 166; (32) 10, 49; (49) [1] 11, 12, [4] 37; (50) [3] 4; (51) [3] 22, 27, 28; (54) [3] 20; (56) [2] 9; [4] 19, 22, 23; (60) [2] 7 -- -- -- plans for (56) [4] 22 Harvard Botanic Station and tropical garden [Cienfuegos, Cuba] (51) [3] 2232, front cover, 2326, 29, 30 Harvard Botanical Museum (60) [2] 7 Harvard College (48) [4] 26, 28; (49) [1] 11; [4] 4, 44; (54) [3] 12, 20; (56) [4] 17, 22 Harvard Experiment Station [Cienfuegos, Cuba] (51) [3] 29 Harvard Forest [Petersham, MA] (49) [4] 2, 5, 12; (52) [2] 3; (55) [4] 23, 28; (56) [3] 4; (58) [2] front & back cover, inside front cover, 2, 6, 15, 29, 33, 36, inside back cover -- -- Fisher Museum dioramas (58) [2] 12, 14, 1819, 24 -- -- Pisgah Tract [Westminster, NH] (58) [2] 28, inside back cover \"Harvard Garden in Cuba--A Brief History,\" Marion D. Cahan (51) [3] 32 Harvard Medical School (48) [4] 2526 Harvard School of Landscape Design (56) [2] 9 Harvard University [Cambridge, MA] (32) 174, 254; (48) [2] 14, 15, 20; [4] 28; (60) [4] 3 -- Committee to visit the Arnold Arboretum (47) [4] 13, 22 -- -- Corporation (32) 3, 17; (49) [1] 11 -- -- Green Committee (32) 254; (33) 315 -- -- Herbaria (32) 200, 262; (46) [2] 3538; (49) [1] 40; (51) [3] 14; (54) [3] 16; (60) [2] 44, 45; (60) [2] 44, 45 -- -- -- five-millionth specimen of (56) [3] back cover -- -- Press (47) [4] 21 Harvard Yard (54) [1] inside front cover, 211, 5, 6, 8, 10 -- -- elms (58) [1] 2732 -- -- gypsy moth in (42) [2] front and back covers H Cumulative Index 3 -- -- Tercentenary Theatre (54) [1] front cover, 67 Harvest drop (32) 128 Haskell, Alan C. (46) [4] 1213; (49) [3] 41, 42, 43 Hatch, Laurence C., with Arthur O. Tucker and other contributors, \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" (54) [4] 559 Hauser, Rick (32) 266 Haussmann, Baron Georges Eugene (48) [4] 33, 34; (54) [2] 1112; (57) [2] 10 Haustorium (51) [3] 11 Havis, John R,. (33) 117 -- -- -- \"Cold Hardiness in Woody Plants\" (33) 113118 Haw, black (31) 238; (44) [4] 26 Hawkes Brook [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44, 46 Hawks, Francis (31) 268 Hawkweed (31) 176; (34) 198 Hawthorn (31) 223; (32) 17, 73, 81, 84; (33) 269; (42) [1] 10; (43) [1] 5, 6; (46) [3] 22; (49) [1] 13; (57) [1] 24, 31 -- cockspur (39) 102, 103; (44) [4] 18; (50) [1] 20 -- -- thornless (44) [4] 18 -- common (53) [2] 13, 14 -- Crimson Cloud (39) 181 -- English (30) 170 -- glossy (30) 169, 170 -- Lavalle (30) 170 -- little-hip (43) [1] 6 -- Ohio Pioneer Dotted (39) 181 -- parsley (43) [1] 7 -- Paul's Scarlet (39) 149 -- single seed (30) 170 -- Washington (30) 169, 170; (39) 103, 104; (44) [4] 18 -- winter king (39) 104, 105 Hay, Ida [see also Burch] (32) 253 -- -- \"E. D. Merrill, From Maine to Manila\" (58) [1] 1119 -- -- \"George Barrell Emerson and the Establishment of the Arnold Arboretum\" (54) [3] 1221 -- -- \"Quercus x sargentii\" (40) 194199 Hayward, O. S. (34) 132 Hazel, Turkish (39) 180, 181 Hazelnut (31) 223; (37) 118120; (45) [4] 24 -- European (53) [2] 13, 14 -- Turkish (53) [2] 13 He Si (46) [4] 25 He, Shan-an (49) [2] 25 \"He Sowed, Others Reaped: Ephraim Wales Bull and the Origins of the `Concord' Grape,\" Edmund A. Schofield (48) [4] 416 Heart's ease (31) 191 Heartnut (44) [1] 1418, 15 -- Brock (44) [1] 17 -- Canoka (44) [1] 18 -- Etter (44) [1] 17 -- Fodermaier (44) [1] 17, 18 -- Marvel (44) [1] 18 -- OK (44) [1] 15, ,18 -- Rhodes (44) [1] 18 -- Rival (44) [1] 15, 18 -- Schubert (44) [1] 18 -- Wright (44) [1] 18 Heat islands [urban] (53) [3] 4, 6 Heath (32) 224; (37) 114116; (43) [1] 5; (49) [3] 40 Heath, Richard, \"Allandale Woods: A Fragment of the First Families of Boston,\" with Richard B. Primack (51) [2] 3339 -- -- \"Franklin Park, Boston's `Central' Park\" (48) [4] 2931 Heather (37) 104; (39) 252; (49) [3] 40 Heathers in Colour, B. and V. Proudly [review of] (39) 71 Hebb, Robert S. (31) 294; (32) 260; (49) [1] 20 -- -- -- \"Low Maintenance Perennials,\" Part I (34) [6] 253384; Part II (35) [1] 191 -- -- -- \"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum\" (30) 2526, 7274, 116, 168173, 251260 -- -- -- \"Perennials for Low Maintenance Gardens\" Part I (31) 2435; Part II 7082; Part III 127139 -- -- -- \"Plant Registration\" (32) 277287; (33) 199209 -- -- -- \"Story of Forsythia,\" with Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (31) 4161 Hedera helix (31) 240; (33) 122; (34) 66; (36) 11, 18; [4] front cover; (39) 256; (43) [1] 41; (56) [2] back cover, 13, 30 Hedychium coronarium (41) 203 H 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Hedysarum spp. (44) [3] 14 Heidelberg, Castle of [Germany] (56) [1] 3 Heima salicifolia (41) 98, 99 Heins, Esther (39) 361; (47) [3] 3940 Heisey, Rod M. \"Allelopathy and the Secret Life of Ailanthus altissima\" (57) [3] 28 Helen's flower (34) 350 Helenium (31) 77; (34) 350, 351 -- autumnale (31) 77; (34) 352 -- -- `Butterpat' (34) 351 -- -- `Bruno' (31) 77 -- -- `Moerheim Beauty' (31) 77 -- -- `Primilum Magnificum' (31) 78 -- hoopsei (34) 352 Helianthus (54) [3] 9 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- annuus (31) 196, 198; (39) 256 -- anomalus (46) [3] 39, 44 -- tuberosus (30) 247; (31) 203, 211 Helichrysum (31) 177; (32) 25 -- stoechas (31) 194 Heliciopsis lobata var. microcarpa (48) [2] 6 -- terminalis (48) [2] 6 Helictotrichon sempervirens (54) [3] 11 Heliopsis (34) 352 Hellebore (31) 185; (34) 353 -- black (34) 354 -- false (34) 90 Helleborine (41) 143 Helleborus (34) 353; (39) 15; (55) [2] 24 -- corsica (39) 2, 4, 5 -- foetidus (39) 4, 5 -- guttatus (39) 3 -- lividus ssp. corsicus (39) 4, 5 -- niger (31) 185; (34) 354; (37) 96; (39) [1] front cover, 1, 2, 256 -- -- var. altifolius (39) 1 -- -- ssp. (or var. ) macranthus (37) 96; (39) 1, 3 -- -- `Potter's Wheel' (39) 1 -- orientalis (34) 355; (39) 1, 2, 3 Helonias bullata (37) 181; (46) [3] 7, 35; (55) [1] 4 Heloniopsis (37) 181 -- breviscapa (37) 181 -- orientalis var. breviscapa (37) 181 Helosis guyannensis (32) 214, 217 Hemerocallis (32) 261 Hemerocallis (30) 9, 19, 20, 97; (31) 78; (34) 355, 356; (37) 198209; (39) 41, 256; (43) [2] 37; (47) [2] 12, 14; (54) [3] 9 -- cvs. (34) 358 -- `Apricot' (37) 201 -- aurantiaca (37) 200 -- `Bess Ross' (31) 79 -- `Cartwheels' (31) 79 -- `Chicago Picotee Promise' (37) 208 -- citrina (37) 200 -- `Dawn Ballet' (37) 205 -- `El Tigre' (37) 205 -- `First Choice' (34) 357 -- flava (= lilioasphodelus) (31) 181; (37) 200 -- `Frances Fay' (31) 78; (37) 203 -- fulva (31) 173, 181; (37) 200, 202; (39) 256 -- -- var. rosea (37) 201, 202 -- `Hortensia' (31) 78 -- `Kindly Light' (37) 207 -- lilioasphodelus (= flava) (31) 181; (37) 200, 201 -- `Little Hustler' (37) 198 -- `Little Rainbow' (31) 79; (34) 358 -- `Love Is' (37) 205 -- `Luxury Lace' (31) 79 -- `Mary Moldovan' (37) [4] inside back cover H Cumulative Index 5 -- middendorffii (37) 200, 201; (47) [2] 6 -- minor (30) 19; (37) 201 -- multiflora (37) 201 -- -- `Tinkerbell' (37) 201 -- `Satin Glass' (31) 78 -- thunbergii (37) 200 Hemerocallis Society (30) 97 Hemlock (31) 216; (32) 65, 76; (37) 77, 78, 153; (44) [1] 27; (56) [2] 27; [3] 15; (57) [1] 23; [2] 15, 16; (58) [2] 23, 35; [3] 2, 3436 -- decline (58) [2] 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 41, 42 -- Canadian (33) 208, 209; (43) [1] 19; (44) [4] 39; (45) [4] 25; (52) [3] 11; (57) [1] 23 -- Carolina (57) [1] 8, 23 -- Chinese (60) [4] 18 -- eastern (58) [2] 4144 -- poison (34) 56 -- Sargent's weeping (40) 202223; (43) [1] 19 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as mountain andromeda; see page 17 for the correct caption.] -- spotted (45) [1] 28 -- water (34) 54 -- western (58) [3] 2, 3, 6, 9, back cover Hemlock Gorge Reservation [MA] (53) [4] inside front cover Hemlock woolly adelgid (58) [2] 8, 2425, 4144 Hemlocks (48) [1] 5 Hemp (31) 206; (34) 52 -- African (36) 6, 20 -- palm (31) 3, 17 Hen-and-chickens (39) 266 Henry, Augustine (32) 103, 185, 189; (33) 16; (44) [3] 4, 14, 22; (46) [4] 16; (48) [2] 13; (49) [1] 14; (51) [1] 6, 13; (54) [1] 24; [3] 32 Henry, Benjamin, Rev. (48) [2] 13, 17 Henry Foundation for Botanical Research [PA] (33) 88; (47) [4] 4, 5; (60) [1] 10 Henry, James McClure (48) [2] 17 Henry, John Norman (60) [1] 4, 6, 8 Henry, Josephine deNancrede (60) [1] 3, 5, 8, 12 Henry, Mary Gibson (Mrs. J. Norman Henry) (60) [1] 212, 3, 6, 9, 11 Henry, Patrick, home of [VA] (52) [3] 15, 16 Henrya augustinii (43) [1] 26 Hepatica (31) 179, 186 Hepatica acutiloba (37) 96 -- americana (37) 96 -- asiatica (57) 21 -- nobilis (31) 186; (37) 96 -- -- `Ballard's Variety' (37) 96 -- triloba (37) 96 Heptacodium jasminoides (50) [3] 29; (51) [1] 14 -- -- bark of (46) [4] 6, 12 -- -- calyx of (46) [4] front cover, 9, 11 -- -- distribution of (46) [4] 12, 13 -- -- flowers of (46) [4] 5, 7, 89 -- -- foliage of (46) [4] 2, 5, 78 -- -- fruit of (46) [4] 57 -- -- germination (46) [4] 1011 -- -- growth of (46) [4] 67 -- -- hardiness of (46) [4] 6 -- -- in Canada (46) [4] 910 -- -- in North Carolina (46) [4] 9 -- -- inflorescence (46) [4] front cover, 5 -- -- notecard (46) [4] 14 -- -- propagation by softwood cuttings (46) [4] 1013 -- miconioides (46) [4] 3; (50) [3] 2932; (51) [1] 1314; (54) [3] 32; (55) [1] 9; [2] 30; (60) [4] inside back cover, 16 -- -- flowers of (46) [4] 8 Heracleum species (45) [4] 30 Herb Robert (31) 184 -- of Grace (39) 265 Herbaceous Perennial Plants, Allan M. Armitage [review of] (49) [4] 40 Herbaria, Chinese (35) 276283 Herbarium (33) 312 H 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- Arnold Arboretum (34) 402407; (35) 248250; (36) 33; (49) [1] 29, 51 -- Bogoriense [Indonesia] (55) [2] 89 -- Hesse [Germany] (33) 225 -- Harvard University [Cambridge,MA] (32) 200, 262; (46) [2] 3538; (49) [1] 40; (51) [3] 14; (54) [3] 16 -- -- -- five-millionth specimen of (56) [3] back cover -- Kew [London] (30) 137 -- Linnaean (32) 55 -- Nikita Botanic Garden [Yalta, USSR] (36) 115 \"Herbarium As a Data-Bank,\" Richard S. Cowan (33) 312 Herbe de St. Fiacre (39) 269 \"Herbert Wendell Gleason, Photographer\" (46) [3] 5960 Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Society of America, George E. Barrier [review of] (33) 256 Herbicides (33)256; (49) [2] 3; [4] 16, 18 Herbs (39) 239269 Herbs and fruits of Madagascar (32) 2329 Herdys Purse (32) 45 Herissantia crispa (37) 227 Herman, Dale E., and Norman P. Evers, \"More on Forsythia `Meadowlark'\" (44) [2] 3031 Hernandez Expedition (47) [3] 4 Hernandez, Francisco (30) 128; (47) [3] 4, 14 Hernandia ovigera (37) 219 -- sonora (37) 222 Hers, Joseph (48) [2] 34; (50) [4] 28, 29; (57) [2] 19, 24 Hesperis matronalis (31) 193; (39) 256 Hess, Charles (32) [4] inside back cover; (33) 125 -- -- \"Plant Propagation--The Union of Art and Science\" (33) 110125 Hesse, herbarium at [Germany] (33) 325 Hesterberg, Carolyn (39) 348 Heteropteris macrostachya (32) 214 -- riparia (32) 214 Heterotropa splendens (50) [3] 32 Heuchera (31) 79; (34) 359 -- micrantha (34) 359 -- sanguinea (31) 79; (34) 359, 360 -- -- `Chartreuse' (31) 79 -- -- `Fire Sprite' (31) 79 -- -- `Freedom' (31) 79 -- -- `June Bride' (31) 79 -- -- `Pluie de Feu' (31) 79 -- -- `Rosamundi' (31) 79 -- -- `White Cloud' (31) 79 Hevea (44) [2] 216 -- range (44) [2] 4 -- benthamiana (44) 5; (50) [2] 31 -- brasiliensis (44) [2] 216, 611, 13; (50) [2] 2731, 29; (55) [2] 15 -- -- plantation of (44) [2] 1415 -- guianensis (44) [2] inside front cover, 4, 5; (50) [2] 31 HEW (32) 265 Hewer, T. F. (49) [4] 36 Hewitt, Mattie Edwards, photo by (57) [1] 4 Hexastyllis (47) [2] 27 \"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima,\" Hiromi Tsuchida and Peter Del Tredici (53) [3] 2429 Hibben, Craig R., \"Anthracnose Threatens the Flowering Dogwood\" (50) [2] 1620 -- -- -- \"Mycoplasmal Pathogens: New Causes for Old Diseases\" (49) [2] 813 Hibiscus, hardy (31) 79; (34) 361 Hibiscus (see also Ibiscus) (30) 207; (31) 79; (34) 361; (54) [3] 9 -- `Appleblossom' (31) 80; (34) 363 -- austroyunnanensis (48) [2] 7 -- esculentus (31) 231 -- moscheutos (31) 79, 229; (34) 361 -- -- x palustris hybrids -- -- `Raspberry Rose' (31) 80 -- -- `Satan' (31) 80 -- -- `Snow Queen' (31) 80 -- -- `Snow White' (31) 80 -- -- `Super Clown' (31) 80 -- -- `Super Red' (31) 80 H Cumulative Index 7 -- -- `Super Rose' (31) 80 -- -- `White Beauty' (31) 80; (34) 362 -- mutabilis (31) 214 -- palustris (31) 79; (34) 361 -- rosa-sinensis `Snow Queen' (36) 5, 18 -- syriacus (31) 214; (38) 112 -- -- `Meehani' (31) 330 Hickories, hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 Hickory (34) 14; (52) [4] 32; (55) [4] 11; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 24; (58) [2] 7 -- pignut (34) 14 -- scaly-bark (31) 239 -- shagbark (32) 68, 79; (34) 14, 18; (52) [4] 31 -- shellbark (31) 239; (34) 14; (52) [1] front cover Hicks, Jennifer H. (39) 344, 346 -- -- -- \"Report on Hurricane Gloria\" (46) [1] 3035 -- -- -- The Miracle Houseplants [review] (39) 27 -- -- -- photo by (47) [2] front cover Hieracium canadense (34) 198 Higginson, Francis (53) [2] 12 High Rock [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 38 \"High-Grade Paper: Garden and Forest and Nineteenth-Century American Forestry,\" Char Miller (60) [2] 1922 Highland Park [Rochester, NY] (49) [2] 3 Highsted Foundation (59) [3] 14 Hill, Arthur (52) [1] 10 Hill, Polly (60) [1] 25 -- -- \"A Diversity of Hollies\" (47) [1] 213 Hillcrest Gardens [Weston, MA] (48) [2] 10 Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Sir Harold (57) 2] 25, 26, 29, 30 Hillman, Bradley, and Sandra L. Anagnostakis, \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight\" (52) [2] 210 Hillside House [Williamstown, MA] (48) [4] 20 Himalayan Highlands Exhibit [NY] (50) [2] 412, 5, 6, 8 Himatanthus (32) 213 Himeji City [Japan] (60) [4] 28 Hinoki, bonsai (32) 246 Hippeastrum striatum `Fulgidum' (44) [3] 3132, 33 Hip-Pocket Urban Tree Planter (44) [4] 11 Hippocrates (55) [2] 34 Hippophae rhamnoides (43) [1] 6; (55) [3] 18; [4] 29 -- thamnoides (43) [1] 6 Hiraea apaporiensis (32) 214 --schultesii (32) 214 Hiroshima (53) [3] 24, 2529; inside back cover; (60) [4] 33 -- Peace Park (53) [3] 25 Hirsh, Allen (54) [2] 36 Historia General y Natural de las Indias, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes (47) [3] 4 Historia Naturalis [Pliny] (30) 115 Historic Virginia Gardens, Dorothy Hunt Williams [review of] (37) 134 History of Dungeon Rock by Nanette Snow Emerson (48) [4] 42 \"History of Ornamental Horticulture in America\" Donald Wyman (33) 97112 \"History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America,\" Alfred Rehder [reprint] (51) [4] 2229 History of the Orchid, Merle A. Reinikka [review of] (38) 34 Hodge, Walter H. (32) 248 -- -- -- \"Japanese Bonsai and Bonsai Shows\" (32) 214249 Hodgson, Wendy, Gary Paul Nabhan, and Ruth Greenhouse, \"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the U. S. and Mexico\" (46) [3] 3646 Hodgsonia macrocarpa (48) [2] 4 Hoffman, M. B., \"One Hundred Years of Apples\" (32) 126132 Hoffman, William (48) [2] 17, 18 Hog Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19 Hogg, Thomas (53) [1] 15, 16 Hohman, Henry (47) [4] 5, 6 Hokkaido [Japan] (30) 163; (47) [2] 4, 5, 6, 30, 31; (48) [1] 45 Hokkaido University, Botanic Garden [Japan] (38) 84, 85 Holden Arboretum [OH] (52) [1] 7; (53) [3] 20; (46) [3] 1013 Hollies (30) 96 -- common (47) [1] 6 -- deciduous (47) [1] 9 H 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Holly (31) 90; (33) 24; (34) 67; (43) [1] 3, 6 -- American (30) 170; (39) 209; (43) [1] 6; (52) [3] 11 -- box-leaved (44) [4] front cover -- English (43) [1] 6 -- evergreen (31) 239 -- inkberry (51) [2] 1622 -- -- cvs. (51) [2] 1922 -- Japanese (30) 172; (43) [1] 14 -- longstalk (30) 170; (39) 210; (53) [4] 21; (60) [4] 16 -- swamp (31) 239 -- yaupon (36) 19 Holly, sea (31) 194 Holly-grape (35) 234 Holly leaf miner (38) 38 \"Holly, Yew, and Box,\" W. Dallimore (30) 141142 Hollyhock (31) 168, 186; (34) 167, 274, 275, 276; (39) 250 -- miniature (35) 40 Holm Lea [Brookline, MA] (41) 43, 52, 65; (46) [3] 26; (48) [2] 35, 36; (49) [1] 11, 12; (51) [3] 4, 5, 7; (52) [1] 9 Holmes, Francis W. (30) 38; (48) [3] 43 -- -- -- \"What Do You Do for Your Tree After It Has Been Defoliated by Gypsy Moths\" (42) [3] 147156 Holt, J. (31) 6, 8, 10, 14 Holt, Saxon, photo by (55) [1] front cover Holywood (36) 5, 18 Holzer mitteleuropas, Dietger Grosser [review of] (38) 84 Homalium laoticum var. glabretum (48) [2] 6 Homalomena gigantea (48) [2] 7 -- occulta (48) [2] 4 Homalanthus, as pharmaceutical crop (58) [1] 2126 -- megaphyllus (58) [1] 23, 24 -- nutans (58) [1] 22, 23 -- populifolius (58) [1] 25 -- rotundifolius (58) [1] 26 Honan province [China] (48) [2] 34; (57) [2] 18 Honesty (31) 229 Honey locust (31) 239; (32) 67, 68, 278; (33) 265; (34) 236, 237; (39) 77; (52) [4] 26; -- -- range of, 27 -- -- Chinese (44) [3] 17 -- -- common (30) 170 -- -- thornless (39) 110; (44) [4] 1819 Honeysuckle (37) 122, 123; (39) 260; (44) [2] 30; (56) [2] 23; (60) [2] 10 -- Amur (57) [3] 3 -- Asian (43) [1] 41 -- bush (56) [2] 25; (57) [3] 3 -- coral (31) 216 -- French (31) 216 -- hairy (46) [3] 10 -- Henry (43) [1] 23 -- Japan(ese) (50) [3] 8; (56) [2] 24 -- Maack's (57) [3] 3 -- narrowleaf Standish (55) [4] 8 -- southern bush (44) [4] 42 -- Tatarian (31) 239; (57) [3] 3 -- tree (57) [3] 3 -- wild (31) 239 -- winter (44) [4] 24 Honeysuckle family (51) [1] 14 Honeywort (39) 252 Hong Kong (30) 922; (48) [2] 19, 20, 31 -- -- flora of (30) 22 -- -- map (30) 1617 -- -- orchids in (30) 15, 19 -- -- report from, Shiu-Ying Hu (30) 922 Hong Kong Botanical Garden (48) [2] 17 Hong Kong Natural History Society (30) 10 Honshu [Japan] (47) [2] 12, 12, 14, 30, 31 Hooker, Joseph Dalton (32) 6, 50; (33) 256; (44) [2] 6, 9; (46) [3] 26; (49) [1] 16; (50) [1] 30; (53) [1] 16; [3] 14; (54) [2] 2; (57) [3] 16 H Cumulative Index Hooker, Joseph and William (33) 160 Hooker, William Jackson (47) [4] 30; (49) [1] 16; (53) [1] 16 Hooker's Icones Plantarum (39) 61; (51) [1] 13 Hop-hornbeam (32) 82, 94 -- American (39) 191 -- Chisos (44) [2] 2324 -- eastern (44) [2] 2327, 27 -- -- trunk (44) [2] 24 Hop tree (31) 240, 244; (35) 117 -- vine, golden (52) [2] 41 Hope, John (47) [3] 12 \"`Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston,\" Stephen A. Spongberg and Peter Del Tredici (52) [1] 1823 Hopei province [China] (48) [2] 34 Hopi Indians (46) [3] 44 Hops (31) 206 -- golden (39) 256 Horai-san (31) 264 Hordeum vulgare (31) 203 -- jubatum (34) 218, 220 Horehound, white (39) 260 Hormones and espalier (59) [4] 1718, 20, 22 Hormoroot A (45) [1] 23 Hornbeam (32) 82, 93; (57) [1] 26, 27, 28 -- American (31) 239 -- columnar (54) [1] 34 -- European (39) 9597, 95 -- Knowlton (42) [4] 143 -- Schmoo (54) [1] 33, 34 -- yellow (39) 173, 174 Horse chestnut (31) 239, 254; (32) 63; (54) [1] 4, 13, 14, 16; (55) [4] 12; (57) [2] 7; (60) [1] 17 -- -- dwarf (31) 239 -- -- European (52) [4] 29 -- -- Japanese (55) [4] 13 -- -- ruby red (39) 91 Horseradish (48) [3] 24 Horseweed (34) 208 Horsfieldia kingii (48) [2] 7 -- tetratepala (48) [2] 4, 6 \"Horticultural Education\" [1896] (60) [3] 30 \"Horticultural Education--Participants Warmly Invited,\" Louis B. Martin (33) 147155 Horticultural Hall [Boston] (48) [4] 25 Horticultural societies (33) 99112 Horticultural Society, Massachusetts (30) 2; (31) 315; (32) 187, 268, 269; (33) 174, 175, 180, 312, 328; (47) [4] 14, 21, 30, 31; (48) [2] 12; [4] 17, 21; (49) [3] 8, 10; (50) [3] 3; (53) [3] 3; [4] 8, 18; (54) [3] 17 -- -- Pennsylvania (47) [4] 14, 14 -- -- Worcester County [MA] (31) 315; (32) 268 \"Horticultural Trainees Program, Notes from the Arnold Arboretum,\" Margo W. Reynolds (37) 248250 \"Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum 19361970,\" Donald Wyman (30) 81 Horticulturist, or Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste (50) [3] 6 Hortulus, Walahfrid Strabo, translated by Raef Payne [review of] (31) 85 Hortus III (51) [2] 28, 29, 30 Hortus Kewensis (30) 137 Horwood, F. K. (54) [2] 8 Hosack, David (41) 159 Hosmer, Alfred W., photo by (48) [4] inside front cover Hosmer, Henry (42) [4] 154 Hosta plot (30) 98 -- variegated (49) [3] 41 Hosta (31) 80; (34) 364, 365, 368; (39) 256; (47) [2] 14; (52) [3] 10 -- `Betsy King' (31) 81 -- `Honeybells' (31) 81 -- albomarginata (34) 366; (39) 256 -- coerulea (31) 82 -- decorata (34) 366 -- fortunei (31) 81; (34) 367 -- glauca (31) 81 -- lancifolia (34) 370 9 H 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- montana `Aureo-marginata' (52) [2] 41 -- plantaginea (34) 368, 370 -- rectifolia (47) [2] 6 -- `Royal Standard' (31) 81 -- sieboldiana (30) 148; (31) 81; (34) 368, 369, 370 -- -- aureo-marginata (31) 82 -- -- `Frances Williams' (30) 152; (31) 82 -- -- `Yellow Edge' (31) 82 -- tardifolia (34) 370 -- undulata (30) 149; (31) 81, 82; (34) 370 -- ventricosa (31) 82; (34) 371 Hottonia inflata (43) [2] 7 Hou Debang (48) [2] 22 \"House at Honmoku in Japan\" [1888] (60) [3] 2021 House Beautiful (49) [3] 8 House Plants Indoors\/Outdoors, Ortho Book Division, ed. [review of] (37) 168 Houseleek (31) 200; (39) 266 Houston, Mark (50) [1] 39 Houttuynia cordata `Chameleon' (45) [2] 16 Hovarth, M. H. (31) 47 Hovenia acerba var. kiukiangensis (48) [2] 7 -- dulcis (39) 715, 8, 9, 11, 12, 14, 344; (38) 141; (50) [3] 8 Hovey, Chandler (32) 165, 255 Hovey, Charles Mason (40) 3148, 30, 43 Hovey, Phineas Brown, Jr. (40) 33 \"How Development's Clock Guides Evolution,\" John Einset (47) [1] 2025 \"How Land Use Determines Vegetation: Evidence from a New England Sand Plain,\" Glenn Motzkin and David R. Foster (58) [2] 3334 \"How Metasequoia, the `Living Fossil,' Was Discovered in China,\" Hsen Hsu Hu, [excerpt, 1948] (59) [1] 47 How to Attract Butterflies to Your Garden, Nick Rossi [review of] (46) [2] 4647 How to Control Plant Diseases in Home and Garden, Malcolm C. Shurleff [review of] (35) 296 \"How to Fund Botanical Expeditions,\" E. D. Merrill [correspondence] (59) [1] 2022 How to Grow Tree Seedlings in Containers in Greenhouses, Richard W. Tinus and Stephen E. McDonald [review of] (44) [2] 3132 How to Grow Wildflowers and Wild Shrubs and Trees in Your Own Garden, Hal Bruce [review of] (36) 278 Howard, Heman A. (30) 83, 138; (49) [1] 61 -- -- -- photo by (60) [4] 36 Howard, Richard A. (32) 5, 17, 18, 53, 165, [4] inside back cover, 253, 262; (38) 154, 155; (39) 330, 353, 355, 361; (46) [4] 15; (47) [4] 21, 22; (49) [1] 20; [3] 41, 43; (50) [3] 29, 32; (51) [3] 13, 15; (53) [3] 3; (59) [1] 16, 17, 47 -- -- -- \"Arnold Arboretum Introductions: The Second Fifty Years [continued]--19231972\" (38) 1225 -- -- -- \"Balloon Flowers, Bladdernuts, and Rattleboxes\" (37) 217229 -- -- -- \"Bernice Giduz Schubert, 19132000\" (60) [2] 4445 -- -- -- book reviews by (39) 71, 72 -- -- -- \"Botanical Impressions of the People's Republic of China\" (38) 218 -- -- -- \"Buckleya--The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum\" (37) 151155; [reprint] (51) [4] 3842 -- -- -- \"A Change in Arnoldia\" (30) 1 -- -- -- \"Director's Report\" (30) 201259; (31) 307338; (32) 249272; (33) 309337; (34) 385419; (35) 241258; (36) 237258; (37) 253277; (38) 185209 -- -- -- \"E. H. Wilson as a Botanist\" Part I (40) 102138; Part II (40) 154193 -- -- -- \"In Defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the Plant called Neviusia\" (36) 5765 -- -- -- \"Living with Poisonous Plants\" (34) 4144 -- -- -- \"Memorial Gifts and Plantings\" (33) 213214 -- -- -- \"The Nikita Botanic Garden, Yalta, USSR\" (36) 110118 -- -- -- \"The St. Vincent Botanic Garden--The Early Years\" (57) [4] 1221 -- -- -- \"Scientists and Scientific Contributions of the Arnold Arboretum: The First Century\" (32) 4958 Hsieh, Ling (52) [4] 5, 6 Hsienmu (46) [4] 50 Hsu Jen (39) 354 Hsueh Chi-ju (45) [4] 10; (59) [1] 46, 8, 9, 10, 1718, 22 -- -- \"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides H. H. Hu & Cheng\" (45) [4] 1118; [reprint] (51) [4] 1721; (59) [1] 811 Hu, Hsen Hsu (48) [2] 14, 15, 31; (59) [1] 4, 5, 7, 13, 14, 1518, 20, 21, 23, 40, 49, 51 -- -- -- \"How Metasequoia, the `Living Fossil,' Was Discovered in China\" [excerpt, 1948] (59) [1] 47 Hu, Shiu-Ying (32) 263, 268; (39) 354, 355; (41) 211; (48) [2] 3031; (51) [3] 32 -- -- \"Ailanthus\" (39) 2950 -- -- \"Mapping the Collecting Localities of E. H. Wilson in China,\" with Kristen S. Clausen (40) 139145 -- -- \"More About Tours of Botanists and Gardeners in China,\" Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (37) 157163 H Cumulative Index -- -- \"Notes on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus\" (30) 67 -- -- \"Report from Hong Kong\" (30) 922 -- -- \"The Tour of a Botanist in China\" (35) 265295 Hu Xiansu (48) [2] 14, 15, 16, 18, 21 Hua Luogeng (48) [2] 22 Huadianba [China] (46) [4] 33 Huango-po (30) 163 Huaxtepec (30) 124125 Hubei province [China] (48) [2] 13, 16; (55) [1] 1220; (57) [2] 1819 Huckleberry, box (43) [1] 41 Hudson Square [NY] (57) [2] 9 Hudsonia tomentosa (46) [3] 14 Hull [MA] (48) [3] 20 Hull, Catherine, \"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines\" (55) [1] 211, 9 Hull, Harry , Rear Admiral (32) 250 Humboldt, Alexander von (47) [3] 16; (50) [2] 24; [4] 4; (57) [4] 6 Humulus lupulus (31) 206 -- -- `Aureus' (39) 256, 257; (52) [2] 41 Hung lo-po (31) 16 Hunnewell estate [Wellesley, MA] (51) [2] 22 -- -- garden (56) [3] 27 -- -- main house of (50) [4] 35 -- -- pinetum (48) [1] 22, 25, 36, 42, 43; (50) [4] 3240 Hunnewell family (32) 176; (50) [4] 32 Hunnewell, Horatio Hollis (H. H. ) (50) [4] 32, 3438, 40; (51) [3] 7; (60) [1] 1, 29, 31, 32 -- -- -- estate of [Wellesley, MA] (60) [1] 31 -- -- -- Italian gardens of (32) 6, 187, 188; (50) [4] 3738, 39; (57) [3] 26 -- -- -- rhododendrons (50) [4] 37 Hunnewell, Louisa (52) [1] 9 Hunnewell, Walter (50) [4] 3240, 34, 37 \"Hunnewell Pinetum: A Long-Standing Family Tradition,\" Judith Leet (50) [4] 3240 Hunt Botanical Library [Pittsburgh, PA] (30) 2 Huntington Gardens [San Marino, CA] (52) [1] 10; (54) [2] 8 Hupeh province [China] (48) [2] 25, 34 -- western (30) 163 Hura crepitans (51) [3] 26 Hurricane damage to forests (58) [2] 8, 2022, 3637, 40 Hurricane, Great [1938] (58) [2] 2022, 25, 2729, 36, 37 -- -- aftermath (58) [2] inside front cover, 1, 9, 2022, 35, inside back cover Hurricane Carol (57) [1] 24 Hurricane Diane [1955] (46) [1] 35 Hurricane Edna (57) [1] 24 Hurricane Gloria [1986] (46) [1] 30, 33 Hurricane, Great [1938] (30) 82; (32) 14; (55) [3] 3; [4] 45 Hurricanes, publications on (46) [1] 35 Husk-tomato (37) 220 Hutcheson, Martha Brookes (57) [1] 10 Hutchinson, B. June (39) 351 -- -- -- book review by (45) [2] 3536 -- -- -- \"Taste for Horticulture\" (40) 3048 -- -- -- \"When Is a Pine Not a Pine?\" (44) [1] 2427 -- -- -- \"Mr. Dawson, Plantsman,\" with Sheila Connor Geary (40) 5175 Hutchinsia alpina (55) [1] 6, 7 Hutchinson, John (48) [4] 42 Hwa, C.T. (59) [1] 67, 20, 22, 40, 44 Hyacinth (or iacinth) (31) 184, 186 -- common (31) 186 -- faire haird [Gerarde] (31) 184 -- -- -- great purple (31) 184 -- garden (31) 186 -- grape (31) 184; (37) 97 Hyacinthus orientalis (31) 186 Hyams, G. M. (46) [3] 30 Hybrid names (36) 132 Hybridization (36) 131133 Hydathode (54) [2] 6 Hyde Park [London] (57) [2] 8 11 H 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Hydrangea (31) 228; (38) 110, 111; (53) [4] 23 -- early (60) [4] 14 -- oakleaf (38) 111 -- panicle (32) 71, 86 -- PeeGee (43) [1] 3; (57) [3] 15; (60) [4] 14 -- smooth (31) 240 Hydrangea anomala ssp. petiolaris (38) 153; (52) 1: 11 -- arborescens (31) 228, 240 -- -- `Grandiflora' (38) 111 -- cinerea (38) 111 -- -- `Sterilis' (38) 111 -- hetermolla (38) 111 -- macrophylla (38) 111; (45) [2] 1920 -- paniculata (32) 61, 86; (38) 111; [3] inside back cover -- -- `Grandiflora' (38) 111; (57) [3] 15; (60) [4] 14 -- -- `Praecox' (38) 111; (60) [4] inside back cover, 14 -- -- `Tardiva' (60) [4] 14 -- quercifolia (38) 111; (45) [2] 19, 26; (55) [3] 18; (60) [4] inside front & back covers, 14 -- sikokiana (47) [2] 12 -- `Tokyo Delight' (30) 20 Hydrangea-vine, Japanese (52) [1] 11 Hydrastis canadensis (46) [3] 9 Hydrojuglone (44) [1] 3 Hygrohypnum luridum (57) [2] 32 Hylander, Nils, \"The Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens\" (30) 150 Hylurgopinus rufipes (42) [2] 63, 81 Hymenocallis henryae (60) [1] 8 Hypericum (38) 110; (53) [1] 14; (55) [1] 18 -- calycinum (55) [3] 18 -- frondosum (38) 110 -- majus (43) [2] 7 -- patulum (38) 110 -- -- `Sun Gold' (38) 110 -- perforatum (31) 216; (34) 190; (39) 257; (45) [2] 20 -- prolificum (36) 31; (38) 113 -- virginicum (55) [2] 23 Hypertension remedy, Madagascar (32) 27 Hyphomyces lactifluorum (45) [4] 24 Hypnum cupressiforme (57) [2] 32 Hypogymnia physodes (35) 155, 156 Hyrcanian flora [Iran] (49) [4] 35 Hyssop (31) 172, 200; (39) 257 -- anise (39) 249 Hyssopus officinalis (31) 200; (39) 257 -- -- `Alba' (39) 257 -- -- `Rubra (39) 257 \"Hysteria Against the Case: The Population-Environment Crisis--Where Do We Go From Here?\" Paul R. Ehrlich (32) 226240 Hystrix patula (54) [3] 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - I, J, K","article_sequence":9,"start_page":1,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25328","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060896f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"I Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Iacinth, great purple faire haired (31) 184 Iberis (34) 371 -- amara (39) 257 -- gilbraltarica (34) 372 -- sempervirens (34) 372 -- tenoreana (34) 372 -- umbellata (31) 178 Ibbotson, Agnes (56) [4] 2526 Iceland moss (35) 143 Ice-nucleating bacteria (45) [4] 3738 Ichang flora [China] (49) [1] 14 Ichang Fu, China (32) 107 Ichang gooseberry (30) 181 Icones et Descriptiones Planatarum (30) 135 Icones Plantarum Sinicarum (48) [2] 17, 19 Iconographic Cormophytorum Sinicorum (35) 276 -- -- -- illustration from (46) [4] 7 ICONOGRAPHY OF NEW WORLD PLANT HALLUCINOGENS, Richard Evans Schultes (41) [3] 80125 Idesia (54) [3] 32 -- polycarpa (54) [3] 32 \"If You Decide to Cut,\" Ernest Gould (45) [1] 10 Ikada (46) [1] 10 Ilex (30) 6771; (31) 90; (34) 67; (55)[3] 18 -- bonsai (32) 247 -- cvs. (47) [1] 313 -- International Registration (30) 99 -- -- change in place of authority (30) 99 -- nomenclatural history (30) 67 -- aquifolium (30) 6770, 69; (31) 239; (47) [1] 6 -- cassine (31) 234 -- centrochinensis (33) 24 -- ciliospinosa (33) 24; (39) 208, 231; (47) [1] 8 -- coriacea (51) [2] 17 -- cornuta (33) 24; (43) [4] 16 -- -- `Burfordii' (47) [1] 1, back cover -- -- `Lydia Morris' (47) [1] 1 -- -- `Rotunda' (33) 15 -- crenata (30) 172; (33) 24; (44) [4] front cover; (51) [2] 17, 22 -- -- f. convexa (43) [1] 14 -- -- f. luzonica (58) [1] 24 -- decidua (31) 239 -- glabra (30) 172, 206; (31) 173, 228, 240; (51) [2] 1622; (56) [2] 12 -- --'Densa' (51) [2] 19 -- -- f. leucocarpa (51) [2] 18 -- integra `Green Shadow' (45) [2] 16 -- laevigata (47) [1] 10 -- longipes (33) 87 -- x meserveae (30) 68, 69 -- opaca (30) 170; (31) 239; (38) 38; (39) 209, 231; (47) [1] 2, 4; (52) [3] 11 -- -- fruiting branch, of (47) [1] front cover -- pedunculosa (30) 156, 170, 206, 211; (38) 38; (39) 210, 231; (47) [1] inside back cover; (52) [3] 13; (53) [4] 21; (60) [4] 16 -- pernyi (55) [1] 15 -- rugosa (30) 6771, 68; (38) 87 -- serrata (47) [1] 9 -- -- `Apollo' (47) [1] 9 -- -- `Koshobai' (43) [4] 10, 11 -- -- `Sparkleberry' (47) [1] 9 -- sugerokii var. brevipedunculata (38) 93 -- verticillata (30) 172; (31) 173, 245; (43) [1] cover; (44) [4] 49; (45) [2] 25; (47) [1] 9 -- vomitoria (31) 234; (36) 19; (50) [1] 19, 20; (51) [2] 17 \"Ilex glabra--The Inkberry Holly,\" Michael A. Dirr and John H. Alexander (51) [2] 1622 I 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Illicium, from Hong Kong (30) 15 -- floridanum (55) [3] 18 Illustration Horticole (54) [2] 14 Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayas [1834] (31) 14 Impatiens (33) 22; (53) [1] 9; (48) [3] 44 -- balsamina (31) 175, 227; (39) 257 -- capensis (31) 175; (34) 203; (35) 115 -- pallida (35) 115 Imperata cylindrica (54) [3] 11 -- `Red Baron' (54) [3] 10 Imperial Botanic Garden [Leningrad\/St. Petersburg] (30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 Imperial Chinese Customs Service (48) [2] 13 Imperial Gardens [Beijing, China] (48) [2] 35 Imperial Household Collection [of Japan's bonsai] (31) 266 \"In Defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the Plant Called Neviusa,\" Richard A. Howard (36) 5765 \"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree,\" Gary L. Koller and Don O. Shadow (44) [2] 1722; [reprint] (51) [4] 5558 \"In Pursuit of Ironclads,\" Karen Madsen (60) [1] 2932 \"In Search of Tropical Gentians,\" Richard E. Weaver (33) 189 \"In the Shadow of Red Cedar,\" Wade Davis (58) [3] 210 Incan Empire (50) [4] 2215 -- -- extent of [map] (50) [4] 2 Incas (50) [4] 4 -- agriculture (50) [4] 68 -- descendants (50) [4] 89 -- food crops (50) [4] 48 -- freeze drying practices (50) [4] 8 -- lost crops of (50) [4] 1115 -- terraces (50) [4] inside front cover Incense cedar, California (60) [4] 17 India (48) [2] 3 Indian cress (31) 191 -- currant (35) 236, 237 -- hawthorn (36) 19 -- tobacco (37) 218 -- turnip (37) 171 Indian Freedom of Religion Act (46) [3] 38 \"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Ernest J. Palmer (31) 99107, 106 Indigo (31) 18 -- bastard (31) 232 -- false (31) 31; (34) 296; (39) 252; (44) [2] 28 -- Kirilow (41) 178 -- true (44) [2] 28 -- wild (31) 31; (39) 252; (37) 222, 223 Indigofera (55) [3] 18 -- kirilowii (41) 178 -- pseudotinctoria (55) [2] 3132 -- tinctoria (44) [2] 28 Indio, California (47) [4] 19 Indo-Himalaya (48) [2] 3 Indolebutyric acid [IBA] (45) [1] 23; (49) [4] 38 Indonesia, Arnold Arboretum's exploration in (55) [2] 8 Industrial pollution (30) 3334, 38, 41, 43 \"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd,\" Kongjian Yu (53) [1] 27 \"Influence of Garden and Forest on the Development of Horticulture,\" Mac Griswold (60) [3] 2932 \"Informal History of Bonsai,\" Charles R. Long (31) 261273 Information storage and retrieval (33) 312, 2636 Inga (50) [4] 14 Inkberry (30) 172; (31) 228, 240; (56) [2] 12 Inkbush, xerophytic (54) [2] 35 Insect pests (38) 3749, 119, 120 -- -- of pines (35) 224225 Insecticides (33) 288291 Institute of Botany [Beijing] (48) [2] 31 Institute of Museum Services (49) [1] 22, 51, 52, 58 Instituto Superior de Argronomia [Lisbon] (47) [3] 38 Instruccion sobre el Modo Mas Seguro y Economico de Transportar Plantas Vivas por Mar y Por Tierra a los Paises Mas Distantes, by Casimiro Gomez Ortega (47) [3] 1314 I Cumulative Index \"Interesting Rediscovery\" [1891] (60) [2] 10 Intermountain Flora: Vascular Plants of the Intermountain West, USA, Vol. 1: Arthur Cronquist and other contributers [review of] (34) 36 International Association of Botanical Gardens, European Mediterranean Division (47) [3] 38 International Book of Trees, Hugh Johnson [review of] (35) 164 International Botanical Congress [Utrecht, 1948] (59) [1] 19, 7475 International Botanical Congress, Fifth [Cambridge] (48) [2] 18 International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants--1980 (49) [3] 13; (54) [4] 3, 4, 6 International Lilac Society (33) 311 International Plant Propagators' Society -- -- -- -- Award of Merit (32) 165 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Plaque, presented to Arnold Arboretum (32) [4] inside front cover -- -- -- -- 19th Annual Meeting (30) 117119 -- -- -- -- Registration Authority for Cultivated Ilex (30) 99 International Shade Tree Conference (34) 398, 399 International Society for Horticultural Science (32) 51 International Standards Organization (49) [1] 51 International Transfer Format (ITF) (49) [1] 47, 53 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (49) [1] 6, 45 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat (49) [1] 53 Interrogatories concerning the culture of the tea plant in China (31) 13 \"Interview: Chinese Botany and the Odyssey of Dr. Shiu-ying Hu,\" Sally Aldrich Adams (48) [2] 3031 \"Introducing Betula platyphylla `Whitespire',\" Edward Hasselkus (44) [3] 3638 \"Introducing Cedrus deodata `Shalimar',\" Gary L. Koller (42) [4] 153156 \"Introducing Weigela subsessilis,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (53) [4] 3133 \"Introduction of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to Massachusetts,\" David C. Michener (48) [4] 5257 Introduction of new plants (33) 1325 -- -- -- -- and distribution (30) 85 -- of the tea plant (31) 13 -- -- trees and shrubs to England (32) 184 Introduction to Insect Pest Management, Robert L. Metcalf and William Luckmann [review of] (36) 128 Introductions by Arnold Arboretum, 2nd 50 years, 19231972, Part I (32) 3043; Part II (38) 1225 Inula helenium (31) 182; (39) 247 Invernaculo [at Madrid Botanical Garden] (47) [3] 27, 28, 29 Inyo National Forest, CA (56) [4] 4, 7 Iochroma (32) 210 Iowa State University (49) [1] 38 Ipecac (55) [2] 6 Ipomoea batatas (31) 211; (52) [2] 2325 -- nil (31) 176, 293 -- purga (55) [2] 6 -- violacea (32) 205; (41) 102, 103 Iran, bulbs from (49) [4] 34 -- flora of (49) [4] 34 Iris (31) 127, 187; (56) [2] 16, 18 -- cvs. (31) 127 -- bearded (34) 376 -- chalcedonian (31) 187 -- clackamas (46) [3] 5 -- dwarf (31) 228 -- Dykes Medal winners (34) 3234 -- Florentine (31) 187 -- Hungarian (31) 187 -- Japanese (34) 375 -- mourning (31) 187 -- Persian (31) 187 -- Siberian (34) 373, 374 -- yellow (34) 183; (43) [2] 18, 20 Iris (34) 372; (39) 245, 257; (43) [2] 8, 9, 29, 33; (52) [3] 3, 10; (54) [4] inside back cover -- `Christmas Time' (31) 127 -- cristata (52) [3]; 10 -- danfordiae (37) 96 -- `Dusky Dancer' (31) 127 -- ensata (52) [3] 10 -- `Esther Fay' (31) 127 -- `Gatineau' (31) 128 -- x germanica (31) 187; (34) 376; (39) 257 3 I 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- cv. (31) 207 -- -- var. florentina (31) 187; (39) 257 -- `Ginger Snap' (31) 127 -- histrioides (37) 96 -- -- `Katherine Hodgkins' (37) 97 -- -- `Major' (37) 97 -- kaempferi (34) 375 -- pallida (39) 257 -- persica (31) 187 -- pseudacorus (31) 187; (34) 183; (39) 257; (43) [2] 18, 20 -- pumila (31) 187, 207, 228 -- reticulata and cvs. (37) 96 -- -- `Springtime' (37)[2] front cover -- `Rippling Waters' (31) 127 -- `Ruby Wine' (31) 128 -- sibirica (31) 187, 207; (34) 373, 374; (44) [3] 13; (52) [3] 10 -- `Stepping Out' (31) 127; (34) 33 -- susiana (31) 187, 207 -- tenuis (46) [3] 5 -- `Ultrapoise' (31) 127 -- variegata (31) 187 -- versicolor (43) [2] 18, 19 -- `White Magnificence' (31) 128 -- `White Swirl' (31) 128 -- `Winter Olympics' (31) 127; (34) 33 Ironwood (31) 240; (39) 9597 -- Persian (49) [4] 3439 Irwin, Howard S. (33) 2 Iryanthera crassifolia (32) 216 -- longifolia (32) 216 -- polyneura (32) 216 -- tricornis (32) 216 -- ulei (32) 216 Isabellino style (47) [3] 22, 27 Isatis tinctoria (31) 202 \"Island and Median-Strip Planting,\" William Flemer, III (44) [4] 1428 Island plantings (44) [4] 1428 -- -- trees and shrubs recommended for (44) [4] 1626 -- -- urban, defined (44) [4] 29 Islands of Boston Harbor, 16391932, Green Isles of Romance, by Patrick J. Connelly (48) [3] 29 \"Islands of Tension,\" Edgar Anderson [reprint] (48) [3] 2831 Isquouterquash (31) 172 Issop (31) 172, 200 \"Itea `Beppu': The Return of the Native,\" Peter M. Mazzeo and Donald H. Voss (56) [3] 2125 Itea ilicifolia (43) [1] 26; (56) [3] 21 -- japonica (40) 26, 27; (56) [3] 21, 24, 25 -- -- `Beppu' (40) 27 -- virginica (31) 244; (40) 2329, 25, 28; (56) [3] 21, 2223, 2425 -- -- `Beppu' (56) [3] 21, 2324, 25 -- -- `Henry's Garnet (56) [3] 21 -- yunnanensis (56) [3] 21 Iva, at risk (46) [3] 45 Ivy (31) 173 -- Baltic (34) 66 -- Boston (30) 171; (53) [4] 23; (56) [2] 13, 30 -- English (31) 240; (34) 66; (36) 18; (39) 256; (43) [1] 41; (56) [2] 13, 16, 30 -- ground (31) 185; (39) 261 -- Japanese (56) [2] 24 -- poison (34) 81; (35) 101, 102, 109 -- redwood (52) [1] 33 Ivy Book, Suzanne Warner Pierot [review of] (36) 127 Iwasaki, Baron (47) [2] 4 Ixia, Bartram's (46) [3] 28 Ixonanthes cochinchinensis (48) [2] 7 Ixora (36) 19 J Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Jaboticaba (36) 5, 19 [1] cover Jacaranda (36) 6, 7, 19 Jacinth (31) 186 Jack, John George (30) 163; (32) 14, 50, 52, 189; (47) [4] 11; (48) [2] 10, 12, 13, 14, 16; (49) [1] 14, 15; (51) [3] 30; (55) [4] 3, 7; (57) [1] 16; (59) [1] 13, 14; (60) [2] 8, 9 Jack-in-the-pulpit (34) 48; (37) 170172; (39) 250 -- Japanese (47) [2] 17 Jackson, Donald W., \"Landscaping for Realism: Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals\" (50) [1] 1321 Jackson, J. (31) 22 Jackson, Samuel (58) [3] 19 Jackson Park [Chicago] (60) [3] 11 \"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees,\" Peter Shaw Ashton, Seymour Slive, and Alice Davies (42) [1] 231 Jacob's coat (36) 5, 18 -- ladder (35) 28; (39) 264; (60) [1] 6 Jacques, George (56) [1] 32 Jacques, Lillie (56) [1] 32 Jacquinia keyensis (36) 12, 17, 19 Jade jewel (30) 184 Jadida, Mohammed (39) 343 Jamaica, A Vacation Guide, Ian Sangster [review of] (34) 435 Jamaica Plain [Boston] (48) [4] 29; (54) [3] 19 Jamaica Pond [Jamaica Plain] (33) 172182 \"Jane Colden: Colonial American Botanist,\" Mary Harrison (55) [2] 1926 Janick, Jules, and Antonio de Almeida Monteiro, \"The `Tapada da Ajuda': Portugal's First Botanical Garden\" (47) [3] 3038 Japan (36) 232, 233, 234; (48) [1] 26, 31 -- collecting expedition in (38) 2831, 82108 Japan, forest flora, (60) [2] 1113, 3032 Japanese Alps [Honshu] (47) [2] 14 Japanese archipelago (48) [1] 26 -- garden (52) [3] 213 -- -- of Johonet C. Wicks (31) 283 -- pagoda tree (54) [1] 4, 5, 8 -- plants (50) [3] 2 -- -- cultivar names (43) [4] 34 \"Japanese Bonsai and Bonsai Shows,\" W. H. Hodge (32) 241249 \"Japanese Flower Vender's Basket\" [1888], Theodore Wores (60) [2] 34 \"Japanese Honeysuckle: From `One of the Best' to Ruthless Pest,\" Richard A. Hardt (46) [2] 2734 \"Japanese Journal,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 82101 \"Japanese Knotweed: A Reputation Lost,\" Ann Townsend (57) [3] 1320 \"Japanese, Latin, and English Names of Plants in Early Japanese Poetry,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., George E. Potter, and Bruce E. Brooks (31) 292293 \"Japanese Theory--American Practice,\" Constance E. Derderian (31) 294296 Japanese winterhazel (60) [4] 12 Jardin Botanico del Soto de Migas Calientes [Madrid] (47) [3] 5, 6, 8 Jardin d'Essai [Algiers] (51) [3] 9 Jardin des Plantes [Paris] (31) 118; (32) 103; (56) [4] 22 Jarvis, Dorothy, photo by (57) [1] 8 Jasmine (31) 216; (36) 1, 19 -- Arabian (31) 218 -- blue (31) 116 -- Carolina (31) 216 -- Chilean (50) [1] 18 -- confederate (36) 11, 20 -- winter, bonsai (32) 246 Jasminum caeruleum (31) 116 -- dichotomum (36) 19 -- nudiflorum (37) 113; (44) [3] 17; (55) [4] 8 -- -- `Mystique' (43) [4] 10 -- mesnyi (32) 109, 110 -- officinale 216 -- primulinum (32) 108 J 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- pubescens (36) 19 -- sambac (31) 218 Jasper National Park [Canada] (48) [1] back cover Jatropha cureas (48) [2] 4 Jaundice remedy, Madagascar (32) 25 Jaynes, Richard (R. A. ) (32) 258; (52) [2] 6 Jeffersonia diphylla (37) 97, 190 -- dubia (37) 97, 189, 190 Jefferson, Thomas (31) 119, 157; (32) 187; (33) 99; (39) 323, 324; (49) [2] 14, 21, 23; (52) [3] 14; (57) [2] 3, 9 -- -- \"Garden and Farm Books\" [review] (48) [4] 5960 -- -- plan of \"Roundabout Walk\" at Monticello (31) 158 Jekyll, Gertrude (51) [2] 25, 26; [3] 9; (57) [1] 6, 8; [3] 16 Jenkins, Charles F., \"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia\" (51) [4] 411 Jenney, William Le Baron (54) [2] 17 Jennison, Harry M. (46) [3] 24, 25 Jensen, Jens (58) [1] 4, 5, 9; (59) [4] 28, 29 Jepson, Willis Linn (59) [3] 14, 20 Jequirity Pea (34) 45 Jeronimos, Monastery of [Lisbon] (47) [3] 37 Jersey barriers (44) [4] 48 Jerusalem artichoke (31) 203 -- cherry (34) 86, 87 -- oak (39) 254 Jeseminum caerulium Arabum (= Syringa vulgaris) (31) 116 Jetbead (44) [4] 4344 Jewelweed (34) 203; (35) 115 Jewett Fund Awards (32) 258 Jiangsu Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden [Nanjing, China] (49) [2] 25 Jiangxi province [China] (48) [2] 14 Jimson weed (31) 196; (34) 59 Jin (31) 280 Jin Xiaobai, Wang Xianpu, and Sun Chengyong, \"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection\" (46) [4] 4651 Joe-pyeweed (39) 247; (52) [4] 30 -- -- sweet (39) 255 Joewood (36) 19 John Banister and His Natural History of Virginia, 16781692, Joseph and Nesta Ewan [review of] (33) 306307 John Evelyn and His Times, Bernice Saunders [review of] (35) 162 John Muir: Life and Legacy, edited by Sally M. Miller [review of] (46) [4] 6470 John Muir Papers 18581957, Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten E. Lewis, eds. [review of] (46) [4] 6470 John Muir: A Reading Bibliography, by William F. Kimes and Maymie B. Kimes [review of] (46) [4] 6470 Johnson, Edward (56) [3] 3 Johnson, Ethan W. (49) [1] 4, 74 -- -- -- \"Cartographic Records of the Living Collections\" (49) [1] 6164 -- -- -- \"A Guide to the Firs [Abies spp. ] of the Arnold Arboretum,\" with Richard Warren (48) [1] 248 -- -- -- photo by (48) [1] back cover Johnson, Thomas (53) [1] 10, 16 Johnston, I. M. (32) 53 Jonas, Sandra (49) [1] 30 Jones, Frederic Rhinelander (51) [3] 4 Jones, James L., \"Arnold's Promise Fulfilled\" (55) [2] 2732 Jones, Mary Cadwalader Rawle (51) [3] 4; (52) [1] 9 Jones, William (Dr. ) (31) 22 Jonquil (37) 98 -- campernelle (31) 180 Jordan, William (46) [3] 14 Jorgensen, Neil, \"Books\" (51) [1] 3839; (52) [1] 3435; [2] 46 Jose I [King of Portugal] (47) [3] 31, 32 Joseph's coat (31) 174 Josselyn, John (30) 24; (53) [1] 9; (56) [3] 4 -- -- New England's Rarities Discovered (48) [4] 54 -- -- Voyages (48) [4] 55 Journal Horticole et de Viticulture de Suisse (31) 268 Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (32) 52, 271; (47) [4] 18, 19; (49) [3] 41, 42; (50) [3] 29 Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society (47) [4] 13 Journal of South African Botany (32) 221 Journey to Ararat [F. Parrot, 1845] (49) [4] 34 J Cumulative Index Journey to the Tea Countries of China and India, Robert Fortune (31) 4 Jovis glans (44) [1] 3 Judas tree (31) 214; (36) 38, 44, 46, 49 Judd, Walter (39) 358 Judd, William Henry (30) 81; (32) 51; (47) [4] 9; (49) [1] 55; (51) [3] 3, 8; (52) [1] 9, 11, 12, 13 ; (55) [4] 4; (60) [1] 9 Juglans (32) 68; (44) [1] 13, 14 -- ailanthifolia (44) [1] 3, 14 -- -- var. cordiformis (44) [1] 15 -- -- -- -- `Brock' (44) [1] 17 -- -- -- -- `Canoka' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `Etter' (44) [1] 17 -- -- -- -- `Fodermaier' (44) [1] 17, 18 -- -- -- -- `Marvel' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `OK' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `Rhodes' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `Rival' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `Schubert' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- `Wright' (44) [1] 18 -- cathayensis (44) [1] 3, 14; [3] 15 -- cinerea (31) 234; (32) 68; (44) [1] 3, 1214, 17 -- -- `Ayers' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Booth' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Chamberlin' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Craxezy' (44) [4] 17 -- -- `Creighton' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Joy' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Kenworthy' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Kinnyglen' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Love' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Van Sickle' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Weschcke' (44) [1] 17 -- -- x ailanthifolia var. cordiformis (44) [1] 3, 14, 15 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Corsan' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Dunoka' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Fioka' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Hancock' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Leslie' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Mitchell' (44) [1] 18 -- -- -- -- -- -- `Wallich' (44) [1] 18 -- mandschurica (38) 143; (44) 3, 14 -- neotropica (50) [4] 14 -- nigra (31) 226; (32) 68; (42) [2] 93, 95; (44) [1] 3, 812; (57) [3] 29 -- -- chemical composition (44) [1] 9 -- -- fruit (44) [1] 2 -- -- nut (44) [1] 9 -- -- `Beck' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Burns' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Davidson' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Emma K' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Snyder' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Sparks #127' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Sparks #147' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Sparrow' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Thomas' (44) [1] 17 -- regia (44) [1] 3, 48, 1617; [3] 15; (53) [2] 13 -- -- nuts (44) [1] 5 -- -- `Broadview' (44) [1] 16, 17 -- -- `Franquette' (44) [1] 16 -- -- `Greenhaven' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Hansen' (44) [1] 16 -- -- `Holton' (44) [1] 16 -- -- `McKinster' (44) [1] 17 -- -- `Somers' (44) [1] 17 -- regina (31) 226 -- sieboldiana (44) [1] 14 Juglone (44) [1] 3, 4 Julyan, Candace L., \"Nature Study Moves into the Twenty-First Century\" (58) [3] 1824 3 J 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Jumping cholla (46) [3] 38 Juncus effusus (43) [2] 37, 38 Juneberry (34) 2231 Juniper (31) 216, 240, 271, 289, 310; (32) 64, 65, 76; (36) 12, 19, 196, 220; (43) [1] 18; (52) [2] 30; [3] 13; (56) [2] 21; (57) [1] 6 -- Chinese (31) 240; (39) 211, 212 -- Japanese garden (43) [1] 18 -- Pfitzer (31) 167 -- Savin (31) 216, 220 Juniper blight (33) 318 Juniperus (32) 64, 65, 76; (37) 7, 5558; (43) [1] 11, 18; (44) [4] inside front cover, inside back cover; (48) [1] 3 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- chinensis (31) 240; (36) 220; (39) 211, 212, 231; (44) [3] 9, 21 -- -- `Columnaris' (44) [3] 5, 24 -- -- `Gold Star' (32) 278 -- -- `Old Gold' (32) 278 -- -- `Pftizeriana Aurea' (32) 278 -- -- `Sargentii' (30) 158; (36) 19; (52) [3] 13 -- -- var. sargentii (38) 87 -- communis (31) 240; (50) [2] 3; (57) [1] 24 -- -- var. depressa (45) [4] 22 -- -- var. nipponica (38) 87 -- conferta `Akebono' (43) [4] 10 -- -- `Blue Pacific' (43) [4] 10 -- -- `Silver Mist' (43) [4] 10, 13 -- horizontalis (33) 205; (43) [1] 18; (45) [4] 22; (49) [3] 40 -- -- `Blue Rug' (43) [1] 18 -- -- `Livingston' (33) 205 -- -- `Plumosa' (43) [1] 18 -- -- `Wilton Carpet' (43) [1] 18 -- -- `Wiltonii' (43) [1] 18 -- procumbens (43) [1] 18 -- -- `Nana' (36) 19; (43) [1] 18; (49) [3] 40; (52) [3] 13 -- rigida (38) 138 -- -- bonsai (32) 246 -- sabina (31) 220 -- squamata (36) 196; (50) [2] front cover -- -- `Meyeri' (44) [3] 9, 24 -- virginiana (31) 216; (33) 205; (39) 212, 213, 231, 275; (43) [1] 44; [4] 21; (44) [2] 19, 21; (50) [2] 6; (56) [3] 9; [4] 3, 8; (57) [1] 5 -- -- `Hermit' (33) 205 Jupiter's beard (39) 252 -- -- nut (44) [1] 3 Jussieu, Antoine Laurent de (47) [3] 19; (53) [3] 14 Jussieu, Bernard de (30) 180; (53) [3] 14, 16 Jussieu, Joseph de (47) [3] 15 Justicia pectoralis (41) 82, 118 -- -- var. stenophylla (32) 207, 211; (41) 119 Juvenile foliage (52) [2] 27 Juvenility (59) [3] 2122; [4] 1013 -- physiological (37) 23 K Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Kaempfer, Englebert (32) 241; (57) [3] 15 Kahn, Charlotte, \"Urban Islands: Who Will Maintain Them?\" (44) [4] 213 Kaishan temple [Tian Mu Shan, China] (50) [4] 16, 21 Kaiya-shiki style (47) [2] 9 Kaki (39) 291, 302306 Kakuzo, Okakura (52) [3] 4 Kalinowski, Luis (50) [4] 10 Kalm, Peter (31) 37; (39) 323; (53) [1] 1415; (56) [3] 4; (57) [2] 7 Kalmia angustifolia (34) 68; (45) [2] 19; (49) [3] 40 -- cuneata (46) [3] 9 -- latifolia (30) 207; (31) 240, 173; (33) 102; (34) 68; (39) 322; (43) [1] 14; (44) [3] 34; (51) [2] 27; (52) [3] 12; (53) [1] 14, 15; (56) [2] 16; (57) [1] 23; (60) [1] 15, 17, 32 -- -- f. rubra (53) [1] back cover -- polifolia (34) 68 Kalmiopsis leachiana `Umpqua Valley' (55) [1] 3, 4 Kalopanax pictus (30) 171; (38) 138, 143; (39) 188, 189, 226; (47) [2] 12; (55) [3] 17 Kalu, Meekiong, \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Richard Primack and Melvin Goh (60) [4] 39 Kamakura Period [Japan] (47) [2] 9 Kamchatka bugbane (31) 32 Kamo, Kyushu [Japan] (47) [1] inside back cover Kamsa Indians [Colombia] (46) [3] inside front cover; [4] inside front cover Kangaroo rat, giant (57) [3] 10 Kansu [China] (31) 118; (48) [1] 25; (48) [2] 34 Kapok (52) [2] 26, 27 Karesansui style (47) [2] 9; (52) [3] 6 Karnosky, David F., \"Double Jeopardy for Elms: Dutch Elm Disease and Phloem Necrosis\" (42) [2] 7077 Karson, Robin (56) [1] 2932 Kasuga Gonen Kenki (31) 264 Katsura (30) 169; (32) 70, 80; (39) 147, 148; (44) [1] 27; (48) [4] 36; (54) [1] 9 Katsura `Morioka Weeping' (60) [4] 14 Kauri pine (37) 42 Kaweah brodiaea (46) [3] 15 Kay, John (52) [4] 19 Kehne, C. Lewis, \"The Case of the Dunbar Dogwood\" (38) 5054 Kehr, August (52) [1] 22 Keiri (31) 197 Kelley, Susan, \"Storms and the Landscape: 19381997\" (57) [1] 2232 Kellogg, Elizabeth A., \"The Convenience of Arabidopsis\" (52) [4] 1216 -- -- -- \"Why Study Mistletoes?\" (51) [3] 1117 Kelly, George W. (42) [4] 139, 141 Kelly, J. W. (52) [2] 5 Kelsey, Seth (39) 334, 337 Kennedy, Robert C., and Alfred J. Fordham,\"International Plant Propagators' Society, 19th Annual Meeting\" (30) 117119 Kenmore Square [Boston] (48) [4] 23, 24 Kent, William (31) 156 Kentranthus ruber (31) 197 Kentucky coffee tree (or bean) (30) 170; (31) 236; (32) 69; (39) 111, 112; (42) [2] 95; (48) [3] 38 Kerria (36) 57 -- japonica (35) 160, 161; (41) 179; (45) [2] 19; (52) [3] 13 -- -- `Aureo-variegata' (35) 160 -- -- `Aureo-vittata' (35) 160 -- -- `Picta' (35) 160 -- -- `Pleniflora' (35) 160 Keteleeria (46) [1] 46 Kevorkian, Arthur G. (51) [3] 29 Kew Magazine (53) [1] 16 Kew, Royal Botanic Gardens at [outside London, England] (30) 137; (31) 10; (32) 103, 189, 251; (33) 160161; (46) [4] 12; (47) [4] 4, 13, 28, 30, 32; (48) [2] 19; (49) [1] 16, 38, 43, 45, 53, 66; [4] 37; (51) [2] 5; (53) [1] 16; [3] 13; [4] 31; (54) [2] 2, 8; (57) [3] 4, 16; (58) [3] 1416, 17, 72 -- Herbarium (30) 137 Kexue [journal] (48) [2] 15 K 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Khan River [Namibia] (54) [2] 2 Khellin (32) 201 Kiangsu province [China] (31) 5; (48) [2] 31 -- Institute of Agricultural Sciences (35) 281282 Kienbaum, Francis (53) [2] 3 Kierstad, Julie (46) [3] 10 Kiev, botanic garden in (56) [1] 5 Kikugestsu-tei teahouse [Japan] (47) [2] 10 Kimball, Theodora, (60) [2] 40 -- -- photo by (56) [2] back cover \"Kind of Botanic Mania,\" Joan W. Goodwin (56) [4] 1724 King, G. R., photo by (48) [4] inside back cover Kingdon-Ward, Frank (44) [3] 14, 26 Kingsbury, John M., \"Christopher Columbus as a Botanist\" (52) [2] 1128 Kingsville Nurseries (47) [4] 5, 6 Kirengeshoma palmata (49) [3] back cover Kirkland, John Thornton (54) [3] 12 Kirstenbosch National Botanic Garden [South Africa] (32) 221; (54) [2] 8 Kitamura, S. (30) 19 Kitt, Greenwood (56) [2] 16 Kiwi (30) 180185; (38) 88; (42) [4] 121, 124, 126127; (43) [4] 2435, 25, 26, 29, 31; (52) [3] 27 -- recipes (30) Kiwi, kolomikta (60) [4] 13 Kiwicha (50) [4] 10, 12 Klehm, Roy, photo by (52) [2] front cover Kleinhovia hospita (37) 226, 227 Klimenko, Svetlana (56) [1] 5 Knap Hill nursery, Surrey [England] (60) [1] 30, 31, 32 Knapweed, mountain (34) 305 \"Knees of the Bald Cypress\" [1890], N. S. Shaler (60) [2] 1617 \"Knees of the Bald Cypress: A New Theory of Their Function\" [1890], Robert H. Lamborn (60) [2] 1516 Knema cinerea (48) [2] 7 Kniphofia (32) 220 Kniphofia (31) 128; (34) 378 -- `Earliest of All' (31) 128 -- `Maid of Orleans' (31) 128 -- `Primrose Beauty' (31) 128 -- `Springtime' (31) 128 -- `Summer Sunshine' (31) 128 -- uvaria (31) 128 Knitbone (39) 268 Knott, Cheryl (60) [4] 3 Knotweed, Japanese (34) 166; (52) [4] 23; (57) [3] 13, 14, 15, 1619, 18 -- prostrate (34) 216 Know Your Garden Series: Trees and Shrubs, Richard E. and Charles R. Harrison [review of] (32) 172 Kobuski, Clarence E. (32) 52; (49) [1] 18, 20 Koda, Harold, \"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own Adaptability\" (59) [3] 2331 Koehler, Hans J. (56) [2] 16, 17, 18 Koeleria (54) [3] 8 Koelreuteria bipinnata (56) [2] 3435 -- minor (38) 228 -- paniculata (30) 171; (31) 238; (32) 69, 85; (34) 134, 135; (37) 223, 225; (38) 30, 105, 138; (39) 112, 113, 226; (55) [3] 17; (56) [2] 33, 35; (60) [1] 18 -- -- `Fastigiata' (38) 105 -- -- 'Rose Lantern' (56) [2] inside front cover, 3237, 35; (60) [4] inside front & back covers, 16 -- -- `September' (38) 105; (44) [4] 44; (56) [2] 3237 Kofan Indians [Colombia] (32) 212; (50) [2] 25 Kojiki (31) 285, 289, 291 Kolkwitzia amabilis (32) 71, 86; (36) [3] inside back cover; (44) [4] 43; 55) [1] 18 Koller, Gary L. (39) 343, 344, 347, 353, 359, 362; (46) [1] 33; (47) [2] 3; (49) [1] 4, 74; (56) [3] 21, 25 -- -- -- \"Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum: A Midwinter Performance Evaluation\" (49) [1] 2836 -- -- -- book review (44) [1] 34 -- -- -- \"Chaenomeles x superba `Mandarin'\" (53) [4] 3436 -- -- -- \"Groundcovers for the Garden Designer\" (52) [1] 2433; -- -- -- \"A Habit to Cultivate\" (53) [2] 2123 -- -- -- \"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree,\" with Don O. Shadow (44) [2] 1722; [reprint] (51) [4] 5558 -- -- -- \"Introducing Cedrus deodata `Shalimar'\" (42) [4] 153156 K Cumulative Index -- -- -- \"Itea: Summer Flowers and Autumn Color\" (40) 2329 -- -- -- \"Kolomikta Kiwi\" (50) [1] 3638; [3] 29 -- -- -- \"Magnificent Ginger\" (49) [3] 4143 -- -- -- \"Landscape Curation: Maintaining the Living Collections\" (49) [1] 6572 -- -- -- \"Leitneria floridana: A Shrub for Wet Woodland Conditions\" (57) [1] 1420 -- -- -- \"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Designer\" (52) [2] 3645 -- -- -- \"Native Dictates\" (52) [4] 2332 -- -- -- \"New Choices for Urban Islands\" (44) [4] 3754 -- -- -- \"New Trees for Urban Landscapes\" (38) 157172 -- -- -- \"Prunus cyclamina\" (40) 146152 -- -- -- \"Pseudolarix amabilis\" (40) 224235 -- -- -- \"The Raisin Tree-- Its Use, Hardiness, and Size,\" with John H. Alexander, III (39) 715 -- -- -- \"Rehder's Ceanothus: Ceanothus x pallidus `Roseus'\" (55) [1] 2123 -- -- -- \"Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees,\"with Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (42) [2] 88 -- -- -- \"Seven Son Flower from Zhejiang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium jasminoides Airy Shaw\" (46) [4] 214 -- -- -- \"Shrubs for Hillsides and Embankments\" (41) 168194 -- -- -- \"Storm Damage,\" Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (37) 127133 -- -- -- \"Street Trees for Home and Municipal Landscapes,\" with Michael A. Dirr (39) 73237 -- -- -- \"Transplanting Stress--A View from the Plant's Perspective\" (37) 230241 -- -- -- photos by (44) [3] front cover, back cover, [4] inside front cover, back cover Kolterman, Duane (51) [3] 32 Komarov Botanical Garden [Leningrad] (33) 161 Kopsia officinalis (48) [2] 7 Koraku-en Garden [Japan] (47) [2] 1213 Korea (48) [1] 30, 33 -- collecting Hemerocallis in (30) 19 \"Korean Adventure,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (38) 132152 Korner, Ch. (53) [1] 2123 Koten engei culture (45) [2] 7 Kousa (45) [4] front cover, 3 Kowloon [Hong Kong] (48) [2] 19 Kraus, Gregor (32) 184 Krummholz (42) [4] 146; (50) [1] 11 Krussman, Gerd (31) 50; (32) 185 -- -- Manual of Cultivated Conifers [reviewed] (46) [1] 4547 Kubeo Indians [Colombia] (32) 212 Kuching [Sarawak, Malaysia] (60) [4] 3, 6, 8 Kudo, Yushun (47) [2] 7 Kudzu vine (31) 293; (43) [1] 41; (57) [3] inside back cover Kuijt, Job, illustrations by (51) [3] 12, 13, 14 Kuiseb River [Angola] (54) [2] 2 Kulik, Sophie (49) [1] 30 Kuma-zasa (52) [1] 30 Kumbum Monastery [China] (52) [2] 30 Kunming [China] (46) [4] 21, 23, 32, 33 Kunming Institute of Botany [China] (46) [4] 15, 21, 22, 34 Kunst, Scott G., with Arthur O. Tucker and other contributors, A SOURCEBOOK OF CULTIVAR NAMES (54) [4] 559 Kuo, P. W. (48) [2] 14 Kuripakos Indians [South America] (32) 213 Kurume bonsai [Kyushu, Japan] (32) 245 Kuser, John E. (59) [1] 83 -- -- -- \"Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides\" (47) [1] 1419 -- -- -- \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides: Fifty Years of Growth in North America\" (59) [1] 7679 -- -- -- \"Metasequoia Keeps on Growing\" (42) [3] 130138 -- -- -- photo by (47) [1] inside front cover Kwangsi, University of [China] (48) [2] 19 -- Institute of Botany (48) [2] 19 Kwangtung [China] (48) [2] 18, 19 Kwangtung Botanical Garden [China] (35) 285 -- Institute of Botany (35) 283285 Kwangtung University [China] (48) [2] 20 Kyoto [Japan] (30) 20; (47) [2] 3, 8, 9; (60) [4] 31 Kyushu [Japan] (47) [2] 3 3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - L","article_sequence":10,"start_page":1,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25329","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070a328.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"L Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 \"Labelling, Notes from the Arnold Arboretum,\" Donna A. Lynch (38) 5559 Labrador tea (45) [3] 17 Labrang Monastery [China] (52) [2] 31 Laburnum (31) 216 Laburnum (32) 66, 77; (34) 69 -- anagyroides (31) 216 Lacebug (38) 46 Lacquer tree (35) 98; (43) [1] 22 Lactuca sativa (31) 208 -- scariola (34) 197 \"Lady as Landscape Gardener, Beatrix Farrand at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Part I, Jane Brown (51) [3] 210 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- Part II, Jane Brown (52) [1] 9, 1017 Ladybells (34) 273 Lady's-mantle (34) 273; (39) 244, 249; (43) [3] 3; (52) [3] 10 Lady's-slipper (37) 182186 -- -- California (46) [3] 9 -- -- yellow (44) [1] 32; (47) [2] 21, 22 Lady's-thumb (34) 169 Lagenanthus princeps (33) [3] inside back cover, 196, 198 Lagenaria (52) [2] 25 -- vulgaris (31) 206 Lagerstroemia indica (31) 237; (36) 19; (47) [3] 36; (54) [3] 27, 29; (55) [3] 18 -- intermedia (48) [2] 7 Lake Champlain [VT-NY] (56) [3] 1213, 15, 18 Lake Monroe [FL] (60) [1] 1417 Lake Tahoe Wildflowers, Kenneth Legg [review of] (35) 240 Lake Yumoto [Japan] (60) [2] 12 Laman, Tim (60) [4] 3 Lambkill (34) 68 Lamb's ears (35) 42; (39) 240, 268 -- quarters (34) 209 Lamiastrum galeobdolan `Variegatum' (44) [4] 51 Lamium album (31) 182 -- galeobdolon `Variegatum' (39) 257 -- maculatum, `Album' (39) 257 -- purpureum (31) 181 Lammerts, Walter (46) [1] 10 Lamy [NM] (47) [4] 14 Lancaster, Roy (49) [4] 36, 38; (51) [1] 18, 22; (54) [2] 21, 27 Land Above the Trees, Ann H. Zwinger and Beatrice E. Willard [review of] (34) 433 Landers, M., drawing by (60) [23] inside back cover Landry, Sarah B., drawing by (45) [3] 1 Landscape (49) [2] 17 -- aesthetics of (49) [2] 15 -- art of (49) [2] 23 -- English tradition of (49) [1] 7 -- -- \"natural\" (49) [2] 14, 15 -- native grasses in (54) [3] 9 -- natural beauty of (49) [2] 15, 17 -- painting (32) 183 -- planting, ecological requirements of (30) 102 Landscape architect (30) 106 -- architecture (47) [4] 13; (59) [2] 221; [4] 2832 -- -- profession of (56) [2] 17 preservation (59) [2] 1021; [3] 213 \"Landscape Curation: Maintaining the Living Collections,\" Gary L. Koller (49) [1] 6572 Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, Exclusive of Florida and the Immediate Gulf Coast, Harrison L. Flint [review of] (44) [4] 55; 2nd ed. (57) [1] 21 Landscaping (30) 84 -- contest (44) [1] 36 \"Landscaping for Realism: Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals,\" Donald W. Jackson (50) [1] 1321 L 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Landslides [firm], photos by (48) [3] 23, 20 Langlee Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 25 Lanier, Gerald N., \"Dutch Elm Disease: A Postscript\" (42) [2] 7887 Lantana (36) 7, 12, 18; (48) [3] 44 -- aculeata (32) 27 -- camara (31) 217; (34) 70 Laos (48) [2] 3 Lape, Fred, \"The Decline of the Apple\" (33) 217227 Lapland rosebay (60) [1] 7 Laportea urentissima (48) [2] 7 Larch (31) 17, 217; (32) 64, 75, 184, 241, 285; (37) 58, 59 -- collection [at Arnold Arboretum] (39) [6] back cover -- American (45) [4] 22 -- Dahurian (31) 282 -- European (46) [1]35; (48) [3] 24; (53) [1] 22; (54) [1] 9 -- golden (30) 169; (37) 969; (40) [5] cover, 224235; (50) [4] 18; (52) [4] 4 -- Japanese (44) [3] 15; (46) [1] 35 Larix (37) 58, 59; (48) [1] 3 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- decidua (31) 217; (32) 184; (46) [1] 35; (48) [3] 24; (53) [1] 22; (54) [1] 9 -- -- `Paula' (32) 279 -- gmelini (31) 281, 282 -- laricina (45) [4] 22 -- leptolepsis (44) [3] 15; (46) [1] 35 Lark's claw (31) 187 -- heel (31) 169, 172, 187 -- toes (31) 187 Larkspur (or lark's spur) (31) 169, 172, 187; (34) 60, 318320; (39) 254; (60) [1] 6 -- corn (31) 187 -- garden (31) 188 -- upright (31) 188 -- wild (31) 187 Lars Anderson Bonsai Collection (49) [3] 237, 9, 16; (53) [1] 19 -- -- -- -- house for (30) 227; (31) 311 -- -- -- -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 30 -- -- -- -- inventory (49) [3] 18 -- -- -- -- maintenance (49) [3] 1319 -- -- -- -- portraits of (49) [3] 2135 \"Lars Anderson Bonsai Collection,\" Peter Del Tredici (49) [3] 237 Lars Anderson Park [Brookline, MA] (49) [3] 7 Larsen, Syrach (59) [1] 77 Las Vegas [NM] (47) [4] 14 Lasallia papulosa (35) 150 Laszlo, Philip de, paintings by (49) [3] inside front cover, 6 \"Late Summer Ornamental: Poliothyrsis sinesis,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (54) [3] 3234 Lathyrus japonicus v. glaber (31) 229 -- latifolius (31) 196 -- odoratus (31) 230 -- pisiformis (44) [3] 13 Latin Herbarius (39) 245, 248, 251 Latrobe, Benjamin H. (49) [2] 17 Latua pubiflora (32) 209; (41) 114 \"Laura Dwight's Magnolias,\" by Judith Leet (48) [4] 1725 Laurel (31) 240 -- family (36) 24, 26 -- bog (34) 68 -- Carolina (31) 241 -- cherry (31) 234 -- great (46) [3] 11 -- Grecian (36) 24 -- mountain (34) 68; (43) [1] 14, 15; (52) [3] 12; (53) [1] back cover, 1415 -- Portuguese (49) [2] 19, 23 -- sheep (34) 68; (56) [2] 16 -- white (31) 218 Laurel Book, Richard A. Jaynes [review of] (36) 277 Laurus camphora (31) 17 -- nobilis (36) 24; (55) [3] 17 L Cumulative Index -- -- `Sunset' (43) [4] 12, 13 Lavalle cork tree (30) 163 Lavalle Nursery [Segrez, France] (50) [1] 36 Lavandula (39) 246 -- angustifolia (39) 241 -- -- `Hidcote' (39) 257 -- -- `Munstead' (39) 257 -- dentata (39) 257 -- multifida (39) 257 -- officinalis (31) 28, 200 -- -- var. nana (31) 28 -- -- `Nana Compacta' (37) 105 Lavender (31) 28, 200; (39) 241, 257 -- cotton (31) 201; (39) 265 -- hardy (39) 246 Lawrence, George H. M. (30) 2 -- -- -- -- \"Care and Preservation of Library Materials\" (30) 5666 Lawrence, Henry W., \"From Private Allee to Public Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest\" (57) [2] 210 Laws, pollution (30) 3536 \"The Layered Look,\" Peter Del Tredici (45) [1] 1922 Layering (33) 123; (37) 30, 31 Laylock (31) 116 Le Notre, Andre (54) [1] 1318 Le Vau, Louis II (54) [1] 13 Leach, David (60) [1] 22, 25, 30 Lead arsenate (30) 44 Leadwort (47) [4] 31 -- blue (31) 31; (34) 307 Leaf-area index (49) [4] 4, 18 Leaf arrangements (41) 5, 6, 7 -- characteristics (32) 60 -- formation (53) [1] 1923 -- litter (49) [4] 11, 16 -- movements, temperature-sensitive (50) [1] 3035 Leaf curling (50) [1] 32, 3435 -- feeders (52) [3] 24 -- miner, birch (38) 119 -- spots (31) 61 Leaf Book: A Field Guide to the Plants of Northern California, Ida [Hay] Geary [review of] (34) 35 Leaf-roll necrosis (49) [2] 5 -- -- on lilacs (38) 6581 Leafspot (52) [3] 24 Leatherwood (31) 41, 240 -- Atlantic (44) [1] 2023; (51) [4] 6366 Lebanon (48) [1] 22 Lebo, Narda, illustration by (50) [4] 7 Lectures on Photomorphogenesis, H. Mohr [review of] (34) 440 Lecythidaceae (50) [2] 23 LeDuc, W. G. (31) 22 Ledum -- groenlandicum (45) [3] 17 -- palustre, var. diversipilosum (38) 87 Lee, Francis L. (50) [3] 2, 3, 10 Lee, Henry (48) [3] 42 Lee, Jong-kyu (52) [2] 9 Lee, T. B. (31) 19; (31) 54; (53) [4] 31 Lee, Thomas (49) [3] 6 Leek (31) 146, 208; (39) 250 Leet, Judith (48) [3] 1, 33 -- -- \"Books\" (50) [2] 3536 -- -- Flowering Trees and Shrubs: The Botanical Paintings of Esther Heins [reviewed] (47) [3] 3940 -- -- \"The Hunnewell Pinetum: A Long-Standing Family Tradition\" (50) [4] 3240 -- -- \"Laura Dwight's Magnolias\" (48) [4] 1725 Legislation, to reduce pollution (30) 3437 Legume collection (50) [1] 27 Leicester Square [London] (57) [2] 6, 7 Leichtlin, Max (33) 178, 180 3 L 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Leiden University Botanic Garden [Holland] (47) [2] 32, 33; (53) [1] 11 Leighton, Mark (60) [4] 3 Leiophyllum buxifolium var. prostratum (55) [1] 3 Leitner, E. T. (57) [1] 14 Leitneria, swamp (31) 310 Leitneria (57) [1] 31 -- at Arnold Arboretum (49) [1] 68 -- floridana (55) [3] 18; (57) [1] 14, 1519, 20 Leitneriaceae (57) [1] 14 \"Lelacke or Pipe Tree,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (31) 114120 Lemna (43) [2] 8, 9 -- minor (43) [2] 2729, 28 Lemoine, Emile (32) 133 Lemoine, Victor (32) 133 Lemoine hybrid lilacs (49) [1] 15 -- -- mock oranges (49) [1] 15 Lemon, Meyer (36) 18; (44) [3] 25 Lemon verbena (39) 250 Leng, Qin (59) [1] 6668 Leningrad [USSR] (33) 161; (48) [2] 18 Lenk, Cecilia (39) 356 Lens culinarius (31) 231 Lentils (31) 231 Lenz, Russell H., map by (48) [3] 33 Leonard and Company (31) 268 Leopard-cat (52) [4] 9 Leopard flower (34) 296 Leopardsbane (34) 328 Lepidium meyenii (50) [4] 11 -- sativum (31) 200, 231; (57) [3] 29, 30 -- virginicum (34) 215 Leptinotarsa decemlineata (38) 40 Leptogium corticola (35) 155 -- cyanescens (35) 155 Leptomorph [bamboo] (49) [2] 30 Leptospermum scoparium (36) 19 Lerman, Phyllis, photo by (59) [4] cover \"`Les Quatre Vents,' A Far-Northern Garden,\" Francis H. Cabot (45) [4] 19, 31 Lespedeza (31) 292; (48) [2] 34 -- bicolor (30) 168; (38) 87 -- stipulacea (33) 15 -- thunbergii (55) [1] 9 Lettuce (31) 208 -- wild (34) 197 Leucobryum (33) 157 Leucojum (31) 188 Leucojum aestivum (31) 188 -- autumnale (31) 188 Leucothoe (31) 240 -- drooping (43) [1] 14; (56) [2] 28 Leucothoe axillaris (31) 240 -- catesbaei (45) [2] 19 -- x fontanesiana (43) [1] 14; (45) [2] 19; (56) [2] 28 -- -- `Nana' (43) [1] 14 -- -- `Scarletta' (43) [1] 14 -- grayana var. oblongifolia (38) 87 -- racemosa (31) 232 Leukemia remedy, Madagascar (32) 27 Leuw, Johannis de (or J. J. C. de Leuu) (44) [3] 1521; (52) [2] 6 Levering, Dale F., Jr., \"The Changing Flora of the Boston Harbor Islands\" (48) [3] 1821, 23, 25 Levett, William (32) 177 Levisticum officinale (31) 200; (39) 257 Levitt, Jacob (50) [1] 34 Lewandowski, Rick, and Paul W. Meyer, \"The `Okame' Cherry\" (45) [1] 2324 Lewis and Clark, expedition of (49) [2] 20 -- -- -- plant discoveries by (49) [2] 19, 21 Lewis, Marjorie (39) 352 L Cumulative Index 5 Lewisia (55) [1] 3 -- brachycalyx (55) [1] 8 Leyland cypress (37) 52 L'Heritier de Brunelle, Charles Louis (47) [3] 12 Li, H. L. (50) [4] 30; (51) [2] 3 Li Hsi-wen (46) [4] 21 Li Hsin-hsueh (39) 354 Li, Jianhua, \"Metasequoia: An Overview of Its Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Variation\" (59) [1] 5459 Li Li-weng [quoted] (48) [2] 33 Li Shih Hsin (31) 271 Li Siguang (48) [2] 22 Li Yanhui (48) [2] 4 Lianas (50) [1] 14, 18 Liang Xi (48) [2] 22 Liatris (31) 128 Liatris (34) 379; (44) [2] 28, 29 -- punctata (31) 129 -- pycnostachya (31) 129; (34) 380 -- scariosa (31) 129; (34) 380; (39) 258 -- -- `September Glory' (31) 128, 129 -- spicata (31) 129; (34) 380, 381, 382; (39) 258 -- -- `Kobold' (31) 129 -- -- `Silver Tips' (31) 129 -- squarrosa (39) 258 -- `White Spire' (31) 128, 129 Libocedrus, water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 Library collections, horticultural and botanical (30) 28 -- materials, care and preservation of (30) 5666 Library of Congress (30) 6; (60) [2] 3; [3] 23 Lichen, British soldier (35) 37 Lichens (33) 162; [5] front cover; (35) 135137 -- in conifers (58) [3] 6 \"Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse,\" Richard E. Weaver (35) 133159, 147 Licorice (or liquorice) (31) 200 Liebes, Sidney (32) 226 Liechtenstein, Prince, parks of (54) [2] 14 \"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum,\" Edmund A. Schofield (47) [4] 923 \"Light in a Bottle: Plant-Collecting in the Philippines,\" Rob Nicholson (58) [1] 2026 Lightning damage (30) 222, 223 Lighty, Richard (50) [4] 27; (51) [2] 30; (52) [2] 44; -- -- Book Notes (53) [3] 3031; (54) [3] 4 Lignin, in soil (59) [2] 37, 42 Lignotubers (59) [3] 1422; [4] 14 Lignum-vitae (36) 5, 18 Lignum-vitae (57) [4] 20 Ligularia (50) [1] 4; (45) [4] 26; (55) [1] 15; [2] 31 -- clivorum `Desdemona' (34) 383 -- dentata (55) [1] 16 Ligustrum (34) 71; (30) 172 -- japonicum (36) 19 -- lucidum (31) 18 -- obtusifolium var. regelianum (44) [4] 24 -- quihoui (44) [3] 17, 24 -- vulgare (31) 219; (44) [3] 24; (56) [2] 24 -- -- var. italicum (31) 219 Lilac (31) 114, 116; (39) 312; (43) [1] 3; (44) [4] 43; (53) [2] 17; (56) [1] 2528; [2] 9, 25 -- arch (56) [1] 32 -- common (60) [4] 12 -- cvs. (32) 133135 -- list of 19th-century garden types (31) 120 -- Amur (44) [3] 6 -- Beauty of Moscow (56) [1] front cover -- blue (31) 119, 120 -- cutleaf (38) 69; (31) 120 -- dwarf Korean (38) 70 -- French hybrid (38) 65 -- great white flowered (31) 120 L 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- large Chinese (31) 120 -- -- flowering hybrid (31) 230 -- -- Siberian (31) 120 -- nodding (38) 76 -- Persian (31) 118, 119, 120; (38) 74; (60) [4] 12 -- -- common (57) [1] 12 -- Potanin (38) 75 -- Preston (38) 75, 76 -- Princess Marie (55) [4] 8 -- purple (31) 119, 120 -- red (31) 120 -- Rochester strain (32) 133135 -- tree (32) 72 -- -- Japanese (31) 120; (38) 7678; (39) 165, 166; (44) [4] 20, 21 -- white (31) 116, 120 Lilac: A Monograph, Susan Delano McKelvey (47) [4] 13, 14, 16 Lilac Registrations [John C. Wister and Joseph Oppe, 1970] (31) 121126 \"`Lilac Sunday'-- The Cultivar,\" John H. Alexander III (57) [1] 1213 Lilacs, at Arnold Arboretum (32) 50, 125; (35) 182; (49) [2] 27, 3, back cover; (56) [1] back cover -- disease-resistant spp. (38) 6581 -- list of 50 best (49) [2] 7 -- list of varieties susceptible to MLO (49) [2] 13 -- taxa susceptible to witches' broom (49) [2] 1013, 12 Lilies (30) 96; (32) 113; (56) [2] 15, 16; (60) [1] 8, 10 -- hybridization (33) 174182 -- Korean species (44) [3] 24 -- oriental (33) 315 \"Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum,\" George H. Pride (34) 125132 Lilium (31) 188; (33) 260; (34) 125132 -- cvs. (56) [2] 15 -- auratum (33) 174, 178; (34) 128, 131; (39) 258 -- -- x L. speciosum (32) 261 -- Bellingham hybrids (34) 128 -- canadense (31) 188, 202; (39) 258 -- candidum (31) 188; (39) 258 -- `Corsage' (34) 129 -- davidii (34) 125 -- `Gay Lights' (34) 128 -- giganteum (= Cardiocrinum) (33) 179 -- grayi (46) [3] front cover, 22 -- hansonii (33) 178; (34) 128 -- henryi (34) 126; (43) [1] 22, 27, 37 -- iridollae (60) [1] 10, 11, 12 -- lancifolium (48) [3] 38 -- longiflorum (48) [3] 38 -- x marhan (45) [4] 28 -- martagon (31) 188, 202; (39) 258; (45) [4] 28 -- -- var. album (45) [4] 28 -- medeoloides (38) 87 -- monodelphum (39) 258 -- x parkmannii (33) 174, 178 -- -- var. haywardii (34) 132 -- -- hybrids (34) 130, 131132 -- philadelphicum (60) [1] 10 -- polyphyllum (33) 178 -- pomponium (31) 202 -- regale (34) 125126; (40) [4] back cover -- sargentiae (34) 125 -- speciosum (33) 178; (34) 128, 131 -- -- 'Album' (56) [2] 15, 16 -- `Stardust' (34) 129 -- superbum (39) 258; (43) [2] 33, 35, back cover; (47) [2] 17 -- thunbergianum (33) 179 -- tigrinum (36) 229 -- tsingtauense (34) 128 Lily (31) 188; (39) 258; (43) [2] 33, 37 -- blackberry (34) 296 L Cumulative Index -- Canada (39) 258 -- Caucasian (39) 258 -- checkered (31) 178 -- common white (31) 188 -- corn (43) [2] 37 -- day (43) [2] 37 -- Goldband (39) 258 -- Gray's (46) [3] front cover -- Henry (43) [1] 22, 37 -- lemon (37) 200 -- Madonna (39) 258 -- Martagon (39) 258 -- pot-of-gold (60) [1] 12 -- regal (34) 125126 -- roan (46) [3] front cover, 22 -- trout (37) 95; (43) [2] 37 -- turks cap (39) 258; (47) [2] 17 -- wash house (31) 173 -- water (43) [2] 4, 8 -- -- fragrant (39) 162; (43) [2] 21, 23, cover -- -- royal (50) [2] 33, 34 Lily-of-the-valley (31) 26, 188; (34) 57, 316; (39) 254; (43) [1] 41; [2] 37 -- Japanese (38) 87 Lima, Barbosa, drawing by (47) [3] 34 Lime tree (31) 217; (32) 166 Limeberry (36) 20 Limonium (31) 129; (34) 384 -- carolinianum (39) 258 -- latifolium (31) 129; (34) 384 -- -- `Colliers Pink' (31) 129 -- -- `Violetta' (31) 129 -- tataricum var. angustifolium (34) 384 Linaria vulgaris (31) 196; (34) 192 Lindera obtusilobum (60) [4] inside back cover, 16 Linden (31) 217; (32) 80, 82, 166, 167; (39) 81; (43) [1] 22; (57) [1] 24, 26, 27; [2] 7 -- branching patterns (49) [1] 32 -- American (31) 240 -- European (32) 290; (57) [3] 23 -- Japanese (39) 201, 202 -- littleleaf (33) 208; (39) 132, 133 -- Mongolian (39) 202 -- pendant silver (42) [2] 97, 97 -- Redmond (39) 133, 134; (44) [4] 21 -- silver (39) 134, 135 -- small-leaved European (44) [4] front cover, 2021 -- tea (32) 166 Lindens (44) [4] 9 -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 Lindera benzoin (31) 41, 220; (36) 24; (45) [2] 20; (56) [2] 24 -- obtusiloba (47) [2] 14 -- umbellata var. membranacea (38) 93 Lindley, John (31) 44; (56) [4] 2627 Ling (39) 25 Ling, Hsieh (50) [4] 17, 18 Lingnan [China] (48) [2] 42 Lingnan Bamboo Garden, Canton (35) 283 Lingnan Science Journal (48) [2] 17, 18 Lingnan University (48) [2] 13, 1620, 30 Lingon (31) 236 Lingonberry (45) [4] 25 Link, Jack, \"The Arboretum's Labels: A Valuable Teaching Aid\" (33) 239244 Link, Johann Heinrich Friedrich [quoted] (47) [3] 36 Linnaea borealis (45) [4] 23, 27; (47) [2] 7; (56) [3] 16; (60) [1] 4 Linnaean classification system (56) [4] 1718 Linnaean Herbarium (32) 55 Linnaean Society of London (47) [4] 30 7 L 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Linnaeus, Carolus (Carl von Linne) (31) 94, 118; (33) 300; (39) 319; (47) [3] 3, 4, 6, 7, 9; (48) [4] 54; (50) [2] 32; [4] 24; (56) [3] 34; [4] 1722; (60) [2] 17 -- -- book and library collection (30) 6061 -- -- bust of (47) [3] 29 -- -- Hortus Cliffortianus (39) 310, 314 Linnaeus, Elizabeth Christina (56) [4] 17 Linociera (50) [4] 24 Linum alpinum (35) 1 -- flavum (35) 1 -- narbonense (35) 1 -- perenne (35) 1; (39) 258 -- usitatissimum (31) 200 Liparis (41) 145, 146 -- kuomokiri (41) 145, 146 -- liliifolia (37) 182 -- makinoana (37) 182; (41) 145, 146 Lipp, Louis (32) 51 Liquidambar (36) 9298, 107; (57) [1] 17 -- specimen of (49) [1] 22 -- formosana (36) 71, 94; (50) [4] 16, 22 -- -- var. monticola (36) 93 -- orientalis (36) 71, 92, 94 -- styraciflua (30) 169, 171; (31) 220; (32) 72, 73; (36) 71, 9498, 95, 96; (38) 157; (39) 114, 115, 229; (49) [4] 26, 34 -- -- cvs. (36) 98 Liriconfancie (31) 181 Liriodendron (57) [1] 24 -- flower of (45) [2] front cover, 1 -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- leaves of (45) [2] 1, 2, 5 -- -- development of (45) [2] 2, 6 -- stipules of, development of (45) [2] 6 -- chinense (39) 270; (57) [4] 26 -- tulipifera (30) 102; (31) 221; (32) 73; (36) 119124, 120, 122, 124; (38) 35; (39) 272, 275; (42) [2] 94, 96; (45) [2] 26; (54) [1] 6, 8; (57) [4] 26; [3] inside front cover; (60) [4] 26 -- -- x chinense `Chapel Hill' (60) [4] inside front cover, 14 -- -- `Ardis' (30) 254 -- -- `Fastigiatum', flower of (45) [2] front cover -- -- lignin content (59) [2] 37(59) \"Liriodendron tulipifera-- Its Early Uses,\" Margo W. Reynolds (36) 119124 Lisbon [Portugal] (47) [3] 3138 -- Ajuda quarter (47) [3] 32 -- botanical garden (47) [3] inside front cover, 3138, 34, back cover -- -- Plan of (47) [3] 33 -- Palace of Ajuda (47) [3] 37 -- Palace of Belem (47) [3] 37 -- Salazar Bridge (47) [3] 37 -- Twenty-first of April Bridge (47) [3] 37 Lisianthus (31) 316; (33) 189, 197, 198 -- longifolius (33) 190, 196 -- nigrescens (33) 189, 196, 197, 198 \"Listening to Thirsty Plants,\" John W. Einset (46) [2] 4245 Litchi chinensis (48) [2] 7 Lithocarpus densiflorus (59) [4] 13 -- yiwuensis (48) [2] 6 Lithospermum species (43) [1] 37 Litsea auriculata (52) [4] 4 -- dilleniaefolia (48) [2] 6 -- magnolia (48) [2] 7 -- pierrei var. szemaois (48) [2] 7 \"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Designer,\" Gary L. Koller (52) [2] 3645 Liu, Mr. (46) [1] 10 Liu Yuan garden [Suzhou, China] (53) [1] 37 Live-forever (35) 38; (46) [3] 6 Liverwort (31) 186 \"Lives of New England Gardens: Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen (56) [3] 2628 Living Buddha (52) [2] inside front cover Living Northern Hardwood Trees, Larson, Edwin H., and Alex L. Shigo [review of] (30) 196 L Cumulative Index 9 Living Treasures: An Odyssey through China's Extraordinary Nature Reserves, by Tang Xiyang [review of] (48) [2] 39 \"Living with Poisonous Plants,\" Richard A. Howard (34) 4144 Livingston estate [Hudson River, NY] (31); 156 Lizard's tail (31) 229 Lobaria pulmonaria (35) 135, 153, 154 Lobba (31) 16 L'Obel, Mathieu de (or Lobelius) (31) 116 Lobelia, great blue (39) 260; (43) [2] 7 Lobelia cardinalis (31) 178; (35) 2, 3; (39) 258; (43) [2] 7 -- inflata (37) 218 -- siphilitica (35) 3; (39) 260; (43) [2] 7 -- tupa (32) 211; (41) 122 -- x vedariensis (35) 3 Loblolly pine (31) 240; (56) [3] 9 Lochhead, William (57) [4] 20 Lochot, Japanese (31) 118 Loco weed (34) 69 Locust (31) 218; (32) 67, 78 -- black (34) 83, 234, 235; (39) 161, 162; (43) [1] 39; (44) [1] 11; (47) [3] 7; (48) [4] 5257, 53; (52) [4] 32; (57) [2] 7; (60) [4] 26 -- bristly (60) [1] 16 -- honey (31) 239; (34) 236, 237; (48) [4] 35; (54) [1] 56, 7 -- -- thornless (54) [1] 7 -- pink (31) 241 -- rose acacia (31) 241 Loddiges's Nursery [England] (47) [4] 32 Lofling, Pehr (47) [3] 6 Logix database system (49) [1] 58 Loiseluria procumbens (38) 91; (47) [2] 7 Lomatium bradshawi (46) [3] 9 London [England] (47) [4] 24; (48) [2] 18 Long, Charles R., \"An Informal History of Bonsai\" (31) 261273 Long Hill estate [Beverly, MA] (57) [1] 11 Long Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 20, 21, 22, 25, 29, 31 Long Island [NY] (48) [4] 56 Long, Robert C. (32) 252 Longevity (59) [4] 1016 Longfellow, Henry W. (54) [3] 20 Longland, David (47) [2] 1 -- -- \"Meadow Making-- Caveat Emptor\" (51) [1] 1517 Longleat estate, Wiltshire [England] (32) 184 Longman, Alan (59) [1] 82 Longrui Reserve [Guangxi, China] (46) [3] back cover Longwood Agricultural Research Service Program (33) 15, 22, 24 Longwood Foundation (32) 258 Longwood Gardens [Kennett Square, PA] (49) [1] 43; (51) [2] 17, 20; (54) [3] cover, 45, 11 Longue Vue Gardens [New Orleans, LA] (57) [1] 11 Lonicera (33) 141; (37) 122, 123; (44) [2] 30; (43) [1] 41; (45) [2] 19; [4] 23; (55) [1] 18; [3] 5, 18 -- `Arnold Red' (32) 43, 51 -- caprifolium (31) 216 -- flava (60) [2] 10 -- fragrantissima (37) 122; (44) [4] 24; (55) [2] 30 -- -- x purpusii (37) 122 -- henryi (30) 158; (43) [1] 23, 26 -- hirsuta (46) [3] 10 -- japonica (50) [4] 8 -- -- `Halliana' (56) [2] 24 -- korolkowii `Aurora' (35) [5] inside back cover -- maackia (57) [3] 212, 5, 9 -- -- 'Rem-Red' (57); [3] 6 -- periclymenum (31) 216; (39) 260 -- sempervirens (31) 216 -- standishii (37) 122 -- -- f. lancifolia (55) [4] 6, 8 -- tatarica (31) 239; (42) [3] 144; (57) [3] 3 -- tragophylla (52) [1] 11 Loosestrife (31) 130; (35) 5 -- false (43) [2] 8 L 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- gooseneck (31) 130 -- purple (31) 131; (34) 179; (35) 7, 8; (43) [2] 31, 32; (46) [3] 4 -- swamp (43) [2] 21, 22 -- yellow (43) [2] 36, 37 Lophophora williamsii (32) 205; (41) 94, 95 Loranthaceae (51) [3] 11, 13 Lorette pruning (59) [4] 22, 23 Loropetalum chinensis (36) 70, 98100, 99; (55) [1] 18 Losada, Duque de (47) [3] 10 \"Lost and Found: Elliottia racemosa,\" Peter Del Tredici (47) [4] 28 Lost crops of Incas, list of (50) [4] 1115 Lost Crops of the Incas, Little-known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation [1989, National Research Council] (50) [4] 15 \"Lost Crops of the Incas,\" National Research Council Panel (50) [4] 215 Lotus flower (36) 209 Loudon, John Claudius (32) 179, 185, 187; (48) [3] 36; (53) [3] 16; (54) [1] 25, 27; [3] 17; (56) [1] 3; (57) [3] 22, 23 Louisburg Square [Boston] (57) [2] 9 Lovage (31) 200; (39) 257 Love, Mary (47) [4] 25 Love-in-a-mist (39) 261 Love-lies-bleeding (31) 174 Lovejoy, Frederick H. (39) 361 Lovell's Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19, 21, 22 Low maintenance garden (30) 93, 94, 234 -- -- -- at the Case Estates (31) 30 LOW MAINTENANCE PERENNIALS, Robert S. Hebb, Part I (34) [5] 253384; Part II (35) [1] 186 \"Lowbush Blueberries: Out of the Barrens and into the Garden,\" Ann Crichton-Harris (49) [3] 3840 Lowell [MA] (47) [4] 30, 32 Lowell, Guy (54) [1] 28; [2] 16 Lowell, John Amory (47) [4] 33 Lowell, Lucy (54) [3] 21 Lowrie, Charles H. (60) [3] 5 LSD (32) 207 Lu Shan Arboretum [China] (53) [4] 21 Lu, L. T. (51) [1] 13 Ludong, Banyeng (60) [4] 39, 6, 7 Ludwigia (43) [2] 8, 9 Lufeng [China] (46) [4] 23 Lugs (31) 187 Lu-hua movement, China (35) 274 Luken, James O., \"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall From Grace,\" with John W. Thieret (57) [3] 212 Lunaria annua (31) 229 Lungwort (31) 188; (35) 32; (37) 98; (39) 264 Lupine (31) 24, 190; (34) 69; (35) 4 -- canyon (31) 130 -- false (31) 137; (35) 48 -- great blue (31) 190 -- sundial (39) 260 -- white (31) 190 -- wild (39) 260 Lupinus (31) 130; (33) 192 -- albus (31) 190 -- cytisoides (31) 130 -- hirsutus (31) 190 -- mutabilis (50) [4] 13 -- perennis (31) 190; (39) 260 -- x regalis `Russell Hybrids' (31) 130; (35) 4 Lushan Botanic Garden [China] (48) [2] 35 Luteus (43) [1] 4 Luteyn, James (46) [4] 4; (59) [1] 48 Luxembourg, Citadel of (54) [2] 14 Luxembourg Gardens [Paris] (57) [2] 7 Lychnis (31) 130 -- alba (34) 161; (32) 219 -- chalcedonia (31) 193; (35) 4; (39) 260 -- coronaria (31) 130; (35) 5; (39) 260 -- dioica (31) 227 L Cumulative Index -- x haageana (35) 5 -- viscaria (31) 227; (35) 4 Lycium chinense (30) 158 Lycoperdon (32) 207 Lycopersicum esculentum (31) 196 Lycopodium flabelliforme (55) [3] 6 Lyford, Walter (49) [4] 5, 15 Lygodium lanceolatum (32) 25 -- palmatum (45) [3] 1, 16, 25 -- -- distribution of in New England (45) [3] 27, 28 -- -- fertile pinnae of (45) [3] 29 -- -- spore of (45) [4] 39 Lyle, Anna Hamilton (49) [2] 19 Lyman estate or \"The Vale\" [Waltham, MA] (47) [4] 26, 28, 29 Lyman, Mary Boott (47) [4] 32 Lyman, Theodore (31) 157; (47) [4] 2526, 28 Lynch, Donna A. (39) 344 -- -- -- \"Labelling, Notes from the Arnold Arboretum\" (38) 5559 Lynch, John A., photo by (47) [2] inside front cover Lynde (Linden) (32) 166 Lynn [MA] (48) [4] 3751, 39 -- -- City Council (48) [4] 46 Lynn Harbor [MA] (48) [4] 39 Lynn Woods [MA] (48) [4] 3751; (53) [4] 6 -- -- -- map of reservation (48) [4] 49 Lynnfield [MA] (48) [4] 44 Lyon, John (49) [2] 20, 21; (60) [2] 17 Lyonia (49) [2] 20 -- ovalifolia (55) [1] 15 Lyre flower (31) 34; (39) 254; (34) 321 Lysichiton (47) [2] 27 -- americanum (37) 172; (47) [2] 28, back cover; (52) [2] 41, 42 -- camtschatense (30) 20; (38) 91; (47) [2] 6; (37) 172 Lysidice rhodostegia (30) 15 Lysimachia (31) 130 -- clethroides (31) 130; (35) 5, 6 -- nummalaria (31) 131, 228; (35) 6 -- -- `Aurea' (31) 131 -- punctata (31) 130; (35) 5; (39) 260 -- terrestris (43) [2] 36, 37 -- vulgaris (31) 131 Lythrum (31) 131 -- salicaria (31) 131; (34) 179; (35) 7, 8, 9; (43) [2] 31, 32; (46) [3] 4; (51) [1] 16; (52) [4] 23, 31 -- -- `Dropmore Purple' (31) 131 -- -- `Morden Gleam' (31) 131 -- -- `Morden Pink' (31) 131 -- -- `Morden Rose' (31) 131 -- -- `Robert' (31) 131 -- virgatum (35) 9 11 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - M","article_sequence":11,"start_page":1,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25330","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070a36d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"M Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Ma Junwu (48) [2] 19 Maack, Richard (31) 120; (57) [3] 4 Maackia (38) 112 -- amurensis (32) 67; (55) [3] 17 Macao (30) 180 Machilus rufipes (48) [2] 7 Macintosh, Charles (44) [2] 5, 10 Mackey, Charles (39) 344 MacKinder, Duncan (49) [1] 45 Macleaya (31) 131 -- cordata (31) 131; (35) 9; (39) 260; (55) [2] 32 Maclura pomifera (39) 152, 226; (52) [3] inside front cover, 1419, 15, 16, 18; (55) [3] 17 -- cvs. (52) [3] 16, 17 MacNeil, Alphonse (39) 346 Macoun, John (60) [1] 7 Macrocarpaea (33) 195 -- pachyphylla (33) 195 Macroptilium spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 Madagascar, collecting medicinal herbs in (32) 2329, 22, 26, 28, 29 -- marketplace (32) 28 Madder (31) 200 Maddox, John (32) 228 Madrid Botanical Garden [Spain] (47) [3] 229, 2, 12, 23, 2529 -- Invernaculo (47) [3] 27, 28, 29 -- Murillo Gate (47) [3] 27 -- Pabellon Villanueva (47) [3] 28, 29 -- Paseo del Prado (47) [3] 5, 6, 10, 23 -- plans of (47) [3] 11, 25, 27 -- Puerta del Rey (47) [3] 12, 23, 25 -- Royal Gate (47) [3] 23 -- Ruiz and Pavon Pavilion (47) [3] 23 -- view of in summer (47) [3] 2 \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio,\" Ricardo R. Austrich and J. Walter Brain (47) [3] 2529 Madsen, Karen, \"A Guide to Metasequoia at the Arnold Arboretum\" (59) [1] 8184 -- -- \"In Pursuit of Ironclads\" (60) [1] 2932 -- -- \"Notes on Chinese-American Botanical Collaboration\" (59) [1] 1216 -- -- \"Preface\"(60) [2] 23 -- -- \"Punctuating the Skyline: Alternatives to the Lombardy Poplar\" (54) [1] 3134 -- -- \"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's Woodlands\" (49) [2] 1424 -- -- photos by (54) [1] inside front cover; (55) [1] inside back cover Madulid, Domingo (58) [1] 23 Madwort (34) 277 Maekawa, Fumio (50) [3] 32 \"Magnificent Ginger,\" Gary L. Koller (49) [3] 4143 \"Magnificent Maclura--Past and Present,\" John C. Pair (52) [3] 1419 Magnocurarine (55) [2] 1718 Magnolia (31) 218; (32) 96, 160, 187, 241; (53) [4] 20; (57) [1] 26, 31 -- family (60) [1] 15 -- anise (or willow-leaved) (55) [4] 13 -- bigleaved (or big-leaf) (55) [4] 12; (57) [4] 22 -- Clarkia fossil (53) [2] 5, 7 -- cucumber (39) 153, 154; (53) [2] inside front cover; (56) [2] 6, 28 -- Fraser (41) 61; (55) [4] 13 -- hybrids (36) 129145; (41) 56, 74 -- Japanese white bark (38) 31; (41) 70 -- Kobus (55) [4] 8 -- Merrill (39) 115, 116, 224, 375 -- mountain (57) [4] 22 -- Mulan (57) [4] 22 -- pyramid (41) 65 M 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- saucer (32) 90; (36) 138; (39) 116, 117; (48) [3] front cover; (53) [4] 20 -- slope (53) [2] 1, 7 -- southern (31) 241 -- star (30) 172; (32) 90, 96; (36) 142; (52) [3] 11; (53) [4] 20 -- sweetbay (30) 172 -- umbrella (31) 244; (32) 90; (41) 60; (55) [4] 12 -- -- Asian (57) [4] inside front cover -- willowleaf (60) [4] 12 -- Yulan (32) 90; (39) 154, 155 Magnolia (51) [1] 1314; (54) [3] 30; (57) [4] 22, 24, 29; (60) [1] 15 -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- hybrids (41) 56, 74 -- nursery sources (36) 144 -- spp. in cultivation (34) 111, 2 -- subgenus Magnolia (36) 138, 134 -- subgenus Yulania (36) 133, 134, 138 -- acuminata (32) 90; (36) 143, 144; (39) 153, 154, 229; (49) [1] 54; (50) [1] 17; (51) [1] front cover; (53) [2] inside front cover, 5, 6, 7, 9; [4] 24; (54) [1] 8; (56) [2] 28; (57) [1] 24; [4] 22 -- -- x brooklynensis (36) 143 -- -- `Evamaria' (36) 143 -- -- var. subcordata (60) [1] 13 -- -- `Woodsman' (36) 143, 144 -- amoena (41) 58 -- ashei (33) 90; (47) [2] 7; (54) [3] 28; (55) [4] 12 -- biondii (41) 57, 58; (46) [4] 3; (52) [1] 1823, 19, 21, 22 -- campbellii (36) 140, 141 -- `Charles Coates' (36) 138 -- `Diva' (57) [2] 23 -- cordata (46) [3] 31 -- cylindrica (41) 57 -- delavayi var. albivillosa (48) [2] 6 -- denudata (32) 90; (36) 139; (39) 154, 155, 224; (48) [3] 48; [4] 18, 19, 22, 23; (49) [2] 27; (50) [4] 20 -- fraseri (41) [2] front cover, 63, 65, 66; (55) [2] 17; [4] 13; (57) [4] 22, 23, 2526, 28, 29 -- `Freeman' (36) 136 -- glauca (= virginiana) (51) [3] 7 -- grandiflora (30) 12; (31) 241; (36) 136; (39) 272, 276; (48) [4] 22; (50) [1] 16; (53) [2] 59, (55) [2] 29 -- halleana (50) [3] 7 -- henryi (48) [2] 4, 6 -- heptapeta (36) 139, 140; (39) 154, 155, 224 -- hypoleuca (36) 136, 137; (38) 31, 84, 86, 95, 139; (41) 70, 72, 73; (47) [2] 7; (55) [2] 16; (57) [4] 22 -- -- x tripetala (41) 73 -- -- -- `Silver Parasol' (41) 7077, 75, 76 -- x kewensis (41) 57 -- kobus (38) 84; (49) [2] 27; (50) [3] 7; (53) [4] 20; (55) [4] 8; (57) [1] 24; (60) [4] 12 -- -- var. stellata (36) 142, 143 -- latahensis (53) [2] 2, 3, 5, 8 -- `Leonard Messel' (57) [1] 31 -- liliiflora (36) 139, 143; (48) [4] 22; (53) [2] 9;(57) [4] 22 -- x loebneri (30) 95 -- `Maryland' (36) 136 -- -- `Merrill' (32) [ 2] cover, 51; (39) 115, 116, 224, 375; (41) 2, inside back cover; (51) [4] back cover -- macrophylla (47) [2] 7; (48) [4] 22; (50) [1] 15; (51) [3] 7; (55) [2] 17; [4] 3, 12; (57) [4] inside back cover, 22, 2526, 27, 28, 29 -- obovata (57) [4] 22, 23, 2526, 28, 29 -- officinalis (38) 30, 140; (55) [2] 1617; (57) [4] 22, 23, 25, 28 -- -- var. biloba (38) 139; (52) [1] 18; (55) [2] 1218, 16, 17 -- x proctoriana (41) 57 -- pyramidata (41) 65 -- quinquepeta (36) 139, 140, 143 -- -- `Nigra' (36) 142 -- -- `Reflorescens' (36) 142 -- -- x kobus var. stellata (36) 142, 143 -- rostrata (57) [4] 22, 29 -- salicifolia (38) 96; (41) 51, 53, 56; (55) [4] 13; (60) [4] 12 -- sieboldii (36) 136, 137, 138; (38) 30, 142; (57) [2] 21 -- x slavinii (41) 57 -- x soulangeana (32) 90; (36) 138, 139, 140, 141, 144; (39) 116, 117, 224; (48) [3] front cover [4] 18, 20, 22, 23; (53) [4] 20, 23 -- -- `Candolleana' (53) [4] 24 M Cumulative Index 3 -- -- `Brozzonii' (33) 243; (39) 117; (44) [1] 27 -- stellata (30) 155, 172, 206; (32) 90, 96; (48) [4] 18; (49) [2] 27; (50) [3] 7; (51) [4] back cover; (52) [3] 11; (53) [4] 20, 24, 25 -- x thompsoniana (36) 129, 130, 131, 132, 135 -- tripetala (31) 244; (32) 90; (36) 129, 131, 135, 138; (41) 74; (47) [2] 7; (48) [4] 22; (50) [1] 16; (55) [4] 12; (57) [4] inside front cover, 22, 24, 2526, 28, 29 -- -- `Isca' (36) 140 -- -- `Peter Veitch' (36) 140 -- virginiana (30) 172; (31) 90, 218; (32) 90; (33) 306; (36) 129, 131, 135, 136; (41) 37, 39, 42, 43, 46; [2] back cover; (44) [4] 49; (45) [2] 26; (47) [2] 4; (48) [4] 22; (50) [1] 17; (57) [1] 21 -- -- var. australis (41) 43; (60) [4] 16 -- -- -- virginiana (60) [4] 17 -- -- x grandiflora (36) 135, 136 -- -- var. major (36) 129 -- -- `Milton' (55) [2] 29 -- -- var. thompsoniana (36) 129 -- -- x tripetala (36) 132 -- x veitchii (36) 140, 142 -- x `Wada's Memory' (60) [4] 12 -- x watsonii (36) 136 -- x wiesneri (36) 136, 137, 138 -- zenii (41) 58; (49) [2] 2527, 25, 26, 27; (51) [1] 13; (53) [4] 20; (56) [1] 23 -- -- propagation (49) [2] 27 \"Magnolia fraseri,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (41) 6069 \"Magnolia salicifolia: An Arboretum Introduction,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (41) 5058 \"Magnolia virginiana in Massachusetts,\" Peter Del Tredici (41) 3649 Magnoliaceae (50) [1] 17; (60) [1] 15 -- studies on (49) [1] 16 MAGNOLIAS (41) [2] 3678 Magnolias, by Neil Treseder [review of] (30) 2627 Maguira sclerophylla (32) 208 Maguire, Bassett (39) 352 Magullion, Sheila, \"Botanical Embedding\" (36) 265275 -- \"Echeverias\" [reviewed] (39) 72 -- \"A Guide by Plant Family to Foliage Preservation\" (37) 289304 Mahonia, Japanese (56) [2] 25 Mahonia aquifolium (35) 235; (45) [2] 19; (55) [2] 31; (56) [2] 25 -- bealei (55) [1] 17 -- japonica (55) [2] 3031; (56) [2] 25 -- repens (35) 235 Maidenhair fern (31) 229 -- tree (30) 169; (37) 54, 55 Maine (48) [1] 18 Maine Agricultural Experimental Station [Jonesboro] (49) [3] 40 Maine, University of (58) [1] 1112 Maintenance of urban street trees (53) [3] 11 Maize (31) 146, 206 Major Medicinal Plants, Julia F. Morton [review of] (38) 182 Majorana hortensis (31) 200 Making Gifts from Oddments and Outdoor Materials, Betsey B. Creekmore [review of] (32) 169 \"Making of Boston Harbor,\" by Irving R. Crosby [reprinted] (48) [3] 24 \"Making of a Botanist,\" Gerhard Rehder (32) 141156 Making Things Grow, Thalassa Cruso [review of] (30) 28, 29 Makino, Tomitaro (31) 51 Malaspina, Alejandro (47) [3] 18, 19 Malaspina Expedition (47) [3] 13, 14, 1819, 21 -- landfalls [map] (47) [3] 20 Malathion (30) 45 Malaya (48) [2] 3 Malcom, James Peller, painting by (49) [2] 15 Mallet, Dr. (36) 60, 63 Mallotus japonicus (60) [4] 26 Mallow, French -- garden (31) 186 -- marsh (39) 250 -- prairie (35) 40 -- rose (31) 229 -- shrub (31) 214 Malouetia (32) 213 M 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Malpighia coccigera (36) 2, 3, 5, 10, 19 -- punicifolia (36) 2, 5, 10, 19 Maltese cross (31) 130, 193; (35) 4; (39) 260 Malus (32) 84; (33) 217230; (39) 118121, 120; (44) [1] 22; (53) [2] 18; (55) [3] 17; [4] 13, 3435; (57) [2] 14 -- spp. and cvs. (30) 171; (38) 157; (45) [4] 23 -- x adstringens `Kelsey' (30) 254 -- -- `Rodney' (30) 255 -- -- `Sparkler' (30) 255 -- `American Beauty' (30) 255 -- angustifolia (31) 246; (43) [1] 41 -- armeniaca (31) 230 -- x arnoldiana (32) 51 -- x atrosanguinea (39) 118; (44) [4] 19 -- baccata (32) 279; (44) [4] 19; (53) [1] 12 -- -- `Albright' (32) 279 -- -- `Columnaris' (39) 118 -- `Blanche Ames' (51) [1] 3337, 34, 35, 36 -- `Cameron (30) 255 -- `Coralburst' (39) 118 -- coronaria (31) 237; (43) [1] 41 -- `Dolgo' (32) 280 -- `Donald Wyman' (30) 116, 147, 256; (32) 55; (39) 119; (53) [3] back cover -- `Dorothea' (32) 279; (51) [1] 33 -- `Fameuse' (45) [4] 23 -- florentina (39) 118 -- floribunda (39) 119, 121; (44) [4] 19 -- glabrata (57) [1] 24 -- halliana (50) [3] 2 -- `Henrietta Crosby' (30) 94; (32) 51 -- `Hopa' (32) 280 -- hupehensis (32) 280; (39) 118, 119, 120; (55) [4] 35 -- ioensis (43) [1] 41 -- `Maybride' (30) 256 -- micromalus (39) 121 -- `Osman' (32) 279 -- -- `Arctic Red' (32) 279 -- `Pink Charming' (30) 258 -- `Pink Perfection' (30) 256 -- `Porter' (31) 160 -- `Profusion' (51) [1] 33 -- pumila (31) 222 -- -- medwetzkyana (32) 280 -- -- var. paradisiaca (44) [3] 11 -- `Redflesh' (x soulardii) (32) 280 -- `Red Jade' (x schiedeckeri) (39) 119 -- `Royal Ruby' (30) 258 -- `Royalty' (32) 280 -- sargentii (30) 167; (39) 118, 119; (55) [4] 35 -- sieboldii (30) 147; (55) [4] 35 -- `Snowcloud' (30) 258; (39) 119 -- `Snowdrift' (39) 119 -- spectabilis var. riversii (51) [1] 33 -- `Springtime' (32) 279, 280 -- `Sylvanna' (32) 280 -- sylvestris (42) [1] 1718; (53: [2] 18 -- tschonoskii (39) 118, 119, 226 Malutang [Yunnan province, China] (46) [4] 1, 30 Malvaceae (57) [3] 33 Man, Nature, and History, W. M. S. Russell [review of] (30) 120 \"Managing a Small Woodlot,\" Ernest Gould (45) [1] 29 Manchuria (48) [2] 31 Mandarin (37) 176 Mandevilla laxa (50) [1] 18 Mandioca (50) [2] 3132 Mangelsdorf, Paul C. (47) [4] 19, 20, 22; (52) [1] 9, 13 Mangifera indica (35) 98 -- sylvatica (48) [2] 7 Manglietia fordiana (30) 12; (48) [2] 4, 7 M Cumulative Index 5 -- microgyna (48) [2] 6 -- wangii (48) [2] 3, 6 Mango (35) 98 Mangrove (43) [2] 4 Manihot, spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- esculenta (50) [2] 27, 3132, 30; (52) [2] 22, 23, 24 Manioc (52) [2] 24 Manning, Warren (56) [1] 29, 3132; [2] 9; (57) [1] 2, 7, 11; (60) [3] 5 Manual of Cultivated Conifers, Gerd Krussmann [review of] (46) [1] 4547 Manual of the Trees of North America [C. S. Sargent] (31) 23; (32) 7, 52, 185 Manual of Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America [Alfred Rehder, 1927] (32) 51, 258; (50) [3] 16, 18, 19, 21; (49) [1] 18 Manual of Woody Landscape Plants--Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation, and Uses, Michael A. Dirr [review of] (38) 62 Manuelino style (47) [3] 37 Many Glacier [MT] (47) [4] 12 Manyoshu (31) 285, 289, 291 Manzanita (46) [3] 40 Mao-erh-tao (30) 181 Mao Yisheng (48) [2] 22 Mao Zedong (or Tse-tung) (48) [2] 22, 31 Maple (43) [1] 7; (44) [1] 27; (52) [2] 30; [3] 3; (53) [4] 28, 30; (55) [3] 2, 89; (57) [1] 24, 26; [2] 17; [3] 24; (60) [4] 26 -- bigleaf (58) [3] front cover, 5 -- columnar forms (36) 167, 168 -- fastigiate forms (36) 167, 168 -- amur (36) 154, 162, 170; (39) 139, 140; (44) [3] 6; [4] 15, 16; (45) [4] 2223 -- cherrybark (39) 140, 141 -- coliseum (39) 169 -- coral-bark (43) [1] 8 -- cutleaf (57) [2] 22 -- devil (36) 158, 159 -- five-leaf (57) [2] 22 -- full moon (30) 168; (32) 70; (36) 150 -- hard (36) 146 -- hedge (39) 85, 86; (53) [1] 22 -- Henry's (57) [2] 24 -- hornbeam (36) 147, 162, 171 -- ivy-leafed (57) [2] 24 -- Japanese (30) 169; (32) 70, 290; (33) 200; (36) 146, 150, 151, 152, 153; (43) [1] 8; (44) [1] 27; [4] 15, 16; (49) [3] 10, 11, 18; (55) [2] 29; (56) [2] 27; (57) [1] 27; (60) [4] 15 -- Korean (60) [4] 15 -- Manchurian (36) 150; (57) [2] 2023 -- mountain (36) 154, 162 -- Nikko (30) 168; (36) 150; (39) 141, 142; (57) [2] 1718, 21 -- Norway (31) 241; (32) 69, 290; (33) 200, 278, 279; (34) 240, 241; (36) 147, 148, 158, 159, 160, 166, 168; (39) 86, 87; (44) [4] 16; (48) [4] 34, 35; (49) [2] 21; (56) [1] 15, 1619, 20, 21; [2] 27 -- Oregon (42) [4] 147 -- painted (36) 154, 169 -- paperbark (32) 290, 291; (36) 150, 156, 157, 169; (38) [1] front cover; (39) 140, 141; (43) [1] 7, 9; (52) [4] 24; (55) [1] 12, 1416; (57) [2] inside front cover, 18, 19, 20; (60) [4] 15 -- Persian (39) 170 -- purplebloom (36) 150, 151, 164; (57) [2] 20 -- red (30) 169; (31) 218; (32) 69; (34) 240; (36) 147148, 156, 157, 160, 163, 166, 167, 168; (39) 86, 90; (49) [4] 6; (54) [1] 67; [3] 28; (55) [3] 56; (56) [1] 16, 18; (57) [1] 14, 24; (58) [2] 7, 23, 36, 43; (59) [3] 23 -- -- Armstrong (54) [1] 32, 33 -- rock (36) 146 -- Rocky Mountain (42) [4] 140 -- Schwedler (36) 161 -- Siebold (32) 70; (36) 150 -- silver (31) 241; (32) 69; (33) 276; (34) 240; (36) 149, 160, 161, 166; (42) [2] 9091; (49) [4] 20; (57) [1] 16, 24; (59) [3] 23, 2430, 31, inside back cover -- -- centenarian (59) [3] 23, 24 -- -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- -- national champion (59) [3] 23 -- silver-leaf (59) [3] 31 -- snakebark (36) 156, 162, 170; (43) [1] 8; (55) [1] 15 -- striped (30) 169; (32) 70; (36) 154, 155, 159 -- sugar (31) 241; (32) 69; (36) 146, 147, 148, 160, 161, 168; (39); 142, 143; (42) 9192; (43) [4] 29, 30; (44) [1] 13; (52) [4] 29; (54) [1] 7; (55) [3] 57; (56) [1] 16, 18; (57) [2] 22; (58) [2] 7, 9, 23 M 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- swamp (30) 169 -- sycamore (32) 70; (34) 240; (36) 158, 159, 168; (39) 88, 89; (44) [4] 16; (57) [2] 7 -- Tatarian (32) 70; (36) 162, 170; (39) 143, 144 -- three-flowered (36) 150, 156, 157; (53) [4] 21; (57) [2] 2021 -- trident (36) 156, 157; (39) 84; (49) [3] 11, 18, 2223; (60) [4] 26, 28 -- trifoliate (57) [2] 17, 20, 23, 24 -- twisted-bark (60) [4] 15 -- vine (36) 150; (58) [3] 3, 4 Maples, bark and twigs (36) 154158 -- collection of (49) [1] 22 -- flowers and fruits (36) 158162 -- foliage (36) 147 -- for shade and ornamental planting (36) 146176 -- form and size (36) 162171 -- hardiness (36) 171 -- hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- Japanese type (36) 156, 160, 164, 171 -- nursery sources (36) 173176 Mapuche Indians [South America] (32) 209 Marble, Edwin (48) [4] 41, 42 Marble, Hiram (48) [4] 41, 42 March, Sylvester G. (52) [1] 3; (54) [3] 4; (56) [2] 3234 Marco Polo's Travels [1545] (31) 21 Marguerite, golden (34) 282; (39) 250 Maria Luisa of Parma [Queen of Spain] (47) [3] 19 Marigold (or marygold) (31) 172, 190, 195 -- African (31) 169, 190 -- Aztec (31) 190 -- French (31) 169, 190 -- marsh (31) 172; (34) 51; (37) 92; (39) 252 -- pot (31) 172, 176 Marijuana (34) 52 Marion, North Carolina (47) [2] 14 Mariposa, San Luis (46) [3] 44 Marjoram, golden (39) 263 -- knotted (39) 261 -- pot (39) 261 -- sweet (31) 200; (39) 261 -- wild (39) 261 Markham, Sir Clements (44) [2] 5 Marks, P. L., \"Reading the Landscape: Primary vs. Secondary Forests\" (55) [3] 210 Marlborough Street [Boston] (54) [1] 33 Marr, T. E., photos by (39) 336, 339, 341; (48) [4] 19; (49) [1] 11, 13; [2] 3; (56) [1] back cover; [3] 17, 18 -- & Son, photo by (39) 336 Marrubium vulgare (39) 260 Marsdenia incisa (48) [2] 7 Marsh, George Perkins (54) [3] 21; (60) [2] 20 Marshall, Humphrey (or Humphry) (53) [4] 20, 22; (56) [3] 4 Marshall, Moses (46) [3] 7 Marsilea (43) [2] 24 -- quadrifolia (43) [2] 24, 26 Martagon Imperiale (31) 188 -- spotted, of Canada (31) 188 Martin, Louis B. (33) 155 -- -- -- \"Horticultural Education--Participants Warmly Invited,\" (33) 147155 Martha Washington plume (34) 341 Martinella obovata (32) 216 Martinez, Modesto (51) [3] 31 Martinus de la Cruz (30) 125 Martius, von (50) [2] 24 Martyn, John, The Compleat Herbal [1719] (39) 267 Martyn, Thomas (56) [4] 17 Martyr, Peter (50) [2] 24 Marvel-of-Peru (31) 190 \"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire,\" Mary Harrison (60) [1] 212 Mascagnia glandulifera (32) 214 Masai Mara East African Savanna Exhibit [Atlanta Zoo] (50) [1] 20 Maschuk, Mount [USSR] (54) [2] 21 M Cumulative Index Mashua tubers (50) [4] 12 Maskirch, Chateau of [Germany] (56) [1] 3 Mason, Charles (31) 1 Mason, John (48) [4] 22 Massachusetts forests (58) [2] 244 ecological history (58) [2] 25, [charts and maps] 6, 7, 911, 16, 23, 25, 27, 29, 30, 31 case studies of (58) [2] 3244 -- laws against pollution (30) 3536 MassachusettsAgricultural College (30) 163; (48) [2] 10 Massachusetts Avenue [Boston] (48) [4] 24 Massachusetts Bay Colony, early gardening in (53) [2] 12, 13, 15 Massachusetts College of Pharmacy (30) 84 Massachusetts Horticultural Society (30) 2; (32) 187, 268; (33) 174, 175, 180; (47) [4] 21, 30, 31; (48) [2] 12; [4] 17, 21; (49) [3] 8, 10; (50) [3] 3; (53) [3] 3; [4] 8, 18; (54) [3] 17 -- -- -- Centennial Gold Medal (47) [4] 14 -- -- -- Spring Flower Show (31) 315; (32) 268, 269; (33) 312, 328 Massachusetts Institute of Technology (48) [2] 22 Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture (56) [4] 22 \"`Master of a Felicitous Style': William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest,\" Phyllis Andersen (60) [2] 3943 Mastic (52) [2] 1819 Mastixia caudatilimba (48) [2] 7 Mastlands estate [NH] (59) [4] 27, 28, 32 Matheny, R. Norman, photo by (45) [1] front cover Matricaria matricariodes (34) 204 Mattern, Anke (54) [3] 4 Matteucia struthiopteris (55) [1] 9 Matthaei Botanical Gardens [Ann Arbor, MI] (49) [1] 47 Mather, Elizabeth Ireland (56) [1] 30, 32 Mather, William (56) [1] 2930, 32 Matrimony vine (56) [2] 24 Matthiola incana (31) 194 Mattiazzi, Julio (47) [3] 31, 32 Mattioli, Pietro Andrea (31) 114 Mawson, Thomas (59) [4] 26 Maximowicz, Carl Johann (30) 166; (31) 120; (50) [1] 36 May apple (32) 115; (37) 189; (39) 264 Mayfair Nurseries [Hillsdale, NJ] (60) [1] 10 Mayflower (37) 194196 Mayna (32) 213 -- amazonica (32) 212 -- muricida (32) 213 -- toxica (32) 213 Maytenus diversicymosa (48) [2] 6 -- hookeri (48) [2] 4, 7 -- inflata (48) [2] 6 -- pachycarpa (48) [2] 6 -- pseudoracemosa (48) [2] 6 Mazatzal Mountains [AZ] (47) [4] 15 Mazzeo, Peter M., \"Itea `Beppu': The Return of the Native,\" with Donald H. Voss (56) [3] 2125 McAllister, A. A., photos by (56) [3] 19 McArdle, Alice J. (56) [2] 34 McDaniel, Joseph C. (56) [2] 3234 McClure, Floyd A. (31) 271; (48) [2] 17; (49) [2] 29, 30, 34, 35 McCusker, K. F. (60) [1] 6, 7, 8 McDonald, Bruce (52) [1] 30 McDonald, Hazel A. (32) 266 McDonald, J. Andrew, \"Medicinal Plant Exploration--Past and Present\" (55) [2] 211 -- -- -- photo by (55) [2] front cover McFarland, J. Horace, Company (48) [1] 1 McGinley, Mrs. Holden, garden of (57) [1] 8, 9, 10 McIntyre, Samuel (31) 157 McKelvey, Charles Wylie (47) [4] 10, 16, 17 McKelvey, Delano (47) [4] 11 McKelvey, Susan Delano (31) 119; (47) [4] 923; (52) [1] 9, 10 -- -- -- photos by (45) [4] 37; (46) [3] 36 McMahan, Linda R. (46) [3] 9 -- -- -- \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Legal Pitfalls\" (47) [2] 2024 McMahon, Bernard (or M'Mahon) (31) 119, 173; (47) [4] 28; (49) [2] 19, 21, 23; (54) [1] 25 7 M 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 McMahon's Garden Calendar [1806] (31) 173 McMurtrie, Cornelia Hanna, \"The Beech in Boston\" (42) [1] 3244; (52) [1] 29 Meacham, George T. (48) [3] 33, 34 -- -- -- Plan, for Boston Public Garden (48) [3] 3435, 36 \"Meadow Making--Caveat Emptor,\" David Longland (51) [1] 1517 Meadowsweet (31) 74; (34) 340; (38) 108; (43) [3] 3; (56) [3] 9 Mealybug, miscanthus (54) [3] 7, 9 Mechanical theory of leaf curling (50) [1] 32 Meconopsis (45) [4] 30 -- betonicifolia (45) [4] 21, 28, 29; (50) [1] 9 -- integrifolia (32) 112; (40) 115, 117, 153 Medbury, Scot, \"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design\" (53) [3] 1323 Medicago denticulata (31) 18 Medici, Marie de' (57) [2] 4 Medicinal garden (30) 84; (32) 2329, 198219 -- -- Hangchow [China] (35) 282 -- -- Nanking [China] (35) 280 -- herbs (or simples) (53) [2] 16, 19 -- plant exploration (58) [1] 2026 \"Medicinal Plant Exploration--Past and Present,\" J. Andrew McDonald (55) [2] 211 Medicine, Chinese (35) 277278 Medlar (31) 224; (49) [4] 36 Meehan, Thomas (49) [1] 13; (57) [3] 25 Megasea (34) 297 Megenberg, Konrad von, Das puch der natur [1475] (39) 238, 242 Meier, Lauren, \"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants at Fairsted\" (56) [2] 2631 Melaleuca quinquenervia (36) 2, 19 Melanconis juglandis (44) [1] 14 Melandrium rubrum (31) 227 Melia azedarach (31) 236; (32) 102 Melilotus alba (34) 156 -- officinalis (34) 156 Meliosma (55) [3] 18 Melissa officinalis (31) 199; (39) 260 Melle, P. J. van (31) 42 Melillo, Jerry, \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58) [2] 3540 Melon (31) 146, 208 -- citrall (31) 208 -- musk (31) 208 -- Turkie (31) 208 Melolontha melolontha (32) 179 Mehlquist, Gustav (60) [1] 21, 23, 24 Melanson, Joseph (60) [2] 3 Melville, Robert (57) [4] 12, 15, 17 Memoirs of Miss Susan Quincy (31) 157 Memorial Drive [Cambridge, MA] (59) [2] covers \"Memorial Gifts and Plantings,\" Richard A. Howard (33) 213215 Mendel, Gregor (51) [3] 15 Mendoncia aspera (32) 213 Menghai Reserve [Yunnan Province, China] (48) [2] 5 Mengla Reserve [Yunnan] (48) [2] 5 Menglun Reserve [Yunnan] (48) [2] 5 Mengtsz [Yunnan] (32) 104 Mengyang Reserve [Yunnan] (48) [2] 5 Menispermaceae (50) [2] 24 Menstrual remedy, Madagascar (32) 27 Mentha (55) [2] 28 -- arvensis (31) 201 -- `Bowles' (39) 260 -- x gentilis (39) 260 -- longifolia (31) 201 -- piperata (31) 201 -- pulegium (39) 260; (31) 201 -- requienii (37) 105; (39) 260 -- x rotundifolia (39) 260 -- spicata (31) 201; (39) 260 -- sylvestris (31) 201 M Cumulative Index 9 -- viridis (31) 201 Menzies, Archibald (47) [3] 21 Menziesia (38) 86 Merced monardella (46) [3] 12 Mercer, Martha Dana (32) 19 Mercer Research Fellows (30) 234; (32) 253, 270; (33) 333 Merendera sobolifera (37) 89, 97 Meristem (53) [1] 2023, 22; (59) [4] 10, 11, 15 Meristematic activity (33) 4666 Merremia tuberosa (37) 229 Merrill, Elmer Drew (30) 85; (32) 5, 12, 15, 19, 52; (48) [2] 1521, 30; (58) [1] inside front cover, 11, 12, 1315, 16, 17, 1820, 23, back cover; (59) [1] 5, 6, 12, 1517, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 32, 40, 72, 74, 75, 81, 83 -- -- -- family (58) [1] 1113, 19 -- -- -- \"Another `Living Fossil' Comes to the Arnold Arboretum\" [reprint] (59) [1] 1719 -- -- -- \"How to Fund Botanical Expeditions\" [correspondence] (59) [1] 2022 -- -- -- \"Metasequoia, Another Living Fossil\" (51) [4] 1216 Merrimack Manufacturing Company (47) [4] 30 Merry, Mrs. Percy L. (30) 97 Mertensia virginica (31) 230; (35) 10; (37) 97 Mescal bean (32) 207 Messervy, Julie Moir, \"Tenshin-en: A Japanese Garden at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts\" (52) [3] 213 Mesny, W. (32) 109 Mespilus, snowy (31) 241 Mespilus germanica (31) 224; (49) [4] 35 Mesua ferrea (48) [2] 3 -- nagassarium (48) [2] 7 Metanarthecium luteo-viride (38) 94 Metasequoia (42) [3] front cover, inside back cover, back cover; (56) [1] 2223 Metasequoia (59) [1] 484 -- naming (59) [1] 45, 21, 75 -- related genera and (59) [1] 6, 2327, 5459, 63 -- glyptostroboides (32) 14, 55, 285; (39) 189, 190, 229, 272, 277; (44) [4] 53; (45) [4] 1118, 1416; (46) [4] 1516; (47) [1] 1419, 1518; (49) [1] 34, back cover; (51) [4] inside front cover, 12, 13, 1415, 1619, 20; (52) [4] 24; (53) [2] front cover; (57) [1] 28; (59) [1] covers, 426, 2735, 36, 37, 38, 3944, 45, 46, 49, 50; [4] covers -- -- `National' clone (59) [1] 83 -- -- at Arnold Arboretum (59) [1] 10, 1719, 8084, inside back cover -- -- at Nikita Botanic Garden [USSR] (36) 117 -- -- beliefs about [Chinese] (59) [1] 5, 7, 11, 26, 30, 3538, 71 -- -- cones (59) [1] 10, 57 -- -- conservation of (59) [1] 67, 18, 27, 35, 4652, 66, 70, 71, 8184 -- -- cultivated (59) [1] 70, 71, 7274, 75, 7679, 8184 -- -- cuticle micromorphology (59) [1] 6668 -- -- discovery (33) 19; (35) 271; (45) [4] 1118, 1416; (59) [1] 411, 2332, 3539 -- -- distribution in China (59) [1] 411, [map] 18, 21, 23, 2527, 30, 3540, [maps] 41, 42, 4452, 61, 6670, 79, 83 -- -- DNA analysis (59) [1] 6670 -- -- ecology (59) [1] 7, 1011, 23, 2527, 3552, 61 -- -- evolution (59) [1] 35, 2327, 3334, 36, 6071 -- -- foliage (59) [1] inside front cover, 48, 36, 39, 54 -- -- habitat (59) [1] 7, 2527, 35, 41, 46, 4851, 5859, 7578, 8184 -- -- hardiness (59) [1] 18, 22, 2627, 7479, 83 -- -- herbarium specimens (59) [1] 10, 17 -- -- plants in cultivation (42) [3] 130, 131, 132132, 134137 -- -- postage stamp (59) [1] 67 -- -- propagation (37) 59, 60; (59) [1] 18, 35, 70, 77, 82 -- -- reproduction (59) [1] 45, 8, 10, 23, 25, 3436, 4752, 5558, 63, 82 -- -- rice cultivation and (59) [1] 35, 36, 40, 41, 48, 50, 51 -- -- seed distribution (59) [1] 56, 11, 1719, 2123, 25, 27, 32, 7279, 8184 -- -- size (59) [1] 68, 10, 36, 39, 44, 47, 51, 7679, 8284 -- -- specimens supplied to Franklin Pierce College [NH] (30) 228 -- -- trunk (59) [1] 76, 77, 79, inside back cover -- -- type tree (47) [1] inside front cover; (59) [1] 6, 7, 810, 11, 17, 25, 26, 48 -- -- -- -- shrine (59) [1] 5, 26, 30, 39, 48 -- -- uses for (59) [1] 6, 7, 3538, 45, 46, 51, 59, 77, 78 -- -- variation (59) [1] 5859, 6669, 74, 7779, 83 -- -- `National' clone (33) 19 -- milleri (59) [1] 66 -- occidentalis (59) [1] 63, 66 METASEQUOIA AFTER FIFTY YEARS (59) [1] 484 \"Metasequoia: An Overview of Its Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Variation,\" Jianhua Li (59) [1] 5459 M 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 \"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils,\" Henry N. Andrews [excerpt, 1948] (59) [1] 3334 \"Metasequoia, Another Living Fossil,\" E. D. Merrill (51) [4] 1216 \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides: Fifty Years of Growth in North America,\" John E. Kuser (59) [1] 7679 \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides--Its Status in Central China in 1980,\" Bruce Bartholomew, David Boufford, and Stephen Spongberg [excerpt] (59) [1] 4752 \"Metasequoia Keeps on Growing,\" John Kuser (42) [3] 130138 \"Metasequoia Travels the Globe,\" Keiko Satoh (59) [1] 7275 Metasequoia Valley [Shui-sa-pa, Yunnan Province, China] (46) [4] 15, 16; (59) [1] front & back covers, 6, 7, 2327, [map] 30, 31, 3538, 40, [maps] 4142, 4349, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 6670 Metasequoiaceae (59) [1] 6, 54 Methods of Hydrobiology, Jurgen Schwoerbel [review of] (31) 369 Methoxychlor (30) 45, 207 5-methoxy-N (32) 207 Methysticodendron amesianum (32) 209; (41) 116, 117 Metopium toxiferum (35) 98 Metropolitan District Commission [Greater Boston] (53) [4] 14 Metropolitan Museum [NY] (60) [2] 43 Metropolitan Park Commission [MA] (48) [4] 47; (53) [4] 217, 1415; (60) [3] 7 Mexican Border (46) [3] 3646 Mexico (47) [3] 4, 13, 14; (48) [1] 23 -- history of botany in (30) 122132 -- Oaxaco (32) 207 Mexico City (47) [3] 16 Meyer, Frank N. (or F. N. ) (30) 19; (32) 9; (33) 14, 15, 17, 20; (39) 304; (44) [3] 2, 326, 14; (48) [2] 37; (52) [2] 3, 5, 6; [4] 2 Meyer, Frederick G. (56) [2] 3334 -- -- -- \"A Rare Chinese Tree Flowers in North America\" (54) [2] 36 Meyer, Karl A. (49) [4] 37 Meyer, Paul W. (54) [3] 4 -- -- -- \"The `Okame' Cherry,\" with Rick Lewandowski (45) [1] 2324 -- -- -- \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" with other contributors (55) [1] 1220, 13, 19 -- -- -- \"The Snowbells of Korea\" (52) [1] 28 -- -- -- photos by (39) 295, 303, 304, 306; (50) [4] 30; (44) [3] inside front cover, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 16, 17, 19, 20, 25; (55) [1] inside front cover Meyerowitz, Elliot (52) [4] 16 Mezereum (31) 218 Mezitt, Edmund (47) [4] 8 Michaux, Andre (39) 323; (46) [3] 2831; (48) [4] 53; (53) [1] 15; (54) [2] 14; [3] 17 Michaux, Francois-Andre (31) 21; (48) [4] 55; (54) [3] 17 -- -- -- The North American Sylva (39) 322, 325 Michaux Herbarium [Paris] (46) [3] 28, 30 Michelia hedyosperma (48) [2] 4, 7 Michener, David C. (49) [1] 3, 50, 74 -- -- -- book reviews by (46) [2] 4647; (47) [2] 3536 -- -- -- \"Behind the Scenes at the Arnold Arboretum\" (49) [1] 34 -- -- -- \"The Introduction of Black Locust [Robinia pseudoacacia L. ] to Massachusetts\" (48) [4] 5257 -- -- -- \"To Each a Name: Verifying the Living Collections\" (49) [1] 3641 Michurin, J. (50) [1] 38 Microbiota (44) [4] 43 Microbiota (37) 60 -- decussata (44) [4] 43 Microcachrys (37) 60, 61 Microclimates (30) 187 -- Andean (50) [4] 5 -- effect on hardiness (54) [3] 3031 -- modification of (50) [4] 7 Microfauna, in soil (59) [2] 36, 37, 3941 Micropropagation (45) [2] 3031, 33, 34 Micropyle (50) [2] 2, 3 Microstephanus cernaus (32) 25 Microstrobus (37) 61 Middle Brewster Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19 Middlesex Fells [MA] (48) [4] 47; (53) [4] 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12 Middleton Barony [Ashley River, SC] (31) 21 Middleton Place [SC] (57) [2] 11 Middlesex Fells [MA] (59) [2] 17 Mien-shan Mountains [Shansi province, China] (48) [2] 34 Migas Calientes, El Jardin Botanico de [Madrid, Spain] (47) [3] 5, 6, 8,9, 10 M Cumulative Index 11 Mignonette (39) 264 Miki, Shigeru (59) [1] 4, 5, 33, 75 Mijurin, Gregori (44) [3] 14 Mildew, lilacs resistant to (38) 6581 Miles, Mary Comber, painting by (51) [1] back cover Milfoil (31) 25, 26; (34) 267 Milium effusum `Aureum' (52) [2] 42; (54) [3] 10 Milkweed (37) 229 -- common (34) 172 -- Wisanck (31) 219 Millais, J. G. (52) [1] 20 Millar, Robert (53) [1] 12 Mille et Un Livres Botaniques, Repertoire Bibliographique de la Bibliotheque Arpad Plesch, Henry-Pierre Gourry [review of] (38) 33 Miller Garden [Columbus, IN] (57) [2] 14 Miller, Norton G. (39) 347, 349, 356, 359; (53) [4] 21 Miller, Philip (30) 144; (31) 90; (32) 184; (51) [1] 10; (53) [1] 12, 13; (54) [4] 4, 6; (57) [2] 26; [3] 22 -- -- Gardener's Dictionary (48) [4] 54 Miller, Wilhelm, What England Can Teach Us About Gardening [1911] (52) [1] 9; (60) [3] 5 Mills, Ralph (33) 15 Millspaugh, Charles F. (33) 6768 Milner, Henry Ernest (51) [3] 9 Mimosa (31) 241; (55) [2] inside back cover -- golden (36) 18 Mimosa hostilis (32) 208; (41) 88, 89 -- pudica (31) 194 Mimulus eastwoodii (42) [4] 143 Mindell, Doug, photo by (48) [3] inside back cover Mineral deficiency (33) 38 Ming Huang Peeping at Bathing Court Attendants [ill. ] (31) 272 Ming Period (31) 270 Minnesota System of container growing (44) [2] 26, 27 Mino-Mikawa floristic region [Honshu, Japan] (50) [4] 29 Mint (39) 246 -- corn (31) 201 -- Corsican (39) 246, 260 -- garden (31) 200, 201 -- horse (31) 201; (39) 261 -- mountain (39) 264 -- pineapple (39) 246 Mint shrub (30) 168 Minuart, Juan (47) [3] 6 Mirabilis jalapa (31) 190 -- expansa (50) [4] 11 Miracle Houseplants: The Gesneriad Family, G. A. And V. F. Elbert [review of] (39) 27 Miscanthus mealybug (54) [3] 7, 9 Miscanthus (45) [4] 28; (50) [1] 7 -- floridulus (44) [4] 52, 53; (48) [2] 26 -- `Giganteus' (54) [3] 9 -- `Purpurascens' (54) [3] 2, 7 -- sacchariflorus `Gigantea' (44) [4] 52 -- sinensis (31) 287, 291, 292, 293; (35) 57, 58; (44) [4] 5152; (48) [2] 26; (50) [1] 20, 25; (54) [3] 39, 4, 11, inside back cover -- -- `Cabaret' (54) [3] 4, 5 -- -- `Cosmopolitan' (54) [3] 4 -- -- `Gracillimus' (44) [4] 52 -- -- `Graziella' (54) [3] 5 -- -- `Malepartus' (54) [3] 5 -- -- `Morning Light' (54) [3] 4 -- -- `Sarabande' (54) [3] 5, 7 -- -- `Strictus' (44) [4] 52 -- -- `Variegatus' (44) [4] 52 -- -- `Yaku Jima' (54) [3] 4 -- -- `Zebrinus' (44) [4] 52; (50) [1] 21 -- transmorrisonensis (54) [3] 4 Mishler, Brent (39) 356 Misodendraceae (59) [2] 27 Mississippi nut (31) 242 M 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Missouri Botanical Garden [St. Louis] (33) 160; (46) [3] 8; [4] 21, 34; (47) [4] 17; (49) [1] 3, 53; (51) [3] 14; (53) [3] 20 \"Mr. Dawson, Plantsman,\" Sheila Connor Geary and B. June Hutchinson (40) 5175 Mist-flower (31) 73; (34) 339 Mist system for propagation (33) 120122, 124 Mistletoe (33) 58; (34) 75; (52) [2] 27 -- dwarf (45) [3] 17 -- research on spp. (51) [3] 1117 Mitchella repens (39) 260 Mitrephora wangii (48) [2] 7 Mitskway borrachero (32) 209 Miyabe, Kingo (47) [2] 4, inside back cover MLO (mycoplasmalike organisms) (49) [2]2, 812, 9 -- control measures (49) [2] 10 Mnium nervii (36) 61 Moccasin flower (37) 185 Mocino, Jose Mariano (47) [3] 16 -- exploration of in New Spain [map] (47) [3] 18 Mockorange (31) 218; (44) [2] 30; (52) [2] 30; (56) [2] 25 Mockernut (32) 68 Modern Potting Composts, A. C. Bunt [review of] (37) 168 Moens Klint [Denmark] (49) [4] 28 Moffatt-Ladd House [Portsmouth, NH] (31) 152, 166 Mohr, Charles (49) [1] 13 Monarda mollis var. menthaefolia (60) [1] 7 Monkey-puzzle tree (59) [2] 2627, 3033, 34 \"Molecular Analysis: A New Look at Umbrella Magnolias,\" Richard B. Figlar (57) [4] 2229 Molecular systematics (53) [4] 29 Moller's Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung (32) 152 Molinia (45) [4] 28 -- caerulea `Variegata' (35) 59 -- -- -- `Skyracer' (54) [3] 10 Moluccas [Indonesia] (55) [2] 8 Momordica subangulata (48) [2] 4 \"Mon cher ami: The Letters of Edouard Andre to Charles Sprague Sargent,\" Phyllis Andersen (54) [2] 1119 Monarda, blue (31) 191 -- purple (31) 191 Monarda (31) 132; (39) 245; (44) [2] 28 -- didyma (31) 132, 227; (35) 10, 11, 12; (39) 261; (55) [2] 25 -- -- `Cambridge Scarlet' (31) 132 -- -- `Croftway Pink' (31) 132 -- -- `Granite Pink' (31) 132 -- fistulosa (31) 191; (39) 261 -- `Mahogany' (31) 133 -- `Salmon Queen' (31) 133 Monardella leucocephala (46) [3] 12 Monastery of Jeronimos [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] 37 Moneywort (31) 131, 228; (35) 6 Mongolia [China] (48) 31 Monkshood (31) 2627; (34) 46, 270, 271272; (39) 249 Monocarpism (58) [3] 1117 Monocots, woody (58) [3] 1112 Monstera (47) [2] 27 Mont Royal Park [Montreal, Canada] (48) [4] 29 Montane vegetation (58) [1] 2325 Monte Carlo, public gardens of [France] (54) [2] 14 Monteiro, Antonio de Almeida, photo by (47) [3] back cover Monterey [CA] (47) [3] 1, 19 Montevideo [Uruguay], redesign of (54) [2] 14 Montezuma (or Moctezuma) (30) 123124 Monticello [VA] (31) 156, 159; (39) 323, 324 -- -- plan of \"Roundabout Walk\" (31) 158 Montpellier Botanic Garden [France] (51) [2] 5 Montreal Botanic Gardens [Canada] (54) [2] 8 Moon Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 20 Moonwort (31) 229 Moore, David [quoted] (47) [3] 36 Moore, Margaret S. (49) [4] 33 M Cumulative Index 13 Moorish gardens (31) 116 Moosewood (30) 169; (31) 241; (45) [4] 22 Mopane Savanna [Namibia] (54) [2] 2 Mora de Castilla (50) [4] 14 Moraceae (52) [3] 14 Moraea, Sara Lisa (or Moraeus) (53) [1] 12 \"More About Tours of Botanists and Gardeners in China,\" Shiu-Ying Hu (37) 157163 More Houseplants You Can Grow, Rob Herwig [review of] (35) 239 \"More on Forsythia `Meadowlark',\" Dale E. Herman and Norman P. Evers (44) [2] 3031 Morgan, George H. (53) [1] 30 Morgan, Keith N., \"Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect: An Introduction to His Life and Work\" (59) [2] 221 Mormon tea (54) [2] 9 Morning face (31) 293 -- glory (31) 169, 191 -- -- `Heavenly Blue' (31) 169 Moross, Elisabeth W., \"Landscaping with Herbs\" (39) 239269 Morris Arboretum [Philadelphia] (45) [1] 23; (52) [1] 2, 7; (53) [3] 20; (54) [3] 4 Morrison, B. Y. (33) 20 Morrison and Decaisne, Annales des Sciences Naturelles (39) 53 Morton Arboretum [Lisle, IL] (54) [2] 25; (57) [2] 28, 29, 30; [3] 6 Morus (32) 72; (55) [3] 17 -- alba (31) 224, 246; (39) 155, 156, 226; (50) [1] 18; (53) [2] 15 -- -- multicaulis (33) 106 -- -- -- `Pendula' (33) 111 -- -- `Venosa' (51) [3] inside back cover -- nigra (31) 224; (53) [2] 15 -- rubra (31) 246; (39) 190, 191, 229 Moscow (48) [1] 45 Moscow Main Botanical Garden, Academy of Science (36) 112 Moses-in-the-Bullrushes (53) [1] 9 Moss (57) [2] back cover, 31 -- haircap (52) [3] 10 -- in gardens (33) 157, 162 Moss cypress (31) 297 Moss Gardening, including Lichens, Liverworts, and Other Miniatures, George Schenk [review of] (57) [2] 3132 Mossy-cup oak (46) [3] 21 \"`A Most Dangerous Tree': The Lombardy Poplar in Landscape Gardening,\" Christina D. Wood (54) [1] 2430 Moswetussett Hummock Island [Quincy, MA] (48) [3] 18 Moth, gypsy (53) [2] 16 -- pink (31) 135; (45) [1] 2526 Mother-of-thyme (39) 268 Mother's heart (32) 45 Mottau, Gary, photo by (50) [1] front cover Motzkin, Glenn, \"How Land Use Determines Vegetation: Evidence from a New England Sand Plain,\" with David R. Foster (58) [2] 3334 Mount Auburn Cemetery [Cambridge, MA] (32) 187; (54) [3] 17; (56) [2] 9; (60) [2] 45 Mount Cuba Center for the Study of Piedmont Flora [DE] (51) [2] 30 Mount Desert Island [ME] (59) [2] 7, 8, 19 Mount Hope Nursery [NY] (52) [2] 5 Mount Prospect, IL (56) [1] 1518, 21 Mount Rocco Alpine Garden [Kyushu, Japan] (30) 19, 20 Mount Vernon [VA] (31) 156, 157; (39) 323, 324 -- -- -- 1792 paintings (31) 155 -- -- -- landscape preservation (59) [3] 213 -- -- -- plantings at (59) [3] inside front cover, 2, 7, 10, 11, back cover -- -- -- Vaughan plan of (31) 153 Mountain ash (32) 68, 79; (45) [4] 22; (52) [3] 11 -- -- Chinese (39) 199 -- -- European (30) 169; (44) [4] 46 -- -- Korean (30) 169; (38) 170172; (39) 164, 165; (51) [1] 5 Mountain cranberry (38) 91; (45) [4] 25 -- laurel (31) 173, 240; (34) 68; (36) 24; (39) 322; (57) [1] 23; (60) [1] 16, 17 -- parsley, purple (46) [3] 13 Mourning bride (35) 36 -- iris (31) 187 Muddy River [Boston] (48) [4] 24 Mugwort (34) 207, 287 M 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- white (39) 251 Muhlenberg, Gotthilf (47) [4] 3 Muhlenbergia rigens (54) [3] 5, 6 Muir, John (32) 6; (46) [3] 6162, inside back cover; (49) [1] 13 Mulberry (31) 224; (32) 72; (53) [2] 15 -- common (39) 155, 156 -- red (31) 246; (39) 190, 191 -- white (31) 246; (50) [1] 18 Mulch (55) [1] 10 -- benefits of (49) [4] 15, 18 -- new materials for (30) 94 -- display plots (30) 94, 237 Mullein (31) 191; (34) 193; (35) 51; (39) 269 -- great (31) 191 -- moth (31) 191 Mullein-pink (35) 5 \"Multitude of Botanies: Book Essay,\" Peter Stevens (56) [4] 2527 Mulu National Park [Malaysia] (60) [4] 4, 7 Mum (34) 310 -- hardy (31) 31 Munch, Bruce (39) 346 Munch, Ernst (53) [1] 27 Muromachi Period [Japan] (47) [2] 9 Murray, John Andrew [18th-century botanist] (53) [1] 14 Murray, John [of the 20th century] (52) [1] 10 Muscadine (31) 238 Muscari (45) [4] 25 -- armeniacum (37) 97 -- botryoides (31) 185 -- comosum (31) 184 -- racemosum (31) 185 -- tubergenianum (37) 97 Museum of Fine Arts [Boston] (48) [4] 25; (52) [3] 213 Museum d'Histoire Naturelle [Paris] (54) [2] 12 Museum of Natural History [Boston] (48) [4] 25 Museum of Natural History [Budapest] (50) [3] 21, 22 Museum of Natural History [NY] (60) [2] 43 -- -- -- -- -- Jesup collection of American woods [2] 32 Museum of Science [Boston] (32) 252 \"Museum Specimen of Sequoia Gigantea\" [1892] (60) [2] 3234 Mushrooms, hallucinogenic (32) 205 Musi (31) 292 -- fibers (31) 286 Muskau Park [East Germany] (32) 141, 142, 155 Muskmelons (or mushmillions) (31) 172 Mustard (31) 6, 201 Mutis y Bosio, Jose Celestino Bruno (47) [3] 1, 1417 Mutisia clematis (47) [3] front cover Mycocentrospora asiminae (52) [3] 24 \"Mycoplasmal Pathogens: New Causes for Old Diseases,\" Craig R. Hibben (49) [2] 813 Mycoplasmalike organisms (MLO) (49) [2] 2, 812, 9 Mycorrhizae (49) [4] 4, 10 13; (58) [3] 6; (59) [2] 37, 4243 Mycorrhizal fungi (52) [3] 3031 Myosotis (60) [1] 6 Myrica (55) [3] 13, 18; [4] 28, 29 -- propagation (43) [4] 2023 -- cerifera (31) 90, 214; (43) [4] 2022; (45) [2] 19; (55) [4] 26, 28 -- gale (31) 244; (43) [4] 2022; (55) [4] 26 -- nagi (= rubra) (31) 16 -- pensylvanica (30) 173; (31) 214; (35) 234; (43) [4] 20, 21, 22, cover; (44) [4] 24; (45) [2] 23, 25; (55) [4] 26; (56) [2] 25; [3] 9 -- rubra (31) 8, 16; (44) [3] 24 Myriciaria cauliflora (36) [1] front cover, 3, 5, 19 Myristica yunnanenis (48) [2] 6 Myristicaceae (48) [2] 3 Myrrhis odorata (31) 202, 213; (39) 261 Myrtle, crape (54) [3] 27, 29 Mystic River [MA] (53) [4] 5, 8; (48) [3] 18 \"Mystical, Medicinal Witch Hazel,\" Sheila Connor (55) [3] 2021 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - N, O","article_sequence":12,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25331","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070a726.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"N Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 N, N-dimethyltryptamine (32) 207 Nabhan, Gary Paul, Gathering the Desert [reviewed] (47) [2] 3536 -- -- -- \"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the United States and Mexico,\" with Ruth Greenhouse and Wendy Hodgson (46) [3] 3646 NACPEC (North American-China Plant Exploration Consortium) (55) [1] 12, 19 Nahuatl (30) 125 Naiads (43) [2] 8 Najas (43) [2] 8 Nakai, T. (58) [3] 15 Nakai, Takenoshi (31) 52; (53) [4] 31 Nakane, Kinsaku (52) [3] 46, 8 Nakane, Shiro (52) [3] 6 Naked ladies (31) 179 Namib Desert [Namibia] (54) [2] 25, 3 Namib-Naukluft Park [Namibia] (54) [2] 2 Nandina (55) [3] 18 -- domestica (44) [3] 17 -- -- f. alba (43) [1] 6 -- -- `Moyer Red' (30) 259 Nanjing [China] (48) [2] 13, 14, 16, 18 Nanjing Botanical Garden [China] (52) [4] 5; (54) [2] 36 Nanjing Higher Normal School [China] (48) [2] 14 Nanjing, University of (48) [2] 14, 15, 16 -- College of Forestry and Agriculture (48) [2] 16 Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine (35) 277281 Nannyberry (30) 172; (31) 241 Nanping [China] (48) [2] 27 Naphthaleneacetamide (32) 129 Naphthaleneacetic acid (32) 129 1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate (Sevin) (32) 129 Nara [Japan] (47) [2] 3 Narcissus, peerless (31) 180 -- poetic (31) 180 -- polyanthus (31) 180 -- sweet-scented (31) 180 -- white (31) 180 Narcissus (30) 96; (31) 180; (34) 72 -- cvs. (37) 98 -- asturiensis (37) 97 -- x biflorus (31) 180 -- bulbocodium (37) 97 -- -- `Nylon' (37) 89, 97 -- calathinus (31) 180 -- caparonius (31) 179 -- cyclamineus (37) 98 -- jonquilla (31) 180 -- minimus (37) 97 -- x odorus (31) 180 -- poeticus (31) 180 -- pseudonarcissus (31) 181 -- rupicola (37) 98 -- -- ssp. watieri (37) 98 -- tazetta (31) 180 -- triandrus (31) 180 Nash, John (48) [4] 34 Nasturtium (31) 191; (39) 269; (47) [3] 7 Nasturtium officinale (45) [3] 19 Natal plum (36) 18 National Academy of Science (58) [3] 20 National Arboretum [Washington, DC] (47) [1] 9; (48) 28; (56) [2] 3236; [3] 21 -- -- -- -- founding (31) 13 N 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 National Archives (31) 12 National Art Club Exhibit of Chinese Table Plants and Paintings [China] (31) 271 National Botanic Garden, Belgium (57) [2] 19 National Botanic Gardens, Kirstenbosch [South Africa] (32) 221; (54) [2] 8 National Botanic Gardens, Pretoria [South Africa] (32) 103 National Cancer Institute (51) [3] 17; (58) [1] 20, 26; (59) [2] 29 National Capital Park and Planning Commission (47) [4] 11; (59) [2] 19 National Geographic Magazine (49) [4] 30, 31 National Geographic Society (48) [2] 15, 16; (52) [2] 29, 30 -- -- -- photos from (50) [4] 9, 12, 13, 14 National Horticultural Journal (47) [4] 19 National Institutes of Health (32) 219 National Museum of Manila [Philippines] (58) [1] 23 National Park Service (46) [3] 4; (56) [2] 18, 2627 National People's Congress, First [China] (48) [2] 2122 National Plant Germplasm System [Fort Collins, CO] (46) [3] 11 National Registration Center for Cultivars (32) 51 National Research Council Panel on Lost Crops of the Incas (50) [4] 215 National Science Foundation (30) 8; (32) 55, 262; (49) [1] 8, 18, 20, 21, 58; (58) [3] 2023 National Seed Storage Laboratory [Fort Collins, CO] (46) [3] 11 National Southeastern University [Nanjing, China] (48) [2] 14, 15, 16, 17 National Sun Yatsen University [Guangzhou, China] (48) [2] 17, 18, 19, 20, 21 Native American plants in cultivation (33) 8196 \"Native Dictates,\" Gary Koller (52) [4] 2332 Native Flora of the Golden Isles, by Gladys Fendig and Esther Stewart [review of] (33) 249 Native Orchids of the United States and Canada (excluding Florida), New York Botanical Garden [review of] (36) 34 \"Native Plant Societies in the United States\" [list] (47) [2] 2526 Native plants (58) [1] 210; [3] 2532; (59) [2] 2325, 38, 41 \"Native Plants: Another View,\" Harrison L. Flint (43) [1] 3944; [reprint] (58) [3] 3032 Native Seeds\/SEARCH (46) [3] 44, 45, 46 Native Trees of Canada, R. C. Hosie [review of] (32) 294 \"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise\" [Letters] (58) [3] 2529 Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing, Rita J. Adrosko [review of] (32) 171 Natural growth cycles (30) 101 Natural selection (58) [1] 210, 40; [3] 2829, 31 Naturalist in Costa Rica, Alexander F. Skutch [review of] (37) 168 Naturalist in Western China, Ernest Henry Wilson (30) 163 ; (32) 112 Naturalists' Directory, PCL Publications [review of] (33) 297 Nature Conservancy (46) [3] 4, 14; (49) [1] 53 -- -- BCD database system of (49) [1] 53 \"Nature Conservation in China: Two Reports\" (46) [4] 3751 \"Nature in Miniature,\" Donald M. Vining (31) 274282 \"Nature Study Moves into the Twenty-First Century,\" Candace L. Julyan (58) [3] 1820, 2123, 24 \"Nature's Relentless Onslaught, Redux,\" Todd Forrest (56) [1] 22, 23, 24 \"Nature's Vagaries: The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections,\" Todd Forrest (55) [4] 25, 7, 911, 1315 Naumkeag estate [Stockbridge, MA] (44) [4] 53; (48) [4] 39; (57) [2] 14, 15 Navarro, Angello (39) 346 N-dimethyltryptamine (32) 207 Nebraska University Statewide Arboretum (46) [3] 6 \"Necessity of Planning\" [1896], Charles Eliot (60) [3] 1415 Nectarine (31) 224 Nee, Luis (47) [3] 18, 19 Needham [MA] (48) [4] 23 \"Neglected American Plants,\" Andrew Jackson Downing [1851, reprint] (51) [2] 27 Nehemiah Williams Farm [Stonington, CT] (31) 147, 148 Neighborhood Association of the Back Bay [Boston] (48) [4] 17, 18 Neillia (45) [4] 23 -- sinensis (41) 180, 181; [5] back cover Nelson, Charles E., \"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chinese Flora\" (43) [1] 2138 Nelumbo nucifera (36) 209 Nematodes (49) [4] 9, 11 Nemesia (32) 220 Neolitsea menglaensis (48) [2] 6 -- sericea `Kanoko' (43) [4] 13 Nepenthes, in Hong Kong (30) 14 Nepeta cataria (31) 199; (35) 13 -- x faassenii (35) 1213 N Cumulative Index 3 -- grandiflora (39) 261 -- hederacea (31) 185; (39) 261 Neponset River [MA] (48) [3] 18; (53) [4] 5, 8 Nerium oleander (34) 73 -- indicum (53) [3] 27 Nettle (34) 89 -- tree (56) [2] 24 Nettle-leaved throatwort (31) 175 Nevada (47) [4] 17 Nevius, Reuben Denton (Rev. ) (36) 5765; (46) [3] 26 Neviusia (36) 5765 -- alabamensis (36) 59, 61, 63, 64; (46) [3] 26 Nevling, Lorin I. (32) 253, 262 New and Accurate Treatise of Cookery, etc. [1741] (31) 37 New Approaches to Financing Parks and Recreation, Robert M. Artz, ed. [review of] (32) 169 \"New Choices for the Perennial Border,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (44) [2] 2829 \"New Choices for Urban Islands,\" Gary L. Koller (43) [4] 3754 \"New Dangers to Public Parks\" [1897] (60) [2] 4243 \"New Director is Appointed\" (38) 180, 181 New England (48) [1] 18, 25, 29; [4] 54, 55, 56 New England Botanical Club (32) 271; (48) [2] 11 New England Conservatory of Music (48) [2] 12 New England Regional Lily Group (34) 126, 128 New England Spring Flower Show (32) 268, 269; (33) 312, 328 New England Wildflower Society (46) [3] 33, 35; (47) [2] inside front cover, 16, 22, 25; (51) [1] 15; [2] 37; (52) [4] 29 New England's Prospect [William Wood] (48) [4] 38, 55 New England's Rarities Discovered. . . [John Josselyn] (30) 24; (48) [4] 54 New Environmental Age, Max Nicholson [review of] (49) [3] 44 New Granada [Colombia] (47) [3] 14, 15, 17 New Guinea (55) [2] 7 \"New Jersey Pine Forest\" [1888], C. S. Sargent (60) [2] 2627 New Jersey tea (31) 241 \"New Magnolia Blooms in Boston,\" Peter Del Tredici and Stephen A. Spongberg (49) [2] 2527 New Mexico (47) [4] 14, 19 \"New or Little Known Plants. Rosa Minutifolia\" [1888], Sereno Watson (60) [2] 9 New Plants from Old, Charles M. Evans [review of] (37) 166 New Spain (Mexico), scientific expedition to (47) [3] 4, 14 \"New Trees for Urban Landscapes,\" Gary L. Koller (38) 157172 \"New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map,\" Peter Del Tredici (50) [3] 1620 New York (48) [2] 18 New York aster (31) 29 New York Botanical Garden (31) 45; (33) 158159; (46) [4] 15; (47) [2] back cover; (48) [2] 19; (53) [3] 18; (54) [2] 25, 35; (57) [3] 5, 6 -- -- -- -- library (30) 6 -- -- -- -- Sara Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Award (47) [4] 21 New York City Street Tree Consortium (48) [4] 36 New York Herald Tribune (47) [4] 13 [New York] Public Library (60) [2] 43 New York State School of Forestry (48) [2] 9, 10 New York Times (47) [4] 13 Newbanks, D., D. N. Roy, and M. H. Zimmermann, \"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know\" (42) [2] 6069 Newcomb, Bert (49) [4] 32 Newfoundland (48) [1] 18 Newport, Rhode Island (44) [4] inside front cover \"News from the Arnold Arboretum,\" Ida Hay Burch (36) 33 Niagara Parks Commission School of Horticulture [Ontario, Canada] (49) [2] 4 Niames (52) [2] 2223 Nicodemia diversifolia (36) 10 Nichols, Marian (57) [1] 2 Nichols, Rose Standish (57) [1] 3; (59) [4] 2532 Nichols House Museum [MA] (59) [4] 2526 Nicholson, George (36) 64 Nicholson, Max (49) [3] 44 Nicholson, Robert G. (39) 344; (46) [4] 6, 12 -- -- -- \"Amazing Grace: The Cutleaf Maples\" (57) [2] 1724 -- -- -- \"Austral Weeks: Botanizing in the Southern Hemisphere\" (59) [2] 2634 -- -- -- \"Collecting in the West\" (42) [4] 135152 N 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- -- \"Collecting Rare Conifers in North Africa\" (46) [1] 2029 -- -- -- \"Eight Views of Nippon\" (47) [2] 215 -- -- -- \"The Fringe Tree and Its Far-flung Cousins\" (50) [4] 2431 -- -- -- \"Light in a Bottle: Plant-Collecting in the Philippines\" (58) [1] 2026 -- -- -- \"Parrotia Persica: An Ancient Tree for Modern Landscapes\" (49) [4] 3439 -- -- -- \"Pinus bungeana Zuccarini--A Ghostly Pine\" (48) [2] 3238 -- -- -- \"To the Arks with Rabbitbane\" (46) [3] 2325 Nicolau River [Angola] (54) [2] 2 Nicolson, Dan H. (46) [4] 21 Nicotiana (31) 168 Nicotiana rustica (31) 202 -- tabacum (31) 202; (55) [2] 6 Nienstaedt, H. (52) [2] 6 Nigella (31) 191 Nigella damascena (31) 191; (39) 261 Nightshade (34) 174 -- black (34) 86, 87, 174 -- deadly (34) 87, 174 Nihei, Takeo (47) [2] 34 Nikita Botanic Garden [USSR] (36) 110118, 111, 113, 114, 116 \"Nikita Botanic Garden, Yalta, USSR,\" Richard A. Howard (36) 110118 Nikko Mountains [Japan] (60) [2] 12 Niklas, Karl (50) [2] 4 Nilsen, Erik Tallak, \"Why Do Rhododendron Leaves Curl?\" (50) [1] 3035 Nine Dragon Pine (48) [2] inside back cover \"The 1984 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Yunnan, China,\" David E. Boufford and Bruce Bartholomew (46) [4] 1536 Ning-po [China] (31) 267 Nitrogen cycling (58) [2] 3640; [3] 48; (59) [2] 3640 Nitrogen fixation (55) [4] 2631; (56) [3] 45, 78 \"Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia Symbiosis,\" Peter Del Tredici (55) [4] 2631 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria (56) [3] 3 Nolina longifolia (47) [3] 37, 38 Nomenclatural history of Ilex (30) 67 Nomenclature, botanical (49) [1] 40 -- -- diversity of (49) [1] 39 -- -- international code for cultivated plants [1980] (49) [3] 13; (54) [4] 3, 4, 6 -- -- reference files to (49) [1] 29 -- -- Tournefortian (47) [3] 7, 8 -- of hybrids (36) 131, 132 Nomocharis pardanthina (46) [4] 20 Nonesuch (31) 193 Nooney, Jill, \"`A Very Valuable Shrub': Xanthorhiza simplicissima\" (54) [2] 3135 Nootka sound (47) [3] 18 Nopal cactus (30) 134 Nordmann, Alexander (48) [1] 38 Norietis, Artur (30) 186 Normandy, Philip M. (52) [1] 8 North American Apples: Varieties, Rootstocks, Outlook, W. H. Upshall, ed. [review of] (32) 168 North American-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC) (55) [1] 12; (57) [2] 19 North American Fruit Explorers (46) [3] 46 North American Lily Society (34) 131 North Carolina (48) [1] 28 North Carolina Botanical Garden [Chapel Hill] (46) [3] 6, 8, 10; (47) [2] 21; (53) [3] 21; (58) [3] 27 North Carolina Department of Agriculture (47) [2] 21 North Carolina State University Arboretum [Raleigh] (46) [4] 9; (54) [3] 29; (55) [4] 3233 North Easton [MA] (48) [1] 30 North End [Boston] (48) [4] 36 North Farm [Bristol, RI] (50) [3] 9 North Korea (48) [1] 37 North Shore [MA] (48) [4] 38 Norton, Charles Eliot (48) [4] 26 Norway spruce, weeping (50) [1] 28 Norweb, R. Henry (33) 2 Nosebleed remedy, Madagascar (32) 25 \"Notes and Quotes on the History and Origins of the Amur Chokecherry [Prunus maackii]\" (46) [2] 1324 N Cumulative Index Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (30) 2526, 7274, 116, 155158, 168173, 251260; (31) 2435, 7082, 127139, 256259, 368 \"Notes,\" Garden and Forest (60) [2] 38; [3] 28, 4748 \"Notes on Chinese-American Botanical Collaboration,\" Karen Madsen (59) [1] 1216 \"Notes on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus,\" Dr. Shiiu-Ying Hu (30) 6771 \"Notes on the History of Tea,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (31) 2023 \"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (51) [4] 4754 \"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants at Fairsted,\" Lauren Meier (56) [2] 2631 \"Notes on Transatlantic Migrants,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (53) [2] 1120 Nothing Grows for You? by Frances Tenenbaum [review of] (35) 239 Novell Local Area Network (LAN) (49) [1] 52 Novosti Sistematiki Vysshikh Rastenii, ill. (46) [4] 8 Nunes, Dawn M., drawing by (45) [2] 2 Nursery industry (33) 99, 103, 110; (35) 181186 -- -- growing practices (33) 261283 Nuss, Don (52) [2] 8 Nut trees (58) [2] 10; (59) [4] 12 Nutrient cycling (58) [2] 3738; [3] 58; (59) [2] 3640, 42 -- -- interrupted (51) [1] 25 Nuttall, Zelia (30) 123 Nyakwana (32) 207 Nyctocalos shanica (48) [2] 7 Nymphaea (43) [2] 8, 9 -- odorata (39) 261; (43) [2] 21, 23, cover Nymphaeaceae (50) [2] 34 \"Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan--II\" [excerpt, 1893], C. S. Sargent (60) [2] 1113 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- --XXIII\" [excerpt, 1893], C. S. Sargent (60) [2] 3032 Nyssa (60) [2] 17 -- aquatica (60) [2] 17; (60) [4] 23 -- sinensis (52) [4] 4 -- --var. oblongifolia (48) [2] 7 -- sylvatica (30) 169; (31) 233; (32) 91; (39) 156, 157, 229; (54) [1] 9; (55) [4] 13; (57) [1] 14; (60) [2] 17 -- yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 5 O Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Oak (32) 187; (43) [3] 17; (55) [3] 2, 7, 24; (56) [3] 15; (57) [1] 24, 27, 28; [2] 9; (58) [2] 67, 23, 3334, 43; (59) [2] 37; [3] 15; [4] 68, 13 -- ancient specimens (59) [4] 7 -- black (30) 169; (31) 241; (32) 74; (42) [2] 96; (54) [3] inside front cover; (57) [1] 30; (58) [2] 67, 23, 3334, 43; (59) [2] 37; [3] 15; [4] 68, 13 -- blackjack (31) 241 -- bur (44) [4] 16, 20; (46) [3] 21; (46) [3] 21; (54) [1] 7 -- \"Charter\" [CT] (59) [4] 24, 59 -- chestnut (31) 242; (55) [1] 14; (56) [4] 5 -- East Asian (49) [1] 31 -- English (32) 74, 183; (48) [3] 24 -- -- upright (39) 129, 130; (54) [1] 20, 21, 31, 33 -- live (31) 242; (36) 19; (57) [1] 11; live (59) [4] 78 -- mossy-cup (46) [3] 21 -- Oglethorpe (57) [2] 2430 -- overcup (56) [4] 6 -- pedunculate (42) [1] back cover -- pin (30) 169; (32) 75, 89; (33) 294; (34) 239; (39) 127, 128; (46) [1] 30, 35; (49) [4] 20; (54) [1] 8 -- post (56) [4] inside front cover, 5 -- red (30) 169; (31) 218; (32) 74, 75; (33) 294; (34) 239; (39) 130, 131; (42) [2] 94, 96; (53) [2] 26; (54) [1] 4, 5, 8; (56) [1] 21; 2223; red (58) [2] 36 -- Sargent (40) 194198, 195, 197, 199 -- sawtooth (39) 159, 160 -- scarlet (30) 169; (31) 219; (54) [1] 5, 8 -- scrub (58) [2] 7, 9, 3334 -- shingle (39) 160, 161; (57) [2] 28 -- Shumard (39) 197, 198; (54) [1] 8 -- southern red (31) 242 -- swamp white (54) [1] 8 -- Turkey (39) 197 -- water (31) 242; (39) 161 -- white (31) 218; (32) 74; (39) 336; (41) 3; (47) [2] 27; (54) [1] 8; (56) [4] 5; (57) [2] 25; white (58) [2] 7; (59) [4] 29 -- -- the \"Charter\" [CT] (59) [4] 14, 5, 6, 79 -- willow (31) 242; (33) 291, 292294; (39) 128; (49) [4] 20; (54) [1] 5, 8; (60) [4] 15 Oak, Jerusalem (39) 254 Oak, poison (31) 243 Oak Path (39) 336 -- restoration (40) 294300 Oak wilt (33) 42; (56) [1] 21 Oaks, and Dicamba (49) [4] 16 -- hurricane damage to trees [1938 & 1985] (46) [1] 30, 34 -- movement of dyes in (49) [4] 4, 5 Oats (31) 208 -- wild (37) 178 Oaxaca [Mexico] (32) 207 Obedient plant (31) 135; (35) 24 Observations of Modern Gardening [Whately] (49) [2] 19 Ochrocarpus yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Ocimum basilicum (31) 199 -- -- `Dark Opal' (33) 21 -- gratissimum (32) 27 Ocmulgee River [GA] (47) [4] 4 Oconee bells (46) [3] 7, 26; (60) [2] 8 Oconee National Forest [GA] (57) [2] 29 O'Connor, Barbara (39) 352 Ocotea venenosa (32) 212 Oco-yaje (32) 211 Odae-san National Park (57) [2] 20 Oehme, Wolfgang (54) [3] 4 Oenothera (31) 133 -- biennis (31) 228; (34) 194; (39) 261 O 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- fruticosa (44) [2] 28 -- missouriensis (35) 13, 14 -- tetragona (35) 13; (44) [2] 28 \"Of Birds and Bayberries: Seed Dispersal and Propagation of Three Myrica Species,\" Alfred J. Fordham (43) [4] 2023 Office of Endangered Species (46) [3] 3, 4 \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak,\" Allen J. Coombes and W. Nigel Coates (57) [2] 2530 Oglethorpe, James (57) [2] 2528, 30 Ohio Department of Natural Resources (46) [3] 13 Ohio State University [Wooster] (48) [2] 17 \"`Okame' Cherry,\" Paul W. Meyer and Rick Lewandowski (45) [1] 2324 Okayama, Lord of (47) [2] 12, 13 O'Keefe, John, and David R. Foster, \"An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests\" (58) [2] 231 Oklahoma (47) [4] 19 Okra (31) 231 Okubo, Hikozaemon (31) 266 Old Farms [Wenham, MA] (57) [1] inside front cover, 56, 7 Old man (34) 288 -- woman (34) 290 -- man's beard (35) 149; (50) [4] 2431 Old-field growth (58) [2] 17, 18, 1921 Old-growth forest (58) [2] 2829, 3540; [3] 210; (59) [3] 14, 20 Olea europaea (31) 246; (36) 19 Oleaceae (44) [3] 31 -- studies on (49) [1] 20; [2] 8 Oleander (34) 73; (53) [3] 27; (56) [2] 25 Oleaster (31) 242 Olive (31) 246; (36) 19 -- autumn (44) [4] 23; (55) [4] 27, 29; (57) [1] 21 -- Russian (31) 242; (32) 90; (39) 151; (44) [1] 11; [4] 23; (55) [4] 27, 29, 30; (57) [3] 3 Olive tree (60) [3] inside back cover Oliver, Daniel (56) [3] 24 Oliver, Leslie (39) [6] inside back cover Olmsted Brothers (53) [3] 20, 21; (56) [2] 3, 1112, 27 Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation (48) [4] 28, 38, 50; (56) [2] 31 Olmsted firm (59) [2] 3, 12, 13; [4] 28 Olmsted, Frederick Law (30) 84; (32) 6, 50, 185, 187; (39) 332, 334, 338; (40) 294; (42) [1] 3738; (47) [3] 11; (48) [3] 20, inside front cover; [4] 24, 2628, 2931, 38, 45, 4748; (49) [1] 78, 14, 16, 61, 65; (51) [3] 6, 8; (52) [1] 13; [3] 8; [4] 21; (53) [1] 33; [3] 16, 17; [4] 2, 6, 7, 12, 16, 20; (54) [2] 11, 13, 1618; [3] 18, 21; (56) [1] 31; [2] 220, 5, 7, 2631; [3] 1216, 17; (57) [2] 8; [3] 17; [4] 31, 32; (59) [2] 3, 815, 18; [3] 6; (60) [2] 40, 41; [3] 5, 11 -- -- -- National Historic Site (56) [2] 2729 -- -- -- Park District (32) 253; (47) [3] 11 -- -- -- parkway (33) 181 -- -- -- \"Plan for a Small Homestead (1888)\" (56) [2] 2125 -- -- -- \"Reforesting the Boston Harbor Islands: A Proposal (1887)\" [reprinted] (48) [3] 2627 -- -- -- Sesquicentennial (33) 309 -- -- -- \"To the Editor of Garden and Forest\" [1888] (60) [3] 2224 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr. (51) [3] 67; (56) [2] 5, 17, 18; (59) [2] 13, 19; (60) [2] 40 Olmsted, John Charles (51) [3] 7; (56) [1] 23; [2] 5, 7; [3] 14; (59) [2] 11; (60) [3] 5 -- photos by (56) [2] 7, 8, 16, 18 Olmsted, Marion (56) [2] 5 Olmsted, Mary Perkins (56) [2] 5, 18 Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot (51) [2] 35 Olmsted, Vaux & Co. (60) [3] 11 Ololiuqui (32) 203, 205 Olympic Peninsula [WA] (48) [1] 17; (58) [3] front cover Omei, Mount [China] (47) [3] 32, 33 Omphalocera munroei (52) [3] 24 \"On Collecting Herbs in Madagascar,\" David Seligson (32) 2329 Oncidium (47) [4] 32 One Hundred Great Garden Plants, William H. Frederick, Jr. [review of] (36) 277 \"One Hundred Years of Apples,\" M. B. Hoffman (32) 126132 Onion (31) 146, 208; (39) 249 Onoclea sensibilis (34) 249; (48) [3] 24 Ontogenetical aging (59) [4] 1114 O'Odham Indians (46) [3] 43 Oo-dung (31) 8, 12, 16 \"`Open to All Real Plant Lovers': Book Review,\" Judith Siporin (57) [4] 3335 O Cumulative Index Ophelia tetrapetala var. yezoalpina (38) 87 Ophiopogon japonica `Torafu' (45) [2] 16 Ophrys apifera (31) 199 Oppe, Joseph, and John C. Wister, \"1970 Lilac Registrations\" (31) 121126 Opuntia (46) [3] 38; (55) [2] 6; (56) [2] 24 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- frigida (60) [1] 7 -- fulgida (46) [3] 39 -- imbricata (46) [3] 43 -- whipplei var. viridiflora (46) [3] 43 Orange (31) 224 -- Marco (36) 18 -- Seville (31) 224 -- sour (31) 224 -- wild (31) 287 Orchid (43) [2] 33; (44) [1] 3233; (47) [4] 32, 33 -- hardy (41) 128149 -- -- Chinese (44) [1] 32 -- lady's slipper (47) [2] 23 -- -- pink (56) [1] inside front cover, 8, 9, 1013 Orchidaceae (48) [2] 31 Orchids, Floyd S. Shuttleworth, Herbert S. Zim, and Gordon W. Dillon [review of] (30) 159 \"Orchids for Everyone,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (44) [1] 3233 Orchids, in Hong Kong (30) 15, 19 Orchis spectabilis (37) 181 \"Order of Preservation of Clean Air\" [Boston] (48) [4] 21 Oregon (48) [1] 17, 34, 39 Oregon grape (56) [2] 25 Oreonana purpurascens (46) [3] 13 Origanum `Aureum' (39) 263 -- marjorana (39) 261 -- vulgare (39) 246, 261 Origin of Cultivated Plants [Candolle] (30) 114 Origin of Species [Charles Darwin] (48) [2] 29; (52) [4] 13, 16 Orishimo, Yoshinobu (60) [4] 30 Orixa japonica (55) [2] 27; [3] 18 Orloff-Davidoff, garden of [Russia] (54) [2] 14 Ormond Beach [FL] (49) [4] 32 Ormond, Francis, Mrs. (49) [4] 30, 31 Ormosia hosiei (36) 193; (40) 163 -- macrophylla (32) 212 \"Ornamental Birches,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 117131 Ornamental Conifers, Charles R. Harrison [review of] (36) 278 Ornamental Grasses, Mary Hockenberry Meyer [review of] (38) 63 \"Ornamental Plant Introduction--Building on the Past,\" John L. Creech (33) 1325 Ornithogalum (31) 194 Ornithogalum umbellatum (31) 194 Ortega (Casimiro Gomez-) (30) 137; (47) [3] 6, 911, 1319 Ortega, Jose (47) [3] 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Orton, Elwin (50) [2] 15 Orwig, David A., \"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" with David R. Foster (58) [2] 4144 Oryza meyeriana var. granulata (48) [2] 7 -- minuta (48) [2] 4, 7 -- sativa (45) [3] 3 Osage orange (39) 152; (52) [3] inside front cover; 1519 Osaka (60) [4] 27 -- botanic garden in [Japan] (30) 20 Osbeckia crinita (46) [4] 27, 30 Osborne, Graham, photos by (58) [3] covers, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, inside back cover Osgood, Henry (58) [1] 12 Osier (34) 12 -- red (31) 215 Osmanthus x fortunei `Equinox' (43) [4] 15, 14 -- heterophyllus `Akebono' (43) [4] 15 -- -- `Goshiki' (43) [4] 14, 37 -- -- `Kembu' (43) [4] 15 3 O 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- `Ogon' (43) [4] 15 -- -- `Sasaba' (43) [4] 16 Osmunda cinnamomea (48) [3] 24 -- claytoniana (52) [2] 42 -- regalis (48) [2] 24 Ostodes katharinae (48) [2] 4 -- kuangii (48) [2] 6 Ostrya (32) 82, 94; (44) [2] 23, 24 -- chisosensis (44) [2] 2324 -- knowltonii (42) [4] 143, 143; (44) [2] 23, 24 -- virginiana (31) 240; (39) 191, 226; (44) [2] 2327, 27 -- -- trunk (44) [2] 24 Oswego tea (31) 132; (35) 10; (39) 261; (44) [2] 28 \"Our Disappearing Opportunities,\" by Edward Weeks [reprinted] (48) [3] 69 \"Our Native Pawpaw: The Next New Commercial Fruit?,\" M. Brett and Dorothy J. Callaway (52) [3] 2029 Outdoor Laboratory, People and Their Environment, Matthew J. Brennan, ed. [review of] (32) 138 Outer Brewster Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 19 Ovid (56) [1] 3 Owen, John (50) [2] 3 Ox Pasture [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 40 Oxalis (33) 192 -- stricta (34) 188 -- tuberosa (50) [4] 11 Oxford Book of Food Plants, G. B. Masefield, M. Wallis, and S. G. Harrison [review of] (30) 159160 Oxeye, common (31) 181 -- daisy (31) 173; (34) 163 Oxslips (31) 168 Oxycantha (31) 223 Oxydendrum arboreum (30) 169, 171; (31) 244; (32) 84, 94; (38) 107 Oxygen, conduction to roots (49) [4] 13 -- limiting supplies of (49) [4] 5, 6, 7, 10, 13, 14, 20 Oxytropis rishiriensis (47) [2] 8 Oyster Bay, Long Island [NY] (47) [4] 10, 16 Oyster plant (48) [3] 25 Ozdobuych, Z. Katedry Roslin (31) 54 Ozone, air pollution (30) 43 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - P","article_sequence":13,"start_page":1,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25332","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070a76b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"P Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Pachistima (32) 160 Pachymorph [bamboo] (49) [2] 30 Pachyrhizus ahipa (50) [4] 10, 11 Pachysandra (31) 167; (46) [4] 19; (56) [2] 18; (57) [1] 6 Pachysandra procumbens (39) 16, 1721, 20; (51) [4] 4346, 44 -- terminalis (39) 16, 18, 21; (46) [4] 19; (51) [4] 43, 44 -- -- `Cutleaf' (52) [3] 10 -- -- `Green Carpet' (49) [2] 4 Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden [HA] (46) [3] 8 Padua Botanic Garden [Italy] (47) [3] 8 Paeonia (31) 133; (35) 15, 16, 17, 18; (39) 263; (45) [4] 26 -- as bonsai subject (31) 271 -- `Albert Crousse' (31) 134 -- `Alstead' (31) 134 -- `Ama-no-sode' (31) 134 -- `Champlain' (31) 134 -- `Claire de Lune' (31) 134 -- `Cygnet' (31) 134 -- delavayi (46) [4] 20 -- `Fuji-no-mine' (31) 134 -- `Karl Rosenfeld' (31) 134 -- lactiflora (35) 17; (39) 263; (44) [3] 17, [4] 51 -- -- `Festiva Maxima' (31) 134 -- `La France' (31) 134 -- `Le Cygne' (31) 134 -- `Lowell Thomas' (31) 134 -- mascula (31) 192, 235 -- `Mikado' (31) 134 -- `Nippon Brilliant' (31) 134 -- officinalis (31) 192; (39) 263 -- obovata var. willmottiae (55) [1] 17 -- `Pico' (31) 134 -- suffruticosa (31) 143; (39) 263; (44) [3] 17; (55) [2] 31 -- -- `Joseph Rock' (52) [2] front cover; (55) [2] 31 -- -- ssp. rockii (52) [2] 30 Page, Chris (59) [2] 31 Page, Nancy (32) 252, 253; (34) 386, 388 -- -- \"Community Tree Giveaway\" (33) 210212 -- -- \"A Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree\" (33) 261283 -- -- \"Wild Plants in the City,\" with Richard E. Weaver, (34) 137252 Page, Russell (54) [1] 18 Pageant of Chinese Painting (31) 270 Pagels, Ernst (54) [3] 4, 5, 7 Paget, Robert (48) [3] 37 Pagoda tree (32) 67; (38) 112; (60) [4] 26 -- -- Japanese (31) 242; (39) 131, 132; (44) [4] 20 Paguma larvata (civet) (52) [4] 9 Pai lo-po (31) 16 Paigle (31) 192 Pair, John C., \"Magnificent Maclura--Past and Present\" (52) [3] 1419 Paleobotanical detection (53) [2] 7 Palicourea (32) 213 Palisades Nurseries (57) [3] 18 Paliurus (55) [3] 18 Pall Mall [London, England] (57) [2] 8 Palm, sago (48) [2] 5 -- windmill (50) [4] 23 -- wine (48) [2] 5 Palma-Christi (47) [4] 28 Palmae (50) [2] 27 Palmer, Ernest J. (E. J.) (30) 34, 83 P 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- -- \"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum\" (31) 99107 Palo verde (39) 314 Pampanini, Renato (47) [4] 13; (52) [1] 18, 20, 22 Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Fourth [Java, 1930] (48) [2] 18 Panaeolus sphinctrinus (32) 205 Panax (53) [4] 30 -- ginseng (55) [2] 14 -- quinquefolius (39) 263; (55) [2] 14 -- trifolius (55) [2] 24 -- zingiberensis (48) [2] 7 Pancratium (47) [4] 31 Panda, giant (49) [2] 31, 32, inside back cover -- red (50) [1] 5, 7, 9, 11 Panicum (45) [4] 28; (54) [3] 8 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- virgatum (35) 59, 60; (54) [3] 5, 10 -- -- `Hanse Herms' (54) [3] 10 Pansy (31) 191 Papaver (31) 134 -- alpinum (55) [1] 8 -- nudicaule (35) 21 -- orientale (31) 229; (35) 1821, 19 -- -- `Bonfire' (31) 134 -- -- `Cavalier' (31) 134 -- -- `Cheerio' (31) 134 -- -- `Crimson Pompon' (31) 134 -- -- `Doubloon' (31) 131 -- -- `G. I. Joe' (31) 134 -- -- `Helen Elizabeth' (31) 134 -- -- `Salome' (31) 134 -- -- `Spotless' (31) 134 -- rhoeas (31) 192 -- somniferum (31) 192 Paper birch (45) [4] 22, 36, 37 -- mulberry (31) 242 Paphiopedilum (37) 182 Papuacedrus (37) 61 Paradise apple (44) [3] 11 Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris [Parkinson, 1629] (30) 115; (39) 316; (54) [4] inside front cover, 3, inside back cover Parajubaea coccoides (50) [4] 14 Paramichelia baillonii (48) [2] 4 Paramo [type vegetation] (33) 192, 193 Parashorea chinensis (48) [2] 6 Parasitic plants on trees (33) 58 Parc des Buttes-Chaumont [Paris] (54) [2] inside front cover, 13, 16, 17, 18 Parc Montsouris [Paris] (54) [2] 13 Parica (32) 207 Parietaria officinalis (31) 191 Paris [France] (48) [2] 18 -- plans of (57) [2] 5 Paris green (copper aceto-arsenite) (30) 44 Paris sp. (38) 85 Paritary (31) 191 Park Act of 1875 [Boston] (48) [4] 45 Park Act of 1882 [MA] (48) [4] 45, 46 \"Park and Garden in Vermont: Olmsted and the Webbs at Shelburne Farms,\" Alan Emmet (56) [3] 1220 Park Commission [Boston] (48) [4] 26 -- Board of Commissioners [Boston] (48) [4] 29, 33 Park Commission [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44, 48 -- Board of Commissioners [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 46, 48, 49, 50 Park International (54) [2] 18 Park Maker: A Life of Frederick Law Olmsted, Elizabeth Stevenson [review of] (38) 238 \"Park-Making as a National Art\" [1897] (60) [3] 27 Park Street [Boston] (54) [1] 2526 Parker, Francis E. (54) [3] 1820 Parkinson, John (31) 116; (39) 316; (53) [1] 9, 10; (54) [4] 3; (56) [1] 7 -- -- Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestris [1629] (30) 115; (39) 316; (54) [4] inside front cover, 3, inside back cover P Cumulative Index Parkinsonia aculeata (39) 314 Parkman, Francis (33) 169183, 171; (34) 131132; (49) [3] 6; (50) [3] 26 -- -- garden of (50) [3] 3 -- -- home (33) 172, 183 Parks and Recreation Department [Boston] (48) [3] 1, 41, 42; [4] 28, 36 Parks, Clifford (53) [2] 8; [4] 21, 29; (57) [4] 24, 25, 28 Parkyns, George Isham, print of Mount Vernon (59) [3] 2 Parmelia (35) 134, 137 -- caperata (35) 155 -- conspersa (35) 152, 159 -- perforata (35) 156 -- rudecta (35) [3] front cover, 156, 157 -- saxatilis (35) 156, 157 -- sulcata (35) 157 Parrot, F. W. (49) [4] 34 Parrotia, Persian (30) 169 Parrotia persica (36) 70, 100104, 102; (43) [1] 4, 6, 11; (49) [4] 3439, 35, 36, 38 -- accessions at Arnold Arboretum (49) [4] 37 -- bark of (49) [4] 34, 35, 38 -- origins of (49) [4] 3537 -- propagation of (49) [4] 38 -- -- `Pendula' (49) [4] 37 \"Parrotia persica: An Ancient Tree for Modern Landscapes,\" Robert G. Nicholson (49) [4] 3439 Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (36) 70, 103, 104105 Parsley (31) 201, 210; (39) 263 -- purple mountain (46) [3] 13 Parsnip (31) 210 Parsons and Company (or, and Sons) [Flushing, NY] (31) 120; (50) [3] 2, 68, 9, 10 Parsons, Brian (46) [3] 13 Parsons, Samuel B. (51) [3] 9; (52) [2] 5; (54) [1] 31; (60) [1] 32 Parsons, Jr., Samuel (57) [3] 26; (60) [2] 39, 40, 41; [3] 5 Parthenocissus (56) [2] back cover -- cinquefolia (54) [2] 18 -- quinquefolia (30) 158, 171; (31) 221; (35) 117; (39) 263; (56) [2] 12, 23, 30; (58) [2] 53 -- tricuspidata (41) [6] front cover; (53) [4] 23; (56) [2] 13, 30 -- -- 'Veitchii' (56) [2] 24 Partridge berry (39) 260, 261 Pas, Crispijn van de (the younger), Hortus floridus [1614] (39) 262; [5] inside back cover Pasania edulis (31) 292 Pasfield, Donald (57) [1] 19 Pasque flower (37) 90 Passiflora (30) 128; (50) [4] 14 Pastinaca sativa (31) 210 Patents office [US] (31) 12, 14 The Pathless Way: John Muir and the American Wilderness, by Michael P. Cohen [review of] (46) [4] 6470 Pathogens in forests (58) [2] 8, 4144 Pathology (33) 3745 Patinoa ichthyotoxica (32) 213 Patrinia scabiosaefolia (31) 291, 293 Patterson, C. J., book review (47) [1] 3032 Patterson, Robert W. (52) [1] 13 Pauley, Tristan (53) [1] 32 Paulownia coreana (38) 30, 141 -- fortunei (44) [3] 1718 -- tomentosa (32) 71; (50) [1] 17; (55) [3] 17; [4] 10; (57) [3] 22 Pavon y Jimenez, Jose Antonio (47) [3] 15, 16, 19 Pawpaw (31) 242; (44) [4] 37, 39; (52) [3] 2028; (55) [3] 12, 17 Paxton, Joseph (32) 187 Payne, C. Harman (30) 137 Pea (31) 210 -- beach (31) 229 -- black eyed (31) 231 -- cow (31) 231 Peabody, Robert (53) [4] 7 Peace River, Canada (60) [1] 7, 8 Peach (31) 224 -- bells (34) 301 3 P 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- double-flowering (57) [1] 10 -- palm (50) [2] 27, 28 Pear (31) 225; (32) 81; (57) [1] 31 -- `Bradford' (39) 74, 83, 125, 126; (44) [3] 24, back cover; [4] 15, 19, 20; (57) [1] 21 -- `Callery' (44) [3] 24; [4] 1920; (48) [4] 35; (52) [4] 29 -- Peking (44) [3] 21 Pearfruit cork tree (30) 166 Pearlbush (57) [1] 10 Pearly everlasting, Japanese (34) 278 Pears, espaliered (59) [4] 18, 22, 23 Pearson, Richard J. (52) [1] 30 Pea-shrub (44) [2] 30 -- Chinese (41) 174 -- Russian (41) 173 -- Siberian (31) 242 Pecan (31) 242; (39) 275; (59) [3] back cover Peck, William Dandridge (54) [3] 12; (56) [4] 1921, 22 Pecos Canyon [NM] (47) [4] 14 Peddock's Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25 Pediocactus (47) [2] 20 -- endangered spp. (46) [3] 8 Peer, Ralph (46) [1] 10 Pei, I. M. (54) [1] 15 Peionie, male (31) 235 Peking [China] (48) [2] 30 Peking Natural History Bulletin (39) 11 Pelargonium (32) 220 -- aromatic (34) 97124 Pelargorium (39) 245 -- list of vars. and their scents (34) 104108 -- x asperum (34) 109 -- capitatum (34) 121 -- x citrosum `Prince of Orange' (39) 263 -- crispum (34) 100 -- -- `Prince Rupert' (39) 263 -- denticulatum (34) 112 -- -- `Dr. Livingston' (39) 263 -- exstipulatum (34) 121 -- x fragrans (39) 263 -- graveolens (34) 100; (39) 263 -- -- `Minor' (39) 263 -- inquinans (34) 118 -- x nervosum (39) 263 -- odoratissimum (34) 118 -- quercifolium `Pinnatifidum' (39) 263 -- radens (34) 100 -- tomentosum (34) 102; (39) 263 -- -- `Clorinda' (39) 263 -- triste (34) 99 Pellacalyx yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Pellaea atropurpurea (46) [3] 19 Pellet, Harold (44) [2] 26 Pelletory (31) 191 Peltandra virginica (43) [2] 1516 Peltigera canina (35)135, 151 Pemberton Hill [Boston] (31) 152 Pemberton Square [Boston] (57) [2] 9 P'en tsai (31) 262 Penn, John (31) 158 Pennell, Francis (60) [1] 4 Pennisetum (45) [4] 28; (54) [3] 3, 89 -- setaceum (54) [3] 11 -- villosum (54) [3] 11 Pennsylvania Avenue [Washington, DC] (57) [2] 23, 9 Pennsylvania Horticultural Society (47) [4] 14 -- -- -- Schaffer Memorial Medal (47) [4] 14 Penny Brook [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 38, 40, 44, 46, 48 P Cumulative Index Pennyroyal (31) 201 Penstemon (37) 220; (45) [4] 26 Penstemons (60) [1] 6 Pentewa, Richard (46) [3] 44 Peony (31) 133, 192; (35) 1518; (39) 241, 263; (56) [2] 18 -- Chinese (39) 263 -- common (44) [4] 51 -- female (31) 192 -- male (31) 192, 235 -- tree (52) [2] 30; (55) [2] 31 Pepper (31) 287, 292 -- black (52) [2] 21 -- guinea (31) 231 Pepperbush, sweet (55) [4] 12 Peppergrass (31) 231; (34) 215 Peppermint (31) 201 Pepperidge (60) [2] 17 Pepper-tree (35) 93 Pepperwort (43) [2] 24, 26 Peppers, bell (and other capsicums) (52) [2] 22 Perennial gardens, American (49) [4] 40 Perennials for American Gardens, by Ruth Rogers Clausen and Nicolas H. Ekstrom [review of] (49) [4] 40 \"Perennials for Low Maintenance Gardening,\" Robert S. Hebb (31) Part I, 2435; Part II, 7082; Part III, 127139 Perennials for Your Garden, Alan Bloom [review of] (36) 127 Perennials, herbaceous, for urban islands (44) [4] 4954 Perennials, low maintenance (34) 253384; (35) 191 -- site considerations for (35) 6465 -- tabular list (35) 8085 Perenyi, Eleanor (47) [3] 3 Perilla, purple (39) 263 Perilla frutescens `Crispa' (39) 263 -- fruticosa (38) 145 Periploca (31) 219 Periwinkle (31) 229; (39) 269; (55) [2] 7 -- rosy, as treatment for cancer (44) [1] 35 Perkins, Isabel (Mrs. Larz Anderson) (49) [3] 4, 6, 7, 9 Perkins, William (49) [3] 6 Pernettya (32) 211 -- mucronata (35) 235 Perovskia abrotanoides (39) 263 -- atriplicifolia (38) 113; (39) 263 Perry, Lily M. (32) 14, 53; (39) 353 Perry, Ralph F. (33) 231 -- -- -- Wood Collection (33) 231234 Perry, Thomas O. \"Tree Roots: Facts and Fallacies\" (49) [4] 40 Persea borbonia (31) 90, 243 Persian iris (31) 187 -- lilac (60) [4] 12 Persimmon (31) 242; (32) 91, 9899; (39) 290309; (42) [4] 103120, 107, 109, 114 -- confusion with dogwood in fossils (45) [4] 6, 8 -- cvs. (42) [4] 118120 -- American (39) 293, 297, 298; (42) [4] 102, front cover, inside front cover, back cover -- black (39) 306 -- common (30) 170; (31) 242 -- hardy, exotic, and native (51) [4] 4754 -- Mexican (39) 306 -- oriental (38) 31, 145; (42) [4] 104108, 110, 112117 -- pudding (32) 9899 -- wild (55) [1] 18 \"Persimmon calyxes\" (45) [4] 6, 8 Peru (47) [3] 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18 Pesticides (30) 4446, 5055, 178, 179 -- safe (30) 4546 -- toxicity table and hazards (30) 5055 Pests, plant (33) 3745 Petasites (54) [3] 9 -- hybridus (44) [4] 5253; (55) [1] 3 5 P 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- japonicus (44) [4] 53; -- -- var. gigantea (45) [4] 29 -- --'Variegata' (52) [1] 28 Petroselinum crispum (31) 210; (39) 263 -- -- var. latifolium (31) 201 -- hortense (31) 213 Petunia (31) 168 Petzold, Edward (32) 144 Peyote (32) 205; (41) 94, 95 Phaius grandiflorus (47) [4] 32 Phalaris arundinacea (35) 62 -- -- `Feesey' (54) [3] 5 -- -- var. picta (or `Picta') (35) 61; (44) [4] 5354 Pharmaceuticals, \"gray\" (58) [1] 26 Phaseolus, spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- coccineus (31) 204 -- vulgaris (31) 203; (50) [4] 12; (52) [2] 25 Pheasant's eye (31) 180; (52) [2] 36 Phellodendron (30) 162166; (32) 66 -- amurense (30) 162, 164165, 171; (39) 157, 158, 226; (41) 225; (43) [1] 43; (44) [4] 19; (47) [2] 7; (55) [3] inside back cover, 17, 2224; (60) [4] 11 -- -- lavallei (30) 163 -- -- sachalinense (30) 163 -- chinense (30) 162 -- japonicum (30) 166 -- piriforme (30) 166 Phelps, Almira (56) [4] 17 Philadelphia [PA] (48) [4] 54 -- map of (49) [2] 16 Philadelphus (31) 116; (44) [2] 30; [4] 49; (45) [4] 23; (56) [2] 25 -- coronarius (31) 218 Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (49) [3] 44 Philippines Bureau of Science (48) [2] 16; (58) [1] 1113, 1416, 18, 19 Philippine flora (58) [1] 1126 Philipse Manor [NY] (31) 158 Phillip II, King of Spain [Felipe] (30) 128; (47) [3] 4 Phillips, Roger (50) [2] 3536 Philodendron, as fish poison (32) 213 Philodendron (32) 212; (34) 74; (47) [2] 27 -- crasspedodremum (32) 213 -- dyscarpium (32) 216 Philodendrons, Jack Kramer [review of] (36) 67 Phleum pratense (34) 218, 220 Phloem (33) 4666 -- necrosis (33) 42; (42) [2] 70, 7277 -- sieve tubes (49) [2] 810 Phlox, blue (45) [1] 26 -- creeping (45) [1] 26 -- mountain (45) [1] 27 -- summer (35) 2124; (44) [2] 28; (45) [1] 26, 27 Phlox (31) 24, 135, 229 -- `Alexander's Beauty' (31) 135 -- `Alexander's Surprise' (31) 135 -- amoena (45) [1] 1, 26, 27 -- x bifida (60) [1] 10 -- `Blue Hills' (31) 135 -- carolina (31) 229; (45) [1] 25, 26, 27 -- decussata (35) 21 -- divaricata (45) [1] 26; (47) [2] 28 -- `Emerald Cushion' (31) 135 -- glaberrima (45) [1] 25, 27 -- maculata (31) 229; (45) [1] 27 -- -- `Alpha' (45) [1] 27 -- -- `Miss Lingard' (45) [1] 26, 27 -- -- `Reine du Jour' (45) [1] 27 -- -- `Rosalinde' (45) [1] 27 -- nivalis (31) 135 P Cumulative Index -- ovata (45) [1] 27 -- paniculata (31) 135, 229; (35) 2124, 23; (44) [2] 28; (45) [1] 26, 27 -- `Scarlet Flame' (31) 135 -- `Sky Blue' (31) 135 -- stolonifera (31) 135; (45) [1] 26; (47) [2] 28 -- -- `Blue Ridge' (31) 135 -- -- `Lavender Lady' (31) 135 -- subulata (31) 135; (45) [1] 25 Phoebe bournei (55) [1] 15 -- namu (48) [2] 27 -- puwensis (48) [2] 34 Phoenix tree (31) 10 Phoradendron (33) 58; (51) [3] 1117; (52) [2] 27 -- ficulneum (51) [3] 13, 14 -- guatemalense (51) [3] 13 -- leucarpum (51) [3] 11 -- molinae (51) [3] 14 -- piperoides (51) [3] 13, 14 -- serotinum (34) 75 -- trinervium (51) [3] 15 Phorbol-esters (58) [1] 26 Phosphates, movement of (49) [4] 16 Phosphorus (52) [3] 30 Photinia (55) [1] 18 -- glabra `Parfait' (43) [4] 16 Photo Guide to the Patterns of Discoloration and Decay in Living Northern Hardwood Trees, Alex L. Shigo and Edwin H. Larson [review of] (30) 196 Photoinhibition theory (50) [1] 34 Photoperiod (50) [4] 10 -- relationship to acclimation (54) [3] 2526 Photoperiodic response (30) 101 Photosynthetic productivity, worldwide (49) [1] 5 Phragmites communis (34) 218, 221 Phyllanthus (32) 25 -- emblica (48) [2] 4 Phyllocladus (37) 62 Phylloduce aleutica (38) 93; (47) [2] 5 -- nipponica (38) 91, 93, 94 Phyllostachys (50) [1] 18 -- aureosulcata (49) [2] 32 -- bambusoides (49) [2] 32 -- bissettii (49) [2] 32 -- congesta (49) [2] 32 -- dulcis (49) [2] 33 -- flexuosa (49) [2] 33 -- makinoi (49) [2] 33 -- meyeri (49) [2] 33 -- nidularia (49) [2] 33 -- nigra (49) [2] 29 -- -- `Hale' (49) [2] 33 -- nuda (49) [2] 33 -- pubescens (48) [2] 27; (50) [4] 16, 22; (52) [4] 4 -- viridis (49) [2] 34 Phyllosticta asiminae (52) [3] 24 Physalis (37) 220 -- alkekengi (31) 174; (37) 220, 221 -- peruviana (50) [4] 13 Physcia (35) 138, 141, 156 -- subtilis (35) 152 Physic gardens, at Chelsea [London, England] (51) [1] 10; (53) [1] 12, 13; (57) [3] 22; [4] 15 -- -- European (53) [2] 19 Physoplexis comosa (55) [1] 10 Physostegia (31) 135 -- virginiana (31) 135; (35) 24, 25, 26 -- -- `Grandiflora' (31) 136 -- -- `Rosa Spire' (31) 136 -- -- `Summer Snow' (31) 136 7 P 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- `Vivid' (31) 135 Physostigmine (32) 202 Phyteuma orbiculare (55) [1] 8 Phytoalexins (45) [2] 33 Phytohormones, chemical structures of (45) [2] 29 -- horticultural applications of (45) [2] 2933 -- kinds of (45) [2] 2829 Phytolacca (55) [2] 24 -- americana (34) 76, 213; (39) 264; (55) [2] 24 -- decandra (55) [2] 24 Phytophthora (47) [4] 7 Piazza Bianca [Rome] (54) [2] 14 Picea (32) 65; (37) 6264; (42) [3] 102, 105109; (47) [2] 7; (48) [1] 3, 4, 5; (50) [2] 2, 4, 6; (57) [1] 24, 28 -- bark of (48) [1] 12 -- branchlets of (48) [1] 12 -- buds of (48) [1] 12 -- cones of (48) [1] 12 -- leaves of (48) [1] 12 -- trunk sections (56) [4] 15 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- abies (31) 215; (42) [1] 8, 9; [3] 104, 109, 110, 111, 125; (45) [4] 22 -- -- `Pendula' (50) [1] 28 -- alcoquiana (42) [3] 111, 112 -- asperata (42) [3] 112 -- -- var. ponderosa (42) [3] 113 -- bicolor (42) [3] 111 -- breweriana (42) [3] 113, 114 -- engelmannii (42) [3] 114, 115, 116; [4] 143, 146; (48) [1] 34 -- glauca (42) [3] 116117, 116, 120, 121; (45) [4] 22; (49) [4] 2 -- -- (var. albertiana) f. conica (42) [3] 116, 117 -- -- `Conica' (59) [4] 12 -- glenhnii (42) [3] 117, 118; (47) [2] 7 -- jezoensis (38) 90; (47) [2] 5, 7 -- koyamai (42) [3] 118119, 122; (47) [2] 14 -- -- leaf attachments of (48) [1] 7 -- likiangensis (42) [3] 119, 120 -- mariana (42) [3] 120122, 121, 125 -- maximowiczii (47) [2] 14 -- meyeri (44) [3] 21, 24 -- montigena (42) [3] 104, 122, 123 -- nigra (45) [4] 22 -- obovata (42) [3] 122123 -- omorika (30) 72, 73, 206; (39) 213, 214, 232; (42) [3] 123124, 123, 124 -- -- `Nana' (42) [3] 124 -- orientalis (39) 214, 215, 232; (41) 231; (42) [3] 125, 124 -- polita (42) [3] 125126; (48) [1] 39 -- pungens (42) [3] 106, 114, 115; 116; [4] 138; (43) [1] 11; (54) [3] 28; (56) [3] 16; (59) [1] 41 -- -- var. glauca (`Glauca') (39) 215, 216, 232 -- purpurea (var. purpurea) (42) [3] 119120 -- rubens (42) [3] 120, 121, 122; (57) [2] back cover -- schrenkiana (42) [3] 126; (44) [3] 12, 13 -- sitchensis (58) [3] 3 -- smithiana (42) [3] 126 -- tianschanica(42) [3] 126 -- torano (42) [3] 125 -- wilsonii (42) [3] 126, 126 -- yezoensis, as bonsai subject (32) 246 Pickerelweed (43) [2] 8, 15, 17 Picrasma (57) [1] 14 -- quassioides (55) [3] 17 Pieris, as bonsai subject (32) 246 -- floribunda (30) 157, 206; (43) [1] 15; (52) [3] 13; (56) [2] 28 -- -- `Millstream' (37) 105; (43) [1] 16 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as Chamaecyparis; see page 18 for the correct caption.] -- japonica (43) [1] 4, 15; (52) [3] 13 -- -- `Compacta' (43) [1] 15 -- -- `Dorothy Wycoff' (43) [1] 15 P Cumulative Index -- -- `Flamingo' (32) 280; (43) [1] 15 -- -- `Valley Rose' (32) 280 -- -- `Variegata' (43) [1] 15 -- -- `White Cascade' (43) [1] 15 -- -- `Whitecaps' (43) [1] 15 -- -- `Whitewater' (43) [4] 17 Pig squeak (34) 297 Pignut (32) 68 Pigweed (30) 23; (34) 209 Pilat, Ignaz (56) [2] 13 Pilgerodendron (37) 64 Pilgrim's landing (32) 186 Pilococcus miscanthi (54) [3] 7, 9 Piment (32) 25 Pimpernel, scarlet (48) [3] 23, 24 Pimpinella anisum (31) 199 Pin cherry (43) [1] 42 -- oak (46) [1] 35 -- -- hurricane damage to trees [1938 & 1985] (46) [1] 30 Pinaceae (42) [3] 104; (50) [2] 4 Pinanga tomentella (60) [4] 7 Pinchot, Gifford (32) 9; (60) [2] 21, 22 -- -- estate of (59) [4] 2931, 32 Pincushion flower (35) 36 Pine (31) 219, 269, 289, 292; (32) 64; (35) 199, 200, 202; (38) 111, 36, 8; (43) [4] 23; (44) [1] 27; (53) [3] 26, 27; (55) [3] 8; (56) [3] 15; (58) [2] 4, 6, 7, 9, 23; (59) [1] 34; (60) [4] 26 -- Japanese spp. [48] [2] 15 -- Massachusetts spp. (35) 197228 -- striker roots of (49) [4] 6 -- two-layered root system of (49) [4] 12 -- Aleppo (36) 19; (38) 2 -- Australian (55) [4] 27, 30 -- Austrian (35) 215; (39) 216, 217; (44) [4] 39, back cover -- beach (38) 2 -- Benguet (58) [1] 23 -- Bhutan (35) 223 -- bishop's (38) 2 -- black (= Austrian) (35) 215; (60) [4] 26. 28 -- bristlecone (35) 206; (42) [4] 144, 145; (56) [4] 4, 7 -- -- radial section (56) [4] front and back covers -- Chinese (48) [2] 15, 26 -- dwarf mountain (35) 214 -- Florida (38) 7 -- fire (38) 111, 36, 8 -- Gregg's (38) 2 -- ground (55) [3] 6 -- hickory (35) 206 -- jack (35) 207; (38) 2; (56) [3] 9 -- Japanese black (31) 280; (35) 222; (39) 218, 219; (44) [4] 39; (57) [1] 28; (60) [4] 26, 28 -- -- seaside (48) [3] 29 -- Japanese red (31) 277, 282; (35) 209; (44) [1] 27; (52) [3] 11; (60) [4] 28 -- Japanese stone (38) 87; (47) [2] 5, 7 -- Japanese white (31) 277; (44) [1] 27; (49) [3] 11, 18, 32, 33; (57) [1] 29 -- Jeffrey's (35) 212 -- knobcone (38) 2 -- Korean (35) 213 -- lacebark (43) [1] 10; (48) [2] 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, inside back cover, back cover -- limber (35) 211 -- loblolly (31) 240; (56) [3] 9 -- lodgepole (38) 2; (58) [3] 9 -- longleaf (49) [4] 7, 13 -- maritime (38) 2 -- Mexican spp. (39) 278285; (43) [4] 23 -- Monterey (33) 206; (38) 2 -- pinyon (35) 210; (43) [4] 223 -- pitch (32) 64; (35) 219; (38) 2; (56) [3] 9; [4] 56; (58) [2] 7, 9, 3334; (60) [2] 2627 -- -- serotinous cones (58) [2] 9 9 P 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- pond (38) 2; (60) [4] 23 -- ponderosa (56) [4] 3; (59) [4] inside front cover -- Pringle's (38) 2 -- red (32) 64; (35) 218; (49) [4] 4; (55) [3] 3; (57) [1] 23; (58) [2] 20, 38 -- sand (38) 2 -- Scotch (or Scot's) (32) 64; (35) 221; (39) 217, 218; (48) [1] 3; (57) [1] 28 -- serotinous (38) 111 -- shortleaf (56) [3] 9 -- slash (36) 19 -- spreading-leaved (38) 2 -- Swiss stone (35) 208; (44) [3] 15 -- table mountain (38) 2 -- tabletop (55) [1] 14 -- Tanyosho (52) [3] 11 -- umbrella (44) [1] 26, 27 -- Virginia scrub (31) 242 -- western yellow (or ponderosa) (35) 217 -- Weymouth (31) 243; (32) 184 -- white (31) 243; (32) 64; (35) 197, 199, 220; (39) 315; [6] front cover; (43) [2] 18; (44) [4] 39; (46) [1] 34; (49) [4] 2; (53) [1] 2431, 26, 28; (54) [1] 4; (55) [3] 6; (56) [3] 6; (57) [1] 23, 28; (58) [2] 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 26, 27, 34, 36, 37; [3] 3 -- -- bark of (48) [2] 36 -- -- blister rust (58) [2] 20 -- -- fastigiate (53) [1] 2431, 29, 30 -- -- weevil (53) [1] 2426; (58) [2] 20 -- -- witches' broom seedlings on (30) 219 -- -- American (32) 184 -- white-bark (35) 205; (44) [3] 4 -- white-boned (48) [2] 34 Pine weevil, white (30) 74 Pineapple (50) [2] 2123, 22 Pineapple weed (34) 204 Pineda y Ramirez, Antonio (47) [3] 19 Pinellia (47) [2] 34 -- ternata (47) [2] 34 -- tripartita (47) [2] 34 Pinetum (32) 185 -- Arnold Arboretum (42) [3] 103; (48) [1] 7, 31; (49) [1] 17 -- Hunnewell estate [Wellesley, MA] (48) [1] 22, 25, 36, 42, 43; (50) [4] 3240 Pinetum Woburnense [1839] (32) 188189, 190 Pink (31) 28, 34, 168; (34) 320; (39) 254 -- cheddar (31) 34 -- clove (31) 227 -- grass (31) 229 Pinnodes strobi (53) [1] 24 Pinus (31) 219, 270; (32) 64; (35) 199, 200, 202; (37) 5, 32, 6568; (48) [1] 3; (50) [2] 2, 3, 4, 6 -- bonsai (31) 265 -- stem (33) 49, 50, 52 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- albicaulis (35) 205, 206 -- aristata (35) 206; (42) [4] 144, 146, 145 -- -- radial section (56) [4] front and back covers -- armandii (46) [4] 322 -- attenuata (38) 1, 2, 4, 710 -- ayacahuite (39) 278285, 279, 283, 284; (47) [2] 15 -- -- var. brachyptera (39) 280 -- -- var. veitchii (39) 280, 283 -- banksiana (35) 207; (38) 1, 2, 3, 4, 5; (39) 273, 275; (45) [4] 22, 23; (56) [3] 9; (57) [1] 23 -- -- `Uncle Fogey' (30) 259 -- bungeana (33) 241; (38) 140; (43) [1] 10; (44) [3] 4, 9, 18, 20; (48) [2] 32, 33, 34, 35, 37, 38, inside back cover, back cover; (49) [4] 35 -- -- bark (34) 422; (48) [2] 36 -- -- female bract of (48) [2] back cover -- -- section of leaf on (48) [2] back cover -- -- seed of (48) [2] back cover -- -- stamen of (48) [2] back cover -- caribaea (39) 272, 273 -- cembra (35) 208; (45) [4] 25; (57) [1] 23 P Cumulative Index 11 -- -- var. sibirica (44) [3] 15 -- cembroides (43) [4] 36 -- clausa (38) 1, 2, 7 -- contorta (38) 1, 2, 4; (50) [2] 3; (58) [3] 9 -- -- var. latifolia (38) 2, 7 -- densiflora (31) 227, 278; (35) 209, 221; (36) 234; (38) 138; (44) [1] 27; (52) [3] 11; (60) [4] 28 -- -- `Umbraculifera' (52) [3] 11 -- densithunbergii (38) 138 -- echinata (39) 272, 273; (56) [3] 9 -- edulis (35) 210 -- elliotti (36) 19; (39) 272, 273 -- flexilis (35) 205, 211; (39) 279, 280 -- -- var. reflexa (39) 280 -- -- `Scratch Gravel' (30) 259 -- greggii (38) 2 -- x hakkodensis (38) 94 -- halpensis (36) 15, 19; (38) 2 -- x henryae (60) [1] 10 -- inops var. clausa (= clausa) (38) 7 -- insignis (38) 7 -- insularis (58) [1] 23 -- jeffreyi (35) 212; (39) 273 -- koraiensis (35) 213; (38) 145 -- leiophylla (39) 273, 275 -- leucodermis (57) [1] 23, 28 -- longaeva (35) 206; (42) [4] 144; (56) [4] 4, 7; (59) [4] 1415 -- massoniana (36) 212, 226; (39) 273; (48) [2] 26 -- monophylla (43) [4] 23 -- monticola (50) [2] 3 -- mugo (35) 202, 214; (45) [4] 25; (50) [1] 26 -- muricata (38) 2, 4, 7 -- nigra (35) 215; (39) 216, 217, 232; (44) [4] 39, back cover; (50) [2] 6 -- oocarpa (38) 2 -- palustris (39) 272, 273; (49) [4] 13 -- parryana (43) [4] 36 -- parviflora (31) 275, 277, 281; (35) 216; (36) 233; (38) 87; (44) [1] 27; (47) [2] 11; (49) [3] 11, 18, 32, 33, 36 -- -- bonsai (32) 244, 246 -- -- `Fubuki Nishiki' (45) [2] 1617 -- -- `Janome' (45) [2] 17 -- -- `Ogon' (45) [2] 17 -- -- var. pentaphylla (57) [1] 29 -- patula (38) 2 -- pentaphylla (47) [2] 12 -- pinaster (38) 2 -- ponderosa (35) 212, 217; (39) 273; (56) [4] 3; (59) [4] inside front cover; (60) [2] inside front cover, 26 -- -- `Canyon Ferry Dwarf' (32) 281 -- -- `Twodot Columnar' (30) 259 -- pringlei (38) 2 -- pumila (38) 87, 90, 91, 94; (47) [2] 5, 7, 14, 14 -- -- `Dwarf Blue' (47) [2] 8 -- -- x parviflora (= x hakkodensis) (38) 94 -- pungens (38) 2; (50) [1] 24 -- quadrifolia (43) [4] 36 -- -- bonsai (32) 244, 246 -- radiata (= insignis) (38) 111 -- -- `El Dorado' (33) 206 -- reflexa (39) 280 -- resinosa (32) 64; (35) 218; (45) [4] 22; (49) [3] 38; [4] 4; (55) [3] 3; (58) [2] 38 -- rigida (32) 64; (35) 219; (38) 1, 2; (39) 272, 273; (56) [3] 9; [4] 56; (57) [1] 23; (58) [2] 33, 34 -- serotina (38) 1, 2, 7; (39) 272, 273; (60) [4] 23 -- sinensis (44) [3] inside front cover -- strobiformis (39) 279, 280 -- strobus (31) 243; (32) 64, 184; (35) 197, 199, 220; (37) 4, 8; (39) 272, 273, 315; [6] front cover; (41) [6] inside front cover; (43) [2] 18; (44) [4] 39; (45) [4] 22; (46) [1] 34; (49) [4] 2; (53) [1] 2431, 26, 28; (54) [1] 4; (55) [3] 6; (56) [3] 6; (57) [1] 28; (58) [2] 36; [3] 3 -- -- `Fastigiata' (32) 281; (53) [1] 2431, 29, 30 -- -- `Lenore' (32) 281 P 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- witches' broom seedlings on (30) 219 -- sylvestris (32) 64; (35) 221; (39) 217, 218, 232; (45) [4] 25; (48) [1] 3; (57) [1] inside back cover, 28 -- tabulaeformis (36) 219; (48) [2] 34; (55) [1] 14 -- taeda (31) 240; (39) 272, 273; (56) [3] 9 -- thunbergii (31) 276, 277, 278, 280; (35) [5] front cover, 204, 222; (36) 232, 234; (38) 138; (39) 218, 219, 232; (48) [3] 29, 30; (53) [3] 26, 27; (57) [1] 28; (60) [4] 26 -- -- bonsai (32) 246 -- thunbergiana (31) 276, 277, 278, 280; (44) [4] 39; (47) [2] 4, 10 -- tuberculata (= attenuata)(38) 7 -- virginiana (31) 242 -- wallichiana (35) 223 -- yunnanensis (46) [4] 32 \"Pinus bungeana Zuccarini--A Ghostly Pine,\" by Robert G. Nicholson (48) [2] 3238 Pinxter-flower (45) [3] 16 Pioneer vegetation (58) [2] 5, 17, 27 Pipe, blew (31) 221 -- white (31) 221 -- tree (31) 116, 219, 220 -- -- double white (31) 218 -- -- single white (31) 218 Piper nigrum (52) [2] 21 -- pubicatulum (48) [2] 7 Pits and mounds (58) [2] 8, 36, 37, 38 Piperaceae (32) 263 Piptadenia peregrina (41) 87 Piratebush (51) [4] 3842, 39, 41 Pirone, Pascal P. (33) 45 -- -- -- \"Plant Ailments\" (33) 3745 Pissenlit (45) [4] 30 Pistache, Chinese (38) 165179; (39) 192 Pistachio, Chinese (44) [3] 5, 25 Pistacia chinensis (38) [5] front cover, 165179, 166, 167, 169; (39) 192, 226; (44) [3] 5, 20, 22, 24, 25 -- lentiscus (52) [2] 19 Pisum maritimum (31) 229 -- sativum (31) 210 Pitcher plants (46) [3] 7 Pithecellobium (36) 7 -- brevifolium (36) 5, 19, 20 Pittosporopsis kerrii (48) [2] 6 Pittosporum (32) 241 -- tobira (36) 19; (47) [3] 36 -- undulatum (47) [3] 36 Plagiorhegma (37) 190 \"Plan for a Small Homestead (1888),\" Frederick Law Olmsted (56) [2] 2125 \"Plan of the Columbian Fair Grounds\" [1892, 1893] (60) [3] 1011 Planchon, Jules (30) 180 Plane tree (30) 171; (43) [1] 11; (57) [2] 13; (59) [2] front & back covers; (60) [4] 26, 27, 28 -- London (39) 122, 123; (44) [4] 19; (48) [4] 33; (53) [1] 10, 32; (57) [2] 7 \"Plant Ailments,\" Pascal P. Pirone (33) 3745 Plant and Soil Water Relationships: A Modern Synthesis, Paul J. Kramer [review of] (32) 293 \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" Peter del Tredici and other contributors (55) [1] 1220 PLANT CONSERVATION, Part I (46) [3] 264; Part II (46) [4] 3770 Plant development (53) [1] 1923 -- distribution (30) 85 -- -- disjunct (53) [4] 2630 -- documentation (60) [4] 10 -- exploration, medicinal (55) [2] 211 -- -- in Chile (59) [2] 2634 -- -- in China (58) [3] 1116; (59) [1] 452, 6568 -- -- documentation (58) [3] 1217 -- -- modern medicinal (58) [1] 2026 -- -- in Philippines (58) [1] 1126 -- -- ornamental (33) 1325 -- extinction (46) [3] 4 -- identifications (60) [4] 10 -- migrations (53) [2] 1120 -- records (49) [1] 42 P Cumulative Index -- -- needs of (49) [1] 47 -- -- office of (49) [1] 5659 -- -- system at Arnold Arboretum (49) [1] 42, 54 -- -- updating (49) [1] 41 -- quarantine (33) 22 -- registrations (33) 199209 -- sleep movements of (36) 41 -- societies (33) 104 Plant Extinction: A Global Crisis, Harold Koopowitz and Hilary Kaye [review of] (44) [1] 3435 Plant Hardiness Zone Map [United States Department of Agriculture] (45) [4] 32, 33, 33; (50) [3] 18, 19 \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" Donald Wyman and Harrison L. Flint [reprinted from Vol. 27] (45) [4] 3234 \"Plant History: Expanding the Horizons of a Small Garden,\" Mary Harrison (53) [1] 818 Plant Introduction Garden [Chico, CA] (30) 182 Plant Jewels of the High Country, Helen E. Payne [review of] (33) 253 Plant Names, T. S. Lindsay [review of] (37) 134 \"Plant Propagation--The Union of Art and Science,\" Charles E. Hess (33) 119125 \"Plant Protection,\" Kenneth Shaw (38) 3749 Plant Records Center [American Horticultural Society] (31) 314; (32) 258; (33) 319 Plant Red Data Book (52) [4] 4 Plant Red Data Book for China (48) [2] 4, 6 \"Plant Registration,\" (30) 251260 \"Plant Registrations,\" Robert S. Hebb (32) 277287; (33) 199209 Plant Sciences Data Center (PSDC) (35) 245; (49) [1] 21, 43, 5657, 5961 Plant-stress physiology (50) [1] 31, 32 Plant Variety Protection Act, 1980 (54) [4] 6 \"Plant with Nature,\" William Flemer III [reprinted from American Nurseryman] (30) 100 Plantae Aequinoctiales by Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland [1808] (47) [3] 16, 17 Plantae Papuanae Archiboldianae, E. D. Merrill & L. M. Perry (32) 53 Plantae Wilsonianae [Rehder and Wilson] (49) [1] 17; (52) [1] 18; (54) [2] 36 Plantago (34) 212 -- medicinal uses (30) 23, 24 -- lanceolata (34) 212 -- major (30) 2324; (34) 212 -- -- `Atropurpurea' (52) [2] 43 -- rugellii (34) 212 Plantain (30) 2324 -- broad-leaved (34) 212 -- narrow-leaved (34) 212 -- red-stem (34) 212 Plantain-lily (31) 80; (34) 364371; (39) 256 Plantas de Nueva Espana [1894] (47) [3] 18 Planting, failed (44) [4] 10 -- site preparations (56) [4] 1213, 16 -- specifications, street trees (53) [3] 8 -- technique (37) 230241 \"Plants and Gardens of South Africa,\" H. Brian Rycroft (32) 220225 Plants-a-Plenty, Catherine Osgood Foster [review of] (38) 61 Plants for Groundcover, Graham Stuart Thomas [review of] (35) 131 Plants for Man, Robert W. Schery [review of] (33) 248 \"Plants in Early Japanese Poetry,\" Sally Lindfors Sullivan (31) 284291 Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine, Tony Swain, ed. [review of] (36) 125 Plants of Hong Kong, Stella L. Thrower [review of] (32) 168 Plants of Southern New Jersey, Witmer Stone [review of] (34) 39 Plants That Merit Attention: Volume I--Trees, Janet M. Poor, ed. [review of] (45) [2] 3638 Plants: Wild and Cultivated, P. S. Green, ed. [review of] (35) 128 Platanus (30) 171; (43) [1] 11; (32) 72, 73; (49) [4] 35; (60) [4] 26 -- x acerifolia (39) 122, 123, 229; (44) [4] 19; (53) [1] 10; (57) [2] 7, 13; (59) [2] -- x acerifolia (59) [2] front & back covers -- -- \"Bloodgood strain\" (44) [4] 19 -- occidentalis (31) 220; (38) 157; (39) 272, 276; (53) [1] 10, 33; [4] 28; (57) [2] 7 -- orientalis (53) [1] 10 Platelet-activating factor (PAF) (51) [2] 11 Platt, Charles A. (49) [3] 7; (54) [1] 28; (56) [1] 29, 31; [2] 10; (57) [1] 2, 3; (59) [2] 16; [4] 26 Platycarya strobilacea (38) 137, 138 Platycodon, collecting in Hong Kong (30) 15 Platycodon (31) 136 -- `Apo-yama' (31) 136 13 P 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- grandiflorum (31) 136; (35) 26, 27; (36) 208; (37) 218; (38) 145; (39) 264 -- -- var. mariesii (31) 136 Platyrhodon (43) [3] 5 Pleioblastus viridistriata (= Arundinaria viridistriata) (52) [1] 29 Pleurisy root (34) 290, 291; (39) 251 Pliny (56) [1] 4 Pliny Freeman Farm [Sturbridge, MA] (31) 166 Plotkin, Mark, book review (44) [1] 3435 Plowing (58) [2] 3334, 38 Plum (31) 225 -- blossoms (31) 290 -- cherry (31) 243 -- common (53) [2] 19 -- damson (31) 225226, 243 -- flowering (31) 282; (32) 282 -- Governor's (32) 33 -- Japanese Kelsey (54) [2] 15 -- Myrobalan (31) 243 -- tree (31) 293 -- winter flowering, bonsai (32) 246 Plum Crazy: A Book About Beach Plums, Elizabeth Post Mirel [review of] (34) 432 Plumbago (32) 220 Plumbago capensis (47) [4] 31 -- larpentae (31) 31; (34) 307 Plum-yew (37) 48 Plume, Georgia (46) [3] 6, 9 Plume-poppy (31) 131, 132; (35) 9; (39) 260 Plutarch (56) [1] 6 Plymouth [MA] (48) [3] 18 Plymouth Plantation (or Plimouth) 31: 161, 163, 166; (53) [2] 12, 13 Plympton Skate (52) [4] 20 Pneumatophore (60) [4] 2123 Poaceae, general description of (54) [3] 6 Podocarpus (37) 68 -- fleuryi (48) [2] 6 -- imbricata (48) [2] 6 -- macrophylla (36) 19 -- nerrifolia (48) [2] 6 -- wallichii (48) [2] 4, 6 Podocarpaceae (50) [2] 2 Podophyllum (32) 201 -- emodi (37) 189 -- -- var. chinensis (37) 188, 189 -- -- var. emodi (37) 189 -- hexandrum (52) [2] 43 -- peltatum (32) 115; (37) 189; (39) 264 -- pleianthum (37) 195 Podosphaera leucotricha (51) [1] 34 Poecilocapsus lineatus (31) 61 Pogonia, whorled (45) [3] 19 Poikilospermum suaveolens (48) [2] 7 Poinsettia (34) 64, 65 Poison hemlock (34) 56 Poison ivy (34) 81; (35) 101, 102, 109; (54) [2] 21; (57) [2] 26 -- -- fossil (35) 114, 115 -- oak (31) 243; (35) 107, 109 -- sumac (34) 81; (35) 97, 98 \"Poison Ivy and Its Kin,\" William T. Gillis (35) 93123 POISONOUS PLANTS (34) [2] 4196 Poisonous plants (33) 312; (34) 4196; (50) [1] 20 Poison-wood (35) 98 Poke (39) 264 Pokeberry (34) 76, 213 Pokeweed (34) 76, 213; (39) 264; (55) [2] 24 Pole-cat bush (31) 244 Polemonium (60) [1] 6 -- caeruleum (35) 28; (39) 264 P Cumulative Index 15 -- reptans (35) 28, 29 Poliothyrsis sinensis (54) [3] 32, 3334; (55) [4] 13, 14 Pollen history (58) [2] 46, 7, 23 Pollination (60) [1] 1319 -- drop (50) [2] front cover, 27 -- self (36) 131 \"Pollination Drop Time at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Tokushiro Takaso (50) [2] 27 Pollutants, air (30) 34, 4044; (33) 39; (35) 134, 148, 149, 215, 217, 218 Pollution, and forests (58) [2] 2829, 3640 -- -- -- of environment (30) 3355; (45) [1] 1518; -- -- -- laws (30) 3536 -- -- -- urban (30) 33 Polyalthia cheliensis (48) [2] 3 Polygala chamaebuxus (37) 105 -- -- var. grandiflora (37) 105 -- -- var. purpurea (37) 105 -- senega (55) [2] 25 Polygonaceae (57) [3] 13 Polygonatum biflorum (35) 29; (39) 264 -- commutatum (35) 29; (44) [4] 51 -- multiflorum (35) 30 Polygonum (31) 17 -- aviculare (34) 216 -- cuspidatum (34) 166; (52) [4] 23; (57) [3] 13 -- lapathifolium (34) 168, 169 -- persicaria (34) 168, 169 -- punctatum (34) 168, 169 -- tinctorium (31) 18 Polymerase chain reaction (59) [1] 6869 Polymnia sonchifolia (50) [4] 12 Polyploidy (33) 137 Polystichum acrostichoides (55) [3] 6 -- commune (52) [3] 10 Pomegranate (31) 226 -- dwarf (36) 1, 4, 19 Pometia tomentosa (48) [2] 7 Pompions (31) 210 Poncirus trifoliata (55) [2] 28 -- `Flying Dragon' (43) [1] 11 Ponds, early spring (32) [3] inside back cover Pondweed (43) [2] 34, 78 Pontederia (43) [2] 8 -- cordata (43) [2] 15, 17 -- epihydrus (43) [2] 7 Pool, Stephen Decatur, drawings by (48) [4] 43, 44 Pope, Alexander (31) 156 Poplar (31) 219, 243; (52); [2] 30, 31; (57) [1] 24; [3] 24 -- collections (30) 84 -- Bolleana (54) [1] 31 -- Carolina (45) [4] 22; (48) [3] 29 -- fastigiate white (54) [1] 31 -- Lombardy (31) 243; (32) 80, 81, 92; (34) 230; (45) [4] 22, 25; (49) [2] 19, 21; (54) [1] front cover, inside back cover; 18, 19, 20, 2431, 25, 26, 27, 29; [3] 19; (57) [2] 23, 9 -- Virginia (36) 121 -- white (32) 72, 80 -- yellow (49) [4] 17 Poplars, hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 Poppy (31) 192 -- alpine (55) [1] 2, 6 -- black (31) 192 -- celandine (31) 178 -- field (31) 192 -- French (31) 192 -- Iceland (35) 21 -- opium (31) 192 -- oriental (31) 134, 229; (35) 1821, 19 -- prickly (31) 229 P 16 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- white (31) 192 Popular Flowering Shrubs, H. L. V. Fletcher [review of] (35) 296 Population (30) 175 -- excess (30) 3436; (32) 226240 Populus (34) 229, 230; (54) [1] 31; (55) [3] 11, 17; [4] 19; (57) [1] 24; (59) [1] 44; [4] 13 -- spp., hurricane damage to [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- stem section (33) 63 -- alba (31) 219; (32) 72, 80 -- -- `Pyramidalis' (54) [1] 31, 32 -- adenopoda (59) [1] 43, 51 -- balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa (58) [3] 3 -- canadensis (45) [4] 22 -- deltoides (31) 243; (32) 81 -- grandidentata (32) 80 -- heterophylla (59) [1] 49 -- monilifera (56) [1] inside back cover -- nigra (31) 219; (32) 80, 81, 92 -- -- `Italica' (or var. italica) (31) 243; (34) 230; (45) [4] 22; (49) [2] 21; (54) [1] front cover, 1, 18, 19, 2430; (57) [2] 9 -- simonii (52) [2] 35 -- tomentosa (44) [3] 9, 18 -- tremula `Erecta' (39) 193, 226; (54) [1] 31 -- tremuloides (32) 80; (34) 229; (45) [4] 22, 36, 37; (55) [3] 12; (56) [3] 9 Poria cocos (35) 280 Portola [CA] (47) [4] 17 Portulaca oleracea (30) 114; (31) 201; (34) 189 Possum haw (31) 239 Post Office Square [Boston] (44) [4] front cover; (48) [3] 14, 15 Post-glacial vegetation (58) [2] 47; [3] 89 Potamogeton (43) [2] 3, 89 -- foliosus (43) [2] 7 Potanin, G. N. (44) [3] 15, 18, 19 Potash (58) [2] 13 Potato (31) 210; (34) 85; (50) [4] 4 -- freeze-drying of (50) [4] 8 Potato blight, in Ireland (32) 230 Potentilla (31) 243 Potentilla argentea (46) [3] 52 -- fruticosa (31) 243; (38) 110; (44) [4] 24 -- -- `Katherine Dykes' (44) [4] 24 -- rupestris var. pygmea (37) 105 -- tridentata (48) [3] 23 Potrero de Atlampa [Mexico] (47) [3] 16 Potter, George E., Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., and E. Bruce Brooks \"Japanese, Latin, and English Names of Plants in Early Japanese Poetry\" (31) 292293 Potter, J. S., grounds [Arlington, MA] (56) [3]; inside back cover, 28 Pots and Pot Gardens, Mary Grant White [review of] (34) 136 Pouce Coupe, British Columbia (60) [1] 6 Pouteria lucuma (50) [4] 14 Powder puff plant (36) 10 Powdery mildew (49) [2] 2, 5; (51) [1] 34 Power of Movement in Plants, Charles Darwin [1880] (50) [1] 31 Practical American Gardener [1819] (31) 38 \"Practical Guide to Woody Plant Micropropagation,\" John W. Einset (46) [1] 3644 Prado Art Museum [Madrid, Spain] (47) [3] 6, 10 Prairie Farmer (52) [3] 14 Prairie mallow (35) 40 Prairie Restoration Project [University of Wisconsin] (46) [3] 14 Prantl, Karl (53) [3] 14, 15, 20 Pratt Institute (48) [2] 22 Pratt, Mary [Weld] (51) [2] 35 Pratt [the Misses] (47) [4] 33 Praying mantis (38) 43 Precatory bean (34) 45 Precipitation gauges (30) 192 \"Prehistoric Land Use in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Dena Ferran Dincauze (31) 108113 Prenanthes boottii (47) [4] 29 \"Present Conditions and Future Prospects,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2] 2631 P Cumulative Index 17 \"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis--Chinese Wax Shrub,\" Gerald B. Straley (51) [1] 1822 \"Preservation of Library Materials,\" G. Lawrence (30) 5666 \"Preserving Woody Plant Material for Winter Arrangements,\" Cora L. Warren (37) 285288 Prestele, Joseph (45) [1] 2829 Pretoria National Botanic Garden [South Africa] (32) 223 Price, William, and Sons nursery [Flushing, NY] (31) 119 Pride, George (30) 97; (32) 261 -- -- \"Bibliography on Poisonous Plants\" (34) 92 -- -- \"`Constant Nymph,' Updated\" (35) 124127 -- -- \"Dykes Medal Iris at the Case Estates\" (34) 3234 -- -- \"The Early Rock Garden\" (37) 89109 -- -- \"Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum\" (34) 125132 -- -- \"Streptocarpus `Constant Nymph', and Its Mutants\" (33) 184188, 185 -- -- \"Today's Daylilies\" (37) 199209 Primack, Mark, \"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces\" (48) [3] 1017 -- photo by (56) [1] inside front cover Primack, Richard B., \"Allendale Woods--A Fragment of the First Families of Boston,\" with Richard Heath (51) [2] 3239 -- -- -- Field Guide to Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms of North America, with Charles Kingsley Levy [reviewed] (45) [1] 30 -- -- -- \"Forestry in Fujuan Province, People's Republic of China, during the Cultural Revolution\" (48) [2] 2629 -- -- -- \"Science and Serendipity: The Lady's Slipper Project\" (56) [1] 814 -- -- -- \"Ultraviolet Patterns in Flowers, or Flowers as Viewed by Insects\" (42) [3] 139146 -- -- -- \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Melvin Goh and Meekiong Kalu (60) [4] 39 Primrose (31) 168, 172, 192; (35) 3032; (37) 98 -- Chinese (43) [1] 24 -- evening (31) 133, 228; (34) 194; (35) 13; (39) 261 -- 17th-century garden vars. (31) 209 Primula (32) 113 Primula (45) [4] 28, 29; (55) [1] 4 -- abchasica (45) [4] 26 -- alpicola (45) [4] 28 -- -- x var. alba (45) [4] 2930 -- -- var. luna (45) [4] 21 -- aureata (45) [4] 29 -- auricula (31) 192; (35) 30 -- `Candelabra' (50) [1] 4 -- denticulata (35) 30; (55) [1] 4 -- flaccida (45) [4] 29 -- florindae (45) [4] 21, 28 -- x `Frances P. K. ` (55) [1] 4 -- involucrata (36) 197 -- japonica (35) 31; (55) [1] 11 -- kisoana (55) [1] 7 -- x juliana `Butterball' (37) 98, 100 -- -- `Dorothy' (37) 98 -- -- `Wanda' (37) 98 -- nipponica (38) 94 -- nutans (= flaccida) (45) [4] 29 -- nutantiflora (43) [1] 37 -- x polyantha (35) 31 -- polyneura (36) 210 -- primulina (45) [4] 29 -- pulverulenta `Bartley Strain' (45) [4] 29 -- reidii var. williamsii (45) [4] 29 -- reptans (45) [4] 29 -- rosea (45) [4] 79 -- sapphirina (45) [4] 29 -- sieboldii (35) 31; (47) [2] 30 -- sikkimensis (45) [4] 28 -- sinensis (36) 206; (43) [1] 24 -- sonchifolia (45) [4] 29 -- vialii (45) [4] 29 -- veris (31) 192 -- vulgaris (31) 192; (35) 3132 -- -- ssp. sibthorpii (45) [4] 26 Prince Albert's yew (37) 70, 71 Prince's feather (39) 250 P 18 Arnoldia, 19702000 Princess tree (32) 71; (57) [3] 22 Princeton Nurseries [NJ] (32) 250; (51) [2] 8, 19 \"Principles of Taste: Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen (57) [4] 3032 Pringle and Horsford, nursery (56) [3] 1516 Pringle, Cyrus Guernsey (60) [2] 7 Prinsepia sinensis (30) 94; (41) 181 Privet (30) 172; (31) 219; (34) 71; (48) [3] 29 -- `Cheyenne' (33) 21 -- common (44) [3] 11; (56) [2] 24 -- evergreen (31) 219 -- Italian (31) 219 -- Japanese (36) 19 -- Regel (44) [4] 24 Probergrothius sexpunctatus (54) [2] 7 \"Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries,\" John F. Reed (30) 28 Probscidea, spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 \"Professors Sargent and Gray Pursue Shortia\" [reprinted from Garden and Forest] (46) [3] 2632 \"Professors Squabble Over Seeds From China's Living Fossil Trees\" [Harvard Crimson, 1952] (59) [1] 32 Les Promenades de Paris (44) [4] 30 Prometheus moth (36) 27 \"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Humility,\" Peter Del Tredici (44) [1] 2023; [reprinted] (51) [4] 6366 \"Propagating Prunus maackii,\" Alfred J. Fordham (46) [2] 2527 Propagation (33) 119125; (55) [3] 1119; [4] 23, 3435 -- and juvenility (59) [4] 1214 -- at Arnold Arboretum (35) 185; (49) [1] 7071 -- asexual (37) 2939 -- birches (38) 121 -- by tissue culture (45) [2] 3031, 33, 34 -- chamber, polyethylene plastic (33) 121 -- frame for (32) 161, 164 -- of stewartias (35) 177180 -- under polyethylene plastic (32) 160164 PROPAGATION MANUAL OF SELECTED GYMNOSPERMS, Alfred J. Fordham and Leslie J. Spraker (37) [1] 188 \"Propagation of Fothergilla, Notes from the Arnold Arboretum,\" A. J. Fordham (31) 256259 \"Propagation of Some Aged Bonsai Plants,\" Alfred J. Fordham (31) 297299 Proprietors of the Botanic Garden in Boston (48) [3] 33, 46 Prospect Park [Brooklyn, NY] (48) [4] 30; (54) [3] 18; (60) [2] 43 \"Proposed Plan for Madison Square, New York City\" [1896], M. G. Van Rensselaer (60) [3] 1619 Prostratin (58) [1] 22, 23, 26 Protea (32) 224 \"Protected Natural Areas in China,\" Wang Xianpu (46) [4] 3845 Protection of crops, pesticides (30) 44 Protein electrophoresis (49) [1] 38 Protium yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Protoplast fusion (44) [3] 32 Proven Herbal Remedies, John H. Tobe [review of] (32) 139 Provenance, relationship to hardiness (54) [3] 28 Providence, H. M. S. [ship] (57) [4] 18 Pruning (37) 239; (49) [3] 2, 11 -- as specialized labor (30) 91 -- espaliered fruits (59) [4] 1724 -- of bonsai (49) [3] 15 -- of lowbush blueberries (49) [3] 39 -- post-World War II program (30) 84 -- propagation stock (59) [4] 14 -- rejuvenation and (59) [4] 1316 Prunus (32) 84; (53) [2] 18; (59) [1] 43; [4] 22; (60) [4] 26 -- at risk (46) [3] 45 -- amygdalus (31) 222 -- apetala (49) [1] 31 -- armeniaca (31) 222; (44) [3] 13 -- -- `Autumn Red' (32) 282 -- calleryana (44) [3] 25 -- campanulata (45) [1] 22 -- capuli (50) [4] 13 -- caroliniana (31) 234 -- -- `Crisfield Dwarf' (33) 206 P Cumulative Index 19 -- cerasifera (31) 243 -- cerasus (31) 222 -- cyclamina (39) 194, 224; (40) 146151, 147, 148; (60) [4] 12 -- davidiana (44) [3] 5, 20, 21, 24 -- -- var. potaninii (or `Potaninii') (44) [3] 18, 24 -- domestica (31) 225; (53) [2] 19 -- dulcis (31) 222 -- glandulosa var. sinensis (31) 238 -- humilis (44) [3] 16 -- x incam `Okame' (45) [1] 2324 -- incisa (45) [1] 23 -- insititia (31) 243 -- maackii (40) [1] front cover; (43) [1] 10, 42; (51) [4] front cover -- maritima (44) [4] 24 -- meyeri (44) [3] 6, 24 -- mume (31) 293; (49) [3] 18 -- nipponica (55) [4] 8 -- `Okame' (39) 194, 195, 224 -- padus (39) 195, 226 -- pensylvanica (43) [1] 42 -- persica (31) 224 -- -- var. nectarina (31) 224 -- prostrata (44) [3] 12 -- pseudocerasus (44) [3] 24 -- `Purple Pony' (32) 282 -- sargentii (30) 169; (31) 310; (38) 157; (39) 123, 124, 226; (52) [3] 11 -- -- `Columnaris' (39) 124 -- serotina (34) 242; (58) [2] 37 -- serrula (43) [1] 10 -- serrulata `Kwanzan' (39) 158, 159, 224 -- subhirtella (49) [3] 11, 18, 28, 29 -- -- var. ascendens (55) [4] 8 -- -- var. autumnalis (or `Autumnalis) (43) [1] 4; (52) [3] 11; (55) [4] 8 -- -- `Autumnalis Rosea' (43) [1] 4 -- -- `Pendula' (31) 144; (47) [3] 40; (52) [3] 11 -- tangutica (44) [3] 19, 19, 24 -- `Thundercloud' (32) 282 -- triloba (56) [2] 25 -- tomentosa (44) [3] 16 -- virginiana (31) 215; (34) 77 -- x yedoensis `Daybreak' (41) 165 \"Prunus maackii, the Friends's Plant Dividend for 1986,\" Gregory J. Waters (46) [2] 1112 Pseudolarix (32) 285 -- amabilis (30) 169; (31) 17; (37) 9, 69; (40) [5] front cover, 224234, 225, 227, 228, 230, 233, 235; (50) [4] 16, 18; (52) [4] 4 -- kaempferi (31) 17 Pseudosasa japonica (49) [2] 34 -- -- var. tsutsumiana (49) [2] 34 Pseudotaxus menziesii var. glauca (39) 272 -- -- var. viridis (39) 272 Pseudotsuga (37) 69, 70; (48) [1] 4, 5 -- bark of (48) [1] 12 -- branchlets of (48) [1] 12 -- buds of (48) [1] 12 -- cones of (48) [1] 12 -- leaves of (48) [1] 12 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- menziesii (32) 185; (42) [4] 138, 139; (56) [3] 16; (57) [1] 24; (58) [3] 3 -- -- leaf scars of (48) [1] 7 -- taxifolia (32) 65 Pseudovaria indochinensis (48) [2] 4 Psilocybe (32) 205 Psilocybine (32) 205 Psychotria (32) 213 -- viridis (32) 211; (41) 120, 121 Ptelea trifoliata (31) 244; (32) 66; (35) 117 Pteridium aquilinum var. wightianum (46) [4] 24 Pterocarya (49) [4] 37; (55) [3] 17 P 20 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- fraxinifolia (39) 196, 197, 229; (49) [4] 35 -- x rehderiana (39) 197 -- rhoifolia (39) 197 -- stenoptera (39) 197 Pteroceltis tartinowii (55) [1] 17 Pterogota alata (48) [2] 7 Pterospermum acerifolium (48) [2] 7 -- mengluensis (48) [2] 6 -- yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Ptilotrichum spinosum `Purpureum' (55) [1] 6 Public Garden [Boston] (48) [3] 23, 16, back cover, inside back cover, 36, 38, 40, 41; [4] 23, 25; (57) [2] 9 Public Garden Act [Boston] (48) [3] 34, 38 Public Water Board [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44, 46 Puccinia graminis (33) 44 Pucciniastrum actinidiae (50) [1] 38 Puckler-Muskau , Count (or Prince) Hermann (32) 141; (59) [2] 9, 15 Puckoon (31) 173 Pueblo Indians [NM] (46) [3] 43 Pueraria lobata (31) 291, 293; (38) [5] inside back cover; (43) [1] 41; (55) [1] 17; (57) [3] inside back cover Puffballs (32) 207 Pulmonaria affinis (37) 98 -- angustifolia (35) 32; (37) 98; (39) 264 -- officinalis (31) 188; (39) 264 -- saccharata (33) 259; (35) 33; (39) 264 Pulsatilla vulgaris (37) 90 Pumpions (31) 172 Pumpkins (31) 146, 172, 210 \"Punctuating the Skyline: Alternatives to the Lombardy,\" Karen Madsen (54) [1] 3134 Punica granatum (31) 226 -- -- nana (36) 1, 4, 19 Punk tree (36) 2 Purdam, William (32) 9 Purdieanthus pulcher (33) 196 Purdom, William (44) [3] 15, 18, 19; (46) [4] 26 Purgatives [Madagascar] (32) 25 Pursch, Frederick (49) [2] 20, 21 Purshia tridentata (55) [4] 27 Purslane (30) 114; (31) 201; (34) 189 Puschkinia (45) [4] 30 -- libanotica (37) 98, 99 -- scilloides (37) 98 Pussy willow (37) 120, 121 -- -- black (38) 26 Pussytoes (34) 282 Puye [NM] (47) [4] 14 Pyatigorsh [USSR] (54) [2] 21 Pycnanthemum pilosum (39) 264 Pyracantha (31) 219 -- angustifolia (36) 19 -- coccinea (55) [3] 18; (56) [2] 24 Pyrethrum (31) 32; (34) 310 Pyrola (45) [4] 27 Pyrrhocoridae (54) [2] 7 Pyrularia edulis (48) [2] 4 Pyrus (32) 81; (48) [2] 34 -- calleryana (38) 157; (44) [3] 21, 22, 24, 25; [4] 15, 1920; (55) [3] 17 -- -- `Aristocrat' (44) [3] 24 -- -- `Bradford' (33) 20; (39) 74, 83, 125, 126, 226; (44) [3] 24, back cover -- -- `Capital' (44) [3] 24 -- -- `Chanticleer' (44) [3] 24 -- -- `Fauriei' (= fauriei) (39) 126, 224 -- -- `Whitehouse' (44) [3] 24 -- communis (31) 225 -- pyrifolia (31) [6] front cover -- -- var. culta (44) [3] 5, 21 -- ussuriensis (44) [3] 21 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - Q, R","article_sequence":14,"start_page":1,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25333","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070ab6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Q Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Qian Songshu (48) [2] 11, 13, 18, 22 Qifa, Zang (55) [1] 12, 13 Qin Renchang (48) [2] 13, 15, 17, 18, 22 Qing dynasty (48) [2] 10 Qiu, Yin-Lon (57) [4] 24, 28 Quadralia lanceolata (37) 154 Quaking aspen (34) 229; (45) [4] 22 Quarantine, plant (33) 22 Quararibea funebris (50) [2] 33 Quassia family (57) [1] 14 Queen Anne's lace (34) 153 -- -- cup (37) 180 Queen-of-the-meadow (31) 74; (34) 341 Queen-of-the-prairie (31) 74; (34) 341 Quer y Martinez, Jose (47) [3] 4, 5, 6, 7, 9; (48) [4] 54 Quercus (57) [1] 24; [2] 9; (59) [1] 15, 25, 26, 49, 51; [2] 37; [3] 15; [4] 68, 13 -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- in Harvard Yard (58) [1] 32 -- acutissima (31) 285, 292; (38) 138; (39) 159, 160, 226; (59) [1] 42 -- alba (31) 218; (32) 74; (39) 336; (47) [2] 27; (49) [1] 67; [2] 35 [see Q. velutina]; (54) [1] 8; (55) [4] 12; (56) [4] 5; (57) [2] 29; (59) [4] 29 -- aliena (38) 145; (55) [1] 14 -- bicolor (54) [1] 8 -- borealis (=rubra) (31) 218; (42) [2] 96 -- castaneaefolia (49) [4] 35 -- cerris (39) 197, 229 -- coccinea (30) 169; (31) 219; (54) [1] 5, 8 -- dentata (38) 138 -- falcata (31) 242; (57) [2] 29 -- imbricaria (39) 160, 161, 227; (57) [2] 28, 29 -- lyrata (56) [4] 6 -- macranthera x frainetto `Macon' (33) 207 -- macrocarpa (44) [4] 16, 20; (46) [3] 21; (54) [1] 7 -- magaretta (57) [2] 29 -- marilandica (31) 241 -- mirabilis (38) 138 -- nigra (31) 242; (36) 19; (39) 161, 229 -- oglethorpensis (57) [2] 2430, 27, 28 -- pagoda (57) 2] 29 -- palustris (30) 169; (32) 75, 89; (34) 239; (38) 157; (39) 127, 128, 229; (54) [1] 8 -- -- hurricane damage to trees [1938] (46) [1] 30; [1985] (46) [1] 30 -- pedunculata (32) 183 -- petraea (42) [1] 11 -- phellos (30) 102; (31) 242; (33) 291, 292294; (39) 128, 129, 229; (54) [1] 5, 8; (60) [4] inside front cover, 15 -- pontica x dentata `Pondaim' (33) 207 -- prinoides (44) [2] 19 -- prinus (31) 242; (56) [4] 5 -- pumila (60) [1] 9 -- robur (32) 74, 183; (42) [1] 11, back cover; (48) [3] 24; (57) [2] 29 -- -- `Fastigiata' (39) 129, 130, 229; (54) [1] 20, 31, 33 -- rubra (32) 74, 75; (34) 239; (39) 130, 131, 229; (42) [2] 94, 96; (54) [1] 4, 5, 8; (58) [2] 36 -- -- var. maxima (30) 169 -- rubrum (56) [1] 21 -- x sargentii (40) 194198, 195, 197, 199 -- serrata (55) [1] 18 -- shumardii (39) 197, 198, 229; (54) [1] 8 -- sinuata (57) [2] 29 -- stellata (56) [4] inside front cover, 5, 7 -- suber (55) [3] 24 -- -- lignotubers (59) [3] 15 --variabilis (44) [3] 9; (49) [1] 30, 31; (55) [1] 14, 18; (59) [1] 43 Q 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 --velutina (30) 169; (31) 241; (32) 74; (42) [2] 96; (49) [1] 67; [2] 35; (54) [3] inside front cover; (57) [1] 30 --virginiana (31) 242; (36) 19; (57) [2] 11; (59) [4] 78 Quest for Plants, Alice M. Coats [review of] (30) 7577 \"Quest for the Perfect Lilac,\" John H. Alexander III (49) [2] 27 Quest of Flowers: The Plant Explorations of Frank Ludlow and George Sherriff, Harold R. Fletcher [review of] (38) 182 Quigley, Jennifer Reimer (49) [1] 4, 74; (54) [1] 35 -- -- -- \"Books\" (49) [4] 4041 -- -- -- \"Chronicling the Living Collections: The Arboretum's Plant Records\" (49) [1] 5460 Quince (31) 226; (43) [3] 3 -- flowering (44) [4] 23 -- -- as bonsai subject (32) 246 -- -- Japanese (55) [4] 8; (56) [2] 25 -- -- Mandarin (53) [4] 3436, 35 -- -- nivalis (55) [4] 8 Quincy estate (31) 157 Quincy, Miss Susan (31) 157 -- -- -- and President (John Quincy Adams) (31) 157 Quinine (55) [2] 6, 13; (57) [4] 16 Quinoa (50) [4] 4, 14 Quinta de Don Lazaro [Lisbon] (47) [3] 32 Quirinal [Rome] (54) [2] 14 Quisqualis caudata (48) [2] 7 R Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Rabbitbane, upland (46) [3] 2325 -- -- propagation of (46) [3] 24 Racomitrum nervii (36) 61 Racz, Istvan (49) [3] 19; (50) [3] 21, 23 photos by -- -- \"Arnold Arboretum in Winter: A Photo Essay,\" with Zsolt Debreczy, (50) [1] 2429 -- -- \"El Arbol del Tule: A Giant Cypress Among the Cattails, with Zsolt Debreczy (57) [4] 211 -- -- photos by, with Zsolt Debreczy (49) [1] cover; [4] inside back cover; (50) [1] inside back cover; [2] inside back cover; [3] front cover, back cover; (51) [1] inside back cover; [2] back cover; [3] inside front cover, inside back cover; [4] inside front and back covers; (52) [1] inside front cover; (53) [1] inside front cover, inside back cover; [3] inside front cover; (54) [3] inside back cover; (55) [2] inside front cover, inside back cover; [3] inside back cover; (57) [4] front cover, back cover, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10; (59) [1] inside front cover; [3] inside back cover Radcliffe College [Cambridge, MA] (48) [2] 30, 31 Radermachera microcolyx (48) [2] 7 Radiational cooling (30) 189 Radish (31) 146, 210 Raffia (34) 19 Rag paper (30) 59 Ragweed (34) 206 Ragwort, golden (31) 228 Raiche, Roger (54) [3] 5 Rainforests, Chilean (59) [2] 2634 -- North American (58) [3] 210 -- Philippine (58) [1] 1419 -- temperate (58) [3] 210; (59) [2] 2634 Rain Forests of Golfo Dulce, Paul H. Allen [review of] (38) 62 Rainsford Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 21, 25 Raisin tree (39) 715, 9, 11, 12, 14; (50) [3] 8 \"Raising the Climbing Fern from Spores,\" William E. Brumback (45) [3] 2527 Raisz, Erwin (47) [4] 21 \"Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection,\" Harmony C. Spongberg (33) 231234 Ramalina fastigiata (35) 149, 150 Rampion (31) 210 -- false (34) 303 Ramusio, Juan B. (31) 21 Ranales, woody (32) 53 Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden [CA] (46) [3] 6, 11; (53) [3] 20 Rand, Edward S., Jr. (47) [4] 32 Randall, John, \"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise\" (58) [3] 2527 Ranelagh [London, England] (57) [2] 9 Ranunculaceae (54) [2] 31 Ranunculus (34) 78, 184; (48) [2] 18 -- aconitifolius (31) 193 -- acris (31) 193; (34) 184 -- asiaticus (31) 192 -- bulbosus (31) 193; (34) 184, 185 -- ficaria (37) 98; (52) [2] 43 -- -- var. bulbifera (32) [2] inside back cover -- gramineus (31) 193 Ranunculus (31) 192 Rape (31) 6, 231 Rape dos Indios (32) 208 Raphanus sativus (31) 16, 210 Raphiolepis indica (36) 19 Rare and Endangered Seed Bank [Portland, OR] (46) [3] 10 \"Rare Chinese Tree Flowers in North America,\" Frederick G. Meyer (54) [2] 36 Rare plants (46) [3] 317; (48) [2] 37 -- -- categories of (46) [3] 8 Raspberries (31) 226; (34) 246 Raspberry, black and red (56) [3] 16 -- Taiwan creeping (52) [1] 29 Rattan (48) [2] 4 R 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Rattle-box (37) 223 Rattlesnake plantain (37) 186 Raulston, J. C. (46) [4] 5, 8, 9; (51) [1] 18, 22; (52) [1] 4 -- -- -- \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness,\" with Kim E. Tripp (54) [3] 2231 Raup, Hugh M. (30) 187; (32) 54; (55) [4] 4; (60) [1] 7, 10 Rauvolfia yunnanensis (48) [2] 4 Raven, Peter H. (33) 2; (49) [1] 3 -- -- -- \"The Value of Living Collections\" (49) [1] 56 Ravenala madagascarensis (51) [3] front cover Rawle, Mary Cadwalader (51) [3] 4 Ray, J. D. (50) [4] 27 \"Reading the Landscape: Primary vs. Secondary Forests,\" P. L. Marks (55) [3] 210 Real Expedicion al Nuevo Reino de Granada (47) [3] 15 Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid [Spain] (47) [3] 229, 2, 11, 12, 15, 17, 23, 2529 Real Jardin Botanico de Mexico [Mexico City] (47) [3] 16 Real Jardin Botanico del Soto de Migas Calientes [Madrid] (47) [3] 5 Rebun Island [Japan] (47) [2] 68 \"Recognizing and Treating Air Pollution Damage to Familiar Cultivated Plants: A Conference\" (45) [1] 1518 Record, Samuel J. (33) 68, 69, 78 Red Guards (48) [2] 27, 28 Redbud (31) 219; (32) 91, 97, 187; (43) [1] 31, 39; (48) [4] 54; (56) [1] 21; (57) [2] 14 -- Chinese (36) 46 -- Eastern (30) 169; (36) 37, 38, 40, 42, 43, 44, 46 -- intermountain (36) 44 -- Mexican (36) 44 -- Texas (36) 44 -- western (36) 44 Redcurrant, espaliered (59) [4] 24 Redfeam, Paul (46) [4] 21 Rediscovering America: John Muir in His Time and Ours, by Frederick Turner [review of] (46) [4] 6470 Red-hot poker (31) 128; (34) 378 Redoute, Pierre Joseph (47) [3] 28; (48) [4] 23 Red-satin flowers (31) 216 Red-top grass (34) 218 Red-wing (31) 350 \"Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground,\" Peter Del Tredici (59) [3] 1422 Redwood, California (57) [4] 3; (58) [3] 3, 9, 14; (59) [1] 4, 23, 26, 34, 35, 54, 55; [3] cover, 14, 1521, 22; [4] 13 -- coast (37) 71, 72; (47) [3] 19, 21, inside back cover -- dawn (32) 55; (36) 117; (37) 59, 60; (44) [4] 53; (53) [2] front cover; (57) [1] 31; (59) [1] 484 -- giant (59) [1] 5455 Redwood National Forest (59) [3] cover Reed (34) 218 Reed, John F., \"Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries\" (30) 28 Reef Point [Bar Harbor, ME] (51) [3] 4, 6; (52) [1] 1012 Reef Point Bulletin (51) [3] 3 Reef Point Gardens, plan of (57) [4] 3435 Reef Point Gardens Corporation (52) [1] 10, 16 Rees, Abraham, Cyclopedia [1819] (30) 24 \"Reforesting the Boston Harbor Islands: A Proposal (1887),\" Frederick Law Olmsted [reprinted] (48) [3] 2627 Regel, A. (49) [1] 36, 37 Regel, E. (57) [3] 4 Registrations, plant (33) 199209 Rehder, Alfred (30) 183; (31) 46, 116; (32) 7, 14, 20, 50, 147, 185, 189; (44) [3] 6; (46) [4] 3; (47) [4] 13, 16; (48) [1] 34, 37; [2] 9, 17; (49) [1] 7, 15, 1720; (50) [3] 16, 18, 19, 21; (51) [3] 3, 23, 26, 30; [4] 22; (52) [1] 11, 12, 18, 20; [3] 16; (55) [1] 23, 34, 37; [2] 16; (57) [2] 24; (58) [3] 12; (59) [1] 12, 15; [3] 29; (60) [1] 7 -- -- education and training in Germany (32) 141156 -- -- \"On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America\" [1936, reprinted] (51) [4] 2229 -- -- photos by (59) [3] 29, 30 Rehder, Anneliese [Schrefeld] (32) 153 Rehder, Gerhard, \"The Making of a Botanist\" (32) 141156 Rehder, Jacob Heinrich (32) 143, 147 Rehder, Joachim\" (32) 143 Rehder, Paul Heinrich (32) 143 Rehder, Paul Julius (32) 147 \"`Rehder's Ceanothus: Ceanothus x pallidus' Roseus',\" Gary Koller (55) [1] 2123 Reich, Lee, \"Cornelian Cherry: From the Shores of Ancient Greece\" (56) [1] 27 -- -- \"Fruiting Espaliers: A Fusion of Art and Science\" (59) [4] 1724 R Cumulative Index 3 Reichhardt, Karen L. (46) [3] 44 Reimer, F. C. (44) [3] 21, 22 Reis, Siri von (56) [2] 38 Reisner, John (48) [2] 16 Rejuvenation (59) [4] 1016 Relational database design (49) [1] 46 \"Remembering Donald Wyman\" [unsigned] (53) [3] 3 \"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, \" Hsueh Chi-ju [reprint] (51) [4] 1721; [reprint] (59) [1] 811 \"Renaissance at Walden,\" Mary P. Sherwood (46) [3] 4758 Reno [NV] (47) [4] 16, 17 \"Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees,\" Gary Koller and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (42) [2] 88110 \"Replacing the Understory Plantings of Central Park,\" Geraldine Weinstein (45) [2] 1927 \"Report from Hong Kong,\" Shiu-Ying Hu (30) 922 \"Report of the Director,\" Richard Howard (30) 201250 Report on the Forests of North America [Sargent] (49) [1] 13 \"Report on Hurricane Gloria,\" Jennifer L. Hicks (46) [1] 3035 Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, by George Barrel Emerson (48) [4] 55 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- -- quotations from (54) [3] 15 Repton, Humphry (32) 144, 185; (47) [2] 10; [4] 26 \"Requiem for a Cork Tree,\" Peter Del Tredici (55) [3] 2224 Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus [1651] (30) 129 Resak batu tree (60) [4] 6 Research Institute of Ecology and Botany [Vacratot, Hungary] (53) [2] 2223 \"Research Report\" (45) [4] 29; (47) [1] 1419 Reseda odorata (39) 264 Resin blisters (48) [1] 4 Restoration and Management Notes (46) [3] 14 \"Restoring Boston's `Emerald Isles'\" (48) [3] 4 \"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape,\" Michael Van Valkenburgh and Peter Del Tredici (54) [1] 311 Restriction site analysis (57) [4] 25, 26, 28 Retiniphyllum concolor (32) 213 -- discolor (32) 213 -- speciosum (32) 213 -- truncatum (32) 213 Retinospora (= Chamaecyparis) (49) [3] 19 Revelation [software] (49) [1] 51, 52, 53, 62 Revere Beach [MA] (53) [4] 6, 9, 13; (59) [2] 14 Revision of B. E. Cahlgren's Index of American Palms, Sidney F. Glassman [review of] (33) 303 Revue Horticole (54) [2] 14 Reynolds, Margo W. (39) 359, 361, 365 -- -- -- \"Alfred J. Fordham, Portrait of a Plant Propagator\" (37) 210, 211 -- -- -- \"Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs\" (35) 230237 -- -- -- \"Flower-- Art or Science?\" (37) 210, 211 -- -- -- \"Horticultural Trainees Program\" (37) 248250 -- -- -- \"Liriodendron tulipifera-- Its Early Uses\" (36) 119124 -- -- -- \"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum\" (39) 2224, 286288, 327328 -- -- -- \"Small Shrubs with Noteworthy Winter Bark\" (36) 2832 Rhamnus (43) [1] 41; (48) [2] 34 -- cathartica (34) 243; (55) [3] 5; (57) [3: 3 -- chlorophorus (=tinctorius) (31) 17 -- davurius (31) 17 -- frangula (34) 243 -- tinctorius (31) 17 -- utilis (=davurius) (31) 17 Rheum alexandrae (36) 197 -- rhaponticum (31) 201; (34) 79; (39) 264 Rhizobium (55) [4] 2728; (56) [3] 4 Rhizomes, bamboo (49) [2] 34 -- blueberry (49) [3] 40 -- ginger (49) [3] 42 Rhodobryum (33) 157 Rhododendron (30) 84; (32) 113; (44) [1] 27; (52) [2] 30; (54) [3] 27; (56) [2] 16, 25, 27; [3] 16; (60) [1]: 2026, 2729, 3032 -- ironclad varieties (60) [1]: 21, 26, 28, 32 -- Asiatic (49) [1] 19 -- Chapman's (47) [2] 20, 22 R 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- rosebay (56) [2] 28; (60) [1]: 28 Rhododendron (31) 232, 333; (34) 80, 417; (37) 123125; (45) [2] 19; (50) [1] 9; (47) [2] 12; [4] 6; (50) [1] 9, 3035; (55) [1] 2, 18; [3] 18; (60) [1]: 20 -- albiflorum (42) [4] 134, 135, 136, 140141 -- `Album Elegans' (60) [1]: inside front cover, 32 -- `Album Grandiflorum' (60) [1]: inside back cover, 32 -- `Alexander' (60) [1]: 24, 25 -- `April Gem' (60) [1]: 24 -- arborescens (60) [4] inside back cover, 15 -- arboreum (50) [1] 9, 30; (60) [1]: 28, 30 -- -- var. elavayi (46) [4] 20, 30 -- `Arctic Gold' (60) [1]: 22 -- atlanticum (31) 232 -- `Atrosanguineum' (60) [1]: inside back cover, 32 -- augustinii (43) [1] 26 -- aureum (38) 91; (47) [2] 5 -- bakeri (45) [2] 26 -- `Bali' (60) [1]: 21 -- `Bicolor' (60) [1]: inside back cover, 32 -- `Big Deal' (60) [1]: front cover, 22 -- `Boule de Niege' (33) 116 -- `Blue Peter' (55) [2] 31 -- brachycarpum (38) 86; (50) [3] 2; (57) [2] 21 -- calendulaceum (31) 232; (42) [3] 142; (44) [4] 49; (51) [2] 1; (55) [4] 3, 12 -- `Calsap' (60) [1]: 21, 22 -- calendulaceum (60) [4] inside front cover, 12 -- camtschaticum (47) [2] 8 -- canescens (31) 232 -- `Capistrano' (60) [1]: 22 -- carolinianum (30) 157, 206; (43) [1] 16; (44) [4] 34 -- -- `P. J. M. ` (33) 116 -- `Casanova' (60) [1]: 21, 22 -- caucasicum (60) [1]: 27 -- cawtabiense (60) [1]: inside front cover, 27, 28, 30 -- `Charles Dickens' (60) [1]: 28 -- `Grandiflorum' (33) 116; (42) [3] 142; (60) [1]: inside front cover -- chapmanii (47) [2] 20, 22 -- dauricum (37) 125, 126; (38) 87 -- degronianum (60) [1]: 25 -- -- `A. E. Form' (37) 105 -- -- `Golfer' (60) [1]: 25 -- -- `Teddy Bear' (60) [1]: 25 -- -- subsp. yakushimanum (60) [1]: 22, 23 -- `Delicatissimum' (60) [1]: inside front cover, 32 -- `Dexter's Champagne' (60) [1]: 21 -- `Dolly Madison' (60) [1]: 22 -- `Dorothy Swift' (60) [1]: 23 -- `Edmond Amateis' (60) [1]: 22 -- `Everestianum' (60) [1]: 31, 32 -- fargesii (38) [2] inside back cover -- ferrugineum (43) [1] 16 -- `Firestorm' (60) [1]: 20 -- flammeum (60) [1]: 5 -- `Ginny Gee' (60) [1]: 23 -- `Grandiflorum' (60) [1]: inside front cover -- `H. W. Sargent' (60) [1]: 28 -- `Hachmann's Polaris' (60) [1]: 23 -- `Henrietta Sargent' (60) [1]: 28 -- `Hino Crimson' (60) [1]: 20 -- impeditum (37) 106 -- -- `Purple Gem' (37) 106 -- -- `Ramapo' (37) 106 -- `Indian Run' (60) [1]: 25 -- indicum (31) 233; (36) 19 -- -- as bonsai subject (30) 2 -- `Janet Blair' (45) [2] 26; (60) [1]: 21 -- japonicum (47) [2] 14 R Cumulative Index -- `Jonathan Shaw' (60) [1]: 21 -- kaempferi (33) 16 -- keiskei (37) 105 -- kiusianum (60) [1]: 25 -- x laetevirens (43) [1] 16 -- `Landmark' (60) [1]: 24 -- `Late Love' (60) [1]: 25 -- lapponicum (60) [1]: 7 -- makinoi (60) [1]: 25 -- maximum (31) 240; (46) [3] 11; (50) [1] 30, 31; (55) [2] 31; (56) [2] 28; (60) [1]: 24, 26, 28 -- metternichii (47) [2] 14 -- `Mrs. Charles S. Sargent' (60) [1]: inside front cover, 28, 32 -- `Mrs. Harry Ingersoll' (60) [1]: inside back cover, 32 -- mucronulatum (37) 110, 125; (38) 135; (60) [1]: 24 -- -- f. albiflorum (37) 125 -- -- `Cornell Pink' (37) 125 -- -- vars. (52) [3] 12 -- nakaharai (37) 106 -- nudiflorum (31) 232; (45) [2] 26 -- obtusum (39) [2] front cover -- -- var. kaempferi (32) 50; (52) [1] 12; (57) [1] 23 -- `Parsons Grandiflorum' (60) [1]: 32 -- `Percy Wiseman' (60) [1]: 23 -- `PJM' (60) [1]: 20, 24, 26 -- ponticum `Goldflimmer' (60) [1]: 26, 27 -- -- `Variegatum (60) [1]: 26 -- `Purple Splendour' (60) [1]: 21 -- `Purpureum Elegans' (60) [1]: inside back cover, 28, 32 -- `Purpureum Grandiflorum' (60) [1]: 28, 32 -- `Roseum Elegans' (60) [1]: 20, 28, 32 -- `Santa Fe' (60) [1]: 22 -- `Sappho' (60) [1]: 22 -- `Scarlet Romance' (60) [1]: 21 -- `Scintillation' (60) [1]: 21 -- smirnowii (60) [1]: 27, 29 -- `Smoky Mountaineer' (51) [2] back cover -- periclymenoides (30) 158, 207; (31) 232 -- prinophyllum (30) 158, 207; (31) 232 -- prunifolium (38) 107; (45) [2] 26 -- roseum (31) 232; (45) [3] 16 -- schlippenbachii (30) 158, 207; (38) 134; (45) [2] 26; (57) [2] 21 -- sinogrande (46) [4] 27; (52) [2] 28 -- speciosum (33) 87 -- -- flammeum (now known as R. flammeum) (60) [1]: 4, 5 -- `Summer Glow' (60) [1]: 25 -- `Summer Snow' (60) [1]: 24, 25 -- `Tow Head' (60) [1]: 23 -- vaseyi (30) 158, 171, 207; (44) [4] 49; (45) [2] 26; (47) [4] 3 -- `Vinecrest' (60) [1]: 22 -- viscosum (31) 233 -- `Vivacious' (60) [1]: 21 -- `White Peter' (60) [1]: 22 -- `Wojnar's Purple' (60) [1]: 21 -- yakusimanum (45) [4] 29; (49) [1] 34; (50) [1] inside front cover, inside back cover; (60) [1]: 2324 -- yedoense var. poukhanense (30) 86; (52) [3] 12 Rhododendron Society [MA] (39) 346 \"Rhododendrons\" [1934], Edgar Anderson (60) [1]: 2728 Rhododendrons at `Wellesley' (60) [1]: back cover Rhododendrons in America, Ted Van Veen [review of] (36) 178 Rhodotypos (36) 57 -- scandens (44) [4] 4344; (45) [2] 20, 24, back cover; (55) [3] 18 Rhomba (32) 27 Rhopaloconidium asiminae (52) [3] 24 Rhubarb (31) 201; (34) 79; (39) 264 Rhus (30) 173; (54) [2] 21; (55) [3] 13, 18; (56) [3] 9 -- aromatica (30) 158, 171; (31) 244; (35) 93, 94, 118; (41) 182; (44) [2] 19, [4] 4344; (45) [2] 26; (56) [2] 24 -- -- `Gro-Low' (44) [4] 39, 44 5 R 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- chinensis (39) 198, 224; (44) [4] 4445, 45; (51) [1] 10, 11, inside back cover -- -- `September Beauty' (44) [4] 44 -- copallina (30) 171; (35) 93; (41) 183 -- glabra (30) 171; (35) 93; (50) [1] 17 -- radicans (31) 243; (34) 81; (35) 111; (57) [2] 26 -- succedanea (31) 12 -- toxicodendron (31) 243; (35) 111 -- trilobata (35) 93 -- typhina (30) 171; (34) 228; (35) 93, 94; (45) [2] 19, 26; (50) [1] 16, 18; (52) [4] inside front cover, 29; (56) [2] 12 -- verniciflua (43) [1] 22 -- vernix (34) 81 Rhynchelytrum repens (54) [3] 11 Rhytidiadelphus (57) [2] 32 Ribbon grass (44) [4] 5354 Ribes (55) [3] 18 -- and blister rust (58) [2] 20 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- grossularia (31) 223 -- nigrum (31) 246 -- odoratum (56) [2]; 25 -- sylvestre (31) 222 Rice cultivation, and Metasequoia [China] (59) [1] 35, 36, 40, 41, 48, 50, 51 -- culture [China] (35) 266, 270 -- husking [Madagascar] (32) 26, 29 Riceboro [GA] (31) 22 Richardson, H. H. (49) [3] 6 Ricinis (54) [3] 9 -- communis (34) 82; (47) [4] 28; (55) [2] 4 Ridley, Henry Nichols (44) [2] 9, 1013 Rikugi-en [Tokyo] (47) [2] 34 Riming, Hao, and other contributors, \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan\" (55) [1] 1220, 13 Ring-porous trees (49) [4] 4, 5 Rinker, Robert, photo by (45) [2] inside back cover Rishiri Island [Japan] (47) [2] 68, 6, 7 Rist, Luigi, print by (48) [2] front cover Ritsurin Garden [Japan] (47) [2] 911, 10 Ritterberg Nature Conservation Office [Swakopmund, Namibia] (54) [2] 3 Rivea corymbosa (32) 203, 205; (41) 105 \"River Birch,\" Anne Carlsmith (44) [1] 2831 Rivera, Jose Eustacio (44) [2] 13, 16 Rivers, Thomas (49) [3] 37 Rix, Martyn (50) [2] 3536 Roan Mountain [NC] (46) [3] 1 Robbins, M. C. (60) [3] 27 \"Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea in the United States,\" William Gardener (31) 118 Robertson, Kenneth R. \"Cercis: The Redbuds\" (36) 3749 -- -- -- \"Cladrastis: The Yellow-woods\" (37) 137150 Robertson, R. H. (56) [3] 1315, 18 Robeson, Mary (49) [1] 11 Robin, Jean (48) [4] 54 Robin, Vespasin (48) [4] 54 Robinia craze (48) [4] 56 Robinia (32) 67, 78; (55) [3] 13 -- hispida (31) 241; (55) [3] 18; (60) [1] 16 -- pseudoacacia (31) 218; (34) 83, 234, 235; (39) 161, 162, 227, 272, 275, 312; (43) [1] 39; (44) [1] 11; (47) [3] 7; (48) [4] 5257, 53; (52) [4] 31; (55) [3] 12, 17; (57) [2] 7; (60) [4] 26 -- -- cambium (33) 52 Robinson, B. L., Professor [Harvard] (48) [2] 13 Robinson, John (32) 50 Robinson, William (51) [3] 9; (54) [2] 11; (57) [3] 1617, 19, 25 Robinson estate [Hudson River, NY] (31) 157 Roca-Garcia, Helen, \"Arnoldia in the Kitchen\" (32) 98, 166 -- -- \"The Cork Trees\" (30) 166 -- -- \"The Lelacke or Pipe Tree\" (31) 114120 -- -- \"Weeds: A Link with the Past: \"Bouncing Bet\" (32) 136137 -- -- \"The Plantain\" (30) 2324 -- -- \"Purslane\" (30) 114115 R Cumulative Index 7 -- -- \"Shepherd's-purse\" (32) 34, 35 -- -- \"Tansy\" (31) 37, 38 Roche Institute of Molecular Biology [NJ] (52) [2] 8 Rochel, Anton (31) 118 Rochester Parks Department [NY] (57) [1] 14 \"`Rochester' Strain of Lilacs,\" Robert B. Clark (32) 133135 Rock cress (34) 285 -- garden plants (37) 89109, -- gardening (55) [1] 211 -- tripe (35) 135, 151 Rock garden (60) [1] 8, 9 Rock Garden Society, New England Chapter (54) [1] 35 Rock, Joseph F. C. (32) 14, 16, 50; (33) 18; (47) [4] 17; (48) [2] 9; (50) [4] 28; (59) [1] 12, 20 -- -- -- -- photo by (52) [2] inside front cover, 2935; (57) [2] 22 Rockefeller, John D. (49) [4] 32 Rocket (31) 193; (39) 257 Rocky Mountain Flora, William A. Weber [review of] (33) 252 Rocky Mountains (48) [1] 34 Rocky Nook [Hingham, MA] (54) [3] 14 Rodgersia (45) [4] 29; (55) [1] 9, 15 Rogers, George (47) [4] 4 Rogers, Julia Ellen [quoted] (46) [3] 23 Rogers, Mr. and Mrs. Paul (32) 260, 271 Rohdea japonica (52) [2] 44 Rohmer, Emil \"Sax\" (48) [4] 18 \"The Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gardens,\" William C. Steere (33) 157168 Rollins, Reed C. (33) 2 Rollins, W. H., photo by (60) [2] inside front cover Rome, 19th-century planning (54) [2] 44 -- the Quirinal (54) [2] 14 Romero, Gustavo, photo by (56) [3] back cover Ronda [Spain] (48) [1] 39 Room of Delight, Oldrich Otypka [review of] (37) 251 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano (47) [4] 9, 11, 19 Root-area index (49) [4] 4, 18 Root balls (33) 266, 268, 269, 276 -- collar (49) [4] 5, 9 -- crowns (56) [1] 1718 -- cuttings (55) [3] 1119 -- -- medium for (37) 26, 27 -- flare (56) [1] 21 -- framework (49) [4] 6, 7 -- grafts, natural (49) [4] 9, 17 -- growth (56) [4] 1216 -- hairs (49) [4] 8 -- hardiness (33) 115, 116 -- inducing substance (32) 162; (37) 2460 -- initiation (33) 115, 116 -- loss as a result of transplanting (56) [4] 14, 16 -- pruning (37) 239, 247 -- sprouts (49) [4] 26 -- suckers (55) [3] 1114 -- system (56) [4] 1112, 1415 -- tolerance of temperature (33) 238, 266268 Roots (49) [4] 321, 2, 614, 16, 19 -- adventitious (49) [4] 9; (59) [4] 12, 13 -- and fertilizers (49) [4] 16 -- and rejuvenation (59) [4] 1016 -- classification of (49) [4] 5 -- cold tolerance of (49) [4] 15 -- feeder (49) [4] 3, 820 -- -- herbicides (49) [4] 16 -- girdling (or root-girdling) (37) 242247, 243247; (56) [1] 1519, 2021 -- -- frequency of in relation to planting depth (56) [1] 21 -- -- primary (56) [1] 1719 -- -- secondary (56) [1] 1718 -- -- tertiary (56) [1] 1718 R 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- looping (60) [4] 23, 24 -- non-woody (49) [4] 5, 8, 9, 10 -- patterns of growth of (49) [4] 4, 5 -- photo essay on (49) [4] 2229 -- strangling (49) [4] 3033 -- striker (49) [4] 6, 7 -- transport (49) [4] 3, 6 -- zone of rapid taper of (49) [4] 9 Roper, Laura Wood (60) [3] 5 Roque, John, plan of Paris by (57) [2] 5 -- map of London by (57) [2] 8 Rosa (30) 173; (31) 219; (43) [3] 5; (30) 173; (49) [1] 68; (51) [3] 8; (55) [3] 18 -- subgenera (43) [3] 5 -- subsections (43) [3] 6 --acicularis (41) 184 -- alba (43) [3] 4 -- arnoldiana (32) 51 -- banksiae (43) [1] 22 -- blanda (43) [3] 6 -- -- alba (43) [3] 6 -- carolina (43) [3] 11 -- centifolia (39) 265 -- -- `Muscosa' (39) 265 -- damascena (39) 265 -- -- `Versicolor' (39) 265 -- davurica (41) 185 -- ecae (43) [3] 6, 7 -- -- `Golden Chersonese' (43) [3] 6 -- eglanteria (39) 265; (43) [3] 5, 7 -- elegantula `Persetosa' (= R. farreri) (43) [3] 45 -- `Fairy' (45) [2] 26 -- `Gold Bush' (43) [3] 7 -- foetida (43) [3] 67; (55) [2] back cover -- -- `Bicolor (43) [3] 7, cover -- gallica (39) 265; (43) [3] 67, 8 -- -- `Scarlet Fire' (43) [3] 8 -- -- `Tuscany Superb' (43) [3] 8 -- -- `Versicolor' (39) 265 -- glauca (43) [3] 4, 8 -- x harisonii (or `Harison's Yellow') (43) [3] 7 -- helenae (43) [3] 8 -- -- var. flora plena (43) [3] 2, 9 -- hugonis (43) [3] 4, 9, inside front cover -- laevigata (31) 243; (43) [3] 5, 9 -- -- `Silver Moon' (43) [3] 9 -- x malyi (41) 186 -- minutifolia (60) [2] 9 -- moyesii (43) [3] 4, 910 -- -- `Eddie's Crimson' (43) [3] 10 -- -- `Geranium' (43) [3] 9 -- multiflora (43) [1] 5; [3] 10, 14; (56) [2] 12 -- nitida (43) [3] 4, 10, 14; (44) [4] 25; (45) [2] 26 -- odorata (44) [3] 9, 24 -- omeiensis (43) [1] 5 -- palustris (31) 243; (43) [3] 11 -- pendulina (41) 186 -- pimpinellifolia (43) [3] 4, 5, 7, 10, 11 -- -- altaica (43) [3] 11 -- -- `Golden Wings' (43) [3] 11 -- -- `Stanwell Perpetual' (43) [3] 11 -- primula (41) 187; (43) [3] 4, 5, 11 -- roxburghii (43) [3] 5, 10, 11, 12 -- -- `Coryana' (43) [3] 12 -- -- var. hirtula (43) [3] 12 -- rubrifolia (= glauca) (39) 265; (43) [3] 4 -- rugosa (30) 171; (38) [4] inside back cover; (43) [3] 4, 12; (44) [4] 2425, 35, 48; (48) [3] 29 -- -- `Blanc Double de Coubert' (43) [3] 12 R Cumulative Index -- -- `Carminetta' (43) [3] 8 -- -- `Jens Munk' (43) [3] 12 -- -- var. kamtschatica (48) [3] 29, 29 -- `Seafoam' (45) [2] 26; (55) [4] 8 -- sericea f. pteracantha (43) [3] 12, 13 -- -- `Red Wing' (43) [3] 12 -- spinosissima (31) 243; (47) [4] 28; (56) [2] 12 -- -- var. altaica (41) 188 -- virginiana (30) 26, 172; (36) 30, 32; (43) [1] 5, 11; (44) [4] 25; (56) [2] 12 -- wichuraiana (30) 158; (43) [3] 4, 13; (45) [2] 26 -- -- `Dorothy Perkins' (43) [3] 13 -- -- `The Fairy' (43) [3] 13 -- willmottiae (43) [3] 9, 13 -- xanthina (44) [3] 5, 8, 24 -- -- f. spontanea (44) [3] 9 Rosa Mundi (39) 265 Rosaceae (44) [3] 28 Rosalia, Baroness von Josika (31) 120 Rosamund [ship] (47) [4] 24 Rosary-pea (35) 95, 96 Rose (30) 173; (31) 219; (39) 243; (52) [2] 30; (54) [4] 29; (56) [2] 24, 25 -- Altai Scotch (41) 188 -- American (43) [3] 6 -- anise-leaved (43) [3] 6 -- Austrian briar (43) [3] 7 -- Austrian copper briar rose (43) [3] 7, cover; (55) [2] back cover -- cabbage (39) 265 -- Carolina (43) [3] 6 -- Cherokee (31) 243; (43) [3] 9 -- chestnut (43) [3] 11 -- cinnamon (43) [3] 6 -- Dahurian (41) 185 -- damask (39) 265 -- dog (43) [3] 6 -- drophip (41) 186 -- eglantine (43) [3] 7 -- Emily Gray (57) [1] 9 -- Fairy (45) [2] 26 -- Father Hugo's (43) [3] 9 -- flat (43) [3] 5 -- French (39) 265; (43) [3] 6 -- Golden Salmon polyanthus (57) [1] 8 -- guelder (53) [2] 10, 18 -- hybrid tea (55) [1] 2 -- Kamtchatca (48) [3] 30 -- Maly (41) 186 -- moss (39) 265 -- omei (43) [1] 5 -- prickly (41) 184 -- primrose (41) 187 -- rambler (56) [2] 18 -- red (43) [3] 7 -- redleaf (39) 265 -- rugosa (30) 171; (44) [4] 2425 -- Scotch (31) 243; (43) [3] 11 -- -- briar (56) [2] 12 -- Seafoam (45) [2] 26; (55) [4] 8 -- shining (44) [4] 25 -- shrub (56) [2] 12 -- swamp (31) 243 -- tea (56) [3] 16 -- threepenny bit (43) [3] 4 -- true (43) [3] 5 -- Virginia (30) 172; (36) 30, 32; (44) [4] 25 -- wild (31) 243; (56) [3] 16 -- York and Lancaster (39) 265 Rose campion (31) 130, 193; (35) 5 9 R 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- daphne (34) 58 -- Lenten (34) 355; (39) 2, 3 -- mallow (31) 79; (34) 361 -- of Sharon (31) 219; (38) 112; (56) [2] 9 \"`Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden-Rain Tree,\" Frank S. Santamour, Jr., and Stephen A. Spongberg (56) [2] 3237 `Rose Lantern' golden raintree (60) [4] 16 \"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostonian,\" Judith Tankard (59) [4] 2532 Rosebay (46) [3] 11 Rosemary (31) 201; (39) 246 -- marsh (39) 258 Roses (33) 174182 -- collection in Cuba (51) [3] 28 -- diseases, insects (43) [3] 1314 -- fruit of (43) [3] 4 -- hips of (43) [3] 4, 8, 1011 -- hybridized by Jackson Dawson (49) [1] 55 -- landscape uses of (43) [3] 4 -- nursery sources for species and shrub roses (43) [3] 15 -- of the west (43) [3] 5 -- planting and pruning (43) [3] 14 -- spp. in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum (43) [3] 15; (50) [3] 12 -- spp. recommended for the Northeast (43) [3] 6 Rosmarinus (39) 246 -- officinalis (31) 201 Rotenone (32) 202 Rothamsted Experimental Station [Hertfordshire, England] (32) 176 Rothschild, Baron Nathaniel de, park of [Austria] (54) [2] 14 Roubaud, Francois (54) [1] 15 Rouen, Botanic Garden of [France] (31) 119 Round Marsh [Boston] (48) [3] 32 Roundup (49) [4] 17 Rousseau, Jean Jacques (56) [4] 17; (58) [3] 20 Rovell, brothers (51) [3] 9 Rowan (52) [2] 30, 31 Roxburghia (36) 60 Roxbury [MA] (48) [4] 29, 30 -- puddingstone (51) [2] inside front cover Roxbury-Dorchester Beautification Program (30) 230233 Roxbury Milldam Corporation (48) [3] 33 Roy, D. N., D. Newbanks, and M. H. Zimmermann, \"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know\" (42) [2] 6069 Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh [Scotland] (31) 371; (46) [4] 12; (49) [1] 47; (47) [3] 12; (52) [2] 31; Royal (60) [1] 4, 5, 8 Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh 16701970, Harold R. Fletcher and William H. Brown [review of] (31) 371 Royal Botanic Garden, Hamilton [Ontario] (49) [2] 4 Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew [outside London] (30) 137; (31) 10; (32) 103, 189, 251; (33) 160161; (46) [4] 12; (47) [4] 4, 13, 28, 30, 32; (48) [2] 19; (49) [1] 16, 38, 43, 45, 53, 66; [4] 37; (51) [2] 5; (53) [1] 16; [3] 13; [4] 31; (54) [2] 2, 8; (57) [3] 4, 16; (60) [1] 10 -- -- -- -- Herbarium (30) 137 Royal Botanical Garden, Madrid [Spain] (47) [3] 229, 2, 12, 23, 2529 -- -- -- -- plans of (47) [3] 11, 25, 27 Royal Botanical Garden, Mexico City [Mexico] (47) [3] 16 Royal Botanical Garden of Ajuda [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] 3138, back cover -- original plan of (47) [3] 33 Royal Horticultural Society [London, England] (53) [1] 16; [3] 3; (57) [3] 5, 2122 -- -- -- gardens at Wisley (51) [2] 25 Royal Scientific Expedition to New Spain (47) [3] 16 Royle, John Forbes (31) 1, 14 Rubber (44) [2] 316, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1415; (50) [2] 2731 Rubber tree, hardy (38) 162164; (39) 182; (55) [2] 15 Rubel, Robert O. (46) [1] 10 Rubiaceae (54) [2] 36 Rubia cordifolia var. munjista (31) 292 -- tinctorum (31) 200 Rubus (31) 246; (34) 246; (43) [1] 10; (46) [3] 38; (55) [3] 15, 18 -- at risk (46) [3] 45 -- biflorus (43) [1] 10; (50) [3] 12 R Cumulative Index -- chamaemorus (45) [4] 2425 -- cockburnianus (43) [1] 10; (50) [3] 12, 13 -- glaucus (50) [4] 14 -- idaeus (31) 226 -- laciniatus (48) [3] 24 -- lasiostylus (50) [3] 1215, 13 -- -- var. hubiensis (50) [3] 1215; (51) [1] 3, 13 -- calycinoides `Emerald Carpet' (52) [1] 29 -- macrocarpus (50) [4] 9 -- spectabilis (58) [3] 4 -- thibetanus (43) [1] 10 -- ulmifolius `Bellidiflorus' (56) [2] 24 Rudbeckia (35) 33; (45) [4] 31 -- fulgida (35) 34, 35 -- hirta (31) 173, 227; (34) 200, 201; (35) 34 -- laciniata (35) 34 -- maxima (45) [4] 26; (54) [3] 9 -- nitida (35) 34 -- purpurea (= Echinacea purpurea) (35) 33 -- serotina (33) 89 Rue (31) 201 -- common (39) 265 -- marsh (35) 45, 46 -- meadow (31) 137, 190, 229 -- tall-meadow (43) [2] 39, inside front cover Rue de Rivoli [Paris] (54) [1] 16 Ruellia (31) 18 Ruisdael, Jacob van (42) [1] 231 Ruiz and Pavon Expedition (47) [3] 13, 14, 15 Ruiz Lopez, Hipolito (47) [3] 15, 16, 19 Rumex (34) 210, 211 -- acetosa (31) 202, 231 -- acetosella (34) 211 -- crispus (34) 210 -- pallidus (48) [3] 23 -- patientia (31) 200 Ruscus aculeatus (31) 234 Rush (43) [2] 8, 33 -- soft (43) [2] 37, 38, 39 Russell, Archibald (32) 185 Russell, John, Sixth Duke of Bedford (32) 188 Russelia equisetiformis (37) 220 Russian sage (38) 113 Russia, botanic gardens of [or USSR] (36) 110118 -- -- -- -- Kiev (56) [1] 5 -- -- -- -- Komarov [Leningrad] (33) 161 -- -- -- -- Moscow Main at Academy of Science (36) 112 -- -- -- -- Nikita, Yalta (36) 110118 -- -- -- -- -- herbarium at (36) 115 -- -- -- -- St. Petersburg\/Leningrad Imperial (30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 Rust, cedar-apple (58) [3] 31 -- disease, black stem (53) [2] 1718 -- fungus, blister (53) [1] 26 Rust Fungi of Cereals, Grasses and Bamboos, George Baker Cummins [review of] (32) 46 Ruta graveolens (31) 201; (39) 265 Rutaceae (30) 162 Rutin (32) 201 Rutland Park [Boston] (48) [4] 34 Ryan, Priscilla (49) [1] 33 Ryania (32) 213 Rycroft, H. Brian, \"Plants and Gardens of South Africa\" (32) 220225 Rye (31) 212 Ryoan-ji Temple Garden [Japan] (47) [2] 89 Rytidospermum (57) [4] 22, 24, 29 11 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - S","article_sequence":15,"start_page":1,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25334","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070af28.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"S Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Sabatia kennedyana (46) [3] 7, 9 Sabatini, Francisco (47) [3] 10 Sabina chinensis (=Juniperus) (39) 275 -- virginiana (39) 274, 275 Saccharum ravennae (54) [3] 7, 9 Sackville-West, Vita (53) [1] 12 Sacred Narcotic Plants of the New World Indians, Hedwig Schleiffer (36) 36 Saffron (31) 201 -- meadow (31) 179 Safrol (36) 24, 26 Sage (31) 201; (35) 3536 -- Cleveland (39) 265 -- garden (39) 265 -- lyre-leaved (39) 265 -- pineapple (39) 265 -- purple (57) [3] 29 -- silver (39) 265 Sagewort, fringed (34) 290 Sagittaria latifolia (34) 158; (43) [2] 13, 14, 15 Saguaro (47) [2] 24 Saguaro National Monument [AZ] (47) [2] 24 Sailing School Vessel Westward (52) [2] 11, 12 Saint-Gaudens, Augustus (54) [1] 28; (59) [4] 26 St. James's Park [London, England] (57) [2] 8 St. John's-wort (31) 216; (34) 190; (36) 31; (38) 110, 113; (39) 257; (43) [2] 7; (53) [1] 14 St. Petersburg Botanic Garden [Russia](30) 163, 166; (49) [1] 36, 37, 39; [4] 37; (55) [3] 22; (57) [2] 22; [3] 4, 5 St. Pierre Botanic Garden [Martinique] (32) 263 St. Vincent Botanic Garden (57) [4] 12, 14, 1516, 1720, 21 \"St. Vincent Botanic Garden--The Early Years,\" Richard A. Howard (57) [4] 1221 Sake (60) [2] 30 Sakhalin cork tree (30) 163, 166 Sakhalin Island [USSR] (47) [2] 6, 7 Salem Towne House [Sturbridge, MA] (31) 160, 166 Salicaceae (54) [1] 24 Salictrum Woburnense; or a Catalogue of Willows in the Collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey [1829] (32) 188, 190 Salisburia adiantifolia (=Ginkgo biloba) (31) 18 Salix (32) 21, 83, 84; (34) 232, 233; (37) 120, 121; (47) [2] 8; (53) [3] 29 -- hurricane damage to plants [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- alba (43) [1] 10; (55) [2] 13 -- -- `Chermesina' (or forma) (36) 30; (43) [1] 10 -- -- var. vitellina (31) 245; (43) [1] 10 -- arbuscula (55) [1] 6 -- babylonica (31) 245; (33) 108; (36) 221; (39) 312 -- caprea (30) 141; (37) 121 -- daphnoides (37) 121 -- fragilis (42) [1] 22 -- gracilistyla (37) 121; (38) 26; (50) [1] front cover -- humilis var. tristis (56) [2] 28 -- hylematica (55) [1] 6 -- irrorata (43) [1] 10 -- lucida (31) 83 -- matsudana `Tortuosa' (43) [1] 11 -- -- `Umbraculifera' (44) [3] 5 -- melanostachys (38) 26, 27 -- x moorei (37) 106 -- purpurea ssp. lambertiana (34) 20 -- viminalis (34) 12 -- vitellina (34) 12 Sallad Tree (31) 214 Salt, injury from (44) [4] 14, 15 S 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- pollution (30) 3839 -- sensitivity to (44) [4] 14, 15, 39 -- tolerance of (44) [4] 20, 23, 25 Salvador family [Barcelona] (47) [3] 6 Salvia, spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- argentea (39) 265 -- azurea (35) 35, 36; (39) 265 -- chamaecyparissus (39) 266 -- -- `Nana' (39) 266 -- clevelandii (39) 265 -- divinorum (32) 207; (41) 106, 107 -- farinacea (39) 265 -- fragarioides (48) [2] 7 -- glutinosa (35) 36 -- haematodes (35) 36 -- jurisicii (35) 36 -- leucophylla (57) [3] 29 -- lyrata (39) 265 -- neapolitana (39) 266 -- officinalis (31) 201; (39) 265 -- rutilans (39) 265 -- sclarea (31) 199; (35) 36; (39) 265 -- x superba (35) 36 -- virens (39) 266 Sambucus (55) [3] 18 -- canadensis (31) 223, 237; (32) 288 -- nigra (31) 223; (42) [1] 19 -- pubens (38) 90 -- sieboldiana (38) 90 Samuels, Gayle Barndow, \"The Charter Oak\" (59) [4] 29 San Antonio Botanical Center [TX] (46) [3] 6 San Francisco Mountains [AZ] (47) [4] 15 Sand lily, blue (46) [3] 39 Sand plain vegetation (58) [2] 3233 Sand, planting in (30) 105 Sand River Hospital [Guangzhou, China] (48) [2] 23 Sandpear (31) [6] front cover Sandwort (34) 285 Sanguinaria canadensis (31) 173, 176 (34) 84; (37) 98, 107, 190; (39) 265; (47) [2] 27; (52) [3] 10 -- -- `Multiplex' (37) 98, 101 Sanguinary (32) 45 Sanguisorba officinalis (31) 199 Santa Barbara Botanic Garden [CA] (54) [3] 5 Santa Cruz, California (47) [3] 21 Santamour, Jr., Frank S. (33) 134; (47) [4] 5, 7; (49) [2] 26 -- -- -- -- \"Arboreta, Genes and Plant Improvement\" (33) 127134 -- -- -- -- \"`Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden-Rain Tree,\" with Stephen A. Spongberg (56) [2] 3237 Santolina (31) 28, 201; (39) 244, 265, 266 -- chamaecyparissus (31) 201; (39) 244 -- neapolitana (39) 244 -- virens (39) 244 Sapium japonicum (38) 31, 141 -- sebiferum (31) 17 Saponaria officinalis (31) 227; (32) 136, 137; (34) 170, 171; (39) 266 Saponin (32) 136 Sapphire-berry (39) 200, 201; (44) [3] 34 Sapporo Botanical Garden [Japan] (47) [2] 45, 6 Sara Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Award [New York Botanical Garden] (47) [4] 21 Sarawak [Malaysia] Forest Department (60) [4] 39 Sarcococca humilis (43) [1] 4 Sargassum (52) [2] 1416 -- fluitans (52) [2] 16 -- natans (52) [2] 16 Sargent, Charles Sprague (30) 1, 81, 182; (32) [1] front cover, inside front cover, 39, 14, 20, 49, 103, 141, 152, 165, 174, 188, 253; (33) 16, 177, 178; (36) 57, 182; (37) 151155; (39) 331, 332, 334, 350, 351; (44) [3] 4, 5, 711, 1416, 2023; (46) [1] 30; [3] 2628; (47) [4] 9, 1113, 21; (48) [1] 2, 23, 31; [2] 9, 1214, 16, 20, 35; [3] 36; [4] 2628, 33, 54; (49) [1] 7, S Cumulative Index 3 8, 19, 1120, 36, 38, 60, 61; [2] 2; [3] 6; [4] 30; (50) [4] 32, 35; (51) [2] 6; [3] 610; (52) [1] 2, 9, 11, 13, 16; [2] 5; [4] 2, 21, 22; (53) [4] 3, 20, 21; (54) [2] 11, 12, 1718; [3] 21; (55) [1] 37; [4] 3, 8, 24, 35; (56) [2] 9, 21; [3] 15; (57) [1] 26, 28, 29, 31; [2] 1718, 24, 28; [3] 2526; [4] 5, 30; (59) [1] 1215, 20, 21; [2] 3, 18; [3] 3, 413, 25; [4] 6; (60) [1] 29, 32; [2] 23, 7, 8, 19, 20, 22, 39, 42; [3] 5, 29 -- -- -- contributions of (49) [1] 13 -- -- -- correspondents (49) [1] 13, 14 -- -- -- Manual of the Trees of North America (31) 23; (32) 7, 52, 185 -- -- -- memorabilia (31) 23, 321 -- -- -- from \"Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan--II\" [1893] (60) [2] 1113 -- -- -- from \"Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan--XXIII\" [1893] (60) [2] 3032 -- -- -- and Rehder (49) [1] 14, 15 -- -- -- \"The Story of Shortia\" [reprint] (46) [3] 28331 -- -- -- \"The Waverly Oaks\" [reprint] (53) [4] 1819 Sargent, Emily (49) [4] 30, 31 Sargent, Henry Winthrop (32) 187; (40) 203; [5] inside back cover; (41) 150; (46) [1] 30; [3] 26, 27, 28; (60) [1] 2829 -- -- -- estate (41) 43, 52, 65 Sargent, Ignatius (52) [1] 9 Sargent, John Singer (49) [4] 3033 -- -- -- drawing by (49) [4] 31 -- -- -- sketch of cousin Charles (59) [3] 4 Sargent, Mary (Mrs. Charles S. ) (51) [3] 3, 4; (52) [1] 9 Sargent Memorial Fund (32) 10 Sargentia [journal] (32) 52 Sargentiana exhibit (31) 23, 321 Sarracenia (46) [3] 7 -- flava (33) 249 Saruma [genus] (46) [4] 19 Sasa (47) [2] 7 -- kurilensis (38) 84, 91; (47) [2] 7 -- palmata (49) [2] 29, 34 -- tessellata (49) [2] 34 -- veitchii (49) [2] 34, 35, inside front cover; (52) [1] 30 -- -- as bonsai subject (32) 245 Sassafras, swamp (31) 218 Sassafras (30) 169; (32) 73; (36) 22, 23 -- albidum (30) 169; (31) 219; (32) 73; (36) 2227, 25; (39) 163, 227, 316, 317; (44) [3] 34; (51) [3] inside front cover; (52) [3] back cover; (55) [2] 4; [3] 12, 15, 17 \"Sassafras: A Neglected Native Ornamental,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (36) 2227 Satoh, Keiko, \"Metasequoia Travels the Globe\" (59) [1] 7275 Sattely, Jeanne (39) 346 Satureja hortensis (31) 201 -- montana (31) 201; (39) 266 Sauer, D. (48) [3] 30, 31 Sauer, Leslie Jones, \"Soil as a Living System\" (59) [2] 3543 Saugus [MA] (48) [4] 39, 44 Saugus Iron Works (48) [4] 39 Saunders, William (31) 10 [footnote] Sauropus coriaceus (48) [2] 6 Saururus cernuus (31) 229 Savage, Phil (57) [4] 29 Savine tree or bush (31) 220 \"Saving the Rarest,\" by Donald A. Falk and Francis R. Thibodeau (46) [3] 218 Savory, summer (31) 201 -- winter (31) 201 Sax, Karl (30) 85; (31) 47, 54; (32) 5, 12, 15, 17, 51, 53; (34) 386; (39) 332; (47) [4] 1819, 21; (49) [1] 55; (51) [1] 33; [3] 3; (52) [1] 15 Saxegothea (37) 70, 71 -- conspicua (59) [2] 29 Saxifraga longifolia (55) [1] 8 -- pensylvanica (55) [1] 4 Saxifrages, Winston Harding [review of] (38) 63 Scabiosa (31) 194; (35) 3638 -- alpinia (35) 37 -- atropurpurea (31) 194 -- caucasica (35) 37 -- graminifolia (35) 38 -- lucida (35) 38; (55) [1] 8 S 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Scabious, sweet (31) 194 Scald, on apples (32) 131 Scaphoideus luteolus (33) 42 Scarborough Pond [Franklin Park, Boston] (48) [4] 29 Scarlet avens (34) 346 -- pimpernel (48) [3] 23, 24 Sceaux [France] (54) [1] cover; 13, 1722, 1821 Schaffer Memorial Medal [Pennsylvania Horticultural Society] (47) [4] 14 Schenck, Carl A. (60) [2] 21 Schenck Memorial Oak [NC] (49) [4] 17, 18 Schinus molle (35) 93, 95 -- terebinthifolius (35) 95 Schizachyrium (54) [3] 9 -- scoparium (54) [3] 11 Schizophragma hydrangeoides (41) 238; (52) [1] 11 Schmidt, Elizabeth (39) 360 Schmidt, Franz, illustration by (56) [3] 3 Schmidt, Johann Julius (32) 150 Schnebelen, Jean (54) [1] 1617 Schneider, Camillo K. (32) 20, 185; (44) [3] 21; (47) [4] 13; (49) [1] 15; (56) [3] 24 Schoenobiblus peruvianus (32) 212, 213 Schofield, Edmund A., \"He Sowed, Others Reaped: Ephraim Wales Bull and the Origins of the `Concord' Grape\" (48) [4] 416 -- -- -- \"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum\" (47) [4] 923 Scholar tree (38) 112; (39) 131, 132; (60) [1] 16; (60) [4] 26 Schotia afra (47) [3] 38 Schrefeld, Gustav (32) 148 Schrefeld, Johann Gottlieb (32) 148 Schubert, Bernice G. (32) 52, 265; (39) 330, 356, 360; (60) [2] 4445 Schulhof, Richard (58) [3] 23 -- -- Book Notes (53) [3] 3132 -- -- \"A Celebration of Crabapples: Book Review\" (55) [4] 3435 -- -- \"Ghost Bramble: Rubus lasiostylus hubeienis\" (50) [3] 1215 Schulman, Edmund (56) [4] 4 Schultes, Richard Evans (32) 218; (39) 358; (46) [3] 14; [4] inside front cover; (56) [2] 38 -- -- -- book reviews by (45) [1] 3031; (49) [3] 44 -- -- -- \"Conservation of Plant Lore in the Amazon Basin\" (46) [4] 5259 -- -- -- \"From Witch Doctor to Modern Medicine: Searching the American Tropics for Potentially Medicinal Plants\" (32) 198219 -- -- -- \"Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World\" (50) [2] 2134 -- -- -- \"Iconography of New World Plant Hallucinogens\" (41) 80125 -- -- -- \"The Tree That Changed the World in One Century\" (44) [2] 216 -- -- -- photos by (44) [2] inside front cover, 2, 7; (50) [2] inside front cover; (46) [3] inside front cover; [4] inside front cover Schustermann, Heidi (51) [1] 31 Schuylkill River [PA] (49) [2] 14, 17, 23 Schwarten, Lazella (32) 54 Sciadopityaceae (50) [3] 4 Sciadopitys verticillata (30) 157, 206; (37) 5, 71; (39) 219, 220, 231; (44) [1] 2427; (50) [3] 4 -- -- cones (44) [1] front cover -- -- needles (44) [1] 26 -- -- `Pendula' (36) 195 \"Science and Serendipity: The Lady's Slipper Project,\" Richard Primack (56) [1] 814 Science education (58) [3] 2026 Science Society of China (48) [2] 15 Scientific Monthly (47) [4] 13 \"Scientists and Scientific Contributions of the Arnold Arboretum: The First Century,\" Richard A. Howard (32) 4958 Scilla (45) [4] 30 -- mischtschenkoana (37) 100 -- nonscripta (31) 186 -- sibirica (37) 100; (45) [4] 26 -- -- `Spring Beauty' (37) 100 -- tubergeniana (37) 100, 108 Scirpus americanus (34) 16, 17; (45) [4] 19 Sclerocactus, endangered spp. of (46) [3] 8 Sclerontinia sclerotiorum (31) 61 Scoliopus bigelovii (37) 176 -- hallii (37) 176 S Cumulative Index Scolytus multistriatus (33) 40; (42) [2] 63, 71, 81 Scone Palace [Scotland] (53) [3] 16 Scorparia dulcis (32) 25 Scorch, sun (54) [3] 30 -- winter (54) [3] 30 Scorgie, Helen (Dr. ) (30) 96 Scotch broom (36) 30 Scott Arboretum [PA] (55) [3] 15 Scott, Frank J. (59) [3] 2730 -- -- -- \"Verdant Arches and Bowers: Artificial Adaptations of Trees [1870, excerpt] (59) [3] 3240 Scuppernong (31) 238 Scurvy grass (31) 231 Sea grape (36) 10, 18 -- holly (31) 194; (34) 336 -- lavender (31) 129; (34) 384; (39) 258; (34) 384 Sea of Okhotsk [Siberia] (48) [1] 45 Seaforth, Governor Lord (57) [4] 17 Seagrass (43) [2] 4, 5 Sea-pink (34) 286; (39) 250 Sears, David (42) [1] 38 Sears, Sarah G., estate of [Boston] (48) [3] 48; [4] 18, 19 Seaweed (52) [2] 1316 Secale cereale (31) 212 Securinega suffruticosa (41) 189; (53) [2] 2123, 22 Sedge (34) 222, 223; (43) [2] 8 -- drooping (43) [2] 3334 Sedges (52) [3] 10 Sedgwick, Mabel Cabot (57) [1] 3, 11 Sedum (31) 136 -- English (39) 266 Sedum (36) 60, 61 -- acre (39) 266 -- anglicum (39) 266 -- cauticolum (47) [2] 8 -- orpine (39) 266 -- sexangulare (39) 266 -- spectabile (31) 136; (35) 38, 39 -- -- `Brilliant' (31) 137 -- -- `Carmen' (31) 137 -- -- `Indian Chief' (31) 137 -- -- `Meteor' (31) 137 -- -- `Star Dust' (31) 137 -- telephium (35) 38, 40; (39) 266 Sedum of North America North of the Mexican Plateau, R. T. Clausen [review of] (37) 136 Seed Bank, rare and endangered plants [Berry Botanic, Portland OR] (46) [3] 10 Seed dispersal (33) 235 -- germination (41) 44, 4648 -- problems of collections (30) 87 -- propagation technique (37) 320, 10, 11, 18 -- storage (46) [3] 1011 Seeds (58) [1] 78; [2] 3334, 4142; (59) [4] 1012, 14 Seedlings of Some Tropical Trees and Shrubs Mainly of South East Asia, D. Burger Hzn [review of] (35) 196 Sefton Park [England] (54) [2] 13 Segel, Lou (39) 352 \"Selected Maples for Shade and Ornamental Planting,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (36) 146176 Self-pollination (36) 131 Seligson, David, \"On Collecting Herbs in Madagascar\" (32) 2329 Semecarpus anacardium (35) 97 -- gigantifolia (35) 96 Semiarundinaria fastuosa (49) [2] 35 Sempervivum (39) 267 -- tectorum (31) 200; (39) 266 Sendai City [Japan] (60) [4] 31 Senecio (33) 192 -- aureus (31) 228 -- cineraria (39) 266 -- kenensis (36) 222 5 S 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Seng, Lee Hua (60) [4] 9 Senna (44) [2] 28 -- bladder (44) [4] 4142 -- midland (39) 252 -- native (55) [2] 32 -- wild (34) 304; (39) 252 Senna hebecarpa (44) [2] 28 -- marilandica (44) [2] 28 Sensitive plant (31) 194 \"Sentimentalism and Tree-Felling\" [1893] (60) [3] 36 Sequoia (60) [2] 30 -- giant (57) [4] 3; (58) [3] 3; (59) [2] 27, 30 Sequoia (37) 71, 72; (42) [3] 136137; (59) [1] 4, 6, 21, 34, 5457; [4] 10, 13 -- gigantea (= Sequoiadendron giganteum) (60) [2] 18, 32, 33 -- sempervirens (58) [3] 3; (59) [1] 26, 5457; [3] cover, 14, 1521, 22 -- -- foliage (59) [1] 54 -- -- in vitro propagation (59) [3] 22 -- -- uses of wood (59) [3] 14 Sequoiadendron (59) [1] 4, 5455 -- giganteum (58) [3] 3; (59) [1] 34 -- -- foliage of (59) [1] 55 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- sempervirens (39) 272, 275; (42) [3] 135; (47) [3] 19, 21, inside back cover; (55) [3] 1314 Sequoiadendron (37) 72, 73 -- giganteum (32) 165, 255, 256, 257; (39) 272, 275 Serapio (31) 116 Sericulture (53) [2] 16 Sericocarpus (44) [2] 29 Serissa (36) 12 -- foetida (36) 1, 19 -- -- variegata (36) 5, 20 Serotinous pines (38) 111 Serrania de Ronda [Spain] (48) [1] inside front cover Serruria florida (32) 221 Serviceberry (30) 169; (34) 2231; (38) 36; (45) [4] 23 -- Allegheny (39) 95 -- downy (39) 93, 94, 95; (53) [1] front cover -- shadblow (39) 95 Service-bush (31) 243 Service tree (31) 220 Sesleria autumnalis (54) [3] 11 -- caerulea (54) [3] 11 -- nitida (54) [3] 11 Sesse and Mocino Expedition (47) [3] 16, 18 Sesse y Lacasta, Martin de (47) [3] 16 Sessions, Kate (60) [2] 41 Seven-son flower (54) [3] 32; (60) [4] 16 \"Seven-son Flower from Zhejiang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium jasminoides `Airy Shaw',\" Gary L. Koller (46) [4] 214 Severinia buxifolia (36) 2, 20 Sevin (carbaryl) (30) 45, 207; (32) 129 Shadblow (31) 243; (34) 2231; (48) [3] 47; (53) [1] front cover Shadbush (31) 90, 243; (32) 84; (39) 93, 95; (43) [3] 3 \"The Shadbushes,\" Richard E. Weaver (34) 2231 Shade (58) [2] 27, 34, 37, 41, 53 -- growing perennials in (35) 6566 -- trees (33) 261283 -- -- pollution of (30) 3839 Shadow, Don O., and Gary L. Koller, \"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree\" (44) [2] 1722; [reprint] (51) [4] 5558 Shah, Behula, \"The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima,\" (57) [3] 2027 Shakkei (47) [2] 11 Shaller, George, photos by (49) [2] 31, inside back cover Shanghai Botanical Garden [China] (51) [1] 18; (54) [3] 32 Shanghai [China] (48) [2] 3, 33 Shansi province [China] (48) [2] 34 Shantung province [China] (48) [2] 37 Shasta daisy (31) 32 S Cumulative Index Shaw, Howard Van Doren (59) [4] 28, 29 Shaw, Jonathan, \"Gardening with Species Roses\" (43) [3] 316 Shaw, Kenneth (39) 330 -- -- \"Girdling Roots\" (37) 242247 -- --\"Plant Protection\" (38) 3749 Shear, Ted (49) [4] 13 Sheep Island [Boston] (48) [3] 19 Sheep laurel (34) 68 Sheepberry (31) 241 Shelburne Farms [VT] (56) [3] 1220, 13, 17, 18, 19 -- -- -- plan of (56) [3] 14 Shelton Traveling Fellowship (48) [2] 12, 13 Shemluck, Melvin (58) [1] 20, 24 Sheng Cheng-kui (39) 354 -- -- \"Introduction of North American Trees into China: A Brief Summary\" (39) 271276 Shennongjia Forest [China] (46) [4] 16; (51) [1] 2, 12; (57) [2] 23 Shensi province [China] (48) [1] 25, 34; (57) [2] 1819, 20, 23 Shepherdia (56) [2] 25 -- canadensis (55) [4] 27 Shepherd's purse (32) 44, 45; (34) 214 Sherfessee, Forsythe (48) [2] 34 Sherlock Siriol, painting by (57) [2] 26 Sherwood, Mary P., \"Renaissance at Walden\" (46) [3] 4758 Shield fern, Boott's (47) [4] 30 Shibataea kumasasa (49) [2] 35; (52) [1] 31 Shikoku [Japan] (47) [2] 9, 10, 12, 30, 31 Shima superba (48) [2] 27 Shipman, Ellen (56) [1] 29, 3132; [2] 10, 11; (57) [1] 2, 311; (59) [4] 25, 29 -- -- garden design by (57) [1] inside front cover, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Shiun, Mount [Japan] (47) [2] 11 Sholes, Anne (39) 359 Shoot, growth patterns (41) 1016 \"Shoots From Roots: A Horticultural Review,\" Peter Del Tredici (55) [3] 1119 Short, Charles W. (30) 56; (46) [3] 30 Shortia (44) [1] 27; (47) [2] 14 -- galacifolia (46) [3] 6, 7, 8, 2632, 27, 28; (51) [4] 412, 7; (60) [2] 8 -- -- type specimen of (46) [3] 28 -- soldanelloides (38) 93; (47) [2] 14 -- uniflora (49) [3] back cover Shrub bush-clover (30) 168 -- Althea (38) 112 Shrubs, cutting back of (44) [4] 22 -- for urban islands (44) [4] 2226, 4149 -- for winter bark (36) 2832 -- for winter bloom (37) 111126 -- low-maintenance (44) [4] 22 SHRUBS FOR HILLSIDES AND EMBANKMENTS, Gary Koller (41) 168194 Shrubs for Your Garden, Peter Seabrook [review of] (36) 127 Shuguart, S. T. (31) 12 Shui-shan (45) [4] 11, 14 Shukukeien garden [Japan] (53) [3] 29 Shurcliff, Arthur (53) [4] 12; (57) [1] 2; (59) [2] 19; [4] 28 -- -- drawing by (59) [2] 17 \"Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple--'Blanche Ames',\" Michael Yanny (51) [1] 3337 Siberian iris (31) 127; (44) [3] 13 -- pea-shrub (31) 242 -- pea tree (32) 67 Sibundoy, Valley of [Colombia] (46) [3] inside front cover Sidalcea cultivars (35) 40, 41 Siebold, Philipp Franz Balthasar von (30) 145; (31) 42; (50) [3] 8, 11; (57) [3] 15, 16 Siegel, Robert (49) [1] 31 Sierra Nevada (47) [4] 17; (48) [1] 23 -- -- mountains, climate of (49) [4] 35 -- -- soils in (49) [4] 13 Sigma Xi, Society of the (32) 268 Sikiang [China] (48) [1] 25 Silber, Mark, and Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., \"Yews in Fiction and Fact\" (30) 139 7 S 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 Silberglied, Robert (42) [3] 139 Sihlwald (60) [2] 29 \"Sihlwald--I\" [1890], Gifford Pinchot (60) [2] 2728 ----II\" [1890], Gifford Pinchot (60) [2] 2830 Silene cucubalus (34) 162; (37) 218 Silk tree (31) 290, 293; (32) 69, 85; (38) 102, 107; (55) [2] inside back cover Silphium terebinthinaceum (54) [3] 9 Silva Delgado, Leandro (47) [3] 22, 23 -- -- -- watercolor by (47) [3] 27 The Silva of North America, C. S. Sargent (31) 23; (32) 7, 52, 178, 185, 189; (47) [1] 3; [3] 1; (48) [1] 2; (49) [1] 13; (54) [2] 14, 18 Silver, Mark and Terry (49) [3] 44 \"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own Adaptability,\" Harold Koda (59) [3] 2331 \"`Silver Parasol': A New Magnolia Cultivar,\" Stephen A. Spongberg and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (41) 7077 Silverbell (32) 84, 95; (53) [4] 30 -- Carolina (31) 244 -- mountain (30) 170 Silverman, Milton (59) [1] 23, 25, 2730 Silverman, Rita (39) 348 Silvery cinquefoil (46) [3] 52 Silvestri, P. C. (52) [1] 18, 20, 22 Silvianthus bracteata (48) [2] 6 Silybum marianum (39) 266 Simancas, archives of [Spain] (47) [3] 9 Simaroubaceae (57) [1] 14; [3] 21, 2829 Simmons, John (49) [4] 36 Simon, Richard (54) [3] 4 Simonds, O. C. (60) [3] 5 \"A Simple Frame for Softwood Propagation,\" Alfred J. Fordham (32) 160164 Sinarundinaria murielae (44) [4] 4546 -- nitida (44) [3] 19 Singapore holly (36) 5, 19 Sino-American Botanical Expedition, 1980 (50) [3] 12, 29; (51) [1] 214; (54) [3] 32; (57) [2] 19, 23; (59) [1] 47, 4849, 52 -- -- --, American members of, photos by (45) [4] 13, 14, 16 Sino-American Botanical Expedition, 1984 (46) [4] 1536, 1720, 22, 2432, 35, inside back cover, back cover \"Sino-American Sampler,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (51) [1] 214 Sino-Himalayan flora (50) [1] 9 Sinocalycanthus chinensis (51) [1] 1822, back cover Sinojackia rehderiana -- xylocarpa (52) [1] 18 Sinoradlkofera minor (38) 228 Sinowilsonia henryi (36) 71, 105, 106; (51) [1] 13; (55) [1] 15, 17 Sinton, Nan, \"Books\" (51) [2] 40 -- -- photo by (50) [1] back cover Sipi (31) 292 -- acorns (31) 286 Siporin, Judith, \"`Open to All Real Plant Lovers': Book Review\" (57) [4] 3335 Sirococcus clavigignenti juglandacearum (44) [1] 14 Siu, S. M. (31) 271 Sium sisarum (31) 201 Sieversia pentapetala (38) 90 Six Month Residence and Travels in Mexico, by W. Bullock [1824] (47) [3] 16 Skarstad, Jill (39) 352 Skeggs (31) 187 Skimmia japonica (38) 30, 85 -- -- f. leucocarpa (43) [1] 6 -- -- var. repens (47) [2] 7 Skinner, D. Henry (45) [1] 23 Skirret (31) 201 Skunk cabbage (37) 172; (43) [2] 15, 2930; (47) [2] 28 -- -- yellow (52) [2] 42 Slade, James (48) [3] 34 Sladenia celastrifolia (48) [2] 4, 6 Slash Disposal Act [MA] (45) [1] 10 \"Slaughtered Giant\" [1890] (60) [2] 19 Sleep movements in plants (36) 41 Slieve Donard Nursery [Northern Ireland] (31) 47 S Cumulative Index 9 Slive, Seymour, Peter Shaw Ashton, and Alice Davies, \"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees\" (42) [1] 231 Sloane, Hans (57) [2] 26 Sloanea cheliensis (48) [2] 6 -- tomentosa (48) [2] 7 S. M. Japanese Nursery Co. [NJ] (49) [3] 3, 17, 19 Small, J. K. (50) [4] 27 \"Small Shrubs with Noteworthy Winter Bark,\" Margo W. Reynolds (36) 2832 Smartweed (34) 168, 169; (43) [2] 8 Smilacina racemosa (52) [2] 45 Smilax (55) [2] 6 -- laurifolia (31) 90 Smiley, Charles J. (53) [2] 3, 4, 5, 6; (59) [1] 6061 Smith, Albert C. (32) 52 Smith, Benjamin H. (49) [2] 24 Smith, E. LaVerne, photo by (47) [2] 22 Smith, Erwin F., Dr. (44) [3] 4 Smith, Harrison W. (59) [1] 17 Smith, Harry, Dr. (48) [2] 34 Smith, James Edward (56) [4] 21, 23, 26 Smith, Jeanne, \"The Mexican White Pine\" (39) 278285 Smith, John [Captain, of Virginia colony] (48) [3] 1819; (53) [1] 8 Smith, Junius, Dr. (31) 22 Smith, Mr., letters to (49) [2] 21 Smith, Olga A., drawing by (45) [2] 21 Smith, W. W. (54) [2] 27 Smith College [Northhampton, MA] (57) [2] 20 Smith College Botanic Garden [MA] (58) [1] 2426; (3) 29 -- -- -- -- -- plan of (53) [3] 14 Smithsonian Institution (46) [4] 21; (47) [4] 11; (52) [2] 28 Smog, London (32) 228 -- photo-chemical (30) 43 Smokebush (32) 91, 97; (54) [2] 2122, 23, 27; Smoketree (31) 220; (35) 93; (54) [2] 21, 27 -- American (44) [2] 1722, 18; (54) [2] 2122, 24, 28 -- -- bark (44) [2] inside back cover -- -- distribution of (54) [2] 22 -- -- leaves (44) [2] front cover -- -- trunk (44) [2] back cover -- common (44) [2] back cover Smooth winterberry (47) [1] 10 Smythies, B. E. (60) [4] 6 Snakehead (31) 179; (34) 308 Snakeroot (31) 32; (34) 312; (39) 254 -- black (34) 314 -- button (34) 379 Snapdragon (31) 169, 194; (39) 250 Sneezeweed (34) 350 -- orange (34) 352 Sneezewood (31) 77 Sneezewort (31) 25; (34) 267 Snell, George (48) [4] 23 Snow leopards (50) [1] 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 Snow rice-cake plant (47) [2] 30 -- rose (36) 19 Snowball (53) [2] 10, 18 Snowbell, fragrant (52) [1] 5; (55) [4] 12 -- Japanese (52) [1] 28 \"Snowbells of Korea,\" Paul Meyer (52) [1] 28 Snowberry (30) 173; (38) 110; (43) [1] 6; (56) [2] 24 -- creeping (45) [4] 24 Snowdrop (31) 229; (36) 50; [2] inside back cover; (37) 96 -- autumnal (31) 188 -- summer (31) 188 Snowdrop tree (31) 244 Snow-in-the-summer (34) 306 Snow-on-the-mountain (31) 73; (34) 64, 65; (39) 255 \"So Near the Metropolis: Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting,\" by Elizabeth Hope Cushing (48) [4] 3751 S 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 Soap bean tree (31) 18 Soapwort (31) 227; (32) 136; (39) 266 Sociedad de Historia Natural de Mexico (47) [3] 18 Society of American Foresters (49) [4] 16 Softwood cuttings (32) 161 Soil, compaction (51) [1] 2528 -- conditions (37) 236239 -- drainage classes (51) [1] 29 -- ecology (59) [2] 3543 -- forest (58) [2] 4, 68, 1315, 3334, 3740, 43; [3] 48; (59) [2] 3643 -- microfauna (49) [4] 9 -- mineral layer (49) [4] 19 -- oxidation-reduction state of (49) [4] 6 -- peds (49) [4] 15 -- pores (49) [4] 10, 18 -- microorganisms (51) [1] 25 -- modifications (56) [4] 1213 -- -- for perennials (35) 6667 -- pollution (30) 3740 -- reaction to heat (51) [1] 25 -- restoration (59) [2] 36, 3740, 41, 42 -- rooting volume (51) [1] 3031 -- type, clay-loam (49) [4] 6, 11 -- -- compacted (49) [4] 10, 1820 -- -- geologically young (49) [4] 12 -- -- sandy (49) [4] 12, 13 -- -- wet (49) [4] 11 -- -- undisturbed [4] 11 \"Soil as a Living System,\" Leslie Jones Sauer (59) [2] 3543 Soil-warming experiment (58) [2] 3940 Solana, TX (57) [2] 13 Solanum (34) 174; (50) [4] 12 -- spp. at risk (46) [3] 45 -- dulcamara (34) 87, 174 -- lobulatum (31) 316 -- muricatum (50) [4] 14 -- nigrum (34) 86, 87, 174 -- nodiflorum (32) 29 -- pseudocapsicum (34) 86, 87 -- quitoense (50) [4] 14 -- tuberosum (31) 210, 211; (34) 85 Solbrig, Otto T. (33) 144 -- -- -- \"Chromosome Cytology and Arboreta: A Marriage of Convenience\" (33) 135146 Soldanella (45) [4] 28 Soledad [Cienfuegos, Cuba] (51) [3] 2232 Solidago (34) 195; (39) 266; (51) [2] 23, 2631; (52) [4] 29 -- cvs. (35) 4142 -- canadensis (34) 195 -- odorata (39) 266 -- rugosa (55) [3] 5 Soliman (31) 20 Solis sponsa (calendula) (31) 176 \"Solitude,\" estate of John Penn [PA] (31) 158 Solomon's seal (35) 29; (39) 264; (44) [4] 51 -- -- false (52) [2] 45 Solsequia (31) 176 \"Some Afterthoughts on Apples,\" Jeanne S. Wadleigh (33) 228230 \"Some Old and New Interspecific Magnolia Hybrids,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (36) 129145 Somers, Paul (46) [3] 24 Somoku Kihin Kagami [Kintaro, 1827] (49) [3] 12, 13 Sonchus (34) 196 -- arvensis (34) 196 -- oleraceus (34) 196 Song, Leo, Jr. (54) [2] 8 Soochow Garden [China] (37) 161, 162 Sophora japonica (31) 242; (32) 67; (38) 112, 113, 157; (39) 131, 132, 229; (44) [3] 17; [4] 20; (47) [3] 38; (54) [1] 4, 5, 8; (55) [3] 17 S Cumulative Index 11 -- secundiflora (32) 207; (41) 90, 91 Sorbaria (38) 108; (48) [3] 29 -- grandiflora (44) [4] 48 -- sorbifolia (41) 190, 191; (44) [4] 46, 47, 48; (55) [3] 18 Sorbus (32) 68, 79; (44) [1] 22; (45) [4] 28; (49) [1] 68; (51) [1] 4 -- alnifolia (30) 169; (38) 138, 170172; (39) 164, 165, 227; (51) [1] 5 -- americana (45) [4] 22 -- aucuparia (38) 172; (44) [4] 46 -- -- & vars. (30) 169 -- commixta (38) 93 -- decora (52) [3] 11 -- esserteauiana (39) 199, 224 -- hemsleyi (51) [1] 67 -- `Joseph Rock' (52) [2] 31 -- matsumurana (38) 90, 91; (47) [2] 5 -- sambucifolia var. pseudogracilis (38) 87 -- torminalis (31) 220 -- yuana (51) [1] 45; (55) [4] 13, 14 Sorcerer's violet (39) 269 Sorensen, Paul D. (49) [1] 20 -- -- -- \"The Dahlia: An Early History\" (30) 121138 Sorghastrum nutans `Sioux Blue' (54) [3] 5, 10 Sorrel (31) 202 -- field (34) 211 -- garden (31) 231 -- sheep (34) 211 -- tree (30) 169, 171; (38) 107 -- wood (34) 188 Soto de Migas Calientes, El [Madrid] (47) [3] 5, 78 Soufriere [St. Vincent Island] (57) [4] 16 Soulange-Bodin, Etienne (48) [4] 23 SOURCEBOOK OF CULTIVAR NAMES, Arthur O. Tucker, Scott G. Kunst, Freek Vrugtman, Laurence C. Hatch (54) [4] 359 Sourgum (39) 156, 157; (60) [2] 17 Sourwood (30) 169, 171; (31) 244; (32) 84, 94; (38) 107 Sousa-Sanchez, Mario (32) 265 South Africa, gardens and plants of (32) 103, 220225; (54) [2] 8 South China (48) [2] 3 -- -- Agricultural University (48) [2] 31 -- -- Institute of Botany (48) [2] 21 South End [Boston] (48) [4] 34, 35 South Park [Chicago] (54) [3] 18 South Sulawesi, Indonesia (45) [3] front cover, inside front cover, back cover Souther estate [Jamaica Plain] (51) [2] 32, 34, 35, 38 Souther, Maria (51) [2] 34 The Southern Garden, by Ben Arthur Davis [review of] (33) 305 Southern yew (36) 19 Southernwood (31) 202; (34) 288; (39) 250 Southwest Corridor Park [Boston] (39) 342, 343; (48) [3] 1112 Southwest Missouri State University (46) [4] 21 Sovasol (30) 207 Soviet Council of Botanic Gardens [Moscow] (36) 112 Soviet Union, Botanical Gardens (36) 110118 Spanish Civil War (47) [3] 22 Sparaxis (32) 220 Sparganium eurycarpum (43) [2] 7, 24 Sparks, Jared, Prof. (33) 170, 172 Sparmannia (36) 6 -- africana (36) 20 Spartina (54) [3] 7 -- michauxiana `Aureo-marginata' (35) 61 -- pectinata (54) [3] 8 -- -- `Aureo-marginata' (35) 61; (54) [3] 10 Spartium junceum (31) 215 Spath Nurseries [Berlin] (31) 45; (57) [3] 5 Spathodea campanulata (37) 218, 219 Spearmint (31) 201; (39) 246 Specimen, five-millionth, Harvard University Herbaria (56) [3] back cover S 12 Arnoldia, 19702000 Speciation in plants (53) [4] 2930 Species diversity (58) [1] 2932, 41 -- migration (58) [1] 18; [2] 46, 18 Spectacle Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 21, 22 Speedway [Boston] (53) [4] 10 Speedwell (35) 52 Sperage (asparagus) (31) 203 Sphenostigma coelestinum (46) [3] 28 Spicebush (31) 41, 220; (36) 24; (56) [2] 24 -- Chinese (55) [1] 15 -- evergreen (55) [1] 18 -- Japanese (60) [4] 16 Spicebush swallowtail (36) 27 Spiderflower (39) 254 Spiderwort (31) 138; (35) 48; (53) [1] 9 Spike heath (37) 104 Spinach (or spinage) (31) 212 Spinacia oleracea (31) 212; (44) [3] 25 Spindle tree (34) 63 Spiraea (or spirea) (31) 244; (56) [2] 25 -- Bumald (44) [4] 48 -- dwarf (52) [3] 13 -- false (34) 293 -- frutex (31) 220 -- Gold Flame (44) [4] 48 -- Grefsteini Garland (41) 192 -- Japanese (44) [4] 48 -- Japanese white (41) 191 Spiraea (or Spirea) (36) 57; (45) [4] 27, 30; (55) [1] 18; [3] 18 -- albiflora (41) 191 -- x arguta (55) [4] 8 -- -- `Grefsteini' (41) 192 -- x bumalda (44) [4] 48 -- -- `Anthony Waterer' (38) 108 -- -- `Gold Flame' (44) [4] 48 -- japonica `Little Princess' (52) [3] 13 -- prunifolia (30) 172; (57) [1] 10 -- salicifolia (31) 220 -- tomentosa (31) 244 -- x vanhouttei (31) 167 Spiranthes (41) 146148 -- sinensis (38) 90; (41) 147 Spiritualists (48) [4] 4143 Spirn, Anne Whiston, \"Design for Survival\" (44) [4] 2936 Spleenwort, mountain (46) [3] 20 Spodiopogon sibiricus (54) [3] 7 Spongberg, Harmony C., \"The Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection\" (33) 231234 Spongberg, Stephen A. (39) 347, 356, 357, 359, 360, 361; (46) [4] 4; (49) [1] 3, 37, 74; (55) [1] 37; [4] 67, 24; (56) [3] 24; (57) [2] 23; (59) [1] 48 -- -- -- book review [of Magnolias, by Neil Treseder] (30) 2627 -- -- -- \"Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea,\" with Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38) 2831 -- -- -- \"Establishing Traditions at the Arnold Arboretum\" (49) [1] 1120 -- -- -- \"First Japanese Plants for New England\" [excerpt from A Reunion of Trees] (50) [3] 211 -- -- -- \"Garden and Forest: The Botanical Basis of It All\" (60) [2] 79 -- -- -- \"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Landscape,\" with Peter Del Tredici (53) [4] 2025 -- -- -- \"`Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston,\" with Del Tredici (52) [1] 1823 -- -- -- \"In Memoriam: Jennifer Reimer Quigley\" (54) [1] 35 -- -- -- \"Introducing Weigela subsessilis,\" with Peter Del Tredici (53) [4] 3133 -- -- -- \"Korean Adventure\" (38) 132152 -- -- -- \"Late Summer Ornamental\" (54) [3] 3234 -- -- -- \"Magnolia salicifolia, An Arboretum Introduction\" (41) 5058 -- -- -- \"Metasequoia glyptostroboidesIts Status in Central China in 1980,\" with Bruce Bartholomew and David Boufford [excerpt] (59) [1] 4752 -- -- -- \"New Magnolia Blooms in Boston,\" with Peter Del Tredici (49) [2] 2527 -- -- -- Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (39) 370376 -- -- -- \"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes\" (39) 290309; [reprint] (51) [4] 4754 S Cumulative Index -- -- -- \"`Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden-Rain Tree,\" with Frank S. Santamour, Jr. (56) [2] 3237; -- -- -- \"`Silver Parasol', A New Magnolia Cultivar,\" with Weaver (41) 7077 -- -- -- \"Sino-American Sampler\" (51) [1] 214 -- -- -- \"Some Old and New Interspecific Magnolia Hybrids\" (36) 129145 -- -- -- \"Sourcebook of Cultivar Names,\" preface (54) [4] 34 -- -- -- \"Stewartias--Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons,\" with Alfred J. Fordham (35) 165180 -- -- -- \"Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold Arboretum\" (50) [3] 2932 -- -- -- \"Tentative Key to the Cultivated Magnolias\" (34) 111, 165180 -- -- -- photos by (39) 291, 303; (59) [1] front cover Spooner, William H. (33) 174 Sporobolus heterolepis (54) [3] 5, 1011 Spotted hemlock (45) [1] 28 Spraker, Leslie J., and Alfred J. Fordham, \"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms\" (37) 188 Spring beauty (37) 93 Spring Garden [London, England] (57) [2] 9 Spring Grove Cemetery [Chicago, IL] (54) [2] 16 Spring-scent (31) 89 Spring tails (49) [4] 9 Sprouting, after disturbance (58) [2] 9, 19, 27, 34, 36, 37, 41; (59) [2] 32; [3] 1415, 1622; [4] 1214, 1724 Spruce (32) 65; (37) 6264; (42) [1] 10; [3] 105; (52) [2] 30, 31; (57) [1] 24 -- budworm (45) [4] 27, 30 -- roots of (49) [4] 13 -- trunk sections (56) [4] 15 -- Alcock's (42) [3] 111, 112 -- black (42) [3] 120 -- blue (54) [3] 28 -- Brewer's (42) [3] 113 -- candelabra (42) [3] 122, 123 -- Chinese (42) [3] 112 -- Colorado (42) [3] 114, 115; [4] 138; (56) [3] 16 -- -- blue (39) 215, 326 -- dwarf Alberta (42) [3] 117, 116 -- Engelmann (42) [3] 114, 115; [4] 143 -- Koyama's (42) [3] 118 -- Likiang (42) [3] 119 -- Norway (42) [1] 9; [3] 103, 109 -- -- weeping (50) [1] 28 -- Oriental (39) 214, 215; (42) [3] 124 -- purple-cone (42) [3] 119 -- red (42) [3] 120; (57) [2] back cover -- Sakhalin (42) [3] 117 -- Schrenk's (42) [3] 126 -- Serbian (39) 213, 214; (42) [3] 123 -- Siberian (42) [3] 122 -- Thian Shan (44) [3] 12 -- tigertail (42) [3] 125; (48) [1] 39 -- white (42) [3] 116; (49) [4] 2 -- Wilson's (42) [3] 127128 Spruce, Richard (44) [2] 5, 10 Spruces (48) [1] 5; (58) [2] 5, 67; [3] 3, 6, 9 \"Spruces in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Richard Warren (42) [3] 102129 Spurge (31) 73; (34) 339 -- cushion (34) 340 -- family (52) [2] 24 -- flowering (34) 340 Spurs, fruiting (59) [4] 18, 20, 22, 24 Squantum [Quincy, MA] (48) [3] 19 \"Squares of Paris\" [1888], Henry S. Codman (60) [3] 9 Squash (31) 172 -- summer (31) 212 Squaw Rock [Quincy, MA] (48) [3] 19 Squirrel corn (37) 95 Srivastava, Lalit M. (33) 65 -- -- -- \"Cambial Activity in Trees\" (33) 4666 Stachys grandiflora (30) 238; (35) 42; (39) 266 -- lanata (35) 42, 43 13 S 14 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- macrantha (35) 42; (39) 266 -- olympica (31) 28; (39) 240, 268 Stachyurus praecox (43) [1] 4 Stacy, Elizabeth (56) [1] 12 Staghorn sumac (34) 228 Stahle, David W., \"Tree Rings and Ancient Forest Relics,\"(56) [4] 210 -- -- -- photos by (56) [4] inside front and back covers, 36 Staking (37) 237, 240 -- methods for perennials (35) 6875 Stan Hywet Hall [Akron, OH] (56) [2] 9; (57) [1] 11 Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture [Bailey, 1900] (54) [1] 28 Standish House [Plymouth, MA] (31) 161 Staphylea (32) 77; (40) 7693; (55) [3] 17 -- bolanderi (40) 80, 81, 83, 84 -- brighamii (40) 82 -- bumalda (37) 227, 228; (38) 88; (40) 80, 81, 86, 87 -- colchica (37) 227; (40) 80, 81, 88, 89, 90, 91 -- -- f. grandiflora (37) 228 -- colombieri (40) 77, 90, 91 -- elegans var. hessei (37) 228 -- emodi (40) 81, 84 -- holocarpa (40) 80, 81, 84, 85, 86 -- pinnata (31) 214; (37) 227; (40) 78, 79, 80, 81, 91, 93 -- pringlei (40) 82 -- trifolia (32) 65; (35) 117; (37) 227; (40) 80, 81, 82, 83 Staples, George, book review by (45) [2] 3839 Star of Bethlehem (31) 194 Starry grasswort (34) 306 Starting from Scratch: A Guide to Indoor Gardening, J. Whitman [review of] (39) 7172 Starwort (31) 175; (34) 292 -- false (34) 299 Stashko, Edward,\"Ecology for Your Backyard: Book Review\" (53) [2] 3032 State Arboretum of Utah [Salt Lake City] (46) [3] 6 Statice (39) 258 -- hardy (31) 129; (34) 384 Stauntonia hexaphylla `Cartwheel' (43) [4] 17 Stay-in-place (31) 136; (35) 24 Stearn, William T. (32) 191, 268; (50) [4] 24 -- -- -- \"From Medieval Park to Modern Arboretum: The Arnold Arboretum and its Historic Background\" (32) 173197 Steele, Arthur Robert, Flowers for the King (47) [3] 4, 6, 15, 22 Steele, Fletcher (52) [1] 28; (55) [1] 26 Steele, Richard, Sir (31) 156 Steere, William C. (33) 163 -- -- -- \"The Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gardens\" (33) 157168 Stefany, William (60) [4] 36 Stellaria media (34) 160 Stellenbosch University Botanic Gardens [South Africa] (54) [2] 8 Stenanthium gramineum var. robustum (37) 178 -- occidentale (37) 178 -- robustum (37) 178 -- sachalinense (37) 179 Stephanandra incisa `Crispa' (30) 158 Stephens, Edith, \"Cape Flats Wild Flower Reserve\" (32) 223 Sterculia foetida (37) 226 -- platanifolia (31) 16 -- villosa (48) [2] 4 Sterculiaceae(50) [2] 32 Sterigmas (48) [1] 4 Stern, Edith and Edgar, garden of (57) [1] 11 Stern, William L. (32) 263 -- -- -- \"The Wood Collection: What Should Be Its Future?\" (33) 6780 Sternbergia lutea (31) 228 Stevens, Jeanne (39) 352 Stevens, Peter (39) 352, 357, 358 -- -- \"A Multitude of Botanies: Book Essay\" (56) [4] 2527 Steward, Albert (48) [2] 15, 16 Stewartia, Chinese (55) [1] 14; (60) [4] 17 S Cumulative Index -- Korean (30) 169; (60) [4] 17 -- mountain (31) 244 -- showy (36) 31 Stewartia (31) 89, 244; (35) 165180; (36) 5; (38) 147, 149; (43) [1] 3; (55) [1] 9; [4] 12 -- gemmata (35) 173, 174 -- x henryae (35) 169, 171 -- koreana (30) 169; (32) 264 -- malacodendron (31) 244; (33) 93; (35) 169, 171; (53) [1] 15 -- monadelpha (35) 169, 170, 174, 175 -- ovata (31) 244; (35) 169; (53) [1] 15, 17 -- -- grandiflora (35) 171; (36) 31 -- pseudocamellia (35) 167, 169, 175; (38) 96; (52) [3] 11; (53) [1] 15, 17; [4] 22; (60) [4] 11, 17 -- -- `Korean Splendor' (35) [4] front cover, 176 -- rostrata (34) 397; (35) 169, 170, 172, 173 -- serrata (35) 169, 172 -- sinensis (34) 397; (35) 169, 110, 172, 174; (55) [1] 14, 1617, 18; (60) [4] inside front & back covers, 17 \"Stewartias--Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons,\" Stephen A. Spongberg and Alfred J. Fordham (35) 165180 Steyermark, Julian (51) [3] 14 Stickney, Charles O. (48) [4] 42 Sticta weigelii (35) 154 Stiles, William A. (60) [2] 19, 20, 21, 3943, 40; [3] 5 Stillingia sebifera (31) 17 Stinking Willie (37) 176 Stipa gigantea (52) [2] 45 Stock (31) 173 Stock-gilliflower (31) 194 Stokes aster (31) 227; (35) 44, 45 Stokesia laevis (31) 227; (35) 44, 45 Stolons (55) [3] 13 \"Stone Field Sculpture,\" by Carl Andre (47) [2] 9 \"Stone Magnolias,\" R. B. Figlar (53) [2] 39 Stonecress (34) 273 Stonecrop (31) 136 -- hexagon (39) 266 -- showy (31) 136; (35) 38 Stopes, Marie (31) 267 Storer, Susan \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities\" (47) [2] 1619 Stories of Ladies [Chinese painting] (31) 270 \"The Story of Forsythia,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. and Robert S. Hebb (31) 4161 \"Storm Damage,\" Notes from the Arnold Arboretum, Gary L. Koller (37) 127133 \"Storms and the Landscape: 19381997,\" Susan Kelley (57) [1] 2232 Stourhead estate [Wiltshire, England] (53) [3] 16 \"Story of Shortia,\" Charles Sprague Sargent [reprinted] (46) [3] 2831 Story of the Royal Horticultural Society, Harold R. Fletcher [review of] (31) 370 Strachey, William (48) [4] 54 Straley, Gerald (52) [1] 28 -- -- \"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis--Chinese Wax Shrub\" (51) [1] 1822 Strandell, Birger, Dr. (30) 6061 Strawberry (31) 226; (32) 272; (39) 255, 256 Strawberry tomato (37) 220 Strawflowers (31) 194 STREET TREES FOR HOME AND MUNICIPAL LANDSCAPES (39) [3] 73237 Street trees (53) [3] 412 -- -- care of (51) [1] 2332 Strelitzia (32) 220 Strelitzia alba (50) [1] 22 -- reginae (47) [3] 38 Streptocarpus (32) 220 Streptocarpus, cvs. (35) 124127 -- propagation (33) 185 -- `Blue Nymph' (33) 184, 186 -- `Cobalt Nymph' (33) 184, 187 -- `Constant Nymph' (35) 124127 -- johannis (33) 184 -- `Maassen's White' (33) 187; (35) 124 -- `Merton Blue' (33) 184 -- `Mini Nymph' (33) 184, 187 15 S 16 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- `Netta Nymph' (33) 184, 187 -- `Purple Nymph' (33) 184, 187 -- rexii (32) 222 \"Streptocarpus `Constant Nymph' and Its Mutants,\" George H. Pride (33) 184188, 185 Streptomyces scabies (38) 37 Stropharia (32) 205 Strouthion (32) 136 \"Struggle for Survival,\" Alfred J. Fordham (33) 235238 Strybing Arboretum [San Francisco] (51) [1] 20; (57) [2] 22 Strychnos (32) 212; (50) [2] 24 -- spinosa (32) 24 Stuart, Gilbert (47) [4] 27 Stuart, John (53) [1] 15 Studies of the Essex Flora, by Cyrus M. Tracy [mentioned] (48) [4] 43 Sturbridge Village (or Old Sturbridge Village) [MA] (31) 160, 166 -- -- Preservation Orchard (33) 230 Sturtevant, Grace (47) [4] 14, 15 Style composite, codification of (54) [2] 18 Styphnolobium japonicum (60) [1] 16; [4] 26 Styrax cvs. (52) [1] 78, 18 -- americanum (60) [1] 11 -- japonica (= japonicus) (38) [4] front cover; (52) [1] inside front cover, back cover, inside back cover, 28; (57) [1] 31 -- -- cvs. (52) [1] 78 -- -- `Carillon' (43) [4] 17 -- -- `Pink Chimes' (43) [4] 17; (44) [1] 36 -- obassia (52) [1] 28; (55) [4] 10, 12 Su Feng-lin (39) 354 \"Subtropical Bonsai for Indoor Gardening,\" Constance T. Derderian (36) 121 \"Suburban Economics,\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (30) 175 Succory (31) 206 Sugarberry (39) 146; (54) [1] 7 Sugarcane cultivation (51) [3] 22, 23, 26, 27 -- `Cristalina' variety [3] 27, 28 Sulawesi, Indonesia (45) [3] 212 -- South (45) [3] front cover, inside front cover, back cover Sullivan, Sally Lindfors, \"Plants in Early Japanese Poetry\" (31) 284 Sulphur dioxide (30) 41 Sumac (30) 173; (52) [4] 29; (56) [3] 9 -- aromatic (35) 93, 94, 118 -- Chinese (39) 198; (44) [4] 4445, 45 -- dwarf (35) 93 -- fragrant (30) 171; (31) 244; (41) 182 -- -- `Gro-Low' (44) [4] 44 -- poison (34) 81; (35) 97, 98 -- shining (30) 171; (41) 183 -- smooth (30) 171; (35) 93 -- staghorn (30) 171; (34) 228; (35) 93, 94; (48) [3] 31; (52) [4] inside front cover; (56) [2] 12 -- Venetian (54) [2] 21 Sumacke, Venice (31) 220 \"Summer Bloom in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Ida Hay Burch (38) 102113 Sun Chengyong, Wang Xiapu, and Jin Xiaobai, \"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection\" (46) [4] 4651 Sun, C. S. (46) [4] 19 Sun Valley Bulb Farm, Inc. [OR] (34) 131 Sundrop (31) 133; (35) 13; (44) [2] 28 Sunflower (31) 196; (39) 256 -- orange (34) 352 Sunflower Mine [AZ] (47) [4] 15 Sung Period [China] (31) 270; (47) [2] 9 Sunol, Jose (47) [3] 5, 7 Sunset hardiness zones (54) [3] 24 Supercooling (45) [4] 36 \"Survival of the Most Adaptable,\" Peter Del Tredici (60) [4] 1018 Susanville [CA] (47) [4] 17 \"Sustainable Trees for Sustainable Cities,\" Henry Arnold (53) [3] 412 Susuki (31) 293 Sutton, Stephanne B. (31) 23; (32) 271; (60) [2] 19 S Cumulative Index -- -- -- \"Actinidia chinensis: The Kiwi Fruit,\" (30) 180185; (31) 23 -- -- -- \"The Arboretum Administrators: An Opinionated History\" (32) 320 Suzuki, Hamakichi (49) [3] 3, 19 Suzuki, Uhei (49) [3] 3, 19 Swain, Roger, \"Aromatic Pelargoniums\" (34) 97124 Swainsona galegifolia (37) 223 Swakop River [Namibia] (54) [2] 24 Swakopmund [Namibia] (54) [2] 23 Swamp pink (37) 181; (46) [3] 7, 35 -- red-berry bush (31) 245 Swanboats (48) [3] 32, 3738, 37, 45 Swartz, Caroline J., \"Botanical Gold: Exploring the Treasures of the Harvard University Herbaria\" (46) [2] 3538 Swedish East Indiaman [ship] (31) 21 Sweet bay (31) 90, 218; (32) 90; (36) 129 -- -- evergreen (60) [4] 16 -- briar (39) 265; (43) [3] 7 -- cicely (39) 261 -- clover (34) 156 -- fern (31) 238; (35) 116; (56) [3] 211, 5, 7, 10 -- -- blister rust (56) [3] 9 -- gale (31) 244; (43) [4] 20; (55) [4] 26 -- John (31) 168, 174 -- pea (31) 169 -- -- annual (31) 230 -- -- perennial (31) 196 -- pepperbush (31) 236; (51) 1821 -- potato (52) [2] 23, 24 -- -- farming [Madagascar] (32) 22, 26 -- rocket (39) 256 -- shrub (31) 89, 234; (43) [1] 41; (44) [4] 41 -- William (31) 168, 174 -- woodruff (39) 251 \"Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation,\" Michael A. Dirr (51) [3] 1821 Sweetgum (30) 171; (31) 220; (32) 72, 73; (36) 9298; (48) [4] 33; (52) [1] 18; (54) [1] 9; (55) [3] 11; (57) [1] 17 -- root system of (49) [4] 26 -- American (36) 9498, 95, 96; (39) 114, 115 -- Mexican (36) 97 Sweetleaf (44) [3] 3435 -- Asiatic (30) 173 -- Chinese (55) [1] 18 \"The Sweetleaf,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (44) [3] 3435 Sweetspire (31) 244; (43) [1] 26; (56) [3] 21 Swingle, Walter T. (58) [1] 17 Swissair Photo & Surveys, Ltd. [Zurich] (49) [1] 61, 62 Sycamore (31) 220; (32) 72, 73 -- American (53) [1] 10, 33; [4] 28 -- roots of (49) [4] 20 -- dicamba (49) [4] 16 Sycoparrotia semidecidua (49) [4] 37 Sycopsis sinensis (36) 71, 107; (49) [4] 37 Sylva, John Evelyn [1664] (32) 177, 185 Symbolanthus (33) 196, 198 -- tricolor (33) 194 Symphony Hall [Boston] (48) [4] 25 Symphoricarpos (38) 110; (55) [3] 18 -- albus (30) 173; (43) [1] 6; (56) [2] 24 -- x chenaultii (30) 173 -- -- `Hancock' (44) [4] 2526, 39, 42 Symphyandra hofmannii (55) [1] 8 -- wanneri (55) [1] 10 Symphytum officinale (31) 200; (39) 247, 268 Symplocarpus (47) [2] 27 -- growing in Japan (30) 20 -- foetidus (37) 172; (43) [2] 15, 2930; (47) [2] 27, 28 -- nipponicus (37) 172 -- renifolius (37) 172 Symplocos chinensis (55) [1] 18 17 S 18 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- paniculata (30) 173; (35) [4] inside back cover; (39) 200, 201, 224; (44) [3] 34 -- tinctoria var. ashei (44) [3] 34 -- -- var. pygmaea (44) [3] 34 -- -- var. tinctoria (44) [3] 34, 35 Synge, Hugh (49) [1] 45 Synonyms, botanical (49) [1] 3941 Syosset [NY] (47) [4] 10 Syria (48) [1] 22 Syringa (31) 220 -- Persian (31) 221 Syringa (44) [3] 31; (47) [4] 13; (49) [2] 8; -- cvs. (32) 133135 -- spp. (45) [4] 23 -- tissue culture of (45) [2] 30 -- `Adam Mickiewicz' (31) 125 -- `Agincourt Beauty' (31) 121 -- `Agnes Smith' (31) 121 -- alba (31) 221 -- `Alexander's Attraction' (31) 121 -- `Alexander's Variegated' (31) 121 -- `Alice Franklin' (31) 121 -- `Alice Rose Foster' (31) 121 -- amurense (31) 120; (44) [3] 6 -- -- var. japonica (31) 120; (39) 165, 166 -- amurensis (38) 67 -- -- var. japonica (38) 7678 -- `Anna Karpow' (31) 125 -- arabica (31) 255 -- arabica flore albo duplici (31) 218 -- `Basia' (31) 121 -- `Blue Delight' (31) 122 -- `Bogdan Przyrzykowski' (31) 125 -- `Bright Centennial' (31) 122 -- caerulea (31) 221 -- -- lusitanica (31) 116 -- x chinensis (31) 117, 119; (38) 66; (57) [1] 12 -- -- -- cvs (56) [1] 28 -- -- `Lilac Sunday' (60) [4] 12, 13 -- -- f. alba (or `Alba') (38) 66; (57) [1] 13 -- -- 'Lilac Sunday' (57) [1] 12, 13, back cover -- -- f. saugeana (or `Saugeana') (38) 66; (57) [1] 13 -- `Cynthia' (31) 122 -- `Danusia' (31) 122 -- `Dappled Dawn' (31) 122 -- `Diana' (31) 122 -- x diversifolia (38) 66, 68 -- `Dr. W. Bugala' (31) 125 -- `Dwight D. Eisenhower' (31) 122 -- `Eaton Red' (31) 122 -- `Elaire Brown Alexander' (31) 122 -- `Eliose' (31) 122 -- `Elizabeth Files' (31) 122 -- `Esterka' (31) 122 -- `Fale Baltyku' (31) 125 -- `Far Horizon' (31) 122 -- `Ferna Alexander' (31) 122 -- flore albo simplici (31) 218 -- `Florence' (31) 122 -- `Galina Ulanova' (31) 125 -- `Goplana' (31) 122 -- `Gotensiia' (31) 125 -- `Hagny' (31) 122 -- `Hazel' (31) 122 -- x hyacinthiflora (38) 68, 71, 72; (49) [2] 12; (57) [1] 12 -- -- cvs. (38) 71, 72; (56) [1] 2628 -- -- `Excel' (44) [3] 30, 31 -- `India' (31) 125 S Cumulative Index -- `Irene Karpow-Lipska' (31) 125 -- `Ivan Michurin' (31) 125 -- `Izobiliie' (31) 125 -- `Jack Alexander' (31) 122 -- `Jaga' (31) 122 -- `Jagienka' (31) 122 -- `Jill Alexander' (31) 122 -- x josiflexa (49) [2] 12 -- josikaea (31) 115, 120 (38) 67, 68, 78; (49) [2] 12 -- -- cvs. (38) 68 -- `Judy's Pink' (31) 122 -- julianae (38) 67, 68 -- -- `Hers Variety' (38) 68 -- `Jutrzenka Pomorza' (31) 125 -- `Kapriz' (31) 125 -- `K. A. Timiriazev' (31) 125 -- `Kobierski' (31) 125 -- `Konstanty Karpow' (31) 126 -- `Krasavita Moskvy' (31) 125 -- `Kum-Bum' (31) 122 -- laciniata (38) 66, 69, 74; (57) [1] 12 -- `Leon Wyczolkowski' (31) 126 -- `Leone Gardner' (31) 122 -- `Leonid Leonov' (31) 126 -- `Lilian Davis' (31) 122 -- `Lustrous' (31) 123 -- `Lynette Sirois' (31) 122 -- `Malachow' (31) 126 -- mandshurica (32) 72 -- `Marshal Vasilevskii' (31) 125 -- `Mary Ann Gardner' (31) 123 -- `Mary Evelyn White' (31) 123 -- `May Day' (31) 123 -- meyeri (38) 69, 70; (44) [3] 9, 2; (56) [1] 28 -- -- `Palibin' (38) 70; (55) [1] 9 -- microphylla (38) 70, 71 -- `Mieczta' (31) 126 -- `Minister Dab Kociol' (31) 126 -- `Mount Domogled' (31) 123 -- `Mrs. Charles Davis' (31) 123 -- `Niebo Moskvy' (31) 125 -- `Niewinnosc' (31) 126 -- `Nike' (31) 123 -- oblata (31) 120; (38) 67, 7072; (52) [2] 30; (57) [1] 12; (56) [1] 26 -- -- ssp. (56) [1] 28 -- -- var. dilatata (38) 70, 72 -- -- var. giraldii (38) 66, 70, 72 -- `Old Fashioned' (31) 123 -- `Olimpiada Kolesnikova' (31) 125 -- orbiculatus (31) 236; (35) 235, 236 -- palibiniana (38) 70 -- `Pamiat o S. M. Kirove' (31) 125 -- `Panna Dorota Golabecka' (31) 126 -- patula (38) 70, 72; (49) [2] 4 -- -- `Miss Kim' (38) 72, 73 -- pekinensis (38) 72, 73, 74 -- -- `Pendula' (38) 73 -- persica (31) 117, 118, 119, 221; (57) [1] 12 -- -- var. laciniata (31) 118 -- x persica (38) [3] front cover, 69, 74; (49) [2] 12; (57) [1] 12 -- -- var. laciniata (38) 69, 74 -- `Phyliss Alexander' (31) 123 -- pinnatifolia (38) 66 -- `Pioneer' (31) 125 -- `Piotr Chosinski' (31) 126 -- `Polly Stone' (31) 123 -- `Pol Robson' (31) 126 19 S 20 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- `Pomorzanka' (31) 126 -- potaninii (38) 75 -- prestoniae (30) 94 -- x prestoniae (38) 75, 76, 80; (49) [2] 12 -- -- cvs. (38) 76 -- `Prof. Bialobok' (31) 126 -- `Prof. Edmund Jankowski' (31) 126 -- `Prof. Hoser' (31) 126 -- `Prof. Jose Brzizinski' (31) 126 -- `Prof. Roman Kobendza' (31) 126 -- protolaciniata (57) [1] 12 -- pubescens (56) [1] 25 -- -- ssp. (56) [1] 28 -- `Ralph W. Stone' (31) 123 -- reflexa (38) 76, 78 -- reticulata (30) 166; (38) 73, 76, 77, 78; (39) 165, 166, 224; (44) [4] 20, 21; (49) [2] 5 -- -- var. mandshurica (38) 78 -- `Royalty' (31) 123 -- `Rozana Mlodosc' (31) 126 -- rugulosa (47) [4] 13 -- `Starlight' (31) 123 -- `Stefan Makowiecki' (31) 126 -- `Stropkey Variegated' (31) 123 -- `Sumierki' (31) 125 -- suspensa (31) 42 -- `Sweet Refrain' (31) 123 -- x swegiflexa (38) 76 -- sweginzowii (38) 76; (49) [2] 12 -- `Tadeiszko' (31) 126 -- `Telimena' (31) 123 -- `Tit Tat Toe' (31) 123 -- velutina (38) 72 -- villosa (38) 78; (44) [3] 9 -- -- x. sweginzowii (49) [2] 11, 12 -- `Violet Glory' (31) 123 -- `Vivian Christenson' (31) 123 -- vulgaris (31) 116, 118, 119; (38) 65, 66, 71, 72; (39) 312; (44) [4] 43; (49) [2] 6; (53) [2] 17; (55) [3] 18; (57) [1] 1213; (60) [4] 12; (56) [2] 25 -- -- cvs. (56) [1] 2628 -- -- `Krasavitska Moskova' (56) [1] front cover -- -- `Lucie Baltet' (38) 65 -- -- `Princess Marie' (55) [3] 8 -- -- `Rochester (31) 123, 124; (32) 134 -- `White Sands' (31) 123 -- `Woodland Blue' (31) 123 -- `Zarya Kommunizma' (31) 125 -- `Znamia Lenina' (31) 125 Szechuan province [China] (48) [1] 25; [2] 34 Szemao [China] (32) 106 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - T","article_sequence":16,"start_page":1,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25335","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070af6d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"T Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Tabaco del diablo (32) 211 Tabernaemontana (32) 213 Table Rock, Allandale Woods [Jamaica Plain] (51) [2] 37, 38 Tacca chantrieri (48) [2] 7 Tagetes erecta (31) 169, 190 -- lucida (41) 124, 125 -- patula (31) 169, 190 Tagi, Jugah (60) [4]: 29, 4, 5, 8 Tagus River [Portugal] (47) [3] 31, 37 Tahoe, Lake [CA-NV] (47) [4] 17 Tail flower (31) 291, 293 Taipings [China] (31) 5 Taiwania (40) 189; (59) [1] 21, 54, 56, 57 Taiwanos Indians [Colombia] (32) 212 Takamatsu [Japan] (47) [2] 9, 10, 11 Takashima, Takakone (31) 264 Takaso, Tokushiro, \"`Pollination Drop' Time at the Arnold Arboretum\" (50) [2] 27 Taku (31) 292 -- fibers (31) 280 Talponia plummeriana (52) [3] 24 Talysh Forest [Iran] (49) [4] 36 Tamarix gallica (48) [3] 23 Tan, Benito C., \"Book Review: Mosses in the Garden\" (57) [2] 3132 Tanacetum huronense (39) 268 -- vulgare (31) 37, 202; (34) 202 -- -- var. crispum (39) 268 T'ang dynasty [China] (31) 20 -- period (31) 271 Tang Pei-sung (39) 353 Tankard, Judith, \"Books\" (52) [2] 4748; [4] 3334 -- -- \"Ellen Biddle Shipman's New England Gardens\" (57) [1] 211 -- -- \"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostonian\" (59) [4] 2532 (Note: The garden plan that appears on page 28 is incorrect. For the correct plan, see http:\/\/www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/programs\/arnoldia\/59_4.html. Tansy (31) 37, 202; (34) 202; (39) 247, 268 Taoism (53) [1] 23 Tapada (47) [3] 32, 35 Tapada da Ajuda [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] inside front cover, 3038, back cover \"`The Tapada da Ajuda': Portugal's First Botanical Garden,\" Antonio de Almeida Monteiro and Jules Janick (47) [3] 3038 Tapada das Necessidades [Lisbon, Portugal] (47) [3] 32 Tapioca (52) [2] 24 Tappan Reeves Law Office [CT] (31) 166 Taproot (49) [4] 4, 5, 6, 13 Taraktogenos kurzii (52) [2] 28 -- merrillana (48) [2] 4 Taraxacum officinale (31) 205; (33)[2] front cover; (34) 199 Tares (31) 231 Taro (47) [2] 27 Taro farming [Madagascar] (32) 22, 26 Tarragon (31) 202 Tasmanian cedar (37) 44 Tatter, Terry (52) [2] 9 Taxaceae (50) [2] 2, 4; (59) [1] 63 Taxes, relation to pollution clean-up (30) 37, 3940, 46; 175176 Taxodiaceae (50) [2] 2, 4; (57) [4] 3, 9; (59) [1] 6, 8, 54, 57 -- fossil (59) [1] 63 Taxodium (32) 283287; (37) 73; (39) 274; (57) [4] 9; (59) [1] 51, 54, 57, 63; (60) [4] 19 -- ascendens (32) 283, 284; (39) 272, 274; (50) [3] back cover -- -- `Prairie Sentinel' (32) 283, 284 -- distichum (31) 237; (32) 283, 285; (36) 12; (38) 139; (39) 166, 167, 230, 272, 274; (50) [2] 6; (56) [4] inside back cover, 6, 7; (57) [1] 14; [4] 5, 9; (59) [1] 26, 34, 54, 84; (60) [4] front cover T 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- and Metasequoia (59) [1] 4849 -- -- var. distichum (60) [4] 19 -- -- var. imbricarium (60) [4] 19 -- -- var. nutans (56) [4] 4 -- -- `Shawnee Brave' (32) 286 -- mucronatum (32) 285; (39) 274; (57) [4] front cover, back cover, 34, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10; (59) [1] 54 -- sempervirens (47) [3] 21 Taxol (58) [1] 23; (59) [2] 29 Taxonomic Databases Working Group (49) [1] 51, 53 \"Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold Arboretum,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (50) [3] 2932 \"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design,\" Scot Medbury (53) [3] 1323 Taxonomy, numerical (33) 2636 Taxus (30) 139147, 173; (34) 88; (37) 7, 23, 25, 74, 75; (44) [1] 25; [4] 48; (48) [1] 5; (55) [1] 25 -- bark of (48) [1] 12 -- branchlets of (48) [1] 12 -- buds of (48) [1] 12 -- cones of (48) [1] 12 -- leaves of (48) [1] 12 -- in Philippines (58) [1] 2126 -- baccata (30) 141, 146; (31) 245; (49) [4] 35; (50) [2] 6; (55) [2] 13; (56) [2] 28 -- -- `Davie' (32) 283 -- -- 'Repandens' (56) [2] 28 -- brevifolia (30) 145; (42) [4] 148; (51) [3] 17; (55) [2] 7, 13 -- canadensis (30) 144, 145; (45) [4] 22 -- chinensis (59) [1] 43 -- cuspidata (30) 145; (43) [1] 18; (50) [3] 7, 9; (56) [2] 28; (59) [4] inside back cover -- -- leaf attachments of (48) [1] 7 -- -- `Capitata' (37) 23 -- -- var. capitata (30) 145 -- -- `Densa' (43) [1] 18 -- -- `Nana' (43) [1] 19 -- x hunnewelliana (30) 143 -- x media (30) 143 Taylor, Arthur (56) [3] 15 Taylor, Robert L., photo by (44) [3] 35 Taylor, Roy (52) [1] 28 Tea cultivation (31) 118 -- history of (31) 2023 Tea, Jersey (56) [2] 25 -- Labrador (45) [3] 17 -- New Jersey (55) [4] 26 -- tree (36) 19 -- wild (32) 113 Teal, John (52) [2] 16 Teasel (39) 254 Technical University of Lisbon [Portugal] (47) [3] 38 Tecomaria (32) 220 Tehran Botanic Garden [Iran] (49) [4] 37 Tejo, Rio [Portugal] (47) [3] 31 Telekia speciosa (55) [2] 31 Temperature-sensitive leaf movements (50) [1] 30, 32, 33 Ten-Minute Field Trips, Helen Ross Russell [review of] (37) 165 Tenerife [Canary Islands] (47) [3] 13 Tenshin, Okakura (52) [3] 4, 13 \"Tenshin-en,\" Julie Messervy (52) [3] 213, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12 Tent caterpillar (38) 39 \"Tentative Key to the Cultivated Magnolias,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (34) 111 Tenth Census of the United States (49) [1] 13 Teonanacatl (32) 205 Terminalia myriocarpa (48) [2] 7 Terrace Gardener's Handbook, Linda Yang [review of] (38) 116 Terralift machine (51) [1] 26 Terrarium Gardening, Jack Kramer [review of] (34) 439 Tertiary Research Center, University of Idaho (53) [2] 5 Tessai, Tomioka (31) 264 Testa, Ron, photo by (54) [2] front and back covers Tetramelaceae (48) [2] 3 T Cumulative Index Theorhidon, section, distribution of (53) [2] 8 Tetrameles nudiflora (48) [2] 7 Tetraploid daylilies (37) 202206 Tetrapteris (32) 214 -- methystica (32) 210 -- mucronata (32) 210 Teucrium canadense (39) 268 -- chamaedrys (31) 184; (39) 241, 268 -- fruticans (39) 268 Teune, Carla (47) [2] 32, 33 Thalassia (43) [2] 5 Thalictrum (45) [4] 26 -- aquilegifolium (31) 137, 191, 229; (35) 45 -- caroliniana (31) 138 -- delavayi (46) [4] 20 -- dipterocarpum (31) 137; (35) 46 -- -- `Album' (31) 137 -- -- `Hewitt's Double' (31) 137 -- flavum (31) 190 -- minus (35) 46 -- montana (31) 138 -- polygamum (43) [2] inside front cover -- rochebrunianum (31) 137 -- rocquebrunianum (35) 46, 47 -- speciosissimum (35) 48 -- thalictroides (37) 92 Thamnocalamus spathaceus (58) [3] 15 Thaxter, Roland (59) [2] 4, 13 Thayer, John E. (40) 127 Themeda triandra (32) 25 Theobroma cacao (50) [2] 32 Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening [Downing, 1841] (32) 187; (49) [3] 6 Thermopsis (31) 137; (35) 48, 68 Thermotropic leaf movements (50) [1] 3035 Thibodeau, Francis R., and Donald A. Falk, \"Saving the Rarest\" (46) [3] 218 Thieret, John W., \"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall From Grace,\" with James O. Luken (57) [3] 212 Thiery de Menonville (Nicholas Joseph) (30) 134 Thiram (45) [1] 23 Thistle, bull (34) 178 -- globe (34) 331 -- sow (34) 196 -- -- common (34) 196 -- -- field (34) 196 Thistleton-Dyer, Sir William (32) 103; (44) [2] 3 Thlaspi (32) 45 Thomas Hanbury School [Shanghai, China] (48) [2] 10 Thomas Jefferson's Farm and Garden Books, Robert B. Baron, ed. [review of] (48) [4] 5960 Thomas, R. William, and other contributors, \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan\" (55) [1] 1220 Thompson, Albert (39) 352 Thompson, David (48) [3] 18 Thompson, Janet (39) 352 Thompson Begonia Guide, Mildred L. and Edward J. Thompson, 2nd ed. [review of] (37) 212216 Thompson Island [Boston Harbor] (48) [3] 20 \"Thoreau as Botanist: An Appreciation and a Critique,\" Ray Angelo (45) [3] 1323 Thoreau, Henry David (45) [3] 1326, 3032; (46) [3] 48; (55) [3] 1; (56) [3] 6, 8, 10 -- -- -- \"Faith in a Seed\": The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings, book review of and excerpts from (53) [2] 2429 -- -- -- Journal (45) [3] 13, 16, 18, 19 -- -- -- -- botanical index to (45) [3] 3032 -- -- -- -- illustrations from (45) [3] 15, 16, 18, 21, 22 -- -- -- portrait of (45) [3] 14 -- -- -- [quoted] (45) [3] 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23 -- -- -- \"The Succession of Forest Trees\" (45) [3] 2122 Thoreau Society (46) [3] 48 Thorn apple (31) 196; (34) 59 -- cockspur (56) [2] 24 -- fiery (56) [2] 24 3 T 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- great-fruited (31) 244 -- large-berried (31) 244 -- white (53) [2] 13, 14 Thorns (56) [2] 21 Thorpe, John, \"Chrysanthemums\" [1888] (60) [3] 27 Thouin, Andre (30) 136 Threatened Plants Unit [of IUCN] (49) [1] 47 Three-pointed fir (55) [1] 29 Thrift (34) 286; (39) 250; (45) [1] 26 -- common (34) 286 -- giant (34) 286 -- pinkball (34) 286 -- plantain (34) 286 Throatwort, great (31) 175 -- nettle-leaved (31) 175 Thuja (31) 10, 13, 18, 297; (32) 65; (37) 75, 76; (45) [4] 25, 2627; (57) [1] 2 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- obtusa [= Chamaecyparis obtusa] (49) [3] 3, 36, 37 -- -- `Chabo-hiba' (49) [3] 12 -- -- `Compacta' (49) [3] 12, 13 -- occidentalis (31) 214; (39) 220, 221, 231, 272, 274; (45) [4] 22; (56) [4] 5; (59) [1] 56; [4] 10, 15; (60) [4] 18 -- -- `Ellwangeriana Aurea Nana' (33) 208 -- -- `Watnung Gold' (33) 208 -- orientalis (31) 18; (39) 275; (49) [4] 35 -- plicata (39) 221, 232; (58) [3] 2, 36, 7, 810, back cover; (59) [1] 56; (60) [4] 18 -- -- branchlets and cones (58) [3] inside front cover Thujopsis (37) 76 -- dolobrata (47) [2] 14; (49) [3] 12; (50) [3] 2 -- -- `Variegata' (49) [3] 18 Thunberg, Carl Pieter (or Karl) (31) 42; (32) 241; (57) [3] 15 Thurlow, Matthew A., \"An African Tropical Forest in Boston\" (50) [1] 2223 Thyme (31) 202; (39) 241, 244, 245 -- caraway (39) 268 -- common (39) 268 -- culinary (39) 268 -- garden (31) 202 -- lemon (39) 268 Thymus (39) 244, [4] inside front cover -- x citriodorus (39) 268 -- herba-barona (39) 268 -- praecox ssp. arcticus (39) 268 -- pseudolanuginosus (39) 268 -- serpyllum (31) 202; (39) 268 -- thracicus (39) 268 -- vulgaris (31) 202; (39) 268 Tian Mu Shan [China] (51) [2] 3, 4; (52) [4] 3, 7, 8, 10 -- -- -- Nature Reserve [China] (50) [4] 1623, front cover; (52) 3, 5 Tiannan Chahua Xiaozhi, by Fang Shu-mei (46) [1] 9 Tiarella cordifolia (31) 228; (39) 268 Tibet (36) 184; (46) [4] 16; (48) [2] 31 Tickseed (31) 33, 228; (34) 316 Tien, Chi-nian (44) [3] 18 Tiergarten, Berlin [Germany] (57) [2] 7 Tikunas Indians [Brazil and Colombia] (32) 213 Tilia (32) 80, 82, 167; (57) [2] 7 -- collection at Arnold Arboretum (53) [3] 22 -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- americana (31) 240; (49) [2] 32, 33; (52) [4] 28, 30; (55) [3] 6; (59) [4]13, 14 -- amurensis (38) 138 -- cordata (38) 157; (39) 132, 133, 230; (44) [4] front cover, 2021, 21; (49) [2] 32, 33; (52) [4] 29; (53) [1] 21, 22 -- -- `Fairview' (33) 208 -- x euchlora `Redmond' (39) 133, 134, 227; (44) [4] 21 -- x europaea (31) 217; (32) 290 -- x flavescens (49) [1] 32, 33 -- japonica (39) 201, 202, 230; (49) [1] 32, 33 -- mandshurica (38) 138 -- megaphylla (38) 141 T Cumulative Index -- mongolica (39) 202, 227 -- neglecta (49) [1] 32, 33 -- paucicostata (49) [1] 32, 33 -- petiolaris (39) 133; (42) [2] 97, 97; (49) [1] 32, 33; (54) [1] 9 -- platyphyllos (49) [1] 32, 33; (50) [3] 24, 25 -- tomentosa (38) 177; (39) 133, 134, 135, 230; (49) [1] 32, 33; (50) [3] 26, 27 -- tuan (43) [1] 22 -- vulgaris (59) [4] 14 Timber Economy of Puritan New England, Charles F. Carroll [review of] (35) 192 Timber industry (58) [2] 27; [3] 5, 910; (59) [2] 2829, 34; [3] 1416, 20 Timber trade, colonial (35) 197198 Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening--Bulbs, James Underwood Crockett [review of] (32) 139 -- -- -- -- --Landscape Gardening, James Underwood Crockett [review of] (34) 36 Timothy (34) 218, 220 Ting, Y. C. (52) [1] 20 Ting, Chow-hai (44) [3] 9, 12, 13, 1518, 21, 22 Ting, Yao-feng (44) [3] 23 Tinie Versfeld Wild Flower Reserve [South Africa] (32) 223 Tissue culture (37) 206; (44) [3] 2728, 30, 3133; (45) [2] 3031, 33, 34; (59) [3] 22; [4] 14 Tizon, Ventura Rodriquez (47) [3] 7 \"To Each a Name: Verifying the Living Collection,\" David Michener (49) [1] 3641 To Everything There Is a Season, Thalassa Cruso [review of] (34) 431 \"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's Woodlands,\" Karen Madsen (49) [2] 1424 \"To the Arks with Rabbitbane: Plant Conservation at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Robert G. Nicholson (46) [3] 2325 \"To the Editor of Garden and Forest\" [1888], Frederick Law Olmsted (60) [3] 2224 -- -- -- -- -- -- -- [1896], L.G.S. (60) [3] 19 Toad flax (31) 196 Tobacco (31) 168, 202 \"Today's Daylilies,\" George H. Pride (37) 199209 Toddalia asiatica (32) 27 Tofieldia nutans var. kandoi (38) 87 Tokugawa Period [Japan] (49) [3] 2, 3 Tokushima [Japan] (47) [2] 11 Tokyo (60) [4] 26, 2830 -- University of [Japan] (30) 163 -- botanic garden (30) 20 Tomatillo (37) 220 Tomato (31) 196 Tomlinson, P. Barry (32) 268; (50) [2] 2 -- -- -- \"The Biology of Aquatic Plants\" (43) [2] 36 Tonawanda Street [Boston] (48) [4] 36 Tontine Crescent [Boston] (57) [2] 9 Toon tree, Chinese (39) 144, 145; (50) [1] 21 Toona ciliata (48) [2] 4, 7 -- microcarpa (48) [2] 7 -- sinensis (38) 158161; (39) 41 Toothache remedy [Madagascar] (32) 25 Topiary (59) [3] 33 Topiary and Ornamental Hedges, Miles Hadfield [review of] (32) 293 Topophysis (51) [2] 7, 8 -- in ginkgo (51) [2] 7 Toraja people [Indonesia] (45) [3] front cover, inside front cover, back cover Torch-lily (31) 128 (34) 378 Torrey, John (56) [3] 45, 7 -- -- Flora of the State of New York (48) [4] 55 Torreya (37) 76, 77 -- grandis (52) [4] 4 -- nucifera (47) [2] 13; (50) [2] 7 -- -- `Gold Strike' (43) [4] 2, 18 Touch-me-not (34) 203 \"Tour of a Botanist in China,\" Shiu-Ying Hu (35) 265295 Tournefort, Joseph Pitton de (47) [3] 4, 6 -- -- -- -- Institutiones Rei Herbariae (39) 267 Tournefortian nomenclature (47) [3] 7, 8 Tours, Jardin des Plantes [France] (54) [2] 16 Tovara virginiana `Variegata' (52) [2] 44, 45 Town and Country (49) [3] 7 5 T 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Townsend, Ann, \"Japanese Knotweed: A Reputation Lost\" (57) [3] 1320 Townsend-Purnell Plant Patent Act (54) [4] 6 Toxicity, of plants to animals (50) [1] 20 Toxicodendron (35) 111112 -- diversilobum (35) 110, 114 -- magnifolium (35) 114, 115 -- radicans (35) 101, 102; (54) [2] 21; (57) [2] 26 -- -- ssp. barkleyi (35) 103 -- -- ssp. divaricatum (35) 104 -- -- ssp. eximium (35) 104, 105 -- -- ssp. hispidum (35) 102, 107 -- -- ssp. negundo (35) 104, 106 -- -- ssp. orientale (35) 102, 104, 106 -- -- ssp. pubens (35) 103 -- -- ssp. radicans (35) 102104 -- -- ssp. verrucosum (35) 103, 105 -- rectum (35) [2] front cover -- rydbergii (35) 107, 108, 109, 110 -- toxicarium (35) 109, 110, 111 -- vernicifluum (35) 98 -- vernix (35) 97, 98 Tracheidal channnels (49) [4] 5 Trachelospermum (36) 9, 11 -- jasminoides (36) 20 Trachycarpus (43) [1] 29 -- excelsus (31) 17 -- fortunei (31) 2, 17; (50) [4] 23 Trachyloma diversinerve (41) 204 Tracy, Cyrus M. (48) [4] 41, 44 -- -- -- Studies of the Essex Flora [mentioned] (48) [4] 43 Tracy, Edith Hastings, photos by (57) [1] inside front cover, 6, 7 Tradescant, John (39) 319; (53) [1] 89 Tradescantia (31) 138; (53) [1] 9 -- virginiana (31) 138; (35) 48; (53) [1] 9 -- -- `Blue Stone' (31) 138 -- -- `Iris Prichard' (31) 138 -- -- `J. C. Weguelin' (31) 138 -- -- `Purple Dome' (31) 138 -- -- `Red Cloud' (31) 138 -- -- `Snowcap' (31) 138 Tragopogon porrifolius (48) [3] 24 Trailing arbutus (37) 194196 Transition Zone Horticultural Institute [Flagstaff, AZ] (46) [3] 8, 13 Transplanting (37) 239241, 242247; (56) [4] 1116, 17 -- shock (56) [4] 11 -- stress (56) [4] 1516 \"Transplanting Stress--A View from the Plant's Perspective,\" Gary L. Koller (37) 230241 \"Transplanting Botany to China: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong,\" William J. Haas (48) [2] 925 Trapa (43) [2] 8 -- japonica (31) 292 -- natans (43) [2] 2425 Trapella sinensis (43) [1] 25 Traveler in the Vanished Landscape--The Life and Times of David Douglas, Botanical Explorer, William Morwood [review of] (36) 128 Traveler's Guide to North American Gardens, Harry Britton Logan [review of] (34) 434 Treasury of Houseplants, R. Herwig and M. Schubert [review of] (39) 72 \"Tree as Celebrity\" [Metasequoia] (59) [1] 2832 Tree, census of [North America] (49) [1] 3 -- growth and structure (33) 261283 -- planting systems (51) [1] 30, 31 -- ring chronology (56) [4] 2, 5 -- -- dating (56) [4] 3 -- shrine in ancient specimen [China] (31) 18 -- spp. suitable for urban islands (44) [4] 3741 -- -- planting of (44) [4] 26, 27, 28 Tree celandine (35) 9 -- fern (43) [2] 25 T Cumulative Index 7 -- lilac (30) 163 -- -- Japanese (39) 165, 166 -- of liberty (36) 123 -- peony (39) 263 Tree climber (60) [4] 29 -- climbing, traditional methods (60) [4] 3, 4, 5 Tree-of-heaven (30) 170; (32) 67, 78; (34) 226, 227; (38) 46; (39) 2950, 92, 93; (52) [4] 26; (52) [4] 26; (57) [1] 14; [3] front cover, 2127, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 2836; (60) [4] 26 Tree Planting Day [China] (48) [2] 29 Tree regeneration (59) [3] 1415 Tree rings (59) [2] 30; [4] 10 \"Tree Rings and Ancient Forest Relics,\" David W. Stahle (56) [4] 210 \"Tree Roots: Facts and Fallacies,\" Thomas O. Perry (49) [4] 321 \"Tree That Changed the World in One Century,\" Richard Evans Schultes (44) [2] 216 \"Tree Transplanting and Establishment,\" Gary W. Watson (56) [4] 1116 Trees, as cultural idiom (59) [4] 29 -- life of (59) [4] 1016 -- spp. migration (58) [2] 47 Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, W. J. Bean [review of] (31) 84 Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, by George Barrell Emerson, drawing from (54) [3] inside front cover -- quotations from (54) [3] 15 Trees and Shrubs, Charles Sprague Sargent (30) 166 Trees Around Us, Peter Barber and C. E. Lucas Phillips [review of] (37) 135 \"Trees as Urban Infrastructure: Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen (53) [1] 3235 Trees for the Town, Inc. [Dallas, Texas] (44) [4] 1011 \"Trees for Your Community\" (30) 95 Trees for Your Garden, Roy Lancaster [review of] (36) 127 \"Trees in the Frame,\" Alan L. Ward (57) [2] 1116 Trees of city, identification [Boston area] (32) 5997 Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, H. J. Elwes and A. Henry [review of] (32) 185, 189 Trees of Pennsylvania, The Atlantic States, and the Lake States, Hui-lin Li [review of] (36) 276 Trees of the British Isles in History and Legend, J. H. Wilks [review of] (38) 63 Trees of the Great Basin: A Natural History, Ronald M. Lanner [review of] (45) [1] 3031 Trees of the United States and Canada, F. H. Montgomery [review of] (35) 189 Trees of the World, Sandra Holmes [review of] (36) 125 \"Trees of Tian Mu Shan,\" Peter Del Tredici (50) [4] 1623 Trees, Shrubs and Vines, Arthur T. Viertel [review of] (33) 256 Trefoil (31) 244 Treib, Marc, \"The Care and Feeding of the Noble Allee\" (54) [1] 1323 -- -- photo by (54) [1] front cover Trelease, William (47) [4] 16, 17; (51) [3] 13, 14; (53) [3] 20; (60) [2] 7 Trembling aspen (45) [4] 36, 37 Trenching and backfill (51) [1] 27 Tribune Horticale (31) 268 Tricyrtis macropoda (55) [1] 16 Trichocereus pachanoi (32) 211; (41) 96, 97 Tricolor (31) 174 Trifolium (31) 18; (34) 157, 173 -- bolanderi (46) [3] 14 -- pratense (34) 173 -- repens (34) 157 Trigonobalanus doichangensis (48) [2] 7 Trillium, large-flowered (47) [2] inside front cover -- Pacific (42) [4] 141 -- showy (47) [2] inside front cover Trillium (47) [2] 27 -- albidum (37) 173, 174 -- angustipetalum (37) 174 -- catesbaei (37) 175 -- cernuum (37) 175, 176 -- chloropetalum (37) 174 -- -- var. rubrum (37) 174 -- cuneatum (37) 173 -- discolor (37) 173 -- erectum (37) 175 -- flexipes (37) 175 -- govanianum (37) 175 T 8 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- grandiflorum (37) 100; (47) [2] inside front cover; (52) [3] 10; (55) [1] 10; [3] 6 -- -- `Flore Plenum' (55) [1] 5 -- kamschaticum (37) 175 -- luteum (37) 173 -- nivale (37) 100 -- ovatum (42) [4] 141 -- petiolatum (37) 174 -- pusillum (46) [3] 8 -- recurvatum (55) [1] 5 -- sessile (37) 100, 173 -- -- var. californicum (37) 174 -- smallii (37) 175 -- stylosum (37) 175 -- tschonoskii (37) 175 -- vaseyi (37) 174, 175 Trinidad Sugar Company [Cuba] (51) [3] 27 Tripetaleia bracteata (47) [2] 5 Triphasia triphylla (36) 2, 20 Tripp, Kim E.,\"Considering Cotinus\" (54) [2] 2030 -- -- -- \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness,\" with J. C. Raulson [3] 2231 -- -- -- \"Hardy Asian Alders\" (55) [4] 1625 -- -- -- \"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise,\" [Letter] (58) [3] 2729 -- -- -- photo by (55) [4] inside cover Tripterygium regelii (44) [4] 4849, 49; (52) [1] 11 Triteleiopsis (46) [3] 38 -- palmeri (46) [3] 38 Triticum (31) 205; (33) 137 -- aestivum (31) 212; (49) [4] 4 -- -- `Ak-Mecca Boogdai' (44) [3] 13 -- -- `Kara Boogdai' (44) [3] 13 -- -- `Kizil Boogdai' (44) [3] 13 -- turgidum (44) [3] 13 Tritoma (34) 378 Triumfetta bartramia (32) 27 Trochodendron aralioides (38) 30, 96 Trollius (35) 4951; (45) [4] 26 -- `Alabaster' (45) [4] 28 -- asiaticus (35) 50; (44) [3] 13 -- europaeus (31) 230; (35) 50; (39) 268 -- laxus (46) [3] 7, 13 -- ledebourii (35) 51 -- pumilus (35) 51 Tropaeolum majus (31) 191; (39) 269; (47) [3] 7, 9 -- minus (39) 269 -- tuberosum (50) [4] 12 Tropical deforestation (50) [1] 12 TROPICOS database (49) [1] 53 Trott, L. (30) 15 Truman, President (Harry S) (47) [4] 10 Trumpet tree (52) [2] 20 -- vine (44) [4] 54; (50) [1] 18 Trumpetcreeper (31) 221 Trustees of Public Reservations [MA] (53) [4] 4; (59) [2] 3, 15, 18, 19 Tryon, Alice F., photo by (45) [3] inside back cover Tryptamines (32) 207 Tsamma (54) [2] 4 Tsuchida, Hiromi,\"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima,\" with Peter Del Tredici (53) [3] 2429 -- -- photo by [3] inside back cover Tsuga (32) 65, 76; (37) 77, 78; (47) [2] 11; (48) [1] 4, 5; (57) [1] 28; [2] 15, 16 -- bark of (48) [1] 12 -- branchlets of (48) [1] 12 -- buds of (48) [1] 12 -- cones of (48) [1] 12 -- leaves of (48) [1] 12 -- water-conducting system of (49) [4] 5 -- wood (33) [1] front cover, 59 T Cumulative Index 9 -- canadensis (31) 216; (37) 153; (40) 210, 215, 217; (43) [1] 19; (44) [4] 39; (45) [4] 25; (52) [3] 11; (55) [3] 6; [4] 12; (57) [1] front cover, 23; (58) [2] 41 -- -- `Bacon Cristate' (33) 208 -- -- `Narragansett' (32) 287 -- -- `Cloud Prune' (33) 209 -- -- `Cole' (40) 220 -- -- `Jervis' (33) 209 -- -- f. pendula (40) 202221, 203, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212, 214; [5] cover 4; (43) [1] 19 [Note that the photo is miscaptioned as Pieris; see page 17 for the correct caption.] -- -- -- `Brookline' (40) 207, 209, 211 -- -- -- `Horton' (40) 207, 212, 214 -- -- `Watnong Star' (30) 260; (31) 216 -- caroliniana (46) [1] 35; (57) [1] 23, 24 -- -- leaf attachments of (48) [1] 7 -- chinensis (59) [1] 11; (60) [4] 18 -- diversifolia (38) 30, 94; (47) [2] 12, 14; (49) [3] 14 -- heterophylla (58) [3] 3, back cover -- sieboldii (47) [2] 12 -- -- wood (33) [1] front cover, 59 -- yunnanensis (36) 231 Tsusiophyllum tanakae (55) [1] 6 Tsujii, Tatsuichi (47) [2] 45 Tsukamoto, Yotaro (56) [3] 25 Tsunamasa Ikeda (47) [2] 13, 13 Tsurezure Gusa [painting] (31) 264 Tsurugi, Mount [Shikoku, Japan] (47) [2] 1112, 11 Tubesing, Charles (46) [4] 9 Tucker, Arthur O., and other contributors, \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" (54) [4] 559 Tucker, Ethelyn (32) 54 Tucson Mountains [AZ] (47) [4] 15 Tuileries [Paris] (54) [1] 1216, 17; (57) [2] 4, 5, 7 Tulip tree (or poplar) (31) 221; (32) 73, 187; (36) 119124; (42) [2] 96, 94; (46) [1] 33; (49) [1] 16; (53) [4] 27, 28, 29; (54) [1] 6, 8; (57) [1] 24; (60) [4] 26 -- -- Chinese-American (60) [4] 14 -- -- African (37) 218, 219 -- -- fossil leaf of (53) [2] back cover -- -- hurricane damage to trees [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- --hybrid (53) [4] 21, back cover Tulipa clusiana (31) 196 -- gesneriana (31) 196 -- greigii (37) 101 -- kaufmanniana (37) 101 -- linifolia (37) 101 -- praestans `Fusilier' (37) 101 -- pulchella `Violacea' (37) 101 -- tarda (37) 101 -- turkestanica (37) 101 Tulips (56) [2] 16 T'ung-oil (31) 8 -- tree (31) 12, 16 Tuomey, Margaret Mercer (36) 63 Tuomey, Prof. (36) 58, 60 Tuomeya (36) 6162 -- alabamensis (36) 60 Tupa (32) 211 Tupelo (31) 233; (33) 262; (54) [1] 9; (57) [1] 14; (60) [2] 1718 -- roots of (49) [4] 13, 14 -- black (30) 169; (31) 232; (39) 156, 157 -- water (60) [4] 23 Tupi-Guarani Indians [South America] (50) [2] 21, 24 \"Tupelo Tree\" [1890] (60) [2] 1718 Tupper, W. W. (33) 75 Turbina corymbosa (41) 103, 104, 105 Turbinaria (52) [2] 16 Turgot, engraving by (57) [2] 5 Turkey (48) [1] 22 Turkey-hen flower (31) 178 T 10 Arnoldia, 19702000 Turkisher Holunder (31) 114 Turner, Jonathan (52) [3] 14 Turnip (31) 16, 212 -- radish (31) 16 Turtle-grass (43) [2] 5 Turtlehead (31) 230; (37) 220; (44) [4] 51 -- pink (34) 308, 309 -- rose (34) 308 -- white (34) 308; (39) 252 Twain, Mark, and Charter Oak (59) [4] 4 Twayblade (37) 182 \"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces,\" by Mark Primack (48) [3] 1017 Twinflower (45) [4] 23; (60) [1] 34 Twinleaf (37) 97, 190 \"Two Bunches of Grapes,\" by Luigi Rist [print] (48) [4] front cover 2, 4-D (45) [2] 29 \"Two Promising Fruit Plants for Northern Landscapes,\" Edward Goodell (42) [4] 103133 \"Two Thousand Years of Eating Bark: Magnolia officinalis var. biloba and Eucommia ulmoides in Traditional Chinese Medicine,\" Todd Forrest (55) [2] 1218 Tyler Arboretum [Lima, Peru] (49) [1] 43 Tyley, John (57) [4] 19 Typha (43) [2] 810, 9 -- angustifolium (34) 17 -- latifolia (31) 228; (34) 224; (43) [2] 1011, 18 \"Typical Elms of Yesterday,\" Peter Del Tredici (42) [2] 4748 T'zu-Hsi, Empress [China] (31) 271 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - U, V, W","article_sequence":17,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25336","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070b326.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"U Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Ulluco (50 ) [4] 11 Ullucus tuberosus (50 ) [4] 11, 12 Ulmaceae, studies on (49 ) [1] 20 Ulmus (32 ) 81, 82; (55 ) [3] 11; [3] 17 Ulmus (33 ) 4042, 44, 45; (57 ) [2] 7 -- alata (31 ) 237; (56 ) [2] 24 -- americana (31 ) 237; (33 ) 83, 126; (34 ) 244, 245; (38 ) 157; (42 ) [2] 62, 71, 84, 8990; (43 ) [1] 41; (49 ) [4] 23, 25; (52) [4] 29; (54 ) [1] 3; (58 ) [1] front cover, 27, 2830, 31, 32, inside back cover; [3] 31; (59 ) [1] 49 -- -- `New Harmony' (58 ) [1] 27 -- -- `Princeton' (58 ) [1] 28, 29 -- -- `Valley Forge' (58 ) [1] 27 -- carpinifolia (42 ) [1] 19 -- -- `Christine Buisman' (39 ) 167, 227 -- -- var. umbraculifera (44 ) [4] 12 -- -- `Variegata' (37 ) [5] cover 1 -- davidiana var. japonica (47 ) [2] 7 -- x hollandica (44 ) [4] 21, 22 -- glabra (49 ) [4] 35; (55 ) [3] 20 -- multinervis (59 ) [1] 42, 51 -- parviflora (54 ) [1] 9; (55 ) [1] 6 -- parvifolia (36 ) 12; (39 ) 136, 137, 227; (42 ) [2] 72, 77, 97, 99, 99 -- -- sempervirens (36 ) 20 -- procera (33 ) 83; (42 ) [1] 18 -- pumila (34 ) 244; (39 ) 137; (42 ) [2] 72, 77; (44 ) [3] inside front cover, 9, 24 -- wallichiana (42 ) [2] 77 \"Ultraviolet Patterns in Flowers, or Flowers as Viewed by Insects,\" Richard B. Primack (42 ) [3] 139146 Umbellularia californica (59 ) [4] 13 Umbilicaria (35 ) 135 -- mammulata (35 ) 150, 151 Umbrella leaf (37 ) 190 Umbrella pine (37 ) 5, 71; (44 ) [1] 2427, 24; (50 ) [3] 2, 4 -- -- cone (44 ) [1] front cover -- -- needles (44 ) [1] 26, back cover -- -- Japanese (39 ) 219, 220 Umbrella-tree (36 ) 129; (57 ) [4] 24 Ume plum (31 ) 293 -- as bonsai subject (32 ) 246 \"Uncommon Lilacs, Something Old, Something New,\" John H. Alexander, III (38 ) 6581 Underdrainage (51 ) [1] 29, 30, 31 Underwood, Lucien Marcus (33 ) 159 Unger, Alfred (49 ) [3] 19, 36 Unger, Mary (49 ) [3] 36 Uniola latifolia (35 ) 59, 60 Union List of Serials (30 ) 7 Union Park [Boston] (48 ) [4] 34 Union Square [NY] (57 ) [2] 9 United States Arboretum (58 ) [1] 27; [3] 14, 15 United States Botanic Garden [Washington, DC] (31 ) 13 United States Bureau of Forestry (53 ) [1] 24 United States Census, Tenth (49 ) [1] 13 United States Department of Agriculture [USDA] (31 ) 1, 10; (58 ) [1] 13, 18, 22, 23, 26, 32; (59 ) [1] 27; [3] 26, 2930 -- -- -- -- -- Bureau of Plant Industry (30 ) 182 -- -- -- -- -- Forest Service (46 ) [3] 4, 11 -- -- -- -- -- Plant Hardiness Zone Map (50 ) [3] 1620, 17, 20 -- -- -- -- -- Plant Introductions: PI 18577, PI 18578, PI 19411, PI 21620 (44 ) [3] 24 -- -- -- -- -- PI 22675 (44 ) [3] 9 -- -- -- -- -- PI 22905, PI 22978, PI 23013 (44 ) [3] 24 -- -- -- -- -- PI 23032 (44 ) [3] 9, 24 -- -- -- -- -- PI 38231, PI 38807 (44 ) [3] 24 -- -- -- -- -- PI 235128 (44 ) [3] 36 -- -- -- -- -- PI 262266 (44 ) [4] 45 U 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- -- -- -- Section of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction (57 ) [3] 6 -- -- -- -- -- Soil Conservation Service (57 ) [3] 6 -- -- -- -- -- Station, Glenn Dale, MD (56 ) [2] 35 United States Department of Public Health (30 ) 36 United States Expedition to Japan (31 ) 268 United States Fish and Wildlife Service (46 ) [3] 3, 5, 6, 13, 26, 34; (47 ) [2] 20, 21, 23; [4] 4 United States Forest Products Laboratory (33 ) 73 United States Forest Service (46 ) [3] 4, 11 United States National Arboretum [Washington DC] (30 ) 19; (31 ) 13; (46 ) [3] 4, 5, 10, 12, 15; (47 ) [1] 9; (48 ) [1] 28; (49 ) [2] 25, 26; (52 ) [1] 8; (53 ) [4] 31; (54 ) [2] 36; [3] 4; (56 ) [2] 3226; [3] 21 United States National Cancer Institute (51 ) [3] 17; (55 ) [2] 7, 13 United States Patents Office (31 ) 12, 14 United States Weather Bureau (30 ) 186 Universal Exposition [Paris, 1878] (49 ) [3] 3 University of British Columbia Botanical Garden (51 ) [1] 18, 19, 22; (52 ) [1] 26, 30 University of California [Berkeley] (46 ) [4] 15; (59 ) [1] 5, 12, 14, 21, 23, 30, 32 -- -- -- Botanical Garden (46 ) [4] 4 University of Nebraska Statewide Arboretum (46 ) [3] 6 University of the Philippines (58 ) [1] 12, 18 University of Tennessee Arboretum (49 ) [1] 43 University of Tokyo, Botanical Garden (30 ) 20 University of Washington Arboretum (53 ) [3] 20, 21 Unter den Linden, Berlin [Germany] (57 ) [2] 5, 7 \"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines,\" Catherine Hull (55) [1] 211 Unonopsis veneficiorum (32 ) 212 \"Unusual and Mysterious: The Black Pussy Willow,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (38 ) 26, 27 Upper Banks Nursery [Media, PA] (60) [1] 10 Uppsala University [Sweden] (48 ) [2] 34 \"Upright White Pine\" Peter Del Tredici (53 ) [1] 2431 Urashima-so (47 ) [2] 30 URBAN ISLANDS: TREES AND SHRUBS FOR THE INNER CITY (44 ) [4] 354 Urban islands (44 ) [4] 254, 32, 34 -- -- decline of (4 ) [4] 32 -- -- design of (44 ) [4] 2936 -- -- maintenance (44 ) [4] 313 -- -- planting (44 ) [4] 1428 -- -- new choices for (44 ) [4] 3754 -- landscapes, stresses of (54 ) [1] 3 -- street trees (53 ) [3] 412, 5, 7, 11 -- -- value as utilities (53 ) [3] 4 -- soils (51 ) [1] 23, 32 \"Urban Islands: Who Will Maintain Them?\" Charlotte Kahn (44 ) [4] 313 \"Urban Soils: Problems and Promise,\" Philip J. Craul (51 ) [1] 23, 32 Urena lobata (32 ) 27 Urinary infection remedy [Madagascar] (32 ) 27 Urospatha antisyleptica (32 ) 216 Urtica dioica (34 ) 89 \"Use of Trees and Shrubs with Leaves of Abnormal Colors\" [1897] (60) [3] 3738 Usnea strigosa (35 ) 149 -- trichodea (35 ) 149 USSR Academy of Science, Main Botanic Garden at [Moscow] (36 ) 112 Utah (47 ) [4] 19; (48 ) [1] 23 Utricularia (43 ) [2] 5, 89 -- vulgaris (43 ) [2] 2, 27 Uvularia grandiflora (52 ) [1] 32 -- sessifolia (37 ) 178 -- -- `Variegata' (52 ) [1] 32 Uyeki, Homika (31 ) 54 V Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Vaccinium (30) 172; (47) [2] 14; (52) [3] 27; (55) [1] 9; [3] 18 -- at risk (46) [3] 45 -- angustifolium (37) 106; (45) [2] 19; [4] 24; (49) [3] 38, 39, front cover; (56) [3] 9 -- arctostaphylos (49) [4] 35 -- corymbosum (44) [4] 49; (49) [3] 39; (56) [3] 9 -- delavayi (46) [4] 20, 30 -- macrocarpon (31) 246; (33) 284 -- --'Hamilton' (55) [1] 3 -- oldhamii (38) 87, 138 -- oxycoccus (31) 236 -- praestans (38) 91 -- uliginosum var. alpinum (45) [4] 25 -- vitis-idaea (31) 236; (35) 233; (38) 91; (47) [2] 7 -- -- as bonsai subject (32) 245 -- -- var. minus (35) 229, 233; (45) [4] 25 Vahl, Martin (31) 42 Valdes, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y (47) [3] 4 Valencia [Spain] (47) [3] 13 -- University of (47) [3] 19 Valerian (31) 197 -- great wild (31) 197 -- Greek (39) 264 -- official (31) 197 -- red (31) 197; (39) 252 Valeriana officinalis (31) 197 Valley of Sibundoy [Colombia] (46) [4] inside front cover \"Value of Living Collections,\" Peter H. Raven (49) [1] 56 \"Value of Mountain Forests\" [1890], J. B. Harrison (60) [2] 2425 Van Courtlandt Manor [Hudson River, NY] (31) 158 Van Dusen Botanical Garden [Vancouver, BC] (52) [2] 43 Van Jaarsveld, E. (54) [2] 8 Van Melle, P. J. (31) 42 Van Rensselaer, Mariana Griswold (or Mrs. Schuyler) (51) [3] 4; (54) [1] 26; (57) [4] 30, 31, 32; (60) [2] 41; [3] 5, 7, 36 -- -- -- -- Accents as Well as Broad Effects: Writings on Architecture, Landscape, and the Environment 18761925 [reviewed] (57) [4] 3032 -- -- -- -- \"Proposed Plan for Madison Square, New York City\" [1896] (60) [3] 1617 Van Rensselaers, estate of (31) 158 Van Valkenburgh, Michael, and Peter Del Tredici, \"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape\" (54) [1] 311 Vancouver Expedition (47) [3] 21 -- landfalls [map] (47) [3] 20 Vancouveria chrysantha (37) 183 -- hexandra (37) 193; (52) [1] 32; (55) [1] 9 -- planipetala (37) 193 Vandelli, Domingos [Domenico] (47) [3] 31, 37 Vanderbilt, William Henry (56) [3] 1214 Vanilla planifolia (50) [2] 33 Varin, Jacques (31) 119 \"Various Motives for Gardening\" [1896] (60) [3] 33 Varle, Peter C., map by (49) [2] 17 Varnum Gardens [CT] (31) 166 Vatica xishuangbannaensis (48) [2] 7 Vaughan, Samual, plan of Mt. Vernon (31) 153; (59) [3] 7 Vaulted system (51) [1] 30, 31 Vaux, Calvert (32) 185; (53) [3] 16, 17; (54) [2] 16, 18, 19; (57) [2] 8; [3] 17; (60) [2] 40, 41 Vauxhall [London, England] (57) [2] 9 Vaux-le-Vicomte gardens [France] (45) [2] 35; (54) [1] 20 Vavilov, Nikolya (50) [2] 21 Veal, Thomas (48) [4] 40, 42 Veblen, Thomas (59) [2] 31 Vegetable Dyeing, Alma Lesch [review of] (32) 171 Vegetables in South-East Asia, G. A. C. Herklots [review of] (36) 126 Vegetation of West Virginia, Earl J. Core [review of] (36) 34 V 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 Vegetation and Scenery [Charles Eliot, 1898] (53) [4] 1112 Vegetative growth (58) [2] 3334 -- -- and longevity (59) [4] 15 -- reproduction (52) [4] 7 Veitch Nursery (or Veitch and Sons, House of Veitch) [England] (30) 181; (31) 42; (32) 103; (40) 105; (46) [4] 26; (48) [2] 9, 14, 26, 38; (49) [1] 14, 38; (50) [1] 36; (57) [2] 19 Veitch, Harry James (40) 105 Veitch, James Herbert (40) 105 Veitch, John [17521839] and descendants (40) 105 Veitch, John Gould [18391870] (48) [1] 46 Velez, Cristobal (47) [3] 6 Ventura inaequalis (32) 127 Venus's flytrap (47) [2] 21 Veratrum (38) 87 -- viride (32) 201; (34) 90 Verbascum (35) 5152 -- bombyciferum (54) [3] 9 -- blattaria (31) 191 -- x hybridum (35) 52 -- nigrum (35) 52 -- phoeniceum (35) 52 -- thapsus (31) 191; (34) 193; (39) 269 Verbena, lemon (39) 250 Verbena (33) 138 \"Verdant Arches and Bowers: Artificial Adaptations of Trees [excerpt, 1870], Frank J. Scott (59) [3] 1, 32, 3340 Verification project (49) [1] 3, 1922, 27, 28, 3740, 56, 58, 59 Vermeulen, John, and Sons [nursery] (32) 271 Vernonia (32) 25 Veronica (35) 5256 -- alpina (35) 55 -- holophylla (35) 53 -- incana (35) 53 -- latifolia (35) 53 -- longifolia (35) 53 -- maritima (31) 230 -- pectinata (35) 55 -- prostrata (35) 5556 -- repens (35) 56 -- spicata (35) 54 Versailles [France] (53) [3] 14; (54) [1] 13; (57) [2] 7 Verticillium wilt (56) [1] 21 \"`Very Valuable Shrub': Xanthorhiza simplicissima,\" Jill Nooney (54) [2] 3135 Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) (51) [2] 4 Vesicaria (37) 90 Vetch (31) 231; (34) 175 -- hairy (40) 105; (44) [1] 11 Viability of Seeds, E. H. Roberts, ed. [review of] (35) 194 Viburnum (32) 140, 160; (43) [1] 3, 5; (56) [3] 16 -- buds (41) 610, 8, 9, 11 -- flowering times (40) 222 -- arrowwood (55) [3] 6 -- blackhaw (31) 238 -- doublefile (60) [1] 18, 19 -- leatherleaved (55) [4] 13 -- linden (30) 173; (43) [1] 5 -- -- yellow (30); 173 -- mapleleaf (30) 172; (31) 244; (55) [3] 6 -- orange-fruited tea (30) 173 -- service (43) [1] 24 -- Siebold (32) 71 Viburnum (30) 94; (32) 140, 160; (41) 223; (45) [2] 19; [4] 23; (55) [1] 9; [3] 18; [4] 12 -- acerifolium (31) 244; (40) 18; (55) [3] 6 -- alnifolium (= lantanoides) (40) 10 -- betulifolium (40) 13, 14 -- bitchiuense (38) 139 -- blandum (40) 10 -- x bodnantense `Dawn' (37) 123; (55) [4] 8 -- x burkwoodii (40) 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 21 V Cumulative Index -- carlesii (40) 7, 8, 13, 14; (41) 21 -- cassinoides (30) 173; (31) 245; (40) 7, 13, 14, 18, 21 -- cordifolium (40) 8 -- dentatum (31) 232; (40) 5, 12, 13, 14, 21; (44) [4] 26; (45) [2] 20; (55) [3] 6; (56) [1] 32 -- -- in flower (44) [4] 25 -- -- var. pubescens (40) 13, 14, 21 -- -- var. scabrellum (40) 13, 14, 21 -- dilatatum (30) 173; (40) 13, 14, 21; (43) [1] 5; (45) [2] 25 -- -- xanthocarpum (30) 172; (43) [1] 56 -- erosum (40) 15 -- farreri (37) 123; (40) 7, 8, 12, 16, 19, 21; (44) [3] 16 -- -- `Album' (37) 123, 124; (44) [3] front cover -- -- `Bowles' (37) 123 -- -- `Candidissimum' (55) [4] 7, 8 -- foetidum var. ceanothoides (46) [4] 23 -- fragrans (=farreri) (37) 123 -- furcatum (38) 86; (40) 7, 8, 13, 14, 21; (41) 11, 16; (49) [1] 29 -- grandiflorum (37) 123 -- hartwegii (40) 10 -- lantana (30) 172; (40) 7; (42) [1] 20; (45) [2] 25 -- lantanoides (40) 10, 18 -- lentago (30) 172; (31) 241; (40) 6, 7, 13, 14, 18, 21 -- macrocephalum (40) 8; (44) [3] 24 -- opulus (30) 173; (40) 7, 8, 13, 14, 21; (41) 11, 17; (43) [1] 6; (53) [2] 10, 18 -- -- `Compactum' (35) 233 -- -- `Roseum' (31) 216 -- -- f. xanthocarpum (43) [1] 6 -- plicatum (40) 7, 8, 9, 13, 14, 21; (41) 12, 14, 15 -- -- `Mariesii' (31) 329 -- -- f. tomentosum (60) [1] 18, 19 -- prunifolium (30) 172; (31) 238; (40) 4, 7, 13, 14, 20, 21; (44) [2] 19; [4] 26; (45) [2] 25 -- rafinesquianum (40) 3, 13, 14, 21; (41) 21, 193 -- x rhytidophylloides (40) 7, 13, 14, 21; (46) [4] 19 -- rhytidophyllum (55) [4] 13 -- rufidulum (40) 6, 13, 14, 20, 21 -- sambucinum (40) 10 -- sargentii (40) 7, 8, 9, 13, 21; (41) 17 -- setigerum (40) 13, 14, 21 -- -- var. aurantiacum (30) 173 -- sieboldii (32) 71; (35) [3] inside back cover (40) 6, 7, 13, 14, 21; (45) [2] 24, 25; (53) [3] inside front cover -- tinus (47) [3] 22 -- trilobum (30) 173 -- utile (43) [1] 24 -- venustum (40) 10 -- wrightii (57) [2] 21 Vicia faba (52) [2] 25 -- cracca (34) 175 -- megalotropis (44) [3 13 -- sativa (31) 231 -- villosa (44) [1] 11 Victoria amazonica (50) [2] 33, 34 -- regia (50) [2] 34 Victoria Park [London, England] (57) [2] 19 Vienna [Austria] (48) [2] 18 Vietnam, flora shared with Yunnan (48) [2] 3 \"View from the Forest Canopy,\" Richard Primack, Melvin Goh, and Meekiong Kalu (60) [4] 39 \"View in Central Park\" [1888] (60) [3] 6 \"View of the Seat of Colonel Boyd, Portsmouth, N. H. \" (31) 153 Vigna sinensis (31) 231 Vilca (32) 208 Villa Borghese [Rome] (54) [2] 14 Villa Giusti [Verona] (60) [3] 4 Villa Terrace Museum [WI] (59) [4] 29, 30, 32 Villalba, Ricardo (59) [2] 30 Vilmorin, Maurice de (32) 103 -- -- -- photo by (60) [2] inside back cover Vilmorin Nursery [France] (49) [1] 38 Vinca minor (30) 148; (31) 229; (39) 269; (49) [3] 43 3 V 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Vine, the (= the wine grape) (48) [4] 516 Vines (44) [4] 54 -- identification of (49) [1] 69 Vinho de jurema (32) 208 Vining, Donald M. (32) 269 -- -- -- \"Bonsai: Nature in Miniature\" (31) 274 Viola delavayi (46) [4] 20 -- odorata (31) 197 -- pedata (46) [3] 1 -- tricolor (31) 191 -- variegata (55) [1] 8 Violet (31) 197 -- birdfoot (46) [3] 1 -- dogtooth (31) 182; (55) [2] 25 -- great late-flowering bulbous (31) 188 -- sweet (31) 197 Viper's bugloss (34) 180; (39) 255 Virgil (48) [1 3; (56) [1] 7 Virgilia lutea (37) 138 Virgin's bower (31) 236; (35) 118 Virginia (48) [1] 28 Virginia bluebell (31) 230; (35) 10; (37) 97 -- creeper (30) 171; (31) 221; (35) 117; (39) 263; (54) [2] 18; (56) [2] 13, 16, 23, 25, 30 -- poke (39) 264 -- silk (31) 219 -- willow (31) 244; (56) [3] 21 Virola (32) 207, 208, 212 -- calophylla (32) 207 -- calophylloidea (32) 207 -- carinata (32) 216 -- flexuosa (32) 216 -- schultesii (32) 216 -- surinamensis (32) 216 -- theiodora (32) 199, 206, 207; (41) 82, 83 -- --Waika Indian extracting resin from (32) 206 Viscaceae (51) [3] 11, 13 Viscaria vulgaris (31) 227 Viscum (51) [3] 11 -- album (51) [3] 11, 12 \"A Visit from John Muir\" [unsigned] (46) [3] 6162 Vitamin C (31) 6 Vitex (48) [2] 34 -- agnus-castus (31) 234; (38) 109 -- -- var. alba (38) 109 -- negundo (38) 109 -- rotundifolius (38) 137 Vitis (39) 269; [4] back cover; (44) [1] 4; (48) [2] 34; (48) [4] 515 -- armata `Veitchii' (48) [4] back cover -- coignetiae (38) 145 (48) [4] inside back cover -- labrusca (39) 269; (48) [3] 24 -- -- `Concord' (48) [4] 515 -- munsoniana (36) 20 -- rotundifolia (31) 238 -- vinifera (31) 223; (44) [4] 47 Viveridae (52) [4] 9 Vochysia ferruginea (32) 212 Voet, Christian Van der (59) [3] 13 Volcanic slopes, plants of (58) [1] 23; (59) [2] 27, 30, 3233 \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Jeanne Christianson and Sandra Elsik (49) [1] 2835 Volutella pachysandrae (39) 16 Von Willert, D. J. (54) [2] 7 Voss, Donald H., \"Itea `Beppu': The Return of the Native,\" with Peter M. Mazzeo (56) [3] 2125 Voucher specimens (49) [1] 2127, 37, 3941, 59 Voyages [John Josselyn, 1665] (48) [4] 55 Voyria (33) 190 Vrughtman, Freek, with Arthur O. Tucker, and other contributors, A SOURCEBOOK OF CULTIVAR NAMES (54) [4] 559 \"Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China,\" by Zou Shou-qing (48) [2] 27 W Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Wacker, John (32) 261 Waddick, James (52) [1] 26 Wadleigh, Jeanne S. (32) 271; (39) [4] inside front cover -- -- -- \"Some Afterthoughts on Apples\" (33) 228230 -- -- -- \"The Worthy Kerrias\" (35) 160161 Wadsworth, Joseph (59) [4] 2, 89 Wagenknecht, Burdette (49) [1] 20 Wagner, Jeffrey, \"The Botanical Legacy of Joseph Rock\" (52) [2] 2935 Wagner, Richard (48) [3] 37 Wahoo (34) 63 Waika Indian, extracting resin from Virola theiodora (32) 206 Waimea Arboretum and Botanical Garden [HI] (46) [3] 6, 8 Wakefield, Mary M. B.,\"The Boston Public Garden, Showcase of the City\" (48) [3] 3247 -- -- -- -- \"A Fascination with Dogwoods\" (50) [2] 815, 8, 14 -- -- -- -- photo by (48) [3] back cover Wakefield, Priscilla (56) [4] 19 Waki [Japan] (47) [2] 11 Wakkanai [Japan] (47) [2] 6 Walahfrid Strabo (31) 37 Walden, or Life in the Woods [Thoreau] (30) 115 Walden Pond [MA] (46) [3] 4760 Waldenburg, Park and Gardens [Saxony] (32) 149, 150 Waldsteinia ternata (55) [1] 9 Walkama, Mark (39) 346 Walker, Neil (49) [1] 33 Walking stick, Harry Lauder's (55) [4] 3233 Wall cress (34) 285 Wall, Ricardo (47) [3] 5 Wallace, Alfred Russel (47) [4] 12; (53) [3] 15 Wallace, Sue (50) [4] 27 Wallflower (31) 194, 197; (39) 252 Walnut (31) 226; (32) 68 -- chemical composition (44) [1] 7 -- cvs. (44) [1] 1617 -- -- fruit (44) [1] 2 -- vegetative propagation of (44) [1] 16 -- Asian (44) [1] 3, 1416 -- black (32) 68; (42) [2] 95, 93; (44) [1] 23, 812, 9, 17; (57) [3] 29 -- -- cvs. (44) [1] 17 -- Carpathian (44) [1] 56, 5 -- Chinese (44) [1] 3, 14, 15 -- English (53) [2] 13 -- Japanese (44) [1] 3, 14 -- Manchurian (44) [1] 3, 14, 15 -- Persian (44) [1] 38, 1617; (53) [2] 13 -- -- cvs. (44) [1] 17 -- Royal (53) [2] 13 \"Walnuts for the Northeast,\" Edward Goodell (44) [1] 219 Walsura yunnanensis (48) [2] 7 Walter, Kerry S., (49) [1] 4, 59, 74 -- -- -- book review (46) [3] 6364 -- -- -- \"Designing a Computer Software Application to Meet the Plant-Record Needs of the Arnold Arboretum\" (49) [1] 4253 Walter System (54) [3] 24 Waltham House [MA] (31) 157 Waltham [MA] Canoe Club (53) [4] 13 Wang, C. W. (50) [4] 28 Wang Si-yu (46) [4] 21 Wang Wen-fang, calligraphy by (46) [4] front cover Wang Xianpu (46) [4] 21, 36 W 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- \"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection,\" with Jin Xiaobai, and Sun Chengyong (46) [4] 4651 -- -- \"Protected Natural Areas in China\" (46) [4] 3845 -- -- photo by (46) [3] back cover \"Wanted, a Tract on Forestry\" [1891], S. (60) [2] 23 Ward, Alan L., \"Trees in the Frame\" (57) [2] 1116 -- -- -- photo by (57) [2] front cover Ward, F. Kingdon (33) 18, 20 Warminster broom (36) 30 Warren, Cora L. (39) 362 -- -- -- book review of Heathers in Colour (39) 71 -- -- -- \"Preserving Woody Plant Material for Winter Arrangements\" (37) 285288 -- -- -- \"Spreading Roots\" (39) 311326 Warren, Kathleen (49) [1] 29 Warren, Richard; (49) [1] 30 -- -- book reviews by (46) [1] 4547; (47) [1] 2729 -- -- \"The Fire Pines,\" with Alfred J. Fordham (38) 111 -- -- Garden Conifers in Colour [review] (39) 28 -- -- \"A Guide to the Firs (Abies spp. ) of the Arnold Arboretum,\" with Ethan W. Johnson (48) [1] 248 -- -- \"Spruces in the Arnold Arboretum\" (42) [3] 102129 Warren, Mrs. Samuel D., garden of (57) [1] 5, 6 Waru waru (50) [4] 6, 7 Washburn, Bradford (49) [1] 61 Washington [state of] (48) [1] 41 Washington County [ME] (49) [3] 38 Washington, George (31) 119, 157; (32) 187; (39) 323, 324; (49) [2] 18; (59) [3] 4, 9 -- -- and Mount Vernon landscape (59) [3] 3, 613 -- -- statue of [Boston] (48) [3] 43 Washington, Mount [NH] (47) [4] 29 -- -- -- plant communities of (45) [3] 16, 22 Washington Square [NY] (57) [2] 9 Washington thorn (31) 238 Water drainage, control of (51) [1] 28 -- pollution (30) 3740 -- relations in plants (33) 39 -- resources (30) 178 -- table, and roots (49) [4] 8 Water-chestnut (31) 286, 292; (43) [2] 8, 2425 Water-conducting systems of conifers (49) [4] 48, 5 Waterer, Anthony (33) 178, 179; (34) 132; (60) [1] 2829, 3032 Water-fern (43) [2] 8 Water-hyacinth (43) [2] 8 Water-plantain (43) [2] 4, 10, 12, 13 Watermeal (43) [2] 29 Watermelon (31) 208; (44) [3] 17 Waters, Gregory J., \"Prunus maackii, the Friends' Plant Dividend for 1986\" (46) [2] 1112 -- -- -- \"Prunus x yedoensis `Daybreak'\" (41) 162, 166 Waterweed (43) [2] 7 Watson, Gary W., \"Tree Transplanting and Establishment\" (56) [4] 1116 -- -- -- \"When the Roots Go Round and Round,\" with Sandra Clark (56) [1] 1521 Watson, Sereno (36) 63; \"New or Little Known Plants. Rosa Minutifolia\" [1888] (60) [2] 8, 9 Watson, William (32) 179 Waugh, Frank (57) [3] 18; (60) [3] 5 Waverly Oaks [MA] (53) [4] 6, 8, 11, 12, 1819 \"Waverly Oaks,\" Charles S. Sargent (53) [4] 1819 Waxberry (56) [2] 25 Wax flower (39) 252 -- insect tree (31) 17 -- myrtle (31) 90, 214 -- plant (31) 12 Wayfaring tree (30) 172; (42) [1] 7, 20, 24, 27, 29, 30 \"Wayside Beauty\" [1888] (60) [3] 26 Wayside Gardens [OH] (31) 47 Weather (56) [1] 2224 Weather Station [at Arnold Arboretum] (30) 26, 74, 119, 154, 186, 188, 199, 260; (31) 38, 368; (32) 289; (33) 342; (34) 425427, 429; (35) 263; (36) 263264; (37) 278, 279; (38) 216, 217; (39) 368, 369; (51) [1] 40; (52) [1] 36; (53) [1] 36; (54) [1] 36; (55) [1] 40; [4] 36; (56) [4] 28; (57) [4] 36; [erratum] (58) [1] 1; (59) [2] 44; [4] 33 W Cumulative Index Weaver, Richard E., Jr. (32) [6] cover, 253; (39) 330, 344, 347, 358, 359, 361; (49) [1] 74; [3] 42; (56) [2] 32 -- -- -- -- \"Amelanchier arborea\" (40) 9497 -- -- -- -- \"The Appeal of Phloxes\" (45) [1] 2527 -- -- -- -- \"Austrobaileya,\" Notes from the Arnold Arboretum (38) 114, 115 -- -- -- -- \"Birds in the Arnold Arboretum\" (31) 349 -- -- -- -- \"The Bladdernuts\" (40) 7693 -- -- -- -- \"Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea,\" with Stephen A. Spongberg (38) 2831 -- -- -- -- \"The Cornelian Cherries\" (36) 5056 -- -- -- -- \"Exotic Orchids in the Garden\" (41) 128149 -- -- -- -- \"The Fothergillas\" (31) 8996 -- -- -- -- \"A Group of Outstanding Goldenrain Trees Along Boston's Fenway\" (34) 134 -- -- -- -- \"A Guide to City Trees in the Boston Area\" (32) 5967 -- -- -- -- \"Hamamelis `Arnold Promise'\" (41) 3033; [reprint] (51) [4] 3033 -- -- -- -- \"The Hellebores\" (39) 15 -- -- -- -- \"In Praise of Epimediums\" (39) 5166 -- -- -- -- \"In Search of Tropical Gentians\" (33) 189198 -- -- -- -- \"Japanese Journal\" (38) 82101 -- -- -- -- \"Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse\" (35) 133159 -- -- -- -- \"Magnolia fraseri\" (41) 6069 -- -- -- -- \"New Choices for the Perennial Border\" (44) [2] 2829 -- -- -- -- \"Orchids for Everyone\" (44) [1] 3233 -- -- -- -- \"The Ornamental Birches\" (38) 117131 -- -- -- -- \"Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees,\" with Gary Koller (42) [2] 88100 -- -- -- -- \"Restoration of Oak Path\" (40) 294300 -- -- -- -- \"Sassafras: A Neglected Native Ornamental\" (36) 2227 -- -- -- -- \"Selected Maples for Shade and Ornamental Planting\" (36) 146176 -- -- -- -- \"The Shadbushes\" (34) 2231 -- -- -- -- \"`Silver Parasol', A New Magnolia Cultivar,\" with S. A. Spongberg (41) 7077 -- -- -- -- \"The Sweetleaf\" (44) [3] 3435 -- -- -- -- \"Unusual and Mysterious: The Black Pussy Wilow\" (38) 26, 27 -- -- -- -- \"Wild Plants in the City,\" with Nancy M. Page, (34) 137252 -- -- -- -- \"Wildflowers from East and West\" (37) 169197 -- -- -- -- \"Winter Blooming Shrubs\" (37) 111126 -- -- -- -- \"The Witch Hazel Family (Hamamelidaceae)\" (36) 69109 -- -- -- -- photo by (39) [1] cover Weaving shuttle (52) [4] 17, 1920 Webb, Lila Vanderbilt (56) [3] 1214, 16, 1819 Webb, William Seward (56) [3]; 1216, 1819 Weber, Claude (53) [4] 34 Webster, Edwin (Mrs. ) (48) [4] 20 Wechsler, Paul (Mrs. ) (32) 252, 260 We-Du Nursery [Marion, NC] (49) [3] 42 Weeds (34) 137152; (58) [1] 3, 4, 69 \"Weeds: A Link with the Past: Bouncing Bet,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (32) 136137 -- -- -- -- -- -- The Plantain,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (30) 2324 -- -- -- -- -- -- Purslane,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (30) 114115 -- -- -- -- -- -- Shepherd's-purse,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (32) 3435 -- -- -- -- -- -- Tansy,\" Helen Roca-Garcia (31) 3738 Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America, T. Merrill Prentice, artist, and Elizabeth Owen Sargent, text [review of] (35) 193 Weedy ornamentals (47) [3] 234 Weeks, Edward (47) [4] 20, 22; (48) [3] 44 -- -- \"Our Disappearing Opportunities\" [reprinted] (48) [3] 69 Weevil, white pine (30) 74 Weigela (32) 160; (56) [2] 9, 25 -- flowering (60) [1] 18 -- Korean (60) [4] 12 Weigela middendorffiana (60) [1] 18 -- subsessilis (53) [4] 31, 32, 33; (60) [4] 12 Weinstein, Geraldine, \"Replacing the Understory Plantings of Central Park\" (45) [2] 1927 Weissmann, Mima (49) [1] 31 Weld, Ebenezer (51) [2] 34 Weld, Joseph (51) [2] 33, 34 Weld, Thomas (51) [2] 34 Weld, William (51) [2] 33 Weld estate [Brookline, MA] (49) [3] 4, 7; (51) [2] 35; (56) [2] 10 Weld family (51) [2] 33, 39 3 W 4 Arnoldia, 19702000 Welham Park [Holland] (54) [2] 14 `Wellesley' [H. H. Hunnewell estate, MA] (60) [1] back cover Welwitsch, Friedrich Martin Josef (47) [3] 37; (54) [2] 2, 4 Welwitschia Flats [Namibia] (54) [2] 2 Welwitschia mirabilis (54) [2] cover; 210, 3, 57, 9 \"Welwitschia mirabilis--A Dream Come True,\" Gillian A. Cooper-Driver (54) [2] 210 Welwitschia Park [Namibia] (54) [2] 3 Welwitschia Plains Drive [Namibia] (54) [2] 3 Wendel, Jonathan (53) [2] 8; [4] 29 Wentworth, Governor [of NH] (31) 119 Wesley, John and Charles (57) [2] 26 West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation, A. R. Fairall [review of] (32) 99 West, Benjamin, painting by (49) [2] 19 West China Union University (48) [2] 30 West Roxbury [MA] (48) [4] 30 Westbrook [Godalming, England] (57) [2] 25, 26 Western Hills [China] (48) [2] inside back cover Weston Conservation Commission [MA] (33) 313 Weston Garden Club (30) 93 Weston Nurseries [Hopkinton, MA] (60) [1] 22, 24 Weston, Richard (31) 118 Wetland, adaptations to (59) [3] 23, 25 Wetlands Protection Act [MA] (45) [1] 10 Wetmore, Ralph (32) 263 WGBH Crew at Arnold Arboretum (32) 266, 267 Wharton, Edith (51) [3] 4, 9 Wharton, Peter (46) [4] 10 What Can I Grow in the Shade? by Suzanne Warner Pierot [review of] (38) 156 \"What Can We Do about Pollution?\" Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (30) 3355 \"What Determines a Plant's Cold Hardiness?\" John W. Einset (45) [4] 3538 \"What Do You Do for Your Tree After It Has Been Defoliated by Gypsy Moths?\" Francis W. Holmes (42) [3] 147156 Whately, Thomas (49) [2] 19, 21 Wheat (31) 205, 212; (33) 137; (44) [3] 13; (49) [4] 4 -- rust (33) 37 Wheeler, Ralph E., \"Materials for Chair Seat Weaving\" (34) 1221 Wheeler, William Morton (48) [2] 13 \"When Is a Pine Not a Pine?\" B. June Hutchinson (44) [1] 2427 \"When the Roots Go Round and Round,\" Gary W. Watson and Sandra Clark (56) [1] 1521 \"Where the Wild Ginkgos Grow,\" Peter Del Tredici (52) [4] 211 White campion (37) 218 White Flower Farm Garden Book, Amos Pettingill [review of] (32) 292 White, John (53) [1] 8 White Mountains [NH] (47) [4] 12 White, Theodore (58) [1] 17 Whitehead Institute (52) [4] 14 Whitehead, JoAnn (49) [1] 30 Whitehill, Walter Muir (47) [4] 21, 22; (48) [4] 24 -- -- -- \"Francis Parkman as Horticulturist\" (33) 169183 Whitewood (36) 121 Whitfordiodendron filipes (48) [2] 7 \"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small?\" Robert E. Cook (53) [1] 1923 \"Why Do Rhododendron Leaves Curl?\" Erik Tallak Nilsen (50) [1] 3035 \"Why Study Mistletoes?\" Elizabeth A. Kellogg (51) [3] 1117 Wickham, Sir W. Henry (44) [2] 3, 7, 9, 10, 13 Wicks, Johonet, Japanese Garden of [NH] (31) 283 Widdringtonia juniperoides (36) 192 Wild and Old Garden Roses, Gordon Edwards [review of] (36) 178 Wildflower meadows (51) [2] 39 Wildflowers and Weeds, Booth Courtenay and James H. Zimmerman [review of] (36) 66 \"Wildflowers from East and West,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (37) 169197 Wild Flowers of Alabama and Adjoining States, Blanche E. Dean, Amy Mason, Joab L. Thomas [review of] (34) 440 Wildflowers of Eastern America, John E. Klimas and James A. Cunningham [review of] (37) 135 Wild Flowers of Greece, Niki and Constantine Goulimis [review of] (31) 39 Wildflowers of Hong Kong, Beryl M. Walden and Shiu Ying Hu [review of] (37) 252 Wildflowers of Western America, Robert T. Orr and Margaret C. Orr [review of] (37) 136 Wild Flowers of the Canary Islands, David and Zoe Bramwell [review of] (36) 68 Wildflowers of the Southeastern United States W. H. Duncan and L. E. Foote [review of] (39) 71 W Cumulative Index 5 Wild Gardening: Strategies and Procedures Using Native Plantings, by Richard L. Austin [review of] (46) [3] 6364 Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida, Julia F. Morton [review of] (35) 129 WILD PLANTS IN THE CITY, Nancy M. Page and Richard E. Weaver (34) [4] 137252 Wild Wealth, Paul B. Sears [review of] (33) 216 Wildenow, Karl (30) 136; (44) [2] 4 Wilder, Marshall P. (33) 178, 179; (47) [3] 31, 32 \"Wilderness Horticulture: Himalayan Highlands on the Hudson,\" John Gwynne (50) [1] 412 Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades, Charles Yocum and Vinson Brown [review of] (35) 162 Wildly Successful Plants, Lawrence J. Crockett [review of] (38) 156 Willaman, J. J. (60) [2] 44 Williams, Frances Ropes (30) 148 Williams, Llewelyn (33) 68 Williams, Robert G. (30) 85; (39) 286287, 288, 342, 359, 365 Williams, S. Wells (31) 10 Williamstown [MA] (48) [4] 20 Willow (32) 21, 83, 84; (34) 232, 233; (36) 30; (37) 120, 121; (42) [1] 22; (53) [3] 28; (56) [2] 21; [3] 15; (57) [1] 24; [3] 28; (60) [4] 26 -- American (43) [1] 10 -- corkscrew (43) [1] 11 -- crack (42) [1] 22 -- dwarf (37) 106 -- globular-headed (44) [3] 5 -- Peking (44) [3] 5 -- pussy (56) [3] 16 -- redstem (36) 30 -- shrub (56) [2] 28 -- weeping (31) 245; (39) 312; (56) [3] 16 -- white (43) [1] 10 -- yellow (31) 245 Willow family (54) [1] 24 -- herb (39) 255 -- Virginia (31) 244 -- water (43) [2] 21 \"Willow Oak (Quercus phellos), A Fenway Jewel,\" Martha Dahlen (33) 292294 Willows, collection of (46) [1] 34; (49) [1] 16, 65 -- hurricane damage to plants [1985] (46) [1] 34 -- roots of (49) [4] 13, 14 Wilson, Ernest H. (30) 1, 20, 81, 145, 163; (31) 137, 274; (32) 7, 11, 14, 20, 50, 103113, 189; (33) 16; (34) 125, 127; (36) 181236; [5] inside back cover; (40) 102138, 131, 139145, 154193, 155, 165; (44) [3] 6, 7, 11, 15, 2123, 26; (46) [4] 3, 16; (47) [2] 5, 7, 14; [4] 13, 18; (48) [1] 25, 30, 31, 33, 37; [2] 9, 34; [4] 35; (49) [1] 14, 15, 1720, 29, 38, 51, 58; [2] 25; [3] 19; (50) [2] 10, 11; [3] 29; [4] 29, 35; (51) [1] 13; (52) [1] 18; [4] 2; (53) [1] 30; [3] 3; [4] 21, 27; (54) [2] 34, 36; [3] 32; (55) [1] 12, 1718, 25, 34, 37; [2] 12, 15, 16; [4] 17, 24; (57) [1] 23, 28; [2] 1819, 24; (58) [3] 1216; (59) [1] 12, 15, 20; (60) [1] 9; [4] 18 -- -- -- and kiwifruit (43) [4] 2435 -- -- -- as photographer (36) 181236 -- -- -- in China (32) 103114; (36) 181236 -- -- -- monument to (59) [1] 74 -- -- -- photos by (39) 14, 270, 301; (47) [2] inside back cover; (48) [1] inside back cover; [3] 30; (49) [2] 32; [3] 5, 14; (55) [1] 36; [2] 15; (57) [2] inside front cover, inside back cover, 23; (58) [3] 13; (59) [3] 28; (60) [4] 34 \"Wilson's First Trip to China,\" William Gardener (32) 103113 Wilton, CT (47) [2] 27, 29 Windflower (31) 174 Wingnut, Caucasian (39) 196, 197 Winnisimet [MA] (48) [4] 39 Winslow House (31) 163 \"Winter Blooming Shrubs,\" Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (37) 111126 Winter Flowers in Greenhouse and Sun-heated Pit, Kathryn S. Taylor and Edith W. Gregg [review of] (37) 136 \"Winter Gardens,\" Carl R. Hahn (43) [1] 312 Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine, C. S. Campbell, F. Hyland, and M. L. F. Campbell [review of] (35) 130 Winter trunk damage (54) [3] 30 Winterberry (30) 172; (31) 172, 173, 174, 245; (43) [1] cover -- smooth (47) [1] 10 Wintercreeper, purpleleaf (43) [1] 42 Winterhazel (36) 7376 -- fragrant (60) [4] 12 -- Japanese (60) [4] 12 Wintergreen (39) 246, 256 W 6 Arnoldia, 19702000 Winterrod, Wayne (52) [1] 28, 29 Wintersweet (31) 245; (37) 114; (43) [1] 3 Winterthur Gardens [DE] (52) [2] 37 Wister, Gertrude S., \"Frances Williams and Her Garden Adventures\" (30) 148154 Wister, John C., and Joseph Oppe, \"1970 Lilac Registrations\" (31) 121126 Wisteria (30) 98; (55) [3] 18; (56) [2] 13, 23 -- American (31) 245 -- Chinese (56) [2] 25 Wisteria (34) 91; (56) [2] back cover, 30 -- floribunda (50) [3] 8, inside front cover -- -- `Mon Nishiki' (43) [4] 18 -- frutescens (31) 245 --sinensis (56) [2] 13, 27, 31 Witch alder (31) 89 (36) 78; (53) [1] inside back cover, 14 Witch hazel (30) 168, 171; (31) 89, 93, 94, 221; (32) 81, 82 [fig. 48, see errata]; (36) 69, 8491, 89; (37) 111, 112; (43) [1] 34; (49) [4] 34, 37; (51) [4] 3033; (52) [1] 18; (53) [4] 30; (55) [3] front cover, 2021; (57) [1] 31 -- -- family (36) 69109; (49) [4] 34 -- -- Chinese (43) [1] 4, 24; (47) [2] 17; (55) [1] 15 -- -- Ozark (36) 91 -- -- Virginia (44) [4] 4243 -- -- vernal (36) 91 \"The Witch Hazel Family,\" (Hamamelidaceae) Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (36) 69109 Witches-broom (33) 89; (49) [2] 3, 9 -- in lilac (49) [2] 1012 -- seedlings (34) 408 -- on white pine (30) 219 Witherod (30) 173; (31) 245 Withers, William (48) [4] 53 Witoto Indians [Colombia] (50) [2] 22 Woad (31) 202 Woburn Abbey arboretum [Bedfordshire, England] (32) 188 Wodeneth estate [Hudson River, NY] (32) 187 Wolchong-sa temple (57) [2]; 20, 21 Wolcott, Mary (49) [1] 29 Wolf pits [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 40, 48 Wolffia (43) [2] 27, 29 Wolfsbane (31) 174; (34) 271 Wollaston Beach [Quincy, MA] (48) [3] 19 Woo, Ting-Kwok (30) 9, 1213 Wood collection (32) 263; (33) 6780 -- -- at Harvard (33) 325 -- -- Perry [at Arnold Arboretum] (33) 231234 -- formation (33) 4666 -- grain (33) 59 -- identification (33) 79 \"The Wood Collection: What Should Be Its Future?\" William Louis Stern (33) 6780 Wood millet, golden (52) [2] 42 -- rose (37) 229 -- sage (39) 268 -- sorrel, yellow (34) 188 Wood, Carroll E. (32) 52, 252; (33) 96; (39) 349, 358; (49) [1] 20 -- -- -- \"Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation\" (33) 8196 Wood, Christina D.,\"'A Most Dangerous Tree': The Lombardy Poplar in Landscape Gardening\" (54) [1] 2430 Wood, William, (48) [4] 38, 44, 55 -- -- New England's Prospect [1634] (48) 38, 55 Woodbine (39) 263 Woodcock & Meacham [architects] (48) [3] 34 Woodhouse Moor Park [Leeds, England] (54) [2] 13 Woodland Ecology, Leon S. Minckler [review of] (37) 165 Woodlands [Philadelphia, PA] (49) [2] 1423 ; (51) [2] 5; (54) [1] 2425 -- painting of (49) [2] 15 -- engraving of (49) [2] 18 Woodlands Cemetery [Philadelphia] (41) 155; (49) [2] 23; (51) [2] 5 Woodlands, of 16th- and 17th-century England (32) 176 Wood-oil (31) 8 Woods Brook [Lynn, MA] (48) [4] 44 Woods Hole [Falmouth, MA] (48) [3] 27; [4] 55 W Cumulative Index Woodsia, smooth (46) [3] 20 Woodsia glabella (46) [3] 20 Woodward, Eudoxia (37) 210, 211 Woody Vines of the Southeastern United States, Duncan, W. H. [review of] (39) 72 Worcester County Horticultural Society (32) 268 -- -- -- -- spring flower show (31) 315 World Wildlife Fund (49) [3] 44 World's Columbian Exposition [Chicago, 1893] (51) [3] 5; (53) [4] 2; (60) [3] 1011 World's End [Hingham, MA] (48) [3] 20 Wormwood (31) 28; (34) 288 -- beach (34) 290; (39) 251, 266 -- Roman (39) 251 Woronoff, Malcolm (49) [2] 35 \"The Worthy Kerrias,\" Jeanne S. Wadleigh (35) 160161 \"Would A Lilac by Any Other Name Smell So Sweet? A Search for Fragrance,\" John Alexander III (56) [1] 2528 Wound remedies [Madagascar] (32) 25 Wright, Elizur (48) [4] 45; (53) [4] 7, 8 Wright, John A. (52) [3] 14 Wright-Smith, William (60) [1] 4 Writers and Friends, by Edward Weeks [excerpt from] (47) [4] 20, 22 Wu Cheng-yi (39) 353, 354 Wu Yee-sun, Mr. (31) 271 Wudang Shan, China (55) [1] inside front cover, 1220, 13, 18 Wuhan Institute of Botany [China] (46) [4] 15; (49) [3] 41, 43 Wuhan Temple (57) [3] front cover, back cover Wunsche, Otto (32) 151 Wu-t'ung (31) 9 -- tree (31) 8 Wuyi Mountain [China] (48) [2] 26, 29 Wuzhou [China] (48) [2] 19 Wylie, Samuel (53) [1] 13 Wyllys family [CT] (59) [4] 6, 9 Wyman, Donald (30) 1, 82, 183, 200; (32) 14, 51, 165, 253; (33) 20, 43, 112; (39) 332, 333; (49) [1] 19, 20, 57, 61; [3] 9; (50) [3] 17, 19; (51) [2] 18; (52) [1] 12, 13, 15; (53) [3] 2, 3; (55) [4] 4, 67, 10, 35; (56) [2] 33; (57) [1] 24; (59) [1] 81, 82 -- -- receiving the Scott Award (31) 300301 -- -- \"Arnold Arboretum Plant Introductions: The Second 50 Years, 19231972\" (32) 3043 -- -- \"Evergreens for the Retired Gardener's Garden\" (43) [1] 1320 -- -- \"The Forsythia Story [reprint, 1961]\" (51) [4] 3437 -- -- \"The History of Ornamental Horticulture in America\" (33) 97112 -- -- \"Horticulture at the Arboretum, 19361970\" (30) 8199 -- -- \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" with Harrison Flint (45) [4] 3234 -- -- photo by (47) [1] back cover Wyman, Donald, Mrs. (30) 93 Wyman, W. S., Prof. (36) 57, 63 Wyman's Garden Encyclopedia (32) 51; (44) [4] 13 Wymania (36) 57 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - X, Y, Z","article_sequence":18,"start_page":1,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25337","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd070b36b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"XYZ Cumulative Index 1 A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, 19702000 VOLUMES 3060 Xanthoceras sorbifolium (55) [3] 17; (60) [4] inside back cover, 13 Xanthomaculina convoluta (54) [2] 4 Xanthophylum yunnanensis (48) [2] 6 Xanthorhiza simplicissima (54) [2] 3135, 3234; (55) [3] 18; (60) [4] 15 Xanthoria parietina (35) 153 -- polycarpa (35) 153 Xanthorrhoea reflexa (36) 223 Xanthosoma spp. (47) [2] 27 Xerospermum bonii (48) [2] 7 Xiaguan [China] (46) [4] 22, 24, 2527, 31 Xianmu (46) [3] back cover; [4] 47, 48, 50 Ximen [China] (48) [2] 26 Xinhai revolution (48) [2] 10 Xinxuan, Zhong (48) [2] 11, 18 Xishuangbanna Prefecture [China] (48) [2] 27 -- botanic garden (48) [2] 5 -- vulnerable and endangered plants of (48) [2] 6 Xylem (33) 4666 Xylosandrus germanus (52) [1] 7 Yaje (32) 205, 210 Yakee (32) 207 Yam (31) 231 Yamada, Shoji (60) [4] 32 Yamanako and Company [of Japan] (31) 268 Yang, C. S. (49) [3] 4, 43 -- -- -- and C. Y. Cheng (50) [3] 29, 32 Yang, Guang (51) [2] 3 Yang, Hong, \"From Fossils to Molecules: The Metasequoia Tale Continues,\" (59) [1] 6071 Yang, Linda (51) [2] 40 Yang Mae Tree (or yang-mei) (31) 8, 16 Yang-tao (or yang-taw) (30) 181, 182 Yangbi [China] (46) [4] 16, 24, 25, 26 Yanny, Michael, \"The Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple--'Blanche Ames'\" (51) [1] 3337 Yao, Old [person known as] (48) [2] 13 Yarrow (31) 25, 26, 197, 202; (34) 154, 267; (39) 249 -- fernleaf (31) 25(34) 267 -- Greek (34) 269 -- woolly (34) 269; (39) 249 Yates, Tom (46) [3] 13 Yatsugadake, Mount [Japan] (47) [2] 14, 14 Yatsuhashi (47) [2] 13 Yaupon (31) 234 -- holly (50) [1] 19, 20; (51) [2] 17 Yautia (47) [2] 27 \"Year in Trees and Words: Book Note and Excerpt\" (55) [4] 3233 Yedo and Peking [Robert Fortune, 1863] (48) [2] 33 Yellow birch (45) [4] 22 -- loosestrife (39) 260 -- poplar (36) 121 Yellow-hardhead (34) 305 Yellowhorn (60) [4] 13 Yellow-root (44) [4] 49, 50; (54) [2] 3135; (60) [4] 15 Yellowwood (32) 67; (36) 121; (54) [1] 7, 9; (60) [1] 14, 16 -- American (39) 148, 149; (43) [1] 3940 Yen-fu-se temple [China] (48) [2] 37 Yew (30) 173; (31) 245; (34) 88; (37) 7, 74, 75; (43) [1] 12, 18; (48) [1] 5; (56) [2] 18, 27 -- English (31) 245; (32) 283; (56) [2] 28 -- -- weeping (56) [2] 28 -- Japanese (31) 167; (37) 23; (43) [1] 18; (50) [3] 9; (56) [2] 28 -- -- cushion (43) [1] 18 XYZ 2 Arnoldia, 19702000 -- -- dwarf (43) [1] 19 -- western (42) [4] 148 Yew, plum (55) [1] 2439 \"Yews in Fiction and Fact,\" Mark Silber and Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. (30) 139147 Yews, medicinal (58) [1] 2226 Yi, Lu (55) [1] 12, 13 Yin Hung-chang (39) 353 Ying Tsun-shen (46) [4] 21 Yinger, Barry R. (46) [4] 4; (50) [3] 32, 38; (52) [1] 3, 8, 27; [2] 36, 38, 44 -- -- -- \"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens,\" Carl R. Hahn (43) [4] 319 Yokohama (60) [4] 26 Yokohama Nursery Company [Japan] (49) [3] 3, 4, 5, 8, 1114, 17, 36, back cover -- catalog (54) [4] cover Yopo (32) 205, 208 Yosemite (56) [2] 12 Yoshida, Kenko (31) 264 Yoshino River [Japan] (47) [2] 11 Yoshiyasu, Yanagisawa (47) [2] 4 Young, George (57) [4] 1217 Your City Garden, Jack Kramer [review of] (33) 305 Your First Garden, Planning, Planting, and Plants, Jack Kramer [review of] (35) 131 Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It, R. Milton Carleton [review of] (35) 191 Yu Expedition [to China, 1938] (30) 86 Yu, Kongjian,\"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd: Understanding the Chinese Garden (53) [1] 27 Yu Te-tsun (39) 353, 354; (46) [1] 9; (48) [2] 31 Yu, T. T. (51) [1] 4, 13 Yuanming, Tao (53) [1] 2, 3 Yuca (= cassava) (50) [2] 3132 Yucca (31) 197 -- banana (42) [4] 143, 142 Yucca (33) 137; (47) [4] 14, 19 -- gloriosa (31) 197 -- baccata (42) [4] 143, 142 -- filamentosa (39) 269 Yuccas of the Southwestern U. S. [McKelvey, 1938] (47) [4] 19 Yuki-mochi-so (47) [2] 30 Yukon, collecting in (47) [4] 12 Yukunus Indians [Colombia] (50) [2] 27 Yung, C. T., Prof. (30) 18 Yunnan Province [China] (32) 106; (47) [2] 30; (48) [2] 3; (54) [2] 2627 Yunnan Institute of Tropical Botany, Academia Sinica [China] (48) [2] 5 Zabel, Hermann (31) 45 Zaitzevsky, Cynthia (56) [2] 27 Zamia floridana (59) [1] 34 Zander Handworterbuch der Pflanzennamen, Fritz Encke, Gunther Buckheim, Seigmund Seybold, eds. [review of] (33) 308 Zanonia indica (48) [2] 7 Zanthoxylum (55) [3] 18 -- molle (55) [1] 15 -- piperitum (38) 138 -- -- f. inerme (31) 292 Zapallo (50) [4] 5, 13 Zappey, Walter (40) 127 Zea maize (31) 205 -- mays (31) 206; (39) 313; (52) [2] 26 Zeatin, structure of (45) [2] 29 Zelkova (48) [4] 33; (52) [4] 29 -- Chinese (39) 204 -- elm (39) 203, 204 -- Japanese (39) 137, 138; (42) [2] 98; (44) [4] 22; (53) [1] 22; (60) [4] 28, 30 Zelkova acuminata (44) [3] 15 -- carpinifolia (39) 203, 204, 230 -- serrata (38) 157; (39) 137, 138, 230; (42) [2] 98; (44) [4] 22; (50) [3] 6, 8; (53) [1] 22; (54) [1] 9; (55) [1] 16; (60) [4] 28 -- -- as bonsai subject (32) 247 -- -- `Green Veil' (43) [4] 18 -- sinica (39) 204, 227; (55) [1] 1516 XYZ Cumulative Index Zenobia pulverulenta (33) 87; (37) [3] inside back cover; (41) 194 Zerner, Charles, \"The Golden Waterworks: Toraja Rituals of the Wet-Rice Landscape\" (45) [3] 212 -- photos by (45) [3] front & back covers Zhang, Ao-luo (46) [4] 21 Zhang, Zhiming (48) [2] 35 Zhejiang Forestry Department (51) [2] 3, 4; (52) [4] 3, 4 Zhejiang Preserve (46) [4] 4 Zhejiang seven-son flower (46) [4] front cover, 2, 3 Zhejiang Province [China] (51) [1] 18 Zhiwuxue ZaZhi [publication] (35) 277 Zhou, Jun (46) [4] 21 Ziegenfuss, Layne (32) 271 Zimmermann, M. H., D. Newbanks, and D. N. Roy, \"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know\" (42) [2] 6069 Zinman, Roberta (49) [1] 3 Zinnia (31) 168; (34) 352 Zippelia begoniaefolia (48) [2] 6 Zizyphus, at risk (46) [3] 45 -- jujuba (38) 145; (44) [3] 15, 21; (55) [3] 17 Zoo Atlanta (50) [1] 13, 14, 15, 18, 20 Zoo horticulture (50) [1] 3, 16, 18, 21 Zostera (43) [2] 4 Zou, Shou-qing, calligraphy by (46) [4] 2 -- \"The Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China\" (48) [2] 27 Zoysia grass (44) [3] 6 Zoysia japonica (33) 16; (44) [3] 6 Zuccarini, Joseph C. (30) 145; (31) 42; (48) [2] 33 Zurich [Switzerland] (60) [2] 27 Zwijnenburg, P. G. (51) [1] 22 Zwinger, Ann Haymond, book review by (45) [1] 2830 Zygophiala jamaicensis (52) [3] 24 Zygophyllum stapfii (54) [2] 3 3 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23401","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eb36e.jpg","title":"2000-60-5","volume":60,"issue_number":5,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The View from the Forest Canopy","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25319","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060b328.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Primack, Richard B.; Goh, Melvin; Kalu, Meekiong","article_content":"The View from the Forest Canopy Richard Primack, Melvin Goh, and Meekiong Kalu or decades, botanists from Harvard Uni- versity and elsewhere have been studying the remarkably diverse flora of the rainforests on the island of Borneo. Much of this interest was sparked by Peter Ashton, former director of the Arnold Arboretum, who has been doing research in Borneo for over forty years. Through the years, many Harvard students, undergraduate and graduate, as well as postdoctoral and staff researchers, have traveled to Borneo to look for new plant species, to hunt for plants with medicmal potential, or to determine the environmental effects of logging. Others have pursued zoological mterests. Tim Laman, an Arnold Arboretum Associate, combined his knowledge of the rainforest with his photographic skills to produce a series of articles for National Geographic, most recently one on gliding frogs, lizards, and snakes that live in the forest canopy. Cheryl Knott and Mark Leighton of Harvard's Peabody Museum have investigated the ecology of orangutans, monkeys, hornbills, and other large mammals and birds. Whatever the subject being investigated, a key member of all these exploration teams in Borneo's rainforest is a person known as a \"tree climber.\" Not surprismgly, a tree climber's official job is to climb trees and collect specimens of leaves, flowers, and fruits that are then dned and mounted on herbarium sheets for use in botamcal research. The best tree climbers are also experts m camp craft and forest lore. Two of the most famous tree climbers in all of Southeast Asia, both of them well known to Harvard researchers, are Jugah Tagi and Banyeng Ludong, now in their fifties and recently retired from the Sarawak Forest Department. Sarawak, which is part of Malaysia, occupies the northwest coast of Borneo. Both Jugah and Banyeng grew up in remote longhouses, the sort of single-structure villages on stilts that are common in Borneo. After their J- childhood, they went to Kuching, the capital of Sarawak, seeking education and work. They both have the \"burongs\"-bird tattoos on their throats and star tattoos on their shoulders-that mark them as members of the rural Ibans (also known as the Sea Dayaks), but apart from that, they are very different in both appearance and personality. Jugah around a is short, weighing only pounds, with an outgoing, fun-loving personality. In a group he is often the main talker, loudly telling stories in an excited, high-pitched voice. By contrast, Banyeng is barrel-chested, with a quieter, more reserved personality. He usually speaks more slowly and hesitantly, but occasionally he, too, hundred becomes excited. A ~ The Traditional Way of Climbing Trees In their workmg years, both Jugah and Banyeng could climb virtually any tree in Sarawak's forest: few trees were too tall or too difficult for these two, who used the traditional methods they had learned from boyhood and refined while working for the Forest Department. The most common method involves an mchwormlike series of movements-grabbmg a tree with the arms, raising the legs along the trunk, and gripping the trunk with their feet while extending the body another one to two feet up the trunk-movements repeated agam and again until the top of the tree is reached. When the trees were of ideal size for climbing in this way-about two feet in diameterBanyeng and Jugah could scoot to the top in a minute or two. When the trees were smaller, or had slippery bark, they sometimes tied a rope around their ankles to increase the pressure of their feet agamst the trunk. When the trunk of the targeted tree is too thick to hold onto, the traditional tree climber has to work from a smaller tree nearby. If the smaller tree is flexible enough, he might simply climb to the top branch and swing back and ~ 4 Jugah Tagi demonstrates the techmques of tradmonal forth until he can reach over, grab a branch of the larger tree, and leap across. Other situations require the use of a \"penyulok,\" a forked pole up to thirty or thirty-five feet long to which another forked stick is tied with a vine to make a hook. For example, after climbing the smaller tree, the tree climber might haul up the penyulok into the tree using a long, rope-like rattan vine. He then extends the penyulok horizontally to hook a branch on the target tree and twists the branch until it breaks off and falls to the ground. In other cases the climber might build bridges between the two trees: after pulling up the penyulok and hooking it over a branch on the target tree, he ties the base of the penyulok to the smaller tree and crosses over it to the larger tree As one can imagine, these maneuvers, often performed hundreds of feet above the ground, require extraordinary strength and suppleness, as well as long practice. Jugah and Banyeng never used safety equipment even when climb- tree climbmg. skill and confidence to ing trees more than 175 feet tall, relying on their own avoid accidents. Today's young tree climbers, by contrast, make extensive use of tree-climbing spurs and belts and specialized rock-climbmg equipment. This makes tree climbing much slower and more restrictive than the traditional methods. But it also makes the climbing safer. Banyeng, who still does contract work with the Forest comments on the danger inherent his unusual profession: \"There is always an element of fear when you are so high up, but the higher we go, the more careful we are. The few times that I have fallen it was because I wasn't careful enough, as I was not very high yet. My worst accident was near Melinau Gorge in Mulu National Park, where I not only fell out of a tree, but also rolled down a hill and got really banged up all over.\" Paul Chai, at the time a Forest Department botanist and who frequently worked with visiting Harvard researchers, recalls this incident, Department, m \" 5 Constructing the hook end of a penyulok and says that other members of the party thought Banyeng had probably been killed in the fall. When they dashed down the slope to find him, however, they discovered that Banyeng's main complaint was that he couldn't find his new clay pipe, which had fallen out of his mouth during his tumble down the hill. Maneuvenng the penyulok mto position \"Daily-Paid\" Tree Climbers: Begin In the early 1960s, when Jugah and Banyeng first signed up with the Forest Department as daily-paid tree climbers, they hardly expected to become fulltime employees, much less Two Careers Usmg the penyulok to break off flowermg branches from a neighboring tree. 7 of tree climbers, to know the the local communities gave to the plants. \"I knew that what he said was true and correct. I had to know the names, not only for myself but also because of what I was doing. With little education and knowledge, I realized that if I were to be good at what I do, I had to master some of the skills needed in the trade. Over the years, I learned the local names of the plants and trees. For many trees, I also learned the species and family names used by plant experts.\" skills required names \" Outdoing Botanists at Their Own Game Indeed, both Banyeng and Jugah are storehouses of botanical knowledge. Through years of working with local botanists and foresters, as well as with visitors from Harvard and other universities, Jugah and Banyeng have come to know the names of hundreds of tree species, and often their scientific Latin names as well. When they are not able to identify a species, they can usually recognize the family to which the tree belongs, or the species it is related to. So proficient are they that they can often remember where they first saw a particular species, a huge help in field identification. And in contrast to most trained botamsts, who must study plants carefully before venturing an identification, Banyeng and Jugah can name plants on sight with incredible speed. At Bako National Park, Jugah used to play a game with botanists, who would show him a leafy branch for five seconds and then hide it from sight. If Jugah knew the species, he would say the name mstantly. To make the game more challenging, the botanists showed the branch for only three seconds or even one, and the result was the same-if Jugah knew the species, he needed only the briefest glance to recognize it. But his skills went even farther, he could be shown two or even three branches mmgled together, all of different species, and still identify them mstantly. In addition to being expert at field identification, both Banyeng and Jugah are repositories of knowledge about the ways villagers use each part of a tree species-for construction, medicine, rope, or food-and which animals eat the fruit, leaves, or bark. Jugah and Banyeng eventually taught practical field identification to dozens of other Forest Banyeng holding a frmtmg branch of a subul palm, Pmanga tomentella. visitors. Paul Chai, now working with the International Tropical Timber Orgamzation, recalls how Jugah and Banyeng would begin by showing newcomers a leafy branch. Then, over the course of days and weeks in the field, they would reduce the learning cues to a single leaf, then part of a leaf, and finally only part of a rotten leaf. These lessons were always taught m good humor and accompanied by lots of laughter at each stage. Department staff and The Care and Feeding of Scientists Probably the tree climbers' most important job is to keep the research scientists alive in the field, particularly when the scientists are visiting Borneo for the first time. Between the two of them, Jugah and Banyeng have saved the lives of numerous one inexperienced biologists, including of the authors, Richard Pnmack. Primack recalls a Harvard-sponsored expedition in 1981 to Mulu National Park, at that time still a wild and remote area, when Jugah saved 8 another two feet, covering the little island and the place where I had been innocently wandering about only minutes \" before.\" Another life-threatening incident involved an American biologist who had come to collect snakes on the Sarawak coast with Jugah and other members of the Forest Departrose ment. \"He was quite inexperi- Jugah helpmg to identifv branches at Bako Natlonal Park him from a serious accident or death: \"On one of the evenings, while Jugah was setting up a camp on the side of Mt. Mulu, I crossed a shallow, rock-filled stream to a little island, about a hundred feet long by fifteen feet wide, on which were growing some unusual shrubs and vines that I wanted to collect. I noted that above me the mountain was draped in black rain clouds, but I didn't give it much thought. As I was collecting plants, I saw Jugah gesturing at me urgently, but I couldn't hear what he was shouting due to the rising roar of the stream. From the on his face I could see that something was terribly wrong. \"Deciding I had better see what Jugah wanted, I was preparing to cross the twenty-foot stream to where he was standing when I saw that most of the rocks were now covered by the surging stream. As I watched, the water was getring visibly higher! Suddenly, I realized that a flash flood was coming. I struggled to the middle of the stream but couldn't keep my footing in the strong, knee-high current that covered the slippery rocks below. I was fighting just to keep standing in the rush of oncoming water. Just then, Jugah dashed into the stream and hauled me out onto the bank, despite the fact that I outweighed him by sixty pounds. Within the look next few minutes, the water level in the stream enced in catching snakes, as it turned out,\" Jugah recounts. \"A boat dropped us off in the afternoon in the Santubong area. We were planning to collect snakes at night, with the boat picking us up the next morning. The American told us that he was interested in collecting king cobras and other poisonous snakes. I told him that these were very dangerous snakes and that he should let me catch them for him, or he should at least wear gloves. Before long we caught sight of a poisonous snake near some bushes. Saying he didn't need our help, he brushed us aside. Despite our warnings, he insisted that he was capable of catching the snake himself with his bare hands. As he reached for the snake, it bit his hand, and as he struggled to grab its head, it bit him a second time. \"Finally, hearing our screams, he flung the snake into the forest. He asked us how serious the bite was. I told him, 'You are going to die unless you go right to the Kuching Hospital,' and he then asked me what was the fastest way to the hospital. There was no road to the coast then; we had reached the place by boat but it was not due to pick us up until the next day. By then, he would have been long dead from the snake's poison! Luckily for him, we managed to find a fisherman who had just returned from his fishing trip and was willing to take us back to Kuching. But the fisherman was asking RM 50.00 to ferry us to Kuching, which seemed very high. The American didn't seem too pleased about the high price and asked me what I thought of the situation. 9 \"'It's quite simple,' I told him. 'Either you pay him or we wait for our boat tomorrow. Only by then we will be carrying your dead body with us.' Upon hearing that, he made no further fuss, and we arrived in Kuching just in time to get treatment for the bites.\" Jugah laughs as he finishes: \"The American left Sarawak without Borneo mountain, with clouds of burning porcupine smoke rising in the air and sparks flying crackling quills, will definitely not be forgotten soon. Tree climbers are also responsible for setting up camps in remote locations, making sure the camps are safe, functional, and if possible, comfortable. The basic camp consists of a framework of poles over which tarps are stretched to keep out the rain. Simple cots covered with mosquito netting serve as beds. Often, the tree climbers are asked to improvise special structures, such as a writing desk and chair for a scientist, or a temporary shelter of palm leaves when a sudden rain shower erupts. Banyeng and Jugah learned that their knowledge of camp craft was not always heeded, however. Banyeng often worked with Peter Ashton, and Banyeng recalls that while Ashton was brilliant as an admmistrator and biologist, he sometimes chose not to listen to advice. \"During one of our collecting expeditions along the Baram River he insisted on pitching his tent along a riverbed despite repeated warnings from us. The rainwater that fed the stream eventually rushed down the slope later that evening and washed away his tent, leaving him cursing and fuming over the situation,\" Banyeng remem- from the going out snake-collecting again.\" Another crucial role played by tree climbers is that of supplementing their expeditions' limited supply of tmned meats with fresh meat. Jugah and Banyeng are highly skilled fishermen and hunters and often welcomed the opportumty to use these skills while on field trips. In the early days, any animal could be shot for food, but awareness of the need for conservation later resulted in restrictions against hunting monkeys, hornbills, and other endangered wildlife. This often meant that the tree climbers faced conflicting demands: the need to follow the new restrictions on the one hand, and the need to supply food for expedition members on the other. Fortunately, even if the hunting wasn't good, there were always fish to be caught. Mountain streams often produced a large supply of small fish, albeit full of bones. Any pole with a bit of string, a fishhook or a bent nail, and a small berry or insect as bait would suffice for fishing gear. Lee Hua Seng, associate director of the Forest Department and a frequent visitor to the forest, recalls that Banyeng had a special talent for catching freshwater carp using a fishing rod fashioned from the midrib of a palm frond, with a grasshopper tied to its end for bait. Richard Primack also recalls one memorable evening in 1986 when he was working with a student, Pamela Hall, and Forest Department staff at the remote Bukit Mersing Protected Forest, way upriver and a long walk into the forest. One night everybody was sleeping in the streamside camp except Jugah, who was out hunting. When a gunshot echoed through the forest, everyone woke up. About twenty minutes later, Jugah emerged from the dark forest carrying a dead porcupine the size of a basketball. The men heaped up the campfire with wood and threw the porcupine on it to burn off the quills. The experience of sitting around a huge fire at eleven o'clock at night on a remote \" bers, laughing. Today there are still tree climbers in the Forest Department collecting tree branches for botanical projects and also gathering fruits and seeds for various replanting projects. But these young tree climbers, with their special climbing shoes, belts, and ropes cannot easily move around in the forest because their equipment is so heavy and cumbersome. Climbing with the new gear is slow and tiring m comparison with the speed with which the young Jugah and Banyeng bounded up trees with no equipment at all. Those days are over for the tree climbers, the Forest Department, and the visiting researchers, but the vivid memories remain. Richard Pnmack is a professor of plant ecology at Boston a University and was recently a Bullard Fellow in the Harvard University Herbaria Melvin Goh is a reporter for the Sarawak Tnbune Meekiong Kalu is officer for the Sarawak Blodiversity Centre. research "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Survival of the Most Adaptable","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25317","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060ab6b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Survival of the Most Peter Del Tredici Adaptable and arboreta are great for the adventurous gardener to explore for plants and new ways to use them. Tucked into out-of-the-way, often untidy corners one can find plants that are refreshingly different from those offered by the trendy horticultural industry or seen in our monotonous suburban landscapes. Often these plants have been underutilized because they cannot meet the demands of a horticultural marketplace that otanic gardens places requires rapid contrast, can are turnover. islands of Botanic gardens, by stability where plants grow and develop at their own pace. This is especially important in the case of trees, which can be very slow to develop, often takmg fifteen to twenty years to produce flowers or cones. A brief summary of how plants become part of botanic garden collections will illustrate the value of these collections for the gardener interested in expanding his or her horticultural options. To begin with, the source of the plants is an important part of the process. Botanic gardens, particularly those with a research mission, go to great lengths to obtain plant material that has been collected in the wild and documented with herbarium specimens. This expensive and time-consuming documentation ensures for future generations that our plants are properly identified. And that represents only the beginning of the plant documentation, which consumes a significant portion of the Arboretum's living collections budget. In contrast, there is no way to know for certain that a plant in a nursery is what the label says it is. Indeed, most nurseries raise their plants from very small seedlings or cuttings that they purchase, and they use the identifications that come with them. If the seeds were collected from the wild (and correctly identified), the seedlings will be true to type. If the source nursery made an identification mistake, however, the error will spread throughout the industry. After seeds have been collected in the wild and received at the greenhouse, they are chilled or scarified before being sown. When and if they germinate, the resulting seedlings are potted up. Once they reach an appropriate size in the nursery, which differs widely from garden to garden, they are labeled and planted out m permanent locations where it is hoped they will flourish. The plants are watered and weeded during their first year or two on the grounds, but after that they are generally left to develop in their own good time, under conditions that might be called \"benign neglect.\" The whole process, from seed to being planted out on the grounds, is long, taking three to five years for shrubs and five to seven for trees. The purpose of this article is to highlight some noteworthy plants that have made it through the cultivation process at the Arnold Arboretum but are still not common in the landscapes and gardens of the Northeast. Some of them can be considered new, having only recently become available commercially, while others are not currently available through nurseries even though they have been growing on the Arboretum grounds for over a hundred years. The latter group includes plants that have always been ignored by the nursery industry, and others that may have been popular in the past but have fallen out of favor and are now essentially forgotten. Most of the plants on the list are adaptable to a wide range of environmental conditions, growing well in either full sun or partial shade, and on wet or dry sites. All of them have performed well on the Arboretum's well-dramed, acidic soils, and most have few, if any, pest or disease problems. Keep in mind, however, that this characterization is based on a small sample size and may not hold true if the plants become widely planted. It should also be noted that the USDA hardiness zone ratings, as well as the 11 I of the plants, are meant as guidelines rather than as absolute judgments. While most of the plants have multiseason mterest, I have orgamzed the list around their primary season of interest. The list is heavily weighted toward species rather than cultivars, for two reasons: first, many of the plants have not yet undergone intensive horticultural selection in either nurseries or landscapes, so no cultivars are available; and second, the primary criterion for selection was ecological adaptability, which is best treated as an attribute of the species as a whole rather than of a particular cultivar. Selectmg plants with broad adaptability may be the best approach to one of the gardener's primary goals: choosing the right plant for the right sizes experimentation, but also get more people thinking in practical terms about the impending changes in our environment. SPRING Amstolochia manschuriensis \/Manchuman dutchman's pipe) : zone 4 (?). This rarely seen produces three-quarter-mch-long yellow early in spring before the foliage emerges, making it much showier than the American species, A. macrophylla, whose flowers are hidden under fully expanded leaves. While the two species are similar in growth rate and habit, the leaves of the Manchurian species are somewhat larger and a duller green than vine flowers those of the American species. Chionanthus retusus place. Unfortunately, highly adaptable species can also be highly invasive; the trick is to identify species that are adaptable but not invasive. The amur cork tree (Phellodendron amurense) is an example of a species that has the potential to become an invasive if it becomes widely planted in the Northeast. It is an unfortunate conundrum that every plant, including Stewartia pseudocamellia and Acer palmatum, has the potential to become invasive when growing conditions allow its seedlings to get established. (Chinese fringetree): zone 5. Chinese fringetree is more tree-like than its straggly American cousin, C. virginicus. In May or June, the whole plant is covered by small, white flowers, followed by a large crop of bluepurple fruit in fall. When planted in an open situation, Chinese fringetree will develop into an elegant specimen about thirty feet in height with a similar spread. It has a broad distribution Asia, where it shows considerable variation in hardiness, leaf shape, and growth form. At least two distmct ecotypes are available from commercial nurseries in the United States, m My reasons an for assembling this list go well in beyond interest in seeing greater our local landscapes. Our physical environment is changing variety because of human activities-and there is an urgent need to identify plant species that can thrive alongside people and the pollution we inevitably create. The plants listed below have performed reliably under a variety of environmental conditions with minimal mamtenance and little supplemental irrigation; they can therefore be considered \"preadapted\" to flourish under the erratic weather extremes that global warming appears to have in store for us. I hope this eclectic sample of ornamentals will not only encourage horticultural rapidly-in large part Chionanthus retusus 12 adapted to warm, dry climates like that of southern California and the other better suited to cold, moist climates like that of New one England. Corylopsis spicata (Japanese winterhazel~: 5. All winterhazels produce beautiful, softyellow flowers in early spring and perform best in moist soil under light shade. Japanese winterhazel, together with fragrant winterhazel zone white flowers in early spring. The combination of upright, conical habit and drooping flowers is very striking. Like both its parents, 'Wada's Memory' does best in full sun and moist soil. large, pendant, Prunus cyclamina (cyclamen cherry): zone 6 (5?). A native of central China, cyclamen cherry grows to thirty feet in height with an equal spread. It produces prolific clusters of small, rose-pink flowers in early spring, and in fall its foliage beautiful orange-red. Compared to other cherries culturns a tivated at the Arnold Arboretum, cyclamen cherry is free of pests and disease. Rhododendron calendulaceum (flame azalea): zone 5. This azalea is one of the best-adapted to the Northeast. It blooms in late May to early June, producing orange, or yellow, It grows red flowers. Corylopsis spicata equally well in sun and shade and is tolerant of drought and, compared to other azaleas, of soils with high pHs. Inferior hybrids and cultivars have largely displaced the flame is the hardiest species of the reach six to ten feet in height with (C. glabrescens), genus. It an can azalea in contemporary landscapes, but its hardmess and lack of susceptibility to powdery mildew have led to a resurgence equal spread and works well as a mass planting. The soft yellow color of its flowers offers an attractive antidote to the bright yellow forsythia that bloom at of mterest, especially for naturalistic plantings. about the same time. 'Mt. Airy': zone 5. The 'Mt. Airy' cultivar is more vigorous and floriferous than the species. It spreads rapidly from under- Fothergilla major ground stems and tolerates a wide range of conditions. It grows to about five or six feet in height and produces fall color in a gorgeous blend of yellow, orange, and scarlet. Syringa x chinensis 'Lilac Sunday': zone 3. This cultivar of the persian lilac, selected at the Arnold Arboretum, is a large, spreading shrub that can grow to be ten to fifteen feet tall and equally wide, producing foot-long racemes of light purple flowers in mid-May. In general, persian lilac is more heat tolerant and disease resistant than the common lilac (Syringa vulgarisJ; it also produces a smaller, more delicate foliage, creating a lacy appearance. Weigela subsessilis (Korean weigela): zone 5. This multistemmed shrub from Korea grows to be about six feet tall and six feet wide. In May it produces three-mch-long flowers that change Magnolia x 'Wada's Memory': zone 4. This hybrid of the willowleaf (M. salicifollaJ and kobus (M. kobus) magnolias grows to be about thirty feet tall and only ten feet wide, producing 13 Aesculus parviflora (bottlebrush buckeye): zone 4. This large, July-bloommg buckeye is native to the southeastern United States. Its spectacular flower spikes can reach up to twelve inches in length. It is decidedly shrubby in habit, forming large clumps from underground suckers and layers. Unlike most buckeyes, it is totally free of leaf scorch, so its foliage looks good throughout the summer and fall. Because it in sun or grows equally well shade, the bottlebrush buckeye is perfect for sites where the woodland meets the garden's Syringa x chinensis 'Lilac Sunday' edge-especially creat- since its wm- gradually from pale yellow to lavender, ing an interesting, multicolored effect. The plant deserves further testing under both nursery and landscape conditions. Xanthocerus sorbifolium (yellowhorn): zone 4 (3?). An upright shrub or small tree from China, yellowhorn grows to fifteen feet in height with a somewhat gawky growth habit. It produces showy white flowers on sixto ten-inch-long racemes in late spring. Yellowhorn is tolerant of full sun and of dry soils with high pHs; together with its ability to spread from root suckers, this makes it potentially useful for highway embankments and other difficult sites. SUMMER Actinidla kolomlkta (kolomikta kiwy: zone nor- 4. This unusual vine from northeast Asia mally produces irregularly variegated leaf tips of white and pink in spring and summer, making it look as though someone had splashed paint on its leaves. It should be sited so that its dramatic foliage can be viewed from above (e.g., below a deck). If left to its own devices, the kolomikta kiwi can spread into adjacent trees and damage them, a problem that can be avoided by training it to a trellis or periodi- cally pruning it. Aesculus parviflora 14 . staking. produces strongly pendant branches with a growth form reminiscent of weeping beech, and it should be planted near water for fastest growth and best effect. Twenty-year-old plants of It central leader without 'Morioka Weeping' are now over thirty feet tall and ten feet wide. Aesculus parviflora Hydrangea pamculata 'Praecox' (early hydrangea): zone 3. Early hydrangea forms a large shrub growing to about ten feet in height and the same in width. It begms to flower in midsummer, continuing for about six weeks, with sterile flowers that gradually turn from white to red to papery brown. In appearance, it is more \"natural\" than the old- hydrangea (H. paniculata 'Grandiflora'), but it is every bit as hardy and flexible in its soil and moisture requireThe cultivar 'Tardiva' is similar to 'Praecox', but blooms about a month later. ments. fashioned peegee Hydrangea quercifolia (oakleaf hydrangea): zone 5. The horticultural merits of this outstanding shrub, a native of the Southeast, have finally been recognized. It grows well in either sun or shade, and is tolerant of dry soils. It produces beautiful blossoms in July and stunning burgundyred fall color; in fact, even if the plant never flowered, it would be worth growing for its bold foliage. This species and all of its cultivars well deserve the popularity they are now Hydrangea paniculata ter 'Praecox' habit can be gawky when cultivated as a specimen zone in the open. Cercidiphyllum japonicum \"Morioka Weeping': 4. This spectacular katsura cultivar originated in Morioka City, Iwate Prefecture, Japan, and was introduced into North America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1981 under the name Cercidiphyllum magnificum 'Pendulum'. 'Morioka Weeping' can be distingmshed from other weeping katsuras by its ability to form a enjoying. Llriodendron American cross tulipifera x chinense (Chinesetulip tree): zone 5(?). One plant of this at now over the Arboretum since 1981; thirty feet tall and fifteen feet wide. Its foliage is bronzy colored in spring, and its flowers, though somewhat smaller than it is has been growing 15 Rhododendron arborescens (sweet azalea): zone 4. Sweet azalea is native to moist habitats throughout the mountains of the Southeast. In late June and July it produces extremely fragrant white flowers that are highlighted by bright red anther filaments. Since its glossy green foliage is generally undamaged by msects or fungi, it remains attractive throughout the growing season. Sweet azalea can grow to about six feet in height stems, and spreads laterally by underground making it an ideal choice for naturalistic landscapes. Xanthorhiza simplicissima (yellowroot): zone 3. This woody groundcover grows to be about two feet tall, spreading vigorously by underground stems and performing well in both wet and dry soils and in sun or shade. Its adaptability and persistence make yellowroot a good choice for low-maintenance landscapes. It was used more commonly in the past than it currently is. FALL Quercus phellos those of the American species, have more orange in their petals. This hybrid tulip tree was developed at the Umversity of North Carolina in 1978 and should be tested in landscape situations. The specimen at the Arboretum has been given the cultivar name 'Chapel Hill'. Acer pseudosieboldianum (Korean maple): zone 4. This medium-sized understory tree from northeast Asia produces spectacular fall color ranging from orange to scarlet in late October. The species is similar in general appearance to the Japanese maple (A. palmatum), but it is more upright in habit-growing to be about thirty feet tall and fifteen feet wide-and more cold hardy. It deserves wider testmg under landscape conditions, particularly in zones 4 and 5, where Japanese maple can have problems. Acer Quercus phellos (willow oak): zone 5b. Although commonly planted as a street or park tree in the South, willow oak in underutilized in the Northeast. When raised from seed collected in the northern part of its range (e.g., central New Jersey), it is perfectly hardy into southern New England. It grows to about sixty triflorum (twisted-bark maple): zone 5 (4?).. ( feet and maintains a strong central leader well up into the crown. Its small, narrow leaves cast a light shade that allows grass to prosper underneath it, and, as an added bonus, are easy to clean up in the fall. Willow oak is late to leaf out in the spring, but it makes up for its slow start by growing continuously throughout the heat of summer. This mid-sized tree from northeast China can grow to forty feet in New England. Like its near relative the paperbark maple (A. griseum), it produces trifoliate leaves. Its most striking features include late fall color that ranges from bright red to orange, and its whitish-tan, shredding bark m winter. A tn florum performs reliably under a wide range of conditions and appears to be hardier than A. griseum. Enkianthus perulatus (white enkianthus): zone 5. White enkianthus is a slow-growmg deciduous shrub from Japan that eventually grows to six feet in height with a similar spread. In spring 16 produces small, white flowers, and in fall its foliage turns rich burgundy to flaming scarlet, brighter than any other plant cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum, where specimens of E. perulatus have been growing in full sun and dry soil for over a hundred years. it fine-textured paniculata 'Rose Lantern' (`Rose golden raintree): zone 5. This deciduous, round-headed tree grows from thirty- to forty-feet tall with an equal spread. It produces striking yellow flowers in showy panicles in late August or early September, almost a month later than is typical of the species. The fruit capsules are an attractive light pink, eventually turning paper-brown. 'Rose Lantern' Lantern' grows well in full sun and dry soil, making it suitable for streets and parking lots. This clone has been widely distributed under the cultivar name Koelreuteria 'September'. Enkianthus perulatus carnosus Euonymus (glossy euonymus): zone 6 (5?). This small deciduous tree from China can grow to about twenty feet in height. At the Arnold Arboretum, glossy euonymus has been free of pests and disease for nearly twenty years. Its shiny, dark green foliage turns a striking burgundy red in late fall, quite unlike that of any other euonymus cultivated at the Arboretum. Heptacodium zone Lindera obtusiloba (Japanese spicebush): zone 5b. This deciduous, wide-spreading shrub grows to about fifteen feet in height with an equal spread. Its leathery, distmctively lobed leaves are extremely handsome and turn a bright, chrome yellow for a full two weeks in late fall-indeed, in terms of fall color, Japanese spicebush is one of the Arboretum's most reliable performers. It is a complete mystery why one seldom sees this plant in New England landscapes. WINTER miconioides (seven-son flower): 5. This tall deciduous shrub or small tree, introduced from China in 1980, can grow to be about twenty feet tall and fifteen feet wide. Heptacodium produces six-inch-long panicles of small, white flowers in late summer, followed rapidly by a beautiful display of showy, rose-magenta seeds in early autumn. It is tolerant of clay soils, road salt, and full sun, making it a good choice for roadside plantings. Its white, exfoliating bark is spectacular in winter, especially when trained to develop a single stem. Ilex pendunculosa (longstalk holly~: zone 5. This Japanese species, which can grow to be fifteen feet tall and ten feet wide, is one of the hardiest of the upright hollies. Its attractive red fruit and delicately creased, glossy foliage make it an excellent choice for northern gardens, either as an informal hedge or as a specimen. Like most hollies, it grows best in light shade and moist, well-drained soil. Magnolia virginiana var. australis (evergreen sweetbay): zone 5b. This slender, upright tree grows to be thirty feet tall and ten to fifteen feet wide, with a strong central trunk. The evergreen sweetbay has narrow leaves and deliciously fragrant, two-inch-wide flowers in June and July. A native of the Southeast, it is botanically and 17 7 full sun, but unlike other species it flourishes at sea level and is tolerant of a variety of soil conditions. This is one of the few firs smtable for use m small residential landscapes. Calocedrus decurrens (California incense zone 5. This tall evergreen from the mountains of California grows to be about fifty feet tall in the East. Incense cedar typically develops a narrow, almost fastigiate, growth habit that is very striking in the landscape, with foliage that stays bright green through the winter. It grows best in full sun and is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, mcluding clay and extreme drought, and has no serious pest or disease problems in the East. This plant deserves to be much more widely grown than it currently is. cedar): Magnolia virginiana var austrahs horticulturally distinct from the shrubby, deciduous sweetbay that grows in the Northeast (var. vmgmiana~, but not quite as hardy. Stewartia sinensis (Chinese stewartia~: zone 6 \/5?\/. This species is an understory tree from China that can grow to thirty or forty feet in height. In summer it produces small, white flowers (one-and-a-half-inch in diameter). With its smooth bark, white to tan in color and resembling alabaster, Chmese stewartia is every bit as beautiful as the Korean stewartia, S. sun or commonly planted pseudocamellia. It needs more m moist, well-dramed soil and performs well either full light shade. CONIFERS Abies koreana (Korean fir): zone 5. This relatively small fir, around twenty to thirty feet tall and ten feet wide at maturity, produces highly ornamental purple-blue Like most true cones at a young age. Abies koreana firs, this Korean species requires 18 Cedrus deodara 'Shalimar': zone 6. This hardy form of the deodar cedar was selected at the Arnold Arboretum in 1982, where it grows to about thirty feet in height. Its beautiful, bluegray foliage and graceful, drooping branches make the deodar cedar a dramatic landscape specimen. It grows best in full sun and is very tolerant of dry soil. zone 5. native to northwestern North Although America, this species is perfectly hardy in the Northeast. In comparison to T. occidentalis, the eastern arborvitae, T. plicata is taller and looser Thuja plicata (western arborvitae): growth habit, forms a strong central leader, and has much better winter color. It can grow to be fifty or sixty feet tall in the East, with a spread of about twenty feet. m Cedrus deodar `Shalimaz Tsuga chinensis (Chinese hemlock): zone 6 (5?). (. A tall evergreen, Chinese hemlock grows to at least fifty feet in height in the Boston area. Preliminary evidence indicates that it is resistant to the hemlock woolly adelgid, but more research is needed before the species gets a full recommendation. The oldest specimen in North America, collected in China by E. H. Wilson, has been growing at the Arnold Arboretum since 1910. Peter Del Tredici is director of Arnold Arboretum. living collections at the Calocedrus decurrens For a list of nurseries that carry these plants, contact the Arboretum's membership department by mail or by e-mail ~membershipCo3arnarb harvard.edu). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cypress Knees: An Enduring Enigma","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25314","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060a728.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Briand, Christopher H.","article_content":"Cypress Knees: An Enduring Enigma Christopher H. Briand The cypresses keep their secrets from the prying investigator. -J. E. Rogers,1905 he t botanists. In 1819, Fran~ois Andre Michaux wrote, \"No cause can be assigned for their existence,\" and in 1882 Asa Baldcypresses m the Gray concurred. Nevertheless, throughout the nineteenth century and continuing to the present, botanists have put forth hypotheses about the function of these peculiar formations, hypotheses that have mcluded aeration of the root system, vegetative reproduction, mechanical support, nutrient accumulation, and carbohydrate storage. The aeration theory has been the most popular and, indeed, is presented without question in some botany texts, but in fact, no explanation has been generally accepted.'1 The genus Taxodium has been present in North America since at least the Upper Cretaceous, approximately seventy million years ago, but very little is known about when knees first developed and why. Knees can be found on both varieties now extant in the Umted States. Baldcypress (Taxodium distichum var. distichum) is distributed along the coastal plam from southern Delaware to southern Florida, west to southeastern Texas, and inland along the Mississippi Valley as far north as southern Illinois and Indiana. Pondcypress (Taxodmm distichum var. imbricarium) has a more limited distribution, with its northern limit in south- mtrigued function of cy- press knees has long Wolf River, eastern near Memphis, Tennessee. its range extending south Florida and west to southeast Louisiana. The two varieties are readily distinguished by their leaf morphology and the orientation of both their leaves and branchlets. While the leaves of baldcypress are needlelike and generally arranged m two rows, those of pondcypress are scalelike and radially distributed around the branchlets. Also, baldcypress branchlets are horizontally oriented, whereas pondcypress branchlets are often ascending. Where they overlap in distribution, however, there is considerable morphological Virginia and throughout 2 intergradation.2 eastern Visitors to the cypress swamps of the southUnited States are often intrigued by the swollen bases, or buttresses, of cypresses, and by the woody conical structures-the knees-of varying size found around the base of many trees. More than anything else, the knees resemble termite mounds, but are in fact outgrowths of the shallow, horizontal roots of the cypress trees and are not caused by insect activity. Knees are formed on the upper surface of these roots by the vascular cambium, the 20 The denuded roots of a baldcypress, showmg the knees and underground The Aeration Knees are structure. menstematic layer that produces xylem and phloem, the tissues that transport water and nutrients through the plant. The knees are gen- Hypothesis but may become hollow over time due to rotting. In cypress plantations, knees are found on trees as young as twelve years old.~ Cypress knees vary greatly in size. In 1803, Andrew Ellicot observed knees as high as eight to ten feet; the tallest on record is a knee fourteen feet in height seen on a tree growing along the Suwannee River, which flows through Georgia and Florida .4 Many researchers have agreed that it is average water depth that determines the height of knees, and one observer, Mattoon, reported that the knees on trees growmg in softer soils were larger than those produced by S trees growing on firmer land.5 In spite of much research and a plethora of hypotheses, exactly what stimulates cypresses to form knees remains, like the knees' function, unknown. In the following, I will review all these hypotheses and the present state of our knowledge about cypress knees. erally solid, often found on the roots of trees relatively shallow water; they are generally absent from trees growing in deeper water and only occasionally on trees growing on land that is dry year-round. In 1934, Herman Kurz and Delzie Demaree, working in Florida, suggested that knees may be caused by the root system being alternately exposed to water and air. In 1956, L. A. Whitford, a researcher working in North Carolina, came to a similar conclusion: \"The formation of cypress knees seems ... to be a response of the cambium of a root growmg in poorly aerated soil or water to chance exposure to the air during the spring or early summer.\" Another indication that aeration may play a role in knee development emerged from research done in 1991 by Fukuji Yamamoto, who observed that the number of knees per tree declined with increasing water depth. The fact that knees have been reported on trees found on land that is dry year-round, of course, throws mto question the most growing in wet soil and in 21 need for periodic flooding or drying to stimulate knee formation.~ The need for aeration has been a favorite hypothesis for explaining the function, as well as the formation, of knees. Since all plant roots need a source of air to carry out cellular respiration, some researchers have suggested that knees are simply a form of pneumatophore, or breathing root. Pneumatophores are specialized roots that characterize many woody plants growing in poorly aerated soils, such as m swamps or in the intertidal zone; examples include Avicennia nitida (black mangrove~, Sonneratza alba (mangrove apple\/, and Bruguiera parviflora (small-leafed orange mangrove). Pneumatophores grow either entirely above the level of the water, or in such a way as to be exposed only during low tide. They are characterized by the presence of lenticels (porous regions in the bark that allow gas exchange with the atmosphere) and of aerenchyma, the specialized internal tissues that transport gases through many hydrophytic plants.' The first published suggestion that cypress knees may be a form of pneumatophores dates from 1848, when Montroville W. Dickenson and Andrew Brown wrote in the American Journal of Science and Arts that by means of knees \"the roots although totally submerged, have a connection with the atmosphere.\" They also suggested that when the knees were mundated, the connection with the atmosphere could be maintained by the swollen base of the tree, sometimes called the \"bottle buttress\": \"Such enlargements never fail to rise to the top of the highest water level ...\" In 1887 Nathaniel Shaler conjectured that \"[the] function of the knees is in some way connected with the process of aeration of the sap ... with air entering the knees through newly formed bark at their apex. He also observed that trees died when the water rose high enough to inundate the knees. Two years later, in 1889, another researcher was even more categorical: \"[the] location and occurrence [of knees] indicate beyond a doubt that they are for purposes of aerating the plant.\" In their 1934 paper, however, Kurz and Demaree stated just as categorically that it is \"difficult to rec\" Smgle young baldcypress with buttressed base growing m Chipman Pond, Delaware. oncile the aeration hypothesis with the fact that cypresses of the deeper waters are devoid of knees. \"8 As early as 1890, Robert H. Lamborn, writing in Garden and Forest, had suggested that tests be conducted to learn whether or not knees were indeed \"aerating\" the trees' roots. Nevertheless, m spite of all the theorizing, little was done to test the pneumatophore hypothesis until 1952, when Paul J. Kramer and his colleagues at Duke University used modern physiological techniques to ascertain the amount of oxygen consumed by knees on living cypresses. They enclosed the knees in airtight containers sealed with a mixture of paraffin and beeswax, and used an oxygen analyzer to measure the amount of oxygen consumed over several weeks. The rate of oxygen consumption was actually lower than for other plants, leading the researchers to conclude that \"the available evidence indicates that cypress knees play no important role as aerating organs.\"9 22 the below-ground environment, it was hypothesized in the present study that knees may also show methane emissions.\" Methane is not toxic to plants, but neither is it of use to them. Pulliam measured total methane emissions from trees in swamps bordering the Ogeechee River in Georgia, finding rates that averaged 0.9 milligrams per day.\" His tests showed that cypress knees accounted for a negligible amount of the methane emissions from the swamp-less than one percent. This methane is commonly referred to as \"swamp gas.\" Furthermore, it is quite possible that even this miniscule amount of methane was being produced by the bacteria that are found on the outside of the knees, rather than being vented from the soil through the knees.\"i The Vegetative Baldcypress knees appear to march from dry land mto the Wolf River, Tennessee. of what known about cypress knees at that time, mentioned and then quickly discarded the idea that cypress knees were organs of vegetative reproduction: \"I have ... examined hundreds of living 'knees' in southern swamps, and found upon them no trace of bud, leaf or sprout ...\" No one has since revisited this hypothesis. was Reproduction Hypothesis Lamborn, in his 1890 review Anatomical evidence presents another problem for the hypothesis that knees are a form of pneumatophore. Two studies found that knees lacked aerenchyma-the spongy tissues in true pneumatophores that transport air from the knee to the rest of the root system. In addition, lenticels-the regions of the bark that in pneumatophores allow air to be taken up from the atmosphere-are also absent from cypress knees.' The Methane Emission A less Hypothesis frequently heard theory is one presented by William M. Pulliam in 1992: \"Given the possibility that cypress knees provide a conduit to The Mechanical Support Hypothesis Buttresses and stilt roots provide mechanical support for a number of tropical trees. It was again Lamborn, in 1890, who first proposed that knees perform the same function for cypress trees growing m wet soil: \"I became convinced that the most important function of the Cypress knee is to stiffen and strengthen the root, in order that a great tree may anchor itself safely in a yielding material.\" Increased support, he believed, allowed cypresses to withstand strong winds such as those produced by hurricanes. Lamborn suggested that knees located on horizontal roots add stiffness and strength to the junction between the horizontal root to which 23 the knees are attached and the vertical roots that branch off directly below the knees. In 1915, Wilbur R. Mattoon, working for the United States Forest Service, concurred with Lamborn, opining that knees were involved in \"enlargmg and strengthening the basal support\" provided by the rest of the root system. He pointed out that deep roots growing down from the base of the knees provided considerable anchorage for the tree. Both Mattoon and Lamborn premised their hypotheses on the assumption that vertically oriented roots and knees always occur at the same location on horizontal roots, as was apparently the case m their observations. However, Clair A. Brown and Glen N. Montz found that cypresses sometimes produce knees at locations other than above downward-growing roots, and, conversely, that some downward-growing roots do not share a junction with knees on the horizontal roots. And, as with the pneumatophore theory, the absence of knees on the roots of trees growing in deeper water casts doubt on this hypothesis, since there is no reason to believe that they too wouldn't need support. The hypothesis could be tested empirically in the same way that researchers have used cables and winches to pull down trees in order to Looping Roots vs. Knees Cypress, as well as water tupelo (Nyssa aquatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), and a number of other swamp and mangrove species, also produce looping roots that somewhat resemble knees. In baldcypress, normal knees are often found at their apex. These looping roots are essentially roots that grow up out of and then back into the soil, producing an aboveground loop or fold. In water tupelo, looping roots can reach a height of 22 inches and a width of 26 mches. The function of these structures, beyond that of normal roots, is obscure. Penfound observed that aerenchyma was lacking in the looping roots ot water questioned pneumatophores. reported on pond pine (Pinus serotina) growing tupelo tures as and the efficacy of these strucKnees have even been under wet conditions in Georgia. It is unclear if these resemble normal knees or looping roots. 16 A looping root of red maple (Acer rubrum) Knees are growing ma swamp at Adkms' Mill Pond, Maryland. cultlvated begmnmg to form baldcypress. at the apex of the looping roots of a 24 compare the stability of buttressed versus non-buttressed tropical trees-such a test could compare trees with knees to trees that have had their knees removed-but no one has yet done So.12 The Nutrient Acquisition Hypothesis Lamborn postulated that another secondary function of cypress knees, along with that of giving mechanical support, was to act as \"drift catchers\" that accumulate organic nutrients during periods of water movement. A hundred years later, Hans Kummer and his colleagues at generally m direct contact with decaying stumps. Direct evidence of nutrient acquisition was not obtained, however. Kummer and his colleagues suggested that further work was needed to determine if \"young root loops extract nutrients from stumps ... [or] use stumps merely as vertical supports to roots were not ... reach air above the The water table. 13 Carbohydrate Storage Hypothesis Clair A. Brown in 1984 and again with Montz in 1986 postulated that the primary function of cypress knees is as a storage organ. They reported the presence of \"granules\"-presumably amyloplasts (organelles that store starch)-and confirmed the presence of starch by performing iodine tests on the cut surface of sectioned knees. Even if their hypothesis is accurate, unanswered questions remain about the function of knees. Why do cypresses need an auxiliary storage organ when growing under wet conditions, but not dry? Is it possible that cypress Baldcypress trees with buttresses at Trussum Pond, Delaware Zurich made a similar supposition about looping cypress roots, which they also called knees, after studying baldcypress in a Florida cypress dome. (A cypress dome is a group of cypresses growing m a shallow depression where the largest trees are located in the center and tree height declines toward the periphery.) They found that the number of looping cypress roots present were highly correlated with the number of dead cypress trees in the dome, but not with the number of live trees. In other words, looping root density increased with an increase in the number of dead cypress stumps. They also observed that approximately 98 percent of the youngest looping roots spread over the stumps and penetrated the dead wood. Older loopmg in general store starch, and that knees are simply extensions of these storage areas? Unfortunately, no compariroots son of the storage capacity of roots and knees has been made to test the hypothesis.'4 After nearly two hundred years of speculation and research, the function or functions of the knees of cypresses remain unclear. Darwin referred to the origin of the flowering plants as an \"abominable mystery\"; it appears that the function of cypress knees is another.'' The truth may be that cypress knees evolved in response to past environmental pressures that no longer exist, in which case their function may be lost in the depths of time. Before we accept this conclusion, however, much further research is needed on this fascinating subject. 25 Endnotes and knee roots of Taxodmm distichum, IAWA Bulletin 13 (1992) 93-104. ~ 1 Julra E. Rogers, The Tree Book (New York, 1905); F A. Michaux, The North Amencan Sylva (Pans, 1819); R. H Lamborn, The knees of the bald cypress; a new theory of their function, Garden and Forest 3 (1890) 21-22; excerpted in Arnoldia 60(2). 14-16; J. D. Mauseth, Botany, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia, 1995). 2 A. D. Bell, Plant Form (Oxford, 1991) 8 Brown, On the cypress timber of Mississippi and Lomsiana, Amencan Journal of Science and Arts 5 (1848) 15-22; Ibid., Shaler, Wilson; Kurz and Demaree. M W Dickeson and A. K. R. Aulenback and B. A. LePage, Taxodmm walhsm sp. nov.: First occurrence of Taxodium from the 9 Ibid , Lamborn; P.J Kramer, Banmster W. S. Riley, and T. T. Upper Cretaceous, International journal of Plant Science 159 (1998): 367-390; L. P Wilhite and J. R. Tohver, Taxodmm distichum (L.) Rich. Baldcypress, Silmcs of North America, ed. R M. Burns and B. H. Honkala (Forest Service, USDA, Washington, D.C.), 563-572; H. S Neufeld, Effects of hght on growth, morphology, and photosynthesis in Baldcypress (Taxodrum distichum [L.] Rich ) and Pondcypress (T ascendens Brongn.) seedlings, Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club 110 (1983): 43-54; Ibid., Wilhite and Tohver. 3 io Ibid., Penfound; W. M. Brown and Montz. emissions 11 Pulliam, Methane in from cypress knees 91 southeastern 126-128. floodplam swamp, Oecologia (1992): 12 C. Edelin and C. Atger, Stem and root tree architecture: Questions for plant blomechanics, Blomimetics 2 ~1994\/: 253-266; Ibid., Lamborn; Mattoon; Brown and Montz; M J. Crook, A R. Ennos, and J. R. Banks, The function of buttress roots. a W. T. m Penfound, Comparative structure of the wood the \"knees,\" swollen bases, and normal trunks of the tupelo gum (Nyssa aquatica L.), Amencan 21 journal of Botany (1934y 623-631; C. A. Brown and G. N. Montz, Baldcypress the tree umque, the wood eternal (Baton Rouge, LA, 1986); D. DenUyl, Some observations on bald cypress m Indiana, comparative study of the anchorage systems of buttressed (Aglaia and Nephelmm ramboutan species~ and nonbuttressed (Mallotus wrayJ tropical trees, journal of Expemmental Botany 48 (1997\/: 1703-1716. , Ecology 42 ( 1961841-843 4 J. Kramer. W. S. Riley, and T T. Bannrster, Gas exchange of cypress knees, Ecology 33 (1952). 117121 ; A. Ellrcott, journal of Andrew Elhcott (Philadelphia, 1803, reprinted Chicago, 1962). P i3 Ibid., Lamborn; H. Kummer, et al , exploitation of dead trunks: another Nutritional function of cypress knees (Taxodium distichumJ? Trees 5 \/1991\/: 122-123; H. Kurz, Cypress domes, Annual Report of Flonda State Geological Survey (1933). 14 5 N S Shaler, Notes on the bald cypress, Memoirs of the Museum of Comparative Zoology (Harvard C. A. Brown, Morphology and biology of cypress trees, Cypress Swamps, ed. K. C Ewel and H. T. Odum (Gamesmlle, FL, 1984), 16-24; Ibid., Brown College, Cambridge) 16 (1887): 3-15; W. P Wilson, ls and Montz D. H The production of aerating organs on roots of swamp and other plants, Proceedmgs of the Academy of Natural Science of Philadelphia 41(1889): 67-69; W. R. Mattoon, The southern cypress (USDA Bulletin 272, 1915); H. Kurz and D Demaree, Cypress buttresses and knees in relation to water and air, Ecology 15 (1934). 36-41; G F. Beaven and H. J. Oostmg, Pocomoke Swamp: a study of a cypress swamp on the Eastern Shore of Maryland, Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 66 (1939). 367-389; Ibid., Brown and Montz; J. L. Kernell and G. F. Levy, The relationship of bald cypress (Taxodmm distichum [L.]Rtchard) knee height to water depth, Castanea 55 Scott, The Evolunon of Plants (New York, NY, 1905). \/. 16 Ibid., Wilson; Bell; Brown & Montz; Penfound; P. B. Tomlinson, The Botany of Mangroves (Cambridge, UK, 1986). Associate Professor Christopher H. Bnand is in the (1990). 217-222. 6 Department of Biological Sciences, Salisbury State University, Sahsbury, MD 21801, and producer of the Salisbury State University Arboretum website Ibid., Wilson; Kurz and Demaree; DenUyl, Brown and Montz; L. A. Whitford, A theory on the formation of cypress knees, journal of the Ehsha Mitchell Science Society 71 (1956): 80-83; F. Yamamoto, Effects of depth of flooding on growth and anatomy of stems \/www.ssu edu\/arboretum) Thanks are extended to William Grogan, Mark Holland, and Judith Stmblmg (Salisbury State University) for their assistance and suggestions, and to Joan Rye at the Amencan lournal of Science (Kline Geology Laboratory, Yale University) for providing a copy of the paper by Dickeson and Brown. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ginkgo biloba in Japan","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25315","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060a76d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Handa, Mariko","article_content":"Ginkgo biloba in Japan Mariko Handa . the Mesozoic era but then died Others argue that it arrived from China along with Buddhism in the sixth century. Nothing has been proven, but whenever and however it arrived, ginkgo is deeply rooted in the lives of the Japanese people, admired for its beautiful shape and its seasonal colors. Today ginkgos grow throughout Japan, along roadsides and streets, in parks and schoolyards, on shrine grounds, and in private gardens. Ginkgo serves frequently as the symbol of a region or as an object of worship, and it plays a role in many legends. out. arious theories estimate when ginkgo arrived in Japan. Some say it grew here during at that time, but because of mappropriate planting methods or insufficient care, most of these trees died. In 1907 a replanting project was initiated along Tokyo's streets using ten species selected for fast growth and the ability to withstand urban conditions : among them, Platanus (plane tree), Liriodendron tulipifera (tulip tree), Chinese bottle tree, Castanea (chest- Ginkgo as a Roadside and Street Tree in Japan According to one account, roadside trees in Japan date back to the middle of the eighth century, when fruit trees were planted along roads for the benefit of travelers. It was in the latter half of the nineteenth century, howeverwhen Japan opened its borders and began to modernize-that trees became a part of urban buergemanum (tmmaple), Styphnolobium 7aponicum (pagoda or scholar tree), Cornus (dogwood), Fraxinus (ash), and Mallotus japonicus. Ginkgos were chosen for the front of Tokyo's City Hall, marking the species' nut), dent Acer debut as a street tree in Japan. landscapes. The forerunners of modern street trees were first seen in Yokohama and in the capital, Tokyo. Willow and pine trees were planted along a street called Bashamichi in Yokohama in 1867. In 1873, black pine (Pinus thunbergli), cherry (Prunus), maple (Acer), and other species were Tokyo's urban tree-planting projects suffered two major setbacks during the first half of the twentieth century. In 1923, the fires following the Great Kanto Earthquake destroyed more planted in Tokyo along Ginza Street, newly modermzed by the construction of European-style brick buildings. The first major use of imported trees to line city streets occurred in 1875 when a North American native, Robinia pseudoacacia (black locust\/, was planted m Tokyo, having been grown from seeds brought to Japan from the 1873 International Exposition in Vienna. Ailanthus altissima (tree-of-heaven~,Firmiana simplex (Chinese bottle tree), and other species were also planted back than half the street trees, leavmg only about 10,000 still standing. As part of the effort to restore the city, more than 16,000 new trees were planted by the national government and nearly 5,000 by the city of Tokyo itself. This time the principal species chosen were ginkgo, plane tree, and black locust, all of them fast maturing. The second disaster was the bombing of Japan during World War II, which destroyed 121,162 street and roadside trees in Tokyo, or about 45 percent of the 271,168 that were standing before the war. Postwar, the government's War Recov- 27 Gmkgos along Mldosuy Avenue m Osaka City ery tree Agency appointed a committee to design a restoration project. The committee sug- gested that local trees be used for replanting, in order to take advantage of each region's environmental conditions. Government records trace the changes in tree species planted in the aftermath of these disasters and during the ensuing period of normality. Between 1922 and 1967, the species planted most often along roadsides and streets throughout Japan was the plane tree, with ginkgo m sec- ond place. The plane tree was preferred because it best suited the need for fast restoration: first from the 1923 earthquake, and later, from the devastation caused by the war. However, the characteristics that made it useful during the recovery periods-fast growth, vigorous sprouting capacity, and relatively big leaves-made it difficult to maintain as the city matured, and since 1982 ginkgo has been the preferred species for street and roadside planting. Ginkgo grows well in urban environments, withstanding pol- 28 trees for every kilometer of \"ordinary\" roads, which can be defined broadly as all roads and streets except expressways. A greater diversity of species were planted after the war: whereas in 1938 the top ten species in areas surveyed had accounted for 95 percent of all trees, by 1991, the top ten had fallen to 52 percent of the total, although in aggregate, the five million trees represented five hundred different species. Ginkgo, with 11.5 percent of the total, was followed in popularity by cherry (various species), Japanese zelkova, trident maple, and plane tree. The use of trees is very different along roads managed by public corporations (primarily expressways). These trees accounted for an additional 1.7 million trees in 1991, representing about 210 species, with Japanese red pine (Pmus densifloraJ, black pine, and cedar (Cryptomeria japonica) being the most commonly used, and ginkgo accounting for only one-tenth of one percent. On these wide, high-speed expressways, Gmkgos lme a walk at the Tsukuba Research Center of the National Institute of Advanced Industmal Science and Technology m Tokyo lution, cold, and even fire. Unlike the plane tree, its shape remains symmetrical, and its changing appearance more clearly marks the progress of the seasons. Similar factors explain the popularity of Japanese zelkova (Z. serrata) and trident maple. Evergreen camphor (Cinnamomum camphora) is increasmgly used for its yearround foliage. And cherry trees remain Japan's overwhelming favorite among flowering trees, despite their susceptibility to disease. The mix of trees has varied by region, however. Ginkgo has been designated the prefectural tree in Tokyo, Kanagawa, and Osaka Prefectures, indicating that it is used preferentially there. By 1991 a and roadside total of almost five million street trees were recorded in Japan-four Lmes of gmkgos are faced mth evergreen camphor trees on Otemae Avenue, Hime7z City. 29 large numbers of evergreens are planted to reduce traffic noise in the surrounding residential areas. Where expressways pass through undeveloped areas, such as mountain foothills, species are selected for harmony with the surrounding natural vegetation. Both these factors mean that ginkgo trees are limited to service areas along expressways. Ginkgo in Geometrical Japanese Landscapes Ginkgo trees in Japan have often been used in designs that incorporate Western landscaping features, among them allees. An allee of gmkgos shapes the approach to the Meiji Jingu Gaien (Meiji Memorial Gallery) in Tokyo, built in 1926; two lines of ginkgo stand on either side of the path that leads from Aoyama Street to the Gallery. To exaggerate the perspective, the trees are maintained such that their heights decrease as they approach the Gallery-an effect that is further magnified by the slight downward slope of the ground. The massive ginkgos guide the viewer's line of sight to directly focus on the Gallery. The entire complex includes 146 ginkgos, arranged in the four lines leading to the Above, double rows of gmkgos draw the eye to the Meiji Memonal Gallery, Gallery and m two additional, Tokyo, photographed m 1988 Below, the sculpted allee m wmter 1999. shorter allees that branch off to the left. The largest of the trees is now about 79 fiftieth anmversary of the accession of the feet tall, with a trunk diameter of about mne Emperor Showa. Because the site had previously the shortest is 56 feet tall with a diameter been occupied by the United States' Tachikawa feet; of about six feet. The trees are pruned every four military base, its condition first had to be to maintam their beautiful shape. years improved. The 600 buildmgs on the base were removed, ponds were excavated, hills were Ginkgos also form the allee in Tokyo's National Showa Memorial Park, a 450-acre park reconstructed, and trees were planted and that was created m 1983 to commemorate the grasses sown to create forests and fields. 30 mately 130 centimeters [51 inches] above the ground.\" Accordmg to a survey in 1988, of the 55,798 giant trees of all kinds in Japan, 4,318 (7.7 per- ginkgos, taking place after cedar, Japanese zelkova, and camphor. When ginkgos grow to cent) were fourth immense size, are some of them develop distinctive shapes that reflected in the names given them. In the senbon (onethousand) ginkgo, the central trunk is surrounded by many to secondary trunks, forming a single large tree that looks like Geometncally pruned gmkgos m the National Showa Memomal Park, Tokyo. From the park's Tachikawa Gate, a canal extends 255 yards to fountains at the opposite end and, on each side, four lines of ginkgo trees. The 108 ginkgos were moved to their present location from other places on the site in 1982. They are kept at 23 feet to conform with height restrictions imposed by the proximity of the Self-Defense Force Air Base. The ginkgo allees at both these sites-the Meiji Memorial Gallery and the National Showa Memorial Park-illustrate how Western influences have been adapted to the Japanese sensibility. By using ginkgos-a species that has rarely been used in Western geometric landscapes-the landscape architect, Yoshinobu Orishimo, rendered it unique. The allee is a form that originated in Europe, but in using ginkgos, the effect is very different. This way of combinmg a form, or vessel, from the West with materials, or contents, of the East is an excellent example of the way culture changes and is transmitted in Japan. a collection of many separate Individual Ginkgo Trees of Note Many individual ginkgos have taken on special importance sons or in Japan, either for historical rea- for their place m legend or simply for Hashigaml-cho, northern Honshu. a their size. A giant is defined by Japan's Environment Agency as \"a tree with a trunk diameter of 300 centimeters [117 inches, or close to 10 feet] or more at a height of approxitree giant gmkgo m Aomon Prefecture, 31 Nigatake ginkgo at Ichou Machi, Sendai City, Miyagi Prefecture. It is a female tree about 115 feet in height with a trunk diameter of about 8.2 feet at chest height; it is said to be is the thousand years old. Of its many \"breast columns,\"the largest is 63 inches in diameter. According to legend, the dying wish of Byakkouni, a wet nurse of the Emperor Shoumu (reign 724-749), was that a gmkgo be planted on her grave mound. A god is said to be enshrined at the foot of the tree. Women who cannot produce their own milk often worship there. Another famous old ginkgo tree, called mizufuki (water-spray) gmkgo, stands in front of the Founder's Hall at the Nishi Hongwanji Temple in Kyoto. Its age is estimated to be 400 to 500 years old. A legend tells that when the fire that swept through Kyoto in 788 threatened a Shibata-cho, a giant in Miyagi Prefecture, northern Honshu Camellia ~apomca is flowering at its base. trees-therefore the name \"one-thousand ginkgos.\" Sakasa (upside-down) ginkgos arc so-called because their branches, especially the lower ones, appear to be upside down. The names meoto (husband-wife) ginkgo and oyako (parent-child) gmkgo refer to pairs of trees growing close together and appearing to be related. Ohatsuki ginkgo is a name used when flowers bloom at the margins of leaves; ohatsuki means \"stuck to leaves.\" In the chichi \/breast) ginkgo, a number of aerial roots droop down from the thick branches and trunk of the trees, becoming narrower as they near the ground. Many women pray to these sacred trees for the ability to nurse their babies. Many trees, whether giant or not, are associated with legend and worship. A good example Nigatake gmkgo Prefecture. at Ichou Machi, Sendai City, Miyagi 32 ginkgo showed signs of decline, a Kyoto tree doctor, Shoji Yamada, was vigor. First, he studied the tree externally and found spreading trunk rot and hollowing. Next, to investigate the soil layers and the distribution of the root system, soil excavations 4 feet deep and 3.2 feet wide were made at three locations under the tips of the canopy. This revealed that the soil was severely compacted by foot pressure to a depth of 4 to 6 inches, hampering the growth of feeder roots and causing asphyxiation. The measures taken to help the tree recover its vigor were: called When the Mizufuki in to restore its 1.Dead parts of the trunk and large branches were pruned to remove rot, taking care not to harm the tree's beau- shape. Then, urethane resin was injected into the tree; putty was used to prerainwater from penetrating this repair work. Finally, an antibacterial agent was applied. vent tiful 2. The soil beneath and around the tree was excavated to a depth of 20 inches-using great care not to damage the fine roots-then filled with new soil, a soil-improvegroundcovers and prevent ment agent, and fertilizer. 3. A shallow embankment was formed and planted in to retain moisture summer freezing in winter. 4. To protect the tree from soil compaction, a fence and curbstones were placed around the tree to keep people away from it. By mid-April of the same year, fresh young buds had formed. The tree has recovered its vigor and appears to be in good condition. Mizufuki gmkgo at Nishi Hongwany Temple, Kyoto, photographed m 2000 33 spread to the Hall, this large, ginkgo sprayed a column of water on the flames, saving the building. It is 39 feet in height to male with a circumference at the roots of 29 feet and a canopy of 85 feet in diameter. In 1994 the tree was losing its vigor: its branches were drying up, and the size and density of its leaves were dwindling. Fortunately, treatment carried out at that time has restored the tree to health. Perhaps the most famous ginkgo stands in Hiroshima. When the atomic bomb was dropped on that city on August 6, 1945, some of the trees in the temple called Housenbou survived the atomic blast, although it was only one kilometer from its center. One of these survivors was a ginkgo tree that stands near the main building of the temple. The building was instantly destroyed but the ginkgo survived; fresh young buds appeared soon afterward, and new branches formed. The temple's followers were eager to rebuild the main building, but the ginkgo tree presented a problem. There was no room for it elsewhere on the temple grounds, and in any case, it would have been risky to move such a A Hiroshima survivor stands before the Housenbou Temple, large tree, estimated to be 150 Hiroshima City. years old. Rather than cut it tree inspires, still living today, a precious witdown, the building was modified to preserve the tree where it stood. The roof was changed to ness to the disaster. It has a powerful impact on all who see it. give the tree more space, and two stairways were built in the front of the building to form an Mariko Handa is in charge of the research department of inverted \"U\" with the ginkgo protected inside Parks and Recreation Foundation, Tokyo. This article is it. An opening under the stone stairs allows adapted from \"Gmkgo Landscapes\" by Dr. Handa, Yasuo air to flow past the tree. This accommodation hzuka, and Nobuo Fuywara, which appeared m the 1997 Gmkgo Biloba-A Global Treasure. expresses the intense feelings that this ginkgo 34 Ginkgo biloba western and shrine In Chma, the mllage of Leng che, Valley Slchuan. Measured at eighty feet m height and twenty-fme in H. of the Tung Rmer, cmcumference and photographed by E. Wilson, 1 August 1908. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 2000","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25313","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060a36f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"35 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 2000 state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, the year 2000 was abnormally cold and wet; compared degrees colder and more than 5 mches wetter. February, March, and April were very mildMarch 2000 was one of the warmest on record-but this was offset by the unusually wet and cool June and July. June ranked eleventh for precipitation m 130 years. September through December were also below normal m temperature; the first killing frost arrived on September 29. Snowfall totaled only 28.05 inches, 13.5 mches Note: to According to it was 1999, 2.2 below normal. The consistent rams through spnng, summer, and fall made 2000 a very good plantmg year. Trees and shrubs put on more than average growth and appeared to be recovering well from the droughts of a few years ago. 36 Tree climbmg in the Arnold arborist Wzlham Arboretum, 1949. Heman Howard photographed Stefany near the top of a white pine. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia Volume 60","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25316","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060ab26.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 60 Numbers m brackets refer to issues, those m (2000) boldface to illustrations of the entries. Codman, Henry 5, 31 - Abjes koreana 17 7 [4] inside front cover, Baxter, Sylvester, \"Chmbmg Plants Boston Bmldmgs\" [1894] [3] 42-44 Begonia [2] 44 \"Bermce Giduz Schubert, 1913-2000,\" Richard A. Howard [2] 44-45 Betula platyphylla [4] back cover on S. (Harry) [2] 41; [3] Academy of Natural Sciences [Philadelphia] [1] 4, 5, 8, 9 Acer [4] 26 buergemanum [4] 2G grzseum [4] 15 - palmatum [4) 15 - pseudosieboldianum [4] back - \"The Squares of Pams\" 9 [1888] [3] Coe, Charles H., \"The Floating Gardens of Mexico\" [1895] [3] 44-46 Collectmg Plants Beyond the Frontier [Mary G. Henry] [1] 8 Columbian Exposition [Chicago] [3] - 5 cover, 15 - rubrum - Bottle-tree, Chinese [4] 26 Bnand, Christopher H, \"Cypress Knees. An Enduring Enigma\" [4] 19-25 British Museum [2] 34 Bronx Park [NY] [2] 43 [4) 23 5 triflorum [4) 15 8 Actimdia, bower [ 1] 18 Actlmdia arguta [1) 18 Aesculus [1] 17 7 7 -pama [1] 17 -parviflora [4] 13, 14 -x plantemensis [1] 17 Ailanthus altissima [4] 26 Amelanchier flomda [1]7 7 American-Japanese 11-13 Amur cork congeners 8, 11 Connor, Sheila [2] 3 Robert E. [2] 3 Cornell [University] [3] 30 Cornels [2] 17 Cook, Brooks, Henry, photo by [2] 18 Brooks, Richard [Dick], \"A Fresh Look - at a Traditional Favorite: [2] Rhododendrons\" [1] 20-26 photos by [1] front cover Broom, Scots [1] 18 Buckeye, bottlebrush [4113 -red[1] 17 Calocedrus decurrens Cornus [4] 26 7 -stolomfera [1] \"Correspondence Madison Square Agam\" [1896], H. A. Caparn [3] 19 \"Correspondence The Plans of Madison Square\" [1896], S A. [3] 17-19 tree [4] 11 1 Andersen, Phyllis, \"'Master of a Felicitous Enghsh Style': William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest\" [2] 39-43 Anderson, Edgar, \"Rhododendrons\" [1934] [1] 27-28 6 Anderson, Rob [4] Arborvitae, eastern [4] 18 - western [4) 18 8 I Anstolochia macrophylla [4] 11 mandshumensis [4] inside front - [4] 17, 18 Camphor, [4] 28, [1896] [3] 19 30 Caparn, Harold A., \"Correspondence : Madison Square Agam\" Carr, Ethan, \"Garden and Forest and 'Landscape Art\"' [3] 5, 7-8 Castanea [4] 26 Catalpa, western [1] 17 Catalpa specioso [1] 16, 17 Cedar [4] 28, 30 - deodar [4] 18 Mount Atlas [2] inside back cover Cedrus deodar'Shahmar' [4] 18 -hbam ssp. atlantica [2]: inside - Corylopsis glabrescens [4] 12 spicata [4] 12 Cotylelobmm malayan [4] 6 Coulston, Mary B [2] 41 Cryptomena ~apomca [2] 30, 31, 32; [4] 28 Cyclamen cherry [4] 12 Cypress [3] 4 - bald [2] 14-17; [4] 19-24, 25 roots [2] 15; [4] 19, 20, 21-24 2014 2014 2014 looping [4] 23, 24 - dome [4] 24 knees [2] 14-17, [4] 19, 20, 21, 22, - 2014 2014 - 1 cover, 11 23,24 Arnold Arboretum [1]7, 8, 13-19, 29, 32; [2] 7, 8, 39, 42, 44, 45; [4] 3, 8 10, 12, 14-1 G, 18 tion - pond [4] 19, 22 swamp [4] 19 - --Bulletm of Popular Informa- [ 1 ] 32 back cover Central Park [New York City] [2] 40, \"Cypress Knees: An Enduring Enigma,\" Christopher H. Bnand -- Weather Station Data-2000 42,43 [4] 19-25 Cytlsus scopanus 35 Artemesia frigida [1] 7 Ashton, Peter [2] 44; [4] 3, 6, 9 \"Axe m Its Relation to Ornamental Trees\" [1890] [2] 21 1 Azalea [ 1 ] 24-25, 31 -deciduous [1] 24, 25, 26 evergreen [ 1 J 22, 23, 24, 25, 26 - [4] Cercidiphyllum 7apomcum 'Momoka Weepmg' [4] inside front cover, 14 [1] 18 Chai, Paul [4] 4, 7 Cherry [4] 26, 28 Chestnut [4] 26 Chionanthus - retusus [4] \"Delights of a Rough Garden\" [189G], D H. R. Goodale [3] 35 Dogwood [4] 26 Downing, Andrew Jackson [1] 28 Dutchman's pipe, Manchurian [4] 11 1 \"Effect of Gardening Upon the Mmd\" [1891] [3] 33 Eliot, Charles, [2] 41, [3] 5, 7 \"The Necessity of Planning\" - 12 - Exbury [ 1] 20, 25 - flame [4J 12 - Korean [1] 24 - Kyushu [ 1 J 25 5 - Oconee [1] sweet [4] 15 - Bailey, Liberty Hyde [2] 41; [3] 30 2 Bartram, John [1] 4 Bartram, William [1]4 [1888] [3] 38 \"Chrysanthemums\" [1888], John Thorpe [3] 37 Cmnamomum camphora [4] 28 Cladrastis kentukea [1] 16 Clavigero, Abbe Francisco [3] 44-46 Cleveland, H. W S [3] 5 \"Chmbmg Plants on Boston Bmldmgs\" [1894], Sylvester Baxter [3] 42-44 I vmgmicus [4] 11 \"Christmas Green\" - [189G] [3] 14-15 9 Elhott, Stephen [2] Enkianthus, white [4] 15 Enkianthus perulatus [4] back cover, 15, 16 inside Euonymus, glossy [4] 16 Euonymus carnosus [4] 16 38 Evolution, floral [ 114 \"Farming on Goldenram Vacant City Lots\" [189G] [3J 35-3G Faxon, C E., drawings by [2] G, 8, 10 Fernald, Merrrtt [2] 44 Fernow, Bernard [2] 21, 22, 23 Ficus [4] 2 8 \"Field of Landscape Art\" [1897] [3] 2 Fig, strangler [4] Fir, Korean [4] 17 Firmiana simplex [4] 26 \"Floating Gardens of Mexico\" [1895], Charles H. Coe [3] 44-46, 45 \"Flowermg Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum,\"David Giblin [ 1 ] 13-19 tree [ 1 18 Goodale, D H R., \"Dehghts of a Rough Garden\" [1896] [3] 35 Goodale, George L. [2] 7; [3] 32 7 Gray, Asa [2] Gray Herbarium [Harvard University] [2] 44, 45 Gnswold, Mac, \"The Influence of \"Influence of Garden and Forest the Development of Horticulture,\" Mac Gmswold [3] 29-32 10 on \"Interestmg Rediscovery\" [1891] [2] Garden and Forest 29-32 on the Development of Horticulture\" [3] Handa, Manko, \"Gmkgo biloba Japan\" [4] 26-33 Forests in Jack, John George [2] 8, 9 Japan, forest flora, [2] 11-13, 30-32 \"Japanese Flower Vender's Basket\" [1888], Theodore Wores [2] 34 Japanese wmterhazel [4] 12 9 Judd, William[1] Kalmia Harnson, J. B., \"Value of Mountam latifoha [1] 15, 17, 32 Kalu, Meekiong, \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Richard Pnmack and Melvm Goh [4] 3-9 Katsura 'Monoka Weepmg' [4] 14 Kimball, Theodora [2] 40 Kiwi, kolomikta [4] 13 Knap Hill nursery, Surrey [England] [1890]\" [2] 24-25 Fly, lacewmg [ 1 ] 29 \"Foreign Plants and American Scenery\" [1888] [3] 22, 24-25 \"Forests of the National Domam\" [1895] [2] 34-37 Harnson, Mary, \"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman 2 Extraordmame\" [ 12-12 7 Harvard Botamc Garden [2] Harvard Botamcal Museum [2] 7 Harvard University [4] 3 Herbaria [2] 44, 45 Hemlock, Chmese [4] 18 Henry Foundation for Botamcal Research [1] 10 Henry, Josephme deNancrede [1] 3, - [1] 30, 31, 32 \"Knees of the Bald Cypress\" [1890], N. S. Shaler [2] 16-17 \"Knees of the Bald Cypress. A New Theory of Their Function\" [1890], Robert H Lamborn [2] 15-16 3 Knott, Cheryl [4] - Fothergilla ma~or'Mt. Airy' [4] 12 Fragrant wmterhazel [4] 12 Fraser, John [1] 27; [2] 10 Fraxmus [4] 26 \"Fresh Look at a - Traditional Favorite: Rhododendrons,\" Richard Brooks [ 1 ] 20-2G Fnedland, LeeEllen, \"Garden and Forest's Journey to Cyberspace\" [3] 2-3 I Fringetree, Chinese [4] 11 Garden and Forest 5, 8, 12 Henry, Mary Gibson [ 12-12, 3, 6, 9,11 Heptacodmm micomoides [4] inside Koelreutema pamculata [1]18 'Rose Lantern' [4] inside front & back covers, 16 - back cover, 16 \"High-Grade Paper: Garden and Forest and Nmeteenth-Century American weigela [4] 12 Kuching [Sarawak, Malaysia] [4] 3, Korean [1] 32; [2] 2-42; Forestry,\" Char Miller 16 8 6,8 Kyoto [4] 31 [3] 2-48 \"Garden and Forest and 'Landscape Art,\"' Ethan Carr [3] 5, 7-8 \"Garden and Forest. The Botamcal Basis of It All,\" Stephen A. 7-9 \"Garden and Forest's [2] 19-22 Hill, Polly [ 125 Holly, longstalk [4] Honeysuckle [2] 10 Lake Monroe Lake Yumoto Spongberg [2] Cyberspace,\" [3] 2-3 Journey to LeeEllen Fnedland Horse-chestnut [1] 17 \"Horticultural Education\" [1896] 30 \"House at Honmoku in Japan\" [FL] [1] 14-17 [Japan] [2J 12 Laman, Tim [4] 3 Landers, M., drawmg by [23] inside [3] back cover \"Gardens 12-13 at Monte Carlo\" [1891] [3] C. H. L., paintings by [1] inside front and back covers Gibhn, David, \"Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum [ 1 ] 13-19 Gebfert, - [1888] [3] 20-21 Howard, Heman, photo by [4] 36 Howard, Richard A., \"Bernice Giduz Schubert, 1913-2000\" [2] 44-45 Hunnewell, H. H. [1] 1, 29, 31, 32 estate of [Wellesley, MA] [1]] - 31 Lapland rosebay [1] 7 Leach, David [1] 22, 25, 30 Library of Congress [2] 3; [3] 2-3 Lilac, common [4] 12 Lilies [ 18, 10 Lilmm mdollae [1] 10, 11, 12 -philadelphicum [1] 10 Lily, pot-of-gold [1] 12 Lmdera obtusilobum [4] inside back cover, 16 Lmnaea boreahs Linnaeus [2] 17 -- Gmkgo [4] 26-33 as street tree [4] 26-29 1 - giant [4] 30-31 - m legend [4] 31-33 Gmkgo biloba [4] 34 \"Gmkgo biloba in Japan,\"Manko Handa [4] 26-33 Gladwyne, PA [ 14, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, - Hydrangea, early [4] 14 peegee [4] 14 Hydrangea pamculata 'Grandiflora' [4] 14 'Praecox' [4] inside back cover, 2014 2014 [1] 4 14 --'Tardma' [4] 14 - quercifoha [4] inside front back covers, 14 Lmodendron tuhpifera [4] 26 x chmense 'Chapel Hill' inside front cover, 14 Locust, black [4] 26 7 [4] &. 11, 12 Hymenocalhs henryae [1] 8 Gleditsia ~apomca [1] 6 Goh, Melvin, \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Richard Pnmack and Meekiong Kalu [4] 3-9 - bnstly [ 1 ] 16 Lomcera flava [2] 10 Ludong, Banyeng (4] 3-9, 6, Lyon, John [2] 17 7 Macoun, John [ 17 Madsen, Karen, \"In Ilexpendunculosa [4] 16 \"In Pursuit of Ironclads,\" Karen Madsen [ 129-32 Incense cedar, California [4] 17 Pursmt of Ironclads\" [1] 29-32 39 -- \"Preface\"[2] 2-3 Magnoha family [1] 15 Magnoha [1] 15 - acummata var. subcordata [1] 13 - kobus [4] 12 -sahcifoha [4] - 12 --------gXIII\" [excerpt, 1893], C S. Sargent 30-32 Nyssa [2] 17 aquatica [2] 17; [4] 23 sylvatica [2] 17 - [2] 7 Rehder, Alfred [ 17 Resak batu tree [4] 6 Rhododendron [1]. 20-26, 27-29, [1]' 21, 26, 28, 32 30-32 2014 ironclad varieties - rosebay [1]~ 28 --- - vmgimana var. austrahs [4] 16 vmgmiana [4] 17 x 'Wada's Memory' [4] 12 Oak, willow [4] Olive tree 15 8 Oconee bells [2] Rhododendron [1]: 20 -'Album Elegans' [1]. inside front cover, 32 Magnoliaceae [ 115 Mallotus ~apomcus Manning, Maple [4] - Warren H. 26 [4] 26 [3] 5 [3] inside back cover Olmsted, Frederick Law [2] 40, 41, [3] 5, 11 - Japanese [4] 15 - - Korean [4] 15 S paperbark [4) 15 trident [4] 26, 28 twisted-bark [4] 15 Marsh, George Perkms [2] \"To the Editor of Garden and Forest\" [1888] [3] 22-24 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr [2] 40 - -'Album Grandiflorum' back cover, 32 -'Alexander' (1]: 24, 25 [1] inside -'Apnl - Gem' arborescens [1]: 24 [4] inside back cover, 15 5 - 20 Olmsted,J C [3] 5 I Olmsted, Vaux & Co. [3] 11 Opuntia fngida [1] 7 Omshimo, Yoshmobu [4] 30 Pagoda tree [4] 26 \"Park-Making as a National Art\" [1897] [3] 27 Parsons, Samuel B. [1] 32 Parsons, Samuel, Jr [2] 39, 40, 41; [3] 5 4 Pennell, Francis [1] Persian hlac [4] 12 1 Phellodendron amurense [4] 11 Phlox x bifida [1] 10 Pmanga tomentella [4] 7 Pmchot, Gifford [2] 21, 22 Pme [4] 26 black [4] 26, 28 Japanese red [4] 28 pitch [2] 2G-27 - pond [4] 23 Pmus densiflora [4] 28 -xhenryae[1]10 ponderosa [2] inside front cover, 26 serotma [4] 23 thunbergm [4] 26 - arboreum -'Arctic Gold' - [ 1]. 28, 30 [1]~ 22 'Atrosanguineum' [1]. 21 inside back cover, 32 \"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire,Mary Harnson [1] 2-12 \"'Master of a Felicitous Style'~ William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest,\" Phyllrs Andersen [2] 39-43 -'Bah' [1]: - 'Bicolor' [1]. inside back cover, 32 -'Big Deal' [1]. front cover, 22 -'Calsap' [1]: 21, - 22 calendulaceum 2 cover, 12 [4] inside front Mayfair Nurseries [Hillsdale, NJ] [1] 10 K. F. [1] 6, 7, 8 Mehlquist, Gustav [1] 21, 23, 24 3 Melanson, Joseph [2] Metropolitan Museum [NY] [2] 43 Metropolitan Park Commission [Boston] [3] 7 Miller, Wilhelm [3] 5 Monarda molhs var. menthaefolia 7 [1] Mount Auburn Cemetery [Cambridge, MA] [2] 45 Mountam laurel [1] 16, 17 Mulu National Park [Malaysia] [4] -'Capistrano' [1]. 22 -'Casanova' [1] 21, 22 - caucasicum - cawtabiense cover, McCusker, [1]: 27 [1]: inside front 30 27, 28, -'Charles Dickens' [1]: 28 - degromanum [ 125 --'Golfer' [1]: 25 --'Teddy Bear' [1]: 25 subsp. yakushimanum [1]: 22, 2014 2014 23 -'Dehcattssimum' cover, 32 -'Dexter's [1]~ inside front - - 4, 7 Museum of Natural History [NY] [2] 43 - Jesup collection of American woods [2] 32 \"Museum Specimen of Sequoia \"Plan of the Columbian Fair Grounds\" [1892, 1893] [3] Plane tree [4] 26, 27, 28 Plant documentation [4] 10 identifications [4] 10 Platanus [4] 26 - 1 10-11 1 Champagne' [1]. 21 -'Dolly Madtson'[1]~22 -'Dorothy Swift' [1]. 23 -'Edmond Amatets' [1] 22 -'Everestianum' [1]: 31, 32 -'Firestorm [1]. 20 flammeum [1] 5 -'Gmny Gee' [1] 23 -'Grandtflorum' [1]~ inside front - Gigantea\"[1892] [2] 32-34 \"Necessity of Planmng\" [189G], Charles Eliot \"New Pneumatophore [4] 21-23 Pollination [1] 13-19 Pnmack, Richard, \"The View from the Forest Canopy,\" with Melvm Goh and Meekiong Kalu [4] 3-9 cover -'H. W. - Sargent' [1] 28 -'Hachmann's Polans' [1]: 23 [3] to 14-15 Dangers Public Parks\" [1897] [2] 42-43 \"New Jersey Pine Forest\" [1888], C. S. Sargent [2] 26-27 \"New or Little Known Plants. Rosa Mmutlfoha\" [1888], Sereno 9 Watson [2] Nikko Mountams [Japan] [2] 12 \"Notes,\" Garden and Forest [2] 38; - [3] 28, 47-48 \"Notes on Pnngle, Cyrus Guernsey [2] 7 Prospect Park [Brooklyn, NY] [2] 43 \"Proposed Plan for Madison Square, New York City\" [1896], M. G. Van Rensselaer [3] 16-19 Prunus [4] 26 cyclamma [4] 12 Quercus phellos [4] inside front cover, 15 9 10 'Henrietta Sargent' [I]: 28 -'Hmo Cnmson' [1]. 20 - `Indian Run' [1]. 25 1 -'Janet Blair' [1] 21 -'Jonathan Shaw' [1]~ 21 -kmsianum [1] 25 -'Landmark' [1]. 24 'Late Love' [1]: 25 -lappomcum [1]. 7 makmoi [ 125 - -maximum [1] 24, 26, 28 the Forest Flora of C. S. Japan-II\" [excerpt, 1893], Sargent [2] 11-13 -pumila [1] Raup, Hugh [ 1 ] 7, - 'Mrs Charles S Sargent' [1]: ]: inside front cover, 28, 32 - 'Mrs. Harry Ingersoll' [ 1 inside back cover, 32 40 - mucroculatum [1]~ 24 -'Parsons Grandiflorum' [1]. 32 - `Percy Wiseman' [1]:23 -'PJM' [1]: 20, 24, 26 2014ponHcum 'Goldfhmmer' 2014 2014 Kate [2] 41 Seven-son flower [4] 16 Shortia galacifolia [2] 8 Sessions, Upper Banks Nursery [Media, PA] [1] 10 \"Use of Trees and Shrubs with Leaves of Abnormal Colors\" Srhlwald [2] 29 [1]. 26, 27 \"Sihlwald-I\" Pmchot [2] - 'Vanegatum [I]: 26 1 - `Purple Splendour' [ 121 'Purpureum Elegans' [ 1inside back cover, 28, 32 (: -'Purpureum Grandiflorum' [1]: 28,32 -'Roseum Elegans' [1]: 20, 28, 32 - -II\" 28-30 [1890], Gifford 27-28 [1890], Gifford Pinchot [2] [1897] [3] 37-38 \"Value of Mountam Forests\" [1890], \"Slaughtered Giant\" Smythies, B. E. [4] 6 Sour gum [2] 17 [1890] [2] 19 J Van - B. Harnson [2] 24-25 - 'Santa Fe' [1] 22 -'Sappho' [1] 22 1 -'Scarlet Romance' [1]: 21 -'Scintillation' [1]: 21 - Spicebush, Japanese [4] 1G Spongberg, Stephen A., \"Garden and Forest The Botamcal Basis of It All\" [2] 7-9 \"Squares of Paris\" [1888], Henry S. Codman [3] 9 Stefany, William [4] 36 Stewartia, Chmese [4] 17 - Korean [4] 17 Stewartia pseudocamellia [4] 11, 17 sinensis [4] inside front & back covers, 17 Stiles, William A. [2] 19, 20, 21, 3943, 40 ; [3] 5 Styphnolobmm ~apomcum [1] 1G, [4] 26 I Styrax amencanum [1] 11 \"Survival of the Most Adaptable,\" Peter Del Tredici [4] 10-18 Sutton, StephanneB [2] 19 Sweetbay, evergreen [4] 1G - Rensselaer, Mananna Gnswold [2] 41; [3] 5, 7, 36 \"Proposed Plan for - Madison Square, New York City\" [1896] [3] 16-17 \"Various Motives for Gardemng\" Vaux smmnowm [ 1] 27, 29 [1896] [3] 33 [Calvert] [2] 40, [1] 18, 19 41 1 -speclosum flammeum [1]: 4, 5 -'Summer Glow' [1]: 25 - 'Summer Snow' [1]: 24, 25 - `Tow Head' [1]: 23 -'Vmecrest' [1]: 22 -`Vivacrous' [1]: 21 1 -'White Peter' [1]: 22 -'Wo~nar's Purple' [1]~ 21 yakushimanum [1] 23-24 - Viburnum, doublefile [1]18, 19 Viburnum plicatum f. tomentosum \"View from the Forest Canopy,\" \" Richard Pnmack, Melvin Goh, and Meekiong Kalu [4] 3-9 6 \"View m Central Park\" [1888] [3] Villa Gmsti [Verona] [3] 4 \"Rhododendrons\" [1934], Edgar Anderson [1]: 27-28 Rhododendrons at 'Wellesley' [1]: (: back cover Vilmonn, Maurice L. de, photograph by [2] mside back cover \"Wanted, a Tract on Forestry\" [1891], S. [2] 23 Waterer, Anthony [1] 28-29, 30-32 \"New or Little Known Plants. Rosa Mmutifolia\" [1888] [2] 8, 9 \"Wayside Beauty\" [1888] [3] 26 8 Weigela, flowering [1] 18 Korean [4] 12 Weigela middendorffiana [1] 18 subsessihs [4] 12 'Wellesley' [H. H. Hunnewell estate, Robbms, Robinia - M. C [3] 27 hlspida [1] 16 pseudoacacia [4] 26 Rollms, W. H., photograph by [2] Watson, Sereno, Synnga - x chmensis 'Lilac 12 Sunday' mside front cover [4] 12, 13 vulgans [4] Roots, looping [4] 23, 24 Roper, Laura Wood [3] 5 Rosa mmutifoha [2] 9 'Rose Lantern' golden ramtree [4] 16 Royal Botamc Garden, Edmburgh [1]( 8 4, 5, 0 Royal Botamc Gardens, Kew [ 1 ] 10 Tagi, Jugah [4]. 2-9, 4, 5, 8 Taxodmm [4] 19 distichum [4] front cover --var. distichum [4] 19 --var. imbmcanum (4] 19 - - - MA] [1] . back cover Sake [2] 30 Sarawak [Malaysia] ment [4] 3-9 Forest Depart- - Thorpe, John, \"Chrysanthemums\" [1888] [3] 27 Thu~a occidentahs [4] 18 plicata [4] 18 \"To the Editor of Garden and Forest\" [1888], Frederick Law Sargent, Charles Sprague [1] 29, 32; [2] 2-3, 7, 8, 19, 20, 22, 39, 42; [3] 5, 29 ----- [Hopkmton, MA] [ 1 ] 22, 24 Willaman,JJ. [2] 44 Willow [4] 26 2 Willowleaf magnolia [4] 12 Wilson, E. H. [1] 9; [4] 18, photo by, 34 Weston Nurseries Olmsted [3] 22-24 World's Columbian Exposition 1 [Chicago] [3] 10-11 Wright-Smith, William [1] from \"Notes on the Forest 3 Flora of Japan-II\" [1893] [2] 11-13 from \"Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan-XXIII\" [1893] [2] \"To the Editor of Garden and Forest\" [189G], L.G S. [3] 19 4 30-32 - Tokyo [4] 26, 28-30 7 Trelease, William [2] Tree climber [4] 2-9 climbing, traditional methods [4] 5 3-5, 4, Sargent, Henry Wmthrop [1] 28-29 1 Schenck, Carl A. [2] 21 Scholar tree [1] 16; [4] 26 Schubert, Bermce Giduz [2] 44-45 Seng, Lee Hua [4] 9 \"Sentimentalism and Tree-Fellmg\" [1893] [3] 36 Sequoia [2] 30 Sequoia gigantea [2] 18, 32, 33 Xanthoceras sorbifolmm [4] inside back cover, 13 Xanthorhiza simplicissima [4] 15 Tree-of-heaven [4] 26 Tsuga chinensis [4] 18 Tulip tree [4] - 26 - Chinese-American [4] 14 Tupelo [2] 17-18 water [4] 23 \"Tupelo Tree\" [1890] [2] 17-18 Twmflower [1] 3-4 Yamada, Shoy [4] 32 Yellowhorn [4] 13 5 Yellowroot [4] 15 Yellowwood [1] 14, 16 Zelkova serrata Zelkova, Japanese [4] 28, [4] 28 30 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25318","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd060af6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1 ~ e Arnold Arboretum Vol. ~ i , , ,~ S . i2i1 Sun-Loving Shrubs and Vines: A Garden of Their Own Robert E. Cook, Director Two thousand and one will be a year of landscape construction at the Arboretum. Five years ago we added a 15-acre wetland to our lease with the City of Boston. This spring we will initiate construction of a stonedust pedestrian pathway that will open the site to the public by connecting the Forest Hills train station with a major gateway into the grounds at South Street. New steel gates, stone pillars, and walls will be added at each end of the path. A second project will install similar steel gates at Bussey Street where it separates the Peters Hill area from the rest of the Arboretum. New land for the planting of trees will be created by removing a short stretch of existing asphalt roadway along the south edge of Bussey Brook. We will say more about these projects in a later issue. Our largest landscape project, set to Designed by the landscape archifirm of Reed Hilderbrand, garden will allow us to greatly expand our current collection and to display up to 400 shrub species and cultivars not grown elsewhere on the grounds. tecture this new . In addition, an open-air pavilion with attached trellises, and an extensive structures begin construction in May, system of steel vine will permit us to grow will create the Sun-Loving Shrub and Vine Garden on three acres of land located northeast of our approximately 100 vine species as individual specimens integrated into a single horticultural space. ~ greenhouse and bonsai complex. rontznued on jzage 2 A Schoolyard Arboretum Last November teachers and students at the Nathan Hale Elementary School in Roxbury held a ceremony to dedicate their newly constructed schoolyard, which has been specially designed to include an arboretum. Twelve remarkable trees will become part of the educational experiences for both teachers and students, as they document each tree'sgrowth and charactenstics over the years. This schoolyard renovation is part of the Boston Schoolyard Initiative (BSI), which awards grants to schools with a vision as well as constituency capable of making significant improvements to the schoolyard environment. For the a past four years, the BSI has funded the renovation of 48 public schoolyards. Two years ago, the BSI approached staff at the Arbo- retum to discuss how to ensure newly designed playgrounds were places for outside ~ ~ cont:nued on that the 4 page v from page 1 sive fieldstone each terrace retaining walls; garden will provide a new, unique destination for visitors, offering a diverse collection of woody shrub and vine taxa in an elegant botanic garden setting. As a collection, it will also create an array of educational opportunities: students of horticulture and landscape design as well as the general public will learn the practical uses of shrubs and vines. In keeping with the agricultural nature of our nursery and The propagation greenhouses nearby, the garden will consist of a senes will have a senes of planting beds separated by grass pathways. The site is framed at the top by a long, high, stone retaining wall below the bonsai house that runs for more than five hundred feet in length and reaches almost eight feet at its maximum height. Stonedust paths lead visitors along this great wall among vine structures to a vine-covered pavilion overlooking the garden and down bluestone steps onto the great lawn that sweeps downhill through the center of the terrace system. Despite a thirty-foot difference in grade between the of terraces laid out on a sloping site and created gently by exten- top and bottom of the garden, it will be fully accessible to wheelchairs and mobility-impaired visitors. Construction of the Shrub and Vine Garden will require closing the greenhouse and bonsai area for a penod of six months. While construction should be complete by Thanksgiving, the planting of shrubs and vines will be delayed until the spring of 2002. We believe that this new collection, displayed in a beautiful garden setting, will make a unique contnbution to the horticultural resources of the Arboretum and the City of Boston. 2001 PIPD Releases In its continuing efforts to share exceptional woody plants from the living collections with progressive nursery professionals, the Arboretum is releasing two outstanding plants m its Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program for 2001. 'Harold Epstein' was first colCounty, Georgia, by the late Harold Epstein of Larchmont, New York, plantsman extraordinaire. Originally classified as a separate species-F. parvrfolza-later investigations have placed it within F. gardenzz. It ~s a diminutive shrub with a low, dense, mounding form that slowly reaches a height of 10 to 12 inches and a width of Fothergilla gardenzr lected in Jesup 16 to 18 inches in about five years. The white, bottlebrush-like flowers are fragrant and appear in late April to early May. The dark-green foliage of summer turns yellow to vibrant orange-red in autumn. Though its overall appearance is delicate, the Harold Epstein fothergilla thrives in full sun and is insect- and disease-resistant. Its ability to sucker and spread allows it to form a good groundcover mat. a Chinese sweetgum, was introduced into the U.S. in 1980 by the Sino-American Botanical Expedition, in which the Arboretum was a participant. Its three-lobed leaves give this species an appearance very different from our native, five-lobed Liquidambar acalycina red, maturing to dark green in in autumn. summer, becoming yellow Specimens and finally that have Lrquzdambar acalycina, been growing at the Arboretum for 20 years are narrow and upright in habit with smooth, silver bark. The tree appears to be as easy to grow as other members of its genus are, and it exhibits no serious pest or disease problems. Nurserymen interested in participating in the PIPD program should contact Tom Ward by fax at Lzquzdambar.rtyraczflua. Spring foliage is burgundy- 617\/524-6413. Terry Sharik, Arnold Arboretum Associate, talks about his textbook project Dendrology, or \"the study of trees,\" is taught m virtually every university that offers an undergraduate degree in forestry. In the U.S. alone, this amounts to more than sixty schools. The advanced courses students take may vary, but all of them take dendrology near the beginning of their studies. Indeed, the degree of enthusiasm generated in the dendrology course may spell the difference between a student staying in forestry and choosing another field. Typically, the textbooks used in dendrology courses cover the economically important tree species native to that country or at best to that continent (very few species occur on more than one continent). For to example, of the nearly 1,000 tree species native the conterminous United States, the beginning student enrolled in a dendrology course may be expected to know 100 species in 30 genera in some detail. Currently available textbooks offer instruction on these key species that includes morphological characteristics important in identification, together with information on geographic distribution, size of mature individuals, economic uses, and various aspects of the ecology of the species. The challenge for the instructor is to make this catalogued information come alive, and this is no easy task. I am writing a dendrology textbook for undergraduates that reaches far beyond current textbooks in its geographic scope and in its attention to the aspects of form and function that adapt trees to grow in particular environments. The text will focus on ecologically and culturally important genera of trees in the temperate regions of the world. Focusing on genera instead of species (most genera extend over more than one continent) will expose students to the major patterns in the evolution of tree habit and enable them to appreciate the variations on a theme that exist in the species constituting a particular genus. This global genus approach will allow instructors to supplement the text with study of local and regional woody plant floras and observations of trees in their natural habitats, thus helping the material come alive. Focusing on the relationships between form and function will also help students to understand why, for example, species of some genera survive where heavy snowfall and cold climates are the norm, while others thrive in regions where water is scarce most of the year. This, in turn, can lead to an appreciation of the changes in species distribution that may occur as result of impending global climate change. The approach also has the virtue of shifting the emphasis a from In a static to a September 2000, process orientation. I relocated at the Arnold Arboretum as part of a one-year sabbatical leave from Utah State University. With over 2,000 species and nearly 5,000 taxa, the living collections of temperateregion woody plants from all major continents are clearly among the best in the country. The plant collections together with the herbarium specimens and literature on woody plants worldwide, both in Jamaica Plain and Cambridge, make this an ideal location for my preparation. Later on, I anticipate traveling to other continents to observe and photograph species of the genera to be covered in the textbook in their natural habitats. We are clearly at a point in history where how we manipulate our local forest ecosystems has global implications, a fact that needs to be more deeply appreciated by undergraduates who will manage those ecosystems and their resources. I hope this project will that inspire a more global approach instructors to dendrology will in turn instill in their students. Dr. Shank is Professor and Head of the Department of Forest Resources, in the College of Natural Resources, at Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-5215. While at the Arboretum, he can be reached by telephone at 617-524-1718 ext. 140 or by e-mail at tlshank@cnr.usu.edu. ~~ from page as 1 learning well as recreation. This request was sparked by the Arboretum's program Seasonal Investigations, yearlong of study funded by the National a course The project included a series of monthly teacher workshops and meetings devoted to increasing teachers' knowledge of trees and to considering how teachers might for both teachers and students to adequately explore questions and ideas; professional development efforts that address the use of the outdoors as well as science content ; the kinds of support, both human and technical, that can aid in such an endeavor; and the importance of school leadership in reaching a successful conclusion. There is much to celebrate about this pilot study. Participating teachers learned how to incorporate outdoor studies into their science curriculum. The entire school community is aware of the arboretum in the schoolyard and has established a sense of stewardship around the continued growth of these trees. We have learned a great deal about what makes such a project work well and are seeking funding to continue this work. To learn more about this program, visit the special schoolyard arboretum website www.arboretum.harvard.edu\/ incorporate tree study into science Science Foundation, which supports teachers who wish to incorporate outdoor tree studies in their science curricula. In 1999, with partial funding from the BSI through a grant from the Greater Boston Urban Resources Partnership, the Arboretum began a pilot project with the Nathan Hale School to identify and develop program elements for a schoolyard arboretum that could be used by other BSI-funded schools. From October 1999 through February 2001, Arborestaff worked with the teachand principal to incorporate an arboretum into the schoolyard plans and to create a professional development program that supports outdoor studies using the trees tum ers lessons. One outcome was a list of trees that offer a vanety of bark textures, flower forms and times, leaves, and overall shapes. The project culminated in a schoolwide election of a favorite tree. Each candidate was introduced through photographs and descriptions. The students then researched the trees on a special website, and finally everyone voted. When the overwhelming favonte-Acer saccharum (sugar maple)-was announced at the next week's assembly, students broke into enthusiastic applause. This project has allowed us to identify issues related to integrating a schoolyard arboretum into the educational experiences of teachers and their students. These issues include the time required -schoolyard\/nsf). Upcoming Events Lilac Sunday The Arboretum's annual celebration of lilacs will occur on Sunday, May 13-Mothers' Day. The only day when picmcking is allowed on the grounds, Lilac Sunday is a time-honored tradition for visitors who en~oy the sights and scents of our extensive lilac collection. The day includes food, dance performances, a limited number of lilac plants for sale, lots of lilac information, and, of course, the lilacs! Admission is free, and the event occurs from 10:00 am to 4:00 pm. Fall Plant Sale Mark your calendars for Sunday, September 16, when the 21st Annual Fall Plant Sale will be held at the Case Estates in Weston. For updates as they become available, you can check our website-www.arboretum.harvard.edu. We anticipate quality and quantity in all areas: plant selection, attendance, and weather. 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23323","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070a328.jpg","title":"2000-60-4","volume":60,"issue_number":4,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Garden and Forest's Journey to Cyberspace","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25293","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14e856f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Friedman, Lee Ellen","article_content":"Garden and Forest's Journey to LeeEllen Friedland Cyberspace periodical, Garden and Forest: A Journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art, and Forestry, was received by the Library of Congress for copyright deposit. Every week thereafter, until the journal ceased publication in December 1897, subsequent issues of Garden and Forest were added to the Library's collection. In March 1888, the first issue of a new time of its original publication, ince the and Forest has readers Garden mission. the Library of Congress-and other The Library of Congress began to explore the libraries-a distinctive and invaluable resource. use of digital technology to create reproductions Its pages contain a vast array of materials, from of historical collection materials in 1990. The articles on entomology and pomology to advice on ornamental plant gardening to position stategoal of the early pilot program, called \"American Memory,\" was to \"get the champagne out of ments on forest conservation policy to summathe bottle\" in order to share the Library's trearies of retail flower market prices. Every issue is sures with broader audiences.' Most of the colillustrated with detailed line drawgenerously lection materials chosen to be digitized were and landscape plans. The ings, photographs, nominated by Library curators, but some project advertisements on the front and back cover ideas arose through other channels. One such leaves of each issue serve as a guide to commerinstance was in response to a generous gift from cial products and services of the time, including Laurance S. and Mary French Rockefeller to flower pots, seeds and bulbs, tools, glass for and graperies, horticultural archifund digital collections about subjects of greenhouses tects, nurseries, and gardeners. There are also longstanding interest to them: President Calvin advertisements for periodicals on agriculture and literature, and even a Pocket Kodak camera appropriate for amateur photographers who might wish to capture \"snow-scapes\" of \"leafless trees and ice-bound streams.\" How did Garden and Forest journey from the shelves of the Library of Congress, where it rested safely for a century, to cyberspace, where, in December 1999, it became the first complete serial publication digitized by the Library and released on the Internet? Three intertwining paths formed this journey and represented a confluence of issues- Entrance to the Arnold Arboretum \" at provided digital technology, historical content value, and preservation needs-central to the Library's 3 and his times and the history of the conservation movement in the United States.2 As work got underway on the digital collection to be called \"The Evolution of the Conservation Movement, 1850-1920,\" Library staff Coolidge confronted with an embarrassment of riches. The Library of Congress has outstanding collections in the history of science, especially covering eighteenth- and nineteenth-century America, and in the areas of gardening, were provide another option for creating surrogates of original materials that might be damaged if used by readers. Garden and Forest was chosen as the first project for this new approach, and since standard procedure in preservation reformatting-with older technologies such as microfilm as well as new digital technologiesis to capture the complete work, there was no question that every volume of the serial would be digitized in its entirety.3 The Preservation digitizing approach also led to two fruitful collaborations for the Library: one with the University of Michigan, to deliver Garden and Forest on the Internet through a collaborative gateway that provides access to many nineteenthcentury periodicals;' and one with the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, to develop specialized access aids to the content, including background essays and a detailed subject index. Smce Garden and Forest was released online in December 1999, it has had a new and greatly expanded life among millions of pages of other electronic journals that provide full text access over the Internet.s This has enabled tens of thousands of new researchers throughout the world, who might never have discovered Garden and Forest on a library shelf, to have a first-hand glimpse of a critical period in the history of the conservation movement in the United States and the development of related scientific fields. Endnotes ' horticulture, forestry, and landscape art. Among these mches, Garden and Forest stood out in several ways. In addition to primary information on scientific topics, it provided a wonderful snapshot of the cultural history of the early conservation movement in the United States. A striking number of important individuals active in the burgeoning conservation movement published in Garden and Forest, and their writing spanned the broad range of interests that impelled them, including landscape design and preservation, national and urban park development, scientific forestry, forest conservation, horticulture, and botany. Garden and Forest also published the work of a significant number of woman authors, an unusual occurrence in publications of the time. Although interest in Garden and Forest was high, technical impediments imtially prohibited its inclusion in the American Memory digital collection. Over the next several years, some of those impediments lessened, but the journal's overall size-almost 9,000 pages-and the relative expense to digitize it in its entirety remained concerns. The frequent requests for Garden and Forest by researchers coming to the Library of Congress throughout this period, however, reinforced its importance as a resource. 1 The American Memory digital collections can be viewed at the Library of Congress web site: http:\/\/ During the time Garden and Forest was being considered for digitizing, Library staff noticed that its paper showed signs of deterioration, mcluding embrittlement. At that time, the memory.loc.gov\/ \/ See: http:\/\/memory.loc.gov\/ammem\/coolhtml\/ coolhome.html and http'\/\/memory.loc.gov\/ammem\/ amrvhtml\/conshome.html 3 See. http:\/\/lcweb loc.gov\/preserv\/prd\/presdig\/ presintro.html; http \/\/lcweb loc.gov\/preserv\/prd\/ gardfor\/digitizegf.html; and http:\/\/lcweb.loc.gov\/ preserv\/prd\/presdig\/presphase.html 4See: http:\/\/lcweb.loc.gov\/preserv\/prd\/gardfor\/ digitizegf.html 5 See: http:\/\/lcweb loc.gov\/preserv\/prd\/gardfor\/ gfhome.html z Library's Preservation Directorate began develop its digital reformatting program to to LeeEllen Fnedland is a Senior Specialist with the National Digital Library Program at the Library of Congress. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Garden and Forest and \"Landscape Art\" null","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25292","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14e816b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Carr, Ethan","article_content":"Garden and Forest and Ethan Carr \"Landscape Art\" indeed, numerous professions trace their early development in part to the influence of Garden and Forest. But landscape architecture, which aspired to combine planning and design on many scales, enjoyed a special status in the magazine and influenced its editorial structure. notes in her 1973 biogof Frederick Law Olmsted that the 1890s were years of \"staggering reverses\" for the profession of landscape architecture. Pioneers such as Frederick Law Olmsted and H. W. S. Cleveland retired from practice, while the untimely deaths of Henry S. Codman and Charles Eliot diminished the next generation.t But it was also during this period that a body of theory and technical expertise was developed and became the basis for training landscape architects. What had been a practice, in other words, matured into a profession. And much of this transition is documented in the pages of Garden and Forest. Garden and Forest, published from 1888 through 1897, benefited from an extraordinary group of editors and contributors who saw it as their best forum for shaping the profession of landscape architecture. Correspondents included (besides Olmsted, Cleveland, Eliot, and Codman) Beatrix Jones (later Farrand), Samuel B. Parsons, Charles H. Lowrie, Frank A. aura Wood Roper raphy Landscape architecture was not limited to the \"planting of flower-beds and of ornamental shrubs,\" the Garden and Forest editors asserted useful 1897, but was a \"broad and catholic art ... as in the preservation of the Yosemite Valley or the scenery of Niagara as it is in planning in Waugh, O. C. Simonds, Warren H. Manning, Harold A. Caparn, Wilhelm Miller, J. C. Olmsted-all leading practitioners of the day. Eliot and Codman described European landscapes seen during the travels that had been part of their apprenticeship. Others discussed specific aspects of techmque and practice, for example, \"The Treatment of Slopes and Banks\" (J. C. Olmsted), \"Park Construction\" (Cleveland), and \"The Garden in Relation to the House\" (Farrand).z The editors Charles Sprague Sargent and William A. Stiles published descriptions of showcase projects including the Boston Metropolitan Parks, the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, and Biltmore, as well as plans of smaller but typical residences and gardens.3 In an era before a professional organization or academic instruction existed in the field of landscape architecture, Garden and Forest took on aspects of both. The magazine did all this, of course, while also promoting scientific forestry, botany, horticulture, city planning, and scenic preservation; a pastoral park or the grounds about a country house.\"4 Descriptions like these summarized not only the ambitions of landscape architects, but also the editorial goals of Garden and Forest. It was the emphasis on landscape architecture, Stiles felt, that distinguished Garden and Forest from \"any other garden paper.\"' Stiles and Sargent published articles on horticulture and \"country place\" design alongside calls for the \"Preservation of Natural Scenery\" from suburban Boston to the Sierra Nevada.b In the editorial tradition of Loudon and Downing, readers were urged to expand the aesthetic sensibilities developed in their own gardens and to become advocates for better management of the larger landscape, especially of public parks and forests. If the practice of landscape architecture offered conceptual unity to Garden and Forest, the magazine in turn helped define the emerging theory of the profession. This was largely due to the contributions of the art historian and critic Mariana Gnswold (Mrs. Schuyler) Van Rensselaer, who contributed a total of almost 50 articles beginning with a seven-part series on \"Landscape Gardening\" in 1888. Already an established art critic, Van Rensselaer became intrigued with landscape architecture through her friendship with the elder Olmsted. In her Garden and Forest articles, she set out to define landscape architecture as \"landscape art,\" which, after architecture, sculpture, and painting, constituted the \"fourth art\" of design.' To Olmsted's great satisfaction, she helped establish the professional status of landscape archi- 6 A VIEW IN CENTRAL PARK. HE view on this page is taken from a point in the Ramble m the Central of this city, looking southward, and including a portion of the TerOf course, it is much more than a picture of the Terrace, but it clearly shows how much this bit of architecture adds to the composition. The distant horizon line of trees has an attractiveness of its own. Nearer by are the upper Terrace lines contrasting with the masses of foliage above them. Below these are the open arches with deeper shadows, then the lower lines of the Terrace, the lake shore and the passage of water separatmg more distinctly the extreme distance from the middle distance. All these, with the lines of the shrubbery about the little lawn, mark the successive planes of the composition and help to bring out the gradations of light and shadow. In the Park the observer would enjoy in addition the ever varymg tmts of the sky which would also be reflected in the water, while he could look up to and into the leafy framework in the foreground forever without exhausting its interest. The illustration is a good example of what can be accomplished by framing in a distant object with foliage, so as to make a complete and consistent picture, and there is no reason why such planting as it shows should be confined to public parks. Many a lawn could be made the foreground of a picture quite as attractive, and it could be graded and planted so as to emphasize the interest and increase the pictorial effect of some important object, natural or artificial, and trees could be disposed about it so as to concentrate the attention which would otherwise be distracted by surrounding objects. race. TPark [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 30] ' 7 tects by defining their practice as a fine art, unlike the craft or trade of gardening.8 Continuing this essentially Reptonian discourse, Van Rensselaer distinguished landscape art from the other fine arts by observing that it \"uses the same materials as nature herself.\"9 The landscape gardener (her preferred term) \"takes from nature not only his models but his materials and his methods.\" This \"partnership with Nature\" might seem to limit the artist's opportunity for self expression, a necessary quality of true art. But like the painter or the sculptor, the landscape gardener observes nature and \"re-unites her scattered excellences\" in artistic compositions that express the wholeness and umty that nature possesses but rarely reveals in a single place or view. Nature always provides \"vitality, light, atmosphere,\" she concluded, and especially \"what no other artist ever gets-perfection in details.\" But \"composition... is the chief thing in art ... and the landscape gardener's compositions are and must be his own.\"'o Van Rensselaer's contributions in Garden and Forest made her a foremost landscape theorist of her day, and her ideas would be taught to generations of American landscape architects.\" If many of her discussions of nature and art would not seem out of place in the late eighteenth century, to a remarkable degree they also anticipated some of today's debates in the fields of landscape design and planning. Van Rensselaer deplored the naive tendency to assume that rural scenery was \"natural,\" for example, when it was usually the (often unintended) product of generations of cultivation and management. Nature and art were rarely mutually exclusive m the landscape. Sargent and Stiles adopted this theme and criticized the excessive veneration of what was assumed to be natural or \"wild\" because it had led to the neglect of \"that part of the landscape which is necessarily not wildthe landscape of our daily lives-the humanized scenery of the earth.\" In words that resonate today, they regretted the tendency of people to travel \"in search of the picturesque while what might be the picturesqueness of their own or the \"formal\" styles in garden design.l3 \"Landscape art\" encompassed both spheres, which is why it offered a unique means for improving a broad range of public and private environments, from vacation villas to city plans and from municipal parks to national reservations. Landscape art was necessary in all these designs because without it they could never ral\" achieve the unity inherent in great artistic compositions. The \"true artist\" planned landscapes-from gardens to entire cities-by first analyzing and recognizing the \"characteristic and salient aspects of the place,\" in order to \"work in harmony with them instead of coming into conflict with nature.\"!4 Garden and Forest was dedicated to advanc- ing landscape design as a compositional \"art,\" inspired by the greater composition and unity of neighborhood is unperceived or destroyed.\"'z Throughout the pages of Garden and Forest, simplistic distinctions between what is \"nature\" and what is \"art\" were condemned, as were dogmatic preferences for either the \"natu- \"nature\" and intended to integrate human society into the larger, natural environment. Landscape architecture was seen as the profession that would supply the necessary artists. But landscape art was not for art's sake alone. In an editorial reflecting the sentiments of the elder Olmsted (as was often the case), Sargent and Stiles state that \"true art is not the servant of some temporary fashion, but something that is to endure, and must, therefore, have a permanent basis in the necessities and aspirations of I human life.\"'s Among contemporary landscape projects, therefore, none received more attention in the pages of Garden and Forest than the Metropolitan Park Commission's system of suburban parks around Boston. Charles Eliot, who first proposed the system in an 1890 letter to Garden and Forest, was praised as an example of the \"true artist\" needed to successfully direct such a project.'~ But the deaths of both Eliot and Stiles in 1897, followed soon by the demise of Garden and Forest, marked the end of one era and the beginning of another. Within three years, landscape architects had established their own professional organization, the American Society of Landscape Architects ~1899\/, and instituted the first academic program in the field, at Harvard University (1900). The profession flourished, bolstered by a growing market for \"country place\" residential design. Whether Garden and Forest's ideals of \"landscape art\" survived as well in the new century, however, is an open question. 8 ~3#& x E; Endnotes 1 Laura Wood Roper, FLO' A Biography of Fredenck Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns THE FIELD OF LANDSCAPE-ART. E of landscape-gardening offers a promising field for young men who are looking for some calling in life which will be useful and remunerative. We have always felt obliged to reply that there is comparatively small demand for the counsel of landscape-gardeners in this country ... The prevalent idea is that his work is chiefly ornamental and that his province is to do about the same thing for the surroundings of a house that the decorative artist does for its interior when he selects the furniture, rugs and hangings and decided upon colorschemes and the like. That is, after an architect has built a house, it is considered proper to call in a landscape-gardener to plant some ornamental trees and shrubs about it and lay out paths and flowerbeds in order to beautify the grounds.... In fact, the beauty of the scene, which includes both the house and the grounds, should grow up from the general design and framework of the house and grounds as a place where all the varied necessities of the family in the way of health and happiness and home life are the first thmgs considered.... All this means that a landscape-gardener ought to be much more than a mere decorative planter. The successful designing of public parks or of private grounds for daily occupation means first of all the study of human wants-the necessities of men and women and children of various circumstances and conditions. A good artist must be primarily a man of sound judgment and he should have a cultivated mind, wide sympathies and catholic tastes. Reading and travel and scholarship can do for the designer in landscape all that they can accomplish for the architect. A man may be able to mass a shrubbery effectively or arrange a border of herbaceous plants with skill and yet not have a particle of that profounder art which was seen in the grouping of the great buildings at the Columbian Exposition, and the planning of that Court of Honor which was the crowning artistic success of Mr. Olmsted's life. This view of the case contemplates an ideal that is rarely attained, and it is because the work of real artists in this line is rarely seen and still more rarely appreciated that the very existence of such an art is practically ignored or denied.... Hopkins University Press, 1973), 475. Garden and Forest (hereafter, Gc'~JF) 1 (1888): 267, 326-327; 3 (1890) : 129; 4 (1891).184; 10 1897): 132. 3 GeJF 1 (1888): 508; 6 (1893): 361-362; 8 (1895):481-482. 4 GeJF 10 (1897) : 192. 2 s 6 W sion are constantly asked whether the profes- Quoted m Roper, FLO, 404. See G&F (1889): 133; 3 (1890) : 257; 7 (1894). 1; 10 (1897) : 222. 7 The articles, as well as at least one GeJF editorial written by Van Rensselaer (6 {1893}: ): 119-120), became the basis for her book, Art Out-of-Doors~ Hmts on Good Taste m Gardemng (New York: Charles Scnbner's Sons, 1893). In 1889, Van Rensselaer began a series of GeJF articles on garden history. GerJF 1 s (1888) : 2. 9 The late 18th-century British landscape coined the a figure of gardener Humphry Repton (who term \"landscape gardener\") was considerable interest to American landscape architects in the 1880s. When J. C. Olmsted, Eliot, and others began to meet as an informal professional society at that time, they named their group the \"Repton Club.\" Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971 ), 386. Also see Humphry Repton, The Art of Landscape Gardening, ed. John Nolen (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1907). \" 10 G&F 1 (1888): 2, 14-15, 27, 38. Art Out-of-Doors was republrshed in 1925, and many of Van Rensselaer's ideas were assimilated into Henry V. Hubbard and Theodora Kimball's standard textbook, An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design (1917; rev. ed., New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929). 12 GeJFG (1893) : 531. 13 ia 15 16 See GeJF 1 (1888): 51-52, 481; 7 (1894): 261262, 341-342 ; 10 (1897): 191-192. Gc~JF G (1893): 531. GedF 9 (1896): 171; see Roper, FLO, 435. See GeJF 3 (1890): 85-86; 3 (1890): 109, 117118; 7 \/ 1893J: 191. Ethan Carr is a landscape architect with the National Park Service and the author of Wilderness by Design (University of Nebraska Press), which received the American Society of Landscape Architects' honor award in 1998. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 10 (1897): 161]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A View in Central Park (1888)","article_sequence":3,"start_page":6,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25286","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eb326.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"6 A VIEW IN CENTRAL PARK. HE view on this page is taken from a point in the Ramble m the Central of this city, looking southward, and including a portion of the TerOf course, it is much more than a picture of the Terrace, but it clearly shows how much this bit of architecture adds to the composition. The distant horizon line of trees has an attractiveness of its own. Nearer by are the upper Terrace lines contrasting with the masses of foliage above them. Below these are the open arches with deeper shadows, then the lower lines of the Terrace, the lake shore and the passage of water separatmg more distinctly the extreme distance from the middle distance. All these, with the lines of the shrubbery about the little lawn, mark the successive planes of the composition and help to bring out the gradations of light and shadow. In the Park the observer would enjoy in addition the ever varymg tmts of the sky which would also be reflected in the water, while he could look up to and into the leafy framework in the foreground forever without exhausting its interest. The illustration is a good example of what can be accomplished by framing in a distant object with foliage, so as to make a complete and consistent picture, and there is no reason why such planting as it shows should be confined to public parks. Many a lawn could be made the foreground of a picture quite as attractive, and it could be graded and planted so as to emphasize the interest and increase the pictorial effect of some important object, natural or artificial, and trees could be disposed about it so as to concentrate the attention which would otherwise be distracted by surrounding objects. race. TPark [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 30] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Field of Landscape-art (1897) Editorial","article_sequence":4,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25303","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eb36f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"8 ~3#& x E; Endnotes 1 Laura Wood Roper, FLO' A Biography of Fredenck Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns THE FIELD OF LANDSCAPE-ART. E of landscape-gardening offers a promising field for young men who are looking for some calling in life which will be useful and remunerative. We have always felt obliged to reply that there is comparatively small demand for the counsel of landscape-gardeners in this country ... The prevalent idea is that his work is chiefly ornamental and that his province is to do about the same thing for the surroundings of a house that the decorative artist does for its interior when he selects the furniture, rugs and hangings and decided upon colorschemes and the like. That is, after an architect has built a house, it is considered proper to call in a landscape-gardener to plant some ornamental trees and shrubs about it and lay out paths and flowerbeds in order to beautify the grounds.... In fact, the beauty of the scene, which includes both the house and the grounds, should grow up from the general design and framework of the house and grounds as a place where all the varied necessities of the family in the way of health and happiness and home life are the first thmgs considered.... All this means that a landscape-gardener ought to be much more than a mere decorative planter. The successful designing of public parks or of private grounds for daily occupation means first of all the study of human wants-the necessities of men and women and children of various circumstances and conditions. A good artist must be primarily a man of sound judgment and he should have a cultivated mind, wide sympathies and catholic tastes. Reading and travel and scholarship can do for the designer in landscape all that they can accomplish for the architect. A man may be able to mass a shrubbery effectively or arrange a border of herbaceous plants with skill and yet not have a particle of that profounder art which was seen in the grouping of the great buildings at the Columbian Exposition, and the planning of that Court of Honor which was the crowning artistic success of Mr. Olmsted's life. This view of the case contemplates an ideal that is rarely attained, and it is because the work of real artists in this line is rarely seen and still more rarely appreciated that the very existence of such an art is practically ignored or denied.... Hopkins University Press, 1973), 475. Garden and Forest (hereafter, Gc'~JF) 1 (1888): 267, 326-327; 3 (1890) : 129; 4 (1891).184; 10 1897): 132. 3 GeJF 1 (1888): 508; 6 (1893): 361-362; 8 (1895):481-482. 4 GeJF 10 (1897) : 192. 2 s 6 W sion are constantly asked whether the profes- Quoted m Roper, FLO, 404. See G&F (1889): 133; 3 (1890) : 257; 7 (1894). 1; 10 (1897) : 222. 7 The articles, as well as at least one GeJF editorial written by Van Rensselaer (6 {1893}: ): 119-120), became the basis for her book, Art Out-of-Doors~ Hmts on Good Taste m Gardemng (New York: Charles Scnbner's Sons, 1893). In 1889, Van Rensselaer began a series of GeJF articles on garden history. GerJF 1 s (1888) : 2. 9 The late 18th-century British landscape coined the a figure of gardener Humphry Repton (who term \"landscape gardener\") was considerable interest to American landscape architects in the 1880s. When J. C. Olmsted, Eliot, and others began to meet as an informal professional society at that time, they named their group the \"Repton Club.\" Norman T. Newton, Design on the Land: The Development of Landscape Architecture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971 ), 386. Also see Humphry Repton, The Art of Landscape Gardening, ed. John Nolen (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1907). \" 10 G&F 1 (1888): 2, 14-15, 27, 38. Art Out-of-Doors was republrshed in 1925, and many of Van Rensselaer's ideas were assimilated into Henry V. Hubbard and Theodora Kimball's standard textbook, An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design (1917; rev. ed., New York: The Macmillan Company, 1929). 12 GeJFG (1893) : 531. 13 ia 15 16 See GeJF 1 (1888): 51-52, 481; 7 (1894): 261262, 341-342 ; 10 (1897): 191-192. Gc~JF G (1893): 531. GedF 9 (1896): 171; see Roper, FLO, 435. See GeJF 3 (1890): 85-86; 3 (1890): 109, 117118; 7 \/ 1893J: 191. Ethan Carr is a landscape architect with the National Park Service and the author of Wilderness by Design (University of Nebraska Press), which received the American Society of Landscape Architects' honor award in 1998. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 10 (1897): 161]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Squares of Paris (1888)","article_sequence":5,"start_page":9,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25309","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15e8528.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Codman, Henry S.","article_content":"9 THE SQUARES OF PARIS. of the best features of the park system of Paris is the number of small scattered about in the different quarters of the city. The parks themselves, especially the larger ones, are at such great distances from the crowded centres of population, that the working classes, except on Sundays and holidays, seldom have a chance to visit them, so that these squares admirably serve the purpose of keepmg the children out of the streets, and of allowing the poorer people, in the few hours of leisure they have during the week, to get a breath of fresh air and a glimpse of green. A stranger, on first entering one of them, marvels as he sees how neatly they are kept while so thickly crowded with visitors, reading, working or playing. In plan they are usually quite simple, as the accompanying diagram will show. A broad gravel walk, ten or twelve feet wide, following near but separated from the boundary by occasional shrubbery plantations, encloses a quiet piece of lawn sufficiently open to get a glimpse through to the opposite end, but planted on the sides with trees, shrubs and foliage plants. There are few attempts at fancy gardening, but much care has been taken to select Plan of a Paris Square. hardy shrubs and plants with the view of avoiding bare and empty beds during the winter. The condition of the turf is everywhere excellent, for water is freely used, and suitable small playgrounds are provided for the children, which serve the purpose of keeping them off the grass. These playgrounds, which are an admirable feature, are generally formed by simply widening the walks in the corners and planting enough trees there to afford ample shade. There are always one or two flower beds, which are kept bright and attractive during the spring and summer by a constant succession of showy flowering and foliage plants. Permanent seats are provided, but not in sufficient numbers to accommodate every one, but for a very small sum a chair for the whole morning or afternoon can be hired and you can move it about at will. The only serious fault in all these squares is the stiff and formal appearance of the shrubberies. Almost without exception these plantations are in the form of regular figures-circles, ovals or ellipses-and they are always planted on slight mounds. These two facts detract very much from any effect of naturalness, and it seems a great pity that, when it is so easy to give a varying outline to the groups, it has not been done. It would also be an improvement to plant the borders of these beds with plants or shrubs of low, half trailing habit, and thus, in a measure, hide the sharp, stiff outline between the turf and the dug ground of the bed ... in Paris there are no less than seventy breathing places, not counting the boulevards and other tree-planted streets. They are usually most attractive spots and teach a lesson which might very well be copied in many of the crowded cities of our country. O NE squares Paris. Henry S. Codman [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 267] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Plan of the Columbian Fair Grounds (1892) Editorials","article_sequence":6,"start_page":11,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25308","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15e816f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"11 1 THE PLAN OF THE COLUMBIAN FAIR GROUNDS. & MORE Park, Exposition. Among the striking features of this plot of land, as pomted out m the report accompanying the plan alluded to, was its long frontage on the lake, which, in the opinion of the designers, added an element of such grandeur and sublimity that it compensated for the absence of picturesque elevations of surface, while at the same time it provided means of transportation by water from the city, whose bus mess centre was some seven than twenty years ago a design was prepared by Messrs. Olmsted, Vaux Co. for laying out three tracts of land which were known together as South Chicago. One of these tracts is now Jackson Park, the site of the Columbian miles away ... Visitors who come by rail would pass through the arches of this stately structure [the Admimstration Building, the loftiest and most strictly monumental building on the grounds] into the quadrangle, where their first impressions of the Exhibition will be received. A glance at the map will explain to some extent this arrangement and the magnitude of the scale upon which the whole idea is worked out will be understood when it is remembered that the basm contains nearly nine acres of water. This plan of ushering visitors into the grounds through a porch of such dignity and into a court surrounded by architectural splendors, mstead of lettmg them in through some side-entrance, so to speak, seems to us one of the finest inspirations of the design. No group of buildmgs approaching these m magmtude or of equal ambition in design, and related to each other so mtimately, has ever been constructed m the entire history of architecture, and while the designers of the separate buildings have been allowed certam liberties as to details of expression they have worked together in perfect sympathy to secure a smgle consistent and harmomous effect ... [Editorial. In the Garden and Forest 5(1892): 289] realized whole scheme of arrangement were due to the genius of one man, Frederick Law Olmsted. Many others have brought to this great enterpnse their gifts of labor, devotion, artistic training and the enthusiasm born of a great opportunity, but the spark of genius which has produced a smgle and consistent work of art, changing the sandy and uninviting waste of Jackson Park mto a marvel of stately beauty, sprung from his brain. Of this the world may still be ignorant, but his associates realize and proclaim it; and the architects, sculptors and painters who have been inspired to their sincerest efforts feel that their work serves a nobler purpose, because the labor of each contributed to the harmonious development and expression of his comprehensive idea ... The foremost artist which the New World has yet produced, Mr. Olmsted, has been singularly fortunate in impressing himself during his own life upon his time and people, and m living to see with his own eyes the development and perfection of his greatest conceptions. The memory of his name and personality may be dimmed in the passage of years, for it is the fate of architects to be lost in their work, but millions of people now unborn will find rest and refreshment in the contemplation of smiling landscapes which he has made, and will enjoy the shade of trees which he has planted. No American has been more useful m his time or has made a more valuable and lasting contribution to civilization in this country. throng who witnessed on Monday the Columbian Exposition few probably that the harmony of the scene and the perfection and convenience of the [Editorial. Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 192] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Gardens at Monte Carlo (1891) Editorial","article_sequence":7,"start_page":12,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25305","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eb76d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"12 THE GARDENS AT MONTE CARLO. are the sms that have been committed m the laymg out and build of American towns, but the greatest of all, perhaps, has been the neglect or defacement of their water-fronts. Whether the adjacent water is ocean or great river, lake or little stream, we seldom see its shores turned to the best advantage, and often they present a more deplorable aspect than any other part of the town. In New York tumbledown, malodorous, muddy wharfs, flanked by streets which are frequently pools of water, line a shore that ought to be encircled by well-built, well-kept piers, and even the precious little expanse of Battery Park is daily threatened with curtailment; m Boston the back yards of Beacon Street houses lie along the wide estuary where a stately, tree-bordered esplanade should MANY mg The Gardens at Monte Carlo. have stretched; and the river or brook which intersects a country town is most often edged by rickety sheds or fringed with ragged weeds, and is spanned by bridges as perishable as they are ugly. Of late years public attention has, indeed, been directed to the subject of water-fronts, and much has been done to secure them, in the outskirts of great cities, against the disfigurement that has overtaken them in portions already built. The parks at Chicago have been laid out with a wise sense of the value of the lake-frontage. Boston has claimed for similar purposes certain stretches of the Back Bay Shore, and New York has constructed Riverside Drive and bought the water-front near Pelham. But there is need that more should be done in this direction and that we should learn from older countries the art of beautifying the water-fronts we are begmning at least to reserve. All foreign countries are full of examples of this art, whether it has been employed merely to dignify reaches of shore that must be put to commercial use or to create ornamental promenades and gardens. The quays at Antwerp 13 more prosaic way as the Thames Embankment in London. Dresden is not defaced by the structures that line its banks, though they are not all terraced promenades, but include steamboat-landings, private grounds, hotels and restaurants. At Rouen the chief hotels look out on a river crowded with shippmg, yet look on a scene devoid of squalor or architectural meanness. At Lyons the great stream rushes between close-pressed ranks of tall buildings, yet a fine drive runs by it in many places, and everywhere the shore is agreeable to look upon. At Prague there is a truly magnificent series of wide esplanades upon which some of the finest buildings m the city have been placed, and a succession of bridges where the newest wrought-iron span does not seem out of artistic keeping with the famous great stone bridge which, until some of its arches were swept away last summer, had stood intact since medieval times. And so one might pass from land to land and town to town, only to find that everywhere the water-front is valued and everywhere is intelligently treated, with parks or avenues if possible, and if not, at least with respectable buildings and cleanly shores. The picture we give [above] shows a peculiarly charming treatment of a waterfront. As possessing the only public gaming-house still open in Europe, Monaco would in any case attract a multitude of visitors. But its development would never have been so great, and it would never have drawn thousands of tourists who do not come for the sake of gaming, had its situation not been so marvelously beautiful. The town itself, and the promontory of Monte Carlo where the Casino stands, overlook from their rocky heights the vast blue expanse of the Mediterranean, and the gift of nature has been sedulously enhanced by the intelligence of man. The drives along the cliff-edge are admirably planned, and, like the Casino gardens, show what may be achieved when architecture and horticulture are combined by an artistic hand. Monsieur Edouard Andre, the famous French landscape-gardener, never did a better piece of work than here, and the effect of his planting has been increased by the skill of gardeners who have caused Palms and other exotic plants to grow with extraordinary luxuriance. The treatment is somewhat formal, as befits the neighborhood of stately buildings and the presence of perpetual crowds of visitors. But there is no monotonous regularity in the arrangement either of the terraces and balustrades or of the sub-tropical plants which give such a smgular charm to the spot in the eyes of travelers fresh from the wintry north. We can imagine what such a shore would be were this an American watering-place. It would doubtless not be given up to utter neglect and dishevelment, but a wooden paling would probably replace the marble balustrade, board walks the gravel slopes and marble steps, badly chosen trees in inharmomous variety the orderly avenue, and a stretch of Coleus-beds the beautifully grouped shrubbery. Of course, the exact treatment appropriate at Monaco would not be appropriate in a northern American watering-place; but something of the same orderliness, dignity and beauty ought to be secured far more often than it is. And while, in American country places, picturesqueness, rather than symmetrical stateliness, is usually appropriate, there are cases where it would be better to try for the more formal architectural charm which distinguishes the Casino gardens at Monte Carlo. are as good in their The Elbe at [Garden and Forest 4 (1891):\/: 194] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Necessity of Planning (1896)","article_sequence":8,"start_page":14,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25307","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ebb6b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Eliot, Charles","article_content":"14 THE NECESSITY OF PLANNING. work of the architect and the landscape-architect is popularly supconsist in ornamenting lands and buildings so as to make them beautiful. Rooms may be inconveniently and awkwardly shaped, but they appear can be \"beautified\" by rich furniture and upholstery. Whole buildings may be irrationally planned, but they may still be made \"artistic\" by means of mouldings, carvings and mosaic. House and grounds and college grounds, private gardens and public parks may be senselessly, as well as ineffectively, arranged, but they may still be glorified by yellow and purple leafage. In short, \"The world is still deceived with ornament.\" On the other hand, although all seekers for the truth concerning beauty have discerned elements which defy analysis, such special students have nevertheless deduced from the visible and historical facts a whole series of fixed principles, which are quite as surely established as any of the other so-called laws of nature. Among these, perhaps, the most important is this, that \"in all the arts which serve the use, convenience, or comfort of man, from gardening and building down to the designing of the humblest utensil which it is desired to make beautiful, utility and fitness for intended purpose must be first considered.\" It is to be remembered that this is not theory but law. As a matter of fact and experience satisfymg beauty is not won unless the law of nature is obeyed. That faithful and well-reasoned planning for the accomplishment of purpose is necessary to the success of the work of architects of buildings is now generally understood. \"A plan\" is a skillful combination of convenience with effectiveness of arrangement. \"A design\" is made up of plan, construction and outward appearance, and by no means consists of the latter only. Indeed, the external aspect of a structure depends directly on the mode of construction, the construction depends, in turn, on the plan, and the plan on the purpose in view; with the result that the whole appearance of the building inevitably and naturally expresses this purpose. If it be true that expression, character, and even beauty are thus most surely won, in the case of buildings, by keeping decoration subsidiary and designing with purpose in view from the start, it is equally true of all the wide field of architecture, using the word in its broadest imaginable sense. \"Architecture, a great subject, truly,\" says William Morris, \"for it embraces the consideration of the whole of the external surroundings of the life of man; we cannot escape from it if we would, for it means the moulding and altering to human needs of the very face of the earth itself.\" A busy pasture or a smooth green field in forest-clad New England is as truly a product of human handiwork as a green meadow in treeless and dusty Utah, yet each is beautiful, and neither owes a particle of its beauty to decoration. The English deer-park, with its broad-spreading trees, or the churchyard, with its ancient stones and yews, the typical Yankee farm with its low buildings and great Elm, or the Live Oaks and quaint structures of the plantations of Louisiana, these and all similarly interestmg landscapes are interesting, not because they have been decorated, but because they are strongly characterized and highly expressive. Their moving beauty is the natural product of straightforward work for the adaptation of land and landscape to human needs and uses. THE daily posed to \" 15 5 Believing these things, it will be impossible for us, when a tract of land is newly dedicated to some special purpose, be it that of a suburban lot, a railroadstation yard, a new village, a country-seat or a public park, to stand by and see it thoughtlessly laid out and then, perhaps, turned over to the decorators. We shall msist on premeditation and careful fundamental planning, knowing that therem lies the best, if not the only, hope of happy results. Once possessed of faith in that law of nature in accordance with which beauty springs from fitness, we shall be ready to agree that, when purpose is served, formal gardens, rectilinear avenues and courts of honor are not only permitted, but commanded. On the other hand, we shall be equally strenuous in demanding studied planning and adaptation to environment and purpose in the laying out of whatever work may need to be done to make the wildest place of private or public resort accessible and enjoyable. Positive injury to the landscape of such places can be avoided only by painstaking, while the available resources of scenery can be economized only be careful devising. So with the whole range of problems which lie between these extremes. No work of man is ever successfully accomplished without taking thought beforehand; in other words, without planning. And, strange as it may appear, opposition to such planning for effective results will not, in practice, be found to come from those who attempt decoration only because they know not how else to attain to the beautiful. Just as the hterary class in China ruinously opposes change of any kind, so there is with us a comparatively small, but influential, body of refined persons, far too well educated to be \"deceived by ornament,\" who most unfortunately, though unintentionally, assist in the triumphs of ugliness by blindly opposing all attempts to adapt land and landscape to changed or new requirements. Enjoying the pleasanter scenery of their surroundings as it exists-certain shady roads, or some lingering fields or farm-lands-these estimable people talk of \"letting Nature alone\" or \"keeping Nature natural,\" as if such a thing were possible in a world which was made for man. No, the \"moulding and altering\" of the earth goes forward of necessity, and if those who ought to be leaders will not help to guide the world aright, the work will surely be done badly; as it is, in fact, done badly in the neighborhood of all our great towns. To refuse to exercise foresight and to adapt to purpose in due season, is simply to court disaster. Instead of hanging back, it ought to be the pride and pleasure of these very people to see to it that proper plans are seasonably laid for the widening of roads so that fine trees shall not be sacrificed, to see to it that electric-car tracks shall be placed only m suitably selected and specially arranged streets, that public reservations of one type or another shall be provided in accordance with some consistent general scheme, and that such reservations shall be saved from both decorative and haphazard development by the early adoption of rational and comprehensive plans. There is needed a httle less selfish contentment m the doomed landscape of the present, a sharper sense of responsibility to the future and a living faith in that law of God, in obedience to which everything which is well adapted to use and purpose is sure to be interesting and expressive, and if not beautiful, at least on the way to be. Brookline, Mass. [Garden and Forest 9 ~1896\/: 342] Charles Eliot "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Proposed Plan for Madison Square, New York (1896)","article_sequence":9,"start_page":16,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25300","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eab6d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rensselaer, M. G. Van","article_content":"16 PROPOSED PLAN FOR MADISON NEW YORK CITY. ... SQUARE, SIXTY years ago few buildings, except rural ones, stood north of Union Square, and the area now called Madison Square was an open tract some ten acres in extent in the centre of which stood a House of Refuge for unruly boys-an altogether neglected and unsightly tract, of which the only useful feature was a little pond used for skating in the winter. When the House of Refuge burned in 1839, efforts were made to improve the place, but nothing substantial was accomplished until the mayoralty of James Harper, between the years 1844 and 1847. This was some ten years before Central Park was thought of, and although Downing had already done some of his best work, he had not yet laid out those urban squares in Washington which first showed American eyes what might be accomplished in this direction. When studied on paper the plan of Madison Square shows the working of design, not of accident; yet its treatment is so petty and monotonous, so Fig. 18-Present Arrangement of Madison Square, New York. Fig. 19-Suggestion for the Improvement of Madison Square, by E. Hamilton Bell and Daniel W. Langton. 17 7 wanting alike in broad unity, in effective variety and in conspicuous points of interest, that, we believe, few New Yorkers realize that it has any plan at all The one virtue of the design is that those who wish to cross the park diagonally may do so with reasonable directness. And its chief defect is that its many mmor paths cut up its lawns so pitilessly that the eye nowhere rests upon a quiet, reposeful stretch of green. Truly naturalistic schemes of park design are, of course, more difficult to manage well on a small than on a large scale; and they are not as appropriate as others when the architectural surroundings of the pleasure-ground ... obtrusively urban sort. Therefore, Messrs. Bell & Langton have conceived their rearrangement of Madison Square upon semisensibly formal lines. It may appear that in drawing their main paths anew they have made diagonal circulation less direct; but measurements show that, if anything, they have shortened the diagonal courses. By suppressmg the minor paths they have won space for wide lawns. Yet the accommodation for strollers and for playmg children, and for rows of seats as well, which is lost in this way, is more than made good by the broad mall which forms the central feature of their design, the two parallel paths which lie beyond its flanking flower-beds, and the large open circles which surround the basm that now exists, and the one which they indicate as balancmg it toward the north ... [The plan] is published here less with the idea that Madison Square may actually be renovated according to its indications than in the belief that a comparison of it with the existmg state of the Square will be instructive to those charged with the arrangement of new small parks in this and other cities ... As a rule, a formal or semi-formal manner of treatment, resulting in a pleasure-ground which is properly to be called a large garden rather than a park, must be most appropriate for restricted areas in the heart of a great city. And Messrs. Bell & Langton show that such a manner of treatment need not exclude variety m design, abundance of shade, the reposeful effect of wide green lawns, or even such seemingly unstudied, yet artistic, arrangements of trees, shrubs and grass as may produce pleasingly naturalistic impressions and illusions. are of an New York City. M. G. Van Rensselaer [Garden and Forest 9 ~1896\/: 143] THE PLANS To the Editor of GARDEN AND CORRESPONDENCE. OF MADISON SQUARE. FOREST: Sir,-All persons interested in park-making will certainly be grateful for the two plans of Madison Square in your last issue and the study of their comparative merits by Mrs. Van Rensselaer. Perhaps still further discussion may be helpful, and I therefore write to say that it is hardly correct to classify the old plan as belonging to the naturalistic class. I draw a heavy line (see fig. 22) to show how symmetrical it is except where it has been 18 8 Fig. 22-Plan of Madison Square, New York. Fig. 29-Proposed Plan of Madison Square distorted m two or three places. Curved lines are not necessarily natural. Of course, the building (C) ought to be less conspicuous than it is, and the revised plan corrects this. Plainly, too, the statues are introductions of a later date, and the original designer is not responsible for placing them where they are. They might be well removed to the points ~NN\/. If this were done I do not discover any great superiority in the proposed plan over the old one. The area is so small that the msertion of a bit of rectangular treatment surrounded by a curvilinear treatment seems incongruous. Nor is it large enough for a \"variety of design, abundance of shade, an effect of wide green lawns with seemingly unstudied, yet artistic, arrangement of trees, shrubs and grass, which produce pleasingly naturalistic impressions and illusions.\" An attempt to accomplish all this in so contracted a space must result m confusion. Let us have symmetry where this is needed, but curvilinear symmetry and rectangular symmetry ought not to be mixed up in so small a place ... Altogether, if there could be some rearrangement in the planting to make the symmetry of the present plan more evident, it strikes me as better than the new ones ... Messrs. Bell & Langton have been 19 hampered by their efforts to save standing trees, an so that very little freedom of treatment, and it is not fair to criticise their they were allowed plan as S.A. original work. New York City. To the Editor of GARDEN AND FOREST: Sir,-I observe that in both plans of Madison issue for Square, published in your the paths which converge at the circles are very inaccurately centered-that is, the axes of the paths do not point to the centres of the circle, and if the designs were executed as shown on the map the result would be disastrous. This, however, may be simply carelessness on the part of the draughtsman. I should add that both plans ought to show great seating capacity. Seats ought to be recessed so that the feet of those using them will not be m the way of pedestnans, because the paths as wide as those m the plans give no more than the necessary walking space. April 8th, New York L.G.S. [Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 158-159] MADISON SQUARE AGAIN To the Editor of GARDEN AND plan of Madison Square Sir,-Your correspondent, of Messrs. Bell & Langton because the centre of the park is formalized. I think the criticism just. He points out the symmetrical arrangement of paths as they exist, and says that the place is too small to contain formal as well as naturalistic effects. A seven-acre piece of ground is certainly too small for effects of wide green lawns if the centre is taken up with a rectilinear scheme covering more than an acre and a half. But seven acres are enough for naturalistic effects of respectable extent. Your correspondents (nght, as I think) agree that formal features are desirable in a park of this kind. I do not believe, however, in the value of \"symmetry\" in lines of travel on a place of this size. This symmetry is not very obvious even on paper until emphasized by black lines, and it might be apparent to an observer hovering over it in a balloon. But how shall one who strolls into the square know that the path m which he walks is balanced by a similar on the other side? Artists in landscape too often forget that their paper plans are deceptive. Cannot effects of wide green lawns, abundance of shade and so forth be combined in seven acres with the popular formal effects? I think they can by relegating the formal design to a part of the ground where it will not interfere with the appearance of size. I enclose a design as a suggestion ... BB are FOREST: S. A.... criticises the the statues, C the laosk, A the Farragut monument ... Pittsburg, PA. [Garden and Forest 9( 1896\/: 178] H. A. Caparn "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"House at Honmoku in Japan (1888)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":20,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25295","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14e896d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"20 HOUSE AT HONMOKU IN JAPAN. drawn seemed to us displaying a Japanese solution of a problem very similar to that which often confronts a builder on the rocky shores of New England, especially north of Cape Cod, and on the borders of many of our inland lakes. This problem is to place a country-house on a rugged shore to the best advantage, while preserving, as far as possible, the natural character of the spot. It is only of interest as THE photograph especial from which our illustration was of very recent years that it has been so much as considered in this country. We have been much too anxious to imitate, under wholly different conditions, the country homes of Europe, and, in particular, of England. We have wanted to surround our houses with green lawns, well-kept flower-beds and trees symmetrical in shape and planted in accordance with the supposed laws of landscape gardening as practiced in countries all parts of which have long been subjected to cultivation. And we have too often tried to secure all this in actual defiance of natural the sacrifice of natural beauties which, to a really cultivated priceless value. We have too often sacrificed the chance for a beautiful, wide outlook over the water by placing the house so far from the brink that lawns and drives could encircle it; have cut away the native growth of tree and shrubs-rough and straggling, perhaps, but picturesque and precious for that very reason-and replaced them by nursery specimens; have planted gardeners' flowers in the stead of nature's beautiful wild products, and in conditions, and at eye, would have seemed of J _... - _-!, . , .. 0- ~. 21 the end, after a vast expenditure of time, pams and money, have succeeded in producing merely a bad imitation of an English villa, unattractive m itself, and utterly out of keeping with the landscape environing it. Fortunately, tastes are changing, and one of the chief facts to be placed to the credit of the architectural profession in America to-day is the fact that it has developed a keen sense for the diverse natural beauties of our country, and an admirable power of adapting its constructions to the site and the surroundings at the moment in question. It is getting to be recogmzed as a binding aesthetic rule that a house shall conform itself to site and surroundings, and that these shall not be defaced to suit the character of a design abstractly evolved on paper, or tortured into the semblance of something which foreign hands had created under very different conditions. Many American homes exist, built within the last ten years, which are as worthy of praise from the point of view of appropriateness and picturesque charm as the Japanese house in our present picture ... It will be noted that this house is placed quite at the edge of the cliff, so that the most extended possible view is obtained; that every tree which could be preserved in building it has been preserved; that the wild aspect of the spot has not been interfered with, and that the construction of man, alike in the house itself, and in the fences, steps and other surroundings, have been kept as simple and unobtrusive as possible. Picturesqueness is not the only quality to be prized, either m architectural or m gardening art; and it is a quality which, if forced into life where it does not naturally belong, is distressing to every cultivated eye. But when nature gives us picturesqueness in so clear and pronounced a form as here, the architect must accept her leading or ruin the effect both of her work and of his own. And spots quite as distinctively picturesque as this, and very similar in character, abound, as we have said, in many parts of our pine-grown, rocky coasts, and demand analogous architectural treatment. Naturally, to advise direct imitation of a Japanese house in America is no part of our desire, yet it may be said that the general architectural idea embodied in this house is far better fitted to adaptation in this country than most of those European models upon which we have so largely drawn in the past. [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 314-315, 319] Each of ous us is constituted with a special idiosyncrasy related m some mystem- we find ourselves in a scene mmd feels itself at home there and rapidly attaches itself by affection. The influence of scenery upon happiness is far greater than is generally believed. There is a nostalgia which is not exactly a longing for one's birthplace, but a weary dissatisfaction with the nature that lies around us, and a hopeless desire for the nature that we were born to enjoy. way to certain ideas of natural scenery, and when to our answering idiosyncrasy the -Philip A sunset, a Gilbert Hamerton. to me forest, and do many friends, snow-storm, a certain river-view, are more ordinarily divide my days with my books. a than -Emerson. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Foreign Plants and American Scenery (1888)","article_sequence":11,"start_page":22,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25291","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14e8126.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Olmsted, Frederick Law; Editorial","article_content":"22 FOREIGN PLANTS AND AMERICAN SCENERY. is not easy to explain why certain plants look distinctly in place in certain situations and why other plants look as distinctly out of place m the same situ- IT ations. This is a matter which nature perhaps has settled for us. It is certain at any rate that combinations of plants other than those which nature makes or adopts, inevitably possess inharmonious elements which no amount of familiarity can ever quite reconcile to the educated eye. Examples of what we wish to explain abound in all our public parks, and especially m Prospect Park in Brooklyn, where there is more of nature than in any other great park, and where along the borders of some of the natural woods and in connection with native shrub- bery great masses of garden shrubs, Diervillas, Philadelphus, Deutzias, Forsythias and Lilacs, have been inserted. These are all beautiful plants. They never seem out of place in a garden; but the moment they are placed in contact with our wild plants growing naturally as they do, fortunately, m the Brooklyn park, they look not only out of place, but are a positive injury to the scene. It is not that their flowers are too showy or conspicuous for such positions. The flowers of some native shrubs like the Elder, the Flowering Dogwood and the Viburnums, are as showy as those of any garden shrub. The reason is rather that we have become accustomed to see certain plants adapted by nature to fill certain positions in combmation with certain other plants in a given region; and that all attempts to force nature, so to speak, by bringing in alien elements from remote continents and climates, must inevitably produce inharmonious results. Landscape gardeners have rarely paid much attention to this subject, or sufficiently studied nature with reference to the harmonious combination of plants in the construction of scenery, and especially of scenery intended to produce upon the mind the idea of repose. Nature, nevertheless, is the great teacher to which the artist who would hope to imitate her, however crudely, must ever turn for instruction and for inspiration. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 1 (1888\/: 266~ 1st, page 266, the law seems to me to have been laid down that the introduction of foreign plants m our scenery is destructive of landscape repose and harmony. No exception was suggested, and the word harmony was used, if I am not mistaken, as it commonly is in criticism of landscape painting, not of matters of scientific interest; not as if the question were one of what, in matters of literary criticism, is called \"the unities.\" That a fashion of planting far-fetched trees with little discrimination has led to deplorable results, no good observer can doubt. That these results are of such a character that we should, from horror of them, be led, as a rule, in our landscape planting, to taboo all trees coming from over sea, many of your readers will not, I am sure, be ready to admit, and if no one else has yet offered to say why, I will ask you to let me assume that duty. Suppose anywhere in our Northern Atlantic States an abandoned cleamng, such as in Virginia is called an \"old-field;\"-suppose it to be bordered by the aboriginal forest, with such brushwood as is natural to its glades and skirts straggling out upon the open;-suppose that mixing with this there is a more recent, \" To the Editor of GARDEN AND FOREST: Sir.-In GARDEN AND FOREST of August 23 yet well advanced growth of trees and bushes sprung from seed, of which a part has dnfted from the forest, a part from a neighboring abandoned homestead, while a part has been brought by birds from distant gardens, so that along with the natives, there is a remarkable variety of trees and bushes of foreign ancestry ;-suppose a road through more open parts of the old-field, and that on this road a man is passmg who, havmg lately come from New Zealand (or the moon), knows nothing of the vegetation of Europe, Asia or North America, yet has a good eye and susceptibility to the influences of scenery. Now suppose, lastly, that this man is asked to pomt out, one after another, so that a list can be made, trees and bushes m an order that will represent the degree in which they appear to him to have an aspect of distinctiveness; No.1 being that which stands out from among the others as the most of all incongruous, unblending, unassimilatmg, mharmonious and apparently exotic; No. 2 the next so, and so on. The question, as we understand it, is essentially this: Would all of the trees and bushes that had come of a foreign ancestry be noted before any of the old native stock? Some of them surely would stand high on the list, and some of much popularity, such as Horse Chestnut and Gmkgo and numerous sports of trees in themselves, at least, less objectionable on this score, as, for example, Weeping Beech and most of the more pronounced weepers; most of the Japanese Maples, also, and the dwarf, motley-hued and monstrous sorts of Conifers. But, all? or, as a rule, with unimportant exceptions? So far from it, to our eyes, that we doubt whether, even of different species of the same genus, the visitor would not point out some of the native before some of the foreign-some of the American Magnolias, for example, before any of the Asiatic. We doubt if the European Red Bud, the Oriental Plane or the Chinese Wistaria (out of bloom) would be selected before their Amencan cousms. It appears to us that Rubus odoratus would be noticed before Rubus fruticosus. Passing from the nearer relatives, it seems to us likely, also, that many of the European and Asiatic Maples, Elms, Ashes, Limes and Beeches would be named after such common American forest trees as the Catalpas, Sassafras, Liquidambar, Tulip, Tupelo and Honey Locust; that the American Chionanthus, Angelica, Cercis, Ptelia, Sumachs, Flowering Dogwood, Pipevme and Rhododendrons would be placed before some of the foreign Barberries, Privets, Spireas, Lomceras, Forsythias, Diervillas or even Lilacs. We doubt if the stranger, seeing some of these latter bushes forming groups spontaneously with the natives, would suspect them to be of foreign origin, or that they would appear to him any more strange and discordant notes in the landscape than such common and generally distributed natives as have been named. We doubt if Barberry, Privet, Sweetbriar and Cherokee Rose, which, m parts of our country, are among the commonest wild shrubs, or the Fall Dandelion, Buttercups, Mints, Hemp Nettle and a dozen others which, in parts, are among the commonest wild herbaceous plants, though it is believed all of foreign descent, would ever be thought, by such an observer, out of place in our scenery because of their disreposeful and inharmomous mfluence. Two hundred years hence are not Japanese Honeysuckle, \"Japanese Ivy\" and \"Japanese Box\" (Euonymus radicansJ likely to be equally bone of our bone in scenery? Again, may we not (as artists) thmk that there are places with us in which a landscape composition might be given a touch of grace, delicacy and fineness ... , 24 by the blending into a body of low, native tree foliage that of the Tamansk or the Oleaster, that would not be supplied in a given situation by any of our native trees? Is there a plant that more provokes poetic sentiment than the Ivy? Is there any country in which Ivy grows with happier effect or more thriftily than it does in company with the native Madrona, Yew and Douglas Spruce on our northwest coast? Yet it must have been introduced there not long since from the opposite side of the world. Would not the man be a public benefactor who would bring us from anywhere an evergreen vine of at all corresponding influence in landscape that would equally adapt itself to the climatic conditions of our northeastern coast? ... Before agreeing that no addition can be made to our native forest, except to its injury, we should consider that trees for landscape improvement are not solely those that please simply from their fitness to merely fall quietly into harmony with such as are already established. Trees would be of no less value to us that, being adapted to our climate, would supply elements of vivacity, emphasis, accent, to points of our scenery, such as we see happily produced by the Upright Cypress and the horizontally branching Stone Pine when growing out of Ilex groves on the Mediterranean. And this is a reminder that some scholar has said that we can form little idea of what the scenery of Italy was in the time of Virgil from what we see there now. This because so many trees and plants, which were then common, have since become rare, and because so many, then unknown, have since become common. Is there reason for believing that the primitive scenery of Italy was, on this account, more pleasing than the present? The present large majority of foreign trees that have been introduced with us during the last fifty years, and which have promised well for a time, have been found unable to permanently endure the alternate extremes of our climate, but that there are many perfectly suited with it we have abundant evidence. Does the White Willow flourish better or grow older or larger m any of the meadows of its native land than in ours? But on this point of the adaptability of many foreign trees to flourish in American climates, only think of Peaches, Pears and Apples. ... Brookline, September, now 1888 Frederick Law Olmsted [Mr. Olmsted's letter should be read with the greatest care and attention. No man living has created so much and such admirable landscape, and no man is better equipped to discuss all that relates to his art. The position which GARDEN AND FOREST has taken upon the question of composition in plantations made with the view of landscape effect is embraced in the following sentence, extracted from the article to which Mr. Olmsted refers: \"It is certain, at any rate, that combinations of plants, other than those which nature makes or adapts, inevitably possess inharmonious elements which no amount of familiarity can ever quite reconcile to the educated eye.\" This sentence was written with special reference to the fact that in Prospect Park, in Brooklyn, various showy flowered garden-shrubs of foreign origin had been massed among native shrubs growing apparently spontaneously along the borders of a natural wood in the most sylvan part of the park. The effect which this combination produced appeared to us inharmonious, and therefore less pleasing than if the plantation had been confined to such shrubs as may be found growing naturally on Long 25 Island in similar situations. How far the idea of harmony in composition in landscape is dependent upon association it is hard to say. Mr. Olmsted acknowledges that trees like the Gmkgo, the Horse Chestnut and the Weeping Beech would look out of place in an American landscape-that is, trees which have no prototypes in our natural, native scenery. But would the inhabitant of New Zealand or of the moon, whom we suppose to be totally ignorant of the vegetation of the north temperate portions of the earth's surface, find anything to jar upon his feelings in seeing a Weepmg Willow or a Ginkgo or a Horse Chestnut growing with and among Hickories, Tupelos or Sequoias, which may be taken as the three peculiarly North American trees? Probably he would find the combination an appropriate and pleasing one, and no feeling of inharmomousness would ever cross his mind. Foreign trees with American prototypes, like the Beech, Linn[den], Red-Bud, Plane, from which they can hardly be distinguished except by a botanist, do not ~ar upon the sense of fitness when used in landscape planting here, because for all intents and purposes they are the same as our own species, except that, as a rule, they never grow here as vigorously; and, therefore, are less attractive objects. The European Oak, if it would grow here, might replace the American White Oak, which it closely resembles, anywhere, and this is true of almost every European tree which has an eastern American representative. We certamly did not intend to convey the idea that all American trees could be associated together harmoniously. One of the broad-leaved Magnolias of the southern Alleghany Mountains would appear as much out of place, from our point of view, in a northern landscape, as any tree from any foreign land could possibly do. This same Magnolia, however, amid the broad-leaved evergreens and luxuriant growth of the southern forests, seems to form an appropriate and necessary feature of the forest scenery. The fact that the Barberry in New England, the Cherokee Rose, the Pride of Chma tree, or the Ailanthus in the Southern States, when these plants are naturalized, and have been familiar objects for generations, do not look out of place in the landscape, confirms our idea that fitness comes not from similarity or dissimilarity of form or color or texture, but from mental association. When we have seen certain plants growing together often enough and long enough-that is, when they have been \"adopted\" by nature, to quote our own words-we become accustomed to the combination. It is only new and startling combinations which shock our mental susceptibilities. There is nothing more startling (and whatever is startling can form no part of a restful landscape) than to come upon an Apple-tree, as one may sometimes do in parts of New Jersey, growing in the midst of a thick Pme woods, and showing that the land had once been tilled. But if Apple-trees grew m our woods, and we had always seen them there, the combmation would not seem an unnatural one. The truth is that great masters of landscape construction can combme material drawn from many climates and many countries into one harmonious whole, but the masters of the art are not many, and the planter who is not sure of his genius can wisely follow nature in her teachings of harmony in composition. Had this reservation been made in the article referred to, our statement that \"all attempts to force Nature, so to speak, by bringing in alien elements from remote continents and climates, must mevitably produce inharmonious results,\" would, perhaps, have been less open to criticism.-Ed.] [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 418-419] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wayside Beauty (1888)","article_sequence":12,"start_page":26,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25312","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15e896b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"26 WAYSIDE BEAUTY. plant trees by every roadside, and furnishing good examples of neatly kept But many of our country roads are already bordered with trees and highways. shrubs and climbing vines of Nature's own planting, and it is quite as important to preserve the wild beauty of this spontaneous growth as it is to provide for the more formal and stately rows of Elms and Maples which are planted on Arbor days. The illustration [above] gives a glimpse of a New England by-road which, fortunately, has escaped the axe and brush-hook of the enterprising path-master. Many officials in charge of our highways appreciate the value of trees when planted in straight rows and at equal distances, but a group of Cockspur Thorn, or Sassafras, or Black Haw, or a thicket of Sumach, or Hazel-nut, is too often looked upon as a disfigurement and a proof that the overseer is neglecting his duty to keep the roadside neat and clean. Miles on miles of wayside beauty are I N Improvement Village days these there is no lack of advice are to Societies sacrificed every year to this mania for \"trimming up,\" but the trees and shrubs spring up again to clothe the desert made by man. In smooth and level regions a strip of greensward bordering the wheel-way and running under the open fences into adjoining fields is always pleasing, and it cannot be too neatly kept. But in all hilly and stony regions east of the Alleghames, no lovelier road-border can be conceived of than the native trees and shrubs which flourish where they are left to themselves ... [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 42] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Park-making as a National Art (1897) Editorial","article_sequence":13,"start_page":27,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25298","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ea76f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"27 PARK-MAKING AS A NATIONAL ART. Atlantic Monthly for January contains a noteworthy article under this title Mrs. M. C. Robbins, who is well known to the readers of this journal. Her thesis is that the desire for the creation of beauty m America will find its fullest expression in the design and construction of public parks rather than in painting, T HE by sculpture or architecture. We have already done well m these latter fields, but our craving for liberty, and for enlarged and untrammeled utterance, can only be satisfied by bringmg under control the mighty forces of nature and compelling them to develop and make mamfest our artistic ideas ... In our youthful exuberance we long for somethmg that will appeal to all the people-somethmg colossal and distinctly American-and this so-called Art of Public Improvement will find full scope in treating vast areas of mountain and cataract and forest in works of sufficient moment to need the support of sovereign states, or even of the Federal Government, and which need an army to protect them ... Mrs. Robbins' conclusion is that \"there is everything in the United States to nourish a great art-wealth, enthusiasm, generosity, a sense of boundless capacity, the verve and spring of youth and unlimited aspiration. In the Art of Public Improvement, the dreamer and the utilitarian can combme, the nation's beauty and the nation's wealth can m it be united, and our achievements may be such as to satisfy even American ambition\" The rapidity with which the acquisition of park lands by cities has been going on will be understood when it is remembered that in 1869 there were only two welladvanced rural parks in the United States. Fifteen years later there were twenty, and now there is hardly a city of consequence in the country which has not made the begmning of a system of parks and parkways. It is true, as Mrs. Robbins says, that when the schemes now begun have been fully carried out we shall have public reservations reaching, in what is practically an unbroken series, from the eastern seaboard to the shores of California. \"The idea of such a continuous reservation, a national parkway from the Atlantic to the Pacific, leading from one beautiful pleasure-ground to another, or passmg through great tracts of woodland controlled by Government foresters, is not inconsistent with the gemus of our country, which ever seeks a closer union between its parts; while the gradually enlarging park systems of our cities indicate the way it may be brought out in the linking together of suburb to suburb by great boulevards, which tend to bring civilization to distant homes by affording safe and easy commumcation between them\"... We no longer hear objections of this sort against park-buildmg, but there is another danger that ought to be shunned. It is not enough to secure a certain number of acres where they can be had with least cost and trouble. In the first place, the land should be wisely selected and its boundaries intelligently determmed. Design for its improvement must be made by competent artists and executed with skill. When completed, pleasure-grounds must be maintained with care, for, if left to uncontrolled nature and unpoliced, they may become repulsive desolations. To secure a good design we need a school of landscape art, for, although such a school will never create a great artist, it can teach him the history of what has been done, point out to him what tools he needs and how to use them, and show him how he can most directly reach his end ... ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 10 (1897): 11-12] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from Garden and Forest","article_sequence":14,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25297","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ea36b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"28 NOTES. Mayor Hart, of Boston, has written to city forester Doogue requesting him to make flower-beds on the Common and in the Pubhc Garden which shall imitate in form and color the United States flag, the Massachumissioners From the twenty-sixth annual report of the Park Comof West Chicago, it seems that the parks in badges of the Loyal Legion, the of arms, the seal of the City of Boston, and the Woman's Relief Corps and the Sons of Veterans. And yet it has been asserted and believed that Boston is a city of culture and refinesetts coat ment. [3 (1890): 148] London now has 198 open extent, with an aggregate area of three hundred and fifty-four and a half acres. Most of these grounds have been secured for public use in comparatively recent time, and the Gardeners' Chronicle well says that any one who would have ventured to prophesy fifty years ago that there would have been now nearly two hundred such places for recreation and resort in the great city, would have been laughed at as a its Besides great parks, spaces of less than ten acres in that city are suffering from the same abuses of which the Park Board of Buffalo complain. It is said that visitors make walks across the turf and mutilate the plants. There is no cure for such a state of things except a more elevated and refined public sentiment. A community which allows the beauty of its public grounds to be trampled out so far proves itself lacking in certain elements of cmhzauon. The people who are helping to devastate the Chicago parks, the wealthy men in this city who have tried more than once to turn Central Park into a trotting-course, the wheelmen and horsemen who are endeavormg now to confiscate a part of the Buffalo park system for bicycle tracks and speedroads, all belong to the same class. They are not intentionally public enemies. The trouble is they are not yet completely civi- lized. (8 [1895\/: 120] people of Hennepm County, Minnesota, as a public park. The donor's purpose is to have the tract preserved in its natural state, and he therefore makes it a condition of the gift that no landscape-artist shall be allowed to touch it. Mr. Dexter evidently entertains the mistaken belief that landscape-art and formal gardening are identical terms, or, at least, that landscape-gardening means primarily the destruction of natural beauty to make room for something that is artificial. Perhaps, too, he has not considered the fact that the highest beauty of this wild tract will out a never dreamer. [8 (1895): 10] curious trees in Germany stands on the left bank of the River Oder, in Ratibor, Silesia. It is a most at least one hundred years old, which has been twisted and cut into a sort of circular two-storied house. A flight of steps leads up to the first level, where the branches have been gradually woven together so that they make a firm leafy floor; above this is a second floor of smaller diameter, formed in the same way; and the ends of the branches have been woven into solid walls, and cut so that eight windows light each of the apartments Below the first floor, at the level of the second, and at the top of the tree the boughs have been allowed to grow out naturally, while the intermediate walls and the edges of the window-like openings are kept closely One of the Mr. W. K. Dexter, of St. Louis, has offered 250 acres of land at Hiawatha Lake to the to present Maple, be discovered until some real artist studies chpped. [7 \/1894): 270] English lady, Miss Wilkmson, has, in recent years, made herself widely known as a landscape-gardener, capable of undertaking public works and of carrying them to completion under her personal supervision, and Vauxhall Park, m London, opened to the public last year, is one of her latest works. Commenting upon these facts, and characterizing Vauxhall Park as \"a remarkable work in every respect,\" the Revue Hoiticole recently said: \"So we see that a woman has entered the professional camp, the camp of practicing artists, and has proved her right to a distinguished place in it by worthy results. It seems An times. Who knows whether the of woman may not introduce valuable innovations, unknown refinements, into our gardening a curious practical scheme for making its key-points inviting and accessible, nor that its original charm will surely disappear as it becomes frequented unless provision is made for restoring what is worn away and maintaining and developing its essential elements, a work which also requires the highest artistic taste and training. When Mr. Dexter gives himself thoroughly to a study of the problems of design and maintenance, which must be solved if his praiseworthy and public-spirited purpose is to be carried out to the best advantage, he may still feel inclined to resent any suggestions from the class of landscape-gardeners whose loftiest aim is to arrange flower-beds and plant purple Barberries and golden Elders on suburban lawns, but he will welcome the advice of some true artist in landscape, who will be certain to have a broad appreciation of Nature and a respect for her simplest as well as her noblest manifestations. sign of the delicate gifts conceptions?\" [8 (1895): 100] [8 [1895y 320] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Influence of Garden and Forest on the Development of Horticulture","article_sequence":15,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25306","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ebb26.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Griswold, Mac","article_content":"The Influence of Garden and Forest on the Development of Horticulture Mac Griswold arden and Forest: A journal of Horticulfirst director, Charles Sprague Sargent, was published during a period (1888-1897) when the science of everything that grows-wild or cultivated-was still (barely) considered a single discipline. It's as if today's readers of, say, Scientific American, Natural History, Martha Stewart Living, and The Nation could scan the weekly issue of a single sixteen-page magazine and find detailed articles of specific interest to them. It can't go without comment, however, that Garden and Forest's readers were assumed to have general interests that far outran any narrow bounds of the subjects listed in its title. In 1889 Harper & Brothers, the New York publishing house, ran advertisements in the magazine for William Dean Howell's latest novel, April Hopes; for a Miss Juliet Corson's work on how to feed a family on $500 a year (subtitled A Daily Reference Book for Young and Inexpenenced Housewives~; and for a Civil War history written by an African-American who had served in the war, A History of the Negro Troops in the War of the Rebellion, 1861-1865, by G. W. brainchild ~ ture, Landscape Art, and Forestry, the of the Arnold Arboretum's Williams, LL.D. Within this diverse setting Garden and Forest nonetheless published many editorials and articles that mark the beginnings of the specialized disciplines of horticulture, landscape Malformed cabbage leaf. now, seems to have been the most delmeated of the four, though as landvaguely scape architecture and forestry, previously considered to be aspects of horticulture, evolved into separate professions, the practice of horticulture became more circumscribed as well as as architecture, and then botany, forestry, Bruchus limbatus. with practitioners debating the directions their developing fields should follow. Horticulture, more professional. 30 HORTICULTURAL EDUCATION. number of this journal it was held that the of horticulture and agriculture in their scientific aspects has a distinct value as a factor in furnishing exercise for certain powers of the mmd. Every one admits that the natural sciences should have a place in the curriculum of colleges and schools as elements of wholesome mtellectual development ... but the fact should be emphasized that the mental exercise and discipline furnished by horticultural education in its broad sense is equal, and perhaps superior, to that furmshed by the study of any other science. No kmd of mental application will be more effectual in forming habits of careful observation and comparison and in securing those orderly methods of thinking which are of the greatest use in the examination of many of the problems which confront us in our daily life. In an article in a recent number of Science on Horticulture at Cornell, we are glad to see that this view is set forth with considerable fullness by Professor Bailey, who contends that horticulture as studied at that university is capable of adding much to the value of a course of liberal academic traming. Professor Bailey illustrates the merits of horticulture as a science by showing some of its uses and applications in discussing the theory of evolution, which is perhaps now the most important conception with which the thinking world has to deal. In supporting the hypothesis of evolution, horticulture shows the development of life in actual operation. More than six thousand species of plants are cultivated, and most of these have been broken up into varied forms by the touch of man. Some species have produced thousands of distmct forms, and the methods of the production of many of them are on record. In place of arguments as to the probable influence of climate upon plants the horticulturist cites definite cases, so that there is no conjecture about the matter. Instead of speculating upon the transmission of acquired characters the horticulturist furnishes proofs of such transmission. Paleontology bnngs disjointed evidence m regard to the mfluence of selection and probable changes from environment, while the horticulturist brings examples before our eyes to prove that he can modify and mould vegetation at his will. The horticulturist creates new species and shows you numbers of cultivated plants of which no one knows the origmal form, because the ones with which we are acquainted are so unhke the type that the two can never be connected. This is only a single line of inquiry, and other illustrations quite as striking can be given to show that there is an abundant field for scientific research and profound thought in horticultural science as such ... IN study a recent Agancus Before proceras, parasol fungus. reading those debates there- it is wise to scan the pages of Garden and Forest for an idea of what was meant by \"horticulture\" in late nineteenth-century America. Today's fore, reader could assume that the referred first and foremost to ornamental horticulture, as it does now. But in 1888 horticulture, which had piggybacked on agriculture since the days of colonial settlement, was still concerned with fruit and vegetable gardening to a very large extent. In 1988, the late Elisabeth Woodburn, an authority on horticultural literature, wrote an addendum to a new edition of U. P. Hedrick's A History of Horticulture in the United States to 1860 general term (originally published in 1950). Tallying books published on various \"horticultural\" topics between 1861 and 1920, she arrived at the following ranking, from highest to lowest in number: [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 31]] 31 fruits; vegetables; practical horticul- from any one of them.\" In other words, the real lack m American training was experience in (propagation cultivation); landscape and gardens (by which she meant design); and then flowers, flower gardening, ture and actual gardening. The schools' problem arose from \"the want of appreciation of the requirement of a sound horticultural education on the part of their founders, and in part from the prevailing tendency of the American people to be satisfied with a hasty and insufficient training for any vocation in life.\" Until there is a market for skilled men that will cause wages to rise, the A ornamental which she Double-flowered Cyclamen. ranked last. Garden and Forest covered all these categories, offering descriptions of new species and of gardens and giving cultural direction and design advice. It also published articles specifically for greenhouse propagators and growers; articles for professional florists included a weekly flowermarket bulletin. All this played a part m shaping the development of modern horticulture. Most effective in promoting horticulture as a professional discipline separate from botany and plants, piece curtly con- cludes, ing \"our Schools can of Horticulture wisely give men up tryto teach young want to and landscape archi- tecture, were however, hardthat both criticized and set goals for horticultural training. For example, the some who do not be taught, and devote their energies to those wider fields of usefulness Poppies and their background. hitting pieces which, fortunately, are open to them, and by experiments, publication in 1889 of an editorial on the negligible quality of American horticultural edu- Proliferous Prohferous flower of Cyclamen Cyclamen ture cation in the same issue as d. issue a descrip- tion of the French national school of horticul- clearly illustrated the two sides of the debate on professional training, the big question that eternally enlivens any discussion of horticulture being: How much is science and how much is practice? Such American schools of horticulture as now exist, the 1889 editorial proposed, \"provide an excellent course of botanical study and offer instruction in some branches of practical horticulture. It will not, however, be maintained by the best friends of these schools, that a well equipped gardener was ever graduated and in many other ways, at least help to create the demand for skilled gardeners which they were founded to supply.\"' Garden and Forest's description of the threeyear course at the National School of Horticulture at Versailles could be called its formula for an ideal horticultural education. This short piece is the work of Henry Sargent Codman, Charles Sprague Sargent's nephew and Frederick Law Olmsted's promising (and short-lived) young employee. At twenty-five he was studymg in France with Edouard Fran~ois Andre, the French landscape architect soon to be appointed head of the Versailles school. The essence of his piece is that of the editorial: American horticul2 tural training needs more of the practical.2 An 1899 editorial argued strongly for a hefty dose of science even in the most practical applications of horticulture. It cited a pronouncement, both snobbish and categorical, by the then director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew that \"Horticulture is essentially an empiri- 32 The Opening bud of a Plstil and stam~ens of a grape-flower grape-flower. cal art. Botanical science can afford little a priori information as to the cultural conditions which any plant will require or tolerate; these for the most part can only be found out by trial and experience.\"3 In other words, farmers and growers should not be taught science. The editorial went on to offer a tentative but genuinely populist answer: \"When it is stated that the gardener who has a genius for his work will 'naturally hit upon the right method' of cultivation, this means that the gardener has been doing just what the man of science would have done if he had been engaged in research in the same field. It seems to our people that a man who knows why he adopts a given method of cultivation is likely to be a more practical cultivator, less likely to fail in the essentials of the practice, than one who blindly follows the rule of thumb. Horticulture and agriculture, too, are no doubt largely empirical arts; but we sympathize m the belief that the addition of scientific knowledge will help to place them on a foundation more sure and productive than that of individual experience.\" In other words, farmers and growers should be actively involved in, and the beneficiaries of, scientific horticulture. Garden and Forest's balanced and democratic editorial stance may well be what, in the long run, did the most for the development of modern American horticulture. The editors' stance was also well borne out in articles such as those by George Lincoln Goodale, the Fisher Professor of Natural History at Harvard. His long series on the principles of physiological botany helped to define the synergy between the scientist and the gardener as integral to modern horticulture, without any hierarchical distinction.' His mild-mannered prose is as easily understood by a lay audience as by a professional one and his science would have been as useful to a greenhouse propagator as to an interested fellow professor. That is to say, his experiments were exactly those that would \"help to create the demand for skilled gardeners\" deemed so necessary in the 1899 editorial cited above. Goodale's thirteenth piece, \"Some of the Conditions Which Favor Rapid Growth-Certain Physical Phenomena of Growth,\"includes a vivid little section on the remarkable strength of cellular growth in plants. His final sentence on the prodigious and often hidden power of root growth could stand as a metaphor for the manner in which all the articles and much of the debate published in Garden and Forest helped lift modern horticulture to new heights by addressing a small, intelligent, interested, and yet demographically broad audience over a single decade. \"The force exerted in all these instances,\" Goodale writes, \"has been exercised solely by the innumerable delicate, thin-walled cells, which increase in number and in size in the orderly manner we have attempted to describe.\"5 Endnotes 1 \"Schools of Horticulture,\" (hereafter, G~F) 2 (1889\/: 25. H. S. at Garden and Forest 2 Codman, \"The National School of Horticulture Versailles,\" G&F 2 (1889): 27. 3 \"'A Gardeners' Problem,\"' G~F3 (1890) 149. 4 \"Pnncrples of Physiological Botany as Applred to Horticulture and Forestry,\" G~F 2 ( 1898\/: 8-9, 20-21, 32-33, 44-45, 56, 68-69, 80-81, 92, 104-105, 116117,128-129, 140-141, 153, 164-165, 177-178, 188, 201-202, 213-214, 225, 249-250. 5 Ibrd , 153. Mac Griswold's most recent book is Washmgton's Gardens at Mount Vernon Landscape of the Inner Man (1999). She is also the author of \"A History of Gardening in the United States,\" in The New Royal Horticultural Society Dicuonary of Gardening \/1992\/, edited by Sir Aldous Huxley, and the co-author of The Golden Age of Amencan Gardens (1991). ). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Horticultural Education (1896) Editorial","article_sequence":16,"start_page":30,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25294","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14e8928.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"30 HORTICULTURAL EDUCATION. number of this journal it was held that the of horticulture and agriculture in their scientific aspects has a distinct value as a factor in furnishing exercise for certain powers of the mmd. Every one admits that the natural sciences should have a place in the curriculum of colleges and schools as elements of wholesome mtellectual development ... but the fact should be emphasized that the mental exercise and discipline furnished by horticultural education in its broad sense is equal, and perhaps superior, to that furmshed by the study of any other science. No kmd of mental application will be more effectual in forming habits of careful observation and comparison and in securing those orderly methods of thinking which are of the greatest use in the examination of many of the problems which confront us in our daily life. In an article in a recent number of Science on Horticulture at Cornell, we are glad to see that this view is set forth with considerable fullness by Professor Bailey, who contends that horticulture as studied at that university is capable of adding much to the value of a course of liberal academic traming. Professor Bailey illustrates the merits of horticulture as a science by showing some of its uses and applications in discussing the theory of evolution, which is perhaps now the most important conception with which the thinking world has to deal. In supporting the hypothesis of evolution, horticulture shows the development of life in actual operation. More than six thousand species of plants are cultivated, and most of these have been broken up into varied forms by the touch of man. Some species have produced thousands of distmct forms, and the methods of the production of many of them are on record. In place of arguments as to the probable influence of climate upon plants the horticulturist cites definite cases, so that there is no conjecture about the matter. Instead of speculating upon the transmission of acquired characters the horticulturist furnishes proofs of such transmission. Paleontology bnngs disjointed evidence m regard to the mfluence of selection and probable changes from environment, while the horticulturist brings examples before our eyes to prove that he can modify and mould vegetation at his will. The horticulturist creates new species and shows you numbers of cultivated plants of which no one knows the origmal form, because the ones with which we are acquainted are so unhke the type that the two can never be connected. This is only a single line of inquiry, and other illustrations quite as striking can be given to show that there is an abundant field for scientific research and profound thought in horticultural science as such ... IN study a recent Agancus Before proceras, parasol fungus. reading those debates there- it is wise to scan the pages of Garden and Forest for an idea of what was meant by \"horticulture\" in late nineteenth-century America. Today's fore, reader could assume that the referred first and foremost to ornamental horticulture, as it does now. But in 1888 horticulture, which had piggybacked on agriculture since the days of colonial settlement, was still concerned with fruit and vegetable gardening to a very large extent. In 1988, the late Elisabeth Woodburn, an authority on horticultural literature, wrote an addendum to a new edition of U. P. Hedrick's A History of Horticulture in the United States to 1860 general term (originally published in 1950). Tallying books published on various \"horticultural\" topics between 1861 and 1920, she arrived at the following ranking, from highest to lowest in number: [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 31]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Effect of Gardening upon the Mind (1891) Editorial","article_sequence":17,"start_page":33,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25302","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eaf6b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"33 THE EFFECT OF GARDENING UPON THE MIND. for gardening is one of the elemental impulses of humanity. There are individuals without it, as there are people without sight or hearing or a sense of smell; but, on the whole, to dig comes naturally to man, and at some time or other in the course of his existence the desire to own a portion of the earth's surface is apt to seize upon him and demand satisfaction. This impulse is of maturity rather than of youth, for gardening in its larger sense is a thoughtful pursuit, appealing to the broader qualities of the understanding. It is not merely the desire for healthful exercise which stirs a man, but also the wish to learn the secrets of our common mother, to force her hand, as it were, and compel her to reward his toil. The fable of the giant Antxus, who renewed his strength when he came in contact with the earth, has a subtle meaning, for it is by this contact that many weary souls have found rest and arisen refreshed ... Ataste . [Editorial. Garden and Forest 4 (1891):\/: 505] VARIOUS MOTIVES FOR GARDENING. a letter from a valued correspondent in which he says understand the insistence of GARDEN AND FOREST upon planning and planting for general effect. He delights in his garden, but his pleasure is not associated in any degree with the landscape as he understands it. He loves plants, he appreciates the beauty of flowers, he enjoys their companionship and he reads with interest everything that is said about new or old ones which any way broadens his knowledge of their habits and helps him to cultivate them more successfully. He finds abundant comfort in gardening of this kind, but he sees nothing to attract him in landscape-gardemng. No doubt, this statement represents the innermost feeling of many people who take a genuine interest in horticulture, and it is often expressed to us in one way or another. With people of this taste and temperament the garden exists for its plants, and the plants are not grown for the sake of the garden. That is, a garden in this view is a place where a collection of plants is carefully attended and enjoyed for their individual beauty and other interesting qualities, and with no purpose of forming, m connection with the house, any picture which is to be studied and enjoyed as a whole. Perhaps the majority of all who are interested in gardens sympathize with the view of our correspondent, and they find a real pleasure, and pleasure of a most refining and refreshing kind, in their practice. It is our belief, however, that they might do all this, and at the same time gain a new and ever-growmg satisfaction if they gave thought to the general modeling and arrangement of the whole scene as well as to its mdividual details. E have just received Wthat he cannot [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 341]] One beautiful way in which flowers can be used, especially those distinguished for the brightness and clearness of their coloring or for their tall stalks, is to plant them in moss and among wild vegetation along the edge of a brook or some other piece of water. The reflections m the water and the play of their movements thus doubled clothes with a new charm this scene which is altogether natural. -Hirschfeld's \"Theorie der Gartenkunst,\"Leipzig, 1777. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Various Motives for Gardening (1896) Editorial","article_sequence":18,"start_page":33,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25311","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15e8926.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"33 THE EFFECT OF GARDENING UPON THE MIND. for gardening is one of the elemental impulses of humanity. There are individuals without it, as there are people without sight or hearing or a sense of smell; but, on the whole, to dig comes naturally to man, and at some time or other in the course of his existence the desire to own a portion of the earth's surface is apt to seize upon him and demand satisfaction. This impulse is of maturity rather than of youth, for gardening in its larger sense is a thoughtful pursuit, appealing to the broader qualities of the understanding. It is not merely the desire for healthful exercise which stirs a man, but also the wish to learn the secrets of our common mother, to force her hand, as it were, and compel her to reward his toil. The fable of the giant Antxus, who renewed his strength when he came in contact with the earth, has a subtle meaning, for it is by this contact that many weary souls have found rest and arisen refreshed ... Ataste . [Editorial. Garden and Forest 4 (1891):\/: 505] VARIOUS MOTIVES FOR GARDENING. a letter from a valued correspondent in which he says understand the insistence of GARDEN AND FOREST upon planning and planting for general effect. He delights in his garden, but his pleasure is not associated in any degree with the landscape as he understands it. He loves plants, he appreciates the beauty of flowers, he enjoys their companionship and he reads with interest everything that is said about new or old ones which any way broadens his knowledge of their habits and helps him to cultivate them more successfully. He finds abundant comfort in gardening of this kind, but he sees nothing to attract him in landscape-gardemng. No doubt, this statement represents the innermost feeling of many people who take a genuine interest in horticulture, and it is often expressed to us in one way or another. With people of this taste and temperament the garden exists for its plants, and the plants are not grown for the sake of the garden. That is, a garden in this view is a place where a collection of plants is carefully attended and enjoyed for their individual beauty and other interesting qualities, and with no purpose of forming, m connection with the house, any picture which is to be studied and enjoyed as a whole. Perhaps the majority of all who are interested in gardens sympathize with the view of our correspondent, and they find a real pleasure, and pleasure of a most refining and refreshing kind, in their practice. It is our belief, however, that they might do all this, and at the same time gain a new and ever-growmg satisfaction if they gave thought to the general modeling and arrangement of the whole scene as well as to its mdividual details. E have just received Wthat he cannot [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 341]] One beautiful way in which flowers can be used, especially those distinguished for the brightness and clearness of their coloring or for their tall stalks, is to plant them in moss and among wild vegetation along the edge of a brook or some other piece of water. The reflections m the water and the play of their movements thus doubled clothes with a new charm this scene which is altogether natural. -Hirschfeld's \"Theorie der Gartenkunst,\"Leipzig, 1777. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Japanese Flower Vender's Basket","article_sequence":19,"start_page":34,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25285","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eaf6d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wores, Theodore","article_content":"34 Japanese Flower Vender's Basket. There is no country in the world where flowers are so universally as in Japan. They are inseparable from the life, art and literature of the people, and to deprive the Flowers are distributed among Japanese of their flowers would be to take the sunshine out of their lives the people by means of perambulating flower-sellers, and by flower-fairs. The seller goes about the streets carrying two huge bamboo baskets swung from a pole across his shoulders. These baskets are divided into a number of different compartments, each containing a different variety of cut flowers or leaves. The carrier is Theodore Wores. New York. sometimes almost hidden by the great mass of flowers and foliage he bears A beloved ... ... [1 (1888): 338-339] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Delights of a Rough Garden (1896)","article_sequence":20,"start_page":35,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25289","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ebb28.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Goodale, D. H. R.","article_content":"35 DELIGHTS OF A ROUGH GARDEN. suggestions on gardening to the enthusiastic beginner it is usual to down at the outset a few unmistakable rules for his prudent guidance: Undertake no more than you can care for with thoroughness. Neatness is the first essential. Be content with small beginnings, and so on mdefmitely. The pleasures of the opposite plan, the nch satisfaction of a big, rough garden, in which beginnings and complete successes are somewhat loosely connected, and yet where freedom and beauty do live together in harmony, these attractive possibilities seldom find an advocate. On the strength of an expenment now in its fourth year I beg leave to put m a plea for the garden m which neatness is not a first essential. It seems quite possible to make a kmd of treaty with Nature, in which she consents to do for a rough, yet much-loved garden filled with all sorts of tentative begmnings of loveliness, that which she does with so much charm for any old abandoned garden left wholly to her possession. The lover of wild beauty, who loves tamed and cultured beauty also, may find an opportumty for gardening upon this scale on any little country place of a few acres ... One of the delights of a rough garden is its continual surprises. With the habit of tucking in seeds, cuttings, roots and bulbs, as occasion serves, planting and sowmg without formality, there is something very delightful in the apparent spontaneity with which unlooked-for bloom and beauty often come to light. Broad mixed borders m which hardy plants are irregularly grouped (not without a constant study of the advantages of contrast and relief) make this the simplest matter possible. The Iris or the Lily bulb is buried, the seed is sown and the ground occupied staked to prevent accidents; suddenly, as it seems, a new shape of delicate beauty greets the eye. A big rough garden gives an encouraging opportunity to experiment ... Not annuals and biennials merely, but shrubs and trees also increase and multiply with extraordinary ease in the rough garden, where the discipline is not too severe. Fruit and flower, shade and fragrance, homely use and stately adornment mingle happily here in the garden held m partnership with Nature ... I N offering lay Amherst, Mass. D. H. R. Goodale [Garden and Forest 9(1896): 303-304] FARMING ON VACANT CITY LOTS. these times of agricultural depression the profits realized by farm under the best conditions, are meagre enough, and, therefore, when Mayor Pingree, of Detroit, first conceived the idea of utilizing vacant city lots for the growing of potatoes by the unemployed of that city-that is, by men who were generally quite ignorant of the theory and practice of cultivating the soil-the experiment was looked upon as visionary, if not ridiculous. The result of the first year's cultivation, however, which enabled nearly one thousand families to support themselves through the winter by their crops alone, stimulated certain public-spirited citizens of New York to make a similar effort here, and the result is published in No.I of the periodical Notes, published by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. Of course, the philanthropic aspect of this experiment is the one of prime importance. The result proves that DURING ers, even 36 own vacant land would prefer to have it cultivated instead of lymg idle and unproductive, and that a very limited area will suffice to raise enough vegetables to contribute largely to the support of a family through the winter. It proves, too, that very many of the destitute people in tenement-houses are willing to work and can be made to support themselves with a very little help advanced as a loan. Besides this, the project offers a natural plan for giving to the people who dwell in stifling tenement-houses opportunity to work for them- many persons who selves in the open air and under healthful conditions. It gives mothers the advantage of taking their children out of the heated houses and giving them a taste of rural life. It enables the superannuated and partially crippled to support themselves. In addition to these advantages, the entire scheme has a substantial business basis, with none of the odious and depressing suggestions of a charity. Naturally, however, the educational side of this vacant-lot farming will have a special interest to readers of a journal devoted to the art of cultivating the soil ... In every city where this vacant-lot farming has been successful the soil has been cultivated in accordance with the teachmgs of science ... Every process from the very beginning to the end was carefully supervised, so that this vacant-lot farming, apart from its direct pecuniary profit, had a much more important function as a school of agriculture ... We cannot but assume that many of these tenement-house farmers who have had the advantage of this year of schooling will discover that there is a happier and wholesomer life for them outside of the congested districts of great cities ... [I]f, under capable instruction, agriculture can be made profitable in city lots, and if the good example of experiment stations is visible in better farming all about them, why should not actual instruction m agnculture be made a part of the curriculum of rural common schools? ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 91-92] SENTIMENTALISM AND TREE-FELLING. Awriter in a late number of the Springfield Republican finds his sensibilities wounded by the tone of Mrs. Van Rensselaer's book, entitled, Art Out-ofdoors, and especially by the advice to cut down trees, given in the chapter enpurpose to enter mto any defense of the any farther than to say that we know of no work where more sound doctrine on the subjects treated is given m the same space. On several occasions, however, GARDEN AND FOREST has advised the cutting down of trees, and a good many of them, in pleasure-grounds and elsewhere, and have been met with this same protest made by the writer in the is not our titled \"A Word for the Axe.\"It book, which must stand on its own merits, Republican that no true lover of nature would think of such sacrilege. Now, we have no inclination to retort upon a critic of this sort that his own love of nature may be conventional and fictitious. We have no doubt that this writer, and many other good people who are distressed whenever they see or hear of the felling of a tree, love nature most sincerely after a sentimental fashion. But we believe that many people, whose practices they condemn, love nature quite as sincerely, and in a much more robust, and certainly more intelligent, way ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 311]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Farming on Vacant City Lots (1896) Editorial","article_sequence":21,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25290","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ebb6d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"35 DELIGHTS OF A ROUGH GARDEN. suggestions on gardening to the enthusiastic beginner it is usual to down at the outset a few unmistakable rules for his prudent guidance: Undertake no more than you can care for with thoroughness. Neatness is the first essential. Be content with small beginnings, and so on mdefmitely. The pleasures of the opposite plan, the nch satisfaction of a big, rough garden, in which beginnings and complete successes are somewhat loosely connected, and yet where freedom and beauty do live together in harmony, these attractive possibilities seldom find an advocate. On the strength of an expenment now in its fourth year I beg leave to put m a plea for the garden m which neatness is not a first essential. It seems quite possible to make a kmd of treaty with Nature, in which she consents to do for a rough, yet much-loved garden filled with all sorts of tentative begmnings of loveliness, that which she does with so much charm for any old abandoned garden left wholly to her possession. The lover of wild beauty, who loves tamed and cultured beauty also, may find an opportumty for gardening upon this scale on any little country place of a few acres ... One of the delights of a rough garden is its continual surprises. With the habit of tucking in seeds, cuttings, roots and bulbs, as occasion serves, planting and sowmg without formality, there is something very delightful in the apparent spontaneity with which unlooked-for bloom and beauty often come to light. Broad mixed borders m which hardy plants are irregularly grouped (not without a constant study of the advantages of contrast and relief) make this the simplest matter possible. The Iris or the Lily bulb is buried, the seed is sown and the ground occupied staked to prevent accidents; suddenly, as it seems, a new shape of delicate beauty greets the eye. A big rough garden gives an encouraging opportunity to experiment ... Not annuals and biennials merely, but shrubs and trees also increase and multiply with extraordinary ease in the rough garden, where the discipline is not too severe. Fruit and flower, shade and fragrance, homely use and stately adornment mingle happily here in the garden held m partnership with Nature ... I N offering lay Amherst, Mass. D. H. R. Goodale [Garden and Forest 9(1896): 303-304] FARMING ON VACANT CITY LOTS. these times of agricultural depression the profits realized by farm under the best conditions, are meagre enough, and, therefore, when Mayor Pingree, of Detroit, first conceived the idea of utilizing vacant city lots for the growing of potatoes by the unemployed of that city-that is, by men who were generally quite ignorant of the theory and practice of cultivating the soil-the experiment was looked upon as visionary, if not ridiculous. The result of the first year's cultivation, however, which enabled nearly one thousand families to support themselves through the winter by their crops alone, stimulated certain public-spirited citizens of New York to make a similar effort here, and the result is published in No.I of the periodical Notes, published by the New York Association for Improving the Condition of the Poor. Of course, the philanthropic aspect of this experiment is the one of prime importance. The result proves that DURING ers, even 36 own vacant land would prefer to have it cultivated instead of lymg idle and unproductive, and that a very limited area will suffice to raise enough vegetables to contribute largely to the support of a family through the winter. It proves, too, that very many of the destitute people in tenement-houses are willing to work and can be made to support themselves with a very little help advanced as a loan. Besides this, the project offers a natural plan for giving to the people who dwell in stifling tenement-houses opportunity to work for them- many persons who selves in the open air and under healthful conditions. It gives mothers the advantage of taking their children out of the heated houses and giving them a taste of rural life. It enables the superannuated and partially crippled to support themselves. In addition to these advantages, the entire scheme has a substantial business basis, with none of the odious and depressing suggestions of a charity. Naturally, however, the educational side of this vacant-lot farming will have a special interest to readers of a journal devoted to the art of cultivating the soil ... In every city where this vacant-lot farming has been successful the soil has been cultivated in accordance with the teachmgs of science ... Every process from the very beginning to the end was carefully supervised, so that this vacant-lot farming, apart from its direct pecuniary profit, had a much more important function as a school of agriculture ... We cannot but assume that many of these tenement-house farmers who have had the advantage of this year of schooling will discover that there is a happier and wholesomer life for them outside of the congested districts of great cities ... [I]f, under capable instruction, agriculture can be made profitable in city lots, and if the good example of experiment stations is visible in better farming all about them, why should not actual instruction m agnculture be made a part of the curriculum of rural common schools? ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 91-92] SENTIMENTALISM AND TREE-FELLING. Awriter in a late number of the Springfield Republican finds his sensibilities wounded by the tone of Mrs. Van Rensselaer's book, entitled, Art Out-ofdoors, and especially by the advice to cut down trees, given in the chapter enpurpose to enter mto any defense of the any farther than to say that we know of no work where more sound doctrine on the subjects treated is given m the same space. On several occasions, however, GARDEN AND FOREST has advised the cutting down of trees, and a good many of them, in pleasure-grounds and elsewhere, and have been met with this same protest made by the writer in the is not our titled \"A Word for the Axe.\"It book, which must stand on its own merits, Republican that no true lover of nature would think of such sacrilege. Now, we have no inclination to retort upon a critic of this sort that his own love of nature may be conventional and fictitious. We have no doubt that this writer, and many other good people who are distressed whenever they see or hear of the felling of a tree, love nature most sincerely after a sentimental fashion. But we believe that many people, whose practices they condemn, love nature quite as sincerely, and in a much more robust, and certainly more intelligent, way ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 311]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sentimentalism and Tree-felling (1893) Editorial","article_sequence":22,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25301","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eaf26.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"36 own vacant land would prefer to have it cultivated instead of lymg idle and unproductive, and that a very limited area will suffice to raise enough vegetables to contribute largely to the support of a family through the winter. It proves, too, that very many of the destitute people in tenement-houses are willing to work and can be made to support themselves with a very little help advanced as a loan. Besides this, the project offers a natural plan for giving to the people who dwell in stifling tenement-houses opportunity to work for them- many persons who selves in the open air and under healthful conditions. It gives mothers the advantage of taking their children out of the heated houses and giving them a taste of rural life. It enables the superannuated and partially crippled to support themselves. In addition to these advantages, the entire scheme has a substantial business basis, with none of the odious and depressing suggestions of a charity. Naturally, however, the educational side of this vacant-lot farming will have a special interest to readers of a journal devoted to the art of cultivating the soil ... In every city where this vacant-lot farming has been successful the soil has been cultivated in accordance with the teachmgs of science ... Every process from the very beginning to the end was carefully supervised, so that this vacant-lot farming, apart from its direct pecuniary profit, had a much more important function as a school of agriculture ... We cannot but assume that many of these tenement-house farmers who have had the advantage of this year of schooling will discover that there is a happier and wholesomer life for them outside of the congested districts of great cities ... [I]f, under capable instruction, agriculture can be made profitable in city lots, and if the good example of experiment stations is visible in better farming all about them, why should not actual instruction m agnculture be made a part of the curriculum of rural common schools? ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 9 (1896): 91-92] SENTIMENTALISM AND TREE-FELLING. Awriter in a late number of the Springfield Republican finds his sensibilities wounded by the tone of Mrs. Van Rensselaer's book, entitled, Art Out-ofdoors, and especially by the advice to cut down trees, given in the chapter enpurpose to enter mto any defense of the any farther than to say that we know of no work where more sound doctrine on the subjects treated is given m the same space. On several occasions, however, GARDEN AND FOREST has advised the cutting down of trees, and a good many of them, in pleasure-grounds and elsewhere, and have been met with this same protest made by the writer in the is not our titled \"A Word for the Axe.\"It book, which must stand on its own merits, Republican that no true lover of nature would think of such sacrilege. Now, we have no inclination to retort upon a critic of this sort that his own love of nature may be conventional and fictitious. We have no doubt that this writer, and many other good people who are distressed whenever they see or hear of the felling of a tree, love nature most sincerely after a sentimental fashion. But we believe that many people, whose practices they condemn, love nature quite as sincerely, and in a much more robust, and certainly more intelligent, way ... [Editorial. Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 311]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Use of Trees and Shrubs with Leaves of Abnormal Colors (1897) Editorial","article_sequence":23,"start_page":37,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25310","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15e856d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"37 Chrysanthemums.-It often happens after Chrysanthemums have done flowering that they are stowed away either under green-house benches where there is but little light, or in cellars where there is less, or are left out in the weather to struggle as best they can with the elements. Good Chrysanthemums cannot be had next year from stock subjected to such treatment. Growers who aim at fine plants and fine flowers are now giving their stock-plants the best attention; the weaker kinds are placed in a cold green-house or frame, close to the light, and they are never allowed to want for water; the stronger kinds have also good positions in airy frames or green-houses John Thorpe. Pearl River, N.Y. [Garden and Forest 1 (1888): 523] ... THE USE OF TREES AND SHRUBS WITH LEAVES OF ABNORMAL COLORS. correspondent writes in a discouraged tone about the planting he observes in the suburbs of that city. It seems to him that popular taste is setting strongly toward Prunus Pissardi [a purple-leaved form of P. cerasifoha, or cherry plum], the Golden Elder [Sambucus mgra 'Aurea'], variegated Negundos [Acer negundo, box-elder] and the like. We have no doubt that too many trees and shrubs which are valued for the abnormal coloring of their leaves are used about ABoston in fact, about every other American city. Unless our own observafault, however, the tendency of public taste, as a rule, is in the other direction, by which we mean that the people who plant nowadays are more inclined to follow the teachings of nature in this respect than they were a few years ago, when the tree agent, with his highly colored catalogues, was more pervasive and influential than he now is. The so-called foliage plants with bnghtly colored leaves and hues, set in patterns of various sorts, are certainly not as prevalent as they once were, and it is very evident that in American parks the use of shrubs and trees with streaked and spotted or van-colored leaves is not as Boston, and, tion is at 38 profuse as it is in European parks. Perhaps, our correspondent in some afternoon drive has observed several glaring offenses against that quietness and self-restraint m planting which alone can make home grounds homelike, and this has depressed his spirits ... [Edrtomal. Garden and Forest 10 (1897): 301]] CHRISTMAS GREEN. morning for a week past the steamboat Minnie Cornell, from Keyport, New Jersey, has come to her pier loaded with \"rope\"and \"fancy green.\"\"Rope\" is the trade name for the cables made of Club-moss and occasionally of Hemlock spray, and used for looping into festoons or twming about columns m Christmas decorations. \"Fancy green\" includes the wreaths, stars and other designs, manufactured chiefly from the leaves of Holly, Laurel and Rhododendron, together with Mosses, green or gray, from Oak trunks and Cedar boughs, scarlet berries of the Black Alder, the bluish gray fruit of the Juniper, the scarlet and orange fruits of the Bittersweet, not to speak of Grasses dried and dyed m fearful and wonderful colors. The little steamer has more than once carried 60,000 yards of the festooning material, and 1,500 dozen stars and wreaths at a smgle trip, and the entire amount of \"rope\" brought to this market during the season would reach from New York to Boston. The very first Christmas green sold m this city came from Keyport. Some forty-five years ago the wife of a Monmouth County farmer gathered enough Ground Pme to fill a sheet with the four corners tied together, and shipped it on a sloop with her poultry. It proved a lucky venture, and ever since, the people of Monmouth County have held almost a monopoly of the industry, although both the species of Club-moss most largely used, Lycopodium dendroideum and L. complanatum, were practically exterminated from that region years ago. They are still abundant, however, m Connecticut, some parts of northern New York, and Massachusetts, and are shipped to New Jersey in such quantities that large dealers buy them by the ton, and the manufacture of these festal wreaths and cables gives employment to the mves and daughters of many farmers after the fall work on the farm is over. The trade in Christmas-trees began m 1851, when Mark Carr yoked up his oxen and hauled from the Catskills to the steamboat landing on the Hudson two sledloads of young Balsams, and paid a silver dollar for the privilege of selling them on the corner of Vesey and Greenwich Streets. At least 150,000 trees have been piled up along the docks of the North River during the last week, and since the days of Mark Carr many a dealer has been glad to pay a hundred dollars for a corner privilege for holiday trade in Christmas trees. About half of the trees this year come from Maine, the remamder from the Berkshire Hills, the Black River country m the Adirondacks, and the Catskills. Good trees m the Catskills are becoming scarce, however, and the woodsmen of those mountains are looking elsewhere for their material. Short ~omted, stocky trees with perfect whorls of branches at the base of each annual growth, are the most sought for, and the Maine trees, as a rule, command rather higher prices than any others. The trees come up thickly where hardwood timber has been cleared away, and if they are cut above the second or third ~omt, one of the limbs soon turns upward and becomes a leader to furnish another Christmas-tree. In this way the same land is cut over several times. Fortunately the EVERY \" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Green (1888) Editorial","article_sequence":24,"start_page":38,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25287","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eb36b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"38 profuse as it is in European parks. Perhaps, our correspondent in some afternoon drive has observed several glaring offenses against that quietness and self-restraint m planting which alone can make home grounds homelike, and this has depressed his spirits ... [Edrtomal. Garden and Forest 10 (1897): 301]] CHRISTMAS GREEN. morning for a week past the steamboat Minnie Cornell, from Keyport, New Jersey, has come to her pier loaded with \"rope\"and \"fancy green.\"\"Rope\" is the trade name for the cables made of Club-moss and occasionally of Hemlock spray, and used for looping into festoons or twming about columns m Christmas decorations. \"Fancy green\" includes the wreaths, stars and other designs, manufactured chiefly from the leaves of Holly, Laurel and Rhododendron, together with Mosses, green or gray, from Oak trunks and Cedar boughs, scarlet berries of the Black Alder, the bluish gray fruit of the Juniper, the scarlet and orange fruits of the Bittersweet, not to speak of Grasses dried and dyed m fearful and wonderful colors. The little steamer has more than once carried 60,000 yards of the festooning material, and 1,500 dozen stars and wreaths at a smgle trip, and the entire amount of \"rope\" brought to this market during the season would reach from New York to Boston. The very first Christmas green sold m this city came from Keyport. Some forty-five years ago the wife of a Monmouth County farmer gathered enough Ground Pme to fill a sheet with the four corners tied together, and shipped it on a sloop with her poultry. It proved a lucky venture, and ever since, the people of Monmouth County have held almost a monopoly of the industry, although both the species of Club-moss most largely used, Lycopodium dendroideum and L. complanatum, were practically exterminated from that region years ago. They are still abundant, however, m Connecticut, some parts of northern New York, and Massachusetts, and are shipped to New Jersey in such quantities that large dealers buy them by the ton, and the manufacture of these festal wreaths and cables gives employment to the mves and daughters of many farmers after the fall work on the farm is over. The trade in Christmas-trees began m 1851, when Mark Carr yoked up his oxen and hauled from the Catskills to the steamboat landing on the Hudson two sledloads of young Balsams, and paid a silver dollar for the privilege of selling them on the corner of Vesey and Greenwich Streets. At least 150,000 trees have been piled up along the docks of the North River during the last week, and since the days of Mark Carr many a dealer has been glad to pay a hundred dollars for a corner privilege for holiday trade in Christmas trees. About half of the trees this year come from Maine, the remamder from the Berkshire Hills, the Black River country m the Adirondacks, and the Catskills. Good trees m the Catskills are becoming scarce, however, and the woodsmen of those mountains are looking elsewhere for their material. Short ~omted, stocky trees with perfect whorls of branches at the base of each annual growth, are the most sought for, and the Maine trees, as a rule, command rather higher prices than any others. The trees come up thickly where hardwood timber has been cleared away, and if they are cut above the second or third ~omt, one of the limbs soon turns upward and becomes a leader to furnish another Christmas-tree. In this way the same land is cut over several times. Fortunately the EVERY \" 39 Balsam Fir is about as nearly worthless for any other purpose as any of our native trees, and therefore the waste of cutting so much young timber is not serious. A few Black Spruces come among the Firs, and Hemlock boughs, which, oddly enough, are made to do duty as Palm branches in some church services [and] are in growing demand every year. Trees from Maine are shipped as far south as Baltimore; and of late years large quantities of Holly branches, mostly from Maryland, since the limited supply in New Jersey is nearly exhausted, are sent as far north as Boston. Within two or three years the Mistletoe has been sold here in a few shops and even on the streets, but in spite of its association with Christmas festivities in Old World traditions, it has filled but a small place here in the regular market of Christmas green. And yet this parasite is common on the Gum trees of southern New Jersey, and it is never so beautiful as at this season with its transparent bernes clustered among its evergreen leaves. [Editomal. Garden and Forest 1\/1888\/: 505-506] PLANT NOTES. JAPANESE IRIS. features in Mr. John L. Gardner's beautiful garden is the bed of Japanese Ins (Ins laevigata or Kaempfem), which forms the subject of our illustration. The plants, which were selected in Japan with great care by Mrs. Gardner, represent the best named Japanese vameties. They are arranged according to color, in the Japanese fashion; each in ONEBrookline, Massachusetts, ~a i ' . of the most attractive r .. ~ au k IPJ -' ~`~'~ I nr.~_ , . v u~ \" .. ~w >. _ `~c _ mn ~ ~ h, ,~n~ y 1 1 i 1 \"' . ~~ Ij ~11~ _r~\"e 'M~,cu! ~I . 'u ~ n' 7 i 'i i tlv i , r~ yn\"' y ~ o~ ~, 1, '` ~ fi \/\/ d ii ~ iI r ' ~` ' 1~ S. ` ~ ~:~ I .' I =, ,.Y-, ' n ~,T~ . I Im~ s ~G 1 , . ~I;Y 1 , ~ ~ ~.u' ~ ~^ `~.n ~ \".~ 1 d\".5~n, ~ ~$ ,~5` \"~, ~,e. ~! n~ ~ ~v ' 41 r -l~ '~ ~~~ ~ ` _~ \/ ` 1 \" u ~ , , `' ~1 ' VI! a '` '~ 11 1 il '~ i i - y s, \"wyl4,$_~ ~ n il ~ 'u ' u i u, 1 1 r~1q ~~ ',Ip\/ , ' 4, ~ \"n, y'\" ~' ~ I ~i '' k _ ~~1 y u ~ 1 'd i n 4!1 ~ 's f lna 'I~ ~ ~ n~ . vrc,mn I~ ~ m\/ 'd1 ,'~v~ u , i ~` \/ ~ ~ 'I I _ 1 n ` ' ~ u ,~ l ,y'Bd ,~ I BII! i ^ 1 ~' r'~yar ul , A Bed of Japanese Iris. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Notes. Japanese Iris (1888)","article_sequence":25,"start_page":39,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25299","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eab28.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"39 Balsam Fir is about as nearly worthless for any other purpose as any of our native trees, and therefore the waste of cutting so much young timber is not serious. A few Black Spruces come among the Firs, and Hemlock boughs, which, oddly enough, are made to do duty as Palm branches in some church services [and] are in growing demand every year. Trees from Maine are shipped as far south as Baltimore; and of late years large quantities of Holly branches, mostly from Maryland, since the limited supply in New Jersey is nearly exhausted, are sent as far north as Boston. Within two or three years the Mistletoe has been sold here in a few shops and even on the streets, but in spite of its association with Christmas festivities in Old World traditions, it has filled but a small place here in the regular market of Christmas green. And yet this parasite is common on the Gum trees of southern New Jersey, and it is never so beautiful as at this season with its transparent bernes clustered among its evergreen leaves. [Editomal. Garden and Forest 1\/1888\/: 505-506] PLANT NOTES. JAPANESE IRIS. features in Mr. John L. Gardner's beautiful garden is the bed of Japanese Ins (Ins laevigata or Kaempfem), which forms the subject of our illustration. The plants, which were selected in Japan with great care by Mrs. Gardner, represent the best named Japanese vameties. They are arranged according to color, in the Japanese fashion; each in ONEBrookline, Massachusetts, ~a i ' . of the most attractive r .. ~ au k IPJ -' ~`~'~ I nr.~_ , . v u~ \" .. ~w >. _ `~c _ mn ~ ~ h, ,~n~ y 1 1 i 1 \"' . ~~ Ij ~11~ _r~\"e 'M~,cu! ~I . 'u ~ n' 7 i 'i i tlv i , r~ yn\"' y ~ o~ ~, 1, '` ~ fi \/\/ d ii ~ iI r ' ~` ' 1~ S. ` ~ ~:~ I .' I =, ,.Y-, ' n ~,T~ . I Im~ s ~G 1 , . ~I;Y 1 , ~ ~ ~.u' ~ ~^ `~.n ~ \".~ 1 d\".5~n, ~ ~$ ,~5` \"~, ~,e. ~! n~ ~ ~v ' 41 r -l~ '~ ~~~ ~ ` _~ \/ ` 1 \" u ~ , , `' ~1 ' VI! a '` '~ 11 1 il '~ i i - y s, \"wyl4,$_~ ~ n il ~ 'u ' u i u, 1 1 r~1q ~~ ',Ip\/ , ' 4, ~ \"n, y'\" ~' ~ I ~i '' k _ ~~1 y u ~ 1 'd i n 4!1 ~ 's f lna 'I~ ~ ~ n~ . vrc,mn I~ ~ m\/ 'd1 ,'~v~ u , i ~` \/ ~ ~ 'I I _ 1 n ` ' ~ u ,~ l ,y'Bd ,~ I BII! i ^ 1 ~' r'~yar ul , A Bed of Japanese Iris. 40 the bed consisting of one variety, those with white flowers at one end, and then all the intermediate shades to the dark blues and purples at the other end. The bed is sunk eight or ten mches below the surface of the surrounding lawn, and is furnished on one side with a perforated water-pipe so that the plants can be irrigated during the growmg season. It is eighteen inches deep and consists of a rich compost of loam and thoroughly rotten cow-manure, and every year it gets a good top dressmg of manure. Every pleasant morning after the middle of May the water is turned on at nine o'clock and allowed to run till three or four o'clock in the afternoon; by that time the bed is thoroughly saturated and covered to a depth of two or three inches with water; the supply is then shut off until the next morning. Some of the varieties, under this generous treatment, grow to a height of five or six feet, and have produced flowers fully ten inches across, and surprising in their profusion and beauty. While irrigation is doubtless necessary to develop the greatest perfection of the Japanese Ins, it can be successfully grown in this country in ordmary seasons in any good garden soil and without artificial watering. Very fine flowers have been produced without special treatment by Mr. [Francis] Parkman and other American growers, who have raised good seedling vameties of this plant without giving to it more care than is required by other Irises ... The flowers are hardly surpassed m delicacy of texture or m beauty of color, but they do not appear here until July, and the hot sun soon fades them. The blooming season may be prolonged by the use of an awning placed over the beds during the day, but it cannot be denied that this plant flowers too late here, and that its period of beauty is too short in this climate ever to make it a great popular favorite ... row across [Garden and Forest I (1888): 259-260] NEW OR LITTLE-KNOWN PLANTS. XANTHOCERAS SORBIFOLIA. indebted for the opportunity of publishing in this the portrait of a remarkably fine specimen of the rare Xanthoceras sorbifolia in Mr. Dana's collection at Dosoris [Long Island, New York]. Xanthoceras sorbifolia is a small tree of northern China, related to the Bladdernuts ~Staphlea) and Horse-chestnuts, and mteresting as the only representation of the genus to which it belongs, and which owes its name to the presence between the petals of curious yellow horn-shaped glands. It is one of the most attractive of the hardy plants which our gardens owe to northern China, the region from which many of the most beautiful trees and shrubs m cultivation have been brought. It is a leafy, glabrous or puberulous plant with opposite pinnate leaves eight to twelve inches m length; the leaflets are alternate, linear-oblong, acute, coarsely serrate, dark green and glossy on the upper surface and pale on the lower. The flowers are white, handsomely marked with red streaks at the base of the petals, and are produced in great profusion in lateral racemes eight or twelve mches long, appearing as the leaves are unfolding. The fruit, which is a globose or pear-shaped capsule, not unlike that of some of the smooth-fruited Horsechestnuts in general appearance, finally splits into three valves, and contains a number of globose, nearly black, shining seeds half an inch in diameter. TO issue Mr. Paul Dana we are "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New or Little-Known Plants: Xanthoceras sorbifolia (1893)","article_sequence":26,"start_page":40,"end_page":42,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25296","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ea326.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"40 the bed consisting of one variety, those with white flowers at one end, and then all the intermediate shades to the dark blues and purples at the other end. The bed is sunk eight or ten mches below the surface of the surrounding lawn, and is furnished on one side with a perforated water-pipe so that the plants can be irrigated during the growmg season. It is eighteen inches deep and consists of a rich compost of loam and thoroughly rotten cow-manure, and every year it gets a good top dressmg of manure. Every pleasant morning after the middle of May the water is turned on at nine o'clock and allowed to run till three or four o'clock in the afternoon; by that time the bed is thoroughly saturated and covered to a depth of two or three inches with water; the supply is then shut off until the next morning. Some of the varieties, under this generous treatment, grow to a height of five or six feet, and have produced flowers fully ten inches across, and surprising in their profusion and beauty. While irrigation is doubtless necessary to develop the greatest perfection of the Japanese Ins, it can be successfully grown in this country in ordmary seasons in any good garden soil and without artificial watering. Very fine flowers have been produced without special treatment by Mr. [Francis] Parkman and other American growers, who have raised good seedling vameties of this plant without giving to it more care than is required by other Irises ... The flowers are hardly surpassed m delicacy of texture or m beauty of color, but they do not appear here until July, and the hot sun soon fades them. The blooming season may be prolonged by the use of an awning placed over the beds during the day, but it cannot be denied that this plant flowers too late here, and that its period of beauty is too short in this climate ever to make it a great popular favorite ... row across [Garden and Forest I (1888): 259-260] NEW OR LITTLE-KNOWN PLANTS. XANTHOCERAS SORBIFOLIA. indebted for the opportunity of publishing in this the portrait of a remarkably fine specimen of the rare Xanthoceras sorbifolia in Mr. Dana's collection at Dosoris [Long Island, New York]. Xanthoceras sorbifolia is a small tree of northern China, related to the Bladdernuts ~Staphlea) and Horse-chestnuts, and mteresting as the only representation of the genus to which it belongs, and which owes its name to the presence between the petals of curious yellow horn-shaped glands. It is one of the most attractive of the hardy plants which our gardens owe to northern China, the region from which many of the most beautiful trees and shrubs m cultivation have been brought. It is a leafy, glabrous or puberulous plant with opposite pinnate leaves eight to twelve inches m length; the leaflets are alternate, linear-oblong, acute, coarsely serrate, dark green and glossy on the upper surface and pale on the lower. The flowers are white, handsomely marked with red streaks at the base of the petals, and are produced in great profusion in lateral racemes eight or twelve mches long, appearing as the leaves are unfolding. The fruit, which is a globose or pear-shaped capsule, not unlike that of some of the smooth-fruited Horsechestnuts in general appearance, finally splits into three valves, and contains a number of globose, nearly black, shining seeds half an inch in diameter. TO issue Mr. Paul Dana we are 41 Xanthoceras was discovered nearly sixty years ago by the German botanist Bunge, who accompamed a Russian mission which traveled overland from St. Petersburg to Pekin ; it was not, however, mtroduced into our gardens until nearly forty years later, when the French missionary David sent it to the Jardm des Plantes, in Paris, where the original plant may still be seen. In spite of its hardiness and the beauty of its flowers, Xanthoceras is still rare in American and European gardens. This is, perhaps, due to the fact that, Xanthoceras sorbifolia, at Dosoris, Long Island 42 although it is hardy against cold, it is evidently fastidious and does not grow well in all soils and situations. Most of the plants which have been tried in this country have perished sooner or later, and it is unusual to find either here or in Europe so large, vigorous and healthy a specimen as the one at Dosoris. From the Abbe David's notes we learn that Xanthoceras is a tree fifteen to eighteen feet high, and exceedingly rare in those parts of China and Mongolia which he visited; that it is cultivated in the gardens of Pekin; and that the seeds are eaten by the Chinese. At our request, Mr. Dana has sent us for the benefit of our readers the following note upon his method of cultivating Xanthoceras, which we hope will now become a more common object in our gardens: \"I first saw a plant of Xanthoceras at Baden-Baden on the grounds of Herr Max Leichtlin about the year 1884.I admired it, and Herr Leichtlin spoke of it as a new plant of great promise, which he felt sure would be an acquisition to horticulture. I secured two plants, and have been cultivating them now for eight or ten years. They are six feet high, and grow in rich warm loam. They have no protection whatever, and yet they have never lost a branch m winter, and they endure our dry summers perfectly. They are not strong-growing shrubs, but they bear flowers in great profusion, and are more beautiful when in bloom than at any other season. They ripen seeds every year, and I would be glad to furnish some of them to any one who cares to test the plant.\" \" [Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 284-286] CLIMBING PLANTS ON BOSTON BUILDINGS. nowhere else in this country does the service performed by climbm clothing and adorning the walls of buildings receive and such good illustration as in and around Boston. Ampelopsis tricuspidata [now Parthenocissus tricuspidata] was first domesticated here, and has so long been a striking feature of this city as to gain for it throughout the country the familiar name of \"Boston Ivy.\" This name, however, is seldom heard here, where it is most commonly known as the \"Japanese Ivy\" or the \"Japanese Ampelopsis.\" Ampelopsis tricuspidata had probably been cultivated hereabout for several years before it became particularly noticeable, but its popularity dates back to the Centennial year of 1876. Although for years familiar with all parts of the city and a close observer of such things, I had never noticed this plant until my return in 1877, after an absence of a year or so, when I was at once struck by its prevalence. It did not become remarkably common hereabout until about 1880. Now, however, it is seen everywhere, and is even more prevalent than its cousin, our beautiful native Virginia Creeper. It has become as characteristic of our city and suburban scenes as the White Pine is of our rural New England landscape, and one of our foremost authorities once told me that he regarded it as the greatest horticultural acquisition of the century. Occasionally its use is excessive, but its luxumant habit is seldom encouraged to an undesirable extent. This is probably due to the fact that one of its most conspicuous services consists in the concealment, or the amelioration, of architectural ugliness, and, fortunately, the people most liable to employ it to excess are generally the ones most responsible for bad architecture. Ugly objects are so PROBABLY plants ing clinging "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Climbing Plants on Boston Buildings (1894)","article_sequence":27,"start_page":42,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25288","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eb76f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Baxter, Sylvester","article_content":"42 although it is hardy against cold, it is evidently fastidious and does not grow well in all soils and situations. Most of the plants which have been tried in this country have perished sooner or later, and it is unusual to find either here or in Europe so large, vigorous and healthy a specimen as the one at Dosoris. From the Abbe David's notes we learn that Xanthoceras is a tree fifteen to eighteen feet high, and exceedingly rare in those parts of China and Mongolia which he visited; that it is cultivated in the gardens of Pekin; and that the seeds are eaten by the Chinese. At our request, Mr. Dana has sent us for the benefit of our readers the following note upon his method of cultivating Xanthoceras, which we hope will now become a more common object in our gardens: \"I first saw a plant of Xanthoceras at Baden-Baden on the grounds of Herr Max Leichtlin about the year 1884.I admired it, and Herr Leichtlin spoke of it as a new plant of great promise, which he felt sure would be an acquisition to horticulture. I secured two plants, and have been cultivating them now for eight or ten years. They are six feet high, and grow in rich warm loam. They have no protection whatever, and yet they have never lost a branch m winter, and they endure our dry summers perfectly. They are not strong-growing shrubs, but they bear flowers in great profusion, and are more beautiful when in bloom than at any other season. They ripen seeds every year, and I would be glad to furnish some of them to any one who cares to test the plant.\" \" [Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 284-286] CLIMBING PLANTS ON BOSTON BUILDINGS. nowhere else in this country does the service performed by climbm clothing and adorning the walls of buildings receive and such good illustration as in and around Boston. Ampelopsis tricuspidata [now Parthenocissus tricuspidata] was first domesticated here, and has so long been a striking feature of this city as to gain for it throughout the country the familiar name of \"Boston Ivy.\" This name, however, is seldom heard here, where it is most commonly known as the \"Japanese Ivy\" or the \"Japanese Ampelopsis.\" Ampelopsis tricuspidata had probably been cultivated hereabout for several years before it became particularly noticeable, but its popularity dates back to the Centennial year of 1876. Although for years familiar with all parts of the city and a close observer of such things, I had never noticed this plant until my return in 1877, after an absence of a year or so, when I was at once struck by its prevalence. It did not become remarkably common hereabout until about 1880. Now, however, it is seen everywhere, and is even more prevalent than its cousin, our beautiful native Virginia Creeper. It has become as characteristic of our city and suburban scenes as the White Pine is of our rural New England landscape, and one of our foremost authorities once told me that he regarded it as the greatest horticultural acquisition of the century. Occasionally its use is excessive, but its luxumant habit is seldom encouraged to an undesirable extent. This is probably due to the fact that one of its most conspicuous services consists in the concealment, or the amelioration, of architectural ugliness, and, fortunately, the people most liable to employ it to excess are generally the ones most responsible for bad architecture. Ugly objects are so PROBABLY plants ing clinging 43 generally made graceful and picturesque by the kindly offices of the Japanese Ampelopsis that the instances of its over-liberal use are usually merciful concealments. The Japanese Ivy, or, still better for this particular purpose, the Virginia Creeper [Parthenocissus quinquefoha], could be usefully employed to drape the electric-wire poles, whose gaunt intermmable processions make hideous the highways throughout the country, and convert them, for a large portion of the year, at least, mto objects of beauty, if the necessities of the lmemen, with their climbing-spurs, did not forbid. This might, however, be done with poles that require no climbing, as the posts that support the trolley-wires of the electrrcrailways, particularly along a road that has been adorned with central-lawn spaces, like the boulevards of Beacon Street or Commonwealth Avenue. As a means for the mitigation of bad architecture, the Japanese Ampelopsis on our Museum of Fine Arts [then located on Copley Square] furnishes an mstructive example, though it is not carried far enough. It clambered bravely over the ugly walls of parti-colored terra cotta and brick, and for a while so nearly effaced the unspeakable reliefs of the second story as to give them the charm of indefirestricted the creeper to the first story ... famous for its exuberant, but not in the least Probably buildmg excessive, growth of Ampelopsis is the Old South Meeting-house, where it creeps over an enormous expanse of gray old walls and high up on the tower, relieving the severity of the Puritan architecture with its gentle touch. The suggestion of nature amid the piles of neighboring brick and stone in the heart of the business section of the town does much to heighten the charm of the Old South's garb of greenery. And this leads me to express dissent from only one point in the admirable editorial on the general subject of the use of clinging growths in combination with architecture that appeared in GARDEN AND FOREST a few months ago. The New York Post-office was instanced as one of the buildings where such a growth would not be m place. But to my mind it would be peculiarly appropriate there, for the reason that the architecture of that building is mtensely offensive. If, by any means, an ample growth of Ampelopsis or any other creeping things could only be coaxed to embower a goodly portion of its fa~ades, it would not only mitigate the inartistic character of the edifice, but it would serve to unite it with the remnant of the neighboring City Hall Park, from which its site was unrighteously taken, and in a measure atone for the perpetual affront of its existence ... One of the few redeeming features of our extravagantly praised Public Garden is the growth of Virgima Creeper and Japanese Honeysuckle, that converts the iron fence on the western side into a beautiful hedge, and the Japanese Ampelopsis that covers some of its stone posts. This creeper would perform an inestimable service if it were allowed to clamber at will over the bad sculpture in the Public Garden and the Common. The value of trailing growths for fences is not appreciated in this country as it should be. In Germany the Virgima Creeper is put to simple and effective use for this purpose in urban public grounds. A light, low fence is made of stakes and connecting wires; the Virginia Creeper is tramed up each stake and made to form graceful festoons between. Its employment m some such fashion would do good service on a place like the Cambridge Common, for instance, now a bare, unattractive expanse, having a sort of kinship with the New England rustic burymgniteness. But the trustees have smce the most 44 ground. It is surrounded by a fence composed of unhewn granite posts with squared rails of wood between. Virginia Creeper, Japanese Ampelopsis, and perhaps other twining or climbing plants, might convert this old fence into a thing of beauty. In public parks the requirement for protection of the borders sometimes necessitates guards of wire and stakes along the paths. These are often great disfigurements, and their offensive aspect, in places where they seem to be required permanently, might be at least mitigated by the use of Virginia Creeper after the German fashion ... Boston. Sylvester Baxter and Forest [Garden 7(1894): 432-433] THE FLOATING GARDENS OF MEXICO. famous chinampas, or floating gardens, are a never-ending attraction of of Mexico, and yet little is known to the general reader regarding these curious places. Contrary to the general belief, the so-called floating gardens of the present day do not float. Many years since, however-in fact, before the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards-the name was appropriate, for real floating gardens were then common on the lakes in the Valley of Mexico, especially in the immediate vicinity of the city. But when Humboldt visited Mexico (then called New Spain) in 1803, and Abbe Francesco Clavigero (a missionary among the Indians) a few years later, these peculiar possessions of the Mexicans were rapidly diminishing in number; and in 1826 Captain G. F. Lyon informs us that \"the little gardens constructed on bushes or wooden rafts no longer exist in the immediate vicinity of Mexico (the city); but I learned that some may yet be * seen at Inchimilco.\"* Abbe Francesco Clavigero describes the true floating gardens as follows: \"They plait and twist Willows and roots of many plants, or other materials, together, which are light, but capable of supporting the earth of the garden firmly united. Upon this foundation they lay the light bushes which float on the lake, and over all the mud and dirt which they draw from the bottom of the same lake.\"t i The common form was a quadrangle, and the average size about fifteen by forty feet, although some of the largest were a hundred feet in extent. Many of the latter contained a small hut, in which the cultivator sometimes lmed; one or more trees were also growing in the centre of these largest plots. The earth used was extremely rich, and this being kept in a moist state by its proximity to the water (the elevation above it being not over a foot), the gardens were productive of the choicest vegetables and flowers, including also Maize. The gardens of the present day are very different affairs. They do not float, but, on the contrary, are composed of strips of solid ground, usually about fifteen by thirty feet in extent, although some are larger. These plots are intersected by small canals, through which visitors are propelled in canoes. They are constructed by heaping up the earth about two feet above the water. Willows, and sometimes Poplars or Silver Maples, also a species of Cane, are often grown along THE City the Journal of a Residence and Tour m t History of Mexico, 1807, vol. ii. * the Repubhc of Mexico m 1826, vol. m. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Floating Gardens of Mexico (1895)","article_sequence":28,"start_page":44,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25304","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15eb728.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coe, Charles H.","article_content":"44 ground. It is surrounded by a fence composed of unhewn granite posts with squared rails of wood between. Virginia Creeper, Japanese Ampelopsis, and perhaps other twining or climbing plants, might convert this old fence into a thing of beauty. In public parks the requirement for protection of the borders sometimes necessitates guards of wire and stakes along the paths. These are often great disfigurements, and their offensive aspect, in places where they seem to be required permanently, might be at least mitigated by the use of Virginia Creeper after the German fashion ... Boston. Sylvester Baxter and Forest [Garden 7(1894): 432-433] THE FLOATING GARDENS OF MEXICO. famous chinampas, or floating gardens, are a never-ending attraction of of Mexico, and yet little is known to the general reader regarding these curious places. Contrary to the general belief, the so-called floating gardens of the present day do not float. Many years since, however-in fact, before the conquest of Mexico by the Spaniards-the name was appropriate, for real floating gardens were then common on the lakes in the Valley of Mexico, especially in the immediate vicinity of the city. But when Humboldt visited Mexico (then called New Spain) in 1803, and Abbe Francesco Clavigero (a missionary among the Indians) a few years later, these peculiar possessions of the Mexicans were rapidly diminishing in number; and in 1826 Captain G. F. Lyon informs us that \"the little gardens constructed on bushes or wooden rafts no longer exist in the immediate vicinity of Mexico (the city); but I learned that some may yet be * seen at Inchimilco.\"* Abbe Francesco Clavigero describes the true floating gardens as follows: \"They plait and twist Willows and roots of many plants, or other materials, together, which are light, but capable of supporting the earth of the garden firmly united. Upon this foundation they lay the light bushes which float on the lake, and over all the mud and dirt which they draw from the bottom of the same lake.\"t i The common form was a quadrangle, and the average size about fifteen by forty feet, although some of the largest were a hundred feet in extent. Many of the latter contained a small hut, in which the cultivator sometimes lmed; one or more trees were also growing in the centre of these largest plots. The earth used was extremely rich, and this being kept in a moist state by its proximity to the water (the elevation above it being not over a foot), the gardens were productive of the choicest vegetables and flowers, including also Maize. The gardens of the present day are very different affairs. They do not float, but, on the contrary, are composed of strips of solid ground, usually about fifteen by thirty feet in extent, although some are larger. These plots are intersected by small canals, through which visitors are propelled in canoes. They are constructed by heaping up the earth about two feet above the water. Willows, and sometimes Poplars or Silver Maples, also a species of Cane, are often grown along THE City the Journal of a Residence and Tour m t History of Mexico, 1807, vol. ii. * the Repubhc of Mexico m 1826, vol. m. 45 their banks Mexico are keep them from washmg down. The nearest gardens to the City of along La Viga Canal, a public waterway about forty feet m width and of varying depth. Its source is Lake Texcoco (formerly known as Tezcuco), two to and a half miles west of the city, from whence it flows to a point near the town and then returns by a circuitous route to the lake. The gardens are located where the ground is naturally low or swampy. All produce the choicest vegetables, flowers, and not infrequently fruits, in great abundance, embracing nearly every variety grown m the United States, and others unknown to us. Even m the ditches or httle canals beautiful Water-hlies often line the way, while many of the plots are one mass of van-colored flowers, the most common ones bemg Roses, Pmks, Geraniums, Poppies and Fuchsias. The great variety of shades and the enormous size of many kinds astomsh and delight the visitor from more northern latitudes. The Poppies are more attractive than our finest P~onies; on certain feast days every one wears a wreath made exclusively from these showy flowers. The quick and luxumant growth of the products is mainly due to the daily application of water, which is dipped up m gourds attached to long swinging and pivoted poles, and deftly thrown about. It is needless to say that the cultivator never depends upon ram. Some of the plots are occupied by their owners and their families, who live in charming little houses constructed of cane, and surrounded by all their possessions, often including cows, horses, pigs and chickens. La Viga 46 Canal is almost impassable on Sundays especially, and the same may be said of the beautiful driveways along its tree-lined banks; for Sunday m the City of Mexico is the liveliest and, in many respects, the busiest day of all the week. It is the great market day as well as holiday, and a large number of the craft on La Viga are loaded with produce of every description from the gardens and elsewhere. The visitor to the floating gardens seldom hides his disappointment on discovering that they are stationary, but he never regrets having visited them; indeed, a day spent on the canal and among the chinampas will long be remembered as one of the pleasantest in Mexico. Little is certainly known regarding the ongm of these famous places. Abbe Clavigero says that when the Mexicans were driven from their native country, ages in the past, they were forced to occupy small islands in Lake Texcoco, where \"they ceased for some years to cultivate the land, because they had none, until necessity and industry together taught them to form movable fields and gardens, which floated on the waters of the lake.... These were the first fields which the Mexicans owned after the foundation of Mexico.\" The custom may have originated as above stated, but the following view, founded on a careful examination of some of the oldest works on Mexico, is advanced as the more probable, especially since the Mexicans still retamed and cultivated the watery plots after their independence was again established. For long ages the Valley of Mexico was subjected to devastating inundations. The valley is about sixty miles in diameter, and is surrounded by a contmuous wall of hills and mountams. The waters collected on these flow mto six principal lakes. The plaza mayor, or great square, in the City of Mexico is elevated a few mches only above the nearest lake-Texcoco. In former times, a prolonged rainy season caused the surplus waters in the other lakes-which have an elevation of from three to thirteen feet above the plaza mayor-to burst their banks and flow mto Lake Texcoco, which in turn overflowed and flooded the valley. In June, 1629, the date of the last great flood, the city was covered with water to a depth of three feet, and it remained in that state for five years. The regular fields were, of course, ruined whenever a freshet traversed the valley, and necessity finally compelled the people to depend upon floating gardens for a supply of produce at all seasons, and to prevent a famine. These were moored in places where the rise and fall of the lake waters would not affect them. During the period when floods were looked for at any time, these floating patches were very common, but when the city and valley were partially protected by a gigantic canal in 1789 (commenced in 1607*~, by which the main overflow was carried off in safety, they gradually disappeared, until at the present time nothing but the pretty name and stationary plots surrounded by water remains to perpetuate an ancient custom. Washmgton, D.C. [Garden and Forest 8 (1895): 432-433]] * The Charles H. Coe dramage canal, commenced by the Aztecs, has been greatly improved and only recently finished by the Mexican Valley Drainage and Canal Company, so that all surplus water and the sewage of the city is now completely carried off. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from Garden and Forest","article_sequence":29,"start_page":47,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25297","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd15ea36b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"lre 47 NOTES. It is orchard stated that Mr Ruskin maintains a Cherrysolely for the benefit of the birds on his estate. [5 \/1891\/:3G] Forty-six Japanese gardeners are now employed, it said, in California, where it appears that the taste for Japanese fruit and ornamental trees has greatly increased. [2 (1889) : 180] The last English census enumerated about 5,000 women who are professional gardeners in that country, and six who are employed in superintending the drainage of towns. [7 (1894) :10] The health officer of San Francisco recently examined eight samples of fruit jellies bought in the open market, and not one of them proved to be made of sound ripe fruit. Several apple jellies were colored, while one in tin contained turnip pulp, colored with aniline dye to represent strawberry ~elly. [9 (1896): 290] is California experiment station, where he can accomphsh infinitely more than he could do in Washington, under the demoralizing political influences which beset the Department of Agnculture [2 (1889): 180] A woman in Brooklyn who visited the grave of a deceased relative in Cypress Hills Cemetery, some months ago, alleges that she was poisoned by Rhus Toxicodendron [poison my] which had been allowed to grow m her lot. She has sued the cemetery association for $10,000 damages on account of the suffenngs which she has since endured. This gives rise to some very interesting questions as to the responsibilities of corporations who control cemetenes. [8 (1895): 430] [In 1897 the plaintiff was awarded damages in the amount of $3,400.-Ed.] The latest atrocity in the way of \"fashionable\" floral arrangements is a muff composed of flowers, for the use of bndesmaids at weddings. People seem slow to learn that there is a nght way and a wrong way to use natural flowers, and that all ways are wrong that force them to simulate the form of some article of dress or ornament. [2 (1889\/~ 180] It has been suggested that instead of the present plan of distribution of free seeds by the Government that the Department of Agriculture should issue legal-tender notes which Congressmen could distribute among their constituents, so that each one could purchase the particular kind of seeds or flowers or shrubs or trees he needed. Why not? [10 (1897): 190] the Southern Stockman says to test the Melon, the thumb-nail should be drawn over it so as to scrape off the thin green skm. If the edges of the skin on each side of the scar are left ragged and granulated, and the nnd under the scar is smooth, firm, white and glossy, the melon is npe If the edges of the scar are smooth and even and the nail plows into the nnd m places and the skm does not come off clean, then the melon is green Two melons, one known to be ripe and the other green, should be taken and this test practiced on them until the difference is plainly observed. A writer ripeness of in a Water [5 (1892): 600] The French Government has made Professor C V. Riley Chevalier of the Legion of Honor as a deserved compliment for his effective studies in economical entomology His researches have not only been of advantage to the farmers and fruit-growers of the United States, but he discovered that the phylloxera was an Amencan insect, and identical with the pest which had proved so disastrous to French vineyards. He also introduced into France the spraying-nozzle which bears his name, and which, with certain modifications, is used m that country to counteract the mildew of the vme. [2 (1889): 444] a beauty its At this season, wherever any planting is done for or for use, a little ground should be set apart for the children in every home. The possession and cultivation of a miniature garden will do much to cultivate hab- of observation, turn the attention to the mystenes and beauties of plant-hfe and develop a taste which will be a fruitful source of pleasure in after hfe [7 (1894) : 140] A correspondent inquires how much land it would require to furnish strawbernes enough to supply an average-sized family. We should say that such a family At the late Chrysanthemum show in Philadelphia, Mr. W. K. Harris exhibited a plant upon which twenty distinct varieties had been grafted and all were in bloom at the same time. This suggests a new line of work, inas- much ment might have in an average year all the fresh berries needed dunng their season, besides a few for canning, if five or six rows of plants a hundred feet long were set out and cultivated with rather more interest at plants would be objects of great popular exhibitions, if a proper selection and arrangeof colors were made. It may be questioned, howas such than average care. [7 (1894): 330] The people of California are to be congratulated upon Professor Hrlgard's decision to refuse the position of Assistant Commissioner of Agriculture, offered to him by the President, and to remain the Director of the ever, whether a plant beanng several different kinds of flowers possesses any value except as a curiosity. Whether some varieties of feeble growth would be improved if grafted on a more robust stock can be ascer- tained by expenment. [1 \/1888)~ 480] The early settlers of New Jersey were not slow to discover the peculiar value and uses of the cranbernes 48 which grow in the swampy sections of the Pines. Mahlon Stacy, writing from West Jersey in Apnl, 1680, to his brother in Yorkshire, says that from \"May till Michaelmas we have great store of very good wild fruit, as strawberries and hurtelbernes, which are hke our bilberries in England, but far sweeter, and very wholesome,\" and he adds: \"the cranberries are much like chernes for color and bigness, and may be kept till fruit comes in again. An excellent sauce is made of them for venison, turkeys and other great fowl. They are better to make tarts than either goosebernes or chermes. We have them brought to our houses in great plenty by the Indians.\" [7 ( 1894\/: 430] We are sorry to learn that Mr. C. M. Atkmson, one of the best all-round gardeners that Amenca has seen, has been obliged, through physical infirmity, to retire from the charge, which he has held for nearly thirty years, of the gardens and estate of Mr. John L. Gardner, of Brookline, Massachusetts. This place has long been known to lovers of horticulture for its well-grown fruits and flowers, and especially for many of those oldfashioned hard wood greenhouse-plants which are so sadly neglected in most gardens of the present day, and which Mr. Atkinson grew to perfection. His skill, however, was not limited to any single field, and he was equally successful with Azaleas, Japanese Irrses, Roses, Orchids, Violets, and all sorts of greenhouse and hardy diluted. Oil of pineapples, on the other hand, is best made by the action of putrid cheese on sugar, or by distilling rancid butter with alcohol and oil of mtmol. This oil is largely used for making pmeapple ale. Many a fair forehead used to be damped with 'Eau de Millefleurs' without knowing that its essential ingredient was got from the drammgs of cow-houses, though now it can be obtained cheaper from one of the constituents of gas-tar [5 \/ 1891540] Christmas gifts supphed by florists this year consisted almost entirely of boxes of cut flowers, violets and roses being the favontes. Large, deep-colored Mane Louise violets, their long stems allowmg of loose, graceful arrangement, sold for as much as five dollars a hundred. Roses cost from three dollars to eighteen dollars a dozen, an extra quality of Amencan Beauty commanding the outside price of three dollars each. Lilacs at twenty-five cents to fifty cents a spray, tulips at one cent each, and stevia at fifty cents for a small bunch, were specialties of the holiday season. Carnations were plentiful and cheap; some well-cultivated specimens of William Scott, measuring two and a half inches across, brought the extreme price of two dollars a dozen. The Orchid season is now fairly begun, and cut blooms of Cattleya at nine dollars a dozen, and Cypmpedmm insigne at four dollars a dozen, were in good supply. Fruited plants of Ardisia crenulata and the Otaheite orange were in some demand, and specimen plants of Cyclamens and of Chinese Primroses in ornamental baskets found considerable favor. But the most beautiful and the most costly were luxuriantly flowered plants of Heath, their foliage almost hidden under the myriad of tiny bells, and a few extra early pink and white Azaleas. [8 (1895) : 10] and Mr. Wilhelm Miller have issued another bulletin on the Chrysanthemum which contains much that is of interest to florists and flower lovers generally. Mr. Miller's chapter entitled \"Chrysanthemums at Home\" is certainly worth publishing under the Nixon Act, and perhaps the horticultural knowledge which can be disseminated by investigations and publications of this character justify the use of the costly machinery of the expenment station in this particular direction. The question is whether it could not be used to better advantage elsewhere. But since the bulletin is published primarily for educational purposes, we must express our regret at the use of such a barbansm as \"mum\" for Chrysanthemum. A subject which is of sufficient importance to be discussed in a bulletin from a university ought to command the use of dignified and plants. [8 (1895):301 Professor [L. H.] Bailey scholarly language. [10 (1897) : 270] In an interesting article, called \"Waste Products Made Useful,\" published in the North Amencan Remew for November, Lord Playfair says: \"As to perfumes, there are some which are really oils, and others extracted from flowers. There are others which are made artificially, and cumously, most frequently, out of bad-smelling compounds. The fusel-oll, separated out in the distillation of sprrits, has a peculiarly nasty and sickening odor. It is used, after treatment with acids and oxidizing agents, to make the oil of apples and the oil of pears. Oil of grapes and oil of cognac are little more than fusel-oil largely With the present issue, which completes the tenth volume, the publication of GARDEN AND FOREST ends. For ten years the experiment has been tned of pubhshing a weekly journal devoted to horticulture and forestry, absolutely free from all trade influences, and as good as it has been possible for us to make it. This expenment, which has cost a large amount of time and money has shown conclusively that there are not persons enough in the United States interested in the subjects which have been presented in the columns of GARDEN AND FOREST to make a journal of its class and character self-supporting. It is useless to expend more time and money on a publication which cannot be made financially successful, and must, therefore, sooner or later cease to exist. Mr. J. H. Griffith, Room 106, Tribune Building, New York, is authorized to receive money due to the Company, and may to attend to any other business matters which anse in winding up its affairs. FOREST PUBLISHING CO. GARDEN AND [10 \/1897\/: 518] "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23322","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0608927.jpg","title":"2000-60-3","volume":60,"issue_number":3,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Preface","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25279","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ea328.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"I PRACTICAL. POPULAR. SCIENTIFICALLY EXACT. Preface Much of my time and attention during the year has been devoted to the establishment of a weekly publication intended to extend and popularize the knowledge of trees and their cultmatron, and of gardening and garden-botany. There existed no journal or periodical bulletm, published m this country, in which the results of the expenments carried on in the Arboretum, and the mass of facts about plants could be printed promptly and regularly, so that they could reach the large number of students now interested in this subject. The first issue of GARDEN AND FOREST appeared on the 29th of February, and there is already reason to believe that this journal will aid materially m increasing the educational value of the Arboretum and m extending its influence. -Charles S. Sargent, 1888 Report the University to all who ! love gardens or the literature of gardens ; to all who own country places or take pleasure in rural scenery; to all who desire INDISPENSABLE broader to of trees, shrubs, fruits and flowers. GARDEN AND FOREST stands for the protection of our forests, for the preservation of natural beauty, for a purer taste in the design and decoration of public and private grounds, and is universally pronounced the best horticultural journal ever published for Ameria knowledge the President of his issue of Arnoldia and the next are devoted cans. For the enlightened owners of gardens and woodlands this journal is invaluable. New York Tribune. publication, Garden and Forest, A journal of Horticulture, Landscape Art and Forestry (1888-1897). Founded and \"conducted\" by the Arnold Arboretum's first director, C. S. Sargent, funded by him and by the same Boston Brahmins who had underwritten the Arboretum, and published and edited in New York, it was not officially an Arboretum publication. Nonetheless, true to Sargent's intent, its that 512 issues comprise a trove of information on the Arboretum's plant collections. But Sargent's ambitions for the journal extended much farther than the Arboretum, encompassing the entire plant world and 1 stretching even to the welfare of the nation. An 1891 called it \"indispensable not only to the practical flyer Horticulturist, Botanist, Landscape-Gardener and Forester, but to every owner of a Country or Suburban Home who desires sound instruction in all branches of ornamental and economic planting.\" It continued: to week articles be laid out to the best advantage; how lawns should be made and kept; what trees and shrubs are effective for decoration and suited to the diverse climates of the American Contment, and how these should be planted and cared for. It endeavors, by instruction or suggestion, and by constant reference to pertinent principles of good taste, to aid those who desire to beautify their homes It aims also at arousing intelligent interest in the care and management of public places, such as Parks, School-grounds, Cemetenes, etc , and at furthenng the efforts made for the improvement of highways and the beautifying of roadsides. The department devoted to to character is at once dignified and and its contents are scholarly and scientific in the exact sense.-Chicago Evening Its pleasing, Journal. It continues on its high level-its highest level, for it has no peer. It appeals, as mere literature, to every cultivated person, and is full of information for the lover of Flowers and Trees.-N. Y. Evening Post. The foremost journal of its class, keeping in touch with every advance in the scientific, artistic and practical phases of hortim lture and arboriculture.-Bostou Herald. GARDEN AND FOREST contams from week can showing how grounds Published i weekly. $4.0o a year. on Specimen copy free application. I I I GARDEN AND FOREST PUBLISHING CO,, Tribune BuildiaQ, New York. What Ad~ertisers Say. treats of preservation and management of our forests, subjects of vital and urgent importance to the nation's welfare. Forestry GARDEN AND FOREST is alone in this field. not mention As indicative of the value of GARDEN FOREST as a medium of business announcement, attention is tnvited to the following extracts from recent letters of seme regular adverh'sers : AND that its weekly seven-to-eleven pages also broached agronomy, entomology, and pathology, reviewed books and recent periodicals, listed exhibitions and expositions, and even covered the retail flower market. What was once said about Sargent himself can be said about his magazine: nothing connected with plants was alien to it. We are devoting this issue and the next to Garden and Forest because the Library of Congress, working with horticultural archivist Sheila Connor, has put the entire contents of Garden and Forest online With all that, the recital does Evergreen, Wis. in GARDEN AND FOREST last year cost me seventy-five cents for each customer mentioning GARDEN AND FOREST ; the average of most of the leading agricultural papers was ninety cents. GEORGE PINNEY. My advertising Germantown, Phila. We have always found GARDEN AND FOREST one of the best advertising mediWe consider that, ums for our business. in the interest of gardening, GARDEN AND FOREST should have every encourageTHOS. MEEHAN & SONS. ment. iS John Street, New York. http:\/\/lcweb.loc.gov\/preserv\/prd\/gardfor\/ digitizegf.html~-the first effort in its \"digital reformatting program,\" a new method of making fragile publications available to a wide readership. To enhance the online text, our director, Robert E. Cook, has solicited essays on its coverage of botany, forestry and forest conservation, landscape art, and horticulture, and archivist Joseph Melanson is approaching the halfway mark in his compilation of a detailed and cumulative subject index that will greatly improve access to We take reason our to be satisfied with the result of pleasure in saying that we have advertising in GARDEN AND FOREST. JAS. M. THORBURN & CO. ~ Bordentown, N. J. I should consider it a misfortune to be left out of the advertising columns of GARDEN AND FOREST. I consider it the best of the horticultural journals which I patronize. EDMUND D. STURTEVANT. ~ its contents. The primary subjects of this issue of Arnoldia are botany and forestry as covered in Garden and Forest. Essays discussing the significance and influence of that coverage are accompanied by excerpts from the magazine. These are followed by an essay on the role of its editor, the little known, often forgotten William Stiles. Landscape art and horticulture will be the subjects of the next issue's essays, by Ethan Carr and Mac Griswold, also accompanied by several excerpts. The story of the Library of Congress' digitization projectthe magazine's \"journey into cyberspace\"-will be related by project manager LeeEllen Friedland. A word of explanation may be helpful: excerpts from Garden and Forest are printed on a tinted background, and brackets indicate editorial interpolations. Garden and Forest is a journal of tremendous historical interest, but also of surprising relevance to contemporary issues. We hope this brief immersion in a century-old magazine proves as absorbing to read as it was to edit. Cambrid~e, Mass. in GARDEN AND FOREST a medium most valuable to our trade, reaching a circle of high class purchasers, and in consequence assuring the most satisfactory results. We have invariably found SHADY HILL NURSERY CO., E. L. Ba.mtn, Pres't. United States Nurseries, Short Hllls, N. J. GARDEN AND FOREST reaches the very classes interested in horticulture,which are always likely buyers. W. A. MANDA. Reading Nursery, Reading, Mass. We would state that GARDEN AND FOREST has proved the most advantageous medium to us in direct paying results of any that we have used. Our repetition of our yearly contract, we believe, would indicate our opinion of the paper. JACOB W. MANNING. Specimen copy free on application. GARDEN AND FOREST PUBLISHING CO, Tribune Bulldia~, l~lw York. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Garden and Forest (February 29, 1888) 1: ii","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25274","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd1708128.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"II GARDEN AND FOREST: AN ILLUSTRATED WEEKLY . JOURNAL OF HORTICULTURE, LANDSCAPE ART AND FORESTRY. GARDEN AND FOREST will be devoted to Horticulture in all its branches, Garden Botany, Dendrology and Landscape Gardening, and will discuss Plant Diseases and Insects injurious to vegetation. Professor C. S. SARGENT, of Harvard College, will have editorial control of GARDEN AND FOREST. Professor WM. G. FARLOW, of Harvard College, will have editorial charge of the Department of Cryp- togamic Botany and Plant Diseases. Professor A. S. PACKARD, of Brown University, will have editorial charge of the Department of Entomology. Mr. WM. A. STILES will be the Managing Editor. GARDEN AND FOREST will record all noteworthy discoveries and all progress in science and practice within its field at home and abroad. It will place scientific information clearly and simply before the public, and make available for the instruction of all persons interested m garden plants the conclusions reached by the most trustworthy investigators. Arrangements have been made to figure and describe new and little-known plants (especially North American) of horticultural promise. A department will be devoted to the history and description of ornamental trees and shrubs. New florists' flowers, fruits and vegetables will be made known, and experienced gardeners will describe practical methods of cultivation. GARDEN AND FOREST will report the proceedings of the principal Horticultural Societies of the United States and the condition of the horticultural trade in the chief commercial centres of the country. GARDEN AND FOREST, m view of the growing taste for rural life, and of the multiplication of country residences in all parts of the United States, especially in the vicinity of the cities and of the larger towns, will make a special feature of discussing the planning and planting of private gardens and grounds, small and large, and will endeavor to assist all who desire to make their home surroundmgs attractive and artistic. It will be a medium of instruction for all persons mterested in preserving and developing the beauty of natural scenery. It will co-operate with Village Improvement Societies and every other organized effort to secure the proper ordering and maintenance of parks and squares, cemeteries, railroad stations, school grounds and roadsides. It will treat of Landscape Gardemng in all its phases; reviewing its history and discussing its connection with architecture. GARDEN AND FOREST will give special attention to scientific and practical Forestry in their various departments, including Forest Conservation and economic Tree Plantmg, and to all the important questions which grow out of the intimate relation of the forests of the country to its climate, soil, water supply and matenal development. Original information on all these subjects will be furnished by numerous American and Foreign correspondents. Among those who have promised contributions to GARDEN AND FOREST are: Mr. SERENO WATSON, Curator of the Herbarium, Harvard \" College. College. _ Prof. GEO. L. GOODALE, Harvard \" WOLCOTT GIBBS, \" WM. H. BREWER, Yale College. \" D. G. EATON, \" WM. J. BEAL, Agricultural College of Michigan. \" L. H. BAILEY, JR., \"J. L. BUDD, Agricultural College of Iowa. \" B. D. HALSTED, \" F. W. HILGARD, Umversity of California. \" WM. TRELEASE, Shaw School of Botany, St. Louis. T. J. BURRILL, University of Illmois. W. W. BAILEY, Brown University. E. A. POPENOE, Agricultural College, Kansas. RAPHAEL PUMPELLY, United States Geological \"J. T. ROTHROCK, University of Pennsylvama. CHAS. E. BESSEY, University of Nebraska. \" Survey. JAMES H. GARDINER, Director New York State Survey. \" WM. R. LAZENBY, Director of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Stauon. \" W. W. TRACY, Detroit, Mich. \" C. V RILEY, Washington, D.C. Mr. DONALD G. MITCHELL, New Haven, Conn. 5 FRANK J. SCOTT, Toledo, 0 Hon. ADOLPHE LEUE, Secretary of the Ohio Forestry Bureau. \" B. G NORTHROP, Cllnton, Conn. Mr. G. W. HoTCHxlss, Secretary of the Lumber Manufacturers' Association. Dr. C. L ANDERSON, Santa Cruz, Cal. Mr. FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED, Brookline, Mass. FRANCIS PARKMAN, Boston. Dr C. C. PARRY, San Francisco. Mr. PROSPER J. BERCKMANS, President of the Amencan \" \" The Rev. E. P. RoE, Cornwall, N.Y. Dr. C. C. ABBOTT, Trenton, N. J. Mrs. SCHUYLER VAN RENSSELAER, New York. \" MARY TREAT, Vmeland, N.J. Dr. KARL MOHR, Mobile, Ala. Hon.J B. WALKER, Forest Commissioner of New Hampshire. Mr. WM. HAMILTON GIBSON, Brooklyn, N.Y. \" EDGAR T. ENSIGN, Forest Commissioner of Colorado \" E. S. CARMAN, Editor of the Rural New Yorker. \" WM. M CANBY, Wilmmgton, Del. \" JoHN ROBINSON, Salem, Mass. \"J. D. LYMAN, Exeter, N.H. \" SAMUEL PARSONS, JR., Superintendent of Central Park, N.Y. \" WM. McMILLAN, Superintendent of Parks, Buffalo, \" \" Pomological Society. \" CHARLES A DANA, New York. BURNET LANDRETH, Philadelphia. \" ROBERT RIDCEwAY, Washmgton, D.C. \" CALVERT VAUx, New York. \"J. B. HARRISON, Franklm Falls, N. H. Dr. HENRY P. WALCOTT, President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Mr. C. G. PRINGLE, Charlotte, Vt. ROBERT DOUGLAS, Waukegan, Ill \" H W. S. CLEVELAND, Minneapolis, Mmn \" CHAS. W. GARFIELD, Secretary of the Amencan \" \" SYLVESTER BAXTER, Boston. CHARLES ELIOT, Boston. Pomological Society. \" C. R. ORCUTT, San Diego, Cal. \" B. E. FERNOW, Chief of the Forestry Division, Washington, D.C. \" JoHN THORPE, Secretary of the New York Hortlcultural Society. \" EDWIN LONSDALE, Secretary of the Philadelphia Horticultural Society. \" ROBERT CRAIG, President of the Philadelphia Flonsts' Club. \" SAMUEL B. PARSONS, FlllSlllrig, N.Y. GEORGE ELLWANGER, Rochester. \" P. H. BARRY, Rochester. \" W. J. STEWART, Boston, Mass. \" W. A. MANDA, Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, Mass. \" DAVID ALLAN, Mount Vernon, Mass. \" WM RoBINSON, North Easton, Mass. \" A. H. FEWKES, Newton Highlands, Mass. \" F. GOLDRING, Kenwood, N.Y. \" C. M. ATKINSON, Brookline, Mass. \" JOHN BIRKENBINE, Secretary of the Pennsylvania Forestry Association \" JosIAx HooPES, Westchester, Pa. PETER HENDERSON, New York. \" WM. FALCONER, Glen Cove, N.Y \" JACxsoN DAwsON, Jamaica Plain, Mass. \" WM H HALL, State Engineer, Sacramento, Cal \" C. C. CROZIER, Department of Agriculture, \" Washmgton, Dr. MAXWELL T. D.C. I~ MASTERS, Editor of the Gardener's M. CHARLES NnuDiN, Director of the Gardens of the Chromcle Mr. GEO. NICHOLSON, Curator of the Royal Gardens, Kew. \" W. B. HEMSLEY, Herbarium, Royal Gardens, Kew. \" WM. GOLDRING, London. Mr. MAX LEICHTLIN, Baden Baden. M. EDOUARD ANDRE, Editor of the Revue Horucole, Pans, France. Dr G. M. DAWSON, Geological Survey of Canada. Villa Thuret, Antibes. Dr. CHAS. BOLLE, Berlin. M. J. ALLARD, Angers, Maine & Loire, France. Dr. H MAYR, University of Tokio, Japan. Prof. D. F. PENHALLOw, Director of the Botanical Gardens, Montreal. Mr. WM. \" Prof. JOHN MACOUN, \" SAUNDERS, Director of the Agricultural Experiment Starion, Ontarto. WM. LITTLE, Montreal Single numbers, 10 cents. Subscription price, Four Dollars a year, in advance. THE GARDEN AND FOREST PUBLISHING CO., TRIBUNE BUILDING, NEW YORK D. A. MUNRO, Manager LIMITED, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Garden and Forest: The Botanical Basis of It All","article_sequence":3,"start_page":7,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25275","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170816d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Garden and Forest: The Botanical Basis of It All Stephen A. Spongberg 1888, the weekly n February 29, and Forest, A periGarden t Journal odical Art and inaugurated. Rather oddly, the outlining the purpose of the new publication, along with an extensive list of future contributors, was relegated to a page in the advertising section that preceded the main text. It was evident, however, that the journal had been inspired by similar publications in England, including the long-running Journal of Forestry, was of Horticulture, Landscape prepare the Report of the Forests of North America (Exclusive of Mexico) for the Tenth Census of the United States1880)-an important stepping stone in his career. Equally impor- statement Horticulture, Cottage Gardener, and Country Gentleman's Companion. In particular, its forand content mirrored m many respects that of The Gardener's Chromcle, which had begun mat publication in 1841. Somewhat oddly, the first article to appear in Garden and Forest was an obituary. Asa Gray, the preeminent Harvard botanist, had died a month earlier on January 30. The obituary summarized briefly the long and extremely distinguished career that had earned for Gray (and for American botany along with him) the respect of the international scientific commumty. American botany was no longer the exclusive domain of Europeans; American scientists, under Gray's leadership, had established their own scientific traditions. It was through his studies of the American flora, particularly his comparisons of Japanese plants to their close relatives in North America, that Gray had achieved mternational recogmtion. These observations, demonstrating the close similarity between the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia, had lent credibility to his defense of Darwin's writings and played a crucial role in the development of botany and of its sub-discipline, phytogeography. But it should not surprise us that Charles Sprague Sargent began the first issue of Garden and Forest with a glowing tribute to Asa Gray for Sargent had been Gray's protege, and it was thanks to him that Sargent had been asked to tant, Gray had nominated and campaigned for Sargent to be named the founding director of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University and, simultaneously, the director of the Harvard Botanic Garden, positions Sargent had accepted in 1872. As a consequence of these positions and of his natural talents and interests, Sargent had become an accomplished botanist and administrator and had established strong relationships with botanists worldwide; and following in Gray's footsteps, he would add significantly to botanical scholarship during his fifty-five year tenure at the Arnold Arboretum. Sargent had discussed with Gray his intention to found Garden and Forest and had looked forward to his mentor's continuing advice and his contributions to the periodical. It was clearly obvious that Garden and Forest was to be a botanical publication: a cursory glance at the mdices published for each volume shows the dominance of plant names (in botanical Latm form). Sargent realized that it was a knowledge of botany that was to inform the development of all the other disciplines he intended the journal to foster: horticulture, landscape art, and forestry. In the first issue Max Leichtlin, a German botanist and horticulturist, wrote about \"New Plants from Afghanistan,\" and George L. Goodale, first director of Harvard's Botanical Museum, reviewed a key to the forest trees of Kansas and the latest edition of Asa Gray's Elements of Botany. Other contributors included the noted field botanist Cyrus Guernsey Pnngle and William Trelease, first director of the Missouri Botamcal Garden, who co-authored a column entitled \"Plant Notes.\" In the April 4 issue of the same year an editorial entitled \"The Study of Botany by ' 8 many new plants discovered by the Arboretum's agents, many of which were introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum. One of the most significant series of botanical articles to appear in Garden and Forest resulted from Sargent's 1892 sojourn which in Japan, the Arnold Arboretum's mission to explore the floras of eastern Asia. Entitled \"Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan,\" this series first appeared on January 18, 1893, and concluded in the December 27 issue of the same year. In 1894, the publishing firm of Houghton, Mifflin and Company collected these articles in one volume entitled Forest Flora of Japan, one of Sargent's most enduring publications, and of special interest as the first treatise in English on the then little-known trees of Japan. In these essays Sargent built on the pioneering work of his mentor Asa Gray by elaboratmg on the close relationShortia galacifolia (Oconee bells), drawn by C E. Faxon. In the ships of the floras of eastern Asia and first volume of Garden and Forest, C. S. Sargent wrote that \"of all eastern North America. the plants studied and descmbed and classified by Asa Gray, this Closer to home, the pages of Garlittle herb most excited his mterest. \" Sargent's story of the loss den and Forest provided news about in volume 1, pages 506-507. and rediscovery of the plant appears botanical discoveries and advances m North America. New genera and species were Horticulturists\" stressed the importance of a described in its pages, such as the malvaceous strong basis in botanical knowledge for any Asa Gray's successor at the herhorticulturist; genus Robinsonella, mitially with two species barium in Cambridge, Sereno Watson, contrib(R. cordata and R. divergens) from Mexico, and articles on regional floras were commonplace. uted a column entitled \"New or Little Known Plants: Rosa minutifolia;\" and William G. Among the latter were Carl Purdy's \"The Flora of the California Coast Range,\" which appeared Farlow, another of Gray's appointees at Harvard, in three parts between May and June of 1896, wrote on nitrogen fixation by plants in his and E. N. Plank's extensive \"Botanical Notes article, \"Tubercles on Leguminous Roots.\" Each issue also provided references to the curfrom Texas,\" which appeared in twenty-five segrent botanical and horticultural literature in a ments between January 1893 and May of 1895. section on \"Recent Plant Portraits.\" In the May Specific plant groups were also featured in another regular column made articles that recounted the taxon's discovery 2, 1888, number, its first appearance: \"Notes from the Arnold and naming, its native habitat, range, and ecolArboretum.\" This feature was of special imporogy, as well as its usefulness in cultivation. tance to Sargent, and the first contribution was Sargent's \"Notes on Cultivated Conifers,\" authored by his assistant at the Arboretum, appeared in thirteen issues of volume ten; Michael S. Bebb contributed a five-part series John George Jack. Over the succeeding ten years entitled \"Notes on Some Arborescent Willows this column would document the development of the Arboretum, focusing particularly on the of North America\" between September and inaugurated \" 9 Androgynous Flower-clusters,\" which ran in June of 1895. In fact, the scope of the articles that were published in Garden and Forest spanned the entire corpus of botanical science as it was known in the late nineteenth century. NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN PLANTS. ROSA MINUTIFOLIA. UR wild Roses have an ill reputation among botamsts the uncertainty which often attends the determination of their species. But there are some, fortunately, about which there can be no doubt, and we have given the figure of O for which carries its distinctive characteristics obtrusively the front and cannot be mistaken. Not only is there no other American Rose like it, but it stands alone in the genus ... It has been found only on the peninsula of Lower California, near All Saints (Todos Santos) Bay, about 40 miles south of San Diego, where it was discovered in 1882, forming low, dense thickets upon the dry hillsides bordering the shore.... Evidently the flower in its wild state cannot be commended as well suited to the flomst's needs, but from its habit of growth the plant may well prove a decided ornament to the lawn and garden in our more southern States, where it would doubtless be hardy. one to this literature comremarkable trove of informaprises tion that is not found elsewhere in botanical literature and that in many ways remains relevant even today, as well as of great historical value. On December 29, 1897, the five hundred and fourteenth issue of Garden and Forest included an announcement that it was to be the magazine's last. This last issue brought the total number of pages published during Garden and Forest's ten-year life to an impressive five thousand six hundred and sixty-eight! The reason for termination was financial: \"This experiment has shown conclusively that there are not persons enough in the United States interested in the subjects which have been presented in the columns of Garden and Forest to make a journal of its class and character self-supporting.\" This was a sorry commentary on the dearth of interest among the wider American population Taken together a ... in issues concerning botany, forestry, conservation, and landscape design. Since the demise of Garden and no [Garden and Forest 2 (1888): 103. S[ereno] W(atson). J. Engraving by C. E. Faxon] Forest, attempt has been made to re-institute the kind of interdisciplinary dialogue it had provided for a December of 1895; and of nature a more practical R. H. Price wrote on the \"Classification of Varieties of Peaches\" in January of 1897. The list of botanical themes goes on: biographical sketches of famous botanists of the past, including one in the May 1894 issue on Stephen Elliott (for whom the rare genus Elliottia had been named); an esoteric five-part series by W. R. Gerard on \"Plant Names of Indian Origin,\" which appeared in June and July of 1896; and even features as technically challenging as John George Jack's \"Some Unusual brief ten years. The several profesdisciplines it addressed have evolved and diverged, becoming more and more distinct and isolated from one another. Even today a journal similar to Garden and Forest might face financial difficulties, but many would welcome a new vehicle for exchanging information and ideas among all the professions that are fundamentally plant-based. sional Hill Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg is Execurive Director of The Polly m West Tisbury, Massachusetts, and Curator Ementus of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New or Little Known Plants: Rosa Minutifolia (1888)","article_sequence":4,"start_page":9,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25277","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170856b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"9 Androgynous Flower-clusters,\" which ran in June of 1895. In fact, the scope of the articles that were published in Garden and Forest spanned the entire corpus of botanical science as it was known in the late nineteenth century. NEW OR LITTLE KNOWN PLANTS. ROSA MINUTIFOLIA. UR wild Roses have an ill reputation among botamsts the uncertainty which often attends the determination of their species. But there are some, fortunately, about which there can be no doubt, and we have given the figure of O for which carries its distinctive characteristics obtrusively the front and cannot be mistaken. Not only is there no other American Rose like it, but it stands alone in the genus ... It has been found only on the peninsula of Lower California, near All Saints (Todos Santos) Bay, about 40 miles south of San Diego, where it was discovered in 1882, forming low, dense thickets upon the dry hillsides bordering the shore.... Evidently the flower in its wild state cannot be commended as well suited to the flomst's needs, but from its habit of growth the plant may well prove a decided ornament to the lawn and garden in our more southern States, where it would doubtless be hardy. one to this literature comremarkable trove of informaprises tion that is not found elsewhere in botanical literature and that in many ways remains relevant even today, as well as of great historical value. On December 29, 1897, the five hundred and fourteenth issue of Garden and Forest included an announcement that it was to be the magazine's last. This last issue brought the total number of pages published during Garden and Forest's ten-year life to an impressive five thousand six hundred and sixty-eight! The reason for termination was financial: \"This experiment has shown conclusively that there are not persons enough in the United States interested in the subjects which have been presented in the columns of Garden and Forest to make a journal of its class and character self-supporting.\" This was a sorry commentary on the dearth of interest among the wider American population Taken together a ... in issues concerning botany, forestry, conservation, and landscape design. Since the demise of Garden and no [Garden and Forest 2 (1888): 103. S[ereno] W(atson). J. Engraving by C. E. Faxon] Forest, attempt has been made to re-institute the kind of interdisciplinary dialogue it had provided for a December of 1895; and of nature a more practical R. H. Price wrote on the \"Classification of Varieties of Peaches\" in January of 1897. The list of botanical themes goes on: biographical sketches of famous botanists of the past, including one in the May 1894 issue on Stephen Elliott (for whom the rare genus Elliottia had been named); an esoteric five-part series by W. R. Gerard on \"Plant Names of Indian Origin,\" which appeared in June and July of 1896; and even features as technically challenging as John George Jack's \"Some Unusual brief ten years. The several profesdisciplines it addressed have evolved and diverged, becoming more and more distinct and isolated from one another. Even today a journal similar to Garden and Forest might face financial difficulties, but many would welcome a new vehicle for exchanging information and ideas among all the professions that are fundamentally plant-based. sional Hill Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg is Execurive Director of The Polly m West Tisbury, Massachusetts, and Curator Ementus of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Interesting Rediscovery (1891)","article_sequence":5,"start_page":10,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25265","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170a76d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"10 AN INTERESTING REDISCOVERY. South Carolina, sends us fresh flowers of herself on Paris Mountain, probably in the very spot where this plant was last seen growing wild by any botanist. This was in the year 1810, when John Fraser, a Scotch collector, paid a visit to Pans Mountain and gathered seeds or roots of this plant and sent them to England. From the descendants of these plants of Fraser's kept m gardens has been preserved the knowledge of this beautiful species. Last year a figure and description of Lonicera flava [yellow honeysuckle] were published in this journal (vol. iii., 187, f. 187), and the interest this excited m what appeared to be a \"lost plant\" led our correspondent to investigate Paris Mountam, a low outlying spur of the Blue Ridge which rises from the plain close to Greenville. Her search was successful, and on the 17th of April Mrs. Smyth found Lonicera flava illustrated for Garden and Forest the Honeysuckle in flower, and now sends by C. E. Faxon. us specimens with this note: MLonicera flava, Greenville, RS. J. SMYTH,gathered by G. of The plants were found, and this was the only place, on the north side of the mountam, a hundred and fifty or two hundred feet from the top or highest pomt of the mountain, which is 2,054 feet above the level of the sea. The Lomcera was growmg in a very rocky place, about fifteen or twenty feet square, a place which looked, except for the many and large rocks scattered over it, as if it might have been a cleared spot All around and about it the ongmal foliage of the forest had never been disturbed, tall Oaks, and Chestnuts, and the thick undergrowth of Azaleas and Rhododendrons formmg a dense shade. The soil is rich and black from the long accumulation of leaf-mold, damp and rich, and Just such a soil as the Rhododendron grows and thrives in. The stems are not more than two feet high, but I thought would have grown longer if there had been any support for them to cling to and run on. The roots send out long runners, and these send up shoots from every little pomt, so that m trying to get a root one might pull up yards and yards before it would break. Lonicera flava is one of the rarest of American plants, and although it has been known from the very begmnmg of the century, there is apparently no evidence that it grows anywhere except in this one spot on Paris Mountain. Mrs. Smyth's most interesting discovery removes another from the now short list of plants known to our early botamsts, but unknown to their successors. Now that Darbya, Shortia and Lonicera flava have been found again, Gordonia Altamaha [now Franklinia alatamaha] and Illicium parviflorum [now I. floridanum, anise tree] are the only prizes left among species known to have existed to reward the botanical collector in the south Atlantic states. It is a curious fact that both of these plants, like Lonicera flava, have been preserved in gardens for nearly a century, although all recent efforts to find them in their native haunts have failed. [Garden and Forest 4 ( 1891253-254] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan.- II [Floras of Japan and Eastern America Compared] (1893)","article_sequence":6,"start_page":11,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25268","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170af6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"11 I from NOTES ON THE FOREST FLORA OF in JAPAN-II. Japan have often insisted on the resemblance between and eastern America in the general features of vegetation. country But with the exception of Yezo, which is still mostly uninhabited and in a state of nature, and those portions of the other islands which are above 3,000 feet over the level of the ocean, it is difficult to form a sufficiently accurate idea of the general appearance of the original forest-covering of Japan to be able to compare the aspects of its vegetation with those of any other country, for every foot of the lowlands and the mountain valleys of the three southern islands have been cultivated for centuries. And the foothills and low mountains which were once clothed with forests, and might be again, are now covered with coarse herbage (principally Eulalia) and are destitute of trees, except such as have sprung up in sheltered ravines and have succeeded in escaping the fires which are set every year to burn off the dry grasses. Remoteness, bad roads, and the impossibility of bringing down their timber into the valleys have saved the mountain forests of Japan, and these may still be seen, especially between 5,000 and 8,000 feet over the level of the sea, in their natural condition. But these elevated forests are composed of comparatively few species, and if it were not for the plantations of Comfers, which the Japanese for at least twelve centuries, it is said, have been making to supply their workers in wood with matenal, and for the trees preserved or planted in the temple grounds in the neighborhood of towns, it would be impossible to obtain any idea at all of many of the Japanese trees. But, fortunately, the priests of Buddha have planted and replanted trees for a thousand years about their temples, which are often surrounded by what now appear to be natural woods, as no tree is ever cut and no attempt is made to clear up the undergrowth. These groves are sometimes of considerable extent and contain noble trees, Japanese and Chinese, which give some idea of what the inhabitants of the forests of Japan were before the land was cleared for agriculture. The floras of Japan and eastern America have, it is true, some curious features in common, and the presence in the two regions of certain types not found elsewhere, show their relationship. But such plants are usually small, and for the most part rare or confined to the high mountains. Diphylleia, Buckleya, Epigaea and Shortia show the common origin of the two floras; but these are rare plants in Japan as they are in Amenca, with the exception of Epigaea [trailing arbutus], and probably not one traveler in ten thousand has ever seen them, while the chief elements of the forest flora of northern Japan, the only part of the empire where, as has already been said, comparison is possible-those which all travelers notice-do not recall America so much, perhaps, as they do Siberia and Europe. The broad-leaved Black Oaks, which form the most distinct and conspicuous feature in all the forests of eastern America, are entirely absent from Japan, and the deciduous-leaved White Oaks, which, in Japan, form a large part of the forest-growth of the north, are of the European and not of the American type, with the exception of Quercus dentata, which has no RAVELERS that 12 ~\/ ' related species in America. The Chestnut Oaks, which are common and conspicuous, both in the northern and southern parts of eastern America, do not occur in Japan, and the Evergreen Oaks, which abound in the southern part of that empire, where they are more common than any other group of trees, are Asiatic and not American in their relationships.... The illustration gives some idea of the general appearance of the great coniferous forests which cover the highlands of central Japan. In the foreground, Lake Yumoto, famous for its thermal springs, nestles 5,000 feet above the sea among the Nikko Mountains. The forests which rise from the shores of the lake are principally comprised of Hemlock (Tsuga diversifolia), among which are Birch (Betula Ermanni), Abies and Picea, Pterocarya, Cercidiphyllum and the Mountain Ash [Sorbus]. In the dense shade by the shores of the lake grow dwarf forms of the Indian Azalea, Elliottia paniculata, our Canadian Bunch Berry (Cornus Canadensis), great masses of Rhododendron Metternichii, which in these forests replaces Rhododendron Catawbiense of the Appalachian Mountains, the dwarf Ilex rugosa, Clethra, here at the upper limits of its distribution, Panax horrida [devil's club], and the dwarf Blueberries which inhabit mountain slopes in all northern countries, as well as the ubiquitous Bamboos. 13 The forests of the two regions possess in common Magnolia and Aesculus [horse-chestnuts], which are more abundant in species and individuals in America than in Japan. The Rhuses, or Sumachs, are very similar in the two regions, and so are the Witch-hazel and the arborescent Aralia. Cornus macrophylla [now C. controversa] of Japan is only an enlarged Cornus alternifolia [pagoda dogwood] of eastern Amenca, and the so-called Flowering Dogwoods of the two countries are very much alike. The Japanese Walnut is very like the American Butternut, while, rather curiously, the Japanese Thuja [red cedar] and the two Chamaecyparis, the Piceas [spruce] and Abies [fir], resemble species of Pacific North America, a region whose flora has little affinity with that of eastern Asia. Torreya is common to the two regions; in America it is one of the most local of all our trees, while in Japan it is abundant in the mountainous regions of the central and southern parts of the empire. Apart from the characters which distinguish related genera and species of Japanese trees from their American congeners there are many aspects of vegetation which make the two countries unlike. The number of broadleaved evergreen trees is much greater m southern Japan than it is in the southern United States, there bemg fifty species of these trees in the former, and only twenty in eastern America (exclusive always of southern Florida), and the general aspect of the groves and woods at the sea-level, even in the latitude of Tokyo, is of broad-leaved evergreens. The number of evergreen shrubs in proportion to the entire flora is much greater in Japan, too, than it is m America, and plants of this character grow much further north m the former than m the latter country. The small number of species of Pinus m Japan, and their scarcity at the north, is in striking contrast to the number and distribution of this genus in eastern America, where there are thirteen species, to only five in Japan (including one shrub). In Japan the Hemlock forms continuous and almost unbroken forests of great extent on the mountam-slopes, which are over 5,000 feet above the sea, while in eastern America this tree is rarely found except scattered in small groves or as single individuals through the deciduous-leaved forests.... The wild Grape grows m the damp forests of Yezo with a vigor and to a size which the American species do not attain, even in the semi-tropical climate of the southern Mississippi valley. Actimdia arguta climbs into the tops of the tallest trees, and nothing is so un-American or so attracts the attention of the American traveler in Japan as the trunks of trees clothed to the height of sixty or eighty feet with splendid masses of the climbing Hydrangeas (H. petiolaris and Schizophragma), or with the lustrous evergreen foliage of the climbing Evonymus. Wistaria is represented, it is true, in eastern America, but here it is nowhere very common or one of the chief features of vegetation as it is in Japan; and the Ivy, a southern plant only in Japan, and not very common, helps to remind the traveler that he is in the Old and not in the New World. C. S. S(argentJ [Garden and Forest 6(1893): 38-39] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from The Knees of the Bald Cypress (1890) Letters to the Editor","article_sequence":7,"start_page":14,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25271","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170b726.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lamborn, Robert H.","article_content":"14 THE KNEES OF THE BALD CYPRESS: A NEW THEORY OF THEIR FUNCTION. To the Editor of GARDEN AND FOREST: Sir.-From time to time, during and since my first visit to our southern tier of states in 1876, I have examined, sketched and photographed the roots of the Deciduous Cypress-the Taxodmm distichum of Richard. I was attracted to the tree because of the singular beauty of its form and foliage and by the unusual boldness with which it raises its great, gray, smooth column, sometimes over a hundred feet, perpendicularly, above and upon what an engineer would pronounce a most dangerous foundation-loose submerged sand, the saturated morass or the soft alluvium of low river marglns. But notwithstanding this seeming insecurity, I have never found a healthy Cypress that had fallen before the fierce hurricanes that sweep through the southern forest-lands. The surprising and characteristic temerity of the tree is accompanied by another striking pecuharity-it almost invariably, in soft soils, throws upward from the upper surface of its roots conspicuous protuberances that are known as \"Cypress knees.\" These seemingly abnormal growths have attracted much attention, and for more than half a century have furnished an enigma to the solution of which scientific travelers have addressed themselves.... In 1887 I had the good fortune to find a number of Cypress-trees under such unusual conditions that their aforetime subterranean anatomy could be studied without obstruction, and I reached a conclusion respecting the use to the tree of the protuberances ... Some recent publications on the subject, by widely and favorably known authors, have, however, ascribed to the Cypress-knees the sole function of aerating the sap of the parent tree, and this idea bids fair to become embedded in botanical literature.... Stretches of the shore of Lake Monroe, ln central Florida, are closely set with large Cypress-trees. They grow in various kinds of bottom-clay, mud and sand. Those of which I shall here speak stood in sand so loose that when the level of the water was lowered the waves readily washed it away and carried it into the depths of the lake. Some vertical feet of the root-system was thus finely exposed. After several days spent in examining a score or more large trees that had been thus denuded I became convinced that the most important function of the Cypress knee is to stiffen and strengthen the root, in order that a great tree may anchor itself safely in a yielding material.... The accompanying picture is from a photograph that I made in 1887 of the lower portion of a tree that rises some seventy feet above the shore line of Lake Monroe. The original surface of the sand was near the level of the higher roots. The picture shows the manner in which this peculiar species throws out horizontal roots from its conical (usually hollow) buttressed base. At different distances from this conical base these horizontal roots project strong branches more or less perpendicularly into the earth. Where such perpendicular \"flukes\" branch from the main horizontal \"shank,\" it will be seen, there is formed a large knob, which is the \"knee\" under discussion. This knee, when fully developed, is generally hollow, comparatively soft, gnarled, and very difficult to rupture, so that it has the quality of a spring that becomes more rigid as it is extended or compressed out of its normal shape. When in a hurncane the great tree rocks back and forth \" , 15 s Denuded on roots of the Bald Cypress, showing knees and underground structure. its base, and with its immense leverage pulls upon this odd shaped wooden anchor mstead of straightening out m the soft material as an ordinary root might, thus allowing the tree to lean over and add its weight to the destructive force of the storm, it grips the sand as the bower-anchor would do, and resists every motion. The elasticity at the point of junction allows one after another of the perpendicular flukes attached to the same shank to come mto effective action, so that before being drawn from the sand or ruptured the combined flukes present an enormous resistance.... Finally, I may perhaps be permitted to add an observation regarding the roots of other trees that trench upon the same soils affected by the Cypress and often take advantage of the anchors it sets so boldly in treacherous bottoms. These trees project their cable-like, flexible roots in every direction horizontally, interlacing continually until a fabric is woven on the surface of the soft earth like the tangled web of a gigantic basket.... Such communities of trees, provided with ordmary roots, advance against and overcome enemies where singly they would perish in the conflict. The cyclone, the loose sand, the morass-these are the enemies they contend with, as it were, in unbroken phalanx, shoulder to shoulder, their shields locked, their spears bristling against the foe; but the graceful plumed Cypress, the knight-errant of the sylvan host, beanng with him his trusty anchor-the emblem of Hope-goes forth alone and defiant, afar from his fellows, scorning the methods of his vassals, and plantmg himself boldly amid a waste of waters, where no other tree dare venture, stands, age after age, erect, isolated, but ever ready to do battle with the elements. Twenty centuries of driving ram and 16 snow and fierce hurricane beat upon his towering form, and yet he stands there, the stern, gray and solitary sentinel of the morass, clinging to the quaking earth with the grasp of Hercules, to whom men were building temples when his war- denship began. New York, Jan. 2d. [Garden and Forest 3 (1890): 21-22] Robert H. Lamborn THE KNEES OF THE BALD CYPRESS. To the Editor of GARDEN AND FOREST: Sir.-I have read the mteresting essay of Dr. Lamborn in your issue for January 8th with great pleasure. My own observations on the knees of the Cypress do not reconcilable with Dr. Lamborn's hypothesis. The objections which raise to it are as follows: they lst. The trees on the sandy uplands need the assumed support quite as much, if not more, than those which grow on the neighboring loam-often clayey-of the inundated bottoms, yet these upland forms always lack the excrescences. 2d. While a slight upward growing protuberance would doubtless strengthen the root, the tall column exhibited by many knees would have no value in this seem to me regard. 3d. The summits of the knees normally attain a height which brings them above the level of the water in the growing season; when they cannot attain this elevation the tree fails to develop. When, by the subsidence of the land at an earthquake, or the artificial flooding of the area by dams, the crests of the knees are brought under permanent water, the condition is fatal to the plant. 4th. The fact that the Cypress-knees serve as respiratory organs is made the more probable by the existence of sharp upward flexures of the roots of the Tupelo (see \"Effect of permanent moisture on certain forest trees\" in Science (xiii., 176; March, 1889). These flexures, as there shown, are horseshoe-shaped curves of the whole root, which, like the Cypress-knees, rise above the level of permanent water. On the Tupelo these structures are clearly of no advantage as anchors. Dr. Wilson and others have shown that similar structures exist in many plants. I was aware that roots extended downward from the base of the Cypress-knees, but it seemed to me that the position of these roots was to be attributed to disturbance in the circulation and growth, brought about by the development of the knees rather than that the knees gave rise to the vertical roots. Although I cannot at present agree with Dr. Lamborn in his main view, his paper seems to me a very important contribution to a discussion which promises to throw much light on the laws of plant development. Harvard University. N. S. Shaler and Forest 3 (1890): 57 [Garden Editor's note: It appears that both correspondents were incorrect. C. A. Brown and G. N. Montz wrote in Baldcypress: The Tree Unique, The Wood Eternal (1986): \"The concept that baldcypress knees are pneumatophores has not been accepted experimentally, but the knees have been shown to conduct respiration. The height of knees cannot, in all cases, be correlated to the average high water levels. Only knees attached to low, conical trees may be used to determine the 17 7 height of floodwaters in a given swamp. Knees, when present, may aid in strengthening of the basal support, but they apparently do not function as anchoraverage ing devices for the studies into trees since those without knees are wind-resistant. Knee formation is considered to be a response to the aero-hydropenod. Based upon all to date, we conclude that storage of starch (which can be converted back glucose as needed) is the major function of baldcypress knees.\"] THE TUPELO TREE. forests of eastern America contain few trees more interesting to the or of greater ornamental value than the Tupelo, Pepperidge, Sour Gum or Water Gum, as one of the American representatives of the small genus Nyssa is popularly called in different parts of the country. This genus was so named by Linnxus for a water nymph, because the species known to him, mhabitants of our far southern states, grow usually m shallow ponds or deep swamps overflowed for a considerable part of each year. Its nearest American relatives are the Cornels [dogwoods], from which Nyssa differs principally in its five instead of four-parted flowers, which are rarely perfect, but produce their male and female organs separately, while the flowers of the Cornels are perfect, and, in its alternate leaves, the leaves of our Cornels being opposite except in the case of a botanist HE single species. The distribution of the genus is exceptional and interesting. Three species, or four, according to the opinion of some excellent observers, inhabit different parts of eastern North America from Mame to Texas.... This is not the place, and it is not our intention, to discuss at this time the limits of the different American species, which have puzzled botanists ever since they have known them, the confusion begmnmg with Linnaeus himself, who included two very distinct species under his original description. It is our purpose merely to call attention to one of the species still little known or appreciated by planters as an ornamental tree. This is the Nyssa which is generally distributed through all the eastern portions of the United States south of the southern part of the state of Maine and central Michigan. Nyssa aquatica appears to be the correct botanical name for this tree, although it is only m the extreme south that it grows m water. [The specific N. aquatica is now used only for that southern population and N. sylvatica for the more northerly and abundant populations.] Near the coast of the northern states it always grows by the borders of swamps m low, moist ground; and in the interior, especially on the lower slopes of the high Allegheny Mountains, where it attains its greatest size, it is found at considerable distances from the water-courses and associated with the Oaks, Magnolias, Hemlocks, Hickories and Ashes which form the principal part of the forest-growth. Here the Tupelo grows sometimes to a height of considerably more than a hundred feet, with a tall, stout trunk three or four feet m diameter, and short slender branches, contracted in their development by its neighbors in the forest. Near the coast it is always a much smaller tree, especially in the southern states, and it is rare to find it more than fifty feet high except m the mountain forests or m those of the lower Ohio valley-a region of exceptional and extraordinary tree-growth.... The Tupelo was introduced into England in 1808 by John Lyon, an English plant-collector who traveled widely in North America early m the century. It was doubtless sent earlier to France, as it is hardly possible that Michaux could have "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from The Tupelo Tree (1890)","article_sequence":8,"start_page":17,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25273","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170bb6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Garden and Forest","article_content":"17 7 height of floodwaters in a given swamp. Knees, when present, may aid in strengthening of the basal support, but they apparently do not function as anchoraverage ing devices for the studies into trees since those without knees are wind-resistant. Knee formation is considered to be a response to the aero-hydropenod. Based upon all to date, we conclude that storage of starch (which can be converted back glucose as needed) is the major function of baldcypress knees.\"] THE TUPELO TREE. forests of eastern America contain few trees more interesting to the or of greater ornamental value than the Tupelo, Pepperidge, Sour Gum or Water Gum, as one of the American representatives of the small genus Nyssa is popularly called in different parts of the country. This genus was so named by Linnxus for a water nymph, because the species known to him, mhabitants of our far southern states, grow usually m shallow ponds or deep swamps overflowed for a considerable part of each year. Its nearest American relatives are the Cornels [dogwoods], from which Nyssa differs principally in its five instead of four-parted flowers, which are rarely perfect, but produce their male and female organs separately, while the flowers of the Cornels are perfect, and, in its alternate leaves, the leaves of our Cornels being opposite except in the case of a botanist HE single species. The distribution of the genus is exceptional and interesting. Three species, or four, according to the opinion of some excellent observers, inhabit different parts of eastern North America from Mame to Texas.... This is not the place, and it is not our intention, to discuss at this time the limits of the different American species, which have puzzled botanists ever since they have known them, the confusion begmnmg with Linnaeus himself, who included two very distinct species under his original description. It is our purpose merely to call attention to one of the species still little known or appreciated by planters as an ornamental tree. This is the Nyssa which is generally distributed through all the eastern portions of the United States south of the southern part of the state of Maine and central Michigan. Nyssa aquatica appears to be the correct botanical name for this tree, although it is only m the extreme south that it grows m water. [The specific N. aquatica is now used only for that southern population and N. sylvatica for the more northerly and abundant populations.] Near the coast of the northern states it always grows by the borders of swamps m low, moist ground; and in the interior, especially on the lower slopes of the high Allegheny Mountains, where it attains its greatest size, it is found at considerable distances from the water-courses and associated with the Oaks, Magnolias, Hemlocks, Hickories and Ashes which form the principal part of the forest-growth. Here the Tupelo grows sometimes to a height of considerably more than a hundred feet, with a tall, stout trunk three or four feet m diameter, and short slender branches, contracted in their development by its neighbors in the forest. Near the coast it is always a much smaller tree, especially in the southern states, and it is rare to find it more than fifty feet high except m the mountain forests or m those of the lower Ohio valley-a region of exceptional and extraordinary tree-growth.... The Tupelo was introduced into England in 1808 by John Lyon, an English plant-collector who traveled widely in North America early m the century. It was doubtless sent earlier to France, as it is hardly possible that Michaux could have 18 The value of the Tupelo as an ornamental tree is shown in our illustration representing a group of these trees growing naturally near a small pond in the town of West Medford, Massachusetts, and made from one of the excellent tree portraits for which we are indebted to Mr. Henry Brooks. failed to mtroduce such a distinct and beautiful tree into the plantations of his native land. Whether this is true or not it is certain that no American tree is now more rarely seen in Europe, and a really fine specimen outside of America is not easily recalled.... The roots are remarkably stout and long, with few rootlets, so that the trees are never easy to move unless they have been grown in the nursery and specially prepared for transplanting. It is easily raised from seed, however, the seedlings are easily transplanted, and if they are set while still young where the trees are to grow permanently, no difficulty will be experienced with them. Even large plants dug up in the swamps can be successfully moved if extraordinary care is taken in the operation, but for the ordinary cultivator it is best to depend on small, nursery-grown plants when they can be obtained. The Tupelo should be more often seen in ornamental plantations than it is at present. The habit of this tree when allowed sufficient room in which to grow is striking and interesting and quite unlike that assumed by any other of our hardy trees. The foliage is abundant and lustrous, and in the autumn it assumes a brilliancy and splendor of coloring unmvaled by that of our other trees. It is one of those trees which always attract attention-in the winter by its peculiar habit, in summer by the beauty of its foliage and in autumn by its coloring.... [Garden and Forest 3 (1890): 485-486] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A High-Grade Paper: Garden and Forest and Nineteenth-Century American Forestry","article_sequence":9,"start_page":19,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25262","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160896b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller, Char","article_content":"A High-Grade Paper: Garden and Forest and Nineteenth- Century American Forestry Char Miller Sutton made tephanne B. in her 1970 claims biogragrand A SLAUGHTERED GIANT. illustration shows a Sequoia gigantea with chopat work inside the cleft cutting their way through the trunk. This is not a tree of the first size, being less than twenty-five feet in diameter and about twenty at the point where it was cut. In point of beauty and symmetry it was one of the best of the surviving Big Trees. It stood until a year ago in the Tule River forest, Tulare County, California, and was sold by the private owner of the land to certain persons who wished to exhibit it. The plan was to take a section of the trunk, hollow it out to a shell and then divide it into convenient and portable pieces, so that it could be carried about and set up as a show. The project fell through, however, for lack of funds, and the section of the slaughtered tree never got beyond Visalia, in the county where it stood. It is now stored in that city. Let us hope that the original owner of the tree and its destroyers may some day realize that it will never again make such an exhibition of grandeur and grace as it did while towering above the spot where it began life as a seedling a thousand years ago. OUR pers of Charles S. Sargent for Garden and Forest, the weekly horticultural magazine he published between 1888 and 1897. While acknowledging that it was a \"first-rate publication,\" deftly edited by the talented journalist William A. Stiles, and conceding that it was \"an immediate success,\" she also contrasted the effusive praise it received with its lack of \"popularity\"; the plaudits may have been \"gratifying,\" but a larger circulation would have eased the journal's incessant \"financial crisis.\" Small in number, its readers included \"people who worked with plants-foresters, nurserymen, phy no botanists, landscape others whose opinions mattered\" in scientific and political arenas. By its coverage of matters botanical, the \"magazine did its small part to raise the horticulturist from designers, and amateur to professional standing\"; its [Garden and Forest (1890) 3: 570] words, \"when quoted m a politician's speech or in the column of a popular I newspaper ... carried authority.\"' Yet neither small circulation nor brief existence diminishes the magazine's historical significance: it was arguably the most important latenineteenth-century forum for discussing the role of science in human affairs. Those who wrote about horti- 20. culture or landscape design or forestry from just reporting on the latest discoveries in their respective fields, but were also participating in a larger cultural debate about the appropriate role of expertise in scientific research and in shaping public policy. This debate had profound national consequences, eventually broadening the responsibilities of the federal government and influencing the intellectual contours of modern America. Contributors to Garden and Forest, for example, used the journal to boldly propose a new agenda for political action in the United States. Nowhere was this more evident than in the magazine's advocacy of the emerging science of forestry, of which Sargent was a staunch supporter. Editorials calling for the preservation of the nation's forested estate and editor Stiles' aggressive solicitation of articles by foresters who shared these sympathies established Garden and Forest as the voice of those who sought closer federal supervision of public woodlands. This demand was a tough sell, as its staff and writers recognized: Americans had little interest in federal land management, and no taste at all for the regulation of resource exploitation were not THE AXE IN ITS RELATION TO ORNAMENTAL TREES. is a curious fact that Americans, who have destroyed more trees wastefully and foolishly than the people of any other country, and have stood and seen their forests, the envy of the rest of the world, swept away with hardly a voice raised in protest, are more unwilling than other people to use the axe in cases where the cutting of trees is really essential. A hundred square miles of forest may be swept by fire from some mountain range through the carelessness of an idle hunter, a mountain stream may be ruined, and the fertility of a smiling valley threatened. It is all taken as a matter of IT by a powerful bureaucracy, especially during a period when the Industrial Revolution was consuming vast quantities of timber. To change public opinion, they ten on as one of those unfortunate occurwhich the community is powerless to prevent. The forests of the national domain are robbed of their timber, and the public is satisfied with the simple acknowledgment of the general government that it has not the power or authority to protect its own property against the organized bands of plunderers who have been preying on it for a quarter of a century or longer. This indifference to trees when they are composing elements of the forest is a marked feature in American character, and is all the more marked from its contrast with our feelings about trees individually, especially trees which we have planted ourselves or have seen planted. When a tree is cut in one of the parks of this city there is a protest raised against the so-called barbarity of the act by a hundred voices which are silent about the destruction of the Adirondack forests. The protest in the one case is as much the result of ignorance and indifference as the silence in the other; and it is as necessary to use the axe, if the beauty and value of ornamental plantations are to be maintained, as it is to save the forests on the headwaters of important streams.... course, and is looked rences [Editorial. Garden and Forest 3 est (1890): 545] would have to disseminate counterarguments, a task that Garden and Forest supported with evident enthusiasm. In its volumes, the journal published an astonish- ing number of articles related to forestry-more than 450; together, they helped educate a populace that hitherto was ignorant about this science and its social significance. Europeans, by contrast, knew a lot about the subject, benefitting from political cultureseither monarchical or republican-that assumed considerable power over public and private property: they had long experimented with for- management and had developed professional schools to promote research and educate forest managers. Americans who worried about the rapid disappearance of their forests were encouraged to study European models, first by George Perkins Marsh's pathbreaking Man and Nature: The Earth as Modified by Human Action ( 1864), and later by Garden and Forest. In looking eastward, they resembled reformers in other fields who over the next seventy years would participate in a vibrant transatlantic exchange of ideas; these Americans-whether concerned about urban social services or devastated landscapes- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Slaughtered Giant (1890)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":19,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25266","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170ab26.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller, Char","article_content":"A High-Grade Paper: Garden and Forest and Nineteenth- Century American Forestry Char Miller Sutton made tephanne B. in her 1970 claims biogragrand A SLAUGHTERED GIANT. illustration shows a Sequoia gigantea with chopat work inside the cleft cutting their way through the trunk. This is not a tree of the first size, being less than twenty-five feet in diameter and about twenty at the point where it was cut. In point of beauty and symmetry it was one of the best of the surviving Big Trees. It stood until a year ago in the Tule River forest, Tulare County, California, and was sold by the private owner of the land to certain persons who wished to exhibit it. The plan was to take a section of the trunk, hollow it out to a shell and then divide it into convenient and portable pieces, so that it could be carried about and set up as a show. The project fell through, however, for lack of funds, and the section of the slaughtered tree never got beyond Visalia, in the county where it stood. It is now stored in that city. Let us hope that the original owner of the tree and its destroyers may some day realize that it will never again make such an exhibition of grandeur and grace as it did while towering above the spot where it began life as a seedling a thousand years ago. OUR pers of Charles S. Sargent for Garden and Forest, the weekly horticultural magazine he published between 1888 and 1897. While acknowledging that it was a \"first-rate publication,\" deftly edited by the talented journalist William A. Stiles, and conceding that it was \"an immediate success,\" she also contrasted the effusive praise it received with its lack of \"popularity\"; the plaudits may have been \"gratifying,\" but a larger circulation would have eased the journal's incessant \"financial crisis.\" Small in number, its readers included \"people who worked with plants-foresters, nurserymen, phy no botanists, landscape others whose opinions mattered\" in scientific and political arenas. By its coverage of matters botanical, the \"magazine did its small part to raise the horticulturist from designers, and amateur to professional standing\"; its [Garden and Forest (1890) 3: 570] words, \"when quoted m a politician's speech or in the column of a popular I newspaper ... carried authority.\"' Yet neither small circulation nor brief existence diminishes the magazine's historical significance: it was arguably the most important latenineteenth-century forum for discussing the role of science in human affairs. Those who wrote about horti- 20. culture or landscape design or forestry from just reporting on the latest discoveries in their respective fields, but were also participating in a larger cultural debate about the appropriate role of expertise in scientific research and in shaping public policy. This debate had profound national consequences, eventually broadening the responsibilities of the federal government and influencing the intellectual contours of modern America. Contributors to Garden and Forest, for example, used the journal to boldly propose a new agenda for political action in the United States. Nowhere was this more evident than in the magazine's advocacy of the emerging science of forestry, of which Sargent was a staunch supporter. Editorials calling for the preservation of the nation's forested estate and editor Stiles' aggressive solicitation of articles by foresters who shared these sympathies established Garden and Forest as the voice of those who sought closer federal supervision of public woodlands. This demand was a tough sell, as its staff and writers recognized: Americans had little interest in federal land management, and no taste at all for the regulation of resource exploitation were not THE AXE IN ITS RELATION TO ORNAMENTAL TREES. is a curious fact that Americans, who have destroyed more trees wastefully and foolishly than the people of any other country, and have stood and seen their forests, the envy of the rest of the world, swept away with hardly a voice raised in protest, are more unwilling than other people to use the axe in cases where the cutting of trees is really essential. A hundred square miles of forest may be swept by fire from some mountain range through the carelessness of an idle hunter, a mountain stream may be ruined, and the fertility of a smiling valley threatened. It is all taken as a matter of IT by a powerful bureaucracy, especially during a period when the Industrial Revolution was consuming vast quantities of timber. To change public opinion, they ten on as one of those unfortunate occurwhich the community is powerless to prevent. The forests of the national domain are robbed of their timber, and the public is satisfied with the simple acknowledgment of the general government that it has not the power or authority to protect its own property against the organized bands of plunderers who have been preying on it for a quarter of a century or longer. This indifference to trees when they are composing elements of the forest is a marked feature in American character, and is all the more marked from its contrast with our feelings about trees individually, especially trees which we have planted ourselves or have seen planted. When a tree is cut in one of the parks of this city there is a protest raised against the so-called barbarity of the act by a hundred voices which are silent about the destruction of the Adirondack forests. The protest in the one case is as much the result of ignorance and indifference as the silence in the other; and it is as necessary to use the axe, if the beauty and value of ornamental plantations are to be maintained, as it is to save the forests on the headwaters of important streams.... course, and is looked rences [Editorial. Garden and Forest 3 est (1890): 545] would have to disseminate counterarguments, a task that Garden and Forest supported with evident enthusiasm. In its volumes, the journal published an astonish- ing number of articles related to forestry-more than 450; together, they helped educate a populace that hitherto was ignorant about this science and its social significance. Europeans, by contrast, knew a lot about the subject, benefitting from political cultureseither monarchical or republican-that assumed considerable power over public and private property: they had long experimented with for- management and had developed professional schools to promote research and educate forest managers. Americans who worried about the rapid disappearance of their forests were encouraged to study European models, first by George Perkins Marsh's pathbreaking Man and Nature: The Earth as Modified by Human Action ( 1864), and later by Garden and Forest. In looking eastward, they resembled reformers in other fields who over the next seventy years would participate in a vibrant transatlantic exchange of ideas; these Americans-whether concerned about urban social services or devastated landscapes- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from The Axe in its Relation to Ornamental Trees (1890) Editorial","article_sequence":11,"start_page":20,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25270","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170b36d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Miller, Char","article_content":"20. culture or landscape design or forestry from just reporting on the latest discoveries in their respective fields, but were also participating in a larger cultural debate about the appropriate role of expertise in scientific research and in shaping public policy. This debate had profound national consequences, eventually broadening the responsibilities of the federal government and influencing the intellectual contours of modern America. Contributors to Garden and Forest, for example, used the journal to boldly propose a new agenda for political action in the United States. Nowhere was this more evident than in the magazine's advocacy of the emerging science of forestry, of which Sargent was a staunch supporter. Editorials calling for the preservation of the nation's forested estate and editor Stiles' aggressive solicitation of articles by foresters who shared these sympathies established Garden and Forest as the voice of those who sought closer federal supervision of public woodlands. This demand was a tough sell, as its staff and writers recognized: Americans had little interest in federal land management, and no taste at all for the regulation of resource exploitation were not THE AXE IN ITS RELATION TO ORNAMENTAL TREES. is a curious fact that Americans, who have destroyed more trees wastefully and foolishly than the people of any other country, and have stood and seen their forests, the envy of the rest of the world, swept away with hardly a voice raised in protest, are more unwilling than other people to use the axe in cases where the cutting of trees is really essential. A hundred square miles of forest may be swept by fire from some mountain range through the carelessness of an idle hunter, a mountain stream may be ruined, and the fertility of a smiling valley threatened. It is all taken as a matter of IT by a powerful bureaucracy, especially during a period when the Industrial Revolution was consuming vast quantities of timber. To change public opinion, they ten on as one of those unfortunate occurwhich the community is powerless to prevent. The forests of the national domain are robbed of their timber, and the public is satisfied with the simple acknowledgment of the general government that it has not the power or authority to protect its own property against the organized bands of plunderers who have been preying on it for a quarter of a century or longer. This indifference to trees when they are composing elements of the forest is a marked feature in American character, and is all the more marked from its contrast with our feelings about trees individually, especially trees which we have planted ourselves or have seen planted. When a tree is cut in one of the parks of this city there is a protest raised against the so-called barbarity of the act by a hundred voices which are silent about the destruction of the Adirondack forests. The protest in the one case is as much the result of ignorance and indifference as the silence in the other; and it is as necessary to use the axe, if the beauty and value of ornamental plantations are to be maintained, as it is to save the forests on the headwaters of important streams.... course, and is looked rences [Editorial. Garden and Forest 3 est (1890): 545] would have to disseminate counterarguments, a task that Garden and Forest supported with evident enthusiasm. In its volumes, the journal published an astonish- ing number of articles related to forestry-more than 450; together, they helped educate a populace that hitherto was ignorant about this science and its social significance. Europeans, by contrast, knew a lot about the subject, benefitting from political cultureseither monarchical or republican-that assumed considerable power over public and private property: they had long experimented with for- management and had developed professional schools to promote research and educate forest managers. Americans who worried about the rapid disappearance of their forests were encouraged to study European models, first by George Perkins Marsh's pathbreaking Man and Nature: The Earth as Modified by Human Action ( 1864), and later by Garden and Forest. In looking eastward, they resembled reformers in other fields who over the next seventy years would participate in a vibrant transatlantic exchange of ideas; these Americans-whether concerned about urban social services or devastated landscapes- 21 readily accepted European prescriptions for resolving social ills through governmental intervention.z Almost every number of Garden and Forest, for example, included news from abroad. One squib that editor Stiles inserted announced that a Societe des Sylviculteurs de France et des Colonies had been formed \"for the purpose of diffusing the knowledge of silviculture and mcreasing the popular interest in this art.\" Why bother with such a minor event in France? Because the new orgamzation's ambitions mirrored those of the American magazine's patrons and other readers. Stiles also made space for lengthy reviews of books that described the latest European advances in forestry science and devoted many columns to enthusiastic firsthand accounts of tours of forests in Russia and Italy, England, Germany, and France. Priority was given, however, to learned assessments of the transferability of the European experience to the New World. One of those who so argued was Gifford Pinchot, who while studying at L'Ecole nationale forestiere in Nancy, France, wrote a series of articles on European forestry for Garden and Forest. In one that compared various governmental forestry systems in Europe, he pointed out that the \"principles which underlie not only German, but all rational forest-management, are true all the world over,\" Gifford Pinchot observed, \"but the methods into which the same principles have developed are as widely dissimilar as the countries in which they are being applied.\" That being the case, there was one European country that \"may best claim our attention\"-Switzerland. Its \"history of forestry ... is of peculiar interest to the people of the United States,\" he suggested, \"because in its beginnings may be traced many of the characteristics of the situation here and now, and because the Swiss, like the Americans, were confronted by the problem of a concrete forest-policy extending over the various states of a common union.\"3 Other authors reached similar conclusions, and like Pmchot exemplified the opportunities inherent in crosscultural fertilization: Carl A. Schenck, a German-born and -trained forester who managed George Vanderbilt's vast forests at Biltmore, North Carolina, also established the first American forestry school there in 1898; that same year Bernard Fernow, his countryman, became the first head of Cornell's School of Forestry after serving as the third chief of the U.S. Bureau of Forestry from 1886 to 1898. Pinchot, along with his family, underwrote the Yale School of Forestry in 1900. Throughout their careers as foresters and educators, each man was sensitive to the difficulty of importing cultural institutions, 22 . but each knew that the development of forest management in America would ini- tially depend on Euro- L\"~T I V ~ L., I'~L~ L ~ PLANTS. ~ ~ ~, ~,S SI-IRUBS AND ~' pean ideas.4 Fernow and Pinchot in particular beat the thousand, Carolina largest and best stock in America furnished by the dozen, hundred or extremely low prices. I am selling agent for Harlan P. Kelsey's North Nursery, and will send descriptive catalogue on application. The at drum for an augmented J. WILKINSON ELLIO'rT, PITTSBURG, PA. governmental presence on public lands, a posiSargent seconded strongly in his editorial campaign for forest reservations. Moreover, their writings had educational value for a growing cadre of professional foresters that was just tion that to carve out a distinct niche within the field of landscape management. \"If I say that forestry has nothing whatsoever to do with the planting of road-side trees, that parks and gardens are foreign to its nature ... that scenery is altogether outside its province,\" Pmchot asserted in Garden and Forest in 1895, \"I am making a conservative statement with which every forester will agree.\" Its connections with \"arboriculture and landscape art\" derive from the fact that \"it employs to a certain extent the same raw material ... but applies it to a wholly different purpose.\" American foresters, like their European counterparts before them, were staking out their turf.5 This assertion of professional specialization, when linked to the slow but significant growth of public support for an increased federal intervention in forestry management, was invaluable in developing a political movement devoted to conserving natural resources. It is of lasting significance that this new ethos of conservation, which would dominate early twentiethcentury political discourse in America, found its first sustained and vivid expression in Garden and Forest. LANDSCAPE ARCIiITECT, beginning (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1997), 15-34; Damel T. Rogers, Atlantic Crossings. Social Pohtics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1998), Char Miller, \"Wooden Pohtics: Bernhard Fernow and the Quest for a National Forest Pohcy, 1876-1898,\" m Harold K. Steen, ed., The Ongms of the National Forests (Durham: Forest History Society, 1992), 287-301. 3 4 Garden and Forest (hereafter, GeJF) 4 \/ 189122. Gc'~7F 10 (1897). 397; 8 (1895) 319; Carl A. Schenck, \"Private and Public Forestry,\" G~F 10 (1897): 232- 233, 242-243, 252, 262; Bernard Fernow, \"European Forest Management,\" G~F 1 (1888): 454-455; \"Why We Need Skilled Foresters,\" GeJF 8 (1895) : 131; Gifford Pmchot, \"The Forest,\" G~F 3 (1890): 374, 386; \"Forest-policy Abroad,\" 4 \/ 18918-9. 5 Char Miller and James G. Lewis, \"A Contested Past: Forestry Education m the United States, 1898-1998,\" Journal of Forestry 97 ( 1999) 38-43; Gifford Pmchot, \"The Need for Forest Schools m America,\" GeuF 8 (1895): 298 Sargent and Pmchot publicly disagreed on one aspect of the professionalization of forestry, namely, the use of military officers as forest guards on the nation's forests. Sargent favored trammg military officers m the principles of forestry, while Pmchot believed that only a professional civilian service was appropnate. G~F 3 (1890) 581, 3 \/ 1891 9; 4 ( 1891 ) 150: 9, 4 (1891):34-5. As intense as their disagreements would become, they were convmced that the federal government must patrol these valuable public lands, their care could not be left to the states or corporations. \" Acknowledgment I am grateful to James G. Lewis for his research ' Endnotes assistance on _ this project. 1 S. B. Sutton, Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), 131-133. z George Perkms Marsh, Man and Nature The Earth as Modified by Human Action (New York: Charles Scnbner, 1864); Donald J. Pisam, \"Forests and Conservation, 1865-1890,\" in Char Miller, ed., Amencan Forests Nature, Culture, and Pohtics, Char Miller is professor and chair of history at Tnmty University. He is co-author of The Greatest Good 100 Years of Forestry in Amemca ( 1999), editor of Amencan Forests. Nature, Culture and Pohtics (1997) and of Water in the West (2000); he is also author of a forthcoming biography of Gifford Pmchot. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wanted, a Tract on Forestry (1891 Letter to the Editor)","article_sequence":12,"start_page":23,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25284","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eaf28.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fernow, B. E.","article_content":"23 WANTED, To the Editor of GARDEN A TRACT ON FORESTRY. AND FOREST: Sir.-The necessity of forestry reform is admitted by all intelligent people who take time to examine the question, but no reform can make much headway until the people at large become convinced of its necessity. The prime need, then, in every such cause is to instruct them as quickly as possible in that which so greatly concerns their welfare. The two great avenues to the human mind are through the eye and the ear, and of these the first is, no doubt, the most important. That which we see makes, on the whole, the greatest impression. Such objectlessons, therefore, as that contemplated by the Adirondack League Club, referred to in your issue of February 18th, will, of course, be a vast help in forming a healthy public opinion concerning the management of our national forests. The fine example of the city of Lynn [Massachusetts], which is now engaged in acquiring a vast and varied tract of adjacent woodland, embracing some 1,400 acres, to be held as a public forest and park for the use of the people forever, is another splendid object-lesson; the enterprise of the little village of Freedonia, New York, which has had the wit to seize the park idea by the right handle and forestall the future by boldly laymg out two parks in the very heart of the town. These and other similar examples help along the causes with which they may severally be classified far more rapidly than can the very best of preaching. May such tangible teaching increase. Yet there is a large and important work to be accomplished through the \"foolishness of preaching.\" The press has done and is domg much. Still it occurs to me that there is need of, or at least room for, special work through such tracts as that one which assisted the great reboisement of certain districts of France. There, the forests having disappeared through heedless cutting, and the turf been gradually destroyed by the sharp hoofs and the hungry gnawing of the flocks, great and increasing damage from floods began to overwhelm the valleys. To reclothe the heights and restore the equilibrium was found to be impossible until the people-the peasantry who had votes-had been won over. A prize was offered for the best short work adapted to teaching them these lessons, the little book \"Studies of Master Peter\" being the successful competitor. Some similar work, all the better if shorter, which could be widely disseminated among our rural populations would, I am confident, accomplish much toward producing a right popular view of the vast forest-interests of our land. Who will write one? S. Dorchester, Mass. (Mr. B. E. Fernow, Chief of the Forestry Department at Washington, has already written some leaflets for general distribution, but we cannot have too many of them nor have them prepared from too many points of view.-ED. ~ [Garden and Forest 4 (1891): 106] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Value of Mountain Forests (1890)","article_sequence":13,"start_page":24,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25283","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14eab6f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Harrison, J. B.","article_content":"24 ~3#& x E; VALUE OF MOUNTAIN FORESTS. most important function of mountain forests is the preservation the mountains themselves by clothing them with soil. The relation of mountain forests to the soil out of which they grow is curious and interesting. The soil now produces the trees, but the forest has produced the soil which now nourishes it. There was a time when there was no soil on the mountains of New Hampshire, nor on any portion of the Appalachian System-when the mountains were only ridges, slopes and summits of bare rock. They were composed wholly of mineral substances, of matter entirely inert and incapable of supplying food to vegetable organisms. There was not an atom of soil on the rocks of the whole region, and no vegetable growth of any kind. Then when conditions permitted, Nature began a new order of things here with some of the lowest forms of vegetable life, resembling the lichens of our time. Some of these could grow here and there on the rocks, and whatever could grow would die and decay, but would not wholly perish. Some slight particles of its fibre or substance would remain undestroyed through all the changes of decomposition, and in the course of centuries or thousands of years a thin film of soil was accumulated here and there sufficient to nourish vegetation of a little higher character and organization than had belonged to the pioneer organisms. How great the distance from that far beginning to the first trees! And very poor and inferior trees the earliest ones were, when they did appear, compared with those which make our forests now; but they were the best that the still scanty soil would sustain. Ever since the leaves of the first trees began to fall the trees have been slowly adding to the deposit of soil which now covers the rocks, and which has reached the depth and productive potency required to sustain the noble forests of HE first and Tof our own time. The great stratum of fertile, life-producing soil which now lies folded around the shoulders of the hills is the result and accumulation of patient ages of dendral toil. Nature has wrought incessantly, through mighty cycles of time, to clothe the desert rocks with life and beauty, and in the untainted air of these lofty slopes and plateaus she now grows forests which are like the columned aisles of vast cathedrals. Ships which cleave the waves of every sea, and the cottages and palaces of mighty cities, with myriads of structures for man's varied industries, have been builded of the materials supplied by our mountain forests. The superior quality of the timber now grown, and the vast quantities in which it is produced, are effects of the wonderful fertility which the soil has attained. It is richer than ever before, but it has not reached the limit of possible productiveness. There is no such limit, indeed, and if our mountain forests were rightly managed they would forever increase in fertility and the quality of their timber would be thereby gradually improved. A forest is the only crop, so far as I know, which can be produced perpetually on the same ground without diminishing in any degree the fertility of the soil. It is a remarkable fact that a forest not only does not impoverish the soil out of which it grows, but that it actually enriches it. As the soil is thus improved it responds by producing superior timber. A mountain forest would yield better timber, and more of it, at the end of a thousand years of proper management than at the beginning and proper management means and includes the cutting of every tree when it reaches its best estate. 25 FARMING IN MOUNTAIN REGIONS. effort at farming in mountam forest-regions m this country is often a most destructive and suicidal mistake. Much of the ground that has been cleared for cultivation in such regions is so steep that if forest-conditions are once destroyed upon it the soil is certain to be washed away. It has always been manifest to intelligent observers that such land is suited to the perpetual production of timber, and of that crop alone. In many instances in our state land has been cleared and \"farmed\" with very slight returns which would be much more valuable than it now is if it were still clothed with forest. The yield of farm products in such cases is scanty and uncertain. In some places the land is too high and cold for successful cultivation. There are frosts late m spring and early in autumn, and sometimes in every month of the brief summer, and the soil is soon exhausted. It would be difficult to find anywhere an instance of more obvious natural adaptation to a particular function than our whole mountain forest-region exhibits in its fitness for permanent beneficial use after forest-conditions have been fully destroyed. It would have been much better if some of our \"abandoned farms\" had never been cleared. In some parts of our country vast values have been permanently blotted out by clearing and cultivating mountain land, and those states will be poorer for all time to come by reason of the resulting destruction and removal of the soil of considerable areas of their The entire mountain regions. RUIN BY FIRE. fatal agency in destroying the soil of a mountain forest-country, and in wrecking the mountains themselves, is that of fire, and in the history of most mountain forest-regions the operation of this agency has been closely connected with the attempts to cultivate the soil to which I have just referred. In various regions of the Appalachian mountam system many of the farms have been cleared simply by burning the timber and brush left on a tract after it has been lumbered over, and the first crop is planted in the ashes. In a few years the soil is exhausted or washed away, and the farmer goes a little farther up or down the valley, or across the stream which runs through it, and repeats the operation. But the injury to the mountains which is caused by the destruction of the soil of these limited tracts which have been cleared for cultivation is trivial when compared with the losses which have resulted from the forest-fires having their origin in these clearings. When we consider the rapidly increasing density of the population of our country, and the great advance in the value of all fertile lands, especially in the eastern states, it is obvious that the complete destruction of the soil of any considerable area is a very serious matter. There are few kmds of losses or misfortunes affecting property which are so calamitous as this. It is a crime against posterity, a permanent subtraction from the wealth and the capabilities of the country. The soil is, to a very great extent, the country itself. A burned city can be rebmlt, and the system of insurance distributes the loss widely. But there is no insurance on the soil of our mountam forests, and when it is once thoroughly burned it will require mighty cycles of time to restore it. Its producing capacity for ages, and all the \"promise and potency\" of a perpetual succession of valuable crops, are at once reduced to The most nothingness. -From the Report of J. B. Harrison, Commissioner of Forests for New Hampshire [Garden and Forest 3 (1890): 613-614] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Jersey Pine Forest (1888)","article_sequence":14,"start_page":26,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25264","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170a728.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"26 A NEW JERSEY New PINE FOREST. a pure forest of Pitch Pine (Pinus It is situated about twelve miles from the sea coast, and forms a part of the extensive and interesting domain which surrounds the Laurel House at Lakewood, to the proprietors of which establishment it THE rigida) belongs. illustration upon page 164 represents in Ocean County, Jersey. This forest is interesting from several points of view. It is extremely picturesque and beautiful. It occupies ground which only fifty years ago was employed for farming purposes; and it is one of few forests composed of a single species of tree which can be seen in the Northern States, where a number of different trees are usually associated together in forest growth. The Pines in this Lakewood 27 forest have an average height of fifty feet; and their trunks an average diameter of ten inches. They stand so close together that grasses and undershrubs cannot survive in their dense unbroken shade. The forest floor is deeply carpeted with moss, however, and altogether this forest reminds one more of one of the planted Pine forests of northern Europe than anything we remember to have seen before in the United States. The rapid and vigorous growth of this young forest upon poor and comparatively worthless lands shows, moreover-and this is its chief interest-the way such lands along the Atlantic seaboard, north of Virginia, can be used to the best advantage. And finally it illustrates the possibility of protecting, by means of a little trouble and foresight, such forests from burning up in the fires which annually rage, unchecked, over great tracts in the New Jersey coast region.... The Pitch Pine is not one of the most valuable Pme trees of the United States. Its wood is coarse grained, full of resin, and not very strong.... Before southern pme was brought to this market the pitch pme of New Jersey was the only available material m many parts of the State for timbers and flooring; and there are still houses in some counties where floors and floor-timbers are known to have been m constant use for more than a century. But it is for firewood and for charcoal that the pitch pme is most valuable; and the nearness and accessibility of these New Jersey Pine forests to great centres of population give them special importance as sources of fuel supply, which no other forests of this character m the country possess. Much land within three or four hours by rail of this city and of Philadelphia, now utterly unproductive and rapidly deteriorating through the fires which sweep over it every year, can be made highly productive and profitable by means of the Pitch Pme. People who own land of this character will see much to mterest and instruct them in these Lakewood forests, and in those in the town of Orleans, on Cape Cod, in Massachusetts. C.S.S(argentj [Garden and Forest 1 \/1888~: 166] THE SIHLWALD.-I. IT for est was my good fortune recently to pass a month in the is portion of the forest-property of the City of Zurich some Sihlwald, as that called, which stretches five miles along the narrow valley of the Sihl. It is not often that a forsituated both geographically and as to the conditions which determine the value and fertility of timber-lands; and while there are many peculiarities in its management which mark it as distmct from the great body of European forests, it exhibits so full a knowledge of forestry applied to such excellent conditions and so admirable an adaptation of means to ends, that if it fails of being typical of that which is, it may assuredly challenge attention as the illustration of that which ought to be. Further, since during the last fiscal year it yielded to the city a net revenue of more than eight dollars per acre, a short account of it may serve to emphasize the fact, so often lost sight of, that the protection of forests is not an end, but a means, and that the whole question of forestry has a very definite and important financial bearing. It has, therefore, seemed that a few words upon the Sihlwald might not be without interest to the readers is so favorably "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from The Sihlwald.- I & II (1890)","article_sequence":15,"start_page":27,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25272","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170b76b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pinchot, Gifford","article_content":"27 forest have an average height of fifty feet; and their trunks an average diameter of ten inches. They stand so close together that grasses and undershrubs cannot survive in their dense unbroken shade. The forest floor is deeply carpeted with moss, however, and altogether this forest reminds one more of one of the planted Pine forests of northern Europe than anything we remember to have seen before in the United States. The rapid and vigorous growth of this young forest upon poor and comparatively worthless lands shows, moreover-and this is its chief interest-the way such lands along the Atlantic seaboard, north of Virginia, can be used to the best advantage. And finally it illustrates the possibility of protecting, by means of a little trouble and foresight, such forests from burning up in the fires which annually rage, unchecked, over great tracts in the New Jersey coast region.... The Pitch Pine is not one of the most valuable Pme trees of the United States. Its wood is coarse grained, full of resin, and not very strong.... Before southern pme was brought to this market the pitch pme of New Jersey was the only available material m many parts of the State for timbers and flooring; and there are still houses in some counties where floors and floor-timbers are known to have been m constant use for more than a century. But it is for firewood and for charcoal that the pitch pme is most valuable; and the nearness and accessibility of these New Jersey Pine forests to great centres of population give them special importance as sources of fuel supply, which no other forests of this character m the country possess. Much land within three or four hours by rail of this city and of Philadelphia, now utterly unproductive and rapidly deteriorating through the fires which sweep over it every year, can be made highly productive and profitable by means of the Pitch Pme. People who own land of this character will see much to mterest and instruct them in these Lakewood forests, and in those in the town of Orleans, on Cape Cod, in Massachusetts. C.S.S(argentj [Garden and Forest 1 \/1888~: 166] THE SIHLWALD.-I. IT for est was my good fortune recently to pass a month in the is portion of the forest-property of the City of Zurich some Sihlwald, as that called, which stretches five miles along the narrow valley of the Sihl. It is not often that a forsituated both geographically and as to the conditions which determine the value and fertility of timber-lands; and while there are many peculiarities in its management which mark it as distmct from the great body of European forests, it exhibits so full a knowledge of forestry applied to such excellent conditions and so admirable an adaptation of means to ends, that if it fails of being typical of that which is, it may assuredly challenge attention as the illustration of that which ought to be. Further, since during the last fiscal year it yielded to the city a net revenue of more than eight dollars per acre, a short account of it may serve to emphasize the fact, so often lost sight of, that the protection of forests is not an end, but a means, and that the whole question of forestry has a very definite and important financial bearing. It has, therefore, seemed that a few words upon the Sihlwald might not be without interest to the readers is so favorably 28 . of GARDEN AND FOREST, and I purpose, after describing it briefly in the present paper, and sketching the management of the forest in a second, to touch upon it in a final one as a piece of municipal property ... That precious condition of the surface which the French and German unite in describing as \"forest-soil,\" so slow in forming and so quick to disappear wherever the full sunlight is allowed to reach the ground, has here been produced in perfection by centuries of forestgrowth. It is perhaps to this factor, next to the abundance of humidity, that the high annual yield of wood in the Sihlwald is due. The growth which covers the soil thus fortunately suited to its needs is a mixed high or seedling forest, in which the deciduous trees largely predominate. Under the law of the rotation of forest-crops, not so well known as that which determines an analogous success in agriculture because it acts over vastly longer periods, the character of the mixture has undergone a gradual change, until, in the course of two centuries and a half, the percentage of coniferous trees has declined from sixty-one to fourteen, and the deciduous forest has taken their place.... Scattered along between this forest and the Sihl ... are placed the saw-mill, handle factory and injection plant, whose presence as integral parts of the equipment of the forest, chiefly distinguishes the management of the Sihlwald from that of other similarly situated European woodlands. THE SIHLWALD.-II. the organization of a normally stocked forest the object of first importance the cutting each year of an amount of timber equal to the total annual increase over the whole area, and no more. It is further desirable in any long settled community that the forests be so managed as to yield a measurably constant return in material. Otherwise difficulties in the supply of labor and the disposal of the produce make themselves felt, and the value of the forest to its owner tends to decrease. This is especially true in the case of the Sihlwald, whose mills derive their raw material exclusively from the forest to which they belong, and whose supply of labor is limited to the men whom it furnishes with steady employment. Either excess of deficit in the annual production implies loss. In order to attain this steadiness of yield it is obviously necessary that a certain number of trees become fit to cut each year. The Sihlwald has accordingly been so \"organized\" that areas of equal productive capacity are covered by stocks of every age, from last year's seedling to the mature tree.... The working plan for the Lower Sihlwald, then, prescnbes for the forest ... the operations of what Dr. Schlich has called in his Manual of Forestry \"The Shelter-wood Compartment System.\" It may not be without interest to follow the life history of a compartment in which this system is carried out. After the mature trees had been felled and removed from the area which furnished the yield of the Lower Sihlwald last year the thick crop of seedlings which had grown up under their shelter was finally exposed to the full influence of the light and air. The felling and rough shaping of the timber, the piling of logs and cord-wood and the trampling of the men had combined with the crisis of exposure to destroy the new crop m places and create a few small blanks. Here, as IN is 29 View in the Sihlwald the disappearance of the snow had made it possible, groups of the kinds of seedlings necessary to preserve the mixture or destmed to increase the proportion of the more valuable species were planted. The operation, necessarily an expensive one, is justified by the greater resistance of a mixed forest to nearly all the calamities which may befall standmg timber. Simultaneously with the planting the Willows, Hazels and other worthless species were destroyed, as well as the \"pre-existing seedlings,\" whose larger growth, accordmg to the disputed theory held at the Sihlwald, would damage their younger neighbors more by their shade than their greater volume would increase the final yield of timber. The mcipient forest, then, practically umform in age and size and broken by no blanks which the growth of a year or two will not conceal, is fairly started on the course of healthy development, which it is to continue undisturbed until it reaches the age of fifteen years. At this pomt occurs the first of a series of thinnings which follow each other at mtervals of seven or eight years, until the trees have entered the last third of their existence. There is, perhaps, no silvicultural question more m dispute than this of the time and degree of thinning which will yield the best results in quality and quantity of timber. The method pursued at the Sihlwald, consecrated by habit and success, gives ample space for the healthy development of the crown from a very early age without admitting light enough through the leaf-canopy to sustain an undergrowth until the the trees are nearly ready to give place to their descendants. Such shrubs or seedlings as still appear, thanks to a shade-bearing soon as 30 temperament, are systematically cut out. It may be strongly doubted whether such a policy might safely be applied on soil less moist than that of the Sihlwald; but here, at least, the trees reach the age of sixty years, tall, straight, clean-boled, and in condition to make the best of the last part of the period of maximum growth, which a large number of measurements have shown to occur in general between the ages of seventy and ninety years. A heavy thinning now comes to the assistance of the best specimens of growth, and they are left to profit by it until seven years before the date fixed for their fall. Then begin the regeneration cuttings, whose object is to admit through the leaf-canopy an amount of light, varying with the temperament of each species, whose mission is to give vitality to the seedlings which the trees, stimulated themselves by their more favorable situation, now begin to produce in considerable quantities. To this end the light which falls from above has a powerful auxiliary in that which the system of felling each year in a long narrow strip admits from the side, and so admirable is this double method that the time which elapses between the beginning and the end of a regeneration is but half the average for less favored localities. This applies only to the deciduous trees. The time required by the conifers is much longer, and the incomplete regeneration which they furnish is supplemented by planting in the blanks already mentioned. But for the self-sown seedlings of both classes the amount of light is gradually increased, the trees which shelter them are at length wholly removed, and the cycle of growth repeats itself.... Nancy, France. Gifford Pinchot 3~1890\/: 374, 386] [Garden and Forest from ... NOTES ON THE FOREST FLORA OF JAPAN.-XXIII. THE most generally planted timber-tree of Japan is the Sake, Cryptomena Japonica, and its wood is more universally used throughout the empire than that of any other Conifer. It is one of the common trees of temple-gardens and roadside plantations, and, when seen at its best, as in the temple-groves at Nikko or Nara, where it rises to the height of a hundred or a hundred and twenty-five feet, with a tall shaft-like stem tapering abruptly from a broad base, covered with bright cinnamon-red bark and crowned with a regular conical dark green head, it is a beautiful and stately tree which has no rival except in the Sequoias of California. Great planted forests of the Cryptomeria appear all over Hondo on broken foot-hills and mountain-slopes up to an elevation of nearly three thousand feet above the sea, low valleys and good soil being usually selected for such plantations, as the trees need protection from high winds. The plantations decrease in size and luxuriance in northern Hondo, and the cultivation of the Sake does not appear to be attempted north of Hakkodate where there is a grove of small trees on the slope of the hill above the town. The wood is coarse-grained, with thick layers of annual growth, dark reddish heart-wood and thick page sap-wood; it is easily worked, strong and durable, and is employed in all sorts of construction. The bark, which is carefully stripped from the trees when they are cut down, is an important article of commerce and is used to cover the roofs of houses. A large round bunch of branchlets covered with their leaves hung over the door of a shop is the familiar sign of the dealer in sake. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan XXIII [The Avenue of Cryptomeria at Nikko] (1893)","article_sequence":16,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25269","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170b328.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"30 temperament, are systematically cut out. It may be strongly doubted whether such a policy might safely be applied on soil less moist than that of the Sihlwald; but here, at least, the trees reach the age of sixty years, tall, straight, clean-boled, and in condition to make the best of the last part of the period of maximum growth, which a large number of measurements have shown to occur in general between the ages of seventy and ninety years. A heavy thinning now comes to the assistance of the best specimens of growth, and they are left to profit by it until seven years before the date fixed for their fall. Then begin the regeneration cuttings, whose object is to admit through the leaf-canopy an amount of light, varying with the temperament of each species, whose mission is to give vitality to the seedlings which the trees, stimulated themselves by their more favorable situation, now begin to produce in considerable quantities. To this end the light which falls from above has a powerful auxiliary in that which the system of felling each year in a long narrow strip admits from the side, and so admirable is this double method that the time which elapses between the beginning and the end of a regeneration is but half the average for less favored localities. This applies only to the deciduous trees. The time required by the conifers is much longer, and the incomplete regeneration which they furnish is supplemented by planting in the blanks already mentioned. But for the self-sown seedlings of both classes the amount of light is gradually increased, the trees which shelter them are at length wholly removed, and the cycle of growth repeats itself.... Nancy, France. Gifford Pinchot 3~1890\/: 374, 386] [Garden and Forest from ... NOTES ON THE FOREST FLORA OF JAPAN.-XXIII. THE most generally planted timber-tree of Japan is the Sake, Cryptomena Japonica, and its wood is more universally used throughout the empire than that of any other Conifer. It is one of the common trees of temple-gardens and roadside plantations, and, when seen at its best, as in the temple-groves at Nikko or Nara, where it rises to the height of a hundred or a hundred and twenty-five feet, with a tall shaft-like stem tapering abruptly from a broad base, covered with bright cinnamon-red bark and crowned with a regular conical dark green head, it is a beautiful and stately tree which has no rival except in the Sequoias of California. Great planted forests of the Cryptomeria appear all over Hondo on broken foot-hills and mountain-slopes up to an elevation of nearly three thousand feet above the sea, low valleys and good soil being usually selected for such plantations, as the trees need protection from high winds. The plantations decrease in size and luxuriance in northern Hondo, and the cultivation of the Sake does not appear to be attempted north of Hakkodate where there is a grove of small trees on the slope of the hill above the town. The wood is coarse-grained, with thick layers of annual growth, dark reddish heart-wood and thick page sap-wood; it is easily worked, strong and durable, and is employed in all sorts of construction. The bark, which is carefully stripped from the trees when they are cut down, is an important article of commerce and is used to cover the roofs of houses. A large round bunch of branchlets covered with their leaves hung over the door of a shop is the familiar sign of the dealer in sake. 31 Japan owes much of the beauty of its groves and gardens to the Cryptomena. Nowhere is there a more solemn and impressive group of treees than that which surrounds the temples and tombs at Nikko, and the long avenue of this tree, under which the descendants of Ieyasu traveled from the capital of the Shoguns to do honor at the burial-place of the founder of the Tokugawa dynasty, has not its equal in stately grandeur. This avenue, if the story told of its origin is true, can teach a useful lesson, and carnes hope to the heart of the planter of trees who will see in it a monument more lasting than those which men sometimes erect in stone or bronze in the effort to perpetuate the memory of their greatness. When the body of Ieyasu was laid in its last resting-place on the Nikko hills his successor in the Shogunate called upon the Damios of the empire to send each a stone or bronze lantern to decorate the grounds about the mortuary temples. All complied with the order but one man, who, too poor to send a lantern, offered instead to plant trees beside the road, that visitors to the tomb might be protected from the heat of the sun. The offer was fortunately accepted, and so well was the work done that the poor man's offering surpasses in value a thousand-fold those of all his more fortunate contemporaries. Something of the beauty of this avenue appears in the illustration, although, without the aid of colors, it is impossible to give an idea of the beauty of the Cryptomeria. The planted avenue extends practically all the way from Tokyo to Nikko, but it is only when the road reaches the foot-hills that it passes between 32 of Cryptomenas, the lower part being planted, as is the case with the other highways of Japan, with Pine-trees; nor, as it has often been stated, is this avenue contmuous, for whenever a village occurs or a roadside tea-house, which are scattered all along the road, there is a break in the row of trees, and it is only in some particular spots that a long view of contmuous trees is obtained. The railroad, which follows parallel and close to the avenue for a considerable distance and then crosses it just before the Nikko station is reached, is a serious injury to it. The trees, as will be seen in the illustration, are planted on high banks made by throwing up the surface-soil from the roadway; they are usually planted in double rows, and often so close together that sometimes two or three trees have grown together by a process of natural grafting. Young trees are constantly put in to fill gaps, and every care apparently is taken to preserve and protect the plantation. How many of the trees originally planted when the avenue was first laid out m the beginning of the seventeenth century are left it is impossible to say, but I suspect that most of those now standing are of much later date. One of the trees close to the upper end of the road which had been injured by fire was cut down during our visit to Nikko. The stump, breast-high above the ground, measured four feet inside the bark, and showed only one hundred and five layers of annual growth. Few of the trees in the avenue were much larger than this, although in the neighborhood of the temples there are a few which girt over twenty feet; these were probably planted when the grounds were first laid out. The two [most valuable timber-trees in Japan], Chamxcyparis and the Cryptomeria, are now almost unknown in a wild state. They may, perhaps, be found growing naturally on some of the southern mountains which we did not visit; wherever we went, however, we saw only trees that had been planted by man, although some of the plantations had evidently lived through several centuries. rows great C.S.S(argentj [Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 443]] A MUSEUM SPECIMEN OF SEQUOIA GIGANTEA. trunk of one of the California Big Trees is now almost ready to the Jesup collection of American woods in the Museum of Natural History in this city. Like the other specimens of this collection, this one is four and a half feet m long, measuring with the grain, but it is rather more than twenty feet in diameter, and when fully prepared the great wheel will be set up on its rim as the beautiful specimen of Redwood is near by. The tree grew on land now owned by the King's River Lumber Company, near Sequoia, Fresno County, Califorma, a long day's ride up the mountain from Visalia. To make transportation possible it was split into twelve sections, the centre-piece bemg round, and eleven other radiating from it. It is an admirable specimen, with perfect grain and apparently no wind-checks, although through one of the sections there is a narrow decayed tunnel something like eighteen inches long and an mch or two in width. Outside of this, however, the trunk is perfectly solid, and this decay probably came from some injury to the trunk, which may have been bruised by a fallmg tree; and if we can estimate time by annual rings of growth the accident happened at about the date when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. Mr. S. D. Dill, be Asection of a set up m "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Museum Specimen of Sequoia gigantea (1893)","article_sequence":17,"start_page":32,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25263","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170a36f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"32 of Cryptomenas, the lower part being planted, as is the case with the other highways of Japan, with Pine-trees; nor, as it has often been stated, is this avenue contmuous, for whenever a village occurs or a roadside tea-house, which are scattered all along the road, there is a break in the row of trees, and it is only in some particular spots that a long view of contmuous trees is obtained. The railroad, which follows parallel and close to the avenue for a considerable distance and then crosses it just before the Nikko station is reached, is a serious injury to it. The trees, as will be seen in the illustration, are planted on high banks made by throwing up the surface-soil from the roadway; they are usually planted in double rows, and often so close together that sometimes two or three trees have grown together by a process of natural grafting. Young trees are constantly put in to fill gaps, and every care apparently is taken to preserve and protect the plantation. How many of the trees originally planted when the avenue was first laid out m the beginning of the seventeenth century are left it is impossible to say, but I suspect that most of those now standing are of much later date. One of the trees close to the upper end of the road which had been injured by fire was cut down during our visit to Nikko. The stump, breast-high above the ground, measured four feet inside the bark, and showed only one hundred and five layers of annual growth. Few of the trees in the avenue were much larger than this, although in the neighborhood of the temples there are a few which girt over twenty feet; these were probably planted when the grounds were first laid out. The two [most valuable timber-trees in Japan], Chamxcyparis and the Cryptomeria, are now almost unknown in a wild state. They may, perhaps, be found growing naturally on some of the southern mountains which we did not visit; wherever we went, however, we saw only trees that had been planted by man, although some of the plantations had evidently lived through several centuries. rows great C.S.S(argentj [Garden and Forest 6 (1893): 443]] A MUSEUM SPECIMEN OF SEQUOIA GIGANTEA. trunk of one of the California Big Trees is now almost ready to the Jesup collection of American woods in the Museum of Natural History in this city. Like the other specimens of this collection, this one is four and a half feet m long, measuring with the grain, but it is rather more than twenty feet in diameter, and when fully prepared the great wheel will be set up on its rim as the beautiful specimen of Redwood is near by. The tree grew on land now owned by the King's River Lumber Company, near Sequoia, Fresno County, Califorma, a long day's ride up the mountain from Visalia. To make transportation possible it was split into twelve sections, the centre-piece bemg round, and eleven other radiating from it. It is an admirable specimen, with perfect grain and apparently no wind-checks, although through one of the sections there is a narrow decayed tunnel something like eighteen inches long and an mch or two in width. Outside of this, however, the trunk is perfectly solid, and this decay probably came from some injury to the trunk, which may have been bruised by a fallmg tree; and if we can estimate time by annual rings of growth the accident happened at about the date when the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth. Mr. S. D. Dill, be Asection of a set up m 33 who has prepared all the specimens for this great exhibition, is now rivetmg the segments of the giant trunk together with great iron bolts, so that it will be perfectly solid when it is finally ready for its position in the centre of the collection. from which this trunk section was cut was one of a few trees left of a once magmficent Sequoia-grove, and the stumps about it show that standing their growth was very large, one not far from this tree being forty feet in diameter. The remains of the old mill which has turned these venerable trees into lumber is still there, but other mills are at work cutting from 125,000 to 130,000 feet every day. It may be said that the Converse Basin tract of Sequoias, which belongs to the King's River Lumber Company, is about ten miles back from the place where this tree was cut, and Mr. Moore, the Superintendent of the company, estimates that there is enough of that one kind of timber on the tract to keep these mills running at their present capacity for fifty years. When the trees which stand high up on the slopes of canons are felled the logs are cut off into proper lengths. They are then blown apart by dynamite into halves, quarters and eighths, and a powerful steam-engine, with a steel cable, draws this split timber down to a greased tramway of round peeled logs, over which they are shot away to the mill, near the mouth of the canon. They are then sawed up into lumber of tree The Stump of Sequoia gigantea on land of the King's River Lumber Company 34 sizes and floated down through a V-shaped flume from the mill to the railroad, sixty-two miles away. This flume is supplied by a large reservoir m the mountains. Although when dry the Sequoia is one of the lightest of American woods, it is very heavy when full of sap, and will not float readily until it is seasoned, so that the timber needs to lie some time before it is floated out of the mountam. The lumber looks very much like redwood, and is sold under this name. Indeed, it is only distinguished from redwood by the eye of an expert. This particular tree was called \"Mark Twain,\" and girthed sixty-two feet at eight feet from the ground and ninety feet at the surface. It was a straight, handsome tree some three hundred feet high, and without a limb for about two hun- proper dred feet from the ground. Mr. Moore estimated that it contained four hundred thousand feet of lumber, and the specimen cut, four and a half feet long, weighed over thirty tons. It took two men about three weeks to cut it down. The axemen chopped out deep notches on the opposite sides of the tree, leaving a comparatively narrow strip through the centre untouched. A notch was then cut at one end of this centre-piece on the side toward which the tree was to fall ... Two long cross-cut saws were then welded together and the workmen began to saw in horizontally opposite the cut last mentioned, and wedges were driven in until the tree toppled over ... [The illustration] gives some idea of the size of the tree at the ground. Fifty men of the Lumber Company's force are here seen standing out on the sap-wood and bark of the stump, and the tools with which the giant was overthrown lie in the centre, where there is easily room for a hundred more men. Of course, the butt of the log that fell was sawn off above the bevel made by the axes, and in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the log, so that the bottom of the specimen in the museum represents a cut about ten feet from the ground. A section of the log next above this has been secured as a specimen for the British Museum. Every lover of nature must be rejoiced at the fact that the National Government has taken possession of several of the most extensive groves of Big Trees that remain in California, so that they cannot pass into private hands and be turned into lumber, a fate which has already befallen so many of these oldest and noblest inhabitants of our mountain forests. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 5 (1892): 541-542] THE FORESTS OF THE NATIONAL DOMAIN. small company of forward-looking people who, in the face of almost had been for years urging the necessity of some rational system of management for the forests on our national domain, felt greatly encouraged ten years ago when President Arthur was moved to mention the subject m one of his annual messages. We have no systematic forest-policy yet, not even the beginning of such a policy, but we are no longer surprised or unduly elated over the fact that men in places of high authority consider the matter worth talkmg about, at least. President Cleveland, like his immediate predecessors, in his message to Congress, which assembled last month, strongly advised that some adequate protection should be provided for the areas of forest which had been reserved by proclamation, and he also recommended the adoption of THE apathy, universal "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Forests of the National Domain (1895)","article_sequence":18,"start_page":34,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25282","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ea76b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"34 sizes and floated down through a V-shaped flume from the mill to the railroad, sixty-two miles away. This flume is supplied by a large reservoir m the mountains. Although when dry the Sequoia is one of the lightest of American woods, it is very heavy when full of sap, and will not float readily until it is seasoned, so that the timber needs to lie some time before it is floated out of the mountam. The lumber looks very much like redwood, and is sold under this name. Indeed, it is only distinguished from redwood by the eye of an expert. This particular tree was called \"Mark Twain,\" and girthed sixty-two feet at eight feet from the ground and ninety feet at the surface. It was a straight, handsome tree some three hundred feet high, and without a limb for about two hun- proper dred feet from the ground. Mr. Moore estimated that it contained four hundred thousand feet of lumber, and the specimen cut, four and a half feet long, weighed over thirty tons. It took two men about three weeks to cut it down. The axemen chopped out deep notches on the opposite sides of the tree, leaving a comparatively narrow strip through the centre untouched. A notch was then cut at one end of this centre-piece on the side toward which the tree was to fall ... Two long cross-cut saws were then welded together and the workmen began to saw in horizontally opposite the cut last mentioned, and wedges were driven in until the tree toppled over ... [The illustration] gives some idea of the size of the tree at the ground. Fifty men of the Lumber Company's force are here seen standing out on the sap-wood and bark of the stump, and the tools with which the giant was overthrown lie in the centre, where there is easily room for a hundred more men. Of course, the butt of the log that fell was sawn off above the bevel made by the axes, and in a plane perpendicular to the axis of the log, so that the bottom of the specimen in the museum represents a cut about ten feet from the ground. A section of the log next above this has been secured as a specimen for the British Museum. Every lover of nature must be rejoiced at the fact that the National Government has taken possession of several of the most extensive groves of Big Trees that remain in California, so that they cannot pass into private hands and be turned into lumber, a fate which has already befallen so many of these oldest and noblest inhabitants of our mountain forests. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 5 (1892): 541-542] THE FORESTS OF THE NATIONAL DOMAIN. small company of forward-looking people who, in the face of almost had been for years urging the necessity of some rational system of management for the forests on our national domain, felt greatly encouraged ten years ago when President Arthur was moved to mention the subject m one of his annual messages. We have no systematic forest-policy yet, not even the beginning of such a policy, but we are no longer surprised or unduly elated over the fact that men in places of high authority consider the matter worth talkmg about, at least. President Cleveland, like his immediate predecessors, in his message to Congress, which assembled last month, strongly advised that some adequate protection should be provided for the areas of forest which had been reserved by proclamation, and he also recommended the adoption of THE apathy, universal 35 some comprehensive scheme of forest-management. He condemned the present policy of the Government of surrendering for small considerations immense tracts of timber-land which ought to be reserved as permanent sources of timbersupply, and urged the prompt abandonment of this wasteful policy for a conservative one, which should recognize in a practical way the importance of our forest-inheritance as a vital element of the national prosperity. The House of Representatives, too, has taken prompt action upon Mr. McRae's bill, entitled, An Act to Protect Public Forest Reservations. The provisions of the bill are simple. It authorizes the employment of the army to patrol these reservations, as has been done effectively in the Yellowstone Park and in the Yosemite Valley, and it empowers the Secretary of the Interior to make regulations in regard to their occupancy, to utilize the timber of commercial value they contain, and to preserve the forest-cover from destruction. It also empowers the Secretary of the Interior to cut and sell timber on non-reserved lands under the same rules as those made for the forest reservations, provided that it shall be first shown that such cuttings shall not be injurious to the public interests. The bill had some unfortunate features, but any system which regulates the use of public timber is better than the indiscriminate plunder that has been going on hitherto, and the authorization to use the military for protective purposes is altogether commendable. The bill was amended, however, to strike out, if we understand it correctly, the provisions relatmg to non-reserved lands, and it restricts the sale of timber on the reservations to trees that are dead or mature, thus limiting skilled forest practice, mstead of authorizmg trained foresters to make their own selection, and, worse than all, it grants free supplies of timber from the reservations to mmers and settlers. It is to be hoped that when this measure comes before the Senate that its onginal features will be restored. In its present form it does little more than to expose the timber on the reservations to new dangers.... If military protection is assured, that is one step forward, but if such protection is made possible only when the War Department shall consider it worth while, it is a very short step, mdeed. No doubt, any measure which gives the assurance of efficient policmg of the reservations, or efficiently controls the cuttmg of public timber, is to that extent a gain, but we certainly want something more definite and decisive than the McRae bill as it now stands.... [Garden and Forest 8 (1895):\/: 1] be the fate of forests on the national domain, and how is the forest area of the country, now in private hands, to be manm the future, are questions which, a few years ago, would have excited but aged trifling interest anywhere in the United States. The current issue of The Century magazme shows that these matters are now subjects of serious study by many thoughtful Americans. The editor of a great periodical is a good judge of what subjects are of immediate popular mterest, and the fact that The Century not only makes a distinct proposition of its own for action in the matter of forestpreservation, but devotes ten pages to setting forth the views of persons who, from their official standing or personal knowledge, are qualified to say something WHAT larger V much is to 37 worth hearing on the subject, is an evidence that we are gradually nearing the time when indifference and lethargy in relation to this matter will give place to an active realization of the fact that the prospenty of our country is directly connected with the proper management of our forests. Six years ago, when speakmg of the nation's forests, it was urged in this journal that all forest-lands belonging to the Government should be withheld from sale until an examination of these lands, and of the agricultural lands dependmg upon them for water-supply, would show what tracts of timber could be put upon the market without threatening important interests in the country below them. For the protection of these forests against injury from man and beast, it was advised that, pending this investigation, the guardianship of the forests on the national domain should be entrusted to the Umted States Army and that this examination of the national forests should be conducted by a commission, appointed by the President, of men able to report upon the magnitude and quality of our forests, and upon their relations to other interests. No commission was appointed, however; perhaps the time was not ripe for such a plan, modest and moderate as it was; but certainly if such a commission had then been named, we should now know more about our forests than we do. In The Century symposium a man so well qualified to speak as Mr. Bowers, the Assistant Commissioner of Public Lands, declares that estimates of the amount of forest-land owned by the Government vary between the lowest and the highest by twenty millions of acres, which means that we have no absolute knowledge whatever. And since no one can do more than make a rough guess at the area of these lands, any surmise as to the amount of timber growing on any portion of them, or of its value, or of the ease or difficulty with which these woodlands can be made permanently productive, would be wilder still. It seems, then, that the need of a board of investigation is quite as urgent to-day as it was when the proposition was first made ... There seems to be little question as to the advisability of employing the army as a police force while this investigation goes on. Captain Anderson, who has been in command of the troops in the Yellowstone National Park, ought to be a competent judge in this matter, and in his contribution to the symposium it is stated that the soldiers of his command have served every purpose of a forestguard most satisfactorily.... Of course, this service would only be temporary, for the time is coming when a policy, which only means mere protection of the woods from timber thieves and browsmg animals and fire, must be replaced by an active system of reproductive management such as is used in other industries of this country and in the forests of other civilized nations. [Editorial. Garden and Forest 8~1895\/: 51]] Old trees in their living state are the only things that money cannot command. Rivers leave their beds, run into cities and traverse mountains for it; obelisks and arches, palaces and temples, amphitheatres and pyramids rise up like exhalations at its bidding; even the free spirit of man, the only thing great on earth, crouches and cowers in its presence. It passes away and vanishes before venerable trees. -Walter Savage Landor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from Garden and Forest","article_sequence":19,"start_page":38,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25278","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170896f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"} 38 NOTES. An old legend traces the origin of the Thistle as the emblem of the Scottish kmgdom to the far-away time when the Danes were invading the country. On a dark night, runs the story, as they were advancing to attack an encampment of Scots, one of them trod on a Thistle, and the thoughtless exclamation which followed awakened the slumberers, who, spnngmg to arms, defeated their assailants. In gratitude for this deliverance the flower of the Thistle was adopted as the national emblem. [8\/1895\/: 300] In the Bulletin of the United States National without going to Buitenzorg or some other garden on the other side of the world. A laboratory and garden in the West Indies could be reached from any important city m our country m four or five days, and it would be much more accessible for the European botamst even than are those established among the antipodes. Such a garden would be of direct benefit to a great number of working botamsts m Amenca and furnish investigators and graduate students of this country with unequaled facilities for biological research. [9\/ 189G~: 510] A thoroughly useful Farmers' Bulletin of about twenty pages, ~ust issued by the Umted States Department of Agnculture, is entitled Washed Soils. How to Prevent and Reclaim Them. Along the banks of the Ohio and in many portions of the south hundreds of fields have been washed and furrowed beyond the possibility of profitable cultivation. How the destruction of forests has caused these gulhes, how to prevent them, and how by cultivation, reforestmg and covenng up the ground with grass this evil can be checked and cured is plainly set forth in these pages. The illustrations are not artistic, but they are helpful, and the methods of constructing hillside ditches and terraces, the best preparation for forests, with approved methods of plantmg and caring for them, are all plamly set forth. The statements in this little tract are so truthful, and the deductions so logical and convincing, that every landowner who is not already familiar with them ought to read and consider them. Museum, No. 39, Dr. Frederick D. Comlle, botamst of the Department of Agriculture, has recently pnnted some clear directions for collectmg specimens of plants and information illustrating their aboriginal uses, which will be found useful to both travelers and settlers who have an opportunity to observe the habits of any of the tribes of American Indians. [8(1895)' 300] The Hard Maple of Mame furnishes a large part of the matenal used m the manufacture of shoe-pegs, although the wood of the Canoe Birch is sometimes used for this purpose. Shoe-pegs are sold by the bushel, and now range from seventy-five cents to one dollar a bushel, $150,000 having been received, it is stated by a correspondent of The Manufacturer and Builder of this city, last year by the Mame shoe-peg factones. [5(1892): 228] The destruction of the forests which has been gomg about the diamond mines near Kimberley, South Afnca, is believed by Dr. William Crookes to have seriously modified the climate. The country within a radius of a hundred miles has been stnpped of wood to supply timber for the mmes. The forests were barriers against the wmd; they tempered the heat of the sun in a region where the air is extremely dry, and their removal is thought to account for the dust storms which have been so frequent in that country this year. [10 (1897). 249-250] on [9(1896): 510] The Northwestern Lumberman, m speakmg of the great flood m the Mississippi valley, says that the deluge has so far subsided that lumber will soon begm to move northward agam over the overflowed region, but much of it will be unfit for shipment because it has been under water and is covered with silt. This dirt-covered material will all need to be cleaned, and this will mvolve a vast amount of work and expense. Where the cottonwood has been covered with water it will be practically rumed, as the dirt can hardly be washed out of its fuzzy fibres, and the result of this is seen m the fact that the price of this lumber has advanced one dollar a thousand. Lucky manufacturers whose lumber piles have been above the water will make the most of their advantages, and the effect will be seen in the market for oak and ash as well as for cottonwood. It will be several weeks before loggmg can proceed in the bottom-lands with the mills restored to running condition. There will be mud everywhere, tramways washed out, bridges and trestles destroyed, so that it will be midsummer before everythmg can be restored to order, with mills runmng steadily, and weeks more will elapse before the newly cut lumber is dry Professor Roberts, of Cornell University, is sending circulars to notify whom it may concern that under the Agricultural Extension Bill the college of agriculture of that university has undertaken to assist, free of expense, all teachers who wish to introduce what is called \"nature studies\" into the public schools. Nature study means nothing more than seeing familiar things m a new light, and the Cornell faculty wish to encourage the investigation of common objects so as to teach accurate observation and the power of clearly expressing what is seen. [10(1897): 150] out Professor McDougal gives some very good reasons in the current number of Appleton's Popular Science Monthly for the establishment of a botamcal garden m the West Indies, so that tropical plants could be studied enough to ship. [10(1897): 190] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"\"Master of a Felicitous English Style\": William Augustus Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest","article_sequence":20,"start_page":39,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25276","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd1708526.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"\"Master of Augustus \"When we Felicitous English Style\": William Stiles, Editor of Garden and Forest a Phyllis Andersen think of it, we cannot but recognize that few people have written about parks as Stiles wrote. Olmsted and Vaux, yes, and Whately. It was literain addition to facts, Stiles had that literary touch, the penthey wrote etrative, imaginative quality that no horticulturist had whomI have ever known. He claimed nothing original, the writings and sayings of Olmsted and Vaux being his authority, but he illuminated all they had given him with the lambent flame of his literary genius.\"-Samuel Parsons Jr., 1926 ture ... was the self\"conductor\" of the ninejournal Garden and Forest.' Like all maestros he has been given almost sole credit for the journal's achievements : its timely reports of horticultural advances, its prescient warnings of threats to forests and scenery, and its umque linking of disciplines. Sargent did have significant expertise in the many fields covered in Garden and Forest, but he was less a savant than a manager who knew how to pick a good team. Credit for the graceful prose and for the eloquent advocacy for public parks should go not to Sargent, but to Garden and Forest's editor William Stiles. Stiles, an experienced New York journalist who also enjoyed a distinguished career m public service, was appointed managing editor by the founders of the journal in 1888. The editorial office of Garden and Forest was located in the Tribune Building in New York, and Stiles continued in his long-estabhshed role of editorial writer for the New York Tribune during his tenure as editor of Garden and Forest. Sargent \"conducted\" from his base at the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, where he was director. Stiles' role in Garden and Forest has not been widely recognized, not because it was intentionally obscured by Sargent, who fully appreciated both his editorial skills and his character, but rather by routine library practice. The full mast- harles Sprague Sargent teenth-century t appointed head of Garden and Forest listing staff names and positions, editorial mission, and contributors was positioned in the front of the publication in an advertising section. When the issues were subsequently bound by libraries, the advertising sections were commonly removed as havmg no future value. Hence the information about Stiles' role was lost, as well as the adver- tisements, now What remained was an abbreviated masthead on the first editorial page listing Charles Sprague Sargent as Conductor. Stiles' role was further obscured by the fact that most of the lead editorials of the journal, many of them authored by Stiles, significant in their recognized own right. as historically were unsigned. was William Augustus Stiles town born in Decker- 1837. (now Sussex), New Jersey, on March 9, His father, Edward Augustus Stiles, was a mathematician and educator who founded Mount Retirement Seminary, a successful preparatory school in northern New Jersey. His mother was the former Eveline Belmont Howell. Wilham was educated at his father's school and at Yale, graduating from Yale in 1859. He returned briefly to the Mount Retirement Seminary to teach, but in 1864, hoping that a sea voyage would improve his health, particularly the weak eyesight that was to plague him all of his life, he traveled to California by 40 way of the Isthmus of Panama. He briefly held a teaching post in Oakland, but soon left to join the corps of engineers laying out the new Union Pacific Railroad line across the Sierra Nevadas. However, his weak eyesight, further strained by detailed mapmaking, forced him to return to his father's farm in New Jersey for a period of recuperation. Having formed an interest in plants during his time in California, Stiles now began a systematic study of plants, collecting in the wild and cultivating nursery stock. Later, his interests expanded to include forestry, agricultural technology, and landscape gardening. He also became interested in local politics during this period and later ran for New Jersey state offices several times. After a brief stint as a gauger (or tax collector) in New York City he began his career in journalism. Samuel Parsons Jr., landscape architect for the New York City Department of Parks in the 1890s, tells the story of an after-dinner speech Stiles made to a group of Yale alumni in New York in the late 1870s. According to Parsons, Stiles' wit and intelligence so captivated Whitelaw Reid, publisher of the New York Tribune, that he engaged Stiles on the spot as an editorial writer for the Tribune, a position he was to hold until the end of his life.2 In 1883 Stiles also became the agricultural correspondent for the Philadelphia Weekly Press, reporting on current research in agricultural methods. Stiles' early writings for the Tribune established him as a thoughtful and knowledgeable spokesman for local issues.\/ \"There was nothing of the superficial smartness of the ordinary newspaper man, but his articles were written in a grave and judicious style, with a fine literary quality.\"3) He quickly focused on public parks, advocating additions to New York City's parklands and objecting to what he saw as misguided efforts to improve those already established-particularly Central Park. The early 1880s were a period of significant controversy for Central Park. Like all large public works projects the park had become a rallying point for those seeking quick recognition in local politics. The pent-up frustrations of those not in sympathy with the Olmsted and Vaux design resulted in a questioning of priorities. They questioned the park's dedication to the William Augustus Stiles (1837-1897) passive enjoyment of scenery, asking what classes of society were best served by this type of park. Inappropriate intrusions in the form of active recreation facilities and popular amusements were proposed. In his editorials Stiles a staunch defender of the Olmsted-Vaux vision. Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. and Theodora Kimball, in the introduction to their bibliography of works on Central Park in Forty Years of Landscape Architecture: Central Park, note the significance of Garden and Forest's coverage of park issues: \"The history of Central Park during the critical ten-year period covered by Garden and Forest (begun in 1888 and edited by friends and warm defenders of the Park) is so well reflected in its pages that perhaps a disproportionate number of referencesall to editorials-in this periodical have been here included. \"4 Stiles and Olmsted had a long-standing professional friendship. When Charles Sargent became ill in early 1888, just before the launch of Garden and Forest, Olmsted, who had contributed $500 to the initial financing of the journal, stepped in to offer advice and support to the new editor. The correspondence between Stiles and Olmsted, who had by then relocated to Brookline, Massachusetts, reveals Stiles' positioned himself as 41 gratitude to Olmsted for his suggestions of topics and authors for the journal. Olmsted, like many others, valued Stiles' views on the transformation of the field of landscape gardening into the profession of landscape architecture. In a letter of advice to his son Fred Jr., Olmsted reflected on his own role and that of others in the emerging profession: \"It is as if the war had just begun and my part had been to keep the enemy in check until reinforcements could arrive. These young men, STILES was assisted at Garden and Forest by B. Coulston. Coulston, who wrote the biographical entry for Stiles in Liberty Hyde Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture (1902~, is described by Bailey as simply \"M. B. Coulston, formerly Assistant Editor of Garden and Forest of Ithaca, New York.\" Coulston wrote a number of signed articles on horticultural subjects for Garden and Forest. While little is known of her early career, she figures later as a significant participant in the early planning of Balboa Park in San Diego, California. By 1902, relocated to Livermore, California, Coulston was hired by the San Diego Park Improvement Committee to be its secretary and to write WILLIAM Mary John [Olmsted], Harry [Codman], [Charles] Eliot and [Charles] Coolidge, with Sargent Stiles are and and Mrs. Van the advance of the reinforcements. \"s In 1892 Stiles began to use the editorial columns of Garden and Forest and the New York Tribune to call attention to a proposed speedway through Central Park along its western boundary, a project he felt was totally contrary to Olmsted and Vaux's vision: \"[This project] would make an offensive exhibition of the power of money to confiscate * Mary B. Coulston's role in the planning of Balboa Park is described for the pleasure of a few rich men in Richard W. Amero, \"Samuel Parsons Finds Xanadu in San Diego,\" the ground which offers to the poor Journal of San Diego History 44 (Winter 19981. of the city their only opportunity to enjoy the sight of verdant fields.\"~ those in public service, Vaux suffered under In 1895 the newly elected mayor of New York, William L. Strong, appointed William these attacks. He needed a protector, and William Stiles gladly accepted the role, rallying supStiles to the Board of Park Commissioners, a with substantial influport for Vaux from a significant number of politically powerful body ence over capital expenditures. Shortly after prominent New Yorkers. Vaux's son Bowyer said that Stiles had \"perhaps a keener appreciation\" Stiles' appointment, the speedway proposal was resurrected, this time not in Central Park but of his father's genius than any other citizen.' along the west bank of the Harlem River. An engineering firm was to design it rather than William Stiles died on October 6, 1897, at the home of his sister Mrs. E. H. Davey. Never Calvert Vaux, who was then landscape architect for the New York City Parks Department. This married, he had remained close to his two sisters and to the family property in northern New was only one of a series of humiliating attacks on Vaux from members of the Park Board who Jersey. In the fulsome style of the period, the continued to try to discredit him for his particiobituary notices praised his contributions to the in stopping the Central Park speedway protection of the parks of New York and to the pation proposal. Lacking the thick skin so useful to responsibility of government and civic leaders to Rensselaer, articles for the local newspapers supporting the improvement of San Diego's City Park. She is described by her colleagues as possessing extensive knowledge of parks in the United States and Europe as a result of her position at Garden and Forest. She is credited with bringing the New York-based landscape architect Samuel Parsons-a well-known advocate of Olmsted and Vaux's vision for Central Park-to the attention of the San Diego Park Committee, and with helping facilitate his hiring as designer of what was to become Balboa Park. She had apparently been well trained by Stiles, and perhaps Sargent, to define the mission of urban parks as bringing rural scenery to the city. Coulston died in 1904 while attending a summer school session at the University of California at Berkeley. Her friend Kate Sessions, the renowned California horticulturist and garden designer, arranged to have her ashes buried under a cedar of Lebanon tree in Balboa Park. * \" 42 serve the needs of the disadvantaged. The memorial notice published in the October 13, 1897, issue of Garden and Forest, unsigned but undoubtedly written by Charles Sargent, underscored Stiles' \"inflexible purpose\": NEW DANGERS TO PUBLIC PARKS. praising the man whose recent death means a loss to the readers of this journal, and in noting his long usefulness as the most keen-eyed IN heavy He has been more, however, than a brilliant and successful editor of a technical journal; keen love of nature and sympathy with the cravings of the poor shut within city walls from the sight and enjoyment of the country made him fully understand the value and true meaning of urban parks, and for twenty years, always with that modesty which was one of his strongest characteristics, but with inflexible purpose, he has stood between the parks of this city and men who at different times and under different pretenses have tried to deface them.... His death is a senous loss to the readers of Garden and Forest and to every one m the Umted States interested in landscape-gardening, horticulture and the care and protection of our national and state forests. Garden and Forest ceased publication in 1898. Despite the high quality of its writing, its appeal to practitioners in many fields, its international interests and noted contributors, the magazine had always run Sargent had been covering at a loss; its deficit for years. But it may have been the loss of Stiles that decided the issue, for Sargent's major responsibility at that time was building the scientific credibility of the Arnold Arboretum. The magazine had been in many ways Sargent's experiment. In addition to reporting on \"all progress in science and practice\"-horticulture, \"garden botany,\" dendrology, scientific and practical forestry-it deliberately linked these fields with landscape gardening. It even stretched its mission to link landscape gardening with archiStiles' appointment as editor of Garden and Forest gave it a lively, stylish prose comparable to that of tecture. and devoted defender of the public parks of New York, the daily papers have dwelt forcibly upon the dangers which threaten these parks from the \"assaults of the ignorant and vicious.\" But the parks are threatened by other dangers, newer than these, more subtile and insidious, less easily recognized as dangers, and therefore less likely to be frankly and forcibly resisted. And the consciousness of this fact greatly augments, among those who keep close watch upon our parks, the regret which every intelligent American must have felt when he heard of the death of Mr. Stiles. The ignorant and the vicious have long been enemies of the parks-persons who deny their utility because it cannot be translated into terms of dollars and cents; those who are eager to injure them for the sake of giving to the city something, advantageous, perhaps, in its own way, which they think of more \"practical benefit\"; who wish to exploit them for their own profit or who plan to fill them with ugly objects; who barbarously injure their grass, trees, flowers or monuments for their own mischievous pleasure; or who think they know more about caring for them than their professional superintendents, and therefore try to \"arouse the public\" whenever a dying tree is cut or any other needful and desirable work proposed. These people represent the unintelligent, uncultivated and unconscientious elements of the population. They are now recognized as enemies of the public, which m some degree is on its guard against them. Teachers, champions and leaders are still needed to defend the parks from their possible attacks. But the public is now easily roused to oppose their worst efforts; and it is probable that no such bold assault upon Central Park will again be attempted as the effort made a few years ago to run a speedway through it, or the equally horrible one to turn part of it into a barren parade-ground. And the public may likewise be counted upon, although not so confidently, to forbid the attempts of individuals to dot it with penny-m-the-slot 43 machines disfigure for the profit of personal greed under the pretense of supplying special \"conveniences\" or \"pleasures\" to its frequenters. The danger to our pleasure-grounds from engineers necessanly employed upon them, but devoid of the right artistic feeling and unwilling to abide by the counsels of landscape-gardeners, has recently been dwelt upon in these pages and may for the moment be passed by. What we wish now to point out is that it seems probable that more and more schemes to further definitely mtellectual or aesthetic ends will be prosecuted without due regard to the integrity and beauty of our parks as works of landscape-art, and that the patrons of science or newspaper kiosks, or otherwise to it and to pervert it from its true service journals of a more general nature: Century Magazine, Putnam's Magazine, North American Remew. While there were other magazines devoted to horticulture and garden-making, they were written and edited by horticulturists and nurserymen and lacked the international scope and literary style of Garden and Forest. \"His mastery of a felicitous English style and his profound and sympathetic knowledge of floral and arboreal life made him one of the most instructive and charming of contemporary writers; with refined taste and sturdy integrity ...\"8 Endnotes on sources The basic facts of Stiles' life constructed from the extensive obituary notices published at his death: New York Tribune, 7 October 1897; New York Times, 7 October 1897; Garden and Forest, 13 October 1897. M. S. Coulston's biographical entry on William Stiles m Liberty Hyde Bailey's Note were and literature and of art of other kinds are likely to try to injure our great artistic creations like Central and Prospect Parks. And this is, of course, a very insidious danger, as the schemes may be worthy in themselves, and the people who urge them are those whom the public has been told it should trust most implicitly in intellectual and was Cyclopedia of Amencan Horticulture, 1902, also consulted, as well as correspondence question whether the new Public should have been allowed to claim the site Library of the old reservoir on Fifth Avenue, which otherwise would have been added to the area of Bryant Park. The Metropolitan Museum should not have been given a site within Central Park, but placed beyond its limits, as the Museum of Natural History was upon its western borders. And the stand which Mr. Stiles took, as Park Commissioner, in opposing the desires of the Botanical Societywhich, if carried out, will seriously impair the peculiar beauty of Bronx Park and its utilrty as a public pleasure-ground-must convince all the readers of this Journal, who know of his devotion to botany and horticulture and to the task of spreading an mterest m them among the people at large, that here, too, a great mistake has been made, and by ~ust the kmd of persons who ought to be trustworthy guides with regard to the right conservation of the public's park-lands.... artistic matters. It is at least a between Stiles and Frederick Law Olmsted from early 1888 (Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, Library of Congress). Garden and Forest was not the first publication to be \"conducted\"; John Claudius Loudon called himself the \"conductor\" of The Gardener's Magazine (London, 1826-1844). 2 Mabel Parsons, ed., Memones of Samuel Parsons (New York: Putnam's, 1926), 127. 128. 3 Parsons, Forty 563. of Landscape Architecture: Central Park (New York: Putnam's, 1928), Years 5 Fredemck Law Olmsted Sr to Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., 5 September 1890. 6 Garden and Forest, 9 March 1892, 109. ~ C. Bowyer Vaux to John C Olmsted, 8 December 1895, quoted m Francis R. Kowsky, Country, Park, and City The Architecture of Calvert Vaux (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 319. New York 8 Tnbune, 7 October 1897. Phyllis Andersen is Director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum [Garden and Forest 101897\/: 439] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"from New Dangers to Public Parks (1897)","article_sequence":21,"start_page":42,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25267","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd170ab6b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Editorial","article_content":"42 serve the needs of the disadvantaged. The memorial notice published in the October 13, 1897, issue of Garden and Forest, unsigned but undoubtedly written by Charles Sargent, underscored Stiles' \"inflexible purpose\": NEW DANGERS TO PUBLIC PARKS. praising the man whose recent death means a loss to the readers of this journal, and in noting his long usefulness as the most keen-eyed IN heavy He has been more, however, than a brilliant and successful editor of a technical journal; keen love of nature and sympathy with the cravings of the poor shut within city walls from the sight and enjoyment of the country made him fully understand the value and true meaning of urban parks, and for twenty years, always with that modesty which was one of his strongest characteristics, but with inflexible purpose, he has stood between the parks of this city and men who at different times and under different pretenses have tried to deface them.... His death is a senous loss to the readers of Garden and Forest and to every one m the Umted States interested in landscape-gardening, horticulture and the care and protection of our national and state forests. Garden and Forest ceased publication in 1898. Despite the high quality of its writing, its appeal to practitioners in many fields, its international interests and noted contributors, the magazine had always run Sargent had been covering at a loss; its deficit for years. But it may have been the loss of Stiles that decided the issue, for Sargent's major responsibility at that time was building the scientific credibility of the Arnold Arboretum. The magazine had been in many ways Sargent's experiment. In addition to reporting on \"all progress in science and practice\"-horticulture, \"garden botany,\" dendrology, scientific and practical forestry-it deliberately linked these fields with landscape gardening. It even stretched its mission to link landscape gardening with archiStiles' appointment as editor of Garden and Forest gave it a lively, stylish prose comparable to that of tecture. and devoted defender of the public parks of New York, the daily papers have dwelt forcibly upon the dangers which threaten these parks from the \"assaults of the ignorant and vicious.\" But the parks are threatened by other dangers, newer than these, more subtile and insidious, less easily recognized as dangers, and therefore less likely to be frankly and forcibly resisted. And the consciousness of this fact greatly augments, among those who keep close watch upon our parks, the regret which every intelligent American must have felt when he heard of the death of Mr. Stiles. The ignorant and the vicious have long been enemies of the parks-persons who deny their utility because it cannot be translated into terms of dollars and cents; those who are eager to injure them for the sake of giving to the city something, advantageous, perhaps, in its own way, which they think of more \"practical benefit\"; who wish to exploit them for their own profit or who plan to fill them with ugly objects; who barbarously injure their grass, trees, flowers or monuments for their own mischievous pleasure; or who think they know more about caring for them than their professional superintendents, and therefore try to \"arouse the public\" whenever a dying tree is cut or any other needful and desirable work proposed. These people represent the unintelligent, uncultivated and unconscientious elements of the population. They are now recognized as enemies of the public, which m some degree is on its guard against them. Teachers, champions and leaders are still needed to defend the parks from their possible attacks. But the public is now easily roused to oppose their worst efforts; and it is probable that no such bold assault upon Central Park will again be attempted as the effort made a few years ago to run a speedway through it, or the equally horrible one to turn part of it into a barren parade-ground. And the public may likewise be counted upon, although not so confidently, to forbid the attempts of individuals to dot it with penny-m-the-slot 43 machines disfigure for the profit of personal greed under the pretense of supplying special \"conveniences\" or \"pleasures\" to its frequenters. The danger to our pleasure-grounds from engineers necessanly employed upon them, but devoid of the right artistic feeling and unwilling to abide by the counsels of landscape-gardeners, has recently been dwelt upon in these pages and may for the moment be passed by. What we wish now to point out is that it seems probable that more and more schemes to further definitely mtellectual or aesthetic ends will be prosecuted without due regard to the integrity and beauty of our parks as works of landscape-art, and that the patrons of science or newspaper kiosks, or otherwise to it and to pervert it from its true service journals of a more general nature: Century Magazine, Putnam's Magazine, North American Remew. While there were other magazines devoted to horticulture and garden-making, they were written and edited by horticulturists and nurserymen and lacked the international scope and literary style of Garden and Forest. \"His mastery of a felicitous English style and his profound and sympathetic knowledge of floral and arboreal life made him one of the most instructive and charming of contemporary writers; with refined taste and sturdy integrity ...\"8 Endnotes on sources The basic facts of Stiles' life constructed from the extensive obituary notices published at his death: New York Tribune, 7 October 1897; New York Times, 7 October 1897; Garden and Forest, 13 October 1897. M. S. Coulston's biographical entry on William Stiles m Liberty Hyde Bailey's Note were and literature and of art of other kinds are likely to try to injure our great artistic creations like Central and Prospect Parks. And this is, of course, a very insidious danger, as the schemes may be worthy in themselves, and the people who urge them are those whom the public has been told it should trust most implicitly in intellectual and was Cyclopedia of Amencan Horticulture, 1902, also consulted, as well as correspondence question whether the new Public should have been allowed to claim the site Library of the old reservoir on Fifth Avenue, which otherwise would have been added to the area of Bryant Park. The Metropolitan Museum should not have been given a site within Central Park, but placed beyond its limits, as the Museum of Natural History was upon its western borders. And the stand which Mr. Stiles took, as Park Commissioner, in opposing the desires of the Botanical Societywhich, if carried out, will seriously impair the peculiar beauty of Bronx Park and its utilrty as a public pleasure-ground-must convince all the readers of this Journal, who know of his devotion to botany and horticulture and to the task of spreading an mterest m them among the people at large, that here, too, a great mistake has been made, and by ~ust the kmd of persons who ought to be trustworthy guides with regard to the right conservation of the public's park-lands.... artistic matters. It is at least a between Stiles and Frederick Law Olmsted from early 1888 (Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, Library of Congress). Garden and Forest was not the first publication to be \"conducted\"; John Claudius Loudon called himself the \"conductor\" of The Gardener's Magazine (London, 1826-1844). 2 Mabel Parsons, ed., Memones of Samuel Parsons (New York: Putnam's, 1926), 127. 128. 3 Parsons, Forty 563. of Landscape Architecture: Central Park (New York: Putnam's, 1928), Years 5 Fredemck Law Olmsted Sr to Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., 5 September 1890. 6 Garden and Forest, 9 March 1892, 109. ~ C. Bowyer Vaux to John C Olmsted, 8 December 1895, quoted m Francis R. Kowsky, Country, Park, and City The Architecture of Calvert Vaux (New York: Oxford University Press, 1998), 319. New York 8 Tnbune, 7 October 1897. Phyllis Andersen is Director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum [Garden and Forest 101897\/: 439] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Remembering Bernice G. Schubert, 1913-2000","article_sequence":22,"start_page":44,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25280","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ea36d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Bernice Giduz Schubert, 1913-2000 t is with an overwhelming sense of loss that record the death on August 14, 2000, of and friend of the Arnold Arboretum, whose career at Harvard encompassed a total of fiftythree years, first at the Gray Herbarium and later at the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Schubert was born on October 6, 1913, in Boston. She graduated from the Massachusetts College of Agriculture (now part of the University of Massachusetts, Amherst) in 1935 and earned both an A.M.(1937) and a Ph.D. (1942) from Radcliffe College. She was employed at the Gray Herbarium part time while a student (1936-1941)and later full time (1941-1949), working as a technical assistant in plant taxonomy and, more importantly, as editorial aide to Professor Merritt Fernald, then director of the Gray Herbarium, on his two major works, the eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany (1951) and Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North Amemca (1958), coauthored with Kinsey, plus a decade of individual publications. When Professor Fernald died, about three months after publication of the Manual, Dr. Schubert went to the Jardin Botanique de 1'Etat in Brussels on a Guggenheim fellowship where she worked on Leguminosae of the Belgian Congo and Ruanda Urundi. Upon her return to the United States in November 1952, she was employed in the Plant Introduction Section of the U.S. Department of Agriculture in Beltsville, Maryland. The first phase of her work there involved the taxonomy of North and Central American species of the genus Dioscorea. In a second and related phase, she cooperated with chemists of the National Institutes of Health in a search for plants with alkaloids of potential use in treating high blood pressure, collecting samples in Cuba, Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, Panama, Mexico, and Brazil. A summary publication coauthored with J. J. we Bernice Schubert, botanist, editor, colleague, Contained Alkaloids,\" was issued in 1961 as U.S.D.A. Technical Bulletin 1234. In the fall of 1962 Dr. Schubert came to the Arnold Arboretum, first as associate curator and later as curator-an unusual appointment for a woman at a time when there were no women on Willaman, \"Alkaloid-Bearing Plants and Their the roster of Harvard's biology department, and when curatorial appointments were the academic equivalent of associate or full professor. In addition to her curatorial work, as senior lecturer she served as advisor to both undergraduate and graduate biology students and, from 1969 through 1975, she was supervisor of the Harvard University Herbaria building, an arduous task with many interruptions and little appreciation. And when my successor as director, Peter Ashton, was delayed by visa problems, she filled m as acting director of the Arboretum in Cambridge from July 1 to September 30, 1978, bridgmg the gap with her usual competence and outspoken distaste for administrative jobs. Dr. Schubert's prime responsibility was as editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, a post she filled until 1975, after which she chaired the editorial committee (now known as the joint Arnold Arboretum-Gray Herbarium publication committee). In 1984, to honor both her retirement and her seventieth birthday, the Journal staff dedicated number 3 of volume 65 to her. It was said then and can be repeated now that during her tenure as editor, the journal was considered one of the best-edited botanical periodicals of its kind, and she was known to all her authors as a kind editor. Over the course of her long career, Dr. Schubert received a great deal of recognition. She was honored for her work on the genus Begonia with the Eva Kenworthy Gray award of the American Begonia Society and by a Silver Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. She was an honorary member of the Sociedad Botanica de Mexico and a fellow of the Linnean Society of London. Other memberships 45 included the Societe Royale de Botanique de Belgique; the Washington Academy of Sciences; the American Society of Plant Taxonomists ; the International Association of Plant Taxonomy (where she served as secretary of both the Standing Committee on Stabihzation and of the Committee on Nomina Ambigua) ; the American Institute of Biological Sciences; the Botanical Society of America; the New England Botanical Club; and the Society of Economic Botany (where she served on the Council). In 1978 she served on the committee on Desmodieae for the International Legume Conference held at Kew. A full listing of Dr. Schubert's ninety-four publications will be given in Taxon. Among them are twenty-nine on Begoma, nineteen on Desmodmm, twelve on steroids, papers eleven to Dioscorea, in addition obituaries, book reviews, and articles on miscellaneous other on subjects. Dr. Schubert welcomed all visi- the Harvard University a tour of the Jamaica Plain collections or of the botanists' graves at Mt. Auburn Cemetery. She often entertained in her apartment, a botamcal treasure-house of museum-quality artifacts; the \"wooden flowers of El Fortin\" were a particular mterest. For years her living room was dommated by a full-size loom on which she practiced weaving as a hobby. In her last years she continued to entertain students and professional botamsts at restaurants, still exercising her talent for making each guest feel special. My own sixty-year association with Bernice Schubert began when we were fellow graduate students in the Radcliffe laboratory of the Gray Herbarium and it continued through our years of retirement. I developed a deep respect and appreciation for this remarkable woman whose contributions to the Arboretum and the Hertors to Herbaria, offering ------ --------------- --------- ----------------- ------------------- baria were unprecedented both at a variety, and this most women term in number and time when the careers of were limited to shortthe Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States project or as research fellows, Mercer fellows, herbarium assistants, or, vaguely, as botanists. Her ashes are buried in Mt. Auburn Cemetery where Asa Gray, Sereno Watson, Merritt L. Fernald, Oakes Ames, Charles Schweinfurth, Reed Rollins, and other former Harvard botamsts are interred. in botany to appointments Richard A. Howard "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":23,"start_page":46,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25281","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd14ea726.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"46 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia 2. Publication No: 0004-2633. 3. Filing Date. 31 October 2000. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No of Issues Published Annually 4 6 Annual Subscmption Price: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Busmess Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 021303500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managmg Editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Secumttes: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed during the precedmg 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia 14 Issue Date for Circulation Data Below: November, 2000. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months. 3,863. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,900. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation.1 ~ Paid\/Requested Outside-County Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 2,884. No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,850. (2) Paid In-County Subscriptions: none. (3\/ Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales: none. ~4~ Other Classes Mailed Through the USPS: none. c Total Paid and\/ or Requested Circulation. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 2,884. Actual No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,850. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months: 159. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 144. e. Free Distnbution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. 150. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 140 f. Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 309. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 284. g. Total Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,193. Actual No. Copies of Smgle Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,134. h. Copies Not Distributed. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 670. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 766. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,863. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,900. ~. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 90%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 91%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. The Arnold oretum , ~ , S . 2 0 0 0 Arboretum Embarks on Robert E. Cook, Director At the Strategic Planning Process ambitious millenium, the Arnold Arboretum finds itself at an unusual place in its history. Over the past decade, great improvements have been made in the curauon of the living collections and the care of the grounds. The Hunnewell Visitor Center, our main administrative building, has been fully renovated and our other facilities and equipment have been brought to a high state of maintenance. Our staff has grown in size with new programs in education and cultural landscapes, and we continue to mount international expe- ditions for botanical exploration and collecting. We are about to begin construction on three major landscape projects, the largest of which will create a new collection of sun-loving shrubs and vines m a four-acre garden. Finally, we have successfully completed a fundraising campaign that garnered nearly ten million dollars. This, combined with the remarkable performance of the Harvard Management Company over the past several years, has more than doubled the value of our endowment. It is, therefore, an ideal time to stop, take a breath, and decide where we would like to go in the next two decades. Several years ago our staff assessed our programs as part of a long-range planning effort. Many of the ideas that surfaced during this process have taken programmatic form. Some have been more successful than others, and many have broadened the activities of the Arboretum staff beyond a narrow focus on woody plant research and education. Because of our strong financial and administrative position, it is appropriate that a strategic planning process examine a wide range of options while bringing a critical perspective to the assumptions and constraints that have traditionally governed the operations of the Arboretum. We should determine what our core values are and how these might fuel a set of goals for the coming quarter century. We have concluded that this will require external assistance, and we have identified a consultant, the Technical Development Corporation of Boston, with excellent experience in facilitating critical self-examination and providing guidance on developing long-range plans for nonprofit organizations. We anticipate a process that will begin this fall and yield a final document by May of 2001. I thank all the friends of the Arboretum whose loyal support and generous contributions have given us this wonderful opportunity. A Visit to Cuba's Cienfuegos Botanical Garden Peter Del Tredici, Director It was of Living Collections based m unbelievably good spend eight days this August at the Cienfuegos Botanimy sugarmill owner, Edwin F. fortune to Atkins, and Harvard University, Cuba. My trip was sponsored by Harvard University's David Rockefeller Center of Latin American Studies, which asked me to evaluate the current condition of the garden and to provide the staff with technical assistance in garden maintenance and plant cal Garden in particular, professors George L. Goodale and Oakes Ames. In its early days, the garden was chiefly devoted to studying plants of importance (especially sugar cane) and was funded entirely by Atkins. In 1920, he arranged for a long-term lease of the garden to Harvard and established an endowment to fund research in tropical economic botany by Harvard professors and students. As well as being mtereconomic ~ propagation. The garden, which circles is in Harvard known as the Atkins Garden, was founded in 1899 as a partnership between a Boston- conttnued on page 2 ~ from page 1 ested was in economic plants, Atkins in trees deeply interested and developby sendmg many trees to the garden from personally supported ment the of an arboretum nurseries in Florida. At the time of his death in 1926, the arboretum was a well-established part of the garden. When the garden was founded, it was only eleven acres in size. It grew steadily in size in direct proportion to the Atkins family interest in the project, eventually - of 221 acres A small laboratory facil1938. ity was built in 1924 (which also housed the library) to facilitate the research use of the collections. Harvard continued to operate the garden until 1961, when the Cuban government nationalized the Atkins sugar plantation and mill and took control of the garden. They renamed it the \"Cienfuegos Botanical Garden\" and placed it under the administration of the Cuban Academy reaching a maximum .. ~ 1!I1iOI~_C'\" 'i ---- in Staff of the Cienfuegos Garden. of Sciences. The first official post-1961 contact between the Cienfuegos Botanical Garden and Harvard University occurred in November of last year, thanks to the concerted efforts of the David Rockefeller Center and members of the Atkins family. Around the time of my visit this past summer, strong e-mail communication channel made preparations for the trip relatively easy. The current director, Dr Lazaro Ojeda, was extremely helpful, and the lateness of the hour notwithstanding, was at the garden to greet my wife Susan (who acted as my translator) and me. We lodged in the immaculately maintained \"Casa Catalma,\" a dormitory built in 1938 to house visiting scholars. Planting season was in full swing a The former Harvard Biological Laboratory building. that affect botanical gardensconservation and education as well as the more traditional topics of mamtenance and propagation. My wife and I came away with deep respect for the staffs dedication to their work and with the knowledge that the garden's future will be bright. Indeed, this coming while we were there, so we got to see the garden in all-out operation, including nursery, curatorial, functions. Despite a scarcity of resources (especially gasohne), the garden is maintained to a high level, and new plants are being added conunuously The palm collection is particularly impressive with about 267 species in 66 genera growing and maintenance November the grounds. Also the collections of and legumes. on are noteworthy bamboo, figs, as Just as tions interesting the collec- (perhaps as you are reading this article) the Cienfuegos Garden, m honor of its hundredth anniversary, will be hosting a special international symposium on \"Challenges Facing Botanical Gardens First Century.\" in was our a dialogue with the the Twenty- staff on wide variety of issues Ell Arboretum Holds Oldest Franklinias Pamela Thompson, Adult Education Coordinator den and to distribute cuttings. The tree has not been found in the wild since 1803. Beyond dates and locations of trees, the census data create a resource for those wishing to grow franklmia. To determine the optimum growing conditions, the survey requested information on soil, drainage, exposure, and more The consensus is that franklinias favor a clay soil with excellent drainage, prefer to be situated among other plantings in south-facing locations, and thnve in sun to part shade. Most of the franklmas reported are six to ten feet in height with a trunk circumference of one to five inches. The majority range in age from one to ten years A survey conducted by Historic Bartram's Garden and the John Bartram Association reveals that the two oldest documented franklima trees in the world, dating from 1905, are growing at the Arnold Arboretum. These trees, known botamcally as Franklznra alatamaha, are descendants of a tree of Bartram's original collection at Historic Bartram's Garden in Philadelphia, which was given to the Arboretum in 1884 by Philadelphia city councilman Thomas Meehan, a former gardener at Bartram's Garden. Both trees can be found on Chinese Path on Bussey Hill. In 1998, as part of a tricentennial celebration of botanist and explorer John Bartram, the John Bartram Association launched an international franklinia census to determine how many are growing and where, as well as to locate the oldest specimens. By May of this year, 2,046 franklimas were reported from 35 states and the District of Columbia and 8 foreign countries. In New England, Massachusetts reported 92 specimens; Connecucut has 56; Rhode Island, 15; New Hampshire, 3; Vermont, 2; and Maine, 1. Although several people reported franklinias thought to be about 100 years old (on New York's Long Island, the Connecticut coastlme, and in the Philadelphia area), the Arboretum was able to document the age of its specimens. That any of these trees exist today is due to John Bartram and his son William, who first discovered the plant in the wild in 1765 and had the foresight to propagate the plant for their gar- old. The Arboretum's largest plant is 19.99 feet in height and spread and 10.78 inches in diameter at breast height. To find out more about the history and availability of the franklinia, visit Historic Bartram's Garden at www.libertynet.org\/ bartram. The 2000 Arboretum interns: Standing in rear, Otto Hasilo, Grant Jones, Dmo Rossi, Andrew Pulte; seated at center, Alice Kitajima, Phil Kopf, Andrew Maciaszek, Maria Liszkay, Mary Sullivan; front, Virginia Harding, Andrew Heffner, Eva Novoa, Katalin Heja. Not pictured: Sheila Rabideaux. New on the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies Website www.icls.harvard.edu\/current.htm The Future of Farming on Protected Landscapes. This edited version of a roundtable held at the Arnold Arboretum profiles discussion participants and their farms, and focuses on preserving the complex social and economic processes that produce farm landscapes: Land, the Most Visible Farm Asset: Land Protection in a Changing Preserving Farm Regions, Affordability & Property Rights Farm Farm Economy, \"Work\" in \"Working Landscapes\": Farmer Recruitment & Farm New Farm Markets & Products (including environmental quality & education!) !) Finances, Operations, the Farmers & Nonfarmers: Farm Neighbors, the Nonfarming is Public Natural Science and Cultural Landscapes. The Institute in the natural sciences, particularly ecology. The first items director Robert E. Cook: to looking for ways to tap into relevant work be posted are talks by Arnold Arboretum Is Do Landscape Preservation an Oxymoron? Landscapes Learn? Ecology's \"New Paradigm\" and Design in Landscape Architecture The site will also explore the changing ways in which scientists have defined an \"ecosystem,\" the tangled history of the far newer term \"ecosystem management,\" and the broader history of connections (or the lack of them) between science and landscape management. www.icls.harvard.edu\/events.htm Check this page for upcoming events sponsored by the Institute and others, as well as for readings and publications related to past and upcoming events. Fall 2000 Institute events have included: A session on farmland at the Massachusetts statewide historic preservation conference A series of field walks and talks called A free Reading the Landscape of New England public lecture, Open Space in Boston: Let's Not Suburbanize From Within Landscape Studies, please leave a message at 617-524-1718 xl75 To or contact the Institute for Cultural email icls@arnarb.harvard.edu. Letters of Participation Awarded The Arnold Arboretum offers three letters of participation through the adult education program. These letters provide students with a focus of study and documentation of courses taken at the Arboretum. More information about the letters of participation is located in the Arboretum's catalog of programs and events. Since the fall 1997 issue of Arnoldra, a number of people have completed the reqmrements for letters of participation. Congratulations to each! Letters of participation have been earned by: Temperate Woody Plant Materials Paula Berardi Robert Cappuccio Dorick Corbo Laura Horky Historic Landscape Preservation Woody Plant Propagation Paula Berardi Robert Cappuccio Miriam Hawkes Larry Lee Jones Susan Lemont Linda DesRoches Tern Rochon Pnscilla Williams Dale Wilson Larry Lee Jones O! New Staff Michael Dosmann has joined the Arboretum as a Putnam Fellow in the living collections department. His primary responsibilities will be the planting design and selection for the new shrub and vine the Arboretum\" show for Jamaica Plain Open Studios. Steve Schneider is the Arboretum's apprentice for 2000-2001. This year-long position allows him to rotate through the three areas of the living collections department: curanon, greenhouses, and Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies. She comes to us with fourteen years' experience at the Graduate School of Public Health and Medical School; she has also worked in the fields of law and human services. Harvard, in -----.-.-- -~ garden. He will also participate in various projects on the grounds as well as pursue his own research using the living collections. Michael received his bachelor of science in public horticulture from Purdue University and his master of science in horticulture from Iowa State University (ISU) in 1996 and 1998, respectively. As the Garden Club of America's Martin McLaren Fellow for 19981999, he worked at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the Royal Botanic Garden Nancy Sableski, our new children's education coordinator and a Jamaica Plain neighbor, has -----_.~-~ QUincy, grounds. Originally from Quincy, Onglnally Massachusetts, Steve earned his bachelor of science from Northeastern in biology in a University May new 2000. He is not, however, Edinburgh, and been visiting the Arboretum for twenty years, often to paint landscapes. She holds a BFA with honors in painting from the Massachusetts College of Art and a master's degree from Simmons College School of Social Work. Nancy became a volunteer school guide in the Arboretum's field studies program in April, 1998; she was later hired as school programs assistant. Most recently, she coordinated the Boston Urban Gardeners' education program. Her volunteer work now involves coordinating the fall \"Artists in over face at the Arboretum: he spent the summer of 1999 working as an intern in the Dana Greenhouses. Since graduauon, he has served as adjunct curator of the Northeastern University Herbarium, where he also worked as a student. He aspires to a career in a botanical garden as horticultural the school of plant science, University of Reading. He comes to us from ISU's department of hor- therapist. Two visitors at ticulture where he was employed research assistant. Michael's interests in horticulture and as a faces are serving our the Arboretum's front desk. Sonia Brenner and Sandra new Morgan as have joined Sheryl White in botany span woody plant ecology visitor services assistants the and systematics, and ornamental plant selection and evaluation. education arts department And, like most plantsmen, he his eyes open for the rare, keeps unusual, and interesting. Sonia earned her bachelor of degree in comparative literature from Oberlin College in May 2000. She spent her junior year at the Pans Center for Critical Stud- Karen Pmto's staff assistantship will be shared between the admin- istration department and the University of Pans. taught at a nature center in West Virginia, served ies and the Sonia has "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23321","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0608526.jpg","title":"2000-60-2","volume":60,"issue_number":2,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25259","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd1608528.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Harrison, Mary","article_content":"Mary Gibson Henry, Plantswoman Extraordinaire Mary Harrison eighteenth century the amateur was a breed of botanist, especially in Colonial America. John Bartram, who was to become the king's botanist in 1765, learned his art through experience in the field and by corresponding with hortin familiar the both sides of the Atlantic. as America's first woman botanist, learned from her father and the books he procured for her, and through correspondence with botanists who admired her ability to recognize unusual species around her home m New York State. In the twentieth century the tradition continued and was represented especially well by Mary Gibson Henry. Mary Henry was born in 1884 at her grandparents' house near Jenkinstown, Pennsylvania, to Susan Worrell Pepper and John Howard Gibson. Her mother's family were Quakers who had come from England with William Penn and taken part in the founding of Philadelphia. Horticulture was a traditional pursuit on both sides of the family. George Pepper, a great-grandfather, had been a member of the first Council of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society in 1828, and her Gibson grandfather, a keen plantsman, had his own greenhouse. Her father enjoyed hunting and camping, and contributed to her interest m the natural world. The home of Mary's family was in the center of Philadelphia and had no garden, but before her father's death in 1894, the family often visited Moosehead Lake in Maine. There, under her father's influence, her familiarity with the countryside developed. She became especially interested in native plants, and her first acquaintanceship with twinculturists and botanists on Jane Colden, sometimes referred to Mary Gibson Henry (second from left) photographed m the ballroom of her grandparents' house, 'Maybrook', m Wynnewood, Pennsylvama. To her left is her daughter Josephme deNemours Henry, and at her nght is her aunt Mary Klett Gibson. At the far nght is her daughter Mary Gibson Henry Dams. 3 4 i flower (Linnaea borealis), a dwarf evergreen shrub, awakened m her \"not only a love for and appreciation of the absolute perfection of the flower itself, but also for the dark, silent forest that shelters such treasures.\" Many years later ( 1932) she came upon this plant again, in northern British Columbia, growing \"in damp, shady woods, in lower altitudes and on bare, bleak, stony mountain tops up to 6000 feet.\" Mary attended the Agnes Irwin School in Philadelphia for six years; when she left in 1902, her formal education ended. In the years following school she visited the Grand Canyon and the Colorado Rockies, and on a trip to Europe she climbed Mont Blanc with her brother and several guides. In 1909 she married John Norman Henry, a physician who later became Philadelphia's director of public health as well as president of the General Alumm Society of the University of Pennsylvama. The couple first lived in Philadelphia where Mrs. Henry had \"a nice backyard ... and a tiny greenhouse.\" In 1915 they acquired a large farm in Maryland with a view to building a home there. The plan was abandoned when World War I interfered and Dr. Henry volunteered for duty overseas. Nevertheless, long summers spent in exisring bungalows on the property allowed Mrs. Henry to develop a large kitchen garden, acquire some exotic ornamentals, and experiment with native rock plants. In addition to gardening in Maryland, she cultivated orchids in the Philadelphia greenhouse, and in 1924 she published an essay on the subject in Garden Magazine. She read widely in horticulture and botany, and it was her reading during this period that first developed her interest in wild plants of the southeastern United States. Two books were of special significance to her, Manual of the Southeastern Flora by J. K. Small and The Travels of Willlam Bartram, which she found an \"unending source of inspiration.\" Time to indulge horticultural interests was limited, however, for Mrs. Henry quickly became the mother of five children, the youngest of whom died at the age of six. Although basically confined to home during the twenties, she continued to expand her knowledge about plants by studying nursery catalogs, often from \" \" distant places-Trees and Shrubs from a nursery in Tunbndge Wells, England; Coolldge Rare Plant Gardens (1923) from a California nursery; Himalayan and Indigenous Plants, Bulbs, Seeds (1927) from a nursery in Bengal, India. Seed lists came from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Office of Foreign Plant Introductions, and from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, which she had visited in 1923. (Following that visit Mrs. Henry initiated a correspondence with the R.B.G.'s Regius Keeper, William Wright-Smith, that lasted until he died in 1956. Indeed, Wright-Smith was among the earliest of several mentors to whom she looked for professional advice.)( In 1926 the Henrys bought Gladwyne, a rundown farm of ninety hilly acres twelve miles from the center of Philadelphia, where they hoped to combine the functions of their Philadelphia and Maryland homes. As the Henrys' architect described it, a greenhouse was built with a house attached. Planting must have begun immediately, for a 1928 inventory of the Gladwyne garden records over 200 shrubs and plants, with multiple varieties of several species-seven Cornus florida and three Hamamelis vernal1s, for example. Mrs. Henry's interest in diversity within a single species was later reflected in her passion for collecting and hybridizing and an unflagging pursuit of particular colors and dimensions. By 1931 1 there were some 850 trees and shrubs in her garden, some of them new Asiatic finds acquired from the collectors Forrest, Wilson, Rock, Farrer, and Ward. Another of Mrs. Henry's early mentors was Francis Pennell, curator of botany at the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, from whom she sought help with identification. When she expressed an interest in collecting wild plants for her garden, it was he who urged her to collect herbarium specimens along with the plants and schooled her in how to document her finds. In part, Mrs. Henry attributed her desire to collect to William Bartram. His glowing description of Rhododendron speciosum flammeum (now R. speciosum) had fired her desire to acquire a specimen, and when her search in commercial outlets and botanical gardens 5 was also accompanied by her daughter Josephine, a skilled photographer who took color photographs of plants later used by Mrs. Henry in Henry her lectures. On her first trip to the Southeast she covered 2,000 miles and on that and later trips collected seven color variations of Rhododendron speciosum. Later expeditions were made along the Atlantic Coastal Plain, on the Piedmont Plateau, m Appalachia, and in the mountains of east Tennessee and Alabama. Mrs. Henry planted her finds at Gladwyne and sent herbarium specimens to the Academy of Natural History in Philadelphia and the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. Experience quickly taught her that \"rare and beautiful plants can be found m places that are difficult of access.... shove one's self under briars, with through wriggle awkward results to clothing Wadbare legged through countmg usually less rattlesnake infested swamps adds immensely to the interest of the day's work ... On several occasions I have been so deeply mired I had to be pulled One of the showiest of natme Amencan azaleas, Rhododendron out.\" She also learned that the habispeciosum (now R. flammeum), the Oconee azalea Mrs. Henry's tats of of the she sought repeated ~ourneys m search of this plant resulted m seven color were inmany needplants of protection. In urgent vanants Its range is confmed to USDA zones 6 and 7. the Southeast she found the swamp proved unsuccessful, she decided to seek it in habitats of wild lilies being used as waterholes for cattle or as dumps. To encourage the growth the wild. This was the impetus for a long life of of grass for grazing, farmers often burned brush, annual and sometime biannual collecting trips that continued until her death m 1967. destroying wild azaleas at the same time. These Her sympathetic husband encouraged her to threats reinforced her determination to collect fulfill her ambitions and was able to equip her and cultivate American natives and to eventuhandsomely with the tools and transport needed ally mtroduce them to American gardens. for her expeditions. A car (specifically, a Lincoln During a family holiday to Canada's Jasper National Park in 1930, the Henry family learned Continental), \"outfitted with an 'attic,' an elecof a \"tropical valley\" in northern British trically lit desk and a bookcase\" was designed. \"The rear compartment is insulated and ventiColumbia that was reportedly frost-free in spite lated so that newly collected plants can travel of the extreme winter temperatures surrounding comfortably. Three plant presses, numerous it. Their curiosity aroused, the family decided to buckets, spades etc. are part of the equipment.\" explore the area; for Mrs. Henry the opportunity This unusual vehicle was driven by a chauffeur, to collect in completely new territory in terrain Ernest Perks, who remained with the Henrys for ranging from 2,550 to 9,000 feet was an irresistOn some of her journeys Mrs. ible challenge. sixty-five years. Often one or has to ... \" G Mary Gibson Henry and members of her family at the outset of them expeditlon to Bntish Columbia m 1930. The Canadian Department of the Intemor had little information on the area. Mrs. Henry summarized it later, \"Waterfalls and rapids in the rivers make traveling by water impossible, while the distance by land is great over wide stretches of bog and mountainous country still in its virgin roughness, and much of it yet unmapped.\" However, an old schoolfnend of Dr. Henry, then head of the Canadian National Railways, gave them helpful advice, and the Canadian government sent along a topographer, K. F. McCusker, to map the territory as they explored. Since the Henry family included two sons and two daughters ranging in age from 14 to 21 and their travels would take them to remote areas, they also arranged for a physician to accompany them. The party left Philadelphia by tram on June 25, 1931, arriving at Pouce Coupe, in northern British Columbia, on June 30. From there they motored to Fort St. John, where they joined the 9 men, 58 horses, and all the supplies that would accompany them. For the next eighty days, they traveled fifteen to twenty miles a day on horseback with occasional stops to collect plants, seeds, and herbarium specimens. The journey led them alongside rivers and through meadows filled with Jacob's ladder (Polemonium), larkspur (Delphmium), and pensteIn the higher country bellflower mons. (Campanula) and forget-me-not (Myosotis) were abundant. \"Collecting plants while riding with a pack is not always a simple matter. A trowel goes in a leather sheath on one side of my belt and a knife on the other side. A strong pair of saddle bags is fastened to the pommel on my saddle, in which each morning are placed several empty jam cans. Each evening all full cans are aired and watered, and in the morning are all carefully packed in wooden packing cases on the horses. Quite frequently the cans were frozen solid to the ground and I had to use my ax to chop them loose.\" Mrs. Henry's collecting methods proved reasonably successful, and J 7 Tropical Valleys in the Far Northwest Reports such as those heard by the Henrys of \"tropical\" valleys m Canada's far northwest were frequent at the time. The heating agent was the many sulphur springs in those valIn the 1920s their warmth enabled a working out of Fort Laird, withm seven degrees of the Arctic Circle, to grow winter crops of potatoes, onions, and tobacco. The area the Henrys were interested in exploring lies between the Peace and Liard rivers, roughly 56 north latitude & 121 west longtitude and 58 north latitude & Henry noted \"rank growth of delphinium over eight feet tall and raspberries, and vetches growing m the thickest, most luxuriant tangle.\" A pool nine feet in diameter with crystal clear water and temperatures estimated at about ninety degrees Fahrenheit provided an \"Arctic Tub\" enjoyed by the group. McCusker gave Henry family names to many of the rivers, lakes, and mountains they encountered. One mountam at 9,000 feet \"stands forth pre-eminently, its snowcovered summit towering above the others, the highest mountain we saw all summer.\" This McCusker named for Mary Henry and subsequently British Columbia's Department of Lands made the name official. In the following year Hugh Raup, then an associate researcher at the Arnold Arboretum, made an Arboretum-sponsored collecting trip to the same territory. He described his experience and catalogued his and Mary Henry's collections in Phytogeographic Studies in the Peace and Upper Liard River Regions, Canada. He mcluded a brief account of the Henry expedition and noted that Mrs. Henry \"collected 350 numbers of flowering plants and ferns, makmg notable additions to the known flora of the region.\" On a lecture tour of England and Scotland roses often leys. trapper 123 west longitude. The first Europeans had made their way through the northern Rocky Mountains by way of the Peace River some 150 years previously, but few botanical collectors had been there. In 1872, the Canadian botamst John Macoun, working for the Canadian Pacific Railway, collected in the vicinity of Fort St. John (established about 1805\/ and Hudson Hope (established in 1808). He also collected for the Canadian Geological Survey, which carried out a scientific investigation of the Peace River in 1875. Further surveys by others had been made m 1887 and 1891, resultmg m some knowledge of the distribution of certain trees and shrubs. In response to the Henrys' discussions with the Canadian Department of the Interior, one of their topographers, K. F. McCusker, was assigned to accompany the group and to map the territory. The expedition began on 25 June 1931, covered a thousand miles on foot and horseback, and lasted in 1948, Mrs. Henry presented an account eighty days. many of the to Near sulphur springs, Mary of her travels to the Royal Horticultural Society and to the Royal Scottish Geographical Society, which awarded her the Mungo Park Medal for Exploration in Northern British Columbia. plants survived the journey back Philadelphia. Opuntia fngida, Monarda molhs var. menthaefolia, Artemesia frigida, Amelanchier florida, and Cornus stolonifera survived at Gladwyne for some years, but many of the northerners were unable to adjust to the local climate. Mrs. (Rhododendron lappomcum), collected sent a near St. Paul's lake in northern British Columbia. She Henry considered the most mteresting find of the expedition to be Lapland rosebay specimen for identification to Alfred Rehder, the curator of the herbarium at the Arnold Arboretum, who reported that it was previously known in North America only in the East northward of the higher mountains of northern New York and New England. He declared it \"an extremely interesting discovery ... its occur- 8. rence phytogeographical neither in Western North America is of great interest ... I have placed a small twig of it on record in our herbarium... for we nor the Gray herbarium had any specimens of this species from the West.\" Herbarium specimens were also distributed the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia and the Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh, and a few woody plants came to the Arnold Arboretum. The Royal Botanical Garden, Edinburgh, also received seventy packages of seed, and fifty cans of living plants went to to Gladwyne. Henry traveled back to the Peace River 1932, 1933, and 1935 with her daughter, Josephme, and K. F. McCusker, the topographer. Mrs. area in which she developed a naturalistic rock garden. The plantmgs included native American alpine plants, some of them collected in northern British Columbia; many varieties of phlox, silene, and artemesia; hymenocallis from Georgia and Florida; tradescantia from the Gulf of Mexico; gentiana from New Jersey; and yuccas from eighteen different locations; calycanthus and low-growing magnolias from Georgia; and many varieties of dwarf rhododendrons. A trillium garden was planted in a woody area near a small stream, and collections from Texas, New Mexico, and Arizona were established in a desert rock garden. Each plant was provided with a soil mixture and habitat as similar as communicated with Philadelphia via twelve carrier pigeons they brought with them and received messages from Dr. Henry by radio They receiver. Following Mrs. eastern these trips to British Columbia Henry continued collecting in the south- part of the United States. Nothing could delight in the northlands, but comfew plants from there were able to paratively survive the hot summers in Philadelphia, whereas plants from the Southeast flourished there. \"As a field botanist,\" she wrote, \"duty calls me to those fertile fields of our southern states where so many treasures lurk in out of the way corners.\" From 1931 to 1935 Mrs. Henry wrote six parts of her account of the Peace River expedition, Collecting Plants Beyond the Frontier, published by National Horticulture Magazine; two final segments appeared in the same journal in 1949. During this period she also wrote twentythree other articles, most of them published in Horticulture or in National Horticulture Magazine. Her topics included uncommon oaks and rare rhododendrons, little known violets and unusual honeysuckles, hybrid jasmmes and Indian begonias. Based on her own personal experience, she evaluated plants for cold hardiness and recommended soil mixtures, transplanting methods, and greenhouse techniques. Following her husband's death in 1938, Mrs. Henry turned her attention to expandmg her garden. At the summit of the land at Gladwyne was a huge deposit of Baltimore gneiss around surpass her Hymenocallis henryae. western named it. m Mrs. Henry found this new species Florida, botamst Hamilton Traub descmbed and Mrs. Henry collected species of Hymenocallis from eleven southern states. Some were planted outside and hfted for the wmter At one time she had 125 vaneties of hly, \"distmct, beautiful vamants of eastern Amencan hhes.\" As she much of my time. \" herself noted, hhes \"engaged 9 -- ~ ~~ ------------------- ~~ ~ \"As for my rock garden, the largest of the existmg pile of rocks were too big to move and all I did was to rearrange the smaller ones and to make paths and steps that are scarcely distmgmshable. Soils were changed mto smtable mixtures\" (1943) Mrs. Henry gives scale. possible to its original growing conditions; the change in latitude often resulted in plants remaining desirably small and compact. Visitors to Gladwyne often commented on the range of plants growing there. E. H. Wilson, in identifying Quercus pumlla, which Mrs. Henry had sent him, expressed surprise that this southeastern plant should prove hardy m Philadelphia ; and William Judd, Arnold Arboretum propagator and one of Mrs. Henry's advisors, was impressed by the many rare and unusual plants that could not be found elsewhere so far north. At the end of the 1930s Mrs. Henry began to receive recognition for her achievements. She became a director of the American Horticultural nia Horticultural Society and a council member of the Pennsylva- Society. When the Rock Garden Society inaugurated their bulletin in 1943, she was appomted associate editor and wrote the first article m volume one, number one, \"A Rock Garden of Natives.\" In 1941 she became a research associate in the department of botany at the Academy of Natural Sciences, Philadelphia. That same year the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society awarded her their Schaeffer Gold Medal for her \"notable contribution to horticulture. Her keen eye has detected many species and varieties of horticultural value. These have been transplanted to or propagated in her garden at Gladwyne and her skill in their culture has made possible the demonstration that many highly attractive native plants can be grown far from their native haunts ... As a result of her untiring efforts we are now more 10 including many varieties of Henry's phlox and penstemon. Mrs. Over the years her interest in collecting and breeding lilies had grown. In 1946 she was awarded the silver medal at a lily show organized by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. \"The most outstanding exhibit of lilies from the American wilds was the eight selections of Lilium philadelphicum now being cultured by Mrs. Henry at Gladwyne, Pennsylvania,\" wrote the judges. Perhaps the ment most satisfying achievewas in her work with lilies the discovery of a fragrant, yellow specimen in a cattle pasture in southern Alabama, near the Gulf of Mexico. \"I had long hoped,\" she confessed, \"that I might chance upon some species which had remained unknown to science.\" In addition to herbarium specimens she collected seeds, which were successfully propagated at Gladwyne and bloomed after five years. The species did prove to be a new discovery; Mrs. Henry named it Lilium iridollae, for it represented to her \"the pot of gold at the foot of Phlox x henryae, a cross of P. nivalis and P. bifida, omgmated at my rainbow.\" Gladwyne, \"a chance seedling m my tmal garden. P x henryae, a pale In 1949 Mrs. Henry's garden was pmk with deeply notched lobes, is m the foreground with P. bifida threatened with destruction when the m the rear. State of Pennsylvania and the U.S. than ever aware of the tremendous potentialiArmy Engineers decided to use Gladwyne \"as a ties of the native American flora for supplying dump for the silt, sewage and refuse to be \" plants worthy of cultivation.\" pumped from the bottom of the Schuykill It was at this time that Mrs. Henry began River.\" She called upon her many botanist to make her plants available to nurseries. The friends and colleagues around the United States and in Great Britain to support her appeal to the Upper Banks Nursery, operated by Fairman was a fifty-acre garden and rare plant Furness, governor of Pennsylvania to spare the property. Not only was the appeal successful, but the letnursery along Ridley Creek m Media, Pennsylvania. In 1940 Mrs Henry gave Furness permisters her supporters wrote provide clear evidence sion to gather cuttings of many of the plants in of Mrs. Henry's status in the horticultural her garden. When the plants were ready for world. All spoke of the importance of her collecdistribution in 1942, he published a catalog, tion of native and rare American plants and Rare and Native Shrubs Collected by Mary of its great scientific and horticultural value. Some put the garden in the same class as the Henry, that included varieties of Rhododenand dron, Calycanthus, Halesia, Philadelphus, Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and the Arnold that she had developed. The Mayfair Arboretum. Mrs. Henry was described as a Syringa Nurseries, rock garden specialists in Hillsdale, highly competent botanist and an extremely New Jersey, also offered plants from Gladwyne, skilled horticulturist. The president of the -.- --- \" \" 11 1 Royal Horticultural Society pointed out that her fine American flora, \"much superior to the ordinary run,\" were being distributed to gardens in England. Hugh Raup, professor of botany at the Harvard Forest, wrote, \"She has been an indefatigable student of horticultural values in the native American flora, in the finest tradition.\" To safeguard the garden's future, Mrs. Henry established the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, dedicated \"to the collection and preservation of choice, rare and endangered New World Plants.\" A year or so before her death Mrs. Henry was advised by her physician to reduce the strenuous level of her activities. She nevertheless contmued to lead a full life as outlined in the 1966 publication Accomplishments of the Foundation, which recounts her activities during the last full year of her life. Between May and August she spent 42 days in the field, traveling in Delaware, Maryland, Virgmia, West Virginia, Kentucky, North Carolina, and Florida, and collecting some 75 plants, including another Lillmm iridollae and a Styrax americanum that still grows at Gladwyne. That same year she filled orders from retail nurseries all over the United States and from individuals from Peru to Israel. She distributed Gladwyne material to the Morris Arboretum, the University of Arkansas, the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, Hilliers Nursery in England, and the Agricultural Experimental Station m Puerto Rico. Visitors to her garden included members of the American Rhododendron Society, the U.S. Department of Agriculture, the New York Botanical Garden, the Royal Botamc Garden, Edinburgh, and the department of botany at Princeton University. Mrs. Henry wrote m her autobiography, \"Winters have found me enmeshed deeply m the routme work of my tmygreenhouse and six coldframes about 600 pots and flats to be repotted and taken care of and that duty devolves entirely on me. Most of the pots contain Amarylhds and what began as 'winter fun' has turned mto a senous breedmg program. ... \" 12 ~ r References Archives of the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, Gladwyne, Pennsylvania 25 September 1943. William Henry Judd to Mary Gibson Henry. 13 November 1931. Alfred Rehder to Mary Gibson Henry. 27 November 1931 Ibid. 19 December 1935. Ibid. 29 November 1929. E.H. Wilson to Mary Gibson Henry. Henry, Josephme deN. 1980. Not All Plantsmen Are Men. Bulletm of the Amencan Rock Garden Society 30(2): 68-73 & 30~3\/: 115-122. Henry, Mary Gibson. Lilium iridollae (the pot-of-gold hly) was perhaps the most chemshed of Mrs. Henry's many fmds She collected the original specimen and seeds m southern Alabama, 1940. A single -flowering plant of three to five feet m height, her 1933. 1950. Herbertia 6: 11-30. An Autobiography. Exploring and Plant Collecting m Northern British Columbia. Year Book of the Pennsylvama Horticultural Society, 68-75 Lily from Southern Alabama and Northern Florida Bartoma Journal of the Philadelphia Botamcal Club 24. 1-4. M 1934. Phytogeographic Studies m the Peace and Upper Liard River Regions, Canada. seedlings first flowered m 1945. 194G. A New On a collecting trip in North Carolina in April 1967, Mary Gibson Henry died at the age of eighty-two. Her years of devotion to horticulture had produced many solid achievements: over a hundred articles had been published in journals such as Herbertia, Bartonia, and Raup, Hugh Contmbutions from the Arnold Arboretum Harvard University VI. of Stout, Natlonal Horticultural Magazine; herbama in Scotland and North America had received thousands of specimen sheets from her collections; the hardiness of plants previously thought too tender for Philadelphia had been demonstrated; new species and varieties had been introduced to arboreta and nurseries; interest in American flora for American gardens had been stimulated; the garden at Gladwyne had been preserved for future generations. Following her mother's death in 1967, Josephine deN. Henry became director of the Foundation, a position she held until 1996, when she was succeeded by Mrs. Henry's granddaughter Susan Treadway. These successors have continued to expand the collection of native American plants and to maintain the natural qualities of the garden. Through lectures, plant sales, and garden tours, new generations are introduced to the work and ideals of the garden's founder. C. Frederick C. 1942. Report of the President. Year Book of the Pennsylvama Horticultural Society, 11. Acknowledgments The author thanks members of the Henry Foundation Miss Josephme deN. Henry, Susan Treadway, and Betsey Davis for their generous hospitality and help m the preparation of this essay. Particularly appreciated is their willingness to grant access to their vast collection of correspondence and photographs. Note visit the Henry Foundation for Botamcal Research, call 610-525-2037 or write to the Foundation at Box 7, Gladwyne, PA 19035, for reservations and information about membership, educational programs, plant sale, hours, fees, directions, and parking. To Harnson is a volunteer m the Arboretum's herbanum and library. She has annotated the letters and diaries of William Judd, the letters of Oakes Ames, and mdexed the mmutes of the Horticultural Club of Boston. Her next undertaking will be the annotation of the diaries of plant explorer Joseph Rock. Mary "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25257","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160bb6b.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Giblin, David","article_content":"Flowering Plants and Their Pollinators at the Arnold Arboretum David Giblin the Arboretum it as a worldrenowned garden with an unparalleled collection of woody any 1Arnold know visitors to plants. For others, it is a park affordmg respite from urban pressures. For still others, it is an important resource for studying a wide range of topics, from plant exploration to arboriculture, from plant taxonomy to the history of landscape design. Speaking for myself, as a floral biologist I view the Arboretum of the world's finest museof pollination biology. The plant collections of the Arnold Arboretum are living The flowers of magnohas are open to all, pollmators and nonpollmators illustrations of the remarkable ahke In this photograph of Magnolia acummata var subcordata, the msitor, a bee, happens to be a pollmator, but it could lust as well be a beetle or fly floral diversity engendered over en7oymg a free meal. evolutionary time by the particiited on the female reproductive structures of vaspation of pollinators in plant reproduction. The cular seed plants, typically with the aid of anivariety of floral sizes, shapes, colors, and fragrances on display demonstrate the range of mals, wind, or water. For pollination to result in adaptations evolved by the flowering plants in fertilization, the sperm cell of a pollen grain must unite with the egg cell of an ovule, after which response to the predilections and idiosyncrasies of their pollinators. the fertilized ovule develops mto a seed. For example, some flowers in the collections Basic biology teaches that the living vascular are open to all potential pollinators; others have seed plants are divided into the gymnosperms evolved complex morphologies that allow entry (the conifers, cycads, gnetophytes, and ginkgo) to only the most reliable visitors. Each morpholand the angiosperms (flowering plants) on the basis of their reproductive characters. The ogy reflects a strategy that has proven successful in ensuring that these winged vectors primary distinction is that gymnosperms (litertransport pollen between flowers. Among the ally, \"naked seeds\") lack flowers-the ovules more astonishing strategies are the use of petal are borne openly in cones-whereas in angiocolor and pattern as signals, both honest and sperms (\"vesseled seeds\") the ovules are enclosed within the carpel of the flower. The deceptive, and of male floral parts that are fossil record has shown that flowers evolved spring-loaded or acoustically sensitive. after the gymnosperms, making the latter the By definition pollination is the process more ancestral lineage. whereby pollen grains (male gametes) are deposas one ums 14 . The course of floral evolution in angiosperms involved several major trends. These include a reduction m overall complexity (for instance, a reduced number of stamens or petals), a transition from radial to bilateral floral symmetry, the fusion of petal and\/or sepal parts, and a transition from a superior ovary (that is, the ovary sits above the attachment of the other floral whorls) to an inferior one. It is important to remember that these are trends; evolution is not a linear process. Ancestral morphologies such as radially symmetrical flowers with separate petals and superior ovaries can be found in angiosperm families that are regarded as having originated pollen grains. In the course of foraging among plants, the insects deposit pollen on the female cones, allowing fertilization to begin. The evolutionary pathway from the gymnosperms to the angiosperms has not yet been completely mapped. We do know that gymnosperms are almost exclusively wind-pollinated, whereas the majority of angiosperms evolved a dependence on insects, birds, or mammals for pollination. Interestingly, recent systematics recently. biologists agree that insects, probably beetles, were the first pollinators, and that gymnosperms were the first seed plants to rely on pollinators for reproduction (Leppik 1960). Gymnosperm taxa, including members of Cycadaceae and Gnetaceae (Welwitschia mirabilis and species of Ephedra), all show evidence of being insect-pollinated (Norstog 1987; Cooper-Driver 1994; Proctor and Yeo 1996). Presumably insects feed on the protein-rich pollen of the male cones and on a sticky, sugar-rich more Most studies have shown that speciation in plants has been greater in those lineages that are animalpollinated (Dodd et al. 1999). Those studies support the theory that diffuse coevolution between angiosperms and their pollinators contributed to today's diversity of flowering plant ~. species (Takhtajan 1991). Diffuse coevolution occurs when two groups of organisms-in this case, flowering plants and pollinators-interact in such a way that evolutionary change in one group leads to evolutionary change in the other. Evidence for diffuse coevolution in the plant-pollinator relationship is suggested by the fossil record, which shows rapid diversification within both angiosperm and insect lineages between 75 and 50 million years ago (Proctor and Yeo 1996). For example, the length of bee mouthparts increased during the time that tubular flowers arose; longer mouthparts presumably allowed access to nectar found at the base of many tubular-flowered feature of the female cone that catches airborne species. Nevertheless, pollination biologists dispute the degree of specialization in the coevolutionary association between plants and pollinators. Several leading researchers believe that the evolution of floral morphologies that attract specific pollinators are the exception. Their evidence is the observation that flowers of many plant species are visited often by a diversity of insect types (Waser et al. 1996). Opponents of this view argue that visitation does not always result in pollination, and it is In the are are bilaterally symmetncal flowers of yellowwoods, the pistil and stamens tightly enclosed mthm the petals, permittmg access only to bees, which both discmmmatmg and rehable pollmators. 15 in order to meet its foraging requirements. Increased flower visitation should mcrease the likelihood of successful pollination. Conversely, pollinators would ideally visit only those flowers that provide an adequate reward relative m to the time and energy invested foraging. Assuming easy access to adequate rewards, the most efficient approach would be to forage randomly among species. In that case, however, the plants would be the losers: the pollen from one plant species might end up in the flower of an unrelated species, and the reproducpollmator visitation, \"sprmg-loaded\" anthers are held by the lower petals. Pollmators disrupt the petals upon entry, releasmg the anthers, which deposit their pollen on the msect's underside. From The Natural History of Pollination by Michael Proctor, Peter Yeo, and Andrew Lack, 1996. Used by courtesy of Timber Press. Pnor to success of each species would be reduced. The result of these conflicts m perspective has been the evolution of strategic compromises between plants and their pollinators. Examples can be found throughout the Arboretum tive pollinator preference that has driven diversification in floral morphology. The long-standing, coevolutionary association between plants and pollinators is based on a mutualism, a win-win situation for the participants of a biological interaction. In this case, plants benefit by getting their pollen transported between flowers, and pollinators benefit by acquiring pollen, nectar, or oils from the flowers that they visit. A mutualism often requires continual adjustments by the participants to ensure a parity in benefits. From the plant's perspective, the number of fertilized ovules must be high enough to justify the investment grounds, enabling us to retrace major developments in these give-and-take relationships. They have contributed substantially to the aesthetic appeal of the Arboretum and, indeed, of gardens everywhere. The magnolia family (Magnoliaceae), prominently displayed near the Hunnewell Visitor Center, is one of the most ancestral angiosperm families in the living collections. Members of the genus Magnolia possess a generalized floral morphology that does not discriminate among floral visitors: the flowers are radially sym- in energy required to attract and reward pollinators. This investment can be measured m terms of flower size and number, duration of flowering period, and\/or amounts of pollen, nectar, or oil produced. To ensure adequate return on this investment, plants typically do not provision each flower with rewards high enough to satisfy the pollinator's needs in a single visit. The goal is to offer a reward generous enough to attract pollinators and yet stmgy enough that the pollinator needs to visit several flowers The reflexed anthers of Kalmia latifolia m the left photo mdicate an unpollmated flower. The photo at nght shows how the anthers are released after pollinator visltation. 16 6 source for some adult beetles and flies. Consequently these floral visitors are consuming rather than transporting the pollen, which reduces the reproductive opportunities for the tree; such is the downside to the easy-access approach. However, in most cases, some of the pollen sticks to the insects' bodies while they feed, to be deposited on the stigmas of flowers visited later. In are some cases, certain visitors as clearly inadequate a polli- A truss of mountam laurel with some anthers still reflexed and yet pollmated, and some released, indicating pollination. to be nators, category that mcludes the indiscriminate forager. A visitor that acquires pollen from the flowers of species A and then visits the flowers of species B makes a poor pollinator; reproductive opportunities for both plants have been lost. Pollen from A is wasted if it ends up on B's flowers because fertilization does not occur. Additionally, the stigmatic surface of B is clogged by A's pollen, and this reduces B's reproductive capacity. Some plants have evolved a two-step solution to this problem: first, they con- pollinators capable fidelity, and second, they develop ways to keep out trive to attract of Communication between flowers and pollmators is specioso the combmation of dark brown splotches common In Catalpa seen m (most easily to the rightmost of the nectar. flower) and yellow patches oment pollinators the location all other visitors. Walking up the Arboretum's main drive we encounter yellowwood (Cladrastis kentukea), scholar tree (Styphnolobium japonicum, formerly Sophora japonica~, and bristly locust metrical; the petals are many and large; and a central strobilus (cone) containing numerous stamens and pistils rises above the petals. A glance inside the flowers on a single tree reveals the result of this open-door policy: a diverse assemblage of flies, bees, and beetles can typically be found. Pollen is the only floral reward offered-not an ideal arrangement from the tree's viewpoint, since pollen is a primary food (Robinia hispida), members of the legume fam- ily (Fabaceae). Unlike the magnolias, these plants have bilaterally symmetrical flowers with the pistil and stamens hidden inside a tight enclosure of petals. Only bees have the strength and coordination to manipulate the petals and gain tar the flower's interior and the necand unlike beetles and flies, bees holds; show a good deal of species-level constancy access to it 17 7 while foraging. Bees visit legume flowers for their nectar, as this sugar-based solution fuels their fhght. Many legumes use \"spring-loaded\" stamens to ensure that the bees they nourish earn their meal. As a bee makes its way into the flower to collect the nectar reward, the flower's fused to form a cuplike structure that offers a steady landmg surface for pollinators. Inspect the flower closely and you will see that the anthers are held m small depressions that ring the inner periphery of the petal tissue. This creon the filaments that hold the their other end is anchored lower down in the center of the flower. Each stamen therefore looks like a small catapult. The pressure of a pollinator walking on the petal surface sets off one or several of these catapults, and the pollen is plastered onto the visitor's body. Signals are the attraction strategy of choice for several taxa in the Arboretum. Catalpa speciosa (western catalpa), like other members of the bignone family (Bignonaceae), can be found on Bussey Hill just above the lilac collection. It produces large, white, tubular flowers with a pronounced lower lip. Looking inside a flower one notices two distinctive features: one, a pair of broad yellow stripes that start near the mouth of the tube and terminate at its base, and two, some small, brownish-purple splotches scattered throughout the tube. To our eyes it is color and pattern beautifully arranged, but to bees these are guides to that highly prized ates tension as spnng-loaded stamens are tripped, propelling its pollen onto the bee's underside. When the bee visits the next flower, the pollen is deposited on the stigma as the bee enters, and pollination has been effectively, and efficiently, achieved. Legumes are not alone in using spring-loaded stamens to affix pollen to visitors. Mountain laurel (Kalmia Iatlfoha), a member of the heath family (Ericaceae) and a New England native, can be found throughout the Arboretum. Over evolutionary time, petals on the flowers have anthers, reward, In tors nectar. some taxa, signalling to potential pollina- continues even pollinated. Red after the flowers have been buckeye (Aesculus paviaJ, of the Members of the Aesculus genus, mcludmg this horse- x plantenensis, maximize the size of inflorescence display by retaining pollmated flowers. Pollmators distmgmsh between vmgm and pollmated flowers on the basis of colored patches on the petals chestnut, A. horse-chestnut family (Hippocastanaceae), is found growing along the main dnve just beyond the Cornus collection. It produces red tubular flowers with yellow nectar guides that attract pollination by bees, but here, after a flower is pollinated, the guides \"turn themselves off\" by changing from yellow to pink (Weiss 1995). To understand the benefits of such a signal, consider once again the perspective of the bees. Many pollinating bees sip nectar continuously in order to fuel the flight muscles that carry them between the flowers they visit and the brood they provision with pollen. Like all animals, bees strive for maximum foragmg efficiency. After encountering several unrewarding flowers on a single plant, a bee is likely to move on to another nearby. As a result, the plant that is snubbed loses reproductive opportunities. By turmng off the nectar guides of the flowers that have already been visited, the red buckeye 18 . 1 Doublefile viburnum tomentosum) is in (Viburnum plicatum f. Caprifoliaceae; it grows in The famtly darker patch on the petals of this middendorffiana mdicate that the flowers have been Weigela pollinated. directs pollinators to profitable flowers, thereby enhancing their efficiency while improving its own reproductive opportunities. Other taxa in the Arboretum that employ post-pollination signaling either through color or morphological changes in floral parts include flowering weigela in Caprifoliaceae, Scots broom (Cytisus scoparius) in Fabaceae, and goldenrain tree (Koelreutena pamculata) in Sapindaceae (Weiss 1995). ~. Flowering plants are certainly not above practicing deception in order to attract pollinators. Like restaurant owners, they live in a competitive world where the biggest challenge is persuading the desired clientele to stop in and where advertising may be a useful tool. Within some taxa there is a positive correlation between flower size and the amount of reward: the bigger the flower, the more pollen or nectar to be found. However, some plants don't always back up their advertising. the viburnum collection located near the Dana Greenhouses. Snow-white flowers are produced in flashy, flat-topped cymes that few human visitors fail to notice. However, close inspection of an individual cyme reveals that its showiness resides in the ring of large (0.75 to 1.5 inches wide) sterile flowers that surround an interior cluster of unenticing fertile flowers. The primary role of the sterile flowers is to attract pollinators-rather deceptively, since they offer no reward. Much like restaurant customers who find that the special of the day is no longer being served, pollinators will nevertheless indulge themselves in whatever rewards the fertile flowers do offer before leaving. A final example brings us back to the Hunnewell Visitor Center. In my view, Actinidia arguta (bower actimdia), a vine in Actinidiaceae, boasts the most mnovative pollination mechanism found at the Arboretum. It grows along the fence just south of the main entrance. This species is primarily dioecious, meaning that there are separate male and female plants. Pollen is extracted from the male flowers through an amazing process known as \"buzz pollination\" (Buchmann 1983, Proctor et al. 1996). A visiting bee grabs the anthers with its legs and then vibrates its wings while remaining stationary. This generates an acoustic resonance that causes pollen grains to pour out of the anthers and onto the bee's body. When the bee forages for nectar in a female A. arguta flower, pollination is achieved. This has by no means been an exhaustive account of pollination mechanisms on display at the Arnold Arboretum. Examples can easily be found to illustrate the adaptive significance of many other pollination-related flower characteristics ; the positioning of the ovary with respect to the petals and sepals, inflorescence architecture, and floral fragrance all have adaptive value in the context of pollination. Clearly, successful pollination, a challenge faced by all vascular seed plants, has been solved in many ways. The Arnold Arboretum provides in a single location an unusually comprehensive taxonomic collection that allows visitors to observe the remarkable innovations that have 19 resulted from the mutualistic relationship between plants and their pollinators. Viewing the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum as a pollination biology museum reminds us that the diversity of flower shapes, colors, and sizes that brighten gardens, entertain our minds, and touch our spirits have their origins in a relationship that was initiated over 100 our million years ago. Literature Cited Buchmann, S.L 1983. Buzz pollination m angiosperms Handbook of expenmental pollination biology, ed. C.E. Jones & RJ. Little New York: Van Nostrand Remhold, 73-113. Come True. Amoldia Deception can reduce metabolic costs associated with pollmator attraction. Large sterile flowers draw pollmators toward the diminutive fertile ones of Viburnum plicatum f tomentosum. A Dream Cooper-Driver, G. 1994. Welmtchia mmabihs 54(2) : 2-10 Waser, N.M., L. Chittka, M.V. Price, N.M Williams, J. Ollerton 1996. Generalization in pollina-~, 41 tion Dodd, M E.,J Silvertown, and M.W Chase. 1999. Phylogenetic analysis of trait evolution and species diversity variation among angiosperm systems, and why it matters. Ecology 77: ~ ' 1043-1060. Weiss, . Leppik, Norstog, families Evolution 53: 732-744. E.E 1960. Early evolution of flower types. M.R 1995. Floral color change: a widespread functional convergence American Journal of Botany 82(2) 167-185 Lloydia 3: 72-92 K. 1987. Cycads and the origin of msect pollination. Amencan Sclentist 75. 270-278. Proctor, M., P. Yeo, and A. Lack. 1996 The natural history of polhnation Portland, Press, 179-180. OR Timber Takhta~an, A 1991. Evolutionary trends m flowering plants. New York: Columbia University Press, 171-184. David Giblin was an intern and curatorial associate in the Arboretum's plant records department. Since then, he has earned a master's degree m conservation biology from the University of Washington and is currently a doctoral candidate at the University of Missouri where he is studying the relationship between pollinators and floral longevity. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Fresh Look at a Traditional Favorite: Rhododendrons","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25256","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160bb26.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Brooks, Richard","article_content":"A Fresh Look at a Traditional Favorite: Rhododendrons Richard Brooks hododendrons nearly a century and a half. Everywhere see them: in parks and public buildlined up m front of filling stations, in resiings, dential foundation plantings, and sometimes you go you even JL ~~ have been used exten- sively in New England landscapes for naturalized in woodlands. I think that \" qualifies them as \"traditional favorites.\" But I would guess that 99 percent of the rhododendrons commonly seen represent a very small group-perhaps ten or a dozen-of \"tried and true\" varieties, such as 'Roseum Elegans', or the ubiquitous 'PJM', or the evergreen azalea 'Hino Cmmson', or occasionally some of the flamboyant Exbury hybrid deciduous azaleas. Now I have nothing against these old-timers. They have proven their mettle by surviving and flourishing despite the vicissitudes of our notorious New England climate. But they represent only the tip of the iceberg-a small fraction of the spectrum of size, form, foliage, and flower that characterize this extraordinary genus. The genus Rhododendron is one of the largest in the plant kingdom. There are between eight 'Firestorm' 'Ball' hundred and one thousand species that inhabit the wild areas of the world, and from them have been developed (and are still being developed) literally tens of thousands of hybrids. They range in size and habit from forty-foot trees to spreading groundcovers only a few inches tall; from leaves a massive fifteen inches in length to a dimmutive dime size; and flowers from large trumpets to tiny stars, in nearly every color of the rainbow. In this article I will introduce a small sample of this large and varied palette-plants that are proven performers in New England's hardiness zones 5 and 6 (and some even in zone 4) but are virtually unknown and unused by landscape professionals and home gardeners. In landscape value these can be grouped into several categories: First, plants that represent the expanded range of flower color that is now available. Second, plants of low-growing and even dwarf stature that are more appropriate for today's smaller properties. Third, plants that extend the blooming season from early April through late July or even August. And 21 with special foliage interest that makes them even more valuable during the fifty weeks a year that they are not in bloom. last, plants A Fresh Look at Flower Colors One fault found by many landscape professionals with the standard \"ironclad\" varieties is that the bloom color-especially pinks and reds-is tainted with a purplish or lavender cast. Rejoice! Many hybrids with blooms m clear, unflawed colors are now the available. One of the most `Wo7nar's Purple' outstandmg of these is 'Bali', which has a neat, dense, mounding habit, reaches three to four feet m height and five to six feet in diameter a at maturity, and bears flowers of lit with a pale pink, yellow throat. 'Dexter's Champagne' has a more open, rangy habit, which I can overlook for the sake of its creamy blossoms, tinged pink. 'Janet Blair', with large, ruffled, pale pink flowers, is acquiring a reputation as an alltime great performer in the eastern United States, equalmg if not surpassing in vigor and reliability another pink-flowered rhododendron, the well-known and often used 'Scintillation'. Among the reds, 'Vivacious', bred at the Vineland Station in Ontario, offers cardinal-red blooms untainted with purple and superb leathery foliage. 'Firestorm', an introduction of the late Dr. Gustav Mehlquist of Connecticut, blooms with deep red flowers late m the season, usually the first or second week in June. And a sister seedling, 'Scarlet Romance', carries the vivid color of 'Vivacious' into that same 'Calsap' period. old The English cultivar 'Purple is still popular in milder climates for its intense, deep violet flowers, but unfortunately it is not reliable in zone 5 and often fails even in zone 6. Happily, Splendour' 'Casanova' have several hybrids that supply regal color on a much hardier plant. One is 'Jonathan Shaw', with a low, densely branching habit; another is 'Wojnar's Purple', another Mehlqmst mtroduction, which grows somewhat taller. we now the same 22 The old English hybrid 'Sappho' draws a rave reviews for its snow-white flowers with or star- tling blotch, flare, of deep purple, but it is hopelessly tender for much of New England. Its hardier counterparts are 'Calsap' and 'White Peter', both with a fairly tall but densely branching habit. Yes, Virginia, yellow rhododendrons really do exist, although until recently none were reliably hardy in the Northeast. But we now have a number of yellow- and near yellow-flowered evergreen rhododendrons that are reliably hardy in zones 5 and 6. 'Arctic Gold' and 'Big Deal', both introductions of Weston Nurseries in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, form reasonably dense, medium-growing shrubs with excellent foliage. 'Vinecrest', another introduction from Ontamo, has light yellow blossoms that emerge from peach-colored buds on a taller, more open plant. one of the last introductions of that master hybridizer, the late David Leach, forms a dense, low-growing mound with deep green foliage and flowers of a no-nonsense yel- 'Capistrano', --. ---- -- - ----------- Rhododendron degromanum subsp Yakushimanum, bovee dwarf form. low. 'Casanova', also from Leach, has a similar habit and pale yellow flowers spotted with apricot-orange, opening from near-red buds. 'Santa Fe', somewhat taller growing, blooms in an unusual shade of orange-pink. For white-flowered cultivars to set off this rainbow array of colors, one could hardly improve on two more hybrids from Dr. Leach: 'Edmond Amateis', which carries huge trusses of white flowers highlighted by a touch of red in the center on a vigorous, stiff, upright plant; and 'Dolly Madison', whose pink buds soften to white upon opening, with a more spreading and open habit of growth. A Fresh Look at Smaller Rhododendrons We've all 'Edmond Amateis' seen new houses with \"foundation plantings\" of cute little rhododendrons plunked down along the front under the windows. They 23 'Dorothy Sunft' three years, and the with the color they provide every spring. But rhododendrons have a way of growing, and in time the kinds that are commonly used in this way can get very large indeed. Before you know it, those cute little mounds are engulfing the house and blocking out the view. You can cut them back, of course, but you'll be faced with the same problem again in a few more years. If you must provide a foundation planting (and I'm suggesting that there are alternatives), at least use lower-growing rhododendrons; they will provide all the benefits of evergreen foliage and colorful bloom without frequent pruning. Such rhododendrons abound in today's nursery catalogs, and many of them are based on the species Rhododendron yakushimanum look great for owners are two or delighted (now properly R. degronianum subsp. yakushimanum). \/. The species \"Yaks\" form a neat, dense, self-branching mound, from one to two feet tall at ten years of age. The leaves are held by the plant five or six years, sometimes even longer (versus the two or three years that the old ironclads retain their leaves), and display a thick, felt-like coating of fine hairs (indumentum) on the underside. The flowers open white from pink buds. 'Percy Wiseman' Plant breeders have gone wild over this species, crossing it with many other kmds in an attempt to capture its desirable traits of habit and foliage in hybrids with different colored blossoms. 'Hachmann's Polaris' retains the pink color m the flower instead of fading to white; 'Dorothy Swift', another introduction from Dr. Mehlquist, features the same colored blossoms as the species in a somewhat larger growing plant. (Most \"Yak\" hybrids are larger growing than the species.) 'Percy Wiseman' is already popular profuse peaches-and-cream flowers. For really tight spaces there are dwarf plants, some even suitable for the rock garden : 'Ginny Gee' forms a spreading mound only 18 inches tall and two to three feet for its `Tow Head' wide at maturity and smothers itself in bloom every spring. 'Tow Head' brings pale yellow blossom color to this group. 24 'Summer Snow', photographed the last week m June `Apml Gem' A Fresh Look at an Extended Blooming Season Most rhododendron fanciers are \" . familiar with Rhododendron mucronulatum, the so-called \"Korean Azalea\" (actually not an azalea at all, but a small-leaved rhododendron that happens to be deciduous); it opens the flowering season in early to mid April. A few years ago, this and 'PJM' were nearly the only April-flowering rhododendrons commonly available. Now early bloomers are available in a range of colors'April Snow', another Weston introduction, with pure white, double, star-shaped flowers; 'April Song', still another from Weston, with soft pink flowers; 'April Gem', a Mehlquist hybrid, with fully double, white flowers like miniature gardenias; and 'Landmark', from Weston, with nearly red single flowers. A brief digression: I'm often asked what the distinction is between azaleas and rhododendrons. Botanically speaking, all azaleas belong to the genus Rhododendron. They constitute two of the eight subgenera into which taxono- 'Alexander' mists have divided the genus: the deciduous azaleas (subgenus Pentanthera) and the socalled evergreen azaleas (subgenus Tsutsusi). Both groups are distinguished from other rhododendrons by several characteristics: their leaves and stems never have scales, as do such small-leaved rhododendrons as 'PJM' and R. mucronulatum; their flowers usually (but not always) have five stamens, unlike the other rhododendrons, which usually have ten or more stamens; and the hairs on azalea leaves are always simple, never branched, unlike the hairs that constitute the indumentum on species such as R. yakushimanum. Having established what an azalea is, let's now consider extending rhododendron bloom beyond Memorial Day. Usually we don't look for much except in the late-flowering rosebay, Rhododendron maximum. But the flowers of R. maximum are small and not very showy and 25 tend to be hidden by the new leaves, which form much earlier. Now rhododendrons are available with large, impressive flowers that appear long after the midseason kinds are but a memory. Two a examples are 'Summer Snow', David Leach hybrid with snowy white flowers, and 'Summer Glow', with vivid pink flowers. Bloom can be extended even into late summer with some recent deciduous azalea introductions, bred from several late-flowering, ` Rhododendron makinoi ,~ ~ ~~ species. Just a sampling: 'Millenium', near-red bloom in early to mid July; 'Golden Showers', peach buds that open yellow, turning creamy white, in mid July; 'Pennsylvania', light pink, blooms in late July to early August. These azaleas have two additional virtues. Many of them are fragrant, and native American their foliage is much more resistant to mildew than the older Exbury hybrid azaleas, which often look pretty shabby by the end of our interminably hot and humid summers. For prostrate groundcovers, Polly Hill's evergreen azalea introductions can hardly be surpassed. Their mature height is less than a foot, and they spread to cover an area two to three feet in diameter. A couple of examples are 'Alexander', flowering in late June, the color of ripe watermelon, and 'Late Love', a light pink. A Fresh Look at Rhododendron 'Indian Run' Foliage 'Teddy Bear' Varied foliage types and sizes can provide many diverse textures in the green landscape before and after the relatively brief blooming season. Rhododendron makinoi has long, narrow, almost spiky leaves. R. kiusianum, the Kyushu azalea from Japan, has delicate sprays of tiny, glossy leaves; its flowers, as an added bonus, come in a range of colors from white through pinks and lavenders to near-red. The new growth of some forms of Rhododendron degromanum are handsomely colored by a powdery tomentum (dense matted hair). In 'Teddy Bear' the persistent indumentum on the leaf undersurface is a bright cinnamon color. In 'Golfer' the white tomentum covering the new growth persists for most of the summer, makmg a vivid contrast with the glossy dark green of the older leaves. 26 Rhododendron ponticum `Vamegatum' Rhododendron ponticum `Goldfhmmer' Finally, there are even rhododendrons with variegated foliage: Rhododendron ponticum 'Variegatum', with gray-green leaves edged in white, unfortunately not reliably hardy in zone 5 but fine in milder parts of zone 6 and along the Atlantic coast and Cape Cod, and 'Goldflimmer', which has a completely different leaf pattern, green-streaked and mottled yellow. Some Cultural Pointers \" bloom prolifically, but they always look stressed: the foliage tends to a yellow instead of deep green, and the annual growth is short and stunted. A rule of thumb is that the larger the leaf, the more shade the plant prefers. Rhododendron maximum, for instance, grows well in almost full shade. On the other hand, the smallleaved types, like 'PJM' and both deciduous and evergreen azaleas need plenty of sun to grow and bloom well. Besides the amount of sun and shade, the most important cultural factors to consider are the following. First, plant rhododendrons in welldrained, open-textured, acid (pH 4.5 to 6.0) soil that contains copious quantities of coarse organic matter. (Remember that soil near a foundation, especially in older buildings, may be alkaline due to leaching of lime from mortar.)( Second, plant them shallow. Rhododendrons have a naturally shallow root system, and if the rootball is covered with soil, the roots can suffer from lack of oxygen. The top of the rootball should actually be above the surface of the surrounding soil. Third, provide a year-round mulch of coarse organic matter to insulate the shallow roots from extremes of heat and cold, to conserve soil moisture, and discourage weeds. Pine needles, rotted woodchips, chopped oak leaves and pinebark are all appropriate for mulch, but be sure not to pile it against the stems of the plant, which will encourage disease. And finally, ask your growers and suppliers for these less-than-common rhododendrons and begin enjoying them soon. Planted in too much sun, a rhododendron can resemble a variegated shrub. The old ironclad varieties are often planted in full sun, and yes, many of them tolerate the exposure-but tolerance does not constitute preference. They may Dick Brooks, a past president of the Amencan Rhododendron Society, was awarded the Gold Medal of that organization in 1998. In 1999 he received the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Jackson Dawson Memorial Award for skill in the hybridization and propagation of hardy woody plants. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rhododendrons, from Bulletin of Popular Information (1934)","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25260","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160856d.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"w.......>m x ro n.:ro . st L .. ,'~ .......... ,. ...r_ te .~ s \"o~' Hs~...4w,.~il:'Y, \"-aax~ ` ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY T BULLETIN t t-~ OF POPULAR INFORMATION 4. SERIES .~ ~ _ as we VOL. II JULY * ~:~ 9, 19;34 NUMBER ~ xe~F~~~~ R~ x What a privilege it would be, if we could call back the collection, the men who have contributed to the through of our garden rhododendrons. They would make an interesting and varied assemblage-Dean Herbert, the Earl of Carnarvon, Sir J. D. Hooker, blunt Anthony Waterer, John Fraser, gentle Peter Collinson in his Quaker garb, and Baron Ungern Sternberg. For the rhododendrons of our gardens are quite literally something new under the sun; there is nothing just like them in nature. Aristocratic cosmopohtes, they came into being in Victorian England when species from the Old World and the New were sympathetically gathered by plant collectors and intelligently blended by a few hybridizers. The contributing species are all mountain lovers. From the lower slopes about the Mediterranean and Black Seas comes Rhododendron ponticum; higher up in the Caucasus are the hardier R. caucasicum and R. Smirnowii. Our own southern mountains contributed the hardy and attractive R. catawbiense which occurs by thousands of acres on the upper slopes of the southern Alleghenies. Near the North Carolina boundary among the open balsam woods and natural meadows which form the summit of Roan Mountain, it reaches as far as the eye can see, growing in scattered groups in the open meadows and forming a dense undergrowth beneath the balsams. It was from this very locality that it was first collected for European gardens by John Fraser, over a hundred years ago. Fraser was a Scotchman, who as a very young man, like many another Scotchman, had gone to London to seek his fortune. He eventually became one of the most successful of those early plant collectors who ransacked the American continent to provide novel and beautiful plants for European gardens. He had phenomenal success in Russia where he became a favorite of Catharine the Great. After her death, by Imperial ukase, he was sent back to America with orders to furnish rare and novel plants for the imperial collections. \"Accompanied by his eldest son, John, he embarked in the year 1799 for the southern states of North America, where he prosecuted his researches in various unexplored parts of the continent. On the summit of the Great Roan or Bald Mountain, on a spot which commands a view of five states, it was Mr. HODODENDRONS. development walk 28 Fraser's good fortune to discover and collect living specimens of the new and splendid R. catawbiense, from which so many beautiful hybnd varieties have since been obtained by skillful cultivators.\" * Another American species, the rosebay, R. maximum, has been little used by the English hybridizers, unfortunately so for American gardens, since it is one of the hardiest of the lot. It is of particular mterest to New Englanders for it is occasionally found native as far north as Sebago Lake and southern New Hampshire. It was among the American plants introduced into England by the Quaker botanist Peter Collinson. The religious bond between English and American Quakers kept up a lively interchange between the two countries. Quakers had always been interested in gardemng; George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends, had specified that the \"nature of herbs, roots, plants, and trees\" should be taught in Quaker schools. What more natural then, but that packets of seed and pressed plants and much garden information should pass back and forth between the two countries. In this way R. maximum was sent from the New World to the Old and in Peter Collinson's \"Commonplace Book for June 26, 1756\" we find the entry, \"The great mountain laurel or rhododendron flowered for the first time lot, R. arboreum, came from the foothills of the Himalayas. It contributed splendor to the garden rhododendrons for it is a great shrub-like tree with large flowers of bright red, varying in different strains from blush pink to a black crimson. Unfortunately, it brought in a tropical aversion to cold along with all this tropical splendor. R. arboreum itself can barely be grown out-of-doors even in England; it was not until it had been hybridized with hardy American species that a plant was produced which could withstand the English winters. English hybridizers, however, have continued to use R. arboreum and other lovely but tender species in their work. The result is a glorious group of flowering shrubs but one which Americans must cross the ocean to see. Only a few of the thousand or more named varieties will stand our hot summers and cold winters. Among the pinks we can recommend \"Mrs. C. S. Sargent\" and \"Henrietta Sargent\" m deep pink and \"Lady Armstrong\" and \"Roseum elegans\" in rose pink. The hardiest reds are \"Charles Dickens,\" and \"H. W. Sargent.\" In dark purple the best are \"Purpureum grandiflorum\" and \"Purpureum elegans.\" Most of these ironclad varieties are the creations of one man, Anthony Waterer, an English nurseryman who became a sort of godfather to American gardeners. His particular affection for Americans came about m an interesting way. When Andrew Jackson Downing laid out the grounds about the National Capitol, he ordered plants from Waterer. The plants were received but before payment was made Downing had died. His friend and neighbor, Henry Winthrop Sargent, when settling the estate found Waterer's unpaid bill. By the influence of his college classmate Charles Sumner, he got a special bill through congress and Waterer was eventually paid. Now, Anthony Waterer was a forthright, John Bull sort of a man, as strong in his likes as in his dislikes. Sargent's action led to a lifelong friendship, one which was large enough to include Sargent's \" * \" in my garden.\" One other species, the showiest of the Condensed from the account by Sir William Hooker, m the \"Companion to \" the Botamcal Magazine.\" 29 friends and his friend's friends as well. It was Henry Winthrop Sargent who brought Anthony Waterer and his rhododendrons to the attention of his cousins, H. H. Hunnewell and Charles Sprague Sargent. It was this friendship which led to the great rhododendron collections at the Hunnewell estate in Wellesley, at Professor Sargent's home in Brookline, and at the Arnold Arboretum. In growing rhododendrons it is necessary to remember their likes and dislikes. They hate a limey soil. They dislike hot sun in the spring and summer, cold winds m winter. They like partial shade and a soil which is well drained but moist at the roots. The situation provided for them in the Arnold Arboretum is almost ideal. The bold ridge of hemlocks to the south screens them from the sun and helps to keep the soil moist at the roots. Even there they could be grown in greater perfection if they were more sheltered from winter winds and from adventuresome small boys. This latter pest is a very real problem in growing rhododendrons at the Arboretum. Anyone who was ever a boy does not blame the urchins for wanting to play about in the Bussey Brook and to crawl up through the rhododendron beds among the giant bushes. Yet anyone who knows rhododendrons and their needs knows that this crawling is very hard on the bushes. Twigs snap off and sunshine strikes at the roots. The passing of hundreds of pairs of little feet, and little knees as well, wears out the very soil. The rich, cool mulch which has so carefully been built up is scuffed away and bit by bit the collection succumbs. Of late years rhododendrons here and elsewhere in New England have been attacked by the lacewing fly. These bizarre little creatures are scarcely larger than the head of a pin. Under the microscope they appear like humpbacked monsters dressed in lace. Monsters they are in action as well as appearance, for they gather under the rhododendron leaves and suck its juices. They can be successfully controlled by using an oil spray but their attacks are kept to a mmimum if the rhododendrons are planted in semishade. The insects dislike the shade; the shrubs prefer it, therefore such a situation is doubly preferable. One of the Caucasian species, the handsome R. Smirnowii, thwarts the lacewing fly by clothing its leaves below with a mat of woolly hair. So protective is this covering that even the hybrids between R. Smmnowii and the other species are practically immune. Fortunately, for the next generation of American gardeners, hybridizers are at last at work creating new varieties for this country, varieties which will be winter hardy and summer hardy, which will at least discourage attack from the lacewing fly and which will, nevertheless, compare with present-day English varieties in the size and beauty of their flowers. EDGAR ANDERSON A geneticist at the Missouri Botanical Garden and professor of botany at Washington University m St. Louis for most of his career, from 1931 to 1935 Edgar Anderson ~1897-19C9~ oversaw the care of the Arnold Arboretum's living collections and conducted its relations with the public. An interesting and prolific writer, two collections of his essays are in print, Plants, Man and Life and Landscape Papers. As regards small boys and lacewmg flies, the former appear to have found other pursuits but the latter remam "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Pursuit of Ironclads: Rhododendrons Hardy in New England","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25258","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160816f.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"In Pursuit of Ironclads Karen Madsen were celebrated embellishments of nineteenth-century England's great estates, but these star performers did not find a place in New England garuntil hybridizers solved a dilemma: the hardy species lacked good color, and species with good color lacked hardiness. The American Rhododendron catawbiense possessed hardiness, but bore flowers of \"a disagreeable purple rose.\" Species with desirable color, such as the deep red Himalayan R. arboreum, lacked hardiness, even in much of Britain. Over the century European plantsmen developed hundreds of hybrids with R. catawbiense as the primary hardy parent. In the 1850s Anthony Waterer hododendrons dens t-~ of Knap Hill nursery in Surrey began hybridizing rhododendrons for color, but especially for hardiness. David Leach described Waterer's achievement in Rhododendrons of the World ( 1961\"For their time [his hybrids] represented a triumph of the hybridist's art: the principles of heredity in plant breeding were not then in use; there were but a handful of species available as parents; and the English climate did not test the full limit of hardiness which Waterer had imparted to his creations with such remarkable success.\" A visitor described Knap Hill (seen in the photo above) in 1892. \" The Knap Hill nursery is the most extensme, as it is the oldest, establishment in England in which the cultivation of American plants has been made a specialty. Its extent exceeds 200 acres, of which more than 60 acres are allotted to the cultivation of American plants.... Runmng straight through the nursery is a very long carriage-drive connectmg two public roads, and this drive Mr. [Anthony] Waterer generously permits the public to 31 as to dogs, etc. Thousands of people go every year to Knap the wonderful display made by the Rhododendrons and Azaleas. Whit-Monday is qmte a gala day, the crowd being so great that the workmen of the nursery have to act as patrols to keep the visitors in order. To understand all this one must see the plants for himself. I had no idea that the display was so magnificent... Of course, when it is remembered that these plants have been a specialty m this nursery for more than a century, that the best varieties have nearly all been raised there, and that the Waterers have always been what is called Rhododendron mad, the extent and mterest of the collection are to some degree accounted for....\" use, with certain reservations Hill to see -Visitor, 1892, Garden and Forest V~227~: 304-306 A Wellesley, Massachusetts, first wrote of planting rhododendrons in his diary of 1856, when hardy meant summering in the ground but wintering indoors, like figs. Each year he recorded conditions and performance and shared his knowledge freely and enthusiastically. In 1896 he found reason to congratulate himself. pioneer in rhododendron culture in New England, H. H. Hunnewell of In lookmg back over the horticultural records that I have been in the habit of making in this journal for more than forty years, I find I have invariably at this season expressed my admiration of our beautiful show of rhododendrons, though until of latter years my plants were small and so limited m number that they have made a very modest appearance compared with the thousands m my collection at the present time, many of which are more than fifteen feet m height and fifty feet m circumference.... June [1896]. At the H. H. Hunnewell estate, the lavender . ~\"< < verestianum', an old favomte developed by Anthony Waterer at midcentury An 1892 letter to Garden and Forest reported that m early June the magnificent trusses of Hunnewell's rhododendrons were \"distinguishable mrles away.\" \" 32 singular fact that this shrub and the Kalmia latifolia, both natives of this country, so little cultivated here; for among hardy plants they are undoubtedly the most ornamental, and the rhododendron especially stands at the head of the list of rare and desirable shrubs in England,-and well it may, for it combmes more qualities than any other shrub during the entire year, with its gorgeous trusses of a dozen or more flowers of every shade imagmable of white, purple, and cmmson, its magmficent evergreen foliage, and, lastly, its noble habit of growth.... I have heard it whispered about that I have too many rhododendrons-as if one could have too many diamonds! In reply I say it has been my aim and desire for half a century to possess the largest and best collection of this shrub of any one in the country, and I have succeeded, and feel proud of my success. It has been my hobby, I confess, and I have worked hard for it; but it has not prevented my giving attention to other things and having a liberal supply of other shrubs, though they attract very little notice from my numerous visitors compared with the rhododendrons. -Notes on Rhododendrons, 1896, Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Holhs Hunnewell, ed. Holhs Horatio Hunnewell, privately printed, 1906 It is a should be Most Americans discovered rhododendrons in 1876 when Anthony Waterer brought 1,500 plants in 80 varieties to the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia. (He presented most of those plants to C. S. Sargent, and in the 1880s sent what he thought to be his hardiest varieties to the Arnold Arboretum for testing.)The Philadelphia display was an eye-opener: gardeners were smitten, Americans ordered hundreds of thousands of plants from England and began hardiness trials in earnest. Lists of the hardiest hybrids appeared frequently in garden magazines, not least in C. S. Sargent's weekly, Garden and Forest (1888-1897), and from 1911 the Arboretum's Bulletm of Popular Information. Expectations were very high and hopes even higher; year after year promising new hybrids appeared. But weather took its toll on most of those candidates, and near the end of his life Sargent lost patience: \"More money has been wasted probably in this country during the last fifty or sixty years in attemptmg to cultivate broad-leaved evergreen Rhododendrons, for which with few exceptions the climate is not really suited, than on any other plants ( 1926\/.\"Nonetheless m the 1920s a short list of reliably hardy catawbiense hybrids emerged, earning the tag ironclad: 'Album Elegans', 'Album Grandiflorum', 'Atrosanguineum', 'Delicatissimum', 'Everestianum', 'Mrs. Charles S. Sargent', 'Roseum elegans', 'Purpureum Elegans', 'Purpureum Grandiflorum', and a few others. Three-quarters of a century later, five original Waterer plants on that list still grow in the Arboretum at the base of Hemlock Hill: 'Album Grandiflorum' and 'Purpureum Grandiflorum' planted in 1886; 'Album Elegans' and 'Purpureum Elegans', 1891; and 'Atrosanguineum', 1896. Not on the list are four other survivors from the nineteenth century: 'Bicolor', 'Delicatissimum', 'Mrs. Harry Ingersoll', and 'Parsons Grandiflorum'. The latter was bred at Knap Hill but introduced by the only American nursery to hybridize rhododendrons in the nineteenth century, the Long Island firm of Samuel B. Parsons. Not until the 1920s, after the passage of Quarantine No. 37, when imports were banned, prices rose, and supply diminished, did other American plantsmen turn to hybridizing these American plants. Sargent would be cheered by the results. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25261","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd1608926.jpg","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum S , R I N G . , \" 2 ~ , , Symposium in Honor of Professor Shiu-ying Hu on the Occasion of Her 92nd Birthday . David E. Boufford, Assistant Director for Collections, Harvard University Herbaria all throughout and have not dimimshed in her \"retirement,\" which is now of 25 years' duration. Nor has her interest in all aspects of plants, particularly those of China, waned. She entered the new century still working ten-hour days and reading proofs of her 900-page book on the food plants of China, which will be published within the next few months. to been obvious Dr Hu's career Harvard Heroes Named Dr. Hu poses before career in panels that celebrate her long and distinguished Robert E. Cook, Director botany. Shm-yng Hu, botanist ementa of the Arnold Arboretum, was honored at the Chinese University of Hong Kong on February 19, 2000, with a special sympo- plished botanist before her arrival; she had conducted fieldwork in western Sichuan in the late 1930s and early 1940s, at a time when only a few men (notably, Armand David, Joseph Rock, and E H. Wilson) had explored that region. By the time Dr. Hu obtained her doctorate, just three years after her arnval, the American Philosophical Society had granted her funds to write an account of the flora of China. In support of her application, Karl Sax, Arboretum director 1946-1954, described her as \"one of the most competent and industrious students I have ever known ....\" Those qualities have birthday celebration sponsored by the Ma Man Fai sium and Chinese Medicine Education Foundation Fund. Dr. Hu arrived in the United States from China in 1946 to enter graduate school at Radcliffe College. Her doctoral dissertation on the genus llex (Aquifoliaceae) was carried out at the Arnold Arboretum under the direction of E. D. Merrill, director of the Arboretum 1935-1946. Dr. Hu was an accom- Each June for the past five years, Sally Zeckhauser, Harvard's vice president for administration (VPA), has hosted a grand ceremony to honor as Harvard Heroes the individuals in her organization who have made a special contribution during the past year. On June 14,I together with many other Arboretum staff attended this year's ceremony, at which three of our employees were recognized for their extra efforts over the past year. All three contributed time and energy to a special initiative organized by Sally ~ continued on page 3 Campaign Participants Celebrate Despite the twenty-degree drop in on May 9, 2000, spirits rose high at the Arboretum's temperature capital campaign celebration. The event acknowledged the commitand success of those involved the recently completed $8.25 million campaign. After a welcome from Arboretum director Robert E. Cook, guests were gratefully recognized for their good work by co-chair Noni Ames of the director's advisory board, campaign chair Francis O. Hunnewell, and Harvard provost Harvey V. Fmeberg. Also recognized was Lisa M. Hastings ment in who, as during the fundraismg. director of development the campaign, spearheaded Celebrating a successful campaign are, from left, Francis O. Hunnewell, Lisa M. Hastings, Robert E. Cook, Mary E. Wilson, and Harvey V. Fineberg. ' Former Director Recognized Richard A. Howard, former director of the Arnold Arboretum and professor of dendrology emeritus of Harvard University, has recently received two distinguished honors. One, the 1999 Allerton Medal, recognized his significant contributions to the conservation of tropical plant diversity. The medal is awarded by the National Tropical Botanical Garden based in Kalaheo, Hawaii; the citation acknowledges his \"decades of heroic service in the advancement of tropical horticulture and the understanding of tropical plants.\" More recently, Dr. Howard's Dr. Howard, photographed in 1971 on the somma of St. Vincent's Soufriere, botanical work in the Caribbean preparing specimens of a plant new to botany and known only from this islands was acclaimed at a symlocation. Just two years later the volcano erupted, giving Lindernia brucei, posium on the flora of the which Dr. Howard named for his son, a very brief tenure in botany. Antilles held recently at the Dr. Howard is the author of the six-volume Flora New York Botanical Garden. The tnbute included a much-relished painting of Cubanola domtnagen.ri.r by of the Lesser Antzllec as well as many other works on the NYBG's botanical artist Bobbi Angel. tropical botany. Arboretum Exhibit Awarded Two Medals Julie Coop, Superintendent of Grounds The Arnold Arboretum's exhibit at the 2000 New England Spring Flower Show was honored with two medals. The Garden Club of America Bulkley Medal recognizes a special exhibit in the fields of horticulture, botany, tion or conserva- that possesses exceptional educational ment and increases the knowledge and awareness of the viewing public. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society also awarded the exhibit a Gold Medal for Horticultural Merit. The intent of the exhibit was Arnold Arboretum staff, past and present. The Arboretum's New England to illustrate the collaborations of Spring Flower Show exhibit was designed, installed, and maintained by, some of the many talented people from left, Jack Alexander, Julie Coop, John Olmsted, Keiko Satoh, and associated with the Arboretum, Tom Por. A poster-sized photograph of illustrious past Arboretum staff is both past and present. These behind them. gifted people work to bring plants from the wild to the Arboretum grounds and beyond, Sargent, our first director; Wilson, renowned plant collector; Faxon, botanist and illustrator of Selva of perhaps even to the viewing public's own backyard. North America; Rehder, taxonomist extraordinaire; Lilies, dawn redwoods, and other plants introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum were feaand Camillo Schneider, a German plant collector and tured along with informative text, illustrations, and dendrologist who, forced to abandon fieldwork in herbarium specimens. The focal point of the exhibit China, sought asylum and employment at the Arbowas a large group photograph taken in 1916 of retum dunng World War 1. ~ fronz page 1 quality of the workplace for all employof VPA. John DelRosso is one of the exceptional arbonsts who helps maintain the high quality of our collection of woody plants. Sheila Connor is our research archivist and heads our horticultural library in Jamaica Plain. Candace Julyan heads up all our educational programs for adults, children, and visitors to improve the ees Candace Julyan, John DelRosso, Sheila Connor the grounds. At the ceremony all three individuals were personally thanked by Neil Rudenstine, president of Harvard, for their dedication to the University and its mission, and for the special contribution that the Arboretum makes to research and education. On behalf of the entire staff, I express my personal appreciation to John, Sheila, and Candace for a Job well done. to Arboretum Staff School, where among other Changes David Russo, facilities supervisor, came to the Arboretum last March from Harvard's planning and real estate department, where he served as building superintendent for faculty and graduate students. responsibilities she managed the center's website. She has also worked for the Massachusetts Public Interest Research Group. Sheryl is a graduate of Cornell University with a double major in biology and society and in government. The newest member of our concentration in sustainable from the University of Massachusetts, Amherst. She is a with a agriculture, Massachusett-certified arborist. Also of note on the grounds is Tom Por's move from gardener to arborist. Tom, who hails from St. Thomas, Ontario, served Arboretum our as an mtern in in 1997 and as grounds crew is Bethany Grasso, who started work as gardener in early June. Most recently Bethany worked for Perennial Gardens, a 1998. Joe Melanson, who has been a visitor information assistant in the Arboretum's education department for the past four years, apprentice garden design and installation company in Roslmdale. -- Earlier, ~~ ----------..-- recently acquired his professional library degree. He will use his skills and knowledge in his new position as assistant archivist in the library. Within the education department, Ellen Bennett has been manager of horncultural information to assistant director of education. In her new role, Ellen will oversee the adult education program, children's education program, and visitor services. Though she will continue to oversee horticultural information, many of the tasks associated with her past position will move to the visitor services assistants. --.- ---- He brought with him to Harvard twenty years' experience as a carpenter, five of those years in his own carpentry business As facilities supervisor, Dave manages all of the Arboretum's buildings, both in Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates in Weston. Much of his job involves finding, scheduling, and overseeing contractors, but from time to time he finds an occasion to keep up his cabinetbuilding skills as well. promoted from she gamed a good deal of practical expenence through internships served at the Hampshire College Farm Center, the Arnold Arboretum, and Longwood Gardens. Bethany earned her bachelor of science in plant and soil science, 20th Annual Fall Plant Sale for the 20th Annual Fall Plant Sale, to be held this year the Case Estates in Weston. An enticing variety of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous perennials selected by Arboretum staff will be sold in and around the barn. The barn will open to members at the sustaining level and above at 8~00 a.m., to all members at 9:00 a.m., and to the general public at 10:30 a.m. Other events of the day include a live auction featuring rare and choice plants; a specialty sales tent with unusual plants donated by generous individuals and nurseries; and Society Row, where representatives of more than 20 plant societies will sell plants and offer advice. Knowledgeable plantspeople will be on hand to answer questions. For more information about the plant sale or to become a member of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, please call Karen O'Connell at 617\/524-1718 x 165. Members will receive the plant sale catalog in August and will receive free plants and a discount on plant purchases in the barn on the day of the sale! Please join us on Sunday, September 17, 2000, at ' Arboretum in Sheryl Barnes joined the April as web project new manager. In this position Sheryl will manage the websites of the Arnold Arboretum (www.arboretum.harvard.edu) and the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies (www.icls.harvard.edu). Sheryl's previous position was with the Center for Health and the Global Environment of Harvard Medical n "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23319","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060bb25.jpg","title":"2000-60-1","volume":60,"issue_number":1,"year":2000,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Charter Oak","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25255","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160b76d.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Samuels, Barndow","article_content":"The Charter Oak Gayle Barndow Samuels room at a library table, I am readfuneral for a tree. Centered between two items urging support for the newly formed Republican Party's antislavery candidate, the soldier-explorer John C. Fremont, a blackbanded front-page obituary in the August 21, ing about Historical quiet a artford is the home of the Connecticut Society. Sitting there in a 1856, Hartford Courant proclaims a tree's death. \"The Charter Oak is Prostrate! Our whole community, old and young, rich and poor, were grieved to learn that the famous old CHARTER OAK, in which Wadsworth hid Kmg Charles' Charter of the old colony of Connecticut, in 1687, at the time when James 2nd demanded its return, had been prostrated by the wind.\" The article goes on to say that \"no tree \" in the country has such legendary associations,\" and to tell of a dirge being played at noon by Colt's Armory Band and of the bells all over the city tolling at sundown \"as a token of universal feeling, that one of the most sacred links that bmds these modern days to the irrevocable past, \" had been suddenly parted.\" At the time of its death the Charter Oak had been a Hartford institution for almost two centuries. The tree was fully mature when colonial Hartford was founded. It was then, according to the enduring tale alluded to in the obituary, that the colonists, finding their freedom threatened by their monarch's decision to revoke their liberal charter, had turned to the tree and hidden the cherished document in a cavity within its trunk. Newspapers across the country and as far away as England sympathetically reported the tree's death-from the New York Times to the Louisville journal, Springfield Daily Republican, Washington Daily Union, and London Times. Grief, followed closely by a feeding frenzy among those eager to secure a fragment 3 Fredemc Edwm Church, The Charter Oak, lookmg southwest Oil on canvas, 1846 4 Fredenc Edwm Church, The Charter Oak, looking east. Inscrzbed with notes made \"character\" zn the upper left Ink and graphite drawmg, August-September 1846. by Church, zncludzng the word of the sacred relic, reached into Texas, Alabama, Georgia, the newly admitted state of California, and the Minnesota Territory. The president of City.\"3 Based on the estimate of one newspaper editor that in 1856 ten thousand pieces of the tree made their way across the country, Jefferson College in Mississippi requested a piece as did Hartford residents who \"bowed with age, and whose eyes time a in were bleared with commemoration.\"'1 begged sprig Hartford and Connecticut chairs of state were might have exaggerated only a wee bit. Although it amuses us to learn that some Charter Oak relics were actually made from elm, there was nothing counterfeit in the fervor that Twain fashioned from its wood, as were earrings, brace- lets, goblets, beads, Bibles, a lamp and screen depicting heroes of the Revolution, and three pianos, which, by using the new technique of veneering, combined celebration of nineteenth-century technology with commemoration of the ancient oak.2 Hartford resident Mark Twain quipped that he had seen enough pieces of the Charter Oak made into \"a walking stick, a dog collar, needle case, three-legged stool ... toothpick ... to build a plank road from Hartford to Salt Lake a swept America in the wake of the tree's demise. Flag-draped, it had been given a hero's funeral, and the nation had responded with that mixture of respect and memento-gathering that it would dust off agam less than nine years later as solemn onlookers placed pennies on the tracks when the train carrying Abraham Lincoln's coffin passed by. Lincoln's presidency and the Civil War were still several years away when the Charter Oak fell, but the tree's death was clearly a unifying symbol for the nation during a time of increas- 5 ing dissension. Portents of the coming conflict had been spewing forth like volcanic ash: the Missouri Compromise excluding slavery from a portion of the Louisiana Purchase; the publication of Uncle Tom's Cabin; the battle over Kansas, which had required federal troops to maintain order between pro- and antislavery factions; and the continued drumroll of states declaring their slavery sentiments as they in the entered the union. Political issues hung heavy air, but economic and cultural matters also claimed national attention. It was a time when the advance of American industrialism, especially the extractive industries that depend on natural resources such as trees, was leaving an ever-greater mark on the common landscape and the collective consciousness. Industrialization created wealth much more rapidly than agriculture ever had, enriched a newly enlarged mercantile class, and populated factories and mills with immigrants, many of whose ethnic roots differed from those of the early colonists. Home-based production was bemg replaced by newer industrial modes. There was a growing awareness that idealized the past-and glorified its symbols, such as the ancient trees. The Charter Oak fell Americans were during a time when trying to establish a national culture. Europeans had been busily mining their pasts searching out their \"primitive, tribal, barbaric origin[s].\" \"Americans,\" the historian Perry Miller explains, \"tried to answer by bragging serve ... about the future, but that would not [so] many of our best minds went hard to prove to work that we too were a nation in deeper sense than mere wilfulness.\" What emerged was an American culture that was some \"rooted in the soil.\"' Our forebears, then, sought their \"identity in their relationship to the land they had settled\" and looked to the wonders of the landscape to provide \"points of mythic and national unity\" not confined to any religion or sect. The genteel tourist pilgrimages of the 1820s and 1830s to places like Niagara Falls, Lake George, or the Catskills reflect that search for a natureinspired cultural idiom by the part of the population with leisure, money, a broadly defined cultural literacy, and the ability to secure lodging m a network of inns and hotels not open to everyone. Others saw in the continuing transAtlantic trade in new and exotic American plant species an affirmation of the more-than-rawmaterial value of the American landscape.s And by the 1850s, the entire nation was awed and energized by a specific piece of the American landscape-trees. Reports of Yosemite and the Big Trees (Sequoia gigantea) rippled from west to east. The realization that America had living monuments of its own-older by far than Europe's constructed landscape, reaching back beyond the beginnings of the Christian erawas a matter of national pride. American scenery was also attracting the attention of serious artists. Influenced by European Romanticism, a school of American artists called the Hudson River School was celebrating the scope and scale of America's natural riches and, in the process, founding our first truly national school of art. Called \"priests of the natural church\" by the art historian Barbara Novak, such men as Thomas Cole, Frederic Edwin Church, Asher Brown Durand, Jasper F. Cropsey, and Albert Bierstadt, they converted \"the [American] landscape mto art\" and, in the process, created an \"iconography of nationalism. \"6 They produced a body of work revealing the sweeping grandeur of the American continent in such monumental canvasses as Bierstadt's Mount Whitney-Grandeur of the Rockies, as well as its more intimate treasures, such as Cole's and Church's depictions of the Charter Oak. Cole, who also wrote poetry condemning the widespread destruction of America's forests (\"The Complaint of the Forest\" and \"The Lament of the Forest\" for example), produced a sketch of the oak, and Church did several sketches and two paintings. As Gerald Carr, who has written the catalogue raisonne of Church's work, explains, \"because it was situated only a few blocks from the family residence on Trumbull Street, Church must have passed by the Charter Oak many times during his youth, and doubtless he was nourished visually by images of the tree.\" Said to be \"one of the first things a stranger visiting Hartford generally wishes to visit,\" in 1844 the tree that had preserved democracy was chosen as the backdrop for a Whig convention held \"virtually beneath its branches.\" \" 6. \" In his 1846 painting of the tree Church included two symbolic figures, presumably a mother and son; the former \"passes on her knowledge of the tree to her young son who represents the next generation. The boy already has begun gathering fragments of the sacred tree.\" The painting was prescient. Church himself was among the collectors of the tree's fragments after it fell. The collection at Olana, his home in New York State's Hudson River Valley, includes \"two partial cross sections, one of a branch and the other of a root, and a letter opener with a wooden handle, all inscribed 'Charter Oak.\"\" Church, Cole, and Brownell, however, were hardly the first, or the only, artists to produce renderings of the famous tree. Ralph Earl included the tree in a 1790s portrait of Mary Wyllys Pomeroy (the tree stood on the Wyllys property), George Francis painted it, and in the 1820s \"when it became the custom to decorate earthenware with printed views of historical objects and places, the tree was celebrated on china.\" Another \"group of images is clustered in the 1830s [and] include[s] schoolgirl watercolors, professional oil paintings, two lithographs, and a skillful pen and ink drawing by a Hartford engraver made on the basis of exact measurements of the tree. The lithographs and the wood engraver's drawings are extremely important,\" decorative arts expert Robert Trent explains, \"for they demonstrate that inexpensive prints of the tree were in demand among I those who did not have access to a piece of it.\"8 Pruned of its images and artifacts, however, the Charter Oak emerges even more clearly as a storehouse of national memory. Its role in the 1687 myth of colonial legitimacy and freedom gave it fame and a new name; but this particular white oak had also served Native Americans as a council tree \"under which they had met for generations.\" As a guide to the time for planting their corn, and as a landmark where \"at flood time, they tied their canoes to its branches.\" Reaching even farther back, it stood as a primordial visitor, a living reminder of the vast woodlands that had once covered New England.~ \" ... They still do in many places. Their long stature, and seasonal regeneration have made them objects of wonder and worship. Some believe that the tracery of arching branches against the sky inspired the design of Europe's great Gothic cathedrals and that the quality of filtered light experienced in the forest is what stained glass is meant to duplicate. Why not? What else negotiates the space between heaven and earth as felicitously as a mature tree? Most widely revered among the trees, the oak is called Jupiter's tree because of its status as king of the forest; it is also, as Michael Pollan points out, \"the tree most often struck by lightning, and so may be thought to enjoy a special relationship with the heavens.\"1 The Charter Oak was a white oak (Quercus alba), a deciduous tree that can grow to one hundred feet and have a crown spread that exceeds its height. The cognoscenti speak of it in superlatives. \"I have selected the alba,\" Thomas Jefferson wrote to a French gardener to whom he was sending seeds, \"because it is the finest of the whole family, it is the only tree with us which disputes for pre-eminence with the Liriodendron [the tulip tree]. It may be called the Jupiter while the latter is the Juno of our groves.\"\" And in 1884 when Charles Sprague Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum, wrote the first comprehensive catalog of North American trees, his Silva of North America, he had this to say about the white oak: scape. life, The great size that it attains in good soil, its vigor, longevity, and stately habit, the tender tints of its vernal leaves when the sunlight plays among summer them, the cheerfulness of its lustrous green and the splendor of its autumnal \" colors, make the White Oak one of the noblest and most beautiful trees of the American forest; and some of the venerable broad-branched mdividuals growing on the hills of New England and the middle states realize more than any other American tree, the ideal of strength and durability of which the Oak has been the symbol m all ages and all civilized countnes.'z Natural historian Donald Culross Peattie writes, \"if Oak is the king of trees, as tradition has it, then the White Oak, throughout its range, is the king of kings. The Tuliptree can grow taller, and the Sycamore in the days of the Trees are the oldest and the trees things. For the centuries before largest of all living buildings exceeded their height, dominated the land- 7 R. U Piper M.D., The Charter Oak, drawing taken from the housefront of the tree's owner. Accordmg to Piper, both trunk and canopy measured about seventy feet; the diameter at the ground was sixteen feet. He wrote that \"some thirty persons have been at one time within its camty\" Engravmg, 1855. so virgin forest had gigantic boles, but no other tree in our sylva has great a spread.... Indeed, the fortunate possessor of an old White Oak owns a sort of second home, an outdoor mansion of shade and greenery and leafy music.\"~3 A slow-growing tree, therefore not likely to reach old age quickly, the oak waits until maturity to really make a statement. White oaks sometimes reach an exceptional size. Wye Oak in Wye Mills, Maryland, for example, has a circumference of 382 inches (at breast height, or 1\/2 feet above ground level) and measured 96 feet tall with a crown spread of 119 feet in 1996; its estimated age then was over 400 years.'4 But there are older white oaks. At 515 years old, the Columbus Oak in Solebury, Pennsylvania-\"so named because it predates Columbus' arrival in the Western Hemisphere\"''-may be one of the oldest white oaks m the eastern United States. There are even older members of the oak genus, Quercus, such as the Angel Oak on John's Island, South Carolina. Named after 4 8~ 1 the on which it nineteenth-century owners of the property stands, the Angel Oak is a live oak to (Quercus virgimana\/ believed teen be about four- hundred years old. '~ On these shores Native Americans were the to separate the trees from the forest. This was a task of more than philosophical interest first to a farmer-creating fields generally means destroying forests-especially a farmer confronted with the once-dense forests of southern New England. Long before the first colonists arrived, as William Cronon points out in Changes in the Land, Native American farmers had established fields by repeatedly burning the fallen trees and underbrush. The colonists continued to use some burning to expand their fields, along with girdling and cutting of trees, and they added extensive cutting to support their lumbering. Still, remnants of the forest dotted even the cultivated landscape, and because fire had long been the method of choice for clearing, the more fire-resistant species of hickory, chestnut, and oak achieved a new dominance in the eastern countryside. The Charter Oak, then, was first of all a survivor of the forest-trees do not stand alone unless they are made to do so-and secondly, a valued part of the Native American landscape. To the agricultural tribes of southern New England, where corn provided about 65 percent of their caloric intake, determining the correct time for planting was crucial to survival. The cultivators were women and, according to the historian of science Carolyn Merchant, they used a variety of ecological indicators as guides: the spring runs of alewives, the position of the stars, and \"the spring growth of the leaves of the white oak to the size of a mouse's ear.\"\" In the 1630s, when the land the tree stood on became the property of George Wyllys, a \"deputation of Indians representing the former occupants of the place\" came asking that the oak be spared. And it was. The tree, as the librarian of the Connecticut Historical Society, W. I. Fletcher, commented in 1883, thus \"became an interesting link between the prehistoric and the modern.\"\" The request would not have seemed strange to the colonists. They, too, were an agricultural people; they understood the importance of determining the correct time to plant crops. And they were familiar with the oak. It is a tree of both the Old World and the New. The first Europeans to settle Connecticut were the Dutch. They bought the land for their Hartford settlement from the Pequot and built a trading post there in 1633. That same year English members of the Massachusetts Bay Colony bought land from the Nawaas tribe and established a settlement near Hartford. By 1635, when John Winthrop arrived with the first official claim to the land on the part of the English authorities-a deed from the Earl of Warwickthree English towns surrounded the soon-tobe-abandoned Dutch trading post. Four years later these towns drafted and signed the Fundamental Orders of Connecticut, incorporating provisions for governance that provided for the election of officials, the supremacy of the General Court, and the collection of taxes. The Orders remained in effect until 1662, when Charles II issued the Connecticut Charter, a liberal document that superseded but endorsed the limited self-government the colonists had already set up under their Fundamental Orders. This arrangement worked as long as Charles II was on the throne, but when James II succeeded his brother, he moved to scrap the Charter and subsume Connecticut, along with all of New England, under the rule of Sir Edward Andros, his appointed governor of New York. What followed has become the stuff of legend. On October 31, 1687, Andros came seeking the Charter. The colonists understood that its transfer into his hands would mark the end of their limited independence. In a moment that includes the best of theater, magic, and playground strategy, the document mysteriously disappeared at the moment when it was about to be handed over, having been secreted in the oak by Captain Joseph Wadsworth. Although the event itself was magical, without its sequel the colonial action would have been a minor skirmish and not a triumph. Because in 1689, after James II fled England and William and Mary assumed the crown, Andros was displaced and Connecticut's Charter, never having been officially rescinded, was considered still valid. Sadly, no contemporary accounts of the event exist. The first recorded mention of the Charter Oak incident came in 1715 when the Connecticut General Assembly voted a stipend to Joseph 9 Wadsworth for \"securing\" the charter \"in a very troublesome season when our constitution was struck at, and in safely keeping and preserving the same ever since unto this day.\" Over the next ninety years the story was embellished by various accounts, most notably one in 1759 by Roger Wolcott, a former governor of Connecticut, which indicates that after the Charter was laid on the table \"all the candles were snuffed out at once.\" In the time it took to relight the candles, the Charter had vanished. A 1797 account identified the location of the \"ancient hollow tree on the property of the Wyllys family in Hartford,\"and by 1805 all of the elements of the legend were in place when Abiel Holmes, in American Annals, mentioned \"the large hollow oak tree, which to this day is regarded with veneration, as the preserver of the constitution of the colony.\"'y Maps began to note the tree's location in 1846 (during that period of seeking a cultural idiom in the landscape), and soon after it fell the two roads that intersect at the corner where it stood were renamed Charter Oak Avenue and Charter Oak Place. If you visit that eponymous intersection you will find a very small enclosed park planted with a young white oak and featuring a treelike column erected by the Society of Colonial Wars with an inscription praising the former oak for its role \"as the hiding place of the Charter.\" If you stay long enough you will know you are at a meeting place, a place where people come and go and congregate, next to the monument, m the scant shade of the young white oak planted as a reminder of those earlier deeds. The Charter Oak, then, has served as the preserver of a limited democracy, as a symbol of national identity deeply rooted in the American soil, and as a place for us to come together, to find that evanescent ideal we call community, or \"company,\" as the poet said. \"To plant trees,\" the gardener Russell Page wrote, \"is to give body and life to one's dreams of a better world.\"Zo Exactly what the Charter Oak is all about. \" 3 Mark Twam, \"Charter Oak,\" Alta Cahforma, March 3, 1868 4 Perry Miller, Nature's Nation, Cambridge Harvard University Press \/1967\/, 11-12. 5 John F. Sears, Sacred Places Amemcan Toumst Attractions in the Nmeteenth Century, NY~ Oxford University Press (1989~, 4-5. 6 Barbara Novak, Nature and Culture. Amen can Landscape and Painting 1825-1875, NY: Oxford University Press (1980), xxii, 9. 15. Gerald L. Carr, Fredenc Edwin Church~ Catalogue Raisonne of Works of Art at Olana State Historic Site, NY: Cambridge University Press (1994), 93, 95,94. s Trent, \"The Charter Oak Artifacts,\" 129, 127. 9 The first quote can be found m Anson T. McCook's address before the Society of the Founders of Hartford on the 250`h Anmversary of the Hiding of the Charter, October 31, 1937, and the second m The Connecticut Histoncal Society Bulletm (July 1956), 67. Michael Pollan, Second Nature~ A Gardener's Education, NY: Atlantic Monthly Press (1991),160. to Madame Tesse can be found m Allen Lacy's The American Gardener. A Sampler, NY: Farrar, Straus, & Giroux (1988), 169-170. lo 11 Jefferson's letter ~z Charles Sprague Sargent, The Silva of North Amenca, Boston: Houghton-Mifflin (1890), 8 19. 13 Donald Culross Peattie, A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North Amenca, Boston: \" Houghton-Mifflm (1950\/, 95-196. Whit Bronaugh, \"National Register of Big Trees,\" American Forests (January\/February 1994), 28. ls Jan Murphy, \"512-Year-Old Oak Tree Needs a Helpmg Hand,\" Bucks County Intelhgencer, August 14 8 10, 1995, A1, ~~ Ruth M. Miller and Lmda A. Lennon, The Angel Oak Story, Charleston, SC: Tradd Street Press (1994), 9. 17 18 Carolyn Merchant, Ecological Revolutions Nature, Gender, and Science m New England, Chapel Hill: Umversity North Carolina Press (1989), 77. W. L. Fletcher, The Story of the Charter Oak, Hartford: Case, Lockwood & Bramard (1883), 34-35. Ross McCain, \"The 01' Oak Tree,\" Connecticut Magazme, November 1987, 164-166. i9 Diana zo Russell Page, The Education of a Gardener, London: CollLns (1962\/, 173. Endnotes Gayle Brandow Women in Hartford Courant, August 24, 1856. z Robert F. Trent, \"The Charter Oak Artifacts,\" Connecticut Histomcal 1984), 133-138. Society Bulletm ~Summer Samuels is the principal author of the City of Brotherly Love This excerpt is from Enduring Roots Encounters with Trees, History, and the American Landscape by Gayle Brandow Samuels, copyright 1999 by Gayle Brandow Samuels. Repnnted by permission of Rutgers University Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Aging and Rejuvenation in Trees","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25249","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160ab28.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Aging and Rejuvenation in Trees Peter Del Tredici are fascinating to rees leastabsolutelytheir entire life study, because histo- shape of a tree is analogous to the personality of a human, a unique product of sense, the not ries are recorded in their forms. In a the interaction between genetic endowment and environmental influences, \"nature\" and \"nurture.\" Trees illustrate an idea first enunciated by the German philosopher and poet Goethe, namely, that the external form of plants is a manifestation of their internal physiological processes (Arber 1950). By carefully studying the shape of a tree, for instance, one can literally recreate everything that has happened to it over the course of its life (Halle et al. 1978). ). Plants develop in ways fundamentally different from those of vertebrate animals. By some point during adolescence, all of an animal's body parts have become fully differentiated, and further growth simply increases size without the life of the tree, always expanding outward and upward; any tree that is not expanding is a tree that is dying. From a chronological perspective, the cotyledonary node of the seedling, produced at the time of germination, is the oldest part of the tree, but paradoxically, from a developmental point of view it is considered the most juvenile. Conversely, the flowering shoots at the periphery of the tree are the youngest part of the plant chronologically but the most mature developmentally. Researchers have resolved these apparent paradoxes by describing three different types of aging in plants (Fortanier and Jonkers 1976). Types of Aging in Trees The first type, chronological aging, is simply the time that has elapsed in the course of the lifespan of the entire plant or some part of it. In the case of a giant sequoia, a single stem can be as much as two thousand years old. In the case of root-suckering species, such as quakmg aspen, chronological age can refer either to the age of an entire organism measured in thou- increasing developmental potential. Plants, on the other hand, show continuous development from a network of meristematic tissue that remains embryonic throughout the entire lifespan of the tree. In all plants, these meristems produce the differentiated tissue that makes up the plantroots, stems, leaves, and flowers-but remain undifferentiated themselves. There are thousands of meristems on any given tree. Those located at the heart of every bud are called shoot meristems, just as those at the tip of every root are called root meristems. The third category is the vascular cambium, a cylindrical band of meristematic tissue that sheaths the branches and roots and is responsible for their increase in girth. (Annual growth rings are a visible indicator of the activity of the vascular cambium.) Taken together, the meristematic network forms a thin veneer of embryonic tissue at the periphery of the tree's differentiated woody core. Meristems produce new plant tissue throughout seedling of eastern arbormtae (Thu~a occidentalis) clearly showmg the difference between the juvenile, needle-hke fohage along the main stem and the mature, scale-hke fohage of the branches. A 11 1 or mature, phase encomthe major portion of a tree's passes lifespan; and the senescent phase begins when the tree starts to deteriorate as a result of damage or disease (Del Tredici 2000). The adult, ontogenetical aging process is controlled by the menstematic tissues of the tree, and it is not uncommon a for different parts of growth as phases when juvenile sucker shoots originate from fully mature trunk tissue. tree to be in different at any point in time, The third and final type of is related to the general condition of the entire plant body and describes the development as well as the deterioration of the life-support systems of the tree. Specifically, it covers the loss of vigor in the root or shoot system that results from environmental stress or from the damage caused by wind, fire, ice, or snow. In general, the physi- aging, physiological, ological aging process is controlled by the differentiated tissues of the tree (Romberger 1976). The concept of rejuvenation is defined as the opposite of aging. As such, it can be either ontogenetic-a shift of all or part of the tree from an older growth phase to a a The retention of fohage through the wmter is a common mamfestation of 7uvemlzty among members of Fagaceae, In this case, Amemcan beech (Fagus grandifolia\/. younger phase-or physiologic- sands of years, or the age of a given stem measured in hundreds of years. The second type, ontogenetical aging, refers to the process of a plant passing through different \"phases\" of development. I distinguish four phases in the life of a tree: the seedling phase extends from the point of seed germination through the end of the tree's first season of growth, as marked by the onset of a dormant period. The juvenile, or sapling, phase begins in a tree's second season of vegetative growth and ends with the production of flowers. The retardation of the aging process. Ontogenetic rejuvenation can be thought of as a resetting of the aging clock back to the juvenile stage, whereas physiological rejuvenation involves slowing down the aging clock. Ontogenetic Rejuvenation Aging and rejuvenation play important roles in the field of horticulture. Cultivars of various trees have been created by selectively propagating a part of the tree that is locked in a particular ontogenetic phase. The resulting cultivars are not genetic mutants; instead, their distinc- 12 are unstable and vertical leaders eventually produce vigorous (Olesen 1978; Del Tredici 1991). \/. The vase-shaped, spreading cultivars of various nut-producing species, including ginkgo, pecan, and walnut also represent the mature growth phase of the parent trees. When grown seed, these same species show the strong, clearly defined central leader and whorled lateral branches that typify the juvenile form (Del Tredici 1991). ~. Shrub-form cultivars of English ivy with unlobed leaves and flowers represent the mature, nonrooting phase of growth. In its juvenile state, English ivy has lobed leaves and readily produces adventitious roots. This pattern of development is typical of vines that, in their natural habitats, must cope with the radical difference between the environmental conditions of the shady forest floor, where they first take root, and those of the sunny canopy, which they reach at maturity (Lee and Richards 1991). ~. Many dwarf conifers with \"immature\" foliage and highly congested growth are propagated from parent trees that are \"stuck\" in the seed- from Thorn production m honey locust (Gleditsia tnacanthos) raised from seed stem from variations in gene rather than gene composition (Brand expression and Lineberger 1992; Greenwood 1993). For plant propagators, it is crucial to choose the right location on the parent tree for the cuttings because this strongly effects the form of the finished product (Hackett 1983). Some wellknown examples of nongenetic cultivars maintained by selective propagation include: *Thornless selections of the honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos 'Inermis', are propagated from sexually mature portions of the tree and do not produce lots of thorns on their trunks. Seed-raised honey locusts, in contrast, always have thorns on their trunks (Warren 1991). \/. 'Prostrata'-type cultivars of various dwarf conifers, such as fir, yew, and spruce, are often propagated from lateral branches. These cultivars are locked into the mature, or horizontal, growth phase, and their branches retain a lateral orientation for many years. Unfortunately, many of these low-growing cultivars ling or juvenile growth phases. Examples tive characteristics include the well-known dwarf Alberta spruce (Picea glauca 'Conica') and the many \"plumose\" cultivars within the genus Chamaecyparis. Among angiosperms, the florist's Eucalyptus is an example of a flowering tree that retains its juvenile foliage for many years (Borchert 1976). Eventually, all of these cultivars show a tendency to \"revert\" to the mature form, although the process is clearly more of a developmental advancement than a reversion. Natural Rejuvenation one commonly finds ontogenetic rejuvenation in trees that produce sprouts from In nature, the base of their trunks form of stress. or from their roots. This in response to some sprouting usually happens periodic disturbance or environmental Four basic types of rejuvenation sproutroot ing are commonly seen in trees. Root suckering-the production of new shoots system-occurs in species such as (Fagus grandifoliaJ, the tree by the American beech 13 various (Ailanthus), and species of poplars Tredici 1995). (Del Rhizome sprouting-the production of specialized underground stems, or runners, of heaven that send up aerial shoots. These are commonly found among shrubs and trees that are specifically adapted to survive fire. Layering-the production of adventitious roots by the trunk or by lateral branches when they come in contact with the soil. Branch or trunk layers are most likely to form on trees growing on Prohfic root-suckenng Arnold Arboretum. m Amencan beech (Fagus grandifolial growmg at the exposed mountaintops, or on wet where harsh conditions promote the retention of lower branches, sites, where moist, peaty soil facilitates adventitious rooting (that is, roots formed on branches). Among cultivated trees, seen mens layering is commonly in open-grown speci- whose lower branches have not been pruned. Basal sprouting-the emergence of vigorous shoots and adventitious roots from the collar. This is seen in several species native to eastern North America, including the American linden (Tilia americana) and the red and of a low lateral branch the western arborvitae (Thu~a plicata~ white oaks. In the West, \"Layering\" Westonbmt Arboretum m of growing at Tetbury, England. where fires are much more common than in the East, many trees are fifty to one hundred years after they were initiated, the shoots they produce are considered adapted to sprout back vigorously after being burned; these include the most prolific fully juvenile (Del Tredici 1999). sprouter of them all, the California redwood, the madrone (Arbutus menziesii), the bay Plant propagators learned long ago to mimic laurel (Umbellulama califormcaJ, and the tan trees' natural methods of rejuvenation for their oak (Lithocarpus densiflorus). In the case of own commercial purposes. For example, it has long been known that juvenile sprouts from the Sequoia, the root collar originates from cotyledonary buds that were produced at the time of base of a tree will produce adventitious roots much more readily than mature shoots from the germination; nevertheless, when they sprout 14 same tree. a Over the years, nurseries have devel- oped variety of pruning techniques designed to stimulate stock plants to produce such vertically oriented, easy-to-root shoots. These techniques include hedging, the annual shearing of shrubs or trees to create a geometrical shape of fixed size; pollarding, annual pruning of the branches to a fixed point to produce an antlerlike crown with prominent swellings at the ends of the branches; and stooling, periodic pruning of a woody plant to ground level, causing it to sprout vigorously from the base (Libby and Hood 1976; Hackett 1988). Unfortunately, rejuvenation effects achieved through propagation by cuttings is never as complete as those achieved through seed propagation. Using modern tissue culture techniques, researchers have come closer to stimulating full rejuvenation of mature-growth-phasetissue than is possible with cutting propagation, but here rejuvenation is never complete (Brand Lineberger 1992). To put it another way, a tree grown from a seed will always be distinguishable from one grown from a cutting, no matter how much technology is applied to the propagation process (Bon et al. 1994). even and Physiological Rejuvenation Physiological rejuvenation-slowing down rather than resetting the aging clock, as occurs in ontogenetic rejuvenation-is best seen in that grow in stressful environments like those at the tops of high mountains. Under these conditions, it is common to find individuals of a given species living much longer than they typically would under more favorable conditions. From the human perspective, this seems paradoxical, but among trees adversity promotes longevity. The best-known example of this phenomenon is the bristle-cone pine (Pinus trees American lmden, Tilia americana, sprouting from its basal hgnotuber. vulgaris, growing in planted by the naturalist Gilbert White (1720-1793). Selborne, England. The trees were Pollarded lmdens, Tilia 15 5 longaeva), which reaches its maximum age of more than 4,000 years at high elevations in the White Mountains of southern California. A less well-known, but equally remarkable example has been documented in the eastern arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis), which grows on the steep limestone cliffs of the Niagara Escarpment in Ontario, Canada, as well as on flooded bottomlands. On exposed cliffs, the trees are extremely stunted-reaching only five to fifteen feet in height-and attain ages of over more 1,200 years. In moister, protected sites, the trees are much larger-forty to fifty feet tall-but live only 200 to 300 years (Larson et al. 2000). These examples follow a general rule: withm any given species, the slowest growing individuals are the longest-lived; or conversely, the biggest trees in a forest are never the oldest. A survey by Loehle (1988) of the longevity of North American trees found that the longestlived species among both conifers and angiosperms were A gmgko raised from seed on the left and a grafted gmkgo on the nght, both planted at the same time. The differences in form are a mamfestation of different growth phases. those that invested the greatest of their carbohydrate reserves in proportion chemical and structural defenses against environmental stress. Put another way, the more energy a plant invests in defense mechanisms as opposed to vegetative growth, the longer it will live. Horticulturists have also exploited the natural capacity of trees to rejuvenate themselves physiologically. In cultivated trees, the environmental stress that slows physiological aginganalogous to the stress that trees in nature encounter at high altitudes-is intensive pruning. The Asian art of bonsai is a well-known example of rejuvenation induced by pruning. The techniques used in bonsai, especially periodic root pruning, seem to suspend physiological aging indefinitely (Del Tredici 1989). When applied to appropriate species-hazelnuts, plane trees, lindens, and elms, among others-pruning techniques such as pollarding and coppicing also promote greater longevity than one sees in unpruned trees, a clear indicator of physiological rejuvenation (Rackham, 198G~. In general, pruning brings about a measure of physiological rejuvenation by (1)inducing the growth of ontogenetically younger meristems; (2) shortening the mternal transport path of water and nutrients; or (3) reestablishing the balance between shoot and root activity when the latter is in some way limited (Borchert 1976; Fortanier and Jonkers 1976). One final question remains: Can the root systems of old trees undergo rejuvenation in the way that shoot systems can? The practical experience of bonsai masters who recognize the necessity of periodic repotting, as well as arborists who specialize in transplanting large trees, certamly suggests that root systems can be rejuvenated, but given that root systems are underground, morphological evidence for this idea is lacking. I began by saying that the development pattern of trees differs strikingly from that of animals; in trees, the ontogenetical and physiological aging processes operate independently of each other. This means that trees, unlike people and other animals, can be simultaneously embryonic and senile. When carried to the extreme, this would effectively result in a form of ecological immortality. It is this poten- 16 ontogenetical and physiological aging Acta Horticulturae 56: 37-44. Greenwood, M. S. 1995. Juvemlity conifers: 433-438. current and concepts. Tree maturation in Physiology 15: Hackett, . variability. root W. P. 1983. Phase change and mtra-clonal HortScience 18(6): 840-844. 1988. Donor plant maturation and adventitious formation Adventitlous root formauon m cuttings, ed. T. D. Davis, B. E. Haissig, and N. Sankhla. Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press, 11-28. Halle, F., A R. A. A beautiful juniper bonsai (Jumperus california~ m the collection of the National Arboretum m Washmgton DC. The plant was collected from the mld. Tropical Verlag. Larson, D. Oldeman, and P. B. Tomlinson 1978 trees and forests. Berlin: Springer- immortality that makes nating study and cultivate. to tial for trees so fasciLee, D. P. E. Kelly. 2000. Chff Process in Chff Ecosystems. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. W., U Matthes, and Pattern Ecology. and References W., andJ H Richards. 1991. Heteroblastic development m vines. F. E. Putz and H. A The biology of vmes, ed. Arber, Bon, A 1950. The natural philosophy of plant form Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press Mooney. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge Umversity Press, 205-243. M. C., F. Riccardi, and O. Monteums. 1994. Influence of phase change within a 90-yearold Sequoia sempervmens on its m mtro organogemc capacity and protem patterns. Trees 8: 283-287 R. 1976 The concept of ~uvemhty in plants. Acta Horticulturae 56:21-36. Libby, W. J., and J. V. Hood 1976. Juvemhty m hedged radiata pine Acta Horticulturae 56: 91-98. Loehle, C. 1988. Tree life 18: 209-222. history strategies~ the role of defenses Canadian Journal of Forest Research cyclophysis and topophysis. 27\/5) 173-178. of the Borchert, Brand, woody Olesen, P. O. 1978. On Silvae Genetica M. H., and R D. Lineberger. 1992 In mtro of Betula rejuvenation \/Betulaceae\/: morphological evaluation. Amencan Journal of Botany 79: 618-625. The Larz Anderson bonsai collection. Arnoldia 49\/3~: 2-37. P. Rackham, O. 1986. The history London: J. M. Dent. countryside. Del Tredici, . 1989 Romberger, J. A. 1976. An appraisal of prospects for research on ~uvemhty m woody plants. Acta Horuculturae 56: 301-317. E. 1954. Longevity under conifers. Sczence 119: 396-399. -- 1991. Topophysis in gymnosperms: an architectural approach. Combmed Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators Society 41: 406-409. . Schulman, Warren, adversity m K. 1991 on 1995. Shoots from roots: a horticultural remew. Arnoldia 55(3) 11-19. . Imphcations of propagation techmques landscape performance. Combined Proceedmgs of the International Plant Propagators Society4l~ 266-269. 1999. Redwood burls: immortahty Arnoldia 59(3) : 14-22. 2000. The underground. This article originated as a lecture presented at the Scott Arboretum of Swarthmore College on the receipt of the Scott Medal and Award for 1999 A more techmcal version was published in 1998 m the Combmed Proceedmgs of the Internauonal Plant Propagators Society 48: 637-642. Peter Del Tredici is director of living collections at the Arnold Arboretum. . of evolution, ecology and cultivation Gmkgo biloba Gmkgo biloba, ed. T. A. Beek. Amsterdam. Harwood Academic 7-24. H. van Publishers, Fortamer, E. J., and Jonkers as 1976. maturity of plants Juvemlity and mfluenced by their "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fruiting Espaliers: A Fusion of Art and Science","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25251","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160af26.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reich, Lee","article_content":"Fruiting Espaliers: A Fusion of Art and Science Lee Reich two-dimensional -Z~ form. The word may derive from the Old French aspau, meaning a prop, and in fact, most espaliers must be propped up with stakes or wires. (Another possible origin of the word is the Italian spalliera, referring to a support for a shoulder or back.)[ Espalier had its formal beginnings in Europe in the sixteenth century, when fruit trees were trained on walls to take advantage of their extra warmth. to an tramed An espalier is a plant, usually a fruit plant, orderly fruits, bathed in abundant sunlight and luscious, large, and fully colored. The physiological bases of plant responses to the branch bending and pruning needed to maintain an espalier are known to some extent. Pruning response depends on time of year, growth these air, are Strictly speaking, on a an espalier trellis in open grown ground-that is, away from any wall-is termed a contre-espalier or an espalier-aere. But no need to be a stickler for words, the definition of espalier is as lax as the plant is formal. The British reserve the term for a specific two-dimensional form; and some fanciful, yet well-ordered shapes that are called \"espalier\" by some gardeners are, in fact, three-dimensional. One structure (a contre-espaherJ serves to support two apple trees m homzontal Why go to all the trouble of palmette form growmg back to back at Colomal Wilhamsburg, Vmgmia. erecting a trellis and then frestage of stem, degree of cutting, species, and, in quently having to pinch and snip a plant to keep some cases, even cultivar. Perhaps the most sigit in shape? Because a well-grown espaher reprenificant (or best understood) responses mvolve sents a happy commingling of art and science, the hormones auxin and ethylene. Auxin is proresulting in a plant that pleases not only the eye, duced at the tips and most elevated portions of but also the palate. This science is applied artstems; among the effects of this hormone is that fully (or the art scientifically) by pulling exuberant stems downward to slow their growth and of suppressing bud growth farther down a stem so that growth of the apical bud or buds domiincrease their fruitfulness; by cuttmg notches nates. Ethylene is a hormone produced in just above buds to awaken them where a stem threatens to remain bare, and by pruning back response to wounding or branch bending, and stems m summer to keep growth neat and fruitone of its effects is fruit bud formation, which ful. Every stem on a well-grown espalier is furhelps explain how branch bending promotes nished throughout its length with fruits, and fruiting. Other hormones are also involved 18 8 permanent; all other branches are temporary and the trick is to minimize branch growth while maximizing fruiting. The simplest form for an espalier is a single stem, a cordon (which some people choose to call an \"espalier\"). Vertical cordons can be set a mere eighteen inches apart in a row, so are useful, for example, for growing many varieties of apple in a small space. Or, a cordon can be trained horizontally to border a path or create a living edge to a garden. As pear spurs age, they must be thmned to stimulate and make room for younger spurs. The spurs on this branch are well spaced and still mgorous. They will not need thmnmg g for a few years. growth and fruit bud formation; the effects of all of them vary with concentrations and ratios. Despite the constant attention espaliers demand, caring for them is not burdensome. Repeated pruning keeps trees small enough to be conveniently clipped, thinned, and harvested from the ground. And while pruning must be frequent, the cuts are small and quickly in shoot executed, in many cases requiring nothing more than a thumbnail. espalier is not restricted to plants edible fruits. A strictly ornamental bearing espalier is in keeping with a formal setting. (But so is an edible-fruited espalier.) Maintenance of a purely ornamental espalier, especially when the plant does not bear even ornamental fruit, entails nothing more than repeated clipping of Note that wayward stems. When fruit, especially edible fruit, is a goal, however, you must carefully consider the response of the plant before you cut back shoots. Are there enough leaves to adequately nourish each fruit? (Each apple fruit, for example, needs about 40 leaves for best quality.) Will a new shoot grow to defiantly replace the one you just cut off? Will your pruning restrict growth and keep stems furnished with fruit buds along their entire length? Forms for An The cordon is best suited to plants that bear fruit on spurs-stubby, long-lived stems that elongate only a fraction of an inch per yearthus avoiding a cordon that looks more like a porcupine than a cordon. Among common fruits, apples and pears and, to a lesser extent, plums make good cordons. To counteract the tendency towards topheavy growth (due to apical dominance of a vertical stem), single cordons are commonly planted and grown at an angle. This practice encourages uniform budbreak and growth up and down the length of the cordon. Now suppose you were to terminate that single stem of a vertical cordon near ground level and split it into two leaders that turn away from each other before growing vertically again. You now have a \"U palmette.\" Split those two vertical leaders again and you have a \"double-U palmette,\" increasing the spread and yield from a single plant-and also changing the design, of course. There exist many variations on this theme. The central stem could have two side branches grow into a wide U, then continue upwards with another two side branches growing into a less wide U, and so on with increasing height. Or, the central stem could grow to the full height, along the way sending out tiers of horizontal leaders growing off to left and right. (This latter form is what the British choose to call an \"espalier\" ; others call it a \"horizontal palmette\" or, if the side arms angle upwards, an \"oblique The homzontal palmette, opposite, is fromeJ A Traite de la taille des arbres fruitiers (Treatise on Pruning Fruit Trees), 1900. All other drawings on pages 19 and 20 are from Dr. Ed Lucas, Die Lehre vom Baumschnitt ftir die deutschen Gartenbearbeitet (Dwarf Fruit Trees), 1899. Library of the Arnold Arboretum. Hardy, Espalier espalier consists of main stems, called leaders, from which grow branches which, in some an cases, become arms or ribs. Arms and ribs are 19 Horizontal cordons Candelabra palmette mth Three obhque arms. spmalmg cordons Horizontal palmette Double U palmette, a form candelabra palmette of Belgian fence Fan palmette 20 palmette.\") In yet another variation, the central stem could split into a broad U with horizontal tiers of leaders growing outwardly from each upright of the U. All these forms are prey to the problem of excess growth near the tops of the plant. Auxin produced at the tips of those upright leaders inclines them to grow vigorously, mostly from their tips, and prevents fruit buds from forming farther down. Although the hormone auxin was not Training Training an espalier is just like training any other plant. \"Heading\" cuts-that is, shortening of stems-release buds lower down the stem from the inhibiting effects of auxins produced at the stem tips, thus causing growth from the lower buds. \"Thinning\" cuts-totally removing stems at their origins-get rid of unwanted growths (which include stems growing perpendicular to the plane of the espalier) without inducing new growth at that point. isolated until the twentieth century, its effects had long been observed. To quote M. Gressent (Arboriculture Fruitiere, 1869), a vertical growth \"throws trouble into the whole economy of the tree and paralyzes its production and compromises the very existence of the horizontal branches.\" To counteract the hazards of apical dominance, other shapes have been devised. One popular form is the \"fan,\" in which the central stem terminates low in the plant, dividing into two leaders that angle upwards and outwards. Off each of these leadThe two central leaders of this double palmette ers, above and below, grow permanent have been tramed to curve, an effective method of ribs, with fruiting spurs or temporary thwartmg apical dommance. fruiting branches growing from them. The number of ribs, and just how vertically they are allowed to grow, depends on the inherent vigor of the plant. Building up the lower and outside parts of the fan first keeps the potentially most vigorous part-the highest and most central-from overtaking the rest. In other designs, the central leader is purposely weakened by being bent around in a decorative curve, rather than allowed to grow straight upward. Mention should also be made of that create an effect en from plants lined up and overlapping in a row. Among the most popular of such designs is the Belgian fence, a living latticework of branches. In some designs, adjacent branches actually graft together so that the espalier eventually becomes espaliers masse self-supporting. A candelabra palmette m trainmg. 21 Differences between training a conventional fruit plant and an espalier lie in the goals: With an espalier, the ideal is to develop branches with near perfect symmetry and active, fruitful buds throughout their length. No matter what the design, sufficient space (about twelve inches) must be allowed between leaders. Wherever one leader is to divide into a Y or a U, the ideal is to have the resulting two leaders growing as nearly as possible directly opposite each other. Suitably positioned shoots might already exist; if not, they can be induced with heading cuts just above the desired point of bifurcation. Of course, in plants with alternate leaves (which originate some distance apart along the stem), headmg back a dormant shoot never results in leaders exactly opposite each other. For the connoisseur who demands nearly perfect symmetry even in alternate-leaved plants, there are ways to position those leaders more directly across from each other. One way is to graft a shoot opposite an existing shoot, or a bud opposite an existing bud, where arms are wanted. Another way is to cut the stem back to desired points while the plant is dormant. Typically, a vigorous, vertical shoot grows from the top of that cut stem out of a whorl of tightly packed buds. If, when that vertical shoot is about a foot long, it is cut back to the whorl (leaving about a quarter of an inch of new growth), two new shoots should originate from buds within that whorl-at almost exactly the same level. Aesthetics aside, leaders that originate at the same level are more likely to keep in step as they grow. As a young espalier develops, its leader or leaders are short- The thumbnail is a useful tool for pinchmg tips of growing shoots during traming; it can hold back a shoot trying to outgrow others. Pinching back the tips of developing leaders buds lower on the \"blmd\" wood and reducavoiding ing or even eliminating the need for dormant heading of the leader(s). Typically, leading shoots are tied to bamboo canes that, in turn, are tied to the wooden or wire framework that supports the plant. By tying a leader to the cane rather than directly to the framework, the shoot can be kept ramrod straight even as the angle of the supporting cane is adjusted to make best use of that old bugbear, apical dominance. For example, if an espalier is to have two horizontal arms, these arms could initially be held at an upward angle to keep every foot or so also keeps shoot active, growth moving along-the more upward pointing, the faster the growth. As the arms approach full length, they could gradually be lowered to slow growth and increase the development of side branches and fruit buds. All that needs to be done is to untie the cane from the framework and, with the branch still firmly lashed to it, retie it at the desired angle. Another way is to simply lash all but the ends of the developing shoots to horizontal supports. The free ends of the shoots then do what they are naturally inclined to do, turn upwards, and ened each year, typically while the plant is dormant. Reducing a leader's length by about a quarter of the previous year's growtheven more on weak shoots, to channel energy into fewer buds-keeps buds along the stem active. Upon reaching full length, the leaders are annually cut back to within an inch or so of the previous season's growth. Obhque cordons slow growth and promote fruitmg. 22 that upward orientation keeps the growing tips vigorous. As the shoot elongates, older portions are response with tied to the horizontal support. apple and pear, for example, demands more consistent weather patterns than is experienced over much of the United States. The Apple Espalier Variable response to espalier pruning is well illustrated by the apple, a tree extensively espaliered in Europe. Spur fruiting enables apple trees to assume many different shapes. No doubt that accounts for the many different systems devised for apple espaliers. One of the most elegant of them was devised at the end of the nineteenth century by Louis Lorette, curator and professor of the Practical School of Agriculture at Wagonville, France, north of Paris, near the Belgian border. In the Lorette system, which can produce spectacularly beautiful and fecund results, trees are pruned only during the growing season. When branches are about two inches long (late April in Wagonville), the extension growth of leaders is shortened according to their vigor-the less vigorous are shortened more to strengthen growth in the bud just behind the cut-and according to whether further extension is desired. Pruning of branches themselves begins as soon as any are pencil-thick, about a foot long, and becoming woody at their bases (in Wagonville, the middle of June). Such branches are cut back to the whorl of leaves at their bases, leaving stubs about a quarter of an inch long. Branches that have not yet reached the proper growth maturity are left untouched. Properly mature branches are cut back at monthly intervals throughout the summer. Regrowth that follows pruning is also cut back, but only if it is at the stage of maturity described for the first cut. At the last pruning, in late summer, any immature branches are cut back to three buds. This description covers no more than the bare bones of Lorette pruning; for more detail, see The Lorette System of Pruning, 1946. Research has shown that Lorette pruning Maintaining an Espalier Even before an espalier is fully trained, the older parts of the plant require strict pruning to control branch growth in order to maintain a neat shape-all the while avoiding sacrifice of fruit yield or quality. How pruning can help depends on the plant's fruiting habit. For example, peach and Oriental plum fruit freely on one-year-old wood. Apple and pear, on the other hand, generally fruit on spurs. (A popular misconception is that shortening any apple or pear stem to spur length converts it to a fruiting spur. Not so. A spur is a physiologically unique entity.) No matter what the plant, any shoots growing perpendicular to the plane of an espalier are kept in check by thinning or pinching. Overcrowded branches also must be thinned. Stems of the perfect espalier are solidly clothed with fruit, and if this goal is realized, developing fruits will need to be thinned. And with plants that fruit on long-lived spurs, old or overcrowded spurs eventually need pruning. The specifics of maintaining an espalier vary with kind of fruit plant, the cultivar, possibly even geographical region. Success might also depend on the predictability of the climate and its vagaries; in my opinion it is those vagaries that are responsible for espaliers that become nothing more than fruitless and flowerless stems bent in fanciful shapes. Consistent does, in fact, increase ethylene production in Prumng the Lorette way a half-woody shoot is cut back to the whorl of leaves at Its base. stubs that remain and that could lead to flower bud formation. It has also been suggested that repeated cutting removes young leaves and so decreases formation of another hormone, gibberellic acid, which can inhibit flower bud formation. Where the Lorette system works, buds 23 at the bases of pruned side shoots eventually become fruit buds hugging the leaders. But here's the rub: Lorette pruning is not effective everywhere. It seems to work where the climate is equable year-round with a long period of warmish weather in autumn. This describes the maritime climate of northern France, but not very much of North America. My experiences with Lorette pruning in the continental climate of the northern United States concur with those of many others who have tried it. Variable summer rainfall, hot summers, and cold winters result too often either in rampant regrowth that is susceptible to winter injury-or in nothing than dead stubs. Across the English Channel, the British devised their own system of pruning apple espaliers: the \"three-bud\" system. The essence of this system is the cutting back of young branches, in winter, to three buds. Older branches are trimmed to a single stem and\/or shortened to three buds beyond any fruit buds. Pruning continues throughout the growing season : tips of side shoots are pinched when they have grown three leaves beyond the whorl of leaves at the base of the shoot. Shoots may also develop from older, fruiting branches and the time to pinch these depends on the vigor and activity of the lower buds. Pinched too early, the lower buds are jarred awake and grow out into shoots. But pinched at just the right time, they plump up into fat fruit buds. Close observation and the abihty to predict the weather improve results. Soon after becoming familiar with the elegance of the Lorette system, the British modified it to their conditions and inclinations. \"Modified Lorette\" pruning requires that trees be pruned only twice a year. The timing of the first branch cut corresponds with M. Lorette's, except that half-woody shoots are shortened to the second leaf (not counting the basal cluster of leaves), perhaps to the third leaf if growth is very strong. In winter, regrowth from summer cuts is shortened. If one stem grew from a two-bud stub, it is shortened to two buds. If new stems grew from both those buds, the farthest one is shortened to one bud, and the lower one to two buds. Notice, either way, that the branch more This pear tree pruned accordmg to the Lorette system approaches perfection: it is spectacularly beautiful and fully clothed with fruit. A full-grown, vase-tramed \"Lorette\" apple tree. 24 requires twice yearly mainpruning. For the mature plant, summer pruning entails nothing more than cutting back all shoots growing off leaders to It tenance Redcurrant espallers require only tmce yearly maintenance. a five inches in early July, when the fruits are beginning to color. Each winter, those branches are again shortened, this time to an inch or two in length. This program works as well on this side of the Atlantic as on the other side. Redcurrant bears fruit laterally on one-year-old stems and on spurs on older wood, so it is easy to see why this program can a is left with total of the signature three buds. keep redcurrant espalier neat and fruitful at following summer, half-woody shoots are pruned to leave a total of three buds on any of The these branches. Other pruning methods also have been devised for the apple. Pinching the tips of branches when they are half woody and about a foot long, then shortening them to an inch two weeks later, has quelled growth and set up fruit buds in New Zealand. In northeastern United States, a similar result has been achieved by shortening any branches longer than a foot back to a quarter of an inch in the middle of August. This latter pruning is supplemented by wmter pruning that cuts back regrowth and all vertical sprouts. Of course, an espalier that spends the bulk of the summer spiked with relatively long branches growing from the leaders is not par- the same time. On the other hand, why don't the shortened shoots resprout after summer pruning? What would be the effect of earlier pruning, which would keep the plant even neater between spring and early summer? Those are the questions are that make experimenting with any espalier interesting, even as the plant provides gustatory and aesthetic pleasure. Further Reading Baker, Harry. 1986. The Fruzt Garden Displayed, 2nd ed. Kew: The Royal Horticultural Society. Edmunds, Alan. 1986. Espalier Fruit Trees, 2nd ed. Pomona Books. Faust, Miklos, ed. 1984 International Workshop on Controlling Vigor in Fruit Trees. Acta Horticulturae. .1989. Physiology of Temperate Zone Fruit Trees NY: John Wiley & Sons. ticularly neat. In Australia, a technique called \"twice-heading\" is used to make fruiting spurs from vigorous branches. A branch is shortened early in the season and then, when the resulting regrowth of two or three shoots is three or four inches long, a second cut is made just below this regrowth. The Redcurrant Espalier Redcurrant represents the other extreme in espalier. It is very easy and responds predictably and well over a wide range of locations and climates. A redcurrant can be trained as a fan, Lorette, Louis. 1946. The Lorette London: System of Pruning. John Lane, The Bodley Head. Newtown, CT: NY: MacMillan. Reich, Lee. 1997. The Pruning Book. Taunton Press. Tukey, H. B. Lee 1964. Dwarfed Fruit Trees Reich, PhD, is the author of Uncommon Fruzts Worthy of Attentzon (Addison-Wesley, 1991\/, A Northeast Gardener's Year (Addison-Wesley, 1992), and Growing Fruit in Your Backyard (MacMillan, 1996) Much of the information m this article was derived from his latest book, The Pruning Book (Taunton Press, 1997). to cordon, m or m U-palmette. * * But bear many towns and counties mmd that because the black currant is m the Northeast. an alternate host white pme bhster, all currants are prohibited "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostonian","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25253","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160b36f.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Tankard, Judith B.","article_content":"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostonian Judith B. Tankard advocate of social reform, tireless promoter of international intrepid traveler, connoisseur of antiques, and all-round enthusiast of the arts, Rose Standish Nichols (1872-1960) was for many decades a familiar institution to the denizens of Boston's Beacon Hill. But she was also one of the country's earliest professional garden utspoken peace, t designers and an accomplished writer of garden history and criticism. Her three books on historical gardens in England, Italy, and Spam, together with dozens of articles about gardens around the world, earned her a considerable reputation in her own lifetime. However, unlike the names of her wellknown contemporaries-Marian Coffin, Beatrix Ellen Shipman-Nichols' name long fell into obscurity, largely because so few of ago her gardens survive. Even for those few, there remam none of the plans, drawings, or client correspondence that might enable restorers to bring them back to life. The papers of Coffin, Farrand, and Shipman have been preserved in libraries or other institutions.' But Nichols seems not to have hired assistants; she had few professional affiliations; she may not even have had an office; and she herself made no provisions for establishing an archive. That may partly explain why, sometime after her death, documents related to her work disappeared. Unlike her colleagues whose lives were devoted almost exclusively to professional design, Nichols spent a great deal of time on her many other interests, and even in her professional life she may have regarded herself primarily as a writer and connoisseur rather than a designer. The pursuit of a financially viable career-the primary goal of Coffin, Farrand, and Shipmanseems to have been of little importance to her: the number of commissions she undertook was small, and most of them can be traced to her renown as an author or to family connections. Farrand, Watercolor portrait of Rose Standish Nichols by Taylor Greer, 1912 2 Nichols was well informed in all the many fields that piqued her curiosity. To this day she is remembered by longtime Bostonians for her Sunday afternoon teas, which brought together people of diverse professions for \"a friendly exchange of ideas in order to create a better understanding among people.\" In 1896, \"to create a feeling of neighborliness on the Hill,\" she established the Beacon Hill Reading Club, and under its aegis she invited women to her elegant Beacon Hill home to discuss important books of the day and even to read drafts of their own works.2 She wrote many magazine articles on the subject of antiques and prepared a book (unpublished) on American decorative arts.3 Her home, located at 55 Mt. Vernon Street, is now the Nichols House Museum, established a legacy in her will. Furnished with ancestral portraits and antiques collected on her many trips abroad, the house museum offers in 1961by 26 a glimpse of early twentieth-century life on Boston's Beacon Hill. Nichols was a forthright woman who rarely stood on ceremony when she had a bone to pick. In his book The Proper Bostonians, Cleveland Amory described Nichols as a noted Beacon Hill spinster who did not hesitate to write directly to Washington during World War II to complain that Admiral Halsey was \"a disgrace to the Navy,\" and-worse-\"not a gentleman.\"4 Much earlier, in 1908, Nichols and Boston poet Amy Lowell successfully opposed a controversial proposal to move the Boston Athenaeum from Beacon Hill to Back Bay. After the First World War, she enlisted the first lady, Edith Galt Wilson, to urge her husband to include a woman among the American delegates to the 1919 Paris Peace Conference. President Wilson refused, but Nichols checked into a nearby hotel and sat in on all the meetings anyway.s Nichols believed that the love of gardens is universal and that this shared passion could be a tool for improving international relations. For that reason she fostered friendships with influential women around the world, including Queen Sophie of Greece. In one of her articles Nichols described the queen's deep love of gardening and her remarkable garden, designed by the English landscape architect Thomas Mawson. She had been introduced to the royal family through a Beacon Hill neighbor, Gordon Allen; by her own account, her afternoon at the royal palace included \"a discussion with the King about international politics. \"~ This was typical Rose Nichols. Nichols first became enamored of gardening as a child, when her grandfather Thomas Johnston Homer allowed her to cultivate a small corner of his garden in Roxbury. Rose and her two younger sisters Marian and Margaret grew up in Boston at 130 Warren Street, where their father, Arthur Howard Nichols, practiced homeopathic medicine. In 1885, when Rose was thirteen, the Nichols family moved to the house on Mt. Vernon Street, where she would live for the remainder of her life. Rose's mother, Elizabeth Fisher Homer, was the sister-in-law of Augustus Saint-Gaudens. In 1889, when the Nichols family spent the summer at SaintGaudens' home in the Cornish Colony of rural New Hampshire, Rose immediately fell in love with the mountains. The following winter she persuaded her father to buy an old farmhouse in Cornish, where she spent many happy summers enjoying the area's renowned natural beauty and learning about gardens. It was her uncle Augustus who, because of his admiration for her garden there, encouraged her to take up Nichols devised her own training program; the profession was still in its formative stage and few educational options were open to women. Our knowledge of her studies is sketchy. She was tutored privately by Charles A. Platt, an artist-turned-architect whom she had first met in Cornish.' One winter, while living in New York City with the Saint-Gaudens family, she studied drafting with Thomas Hastings of the architectural firm Carrere and Hastings. In January of 1899 she was admitted as a special student at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology. Records show that she took only one course, an upper-level design studio, suggesting that she already possessed some advanced skills. The course was taught by Desire Despradelle, a charismatic professor of architecture whose teaching methods were based on Beaux Arts principles.$ It was here, she later said, that she \"learned to apply architectural principles to the plans of gardens. \"9 Nichols also enrolled at the Ecole des Beaux Arts in Paris where she took at least one course. Later she studied in England with \"the author of The English Formal Garden,\" as she put it. It is unclear whether she meant H. Inigo Triggs, author of a sumptuous folio entitled The Formal Garden in England and Scotland, or F. Inigo Thomas, co-author with Reginald Blomfield of The Formal Garden in England. Whichever it was, Nichols' approach to design became firmly entrenched in formalism rather than in the naturalism whose best-known advocate was William Robinson, author of The Wild Garden (1870) and The English Flower Garden (1883). Nichols rarely alluded to Robinson or to naturalism in either her writings or her design work. Her allegiance to the formal garden was shared with the artists of the Cornish Colony. Years later she wrote, \"All the artists in Cornish ... garden design. Like many garden designers, 27 books, Nichols chose gardens that were not well known to American and Enghsh travelers. Her extensive knowledge of each country's history, decorative arts, and architectural styles enriched her books with a cultural flavor lacking in other garden books of the period. Over the course of her life she also published about fifty magazine articles on gardens in France, Germany, Ireland, Greece, Spain, Portugal, India, Nichols' 1902. English Pleasure Gardens was published in became champions and exponents of the socalled 'formal' school. We eagerly read John Sedding's Garden Craft Old and New and got ideas from [Blomfield's] The Formal Garden m England. 10 Nichols' first m book, Enghsh Pleasure Gar1902. It championed the formal garden and carefully traced the origms and history of English gardens, with emphasis on Elizabethan and Tudor walled gardens. Part of the book's charm lies in its visual materials, which include her own photographs and drawdens, appeared ings as well as illustrations from medieval out manuscripts that Nichols had ferreted in libraries and museums. English Pleasure Gardens remains a useful reference for garden history even today. An energetic traveler, Nichols made thirty trips abroad in search of gardens to write about. After World War I, she published two more books in the same format as the first, Spamsh and Portuguese Gardens (1924) and Italian Pleasure Gardens (1928). For both of these and China, but most of her writings were devoted to her first loves, the gardens of England and Italy. Around 1896, while she was still pursuing her studies, Nichols designed her first garden, at Mastlands, the family's summer home in the Cornish Colony. She laid out a sunken walled garden in a clearing among the old farmyard enclosures, using the abundant stone of the area.\" The garden so transformed the undistinguished farmhouse that the family abandoned their plans to build a new house.'2 Set in a grove of the tall pine trees that had given the property its name, it was hailed by noted garden writer Frances Duncan as \"one of the most delightful gardens in all artist-inhabited and garden-loving Cornish.... Miss Nichols has shown herself wise beyond her years.\"13 The garden, separated from the house by a sloping grass terrace and a low retaining wall, was reached by descending a few steps leading down from the terrace. The large rectangular space was divided into sixteen beds with a network of linear paths, the main one on axis with the porch-a design derived from the English walled gardens that inspired Nichols throughout her career. With its hardy New England plants, the Mastlands garden-still intact-has a personal nature that was lacking in her work for clients. Despite the lack of archival material, some information about Nichols' professional career has recently come to light, mostly from research in periodicals. About thirty commissions have been identified, ranging geographically from California and Arizona to Illinois, Wisconsin, Georgia, and, of course, New England. The list of clients is heavily sprinkled with prominent Boston society names, such as Mrs. Gardiner Green Hammond, Mrs. Francis Peabody, and Mrs. Philip Sears. 28 . \" Nichols landed her first professional in 1904 when a Beacon Hill neighbor, Ellen Mason, asked for advice about her Newport, Rhode commission Island, garden. Since Miss Mason, an In the Flower Garden i a The South Path b 2 Two views Looking at from the Terrace New c and its of the garden plan. \"Mastlands,\"Cormsh, Hampshme, heiress from a prominent Boston family, embraced many causes such as Indian rights, tenement improvement, and family welfare, designer and client had much in common. In a magazine article about the Mason house and garden, Nichols claimed to have laid out the garden as a series of enclosures, including a cold-frame area, a cutting garden, fountain garden, and-near the house-an ornamental garden in a style \"reminiscent of Spain.\"'4 Curiously, she neglected to mention that the entire estate, including the garden plots, had been laid out by the Olmsted firm in 1882. Nichols' role in 1904 seems to have been limited to planting design. In fact, it was rare that Nichols had full responsibility for the layout of a garden; more typically her role was confined to designing planting schemes for gardens previously laid out by the architect of the house or by landscape architects such as Jens Jensen or the Olmsted firm. In Lake Forest, Illinois, an area where she completed a dozen commissions, she frequently worked with architects Howard Van Doren Shaw and David Adler. The connection to Lake Forest may have come about through her brother-in-law, Arthur Shurcliff, whose professional path crossed that of Adler. One of Nichols' most spectacular Lake Forest commissions was the water court at the House of the Four Winds, designed by Shaw for Hugh McBirney. Inspired by the Generalife gardens in Granada (which were illustrated in her book Spanish and Portuguese Gardens), Nichols' striking but understated plantings accentuated the geometry of Shaw's garden layout. At Haven Wood, a Renaissance-style villa designed by Shaw for steel magnate Edward 29 Ryerson, Nichols shared the limelight with Jens Jensen, who laid out the grounds, and Shaw, who designed the principal garden features. on with David Adler-a large lakeside garden in Milwaukee for Lloyd R. Smith, an executive of the A. C. Smith Corporation-illustrates Nichols' use of her extensive knowledge of historic gardens. Here, as for another commission in Augusta, Georgia, she adapted a water feature from the Villa Cicogna in the Italian Lakes, laying out a terrace garden and a long water cascade to accompany Adler's Italian Renaissance-style house. No drawings or photographs of the garden remain, but it is currently being restored based in part on the architect's records. Through her Lake Forest connections, Nichols received a commission m 1913 from Chicago businessman Charles Blair Macdonald for his new home, Ballyshear, in Southampton, Long Island. One of the leaders in bringmg golf to the United States, Macdonald had developed the National Golf Course on Long Island and built for himself a house overlooking the links, on a 72-acre property. Here, in contrast to most of her commissions, Nichols had major design responsibility. She laid out two walled gardens to the east of the house, the upper one planted with evergreens and perennial borders and the lower one surrounded by an arbor covered with grapevines. Sadly, these lavishly planted gardens were short-lived, bemg replaced m the 1920s for the second owner of the house, Charles Van Vleck, by an Annette Hoyt Flanders design. The circumstances surrounding the gardens of Mrs. Gifford Pinchot at Grey Towers, m Milford, Pennsylvania, are more typical of the commissions that Nichols received. When she was approached in 1937, quite late in her career, the gardens at Grey Towers were already well developed. Gifford Pinchot, a two-term governor of Pennsylvania who is best remembered for having elevated the practice of forestry to a science, made his home at Grey Towers after 1910. His wife, Long Island heiress Cornelia Bryce Pinchot, set out to make her mark on the gardens, leavmg her husband to improve the grounds. In 1918 she asked Ellen Shipman to advise her on the plantings for a one-and-onehalf-acre walled garden that had been built in A project that Nichols worked at \"House Water court mth rephca of Giambologna's Mercury (1564) of the Four Winds, \" Lake Forest, lllmois, designed by Howard Van Doren Shaw and Rose Standish Nichols \"Haven Wood, \" Lake Forest, Ilhnois Nichols used eastern red cedar (Jumperus vmgimana) m place of the too tender Italian cypresses (Cupressus sempervirens). 30 The great Bisuschio. water-staircase at the Villa Cicogna, Water-staircase at the Villa Terrace Museum Decorative Arts, Milwaukee, Wisconsm. of The walled garden of perenmals and evergreens at \"Ballyshear,\" Southampton, New York. 31 Gifford Pmchot (mghtJ and guests at Grey Tower's swimming pool. Nichols planted the walls and borders as the looming gray stone Richard Morris Hunt. Like designed by Nichols, Mrs. Pinchot loved the traditional English walled gardens she had visited on trips abroad, and over the years she embellished the lushly planted walled garden with classical columns and terracotta vases. By the 1930s, Mrs. Pinchot's attention had turned to borders for a new swimming pool. She first hired Harriet Kaupp to draw up a planting plan that mcluded delphimum, lilies, canterbury bells, and iris edged with sweet william and coral bells. In 1937, when Mrs. Pinchot was introduced to Rose Nichols, she asked her to prepare another planting plan for the pool border. Nichols agreed to come to Milford: \"I shan't charge anything for time spent in traveling. The cost of the plan will be reduced to the minimum because I think it would be fun to work with you in such a lovely spot.\" 1889, the same year house replied, \"What I want from you is first, a new point of view, and second and most important, the benefit of your expert knowledge I and wide experience.\"'S Nichols' plan, which hke other documents related to the property survived in the Grey Towers archives, was dated November 7, 1937. It was quickly approved. \"Anything you say is one hundred per cent right,\" Mrs. Pinchot wrote. The plan called for five-foot-wide flower borders encircling the pool, edged by dwarf French marigolds and ageratum. Nichols proposed a succession of bloom from June through September in a palette of orange, yellow, buff, copper, salmon, and white, using lilies, gladioli, salvia, hollyhocks, and various annuals. Unfortunately, Mrs. Pinchot's dreams for the pool garden were never realized. When she sent Nichols a check the following July, she enclosed a note saying that she'd had to cut back drastically on Mrs. Pinchot 32 upkeep of Grey Towers, even letting the longtime gardener go. \"Things went rather higgledy-piggledy.... I'm afraid the planting plan was not adhered to.\"'6 Although little survives of Rose Nichols' gardens, her legacy should not be underestimated. In addition to her important books and articles, it includes the gardens, which deserve-and are now getting-further study. The resurgence of interest in the golden age of American garden design has led to the rediscovery and preservation of the work by early practitioners. Mastlands, Rose Nichols' summer home in Cornish, New Hampshire, has recently become the Cornish Colony Museum and its slumbering walled garden has been replanted. The Lloyd the 7 Taloumis, \"Rose Standish Nichols.\" 8 Kimberly A. Shilland, Curator, Architectural Collections, provided msight mto Nichols' course of study at MIT. MIT's short-lived landscape design program (1900-1910) was directed by Guy Lowell, who advised women not to go mto landscape gardening \"unless you simply can't keep out.\" Marian Coffin and Martha Brookes Hutcheson were among his students (From Mary Bronson Hartt, \"Women and the Art of Landscape Gardemng,\" The Outlook, 24 March 1908, 704). ~ Taloumis, \"Rose Standish Nichols.\" lo Rose Standish Nichols, \"A Little Garden Hunt m England,\" House Beautiful (July 1923\/, 29. Nichols acknowledged having met Thomas \"a few years \" later.\" Smith estate in Milwaukee has become the Villa Terrace Decorative Arts Museum and the water cascade is undergoing restoration. Restoration is being considered for Grey Towers (now a National Historic Landmark) along with some of its gardens. Several private gardens in Lake Forest still exist in fragmentary form or have taken on a new life under sympathetic owners who share Nichols' passion for gardening.\" Endnotes 11 Menzel, \"Sketches,\" 10-11. 12 Margaret Homer Shurcliff, Lively Days: Some Memoirs of Margaret Homer Shurcliff (Taipei : Literature House, 1965), 34. 13 m Frances Duncan, \"A Cornish Garden,\" Amemca (March 1908\/, 507. Country Life Rose Standish Nichols, \"A Newport House and Garden,\" House and Garden (April 1905), to 189-194. Coffin's archives are held at the Wmterthur Museum and Library, Delaware; Farrand's are located at The College of Environmental Design Documents Collection, University of California at Berkeley; and Shipman's papers are in the Rare and Manuscnpts Collection, Cornell University Library, Cornelia Bryce Pinchot, letter Nichols, 6 October 1937, Pinchot Papers, Library Congress, courtesy of Grey Towers. 16 Rose Standish of Ithaca, 2 New York. Correspondence between Cornelia Bryce Pmchot and Rose Nichols, 1937-1938, Pinchot Papers, Library of Congress, courtesy of Grey Towers. Both quotations are from George Taloumis, \"Rose Standish Nichols: Sixty Years Ago She Organized the Beacon Hill Reading Club (1896),\" Boston Sunday 1~ See Deborah A. Starr, \"Inspirations Past and Present,\" Horticulture, February 1996, 42-47. Globe, 3 16 September 1956. Entitled \"New England Baroque,\" crrca 1933, the working typescrrpt and illustrations are held m the archives of the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities in Boston. Acknowledgments I would like to thank Flavia Cigliano, Executive 4 Cleveland Amory, The Proper Bostonians (1950), 109-110. Director, and William H. Pear 11, Nichols House Museum, Boston; Susan Modder, Executive Director, Villa Terrace Decorative Arts Museum, Milwaukee, Wisconsm; Alma Gilbert-Smith, Director, Cornish Colony Museum, Cornish, New Hampshire, Art Miller, 5 Southard Menzel, \"Sketches of the Life and Character Nichols, Artist, Collector, Social Reformer, Museum Founder,\" in Rose Standish Nichols as We Knew Her A Tribute to Fnend (pnvately pnnted rn a Boston, 1986), 11-13. ~ of Rose Archmst, Lake Forest College; Jenmfer Wellington, Landscape Curator, Grey Towers, Milford, Pennsylvama; and Lesley Bryne for help in preparing this article. Judith Place B Tankard is co-author with Alma Gilbert of A Rose Standish Nichols, \"A Glimpse of a ProAmerican Queen and Her Gardens,\" House Beautiful (August 1922), 110-111. of Beauty Artists and Gardens of the Cormsh Colony, which will be published this spring by Ten Speed Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1999","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25250","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160ab6d.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"33 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 1999 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 65 42 54 48.39 inches 32.25 inches 100 on Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost July 6 -1 on January 2 28 30 on April 19 October 8 on Growing Note: Season 170 days Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenherser, for warmth 1999 ranks tenth m Massachusetts' 129 years of weather-keeping. It was a mere 0.2 cooler then 1998. Seven months were drier then normal; the wettest month was September with 10.39 inches of precipitation. The year's total of 48.39 mches is 8 mches above normal, although not all of it was to the good. The rams of July and September came as downpours and often ran off before the moisture soaked m and replenished the soil. Snowfall totaled only 32.25 inches, 10.05 mches below normal. Nearly half fell m January (16.9 mches\/. No snow at all fell in the latter part of the year, settmg a new record for latest initial snowfall of a new season, which was previously held by December 22, 1998. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia Volumes 58 & 59 (1998-1999)","article_sequence":6,"start_page":34,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25252","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160af6b.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volumes 58 & 59 to issues, parentheses refer \"Forest those zn bold~ace (1998-1999) of to illustrations the entrzes. Aber, John, Response to Apples, espahered (59) : [4]: 17, 22, 23,24 Araucama araucana Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58): [2]: 35-40 Ables fargesm, m Chma \/58(: [3]: 13 Aboriginal people, and forests \/58]: Beech-bark disease Betula (59): [1]. 25 - (58): [2]: 24 \/59\/: [2]: 26-27, 30-33, 34 -lenta (58\/: - heterophylla (59): [2]:31 \"Arboriculture in Its Relations to Landscape: 'All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit,\"' Charles Eliot [2]: 8-10, 11, 27, 33; [3]: 9; (59): [4]: 8 6, Acer (59[: [1]: 49 [excerpt, 1892] (59\/: [2]. Arnold Arboretum 22-25 -cmcmatum -damdm (59~: [1]: 43 - macrophyllum (58\/: [3]: front cover, 5 (58): [3]: 3, 4 dasycarpum (591: [3]: 31 Arcto-Tertiary flora (59\/: [1]: 23-27, 1 34,60-71 - rubrum (58y [2]. 3G; \/59~: [1]: 49; 159): [3]: 23, 24-30, cover -- [3]: 23, - 25 saccharinum (58): [11: 19, 20 ; [3]~ 11-24; (59) : [1] : 12-14, 20-22; [2]: 3, 11, 33; [3]. 3-8, 12, 13, 15, 23; [4]: inside back cover Metasequoia glyptostroboides and 159): [1]: 10, 17-19, 32, 77, 78, 80-84, inside back cover 31, inside back -- --'Pyramidahs' (59]: [3]: 31 2014 2014 'Silver Queen' (59): [3]: 31 saccharum var. mgrum (59]: [ 113 Adams, Abigail, rose of (59): [3]: 8 Adams, Charles Francis (59~: [2]: 15 Adelges piceae (58): [2]: 4 tsugae (58) : [2]: 41 Adler, David [59\/: [4]~ 28, 29 - Weather Station Data alleghanienszs (58\/: [2]: 36 [2]: 36, 43 1 -lumznzfera (59): [1]: 43, 51 -nzgra (59). [1]: 49 -papyrzfera (58\/: [2]: 36 -populzfolza (58\/: [2]: 33 Biodiversity (58) : [2]: 41 Birch (58): [2]: 36, 37 black (58): [2]: 7, 36, 43 - gray (58). [2]: 33 - paper, and disturbance (58): [2]: - yellow (58): [2]: 7, 9, 36 Birds (58): [2]~ 25; (59): [3]: 25 Bishop Museum (58): [1]: 19 Blomfield, Regmald (59): [4]: 26 Bonsai, and rejuvenation (59) : [4]: - 7 \"Aging and Rejuvenation m Trees,\" Peter Del Tredici [59~: [4]~ 10-16 [erratum] (58) : [1]: 1; (59): [2]~ 44; (59): [4]: 33 Arundmana (58J: [3] 12, 15 -nmtakayamensis \/58\/: [1]: 24 \"'As remarkable as discovering a living dinosaur'. Redwoods m Chma,\" Ralph W. Chaney [excerpt, 1948] (59) : [1]: 23-27 Aspen (58) : [3]: 9; (59\/: [4]: 10 \"Austral Weeks. Botamzmg m the Southern Hemisphere,\" Rob Nicholson (59\/:[2]: 26-34 Auxm 15-16 Boston Metropohtan Park Commission Botanic (59): [2]: 3-4, 6, 8, 12-18, 20 gardens (58). [3]. 28-29 (58)' [1]: David 19 Botanical Research Institute of Texas Botany, Chmese-Amencan (59): [1]: 12-22, 40-52 Boufford, -- (59): [1]: 48 \"Metasequoza glypto- Agriculture, and forests (58]. [2]: 11- 17, 30, 38 Alerce (59\/: [2]: 27-29, 31 -fossil record (59\/: [2]: 30 Alerce Andmo National Park 159): [4]: 17-18, 20, 21 rn strobozdes-Its Status m Central Chma m 1980,\" with Bruce Bartholomew and Stephen [Chile] 28-30 Amencan Park & Outdoor Association \/59[: [2]: 18 Ancistrocladus korupensis (58~: [1]: 20 (59(: [2]: Bactema, [2]: 36-40, 42 Bamboo, flowering (58): [3]: 11-12, 16 -Murrel's (58\/: [3]: 11, 12, 13, 14, 15,16,17 sorl (59\/: Spongberg [reprint] (59): [1]: Bowden, Richard D., \"Forest Response to 47-52 Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" \" Andersen, Phylhs, \"Charles Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon\" Barbour, Thomas \/58\/: [1]: 17 Bartholomew, Bruce (59) [1]: 48 -- with other contributors (58): [2]~ 35-40 Branch-bending, and fruiting (59): \"Metasequoia Status rn 1980,\" with [4]: 17-18, 20, 21 British Columbia forests (58). glyptostroboides-Its Central China m David Boufford and [3]: 2, (59\/: [3]: 2-13 Andrews, Henry, \"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils\" [excerpt, 1948] (59) : [1] : 33-34 \"Another 'Living Fossil' Comes to the Arnold Arboretum,\" E. D. Mernll [reprint] [59~: [1]: 17-19 Anti-cancer plants (58): [1]' 20-26; (59): [2]: 29 Anti-HIV plant compounds (58) : [1]: 20-26 3, 5, 8-10 Stephen Spongberg [reprint] (59). [1]: 47-52 Bazzas, Fakhn, \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors \/58\/: [2]: 35-40 Buitzenborg Botamc Garden (58): 4 [1]. 14 Bunchberry (58) : [3]: inside back cover Bean, W.J. (58) : [3]. 14, 16 Apical dominance, [4]: 17-18, 20, 21 and fruiting (59) - [MA] (59): [2]: inside back cover 7 Becking, Rudolf (59): [3] 17 Beech (58)' [2]: 7, 9, 23; (59): [4]: 11, 12 southern (59) : [2]: 30, 32, 33 Beaver Brook Reservation Burggren, Michael (59): [2]: 26, 33 Burls, redwood (59). [3]: 15-21, 22 Bussey Institution (59): [1]: 13, 14; 1 [2]: 8, 10; [3]: 11 A.E., photo by (59\/: [2]: cover Bye, \"California Academy-Lingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition,\" J. 35 Lmsley Gressitt [excerpt, 1953] (59): [1]~ 35-39 Calophyllum (58]. [1]~ 20 Cambium (59). [4]: 10 Cambridge Park Commission \/59]: [2]: 13, 19 Carbon cycling (58): [2]: 28-29, 3940 ; (59): [2] 3G, 37 Carya ]59~: [1]' 49 -illmoiensis (59[: [3]: back cover Forest History and Ecology,\" David R. Foster, with other contributors \/58~: [2]: 32-44 Castanea (59) : [1]: 25, 44 1 -molhssima (58[: [3]: 31 -segumm (59[: [1]: 43 Cathaya argyrophylla (59\/: [1] G7 1 Cedar, red (58): [3]: 31 \"Case Studies m - Chestnut - blight \/58): [2]: 8, 23-24, 1 43; [3]: 31 Cultivars, nongenetic (59). [4]: 12 Cunninghamia (59). [1]: 35, 36, 44, 54, 56, 57 -lanceolata 1 resistance to (58): [3]: 31 Chile, flora of (59): [2]: 26-34 Chiloe (59\/: [2]: 30 7 China, bamboo from (58): [3]: 11-17 plant exploration m \/58). [3]: 11-16; \/59~: [1]~ 4-52, 65-68 - \/59): [1]~ 43, 45, 50 Cupressaceae (59): [1]: 6, 54-57, 63 Cuticle studies (59). [1]: 66-68 2 Cycas revoluta (59\/: [3]: 10, 12 Cypress, bald (59): [1]: 34, 54 \"Chmese Names m Transliteration: A Conversion Table\" (59). [1]: 84 Darwm, Charles (58): [1]~ 2-10, \/59): Chu, Kwei-lmg (59): [1]: 20, 40, 44, 45, 48, 49, 51, 52 - Davis, Wade, Reconnais\" \"An Ecological 25 \"In the Shadow of Red Cedar\" (58) : [3]: 2-10 [2]: 28; (3\/: sance m the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboldes,\" with William S. Cooper [excerpt, western cover (58): [3]: 2, 3-G, 7, 8-10, back - - branchlets and cones (58): [3]: inside front cover 1 Cell differentiation (59): [4]: 10, 11 Central Park [NY] (59) : [2]: 10, 36 - Chamaecypans \/59]. [4]: 12 Chaney, Ralph W. (59) : [1]: 5-7, 15, 22, 23, 25, 26-29, 30, 32, 37, 40, 48,49 - 1950] (59) [1]. 40-4G Chun, Woon-Young (= Chen Huanyong) (59): [1]. 13-15 Church, Fredenck (59) [4] 5-6 painting by (59): [4]. 2-3 Clarkia fossil site [ID] (59) : [1]: 60, 63 Cline, Al (58\/~ [2] inside front cover 2 Codman, Henry (59): [2]: 11-12 6 Cole, Thomas \/59): [4]: 5, Comegys, Harnet (59\/: [3]: 3-5, 7, 8, - (58) [2]: 11-17, 37-40 ; (59) [2]: 34 Del Tredici, Peter, \"Agmg and Rejuvenation m Trees\" (59)' [4]: Deforestation 10-16 2014 --- --- - \"'As remarkable as - discovering a living dinosaur'. Redwoods m China,\" [excerpt, 1948] (59): [1]: 23-27 theories (59): [1]: 60-61, 63, 69 ---photos by (59): [1]: 24-27 \"Changes After European Settlement,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) [2]: 11-25 Charles Ehot, Landscape Architect, Charles W. Ehot [1902] (59): [2]: 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 19, [excerpt] 22-25 \"Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect. - An Introduction to His Life and Work,\" Keith N Morgan (59): [2]: 2-21 1 Charles River basm [MA] (59): [2]: Amos (58): [3]: 19 Comstock, Anna (58): [3]' 20, 24 Congmllio National Park [Chile] \/59): [2]: 33 Comfers \/58) [3]: 3, 8-9, (59): [1]: 331 34, 63 ; [2]: 31 2 -dwarf cvs. 159) [4]: 12 -northern (58) : [2]: 4 0 -northwestern (58) : [3]: 2-10 rare \/59): [2]: 26-34 regeneration m (59): [3]: 14 Connecticut (59): [4]: 2-9 hemlocks m (58) [2]. 42-44 Conospermum [Australia] (58)' [1]. 20 Cooper, William S. (59): [1]: 48, 49, 52 \"An Ecological Reconnais- 12, 13 Comemus, John -\"Ecology and Economics of Elm Replacement m Harvard Yard\" (58): [1]: 27-32 \"First and Fmal Flowering of 7 Munel's Bamboo\" (58): [3]: 11-17 \"Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground\" \/59): [3]: 14-22 photos by (58): [1]' front cover, 28, 29, 30, 31, inside back cover; [3]: inside front cover, 11, 16,17; (59): [1] 74, back cover; [3]: inside front cover, 15-21, back cover; [4]: inside front cover, 1016, inside back cover Descanso Gardens [CA] (58): [3]: 23 2014 - Dipterocarpaceae \/58): [1]: Disease and msect 14 susceptibility to (58): [3]. 31 \"Disturbance Prior European - Settlement,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58) : [2]~ 8-10 Dodge, Harnson Howell (59): [3] 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12 Dutch elm disease (58): [1]: 27-32; - - - sance m the Native Home of \" [2]: 24; [3]: 31 \"Dynamics m the Postglacial Era,\" \" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" \"Charles 12, 16, 18, 19 Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon,\" Phyllis Andersen Kwei-lmg Chu [excerpt, 1950] (59\/: [1]: 40-46 Copeland, E.B. \/58). [1]: 12 Cornish Colony [NH] \/59): [4] 26with (58): [2]: 4-7 \"Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests,\" John O'Keefe and David R. Foster (58): [2]: 2-31 1 \"Ecological Reconnaissance m the Native Home of \/59): [3]: 2-13 \"Charter Oak,\" Gayle Barndow Samuels (59). [4]: 2-4, 5, 6, 7-9 Cheng, Wan-Chun \/59(: [1]: 4-6, 7, 8, 17, 18, 20, 21, 33, 40, 44-46 Chestnut, American (58): [2]: 8, 23-24; 1 [3]: 31 - 28,32 \/58y [3]: inside back cover Cortadena jubata (58). [1]: 5 Cotyledonary node \/59) [3]: 15-16, Cornus canadensis Metasequoia Chmese (58) : [3]: 1 31 20; [4]: 10, 13 Cox, Paul (58): [1]~ 22, 26 Cragg, Gordon (58): [1]: 20 glyptostroboides,Kwei-hng Chu and William S Cooper [excerpt, 1950] (59): [1]. 40-46 \"Ecology and Economics of Elm Replacement in Harvard Yard,\" Peter Del Tredici (58): [1]: 27-32 \" 36 \"Ecosystem Response duced to an Intro- Pathogen The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" David R. Foster and David A. Orwig (58): [2]: 41-44 Ecosystems, of soils (59): [2]. 36-42 Mernll, From Mame to 9 Mamla,\"Ida Hay (58): [1]:11-19 1 Ehot, Charles, (59) : [2]. 2, 3, 4, 5, 6-21 \"E. D. -- - Fire, soil and (59): [2]~ 43 trees and (58~: [2]~ 8-11, 23, 27, 33-34; (59~: [3]: 18, 21; [4]: 8, 11, \"First and Fmal Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo,\" Peter Del Tredici \"Fruiting Espalrers: A Fusion of Art and Science,\" Lee Reich (59) [4]: 13 17-24 Fuelwood (58\/: [2]: 15-20 Fungus, m forest soil (58) [2]: 6-8, to \"Arboriculture m Its Relations Landscape: 'All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit\"' [2]: 22-25 -- [: [excerpt] (59): drawings by (59): [2]: inside \/58): [3]: 11-1G Fitzpatnck, John C. ]59~: [3]: 10 Fitzroy, Robert (59): [2]: 28-29 Fitzroya cupressoides (59~: [2]: 271 29,30-31 Flint, Harnson L., \"Native Plants: Another View\" [reprint] (58) : [3]: 30-32 Forest ecology 2-10 0 43; (59) : [2]: 36-40, 42-43 Furlong, John, photo by (59): [2]: back cover front cover, 7-10, 22 -- Garden and Forest (59\/: [2]: 3, 9, 16 Garden design (59) : [4]: 25-32 Gaulthema procumbens (58[: [2]: 33 Gaylussacia baccata (58): [2]: 33 family (59): [2]: 3, 4, 5-8, 10, memorials to (58) : [2]: 2-44; [3]: 9 11, 19 2014 (59): [2]: 18, 19 Elm, American (58). [1]: cover, 27, 28-31, 32, inside back cover, [3]~ 31; (59) : [3]: 39-40 - Enghsh (58):[1]:29 - European (58): [1]. 27, 29 1 - lacebark (58\/: [1]: 31 1 -Siberian (58) : [1] : 31 Scamston weepmg (59): [3]: 39-40 - the \"Washmgton\" (59\/: [3]: 11-12 Elm disease, and resistant plants 1 (58): [1]: 27-32; [2]. 24, 41; [3]: 31 Empetrum (59)' [2]: 27, 33 Endo, S. (59): [1]: 5 English Pleasure Gardens [Nichols, 1902] (59) : [4]: 27 6 Environmental stress (59): [4]: 11-16 Espaher, fruiting (59]: [4]: 17, 18, 19-24 yew (59): [4]: inside back cover Ethylene (59) : [4]. 17-18, 20, 22 Eucalyptus, sproutmg m (59): [3]: 15; [4]: 12 - globulus (58\/: [1]: 8 Euphorbia family (58): [1]: 22 2014 - - hardwood - - (58]: [2]: 4, 6-7, 9-10, 19-21, 34, 38, 39 remnants (59) : [2]: 4, 30; [4]: 5-6, 8 soils (58): [2]: 4, 6-8, 13-15, 33-34, 37-41, 43; [3]: 4-8; (59): [2]: 36-43 \"FOREST HISTORY (58) : [2]: 2-44 \"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus HumanInduced Stresses,\" David R. Foster, and other contributors Germplasm repositories (58): [3]: 32 Grbberelhc acid (59). [4]: 22 Gilliland, Frank (59) : [1]: 74 Ginkgo, geologic age (59y [1]: 34 Gmkgo blloba (59) : [1]. 50; [3]: 14, 15, 20 Glacial action (58). [2]: 4-7, 13; [3]: 8-9 Gleditsia tmacanthos (58\/: [1]: 31, 32 --'Inermis' (59) : [4]: 10 (58) : [2]: - 35-40 8 Global warming (58) : [2]: 28-29, 36, 39-40 Glyphosates, and soil fungi (59) : [2]: 39 Forests, Amencan (59): [4]: 3, 5, 6, - 0 Pacific Northwest (58) : [3]~ 2-10 storms and (58)' [2]: 8-9, 20-22, 36-37, 40 Foster, David R., \"An Ecological History of Massachusetts [: Forests,\" with John O'Keefe \/58~: Glyptostrobus (59\/: [1] 4, 54 (59\/: [1]: 57 -pensills (59\/: [1]: 8, 35, 36, 54, 56, 57 Gomortegaceae (59): [2]: 27 Gould, Stephen Jay, \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, - clade - [2]: 2-31 Fallacies, and Confusions m the [: Concept of Native Plants\" (58): --- \"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\" with David A. Orwig (58): [2]: 41-44 --- [1]: 2-10; [letters to editor about] [3]: 25-29 Gressitt, J. Lmsley (59): [1]: 35, 36, 1 48-51 - \"The California Academy- \"Forest Response to Lingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition\" [excerpt, 1953] (59[. [1]: 35-39 ---photos by (59y [1]: 36-39, 50 Grey Towers [PA] (59): [4]: 29-31, 32, \"Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions m the Concept of Native [ Plants,\" Stephen Jay Gould (58): [1]:: 2-10; [letters to editor] [3]: 25-29 Exopolysacchandes (59): [2]: 40 Fagus grandifoha (59): [2] 37; [4]: 11, 12 --- Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58[: [2]: 35-40 \"How Land Use Determmes Vegetation Evidence from a New England Sand Plain,\" with Glenn Motzkm (58]: [2]: 33-34 - \"Guide to Metasequoia at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Karen Madsen (59): [1]: 80-84 - photographs by (58). [2]: Fairchild, - David (58) [1]: 17 front cover, inside back cover, back cover Gypsy moth (58) : [2]: 8, 22-23, 41 Gymnosperms (59) : [1]: 8, 10, 42 Fargesia munelae (58) : [3]: 11, 12, 13, 14, 16, 17 5 history (58): [3]: 15 Farrand, Beatrix (59): [3]: 26 0 Farrand, Max (59): [3]' 10 Fir (58): [3]: 3 - Douglas (58): [3]: 3, 4, 6, 8, 9 (59): [2]: 37 amencana (58): [2]: 36 -pennsylvamca \/59~: [3]: 23 French, Joseph \/58)~ [1]: 12 Fraxmus - Hamburg, Germany, waterfront (59) : [2]: 12 Hardwood forest (58\/: [2]: 4, 6-7, 910, 19-21, 34, 38, 39 \"From Fossils to Molecules: The \" Metasequoia Tale Contmues,\" Hong Yang (59~: [1]: 60-71 - Harvard, and botany m China (59). [1]: 12-16 and landscape architecture (59). [2]' 13, 16, 19 37 Harvard Forest [Petersham, MA] \/58)~ [2]. front & back cover, inside front cover, 2, 6, 15, 29, 33, 36, inside back cover Fisher Museum dioramas (58y. [ - Hwa, C Ilex T (59): [1]: 6-7, 20, 22, 40, 44 Madsen, Karen, Metasequoia Arboretum\" - \"A Guide to at the Arnold 81-84 [2]: 12, 14, 18-19, 24 Pisgah Tract [Westmmster, NH] (58y [2]: 28, inside back cover Harvard Yard elms \/58): [1]: 27-32 Hay, Ida, \"E.D. Mernll, From Mame to Mamla\" (58): [1]: 11-19 Hemlock (58): [2] 23, 35; [3]: 2, 34-36 declme (58): [2]: 5, 6, 8, 9, 10, 41, 42 - eastern (58) : [2] : 41-44 -western (58) : [3]: 2, 3, 6, 9, back - f. luzonica ~58\/. [1]: 24 \" \"In the Shadow of Red Cedar,\" Wade Davis (58\/: [3]: 2-10 International Botamcal Congress [Utrecht, 1948] (59): [1]: 19, 74-75 crenata (59[. [1]~ Chinese-American Botamcal Collaboration\" (59]: [1]: [: \"Notes on 12-16 G Jack, John G (59): [1]: 13, 14 Jackson, Samuel ~58\/: [3]: 19 Jensen, Jens (58): [1]: 4, 5, 9; ~59y [4]: 28, 29 Jepson, Willis Maduhd, Domingo (58]: [1]: 23 2 Mame, University of \/58[: [1]: 11-12 bigleaf (58) [3]: front cover, 5 Maple, - red (58y [2] 7, 23, 3G, 43; (59~: [3]: 23 silver (59): [3]' 23, 24-30, 31, - inside back -2014 2014 cover centenarian ~59): [3]. 14, 20 Julyan, Candace L., \"Nature Study Lmn - national champion 1 silver-leaf \/59\/: [3]: 31 (59]: [3]: 23, 24 1591: [3]: 23 cover Hemlock woolly adelgid (58): [2]: 8, 24-25, 41-44 Hickory \/58): [2]: 7 Highsted Foundation (59): [3]: 14 Homalanthus, as pharmaceutical crop (58): [1]~ 21-26 - megaphyllus \/58): [1]: 23, 24 - nutans \/58): [1]: 22, 23 -popuhfolms (58): [1]: 25 -rotundifolzus (58): [1]: 2G Hormones, and espalier (59): [4]: 1718, 20, 22 \"How Land Use Determmes Twenty-First Century\" (58\/: [3]. 18-24 Juvemhty ~59(: [3]: 21-22; [4]: 10-13 Kew, Botamc Gardens 14-16, 17, 72 at Moves into the - sugar -vme -- ~58): [3]: (58y [2]: 7, 9, 23 4 (58) : [3]: 3, Massachusetts forests (58): [2]: 2-44 ecological history (58) : [2]: 2-5, [charts and maps] 6,7,9-11,16, 1 23,25,27,29,30,31 -- Koda, Harold, \"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own Adaptabihty\" ~59\/: [3]. 23-31 Kuser, John E. (59): [1]: 83 --- case studies of estate Mastlands (58~: [2]: 32-44 [NH] (59): [4]: 27, 26 28,32 Mawson, Thomas (59\/. [4]: Medicmal 20-26 \"Metasequoia m J: plant exploration (58): [1]: \"Forest glyptostroboides Fifty Years Growth of North America\" (59) : Mehllo, Jerry, Response to Vegetation. Evidence from a New [ 1 ]. 7G-79 Landscape architecture (59\/: [2]: 2-21; [4]: 28-32 preservation (59): [2] 10-21; [3]: 2-13 England Sand Plain,\" [2]: Glenn Motzkm and David R. Foster (58): 33-34 \"How Metasequoia, the Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses,\" with other contributors (58~: [2]: 35-40 Memorial Drive [Cambridge, MA] 'Lmmg (59): [2]: Memstem covers - Fossil,' Was Discovered m China,\" Hsen Hsu Hu, [excerpt, 1948] (59\/. [1]: 4-7 \"How to Fund Botamcal Expeditions,\" E. D. Mernll [correspondence] (59). [1]: 20-22 Howard, Richard A (59): [1]: 16, 17, 47 Hseuh, Chi-~u (59) : [1]: 4-6, 8, 9, 10, 17-18, 22 - Larsen, Syrach ~59). [1]: 77 Leng, Qm (59) : [1]: 66-68 Lerman, Phylhs, photo by (59) [4]' cover (59\/: [4]: 10, 11, 15 Mernll, Elmer Drew [58]. [1]: inside front cover, 11, 12, 13-15, 16,17, 18-20, 23, back cover, (59) : [1] 5, Li, Jianhua, \"Metasequoia: An \"Remmiscences of Collectmg the Type Specimens of Metase- glyptostroboides\" [reprint] 1 (59): [1]: 8-11 Hu, Hsen Hsu (59): [1]. 4, 5, 7, 13, quoia - 1 14, 15-18, 20, 21, 23, 40, 49, 51 \"How Metasequoia, the 'Living Fossil,' Was Discovered m - Chma\" Hurricane [excerpt, 1948] (59): [1]: 4-7 [: damage to forests (58): 40 20- Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Variation\" (59\/: [1]: 54-59 Lichens, m conifers ~58\/: [3]: 6 \"Light m a Bottle. Plant-Collecting m the Philippines,\" Rob Nicholson(58): [1]~ 20-26 Lignin, m soil (59): [2]: 37, 42 Lignotubers (59): (3]: 14-22; [4]: 14 Lmodendron tulipifera (59\/: [3]: inside front - Overview of Its 6, 12, 15-17, 18, 19, 20, 27, 28, 32, 40, 72, 74, 75, 81, 83 ---famrly (58]: [1]: 11-13, 19 \"Another 'Living Fossil' --- Comes to the Arnold Arboretum\" [reprint] (59) : [1] : 17-19 --- \"How to Fund Botamcal Expeditions\" [correspondence] (59) : [1] : 20-22 Metasequoia (59]: [1]: 4-84 evolution (59]: [1]: 3-5, 23-27, 33- 34, 36, 60-71 nammg \/59~: [1]. 4-5, 21, 75 related genera and - cover (59~: [1]. 6, 23- [2]: 8, 20-22, 36-37, - Hurncane, Great [1938] (58): [2]. 22, 25, 27-29, 36, 37 aftermath cover, cover 158): [2]' inside front 1, 9, 20-22, 35, inside back lignin content \/59\/: [2]: 37 Lithocarpus densiflorus (59\/: [4]: Longevity (59): [4]: 10-16 Longman, Alan (59). [1]: 82 Lorette pruning (59) : [4]. 22, 23 Luteyn, James (59): [1]: 48 27, 54-59, 63 13 -glyptostroboides \/59\/~ [1]:covers, 4-26, 27-35, 36, 37, 38, 39-44, 45, 46, 49, 50; [4]. covers --'National' clone (59\/: [1]: 83 at Arnold Arboretum (59y [lJ: ]: 10, 17-19, 80-84, inside back cover - 38 --behefs about --cones -- [Chinese] (59[: 71 [1]~ 5, 7, 11,26, 30, 35-38, (59\/: [1]: 10, 57 conservation of (59): [1]: 6-7, 18, 27, 35, 46-52, 66, 70, 71, 81-84 cultivated (59]: [1]: 70, 71, 7274, 75, 76-79, 81-84 cuticle 66-68 \"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils,\" Henry N. Andrews National Science Foundation (58) : -- [excerpt, 1948] (59): [1]: 33-34 \"Metasequoia glyptostroboldes: Fifty Years of Growth in North [ America,\" John E. Kuser (59[: [1]:: 76-79 [3]: 20-23 Native plants (58): [1]: 2-10; [3]: 2532 ; (59): [2]: 23-25, 38, 41 \"Native Plants: Another View,\" \" -- micromorphology (59) [1]: -- \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides-Its Status m Central China m 1980,\" \" Harnson L. Flint [repnnt] (58): [3]: 30-32 \"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise\" [Letters] (58) : [3]: 25-29 --dlscovery (59]: [1]: 4-11, 23-32, 35-39 distribution in China ]: (59[: [1]: 4-11, [map] 18, 21, 23, 25-27, 30, 35-40, [maps] 41, 42, 44-52, 61, 66-70, 79, 83 DNA analysis (59): ]!]: 66-70 --ecology (59): [1] 7, 10-11, 23, 2014 2014 Bartholomew, David Boufford, and Stephen Spongberg [reprint] (59[: [1]: 47-52 \"Metasequoia Travels the Globe,\" Kerko Satoh (59). [1]: 72-75 Metasequoia Valley (Shur-sa-pa) (59): [1]. cover, 6, 7, 23-27, [map] 30, Bruce \" Natural selection (58) : [1]: 2-10, 40; mto [3]: 28-29, 31 \"Nature Study Moves the 25-27, 35-52, 61 2014 2014 foliage (59): [1]: inside front 4-8, 36, 39, 54 31, 35-38, 40, [maps] 41-42, 43-49, 50, 51, 52, 60, 61, 66-70 Metasequoiaceae (59) : [1]: 6, 54 Twenty-First Century,\" Candace L. Julyan (58)' [3]~ 18-20, 21-23, 24 Nichols, Rose Standish, life and work (59) : [4]: 25-32 Nichols House Museum [MA] (59y [4]: 25-26 m Nicholson, Rob, \"Austral Weeks: Botanizing - cover, 2014 2014 habitat (59): [1]: 7, 25-27, 35, 41, 46, 48-51, 58-59, 75-78, 81-84 --hardmess (59[: [1]~ 18, 22, 2627, 74-79, 83 --herbamum specimens Metropohtan parks (59y [2]: 10-21 Microfauna, m soil (59y [2]: 36, 37, 39-41 the Southern Middlesex Fells (59) : [1]: ]: 10, 17 2014 2014 2014 2014 [MA] \/59): [2]: 17 Mikr, Shrgeru (59): [1]: 4, 5, 33, 75 Misodendraceae (59): [2]~ 27 Monkey-puzzle tree (59): [2]: 26-27, 30-33,34 7 Monocarpism \/58[: [3]: 11-17 Monocots, woody (58): [3]: 11-12 Montane vegetation (58)' [1]: 23-25 Morgan, Keith N., \"Charles Ehot, Landscape Architect An Intro- Hemisphere\" (59) :[2]. 26-34 \"Light m a Bottle. PlantCollecting m the Philippines\" (58) [1]: 20-26 \" 1980 Smo-Amencan Botanical Expedition (59~: [1]: 47, 48-52 2014 2014 oldest tree (59): [1]: 36, 49, 61 postage stamp (59): [1]: 67 propagation (59): [1]: 18, 35, Nitrogen cycling (58): [2]: 36-40; [3]: 4-8; (59) [2]: 36-40 North Carolina Botanical Garden 27 Chmese-Amencan Botamcal Collaboration,\" Karen Madsen (59~: [1]: 12-16 Nut trees (58): [2]: 10; (59)' [4]: 12 Nutnent cycling (58): [2]: 37-38; [3]: 5-8; (59) [2]: 36-40, 42 \"Notes on (58). [3]: 70, 77, 82 --repxoduction (59[: [1]: 4-5, 8, 10, 23, 25, 34-36, 47-52, 55-58, 63, 82 2014 -- (59). [1]: [: 35,36,40,41,48,50,51 seed distribution (59): [1]: 5-6, 2014 rice cultivation and duction to His Life and Work\" (59). [2]: 2-21 Motzkm, Glenn, 11, 17-19, 21-23, 25, 27, 32, 72-79, 81-84 -- size (59): [1]: 6-8, 10, 36, 39, -- 44, 47, 51, 76-79, 82-84 trunk (59): [1]: 76, 77, 79, inside back cover type tree (59): [1]: 6, 7, 8-10, 2014 \"How Land Use Determines Vegetation. Evidence \" from a New England Sand Plain,\" with David R. Foster (58): [2]: 33-34 Mount Desert Island [ME] (59): [2]: 9 7, 8, 19 Mount Vernon, landscape preservation (59) [3]: 2-13 - - - 2014 plantings at (591: [3]: inside 11, 17, 25, 26, 48 - shnne (59): [1]: 5, 26, 30, front cover, 2, 7, 10, 11, back cover Muriel's bamboo (58): [3]: 11, 12, 13, 39, 48 for (59) [1]: 6, 7, 35-38, 45,46,51,59,77,78 --vanation (59[: [1]~ 58-59, 66-69, 74, 77-79, 83 -millem (59\/: [1]: 66 -occidentahs (59) : [1]: 63, 66 METASEQUOIA AFTER FIFTY YEARS (59).. [ --uses (58): [2]: 6-7, 23, 33-34, 43; (59): [2]: 37; [3]: 15; [4]: 6-8, 13 ancient specimens (59) : [4]: 7 live (59): [4]: 7-8 -red(58\/: [2]:3G - scrub (58): [2]: 7, 9, 33-34 - white ~58\/: [2] 7; (59]: [4]: 2-9 the \"Charter\" [CT] (59\/: [4]. 2Oak - 14-16,17 Mycorrhizae (58): [3]: 6; \/59[: [2]: 37, 42-43 4, 5-9 O'Keefe, John, and David R Foster, \"An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests\" (58) [2]: 1 2-31 Nakai, T National 5 (58): [3]: 15 Academy of Science (58): Old-field growth [3]. 20 National Cancer Institute \/58~: [1]: [: [ 1 ] 4-84 \"Metasequola: An Overview of Its 20, 26; (59). [2]~ 29 National Capitol Park and Planning Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Vanatlon,\" Jlanhua LI (59\/: [1]: 54-59 Commission (59). [2]: 19 National Museum of Mamla [Philippines] (58) [1]: 23 (58\/: [2]: 17, 18, 19-21 Old-growth forest (58) : [2] 28-29, 35-40; [3]: 2-10; (59) : [3]~ 14, 20 Olmsted firm (59~: [2]~ 3, 12, 13; [4]: 28 Olmsted, Frederick Law (59): [2]: 3, 8-15, 18; [3]: 6 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Jr. (59) [2]: 13, 19 39 1 Olmsted, John Charles (59): [2]: 11 Olympic Pemnsula [WA] (58): [3]: --modern medicmal --m front cover Ontogenetical agmg (59). [4]: 11-14 Orwig, David A., \"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid,\"with David R Foster (58): [2]: 41-44 Osborne, Graham, photographs by (58): [3]: covers, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, inside back cover (58\/: [1J~ 20-26 Philippines (58) : [1] : 11-26 Platanus x acerifoha (59\/: [2]: covers Platt, Charles A. (59): [2]: 16; [4]: 26 Plowmg (58). [2]: 33-34, 38 Pollen history (58)' [2]: 4-6, 7, 23 Pollution, and forests (58) : [2]: 28-29, 36-40 Redcurrant, espahered (59\/: [4] : 24 \"Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground,\" Peter Del Tredici [59\/: [3]: 14-22 Redwood, California ~58\/: [3]: 3, 9, 14; (59) : [1]: 4, 23, 26, 34, 35, 54, 55; [3]: cover, 14, 15-21, 22; [4]: 13 - dawn (59): [1]: 4-84 -giant \/59\/: [1]: 54-55 Redwood National Forest cover Polymerase 68-69 cham reaction (59): [1]: ]: (59): [3]: Osgood, Henry (58): [1]: 12 Populus [59): [1]: 44; [4]: 13 - adenopoda (59): [1]: 43, 51 balsamifera ssp. tnchocarpa (58\/. 3 [3]: - heterophylla (59\/: [1]: 49 Post-glacial vegetation (58): [2]: 4-7; [3] : 8-9 Potash (58): [2]: 13 - 1 Page, Chris (59): [2]: 31 Parkyns, George Isham, print of Mount Vernon Parthenocissus (59): [3]: 2 qumquefoha (58): [2]~ 53 Pathogens m forests (58): [2]: 8, 41-44 Pears, espahered (59) [4]: 18, 22, 23 Pecan (59): [3]: back cover Pharmaceuticals, gray (58) : [1]: 26 Philippines Bureau of Science (58): [1]:11-13, 14-16, 18, 19 Philippme flora (58). [1]: 11-26 Phorbol-esters (58): [1]. 26 Picea glauca 'Conica' (59)~ [4]: 12 - pungens (59): [1]: 41 -sitchensis \/58): [3]: 3 Pmchot estate (59): [4]~ 29-31, 32 Pme (58): [2]: 4, 6, 7, 9, 23; (59). [1]: 34 - Benguet (58): [1]: 23 - lodgepole (58) [3]: 9 pitch (58): [2]: 7, 9, 33-34 serotinous cones (58): [2]~ 9 - ponderosa (59~: [4]~ inside front - \"Present Conditions and Future Prospects,\" John O'Keefe and 1 David R. Foster (58) : [2]: 26-31 \"Professors Squabble Over Seeds From Chma's Living Fossil Trees\" [Harvard Cnmson, 1952] (59) : [1]: 32 Propagation, and ~uvemhty (59): [4]: 12-14 Prostratm ]. Rehder, Alfred (58) [3]: 12; (59) : [1]~ 12, 15; [3]: 29 photos by (59): [3]: 29, 30 Reich, Lee, \"Fruiting Espahers: A Fusion of Art and Science\" (59[: [4]~ 17-24 Rejuvenation (59\/: [4]: 10-16 \"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,Chi-~u Hseuh - Revere Beach 1 [reprint] [59y [1]: 8-11 [MA] (59): [2]: 14 (58\/. [1]: 22, 23, 26 Pruning espahered fruits (59): [4]: 17-24 - 4 propagation stock (59) : [4]: 14 6 and [59\/: [4]: 13-16 rejuvenation serorina Prunus - (59\/: [1]. 43; [4]: 22 (58y [2]: 37 Pseudotsuga menziesm [58\/: [3]: 3 Puckler-Muskau, Hermann (59\/: [2]: 9, 15 Ribes, and bhster rust ~58\/: [2]: 20 Rice cultivation, and Metasequoia [Chma] (59). [1]: 35, 36, 40, 41, 48, 50,51 Rock, Joseph (59) : [1] : 12, 20 Roots, adventitious ~59\/: [4]: 12, 13 6 and rejuvenation [59\/: [4]: 10-16 \"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostoman,\" Judith Tankard (59): - [4]: 25-32 Rousseau, Jean Jacques (58[. [3]. 20 Rubus spectabihs (58): [3] -- Rust, cedar-apple [58\/: [3]' 4 31 1 cover - red (58) [2]: 20, 38 white \/58\/: [2]~ 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, Quercus (59): [1]: 15, 25, 26, 49, 51; [2]: 37; [3]: 15; [4]. G-8, 13 - 26, 27, 34, 36, 37; [3]: Pinus contorta \/58): [3]: (58). [1]: 23 -longaeva (59\/: [4]: 14-15 ponderosa (59~: [4]~ inside front -msulams - 3 9 -acunssima - cover [1]: 32 (59) : [1]: 42 alba (59\/: [4]: 2-9 6 -rubra (58\/. [2]: 36 5 suber lignotubers (59\/ [3] 15 -vamabihs (59): [1]: 43 vmgimana (59\/: [4]: 7-8 m - Harvard Yard (58) : (58): [2]: 38 -ngida \/58): [2]. 33, 34 strobus (58)~ [2]: 36; [3]: 3 Pioneer vegetation (58): [2]: 5, 17, 27 Pits and mounds (58) [2]: 8, 36, 37, 38 Plane trees (59): [2]: covers Plant exploration, m Chile (59): [2]: -resmosa - Racz and Debreczy, photos by (59y [1]:inside front cover; [3]: inside cover Samt-Gaudens, Augustus (59): [4]: 26 Samuels, Gayle Barndow, \"The Charter Oak\" ~59\/: [4]. 2-9 Sand plam vegetation [58): [2]: 32-33 [: Sargent, Charles Sprague (59) [1]: 12-15, 20, 21, [2]: 3, 18; [3]: 3, 4-13, 25; [4]: 6 Sargent, John Smger, sketch of cousm Charles ~59\/: [3]: 4 Satoh, Keiko, \"Metasequoia Travels the Globe\" \/59\/. [1]~ 72-75 Sauer, Leshe Jones, \"Soil as System\" \/59\/~ [2]~ 35-43 a Living back - Ramforests, Chilean (59\/: [2]: 26-34 -- North American (58) : [3] : - Philippine (58) : [1]: 14-19 - temperate (58): [3]: 2-10; (59)' [2]: 26-34 26-34 2-10 Saxegothaea conspicua (59): [2]: 29 Schulhof, Richard (58): [3]: 23 Science education (58) : [3]: 20-26 Scott, Frank J. \/59): [3] 27-30 - m Chma (58): 65-68 [3]~ 11-16; (59). (58): [3]: 12-17 7 \"Verdant Arches and [1]: 4-52, --documentation Randall, John, \"Native vs. Nonnative. A Reprise\" (58): [3]: 25-27 Bowers~ Artificial Adaptations of Trees [1870, excerpt] (59): [3]: 32-40 40 \" . Seeds \/58\/: [1]: 7-8; [2]: 33-34, 41-42; 10-12, 14 \/59\/: [4]: Sequoia, giant (58~: [3]: 3; (59): [2]: 27, 30 Sequoia (59~: [1]: 4, 6, 21, 34, 54-57; [4]: 10, 13 -sempervmens (58): [3]: 3; (59) : [1]. 26, 54-57; [3]: cover, 14, 15-21, 22 (59): [1]: Tankard, Judith, \"Rose Standish Nichols, A Proper Bostoman\" (59): [4]: 25-32 Taxus, m Philippines (58\/: [1]~ 21-26 chmensis (59\/: [1]: 43 cuspidata (59\/: [4]: inside back Taiwama - 21, 54, 56, 57 cover --fohage (59): [1]: --m vitro 2014 2014 54 Taxaceae (59): [1]. 63 propagation (59]: [3]: 22 4 uses of wood 159). [3]: 14 Sequoiadendron (59~: [1]. 4, 54-55 -giganteum \/58y [3]: 3; \/59\/: [1]: 34 --fohage of (59): [1] 55 Shade \/58[: [2]: 27, 34, 37, 41, 53 Shaw, Howard Van Doren (59)' [4]: Taxodiaceae (59\/: [1]: 6, 8, 54, 57 -fossil (59\/: [1]: 63 Taxodmm (59\/: [1]: 51, 54, 57, 63 -distichum (59\/: [1]. 26, 34, 54, 84 7 - -'Valley Forge' (58): [1]: 27 1 -multmerms (59) : [1]: 42, 51 Umbellulana cahformca (59y [4]: 13 University of California (59): [1] 5, 12, 14, 21, 23, 30, 32 University of the Philippines (58): [1]: 12, 18 5 US Arboretum (58): [1]: 27; [3]. 14, 15 USDA (58) [1]: 13, 18, 22, 23, 26, 32; (59): [1]: 27; [3]: 26, 29-30 --andMetasequoia (59]: [1]: 48-49 (59]: [1]: 54 Taxo1 (5s): [1] 2a; (59\/: [2]: 29 mucronatum Vaughan, Samuel, plan of Mount Vernon (59[: [3]: 7 1 Veblen, Thomas (59): [2] : 31 Vegetative growth (58) [2]: 33-34 5 and longevity \/59) [4]: 15 - 28, 29 Thamnocalamus spathaceus (58) - Shemluck, Melvxn (5 8) : [1]: 20, 24 Shipman, Ellen (59): [4]: 25, 29 Shurchff, Arthur (59): [2]: 19; (59): [4]: 28 drawing by (59): [2]: 17 \"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own [: Adaptability,\" Harold Koda (59~: [3]: 23-31 Silvexman, Milton (59): [1]~ 23, 25, - [3]: 15 Thaxter, Roland (59~: [2]~ 4, 13 Thu~a occidentahs (59\/: [1]: 56; [4]~ 10, 15 \"Verdant Arches and Bowers: Artificial Adaptations of Trees [excerpt, 1870], Frank J. Scott (59y [3]: 1, 32, 33-40 Villa Terrace Museum [WI] (59) : [4] - phcata (58~. (3]~ 2, 3-G, 7, 8-10, back cover; (59) : [1]: 56 branchlets and cones (58). [3]: - 29,30,32 - 27-30 Smiley, Charles J. (59) : [1]: 60-61 Smith College Botamc Garden [MA] (58~: (1]: 24-26; \/3~. 29 7 Smith, Harrison W. (59): [1]: 17 Soil ecology (59~: [2]: 35-43 - forest (58): [2]: 4, 6-8, 13-15, 33-34, 37-40, 43; [3]: 4-8; (59~: [2] 36-43 -restoration (59): [2]: 36, 37-40, 41, 42 \"Soil as a Living System,\" Leslie Jones Sauer (59~: [2]: 35-43 Soil-warming expenment (58y [2]: 39-40 [4].13, 14 vulgans (59\/: [4]: 14 Timber mdustry (58\/: [2]: 27; [3] 5, 9-10; (59). [2]: 28-29, 34; [3]. 14-16, 20 4 Tissue culture (59]: [3]: 22; [4]: 14 33 Topiary (59): [3]~ \"Tree as Celebnty\" [Metasequola) J (59) : [1]: 28-32 5 Tree regeneration (59\/: [3]: 14-15 Tree-nngs (59\/: [2]. 30; [4] 10 Trees, as cultural idiom (59y [4]: 2-9 hfe of (59\/: [4]: 10-16 spp. migration (58): [2]: 4-7 - inside front cover Tiha amemcana (59) : Vrllalba, Ricardo (59): [2]: 30 Voet, Christian Van der (59): [3]: 13 Volcanic slopes, plants of (58) : [1]: ]: 23; \/59[: [2] 27, 30, 32-33 Wadsworth, Joseph (59]: [4]: 2, 8-9 Washington, George (59(: [3]: 4, 9 and Mount Vernon landscape (59): [3]: 3, 6-13 Water fir (59) [1]: 4, 8 - pine (59) : [1]. 4, 35-36, 54, 56, 57 Weather Station Data [at Arnold Arboretum] [erratum] (58) : [1]: 1, (59) : [2]: 44, [4]: 33 Weeds (58): [1]: 3, 4, 6-9 Wetland, adaptations to (59). [3]: 23, 25 White-pine weevil (58): [2]: 20 -blister rust (58): [2]: 20 White, Theodore (58): [1]: 17 Wilson, Ernest Henry (58[: [3]: 12-16; (59). [1]: 12, 15, 20 monument to (59): [1]: 74 photo by (58): [3]: 13; (59): [3]: 28 Wyllys family [CT] (59) : [4]: 6, 9 Wyman, Donald (59): [1]: 81, 82 - Species diversity (58): [1]: 29-32, 41 8 - migration (58): [1]: 18; [2]: 4-6, 18 Tnpp, Kim, \"Native vs Nonnative: A Reprise,\" [Letter] (58): [3] 27-29 Trustees of Public Reservations [MA] (59\/: [2]: 3, 15, 18, 19 Tsuga canadensis (58y [2]: 41 -chmensis (59): [1]: 11 Spongberg, Stephen (59). [1]: -- 48 \"Metasequoia - - - glyptostroboides-Its Status m Central Chma m 1980,\" with Bruce Bartholomew and David Boufford [repnnt] \/59y [1]: 47-52 photo by 159): [1]: front cover Sproutmg, after disturbance (58[: [2]: - - - - - heterophylla \/58\/: [3]: 3, back cover Twam, Mark, and Charter Oak (59). - [4] 4 amencana 9,19, 27,34, 36, 37, 41; \/59[: [2]: 32; [3]: 14-15, 16-22; [4]: 12-14, 17-24 Spruces (58]: [2]: 5, 6-7; [3]: 3, G, 9 Spurs, fruiting \/59\/~ [4]: 18, 20, 22, 24 Swingle, Walter T. (58) : [1] 17 Ulmus (58\/: [1]. front Yang, Hong, \"From Fossils to Molecules: The Metasequoia Tale Contmues,\"(59): cover, 27, 28-30, 31, 32, inside back cover; [3]: 31; (59\/: [1]: 49 --'New Harmony' (58): [1]: 27 `Prmceton' (58) : [1]: 28, 29 -- [1]: 60-71 Yews, medicinal (58) : [1]: 22-26 Zamia flondana \/59\/: [1]. 34 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":7,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25254","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160b728.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum WIN T E 0 R-NEWS-1999-200 Digital Projects in the Library Bess Wellborn, Archival Fellow library staff is in the midst interesting digital projects. We are collaborating with the preservation reformatting division of the Library of Congress to provide valueadded enhancements to the digitization of Garden and Forest : A Journal of Hortzculture, Landscape Art and Forestry, conducted by the Arboretum's founding director, Charles S. Sargent, and published from 1892 through 1902. This undertaking is the Library of Congress' first web-based historic journal project. All ten volumes have been scanned, including advertisements, drawings, and text and can be accessed at bttp:lllcu~eb.loc.govlpreservlprdlgardforlgfbome.btml. To of two very date horticultural research archmst Sheila Connor has contributed an essay that illuminates the histoncal background of the journal. Ongoing collaborations will include Arboretum-sponsored essays from scholars in the four major fields that Garden and Forest addresses: botany, horticulture, landscape design and preservation, and forestry. In addition, archival fellow Bess Wellborn is developing an electronic finding aid based on the volume-level indices in each original pnnt volume that will enable users to search and browse subject terms, as well as author, title, and illustration caption information. Another digital project, comparable to Boston's \"Big Dig,\" has just begun. The library received a grant in October 1999 from Harvard's Library Digital Initiative (LDI) Program to take part in establishing on-line access to a selection of Harvard's histoncal and contemporary ethnographic and natural history collections of southwestern China. Although many of these complementary collections, which are held at several of Harvard's museums, libraries, and archives, date from the first quarter of the 20th century, ongoing exploration and research ensures the addition of current material well into the new millemum. The Arboretum's historical collections begin in 1924 with our expedition to northwestern China and northeastern Tibet led by Joseph The Arnold Arboretum A photograph from the Arboretum s ar~hm al collections that will be included in the effort to digitize Joseph Rock's photos. The photo depicts a monk on the banks of the upper Yellow River. He repeatedly raises and lowers the prayer board on the surface of the water, \"printing\" the river with images of Buddhist deities, which are carried downstream. C. Rock. Rock, in his quarter-century association with Harvard, began as a plant and bird collector for the Arnold Arboretum and the Museum of Comparative Zoology and ended at the Harvard-Yenching Institute, where he pursued lmguistic studies as a research fellow from 1945-50. In 1997, the National Science Foundation awarded a grant to the Harvard University Herbana to fund biological collections from the same flonstic regions explored by Rock. v rontrnued on page 2 ~ from page 1 This project, entitled \"Plant and fungal diversity of western Sichuan and eastern Xizang, Farewell to Walter Hunnewelll Robert E. Cook, Director On December 30, 1999, the Arnold Arboretum lost a loyal and generous friend in Walter Hunnewell. A former member of the Arboretum Visiting Committee and member of the Arboretum Council, Walter's deep interest in horticulture continued a historic relationship between this institution and the Hunnewell family. We particularly remember the annual visits by our summer interns to the pinetum at his Wellesley home, where he would graciously guide these young students through his special collections. He was instrumental in helping the Hunnewell family only complements the historic collections through the China,\" not addition of contemporary images, but also furthers our understanding of an area of high flonsmc diversity and endemism. The digital format, constructed by the LDI group, will link the various repositories and facilitate study by allowing students and scholars to move through time and several collections. Matenal in the collections not only depicts the area's natural and ecological resources, but also documents the social and cultural history of China and Tibet. Sheila Connor, assisted by library assistant Carol David, network systems manager Andrew Hubble, and David Boufford, assistant director for collections and research taxonomist at the Harvard University Herbana, as well as Bess Wellborn, have been working together to prepare the various collections. Ultimately, they will be accessible via the worldwide web. raise $1,000,000 for our recent, successful campaign for endow- brought his generand kind spirit to many other botanical institutions in Boston. We shall all miss him very much. ous ment, and he New Research Facility Opens at Dana Greenhouses Jianhasa Li, Horticultural Taxonomist A research In support of its mission to perform research in botany and horticulture, project presently MEMBERSHIP SURVEY e want YOU ... us to te how we are doing. You receive our can ~ expect to the Arboretum has established the new Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Morphology, located in the basement of the Dana Greenhouses. The lab will be used to observe and record plant traits at both the internal and external levels. The facility has been furnished with the lab compares internal structures of the leaves underway in of yew (T'axu.r)-related genera, including Torreya, Amentotaxus, Pseudotaxus, Austrotaxus, and Cephalotaxus. Other projects slated for the future include a study of the embryological development in sweetgum (Lzquzdambar rtyraczflua), alder hazel (Fothergzlla major), and seven-son flower (Heptacodium mzconzozder), as well as an state-of-the-art equipment, membership survey through the mail in May. Please take the time us to let including a multi-magnification dissecting microscope with a camera and a drawing tube, a program- and interests know what your needs are and we are whether ~ ~~ ~ fulfilling your expectations. We aim to please, and your feedback will help us do just that. _ mable automated tissue processor, a programmable automated tissue stainer, and a compound microscope with a camera and a drawing tube. Processes that, in the past, have required hours of close oversight now can be accomplished with minimal supervision using this current technology. investigation of leaf strucdifferences between mildewresistant and mildew-susceptible ture lilacs (Syringa). The Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Morphology is available for use by outside researchers; contact Jianhua Li at 617\/524-1718 x150 for further information in this regard. An Update on the Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program (PIPD) Jack Alexander, Plant Propagator Initiated in 1995, the Arboretum's Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program (PIPD) strives to share exceptional woody plants from the living collections with progressive nursery professionals. Each year staff members select woody ornamentals with good landscape potential from the collections for promotion and distribution Ameruan to hundreds of nurseries. Descriptions of the chosen plants are published annually in Nurseryman. The program is designed exclusively for the nursery industry. Plants that are selected may or may not be \"new\" cultivars, but all are chosen primarily for their promise as landscape plants, for horticultural characteristics that appeal to a larger market, and for their general unavailability in the trade. Before choosing a plant for the program, it is evaluated on the grounds and in the greenhouse\/nursery. Propagation expenments performed in advance of selection often yield plants that are distributed first at the Annual Fall Plant Sale. Nurserymen interested in participating in the program should contact Tom Ward by fax at 617\/524-6413. Following are descriptions of the plants chosen for the 2000 PIPD program: Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. koreana (syn. C. koreana), the Korean plum yew, is a densely branched evergreen shrub with dark green, needle-like foliage and reddish-brown fruits (produced only by the female plants). Native this feet to Syringa x chinensis 'Lilac Sunday,' the `Lilac Sunday' lilac, was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1997. The fragrant, light purple flower panicles are produced not only at the branch tips, like the common Korea, Japan, and China, lilac, but also from the lateral buds slow-growing plant reaches about six to eight in height. In addition to its handsome appearance, the plant is not attractive to deer. Euonymus carnosus features glossy, rich green leaves that turn mahogany red in autumn. The pink fruit capsule surrounded by an orange seed coat is stunning. An upright growing small tree, the plant will reach 20 feet in height in almost as many years. Unlike its relatives within the genus, E. not appear to attract euonymus scale. carnosus along the stems. This unusual arrangement results in magnificent mflorescenses that appear to be two feet long. Reaching 12 feet in height, the plant has a graceful, arching habit. Though the plant is resistant to powdery mildew and leaf-roll necrosis, it is not immune. does New Staff In January Chns Santos joined the Arboretum as director of development, succeeding Lisa Hastings, who left last year to join the leadership gifts staff at her alma mater, Boston College. A native Bostoman, Chris worked for the past five years at Simmons College, first as director of annual giving and then as director of advancement services and campaign operations. Prior to that, she was on the annual giving staff at Wellesley College, where she earned her bachelor's degree in music and English. Chris also holds a master's degree in music education with a major in music therapy from the University of Kansas and a graduate ceruficate in management from the Radcliffe Seminars. She volunteers for Wellesley College, raises funds for the Brooklme public schools that her two children attend, and looks forward to making the acquaintance of Arboretum aficionados. li~.Araaold r\"irlorrtum r~ Harrard l,Tnire~ait~ > IN II ~ ~ ~ I.~~ I I I~ I I I ~~ . , S `J'~ ' Sponsored by the Institutefor Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum m ,.~.;,; ..y \"' 7-9 pm, 4 May 2000 the Lecture Hall, Hunnewell Building, the Arnold Arboretum 1255 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Massachusetts Since it was e.rtabli.rbed in 1 ~87, the Vermont Hou.rrng and Conservation Connecting Landscapes to Communities Applying the Lessons of Vermont's projects Conservation, Preservation, and Affordable Experience in Housing James M. Libby, Jr. General Coun.rel, Vermont Housing and Conservation Board fi Foundzng Member, Vermont Hourrng and Conrervatzon Coalitzon with a Board (VHCB) has supported 745 in 205 towns, linking affordable bou.rrng and comntunzty development wzth land conrervatron and hzrtorzr preservatzon. Jzm Lzbby will dr.rcu.r.r what others can learn from the Green Mountarn to response by Betsy Shure Gross Special A.r.rz.rtant for Communzty Pre.rervatzon, Massachusetts Executive Office of Envzronmental Affarrr fT Former Charr of the Board, Hrrtorzc Massachusetts communrty-bared approach .rtrengthenzng the connectzonr between land and people. Betsy Shure Gross wrll comment on the prospects for rurtazned collaboratron among a rzmzlar coalztion of pre.rervatzon, conrervatzon. and affordable hou.rzng zntereatr that has been .rupportrng the proposed Communzty Prerervatzon Act zn Massachusetts. State's unzque This event is free, but advance registration is required. Reserve by telephone: 617\/524-1718 x 162, emazl: icls@arnarb.harvard.edu MARK YOUR CALENDAR I Join Lilac Sunday, us May 14, 2000 ~t)N , plants If t ~ ~~ for our traditional celebration of lilacs and spring. The sights and scents of our lilacs - over 500 of more than 200 kinds - have delighted visitors since the turn of the century. Enjoy picnicking (allowed only on this special day), entertainment, refreshments, and, of course, the lilacs. Annual Fall Plant Sale, The 20`\" Annual Fall Plant Sale is scheduled for the Arnold Arboretum, 135 September 17, 2000 at Sunday, September 17, 2000, the Case Estates of N~ O varieties of trees, shrubs, Additional details Wellesley Street, Weston, Massachusetts. More than 200 special and rare vines, and herbaceous perennials will be available for purchase. See you there! , *ttg I are posted on our website, u~ww.arboretum.harvardedu. Those interested in volunteering at either of these events should contact Ellen Bennett at 617\/524-1718 x125. . ~ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23383","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eb76e.jpg","title":"1999-59-4","volume":59,"issue_number":4,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Charles Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon or, \"If Washington were here himself, he would be on my side\" null","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25244","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25e8928.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Charles Sprague Sargent and the Preservation of the Landscape of Mount Vernon or, \"If Washington were here himself, he would be on my side\" ' Phyllis Andersen The 1999 commemoration of the bicentennial of George Washington's death Sargent's strong commitment to preserve the Mount Vernon landscape and, while accepting the inevitability of change, to ensure that Washington's original intent remained at the core of presents an on excellent occasion to reflect C. S. restoration efforts. that, of far as posMount Vernon may be restored to the sible, condition in which George Washmgton planned and kept it. But that no well-shaped beautiful tree or esolved: That Mr. Sargent be authorized to direct the pruning, thinning and trees so as planting flowenng shrub shall be destroyed, except where they are interfering with other growth, which it is more important to retain. The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Union, Mmutes of the Council, May 1901 1 In 1901 Charles Sprague Sargent (1841-1927), then director of the Arnold Arboretum, was asked by the Regent of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, Justine Van Rensselaer Townsend, to give expert advice on the trees of Mount Vernon, the home of George Washington. Sargent made a site visit, asked for relevant historical documentation (in this case a copy of the list of plants Washington ordered from John Bartram in 1792), and demanded complete control of the plantings of the estate. Mrs. Townsend demurred. Sargent's peremptory manner, his evident dismay at the condition of the trees, and his bold recommendations for removals and replacements intimidated the Association. In broadening the scope of the Association's initial request, then narrowly defined as aiding in the care of a few of Washington's trees, Sargent had clearly threat- ened their mission. \"There was no allusion to the work of beautifying or adornment of any kind,\" wrote Mrs. Townsend of her request to Sargent, \"for our love of Mount Vernon and its precious trees forbade us to think of any change in the well known grounds of Washmgton's home.\" Sargent declined the position. He must have a \"free hand\" or he would take no part in the work. The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association and Professor Sargent reconnected ten years later thanks to a new, more flexible Regent, Harriet Comegys, and to a softening of Sargent's view. Sargent's participation in the preservation efforts at Mount Vernon, which continued until his death in 1927, has been virtually unrecognized, both in accounts of his career and in histories of Mount Vernon. Preserved in the archives of the Association is the extensive correspondence between Sargent, Harriet Comegys, and Harrison Dodge, the superintendent of Mount Vernon, from 1885 until his death in 1937; these documents make it clear that Sargent's work was broad in scope and went well beyond arboricultural recommendations. The letters, notes, memos, and internal reports trace a struggle to overcome conflicts and develop a process to preserve a site of national significance, a struggle remarkably similar to the one the landscape preservation community is undergoing today as it seeks to 4 sycophantic superintendent Dodge, whose need to please the ladies sometimes got in the way of his work on Sargent's projects. time he would but the ladies believe in having two ax, bad trees instead of one good one, and they have permitted a ~ob lot of kings and princes to stick m blood-leaved Japanese maples and the purple beech wherever they wanted to place needs a comprehensive landscape plan and the ax. If Washington had lived all this use the ... Letter from Wilhelm Miller, Editorial Department, Country Life m Amenca, to Charles Sprague Sargent, 28 May 1912 The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Union was formed in 1853 to preserve and restore the Virginia home of the nation's first president. Its membership was composed of one woman from each state. The group began by raismg funds to purchase Mount Vernon from Washington's heirs. Regarded by many as the first historic preservation organization in the country, the Association should also be honored Charles Sprague Sargent m a charcoal sketch by his cousm, 9 john Smger Sargent, 1919 develop consensus on guidelines for preserving historic landscape properties. Defining historical appropriateness, balancing the protection of original features against the accomodation of the public, deciding how to replace plants of historic value-all these difficult questions surfaced during Sargent's work at Mount Vernon. While not always resolved (compromise did not come easily to Sargent), the issues were clearly defined by Sargent's straightforward proposals for action. The letters in the Mount Vernon archives reveal by their personal tone the personalities of the participants. Sargent, writing from the Arnold Arboretum or from Holm Lea, his estate in Brookline, Massachusetts, was the irascible consultant, impatient with the pace of the process and the ineptitude of the Mount Vernon work force. Harriet Comegys was patient and thorough, an excellent negotiator in spite of suffering all manner of ailments during her tenure as Regent. And finally there was the Portrait of George Washmgton by Rembrandt Peale, oil on canvas, 1823. 5 for its commitment, unusual for the time, to treat the buildings and landscape of Mount Vernon as a single unit; buildings, furniture, garden plants, and agricultural activities were to be equally valued. Like most preservation groups, the Association was formed around the idea of rescue: the sagging roofs, the lawn waist-high with weeds, the neglected gardens. As if to reassure themselves of the validity of their acquisition, the early histories of the Association and of their ownership of Mount Vernon are filled with the names of the dignitaries that visited-presidents and kings, minor European royalty, religious leaders, heads of exotic nations-and to Sargent's consternation each was encouraged to plant a tree. Association had outthe high emotion of its savegrown and-rescue stage and realized that further work would require careful thought and professional expertise. At this point the group had not refined its mission beyond striving not to lose anything already in hand. However, the members were serious, highly organized strategists, remarkably adept at raising funds for special projects, and mutually supportive. Enduring friend- Harriet Comegys, 4th Regent ships were formed among the members; Association from 1909 to 1927. of the Mount Vernon Ladies' friendships that, because of geographic distance or age differences, might have never restore the grounds of Mount Vernon to the conotherwise occurred. Like many early women's dition in which they were when Washmgton was alive. organizations, the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association adhered to formal rituals and strict proLetter from Charles Sprague Sargent to Harriet tocols that can seem quaintly amusmg to us Comegys, Regent of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Umon, 2 October 1914 But this formal structure may well have today. Charles Sprague Sargent became the first direcdeveloped to deflect any potential criticism that the women of the Association were not capable tor of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard Univerof handling the serious issues before them as sity in 1872 and held that position until his well as protecting them as individual members death fifty-five years later. His \"austere purfrom mtrusive publicity. pose\" (to use his daughter's phrase) was to develop a collection of all the woody plants, both mdigenous and exotic, that could be raised You speak about compensation, a retainer, etc. in the open air in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Please dismiss any such sub~ect from your The plant collection, begun in the 1870s, was mind. I consider it a great primlege and honor to be allowed to do anything in my power to mitially gathered from North America and By 1911 the 6 specialist at Harvard's Graduate School of Design, in a review in Landscape Architecture magazine.l Sargent was also a leader in the effort to establish an American forestry policy. His Catalog of the Forest Trees of North America for the Tenth Census in 1884 and the plan he submitted to the New York State leg- islature for preserving the Adirondack forest placed him in the ranks of John Murr, George Engelmann, and Gifford Pinchot. His association with Frederick Law Olmsted resulted in a major contribution to the design of both the Arnold Arboretum and Boston's Emerald Necklace park system, of which the Arboretum is a part. In short, by 1911, when the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Umon sought advice from him for the second time, Sargent's own reputation, as well as that of the Arnold Arboretum as an institution of international standing, had been secured. His decision to work with the Association was therefore based not on a desire to enhance his own prestige but rather on patriotism and a deep sense of responsibility to a historic site. Harnson Howell Dodge, Supenntendent of Mount Vernon from Like most groups seeking help with 1885 to 1937. historic preservation, the Association first defined its needs in the narrowest sense: Europe but by the end of the nineteenth century the trees, many planted by George Washington Sargent's collection policy had expanded to include the entire North Temperate Zone, with himself, needed professional care. Typical of Sargent, he redefined his role and from the emphasis on China and Japan. The metamorof this small scientific station into one of beginning offered advice on the broader requirephosis ments for preservation: inventories of both the world's leading study centers for woody was due to the expansiveness of Sargent's plants and structures, restoration of specific plants vision and the smgle-mindedness with which he features, vegetation management, and, most pursued it. importantly, historic research to inform Sargent's publications alone would have decision-making. secured him a significant place in American Washington laid out a sweeping lawn, the landscape history. His fourteen-volume Silva of Bowling Green, edged by serpentine walkways lined with shade trees: Ohio buckeye (Aesculus North America, published between 1891 and raised the study of American species to a glabra), white ash (Fraxinus americana), south1902, ern magnolia (Magnoha grandiflora), mulberry new level of scholarship. The second edition of his Manual of the Trees of North Amenca, pub(Morus sp.), poplar (Populus sp.). The trees both frame the view of the mansion and provide lished in 1922, was called \"an old friend regenmuch-needed shade for the walkways. He erated\" and \"the only complete guide to our native trees\" by Stephen Hamblin, the plant planted a wide range of tree species at close _ 7 intervals, with thick underplantings of shrubs. Sargent was sympathetic to this dense planting method, but it did force the Association into some difficult decisions by the beginning of the twentieth century, when many of the trees planted by Washington had reached senescence and extraordinary measures were needed to sustain their lives. Moreover, other trees, planted by subsequent owners, were threatening the health of the original plantings, and volunteer trees had be identified and removed. All of the now-predictable emotional reverberations attached to tree removal surfaced during Sargent's work with the Association. to Sargent began to a Vernon at least twice and the early spring, soon evolved. Sargent would Miss at visit Mount year, in the fall and a routine meet Comegys she, Sargent, and Dodge would walk Mount Vernon and the grounds and discuss work to be done. Sargent would then go back to Boston and prepare work orders for the season ahead. In the early years he made detailed recommendations both for saving where possible the remaining trees planted by Washington and for removing those that were beyond saving and were beginning to damage other historic plantings. Sargent also used his contacts from the Arnold Arboretum to order a substantial number of plants, primarily for mass plantings: native dogwoods (Cornus florida), yellowwoods (Cladrastis kentukea), and fringetrees (Chionanthus virginicus) were planted to enhance the woodland and park areas. He prepared budget proposals, both long-term and short. He ordered bulbs from Holland and roses from England. He sent plants to Mount Vernon from the Arboretum and from his own garden at Holm Lea. And he offered advice, pithy and to the point: Sargent wrote, when Dodge turned to the U.S. Samuel Vaughan's 1787 plan of Mount Vernon Washmgton attested to its accuracy 8 Department of Agriculture for advice about the boxwoods at Mount Vernon, \"I have little confidence in the experts at the Dept. of Agricul- source \"appropriate\" historic landscapes is a frequent of conflict between preservation profes- always a good plan to leave well enough alone, especially in the case of old plants and old people.\" Sargent was primarily concerned with the woody plants of Mount Vernon and had little interest in the many separate gardens with herbaceous plants. He allowed himself to be drawn into garden projects only with great reluctance. In 1915 he prepared a list of \"garden flowers\" ture, it is II II that would be suitable for Mount Vernon, as Washmgton's diaries yielded little information about herbaceous plantings. Sargent's advice on the suitability of species was based on his knowledge of plant introductions, enhanced by the extensive library he was creating for the Arnold Arboretum. The ladies of the Association also diverted his attention from the trees in favor of long and difficult searches for exotic plants to fill the greenhouses and conservatory, putting great pressure on him to locate orange and lemon trees as well as oleander, camellias, agaves, and pomegranates. Eventually Sargent refused further detective work, complaining that his pursuit of conservatory plants detracted from his real goal-saving the specimen trees and woodlands, the features at the heart of Washington's vision for the property. o certainly would not hang a modern chromo of Washington's room because some important person gave it to you, and there doesn't seem to be much difference between a chromo on the walls and a purple modern tree in the garden ... No one more than I do wants to preserve the grounds as Washmgton left them You on the walls ... Letter from Charles Sprague Sargent to Mrs. John Carter Brown, Vice-Regent from Rhode Island, The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Umon, 5 June 1912 2 In embracing the stewardship of the Mount Vernon landscape, the members of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association came to feel that it was personal garden to add to, embellish, \"improve.\" This misplaced sense of proprietorship is not unusual: indeed, the tendency to their sionals and committed amateurs. Initially, Sargent, with a certain amount of politeness and reserve, tried to make the Association understand the inappropriateness of some of their embellishments. In 1915 he reacted to the proposal for adding a new cutting garden some distance from the house by writing, \"All these detached spots of cultivation more or less remote from the center increase work and are apt to be overlooked and neglected.\" Later, somewhat less patiently, he characterized as an eyesore the \"new\" greenhouse that had replaced the original destroyed in a fire, and suggested that using it to grow flowers for sale to the public was somewhat lacking in dignity. The demand from the public for continual floriferousness (appropriate or not) is a problem at historic sites, and Mount Vernon was no exception. Roses were a continuing subject of debate throughout the sixteen years of correspondence ; Association members and others put pressure on Dodge and his garden staff to plant them. Sargent warned that few roses were available during Washington's lifetime and those that were did not bloom more than once a season. He recommended the York and Lancaster roses and warned against 'Harnson's Yellow', which was not available during Washington's time. In 1917 Sargent wrote that he had just discovered a rose brought to this country from England by Abigail Adams and still growmg in the garden of the Adams House in Quincy, Massachusetts. He noted that he would have a few plants propagated from that shrub for Mount Vernon since its age would have made it appropriate for Washington's garden. Sargent had a special interest in restoring the Old Tomb area, usmg as his guide the writings of Washington and of visitors to the property during his time. At Harriet Comegys' suggestion, he located a copy of Nathaniel Parker Willis' 1840 book, American Scenery, and he used the drawings by W. H. Bartlett to identify the trees existing at that time. He pointed out the unsuitability of the existing sundial and of the post and chams m front of the mansion and helped locate replacements appropriate to Washington's period. But most of all Sargent ri 9 George Washington and the Planting of Mount Vernon Charles Sargent was committed to preserving the trees of Mount Vernon, especially those linmg the walkways of the Bowling Green that had been planted by Washmgton. He was far less interested m the showy floriferousness of the ornamental gardens and was convinced that Washington was of the same mind. Washington redesigned Mount Vernon after he acquired it from his brother's family, and that design has been the subject of much research and speculation. In preparation for the reconfiguration of the property, Washington enhanced his garden library, acquiring a 1728 edition of Batty Langley's New Principles of Gardening with its detailed plans for laying out a bowling green with edges defined by dense tree plantmgs. Washmgton planted and replanted the walkways m grove configurations rather than formal allees and underplanted the shade trees with dense \"shrubberies\" of small ornamental trees and shrubs. Followmg are excerpts from letters and dianes of Washington. 19August177G. A letter to Lund Washmgton Plant trees in the room of all dead ones m proper time this Fall, and as I mean to have groves of Trees at each end of the dwelling House, that at the South end to range m a line from the South East Corner to Colo. Fairfax's, extendmg as low as another line from the Stable to the dry Well, and towards the Coach House, ... Seen from the No. Et. Corner of the other end of the House to range so as to show the Barn, &ca. m the Neck.... these Trees to be Planted without any order or regularity (but pretty thick, as they can at any time be thm'd) and to consist that at the North end, of locusts altogether. and that at the South, of all the clever kmd of Trees (especially flowering ones) that can be got, such as Crab apple, Poplar, Dogwood, Sasafras, Laurel, Willow (especially yellow and Weeping Willow, twigs of which may be got from Philadelphia) and many others which I do not recollect at present; those to be mterspersed here and there with ever greens such as Holly, Pme, and Cedar, also Ivy; to these may be added the Wild flowering Shrubs of the larger kmd, such as the fringe Trees and several other kmds that might be mentioned. August1776. A letter to Lund Washmgton I wish that the afore-mentioned shrubs and ornamental and curious trees may be planted at both ends that I may determme hereafter from circumstances and appearances which shall be the grove and which the wilderness. It is easy to extirpate Trees from any spot but time only can bring them to maturity. 23 March1785 Fmdmg the Trees round the Walks m my wildernesses rather too thm I doubled them by putting (other Pme~ trees between each. Laid off the Walks in my Groves, at each end of the House. 29 March1785 A Transplanted in the groves at the ends of the House the following young trees. Viz.-9 live oak-11 Yew or Hemlock-10 Aspan-4 Magnolia-2 Elm-2 Papaw-2 Lilacs-3 Fnnge-1 Swampberry & 1 H < >.\" 6 sketch facsimile of a lost of George Washmgton by 1796. Ben~amm Latrobe, April1786 year-mz.-6 Transplanted 46 of the large Magnollo of So. Carolina from the box brought by G. A. Washmgton last at the head of each of the Serpentine Walks next the Cmcle-26 m the Shrubbery or at the South end of the House & 8 in that at the No. end. The ground was so wet, more could grove not at this time be planted there are from Keywords m Amemcan Landscape Design by Therese O'Malley, Elizabeth KryderReid, and Anne L. Helmrelch, Center for Advanced Study m the Visual Arts\/National Gallery of Art, Washington, DC, forthcoming. Sketch is courtesy of Maryland Historical Society and Mac Gnswold. Excerpts 10 concerned that the Association's embellishments to both grounds and buildings would unnecessarily exacerbate the problem of long-term maintenance. \"The thing to do is to reduce the cost of maintenance by permanent improvement,\" he wrote to Mrs. John Carter Brown in 1916. To that end he recommended that little-used roads be removed and discouraged unnecessary paths and the proliferation of small outbuildings, each with a limited special use. was should have at our command every bit of information obtainable, that could in any way be of use in this important work of today, as well as for the Association's benefit in the future. That we if possible The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Umon, Mmutes of the S Council, May 1915 the botanistwhose farranging fieldwork made him famous as an international leader in forest policy and the preservation of scenery, should also have been the strict disciplinarian who demanded that the work of the Association be based on historical scholarship. At his urging, The sago palm atMount Vernon m 1999. the Boston Athenaeum prepared a bibliography of books and articles relating to Mount Vernon Ladies' Association to sponsor the diaries' first publication in 1925, edited by George Washington and Mount Vernon based on their own catalog of Washington literature and the historian, John C. Fitzpatrick. Sargent's corthe holdings of several other libraries including respondence with the Association confirms his those of Harvard, the American Antiquarian enormous interest in the diaries; he continually mined them for bits of information about both Society, and the Library of Congress. The biblithe plantings of Mount Vernon and its architecography took the form of 5,000 handwritten tural features. He corresponded with Max cards housed in a special wooden case that is now in the Mount Vernon archives. (Like many Farrand, the Yale historian (and husband of Sargent's former pupil, landscape architect bibliographic endeavors its usefulness quickly Beatrix Farrand), about the availability of diminished because it was not continually Washington's writings. He prodded the Associaupdated.)\/ Thane in her 1967 book, Mount tion to acquire more original documents perElswyth Vernon: the Legacy, states that it was partly taining to Mount Vernon and through his own use of Washington's diaries (the Assoacquaintance with antiquarian book dealers Sargent's ciation had obtained typewritten copies of those acquired several documents himself, which he donated to the Association. His interest in the in the Library of Congress) that motivated the It is ironic that Sargent, arborist-dendrologist 11 I historical documentation of Mount Vernon resulted in a short article for the journal Rhodora on Andre Michaux's 1786 visit to Mount Vernon, which Washington had documented in his diames.2 \"... but no trees planted by man have the human interest of the Mount Vernon trees. \" of Mount Vernon by Charles Sprague Sargent, revised edition, 1926 From The Trees The reincarnation as souvenirs or talismans of trees that were \"witnesses to history\" has become a familiar form of \"preservation.\" Seeds of historic trees are distributed to far-flung locations ; dead trees reappear as commemorative bookends, paperweights, sculptures. While this practice gives some m the preservation field a sense of unease, it cannot be disputed that the tree as icon engages the public's attention, which can then be redirected to the larger issues of preservation. Although Sargent struggled to maintain a dignified context for his work, he did not dismiss the value of this appeal to public sentiment. A case in point is the so-called \"Washington Elm,\" which stood on the Cambridge (Massachusetts) Common for centuries and was so named because, as the story goes, George Washington took command of the Continental Army under the tree on July 3, 1775. The tree even bore a plaque to this effect. In October of 1923 the Washington Elm fell (or was accidentally pulled over by a workman trying to remove a dead branch). Given no reason to question the tree's historical association, Sargent secured a cross section of the tree's trunk and sent it to a plant anatomist at Harvard's Bussey Institution who confirmed its age. After complicated negotiations between Sargent and the city of Cambridge, the cross section was then sent to Mount Vernon for display in the kitchen fireplace (a location the Cambridge city fathers thought inappropriate). Either unknown to Sargent, or perhaps dismissed by him, was detailed research compiled Postcard mew of the Tomb of Washmgton, undated, probably 1930s Sargent had a this area. special interest in restormg 12 Tipped mto the Fitzpatmck edition of The Diaries of George the collection of the Arnold Arboretum. Samuel Batchelder of Cambridge and published in the Cambridge Tnbune in 1923. Mr. Batchelder very convincingly debunked the Washington association, statmg that if Washington stood under the tree he did so to get out of the rain. Nevertheless, the cross section of the tree remamed at Mount Vernon for many years and was reproduced with an almost religious aura in brochures and postcards for the Washington m grounds more widow donated it to Mount Vernon. The tree was installed in the Palm House at Mount Vernon, but was quickly found to have outgrown the space during its time away. The roof was raised more than once, but after thriving for several years the tree began to fall. Numerous remedies and therapies were tried but the plant died in 1934-after Sargent's death, mercifully, as he had invested considerable time in prolonging its life. In 1941 a cutting from a still-thriving tree at Tudor Place in Washington, DCacquired from Pratt's Garden at the same time as Washington'swas given to Mount Vernon where it has continued to grow. This is the palm we see there today. By 1922, Sargent, then 81, was dismayed that work on the by of Mount Vernon had not progressed quickly and complamed that decisionmaking was needlessly slow. In November 1922 he wrote to Harriet Comegys, \"It is a great regret that having devoted ten or twelve years of my best thoughts and attention to Mount Vernon I have been unable to secure the confidence of the Council to the extent of letting me carry out my planting plans. Tree removals are needed. I wish the Council had more imagination and more power to look into the future. The thing which I feel sure about in this matter is that if Washington were here himself he \" would be on my side.\" Sargent made his last visit to Mount Vernon in 1923. In June of 1924 a major storm at general public.' A less questionable project effort sago to restore to was Sargent's Mount Vernon the famous palm (Cycas revoluta) that Washington acquired from Pratt's Garden in Philadephia. Washington grew the palm for many years m a small conservatory. A document in the archives of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association states that it was sold after the death in 1802 of his widow, Martha, to a Mr. Peter De Windt of Fishkill-on-Hudson, New York, where it flourished for many years. In 1841 the palm was acquired by Henry Winthrop Sargent for the large conservatory on his Fishkill estate, Wodenethe, which passed in 1882 to his son seriously damaged a tulip tree (Linodendron tulipifera), a sugar maple (Acer saccharum), and an Ohio buckeye (Aesculus glabraJ, all planted by Washington. Sargent gave Dodge stern advice to use only the best arborist available Harriet to repair the damage. He wrote to Comegys that he might have growmg in Mount Vernon Winthrop Sargent. At the request of Charles Sargent, who located the long-lost plant, Winthrop Sargent's the Arnold Arboretum nursery some small cuttings from a Mount Vernon buckeye and he would send one of them if it matched the one lost. By that time, however, Sargent's health 13 frail, and although he still went to his office the Arboretum everyday, as the year progressed he admitted that he could not make the trip to assess the storm damage. Instead he sent the Arnold Arboretum's young superintendent of grounds, Christian Van der Voet, a horticulturist from Holland who had trained at Kew. Van der Voet made several trips to Mount Vernon in Sargent's stead. Sargent remained involved through correspondence with the work at Mount Vernon until his death in March of 1927. Harriet Comegys died a few months later. Thus ended a friendship based on mutual respect and commitment to the preservation of the Mount Vernon landscape. The only publication of Sargent's sixteen-year relationship with Mount Vernon was his inventory and condition assessment of the trees of the Bowling Green and around the mansion. The Trees at Mount Vernon was first published in 1917 as part of the annual report of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. It was updated and reprinted in 1926 as a separate document and was offered for sale at the Mansion for many years. The report includes an introduction, a description and condition assessment of each tree, a scaled plan with all of the trees located and numbered, and appendices that include a list of the trees planted by Washington that had since disappeared. Several of Washington's original trees remain at Mount Vernon-a great white ash, a tulip poplar-nurtured by Sargent and subsequent generations of consultants and gardeners. Washington's original trees are surrounded by many replacement plants and by the lush, restored ornamental gardens, a significant concern of the present generation of curators and sponsors. But the original trees reflect Sargent's was at admonition that \"no care should be spared to them, and as they pass away they should be replaced with trees of the same kmds, that Mount Vernon may be kept for all time as near as possible in the same condition m which Washington left it. \"4 preserve Notes Unless otherwise indicated, all quotations are from matenal m the Archives of the Mount Vernon Ladies' Association, 1 Mount Vernon, Virginia. Landscape Archltecture, vol. 12 (July 1922J, 298-299 2 Rhodora Journal of the New England Botamcal Club, vol 17 (March 1915), 49-50. 3 For a discussion of Batchelder and the myth of the Washmgton Elm, see Sheila Connor, New England Natives ~Cambndge, MA. Harvard University Press, 1994), 111. Mount Vernon Ladies' Association of the Union, Annual Report (Mount Vernon, VA 1917), 46 Acknowledgments Current landscape preservation practice can be greatly enhanced by understanding the actions, as well as the mtentions, of the past In addition to the landscape itself, are a vital source of information about these The author wishes to acknowledge the valuable assistance of Barbara McMillan, Librarian of Mount Vernon, and Sheila Connor, Horticultural Research Archivist of the Arnold Arboretum. archives actions. Additional Reading The bicentennial of Washmgton's death has generated several new publications about Mount Vernon. The most notable are Mac Gnswold, Washmgton's Gardens at Mount Vernon Landscape of the Inner Man (Boston: Houghton Mifflm, 1999), and Wendell Garrett ~ed.\/, George Washmgton's Mount Vernon (New York: The Monacelh Press, 1998). Phyllis Andersen is director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Redwood Burls: Immortality Underground","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25245","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25e896d.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Redwood Burls: Peter Del Tredici Immortality Underground he California being the tallest tree in the world, reaching heights over three hundred feet under optimal growing conditions. Indeed, the tree is so spectacular that it has come to symbolize the grandeur and uniqueness of California itself. Smce the earliest days of statehood, the redwood tree has played a major role in the lives of California's citizens. No one has described the importance of that role better than Willis Linn Jepson in his famous Silva of California: The writer of these lines is a Cahfornian. He was rocked by a pioneer mother m a cradle made of Redwood. The house m which he lived was largely made of Redwood.... He went to school in a Redwood schoolhouse, sat at a desk made of Redwood and wore shoes the leather of which was tanned m Redwood vats. Everywhere he touched Redwood. Boxes, bins, bats, barns, bridges, bungalows were made of Redwood. sempervirens, -L coast redwood, Sequoia original trees. In some redwood forests, the second generation of trunks have also been cut, leading to a third generation of sprout growth. Among conifers, the redwood is unique in its remarkable power of basal regeneration. To my mind it is the redwood's ability to resprout-its great vitality-that makes the tree worthy of admiration and study. is famous for many reasons, not least for Posts, porches, piles, pails, pencils, pillars, paving-blocks, pipe lmes, sometimes even policemen, were made of Redwood.... From the tree's perspective, the love affair with the early Californians was perhaps a bit too intense, leading to the logging of over ninety percent of the tree's original range by the late 1950s. It is only through the efforts of private conservation groups, beginning in the 1920s, later by the State of California, and finally the National Park Service, that any of the original, uncut stands of trees exist today. As spectacular as these old-growth forests are, with their trunks disappearing into the fog that enshrouds the forest much of the year, they do not present a complete picture of the species. For that, one must visit redwood stands that were logged fifty to one hundred and fifty years ago. It is here that one finds the multi-trunked specimens that have sprouted from around the stumps of the My own interest in the coast redwood goes back to my childhood in Marin County, California, where redwoods grow naturally on the slopes of nearby Mt. Tamalpais. Quite literally, I grew up with the tree in my backyard and spent a week every summer vacationing in their midst, along the banks of the Eel River. Even as a child it was hard not to recognize something special about the redwood tree, something that made it different from other trees. Had you asked me about it then, I'm sure I would have said something about their huge size or about the solemnity I felt in their midst, almost like being in church. Such quasi-religious feelings are expressed by nearly everyone who visits an old-growth redwood forest, but few people think about or are even aware of the tree's extraordinary powers of survival. Regeneration Given my long personal connnection with the redwood tree, it's not surprising that I chose to study it later in life. Nor is it surprising that I chose to focus on the tree's ability to resprout following traumatic disturbance. I have been studying the regenerative powers of trees for many years, most notably in Ginkgo biloba, and it seemed only natural that I should turn to Sequoia sempervirens as a research subject, to see whether the redwood behaves similarly. With generous support from the Highsted Foundation in Redding, Connecticut, I was able to visit the center of the \"redwood empire,\" near Eureka, California, to conduct a week of field Studies of Tree 15 5 studies on vegetative regeneration and to collect seeds for cultivation in the Arnold Arboretum's greenhouses. reports in the literature woody plants, primarily angiosperms, that possess the ability to resprout from underground burls, technically known as lignotubers. Anatomical studies of lignotuber formation in a number of species, including Eucalyptus in Australia (Carr et al. 1984), the cork oak (Quercus suber) of the southern Mediterranean ~Molinas and Verdagues 1993\/, and Gmkgo biloba (Del Tredici 1992, 1997), have established that they form in seedlings as part of the trees' normal development. Lignotubers originate in buds located in the axils of the seed leaves (cotyledons) and a few of the leaves immediately above them. At first these cotyledonary bud swellings are small, but over time they can become quite large and contribute to the survival of the tree in several ways: Primarily they are a site for the production and storage of suppressed buds that can sprout following traumatic injury to the primary stem. They are also a site for the storage of carbohydrates and mineral nutrients, which facilitate the rapid growth of these suppressed buds following stress or damage to the primary trunk. And finally, in the case of plants growing on steep slopes, the lignotuber can function as a kind of clasping organ that anchors the tree to the rocky substrate (Sealy 1949, Del Tredici et al. 1992). In general, lignotuberproducing species are most commonly found in Mediterranean-type ecosystems that are characterized by hot, dry summers and periodic fires. There are numerous of A cross section of a 133-day-old redwood seedlmg clearly showmg the well developed bud clusters m the axils of the cotyledons (mdicated by arrows). The stem of the seedlmg, above the cotyledonary node, is about two centimeters m diameter. Early Stages of Lignotuber Development The forestry literature on Sequoia is clear about the commercial and ecological importance of the tree's ability to resprout after logging, but very little has been written about the precise origin of these sprouts in young plants. My A five-year-old greenhouse-grown seedlmg showmg proliferation of suppressed buds at and above cotyledonary node. Bar= 1.0 centimeter. the the observations on greenhouse-grown Sequoia seedlings indicate that lignotuber formation starts with the precocious development of buds located in the axils of the two cotyledons, just as it does in Ginkgo and Eucalyptus. Within the first six months of life, these buds proliferated to form distinct clusters that protruded from the 16 l mainly because the tiny plants are under severe environmental stress. In the wild, one typically finds redwood seedlings growing in areas that have experienced some form of disturbance, such as flooding or road maintenance, that had disturbed the topsoil, leaving the subsoil exposed. Under field conditions, most redwood seedlings do not form visible bud swellings at the cotyledonary nodes until they are between three and six years old. Interestingly, these tiny lignotubers often produce adventitious roots as well as leafy shoots in response to the partial burial that they experience following the heavy rains and erosion characteristic of the region. Lignotuber Development in Mature Trees Lignotubers continue to expand throughout the life of a Sequoia tree, eventually forming massive swellings at or just below ground level, and their outer surface is literally covered with suppressed shoot buds. On undamaged trees, the lignotuber typically gives rise to clusters of small leafy shoots that ring the base of the trunk. On trees that have experienced damage, either from logging or erosion, the lignotuber can produce large secondary trunks that equal or exceed the primary trunk in size. Mature trees that were logged 90 to 100 years ago develop lignotuber sprouts 4 large Sequoia growmg along a streambank m the Humboldt well over a meter in diameter. When Redwoods State Park. It shows extensive root and trunk such second-generation trees are found ~evelopment from Its exposed, downward-growmg hgnotuber growing on a steep slope near a stream stem and were clearly visible to the naked eye. or a roadcut, the woody lignotuber is readily In a few cases, one or two of these buds produce recognized as a massive \"plate\" of downwardshoots within six months. tiny leafy growing tissue that follows the contours of the After a few years of cultivation in the greenground and extends up to ten feet from the nearest trunk. On such sites, the lignotuber often house, nearly all of the young lignotubers were producing leafy shoots and the swelling of the develops into a kind of clasping organ that comstem associated with lignotuber formation had pletely envelops large rocks, further stabilizmg the tree. As well as giving rise to new shoots, spread upward to engulf several nodes above the such exposed lignotubers are also the source cotyledons. With redwood seedlings growing in nature, of new roots that help to anchor trees to the the process of lignotuber development proceeds eroding slopes. Indeed, preliminary observamore slowly than it does in the greenhouse, tions suggest that all of the roots that support a 17 7 second-generation Sequoia sprout, regardless of its size, are generated by the lignotuber. Induced Lignotubers on Layered Branches Only once have I observed \"layering\" in Sequoia. Rudolf Becking, a retired ecologist from Humboldt State University, had taken me to see what he assumed was a group of \"seedlings\" that had germinated following a particularly severe flood in the 1960s. Closer exammation showed that they were not seedlings at all. Rather, they were lateral branches of very weak, spindly saplings that had been bent over by limbs falling from the nearby canopy trees and had taken root and reestablished a vertical orientation. Typically, a single, downwardgrowing lignotuber had developed along the side - of the branch m contact with the soil, although in a few cases several lignotubers had formed along the length of the buried stem. On such layered branches, the original connection to its parent trunk had mostly withered away, leaving only the bowed shape of the stem and the off-center lignotuber as evidence of its ongin in a branch. As is the case with lignotubers derived from the cotyledonary node, those formed by layered branches possess the ability to generate both buds and roots. How long it takes for a branch to develop a lignotuber after it has been pinned to the ground is not known, but it is probably at least a year or two. From the ecological perspective, the layering ability of redwood seedlings appears to give them some flexibility in ~--,-_.._-_._._- --- - - - A layered lateral branch of Sequoia. Note that the downward-growmg, induced hgnotuber has produced both roots An ancient and a vegetative shoot Bar = 10 centimeter Sequoia in Big Basm Redwoods State Park showmg massive burl development on its trunk. 18 8 in response to injury from fire, trunk burls form above the point of injury to the stem and eventually grow out and down to cover the wound. In some cases, particularly when damage to the tree is extensive, great tongues of tissue project from the trunk-two feet or more-creating bizarre structures that resemble the gargoyles on medieval cathedrals. When these structures come in contact with the ground, they can develop both roots and shoots. Indeed, there has long been a cottage industry in the redwood region based on the harvesting of burls A trunk burl purchased in a Eureka, Cahforma, gift shop that is producing for sale to tourists. When placed both roots and shoots after six months in the greenhouse in a dish of water with the cut side down, they will produce leafy shoots within a week or two. They can even be induced to produce roots after six months to a year if kept in a warm greenhouse with plenty of light and water. Interestingly, only when the orientation of the burl on the tree is reversed-putting the cut side down-will buds sprout out. My preliminary observations of wild trees suggest that these burls originate on the trunks of old redwoods as wound-induced callus tissue that incorporates nearby buds into its ever-expanding mass. There appear to be two distinct types of burls on Sequoia trunks. The \"gargoyle\" type, usually A fallen redwood tree resproutmg from its basal hgnotuber. located on the lower portions of responding to environmental conditions by the trunk, is irregular in shape, grows outward and downward, and is covered with sprouts or migrating from areas of shade into areas with better light. buds.The second type occurs higher on the trunk; it is nearly hemispherical in shape, does Redwood Burls not grow downward, and produces comparaThe large lignotuber-like structures that are tively few sprouts or buds. sold in redwood country gift shops are comIn general, trunk burls can be interpreted as a case of uncontrolled bud and cortex proliferamonly called burls. They develop not below ground, as true lignotubers do, but on the lower tion induced by old age, traumatic injury, or environmental stress. The ecological function portions of the trunks of old redwood trees wind, or flooding.Typically, 19 A forest of redwoods m Korbel, California, resprouting from t~sir lignotubers three years after clear-cutting, 'A - ~ A postcard showing what is believed to be the largest Sequoia hgnotuber ever reported. It was 41 feet across, weighed approximately 525 tons, and supported at least seven large trunks The burl was uncovered m 1977 at Big Lagoon near Eureka, Cahforma. 20 of trunk burls is to produce new shoots and adventitious roots on trees that have been partially buried under silt from flooding or that were leaning such that they come in contact with the soil (Stone and Vasey 1968). While trunk burls with basal lignotubers are similar, it is important to keep in mmd that the lignotuber formed at the cotyledonary node is under strict genetic control, while burls that develop on the stem are under environmental control. In this regard, Sequoia is similar to Ginkgo biloba, which also produces lignotubers from the cotyledonary node as well as burls on its trunk and branches (Del Tredici 1992, 1997). The Economics of Lignotubers Regardless of the age or size of the parent tree, redwood lignotubers can resprout within two to three weeks of loggmg. While most of these sprouts die before reaching maturity, enough of them survive to regenerate the forest. A study of an old-growth forest that had been clearcut five to ten years earlier showed that the rate of resprouting was greatest in trees that had been between 200 and 400 years of age at the time of cutting and it decreased rapidly thereafter, such that trees more than 1,000 years old resprouted at only 20 to 25 percent of the peak rate (Powers and Wiant 1970). The researchers found that 92 percent of A ring of \"second generatzon\" redwoods that sprouted from the all surviving sprouts grew from the hgnotuber after the pnmary trunk was logged approximately one hundred years ago 6 percent lignotuber, and 2 from the remains of the trunk, redwood lignotuber were first suggested by percent from the cut, horizontal surface of the stump. For trees growing on a W. L. Jepson, who described a clump of 45 large redwoods that formed a third-generation \"fairy slope greater than 20 percent, the sprouts were more numerous on the downhill side of the ring\" fifty feet by fifty-six feet across. The photo trunk than on the uphill. on page 19 shows a giant lignotuber that The remarkable ability of redwood trees to has been exposed by erosion near the city of Eureka, California. resprout from lignotubers, regardless of age, is clearly the basis for the redwood's vitality in the The Ecology of Lignotubers face of massive over-harvesting by the timber industry. Essentially, logging has transformed The importance of lignotuber sprouting to the Sequoia sempervirens into a clonal organism forestry industry has been abundantly docuthat slowly expands its range by lignotuber mented, but very little information is available on its ecological significance in the absence of The potential dimensions of the sprouting. 21 Unhke entme most redwoods that sprout from the basal hgnotuber, this unusual length of its prostrate trunk, producmg a Imear grove of trees specimen has sprouted along the logging. In a 1987 study of an uncut Sequoia forest, J. D. Stuart found that basal sprouting in redwood is closely associated with fire. By correlating fire scars on the primary trunk of the tree with basal sprouts from its lignotuber, the author determined that during the presettlement period (between 1775 and 1875), fires occurred regularly at the site, at an interval of about 25 years. Other studies on the cut stumps of old-growth trees also support the idea that fires were common prior to European settlement and that redwood trees are well adapted to survive them (Fritz 1931, Jacobs et al. 1985, Finney and Martin 1992). These findings from California redwood forests are consistent with studies in other Mediterranean-type climates, which indicate that lignotuber-producing angiosperms are common in areas where fire or other types of frequently recurring disturbances (for example, grazing) are common (James 1984, Mesleard and Lepart 1989). These studies also suggest that, in the absence of logging, sproutmg from the lignotuber probably has much greater ecological significance for seedlings and saplings growing in dense shade or on exposed slopes than it does for mature trees (Canadell and Zedler 1994). noting that the trunk of a redabove the basal lignotuber has the ability to resprout following damage from wind, fire, or flooding. At the turn of the century, when fire was commonplace m the redwood region, there were frequent reports of large trees whose foliage had been entirely burned off vigorously sprouting to form lush \"fire wood tree It is also worth columns\" (Jepson 1923, I Fritz 1931).Similarly, have seen one new growth along wind-felled tree sprout the entire length of the _ fallen trunk. Rejuvenation Both morphologically and physiologically, the lignotuber-generated shoots produced by mature redwoods are considered \"juvenile\" 22 z relative to the shoots on the rest of the tree. This conclusion is supported by in vitro studies that demonstrated that tissue cultures started with lignotuber shoots from the base of a 90year-old Sequoia were more vigorous and rooted more readily than those started with shoots from the crown of the same tree (Bon et al. 1994). The researchers also identified numerous membrane-associated proteins that were synthesized in greater abundance in cultures derived from lignotuber shoots than those derived from the upper portions of the tree. In light of this and other similar studies, it is not surprising that as long ago as 1950 Sequoia should have been the first conifer to be successfully cultured using in vitro techniques, by Ernest Ball, and that these cultures were started from lignotuber sprouts. Quite literally, the . 1998. Lignotubers m Sequoia sempervirens: development and ecological significance Madrono 45: 255-260. , Fntz, H Ling, and G. Yang. 1992. The Gmkgos of Tian Mu Shan. Conservation Biology 6. 202-209. E. 1931. The role of fire m the redwood region. Journal of Forestry 29: 939-950 E. Martin. 1992. Short fire mtervals recorded by redwoods at Annadel State Park, California. Madroiio 39: 251-262. L. Suwenza, B.-L. Huang, T. Murashige, E. F. M Mahdi, and R. van Bundy. 1992. Fmney, M. A., and R. Huang, L.-C., Rejuvenation of Sequoia sempervmens by repeated grafting of rootstocks 166-173 in shoot tips onto juvenile vitro. Plant Physiology 98: Jacobs, D Cole, and J. R. McBnde. 1985. Fire and perpetuation of natural coast redwood ecosystems. Journal of Forestry 83: F., D. W. history Sequoia lignotuber can produce physiologically 494-497. juvenile shoots continually throughout most of its long life. This ability endows the tree with a kind of ecological immortality-by which I mean that as long as environmental conditions remain constant, the tree can live forever, or at least until it's uprooted. References James, S 1984. Lignotubers and burls-their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botamcal Reviews 50: 225-266 Jepson, W. L. 1910. The Silva of The University Press. California Berkeley: Ball, E. 1950. Differentiation in a callus culture of Sequoia sempervirens Growth 14: 295-325. F. Riccardi, and O. Monteuuls. 1994. Influence of phase change within a 90-yearold Sequoia sempervmens on tts m mtro organogenic capacity and protein patterns. Bon, M.-C., Trees 8. 283-287. Mesleard, F., and J. Lepart. 1989 Contmuous basal sprouting from a lignotuber. Arbutus unedo L. and Erica arborea L as woody Mediterranean examples. Oecologia 80: 127-131. Molinas, M. L., and D. Verdaguer. 1993. Lignotuber ontogeny in the cork-oak (Quercus suber, Fagaceae) II. Germination and young seedling. American Journal of Botany 80. 182-191. Powers, R. Canadell, J., and P. H. Zedler. 1994. Underground F., and H. V. Wiant. 1970. Sproutmg of oldon of woody plants m Mediterranean ecosystems of Australia, California, and Chile. In: M. T. Kahn Arroya, P. H. Zedler, and M. D. Fox, eds., Ecology and Biogeography of Mediterranean ecosystems m Chile, California, and Australia. New York' Spnngerstructures growth coastal redwood stumps Forest Science 16: 339-341. slopes. Sealy, J. Stone, E. R. 1949. The swollen stem-base unedo. Kew Bulletm 4: 241-251. m Arbutus C., and coast R. B. Vasey. 1968. on Carr, D. J., Del Verlag, 177-210. R. Jahnke, and S. G. M. Carr. 1984. Initiation, development, and anatomy of hgnotubers in some species of Eucalyptus Australian Journal of Botany 32: 415-437. Tredici, P. 1992 Natural regeneration of Gmkgo biloba from downward growmg cotyledonary buds (basal chichi). Amencan Journal of Botany 79. 522-530. redwood 157-161. Preservation of alluvial flats Science 159: Stuart, J. D. 1987. Fire history of an of Sequoia sempervmens Humboldt Redwoods State Madrono 34: 128-141. old-growth forest \/Taxodiaceae) m Park, California. . 1997. Lignotuber development m Gmkgo biloba. In T. Hon et al., eds, The World of Gznkgo Tokyo: Springer Verlag, 119-126. is director of living collections at the Arnold Arboretum Recent publications include a contribution to The Redwood Forest History, Ecology, and Conservation edited by Reed F. Noss and pubhshed by Island Press. Peter Del Tredici "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own Adaptability","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25246","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160a326.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koda, Harold","article_content":"Silver Maple: A Victim of Its Own Adaptability Harold Koda ew northeastern Canada, a range ~- native American trees have a broader than Acer saccharinum. The species occurs naturally in New Brunswick in west through northern Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota, south on line from southeastern South Dakota to eastOklahoma, east to northern Georgia, and back northeast to Maine and New Brunswickan area covering a third of the contmental United States. It is adaptable over the entire country excepting only the lower, subtropical, portion of Florida. It grows most vigorously on the rich, well-drained alluvial soils found along the rivers of the Midwest. In some of the river valleys and floodplains of northern Missouri, eastern Nebraska, Iowa, southern Wisconsin, and Illinois, it is the dominant canopy species. In New York State it is found near swamps in the company of green ash (Fraxinus ern tall, 22.58 in circumference, with a spread of 111 feet in 1975. At 120 feet in height, the Arnold Arboretum's centenarian, planted m 1881 next to the wet meadow not far from the Arborway entrance, also measures at the species' upper range in height. Its short trunk, which divides mto several large branches to form a rounded crown, is typical of opengrown silver maples. If growing space is more constricted, the species develops a long, straight was 125 feet crown pennsylvanica). The range of environments that Acer saccharinum tolerates gives a clue to its success. It can tolerate longer periods of inundation than most other species; in one instance, mature trees succumbed only after two years of constant inundation. It is usually found in soils with a pH above 4.0 (in cultivation, the recommended range is 4.5 to 7.0), but it tolerates the extreme acidity of muck and peat soils of pH 2.0 to 3.3. This unusual degree of adaptability to different environments-the key to silver maple's wide distribution-results from its distinctive set of biological attributes. stem with a thin crown. Young stems and branches are smooth, but older branches and trunks develop a darker gray surface, scaly and shaggy, with long, narrow flakes. Its most common name is derived from the silver-colored underside of its leaves; other names are soft, white, and river maple. Silver maple manifests several morphological adaptations to wetland conditions. In response to inundation, seedlings put out adventitious roots above the soil surface, in some cases after the original root system has been destroyed by prolonged soil saturation. Abnormally large lenticels are also responses to soil saturation; they are thought to increase oxygen uptake. And the tree's shallow root systems are a mechanism used by several plants to survive the anaerobic condition that occurs underground during periods of saturation. The species' reproductive cycle also illustrates adaptations that contribute to its success. As Biological Attributes Acer saccharinum is tree a fast-growing deciduous found on wetland sites, especially along riverbanks and lake edges. It generally reaches fifty to seventy feet in height at maturity with a forty- to fifty-foot spread, but under protected conditions it can achieve much greater size. The national champion silver maple, in Michigan, genus, maples attain reproductive maturity range of ages; in this respect, the silver maple falls near the middle of the group, with a minimum seed-bearing age of eleven years. Seasonally, however, it develops earlier than most a over a maples; together with red maple (Acer rubrum) it is the earliest maple to flower and seed, and its seeds germinate immediately in early summer, often sprouting on top of the soil where they fall. Silver maple's flowers are preceded by thick reddish buds that turn greenish yellow, 24 E At 120 feet m height, the sllver maple that grows along Meadow Road is the tallest tree m the Arboretum. Nearly 120 years In age, it has survived the icestorm of 1921, the hurncane of 1938, and the prunmg subsequent to those and many other storms. 25 similar to those of A. rubrum but slightly larger. The buds appear before the leaves, in late winter or very early spring, with males and females crowded separately on nearly stalkless clusters. Flowering on each tree is generally completed within a very short period-a day or so-and often the blossoms drop before the leaves fully develop. Therefore, the period of pollen receptivity is typically less than a week. The ripening period for the winged seeds (technically, samara) is likewise very concentrated, with all the seeds being released within less than two weeks. Long-distance dispersal is ensured because the V-shaped samara, attached by a flexible, threadlike stem, can be released from the tree only by a strong wind; after release its mobility is further enhanced by its propellerlike motion. Seeds germinate most successfully when they fall on moist, disturbed soil with leaf litter or other organic matter. at first requires full establish itself, followed by commented on this Acer sacchannum m his Silva of C S. partial shade-a pattern well adapted NorthSargent (1891). \"The Silver Maple is a fast-growing tree, even America to environments common to silver after it has attamed a large size. The great tree on the meadows m maple. The tree's early fruit formation Northampton, Massachusetts, mentioned by (George Barrell) Emerson and seed dispersal, together with (m his Forest Trees of Massachusetts, 1859], had a trunk cmcum ference immediate germination, allow the at three and a half feet from the ground of twelve feet six mches m hollow and 1837. seedlings to begin growing unham- much Fifty-two years later the trunk, which had become the decayed, measured at the same distance from pered by dense canopy and competi- seventeen feet four mches This photo dates from the turnground of the tive cover; later they take advantage of twentieth century. thickening canopy and groundcover to when their stored resources are depleted. Even meet the need for shade. However, while some the tree's bark is used-as food for beavers-and moisture is essential for germination, seedlings white-tailed deer and rabbits browse its foliage. be stunted if the soil is saturated, m which may And because of its propensity to develop trunk case a drier soil is needed to allow them to recover. Nature usually fulfills this requirement cavities, silver maple often shelters breedmg birds (woodpeckers, wood ducks, goldeneyes, with the shrinking of streams and rivers in summer and the attendant drying of the banks. owls) and nesting mammals (raccoons, oposabundant producer of early seed crops, As an sums, squirrels, and bats). silver maple is an important food source for a Silver Maple in Cultivation wide range of birds (grosbeaks, finches, wood The very aspects that make Acer saccharinum ducks, wild turkeys, other game birds) and small valuable in the uncultivated environment make mammals (squirrels and chipmunks). Its early it problematic in urban and suburban settings. buds are also of value to squirrels in late winter The seedling sun to \" 26 For example, the ease with which cavities form in its soft wood indicates the species' susceptibility to storm damage, insect predation, and fungal infestation. Its generous scattering of samaras produces uncontrollable litter, and its shallow, hydrophilic root system can wreak havoc with paving and groundcovers, as well as choke sewer lines and water mains. Michael Dirr's description of Acer saccharinum reflects these problems: \"Broken limbs, limitcd ornamental attributes, and a gross-feeding root system that buckles sidewalks and clogs drains have inhibited its planting. The fastest growing maple species, it is at the same time the most susceptible to breakage in storms.\" However, he goes on to conclude that it is \"[a] reasonable choice where few other species will grow or where there is need for a truly fast- II growing shade tree.\" % An assessment by Donaldf Culross Peattie thirty years ( earlier, in A Natural His- f tory of Trees of Eastern andt Central North Amenca, differs greatly. Peattie's description of silver maple verges on the exultant.< Unlike Dirr, he sees in it not a battered tree of \"limited ornamental attributes,\" but one that can make \"a railroad station look like a home, and [adds] a century to the appearance of a village street.\" For Peattie, Acer saccharinum is \"a magnifi- whitecaps, a threshing and seething and flashing silver.\" In the autumn, \"it turns ... a pale clear yellow\" while retaining its silver undersurface, so that \"the greenback leaf of yesterday becomes a banknote.\" Peattie attributes the supposed flaws of Acer saccharinum to overly pragmatic landscape architects who complain of its susceptibility to insect pests, ice and wind damage, and its comparatively short life-complaints to which he responds, \"It may be that we should always listen to cautious and sensible people, and not allow ourselves to think too highly of a tree that will perhaps only live three times as long as we do.\" Clearly Peattie's arguments, unlike Dirr's, are based on aesthetics rather than practicality. ... \" \" However, both writers limit their discussions to Acer saccharinum as they have seen it in cultivation. Indeed, most opinions of the species have been based on its behavior in situations where it would not natu- rally occur. Just because a plant is adaptable enough to grow on a certain site does not mean it should be planted there; and inap- propriate to siting appears be a major source of silver maple's present poor reputation. A review of the literature shows that over the course of this century, the use of Acer saccharinum in cultivated landscapes, particularly as a street tree, has cent Maple with short columnar trunk and long branches which, at least in the lower half of the tree, sweep grandly down toward the ground and rise again near the tip in a gesture of airy grace. In the upper tree the branches are apt to be ascending, so that the outline ... is somewhat pagoda-like.\" It is \"wraith-like\" m winter with a \"fine, flaky, gray bark ... almost silvery\"; its fruits in spring are \"dragonflies' wings\"; it is in \"full beauty\" in summer, when \"every breath of wind is sure to set the foliage to spinning,\" or in storms, when it is \"whipped into continuous been viewed with increasing disapproval by \"experts,\" including those of the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Department of Forestry. The species continued to be popular in both public and private landscape designs until well into the twentieth century-one of this century's most celebrated landscape designers, Beatrix Farrand, considered it \"the most graceful American hardwood, far surpassing any other tree.\" Nonetheless, in theory if not in practice, a slow shift in attitude can be detected at the turn of the century. 27 A silver maple is at left m this lush pluutmg by Beutmx Farrand at Dumbarton Oaks mg the m Washmgton, DC. The increasing negativity contrasts sharply with the literature of the preceding decades. A. J. Downing in his influential and multieditioned Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening ( 1841not only included Acer eriocarpum (as silver maple was then known) among \"the finest hardy Deciduous Trees,\" he approvingly quoted Fran~ois Andre Michaux: multiand nowhere is its vegetation more luxuriant than on the banks of the Ohio. There, sometimes alone and sometimes mingled with the willow, which is found along these waters, it contributes smgularly by its magmficent foliage to the embellishment of the scene. The brilliant white of the leaves beneath, forms a striking contrast with the bright green above, and the alternate reflection of the two surfaces in the water, heightenIn no is it more beauty of this wonderful moving mirror, forming an enchanting picture, which, during my long excursions in a canoe in these regions of sohtude and silence, I contemplated aids in with unweamed admiration. -The North Amencan Sylva, 1817 7 part of the Umted States Thirty years later, in his 1870 The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds, Frank J. Scott, an influential authority on landscapes for suburban estates who counted himself among the disciples of Downing, wrote: There ought to be but one variety of street tree on the same block, at least, and the longer the continuity is kept up the nobler will be the effect.... For wide avenues (where alone such great spreading trees as the elm, sycamore, silver maple, and silver poplar should be planted) thirty feet is the least distance that any street trees should be planted from each other.\" ... plied than in the western country, \" 28 E H. Wilson photographed 1925. this picturesque sllver Massachusetts, April maple m the valley of the Connecticut Rzver, 29 But what Scott gave with his took away with his left: This a right hand, he native maple, so common on western streams, has become, favorite for street plantmg. the banks of perhaps, too great The silver maple is a tree to count upon.... It is a lazy man's tree, for it comes vigorously from seeds, and bears transplantmg, even when there are radical changes m soil and m climate to be He found it wanting in comparison with the sugar maple; furthermore: The head of the silver maple does not break into good masses of light and shade until it is old, and m the mean time the projection of its numerous spreadmg branches scatter the light on a great number of small pomts, and develop no broad, deep, or well-defined shadows. But the author of the 1897 Lawns and Gardens: How to Plant and Beautify the Home Lot, the Pleasure Ground and Garden was not at all ambivalent; he nominated silver maple \"the most useful and ornamental of our deciduous trees.\" In 1905, with The Tree Book, the potential shortcomings of silver maple begm to dominate the literature: rapid grower, soon giving ample rapid growth implies bmttle, weak wood, as a rule. Slow-growmg trees like elms should always be alternated with soft maples, to replace them after their bnef race is run. met. It is a shade. But no being raised by authority than the U.S. Department of Agriculture. In that year, its publication on street trees mcluded three objections to the use of silver maple: In 1920, serious concerns were less an The first is is its bnttle wood, which at an early age easily broken by ordmary wmdstorms and causes it when a comparatively young tree to become unsightly. The second is its shallow rooting, which has a tendency to destroy pave- ments near ers. and also makes it difficult to grow grass the trees. The roots also will grow mto sewThe third is a tendency to decay; the tips of Alfred Rehder, Arboretum taxonomist and author of the Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, photographed these silver maples m Geneva, New York, 1899. 30 the limbs frequently die, leaving the whole top of the tree bare of leaves and the wood decays quickly, especially if the bark is broken. For this reason, it does not stand pruning as well as most other street trees, and it probably has been pruned more ruthlessly than any other tree, unless it is the Carolina Poplar. in 1922 by the Association. These recommendations were seconded president of the American Tree By the mid-1930s proponents of the species had to concede that \" ... [the] Silver Maple has fallen into disfavor for planting purposes, yet it still remains the most frequently met and best known of the maples.\" In 1939, Cleveland municipal authorities noted with some exasperation that although the disadvantages of the species were well known, Acer saccharinum continued to be the most frequently used street tree: be that it is hardy fast grower. For the latter reason especially, and because it is cheap, it is the usual species chosen by the allotment operator for planting new streets, and outlymg sections of the city are only too apt to carry on their newly developed tree-lawns a full quota of silver maples. ... [its] only city virtue seems to in a environment and is a same year the Massachusetts Forest and Park Association simply omitted A. saccharinum from its lists of recommended trees. By the 1940s the omission from municipal plant lists was commonplace, and in some cases it appeared on lists of undesirable trees. The major reason for silver maple's fall from nineteenth-century grace into twentiethcentury ill repute appears to be its indiscriminate use as a street tree. Scott's recommenda- In that was predicated on a generous spatial allotment, and his image of a broad avenue with gracefully sweeping tree branches predated the now-ubiquitous powerline. The tion in 1870 conflict between Acer saccharinum on the one hand and modern streets with their powerlines and confined planting spaces on the other was one that the tree could not win, since the pruning required to accommodate these new conditions would supposedly exacerbate its \"weak wood\" problem. Ironically, the very ability of silver maple to tolerate a wide range of soil and Alfred Rehder photographed this silver maple Jamaica Plam, Massachusetts agam m wmter m summer m 1900 and 1904 31 moisture conditions, together with its fast growth, contributed to overexuberant use of the species in situations ill suited to its other bio- logical characteristics. Interestingly, the British, who now use Acer saccharinum primarily as a specimen tree, have always been and are still enamoured of it. \"The Silver-leaf Maple (Acer dasycarpum) is one of the most graceful of trees,\" the eminent British horticulturist William Robinson wrote in 1907. \"[In] early spring it is covered with myriads of reddish flowers; then its leaves, green above, silvery-white below, turn in autumn to a varied colour.\" On a current British website, silver maple is described as \"by far the most successful of the eastern American Maples ... it forms a bushy crown of attractive green leaves each spring, which seem to resist attack by insects better than other nearby trees.\" This characteristic may in fact be a clue to the most appropriate use of A. saccharinum in the cultivated landscape. Rather than relegate it to sites of \"rugged conditions,\" as Dirr suggests, perhaps it should be positioned where it can grow and spread, protected from strong wmdsthe charmed circumstance of much of the British Isles. The recent development of several cultivars may also encourage a reevaluation of the species. The most widely available is 'Silver Queen', which is nonseeding. Others-'Pyramidale' is one-possess a strong central leader for structural soundness. As Peattie says of it, they \"impart to every streambank where they grow, to every big red Hoosier barn and little white house, to all the village streets and the long straight roads where they have been planted, an air at once of dignity and lively grace, a combination rare in a tree as in a human.\" And what can Dirr say to that? Gabnel, William J. 1990. Acer saccharinum L. silver maple In R. M. Burns & B. H. Honkala (technical coordinators), Silvics of North Amenca, Volume 2, Hardwoods Agricultural Handbook 654. Washington, DC. USDA Forest Service; or http:\/\/mllow.ncfes.umn. edu 80\/silvics-manual\/volume-2\/acer\/ \/ sacchannum.htm. Jonsson-Rose, N. 1897. Lawns and Gardens' How to Plant and Beautify the Home Lot, the Pleasure Ground and Garden New York- G. P. Putnam's Sons, 167. Little, Jr., Elbert L. 1979. Checklist of Umted States Trees (Native and NaturahzedJ, Agncultural Handbook 541 Washmgton, DC USDA Forest Service Maguire, D. 1985. Plants and Planting Design In D. Maguire, E. M. McPeck, and D Balmon, Beatrix Farrand's American Landscapes. Sagaponack, New York: Sagapress, 88-90. F. L. 1920. Street Trees. Mulford, Pack, Washtngton, DC: USDA, 29-30. C. L. 1922. Trees as Good Citizens Washmgton, DC: The American Tree Association, 61. D C 1966 A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North America, 2nd ed. New York: Bonanza Books, 463-465 Peattie, Reynolds, H. A. 1939. Planmng to Plant Shade Trees Boston: Massachusetts Forest and Park Association, Bulletm 162. W. 1907. The Garden Beautiful Home Woods and Home Landscape London John New York: Robmson, Murray, 125. Rogers,J E. 1906. The Tree Book 372. Doubleday, Sargent, C. S 1890. The Silva of North Amemca, Volume Houghton Miffhn, 1890 Scott, FJ 1870. The Art of Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds New York D. Appleton, 68, 344-345. U S Army Corps of Engineers 1987. Wetlands Delmeation Manual, Appendix C. Online at www.wetlands.com\/mdex.html USDA Forest Service Rocky Mountam Research Station. II. Boston: 1998. Fire Effects Information at System. Online H. Bibliography Dirr, Michael A 1998. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 5th ed. Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Van www.huntana D. com\/feis\/plants\/tree\/acesah. Jong, and J. Oterdoom. Gelderen, 1994. M., P. C de Maples of the World Portland, Oregon: Pubhshmg. Dowmng, A.J 1841. Practice A Treatise Timber Press. of Landscape Theory and Gardemng New York: on the Williams, A. B. 1939. The Cleveland Shade Tree Census Cleveland: Department of Parks and Public Wiley and Putnam, Finlay, 141-142. Property, 27. Harold Koda studies landscape architecture Graduate School of Design. Harvard's M. C. 1934. Our Amencan Maples and Some Others. New York: The Georgian Press, 7 Finlay's extended description of the species is as florid as Peattie's. at "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Verdant Arches and Bowers: Artificial Adaptations of Trees (1870)","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25248","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160a76f.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Scott, Frank J.","article_content":"Verdant Arches and Bowers: Artificial Adaptations of Trees Frank j. Scott history of garden art is a history of ever-diminishing garden size. For centuries garden treatises have helped landowners adapt their ambitions to the realities of constricted places. Treatise writer and landscape designer The Frank Jesup Scott (1828-1919) is best known as an influential promoter of post-Civil War suburban life and the now- requisite lawn. Beautifying Suburban Home Grounds of Small Extent was published in 1870, during the economic recovery following the war when more and more Americans aspired to live in what Scott termed \"half-country, half-town,\"\"the happy medium and the realizable ideal for the great majority of well-to-do Americans.\" His book The Art of Back then, well befo!e gardeners clamored for low-maintenance plantings,yardworkwas serious, time-consuming business. As a student of Andrew Jackson Downing, Scott no doubt shared Downing's belief that garden section beauty reflects owner virtue. But Scott's proposals in the excerpted here appeal to those of us who love trees without concern for morality. A recommendation to plant more trees is convincing in itself, and the care required to train them into arches and bowers a small price to pay. As Scott put it,\"Such arbors or arches can be made much more quickly with carpentry and lovely vines, but the permanent and more unusual structures made with living trees must nevertheless be more interesting.\" All weave on high a verdant roof That keeps the very sun aloof, Making a twilight soft and green, Within the column-vaulted scene. Alfred B. Street ARTIFICIAL ADAPTATIONS OF TREES be ~L trees are LL modes of growing trees for decorative or business purposes may considered artificial, but what is here meant by artificial adaptations are those less common forms of culture, by which shrubs and brought by skill, or persistent manipulation, into unusual forms for special purposes. Hedges, screens, verdant arches, arbors, dwarfed trees, and all sorts of topiary work, are examples of such arts. It is sometimes objected to these formally cut trees, that they are unnatural, and therefore inadmissible in good decorative gardening. But houses, fences, and walks are not natural productions, nor are lawns or flower-beds. All our home environments are artificial, and it is absurd to try to make them seem otherwise. The objection arises from a common misunderstanding that all decorative gardening is included in, and subject to the rules of landscape-gardening: an unfortunate error. The word landscape conveys an idea of breadth and extent of view, so that landscape-gardening means gardening on a great scale, in imitation of 34 produced artificially with small trees, by topiary arts, may seem puerile as parts of a landscape; but in the dimensions of a small lot, where each feature of the place needs to be made as full of interest as possible, no such idea is conveyed. On the contrary, whatever little arts will render single sylvan objects more curious and attractive, or more useful for special purposes, may with propriety be availed of. It is as absurd to apply all the rules of grand landscape-gardening to small places, as to imitate, in ordinary suburban dwellings the models of palaces. The only limit to the use of topiary work of the character we are about to treat of is, that whatever is done shall be subsidiary to a general and harmonious plan of embellishment, and that the forms employed shall have some useful significance. natural scenery. All the effects that can be - ***** ~ There is by deciduous, into fanciful forms for gateway and garden arches, verdant pavilions, and bowers. As evergreens are most constantly beautiful for such purposes, we will first call attention to a few forms in which they may be used. Ftc. 3 i . limit to the charming variety of effects that can be produced training and pruning trees and large shrubs, both evergreen and no The hemlock can be treated as illustrated by figures 31, 32, and 33. The first represents two hemlocks which have been planted two feet away from and on each side of an ordinary gateway. After five or six years' growth they may be high enough to begin work upon. A crotched stick about two feet shorter than the distance of the trees apart, is stretched from one to . ~ ground, and fixed there to keep the tops apart up to that point. Above the stick, the tops (supposing that they are tall enough to admit of it) are to be bent towards each other until they join, then twisted together, and tied so that they cannot untwist. To do this so as to form a graceful arch, the trees must be about eleven or twelve feet high. After they are firmly intertwined at the top, which is usually in about two years' growth, the clipping of the sides and tops can be going on to bring the arch to a form like that of figure 32, or to any similar design the proprietor may desire. An arch like the latter figure may be brought to considerable perfection in the course of ten years. Figure 33 shows the probable appearance that a hemlock archway would present in twenty years after planting, supposing the trees were allowed to develop more naturally after their artificial character was well established. Such arches increase in quaint beauty as they grow old, and after the first ten another, seven from six to feet from the FIG. 32. years will need but little care. s 35 _ FIG. 33 effect, which may be produced with the same size trees, by joining and twisting together two side branches to form the arch, leaving the main stems to form two spiry sides, and trimming to produce this form. Another mode that, if well executed, would produce a curious effect, is to unite the main stems as in the first mode, but instead of twisting them to grow vertically over the middle of the gate, the twist should be made horizontally, so that the tops would project sideways, as shown farther on for elm-tree arches [figure 40]. This in time would develop into a wide crescent, inverted over the arch, or it might be likened to a pair of huge horns guarding the arch. The variety of novel forms that such trees can be made to assume after ten or twelve years' growth will surprise most persons. The same kind of arches on a smaller scale can be made with the arborvitae, but the branches are not so pliable. It may be used to advantage for narrower and lower arches. For arbors or bowers the hemlock is equally well adapted. We would suggest as the simplest form to begin with, that four hemlocks be planted at the intersection of two walks, say five or six feet apart. By cutting back the side branches to within one foot of the trunk, the growth at the tops will be increased so that in five or six years they may be tall enough to allow the opposite diagonal corners to be twisted together. If the trees are all thrifty, the twist will become fixed in two years. The fragrant and graceful foliage of the hemlock can thus be made to embower retired seats, or make quaint openings for diverging paths. Such arbors or arches can be made much more quickly with carpentry and lovely vines, but the permanent and more unusual structures made with living trees must nevertheless be more interesting. The hemlock may be used to make artificial pavilions of a still larger kind if trained through a period of ten or fifteen years. Suppose six trees to be planted at the corners of a hexagon ten or twelve feet in diameter. Let them feather naturally to the ground on the outside of the group, and trim to within one or two feet of the trunks on the inside. When twelve feet high, pass a rope around the circle, on a level, two or three feet below their tops, so as to draw them towards the centre of the circle as far as the main stems may be safely bent, which will probably be about three feet inside of the perpendicular. If the circle is twelve feet in diameter, this will still leave six feet unenclosed at the Figure top. The rope is to be left around them until the trees have grown five to six 34 is intended to show another FIG 34 feet higher, when another binding will bring their tops together, and if they are long enough they may be twisted together. L 36 Figure 35 is a section of the stems alone, to illustrate the general form intended. When the six trees are together at the centre they should be made to grow like one, and the branches that grow from the upper sides of the curved stems must be cut back to prevent becoming leaders. Figure 36 shows one development of this mode of training; the sides and top having been trimmed in mosque-dome form, the curve of the living frame of the pavilion FIG. 35. being well adapted to produce it. It will require from twelve to fifteen years to perfect such a pavilion, but the group will be pretty, and interesting at every stage of its growth. In this, as in most other things in life, it is well to remember Shakespeare's lines-- them from - What's won is done;-joy's soul lies in the doing. A pretty variation of the above plan, for larger verdant pavilions, may be by simply bending the tree-tops towards the centre in the manner above described, but not close together, leaving a circular opening six feet wide created over the centre, in the manner of a dome sky-light. The fir trees, though fine for lofty screens or hedges, have more rigid wood, and do not bear so much bending; still very beautiful results of a similar kind may be produced with the Norway spruce, which is the best of the firs for this purpose. It bears cutting quite as well as the hemlock. The Cypressus Lawsoniana (Chamaecyparas ZawsonianaJ which combines a rapid growth, and the freedom of the hemlock with arborvitae-like foliage, will be an admirable tree for large works of this kind, if it continues to prove hardy. The pines are mostly disposed to drop their lower limbs as they increase in height, and this peculiarity may be availed of in producing other forms of growth. If, for instance, it is desired to FIG. 36. make an evergreen umbrage in which to take tea out of doors in summer, it may be provided by planting four white pines, say twelve feet apart each way, and when they are from eight to ten feet high, cutting their leaders out so as to leave a tier of branches as nearly as possible at the same height on the four trees. The following year see to it that none of these upper branches turn up to make leaders, and if necessary tie them down to a horizontal direction. By attending to this for two years the top tier of shoots will make a horizontal growth, which will meet in a few years overhead, and form a table-like top of foliage. But to insure this effect, the tree must be watched for some years to 37 prevent any strong shoots from taking an upward lead, and thus draw the sap away from the horizontal branches. After these have met overhead, and form a sufficient shade, the part above may be allowed to grow as it will. The check and change in the growth of the trees by such manipulation, carried on for several years, insures a novel and picturesque attains great size at small grounds. form for the group that will be permanent. As the white pine maturity, it is not well to attempt such an arbor on quite Deciduous trees being more subject to insects on their foliage, are less desirable than evergreens for these uses, but they spread at the top more rapidly, can be more quickly grown to the required forms, and are covered at certain seasons with beautiful and fragrant blossoms; so that in variety of attractions some of them are unequalled by any evergreens. The latter wear throughout the year the beauty of constant cheerfulness, while the former, with the changing seasons, are alternately barren of graces, or bending with foliage and glowing with blossoms. For archways there are no finer deciduous trees than the English hawthorns and the double flowering scarlet thorn, Crat~gus coccinnea fZore plena (C. pedicellata~. They can be planted at the sides of footpath gates, in the same manner as recommended for the hemlock, and it will only be necessary to trim them on the inside, so as to keep the opening unencumFm. 37. bered ; as the hawthorns bloom best on their extended garlandlike branches. But they should be trimmed enough to prevent any decidedly straggling outline, to show that they are intended as artificial adaptations for a purpose. Figure 37 shows a suitable form for a hawthorn arch. For bowers, or umbrageous groups surrounded by open sunny ground, the same form suggested for hemlock and pines is adapted to the hawthorns; viz., planting in a square or circle so that the interior can be used for a cool summer resort for smoking or reading, a place to take tea, or a children's playhouse. A dense canopy of leaves forms the coolest of shades in the hot hours of summer days. To form such a canopy with hawthorns will require about ten years, and may be made by planting six trees in a hexagonal form. All our readers may not remember that if they make a circle of any radius, that radius applied from point to point on the circle will mark the six points of a hexagon. The following varieties of hawthorn are recommended for five of these places, viz.: the common white, Cr~zt~gus oxyacantha (C. laeuigataJ, the pink flowered, C. o. rosea, the dark red, C. o. punicea, the double red, C. o. punicea flore plena, the double white, C. o. multiplex, and for the sixth the double scarlet thorn, z 38 ~ C. coccinnea flore plena. These will in time make a bower of exquisite beauty in the time of bloom, and of such full and glossy foliage that it will have great beauty during all the leafy season. After such bowers are well thickened overhead by the annual cutting back of the rankest upright growth, they are interesting objects even in winter, by the masses of snow borne on their flat tops, and the contrast presented between the deep shadows under them, and the brightness of the snow around. The hawthorns are all bushy when young, and their development into overarching trees will be somewhat slower than that of the following deciduous trees. The sassafras is eminently adapted to form a useful bower of the kind above described, as it naturally assumes a parasol-like top, grows rapidly, and with its bottom limbs quickly. Being disposed to form crooked stems, some care must be used in choosing straight-bodied thrifty nursery trees, and protecting the dispenses large enough not to need it. Six thrifty trees will grow into a perfect canopy, of the size suggested, within five years, if their central stems are cut back, and kept to a height of about eight feet. Fro. 38. For the next five years all the upright growth at their tops should be annually cut back, so that the trees will not exceed twelve feet in height. Afterwards they may be allowed to grow naturally; but their greatest beauty will not be attained in less than fifteen or twenty years. Figure 38 shows the appearance they should make in ten or twelve years after planting. Next to the sassafras, probably the judas or redbud trees, Cercis canadensis and C. siliquastrum, form most naturally into this kind of flat-roofed bower. The White-flowered dogwood, Cornus florida, is also adapted to the same use. Both spread lower than the sassafras, but do not grow so rapidly when young. The moose-wood or striped-barked maple [Acer pensylvanicum), on the other hand, attains the height required in a single season, and its green and yellowstriped bark is ornamental. The branches, after the trunk has attained the height of ten or fifteen feet, radiate naturally to form a flat-arched head, and grow much slower than the first vigorous growth of the stem would lead one to suppose. The foliage is large and coarse, but the form of the tree is suited to the purpose under consideration. Its large racemes of winged seeds, of a pinkish color, are very showy in August. The paper mulberry is also a valuable tree for such uses, and attains the required size and density of head in less time than any of the others. The foliage is unusually abundant and of a dark are . trunks until they green color. 39 Perhaps the most beautiful of all small trees for such purposes is the weeping Japan sophora [now Styphnolobium japonicum]. It is grafted from seven to ten feet high on other stocks, and for many years its growth is slow; but if one will have the patience to wait, a more charming and curious bower can be made with a circle of sophoras than of any tree we know of.... We have named only a few of the trees which may be made use of for growing these artificial bowers. For very small grounds there are many arboreous shrubs which may be used to produce similar effects on the inside, and appear as naturally grown groups on the outside.... good effect for arches of a larger growth already suggested. The adjoining sketch, figure 39, will illustrate one mode of procedure, where there is room for large Fic. 39 trees. Two common weeping elms are to be chosen, each having two diverging branches at the height of six to eight feet from the ground, and to be so planted that the extension of these branches will be parallel with the fence. For a foot-walk gate-way, plant them about two feet back from the fence-line, and the same distance, or less, from the walk. After the trees have grown so that the branches towards the gate are long enough to be connected, as shown in figure 39, and upwards of half an inch in diameter, they may be brought together and twisted round and round each other vertically, and tied together so that they cannot untwist; or they may be grafted together as shown in the sketch above. The twist will, however, be the strongest and simplest mode. The branches that proceed from the twisted ones below the union, must be kept cut back to within two or three feet, so as to encourage the strongest growth in the part above the twist. The next spring, if these united branches have done well, the outer branches of both trees may be cut off at a, a, and grafted with scions of the Scamston elm [a weeping form]. If the grafts take, and the growth and trimming of all parts are properly attended to, the lower growth forming the gateway arch should be all Scamston elm, crowned over the centre with a loftier common elm, presenting an appearance in the course of ten years something like the accompanying engraving. The Scamston elm grows with great vigor in a horizontal and downward direction only, and its long annual shoots, and dark glossy leaves overlap each other so closely that an arch cut in one side has the FIG. 40. Elms may be used with than those - 40 mound of solid verdure. Their tops are flatly rounded like unfinished hay-stacks, and the common elm emerging from the centre (as shown in the engraving), bending its long arms over the former with a freer growth, might, we think, present a combination of grotesque grace less a appearance of being cut through formal in expression than our illustration. A broad flat-topped arch of a similar character may be made by grafting all four of the branches with the Scamston elm at a, a, figure 39, and the points opposite. This may be perfected more quickly. For an archway over a carriage entrance two common elms may be planted by the sides of the gateway, and when their side branches are long enough, may be twisted round and round each other, and tied together, and the other parts of the tree trimmed to develop the best growth of the branches depended on to form the arch. Figure 41 illustrates the appearance of the trees without their leaves a year or two after the twist has been made. ~ FIG. 41. U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title. Arnoldia. 2. Publication No: 0004-2633. 3 Filing Date: 26 October 1999 4 Issue Frequency: Quarterly. 5. No. of Issues Published Annually: 4 6. Annual Subscription Price $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign 7 Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 8 Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Busmess Office of Publisher~ Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 9 Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor- Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 11 Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owning or Holding 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia. 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data. Fall 1999 15 Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 4,500. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 4,500. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1) Sales Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. none. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: none. (2) Paid and\/or Requested Mail Subscriptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months. 3,194. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 2,771. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months' 3,194. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,771. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months 45 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 40. e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 150. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date. 140. f Total Free Distribution. Average No Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 195. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 180. g. Total Distribution' Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,389. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 2,951 h Copies Not Distributed. (1) Office Use, Leftovers, SpoMed. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months' 1,111. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 1,549. (2) Return from news agents. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: none Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: none. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue Durmg Preceding 12 Months: 4,500. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 4,500 Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 76%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date. 66%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25247","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd160a36b.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum F A L L - ,. 5 . 1 9 9 9 Campaign Approaches a Successful Conclusion Robert E. Cook, Director Charles Sprague Sargent was a remarkable fundraiser in his time, and after. He died in 1927, leaving behind a fifty-four-year record of contributions from friends and supporters. Their generosity added to the original bequest of $100,000 that came from the estate of James Arnold in 1872. Those same friends and supporters conducted a campaign following Sargent's death that raised over $1,000,000 for a memorial endowment. During the next thirty years, large bequests from the Case family and from Martha Dana Mercer continued to benefit the growing programs of the Arboretum; but no formal, broadbased fundraising campaign was mounted until the last decade of this century. In 1994 we set a goal of $8,250,000 which, at that time, was considered very ambitious for an institution with no recent history of such an organized effort. I am pleased to report that, as of November 1 of this year, we have raised $7,950,000 in pledges and outright gifts. Many of these gifts are intended by their donors to be added to endowments to support our research and education programs in perpetuity. I am confident that, sometime early in the new millenium, we will achieve the goal set five years ago. The success of our campaign was anchored by three major gifts from long-time friends of the Arboretum. The family of George Putnam established an endowment of over $1,000,000 to support the award of Katharine H. Putnam Fellowships at the Arnold Arboretum for research and related activities that use our exceptional collection of shrubs and trees. The extended Hunnewell family pledged to raise $1,000,000 to support the renovation of our main facility, the Hunnewell Building, built in 1892 through the generosity of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell. Finally, an anonymous donor bequeathed the Arboretum a gift of $1,000,000 to endow the Horticultural Library in Jamaica Plain, thereby ensuring the con- unuing strength of one of Boston's finest collections of botanical books and journals. For the first time, our campaign was conducted as part of Harvard's university-wide effort. As such, perhaps our greatest is a reaffirmation of the Arboretum's traditional accomplishment mission knowledge plants and to disseminate that knowledge through education, including public eduto increase our of woody cation. In executing this mission in to a magnificent landscape open the public, we serve as one of the university's most important contributions to the people of greater Boston and lovers of trees worldwide. NewTranslation of Willow Monograph Irina Kadis, Curatorial Assistant Willows have long been known as a difficult genus. Few beacons cast light on the seas of confusion surrounding them. Since 1968, Russian-speaking readers could turn to an excellent review of the genus Salzx by the authority on catkin-bearing plants, Alexei K. Skvortsov. The idea of translating this monograph, which describes 135 of the Eurasian willow species, many of which also occur in North Amenca, captured me more than five years ago in the library of the Arnold Arboretum. I came . conttnued on page 2 ~ front page across a I in This was not just a matter of good compilation of computerized images of species distribution maps and layout of the entire manuscript. Luckily for me, Professor Skvortsov came from Moscow to Boston twice during these five years. Our discussions provided me with important some of the members of our international team never met, all the same, we worked efficiently. Thanks to the effort and commitment of Russian, American, Canadian, and Finnish scientists, Wzllowr of Rucrza and Adjacent Countrze.r is now available copy of the book so the familiar to me, but useless to everyone else. I had no idea how long it would take me to translate the book; indeed, I would never have completed this project were it not for the enthusiasm and friendly support I found on both sides of original Russian, luck. A group of scientists working in Finland under the leader- ship of Jorma Tahvanamen had long been studying the taxonomy and ecology of willow communiFrom their perspective, the need for the book was urgent and obvious. A Canadian botanist, renowned specialist on the willows of the New World and an old friend of A. K. Skvortsov, George Argus helped with the scientific editmg of the translation. Alexei ties. insights. Although the Atlantic. From the very beginning (and the beginning was the most difficult !), I was encouraged and helped at the Arboretum and even granted a trip to Finland when the University of Joensuu agreed to publish the translation as a part of their Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences Zinovjev, an entomologist from St. Petersburg Zoological Institute who studies willows as host plants of insects, coordinated all the work in both hemispheres and also undertook the technical part: University of Joensuu (merm.kmnunen@loensuu.fi; at Report Series. ISBN 951-708-766-7). Arboretum Council Fall Meeting Staff Update series of recent staff changes and additions have occurred at the Arboretum. In the development department we have appointed Karen O'Connell, formerly mem- A visit to the site of the proposed Shrub and Vine Garden was one of the highlights of the annual fall meeting of the Arboretum Council, held on October 13, 1999. Council members discussed plans for the garden with Robert E. Cook, director, and Peter Del Tredici, director of living collections, as they reviewed the architect's model and drawings. They then walked the site of the proposed garden. Other events of the day included a tour of Chinese Path and a presentation on the digitization of the Arboretum's plant exploration records. A bership coordinator, as development manager overseeing membership and the annual fund, as well as the finish of the capital campaign. We have asked Sheila Baskm, formerly secretary to several departments, to join the department as development assistant. Sarah Carrier, who was hired in September to work at the front desk, has been asked to assist with the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies one day a week as well. Sarah comes to the Arboretum from the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities (SPNEA), where she helped conduct plant inventories for their historic sites. Sarah earned her Bachelor of Arts degree in environmental geography from Clark University. ~ ~ contrnued on page 4 In this photograph of the model of the proposed Shrub and Vine Garden, the Dana Greenhouses are above the garden and Centre Street is to the right. AABGA Visits the Arboretum Ellen Bennett, Manager of Horticultural Information Regional meetings of public garden professionals serve as sources of practical information and as opportunities to network with peers. On October 28 and 29, the Northeast Region of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (AABGA) held its 1999 meeting. The first day of the conference was hosted by the Arnold, as 95 participants descended upon the site for a day of presentations important landscape change Speakers hailed from throughout, and beyond, the Northeast, including representation from the Connecticut College on curation and over time Arboretum, the Holden Arbore- tum, New York Botanical Garden, and the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation as well as this arboretum. After lunch in the Rose Garden, Arboretum staff led participants on tours of the grounds and gave demonstrations in the curation department and the Dana Greenhouses. The day ended with a wonderful reception at the Fredenck Law Olmsted National Histonc Site in Brooklme. The second day was hosted by Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambndge. The focus of the day was master planning in the public garden realm, with speakers from Mount Auburn, Cornell Plantations, the Holden Arboretum, and Tower Hill Botanic Garden. Again, participants were treated to tours of Mount Auburn's grounds, and a tour of Harvard Yard. After a marvelous closing reception in Harvard Yard, all agreed that the meeting had been a resounding success. New Funding for School Programs ship with the Hale School. Our work with teachers at the Hale School will center on The education department has been awarded two new grants for the coming year to explore how the Arboretum might help schools create school-based, studentdocumented arboreta that would enable elementary students to use the trees in their schoolyards for long-term, inquiry-oriented studies. Our plan is to explore the issues related to such an endeavor during this school year in order to articulate and secure funding for a model program that could be used by schools nationwide. A pilot grant from the Boston Schoolyard Initiative (a public-private partnership that is supporting the redesign and construction of the schoolyards of Boston schools) will permit us to explore these teaching and learning issues in partner- ways that a schoolyard arboretum-specifically, the initial selection, placement, and documentation of a collection of trees-can become part of the science curriculum. We anticipate that our National Sci- Foundation-funded project, Seasonal Investigations, can then be used in subsequent years to support continued observation and documentation of those trees. A planmng grant from the National Science Foundation will help us leverage this pilot study ence by allowing us to create two prototype technology tools designed to support tasks related to the creation and documentation of an arboretum. The first tool will to make informed decisions about trees to include in their schoolyard arboretum by allowing them to search out specific variables, such as drought tolerance or bloom schedule. The second tool will help them organize their data about each tree and allow them to keep detailed records that can be used by subsequent groups of students over time. We believe that these efforts will help us develop a model for the creation and documentation of a schoolyard arboretum that can become useful for schools across the country. We look forward to the new challenge that this idea offers. For more information about this project, please contact help students Candace Julyan x at 617\/524-1718 109. n from page 2 who was a Putnam Fellow, to that January from Berkeley in the During Peter Del Tredici's six-month sabbatical at Harvard Forest, Tom Ward, greenhouse manager and plant propagator, is serving as interim director of living collections. In addition, with number of major projects on the grounds coming up, we have opened a new position for a landscape project manager and have appointed Laura position. ing on projects for the Institute for Cultural Laura will also be work- to work of Michael laboratory Donoghue, using the living col- Landscape Studies. have asked Inna assistant, to Finally, a we Kadis, curatonal increase Tenny Brogna, her hours to provide additional time working in the herbarium at the Arboretum. Staff additions in Cambndge include a new Putnam Fellow, Dr. Lisa Schulthies who will arrive in lections here, specifically, the genus Rzber. A Mercer Fellow, Dr. Hans-Joachim Esser will be arriving from Germany in March to conduct systematic studies and collecting expeditions. We are also adding a new staff member, Dr. David Middleton, as tropical plant systematist, in November. Recent Construction Laura Improves Neighborhood Conditions Tenny Brogna, Landscape Project Manager agencies and their con- Representatives of regional and local on water struction crews were in abundance the Arboretum grounds in months. The best evidence is the new stormwater collection system designed and constructed by the Boston Water and Sewer Commission (BWSC) and Feeney Brothers Excavation Corporation of Dorchester. Improvements were directed by the City of Boston to correct inadequate drain systems that have been overloaded in heavy storms, contributing to past flooding in the neighborhood of Archdale Road, near Peters Hill. The lowlying houses and roads were built on filled wetlands in the 19th century ; that plus the confluence of several regional and local wastewater pipe systems have made the area highly vulnerable to flooding. The work was simple in concept, difficult in execution. First came the excavation of a large, crescent-shaped, earthen basin for collection of stormwater runoff from Peters Hill. Then two pipes, 30 inches in diameter, were installed at the low end of the basin to divert water from the Archdale Road neighborhood. Instead, it carries water under recent Newly constructed drainage swale on South Street and releases it into the low-lying land by the railroad bed (m the area known informally as the South Street Tract of the Peters Hill. the large granite blocks the were sal- vaged from work on Big Dig. In the process, stone steps were placed in the wall to accommodate Arboretum). About 300 feet of 36-inch concrete neighborhood residents who previously had to scale it to enter Peters Hill. Structural repairs are now complete and regradmg and other clean-up work should be piping was required to help the water over and beyond a nse in the land in the South Street Tract. A plus for the Arboretum in this operation was the removal of several truckloads of rubble that were deposited there in the 1980s during construction of the Forest Hills MBTA station. The construction also gave us the opportunity to rebmld the stone wall at the base of Peters Hill; some of finished shortly. Just as construction was finished, tropical storm Floyd blew in to test the system. BWSC and Arboretum staffs were pleased to see it operating well during and after the storm; several feet of water collected in the South Street Tract. EN "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23382","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eb728.jpg","title":"1999-59-3","volume":59,"issue_number":3,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect: An Introduction to His Life and Work","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25241","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25e8126.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Morgan, Keith N.","article_content":"Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect: An Introduction to His Life and Work Keith N. Morgan Just five days after Charles Eliot died in 1897 at the age of 37, Charles Sprague Sargent published his obituary in Garden and Forest, his weekly journal. As an apprentice to Frederick Law Olmsted, Eliot had prepared planting plans for the Arnold Arboretum, and thereafter Sargent followed his career, first in solo practice and later as partner to Olmsted. Sargent wrote, \"in a great variety of work he has proved himself one of the most accomplished of designers. He had an intense appreciation of nature, but he always kept up his student habits, examining the outdoor world critically, and reasoning upon what he saw to establish principles which could be applied in practice.\" Sargent also knew Eliot as a frequent contributor to Garden and Forest; he his would be missed for his \"gift of expression in a singularly effective style that writings embody such an amount of sound doctrine, effectively stated, ... one regrets that he has not left more of this kind of work behind him.... it is no exaggeration to say that his untimely death art in America....\" is an almost irreparable loss to rural father, President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University, and annotated the son's writings, which he published as Charles Eliot, compiled Landscape Architect. Nearly a century later, it remains one of our most valuable collections of landscape writing and a necessary resource for those interested in the history of landscape architecture or city and regional planning. The following essay is excerpted from the introduction to a new edition. In 1902 Eliot's of Europe, the young study Charles Eliot set up a landscape architecture practice on Park Street in December 1886. Over the next decade he would make an indelible mark on the physical form of the metropolitan region and beyond. In Eliot's solo practice, and later as a partner in Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot, he developed many fine public parks and tour ecently returned to Boston from a year- -Llong ~~ became one of the country's and influential landscape critics prolific and historians, and provided the creative and political impetus for the Trustees of Public Reservations, the first statewide preservation and conservation organization in the country and the precursor to Britain's National Trust. Finally, and most importantly, Eliot directed the early development of the Boston Metropolitan private most estates. He Five images photograph, 1882; of Charles Eliot (1859-1897), clockmse from top left, c. 1863; c. 1869; Harvard College graduation at age 35; at center, age 37. Courtesy of Alexander Y. Gomansky. Park System, one of the first and most successful American experiments in regional landscape planning. It is astounding that all this was accomplished in less than eleven years. Eliot's death from spinal meningitis in 1897, at the age of thirty-seven, robbed the country of one of its most talented landscape architects ever. Early Years When Charles Eliot was born in 1859, his father was a professor of mathematics and chemistry at Harvard College. His mother, Ellen Peabody Eliot, was an amateur artist and lover of nature. She died when he was ten years old. Charles had one younger brother, Samuel Atkins Eliot, who became an important Unitarian minister, presiding over the Arlington Street Church, Boston, and president of the Unitarian Association. The Eliots' home life was characterized by cultural and social prestige and by intellectual stimulation. In 1863, after losing a promotion battle at Harvard, Eliot senior took his family abroad so that he could study in French and German laboratories.From August of that year, when young Charles was three, through the summer of 1865, the family traveled between Paris, London, Heidelberg, Marberg, Vienna, Berlin, land, and Italy. Late in 1864 Ellen Eliot wrote to her mother of the family's life abroad: SwitzerI keep regular school for Charly every morning & it is a pleasure & an interest to him & to me. He learns readily & enjoys it highly-I really Ellen Peabody Ehot and her sons, Samuel Atkins Ehot and (standmg) Charles Eliot. fear the chicks may be spoiled by the devotion of their parents to them. They are necessarily with me all day & Charly sews with me & studies with me & paints with me and they generally walk with me, and it is rarely that I can catch Charles-Every day C[harles] gives Charly a regular gymnastic exercise-the child has improved much m the use of his arms sometimes entire & legs.2 The exercises were intended to counteract the lingering effects of a bout of typhoid fever that little Charles had suffered during the winter of 1863-1864. He was ill for more than a year but eventually recovered fully.3 An invitation to teach chemistry at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology brought the senior Eliot and his family back to Cambridge in the fall of 1865, but his wife's lung and throat congestion prompted them to return to Europe in June 1867 through the following June. Mrs. Eliot died a year later. Young Charles had loved learning at his mother's knee, but he found formal education onerous. In 1876 he wrote of the school he attended between ages twelve and sixteen: \"To my dismay was sent to Kendall's School, Appian Disliked most of the boys but liked Way! Kendall. Often dissolved in tears even in schoolroom ; much to my despair.\"4 Fortunately, his education was supplemented by drawing lessons from Charles H. Moore, which he liked. He made lifelong friends at Kendall's, however, especially Roland Thaxter and John H. Storer, and his preparation there helped him pass the entrance examination for Harvard College in June 1877. Charles was a fragile boy, diffident and often given to melancholic moods, while Sam ... 5 Charles Eliot, This Landscape Architect: A Father's Life of His 770 pages in Son extraordinary volume, a length, is the record of a developing landscape philosophy, the story of a remarkable landmark in American writing landscape architecture. Originally published m 1902 and reprinted in 1999, it is a rare example of filial biography, the story of a son's life by his father. Charles's father, President Charles W. Eliot of Harvard University, did not sign the title page because he considered his role to be that of editor and organizer of his son's writings and record. Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect is really three books intertwined. The first is an intimate life story, told as a loving tribute by a devoted father. The second is a species of superb travel literature, written by young Charles from the perspective of a landscape analyst. The third is an annotated, chronological anthology of professional correspondence and public reports. President Eliot's format places these elements in the context of his understanding of his son's life and career. While his name does not appear on the title page, there is no question of President Eliot's role as helmsman on this journey of reconstruction. He not only wrote but financed the publication of this book. For the publisher's spring catalogue of 1902, the senior Eliot provided Houghton Mifflin with a statement of the contents and purposes of the volume: career, and on Charles W Eliot (1838-1926) The things are set forth, not m the above order but in the chronological sequence of Charles Eliot's experiences and labors. I only edit the volume; it is m the main written by Charles Eliot himself.' It describes (1) the short but fruitful life of a well-born and well-trained Amencan; (2) how he got his trammg as landscape architect ; (3) the enjoyment of landscape at home and in travel; (4) the physical features of enjoyable landscape; (5) the landscape art- what it can do, and what it should aim to do; (6) the means of promoting and carrymg on public landscape works; and (7) as illustrations of (6) the methods and achievements of the Metropolitan Park Commission (Boston) to which he was landscape advisor during its first five years. The elder Eliot probably began to consider the project in the days immediately following his son's death. In April of 1897 he told one friend, \"I am examining his letters and papers, and I am filled with wonder at what he accomplished in the ten years of professional life.... In the natural course of events I should have died without ever having appreciated his influence. His death has shown it to me. \"2 In 1902 no precedent existed for a monograph on an American landscape architect. Frederick Law Olmsted's biography was yet to be written, and no other member of this landscape field, had yet attracted book-length analysis. The rich archival colyoung or profession, as a American architecture lections that survive from both father and son document the multiple-year campaign by President Eliot to assemble the reports, The book's frontispiece-Charles Ehot, landscape architect, at age 33. correspondence, and diaries from which he drew this manuscript. The speed at which the book was written and published reflects its author's determination, especially given his other responsibilities as president of Harvard. The father presented a very different biography from the one his son would have written about himself. By today's standards, the book is hagiographic; Eliot emerges as the perfect model for the young profession, receiving credit for ideas and projects that were actually the work of many minds and hands. The overstatement of Eliot's achievements is particularly evident in the description of his role at the Metropolitan Park Commission. President Eliot presents his son as the sole creator, but it is clear that the journalist Sylvester Baxter played a seminal role in conceiving of the metropolitan Bos3 ton ideal. Also, President Eliot's narrative emphasizes the importance of heredity and the influential background from which his son had emerged. The Eliots belonged to what Oliver Wendell Holmes had dubbed \"the \" Brahmin caste of Boston.\" \"In their eyes,\" observed Charles senior's biographer, \"their wealth obliged them to strive for personal achievement and social usefulness. \"4 So we are treated to glimpses of many family members including President Eliot's first wife and young Charles's mother, Ellen Peabody Eliot. Thus the book is an intimate family portrait. Not all of the nearly 750 pages of text will prove interesting to a modern reader. For example, the chapter on the Metropolitan Park Commission projects of 1894 is excessively detailed, of concern only to those thoroughly familiar with the topography of the Boston area parks. But certain sections of the text are true gems of landscape literature. Anyone interested in the history of landscape architecture, regional planning, or city planning will want to read them. Despite the book's being privately produced and only moderately distributed, it has become a classic in the literature of American landscape architecture and city planning, just as President Eliot had hoped that the example of his son's brief career would be a standard and a model for the profession. Notes 1 Charles W. Eliot to pubhsher, 15 December 1901, Houghton Mifflin Collection, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. to D. C. Gilman, 23 April 1897, in Henry James, Charles W Ehot, President of Harvard University, 1869-1909 2 Charles W. Eliot quoted (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1930), 91-92. 3 Baxter ' certamly wrote about the idea of a metropolitan park system before Ehot, but the landscape architect had been thinking about issues of regional plannmg for many years and to would prove have the staying power and 4 political acumen necessary to make it possible to reahze Baxter's dream. Sylvester Baxter, Greater Boston' A Study for a Federated Metropolis (Boston, 1891),and \"Greater Boston's Metropolitan Park System,\" Boston Evening Transcript, Part 5, 29 September 1923, p. 8. Hugh Hawkms, Between Harvard and America The Educational Leadership of Charles W. Eliot (New York: Oxford Umversity Press, 1972), 3. 7 resembled his father. As President Eliot wrote: \"His father and brother had very different temperaments from his. They were sanguine, confident, content with present action, and little given to contemplation of either the past or the future; Charles was reticent, selfdistrustful, speculative, and dissatisfied with his actual work, though faithful and patient in studies which did not interest him or open to him intellectual pleasures.s Charles Eliot seems to have inherited his mother's talents and interests in art and nature. Unfortunately, her death in 1869 coincided with his father's appointment to the presidency of Harvard College: the emotional gulf widened between the busy father and his awkward, shy elder son. When his father remarried in 1877, the young man resented the intrusion of a stepmother. He recorded his reactions to a new union in his diary: \"Heard rumors of father's wooing a Miss Hopkinson and one day after Sam had gone East was told by father of his engagement.\"6 After President Eliot married Grace Mellen Hopkinson m October, Charles reported that he \"tried hard to be pleasant, but felt awkward and 'queer'.\" The distance between father and son continued to grow. Charles secretly complained that he was \"distressed by father never telling Sam & me of his plans & doings as he once did. Also much annoyed by many things at'home'.\"' Nonetheless, within a few years it was his stepmother who became an anchor m his emotional life. President Eliot hoped to improve his firstborn's sense of self and increase his physical strength by involving him in the \"strenuous life,\" camping and sailing along the coast of New England. Young Charles enjoyed these rigorous forays into nature. During the summers of his second and third years at Harvard, he organized and led a small band of classmates known as the Champlain Society in scientific exploration of Mount Desert Island in Maine. Like Theodore Roosevelt, his near-contemporary at Harvard, young Charles Eliot embraced life in the out-of-doors, but he was inspired primarily by a delight in viewing nature.8 President Eliot had consistently reinforced the benefits of physical activity and knowledge of the wilderness, emphasizmg this experience as a way of counteracting his elder son's melancholic withdrawals. Begmning m 1871, Charles, his father and brother, and the family of his uncle pursued the open-air hfe on Calf Island, near Mount Desert, Mame. With one exception, they contmued to camp and yacht there every summer through 1878. Charles made this drawmg of the camp in 1875. L 8 together devised a postgraduate course of study at Harvard's Bussey Institute, a professional apprenticeship with Frederick Law Olmsted, and a period of professional travel in the United States and abroad. \"You See I Am a Wanderer\" Charles Eliot was a landscape but atten- wanderer, tive, and a constant a connoisseur of landscape forms.9 While still young teenager, he began in 1875 to take a series of walking tours, often tied to public Map and title page of Charles Eliot's journal of his trip Carolina, Georgia, and Flonda with his aunt, 1874. The Education of a Landscape Architect Charles Eliot's preparation for a career in landscape architecture began long before his Harvard years. During the family's travels in Europe, his parents showed him the beauties of many natural and manmade landscapes. After the death of his mother, his father and other family members continued this tradition. In the summer of 1871 the Eliots spent their first summer on Mount Desert, and the following year they acquired a forty-three-and-a-half-foot sloop, The Sunshme. Maine would remain a central and important part of Charles Eliot's life thereafter. In spring 1874 Charles, then fourteen, accompanied his aunt Anna Peabody on a trip through South Carolina, Georgia, and Florida. A notebook in which he recorded his impressions of the landscape, people, and local customs provides us early evidence of his response to landscapes. At this time he was sketching frequently, exhibiting the natural talent that would later encourage him to consider a career in landscape architecture. In shaping his education, Charles had the advantage (or disadvantage) of being the son of one of the era's major educational reformers. Parent and child frequently discussed Charles Eliot's future vocation, although it was Charles's own decision to pursue a career in landscape architecture. Since no professional programs existed at the time, the two men through South transportation routes, which allowed him areas a to visit natural the greater In his diary for 1878, he provides a \"Partial List of Saturday Walks before 1878.\"Eliot would later recommend many of the sites as additions to the metropolitan park system. He also meticulously recorded a short trip that he took with his father in 1875, to a \"small manufacturing village\" (of which he drew a plan), where there was \"a very large woolen mill\" and also \"a tannery and a stream below the mill.\"' Charles's penchant for landscape description and analysis was further nurtured by keeping the log for The Sunshine. During his thirteen-month tour of England and the Continent in 1885-1886, Eliot continued to record scenery through detailed narratives and sketches. In a richly annotated collection of excerpts from his diaries and journals, Eliot assesses the design, horticulture, and topography of the sites on his self-generated itinerary and offers sharp opinions about the defining characteristics of cultural landscapes-admiring the Scandinavian countryside, expressing contempt for French landscape fashion and suspicion toward the \"nabobry\" of the aristocratic English landscape.\" Eliot often used his extensive knowledge of the New throughout Boston basin in methodical manner. England landscape as a touchstone, describing an island near Stockholm, for example, as \"roughly, wildly beautiful in a wholly New Englandish manner.\"'2 9 Two views of Antibes drawn by Charles Ehot, March 1886. From Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (1902). Of all the private estates, public parks, and natural sites that Eliot methodically visited in Europe, he was most affected by the former estate of Prince Hermann Puckler at Muskau in Silesia. In one of his last letters to Olmsted before returning in October 1887, Eliot effused about the lessons that Muskau could teach: His scape park is probably the finest work of real landgardening on a large scale that this century has seen carried out m Europe. It is a work that has made one very proud of the profession-for here was a river valley m great part very barren, fringed by monstrous woods of p. sylvestris and in no way remarkable for beauty or interest-but now one of the loveliest vales on earth-and full to the brim, so to speak, of variety or pleasant change, of quieting and often touching beauty. 13 No landscape architect before Eliot had combined so thorough a grounding in the literature of the profession with such close observation of the practice of landscape architecture. Eliot's call slips from the British Library are evidence of his voracious literary appetite and the methodical manner in which he read everything on the topic in English, French, and German from the seventeenth century on.'4 Thus Eliot returned to the United States with a umquely profound knowledge of the history of his profession. In the December 1887 issue of Garden and Forest, he included a recommended list of books on landscape architecture, based on his readings in Europe. In many ways, Muskau served as a prototype for all that Charles Eliot would do in America. Every element of the landscape-the pleasure grounds near the Schloss, the village and the alum factory, the river valley and the surrounding woodlands-was carefully \"improved\" with native plants. Puckler presented Eliot with a lasting lesson on how to capitalize on the inherent qualities of site and celebrate the ability of man to enhance nature. Eliot also actively pursued the individuals who could help him grow professionally.'S His journals recount his critical reaction to many of the leading landscape gardeners and nurserymen of Europe. One of the most hospitable of his English contacts was James Bryce, with whom Eliot stayed in both London and Oxford. Bryce was an avid mountameer, secretary of the Commons Preservation Society, and the author of the Scottish Mountains bill and other open space legislation in Parliament. Thus, he could share with young Charles Eliot his direct 10 scape preservation strategies in England and was able to share his knowledge of parallel American efforts. It could not have been a better preparation for the work that lay ahead. \"Mr. Olmsted's Profession\" Charles Eliot inherited the mantle of Frederick Law Olmsted Sr., who defined the post-Civil War profession of landscape architecture in the United States. After pursuing careers as a farmer, journalist, publisher, country's and traveler, Olmsted had established himself as the leading landscape architect with his 1858 design for Central Park in New York City. He moved his highly successful practice to Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1883. One of Olmsted's neighbors in that suburb was Charles Eliot's uncle, the architect Robert Swain Peabody. It was he who suggested Olmsted as a potential role model to the young man in search of a vocation.'6 After a period of self-designed study at Harvard's Bussey Institute, in 1883 Eliot gladly accepted the invitation to become the first official unpaid apprentice in the Olmsted office.\" Olmsted soon recognized Charles Eliot's multiple talents French trees and avenues drawn by Charles Ehot m and near 1'ams, and encouraged their develop1886 From Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (1902). ment. While Eliot was in Europe knowledge of efforts to legislate landscape pres- in 1885-1886, he wrote frequently to Olmsted ervation in Bmtain. Eliot also visited the secreabout the sites he visited and people he met, of the Lake District Defense Society, Canon tary many of them through his mentor. Olmsted Hardwicke D. Rawnsley, an activist who advoresponded, \"I have seen no such justly critical notes as yours on landscape architecture matcated protection of the Lake District, especially from the potential mtrusion of railroad lines ters from any traveler for a generation past. You and urban reservoirs. Later, he was one of the ought to make it a part of your scheme to write founders of the National Trust for Places of for the public, a little at a time if you please, but Scenic and Natural Beauty in Great Britam. methodically, systematically. It is part of your From their meeting, Eliot learned about landprofessional duty to do so.\"'8 Eliot heeded 11 1 as apprentice to Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles Ehot worked on plantmg plans for the Arnold Arboretum He also worked at the Arboretum, stakmg out shrub beds from plans he had helped to prepare. This photograph of the collection was taken m May 1931. In 1885, Olmsted's advice and became one of the most ing for Olmsted, Eliot asked his former mentor to productive and effective landscape critics of his generation. provide a reference for an advertisement announcing his new business.2o Three years later, Eliot asked Henry Codman, who had followed him as an apprentice in the Olmsted office, to join his firm as a partner, but Codman declined. Then, in July 1889, in a letter to Olmsted, Eliot proposed yet another plan: Gradually, the professional relationship achieved more equal footing. While Eliot was in Europe, Olmsted asked him to return home and join the firm. Olmsted was currently developing plans for the Stanford University campus in California and was eager to capitalize on Eliot's fresh knowledge of Mediterranean plant material and design. President Eliot's opinion of the offer was characteristically firm: \"You can make an excursion to California whenever it is your interest to do so for $300 & I shall be happy to pay for it. I see no inducement whatever in Mr. O's offer of $50 a month. You had better start for My talk with Codman has led me to m imagme a yourself in my opinion.... My impression is in favor of refusal by cable-'Decline' & by effusive letter.\"19 In the end, Eliot took his father's advice, finishing his trip as planned and setting up his own which all three of us young men [Ehot, Codman, and John Charles Olmsted] might serve as more or less mdependent captams under you as general. We could perhaps have offices m N.Y. and Phila. as well as m Boston and Brookhne and while we should manage all small jobs ourselves we should refer all weighty matters and all persons who distinctly desired your opinion to you?' possible general umon of forces ... But his idea never materialized. Codman accepted office on his return. Instead of work- position with Olmsted, and Eliot continued to pursue his mdependent practice a 12 One of Hamburg's Alster Basms, which served the Charles River m Boston as Charles Ehot's mspmation for his 1894 proposal for the improvement of until January 1893, when Codman suddenly died from appendicitis while supervising the landscape development of the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago. Once again, Olmsted, especially eager for help with the Chicago Fair, begged Eliot to become a partner, not just a junior employee; this time the younger man saw a more dynamic role for himself and agreed. In March 1893, the office of Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot was officially announced. By the time Eliot had joined the firm in 1893, Olmsted's health had begun to fail, and one of the burdens Eliot could take on for his elder partner was the writing of reports and articles. Much of the younger man's writings was cast in his mold, including one article that defended his former mentor. Realizing that Olmsted's work for the Boston Municipal Park Commission was frequently attacked for its \"unnaturalness,\" Eliot responded with an article titled \"The Gentle Art of Defeating Nature,\" in which he stated his (and Olmsted's) belief that landscape architects must alter natural conditions to meet the needs of the public.22 On one occasion, Eliot actually wrote an article that was published under Olmsted's name. The senior Eliot states that \"Parks, Parkways, and Pleasure Grounds\" in Engineering Magazine was \"a concise statement-with some new illustrations-of doctrines which Mr. Olmsted had been teaching all his life. It was prepared however by Charles ... Mr. Olmsted being unable at the time to write it himself.\"z3 Eliot had thoroughly absorbed every lesson on landscape aesthetics and professional practice that Olmsted taught. In addition to the standard Olmsted agenda, the article includes new ideas that Eliot was then pursuing and for which he uses new language-for instance, II \"reservations of scenery,\" \"Board of Trustees.\" As an ultimate indication of mentor-student closeness, Eliot was invited to draft an obituary 13 for Olmsted in 1896 (several years before Olmsted's death). He submitted the draft \"with great diffidence,\" he wrote in the accompanying letter, having \"been too near him to write it rightly.\" Eliot began the piece: \"It is seldom that the death of one man removes a whole profession, but, excepting for a few associates personally inspired by him, this is really what has happened in the case of the death of Frederick Law Olmsted. \"24 Eliot was certainly one of those \"associates personally inspired by him\" and provided a rich and elegant account of his mentor's life and work. From his apprenticeship days on, when Eliot wrote to his family and friends about Olmsted, he expressed a mixture of both respect and criticism in his letters. He happily told his close friend Roland Thaxter in October 1883 that he had \"become apprentice to the leading man in my proposed profession-namely Mr. Fred. Law Olmsted ... the man who has had a hand in almost every great Park work that has been attempted in this country. \"z5 But m six years of private practice, Eliot had formed his own distinct opinions and was highly critical of many thmgs that Olmsted did. Eliot also maintained many of his earlier, independent jobs-such as positions on the Metropolitan Park and the scape Architecture, as much They will be the opening of as Central Park. new chapters m the art.26 were All but the first of these landmark projects commissions that Eliot brought to the firm. Within the Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot office, Charles exerted a major influence, especially among the younger members of the firm. Warren Manning worked closely with Eliot on the analysis of the metropolitan reservations, learning a process of natural-condition data collection and systematic analysis that he would use frequently later in his practice.2' Arthur Shurcliff, who with Frederick Law Olmsted Jr. established the first academic program in landscape architecture at Harvard, wrote extensively about the lessons he had learned from Eliot.28 The poignant vacuum that Charles Eliot's early death left m the firm is hauntingly symbolized by the photograph that Shurcliff took of Eliot's desk on the day he died. Eliot's Landscape Philosophy and Language Eliot envisioned a new type of public landscape and used a distinctive vocabulary to articulate a new set of objectives. Whereas Olmsted wrote about green country parks, parkways, and pasto. '- Cambridge he Park commissions-atter joined the firm. Eliot was neither an extension nor pale reflection of Olmsted; he was his own man, facing important new issues in the profession of landscape architecture. Olmsted was delighted to have his former apprentice in the firm and the added income from major projects on which Charles was working. In an 1893 letter to his partners, Olmsted effused about the importance of the work currently in the office: compares in importance to with the Boston work, meaning the Metropolitan qmte equally with the city work. The two together will be the most important work m our profession now m hand anywhere m the world.... In your probable life-time, Muddy River, Blue Hills, the Fells, Waverley Oaks, Charles River, the Beaches will be points to date from in the history of American Landus Nothing else Charles Ehot's desk at the photographed by Arthur A. Shurcliffon offices of Olmsted, Olmsted the day he died. c~J Ehot as 14 Charles Elzot's \"scientific 'park system\"' for metropolitan Boston included reclaiming the rzverbanks and beaches, which were occupied by tenements and industry. In 1896, word spread that the Metropolztan Parks Commission had \"reserved\" three miles of Revere Beach for the use of the publzc With warm weather, multitudes began to visit, as seen in the photograph at the top. On one Sunday in July the number mounted to 45,000, convincmg the Commissioners that large-scale constructzons were needed to accomodate vzsztors. Charles Elzot spent the rest of that year prepanng plans. By 1900, streets and railroads had been relocated, shanties and saloons razed, and sidewalk, dnveway, and promenade buzlt. Those constructzons can scarcely be seen m the photograph at bottom, taken dunng \"the carnival\". for one week m August, local business people were permitted to use part of the beach for sports and amusements, including balloon ascenszons and dzvzng horses 15 ral retreats as places in which modern city dwellers could find spiritual replenishment through passive contemplation of nature, Eliot discussed reservations, trusteeships, and rural landscape preservation that would provide settings for active enjoyment of nature. In con- 2nd As much as possible of the shores and islands of the Bay. 3rd The courses of the larger Tidal estuaries (above their commercial usefulness) because of the value of these courses as pleasant routes to the heart of the City and to the Sea. 4th Two or three large areas of wild forest the outer rim of the inhabited area. on Olmsted's retreat into a private contemplation of nature, Eliot compared scenery trast to or landscape to other advantages of urban culture, especially books and art. While Olmsted's parks were created through design, Eliot's reservations were products of choice, preservation, and improvement. Eliot used the word \"reservation\" often in his articles and lectures. Indeed, he even thought that the Boston Metropolitan Park Commission should really be called the Metropolitan Reservations Commission.29 He realized that the term \"park\" had a specific and limited meaning for his contemporaries, so Eliot took a different word-\"scenery\"-to distinguish his ideas from common assumptions. He had three basic goals: to preserve scenery, make it accessible, and improve it.3 By Eliot's definition, scenery was land that had been \"resumed\" or reclaimed for the public benefit. Reservations, Eliot believed, should be \"held in trust,\" and those who preserved and improved scenery were therefore \"trustees\" of that heritage.3'Eliot's use of the term \"trustee\" invoked a legal process by which mdividuals were designated as the guardians of landscape, as in the Trustees of Public Reservations. It is interesting that he also referred to park users as \"trustees.\" He was convinced that \"ordinary people,\" as trustees, had the potential to appreciate and the right to expect the merits of public reservations. Eliot's highly effective and original landscape ideas were especially apparent in his work for the Metropolitan Park Commission, where he 5th Numerous small squares in the midst of dense populations. Local and private action can do as much under the 5th head but the four others call loudly for action by the whole metropolitan commumty. With your approval I shall make my study for the Commission on these lines 3z This broad scheme represented a larger landscape analysis than had ever been attempted in America. To explain these concepts and others, Eliot landscape language that had not previously been employed. His arena was the physical world at large. In a lecture to a farmer's association in New York State, he explained that he meant \"by the term 'landscape' the ~ visible surroundings of men's lives on the surinvoked a \" envisioned a new regional approach to planning. In his first letter to Charles Francis Adams, chairman of the temporary commission, Eliot outlined the landscape types he wished to incorporate into the system: As I conceive it the scientific \"park system\" for lst a district such as ours would mclude face of the earth.\" Eliot considered himself an architect and repeatedly referred to a definition of architecture borrowed from the English socialist and art critic William Morris: \"Architecture, a great subject truly, for it embraces the consideration of the whole of the external world, for it means the moulding and the altering to human needs the very face of the earth. \"33 This broad environmental consciousness is rooted in the lessons he drew from Prince Puckler, a topic about which Eliot frequently both spoke and wrote .34 Eliot's proto-environmentalist viewpoint grew naturally out of his contact with the Transcendentalist writers of New England. Ralph Waldo Emerson, for example, is frequently quoted in both Eliot's commonplace book and in the selections his father incorporated in the biography. An uneasy product of Unitarianism, Eliot had been attracted early to the Transcendentalist belief in nature as an allegory for the divinity. In essence, however, Eliot practiced an Space upon the Ocean front. applied Transcendentalism, actively securing 16 . for the general public the advantages of active engagement with nature, not just urging its passive contemplation. Onto this literary-philosophical base, Eliot grafted other ideals. He was a democrat and an environmentalist, long before the term had been coined. He wrote that reservations, parks, and parkways must \"be placed, without regard to local pressure, solely with a view to securing the greatest good of the greatest number,\" following the principles of English political philosopher John Stuart Mill. And he opposed commercial intrusion into this scenery of beauty; he argued against the exploitation of the landscape with giant advertising signs and proposed that telegraph lines be sunk below ground to remove another modern irritant from the reservations. concern transcended the needs of his contemporary generation. He wrote about hopes for improved water quality in the Charles River and celebrated the increase of \"wild birds and animals\" that had resulted from improvement in the Stony Brook Reservation.35 Recently, Ian McHarg, a leader in landscape architecture education, commented in his autobiography: \"I have been described as the inventor of ecological planning, the mcorporation of natural science within the planning process. Yet Charles Eliot, son of Harvard's president, a landscape architect at Harvard, preceded me by half a century.... He invented a new and vastly more comprehensive planning method than any preexisting, but it was not emulated. \"3~ McHarg believed that his own education as a landscape architect at Harvard had been deficient because the school had forgotten the planning vision of Charles Eliot in the 1890s. A persistent theme in Eliot's public writings and professional reports is the principle \"what would be fair must be fit.\" In an article for Garden and Forest by that title, Eliot first warned his readers about the three types of landscape designers to avoid: commercial nurserymen who would think only in terms of the plants they could sell, landscape gardeners who laid out everything in curving lines, and former students of the Ecole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, who saw garden design in lockstep geometry. Eliot's distance from these dominant trends reflected his sense that function, or \"fitness,\" should be His the guiding principle of design. He was not a proponent of either side of the great debate between the natural and the formal style of landscape design. In his review of Italian Gardens by Charles A. Platt, a leader of the formal garden revival, Eliot was enthusiastic about the lessons that the Renaissance garden could teach but warned that the conditions of climate, topography, and needs of the client must all justify this choice of landscape mode.3' In his essay \"Anglomania in Park Making,\" he similarly cautioned against the mindless popularity of the English or natural landscape style as the only correct manner for public park design. Eliot's philosophy resembles a landscape theory variation on the theme of \"form follows function\"the battle cry of the Chicago architect Louis Sullivan at that time.38 To achieve his broad aims for landscape design preservation, Eliot lobbied ceaselessly through prolific letter writing, frequent public speaking, appearances before legislative committees, and regular contributions to popular magazines and professional journals. His major written contribution to a philosophy of scenery preservation and enhancement was his report, posthumously published in 1898, Vegetation and Scenery in the Metropolitan Reservations of Boston. Although specific in its definition of the basic types of landscapes found in the Boston metropolitan reservations and the appropriate methods for their management and development, Eliot's report has generic implications as well. One important message conveyed in the is that all of the landscapes of the metroreport politan reservations are \"artificial\" in that they have been changed through human interaction with them. Eliot wanted to counter the popular assumption that the reservations were \"wild\" and therefore should not be altered in any way. \"Before and after\" drawings of specific sites emphasized the importance of improving the scenery through careful analysis of natural systems and well-conceived plans of action. Much of this analysis had already been begun with the surveys of geology, topography, and history of use in the reservations. The next step would have been the development of general plans for each of the reservations, blueprints for improv- 17 Vegetation and Scenery in the Metropolitan Reservations of Boston, one of the sets of before-and-after drawings in the manner of English landscape gardener Humphry Repton made by Arthur A Shurcliff.The first-with overleaf-was captioned \"Tree-clogged notch, near the southeastern escarpment of the Middlesex Fells, which might command the Malden-Melrose valley and the Saugus hills.\"The second-with overleaf removed-illustrates the sweepmg mew of valley and hills that will appear when the notch is unclogged From Charles Eliot's 18 . 1 his Harvard contemporary Governor William Russell, who appointed Eliot to various commissions. Eliot's network involved a core group of fellow travelers who could understand and appreciate his ideas. For example, Dr. H. P. Walcott, whom Eliot invited to chair the initial meeting in the formation of the Trustees of Public Reservations, was also the chair of the state board of health and would become the chair of the Joint Commission on the Improvement of the Charles River, for which Eliot served as secretary. And Eliot could rely on Frederick Law Olmsted Sr., Charles Sprague Sargentdirector of the Arnold Arboretum-and a host of literary and political lions to come forth in support of many of his efforts. But he did not work primarily for the benefit of an economic and political elite; he deeply appreciated the involvement of an informed public. In 1897, when Warren Manning wrote to him about the possible formation of a professional society for landscape architects, Eliot responded that it was more The \"Civic Pride Monument\" erected m memory of Charles Ehot at the St timely and important to estabLouis Exposition, 1902. lish a broad-based support group for public landscape causes. The American Park ing the scenery and providing access to these sites.39 Sadly, however, Eliot died before he and Outdoor Art Association, founded in 1897, could convince the Metropolitan Park Commiswas the result. sion to move on to this next stage. Eliot's Legacy Political and social action were two of the tools Eliot wielded brilliantly to achieve his Despite, or perhaps because of, his early death, Eliot inspired others to perpetuate his ideals. He evolving goals. He worked from the bases of had not only expanded the parameters and conpower and influence that were his birthright. cerns of the profession of landscape architecAs the son of the highly visible president of Harvard University and the descendant of ture, he had also laid the foundations for the environmental movement and for the profeswell connected and powerful families, Eliot sions of city and regional planning. A model had learned how to inform and influence his even contributing portions village erected at the St. Louis World's Fair of contemporaries, 1902 included a \"Civic Pride Monument,\" one of speeches to powerful friends, such as 19 of many such testimonials to his importance and influence. (Ironically, Eliot would have preferred to be remembered for his belief in metropolitan or regional, rather than civic or municipal, pride.)\/ Eliot's father became a vocal advocate for the son had embraced. Indeed, President Eliot showed the zeal of a convert. Not only did he write and edit Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect, he also began to write articles and speak in public about landscape preservation. From 1905 until 1926, he served on the Standing Committee, the central governing board of the Trustees of Public Reservations.4 President Eliot carried forward his son's vision of a forest issues his reservation now on Mount Desert Island, Maine, Acadia National Park.4' Perhaps Charles Eliot's finest legacy was his father's commit- establishing a professional program in landscape architecture at Harvard, which was inaugurated in 1900 under the direction of ment to Frederick Law Olmsted Jr., Eliot's former colleague, and Arthur Shurcliff, his former protege.4z President Eliot's program today maintains his son's name in the Charles Eliot Professorship in Landscape Architecture and the Charles Eliot Traveling Fellowship, which enables promising young landscape architects to benefit from travel study as its namesake had. After his retirement from Harvard University, Charles W. Eliot moved to a house on Fresh Pond Parkway, a green corridor designed by his son. The Parkway, in turn, connects the Fresh Pond Reservation, his son's design for the Cambridge Park Commission, to the Memorial Drive Reservation on the Cambridge side of the Charles River, another of the younger Eliot's early projects for the Cambridge Park Commission. Today the Eliot Bridge (dedicated in 1955 to both father and son) connects the Fresh Pond Parkway to the Soldiers Field Road Reservation on the Boston side of the Charles River. Even more directly perpetuating the ideals of Charles Eliot was the work of his nephew, Charles W. Eliot II. Born in 1900, three years after his uncle's death, but named for his grandfather, this Eliot was destined from birth to adopt his uncle's profession. \"At the time I was born,\" he reported late in life, \"my grandfather came to the house and asked if it was a boy or a When he was told it was a boy, he said: 'That's good! His name will be Charles like his uncle. He will be a landscape architect like his uncle. He will go on with his uncle's work.\"'43 Trained in landscape architecture and regional planning at Harvard, this Charles became the first field secretary of the Trustees of Public Reservations in 1925. In May of that year, the Trustees sponsored a conference, \"The Needs and Uses of Open Spaces in Massachusetts,\"in which he took a leading role. One result of the conference was a renewed effort to coordinate the activities of private and public conservation organizations in the state. Equally significant was the proposed \"Bay Circuit,\" a new and larger greenbelt for the Greater Boston Basin. The idea for the Bay Circuit may not have been Eliot's alone, but he became its strongest long-term supporter. Like his uncle, Eliot soon saw an opportunity to advance the cause of landscape architecture and regional planning by moving into the public sector. He became the director of the National Capitol Park and Planning Commission under the Roosevelt administration, a position he maintained until 1955. Eliot then returned to Harvard to become the Charles Eliot Professor of Landscape Architecture. He retired in 1968 but remained an active supporter of land conservation and became the conscience of both The Trustees of Reservations and the Metropolitan District Commission until his death in 1992.44 The early growth of the Trustees was modest, in part, because Eliot turned his attention so quickly to the Metropolitan Park Commission. By 1897, the year of Charles Eliot's death, only two properties, Rocky Narrows on the Charles River in Canton and Mount Anne Park in Gloucester, had been given to the Trustees. Together they totaled fewer than one hundred acres. Today, the Trustees are stewards of more than twenty thousand acres, \"the best of the Massachusetts landscape in all its diversity.\"4s The orgamzation has been the inspiration for land trusts both in the United States and abroad, and Eliot's early writings also inspired the formation of other organizations.46 Most notably, the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty in Great Britam was modeled on the Trustees, as was, ultimately, the girl. 20 National Trust for Historic Preservation in the United States. Soon after his success in forming the Trustees, Eliot turned his attention to the creation of a public authority, the Metropolitan Park Commission. Celebrating its centennial in 1993, the commission now \"embraces almost twenty thousand acres of parklands ranging from dense woodlands and wetlands to intensely developed and managed urban parks.\"' One of the most important potential benefits of the centennial celebration was the appointment of the Green Ribbon Commission to suggest improvements to the organization. At the top of its list of priorities was the issue that Charles Eliot had fought hard but unsuccessfully to impress on the early commissioners-the need for careful and persistent maintenance, or what is today called stewardship.4$ The responsibility now rests with the commission's current admimstration-and with all of us who are \"trustees\" of the Eliot legacy-to ensure that these resources receive the care and the use they merit. Despite the enormous challenges posed by increasing traffic and neglected maintenance, the metropolitan park system that Eliot envisioned remains his greatest achievement. In a chapter titled \"Growth Invincible\" in his 1906 book, The Future in America, H. G. Wells contrasted his recent visits to New York and to z Ellen Peabody Eliot to her mother, Marberg, 17 November 1864, Charles W. Ehot Papers, Pusey 3 Library, Harvard University (hereafter cited as CWE Papers). I. Charles W. Ehot to his mother, Marberg, 5 January 1865, CWE Papers. 4 Commonplace Book, October 1876. Charles Eliot Collection, Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. Hereafter cited as CEC. Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1902), 16. Hereafter cited as CELA. s 6 7 Commonplace Book, July 1877. CEC Ibid., 30 October 1877 and December Simon and 1878. 8For a picture of Harvard in the later 1870s, see David McCullough, Mornings on Horseback (New York: Schuster, 1981esp. chapter 9. 9 The quotation is from a letter Charles Ehot wrote to his wife, Sunday, 20 July 1895, CELA, 515. 1o Diary of 1875, 14 May 1875, Pnnceton, Mass. Charles Eliot Papers, Goriansky Collection, Boston. Hereafter cited ~ as GC. For his comments on \"nabobry,\" see CELA, 176-177; his assessments of landscapes are chiefly found m chapters 9 and 10. 12 Charles Eliot to Frederick Law Olmsted, Sunday, 10 October [1887], GC. 13 Ibid. was greatly assisted m this process by the letters of introduction he brought from his father, Frederick Law Olmsted, Charles Sprague Sargent, and Asa 14 CEC. 15 He Boston: If possible it is more impressive, even, than the crowded largeness of New York, to trace the serene preparation Boston has made through this [Metropolitan Park] Commission to be widely and easily vast. New York's humamty has the curious air of being carried along upon a wave of irresistible prosperity, but Boston confesses design. I suppose no city in all the world ... has ever produced so complete and ample a forecast of its own future as this commission's plan for Boston.49 16 17 Gray, among others. CELA, 32. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, \"Education and Landscape Architecture,\" in Architectural Education and Boston Centenmal Publication of the Boston Architectural Center, 1889-1989, ed. Margaret Henderson Floyd (Boston: Boston Architectural 18 Center, 1989\/, CELA, 207. Charles Eliot 25. 19 20 Charles W. Eliot to to Charles Eliot, 11 June 1886, GC. Frederick Law Olmsted, 10 October Today, Charles Eliot's ideas \"confess design\" as clearly as they did a century ago, just as they attempted to forecast a future not only for Boston but for the whole of American landscape architecture. Notes 1887, GC. zi Charles Ehot to Fredenck Law Olmsted, 20 July 1889, Eliot Correspondence File, 141-142, CEC. 22 23 CELA, 554-556, 543-545. Ibid., 441. z4 Charles Eliot to Mr. Garrison, 2 November 1896, Manuscript Letters, vol. 2, nos 164 & 165, CEC. Henry James, 1930\/, Charles W. Eliot, President of Harvard 25 Umversity, 1869-1909 ~~Bostom Houghton Mifflin, 87-158. Iromcally, Eliot died before this used for Olmsted. Charles Eliot to obituary could be Roland Thaxter, 13 May 1883, GC. 21 26 Frederick Law Olmsted to his partners, Biltmore, N.C., 28 October 1893, Frederick Law Olmsted Collection, Manuscript Dmrsion, Library of 46 a~ Abbott, 310, 319. Enhancing the Future of the Metropolitan Park Congress, Washington, z~ D C. System. Fmal Report and Recommendations of the Green Ribbon Commission (Boston: Metropohtan District Commission, 1996), 9 Nme thousand of these acres were acquired m the commission's first ten years. The Metropolitan Park Commission merged with the Metropolitan Water and Sewer Commission to become the Metropolitan District Commission in 1919. a8 Warren H Manning, see Robin Karson, The Muses of Gwmn Art and Nature in a Garden Designed by Warren H Manning, Charles A Platt, and Ellen Biddle Shipman (Sagaponack, N.Y.: For mformation on 2$ Sagapress\/Library of American Landscape History, 1995), esp. chapter 3; and Lance Neckar, \"Developmg Landscape Architecture for the Twentieth Century: The Career of Warren H. Mannmg,\" Landscape Journal 8 (Fall 1989\/: 78-91. \"What Mr. Eliot Said,\" Arthur Shurcliff Notebooks, Houghton Library, Harvard University. CELA, 600. 29 30 31 Ibid., 492. Ibid., 517, Ibid., 367, 47-49. The Green Ribbon Commission focused three general areas for improvement: building effective stewardship, linking the parks and the pubhc, and managmg, planmng, and supportmg the public trust. The concerns Eliot expressed m his letters to the commission about general plans are identical. See CELA, chapter 34. Ibid., on 49 230. 662. 3z 33 34 CELA, 381. Eliot contributed \"Muskau-A German Country Park,\" the fullest statement of his understanding of and admiration for this site (which he had visited on 22-23 September 1886), to the 28 January 1891 issue of Garden and Forest. Wells, The Future in America (New York: & Row, 1906), 49. Sylvester Baxter, Eliot's colleague, was the guide for Wells's tour of the Boston Metropohtan Parks H. G. Harper Acknowledgments For a research and writing grant that I am preparation of this introduction, supported the deeply grateful to 3s 36 37 38 CELA, 596-597, 303, 377, 562, 680. Ian L. McHarg, A Quest for L1fe' An Autobiography (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1996), 82. CELA, 547-549. Eliot philosophies Sullivan were developing parallel at the same moment. Eliot pubhshed \"What Would Be Fair Must First Be Fit\" in Garden and Forest on 1 April 1896. Sullivan published the clearest expression of his ideas m \"The Tall and the Graham Foundation for Advanced Studies m the Fme Arts Robm Karson, executive director of the Library of American Landscape History, and Karl Haglund, semor planner for the Metropolitan District Commission, read, criticized, and improved the manuscript I am mdebted to Mary Damels, curator of Special Collections, Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, and the staff of Pusey Library, both at Harvard University, for their assistance. My deepest debt is to Alexander Y. Goriansky, grandson of Charles Ehot, family manuscripts in his possession for access to the Building Artistically Considered,\" Lippmcott's (March 1896), 403-409. 39 40 57 CELA, 650. Gordon Abbott Jr., Saving Special Places. A Centennial History of the Trustees of Reservations, Pioneer of the Land Trust Movement (Ipswich, Mass.. .. 41 Ipswich Press, 1993), 271. Nan Lmcoln, \"The Champlam Society,\" Bar Harbor Times, 1 August 1996, B5. Eliot first described his vision m an article for Garden and Forest in 1889 The dream was realized in 1916 with the estabhshment of Mount Desert National Park. esp. 30-31. \"From Olmsted's Emerald Necklace to Eliot's Metropolitan Parks,\" lecture by Charles W Eliot II, 27 February 1983, transcript, 1, copy in possession of author. 42 43 Zaltzevsky, 20-34, Keith N. Morgan is professor and chairman of art history at Boston University. A former national president of the Society of Architectural Historians, he has written on a range of topics m nineteenth and twentieth century American architectural and landscape history. In addition to his work on Charles Eliot, he is the author of Charles A Platt, The Artist as Architect and Shapmg an American Landscape, The Art and Architecture of Charles A Platt. With Naomi Miller, he wrote Boston Architecture,1975-1990 He is currently one of the principal authors of Buildings of Metropolitan Boston, one of two Massachusetts volumes being prepared for the Buildings of the Umted States series, published by Oxford University Press for the Society of Architectural Historians. 44 as The papers of Charles W. Eliot II are held in the Special Collections of the Frances Loeb Library, Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. Frederic Wmthrop Jr., Introduction, The Trustees of Reservations Property Gmde (199G~, 9. The new edition of Charles Ehot, Landscape Architect is being pubhshed by the University of Massachusetts Press in association with the Library of American Landscape History. To purchase copies, phone 413.545.2219, fax 800.488.1144, or e-mail order@umpress.umass.edu. 22 Approach to an estate of six-and-a-half acres m Irvmgton-on-Hudson, New York, designed by Charles Eliot, 1889-1890. To conceal the boundaries of the estate, plant out undesirable objects, and visually connect the plantmgs with those of neighboring estates, Slxtytwo kmds of trees and shrubs were planted in spnng 1890. Eliot sent another list of 725 plants (52 kinds) that fall, and yet another hst of 520 the followmg spring. The photograph shows the approach as seen from ~ the highway; the sketch looks down to the high- ~ way from the property. From Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (1902). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arboriculture in Its Relations to Landscape: \"All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit\" (1892)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":23,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25238","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eb76f.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Eliot, Charles","article_content":"Arboriculture in Its Relations to Landscape: \"All That Would Be Fair Must Be Fit\" Charles Eliot Charles Eliot had been told repeatedly by his father and Frederick Law Olmsted that he possessed a gift for expression that should be used, and so he made writing for the press a part of his profession. At a meeting of the New York Farmers, 19 January 1892,the evening's subject was arboriculture for the farm,the village, and the highway. The paper that Eliot read on that occasion encapsulates several of his chief principles for landscape design as applied to the use of trees. R. -L V and a long subject. I suppose it is the whole science and art of growing trees for timber, for firewood, for shelter, for the prevention of destructive erosion, and last but not least, for the beauty of trees individually and in masses. I must, of course, choose some one section of this wide field; and so I shall, by your leave, give my time to a brief discussion of arboriculture in its relations with landscape-meaning by the term \"landscape\" the visible surroundings of men's lives on the surface of the earth. It sometimes seems as if beauty in the surroundings of life were not appreciated, or even desired, here in our America. The man who goes so far as to paint his house and to \"fix up\" his place is reviled as a \"dude\" in many parts of our country. A certain brave scorn of beauty seems to characterize most of the people of our new we see, when we come to the matter, that if the experience of the study past counts for anything, there is a power in beauty which works for joy and for good as nothing else in this naughty world does or can. And when we come to see this clearly, we are at once compelled to abandon our indifference and to substitute therefor the eager desire of old Plato, \"that our youth might dwell in a land of health amid fair sights and sounds.\" Alas, that \"fair sights\" do not spring up spontaneously around MEN,- PRESIDENT AND a GENTLE- our Arboriculture is long word modern lives as they seem to have done in the Old World. In the long settled corners of Europe, men's fields, lanes, roads, houses, even whole villages and towns, combine with nature to produce scenery of a more lovable type than nature working alone can offer us. With us the contrary is too often the fact. Our buildings, fences, highways, and railroads, not to speak of our towns, are often scars which mar the face of nature without possessing any compensating beauty of their own. It is evident that beauty in the surroundings of life is not to be had in this modern day without taking thought, and exercising vigilance. And our thought and our vigilance must be rightly directed, or it will defeat our purpose. Many a man, becoming suddenly conscious of a desire for beauty, has attempted to attain his heart's wish by forbidden and impossible ways. Thus country roadsides have been \"slicked up\" until all beauty has been \"slicked\" out of them. Noble growths of native trees have fallen victims to the desire for the beauty of exotics. Village mansions of the dignified old style have given place to the frivolities which are named for Queen Anne. Trim formal flower gardens have been rooted up to make way for the modern gardener's curves and scattered beds. Men seem slow to learn the truth of the old saying, \"All's fair that's fit,\" or that corollary thereof which best expresses the truth of my subject, \" \"All that would be fair must be fit.\" seem churches, and to West. On the other hand 24 This is the principle which ought to govern us our tree-planting as well as in all else which affects the scenery of our lives. Fields, lanes, and roads should be laid out so as to fulfil the requirements of convenience, while conforming to the facts of topography. Buildings should be designed so as to fulfil and express their several purposes. Ground about buildings should be similarly and straightforwardly adapted to the uses and enjoyments of real life, with no regard to any fanciful or a priori notions of what such ground should look like or contain. So when we come to the most effective means of modifying the scenery about us, the felling, preserving, or planting of trees, our principle will constrain us to cut, and save, and plant for good reasons only, and not from consideration for mere passing fashion or foolish love of display. Let me illustrate this fundamental principle by briefly noting the main points in regard to the way in which trees and shrubs have been used in a typical New England valley where the eyes of the inhabitants have been opened. I shall describe nothing imaginary, although I may put together things which are to be seen in two or three separate places. Of course we arrive at our valley by the railroad ; and the railroad banks themselves herald the approach to our station, for behold, they are actually planted! Not with Forsythias and Japan Quinces,-how absurd such plants would look upon these gravel banks,-but with shrubby in Cinquefoil, Dyer's Greenweed, Bayberry, Sweet Fern, and other humble, but tough and hardy plants. When we reach the station, we find not only a decent unpretentious building with substantial platforms, and neat driveways and gravel spaces, but also a fair spread of grass with three or four great Sugar Maples for shade-a contrast, indeed, to the usual North American station-yard, which commonly resembles a cattle-pen more than anything else; a contrast also to that other type of station ground in which the station master sets out Geraniums supplied by the company, although the fundamental separation of grass-land from gravel space has not yet been made. From the railroad platform we at once command a view of our valley. The village, with a mill or two, lies below us at the mouth of a gap in the northern hills. Southward the valley widens to contain a fresh green intervale. Opposite us the west wall of the valley is an irregular steep slope of rising woods with numerous hill farms scattered along the more level heights above. The eastern wall upon which we stand consists below the railroad of a long and dense wood, and, above the tracks, of rolling and airy uplands which have been occupied by city men for country houses. The central intervale, the flanking woods, the village gathered at the valley's head, the whole scene before us possesses unity and beauty to a degree which interests us at once. And how was this delightful general effect produced? Simply by intelligent obedience to the requirements of human life in this valley. The village was placed where it is for the sake of using the great water power which rushes from the gap in the hills. The intervale was cleared and smoothed for raising perfect hay. The steep side-hills have been maintained in woods because they are too steep for agriculture, and because if they were cleared of trees, their sands and gravels would be washed down upon the fertile land of the intervale. It is in such ways as these that the every-day forces of convenience, use, and economy conspire to produce beauty, and beauty of a higher and more satisfying type than that which founds itself upon caprice, or pomp, or fashion. The truth of all this is well illustrated by the details as well as by the total effect of the valley before us. If we descend towards the village, we find the footpath leaving the highway, and following a swift brook down through the wood, while the road, in order to find an easier grade, makes a long zigzag through the woods to the south. Trees and bushes crowd the sides of the road thus freed from the stiff accompanying sidewalk, while the footpath gains exemption from the dust of the road, and has all the beauty of the brookside in addition. We learn incidentally that all this wooded slope is the property of the township, that it is called the Town Wood, and that it was the gift of some of the men who live above the railroad. At the foot of the slope, footpath and highway join again, and proceed across the level valley as 25 straight village street, adorned with rows of trees, and broad grass strips, and sidewalks which conform themselves to the slight ups and downs of the ground. Here is just as much stiffness and straightness as is necessary and fitting, and not a bit more. Here is no mimicking of the curbings, and the strict grades which are necessities only in city streets. Here, also, the street trees are neither Gingkoes, nor Koelreuterias, nor Magnolias, but American Elms. In the heart of the village we find a town square planted with Elms in symmetrical rows. Fronting on the square is the town hall,a respectable building,-and back of it rises a steep rocky slope with a high rock at the top, where a bonfire burns every 4th of July. The rocky bank has recently been planted with Pines and Hemlocks, which in a few years will make a dense, dark background for the town hall. Then straight away south from the hall and the square runs the broad main street of the town, an avenue of Rock Maples, young as yet, but promising a noble vista in twenty years or less; for the southern end of the long avenue opens upon the sunny meadows of the intervale; so that a man standing in the public square will look under the boughs of the trees away to the south for miles. Until lately there was a barn standing in the line of this vista and hiding the open intervale. The removal of the barn by a public-spirited man has established the permanence of the outlook, because the lands beyond are so moist that they can never be built upon. I should like to speak of the generally sensible and simple planting of the house grounds, of the good specimen trees in the yard of the principal school, of the fine gorge above the gap in the hills, where the mill company has preserved the woods for the protection they afford to the canal and its retaining-banks, of the way in which the intelligent preservation of trees along even the tiniest brooks of the neighboring hill farms has resulted in unusual beauty of farm scenery, as well as in the prevention of that extravagant washing away of soil which results from carrying ploughing to the edges of watercourses. All through this district it is most interesting to note how beauty has resulted from the exercise of common sense and intelligence. a When we turn the other way, and climb the hill above the railroad station, we find a charming winding road, the sides of which are irregularly overgrown with trees, shrubs, climbers, and herbaceous plants. The footpath is there; but it dodges in and out, and goes here below a knoll and there on top, and does not stick to the roadside like a city sidewalk by any manner of means. Every now and then we pass the entrance of some city man's country estate,there must be a dozen or twenty such estates in this fine hillside,-and in the course of a summer afternoon we make the round of them. Presumably all these gentlemen have distinctly intended to preserve or create beauty in the surroundings of their country homes. It is very interesting to see the several methods they have followed, and the various results obtained. Some of these estates seem very beautiful to us, while others are far less interesting. After allowing for all differences of natural opportunity, can any general reason for this contrast in results be found? It is obvious at once that the most beautiful of these places are not those upon which the most money has been spent, not those in which natural conditions have been most completely revolutionized, not those which display the greatest number of kinds of trees, shrubs, and herbs, not those in which the gardener has scattered flower beds in all directions. After studying these places it is plain that the most beautiful are those in which the general arrangement, and the saving and planting of trees, have been made to depend upon those same considerations of convenience, easiness, and fitness which we found produced the beauty of the valley. Arboriculture, when it is practised to produce timber, to prevent erosion, or to form collections of all growable species, is an interesting and noble occupation for mind and for capital; but when it is practised to enhance the beauty of the scenery of every-day life, it must consent to be guided by that keen feeling for fitness which is the essence of what is called good taste. Reprinted edited and 367-372. from Charles Eliot: Landscape Architect, compiled by Charles W. Eliot, 1902, pages "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Austral Weeks: Botanizing in the Southern Hemisphere","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25240","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ebb6d.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Austral Weeks: Botanizing in the Southern Hemisphere Rob Nicholson Among the amazing plants of Chile's temperate rainforests, two conifers stand out, both unique to their region and both of great beauty-the alerce and the monkey puzzle tree. excursion for my a visit to Yale Museum of NatuUniversity's Peabody ral History, where we would stand transfixed in JLbrother .~- favorite childhood and me brates involved arranged chronologically over a 300million-year period. It was a viscerally potent image, one that still triggers memories instantly see a whenever I I picture of the mural. front of the magnificent skeleton of a full-sized apatosaurus in the massive Hall of Dinosaurs. Equally favorite was Rudolph Zallinger's stunning 110-foot mural depicting groups of verte- Araucana araucana, the monkey puzzle tree of Chile, a volcamc lava flows. the Peabody, this time with my own children in tow. They too were enamored of the apatosaurus skeleton and ran eagerly around the exhibits prattling about sharptooths and bumpyheads. As I stood before Zallinger's mural, I realized how thoroughly my own mterests had changed in the thirty years since I had last seen it. Only now did I notice that in the interest of historical accuracy, the artist had included in his painting the flora that was associated geologically with the dinosaurs; under ginkgo boughs, tyrannosaurus scouted for victims, while triceratops and ankylosaurus warily grazed in arbors bordered by magnolia and palmetto palm. It was a vivid reminder that these plants, the forebearers of today's flora, existed over one hundred million years before their modern descendants. One tree that I seized on, a member of the taxonomic order Coniferales, was the progenitor of the conifer genus known scientifically as Araucaria and by such common names as the bunyabunya or the monkey puzzle tree. Once again the mural triggered memories. I had recently returned from a seedcollecting expedition to southern Chile with Michael Burggren of the Jatun relict amid Satcha Biological Preserve of Ecuador, a field station sponsored by the Missouri recently returned to 27 Botanic Garden. We had seen this pecuthe flanks of two of Chile's numerous volcanoes. We were collecting seeds for a consortium of North American and European botanical gardens and arboreta that hoped to increase their representation of Chilean species as a possible safeguard against eventual extinction. Of the fifty species of trees found in forests of southern Chile, fortyseven are found in no other country, and thirty-eight are listed as rare or endangered because of excessive exploitation. Chile's flora, rich in endemic species, even boasts endemic families, such as the primitive Gomortegaceae and the parasitic Misodendraceae. Other taxa show odd distribution patterns that are vivid illustrations of how a plant's range and the continents' positions can change over the eons. Eucryphia is a sumptuous flowering tree genus found only in Chile and Australia, having migrated across a former Antarctic land bridge. A relative of beech, Nothofagus, shows a similar distribution pattern while Empetrum, a heather-like shrub, is found throughout the coldest regions of the Northern Hemisphere but also in a few locales in Chile. This genus migrated from north to south along the mountain peaks, dispersed by migratory birds. In the course of our expedition, we traversed unique forests ranging from The thick and reddish-brown trunk of alerce, Fitzroya cupressoides, supersaturated temperate rainforests to is remarkably similar to that of giant sequoia, Sequoiadendron mediterranean assemblages of droughtgiganteum, although they belong to different comfer famihes. tolerant trees and shrubs. Given that Chile extends along more than 3,000 miles of Australia, Japan, Norway, Chile, and even Iran-also have rainforests. These temperate with altitudes ranging from sea level to latitude, rainforests are rare jewels, covering only twoit's easy to understand why its bor22,834 feet, tenths of a percent of the earth's land surface. ders encompass a wide array of ecosystems. We The term \"rainforest\" is only a century old, were targeting two trees in particular, both of them conifers, both unique to the temperate having been coined by the German botanist Otto Schimper in 1898 to describe a forest that rainforests of Chile, and both of outstanding grows in perennially wet conditions. According beauty: the alerce and the monkey puzzle tree. liar relict on to Temperate Rainforests While the soggy forests of our own Pacific Northwest are familiar to many, few people realize that other nontropical countries- today's common a definition, a tropical rainforest has ceives eighty closed overhead canopy and reor more mches of rain annually, with precipitation fairly evenly spaced throughout the year. Various subcategories are defined 28 cipitation may actually begin as on as fog, which then condenses leaves and boughs and falls droplets. Temperatures regularly fall below freezing, and snowfalls can be substantial. On the Trail of Alerce Seeds Chile's temperate rainforest generally lies to the south and east of Puerto Montt, a pleasant seaport and major shipping center for wood products bound for overseas markets. On its docks is found the notorious six-story pile of woodchips, a potent symbol of Chile's desire for export revenues. An hour east from Puerto Montt lies Alerce Andino National Park, a preserve for the conifer known to Chileans as alerce and to the botanical world as Fitzroya cupressoides. The common name was given to the tree by Spanish colonizers-alerce is the Spanish name for larch-and was itself the result of Moorish colonization in Spain, having been derived from the Arabic for cedar, al-arzah. Alerce is a tree that under the right conditions can attain massive proportions, as much as 150 feet in height and 25 feet in girth. Age estimates of some trees have Alerce, Fitzroya cupressoides, m Alerce Andmo National Park towers over gone as high as 4,500 years. the surrounding flora. canopy height, leaf size and shape, mossiness. Most tropical rainforests by altitude, and are even quite warm, of course, but the category also includes such high-altitude areas as the Mossy Forest of the Philippines and the cloud forests of Central America, where temperatures can fall below freezing. By definition, temperate rainforests also receive at least eighty inches of rainfall a year, but being farther from the equator they have a wider seasonal fluctuation in daylength and usually greater variations in temperature. Since most of them are near oceans or seas, the pre- The exploitation of alerce began almost immediately after the arrival in 1540 of the Spaniards, who quickly recognized that its timber was well suited for shipbuilding and construction. By the early 1600s forests were being logged and within three centuries had been drastically reduced in extent. In 1834 the trees fell under the scrutiny of a qualified observer-the young Charles Darwin-when an exploration party was sent ashore from the H.M.S. Beagle, captained by Robert Fitzroy (for whom the tree was named). One can almost sense the damp fatigue in his bones as he writes, \"I should think there are few parts of the world, within the temperate region 29 where so much rain falls ... the soon uniformity of the forest becomes very wearisome ... yet with the true spirit of contradiction, I cannot forget how sublime is the silence of the forest.\" He made note of the ongoing logging of Fitzroya: \"We continued to ride through the uncleared forest, only occasionally meeting an Indian on horseback, or a troop of fine mules bringing Alerce planks and corn from the southern plain.\" The coastal stands of alerce have by now been decimated, and the species' range is restricted to interior regions. North of Puerto Montt, entire square kilometers of huge alerce stumps left from trees that were cut decades ago give a melancholy demonstration of the species' ability to resist rot but not iron. The sound of water is a constant in southern Chile, be it from rain, river, or the swamps in your shoes. Alerce Andmo is in the floristic zone known as the Valdivian Rainforest-a supersaturated ecosystem with a soggy, mossy floor that receives 150 inches of rain a year. A walk in the southern forest requires a new frame of reference. Unlike Japan, Denmark, or California, where one can recognize a pine for a pine, a maple for a maple, or a beech for a beech, The waterlogged author gives scale to the centumes-old alerce trunk. Chile has very tew plants that are recognizable as members of genera also found in the Northern Hemisphere. But our sense of confusion was Mitraria with its accompanied by the enchantment of discovery, of seeing species we had not known existed on the planet. By the side of a brook we stumbled onto Hooker's crinodendron, Crinodendron hookerianum, a small tree hung with sculpted, rose-pink, one-and-a-half-inch, bell-shaped flowers. These surreal blossoms would look more at home on a doily in the shopwindow of a Parisian confectioner. Two climbing shrubs had latched onto the moss-covered tree trunks, glossy green leaves and flowers and Philesia, an unusual goldfish-like woody plant of the lily family that boasts striking pink, waxy bellflowers. The first conifer we saw was Saxegothaea conspicua, a rare endemic named in 1851 for Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, consort of Queen Victoria. Since this species has possible affinities to yew, the source of the anti-cancer agent taxol, we secured a sample for the National Cancer Institute's screening program. (I regret to inform royalists everywhere that it failed the test.) Walking through an unyielding 30 The volcamc slopes of Conguillio National Park monkey puzzle trees. contain a mix of deciduous southern beech and evergreen drizzle we also saw trees we had identified in other locales but that reached far larger sizes here. Eucryphia on the coastal isle of Chiloe was a 40-foot tree; under the rains of Alerce Andino it grew to 120 feet. The verdant forest was wet to the point of discouraging everything but flora: I do not recall seeing a single insect or bird during the day of our visit. After a number of miles we rounded a bend and saw our first stand of alerce. The stout 150foot giants were immediately distinguishable from the surrounding flora. Although they belong to an entirely different family of conifers, they bore an amazing resemblance to the giant sequoia of California's Sierra Nevada Mountains. They possess a stout trunk and extremely high first branches with cloudlike billows of foliage. Like sequoia, the bark of alerce is reddish-brown and also very thick-possibly a protective adaptation against fire and insects, although both seemed unlikely foes in the constant rain. After a fruitless search for cones on the ground, we realized that they were still in the trees' branches, one hundred feet over our heads, and concluded we would not be collecting cones. Reports of the number of rings on felled trunks of alerce range from two to four thousand, causing us to wonder whether the wheel had reached South America when this tree began its upward journey. In 1993 Antonio Lara and Ricardo Villalba a published profile of climatic shifts over a 3,622-year period using tree-ring data from alerce trees and stumps-the longest annually resolved climatic reconstruction ever made from tree rings. The oldest stump they sampled was found to be 3,613 years old when it was cut down in 1975. Alerce today is at the center of a tug-of-war between environmentalists, who believe that remaining stands should be saved, and their opponents, who maintain that Chile's need for foreign currency justifies continued exploitation of forest remnants. Unfortunately, the capacity of alerce to reproduce itself is still unknown. Pollen studies indicate that the species was more common in the region 4,500 to 6,000 years ago, when the climate was colder and moister; its original range appears to have shrunk even before Spanish colonization accelerated the process. In his research on the regeneration patterns of many forest species of 31 - ~~ - The pomted leaves of Araucana present rewards to foraging ammals. a challenge to chmbmg pmmates, but the large seeds provide ample uted the plants worldwide. One recipient was Chris Page of Edinburgh Botanic Garden's Comfer Conservation Programme, whose mandate is to plant groves of rare conifers of known provenance at \"safe sites\" in the United Kingdom. With luck these plants will be setting seed within a generation for future botany south-central Chile, Dr. Thomas Veblen of the University of Colorado found only one seedling of alerce in recent clearcut stands. Has the plant lost the ability to reproduce? Does it produce sound seed only occasionally? Or does the full sun of a clearcut scorch and kill the young seedlings? Possibly the tree's germination biology is still attuned to a former climatic regime, requiring a longer cold period for germination. Clearly Veblen's work highlights the need for further research on alerce in the wild. But in order to decipher the species' seed biology, researchers may have to use seed from a botanic garden-possibly bred from a cluster of different genotypes-since getting seed from the wild is so difficult. On the way out of the park we did find a smaller tree and were able to take a number of cuttings. After experimenting with different hormones back in the United States, we successfully propagated these cuttings and distrib- experiments. On the Trail of Araucaria Many miles to the north of Alerce Andino Park lies the fragmented range of the monkey puzzle tree, Araucaria araucana. Also a coniferous genus, Araucaria grows only in the Southern Hemisphere-Australia, the Pacific Islands, Brazil, Chile, and a small section of Argentina-and is best known for A. heterophylla, the Norfolk Island pme of the indoor landscaping trade. Everyone who sees the Chilean monkey puzzle tree is immediately struck by its bizarre otherworldliness. As a young tree it looks like a 32 The pillar-hke trunks of the monkey puzzle tree might have served as scratching posts for dmosaurs sheddmg their skm. candelabrum made of concertina wire. With age assumes a parasol-like habit, its branches cloaked with emerald-green, triangular, sharptipped leaves and its trunk an untapered column of interlocking, fissured plates of bark. It is as if the tree evolved to mimic the stegosaurs and ankylosaurs that may once have foraged beneath its boughs. I first saw the tree long ago in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park and was recently surprised to see a 35-foot specimen growing on New York's Long Island-as far as I know, the coldest area in which it has been it lages find their way to the supermarkets of the major cities. Araucaria has evolved a number of features that may have helped it survive through the ages. Its inch-and-a-half seeds are among the largest of all conifers, providing seed-caching animals with a strong incentive to collect and distribute them. Presently the seeds serve as food for two parrots that inhabit the araucaria forest, but its dispersal agents in the distant past may have been reptiles or early mammals. In addition to size, the seeds have a functional wing; the fossil record is too scanty to be certain, but araucaria may have been among the first seeding genera to evolve a winged seed. Lastly, the trunk of the araucaria enjoys an ability unusual in conifers, that of coppicing, or sprouting another trunk, near its base. This feature may have helped the species persist in a region where volcanism and lava flows still constitute a major disturbance regime. Araucaria can be found in pure old-growth stands, but it also associates with various species of Nothofagus, the Southern beech, and successfully grown. The species' common name is misleading, since there are no monkeys living within its range. It owes its origin to that fountainhead of whimsy, the English garden party. It seems that at a planting ceremony in Cornwall in 1834, a guest remarked that the tree's dangerously armed branches \"would be a puzzle for a monkey to climb.\" The name was coined, and it stuck. In Chile, the tree is known as pehuen to indigenous peoples, who roast and eat its large seeds. In season, seeds collected in remote vil- 33 Expedition member Michael Burggren restmg m a grove of monkey puzzle trees. with a variety of understory shrubs. On the still puffing Villarica volcano we visited a stand of fifty trees mixed with dense and intertwining beech. A lava flow had annihilated a section of the forest, but along its edges, on the skim of new soil, we found a few araucaria seedlings already colonizing, along with Pernettya pumila, a low shrub of the rhododendron family. Another colonizer on these lava flows was a plant I had put high on our list of target species, Empetrum rubrum. This low-growing, spreading shrub is a relative of black crowberry, Empetrum nigrum, a plant familiar to mountain climbers throughout the Northern Hemisphere. In our half of the globe E. nigrum is known as a colonizer that establishes itself on ground newly freed by retreating glaciers. Clearly it is a genus that has no fear of fire or ice. E. rubrum has proved hardy in Boston and is now residing in front of the cold storage building at the Dana climbing up to retrieve the six-inch cones. Luckily, however, I was able to climb a beech to within reach of a cone, which I shattered with a few pokes of a pole. Since the huge cones can hold up to 300 seeds, the result was a shower of inch-and-a-half seeds that fell to the forest floor and came to rest on the orange fall foliage of the beech leaves. At the next site we visited, the stunningly beautiful Conguillio National Park, the araucaria trees had already shed their seed, and we quickly collected more than we could carry. Here we found the species growing in pure stands: darkly shaded forests of hundred-foot giants, their four-foot-thick, blackish-gray trunks rising like pillars to the whorls of branches above. The forest seemed far removed from us m time, primeval in appearance, with no familiar flora to orient ourselves by. If a few dinosaurs had ambled by, we would have seemed more the intruders than they. At this time, April, it was autumn, and snow had already fallen. The snow grew deeper as we drove across the park and into higher altitudes, Greenhouses. We had worried that the monkey puzzle tree would also prove to be a botanist's puzzle tree, with its barbed branches preventing us from 34 but as self-respecting New Englanders we refused to admit that it was too deep to negotiate. After careening upward for a few miles, we finally stopped at the crest of a steep hill. Ahead of us, at the hill's base, was a narrow plank bridge slicked with ice, leading to another steep hill that would require a full head of steam to climb. Had it been New England ice we might have given it a try, but instead we made our last collections at the crest of the hill and reversed our course back to the village of Melipueco. Over the last fifteen years araucana has passed back and forth between protected and nonprotected status. Logging is allowed at present, but CODEFF, Chile's first environmental protection group, is pressing for renewed protection. According to a study by the Central Bank of Chile, the pace of the deforestation in the country has doubled since 1984, giving Chile the dubious honor of being the second most deforested Latin American nation, after Brazil. Native trees are being logged primarily for the foreign woodchip market and to clear areas for nonnative tree plantations. Since almost 95 percent of the native woodchips go to the wood pulp factories of Japan, the status of Chile's forests is closely linked to the vigor of the Japanese economy. Two Bibliography Darwm, Charles [1845] 1962. The Voyage of the Beagle. New York Doubleday, Anchor, The American Museum of Natural History. Gardner, M. F., and S. G. Knees. 1987. tree \"Fitzroya Elwes, and its future.\" London: 1987 International Dendrological Society Yearbook. H. J., and A Henry. 1906-1913. The Trees of Great Bntam and Ireland Edinburgh: cupressoides-The Privately printed. Langman, J. 1998. Chile's Native Forest Defensores del Bosque Chileno International Campaign Report. Also, Crisis. 1998 http:\/\/ forests.org\/recent\/chforkno.txt Lara, A., and R. Villalba. 1993. A 3620-year temperature record from Fitzroya cupressoides tree nngs in southern South America. Science 260: 11041106. Page, C. N. 1994. The ex situ conservation of temperate ramforest comfer species: a British-based programme. Biodiversity and Conservation 3 191-199. tree Quarto, A. 1990. The pehuenche and the monkey-puzzle tree Cultural Survrval Quarterly. 14~4\/: 21-25. Rodriguez, Roberto, Oscar Matthel, and Max Quezada. 1983. Flora Arborea de Chile. Chile. Editorial De La Umversidad De Conception. Scully, V., Veblen, R. F. Zallinger, L. J. Hickey, and J. H. Ostrom 1990. The Great Dinosaur Mural at Yale The Age of Reptiles. New York: Harry N. Abrams. T. T. 1982. araucana Regeneration patterns forests m in Araucana opposing images from the expedition have in my mind. The first was Chile \/ournal of crystallized Puerto . Montt's infamous six-story pile of woodchips bound for Japan. The second was a television documentary I saw on the day of my departure. It featured three rare Chilean trees-the Jubea palm, the araucaria, and the alerce-and voiced an appeal for conservation. In the last ten years Chile has begun to re-evaluate its forestry industry and, thanks to the efforts of local and global environmental groups, is becoming aware of the negative consequences of overexploitation. I can only hope that when my children's children see Zallinger's mural they will not view alerce and araucaria in the same way as dmosaurs-as fascinating relicts of bygone species. 1985. Forest Biogeography 9: 11-28. development m tree-fall gaps m the temperate rain forests of Chile National 162-183. Geographic Research, Sprmg: and D. H. Ashton. 1982. The regeneration status of Fitzroya cupressoides m the Cordillera Pelada, Chile. Biological Conservation 23: 141-161. , R. J. Delmastro, and J. E Schlatter. 1976. The conservation of Fitzroya cupressoides and environment in its Southern Chile. Environmental Conservation 3~4~: 291-302. Wieland, G. R. 1935. The Cerro Cuadrado Petnfied Forest Carnegie Institute of Washmgton. Rob Nicholson manages the conservatories College Botanic Garden, Northampton, of the Smith Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Soil as a Living System","article_sequence":4,"start_page":35,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25242","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25e816b.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sauer, Jones","article_content":"Soil as a Living System Leslie jones Sauer What most struck the woodland manager of New York City's Central Park when he visited the Adirondacks was a forest floor so soft he could plunge his hand into it. The ground was visibly alive and completely different from the dead, concretized soil of the urban forest in Central Park. oil Where soil are annual leaf fall in the woodlands of Central Park typically did not accumulate or even persist from one year to the next. With no litter layer, there was no nursery for the next generation of the forest. Nearly a decade of woodland management is rebuilding the ground layer m Central Park's woodlands at the north end of the park. The site is becoming increasingly stabilized as erosion is controlled and bare areas are replanted. The many small saplings and seedlings that were planted or that volunteered after exotics removal help to hold the ground. During the icebound 1993-1994 winter season, some remains of autumn's leaves persisted under the blanket of ice until spring. That was a turning point for the woodlands. The following winter was unusually mild, and by spring 1995 there was a relatively continuous litter layer. In time, the organic litter on the forest floor will create humus, an organic soil homzon. Within it, most of the life of soil occurs. As organic matter is continually broken down into humus, it becomes incorporated into the mineral layers of the ground surface to build topsoil. Soils are forming all the time, and like vegetation, integrate and express all of the ecosystem's processes. Soil is a reflection of climate, parent material, topography, vegetation, and time. The layers of soil tell a more recent history than the rocks beneath. The soil's abiotic, or nonliving, factors are generally the primary focus of conventional soil posrtion problems on the surface. trampling or high rates of decomprevail, the litter layer and topentirely absent. Until recently, the wears its Much of our thinking in the past oriented toward an \"ideal\" soil model that balanced sand, silt, clay, pore space, moisture, minerals, and organic matter. These standards determined whether a native soil was judged poor or good, and where soils did not conform to the ideal, soil amendments were used to modify texture, acidity, fertility, or other characteristics. Many early mitigation, stabilization, and restoration projects suffered from this agricultural\/horticultural approach. Standard soil specifications, for example, call for routine topsoil stripping, fertilizing, and liming even though many disturbed or made soils are already less acid than in their native condition because of the repeated addition of lime by means of concrete rubble and urban dust. Most regulations related to development sites, highways, landfills, and abandoned mines require from three to six inches of topsoil spread over new soil surfaces before revegetating. That topsoil comes from somewhere, so the restoration of one site frequently means the destruction of another. We need more research on alternatives to topsoil, especially those that reuse waste materials appropriately to amend local soils and that avoid environmentally costly products such as fertilizers and peat. Even where topsoil has been stockpiled on a site before construction, the living organisms it contains die within days. assessment. was The Soil Food Web A food web is the structure of relations among the organisms within an ecosystem based on what each consumes. Primary producers consume water, minerals, carbon dioxide, and a few 36 other things to produce organic matter, which is consumed by most of the rest of the creatures that are, in turn, consumed by still others. Some organisms have very specialized food requirements while others feed quite omnivorously. Both soil and water are media in which plants and animals live and grow. And in a very real way, both are living systems. One of the most important contributions to the history of water management occurred with a shift in perspective that originated with Ruth Patrick and others. When one views water as a living system, its quality is measured by the richness of its biota instead of physical and chemical factors such as flood levels or biological oxygen demand. Its biological components are a defining measure of health that reflect a more complex array of factors. This same kind of revolution is happening in our perception of soils. In 1968 Ruth Patrick wrote about aquatic food webs: pathways m the food web and the types of interrelationships of species to each other are two of the most promismg avenues of research. Most food webs are composed of at least four the stages tend to be few because so stages[;] much energy is lost between stages.... Since the stages of the food web are few, diversity is expressed by many species forming each stage or level in the food web. This strategy of many species at each trophic level has developed a food web of many pathways which seems to give stability to the system ... [W]e see there are many food webs within systematic groups as well as between groups. It should also be pomted out that the size and the rate of reproduction vary considerably in each of the major systematic groups. These types of variability in food chain, size of orgamsms, and reproductive rates help to ensure the maintenance of the various systematic groups, and in turn preserve the trophic stages of the food web of the whole community.' various various ... ... The Soil ecosystems are strikingly similar. Like aquatic systems, they have a great deal of redundancy. Very simple systems with simple food webs can be drastically altered by the appearance or disappearance of one or a few species. In more complex systems there may be multiple through the food web. Thus the more complex systems are said to have redundancy and are not so dramatically changed when a few species change. Many soil components even lie dormant until favorable conditions occur. The full soil structure is not required for most basic soil functions. Rather than focusing simply on the nonliving aspects of soil, restoration should enhance its living components, primarily bacteria, fungi, and microfauna. Most of the work of forming humus is done by plant roots and by animal life in the soil, which depend on a permeable soil crust, stratified soil layers, and appropriate amounts of organic matter. There are up to three thousand arthropods per cubic inch of productive soil. A litter layer of leaves one-and-onehalf inches thick and a yard square might contain five thousand miles of fungal filaments. Plants are the primary producers of organic matter in the forest soil system. Ants and other invertebrates initiate the breakdown of groundlayer litter. Soil microorganisms including fungi, bacteria, protozoa, and actinomycetes continue this process of converting organic matter into soil minerals that in turn become available as nutrients to plants. In food-web nomenclature, these organisms are \"consumers.\" Primary consumers (herbivores) feed directly on the \"producers,\" which are the plants; secondary and tertiary consumers are predators and parasites, which feed upon each other as well as upon herbivores. Food webs also contain other decomposers and detritivores that feed on litter, such as mites, woodlice, and earthworms. Woodlands typically support more diverse assemblages of soil organisms than grasslands. If soil orgamsms are included in the species count, temperate rainforests are richer in biodiversity than tropical rainforests. The soil food web performs the primary function of the soil, which is to cycle energy and nutrients, including mtrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. Native soil systems are very efficient and succeed in recycling, for example, upwards of eight percent of the nitrogen in the system. The cycling of nitrogen is intimately associated with the cycling of carbon, which is tied up largely in organic matter. Nitrogen, in part, determines the rate at which carbon is broken ways in which energy flows 37 forests are filled with dead wood. Downed trees for re-creatmg mixed-age, mixed-species forests. Ancient can down. Bacteria and fungi take up the nitrogen as they decompose soil organic matter, and some fix atmospheric nitrogen. This nitrogen too is released into the soil to be agam available to plants. Nitrogen's slow release from an organic to an inorganic form, which is available to plants, is called \"mineralization.\" The microbial community performs three major functions: as discussed above, conversion of organic mtrogen to a plant-available form such as ammonia; nitrification when ammonia is converted to nitrates; and demtrification when nitrogen is recycled into the atmosphere as a gas. The soil microbial community also contributes to soil stability, another vital function. Fungal hyphae kmt bits of organic matter together to create a denser, stronger litter layer and upper soil homzon. Not all soil food webs are the same. Fungi appear to dominate in forest soils, bacteria in agriculture soils. Thus, soil communities change over time as the landscape succeeds to forest. The nature of the vegetation determines the nature of the fuel\/food available for soil organisms. Grasslands litter, a relatively easily decomposed herbaceous material, does not typically contribute all of the soil's organic matter. The extensive root systems of grasslands are also a major source of the soil's organic matter. The roots of grasses exude carbon directly into \" the soil as sugar, amino acids, and other forms to feed soil fungal associates and activate bacteria and other microbes. As the landscape matures, the litter becomes more difficult to break down. While herbaceous litter is primarily cellulose, the litter of the forest becomes increasingly higher in lignin, the woody component of plants. Tree leaves have more lignin than grasses, and the leaves of late successional species, like beech (Fagus grandiand oak (Quercus be important assets folia) spp.), typically have more lignin than ash (Fraxinus spp.), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipfera), and other early successional species. In woodlands an important shift occurs as leaf fall and other litter become the most important sources of organic matter, rather than the direct contribution of carbon by the roots, as m the grasslands. There are also larger volumes of wood on the ground in the form of fallen twigs and limbs, which directly foster fungi because bacteria are unable to decompose lignin. The mycorrhizal filaments from tree roots reach up into the old wood to extract the valuable nutrients. Insects such as beetles and ants are also able to break down wood. Wood in contact with the soil and standing dead trunks, \"snags,\" create many opportunities for various wood and soil invertebrates of the forest. The soil communities contmue to change along with the vegetation communities. Over time, the cycling becomes less rapid. In a humus-rich forest soil, the organic matter that remains the longest is the rather stable organic compounds that degrade much more slowly. By then the humus is important more as a site for important chemical processes and for the physical qualities it gives the soil than as a stockpile of nutrients. The humus, for instance, increases the water-holding capacity of the soil. Another important role of dead wood is to serve as a water reservoir for the forest in times 38 of drought. Dead wood, especially larger logs approaching a foot or more in diameter, soaks up water like a sponge and retains it for long periods. Old logs or stumps make great nursery sites by carrying vulnerable seedlings through dry spells. Salamander populations also depend on large logs for needed moisture, which is, in part, why they are absent so long after clearcuts and timbering, although they may number one or two per square yard in old-growth forests. growth species poorly nourished while invasive exotics and some early successional natives are flush with nutrients. Some species are more sensitive than others to soil nutrition. Conifers do not grow in bacteria-dominated soils whereas agricultural crops cannot be grown in fungidominated soils. Indeed, in woodlands, a high ratio of bacteria to total biomass is an indicator of disturbance.2 These factors, which seem to depend on soil organisms, play a greater role in succession than previously recognized.3 Logs increase local stormwater retention as well by inhibiting overland flow and by absorbing water in place. Fungi in general foster acid soil conditions, whereas bacteria can increase alkalinity. The bacteria and their predators in grasslands help maintain the soil's pH and the form in which mtrogen is made available, as well as nutrient Damaged Soil Systems Soils are far more damaged and damageable than we realize, but the problem is often hidden. The cumulative effects on forest systems and other environments of acid rain, nitrogen deposition, that work to the advantage of Where fungi are more abundant, as in grasses. natural forests, the mtrogen is converted to ammonium, which is strongly retained in the soil system. In bacteria-dominated systems, the bacteria convert nitrogen to nitrate instead of ammonium. Nitrate leaches more easily from soils than ammonium; however, the growing patterns of grasses tolerate this condition. But when woodland soils become bacteria dominated, rapid leachmg may leave most native old- cycling rates global warming, ozone thinning, unnecessary grading, and stormwater changes have left a legacy of severely altered soil conditions and totally modified soil food webs. The consequences and remedies are still largely unknown. Many of these changes are so pervasive that we take them for granted. Take earthworms, many nonnative, which now are abundant throughout the urban forest system. In fact, they are not part of the historic community of living creatures in native forests and are typically associated with more disturbed landscapes. Earthworms in general increase soil fertility by initiating the breakdown of organic matter, aerating and mixing the upper soil, and creating ment a microenviron- that stimulates the bacteria that convert ammonium to nitrate. High earthworm populations also foster nitrification by supplying the oxygen necessary to convert ammonium to ~-- They take a system already disturbed by added nitrogen and push it farther from normal by consuming the litter layer five times as rapidly as fungi and connitrates. Logs laid on the ground disappear qmckly. Usmg them as seedbeds for plantmg verting excess avoids soil disturbance while enhancmg survival. nitrate. The same food into kind of 39 can be when aquatic systems fill with algae.4 Each shift in the soil character will self-reinforcing cycle seen in turn ripple through the entire system. Unfortunately, in many woodlands that look mature because they have larger trees, there is a lag in the succession of the soil, which may still be dominated by earthworms and bacteria and impoverished in terms of types of fungi, invertebrates, and other, more efficient paths for nutrient cycling. A thm mulch of raw leaves enriches the soil and promotes the growth of new wood. Building Soil Systems of the soil. The most popular herbicide, for The object in restoration is to restore the nutrient cycling and energy flow of the historical soil example, glyphosate, which is often used to con- system. First, work to protect existing soil and then explore techniques to increase the overall biomass of the soil and to foster the diversity of native soil flora and fauna. resources trol exotics, enhances conditions for bacteria but makes a poor substrate for the development of forest fungi. Recognize that the user is inseparable from the solution. No treatment of soil will make it Recommendations Identify, protect, and monitor areas of native soil that are relatively undisturbed. Most areas contain places where there is lessdisturbed soil that can serve as rough models of local soil conditions. Studying the more natural soils at the same time remediation is being documented in a disturbed landscape will provide a standard for measuring the success of different approaches. The natural sites also serve as propagation sources for locally adapted impervious to compaction, erosion, and other such disturbances. Confine all use in forests and other natural landscape fragments to designated trails to minimize degradation from feet, hooves, and wheels. Prohibition alone never is enough. Users will stay on trails to the extent that trails create the elements of satisfaction that keep them there and provide access to desired destinations. The gradual building of the litter layer and the absence of bare soil off the trail are hallmarks of success. Minimize microorganisms. Reduce local sources of soil contamination, including added nitrogen. Evaluate local air pollution impacts, especially that of automobile exhaust. Removing roads wherever possible is of paramount importance, especially in more natural areas. What is convement, even to the restorer, such as easy access, may be lethal to the most jeopardized species. Educate the community about regional air pollution impacts. Many other management practices, such as pesticide use, also affect the realm \"working the soil. Despite a lot of knowledge about the damage done to living systems by constant perturbation, there is still a tendency to overwork soil. Beyond the familiar structural damage-such as that caused by working a heavy soil while it is wet or by the erosion that accompanies any soil disturbance-the soil's level of microorganisms is also severely affected. For example, plowing and any mechanical disturbance to the soil will \" 40 time clock back to disturbance rather than allowing more complex, stable, and diverse soil systems to develop. to try new techsuch as planting new niques, seedlings in logs or stumps, to avoid soil disturbance while enhancing survival. Another technique is vertical staking, wooden twigs driven vertically into the soil. Vertical staking serves to aerate and loosen the soil without damaging the roots of existing vegetation, and it avoids the need to completely turn the soil. In addition, it favors the development of fungi mstead of bacteria because it incorporates wood into the soil. We need Tramplmg and stormwater runofprevent reproduction of the next generation of forest in many parks. Reevaluate the usefulness of current methods of stockpiling topsoil. Harris, Birch, and describe Short impacts the of progressive stockpiling, which is a frequently used method to retain a site's topsoil during construction.5 The first phase is an instantaneous kill of many of the living creatures in the soil that occurs with the initial removal and stockpiling. During the next few months there is a flush of bacterial growth as well as fungi but Vertical stakes made from cut branches dnven mto compacted ground in a dense only in the upper soil on the pattern convey water and moisture downward mto the root zone. They loosen the outside of the pile, the new surface as they decompose, mthout disturbmg the stability of the surface. \"topsoil.\" During the next half year or so the soil stratifies in layers. The tend to foster the rapid growth of bacteria, which in turn generate exopolysaccharides, primary distinctions reflect the amount of oxywhich cause the soil to slump in rain. Other gen in the soil because of its depth in the pile or level of saturation with water. The developing substances make soil hard to wet, or hydrophobic. Cultivating soil is almost always deleterilayers consist of both near-surface aerobic and ous to natural areas and constantly resets the deeper anaerobic zones as well as a shifting tran- 41 between them. When the soils are restripped and replaced elsewhere, there is another instantaneous kill of most living organisms followed by a flush of bacterial growth. sition area Experiment with alternative strategies that better preserve native soil food webs when moving soil is necessary. Experiment with methods that keep soil horizons intact, such as moving blocks of soil. Practitioners are using and modifying equipment like old sod forks and front-end loaders as well as developing new equipment for this purpose, such as the soil-mat lifter devised by John Monro.~ Reevaluate the addition of organic matter to enrich disturbed soils. The continuous rain of airborne nutrients onto soils in the form of acid rain and nitrogen deposition from air pollution raises serious concerns about many traditional management practices with regard to the use of organic matter as a soil additive and our almost automatic addition of nutrients to disturbed soils. Researchers have shown repeatedly that fertilizer benefits weed species. Creating less-hospitable conditions in the conventional sense can actually enhance the performance of native species. Using elemental sulfur on test plots, Jean Marie Hartman and her co-workers at Rutgers University lowered the pH and reduced nutrient availability in a mixed meadow to foster native species over exotics.' Many invasives, both native and exotic, are nitrophiles and do poorly under such conditions. Brush piles improve long-term soil quahty and provide habitat for soil orgamsms. Omented to receive some direct sunhght, they also give shelter to small creatures. , tant it is to minimize the use of dissimilar materials. Reevaluate the conventional management of brush, dead wood, and leaves. Even where no additional fertilizer is added, it is important to modify our management of dead wood and vegetative debris to more closely mimic natural conditions. This sounds obvious, but how often is organic matter collected from a site, taken to another location to be composted, and then used at still another location when it is \"well rotted\"? Under more natural forest conditions, however, the major contribution of organic matter is not well-rotted compost but rather wood, twigs, and leaves that slowly break down in the place where they fall. Adding wood and raw, rather than composted, leaves more closely mimics the natural scenario. Reevaluate the use of mulch and soil amendments that are harvested from landscape communities other than those native to the site. Because to a great extent soil organisms are what they eat, bringing in organic material from other sources will not necessarily foster the growth of the same soil organisms as are in the desired native community. In an artificial soil such as made land or a highly contaminated soil, it's not the addition of organic matter but what kind we use that will impact the nature of plant succession on the site. The more indigenous the existing landscape, the more impor- Develop new ways of observing and monitoring soil health. Unfortunately, nitrogen levels are standard soil are tests are of limited assistance to the restorationist. For example, poorly evaluated when they one measured only as concentrations at any as total flux over time. Conventional tests also ignore the biotic component altogether. A number of researchers are working on new methods. One, Jim Harris of the University of East London in England, who has been monitoring soil changes associated with restora- time rather than 42 tion, has developed a set of techniques for measuring the size, composition, and activity of a soil's microbial community. These measurements can be used for comparison with a lessdisturbed target community to assess the level of recovery of the soil system. He and other researchers have developed methods that, at least in England, have increased fungal populations with significant beneficial impacts to soil development and nutrient cycling. Build populations of soil fungi. As noted earlier, heavy nitrogen enrichment from air pollution and increased compaction, erosion, and sedimentation have tended to favor the growth of bacteria over fungi and invertebrates. Thoughtful management promoting the development of fungi through appropriate treatment of the soil, soil surface, and litter layer can help restore indigenous food webs in forest soils. Management to Foster Fungi and Other Forest Organisms only fungi can break down lignin, the woody component of plant matter, allowing dead wood and woody debris to remain on the ground layer is a major component of the effort to rebuild soil fungi. Raw woodchips and small limbs on the soil surface provide an ideal matrix for the rapid development of a dense fungal network in the soil that, unlike bacterial decomposers, also provides surface stabilization. The webby, sticky quality of the mycelia of fungi serve to knit the surface particles and litter to Because reduce erosion and conserve moisture that is vital to the life of forest soil. While a deep layer of woodchips can create a growth-suppressing mulch that later floods the area with nutrients, a very thin layer of woodchips stimulates the development of more complex soil biota while limiting the overall rate of the addition of nutrients. Wood's slow rate of decomposition is also important where rates of decomposition have accelerated dramatically. Because lignin has a very low decomposition rate, it is a more durable groundcover that promotes the development of a stable litter layer. Occasionally it may be necessary to inoculate the soil or vegetation with mycorrhizal fungi, in most cases local sources of inoculum are likely to be available from wind and animal dispersal. Where soils are high in nutrients it may be more important to manage nutrients and foster fungi than directly inoculate, especially if inoculation is not required to establish plant species. Small amounts of soil from analogous sites nearby or woodchips colonized by local mycorrhizae may be used to inoculate sites where natural processes have not been effectual, where there is a substrate limitation, such as thin soil over bedrock, or where plantspecific requirements do not occur. Jim Harris recommends using thin blankets of fresh woodchips from one-half to one inch thick, which create ideal surface conditions for the development of fungi. Within weeks, a network of fungi colonizes the surface so densely that the woodchip layer can actually be shaken loose from the soil by hand and moved elsewhere to inoculate an area nearby with local fungi. This method, local harvesting and dispersal of indigenous fungi, should become an important part of soil management programs and is preferable to using a mass-produced commercial inoculum for restoration purposes.8 We can also manage blowdowns better than by simply removing fallen trees, as is the current convention. Instead, we can minimize the hazard of a falling tree to area walkers while mimicking more natural processes of decomposition that encourage the growth of fungi and invertebrates in the soil by partially upending the stump. The upended root mass reveals a near-perfect seedbed for native species and maintains enough of the tree's still living roots to maximize the extent to which its nutrients although passed directly to neighboring trees. Commercially produced mycorrhizae have been very successful in reforesting drastically disturbed lands, such as mine spoils, all over the globe. Sites in Kentucky, for instance, where soils were extremely acid, with pH values as low as 2.8, have produced pulpwood for harvest in just fifteen years from inoculated seedlings.9 When considering such products, however, evaluate their potential impact on native subspecies of mycorrhizae. Like commercial plant propagation, this approach risks hastening the are 43 extinction of local varieties. We still need to 2 develop appropriate procedures and protocols for dissemmating fungi and other soil orgamsms as much as we do for larger plants and animals. Such techniques are well developed in the western states but have only recently been applied in the East. Fire also acts as a stimulus to many wood fungi and invertebrates and reduces bacteria, which m turn fosters the growth of fungi. In a study of changes in beetle populations following fire in boreal coniferous forests in Finland, scientists found a sudden appearance of a diverse group of beetles that feed on wood fungi, which M J. McDonnell, S. T A Pickett, and R. V Pouyat, Application of the ecological gradient to the study of urban effects. In Humans as Components of Ecosystems, The Ecology of Subtle Effects and Populated Areas, ed. G. E. Likens and W.J Cronon (New York: Springer-Verlag, 1993), 175-189. 3 E. R. Ingham, Restoration of soil community structure and function in agriculture, grassland and forest ecosystems in the Pacific Northwest. Proceedmgs, Society for Ecological Restoration Conference (Seattle, 1995), 31. 4 W. Nixon, ( 1995~ 101 ~9~: 5 As the worm turns. American Forests 34-36. implies an even more rapid response by fungi.' These wood-fungi-feeding forest beetles are fire specialists and represent an important evolutionary adaptation at an ecosystem level to recurrent fires of the past; they are a sidein turn A. Harns, P. Birch, and K. C. Short, The impact of storage of soils during opencast mining on the microbial community A strategist theory interpretation. Restoration Ecology (1993) 1: 88-100. J. 6 The tool, available for sale in several sizes, was benefit of restoring natural patterns of fire to the forest. Native soil conditions and biotic communities and processes need to be the models for our interventions in restoring native habitats. The remaining remnants of native soil are, therefore, bioreserves for the richness that once characterized our soil heritage. The approach should be to restore, rather than replace, soils. Soil made in place is favored over the imported topsoil. Instead of reintroducing missing components with inputs from outside the environment, we should instead focus on fostering the restoration of remnant and mdigenous communities of soil biota, which furthers the general goal of \"restoring-in-place\" to the extent feasible. By doing so, we also minimize the casual dispersal of local subspecies of soil microorganisms and exotic soil orgamsms. In the worst-case scenarios, such as areas where soil is completely depleted, some materials from outside will be needed, but even in these situations the soilbuilding resources inherent to the site should be used to the maximum extent possible. Endnotes developed by Monro Ecological Services, Harleysmlle, PA, and is available through Bentley Development Co , P.O. Box 338, Old Route 22, Blairsville, PA 15717, 412\/287-0671. 7 F. Thorne, and C. E. Bristow, old field succession Proceedmgs (Design + Values) of annual meeting, Council for Educators m Landscape Architecture (Charlottesville, VA, 1992), J. M. Hartman, J. Variation m 55-62. 8J. A Harris, ~C et al , op cit E. Cordell, D. H. Marx, and C Caldwell, Operational application of specific ectomycorrhizal fungi m mmeland reclamation. Unpubhshed paper presented at annual meeting of the American Society for Surface Mining and Reclamation (Durango, CO, May 14-17, 1991\/ 'oJ. Muono and I Rutanen, The short-term impact of fire on the beetle fauna in boreal coniferous forest. Annales Zoologici Fenmci (1994) 31: 109-121. Leshe Sauer is principal and landscape architect with Andropogon Associates, Ltd , based in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and adjunct professor at the University of Pennsylvania This article is adapted from The Once and Future Forest A Guide to Forest Restoration Strategies, which was developed by Andropogon Associates and is based protection and 1 Ruth Patrick, Natural and abnormal communities of aquatic life in streams. Via 1, Ecology m Design (University of Pennsylvama, Graduate School of Fme integrating environmental with landscape architecture and design. Their work on Central Park's North Woods is only one of many restoration projects The Once and Future Forest is pubhshed by Island Press (800\/828-1302 on their approach to restoration Arts, 1968), 37. or www.islandpress.org). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1998","article_sequence":5,"start_page":44,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25239","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ebb28.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"44 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 1998 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 64 44 54 65.18 inches 7.9 inches 98 5 on Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost July 19 9 I and December 31 1 on January 32 31 on on April 16 6 October 27 Growing Season 193 days Note: According to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1998 ties 1973 as the sixth warmest year 7 in 128 years of state weather records; the average temperature for the state was 53 degrees-1.7 degrees above normal. The year was also the seventh wettest year on record, the closest yearly total bemg 61.65 inches in 1958. Very little of the precipitation fell m the form of snow: 1998 received the lowest amount of snow recorded, breaking the record low of 8.8 inches m 1937. Relatively frost-free conditions allowed winter rams to penetrate the soil and begm to recharge the ground water, which, after the drought of 1997, was much needed. June was the wettest month of the year with more than 12 inches. Not only was this the second wettest June on record, it was also one of the wettest months ever recorded. The amount of new growth put on by plants on the grounds and in the nursery was astomshing. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25243","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25e856f.jpg","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum SUM - MER. - N E W S - 1 9 9 9 New Horticultural Taxonomist Welcomed Robert E. Cook, Director In 1997, when Steve Spongberg announced that he would retire after 27 years as the horticultural taxonomist at the Arboretum, we knew he would be hard to replace. The traditional science of taxonomy, especially as applied to the description and naming of horticultural cultivars, had all but disappeared from graduate training programs in American universities. Our preliminary inquiries among colleagues turned up few names of professionals with the experience and stature that Steve had acquired during his career here. Following his departure, we advertised the availability of the position and received a modest number of resumes expressing interest. Although there were very few senior individuals who could quahfy for the position, among the younger scientists who applied, the qualifications of Dr. Jianhua Li stood out due to his unusual background and training and his particular interest in temperate woody plants of Asia and North America. Jianhua was born in China and received a traditional botanical education emphasizmg anatomy, embryology, morphology, physiology, and ecology at Henan Normal University and Central China Normal University. His master's thesis looked at the in China, Jianhua could now compare studies based on traditional morphological approaches with the results of molecular analysis to greatly training our understanding of plant evolution, particularly the close evolutionary relationship between Asian and North American genera. This relationship has been the basis of plant collecting for the Arbore- refine for over a century. With his Chinese heritage and his thorough grasp of modern approaches to plant evolutionary studies, we believe that Jianhua will greatly strengthen our Asian research efforts in collaboration with a wide range of scientists, both here in America and in the countries of eastern Asia. tum vegetational ecology of rare Metarequoza populations in southwestern Hubei Province. He taught in several Chinese universities until 1993 when he came to the United States to attend the graduate training program at the University of New Hampshire, where he earned his Ph.D. degree in botany in 1997. At New Hampshire, Jianhua quickly acquired new skills, using molecular techniques to address questions about genetic relations among plants and what this information tells us about their evolutionary history. His family of choice was Hamamehdaceae, the witch hazels. These newer techniques extract the DNA from plants and compare the sequence of genes along the DNA to infer degrees of relatedness among species. By virtue of his earlier Jianhua Li's primary area of expertise is the witch hazel family, and his study of genetic differences among its species-of Corylopsis, in particularcontinues. His interest in the honeysuckle family (Caprifoliaceae) also continues, and his knowledge of it is growing rapidly, helped by the Arboretum's large representation of that family. In addition to his work on molecular phylogeny, Jianhua will continue to study the embryonic and floral development of Heptacodium miconioides and Kolkwitzia amabilis. This type of research requires close proximity to the plant material since buds, flowers, and young fruits must be collected often, sometimes every other day. A new laboratory in the Dana Greenhouses will support this aspect of his taxonomic research. , .,~......- _~I...'.' more traditional Fellowship Awarded to Director of Living Collections Director ofLiving Collections Peter Del Tredici has recently been awarded Harvard Umversity's Charles Bullard Fellowship in Forest Research. The fellowship is awarded to individuals in the biological, social, physical, or political sciences promote advanced study, research, or integration of subjects pertaining to forested ecosystems. It provides mid-career scientists with an opportunity to to and interact with personnel in any department within Harvard in order to develop their own professional growth. Peter is one of seven fellows selected for the 1999-2000 fiscal year Peter plans to spend most of his \"sabbatical\" in Petersham, Massachusetts, the site of the Harvard Forest, where he will work on several projects, includuse the resources following catastrophic disturbances and the response of hemlock forests to infestation by the hemlock woolly adelgid. He also hopes to begin writing a book on the growth and cultivation of trees trees in the human landscape. He will be away from the Arboretum from the first of September through the first of March 2000, but we're sure that he will pop in at the Arnold periodically. ing vegetative regeneration in Welcome to Arboretum Apprentice Midon Matsuoka arrived at the Arboretum in May to begin her appointment as apprentice. Born and raised in Tokyo, Japan, Midori earned her associate's degree in horticulture from Kesen Jumor College in Tokyo. After graduaung, she worked in the floral department of the College, where she propagated herbaceous plant material and year-long taught a number of practical related to horticulture. Following her time at Kesen Junior College, she entered the onecourses year program in practical horticulture at Wisley Gardens in England where she discovered that the English method of teaching plants differs from the JapaShe found her English instructors to be more open to student inquiries, often responding to questions with multiple answers and ideas. After leaving Wisley she worked for two months at Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire, which fast became her favorite Enghsh garden. She especially enjoyed working with Westonbirt's many old and very large trees. An important project m which Midori will be involved over the next year is the restoration of Rhododendron Dell at the base of Hemlock Hill. Re-edging, pruning, weeding, and stream renovation about nese. should result in ment. vast improveUltimately, Midon hopes to work in plant conservation. New Staff Jon Hetman joined the Arborestaff in April as assistant to the director and the development staff. Originally from Ohio, Jon graduated from Ohio Umversity tum Boston for worked John F. ment as nearly six years, and recently at Harvard's Kennedy School of Governmost assistant to the registrar. Among Jon's responsibilities are with a degree in communications. Since graduanng, Jon has held a variety of positions, from public relations at an Ohio art museum to teaching children about composting and beekeeping at a private foundation. He has lived in administrative support for the development and membership departments related to special events, the plant sale, and mailings. Jon will also assist the Institute of Cultural Landscape Studies with database management. 1999 Summer Interns Each year the horticultural trainees of the Arnold Arboretum provide the living collections department with invaluable service. The fourteen interns assisted the full-time staff with the propagation and maintenance of thousands of ~uvenile plants in the Dana Greenhouses and Nursery and the transplanting of hundreds of plants to the main collection during the spring of 1999. Several tons of weeds were uprooted and replaced with tons of mulch throughout the Arboretum, and records and mapping locations of hundreds of plants have been updated. Thanks to The 1999 Arboretum Interns: standing, Jeanne Kannegieser, Rijk Gupta, Dylan Penrose, Steve Wiersma, Julie Callahan, Tomas Zicha, Leanne the hard work of the Erickson, Hilary Maurer, Brent Scherr, Karen Clancy; seated, Midori 1999 lnterns, the lilac collection Matsuoka (Arboretum apprentice), Jessica Abramavicius, Stephen was in peak condition for the visitSnyder. Not pictured: Claire Corcoran, Jessie Pettit. ing public this May. Interns braved Lilac Hill, risking life and limb to cut grass with They also ventured out on many field trips, includmowers on the 45-degree slope. The summer push ing visits to the Polly Hill Arboretum on Martha's has not been all hard, death-defying work; the Vineyard, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden and Prospect interns learned a great deal about the propagation, Park in New York City, and Boston's own Emerald and record-keeping of the living collections. care, Necklace, which they walked from end to end. Annual Fall Plant Sale Plans for the 19th Annual Fall Plant Sale, to be held Sunday, September 26, are well underway. This event attracts expert and amateur gardeners alike and on wonderful opportumty to take in and play a role the New England horticultural scene. Over 100 varieties of trees, shrubs, perenmals, and vines nurtured at the Dana Greenhouses will be on offer ~n the barn at the Case Estates in Weston. Arboretum staff and knowledgeable volunteers will be on hand to answer is a in challenging questions. Thirty nonprofit plant societies have been invited to participate, adding the twin resources of your most hard-to-find cultivars and expert advice in a wide assortment of speaalties The liveliest activity of the day is always found under the live and silent auction tents, where the rarest and most choice selections are to be found. Rain or shine, we hope to see you there! Peters Hill Dedication Well-wishers gathered in June to view the completed landscape restoration project on Peters Hill, funded by employees of Hill, Holliday, Inc., in honor of founder and chairman Jack Connors. The planting of over 300 trees and shrubs has returned the hilltop to a condition consistent with Frederick Law Olmsted's vision of scenery in the naturalistic style. Mr. Connors (seen at center) spoke with affection of his visits to the Arnold Arboretum, which began in boyhood, and of the Arboretum's continuing importance as an urban resource. \" 1 A Memorable Spring Gala Members of the Director's Advisory Board and the Arboretum Council gathered with friends and contributors to the Arnold Arboretum on a to breezy spring evening celebrate another successful year offundraising toward the $8.2 million goal of the capital campaign. Presentations throughout the Dana Greenhouses compared the challenges faced by successive generations in assembling the out- standing landscape of today's Arnold Arboretum, giving participants a look at how plant collecting, curauon, and propagation have changed-or not changedover the last century. Technological advances have improved efficiency and access to information, but all the same much of the work remains remarkably similar to time-honored methods of acquiring plant material and bringing it into the living collections in Jamaica Plain. In honor of the new millenium, staff developed a self-guided tour of fifteen significant centenarian trees and shrubs to encourage guests to explore the grounds and discover mature examples of the earliest accessions. Director Bob Cook and Director's Advisory Board Co-chair David Stone greeted the assembled guests and spoke of the significance of their contributions to the vitality of the institution. John Trexler, director of Tower Hill Botanic Garden, reviewed the Arnold Arboretum's history of leadership among its peer organizations and remarked that his own fascination with horticulture was fostered at the Arboretum in the earliest stages of his professional career. The remainder of the evening was given sation, over to conver- music, and renewing acquaintances. 0 Sheehan July Recognized by Fellow Workers In celebration of 35 years 16 marked Maurice \"Moe\" Sheehan's 35th anniversary working on the grounds staff of the Arnold Arboretum. In recogmtion of this momentous occasion, the staff surprised Moe with a tree dedication ceremony on Peters Hill. The tree, a Fagus rylvataca 'Bornyensis', was the first Moe planted as an Arboretum employee in 1964. A special record label was suspended from the tree during the ceremony. It reads, of exceptional caring and commitment, as well as hard work, his colleagues at the Arnold Arboretum dedicate this Fagus rylvatua 'Bornyensis'-the first tree he planted-to Maurice \"Moe\" Sheehan July 16, 1999 As the employee with greatest seniority, Moe functions both as the institution's memory and as our working foreman. During his tenure he has literally performed every job related to maintenance of the grounds and has witnessed great change in both the landscape and the institution. Congratulations to Moe for his 35 years of service! Moe Sheehan and Julie Coop, Superintendent of Grounds, stand before the Fagus sylvatica 'Bornyensis'. Left, Moe graced the cover of Arnoldia in 1975. Many back issues ofArnoldia-most of those published since 1990, many published since 1980, and some published since 1970-are available for purchase. With only two exceptions-Sourcebook of Cultivar Names and Metasequoia After Fifty Years, both $10-all are $5 postpaid. And for gift giving, bear in mind that subscriptions to Arnoldia are just $20 per year domestic and $25 foreign, payable by international money order or by Visa or Mastercard. Send orders or inquiries to Circulation Manager, Arnoldia, The Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 021303500 ; telephone 617\/524-1718 xl 14; fax 617\/524-1418; or e-mail arnoldia@arnarb.harvard.edu. The Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum is pleased to co-sponsor the publication of Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect by Charles W. Eliot with a new introduction by Keith N. Morgan University of Massachusetts Press in association with the Library of American Landscape History, 1999 This biography of Charles Eliot (1859-1897) remains the definitive work on the influential designer and planner whose death at age thirty-seven robbed this country of a practitioner of unusual foresight and deep social conscience. First published in 1902, it was compiled by Eliot's father, then president of Harvard University, directly from his son's travel writings, public Eliot laid the groundwork for the crereports, and published writings. Charles ation of both The Trustees of Reservations, the first statewide land conservancy in the country, and the Boston Metropolitan Park System. As a partner of Frederick Law Olmsted, Eliot worked on Boston's Emerald Necklace, includthe Arnold Arboretum. His essays on the value of scenery to an urban ing of regional open space planning. This population supported the development contains a new introduction by Keith Morgan, Professor of Art History, reprint Boston University. Two large fold-out maps that show the distribution of public open spaces in metropolitan Boston in 1892 and 1901 have been reproduced from the original edition. Charles Eliot, Landscape Archztect is the inaugural volume in a ten-volume reprint series undertaken by the Library of American Landscape History, Amherst, Massachusetts, to honor the centennial of the American Society of Landscape Architects. journals, In honor of this new publication the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies is sponsoring a the Arnold Arboretum to lecture and panel discussion at reveal the value of Eliot's contribution to landscape preservation: \"The Natural City\": Reclaiming the Legacy of Charles Eliot Catherine Howett, Professor of Landscape Architecture and Hz.rtoric Pre.rervatzon, University of Georgia Tuesday, November 16, 1999, 7:00-8:30 Professor Morgan will be available at a reception after the lecture to sign copies of the biography and to discuss his work on Charles Eliot. Places the Lesser Known Parks of Charles Eliot Panelists will include: Julza D'Brien, Director of Planning, Metropolitan Dz.rtrzct Commission Karl Haglund, Project Manager of the New Charles River Basin, Metropolitan District Commission Tuesday, December 7, 1999, 7:00-8:30 of Uncommon Beauty: A Panel Discussion on Charles Elzot, Landscape Architect will be available for purchase at both events. It can also be obtained directly from the University of Massachusetts Press for $50.00 plus postage and handling (e-mail: orders@umpress.umass.edu; fax 800\/488-1144; phone 413\/545-2219). Both events will be held at the Hunnewell building of the Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. They are open to the public free of charge, but advance registration is required. Please call the Institute at 617\/524-1718 x175 or e-mail us at icls@arnarb.harvard.edu to reserve a place. complement this biography the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies is publishing Charles Eliot, Land.rcapeArchztect: A Research Guide. This guide, prepared by Keith Morgan, contains a chronology of Eliot's life, a list of his projects, and a bibliography of works by and about him. This guide will be available at both of the events listed above as well as directly from the Institute for Cultural Landscape To Studies. Call 617\/524-1718 xl75 or e-mail us at icls@arnarb.harvard.edu. 0 Johnny Appleseed Commemorated April 12, a direct descendant of of Johnny Appleseed's trees was planted in the Arnold Arboretum in one On ceremony that honored him as planter of the millenium. The event was co-hosted by American Forests Famous and Historic Trees, and it launched a two-week tour that traced his travels from Massachusetts to Indiana. At each stop, Jeff Meyer of American Forests planted several \"Rambo\" apple trees, which were propagated from the last surviving apple tree known to have been planted by Johnny Appleseed. Peter Del Tredici assisted Jeff Meyer (seen above) with the ceremonial planting in the Eleanor Cabot a tree Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants. Afterwards, the specimen was removed to the Dana Greenhouses, where it will be sheltered until it attains greater size. 1 & EVENTS The Arnold Arboretum's education department offers many short courses, lectures, and programs during the winter months. These cold months give gardeners the time to plan their gardening activities for the coming season and to learn about new plant materials and horticultural techniques. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, call 617\/524-1718 x162. Please note that course fees printed in boldface are for Arboretum members. SEPTEMBER HOR 431 Making a Garden: Unusual Plants in a Traditional Design OCTOBER HOR 366 Beeches Dennzr Collrnr, Curator Auburn Cemetery of Plant Collectzon.r, Mount Dav2d Culp, Sales Reprerentatzve and Researcher and Developer for Sunny Border Nurrerzer; Instructor for Longwood Gardens Creating a new garden does not necessarily mean abandoning traditional design, especially in New England. In fact, following tradition may be most appropriate to your garden site. In this slideillustrated lecture David Culp will provide examples of new ideas joined with standard design techniques to create remarkable and harmonious gardens. Pnmanly illustrated with design ideas from his own \"four-square\" garden in Downingtown, Pennsylvania, this lecture will discuss tned-and-true design elements and suggest innovative ways to bring freshness to old ideas. 8 Fee:$15,$18 European beeches, Fagus .rylvatua, have long been a collection at Mount Auburn have attained magnificent size and Cemetery. Many form after more than a century of growth. In addition, the species is known for its vast number of cultivars that display unusual foliage and growth habit. On this walking tour, Dennis Collins will highlight the diversity within this remarkable group of plants and look at the recent outbreak of a serious health threat affecting old beech trees. Wear your best walking shoes. Class meets rain or shine. mainstay in the tree 2 Fee: $10, $12 Friday, October 1, 10:00-noon Mount Auburn Cemetery (MCA: .5 credits) Monday, September 13, 7:00-8:30 pm Hunnewell Building Co-.rpon.rored with the Massachusetts Horticultural Soczety Co-,rpon.rored wath the Frzendr of Mount Auburn Cemetery ~ conunued on page 8 a "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23381","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eb36e.jpg","title":"1999-59-2","volume":59,"issue_number":2,"year":1999,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How Metasequoia, the \"Living Fossil,\" Was Discovered in China (1948)","article_sequence":1,"start_page":4,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25227","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24e856b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, H. H.","article_content":"How Metasequoia, the \"Living Fossil,\" Was Discovered in China H. H. Hu Professor Hsen Hsu Hu (1894-1968) was director of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology in Beijing when he collaborated with Wan-Chun Cheng (1904-1983), '. ' professor of forestry at National Central University in Zhongjing, in naming and describing Metasequoia glyptostroboides. He had been among the first from his country to study botany in the West,and was the first Chinese botanist to receive a doctorate from Harvard University. Primary credit for the discovery of Metasequoia glyptostroboides belongs to Professor Hu and his Chinese colleagues. _ n the winter of 1941 Professor T. Kan of the Department of Forestry of the National University journeyed from Hupeh Szechuan, and saw on the roadside at Moutao-chi in Wan Hsien a large deciduous tree that was called by the natives shui-sa, or water fir. This attracted the attention of Professor Kan. Unfortunately no specimens were collected at that time as all the leaves had fallen off. Next year Professor Kan requested Mr. Lung-hsin Yang, the principal of the Agricultural High School, to collect herbarium specimens for him. But these were not identified. In the summer of 1944 Mr. T. Wang, a staff member of the Central Bureau of Forest Research, went to western Hupeh to explore the forests at Shenlung-chia, and was asked by Mr. Lung-hsin Yang to go to western Hupeh by way of Wan Hsien and Enshi in order to investigate the shui-sa at Mou-tao-chi. At Mou-tao-chi Mr. Wang collected herbarium specimens of leafy branches and fruits of this tree and thought it to be Glyptostrobus pensilis Koch, or shui-sung, the water pine, which is a common deciduous coniferous tree in Kwangtung province found also in Kiangsi. Mr. Chung-lung Wu, an assistant in the department of forestry of the National Central University, to Central Wang, who gave him a branchlet of the fir with two cones. Mr. Wu presented these to Professor W. C. Cheng of the same department, who considered this tree not a Glyptostrobus but a new genus, on account of the opposite character of the peltate fruiting scales, which differ from those of Glyptostrobus although the deciduous linear leaves are somewhat similar. Professor Cheng then sent his assistant, Mr. C. Y. Hsieh, to go twice to Mou-tao-chi in February and May 1946, and these trips resulted in the collection of specimens of flowers and young fruits of this water fir, from which Professor Cheng understood the morphology of this tree more clearly. In the autumn of the same year Professor Cheng sent to me fragments of herbarium specimens Mr. Hsieh collected and asked my opinion about this new genus, which he thought to be closely allied to the American genera Sequoia and Sequoiadendron, the California coastal redwood and the famous big tree. It happened that I had a reprint of a paper by a met Mr. water Japanese paleobotanist, Mr. S. Miki, instructor in Kyoto University, entitled \"On the Change of Flora in Eastern Asia since Tertiary Period,\" in which he proposed the new generic name Metasequoia, based on two fossil species that Excerpted with permission from the fournal of the New York Botamcal Garden (September 1948) 49(585): 201-207. 5 were formerly known as Sequoia disticha Heer and Sequoia 7aponica Endo, both found in the Pliocene beds near Tokyo. He found his new genus Metasequoia differing from the true Sequoia in the long stalk and in the opposite scales of the fruits. I had on hand also a paper by another Japanese paleobotanist, Professor S. Endo, entitled \"A New Palaeogene Species of Sequoia,\" in which he published a new species, Sequoia chinensis Endo, from Eocene beds in Fushun coal mines in southern Manchuria and Kawakami coal mines in southern Saghalien. This I found to be also a species of Metasequoia. Thus I published a paper in the Bulletin of the Geological Society of China, Vol. 26, 1946, entitled \"Notes on a Palaeogene Species of Metasequoia in China,\" in which I transferred Sequoia chinensis Endo to the genus Metasequoia and announced the discovery of a living species of this remarkable tree in Wan Hsien of Szechuan province. I then communicated with Professor Ralph W. Chaney of the Department of Paleontology of the University of Cahfornia, who had not seen either Miki's or Endo's paper. On the basis of the descriptions I supplied to him, Professor Chaney found that Sequoia macrolepis S. fastigiata Sternberg, S. concinna Heer, S. Langsdorfii Heer, S. Nordenskioldi Heer, S. Reichenbachii Heer, and S. Heerm Lesquereux all belonged to this new genus Metasequoia. He considered the Heer, from which the type speclmen of Metasequoia glyptostroboides was m Modaoqi mllage m west central Chma. The drawmg came to the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum through the courtesy of Dr H H Hu. The tree collected, wrote to E. D. Merrill for examination. I Dr. Merrill telling him my identification of this new tree to the fossil genus Metase- specimen to Dr. quoia and requested him to send $250 to enable Mr. Hsieh to go to Szechuan to collect seeds. Dr. Merrill sent the money and Mr. Hsieh flew to Chunkmg in the autumn of 1947 and then went to living Metasequoia interesting in botany in a century. discovery of this the most After Mr. Hsieh made the collection of herbarium specimens [ 1946] Professor Cheng sent a Mou-tao-chi where he collected large quanti- 6 ties of seeds,which Professor Cheng sent to Dr. Merrill, who distributed them to 76 institutions and persons interested in trees for propagation purposes. I also distributed these seeds to a few institutions and persons abroad, and many important institutions of botany and forestry in China have been given seeds also for propagation purposes. Last winter Professor Chaney expressing his wish to Metasequoia region to make personal investigations. Early wrote to me visit the in this year Professor Nanking and with Mr. Hsieh both flew to Chunking, from where they journeyed to Moutao-chi and Shui-sa-pa in Lichuan Hsien of Hupeh province. In these February Chaney flew to in Cheng, professor of forestry at National Central Umversity Nanjing and co-author of the botamcal determination of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, Journeyed to Sichuan and Hubei to see the tree for himself m August 1948. Here he stands on the W C. buttressed trunk to to of the type tree m Modaoqi. bandit-infested regions they explored for three weeks and took photographs and wood-borings and collected herbarium specimens of plants associated with this tree.2 I met Professor Chaney in Nanking in the latter part of March. We discussed the phylogeny of Metasequoia and Sequoia, and the relationship between the families of Metasequoiaceae, Taxodiaceae, and Cupressaceae.3 At the same time we started the movement to establish a committee in the Chinese government for the conservation of Metasequoia, which is on the verge of extinction as there are found no more than 1,000 large and small trees of this living fossil in existence, and the peasants are still cutting the trees for interior finishing purposes. Now such a committee has been established, the ministries of interior, education, and agriculture, the Academia Sinica, the National Central Museum, and the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology all have representatives ' It was participate in this work, looking forward the establishment of a Metasequoia National Park in the type region: Professor Chaney was appointed a foreign member of this committee. Professors Merrill and Chaney have jointly made an appeal to subscribe money for this purpose. Mr. Hwa has journeyed extensively in Szechuan and Hupeh to search for all the trees of Metasequoia growing in these regions. Metasequoia was first discovered at Mou-taochi of Wan Hsien in Szechuan province.4 There are found three trees, the largest of which is 33 meters (108 feet) in height and 3.3 meters (10 feet) in diameter at the swelling buttress and 2 meters (6.6 feet) in diameter at breast height; the other two are small trees. These are all the Metasequoia trees found within the boundary of Szechuan province.s In Chien-nan county of Lichuan Hsien of Hupeh province Mr. Hwa discovered another tree measuring 30 meters (98 (Hsueh), who collected seeds in 1947. other sources give the date as early March; and once agam, it was C. T. Hwa who accompa2Chaney and med Chaney. He and his party explored the region for three days, rather than three weeks. 3 In their 1948 paper, \"On the New Family Metasequoiaceae and on Metasequoia glyptostroboides, a Livmg Species of the Genus Metasequoia Found in Szechuan and Hupeh,\" H. H. Hu and W C. Cheng proposed a new family, Metasequoiaceae, for the genus Metasequoia. 4The borders of Sichuan and Hubei have since been shifted, placmg Mo-tao-chi in Hubei province. 5 Since then, the part of Sichuan in which Metasequoia grew wild has become the admmistrative unit Chongqing Shi. C. T. Hwa, not Mr. Hsieh most 7 height, 1 meter (3.3 feet) in diameter at height; another in Wang-cha-ying meaI suring 35 meters (115 feet) in height and 2.1 meters (7 feet) in diameter breast high. From Ta-pan-ying through Shui-sa-pa to Shio-ho, along valleys about 40 li long,6 there are large and small trees, altogether about 1,000 individuals, among which the large ones there number about 100, the tallest measuring 30 meters (98 feet) in height. The natives frequently dig the wild young trees or make cuttings and plant them along the rice fields or streams or before feet) in breast their doors. North from Wan Hsien and south down to Shui-sa-pa, the Metasequoia region extends to an area about 800 square kilometers, with Shui-sa-pa as the distribution center. Altitudinally Metasequoia is distributed from 800 to 1,350 meters (2,600 to 4,400 feet). Within this region there is plenty of rainfall and a large amount of humidity, cool in summer and with heavy snow in winter. Its ideal site for propagation is the highlands in central and eastern and southwestern China at an altitude of about 1,000 meters (3,300 feet) . As Professor Chaney returned to Nanking, Mr. Hwa was left behind to make further exploration. He traveled extensively in western Hupeh. Though no further discovery of Metase- drawmg of the botanical characters of the Metasequoia glyptostroboides accompamed the publication of Hu and W. C. Cheng's formal descmption m the Bulletm of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology (1948)( New Series 1(2): 153-161. This has been made, he discovered sevof forests that have not been discovered before. He made extensive collections of herbarium specimens. Surely there will be new species of plants discovered. quoia trees eral large tracts 6 Li is a traditional Chmese measure of distance; it has been standardized at 500 meters, or 547 yards. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides (1985)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25235","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eaf6d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Chi-ju, Cheng Hseuh","article_content":"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Kunming in 1984, Dr. Peter S. Ashton, then director of the Arboretum, happened to meet Professor Hsueh of the Southwestern Forestry College and suggested that he write a short memoir of his early involvement with Metasequoia glyptostroboides. The article, originally published in Arnoldia in 1985, is included here for its sharp, very fresh sense of excitement about the discovery; no anthology devoted to Metasequoia glyptostroboides would be complete without it. On a Hsueh Chi-ju visit to [1945], I happened to see specimen of Metasequoia glyptothe that Mr. Wang Zhang had collected at Modaoqi village in Wanxian county, China. The next year, following the route Mr. Wang had taken, I made two trips there to collect perfect specimens and to conduct further investigations. Although I am old now, the two orty years stroboides are ago still fresh in my memory. the Forestry Department of the former National Central University at Zhongjing (Chungking) in 1945 and then worked on the gymnosperms, studying for a master's degree under the guidance of Professor trips I graduated from Cheng Wanjun. One day in 1945, Wang Zhang, who worked at the Central Forestry Experimental Institution, sent a cone-bearing specimen collected at Modaoqi to Professor Cheng for identification. Its vernacular name was shuishan (water fir), and it was somewhat similar to Glyptostrobus pensilis (G. lineatus). After making a preliminary identification, Professor Cheng considered that it might belong to a new taxon of the Gymnospermae, since the opposite arrangement of the leaves and cone scales differed from that of G. pensilis and other members of the Taxodiaceae. Since the specimen Mr. Wang collected had no male inflorescences and since the cones had been picked up from the ground, we didn't know how the cones grew on the branches. In addition, we had no information on whether it was deciduous or evergreen, on its flowering season, or on its ecological characteristics and distribution. Further research being necessary, Professor Cheng naturally advised me to collect some perfect specimens and to make an investigation. Since we had no funds and everybody was quite hard up, I could only go to the place on my own, carrying a few pieces of simple baggage and specimen-clips. I left Chungking city by steamboat and, after two days, arrived at Wanxian county, on the northern bank of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River. After crossing the river, I had to walk 120 kilometers [72 miles] to my destination. In 1946 I made two trips from Chungking to Modaoqi, in February and May, respectively, both times singlehandedly. The First Trip to Modaoqi I remember that on my first trip the boat was moored in Fengdu county for the first night. On a hill behind the county town was a temple regarded in the Old China as an inferno where the \"Lord of Hell\" reigned. Dead souls were supposed to go there to register. So I made use of this rare opportunity to take a solitary night Reprinted from Arnoldia (1985) 45(4): 10-18. 9 walk in this weird and dreadful placeevidence that I was full of vigor and curiosity m my youth. At that time there was no highway from Wanxian county to Modaoqi village. My trip was very difficult, the trails threading through the mountains being less than one foot wide. The region was inhabited by the Tu minority and had been isolated from the outside world for ages. During the war of resistance against Japan, the Hubei provincial government moved to Enshi county in its neighborhood; thenceforward its intercourse with the outside world had somewhat increased. Since this region was located on the border between Sichuan and Hubei provinces, an area characterized by difficult and hazardous roads, murder and robbery occurred frequently. It was regarded as a forbidding place and was seldom visited by travelers. On my trip, I set out from Wanxian and stayed at Changtanjing for the night. My fellow travelers were several peddlers. While we chatted around a fire at night, the innkeeper came to give us a warning: \"If you go any farther you will travel along a narrow valley cut by the Modaoqi River. Travel will become more dangerous and threatened with robbery, which often Professor Hsueh was photographed m October of 1996 when, accompamed by his daughter and granddaughter, he msited the occurs at dangerous turns of the river. Arnold Arboretum. His chief area of botanical mterest is the Travelers from both directions are bamboo family robbed by being jammed together, or 'rounded up.' Therefore, if you see no travelers Finally, at dusk on the third day, I reached my destination safely. I set out immediately to coming your way for a long time, it is very likely that a robbery has occurred ahead, and you had search for that colossal tree despite hunger, better take care. Only a few days ago we witthirst, and fatigue, and without considering nessed such an incident in this vicinity.\" The where I would take my lodging. It was February 19th and cold. The tree was located at the edge innkeeper then gave a vivid and horrible of the southern end of a small street. In the twidescription of a murder. The poor peddlers, my fellow travelers, were very frightened. They light nothing was discernible except the withdared not go any farther and returned to ered and yellowed appearance of the whole tree. Wanxian the next morning. As for me, I was My excitement cooled. \"Am I to bring back just some dried bent on finding that colossal tree and collecting branches?\" I asked myself. more specimens, so I resolutely continued my The tree was gigantic; no one could have trip along the route marked out by Mr. Wang, climbed it. As I had no specific tools, I could without any fear or hesitation. 10 day's walk from my destination, I came across a peasant carrying a fagot mixed with some Podocarpus nagi. The wood was said to have been cut from a nearby mountain. I took two twigs and pressed them as specimens. This indicated that P. nagi, another primeval gymnosperm, occurred in the vicinity. This time I took measurements of the Metasequoia tree. It was 37 meters (about 122 feet) high and 7 meters (about 23 feet) m girth, and still grew vigorously. To ascertain the distribution of Metasequoia, I interviewed many local people, but none of them knew. The innkeeper did tell me that a whole stretch of shui-shan trees might be found at Xiahoe, in Lichuan county, Hubei province, about 50 kilometers (30 miles) away. As I had almost exhausted my traveling allowance, and I had to communication was extremely inconvement, give up my attempt to extend my trip to that place. Nevertheless, the innkeeper had proas an vided the important clue for a more thoroughgoa recon- ing exploration later. All I could do was-taking original spot as a center-to make naissance within the area I could cover in one day. In a few days I had collected more than one hundred specimens. Two things impressed me deeply. One was One of the many specimens at Metasequoia glyptostroboides that Professor Hsueh collected dunng his first tnp to Modaoqi This specimen is m the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. only throw stones at it. When the branches fell from the tree, I found, to my great surprise, that there were many yellow male cones and some female cones on the leafless branches. I jumped with joy and excitement. The weather being cold, many plants were not yet in flower. Since I was short of money, I returned to Chungking city three days later. The Second Trip to Modaoqi The second trip was in May of the same year, its purpose being to collect the cone-bearing specimens in addition to ascertaining the natural distribution of Metasequoia and the flora of the region. On my way to Modaoqi, about half a whole stretches of Geastrum sp. (an earthstar fungus) mixed with small stones of a similar shape, forming a peculiar landscape. The other thing that impressed me was an incident. Not even by the day before my departure had I given up on the possibility of making a reconnaissance. At four in the afternoon of the last day, I met a traveler coming from the southeast and asked him where the shui-shan tree could be found. He told me that it could be got near a small village about 5 kilometers (3 miles) from where we were. Upon hearing this I almost broke mto a run, intending to return to the inn before dark so that I might leave for Wanxian the next day. After trotting for a while, I met another peasant and asked him how far it was to the village. (I can't be sure now, but it may have been Nanpin village in Lichuan county.) \"Five kilometers,\" he replied. Mountain people sometimes differ considerably in their gauge of distance. came across that I 11 1 I was wavering as to whether to go or not. If I should go, it was certain that I could not have returned to the inn before dark and that the innkeeper would worry. Then, too, I had already hired a man to carry the specimens for me; we had agreed on the next morning as the time for departure. I could not break my word! But finally I made up my mind to make another reconnaissance for shui-shan. It was getting dark when I arrived at the small village. The villagers in their isolation seldom met outsiders, especially \"intellectuals\" such as I was. My arrival aroused their curiosity. They surrounded me, making all sorts of inquiries. But I was anxious to see the Metasequoia trees. When I was told that there were no such trees, I was very disappointed. However, I did not give up hope, and asked the villagers to accompany me to make one last reconnaissance. There was, indeed, no Metasequoia. I did collect some specimens of Tsuga chinensis, however. I intended to return to the inn in spite of the dark night. However, the friendly villagers had already made arrangements for my food and lodging, and had warned me repeatedly of the frequent robberies on the way, insisting on my leaving the next day, escorted by some local people. Yet I could hardly fall asleep, thinking that I could not cause them so much trouble or break my word to the hired carrier. And then I thought that in the depth of the night there would be no \"bandits,\" since there would be no travelers to rob. So at two in the morning I awoke my roommates, explaining to them the reason for my prompt departure, and left the villagers a letter of acknowledgment. Since the door was locked, I could only jump over the wall so as not to disturb others. In the moonlight I passed through stretches of dark pines, returning to the inn before dawn. That very day I left for Wanxian. Geomancy Spared the Type Tree Modaoqi was a very small village, to the southeast of which stood the Chiyue Mountains. Its altitude was 1,744 meters [about 5,755 feet]. At in Wanxian county, Sichuan called because of its situaprovince. tion at the source of the river. As modao in the time it was It was so \"knife-grinding\" and suggests the name was changed to Moudao, simsterness, which means \"truth-seeking\" in Chinese. At present it is under the jurisdiction of Lichuan county. As the local people looked upon the Metasequoia as a sort of divine tree, they built a shrine beside it. Among the villagers there were quite a few traditions about the Metasequoia. As a result, the villagers considered its fruit-bearing condition to be an indication of the yield of crops, and the withering of its twigs or branches a forecast of someone's death. It was also rumored that, some time after the founding the Kuomin Tang government, some foreign missionaries who were passing through the village were willing to buy the tree for a big sum of money. The villagers refused to sell, however, because of the geomantic nature of the place. Thus, it was because of feudalistic superstition that the tree had survived. Its age is estimated at four hundred years. With the advent of well-regulated highway communication, the poor village of the former days changed its aspect long ago. The Metasequoia tree, which had survived the ravages of time and is reputed to be a \"living fossil,\" has not only persisted, but is being disseminated. Now Metasequoia trees are \"settled\" in many countries of the world. It is only natural that people, when admiring this species of primeval tree, should wonder about its original habitat and should wish to know how it was discovered. Chinese means "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Chinese-American Botanical Collaboration","article_sequence":3,"start_page":12,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25234","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eaf28.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"Notes on Chinese-American Botanical Collaboration Karen Madsen Collaborations between Chinese botanists and their colleagues in the West began in the early part of this century. In many cases, the bonds that fostered those collaborations were Arboretum and Harvard forged at Western institutions, including University Herbaria. a the Arnold odern science first gained foothold China with the overthrow of the JL Qing Dynasty in 1912 and the cultural revolution that followed in 1915. Botany began there as it had in the West, with systematics : the names and relationships of plants had to be established before other research could proceed. Work in systematic botany was partly inspired by the many Western collectors who developed a fascination for the rich Chinese flora. One of these was Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, who made the study of East Asian plants a major focus of the Arboretum early in this century. Sargent's interest had been aroused by Asa Gray's observation (1859) that at least forty genera of plants occur only in eastern Asia and northeastern North America, an indication that the two flora are closely related. For Sargent, this suggested eastern Asia as a source of new plants for New England, since the species of one region might grow well in the other. The Arboretum's success in growing seeds sent from Beijing by Emil Bretschneider, a Russian physician living there, confirmed Sargent's theory, and he began to acquire Chinese specimens actively, at first chiefly through European institutions. In 1907 he hired Ernest H. Wilson to collect in western China; later he employed the collector and ethnologist Joseph F. C. Rock. As the Arboretum's collection of Chinese plants grew, so did knowledge of China's flora, thanks largely to Alfred Rehder, curator of the Arboretum's herbarium. But Rehder was only one of several Western botanists who extended the the world's scien- V \/ in tific knowledge of the Chinese flora. Others included the Regius Keeper of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Edinburgh, William Wright Smith; Heinrich Handel-Mazzetti, an Austrian who collected extensively in China and published the seven-volume Symbolae Sinicae (19291937) ; and the American Elmer D. Merrill, who worked throughout his career to advance the study of botany in China. On his first visit there, in 1916, Merrill helped establish the herbaria at Lingnan University in Canton and at the University of Nanjing. He also collected plants in the vicinity of Canton with botanists from Lingnan and returned a year later for more extensive fieldwork. He identified plants for the herbaria of many institutions, mcluding those at Lingnan, Nanjing, and the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology (Beijing). In his various directorships, beginning in 1916 at the Bureau of Science in Manila and continuing at the University of California's College of Agriculture, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Arnold Arboretum, he supported botanical exploration by Chinese institutions through cooperative arrangements. Just as Americans had earlier been obliged to travel to European herbaria to study American plants, Chinese m the early part of this century were obliged to travel to American and European mstitutions to study Chinese plants. The China Foundation for the Promotion of Education and Culture sent students to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and Edinburgh, Jardin des Plantes, the Berlin Botanic Garden, the New York Botanical Garden, and the Arnold Arboretum. Had the early Chinese botanists not been able to use the research collections at these 13 Professor John G Jack (leftJ and three of his Chmese students examming a black maple ~Acer saccharum var. 7 nigrum) photographed m the Arnold Arboretum during the summer of 1917 institutions, they would have had to begin their study of the flora of their country from the very beginning. Woon-Young Chun came to Harvard in 1915 specifically to use the rich collections at the Arboretum, because \"it would take me a lifetime of travel to study what I can find out here about Chinese trees in a few years\" (Haas 1988). The Arboretum did not officially offer graduate instruction, but did admit special students who could pursue botanical research with the use of the Arboretum's herbarium, library, and living collections. Assistance was also available from the staff, usually in the person of John G. Jack. Chinese students often registered at the Arboretum's neighbor and fellow Harvard institution, the Bussey Institution for Research in Applied Biology, which offered graduate studies in subjects related to agriculture, such as genet- ics, entomology, plant anatomy, and economic botany. In addition to Jack's work at the Arboretum-checking plant identifications, lecturing to field classes, and supervising the plantingshe was associated with both the Bussey and the Harvard Forest as assistant professor of dendrology and of forestry. He shared Sargent's interest in east Asian flora and in 1905 traveled to Japan, Korea, and China at his own expense to collect specimens for the Arboretum. An enthusiastic and effective teacher, Jack went out of his way to help his Chinese students, often paying their wages for work at the Arboretum out of his own pocket or arranging Harvard loans for them. He helped them classify their plant specimens and prepare their manuscripts for publication. One of those students, Hsen Hsu Hu, maintained a warm correspondence with his teacher after his return to China 14 used by Chinese botanists to establish relationships with eminent botanists in the West. In 1920 he sent Sargent a collection of woody specimens from Jiangxi Province, asking Sargent to identify them in return. Over the years, he built up the research collections at Southeastern University by attaching Sargent's identifications to an identically numbered duplicate set retained in Nanjing. Hu was enrolled at the Bussey Institution from September 1923 to June 1925, during which time he took four forestry courses with John Jack. He left Harvard with a doctor of science degree and a thesis on the genera of Chinese flowering plants that was to be published in multiple volumes. Expectations for this pioneering generation were high. In his 1924-1925 annual report, Dean Wheeler of the Bussey Institution wrote: [Hu's thesis] will be the foundation for all manuals on the flora of China and a necessary and valuable aid to students of the plant life of that extensive country. Professor Hu proposes to conduct vigorous explorations and studies of the complex and comparatively little known plant life of his native country, and m this work he will continue to have such assistance and cooperation as Professor Jack can give. Undated photograph of H. H. Hu. and honored him (and his relationship to Chinese botany) in the name of a new genus, Sinojackia. (Hu named another new genus in Styracaceae, Rehderodendron, for the Arboretum's taxonomist.)\/ Chinese students had been coming to America since shortly before the turn of the century; by the teens, 1,600 Chinese were studying in the United States. H. H. Hu was among the first generation of botanists to come to Harvard for graduate training. He had acquired an undergraduate degree at the University of California at Berkeley in 1916 and then returned to China for seven years, teaching at the Nanjing Higher Normal School (the predecessor of the National Southeastern University, Nanjing) and pursuing fieldwork in Zhejiang and Jiangxi provinces (Haas 1988, Li 1944). Hu first made contact with the Arnold Arboretum by sending specimens, a standard method Hu's letters to Jack in the 1930s portray botanists full of energy and zest for the opportunities before them. The war with Japan began in 1931 1 and caused many upheavals, but none so great as to stop progress in science. In 1933 Hu wrote, I believe if we can resist Japanese aggression, there will be a very important scientific renascence in China.... The time for dallying about philosophy and political science and economic theories and revolutionary ~argon is passed. We are setting heart to learn real things\" ~7\/15\/33~. (. Plant-collecting expeditions were mounted. Taking the advice of C. S. Sargent, Woon-Young Chun used his 1919 Sheldon Travelling Fellowship from Harvard to begin collecting plants on southern China's unexplored Hainan Island. He amassed a collection that by 1934 Hu described as \"enormously large\"; like many collections, it shared with the Arnold Arboretum. Hu's Mr. Wang, explored southwestern Sichuan and \"penetrated southeast Tibet where Handel-Mazzetti and George Forrest and indeed was collector, 15 5 any white was ten or man have not penetrated.\" The yield specimens of each of 10,000 numbers, 30 years ago-the type locality for many botanical treasures, Muping, will be next door\" (11\/18\/ Hu also directed a five-year of Yunnan Province that began in investigation 1933 and by 1936 had harvested 3,000 numbers and 30,000 specimens. The Royal Horticultural Society and Arnold Arboretum cooperated with the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology on a seed-collecting trip to the Burma-Yunnan border ; many herbarium specimens and rare seeds were collected. kinds of plants. 38). was nuttallm] \"The rare rhododendron, R. smonuttallii [now R. of which only 3 mature fruits have been collected by Kingdon Ward, we found m great abundance and 60 mature fruits have been collected last year\" (2\/3\/39). New plants were studied. In Yunnan era were ern new discovered, named, and species of tropical gen- detail. In southwestnew species of Pasania, and Quercus were colCastanopsis, lected. Sometimes plants were renamed: Chun placed two species m genus Rehderodendron that Hu revised and placed in separate genera; Merrill informed Hu that his Sinomerrillii was Neuropeltis racemosum Wall (3\/7\/38). Huodendron was discovered almost simultaneously by Hu, Chun, and Rehder, on which Hu commented, \"Such things as these are quite too numerous to Yunnan alone two dozen When the staff of Lushan Botanical Garden obliged to evacuate owing to the war in 1939, Hu sent them to Kunming to help with the new institute. Publications abounded. In 1921 W. Y. Chun published Chinese Economic Trees, a work he had begun at Harvard. Icones Plantarum Sinicarum, a collaborative effort by Hu and Chun, was published in five large-format volumes, 1927 to 1938. (The first volume was dedicated to Charles S. Sargent, the fourth to E. D. Merrill, and the fifth to Alfred Rehder.) Hu's very long list of publications included enumerations of plants, descriptions of new species and genera, analytical keys, geographic distribution studies. He collaborated with R. W. Chaney on a study of Miocene flora in North Shantung, China. For years he ambitiously planned a \"Silva of China, after the fashion of Prof. Sargent's Silva of North America\" (6\/17\/31). In 1948 the sole volume of Silva of China, A Description of Trees Growing Naturally m China, volume 2, Betulaceae to Corylaceae, was published. Throughout the afflictions and dislocations of war, Hu retained his confidence. In 1939 he wrote, \"You may be sure that epoch-making heartening\" (8\/6\/35). New institutions were founded. H. H. Hu joined the new Fan Memorial Institute of Biology in Beijing as head of botany in the late 1920s, later to become its director. In 1934 he established a 1,700-acre arboretum and botanical garden at Guling (Lushan Arboretum and Botanical Garden). After only a year a seed list had been issued and they had procured 3,800 kinds of seeds. In 1938 it was in Kunming, the capital of Yunnan Province, that a new botanical institute was organized, and Hu was asked to initiate yet another in eastern Tibet, \"which E. H. Wilson explored Woon-Yung Chun, founder and director of the South Chma Botanical Institute, Canton, and collaborator with H. H. Hu on Icones Plantarum Sinicarum. 16 6 of Chinese horticulture is about be initiated\" (2\/3\/39). In 1948 he briefly summed up the accomplishments of his generation of Chinese botanists: developments to Bibliography Gray, Asa. \/ 1859) Papers ~ 1889. The Flora of Japan. In Scientific of Asa Gray, II, ed. C. S. Sargent. Boston: Smce Chinese botanists have taken active part Houghton Mifflin. Haas, W. J. 1988. Transplanting Botany the botanical exploration and systematic studof Chinese flora, numerous new discoveries have been made, such as the genera m ies to Chma: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong. Arnoldia 48~4\/: 9-25. Pseudotaxus, Nothotsuga, Smithiodendron, Smo7ackia, Rehderodendron, Huodendron, and Zema, all mteresting trees, both botanically and horticulturally. Crowning all is the Metasethe \"living fossil\" discovered in CenChina, the most remarkable botanical discovery in the century (Hu 1948\/.. ( quola, ... Hay, Ida. 1995. Science m the Pleasure Ground: A History of the Arnold Arboretum Boston: Northeastern University Press. Howard, R. A 1978. Botamcal Impressions of the People's Repubhc 218-237. of China Arnoldia 38~6\/: tral Hu, H. H. 1931-1949. Letters of H. H. Hu to J. G. Jack and to E. D. Mernll. Chinese Correspondence, Archives of the Arnold . Arboretum, Harvard Very soon thereafter, following the successful revolution led by the Chinese Communist Party, science in China was completely reorga- Umversity. 1948. How Metasequoia, the \"Lmmg Fossil\" Was Discovered m Chma. Journal of the New York Botanzcal Garden nized. On 1 November 1949, the Chinese Academy of Sciences was established as the umbrella organization for scientific research institutes in the Beijing area. Work was suspended at the Fan Memorial Institute while control was transferred to the new Academy. In a 1949 letter to Elmer Merrill, Hu voiced a hope that the Institute would return to normal operations when the new arrangements were complete, but that was not to happen in his lifetime (11\/24). When China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution began in 1966, most scientific work came to a halt; Hu died in 1968. In the mid-1970s scientific work resumed, and communication between Chinese and American botanists was slowly re-established. Botanical collaboration between the two countries officially resumed in 1978 with an invitation to a delegation of American botanists-among them Richard A. Howard, then director of the Arnold Arboretum-to tour botanical gardens and institutions in the People's Republic of China. 49~585\/: 201-207. Its Hu, Shm-ymg. 1980. The Metasequoia Flora and Phytogeographic Sigmficance. Journal of Arnold Arboretum 61: 41-94. the Li, Hm-hn 1944. Botamcal Exploration m China During the Last Twenty-Five Years. Proceedmgs of the Lmnean Society of London 156: 25-44. Merrill, E. D. 1946. Mernlleana: A Selection from the General Writings of Elmer Dana Merrill. Chronica Botanica 10~3\/4\/. Reports of the Arnold Sargent. C. S. 1920-1927. Sax, K.. Arboretum, Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College, 1918-1926 Cambridge: Harvard University. 1949. John George Jack. 1861-1949. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 30(41: 345-347. S. B. 1970. Charles Sutton, Sprague Sargent and Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Wheeler, W. M. 1925. Report of the Bussey Institution, Reports of the President and the Treasurer of Harvard College, 1923-1924. Cambndge: Harvard University. Karen Madsen is the Arnold Arboretum. editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Another \"Living Fossil\" Comes to the Arnold Arboretum (1948)","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25223","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24ebb6f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"Another \"Living Fossil\" Comes the Arnold Arboretum E. D. Merrill to director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1935 to 1946 and Arnold Professor thereafter until his death in 1956. A botanist and administrator of many accomplishments, he is nonetheless best remembered for having distributed several bushels, or at least a kilogram, of Metasequoia seeds. Early was Elmer D. Merrill February 1948, Merrill announced the discovery of the living Metasequoia to the scientific community with a brief note in the journal Science, calling it \"an event of extraordinary interest to both botanists and paleobotanists.\" The following account of how the seeds were acquired and subsequently dispersed is from the article Merrill published in Arnoldia one month later. in hen botanical specimens [of Metase- glyptostroboides] were received the Arnold Arboretum in the latter part of 1946,I immediately became interested in the possibility of securing seeds of this extraordinary species, and accordingly commumcated with Dr. H. H. Hu, Director of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology m Peiping, one of the joint authors concerned with the actual description of the species. Incidentally, Dr. H. H. Hu was trained at the Arnold Arboretum, receiving his Sc.D. degree from Harvard Umversity in 1925. Dr. Hu responded favorably and accordingly a modest grant was made from the Arnold Arboretum's restricted Chinese exploration fund provided by the late Harrison W. Smith of Tahiti, himself a graduate of Harvard m 1895 and long interested in matters Chinese. On the basis of this grant Professor Cheng organized a third expedition to the type locality, this also led by his assistant Mr. Hsueh. While 1947 was reported as not being a seed year, an ample supply of seeds was good secured during the time that Mr. Hsueh was in * ... at V quoia Edwin Dana Merrill, photographed at age 68, appropriately enough with herbarium specimen in hand His successor as director of the Arnold Arboretum, Richard A. Howard, estimated that over Mermll's career as collector, systematist, and director, he was instrumental m \"amassing botamcal resources totaling over one million sheets of herbarium specimens and untold numbers of duphcates distributed for the benefit of the botanists to follow him. \" Exerpted from \"Metasequoia, Another'Lming Fossil,\"' Arnoldia (5 The third expedition was led by C. T. Hwa. ' March 1948\/ 8\/1\/: 1-8. 18 the field. These were delivered in Nanking early in December; the first small sending reached Boston January 5, 1948, and a second and is now in transit. Seeds were planted in our propagating house early in January, and many of these larger shipment germinated before the end of the month. Thus it is that in due time the Arnold Arboretum will have a certain number of living plants for distribution. Following long established Arnold Arboretum practice, packets of seeds have been widely distributed to institutions in the United States and Europe. It is, of course, not known whether this remarkable species will prove to be hardy under the rather difficult climatic conditions characteristic of the This map of the limited geographic area of Metasequoia was drawn from data Boston area. With excelprovided Dr. Mermll by Professor Wan-Chun Cheng. lent germination records it is now certain that we shall be able to estabattempt to preserve a remarkable conifer, and a lish this ancient but now nearly extinct type species that in its native habitat is apparently in various parts of the United States and not far from the verge of extinction. Incidenelsewhere, for somewhere, with us, favorable tally, Professor Cheng who, with Dr. Hu, coopclimatic conditions will be found-if not in erated with us, writes that without the modest the Northeast, then in the South or on the grant made by the Arnold Arboretum, it would West Coast. have been impossible for his representative to The point is emphasized that in spite of the make the trip to Szechuan and Hupeh in 1947, and comments on the fact that trees are being unfavorable economic conditions, in present of adversities in China rendering travel difrapidly destroyed by cutting in this region as spite well as in various other parts of China.... and in spite of unfavorable exchange conficult, It has been argued in some quarters that we this cooperative project did succeed; ditions, that as a result an ample supply of seeds is availapproach the condition of diminishing returns in the botanical exploration of China, a field able ; that the seeds are viable; and, this being that has long been one in which the Arnold the case, the Arnold Arboretum has made an Arboretum has specialized. This statement is important contribution, working through its doubtless true to a certain degree, but from what Chinese associates, in thus being involved in an 19 has appeared in extensive collections made within the past three decades, I am of the opinion that a vast amount of fieldwork is still called for and is still justified. This remarkable Metasequoia find bears out this belief. In spite of all that has been published on the enormously rich flora of China in the past century, and particularly within the past four or five decades, there are vast areas still remaining to be very explored, and the already known flora will be greatly increased, as to the number of actually known species, when the more recently assembled collections For m are studied in detail. to an account of Mernll's early years and of his time the Philippines, see \"E. D. Merrill, From Maine Mamla\" by Ida Hay in Arnoldia \/Spring 1998~ 58~ 111-19. The delegates to a UNESCO-fmanced symposium on botamcal nomenclature and taxonomy held m Utrecht, the Netherlands, June 1948, included botanists from Europe, the United States, India, Australia, and Indonesia. E. D. Merrill is standing, fifth from the right. It is said that he made a lasting impression by appearmg on the speakers' platform, pockets bulgmg with Metasequoia seeds. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How to Fund Botanical Expeditions","article_sequence":5,"start_page":20,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25228","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24e896f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"How to Fund Botanical E. D. Merrill had become an Expeditions expert on Chinese plants during his years as director of the Bureau of Science in the Philippines; his ability to identify prodigious quantities of specimens with phenomenal speed became legendary. Also extraordinarily effective as an administrator, he developed his own methods of supporting fieldwork in distant countries, as the letters below illustrate. In the first letter that follows, Merrill-recently retired as director of the Arnold Arboretum-responds to a request for the names and addresses of responsible, trained, and experienced plant collectors in China, \"all very efficient and very trustworthy.\" Merrill continued this mode of funding with the Metasequoia expeditions, acting through Professors W. C. Cheng and H. H. Hu, his friend and colleague of thirty years. The $250.00 Merrill sent to Hu in 1947 financed C. T. Hwa's trip to Sichuan and Hubei for herbarium specimens and seeds, and in 1948 two grants of $100.00 enabled Hwa to spend the summer and early fall with Cheng and K. L.Chu investigating the plant species associated with Metasequoia. The second letter, which accompanied the first of the $100.00 grants indicates some of the difficulties faced by Chinese botanists and their collaborators. January 27, 1947 Henry Hicks Hicks Nursery Westbury Long Island, N.Y. Mr. Dear Mr. Hicks :- conversation regarding \"raids\" on China from a horticultural-botanical standpoint, for in pre-war I had strongly developed this field. In earlier days the years only way of securing plants, seeds, etc. was to send an expedition, as Sargent financed the Wilson trips, the Purdom explorations, the Rock expeditions for the Arnold Arboretum, etc. These were superexpensive as high salaries and high travel expenses were, of course, involved. Beginning about 1915 the situation changed with the return to China of certain Chinese students who had been sent abroad to I haven't forgotten our 21 special training.... The result: that there is now in China a body of trained men who know their way around in field work appertaining to both horticulture and botany. Beginning about 1918 I started in to take advantage of this situation while I was in Manila, making two vacation trips to China (Canton and Nanking) to help train Chinese botanists in field methsecure ods. After my return to the United States in 1923 I continued this exploitation at the University of California, New York Botanical Garden, and the Arnold Arboretum. The system is a very simple one. I make a modest grant to this or that individual or institution in China (these grants have varied from $50.00 to $100.00 up to $500.00) giving the individual carte blanche on the actual expenditure of the funds to cover costs of field work, the resulting collections of plants and seeds to be divided equitably between the cooperating institutions. There has not been a single failure. The results have been most astonishing. In general, for what it would cost to send one man from here and cover his salary and travel expense I could maintain a dozen expeditions in China, and from each one of the dozen would receive as our share on a 50-50 split about as much material as the one man sent from here! This sounds rather absurd, but it is actually the truth. It means that no \"salaries\" were supplied, for the cooperating institution in China covered the modest cost of the services of the trained collectors, and funds that I supplied were used only for expedition expenses in the field.... I'm personally tremendously intrigued with a recent discovery in Szechuan. A giant tree like Sequoia and Taiwania, representing a new genus to be described as Metasequoia or some such name. Only three living trees in the stand! Later another grove with perhaps 20 trees located. We got a botanical specimen recently & Dr. Hu has promised to send seeds as soon as he can get them. Here is a forest giant just on the edge of extinction! If C.S.S[argent] were alive and learned of such an extraordinary thing he would probably send out a special expedition to bring home the bacon. I can do it at practically no cost. of my successor here may be and whether or not our \"Field\" will continue to be eastern Asia. I've done my bit and I am rather proud of it. Let us hope that this eastern Asiatic work will continue. Now I do not know what the policies Very sincerely yours E.D.Merrill 22 March 26, 1948 Professor Wan-Chun Cheng . National Central University Nanking, China Dear Professor , Cheng: to our previous correspondence, I enclose herewith I am sure check No. 22690 in amount of $100.00 payable to you.... that you will be able to negotiate this check, which is drawn to your personal order, to advantage.... This grant of $100.00 is to be used at your discretion, but Referring primarily for the purposes of keeping your assistant in the field during the collecting season in the Metasequoia area. I judge from the last letter that I received from you that the Rector of the University approved your plan and that Mr. Hsueh* will remain in the field after Dr. Chaney shall have returned to Nanking. It is, of course, understood that if necessary or desirable you can utilize some of these funds for actually shipping specimens to this institution. This, to me, has been a very discouraging phase of the situation in China, in that we could have large collections made but for the difficulties in arranging for shipment of specimens to the United States, which have proved to be insuperable. Maybe, here, you could enlist the cooperation of proper representatives in the American Legation in Nanking; some years ago, when the situation in Peking became very acute after the \"incident\" that set off the war between Japan and China, the American officials in Peking sent an enormous lot of botanical material to the Arnold Arboretum in the I now diplomatic pouches.... to you, all of the Metasequoia seeds that You sent a package, I believe, through diplomatic agenwe need. a few days ago this large package was delivered to me here cies ; It is the package and contains some scores of thousands of seeds. have, thanks in which was also included some Metasequoia cones and a number of over seeds of our ligneous species. propagating house and will under our I have sent all of the latter we to species find out what climatic conditions. can do with the With best wishes. Very sincerely E. D. yours, EDM: AG Merrill Arnold Professor of Botany * In W. C. Cheng's response on May 12, he corrected Mernll's mistake. It was C. T. Hwa, not Mr. Hsueh, who accompanied Chaney and stayed on to continue exploring through the summer and into the fall. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"\"As remarkable as discovering a living dinosaur\": Redwoods in China (1948)","article_sequence":6,"start_page":23,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25224","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24e8128.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Chaney, Ralph W.","article_content":"\"As remarkable as discovering a living dinosaur\": Redwoods in China Ralph W Chaney By 1948, Ralph Chaney-professor of paleontology at the University of California, Berkeley, and passionate advocate for the North American redwoods-had been hearing for a year and a half from his colleague Professor H. H. Hu about the discovery in China of trees that had been thought extinct for millions of years. Chaney wrote that when he received seeds of Metasequoia from China, \"the reality of this I wanted to was on new tree so impressed me thatI decided to visit it in its native home. was see how it lived and with what other trees it associated.\" That January 9, 1948; less than two months later, Chaney was in Modaoqi, marveling at the newly found tree, shooting roll after roll of photographs, and absorbing information on the climate and topography of the tree's native region and on the plants that grew around it.* he details of the trip have been told Dr. Milton Silverman, -L Science Writer for the San Francisco Chronicle, and I flew across the Pacific and up elsewhere-how in 1925, at the end of a season with the Central Asiatic Expedition in Mongolia. If that were the case, perhaps other fossil redwoods I had found in many other parts of the world were likewise the Yangtze valley to over Chungking how we took a river boat down to Wan-Hsien and then walked the steep and slippery trails for three days Mo-tao-chi and for two days more to Shui-sapa [the so-called Metasequoia Valley]. In March, at the time of our visit, the trees were bare of leaves, having shed them last November. Hanging from their branches were long catkins bearing the male cones, and the shorter female cones were also developing on the trees. We collected some of these cones for later study in America, but our immediate interest was in the environment of these close relatives of the California Redwoods and in the other trees that were growing with them. The idea was gradually developing in my mind that it was fossils not of Sequoia but of Metasequoia that I had collected in Manchuria to related to the newly discovered trees of central China. The key to our understanding of the ancient forests of the northern hemisphere might be found not only in the living Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) of California but in the groves of Dawn Redwoods (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) in Szechuan. If so, it was important to learn as much as we could about the climate and topography of the region in which these \"living fossils\" had survived and to determine whether the trees now associated with them were the same sorts of trees as those living with them in the forests of the remote past.... Summarizing the evidence of Metasequoia distribution, we find that it appeared at high latitudes in the Cretaceous period, was widely distributed there in the Eocene, had moved 440-444 Excerpted from * \"Redwoods in China,\" Natural History Magazme (December 1948\/ 47: 1990. Milton Silverman, The Search for the Dawn Redwoods, 24 25 south and was abundant in the United States and northern China in the Oligocene, was more scattered in distribution during the Miocene, and disappeared from the fossil record on both sides of the Pacific before or during the Pliocene period. Why has it survived only in central China after living so widely around the world in earlier ages? This brings us back to the valley at Shui-sa-pa, where Dawn Redwoods are living under what appear to be natural conditions. When I was there last March, all of the hardwoods as well as the Dawn Redwoods were without leaves, but I was able to recogmze most of the common trees. Birch (Betula), chestnut (Castanea), oalc (Quercus), sweet gum (Liquidambar), beech (Fagus), and katsura (Cercidiphyllum) were among those living in immediate association, all typical members of the Arcto-Tertiary Flora [an assemblage of trees that originated in the Arctic during the Tertiary]. Their presence here with Metasequoia makes these groves more similar to the ancient forests of North America and Eurasia than any I have ever seen. So it is important to learn as much as we can about environmental conditions in these valleys of central China. It will tell us what Manchuria and Oregon looked like 40 million years ago and will restore for us the terrain in Greenland and Alaska as far back as 100 million years ago. Observations on the existing climate in the area now occupied by Dawn Redwoods will enable us to make some long-range weather predictions in reverse regarding the rains and winds of Manchuria and Oregon in the days when Metasequoia lived there and left behind its leaves and cones to be preserved as fossils. Our stay last March was too short to permit other than preliminary studies. Furthermore, there are no climatic LATE CRETACEOUS PERIOD Ralph W. Chaney, Milton Silverman, and the buttressed trunk of the large Metasequoia at Modaoqi 26 Dawn Redwood no longer widely distributed as it was in the past? No final answer can be given until further studies are made by Chinese botanists.... I can make only a few suggestions to help explain the wide differences between its past and present distribution. There is probably no other place in the world outside of the tropics where a mild, uniform climate is combined with a summer rainy season. In the southern United States we do have wet summers in the region occupied by a close relative of Metasequoia, the swamp cypress (Taxodium distichum), but the winters are cold, with temperatures regularly falling below freezing. In California we have mild winters in the region occupied by another close relative of Metasequoia, the Coast Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens), but the summers are dry. The now The three Metasequoia trees m Modaoqi The smaller two are growing at the edge of a rice field The largest is the \"type tree, \" from which botamcal specimens were taken for determination of the species It was, as Chaney wrote, \"sacred to the local mhabitants, as mdicated by the shrine at its base, and venerated by science because it represents a holdover from the age of the dmosaurs. The figure on the path is his travel compamon, Milton Silverman. \" records from any region nearer than Chungking, which is lower in altitude by about 3000 feet. However, we learned enough about the climate at Shui-sa-pa, at an altitude of about 4000 feet, to make some suggestions. Winters are cool and rainy, with temperatures rarely falling below freezing but with conditions not well suited to plant growth. Rainfall is abundant, much of it falling in the summer. The climatic regime of summer rainfall and of unfavorable winters is now to be found widely in north temperate regions, where trees bear their leaves during the summer and shed them in the winter. The deciduous habit of the Dawn Redwood and of its hardwood associates seems to have been developed in past ages in regions with summerwet and winter-cool climate. Why, then, is the Three specimens of the newly discovered conifer in Shmsapa, Hubei provmce. The evergreen comfers farther to the left are Cunninghamia; at right are chestnuts and bamboos. Three small figures can be seen 7ust to the left of the dawn redwoods. 27 The climates congenial to Metasequoia have proven far less narrow in range than Chaney and others feared. His greatest hope was to preserve the species in its native area, preferably by instituting a national park, and the trees have indeed come to be protected by the government; not even small trees can be cut down. Chaney himself brought back seeds and four seedlings from China. Concerned that his prizes might be taken from him at customs in Hawaii, he tucked the seeds and twigs into an inner pocket and requested intercession for the seedlings from a former student at the Department of Agriculture ton. in Washing- Word did not reach the inspector at Plant and Economic Quarantine in Honolulu, however, and he demanded that the four seedlings be handed over for incineration. Chaney's protestations that the trees were priceless, more than a million years old, were of no avail. According to Milton Silverman, the ensuing argument grew louder and louder until Chaney, close to hysteria, was shouting defiantly and citing \"millions of years, The landlord of the property on which the second group of tens of millions of years, a hundred dawn redwoods was found stands with his children near one million years. \" Suddenly the agitated of the largest trees. inspector asked a question, \"Are they same may be said of all parts of temperate Asia I more than a hundred and fifty years oldl\" And have visited; mild winters characterize regions so, officially declared antiques, the seedlings continued their journey to California. with dry summers, while in places where the summers are wet, the winters are cold. If it were Other articles on Metasequoia by Ralph W. Chaney not for the ranges of mountains that surround Mo-tao-chi and Shui-sa-pa, the winds from 1948. The bearing of the living Metasequoia on problems of Tertiary paleobotany. Proceedings of the North China would come down during the winNational Academy, U S A 34: 503-515 ter and make these valleys too cold for the Dawn Redwood. And the hot summer winds 1948. Redwoods around the Pacific basm. Pacific Discovery 1\/5~: 4-14 from the north and wet would make them too 1950. A revision of fossil Sequoia and Taxodium in dry. These mountains were built during the western North America based on the recent Pliocene epoch, when Metasequoia was disapdiscovery of Metasequoia. Transactions of the pearing from other parts of the world. They have American Philosophical Society. New Senes preserved in this limited area the climate on 40\/3\/: 171-263, plates 1-12. which the existence of the Dawn Redwood depends. If for any reason the climate here were An account of Chaney's trip to China by his traveling to change, they would probably become extinct companion, Milton Silverman in these valleys, as they have in all other known 1990. Search for the Dawn Redwoods. San Francisco, CA. The author. parts of the world. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Tree as Celebrity","article_sequence":7,"start_page":28,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25237","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eb36b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":" 29 release, is quietly conservative; in marked contrast are the clippings from the San Francisco Chronicle. Milton Silverman, science writer for the Chronicle, was with Ralph Chaney in January 1948 when he received seeds in the Pittsburgh Press from a Harvard news of Metasequoia. Almost immediately, Chaney began to plan a trip to see the tree, and so did Silverman. In three lavishly illustrated stories relayed from central China, Silverman high style. The first was published March 25, the last on April 5, after Chaney had returned. recounted their adventures in in the Chronicle on 30 PACE 3 THURSDAY, MARCH 25, 1948 SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE CCCCAA ~~, I 14 W,4 TRAIL TO THE DAWN-REDWOODS--This is the route followed by U. C. Fossil-Hunter Ralph W. Chaney and Chronicle Science Writer Milton Silverman to the dawnredwood groves in the interior of China. Told by \"authoritios\" the trees were only a few miles from Wan>Hsien, the two Americans struggled for 11~ days to make 230 mu~, slima aad slae#`\" mihes sr mountains ~ I ~l.- I'~,-~, ~ M~II ;LLw;;\",yiW - ~ubriaaf~d 1a ---- \" 31 ThN is the Valley of tl Ti~ar near Shvi-Nsa-Is fa Nepeh prorince, the tiwtt stsnd of dawn-redwoods found by Gh~oy and Silverman. Harc uaros of tlw trras, su~- rmora of an aeccant rau. ;row surraundad br a:akat. rhodad~droac, iris and h~drarr~ea~. The paohi at the battaw` are typical Chinasa rbca paddies. 32 Metasequoia precipitated a bicoastal controversy that hasn't entirely faded. On the East Coast, credit for distributing the seeds went to the Arnold Arboretum and E. D. Merrill; on the West Coast, R. W. Chaney took the honors. As the story of Chaney's three-day trip to Metasequoia Valley was told and retold, the The discovery of more even flourishes and fewer facts it contained. Some reporters wrote that Chaney himself had discovered the tree. publications Chaney very carefully set forth the circumstances accurately, offering due credit to Merrill when he wrote, \"For the first time in nearly a score of million years, Metasequoia lived again in the western hemisphere as a In his scientific result of Merrill's distribution of these seeds.\" Still, Merrill could not be convinced that the story straight. Chaney had done enough to set CHANEY jTHE HARVARD CRIM90N _.~ --- A Professors Squabble by David C. There is a Over Seeds I From China's Livin,a Fossil Trees D. Rogers big fight in the tree-world. Two professors are waging a bitter war over a last-growing tree, believed extinct for many millions of years. In 1941 a Chinese University employee stumbled across a giant corniferous tree-the Metasequoia-in remote central China. Ever since scientific journalists have squabbled as to whether Elmer D. Merrill, Arnold Professor of Botany, emeritus, or Ralph W. Chaney, professor of Paleontology at the University of California, is responsible for sending expeditions to bring back and distribute seeds from this \"living fossil.\" \"Credit is credit in any man's language ... ,\" Merrill grumbled yesterday. \"Chaney had nothing to do with it; the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University deserved all the credit.\" ' Claims have been made that Chaney, and not Merrill, imported the seeds. No denials of such claims, appearing in the press, seem to have been made. \" According to Merrill, even some foresters and botanists do not know the facts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils (1948)","article_sequence":8,"start_page":33,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25229","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ea328.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Andrews, Henry N.","article_content":"Metasequoia and the Living Fossils Henry N. Andrews Dr. Andrews, professor of botany at the University of Washington and paleobotanist at the Missouri Botanical Garden, turned a cool eye on the furor over \"the to the living fossil\" and dialogue. with a hint of mockery introduced a bit of perspective after last Christmas [1947] the received a small packet of seeds Professor Wan-Chun Cheng of the Arboretum of the National Central University in Nanking. These are the seeds of a new conifer recently discovered growing in eastern Szechuan and southwestern Hupeh provinces of central China. Its discovery was rather noisily announced a few months ago in the daily press as a \"living fossil,\" and while it is an appropriate term it seems to be somewhat less deserving of that title than many other modern plants ... It is fascinating indeed to find that a group of plants supposed to be extinct still lives on, in a part of the earth remote from the searching eyes of botanical explorers. There is something of the \"Lost World\" motif about it that is attractive to all naturalists, and irresistible to the popular science writers who may find it profitable to mix the facts with their fancies. And one may wonder whether the Metasequoia stir would have had as much appeal if the sequence of discovery had been reversed. The answer is almost certainly in the negative ... Metasequoia glyptostroboides has been hailed as a \"living fossil\"-a phrase that makes good headlines but one which is notably lacking in precision as far as the time element is concerned. The fossil specimens described by Miki were found in clay beds of early Pliocene Age in Japan. The Pliocene period is generally accepted as having begun some 7 or 8 million years ago. Thus it may be appreciated that accounts of this new conifer which appeared in the daily press, hailing it as \"a tree believed extinct for hortly from Garden 100,000,000 years,\" may be commended for their enthusiasm but not their accuracy! One is tempted to believe that news writers keep in stock a special supply of type bearing the inscriptions \"dinosaurs\" and \"100,000,000\" with which liberally to season all of their copy dealing with life of past geologic ages. We do know a good deal about the more ancient history of the conifers; we know that as a group they were abundant and well developed in the dinosaur age, but we do not know that Metasequoia glyptostroboides itself dates back that far. It is possible that such may be the case, but a careful review of the many fossil Sequoias described in botanical literature will be necessary before significant conclusions can be drawn. As a brief passing commentary on geologic times and the origin of various forms of living things, it may be of interest to note that large forest trees (not Metasequoia!) are known to have existed on the earth more than 300 million years ago; more primitive plants were established on the land some 375 million years ago; highly developed invertebrate animals existed in the seas in excess of 500 million years ago; and still simpler forms of life such as the algae go back much farther. Metasequoia is a real living antique but it cannot be ranked among the most ancient by a long shot. While Metasequoia will undoubtedly prove to be a significant link in our knowledge of the evolution of the conifers and very possibly a valuable horticultural acquisition, it is overshadowed as a living fossil by the ancient and honorable genealogies of plants growing 79-85. Excerpted from Missouri Botamcal Garden Bulletin (May 1948) 36\/5~: 34 In the forests of Yellowstone great stumps indicating trees in excess of 14 feet in diameter that grew there in Miocene times. These were closely related to the modern Redwood as well as Metasequoia.... The highly prized forest tree Taxodium distichum (Bald Cypress) of our southern swamps presents a fossil record that is not unlike that of the Redwood. In fact, our understanding of the past distribution of these two is not always perfectly clear since they are closely related and the foliage of the two is so similar that petrified Park are they are not always readily distinguished Three-month-old dawn redwood Botanical Garden, 1948. seedlings at the Missouri in the fossil forms.... are [The cycads,] palm-like in appearance, found today from Florida and Mexico in our own backyards. A few of these may be of interest-to dispel the illusion of the far-away justly to recognize the plants we live with every day. There are very few plants that have served man to greater advantage than the pines.... yet and the pines, not their distant relatives but pines as we know them today, may be traced well back into the Cretaceous period-at least 90 million years ago-and into still earlier periods their ancestral derivatives trail back for at least another 130 million years. There is no reason to believe that it is still an actively evolving group of plants but its retention of great virility through the ages is equalled by very few other living things and, like the modern forests, their fossil remains are widely scattered. Here is one of the greatest of all living fossils. Numerous other existing members of the conifer order are known to have originated far back in the past, and among those of particular interest to the present discussion are the Sequoias-the California Redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) and the Big Tree (Sequoiadendron giganteum). Although these giants are at present confined to a small area in California and Oregon, their fossil remains are found widely scattered through Tertiary and late Cretaceous rocks of the northern hemispherefrom England, Greenland, Alaska, Italy, Spitzbergen, and numerous other localities come the records of their past distribution. the Indies into northern South in South Africa, and in the tropical America, Pacific isles from Japan to Australia. Our only native American species, Zamia floridana, is common in the sandy open pine woods of Florida. It is not a showy plant, with its under- through ground stem and smallish palm-like leaves, but it is a lingering remnant of a once large and diversified group that apparently attained the zenith of its evolutionary powers in the Jurassic period some 140 million years ago, and there is reason to believe that its more remote ancestors originated from the Coal Age Seedferns still farther back in the past. From a clay bed exposed along a wave-swept beach in northeast England the leaves, as well as the seed-and-pollenbearing cones, of a plant seemingly closely related to Zamia have been excavated. And from the Black Hills of South Dakota and the sunscorched Ferris Mountains of Wyoming come beautifully petrified plants belonging to the great cycad complex-bearing evidence of diversity and former distribution of the cycadophytes and of changing climates and topographies.... Many other instances of exceptional racial longevity might be cited. Perhaps such wellknown plants as the ginkgo and the clubmosses should at least be mentioned in passing, but since these have been considered in detail by many previous writers we have chosen to consider some of those plants whose ancestry has been somewhat less publicized. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The California Academy-Lingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition (1953)","article_sequence":9,"start_page":35,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25236","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eb326.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gressitt, J. Linsley","article_content":"The California Academy-Lingnan Dawn-Redwood Expedition j. Linsley Gressitt trip to central China, an expedition was arranged jointly by the California Academy of Sciences and Lingnan University, Canton. It was led by Gressitt, an American with a great deal of field experience who was then working at Lingnan. His major goal was to collect zoological materials, but Chaney's in the years from 1933 to 1936, he had also made extensive botanical collections in Hainan, Guandong, Fujian, and southern Jiangxi. After Dr. hurried mid-July to mid-August of 1948 Gressitt and the five Chinese students accompanied him explored all the ravines, valleys, and hills in the vicinity of Modaoqi and Shuisapa, raising the count of known dawn redwoods from about 100 to 1,219. Gressitt was very much taken by the beauty of the trees, but they were not his primary interest; he hoped to find insects and other animals that might, like Metasequoia, be related to ancient North American species. From who outside its range before its J- recent scientific discovery by Chinese plant collectors. Probably its range in recent historic times has not been much more extensive than at the present time. This is suggested by the fact that the wood is not considered valuable, and is not carried out of the mountains as \" is the wood of Cunninghamia, or \"Chinese fir.\" Nevertheless, the species has probably been suffering reduction of numbers over a long period. The fact that it requires a damp habitat and grows along streams makes its survival precarious with the increase of population and the rice fields spreading up into the higher valleys. Possibly the massacre 300 years ago of most of the people in eastern Szechuan by the Imperial forces for failure to pay taxes may have been an important factor in saving the tree from extinction in recent years. Another factor may be the apparent state of semicultivation under which the tree exists. The fact seems to be that a con- he unknown dawn redwood] was apparently siderable percentage of the existing trees have been transplanted to their present situations. For example, many of the large trees are in straight rows up ravines, paralleling the small streams. Others are around the farmhouses. Many young and medium-sized trees are in straight rows along the edges of rice fields bor- dering streams. The reason for transplanting volunteer seedlings from the shaded ravines to particular situations, often in rows, is apparently based on local superstition. The mountain people have the habit of predicting their crops on the basis of cone development on the trees. A heavy crop of cones on the upper portions of the trees is said to indicate a good rice harvest, and an abundance of cones on the lower branches signifies good results from the hill crops (corn, drugs, herbs, lacquer, etc.). Thus it may actually be that the dawn redwood has been preserved from final extinction more or less by chance. It is interesting to note that the water pine, Fourth Series Excerpted from Proceedings of the Cahforma Academy of Sciences, \/July 1953) 28\/2\/: 25-58. 36 Gressitt's count of 1,219 Metasequoia trees did not include all the young trees and, he suspected, not qmte all the large trees. This one, located m lower Shuisapa valley near Hswo-ho, at 115 feet m height and 8 feet in diameter is the largest he found, although he encountered several of about 100 feet high and 5 feet m diameter (at 6 feet above the ground). that might have survived with Metasequoia and the other ancient trees associated with it.... A number of the other genera of trees found in the same fossil deposits are still growing with the living dawn redwoods. What is still more striking is that the present dawn-redwood area is the only known place in the world where all of these particular trees, exclusive of Metasequoia, are now growing together. Thus we hoped to find some animals which might be descended from species that we find preserved in ancient fossil deposits, contemporaneous with the old deposits of Metasequoia that have been found in many places in Europe, North Asia, and North America. We even hoped to find some insects related to those in the present redwood association of California and Oregon. Since fossil birds are extremely few and the chance of wild animals having survived very slight, hope and emphasis were placed upon the insects.... It is [Shuisapa] valley that contains the unusual assemblage of plants of ancient northern affinity, many of them being among the most familiar and conspicuous types of trees in Europe and North America. Among them are beeches, birches, poplars, willows, oaks, chestnut, maples, hornbeam, hop hornbeam, linden, sassafras, pine, and yew. If it were not for the rice paddies, farmhouses, and people, a European or American might believe himself near home. Forests of the extent found in this valley ~.~ Glyptostrobus pensilis, of southernmost China, is also planted for geomantic purposes, generally along old paths in the delta country. After observing the soft and flexible nature of the foliage and branches, it is easy to understand how the tree has come to be semi-sacred and used for divination purposes. Particularly when observed in a breeze, the tree has a feathery and somewhat fairy-like appearance, and this seems to suggest its uniqueness. The principal purpose of our trip was to collect insects and other animals in the hope of finding some ancient faunal elements of possible North American affinity Members of the California Academy-Lingnan dawn-redwood expedition. The author is at left. 37 The middle portion of Shuisapa valley as Gressitt photographed it in 1948. \"The valley extends northeast and southwest and curves eastward at its upper end. The lower end is more or less closed by an east-west range of hills, the stream passing through a break m them, and continumg beyond to the southeast for a few miles, partly underground. On each side of the valley extends a fairly sharp mdge, the east mdge reachmg 5,500 feet and the west ndge 5,100 feet m altitude. \" rarely seen in China except on the steeper slopes of high mountains, and in precipitous canyons or temple preserves. Immediately on entering the valley one cannot but sense its uniqueness, both from the standpoint of the are unusual nature of the flora and from the extent of its preservation. Probably one reason for the slower rate at which the trees are being cut is that the nearest large commercial center is Wan Hsien, 120 miles walk to the north and in another province, whereas the stream in the valley flows in the opposite direction for a short distance underground just outside the valley, and then a very long distance, round about, with dangerous rapids and narrow gorges up which boats may not be towed, before meeting the Yangtze River between Chungking and Wan Hsien. Foresters who might dare to float rafts of logs downstream would have to dispose of their poles and ropes and walk back. Though trees are being cut locally at a seemmgly alarming rate, they are used mostly for local purposes, particularly for houses, fuel, and coffins.... We made our headquarters in one of the two large farmhouses on the east side of the stream at Shuisapa. Part of this house was occupied by a former mayor, with the present mayor living in the other house. Since Dr. Chaney's visit four months earlier, the mayor's wife and one child had died and the mayor was now sick. We therefore could not live in his house, and had to be somewhat careful until we had made friends with the people, as they tended to ascribe this bad luck as caused by the foreigners coming and cutting down a dawn redwood for specimens. However, the local people themselves cut the trees not infrequently. There is a prevalent local custom of cutting the branches off the Metasequoia and Cunninghamia trees periodically, often almost to the very top, at least for the trees close to their houses. Thus most of the trees outside the shady ravines are apt to have an 38 extremely slender appearance are as new growing out. Sometimes the trees are branches thus killed, as had recently happened to two large metasequoias next to our farmhouse. For those not killed the practice reduces the potential selfseeding of the trees.... Our principal emphasis was on insects, particularly those in association with the Metasequoia and other mteresting plants of the valley. The plants we collected principally for the purpose of identifying the host-plants of the insects, and the serial numbers of the plant specimens were assigned to the insects col- Two Metasequoia trees, pruned for fmewood, in Shuisapa valley. we valley connectmg with the eastern portion of Shmsapa valley. \"Dawn redwoods are found scattered throughout the valley, and m some neighboring valleys to the immediate south They are most abundant in the shady ravmes branchmg from the central portion of the valley, though there are some large groups in certarn spots near the southern end. Many young ones are also planted along the mam stream, bordering rice fields There can hardly be said to be any Metasequoia forests or Side even moderate natural stands. \" lected on them. To all the local people we met advertised our miscellaneous needs, offering to buy all kinds of animals. The returns from this method of acquiring specimens were less fruitful than I had experienced in some other parts of China, perhaps because these people seemed to have less use for money.... Gradually, as a result of making rather high payments for specimens brought in, we acquired a certain number of snakes, lizards, frogs, and birds, but almost no mammals. The people stated that the summer was not the season for hunting, and they adhered to their custom. One of the reasons given, in addition to the fact that the animals are harder to find in summer, was that the summer was the breeding season. This, of course, was a commendable viewpoint. From questioning the inhabitants, we gathered that tigers, leopards, wildcats, bears, deer, mountain goats (serow or ghoral), muntjacs, 39 wild pigs, rabbits, squirrels, and others occurred here. Someone told us there was a family of leopards with small young at a certain point in the valley, but that was all we heard of them.... In our daily collecting we generally divided into two groups, at least after lunch, as there were as many as nine of us collecting at one time. We attempted to collect along each ravine and ridge, to investigate all types of floral situations.... Much of our collecting consisted of sweeping the vegetation, one species at a time, when possible, to collect the insects from each kind of plant. At other times we worked on dead branches, fences, logs, stones, streams, and rotting materials. When there were no trails up to the passes or peaks, we had rough going through very dense vegetation, or had to detour.... foxes, civets, The largest of the three ongmally discovered Metasequoia trees, located at Modaoqi, Sichuan. Gressitt measured it at 90 feet in height and 5 feet in diameter. \"My first mew of the fohage remmded me mndly of the coast redwood, except for the softer and more fragile nature. These characteristics seem to set it offrather conspicuously from many other conifers. In fact, after the species has grown longer m cultivation, it may be 7udged one of the most beautiful of existmg trees. \" Our collecting resulted in the bringing back of of thousands of insects in addition to the plants and miscellaneous animals.... As to the scientific results, it will be some time before any conclusions can be drawn as to possible relationships of the insect fauna of the dawntens Shmsapa valley, members of the expedition and local boys hired to help with the collecting In addition to butterfly nets, they carry a large cyamde 7ar, a plant press and other eqmpment, and lunch. In south-central redwood flora with that of America. It may prove more western North to closely related that of southeastern North America, as is the case with most of the plant genera in common between eastern Asia and North America. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Ecological Reconnaissance in the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides (1950)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":40,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25222","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eb76b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Chu, Kwei-ling; Cooper, William S.","article_content":"Ecological Reconnaissance in the Native Home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides An Kvvei-ling Chu and William S. Cooper August 1948, Professor Wan-chun Cheng of the National Central University, Nanjing, who with H. H. Hu named and described Metasequoia glyptostroboides, In traveled to central China to see the trees for himself. He led included Professor Chu, plant ecologist at the National T. Hwa, whom Cheng had sent to gather the seeds that he sent late in 1947 to Boston, St. Louis, Copenhagen, and Amsterdam, as well as to several institutions in China and elsewhere. The expedition that Nanjing University, and C. an expedition was supported in the main by a grant from the American Philosophical Society under the joint sponsorship of E. D. Merrill and R. W. Chaney. Chu's role in the enterprise was \"to gather as much information as possible bearing upon the ecology of Metasequoia-its physical environment, its ecological life history, and its community relations.\" Cooper, professor of botany at the University of Minnesota, did not accompany the expedition, but provided literature not available in China and helped with the formulation of some of the conclusions as well as with the final preparation of the manuscript. The authors noted that within the short space of three years (1947-1949) fifty publications on Metasequoia had already appeared-almost all of them in China and the United States-about equally divided between scientific contributions and popular articles. istory of Shui-hsa Valley the course of the expedition] the -L senior author was fortunately able to glean something concerning the cultural history of Shui-hsa valley through conversations with Mr. Wu, more than sixty years old, who with his two brothers, prosperous and intelligent men, are the descendants of the earliest permanent settlers in the valley. The region was originally controlled by primitive nomadic tribes, some of whom still live in adjacent mountains. Mr. Wu's ancestors migrated from Szechuan to the Shuihsa-pa region about two hundred years ago. From the Ching tribe in Chung-lu they bought [Over an area of mountain land in the vicinity of Shui- hsa-pa more than eight kilometers [five miles] long. At that time, according to Mr. Wu, the mountain slopes bore a forest cover so dense that one could not see the blue sky through the canopy, and the level valley floor had never been disturbed by man. Fires were set to destroy the forest, and rice paddies were established. Rice culture since then has extended over practically the whole of the level valley floor, and the forests on the mountain slopes have been largely destroyed because of timber use and charcoal making. The era of agricultural economy, with the destruction of native vegetation that it has 260-278. Excerpted with permission from Ecology (1950) 31(2): 41 entailed, thus goes back about two centuries. It is significant that Shui-hsa valley has suffered less than any other part of the region, and one reason for this is doubtless the fact that it is a closed basin with no easy river route into it. The Natural Habitat of Metasequoia The region within which trees of Metasequoia have been found is estimated to have an area of 2 about 800 square kilometers [312 with altitudes square miles], ranging from 700 to 1350 meters [2,300 to 4,400 feet]. However, only in a much smaller area does the tree appear to be an actively reproducing constituent of a natural forest community. It is situated in Shui-hsa valley and forms a strip along the main river A) Map of Chma. The black square mdlcates the location of B, the 25 kilometers [15.5 miles] long region surroundmg the native home of Metasequoia. The rectangle and less than 1.5 kilometers [one indicates Shm-hsa valley and Its immediate surroundmgs. mile] wide. The altitude here thrive particularly along the banks of small ranges from 1000 to 1100 meters [3,280 to 3,600 streams, among rocks and boulders covered feet]. Outward from this center in all directions Metasequoia decreases in frequency. For a conthickly by liverworts and mosses, occurring siderable distance-5 kilometers [3 miles] south usually in small groups or short lines. With of Shui-hsa-pa and 35 kilometers [22 miles] them grows a variety of other trees, and in many north to Mo-tao-chi, with altitudinal range of places there is a dense thicket-like growth of 900 to 1250 meters [3,000 to 4,100 feet]-many shrubs and woody lianas. These growths are good trees occur and some fine large ones, for often very difficult to penetrate; inside them it example the type tree at Mo-tao-chi and a very is much cooler, darker, and wetter than without. large one at Wang-chia-ying. This area, which is In such places Metasequoia reproduces natumarked by the occurrence of fairly good or large rally. The habitat as described above is strongly reminiscent of that of blue spruce (Picea be regarded as the region of optimum trees, may The trees themselves may be relics pungens) in the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, growth. from a time when the natural community U.S.A. Metasequoia grows also in seepage areas at the foot of the slopes where there is including Metasequoia was more widespread than now. The trees most remote from the cenabundant shade and moisture. The tree is found ter, at the lowest and highest altitudes, are in upon the valley floor itself, but here it has obviously been planted. poor condition. In Shui-hsa valley Metasequoia finds its natuQuadrat Studies ral habitat in side ravines descending to the valTo obtain more accurate knowledge concerning floor. Following a ravine or side valley down ley the mountain slope from either side one is sure Metasequoia in its home a quadrat study was undertaken. The main purpose was to discover to find Metasequoia trees at the lower end. They 42 important. Selection of sites was determined by apparent approximation to natural conditions, and the area over which the quadrats were distributed coincided roughly with the region in which such conditions were found. The quadrats were placed along the foot of the mountain slopes on both sides of the river. was A secondary quadrat (2 x8 meters [6.6 x 26 feet]) was laid inside each major one for the counting of shrubs seedling trees, and a still smaller (0.25 x 4 meters [10 inches x 13 feet] for herbs; but the density values one and of the shrubs and herbs were very variable and apparently of little significance and are therefore not given here. For the tree species five size classes were distinguished: I, seedlings less than one foot tall; II, seedlings more than one foot tall; III, trees one to three inches in diameter; IV, trees four to nine inches in diameter ; V, trees ten inches or more in diameter. Density (number of individuals in the 1000 square meters [a quarter of an acre] of the ten quadrats combined) has been computed for each species and each size class of a given species, and also presence (number of quadrats in total of ten in which a species occurs). The following trees, not occurring A sketch map of Shul-hsa valley and its immediate surroundmgs. in quadrats but close to them, are Numbered black squares mdicate the location of quadrats; the dotted close associates of Metasequoia: lme follows the approximate hmits of Metasequoia. Large numbers give altitudes m meters. Shan means mountain range Cephalotaxus Fortunei, Fagus longipetiolata, Quercus acutissima, Saswhat species of trees, shrubs, and herbs are satras tsumu, Tapiscia sinensis concolor, Ulmus multinervis. associated with Metasequoia in its natural The large number of tree species making up and the relative proportions of these. habitat, the assemblage of which Metasequoia is a No attempt was made to identify and distin- guish plant communities; a comprehensive survey of the whole region would be essential for this. Another important aim was to gain infor- constitutent-27 species occurring in 1000 square meters [a quarter of an acre] and 6 others nearby-is a striking point. Of the 33 species, mation as to the reproducing ability of Metasequoia in its natural habitat. Ten 10 x 10-meter [33 x 33-foot] quadrats were laid out in areas in which Metasequoia of only 4 are gymnosperms. As to average spacing individuals, one [with diameter greater than ten inches] occurs each 33 square meters [40 square yards]. Those of one to nine inches diam- 43 Density and Presence of Tree Species on Ten 10 x 10-Meter Quadrats ' = Mehosma pmnata 2= 3 ^ = = Kalopanax septemlobum Cyclocarya palmrus Carpmus laxiflora var. macrostachya 44 in diameter. In the combined classes it makes only 20 percent, but it surpasses seedling every other single species. m represented It is every size class. All the evidence indicates that it will continue to maintain itself as an important member of the forest assemblage.... Notes on Ecological Life History Seedlings are found in crevices between rocks and boulders and in moist sandy places. In the thicket-like growth ... Members of the ecological expedW on, from left, C. T Hwa, W. C. Cheng, the expedition's leader, and K. L. Chu, standing m front of the trunk of the largest Metasequoia glyptostroboides found m 1948, near Wang-chia-ying. beneath the forest trees are seedlings and young saplings up to 3 meters [10 feet] tall. As spaced one to each 20 square meters [24 square yards]. Seedlings occur one to each 6 square meters [7 square yards]. The picture is of a forest of moderate density as to mature trees and rather poor in reproduction. Five species are represented by individuals greater than ten inches in diameter-Metasequoia, Cunninghamia, Cornus, Populus, and Pterocarya. Fourteen are represented by individuals eter are ter so they grow larger, they encounserious interference from the lianas that are thickly interlaced among the trees and shrubs. Other tree species are usually rigid enough to penetrate the mass without much difficulty. The stems and branches of Metasequoia, however, are flexible, and are bent over and deformed by the load of liana stems. The struggle to get through is a keen one. Such conditions are certainly not ideal for successful greater than four inches-in addition to the above, Castanea, Liquidambar, Rhus, Meliosma, Styrax, Idesia, Kalopanax, Clerodendron, and Cercidiphyllum. Eleven species are represented by seedlings only. The species of outstanding importance, so far as the quadrats show, are obviously Metasequoia, Cunninghamia, Castanea, and Liquidambar-two gymnosperms and two angiosperms. They comprise 74 percent of the three upper size classes and 54 percent of the seedling reproduction. Metasequoia, however, is evidently very shade-tolerant, and the dense thicket growth gives it a certain amount of protection from biotic dangers.... Having finally penetrated the shrub-liana layer, Metasequoia, which probably has a faster growth rate than its companion species, develops rapidly, finally standing out conspicuously above them and recognizable at a great distance by its bright green color.... Influence of Man The present local distribution of Metasequoia has been much influenced by man, through destruction and also by planting. Its occurrence as an important forest constituent was once far more widespread than now, as is indicated by isolated big trees at considerable distances from Shui-hsa-pa. The type tree at Mo-tao-chi is 35 kilometers [22 miles] distant and the big tree near Wang-chia-ying more than 20 [12 miles]. classes. Moreover, they are for the most part well represented in all size classes, mdicating that their present preeminence will be maintained. In presence they rank as high or higher than any in the list.... Turning to Metasequoia in particular, it is plain that this species is the most important one in the assemblage. Of the total trees greater than most 10 inches in diameter it makes 60 percent, and of these individuals are 24 to 36 inches 45 ---- ~ z a beside the type tree at Mo-tao-chi. In c z x 2 w x F G > U x I neighboring valleys the natural communities of which Metasequoia was a constituent have been completely destroyed m the last two centuries. In Shui-hsa valley destruction has been only partial-but it still goes It seems certain that even before the period of destruction the stands of Metasequoia were discontinuous, occupying mainly ravines and stream banks as they do today. In Shui-hsa valley there has been considerable planting of Metaseon. 3 ~l ~ q .. a tiy quoia. Natives are constantly removing good-sized seedlings and saplings from their native sites. Small trees are growing along the banks of the main stream in are straight rows. They also seen on rice i` home ~ . paddies, yards. the margins of the along roadsides, and in common In view of the practice of it is not surprising that stands of uncertain origin occur which may be hardly distinguishable from natural stands. Some of these consist of groups of ten to thirty transplantation \"big tree\" noted by the authors, the largest found, photographed m 1948 by W C. Cheng Chu measured it at 50 meters (165 feet~ tall and 2.22 meters-over 7 feet-m diameter at breast height. It grew m isolation on an open slope near Wang-chia-ying, m 1951 it was struck by hghtnmg, split in three parts, and killed. Such trees, three centuries old at least, must antedate the initiation of agricultural activity in the valley. After the natural vegetation had been displaced or profoundly modified because of agricultural use, effective reproduction was no longer possible. The natives apparently venerated the biggest trees and therefore protected them. It seems quite natural that the first permanent settlers in the region should recognize in the tree something different, unusual, and worthy of special respect. A small temple stands The that appear as if they natural origin. The site, however, is not the normal one for Metasequoia. It is drier, the floor is clearer, and conditions are not favorable for reproduction. On the other hand, there are many natural stands so altered by man that they appear mature trees a had had as planted. It is not clear so plant why the natives extensively a tree that is of little economic importance to them. There is no systematic tree culture in Shui-hsa valley. A few trees of economic value are planted: Magnolia officinalis, the bark of which is used as a medicine, juglans cathayana for the nuts, Rhus vermciflua for lacquer. Cunninghamia lanceolata is regarded as the best timber tree of the region, but it is not planted. Metasequoia is sometimes used for fuel and in construction, but its wood is not considered to be of good quality. Aside from these rather incidental uses, 46 existed elsewhere distant past; nearby that in favorable spots reproduction of Metasequoia was possible recently enough to have given rise to the existing mature trees. Increase of human population, with consequent exploitation of the natural resources of the area, has resulted in general destruction of the conditions essential for reproduction of Metasequoia; a certain number of mature individuals survive. Only m Shui-hsa valley does Metasequoia exist under an approximation to natural conditions. This may be due in part to certain enviis most often found m the mld on ronmental advantages. The valley Metasequoia glyptostroboides unarable terram. Professor Cheng photographed these trees m a ravine lies at a somewhat higher elevation at the side of Shm-sha valley, August 1948. Members of the expedition than others in the sandstone region, found that Metasequoia trees m Shm-sha valley were generally it is narrower, and certain features of 6-9 decimeters (2 to 3 feet] m diameter; medium-sized trees were its local climate seem to be in its uncommon favor. More important, probably, is the fact that this valley was the last to be occuthe reason for planting Metasequoia must be pied by permanent settlers, the period of occumainly an aesthetic one. rests with man. If The fate of Metasequoia pation extending back only two centuries. Late settlement is doubtless due to its higher altidestruction continues, all the native stands will be eliminated. The massive veterans will tude, the comparatively small area favorable for rice culture, possibly poorer soil, and particuthe planted trees ultimately die, leaving only larly its unique character as a basin completely surviving-the same fate that has already overenclosed by mountains, with no easy river route taken Ginkgo. into it. Increase of population pressure outside Conclusion finally became the incentive leading to its occuis partial to slightly acid or pation. Shorter period of occupation and sparser ... [Metasequoia] circumneutral soils derived from sandstone; it population have permitted Metasequoia to remain here in an approximately natural state. avoids soils of limestone origin in areas that It is gratifying to know that a \"Metasequoia to be otherwise suitable. Moist soil and appear Conservation Committee\" has been formed in humid atmosphere seem to be essential for sucChina. Its honorary chairman is Dr. Hu Shih, cessful reproduction. These various conditions former ambassador to the United States; its are fulfilled in narrow ravines and seepage chairman is Mr. Wong Wen Ho, former Premier grounds; the tree is essentially a member of a of China and a noted geologist. It is to be hoped streambank community. The evidence for these that the efforts of these Chinese scientists to conclusions comes from Shui-hsa valley, a very small part of the whole range of the species. preserve the natural stands of Metasequoia The scattered individuals of considerable or through the establishment of a national park or some other form of nature reservation will, in size growing beyond the confines of the large spite of formidable difficulties, be crowned with valley need to be accounted for. It seems necessuccess before it is too late. sary to conclude that conditions like those in Shui-hsa valley in the none too "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia glyptostroboides- Its Status in Central China in 1980 (1983)","article_sequence":11,"start_page":47,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25232","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ea76b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Bartholomew, Bruce; Boufford, David E.; Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Metasequoia glyptostroboides-Its in Central China in 1980 Bruce Status Bartholomew, David E. Boufford, and Stephen A. Spongberg After the success of the Communist revolution in 1949, China closed its boundaries to Westerners, ending collaboration between Chinese and American botanists until the 1970s. With the invitation in 1978 to a delegation of American botanists to visit the People's Republic of China, ties broken three decades earlier were renewed. After the month-long visit, the Americans in turn invited their Chinese colleagues to visit the United States the next year. During that visit plans were made for a collaborative expedition to western Hubei Provincethe 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition-conducted under the auspices of Academia Sinica and the Botanical Society of America.* As members of that expedition, the authors of this report did fieldwork in western Hubei Province in the late summer and early fall of 1980. Most of their time was spent in the Shennongjia Forest District, but they also made a brief visit, October 5 to 10, to the region where Metasequoia still grows wild, the first foreigners to visit since 1948. After a visit to Modaoqi to see the tree that was the source of the type specimen of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, they continued on to Lichuan. For the next three days, they traveled to Metasequoia Valley, three hours each way. out noteworthy trees of M. glyptostroboides and interviewed local officials about their work in inventorying and conserving the naturally occurring trees and about their program of seed collection and propagation. This excerpt relates their observations of the condition of wild-growing Metasequoia and of the vegetation associated with it. They sought grow in the central val~ of Xiaohe Commune. Since 1974 the Bureau of Forestry of Lichuan Xian [county] has mamtained a staff of five people in the Commune, with one of their objectives being to measure each tree every four years. The Forest Bureau has counted and numbered 5,420 trees of a lmost all of the naturally occurring trees ley Metasequoia [8 inches]. We were told that approximately 1,700 to 1,800 of these are mature, seed-producing trees. The tallest recorded trees in the valley are on the east side in the vicinity of Hongshaxi: several reach a height of about 50 meters [165 feet].... In its natural habitat Metasequoia is now 20 centimeters pro- tected with diameter (at breast height) of at least government, and not even small trees may be cut. The trees that we saw (includPresent Status in Central by the Excerpted from \"Metasequoia glyptostroboides-Its Arboretum (1983) 64' 105-128. * Chma,\" Journal of the Arnold Richard Howard's account of his 1978 visit to Chma was pubhshed mArnoldia (Nov.\/Dec. 1978) 38\/6\/: 218-237. See also Stephen A. Spongberg, A Reumon of Trees ~Cambmdge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 238-239. 48 ing the two ancient ones at Modaoqi and Xiaohe) all appeared to be in good health. we did not see any small seedlings. This differs from the situation in 1948, when Chu and Cooper found seedlings in thickets surrounding older Metasequoia trees. In 1980 vegetation was either absent around the trees of However, Metasequoia, very closely cropped, presumably by the local people and not by animals. The lack of governmental protection of the habitat (and thus or the lack of associated vegetation) probably accounts for the lack of seedling establishment. The \"Metasequoia Flora\" The habitat of Metasequoia is reminiscent of that of Taxodium distichum in the southeastern United States, a parallel previously drawn by Chaney. Metasequoia is a riparian species, and before habitation the valley floor may well have been a Metasequoia forest. Metasequoia trees that occur away from the valley floor are restricted to the moist bottoms of ravines and draws that drain into the main valley. Taxodium commonly occurs in flat, Above, partzczpants of the 1980 dztzon to western expe- Hubei Provmce, Bruce Bartholomew, Davzd Boufford, Stephen Spongberg, and James Luteyn, with two residents who remembered the 1948 visit of J. L Gressitt to Metasequoza Valley. near Below, the type tree, Modaoqi, looked essentially the same m 1980 as It does in photographs taken in 1948. The shnne seen at the base of the tree in photographs from 1948 had been removed, and the tree was surrounded by rzce fields and a small, ditched stream. It appeared healthy and bore seed-filled cones, but it had grown only very slzghtly zn the prevzous thirty years. 49 virginica, Cornus spp., and Lindera benzoin.... While each of the species of this group has specific microhabitat requirements, all are usually found growing in close proximity to Taxodium. In their list of plants growing with Metasequoia, Chu and Cooper included species of many of the same genera. We noted several large trees of Llquidambar acalycina and species of Salix, Acer, Pterocarya, and Quercus in habitats similar to those occupied by Metasequoia, but not on the adjacent slopes. Moreover, it seems likely that at one time the floor of the Metasequoia Valley was occupied by trees that were - near an The oldest Metasequoia tree zn Xiaohe Commune stands the town of Xiaohe. A partial cormg zn 1977 yielded age estimate of 420 years. poorly drained depressions behind natural levees along slow-moving rivers. Based on this similarity of habitats, on reports of the species associated with Metasequoia (Chaney, Chu & Cooper, Gressitt), on [Shuiying] Hu's enumeration of the \"Metasequoia Flora,\" and on our own observations, both in the southeastern United States and in the Metasequoia Valley in 1980, it is possible to hypothesize a past Metasequoia forest analogous to present-day Taxodium distichum forests. Among the dominant tree species usually found with Taxodium distichum are Nyssa aquatica, N. sylvatica var. biflora, Populus heterophylla, Quercus spp., Liquidambar styraciflua, Carpinus caroliniana, Betula nigra, Acer rubrum, Ulmus americana, Carya spp., Fraxinus spp., and Salix spp. The associated shrubs include Ilex spp., Viburnum spp., Itea The group was disappointed to fmd that the ecological conditions m Metasequoia Valley had changed drastically smce the 1948 expeditions. The thickets m which Chu and Cooper had found seedlmgs and young plants had been cleared from the base of each Metasequoia tree. This grove of Metasequoia glyptostroboides is growing at the bottom of a small ravme above the mam valley floor near the mllage of Xiaohe. 50 mews of Metasequoia Valley. At the top is J. L. Gressitt's 1948 photograph. The slopes in the background are covered m forest, and only on the level valley floor are there fields. Below, in a photograph taken m 1980, rice is cultmated extensively on the lower slopes as well as on the valley floor. The columnar trees along the edges of the paddies are a mixture of Metasequoia glyptostroboides and Cunninghamia lanceolata; the columnar habit has resulted from pruning the lateral branches for firewood. (This photo can be seen m color on the cover.J Two 51 luminifera; Carpinus fargesii; Quercus spp.; Morus sp.; Cocculus orblculatus; glauca; Liquidambar acalycina (L. formosana in Chu and Cooper); Ilex spp.; Berchemia spp.; Nyssa sinensis; Cornus controversa and C. macrophylla; Clethra fargesii; Styrax bodinieri and S. suberifolius; Viburnum spp.; and Smilax spp.... Chu and Cooper stated that Metase- Ulmus multinervis; Lindera quoia appears to grow naturally only in sandy soil derived from Jurassic sandstone, and that only cultivated trees over limestone. They also mentioned that the valley floor is derived mainly from sandstone, providing rather strong suggestive evidence that the floor could have been occupiedand perhaps dominated-by much more extensive stands of Metasequoia. Additional evidence of a once more widespread Metasequoia forest on the valley floor is provided by several large trunks of Metasequoia that we saw that had recently been unearthed m the center of paddy fields far from the nearest slopes and ravines where the trees now grow. Altogether more than 200 of these grow trunks, many over two meters [6 1\/2 feet] in diameter, have been found in the paddies along the level floodplain The results of human habltation can be seen on the highly disturbed slopes ofa side valley photographed m 1980. The upper slopes are largely denuded of natme vegetation, and the lower slopes have been given over to mce paddies and cornfields. (The tree behmd the bmldmg is Gmgko biloba.J tolerant of periodic flooding, could grow in poorly drained soils, and occupied more or less specific microhabitats. Among the species listed as being associated with Metasequoia glyptostroboides by Chu and Cooper, Gressitt, and Hu, the following grow in habitats similar those of their American counterparts associated with Taxodium: Houttuynia cordata (in place of Saururus cernuus in the southeastern United States); Populus adenopoda; Salix spp.; Pterocarya hupehensis; P. paliurus and P. stenoptera (all in place of Carya spp.~; Betula to of the main river and side streams (T. S. Ying, pers. comm.). Also (accordmg to Liu et al.), some of the houses in the valley were constructed of boards cut from Metasequoia. These houses are believed to be 200 to 300 years old and date roughly from the time of the original settlers.... The high population density [of the valley containing the main Metasequoia population] has resulted in considerable damage to the local vegetation. Both Chu and Cooper and Gressitt reported that the forests had largely been destroyed by the time of their visits, and even the Metasequola communities showed signs of alteration due to man's activities. We found that conditions had deteriorated even more since these reports. Our observations indicate that 52 there has been so much human and domestic animal disturbance that there are very few plants now associated with Metasequoia. However, there are areas in Xiaohe Commune, particularly in side ravines and on slopes on the east side of the main valley, where secondary forests are developing. Although these areas are close to the Metasequoia groves, they are separated by cut-over slopes and cultivated fields from the riparian areas occupied by Metasequoia. Comparison of the present condition of the forests with photographs taken in 1948 shows considerable destruction during the past 32 years. We were told that many large trees, particularly Castanea henryi and C. mollissima were cut in the mid to late 1950s during the Great Leap Forward to make charcoal for smelting iron. However, no significant amount of iron was ever resulted in disturbance and clearing of other vegetation, thereby contributing to the destruction of suitable germination sites. References Chaney, Chu, K. bearing of the living problems of Tertiary paleobotany. Proceedings of the National Academy U.S A 34: 503-515. L., and W. C. Cooper. 1950. An ecological R. W. 1948. The on Metasequoia reconnaissance m the native home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Ecology 31: 260-278 Gressitt, J. L. 1953. The California dawn-redwood expedition. Academy-Lmgnan Proceedmgs of the 25-58. Cahforma Academy of Science 28: Hu, S. Y. Metasequoia flora and its phytogeographic significance. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 61: 41-94 (also, http \/\/ www.herbama harvard edu\/chma\/ 1980. The produced. Lm, Y. The protected status currently given by the government to the remaining naturally occurring trees of Metasequoia will probably insure their survival for the immediate future, but the lack of protection for the surrounding habitat will likely result in little, if any, natural reproduction. The thickets that Chu and Cooper mentioned as being around many of the trees are no longer there, and it was in those habitats that they reported finding seedlings and small trees of Metasequoia. The efforts to monitor the natural populations of Metasequoia may have C., X. HarvardPapers\/hu-shm-ymg1980.htm~. T. Zhou, and P. L. Su. 1978. Shuisha. Hubei: Hubei People's Press [in Chmese]. Bartholomew, leader of the expedition m 1980, then at the University of California Botamcal Garden m Berkeley. Presently he is at the California Academy of Sciences. David Boufford was at the Carnegie Museum of Natural History in 1980, but soon thereafter moved to the Harvard University Herbaria. Stephen A. Spongberg, then at the Arnold Arboretum, has recently moved to Martha's Vmeyard, Massachusetts, where he is director of the Polly Hill Arboretum. Bruce was "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia: An Overview of Its Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Variation","article_sequence":12,"start_page":54,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25230","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ea36d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Li, Jianhua","article_content":"Metasequoia: An Overview of Its Phylogeny, Reproductive Biology, and Ecotypic Variation jianhua Li he discovery between important families, Cupressaceae (well-known genera include Chamaecyparis, Cupressus, Juniperus, Thuja, Calocedrus) and two to interest t redwood of the dawn sparked renewed in the relationship what used be called Taxodiaceae (Cryptomeria, Cunninghamia, Glyptostrobus, Metasequoia, Sciadopitys, Sequoia, Sequoiadendron, Taiwania, Taxodium). M. glyptostroboides is similar to Cupressaceae in the opposite arrangement of the vegetative and floral organs, whereas the pollen and wood anatomy of M. glyptostroboides are most similar to members of Taxodiaceae. It was on the basis of these morphological peculiarities that Metasequoia was Dawn redwood Metasequoia glyptostroboides placed in its own family-Metawas never sequoiaceae (Hu and Cheng 1948). However, this placement widely accepted; taxonomists have traditionally classified it within Taxodiaceae. Based on recent phylogenetic studies, many now combine Taxodiaceae with Cupressaceae under the latter name. Initially, many botanists believed to be closely allied with four genera, three of which consist of a single species: Sequoia Metasequoia Coast redwood sempervirens (California redwood, endemic to the California coast), Sequoiadendron giganteum (giant sequoia, endemic to the Sierra Nevada mountains of California), Glyptostrobus pensilis (the water pine, endemic to the south coast of China), and Taxodium (the bald cypress), which has two species, T. distichum, of the southeastern United States, Sequoia sempervirens and T mucronatum, which is scattered throughMexico. In a study of the chromosomal and morphological characteristics of these five genera, G. L. out Stebbins (1948) concluded that Glyptostrobus and Taxodium resemble each other more than either resembles Sequoia, Sequoiadendron, or 55 Metasequoia. Among the last three genera, he concluded that if only vegetative characteristics (notably, leaf arrangement and nondeciduousness) are considered, the two North American genera are more closely allied, but that on the basis of number of chromosomes, the giant to the dawn redwood redwood. In more recent research-an examination of DNA sequences in the chloroplast rbcL gene conducted in 1994 by Brunsfeld and co-authors-all three genera were found to be closely related, but the authors concluded that the closest relationship is between Sequoia and Sequoiadendron. Their conclusions are supported by other lines of evidence, including the karyotypic similarities found by Schlarbaum and Tsuchiya in 1984; the 1989 immunological analysis of Price and Lowenstein; and cladistic analyses of morphological, anatomical, and chemical traits conducted by Yu in 1996. sequoia than to is more similar the coast Reproductive Biology Metasequoia Giant redwood is monoecious (with Sequoiadendron giganteum Characters both female and male cones on the same plant). The male cones appear in mid-June, the female in early July. Table 1. Comparison of Some Morphological A Phylogenetic Tree of Cupressaceae 57 Pollen forms in November and is carried to the female cone by the wind m early spring of the following year. Fertilization occurs in June; the embryo matures in October or November. Seed production is low, for several reasons. In the wild, a dawn redwood tree does not produce A branch of Metasequoia with young female cones Developmg cones of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Left, female cones; male cone at mght. This Female Metasequoia cones cladogram, or phylogenetic tree, zs taken from Brunsfeld and co-authors (1994J; zt represents their interpretation of the phylogenetic relatzonshzps mthzn a plant family. \"T\" denotes genera traditionally placed in Taxodiaceae and\"C,\" Cupressaceae, \"O\" stands for outgroup, genera outside the family that are close relatives of the mgroup and which are included m order to \"root\" the tree. The numbers above the branches on the tree mdicate the numbers of changes in nucleotide-the buzlding g blocks of DNA-composztzon in the gene that Brunsfeld and his co-workers studied. These changes occurred during the evolution of the now-extmct ancestors that are represented by the branch, the lower the number, the closer the relationship. However, quantzty does not always convert to qualzty, and the percentages given below the branches indicate the results of a test applied to the data to see just how strongly the evidence supports each branch of the tree. The closer the figure is to 100 percent, the better supported a branch is; figures much below 70 percent suggest at most only moderate support. Branches m phylogenetic trees are usually pazred. Sometimes, however, as with Taiwama, Taxodmm, and Athrotaxis, several branches arise together, and that probably means that the particular gene studied did not provide enough data to convert this part of the cladogram mto its normal bifurcating condztzon. If we read the tree from the \"root\" up, wzthzn Cupressaceae (defined as including TaxodiaceaeJ, Cunninghamia is the \"basal of fshoot \"; the other genera (exceptmg Sciadopitys, which many taxonomists place m its own family) are all part of a \"clade,\" or lmeage, that comprises the rest of the family. Wzthzn this large clade, Metasequoia and the even more closely related Sequoia and Sequoiadendron form a small clade (the Metasequoia cladeJ, as do Glyptostrobus and Cryptomeria (the Glyptostrobus clade). The Glytostrobus clade and the clade of traditional Cupressaceae (CJ share a common ancestor (the node connecting the two cladesJ; thus, they are more closely related to each other than either zs to the Metasequola clade The phylogenetic tree, therefore, suggests that traditional Cupressaceae originated mthm Taxodiaceae. The authors also pomt out that because Metasequoia is closely allied to the nondeczduous Sequoia and Sequoiadendron and because the three deciduous genera-Metasequoia, Glyptostrobus, and Taxodmm-lack close affmztzes, the deciduous habit may have evolved as many as three separate times in the Taxodiaceae. 58 fertile male cones-nor, therefore, viable seeds-for twenty-five or thirty years. The extreme humidity and high rainfall in the habitat of the native Metasequoia during the pollination period may affect pollen transport and\/or prevent the female cones from opening to accept the pollen. As a consequence, on plantations artificial pollination is often used to increase seed production. Table 2. Traits of the Three Ecotypic Variation The largest natural populations of the dawn redwood are limited to small valleys within an area of about 600 square kilometers (235 square miles) in western Hubei Province. Albeit small, these valleys include a variety of microhabitats, in which dawn redwoods of different types have developed. Local researchers, after years of intensive observation, have recognized three Ecotypic Variations of Dawn Redwood 59 variations based on the size of their cones, large, medium, and small. The large-cone type tends to grow on mountain slopes. Compared to the other types, it resists drought better and develops a broader canopy, making it the preferred choice for use as a street tree. It also surpasses the others in seed production, a quality useful for plantations. At the other end of the spectrum, the small-cone type grows along streambanks. It tolerates drought less well, but develops a more uniform trunk and is therefore the type of choice for construction timber. The delineation of these variations is based Hu, H. H. 1948. On the on new family Metasequoiaceae and Metasequoia glyptostroboides, a living species of the genus Metasequoia found in Szechuan and Hupeh. The Bulletm of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, New Semes 1~2\/: 153-161. Kuser, J. E., D. L. Sheely, and D. R. Hendricks 1997. Genetic variation in two ex situ collections of the rare Metasequoia glyptostroboides Silvae Genetica 46: 258-264. immu- (Cupressaceae). Pnce, R. A., and J. Botany M. Lowenstein. 1989. An nological companson of the Sciadopityaceae, Taxodiaceae, and Cupressaceae. Systematic 14: 141-149. Schlarbaum, solely on morphological observations; further study is needed to determine whether they are genetically different. Assessment of the correlation between S. E. , and T. Tsuchiya. 1984. Cytotaxonomy and phylogeny m certam species of genetic and ecotypic variations a should provide basis for horticultural and Taxodiaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution 147: 29-54. Stebbins, G. L. 1948. The chromosomes and relationships of Metasequoia and Sequoia. Science 108: 95-98. economic selections. Allozyme research has revealed genetic variation in wild dawn red- woods, structure but studies have not addressed genetic associated with ecotypic variations. S. J., P. S. Soltis, D. E. Soltis, P. A. Gadek, C. J. Quinn, D. D. Strenge, T. A. Ranker. 1994. Yu, Y., and L. Fu. 1996. Phylogenetic analysis of the family Taxodiaceae. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica 34: 124-141. Acknowledgments The author is grateful to Karen Madsen for her great efforts m making the article more readable and to Dr. Peter Del Tredici for constructive suggestions. References Brunsfeld, Phylogenetic Relationships among the Genera of Taxodiaceae and Cupressaceae: Evidence from rbcL Sequences. Systematic Botany 19~2~: 253-262. Committee of Science and Technology of Lichuan, Hubei. 1980. Metasequoia Lichuan Science and Technology 2. the botanical\/horticultural the Arnold Arboretum. His research mterests mclude phylogenetic relationships and the biogeography of the disjunct plant groups of eastern Asia and eastern North America. Jianhua Li is currently taxonomist at "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Fossils to Molecules: The Metasequoia Tale Continues","article_sequence":13,"start_page":60,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25226","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24e8526.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Yang, Hong","article_content":"From Fossils to Molecules: The Metasequoia Tale Continues Hong Yang population in China using the techniques of cuticle micromorphology and population genetics have introduced new ideas about the evolutionary history of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, previously limited to hypotheses drawn from the fossil record. The new information suggests that the living Metasequoia trees may be recent immigrants to their remote valley in central China, rather than Tertiary relics dating back as far as 15 million years ago. Recent studies of the wild with the genus more than fif, teen years ago when I was a college student in Wuhan, a city along the Yangtze River in the Hubei Province of central China. In a paleobotany lab session, I was shown a fossil of Metasequoia foliage collected from a Tertiary deposit in northeastern China; minutes later I was led outside to inspect the city tree of Wuhan-living dawn redwoods planted along roadsides. Seeing the close resemblance between a fossil imprint preserved in a rock for over 50 million years and the green leaves shining in front of my eyes was a breathtaking experience. Equally astounding to me was the story of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dramatic discovery of a living tree previously known to science only as a fossil, a story that had unfolded in that same province in the early 1940s (Hu 1948, Merrill 1948). What I could not foresee was that this college exercise had planted a seed in my mind that later grew into a strong professional attachment to this species. The dawn redwood legend has led me twice to \"Metasequoia Valley\" in central China and engendered a tremendous interest in pursuing its evolutionary history through both fossil records and DNA molecules. y V1 < first encounter I ate came to the United States in 1988 for gradu- Metasequoia occurred training under Professor Charles J. Smiley at the Tertiary Research Center of the University Idaho, and it was there, in Smiley's personal library, that I read intensively in the literature on both modern and fossil Metasequoia.l Smiley had been a graduate student of Professor Ralph W. Chaney, the first Western scientist to travel to Metasequoia Valley, in 1948, and in Smiley's files were copies of remarkable photographs that Chaney and his traveling companion had taken during their trip there shortly after the discovery of the living trees. In 1988, Smiley was conducting research on the Clarkia Miocene fossil site, an exceptionally well-preserved fossil deposit in northern Idaho of that contained abundant Metasequoia fossils as well as other warm-temperate plant genera that Chaney had observed during his trip to Metasequoia Valley. I was interested in the theory of \"Arcto-Tertiary flora\" that Chaney had put forward to explain the origin and distribution of plants around the Pacific basin. He argued that Metasequoia and the plants associated with it originated in the high northern latitudes during the Cretaceous period, over 65 million years ago; then the whole assemblage was gradually pushed southward into the modern Metase- 1 After Dr. Smiley's sudden passmg on January 1, 1996, his personal of Geology and Paleontology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences. library was donated to the Nanjing Institute 61 to complete the journey from Wanxian (known as Wan Hsien in the old spelling) to Moudao (also known as Mo-tao-chi) that Chaney completed in three days in 1948. Still, the narrow road and steep slopes reminded me of a poem by Li Bai, the great poet of the Tang Dynasty, who described traveling in the mountains of Sichuan as being as difficult as climbing to the sky. Although the hardwood forest that Chaney had seen growing alongside the dawn redwoods had been cut down over the previous forty years, the enormous, centuries-old dawn redwood that Chaney had admired in Moudao still stood proudly in the middle of farmland, and I could not help but be amazed by its power to endure time and environmental change. Touching the tree's reddish bark and looking up at its top branches, I had to wonder when and how it got there, and why the species survives only in this remote valley. The answers to my questions, it seemed, were to be found only in the fossil record. For Chaney, the discovery of living Metasequoia provided a critical piece of evidence in The oldest Metasequoia tree m Xiaohe Commune, estimated at 440 support of his theory, but since years of age, photographed m 1997. Photographs taken m 1948 and 1980 his time, more fossil Metasecan be seen on pages 36 and 49, respectmely. quoia have been reported. I wanted to find out if Chaney's theory was still quoia Valley during the Tertiary, beginning around 40 million years ago when the global clivalid in light of new findings from China, Japan, mate started to cool. A trip to Metasequoia Valand Russia. Shortly after our trip to Metaseto trace Chaney's steps among the \"living ley quoia Valley, I started to compile the Metaseflora\" appealed to both Smiley and me. quoia fossil record from the Cretaceous onward, Tertiary and a more detailed picture of Metasequoia hisHistorical Biogeography Revealed by Its tory started to emerge (Yang and Smiley 1991). ~. Fossil Record It is apparent that the story of this remarkable In June 1990 Professor Smiley, his wife Peg, Protree encompasses the entire history of the fessor Fred Johnson, a forest ecologist from the Northern Hemisphere over the past 100 million years, including the changes in land connecUniversity of Idaho, and I took only four hours 62 tions and climates and the evolution of living organisms. fossil record reveals the folfour major phytogeographic events in lowing the history of this genus: First, it is likely that Metasequoia first evolved in eastern Russia (about 60 degrees North) during the early Late Cretaceous period, around 100 million years before the present, as the earliest dawn redwood fossils were reported from this region. Thanks in part to the low temperature gradient across the Northern Hemisphere and the Bering land connection between North America and eastern Eurasia, Metasequoia spread very rapidly in two opposite directions shortly after its origin: southward to lower latitudes in eastern Russia, northern Japan, and northeastern China; and northward across the Bering land connection to North America. By the end of the Cretaceous, when dinosaurs became extinct, Metasequoia had traveled as far south as New Mexico (about 35 degrees North) in North America and had become a dominant tree in ancient forests of southern Japan (about The up-to-date 36 about 60 million years ago, Metasequoia moved to the high latitudes of North America and invaded northern Europe to become a prominent member in ancient floras circumscribing the North Pole. At the same time, Metasequoia maintained the distribution pattern at lower latitudes around the Pacific basin that it had established during the Late Cretaceous. Third, when major global cooling occurred during the Late Eocene, 40 million years ago, and the cooler climate persisted, the distribution pattern changed dramatically: Metasequoia disappeared from high latitudes. By the Early Oligocene, 35 million years before present, Metasequoia had moved to lower latitudes and undertaken a longitudinal expansion to arrive in central Eurasia along the foothills of the Ural Mountains. During the Middle Miocene, when the climate again warmed up, Metasequoia re-entered the Arctic Circle. It had vanished from Eurasian fossil floras by the Middle Miocene and from North America by the end of the Miocene. degrees North) in Asia. Second, during the Paleocene, (continued on page 65) 63 Fossil Remains of Metasequoia The discovery of living Metasequoia in China more than fifty years ago shed light on the study of fossil Taxodiaceae, the family of redwoods and bald cypresses. After his trip to China, Chaney (1951) reassigned to the genus Metasequoia many fossils that had been misidentified as Taxodium or Sequoia. Since then, new Metasequoia fossils have been reported from description of Metasequoia seeds in Miocene (figure bJ. Mummified Metasequoia leaves found in an Eocene deposit on Axel Heiberg Island in Canada's Arctic archipelago have pertime the Northern Hemisphere, the oldest dating back to the Late Cretaceous. Metasequoia foliage and cones are among the most common fossils in Paleocene and Eocene floras around the Pacific Ocean. From small branchlets to single shoots, the leaves of Metasequoia show morphological characteristics that differ from those of other members of Taxodiaceae. The graceful, opposite arrangement of leaves allows quick, sure identification in the field (figure aJ. However, reliable identification is difficult in pollen and wood fossils of Metasequoia : separated from the male cone, Metasequoia fossil pollen grains are almost indistinguishable from those of members of Cupressaceae, Taxaceae, or other Taxodiaceae; likewise, its wood anatomy is very similar to that of other members of the same family. Metasequoia fossils have been reported from exceptionally well preserved deposits, revealing morphological and anatomical details of dawn redwoods that lived millions of years ago. For example, three-dimensional Metasequoia fossil cones from the Clarkia Miocene lake deposit in Idaho yielded seeds that give an accurate mitted detailed anatomical studies of its soft tissue, and leaves trapped in amber for more than 50 million years at Fushun, a Paleocene-toEocene coalfield in northern China, offer a remarkably detailed snapshot of an ancient Metasequoia. Metasequoia leaves trapped m amber found Paleocene coal mme m Fushun, Chma in a Metasequoia fossil Miocene remains: shoots (a) and female cone with seeds (b) from the Clarkia deposit m northern Idaho. 64 logical Metasequoia fossil distnbution through geotimes. NP: North Pole, C: Center of Origm, TC: Tropic of Cancer, EQ: Equator. (a) Late Cretaceous (100 milhon years before present, or MYPB); (b) Paleocene (65 to 54 MYBP); (c) Eocene (54 to 38 MYBP); (d) Oligocene (38 to 24 MYBP); (e) Miocene (24 to 5 MYBP); (f) Phocene (5 to 2 MYBP); (g) Early Pleistocene (2 MYBP to present). The square marks the modern Metasequoia Valley. 65 The fossil record shown on the preceding page was compiled from published paleobotanical literature, using only clearly illustrated fossil leaves and cones. These records give a feeling for the extensive distribution of Metasequoia. The oldest was found in Late Cretaceous rocks (about 100 million years old) in northeastern Russia. At the other extreme, the youngest Metasequoia fossil was collected from Pleistocene deposits in southwestern Japan: the lower part of the Osaka Group-about 1.6 million years old-marks the extinction of Metasequoia from Japan. The highest latitude at which a Metasequoia fossil has been reported is 82 degrees North in northeastern Greenland, where abundant Paleocene fossils have been found. The prize for southernmost distribution goes to the Shihti Formation, a Miocene deposit in Taiwan at a latitude of 25 degrees North. To the west, Metasequoia fossils have been reported from Oligocene deposits in central Asia as far as 60 degrees East. _ routes: dispersal and migration (a) center of omgm; (b) Paleocene dispersal paths showmg invasion of higher latitudes ; (c) lateral Ohgocene dispersal paths, (d) Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene migration direction. Possible Metasequoia (continued from page 62) Fourth, the post-Miocene history of Metasequoia has been less studied, yet it is critical to the explanation for its survival in central China. Metasequoia fossils from the Pliocene and Pleistocene epochs-roughly from 5 to 1.7 million years ago-have been found only in central and southern Japan. Non-marine Pliocene and Pleistocene deposits have been commonly reported in eastern China, but no Metasequoia fossil has been found. If we read the fossil record literally, it suggests that the living Metasequoia is geologically a newcomer to its valley at the juncture of Sichuan, Hubei, and Hunan Provinces in central China, most likely having immigrated from Japan during the Late Pliocene or _ 66 the Tertiary fossil and the modern Metasequoia twig that I compared fifteen years ago in Wuhan. Morphological Variation at the Population Level 1997, seven years after my first trip, I revisited MetaseIn quoia Valley with colleagues from the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology, the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The aim of the second trip was to collect modern Metasequoia leaf samples from trees in the wild for study of both cuticle and genetic variations at the population level. In the past few years, China's market economy has reshaped the country, and I was eager to see how these trees had weathered the environmental changes that accompanied economic reform. To my surprise, the rapid economic growth that has taken place elsewhere in China had not penetrated the remote Metasequoia Valley. And thanks to the Metasequoia conservation program, most of the wild trees are still healthy, although I was sad to learn that These isolated trees are located m a field mside an iron fence m the eight huge trees under which remote Longshan area of Hunan Province, about 70 miles southeast of we picnicked in 1990 had died a Metasequoia Valley. couple of years ago. 2 million years or less On this trip, we made a special effort to travel Early Pleistocene, only to the remote Longshan area of Hunan Province, before the present. about 110 kilometers (70 miles) southeast of It is interesting to note that the morphology of Metasequoia has changed little during the Metasequoia Valley, to visit and sample leaves from several large, wild trees that have rarely 100 million years since its origin. A recent taxobeen seen by outsiders. We also sampled leaves nomic revision of Metasequoia fossils by Liu from large Metasequoia trees in eight natural has reassigned twenty of what were et al. (1999) M. dawn redwood groves in the provinces of formerly twenty-one species (excluding only Sichuan and Hubei. Each sample was divided to a single species: M. occidentalis. This millen) into two sets: one for study of cuticle micromora considerable degree of mormerger suggests phological stasis and implies a slow rate of phology and another for DNA analysis. Cuticle morphological evolution. This would explain from each tree was prepared and examined under a scanning electron microscope by Qin the striking similarity in morphology between 67 Leng, a paleobotanist at the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology. We were not surprised to find that the cuticular characteristics among living trees within Metasequoia Valley display little variation, but Leng did make an exciting discovery: the sample collected from an isolated wild tree in Paomu, Longshan, showed variation. Among other noticeable differences, the internal surface of the lower cuticle in the Longshan leaves possesses a uniquely some In 1992, the post 's office of the People's Repubhc of China issued stamps celebrating dawn redwood as well as other promment Chmese comfers. cuticular membrane between the stomatal and the non-stomatal zone-a characteristic that is not observed in any of the groves.2 Moreover, compared with all other samples, the Paomu sample also showed variation in the micromorphology of its guard cells. The differences in these features are great enough to warrant designation of two separate cuticle types, and the data imply that the isolated tree in Hunan Province may have preserved some characteristics that do not exist in the trees in Metasequoia Valley. Is this an indication that this isolated dawn redwood possesses a slightly different gene pool? If so, it is exciting news for the endangered Metasequoia population, whose genetic variability is expected to be very low. New morphological features found in the wild population may signal an increase of genetic diversity, which would help to alleviate its even zone would expect the modern Metasequoia population to display a very low level of genetic diversity, especially since the morphology of several of its features has shown considerable homogeneity at the population level. However, preliminary DNA analysis, graphic area, we endangered state. Clues from DNA Molecules The past fifty years have witnessed the rapid development of molecular biology, and the impact of DNA-based biotechnology is felt in almost all subdisciplines of biological science. Earlier genetic work on Metasequoia has examined chromosome characteristics and, more recently, electrophoretic patterns of enzyme polymorphism (Kuser et al. 1997), but population structure at the DNA level for wild Metasequola remained unexplored. Accordingly, a set of leaf samples collected during our 1997 trip was used to assess genetic diversity; the project is still in progress, but some preliminary data are (random amplified polymorphic DNA) technique, by Dr. Qun Yang and his student Chunxiang Li at the Nanjing Institute of Geology and Paleontology indicates that the species possesses a moderate genetic diversity that exceeds that of other endangered Chinese conifers, such as Cathaya argyrophylla. Further, the RAPD analysis also reveals that the genetic differences among sampled Metasequoia trees is primarily related to the geographic distance between them (Li et al. 1999). This interesting revelation suggests several possibilities: First, using a RAPD the genetic constitution of isolated trees in Hunan Province may have helped to increase the overall genetic diversity of the population. If this is true, the data from molecular analysis could fit with the findings in the comparison of cuticle morphology, which also imply a slightly different gene pool for the grove in Hunan Province from that of the groves in Metasequoia intriguing. As a small population with a very limited number of individuals living in a restricted geo- Valley. Second, the unexpected level of genetic diversity may reflect a relatively recent establish(contmued on page 69) m 2 Q. Leng, H. Yang, Q. Yang, and J-p. Zhou 1999. Variation of cuticle micromorphology Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng ~Taxodiaceae~ (m progress). native population of 68 A Glimpse of the Living Population Cuticle is a waxy layer covering the outer cell walls of the plant leaf that serves as an effective barrier against water loss. Both botanists and paleobotanists are interested in plant cuticle because their faithful impressions of epidermal cells provide valuable physiological and sometimes taxonomic information. The cuticle's stable chemistry allows it to be preserved in sedimentary rocks for millions of years; therefore, it is particularly valuable for paleobotanists, who use it to classify fossil plants and infer their paleoenvironment. However, for both botanist and paleobotanist, studies of fossil cuticle are greatly improved when preceded by analysis of the cuticle micromorphology of living plants, and the limited distribution of existing Metasequoia will simplify this task of examining the variability of cuticle micromorphology within the species. Thus, the results of these studies will be very useful for interpreting cuticular features in the fossil material. In the laboratory, cuticle from both sides of Metasequoia leaves can be prepared, and both internal and external surfaces of each piece can be examined. Cuticle is separated from the leaf by means of an acid solution. After the material is washed in distilled water and dried in the air, it can be coated with platinum and then amplified hundreds of times under a scanning electron microscope. In addition to the cuticle's thickness, micromorphological features of taxonomic or physiological value include the shape of epidermal cells, size and shape of stomata, shape of guard cells around stomata, and patterns on various cell walls. Two types of cuticle micromorphology were observed by Qin Leng in the wild Metasequoia population. The isolated tree growing in the Longshan area of Hunan Province exhibits slightly different cuticle characteristics from those of trees in the Sichuan and Hubei groves, some 110 kilometers (70 miles) away. For example, epidermal walls in the Paomu sample from Longshan are more regular, with a defined boundary, and the shape of the guard cells around stomata differs from those of the Sichuan and Hubei samples. These differences point to a possible source of morphological variation in the wild population. Cuticle micromorphology of Immg Metasequoia magmfied 200 times, both show the mternal surface of the cuticle on the underside of the leaf, comparing the two cuticle types: (a) from an isolated tree m Longshan, Hunan Provmce, (b) from Metasequoia Valley m Lichuan, Hubei Provmce. Metasequoia Only recently have molecular approaches been applied to the field of paleobiology, providing evolutionary biologists with an independent data set that helps compensate for the incomplete fossil record. In higher plants, DNA molecules reside in the nucleus and in two organelles, chloroplast and mitochondria. A biochemical procedure permits a mixture of the three types of DNA to be extracted and purified from plant cells. Then, using a new molecular technique called polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-a kind of molecular copy machine-selected portions of the DNA can be amplified into millions of identical copies. Depending on the goals of the research, amplified DNA fragments can be sequenced to reveal nucleotide base pairs or can be cut by various enzymes to detect variations. It is the variation in DNA molecules that is the genetic basis DNA from 69 (continued from page 67J of the living population. In theory, the longer a population exists in a confined area, the more homogeneous its genetic diversity would become as inbreeding increases. Third, the unexpected level of genetic diversity may also indicate divergent evolution of small, isolated populations due to habitat fragmentation from a once genetically homogeneous, large population. Unfortunately, our current data are insufficient to prove or disprove these possibilities. The RAPD technique used in this study is a rough, molecular-level survey and, moreover, the sample size is not large enough for a meaningment Agrose gel electrophoresis pattern showmg RAPD amphficatlons demved from Metasequoia for trees. 27 different mld morphological variability and population diversity. RAPD (random amplified polymorphic DNA) analysis, a PCR-based technique, is a new molecular tool that has proved powerful in detecting genetic diversity at the population level. Primers-small synthetic pieces of DNA-will locate any regions of the chromosome (\"priming sites\") that exhibit sequences complementary to the primers' sequences. PCR will amplify all complementary fragments of DNA; if, due to a mutation, a priming site is absent from an individual, then PCR will skip over it. Thus, by counting the number of fragments shared by two individuals we get a crude measure of their genetic difference. When fragments from each Metasequoia sample are separated and stained according to their size, a series of bands is created. Variations in amplification patterning among the samples mirror the underlying DNA variation of the Metasequoia population. Therefore, the amount of genetic variation within the population can be measured by the pattern of bandmg after ful statistical test. DNA sequences of appro- priate genes derived from individual Metasequoia may yield more quantitative information. Nonetheless, the available DNA data reveal an interesting level of genetic variation in the wild Metasequoia population. When Did Metasequoia Arrive There? Traveling through Metasequoia Valley in 1948, Chaney thought that he had seen a Tercome to life. Based on the close resemblance between fossil remains that he had studied in Tertiary deposits around the Pacific basin and living plants that he encountered in Metasequoia Valley, Chaney believed that Metasequoia and its Tertiary associates had taken refuge in central China since Tertiary time. He asserted that Metasequoia \"participated in wide migrations\" from north to south and \"continued down to the present Metasequoia valley\" (Chaney 1948). In other words, he viewed the living Metasequoia as a Tertiary relic. However, the detailed fossil record seems to tell a slightly different story. The absence of post-Miocene Metasequoia fossils in China suggests that the dawn redwood is a relatively recent arrival in central China. The youngest Metasequoia fossils found in China are from Middle Miocene deposits (about 15 million years before present) in Jilin Province, more than 2,000 kilometers (1,240 miles) northeast of Metasequoia Valley, and in Taiwan, an island more than a thousand kilometers (620 miles) east of tiary fossil flora amplification. By comparing amplified bands, computer-based statistical programs are able to calculate the genetic divergence among exammed Metasequoia samples. For DNA collected from any two individual trees, the more differences among the bands, the larger the genetic distance. Only in the past few years has ancient DNA from amber been extracted and sequenced. I have cracked open an amber from Fushan containing a Metasequoia shoot similar to that shown on page 63, hoping to find ancient genes that had survived for over 50 million years. Despite repeated efforts, I have been unable to find DNA; perhaps this goal will be achieved in the future. 70 the present native population. Despite fifty years of intensive searching (Li 1995), no postMiocene Metasequoia has ever been found in China. It is possible, of course, that younger Metasequoia fossils are waiting to be discovered in central China, but it is also conceivable that the chronological and geographical gap in the fossil record reflects the tree's absence during the period of more than 15 million years between the Middle Miocene and Early Pleistocene. Pliocene and Pleistocene Metasequola fossils have been found only in central and southern Japan. Geological evidence shows that the land link between southern Japan and eastern China (at about 34 to 36 degrees North) was available most recently during the late Pliocene to early Pleistocene interval, during the same period that Metasequoia trees are known to have lived in southern Japan. This land connection could have provided a migration route for its westward relocation (Wang 1985). There is also evidence that, while the climate in Japan during the Pliocene appears to have been suitable for Metasequoia, the aridity of central China in that period would not have allowed it to survive. Conversely, during the Pleistocene \"Ice Age,\" southern Japan may have become too cold for Metasequoia (Momohara 1992), while central China, which was not significantly influenced by continental glaciation, thanks to the intervening mountains, could have been a protected haven for the species. One possible interpretation of the fossil distribution and climate data is that Metasequoia migrated southward during the Late Pliocene or Early Pleistocene from Japan to the modern Metasequoia Valley. Finally, the preliminary RAPD data seem to be compatible with the fossil record, suggesting the recent establishment of Metasequoia in its present range. Unfortunately, it offers no precise information regarding the antiquity of the living population, but further molecular study may yield better data. Conservation Efforts During my second visit to Metasequoia Valley, I was happy to see promising results from local conservation efforts, including preservation of trees in the wild, a plantation of grafted trees, and reintroduction of seedlings to other parts of China and throughout the world. Despite a very limited budget, a Metasequoia conservation station in Xiaohe, with Mr. Shenhou Fan as the director and only employee, has maintained a large Metasequoia seedling farm and a plantation grown from grafts of wild large Long He, Hubei, 1994. In Chma, Metasequoia has been planted m groves and along roads m great numbers, and many nurseries have been estabhshed to produce seedlmgs for cuttings. The rooting efficiency of cuttmgs decreases with the age of the source tree; the best source of cuttmgs is from seedlmgs aged one to three years 71 people still worship the giant trees, believing they bring the family good luck (nowdays translated into prosperity) and bless their children with healthy bodies and bright minds. Educational programs are increasing, as is local awareness of the significance of trees. Local these trees. Many articles in the Chinese press have featured Metasequoia, describing its discovery, scientific value, and current conservation programs. Over the next fifteen years or so, the Metasequoia trees will witness the construction of the controversial Three Gorges Dam on the Yangtze River, not far from their native land. The huge manmade lake behind the dam is bound to (ed.). 1995. Fossil floras of Chma through the Geological Ages. Guangzhou: Guangdong Science and Technology Press, 695. Li, C-x., Q. Yang, J-p. Zhou, S-h Fan, and H. Yang. 1999 RAPD analysis of genetic diversity m the natural population of Metasequoia glyptostroboides, central Chma. Acta ScienLi, X-x tiarum Naturalmm Umversitaus Sunyatsem 38\/ 164-69. Liu, Y-j., C-s. Li, and Y-f Wang. Studies on fossil Metasequoia from northeast Chma and them taxonomic implications. Journal of the \"living fossil.\" Arnoldia Linnean Society (m press). Mernll, E. D. 1948. Another 8~ 1 \/:1-8. Momohara, A. 1992. affect the local climate and related ecosystems. It is my hope that the remarkable resilience of this species will again enable it to cope with dramatic environmental changes, as it has so successfully done throughout its history. Late Pliocene plant biostratigraphy of the lowermost part of the Osaka Group, Southwest Japan, with reference to extinction of plants. The Quaternary Research (Tokyo) Wang, H-z 31(2): 77-89. (ed.). 1985. Atlas of the Palaeogeography of Chma. Beyng: Cartographic Pubhshmg House, 143. Fifty years may be short for the dawn redwoods, whose lifespans easily exceed hundreds of years, but it is long enough for political, economic, and technological changes to occur around their native valley. Our knowledge of these magnificent trees has grown substantially over the past fifty years, thanks to new technologies and to several generations of industrious scientists. As studies of the species continue to provide scientists with new inputs for new ideas and hypotheses, the fascinating Metasequoia tale will continue to evolve. Literature Cited Yang, H., and C. J. Smiley. 1991. The history of Metasequoia-Its omgm, early dispersal and migration. Proceedmgs of the First Canadian Paleontology Conference, Program with Abstracts Vancouver, B.C., Canada, 26. Acknowledgments This article is dedicated to two scientists of previous generations whose work brought me to Metasequoia Dr. Ralph W Chaney, whom I never met, but whose thmkmg on Metasequoia and other fossil plants has always intrigued me; and Dr CharlesJ Smiley, with whom I shared the ~oys of both the Clarkia fossil site m Idaho and Metasequoia Valley m Chma. I would hke to thank my colleagues at the Nanjmg Institute of Geology and Paleontology and the Zhongshan University for their collaboration. The research is supported by a Bryant College course release and by summer stipends. My trips to Chma have been supported by grants from the Chmese National Science Foundation, Chma Bridge International, and the K. C. Wong Educational Foundation. Chaney, bearing of the living problems of Tertiary paleobotany. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 34\/11): 503-515. R. W. 1948. The on Metasequoia 1951. A m revision western discovery American ' of fossil Sequoia and Taxodmm North America based on the recent of Metasequoia Transactions of the Hu, H. Philosophical Society, New Senes, 40(3): 171-262 H 1948 How Metasequoia, the \"hvmg fossil,\" was discovered m Chma. Journal of the New \" York Botanical Garden 49: 201-207. Kuser, J. E., D. L. Sheely, and D. R Hendricks. 1997. Genetic variation in two ex situ collections rare Dr. Hong Yang is on the faculty of Bryant College where he teaches biology and earth science. He is also an adjunct research professor at the Nanyng Institute of Geology and Paleontology, the Chmese Academy of Sciences. His research mterests lie at the mterface between paleobiology and molecular biology. The author can be reached at the Department of Science and of the 264. Metasequoia glyptostroboides Genetica (Cupressaceae). Silvae 46(5) : 258- Technology, Faculty Suite C, Bryant College, 1150 Douglas Pike, Smithfield, Rhode Island 02917 or, via e-mail, hyang@bryant.edu. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia Travels the Globe","article_sequence":14,"start_page":72,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25233","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25eab6f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Satoh, Keiko","article_content":"Metasequoia Travels the Globe Keiko Satoh ifty years after Metasequoia seemed threatened by extinction, the tree has taken firm root in soils both alien and familiar. Not only has it been re-introduced to its ancestral domains in the American Northwest, in Russia, and in Japan, but it has established itself in new homes all over the globe, thanks in part to Professor E. D. Merrill's determination to find sanctuary for the species. Dr. Merrill was perhaps not the first Westerner to receive Metasequoia seeds from China-records show that some had already arrived at the University of Copenhagen in Denmark and perhaps also at the Hortus Botanicus in Amsterdam by late 1947-but it was from the 1948 shipments to the Arnold Arboretum that a network of individuals and institutions was formed that ensured the tree's wide distribution. The enthusiastic reception accorded the seeds is exemplified by the comment of Lord Aberconway, president of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1948, to his colleagues at their annual general meeting : \"We hope that in due course our English gardens may bristle with that very interesting plant, in spite of its for- \" <L bidding name.\" Indeed, one can admire some very fine specimens of Metasequoia in England as well as in the rest of the British Isles. At the Arboretum on the island of Mainau m Lake Constance, Seeds were shared from the lots sent Germany. Said to be the oldest allee of Metasequoia m Europe, from the Arnold Arboretum to the Royal the trees were five feet tall when planted m 1959. Above, they appear m a 1970 photograph; below, they are seen twentyBotanic Gardens of Kew and Edinburgh, some years later. as well as to several universities. Seeds west Wales, and from the spring of the following were also given to individuals, including the above-mentioned Lord Aberconway, whose year and continuing into the 1970s, the plants were shared with institutions with a special head gardener, Mr. Puddle, received a packet of interest in rare plants. from Dr. Merrill at the Chelsea seeds directly Ireland's first Metasequoia seeds came from Flower Show in 1948. The seeds germinated Seattle via London. The curator of the Univerin his garden at Bodnant, in northimmediately \" Metasequoia glyptostroboides at the Umversity of Copenhagen Arboretum, Denmark. The seed germmated February 1948 and was planted on the grounds m June of the same year. At Natlonal Botamc Gardens at Glasnevm near Dublm The seed was sown on 3 Apnl 1948, the tree is now about 40 feet tall. Jardm des Plantes, Orleans, part of the Arboretum National des Barres. One of the oldest and largest specimens m France, photographed both m summer and mnter. At 74 At the Dunedm Botamc Garden, New Zealand. This tree is one of many propagated at the Timaru Botamc Garden and distributed to New Zealand gardens It's said that when the director of the Timaru garden read about Metasequoia m 1948, he immediately wrote away for seeds. At the Royal Tasmanian Botanical Gardens, Hobart, Tasmania. This 46-foot tall tree was two years old when it was planted in 1958. It produced seeds m 1992. Royale Cemetery, Montreal, Canada, next to a Wilson (1876-1930). Both monument and first planted out of doors m Canada-were mstalled m May 1949. When photographed in 1995, the tree was less than two meters tall (7ust over six feet). The cause of the leaderless growth is unknown, but the habit is often found m At Mount monument to E. H. tree-said to be the specimens growmg m very cold chmates, where the average mimmum wmter temperatures fall below-15 degrees Fahrenheit. sity of Washington Arboretum sent a batch to the Londonderry arboretum of Commander Frank Gilliland, a plantsman with a taste for conifers, who in turn forwarded some to the director of the National Botanic Gardens, Glasnevin. From Glasnevin, which later received two shipments of seeds directly from the Arnold Arboretum, plants were distributed to other counties in Ireland. The International Botanical Congress held in June of 1948 at the University of Utrecht in the Netherlands presented Dr. Merrill with a splendid opportunity to disseminate seed. Nineteen delegates representing ten countries were present, from as far away as India, Indonesia, and 75 and each no doubt returned home with future trees in their pockets. The hosts of the Congress sowed their seeds the same evening that Dr. Merrill handed them out; subsequently they distributed to other Dutch universities, gardens, and nurseries both seeds and seedlings that eventually made their way into the commercial trade. Inquiries to botanic gardens worldwide revealed that trees are growing in most of the European countries from Ireland in the west to Czechoslovakia in the east, from Scandmavian countries in the north to the gardens of the Mediterranean. They grow high in Katmandu, the capital of Nepal, and dot the hills of Hawaii. The garden of Kirstenbosch in South Africa sports a fairly large specimen, as do various cities on the coast of mainland Australia and in Tasmania and New Zealand. Metasequoia trees survive winter diebacks and the weight of heavy snows in the botanic gardens of Hamilton and Montreal in Canada. At the other extreme, Metasequoia tolerates the sizzling summer rays in the city of Adelaide, Australia, which lies within hardiness zone ten. The specimens in Europe's oldest allee of Metasequoia-on the island of Mainau in Lake Constance, which borders Germany, Austria, and Switzerland-were planted in 1959 as five-year-olds; it is hoped that those recently planted in northern Tasmania, along the driveway leading to a new arboretum, will prove Australia, And in Japan, in Miki-Town, Kagawa Prefecthe island of Shikoku, an \"Ancient Wood Park\" honoring Dr. Shigeru Miki was opened in 1993, complete with a grove of dawn redwoods and life-size models of dinosaurs. A hilltop monument in the park commemorates the paleobotanist who, studying what he assumed to be the fossil of a long-extinct species, gave the name to the ancient, but very much alive, genus Metasequoia. ture on Bibliography Belder, J., and D. O. Wynlands. 1979. Metasequoia glyptostroboides Dendroflora 15\/16: 24, 25. McLaren, H. D. [Lord Aberconway]. 1948. Extracts from The Proceedmgs of the Royal Horticultural Society. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 73: xxxv. Nelson, E. C. 1998. Metasequoia glyptostroboides, the dawn redwood: Some Irish glosses on its discovery and introduction mto cultivation. Curtis's Botamcal Magazme 15~ 1 \/. 77-80. 1950. Botamca Chronica 11 (1\/2)' 7. Acknowledgments I am grateful to all equally prosperous. those people who have provided me with valuable information and images and especially to Victoria Schilhng of the Tree Register of the British Isles; Jan Tolsma of the Botamc Garden of Utrecht University, Rebecca Govier and Debbie White of the Royal Botamc Garden, Edmburgh; Martm Puddle of Bodnant; Jette Dahl Moller of the University of Copenhagen Arboretum; Thierry Lamant of the Arboretum National des Barres; Tom Myers of Dunedin Botanic Garden; Wilham Steans, Parks Manager, Timaru District Council; Milan Velicka of Arboretum Novy Dvur, Chnsty Crosby of the National Botamc Gardens, Glasnevin. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia glyptostroboides: Fifty Years of Growth in North America","article_sequence":15,"start_page":76,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25231","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd25ea726.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kuser, John E.","article_content":"Metasequoia glyptostroboides: Fifty Years of Growth in North America john E. Kuser half a century after Metasequoia was introduced into the West from China, the dawn redwoods produced from these seeds rank among the temperate zone's finest trees. Some of them ow, ~ ) glyptostroboides have grown to remarkable size in the relatively short time of fifty years. Perhaps the largest overall is a tree at Bailey Arboretum, in Locust Valley, New York, which in late August 1998 measured 104 feet in height, 17 feet 8 inches in breast-high girth, and 60 feet in crownspread. Several trees in a grove alongside a small stream in Broadmeade Park, Princeton, New Jersey, are now over 125 feet tall, although not as large in circumference or crown as the Bailey tree. in are over In favorable areas, many others 100 feet in height and 12 feet girth. In 1952 a visiting scholar from China, Dr. Hui-Lin Li, planted dawn redwoods Two beautifully buttressed trunks. Above, the Sarah P. Duke Gardens' dawn redwood has been growmg m this wet spot since 1949. Below, a specimen that stands with its feet in Lake Auburn m Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambmdge, Massachusetts. Both trees derive from the omgmal distmbution from a later seed shipment along Wissahickon Creek in the University of Pennsylvania's Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia. Li knew the conditions under which Metasequoia did best in its native range: in full sunshine on streamside sites, preferably sloping south, with water available all summer and seasonable variations in temperature like those found on our East Coast-warm summers and cold winters. Today, Li's grove beside the Wissahickon inspires awe; its trees reach as high as 113 feet and measure up to 12 feet 6 inches in girth. Large dawn redwoods now occur as far north as Boston, Massachusetts, and Syracuse, New York, and as far south as Atlanta, Georgia, and Huntsville, Alabama, and are found in all the states between. Many of the best specimens grow along the fall line between the Piedmont and the Coastal Plain, usually close enough to a constant supply of water to justify the Chinese name shui-sha (water fir). Smaller specimens grow as far north as Maine, across temperate sites in the 77 Midwest, and along the West Coast from Los Angeles to Vancouver. In the West, they must be watered during the growing season; a tree at Los Angeles' Huntington Gardens that had remained small for years began to grow rapidly when moved next to a stream and is now a large tree. temperatures as well as moisbe needed for the species' best growth. When planted where summers are cool, as at Strybing Arboretum in San Francisco, Pacific Lumber in Scotia, California, and Butchart Gardens in Victoria, British Columbia, trees remain small and twiggy compared to those growing in areas with warmer summers. Even within its favored climate range, however, Metasequoia is somewhat site-selective: it does not thrive in dry or windswept locations and, like yew and hemlock, needs good drainage in addition to moisture. At present, Metasequoia in the United States remains free of serious disease and insect pests. It is sometimes disfigured by heavy populations of Japanese beetles, but refoliates quickly because it is an \"mdeterminate grower,\" that is, it continues to grow all summer as long as sufficient warmth, moisture, and daylight are available. Warm summer ture appear to Metasequoia is usually propagated by cuttings, either hardwood or softwood; the latter works well between mid-August and midSeptember if the cuttings are treated with hormone and rooted under mist. In general, juvenile trees root more easily than large ones although there are exceptions. Like many other species from eastern Asia, however, Metasequoia is also capable of reproducing naturally m eastern North America; self-reproducing trees have been reported in Tennessee and New Jersey. Seedlings come up regularly m my lawn and garden, but since they cannot compete with grass and weeds, there is little danger the species will become another Ailanthus or Paulownia. Shortly after the introduction of Metasequoia, hopes were high that it would serve as a new source of commercial softwood. Danish forestry professor Syrach Larsen made \"timber\" selections from trees he had grown near Copenhagen from Arnold Arboretum seeds; these lacked the basal fluting usually present in Metasequoia glyptostroboides be the at Bailey Arboretum, Locust Grove, New York, photographed in September 1998. At 104 feet high and 17 8 feet around, it may largest mdmdual outside Chma 78 the species and thus produced better logs. (The fluting of the lower trunk can be reduced, if desired, by pruning the tree up to eight or ten feet or by growing trees closely spaced to cause natural pruning.) We now know that by Western standards Metasequoia is too intolerant of shade to be grown commercially: it cannot be as closely spaced in plantations so as its cousin light passes through its crown, plantations require constant, expensive weeding. Moreover, its wood is rather brittle, although the light, purplish, aromatic heartwood is highly resistant to decay. Houses built of Metasequoia wood have been known to survive as many as seven generations of Chinese farmers. When used as a street tree, Metasequoia should be planted at least ten feet from sidewalks to allow room for its wide, shallow, aggressive root system. As a park or lawn tree, dawn redwood grows to majestic proportions when soil, sun, and moisture are to its liking; and when used in an allee, it could well rival in effect the splendid Taxodium allee at Longwood Gardens in Pennsylvania. No one knows how tall it will finally grow outside its native range, but one 450-year-old tree in China's Hubei Province is 154 feet high. Genetic For a Sequoia, and because much A dawn redwood at home ma sheepfold on Naushan Island, Massachusetts Diversity native now species whose very restricted, Metasequoia possesses a surprising amount of genetic variation. In 1991 a group of researchers at Rutgers Univer- range is sity compared the allozyme diversity and growth rates of seedlings grown from seeds of fifty-two parent trees in Hubei, Hunan, and Sichuan Provinces with those of forty trees derived from the Arnold Arboretum's 1948 seedlot. The 1991 Chinese seedlings had more allozyme variation and produced a few unusually fast-growing individuals, several dwarfs, corkscrews, and a \"featherleaf.\" A Dawn redwoods or planted at the Secrest Arboretum in Wooster, Ohio, m 1948 shortly thereafter. 79 comparison made of the genetic variations within the Metasequoia seedlings and those of other conifer species showed Metasequoia to be about average m this respect-neither as diverse lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) nor as monomorphic as red pine (P. resinosa). Professor Li Minghe of Huazhong University 1 m Wuhan, who was responsible for the 1991 seed shipment, reported that the species' range as had been much more extensive until quite The roots of a dawn redwood planted too close to sidewalk thirty-five years ago m Paramus, New Jersey. a recently; indeed, 11,000-year-old Metasequoia logs have been found buried under the city of Wuhan, about five-hundred kilometers (three hundred miles) from Modaoqi, the center of the species' present range. This may help to explain the amount of genetic variation that still exists. years after its introduction to North continues to grow. The 125-foot-tall trees in Broadmeade Park continue to add two feet of height each year. Fast- Fifty America, Metasequoia growing, essentially disease-free, both beautiful and interesting, Metasequoia also continues to grow in popularity. on References Kuser, John. 1982 Metasequoia Keeps Arnoldia . Growing. 42(3)' 130-138. Clone 27A dwarfs Its fellow clones grown from seeds from at 1987 Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Cuttmgs. Arnoldia 47\/1~: 14-19. 1998. Genetic Vanation m Two ex situ Collections of the Rare Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Cupressaceae) Silvae Genetica 46: 258-264 D. L. Sheely, and D. R. Hendncks 1983. Inbreedmg Depression m Metasequoia Journal of the Arnold Arboretum G4 475-481. Hubei, Chma, Rutgers Test Plantation . Kuser, John E., John Kuser teaches dendrology, forest ecology and silvics, urban forestry, and forest genetics at Cook College, Rutgers University. He has written extensively as well Urban and Commumty Forestry m the Northeast, will be pubhshed by Plenum Press later this year. During next year's sabbatical he will work on a rangewide study of the genetic architecture of Chamaecypams thyoides and will expand and update the 1992 leaflet, Exotic Trees m New Jersey. on as Metasequoia and several other comfers tomentosa Paulowma A textbook, This dwarf weepmg form also derives seeds from Hubei. from one of the 1991 1 80 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Guide to Metasequoia at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":16,"start_page":81,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25221","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eb726.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"A Guide to Karen Madsen Metasequoia Metasequoia at the Arnold Arboretum duced -L nor was not introinto the West for its as an ornamental, primarily for its botanical interest. The remnant populations in central China appeared to be on the verge of potential extinction, and the great concern was to expand its range. Once seeds had germinated and there was confidence that somewhere outside central China favorable growmg conditions would be found, interest at the Arboretum turned to finding favorable conditions within its own walls. Early speculation suggested that the species might not be hardy north of Georgia, where the climate of the coastal plain is similar to the tree's native habitat. To determine their cultural requirements, Donald Wyman, then managmg horticulturist, planted specimens and groves at a variety of sites. Today our Metasequoia popula- concentrated in four areas: the wet meadow near the Arborway; the southern slope of Bussey Hill; in the comfer collection; and on Peters Hill. Of the Arboretum's 13,187 plants, tion is 106 are Metasequoia glyptostroboides, .8% of the total. Before the advent of computerized record-keeping in the 1980s, the Arboretum's plant data were recorded in an accessions book and a card catalog. On the card for accession 3-48 is typed, The Arboretum's oldest and most unusual specimen of Metasequoia, located m the comfer collection, where soil dramage is good and surroundmg trees block strong wmds. An early trauma must have caused it to regenerate from basal suckers. It lost some large branches m the April Fool's Day bhzzard of 1997, but by the end of the year it t was m good condition agam. Because of its historical interest and \"collections quahty,\" clones of 3-48 have been propagated, and m 1992 three scions were added to the collections. Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Seeds, received by Dr. E. D. Merrill, Arn.Arb. from Szechuan, China, Jan. 14, 1948. (This is the oldest plant m the U.S.)( in the Certainly it is the oldest mdividual Arboretum, and the only one derived from the first seedlot. The newcomer wasted no time establishing itself; seedlings were up in two weeks. 82 The second, much larger shipment of seeds arrived in Jamaica Plain on March 19, 1948. For this 500-gram lot, library and herbarium staff supplemented the greenhouse staff in sorting the very small seeds into hundreds of packets for distribution around the world. Twelve of the plants from these seeds remain on the grounds. When assessed during the past three years, all of the trees dating from 1948 were in \"good\" condition excepting only one \"poor,\" one \"fair,\" and one \"excellent.\" Happily, the \"excellent\" tree is the most visible one: It stands on Meadow Road near the Hunnewell Building. At 84 feet it is not notably tall, but few of its When conditions smt them, dawn redwoods grow mth astomshmg speed When this specimen was transplanted at age three from poor, dry soil to good soil, it was at the height pomted to by the girl. In the followmg season it grew 4'4\", doublmg its height. Metasequoia proved easy to propagate by cutting, but for many years the Arboretum trees cones were produced no viable seed. Female formed, but male cones were lacing. In 1980 Alan Longman of the Institute of Terrestrial Ecology, Edinburgh, Scotland, in collaboration with Peter Del Tredici, then assistant propagator, undertook an experiment in flower induction. Both male and female cones formed by September, but the success of the gibberellic-acid-induced male cones was overshadowed by coincidence: 1980 turned out to be the year that they were also produced naturally. The \"excellent\" dawn redwood on Meadow Road, in 1964. Donald Wyman noted, \"This is the best of several forms now growmg m the Arnold Arboretum. \" Wyman was a close observer of the species, but not a great fan. In 1970 he \"Although very fast growmg, it is not a distinguished ornamental and is definitely too large for the small garden.\" wrote, \" 83 The grove on of dawn redwoods that termmates Chinese Path were Bussey Hill photographed shortly after they m planted They were grown m the Greenhouses from seed sent from Chma m1991 spring of 1995. Dana cohorts rival it in diameter. Its 130 centimeters (50.7 inches) at breast height is second only to the 134 centimeters (52.3 inches) of the tree on Valley Road near Bussey Brook. Six dawn redwoods were grown from seeds brought to the Arboretum by the delegation of Chinese botanists who visited in 1979, three located in the wet meadow, the others in the conifer collection. With the exception of one cultivar, 'National', which came from the U.S. National Arboretum in 1962, all other dawn redwoods were planted in 1995. To broaden the genetic base of the Metasequoia collection, the Arboretum joined a small consortium orgamzed by John Kuser of Rutgers University to sponsor the collection of seeds from all known wild populations in China. From these seeds came 69 plants from 43 different parent trees. Nineteen form a grove that terminates Chinese Path on Bussey Hill. Three other groves are sited on Peters Hill, one in a low, sunny spot; another, dry and sunny; the third, dry and shady. Certainly the Rutgers seedlings have greatly expanded the parentage of the Arboretum's collection of Metasequoia, but interestingly, investigations of both the two 1948 seedlots and the forty-six 1991 seedlots indicate that the 1948 lots contain fully 80 percent of the genetic variation found in the species overall (Kuser et al. The grove in sprmg 1999. 1997). Half a century after Elmer Merrill received the first seed shipment from China, concerns about genetic variation have been put to rest; hardmess has been established across a broad geographical range; propagation has been ensured; the threat of extinction is past: We are free to concentrate on the dawn redwood's very ornamental features. Bibliography Kuser, J. E., D. L. Sheely, and D R Hendncks. 1997. Genetic Variation m Two ex situ Collections of the Rare Metasequoia glyptostroboides (Cupressaceae Silvae Genetica 46(5) : 258264. Date. Arnoldia . Wyman, Donald. 1951 Metasequoia Brought Up-to- 11(3). 25-28. Years m 1968 Metasequoia After Twenty Cultivation Arnoldia 28(10-lly 113-123. Acknowledgments Many thanks to Carol David, for Susan Kelley, and Kyle Port mdispensable help. 84 Silhouetted by falling the wet meadow, the rightmost Metasequoia is the tallest of the Arboretum's dawn redwoods; in December 1997 it was 102 2 feet in height and 80 snow m centimeters (31 inches) m diameter to its at left zs (Taxodium distichum), planted in 1933. The other dawn redwoods were seen breast height; a bald cypress here propagated m1962 In 1997, all fell mthm 64 to 75 feet in height. Chinese Names in Transliteration: A Conversion Table People's Republic of China officially adopted the Pinyin system for transliterating Chinese ideograms into the Roman alphabet. Prior to that time, most spellings accorded with the Wade-Giles system (although variations are common). In the historical articles in this issue, the original spellings of names and places have been retained; some of them reappear in Part 2 in changed form and it is those that are included below. The older spelling is given in the first column; the newer, Pinyin spelling is on the right. In 1979, the Another group of synonyms may be helpful: Shuisapa ....... Shui-hsa Valley ....... Valley of the Tiger ....... Metasequoia Valley "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Names in Transliteration: A Conversion Table","article_sequence":17,"start_page":84,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25225","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24e816d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"84 Silhouetted by falling the wet meadow, the rightmost Metasequoia is the tallest of the Arboretum's dawn redwoods; in December 1997 it was 102 2 feet in height and 80 snow m centimeters (31 inches) m diameter to its at left zs (Taxodium distichum), planted in 1933. The other dawn redwoods were seen breast height; a bald cypress here propagated m1962 In 1997, all fell mthm 64 to 75 feet in height. Chinese Names in Transliteration: A Conversion Table People's Republic of China officially adopted the Pinyin system for transliterating Chinese ideograms into the Roman alphabet. Prior to that time, most spellings accorded with the Wade-Giles system (although variations are common). In the historical articles in this issue, the original spellings of names and places have been retained; some of them reappear in Part 2 in changed form and it is those that are included below. The older spelling is given in the first column; the newer, Pinyin spelling is on the right. In 1979, the Another group of synonyms may be helpful: Shuisapa ....... Shui-hsa Valley ....... Valley of the Tiger ....... Metasequoia Valley "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23363","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270b76e.jpg","title":"1998-58-4","volume":58,"issue_number":"4-59-1","year":1998,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In the Shadow of Red Cedar","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25215","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24ea76d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Davis, Wade","article_content":"In the Shadow of Red Cedar Wade Davis In the shadow of red cedar, along a stream colored by salmon, in a place where plants draw food from the air and small creatures living on dew never touch the forest floor, it is difficult to a time when the coastal temperate rainforests of North America did not exist. Today, these immense and mysterious forests, which in scale and wonder dwarf anything to be found in the tropics, extend in a vast arc from northern Califorma 2,000 miles north and west to the Copper River and the Gulf of Alaska. Home to myriad species of plants and animals, a constellation of life unique on earth, they spread between sea and mountain peak, reaching across and defying national boundaries as they envelop all who live within their influence in an unrivaled frontier of the spirit. It is a world anchored in the south by giant sequoias (Sequoiadendron giganteum), the most massive of living beings, and coast redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens) that soar 300 feet above the fogbanks of Mendocino. In the north, two trees flourish: western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla), with its delicate foliage and finely furrowed bark; and Sitka spruce (Picea sitchensis), most majestic of all, a stunningly beautiful species with blue-green needles that are salt tolerant and capable of extracting minerals and nutrients from sea spray. In between, along the silent reaches of the midcoast of British Columbia, behind a protective veil of Sitka spruce, rise enormous stands of Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Intermingled with hemlock and fir, growing wherever the land is moist and the rains abundant, is perhaps the most important denizen of the Pacific slope, the western red cedar (Thula plicata), the tree that made possible the florescence of the great and ancient cultures of the coast. To walk through these forests in the depths of winter, when the rain turns to mist and settles imagine softly on the moss, is to step back in time. Two hundred million years ago vast coniferous forests formed a mantle across the entire planet. Dinosaurs evolved long supple necks to browse high among their branches. Then evolution took a great leap, and flowers were born. What made them remarkable was a mechanism of pollination and fertilization that changed the course of life on earth. In the more primitive conifers, the plant must produce the basic food for the seed with no certainty that it will be fertilized. In the flowering plants, by contrast, fertilization itself sparks the creation of the seed's food reserves. In other words, unlike the conifers, the flowering plants make no investment without the assurance that a viable seed will be produced. As a result of this and other evolutionary advances, the flowering plants came to dominate the earth m an astonishingly short time. Most conifers went extinct, and those that survived retreated to the margins of the world, where a small number of species maintained a foothold by adapting to particularly harsh conditions. Today, at a conservative estimate, there are over 250,000 species of flowering plants. The conifers have been reduced to a mere 700 species, and in the tropics, the hotbed of evolution, they have been almost completely displaced. On all the earth, there is only one region of any size and significance where, because of particular climatic conditions, the conifers retain their former glory. Along the northwest coast of North America the summers are hot and dry, the winters cold and wet. Plants need water and light to create food. Here in the summer there is ample light for photosynthesis but not enough water for most deciduous trees, except in lowlying areas where broadleafed species such as red alder (Alnus rubra), cottonwood (Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa), and vine maple (Acer circinatum) flourish. In the winter, when Western red cedar and hemlock in Stoltmann Wilderness, Bmtish Columbia. 4 1 both water and light are sufficient, the low temperatures cause the flowering plants to lose their leaves and become dormant. The evergreen conifers, by contrast, are able to grow throughout the long winters, and since they use water more efficiently than broadleafed plants, they also thrive during the dry summer months. The result is an ecosystem so rich and so productme that the biomass m the best sites is easily four times as great as that of any comparable area of the tropics. Indeed it is the scale and abundance of the coastal rainforests that overwhelm the visitor. White pine (Pinus strobus), the tallest tree of the eastern deciduous forests, barely reaches two hundred feet; in the coastal rainforests there are thirteen species that grow higher, with the redwoods reaching nearly four hundred feet, taller than a twenty-five-story building. Red cedars can be twenty feet or more across at the base. The footprint of a Douglas fir would crush a small cabin. The trunk of a western hemlock, a miracle of biological engineering, thousands of gallons of water and supbranches festooned with as many as 70 ports million needles, all capturing the light of the sun. Spread out on the ground, the needles of a single tree would create a photosynthetic surface ten times the size of a football field. These giant trees delight, but the real wonder of the forest lies in the details, in the astonishingly complex relationships: a pileated woodpecker living in the hollow of a snag, tiny seabirds laying their eggs among the roots of an ancient cedar, marbled murrelets nesting in a depression in the moss in the fork of a canopy tree, rufous hummingbirds returning each spring, their migrations timed to coincide with the flowering of salmonberries (Rubus spectabilisJ. In forest streams dwell frogs with tails and lungless salamanders that live by absorbing oxygen through their skm. Strange amphibians, they lay their eggs not in water but on land, in moist debris and fallen logs. Invertebrate life is remarkably diverse. The first survey to explore systematically the forest stores Vine maples, Acer circinatum, near Lake M~lls, Washmgton r 5 earth, feeding, digesting, ducing, and dymg. course, repro- None of these creatures, of lives in isolation. In no stands alone. Every biological process, each chemical reaction, leads to the unfolding of other possibilities for life. Tracking these strands through an ecosystem is as complex as untangling the distant threads of memory from a myth. nature, event For years, even as industrial loggmg created clearcuts the size Mossy branches of bigleaf maple, Acer macrophyllum, Olympic Pemnsula, Washington. canopy in the Carmanah Valley of Vancouver Island yielded 15,000 species, a third of the invertebrates known to exist in all of Canada. Among the survey's collections were 500 species previously unknown to science. Life is equally rich and abundant on the forest floor. There are 12 species of slugs, slimy herbivores that in some areas account for as much as seventy percent of the animal biomass. A square meter of soil may support 2,000 earthworms, rains draw nutrients from the soil, carrying vital food into rivers and streams that fall away of small nations, the coastal rainforests were among the least studied ecosystems on the planet. Only within the last decade or two have biologists begun to understand and chart the dynamic forces and complex ecological relationships that allow these magnificent forests to exist. One begins with wmd and ram, the open expanse of the Pacific and the steep escarpment of mountains that makes possible the constant cycling of water between land and sea. Autumn rains last until those of spring, and months pass without a sign of the sun. Sometimes the ram falls as mist, and moisture is raked from the air by the canopy of the forest. At other times the storms are torrential, and daily precipitation is measured in inches. The 40,000 insects, 120,000 mites, 120,000,000 nematodes, and millions upon millions of protozoa and bacteria, all alive, moving through the and support the greatest coastal diversity on earth. In the estuaries and tidal flats of British Columbia, in shallows that merge with the wetlands, are six hundred types of seaweed, seventy species of sea stars. Farther offshore, vast, underwater kelp forests shelter hundreds of forms of life, which in turn support a food chain that reaches into the sky to nourish dozens of species of seabirds. The land provides for life in the sea, but the sea in turn nurtures the land. Birds deposit to the sea marine the moss, yielding tons of nitrogen and phosphorus that are washed into the soil by winter rains. Salmon return by the millions to their native streams, providing food for eagles and ravens, grizzly and black bears, killer whales, river otters, and more than twenty other mammals of the sea and forest. Their journey complete, the sockeye and coho, chinooks, chums, and pinks drift downstream in death and are slowly absorbed back into the nutrient cycle of life. In the end there is no separation between forest and ocean, between the creatures of the land and those of the sea. Every living thing on the raincoast ultimately responds to the same ecological rhythm. All are interdependent. The plants that dwell on land nevertheless face particular challenges, especially that of securing nutrients from thin soils leached by rain throughout much of the year. The tangle of ecological adaptations that has evolved in response is nothing short of miraculous. As much as a fifth of the biomass in the foliage of an old-growth Douglas fir, for example, is an epiphytic lichen, Lobaria oregana, which fixes nitrogen directly from the air and passes it into the ecosystem. The needles of Sitka spruce absorb phosphorus, calcium, and magnesium, and their high rate of transpiration releases moisture to the canopy, allowing the lichens to flourish. On the forest floor thick mats of sphagnum and other mosses filter rainwater and protect the mycelia of hundreds of species of fungi; these elements form one of the richest mushroom floras on earth. Mycelia are the vegetative phase of a fungus, small hairlike filaments that spread through the organic layer at the surface of the soil, absorbing food and precipitating decay. A mushroom is simply the fruiting structure, the reproductive body. As the mycelia grow, they constantly encounter tree roots. If the species combination is the right one, a remarkable biological event unfolds. Fungus and tree come together to form mycorrhizae, a symbiotic partnership that allows both to benefit. The tree provides the fungus with sugars created from sunlight. The mycelia in turn enhance the tree's ability to absorb nutrients and water from the soil. They also produce growth-regulating chemicals that promote the excrement in production of new roots and enhance the immune system. Without this union, no tree could thrive. Western hemlocks are so depen- dent on mycorrhizal fungi that their roots barely even as their trunks soar into the canopy. The story only gets better. All life requires nitrogen for the creation of proteins. Nitrates, a basic source, are virtually absent from the acidic, heavily leached soils of the rainforest. The mycorrhizae, however, contain not only nitrogen-fixing bacteria that produce this vital raw material but also a yeast culture that promotes the growth of both the bacteria and the fungus. There are scores of different mycorrhizae-the roots of a single Douglas fir may have as many as forty types-and, like any other form of life, the fungus must compete, reproduce, and find a means to disperse its spore. The pierce the surface of the earth, fruiting body in many cases is an underground mushroom or a truffle. When mature, it emits a pungent odor that seeps through the soil to attract rodents, flying squirrels, and red-backed voles, delicate creatures that live exclusively on a refined diet of truffles. As the voles move about the forest, they scatter droppings, neat little bundles of feces that contain yeast culture, fungal spores, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria-in short, all that is required to inoculate roots and prompt the creation of new mycorrhizae. Fungi bring life to the forest both by their ability to draw nutrients to the living and by their capacity to transform the dead. In oldgrowth forests twenty percent of the biomassas much as six hundred tons per hectare-is retained in fallen debris and snags. There is as much nutrition on the ground as there is within it. The moss on the forest floor is so dense that virtually all seedlings sprout from the surface of rotting stumps and logs, which may take several hundred years to decay. When a tree falls in the forest, it is immediately attacked by fungi and a multitude of insects. The wood provides a solid diet of carbohydrates. To secure proteins and other nutrients, the fungi deploy natural antibiotics to kill nitrogen-fixing bacteria. Chemical attractants emitted by the fungi draw in other prey, such as nematode worms, which are dispatched with exploding poison sacs and an astonishing arse- - 7 Western red cedar near Port Angeles, Washmgton. 8 the fray, including those that consume white cellulose, turning wood bloodred and reducing the heartwood to dust. An inch of soil may take a thousand years to accumulate. Organic debris may persist for centuries. Dead trees are the life of the forest, but their potential is realized only slowly and with great patience. This observation leads to perhaps the extraordinary mystery of all. Lush and astonishingly prolific, the coastal temperate rainforests are richer in their capacity to produce the raw material of life than any other terrestrial ecosystem on earth. The generation of this immense natural wealth is made possible by a vast array of biological interactions so complex and sophisticated as to suggest an evolutionary lineage drifting back to the dawn of time. Yet all evidence indicates that these forests emerged only within the last few thousand years. In aspect and species composition they may invoke the great coniferous forests of the distant geologic past, but as a discrete and evolving ecosystem the coastal temperate rainforests are still wet with the innocence of birth. Some twenty thousand years ago, what is today British Columbia was a place of turmoil and ice. The land was most Douglas firs at sunmse. nal of microscopic weapons. The assault on the log comes from many quarters. Certain insects, incapable of digesting wood directly, exploit fungi to do the work. Ambrosia beetles, for example, deposit fungal spores in tunnels bored into the wood. After the spores germinate, the tiny insects cultivate the mushrooms on miniature farms that flourish in the dark. In time other creatures appear-mites and termites, carpenter ants that chew long galleries m the wood and establish captive colonies of aphids that produce honeydew from the sap of plants. Eventually, as the log progresses through various stages of decay, other scavengers join unstable, given to explosive eruptions that burst over the shore. A glacial sheet more than 6,000 feet deep covered the interior ot the province, torging young, mountains and grinding away valleys as it moved over the land, determining for all time the fate of rivers. On the coast, giant tongues of ice carved deep fjords beneath the sea. The sea levels fell by 300 feet, and the sheer weight of ice depressed the shoreline to some 750 feet below its current level. Fourteen thousand years ago, an instant in geologic time, the ice began to melt, and the glaciers retreated for the last time. The ocean invaded the shore, inundating coastal valleys and islands. But the land, freed at last of the weight of eons, literally sprang up. Within a mere one thousand years, the water drained 9 back into the sea, and the coastline became established more or less as it is today. Only in the wake of these staggering geological events did the forests come into being. At first the land was dry and cold, an open landscape of aspen and lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta). Around ten thousand years ago, even as the first humans appeared on the coast, the air became more moist and Douglas fir slowly began to displace the pine. Sitka spruce flourished, though hemlock and red cedar remained rare. Gradually the climate became warmer, with long seasons without frost. As more and more rain fell, endless banks of clouds sheltered the trees from the radiant sun. Western hemlock and red cedar expanded their hold on the south coast, working their way north at the expense of both fir and Sitka spruce. For the first people of the raincoast, this ecological transition became an image from the dawn of time, a memory of an era when Raven slipped from the shadow of cedar to steal sunlight and cast the moon and stars into the heavens. Mythology enshrined natural history, for it was the diffusion of red cedar that allowed the great cultures of the Pacific Northwest to emerge. The nomadic hunters and gatherers who for centuries had drifted with the seas along the western shores of North America were highly adaptive, capable of taking advantage of every new opportunity for life. Although humans had inhabited the coast for at least five thousand years, specialized tools first appear in the archaeological record around 3000 B.C., roughly the period when red cedar came into its present dominance in the forests. Over the next millennium, a dramatic shift in technology and culture occurred. Large cedar structures were in use a thousand years before the Christian era. A highly distinct art form developed by 500 B.C. Stone mauls and wooden wedges, obsidian blades and shells honed to a razor's edge allowed the highly durable wood to be worked into an astonishing array of objects, which in turn expanded the potential of the environment. *** sixty percent has been logged, largely since 1950. In the last two decades, over half of all timber ever extracted from the public forests of British Columbia has been taken. At current rates of harvest, roughly 1.5 square miles of old growth per day, the next twenty years will see the destruction of every unprotected valley of ancient rainforest in the province. In truth, no one really knows what will happen to these lands once they are logged. Forests are extraordinanly complex ecosystems. Biologists have yet to identify all of the species, let alone understand the relationships among them. Although we speak with unbridled confidence of our ability to reproduce the ecological conditions of a forest and to grow wood indefinitely, there is no place on earth that is currently cutting a fourth generation of timber on an industrial scale. The more imprecise a science, the more dogmatically its proponents cling to their ability to anticipate and predict phenomena. Forestry as traditionally practiced in the Pacific Northwest is less a science than an ideology, a set of ideas reflecting not empirical truths, but the social needs and aspirations of a closed group of professionals with a vested interest in validating its practices and existence. The very language of the discipline is disingenuous, as if conceived to mislead. The \"annual allowable cut\" is not a limit never to be exceeded but a quota to be met. The \"fall down effect,\" the planned decline in timber production as the old growth is depleted, is promoted as if it were a natural phenomenon when it is in fact a stunning admission that the forests have been drastically overcut every year since modern forestry was implemented in the 1940s. \"Multiple-use forestry\"-which implies that the forests are managed for a variety of purposes, including recreation, tourism, and wildlifebegins with a clearcut. Old growth is \"harvested,\" though it was never planted and no one expects it to grow back. Ancient forests are \"decadent\" and \"overmature,\" when by any ecological defimtion they are at their richest and most biologically diverse state. The most misleadmg of these terms is \"sustained yield,\" for it has led the public to believe that the trees are growing back as fast as they are being cut. But they are not. In British Oregon and Washington only ten percent of the original coastal rainforest remains. In California only four percent of the redwoods have been set aside. In British Columbia, roughly In 10 Columbia alone there are 8.7 million acres of insufficiently restocked lands. We continue to cut at a rate of 650,000 acres per year. Every year 2.5 million logging-truck loads roll down the highways of the province. Lined up bumper to bumper, they would encircle the earth twice. In implemented may mitigate some of the worst ecological impacts, will neither restore the public's confidence and trust nor address the underlying challenge of transforming the economy. Any worker who has wielded a saw or ripped logs from a setting knows that in the end it all comes down to production. The enormous wealth generated over the last fifty years has been possible only because we have been willing to indulge egregious practices in the woods that have little to do with the actual promise of forestry. Spreading clearcuts ever deeper into the hinterland is a policy of the past, crude and anachronistic, certain to lead to a dramatic decline in the forestry sector and to bitterness and disappointment in the communities that rely upon the forests for both spiritual and material well-being. Revitalizing cutover lands with vibrant tree plantations, implementing intensive silviculture to increase yields, establishing the finest model of forest management on a finite land base-these are initiatives that will both allow communities to prosper and enable them to fulfill a moral obligation to leave to the future as healthy an environment as the one they inherited. There is no better place to pursue a new way of thinking than in the temperate rainforests of the coast. At the moment, less than six percent has been protected; the remainder is slated to be logged. If anything, this ratio should be reversed. We live at the edge of the clearcut; our hands will determine the fate of these forests. If we do nothing, they will be lost within our lifetimes, and we will be left to explain our inaction. If we preserve these ancient forests, they will stand for all generations and for all time as symbols of the geography of hope. They are called old growth not because they are frail but because they shelter all of our history and embrace all of our dreams. Wade Davis is an ethnobotanist and prolific wnter. This article is excerpted from his most recent book, Shadows m the Sun- Travels to Landscapes of Spmt and Desire, published by Island Press\/Shearwater Books practice, sustained-yield forestry remains an untested hypothesis: after three generations we are still cutting into our biological capital, the irreplaceable old-growth forests. As a scientific concept, sustained yield loses all relevance when applied to an ecological situation the basic parameters of which remain unknown. At best, sustained yield is a theoretical possibility; at worst, a semantic sleight of hand, intended only to deceive. Anyone who has flown over Vancouver Island, or seen the endless clearcuts of the interior of the province, grows wary of the rhetoric and empty promises of the forest industry. Fishermen and women become skeptical when they learn that logging has driven 142 salmon stocks to extinction and left 624 others on the brink. Timber for British Columbia mills now comes from Manitoba. Truck drivers from Quesnel, a pulp-and-paper town in the center of the province, haul loads hundreds of miles south from Yukon. Just one of the clearcuts southeast of Prince George covers five hundred square kilometers, five times the area of the city of Toronto. This, after sixty years of official commitment to sustained-yield forestry. The lament of the old-time foresters-that if only the public understood, it would appreciate what we dofalls flat. The public understands but does not like what it sees. Fortunately, this orthodoxy is now being challenged. Many in the Pacific Northwest, including the best and brightest of professional foresters, recognize the need to move beyond, to an era in which resource decisions are truly based on ecological imperatives, in which the goal of economic sustainability is transformed from a cliche into an article of faith. To make this transition will not be easy, and it will involve much more than tinkering with the edges of an industry that generates $15.9 billion a year in the province of British Columbia alone. Dispatching delegations to Europe to reassure customers, or devising new regulations that if \/1.800.828.1302 or www.islandpress.org). Photographer Graham Osborne specializes in alpine and coast subjects. The photographs in this article and on the covers have been published in his book Ramforest, published by Chelsea Green, Vermont. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The First and Final Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25220","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eb36d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The First and Final Peter Del Tredici Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo Regular readers of Arnoldia can appreciate the many satisfactions that come from working at the Arnold Arboretum, with its endless opportunities for studying plants. Even after twenty years of daily contact, there's always something new and exciting. Some days it is the first flowers on a recently planted specimen; on others, it is stumbling, sometimes quite literally, across an amazing old plant never before noticed. The highlight of the 1998 season was definitely the discovery of flowers on Muriel's bamboo, Fargesia murielae, which appeared at the Arnold Arboretum for the firstand last-time. The Flowering is native to Fargesia murielae the where it China, grows at elevations between two and three thousand meters. The species is one of the principal foods of the giant panda bear and arguably one of the most ornamental of the hardy species of bamboo. Its graceful, arching stems reach two to three meters in height and add a measure of exotic elegance mountains of central garden. As a clump-forming species expands slowly, in stark contrast to bamboos that spread by long, underground stems-the \"running to any it Mumel's bamboo, Fargesia mumelae, m the full flush of its sprmg growth. bamboos\"-which often the bane of unwary gardeners. Experienced bamboo growers are universal m their praise of Fargesia murielae, not are its only for the above-mentioned traits, but also because Muriel's bamboo is among the hardiest of the entire family, growing well m USDA zone 5 and, with protection, into zone 4. For all of its attractiveness, however, the most interesting feature of Muriel's bamboo is monocarpic life cycle-it flowers once in its life and then dies. Gardeners are used to seeing sunflowers germinate, grow, and die m a single season, and foxgloves die after two years, but the idea of a plant flowering after eighty to one hundred years and then dying seems more than a little strange. And strange indeed it is, being found only among the \"woody\" monocots, such as the well-known century plant (Agave sp.), ), 12 in the Andean bromeliad of genus Corypha), tree-sized proportions (Puya raymondii), which tend to come into flower when they reach a critical size.' Monocarpic bamboos are unique even among this unusual group because they do not flower according to their size, but according to a predetermined maturation cycle, the length of which appears to be genetically fixed for each species.2 The eighty-to-one-hundred-year flowering cycle of Muriel's bamboo, while certainly not the longest on record, is among the most widely known and well documented. Indeed, it was the widespread flowering and subsequent death of the umbrella bamboo in China in 1971, along with that of several closely related species, that created worldwide concern about the survival of the giant panda. The panda population in central China, it was found, had become overly dependent on the high-elevation species of Fargesia after bamboo species growing at lower elevations were eliminated by land clearance for a few genera of palms (most notably and an strategy for preventing a buildup of that would feed on the highly nutritious seeds if they were produced on a predictable schedule. However, this idea does not explain why the flowering intervals of many bamboos greatly exceed the lifespans of most animals that would feed on their seeds. More likely, the real reason is inextricably embedded in a complex matrix of physiological, ecological, and evolutionary factors. ering is a predators The Introduction The history of the plant's introduction into cultivation in the West, like that of so many other plants, is cloaked in mystery and confusion. It was first collected by the Arnold Arboretum's most famous plant collector, E. H. Wilson, who assigned it number 1462. The Arboretum has most of Wilson's field books in its archives, and those for his first Arboretum expedition, from February 1907 through April 1909, contains the following entry: \"1462. Bamboo, 12 ft., stems golden, thickets, 7000-9000 ft, Fang. Plants, - agriculture.3 ing cycle, in their a Even more remarkable than their long flowermany bamboos are also synchronous _ - \"6 Unfortunately, the last three words of the passage are unintelligible, but one important piece of information is unequivocal: living plants, along with the usual herbarium speciwere part of this collection. With the help of Alfred Rehder, Wilson reworked his field notes and published them in Plantae Wilsonianaeawork in three volumes that appeared in sequence in 1913, 1916, and 1917. The reference to the umbrella bamboo occurs on page 64 of volume II: flowering behavior. This term refers to the tendency of most or all of the individuals of given species to come mens, into flower at more or less the same time. This unusual behavior has led some authors to postulate that flowering in these bamboos is controlled not by climatic factors but by some sort of internal clock. In reality, however, the synchromcity is less precise than generally believed, particularly when plants m their native habitat are compared with same-aged cohorts in cultivation that have been repeatedly propagated by division.4 It may be propagation by subdivision that affects cultivated bamboos, but in any case their flowering cycle occurs as much as twenty years later. While many authors have speculated on the possible evolutionary and ecological significance of the monocarpic habit in bamboos, nothing has been proved. One theory, proposed by Daniel Janzen,s is that the long delay in flow- Arundmama sp. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, uplands, alt. 2000-3000 m., April 17, 1907 (No. 1462; 2-4 m. tall, stems golden). Without flowers. This plant is in cultivation. It forms on the mountains of north-western Hupeh dense thickets and with its clear golden slender stems is one of the most beautiful of Chinese Bamboos. A picture will be found under No. 0111 of the collection of my photographs. E.H.W\"8 The photograph that Wilson referred to is found in a bound volume entitled \"Arnold Arboretum Second Expedition to China: 1910-1911. 13 Photographs by E. H. Wilson.\" Photograph #0111 clearly shows a clump-forming bamboo growing below a group of fir trees (Abies fargesii). According to the notes on the accompanying label, the photograph was taken on June 19, 1910, and the plant, Wilson's #1462, is seen growing \"behind Fang Hsien\" at an altitude of 8,000 feet. Wilson's diary for this day includes the following entry: The rain had ceased when we woke at 5 am & though dark mist obscured everything from a hundred yards above & around us I prophesied a fine day. It remained fine for about two hours & then commenced to rain steadily. It mcreased as the day advanced & we had a fine soake. All were soon drenched to the skin & everything became sodden. We hurned on as fast as possible & Much reached the head of the pass at 10 am of the Bamboo has been burned and cut away from the path which is considerable improved since our last visit... This bamboo is the handsomest I know with its bright golden yellow culms some 10-15 ft high shrubs and with arching plume. It must be very hardy for the climate here is very mgorous. Patches of original forest remain here and there & especially near watercourse silver fir & many Birch with willows and Rhod. are practically the sole constituents. ... The final reference to bamboo #1462 in the Arboretum archives comes from an undated notebook in Wilson's own handwriting entitled: \"Numerical list of seeds [no. 1-1474, 4000-4462], collected on his Arnold Arboretum expeditions to eastern Asia, 190709, 1910, which were planted in the arboretum nurseries.\"9 Under #1462, a single bamboo plant is listed as being located \" in the \"Greenhouse & Frames\" area of the nurseries. Unfortunately, the Arboretum's permanent records of plants growing on the grounds do not contain any mention of #1462, strongly suggesting that the plant was never cultivated out-of-doors. Fargesia murielae photographed by in its natme habitat, Fang Hslen, Chma, at 8,000 feet. E H Wilson The plants are ten to fifteen feet high with yellow culms Abies fargesia stand m the background. Below is Wilson's field book entry for collection #1462. 14 The first scientific description of Wilson's #1462 did not appear until 1920, in an article in Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 10 under the name Arundmaria murielae Gamble. In the notes following J. S. Gamble's Latin description, W. J. Bean, Kew horticulturist, noted that, \"By Mr. Wilson's special wish the species is dedicated to his daughter, Muriel Wilson.\" Bean went on to detail the plant's history: This Bamboo was presented to Kew from the Arnold Arboretum in the autumn of 1913. A smgle plant came in a pot, and this was divided up into about half a dozen pieces, which were repotted and grown for a few months m a greenhouse. They were then planted out m the collection of Bamboos near the Rhododendron Dell where they have grown luxuriantly and promise to be as ornamental as any hardy species. They are at present (October 1920) about 8 ft. high forming dense masses of culms, the outer ones of which arch outwards towards the top and give the plants a very graceful appearance ... On the whole A. munelae is a distinct and most attractive addition to hardy bamboos. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, the only record of Wilson's #1462 is in the accession books, which noted its arrival on December lished in 1929 under a new title, China, Mother of Gardens, Wilson makes clear that the nameless bamboo mentioned in the 1913 edition was collection #1462 by removing the footnote and adding the following to the end of the above- quoted paragraph: \"In 1910,I successfully introduced it into cultivation. It has been named Arundinaria Murielae in compliment to my daughter.\"\" information, it appears that only of Wilson's #1462, collected on May plant 17, 1907, survived the long journey from Fang Xian in China to the Arnold Arboretum, where it was observed growing in the greenhouse in 1910. In December 1913, without ever being cultivated out-of-doors here, the plant was sent to Kew Gardens where it was divided-it must have been quite large-and planted out in the bamboo collection. Although Fargesia murielae was widely distributed throughout Europe during the first part of the century, the Arnold Arboretum did not get another plant until 1960, when the U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., sent one (under the name Sinarundinaria murielae) that had been imported in 1959 from the Royal Moerheim Nurseries in Dedemsvaart, Holland. 12 one From all this 12, 1913. Wilson's only other reference to # 1462 is in A Naturalist in Western China, published in London in 1913 and New York in 1914. On page 49 he describes the vegetation behind Fang Xian by paraphrasing his journal entry of June 19, 1910: The summit Flowers at Last is of hard limestone with rare outcroppings of red sandstone. Stunted wmdswept Silver Fir and various kmds of Currant extend to the summit. Rhododendron and a dwarf Juniper (j. squamata) are also common. The descent was through woods of Birch and Bamboo to an open, grassy, scrub-clad, sloping moorland, through which a considerable torrent flows. The Bamboo, so common hereabouts, is very beautiful, formmg clumps 3 to 10 feet through. The culms are 5 to 12 feet tall, golden yellow, with dark, feathery foliage; the young culms have broad sheathmg bracts protecting the branchlets. Taken all in all, this is the handsomest Bamboo I have seen.' The footnote at the bottom of the page reads: \"In 1910 I successfully introduced it into cultivation.\"In the revised edition of the book, pub- The first flowers of Fargesia murielae in the West appeared in Denmark in 1975.13 While these plants were clearly representative of the species, it is not certain that they were part of Wilson's #1462 clone. The plants were said to be smaller than Wilson's, and they came into bloom several years earlier than plants known to be divisions of #1462. While the origin of the Danish plants will never be determined with certainty, the fact remains that in 1998 the flowering of known clones of Wilson's Fargesia murielae appears to be virtually complete, more than ninety years after it was collected from the wild. Some of the plants of #1462 have produced seed, but it is important to remember that they are the result of self-pollination, and as such they are likely to suffer from the deleterious effects of inbreeding depression. Only by re-collecting the species in central China-from seedlings that germinated following the widespread flowering that 15 s History of Fargesia murielae in the West 1892: The French missionary P. Farges collects a herbarium specimen of an unknown bamboo in Szechuan Province, China. In 1893, the French taxonomist A. Franchet flowering assigns it to a new genus, Fargesia, with the specific name spathacea. 14 May 1907: On his first expedition to China for the Arnold Arboretum, E. H. Wilson collects plants and three sterile herbarium specimens of an unknown bamboo at Fang Xian, Hubei, under collection #1462. 17 [1910]: 10 Wilson makes note of a single plant from his collection #1462 growing in the \"greenhouses and frames\" area of the Arnold Arboretum. June 1910: On his second Arboretum expedition to China, Wilson revisits Fang Xian and photographs #1462, labelling the photograph #0111. Arboretum. The 12 December 1913: One plant of Wilson's #1462 is received by Kew Gardens from the Arnold plant is divided into six pieces that are planted out in the bamboo area. as 1916: Wilson labels #1462 Arundinaria sp. in volume II of Plantae Wilsonianae, but hsts the wrong collection date. 1920: Wilson's #1462 is 1935: T. Nakai of given the name Arundinaria murielae by J. S. Gamble. Japan reclassifies Arundinaria murielae as Sinarundinaria murielae. 23 December 1959: U.S. National Arboretum botanist F. Meyer arranges for the importation of Sinarundinaria murielae (PI #262266) from the Royal Moerheim Nurseries, plants Dedemsvaart, Holland. The plants are probably divisions of Wilson's #1462. One of them is received by the Arnold Arboretum on 8 November 1960, under accession #1239-60. of 1975: Plants of Sinarundinaria murielae in come into flower. 1979: Based on the Denmark, possibly divisions of Wilson's #1462, flowering specimens of the Danish plants, T. Soderstrom proposes the name Thamnocalamus spathaceus, for the umbrella bamboo. Based on the same specimens, other botanists argue that the species should be classified as either Fargesia murielae (Gamble) or spathacea (Franchet). Gardens, the original plants of Wilson's #1462 come into flower for the first time. but proposes F. 1988: At Kew 1995: C. Stapleton makes the case for preserving the name Fargesia murielae, correcting the spelling of the specific to muriehae.'s May 1998: Arnold Arboretum plants of Fargesia murielae, received from the U.S. National Arboretum in 1960, come into flower for the first time. 1G f but the tradition of important safety rate at net sharing plants provides an that greatly increases the chances of successful introduction. Given the which the forests of the world are disappearing, failure to thoroughly document collections-and to share them-can represent the loss of a resource that can never be recaptured. Endnotes ~ S. A. Renvoize, Thamnocalamus spathaceus and its hundred-year flowenng cycle. Kew Magazme (1991) 8(4) 185-194. z E. J. Fortamer and R. H Jonkers, juvenility and maturity of plants as influenced by the ontogenetical and physiological aging. Acta Horriculturae (197G~ 56: 37-44. 3 G. B. Shaller, J. Hu, W. Pan, and J. Zhu, The Giant Pandas of Wolong (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 4 Renvoize, 5 ' op cit. Ann D. Jansen, Why bamboos wait so long to flower Rev Ecol Syst \/197G[ 7: 347-391. E ~ The flowers of Fargesia munelae H. Wilson, AA Manuscript #39526. First expedition for Arnold Arboretum; Feb. 1907-Sept. 1909; collectmg numbers 1-1474 (undated). C. S. Sargent, ed., Plantae Wilsonianae Arboretum, 1916), 64. 11 are inconspicuous 7 (Arnold occurred there during the 1970s-can we hope to obtain material comparable in quality to the original Wilson #1462. The story of the introduction of Muriel's bamboo is typical of the interplay between meticulousness and confusion that often surrounds the introduction of a new plant. That we can follow the Fargesia story as well as we can bears witness to the care and effort that the Arnold Arboretum in general, and Wilson in particular, put into the process of collection and documentation. The story illustrates another point as well: the importance of sharing plants among botanical gardens. Kew Gardens, and especially its horticulturist W. J. Bean, deserve credit for propagating and eventually distributing the 8 Wilson's mention diary entry for April 17, 1907, makes no of any bamboo, but when I checked the herbanum specimens that document #1462, 1 found all of them dated \"17\/5\/07\" m Wilson's handwriting. In the absence of any ~ournal for the month of May 1907, this discrepancy in dates was resolved by checkmg Wilson's other herbarium specimens collected at Fang Xian Accordmg to former Arboretum director R. A. Howard, m his 1980 article \"E H Wilson as Botamst\" (part I, Arnoldia 40(3): 102-138; part II, 40(4): 154-193), the Fang Xian material all had collection dates m May 1907. This clearly suggests that the date of April 17 published m Plantae Wilsonianae is an error, and that May 17, 1907, noted on the specimen, was the actual date for the collection of Fargesia mumelae 9 plant throughout Europe. Distributing plants is an act both of generosity and of preservation : if you have two plants and one one rare selfgive Wilson, AA Manuscnpt #39611: Numerical list of seeds [no. 1-1474, 4000-4462], collected on his Arnold Arboretum expeditions to eastern Asia, 190708, 1910, which were planted m the arboretum E. H nursenes (undated, probably 1910-1911 [. in away, you you kept. Such losses can get it back when you lose the loJ. S. Gamble, Plantarum Anon, Decades in Kewenses~ happen frequently, novarum Herbano Horti Regil 17 7 Fargesia munelae conservatarum at Kew Gardens, hfeless at the conclusion of its flowering m 1997 nouveau Information (1920) 11 Kew Bulletm 10: 344-345 of Miscellaneous la M_ A Franchet, Fargesia, genre de Bambusees de la Chme Bull Mens Soc Lmn 1893~ 2: 1067-1069. ~Paris, Perhaps Wilson used 1910 as the date for \"successfully\" introducing Fargesia mumelae because it was then that he inventoried his collections for those that were actually alive \"m the arboretum nursenes.\" An alternative, and rather unlikely, interpretation is that Wilson recollected the bamboo in 1910 and simply recycled #1462 from the 1907 expedition. Of course, one can not discount the possibility that Wilson ~ust made a mistake in giving 1910 as the date for the introduction of F munelae ls C. Stapleton, Muriel Wilson's Bamboo. Newsletter of the Bamboo Society (European Bamboo Society, Great Bntam, January 1995), 21. Acknowledgments The author would like to express his thanks to Dr. Chns 12 At the National Arboretum the plant was given inventory number 262266; at the Arnold Arboretum, it became accession number 1239-60 Stapleton, consulting taxonomist at Kew Gardens, for his help in sorting out the complex history of the introduction of Fargesia munelae, and to Keiko Satoh, Putnam Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, for help in sifting through the Wilson Archmes, housed at the Arnold Arboretum. 13 T R. Soderstrom, The Bamboozling Thamnocalamus. Garden (1979) 3~4\/: 22-27; Renvoize, op cit. Peter Del Tredici is Director of Living Collections Arnold Arboretum. at the Nature Study Moves into the Twenty-First Century julyan Candace L. The veining of the leaves and the construction of the stalks... are as interesting to me as the construction of a locomotive is to an engineer. When you get to know the plants, you feel as though you ought to have a garden where you can take care of real plants and study them. Plants move, though many people do not know it. It is true that they do not move with a jerk, but they move very slowly. When the corn gets beaten down by a heavy rain or hail storm, it gradually works itself up again, although it never gets perfectly straight as before. When we move, we bend our joints. That is the way also with the corn. It bends at the nodes. -Reports from fourth-grade students at the Francis Parker School, Chicago, 1915.11 In many respects these reports could be more readily attributed to students today than to those at the beginning of this century. The study of plants is now considered a routine part of the elementary curriculum, and reports are a standard form of communication between teacher and student. However, classroom practice that encourages students' observations of nature, considered laudable today, was much more controversial at the beginning of the century. At the Arnold Arboretum, education for children has been shaped by our strong belief that the most powerful learning happens out in the landscape, a belief that was articulated at the turn of the century by participants in the \"nature-study movement.\" The fourth-graders quoted above, students at a school founded on the principles of this movement, had studied plants by observing corn growing in their schoolyard, rather than by reading about it in a textbook. A closer 19 tenets of nature-study serves identify the roots of our beliefs and to illuminate new ways to approach the study of nature. The nature-study movement, which peaked between 1890 to 1920, was part of a progressive education philosophy that proposed a child-centered approach to learning by encouraging engagement and play in contrast to more traditional, text-driven practices. Nature-study educators (who used the hyphen to signify that their nature study included a pedagogical approach) proposed that learning look at the to about the natural world was as important as studies of reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar. The key precepts of the nature-study movement can be summarized briefly: The objects of study can be ordinary, seasonal phenomena. Direct observation is central to learning ; drawing can be a useful, complementary tool. . The teacher guides the students' exploration; fostering discussions is considered more critical than memorization. Truly place outdoors, significant learning about nature takes \" \"in nature.\" John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) wrote a critique of the approach to children's education at that time: Education should instill the child.2 a love of nature in Much of the impetus for this movement came from a concern that the rigid approach to teach- ing was not resulting in significant learning by students. Samuel Jackson, an important spokesman for the movement, summarized the dissatisfaction of many with traditional bookcentered study: Instead of providing the child with proper conditions which cause him to grow out of the old into the new, usually, the teacher merely smites him wnih a defmztlon The child is finally belabored into saying, \"The earth is round like a globe or a ball,\" and the matter is dropped; but most of his geography forever conforms to his 3 picture of the old flat earth of his childhood.3 Hitherto the schools have done nothing with the view of developing children, like young trees, from the growing impulse of their own roots, but only with that of hanging them over with twigs broken off elsewhere. They teach youth to adom themselves with others' feathers, like the crow in Aesop's Fables. They do not show them things as they are, but tell them what one and another, and a third and a tenth, had thought and written about them, so that it is considered a mark of great wisdom for a man to know a great many .4 opinions which contradict each other Such misgivings Over two centuries were certainly not new. earlier, the Moravian monk Comenius developed his ideas in the first illustrated children's book, Orbis Plctus, published in 1658 and focused on topics familiar to young people. The book's small woodcut graphics are accompanied by short texts that deal with a wide range of topics drawn from both nature and ethics-from clouds, trees, and animals, to honesty, respect, and love. 20 ment Another writer influential in the of the nature-study movement Rousseau were developwas Jean (1712-1778). Many of his incorporated into the movement's philosophy: the principles of science are discovered by the child, not learned as facts; learning should begin with observation of common phenomena; the order of learning should be determined by the learner's interests and experiences, not by the organization of science; and the objective should be enthusiasm for the discipline and methods of science, rather than a body of memorized facts.s As the nature-study movement gathered Jacques ideas in the late nineteenth century, its leaders built upon these ideas to create an approach to education with careful study of the outdoor environment as its centerpiece. While a growing number of teachers found these ideas exciting and in line with their own thinking, many others were baffled by the idea of teaching without books and using natural objects and phenomena to help children understand the world around them. Ultimately the movement lost strength as educators turned away from the ideas of progressive education in favor of more traditional approaches. momentum of the analytical key. All the careful descriptions of the habits of plants in the classic books were viewed solely as conducive to accuracy in placing the proper label on herbarium specimens. Long after the study of botany in the universities had become biological rather than purely systematic, the old regime held sway in our secondary schools; and perhaps some of us today know of high schools still working in the first ray that pierced primeval darkness.... To-day nature-study and science, while they may deal with the same objects, view them from opposite standpoints.... The child, through nature-study, learns to know the life history of the violet growing in his own dooryard, and the fascinating story of the robin nesting in the cornice of his own porch.b .6 Nature-Study Today While the philosophy of the nature-study movement could be found in small pockets of schools throughout this century, the ideas gained favor again in the 1960s and 1970s with the growth of environmental education and of science education that focused on The Relevance of experience and, more recently, in the 1980s and 1990s, with a renewed focus on science education. The notion of a compatibility between science and naturestudy was not prevalent at the turn of the century. Although exceptions existed, such as Louis Agassiz, a nineteenth-century scientist whose credo was \"Study nature, not books,\" generally, nature-study educators and professors of science held significantly different ideas, as suggested in these passages written by Anna Comstock in 1911: a long time botanical science, in the popular mmd, consisted chiefly of pulling flowers to pieces and finding their Latin names by the use \"does with the classification given in books, but in the end it builds up a classification in the child's mind which is based on fundamental knowledge; it is a classification like that evolved by the first naturalists, it is built on careful personal observations of both form and life.\"' She would, no doubt, be surprised to learn how the teaching of science has shifted in the intervening years. In 1994, the National Academy of Science convened a large group of scientists and educators to consider how and what children should learn about science and the environment. The conclusions of this group, published in 1996 as the National Science Educatlon Standards (NSES\/, suggest certain \"big ideas\" to be addressed at each grade level and propose an approach to teaching that in many ways resembles the one endorsed by the naturestudy authors at the turn of the century: not start out Comstock explained that nature-study is something students do, not that is done to them. In learning something science, students describe objects and events, ask questions, acquire knowledge, construct explanations of natural phenomena, test those explanations in many different ways, and communicate their ideas to others 8 Learning science For The Arboretum's work with children employs combination of the nature-study philosophy and scientific practice. Begun in 1984, the Arboretum's Field Studies Experiences are designed for small groups of elementary stua 21 dents who come to the Arboretum to observe closely and make sense of what they see. In the fall, students look for seeds and determine their mode of travel; in the spring, they discover the stages of transformation from flower to fruit. In both of these activities, careful observation is supplemented by conversations with the guides, who help students make sense of what they see. This program is based on a belief that children learn best through experiences in the landscape, guided by attentive adults. A decade later, we explored ways to add data collection to these observation-based activities. In 1995, with funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Arboretum began the development of a program that could serve as a model for partnerships between elementary schools and institutions involved in science. While based on many of the principles of naturestudy, this new project, called Seasonal Investigations, also includes an emphasis on keeping systematic records of observations and sharing those data with others using a computer web site. A Design for Nature Study in the TwentyFirst Century Before I investigated a twig in winter, I just thought that the leaves fell off a tree and gradually grew back. But boy, did I learn a lot about trees from Just one little twig! Maybe I should tell you about some things I learned...I learned the names of the different parts of a twig, hke the Terminal Bud, which is the bud at the tip, and the Lateral Buds, the little buds on the sides. I, myself, liked the names our class made up better. Like the name I gave to the Terminal Bud, Kiss-End Tail (an off-spnng from the expression \"Kiss and Tell\"[. I. Another thing I learned from my twig is that the different colors along the twig signal yearly growth. We also determined the yearly growth for 1995-96 by loolang at the first ring from the top. Then we measured from that ring to the very tip of the twig. Get this, my twig grows one centimeter less each year! So next year, if my My twig was a very informative source. I learned more about trees than I could ever fit into one report. So I ~ better go before I start another paragraph telling you about how great trees are!\" -Report from a fourth-grade student at the Murphy School, \" Boston, 1996. Like the student reports from quoted at the beginning, this one displays an enthusiastic, observation-based consideration of the subject. The author is a student in one of the classrooms participating in the Arboretum's Seasonal Investigations program (originally called the Commu1915 B Connection), designed to help elementary teachers strengthen nity Science their science curricula by replacmg the usual one- to two-week unit based on textbook explanations with a yearlong study of trees in the schoolyard. To date, we have worked with fifty teachers from the Boston, Newton, and Brookline school districts; all attended summer institutes at the Arboretum before guiding their students through the study. The goals of the program are very similar to those of the nature-study movement: . encourage use ot the outdoors as an extension of the classroom, whether in the schoolyard, the Arboretum, or to . . twig only grew one centimeter since 1995, my twig will probably stop growing. Or maybe it will start a whole new growth. I think that the reason my twig's health has been declining is because of the harsh winters we've been having. Well it'll sure be a big surpnse [this spring] ! the students' neighborhood; to provide the structure of a -, year-long study of individual trees that incorporates close observations, systematic data collection, and guidance in making sense of the data; to give the students opportunities to communicate on the web with others studying the same topic. The program proceeds through three seasons. The fall investigation focuses on the general characteristics of trees and on the ways species differ, such as in the dates that leaves change 22 i The student report quoted above was written as part of the winter twig investigation. The twigs, initially viewed by students as a bag of sticks, constitute the major focus of the class investigation. Each twig soon becomes a treasured resource. Students begin by making careful drawings and identifying features of the twig, later naming the features. These names are often revealing. For example, one student named the annual growth-ring marks \"growing up lines.\" Many students preferred their own names to those of scientists, but they were fluent in both. The Role of the Web Site Now in our final year of NSF funding, we are designing a web site for Seasonal Investigations that we believe will support both the classroom and outdoor work and allow a greater number of teachers to take part in the project. While the program can be (and sometimes is) completed successfully using only the classroom and schoolyard, the on-line environment provides an important support for the four activities central to the project-observation, data collection, communication, and publicationwith a web site feature dedicated to each of these activities. The Spotlight feature changes weekly throughout each seasonal investigation; the topic of each entry is chosen to encourage closer observation. In the fall investigation, students were invited to consider patterns of leaf change, to view other students' drawings of patterns they found, and to share their observations about leaf patterns with others. Another Spotlight entry asked them to consider how bark accommodates the expansion of a tree's girth. Three possibilities-fissures, plates, and peelswere illustrated with photos; students were color and fall from the tree. In the winter investigation, students learn to \"read\" a twig and use their new knowledge to determine which was the best recent growing year for the schoolyard trees. The spring investigation revisits the features examined in the winter to learn whether and how those features change in the spring and to determine when the flowers are \"open for business.\" 23 asked to yard findings. trees look at their schooland report their The Tree Talk feature facilitates communication among classes, from initial letters of introduction to later conversations about questions or findings. Contributions to most of these \"conversations\" can be made and viewed at any time; in addition, there is an option for a live, scheduled chat with either Arboretum staff or other classrooms. The Activities feature provides the structure for sharing data among classes. Students are asked to provide specific data about their schoolyard trees, changing or adding to the data as the study progresses. The combined data provide opportunities for discussion in the classroom or with other students. The Publication feature is intended to elicit a creative activity at the end of each investigation, perhaps a report or drawing, that brings together the ideas, surprises, and discoveries from the investigation. The first three years of the project were spent perfecting the model and developing a set of investigations that could be completed in the schoolyard, retum. with supporting visits to the ArboDuring this, the last year of the project, the focus is on perfecting the web site to ensure that the program will continue after NSF funding ends. Even before the project's completion, the framework of Seasonal Investigations has been adopted as a model by other institutions engaged in science education. Descanso Gardens in Los Angeles is replicatmg the entire program as a pilot project with the Los Angeles Unified School District. The Garden's director, Richard Schulhof, had first-hand experience with the project as a member of the Arboretum staff at the time it began, and is enthusiastic about using the program as a new approach to science teaching for his own staff as well as for the Los Angeles teachers. In addition, the Massachusetts Audubon Society is using the Seasonal Investigations framework to develop both teacher institutes and investigations of vernal pools in three locations across Massachusetts. Future Directions , ,I Many of the ideas of the nature-study movement are alive and in practice in today's programs at the Arboretum, but new issues 24 What role can the web end in itself but as a springboard play, to investigations outdoors? How might it provide an avenue for sharing our educational ideas, many of which have century-old roots, with interested educators around the globe? In many ways, the words of Anna Comstock have as much relevance at the end of this century as they did at the beginning: are also being raised. Endnotes not as an 1 From the Francis Parker School Year Book, vol IV, June 1915 (Archives of Gutman Library, Harvard University). z Culled from W. S. Jackman, Nature-Study and Related Sub7ects for Common School, Part II (New York: Henry Holt, 1891);A. C. Boyden, Nature Study by Months (Boston: New England Publishmg, 1898); G. L Clapp, \"Real and sham observation by pupils,\" Education, January 1892; C. B. Scott, Nature-Study When the child has become acquamted with the conditions and necessities of plant hfe, how different will the world seem to him! Every glance at forest or field will tell him a new story. Every square foot of sod will be revealed to him as a battlefield m which he himself may count the victories m the struggle for existence, and he will walk henceforth in a world of miracle and of beauty,-the miracle of adjustment to circumstances, and the beauty of obedience to law.\"9 and the Child (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1901); A. B. Comstock, Handbook of Nature-Study (Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing, 1911 \/. 3 Quoted in Jackman, op. cit, pp. 9-10. 4 Quoted m N. A. Calings, \"History of Object Teaching,\" Barnard's American Journal of Education (December, 1962) 12: 637. 5 Quoted Study 1979), 6 m T. Mmton, \"The History of the NatureMovement and Its Role m the Development The young author who wrote about her twig is one of a growing number of students whose science experiences have been shaped, either directly or indirectly, through a connection with the Arboretum and its staff. As we enter the twenty-first century, we continue to seek opportunities for sharing our ideas about the compatibility of nature, science, and technology with teachers and students eager to learn about trees and plants. Our hope is that ideas about children's education, developed and nurtured at the Arboretum, can grow into viable \"seeds\" locally and around the country. of Environmental Education\" \/Unpublished dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp. 30-31. Quoted m G. F. Atkmson, First Studies of Plant Life (Boston: Ginn & Co , 1901),p. m. 7 Comstock, op. cit., p.5. 8 National Research Council, National Science Education Standards (Washington, D.C.: National 9 Academy Press, 1996), Atkmson, op. cit., p. v is p. 20. Candace Julyan Arboretum. Director of Education at the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nature Study Moves into the Twenty-First Century","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25218","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eaf6f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Julyan, Candace L.","article_content":"The First and Final Peter Del Tredici Flowering of Muriel's Bamboo Regular readers of Arnoldia can appreciate the many satisfactions that come from working at the Arnold Arboretum, with its endless opportunities for studying plants. Even after twenty years of daily contact, there's always something new and exciting. Some days it is the first flowers on a recently planted specimen; on others, it is stumbling, sometimes quite literally, across an amazing old plant never before noticed. The highlight of the 1998 season was definitely the discovery of flowers on Muriel's bamboo, Fargesia murielae, which appeared at the Arnold Arboretum for the firstand last-time. The Flowering is native to Fargesia murielae the where it China, grows at elevations between two and three thousand meters. The species is one of the principal foods of the giant panda bear and arguably one of the most ornamental of the hardy species of bamboo. Its graceful, arching stems reach two to three meters in height and add a measure of exotic elegance mountains of central garden. As a clump-forming species expands slowly, in stark contrast to bamboos that spread by long, underground stems-the \"running to any it Mumel's bamboo, Fargesia mumelae, m the full flush of its sprmg growth. bamboos\"-which often the bane of unwary gardeners. Experienced bamboo growers are universal m their praise of Fargesia murielae, not are its only for the above-mentioned traits, but also because Muriel's bamboo is among the hardiest of the entire family, growing well m USDA zone 5 and, with protection, into zone 4. For all of its attractiveness, however, the most interesting feature of Muriel's bamboo is monocarpic life cycle-it flowers once in its life and then dies. Gardeners are used to seeing sunflowers germinate, grow, and die m a single season, and foxgloves die after two years, but the idea of a plant flowering after eighty to one hundred years and then dying seems more than a little strange. And strange indeed it is, being found only among the \"woody\" monocots, such as the well-known century plant (Agave sp.), ), 12 in the Andean bromeliad of genus Corypha), tree-sized proportions (Puya raymondii), which tend to come into flower when they reach a critical size.' Monocarpic bamboos are unique even among this unusual group because they do not flower according to their size, but according to a predetermined maturation cycle, the length of which appears to be genetically fixed for each species.2 The eighty-to-one-hundred-year flowering cycle of Muriel's bamboo, while certainly not the longest on record, is among the most widely known and well documented. Indeed, it was the widespread flowering and subsequent death of the umbrella bamboo in China in 1971, along with that of several closely related species, that created worldwide concern about the survival of the giant panda. The panda population in central China, it was found, had become overly dependent on the high-elevation species of Fargesia after bamboo species growing at lower elevations were eliminated by land clearance for a few genera of palms (most notably and an strategy for preventing a buildup of that would feed on the highly nutritious seeds if they were produced on a predictable schedule. However, this idea does not explain why the flowering intervals of many bamboos greatly exceed the lifespans of most animals that would feed on their seeds. More likely, the real reason is inextricably embedded in a complex matrix of physiological, ecological, and evolutionary factors. ering is a predators The Introduction The history of the plant's introduction into cultivation in the West, like that of so many other plants, is cloaked in mystery and confusion. It was first collected by the Arnold Arboretum's most famous plant collector, E. H. Wilson, who assigned it number 1462. The Arboretum has most of Wilson's field books in its archives, and those for his first Arboretum expedition, from February 1907 through April 1909, contains the following entry: \"1462. Bamboo, 12 ft., stems golden, thickets, 7000-9000 ft, Fang. Plants, - agriculture.3 ing cycle, in their a Even more remarkable than their long flowermany bamboos are also synchronous _ - \"6 Unfortunately, the last three words of the passage are unintelligible, but one important piece of information is unequivocal: living plants, along with the usual herbarium speciwere part of this collection. With the help of Alfred Rehder, Wilson reworked his field notes and published them in Plantae Wilsonianaeawork in three volumes that appeared in sequence in 1913, 1916, and 1917. The reference to the umbrella bamboo occurs on page 64 of volume II: flowering behavior. This term refers to the tendency of most or all of the individuals of given species to come mens, into flower at more or less the same time. This unusual behavior has led some authors to postulate that flowering in these bamboos is controlled not by climatic factors but by some sort of internal clock. In reality, however, the synchromcity is less precise than generally believed, particularly when plants m their native habitat are compared with same-aged cohorts in cultivation that have been repeatedly propagated by division.4 It may be propagation by subdivision that affects cultivated bamboos, but in any case their flowering cycle occurs as much as twenty years later. While many authors have speculated on the possible evolutionary and ecological significance of the monocarpic habit in bamboos, nothing has been proved. One theory, proposed by Daniel Janzen,s is that the long delay in flow- Arundmama sp. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, uplands, alt. 2000-3000 m., April 17, 1907 (No. 1462; 2-4 m. tall, stems golden). Without flowers. This plant is in cultivation. It forms on the mountains of north-western Hupeh dense thickets and with its clear golden slender stems is one of the most beautiful of Chinese Bamboos. A picture will be found under No. 0111 of the collection of my photographs. E.H.W\"8 The photograph that Wilson referred to is found in a bound volume entitled \"Arnold Arboretum Second Expedition to China: 1910-1911. 13 Photographs by E. H. Wilson.\" Photograph #0111 clearly shows a clump-forming bamboo growing below a group of fir trees (Abies fargesii). According to the notes on the accompanying label, the photograph was taken on June 19, 1910, and the plant, Wilson's #1462, is seen growing \"behind Fang Hsien\" at an altitude of 8,000 feet. Wilson's diary for this day includes the following entry: The rain had ceased when we woke at 5 am & though dark mist obscured everything from a hundred yards above & around us I prophesied a fine day. It remained fine for about two hours & then commenced to rain steadily. It mcreased as the day advanced & we had a fine soake. All were soon drenched to the skin & everything became sodden. We hurned on as fast as possible & Much reached the head of the pass at 10 am of the Bamboo has been burned and cut away from the path which is considerable improved since our last visit... This bamboo is the handsomest I know with its bright golden yellow culms some 10-15 ft high shrubs and with arching plume. It must be very hardy for the climate here is very mgorous. Patches of original forest remain here and there & especially near watercourse silver fir & many Birch with willows and Rhod. are practically the sole constituents. ... The final reference to bamboo #1462 in the Arboretum archives comes from an undated notebook in Wilson's own handwriting entitled: \"Numerical list of seeds [no. 1-1474, 4000-4462], collected on his Arnold Arboretum expeditions to eastern Asia, 190709, 1910, which were planted in the arboretum nurseries.\"9 Under #1462, a single bamboo plant is listed as being located \" in the \"Greenhouse & Frames\" area of the nurseries. Unfortunately, the Arboretum's permanent records of plants growing on the grounds do not contain any mention of #1462, strongly suggesting that the plant was never cultivated out-of-doors. Fargesia murielae photographed by in its natme habitat, Fang Hslen, Chma, at 8,000 feet. E H Wilson The plants are ten to fifteen feet high with yellow culms Abies fargesia stand m the background. Below is Wilson's field book entry for collection #1462. 14 The first scientific description of Wilson's #1462 did not appear until 1920, in an article in Kew Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information, 10 under the name Arundmaria murielae Gamble. In the notes following J. S. Gamble's Latin description, W. J. Bean, Kew horticulturist, noted that, \"By Mr. Wilson's special wish the species is dedicated to his daughter, Muriel Wilson.\" Bean went on to detail the plant's history: This Bamboo was presented to Kew from the Arnold Arboretum in the autumn of 1913. A smgle plant came in a pot, and this was divided up into about half a dozen pieces, which were repotted and grown for a few months m a greenhouse. They were then planted out m the collection of Bamboos near the Rhododendron Dell where they have grown luxuriantly and promise to be as ornamental as any hardy species. They are at present (October 1920) about 8 ft. high forming dense masses of culms, the outer ones of which arch outwards towards the top and give the plants a very graceful appearance ... On the whole A. munelae is a distinct and most attractive addition to hardy bamboos. At the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, the only record of Wilson's #1462 is in the accession books, which noted its arrival on December lished in 1929 under a new title, China, Mother of Gardens, Wilson makes clear that the nameless bamboo mentioned in the 1913 edition was collection #1462 by removing the footnote and adding the following to the end of the above- quoted paragraph: \"In 1910,I successfully introduced it into cultivation. It has been named Arundinaria Murielae in compliment to my daughter.\"\" information, it appears that only of Wilson's #1462, collected on May plant 17, 1907, survived the long journey from Fang Xian in China to the Arnold Arboretum, where it was observed growing in the greenhouse in 1910. In December 1913, without ever being cultivated out-of-doors here, the plant was sent to Kew Gardens where it was divided-it must have been quite large-and planted out in the bamboo collection. Although Fargesia murielae was widely distributed throughout Europe during the first part of the century, the Arnold Arboretum did not get another plant until 1960, when the U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., sent one (under the name Sinarundinaria murielae) that had been imported in 1959 from the Royal Moerheim Nurseries in Dedemsvaart, Holland. 12 one From all this 12, 1913. Wilson's only other reference to # 1462 is in A Naturalist in Western China, published in London in 1913 and New York in 1914. On page 49 he describes the vegetation behind Fang Xian by paraphrasing his journal entry of June 19, 1910: The summit Flowers at Last is of hard limestone with rare outcroppings of red sandstone. Stunted wmdswept Silver Fir and various kmds of Currant extend to the summit. Rhododendron and a dwarf Juniper (j. squamata) are also common. The descent was through woods of Birch and Bamboo to an open, grassy, scrub-clad, sloping moorland, through which a considerable torrent flows. The Bamboo, so common hereabouts, is very beautiful, formmg clumps 3 to 10 feet through. The culms are 5 to 12 feet tall, golden yellow, with dark, feathery foliage; the young culms have broad sheathmg bracts protecting the branchlets. Taken all in all, this is the handsomest Bamboo I have seen.' The footnote at the bottom of the page reads: \"In 1910 I successfully introduced it into cultivation.\"In the revised edition of the book, pub- The first flowers of Fargesia murielae in the West appeared in Denmark in 1975.13 While these plants were clearly representative of the species, it is not certain that they were part of Wilson's #1462 clone. The plants were said to be smaller than Wilson's, and they came into bloom several years earlier than plants known to be divisions of #1462. While the origin of the Danish plants will never be determined with certainty, the fact remains that in 1998 the flowering of known clones of Wilson's Fargesia murielae appears to be virtually complete, more than ninety years after it was collected from the wild. Some of the plants of #1462 have produced seed, but it is important to remember that they are the result of self-pollination, and as such they are likely to suffer from the deleterious effects of inbreeding depression. Only by re-collecting the species in central China-from seedlings that germinated following the widespread flowering that 15 s History of Fargesia murielae in the West 1892: The French missionary P. Farges collects a herbarium specimen of an unknown bamboo in Szechuan Province, China. In 1893, the French taxonomist A. Franchet flowering assigns it to a new genus, Fargesia, with the specific name spathacea. 14 May 1907: On his first expedition to China for the Arnold Arboretum, E. H. Wilson collects plants and three sterile herbarium specimens of an unknown bamboo at Fang Xian, Hubei, under collection #1462. 17 [1910]: 10 Wilson makes note of a single plant from his collection #1462 growing in the \"greenhouses and frames\" area of the Arnold Arboretum. June 1910: On his second Arboretum expedition to China, Wilson revisits Fang Xian and photographs #1462, labelling the photograph #0111. Arboretum. The 12 December 1913: One plant of Wilson's #1462 is received by Kew Gardens from the Arnold plant is divided into six pieces that are planted out in the bamboo area. as 1916: Wilson labels #1462 Arundinaria sp. in volume II of Plantae Wilsonianae, but hsts the wrong collection date. 1920: Wilson's #1462 is 1935: T. Nakai of given the name Arundinaria murielae by J. S. Gamble. Japan reclassifies Arundinaria murielae as Sinarundinaria murielae. 23 December 1959: U.S. National Arboretum botanist F. Meyer arranges for the importation of Sinarundinaria murielae (PI #262266) from the Royal Moerheim Nurseries, plants Dedemsvaart, Holland. The plants are probably divisions of Wilson's #1462. One of them is received by the Arnold Arboretum on 8 November 1960, under accession #1239-60. of 1975: Plants of Sinarundinaria murielae in come into flower. 1979: Based on the Denmark, possibly divisions of Wilson's #1462, flowering specimens of the Danish plants, T. Soderstrom proposes the name Thamnocalamus spathaceus, for the umbrella bamboo. Based on the same specimens, other botanists argue that the species should be classified as either Fargesia murielae (Gamble) or spathacea (Franchet). Gardens, the original plants of Wilson's #1462 come into flower for the first time. but proposes F. 1988: At Kew 1995: C. Stapleton makes the case for preserving the name Fargesia murielae, correcting the spelling of the specific to muriehae.'s May 1998: Arnold Arboretum plants of Fargesia murielae, received from the U.S. National Arboretum in 1960, come into flower for the first time. 1G f but the tradition of important safety rate at net sharing plants provides an that greatly increases the chances of successful introduction. Given the which the forests of the world are disappearing, failure to thoroughly document collections-and to share them-can represent the loss of a resource that can never be recaptured. Endnotes ~ S. A. Renvoize, Thamnocalamus spathaceus and its hundred-year flowenng cycle. Kew Magazme (1991) 8(4) 185-194. z E. J. Fortamer and R. H Jonkers, juvenility and maturity of plants as influenced by the ontogenetical and physiological aging. Acta Horriculturae (197G~ 56: 37-44. 3 G. B. Shaller, J. Hu, W. Pan, and J. Zhu, The Giant Pandas of Wolong (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1985). 4 Renvoize, 5 ' op cit. Ann D. Jansen, Why bamboos wait so long to flower Rev Ecol Syst \/197G[ 7: 347-391. E ~ The flowers of Fargesia munelae H. Wilson, AA Manuscript #39526. First expedition for Arnold Arboretum; Feb. 1907-Sept. 1909; collectmg numbers 1-1474 (undated). C. S. Sargent, ed., Plantae Wilsonianae Arboretum, 1916), 64. 11 are inconspicuous 7 (Arnold occurred there during the 1970s-can we hope to obtain material comparable in quality to the original Wilson #1462. The story of the introduction of Muriel's bamboo is typical of the interplay between meticulousness and confusion that often surrounds the introduction of a new plant. That we can follow the Fargesia story as well as we can bears witness to the care and effort that the Arnold Arboretum in general, and Wilson in particular, put into the process of collection and documentation. The story illustrates another point as well: the importance of sharing plants among botanical gardens. Kew Gardens, and especially its horticulturist W. J. Bean, deserve credit for propagating and eventually distributing the 8 Wilson's mention diary entry for April 17, 1907, makes no of any bamboo, but when I checked the herbanum specimens that document #1462, 1 found all of them dated \"17\/5\/07\" m Wilson's handwriting. In the absence of any ~ournal for the month of May 1907, this discrepancy in dates was resolved by checkmg Wilson's other herbarium specimens collected at Fang Xian Accordmg to former Arboretum director R. A. Howard, m his 1980 article \"E H Wilson as Botamst\" (part I, Arnoldia 40(3): 102-138; part II, 40(4): 154-193), the Fang Xian material all had collection dates m May 1907. This clearly suggests that the date of April 17 published m Plantae Wilsonianae is an error, and that May 17, 1907, noted on the specimen, was the actual date for the collection of Fargesia mumelae 9 plant throughout Europe. Distributing plants is an act both of generosity and of preservation : if you have two plants and one one rare selfgive Wilson, AA Manuscnpt #39611: Numerical list of seeds [no. 1-1474, 4000-4462], collected on his Arnold Arboretum expeditions to eastern Asia, 190708, 1910, which were planted m the arboretum E. H nursenes (undated, probably 1910-1911 [. in away, you you kept. Such losses can get it back when you lose the loJ. S. Gamble, Plantarum Anon, Decades in Kewenses~ happen frequently, novarum Herbano Horti Regil 17 7 Fargesia munelae conservatarum at Kew Gardens, hfeless at the conclusion of its flowering m 1997 nouveau Information (1920) 11 Kew Bulletm 10: 344-345 of Miscellaneous la M_ A Franchet, Fargesia, genre de Bambusees de la Chme Bull Mens Soc Lmn 1893~ 2: 1067-1069. ~Paris, Perhaps Wilson used 1910 as the date for \"successfully\" introducing Fargesia mumelae because it was then that he inventoried his collections for those that were actually alive \"m the arboretum nursenes.\" An alternative, and rather unlikely, interpretation is that Wilson recollected the bamboo in 1910 and simply recycled #1462 from the 1907 expedition. Of course, one can not discount the possibility that Wilson ~ust made a mistake in giving 1910 as the date for the introduction of F munelae ls C. Stapleton, Muriel Wilson's Bamboo. Newsletter of the Bamboo Society (European Bamboo Society, Great Bntam, January 1995), 21. Acknowledgments The author would like to express his thanks to Dr. Chns 12 At the National Arboretum the plant was given inventory number 262266; at the Arnold Arboretum, it became accession number 1239-60 Stapleton, consulting taxonomist at Kew Gardens, for his help in sorting out the complex history of the introduction of Fargesia munelae, and to Keiko Satoh, Putnam Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, for help in sifting through the Wilson Archmes, housed at the Arnold Arboretum. 13 T R. Soderstrom, The Bamboozling Thamnocalamus. Garden (1979) 3~4\/: 22-27; Renvoize, op cit. Peter Del Tredici is Director of Living Collections Arnold Arboretum. at the Nature Study Moves into the Twenty-First Century julyan Candace L. The veining of the leaves and the construction of the stalks... are as interesting to me as the construction of a locomotive is to an engineer. When you get to know the plants, you feel as though you ought to have a garden where you can take care of real plants and study them. Plants move, though many people do not know it. It is true that they do not move with a jerk, but they move very slowly. When the corn gets beaten down by a heavy rain or hail storm, it gradually works itself up again, although it never gets perfectly straight as before. When we move, we bend our joints. That is the way also with the corn. It bends at the nodes. -Reports from fourth-grade students at the Francis Parker School, Chicago, 1915.11 In many respects these reports could be more readily attributed to students today than to those at the beginning of this century. The study of plants is now considered a routine part of the elementary curriculum, and reports are a standard form of communication between teacher and student. However, classroom practice that encourages students' observations of nature, considered laudable today, was much more controversial at the beginning of the century. At the Arnold Arboretum, education for children has been shaped by our strong belief that the most powerful learning happens out in the landscape, a belief that was articulated at the turn of the century by participants in the \"nature-study movement.\" The fourth-graders quoted above, students at a school founded on the principles of this movement, had studied plants by observing corn growing in their schoolyard, rather than by reading about it in a textbook. A closer 19 tenets of nature-study serves identify the roots of our beliefs and to illuminate new ways to approach the study of nature. The nature-study movement, which peaked between 1890 to 1920, was part of a progressive education philosophy that proposed a child-centered approach to learning by encouraging engagement and play in contrast to more traditional, text-driven practices. Nature-study educators (who used the hyphen to signify that their nature study included a pedagogical approach) proposed that learning look at the to about the natural world was as important as studies of reading, writing, arithmetic, and grammar. The key precepts of the nature-study movement can be summarized briefly: The objects of study can be ordinary, seasonal phenomena. Direct observation is central to learning ; drawing can be a useful, complementary tool. . The teacher guides the students' exploration; fostering discussions is considered more critical than memorization. Truly place outdoors, significant learning about nature takes \" \"in nature.\" John Amos Comenius (1592-1670) wrote a critique of the approach to children's education at that time: Education should instill the child.2 a love of nature in Much of the impetus for this movement came from a concern that the rigid approach to teach- ing was not resulting in significant learning by students. Samuel Jackson, an important spokesman for the movement, summarized the dissatisfaction of many with traditional bookcentered study: Instead of providing the child with proper conditions which cause him to grow out of the old into the new, usually, the teacher merely smites him wnih a defmztlon The child is finally belabored into saying, \"The earth is round like a globe or a ball,\" and the matter is dropped; but most of his geography forever conforms to his 3 picture of the old flat earth of his childhood.3 Hitherto the schools have done nothing with the view of developing children, like young trees, from the growing impulse of their own roots, but only with that of hanging them over with twigs broken off elsewhere. They teach youth to adom themselves with others' feathers, like the crow in Aesop's Fables. They do not show them things as they are, but tell them what one and another, and a third and a tenth, had thought and written about them, so that it is considered a mark of great wisdom for a man to know a great many .4 opinions which contradict each other Such misgivings Over two centuries were certainly not new. earlier, the Moravian monk Comenius developed his ideas in the first illustrated children's book, Orbis Plctus, published in 1658 and focused on topics familiar to young people. The book's small woodcut graphics are accompanied by short texts that deal with a wide range of topics drawn from both nature and ethics-from clouds, trees, and animals, to honesty, respect, and love. 20 ment Another writer influential in the of the nature-study movement Rousseau were developwas Jean (1712-1778). Many of his incorporated into the movement's philosophy: the principles of science are discovered by the child, not learned as facts; learning should begin with observation of common phenomena; the order of learning should be determined by the learner's interests and experiences, not by the organization of science; and the objective should be enthusiasm for the discipline and methods of science, rather than a body of memorized facts.s As the nature-study movement gathered Jacques ideas in the late nineteenth century, its leaders built upon these ideas to create an approach to education with careful study of the outdoor environment as its centerpiece. While a growing number of teachers found these ideas exciting and in line with their own thinking, many others were baffled by the idea of teaching without books and using natural objects and phenomena to help children understand the world around them. Ultimately the movement lost strength as educators turned away from the ideas of progressive education in favor of more traditional approaches. momentum of the analytical key. All the careful descriptions of the habits of plants in the classic books were viewed solely as conducive to accuracy in placing the proper label on herbarium specimens. Long after the study of botany in the universities had become biological rather than purely systematic, the old regime held sway in our secondary schools; and perhaps some of us today know of high schools still working in the first ray that pierced primeval darkness.... To-day nature-study and science, while they may deal with the same objects, view them from opposite standpoints.... The child, through nature-study, learns to know the life history of the violet growing in his own dooryard, and the fascinating story of the robin nesting in the cornice of his own porch.b .6 Nature-Study Today While the philosophy of the nature-study movement could be found in small pockets of schools throughout this century, the ideas gained favor again in the 1960s and 1970s with the growth of environmental education and of science education that focused on The Relevance of experience and, more recently, in the 1980s and 1990s, with a renewed focus on science education. The notion of a compatibility between science and naturestudy was not prevalent at the turn of the century. Although exceptions existed, such as Louis Agassiz, a nineteenth-century scientist whose credo was \"Study nature, not books,\" generally, nature-study educators and professors of science held significantly different ideas, as suggested in these passages written by Anna Comstock in 1911: a long time botanical science, in the popular mmd, consisted chiefly of pulling flowers to pieces and finding their Latin names by the use \"does with the classification given in books, but in the end it builds up a classification in the child's mind which is based on fundamental knowledge; it is a classification like that evolved by the first naturalists, it is built on careful personal observations of both form and life.\"' She would, no doubt, be surprised to learn how the teaching of science has shifted in the intervening years. In 1994, the National Academy of Science convened a large group of scientists and educators to consider how and what children should learn about science and the environment. The conclusions of this group, published in 1996 as the National Science Educatlon Standards (NSES\/, suggest certain \"big ideas\" to be addressed at each grade level and propose an approach to teaching that in many ways resembles the one endorsed by the naturestudy authors at the turn of the century: not start out Comstock explained that nature-study is something students do, not that is done to them. In learning something science, students describe objects and events, ask questions, acquire knowledge, construct explanations of natural phenomena, test those explanations in many different ways, and communicate their ideas to others 8 Learning science For The Arboretum's work with children employs combination of the nature-study philosophy and scientific practice. Begun in 1984, the Arboretum's Field Studies Experiences are designed for small groups of elementary stua 21 dents who come to the Arboretum to observe closely and make sense of what they see. In the fall, students look for seeds and determine their mode of travel; in the spring, they discover the stages of transformation from flower to fruit. In both of these activities, careful observation is supplemented by conversations with the guides, who help students make sense of what they see. This program is based on a belief that children learn best through experiences in the landscape, guided by attentive adults. A decade later, we explored ways to add data collection to these observation-based activities. In 1995, with funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF), the Arboretum began the development of a program that could serve as a model for partnerships between elementary schools and institutions involved in science. While based on many of the principles of naturestudy, this new project, called Seasonal Investigations, also includes an emphasis on keeping systematic records of observations and sharing those data with others using a computer web site. A Design for Nature Study in the TwentyFirst Century Before I investigated a twig in winter, I just thought that the leaves fell off a tree and gradually grew back. But boy, did I learn a lot about trees from Just one little twig! Maybe I should tell you about some things I learned...I learned the names of the different parts of a twig, hke the Terminal Bud, which is the bud at the tip, and the Lateral Buds, the little buds on the sides. I, myself, liked the names our class made up better. Like the name I gave to the Terminal Bud, Kiss-End Tail (an off-spnng from the expression \"Kiss and Tell\"[. I. Another thing I learned from my twig is that the different colors along the twig signal yearly growth. We also determined the yearly growth for 1995-96 by loolang at the first ring from the top. Then we measured from that ring to the very tip of the twig. Get this, my twig grows one centimeter less each year! So next year, if my My twig was a very informative source. I learned more about trees than I could ever fit into one report. So I ~ better go before I start another paragraph telling you about how great trees are!\" -Report from a fourth-grade student at the Murphy School, \" Boston, 1996. Like the student reports from quoted at the beginning, this one displays an enthusiastic, observation-based consideration of the subject. The author is a student in one of the classrooms participating in the Arboretum's Seasonal Investigations program (originally called the Commu1915 B Connection), designed to help elementary teachers strengthen nity Science their science curricula by replacmg the usual one- to two-week unit based on textbook explanations with a yearlong study of trees in the schoolyard. To date, we have worked with fifty teachers from the Boston, Newton, and Brookline school districts; all attended summer institutes at the Arboretum before guiding their students through the study. The goals of the program are very similar to those of the nature-study movement: . encourage use ot the outdoors as an extension of the classroom, whether in the schoolyard, the Arboretum, or to . . twig only grew one centimeter since 1995, my twig will probably stop growing. Or maybe it will start a whole new growth. I think that the reason my twig's health has been declining is because of the harsh winters we've been having. Well it'll sure be a big surpnse [this spring] ! the students' neighborhood; to provide the structure of a -, year-long study of individual trees that incorporates close observations, systematic data collection, and guidance in making sense of the data; to give the students opportunities to communicate on the web with others studying the same topic. The program proceeds through three seasons. The fall investigation focuses on the general characteristics of trees and on the ways species differ, such as in the dates that leaves change 22 i The student report quoted above was written as part of the winter twig investigation. The twigs, initially viewed by students as a bag of sticks, constitute the major focus of the class investigation. Each twig soon becomes a treasured resource. Students begin by making careful drawings and identifying features of the twig, later naming the features. These names are often revealing. For example, one student named the annual growth-ring marks \"growing up lines.\" Many students preferred their own names to those of scientists, but they were fluent in both. The Role of the Web Site Now in our final year of NSF funding, we are designing a web site for Seasonal Investigations that we believe will support both the classroom and outdoor work and allow a greater number of teachers to take part in the project. While the program can be (and sometimes is) completed successfully using only the classroom and schoolyard, the on-line environment provides an important support for the four activities central to the project-observation, data collection, communication, and publicationwith a web site feature dedicated to each of these activities. The Spotlight feature changes weekly throughout each seasonal investigation; the topic of each entry is chosen to encourage closer observation. In the fall investigation, students were invited to consider patterns of leaf change, to view other students' drawings of patterns they found, and to share their observations about leaf patterns with others. Another Spotlight entry asked them to consider how bark accommodates the expansion of a tree's girth. Three possibilities-fissures, plates, and peelswere illustrated with photos; students were color and fall from the tree. In the winter investigation, students learn to \"read\" a twig and use their new knowledge to determine which was the best recent growing year for the schoolyard trees. The spring investigation revisits the features examined in the winter to learn whether and how those features change in the spring and to determine when the flowers are \"open for business.\" 23 asked to yard findings. trees look at their schooland report their The Tree Talk feature facilitates communication among classes, from initial letters of introduction to later conversations about questions or findings. Contributions to most of these \"conversations\" can be made and viewed at any time; in addition, there is an option for a live, scheduled chat with either Arboretum staff or other classrooms. The Activities feature provides the structure for sharing data among classes. Students are asked to provide specific data about their schoolyard trees, changing or adding to the data as the study progresses. The combined data provide opportunities for discussion in the classroom or with other students. The Publication feature is intended to elicit a creative activity at the end of each investigation, perhaps a report or drawing, that brings together the ideas, surprises, and discoveries from the investigation. The first three years of the project were spent perfecting the model and developing a set of investigations that could be completed in the schoolyard, retum. with supporting visits to the ArboDuring this, the last year of the project, the focus is on perfecting the web site to ensure that the program will continue after NSF funding ends. Even before the project's completion, the framework of Seasonal Investigations has been adopted as a model by other institutions engaged in science education. Descanso Gardens in Los Angeles is replicatmg the entire program as a pilot project with the Los Angeles Unified School District. The Garden's director, Richard Schulhof, had first-hand experience with the project as a member of the Arboretum staff at the time it began, and is enthusiastic about using the program as a new approach to science teaching for his own staff as well as for the Los Angeles teachers. In addition, the Massachusetts Audubon Society is using the Seasonal Investigations framework to develop both teacher institutes and investigations of vernal pools in three locations across Massachusetts. Future Directions , ,I Many of the ideas of the nature-study movement are alive and in practice in today's programs at the Arboretum, but new issues 24 What role can the web end in itself but as a springboard play, to investigations outdoors? How might it provide an avenue for sharing our educational ideas, many of which have century-old roots, with interested educators around the globe? In many ways, the words of Anna Comstock have as much relevance at the end of this century as they did at the beginning: are also being raised. Endnotes not as an 1 From the Francis Parker School Year Book, vol IV, June 1915 (Archives of Gutman Library, Harvard University). z Culled from W. S. Jackman, Nature-Study and Related Sub7ects for Common School, Part II (New York: Henry Holt, 1891);A. C. Boyden, Nature Study by Months (Boston: New England Publishmg, 1898); G. L Clapp, \"Real and sham observation by pupils,\" Education, January 1892; C. B. Scott, Nature-Study When the child has become acquamted with the conditions and necessities of plant hfe, how different will the world seem to him! Every glance at forest or field will tell him a new story. Every square foot of sod will be revealed to him as a battlefield m which he himself may count the victories m the struggle for existence, and he will walk henceforth in a world of miracle and of beauty,-the miracle of adjustment to circumstances, and the beauty of obedience to law.\"9 and the Child (Boston: D. C. Heath, 1901); A. B. Comstock, Handbook of Nature-Study (Ithaca, NY: Comstock Publishing, 1911 \/. 3 Quoted in Jackman, op. cit, pp. 9-10. 4 Quoted m N. A. Calings, \"History of Object Teaching,\" Barnard's American Journal of Education (December, 1962) 12: 637. 5 Quoted Study 1979), 6 m T. Mmton, \"The History of the NatureMovement and Its Role m the Development The young author who wrote about her twig is one of a growing number of students whose science experiences have been shaped, either directly or indirectly, through a connection with the Arboretum and its staff. As we enter the twenty-first century, we continue to seek opportunities for sharing our ideas about the compatibility of nature, science, and technology with teachers and students eager to learn about trees and plants. Our hope is that ideas about children's education, developed and nurtured at the Arboretum, can grow into viable \"seeds\" locally and around the country. of Environmental Education\" \/Unpublished dissertation, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, pp. 30-31. Quoted m G. F. Atkmson, First Studies of Plant Life (Boston: Ginn & Co , 1901),p. m. 7 Comstock, op. cit., p.5. 8 National Research Council, National Science Education Standards (Washington, D.C.: National 9 Academy Press, 1996), Atkmson, op. cit., p. v is p. 20. Candace Julyan Arboretum. Director of Education at the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise: Letters to the Editor","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25217","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eab6b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise Letters to the Editor To the Editor: I thoroughly enjoyed the article \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants\" by Stephen Jay Gould (Arnoldia Spring 1998). Gould uses the native plant issue to clarify some of the common misconceptions surrounding the basic theory of natural selection. He also reasserts himself as one of Darwin' prevailing \"bulldogs.\" I do not take issue with anything that Gould includes in his analysis, but rather what he fails to include. Little effort is made to address the evolutionary ecology perspective in the concept of native plants. Gould touches lightly on the merits of native plants by indicating that they \"have generally been present for a long time and have therefore stabilized and adapted\" to local conditions. This is for me a key reason, from an evolutionary perspective, for promoting native plants, since natives have presumably coevolved with other local organisms and the chemical and physical environment. An ecological balance has, therefore, generally been struck that prevents the unbridled increase in any one species' numbers. Exotic plant species (i.e., nonnative plants), on the other hand, have a greater propensity for rampant population growth. Darwin even comments on the ecological consequences of invasive exotic plant species and points out in chapter three of On the Origin of Species that: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years. Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been mtroduced from Europe.... In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalized productions in their new homes.... when a plant or ammal is placed m a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. ... plant and animal species typically occur, as Darwin implies, because they do not generally have the competitor, predator, or pathogen load typically associated with native plants. Exotic species are new players in an environment and do not adhere to the \"rules\" that govern native species. Admittedly, the vast majority of exotic species are not invasive since they do not seem to compete well with native plants. Those that are invasive, however, have wrought havoc on local and regional ecosystems. Many native plants are maligned as mvasive because of their weedy nature, but there is a distinct difference: native weeds do not disrupt natural communities nor do they tend to form monocultures. (I would like to Irruptions of invasive exotic 27 restricted to ecologically disruptive exotic plants and the \"aggressive\" adapted for native weeds.) Gould also gives little mention to the ecologically disruptive consequences of invasive exotics to biodiversity other than saying that he \"treasures nature's bounteous diversity of species,\" and that \"cherishing native plants does allow us to defend and preserve a maximal amount of local variety.\" This is precisely why native plants should be the first choice for landscaping among ecologically sensitive individuals. Second choice should be exotic species that are not invasive or those that have a very low potential for becoming invasive. I am not suggesting that we adopt the \"Naziesque\" approach to plant material choice. I too am awed by our \"bounteous\" species diversity but it is only diminished by invasive exotic species. And I hope that Gould, by pointing out that the argument for using native plants is evolutionarily fallacious, has not encouraged what he so stridently abhors: a misconstrued Darwinian alibi for depraved behavior-in this case, using ecologically disruptive, see the term \"invasive\" term invasive plant species. Organisms, native or otherwise, respond to their environment through the adaptive creativity of natural selection. Theirs is a life without intent. There is no desire among plants to become a garden pest or to disrupt natural communities. Humans, by purposefully homogenizing the world's flora, have forced the occurrence of unlikely species interactions, some of which we greet with delight (culinary herbs, vegetable crops, and the majority of ornamentals) and some with dread (kudzu, privet, and water hyacinth). Gould weakly dissuades the introduction of invasive exotic plant species by maintaining that there should be \"sensitive and respectful mixing of natives and exotics.\" From this I read: proceed with caution. I feel that a stronger position needs to be taken on this issue. Invasive exotics are a major threat to biodiversity and the genetic diversity contained within. I therefore challenge botanical gardens and arboreta, plant nurseries, and private gardeners to promote the use of ecologically judicious plant choices in our public and private gardens. John Randall Conservation Curator, North Carolina Botanical Garden of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill To the Editor: Stephen Jay Gould (\"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants,\" Arnoldia Spring 1998) offers an excellent argument for his characterization of the concept of native plants as \"a remarkable mixture of sound biology, invalid ideas, false extensions, ethical implications, and Grapevmes (Vitus sp.) m northeastern Connecticut. 28 commentary, written from an evolufrom the perspective of practical horticulture. tionary perspective, argument But first, I hasten to point out that in 1998, we in the arenas of botanic gardens and horticulture are already working to promote the use of environmentally appropriate plants specific to the requirements and use of the planted site. Plantsmen are not recommending aggressive exotics as landscape plants of preference regardless of environmental consequences. That would not only be irresponsible but would ultimately destroy the green industry and its important contribution to the U.S. economy. The primary criteria for plant selection in managed environments today is whether a plant is reasonably well adapted to the site and, hence, will survive and thrive without requiring regular use of pesticides, and within that context, whether the plant satisfies the ornamental, agricultural, and\/or functional demands of the site and its constituents. Given these criteria, there are many instances when exotic plants are the clear choice for a given landscape-especially when we recall that not all exotics are invasive or aggressive (in fact only a small minority have proven to be so), and that not all natives are nonaggressive (for instance, our native staghorn sumac). The real challenge, of course, is to determine with intelligence and sensitivity to site constraints what are the environmentally appropriate species for a given site that are likely to succeed there. And, I might add, what may be the appropriate cultivars, which are capable of great phenotypic and physiological divergence within one species-in some cases, even greater divergence than the wild-type species can offer within a genus. We cannot ignore the reason that invasive exotics have been used in the first place, which is: Managed environments (cities, residential neighborhoods, parks, disturbed wetlands, timber production lands, and so on) are already drastically altered and have already been interfered with, resulting in significantly inhibited natural selection and the ability of the prior extant site natives to thrive. For this very reason, a managed environment often requires conscious choice of potentially aggressive plants if there are to be any plants at all that live there. One of the reasons that botamc gardens, arboreta, and many types of public gardens maintain living collections of plants is to allow for evaluation and comparison of plant growth and development, and landscape performance long-term in real time in a given regional landscape. The ability to carry out these evaluations allows us to select well-adapted plants for an area. The broader the palette of well-adapted plants available, the more effectively an environmentally sound landscape can be built. All sites, whether managed or wild, including severely disturbed and altered stressful environments (such as urban parks), require plants adapted to the conditions on that site. A well-adapted plant for a managed site may or may not be a regional native, depending on the specific stresses associated with the given managed environment. We cannot effectively plant many of the natives of the humid Northeast United States in, for example, parking lot beds, or even in many new suburban garden sites that have been stripped of topsoil (excepting only such broadly adapted and aggressive natives as, for instance, poison ivy). political usages.\" It seems an worth adding to his 29 Many Asian natives serve as good landscape plants in the Northeast precisely because they are well-adapted to our most common types of \"disturbed\" landscapes. The climatic and soil similarities between eastern North America and eastern Asia are well documented and widely understood and accepted. Should we, in spite of this natural botanical gift, restrict the plants grown on these sites to a few U.S. natives that will thrive there because they will basically thrive anywhere? Do we want our managed outdoor stressful environments to be planted with only a limited palette of regionally native aggressive plants? Would the residents of Washington, D.C., really want us to replace the flowering Asian cherries with native pin cherries (which are actually more susceptible to tent caterpillars)? How do we define \"regionally native,\" in any case?-plants found growing within 100-mile radius of the site now, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Plants found growing within the state now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago? Plants found growing within the region now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Much as we may wish to, we cannot turn back the clock and erase the huge disturbances that we have thoughtlessly imposed throughout most of our native habitat. This makes it even more critical that we preserve and protect what small acreages of undisturbed habitat remain, as much as is possible. Unfortunately, with increasing population and urbanization, the likelihood is that over the next 100 years, these small acreages of undisturbed, or little-disturbed, or restored habitat will become even more fragmented, pressured, and fragile. It is imperative that we learn to manage our expanding areas of managed environments wisely, usmg a diversity of plants that result in environmentally sound as well as beautiful, productive, and functional landscapes. We cannot achieve that goal by relying solely on \"regionally native\" plants for every single managed landscape no matter its location or purpose. Clearly, a reasonable, moderate, thoughtful, site-specific, and non-arbitrary approach to plant selection is required for each individual landscape. Known rampant invasives, regardless of provenance, should not be planted. The decision process for what plants to include in a native wetland restoration project should clearly be drastically different from that of choosing plants for an urban pocket park. In all cases, effort to use plants suited to the region and the site must be made. I write this response to remind us of what we all as plantsmen are already working to achieve, that is, to bring reason, responsibility, knowledge, and moderation to bear on the process of how we choose plants for managed environments, and what choices we make. In the face of the next hundred years of increasing pressure on the land, the future of our flora and the quality of our lives depends on this. a Kim Tripp Director of the Botanic Garden of Smith College and Arnold Arboretum Associate "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Contra nonnatives: John Randall, Conservation Curator, North Carolina Botanical Garden","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25214","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24ea728.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise Letters to the Editor To the Editor: I thoroughly enjoyed the article \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants\" by Stephen Jay Gould (Arnoldia Spring 1998). Gould uses the native plant issue to clarify some of the common misconceptions surrounding the basic theory of natural selection. He also reasserts himself as one of Darwin' prevailing \"bulldogs.\" I do not take issue with anything that Gould includes in his analysis, but rather what he fails to include. Little effort is made to address the evolutionary ecology perspective in the concept of native plants. Gould touches lightly on the merits of native plants by indicating that they \"have generally been present for a long time and have therefore stabilized and adapted\" to local conditions. This is for me a key reason, from an evolutionary perspective, for promoting native plants, since natives have presumably coevolved with other local organisms and the chemical and physical environment. An ecological balance has, therefore, generally been struck that prevents the unbridled increase in any one species' numbers. Exotic plant species (i.e., nonnative plants), on the other hand, have a greater propensity for rampant population growth. Darwin even comments on the ecological consequences of invasive exotic plant species and points out in chapter three of On the Origin of Species that: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years. Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been mtroduced from Europe.... In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalized productions in their new homes.... when a plant or ammal is placed m a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. ... plant and animal species typically occur, as Darwin implies, because they do not generally have the competitor, predator, or pathogen load typically associated with native plants. Exotic species are new players in an environment and do not adhere to the \"rules\" that govern native species. Admittedly, the vast majority of exotic species are not invasive since they do not seem to compete well with native plants. Those that are invasive, however, have wrought havoc on local and regional ecosystems. Many native plants are maligned as mvasive because of their weedy nature, but there is a distinct difference: native weeds do not disrupt natural communities nor do they tend to form monocultures. (I would like to Irruptions of invasive exotic 27 restricted to ecologically disruptive exotic plants and the \"aggressive\" adapted for native weeds.) Gould also gives little mention to the ecologically disruptive consequences of invasive exotics to biodiversity other than saying that he \"treasures nature's bounteous diversity of species,\" and that \"cherishing native plants does allow us to defend and preserve a maximal amount of local variety.\" This is precisely why native plants should be the first choice for landscaping among ecologically sensitive individuals. Second choice should be exotic species that are not invasive or those that have a very low potential for becoming invasive. I am not suggesting that we adopt the \"Naziesque\" approach to plant material choice. I too am awed by our \"bounteous\" species diversity but it is only diminished by invasive exotic species. And I hope that Gould, by pointing out that the argument for using native plants is evolutionarily fallacious, has not encouraged what he so stridently abhors: a misconstrued Darwinian alibi for depraved behavior-in this case, using ecologically disruptive, see the term \"invasive\" term invasive plant species. Organisms, native or otherwise, respond to their environment through the adaptive creativity of natural selection. Theirs is a life without intent. There is no desire among plants to become a garden pest or to disrupt natural communities. Humans, by purposefully homogenizing the world's flora, have forced the occurrence of unlikely species interactions, some of which we greet with delight (culinary herbs, vegetable crops, and the majority of ornamentals) and some with dread (kudzu, privet, and water hyacinth). Gould weakly dissuades the introduction of invasive exotic plant species by maintaining that there should be \"sensitive and respectful mixing of natives and exotics.\" From this I read: proceed with caution. I feel that a stronger position needs to be taken on this issue. Invasive exotics are a major threat to biodiversity and the genetic diversity contained within. I therefore challenge botanical gardens and arboreta, plant nurseries, and private gardeners to promote the use of ecologically judicious plant choices in our public and private gardens. John Randall Conservation Curator, North Carolina Botanical Garden of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill To the Editor: Stephen Jay Gould (\"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants,\" Arnoldia Spring 1998) offers an excellent argument for his characterization of the concept of native plants as \"a remarkable mixture of sound biology, invalid ideas, false extensions, ethical implications, and Grapevmes (Vitus sp.) m northeastern Connecticut. 28 commentary, written from an evolufrom the perspective of practical horticulture. tionary perspective, argument But first, I hasten to point out that in 1998, we in the arenas of botanic gardens and horticulture are already working to promote the use of environmentally appropriate plants specific to the requirements and use of the planted site. Plantsmen are not recommending aggressive exotics as landscape plants of preference regardless of environmental consequences. That would not only be irresponsible but would ultimately destroy the green industry and its important contribution to the U.S. economy. The primary criteria for plant selection in managed environments today is whether a plant is reasonably well adapted to the site and, hence, will survive and thrive without requiring regular use of pesticides, and within that context, whether the plant satisfies the ornamental, agricultural, and\/or functional demands of the site and its constituents. Given these criteria, there are many instances when exotic plants are the clear choice for a given landscape-especially when we recall that not all exotics are invasive or aggressive (in fact only a small minority have proven to be so), and that not all natives are nonaggressive (for instance, our native staghorn sumac). The real challenge, of course, is to determine with intelligence and sensitivity to site constraints what are the environmentally appropriate species for a given site that are likely to succeed there. And, I might add, what may be the appropriate cultivars, which are capable of great phenotypic and physiological divergence within one species-in some cases, even greater divergence than the wild-type species can offer within a genus. We cannot ignore the reason that invasive exotics have been used in the first place, which is: Managed environments (cities, residential neighborhoods, parks, disturbed wetlands, timber production lands, and so on) are already drastically altered and have already been interfered with, resulting in significantly inhibited natural selection and the ability of the prior extant site natives to thrive. For this very reason, a managed environment often requires conscious choice of potentially aggressive plants if there are to be any plants at all that live there. One of the reasons that botamc gardens, arboreta, and many types of public gardens maintain living collections of plants is to allow for evaluation and comparison of plant growth and development, and landscape performance long-term in real time in a given regional landscape. The ability to carry out these evaluations allows us to select well-adapted plants for an area. The broader the palette of well-adapted plants available, the more effectively an environmentally sound landscape can be built. All sites, whether managed or wild, including severely disturbed and altered stressful environments (such as urban parks), require plants adapted to the conditions on that site. A well-adapted plant for a managed site may or may not be a regional native, depending on the specific stresses associated with the given managed environment. We cannot effectively plant many of the natives of the humid Northeast United States in, for example, parking lot beds, or even in many new suburban garden sites that have been stripped of topsoil (excepting only such broadly adapted and aggressive natives as, for instance, poison ivy). political usages.\" It seems an worth adding to his 29 Many Asian natives serve as good landscape plants in the Northeast precisely because they are well-adapted to our most common types of \"disturbed\" landscapes. The climatic and soil similarities between eastern North America and eastern Asia are well documented and widely understood and accepted. Should we, in spite of this natural botanical gift, restrict the plants grown on these sites to a few U.S. natives that will thrive there because they will basically thrive anywhere? Do we want our managed outdoor stressful environments to be planted with only a limited palette of regionally native aggressive plants? Would the residents of Washington, D.C., really want us to replace the flowering Asian cherries with native pin cherries (which are actually more susceptible to tent caterpillars)? How do we define \"regionally native,\" in any case?-plants found growing within 100-mile radius of the site now, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Plants found growing within the state now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago? Plants found growing within the region now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Much as we may wish to, we cannot turn back the clock and erase the huge disturbances that we have thoughtlessly imposed throughout most of our native habitat. This makes it even more critical that we preserve and protect what small acreages of undisturbed habitat remain, as much as is possible. Unfortunately, with increasing population and urbanization, the likelihood is that over the next 100 years, these small acreages of undisturbed, or little-disturbed, or restored habitat will become even more fragmented, pressured, and fragile. It is imperative that we learn to manage our expanding areas of managed environments wisely, usmg a diversity of plants that result in environmentally sound as well as beautiful, productive, and functional landscapes. We cannot achieve that goal by relying solely on \"regionally native\" plants for every single managed landscape no matter its location or purpose. Clearly, a reasonable, moderate, thoughtful, site-specific, and non-arbitrary approach to plant selection is required for each individual landscape. Known rampant invasives, regardless of provenance, should not be planted. The decision process for what plants to include in a native wetland restoration project should clearly be drastically different from that of choosing plants for an urban pocket park. In all cases, effort to use plants suited to the region and the site must be made. I write this response to remind us of what we all as plantsmen are already working to achieve, that is, to bring reason, responsibility, knowledge, and moderation to bear on the process of how we choose plants for managed environments, and what choices we make. In the face of the next hundred years of increasing pressure on the land, the future of our flora and the quality of our lives depends on this. a Kim Tripp Director of the Botanic Garden of Smith College and Arnold Arboretum Associate "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Contra a blanket boycott of nonnatives: Kim E. Tripp, Director of the Botanic Garden of Smith College","article_sequence":6,"start_page":27,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25213","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24ea36f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Native vs. Nonnative: A Reprise Letters to the Editor To the Editor: I thoroughly enjoyed the article \"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants\" by Stephen Jay Gould (Arnoldia Spring 1998). Gould uses the native plant issue to clarify some of the common misconceptions surrounding the basic theory of natural selection. He also reasserts himself as one of Darwin' prevailing \"bulldogs.\" I do not take issue with anything that Gould includes in his analysis, but rather what he fails to include. Little effort is made to address the evolutionary ecology perspective in the concept of native plants. Gould touches lightly on the merits of native plants by indicating that they \"have generally been present for a long time and have therefore stabilized and adapted\" to local conditions. This is for me a key reason, from an evolutionary perspective, for promoting native plants, since natives have presumably coevolved with other local organisms and the chemical and physical environment. An ecological balance has, therefore, generally been struck that prevents the unbridled increase in any one species' numbers. Exotic plant species (i.e., nonnative plants), on the other hand, have a greater propensity for rampant population growth. Darwin even comments on the ecological consequences of invasive exotic plant species and points out in chapter three of On the Origin of Species that: cases could be given of introduced plants which have become common throughout whole islands in a period of less than ten years. Several of the plants now most numerous over the wide plains of La Plata, clothing square leagues of surface almost to the exclusion of all other plants, have been mtroduced from Europe.... In such cases the geometrical ratio of increase, the result of which never fails to be surprising, simply explains the extraordinarily rapid increase and wide diffusion of naturalized productions in their new homes.... when a plant or ammal is placed m a new country amongst new competitors, though the climate may be exactly the same as in its former home, yet the conditions of its life will generally be changed in an essential manner. ... plant and animal species typically occur, as Darwin implies, because they do not generally have the competitor, predator, or pathogen load typically associated with native plants. Exotic species are new players in an environment and do not adhere to the \"rules\" that govern native species. Admittedly, the vast majority of exotic species are not invasive since they do not seem to compete well with native plants. Those that are invasive, however, have wrought havoc on local and regional ecosystems. Many native plants are maligned as mvasive because of their weedy nature, but there is a distinct difference: native weeds do not disrupt natural communities nor do they tend to form monocultures. (I would like to Irruptions of invasive exotic 27 restricted to ecologically disruptive exotic plants and the \"aggressive\" adapted for native weeds.) Gould also gives little mention to the ecologically disruptive consequences of invasive exotics to biodiversity other than saying that he \"treasures nature's bounteous diversity of species,\" and that \"cherishing native plants does allow us to defend and preserve a maximal amount of local variety.\" This is precisely why native plants should be the first choice for landscaping among ecologically sensitive individuals. Second choice should be exotic species that are not invasive or those that have a very low potential for becoming invasive. I am not suggesting that we adopt the \"Naziesque\" approach to plant material choice. I too am awed by our \"bounteous\" species diversity but it is only diminished by invasive exotic species. And I hope that Gould, by pointing out that the argument for using native plants is evolutionarily fallacious, has not encouraged what he so stridently abhors: a misconstrued Darwinian alibi for depraved behavior-in this case, using ecologically disruptive, see the term \"invasive\" term invasive plant species. Organisms, native or otherwise, respond to their environment through the adaptive creativity of natural selection. Theirs is a life without intent. There is no desire among plants to become a garden pest or to disrupt natural communities. Humans, by purposefully homogenizing the world's flora, have forced the occurrence of unlikely species interactions, some of which we greet with delight (culinary herbs, vegetable crops, and the majority of ornamentals) and some with dread (kudzu, privet, and water hyacinth). Gould weakly dissuades the introduction of invasive exotic plant species by maintaining that there should be \"sensitive and respectful mixing of natives and exotics.\" From this I read: proceed with caution. I feel that a stronger position needs to be taken on this issue. Invasive exotics are a major threat to biodiversity and the genetic diversity contained within. I therefore challenge botanical gardens and arboreta, plant nurseries, and private gardeners to promote the use of ecologically judicious plant choices in our public and private gardens. John Randall Conservation Curator, North Carolina Botanical Garden of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill To the Editor: Stephen Jay Gould (\"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants,\" Arnoldia Spring 1998) offers an excellent argument for his characterization of the concept of native plants as \"a remarkable mixture of sound biology, invalid ideas, false extensions, ethical implications, and Grapevmes (Vitus sp.) m northeastern Connecticut. 28 commentary, written from an evolufrom the perspective of practical horticulture. tionary perspective, argument But first, I hasten to point out that in 1998, we in the arenas of botanic gardens and horticulture are already working to promote the use of environmentally appropriate plants specific to the requirements and use of the planted site. Plantsmen are not recommending aggressive exotics as landscape plants of preference regardless of environmental consequences. That would not only be irresponsible but would ultimately destroy the green industry and its important contribution to the U.S. economy. The primary criteria for plant selection in managed environments today is whether a plant is reasonably well adapted to the site and, hence, will survive and thrive without requiring regular use of pesticides, and within that context, whether the plant satisfies the ornamental, agricultural, and\/or functional demands of the site and its constituents. Given these criteria, there are many instances when exotic plants are the clear choice for a given landscape-especially when we recall that not all exotics are invasive or aggressive (in fact only a small minority have proven to be so), and that not all natives are nonaggressive (for instance, our native staghorn sumac). The real challenge, of course, is to determine with intelligence and sensitivity to site constraints what are the environmentally appropriate species for a given site that are likely to succeed there. And, I might add, what may be the appropriate cultivars, which are capable of great phenotypic and physiological divergence within one species-in some cases, even greater divergence than the wild-type species can offer within a genus. We cannot ignore the reason that invasive exotics have been used in the first place, which is: Managed environments (cities, residential neighborhoods, parks, disturbed wetlands, timber production lands, and so on) are already drastically altered and have already been interfered with, resulting in significantly inhibited natural selection and the ability of the prior extant site natives to thrive. For this very reason, a managed environment often requires conscious choice of potentially aggressive plants if there are to be any plants at all that live there. One of the reasons that botamc gardens, arboreta, and many types of public gardens maintain living collections of plants is to allow for evaluation and comparison of plant growth and development, and landscape performance long-term in real time in a given regional landscape. The ability to carry out these evaluations allows us to select well-adapted plants for an area. The broader the palette of well-adapted plants available, the more effectively an environmentally sound landscape can be built. All sites, whether managed or wild, including severely disturbed and altered stressful environments (such as urban parks), require plants adapted to the conditions on that site. A well-adapted plant for a managed site may or may not be a regional native, depending on the specific stresses associated with the given managed environment. We cannot effectively plant many of the natives of the humid Northeast United States in, for example, parking lot beds, or even in many new suburban garden sites that have been stripped of topsoil (excepting only such broadly adapted and aggressive natives as, for instance, poison ivy). political usages.\" It seems an worth adding to his 29 Many Asian natives serve as good landscape plants in the Northeast precisely because they are well-adapted to our most common types of \"disturbed\" landscapes. The climatic and soil similarities between eastern North America and eastern Asia are well documented and widely understood and accepted. Should we, in spite of this natural botanical gift, restrict the plants grown on these sites to a few U.S. natives that will thrive there because they will basically thrive anywhere? Do we want our managed outdoor stressful environments to be planted with only a limited palette of regionally native aggressive plants? Would the residents of Washington, D.C., really want us to replace the flowering Asian cherries with native pin cherries (which are actually more susceptible to tent caterpillars)? How do we define \"regionally native,\" in any case?-plants found growing within 100-mile radius of the site now, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Plants found growing within the state now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago? Plants found growing within the region now, 50 years ago, 100 years ago, 1000 years ago? Much as we may wish to, we cannot turn back the clock and erase the huge disturbances that we have thoughtlessly imposed throughout most of our native habitat. This makes it even more critical that we preserve and protect what small acreages of undisturbed habitat remain, as much as is possible. Unfortunately, with increasing population and urbanization, the likelihood is that over the next 100 years, these small acreages of undisturbed, or little-disturbed, or restored habitat will become even more fragmented, pressured, and fragile. It is imperative that we learn to manage our expanding areas of managed environments wisely, usmg a diversity of plants that result in environmentally sound as well as beautiful, productive, and functional landscapes. We cannot achieve that goal by relying solely on \"regionally native\" plants for every single managed landscape no matter its location or purpose. Clearly, a reasonable, moderate, thoughtful, site-specific, and non-arbitrary approach to plant selection is required for each individual landscape. Known rampant invasives, regardless of provenance, should not be planted. The decision process for what plants to include in a native wetland restoration project should clearly be drastically different from that of choosing plants for an urban pocket park. In all cases, effort to use plants suited to the region and the site must be made. I write this response to remind us of what we all as plantsmen are already working to achieve, that is, to bring reason, responsibility, knowledge, and moderation to bear on the process of how we choose plants for managed environments, and what choices we make. In the face of the next hundred years of increasing pressure on the land, the future of our flora and the quality of our lives depends on this. a Kim Tripp Director of the Botanic Garden of Smith College and Arnold Arboretum Associate "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Native Plants: Another View","article_sequence":7,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25216","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eab26.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"Native Plants: Another View Harrison L. Flint t circle, for the time being, we reprint very nearly verbatim an article from Arnoldia, Winter 1982-1983. When we asked Professor Flint to update it to serve as a companion to the letters to the editor, he found very little, and nothing at all of substance, that he wished to change. the tradition of such great midwestern naturalists as Jens Jensen, Aldo Leopold, and May Theilgaard Watts, contemporary landscape planners have grown in awareness of native plants and their usefulness in designed landscapes. The movement toward landscaping with native plants now has spread widely and has not yet reached its full potential. Its ultimate expression is found in re-creating natural plant communities, a stepwise and time-consuming process now being carried out by relatively few landscape planners. Such planners usually are sophisticated horticulturists and landscape architects who have elected to specialize in this particular area. Yet, while many landscape planners have developed close familiarity with a great range of plants, carefully selecting those most appropmate for the situation at hand, less-sophisticated members of their profession have eschewed all forms of vegetation that are not \"native.\" For some this position is taken with a sense of missionary zeal; for others it may simply offer convenience in requiring knowledge of a smaller number of landscape plants. To select landscape plants on the basis of whether or not they are native, one must first determine which species are \"native.\" In New England, for instance, is it permissible to select black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), a common wild tree in much of the area, yet native only farther south and west? Must redbud (Cercis canadensis) be excluded in southwestern Wisconsin, since it is an exotic species in that state, even though it grows naturally a dozen miles away in northwestern Illinois? In Indiana, must another tree legume, American yellowwood To close this Following (Cladrastis kentukea, formerly C. lutea), be restricted in use to only those few counties where it is indigenous? Any question about species eligibility for use in re-creating or preserving a natural plant association finds its answer in the planner's knowledge of the association. Clearly, only certain plants \"belong.\" But in other areas of landscape planning, divisions between native and nonnative species blur-and perhaps are best left blurred, allowing selection decisions to be made according to criteria relating to function. Exclusion of nonnative plants on principle is based upon several generalized claims, all of which hold at least a grain of truth: (1) Nonnative plants look out of place in the landscape. If one's objective is to preserve a natural landscape, ample justification exists for removing nonnative species as weeds. The same is true in re-creating a \"natural\" landscape, but in other cases the question is not so easily answered. Must a woodland gardener in New England plant no other species of wild ginger (Asarum) than the native A. canadense? Must sweetshrub (Calycanthus floridus), galax (Galax urceolata), box huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera), and yellowroot (Xanthorhiza simplicissima) be left to their more southerly native haunts? And must the New England gardener be sure to omit lily-ofthe-valley (Convallaris majalis) and English ivy (Hedera helix) as European natives? Perhaps, but only as a matter of taste. (2) Plant species are better adapted to the region in which they are native than to be asked 31 elsewhere, because this region has \"made\" them, through distinctive selection pressures. \" logical as this view may seem at first, it has flaws. First, it excludes the possibility of preadaptation. For example, the climate of northeastern Asia so closely parallels that As two of similar latitudes in northeastern North America that many Asian species have been pre- adapted seen to our climate long before they have it, and turn out to be some of our most use- ful landscape plants. A second flaw is the tacit presumption that the soil and climate of a particular landscape site are similar to those of the natural region in which it is located. Landscape designers and contractors know that this is not true. Most landscape sites, especially urban ones, are exposed to soil and climatic stresses that seldom exist in wild areas nearby. Soils may be greatly modified by construction and subsequent restoration. Patterns of wind, solar radiation, and temperature fluctuation are modified in developed sites. Perhaps most important of all, patterns of rainfall, runoff, and absorption of water into the soil are drastically altered. In least for a time, free of many of their natural enemies, and examples of native species with major problems are easily found. American elm (Ulmus americana) has been decimated in many areas by Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis. The most promising sources of resistance to Dutch elm disease are Asian species and their hybrids. The majestic American chestnut (Castanea dentata), nearly wiped out by blight in its native habitat decades ago, is finding its closest replacement in the diseaseresistant Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima) and at hybmds. Crabapples native to eastern North America (e.g., Malus angustifolia, M. coronaria, and M. ioensis) are susceptible to cedar-apple rust, a serious enough problem to rule them out as landscape plants in most localities where red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), the alternate host its short, developed sites are so greatly changed that they may differ much more from nearby natural areas than do certain natural the other side of the earth. areas on (3) Nonnative plants are weedy, reproducing freely and mvading areas where they are not wanted. This is a valid criticism of several nonnative species, such as buckthorns (Rhamnus sp.), certain Asian for the disease organism, is present. Asian crabapples are relatively free of this problem. In areas where red cedar does not grow wild, the disease can be largely controlled by substituting junipers of Asian origin for red cedar. Resistance to insect and disease problems is too important a consideration in selecting landscape plants to be left to generalization. It is better dealt with directly by selecting troublefree plants than indirectly by selecting only native or nonnative plants, in the expectation that they will tend to be more resistant to problems than their opposite numbers. honeysuckles (Lonicera sp.), some species of Elaeagnus, Euonymus, and others. But it is not a fair generalization. In fact, it seems a contradiction to generalize that nonnative species are not well adapted yet reproduce to the point of being a nuisance. Again, it is necessary to know which species, both native and exotic, are weedy and exclude them in situations in which they might get out of control. kudzu vine (Pueraria lobata), of the diversity inherent in native plant species, a pool that has been barely sampled thus far. We need to make better tremendous pool of genetic (5) use Amen! And the same can be said for nonnative species. How often is our knowledge of an Asian species, for instance, limited to a few clones at or (4) Natme plants are less susceptible to msect and disease problems than nonnatives and so need less maintenance. We as often hear the counterclaim: that nonnative plants separated from their ecosystems are, slice of the germplasm that exists m the natural range? Intrepid plant explorers have introduced to us many new species from remote corners of the world. Notwithstanding the many collections made over the past decade, we have largely failed to follow up on their discoveries by assembling larger samples of those species for evaluation, just as surely as we have neglected to observe fully the variation that exists in native species. As a best a narrow 32 result, our narrow knowledge of diversity in plant species confounds the issue of their Department of Agriculture has taken an important step to improve this situation with regard to crop species through its network of plant germplasm repositories. It is up to other institutions, including botanical gardens and arboreta, to develop stronger programs relating to preservation and development of germplasm of value to landscape improvement. There are, of course, landscape situations where nonnative plants are clearly inappropriate and so to be avoided. This includes preservation, restoration, and re-creation of natural areas and plant associations. In many other situations the constraint of using only native plants, intended to produce a natural effect, itself nativeness. The U.S. becomes artifact. In such situations it is more sensible to return to the basics of plant selection, considering adaptability and intended function first, then maintenance requirements and seasonal interest. When a pool of plants having the desired requirements has been assembled, final selections can be made on the basis of individual taste. The search for a broad range of prospective landscape plants, and their thoughtful use, has made our landscape increasingly functional and interesting. Continuing the search will enrich our lives in the process. is professor emeritus of horticulture Purdue University m Lafayette, Indiana. He is the author of The Country journal Book of Trees and Shrubs and Landscape Plants for Eastern North Amenca, 2nd edition. Harrison Flint at U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION _ (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title: Arnoldia 2. Publication No: 0004-2633 3. Filing Date' 12 November 1998. 4. Issue Frequency: Quarterly 5 No of Issues Published Annually 4 6. Annual Subscription Pmce: $20.00 domestic; $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication. Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Pubhsher, Editor, and Managmg Editor Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Secunty Holders Owmng or Holdmg 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities: none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status 2 of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name. Arnoldia 14 Issue Date for Circulation Data Below. Summer 1998. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 4,450. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,500 b Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. (1)( Sales Through Dealers and Carmers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 129. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 440 (2~ Paid and\/or Requested Mail Subscriptions Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months: 3,352 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 3,500 c Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months' 3,481 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,940 d Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months: 187. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 175 e. Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months 230. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 325. f. Total Free Distribution- Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months: 417. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 500 g Total Distribution' Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,898. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 4,440. h Copies Not Distributed. ( 1 ~ Office Use, Leftovers, Spoiled. Average No Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months. 650. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 235. (2) Return from news agents. Average No. Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months. none. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' none. i. Total. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 650. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 235 Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months: 85% Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 78%. I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":8,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25219","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd24eb328.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum F , - \" , 1 , , 8 Field Studies Are Diane Inspired by the Work of Volunteers Syverson Manager of School Programs A fourth-grade teacher from the Baker School brought her class to the Arboretum this October for a field study called Plants in Autumn: How Seed,r Travel Her response to the question, \"What did you like most about your experience at the Arboretum>\" was: I really admire the fact that this program is staffed by volunteers. I think it's important for kids to see people donating their time and energy because they want to. Additionally the atmosphere was invitmg, which made the experience that much better. Volunteer guides who are personally invested in their work create an invigorating learning environment come to for school classes that the Arboretum for Field Study Experiences. Visiting schoolchildren find themselves in group facilitated by any one of the 25 men and women who guide children on these fall and spring programs. Each guide is trained to support the children's science a learning, as together they examine the plants and habitats within the Arboretum landscape. As volunteers, the school program guides are dedicated to enriching children's connection with science, nature, and the Arboretum through the Field Study Expenence. These volunteers are men and women whose commitment might originate from a personal interest in children's education. they include former teachers, a school librarian, an education graduate student, grandparents, and a person considering a career change to education. Other volunteers come with personal experience and interest in life science: as do a part-time science teacher who saves a day per week to \"teach\" at the Arboretum, an ex-biology instructor, a retmed chemist, a self-employed horticulturist, and many impassioned gardeners. Many of our volunteers know and love the Arboretum from the perspective of neighbor and supporter; it is from this perspective that they invest in sharing its richness with others. School program guides make a one-year commitment to their job that includes thirty hours of Field Study Expenence training; weekly guiding of elementary age children, fall and spring; and attendance at education meetings during the winter months. For more information or to observe a field study program, phone Diane Syverson, manager of school programs, at 617\/524-1718 x163. No Complaints Here Tredici, Director of Living Collections are notorious Peter Del Gardeners for their ability to complain endlessly about the weather. If it's not too wet, then it's certainly too dry; if it's not too hot, it's certainly too cold. The right amount of snow is great, but too little or too much is always a problem. And so on down the lme. This tendency in . contznued on page 3 Former Intern Returns as Putnam Fellow Laura Farewell to Peter Stevens The imminent departure of Peter Stevens, professor of a curator a biology and I've Brogna, Putnam Fellow been fortunate, as a child of a to foreign service family, to travel in Asia, Europe, and the U.S. and live in very different kinds of places, including suburban north- of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbama, represents to the Arboretum's group of specialists in Asian Peter will be joining his wife, Dr. Elizabeth Kelloggbotany. known to us all as Toby-on the faculty of the University of Missouri at St. Louis. Toby will hold theE. Desmond Lee Chair in Botanical Studies, Peter will be a professor of biology, and both serious loss will also hold adjunct positions at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Virgima, downtown Tokyo, and the rural Northeast Kingdom of Vermont. Somewhere along the way, noticing my surroundings, I ern became a student of landscapes and landscape history. I consider my Putnam fellow- joined the staff of the Arnold Arboretum as an assistant curator in 1973 after three years as a botanist in the Papua New Guinea Forest Service, and worked his way up through the ranks: quite a feat at Harvard! He has pursued two groups of interests here. One has been in theoretical aspects of the history and practice of systematics, and particularly how botanists use the characters of plants in classification and to interpret evolution. But Peter may well be remembered most for his elegantly crafted systematic treatments, in the St. John's wort family, Clusiaceae, and especially its large and subtly varying tropical tree genus Calophyllum; m the rhododendron family, Ericaceae; and in various other taxa that have presented interesting problems to him. Peter has played a seminal part in the teaching of plant systematics at Harvard. His undergraduate course Bio 103, Evolution and Diversification of Flowering Plants, and his graduate course Bio 218, The Families of Flowering Plants, have Peter a growing number of students who found them dense and therefore difficult but, thanks to Peter's ebullient enthusiasm attracted ship an opportunity to continue my investigations into the workings of New England landscapes, which I began officially as a graduate student in landscape architecture at Harvard's Graduate School of Design (GSD). One of my projects here will be the study of planning and land management issues, including development and tourism for his careers subject, immensely stimulating. and will welcome their future visits here. 7 Peter Ashton, Director, 1978-1987 We wish Peter and Toby good success in this new phase in their During my tenure as Putnam time poring over city wastewater Fellow, I am dividing my between the Institute for Cultural pressures on working farms and forests. I also will investigate how the Arboretum funcwithin its three increasingly urbanized watersheds in order to prepare a stormwater maintenance plan for the site. Finally, I will research the land-use history of the area proposed for a new sunloving shrub and vine collection. tions Landscape Studies (ICLS) and the Department of Living Collections By straddling departments, I am allowed a wonderful balance in my work. I may spend one day devoted to ICLS in the Widener Library stacks at Harvard, tracking down references to farmland conservation or cultural geography. The next day (after studying USGS topographical maps and flow diagrams), I'm out following the course of our own Bussey Brook. I first joined the Arboretum as a horticultural intern in the summer of 1995. After graduaung from the GSD in 1997, I spent one year working in a landscape architecture firm before returning to the Arboretum in September of this year. I'm thrilled to be back and feel happily at home here among the trees. . 1 from page gardeners has only been exacerbated over the course of the last ten or twenty years, as weather extremes become the norm and the so-called hundred-year flood seems to happen once a decade. All of which takes me to the point of this article, namely, that the living collections department, which has certainly done its share of complaining about the weather in the past, doesn't have anything to complain about this year. The winter was mild and the spnng was cool and moist. Remarkably, the summer, which was considered very dry over most of the East Coast, was no problem in Boston where we enjoyed adequate rainfall through the treacherous months of July and August. to envision the appearof the Arboretum twenty years into the future, when the new plantings reach adulthood. This fall's planting list was heavily laden with arborvitae (T'bu~a occzdentalu and T. plrcata), but we also accessioned many pine, fir, larch, and spruce. As it happened, during the long Columbus Day weekend, and just a few days after we planted our last tree, possible ance it ramed more than four inches in three days, saturating the ground in a way that no amount of hand watering or irrigation ever could. Remarkably, the umversal law of compensation seems to have worked its mysterious magic at the Arboretum, making the problems of the past few years seem like distant memomes. Unfortunately, I'm sure that next year will be a completely different story. Dr. Peter Ashton Receives On October 15, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (MHS) awarded Peter Ashton the Thomas Roland Medal of Honor during the MHS Annual Awards Ceremony at the Boston Harbor Hotel. Dr. Ashton served as director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1978 to 1987 and currently is the Charles Bullard Professor of Forestry at Harvard University. First bestowed in 1927, the Thomas Roland Medal was awarded in recognition of \"exceptional skill in horticulture.\" In presenting the award, Dr. John C. Peterson, president of MHS, lauded Dr. Ashton \"for his extensive work that has ensured a wonderful public treasure in Boston's Arnold Arboretum, and for the demonstration of what is without question exemplary skill in the field of horticulture.\" Honorary Medal Indeed, nearly every time we talked about watering our newly installed plants, it started raining. And the same is true for the fall. Two weeks never passed without substantial rain. Taking full advantage of this \"anomalous\" weather pattern, the --------------------------- Dr. Peter Ashton, Arnold Arboretum director, 1978-1987 grounds crew planted more than the collections from mid-September through mid-October. It was particularly gratifying to plant these trees, in 120 comfers given that the Pmetum area was badly damaged by the blizzard of April 1, 1997. While it requires a certain amount of imagination on the part of the visitor, it is now Dr. Ashton's successor as director of the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Robert Cook, extended the congratulations of the entire staff. \"Peter is also the world's foremost authonty on the tropical forests of Asia,\" Cook noted. \"We thank Peter for bringing the Arboretum to a position of leadership for conservation of Asian tropical forests.\" \" Arnold Arboretum Council members Wendy Pearson, Sarah Jolliffe, and Bob Bartlett prepare to embark on a tour of the living collections following the fall Arboretum Council meeting. Council members serve as advocates for the Arboretum, advise the director in their specialized areas of expertise, and support the institution in a variety of ways. Events of the day included presentations on new initiatives, ongoing projects, and a panel presentation of landscape maintenance issues. Two Collaborative Projects of the AA\/NPS Win ASLA Awards Both Fazr.rted: A Cultural Landscape Report for the Frederzck Law Olmsted Natzonal Historic Szte, Volume l: Site Hzrtory and Landscape Explorers: Llncoverzng the Power of Place won 1998 Merit Awards from the American Society of Landscape Architects (ASLA). Both publications are the result of collaborations between the Arnold Arboretum and the National Park Service that began in the early 1990s. Fairsted, the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site in Brookline, Massachusetts, was the home and professional office of Frederick Law Olmsted and the subsequent firms headed by his sons and others. The National Park Service acquired the site in 1980. The Fairsted Report, produced jointly by the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation of the National Park Service and the Arnold Arboretum, includes a detailed history of the landscape of Fairsted by the noted Olmsted scholar Cynthia Zaitzevsky and an afterword that describes the horticultural and cultural context of the Olmsted's work by the garden historian Mac Gnswold. Peter Del Tredici, director of living collections of the Arnold Arboretum, participated in the evaluation of historic documentation of the site and provided valuable expertise in plant identification from historic photographs. This report is an integral part of the restoration process for the Fairsted landscape, which began in 1991. Although the report documents a site of only 1.76 acres, it is (to quote the ASLA) \"a fascinating look at Olmsted's most intimate work: the design, literally, of the master's own backyard.\" Copies of the report have been distributed to libraries nationwide. Individual copies can be purchased through the Eastern National Bookstore at the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, 99 Warren Street, Brookline, MA 02446. For mail orders, contact Alan Banks at 617\/566-1689 x221. The ASLA calls Landscape Explorers \"the first-and thus far-the only curriculum designed to teach elementary-school students about the importance of landscape and place in everyone's lives.\" This unit of study invites students to explore the landscape from the perspective of an artist, a historian, or a naturalist. The stated hope that drives the unit is that \"children who understand the role of'place' in their evolving sense of self tend to become adults with a commitment to conserving and enhancing their immediate neighborhoods and the larger landscapes of which they are a part.\" The authors of this work are Diane Syverson, manager of school programs at the Arboretum, and Liza Stearns, education specialist for the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. Participating students begin their exploration of place by examining their own schoolyard and learning what it means to \"read\" a landscape. They then apply those newly learned skills in a visit to the Arboretum, exploring this landscape in one of the three distinct ways described above. For further information about Landscape Explorers, contact Diane Syverson at 617\/524-1718 x163. Give the Gift of Membership Membership in the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum makes a unique gift for family and friends at any time of year. The special recipient of your gift will enjoy a year's worth of exciting benefits. Please help support the Arnold Arboretum by purchasing a gift membership today! Call the Membership Office at 617\/524-1718 xl65 for more information. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23362","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270b728.jpg","title":"1998-58-3","volume":58,"issue_number":3,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25204","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270b728.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"O'Keefe, John; Foster, David R.","article_content":"..~ - -_._-----,------ Old hemlock forest m the Slab City tract of the Harvard Forest An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests Foster John O'Keefe and David R. The forests of Massachusetts present a history of almost continual change, albeit change that has varied greatly in scale, rates, and causes through time. The importance of human disturbance relative to natural disturbance has steadily increased-gradually at first, as aboriginal activity expanded to include agriculture, and then rapidly since European settlement. Just as the variety, frequency, and extent of human disturbance have increased through time, they can be expected to continue increasing and changing into the future. European settlement in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries brought a dramatic transformation as much of the land was deforested and farmed and the remainder was logged, grazed, or burned. Since the mid-nineteenth century, agriculture and forest use have declined, forest area and age have increased, and the land has become more \"natural\" than at any time postsettlement. But despite the natural appearance of much of the modern landscape, a legacy of intensive past use remains in vegetation structure and composition, in landscape patterns, and ongoing dynamics. Consequently, an understanding of the history of human influence must be an integral part of ecological study and a critical component of conservation planning and resource management. For millennia our forests had been evolving into the landscape that greeted the settlers. One reasonable start for our forests' history is the Approximate chronology of important end of the last glacial period, more than 13,000 in the Massachusetts' , events years ago. development of given m years before present. forests, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dynamics in the Postglacial Era","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25207","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270bb6b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"O'Keefe, John; Foster, David R.","article_content":"1. DYNAMICS IN THE POSTGLACIAL ERA unlike any we are familiar with today. As the climate warmed and the glaciers melted, the trees began their migration north at rates determined by the method of seed dispersal and the climatic tolerance of each species. We are fortunate to have a record of this postglacial migration in the form of pollen preserved in sediments at the bottom of lakes and ponds and below many wetlands. Each year pollen from plants is carried away on the wmd. When it lands on the water of a pond or lake, it sinks to the bottom, and along with other wind-borne material is incorporated into the sediments. These sediments form a chronological sequence of layers, the oldest at the bottom, which scientists can recover as a thin cylinder or core of mud. Each layer in the core can be dated using radioisotopes, and since pollen is extremely resistant to decay-the pollen of different plants can be identified at least to genus and in some cases to species-the presence and relative abundance of different types of pollen at each layer enables paleoecologists to reconstruct the peak of the of present-day glaciation, was covered by ice up to a mile thick. Cape Cod and the offshore islands-Nantucket, Martha's Vineyard, and the Elizabeth Islands-consist largely of what geologists call moraines, piles of debris accumulated at the front of the advancing ice sheet and left behind when the glaciers finally melted. The advancing glaciers not only smoothed and shaped the landscape by scraping and plucking the bedrock as they advanced, they also left behind a layer of ground-up rock, or till, which has since evolved into soil. As the glaciers melted, the tremendous volume of water produced seasonal streams that carried and sorted much of this material and deposited sands and gravels wherever they slowed.' The soils of Massachusetts are a product of this massive natural engineering, later supplemented by orgamc material from the vegetation that eventually covered the landscape. Along major rivers fine silt was deposited when the rivers overflowed their banks in spring; in some depressions a surplus of moisture allowed thick layers of peat or muck to develop. The resulting pattern of soil types has strongly influenced the type and distribution of trees and forests. Of course, during the glacial period, there were no forests in Massachusetts: The modern tree species of New England were restricted to favorable locations called refugia south of the glacial zone, presumably scattered across the southern Appalac ~ians and the eastern coastal plain. The huge quantities of water trapped on land as glacial ice had once been seawater; consequently, sea level was several hundred feet lower than at present, leaving vast areas of continental shelf off the present-day East Coast exposed as refugia as well. The forests in these various refugia contained species mixtures ver 15,000 years last Massachusetts t ago, at the most major vegetation changes at a site. The pollen diagram for the Harvard Forest Black Gum Swamp (page 6) shows changes in vegetation over time that are typical of sites across Massachusetts. As the glaciers melted and the climate warmed, a period of tundra is followed by boreal (northern conifer) forest, succeeded in turn by pine forest with rapidly increasing amounts of several deciduous species (birch, oak, beech) by 8,000 years ago. Although mixed deciduous forests have been dommant for the last 8,000 years, the mixture of species has changed continually during that period, and these changes can tell us much. Species have behaved quite independently, presumably migrating to Massachusetts from different locations at different rates, each species responding in its unique fashion to the various combina- 5 Alders, bearberry, and other pioneer vegetation follow a receding glacier m Alaska. climatic, soil, biotic, and historical facfound in the area. The major influences on these changes are long-term climate change, migration rates of individual species, and natural disturbance processes. Population dynamics of selected species help us understand these processes. Hemlock increased rapidly m importance after its arrival about 9,000 years ago. A little less than 5,000 years ago, it decreased dramatically in a very short time, then slowly recovered. This sudden decline, seen in pollen records throughout the Northeast, has been attributed to a severe outbreak of insects or disease that greatly reduced hemlock populations for nearly 1,000 years. Regional pollen analyses suggest that temperatures during the period from 8,000 to 5,000 years ago were milder than those of the last 4,000 years.2 It was during this warm period that many tree species now common in Massachusetts migrated into the area, with some species tions of tors extending well north of their current ranges. At a number of sites, fire frequency, indicated by charcoal in sediment cores, was also greater than in the more recent period.3 The increase in spruce pollen over the last 2,000 to 3,000 years was probably caused by more recent cooling. All these changes in forest communities were complex: while spruce, a northern species, increased-emdently in response to gradual cooling-chestnut, a southern species, was also migrating north across Massachusetts. In fact, chestnut is the most recent arrival in the pollen record, appearing less than 3,000 years ago, much later than the other important deciduous species that occur in the region today. The Natural Environment The distribution of forest types across Massachusetts during the period preceding European settlement was controlled by the physical geography, or physiography, of the landscape; the Pollen ma~or diagram from the Black Gum Swamp at the Harvard Forest m central Massachusetts depicting the changes m the vegetation over the past 12,000 years Tundra communities were replaced by boreal forest dominated by spruce until approximately 9,200 years before present (B P.) when pine and other tree species became important. Changes m the relative abundance of species resulted from chmate change, speczes migrations, disease (hemlock declme at about 5,000 B Pand fire until 250 to 300 years B P, when European settlement resulted m major deforestation and the mcrease m agricultural weeds, herbs, and early successional species .4 underlying geology; and the frequency of disturbances such as Taconic Mountains. The ies across geologic substrate var- windstorm and fire. Massa- the state. Except for parts of the Con- chusetts, excluding Cape Cod, is roughly rectangular, 125 miles (200 km) east to west and 50 miles (80 km) north to south. Today it receives approximately 40 mches (100 cm) of precipitation annually, distributed fairly evenly throughout the year, with a mean annual temperature that ranges from a mean of several degrees Fahrenheit below freezing in January to about 70 degrees in July, and averages nearly 50 degrees over the year. Within a relatively small, compact area, Massachusetts contains six broad physiographic regions: the coastal lowlands, the central uplands, the Connecticut River valley, the Berkshire Mountains, the Berkshire valley, and the valley, the Taconic Mountains, and the Berkshire valley, the soil is acidic, poor in nutrients, and shallow with patches of exposed bedrock. Elevation generally increases from east to west, reaching a maximum at Mt. Greylock in the Berkshires (3,487 ft [1060 m]). These are the physiographic and geological conditions that interact with climate to produce necticut River vegetation ecoregions. zones are zones sometimes referred to as Within Massachusetts natural vegetation largely determined by climate, which in general varies with elevation except in areas near the moderating influence of the ocean. Southeastern Massachusetts, all of Cape Cod, 7 Map of southern physiographic regions. England depicting the maior From east to west they are coastal lowlands, central uplands, Connecticut River valley, Berkshire Mountams, Berkshire valley, New 6 and Tacomc Mountams.sb forests of the central Appalachians and the Middle Atlantic States. North and west of the central hardwood zone we generally find the transition hardwood zone, which also extends up the major river valleys in the western part of the state. This zone is characterized by increasing amounts of species found farther north, such as yellow birch, black (or sweet) birch, sugar maple, and beech, with less oak (especially white oak) and with paper birch occurring on heavily disturbed sites. The higher elevations in the Berkshire and Taconic mountains and the extreme northern border of central Massachusetts fall within the northern hardwood and spruce-fir zones. The spruce-fir zone, m which red spruce is the dominant conifer, is restricted to the highest elevations, generally above 2,000 feet, while the northern hardwood zone occurs just below the spruce-fir zone and has hemlock and white pine as its dominant conifers. Both zones have mixtures of hardwoods dominated by sugar maple, yellow birch, beech, and red maple. hickory dominated and the offshore islands fall within the pitch pine-oak zone. This vegetation type, occurring on sandy and gravelly soils laid down as glacial moraines or outwash deposits, is characterized by drought-tolerant and fire- adapted species, including pitch pine, scrub oak, and huckleThis type also occurs scattered outwash deposits in inland Massachusetts. The remainder of the coastal lowlands, the southern central uplands, and the southern Connecticut River valley fall withm the central hardwoodhemlock-white pme zone. This vegetation type represents the northern extension of the oak- berry. on The ma~or forest vegetation zones m southern New England. Sandy glacial deposits, found on Cape Cod and m extreme southeastern Massachusetts, support a dry forest of pitch pine and scrub oak Transition hardwood forest dominates the central uplands and much of the Connecticut River and Berkshire valleys, with northern hardwood forest on the higher elevauons m the Berkshires and Tacomcs and spruceI fir forest on the highest e~evatjons ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Disturbance Prior to European Settlement","article_sequence":3,"start_page":8,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25206","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270bb26.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"O'Keefe, John; Foster, David R.","article_content":"II. DISTURBANCE PRIOR TO EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT rotating storms are on the easterly side, as illustrated by the catastrophic storms of 1815 and 1938. These storms produced the greatest damage on south- and east-facing hillsides while steep north and west slopes were protected from the strongest winds.\" Western exposures and ridges, on the other hand, are prone to selective damage from the more patchily distributed microburst winds associated with severe thunderstorms. The only strong evidence of pathogenic disturbance in the paleoecological record is the widespread hemlock decline nearly five thousand years ago. The rapidity and extent of this decline, not associated with declines in other species or identifiable climatic change, points to a species-specific pathogen as the cause. Hemlock remained at low population levels for nearly a thousand years. The extent of its eventual recovery differed across the region. At many sites, hemlock gradually approached its predisturbance abundance between a thousand and fifteen hundred years later. 12 At other sites, it never fully regained its former importance, presumably because of competition with recently immigrating species or slight climatic changes over the intervening period. Of course, this event offers many comparisons with the atural Disturbancedisturbances affectThe natural ing Massachusetts forests include windstorms, pathogens (insect and diseases), and fire. Evidence of past storms may persist for as long as a thousand years in the pits and mounds often found in our forests,8-y but these microtopographic features offer no information about the frequency, intensity, and distribution of storms, which vary with changing climatic conditions. However, if, as seems likely, storm patterns have remained stable in Massachusetts over the postglacial period, we can infer trends from observations over the past few hundred years. Two different types of windstorms cause significant damage to Massachusetts forests: tropical storms, or hurricanes; and downbursts, or `I B major microbursts-sudden, straight-line winds, often from the northwest, associated with severe thunderstorms and occasionally accompanied by tornadoes. Downburst winds are probably the dominant wind disturbance in the Berkshires and western Massachusetts. They continue east across central Massachusetts and become less important in areas near the coast under the stabilizing influence of maritime winds. While commonly confined to small areas, the potential destructiveness of these winds was demonstrated in July 1995, when hundreds of thousands of acres of forest from the Adirondack region of New York into western Massachusetts were severely damaged by an extremely large and long-lived downburst front. 10 Tropical storms represent the most important wind disturbance in central and eastern Massachusetts. Historical evidence indicates that hurricanes may affect central and eastern areas approximately every hundred years, with the Cape and islands affected more often. The strongest winds in these large, counterclockwise- human-transported pathogens (gypsy moth, chestnut blight, hemlock woolly adelgid) that our forests are copmg with today. Fire, like windstorms, probably differed significantly in its impact across Massachusetts as a result of differences in climate, fuel type and abundance (which varies by vegetation type), and ignition sources (lightning and aboriginal human populations). When we look at the impacts of fire, we encounter the earliest strong evidence for human influence on Massachusetts forests. Charcoal in sediment cores indicates that fires were less frequent and therefore less important in the Berkshires than in southeast- 9 Paths left. ma7or hurricanes that have impacted New England from 1600 to the present are shown on the nght is the damage mfhcted on forests m the region by the 1938 hurmcane. Approximately three bilhon board feet of timber were wmdthrown by the storm, more than six hundred hves were lost, and damage of the On the costs exceeded a hundred milhon dollars. 14,15 Massachusetts and on Cape Cod.'3 The droughty, sandy soils of the latter areas supern ported a highly fire-prone vegetation largely dominated by pitch pine, scrub oak, other oaks, and huckleberry. Pitch pine, like all conifers, contains resins in its needles that make it much more flammable than broadleaf, deciduous closed with seed inside until the heat from a fire triggers an opening mechanism to release the seeds onto the recently burned landscape. Although pitch pines in Massachusetts rarely exhibit this behavior today, it is commonly observed in the frequently burned New Jersey pinelands. The northern hardwood species-sugar maple, beech, and yellow birch-while capable of sprouting, tend to have thinner bark that provides less protection from understory fires. Hemlock, a major associate in the northern hardwood forest, is also thin-barked as well as slow-growing, long-lived, and incapable of sprouting. Therefore, where these species were dominant, we can conclude that fires were not as frequent or severe as in southeastern Massachusetts. Moreover, during the growing season broadleaf foliage normally holds enough water to be nonflammable. This moisture tends trees. Huckleberry, although a broadleaf, deciduous species, also contains resins in its leaves and therefore creates a very flammable understory. At the same time, this type of vegetation is highly fire-adapted. All the oaks, especially scrub oak, are prolific sprouters following injury. Pitch pine is unique among Massachusetts' native conifers in possessing dormant buds beneath the bark and near the base of its trunk that enable the tree to sprout and survive if the main stem is severely damaged by fire. Moreover, the cones of pitch pine tend to be serotinous, which means they may remain 10 limit the fire season in our broadleaf forests spring and fall, when the fallen dry leaves often burn in surface or brush fires. In fact, the combination of these factors led some to nickname the northern hardwood forest \"the asbestos forest.\" to to edible by both wildlife and humans, may have contributed to the increase in aboriginal nuts populations. Archaeological evidence indicates human populations-like fires-were numerous m that more Aboriginal Human Impact American Indian populations migrated into Massachusetts shortly after the trees, some ten thousand years ago, but their populations remained quite low until four or five thousand years ago. Some researchers have speculated that the hemlock decline of about that time and the subsequent increase in species such as oak and hickory, which produce abundant large Areas of concentrated abomgmal human populations in southern New England durmg the Late Woodland pemod (1000 B.P.-400 B.P) immediately preceding European settlement. Populations were concentrated along malor mver valleys, the coast and the larger islands of Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, and the lower reaches of broad upland areas. the eastern than in the western of the state during the period four hundred part to a thousand years ago, with settlements also found along the major river basins.'S There is little evidence that these populations cleared extensive areas for agriculture. It is more likely that they created a patchwork of recently cleared areas, abandoned fields, and village sites in a matrix of intact forest. Population density (and presumably human impact on the forest) gradually decreased moving away from the coast,'6 from a high of up to fifty people per square mile on Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard, to four to ten per square mile in inland eastern and southeastern Massachusetts and the Connecticut River valley. It is unlikely that permanent settlements were made in the upland Berkshires. Interestingly, the areas of high population density shown here match the distribution of the central hardwood and pitch pine-scrub oak forest zones seen on page 7. These are the forest types most suitable for burning. Although extensive debate continues regarding the frequency, extent, and broad-scale impacts of aboriginal burning, there is general agreement that these populations did burn forests to create fields and to rejuvenate understory browse for deer and other animals they hunted.'~~\" No doubt this burning was largely restricted to dry areas where most vegetation was already adapted to fire, but it also intensified these conditions by reducing any fire-sensitive species that may have been present. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Changes After European Settlement","article_sequence":4,"start_page":11,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25205","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270b76d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"O'Keefe, John; Foster, David R.","article_content":"III. CHANGES AFTER EUROPEAN SETTLEMENT he Colonial Period European settlement spread through at uneven rates. The coastal counties Essex, Suffolk, Norfolk, Plymouth, and Bristol were largely settled by 1675, as was the Connecticut River valley, with set- ~ Massachusetts tlers moving northward from settlements m the Springfield area that dated from the early 1600s. Concentrated in the coastal lowlands and major river valleys, these early settlement zones corresponded closely with the areas where aboriginal practices had most affected the forests. Settlement spread westward from the coast into Middlesex and Worcester counties in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries and into the foothills of the Connecticut River valley during the same period. In 1725 Massachusetts began using land grants to pay off debts, especially for military sermce,'~ which encouraged settlement in the central upland areas. The last areas to be settled, from the second half of the eighteenth century into the beginning of the nineteenth century, were the Berkshire Mountams and the northernmost portions of the central to a town pattern of dispersed settlement and individual ownership of private land, with all land in the township distributed, led to much more rapid deforestation toward the middle of the eighteenth century. Rates of 0.8 percent to 1.0 percent per year were common in the second half of the eighteenth century both in older towns like Concord and new ones like Petersham. This acceleration in deforestation comcided with a shift toward a market economy, partly driven by a developmg beef trade with the West Indies. Cattle were suitable for remote hilltown farms during this period because they could be walked to market on the rudimentary roads that precluded the long-distance transport of most A shift uplands. Forest clearing was initially reasons that included the lack of markets for excess production and a quite slow, for town organization based on the European model of a central- ized settlement and common field system.'~,'9 More than a hundred years after its settlement in 1635, Concord was still more than fifty percent forested. This rate of deforestation, about 0.4 percent a year, was typical of towns in the seventeenth century. 16 Changes m the percentage of the land area covered by forest durmg the histoncal pemod m the state of Massachusetts, town of Petersham, and the Prospect Hill tract of the Harvard ForestZ products. The difficulty of transport also partly explains the methods most commonly used to clear the forest: girdling the trees and leavmg them in place to fall apart slowly, or cutting and burning them.'~ Except where water transport 12 13 These maps of the township of Petersham, Massachusetts, depict soil smtabihty and stone walls, on the left, and on the nght, forest cover m 1830 and 1985 Stone walls and agricultural land are concentrated m areas of more productive soil.2' available, trees had value as lumber or firewood only locally. Potash, a relatively more compact and transportable product, was probably the major marketable product from the trees of these early farms. Pasture was the most suitable use for most of Massachusetts, since the rockiness of most areas made preparing land for tillage a long and backbreakmg chore. It has been said that it took two generations to clear upland farms for plowing, the first to remove the trees and the second to remove the stones. The massive stone walls surrounding abandoned fields across the state was attest to the effort required by the second task. And yet the great number of rocks scattered throughout the remaining pastures and secondgrowth woods suggest that the majority of the landscape was never tilled, but rather grazed or at most mowed. The principal exceptions, of course, were the major river valleys, where postglacial alluvial deposits provided excellent tillage once the trees were removed. These areas are notable for their lack of stone walls. In upland areas, hilltops were often selected for village centers and initial clearing for agriculture because they had good drainage and Above left, presettlement forest; below, mitial clearmg and subsistence farmmg, 1740 Most human disturbances pnor to European settlement were mfrequent and scattered. Nonetheless, the forest commumties that the settlers encountered had evolved under dynamic conditions and had been m place only a relatmely short time These images are from the dioramas (three-dimensional models) in the Land-Use History semes on permanent display at the Fisher Museum of Forestry, Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts. They depict typical changes m the upland Massachusetts landscape, from mitial European settlement through the 1930s (when they were constructed) Other dioramas m this remarkable senes depict forest management and conservation practices. 14 relatively few stones. Except for the broad river valleys, inland lowlands often offered poor drainage and a shorter growing season. Colonists commonly evaluated land quality on the basis of topography and on their knowledge of the site preferences of different tree species and forest types.'~,19 Initially, a farmer might clear six to eight the course of several years. When tilled, this initial clearing could support a typical family of five to seven.16 During this period the dominant economic base of rural Massachusetts was low-intensity agriculture combined with artisanship. Few individuals provided for all their needs through their own labor, but through cooperation and exchange, townships could be largely self-sufficient. Towns supported a range of artisans, shops, mills, and tanneries. Roads provided internal circulation but relatively poor access to external markets. At the same time, coastal communities were acres over and shipping industries, exploitmg local forests for shipbuilding materials and export products. By the mid-1700s Salem was the most prosperous port in the country and a center of worldwide trade. Agricultural Period The period from the late developing extensive fishing, manufacturing, 1700s through the first half of the nineteenth century saw a major transformation of the economy, social structure, and landscape of Massachusetts.z2,2s,z4 The rural economy underwent a shift from home production and local consumption to marketoriented intensive agriculture, enabled by the improvement in transportation brought about by newly constructed roads, canals, and railroads. Farmers responded to the expanding markets by clearing more forested land and draining wetlands, often on marginally productive sites. Pasture remained the primary land use, with beef and wool the dominant farm products until canal and rail connections with the West 1830 The percentage of land cleared for tillage, pasturage, orchards, and bmldmg sites m central Massachusetts was about 70 percent A century later, the percentages of cleared and forested areas had been reversed. The stone walls testify to the tremendous labor required to farm land that is better adapted to growmg trees than hay and gram Height of mtensme farmmg, 15 and relaxation of wool tariffs m the 1830s and 1840s reduced their profitability.22 Most farm families also engaged in home production of some sort (shoes, hats, clothes), and many earned some income from mills or tanneries. Local industry thrived, and most hill towns reached their peak levels of agricultural and commercial activity, as well as population, during this period.'9 However, this period also represented the start of the region's shift to industry, a factor that together with the expanding national transportation network and westward settlement initiated the decline of New developing industrial centers like Worcester and Fitchburg had a ready market for fuelwood, produce, and milk, while those more distant produced butter, cheese, and hay. The farthest distant towns declined most rapidly.zz,z~ In 1810 Massachusetts was an agricultural state with a population of 412,000 that was remarkably evenly distributed in rural areas (79 percent), with the exception of Boston, Salem, and a few other coastal communities. Industrialization brought a tremendous increase and concentration of population in urban and, more recently, suburban centers. In 1975, 85 percent of the population of 5.8 million was located in urban areas. In contrast, many rural communities have greatly declined in population over the past hundred years.z8 How did our forests fare during the agricultural period? By the late eighteenth century the gradual clearing of the first half of that century had become a rapid deforestation that continued until the mid-nineteenth century. Forest clearing was concentrated in the uplands, with the wetter swamps and steep, rocky slopes generally left as woodlots. The Berkshires were the last areas to be cleared and were never developed for agriculture to the extent that the remainder of the state was. The statewide peak in the level of deforestation was reached about 1860, by which time nearly 70 percent of the land was cleared. Many areas east of the Berkshires experienced the same pattern as Petersham and the Prospect Hill tract of Harvard Forest, with maximum clearance in the 1840s to 1860s, when less than 20 percent of the forest remained. The location and amount of forest left uncleared varied by geography. For example, in the north-central portion of Massachusetts from the Connecticut River valley to eastern Worcester County, the hills east of the valley, with many rocky ridges, remained largely forested, as did the northsouth-trending, poorly drained valleys farther east. Most of the rest of the region was cleared. Of course, even areas not cleared for agriculture were harvested intensively by the nineteenth century. The growing rural populations, whose numbers peaked in the mid-1800s, required large amounts of cordwood for fuel. Petersham, for example, had a population of England agriculture. Many settlements literally moved downhill, changing from ridgetop agricultural villages to riverside industrial towns for a variety of reasons. Hill towns without significant waterpower resources were unable to participate in the transition from an agricultural to a manufacturing economy. The new factories for producing textiles, wooden products, and tools needed water to power their machmes.zs The developing railroad network, which followed the same watercourses that the factories used for power, transported raw materials and finished products to and from the factories. The new roads and railroads allowed many nonperishable farm products to be shipped from the Midwest more cheaply than they could be produced in Massachusetts. Many factors contributed to the decline of Massachusetts agriculture, but depletion of the fertility of the land was not a major one. In fact, there is evidence that the quality of tilled land in hill towns improved through the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.26 The disadvantages of Massachusetts farmland included stony soil and small fields divided by numerous stone walls, which were incompatible with mechanization. Industrial production and improved transportation removed opportunities for supplemental income by reducing the need for local artisanship. Social factors also contributed to the decline of Massachusetts' hill-town agriculture : attractiveness of urban amenities and income, the decline of interest in agricultural life, and the shrinking economic opportunities in small towns. The pattern of decline was strongly influenced by regional geography. Towns adjacent to nearly 1,800 people in 1840. Assuming an aver- age household size of six, this population would 16 17 7 have represented three hundred households to heat. If each household used 15 cords a year (a conservative figure when fireplaces are used), they would have required a total of 4,500 cords of fuelwood a year. The 20 percent of Petersham that remained forested in 1840 represented about 6,000 acres. Because Massachusetts forests can be expected to grow between one-half and one cord of hardwood per acre per year, virtually all the woodland growth in Petersham could have been used for fuelwood. These hardwoods were probably managed by means of a coppice system, in which trees would be harvested very young (every twenty to forty years), left to resprout, and then harvested again as soon as the new growth was big enough to burn. Across upland Massachusetts most farms could maintain woodlots to satisfy their own fuel needs, but near cities and along the coast where settlements had been in place longer, the fuelwood was soon exhausted and had to be brought great distances by ship at considerable expense. Although fuel was by far the dominant use of wood in the early 1800s, the remaining forests also faced other demands. Hemlock and chestnut trees, especially, were cut to provide tanbark for tanneries. Lumber was needed for constructmg houses, barns, and public buildings. Wood was used to make charcoal, and fences had to be built. The scarcity of wood by the early 1800s probably accounts for many of the stone walls that still exist along boundaries and in pastures, where the stones would not have had to be removed for plowing or mowing ; by then stones were more readily available than wood. never (plowed or grazed), and primary forest on land actually cleared but harvested throughout the agricultural period. As we have seen, the major portion of upland farmland was used for even Postagricultural and Modern Periods The decline of agriculture m the second half of the nineteenth century was accompanied by a corresponding regrowth of forest. Our present forests can be divided into secondary forest on land formerly cleared and used for agriculture tilled land may have reverted mowing pasture before final abandonment. The resulting sod surface was not hospitable to many \"pioneer\" tree species such as birch and aspen, whose small, wmdblown seeds would often dry out and die after germinating; the sprouting seeds were trapped in the grass unable to reach mineral soil. The sod did, however, provide a suitable seedbed for the windblown but larger seeds of white pine, which colomzed vast areas of abandoned farmland. Pines were much less likely to have been cut for fuelwood, and those left as shade trees in a pasture or along a fencerow could colomze many acres with dense stands of young pine. Moreover, animals still grazing these pastures would avoid pine seedlings while devouring most broadleaf species. These new forests grew quickly, and by the late 1800s supported renewed harvesting for lumber and especially for shipping containers. The new portable steam sawmill, m common use by the turn of the century, permitted logging throughout the backwoods areas. Tremendous volumes of \"old-field\" (or abandonedfield) white pine were harvested, peaking in 1910-1911. During this timber boom, extensive harvesting of all species across the state resulted in large tracts of even-aged, young, lowvalue stands. Many of these cut-over stands, considered nearly worthless at the time, were acquired by the state for overdue taxes and have formed the basis of our state forest system. It was at this time, the early twentieth century, that the excesses of the timber industry throughout the East gave rise to the conservation movement, which was strongly represented in Massachusetts. When the old-field pines were harvested, they were unable to sprout from the remaming stumps and roots (except for pitch pine, our only pasture, and to or Maps of three townships characteristic of different physiographic regions m central Massachusetts depicting distmctive amounts and patterns of forest, open land, and meadow m 1830 and 1980. Ashburnham, on rocky hills near the New Hampshire border, was least extensively cleared and today is the most forested Barre, on rollmg terram m the central uplands, was extensively cleared for agnculture but has largely reverted to forest. Deerfield, m the Connecticut River valley, was extensively cleared except for a few north-south bedrock ndges, and the fertlle valley bottom remams m agnculture today. 18 8 Agncultural abandonment and estabhshment of old-field white pme, 1850 Almost immediately the forest started to reclaim the idle fields and pastures. They were qmckly seeded to white pme, with hardwoods such as red maple, white ash, red oak, chestnut, gray and paper birch formmg a mmor element Fmst crop of old-field white pme harvested, 1910 From 1890 to 1920 portable sawmills appeared everywhere, and many new wood-usmg factones were established. With yields of 25 to 50 thousand board feet per acre and standmg lumber valued at $10 per thousand, one might well envy a farmer who owned a 100-acre woodlot, worth perhaps $30,000-a wholly volunteer crop on which only taxes had been expended. 19 9 Old-field followed hardwood, of slash. Old-fieldlanesbetween thebybyhardwood,These treesc.m ~ ut tmliaiclt%U()Cl~ cilLi)lilllal,l~ red and omgmated stumpsprouts-red maple, lcddmg, seedhngs of hght-demandmg sprouts-red maple, oak, ash, cherry, maple, chestnut, 1915 In \/. . > LlItLi white pme is the open lanes between the mndrows These trees as stump white white hard black black birch-or as species-gray and paper bmch, pm cherry, and poplar m 'glott'llil,5, red and Hardwood stand reaches cordwood size,1930 Twenty years after loggmg on moderately moist soil, red maple, gray and black bmch, and most other species begm to slow their growth upwards Red oaks mamtam a steady growth in height and girth so that by sixty years they will have formed an overstory above the other trees 20 ability) and so had to reestablish themselves on the site from seed. As the old-field pmes were growing, however, various broadleaf species, including oaks, red maple, and cherry usually established themselves beneath them from seeds carried in by animals or blown in by the wind. All these hardwoods have the ability to sprout from cut or damaged stems. Therefore, even if they were cut back when the pines were harvested, the hardwoods could grow much more quickly from their established root systems than could the tiny pine seedlings. This succession from a first generation of old-field white pine to a second generation of mixed hardwoods has been typical across most of Massachusetts. The proliferation of old-field pine across Massachusetts in the second half of the nineteenth century, before they were harvested and replaced by hardwoods, led to problems as well as economic benefit. The vast expanses of young pines fed an epidemic of a native insect, the white pine weevil. The larvae of this msect eat the terminal buds of young pines, killing the leader and releasing the branches in the topmost whorl to replace it. At best, the growing trunks develop a crook; at worst, they divide into multiple, spindly stems. In either case the economic value of the trees is greatly reduced. White pine The Dexter Woodlot, situated ~ust south of Petersham mllage. Before the hurricane of September 21, 1938, this was one of the most attractive white pme groves m the region. native conifer with this blister rust, a fungal disease lethal to white pine, also spread rapidly through the tracts of old-field pine. This disease requires an alternate host of the genus Ribes (currants and gooseberries) for part of its life cycle. During the 1930s the state and federal governments conducted a massive eradication program for Ribes, with men marching through the woods tens of feet apart pulling up wild Ribes plants. The prevalence of white pine weevil and blister rust also led in the 1920s and 1930s to red pme being planted across the state on many sites where white pine might normally have grown, because red pine is not affected by either pathogen. Although red pine is at the very southeastern edge of its range in western Massachusetts, these plantations have generally done well. Many are now maturing and being harvested. The extensive old-field white pme stands also played a major role in the most dramatic natural disturbance to affect our forests in the twentieth century, the hurricane of September 21, 1938. Historically, hurricanes have been a major force in shaping Massachusetts forests. The 1938 storm followed a track similar to that of other historically significant storms (1788, 1815), but several factors conspired to make it the most destructive storm in our recorded history. The week before had been very wet, satu- 21 rating the soils and predisposing trees to windthrow. The added rain from the storm produced massive property damage from flooding the wind damage. of central Massachusetts still supported stands of old-field pine on land abandoned m the late nineteenth century. Even pine stands as young as thirty years of age suffered severe damage if their sites were not protected topographically from the southeast winds. Hardwood stands on similar sites were not as susceptible to damage unless they were at least twice that age.'3 The prevalence of old-field pines set the stage for the unprecedented impact of the storm on our forests, nearly three billion board feet of timber blown down. We had unintentionally created about as vulnerable a landscape as possible. There is evidence that the storms of 1788 and 1815 may have been similar in intensity and path, but they encountered a landscape with much less forest and their impacts were quite different. In 1938 the vast tracts of blown-down pine presented a problem: the threat of fire. Fires often follow other disturbances, especially in conifer stands where the resinous foliage and lack of new green sprouts contribute to flammability. With this in mind, and in an attempt to recover some of the value of the blown-down along rivers, compounding Large areas a massive salvage operation was undertaken that recovered much of the windthrown timber. Logging crews were brought in from all over the Northeast, temporary camps were set up, and logs were salvaged and brought to the mills. Because the volume of logs far exceeded the capacity of all the available mills, logs were stored in every pond in the area. As long as the logs remained underwater, away from oxygen in the air, they were preserved. Many ponds in central Massachusetts were dammed and raised to their present levels in order to accommodate as much salvaged timber as possible. The tremendous volume of lumber produced by the hurricane salvage also drastically lowered lumber values. To stabilize the price, the federal government bought up the vast supply, stamping \"U.S.\" at the end of each log. Mobilization for World War II finally made use of this vast lumber supply. Humans have been unwitting accomplices in several other recent forest disturbances as well. Increased mobility of people and products has resulted in numerous forest pests and pathogens being introduced from abroad. In many instances these organisms pose special problems because native plants possess little resistance to the exotic pests. Several such \"immigrants\" have severely affected our forests, timber, 22 A1 Cline, director of Harvard Forest, 1939-1946, surveys white pme logs awaitmg millmg at Harvard Pond. Followmg the 1938 hurmcane more than half of the fallen timber across New England was salvaged, purchased by the federal government, and stored m lakes and ponds to prevent msect damage, stammg, and decay until the matenal could be milled. Today, occasional logs stamped on the end with \"U.S.\"mll be pulled from the mud bottom of a pond and, when dned, provide perfectly mtact and usable wood and Massachusetts has the dubious distinction of being the introduction site of one pest that has damaged forests on a national scale. Gypsy moths were introduced into the United States in 1869, when Leopold Trouvelot imported them to Medford with the intention of using them as silkworms to develop a local silk indus- try. The moths purpose and quickly proved unsuited for this escaped into the local forests, they found the native deciduous species, especially oaks and aspen, to be an ideal food source. Since then, gypsy moths have gradually expanded their range, and during periodic regional outbreaks consume virtually every where 23 green leaf in the forest, leaving it in mid-July looking nearly as barren as in midwinter. Defoliation for two successive years is especially harmful. The outbreak of 1980-1981 across the Northeast was particularly severe, causing extensive oak mortality. Today the gypsy moth has spread throughout the Northeast and into the Middle Atlantic and midwestern states and is one of the most destructive forest pests throughout the region. Probably the most dramatic effect on our forests by an introduced pathogen has been that produced by the chestnut blight fungus. Although the details of its introduction are not certain, the fungus was first noticed in New York in 1904 and rapidly spread throughout the range of the American chestnut, passing through Massachusetts in 1913-1914. An especially virulent pathogen, chestnut blight fungus is the only pest that has effectively ehmmated mature individuals of its host, greatly altering our forests m the process. Chestnut was certainly one of the most useful trees in the nineteenth-century forests, providing abundant crops of edible nuts, bark for tanning, and excellent wood that was beautiful, decay-resistant, and as strong as oak but lighter. It also sprouted vigorously and grew very quickly and therefore increased in numbers in areas that were repeatedly harvested. By the early 1920s all the large chestnuts m the state had been killed. However, because in diagram from the humus soil m a hemlock forest at the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts The forest that was never cleared for agriculture but was clear-cut early m the settlement penod (apparent m the pollen diagram at a depth of approximately17 centimeters) and then cut repeatedly for firewood Each tree species responded differently to the senes of human impacts. Chestnut benefitted greatly from the cutting activity until its virtual ehmmation by bhght m 1913 (seen at about 8 centimeters m depth) Other ma~or changes are the dechne m severallong-hved, shade-tolerant species during the agncultural pemod Both hemlock and beech are very sensitive to fire and could be largely ehmmated from upland areas by repeated fmes, a rather common agmcultural practice Beech and sugar maple never recovered to presettlement levels of abundance and have been replaced by oak, pme, and red maple, which have gradually mcreased; hemlock has become the dominant species on this moist lowland followmg the loss of chestnut to the bhght z9 site is a pmmary Pollen 24 Farm abandonment accidentally provided more favorable conditions for wildlife than did old forest: low-growing game food and cover are much more plentiful and vamed Shrubs and apple trees furmsh frmt and browse, valuable herbaceous species and a wealth of msects are within reach of young birds Deer, rabbits, woodcock, and aquatic birds are among the mldhfe that flounsh m old fields, abandoned millponds, and stone walls effect the gaining preventing transport of water and nutrients past the point of mfection-the roots and base are access fungus kills by girdling the treesthrough cracks in the bark and affected and can send out new sprouts. The chestnut's decay resistance, especially within the sapwood, has preserved many stumps that testify to the former importance of this species, and today chestnut sprouts are common in our woods. Individual stems are usually killed by the time they are several inches in diameter, when the bark naturally develops cracks, only to be replaced by new sprouts. Chestnut's place in the forest has been taken by a mixture of species, especially oaks, but its wood and its nuts cannot be replaced. Other native tree species have also been significantly affected by human-introduced agents, although none so dramatically as the chestnut. Dutch elm disease, a wilt fungus transported by a bark beetle, completely transformed the appearance of almost every town in the state in not the 1950s and 1960s by killing the stately shade trees that lined most of our main streets. The disease is passed from tree to tree by insects above ground and through root grafts below ground m areas where the trees grow adjacent to each other, as in street plantings. Its effects were somewhat less traumatic in our forests, because elm occurred m mixed stands and exhibited a greater range of natural resistance than did chestnut. Nevertheless, the devastation of the elms in our urban landscapes once again demonstrates the susceptibility of manmade monocultures to various pathogens. More recently, many of our beeches have been disfigured by beech-bark disease. This caused by the coincident impact of a disease, fungus and a scale insect working together, is steadily spreading southward after being introduced into the Canadian Maritimes. Hemlock killed or woolly adelgid is beginning to cause mortality in the southern Connecticut River valley area and has been reported in many other areas of 25 the state as it slowly advances north. This aphidlike insect, first introduced to the West Coast and then to Maryland on nursery stock from Japan, poses a dire threat to hemlock forests because hemlocks have shown little resistance to its effects and are incapable of sprouting. Moreover, because many hemlock stands occupy steep habitats and produce deep initial period of forest clearance. Deer were nearly eliminated by the mid-1800s. Because they represent an edge species, however-using open areas for browsing and forests for covertolerant of human activities, deer have responded so favorably to the return of the forest that they have reached densities detrimental to the vegetation m those areas where they are not controlled by huntmg.3' Beavers were extirpated by the 1700s owing to the value of their pelts. They were successfully reintroduced m and are shade, thereby creating unique microenviron- ments, their loss would represent drastic changes to many of our forests. Over the past several decades, however, it is through logging and land conversion for suburban development that humans have most affected our forests directly. The regrowth that followed the cutting of old-field pine stands and other forests early in this century and the 1938 hurricane has produced an abundant middle-aged and maturing forest, much of which has been and is bemg harvested at varying degrees of intensity. Limitations set for environmental reasons on harvesting federally owned trees together with a strong export market have resulted m added pressures on Massachusetts' forests. Despite these pressures, however, the average size of our trees has been steadily increasing. In some Changes m the relative abundance of selected ammal specles m instances we have even managed to Massachusetts over the past 400 years. Whereas the wolf has been reduce the impact of suburban devel- ehmmated and remams absent, beaver have been reintroduced and the opment on the forest. Significant coyote represents a new species m the landscape 30 numbers of people are now building homes on large forested lots, clearing only the West Stockbridge in 1928 and have subsearea immediately around the houses, and in quently expanded their range to the point of some developments buildings are clustered overutilizing existing habitat. More recently, together, reserving the majority of land as forest wild turkeys have been reintroduced very sucor open space. While both of these development cessfully, and moose are returning on their alter the forest, they are much less own as part of their growing northern populapatterns destructive than traditional tract development. tions migrate south. These three species are Wildlife species in Massachusetts have been responding to the expansion of our woodland significantly influenced by human-induced area, as have the black bear and the fisher, which have significantly expanded their ranges changes in the landscape as well as by hunting. Information on this subject is difficult to gather and numbers within the past seventy-five years. and much of it is indirect. It is believed, howOther species, most notably open-land birds such as the bobwhite and meadowlark, have that most members of the large, broadever, mountain decreased in number as the forest has regrown ranging species, including elk, wolf, and matured. lion, and moose, were eliminated during the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Present Conditions and Future Prospects","article_sequence":5,"start_page":26,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25211","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd2708926.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"O'Keefe, John; Foster, David R.","article_content":"IV. PRESENT CONDITIONS AND FUTURE PROSPECTS do the forests we see today differ the forests the colonists found? -L The process of deforestation and reforestation has produced landscape patterns that vary with the distribution of natural and cultural features within local areas. Today, open agricultural land is primarily found only in broad river valleys and on the crests of broad ridges. Urban concentrations developed first along the coast and major rivers and later along the railroads, which tended to follow the rivers. More recently, suburban development has ow from along major highways, especially near junctions. Forests now predominate outside these zones, and in protected reserves and some of the wetlands within them, and are under the greatest pressure at the edges of these zones. The changes have strongly favored a new landscape of even-aged forests, with sharp boundaries between types. Agricultural clearing and abandonment, heavy cutting for fuelwood, intensive harvesting of old-field pine and other species early in this century, the hurricane of 1938 with its subsequent salvage harvestingall these phenomena have combmed to create the even-aged forests we find throughout Massachusetts. Land-use regulations and land ownership boundaries create visible differences in vegetation that tend to be perpetuated through time and through changes in ownership. Trends in the size of fields and farms and in regional timber harvesting practices have imposed a repetitive patchwork of forest types that has replaced the natural vegetation patterns. These even-aged forests and imposed patterns increase the possibility that disturbances will in the future cause far more damage than might be expected in a more diverse forest. Moreover, the relative scarcity of very young forests inhibits the growth of species that require this type of habitat. Although they tend to be even-aged, over the past one hundred-plus years, the forests in Petersham have contmually increased m area and size, a trend that has been repeated in forests throughout the state. How has the composition of our forests been affected? The most dramatic change has been the increase in white pme followmg agricultural clearing and subsequent abandonment. Prior to European settlement white pme was confined mainly to sandy outwash soils that had undergone natural disturbance or to sites heavily burned by Indians; or it appeared as scattered, emergent individuals occurred Old stone walls surrounded abandoned farmland by forest bear witness to 27 in old stands of mixed species. Following agricultural abandonment, especially of pastures, white pine proliferated throughout most of the never state on sites occupied clearing and grazing. Despite intensive harvesting and the 1938 hurricane, white pine remains much more dominant and widely distributed today than it was before European without prior settlement. On woodlots, repeated cuttmg for fuelwood and burning for agriculture in the nineteenth century favored an increase in invasive, shade-intolerant pioneer speciesgray and paper birch, aspen, pm and black cherry-as well as species that sprout prolificallychestnut, oak, red maple, hickory, and birch. Chestnut is probably the species that responded most favorably to these nineteenthcentury disturbances because it sprouts prolifically from dormant basal buds and is capable of phenomenal rates of growth both m height and diameter when repro- it would have ducing vegetatively.3z 33 As our forests have reappeared Forest cover (shown m green) for north-central Massachusetts in 1830, at the approximate peak of agmcultural clearance, and m 1980. following the period of extensive physiographic regions mclude the Connecticut River valley, the Ma~or rough cutting at the turn of the century, Pelham Hills to its east, and the undulatmg central upland regions farther the loss of chestnut in the teens, east ND mdicates no data 3. the 1938 hurricane, and the more recent initiation of fire-suppression policies, environmental awareness that began to develop in the 1960s has led to new regulations on shade-tolerant species have gradulong-lived, ally increased in number-hemlock, sugar forest-cutting practices;3' these in turn have raised the extent and quality of professional formaple, and, to a lesser extent, the highly disturbance-intolerant beech. However, early survey est management across the state. The growing records and pollen analyses suggest that these understanding that forests do not function in isolation has highlighted the need for regionally species, especially beech, remam well below their presettlement distributions. On the other mapped information for use in designing manwhich requires at least moderate disagement practices withm the context of a region hand, oak, or ecosystem. Fortunately, the requirement to turbance for successful regeneration, may be file a cutting plan for all harvests greater than more common than before settlement. 25,000 board feet has made it possible to map Significant new harvesting has followed on current harvesting patterns in much fmer detail the recent maturation of considerable areas of than was possible m the past. Massachusetts forest. At the same time, the 28 The Pisgah old-growth tract m Westmmster, New Hampshire This forest of 300-year-old white pme, hemlock, and hardwoods was purchased by the Harvard Forest m 1922 m order to protect it from loggmg and to provide a study area for investigating natural forest processes In the hurricane of September 22, 1938, it was completely blown down, and the area has formed an Important long-term study m forest dynamics and recovery from disturbance Growing environmental led to interest has also discovery of remnant patches of old-growth forest, once assumed to have been entirely eliminated by the extensive clearing and harvesting of the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Although exact definitions of \"old-growth\" vary considerably, these remnants typically include dominant trees well hundred years old and show minimal evidence of human disturbance. At present between 500 and 1,000 acres of old-growth forest are recognized m Massachusetts,36 and the number continues to rise as more areas are investigated by scientists with a better understanding of what they are looking for, which is not necessarily huge old trees. Many of these remnants are small patches of over two the significant edge impactsconsiderably larger. Most are located on steep, rocky slopes, often on headwater streams, where they were inaccessible for harvesting from either the stream valley or the broad ridges and were somewhat protected from natural disturbances as well. Not even these sites offer protection from recent human disturbances, which are subtle but pervasive. These include atmospheric pollution and rising carbon dioxide (COZ) levels, both of which may be implicated in the global warming predicted by many scientists. While neither necessary to prevent some but remnants are barely ten acres-which, accordmg to one rent working definition, is the minimum cur- size of these forces has yet had serious, measurable impacts on our forests, both have the potential to significantly alter them in the future. Because the effects of pollutants are extremely complex, the eventual impact of long-term exposure is still largely unknown. 29 The forests across the state today are quite different from those the colonists and Indians saw-indeed, they are quite different from those of sixty years ago. They will contmue to change, but recent trends in carbon storage and increasing volume of wood will undoubtedly continue. Changmg ownership patterns will mcreasmgly affect forest development. Over the past fifty years both the term of ownership and the average size of forest properties have continued to shrink as our population has become less and Map of currently known old-growth stands in Massachusetts. The amount of nitrogen (NOX)-an important component of atmospheric pollution-increases as one moves farther west and to higher elevations in Massachusetts.3' As the major limiting nutrient for plant growth in our soils, nitrogen works initially as a fertilizer, but at higher concentrations it may lead to nutrient loss through leaching.3A Ozone found at low atmospheric elevations is another pollutant with potentially serious forest impacts. Elevated COZ levels affect the quality of organic matter in the soil through their influ- plant growth, competitive interactions, chemistry, and have the potential to change global climate. We do not yet understand ence on and leaf how forest communities and ecosystem processes might ultimately be changed by elevated COI levels, nor do we know the local effects of global warming. Massachusetts' forests do have some impact on the global COI level: because they are still relatively young and growmg, our forests take up and store significant amounts of CO2, slightly offsetting the increases from fossil-fuel burning and deforestation. COZ levels and pollution are both international issues that will require unprecedented levels of cooperation if they are to be controlled. Our forests have changed constantly throughout geologic and historical time, but humaninduced changes over the past three hundred years have been much more frequent, varied, and far-reaching. These changes have been superimposed upon natural disturbances, and where the two processes have acted in concert, as m the 1938 hurricane, the impact has been substantial. The tower of the Harvard Forest's Environmental Measurement Station measures exchanges of gases, energy, and moisture between the atmosphere and the forest These measurements document the surprisingly high rate of carbon uptake by temperate forests that are recovering from earher land use. It also documents seasonal changes m forest activity due to meteorological changes and ozone stress. 30 . less agrarian and more and more mobile, andas suburbs encroach on rural areas-as more and more people have built their homes in wooded areas. These trends will influence our forests and their management into the next century. At the same time, demands for forest conservation and preservation will no doubt increaseespecially on public lands-as the value of our forests for recreation, amenity, and watershedprotection increases even more rapidly than their value for development or other economic uses. Humans-directly, mdirectly, and in conjunction with natural processes-will continue to be the dominant force acting on our forests. The recovery of Massachusetts' forests is testimony to the resilience of our landscape in the face of centuries of natural disturbance and unthinking human activity. However, it is critical that decisions regarding conservation, Endnotes 1 forestry, wildlife management-in fact, all environmental decision-making-begin with knowledge and an appreciation of the history and dynamic nature of our landscape. Without these, any plan will almost certainly produce surprises, if not failure. The forests have reclaimed abandoned farmland and now cover nearly two-thirds of Massachusetts. As our population expands onto this land, the new suburban forest owners, largely unaware of the history of our forests and only slightly more informed about changes now occurring, must become more knowledgeable about the dynamic nature of their backyard forests. We are blessed with a landscape and a climate that are ideally suited for growing trees and forests, but without an understanding of the past we may unwittingly lose many of the values these forests can provide. ~1 D. R. Foster and E. R. Boose, Patterns of forest damage resulting from catastrophic wind in central New England, U S.A. 79-98 2 Strahler, A Geologist's View of Cape Cod (Garden City, NY: Natural History Press, 19GG~. M. B Davis, Three pollen diagrams from central Massachusetts Amen can Journal of Science (1958) A. N. 256:540-570 W. A Patterson and A. E. Backman, Fire and disease history of forests. In Vegetation History, ed B. Huntley and T. Webb (Dordrecht- Kluwer, 1988), 603-632. D. R. Foster and T M. Journal of Ecology ~1992\/ 80 lz T. D. Allison, R. E. Moeller, and M. B. Davis, Pollen in laminated sediments provides evidence for a midHolocene forest pathogen outbreak. Ecology198G\/ 67:1101-1105 3 4 Zebryk, Long-term vegetation and disturbance history of a Tsugadommated forest in central New England. Ecology 13 W A Patterson and K. E. Sassaman, Indian fires in the prehistory of New England. In Holocene Human Ecology in Northeastern North Amemca, ed. G. P. Nicholas (New York: Plenum Publishing, 1988), 107-135. dynamics 5 14 D. M. Smith, Storm M.S thesis damage in New England forests 6 7 8 9 (1993)74:982-998 J. K. Wright, Regions and landscapes of New England. In New England's Prospect 1933 (New York American Geographical Society, 1933), 14-49. N Jorgensen, A Guide to New England's Landscape (Chester, CT. Globe Pequot Press, 1977). M. V. Westveld, Natural forest vegetation zones of New England. Journal of Forestry \/ 195G) 54 332-338 8 E. P. Stephens, The historical-developmental method of determining forest trends Ph D thesis (. (Cambridge: Harvard University, 1955). W H. Lyford and D W MacLean, Mound and pit relief in relation to soil disturbance and tree distribution in New Brunswick, Canada Harvard Forest (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 194G\/. ls D R Foster, Species and stand response to catastrophic wind in central New England, U.S.A. Journal of Ecology (1988) 6: 135-151. 1~ G. C. Whitney, From Coastal Wilderness to Fruited Plam A History of Environmental Change m Temperate North Amenca from 1500 to the Present (Cambridge, UK- Cambridge University Press, 1994). 17 W. Cronon, Changes in the Land Indians, Colonists and the Ecology of New England (New York: Hill and Wang). 18 C. Clark, The Eastern Frontier The Settlement of Northern New England 1610-1763 (New York. Knopf, 1983\/. '9 Paper (1966) 15 5 10 J. Jenkins, Notes on the Adirondack blowdown of July 15, 1995: Scientific background, observation, responses and policy issues, Wildlife Conservation Society Draft Report, 1995 D R Foster, Land-use history and four hundred years of vegetation change in New England, U S A. In Global Land Use Change. A Perspecuve from the Columbian Encounter, ed. B. L. Turner et al. SCOPE Publication (Madrid: Conse~o Superior de Investifaciones Cientificas, 1995), 253-321. 31 zo Information is denved from the following sources: For Massachusetts, D. R Dickson and C. L. McAfee, Forest Statistics for Massachusetts, 1972 and 1985, Resource Bulletin NE-106 (USDA Forest Service, 1988); W. P. MacConnell, Remote sensing 20 years 29 change in Massachusetts, Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 630 (1975) ; F W Rane, Fourth Annual Report of the State Forester of Massachusetts for the Year 1907 (Bostom Wright and Potter, 1908), and H I. Baldwin, Forestry in New England (Boston: National Resources (. Planning Board Publication 70, 1942). For Petersham, H M. Raup and R. E Carlson, The history of land-use in the Harvard Forest, Harvard Forest Bulletin (1941) 20: 1-64; W. P MacConnell and W. Niedzmedz, Remote sensing 20 years of change in Worcester County, Massachusetts, 19511971 (Amherst, MA: Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station, University Massachusetts, 1974); H O. Cook, The Forests of Worcester County The Results of a Forest Survey of the Fifty-Nine Towns in the County and a Study of Their Lumber Industry (Boston- State Printing Office, 1917), and Rane, Fourth Annual Report of the State Forester For Prospect Hill, D R. Foster, Land-use history (1730-1990) and vegetation dynamics in central New England, U.S.A., Journal of Ecology (1992) 80: 753772 ; and S. H. Spurr, Stand composition in the Harvard Forest as influenced by site and forest management, Ph.D. thesis (New Haven, CT: Yale University, 1950). 21 Maps are compiled from the atlas of Worcester County (1830, unpublished) and analysis of aerial photographs for 1985 22 M. R. Pabst, Agricultural trends in the Connecticut valley region of Massachusetts, 1800-1900. Smith College Studies in History (1941) 26 1-135. 23 A. H. Baker and H. V. Izard, Production Changes and Marketmg Strategies of Worcester County Farmers, 1780-1865 A Case Study of the Wards of Shrewsbury (Dublin, NH: Society for History of Early American Republic, 1987\/. 24 C. Merchant, Ecological Revoluuons Nature, gender and science in New England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina, 1989) zs A. K. Botts, Northbridge, Massachusetts, A Town That Moved Down Hill, Journal of Geography (1934) of 33 249-260. zb (Amherst University of 1991). ~. D. R. Foster, T. M. Zebryk, P. K. Schoonmaker, and A. Lezberg, Post-settlement history of human land-use history and vegetation dynamics of a hemlock (Tsuga) woodlot in central New England. Journal of Ecology \/1992) 80: 773-786 Massachusetts Massachusetts Press, of 3o An Modified from W. E. Bickford and U. J. Dyman, Atlas of Massachusetts River Systems. Environmental Designs for the Future (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 1990) T. 31 regenerauon 3z 33 34 as Kyker-Snowman, 1989 Quabbm forest study (Boston. Metropohtan District Commission (MDC) Publication, 1989). R. Zon, Chestnut in southern Maryland, U.S D A. Bureau of Forestry Bulletm 53 (1904~. F L. Paillet and P A. Rutter, Replacement of native oak and hickory tree species by the introduced chestnut (Castanea dentata) in American southwestern Wisconsin. Canadian Journal of Botany (1989) 7: 3457-3469 D. R. Foster, G. Motzkm, and B Slater, Land-use history as long-term broad-scale disturbance regional forest dynamics in central New England Ecosystems (1998) 1 :96-119 Massachusetts General Laws, chapter 132, sections 40-46. P. W Dunwiddle and R. T. Leverett, Survey of OldGrowth Forest in Massachusetts Rhodora (1996) 98: 419-444. S. G. McNulty, J. D. Aber, T M McLellan, and S. M Katt, Nitrogen cycling in high elevation forests of the 36 3~ northeastern U.S. in relation Am blo (1990) 9: 38-40. 38 to nitrogen deposition. D. Aber, K. J. Nadelhoffer, P. Steudler, and J. M. Melillo, Nitrogen saturation in northern forest ecosystems. BioScience \/1989) 9: 376-386. J. N. Jones, in An ecological history Massachusetts of agricultural landSenior thesis use two towns 27 (. Hampshire College, 1991). A H Baker and H. I. Patterson, Farmers' adaptations to markets in early nineteenth-century Massachusetts. Proceedings of the Dublm Seminar (London. Antiquities Society, 1986), 95-108. (Amherst, MA- 28 from U.S. Census with maps modified from R W. Wilkie and J. Tager, Historical Atlas Data The authors are ecologists on the staff of the Harvard Forest, a research and educational department of Harvard University located in Petersham, Massachusetts. David Foster is director of the Harvard Forest and teaches forest ecology and conservation in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology and the Kennedy School of Government John O'Keefe is coordinator of the Fisher Museum, a small museum devoted to the land-use history, ecology, and management of New England's forests This article is adapted from \"An Ecological History of Massachusetts Forests,\" in Steppmg Back to Look Forward A History of the Massachusetts Forest, edited by Charles H. W. Foster, published in 1998 by the Harvard Forest, and distributed by the Harvard University Press. The book can also be obtained postpaid from Harvard Forest, Petersham, MA 01366, where proceeds from the $28 price go to support undergraduate research and education in forest ecology. 32 . Old-growth forest m New England before the hurrzcane of 1938 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How Land Use Determines Vegetation: Evidence from a New England Sand Plain","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25210","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270856d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Motzkin, Glenn","article_content":"CASE STUDIES IN FOREST HISTORY AND ECOLOGY How Land Use Determines Vegetation: Evidence from a New England Sand Plain Glenn Motzkin and David R. Foster Human activity exerts long-lasting impacts on natural ecosystems, and because today's forest composition reflects past land uses as well as natural phenomena, knowledge of land-use history and an understanding of its effects are integral to ecological study and critical for conservation planning. However, attempts to determine the relative contribution of land use vs. physical factors in controlling vegetation patterns have consistently been confounded by the strong correlation between past land use and original site conditions. To evaluate the effects of historical land use, researchers at the Harvard Forest studied pitch pine-scrub oak communities on a broad sand plain in the Connecticut River valley of Massachusetts, a site that is unusually homogenous m topography, drainage, and soil texture. Such homogeneity enabled the researchers to detect the effects of differing land-use on the structure and composition of the vegetation. Also motivating the study was the rarity of pitch pine-scrub oak communities. They support several rare plant and animal species but have been substantially degraded by industrial, commercial, and residential development, and are therefore priorities for conservation throughout the Northeast. The paleoecological record of the study area1,900 acres on a flat outwash delta composed primarily of sand and gravel-suggests that preEuropean fires were common, some of them, perhaps, ignited by a large regional Indian population. Like other sand plains in the region, the area was used for wood products from the eighteenth to the mid-nineteenth century. In the early nineteenth century, the Reverend Timothy Dwight, author of Travels in New England and New York (1821),described the Montague Plain and surrounding areas as \"an extensive yellow pine plain covered with a lean, miserable soil.\" Nonetheless, 82 percent of it was subsequently plowed for crops before being abandoned m the early twentieth century. Agriculture had a major impact on vegetation but a relatively mmor long-term effect on physical and chemical soil properties on this site. For instance, although visually striking, the difference between plowed and unplowed soil horizons is primarily one of color, the result of organic matter being redistributed withm the soil by plowing. Agricultural fields on Montague Plain were abandoned and allowed to reforest at least fifty more than one hundred years yet the plant composition remains very different on areas that were once plowed compared to those that were never plowed. years ago-some ago-and Some today on unplowed sites. However, several species, most notably pitch pine (Pmus mgida) and gray birch (Betula populifolla), are much more common on plowed sites. Of particular interest is a group of species that is characteristic of sand plain habitats and is common on unplowed portions of Montague Plain, but that has not successfully re-colonized former agricultural lands even though they were species are just as common formerly plowed areas as on abandoned more than half a century ago. This group includes some familiar species, such as black huckleberry (Gaylussacia baccata), wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), blueberries (Vaccimum spp.). Intensive soil and population analyses suggest that the failure of these species to re-colonize these sites does not result from plowing; instead, it appears that successful sexual reproduction is rather infrequent m these species. Their rates of vegetative spread are so slow that even one hundred years is not long enough for re-colonization. 34 . disturbing story. On the pitch pine over- other unplowed sites, on the hand, the vegetation from closed structure varies canopy hardwood-huckleberry Cross-sectional diagram across the ma7or land-use, vegetation, and soils boundary at the Montague sand plam An unplowed site is on the left, a plowed site on the right. Even after a century of forest growth, the soils on plowed sites exhibit a deep and hght-colored A homzon, sharply separated from the underlymg B honzon. stands to dense scrub oak thickets. We suspect that on these sites repeated cutting and burning converted formerly forested areas into shrublands: fire promotes the stability of scrub oak stands by encouragmg vigorous sprouting and by removing developing tree canopies. In the absence of fire, the Montague high charcoal-to-pollen ratios in the paleoecological record, documentation of many large fires during this century, and field evidence of fire in 83 percent of the research plots testify to that. However, fire does not appear to be the primary determinant of vegetation patterns on Montague Plain. Rather, fire is apparently important within a pattern of species associations that is largely controlled by prior land use. For mstance, pitch pine requires exposed mineral soil and open canopy conditions for successful establishment, conditions that may be met through physical disturbance such as plowing or severe fire. Because few recent fires have been severe enough to create these conditions, nearly all extant pitch pine stands are located on abandoned plowed fields. After pitch pine became established, fire contributed to its dominance on old fields. The high frequency of extensive fires early in this century (when most stands were becoming established) probably favored pitch pine, which produces seed at a much younger age than hardwoods or white pine. Young white pine is more susceptible to fire than pitch pine and lacks the ability to resprout, an ability that is shared by pitch pine and associated hardwood species. In the absence of fire, hardwoods and especially white pine increase in number, whereas frequent light fires limit white pine and increase the understory of hardwood sprouts without Fire has been important on Plain: however, hardwood trees slowly become reestablished in scrub oak stands to form an open forest canopy. Since scrub oak is intolerant of shade, this canopy eventually reduces its numbers. The continuum from scrub oak thickets to hardwood forests on unplowed sites is therefore believed to result both from fire and cutting history. In all of these examples, a distinction remains between the vegetation of plowed sites and that of unplowed sites. We have therefore concluded that modern vegetation patterns on Montague Plain are the result of complex disturbance histories, with fire serving to modify the species assemblages that originally developed after land use was discontinued. In other words, the interactions of human, physical, and biotic factors have resulted in a remarkably heterogeneous landscape on a site with homogeneous soils. In view of the heterogeneity of vegetation and the equally vamable natural disturbance patterns in the area, conservation efforts might best focus on long-term protection of the entire landscape, rather than simply protecting the portions that currently support uncommon species. Only in this way will long-term protection of this complex, dynamic system be ensured. Glenn Motzkm rs a plant ecologist at the Harvard Forest, where David Foster is the director. Their research is reported in full in \"Controlling Site to Evaluate History: Vegetation Patterns of a New England Sand Plain\" by Glenn Motzkm, David Foster, Arthur Allen, Jonathan Harrod, and Richard Boone, and published in Ecological Monographs ~1996) 66~3\/: 345-365. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus Human-Induced Stresses","article_sequence":7,"start_page":35,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25209","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd2708528.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Foster, David R.; Aber, John; Melillo, Jerry; Bowden, Richard D.; Bazzaz, Fakri","article_content":"CASE STUDIES IN FOREST HISTORY AND ECOLOGY Forest Response to Natural Disturbance Versus John Aber, jerry Melillo, Richard D. Bowden, and Human-Induced Stresses David R. Foster, Fakhri Bazzaz Retrospective studies, which employ historical, archaeological, paleoecological, and dendrochronological techniques to unravel past changes in landscapes and the environment, provide one of the few opportunities for comparing forest disturbance and vegetation dynamics across major cultural and temporal boundaries. By extendmg our perspective from decades forest to mil- lennia, historical tions reconstruc- permit us to assess the effects of infrequent events, long-term trends, and gradual environmental change. They also enable us to document the successional or developmental changes in forest ecosystems that are often that can live comprised species many centuries. Therefore, these assess- of tree ments provide important insights into fundamental ecological processes and the provenance of modern conditions and can also serve as the basis for informed management decisions. One important source of long-term information on forest history and dynamics in response to natural environmental change and disturbance are old-growth forests and other sites on which human impact has been minimal. Recent surveys have discovered surprisingly large numbers of oldgrowth stands-even in the densely populated eastern U.S.-and these forests have become an important focus of reconstructive studies on both basic and applied issues. The presence of old trees with lengthy tree-ring records of Saplmgs grow between moss-covered and hemlock downed m the hurmcane logs of old-growth white pme of 1938 36 growth, and undisturbed sediments and soils that contain stratigraphic records of pollen, charcoal, and other semi-fossilized plant and animal materials, enable us to develop long-term site histories of disturbance and forest change. Reconstructive studies of old-growth and other sites have revealed the remarkable resiliency of the temperate forests in the Northeast to a wide range of physical disturbances, including wmdthrow, fire, ice damage, and pathogens. However, a question of great mterest to ecologists and with major implications for policymakers is whether these forests will be equally resilient m the face of chronic chemical and climatic stress brought on by changes in the global earth-atmosphere system. To address this question, the Harvard Forest initiated its Long Term Ecological Research (LTER) program in 1988 to analyze the effects on ecosystem structure and function of historically important natural disturbances m comparison with those of recent and projected chemical and climatic stresses. Three disturbance and stress processes are being investigated in considerable detail: hurricane blowdowns, the chronic additions of nitrogen that occur presently as a consequence of acid rain and the burning of fossil fuels, and the warmmg of the soil environment that will occur as global temperatures rise with predicted cli- change. To develop meaningful compararesults, we designed experimental treatments that closely simulate mate tive driven winch to pull over in one direction, as would occur in a natural wmdstorm, a subset of trees comparable to those blown down in 1938. The experimental blowdown had an immediate and dramatic impact on forest structure: the basal area (cross-sectional area of wood) and density of trees declined more than 70 percent ; the average distance between canopy trees increased from 3.3 to 7.6 meters, and the maximum distance increased from 7.8 to 20.9 meters; and more than 260 new mounds and pits resulting from the uprooting of trees covered 8 percent of the soil surface. Nonetheless, as a result of releafing and sprouting, more than 75 percent of uprooted and broken trees survived the first year and more than 40 percent continued growing after four years. Survival varied considerably according to species and extent of damage: 60 percent of yellow and black birch (Betula alleghaniensis and B. lenta) survived, as did approximately 50 percent of white pine (Pinus strobus) and red maple (Acer rubrum), and approximately 30 percent of red oak (Quercus rubra), white birch (B. papyrifera), and white ash (Fraxinus americana). The standmg and relatively undamaged trees remaining after the blowdown showed the same low mortality rate (4 percent) as the control site for the first four years. The extent of tree regeneration in the \"blowdown\" understory was high. Saplings and the major impacts of the relevant disturbances and stresses, and we chose sites in typical secondgrowth forests on widespread upland soils with similar forest and environmental conditions. The Experimental Blowdown blowdowns cause Hurricane catastrophic damage in New England forests every fifty to one hundred and fifty years. The studies undertook to evaluate the effects of a storm similar to that of the 1938 hurricane on an eighty-year-old hardwood forest. To simulate a hurricane on an experimental plot, researchers used a powerLTER A skidder's winch and cable were trees across a two-acre area to used at the Harvard Forest to pull down simulate the effects of a hurncane m 1990. 37 the ground. The combination of high survival rates and prolific sprouting by broken and uprooted trees, coupled with rapid growth by understory plants, resulted in rapid recovery of total leaf area and little change in the soil microenvironment, including temperature and moisture : as damaged trees died off, the growth of saplmgs and understory plants has provided additional leaf area. By ensuring the continuity of shade on the forest floor, floristic composition has changed less than might be Researchers attach markers to a root mound upended in a simulated expected based on successional hurncane, 1992 The many microsltes created by the uprooting of trees theory and on previous studies of provide important habitat and microenvmonmental diversity m the forest the 1938 storm. From an ecosystem perspective, which seeks increased from fewer than 6,000 per sprouts hectare before the blowdown to nearly 8,000 per to examine the structure and function of forests, hectare one year later and to over 25,000 the blowdown experiment is highly mstructive. per hectare after three years, with only slight Despite massive structural alteration of the forcompositional change (birches increased, est, net energy and nutrient processes remained black cherry (Prunus serotina] and white pine largely intact. Productivity, as measured by declined). Increased light levels one to three litterfall, declined immediately following the meters above the ground resulted in greater disturbance, but recovered rapidly within four in diameter and height of existing sapyears. The similarity of nitrogen cycling patgrowth and new sprouts on the blowdown site terns, soil respiration rates, and gaseous effluxes lings in the control and blowdown plots indicates than on the control site. Net ecosystem productivity declined followthat changes in nutrient availability were minimal. Importantly, the maintenance of efficient ing the experimental blowdown: m the second year, litterfall in the blowdown was only 59 cycling of nutrients suggests that the forest was able to retain these constituents despite the percent of that found in the control site; by the fourth year, however, that number had major physical change. Continuous vegetation increased to 71 percent. In general, the blowproduction and cover provided a high degree of down site underwent major reorganization of control by the vegetation over critical microcliforest structure and a subtle compositional matic conditions and ecosystem processes. change along with rapid redevelopment of The Experimental Nitrogen Increases canopy cover. In contrast, and contrary to genIn mdustrialized parts of North America and eral expectation, the soil environment showed no major changes. Temperature and moisture Europe, the atmospheric deposition of nitrogen has vastly mcreased since the 1940s as a conseremained the same, as did the nitrogen cycling quence of fossil fuel combustion. In the high pattern and net exchanges of important greenelevation forests of New York and New England house gases between soils and the atmosphere. and throughout central Europe, nitrogen deposiThe hurricane blowdown caused a marked tion has been implicated in tree mortality and in the appearance of the forest, but the change long-term impact on important processes was forest dieback. This conclusion is somewhat far less dramatic: it was limited to a vertical paradoxical because nitrogen is limiting in most terrestrial ecosystems and an mcrease might be reorganization of the canopy and foliage from the top of the canopy to one to five meters above expected to simply increase growth rates. How- 38 In marked contrast to the blowdown experiment, the chronic nitrogen experiment has so far produced only minimal structural changes. Tree mortality has not been affected, and species composition and canopy structure remain similar to those in control plots. However, dramatic changes in ecosystem function have occurred that may foreshadow future changes in structure. For example, whereas the control plots retain essentially all of their nitrogen and lose none through soil leaching, the highAfter the expemmental blowdown, gmdded frames were used to map fme- nitrogen pine plot has shown scale microtopography and to release and track tree seed as part of a study of accelerated nitrate loss, indicative seed dispersal. The root mound stands nearly two meters high. of nitrogen saturation, since year three. In the sixth year of treatment, the lowever, as nitrogen availability through acid rain exceeds demand, the ecosystem may become nitrogen pine plot also began showing nitrate basic processes may change in dellosses. By contrast, the more nitrogen-limited \"saturated,\" eterious ways, and the excess nitrogen may leak hardwood stand has shown nearly total retention of nitrogen; detectable nitrate losses were through soils into streams and lakes. There is not measured until year six, and then only in the strong concern that this increased nitrogen will damage water quality and alter critical soil prohigh-nitrogen plot. Changes in internal carbonand nitrogen-cycling rates and m net exchanges of cesses, mcluding nutrient cycling and trace gas methane between soils and the atmosphere have fluxes, throughout the temperate zone. The chronic nitrogen, or nitrogen saturation, also been substantial. This result is important was designed to examine the effects as it demonstrates that nitrogen excess and experiment of contmuous, low-level additions of nitrogen saturation triggers very fundamental changes in a range of ecosystem processes. caused by acid deposition or forest ecosystem structure and function. Two stands were selected Ecophysiological theory predicts that higher for study: a second-growth hardwood stand and concentrations of a limiting nutrient like nitroa mature red pine (Pinus resinosa) stand. Imporgen will lead, in turn, to higher rates of net photantly, the eighteenth- and nineteenth-century tosynthesis and tree growth through a fertilizer land-use history of the hardwood forest involved effect. Indeed, more tree growth has occurred which probably depleted nutriin the hardwood stand (originally nitrogenrepeated cutting, ents on the site, whereas the red pine stand had limited), with a 45-percent increase in wood been planted in the 1920s on an old agricultural production. However, in the pine stand-where field that had been plowed and fertilized, high losses from leaching suggested that nitrothereby maintaining or enhancing its natural gen saturation occurred very rapidly-wood proabundance of nitrogen. duction over six years has been 28 percent lower Three 30-by-30-meter plots-control (no nitrothan that of the control plot. Combmed with even more dramatic growth declines and morgen), low nitrogen-addition, and high nitrogenaddition-were established in each stand; nitrotality increases in conifer stands located in high was applied in the form of ammonium gen nitrogen-deposition regions of the world, these nitrate m six equal monthly doses from May to results suggest a general decrease in the vigor October beginning m 1988. The high nitrogenand wood production of conifer stands, and peraddition plots receive doses similar to levels haps even the onset of serious forest decline, in occurring in central European countries today. response to nitrogen saturation. 39 The Soil-Warming Experiment The rate of increases in global temperature that are currently projected far exceed the changes that occur naturally through glacial-mterglacial cycles. One consequence of global warming may be changes in the rates of cntical temperaturedependent ecosystem processes, which in turn control forest growth and health. Important soil processes that may be expected to change with increasing global temperatures mclude decomposition, methane production, nitrogen mineralization and nitrification, and phosphorus availability. Since many of these changes may result m the release of greenhouse gases, soil warming may itself exacerbate soil warming. The soil-warming experiment at the Harvard Forest was designed to assess the response of a second-growth hardwood forest to elevated soil temperatures. We paid particular attention to the effects of warming on soil processes that may alter ecosystem function, atmospheric chemistry, and global climate. Eighteen 6-by-6meter plots were established in April 1991; each was randomly assigned to one of three treatments : heated plots, in which the average soil temperature was raised 5 degrees Centigrade above ambient using buried heating cables; disturbance control plots, in which buried cables were mstalled but received no electrical power; and undisturbed control plots. Initial results from the first growing season of the study indicated that heating increased emissions of carbon dioxide by 40 percent. Nitrogen cycling was also affected dramatically, with a doubling of mineralization rates in the upper soil layers. During the second and third growing seasons, warming had a much less dramatic effect on carbon dioxide emissions but a sustained dramatic effect was seen in years relative to disturbance control plots, whereas the rate of nitrogen mineralization continued to increase. There are two major pools of organic matter in soils, a \"fast\" pool and a \"slow\" pool. The fast pool contains material with a high ratio of carbon to nitrogen (for instance, recently fallen litter), whose decay results in relatively large losses of carbon dioxide but a small net loss of nitrogen. In contrast, the slow pool contains material with a low ratio of carbon to nitrogen (such as partially decomposed and relatively stable humus), whose decay results in a smaller loss of carbon dioxide and a larger net loss of nitrogen. Because elevated soil temperature increases the rate of decay in the slow pool, increased amounts of both carbon and nitrogen are released. The nitrogen then becomes available for uptake by plants. However, the carbon-tonitrogen ratio of living plant material is substantially higher than that of organic matter m the soil of the slow pool, and because of that, warming may lead to increased carbon storage m the ecosystem without mcreased nitrogen storage. The study highlights the importance of longterm experiments while underscoring the potential for complex changes resulting from global climate change. Although the immediate result of soil warming is carbon release-and nitrogen mineralization, which again doubled in rate. The following scenario provides one interpretation of why the rate of carbon dioxide emissions in the heated plots relative to that of control plots decreased between the first and second of the eighteen 6-by-6-meter plots used m the soil-warmmg expenment the Harvard Forest Heating coils placed below the soll surface raised the average temperature by five degrees Centigrade and caused subtle changes m the environment. One at 40 global change-this effect is tranlonger term, the net release of nitrogen might be a much more important effect and might signal fundmental though subtle on feedback sient. Over the shifts in ecosystem processes. Comparison Between the Effects of Natural Disturbances and Those of Novel Stresses Which of these changes-\"natural\" disturbance or climatic and chemical stress-is actually most disruptive to the integrity of the community and most likely to lead to long-term changes in ecosystem function? Comparison of results from the three experiments led to the surpnsmg conclusion that structural integritythat is, the actual appearance of a forest-is not a good indicator of forest ecosystem function. Whereas the blowdown site appeared severely disturbed, fundamental internal processes were not altered significantly, and the stand is on a path to recovery of structure and function m keeping with the cyclic pattern of disturbance and regeneration in this forest type. By contrast, the nitrogen-addition and soilwarming plots are visually intact and apparently healthy, yet the subtler measures of ecosystem function suggest serious imbalances with possible future implications for community structure, internal ecosystem processes, and exchanges with the global atmosphere. In the nitrogen-addition plots, nitrogen losses into the deeper soil are being induced and major changes in the amounts of trace gases (carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide) released from the soil to the atmosphere have occurred. In the soil-warming plots, carbon dioxide exchanges have become negative, nitrogen cycling has increased dramatically, and nitrogen losses (as nitrate) are increasing. In time, alterations in chemical or physical environments caused by these novel stresses will create changes in nitrogen concentrations and in the rates of carbon and nitrogen cycling, which in turn will alter ecosystem productivity. We cannot predict what the ultimate trajectory of these changes will be because there is no historical analog for these experiments and none of our present-day species evolved in an environment that included these stresses. It is reasonable to believe, however, that in the long system function will continue to be disrupted more by these novel disturbances than by natural disturbances. The plant-response mechanisms seen in the hurricane experiment, which have presumably evolved as a consequence of natural selection for recovery from natural, physical disturbance, may not exist for situations where large quantities of nitrogen are added to the soil because of human activity, or soil becomes warmer very rapidly because of climate change. run Several conclusions emerge from studies of natural ecosystems and from our experimental study of \"natural\" physical disturbance and novel climatic and chemical stresses: (1)all ecosystems are dynamic as a consequence of natural disturbance, natural environmental change, and human impacts; (2) as a consequence of natural changes there are no static baseline conditions for assessing current ecosystems or for establishng correct goals for environmental management; (3) ecosystems are incredibly resilient, but the rate and novel character of modern human disturbances raises the question of whether they exceed this threshold of resiliency ; and (4) a comparison of hurricane disturbance, nitrogen deposition, and global change (soil warming) suggests that physical appearance is a poor indicator of ecosystem integrity and that major and deleterious changes in ecosystem function may occur as a consequence of these novel stresses. David Foster is director of the Harvard Forest of Harvard University. John Aber is director of the Complex Systems Research Center, Institute for Study of Earth, Oceans, & Space at the University of New Hampshire. Jerry Melillo is co-director of the Ecosystem Center at the Marine Biological Laboratory of Woods Hole. Richard Bowden is assistant professor in the Department of Environmental Science, Allegheny College. Fakhm Bazzaz is H. H. Timken Professor of Science in the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology of Harvard University. This research is reported in full in \"Forest Response to Disturbance and Anthropogenic Stress,\" published in BioScience (1997\/ 47(7) 437-445. This summary also draws on \"Ecological and conservation insights from reconstructive studies of temperate old-growth forests\" by D. R. Foster, D. A Orwig, and J S. McLachlan, published in TREE Trends m Ecology and Evolution (1996) 11(10): 419-424. \" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ecosystem Response to an Introduced Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25208","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270816f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Orwig, David A.; Foster, David R.","article_content":"CASE STUDIES IN FOREST HISTORY AND ECOLOGY Ecosystem Response to an Imported Pathogen: The Hemlock Woolly Adelgid life habitats. Although it is currently found in greatest abundance on rocky ridges or talus slopes and in moist, cool ravines, hemlock grows on a broad range of sites, and, in fact, hemlock plays an important role in controlling ecosystems all across New England, from the rocky highlands through the mesic woodlands and riparian areas, and into the wetlands. Now, nearly 5,000 years after a pathogen decimated hemlock populations across its entire range, an introduced insect, hemlock woolly adelgid, or HWA (Adelges tsugae), threatens another catastrophe for hemlock, and at the same time offers an opportunity to examme the consequences for the ecosystems it occupies. In contrast to the case of the chestnut blight, whose effects we understand only partially, we hope to learn from the case of HWA what happens to a forest when its dominant species is lost. It is important to point out that the HWAhemlock system behaves very differently from other pathogen and pest systems. The damage caused by HWA is unlike that of chestnut blight, gypsy moth, dutch elm disease, or the related balsam woolly adelgid (Adelges piceae) in that HWA attacks overstory trees, saplings, and seedlings alike, and therefore has the potential to eliminate hemlock from a site within a few years. Moreover, hemlock trees lack the ability to sprout or refoliate after defoliation; consequently reestablishment can only occur from the seedbank or from seed transported from surviving trees. Hemlock seed typically remains viable only one growing season, although a few researchers have reported seed viability for up to four years. It is believed that on most sites, episodic establishment of hemlock occurs only infrequently, under unusual David A. Orwig and David R. Foster One of the provocative issues that have emerged in the field of ecology over the past few decades has concerned the question of whether individual plant or animal species may play a critical role m controlling ecosystem processes and determining major community characteristics-that is, are there really \"keystone\" species ? In an era when species are being driven either locally or globally extinct, the possibility that individual taxa may be crucial for maintaining the integrity of ecosystems has become a major impetus for the study of biodiversity. This issue has been the focus of considerable research in the northeastern United States m particular, in large part because the region has experienced a series of species eliminations or reductions in numbers primarily as a consequence of human activities. The decline of hemlock across its range 4,800 years ago due to an insect pathogen, followed by a very gradual recovery; the elimination of chestnut in this century by a fungal blight introduced from eastern Asia; the outbreak of gypsy moth on oak, aspen, and birch forests; and the purposeful elimination or drastic reduction of animal populations-wolves, passenger pigeons, deer, beavers, to name only a few-all have undoubtedly had major consequences for forest, aquatic, and wetland ecosystems across the Northeast, although they remain largely unquantified. Widespread, abundant, long-lived, and extraordinarily shade-tolerant, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) has always been classified as a preeminent part of the \"climax\" forest that existed before European settlement. Thanks to the extremely dense shade and deep, acidic litter it produces, hemlock is able to determine forest composition and create distinctive wild- 42 lock is eliminated from even a portion of these sites, seed production will be eliminated or drastically reduced across broad geographic areas. It should be noted that it took eastern hemlock one to two thousand years to recover following the mid-Holocene decline 4,800 years ago. In 1995 the Harvard Forest initiated a major research effort consisting of stand, landscape, and ecosystem components in central Connecticut along a 370-mile transect that extends from Long Island Sound to the Massachusetts border. To document the damage already caused by HWA since it arrived in 1985, we used aerial photographs to map each hemlock stand greater than three hectares (seven and a half acres). We have compiled extensive data on forest composition from 115 stands, which we have overlain on a GIS (Geographic Information Systems) map that shows other biological features as well as soil types and topographic characteristics. This map will facilitate our analysis of the way HWA spreads and help us determine whether the damage patterns observed in the present study are consistent across various types of landscape. We also began to examine in detail the response of eight hemlock stands with differing levels of HWA infestation; the range of damage found in this sample was in general representative of conditions observed in dozens of stands throughout southcentral Connecticut. Results after the second year of analysis of the eight sample stands showed continued deterioration of hemlock, with annual mortality levels ranging from 5 to 15 percent in stands that had already lost 20 to 95 percent of all overstory hemlock. All surviving hemlocks except those in one isolated stand are infested with HWA and have suffered moderate to severe canopy damage. Consequently, many of our study sites currently have a high proportion of standing dead snags or trees whose only remaining foliage is in the outer ends of upper branches. In severely damaged stands, many dead treetops and boles have snapped off during recent windstorms, and deterioration in This Tsuga canadensis branch is mfested mth HWA omsacs, the surviving trees has continued due to located along the twigs at the base of the needles conditions related to the nature of the seedbed, moisture, and seed availability. White-tailed deer often represent another obstacle to regeneration: many studies have shown that deer browse can severely reduce hemlock seedling densities. Deer herd density in Connecticut has more than doubled since 1980, resulting in high local population densities that change understory composition and structure. All these problems raise concerns about the long-term viability, stability, and composition of hemlock ecosystems. Many hemlock stands are scattered across the landscape on sites that have been protected from intensive human and natural disturbance. If hem- 43 the presence of secondary organisms such as hemlock borer, shoestring fungi, and conk fungi. The consequences of this continued mortality will be substantial pulses of woody debris, dramatic changes in the age, structure, and composition of forests, and altered wildlife habitat. Light availability as well as aboveand below-ground space should increase as HWA spreads across the landscape. We have recently begun to study how these substantial changes in forest structure will affect the timing, magnitude, and duration of nitrogen cycling. Our analysis of the effects of HWA damage shows dramatic changes in the understory microenvironment and in the response of vegetation to these changes. Particularly in stands that previously had a high percentage of hemlock in the overstory, black birch (Betula lenta) seedlings have established themselves prolifically, encouraged by the increased amount of light reaching the previously shaded forest floor. The organic layer in the soil under hemlock canopies appears to be an ideal substrate for germination of this wind-dispersed species. Several researchers have reported similar increases following partial cutting or tree mortality due to chestnut blight or windthrow. An increased abundance of black birch is Severe HWA damage on the Guilford, Connecticut, study site. also expected in less severely dam- Note the dead hemlocks in the foreground and background, to trees that retam sparse canopies. Hemlocks typically aged stands in the future, since it is adjacent their branch structures mtact and gradually fall apart die with already present in the overstory and over three to ten years. produces copious numbers of seeds. Several opportunistic herbaceous species have Seedlings of red maple and of several oak also become established in low abundance species were also present in low densities m most of our study sites; they may become more throughout the study area, and invasion has numerous in the future. The overall scarcity of already begun of several exotic tree, shrub, and herbaceous species that may increase and furhemlock seedlings in these forests suggests that ther affect revegetation processes m the future. neither they nor seedbanks will be of much help in hemlock reestablishment. Very few shrub Many factors, including pre-HWA site and soil characteristics, hemlock mortality rates, herbispecies have colonized these stands; exceptions vore pressure, and the percentage of overstory are bird-dispersed grape species (VitusJ and space occupied by hardwood species, will also Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). 44 Black birch seedlmgs have estabhshed themselves proh fically under HWA-damaged hemlocks, the mcreased amount of hght reachmg the premously shaded forest floor encouraged by play a determining the eventual compovegetation. By documenting damage patterns and changes m forest structure and composition resulting from an introduced forest pest as they develop, we have gained valuable insight into the initial sition of recovery processes of forests when a dominant species is removed. The results of this study and direct observations in dozen of stands throughout the state indicate that Connecticut forests are bemg severely impacted by HWA. To date, the rate and intensity of infestation is not attrib- role in structural changes have initiated rapid a vegeta- tion responses in understories typically devoid of vegetation. In addition, our results suggest that some sites may experience complete utable to any site factor or stand characteristic, and there is no apparent impediment to the widespread expansion of HWA and devastation of eastern hemlock across its range. Varying degrees of HWA infestation at the stand level resulted m high hemlock mortality rates, pulses of downed woody debris, and dramatic changes in microenvironment characteristics due to overstory canopy gaps. These type from hemlock to forests dominated by birch, oak, and maple species. Under this scenario, forest composition and structure at the landscape level would become mcreasmgly more homogenous. The outlook for hemlock persistence in southern New England forests is bleak. If HWA dispersal continues unimpeded, dramatic reductions of hemlock across broad geographical areas appear imminent unless natural or introduced predators of HWA are found. change in cover David A. Orwig is a forest ecologist at the Harvard Forest, where David R. Foster is the director. Their research has been published in full in \"Forest Response to the Introduced Hemlock Woolly Adelgid in Southern New England, USA\" in ~ournal of the Torrey Botanical Society (1998) 125\/1): 60-73. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":9,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25212","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270896b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum , , , . - , ,~ - 1 .. : 8 The Arboretum Reaches Out to Influence the World Robert E. Cook, Director Whether it is our annual crop of interns, our visiting research fellows, or our the Arnold Arboretum serves as a training ground for career growth and achievement. As a result, this often leads to the loss of individuals to other institutions as they seek advancement in their careers. Such losses, though sad, are evidence of the strength of the Arboretum as a respected resource for knowledge and training in the fields of botany and horticulture. Over the past few Gary Koller shares his horticultural knowledge at an Arboretum Fall Plant Sale. years, the Arboretum has a new assistant superintendent, peppered its \"alumni\" throughout for our Community Science Conthe country. Tom Akin, who comes from nection, Candace developed and Two years ago Dr. Kim Tnpp, directed the National Geographic Weston Nurseries. who had been a Putnam fellow Kid's Network. Though we miss Chris Strand, who supervised from 1994 to 1996, accepted the him greatly, Richard continues to visitor services for four years, work with Candace by participatannounced his departure from the directorship of The Botamc Garden of Smith College in in the Community Science Arboretum in the fall of 1997. ing Connection. He has been appointed manager Northampton. Though she has taken on a new and challenging After 17 years of service, Pat of Green Spring Gardens Park in Virginia Ellen Bennett has role, Kim retains a research Willoughby, our supenntendent at the Arboretum. of grounds, moved to a wonderful appointment recently assumed Chris' restrucIn 1996, Richard Schulhof, in the Boston subtured and renamed position as opportunity director of public programs, was urbs, becoming superintendent manager of horticultural informanamed director of Descanso Garof grounds at Wellesley College tion. Prior to her position at the dens in Los Angeles, after almost in 1997. His able assistant for Arboretum, Ellen worked at the seven years at the Arboretum. six years, Julie Coop, has been Massachusetts Horticultural SociDr. Candace Julyan has been to his position at the appointed ety for three years as director of to replace Richard in a Arboretum Julie was in charge of education and as community outappointed education departmaintenance at the Case Estates in reach coordinator. re-organized Weston from 1988 to 1991. With ment. Before coming to the ArboWith the new year came three retum in 1995 as project director we have hired other critical changes in ArboreJuliepromotion, experienced staff, turn been over Gary Koller, who had senior horticulturist for twenty years, announced that staff. our he would retire in July to work full-time on a thriving landscape design business. Gary had been serving half-time at the Arboretum for the past five years while his business was growing, and in retirement he will retain an appointment as horticultural fellow and will continue to teach in our adult education program and write for Arnoldia. Stephen Spongberg, who had been horticultural taxonomist with us for more than a quarter century, also retired to accept a wonderful opportunity as director of Polly Hill Arboretum on Martha's Vineyard, an entirely new institution that will be devel- oping its collections and programs over the coming years under Steve's leadership He, too, has retained a research appointment at the Arboretum, and we anticipate growing close relations with our sister institution on the Vineyard. Finally, Professor Peter Stevens has announced that he will be leaving with his wife, Professor Toby Kellogg, a former Putnam fellow at the Arboretum, for the University of Missoun at St. Louis, where they will fill two development; these changes have given the Arboretum the chance to recruit new staff and rebuild programs. For instance, three job searches are currently underway, for a horticulturist, a taxonomist, and expenenced in tropical forests. a botanical researcher the biology of The Arnold Arboretum is a strong institution dedicated to education as well as research, and tenured Peter professorship positions. world expert on the flora of Southeast Asia, tropical and his systematic knowledge and experience will be greatly missed. In each of the above instances, our colleagues have moved to an exceptional opportunity for career is a important part of education involves shaping individuals for positions of leadership and responsibility. Though inevitably these positions will often be elsewhere, the Arboretum will continue to serve the fields of botany and horticulture in this important way. It is one more way we can influence the world. an 1998 Interns The interns of 1998: top row from left, Yong Chan Park, Kristin A '\"s' fi,~ y~ t n S~~ ql~Y~ ,c~, ...x't~ll itfi t\" ~ : ~i~ ~ i '~ r ,9~ 4~.~ f ~~,~~ ~PI I Berry, Bethany Grasso, Sandy Talcott, Nigel Gurnett, Marc r~~ , t~\", I ~ Y ~`~i 9 d u ~}~;~.. ,7 ~ _. s~ iSs, i~.\", i .. sn:,l s, ,.~a Fortenberry, bottom row Loise q~ ~ Cretinon, Derrik Daly; from left, Fritz Bottger, Matthew l~ I ~ ~~ ,i, ~yi'-, '1. i a Coyner, Angie Martin, Nicki Richardson, Gwen Newman, and the manager of the intern program, Assistant C > s .~\" .. !',l~I 1if ~ rsi' ~ a~ n ~ I I~Ijl ~0 ~ .1~ .' \"~ ~ , e , - 3 }I ~t tNEF!~'~ ~l ~ ~i~ g ~ 1~ ~.s ~~' ~ o I s~~~. : Superintendent Tom Akin. Missing was Lise Caron. With members that represent our local region, the international community (France and Korea), and many states in between, the Arboretum's intern class project, the To interns were involved with numerous of 1998 worked enthusiastically throughout spring and summer. They took classes taught by Arboretum staff on a variety of horticultural subjects, among woody plant identification, integrated pest management (IPM), pests and diseases, and plant propagation. In addition to working on an erosion abatement them projects throughout the their experiences at the grounds. supplement Arboretum, interns participated in several educational outings, including trips to the New York Botanical Garden, Mount Auburn Cemetery, and the new Polly Hill Arboretum on Martha's Vineyard The interns' diligence and enthusiasm made a valuable contribution to the Arboretum that is apparent at every turn. maintenance renovation and Frances Maguire Named Harvard Hero In June, Sally Zeckhauser, Harvard University's vice president for administration, announced this year's Harvard Heroes-employees in Ms Zeckhauser's unit whose Job performance has Fundraising Reaches New Heights Lisa Hastings Director of Development The Arnold Arboretum completed a record-breaking year with respect to the Campaign for the Arboretum. Total gifts and commitments for the fiscal year ending June 30, 1998, reached $2,016,834, the largest amount raised from philanthropy in the Arboretum's history. The total represents an increase of 191 percent over the $692,111 raised in been outstanding. Frances Maguire, director of finance and administration, has been named the Arnold Arboretum's 1998 Harvard On June 10, all the Harvard Heroes Hero. Director Bob Cook were recognized in a ceremony in noted that Frances has done a Sanders Theater, Memorial Hall. Harvard president Neil Rudenstine superb job in managing the and his senior staff from central financial affairs of the instiadministration were in attendance tution, saving many thouto express their appreciation of the sands of dollars over the past Harvard Heroes. decade due to her careful consideration of income and expenditures. Her deep knowledge of the difficult Harvard accounting system has been invaluable to the Arboretum. Recently, Frances has taken responsibility for helping the Arboretum's transition to a completely revamped accounting system being adopted by Harvard University. For these and numerous other reasons, Frances deserves great recognition and thanks from the Arboretum and from Harvard. fiscal year 1997. MAJOR GIFTS: New records were established both m total dollars raised and total number of donors. Gifts over $10,000 reached a total of $1,704,373, an unprecedented number that includes the Arboretum's first million-dollar gift. The number of donors of more than $10,000 increased 170 percent, from 10 in 1997 to 27 in 1998. Overall, the Arboretum ~ ) , continued on page 4 1997 Intern Is 1998 Tom Por Apprentice joined the Arboretum staff in April as apprentice in the living collections department, only the second person to hold this relatively new position. Originally from St. Thomas, Ontario, he comes to the Arboretum after graduating from the Niagara Parks Commission Botanical Gardens and School of Horticulture. Tom also has received a degree m history with honors from the University of Toronto. The Arboretum is not an entirely new entity for Tom, as he served as an Arboretum intern in 1997. As a member of the living collections department, he will be responsible for a variety of projects on the grounds, including erosion abatement on the esker just off Meadow Road. During his year at the Arboretum, he will circulate through all the units within living collections, thus acquiring deeper knowledge of the maintenance requirements of a scientific collection of woody plants. bachelor of arts ~ from page 3 membership came at increases (40 percent) received 85 gifts over $1,000, an increase of 255 percent over the 22 gifts of this size received in fiscal year 1993, the first year of the campaign. MEMBERSHIP\/ANNUAL APPEAL: A total of 638 new the level of Sustaining Member ($100) and above, a testament to increased outreach and the active participation of new and reinvigorated volunteer leadership. In addition, funds donated through the Annual Appeal raised a 29 dollars and a percent 27 percent increase in the number of donors over the previous year. has qualified for $391,000 the fund was announced. To date, $10 million of the total fund balance of $15 million is committed across the university; the opportunity to qualify for matched funds will end when the fund balance is depleted tum since members joined the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum last year, bringing the total number of members at year's end to 3,364 New members, coupled with a renewal rate of 80 percent and a $g9,011 from 271 donors, increase in THE WOMEN'S MATCHING healthy increase in membership upgrades, resulted in an increase of nearly 20 percent in membership and 23 percent in membership income. The largest FUND: The Women's Matching Fund offered through Harvard University has had a swift and positive impact on our fundraising. Due to gifts and pledges made by nine women, the Arbore- SUMMARY: Total gifts and pledges in the Campaign for the Arboretum stand at $5,596,243, representing 68 percent of the Arboretum's $8.2 million goal. With less than 18 months left before the conclusion of the university-wide campaign, the coming year will be critical to closing the gap and successfully completing the Arboretum's campaign. New Staff Laune Chidester has started work as curnculum and web specialist in the education department. Laune spent last year as a student in the Harvard Graduate School of Education working on her master Karen O'Connell, membership coordinator, joined the Arboretum development staff in July, replacing Kelly Harvey who left the of education degree, focusing on technology during 13 years In July, Ellen Bennett started as manager of horticultural information at the Arboretum. Ellen comes from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, where she served as director of education and as community outreach coordinator. Originally from Virginia, she earned her master of science degree in public horticulture administration through the Longwood Graduate Program at the Umversity of Delaware. As a member of the education department, Ellen will create a new docent program and work on a variety of issues related to the public face of the Arboretum. She will also spend a portion of her time working with the living collections department. in education Earlier, in software develLaune made use of her opment, master's degree in computer systems engineering. Originally from the Baltimore area of Maryland, Laurie will be focusing on the Community Science Connection project funded by the National Science Foundation. She will use the mternet to support teachers and students in an mqmry-based curriculum model in the study Arboretum to begin graduate studies in vetennary science. Karen bnngs a wealth of expenence in data management. She worked for two years as data manager in the marketing and development department of the Boston Ballet, prior to which she spent four years with the Environmental Defense Fund serving as office manager and records manager. A 1989 graduate of Boston College with a degree in marketing, she will oversee member services and is looking forward to meeting the Arboretum's growing constituency. of trees. 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23361","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270b36e.jpg","title":"1998-58-2","volume":58,"issue_number":2,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25199","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270ab28.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Gould, Stephen Jay","article_content":"An Evolutionary Perspective on Strengths, Fallacies, and Confusions in the Concept of Native Plants Stephen jay Gould An important, but widely unappreciated, concept in evolutionary biology draws a clear and careful distinction between the historical origin and current utility of organic features. Feathers, for example, could not have originated for flight because five percent of a wing in the early intermediary stages between small running dinosaurs and birds could not have aerodynamic function (though feathers, derived from reptilian scales, provide important thermodynamic benefits right away). But feathers were later co-opted to keep birds aloft in a most exemplary fashion. In like manner, our large brains could not have evolved in order to permit modern descendants to read and write, though these much later functions now define an important part of modern utility. Similarly, the later use of an argument, often in a context foreign or even opposite to the intent of originators, must be separated from the validity and purposes of initial formulations. Thus, for example, Darwin's theory of natural selection is not diminished because later racists and warmongers perverted the concept of a \"struggle for existence\" into a rationale for genocide. However, we must admit a crucial difference between the two cases: the origin and later use of a biological feature, and the origin and later use of an idea. The first case involves no conscious intent and cannot be submitted to any moral judgment. But ideas are developed by human beings for overt purposes, and we have some ethical responsibility for the consequences of our actions. An inventor may be fully exonerated for true perversions of his intent (Hitler's use of Darwin), but unfair extensions consistent with the logic of original purposes do entail some moral demerit (most academic racists of the nineteenth century did not envision or intend the Holocaust, but some of their ideas did fuel the \"final solution\"). (. I want to examine the concept of \"native plants\" within this framework, for this notion encompasses a remarkable mixture of sound biology, invalid ideas, false extensions, ethical implications, and political usages both intended and unanticipated. Clearly, Nazi ideologues provided the most chilling uses.' In advocating native plants along the Reichsautobahnen, Nazi architects of the Reich's motor highways explicitly compared their proposed restriction to Aryan purification of the people. By this procedure, Reinhold Tiixen hoped \"to cleanse the German landscape of unharmonious foreign substance. \"Z In 1942 a team of German botanists made the analogy explicit in calling for the extirpation of Impatiens served any Grapevmes (Vitus sp.) where its weight causes semous damage in northeastern Connecticut. This native to its host trees. is a commonplace of second-growth forest 4 parviflora, a supposed interloper: \"As with the fight against Bolshevism, our entire Occidental culture is at stake, so with the fight against this Mongolian invader, an essential element of this culture, namely, the beauty of our home forest, is at Jens Jensen, but this time published in a German magazine in 1937: The gardens that I created myself shall ... be m harmony with their landscape environment and the racial characteristics of its inhabitants. They shall express the spirit of America and therefore shall be free of foreign character as far as possible. The Latin and the Oriental crept and creeps more and more over our land, coming from the South, which is settled by Latm people, and also from other centers of mixed masses of immigrants. The Germamc character of our cities and settlements was overgrown.... Latm spirit has spoiled a lot and still spoils things every stake. \"3 At the other extreme of kindly romanticism, gentle arguments for native plants have stressed their natural \"rightness\" in maximally harmonious integration of organism and environment, a modern invocation of the old doctrine of genius loci. Consider a few examples from our generation: Man makes mistakes; nature doesn't. Plants their natural habitat look fit and therefore beautiful. In any undeveloped area you can fmd a miraculously appropriate assortment of plants, each one contributing to the overall appearance of a unified natural landscape. The balance is preserved by the ecological conditions of the place, and the mtroduction of an alien 4 plant could destroy this balance growmg m day.8 How slippery the slope between genius loci (and respect for all the other spirits in their proper places as well) and \"my locus is best, while others must be uprooted, either as threats or as unredeemable inferiors.\" How easy the fallacious transition between a biological argument and a political campaign. When biologically based claims have such a range of political usages (however dubious, and however unfairly drawn some may be), it becomes particularly incumbent upon us to examine the scientific validity of the underlying arguments, if only to acquire weapons to guard against usages that properly inspire our ethical opposition (for if the biological bases are wrong, then we hold a direct weapon; and if they are right, then at least we understand the argument properly, and can accurately drive the wedge that always separates factual claims from ethical beliefs). Any argument for preferring native plants must rest upon some construction of evolutionary theory-a difficult proposition (as we shall see) because evolution is so widely misconstrued and, when properly understood, so difficult to utilize for the defense of intrinsic native superiority. This difficulty did not exist in preDarwinian creatiomst biology, because the old paradigm of \"natural theology\" held that God displays both his existence and his attributes of benevolence and omniscience in the optimal design of organic form and the maximal harmony of local ecosystems (see William Paley for the classic statement m one of the most influential books ever written).9 Native must therefore Evolution has produced trived gardens defy.s a harmony that con- Or this from President Clinton himself (though I doubt that he wrote the text personally), in a 1994 memorandum on \"environmen- tally and economically beneficial practices on federal landscaped grounds\": \"The use of native plants not only protects our natural heritage and provides wildhfe habitat, but also can reduce fertilizer, pesticide, and irrigation demands and their associated costs because native plants are suited to the local environment and climate.\"~ This general argument, of course, has a long pedigree, as well illustrated in Jens Jensen's remark in Our Native Landscape, published in his 1939 Siftmgs: \"It is often remarked, 'native plants are coarse.' How humiliating to hear an American speak so of plants with which the Great Master has decorated his land! To me no plant is more refined than that which belongs. There is no comparison between native plants and those imported from foreign shores which 7 are, and shall always remain so, novelties.\"' Yet the ease of transition between this benevolent version and dangerous Volkist nationalism may be discerned, and quite dramatically, in another statement from the same 5 Cortaderia jubata (sawgrass), weedy South Amemcan the hills of north-coastal Califorma. cousm of the garden-variety pampas grass, has mvaded and best because God made each creafor its proper place. But evolutionary theory fractured this equation of existence with optimality by introducing the revolutionary idea that all anatomies and interactions arise as transient products of complex history, not as created optimahties. Evolutionary defenses of native plants rest upon two quite distinct aspects of the revolutionary paradigm that Darwin introduced. (I shall argue that neither provides an unambiguous rationale, and that many defenders of native plants have mixed up these two distinct arguments, therefore rendering their defense incoherent.) be right ture one spot, then native must be best for native has been honed to optimality in the refiner's fire of Darwinian competition. (In critiquing horticulturists for this misuse of natural selection, I am not singling out any group for an unusual or particularly naive misinterpretation. This misreading of natural selection is pervasive in our culture, and also records a primary fallacy of much professional thinking possibly exist in any well.'o) Siftings, Jens Jensen expressed this mon viewpoint with particular force: as In com- The Functional Argument Based on Adaptation Popular impression regards Darwm's principle of natural selection as an optimizing force, leading to the same end of local perfection that God had supplied directly in older views of natural theology. If natural selection works for the best forms and most balanced interactions that could There are trees that belong to low grounds and those that have adapted themselves to highlands. They always thrive best amid the conditions they have chosen for themselves through many years of selection and elimmation. They tell us that they love to grow here, and only here will they speak in their fullest measure.\" I have often marvelled at the friendliness of certain plants for each other, which, through thousands of years of selection and elimination, 12 have lived m harmonious relation. 6 The incoherencies of this superficially attrac- is, natural selection can only transcend the local standard and over tive notion may be noted in the forthcoming admission, in a work of our own generation, that natural does not always mean lovely. Natu- cannot operate toward universal ral selection does not preferentially lead to plants that humans happen to regard as attractive. Nor do natural systems always yield rich associations of numerous, well-balanced species. Plants that we label \"weeds\" will dominate in many circumstances, however transiently (where \"transient\" can mean more than a human lifetime on the natural time scales of botanical succession). Such weeds are often no less \"native\"-in the sense of evolving indigenously-than plants of much more restricted habitat and geography. Moreover, weeds often form virtual monocultures, choking out more diverse assemblages than human intervention could maintain. C. A. Smyser et al. admit all this, but do not seem to grasp the logical threat thus entailed against an equation of \"natural\" with \"right\" or \"preferable\": \"You may have heard of homeowners who simply stopped mowing or weeding and now call their landscapes \"natural.\" The truth is that these socalled no-work, natural gardens will be long dominated by exotic weed species, most of which are pests and look downright ugly. \"improvement\"-for once a species prevails others at a location, no pressure of natural selection need arise to promote further adaptation. (Competition within species will continue to eliminate truly defective individuals and may promote some refinement by selection of fortuitous variants with still more advantageous traits, but the great majority of successful cies are spe- highly stable in form and behavior over long periods of geological time-not because they are optimal, but because they are locally prevalent.) For this reason, many native plants, evolved by natural selection as adaptive to their regions, fare poorly against introduced species that never experienced the local habitat. If natural selection produced optimality, this most common situation could never arise, for native forms would be \"best\" and would prevail in any competition against intruders. But most Australian marsupials succumb to placentals imported from other continents, despite tens of millions of years of isolation, during which the Australian natives should have attained irreplaceable incumbency, if natural selection worked for optimality rather than merely getting by. And Homo sapiens, after arising in Africa, seems able to prevail in any exotic bit of real estate, almost anywhere in the world! Thus the first-order rationale for preferring native Eventually, in 50 to 100 years, native plants will establish themselves and begin to create an attractive environment.\"'3 But not all \"weed\" species can be called \"exotic\" in the sense of being artificially imported from other geographic areas. Weeds can be indigenous too, though their geographic ranges tend to be large, and their means of natural transport well developed. The evolutionary fallacy in equating native with best adapted may be simply stated by specifying the essence of natural selection as a causal principle. As Darwin recognized so clearly, natural selection produces adaptation to changing local environments-and that is all. The Darwinian mechanism includes no concept of general progress or universal betterment. The \"struggle for existence\" can only yield local appropriateness. Moreover, and even more important for debates about superiority of native plants, natural selection is only a \"better than\" principle, not an optimizing device. That plants-that, as locally evolved, they are best adapted-cannot be sustained. I strongly suspect that a large majority of well-adapted natives could be supplanted by some exotic form that has never experienced the immediate habitat. In Darwinian terms, this exotic would be better adapted than the native-though we may well, on defensible aesthetic or even ethical grounds, prefer the natives (for nature's factuality can never enjoin our moral decisions). We may, I think, grant only one limited point from evolutionary biology on the subject of adaptation in native plants. At least we do know that well-established natives are adequately adapted, and we can observe their empirical balances with other local species. We cannot know what an exotic species will do-and many, and tragic, are the stories of exotics imported for a 7 restricted and benevolent reason that then grew like kudzu to everyone's disgust and detriment. We also know that natives grow appropmatelythough not necessarily optimally-in their environment, while exotics may not fit without massive human \"reconstruction\" of habitat, an intervention that many ecologically mmded people deplore. I confess that nothing strikes me as so (although workable, or they would not exist) will rarely express anything close to an optimum, or even a \"best posness, current patterns vulgar or inappropriate as a bright green lawn in front of a mansion in the Arizona desert, sucking up precious water that already must be imported from elsewhere. A preference for natives does foster humility and does coun- human arrogance (always a good thing to do)-for such preference does provide the only sure protection against our profound ignorance teract of consequences when we import exotics. But the standard argument-that natives should be preferred as best adapted-is simply false within Darwinian theory. Geographic Argument Based on Appropriate Place This argument is harder to formulate, and less clearly linked to a Darwinian postulate, but seems even more deeply embedded fallacy) into the conventional argument for preferring native plants. This argument holds that plants occupy their natural geographic ranges for reasons of maximal appropriateness. Why, after all, would a plant live only The somehow (as a this earth now\"-whereas the earlier theology, with direct creation of best solutions, and no appreciable history thereafter(or ever), could have validated an idea of native as best. Consequently, although native plants must be adequate for their environments, evolutionary theory grants us no license for viewing them as the best-adapted inhabitants conceivable, or even as the best available among all species on the planet. An enormous literature m evolutionary biology documents the various, and often peculiar, mechanisms whereby organisms achieve fortuitous transport as species spread to regions beyond their initial point of origin. Darwin himself took particular interest in this subject. During the 1850s, in the years just before publication of the Origin of Species in 1859, Darwin wrote several papers on the survival of seeds in salt water (how long would they float without sinking? would they still germinate after such a long bath?). He determined that many seeds could survive long enough to reach distant continents by floating across oceans-and that patterns of colonization therefore reflect historical accidents of available pathways, and not a set of on sible notion of natural optimal environments. a large range of \"rarely of transport beyond simple floating on the waves: for example, natural rafts of intertwined logs (often found floating in the ocean hundreds of miles from river mouths), mud caked on birds' feet, residence in the gut of birds with later passage in feces (Darwin and others studied, and often affirmed, the power of seeds to germinate after passage through an intestinal tract). In his usually thorough and obsessive way, Darwin assiduously collected information and found more than enough means of fortuitous transport. He wrote to a sailor who had been shipwrecked on Kerguelen Island to find out if he remembered any seeds or plants growing from driftwood on the beach. He asked an inhabitant of Hudson Bay if seeds might be carried on ice floes. He studied the contents of ducks' stomachs. He was delighted to receive in the mail a pair of partridges' feet Darwin then studied means region of 500 square kilometers unless this domain acted as its \"natural\" home-the place where it, umquely, and no other species, fits best. Smyser et al., for example, write: \"In any area there is always a type of vegetation that would exist without being planted or protected. This native vegetation consists of specific groups of plants that adapted to specific environmental conditions.\"\" But the deepest principle of evolutionary biology-the construction of all current biological phenomena as outcomes of contingent history, rather than optimally manufactured situations-exposes this belief as nonsense. Orgamsms do not necessarily, or even generally, inhabit the geographic area best suited to their attributes. Since organisms (and their areas of habitation) are products of a history laced with chaos, contingency, and genuine random- in this-or-that efficient\" 8 Eucalyptus globulus where m some cases is an it is important source of fuel and bmldmg matemal in the altiplano of South America, the sole tree This natme of Tasmama and Victona selfsows and has naturahzed can throughout the caked with He area. he rooted through bird dropfollowed a suggestion of his pings. eight-year-old son that they float a dead and well-fed bird. Darwin wrote in a letter that \"a pigeon has floated for 30 days in salt water with seeds in crop and they have grown splendidly.\" In the end, Darwin found more than enough mechanisms to move his viable seeds. \"Natives,\" in short, are the species that happened to find their way (or evolve in situ), not the best conceivable for a spot. As with the first argument about adaptation, the proof that current incumbency as \"native\" does not imply mud; northeast WASPs to the title of native, but even \" (however \"politically incorrect\" the point), the fashionable status of \"Indians\" (so-called by Columbus' error) as \"Native Americans\" makes just as little sense in biological terms. \"Native Americans\" arrived in a geological yesterday, some 20,000 years ago (perhaps a bit earlier), on the geographic fortuity of a pathway across the Bering Strait. They were no more intrinsically suited to New World real estate than any other superiority against potential competitors exists in abundance among hundreds of imported interlopers that have displaced natives throughout the world: eucalyptus in California, kudzu in the American southeast, rabbits and other placental mammals in Australia, and humans just about everywhere. \"Natives\" are only those organisms that first happened to gain and keep a footing. We rightly decry the elitist and parochial claims of Amen- people. They just happened to arrive first. In this context, the only conceivable rationale for the moral or practical superiority of \"natives\" (read first-comers~ must he in a romanticized notion that old inhabitants learn to live in ecological harmony with surroundings, while later interlopers tend to be exploiters. But this notion, however popular among \"new agers,\" must be dismissed as romantic drivel. People are people, whatever their technological status; some learn to live harmoniously for their own good, and others do not to their own detriment or destruction. Preindustrial 9 people have been just as rapacious (though not so quickly perhaps, for lack of tools\/ as the worst modern clear-cutters. The Maori people of New Zealand wiped out a rich fauna of some twenty moa species within a few hundred years. The \"native\" Polynesians of Easter Island wiped out everything edible or usable (and, in the end, had no logs to bmld boats or to raise their famous statues), and finally turned to self-destruction. In summary of my entire argument from evolutionary theory, \"native\" plants cannot be deemed biologically best in any justifiable way (note that I am emphatically not speaking about ethical or aesthetic preference, for science cannot adjudicate these considerations). \"Natives\" are only the plants that happened to arrive first variety lies in geographic diversity (different organisms evolved in similar habitats in many on our planet, as a result of limits and accidents of access). I would certainly be horrified to watch the botanical equivalent of McDonalds' uniform architecture and cuisine wiping out every local diner in America. Cherishing native plants does allow us to defend and preserve a maximal amount of local variety. But we must also acknowledge that strict \"nativism\" has an ethical downside inherent in the notion that \"natural\" must be right and best, for such an attitude easily slides to the Philistinism of denying any role to human intelligence and good taste, thence to the foolish romanticism of viewing all that humans might accomplish m nature as \"bad\" (and how then must we judge Frederick Law Olmsted's Central Park), and even (in an ugly perversion)-but realized in our time by Nazi invocation of nativist doctrine-to the claim that my \"native\" is best and yours only fit for extirpation. The defense against all these misuses, from mild to virulent, lies in a profoundly humamstic notion as old as Plato, one that we often advance in sheepish apology but should rather honor and cherish: the idea that \"art\" must be defined as the caring, tasteful, and intelligent modification of nature for respectful human utility. If we can practice this art in partnership with nature, rather than by exploitation (and if we also set aside large areas for rigidly minimal disturbance, so that we never forget, and may continue to enjoy, what nature accomplished during nearly all of her history without us\/, then we may achieve optimal balance. People of goodwill may differ on the best botanical way to capture the \"spirit of democracy\"-from one end of maximal \"respect\" for nature by using only her unadorned and locally mdigenous (\"native\") products, to the other of maximal use of human intelligence and aesthetic feeling in sensitive and \"respectful\" mixing of natives and exotics, just as our human populations have so benefited from imported diversity. Jens Jensen extolled the first view: \"When we are willing to give each plant a chance fully to develop its beauty, so as to give us all it possesses without any interference, then, and only then, shall we enjoy ideal land- places and be able to flourish (the evolutionary argument based on geography and history), while their capacity for flourishing only indicates a status as \"better than\" others available, not as optimal or globally \"best suited\" (the evolutionary argument based on adaptation and natural the only general defense that I can concoct for natives-and I regard this argument as no mean thing-lies in protection thus afforded against our overweening arrogance. At least we know what natives will do in an unchanged habitat, for they have generally been present for a long time and have therefore stabilized and adapted. We never know for sure what an imported interloper will do, and our consciously planted exotics have \"escaped\" to disastrous spread and extirpation of natives (the kudzu model) as often as they have supplied the intended horticultural or agricultural benefits. As a final ethical pomt (and I raise this issue as a concerned human bemg, not as a scientist, for my profession can offer no direct moral insight\/, I do understand the appeal of the ethical argument that we should leave nature alone and preserve as much as we can of what existed and developed before our very recent geological appearance. Like all evolutionary biologists, I treasure nature's bounteous diversity of species (the thought of half a million described species of beetles-and many more yet undescribedfills me with an awe that can only be called reverent). And I do understand that much of this selection). Speaking biologically, 10 by man. Is not this the true spirit democracy? Can a democrat cripple and misuse a plant for the sake of show and pretense?\"'s But is all cultivation-hedgerows? topiary ?crippling and misuse? The loaded nature of ethical language lies exposed herein. Let us consider, in closing, another and opposite definition of democracy that certainly has the sancscapes made of Century,\" Journal of Garden History (1992) 12(1\/: (: 73-80; G. Gromng and J. Wolschke-Bulmahn, \"Some Notes on the Mania for Native Plants in Germany,\" Landscape journal (1992) 11(2\/: 116-126, J Wolschke\" Bulmahn, Nazi \"Political Landscapes and Technology: tion of ancient usage. J. Wolschke-Bulmahn and G. Groning cite a stirring and poignant argu- 2 made by Rudolf Borchardt, a Jew who later died trying to escape the Nazis, against the nativist doctrine as perverted by Nazi horticulturists : \"If this kind of garden-owning barbarian became the rule, then neither a gillyflower nor a rosemary, neither a peach-tree nor a myrtle sapling nor a tea-rose would ever have crossed the Alps. Gardens connect people, times and latitudes. If these barbarians ruled, the great historic process of acclimatization would never have begun and today we would horticulturally still subsist on acorns.... The garden of humanment 3 Germany and the Landscape Design of the Relchsautobahnen (Reich Motor Highways\/,\" Selected CELA Annual Conference Papers Nature and Technology, Iowa State University, 9-12 September 1995, vol. 7. Quoted in Wolschke-Bulmahn, \"Political Landscapes,\" from a 1939 article. Quoted in Gronmg and Wolschke-Bulmahn, \"Native Plants.\" C. A. Smyser et al., Nature's Design A Practical Guide to Natural Landscaping, Emmaus, PA., 4 1982, xi. 5 K. Druse and M. Garden, New York. Roach, The Natural Habitat 1994, viii. 6 President William J. Clinton, Memorandum for the Heads of Executme Departments and Agencies, Office of the Press Secretary, 26 April 1994. ~J. Jensen, Siftings. The Major Portion of \"The Clearing,\" and Collected Wntmgs, Chicago, 1956, 45. huge democracy.\"'6 ity I cannot state a preference m this wide sweep of opmions, from pure hands-off romanticism to thorough overmanagement (though I trust that most of us would condemn both extremes). is a such ethical and aesthetic do not exist in any case. But we will questions not achieve clarity on this issue if we advocate a knee-jerk equation of \"native\" with morally best, and fail to recognize the ethical power of a contrary view, supporting a sensitive cultivation of all plants, whatever their geographic origin, that can enhance nature and bring both delight and utility to humans. Is it more \"democratic\" only to respect organisms in their natural places (how, then, could any non-African human respect himself), or shall we persevere in the great experiment of harmonious and mutually reinforcing geographic proximity-as the prophet Isaiah sought in his wondrous vision of a place where the wolf might dwell with the lamb and such non-natives as the calf and the lion might feed together-where \"they shall not hurt nor destroy in all my holy mountain.\" answers to \" Absolute Quoted in Wolschke-Bulmahn, \"Political Landscapes,\"13. 9 W. Paley, Natural Theology, London, 1802. 10 See S. J Gould and R. C. Lewontin, \"The Spandrels of San Marco and the Panglossian Paradigm: A Cntique of the Adaptariomst Programme,\" Proceedmgs of the Royal Society of London B ( 1979\/ 205: 581-198; see S. J. Gould, \"Exaptation: A Crucial Tool for an Evolutionary Psychology,\" journal of Social Issues (1991)47(3): 43-65. 11 Jensen, Siftmgs, 47. 12 Ibid., 59. 13 Smyser et al., Nature's Design, vm. 14 Ibid., xi. 1' Jensen, Siftings, 46. 16 Wolschke-Bulmahn and Groning, \"The Ideology of the Nature Garden,\" 80. Stephen J. Gould is professor of geology at Harvard University, curator of invertebrate paleontology at the Museum of Comparative Zoology, and Alexander Agassiz Professor of Zoology. Among his books and history of evolution and related topics are (1977), The Panda's Thumb (1980), The Flammgo's Smile (1985\/, Wonderful Life (1989\/, and Eight Little Piggies (1993\/. This article evolved from a paper presented at the 1994 Studies in Landscape articles on the Ever Smce Darwin Endnotes 1 J. Wolschke-Bulmahn and G. Gronmg, \"The Ideology of the Nature Garden. Nationalistic Trends in Garden Design in Germany During the Early Twentieth Architecture symposmm at Dumbarton Oaks-\"Nature and Ideology: Natural Garden Design in the Twentieth Century\"-and published in 1997 under the same title, edited by Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. D. Merrill, From Maine to Manila","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25200","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270ab6d.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hay, Ida","article_content":"E. D. Merrill, From Maine to Manila Ida Hay Twenty-two years of adventure in Southeast Asia preceded E. D. Merrill's career as director of several important botanical institutions, among them the Arnold Arboretum. His knowledge of the flora of Asia and the South Pacific was encyclopedic, and it was said he could name more species at sight than any other American taxonomist. When twenty-six-year-old Elmer Drew Merrill left New York harbor for Manila on February 22, 1902, he had no idea that he would remain in the Philippines for the next twenty-two years, laying the foundation for a botanical inventory of the archipelago. After accepting a job offer as botanist with the Insular Bureau of Agriculture, he had had less than forty-eight hours to arrange his affairs, pack, and get to the boat. This roughand-ready approach, spawned of a rigorous childhood in rural Maine, was to characterize Merrill's remarkable life: this would not be the last time he made a major career change at the drop of a hat. From 1935 to 1946, Merrill was director of the Arnold Arboretum and Administrator of Harvard University's Botanical Collections, which included the Botanic Garden, the Gray Herbarium, the Bussey Institution, the Botanical Museum, the Harvard Forest, the Atkins Institution, and the Farlow Reference Library and Herbarium. When he arrived at Harvard, he had already had sixteen years' experience managing organizations with diverse functions, in addition to an extraordinary record of scholarship and publication in taxonomic botany. Merrill was born in 1876 in East Auburn, Maine, a village of farmers and shoe factory workers, one of twins. He described his progenitors as simple, hardworking folk who, nevertheless, possessed the \"pioneer spirit.\" His maternal grandfather was a forty-niner who journeyed to California by way of Panama, returning to his wife and children in Maine without having found any gold. Merrill's father had run away to sea at age fourteen and worked as a common sailor until he married; he continued to sign on for extended fishing trips to the Grand Banks during E. D.'s youth. It was the work and the pleasures of rural life that shaped Merrill's character, as he recalled years later: Swimming, boating, fishmg, hunting, trampmg in the to us woods-many things were more appealing work, but when there was work to be done it always came fmst. \"' than Yet even at an collect natural early age he often found time to history specimens and to press plants. Unlike their three older siblings, Elmer and his twin, Dana, continued their education beyond the elementary grades, attending high school in Auburn, three miles distant from their home. In one of his more telling comments on his background, Merrill wrote: Many times in winter we walked the entire disto tance to the city ma howling blizzard only find \"no sessions\" because of the mclement weather. We came to have a rather scornful opinion of city people, not blaming the children, but rather the authorities. At times we made the trip on snowshoes.... This school experience doubtless had its effect in establishing one quality-that of persistence, a quality to which I believe I owe most of the success as I attamed m after hfe.z Maine State After graduating, both young men entered the College at Orono, which became the University of Maine in 1898, the year they 12 m Mernll, nght, and E. B. Copeland, left, with Joseph French and, standing, Henry Osgood, m the bachelor's mess Mamla, ca. 1905. From the time he arnved m the Phihppmes until he recemed an appomtment as Associate Professor of Botany m the University of the Phihppmes m 1912, Mermll spent at least half his time workmg in the field. E. B. Copeland, who ~omed the botanical staffof the Bureau of Science m 1903, was one of Memll's traveling companions. In 1909, accompamed by a group of Amemcan schoolteachers, the two climbed to the summit of Mount Pulog in northern Luzon, the third known ascent of the mountam by Westerners received their as degrees. Although they enrolled engineering students, they both transferred to the general science course after a surfeit of math classes during their first year. During his remaming undergraduate years, Elmer took as many biology courses as he could and studied the classification of flowering plants on his formal training was offered. Like botanists of his day, he tramped and botanized on New Hampshire's Mount Washington and likewise explored Mount Katahdin in northern Maine. He later gave his 2,000-specimen herbarium to the New England Botanical Club. He also traded a collection of his pressed plants dating from this period to Nathaniel Lord Bmtton for a copy of Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora of the Northern United States. Though neither of own since no most New England them could have foreseen it, Merrill would one day succeed Britton as director of the New York Botamcal Garden. The outbreak of the Spanish-American War determined Dana Merrill's career choice. He enlisted in the Maine Volunteer Infantry, received his diploma in absentia that spring, and soon headed out to fight in the Philippines. He remained in the Army after the war and advanced through the ranks to brigadier general in 1935. Elmer remained at Orono for a year after graduation. While he worked as an assistant in the Department of Natural Science, he took additional courses and continued to study systematic botany on his own. (In 1904, the University of Maine awarded him a master's degree for this work.) In 1899 he went to work in Wash- 13 ington at the U.S. Department of assistant (USDA) as an Agriculture agrostologist (a special- ist in grasses, a family Merrill termed \"particularly difficult\"). He found the job rewarding and appreciated the opportunity to become more familiar with the literature of plant tax- still undecided about a his hands evenings, he completed a year and a half of medical school. Then the offer of employment in the Philippines turned him permanently in the direction of was onomy, but he career. With time on plant science. many programs the U.S. governstarted in the Philippines after taking it over from the Spanish was an Insular Bureau of Agriculture, opened in 1901, the year before Merrill was persuaded by his boss at the USDA to accept the post of botanist there. He had expected to see his brother Dana when he arrived in Manila after the two-month voyage, but m the first of many ironies that would punctuate his life, he found that his twin had sailed for San Francisco two weeks earlier. It would be thirteen years before the two met again. Merrill quickly applied his energies to the challenges of his new assignment. The previous two and a half years of work on the taxonomy of grasses had expanded his botanical purview from New ment Among the almost nonexistent in Manila; any botanical specimens and literature that had been assembled during the long years of Spanish rule had either burned in the 1898 war or disappeared during the disruptive period of American takeover. Never one to hesitate, Merrill immediately started collecting weeds behind the vacant house that served as headquarters for the Bureau of Agriculture. And within a month he had left on his first collecting expedition, a six-week trek through the mountains of Luzon to Aparm on the north coast. For the next eleven years he would spend nearly half his time in the field. Government officials in Manila quickly recognized Merrill's abilities and gave him an additional appointment to the Bureau of Forestry, thereby consolidating botanical research. In 1903 all botanical work was transferred to the Bureau of Government Laboratories, which in 1906 became the Bureau of Science. England to Wyoming, Idaho, and Montana. Compared to that of the Western grasslands and Maine, however, the flora that he now confronted was exuberant and vastly complex. Undaunted, he immediately envisioned a complete survey of the Philippine archipelago, 7,000 tropical islands with extensive, mountainous, old- growth forest ringed by lowlands that had been cultivated for centuries. Resources for studying this fascinating flora were of Science buildings in Mamla, 1916 Although Merrzll's work in the Phzlippmes commenced in a vacant dwellzng rented as headquarters for the Bureau of Agrzculture m 1902, mthzn three years a new faczlzty was constructed to house the Bureau of Science. Merrill was director of the Bureau from 1919 to 1923. The destruction of these buzldzngs, along with most of their contents including the herbarium and botany library, during World War II was a tragic episode in Mernll's career, even though he was director of the Arnold Arboretum by that time Bureau 14 From the outset Merrill spent much time and energy building the reference library that was needed to identify the rich flora he found during his explorations. In 1902 he made a visit to the 85-year-old botanical garden in Buitenzorg, Java (Bogor). He found the library and herbarium there very helpful; in addition to identifying the Philippine plants he had brought along, he was able to familiarize himself with the botanical literature of the Malay Archipelago, the great chain of islands stretching from southern Asia to northern Australia. Undoubtedly this visit inspired his efforts to amass similar resources in Manila: by the time he left the Philippines in 1923, the herbarium had grown from almost nothing to over 250,000 specimens, compleas one mented by a library he characterized the most complete in all of Asia. Adventures in the Field of Merrill's travels in search of plants took him the length and breadth of the archipelago and included remote areas where few, if any Filipinos, let alone Westerners, had set foot. One of these was the summit of Mount Halcon, which he and a party of forestry and military personnel reached in November 1906 after twenty days of arduous, wet climbing. There existed no report of Westerners having previously attained the summit of this mountain; and apparently local Mangyan tribespeople had never ascended either, for no signs of trails were seen anywhere near the peak and Merrill was sure that no human could get there without cutting a trail, so dense was the mossy forest and so steep the terrain. Halcon, at 8,500 feet the third highest mountain in the Philippines, is located on northern Mindoro, one of the most humid areas in the entire country. Halcon and its subsidiary ranges capture an enormous amount of precipitation nearly year-round, and the mountain is continually shrouded in fog and clouds. During the ascent Merrill encountered the entire gamut of rainforest vegetation that he later came to know so well. Starting from Calpan to the north, the party soon left behind the coastal lowland with its mangrove swamps, cultivated crops, and abundant tropical weeds. They followed river courses and occasional Mangyan trails through dense vegetation dominated by huge trees with canopies so high and thick that only twilight reached the forest floor. For the most part this was primary forest with a several-storied, species-rich mix of trees that included many Dipterocarpaceae. They also encountered many areas of secondary forest, the abandoned clearings of the Mangyan people who regularly cleared a few acres of the old-growth forest, burned it over, then planted upland rice, corn, and other crops for a year or two before moving on to a new area. Once cultivation stopped, these clearings were rapidly re-vegetated by a mix of indigenous and introduced plants quite different from those of the original rainforest. Travel was extremely difficult. The rivers the party followed often led them into steep-sided ravines, forcing them to ford the swift water frequently. Then, after finally reaching the ridges at the top of the canyon walls, they had to hack their way slowly through more forest using bolos, the Filipino equivalent of machetes. Sometimes the only way to proceed was to chop their way up 80-degree slopes. Once they attained 4,000 feet, the vegetation began to change markedly to that known as the mossy forest-a diverse mix of smaller trees including oak, maple, and several Malaysian genera with many-branched, scraggly habits, as well as Rhododendron, Vaccinium, Rubus, and other shrubby genera found in more temperate regions. Moisture-loving ferns, mosses, and epiphytes grew even more profusely here at higher elevations than they had in the lower forests: Epiphytic ferns and orchids ... become more plentiful and there is a greater diversity m spemuch thicker and more luxueven the branches and branchlets of trees and forming a deep, soft, soil 3 cover, frequently a foot in thiclcness cies ; mosses are riant, enwrapping The going was not easier in the mossy forest, though the woody vegetation became more and more stunted the higher they climbed. Thickets of gnarled trees and branching shrubs, covered with epiphytes and intertwined with vines, allowed no forward progress without first clearing a trail step by step. The temperature had dropped considerably, averaging 60 degrees Fahrenheit in the daytime, and a rainy period that lasted thirteen days set in. even 15 Veitchia mermllm (formerly Adomdia mernllmJ The Chmstmas palm or Manila palm is admired for its pendulous clusters of cmmson frmt, which contrast attractively with its whltish frmt stalks and sheaths. It was known only from cultivation m the mcmity of Manila when named for Mermll by Itahan palm speciahst Odoardo Beccan (1843-1920). Later the Manila palm's native habitat was determmed to be restricted to Palawan and the Calamianes Islands on the basis of specimens collected by Mernll and A. D E. Elmer, one of his colleagues at the Phihppme Bureau of Science. 16 Surprisingly, when they reached 7,800 feet, the montane brush gave way to vegetation Merrill described as open heath, a collection of tufted grasses broken only occasionally by stunted trees and shrubs. They quickly traversed this area only to find that the final 500 feet of elevation was covered with thickets more dense than any they had previously encountered: the crest line, the cold discomfort.... Pitcher plants (Nepenthes) became very abundant, clambering everywhere in the thickets, so that in cutting our way through the underbrush, at frequent intervals our bolo slashes would upset the eqmlibrium of from one to a half a dozen pitchers, each holding one-half quart or more of water, which would be precipitated upon us. These irregular douches were far more disagreeable than the constant shower bath from the falling rain At times as we came ily made graves of tribesmen who had resisted American troops. And at times he risked his life by staying overnight in remote villages of the Mountain Province, where headhunters were reputed to live. relationships In order to determine the to between the flora of the Philippines and those of surrounding areas, as well as for help in identifying certain species, Merrill and his associates at the Bureau of Science also made collecting wind would add to our trips to Guam, Borneo, Amboina, Indochina, and China. He acquired additional specimens for the herbarium collection in Manila by exchanging material from the Philippines for IndoMalaysian, Australian, and Polynesian plants. Publications Of course, the fieldwork was only the beginning for Merrill. His observations in the field and subsequent scrutiny of pressed specimens, along with intense study of botanical literature, In storms worse than ever, Merrill and another scientist reached the summit, where clouds obscured the view. They quickly took barometric readings and left a record of their visit sealed in a bottle tied to a tree, since there were no boulders to use for a cairn. The return trip to the coast took nearly as long as the ascent. They were delayed by more storms, and two members of the party became lost for a while. When the porters were sent back to retrieve supplies left at lower elevations and got cut off by rain-swollen rivers, the party had to forage in the rainforest for a Thanksgiving \"dinner\" of broiled wood rats and boiled fern tips. Merrill commented that \"a man can come nearer to starving to death in a primary tropical forest than in almost any other part of the world,\" since there is little game, and edible fruit is either too high in the canopy or too widely spaced for efficient harvesting. It was some consolation to Merrill that a new species was later described from the rat skins and skulls left over from the holiday dinner. Although this was probably the most strenuous of his field trips, Merrill accepted many more challenges in his search for the Philippine flora. On some occasions he walked 36 miles in a single day. There were precarious landings in the surf on remote coasts, and the unnerving experience of collecting plants among the hast- Elmer Drew Merrill photographed m Mamla, 1914. 17 7 A circle of distmgmshed fmends photographed m the 1940s. Seated from left, Mermll, plant explorer and collector Damd Famchild, naturahst and herpetologist Thomas Barbour, and standmg, citrus hybmdizer Walter T. Swmgle and paleontologist Theodore Whlte, m Barbour's Flomda garden. Since the 1,007 species it covered-a small percentage of the total known for the entire country-were those that inhabited low altitudes and could be found in most towns, this work provided a useful guide for the Philip- became the material for a prodigious output of publications. He worked assiduously not only on problems of identification and classification but on nomenclature and bibliography as well. In the course of this work, for example, he published several papers updating Manuel Blanco's 1837 Flora de Filipinas. His long-term goal was to produce a complete descriptive flora for the Philippines, but first many new species had to be described and published, and their relationships with other plants explained. longer-term goal. pine people. Noteworthy Philippine Plants,\" a papers, was published intermittently from 1904 to 1922. Mernll also published about twenty revisions of genera or families as they occur in the Philippines. Altogether, between 1904 and 1929, he authored one hundred strictly taxonomic papers on the Philippine flora. Most were published in the Botanical Section of the Philippme Journal of Sclence, \"New series of or some seventeen which Merrill edited from 1907 to 1918. The publication in 1912 of the 500-page A Flora of Mamla was a major step toward his assigned himself were limited to the Philippine flora. In the course of studying the origins of Philippine plants and their relationships to the vegetation of neighboring regions, he wrote exhaustive commentaries on the work of earlier botanists, including the pre-Linnean work of Rumphms on the flora of Amboina in the Moluccas, and the Flora Cochinchinensis ( 1790) of Portuguese missionary Juan Louriero; assembled a great deal of information on the literature of Malaysian botany, and became an expert on the local names for plants of Southeast Asia as well as the biogeography of the region. He also published papers on the plants of Borneo, Guam, Sumatra, Hainan, and Papua, often based on the many specimens that he received from those areas. not But the tasks Merrill 18 8 Having begun his botanical career at the USDA and gone to the Far East under the auspices of the Department's divisions of agriculture and forestry, Merrill was ever aware of the practical aspects of plant science and of the human influence on the flora. His observations introduced weeds, cultivated plants, and local plant names initiated a lifelong interest in the origins of agriculture and the migration of plants m pre-Columbian times. \"The American Element in the Philippine Flora\" (1904), \"Medical Survey of the Town of Taytay: The Principal Foods Utilized by the Natives\" (1909), and \"Notes on the Flora of Manila with Special Reference to the Introduced Element\" (1912) are some of his earliest papers in economic botany. In all his many publications on the flora, Merrill rarely failed to comment on the destruction of forests and other changes in ecosystems caused by human activities: on practical extermination of the origmal vegof those regions best adapted to agricultural pursmts is a subject that deserves more The etation Botany at the University of the Philippines; subsequently, his teaching duties would occupy from 18 to 36 hours per week. Then, in 1919, he was appointed director of the Bureau of Science after a six-month stint as acting director. In this capacity his responsibilities included medicine, public health, chemistry, weights and measures, materials testing, geology, mining, fisheries, zoology, and anthropology, in addition to botany. Although he accepted the position \"with diffidence and reluctance,\" he found in himself a talent for handling problems in fields widely divergent from his own, and his executive ability quickly won him respect. It is perhaps not surprising that the botanist whose identical twm became a brigadier general turned out to have a knack for administration. But his new role cut even more severely into the time available for preparing the major work he had contemplated: My appointment of Director of the Bureau of Science m 1919 clearly indicated to me that I could scarcely hope to consummate my plan of preparmg and publishing a general descriptive flora of the Philippines, as I soon realized that most of Associate Professor of has received. Unquestionably, many species of plants have been exterminated in various parts of the Malayan region within the past century as the population has increased. The areas bemg devoted to agriculture are being rapidly enlarged ... and the consequent destruction of primeval forests over large areas is a strong argument m favor of vigorous and intensive botanical exploration of Malaya 5 The enormous trees and shade plants characteristic of the primary forest cannot persist under the conditions demanded by modem agnculture, and they cannot exist in second growth forest, grasslands, and bamboo thickets that rapidly encroach on cleared areas that are abandoned.... We are witnessmg in our own generation the rapid extermmation of some of the 6 noblest types of tropical vegetation ... ~ it consideration than necessity have to be done outside of office hours. I accordingly compromised with myself and ... commenced the actual preparation of my 'Enumeration of Philip'7 pine Flowering Plants.\" tween 1922 account my botamcal work would of The four-volume Enumeration was issued beand 1926. In it Merrill attempted to: for all binomials accredited to the Philippine flora, adjust the synonymy, cite all important literature references, illustrative [specimens] when desirable, determme the Philippme and extra-Philippme distribution of each 8 species and record native names When Merrill wrote these words, the population of the Philippine Islands was less than that of greater London; today the population is ten million greater than that of all the British Isles. Becoming an Administrator Merrill would have loved to spend all his was time working series systematic botany, but in 1912 a of additional appointments began to in claim much of it. In that year he appointed While it was not the complete, descriptive work that he had hoped to produce, it was a valuable summation of all that he and his colleagues had accomplished. The Enumeration allowed Merrill to outline his conclusions on the relationship of the Philippines' climate, geologic history, and plant life to those of adjacent regions. Also included were discussions of the original settlement of the islands; their peoples and languages; and the history of botanical study in the Philippines. Unexpectedly, the 19 Enumeration served as a kind of closure to Merrill's years in the Philippines, for as it turned out, he left Manila in the fall of 1923 never to return. The Scientist-Administrator Moves On Merrill's departure was almost as abrupt as his arrival: he was given only a week to decide whether to accept a position as dean of the College of Agriculture at the University of California. Had there been no family dependent on him, he would undoubtedly have remained in the Philippines. But in 1907 he had married Mary Augusta Sperry of Illinois. After the wedding in Manila, the couple spent a year traveling to China and Japan, followed by a several-month stay in Washington, D.C., and visits to London, Leiden, Berlin, and Florence, where Merrill studied in herbaria. Once settled back in Manila, Mary gave birth to three children over the next seven years. When the third child died in infancy, the Merrills concluded that \"Manila was not the proper place in which to bring up a family.\" In 1915, at the end of another visit to Washington, Mrs. Merrill stayed on with the two children. Elmer returned to Mamla and did not see his fourth child, born in 1916, until she was nearly five years old. leave the scene of so many years of work, the city in which I made such y reputation I bear as a botanist It was lections. As soon as the fighting ended, he rallied curators at Harvard and other major herbaria to send duplicate specimens and library materials to the Philippines. Work on the complete flora of the Islands has been carried forward in recent years by Philippine and American botanists at the Philippine National Herbarium, the Bishop Museum, and the Botanical Research Institute of Texas, using Merrill's meticulous scholarship as a starting point. Tragically, many of the plants to be included may no longer exist by the time the flora is published, since rainforest is being destroyed in the Philippines at a rate second only to Madagascar's. Of the extensive primary forests that once covered the mountainous archipelago, current estimates are that less than three percent remain intact. Endnotes 1 E. D. Mernll Early 2 3 years, the n.s. Bulletm Ibid. (hereafter EDM.), \"Autobiographical Philippines, California,\" Asa Gray (1953) 2(4): 338. _, EDM, \"The 200. Ascent of Mount Halcon, Phihppme Journal of Science, 4 5 section Mindoro,\" A (1907) 2(3): (: Ibid., 195. not easy to ~ As he left Manila in 1923 Merrill took some comfort in the good will of his American and Filipmo colleagues in the Bureau of Science and in the resources that he left behind for the ongo- 7 8 EDM, \"An interpretation of Rumphms's Herbanum Ambomense,\"Bureau of Science Pubhcation, Manrla (1917)9-25-26 EDM, \"A bibliographic enumeration of Bornean plants,\" Journal of the Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society (1921) Special number. 27-28. EDM, \"Autobiographical,\" 357. Ibid. ing work of inventorying the Philippine flora: fine a ~ Ibid, 359. and herbarium, and an exhaustive body of research. Through the field collecting of Merrill and his coworkers, the list of known Philippine species had been extended from 2,500 plants of all types in 1900 to 8,120 species of flowering plants, 1,000 species of ferns, and 3,000 species of cryptogams by 1926, when the final volume of the Enumeration was published. Perhaps the greatest of all the ironies in Merrill's life would come during World War II, when the collections of the Bureau of Science were destroyed by Japanese bombs. By that time Merrill was at the Arnold Arboretum and in a position to help rebuild the col- library For Further Reading Life of the Pacific World Gray Bulletm n.s. Mernll, --. E. D. 1945 Plant NY: Macmrllan 1955. Real values. Asa 27-32 3\/1\/: (: Editors. 1946. Mernlleana, a selection from the general writings of Elmer Drew Mernll. Chromca Botamca 10. 127-394 Ida Hay, a member of the Arnold Arboretum staff for over twenty years, is the author of Science m the Pleasure Ground, a history of the Arnold Arboretum published in 1995 by Northeastern University Press She now lives in Northampton, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Light in a Bottle: Plant-Collecting in the Philippines","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25201","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270af26.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Light in a Bottle: Plant-Collecting in the Philippines Rob Nicholson There has been no better time to be a field botanist. It is from the world of plants that cures are again being sought, and compounds isolated from plants are being tested for their anti-viral, anti-cancer, and anti-fungal activity. A small corps of botanists are journeying to the field, gathering samples of bark, leaf, and root, and trundling them back to the biochemistry labs of the world. The status recent years of botanical compounds has risen in with the success of the taxane group of compounds in fighting cancer. However, funding for research on medicinal plants is notorious for its boom-and-bust cycles, and if well-funded efforts bring no major downcycle m support may be triggered. At the same time, there is an urgent sense among botanists returning from the field that the work must be done now or never. The relentless spread of human population means that forests continue to be turned into fields and pastures and that individual plant species are harvested into extinction by the multitudes of people who value their timber, flowers, or aphrodisiac bark. Botanical field collecting for medicinal leads usually proceeds in two phases. Initially a broad assortment of plants is collected from a certain region or from a specified set of plant families. Extracts are made and laboratory-tested for effectiveness against a variety of diseases. If a particular species shows promise-the San Pedro cactus, let us say-the second phase begins with a search for different populations of the same species or for other species within the genus-perhaps the San Roberto cactusin hopes of achieving a still higher level of effectiveness. Essentially, then, it is find a needle in the haystack, then find a better needle. Over the last twelve years most efforts have focused on cancer and the HIV virus, and scores of botanical compounds have been tested on cell the current leads, a new cultures of these diseases. The work is coordinated by the Developmental Therapeutics Program of the National Cancer Institute (NCI) under the directorship of Dr. Gordon Cragg. Since 1985 over 30,000 plant extracts have been tested for in-vitro effectiveness against sixty types of cancerous tumors, and over 52,000 have been tested against HIV since 1987. Once an effective compound has been isolated and patented, the NCI licenses it to a pharmaceutical ~ firm for further development. \" Homolanthus as a Potential Anti-HIV Therapy Dr. Cragg reported in 1994 that \"four novel plant-derived agents with in-vitro anti-HIV activity have been isolated and selected for preclinical development.\" Among these are extracts from a Conospermum species of Australia, Ancistrocladus korupensis of Cameroon, and Calophyllum of southeast Asia, which was collected and identified by researchers at the Arnold Arboretum and is now in Phase II human clinical trials. A fourth genus of interest to NCI is Homalanthus. There are about 35 species of Homalanthus, ranging throughout Indomalaysia and Polynesia. Because none of these is very appealing aesthetically, little had been written about them since 1914, when Elmer Merrill (later director of the Arnold Arboretum) described a number of Homalanthus species from the Philippines. Then in the late 1980s, after a decade of work- 21 push In lush and humid lowland rainforest, the plant-collectmg party stops to catch them breath up Mt Apo, the highest peak m the Philippines. before a fmal Amid razor-sharp sawgrass and burnt trunks, expedition members of young Taxus plants to be tested for ann-cancer actmty. were successful m locatmg a handful 22 ing with native healers m Samoa, botanist Paul Cox of Brigham Young University returned to number of samples for laboratory analysis, together with documentation of their local medicinal uses. One of Cox's specimens was Homalanthus nutans. As members of the euphorbia family, Homalanthus are related to such plants as crotons, poinsettia, cassava, and castor beans. Some members of the family contain milky latexes that cause gastrointestinal poisoning, dermititis, or tumors, but a number of them have been used medicinally worldwide to relieve toothaches and oral infections, or as emetics and laxatives. Plants of the genus Homalanthus are small trees, weedy colonizers that thrive along the edges of roads and fields or in newly opened spaces in the forest canopy. Samoans know them as mamala and use their bark, leaves, stems, and roots to treat a variety of ailments, the United States with a being yellow fever. In Western laboratories compound extracted from the wood, prostratin, was found to strongly inhibit the killing of human host cells in-vitro by the HIV virus. This first flash of promise set off a cycle of activity. Botanists began collecting and studying the plant, and chemists initiated studies to decipher its mode of activity, thus giving it staone a tus as a candidate for clinical trials. Botanists Take To the Field At the same time that studies were revealing the medicinal potential of Homalanthus, my research partner, Dr. Melvin Shemluck, and I secured a grant from the United States Department of Agriculture to continue our previous research on wild populations of yew, this time collecting live material in the Philippines. Taxus, the yew genus, had been the subject of intense research for over a decade thanks to the The cabbage fields of Mt. Pulog represent biodmersity conservation. a classic dilemma of developmg countmes: mcreased food production vs 23 discovery of the compound taxol, an anti-cancer agent found focusing to on its needles and bark. We were disjunct yew populations in order m learn which species or populations produce the most taxol, a crucial piece of information for selecting the best ones for biotechnological applications or plantations. We also hoped to determine the conservation status of wild stands of yews in the Philippines, as well as to procure samples for research groups that are studying the genetic and ecological aspects of yew biology. Smce the intriguing results of tests agamst the HIV virus using prostratin were becoming well known by this time, the USDA extended our mandate to enable us to search for new species or populations of Homolanthus while we looked for yew. Our pretnp research led us to an obscure book on the shelf of the Smith College library, The Vegetation of the Philippme Mountams, written in 1919 by William Brown, an associate of Elmer Merrill. His meticulous accounts were rich in all the kinds of data that help in planning a collecting trip, including the timing of monsoons and the altitude of various plant habitats. Brown also described the broad categories of forests found in the Philippines. At the lowest altitudes is the lowland Dipterocarp forest, a tropical rainforest with three stories of trees and a shrub and herb layer at the base. Some of these Dipterocarp trees can reach 130 feet in height and have been the source of Philippine mahogany lumber for hundreds of years. The lower montane, or mid-mountain, forest is found at altitudes of 3,300 to 8,200 feet. Evergreen oaks and laurels are the major component of this two-storied forest, with southern hemisphere conifers such as Podocarpus and Agathis found in this association. Finally, the lower montane mist forest, or mossy forest, is a high-altitude, single-layer assemblage of lowgrowing, gnarled, mossy trees bathed by daily mists or local names of plants, and sometimes, more colorful information, as with the sample of Homalanthus nutans. Collected in the Solomon Islands by S. F. Kajewski in 1931, the notes included, \"When a man has been infected by an evil spirit the sap of this tree is drunk to get rid of this spirit.\" \" On the Ground in the Philippines Our first stop in the Philippines was the National Museum in Manila, where we consulted with Philippine flora expert Dr. Domingo Madulid and put together our team. Our next destination was Mt. Pulog; at 9,607 feet it is the highest point on the northern island of Luzon. We drove north from Manila through a snarl of jeepneys, buses, cars, and motorbikes, at one point passing a 40-foot deep lahar flow six miles from its source, Mt. Pinatubo. Our party of four botanists and driver stayed that night in the mountain resort of Baguio, a city much damaged by a recent earthquake. The next day we began our ascent of Mt. Pulog on a road whose quality declined drastically as we hit steeper terrain. As if to further emphasize the power of nature in the Philippines, a front of thunderheads began to drop its moisture on us, making the last twenty miles a battle up the deeply rutted road, its clay soil slippery from the rain. Each time our efforts seemed doomed, we somehow cajoled our vehicle forward. After reaching the entrance of Mt. Pulog National Park, we moved our gear into the cabm that serves as the park's headquarters and the camp for its solitary caretaker. While the torrent continued into dusk, we dried out under the tin roof, peering out at a Homalanthus plant across the stream that had once been a road. The clear light of morning showed the magnitude of settlement on the surrounding slopes: the forests of Benguet pine, Pinus msulans, had been intensively cut right up to the park's boundary, and the fields of the local Ifugao tribesmen sur- rain. Homalanthus acquired visual familiarity with by studying dried, pressed specimens m herbaria, noting the botanical characteristics of species that would help us distinguish them in the field. Field notes on herWe barium labels give invaluable clues to location and often include altitude, associated species, cabin. Ironically, this degraded forest was ideal habitat for Homalanthus, and we had no problem finding several specimens of a large-leaf species, H. megaphyllus, a small tree with thick branches, large minaret-shaped buds, and a distinctive, rounded leaf with a red stem. We soon our rounded 24 morning produced nothing, and as predicted, the rain began again at noon, reducing visibility to 75 feet. Melvin and I spent the afternoon walking along the edges of cabbage fields and up and down the crude paths that crisscrossed the slopes. It was evident that the forest had been severely depleted since yew was last collected on Mt. Pulog. Each hour of trudging past three-foot-wide pine stumps made us more depressed, and we began to talk of an epitaph for this population of yew. We returned to the cabin A robust plant of Homalanthus megaphyllus found headquarters of Mt. Pulog National Park. near the had a collection of a half-dozen samples of wood with corresponding cuttings for propagating back at the Smith Botanic Garden. The cabin was sited at 7,500 feet, the point where the pine forest gave way to the moist, low, and dense mossy forest. Rather than carve out a trail through the heavy undergrowth, we stayed on the path to the summit of Mt. Pulog as we searched for yew trees and other Homalanthus species. Some of the species here were recognizable as common farther north in more temperate zones-spicebush (Clethra luzonica), Berberis barandana, Deutzia pulchra, Ilex crenata f. luzonica, and dense shrubs of Rhododendron subsesslle. The most unusual collection of the day was a whiteflowered epiphytic rhododendron unique for its thin needle-like leaves. As we climbed higher the effects of the colder climate became evident in the stunted shrublike forms of species that grew as trees lower down. At 8,700 feet, the woody flora disappeared altogether, giving way to a tussock grassland interspersed with a dwarf bamboo, Arundinaria niitakayamensls. At this point we were still 900 feet from the summit and the temptation to see the ocean from the top of the island beckoned, but our Philippine colleagues counseled that the rains would come again by noon. Since no Homalanthus or Taxus would be found above treeline, we retreated to search along other paths lower down. The rest of the dejected and prepared for defeat, but our gloom changed to joy when our Philippine colleague Ephrain greeted us with a fold of newspaper containing a sprig of yew. Not a thousand yards from the cabin our Ifugao guide had found five adult yew trees (up to 80 feet tall) and a trio of saplings on the edge of a cabbage patch. Once the guide confirmed that this was the plant we sought, he remembered seeing more of them faron the other side of the mountain. We realized, however, that the day of the yew on Mt. Pulog is almost past: because it germinates and grows under a solid canopy, yew is found only in forests of long standing. ther north Homalanthus, by contrast, rapidly establishes itself in recently disturbed areas-for instance, in clearcuts tains on ing the forests canopy gaps. With farmers clearhigher and higher up the mounLuzon, Homalanthus is enjoying a or newfound prosperity. To ensure broad genetic diversity, we wanted to collect from widely separated populations. After returning to Manila, we flew to Mindanao, the largest of the Philippines' southern islands, to seek out the yew and Homalanthus populations previously documented on Mt. Apo. Mindanao is also home to some rare endemic species of Homalanthus, and we hoped to locate some of these. Apo is the highest peak in the Philippines ; the only access is by foot. Our party of Mt. four botanists and three porters began the ascent 25 the village of Kitapowan and walked upward through lush lowland forest. Towering above us, one spectacular tree, damar, Agathis dammara, had an eight-foot-wide trunk oozing a sticky, milky resin, which is the source of a resin used at in varnishes. Clumps of epiphytic orchids, some of them three feet across, cluttered the path, brought down by their own weight from the branches above. Some of the trees were so tall that the first branch was too high to identify, although tentative identification could be made from fragments of floral matter fallen on the path. Other plants, like the bizarrely primitivelooking screwpine (Pandanus) or the lush tree ferns, grew in the lower canopy layer and were unmistakable. We found one species of Homalanthus on the uphill climb-H. populneus-a solitary specimen of 45 feet that had sprouted near a treefall. After a grueling five-hour climb, we set up camp at 7,200 feet on the shores of Lake Venado. Again we found ourselves m a lush, mossy forest belt of southern comfers like Dacrydium and Falcatifolium, with the vivid scarlet blossoms of epiphytic vireya rhododendrons punctuating the green curtain. Rain was pouring down again as we rested in camp and botanized around the lakeshore. Here we found trees more closely related to the southern flora: Tasmannia, mum, Taxus on Mt. Apo had been the botanist Robbms in 1965, at an altitude of 7,500 feet. We moved upward nervously, fearing that Robbins had approached the peak from another direction, or that the fire had eradicated what may have been the only Taxus population on Mt. Apo. But at 7,300 feet we spotted a yew seedling, an eight-inch sprig in the moss on the edge of the path, and within the next 400 feet of altitude, we found an additional fifteen seedlings and saplings. These few plants had probably sprouted from seed deposited in the soil prior to the fire, and it seems unlikely that they will survive competition from the sawgrass or withstand the intensity of the full sun should they rise above it. Although the specimens were too small to yield a sample for laboratory testing, we collected a few cuttings from each to root back at the Smith College greenhouses and to provide material for researchers working on other aspects of the yew. We tried one additional foray off-path in the direction of a promising ravine. But when clouds pumped up and postured threateningly, we turned back. Suddenly the rainy season began in earnest, with a downpour that dwarfed all previous storms. On the way back down the mountain we found one prior collection of by Leptosperour and Pittosporum, yew. From we but no the of Mt. Apo. A fire had burned a considerable portion of its forest in 1986, and silvery dead trunks now rose out of a sea of ten-foot sawgrass. The lone path traversing this thicket seemed our only practical route for the next day's climb. We set off early, aware now that the workday would be cut short by afternoon rains. The only camp see could north-facing slope While curious townspeople looked on, the author and other members prepared samples for the tmp down the mountam expedition team 26 more species of Homolanthus, H. rotundifolius, bringmg our total to four. Conclusion the U.S. our Taxus samples analysed for relevant medicinal compounds, and data concerning individual tagged trees was sent back to the Philippines. Should plantation culture become an option, these tags can identify elite trees. Cuttings were rooted at Smith College, and from these plants, material was supplied to other researchers working on the yew's taxonomy, biochemistry, and genetics. Samples from our Homalanthus collection possible, yet with each trip comes the realization that we may be chasing and bottling the last rays of light before an eclipse of uncertain dimension and duration. mg far afield Upon were our return to Bibliography Balick, M. J., Brown, and P. A. Cox. 1996. Plants, People and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. NY: Scientific American Library. W. H. 1919 Vegetation of the Philippine Mountains Mamla: Bureau of Science. Cox, P. A. 1993. Saving the Ethnopharmacological Hentage of Samoa. Journal of Ethno181-188. pharmacology 38(2-3\/: ---. were the Natural Products Branch of the National Cancer Institute to begin the long process of analysis and trial. Initial extracts showed significant activity against HIV cell lines, but further development has stalled for a variety of reasons; other plant compounds have shown more promise, as have certain non-plant-derived compounds. Although prostratin, unlike other compounds in its class (phorbol-esters), does not induce tumors, taint by association has dampened interest on the part of pharmaceutical firms. Dr. Paul Cox, the botanist who brought prostratin out of the rainforest, has suggested sent to 1994. The Ethnobotamcal Approach to Drug Discovery: Strengths and Ethnobotany G. Limitations. In and the Search for New Drugs, ed. D. J. Chadwick and J. Marsh (CIBA Foundation Symposium 185). NY: J. Wiley. Cragg, M., et al. 1994. Ethnobotany and Drug Discovery. The Experience of the U.S. National Cancer Institute. In Ethnobotany and the Search for New Drugs, ed. D. J. Chadwick and J. Marsh (CIBA Foundation Symposium plants may produce \"gray pharmaceuticals,\" drugs of proven safety and efficacy that some are not marketable in the Western world. Possi- bly prostratin may fall into this category, a lowcost, plantation-grown treatment option that offers an alternative to high-priced Western drug regimes. The colonizing nature of Homalanthus may make it an ideal subject for plantations in forested In the areas. 185). NY: J. Wiley. Gulakowski, R. J., et al. 1997 Antireplicative and anticytopathic activities of prostratm, a nontumor-promoting phorbol ester, agamst human immunodeficiency virus (HIV). Antiviral Research 33(2): 87-97. Gustafson, K. R., et al. 1992 A nonpromoting phorbol medicinal from the Samoan plant Homalanthus nutans inhibits cell killing by HIV-1. Journal of Medicinal Chemistry 35:1978-1986. Mernll, Mernll, E. D., and M. L. Merntt. 1910. The Flora of Mount Pulog. Philippine Journal of Science C. Botany V(4). E. D. 1914. Notes on Philippine Euphorbiaceae, II. Philippine Journal of Science C Botany daily grind of plant-collecting, it is easy to on the immediate goal, the plants themselves, and to forget that each collection, long shot though it is, may be the basis of a cure for thousands or millions of people. The renewed interest in botanical compounds makes collectfixate IX(5). Rob Nicholson manages the conservatories of the Smith College Botamc His article on 1997 issue of Arnoldia Garden, Northampton, Massachusetts. cutleaf maples appeared in the summer "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ecology and Economics of Elm Replacement in Harvard Yard","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25203","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270b36f.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Ecology and Economics of Elm Harvard Yard Peter Del Tredici Replacement in ', Dutch elm disease-tolerant American elms have rekindled interest in restoring the species to the landscapes it once dominated. Two new These 'New new selections of Ulmus americana- Harmony' and 'Valley Forge', recently mtroduced by the United States National Arboretum-represent an important horticultural breakthrough,' but some basic biological issues should be considered before any new plantings of the American elm are undertaken. The purpose of this article is to articulate these questions in economic as well as ecological terms in order to facilitate the decision-making process that many landscape architects, designers, and town managers now face concerning the use of American elms in historic landscapes. The American Elm in History ( 1875\/, and C. S. Sargent \/ 1890~.3 These authors make it clear that the American elm was widely planted for a number of reasons, only one of which was its great size and beauty. Other, more pragmatic reasons gleaned from the literature of the period can be summarized as follows: The American elm, a native species, was distributed throughout eastern and widely central North America, typically growing on moist bottomland or along disturbed roadsides. It was so easy to transplant that it could litbe ripped out of swamps and planted erally B. Emerson The first question that should be asked is why this tree came to be so widely planted across eastern and central North America in the first place. The explanation can be found in the horticultural literature of the 1800s, particularly in a beautiful book by Lorin Dame and Henry Brooks that was published in 1890, Typical Elms and Other Trees of Massachusetts.2 Profusely illustrated and written long before Dutch elm disease appeared in North America, it serves as a portrait of the American elm at the pinnacle of its landscape dominance. The authors made many important contributions to our knowledge of the American elm, but most significant is their documentation of a key fact: that the huge elms of the past reached their great size by virtue of rapid growth rate, rather than by great age. Other writers who described the American elm in the nineteenth century include F. A. Michaux (1819), A. J. Downing along roadways. It recovered well from the heavy pruning it received following these careless transplant- ing practices. highly adaptable, growmg equally dry sites. It grew very rapidly, averaging about a halfinch increase in caliper per year and reaching It was well on wet or three feet in diameter within seventy was m short supply in the mneteenth century, and the American elm provided it more quickly than any other tree. It shed its lower branches naturally, making it well suited for locations along heavily trafficked city streets and country roads. two to years. Shade (1841),D. J. Browne (1846), F. J. Scott1870\/, G. Dutch Elm Disease The Dutch elm disease fungus, along with its dispersal agent, the European elm-bark beetle, arrived in North America in 1930, hidden under the bark of European elm burl-logs that had 28 29 been shipped into the United States for makmg veneer.4 The disease spread so rapidly and killed American elms so quickly that it seemed at first that the species was headed for extinction. Fortunately, this prediction has not come to pass. The species still thrives as a wild tree in wet woods and along streambanks throughout eastern North America.~ As a landscape plant, however, the American elm is close to extinction. The grand old specimens, four to five feet in diameter, that once graced virtually every town common in New England have been replaced by trees that seldom reach more than eighteen inches across before succumbing to DED or some other disease. Smce the 1960s, there has been considerable publicity about various efforts to \"save\" or to \"bring back\" the American elm. Long-term approaches have involved either selecting DEDtolerant American elm cultivars or hybridizing American elm with other elm species that are DED-resistant. In contrast, short-term approaches focus on preserving existing specimens by spraymg for the beetle, injecting infected trees with fungicides, and removing diseased limbs as quickly as possible. While these treatments have saved individual trees for up to twenty years, they are at best temporary solutions; the inevitable infirmities of old age are already catchmg up with older specimens. Case Study: The Harvard Elms The American elm has been the mainstay of the Harvard Yard landscape for well over a hundred years. The trees have faced many threats during this time, but none has been as serious as the introduction of Dutch elm diseased In 1979, when Harvard University began to implement an integrated elm protection program, there were 285 elms on campus. Most of them were American elms, but a number of English and European elms of uncertain identity were also mixed in. Most of the trees were about seventy or eighty years old when the protection program began. By 1994, after fifteen years of treatment, there remamed only 165 elms, a mortality rate of 42 percent. Detailed figures do not exist, but the average cost of the total protection program Amencan elms have long been valued for them This `Prmceton' elm grew m a exceptional growth more rate. than two meters smgle year Tack to Alexander, Arnold Arboretum propagator, pomts the start of the current year's growth. for the Harvard Yard elms over the period is estimated at $25,000 a year, broken down roughly as follows: F (one dorfoliage spray) $3,000 for fungicide injection each year $3,000 for fertilization every third year $5,000-$10,000 for pruning and removals Over the fifteen-year period the total amount spent on the elms was approximately $375,000, or $100 per tree per year, in spite of which, mortality was at 42 percent after fifteen years. By extendmg these figures out, one can calculate . $14,000 for two sprays each year mant oil and one . . the at cost roughly $500,000, of elm maintenance over twenty years with mortality approachon Ulmus americana 'Princeton', a Dutch elm disease-tolerant Amemcan elm cultmar, has been growmg northeast slope of Bussey Hill smce 1935 the 30 ing 50 percent. By comparison, the annual cost for maintaining non-elm trees in the Yard is how much approximately $20 a tree. Replacement In 1994 an one should invest in an elm protection program, and in any case, the question should not be decided purely on an economic Costs elm cost replacement program was initi- of planting 200 new trees in the Yard, most of them four to eight inches in caliper and ten to twenty feet tall, was $470,000, or $2,350 per tree, including a one-year maintenance contract and guarantee. Essentially, the numbers show that the cost of planting 200 new trees was roughly equal to the cost of maintaining 285 elms for twenty years, of which only half will still be alive and the other half in a state of decline at the end of twenty years. To put it another way, twenty years of maintaining one large elm with only a 50-percent chance of survival costs the same as ated.' The planting one new four-to-eight-inch caliper tree. There is no absolute answer to the question of basis. Elm protection programs cannot save a tree forever, and in anticipation of the death of the elms, such programs should always be undertaken m conjunction with a program of planting other species of trees. It is clear that the high density of American elms that was seen in many cities and towns during the first third of the twentieth century should not be recreated.8 Indeed, it was this high density that allowed the elm-bark beetle population to build up rapidly, leading to the epidemic spread of DED. One sees more elms surviving these days than in the past, not because trees are more tolerant of Dutch elm disease than before, but because the reduced elm population has resulted in lower elm-bark beetle populations. This in turn allows more elms to escape detection by their predators. Planting new trees of different species are lust months after this photograph was taken, this hundred-year-old Amemcan elm, one of the last still standmg g on Boston's Commonwealth Avenue Mall, succumbed to a heavy wet snow that brought zt crashmg down onto cars and mto townhouse wmdows. 31 The remnants of an allee of Amencan elms tower over replacement plantmgs of Zelkova serrata on the grounds of Philhps-Exeter Academy m Andover, Massachusetts The zelkova has many ments, but neither m scale nor stature an does it resemble the Amencan elm investment in the future that softens the a blow when big elm dies, as it inevitably does. Achieving Diversity Unfortunately very few, if any, trees possess the combination of graceful form and great size of the American elm. The honey locust, Gleditsia triacanthos, comes about as close as any tree, but it grows much more slowly. Zelkova serrata has roughly the same shape but is much smaller. As Koller and Weaver point out, there is no perfect replacement for the American elm.9 The key to successful substitution is to choose species with the same landscape impact or stature, regardless of whether they possess the American elm's structure. Within the genus Ulmus, there are several potential candidates, but none are without some drawback. The ubiquitous Siberian elm (U. pumila), for example, is highly resistant to DED but is very messy and graceless in form. The lacebark elm (U. parviflora) is a handsome tree, but much smaller than its American cousin. Some of the more recent hybrid elms (involving U. davidiana, japonica, and wilsoniana), may eventually prove to be excellent replacements, but they have not yet been thoroughly tested under landscape conditions.'o It must also be remembered that DED is only one of several diseases that kill American elms.\" In particular, phloem necrosis and elm yellows can be lethal to many of the cultivars that have been selected for their tolerance to DED.'Z And the elm-leaf beetle, along with a host of other insects, had been killing elms long before DED arrived on the scene. If the American elm is to make a comeback in the modern American landscape-either as a hybrid or as a disease-tolerant selection-it should be used on an equal footing with other species, never as the predominant species in the landscape. Another approach to replacing American 32 elms involves working within a single genus or family, which allows one to approach uniformity and diversity simultaneously. In the Tercentenary Theater part of Harvard Yard, for example, a grouping of legumes including Cladrastis, Gleditsia, Gymnocladus, and Styphnolobium (formerly Sophora\/, all share a characteristic arching trunk and flat-topped crown, but clearly differ in other aspects of their habit. One can also group different oak species to achieve a measure of uniformity amidst diversity. In the oldest section of the Yard, a grouping of oak species includes Quercus rubra, palustris, phellos, coccinea, alba, bicolor, and acutissima. can Endnotes 1 Umted States National Arboretum Plant Introduction Announcement, Ulmus amencana 'Valley Forge' and 'New Harmony' (January, 1997). 2 An excerpt from Typical Elms and Other Trees appeared m Arnoldia ( 1982) 42(2\/: 49-59. 3 F. A. Michaux, \"Ulmus americana,\"m The North Amencan Sylva, vol. 3, tr. by A. L. Hillhouse (Pans and Philadelphia, 1819); A.J Downmg, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardenmg, 9th ed. (NY: Orange Judd, 1873); D J. Browne, Trees of Amenca (NY. Harper & Bros, 1846); F J. Scott, The Art of Beautifymg Suburban Home Grounds of Small Extent (NY: on D. Appleton, 1870); G. B. Emerson, A The advantages of increased species diversity be summarized as follows: It offers a measure of protection against an epidemic spread of insects or of fungal and bacterial diseases. It allows mates on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, 2nd ed. (Boston: Little Brown, 1875). C. S. Sargent, \"Ulmus amencana\", in Silva of North America, vol. 7 Report (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1890). 4 Berton Roueche, \"Profiles: A great green cloud,\" The New Yorker (July 15, 19G1 35-53; Donald C. Peattie, A Natural History of Trees, 2nd ed (Boston: Houghton-Mifflin, 1964). 5 R. M. Burns and B. H. Honkala, eds., \"Ulmus amencana,\" Silvics of North Amenca, vol. 2, Hardwoods (USDA Forest Service Agriculture Handbook 654, 6 one to match different microclithe site with the most appropriate species. 1990). provides greater variation in flower and foliage displays, making a walk across campus a more interesting and potentially a It more 7 educational experience. 8 Conclusion The desire to restore the American elm to its former status as the primary street tree in the East is very strong. But if \"restoring\" a given historic landscape means replanting the American elm-or any of its disease-tolerant selections or hybrids-at the density it occupied historically, then it is a mistake. In the popular literature on elms, the unspoken assumption seems to be that if we could only conquer Dutch elm disease, then we could easily recreate the grand, elm-lined streets of the past. This idea is biologically unsound. Because of the dynamic nature of the interaction between host and predator, \"disease tolerance\" is always a relative phenomenon, not a fixed genetic trait; total immunity is unattainable. Historical accuracy and aesthetic tastes notwithstanding, it is in no one's interest to bring the American elm back to its former position of landscape preeminence. tree doomed,\" Harvard Magazme (1994) 96(4) : 46-53. Ibid; M. Van Valkenburgh and P. Del Tredici, \"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape,\" Arnoldia (1994)54(1):2-11. J. O. Dawson and M. A. Khawa~a, \"Change m streettree composition of two Urbana, Illmois, neighborhoods after fifty years: 1932-1982,\" journal of Arbomculture ( 1985\/ 11( 11\/: 344-348. J. Shaw, \"Every 9 G. L. Koller and R. E. Weaver, Jr., \"Replacmg the Amencan Elm: Twelve Stately Trees,\" Arnoldia (1982) 42(2)~ 88-100. 1o 11 12 Michael Dirr, Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 4th ed. (Champaign, IL Stipes, 1990); F. S. Santamour, Jr , and S. E. Bentz, \"Updated checklist of elm (Ulmus) cultmars for use m North America, Journal of Arbonculture (1995\/ 21\/3\/: 122-131; A. M. Townsend et al., \"Variation m response of selected American elm clones to Ophiostoma ulmi, journal of Environmental Hoticulture (1995) 13\/3\/~ 126-128; G. Ware, \"New elms for urban landscapes,\" Morton Arboretum Quarterly (1995) 31(1). 1-9. Sinclair et al , Diseases of Trees and Shrubs (Ithaca, NY Cornell University Press, 1987). Santamour and Bentz, op cit. at Peter Del Tredici is Director of Lmmg Collections Arnold Arboretum. the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25202","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270af6b.jpg","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum S P R , IN G . , , - 1 ~ , 8 Katherine H. Putnam Research Fellowships Endowed research career in scientists a contemplating public horticulture and education. \"George Putnam has been a friend of the Arboretum for many years,\" says director Bob Cook. \"With the establishment of the Putnam Fellowship endowment, offer the most scientists an we can continue to George Putnam, chairman, Putnam Funds and the Putnam Investment Company (second from left), and his wife Nancy Putnam, display a photo taken in turn-of-the-century China by E. H. Wilson; it was presented to them by the Arboretum at a reception held in their honor. Standing with the Putnams are James McCarthy (left), director, MCZ, and Robert E. Cook, director, Arboretum. opportupromising nity to work with our collections and to gain the kind of practical experience that is essential for leadership nationally. We deeply appreciate the commitment of George and Nancy Putnam to this critical research and the educational mission of the Arnold Arboretum.\" \" Fifty friends of George and Nancy Putnam gathered in Cambridge on Fmday, May 15, to show their appreciation for two generous endowments established by the Putnams. Two of Harvard's oldest biological institutions, the Arnold Arboretum and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, will benefit from endowments of $1 million each to support research and Arboretum. The funds will provide fellowship stipends and related research and project expenses for work in horticulture and botany using the Arboretum's living collections of trees and shrubs. What a Difference a Year Makes Peter Del Tredici, Director of Living On Collections Fellowships will fund graduate students, postgraduate scholars, and mid-career profesPutnam Monday, March 31, of last year, I was sitting in Patrick Willoughby's office in the basement of the Hunnewell building as to he told me that he had decided take the job as head of grounds scholarship The endowment at the Arnold Arboretum will support the Katharine H. Putnam Research Fellowships, established in memory of Mr. Putnam's mother, an accomplished horticulturist and long-time supporter of the sionals who wish to experience the richness of the Arboretum's resources and engage in research work that generates new knowledge and practical applications for horticulture, landscape architec- maintenance at Wellesley College, ture, and plant conservation. Fellowship awards will be particularly appropriate for young and that his last day as Supermtendent would be May 1. As I listened to Patrick talk about his future, I was looking out the window at the occasional snowflakes that had just started to fall. \"It won't stick,\" I said, \"none of it has this winter.\" Within 24 hours I was eating those words. Two feet of sticky wet snow had been dumped on the city of Boston, stopping traffic, downing power trees. As most this will remempeople reading ber, the Arnold Arboretum was particularly hard hit: over 1,800 lines, and smashing damaged, of which 200 have been removed. But now it is one year later and I am pleased to report that a new superintendent, Julie Coop, is well trees were established in Patrick's old office, and most of the storm damage has been cleaned up. Of particular the fact that the high temperature on the day of the storm was 42 degrees while on the same date one year later, the high was 92! What a difference a year makes. Spring planting, which was virtually nonexistent last year, has gone very smoothly this year. Over 150 new trees were set out during April alone. Unlike last year, this spring there was no snow to speak of and the weather was moist and cool. This not only allowed the grounds crew to start digging early, but also interest is to dig and plant throughout the month. On behalf of all of us at the Arboretum, I want to take advanentire tage of this dubious anniversary to thank all of our loyal friends and supporters who generously donated labor and money to our storm damage cleanup effort. The donations not only helped with the clean-up, but they also lifted the spirits of the entire Living Collections staff. It's great to know that people care deeply about the future of the Arnold Arboretum. Thank you very much. CHALLENGE GIFT FOR CHILDREN'S SCIENCE EDUCATION The Arboretum has received a challenge gift of $100,000 from an anonymous donor. The gift has been directed to Children's Science Education and is intended to encourage others to help endow the Arboretum's Field Studies Harvard Announces Women's Matching Fund At a recent thropy, aimed forum on women and philanHarvard announced an initiative encouraging m more women to at Experiences (FSE) program. The FSE program brings children directly from Bosclassrooms to the Arboretum's landscape. Students work in small groups with a guide while exploring and discussing specific science questions related to one of four different themes: Flowers Change; Plants in Autumn; Native Trees, Native Peoples; and Around the World in Trees. Each year the program serves 3,000 schoolchildren in grades three through five. The Arboretum's goal in the Harvard University Campaign is to establish an endowment of $2,250,000 that will secure funding for children's science education. Of the total goal, $750,000 will create an endowment for the FSE program. To date, $439,000 has been raised, representing 59% of the goal. \"The creation of an endowment for children's science education is critical to our education mission,\" says director Bob Cook. \"It addresses a pressing need for excellence in science education and demonstrates our commitment to children, our most important resource for the future.\" If you are interested in making a gift to help the Arboretum qualify for this challenge gift, or would like a copy of our publication \"The Arnold Arboretum-An Outdoor Classroom,\" please contact Lisa M. Hastings, Director of Development, at 617\/524-1718 x 145. ton-area participate philanthropy. The Women's Matching Fund will match any gift between $25,000 and $250,000 made by women to any part of the University. The Women's Matching Fund was created by National Campaign Chair Rita E. Hauser as a way for women to maximize the impact of their gifts to Harvard. Ms. Hauser established the fund with her own gift of $5 million and encouraged other women to bring the fund balance to $15 5 million. Gifts made by women will be matched on a dollar-for-dollar basis until the fund is depleted. This new fund offers women who are considering a campaign gift to the Arbounique opportunity to double their gifts. Gifts qualifying for the match can be directed to any of the Arboretum's campaign priorities: Living Collections (including landscape maintenance projects), Children's Science Education, International Biodiversity Conservation, and the new Shrub and Vine Garden. For more information about the Women's Matching Fund, contact Lisa M. Hastings at 617\/514-1718 x 145, or Peg Hedstrom at x 113. retum a Community Science Connection Goes National Candace Jzzlyarz, Director of Edrzcation to In 1995 the Arnold Arboretum received a fouryear grant from the National Science Foundation develop a program to strengthen elementary science teaching and learning and to illustrate ways that science institutions can work throughout the year with local classrooms. The result of this effort is the Community Science Connection (CSC), a seasonal study of trees that spans the entire school year. Participating teachers begin their study of trees in the spring and summer, learning how to look closely for patterns and changes and to make sense of what they see. In the fall, students begin their work by identifying individual trees and recording the dates when color change begins and ends and when the leaves drop. In the winter, students learn to \"read\" the information found on a twig and to use that knowledge to determine the best growing year for their schoolyard trees. In the spring, the study question turns to \"What comes out of a bud?\" While the main focus is on working directly with schoolyard trees, technology provides a connection among the participating classrooms and the Arboretum staff. A project web page enables participants to share data and ideas and provides virtual activities that encourage and support the outdoor Another interesting development investigations. The goals of CSC are twofold: to work directly with local teachers on meaningful ways to study science through an investigation of trees and to develop a model that can be replicated by other institutions to further their work with local teachers. The first year of the project focused on the first goal. To date we have worked with over fifty teachers in the Boston, Newton, and Brookline schools. In the final year of the project we will continue to work with local teachers and begin work with other science institutions. Descanso Gardens, in collaboration with the science coordinator of the Los Angeles public schools, will replicate our tree investigations with California students. (The director of Descanso, Richard Schulhof, worked on the CSC project during its first year in his former role as the Arboretum's director of public programs.) Los Angeles students and their teachers will be corresponding with Massachusetts colleagues through the website, companng findings from coast to coast. This work will give us emerged during Audubon Society (MAS) was intrigued by our in this project the past year. The Massachusetts opportumty to determine the model for other institutions. an viability of our seasonal investigations and used it as a model to create a year-long study of vernal pools During the 1998-1999 school year, groups of teachers from eastern, central, and western Massachusetts will begin a coordinated study of vernal pools that will continue through fall, winter, and spring based on a curriculum outline developed by MAS. These investigations will be supported by the same technology component as the tree studies, with a data exchange, opportunities for conversations, and virtual activities that go along with the actual investigations. All of the technology portion of the MAS project will originate from the Arboretum and the virtual acumties will be a joint development venture between staff from MAS and the Arboretum. While the conversations of the participating classes will remain prmate, all of the activities for these investigations will be available to interested individuals through the Arboretum's web page (www.arboretum.harvard.edu). We welcome your comments. On the Grounds Tom Akin has joined the Arboretum staff as Assistant Superintendent of Grounds. A candidate for the master's degree in plant and soil sciences at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, he has worked with the University's Extension Service both as a research assistant and extension educator. He comes to us from Weston Nurseries where he was IPM (Integrated Pest Management) Coordinator. Tom's resume also includes work with the Peace Corps in the Central Africa Republic, first as an English teacher, then as keeper of African killer bees. No doubt he will bring all these experiences to bear at the Arboretum, where his duties will include the coordination of the summer horticultural intern program and its associated training program. So Long, Fare Well Annual Fall Plant Sale Sunday, September 20, 1998 Case Estates, Weston 9:00 am to 1:00 pm The date has been set for this year's Annual Fall Plant Sale, and we encourage members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and the general public alike to mark their calendars. As usual, the event will feature a wide array of unusual trees, shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and more. ~ Member benefits at the Plant Sale include \"members only\" hours from 9:00 to 10:00 am, a free plant of your choice, and a 10% discount on all plant purchases m the Barn. Members at the Sustammg Level ($100) and above gain entrance to the Plant Sale Preview at 8:30 and receive additional free plants. Call the Membership Office at 617\/524-1718 x 165 to jom or to upgrade your membership and increase your Fall Plant Sale benefits! ~ Jim Gorman, Arboretum tour leader and volunteer coordinator nonpareil, is leaving us for southeastern Pennsylvania and the Longwood Gardens Graduate Program in public horticultural administration. An official staff member at the Arboretum since 1992 and an unofficial staff member even longer, Jim Gorman and the Arnold Arboretum have been synonymous for many in Boston. Wherever his future takes him, we know he will continue to be the best emissary we could hope for. Needless to say, we will miss him, and we wish him all the best. Live and Silent Auctions Strazght Saler Society Row Educatzon Serrzonr in the Teacbzng Garden Refreshments ~ in August, and your Catalogs free plant vouchers will arrive in early September. To volunteer to help out at the Plant Sale, call Kara Stepaman at 617\/524-1718 x 129. will be mailed to members . , "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23360","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270b328.jpg","title":"1998-58-1","volume":58,"issue_number":1,"year":1998,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"El Arbol del Tule: The Ancient Giant of Oaxaca","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25192","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260816b.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Debreczy, Zsolt; Racz, Istvan","article_content":"El Arbol del Tule: The Ancient Giant of Oaxaca Zsolt Debreczy and Istvan Racz The famous tree that has puzzled travelers and botanists for hundreds of years with its legends now raises new questions about its future. Outside the city of Oaxaca, on the ancient lands of the Mixtecs and Zapotecs in southern Mexico, stands a tree, perhaps the most famous and most frequently measured among the giants: a unique specimen of the fast-growing southern bald cypress, Taxodium mucronatum, known by the Aztecs as an ahuehuete, the \"graybeard of the swamp.\" What \"General Grant\" is to the giant sequoias, El Arbol del Tule is to the bald cypresses. The Mexican bald cypress is a member of the Taxodiaceae, the family of giant sequoias, California redwoods, and bald cypresses, which, excluding tropical species, has the greatest potential of all tree families for achieving both great age and enormous size. Amazingly, this family of giants, like other conifers, is described as primitive because of its elementary conducting system of single-celled tracheids. In fact, this simple system can carry water and minerals to heights over 110 meters (366 feet), even under extreme conditions such as those found on the slopes of the Sierra Nevadas of western North America, which remain dry for many months at a time, and those in the waterlogged, oxygen-deficient swamps, the habitat of Glyptostrobus of southeast China and Taxodium of the southeastern United States and Mexico. Taxodium mucronatum represents the southernmost species of the genus, which was once found all over the Northern Hemisphere but is now restricted to North America. The giant tree grows in the town of El Tule, little more than fifteen kilometers from the city of Oaxaca, the capital of the southern Mexican state of the same name. The highlands where it is located, at an elevation of about 1,550 meters El Arbol del Tule, near (5,100 feet), form a wide valley up in the Sierras. The area has only two distinct seasons: a humid, often cloudy, hot, rainy season typical of the \"summer-rain tropics\" south of the Tropic of Cancer, and a warm, dry \"winter\" season with bright sunny days, cool nights, and frequent frosts in the mountains. Near the city, frost has been reported only once a decade or so. At one time, the tree ruled over wide fields of the brown-headed cattail-Typha domingensis, a close ally of T. latifolia of the north temperate regions of the world-called the tule in the native Zapotec tongue. Today, instead of an extensive swamp supplied by such rivers as the Atoyac and its tributary, the (local) Rio Grande, flowing down from the nearby Sierra de Juarez, the tree is surrounded by a neatly maintained lawn, colorful flowerbeds, and a wrought iron fence. The growing village of Tule has swallowed the swamp, its buildings and yards gradually encircling it, forming a lethal noose around it. Our First Encounter Having both the seen giant sequoias and redwoods in higher Sierras and the Coast Ranges of California, we were accustomed to the drama of large specimens. However, when engulfed by the spreading arms of Arbol del Tule, we experienced a totally different degree of awe, not comparable to anything we had previously encountered. While the big trees of California are majestic, like the skyscrapers of downtown New York they are out of reach. Arbol del Tule is an accessible \"seated giant,\" welcoming us with broad, sweeping branches that extend almost the length of two tennis courts. Oaxaca City, Mexico. 4 Although the tree is not particularly tall, it takes seventeen people with outstretched Fascinated arms to encircle its gigantic trunk. first by its enormous turned to the details of the tree. Each limb, towering upward, could itself be an independent tree of huge size. Like a gothic cathedral, arches rise above arches as the limbs disappear into the jungle of the crown 40 meters at dimensions, we soon (130 feet) above, simultaneously reaching outward an incredible distance. Dramatically fluted in outline, the trunk has an air of mystery: sunlit ribs alternate with deeply shadowed recesses that are partly curtained by a veil of fine, lightgreen foliage. -: The Inevitable Question ~ correlation between the age and size of trees, at least within a species, would seem logical: the bigger the tree, typically the older it is. Seeing the almost 60-meter (200foot) circumference of our giant, one assumes that this tree must be thousands of years old. Poets, politicians, scientists, and the technically ingenious have tried to answer the inevitable question: how old is it? Estimates have varied; some have gone as high as three thousand years, as suggested by A. Villasenor in 1892, or even six thousand, as put forward A The giant tree dwarfs schoolboys and the chapel of Santa Maria ahke m these 7 postcards. The sign tells us that m 1987 El Arbol del Tule was 41.85 meters (137 7 9 feet) high, 57 meters (190 feet) m cmcumference, and 14.5 meters (48 feet) m diameter, with tons. In an estimated volume of 816,829 cubic meters and a weight of 636,107 measurement 1992, our clmometer showed that the tree was only 39.40 meters (130 feet) high, which, assuming the data are correct, indicates an almost two-meter (sevenfoot) decrease m height m five years. 5 Taxodium mucronatum differs httle from its northern relative, T distichum. C. S. Sargent m his Silva of North America (1896) wrote that \"it may prove to bea mere geographical form of our tree \" Others, hke Harper m 1902, consider it a \"Sonorized\" form of the northern species. Except for its \"knees,\"which are absent or short and roundish, the differences he mostly m phenological characters: the growth of the southern tree is more compact; its cones are smaller and leaves shorter, often prumose gray (\"bloomy\") and semipersistent. These two old trees grow m the highlands near Oaxaca. z 6 by E. W. Berry in 1923. An old legend among the local Zapotecs and Mixtecs tells us that the tree, along with several others nearby, was planted for the benefit of the people by Pecocha, a representative of the Aztec god of wind and storms, Ehecatl. This story puts the age of the tree at around fourteen hundred years. Estimates, to be correct, should consider the tree's rate of growth, but in the case of the Tule tree, another question has been raised through the past two centuries: is it a single tree or a group of trees that have coalesced to form a single individual? Although the tree is thought to have been visited by Alexander Humboldt on his visit to Mexico m 1803, evidence suggests that he never reached Oaxaca and therefore never visited the tree. However, he wrote in his Political Essay on the Kingdom of New Spain: village of Santa Maria Tule, three leagues from the capital, there is an enormous sabmo (Cupressus disticha [now Taxodium mucronatum]), the trunk of which is 36 meters [120 feet] In the del in circumference. This old tree is even more corpulent than the cypress of Atlixco of which we have spoken above, than the Dragon tree of the Canary Isles and than any of the baobabs (AdansomaJ of Afmca. But exammed closely, senor Anza has observed that, that sabmo which is such a surprise to travelers is not a smgle mdtvidual but a group of three trunks united ~II: 45-47). - '~ , In 1892, Alejandra Villasenor a summed up nearly controversy: century of of Taxodmm mucronatum are strongly mfluenced by climate. The compound leaves are semipersistent the fohage of the premous year detaches only when the new leaves unfold The southern species is less cold-hardy than its northern cousm, especially m sudden frosts. When cultivated m areas where the winter temperatures fall below freezmg, most of the green fohage becomes yellowish brown and falls, even on the trees of Tule. In the Umted States, the Montezuma bald cypress grows well West and mostly below 30 degrees North latitude in the East while it is easy to cultivate m the Mediterranean basm up to 40 to 44 degrees North, and m western Europe, it survives far above the latitude of 50 degrees North. Some characteristics The trunk of the tree of Santa Maria del Tule, far from bemg compact and almost cylindrical, is, on the contrary, roughbarked, unequal, and fissured, covered with senile excrescences [burls], some of large size, with bold projections which made a certam Sr. Anza suppose that it was not a smgle tree but three united; but later observations by Dr. J. Bolanos in 1840 and by other people have shown the error of the supposition. throughout the Botanist Juan Bolanos climbed the tree to the point where the common trunk ends and the primary branches begin ? 7 Ahuehuete gallery forest near Sola de Vega, Oaxaca Note the root system weavmg a protectme lattice on the mverbank. Instead of adaptation to anaerobic swamps, Taxodium mucronatum is adapted to pemodically high mverbeds and mversides. The fantastic root systems grasp the nversides, fencmg the mverbed with such ef ficiency they seem to be created for that purpose. At Sola de Vega, the most beautiful nverbed habitat of the species is still untouched, promdmg dramatic mews of trees 12 to IS meters (40 to 50 feet) tall. 8 and found a large enclosed place \"which could serve as a habitation in case of need.\" This observation convinced him that the trunk belonged to one individual and that the divisions at the base of the trunk, considered to stem from separate trees, are only parts of a sole specimen. Another botanist, Casiano Conzatti, after a year spent studying the tree, published his findings in a 1921 article entitled in its English translation, \"Monograph on the Tree of Santa Maria del Tule.\" Conzatti drew on records from previous writers-Desire Charnay (1863), Manuel Ortega Reyes (1884), and Manuel F. Alvarez (1900) as well as Bolanos (1841) and Villasenor (1892~-to make comparisons. To get an idea of the growth rate of the species locally (without damaging the venerable one), he correlated size and age of bald cypresses in the area by measuring trunk sizes and counting annual rings of cut branches. He found that the species has a surprisingly fast growth rate, and that, as a rule of thumb, the diameter of the trunk in centimeters is about half the age of the tree in years. Using this number in conjunction with an average diameter of 8 meters (more than 26 feet) for the irregularly shaped trunk of the giant, his calculations suggested that the tree was between 1,433 and 1,600 years old (numbers which, interestingly, approach the planting time given in the legend of Pechoca). Three or More, Yet One Three trees, three genetically different organisms-as we stood before Arbol del Tule in 1990, the fusion of several trunks appeared plausible. Biologist Angel Salas Cuevas proposed a scenario for hfe history of El Arbol del Tule. The young tree is small and smgle. Its trunk is ~omed by a second trunk-a root sprout-about 2.5 meters (8 feet) away When the thmd trunk appears, the omgmal tree and its two suckers form an almost eqmlateral tmangle. After their fusion, the newly enlarged trunk, with its deep nbs along the fusion lines, takes on a cloverleaf shape m cross section. These trunks become a smgle trunk scored with deep furrows and gaps, and a fourth trunk appears 3.5 meters (12 feet) away on the east side. The greatest change, however, is yet to come: the fourth trunk gradually 7oms the tmad. The tree is now almost 5 meters (16 feet) m diameter, 5 and the mam section qmckly expands to over 7.5 meters (25 feet) at its widest. the 9 However, the were so crown, the foliage, and the we were cones doubtstrikingly ful of its multiple nature. Boone Hallberg of the Instituto Tecnologico de Oaxaca confirmed our doubts, noting that m the thirty years he has been observing the tree, the timing of budding, the development and color of the leaves and strobili, the shedding of pollen, as well as the leaf color after frost-all were the same. In contrast, he had watched another tree growing along a nearby stream, a fusion of two different seedlings. The two trees were easily distinguished by subtle differences in both morphology and phenology. To be three trees and one at the same time implies the union of sprouts of the same tree. The Taxodiaceae, including the genus Taxodium, possesses the ability to sprout from stumps following logging, as is often seen in the northern bald cypress, T. distichum, a very close ally of T. mucronatum. It is quite possible that the mdependent trunks that gradually \"built\" Arbol del Tule origmated as sprouts from the trunk of a single damaged tree, or as layered branches from a tree whose single central trunk died out, after which the layers grew and fused together. The process by which the tree could have formed from several separate trunks has been illustrated by biologist Angel Salas Cuevas, using old descriptions, drawings, and photographs as a basis. His proposed scenario for the life history of the Tule tree from the appearance of the first tree, to its fusion with two of its suckers, and finally its coalescence with a later, third sucker can be seen on the preceding page. In 1990 (Hall et al.~, the results of enzyme analysis of samples taken from eight major segments of the tree provided undeniable evidence to support the theory of a single specimen, and as such, one of the world's largest trees in circumference. These results were further supported in 1996 (Dorado et al.) by evidence of genetic uniformity from DNA analysis. The competing theories of multiple trees vs. a single tree were thus apparently resolved. uniform that Epilogue Before being leveled by the Europeans, the 300,000-person Aztec capital, Tenochtitlan, was a large, well-organized city, a place of spectacu- lar art, its market loaded with food brought from Xochimilco's floating gardens through a dense network of canals. Reaching almost 5,500 meters, the snow-covered peaks and rims of the sacred mountains, the Popocatepetl and his partner, Iztaccihuatl, hung like floating crystals above the city. The graybearded ahuehuetes were revered and planted everywhere along the canals, including areas that were later incorporated into the beautifully nurtured parks of Texcoco and Chapultepec. Some of their biggest trees were still with us only two or three decades ago, and it sends a shiver up the spine to think that the Aztecs once walked in their shade. Smog and especially the drop in water table-pressures of a dramatically changing world-finished Mexico City's El Sargento in the 1970s, as well as the famous Ahuehuete of Popotla, the Arbol de la Noche Triste, and the big tree near the temple of the Aztec king Netzahualcoyotl in Texcoco. With a leaf surface of 9,300 square meters, the Tule tree has a tremendous evapotranspiration rate. It is enough to look at the tree to see that something is wrong. Gone is the beauty of the light-green foliage drooping ten meters downward with no branches visible beneath it, as it was seen just a human generation ago. The entire circumference of the tree, but particularly its southern side, is now full of twisted, skeletal branches. The tree has begun to decline, losing crown size m response to the changing environment. Anyone who has ever dealt with conifers knows exactly where this will end if the process is not halted and reversed as soon as possible. Just decades ago, in the 1950s, Oaxaca was still a peaceful town of 40,000 people: somewhat provincial, with friendly merchants, silent streets of colonial elegance, and mamly Zapotec and Mixtec vendors in the market. The city has expanded rapidly and is now ten times as large, and it is about to celebrate a half million inhabitants. Water is used freely and El Tule's water table has dropped to its lowest level ever. Once a citizen of the swamp with a root system developed for a high water table and a crown adapted to higher humidity, Arbol del Tule and its neighboring, smaller giants, the Son and Grandson, are now clearly suffering. The soil is compacted 10 m the 1970s. of Chapultepec Park, the once beautiful giant, El Sargento (or El Centinela), died it succumbed to the massive bald cypresses that mtnessed the fall of the Aztec empme, Like most of the the Mexican, rapidly changmg enmronment m and around Mexico City. The species-Taxodmm mucronatum, centenary of bald cypress- was voted National Tree of Mexico durmg the celebration of the or Montezuma, A treasure independence in 1910 0 11 1 by the many tourists and those who use the little chapel nearby. Although the small lawn around the giant is irrigated, this cannot replace the loss in humidity. In 1994, major changes were completed: the main road was diverted and the formal park with paths and flowerbeds around the trees extended. These have been major steps forward but by no means enough to secure the future of the giant in Oaxaca. References mfluencmg their distribution. Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 29: 383-399. Jimenez, V. 1990. El Arbol de el Tule en la Histona. Tule: CODEX. Luque, E , E. Fuentes. 1923 El Ahuehuete o Sabino el Arbol Nacional. Mexico Forestal 1(9-10) Ortega, R. M 1884. El o sea Gigante de la flora Mexicana EI Sabio de Sta Mana del Tule La Naturaleza (Mexico City) 6 110-114 1892. El Arbol de Santa Maria del Tule Oaxaca. Mexico : D F. en Villasenor, A. Alvarez, 1900. Las rumas de Mitla y la arqmtectura Mexico Talleres de la Escuela N. de Artes y Oficios para Hombres M. F. Acknowledgments Let us Berry, E. W. 1923. Tree Ancestors. Baltimore: Wrlhams express at our gratitude to Debra B. Folsom, research San and Wilkms. botanist Huntington Botanical Garden, Marino, Bolanos, J. N. (1857) 1900. El arbol de Santa Maria del Tule. Boletin de la Sociedad Mexicana de Geografia y Estadistica 5:363 D 1863. Cites et Rumes Amencames Pans on Charnay, Conzatti, C. 1921 Monograph Maria del Tule, tr. Ralph the Tree of Santa Summers. Mexico : California; Professor Boone Hallberg, Instituto Tecnologico de Oaxaca; Peter Kane; J. L S. Keesmg, Living Collections Department, Kew; Kathy Musial, Curator, Huntmgton Botanic Garden; G. L. Tarbox, Brookgreen Gardens, Murrels Inlet, South Carolina ; Stephame and Kns Tebbutts; and Alicia Pesquema de Esesarte, Executive Secretary, Patronato Estatal de Promotores Voluntamos, Oaxaca, Mexico. The authors are researchers, Dr. Debreczy with the Massachusetts-based International Dendrological Research Institute and Dr. Racz at the Hunganan Museum of Natural History. They are working on the Comferae (Gymnospermae\/ volumes of their dendrological atlas with original field research, photo documentation, and connected conservation activity. For more information on their project, write IDRI Inc., P.O Box 812910, Wellesley, MA 02181, U.S.A., or find them on the WEB at http:\/\/world.std.com\/-)egan\/ idri html. To assist the group dedicated to saving El Arbol del Tule, contact Patronado Estatal de Promotores Voluntamos, 604 Garcia Vigil Oaxaca de Juarez, Oaxaca, Mexico. Imprenta Mundial. Cuevas, A. S. 1992 El Arbol de Santa Maria del Tule: Illustraciones de la interpretacion de Nuestra Arbol de Santa Maria del Tule Ms. Dorado, 0., mucronatum al 1990. The Arbol del Tule (Taxodium Ten.\/ is a single genetic rndmrdual. Madrono 43~4\/~ 445-452 et Hall, G. W, G. M. Genetic Diggs, Jr., D. E. and P. S. Soltis. 1990. of El Arbol del Tule Tule Tree\/. Madrono 37: 1-5. Uniformity (The Harper, R M. 1902. Taxodium distichum and related species, with notes on some geological factors "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The St. Vincent Botanic Garden- The Early Years","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25198","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270a76f.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The St. Vincent Botanic Garden-The Richard A. Howard Early Years eighteenth century, while France and Great Britain were vying for control of the sugar-rich Caribbean islands, the first program of plant introductions in the British West Indies was instituted on the small island of St. Vincent. The garden's second superintendent-a master plantsman and collector of more than 100 plants new to science-not only expanded that program but also began propagating and distributing new discoveries from around the world. Late in the The peace treaty signed in Paris in 1763 ended for a brief period the fighting between Great Britain and France in the Caribbean. British general Robert Melville(1723-1809) was appointed governor of the southern British CaribeesDominica, Tobago, Grenada, St. Vincent and the Grenadines-and made Grenada his headquarters. In June 1765 he visited St. Vincent and discussed with George Young, surgeon of the military hospital there, his plan for a botanic garden, primarily to provide medicinal plants for the military as well as to improve the life and economy of the colony. Dr. Young agreed with the proposal, and Melville ordered that six acres of land previously designated for military use be set aside for the garden, with Dr. Young as the superintendent. This marked the beginning of the St. Vincent Botanic Garden, which eventually expanded to twenty acres. The garden was to serve as a repository for all useful plants that could grown on St. Vincent but also, in contrast to the botanic gardens at Kew, Oxford, Cambridge, and European botanic gardens at the time, as a nursery for plants to be distributed around St. Vincent and to other islands. Melville wrote to Young in 1766: I need not repeat to you how desirous I am that my foundation of a botamcal plan entrusted to your skill and perseverance should prove successful, nor do I suppose it necessary that I give you fresh assurances how much my attentions multiplicity of public affairs will possibly permit.... The articles of plants and seeds ation and commissioned from the Main near Honduras I shall soon hope to receive, and seeds of the best cinnamon from Guadeloupe. If you have once made tolerable progress m raising useful and curious plants, I should not despair of obtammg from Home encouragement in books, machmes, mstruments, etc., but till then I find I must hazard what expenses are unavoidable (as I have already done~.... Pray get as much information as possibly you can from all quarters relative to the mdigenous medicines. It is against your craft but would be highly beneficial to the public and do yourself honour. And I should thmk for this purpose physical practitioners of the country, natives of experience, and even old Canbs and slaves who have dealt in cures might be worth taking notice of, and if at any time you should think that a secret may be got at or even an improvement for small expense, I shall readily R,'a pay for it.` ~ In spite of Melville's promises, the govern- London did not fund the garden, and neither of Melville's two successors as governor, Leybourne and Morris, was willing to assist in ment in its maintenance. Nevertheless, by drawing on a to variety of resources, Young was able initiate and support may be relied on, for already you know my assistance shall be as great as my situ- the first program of plant introduction in the British West Indies. The War Department and the East India Company sent seeds and plants from tropical India and from British North Borneo, Sabah, and Sarawak in the East Indies, and others may have come from French horti- 13 culturists in the area. Smce by 1770 Young had received only two plants of the cinnamon promised by Melville, he traveled to Guadeloupe himself to obtain ten more; in 1771 he obtained 1,200 seeds from a tree in Grenada from which he grew an additional 130 plants. Proof of Young's success in spite of limited resources is found in a 1773 publication by John Ellis, an English botanist with interests in the Caribbean, entitled Some Additional Observations on the Method of Preserving Seeds from Foreign Parts, for the Benefit of our American Colonies, with an Account of the Garden at St. Vincent, under the Care Dr. of Dr. George Young (1773),in states: me which Ellis Young has favored with a catalogue of what plants are now growmg in this garden, and of the plants he has lately collected here to carry out with him; which I take the liberty to insert, for the satisfaction of the public. Ellis listed those plants and added, \"Besides these articles, there are several without names that have been raised from Chinese and other seeds.\" A second list indicated those plants Young would be able to get from the royal and other botanic gardens in and about London.s In the same year, London's Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufacture and Commerce awarded its Gold Medal to Young, \"for the Lithographs by Reverend Lansdown Gmldmg,1824, from his 1. House Account of the Botamc Garden m the Island of St. Vincent (1825J of the Superintendent 2. View of the Botanic Garden St. Vincent, taken from the Supermtendent's House 3. Botanic bottom Garden, from the of the Central Walk 14 Plants of the St. Vincent Botanic Garden, 1773 The following plants were reported by John Ellis m 1773 as growing m the St. Vincent Botamc Garden due to the efforts of Dr. Young. Over half are of reported medicinal value, reflecting Young's service as a physician to the military forces in the Caribbean. MEDICINAL PLANTS safflower Carthamus turmemc: tinctona Curcuma longa-an aromatic scammoma-a , stomachrc and hemostatic scammony: Convolvulus resmous cathartic colocynth: Citrullus colocynthis-a powerful cathartic simarouba. Simarouba amara, a source of extremely bitter bark, used m treatmg malaria a spigela. Spigeha manlandica citron Citrus medica, a source of candied peel used for coughs bergament orange. Citrus bergamia, a source of bergament oil, a substitute for mmt Italian senna' Senna nahca-a strong purgative aloes: Aloe vera-a healmg sap for treating burns balsam capivi: Copalfera officmahs, a resm valued in cough medicines Cassia fistula-a laxative guaiacum~ Guaiacum officmale-a cure for syphilis; also used as building material China root. Smilax chma, a medicine-an alterative and diuretic gum galbanum: Ferula galbimflua, a source of resm used both medicmally and for mcense , EDIBLES cinnamon: Cinnamum vera, a spice, seasoning East Indian mango: rhubarb: Rheum Mangifera mdica, a fruit rhaponticum, a vegetable sunnamensis, a Tobago nutmeg' Virola South American relative of the true East Indian nutmeg coriander: Conander sativa, a fruit used for flavoring vanelloes: Vamlla plamfoha, a tomc and flavoring m cooking nopal~ Opuntia cochmelhfera, an edible fruit, host plant for cochmeal msect sesamum : Sesamum mdicum, a source of cooking oil made from the seed dates' Phoemx dactyhfera, a fruit annatto: Bixa orellana, a food or cosmetic coloring agent China tallow tree: Sapmm sebiferum, a source of vegetable oil burned m candles OTHER PLANTS - logwood: Haematoxylon campechianum, a dye paper mulberry: Broussonetia papynfera, a source of bark fiber for tapa cloth or writing paper bamboo cane: Arundmana macrosperma, a bmldmg matemal used for furmture and construction 15 5 Botanic Garden, for superintending its cultivation, and for relating the event of some trials and proposing further attempts.\"Zo The Garden Under French Administration Early in 1778 hostilities between the French and the English were renewed in the Caribbean. In June of that year, when it became clear that the French would again occupy St. Vincent, Dr. Young was ordered by the chief of the British St. Lucia to head the military there. He left the botanic garden in hospital charge of a Mr. Swartz (or Zwartz), who later obtained a position as secretary to the commanding officer of the French forces. Swartz was to later claim that this officer had given him title to the garden. The French maintained the garden during most of the five years that they held the island, but when they realized that it would be returned to the British as part of the latest peace treaty, they abandoned the garden and it grew up in weeds. By the time Dr. Young was able to return to St. Vincent in 1784, he was no longer interested in resuming the directorship of the Botanic Garden, and with good reason: portions of the garden had been given over to the cultivation of cotton and tobacco by local people and the remainder had deteriorated badly; Swartz was pressing his dubious claim to the land, leading to legal wrangles, and the military was also competmg to resume full control of the land; and finally, the financial operations of the garden were no more secure than before the war.'4 Young recommended that an acquaintance from St. Lucia, Alexander Anderson, be appomted as his successor; his recommendation to move to was forces The Botanic Garden Under the Management of Alexander Anderson Alexander Anderson was born in Aberdeen, Scotland, and studied for a period at the university in Edinburgh although he did not complete the work for a degree. He was employed briefly at the Chelsea Physic Garden by a fellow native of Aberdeen, William Forsyth, at that time head gardener at the Physic Garden and later at St. James's and Kensington Palace Gardens. In 1774 Anderson went to New York to seek employment as a gardener, taking up residence with his brother John, a printer.'During this period he sent botanical specimens and seeds from Long Island and York Island (now Manhattan) to Forsyth. At the same time he listed other plants he could send and asked for plants from England in exchange. Being a loyalist, Anderson sailed for Surinam when the American revolution began, rather than be pressed into military service.' By 1783 he was on St. Lucia, employed as an orderly in the military hospital then headed by Dr. Young. Young asked Anderson to search for local approved in 1785 by Sir Joseph Banks, actcapacity as scientific advisor to the king and liaison with the Royal Botanic Garden ing in his at Kew. Unlike his predecessor, Anderson had the full support not only of Banks and General Melville, but also of General Robert Adair, InspectorGeneral of the regimental hospitals, as well as the War Department and the East India Company. It was during the period of his administration-1785 to 1811-that the garden made its most significant contribution to the world's knowledge of tropical American botany. The only known portrait of Alexander Anderson, engraved by Stephen H. Brelett from a drawing made by Anderson's nephew m 1798 m St Vincent. From Benson J Lossmg, A Memorial of Alexander Anderson M.D., The First Engraver on Wood m America (New York, 1872) By permission of Houghton Library, Harvard University 16 6 medicinal plants, particularly one that could provide qumine for treating malaria. One of the plants he found, called quma, or china, was sent to London for testing and was eventually described and named as Cinchona santaeluciae, a relative of C. officinalis, the source of quinine, but although it tasted as bitter as quimne, it did not contain the cmchona alkaloids and was eventually placed in the genus Exostoma.4,'s Anderson also traveled to other British-held islands, with Dr. Young or at his direction, and accompanied Young on his return to St. Vincent in 1784. When Anderson became the first person known to climb the Soufriere of St. Vincent (at 4,048 feet, the highest peak on the island), Young realized that he was not only an experienced naturalist but an active field man as well and recommended him as his successor in the superintendency of the garden.2,'o,\"1 Along with the formal notice of his appointment by Sir Joseph Banks and the War Department in 1785, Anderson received orders to submit a list of the plants then growing in the Botanic Garden and to report new introductions or other developments at quarterly intervals, which he did, but if they were preserved, few have been located. In A Catalogue of Plants in His Majesty's Garden on the Island of St. Vincent, dated June 1, 1785, and now preserved in the British Museum (Natural History), Anderson listed at least 348 different Anderson Vincent's was first to climb St. Soufmere and to see the crater of this volcano. His report to the Royal Society was published in 1785, giving credit to the wrong Anderson. Above is his sketch of the volcano cmca 1780. Below is the author's 1972 photo of the volcano, which evaporated the lake and left a residual cinder cone. Soufmere has erupted once again since then. 17 7 kinds of plants, his heritage from Young, including all 31 plants of economic importance mentioned by Ellis in his 1773 publication. The top portions of several pages of the manuscript were charred in the World War II bombing of London, but it appears that Anderson categorized the plants as commercial, medicmal, esculent, ornamental, or timber species. He is not known to have made subsequent reports until around 1800, when he compiled a manuscript entitled Hortus St. Vincentii, which describes the plants then found in the garden. Each of its nearly 2,000 taxa is identified not only by its Latin, English, and French names, but also, where possible, by its Carib and \"Negroe\" names, showmg that Anderson had fulfilled General Melville's instructions to Dr. Young by seeking out native plants. Each taxon is also given a description, along with data on propagation and culture as well as uses and sources of the plants.9 Anderson was a prolific letter-writer, with virtually a worldwide network of correspondents. Most extant correspondence was with William Forsyth, but there are also letters to an assortment of others in England as well as in the United States, where his most important contact was William Hamilton of the Woodlands m Philadelphia. Hamilton provided Anderson with many plants of the eastern United States for trial in St. Vincent and helped him establish exchanges as far away as Calcutta. Anderson also had correspondents m the French islands of the Caribbean as well as m Jamaica, the Bahamas, and Barbados, where his closest contact was Governor Lord Seaforth (1801-1806). He regularly sent plants to Seaforth for transshipment to England, with the result that the introduction into Europe of many plants that Anderson had obtained in the wild are credited instead to Lord Seaforth.',3 First-day cover and postage stamps m commemoration of the two hundredth anniversary of the St. Vincent Botanic Garden. The tahpot palm is shown here in flower, meanmg that it would die shortly after. 18 8 The Breadfruit Tree Arrives in St. Vincent expectations were attached to the cargo of the H.M.S. Promdence. A Jamaican newspaper declared: \"The introduction of the breadfruit into this island will constitute a remarkable era in its annals. In less than twenty years, the chief article of sustenance for our negroes will be entirely Great changed: -plantains, yams, cocos, cassava, will be cultivated only as subsidiary, and be used merely for change; whilst the bread-fruit, gammg firm hold m the earth ... will afford in the greatest abundance, for nine months m the year, the choicest and most whole19 some food.\" The excitement that greeted the ship's arrival m St. Vincent is evident in Alexander Anderson's account.' Imagme years of waiting for the H.M.S. Bounty to altilis. arrive, only to learn that a mutiny Breadfrmt, Artocarpus had put an untimely end to the expedition; then, after months of uncertainty about the Providence, to have it suddenly appear, quickly unload the least healthy of the plants in its cargo, and depart again just as suddenly. Anderson's account of the events shows an admirable willingness to put the best light on what must have been a rather disappointing outcome to the affair. About mne o'clock of night of the 23rd of January 1793 arrived m Kingstown Bay the long wish'd for Providence, Captain Bligh, from the South Seas with the breadfruit and other useful and curious plants. The voyage was remarkably short and m every respect prosperous. Such a number of live plants were never before seen on board a smgle ship. On her arrival she was one of the most beautiful objects of the kmd it is possible to conceive. Such a number of live plants of many different kmds brought from the remotest parts of the globe m such a state of preservation and carried through nearly all the climates of it was surprising to behold. Too much praise cannot be given to Captain Bligh for his great attentions to the chief object of his mission nor to the two young men who had the collecting and immediate management of them. Nor is it less surprising that the share of them allotted to the Garden have arrived to such perfection m so short a time in it. Some of the breadfruit plants began to produce fruit at the end of eighteen months from their arrival. In two years and three months all the fifty plants reserved m the Garden produced a large crop. This will appear the more surprising as the half left here were the smallest and the most sickly looking plants. The largest and most healthy m appearance went to Jamaica. In this division there appeared partiality; however, I conceived it ~ust and could not with propriety object to it, as there was still the risk by sea of ten or twelve days passage from St. Vincent to it. Therefore necessary for the preservation, the weakest and the most probable to suffer by continuing them in their confined situation should be landed as soon as possible, and I was confident that out of the number of 300 plants I should be able to preserve sufficient as a nursery for the Windward Islands. 19 Anderson collected not only on St. Vincent but also in the other Lesser Antilles, the Spanish Main, Trinidad, Tobago, and the Guianas, sometimes traveling on the schooner of William Lochhead of Antigua. 14 The garden's collection was also augmented by plants Anderson received from sea captains, from other gardeners, and from Kew. In return, as noted in its Garden Record Book, Kew received several shipments from Anderson between 1787 and 1798, of which the largest and best known was the one containing the breadfruit trees, Artocarpus altilis, brought by Captain William Bligh on his return from the Providence expedition m 1793. \",\" from Anderson and many were mistakenly credited to the horticulturists at Jamaica.'6,'s,'9 In his Hortus St. Vincentii Anderson described eight varieties of breadfruit trees received from Bligh. He propagated these and other plants brought by the Providence, distributing them throughout the Caribbean from the Bahamas to Trinidad and the Guianas. The Unpublished Manuscripts In addition to his work in the Botanic Garden and his voluminous correspondence, Anderson also made time to write a number of unpublished manuscripts; they are all now in the archives of the Linnean Society of London. Two of these have been transcribed by the author and Elizabeth Howard and were published m 1983. The St. Vincent Botamc Garden is the history of the early years of the development of the garden, and The Geography and History of St. Vincent is a firsthand account of Anderson's travels around the island.'3,'a Also of great interest to botanists and horticulturists are the manuscripts that describe the plants of St. Vincent and the garden. Anderson may have had two separate publications in mind: a Flora Canbbea as well as the Hortus St. Vmcentii already mentioned. In many cases the plant names used by Anderson differ from the modern names: he named, but did not publish, plants that were new to him. This author has identified most of the plants in the Hortus by their modern names and organized them into families and genera, aided in some cases by watercolor illustrations made by Anderson's associate John Tyley (which are now preserved at the Linnean Society or, in a few cases, at the Hunt Institute for Botamcal Documentation). Though as yet unpublished, this transcription may be useful to botanists. The textual material of the Hortus, still untranscribed, gives brief descriptions of each plant as well as its origin or source. Many of the botanical specimens prepared by Anderson and shipped to Forsyth in London are now in the herbaria of the British Museum (Natural History) or the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. While it is often difficult to associate the specimens with Anderson's descriptions, the Hortus remains valuable as the earliest record of The Introduction of Breadfruit Bligh had been a lieutenant on the first of Captam James Cook's expeditions to the Pacific in 1768, the voyage on which Joseph Banks traveled as a naturalist. When Cook's enthusiastic report on the role of breadfruit in the diet of Polynesians mduced planters in St. Vincent and Jamaica to ask for breadfruit trees of their own, Banks persuaded King George III to order a collecting expedition and was instrumental in choosing Bligh to command the Bounty.\" St. Vincent was to be the first stop for dropping off breadfruit on the return trip, but the infamous mutiny occurred only a few days out of Tahiti, and the Bounty never reached St. Vincent. On the second attempt Bligh commanded the H.M.S. Providence, with the armed brig Assistant, manned by twenty marines, as escort to prevent another mutiny. When the Providence arrived in St. Vincent in 1793, it carried about 1,300 Polynesian plants, of which it left 559 plants (including 331 breadfruit trees) for the Botanic Garden. Anderson noted that many of these were in poor condition; Bligh had kept the healthiest for Jamaica and Kew. The arrival of the Providence caught Anderson unprepared, but he hastily potted 350 plants from his garden to send with it to Jamaica and Kew. As Bligh was preparing to leave Jamaica for England, he received orders to join a Honduras convoy. When he finally left Jamaica for England several months later, he carried a large number of plants, but the list of those delivered to the Royal Gardens at Kew does not identify the ones 20 the local chaplain, Lansdown It also included letand other lists of plants that may have been among the Anderson manuscripts.8~'z Anderson died in St. Vincent in 1811 and was succeeded for a short time by his friend and associate William Lochhead, 5 who died unexpectedly in 1815 and was in turn succeeded in Guilding. ters 1816 by an Australian, George Caley. Caley's tenure on St. Vincent was marked by his dissatisfaction with everything on the island, including the garden, and upon his departure in 1822 the garden was returned to local administration and began a long decline. So great a wealth of plant material has never again been assembled in the American tropics. Anderson was a master plantsman, to be remembered for his dynamic program of introduction, propagation, and distribution. He is commemorated in the names of one genus-Andersonia of the Epacridaceae was named for Alexander and two other Andersons-and at least six speconstant _ cies. temple houses a fountam m the form of an allamanda flower. The garden still mamtams many historical medicmal plants such as the source of chaulmoogra oil, which is used in treating leprosy, and the hgnum mtae, long thought useful m treamg symptoms of syphihs The collection of palms is especially notable, and a new mventory is much desired. The garden's largest breadfrmt trees represent three of the vameties introduced by Bhgh on the Providence. All are vegetative propagations of an earher plant The ongmal supermtendent's house is now a museum that specializes m artifacts of the Cambs and other mdigenous groups. This However, although over 100 of the plants he collected none was were new to science, published under the name he applied to it; had the Hortus been published in his lifetime, many common plants of the Caribbean flora-perhaps as many plants introduced into cultivation in the British Caribbean. The last printed inventory of the plants in the garden was one drawn up by Anderson in 1806 and published in 1825 as part of the History of the St. Vincent Botanic Garden compiled by as 75-would now carry the names he proposed. One hopes that the botanical information in his manuscripts and his records of plant introduction will one day be salvaged and published as a tribute to this worthy man of science from the King's Botanical Garden of St. Vincent, once the horticultural capital of the Western Hemisphere. 21 Literature Cited I Anderson, 2 Alexander. 1853. Letters. Cottage Gardener 8: 59, 9: 417. Anderson, James [mcorrectly, should be Alexander]. 1785. An account of Morne Garu, a mountain m the island of St. Vincent, with a description of the volcano on its summit. Transactions of the London 15. 16-31. Philosophlcal Royal Society, 3 Bmush Museum (Natural History). 1803 Catalogue of Descnbed Plants m the Botamc Garden, Calcutta, with hst of West Indian and other plants sent to Lord Seaforth and others addressed to Lambert Archives Add MS 28610. England by 4 Bmtten, James. S Cmchona Journal 1915. An overlooked of Botany 53~ 137. Pamtmg bv John Tyley, protege ot Alexunder Anderson, ot tzmts said to have been mtroduced 14 ---, by the St. Vincent Botamc Garden. 1773. Some Additional Observations on the Methods of Preservmg Seeds from Foreign Parts, for the Benefit of our American Colomes and with an Account of the Garden at St Vincent Under the Care of Dr. George Young. London Elhs, John. eds. 1983. Alexander Anderson's The St Botamc Garden Cambridge : Harvard College, and London: The Lmnean Society. Vmcent 15 6 Forsyth, William. Correspondence. Letters from Alexander Anderson,1775-1789 Royal Botamc Garden, Kew, Archives Fothergill, 1773-1776 7 Gerald. 1977 Emigrants Society, 8 in New England Historic Boston Reprint, Baltimore 1825. An Account from England, Genealogical 16 1784. Experiments and ObserSpecies of Bark Shewmg its Great m Very Small Doses, also a Comparauve View of the Powers of the Red and Qmlled Bark, Bemg an Attempt Towards a General Analysis and Compendious History of the Valuable Genus of Cmchona, or the Peruman Bark London. Kentish, Richard. vations on a New Kew Record Book 1793-1806. Pages 115-123. Botanic Garden, Kew, Archives. Royal Guildmg, L. of the Botamc Garden its the Island of St Vincent from Estabhshment to the Present Time Richard Gnffm. First 17 Glasgow 18 D 1974 Banks, Bligh and the Breadfruit. New Zealand journal of History 8\/1~: G1-77. Mackay, Powell, 1-94 9 Howard, R. A. 1994 Eighteenth Century m West D. 1972. The Botanic Garden, Liguanea. Bulletm of the Institute of jamaica Science 15\/1\/: (: Indian Pharmaceuticals. Harvard Papers 5 69-91 lo -- Botany 19 -- 1962. Volcamsm and vegetation in the Lesser Antilles. 43. 279-311. i Journal of the Arnold Arboretum zo 1973. The Voyage of the Plant Nursery, H.M S Promdence, 1791-1793 Bulletin of the Institute of Jamaica Science 15\/2\/: 1-70. . Howard, R. A., and K. S. Clausen. 1980. The Soufnere plant of St. Vincent. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 61. 765-770. Premiums offered by the Society instituted at London for the encouragement of Arts, Manufacturers and Commerce, London 1775. 12 Howard, R A., and E.S Howard 1985. The Reverend Lansdown Gmldmg, 1797-1831. Phytologia 58: 105164. 13 eds. 1983 Alexander Anderson's Geography and History of St Vmcent, West Indies Cambmdge~ Harvard College, and London' The Linnean Society. , Professor of Dendrology, Ememtus, Harvard University, and former director of the Arnold Arboretum, Dr Richard A. Howard is the author of the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Antilles An earher version of this article was pubhshed in Harvard Papers m Botany \/ 199G~ 8: 7-14. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Molecular Analysis: A New Look at Umbrella Magnolias","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25194","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd2608928.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Figlar, Richard B.","article_content":"Molecular Analysis: A New Look Umbrella Magnolias Richard B. at Figlar Taxonomists have long been frustrated in their attempts to decipher the complex evolutionary relationships within the genus Magnolia. Recent molecular research has shed new light on the problem and helped to clarify the longstanding confusion. The of section Rytidoof sixteen categories spermum-one that subdivide the 128 species of the genus Magnolia-have always been magnolias intensely interesting group, not only for their large flowers and enormous whorled leaves, but because an These three closely related magnolras share large, whorled leaves, from a foot to two feet m length, and large, white flowers with diameters m the range of six to twelve mches. The flowers, which open after the leaves have developed, are strongly scented, according to most taxonomists, Magnolia tnpetala, above, unpleasantly so. A natme of the consists of six species: MagnoliaAllegheny region of the eastern Umted States, it seldom exceeds tripetala, the umbrella magnolia; M. ;forty feet and is uncommon both m the mld and m cultivation. At top mght Is the Japanese Magnolia obovata. It grows to fraseri, the mountain magnolia; M. the big-leaf magnolia; eighty feet m its native damp, mch, highland forests, and is one of macrophylla, the hardiest Asian magnohas (zones 6 to 9). Its shghtly less hardy M. obovata (M. hypoleuca), M. Chmese sister, M. officinalis var. biloba, at bottom right, also officinalis, and M. rostrata-the first grows at altitudes from 2,000 to 5,500 feet, and achieves heights three native to southeastern Umtedup to seventy feet. Its bark is so highly valued as medicine that States into Mexico and the latter the tree has been nearly extmpated m its native provmces of Hubei three native to eastern Asia, from theand Sichuan rangmg ` in both eastern North America. Within the genus, this intercontinental distribution is shared only with section Tuhpastrum, but in that case the two species involved, our native cucumber tree, Magnolia acuminata, and M. liliiflora, the famous Mulan magnolia from China, share few characteristics beyond the same number of chromosomes and the presence of reduced outer tepals. The Rytidospermum section, occur several species Asia and eastern ' . 23 24 represent true whorls, the leaves of Rytidospermum magnolias are arranged in false whorls; that is, the individual leaves actually emerge in alternate fashion but with very little stem growth (internodes) between successive leaves. The pattern of many leaves emerging almost simultaneously is called flushmg. Apparently, Rytidospermum magnolias adapted this flushtype leaf-emergence pattern in order to compete effectively in the gaps of forest understory during early spring. By producing more leaves more or less simultaneously, such plants are better able to compete with other species for scarce sunlight. And since little stem growth is produced, the process itself is very energy efficient. Later in the spring, the growth reverts to the more typical pattern, where leaves are produced one at a time other along longer stem shoots, as in magnolias. Flush-type leafare common species of the understory; for instance, some of the deciduous azaleas, although because of their much smaller leaves, the umbrella effect is less noticeable than in the Rytidospermum emergence patterns many other plant in Like other members of the subgenus Magnolia (one of three within the genus), the frmts of M. tripetala tend to be bmght red and showy They persist for several weeks in late summer. magnolias.2 Clearly, among the magnolias this trait is unique, and for that reason taxonomists have suggested that, Kurile Islands and Japan westward to southwest China. Among the various morphological characteristics shared by members of this group, the most distinctive are the enormous whorls of deciduous leaves, which are crowded m parasol fashion at the ends of the branches. For this reason, the Rytidospermum magnolias are often referred to as umbrella trees. Indeed, to the uninitiated, the first impression of these plants is often more reminiscent of the houseplant known as the umbrella tree-the giant tropical Schefflera-than it is of a Magnoha. However, unlike Schefflera, whose compound leaves despite their intercontinental distribution, they all form a natural group and should be very closely related. This provokes several questions. Did today's species evolve from a common ancestor? If so, how and when did its descendants cross the Pacific Ocean? Which one of the North American species is the most closely related to its Asian counterpart(s)? Using modern molecular systematics, researchers Yin-Long Qiu, Clifford Parks, and Mark Chase analyzed the chloroplast DNA (cpDNA) of all section Rytidospermum species. (CpDNA is the part of the DNA chromosome that is reponsible for photosynthesis. ~ By com- 25 paring the differences in the cpDNA of the various species, they were able to quantify the of evolutionary change, measured as molecular divergence, that had taken place between them. The underlying assumption or theory in this method is that the amount of genetic difference is proportional to the amount of time elapsed since the species diverged from their common ancestor, relative to other pairs or groups of organisms being compared. The results of the study team were published in two amount (between all combmations of pairs of species) the entire chloroplast genome. The analysis counts the number of site changes encountered, then calculates the cpDNA sequence divergence (as a percentage of sequence divergence\/ between all species pairs. The results are over separate papers in the American Journal of Botany, both in 1995. This article attempts to summarize the findings of these researchers and to interpret how molecular data, when used in conjunction with traditional morphological studies, can lead to better understanding of the shown in Table 1. This analysis clearly shows that Magnolia tripetala from eastern North America has diverged far less from the Asian species M. obovata and M. officinalis var. biloba than it has from other North American species. It also indicates that the other North American species have diverged just as much from each other (including M. tripetala) as they have from the two Asian species. evolutionary relationships among plants. No attempt will be made in this article to decode the complexities of their analytic techniques, the details of which are treated in the study team's Allozyme Electrophoresis The study team used a second method, allozyme electrophoresis, to examine genetic variation of enzyme-coding genes. This analysis results in the calculation of a parameter called Nei's unbiased genetic identity for each of the species pairings. The numbers are from zero to one, with one being a perfect genetic match. One of the authors, Clifford Parks, suggests that as a rule of thumb, readings greater than 0.90 suggest populations of the same species, while readings less than 0.67 indicate distinctly different species. The results can be seen in Table 2. Though not shown in the table, it should also be noted that Nei's genetic identity for mtraspeTABLE 2 original papers.4-s CpDNA Restriction Site Analysis Qui, Parks, and Chase used three different laboratory techniques to assess the divergence among Magnolia obovata, M. tripetala, M. fraseri, M. macrophylla, and M. officmalis var. biloba (a variety of M. officmalis with notched or bilobed leaves; shown in the tables as M. biloba). The first method, cpDNA restriction site analysis, randomly samples changes TABLE 1 26 cific comparisons was nearly 1.000, as would be expected: the values ranged from 0.993 for M. obovata vs. M. obovata to 0.932 for M. macrophylla vs. M. macrophylla. The results of this second method almost the results of the restriction site analysis, giving very strong evidence of a close relationship between Magnolia tripetala and the Asian species and relatively distant relationships among the rest of the species. It is interesting to note that in both analyses the relationship between M. fraseri and M. macrophylla is the most distant of any of the pairs. Iromcally, some texts on North American trees refer to these two species as closely related on account of their similar auriculate (earlobeshaped) leaf bases. mirror extremely low-the lowest divergence ever reported for any eastern Asia-eastern North America disjunct taxa.\" For example, the sequence divergence over the entire chloroplast genome (cpDNA) between Limodendron tulipifera and L. chinense was found to be 1.24 percent (as compared to 0.083 percent between M. obovata and M. tripetala\/,3 which is a remarkable difference in that many taxonomists long considered both Liriodendron taxa to be varieties of the same species. The study team speculated how and when Magnolia tripetala and its sister species became separated from their common ancestor. One hypothesis is that the common ancestor could have migrated between the contments via the Bering land bridge during one of the earth's warm periods in the middle Miocene (17 to 15 million years before the present) or early Pliocene (6 to 5 million years before the TABLE 3 Chloroplast Gene rbcL Sequencing ll Finally, the study team compared M. macrophylla, and M. tripetala, obovata to each other by analyzing (i.e., sequencing) a specific segment of the chloroplast gene called rbcL. This analysis involves comparing the 1,432 base pairs of the rbcL gene for each pair of species in the analysis, which in this case is three (M. macrophylla macrophylla M. obovata vs. vs. vs. M. obovata, M. M. tripetala, and M. tripetala). The results, once again, confirm the findings of the first two analyses, which suggest that M. tripetala and the two Asian species form a clade, or \"sister group.\" In fact, the sequencing of the chloroplast gene rbcL yielded no divergence between M. tripetala and M. obovata for that portion of the DNA strand. The researchers believe that since the results from all three methods have yielded the same pattern of divergence, they can be considered reliable for determining divergence among those Magnoha species. They emphasize that \"the molecular divergence between M. tripetala and its Asian sister taxa, M. officinalis var. biloba and M. obovata, is The shared earlobe-shaped bases of their leaves notmthstandmg, molecular analysis has shown that Magnolia macrophylla and, seen here, M. frasen are the most distantly related of the magnohas of section Rytidospermum. 27 Molecular analysis of Magnolia macrophylla var macrophylla (above) and M. macrophylla var ashen (below) revealed no differences between the two vametzes, despite the greater size of the vanety macrophylla, which attains sixty feet, as compared to that of vanety ashen, at twenty-five feet 28 among M. tripetala and the Asian M. of ficmalis var. biloba and M. obovata to include M. officmalis var. officinalis and M. rostrata in the group. Summaries of other findings follow: (1)Though Magnolia of ficmvar. officinalis and M. officinalis var. biloba are closely related and part of a sister group, they are separated by four restriction site changes, whereas only one restriction site change separated M. officinalis var. officmalis and alis M. rostrata. This suggested to that \"full species status for M. officinalis var. biloba is justifiable,\" but since delineation of a species depends on examination of samples from the team across a plant's entire range, they recommend a detailed study of wild populations of all four Asian taxa before any decision is made. (2) Only one restriction site change separated Magnolia macrophylla var. dealbata and M. macrophylla var. ashei, and no change was found between these two and M. macrophylla var. macrophylla. In this, the Above are thc o~ Magnolia frasem raz fiasem, and belov~, those of study team agrees with the M. frasen var pyramidata. Molecular analysis of these taxa revealed very 1979 judgment of botanist little separation between them Dorothy Johnson Callaway' and rejects species status for the varieties present). Perhaps the answer will come from .. ~ , , fossil evidence.3 _ _ Expanding the Scope of the Study In a second paper, Qui, Chase, and Parks expanded their phylogenetic study to include restriction site analyses of many pairs of magnoliaceous species, including Magnolia officinalis var. officinalis, M. rostrata, M. macrophylla var. ashei, M. macrophylla var. dealbata, M. fraseri var. dealbata, M. fraseri var. pyramidata, as well as many others. One result was an extension of the sister relationship dealbata and ashel. (3) Similarly, the team rejects species status for Magnolia fraseri var. pyramidata since they found only one restriction site change between it and M. fraseri var. fraseri. Also, separate allozyme profiles established in an earlier study of wild populations of M. fraseri at low elevations in north Georgia indicated that those plants were intermediate between the varieties 6 fraseri and pyramidata. For some, the ma~or finding of this work-the sister relationship between Magnolia tripetala 29 and the Asian species comes as no (especially smce M. obovata), these three are the surprise, that share grooved seed coats only species (the name Rytidospermum means \"wrinkled seed\") and are highly compatible when crosspollinated. Phil Savage, an experienced magnolia breeder, has found that of the many crosses he has made between species within section Rytidospermum, only those within the sister that result from genetic affinity between species from those that merely reflect similar responses to similar environmental variables, such as climate. But lest false hope be raised, be warned that molecular analysis will not resolve the arguments among taxonomists, nor, certainly, does it offer respite from the frequent name changes that have become such a predictable part of botanical taxonomy. Literature Cited vigorous, worthy hybrids. In fact, tripetala grows in close proximity to M. obovata, there have been many cases of putative hybrids occurring spontaneously.8-9 Other crosses made by Savage-M. tripetala x group were where M. 1 Johnson [Callaway], D. L. 1989. changes in Magnolia Baileya 23~1]: 2 Nomenclatural 55-56. M. M. fraseri, M. obovata x M. macrophylla, tripetala x M. macrophylla, and M. obovata x M. fraseri-generally produced 3 L 1989. Development and survival of leaves in Magnoha obovata in a deciduous broadleaved forest in Hokkaido, northern Japan. Canadian Journal of Botany 65(2) 412-417. Kikuzawa, smaller leaves and flowers than their parents, and all lacked vigor. Other affinities have been addressed using different morphological characters. Savage speculated that Magnolia obovata and M. fraseri may be closely related because of their long-beaked, carpelled fruit, which are nearly identical.' Some have agreed with that point of view, but others have argued that because all Rytidospermum magnolias share a very striking morphological feature-the false whorls of leaves produced at the branch tips-they all must be closely related. However, since molecular analysis suggests a close relationship for only Magnoha tripetala and its Asian sister species, perhaps the responsibility for the similar false whorls produced by M. fraseri and M. macrophylla as well as the similarities in the fruit of M. fraseri and M. obovata lies in convergent evolution-that is, similar characteristics may have developed in unrelated, or distantly related, plants as each responds to similar conditions. Molecular analysis as a taxonomic tool is still relatively new, and it brings with it the allure of results that can be stated in precise numbers. But taxonomy is far from a cut-and-dried procedure : no matter how many characters are examined and how much evidence is marshalled in support of a particular position, a taxonomic decision is always a judgment call. As the case with Magnolia demonstrates, molecular analysis does promise to help distinguish similarities Parks, C. R., and J. divergence between species F. Wendel 1990. Molecular Asian and North American of implications American Lmodendron (Magnohaceae\/ with for interpretation of fossil floras. 1243-1256. Journal of Botany 77: Qm, Y.-L., M. W. Chase, and C. R. Parks. 1995 A chloroplast DNA phylogenetic study of the eastern Asia-eastern North America disjunct section American Ryudospermum of Magnoha (Magnoliaceae]. Journal of Botany 82: 1582-1588. Qm, Y.-L., 5 C. R. Parks, M. W. Chase. 1995. Molecular divergence in the eastern Asia-eastern North America disjunct section Rytidospermum of Magnoha (Magnoliaceae) American Journal of Botany 82: 1589-1598 ~ Qm, Y.-L., and C. R. Parks. 1994. Disparity of allozyme variation levels in three Magnoha (Magnoliaceae) species from the southeastern Umted States. Amemcan 7 Journal of Botany 81. 1300-1308 Savage, P. umbrella 8 J. 1976. Sights and scents among the hardy trees. Journal of the Magnoha Society S. A., and R W. Weaver 1981 'Silver magnolia cultivar. Arnoldia 41~2\/: 7\/ 114-17. Spongberg, Parasol': A 70-77. 9 new Vasak, V. 1973 in cultivation. Magnoha hypoleuca m nature and Journal of the Magnolia Society 9~ 13-6. Richard Figlar, a past president of the Magnolia Society, has been studying and collecting magnolias for 25 years. He grows more than 125 taxa in his personal arboretum in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountams of South Carolina. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Principles of Taste: Book Review","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25196","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270a326.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Principles of Taste: Book Review Phyllis Andersen as Well as Broad Effects: Writings on Architecture, Landscape, and the Environment Accents 1876-1925. Mariana Griswold Van Rensselaer. Selected and edited by David Gebhard. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1996. Hardcover, 367 pages. _ With the advantage of hindsight, it might be said that Mariana Griswold Van Rensselaer (1851-1934) led a life of quiet contradiction. She was a noted writer on art, architecture, and landscape subjects; the first biographer of Henry Hobson Richardson and Frederick Law Olmsted.' She was thoroughly professional in her work, precise in her negotiations for a proper fee, and never hesitant to ask for timely payment. She was a friend of Charles Sprague Sargent and a valued contributor to his weekly, Garden and Forest. Yet Mariana Van Rensselaer was an active opponent of women's suffrage and wrote a popular pamphlet on that subject, \"Should We Ask for the Suffrage?\" (1894). Her answer was no, women should concentrate on their families and on educational and mtellectual matters, leaving business and public affairs to men. Perhaps this was a comment on the politics of her day; to be fair, she was also concerned that new money interests would exploit working women who would be unable to defend themselves. Until the publication of this collection of her writings, Van Rensselaer's work had fallen into relative obscurity. With the exception of her biography of H. H. Richardson, to which subsequent generations of Richardson scholars invariably pay homage, her work has been treated as that of a rather quaint lady writer who presented to the world the ideas of designers, whom she strongly promoted as \"artists.\" As evidenced by this collection, her work is much richer than that, more nuanced and original. If Van Rensselaer's work has not been given more prominence, it may be because of her commit- explication of taste, that illusive for form (and fashion) tightly bound predilection to social class that is just now engaging the attention of the academic community. In the world of serious critical writing, the consideration of taste has often been treated in a patronizing, if not outright contemptuous, manner. But if in popular literature the issue of taste has now become the domain of Martha Stewart and the shelter magazines, it has also become the territory of serious critical battle: Susan Sontag on kitsch, Martha Schwartz on the viability of bagels as garden ornament, and any number of writers on the sociological implications of wellclipped suburban lawns vs. their treatment as wildflower meadows. Insofar as a concern with good taste is a characteristic of the upper middle class-since both the aristocracy and working class can afford to indulge eccentricity-Van Rensselaer was speaking for a world she knew well. But her writing on taste went well beyond the proper and the decorous to encompass appropriateness as well. Included in this collection is an important essay, \"Architectural Fitness,\" first published in Garden and Forest in 1891 (some say at the instigation of Charles Sargent). Her reflection on the quality of stonework and boulders in Central Park and Franklin Park predates the modernist dictum of \"truth to materials\" but is certainly on the same intellectual path. Mariana Griswold Van Rensselaer was born in New York City in 1851 to parents well positioned socially and financially to give her a broad, sophisticated education, albeit by private tutor and extensive European travel. The family relocated to Dresden, Germany, when Mariana was still in her teens, and it was there that she met and married Schuyler Van Rensselaer, a young mining engineer and scion of the great New York family. The couple returned to the United States where their only child, George, was born. Sadly, Schuyler Van Rensselaer died ment to the 31 in 1884, followed by their young son only eight years later, and Mariana found herself alone at the age of forty-three. While she had begun to write for publication during the years of her marriage-an activity not wholly supported by her husband-she now recast her life to include serious scholarship and travel in order to further her writing career. Van Rensselaer's position in American landscape history is firmly established by her 1893 book, Art Out-of-Doors: Hints on Good Taste in Gardening. With this publication she emphatically aligned herself with the naturalistic\/pastoral landscape movement led by Frederick Law Olmsted, supported by Sargent and with a debt to Andrew Jackson Dowmng. I have assumed that the naturalistic methods of are the most mteresting and imporfor nature speaks to us Americans more variously and naturally m America than m .2 Europe gardening tant to ... The enemy here was the ornamental style of gardening. The promulgators of carpet bedding (\"ugly things of which no sensitive eye can approve\") had a strong voice in both public and residential horticulture. The use in public parks of bold-colored plants arrayed in tight, highly organized groups, with no respect for their natural form let alone their natural habitat, was beloved by the public, who borrowed these patterns for their home gardens. Beds of geramums, Mrs. Schuyler Van Rensselaer m 1927. Van Rensselaer's biographical essay on Olmsted, originally published in Century Magain 1893, and included here in its entirety, offers a much more vivid picture of the man than many later works. Suspicious of personal publicity and certainly not garrulous by nature, Olmsted nonetheless met with and maintained a vigorous correspondence with Van Rensselaer, providing her with rich material for her article. zme answer to a question asked not long ago, Mr. Olmsted said, \"The most mterestmg general facts of my life seems to me to be that it was not coleus, lantanas, heliotropes-any plants that could be manipulated either by the designer or the hybridizer to take on a brighter huewere filling the great lawns of Newport, the In village Our squares in New Rensselaer's great Garden. England, and, dismay, Boston's few to Van Public to as a public has way seen too good examples know, theoretically, what it likes in the way of gardening art. Naturally it likes flowers and bnght-hued plants of all kmds. When it sees them as they are shown in the Public Garden, it delights m them for their own sakes while it rarely thmks of the general effect of the place. But if it could once see this place as it ought to look, softly green and quiet, enlivened but not confused by a few touches of brilliant color, I am sure gardener, a flomst, a botanist, or one many specially mterested m plants and flowers, or specially susceptible to their beauty, that I was drawn to my work. The root of all my work has been an early respect for an enjoyment of a more domestic order-scenery which is to be looked upon contemplatively, and is productive of mus.4 ing moods.' The late David Gebhard, a noted architectural historian, has done a great service in editing this collection. His introduction surveys her life and gives her work a new importance in American design history, although in the space of an intro- it would recognize the improvement, and not mourn the scores of vanished beds 3 32 duction he was not able to delve deeply into the intellectual roots of her work. It is a minor criticism to say that he uses that oddly speculative manner of biographical writing that relies on \"she must have...,\" \"expected of upper middle class women,\" etc. The collection is divided into three sections: Architecture and the Decorative Arts, Recent Architecture in America, and Landscape Architecture and the Environment ; while heavily slanted to her writings on architecture-perhaps a reflection of Gebhard's interests-her writings on the context of architectural practice transcend specific disciplines. Architecture is a necessary trade as well as an art. Its work must be done, and as nature is not likely ever to give us gemuses m sufficient number to do the whole of it, the second or third rate architect is a very necessary and valuable citizen. All our architectural work cannot be great, but all of it ought to be good; and fair intelligence, earnest study, and conscientious effort may make it good, though only a high artistic gift can make it great.s summered in Marion, Massachusetts, and her on the protection of roadsides was prompted by a concern for the insensitivity of road commissioners and the dreaded linemen in clearing vegetation. (\"There seems to be no science or art, no reason or plan in their work.\") She acknowledges the difficulty in managing the publicly owned wild border with its thickets of rose, viburnum, and vines as it grows into privately owned lawns, but suggests that a simple appreciation of natural growth could create rural roads as beautiful as any English lane. This collection of Van Rensselaer's writing has expanded our understanding of the maturing of America's design professions, the period when they cut their close ties with Europe and began to look to our own history and culture for reference points. For the landscape community, one hopes that the collection, positioning Mariana Van Rensselaer among the original thinkers of her period, will lead to the republication of Art Out-of-Doors, making this classic piece text on American landscape gardening acces- of many voices at the end of the nineteenth century calling for the professionalization of many pursuits earlier seen as \"crafts.\" In an important essay, \"Client and Architect,\" she points out the need for an educated client and deplores the limitations placed on the designer by a client with a stubbornly limited vision. She is, as always, protective of the creative force. Van Rensselaer was one sible once more. Endnotes 1 Henry Hobson Richardson and and NY: His Works (Boston Houghton Mifflm, 1888); on Olmsted: Accents as Well as Broad Effects, 284-299. 2 Art Out-of-Doors (NY. Scmbner's, 1903~, 157. 3 Ib~d , 146. Accents, 284. Even apart from competitions, the public's duct is not what it should be to encourage loyal service. Often enough in all his dealings the clicon- 5 Ibid., 38. ~ Ibid., 48. For Further ent shows a disregard for truth, honesty, and business methods which he would find very shocking were the architect the sinner and he the sufferer. And when the work is complete, he constantly takes credit for good ideas which do not belong to him, blames the architect for defects that his own ignorant demands have brought about, and, above all, cries out against an excess m cost that has been necessitated by changes from the original scheme which he him.6 self has suggested Reading Kmnard, Cynthia Women D. 1981. \"The Life and Works of Mariana Gnswold Van Rensselaer America's First Professional Woman Art Critic.\" In as Interpreters of the Visual Arts, 1820-1979, edited by C. R. Sherman and Adele M. Holcomb. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press Koemgsberg, Lisa. 1990. \"Lifewritings First American Biographers of Architects and Their Works.\" In The Architectural Histoman m Amenca, edited by Ehzabeth Blair McDougall. Washmgton, D.C.: National Gallery of Art. In addition to the essay on Olmsted and the short but insightful \"Landscape Gardening: A Defimtion,\" the landscape section reprints several pieces of local interest. Van Rensselaer Phyllis Andersen is director of the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"\"Open to All Real Plant Lovers\": Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25195","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260896d.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Siporin, Judith","article_content":"\"Open to All Real Plant Lovers\" : Book Review judith Siporin The Bulletins of Reef Point Gardens. Beatrix Farrand. Bar Harbor, ME: The Island Foundafacsimile with an informative introduction by Paula Deitz. Farrand's ambition at Reef Point was to adapt her parents' picturesque garden and summer house, built at the end of the nineteenth century in the newly fashionable summer community of Bar Harbor, for use as a self-sustammg institution for the study of horticulture and land- tion, 1997. Hardcover, 134 pages. Beatrix Farrand's Reef Point Gardens in Bar were dismantled and her house down about forty years ago. The granite gate pillars and giant sentinel spruces that marked the entrance remain on the site, as does the gardener's cottage beyond them, but the flowerbeds and the paths with their strategically placed benches are gone. Only the magnificent views of the Maine coast are unchanged. Farrand accepted the transitory nature of human creations with courage and a total lack of sentimentality: it was she herself who, fearing an uncertain future for the property when she was no longer there to look after it, put an end to her much loved gardens and house. But with the re-publication in one volume of The Bulletins of Reef Point Gardens, written by Farrand in the conviction that \"words and illustrations outlive many plantations,\" we can recover a vivid sense of what the garden Harbor, Mame, torn design. Throughout her career, commissions (including the White House gardens during Woodrow Wilson's administration, the Yale and Princeton campuses, and Dumbarton Oaks) took her away from Maine, but in 1939 the Farrands formally scape once was. The bulletins, seventeen in all, published between 1946 and 1956, were distributed worldwide and could be purchased by visitors to the gardens for ten cents each. Written for the most part by Farrand with help from four staff members who worked closely with her in the gardens, they share a clear, concise prose style grounded in detailed observation of plants and knowledge of their cultivation. They also express devotion to a mission, to creating \"a place in the world where those who are moved by outdoor art may study or enjoy books, gardens, birds, and the beauty of sky, sea, colour, and the changing seasons-ever different and yet eternal.\" The new compilation, a project of the Island Foundation of Bar Harbor, presents the bulletins in chronologically arranged established the Reef Point Gardens Corporation, and her energies became increasingly focused on this personal project. Although her hopes for building an ongoing institution were never fulfilled, her creation became in its day the only public botanic garden in Maine and was said to contain \"the finest collection of plants north of the Arnold Arboretum.\" Indeed, Farrand owed her own early education in horticulture to the private tutoring of Professor Charles S. Sargent at the Arnold Arboretum. He also encouraged her to enter the field of landscape design, which at that time ordinarily would have been denied to her as a woman, and he recommended her for her first commission. The Arboretum nourished a scientific and scholarly interest in plant collections, which in many respects determined the character of her own garden. Not only were a number of the unusual plants she grew at Reef Point propagated at the Arboretum, but in return she sent to its propagators cuttings from rare plants she had herself collected. She aimed to establish the proper classification and nomenclature, worthy of the best botanic gardens, and to accomplish this relied heavily on the advice of Arboretum staff, who identified more than eighty of her specimens from flowers. 34 The bulletins define the long-range plans drawn up by Farrand and her husband (a scholar and professor of history) and describe the steps she took toward establishing an institution that could serve a far-reaching community. Some of them focus on specific aspects of Reef Point Gardens: the site and its ancient geological history ; the buildings and their redesign to accommodate public visitors; the plan of the grounds; walking tour; the library with its impressive collection of more than 2,700 volumes, documents, and archival material; the herbarium with over 1,800 pressed and dried specimens collected from the grounds; and the print collection. Some bulletins are devoted to special groups of plants in the garden and their cultivation and maintenance: conifers, single roses, the climbing plants that created what Farrand a 35 termed \"vertical beds,\" heaths and heathers, and native Maine woodland plants. They also include contemporary black-and-white photographs of the grounds and of the house and its interior; detailed plans of the gardens, paths, and roads; plant lists with comments on particular species; and a list of blooming plants month by month. The \" to the dictates of fashion and preserve varieties for posterity. Farrand makes clear in the bulletins that Reef Point Gardens were made for the serious student of nature and gardens rather than for the casual tourist. She nonetheless took pains to preserve the welcoming character of the house, with its comfortable library and the thirtyfoot terrace where visitors could \"spend a long afternoon with books and enjoy the quiet harbour view.\" She offered her garden to the general public \"in the hope they will glean some of the pleasure it has given the first owners for over fifty years.\" Beyond her own property, she left her mark on the wider community by appendix provides mis- cellaneous additional material, such as a list of \"treasured seeds still intact m envelopes\" that Farrand collected from around the world. The aesthetic aspect of Reef Point Gardens was often closely allied with a scientific one, apparent in the emphasis on exact order and classification, the organization of coherent collections of plants, and the mclusion of natural habitats and their plants. Farrand loved the simplicity and purity of single roses, which she likened to illuminations in a medieval book of hours or to the drawmgs from nature of Durer or Leonardo. Nurserymen had told her that these beautiful roses were so far out of fashion that they no longer listed them in catalogs. Farrand's collection was said to be \"the most complete group of single hybrid tea roses in this country and abroad\"; several varieties were to be found only at Reef Point, having been \"almost lost to cultivation.\" Such a collection could serve as a counterpoise . designing over fifty gardens in Bar Harbor, including that of the Rockefellers, and donated a great deal of her time to the planning of Acadia Park, consulting extensively with John D. Rockefeller, Jr., about the plantings to be used along the carriage roads. In the last bulletin,written three years before her death and intended for use as her obituary, Farrand was at pains to place her accomplishin the context of her collaborations and other strong alliances. It was especially fitting, then, that when Farrand declared her intention to destroy the gardens, friends found a way to perpetuate her exceptional collection of plants. Charles Savage, the owner of a local mn and a member of the Reef Point Gardens Corporation, designed two gardens in Northeast Harbor to which many of Farrand's plants were moved\"a remarkable feat of plant preservation,\" according to the introduction. One of these is an azalea garden modeled after a Japanese \"stroll garden\" with a pool that reflects the carefully composed sequence of colors of the azaleas ; proceeds from the sale of The Bulletins of Reef Point Gardens will go to an endowment for this garden. Now called the Asticou Azalea Garden, it is, in the words of the sign that marked the entrance to Reef Point, \"open to all real plant lovers.\" ments \" . Judith Siporm teaches at art history and Enghsh hterature the Commonwealth School m Boston and works seasonally m landscape design and mamtenance. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1997","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25191","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd2608126.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data -1997 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest ' . 60 39 50 34.91 inches 45.35 inches Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost _ 97 -1 on June 23 on January 19 9 16 30 on April 29 October 22 on Growing Season Note: 188 days Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1997 was an extremely dry year, tymg 1905 as the seventh driest year m 127 years of state weather records. By the end of the year the average precipitation for the state (32.07 inches) was 9.43 mches below normal, the lowest smce the 29.39 mches of 1980. Here at the Arboretum, the precipitation was average or above during only three months, and for six straight months-May through October-it was well below normal. When ram did come, all too often it was m the form of fast, hard showers that could not soak mto the ground. Like 1997, 1995 was also a year of severe drought. Add to this the summer droughts of 1993 and 1994, when little ram fell throughout May, June, July, and August, and the result has been a great deal of stress on the living collections in four out of the last five years. But the biggest weather event of 1997 in terms of records broken and direct effects on the Arboretum was the April Fool's Day Blizzard. Twenty-five inches of wet, cement-hlce snow driven by gusty winds wreaked havoc on the collections. This storm surpassed the Hurricane of 1938 as the most destructive m our 125-year history. Given the trials of the past year, we can only hope that the old saw about the changeability of New England weatherif you don't like it, wait a minute-will bnng us entirely different and better weather m 1998. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 57","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25193","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260856f.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 57 Numbers m (1997) Bulletms Beatrix 35 parentheses refer to issues, those m boldface to illustrauons of the entnes. Andersen, Phylhs, \"Principles of Taste: Book Review\" Abies (ly 24; (2\/: 15, 16 concolor'Glenmore' ( 126 1 -holophylla \/2\/: 21 \"Accents as Well as Broad Effects~ - of Reef Pomt Gardens, Farrand, review of (4) : 332-3 Wntmgs on Architecture, Landscape, and the Environment 1876-1925, Manana Gnswold Van Rensselaer, review of (4). 30-32 Acer ( 124 cisszfohum (2): 24 gnseum (2): inside front cover, 18,19,24 henry (2). 23, 24 kansuense (2). 23 mandshuncum (2): 20-21, 22 subsp. kansuense (2)' 23 -maximomczianum (2\/: 17-18, 20,24 --var megalocarpum (2\/: 24 - negundo ( 1\/: 25; (2): 24 7 -nikoense (2) : 17 -pentaphyllum (2): 22 - pseudoplatanus (2\/~ 7 -pseudosieboldianum (2): 20, 21 - rubrum ( 114; (2). 29 saccharinum ( 1): 1G saccharum (2) : 22 subsp. leucoderme (2) : 29 - sutchuenense \/2) 23 - tmflorum (2) : inside back cover, 20, 23, 24 var. ~ejopodum (2): 23 --var. subconacea (2) : 23 - ukurunduense (2) : 21 7 Aceraceae (2) : 17 5 Adair, Robert (4): 15 Adams, Marshall (21: 29 Aesculus hippocastanum (2\/. 7 Ailanthone (3\/. 29-35 Allanthus ( 1 14 altissima (3) : 20, 22-27 Allanthus altissima (3) : front cover, - Anderson, Alexander [4\/. 15, 17-20, 6 drawing by 16 Andersoma (4\/~ 20 Antwerp, Belgmm (21: 4 Apple (1\/: 5; ~2\/~ 14 Arnold Arboretum1inside back cover, 12, 14, 16-17, 22, 23-24, 25, 26, 27-30, 31, 32; (2\/: 19, 20, 22, 23, 24; (3y 5; photo of (4) : inside back cover Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data-1997 ~4y 36 Artocarpus altihs (4\/: 18 Burton, G., drawing by (2). F. ( 114 Byrnes, Todd ( 123 Bush, B 2014 2014 Ash - [ 124 4 pumpkm ( 114 Caley, George \/4y 20 Capnfohaceae \/3y 3 Carpmus betulus (1). Carya ( 1~: 24 - lacmiosa \/ 1[: 24 - x browmi ( 1 ~: 31 - x laney \/ 126 5 Cedar ( 15 deodar (2). 12 - 27 Asticou Azalea Garden ~4\/: 35 Astilbe koreana (2): 21 Atteva punctella [1\/: 17 7 Azalea (4) : 24 Cedrus deodara (21: 12 -hbam (1]~ 24 Celus laevigata \/2y 29 7 Central Park [NY] (2). 8; (3): 17 Cercis canadensis (2) : 14 - torch \/ 123 9 Baldcypress \/1\/: 14; ~4\/: 8, - - - -- 2014 2014 2, 10 0 (4) 6, 10 Bamboo, false (3) 14 4 -Mexican (3\/. 14 Banks, Joseph (4) : 16, 19 5 Barberry1\/: Battery Park [NY] (2) : 9 8 Bay State Nurseries (31: 18 Bean, W. J. \/3) 3 Beaux Arts style ~2\/. 10 Beech[ 126, 27, 28, (2\/. 9 Berkeley Square [London] (2). 7 Betula davunca (2): 21 -papynfera ~2\/: 15 -schmidtm (2\/: 21 - Mexican (4): Montezuma Chamaecypans \/ 128 Champs Elysees (2). 5 Changyang Hsien, Hubei (2) : Chase, Mark [4~: 24, 28 23 \"Checkered Career of Allanthus altissima,Behula Shah (3]: 20-27 5 Chelsea Physic Garden (3~. 22; (4~: 15 1 Cherry ( 131 Chloroplast DNA [cpDNA] (4): 24 gene rbcL sequencmg (4). 26 Chollipo Arboretum (2): 20 Cinchona officinalls (41: 16 6 santaeluciae [4]: 16 Cmnamon (41: 13 City Hall Park [NY] (21: 8, 9 Coates, W. Nigel, \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak\" \/2\/: 25-30 with Allen J Coombes Coffin, Marian \/ 1 ]~ 5, 10 Collinson, Peter (3): 21 Cologne, Germany, plan of (2). 4 Colomal revival style ( 12, 5 Cook, James (4): 19 Coombes, Allen J., \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak\" (2): 25-30 with W Nigel Coates Coromlla vama (3): 9 Cours de la Reme [Pans] (2). 5, 7 1 Crabapple( 124, 31 x Crataegosorbus miczurmii \/1\/: 26 Crataegus crus-galli (ly 24 Cress, garden (3y 29, 30, 31, 32 Crownvetch \/3\/: 9 Cucumber tree (4)' 22 -- large-leafed \/4~: inside back cover - - - inside front cover, back cover, 28, 29,30,31,32,33,34-36 7 webworm ( 117 Alexander III, John H., \"'Lilac Sunday'-The Cultmar\" ( 112-13 Allee (2)' 2-10 - Bienville National Forest [MS] ~2\/: 29 Biltmore Estate [Asheville, NC] (2): 7 front cover; (3) : 17 1 Birch (1).\/. 15, 26, 31 Birkenhead [England] (2)' 8 9 Bligh, William~4\/: 18-19 Bloedel Reserve, Bambndge, WA (21: 15, 16 Allelopathy (3) : 28-36 \"Allelopathy and the Secret Heisey (3): 28 8 Bobbmk and Atkms (3): 18 \"Book Review,\" Peter Del Tredici 1 \/ 1 \/: 21 Life of Ailanthus altissima,\" Rod M. 25 \"Book Review: Mosses in the Allozyme electrophoresis (41: Almond, flowering ( 110 \"Amazing Grace. The Cutleaf Maples,\" Rob Nicholson (2)~ 17-24 Amelanchier ( 126 \"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall From Grace,\" James O. Luken and John W. Thieret (3): 2-12 Bemto C. Tan ~2\/: 31-32 Boston Common (2): 8, 9 Bounty, H.M.S. (4): 18 Bowling Green [NY] (2). 9 Box elder (1\/: 25; \/2\/~ 24 1 Boxwood(1)5, 11 Breadfruit (41 18-20 Brook Place, Plamfield, NH ( 13, 4 Buckthorn (31: 3 Garden,\" Cuevas, Angel Salas, drawing by 8 (4~: 38 1 D'Incarville, Pierre Nicholas (3~: 21 Danrels, Alanson (1) 5-6 Daphne ( 110 Debreczy, Zsolt, \"El Arbol del Tule A Giant Racz Cypress Among the Cattarls\" \/4~: 2-11 with Istvan Del Rosso, John( 1\/: 23 Del Tredici, Peter, \"Book Review\" ( 121, photos by front cover, inside back cover, back cover; (2~: back cover; (3~: front cover, inside back cover; (4) : inside back cover Desfontames, Rene (3)' 22 DeWit, plan by (2): 4 7 Diospyros \/ 1~: 17 7 Dipteroma \/2~: 17 1 Dogwood ( 124, 31 Dommion Arboretum, Ottawa (3): 0 Dopodomys mgens \/3~: 10 Downmg, Andrew Jackson (3): 21, 1 23-25; (4~: 31 Drepanocladus uncmatus \/2\/: 32 Duke, Sarah P., Gardens, Durham, 1 NC (1~: 11 Dumbarton Oaks (2): 12 Duncan, Wilbur H. (2) : 28, 29 East River Park [NY] \/3~: 26 Edinburgh (2~: 6 El Arbol del Tule A Giant Cypress (1\/. 24; (2\/: 15, 16 - Douglas ( 124 1 Manchunan (2): 21 4 Fleeceflower (3\/: 14 Flint, Harrison L., Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, 2nd 1 ed., review of ( 1 \/. 21 Forsyth, William (4) : 15, 17, 19 Forsythia, Siebold (3\/: 15 Forsythia suspensa (3\/: 15 Fortune, Robert (3): 4 Fraxmus ( 1 \/: 24 pennsylvamca (2\/: 29 -profunda (1\/: 14 Frr - H. H (3]: 26 Hurricane Edna ( 1 24 Hurricane Carol ( 1 24 Hunnewell, Hutcheson, Martha Brookes ( 110 8 Hyde Park [London] (2~: 5 Hydrangea, PeeGee (3): 15 Hydrangea pamculata 'Grandiflora' 5 (3~: 15 Hygrohypnum lundum (2]: 32 Hypnum cupressiforme \/2\/: 32 6 Jack, John( 116 \"From Private Allee to Pubhc Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest,\" Henry W. Lawrence (21: 2-10 5 (2) : 23 Gebhard, David (4\/: 30-32 Ginkgo biloba (3): 22 9 Gleason, Herbert W., photos by ( 19 Gramercy Park [NY] (2)' 9 Green Park [London] (2\/~ 8 Greenough, Mrs. Henry V., garden of (1\/~ 6-8 Grosvenor Square [London] (21: 7 Guilding, Lansdown, hthographs by (4): 13, 20 Gansu Province \"Japanese Knotweed' A Reputation Lost,\" Ann Townsend (3): 13-20 8 Jar vis, Dorothy, photo by \/ 18 Jefferson, Thomas (2]: 3, 9 6 Jekyll, Gertrude ( 1\/: G, 8; (3\/: 16 Juglans mgra (3~: 29 6 Jumper ( 16 Jumperus commums ( 124 5 -vmgimana\/1~:5 _ 5 Kaempfer, Engelbert (3): 15 7 Kalm, Peter (2) :7 Kalmia latifoha (1~: 23 0 Kangaroo rat, giant \/3\/: 10 Kelley, Susan, \"Storms and the Landscape: 1938-1997\" ( 1~: 22-32 Knotweed, Japanese \/3]: 13, 14, 15, 1G-19, 18 Among the Cattails,\" Zsolt - 1 Debreczy and Istvan Rasz \/4y 2-11 Elaeagnus angustifoha (3~: 3 1 umbellata ( 1~: 21 \"Ellen Biddle Shipman's New England Gardens,\" Judith Tankard 1 (1): 2-11 Elhs, John (4). 13, 14 Elm p~ 26; (2p 7; (3~: 24 7 Emerald Necklace [Boston] (3~: 17 Empress tree (3): 22 Encalypta cihata (2~: 32 Epacridaceae (4~. 20 Euptelea polyandra \/ 126 0 Exochorda racemosa (1~: 10 Exostoma (4): 16 Hackberry ( 126 7 Hamilton, William (3) : 22; (4): 17 Hansen, Niels E. (3): 6 0 Haussmann, Eugene (2) : 10 1 Hawthorn (1).24, 31 Heisey, Rod M., \"Allelopathy and the Secret Life of Ailanthus altissima\" \/3\/: 28 Hemlock (1\/: 23; (2): 15, 16 - Koller, Gary L., \"Leitnena flondana A Shrub for Wet Woodland Conditions\" ( 114-20 Kudzu (3~: inside back cover Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, 2nd. ed., Flint Harrison 1 L., review of ( 121 Lawrence, Henry W., \"From Private to Public Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest\" (2) : 2-10 Leicester Square [London] (2). 6, 7 4 Leitner, E. T. ( 114 1 Leitnena (1]: 31 Allee - Canadian[ 1\/: 23 Carolina ( 1 \/. 8, 23 Hepatica aslauca (2) : 21 Hers, Joseph (2): 19, 24 Hewitt, Mattie 24 Edwards, photo by 4 (1\/:4 Hickory[1\/: - flondana ( 1]: 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, Fagus (2): 9 Fairmount Park [Philadelphia] (2). 8 Fallopla ~apomca (3\/: 13-19, 14 2014 2014 'Crimson Beauty' (3). 18 Farges, Paul (2). 23 Farquhar, R. and J., and Company 8 \/3~: 18 1 Farrand, Beatrix Jones ( 1~: 3, 5, 10, 11 The Bulletms of Reef Pomt Gardens, review of (4~: 33-35 Faxon, C. E., drawmg by ( 119 Fenzel, G. (2) : 23 -- Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Sir Harold (2\/~ 25, 26, 29, 30 8 Honan Province (2y 18 Honeysuckle, Amur (3): 3 3 - bush (3) : - Maack's (3\/: 3 Tatarian (3 \/: 3 tree (3): 3 - 19-20 \"Leitnema flondana A Shrub for Wet Woodland Conditions,\" Gary Hooker, Joseph Dalton (3\/~ 16 Hornbeam( 126, 27, 28 Horse chestnut (2): 7 Howard, Richard A , \"The St. Vincent Botamc Garden-The Early Years\" (4\/ 12-21 9 Hubei Province (2): 18-19 Hudson Square [NY] (21: 9 Humboldt, Alexander (4): 6 Figlar, Richard B., \"Molecular Analysis. A New Look at Umbrella Magnohas\" \/4~: 22-29, photo by inside front cover Koller ( 114-20 4 ( 114 Lepidmm satmum (3) : 29, 30 Lignum mtae (4): 20 \"'Lilac Sunday'-The Cultmar,\" John H Alexander III (1\/: 12-13 Lilac, common - Persian ( 1 12 2 Linden (1]: 24, 26, 27; (2~: 7 - European (3). 23 7 Liqmdambar(1) 17 Lmodendron (1). 24 chmense (4) : 26 tuhpifera (4): 26 Lochhead, Wilham (4). 20 L Leitneriaceae \" , - - 39 Locust, black (2) : 7 1 Long Hill, Beverly, MA ( 111 Longue Vue Gardens, New Orleans, I LA (1\/~ 11 Lomcera maackia (3): 2-12, 5, 9 --'Rem-Red' ~3\/ 6 tatamca (3\/~ 3 Loudon,J C. (3): 22, 23 Louisburg Square [Boston] (2) : 9 Luken, James 0., \"Amur Honey(: suckle, Its Fall From Grace\" (3): - Metasequoia glyptostroboides ( 1\/: 28 Middleton Place, SC (2)' 11 Miller Garden, Columbus, IN (2): 14 Miller, Philip ~2\/ 26; (3): 22 \"Molecular Analysis: A New Look at Umbrella Magnolias,\" Richard B Figlar (4). 22-29 Morton Arboretum (2\/~ 28, 29, 6 (3): 1 Moss (2) : back cover, 31 \"Moss Gardening mcludmg g 30; 2-12 with John W. Thieret Luxembourg Gardens [Pams] (2) : 7 Maack, Robert ~3\/: 4 Magnoha126, 31 Asian umbrella (4) : inside front - Lichens, Lmerworts, and Other Mmiatures, George Schenk, review of (2): 31-32 Mountam laurel ( 1 23 National Botanic cover big-leaf (4) : 22 -'Dma' (2)' 23 mountam (4\/: 22 - Garden, Belgium (2): 19 Naumkeag, Stockbndge, MA (2): 14, 15 New York Botamcal Garden (3). 5, 6 Nichols, Marian (1) 2 3 Nichols, Rose Standish ( 13 Nicholson, Rob, \"Amazing Grace: The Cutleaf Maples\" (21 17-24 [Boston] (2y 9 Pennsylvama Avenue [Washmgton, DC] \/2[: 2-3, 9 Picea ( 1 \/: 24, 28 - rubens (2]: back cover Picrasma (1) 14 Pme, Japanese black ( 128 white ( 1\/. 29 Pme, red ( 123 Pme, Scots( 128 Pme, white ( 123,28 Pmus \/ 1 [: 28 ban&sjaiM Ill. 23 - cembra \/ 123 leucodermis( 123, 28 -parmfloravar. pentaphylla \/1)~ 29 -mgida (1\/: 23 strobus ( 1\/: 28 sylvestns ( 1inside back cover, - Pemberton Square 28 - Mulan (4\/: 22 Plane - - - Magnoha (4). 22, 24, 29 acummata ~124; (4). 22 frasen (4\/: 22, 23, 25-26, 28, 29 - hypoleuca (4): 22 - kobus ( 1 \/: 24 -'Leonard Messel' (1): 31 1 -hlmflora (4). 22 macrophylla (4)~ inside back - thunbergm \/ 1\/: 28 tree (2). 13 London \/2[: 7 Platanus occidentahs (2\/: 7 - North American-China Plant Exploration Consortium, (2): 19 Nyssa sylvauca (1): 14 Oak \/1\/: 24, 27, 28; (2): 9 - black \/ 130 - live (2). 11 - 1994 cover, - 22, 25-26, 27, 28, 29 - obovata (4): 22, 23, 25-26, 28, 29 -officmalis (4)' 22, 23, 25, 28 - rostrata (4\/: 22, 29 1 sieboldn (2\/: 21 tnpetala (4y inside front cover, 22,24,25-26,28,29 virgmiana ( 121 Malus (2): 14 - glabrata (1\/: 24 Malvaceae (3). 33 1 Manning, Warren( 12, 7, 11 Maple (1\/: 24, 26, (2\/. 17; \/3\/: 24 cutleaf (2). 22 - five-leaf (2\/~ 22 - Henry's (2\/: 24 ivy-leafed (2): 24 Japanese (1)27 Manchunan (2): 20-23 1 - Nikko (2): 17-18, 21 paperbark (2): inside front cover, 18, 19, 20 purplebloom ~2\/ 20 - red ( 1 \/. 14, 24 silver ( 1\/: 16, 24 sugar (2\/: 22 sycamore (2\/: 7 1 three-flowered (2) : 20-21 trifoliate ~2\/. 17, 20, 23, 24 McGmley, Mrs. Holden, garden of (1\/~8,9,10 Medici, Mane de' (2): 4 Meehan, Thomas (3): 25 7 Melville, Robert (4): 12, 15, 17 - - Oglethorpe ~2\/: shingle (2): 28 white (2) : 25 24-30 x acemfoha (2). 7, 13 3 Platt, Charles ( 1\/: 2, Poison ivy (2): 26 Polygonaceae (3): 13 Polygonum cuspidatum \/3]: Poplar (1]: 24; \/3\/~ 24 Lombardy (2\/: 2-3, 9 Populus\/1) 24 Populus mgra 'Itahca' \/2\/ 9 Princess tree (3): 22 13 \"Principles of Taste: Book Review,\" Phylhs Andersen (4\/~ 30-32 [GA] (2)' 29 \" Oconee National Forest Province, H.M.S. (4): 18 Odae-san National Park (2): 20 \"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak,\" Allen J Coombes and W. Pseudotsuga cover menziesm (1]: 24 Pubhc Garden [Boston] (2): 9 Puerana lobata (31 inside back Nigel Coates (2) : 25-30 Oglethorpe, James ~2\/: 25-28, 30 \"Old Farms,\" Wenham, MA(1)\/ inside front cover, 5-6, 7 Qm, Yin-Long (4]: 24, 28 Quassia family \/ 114 Quercus \/ 1\/: 24; (2~: 9 alba (2): 29 falcata \/2\/: 29 imbncana (2) : 28, 29 - margaretta (2). 29 oglethorpensis (2): 24-30, 27, -pagoda (2) : 29 - robur (2]: 29 smuata (2\/: 29 velutma ( 1]: 30 1 vmgmiana (2) : 11 6 Qumme \/4\/: 16 - Olive, - autumn ( 121 3 Russian (3): - - - Olmsted, Frederick Law ~2\/: 8; (3y 17; (4): 31, 32 \"'Open to All Real Plant Lovers': Book Review,\" Judith Siporin (4): 33-35 6 Pachysandra ( 16 - 28 - - - - - - - - Palisades Nurseries (3): 18 Pall Mall [London] (2): 8 Pans, plans of [2\/: 5 Parks, Clifford (4\/: 24, 25, 28 Parsons, Jr., Samuel (3\/~ 26 Pasfield, Donald ( 119 Paulownia tomentosa \/3y 22 - - Racz & Debreczy, photos by \/4\/: front cover, back cover, 2, 5, 6, 7, - Peach, double-flowering110 1 Pear [ 1 \/: 31 1 Bradford ( 121 Pearlbush1\/: 10 8,10 Racz, Istvan, \"El Arbol del Tule A Giant Cypress Among the Cattails\" (4) Debreczy 2-11 with Zsolt 40 - Ranelagh [London] (2): 9 Redbud (2): 14 Redwood, California (4) : 3 1 dawn( 131 Reef Point Gardens, plan of (4~: 35 Siporin, Judith, \"'Open to All Real Plant Lovers' Book Review\" (4): 33-35 34- Toxicodendron radicans (2): 26 ): Tracy, Edith Hastings, photos by ( 1 inside front cover, 6, 7 Tree-of-heaven Regel, E. (3) : 4 Rehder, Alfred (2) : 24 Restriction site analysis (4): 25, 26, 28 Rhamnus cathartica (3): 3 1 Rhododendron brachycarpum (2\/: 21 obtusum var. kaempfen (1)\" 23 1 schlrppenbachm (2\/: 21 Rhus radicans (2): 26 Rhytidiadelphus (2\/: 32 Robmia pseudoacacia (2\/~ 7 Robmson, William (3) : 16-17, 19, 25 - - - Sloane, Hans (2): 26 Smith College (2): 20 Solana, TX (2): 13 Soufriere [St. Vincent] (4): 16 Spaeth Nurseries, Germany (3\/: 5 Spmaea prumfoha(ly 10 Spongberg, Stephen (2) : 23 Spring Garden [London] (2): 9 Spruce ( 1 \/: 24 red (2): back cover St. James's Park [London] (2): 8 St. Petersburg Imperial Botamc Garden (2): 22; (3): 4, 5 St. Vincent Botamc Garden (4\/: 12, 1 14, 15-16, 17-20, 21 \"St. Vincent Botanic Garden-The Early Years,\" Richard A. Howard (4) : 12-21 1 Stan Hwyet Hall, Akron, OH ( 1 11 (1).14; (3): front cover, 21-27, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 28-36 \"Trees in the Frame,\" Alan L. Ward 6 (2): 11-16 6 Tsuga \/1): 2s; (2): 15, 16 canadensis ( 1front cover, 23 carohmana ( 123, 24 Tuilenes (2\/: 4, 5, 7 - Tulip tree ( 124 Tupelo \/ 114 Turgot, engraving by (2) : 5 Tyley, John (4\/: Ulmus (2) : 7 Umbrella tree 19 9 Rochester Parks Department, New York ( 114 Rock, Joseph (2\/: 22 Roque, John, plan of Pans by (2): 5; map of London by (2) : 8 9 Rose ( 1 [: 9 - `Emily Gray' ( 19 8 -'Golden Salmon' polyanthus ( 18 Royal Botamc Gardens [Kew] (3~: 4, 16 6 Stern, Edith and Edgar, garden of ( 1 \/: 11 1 \"Storms and the Landscape: 19381997,\" Susan Kelley (1\/: 22-32 Strybmg Arboretum (2\/~ 22 1 Stryrax ~apomca (1\/: 31 7 Sweetgum ( 117 2 Syringa x chinensis ( 112 - (4)~ 24 Umon Square [NY] (2\/~ 9 Unter den Linden, Berlm (2\/~ 5, 7 USDA Section of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction (3): 6 USDA Soil Conservation Service 6 (3): Van Rensselaer, Mariana Gnswold, Accents as Well as Broad Effects. Royal Horticultural Society (3) 5, 21-22 Wmtmgs on Architecture, Russell Square [London] (2): 7 Rytidospermum (4~: 22, 24, 29 Sage, purple (3[: 29 Salvia x - 'Alba' x -'Lilac Sunday' back cover x- ( 112, 13, - 'Saugeana' leucophylla (3). 29 Sargent, C. S. (1~: 26, 28, 29, 31; (2\/~ 17-18, 24, 28; (3~: 25-26; (4): 5, 30 Savage, Phil (4): 29 Schenk, George, Moss Gardemng mcludmg Lichens, Liverworts, and Other Mimatures, review -x. - of 2 hyacmthiflora (1\/. 12 -lacmata (1\/: 12 2 - oblata ( 112 persica \/ 1 \/: 12 x persica ( 1 \/: 12 2 - protolacmata ( 1\/: 12 3 vulgans ( 1\/: 12-13 - Landscape, and the Environment 1876-1925, review of (4): 30-32 Van Rensselaer, Mrs. Schuyler [Mariana Gnswold] (4) : 30, 31, 32 7 Vaux, Calvert (2). 8; \/3). 17 Vauxhall [London] (2) 9 Veitch Nursery (2): 19 Versailles (2) : 7 Viburnum wrtghril (2): 21 Victoria Park [London] (2) : 8 Vilmorm Nursery (2) : 19 9 (2): 31-32 7 Seaforth, Governor Lord (4): 17 1 Sedgwick, Mabel Cabot ( 1\/: 3, 11 Sequoia, giant (4): 3 Shah, Behula, \"The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima\" Tan, Bemto C., \"Book Review: Mosses m the Garden\" (2). 31-32 - (3) : 20-27 Shennong~ia Forest (2~: 23 Shensi Province (2\/~ 18-19, 20, 23 Sherlock Smol, painting by (2) : 26 1 Shipman, Ellen ( 12, 3-11 garden design by( 1inside - Tankard, Judith B., \"Ellen Biddle Shipman's New England Gardens 1 (1): 2-11 Taxodiaceae (4\/: 3, 9 Taxodium (4\/: 9 distichum ( 1 \/. 14; (4\/: 5, 9 - mucronatum (4) : front cover, - Walnut, black (3): 29 Ward, Alan L, \"Trees m the Frame\" (2): 11-16; photo by front cover Warren, Mrs. Samuel D., garden of (1): 5, 6 Washmgton Square [NY] (2): 9 8 Waugh, Frank (3)~ 18 Wesley, John and Charles (2): 26 Westbrook [Godalmmg, England] (2): 25,26 Willow back cover, 3-4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 Thieret, John W., \"Amur Honey: suckle, Its Fall From Grace\" (3) (: 2-12 with ( 124; (328 Wilson, E. H. ( 123, 28; (2\/: 18-19, 24, photos by inside front cover, inside back cover, 23 Witchhazel (1): 31 1 1 Wolchong-sa temple (2): 20, 21 Wuhan Temple (3) : front cover, back cover front cover, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 2 Shurcliff, Arthur ( 12 Sichuan Province (2): 18, 22, 23 Siebold, Philhpp Franz Balthasar 6 von (3[: 15,-16 (1): 14; (3) : 21, 28-29 Smo-Amemcan Botamcal Expedition, 1980 (2): 19, 23 James O. Luken 15 Thu7a (1\/: 2 Thunberg, Carl Pieter (3): Tiergarten, Berlin (2): 7 Tiha (2): 7 Tontine Crescent Simaroubaceae [Boston] (2): 9 Wyman, Donald \/ 124 Young, George (4): 12-17 7 Townsend, Ann, \"Japanese Knotweed: A Reputation Lost\" (3\/: 13-20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25197","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd270a36b.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum WIN T E R . N E W 5 . , , , ,8 A New Director for a New Arboretum Robert E. Cook, Director In January, Dr. Stephen Spongberg, who for twenty-seven years has been the horticultural taxonomist at the Arboretum, the Steve is not planning to collect sand between his toes on the beaches of St. Barbados His early retirement was prompted by an offer few could refuse: he has been appointed director of a new botanical orgamzation on Martha's Vmeyard, the Polly Hill Arboretum. Here he will have the opportunity to create a horticultural and educational institution built on the extensive private collections of the legendary and deeply revered horticulturist Polly Hill, who for decades has been establishing a unique landscape of plants around her home in West Tisbury. Visited by thousands of friends and lovers of plants since she began collecting in the 1950s, Barnards Inn Farm became the Polly Hill Arboretum in 1997, with plans to formally open to the public in 1998. Steve will be greatly missed at the Arboretum, though he will retain a research appointment here and we anticipate calling upon his botamcal expertise often. Steve began his career at the Arboretum in 1970 when he worked on the Generzc Flora of the Southeastern Unzted Stater project as a postdoctoral graduate of the Uniretirement at announced his ripe young age of fifty-five. versity of North Carolina. Over the next two decades he edited and published numerous taxonomic review articles in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, now published as part of the Harvard Papers zn Botany. He became especially interested in the close evolutionary relationship between the flora of eastern Asia and that of eastern North America, and he America. In 1990 Steve pubhshed A Reunion of Trees, a rich and developed deep taxonomic expertise in the genera Magnolaa and Sorbus. These interests culmmated in three great achievements. In 1980 Steve participated in the first cooperative venture between Chinese and American scientists, the Sino-Amencan Botanical Expedition to western Hubei Province. Among its many collections, this excursion brought back Magnolza zenzz, Heptacodtum mzconzozde,r, and Sorbur yuana as new introductions to North detailed history of the search for new botanical species around the world and the critical role of the Arnold Arboretum in discovering the botanical treasures of Asia. Seven years later he was honored by the Royal Horticultural Society with the award of the Gold Veitch Memorial Medal for contributions to horticulture. With this honor he joined previous staff members Ernest Henry Wilson, William Judd, and Donald Wyman, four of only fifteen Americans who have received the disungmshed British award. Steve will be greatly missed at the Arboretum and by his many colleagues and friends at the Harvard University Herbaria. We all wish him the greatest success in this challenging and exciting new endeavor. Campaign Tops $5 Million Lisa The ANNUAL APPEAL APPROACHES $100,000 In his Hastings, Director of Development annual, year-end letter to members, Director Campaign for the Arnold Arboretum passed the five-million-dollar mark as of January 31, 1998, a significant milestone in this first major fundraising effort at the Arnold Arboretum since 1927. Total cash and commitments reached $5,140,000 toward the campaign goal of $8 2 million, which was publicly announced last June. The campaign will end when the university-wide campaign concludes on December 31, 1999. The five-million-dollar figure reflects several large gifts received dunng the last eighteen months and significant, steady growth in both the membership and annual appeal programs. In the category of gifts over $10,000, the Arboretum has received $1,468,334 from twenty-one donors since July 1, 1997. This compares with $285,000 received from ten donors in FY97 and $330,000 received from seven in FY96. The number of gifts ranging from $1,000 to $10,000 has also increased significantly. In this category, the Arboretum received 49 gifts totaling $120,000 in FY97, an increase of 80 percent over 27 gifts with a total of $67,000 in FY96. To date this year, we have received 36 gifts for a total of $96,861. Bob Cook admitted that his appeal-which didn't ask for money-left the Arboretum's director of development \"turning white.\" Nonetheless, the 1997 annual appeal has raised $88,000, an increase of 31 percent over total dollars received at this time last year. The number of gifts has mcreased 38 percent. In spite of, or perhaps because of, Bob's unorthodox approach to fundraising, the 1997 annual appeal has grown in several categories: The most notable growth is in the100 to $999 bracket, with total dollars up 46 percent and the number of gifts at this level up 28 percent Like membership dues, annual appeal dollars provide important unrestricted, cur- rent-use funds that support the Living Collections and other Arboretum programs and imuauves. much encouraged by these generous Bob Cook said, \"The increase in overall responses. giving on the part of both our most loyal members We are and many new supporters this past year represents a tremendous vote of confidence in the current work of the Arboretum. While the campaign has been a major undertaking, the success of this effort to date reflects a deep interest in the future of this unique institution.\" Flora of the Lesser Antilles Copies of the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Antalles, a long-term project of Richard A. Howard, former director of the Arnold Arboretum, are still available in limited quantities. These six volumes constitute the first comprehensive flora of the area, and the treatments present keys to the genera as well as the species for easy identification. For each genus and species a complete modern description is provided; it includes coloration as well as measurements of floral parts. The descriptions are followed by geographic distribution both within and without the Lesser Antilles. All volumes are abundantly illustrated with line drawings that are botamcally correct and highly artistic. All species known in the Lesser Antilles, both native and intro- price of $260 is offered that includes shipping and handling within the U.S.A. (Add $5 for shipping outside the U.S.A.) For volumes 4, 5, and 6 only, the special price is $205. Individual volumes may be purchased at the prices given below, plus $2 per volume for shipping and handlmg: duced, The or as a are six included. volumes are available either complete set. For the individually complete set a special Checks should be made payable to the Arnold Arboretum, and all orders should be addressed to the attention of Frances Magmre, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130, U S.A. A New Outlook on Peters Hill Peter Del Tredici Director The of Living Collections drought of 1997 delayed the planting phase of the improvements to Peters Hill that have since last May, but it is at the top of the list for the spring planting season.The plan is to enhance the pastoral character of Peters Hill as a passive public open space in the Olmstedian tradition of \"scenery in the natural style.\" Following the recommendations in the master plan prepared by the landscape architecture firm of Sasaki Associates in 1992, a series of short- and long-range views will alternate on the approach to the summit, with broad expanses of greensward broken occasionally by groves of trees and islands of mound-forming shrubs. The effect will be naturalistic, consistent with both the Olmsted\/Sargent plan for the core area of the Arboretum and with Beatrix Farrand'sunreahzed 1949 plan for Peters Hill. The visitor's experience at the top of the hill, with its views of the Boston skyline and local surrounds, will affirm Olmsted's goal of a spiritubeen underway This was Cladrastis kentuckea, which grows near Faxon Pond, the Arboretum from the Harvard Botanic Garden at Cambridge in 1881. A new generation of yellowwoods will be planted on Peters Hill this spring. yellowwood, to moved vidual plants thrive or decline over time, dynamic interactions will gradually lead to a blurring of the edges. A mixed deciduous forest of trees and understory\/edge shrubs will march up the southeast slope from the existing natural forest. Trees will include witch hazel, shadblow, meadowsweet, and low- and highbush bluebernes. nums, Mound-formmg shrubs and groundcovers-all sun-lomng and stoloniferous or root- several species sweet can of oak, sassafras, Ameri- birch, hackberry, hornbeam, and common persimmon. Some of the rootsuckenng understory and edge shrubs will be native vibur- suckermg-mll include sweetfern, bayberry, several sumacs, and bottlebrush buckeye. Woody legumes will fill out a savannah of leguminous trees. Among them will be American yellowwoods, Kentucky coffee tree, Amur maackaa, and the Japanese pagoda tree. ally restorative, \"enlarged of freedom.\" sense Three distinct \"communities,\" or spatial\/ecological types that refer to existing natural and planted groupings, will form the structure of the four-acre-plus hilltop. In keeping with Farrand's recommendation that \"no plants should be set out which are incapable of fighting their own battles against wind, cold and drought,\" we have chosen a combination of native and imported species for their likely adaptability to the rigorous site conditions. As indi- New England Grows! The annual convention of New England's green industry, called New England Grows!, gives Living Collections and other Arboretum staff a welcome break in the midwinter routine. Held near the end of January at the Hines Auditorium in Boston's Back Bay, it offered three days of lectures, demonstrations, and exhibits. Among this year's lecturers were Arboretum Senior Propagator Jack Alexander, on lilacs, and Director of Living Collections Peter Del Tredici on \"The Radical Underground: The Myths & Realities of Tree Root Systems.\" The Membership staff set up a display and, along with other Arboretum staff, dispensed information on the programs of the Arboretum. 1998 American THE 1 Landscape Lecture Series . 1~ , . .. Theory and Practice This sixth year of the American Landscape Lecture Series takes up the subject of stewardship and the implications for contemporary conservation in a time of changing views of nature. The series is a collaboration among the Arnold Arboretum, National Park Service, Harvard Graduate School of Design, and other landscape-oriented sponsors. All lectures are free and begin at 6:30 pm at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, 48 Quincy Street, Cambridge. For information, call the National Park Service at 617\/566-1689 x 204. Thursday, February 12: People and Nature: Can We Find a Balance? Danzel B. Botkzn, Prerzdent, The Center for the Study of the Environment, Santa Barbara, California, and Professor of Bzology, George Mason Demystifying Bamboos Bamboos are are invasive and not hardy. they? From 7:00 to 8:00 pm on Monday, March 30, Ian Connor of England's Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Or Dnzverrzty Thursday, February 26: Common Lands, Common People: Lessons from New England History for Contemporary Conservation Richard W2lliamJudd, Professor of History, University of Mazne, Orono Thursday, March 12: A New Approach to Vermont's Forests: Managing for Jobs and the Environment Jeffrey Roberts, Vermont Land Tru.rt Brenden Wbzttaker, Northeast Vermont Development Arroczatzon Carl Powden, Vermont Land Tru.rt John Roe, The Nature Conservancy of Vermont Thursday, April 9: Common Ground in the Range War: Borderlands The Malpai Arboretum will demolish the myths surrounding this exotic and undervalued group of Group and Co-Dzrector, John C. Cook, Vme Pre.rzdent, The Nature Conservancy, The Malpaz Borderlands Group plants. strate His slides will demon- how beautiful and varied bamboos are, and Connor will show how they can be grown in your garden without acting the villains that they have been branded. Come be converted by this self-proclaimed bamboo fanatic and learn how to bring this plant group out of isolation and back into the MarkYour Calendars The Arnold Arboretum's two most popular annual events-Lilac and the Fall Plant Sale-have been scheduled. Sunday 17 is the day for en~oyng a long-standing spring tradition in BosThe hlacs should be in peak bloom, so come view the collection and plan to spend the day exploring the May landscape. Bring a picmconly on Lilac Sunday is picnicking permitted at the Arboretum. May ton garden. The fee for members is ter, call $10, 162. $12 for nonmembers. To regis617\/524-1718 x Connor's booklet, A Cultiva- tion Guide for Bamboo, will be available for sale at the lecture. September 20-also a Sunday-is the date set for the Annual Fall Plant Sale at the Case Estates in Weston. The Plant Sale offers something for everyone, serious plant collector and novice gardener alike. As in the past, this year's event will feature plant sales in the barn; live auction, silent auction, and straight sales tents; plant society row; and-due to their popularity last year-informal education sessions in the teaching garden. Members will receive their sale catalogs and free plant vouchers in the mail in advance of the sale. For information about plant sale benefits for members, call Kelly Harvey in the membership office at 617\/524-1718 x 165. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23529","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070856e.jpg","title":"1997-57-4","volume":57,"issue_number":4,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall From Grace","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25187","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260b36b.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Luken, James O.; Thieret, John W.","article_content":"Amur Honeysuckle, Its Fall from Grace james O. Luken and john W. Thieret This account why the of the history and biology of Lonicera maackia explains how and plant became so wildly successful as an \"exotic invasive.\" many resource managers as an undesirable element in parks, natural areas, and preserves: \"It would be difficult to exaggerate the weedy potential of this shrub.\"3 This perception, however, is not shared by gardeners and horticulturists-W. J. Bean wrote that \"[I]t is one of the most beautiful of bush honeysuckles\"4-and its garden value has encouraged widespread introduction. Such varied and sometimes opposing values must be considered along with ecological data as future management policies for nonindigenous species are debated. Our case study will address the following questions: How and why was Amur suckle intentionally introduced into cultivation in the United States? What life-history traits of the species contribute to present-day valuations of the species, both positive and negative? To what extent are these differing perceptions reflected in management policies? Scientists throughout the world are concerned about the apparent homogenization of regional floras being caused by invasive, nonindigenous plant species. A new term for this process, biological pollution, has come into use, and removal of nonindigenous plants to protect native species and to maintain the integrity of communities is now a common practice in many parks and nature reserves. However, human activity is an important determinant of the eventual rate and extent of diffusion of a non-native by species into a new geographic range, whether the plant was introduced intentionally or accidentally.' Therefore, as the time, effort, and resources committed to managing nonindigenous plants increases, a need is emerging for greater understanding of the naturalization process on the part of people who may either facilitate or limit plant invasions, especially since human influences can often be modified by effective policy decisions. In this article we trace the almost 150-yearlong involvement of Western plant scientists with the eastern Asiatic shrub Amur honeysuckle-Lonicera maackii, a member of the Caprifoliaceae. The story of Amur honeysuckle parallels that of various other Eurasian deciduous shrubs-for instance, Russian olive (Elae- honey~ The Amur Species honeysuckle (also known as bush honeysuckle, tree honeysuckle, or Maack's honeysuckle) is an upright, multistemmed, deciduous shrub that can achieve heights of twenty angustifolia), Tatarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), and buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica)-that were introduced for their floral, fruit, and foliage displays but eventually agnus became troublesome. Less than a century after its deliberate introduction into North America, Amur honeysuckle is growing and reproducing in at least twenty-four states of the eastern United States and in Ontario, Canada.2 The plant is perceived The feet. The leaves are dark green, with a variety of shapes ranging from lance heads to broad ellipses that taper to a slender point. Amur honeysuckle leaves are particularly noticeable in early spring as they open well before those of other plants. Likewise, in autumn this honeysuckle holds its leaves later than its neighbor- ing plants. China, In its native range-central and northeastern the Amur and Ussuri river valleys of Korea, and isolated parts of Japan-Amur honeysuckle is commonly found on floodplains bmght red bernes of Amur honeysuckle remam on the shrub until January unless removed by bmds. 4 Native and mvaded ranges of Amur honeysuckle Isolated occurrences m Japan nese are not shown and in open woodlands. In the invaded areas of the eastern United States and Ontario, it occurs mostly in urban or urban-fringe landscapes, where it occupies open sites, forest edges, and the interiors of forest patches. Its reproductive characteristics give Amur honeysuckle its greatest appeal. It consistently produces an early spring profusion of white flowers that turn dull yellow with age. Fruit set can be heavy, and the bright red berries remain on the shrubs until January unless removed by birds. explorer, Robert Fortune, probably from a Chigarden; but it was specimens collected near the Amur River in 1855 by the Russian plant explorer Richard Maack that served as the basis for eventual description of the species.s Beginning American in the late 1800s, European and Introducing Amur Honeysuckle in the West Anecdotal evidence suggests that Amur honeysuckle was cultivated in gardens of China long before European plant hunters discovered the In the nineteenth century, these gardens offered many new species to the landed aristocrats of the West who had grown weary of standard cultivars and were eager for novelties. The first herbarium specimen of Amur honeysuckle was collected in 1843 by an English plant species. who exported living plant materials from Asia played a pivotal role in introducing Amur honeysuckle to Western horticulture. A German horticulturist, E. Regel, reported the first successful cultivation of Amur honeysuckle outside its native range, at the Imperial Botanical Garden in St. Petersburg in 1883, using propagules sent from Manchuria in 1880. Regel's 1884 report was soon translated into English and used as the basis for writings on Amur honeysuckle published in Great Britain. It was being cultivated in Germany by 1889 and at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew by 1896. The original plants in western Europe probably came from St. Petersburg, which was distributing seeds of Amur honeysuckle as early plant hunters as 1887.~ 5 The St. Petersburg Garden was also the source of the first seeds recorded in the United States, which arrived at the Arnold Arboretum in 1897. The second record of introduction-sent to the New York Botanical Garden by the United States Department of Agriculturefollowed by only a year. However, the earliest known report of Amur honeysuckle cultivation in North America is in the archives of the Dominion Arboretum m Ottawa, indicating that plants of Amur honeysuckle were received there in 1896, from Spaeth Nurseries in Germany.' Major botanical gardens, commercial nurseries, and horticultural societies of worked together to inform private gardeners about new introductions. During the late 1800s and early 1900s, botanical gardens in Europe maintime that tained active and annually seed-exchange programs published inventories of available seeds. In 1907 and 1915 the Basal stems of Amur honeysuckle. plant received awards of merit from the Royal Horticultural Society. Since 1900, it has been described frequently in horticultural literature published in Belgium, France, Germany, Great Britain, and the United States. An Amur honeysuckle grown m an open envmonment. This table gives the year that European botamcal gardens first listed Amur honeysuckle m their mventomes of seeds available through their exchange programs. Disseminating Amur Honeysuckle in the United States In an effort to obtain potentially valuable, coldresistant varieties of alfalfa, the USDA dispatched an agricultural explorer, Niels E. Hansen, to Russia in 1897. Hansen unilaterally expanded his charge and began shipping seeds of many other species to Washington, D.C. His seed packets began arriving at the same time that a new unit within the USDA, the Section of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction (SPI), was being funded and organized. Amur honeysuckle seeds gathered in Russia by Hansen and received in 1897 were among the first seeds catalogued by the SPLB The SPI facility in Washington, D.C., served as a center for distributing seeds to commercial growers, botanical gardens, and private individuals throughout the United States. Seed distributions were designated as \"Plant Introduction Experiments,\" and it was assumed that recipients would report back to the SPI regarding their success or failure with the seeds. Indeed, the 1898 introduction of Amur honeysuckle to the New York Botanical Garden was a Plant Introduction Experiment. The results of this introduction are not known, but almost certainly it was successful, considering the ease with which the species can be propagated. The SPI's records indicate that its facility received at least seven shipments of Amur honeysuckle between 1898 and 1927. (This represents a minimal number of shipments because imported honeysuckles were often not identified as to species.) These importations originated at botanical gardens m Great Britain or were collected in Manchuria by agricultural explorers working for the USDA. Clearly the Amur honeysuckle now naturalized in the United States represents a variety of genotypes, although the specific geographical range over which these genotypes were collected is not known. The SPI's introduction effort was successful : In 1931, the species was available from at least eight commercial nurseries throughout the country.9 From the 1960s to 1984, the USDA Soil Conservation Service (SCS; now known as the Natural Resource Conservation Service) sponsored a program to develop improved cultivars of Amur honeysuckle. These plants were intended for the traditional SCS functions-soil stabilization and reclamation-as well as improving habitat for birds and serving as ornamental landscape plantings. Five introductions occurred during this period. From plants already naturalized in vari- parts of the United States, specimens were selected for more abundant fruit production, propagated vegetatively, and then cultivated at centers for plant materials around the country. Occasionally the SCS would make seedlings available to other government agencies involved in reclamation work. Although Amur honeysuckle did not prove particularly useful for soil stabilization, the ease of harvesting its seeds mechanically and the high survivability of seedlings after cold storage facilitated its distribution and establishment in large reclamation projects. In addition, the consistently high flower and fruit production of Amur honeysuckle proved well suited for wildlife habitat improvement. More commonly, however, seeds were made available on request to commercial nurseries and the resultmg plants were sold to private individuals. The most successful of these cultivars, 'Rem-Red', is still recommended by the SCS (now the NRCS) and is commercially available.' ous Escape of the Amur Honeysuckle The first record of Amur honeysuckle's tendency to spread beyond the point of initial planting is found in the archives of the Morton Arboretum, near Chicago, and dates from the mid-1920s. In spite of this early warning, the was still toutmg the virtues of the plant more than a decade later. Evidence of naturalized populations did not begin to appear until the late 1950s, continuing through the early 1970s. These initial reports were harbingers of the invasion to come. For example, Lucy Braun, in her 1961 book on Ohio woody plants, noted that the Amur honeysuckle was \"reported only from Hamilton County, where it is becoming abundant in pastures and woodlands.\" Thirty-three years later the species was l reported m thirty-four Ohio counties.\"l The relative delay between first introduction (1897) and widespread escape (1950s) of Amur Morton Arboretum 7 honeysuckle was to be expected for a plant with its life-history traits and mode of introduction. First, it is a long-lived woody plant that does not produce fruit until it is three to five years old and, therefore, will mcrease slowly compared to an annual plant. Second, during this earlier period (1898-1950s) Amur honeysuckle was typically used in small quantities in landscape plantings, so the area of subsequent spread was tammate crop seed and are thereby dissemi- nated quickly. In Europe, Amur honeysuckle has been intensively cultivated longer than in the United States, but no naturalization has been reported. by the species, at least in western Europe, seems to be less regular and abunFruit production for some time more the case with annual weeds, limited than would be which often con- Although flowering in eastern Europe (in St. Petersburg in 1883) mentioned the \"sanguineous\" fruit, early west- dant than in eastern North America. the first report of Amur honeysuckle Pathways and dates of Amur honeysuckle mtroduction to Europe and North Amenca \"SCS\" mdicates release of improved cultivars by the U.S. Department of Agnculture Sozl Conservation Service included data on flowers lack of fruit development. only, Not until approximately two decades after the shrub's introduction into England were the fruits described in British horticultural literature. Even as late as 1934, the merits of the plant as a fruiting shrub were said to be not well known in England, although \"in warm seasons and on certain soils\" fruiting could be abundant.'z Western European regions apparently lack certain environmental conditions shared by the eastern United States and eastern Asia, where fruit production is heavy. ern European or notes remarked on winter and early spring. However, seedling growth in forests is severely curtailed by low m light conditions, which inhibit production of the long shoots that enable seedlings to reach better light environments. Even as adults, Amur honeysuckle shrubs are moderately shade intolerant and are not likely to replace themselves in shady environments unless past disturbances create a window of opportumty.'~ The success of Amur honeysuckle in a wide range of habitats and light conditions has logically led to research on its life-history traits, the expression of those traits in various environments, and the importance of preadaptation. In Asiatic range, Amur honeyfrequently disturbed habitats. For example, during 1994, one of us (JOL) found Amur honeysuckle growing almost alone in low-density, low-elevation woodlands and floodplain forests in northeastern China. Evolution in these habitats would presumably favor traits commonly found among early successional, colonizing species, such as a high reproductive output, seeds that can be efficiently dispersed by birds, flexible morphological and physiological characteristics that enable easy response to changing light conditions, and tissues that are readily replaced when lost or damaged.\" And indeed, Amur honeysuckle posits Ecology in the Invaded Range Ecological research on Amur honeysuckle did not begin until the 1980s, after the plant had achieved a critical level in local plant communities.'3 Earlier reports had assumed that Amur honeysuckle seeds were dispersed by birds, but it was only in 1983 that proof was found by collecting seeds from the guts of birds. In 1992 a group of researchers found that small mammals also consume seeds of Amur honeysuckle, but their low consumption rates are unlikely to affect seed availability.'a The dominant position of Amur honeysuckle in both forest understories and open sites prompted researchers to compare net primary production (or annual biomass accumulation) in the two environments. Results from the northern Kentucky region indicated that populations in open areas were more productive than forest populations. Net primary production of dense open-grown thickets (as high as 1,350 grams per meter per year) approached that of entire mixed woodland communities, suggesting that Amur honeysuckle has a large impact on carbon and nutrient budgets in open sites, whereas carbon gain is relatively restricted in shaded habitats. In addition, open-grown shrubs readily resprout and reestablish growth when clipped annually, but forest-grown shrubs cannot sustain this stress.'s Light availability is particularly important for Amur honeysuckle during the seedling stage. Seeds are released in a nondormant condition, and germination and seedling establishment may occur year-round, with a distinct increase in original, eastern suckle thrives in all these traits. With these traits in place, genetic changes were not necessary for Amur honeysuckle to succeed in the United States; the primary determining factors for population spread were probably efficiency of distribution and competitive pressure. Distribution-first through SPI and later through commercial nurseries-was widespread and efficient; competitive pressures were minimal in urban and urban-fringe environments where long histories of human disturbance had created vacant niches and abundant bare ground.'$ Although much is now known about its biological relationships within its environment, no study has yet determined whether local extinctions of native plants are directly linked to invasesses activity during relatively warm, wet periods sion by Amur honeysuckle.l9 Nonetheless, in response to its spread and increasmg importance in various plant communities, the Illinois Department of Conservation adopted a policy in 9 1989 that made its use unacceptable in that state, and many methods have been developed for eliminating this species from natural areas.Zo Lessons for the Future Considering the varied functions that scientists envisage for the new cultivars they develop and the differing values that people hold regarding nature over preservation, it is not surprising that conflicts arise resource-management For example, at the same time that the SCS was releasing cultivars of Amur honeysuckle for conservation plantings and horticulturists policies. recommending it as an ornamental, various botanists were decrying its weedy tendencies. Furthermore, Amur honeysuckle and many other nonindigenous plants-crownvetch (Coronilla varia), for example-are still being planted across large areas of land, often were o This drawmg of Lomcera maaclm first appeared m The Gardeners' Chromcle m 1907, accompamed by a descmption attmbutmg the plant's 's attraction to \"its slender, archmg branches with nearly glabrous, ovate, acummate leaves and dense clusters of creamy-white flowers. \" by managers ol r public land, o o o o at the same time . crop more quantity difficult may or quality, the impact of a single a that other managers of parks and natural areas are attempting to control these species and plant species gists in natural community to measure. actively pursumg an indigenous-species-only policy. Clearly, the time has come for innovative pohcies and multidisciplinary protocols that can be used for both nonindigenous plants already firmly established as components of regional floras and potential new introductions that could homogenize regional floras even further. Sound science, which should be the basis for any attempt to remove or control plant species, requires proof that the species is negatively affecting management efforts in natural communities, whether the goals of those efforts are to establish presettlement conditions, to preserve rare species, to maximize species diversity, or to maintain patterns of disturbance. However, unlike the effect of a weed in agricultural plots, which can be measured m terms of disagree on impact (whether population, community, or ecosystem). Still, such studies can be done and can be much simplified if management goals are prioritized before research is begun. A special problem is posed by resourcemanagement policies for preserves and other natural areas that call for indigenous species only. The origin of these policies can be traced to the formative years of our national park system, when conservation goals were first established by scientists and park administrators. Underlying the goals set at that time, which generally used pre-Colombian conditions as the benchmark, was a concept that envisaged successfully preserved ecological systems as assemblages of native species that were balanced, stable, and free of human influence. However, much ecolothe important levels of is Furthermore, 10 achievement and maintenance of the preColombian benchmark has become increasingly difficult, if not impossible, because the disturbances that operated historically in natural areas have been suppressed or altered and the contexts in which species compete have been indigenous species in urban landscapes and surrounding areas is likely to require the kind of large-scale research that is now mostly limited to pristine systems. changed.21 Some researchers have devised a new paradigm for conservation that recognizes the dynamic nature of all ecological systems.22 paradigm does not call for nonindigenous plants to be eliminated from biological commumties simply because they were not present in the past. Instead, they would be evaluated on the basis of their roles in ecological processes. In addition, as ecologists Hobbs and Huenneke rightfully pointed out in 1992, certain management activities that attempt to modify ecological processes for the benefit of indigenous species, such as prescribed burning to stimulate seed germination, may at the same time facilitate invasion by nonindigenous plants. Resource managers may therefore need to choose from a menu of conservation goals; some of these goals may call for inclusion of nonindigenous species while others call for This Finally, careful examination of the lifehistory traits of the thousands of plants that have been accidentally or intentionally introduced, coupled with an analysis of when, where, and if these species have naturalized, would be a useful exercise. Such an analysis would hkely have some predictive value when new introductions are proposed or when new cultivars are being developed.z' Attention should focus on seed production and germination, as suggested by the case of Amur honeysuckle as well as by a 1985 survey of other plants that eventually became problem weeds and by a rating system for management of nonindigenous plants established in 1993.26 Species with high and consistent seed output, poorly developed seed dormancy, rapid germination, and the ability to germinate at low temperatures and low light may be most likely to spread rapidly across a wide range of habitats. Since the proportion of all introduced horticultural species and cultivars that have naturalized is small (usually about one percent) and eventually become components of our regional floras, the goal of such a screening process would not be to drastically reduce plant introductions but to lessen the risk of future problems. Endnotes 1 2 3 their elimination. Increased effort should be devoted to studying the interactions between indigenous and nonindigenous species and the functional roles that nonindigenous species now play in biological communities with long histories of human influence. For example, Schiffman found that (Dipodomys endangered giant kangaroo ingens), mdigenous to California grasslands, facilitate colonization and dispersal of nonindigenous plants by creating bare ground and dispersmg seeds. Indeed, \"eradication of [these] exotic plants would probably have a significant negative impact on populations of this endangered species.\"23 Amur honeysuckle, to give another example, achieves its greatest dominance in heavily disturbed, urban landscapes. The impact of the species in these systems is not well understood, but it is possible that valuable ecological functions-nutrient retenrats Mack 1985. Tnsel and Gorchov 1994. Swmk and Wilhelm 1994, 474. - 4 Bean 1973. ' Bretschneider 1898, Herder 1864. 6 Regel 1884, Thatcher 1922, Anonymous 1884a, b, Dippel 1889, Royal Gardens Kew 1898, Imperial Botanic Garden 1887. ~ Rehder 1903 8 Famchild 1938, USDA 1899. 1931. 9 Farrington 'o 11 tion, carbon storage, animal habitat improveserved by Amur honeysuckle in the absence of indigenous species or when niches are unfilled.24 Assessing the function of nonment-are 12 Sharp and Belcher 1981, Belcher and Hamer 1982, Gaffney and Belcher 1978, Lorenz et al. 1989. Kammerer 1939, Braun 1961, Pnngle 1973, Tnsel and Gorchov 1994 Anonymous 1934. 11 1 13 14 ls E.g., McClain and Anderson 1990; Yost et al 1991. Ingold and Craycraft 1983, Williams et al. 1992. Whittaker 1975, Luken 1988, Luken and Mattimiro 1991. Gaffney, Harty, F. B., and C. R. Belcher 1978. Winter storage of shrubs for timely spring shipping. Tree Planters' Notes 29: 15-17. F. M. 1993. 16 I~ Luken and Bazzaz Goesslrng 1995, Luken et al. 1995a. Craycraft 1983, 18 1986, Luken and Mattimiro 1991, Ingold and Luken 1988, Luken at al. 1995b. Biological pollution: how Illinois kicked the exotic habit The control and impact of mvasme exotic species, ed B. N. McKmght. Indianapolis: Indiana Academy of Science, 195-209. von. 1864. Plantae Raddeanae monopetalae Bulletm de la Societe Impenale des Naturahstes de Moscou 37: 190-235. 19 zo zi 22 23 24 E.g, Yost et al. 1991. See, however, Luken 1990, Tnsel and Gorchov 1994. Harty 1993, Nyboer 1992. Luken 1994, Hobbs and Huenneke 1992. Plckett et Herder, F. Hiebert, R. D., and J. Stubbendieck. 1993. Handbook for exotic ranking control al. 1992. Schiffman 1994, 534. Whelan and Dilger 1992, Woods 1993 Reichard and Hamilton 1994, Ruesmk et al. 1995. Forcella 1985, Hiebert and Stubbendieck 1993. plants for management and Natural Resources Report NPS\/ NRMWRO\/NRR-03\/08. Denver: National Park Service, US Department of the Interior J., and L. F. Huenneke. 1992 Hobbs, R. Disturbance, zs z~ and invasion implications for conservation. Conservation Biology G~ 324339. diversity, References Imperial Botanic Garden. Lomcera maackll 1884: 157. Anonymous. 1884a. Flomst and Pomologist . 1887. Delectus semmum, quae Hortus Botamcus Impenahs Petropolitanus promutua commutauone offert St. Petersburg' Imperial Botanic Garden. 1884b. Lomcera maackm. Gardener's Chromcle 22: 536. 1934. Lomcera maackm as a fruiting shrub. Gardener's Chromcle III 96: 312. Bazzaz, F. A. 1986. Life some history of colonizing plants: demographic, genetic, and physiological features Ecology of biological mvasions of Hardy m John Murray, 611. the Bmtish Ingold, J. L , and MJ Craycraft. 1983 Avian frugivory on honeysuckle (Lomcera) in southwestern Ohio U S A. Ohio Journal of Science 83. 256-258 Kammerer, E. L 1939 Honeysuckles of note. Morton Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information 14: 29-32. Lorenz, North Amemca and Hawam, ed H. A. Mooney and J. A Drake NY: Springer-Verlag. Bean, W. E 1973 Trees and Shrubs D. G., W. C. Sharp, and J. D. Ruffner. 1989. Conservation plants for the Northeast. Program Aid 1154. Washmgton, DC: US Department of Agriculture Soil Conservation Service. Isles London: Luken,J O. Belcher, D R , and D. W Hamer. 1982. Improved techmque for harvesting Amur honeysuckle seeds. Tree Planters' Notes 33: 17-19. 1988 Population structure and biomass allocation of the naturalized shrub Lomcera maackm (Rupr.) Maxim. in forest and open habitats American Midland Naturahst 119. 258-267. communities respond differently to cutting of exotic Amur honeysuckle (Kentucky) Restoration eJ Manage- Braun, E. L 1961. The woody plants of Ohio. OH: Ohio State Umversity Press. Columbus, 1990 Forest and pasture Bretschneider, E. 1898. History of European Botanical Discoveries m Chma London: S. Low, Marston. --- ment Notes 8 122-123. areas Dippel, L. 1889. Handbuch der Laubholzkunde Berhn Paul Parey. Fairchild, D 1938. The world a 1994. Valuing plants m natural Areas Journal 14: 295-299 Natural was my garden travels of and plant explorer NY: Scnbner's. N Goesshng. 1995 Seedling distribution and potential persistence of the exotic shrub Lomcera maackm in fragmented forests. American Midland Naturahst 133: 124-130. Farnngton, plant hunter with a hst of his most important introductions and where to get them Boston: Stratford. is E. I. 1931. Ernest H Wilson -- and D. T. Mattimiro resilience of the 1991. Habitat-specific shrub Amur invasive Forcella, F. 1985 Fmal distribution related to rate of spread in alien weeds. Weed Research 25. 181191. honeysuckle (Lomcera maackuJ during repeated clipprng. Ecological Apphcations 1: 104-109. 12 ---, T. C. Tholemeier, L M Kuddes, and B. A. Kunkel. 1995. Performance, plasticity, and acclimation potential of the nonindigenous shrub Lomcera maackm in contrasting light environments. Bulletm of the Ecological Society of Amenca 76: 161. and L. M. Kuddes. 1995. Branch architecture plasticity of Amur honeysuckle (Lomcera maackll [Rupr.] Herder)~ Initial response in extreme light environments. Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 122: 190-195. Schiffman, P. M. 1994. Promotion of exotic weed endangered giant kangaroo (Dipodomys mgens) in a California grassland. Biodmersity and Conservation 3: rats estabhshment of 524-537. Swmk, F., and Thatcher, Trisel, G. Wilhelm. 1994. Plants of the Chicago ---, T. C Tholemeier, B. A. Kunkel, Region. Indianapolis: Indiana Academy of Science, 474. A. E. 1922. Chinese shrubs at Aldenham. Gardener's Chromcle III 71: 114-115, 123, 137, Mack, R. N. 1985. Invading plants: their potential contribution to population biology. Studies m Plant Demography John L Harper Festschmft, ed. J. White. London: Academic Press, 127-142. D. L. Gorchov. 1994. Regional distribution, ecological impact, and leaf phenology of the invasive shrub Lomcera maackil. Bulletm of the Ecological Society of 179, 199, 213. E., and D. America 75: 231. Nyboer, R. 1992 Vegetauon management gmdelme: bush honeysuckles-Tataman, Morrow's, Belle, and Amur honey-suckle Lomcera tatamca L., L. morrown Gray, L x bella Zabel, and L. maackm Whelan, C. J., and M. L. Dilger. 1992. Invasme, exotic shrubs a paradox for natural area managers? Natural Areas Journal 12: 109-110. [Rupr ] Maxim.) Natural Areas Whittaker, Woods, Journal Pickett, S. T. 12: 218-219. R. H 1975. Commumries and ecosystems NY: Macmillan ' , ~ .- Parker, and P. L Fiedler. 1992. The paradigm m ecology implications for conservation biology above the species level Conservanon biology the theory and practice of nature conservation, preservauon and A, V. T new K. D. 1993. Effects of invasion by Lomcera tatanca L. on herbs and tree seedlings in four New England forests. Amemcan Midland Naturahst 130: 62-74 ~ management, ed. P. L Fiedler and S. K. Jain. NY: Chapman and Hall. 1973 Lomcera maackm (Caprifoliaceae) adventme m Ontario. Canadian Field-Naturahst 87 54-55. Yost, S. E., S. Antenen, and G Hartvigsen. 1991. The vegetation of the Wave Hill [NY] natural area. Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 118: Pringle, JS 312-325. Regel, E. 1884. Lomcera Maacki Maxim 225-226. Gartenflora 33: Acknowledgments This study was supported by Foundation grant DEB Rehder, A. 1903. Synopsis of the genus Lomcera Annual report of the Missoun Botamcal Garden 14 27-232. S. to National Science the National Geographic Society, and a summer fellowship from Northern Kentucky University. For aid we thank Carol Baskin, Jerry Baskin, Linda Kuddes, Beth Merten, 9306217, Becky Norris, Bruce Parfitt, Floyd Swmk, Don Trisel, Reichard, H., and C. W. Hamilton. 1994. Predicting invasive potential of woody North America. Bulletm Society of Amenca 75~ 190. plants introduced of the Ecological and Charles Williams. Facilities of the Lloyd Library and the hbrary of the Missouri Botanical Garden were invaluable. This article has been adapted from BioScience, Volume 46, Number 1. Royal Gardens Kew 1896. Hand-hst of trees and shrubs m arboretum. Part II. Gamopetalae to Monocotyledons London: H M. Stationery grown James O. Luken Thieret is a is an associate m Office. professor professor and John W. the Department of Biological Ruesmk, J. L., I. M. Parker, M J. Groom, and P. M. Karelva. 1995. Reducmg the risks of nonindigenous species introductions. BioScience 45: 465-477 Sciences at Northern Kentucky University in Highland Heights. Luken is an ecologist studying the physiological ecology of invasive woody plants Thieret is a plant systematist speciahzmg in the taxonomy of grasses and in flonstics. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Knotweed: A Reputation Lost","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25188","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260b76f.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Townsend, Ann","article_content":"Japanese Knotweed: A Reputation Lost Ann Townsend A saga of a well-meaning culprits in the dispersion of a plant that has become nuisance: twentieth-century horticulturists find cause to regret the enthusiasm of nineteenth-century plant promoters. A typical, healthy mass of Japanese knotweed in flower m late summer many of our parks. Ecologists increasingly view it as a threat to species diversity and wildlife habitat. In Great Britain, where it is virtually ubiquitous, it is considered the nation's most pernicious weed, and planting it m the wild is Japanese knotweed (Polygonum cuspidatum Siebold & Zuccarini, now reclassified as Fallopia japonica (Houtt.) Ronse Decraene'\/, a member of the Polygonaceae, is a large, shrubby native to the sunny hills and high mountams of Japan, Korea, China, and Taiwan perennial forbidden by law.2 that grows rankly throughout the eastern United States, the Pacific Northwest, and parts of the Midwest. Great clumps of it are found along nverbanks, roadsides, and in other untended places. It is a serious problem in years ago nurseries in the United States were marketing Japanese knotweed as \"a bold, handsome plant four to six feet tall ... [with] white flowers, small but very numerous, which bloom in great clouds, producing a very Ninety 14 pleasing effect.\" It was considered \"very hardy and desirable. \"3 Why, one might ask, if it is such an obnoxious weed and a serisoft and ous so threat to the natural ecosystem, was it ever esteemed that gardeners paid money for it? The Problem plant is a froth of tiny ~2.5-3 millimeters long), creamy or greenish-white blossoms borne on axillary pamcles, and sets seed in winged, threeangled, shiny black-brown achenes. Except for its autumn debris-it dies back to the ground in October in a messy litter of dry leaves and broken stems-knotweed's outward appearance is not so bad, really. The clusters of stems, the heart-shaped leaves, and the clouds of bloom are attractive. The troubling aspect of the plant lies below ground. Although knotweed produces seeds, they are rarely viable and reproduction occurs primarily through extensive rhizomes. The rhizomes, as large and sturdy as the rest of the plant, form thick, gnarly masses at the base of the stalks and send up new shoots as they extend outward in tough, ropy, underground stems that may reach lengths of sixty feet and are extremely difficult to uproot. Furthermore, small fragments of rhizomes, even from internode tissue, can regenerate, and new clumps of Japanese knotweed often sprout from rhizome fragments washed downstream or transported by humans in topsoil or landfill operations. The shoots are amazingly strong, and have been observed to emerge from rhizomes buried three feet deep; they have even been known to thrust their way up through two inches of asphalt. Limited only by its need for sun, Japanese knotwood grows in almost any conditions on open sites. Its rapid growth in spring enables new shoots to outcompete other plants for space, light, and nutrients. Less aggressive plants cannot grow in the accumulated debris of old stems and leaves or survive in the dense shade of established stands. Unchecked, knotweed seems capable of endless expansion. Efforts to control Japanese knotweed have met with mixed success. It is possible to limit its spread in areas near established stands, since new plants can be removed by hand fairly easily. Keeping young plants cut to prevent sturdy rhizomes from developing is also quite effective. The literature on eradicating established stands is not encouraging, however. A combination of frequent cutting and repeated application of herbicides is recommended, but the knotweed will reemerge if this procedure is discontinued or relaxed. Research has begun on biological con- Fallopia japonica, commonly known as Mexican bamboo, false bamboo, and fleeceflower as well as Japanese knotweed, is without question obnoxious weed. When this became evident Western gardeners it fell from favor, but unlike many other garden plants that became unfashionable and were dropped from the trade, it did not disappear. It has persisted in gardens despite gardeners' heroic efforts to get rid of it, and it thrives in the wild. It is not hard to understand knotweed's early popularity. Its sturdy red-brown asparagus-like shoots appear in early spring and grow rapidly, as much as three inches a day, becoming hollow bamboo-like stalks that can reach ten feet in height. The leaves, pale to bright green and an to strongly veined, are broadly egg shaped, two to five mches wide and two to six inches long, with sharply pointed tips. Knotweed flowers in late summer, when for several weeks the entire The bamboo-hke spears of Fallopla japonica breakmg ground m sprmg. They grow as much as three mches '\"' ' a day. y 15 trol, but the discovery of an effective agent is probably some years in the future and most biologists conclude woefully that complete eradication of the plant may not be possible. However, while its negative impact on the landscape may outweigh its \"soft and pleasing effect,\" knotweed can nonetheless be appreciated it for its interesting history. The Introduction of Japanese Knotweed to the West In 1822 or 1823, a Bavarian physician named Phillipp Franz Balthasar von Siebold (1796-1866), surgeon major in the Dutch East Indies Army, was assigned to the Dutch East India Company's outpost on the Japanese island of Deshima in Nagasaki Harbor. Siebold was a scientist and adventurer as well as a physician, intensely interested in Japanese customs, politics, and natural history; he was also ambitious and eager to win fame and fortune. Deshima, a 32-acre wasteland that the Japanese had constructed of rubble and debris to house foreigners under severely controlled conditions, was an unlikely spot for Siebold to explore and cultivate his interests. Siebold, a man of \"extraordinary intellectual brilliance, \"4 was nevertheless undaunted. Shortly after his arrival he revived the herbal and medicinal gardens established by his The flowers of Japanese knotweed appear m late summer and last for weeks. predecessors Engelbert Kaempfer (in 1690-1692) and Carl Pieter Thunberg (m 1775-1776), and with the help of medical students and grateful patients began collecting and documenting native plants. In time Siebold gained the trust of the Japanese and was permitted to move to the mainland, where he established a larger garden and an arboretum; and despite the Japanese prohibition against plant exports, he managed to mtroduce several hundred new species into European cultivation. When he left Japan in 1830, and again in 1862 after a second visit, \"the deck of the vessel on which he sailed was a veri- nursery.\"5 Many of the plants he introduced, or their cultivated descendants, are now table so we in American gardens that think of them as American plants, among them Siebold forsythia (Forsythia suspensa) and commonly found hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata 'Grandiflora'J, a shrub much planted m the late PeeGee nineteenth century and \"still a hallmark of rural and small-town North Amemca.\"~ Japanese knotweed was also among the plants that Siebold took home.' After returning from Japan in 1830 Siebold established his Jardm d'Acchmatation in 16 published in Leiden by Siebold and his collaborator J. G. 1835, and in the smaller, unillustrated edition Zuccarini in in 1845. Japanese Knotweed in England The first be a English reference to Japanese knotweed description may have included in Paxton's Flower Garden,8 published in 1850-1851, which noted that it was \"only to be found at present\" in Siebold's garden in Leiden.9 Shortly afterward it crossed the Channel; in 1880 Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, This illustration of japanese knotweed m flower appears m William Robmson's 1881 edition of The Wild Garden with this text. \"If, mstead of the formal character of much of ourgardening, plants of bold types similar to the above were mtroduced along the sides of woodland walks and shrubbery borders, how much more en7oyable such places would be, as at almost every step there would be somethmg fresh to attract notice, and gratify the eye, mstead of which such parts are generally bare, or gmen up to weeds and monotonous rubbish. \" the director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, wrote in Curtis's Botanical Magazine that Japanese knotweed had been grown \"for a quarter of a century at Kew, to which it was, [Dalton believed], sent Leiden where he cultivated Japanese plants for sale to the public. His 1863 Catalogue Raisonne et Pmx Courants des Plantes et Graines du Japon et de la Chine listed knotweed as one of our from Japan, most a important introductions perennial ornamental plant, inextirpable, with shining foliage, clusters of flowers 'tres gracieuses,' useful in creating groves, sheltering young plantings, and fortifying sandy hills and dunes. The plant, which can be cut m the spring many times over, provides an excellent forage for fattemng livestock, which eat it out of preference; the flowers, which appear m autumn, are very sweet and give bees wmter food; the bitter and tonic root is a medicme of repute among the Chmese and Japanese; finally, even the stalks which die in winter are good for burning and for matches. Already there have been very satisfactory trials stabilizing trenches and slopes along railroad tracks and sandbanks with plantings of this arborescent, from Holland. \"'o William Robinson (1838-1935), however, was most responsible for Japanese knotweed's popularity in England. Robinson, the Irish-born horticulturist and writer who became known as the Father of the English Flower Garden, almost single-handedly changed garden design in the second half of the nineteenth century from the formal bedded-out geometry of the Victorians to the more naturalistic plantings best represented in the gardens designed by Gertrude Jekyll. \"Knowing,\" Robinson said, \"a little of the vast world of plant beauty quite shut out of our gardens by the 'system' then in vogue ... [I] was led to think of the vast numbers of beautiful hardy plants from other countries which might be naturalized, with a very slight amount of inextirpable plant. in Flora Knotweed was also documented and described Japonica, a handsome two-volume flora trouble, in many situations in our plantations, fields, and woods.\" He saw this giant knotweed as well-suited to his wild garden, and promoted it not only in the various editions of The Wild Garden but also in The English Flower Garden, published from 1870 to 1935, and in Hardy Flowers ( 1872), where he set forth his opinion that 17 7 [i]f anybody will select some open grassy spot in pleasure-garden or grassy glade near a woodsome spot considered unworthy of attention as regards ornamenting it-and plant a group of three plants of [Japanese knotweed it] will spring up every year to a height of from six feet to eight feet if planted well; it has a graceful arching habit in the upper branches, and is covered with a profusion of small bunches of pale a ... becoming somewhat of a weed, carefully watched and restricted.\"'4 cases, if not Japanese Knotweed in the United States It is often claimed that Frederick Law Olmsted (1822-1903) is responsible for introducing Japanese knotweed into the United States, planting it in Central Park or along the Muddy River in Boston's \"Emerald Necklace.\" It is known that flowers in autumn. Robinson's appreciation for Japanese knotweed is further evident in his labeling it a perennial of \"noble port\" in an otherwise straightforward botanical listing, and includmg it in his list of \"A choice Selection of the very finest Herbaceous Perennials.\"\" In 1884, however, his discussion of knotweed in The Garden, while encouraging his readers to plant it \"on the lawn, in the shrubbery, or in woodlands ... placed so that they may have plenty of room in which to fully display their gracefully arching stems,\" included a warning that knotweeds were \"not plants for the border, being of such spreading growth, and being gross feeders would soon overrun and harm plants of a weaker character.\" And in the 1921 edition of The English Flower Garden, Robinson limited his entry on knotweed to three rather terse sentences, of which only the first retains a trace of his earlier enthusiasm: Of fine graceful habit, its creamy-white flowers borne in profusion. It should be grown apart on the turf or in the wild garden. It is easier to plant than to get rid of in the flower garden; a rank weed, nght in copse or pond side.'z are In fact, by the early twentieth century knotweed was beginning to be viewed with disfavor all over England, where it had been extensively cultivated for thirty years. It had proven to \"make itself a nuisance when planted in borders or shrubberies, its rootstocks creeping beneath the surface for some distance, throwing up new plants at every point, and the more they were chopped up the more they grew, unless completely eradicated'3 and even one who admired its abihty to flourish where nothing else would grow and pronounced it \"a plant we ought to be devoutly thankful for to our allies in the Far East\" admitted that \"it thrives too well in most Olmsted met William Robinson when Robinson visited the United States about 1870 and that he later owned a copy of The Wild Garden, which he recommended to his partner Calvert Vaux ( 1824-1895 ~ when Vaux was laying out the Rambles in Central Park.l' However, hard evidence that Olmsted actually specified knotweed's use seems not to exist. It is not on the Muddy River Improvement Plant Lists (1892 and 1893 ),1~ though it is so well established on the river's banks that it may have been growing there since then; a hundred years later it formed a solid mass between the river and the roadway, through which the pedestrian pathway became a mere tunnel in summer and fall when it was in full foliage. Knotweed is also something of a problem at the Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina, which Olmsted designed in the 1890s, but the plant does not appear on the original plant list for the estate nor on the 1893 list of plants m the estate nursery.l' According to Charles E. Beveridge, editor of the Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, \"while the vigor of [Japanese knotweed] might have appealed to Olmsted, there are at least two quahties of the plant that [probably] would have made it not so attractive for him. One is the size of the leaf and the density with which it would grow under any circumstances: in the masses of shrubs that he planted, the elements of delicacy, intricacy, and variety [were] key, and ... [knotweed] would not be a good plant for achieving such effects. Also, the amount of bloom would have made the plant less desirable in his view.\"'8 Whether or not Olmsted ever specified knotweed, by the turn of the century it had become a firmly established ornamental garden plant in the United States, recommended for planting in wet soil by the sides of pond and streams. In Our Garden Flowers: a Popular Study of Them ... 18 Cascadmg over the wall in the center of this photo zs Fallopia japonica 'Crimson Beauty', said to be a cultmar that knows how to keep to its place. Other cultivars available m the trade mclude 'Devon Cream' and 'Spectabile,'as well as a compact variety. Lands, Their Life Histories, and Their Structural Affiliations, first published in 1910, Harriet Keeler (1846-1921),abotanist and writer of popular garden books, describes knotweed as \"effective for bold effects and desirable for the flowering mass it produces in autumn,\" also noting \"one should think twice, possibly thrice, before planting [it] within the garden enclosure.\"'9 By that time, Japanese knotweed was a staple in nursery catalogs, sold by such companies as Bobbink and Atkins in New Jersey, H. Kohankie and Son of Ohio, Palisades Nurseries of Sparkill, New York, and Bay State Nurseries and R. and J. Farquhar and Company in Massachusetts. In the 1920s Farquhar's catalog listed Giant Knotweed, \"a decorative plant growing five to six feet high and producing in the fall long drooping clusters of white flowers\" for $2.50 per dozen or $18.00 per hundred, the going rate for other perennials such as balloon flower (Platycodon Native \" grandiflorus) caeruleum). The Final It is easy to and Jacob's ladder (Polemonium Chapter imagine that by the late 1920s those gracefully arching stems and drooping clusters of bloom had already found their way into many gardens via garden club plant swaps and church fair garden tables, but by this time gardeners were of two minds about Japanese knotweed. September of 1928 Horticulture magazine printed Frank Waugh's description of the lusty knotweed as \"effective in background plantings\" and \"a beautiful sight\" in full flower, to which the editor appended a warning that it resisted control except by strong weed killer and should be planted with caution.2o In The Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Gardener's Omnibus of 1938 included a paragraph entitled \"Exterminating the Knotweed\" interposed between \"Burning Weeds with a 19 Torch\" and \"Burning Out Tree Stumps.\" And finally, the Bush-Browns in the 1965 edition of their widely consulted America's Garden Book, give knotweed no quarter, finding it not only ubiquitous but of \"a very rank character of In 1777 Martmus Houttuyn (1720-1798), a Dutch collector, merchant, and author of Natuurlyke japonica, which in historle, mtroduced Reynoutna 1901 was growth, quickly crowding out everything m its path,\" mentioning it only in their discussion of shrubs with undesirable characteristics.2' Japanese knotweed, which a century earlier Siebold had considered one of his most important introductions, had so fallen in public esteem that gardeners were interested only in methods for removing it. What Robinson saw as a plant laudable for its ability to survive the hardest frosts and spring up every year with renewed vigor had become an impossible nuisance, and gardeners were throwing endless clumps of it on rubbish heaps, though not as quickly as it spread throughout their gardens and beyond. Boldly displaying its unquenchable spirit, knotweed, transplanted from its native Japan by a German doctor employed by the Dutch, had established itself as a permanent though unwanted member of plant communities throughout the Western Hemisphere, its arching stems and clouds of bloom appearing indomitably anywhere one of its stout rhizomes-or a piece of one-lay hidden in the soil. Endnotes 1 Polygonum cuspidatum (now Fallopia ~apomcaJ Thunberg had sent Houttuyn (who had helped to underwrite Thunberg's travel to Japan) a number of specimens but no seeds or living plants. s Translated from a description m the Annales de Gand (Ghent) 5: 461, written by C. F. A. Morren (18071858), a Belgian botanist and horticulturist. 9 The entry goes on to say that the plant has been cultivated m the Royal Horticultural Society's garden to determmed be for a quarter of a century, mtroduced from \"Chma \" as Houttuyma cordata, which is possibly the source of the 1825 date often given for its introduction, but H is not the same taxon as Fallopia ~apomca (Polygonum cuspidatumJ J. D. Hooker, Polygonum cuspidatum, Curtis's Botamcal Magazme (1880) 36 (3rd Series) : Tab 6503 J. Tankard, Introduction to Facsimile of the 5th Edition of W Robmson, The Wild Garden (Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1994), xi, xm-xv, W. Robmson, Hardy Flowers (London: F. Warne,1872), 15-16. The Garden (1884) 26: 317; The English Flower Garden, 13th ed (NY: Scnbner's,1921),640. J. Weathers, A Practical Guide to Garden Plants (London: Longmans, Green, 1901), 769. ~ Gardeners'Magazine (1904~ 47: 8G1. Tankard, op cit , xi. Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Fredenck Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System (Cambndge~ Harvard University cordata 1 11 lz 13 14 '5 16 L.-P Ronse Decraene and Press, 1982), 215-220 J. R. Akeroyd, Generic 1~ limits in Polygonum and related genera (Polygonaceae) on the basis of floral characters, Botamcal journal of the Lmnean Society (1988) 98: According to William Alexander, Landscape Curator, The Biltmore Company, Ashemlle, NC, Japanese knotweed (as Polygonum cuspidatum) was included among the plants offered m the 1907 Biltmore Nursery catalog, but these plants were grown for the nursery trade and reflect market demand rather than Olmsted's preferences. 321-371 2 Flora of Tapan (Washmgton, DC: Smithsoman Institution, 1965), 413; Leslie Seiger, Element Stewardship Abstract for Polygonum cuspidatum (Arlmgton, VA: Central Conservation Data Bases of The Nature Conservancy and Network of Natural Heritage Programs, 1992). Unless otherwise specified, botamcal and ecological information is taken from the latter document. Jisaburo Ohm, 18 Personal Series correspondence with Charles E Bevendge, Editor, The Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, Department of History, American University, 19 3 1907 Biltmore Nursery Catalog, Biltmore, NC. zo 21 4 S. A Spongberg, A Reumon of Trees (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1990), 101 1 5 Ibid., 102. Washmgton, DC, January 6, 1997. Harriet L. Keeler, Our Garden Flowers (NY. Scnbner's, 1925\/, 108. Horticulture \/1928\/ 6(17~: 407. James and Louise Bush-Brown, America's Garden Book (NY- Scnbner's, 1965), 602. ~J A. Gardner, 7 The Hemloom Garden (Pownal, VT: Storey Commumcations, 1992), 93. Siebold was not, however, the first to bring Japanese knotweed to Europe. It had been been introduced to Western screr.ce earlier, via a herbarium specimen. Townsend lives and works m Petersham, Massachusetts. She completed the certificate m the Radcliffe Seminars Graduate Program m Landscape Ann Design m 1997. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25190","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260bb6d.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Shah, Behula","article_content":"The Checkered Career of Ailanthus altissima Behula Shah The history of the tree-of-heaven since its introduction into cultivation is a convoluted one. Once highly praised and widely planted as an ornamental, the species has made itself at home as a weed along our roadsides and in our fields. Ailanthus is now viewed by many as a symbol of dereliction and abandonment, but its hardiness also makes it deserving of our admiration. The genus Ailanthus, part of the Simarouwere some of the very attributes that contributed to its fall from grace during the middle of the nineteenth century. Ailanthus altissima matures to almost sixty feet, with a spreading, light canopy and a grayish, slightly rough bark that stands out against darker backgrounds. Its leaves remain green without significant autumn color until the first frost, when they drop all at once. These alternate, pinnately compound leaves are distinguished by a characteristic gland that can be felt on the underside of the numerous leaflets near the base. (It was this gland that gave the tree its first species name, Ailanthus glandulosa, in use until 1919.) Its flowers are whitish to greenishyellow, formed in clusters borne on long panicles at the ends of branches m June. The trees are usually dioecious, but occasionally both sexes exist on the same tree. The male flowers are notable for a unpleasant smell that lasts for a few weeks. Fertile flowers develop into showy clusters of seed pods that are green at first, gradually becoming tinged with a pmk that darkens to red and finally to a reddishbrown by late summer. But these baceae, includes five species distributed widely Australia. The species A. northern China, is the only one that has adapted to the temperate environment of Europe and North America (zones 4-8). (. Most species have traditionally been revered in the cultures where they grow. The ancient Chinese name for the plant is \"God's tree,\" and in its native range it is planted near Buddhist temples. The name of the genus derives from its common East Indian name, Aylanto, meaning \"heaven-tree\" or \"tree reaching for the sky.\" The English name, \"tree-of-heaven,\" transposes the original meaning, which probably alludes to the East Indian mythic tree that reaches the heavens from the earth.' During its days of respectability in the United States-the first half of the nineteenth century-tree-of-heaven was valued primarily for its ability to provide shade and to make an effect in the landscape within a relatively short time, growing up to five feet in a year. It happily grows in any soil condition and can be propagated in large numbers, both because of its tendency to sucker and because its distinctive winged seeds germinate easily without pretreatment. (In a moist medium, seedlings appear within two months.)It had the additional attraction of being a foreign plant that, as Andrew Jackson Downing so poetically put it, could \"whisper tales to you in the evening of the 'Flowery Country' from whence you have borrowed it ...\"2 eastern Asia to to from altissima, native Ailanthus altissima in Europe Ailanthus altissima was first grown m Europe in about 1751 from seed sent to England from Nankin (Nanjing) by a French Jesuit priest, Pierre Nicholas d'Incarville. Among the recipients was Peter Collinson, who grew from them \"a stately tree.\" The Royal Society in London Ailanthus altissima thrives on the banks of the Charles River near Boston. 22 fad by saying \"the chinese taste ... has already taken possession of our gardens, our buildings and our furniture ...\" Literary descriptions of Chinese gardens had been filtering into England and chmoise architectural features had been introduced into gardens, but no Chinese plants were yet available. Curiosity about Ailanthus must therefore have been high.4 By 1756, however, Mr. Webb's garden superintendent, John Ellis, had already noticed that the tree emitted an offensive, even sickening odor, and that it suckered profusely. Eighty years later, in 1838, J. C. Loudon confirmed these impressions in his influential Arboretum et Fruticetum Bntannicum, noting the suckering tendency of the tree as well as \"the disagreeable odour\" of its whitish flowers. Nevertheless, by the 1840s many mature specimens of Ailanthus were growing in Europe and it was being widely used as a shade tree for public promenades in Italy and France, valued particularly for its resistance to insect devastation.s Ailanthus altissima in the United States It was William Hamilton of Philadelphia, an avid plant collector who in and Tree-of-heaven seen ~ust beneath Paulowma tomentosa (empress or 1784landscape improver, introduced Ailanthus into m the mld m northern Chma prmcess tree) North America, together with other Chinese trees including Ginkgo biloba, also received seeds, which it distributed to Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden presumably sending the seeds from England himself. At that time many people (including and to an enthusiastic gardener in Surrey, a Mr. Webb, both of whom raised plants from Philip Miller in his Gardener's Dictionary of 1768 and probably Hamilton also) confused the seeds.3 .3 Ailanthus with the Chinese varnish tree, Tree-of-heaven was among the first plants to Rhus verniciflua, or thought it to be a new specome from China, a country that was still difficies of sumac. It did not receive its own generic cult to penetrate during the eighteenth century status until 1786, when Rene Desfontaines for but had nonetheless inspired a craze described the tree and published a plate of its chinoiserie in England and France. In 1755 a flowers and leaves.6 described the popular magazine, Connoisseur, 23 By the 1840s, the European practice of using Allanthus for pubhc walks was being emulated in cities like Philadelphia and New York, where it was known as \"the celestial tree.\" In March of 1847 Downing editorialized m his magazine, The Horticulturist, that the variety of trees for cities-densely crowded cities-is but small; and this, chiefly, because the warm brick walls are such hiding places and for msects, that many fme trees-fme for the country and for rural towns-become absolute pests in the cities. Thus, m Philadelphia, we have seen, with regret, whole rows of the European Lmden cut down within the last ten years, because this tree, in cities, is so mfested with odious worms, that it often becomes unendurable. On this account that foreign tree, the Ailanthus, the strong scented foliage of which no msect will attack, is every day becoming a greater metropolitan favomte.' nurseries Ailanthus was well suited to meetmg the growing demand for landscape trees that accompanied the unprecedented economic and social transformations of the 1840s, years that can be described as the clipper ship era. Between 1840 and the 1860s, the United by was invigorated trade, resulting in the rapid growth of urban centers States' economy the China and suburban estates. By the 1850s, Ailanthus was being extensively used in urban plantings and was the only shade tree to be seen on many streets of New York. It was also grown in suburban gardens as boundary plantings.8 At the same time, it continued to be popular as a specimen tree on the pleasure grounds of country homes, in large part because of the aesthetic qualities described by Downing in 1841 m the first edition of his influential work, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, was when Ailanthus commonest trees \"one of the sold in the nurs- eries.\" For some reason Downing chose to ignore the \"disagreeable that grows m Brooklyn. Some people call it the Tree of Heaven No matter where its seed falls, it makesa tree which struggles to reach the sky. It grows m boarded-up lots and out of neglected rubbish heaps. It grows up out of cellar gratmgs. It is the only tree that grows out of cement. It grows lushly... surmves without sun, water, and seemmgly earth. It would be considered beautiful except that there are too many of it. \"There's a tree \" odorous\" flowers that Loudon had written about in 1838 and instead commented that \"The male forms a finer ornamental tree, the female being low and spreading.... It is a picturesque tree, well adapted to produce a 24 The Slow Decline of Ailanthus in the United States By July of 1852, when Downing was again editorializing about Ailanthus in The Horticulturist, his enthusiasm was waning. He admonished his readers for planting \"odorous Ailanthuses and filthy poplars, to the neglect of graceful elms and salubrious maples.\" The following month, his disapproval of Ailanthus became more passionate. \"Down with the Ailanthus !\" he wrote. \"[T]his 'tree of heaven,' (as the catalogues used alluringly to call it,) has penetrated all parts of the union, and begins to show its true character.\" He now viewed Ailanthus as \" in rather bad odor at which has come over to this home, land of liberty, under the garb of utility to make foul the air, with its pestilent breath, and devour the soil, with its intermeddling rootsa tree that has the fair outside and the treacherous heart of the Asiatics, and that has played us so many tricks, that we find we have caught a Tartar which it requires something more than a Chinese wall to confine within limits!'o an usurper Two trees grow up out of cellar gratmgs m Manhattan. powers This outburst must be viewed within the context of the preceding decade's events. At the end of the Opium War in 1842, China had signed treaties with the United States and other foreign good effect on the lawn singly or grouped; as its fine long foliage catches the light well, and contrasts strikingly with that of the round-leaved trees.\" To counter its suckering habit, Downing suggested planting Ailanthus in \"a heavy sward, where the surface of the ground is never stirred by cultivation.\" He noted that its \"singularly naked look in winter [is] well calculated to fix the attention of the spectator at that dreary season.\"9Its suckering habit was of great advantage to nurseries, allowing them to meet increasing demand rapidly and profitably. allowing toreigners tree access to the walled city of Canton as well as certain other privileges. But the tensions continued: conciliatory promises were continually made by the Chinese government, only to be repeatedly broken under the influence of antiforeign sentiment in China. Downing associated the negative attributes of Ailanthus with his perception of Chinese morality and viewed his distaste for the tree as \"a patriotic objection\"; it had \"drawn away our attention from our own more noble native American trees.\"\"l 25 A tree-of-heaven escaped to Anzona \" This was Downing's \"last and best essay,\" wrote Thomas Meehan, a promment Philadel- reported to be efficacious against dysentery. An 1874 issue of The Horticulturist gave directions for preparing the medicinal concoction and the proper dosage. The medicinal value, however, was negated by reports of problems arising from the tree's pollen; many people developed allergic reactions, with hay fever symptoms lasting for a few weeks. However, it was believed that the Ailanthus flower was causing much more serious health problems. One report claimed that patients suffered from chronic sore throats, disturbed stomachs, and nausea, and finally, over time, tuberculosis. The District of Columbia and several states legislated a ban on Ailanthus. This movement may be an example of a social problem bemg blamed on a tree that was very common and therefore an easy scapegoat. In 1888 Charles Sprague Sargent attempted to redirect attention to other urban conditions that might have caused the illness. In response to a letter, he wrote, phia horticulturist, must in 1853.'2 Many Americans have shared the sentiment because large numbers of Ailanthus altissima were uprooted and discarded, primarily from country homes. Nevertheless, Meehan still considered it a useful tree for urban conditions where insect infestations and pollution made it difficult to keep any other tree healthy. For the same reason, perhaps, Allanthus continued to be a favorite urban tree in Europe. After spendmg a year in France, William Robmson, author of many horticultural books including The Parks, Promenades and Gardens of Paris, was convinced that Ailanthus was indispensable for parks and avenues because of its ability to remain fresh even in the harshest city conditions.'3 But in the United States, opinion about Ailanthus remained divided throughout the latter half of the nineteenth century. Its root bark was 26 What we believe to be an entirely unfounded belief m the injurious properties of the Ailanthus tree has taken possession of communities in this country at different times and different places.... it seems not improbable that the particular cases [of illness~ to which our correspondent calls attention have been the result of malaria or improper drainage or impure drinlung water-a belief sustamed, m part at least, by the fact that the Ailanthus is one of the most commonly planted, and most highly esteemed trees in Pams and other European cities, while its bad reputation, so far as we can learn, is confined to this country. As it is only the flowers of the male plant which are disagreeable, all risk, real or fancied, m planting this tree can be obviated by selectmg the female plants only.\"'4 Sargent was not alone in his point of view. Ailanthus altissima continued to be planted in parks and on streets, as, for instance, by Samuel Parsons, Jr., who had been greatly influenced by the parks of Paris and thought it was \"in some respects the toughest and finest of trees.\" When he drew up plans for the extension of New York's East River Park in 1892, he specified Ailanthus for a significant percentage S of the trees.'S Toward the end of the nineteenth century, both C. S. Sargent and his uncle H. H. Hunnewell commissioned tree nurseries to plant large acreages in Ailanthus to evaluate the tree as a timber crop and for other commercial uses such as furniture, fuel, and railroad ties.'~ These commercial efforts ultimately failed, however, and by the second decade of the twentieth century Ailanthus was no longer being used m the United States, even as an ornamental tree. Since then, it has essentially been neglected and allowed to spread on its own in disturbed sites, where often it shades and ornaments otherwise barren With better treatment, ground. Ailanthus could once again become a respected tree. If left to grow to its full stature instead of being repeatedly cut to the ground-a common practice that results in bushy, weedy plants that sucker profusely-it can actually enhance a landscape. We might stop associating Ailanthus with pollution, erosion, and general urban neglect, and instead see it as the valuable tree it can be, with the tenacity and perseverance to A tree-of-heaven grows m Boston that society provide greenery in spaces neglects. 27 Endnotes 1 Osvald Siren, Gardens of China (New York: Ronald House, 1949), 38; D. J. Mabberley, The Plant-Book (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 1989\/, 15; W. T. Swingle, The early European history and the botanical Sciences Ailanthus, despite his changed opinion In the 7th edition, 204, edited and supplemented by H W. Sargent, a footnote acknowledges the changed opinion and suggests that tree-of-heaven can be replaced by the princess tree (Paulowma tomentosa), a newer of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima, Journal of the Washmgton Academy of name introduction from Japan and own one that would prove to create its 10 problems. (191G\/ 6: 490-498 \"How to Z \"Shade Trees rn Crties,\" The Horticultunst (1852\/ 11 Horticultunst Popularize the Taste for Planting,\" The ]July 1952) 7[7\/ 297-301, \"Shade 3 7( 8345-349. L. W. Dillwyn, ed, 1843),2. J. E. Trees,\" 345-349. \"Shade Trees,\"346. Amencan 12 Hortus Colhnsomanus (Swansea, 4 Vollmer, E. Silk Roads, China tation on J. Keall, and E. Nagai-Berthrong, Ships (Toronto: Royal Ontario Museum, 1983), 127 William Chambers (DisserOnental Gardemng, 1772) reported that the earliest descriptions of Chmese gardens came to Europe via a letter written by Denis Attiret, a French Jesuit priest at the imperial court in Beyng, and translated by Joseph Spence m 1752. 5 Swingle, 490-491; J. ~ C. Loudon, Arboretum et Fruticetum Bntanmcum, Vol. I (London 1838\/, 490492. Swrngle, 495 7 The Horticultunst (1847\/ I(9\/: 397 8 Handbook of Ornamental Trees (Philadelphia. Lippincott, 1853\/, 69-70. 13 Parks, Promenades (London: John Murray, 1869), 171. 14 \"Remedial Action of the Ailanthus,\" The Horticultumst (1874\/ 29~340\/: 320; Correspondence: C. V. Tice, Ed. [C. S Sargent], Garden and Forest (1888)1:179-180. ls Samuel Parsons, Jr., and the Art of Landscape Architecture, Wave Hill, NY, Exhibition, Charles Birnbaum, curator, 1994; Parsons, The Art of Landscape Architecture (NY: Putnam's, 1915\/, 315. 1~ H Douglas, Gardener's Monthly ( 1882) 24~280\/: 117; T Meehan, Gardener's Monthly (1885) 28(324): 369-370; C. S. Sargent, Garden and Forest (1888) I: 385-386. , A. J. Downing, \"Shade Trees in Cities,\" 345-349, and Trenuse on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardemng, 1st ed. (NY, 1841), 202-204 9 Loudon, op cit ; Downing, Treatise, 203-204. Subsequent editions of the Treatise continued to carry Downing's original, favorable report of Behula Shah is a graduate of the Radcliffe Seminars Graduate Program m Landscape Design History She is currently director of the Landscape Studies Program at Chatham College, Pittsburgh "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Allelopathy and the Secret Life of Ailanthus altissima","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25186","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260b326.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Heisey, Rod M.","article_content":"Allelopathy and the Secret Life of Ailanthus altissima Rod M. Heisey \" - Although the reputation of the tree-of-heaven as an ornamental has declined over the past century, investigations now underway may discover a new role for the species as the source of a natural herbicide. Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) has been extremely successful in invading and dominating certain habitats since its introduction to the United States in 1784. In parts of the northeastern United States, especially in southern Connecticut, southern Pennsylvania, and the lower Hudson Valley of New York, A. altissimaforms nearly pure stands that are resistant to invasion by other tree species.' A number of characteristics contribute to the invasiveness and success of Ailanthus altissima, often called tree-of-heaven. First, the versatility of its reproduction methods provides a decided advantage. The trees regularly produce large crops of winged seeds that are widely dispersed by the wind. A. altissima can also spread rapidly by sprouting from stumps or from its wide-ranging lateral roots, particularly in openings or at the edges of forested areas. Another of its advantageous characteristics is the extremely rapid growth rate that enables it to outcompete many other species, especially when reproducing from root or stump sprouts. Average heights reported for one-year-old trees in south and central Pennsylvania were 1.3 feet for seedlings, 2.7 feet for root sprouts, and 6.0 feet for stump sprouts; two-year-old trees averaged 3.9 feet, 5.6 feet, and 9.2 feet, respectively.2 These rates make A. altissima one of the fastest-growing trees in the temperate zone. opathy.\" Many plants produce chemical compounds that have no apparent role in life processes or plant structure; hence, these compounds are called secondary metabolites. As techniques for identifying naturally produced chemicals have improved in recent decades, it has become apparent that plants manufacture a great diversity of secondary metabolites, including terpenoids, alkaloids, glycosides, flavonoids, coumarins, quinones, saponins, and phenolic compounds. Humans have found a variety of uses for some of these compounds, including menthol, a terpenoid produced by mint; nicotine, an alkaloid produced by tobacco; caffeme, an alkaloid produced by the coffee plant and other species; and salicin, a phenolic compound having analgesic properties, from the willow tree. Why do plants produce secondary metabolites ? An early hypothesis suggesting that they were simply waste products of normal metabolism has been largely discounted, since it does not explain the wide variety of secondary metabolites. Much evidence now indicates that some of these allelochemicals, as they are termed, play a defensive role for the producer organism, protecting plants from herbivores by making the plant tissues toxic, perhaps, or by reducing their palatability.3 Other compounds have antimicrobial effects and may protect plants from invasion by pathogens. Another role that secondary metabolites may play is that of allelopathy (Greek, allelo-, of one another; patheia, suffering), the inhibition of one plant's growth by another through the production and release of toxic chemicals into the environment. Many secondary metabolites have Allelopathy: The Secret Weapon? Another contributor to the invasiveness and success of Ailanthus altissima may be a secondary metabolite that provides competitive superiority through a process known as \"allel- 29 A typical stand of Ailanthus altissima showing a sparse understory with scattered Ailanthus root sprouts been shown to inhibit seed germination or plant growth in laboratory tests, and entire books have been written attributing a broad range of effects to allelopathy;4 however, some researchers question how widespread or important it really is in natural habitats.~ Two examples where the argument for allelopathy seems most convincing are the purple sage (Salvia leucophylla) in the coastal sage scrub community of California and the black walnut (Juglans nigra) in the eastern Umted States.~ But in fact, allelopathy has not yet been proven to exist in any plant to all researchers' satisfaction. including negative effects on insects, fungi, protozoa, viruses, and cancer cells.' In China A. altissima has long been used as medicine and as insect repellent.~ The first publications on allelopathy by A. altissima were by Mergen (1959) and Voigt and Mergen ( 1962), who reported that water extracts of foliage and stems were injurious to tree seedlings of other species. The major phytotoxic compound produced by A. altissima was recently identified as a quassinoid compound called ailanthone.9 A major tool for research on allelopathy is the bioassay, a test that allows us to isolate phytotoxic compounds and quantify their effects under controlled laboratory conditions. A good bioassay should possess high sensitivity, give reproducible results, and take a relatively short time to perform. I usually use seeds of garden cress (Lepidium sativum) for bioassays, because they germinate rapidly and are very sensitive to phytotoxins. A basic bioassay involves placing garden cress seeds on filter paper in petri dishes, treating them with plant extracts, and then incubating them under standard conditions. At Testing for Allelopathic Effects My research has focused on two areas: ( 1)determining whether Ailanthus altissima actually is allelopathic under natural conditions, and (2) evaluating the potential of its secondary metabolite as a natural herbicide. Members of the Simaroubaceae, mcluding Ailanthus, produce a class of bitter-tasting secondary metabolites called quassinoids, which exhibit a wide range of biological activity 30 A Chemical structure of ailanthone (molecular weight 376), the phytotoxic compound produced by Ailanthus altissima. Allanthone is extremely bitter and belongs to the class of compounds called quassmoids. the end of the incubation period, the growth of the radicle (the initial root formation) of the treated tilled seedlings is compared to that of control seedlings that received only deionized or diswater. deliver biologically effective amounts of the toxin from Ailanthus altissima trees to nearby soil. Stemflow collars were placed around A. altissima trunks, and rain was collected as it flowed down the trees. At the same time, precipitation was collected m open areas nearby to serve as a control. The water samples were then tested using the cress seed bioassay. Surprisingly, stemflow stimulated more cress radicle growth than either control precipitation or deionized water.'1 In retrospect this result was not unreasonable. The outer bark of A. altissima (low in ailanthone) probably prevents the toxin from being leached from the highailanthone inner bark in large enough quantities to inhibit plant growth; the bark may also contribute inorganic nutrients or growth hormones to the stemflow, thereby offsetting the effect of any ailanthone that does reach the soil. In any case, the results certainly did not support stemflow as a mechanism responsible for allelopathy under natural conditions. In order to learn whether ailan- thone could indeed serve as an allelopathic agent for Ailanthus altissima, I first needed to find out where in the tree the phytotoxic compound is found. This was important because the location helps determine the quantity of toxin released into the soil as well as the release mechanism. I extracts began by assaying water of different A. altissima tissues, using the method described above. Phytotoxic effects were highest for the inner bark of the trunk and the bark of roots and branches, intermediate for leaves, and lowest for the thin outer bark of the trunk and for the wood of the trunk and roots.l These results suggested two possible release mechanisms for the phytotoxin: (1) extraction of toxin from bark and foliage by rain, followed by stemflow down branches and trunks; or (2) exudation from roots. Tests were designed to learn which of these mechanisms, if either, could water extracts of Ailanthus altissima root bark on of barnyard grass (BYGR, Echinochloa crusgalli), corn (Zea mays), and garden cress (Lepidum satmum\/. The seeds were moistened with (left to mghtJ deiomzed water for control or a water extract of A. altissima root bark correspondmg to 1 gram of bark m 5000 and 500 milhhters, respectmely. Both concentrations of extract caused considerable mhlbition of radicle growth of all three species compared to the control. Bioassay of seeds 31 Effect of addmg Ailanthus altissima leaflets and root bark to soil on growth of garden c,ress The pots rec.emed (left to mght) no bark (=control); 2 grams of leaflets and 2 grams of root bark from which ailanthone had been extracted with methanol, and 0.5, 1, and 2 grams of non-extracted root bark The non-extracted bark caused obmous inhibition of cress growth, but bark from which the allanthone was removed with methanol t stimulated growth compared to the control contammg no bark. The leaflets reduced cress growth shghtly, but much less than the bark. To test whether significant amounts of ailanthone could be released by Ailanthus altissima roots, some roots were added to soil m petri dishes. Control dishes contained identical soil, but no roots. The dishes containing roots were stored m a refrigerator (to retard degradation of the toxin by soil microorganisms) for 6 or 13 days to provide time for the toxin from the roots to exude into the soil. The dishes were then removed from refrigeration, seeds of garden cress were placed on the soil near the roots, and radicle growth was measured 3 days later. The results showed that significant amounts of ailanthone had been released from the roots. Exposure of the soil for 6 days to fine roots (less than three millimeters in diameter\/ reduced cress radicle growth to 50 percent of that in the control soil, and exposure to larger roots (five to ten millimeters in diameter) reduced cress radicle growth to 74 percent. In soil stored for 13 days, cress radicle growth was reduced by exposure to fine roots to 33 percent of growth in the control soil and to 74 percent by exposure to 0.8 percent of dry soil weight reduced cress seedling emergence to 39, 21, and 5 percent respec- larger roots. In another test Ailanthus altissima root bark and leaves were added separately to soil in pots and the effect measured on garden cress seeds. Root bark strongly inhibited growth of the seeds, whereas leaves had a much weaker effect. Dry root bark added in quantities of 0.2, 0.4, and that m pots containing no root bark; shoot biomass was reduced to 55, 25, and 5 percent of biomass in the control pots. Dry leaflets added to soil m similar quantities only reduced cress emergence to 94, 88, and 93 percent of that in control pots and shoot biomass to 81, 81, and 64 percent. These results support the hypothesis that exudation of ailanthone from A. altissima roots is a mechanism whereby allelopathy could occur, whereas exudation from leaves probably is not. The experiments described so far had a serious weakness: the Ailanthus altissima tissues used had been removed from the trees and injured by cutting or drying. It could therefore be objected that the experiments did not mimic natural situations. Another investigation was performed to assess more realistically the potential for allelopathy caused by root exudation of ailanthone. Soil within two centimeters of A. altissima roots was collected m a twentyyear-old stand of trees and assayed usmg garden cress seeds. Control soil was collected from a nearby forested area containing few A. altissima trees. Cress radicle growth in soil from near A. altissima roots was 85 percent of radicle growth in control soil. The bioassay was repeated because the difference was so small; in the tively of cress 32 Effect of treatments of ailanthone pre-emergence, photographed 6 days after spray (top row of flats), and post-emergence, 5 days after spray (bottom row of flats). Apphcation rates are (left to mghtJ 0 (control), 0.5, 1, 2, 4, and 8 kilograms of ailanthone per hectare Plant species are (front to back of flats) redroot pigweed (Amaranthus retroflexus), garden cress, velvetleaf, foxtail ~Setaria glaucal, barnyard grass, corn, and (m post-emergence flats only) seedlmgs of Ailanthus altissima. All plants were killed m the postemergence treatments, even at 0 5 kg\/ha, except velvetleaf, which was m~ured at the higher rates of apphcation, and A. altissima seedlmgs, which remarkably showed no m~ury even at 8 kg\/ha second test, cress radicle was A. altissima roots growth in soil near 77 percent of control radicle growth. The investigations of root exudation provide evidence that ailanthone may be released into the rhizosphere of Allanthus altissima in amounts sufficient to influence the growth of other plants. Before concludmg that A. altisslma is allelopathic, however, another factor had to considered. Many organic compounds are rapidly degraded by soil microorganisms; juglone, for example-the allelopathic compound from black walnut-can be degraded rapidly by soil bacteria to concentrations below which phytotoxicity would occur.'2 If the same is true of ailanthone, its biological effectiveness could be greatly reduced. The persistence of ailanthone in soil was therefore examined. In one investigation, a solution of ailanthone was mixed with soil in petri dishes. In some dishes, soil that had been sterilized by autoclaving was used, whereas nonsterile soil was used in other dishes. The dishes were then incubated at 25 degrees Centigrade for time periods ranging from 0 to 21 days, and the soil was subsequently tested for phytotoxicity with a cress seed bioassay. Strong toxicity persisted for 21 days in the dishes containing sterile soil; by contrast, it persisted for only 2 or 3 days and rapidly disappeared thereafter in the dishes containing nonsterile soil. A similar pattern was observed when powdered Ailanthus altissima root bark was mixed with soil and incubated. These results clearly demonstrate that the toxic effects of ailanthone in soil are short-lived, probably because of microbial degradation, and raise questions about allelopathic potential of A. altissima under natural conditions. Ailanthus altissima as a Herbicide Regardless of its ecological role, ailanthone is a very powerful herbicidal compound: in the standard garden cress bioassay, radicle growth 33 typically reduced to 50 percent by a solution containing only 0.7 milligrams of ailanthone per liter (0.7 parts per million~.'3 Ailanthone is therefore being evaluated for commercial is use, since a natural herbicide could have several advantages over synthetic ones: (1) rapid degradation of the herbicide in soil or water, resulting in less environmental pollution; (2) reduced dependence on fossil fuels since the herbicide could be made biosynthetically rather than from petrochemicals ; and, perhaps (3), lower toxicity of the herbicide to nontarget organisms. Ailanthone can be described as a broad-spectrum herbicide that is toxic to many plants, both weeds and crop species. It has its greatest effect on annual plants shortly after they have emerged, but it also has a down into the seed zone. To test postemergence herbicidal effects, the crude extract or purified ailanthone was sprayed directly onto emerged seedlings of weeds and crop species. Strong herbicidal effects resulted from both pre- and post-emergence applications, but the post-emergence effects were especially striking: even the lowest application rate of ailanthone significant pre-emergence effect. Ailanthone is toxic to both monocots and dicots, but dicots tend to be the more sensitive. It has a very low degree of selectivity; however, Ailanthus altissima seedlings and certain species in the Malvaceae such as cotton (Gossypium hirsutum) and velvetleaf (Abutilon theophrasti) are resistant. Initial investigations of the herbicidal effects of Allanthus altissima were made in the greenhouse using a crude extract of root bark. Later, after the herbicidal compound had been identified, purified ailanthone was used. Both the crude extract and the purified ailanthone were sprayed onto the surface of soil sown with weeds and crop species to test for pre-emergence herbicidal effects. The soil was then watered so that the herbicidal material would be carried Field trial of post-emergence spray with extract of A. altissima bark mne days after apphcation. The plot at top (control) received no extract, and the plot belowrecemed the eqmvalent of 1 1 kilogram of ailanthone per hectare. The predommant weed is Galinsoga ciliata. The crop plants are (front row to back row) corn, cauhflower (Brassica oleracea var. rtalica\/, tomato (Lycopersicon esculentuml, and green bean (Phaseolus vulgans\/. A sigmficant reduction m weed populatlon of the treated plot is apparent, but m~ury to the crops is also evident. 34 A mature A~lanthus altissima m August Showmg the charac,tenstrc compound leaves, palm-like appearance, and abundant clusters of mpening samaras. gmmg a somewhat (equivalent to 0.5 kilogram per hectare) caused complete mortality of most plant species tested. The most recent tests of ailanthone were conducted in outdoor field plots. Because large amounts of the herbicidal material were required and isolation of pure ailanthone is expensive and time-consuming, a crude extract of Ailanthus altissima trunk bark was used. Weeds and crops were planted in the field and sprayed after emergence with an extract containing a known amount of ailanthone. Symptoms of damage were evident on many weeds and crop species within a few days of spraying. As demonstrated previously in the laboratory, ailanthone does not persist long in the soil, so new weeds germinated and some injured weeds 35 a few weeks of spraying. A of ailanthone would therefore single application be insufficient to control weeds over an entire growing season. Future research will investigate ways to extend the herbicidal effects over a longer time and to minimize toxicity to crops. recovered within References Bell, E. A. 1981 The physiological role(s) of secondary (natural) products. The Biochemistry of Plants, ed. P. K Stumpf and E. E. Conn. NY: Academic Press, vol. 7, 1-19. Fisher, R. F. 1978. Juglone mhibits certam moisture pme growth under conditions. Soil Science Conclusion Despite the positive results of many laboratory investigations, we do not yet have enough information to state unequivocally that Ailanthus altissima is allelopathic: too little is known of the complex interactions and potentially mitigating circumstances that occur in the natural environment. However, from an evolutionary standpoint it makes little sense that A. altissima would expend the energy to produce a compound unless it somehow conferred a selective advantage. It is certain that ailanthone has powerful herbicidal effects and may have evolved to inhibit competing plants, but it may also have other functions. Anecdotal evidence suggests that it is toxic to some fungi and may therefore function to protect A. altissima against fungal pathogens. It might also act as a feedmg deterrent to herbivores because of its extremely bitter taste, a possibility suggested by the fact that few animals feed on A. altissima plants. Clearly, there is much we have yet to learn about ailanthone and the secret role it plays m the life of A. altissima. Endnotes 1 2 3 4 Society of Amenca Journal 42: 801-803. Harper, J. L. 1977. Population Biology of Plants NY: Academic Press, 369-381. Heisey, R. M. 1990a. Allelopathic and herbicidal effects of extracts from tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) Amencan Journal of Botany 77: 662-670 1990b. Evidence for allelopathy by tree-of-heaven (Ailanthus altissima) Journal of Chemical Ecology 16: 2039-2055. . 1996. Identification of an allelopathic compound from Ailanthus altissima (Simaroubaceae) and characterization of its herbicidal activity. . Journal of Botany 83: 192-200. Hoffmann,J J., Jolad, L. K Hutter, and S. P. McLaughhn. 1992. Glaucarubolone glucoside, a potent fungicidal agent for the control of grape downy mildew Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 40' 1056-1057. ~Hu, S. Y. 1979. Allanthus. Arnoldia 39: 25-50. Ilhck, J. S , and E F. Brouse. 1926 The Ailanthus Tree m Pennsylvama. Bulletm 38. Harmsburg, PA. Pennsylvania Department of Forests and Amemcan S. D. Waters. Klocke, J. A, Illick and Brouse 1926, Hu 1979, Illick and Brouse 1926. Swam Rice Pelgler 1993. M. Amsawa, S. S. Handa, A. D Kmghorn, G. A. Cordell, and N. R. Farnsworth. 1985. Growth mhibitory, msecticidal, and antifeedant effects of some antileukemic and cytotoxic quassmoids on two species of agricultural pests. Expementia 41: 379-382. Massey, A. B. 1925. Antagomsm of the walnuts (Juglans mgra L. and J. cmerea L.) m certain plant associations. 1977, Bell 1981. 1984, Putnam and Tang 1986. 1977 Mergen, F. 1959. A C. toxic Phytopathology 15: 773-784. principle m the leaves of 5 Harper 6 7 Muller and Muller 1964, Muller and del Moral 1966, Massey 1925, Fisher 1978. Muller, Klocke et al. 1985, Polonsky et al. 1989; Hoffmann et al. 1992; Trager and Polonsky 1981, Pierre et al. 1980, Ogura et al 1977. Ailanthus Botamcal Gazette 121: 32-36. H, and R. del Moral. 1966. Soil toxicity induced by terpenes from Salma leucophylla Bulletm of the Torrey Botanical Club 93: 130137 Muller, W. 8 9 Yang and Tang Heisey 1996. Heisey 1990a. Heisey 1990b. Schmidt 1988. 1988. H., and C H. Muller 1964. Volatile growth inhibitors produced by Salma species. Bulletm of the Torrey Botanical Club 91: 327-330. Ogura, M., G. 10 11 12 i3 A. Cordell, A. D. Kinghorn, and N R. Farnsworth. 1977. Potential anticancer agents. VI. Constituents of Ailanthus excelsa (Simaroubaceae). Lloydia 40: 579-584. Peigler, R. 1993. A defense of ailanthus. American Heisey 1996. Horticultumst 72\/2\/: 38-43. 36 Pierre, A., M. Robert-Gero, C. Tempete, and J. Polonsky 1980. Structural requirements of quassinolds for the inhibition of cell transformation Biochemical and Biophysical Research Commumcations 93: 675-686. Plasmodmm falciparum m vitro. Amencan Journal of Tropical Medicme and Hygiene 30. 531-537. Voigt, G. K., and F. Mergen. 1962 Seasonal variation in toxicity of ailanthus leaves to pme seedlings Botanical Gazette 123: 262-265. Polonsky, J., S. C. Bhatnagar, D. C Griffiths, J. A. Pickett, and C. M. Woodcock. 1989. Activity of quassinolds as antifeedants against aphids Journal of Chemical Ecology 15: 993-998 Putnam, A.R., and C. S. Tang, eds. 1986. The Science of Allelopathy. NY: Wiley Rice, E. L. 1984. Allelopathy NY: Academic Press. Schmidt, S. K. 1988. Degradation of ~uglone by soil bacteria. Journal of Chemical Ecology 14: 1561-1571 Yang, R. Z., and control C. S. m Tang. 1988 Plants used for pest Chma: hterature review. Economic Botany 42: 376-406. Secondary compounds as protective agents. Annual Remew of Plant Physiology 28: 479-501. Trager, W., and J. Polonsky. 1981. Antimalarial activity of quassinolds against chloroquine-resistant Swain, T. 1977. Rod Heisey, professor of biology at Penn State Umversity, grew up on a farm in Lancaster County, Pennsylvania. While a graduate student at the University of California, Davis, and a postdoctoral researcher at the Pesticide Research Center of Michigan State University, he became mterested in allelopathy and the use of natural products for controlling agricultural pests. His research focuses on plant ecology and microbial ecology, with emphasis on allelopathy and natural- product pesticides. U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1. Publication Title' Amoldia 2. Publication No' 0004-2633. 3. Filing Date: 2 October 1997. 4 Issue Frequency Quarterly. 5. No of Issues Published Annually: 4. 6. Annual Subscription Price: $20.00 domestic, $25.00 foreign. 7. Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication. Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 8. Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 9. Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 021303500, editor. 10. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3500. 11. Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Secunty Holders Owning or Holdmg 1 Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities. none. 12. The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 13. Publication Name: Arnoldia 14. Issue Date for Circulation Data Below Summer 1997. 15. Extent and Nature of Circulation. a. Total No. Copies. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 4,250. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: 4,400. b. Paid and\/or Requested Circulation\/ 1 ~ Sales 2 Through Dealers and Carriers, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 20. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 30. (2\/ Paid and\/or RequestedMail Subscnptions. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 3,266. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,405. c. Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months~ 3,286 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: 3,405. d. Free Distribution by Mail. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 291 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Frhng Date: 291 e Free Distribution Outside the Mail: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 190. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 190. f. Total Free Distribution: Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months. 481 Actual No Copies of Single Is2 sue Published Nearest to Filing Date. 466. g. Total Distribution Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 3,767. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 3,871 h. Copies Not Distributed. (1) Office Use, Leftovers, Spoiled. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months: 483. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date' 529. (2) Return from news agents. Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: none. Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date: none. i Total Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months~ 4,250 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date: 4,400. Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation. Average No. Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months: 87%. Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Frhng Date: 88 %. I certify that all information furmshed on this form is true and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25189","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260bb28.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum F All. a - N E W S - 1 9 9 7 Preservation in Dynamic Landscape Robert E. Cook, Director The Arnold Arboretum was the first part of Boston's Emerald Necklace, the system of parks designed by Frederick Law Olmsted, father of American landscape architecture. It is, therefore, a landscape of considerable historical importance. Together with his student Charles Ehot, Olmsted worked with Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director, to develop a precise planting scheme that served the educational purpose of instructing visitors about the evolutionary history of woody plants. Today, through our commitment to preserve Olmsted's legacy, there is a temptation to adhere stnctly to the final planting design created in his office. Yet I believe that Olmsted would have found this foolish, given the scientific mission of the Arboretum. A scientifically useful collection, especially one growing outdoors in the climate of Boston, must be dynamic and continually changing with the death of old or sick trees and the planting of new ones. The dynamic nature of the collection has never been more evident than in the past year. Twenty-five inches of wet snow in Apnl damaged more than a thousand trees; hundreds will have to be removed. The past summer was one of the driest on record, and we will lose many specimens over the next several years due to this drought. At the same time, two separate expeditions to China this summer secured large collections of living plant cuttings and seeds, many new to the Arboretum and to this country. Stephen Spongberg traveled to the higher elevations of western Sichuan while Peter Del Tredici collected plants m Jilm Province, along the border with Korea in northwestern China. They returned with many rare and interesting species such as Chosenta arbutzfolza, Acerp.reudo.rzeboldianum (the Korean maple), Thu~a korazenrzr (the Korean arbormtae), Carpznua fangzz, and Pterostyrax p.rzlopbylla. Over the next decade, these collections will be integrated into the landscape of the Arboretum in ways consis- Chosenia tent arbutifolia in the wild, Chang Baishan, China. with our original mission to grow all the plants hardy in the Boston area. I believe that the dynamic process of collections management-the acquiring of documented material, its propagation and establishment, its care for a century or more if necessary, and its removal after death-this process should be the true object of our preservation efforts, not the precise design Olmsted created to guide the process. In this way, we acknowledge that the Arboretum is a working landscape designed to serve both a research and an educational mission. Olmsted would surely have understood the need for this dynamic management. In adhering to this process for over a century, we fully honor and preserve the legacy of his accomplishment at the Arboretum. Arboretum Council This fall, the Arnold Arboretum initiated a new volunteer organization known as the Arboretum Council. Conceived by the Director's Advisory Board, this group is intended to create a closer link between the Arboretum and its most dedicated supporters. It reflects the desire to benefit from the involvement and expertise of individuals who believe in the Arboretum's work and who are willing to promote the programs and initiatives of the institution among a broader constituency than we now reach. Semi-annual gatherings of the Council will give participants the opportunity to hear, first hand, the plans, achievements, and challenges of the Arboretum, to advise the director in specialized areas of expertise, and most of all, to serve as advocates for the Arboretum within the various communities we serve. As the organization develops, the Board anticipates the beginning of a lively dialogue among a group of friends who share a special interest in the programs, research, and mission of the Arboretum. Peg Hedstrom will be the staff member coordinating the events and ongoing activities of the Council. A Brisk and On Sunny Plant Sale for sale, crowds began gathering at the barn before 8:00 am for the Preview, open only to members at the Sustaining Level and above. According to greenhouse manager and propagator Tom Ward, seven thousand plants were sold in the barn alone. In the display gardens, Richard Stomberg, Arboretum member and glasshouse manager at Harvard's Department of Organismic and Sunday, September 21, more than a thousand Arboretum members and friends gathered at the Case Estates in Weston for a full morning of activities at the 17th Annual Fall Plant Sale. Drawn by sunny, early autumn weather and an exceptional array of plants Evolutionary Biology, taught two well-attended education sessions on dividing perennials and planting new plants. As in years past, more than a dozen plant societies and horticultural organizations participated in Society Row. Up on plants wide selection of donated available for sale in the live and silent auctions and the straight sales area, with all proceeds supporting the living collections at the Arboretum. the hill, a was auctioneers Roger Swain (seen here), Susan Dumaine, and Patrick Conley joined Arboretum staffers and bidders under the live auction tent. Combined sales from the two auctions Special guest totaled $8,500, a significant increase over last year, with straight sales receipts pushing the grand total on the hill to $17,000. Donations of plants and other garden-related items were received from more than one-hundred nurseries and individuals this year, from Boston to California and the Pacific Northwest. We would like to thank the donors, members, volunteers, and friends who support the Arnold Arboretum by supporting the Annual Fall Plant Sale. If you are interested in plant sale, call Kara volunteering for next year's Stepanian at 617\/524-1718 x 129. On the Grounds This Business Called A Landscape Symposium Co-Sponsored by Radcliffe Seminars and the Arnold Arboretum The expertise of designers, contractors, arborists, and horticulturists lies in their landscape work and not necessarily in business. However, success is measured not only by the service provided but also by how it is administered. In panel discussions and workshops, this symposium will bring together business and landscape professionals to discuss project management, decisionmaking, service coordination, and information technology-all areas that can make the difference between loss and profit, keep you on top of your business, and allow you to better serve your clients. Julie Coop has been promoted to Superintendent of Grounds. She has been with the Arboretum since 1988, initially in charge of maintenance at the Case Estates, and for the past six years as Assistant Superintendent in Jamaica Plain. Topics for morning panel discussions Decision-making to save your samty Locating your practice in the market spectrum Negotiation and conflict resolution Afternoon workshops Accounting for your design: Running projects for Computers Insurance, in profitability the office: Controllmg work flow Know taxes, certification, and the law: your options Date: Fee: Todd Burns has joined the grounds staff as arborist. A 1991 horticultural trainee at the Case Estates and a 1992 arborist intern in Jamaica Plain, Todd attended the Stockbridge School of Agriculture, University of Massachusetts, and has worked for commercial tree companies. Friday, January 9, 1998. 8:30 am-3:30 pm . , $80 (includes lunch) Location: Cronkhite Graduate Center, Radcliffe College, 6 Ash Street, Cambridge Advance regzstratzon requzred; deadlzne z.r January 2. Fee nonrefundable after the deadlzne; $10 cancellatzon fee przor to deadlzne. Register through the Arnold Arboretum at 617\/524-1718 x 162. , Seldom Seen Treasures During the Open House held on October 17 in celebration of the Arboretum's 125th anniversary, Charles Sprague Sargent's Civil War uniform stood front and center at the the reading room while staff and visitors examined a selection of other treasures from the Arboretum's archives. entrance to New Staff land use issues. From 1984 to 1991 Alice edited Forest and Conservation Hzrtory, the quarterly journal of the Forest tioners on current History Society (since merged into a new journal, Environmental History). Alice has a Ph.D. in cultural anthropology from Johns Hopkins University. She will be working with Institute Director Phyllis Andersen to gather and Alice Associate Director of Annual Funds at Boston University, and Director of Reunion Giving, also at Boston University. Peg's responsibihties include managing the membership program and the annual appeal, launching the new Arboretum Council (see related story), and working to increase support for the Campaign for the Arnold Arboretum. lege, Ingerson has joined the Arbo- retum staff as Associate Director of the newly formed Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies. Alice comes to the Arboretum from the Lincoln Institute of Land Policy, where she led the publications staff in creating a distinctive series distnbute information about managing and interpreting cultural landscapes, using the Internet as well as traditional conferences and publications. Peg Hedstrom brings over ten years to of development experience of reports, written by professional ~ournalists views but representing the of both scholars and practi- her new position as Membership Director and Development Officer. She served as Director of the Annual Fund at Bentley Col- Consider a Gift of Appreciated Securities When you give appreciated securities to the Arboretum, you receive a double tax benefit: avoidance of all capital gains taxes and a charitable deduction for the full fair-market value of the stock given. Alternatively, with a gift of appreciated securities to a life income plan, you can: Invest in the growth and future of the Arboretum Receive an income stream for life Realize an immediate federal income tax deduction Avoid capital gains tax Save on gift or estate taxes Provide income to a family member or friend Benefit from Harvard's professional investment management no cost to B~ ~ ~j~ ~ _~~~~~~ x~~~S~ at ~~~t~ Letters of Participation The Arboretum began offering Letters of Participation in Temperate Woody Plant Materials and in Woody Plant Propagation in September 1993. This fall the Arboretum added a Letter of Participation in Historic Landscape Preservation. For more details, contact the Adult Education 8 Department at 617\/524-1718 x 162 or consult the current catalogue of adult education programs. Since 1993, Letters of Participation have gone to: you happy to help you explore the many mutually beneficial make a meaningful gift to the Arnold Arboretum. To learn more about these creative opportunities, please contact: Anne D. McClmtock, Director, or Brandi M. Sikorski, A.croaate Director University Planned Giving Office, Harvard University We are ways to Temperate Woody Plant Materials Margaret Amdur, Maureen Doherty Woody Plant Propagation Pat Beirne, David Brockway, Liz Brown, Maureen Doherty, 124 Mt. Auburn Street, Cambridge, MA 02138-5762 1 800\/446-1277 or 617\/495-4647, fax 617\/495-0521 e-mail bsikorsk@harvard.edu George Hibben, Faye Lieb, Anne Senmng "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23528","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0708528.jpg","title":"1997-57-3","volume":57,"issue_number":3,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Private Allee to Public Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25182","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260a76b.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Lawrence, Henry W.","article_content":"From Private Allee to Public Shade Tree: Historic Roots of the Urban Forest Henry W Lawrence Since the middle of the nineteenth century the urban landscapes of Europe and America have been notable for their extensive plantings of trees. Along boulevards and in the large parks and small squares of most cities, trees shape and ornament the landscape in ways that are familiar everywhere. Before the 1850s the use of trees in public areas was less common, and planting patterns differed distinctly from one country to another. These patterns originated in the late sixteenth century, when plantings first began to shape the pub ~ Q lic landscapes of Western cities. Before that time, during antiquity and the Middle Ages, city trees were found mostly in private gardens and only rarely in streets or other public spaces. Most of the early plantings in the public landscape were patterned after those of private gardens, but as the use of trees increased, new landscape forms were developed for new settings and new purposes; these new forms even added new words to the vocabulary of urban geography.' The distinctive patterns by which trees were introduced into the public urban landscape reflected national differences in urban life and in the way cities expanded from their medieval conformations. As urban cultures converged, planting forms that were ornamenta~ A watercolor showing the avenue of Lombardy poplars planted under the dmection of Thomas Jefferson along Pennsylvama Avenue, leadmg to the U.S. Capitol. Signed by G. Burton, 1824. 4 were developed first in one country for one purpose adopted later in other countries, often for At the end of the sixteenth century allees different purposes. The major cultural centers that fostered new types of urban plantings were found in France, the Low Countries (especially the Netherlands), Great Britain, and the British colonies that later became the United States. Italy and Germany, and to a lesser extent Spam, played vital roles in this process but were much less important as centers of innovation. began to appear in recreational areas, where they were used for bowling, for archery, and most importantly, for a new game very popular with the upper classes in the first half of the seventeenth century, similar to croquet and called in Italian pallo a maglio, in French palmail, and in English pall mall. Special areas of lawn lined with trees were laid out for the game, first in Paris in the 1590s and later in Berlin (Unter den Linden) and London (Pall Mall) by the 1650s3 In 1616 another innovation appeared in Paris: an allee of much larger proportions, planted specifically for recreational carriage ridmg. Called La Cours de la Reine, it was built on the orders of Marie de' Medici, the new Queen of France, who had learned the pleasures of carriage riding in Florence. The Cours was laid out alongside the Seine, just beyond the walls of the newly enlarged Tuilenes garden, and was itself walled off to public access.4 The form of the cours was imitated in most major French cities by the middle 1600s and in London, Berlin, Madrid, and Rome by the end of the century. Later in the seventeenth century another form of allee emerged in France, most prominently in Paris: the exterior avenue, a tree-lined road leading from a main city gate. The most important was the Avenue des Tuileries (now The First Innovations: Urban Allees The earliest public plantings in cities adapted the form of the garden allee to new purposes. Since the Renaissance, rows of trees had been used to help structure the spatial composition of large private gardens, first in Italy and then more widely in France. In the late sixteenth century, ancient city walls were converted into massive earthworks to withstand the new weapons and siege tactics of the age, and these newly enlarged structures were planted with allees of trees. The first were apparently in Antwerp, in the Spanish Netherlands (in what is now Belgium), and in Lucca, Italy, both planted in the 1570s. They were meant primarily to provide shady promenades for city residents, although they may also have been intended to camouflage the city walls when seen from a distance.2 Champs Elysees) to the west of the Tuileries garden, just north of the Cours de la Reine. The avenue combined the form of the garden allee with that of the tree-lined rural road, which goes back farther m the Avenue des history. A section of De Wit's 1695 city walls and two plan of Cologne shows rows of trees planted medieval church squares also planted with trees. on the Around the same time a fourth variant of the allee was constructed, again in Paris, in the form of the circumferential tree-lined boulevard, no longer atop rebuilt defensive walls but on the remnants of ramparts Louis XIV had decommissioned beginning in 1670. By the 5 end of the century the whole of the ramparts on the north side of Paris were transformed into a continuous promenade with double lines of elms on either side. Here at the boundary between city and countryside, the allee provided a delightful elevated pleasure ground, popular for promenades on summer evenings. In the eighteenth century it attracted a number of expensive shops, restaurants, theatres, and other amusements, thereby becoming more like a tree-lined street than originally intended.S All these variants of the allee were first introduced into the urban landscape at its edges: alongside, just beyond, or atop city walls. Most were originally intended as places for recreation, separate from the city itself. It was only when the cities later expanded that the allees were surrounded by buildings and made part of the street system, as in the case of Unter den Linden, which as a result of Berlin's growth changed from an exterior mall into a tree-lined street in the heart of a newly built-up area. western outskirts of Pams mclude the Cours de la Reine alongside the Seine and the Avenue des Tmlenes runmng through the Champs Elysees. Plan of Pans by John Roque m 1754 The The Use of Trees in New Urban Areas As towns and cities grew in population in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries they were at first prevented from The first section of the tree-lined promenade planted atop the former walls of expanding outside their newly Pams m the 1670s is shown as it was m 1739 m Turgot's engravmg. The large enlarged walls by the enormous bastion was known as the Grand Boulevart and gave its name to the expense required to rebuild promenade and to posterity. these massive fortifications. on different characteristics in different counWhen population pressures finally forced a move beyond the walls, the expansions were tries, resulting in widely different patterns of tree plantings. The cases of Holland and carefully thought out and followed long range Great Britain provide good illustrations of these plans that sometimes included open spaces differences.~ with trees. This early form of city planning took 6 Urban Expansion in Holland: Tree-lined Canals and Streets The earliest and most widespread planting of trees in the newly enlarged cities occurred in the Netherlands. It appears that trees were first planted along exterior canals (much as they were elsewhere on city walls) that later were surrounded by new construction. But in the early years of the seventeenth century, as several Dutch cities expanded rapidly to accommodate a sharp rise in population, entirely new areas were laid out around new canals lined with trees. The rows of trees thus became widespread throughout the urban fabric, in residential and commercial areas as well at the periphery of the city. The expansion of Amsterdam after 1615 was the largest and best known, but many other towns and cities also included tree-lined canals in their new districts. In some Dutch towns old canals were filled in to form streets and in a few towns these streets were planted with rows of trees. These new urban landscapes were unprecedented and astounded people from other parts of Europe. Even French visitors, familiar with a wider use of urban greenery than other Europeans, were amazed at the extensive tree plantings in the interior of Dutch cities. One visitor in the 1660s facetiously reported that he could not tell whether he was seeing a town in a forest or a forest in a town.' Urban An Expansion in was Great Britain One of the earhest tree-lined canals of the Netherlands was the Oude Delft, seen m this early twentieth-century postcard mew of Delft. different landused as urban areas expanded in Britain from the late seventeenth century into the middle of the nineteenth century-the residential square. Unlike most public squares on the continent, British squares were used as centerpieces for new development projects comprised of several blocks of new housing around an open space that was usually railed in, with a garden at the center. The earliest squares altogether scape form were paved or simply planted An old postcard view of Leicester Square m first laid out around1720. London. The gardens were with grass, but in later years they included trees and shrubs. By the end of the eighteenth century most of the residential squares had been turned into leafy parks, some with a great variety and density of plantings. London, Bath, and Edinburgh made extensive use e 7 of green squares and the variant forms of circuses and crescents. These parks were for the exclusive use of the surroundmg tenants, however, and were not open to the general public. Some are still private today, but others rank among the most important public green spaces in what is now central London: Grosvenor Square, Berkeley Square, Russell Square, Leicester Square.$ Early Tree Choices in Europe Evidence regarding the tree species used in these early forms of urban planting is scanty at best, but they are known to be limited in number. Elms (Ulmus) seem to have been preferred above others and were used on the boulevards and the Cours de la Reine m Paris and for the avenues at Versailles, as well as on the Mall in London. The Avenue des Tuileries, however, was first planted in the 1670s with horse chestnuts (Aesculus hippocastanum) and sycamore maples (Acer pseudoplatanus). Lindens (TihaJ were used on the canals in Amsterdam in 1615 and along Unter den Linden in Berlin in the 1640s and were intermixed with elms on the Avenue des Tuileries in Paris when it was replanted in the 1760s. The London plane tree (Platanus x acerifolia) did not appear until the end of the seventeenth century. Berkeley Square is reputed to have the oldest surviving plane trees in London, planted in the 1760s. All these species are tolerant of compacted, somewhat poorly drained soils, and are easy to transplant-vital attributes for urban trees then as well as now. American Innovations and Imitations An entirely different opportunity arose in the American colonies where plans for many new towns were towns. The first was building density, which varied widely from town to town but was usually much lower than that of towns in Europe. After receiving a map of New Amsterdam m 1660, the directors of the Dutch West India Company in Amsterdam complained to Peter Stuyvesant that the houses were surrounded by \"excessively large lots and gardens.\"'o The second characteristic that distinguished most colonial towns from their European counterparts was the practice of leaving street tree planting to private citizens, rather than making it the responsibility of the government. This resulted in a heterogeneity unknown in Europe. In 1748 trees that lined many of New York City's streets attracted the attention of Peter Kalm, the Swedish botanist. He noted the presence of plane trees (Platanus occidentalis), black locusts (Robinia pseudoacacia), lindens, and elms. Albany in the 1760s was described by another observer: \"The town ... was a kind of semi-rural establishment; every house had its garden, well, and a little green behind; before every door a tree was planted, rendered interesting by being coeval with some beloved member of the family; many of their trees were of a prodigious size and extraordinary beauty, but without regularity, every one planting the kind that best pleased him.\"1'l Large City Parks and Gardens After allees, the most important landscape forms for bringmg trees into cities were the large city park and the large public garden. Most public gardens began as royal gardens, of which large sections were usually open to the public and which devolved into state ownership with the demise of monarchies. The gardens of the Tuileries and of Luxembourg in Paris and the Tiergarten in Berlin are the best-known examples, but there were dozens more across Europe. On the continent these semi-public open spaces usually included carefully tended beds of flowers and shrubs between allees of trees lining crushed gravel paths, all laid out in regular geometric arrangements characteristic of formal gardening. Outside some cities were large hunting parks, usually forested, and less frequently open to the public. Near London, however, were several royal hunting parks that informed by a strong desire to experiment with idealized urban forms, including new kinds of public spaces that were often planted with trees. New Haven with its nine equal squares, the middle one left open as a kind of public park; Philadelphia with its original plan for five public squares; and Savannah with its repeating pattern of squares and parks were among the most innovative.9 More significant for the later urban landscapes in America, two development of however, were colonial distinctive features common to 8 of ways in the urban public landscapes of western Europe and America. Regional differences were way to beginning to give cosmopolitan landscape forms. Especially more portion of John Roque's of Green Park and St. James's Park in Westminster m1746 are seen m a map of London The ongmal Pall Mall had been replaced by a street, but a newmall ran alongside St James's Palace, at center, to Buckingham House (later Buckingham Palace), at lower left Part in much of Europe forms derived from innovative uses of the allee in France. These forms were variously called malls, promenades, or boulevards. Allees laid out originally for playing pall mall might be converted to carriage promenades, then to pedestrian promenades, and finally to arterial streets when the area succumbed to urban prominent were expansion. As cities grew larger, parks and gardens also began to play a admitted certain classes of the public for recreation as early as the seventeenth century. The first of these was St. James's Park, followed by Green Park and Hyde Park, all to the west of London in Westminster.'2 In America there was no comparable public use of private gardens and parks, although some wealthy residents occasionally opened their gardens to visitors. More important for the eventual development of parks were the large areas of publicly owned land adjacent to some towns and reserved for future expansion. In the early years much of this land was used for recreational purposes, as well as for grazing livestock or drilling militias, and portions were kept for public parks when the majority was sold to developers to accomodate urban growth. The Boston Common, the earliest example, and New York's City Hall Park originated this way. Other large parks were created in the nineteenth century on land purchased for that purpose by city authorities, such as Philadelphia's Fairmount Park and New York's Central Park. more important public role, as places for recreation and as open space inside a densely built urban landscape that was beginning to lose touch with its rural surroundings. On the continent most of the large parks and gardens owned by royalty had been opened up to the entire public, but as late as the 1830s access to most of the royal parks to the west of London was still limited by gatekeepers to well-dressed people, thus excluding the lower classes. The need for public space in the city became a contentious issue m Parliament, forcing grudging action upon the reluctant crown, city, and local meant boroughs. full public access was Victoria Park, of the city, opened in 1846. new The first London park for to the east Eighteenth- and Early Nineteenth-Century Elaborations By the middle of the eighteenth century trees were being planted in an ever increasing number Late Provincial towns and cities in Britam, on the other hand, had been laying out public parks since 1830. One of the most influential of these, laid out in the 1840s in the community of Birkenhead, near Liverpool, was dubbed \"the people's park.\" It was visited by Frederick Law Olmsted in 1850, and its accessibility and rural atmosphere served as models for Olmsted a few years later when he and British-born architect Calvert Vaux designed New York City's Central Park.'3 To a certain extent, the design of these new British parks reflected the changing tastes of the ~ 9 as the geometrically arranged allees and avenues of the early eighteenth century gave way to irregular clumps times, of trees scattered across open fields by the end of the century, with beds of shrubbery and perennials added during the nineteenth. But even earlier, British parks had had a predominantly rural atmosphere, unlike the more formal public gardens on the contment, creating a contrast with the urban environment that became even more striking in later years when the parks' relative loca- New York City's tions changed from peripheral to central as they were surrounded by urban developments. A much larger number of tree species was used in the parks than was the case along streets or in residential squares, including many of the \"forest trees\" deemed unsuitable for other urban uses, such as oaks (Quercus) and beeches (Fagus) and the occasional conifer, as well as a wide variety of smaller trees and shrubs. In the independent United States of the 1780s, along with an increase in the number of street tree plantings in many towns, there was some movement toward establishing city parks and gardens. Around this time, the municipal government of New York City established the Battery, City Hall Park, and the cemetery in Greenwich Village that later became Washington Square. The 1790s saw a continued increase m planting, especially of the newly arrived Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra 'Italica'), which Thomas Jefferson had first encountered in France in the 1780s and ordered installed along Umon Square, about 1840. lic park with shady walks, a seaside promenade, and perhaps a pleasure garden named after London's Vauxhall, Ranelagh, or Spring Garden. New York had the most complete ensemble, with its Bowling Green, Battery, City Hall Park; tree-lined streets (by the 1830s most major streets had rows of trees on both sides); several private pleasure gardens; and even a Britishstyle residential square, Hudson Square, laid out in the first decade of the nineteenth century, with others like Gramercy Park and Washmgton Square following in the 1830s and 1840s. In Boston, the Common had had a mall since the 1720s; in the 1790s Charles Bulfinch created the British-style Tontine Crescent, modeled on the crescents of Bath and London, where he had studied architecture; and Britain's residential squares were imitated in Pemberton and Lomsburg Squares, the latter still gracing Beacon Hill though closed to the public. And m the late 1830s the Public Garden had been added to the Common. 14 Internationalization of the Western Urban Landscape in the Late Nineteenth Century By the 1840s most cities in western Europe and America had begun to use a range of landscape forms that incorporated trees in the urban landscape and were accessible to the entire public. National differences still remained: residential squares were found in both Britain and America, but Americans planted trees along many inner Pennsylvania when he were was Avenue in Washington, D. C., President. Although Lombardies intensely disliked by some, they were planted m many cities to commemorate George Washington after his death in 1799, and most of the streets in New York and Philadelphia had at least a few of them by 1800. By this time Americans had their share of all the forms of urban greenery used in Europe. Most towns had at least a bowling green, a pub- 10 2 city streets, unlike the British. Formal gardens and tree-lined boulevards were most common in France. The tree-lined canals in Holland were still umque. Germany presented a more complicated picture with many different forms being used, some similar to French models, others more like the British. But almost everywhere the most common forms were shared: tree-lined promenades, large public parks and gardens, and small plazas and squares. The language of urban design had become as internationalized as the languages of architecture or painting. Each new urban expansion or redevelopment used more cosmopolitan forms than had the preceding ones, and by the 1850s there were fewer and fewer differences among the new sections of most cities, be they in France, Germany, or the United States. The renovations of Paris in the 1850s and 1860s under Baron Eugene Haussmann brought all these forms together in one urban setting and created a model that exerted a powerful influence on urban designers throughout the world in the next half century. Haussmann's methods of renovation were incorporated into the Beaux Arts style of architectural and urban design that was used throughout the Western cultural realm, including foreign colonies of Europe and America. The style influenced cities as varied and far-flung as Chicago, Manila, Rome, Buenos Aires, Saigon, and New Delhi. It brought together combinations of allees, boulevards, parks, gardens, and squares in ways that differed widely but were recognizable to everyone as variations on a single theme: the use of trees and green spaces in public landscapes to frame and integrate new kinds of urban architecture and provide a new urban way of life. Endnotes 1 4 Pierre Lavedan, Histoire de 1'Urbamsmea (Pams: Hachette, 1975), 299 Mercier, Tableau de Pans 5 Loms-Sebastien Pams (Amsterdam: 1782-1788). \/. ~ Spiro Kostof, The City Shaped~ Urban Patterns and Meamngs Through History (Boston: Little, Brown & Co, 1991 \/, 230-271. La Hollande et les Hollandals au XVlle XVllle Siecles Vus par les Fran~ais ~Pams: Librairie Ancienne Honore Champion, 1925), 37. See also Gerald L. Burke, The Making of Dutch Towns A Study m Urban Development from the Tenth to the Seventeenth Centunes (New York: In R. ~ Murms, et au Simmons-Boardman, 1960). 8 W. Lawrence, The Greemng of the Squares of London: Transformation of Urban Landscapes and Ideals, Annals of the Association of Amencan Henry Geographers (1993) 9 83' 90-118. John W. Reps, Town Planning in Frontler America (Pnnceton, NJ~ Pnnceton University Press, 1969). 1. N. 1o Phelps Stokes, 1498-1909 Island, IV. 208 The Iconography of Manhattan (New York: Robert H. Dodd, 1915\/( '1 pn New York City: Peter Kalm, Travels in North America, the English version of 1770, reprint of the 1937 edition edited by Adolph B. Benson (New York: Dover Publications, 1964), 131. On Albany. Ann Grant, Memoirs of an American Lady, with sketches of manners and scenes in America as they existed previous to the Revolution (New York: Dodd, Mead & Co., 1901), 76 iz Susan Lasdun, The English Park Royal, Pnvate ~ Public 13 (London: Andre Deutsch, Ltd., 1991). (. George Chadwick, The Park and the Town Public Landscapes in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centumes (New York: Praeger, 1966), 70-72. Lawrence W. Kennedy, Planmng the City upon a Hill (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 14 W. Lawrence, The Neoclassical Origins of Modern Urban Forests, Forest cfJ Conservation History \/1993~ 37: 26-36. Henry 1992), 25-29. 2 Mark Girouard, Cities and People A Social and Architectural History (New Haven: Yale Umversity Henry Lawrence is Associate Professor of Geosciences at Edinboro University of Pennsylvama m Edmboro, PA He has Press, 1985), 3 143-144. Henry W. Lawrence, Origins of the Tree-Lmed Boul78: 355-374. evard, The Geographical Remew\/1988~ degrees m history, landscape architecture, and geography. His research interests are centered on cultural landscape history and environmental alteration m metropolitan areas. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Trees in the Frame: A Photographic Interpretation","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25185","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260af6d.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Ward, Alan L.","article_content":"Trees in the Frame Alan L. Ward As are a designer as well as a photographer of landscapes I am haunted by images of trees. Trees frequently the skeleton of a landscape composition, giving structure and order. In detrees are used to create spaces in the same way that walls are used to create rooms in architectural plan. Many of the photographs m my book, American Designed Landscapes : A Photographic Interpretation, are of mews that are framed, filtered, or focused by trees. Just as trees direct the eye and frame views in the experience of these places, they serve to reinforce the structure of these photographic compositions. sign, an At Middleton Place, a single monumental live oak (Quercus virginiana) arches over the water's edge. This ancient tree, probably predatmg the settlement at Middleton, evokes rich associations of life and longevity. The photograph frames the marked horizontality of the tree, with its twisting limbs seemmg to defy gravity in their reach over the water. The panoramic camera emphasizes its horizontality, and the asymmetric composition suggests the weight of the outward-spreading branches. 12 An ordered repetition of trees may direct a view or define a path. At Dumbarton Oaks, the north vista is defined by a mixture of hardwoods and conifers that extend from the center of the house and converge over a series of lawn terraces, enhancing the sense of distance as the viewer's eye moves outward. These borders are rendered as a unified mass of vegetation, framing the vista. Only the picturesque form of a deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara) stands out against the sky. 13 The repetition of trees along the street edge is characteristic of American urban spaces, an arboreal equivalent of arcade columns along city streets in Italy and Switzerland. Matched, tightly spaced plane trees (Platanus x acerifolia) flank the entrance roads at Solana, an office park on the Texas prairie. The low, early evening sun dramatizes the repeated tree trunks, which diminish in size as the eye moves toward the entrance of the building. 14 In the orchards of both the Miller Garden in Columbus, Indiana, and Naumkeag in Stockbridge, Massachusetts, the geometry of planting creates views along linear arrangements of redbud (Cercls canadensis) and apple trees (Malus). In the Miller Garden the midday light flattens the lines of redbud trees to a graphic blackness. Soft light reveals the texture of apple trees at Naumkeag. 15 5 designs that imitate natural settings, such as groves or forests in parks and gardens. Naumkeag, a birch grove is the setting for whimsical blue steps that descend through densely planted birches (Betula papyrifera) on a hillside. Bloedel Reserve (overleaf) is a series of gardens created on reclaimed timberlands on Bainbndge Island, Washington. The moss garden under a canopy of firs (Abies) and hemlocks (TsugaJ feels like an ancient place, exhibiting the ongoing processes of nature in the forest. There are also At 16 A photograph is a frame of the world, defined by vertical and horizontal edges. Trees likewise frame views, with their vertical tree trunks and leaves overhead. Photography is also about light. The light-modifying qualities of trees are subtly revealed in black-and-white film. Trees may appear in silhouette as lines and pattern, or with delicate and understated shades of vegetation. As trees define the vegetative edge of spaces, the individual trees recede and become subtle shades diminishing in the distance. These photographs by Alan Ward are from his book, He Amencan Interpretation, which mll be pubhshed this fall. Associates in Watertown, Massachusetts. is a Designed Landscapes A Photographic landscape architect and urban designer at Sasaki "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Amazing Grace: The Cutleaf Maples","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25180","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260a36d.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Amazing Grace: The Cutleaf Maples Rob Nicholson Ask average gardeners to draw a maple leaf, and they will probably try to render a palmately veined, coarsely toothed, simple leaf similar to the symbol adorning the Canadian flag. This only shows the limited conception most people have of a genus whose members grow from Mexico to Manitoba and from Malaysia to Siberia. of the two genera of the (Dipteronia of China is the other) and number about 150 different species worldwide. As only a dozen of these species are native to North America, it is little wonder that our perceptions of what a maple can be are so limited. Asia, and m particular China, is where maple species are found in abundance; China lists 85 while Japan has 22 and Korea 9. It is toward the species of these countries that my list of favor- Maples are one regarded landscape trees. Having propagated Aceraceae hundreds of these maples and recently returned from seeing two of them in their native forests, I hope to raise the reader's appreciation for these wonderfully useful and sublime plants. Acer maximowiczianum Japan and central China are home to a species of trifoliate known as the Nikko maple. named for the Japanese temple city of Originally Nikko, the tree was once known as Acer maple ite maples is most heavily weighed. (Where would horticulture be without top ten lists?) My preference is away from the broad, palmately leafed tribe and toward the cutleafed trifoliate and even pentafoliate species-graceful trees of unparalleled beauty. These maples are those with a compound rather than simple leaf and are composed of three similar leaflets, one terminal leaflet with two attending laterals. Trifoliate maples, those of section Trifoliata, first to appear in the United States as began early as 1891 when C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum brought back seed of Acer nikoense from the mountains of Japan. Since then, many more species of trifoliate maple have been introduced and are now among the most highly The trifoliate foliage of the Nikko scarlet and orange in the fall. maple turns to pleasing shades of 18 above and pale green below, with the lower leaf surface and petiole having felty, silverywhite hairs. The edges of these leaflets are slightly wavy, although a few coarse teeth may be present. The size averages from 3 to 5 inches long and 1.5 to 2.5 inches wide, although from China have been with 7-inch long leaflets. This crisp, fresh greenery is the most outstanding attmbute of the species, especially when it changes hue in mid-October (all times are for Boston). Luminous shades of scarlet and orange are made even more pronounced by the darkness of the gray bark. Oddly, the underside of the The compact, neat, roundheaded habit of Acer maximowiczianum leaf remains a duller color. The flowers are held m threes, each makes ita useful specimen for smaller scale landscapes. a third of an inch long with ten chartreuse petals in two rings of five. While nikoense, but a nomenclatural change has interesting on close examination, it is really a brought it to its present Latin name of A. flower only a botanist could love. maximowiczianum. It grows in the coolThe plants in cultivation in the United States temperate forest, preferring moist and fertile have been reported to survive winters with lows soils near streams. In central China it grows of minus 25 degrees Fahrenheit without damwith such genera as Tilia, Carpinus, Betula, and other species of Acer. Trees age. As a woodland native the Nikko maple preFagus, Davidia, fers fertile brown soils and a moist site. The of sixty-five feet have been reported from the proportions of Acer maximowiczianum make it wild, but most mature trees in cultivation are an ideal tree for suburban gardens; if grown as a from forty to fifty feet. A tree raised from specimen tree on a lawn, it does not attain too Sargent's seed collection of one hundred years large a size to keep in scale with most houses. ago now measures forty-five feet high with a broadly domed canopy of forty feet. Its two-foot Acer griseum thick trunk shows a number of main branches The star of the trifoliate group is the renowned close to the ground, the first at three feet, and these rise at a 45-degree angle upward to the paperbark maple, Acer griseum. Native only to the central Chinese provinces of Hubei, The bark is more subtly colored than canopy. that of other trifoliate maples, being a tight Sichuan, Honan, and Shensi, it was introduced into cultivation by the prolific plant hunter E. medium gray, sometimes forming small plates H. Wilson and has come to be regarded as perand with curious vertical rows of bumps. The Nikko maple distinguishes itself most clearly haps the best of his hundreds of plant introductions. He first found the plant in May of 1901, its foliage; it has the largest leaves of the triby when he ~otted in his field notebook \"Hupeh's foliate group. Each leaf consists of three leaflets, best maple.\" He later came to regard it as with two lateral leaflets at nearly right angles to \"China's best maple,\" and modern horticulturthe third, terminal leaflet. These thick leathery ists may go even farther. Wilson recorded the leaflets are oblong-ovate in shape, deep green trees reported 19 species on steep slopes of moist, rich woodlands of western Hubei between 4,000 and 5,500 feet. The maximum size of the tree was sixty feet with an eight-foot circumference, but trees of thirty to forty-five feet were more typical. Seed from these trees was collected for the Veitch Nursery of England in 1901 and for the Arnold Arboretum in 1907. Veitch raised a hundred plants from their seed, and the Arnold raised one seedling to pair with two seedlings Wilson had dug up in China and brought home to Boston. The collector who seems to have seen the plant in the greatest numbers of localities was the Belgian Joseph Hers. He recorded it from five sites in Honan and two in Shensi, but I have not been able to determine if any seed was collected from these plants and, if so, whether they resulted in any The first Acer gnseum to take root in North Amemcan soil still grows at the seedlings. The Arnold Arbore- Arnold Arboretum. tum was a recipient of many Consortium collected 25 seedlings of Acer kinds of seed collected by Hers, as was the Vilmonn Nursery in France, but no entries for griseum on Hubei's Wudang Shan, and they are now growing at the Arnold Arboretum, Morris Acer griseum exist in the Arnold's records the four hundred items sent by Hers Arboretum, Longwood Gardens, and U.S. among National Arboretum. between the years 1919 to 1927. The same is The bark of this Chinese species is unique in true for the records of the National Botanic Garthe maple family, a striking collage of textures den of Belgium, another recipient of Hers' seed. and colors. The oldest bark, at the base of A recent sighting of the tree was made in China mature trees, is often an interlocking puzzle of by Wilson's spiritual heir, Roy Lancaster, but no seed was collected. The Sino-Amencan Botamirregular plates of copper and smoky gray. cal Expedition of 1980 found the tree in the Younger wood is sheathed in tight bark of a Forest District of Hubei (Wilson's ruddy maroon brown with patinas of orange Shennongjia brown and weathered bronzy olive surrendering old terrain), but none of the seed they collected curled shavings of cinnamon. The wood is hard resulted in seedlings. and dense, and at certain points looks sinewy. It seems probable then that Wilson's collecThe effect of this singular stem is of a dense, tions in 1901 and 1907 are the only ones that have been brought out of China and that until aged, metallic pillar of exotic alloy. To photograph a frame of \"typical\" Acer very recently all trees in cultivation were descendants of these. In 1994 an expedition of griseum bark is akin to photographing a \"typical\" three-inch square of Monet, Seurat, or Polthe North American-China Plant Exploration 20 lack, as every section of stem has its own com- position, subtly different m character, a unique blend of curls and plates, bronzes, mahoganies, and coppers. It is a trunk that begs to be surrounded by snow as it literally shines in defiance of gray skies and chilling winds. The foliage of the paperbark maple is reddishbrown when unfurling in spring but soon turns to a soft, deep green above, pale green and felty below. The margins of the leaflets are coarsely toothed with two to five large teeth on each leaflet's side. The foliage turns a striking crimson in late October and early November, blending beautifully with the coppery bark. Flowers are similar in size and color to those of the Nikko maple but the petioles are less hirsute. The oldest paperbark maple that I know of graces the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum and is one of E. H. Wilson's original trio. Unlike other Acer griseum trees in the collection, this specimen has a squat, fat trunk that begins to branch at three and a half feet. Its dome is broad, some forty feet wide and twenty-five feet high. It is a venerable and monumental tree, a piece of living sculpture that honors its collector far more nobly than any work from an artist's hand. The paperbark maple is ideally proportioned for lawn and specimen plantings as it doesn't full sun. It works particured brick dormitories and lecture halls of our Smith College campus, but it would be superb as a focal point in a woodland or courtyard garden, and as a grove of twenty, an unsurpassable luxury. attain a tall stature in larly well alongside the Collecting Trifoliate Maples I recently fulfilled a longheld wish to collect seed of trifoliate maples in the wild. I had failed earlier while on a visit to the town of as I did not find the local trifoliate when I collected there. Botanists at the Nikko Botanic Garden have since written me that Acer maximowiczianum is now rare in those woods, perhaps because of its value for tool handles and construction. My luck turned during a collecting trip to South Korea. Due to the hospitality of Ferris Miller, the owner of the Chollipo Arboretum, collecting in South Korea has become a relatively simple task, with good roads and wellmaintained national parks addmg to the ease of seed harvesting. It has become in recent years the preferred hunting grounds in temperate Asia, Japan being costly and China restrictive. Mr. Miller was host to two other collecting parties during my brief visit, and he now talks of bemg swamped with collectors. The woodland forests of Korea have very fine fall foliage color, thanks mainly to their to so do Nikko, Japan, maple species. Acer pseudosieboldianum (sometimes called the purplebloom maple) has the most vivid colors, scarlets and reds, but close behind cies are two nine native to triflorum, maple, and A. mandshuricum, the Manchurian maple. The three-flowered maple ranges from South Korea, where I saw it at 2,000 feet in the footA. The Wolchong-sa temple complex was founded m 654 A D and is now within the boundaries of Odae-san National Park A beautiful specimen of Acer tmflorum rises from behmd the small temple. trifoliate spethe mountains, the three-flowered hills of the Odae Mountains, north into northeastern China, with isolated disjunct stands reported in Shensi Province growing at 5,600 feet. It usually 21 fifty feet, but older trees in the wild have been recorded as high as seventy feet. I collected seed in the Odae Mountains, where I found the species next to a brook on the edge of a forest of huge Abies holophylla, the Manchurian fir. A mile up the road was the ancient temple complex of Wolchong-sa, and on a crisp fall day in the mountain forests I found a beautiful tableau, two maples with temple. To the front was a small A. grows to about pseudosleboldianum, its branches covered in leaves of pink and brilliant cardinal red. The temple is small, with a Acer mandshuncum grow almost to the summit of Mt. Odae, here sedate gray tile roof covering photographed at 4,600 feet two chambers that face an open middle section. Intricately painted beam work My hike from the Wolchong-sa temple comand panels counterbalance the somber roof and plex to the highest point in the park, Mt. straightforward architecture. Behind it, fronting Pirobong at 5,100 feet, was a two-and-a-half a screen of dark firs, was a glowing orange threekilometer climb through sublime fall forest flowered maple, its lowest branches peeking color, an interplay of the maples' blaze and the through the alcove of the temple. Standing solid, somber green of fir. I first found the Mansixty-five feet high with a basal trunk diameter churian maple, A. mandshuricum, at 3,400 feet, of three feet, it was far bigger than the tree I'd a small grove of trees on a sharply steep, cool seen downriver. The bark at the previously slope anchored in dry brown soil. Sharing the lower portion of the trunk was splashed in pale hillside were Betula schmidtii and B. davurica, Viburnum wrightii, Magnolia sieboldii, Rhodogray-green lichens, these contrasting pleasantly with the gray and buff colored bark. dendron schllppenbachii, R. brachycarpum, A. The three-flowered maples I have seen m culpseudosieboldianum,A. ukurunduense, Astilbe tivation have a silvery-beige bark, flaking in koreana, and Hepatica asiatica. In this tight, small plates to reveal coppery-orange and even competitive canopy, the Manchunan maples pinkish tones beneath. These trees were over were tall trees to eighty feet, with their first branches at thirty-five feet, yet had a relatively sixty feet high at seventy years of age and were more upright in habit than the Nikko maple. thm trunk diameter of about one foot. Toward Unlike the Nikko maple, the three-flowered the top of the mountain, one thousand feet tends toward a single dominant trunk. maple higher, the canopy was lower and more open Its trifoliate leaf can be distinguished from and here the Manchurian maple was a roundothers of the group by its bristly upper surface headed tree of thirty-five feet. Its bark was tight, (the lower surface has a hairy midrib). Leaflets plating slightly, and of a dark battleship gray are medium green above, paler beneath, up to color. The leaves of A. mandshuricum have nar3.5 inches long and half as wide, with two to rower leaflets when compared to its cousins, the four coarse teeth along the margin. In Boston two laterals being held at a closer angle to the its fall color usually appears during mid- to late termmal and sometimes overlapping it. The October and is a blend of pumpkin, yellow, and oblanceolate leaves are a dark, glossy green above and pale green below, with a long tapered wines, with orange being the dominant hue. 22 tip and a margin of up to twenty small teeth. The leaves are carried in dense tufts at the ends of the branches and give this species a fine, feathery texture. I was struck by how much variation there was in the fall color of this species, especially when I recalled those trees cultivated stateside. In the wild, a dull ruddy purple to soft maroon seems to be the most common color, with undertones of blended pink, orange, and yellow. Among the yellows of birch and poplar in the high mountains, these reddening plumes were the standouts. In sharp contrast to these wild plants is the fall color of a specimen at the Arnold Arboretum. Grown from seed sent by the St. Petersburg Botanic Garden in 1906, the tree grows in full sun and measures fifty-five feet high by fifty feet wide. It colors early, usually in the first week of October, displaying a superb soft rose color. Once turned, the leaves last but a few short glorious days, then drop too soon. Based on its fall color alone, this striking tree is worthy of cultivar status. Flowers of the Manchurian maple are less prone to the chartreuse coloration of the other trifoliates and can be a dull pink. But by late May, clusters of dark pink and chartreuse samaras are forming and these contrast beautifully with the soft green undersides of the leaves. Of all the trifoliate maples, A. mandshuricum is probably the hardiest, growing near the tops of frigid mountains in South Korea and surviving the brutal winters of northeastern China. It can probably withstand temperatures of minus 25 to minus 30 degrees Fahrenheit. Propagation Propagation of the trifoliate maples is problematic, which nursery accounts by a period of cold and moist conditions (three months at 35 degrees Fahrenheit). After this pretreatment some germination will result, but most germination occurs only after a second period of stratification. I have sucessfully propagated the three-flower maple by cuttings, taking them in mid-June, applying a medium-to-high strength hormone (IBA), sticking them in a medium of sand and perlite, and keeping them misted. More recent lowed attempts at vegetative propagation involved grafting. Based on the advice of my college propagation professor, Sidney Waxman, I used sugar maple (Acer saccharum) as understock and got three different trifoliate species to take. The long-term outlook for these is uncertain, but so far the plants show remarkable vigor. Other Cutleaf In Maples researching the botanical and horticultural journals for information on these unusual maples I was surprised to find a few with dissected leaves that I had never before encountered and that are rare in cultivation or have yet to be introduced. One of them, the five-leaf maple, Acer pentaphyllum, was first reported by plant explorer Joseph Rock in China in 1929. He found the tree west of the Yalong River near Muli, in southwestern Sichuan province. It has been reported that only two to three hundred trees still exist. For generations, the only known adult tree in cultivation was in the Strybing Arboretum in San Francisco, but this plant has recently died. Seedlings have been raised from the Strybing plant and a number of nurseries on the West Coast now offer this rare tree. According to Rock, it forms a small tree growing to thirty-five feet with widely spreading or slightly pendulous branches. The bark on younger branches is brown to yellowish brown, while older bark is ashen. The most remarkable feature of this maple is its beautiful leaves, which are divided into five thin leaflets 2 1\/2 to 4 inches long, a bright yellowish green above and soft green below. These wispy leaflets are held in a star pattern, with the interplay between the leaves and the slender, delicate stems producing an extremely fine, linear texture. Fall color is said to range from yellow to cmmson. West Coast nurserymen consider the plant hardy for their scarcity in the trade, although it is far easier to obtain one of these than it was even fifteen years ago. Viable seed rarely develops, as it is uncommon to find trees in cultivation close enough to each other to ensure pollination. I know of instances where nurserymen have converged on the same grove on the same day and proceeded to get into a roaring shouting match over the precious seed. The seeds of these maples have what is known as a double dormancy, requiring a stratification period of moist and warm conditions (five months at 65 to 85 degrees Fahrenheit) fol- 23 the low 20s but question how much cold it could take. A number of varieties of trifoliate maples have been described in Chinese journals but are not now known to be in cultivation in any botanic garden nor have I seen most of them personally; I only add them as grace notes. Acer kansuense, origmally described as a new species, was later reduced to a subspecies of the Manchurian maple and is now known as A. mandshuricum subsp. kansuense. If Wen-Pei Fang's report is accurate, this maple, from the drier province of Gansu, could be an interesting, more drought-tolerant trifoliate maple. Acer sutchuenense was first discovered by Pere Paul Farges in northeastern Sichuan Province and was later collected twice by E. H. Wilson in western Hubei between 6,000 and 9,000 feet, although he considered it rare. It was through more probably not brought into cultivation until collected by the Smo-American Botanical Expedition of 1980, which included Arnold Arboretum taxonomist Stephen Spongberg. The SABE team collected the plant m the Shennongjia Forest of Hubei, and the seed was germinated at the U.S. National Arboretum. This trifoliate maple is said to grow to a small tree of twenty-five feet with leaves similar to A. tn florum. Hardiness is untested. Other obscure varieties within the Trifoliata section include two of Acer triflorum. A. tri- florum var. subcoriacea differs from the species by having leaves that are sparingly papillose on both surfaces. The variety leiopodum was described in 1934 from a specimen collected by G. Fenzel from a temple woods in Shensi Province in north central China. It is described as having smaller leaflets, glaucous below and The village of Changyang Hsien m western Hubei proved jertlle ground for E H Wilson It was there he found the famous magnoha `Dma' and collected the maple Acer henry, seen here clothed m a January snow. 24 . slightly pilose or nearly glabrous on the nerves and petioles. As Joseph Hers later collected A. griseum from the same mountain, the identification of the A. triflorum is questionable. The Chinese were reputation has trees of Acer maximo- assigned by the taxonomist Alfred Rehder to the variety megalocarpum because they show greater size in every part and greater pubescence than Japanese trees, but wiczianum grown and only now are they in the nursery trade to any degree. The elegance and beauty of these rare and wonderful trees is almost mystical. They become more striking, noble, and desirable as they age. We should all be so lucky in life. Bibliography Bean, W. J. 1989. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bntish Isles, 8th ed , rev. London: John Murray. Chinese botanists consider it synonymous with the typical species. Other Asian cutleafed maples can be found in the section Negundo, which takes its name from Acer negundo, the North American box elder, with three to nine leaflets. The Asian members, A. cissifolium and A. henry, I consider superior to the weak-wooded A. negundo. The ivy-leafed maple, A. cissifolium, is native to Japan, where C. S. Sargent collected it and gave it strong marks. He wrote of it, \"Acer cissifolium is a handsome compact roundheaded little tree with slender graceful leaves, of a delicate green in summer, and orange and red in late autumn, and where it is one of the most distinct and satisfactory trees that have been tried in our climate.\" Two plants, AA10649-A and 10649-B, grown from seed collected in 1918 by Wilson still grow on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum. I recently stumbled onto the Chinese relative of Acer cissifolium at the Morris Arboretum in Bois, D. 1912. L'Acer Nikoense et les Erables d Femlles Trifoholees, Revue Horticole LXXXIV: 126129. Wen-Pei. Fang, 1939. A Monograph of Chinese Aceraceae, Contnbutions from the Biological Laboratory of the Science Society of China, Botanical Series, XI. . 19GG Revisio taxorum Aceracearum Simcarum, Acta Phytotaxonomlc Simca, 11~2~ . 1979. Praecursores Florae Aceracearum Smensmm, Acta Phytotaxonomica Simca, 17~ 1 ~. Handel-Mazzetti, H. 1934. Kleme Beltrage zur Kenntis der Flora von Chzna, IV Oesterreichische Botamsche Zeitschmfte 83: 233. Kurata, S 1971. Illustrated Important Japan, II. Forest Trees of Nakal, T. 1915. Flora Sylvatica Koreana I: 16-17. Sargent, C. S. 1894. Forest Flora of Japan Boston: Houghton Miffhn. . 1913. Plantae Wllsomanae University Press Philadelphia. Henry's maple, A. henryi, was a broadly domed tree of forty-five feet and had leathery leaves of a pleasing medium green with reddish petioles. It is said to be unique among trifoliate maples in the entire (untoothed) margins of its leaflets, but I did see a Cambmdge: Harvard Sprinkle, J., and Nicholson, R. 1995. Grafting Trifoliate Maples. Combmed Proceedmgs International Plant Van Propagators' Society 45: 508-512 Gelderen, few toothed leaves on this tree. Bark D. M., P. C. de Jong, and H. J. Oterdoom. 1994. Maples of the World Portland, OR' was a Timber Press. gray-beige with irregular vertical lines of orange lenticels. Some twig dieback and bark damage was observed, so this species may be at the hmit of its hardiness in Philadelphia. If so, it might be a good ornamental for more southerly sections of the country. From the hands of a very few plant explorers the seeds of these legacy maples. Over several generations their horticultural Wang, Chi-Wu. 1961. The Forests of Chma Cambmdge: Harvard University Press. Wilson, Weaver, E. H. 89(2773): 1925. Acer gnseum, 20. The Garden R. E. 1976. Selected Ornamental Maples for Shade and Plantmg. Arnoldia 3G~4~: 14G-17G conservatories have passed Rob Nicholson manages the of the Smith College Botamc Garden, Northampton, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25183","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260ab6f.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Coombes, Allen J.; Coates, W. Nigel","article_content":"Oglethorpe and the Oglethorpe Oak Allen j. Coombes and W. A newcomer to commemorates Nigel Coates cultivation, the white oak group, rare in the wild and in the founder of Savannah. 1994, a young oak tree from the of Georgia was planted in a walled garden at the Meath Home, Godalming, England, to commemorate a famous son of Godalming, General James Oglethorpe, founder of Savannah, Georgia. The connection between this picturesque Surrey town and an oak from the \"Peach State\" may seem tenuous, but the tree chosen for the planting was, very appropriately, the Oglethorpe oak (Quercus oglethorpensis W. H. Duncan). A few years previously, the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, which holds the United Kingdom's national collection of oaks, had managed to obtain seed of this distinct and unusual species collected in Georgia and were pleased to be able to donate a young tree for the planting. The place of planting was also significant, for the Meath Home was originally Westbrook Place, the home of In March of state James Oglethorpe. James Edward Oglethorpe, reputedly the last person to shoot snipe in Piccadilly, was born in 1696, the son of Theophilus Oglethorpe who that year had settled in Godalming, Surrey, where he had earlier bought the manor of Westbrook. The family were keen supporters of the Jacobite cause, particularly James' sisters, Anne and Eleanor, who were involved in several plots; there were even rumors that Prince Charles Edward secretly visited Westbrook to plan the 1745 rebellion. James himself kept aloof from such matters, and after education at Eton and Corpus Christi College, Oxford, spent his early life as a soldier m Europe. He returned to Godalming at the age of twenty-five to take up his inheritance and succeed his brother as member of Parliament, soon earning a reputation as an ardent social reformer, concentrating particularly on the General James Oglethorpe, probably m his late forties, after his return from Georgia in1743 (Archives of Oglethorpe UmversityJ He found time local affairs and is recorded as donating a guinea here and there to local causes. He added to his estate by building a great wall of local Bargate stone to enclose a vineyard that soon became well known for its white wine. Meanwhile, the idea of forming a new colony in America had been suggested and Oglethorpe was one of the prime movers in the project. It would be named after King George II and would occupy the space between the Carolinas and the Spanish settlers in Florida-far enough south injustices of the prison system. to interest himself m 26 and to produce silk, for it was reported that mulberry trees, grown to provide food for silkworms, were likely to flourish in the area. Georgia thus became the thirteenth British colony in America. Godalming's wealth was founded on wool, so there were plenty of local people skilled in producing textiles, and some of these, with others attracted by national advertising of the opportunity to start a new life, made up the 120 settlers who sailed with Oglethorpe from Gravesend in November 1732. They reached their goal on February 12, 1733, still annually celebrated as Georgia Day, and within a few weeks had laid out the rectangular street plan of the city of Savannah. Each family was given three lots, space for a house, a five-acre garden on the edge of the settlement, and forty-five acres in the neighboring countryside to be cleared for farming. On the edge of the town Oglethorpe created a tento grow grapes Trustees' Garden to try to find the best conditions for growing mulberries and other plants, now acknowledged as the first agricultural research station in America. In a letter to Sir Hans Sloane dated September 19, 1733, Oglethorpe apologized for not having time to \"make a collection of such things as \" might be agreeable to one of your curiosity.\" He did, however, send specimens, and some thirty-eight collections are held in the Sloane Herbarium at the Natural History Museum in London. Annotated with pre-Linnaean names in Oglethorpe's own hand, these consist of a variety of mainly herbaceous plants but certainly include a specimen of poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans; synonym Rhus acre radicans). The Trustees' Garden had auspicious beginnings. With sponsorship from Sir Hans Sloane and the Society of Apothecaries, and advice from Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden, many plants of potential commercial importance were introduced, including white mulberries, oranges, peaches, figs, pomegranates, olives, vines, and cotton, as well as vegetables to supply the needs of the expanding colony. Cotton and peaches still remain two of The vigorous shoots m the major commercial crops of Georgia. Unfortunately, the garden soon became neglected and many plants were killed in a hard frost in March 1738. It continued to supply mulberry trees, which were available to planters free of charge, until about 1748, but was eventually abandoned and converted to residential use in 1755. A bronze marker, commemorating the 250th anniversary of the founding of the garden was erected on the site in 1983. The local natives, the Yamacraw tribe, responded favorably to the colonists' overtures of friendship, and when Oglethorpe returned to England he took with him ten of their number, including Chief Tomochichi. They met the trustees of the colony, the King and Queen, and caused quite a stir in Godalming when their host took them to dinner at the White Hart. On his second voyage, James was accompanied by the brothers John and Charles Wesley, family friends who were going to minister to the spiritual needs of the colonists and the natives. The government's idea of funds for running the new colony proved miserly, and the estate at Westbrook had to be mortgaged to raise the necessary money to keep it going. Once back in Georgia, Oglethorpe founded the settlements of Frederica on the coast and Augusta farther up the Savannah River. He then made one more quick trip to England to try to raise a regiment to meet the growing threat of Spanish invasion. The expected blow fell in 1742; the invaders were defeated at the battle of Bloody Marsh and driven back into Florida, for which achievement James Oglethorpe was rewarded with promotion to the rank of Brigadier General. The following year he returned to England for the last time, married, did a httle more soldiering in Europe in the service of Frederick the Great, then retired to the country, where he died at the age of eighty-eight. Oglethorpe is still honored in the state that grew from his colony. His statue stands in a square in the center of Savannah; the map of Georgia shows Fort Oglethorpe City and Oglethorpe County; and Oglethorpe University was founded in Atlanta. The City of Savannah has proposed the restora- of the second flush of Quercus oglethorpensis. Painted by Siriol Sherlock from a plant the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Hampshire, England. 27 28 tion of the Trustees' Garden on its original site. It would surely please the General's philanthropic know that his house in run for one hundred years as a home for epileptics, and it is good to record that it has been presented with an Oglethorpe oak to grow in the walled garden that the founder of Georgia knew so well. to heart Godalming has been While James Oglethorpe's involvement with Georgia goes back more than 250 years, the Oglethorpe oak is a relative newcomer to the genus, described too late to be featured in C. S. Sargent's twovolume work Manual of Trees of North America (1905) or The Amencan Oaks by William Trelease (1924), but in time to be included in a list of additions and corrections in Volume 3 of Les Chenes by Mme A. Camus (19521954). It was originally noticed as distinct as late as 1940 by Wilbur H. Duncan of the University of Georgia in Athens, who, in the company of Professors G. N. Bishop and A. D. McKellar, found trees growing in abundance on Buffalo Creek near Lexington, Georgia. These trees had previously been thought to be Quercus Quercus oglethorpensis at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois. imbricaria (shingle oak), but further investigation by Duncan showed them to glands at first, becoming smooth and deep red in winter. The deciduous, elliptic to obovate represent an unnamed species that he described as Q. oglethorpensis. An earlier collection made leaves to 13 centimeters (5 inches) long are usuby T. G. Harbison from Elbert County, Georgia, ally without teeth and often with wavy margins, was also referred by Duncan to this species. The but can be slightly lobed, particularly on vigorname does not commemorate James Oglethorpe ous shoots of the second flush (as seen in but Oglethorpe County, in which the the illustration). They emerge bronze-tinged, directly, trees were found and the type specimen was colbecoming a rich, glossy green, and remain on lected. In 1950, Duncan reported the finding of the tree late into autumn when they can turn Q. oglethorpensis by Professor Bishop in Greenbriefly red, then brown. When they first emerge, wood County, South Carolina. they are dotted with short-stalked red glands The Oglethorpe oak makes a large tree to 25 above and with sparse stellate hairs, becoming meters (80 feet) or more in the wild, the young glabrous, while the undersides are thinly covshoots sparsely covered with stellate hairs and ered with persistent stellate hairs. The acorns 29 the first year and are ovoid, about 11 I millimeters (1\/2 inch) long and one-third enclosed in the cup, which is sessile or shortly stalked. Although originally confused with Quercus imbricaria (a red oak), the Oglethorpe oak is not closely related to that species and is, in fact, a white oak. It is considered by Duncan to be a relict species closely related to Q. margaretta, and a tree found by Duncan in Oglethorpe County appears to be a hybrid with this species. Oglethorpe oak is of very restricted distribution in the wild, confined to two isolated populations, with its main range m a few counties in the Piedmont of northeast Georgia and neighboring western South Carolina. It is found on poorly drained bottomlands and neighboring slopes, uplands, and stream terraces associated with Acer rubrum, A. saccharum subsp. leucoderme, Celtis laemgata, Fraxinus pennsylvamca, Quercus alba, Q. falcata, and Q. mature In cultivation, both in North America and Britain, this species is uncommon. Plants growing at the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum date from two accessions; firstly, scions received in 1978 were grafted onto Quercus robur and planted in the early 1980s, and secondly, plants derived from seed collected in the Oconee National Forest m Jasper County, south of Monticello, Georgia, in late 1988 by Marshall Adams. The Meath Home plant derives from the latter collection. In spite of its southern American origin, this species is proving reasonably hardy in cultivation. At the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum the oldest specimens have made bushy plants up to 3.5 meters ( 11feet) tall with a spread of 4.5 meters ( 15 feet), often branching from just above the base. In Britain, young shoots of this species are frequently damaged by frost during winter, when temperatures typically reach 20 degrees Fahrenheit or below, but this is probably due to the lack of sufficient summer heat to ripen adequately the growth rather than winter cold, which can be just as or more intense in the southern United States. As a result of winter damage here, the plants grow slowly and usually produce numerous young shoots in summer from the frost-damaged wood. That the poor performance of this species in Britain is due to lack of summer heat rather than low wmter temperatures is clearly shown by plants growing at the Morton Arboretum in Illinois. There, plants grown from seed collected in Greenwood County, South Carolina, have reached 3 meters (10 feet) tall in fifteen years. In the winter of 1993-1994, following ideal conditions for wood ripening the previous autumn, little injury was incurred even when temperatures fell to minus 22 degrees Fahrenheit. However, growth that occurs late in autumn and does not ripen properly can be injured at a temperature of zero. Also in Illinois, at Guy Sternberg's Starhill Forest, near Petersburg, this species grows slowly but has survived even the coldest winters undamaged. Further south, Oglethorpe oak grows more vigorously, and on the campus of the University of Georgia, Athens, ten- to twelve-year-old trees have reached 6 meters (20 feet) tall and 5 meters \/ 15 feet) in spread with pagoda (formerly Q. falcata var. pagodifolia~. In the wild it is susceptible to chestnut blight. Until an extensive study of its distribution by Haehnle and Jones, Oglethorpe oak was known from only forty-five sites. They added another hundred to this and considered that its absence from five of the previously recorded localities was due to land clearance for agricultural development. It was also suggested that although populations of Oglethorpe oak had probably not been seriously affected since its discovery, it was likely that prior to this, agricultural development had reduced the range of the species and its population density. The Georgia Department of Natural Resources describe it as threatened in the wild and its habitat has suffered clearance for agriculture and forestry. Oglethorpe oak has recently been assigned endangered status by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural one Resources. Oglethorpe other states. oak has also been reported from The population found near Dr. Kevin Copenhagen, Louisiana, is, according to Nixon, Quercus smuata (formerly Q. durandii), but what appears to be Q. oglethorpensis was reported by Wiseman from three sites in the Bienville National Forest, Scott and Jasper Counties, Mississippi. 30 scaly bark. The leaves remain until late autumn when they turn brown and (on these young trees) remain through winter. Planted trees can also be seen at the Oglethorpe County courthouse, Lexington, Georgia. Judging by specimens in the Kew herbarium collected by Duncan near Lexington, Oglethorpe County, Georgia, in 1942, this species coarse, Georgia Department of Natural Resources. 1994. Protected Plants of Georgia Georgia Natural Heritage Program: Wildhfe Resources Division. Haehnle, G. G., and S. M. Jones. 1985. Geographical Distribution of Quercus oglethorpensis. Castanea 50: 26-31. into leaf much earlier in its native habitat than it does in Britain. Whereas at the Sir comes Little, E. L. 1980. Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Trees Eastern Region New York: Knopf. Miller, H, and S. Lamb. 1985. Oaks of North America. Happy Camp, California: Naturegraph Publishers Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum and the Morton Arboretum it is normally well into May before the foliage starts to emerge, a flowering specimen collected on April 18 already had the young leaves opening, while a specimen in full leaf was collected on July 12. In cultivation in Savannah, the leaves emerge in mid- to late March. Although the Oglethorpe oak is unlikely to make a tree suitable for landscape use either in Britain or the United States, its historical associations with James Oglethorpe, as well as its rarity, make it of great interest. Oglethorpe oak is rarely available from nurseries, but plants can be obtained from Woodlanders, Inc., 1128 Colleton Avenue, Aiken, South Carolina 19801. Radford, E., H. E. Ahles, and C. Richie Bell. 1968. Manual of the Vascular Flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina A. Press. P. 1977. Spaldmg, Oglethorpe University of Chicago m Amenca. Press. Chicago: Whittet, T. D. 1983. Botamc garden of the trustees of the Georgia colony of Savannah. Pharmaceutical Journal 231-770-771. Wiseman, J. B. 1987. Quercus oglethorpensis in Mississippi. Castanea 52: 314-315. Bibliography Coker, W. C., Acknowledgments The authors would like to thank the Directors of the Natural History Museum and the Royal Botamc Gardens, Kew, for the use of library and herbarium facilities and Siriol Sherlock for her splendid painting. For facilities and information used m the preparation of this article, thanks go to Hampshire County Council, Wilbur H. Duncan, Michael A Dirr, William Hess, Paul Hudson, F. Todd Lasseigne, Alan Lievens, Peter van der Lmden, Richard Muir, Kevin Nixon, Mary Helen Ray, Professor W. T Stearn, Guy Sternberg, and Michael Tmff. This article has been adapted from The New Plantsman with the kmd permission of the Editor and the Royal Horticultural Society. and H. R. Totten. 1944. Trees of the Southeastern States Chapel Hill~ Umversity of North Carolina Press A. J. 1997. Threatened Broadleaves No. 3, Quercus oglethorpensis Broadleaves 4: 4-5. Coombes, Dale Thomas, R., and D. B. Scogm. 1988. 100 Woody Plants of Lomsiana. Contmbutions of the Northeast Lomsiana University 7: 100-101. Dedman, Duncan, S. 1968. Westbrook and the Oglethorpes. Godalmmg Museum Publications. W. H. 1940. A New Species of Oak from American Midland Naturalist 24(3): Georgia. 755-756. . 1950. Quercus oglethorpensis-Range Extensions and Phylogenetic Relationships. Lloydia 13: 243-248. Allen Coombes, botamst at the Sir Harold Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Hampshire, England, is an active plant collector and explorer and author of many articles and books, including the handbook Trees. W. Nigel Coates is vice-chairman of Godalming Trust and author of Godalmmg-A Pictorial History. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review: Mosses in the Garden Benito C. Tan","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25181","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260a726.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"Book Review: Mosses in the Garden Benito C. Tan - Moss Gardening Including Lichens, Liverworts, and Other George Schenk. Timber Press, 1997. 261 pp., 97 colored photos. Hardcover. Miniatures. $34.95 This book is one of the few available in bookstores that deals with the use of bryophytes, mainly mosses, and other forest cryptogams, such as lichens, lycopods, and spikemosses, in cultivation both outdoors and in. The author has lived and worked m several mossy cities around the world, including North Vancouver, Moss-covered steps in a New England garden Seattle, and Auckland, where a mild temperate climate promotes a lush and As a professional bryologist who studies moss rich moss flora, and he has developed a strong diversity and also grows mosses in small conaffection for the beautiful world of mosses. The tainers for teaching demonstrations, I am humid environs of the Pacific Northwest also impressed by Mr. Schenk's general knowledge of assure his success in introducing natural moss mosses, especially of the conditions they grow into home gardens and potting in in nature. The author repeatedly reminds us populations Readers living in drier or colder regions, that success in moss gardening depends on designs. however, may not be as successful. choosing the right mosses for the garden site Moss Gardening consists of fifteen chapters and matching the site to the conditions of the that cover a wide variety of topics, from moss natural habitat. Despite this, I would caution gardens in Japan and Europe, alpme and rock readers that the book is not a guide to growing gardens, to bonsai moss decoration. Practical ornamental mosses from spores. Moss gardeners or potential users of mosses for ornamental purtips and observations on growing mosses under conditions and in miniature containers poses should not look to this book for formulas garden for growing particular species of moss in your are scattered throughout the pages. Included in the text are exhilarating color photographs of backyard. Anyone who has tried growing mosses outpretty moss gardens and individual moss speside their natural habitats quickly learns about cies. The reader cannot help but be infected by the difficulty of maintaining a transplanted the author's love and appreciation for mosses after reading the book. Mr. Schenk, also the population under manmade conditions over a author of Rock Gardens and The Complete period of time. Seen in this light, I particularly like Chapter 7, in which the author describes Shade Gardener, is to be congratulated for a job five practical methods of planting and maintainwell done. 32 ing moss carpets in gardens. Likewise, Chapter 10, which introduces the growing of mame, or tiny mosses, in containers and miniature display, is elucidating and educational. Tips for growing green moss cover for vascular bonsai plants are equally useful. As a lover of mosses, I do not like Chapter 15, which discusses the business aspect of selling mosses and lichens to the public. Since these two groups of forest cryptogams are slow growers in nature, this suggestion will further diminish our mossy forests, which are still the only profitable source of marketable moss material in this country. Reports of damaging harvests of wild populations by nurseries and plant shops in the Pacific Northwest have seen print many times in local newspapers and national news magazines. terraria for indoor and it is doubtful that the illustrated in plate 81 is Hygrohypnum luridum. Also, I would not follow the advice to grow Encalypta ciliata on a slab of lava with Hypnum cupressiforme (see page 132, also plate 56). Encalypta is a strong calciphile and will grow only on a calcareous substrate. Moss Gardening is mainly concerned with the garden beauty of the subject plants and minimally the science, as its author notes in Chapter 1, and it is for the book's aesthetic and horticultural values that I recommend it to both gardeners and nongardeners of mosses. This lyrically written book has done justice to a group of plants that is often overlooked and underappreciated in our biological world. tidiadelphus, moss Scientifically, I found only a few errors. For example, Plate 77 is not Drepanocladus uncinatus as identified, but is a Rhy- Tan, formerly a bryologist at the Farlow Herbarium, Harvard University, has jomed the Faculty of Science, National Umversity of Smgapore, as Semor Bemto Lecturer m Botany. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25184","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260af28.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum SUM MER. - N E W S - 1 9 9 7 Celebrating the Close of Our 125th Year Members and supporters of the Arnold Arboretum are invited to attend this final event in our yearlong 125th anniversary celebration on Friday, October 17. Join us at the Arboretum to tour the Hunnewell Building, meet the staff, view the new Science in the Pleasure Ground exhibit, and hear a lecture by renowned British hortlcultumst Roy Lancaster. Plant collector,British televlsion personality, and gardener extraordinalre, Lancaster has authored books on his explorations in China and Nepal, on Mediterranean plants and gardens, on plants for connoisseurs, and most recently, What Plant Where. For our anniversary, he will present a slide-talk on Japan and its plants in autumn color. We hope you'll ~oin us in celebrating 125 years of discovery while taking an inside look at the Arnold Arboretum and spending an evening with one of the world's most distinguished plantsmen. An invitation along with RSVP form will be sent to all members in September. 5:00-7:00 AT THE P.M. The Institute for Cultural Robert E. Landscape Studies Cook, Director OPEN HOUSE HUNNEWELL BUILDING 7:30 P.M. ROY LANCASTER AT THE MASSACHUSETTS STATE LABORATORY, 305 SOUTH STREET, JAMAICA PLAIN BY LECTURE (near the Arboretum's Forest Htlls Gate) This fall the Arnold Arboretum will launch a new enterprise, the Institute for Cultural Landscape Studies. It is a natural outgrowth of our sixyear collaboration with the National Park Sermce. The mission of the Institute will be to develop and disseminate information about cultural landscapes and their conservation to practitioners and the public. We believe that the Institute will become an important organization throughout the New England region and the nation. What is a cultural landscape? In practical terms, cultural landscapes are parcels of land that have experienced historic land uses of continuing importance to the community and often have significant natural and economic value as well. The Arboretum, of course, is a cultural landscape, one whose cultural history forms the central theme of our recently opened exhibit, Science in the Pleasure Ground, on display in the Hunnewell Building. Other examples might be the highly designed and documented gardens that surround historic houses such as the Longfellow House in Cambridge, or Fairsted, the home of Frederick Law Olmsted in Brookline But the concept of a cultural landscape embraces a much broader range of land uses. A large, working dairy farm in southern New Hampshire not far from a growing suburb of a major city may have been held in a single family for half-a-dozen generations. It may also have been the scene of a significant engagement or troop movement in the Revolutionary War. Finally, it may once have been the seasonal center of a native American settlement, and its soils today could contain abundant archeological evidence of this past. Through case studies, conferences, and selected field projects, the Institute will collaborate with a number of organizations actively involved m protecting natural and historic resources, such as the Nature Conservancy, the Trust for Public Land, the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, and The Trustees of Reservations Our goal will be to produce new information leading to practical solutions to difficult problems that arise when both cultural and natural resources are important for parcels of land whose economic value is changing. We hope to make this information readily available to practitioners in formats that are accessible and easy to understand. We also believe that such information, when provided through the Internet, will become increasingly valuable to citizen volunteers who serve their communities. Whether those volunteers work through local government or local land trusts, the Institute will support their commitment to preserve one of their most important resources-the land and its traditional uses. Summer Interns of 1997 from as far Califorma, Michigan, and away Canada, and from as near as Connecticut and Maine. Pictured here are the interns and a project some worked on under the leadership of Arboretum apprentice Alistair Yeomans. Over the last few years, the death of trees associated with increased foot traffic and mountain-bike activity has accelerated erosion on the eskers located between the greenhouse\/nursery area and the legume collection. Using wood downed in the blizzard, they installed a series of \"check dams\" on some badly damaged slopes. Much of the interns' other work this year was created by the April Fool's Day Blizzard. The interns of 1997 as came From left, standing, Spencer Sears, Beth O'Donnell, Bess Wellborn, Lidia Szabo; sitting, Marla Zando, Jeremy Dick, Priscilla Allendorf, Cathlene Leary, Thomas Por, Sunny Bennett, Beth Bardon, Krissy Mayberry, Elwood Roberts; in front, John Ciesielski. Instruction in woody plant identification, horticultural maintenance, and plant propagation, visits to Walden Pond and the Olmsted National Historic of the Emerald Necklace as well as other field trips, classes, and lectures supplement the interns' hands-on traimng. Site, and a walking tour New Staff Life on on a Limb \"Harvard Hero\" takes added meaning with the recognition of Arboretum head arbonst John Olmsted for outstanding service to the University. Initiated by Sally Zeckhauser, Harvard's Vice President for Admimstration, the \"Harvard Heroes\" recognizes employees for work of exceptional quality and program commitment. Matthew Davies has joined the At the ceremony, before family and friends, John was lauded Arnold Arboretum as staff assisfor maintaming the Arboretum's trees with dedication, initiative, tant in the development departand fortitude. John has characteristically gone beyond expectations ment. Matt comes to the since joining the staff in 1990. He was also commended for the Arboretum from Suffolk Univertraining m arboncultural techniques he gives to Arboretum interns. sity, where he provided administrative support to the director Matt will promde administrative support to the and assistant director of development on all aspects director of the Arboretum and members of the develof annual giving. His experience includes event planopment department. ning and coordination and database management. II Roy Lancaster, plantsman, author, and British television personality, will offer a slide-talk on Japan and its plants, Friday, October 17. He is seen here with Rhododendron falconerii x sinogrande 'Fortune'. The Arboretum On Campaign Goes Public Fnday, June 13, 1997, Harvard President and Mrs. Neil Rudenstine, members of the Director's Advisory Board, Arboretum director Bob Cook, and 90 longtime Arboretum friends and donors gathered for a special dinner in celebration of the public phase of The Campaign for the Arnold Arboretum. Campaign chairman Francis O. Hunnewell announced that in this first fundraising campaign since 1927 (following the death of Charles Sprague Sargent), the goal is to raise $8.2 million for the Arboretum's endowment and capital projects, of which $3.8 million has been committed to date. Campaign objectives include adding significantly to the endowment for the living collections and establishing permanent endowments for two critical Arboretum programs in the areas of children's science education and international biodiversity conservation. The campaign will also raise funds to build and endow a new garden for sun-loving vines and shrubs. Speaking at the June dinner, President Rudenstine underscored the campaign's priorities while reflecting on the Arboretum's sigmficance to the University and the larger community. The campaign, left, Arnold Arboretum Director Robert E. Cook, Arboretum Director's Advisory Board Co-Chair Ellen West Lovejoy, Campaign Chair Francis O. Hunnewell, Harvard President Neil L. Rudenstine, and Director's Advisory Board Co-Chair David B. Stone. From Rudenstine noted, aims to \"sustam the Arboretum and its programs at the level of excellence that has been established and maintained. It will sustain the Arboretum's vital educational efforts for both children and adults. And it will contribute directly not only to the understanding of our natural surroundings close to home, but also to research on important questions of biodiversity abroad and to the larger goal of environmental many different aspects of our lives: natural beauty and the beauty of design; the process of teaching and learmng; the discovery of new knowledge, driven by deep curiosity about the natural world; and the effort to improve the environment we live in.\" We plan to complete the fundraising effort by the conclusion of Harvard Umversmy's comprehencampaign on December 31, 1999. For more information about The Campaign for the Arnold Arboretum, contact Lisa M. Hastings, Director of Developsive protecmon.\" \"The cause could not be better,\" Rudenstine added, \"because the Arboretum touches on so \" ment, at 617\/524-1718 x 145. Ketko Satoh I arrived in Boston from autumn producing botanical illustrations of Sorbus Spongberg. Having lived in several different countries by virtue of my father's diplomatic postings, I have had many opportunities for travel and extraordinary I will be for Dr. expenences. I received my first exposure to the world of taxonomy and training in nomenclature when I Canberra, Austraha, just in in for Lilac Sunday, to take time one-year appointment as Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. I was up a a quite prepared for the New England weather just four years ago I graduated from Mount Holyoke College in western Massachusetts. During because my year here, I will be working under Sheila Connor's gmdance on the E. H. Wilson and plant distribution archives and, with Stephen Spongberg, editing an unpublished manuscnpt by E. H. Wilson. Written in the late 1920s, its subject is the species that he considered his best introductions into cultivation. Another part of my project is the creation of a computer database of Arboretum plant distribution records, which were kept on index cards from 1910 to 1970. The database will track information on Arnold Arboretum plant introductions. In addition, curated shells (Architectonicidae: Gastropoda) at the National Natural History Museum, Leiden. This in turn led me to undertake a Master of Science course in biodiversity and taxonomy of plants at the University of Edinburgh and the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. It was there that I learned a great deal about the Arnold Arboretum and E. H. Wilson through my classmate Andrew Bell, himself a former intern and Putnam Fellow (summer 1995). Also during that time I was able to meet Dr. Spongberg and Susan Kelley on their respective trips to the Garden. Working on the Wilson material offers me more than professional interest: it teaches me a great deal about the history and culture of my home, Japan, and also of China, where my great-grandparents were posted at around the same period as Wilson was traveling there. Many of his photographs depict aspects of those countries that have since changed drastically or disappeared. Arnold Arboretum Open House The Arnold Arboretum invites the once again cordially public House on Saturday, October 18, Open to an from 11:00 The events am to day's landscape and a behind-thescenes peak into the greenhouse led by Arboretum staff (at 11:00, 12:00, and 3:00), a maple tree activity for the 3:00 pm. will include tours of families (from 1:00 to 3:00), and opportunities to talk with Director Bob Cook and other staff about Youngest celebrants at the Arboretum staffs 125thanniversary gala were the director's daughters, Christina Farrow Cook and Katherine Farrow Cook, born on June 12 to Lee Farrow and Bob Cook. Arboretum plans and programs. For information or directions, call 617\/524-1718 x 100. 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23527","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070816e.jpg","title":"1997-57-2","volume":57,"issue_number":2,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ellen Biddle Shipman's New England Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25175","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070816d.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Tankard, Judith B.","article_content":"Ellen Biddle Judith B. This Shipman's New England Gardens Tankard pioneering landscape architect, distinguished for her innovative planting designs, described her use of plants as \"painting pictures as an artist would.\" Ellen Biddle Shipman (1869-1950) was one of the most important landscape architects during the 1910s and 1920s, the great years of estate building across the United States. Shipman's approach to garden design was steeped in the traditionalism of the Northeast, especially the Colonial Revival style. She owed her great success m the design and planting of small gardens to early years of gardening at her New Hampshire country home. \"Working daily in my garden for fifteen years,\" she wrote, \"taught me to know plants, their habits and their needs.\"' Shipman brought a fine-tuned artistic sensitivity to garden design. She transformed the flower border into an art form by using carefully articulated compositions of flowers, foliage, and color, thoroughly grounded in her exceptional knowledge of plants. This planting expertise set her apart from other landscape architects of the period. Shipman's simple, unpretentious designs for gardens served as a framework for her dazzlmg plantmgs. To create the proper setting, she would surround the garden with an enclosing curtain of trees and always used generous quantities of small flowering trees, shrubs, vines, and standards (such as roses, lilacs, or wisteria) to create structural notes and to cast shadows over the borders. Invariably her gardens were enhanced by her delightful designs for rose arbors, pergolas, benches, teahouses, dovecotes, and other structures that carefully echoed the architectural style of the house. Shipman collaborated with numerous architects and landscape architects, including Charles Platt, the Olmsted Brothers, and James Greenleaf. Warren Manning, with whom she collaborated on many projects, considered her \"one of the best, if not the very best, Flower Garden Maker in America. \"z Once hailed as the \"Dean of American Women Landscape Architects,\" Shipman designed nearly six hundred gardens throughout during the course of her thirty-five ( 1912-1947\/.3 Clusters of her gardens once proliferated in areas such as Grosse Pointe, Michigan; Greenwich, Connecticut; and Chagrin Falls, Ohio, where she designed several dozen gardens. She also carried out a number of commissions in the New England states, where she had gotten her start. Sadly, few examples remain in their original condition. the country career year Ellen Biddle was born into a promment Philarather than the financial branch. Her father was a career soldier, and she spent an adventurous childhood in frontier outposts in Nevada, Texas, and the Arizona Territory. Her discovery of gardens came when she was sent back East to live with her grandparents, who had an old-fashioned, rose-filled garden in New Jersey. Later, when she attended finishing school in Baltimore, interests in art and architecture were awakened. During her early twenties, Ellen lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, sharing a house with Marian Nichols, who later married the landscape architect Arthur Shurcliff, whose professional path would intersect with Shipman's. Ellen's brief academic career at Radcliffe (then known as the Harvard Annex) ended when she married Louis Shipman, a dashing young playwright from New York who was then attending Harvard. They moved to the artists' colony m Cornish, New Hampshire, where they were part of a lively coterie surrounding the colony's delphia family, the military founder, American sculptor Augustus SaintGaudens, who was also Marian Nichols' uncle. Years later, recalling her first visit to Cornish in 1894, she wrote, \"a garden became for me the 3 Ellen Biddle most Shipman (1869-1950) m her New York City home on Beekman Place in the 1920s essential part of a home.\"4 This would become Ellen Shipman's credo in garden design. In 1910, when Ellen Shipman was in her early forties and the mother of three children, she turned to garden design at the suggestion of her Cornish neighbor, the country house architect Charles Platt. By then the Shipmans' marriage had deteriorated, leaving Ellen to fend for herself financially after her husband left her. Platt admired her garden at Brook Place, the Shipmans' colonial farmhouse in nearby Plainfield, New Hampshire, and the remodeling she had recently carried out there. Platt thought she had a good eye for design and no doubt felt that her plantings would be an asset for his gardens. While the Shipmans' elder daughter (also named Ellen) managed the household, Ellen studied drafting and construction under Platt's tutelage. Within two years she was collaboratmg with Platt as well as undertaking Shipman's originality came as a garden designer The coun\" from several different sources. gardens in Cornish, once dubbed \"the most beautifully gardened village in all America,\" were the pre-eminent influence on her early years.s Gardens such as those of Thomas Wilmer Dewing, Stephen Parrish, Augustus Saint-Gaudens, and other artists brimmed with old-fashioned flowers, dirt paths, and simple ornaments and features, such as rose arbors and circular reflecting pools. As a young wife of an aspiring but penniless writer, Ellen was not able to take the grand tour of European gardens as did other prominent colleagues such as her Cornish neighbor, landscape architect Rose Standish Nichols (a sister of her friend Marian Nichols), or Beatrix Jones (Farrand\/.~ Instead, she read House Beautiful, House and Garden, and popular gardening magazines that would later feature try her own work. She consulted recent books such as Mabel Cabot Sedgwick's The Garden Month small, mdependent commissions. 4 Clusters of peomes and summer phlox with vmes chmbmg on the pergola m Ellen Brook Place, New Hampshire. Photograph by Mattie Edwards Hewitt, 1923 Shipman's own garden at 5 by Month, Helena Rutherfurd Ely's A Woman's Hardy Garden, and others that promoted the revival of interest in hardy plants. As a result, Ellen Shipman's approach to garden design, in particular her planting style, was refreshingly American in spirit, escaping, for the most part, European influences that dominated the work of Farrand and Marian Coffin. Shipman's apprenticeship with Platt strengthened her design sensibilities. She loosely adapted his basic axial garden plan and habit of placing at regular intervals features such as the tubs of plants, statuary, and clipped evergreens associated with Italianate gardens. The resulting compositions, which varied little throughout Shipman's career, balanced formality and informality, more in the manner of Colonial Revival gardens of the era. At the crux of her garden design philosophy was the close integration of house and garden, with easy transitions from one area to the next, without stiffness and artifice. Ellen Shipman had nearly four dozen clients in Massachusetts and several gardens in the Boston area exemplify the range of her capabilities, including two designs from her fledgling years. In 1912, when she was just starting out, she designed a small seaside garden in Mattapoisett for Mrs. Samuel D. Warren as a complement to the modest shingle-style summer house. Shipman's simple, four-square Colonial Revival plan consisted of beds of phlox and lilies edged with low, clipped barberry hedging, with converging stone walks. A sundial and a Lutyens bench-at the time a novelty in Americaappear to have been the two major ornaments. The garden was enclosed on one side by a dense wall of evergreens, and existing cedars (juniperus virginiana) were accommodated in the plan. Shipman felt an unswerving belief in the importance of privacy: \"Planting, however beautiful, is not a garden. A garden must be enclosed ... or otherwise it would merely be a cultivated area.\"' In this respect she differed from Platt, whose walls and hedges defined spaces but rarely offered a sense of seclusion. The present status of this garden is unknown. The following year, in March 1913, Shipman designed an mnovative garden in Wenham, on Boston's North Shore, for Alanson Daniels. Her Preliminary sketch for a garden m Mattapoisett~' Massachusetts, for Mrs. Samuel D Warren, 1912. Shipman's Colomal Revival-style plan has four mam beds edged m clipped barberry, a small hly pool, and a sundial on a side path. design for \"Old Farms\" harmonized with its country setting and the clapboard seventeenthcentury house. At the front entrance, she designed a Colonial Revival dooryard garden with mounds of hardy plants such as peonies, phlox, and lilies in boxwood-edged beds, but behind the house she created a new-style garden that would quickly become one of her signature creations. Here she made a garden with low stone walls of native fieldstone, set in an old orchard. Happily, the \"bones\" of the garden still exist. The design was composed of a series of rectangular beds and walks culminating in a pool and a semicircular \"apse\" with a curved stone bench. Since several of the old apple trees were allowed to \"stray\" into the garden, its character derived directly from its setting. Screening was provided by clumps of small trees and shrubs around the perimeter. Photographs of the garden show it to be one of the earliest instances in which Shipman used more innovative plantings than the simple flowerbeds filled 6 A wall of evergreens frames flowerbeds filled with phlox and lilies in the Warren converge at the sundial Photograph by Edith Hastings Tracy, 1912. garden. Fieldstone paths with masses of only two or three kinds of plants. In the Daniels garden, she created a strong sculptural effect around the small reflecting pool by using clusters of bold foliage-hostas, bergenia, and iris. Her comment, that she used plants \"as a painter uses the colors from his palette,\"is admirably demonstrated in this garden.8 In this respect, her approach to garden design was similar to Gertrude Jekyll's. However, Shipman's style of planting, with her structural \"notes,\" was more architectural than Jekyll's, and she juxtaposed colors in fan-shaped clusters in contrast to Jekyll's impressionistic drift plantings. By the early 1920s Shipman's gardens were receiving wide notice m magazines and books, inspiring many new clients to commission a Shipman garden. One editor summed up a wellpublicized garden in Philadelphia: \"Sheltered and friendly and livable ... a delightful bit of artistry, so skilful and so finely balanced that one forgets the plan and is conscious only of the pervasive pleasantness of it all.\"9 This was the kind of garden that appealed to her clients, wealthy women, the wives of prominent industrialists, who sought traditionalism m the form of good taste and privacy. Often her clients were gardeners themselves, affiliated with local garden clubs where Shipman was a frequent speaker. For Mrs. Henry V. Greenough of Brookline, Shipman designed a small garden in 1926, when she was at the height of her fame. In her design-an excellent example of her facility with small spaces-Shipman skillfully combined formal and wild gardens in a compressed suburban setting. Using her prototypal layout, the garden was surrounded by high brick walls. 10 The plantings around the house and terraces were designed for all-season horticultural interest, with an emphasis on foliage and the color green. Juniper and pachysandra carried the garden through winter. In the adjacent formal garden, her prescription for perpetual bloomfrom bulbs in spring, heliotrope and petunias in summer, and asters and boltoma in the autumn-was precisely outlined on her planting 7 Above, low stone Damels garden walls and a small reflectmg pool, with plantmgs of bold foliage around the edges, Photograph by Edith Hastmgs Tracy, 1913 A plan for the garden is below m the plans. One of Shipman's planting secrets was that she used no more than six to eight types of flowering plants in each design, letting \"each, in its season, dominate the garden. For the time one flower is the guest of honor and is merely supplemented with other flowers.\"1' The other flowers were drawn from lists that she maintained in her working notebooks. If the client was not a gardener herself, then Shipman helped her find a gardener who could maintain the garden to her satisfaction. In the Greenough garden, the farthest point from the house, under a dense tree canopy, was the setting for a naturalistic garden with a pool. Although Shipman will forever be associated with flower borders, she designed a number of wild gardens, sometimes in association with Warren Manning. As in the Greenough garden, she augmented the naturalistic effect by using native stone and creating tiny rills of running water. As a formal counterpart, she also incorporated sculptures, such as a tiny frog sitting on a lily pad. The planting palette included a wide variety of native and non-native species to make 8 A naturalistic pool with natme plants, part of a garden in Brookline, V Greenough m 1926. Photograph by Dorothy Jarvis, c 1931. seem as natural as possible: mountain ash, arborvitae, hemlock, dogwood, laurel, rhododendron, viburnum, big-leaf saxifrage, calla lilies, waterlilies, iris, eupatorium, shortia, and native creepmg woodland and water-loving plants.12 For Mrs. Holden McGinley (Mrs. Greenough's sister), Shipman designed a large garden in Massachuseels, demgned for Mrs Henry it The enclosed garden, with whitewashed brick walls, is divided into three long, narrow gardens, each on a successively lower level and each with distinctive character. The uppermost garden, planted with iris and peonies in low clipped hedges, has as its centerpiece a central, bluestone-bordered lily pool extending the length of the garden. The pool itself is a classic Lutyens and Jekyll design, clearly lifted from the pages of Gertrude Jekyll and Lawrence Weaver's pivotal book, Gardens for Small Country Houses ~(1912). The long, narrow central garden, on axis with the door of the sunroom of the house, has a central greensward flanked by perennial borders, with a blue-bronze sculpture at the far end. Hedges of Carolina hemlock and low walls, with posts covered with climbing roses, separate this area from the gardens on either side. The lower garden is given over almost entirely to roses-'Golden Salmon' polyanthus around its own Milton in 1925 that was by the Massachusetts awarded a blue ribbon Horticultural Society for its \"great charm and restraint ... planted in an unusually interesting manner.\"13 It exemplifies the best of Shipman's approach to garden design at the peak of her career. The gently sloping site overlooking the Blue Hills to the south, with massive trees on the west and north, elicited an imaginative design solution. To take advantage of the view, Shipman created a two-part plan that coaxed visitors across the lawn and into a walled garden before glimpsing the view outward to the hills. 9 For Mrs Holden rooms. McGinley of Milton, Massachusetts, Shipman designed a garden of successively descendmg The upper one, with the bluestone nll, has yellow 'Emily Gray' roses covenng the walls. A lotus fountam is the centerpiece of the middle garden, and the lower one is filled with roses. Photograph by Herbert W Gleason, 1932 ~ In the distance. McGinley garden, an opening in the wall of the lower garden frames Photograph by Herbert W Gleason, 1932 a mew of the Blue Hills m the 10 The spnng border m the McGmley garden has double-flowermg peach trees, pearlbush ~Exochorda racemosa), Spiraea prunifolia, daphne, Phlox dmamcata, and flowermg almonds. Photograph by Herbert W. Gleason, 1932. the central circular pool and lotus-leaf fountain; standard and bush roses, hybrid teas and perpetuals in apricot, copper, and yellow tones in the beds. Another delightful bit of Shipman's artistry can be seen in the spring border adjacent to the house. Along the walls she placed doubleflowering peach trees interspersed with pearlbush, and overhead, a canopy of flowering almonds. Masses of tulips in shades of pink and lavender-\" crescendos,as she called them in her planting notes-were underplanted with pansies and Phlox divaricata. A simple stone-lined dirt path separated the border from the lawn. Even though the example of Shipman's career, and those of Beatrix Farrand and Marian Coffin, opened the door for women in the profession of landscape architecture, relatively few examples of Shipman's work can be seen today. One reason is that her gardens, which were unusually plant-intensive and therefore fragile, had already begun to disappear before she died in 1950. Another aspect is that her practice was devoted almost exclusively to private gardens, and only a handful of these have been converted to public use. Had circumstances been otherwise, two Massachusetts gardens could have fallen mto the latter category. In 1925 Shipman prepared plans for replanting part of Alice Longfellow's garden in Cambridge, originally laid out by Martha Brookes Hutcheson in 1904. Hutcheson was no longer designing gardens at the time of Shipman's com- Shipman's charge was to rejuvenate garden by preparing planting plans, plant lists, and horticultural notes only, without any changes to the overall design of the garden. 14 Many other landscape architects would not have done this type of work-rejuvenating gardens designed by others-but Shipman's willingness to do so exemplifies her complaisant attitude toward garden design. It may also account for the large number of projects she carmission. the 11 I ried out in her career, six hundred as opposed to Farrand's two hundred. The Shipman plantings disappeared years ago and now the property is known as the Longfellow National Historic Site and managed by the National Park Service. The historic significance of the landscape, includmg Durham, North Carolina. Both of these gardens are hosting symposia in 1998 to honor the significance of Ellen Biddle Shipman. Notes I Shipman's planting plans, currently bemg evaluated with the possibility that Shipman's garden may be reinstated.'s In April 1930 Shipman sketched a preliminary design plan for Long Hill, the Beverly, Massachusetts, home of Mrs. Ellery Sedgwick (better known as Mabel Cabot Sedgwick, the garden writer), now a property of The Trustees of Reservations. Shipman proposed a series of garden rooms encircling the house and taking full advantage of the dramatic setting. All the features associated with Shipman's work can be found in this plan, including three square gardens to the east of the house, one of which was a rose garden with a serpentine wall and dolphin fountain. There were several pools, long walks, boxwood-edged flowerbeds, a series of terraces descendmg the hill, and woodland paths. The areas farthest from the house were to be planted with native plants, especially flowering trees and shrubs, while the areas closer to the house were more formally planted. Had her scheme been installed, we would have had a delightful example of Shipman's mature work. Mabel had her own ideas about the garden, so the project is Shipman, foreword, Garden Note Book, p 4 (box 10, folder 15, Rare and Manuscripts Collection, Cornell University). Manning, letter to 2 July ~ 1917 (Archives, Frank Selberlmg, Akron, Stan Hwyet Hall). Ohio, 20 \"House and Garden's Own Hall of Fame,\" House and Garden, June 1933, 50. Ibid , 1 ' Mary Caroline Crawford, \"Homes and Gardens of Cornish,\" House Beautiful, April 1906, 12-14 6 See Jane Brown, \"Lady into Landscape GardenerBeatrix Farrand's Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Arnoldia 51 (Fall 1991)' 2-10 ~ Design chapter, Garden Note Book, 38. s Preface, Garden Note Book, 2. 9 \"Three Pennsylvama Gardens,\" Garden Magazme and Home Bmlder, September 1924, 11. lo See plan and photograph m Mac Gnswold, \"Fairsted,\" Arnoldia 56 (Summer 1996): 11. v 11 Lamar Sparks, \"A Landscape Architect Discusses Gardens,\" Better Homes and Gardens, November lz Form and Abundance of Bloom within a Small Area: The Garden of Mrs. Henry V. Greenough, Brookhne, Massachusetts,\" House Beautiful, March 1930,20 \"Variety of 1931,62. 13 further. While the \"bones\" of several of Shipman's private gardens in the Boston area have survivedstone walls, pools, or paths-none has yet been discovered with the original plantings and it is unlikely that they will be found. For Shipman gardens open to the public, the garden visitor must travel; one of the best examples of her work is Stan Hwyet Hall, m Akron, Ohio. As in the Longfellow garden, Shipman's task was to rejuvenate a walled garden originally designed by Warren Manning. The garden was recently restored, following Shipman's 1929 plans and planting lists but using modern-day cultivars to create her precise color scheme.'~ Two other gardens that may be visited are examples of her late work: Longue Vue Gardens in New Orleans, designed for Edith and Edgar Stern m 1936, and the terrace gardens at Sarah P. Duke Gardens, in went no Ethel B Power, \"A Blue-Ribbon Garden' The Garden of Mrs. Holden McGmley,\" House Beautiful, March 1933, 8G-89, 118. 14 Catherme Evans, Longfellow National Historic Site, Cultural Landscape Report, Boston. National Park Service, 1993, 1' 71-73. The National Park Service is currently reassessmg the garden. Shary Page Berg and Lauren Meier, Longfellow National Historic Site, Cultural Landscape Report, Volume 2 Analysis, Significance, Integmty, forthcommg 16 To learn more about Stan Hywet Hall, B Tankard, \"The Artistry of Ellen see Judith Shipman,\" Horticulture, January 1997, 72-76. Judith B Tankard teaches British garden history in the landscape design program at Radcliffe Semmars, Radcliffe College, and at the Arnold Arboretum. She has written two books on Gertrude Jekyll and a new book, The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman, all published by Sagapress. She is also editor of the Journal of New England Garden History Society. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lilac Sunday'- The Cultivar","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25177","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070856b.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"'Lilac Sunday'-The Cultivar john H. Alexander III Lilac cultivars may be selected for fragrance, color, and abundance of flower. 'Lilac Sunday' was chosen for all these traits but even more for its very attractive habit. Botanical gardens and arboreta routinely share seeds with one another, which they list in publications called Index Semma. Reviewing the 1978 Index Seminum from the Botanical Garden of the Chinese Botanical Academy, Beijing, Peoples Republic of China, I checked the olive family to see what lilacs might be offered. What I found was puzzlmg. Listed was Syringa persica. The plant I knew as Syringa x persica is of uncertam parentage, believed to be a hybrid, and not known to produce progeny. If S. persica and S. x persica were one and the same and the Chinese plant had produced seed, the seedlings might yield evidence of the presumed parentage. Or perhaps it was no hybrid at all but an incorrectly named species native to China, in which case it was a problem for taxonomists. Whatever the parentage, I wanted to grow the plant. We received the seeds in spring 1979. Since lilac seeds usually germinate better after a cold stratification of several months, they were so treated and were ready for sowing on August 20, 1979. By September 4, eighteen had germinated and were later potted. The seed leaves of lilacs are similar regardless of species, but when the next set of leaves appeared, the true leaves, I was surprised. Most had entire leaf margins, as do most species of lilac, but two had cut leaves like Syringa protolaciniata (then known as S. laciniata and previously as S. x persica var. laciniata). What had happened? My own suspicion is that the seed-bearing parent was S. protolacmiata. When S. protolaciniata is crossed with S. vulgaris, the common lilac, the hybrid progeny are known as S. x chinensis (which is commonly confused and sold as S. x persica, or the Persian lilac). Still, the possibility exists that the male parent is S. x hyacinthiflora, or even S. oblata. not the confuand nomenclature, but that one identity of the above-mentioned seedlings has matured into a very attractive landscape plant. The Living Collections staff of the Arboretum is pleased to introduce this new cultivar, Syringa x chinensis 'Lilac Sunday'. The plant that bears the name of the Arboretum's annual celebration must be special. This time-honored Boston tradition draws thousands to the Arboretum in mid-May to experience firsthand the showy, fragrant flowers of the lilac collection. The Arboretum's lilacs were becoming a popular destination in peak bloom time even before the early 1900s when it became an official institutional event. Added to that consideration is another: With the number of lilac cultivars approaching a thousand, the decision to add yet another can't be taken lightly, even though few collections hold more than a fifth of that number, and most of those are cultivars of Syringa vulgaris or S. x hyacinthiflora. (S. x chinensls can claim less than twenty cultivars.)( Truly the cultivar 'Lilac Sunday' is special, as became clear from comments made by staff members. An advantage of working at an arboretum is the ability to plant potential cultivars where other horticulturists will routinely see them. I planted the future 'Lilac Sunday' in a prominent spot at the edge of the greenhouse nursery and watched and waited. I soon learned that I was not alone in falling victim to the charms of 'Lilac Sunday'. Some of my colleagues even came looking for it after it had been relocated to a special site in the lilac collection. The flowers of 'Lilac Sunday' are a fragrant, pale purple-78-C on the Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart-and they produce an abundant display every year, coinciding with However, what is important is sion in 13 the earlier cultivars of the mon com- lilac, Syringa vulgaris, and a few days before S. x chmensls 'Saugeana' and 'Alba'. Although each individual flower is small, about half-an-inch (13 mm), the flower panicles are produced not only at the branch tips, like the common lilac, but also from the lateral buds along the stems at a distance of two or more feet from the branch tips. The branches themselves are willowy, arching under the weight of the flowers and giving the impression of being two feet long. 'Lilac Sunday' should attain a size similar to other cultivars of S. x chinensis, about twelve feet high and as wide. With its cascading blossoms, it will make a very attractive lilac \"fountain.\" Easily rooted from cuttings, five hundred plants have been propagated by tissue culture for distribution at the Arboretum's fall plant sale. Branches archmg under the 'Lilac Sunday'. weight of the abundant blooms of Jack Alexander is Plant Propagator of the Arnold Arboretum. Numerous mflorescences from lateral buds along a branch. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Leitneria floridana: A Shrub for Wet Woodland Conditions","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25176","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add0708526.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Leitneria floridana: A Shrub for Wet Woodland Conditions Gary L. Koller Finding shrubs that grow in wet, shaded locations poses a real challenge. Many tolerate shade and some tolerate wet soils, but tolerance of both rarely occurs in as one known shrub. These attributes can be found in a rare native American corkwood. nizes shaded marshes in order to escape competition from aggressive dryland species. From a Leitneria floridana was first discovered in 1835 in the saline marshes of Flonda's Apalachicola River where it empties into the Gulf of Mexico. The genus commemorates Dr. E. T. Leitner, a German naturalist of the early nineteenth century. Leitneria is monotypic, meaning that the species is alone in its genus. Until recently, the genus, too, was alone in its family, Leitneriaceae. However, recent molecular studies have shown that it belongs with the Simaroubaceae, the so-called quassia family, which includes Ailanthus (the tree-of-heaven) and Picrasma. Leitneria floridana is called corkwood for its light wood, one of the lightest in the New World. With a bulk density of less than thirteen pounds per cubic foot, Leitneria is only slightly heavier than balsawood (Ochroma lagopus), and its buoyancy once made stem sections useful as floats for fishing nets. The wood itself is pale yellow, soft, and close-grained, with no trace of heartwood. Corkwood occurs naturally in three widely separated geographical areas, the largest in Missouri and Arkansas, another in Georgia and Florida, and the third in Texas. It remains rare, its range dimmished due to habitat destruction. In all these locations it grows in shaded marshes in the company of other wet-tolerant species such as Fraxinus profunda (pumpkm ash), Nyssa sylvatica (tupelo), Acer rubrum (red maple), and Taxodmm distichum (bald cypress). In the wild, it occurs in both fresh and brackish water. It has been theorized that Leitneria colo- horticultural perspective, this tolerance of brackish water might make Leitneria useful in poorly dramed urban plantmg islands or in other plantings subjected to extremes of soil moisture and salt spray. Leitneria is variable in both height and habit. Some colonies are loose and open while others are full and dense. The plant has been so little grown in cultivation that it is unknown whether this diversity is due to clonal variation or environmental conditions. If it is genetic, it could be the basis from which to select superior forms for garden use. Corkwood characteristically produces a large, multistemmed colony or thicket varymg from five feet to twenty in height with an equal or greater spread. At the Arnold Arboretum the largest planting dates from the late 1800s and includes five accessions, the first originating from B. F. Bush in Dunklin County, Missouri, in 1894. It is interesting to note that Bush discovered Leitneria in 1892 and just two years later supplied the Arboretum with plants. Additional plants came from the Parks Department in Rochester, New York, in 1925, 1927, and 1968. All are growing in what is known as the Leitneria swamp, a low spot where water collects and stands most of the year. They have been allowed to spread over the wet ground and have coalesced to form a thicket twelve to fourteen feet tall, approximately fifty feet long and forty feet wide. 15 5 photograph of the Leitnena swamp at the Arnold Arboretum gives branchmg habit, and bark quahty This an idea of the plants' trunk spacmg, The stems colony consists of a multitude of slender that rise separately, unbranched to a height of four or five feet. Some trunks rise straight to the upper tips while many lean with no apparent organization. The snow of April 1, 1997, squashed our colony, turning it into a tangle of stems, and led me to suspect that the disarray noted earlier is caused by storms. It would probably benefit from coppicing to encourage growth and renewed order to the trunks. The largest stems are three-and-a-half inches thick at one foot above soil level and twelve to fourteen feet tall. Leaves are held along the upper one-third of the trunk, creating a light and airy effect. The trunks-light chocolate in color with prominent lenticels-are slender and tapering from bottom to top. I am told that in the wild, plants that grow in standing water produce thick stems at or above the water level, but that is not the case at the Arboretum, perhaps because water pools only near the center of the 16 Note the density of the Leitnena colony and the play of hght across Its mregular contour colony seasonally and is rather shallow at its depth. Plants sucker from the root system, but here the spread is slow and easily contamed, due in part, I would guess, to frequent grass mowing at its perimeter. In Florida, however, given the opportunity, they become one of the most rapidly spreading woody aquatics. maximum a quarter-inch wide, looking like small leathery plums. Our colony has never produced fruit, but we have recently added female plants and perhaps in a few years will have a seed and Flowering occurs in late April with full bloom coinciding with that of downy serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea). Leitneria is dioecious, bearing either male or female flowers. The flowers appear before the leaves as clustered, erect axillary catkins about one-and-a-half inches long; female catkins are smaller and more slender than the male catkins. Both are grayish in color and are relatively inconspicuous. Fruit occurs in clusters of two to four flattened, dry, brown drupes, three-quarters of an inch long orchard available for northern growers. Leaves are simple and entire with an even edge, smooth and leathery in texture, dark green and glossy above and narrowly elliptical in shape. The gray-green undersurface has a prominent midrib and pinnate secondary veins that stand out or away from the underside. Larger leaves in the Arboretum's colony reach nine inches from the tip of the leaf to the distal end of the petiole and measure half-an-inch at their widest. Foliage emerges just after flowering-early May in Boston. In midsummer the leaves have an attractive luster, glimmering as they reflect sunlight. The foliage is among the most persistent of the deciduous autumn leaves, remain- 17 7 November, then becoming greenish-yellow falling still green by early December. In 1995 the Arboretum colony was thick with leaves through November 29 when the weight of a snowfall wrenched the majority ing or green till late of leaves from the stems. The northern hardiness range of Leitneria has yet to be determined. Plants under good snow cover have survived minus 19 degrees Fahrenheit in Rochester, New York, and gone on to produce fruit. In an area of Missouri where the normal winter low falls m the range of minus 10 0 to minus 20 degrees Fahrenheit, a Leitneria colony survived unscathed an abnormally early cold snap with temperatures of minus 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Another plantmg in Missouri grows in a habitat very different from those found in the wild. While it is in partial shade, it grows on a five-percent slope in drymesic soil. It has survived serious drought and summer temperatures of 110 degrees Fahrenheit ; in these conditions, it is not surprising that the Missouri that when springtime roadside fires kill back the stems of Leitnena, plants resprout vigorously and return to their original height in about three months. Periodic mowing also stimulates new growth. Seedlings often spread into wet fields, and they thrive in areas of disturbance but are threatened by encroachment from competitors such as persimmon (Diospyros) and sweet gum It has also been colony does not spread. reported from m The flower buds of Leitnena flondana, which expand mid-Apnl, are beautiful mewed close up. (Liquidambar). There is currently little documentation regarding corkwood's predators. Reports from the Missouri Botanical Gardens indicate that their plants suffered minor damage from the Ailanthus webworm (Atteva punctella): caterpillars attack the young growth-leaves and young fruit-makmg small holes. However, spraying has not been required for control. The Missouri Department of Conservation reports that in its natural habitat, corkwood develops cankers on trunks of old plants. The causative organism has not been identified. Neither problem has occurred in the Arnold Arboretum's planting. A grower in Florida who lishmg breeding colonies of native specializes in estabplants col- This mflorescence, photographed Apml, is at the peak of flowenng near the end of 18 8 The dark, glossy green leaves of Leitnena are smooth and leathery in texture. lected wild seedlings of Leitneria some years ago. The young plants were gathered from a ditch with brackish water in the Big Bend area of the Florida Gulf Coast, growing under a thin canopy of sweetbay magnolias and cabbage palms. In three years a test colony of Leitneria grew twenty to thirty feet in every direction, sparse at first but quickly filling in and spreading faster than sweetspire (IteaJ or chokeberry (Aronia). The planting so quickly overgrew its neighbors that he cut it down and treated it with herbicides, but not before male and female plants were identified and rescued to establish a new planting for seed production. In the more northerly climate of Massachusetts, I have lifted small divisions soon after spring thaw, well before any new growth has started. These divisions were pencil thin, twelve to eighteen inches in length, each with a small section of root. The potted propagules 19 9 only two to three months to develop a strong root system, and by the second spring they were sending up new shoots. Leitneria is also easily reproduced from layers ; in Florida, one layer planted in autumn will produce eight to twelve new suckers by the end of the next took fall. What makes corkwood special that it in attention to occurs worthy of gardeners is naturally in stand- ing water, depth. up to two or three feet In a 1940 Gardeners' Chronicle article, Donald Pasfield other distribution, L. flondana thrives best m permanently inundated swamps and deep sloughs where its roots are constantly wet and where to inspect it closely one must either go in a boat or wade through mud and water. Should any specimens be growing in less permanently inundated localities, where the water supply is less constant, they plamly suffer the deprivation and, under such conditions seldom exceed five feet in height.\" In New England there are many cultivated sites with poor drainnotes \"that there are few trees so strictly aquatic in II age or naturally wet conditions, often with some degree of shade. flondana drawn by C E Faxon for C S. Sargent's The Silva One of my recent challenges was Leitneria of North America, 1890. to select plants for a shaded kettlehole pond, five to six feet deep, whose During the fall of 1995 when the pond remained almost dry, I planted dormant layers, only source of water is from surface drainage. two to two-and-a-half feet tall, two to three It has no natural outlet so in very wet years the pond fills up completely. It has, in fact, over- feet away from the water's edge. To my surprise, several of the young plants, anchored only by flowed its banks on two occasions in the past At the other extreme, during a poorly developed root system, were quickly quarter century. the drought of 1995 the pond dried up comdislodged by waterfowl and pond-dwelling animals. Spring rains caused the water level to rise except for some muck at the lowest pletely two feet, almost swampmg the new plants and point. Few plants will survive a fluctuation of this magnitude. The owners considered their leaving only a few inches and a small tuft of muddy oval to be an eyesore during times of low foliage above the waterline for the whole summer of 1996. Nonetheless, the corkwoods surwater and wanted its edge enhanced with a plantI decided to experiment with Leitneria. vived, producing sparse growth as they struggled ing. 20 New Family, and a Recircumscnption of Simaroubaceae. Taxon 44(2): 177-181. Report Kral, R 1983 A on Some Rare, Threatened, or Forest-Related Vascular Plants of the South. Volume 1-Isoetaceae through Euphorbiaceae. Atlanta: USDA Forest Service, Southern Region, Technical Publication R8- Endangered TP 2, 271-275. 1940. Leitneria Pasfield, D. H. Pfeiffer, floridana. The Gardeners' Chromcle 107: 185. WM floridana. 203. 1912. The Morphology of Leitnena The Botamcal Gazette 53(3): 189- Readel, K. E , D S. Leitnena Seigler, and D Young Alkaloids of flondana Urbana. Department of Plant Biology, University of Illinois. In preparation. Leitneria floridana occurs in the mld m dis7unct Sargent, populations m ~ust five states-Florida, Georgia, Texas along the Gulf Coast, Arkansas, and Missouri. Nowhere is it very common, and due to habitat destruction has been placed on the federal hst of threatened plants. C. S. 1947. The Silva of North Amemca Vol. VII. New York: Peter Smith, 109-112 Steyermark,J A. 1940 Spring Flora of Missouri St. Louis: Missouri Botamcal Gardens, and Chicago: Field Museum of Natural History, 116. take hold. Were we to begin again, we would select well-rooted container-grown stock. In the past months rain has again been abundant, and as of mid-May, 1997, the plants remained completely submerged by three to four feet of water. Will they survive? Only time will tell. to Swmk, F., certainly M. T. Hall, and W. J. Hess. 1978 Orphans in the Plant World: Examples of Monotypic Families. The Morton Arboretum Quarterly 14(2): 28-32. Trelease, Vines, W. 1895. Leitnezia flondana Report, Missouri Botamcal Gardens 6: 65-90. R. A. 1977. Trees of East Texas. University of Texas Press, 40-42. Austin: Bibliography Brown, C. L., and L. K. Kirkman. 1990. Trees of Georgia and Adjacent States Portland, OR: Timber Vines, R. A 1960. Trees, Shrubs and Woody Vmes of the Southwest Austin: University of Texas Press, 121. Press, 69-70. Channell, R. B., and C. E. Wood, Jr. 1962. The Leitnemaceae in the Southeastern Umted States. ~ournal of the Arnold Arboretum 43~4\/:: ( 435-438. Acknowledgments thanks to all those who reviewed this manuscript prior to publication: Kay Havens and John McDougal, Missouri Botamcal Gardens; Donald Kurz, Timothy Smith, and George Yatskievych, Missouri Department of Conservation, Jefferson City; Lanny Rawdon, Arborvillage Nursery, Holt, Missouri; Robert Macrntosh and Robert McCartney of Woodlanders Nursery, Aiken, South Carolina; Charles Webb, Supenor Nursery, Lee, Florida; and Robert Hoepfl, Department of Parks, Rochester, New York. The author extends provided information special or Clewell, A. F. 1985. Guide to the Vascular Plants of the Flomda Panhandle Tallahassee: Florida State University Press Day, J. N. 1975. The Autecology of Leitnena flondana Mississippi State University, Department of Botany: Ph.D. Dissertation. 1910. Leitneria Dunbar, J. floridana The Gardeners' 1995. Picrammaceae, A Chromcle 47: 228. Fernando, E. S., and C. J. Quinn. Gary Koller Arboretum. is Senior Horticultunst at the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review. Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, 2nd ed, by Harrison L. Flint","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25174","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add0708128.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Book Review Peter Del Tredici Landscape Plants for Eastern North America, 2nd edition. Harrison L. Flint. John Wiley and Sons, 1997. 852 pages. Hardcover. $95 When the first edition of Harrison Flint's Landscape Plants for Eastern North Amenca appeared in 1983, it offered an alternative to many other books in the field. In particular, its strong graphic display of plant adaptation as well as its excellent line drawings by Jenny Lyverse provided a visual approach to how plants might fit into the landscape and what their habitat requirements are. The excellent graphics made the book particularly useful to landscape architects who need to visualize the forms of the plants as part of the design process. After being out of print for a number of years, the long-overdue second edition of Professor Flint's classic work is again available. While the \"Cultmars\" and \"Related Species\" sections for most of the one thousand entries have been greatly expanded over the first edition, the book retains its primary focus on the horticultural characteristics of the species themselves. Compared with other, more cultivar-focused books, Flint maintains a measure of objectivity about the plants he describes and presents a refreshingly nonjudgmental portrait of a given plant's horticultural strengths and weaknesses. One of the most useful features of the first edition was the twenty-four appendices at the end of the book, which categorized species according to their various horticultural Magnolia virginiana. include herbaceous plants may have made in 1983, but given the book's overwhelming concentration on woody plants, and the subsequent emergence of perennials as a subject area in their own right, their inclusion makes little sense. I was also disappointed that not all of the author's comments appear to have been updated since 1983. For example, the entry on Eleagnus umbellata, the autumn olive, reads: \"This shrub is trouble-free, requiring no maintenance other than pruning to develop fullness and to control size when necessary.\" Nowhere is it mentioned that the species has become a serious pest throughout much of the East because of its invasive tendencies. On the other hand, the entry on the Bradford pear has been updated to include a thorough discussion of the problems associated with the plant's upright structure. All in all, the publication of the second edition of Landscape Plants for Eastern North America is an opportunity not to be missed by anyone who missed the book the first time around. to sense attributes-size, shape, function, adaptation, and seasonal interest. The number of appendices has been expanded to forty-seven, and they cover a much broader range of plant attributes. Again, for landscape architects and designers, these lists should prove extremely useful. On the negative side, the second edition still retains a small selection of about twenty-five herbaceous \"groundcovers,\"included, I suspect, for the sake of completeness. The decision "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Storms and the Landscape: 1938-1997","article_sequence":5,"start_page":23,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25178","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070896f.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Kelley, Susan","article_content":"Storms and the Susan Landscape: 1938-1997 Kelley snow storms that occur in late spring after a few unseasonably warm days come as sharp, cruel surprises, and for trees and shrubs in which the sap is rising and buds are beginning to break, the damage can be severe and even permanent. Its extent may not be seen for months or even years. The ice and The blizzard that dumped 25 inches of snow on Boston and the surrounding area on April 1, 1997, is the most recent in a long series of weather events that have affected the trees and shrubs of the Arnold Arboretum. Although it did not pack the destructive winds typical of hurricanes, the damage incurred by this stormthe worst since that of the 1938 hurricane-has altered the Arboretum's landscape just as significantly. Indeed, each storm inflicts its unique wounds on the contents, scope, and shape of the collection. Evidence of these past events remains in the form of assymetrical or distorted crowns, wounds incurred by massive branches ripped from trunks, cracks in trunks and branches, and insect and disease mfestations that result indirectly from storm damage. Mature specimens, especially, bear the scars of past storms, and as often as not, individual trees have been touched more than once. Following are some facts and figures from the major storms, 1938 to 1997: together they add up to dramatic changes in the Arboretum's collections and overall structure. mercial timber across New England.' In the Arboretum collections, where wind velocities at times exceeded 100 miles per hour and 60 mileper-hour winds were sustained for four hours, approximately 1,500 trees were uprooted or snapped off, with the majority of the damage occurring on the tops and exposed areas of Hemlock Hill, Peters Hill, and Bussey Hill. On Hemlock Hill alone at least 400 hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis), some of which dated back nearly two hundred years, were uprooted, and on Peters Hill most of the poplar collection was leveled. The conifer collection and several small flowenng trees behind the Hunnewell Buildmg were also severely damaged, and along South Street 100 red and white pines were destroyed, leaving exposed the 1,000 torch azaleas (Rhododendron obtusum var. kaempferi) and 750 mountain laurels (Kalmia latifolia) that were planted by E. H. Wilson in 1929 and 1930.2 Because most of the damage occurred in the natural woodland areas of the Arboretum, only 12 accessioned specimens destroyed by this \"Great Hurricane\" were not duplicated in the collections. Except for obvious gaps on exposed sites, much of the remainder of the collections was left unscathed. By late spring of 1939 most of the fallen timber had been cut and hauled away, and 625 two-foot to six-foot Canadian hemlocks and red and white pines had been planted on Hemlock Hill and along South Street. Several Carolina hemlocks (Tsuga caroliniana) were transplanted from the Walter Street tract to the slope behind the Hunnewell Building. Today, Hemlock Hill's pit-and-mound 1938-The Great Hurricane With a sudden change of course off the coast of North Carolina, the hurricane of 1938-the first to hit New England since 1815-took the North Atlantic states by surprise. Instead of curving out to sea, the storm turned and headed up the coast. When it was over, furious winds and heavy rain had caused 400 million dollars in property damage, the deaths of 608 people, and the destruction of 730 million board feet of com- Arborists John Del Rosso and Todd Byrnes begm the removal of Pmus leucodermis amidst P. cembra, and P. banksiana m the Arboretum's comfer collection. uprooted P. ngida, 24 formations remain hurricane of 1938. as subtle reminders of the Pulling Back Trees clearing of broken branches and downed trees, the Arboretum's grounds crew has often gone to great efforts to salvage as many trees as possible. After the 1938 hurricane, some of the smaller trees that were blown over were pulled back into position, and in 1954, within ten days of Hurricane Carol, the grounds crew was able to upright and stake 100 young, immature trees that were uprooted or tilted. Of these 100, 24 remain in the collection today, including a stately Magnolia acuminata In the midst of post-storm 1954-Carol and Edna; 1960-Donna On the morning of August 31 Hurricane Carol blew through the Arboretum destroying 300 trees in its path. Of the specimens removed, 46 were from the conifer collection and an additional 40 from Hemlock Hill. Spruce (Plcea) and fir (AbiesJ were the most heavily damaged of the conifers; more than half of the specimens had trunks of 15 to 36 mches in diameter. The oak (Quercus) and poplar (Populus) collections also lost 13 and 18 trees, respectively. Several specimens from the tulip tree (Liriodendron) grove on Peters Hill were downed as well as 5 ashes (Fraxinus), 7 hickories (Carya), and 6 trees in the maple (Acer) collection. Only 7 of the destroyed trees were not duplicated in the collection. New gaps introduced new vistas, but some areas, such as the base of Hemlock Hill where the hill itself was exposed, were for years a constant reminder of the force of this hurricane. Hurricane Edna hit eleven days later, on September 11, but caused just 15 percent of the damage to the collection as Carol had. Only 24 accessioned plants had to be removed plus several nonaccessioned Douglas firs (Pseudotsuga menziesii). Of the 24 trees destroyed, 8 were not duplicated in the collection. Hurricane Donna, which struck the Northeast on September 12, 1960, was even less destructive. It damaged only 40 trees and shrubs in the Arboretum, and of these, 8 were removed. 1966 In (494-40*B) dating from 1940 and standing next to the Arborway wall; a large Magnolia kobus (141-41 *A) from 1941, growing near the Hunnewell Building; a Tsuga caroliniana a (19447'D) planted on Peters Hill in 1926; and 20 of the crabapples and hawthorns on Peters Hill. Twenty-seven individuals that were either blown over or loosened at the base in Hurricane Edna (1954) were straightened and staked, but only 3 of those remain m the collection today: Cedrus hbani (5-42*C) on Bussey Hill, dating from 1942; Jumperus communis (792-41 *A), from 1941; and a Crataegus crus-galh (14015*A) been on Peters Hill that dates from 1903. Interestingly, 10 of these 27 plants had February, heavy eastern wet snow fell throughout part of the United States, causing branches of trees and shrubs to bend and many break. Arboretum horticulturist Donald Wyman, who devoted much of his writing to plant hardiness, reported on the effects of the heavy snow on woody plants. Without making specific reference to trees in the Arboretum collection, he noted the damage to willows, red and silver maples, and lindens, which are weakwooded species and thus more likely to break under such conditions. Specimens of Douglas fir, another weak-wooded species, and dogwood the uprighted after Carol. These 10, along with the other salvaged trees from Edna, were dead within two to years of the date of the storm. After Hurricane Donna (1960) 25 plants were pulled back and staked; 8 of those had been pulled back after Carol in 1954. Today 12 of those damaged by Donna survive in the Arboretum's collection, includmg 2 that were uprighted in 1954-Carya laciniosa ( 12898 P) and Malus ten * glabrata \/11165*B\/. 25 Arboretum crew \"pullmg back ' a box elder (Acer negundo) after Hurrlc.ane Carol m 1954. 26 apparently also broke up heavy snow that winter. 1969 under the weight of snow in the Boston Globe likened the destruction from the nor'easter on February 9 to that of the hurricane of 1938. Yet another storm, February 24 through 28, was touted as the worst in Boston's history. In all, an estimated 50,000 trees in Boston alone were damaged by the storms, including approximately 100 trees in the Arboretum. Most were damaged from the wet, heavy snow that fell early in the month. Although no trees were uprooted or felled, many in the beech, hornbeam, maple, and magnolia collections and several crabapples on Peters Hill were broken up, as were 8 of the prominent magnolias growing in front of the Hunnewell Building. Three of those magnolias were removed in 1992 for the construction of the new access ramp. Three others suffered major damage in the storm of 1997but remain in the collection today. Reports of record-breaking Whereas Arboretum plant records contain no reference to the 1978 blizzard, no less than 42 entries note damage to plants from the January 1977 snow. Several groups of plants located between the Hunnewell Building and Bussey Hill experienced especially severe damage: the maples, amelanchiers, birches, hackberries, magnolias, lindens, and elms. 1985-Gloria 1976,1977,1978 living in New England at the time can the winter of 1978. January brought 40 forget inches of snow to Jamaica Plain with another 27 on February 6 and 7. The February blizzard was so severe that the governor of Massachusetts declared a state of emergency. Traffic was halted, businesses were closed for days, and citizens were advised to stay at home. Several weeks passed before the grounds of the Arboretum were accessible to clean-up crews. Clear skies and harsh winds desiccated many broadleaved evergreen plants. That year the flowers of spring-blooming shrubs and trees were confined mostly to lower branches since the buds on the top portions, injured by the winds, did not fully develop. Nonetheless, although great drifts accumulated, the snow was light and powdery, and there is no recollection, verbal or written, of any lasting damage to the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum. In Boston the events of the blizzard of 1978 certainly overshadowed the harsh winter of 1976-1977, but for the plants in the Arboretum, the cold temperatures, snow accumulation, and high winds of 1976-1977 had lasting effects. No one September 27, the Arboretum staff prepared for what was predicted to be the worst hurricane since the Great Hurricane of 1938. Fortunately, Gloria traveled inland and northwesterly through the Connecticut River Valley. Although wind velocities in the Boston area never reached hurricane force, sustained winds of 50 to 60 miles per hour were recorded and the damage to the Arboretum was significant. A total of 45 accessioned trees were destroyed and another 100 sustained major damage. Two taxonomically important plants were lost in Gloria: Euptelea polyandra, the only remaining individual of that taxon of C. S. Sargent's Japan collection, and x Crataegosorbus miczurinii, which was severed at its base. It was during Gloria that the \"sibling\" of the silver maple (Acer saccharinum) on Meadow Road, which is the tallest deciduous tree currently on the property, was destroyed. Four plants of the 45 destroyed were the only representatives of their taxon-including Abies concolor 'Glenmore' and Carya x laneyi, the type specimen collected in 1895 by John Jack on the shores of the St. Lawrence River-and have not been replaced since.3 On The Blizzard of 1997 The 1990s have seen their share of hurricanes, snow, and ice, but in terms of damage to plants, none compare to the blizzard of 1997. Indeed, no single weather event since the 1938 hurricane has altered the Arboretum's landscape as did the blizzard of April 1, 1997. Coming after a mild and essentially snowless winter, the freezing rain followed by more than 25 inches of heavy, wet snow that accumulated during the afternoon of March 31 and into the next day was truly a surprise. The grounds maintenance crew worked quickly to clear roads and pathways and 27 Although the sprmg flow of sap makes branches more flexible, the weight of the snow from the April 1 was too great for many trees. This Carpmus betulus is one of six horn beams scheduled to be removed. to remove the hazardous trees and branches. Within three weeks the curatorial staff had surveyed the entire Arboretum property (except for the Walter Street tract) and identified a total of 1,705 damaged plants, or 13 percent of the Arboretum's total accessions. We defined various categories of damage: trees with more than 50 percent crown damage or large stress fissures in the trunk are considered \"removals\"; trees with 25 to 50 percent damage sustained \"major\" damage; and trees with less than 25 percent have \"minor\" damage. Of the total, 584 trees suffered major damage, another 836 had minor damage, and 285 are removals. Thirty trees were uprooted. An additional 200 nonaccessioned trees growing on Hemlock Hill experienced damage: 12 were uprooted, 28 had major damage, 40 had minor damage, and at least 85 were either snapped off at one to fifteen feet from the base or had the very top broken out and are considered storm major role in this storm. Out of almost 2,000 damaged trees, there were relatively few blowdowns, as would be typical of wind damage. Rather, the damage was mechanical, more a function of how branches caught and held the wet snow. The evergreen foliage of conifers provided a large surface area for accumulation, and small flowering trees with horizontal branching structure bent to the ground under the weight of the snow, which was greater than the branch size could accommodate. In many cases, evidence of previous damage, disease, or rot was apparent in broken branches, but what was surprising was that many of the trees damaged appeared to be healthy, adding to our determination that the sheer weight of the snow was the primary cause of destruction. Accordingly, damage was not uniform throughout the collection. Most affected were the conifers, beeches, hornbeams, oaks, Japanese maples, and lindens. Conifers were the hardest hit group: 698 of the total 1,705 experienced some form of damage. Of these, 141 will be removed. A walk along Conifer Path reveals removals. Although the extent of the damage rivals that of the Great Hurricane, wind did not play a 28 the devastating effects. Although not necessarily of significant taxonomic importance to the collection, many trees, long a part of the defining character of that section of the Arboretum, are either gone or their typical forms destroyed. Pines in particular suffered tremendous damage. Throughout the collection nonaccessioned specimens of our native white pines (Pinus strobus) lost numerous massive branches, and at least 16 of those accessioned were damaged. Eight of the 16 damaged Japanese black pines (P. thunbergii), which are so distinctive in the landscape, may have to be removed. Scots pines (P. sylvestris) planted within the main conifer collection and elsewhere on the property also broke up under the weight of the snow: 14 had major damage, 10 minor damage, and at least 6 were removed. In all, 208 specimens of Pmus were damaged; 109 Picea; 67 Abies; 52 Tsuga; 40 Chamaecyparis; and 36 Thuja. Included m the damaged conifers are several original collections of C. S. Sargent and E. H. Wilson. Even the most casual observer walking along Valley Road cannot help but notice the devastatmg effects of this storm. Massive limbs were ripped from 80- to 90-foot oaks, and the hornbeam collection may never look the same. Their densely spaced branches, made more limber by the spring flow of sap, bent to the ground and in many instances snapped. In all, 27 of 78 hornbeams were damaged: 6 will probably be removed, 15 suffered major damage, and 6 minor damage. trees adjacent to the walnut collecbasically unhurt, but those growing at slightly higher elevation farther down Valley Road toward the beeches experienced some of the worst damage in the entire Arboretum coltion were The oak lection. Hundreds of fallen branches littered Valley Road and the ground below the oaks, while many other broken limbs hung precariously above. No fewer than 62 oaks bear the scars of this storm, and an additional 12 will be removed. The beech collection, weakened by disease and previous storms, was also ravaged by the weight of the snow. At least 51 were damaged. The stately Metasequoia glyptostroboides that graces the intersection of Valley Road and Hemlock Hill Road also could not withstand the load of the snow: several branches broke Pmus sustamed major leucodermis, one of three removed from the comfer collection damage m the 1997 bhzzard. Another specimen of the same accession 29 A variety of Japanese white pine (Pinus parviflora var. pentaphylla~, a graft from by Charles S Sargent in 1881 from a plant on his estate in Brooklme. a scion taken 30 -----~----------------- -------------- - _ Arborists from the Bartlett Tree Company helped for a week m the clean-up after the April 1 storm, usmg them alpme aerial lift. Several of the black oaks (Quercus velutma\/ visible from Valley Road had to be heavily pruned or removed 31 about 4 feet out from the trunk. Five other dawn redwoods growing in the conifer collection and near the Hunnewell Buildmg experienced similar damage. Throughout the landscape, small flowering trees such as magnolia, crabapple, dogwood, hawthorn, witchhazel, pear, and cherry-230 in all-suffered. Thirty-two of this number were magnolias, of which 4 had to be removed. The gap left by the removal of the Magnolia 'Leonard Messel' that grew in front of the Leitneria swamp constitutes a significant change to that section of the Arboretum. Twenty-two magnolias growing around the Hunnewell Building had limbs broken by the snow; 3 of these prominent trees also suffered broken limbs in the snow storm of 1969. In this blizzard, unlike the hurricane of 1938, the exposed areas of Bussey Hill and Peters Hill were spared. Birches that are prominent on the slopes of Bussey Hill were untouched, but those that were planted within the conifer collection were at the mercy of the many branches falling from the evergreens. On Peters Hill over 200 specimens of conifers and small flowering trees growing in more protected areas at the base of the hill on the north and northeast sides expemenced heavy damage: 40 trees were identified as removals, 73 had major damage, and 94, minor will spend many months cleaning up from this storm, and the greenhouse staff will attempt to repropagate severely damaged species. The arborists and curation staff no doubt will continue to uncover damage from this latest storm, and plant records will be amended and maps edited to reflect the changes m the collections. The gaps left by the lost specimens and the scars on those that remain will for years serve as remmders of the effects the Blizzard of 1997. Endnotes Curatomal staff can draw on a variety of resources for histoncal data on plants Plant records, which have been maintained since the Arboretum's inception, offer mvaluable information on the condition (current and past) of individual plants Daily weather records maintained by greenhouse personnel and dating back to 1918 give concise meteorological data. Arboretum directors' reports and articles published m The Bulletin of Popular information, Arnoldia, and local newspapers descnbe the severe damage suffered by groups of plants and individual specimens in the collection as well as the not-uncommon mconsistencies of New England weather and its effects on trees and shrubs. In addition, photographic images of individual specimens and portions of the collection that have been affected by storms are maintained m the Arboretum's archives and provide a umque perspective of the landscape over time. ~ Leonard Ware, New York Times, Sept. 24, 1939; Donald Wyman, letter to Charles F. Irish, Nov. 29, 1938, Arnold Arboretum Archmes. damage. major loss to the collection is a venerable specimen of Styrax japomca that was grown from seed collected by C. S. Sargent in Japan in 1892 and planted near the Centre Street gate. After the ice storm of March 1995, a large limb was removed from this specimen, and several cracks formed in some of the remaining limbs so it was only a matter of time before another storm would strike the final blows. Carya x brownii, a hybrid of the native pecan (C. illinoensisJ and bitternut (C. cordiformis), was completely uprooted in the same Centre Street gate area. It is the only tree lost in this storm that is not represented elsewhere in the collection. A 2 Ida Hay, Science in the Pleasure Ground Northeastern University Press), 1995, 213. (Boston: 3 laneyil, a plant lost m also unduplicated in the collection, are both taxa named by Charles S Sargent: m the first instance, from a plant he saw growmg near a small grove of C illinoensis near the Arkansas River, and in the second, from a single tree growing m dense shade with Carya cordiformis and Carya ovata in Quebec. Because the identity of each of these new species was based upon single individuals, one could perhaps question the taxonomic merit of such plants. Carya x x brownm, like C Hurricane Glona that was Acknowledgments Special thanks to Kyle Port, Curatonal responsible for plant records, for his energy, and wit Bardon, while assessmg storm mapping and labeling m in an Assistant expertise, damage, and to Beth intern, who saw and m The heavy, April clearly wrought an enormous amount of damage on the Arboretum collections. The grounds maintenance staff along with summer interns wet snow of the I blizzard touched more plants than do most interns the Arboretum three weeks entire summer. Susan Kelley is Curatomal Associate m charge of mapping and labeling at the Arnold Arboretum 32 This pitch pme (Pmus mgida~ was one of 30 accessioned trees uprooted m the 1997 bhzzard heavy, wet snow, poor soil, and shallow roots all contmbuted to this tree's demise. The "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25179","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8acd260a328.jpg","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum S , R I N G . , \" - 1 , , 7 Harvard It seemed like University Herbaria Open House an Robert E. Cook, Director interesting idea for a birthday party, but would actmanni- anyone come~ Last fall, as we planned ties to celebrate our 125th versary in 1997, a staff member that we might have an house at the Harvard Uniopen versmy Herbaria. The Herbana are the repository of five million plant specimens from around the world that, with its library holdings, consutute the most important suggested for Asian botanical research m North Amenca. The Arboretum collections are integrated with those of four other former botanical institutions: the Gray Herbarium, the Oakes Ames Orchid Collection, the Botanical Museum, and the Farlow Herbarium of Cryptogamic Botany. We resource thought possibly a few people might be interested in what goes behind the scenes, so we set the date for the evemng of May 8, 1997. on The exotic menu of exhibits would include a wide range of posters and presentations such as Molecular Systematics-DNA: How You Get It, How You See It, What It Means; The Baobabs of Madagascar; Clusiaceae and HIV-The Medical Connection; An Interactive Rainforest Key; Botanical Illustrations-Linking Past and Present; The Flora of China and the World Wide Web; Biodiversity Mapping Tools; volunteer Bob Reed, right, and friends look conservation of the flora of his native China. Long-time on as Jinshuang Ma discusses the distribution and Mangroves, Figs, and Chocolate. Professor Mike Donoghue, the director of the Harvard University Herbaria, and I would host the evening. At five in the afternoon the doors opened and than four hundred friends of botanical studies at Harvard, many of them members of the Arboretum, enjoyed the displays and talks over the next four hours. The staff were astounded at the large numbers and the level of interest shown by all in the more arcane recesses of botanical research. The visitors were enthralled, and many left with the recommendation that we hold an open house more every year. Scientists often underestimate the appetite of the general public for genuine scientific informa- tion, especially when it is presented by the researchers themselves, who cannot help but communicate their excitement with the process of discovery. Our 125th Anmversary Open House brought the truth of this home to me again; and we shall indeed find an occasion before long to bring our friends together around the botanical research that is the mission of the Arboretum. good friend of the Arboretum, Mrs. F. Stanton Deland, Jr., and Lisa Hastings, Arboretum Director of A Development, view botanical of the Farlow Herbarium. prints in the reading room Best Wishes for a Loyal Friend Patrick Willoughby, Superintendent of Grounds for the past thirteen years, has left the Arboretum to become Assistant Director of Physical Plant at Wellesley College. With a staff of twenty-one, Patrick will be in charge of maintaining Wellesley's 300campus, includmg natural areas, athletic fields, and a nine-hole golf course. Patrick came to the Arboretum in 1980 as Assistant acre First Call for the Annual Fall Plant Sale Mark your calendar for the Arboretum's Annual Fall Plant Sale, scheduled for Sunday, September 21,9 a.m., at the Case Estates in Weston. A wellestablished Arboretum tradition, the fall sale is our largest member- ship event. Last year, over eight Superintendent of Grounds. Soon after, he received a Garden Club of America scholarship for study in Great Britain. As Supenntendent of Grounds since 1984, he has nurtured the Living Collections through droughts, ice storms, and blizzards, errant visitors and rampant dogs. Patrick's last month here was spent putting the Arboretum back in order after the Blizzard of '97. He's been a valuable colleague and a good fnend; we will sorely miss his wit and good humor. hundred members attended the sale with its live and silent auctions and Plant Society Row. Unusual plants this year will include a new introduction, Syrznga x chinensis'Lilac Sunday' (see Jack Alexander's article), the golden larch (Pseudolarrx amabrlu), and Cornus kousa 'Milky Way'. Arboretum members will be plant sale catalogs in August and vouchers for free plants in early September; members also benefit from special members-only hours and dis- mailed all purchases made m the day of the sale. Members at the sustaining level ($100) receive an invitation to the plant sale preview beginning at 8:30 a.m. This year we will be counts on the barn on feature: thirtyeducation sessions on planting, pruning, and overwintenng plants. Mark your calendar for this horticultural happening and plan to join us! adding a new minute Dogwood Collection Named for Mrs. Fessenden Storm Lisa Recovery Appeal Director Hastings, of Developmerzt following the storm, nearly $6,000 collected from the donation canisters located on the grounds. Beautiful weather and extensive media coverage brought record numbers to Lilac Sunday. Special tables set up to offer information about the storm's effects on the Living Collections increased donations on the grounds, bringing the total to $8,400. We were heartened not ~ust by the donations but also by notes applauding the was Response to the special appeal following the dramatic April storm has been tremendously positive. We received swift and very strong support from many loyal members and donors and also an over- whelming number of donations from new supporters. This generous and broad-based support is most the appreciated, especially by Living Collections staff. To date, members and friends have made gifts totaling $122,102. All gifts are directed to the Storm Restoration Fund, which was established to help defray immediate costs associated with the cleanup as well as to support the long, dehberate process of rebuilding the Living Collections. Our spring visitors have also shown great support for our cleanup efforts. In the two months Arboretum's speedy cleanup. The work associated with replacing trees that were lost will continue long after media and public attention subsides. From this great natural disturbance, however, came a show of support that will motivate and inspire Arboretum staff for months to come. Mrs. David L. Ferguson and Mrs. Karl Riemer, both longtime members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, recently made a very generous gift to endow and name the Cornus collection in memory of their mother, Elizabeth Taylor Fessenden. Mrs. Fessenden, who died last year at age 89, graduated from the Wmsor School and served as trustee of the Women's Educational and Industrial Union, president of the Chilton Club, and member of the Ladies Visiting Committee at Massachusetts General Hospital. Mrs. Ferguson commented, \"Mother had great appreciation for the gardens of Boston; we felt that endowing a collection at the Arboretum was a wonderful way to honor her memory.\" The dogwood collection284 plants strong-is one of the Arboretum's most attractive spring features. Unlike most of the plant collections, the dogwoods have been sited throughout the grounds. One of the earliest harbingers of spring is Cornus mas, the cornehan cherry, which proRecord numbers of visitors generous. on Lilac Sunday were overwhelmingly of small, dehcate flowers along its leafless yellow branches even before the forsythias duces clusters have begun to bloom. Our oldest and most beautiful specimen stands next to Rehder Pond, across Bussey Hill Road from the for- Meeting the Arboretum's Public Many friends of the Arboretum have already come to know Joseph Melanson, who came to us from Harvard's Natural History Museum. As part of the Arboretum's public programs department, he provides guidance to visitors at the information desk in our new exhibit space. Joe answers inquiries ranging from sythia collection; It came to us from France in 1883. Then, when spring in the landscape is no more than a subtle green haze of emerging leaves, the snowy white and salmon pink bracts of our native Cornur florrda arnve to enliven it. And ~ust as they are beginning to fade, the pointed white bracts of the Japanese dogwoods begin to open. We are pleased that this special collection mll be supported by a generous endowment. For information about endowment opportumues, contact Lisa M. Hastings, Director of Development, at basic facts about Arboretum history to the location of both collections and specific plants. He also works closely with the membership and adult education departments to ensure that visi- tors are aware 617\/524-1718 x 145. of all that the Arboretum has to offer , r EVENTS The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and landscape design. A selection of summer courses is shown here. For a complete catalog of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call 617\/524-1718 x 162. Note that fees shown m boldface are for Arboretum members. For information about becoming a member, call 617\/524-1718 x 165. HOR 338 Basic Care for Trees and Shrubs what to Jo.repb J. Conrultrng Arborut Trees and shrubs are key structural elements in the landscape. In three sessions, learn the basic techniques used to care for and enhance woody ornamental trees and shrubs-from identifying stresses to pruning and feeding. Fee: $45, $54 3 Camrllrere III, speak look for to determine when to pollinate, and about helpful tools and record keeping. Fee: $20, $24 Thursday, July 24\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (CE) HOR 292 Summer Flowering Trees and Shrubs Wednesdays, July 9, 16, 23\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (CE) HOR 182 The Art of Hybridizing Perennials Darrell Probst, Hortrcultural Consultant and Landscape Derrgner Many of the perennials grown in American gardens are hybrids, created by intentional pollination or selected from observation of suitable species. Using the Case Estates perennial garden, Darrell Probst will demonstrate the basics of perennial plant hybridizing. He will identify flower parts, show Cbrzr Strand, Outreach Hortrculturz.rt, Arnold Arboretum After the great burst of bloom in spring, what trees and shrubs delight the viewer's eye? Such handsome lesser-known horticultural stars as Aerculu.r parviflora, the bottlebrush buckeye; Albzzza julrbrrrrrn, the silk tree; Hydrangea querczfolza, the oakleaf hydrangea; Koelreuteria paniculata, the golden rain tree; Oxydendrum arboreum, the sourwood; Clerodendrum trzcbotomum, the harlequin glory bower-all these are summer standouts. On this walk you will see the trees and shrubs themselves and learn about their natural history, habitat, and landscape uses. 5 Fee: $12, $15 Wednesday, July 30\/ 6:30-8:00 pm (DG) "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23526","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0708128.jpg","title":"1997-57-1","volume":57,"issue_number":1,"year":1997,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Rings and Ancient Forest Relics","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25172","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070b76b.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Stahle, David W.","article_content":"Tree Rings and Ancient Forest Relics David W. Stahle Centuries-old trees persist in thousands of forest remnants across the United States. Small and weathered, they preserve, in a fragmentary pattern, one stratum of our presettlement forest ecology and biodiversity. the ancient forests of United States have been completely destroyed by successive waves of European settlement, commercial loggmg, agricultural development, and urban sprawl. However, the search for presettlement forests in North America by specialists in tree-ring analysis has produced surprising findings. Tree-ring research suggests that literally thousands of ancient forests survive throughout the United States. These forest relics are often small and unimpressive but nevertheless preserve centunesold trees. Forest distribution and productivity in presettlement North America was dictated by climate, topography, and soil fertility, and included marginal stands as well as the majestic. Marion Clawson has estimated that the contiguous United States were covered with some 950 million acres of forest It is widely believed that the eastern emphasize that the disturbance waves unleashed following European settlement were largely driven by economic motives, and the commercially valuable stands of ancient timber were indeed decimated. For the few surviving examples of magnificent marketable timber, we owe a debt of gratitude to individual landowners and to the early state and federal preserves such as Adirondack State Park and Great Smoky Mountains National Park. But forest disturbance often bypassed stands of remarkably old trees found on noncommercial sites. These for- just prior to European settlement, but that this total included an estimated 100 million acres of noncommercial forests. Dendrochronologists have dated thousands of trees in more than four-hundred ancient forest sites located in all forty-eight contiguous states except Delaware and Rhode Island (Cook et al. 1996). These records of tree growth extend hundreds to thousands of years into prehistory and are particularly useful for estimating past climate change. These relics This map locates ancient forest most of the tree-ring chronologies developed from sites m the Umted States. Undisturbed or relatmely trees dating from at least A.D.1700 of these locations at the time of sampling (mainly from the 1970s through the 1990sJ, but the size of these forests vames tremendously from less than one acre to thousands of acres. The true distmbution of surmvmg ancient forests m the Umted States is of course much greater because only a small fraction of the ancient forests actually known have been sampled for tree-ring analysis ancient to 1979 were undisturbed forests cmth at most present 3 described as and \"overmature,\" do not fit the stereotype of \"the forest primeval\" as cathedral forest and have largely failed to interest forest scientists, managers, or advocates. Nonetheless these are authentic examples of one part of the primeval forest mosaic and deserve to endure. ests, sometimes \"decrepit\" Tree-Ring Study of Ancient American Forests nearly a century, tree-ring experts have specialized m the location of ancient forests and in the biological and ecological processes that drive their growth, longevity, and sensitivity to climatic variations. American work began with Andrew E. Douglass in the semiand Southwest. Douglass discovered that the width of annual growth rings in living Ponderosa pines (Pinus ponderosa) could be synchronized for centuries across the entire Colorado Plateau. Douglass developed the technique of crossdating, the fundamental tool for tree-ring dating. In many species, annual ring series form unique, nonrepetitive patterns of wide and narrow rings that can be compared and synchronized among hundreds of trees in a given region. Using the outermost ring in living trees as the known datum in time, exact calendar years can be assigned For to every cross-synchronized growth ring, whether in living or long-dead trees. Douglass also demonstrated that climatic fluctuations were responsible for most of the interannual variations in tree growth quantified in these tree-ring chronologies. Today, tree-ring The exact age of trees can be readily and harmlessly determined by using a Swedish mcrement borer to extract a small-diameter core from bark to pith and then carefully pohshmg the core to reveal the minute anatomy of the annual growth nngs The author is seen here coring a 300-year-old eastern red cedar (Jumperus virgmana) in Elk River, Kansas. In most cases, tree-ring data provide the best information on the maximum longevity for tree species. analysis is widely used to date the construction of ancient buildings, prehistoric volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, to document the presettlement fire ecology of forests, to recon- This canopy of a pondcypress (Taxodium distichum var. nutans) at Topsail Hills, Flonda, typifies the topped crowns reduced to a few heavy, craggy limbs often found m cypress trees of great age. flat- past climate fluctuations, and to study the carbon budget of the earth. With a remarkable degree of precision, it can test theories of anthropogenic climate change. struct per century and individuals as old as 5,000 years have been identified. External Attributes of Ancient Trees Based on analysis of thousands of ancient trees throughout the world, dendrochronologists have described a suite of external physical attributes often associated with ancient conifers and hardwoods (Schulman 1956, Stahle and Hehr 1984, Swetnam and Brown 1992). Experienced dendrochronologists can often identify ancient trees visually and can readily segregate individuals into approximate age categories. These external attributes are not precise or infallible, of course, and microscopic analysis of the annual growth rings is the only way to obtain certain age evidence. Perhaps the most reliable attribute associated with great age in trees is a pronounced longitudinal twist to the stem, which is also evident as spiral grain in the wood of ancient trees. Other attributes include crown dieback (also referred It was A. E. Douglass' longtime colleague Edmund Schulman who suggested the concept of \"longevity under adversity,\" used by dendrochronologists to locate ancient trees worldwide. He had found that the oldest conifers tend to grow under the most adverse ecological conditions, such as the arid lower forest border in the western United States or the cold windswept forests at the subalpine treeline. For instance, the oldest known continuously living organisms on earth, the bristlecone pine (Pinus longaeva) of California's Inyo National Forest, are found at 9,000 feet above Death Valley m the rainshadow of the Sierra Nevada, one of the most hyperarid forest sites on earth. The steep dolomite slopes receive an average of only five to ten inches of precipitation annually. Bristlecone growth can be as slow as one radial inch 5 spike top, stag top, or dead top); a reduced canopy often restricted to a few heavy, craggy limbs; branch stubs and other bark-covered knobs on the stem; hollow voids or heart rot; partial exposure of massive roots and root collar; leaning stems; heavy lichen and moss growth on stems; thin and patchy bark; strip bark in conifers ; wind-sculpted bark or to as a exposed wood; flat-topped crowns; fire or lightning scars; and size-not absolute size, but size relative to other trees of the same species growing on similar sites. The Network of Long Tree-Ring Chronologies in the United States On my first collecting trip in northwest Arkansas, I was surprised at how easily ancient forest remnants could be located in the heavily cutover eastern United States. We found 250-to-300-year-old post oak (Quercus stellata) dominating a narrow, but largely undisturbed corridor of forest winding around the dry upper slopes of Wedington Mountain. At first I believed that this was demonstrates that this post oak near Keystone Lake, just a lucky find, but the hun- Tree-nng analysis growth well before 1610 and is the oldest post oak Oklahoma, began dreds of ancient post oak dis- known However, there are hterally thousands of acres of ancient post coveries we have made since in oak throughout the Cross Timbers and elsewhere m the oak-hickory Arkansas, Missouri, southeast- forest, and older indmduals no doubt survive. ern Kansas, Oklahoma, and cedar (Thuja occidentalis) over 1,000 years old Texas clearly demonstrate that this particular on the Niagara Escarpment and pitch pine forest type has often been left uncut. Ancient hardwood stands have been found on (Pinus rigida) up to 450 years old in the and dry upland sites throughout the eastSchawangunk Mountains only sixty-five miles steep from Manhattan. ern deciduous forest, among them chestnut oak Noncommercial stands are not restricted to (Quercus prinus) along the Blue Ridge Parkway and white oak (Q. alba) on ravine slopes near dry upland sites; they include an interesting the western limit of upland deciduous forests in variety of bottomland and swamp forests. RelaIllinois and Iowa. A variety of ancient conifers tively undisturbed old-growth timber in the East includes the pine pocosms of the Carolinas, have also been found, including northern white __ _____n_________m____n___n____ ~ ~~ _~__ 6 certainly among the notable ancient forests left m eastern North America. The natural range of baldcypress was restricted to excessively wet forests and swamps in the southeastern United States. This habitat contrasts vividly with the adverse upland sites usually associated with longevity in trees, but the specific environmental stresses responsible for slow growth and are old most longevity can vary dramatically among species and forest types. For baldcypress and other wetsite species, these environmental stresses include excessive moisture and acidic, nutrient- poor swamp waters. ---,-,--, This Pinus rigida near Mohonk Lake, New York, range and is the oldest pitch pine yet discovered is m the pitch pine bogs of New Jersey, and a few scattered northern white cedar bogs and wetlands. None of these wetland forests support particularly large trees, but some are surprisingly old and undisturbed in spite of their unim- Bottomland hardwood foralong many southern streams have also been heavily exploited for timber and cleared for farmland, but again not all bottomland hardwood species produce quality lumber and some species tend to be restricted to the lowest and wettest positions, which are poorly suited for agriculture. The best example might be overcup oak (Quercus lyrata), which can achieve impressive the 450-year age size, but its lumber is often twisted, defective, and prone to rot. We have occasionally found 200-to-350year-old overcup oak growing on slightly higher ests in or adjacent to ancient cypress swamps. Small tracts of marketable timber of a variety of species have also survived in a few positions areas pressive size. The many baldcypress (Taxodium distichum) swamps with trees from 500 to over 1,500 years * These surrounded by noncommercial forests rough, inaccessible terrain. * or (contmued on page lOJ can mclude beech (Fagus grandifoha), post oak, white oak, chestnut oak, chmleapin oak (Quercus muehlenbergnJ, blackjack oak (Q. mamlandicaJ, Texas hve oak (Q. vmgmiana var. fusiformisJ, shm oak (Q mohmana), overcup oak, swamp chestnut oak (Q. michauxnJ, black gum (Nyssa sylvatica), tupelo gum (N aquaticaJ, ashe ~umper (Jumperus asheiJ, eastern red cedar (J. vmgimanaJ, pitch pme (Pmus mgida), table mountam pme (P. pungensJ, ~ack pme (P. banksianaJ, yellow poplar (Lmodendron tuhplferaJ, eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), baldcypress, and pondcypress (Taxodium distichum var. nutans). 7 A Portfolio of Ancient Trees An ancient Quercus stellata forest of the Ozark Plateau drawn by Richard P. Guyette, an accomplished artist and dendrochronologist. This drawing illustrates many of the external attributes typical of ancient hardwoods and gives some impression of the aesthetic qualities that distinguish these authentic presettlement forest survivors. Richard has illustrated the details of a post oak-dommated forest on the Ozark Plateau, mcluding twisted stems, dead tops and branches, exposed root collar, hollow voids, and canopies restricted to a few heavy muscular hmbs. Leaning trees, branch stubs, irregular bark texture, fire and lightning scars, and fallen logs m various stages of decay are also evident. These weathered relics are found on steep slopes and poor soils broken by small glades and picturesque blufflines. Post oak tends to dommate these dry infertile positions in the Ozarks, but black~ack oak, black oak, northern red oak, white oak, wmged elm, white ash, bitternut and mockernut hickory, serviceberry, dogwood, dryland blueberry, httle bluestem, and a variety of mosses and lichens are variously present in these forest remnants. Although stunted by the adverse environment, these noble post oak trees often exceed 300 years in age. 8 Ancient spike-top and strip-bark on a bluffline in the Missouri Ozarks drawn by R. P. Guyette. The old-growth attributes illustrated here are typical of ancient Jumperus trees worldwide. The classic spike top of these red cedars, particularly the massive twisted spike top at right, are virtually a universal indicator of old-growth comfers and can often be identified from a considerable distance. Notice that this spike top is free of delicate branching, which was broken off after years of exposure to wmd, ice storms, perching birds, and climbing animals. The mildly intoxicating fragrance of cedarene can permeate these bluff-edge red cedar, making the collection of tree-ring samples from these high blufflines a precarious experience. In strip-bark trees only thin filaments of living cambium connect the canopy and root systems. Stripbark growth is a hallmark of the ancient bristlecone pine forest along Methuselah Walk in Califorma's Inyo National Forest and is common m many other high-elevation and drought-stressed conifers. However, strip-bark growth is not common in old pines of the eastern or southern United States The oldest red cedars on the Ozark Plateau are often found growing on rocky pmnacles detached from the main cliff escarpment, where they may have enjoyed a measure of protection from the occasional ground fires that swept the hardwood forest floor. The oldest red cedars are 600 to over 900 years old and have been found by Richard Guyette on dolomite-derived soils along the Jack's Fork and other scemc streams in Missouri. In fact, a number of the oldest known trees of several species have been discovered on dolomite or gypsum-derived soils. Other very ancient dolomite- or gypsum-grown trees mclude bristlecone pine at Methuselah Walk, California (up to 5,000 years old); ancient Rocky Mountam Douglas fir at Eagle, Colorado (up to 900 years old); and northern white cedar on the Niagara Escarpment, Ontario (up Juniperus virginiana to 1,000 years old~. 9 Ancient Taxodium distichum typical of blackwater streams in the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida, drawn by R. P. Guyette. Note the blunt and bent silhouette on the stout cypress m the foreground, which would be m the 800-year age class. The mature tree in the middle distance on the right would be m the 400-year age class, and the stunted and twisted tree at the right margin resembles a specific tree at Black River that is over 1,500 years old. These nutrient-limited blackwater swamps are frequently dominated by slow-growing baldcypress in an open canopy and by Carolina ash m the understory, often to the near exclusion of other species of trees and shrubs. The canopy cypress are rarely over 60 feet tall or over 36 mches in diameter above the buttress; we have measured radial growth in some ancient blackwater cypress at less than one inch per century. The frequently broken main stem, flat-topped crowns, and recently sprouted fine branches on the stem and broken branches seen in the foreground all bear mute testimony to the pruning effects of past hurricanes in these near-coastal cypress swamps. 10 (continued from page 6) Ancient noncommercial forest remnants are sometimes discounted in the debate over east- Schulman, E. 1956 Dendrochmatic Changes m Semiamd Amenca Tucsom University of Arizona Press. old growth because they do not answer our desire for large as well as old trees. These relics are not our lost cathedral forests, but they are the authentic remains of our oldest forests; they represent an important part of the presettlement forest mosaic that once graced eastern North America. Their growth rings faithfully record a natural history of the virgin forest and may hold the answers to questions of environmental change we have yet to pose. ern Schulman, E. 1958. Bnstlecone Pme (Pmus aristata), Known Living Thing. National Geographic 113. 355-372. Oldest Stahle, D W, and J. G Hehr. 1984 Dendroclimatic of Post in Oak Across a the Southcentral Umted States. Annals of the Association of Relationships Precipitation Gradient Amencan Geographers 74 561-573. Stahle, D References and Further Reading Clawson, Cook, E. M. 1979. Forests m the Long Sweep of American History. Science 204: 1168-1174 M. K. Cleaveland. 1992. Reconand Analysis of Spring Ramfall Over the Southeastern U S for the Past 1000 Years. Bulletin of the Amencan Meteorological Society 73: 1947-19G 1. W., and struction R., D. M. Meko, Cleaveland. 1996. of Past Drought Across the Cotermmus Umted States: Tests of a Regression Method and Calibration\/Verification Results In Tree Rmgs, Envmonment and Humnmty Proceedings of the International Conference ~1994~, ed. J. S. Stahle, and M. K. Tree-Ring Reconstructions D. W. Stahle, D. W., and P. L. Chaney. Areas Journal 14: Swetnam, 1994 A Predictive Model for the Location of Ancient Forests. Natural 151-158 Dean, D M Meko, T W. Swetnam. Tucson: Radiocarbon, Dept. of Geosciences, Umversity of Anzona, 155-170 T. W., and P. M. Brown. 1992 Oldest Known Comfers in the Southwestern Umted States: Temporal and Spaual Patterns of Maximum Age. In Proceedings of a Workshop, OldGrowth Forests in the Southwest and Rocky Douglass, A. E. 1920. Evidence of Climatic Effects in the Annual Rings of Trees. Ecology 1: 24-32 Mountain Regions (M. Kaufmann, W. Moir, and R. L. Bassett, technical coordinators). Ft. Collins, CO.: USDA Forest Service, General Technical Report RM-213, 24-38 Douglass, A. E. 1935. Dating Pueblo Bomto and Other Ruins of the Southwest. National Geographic Therrell, Society, Contmbuted Techmcal Papers, Pueblo Bomto Series 1. M. D. 1996. A Predictive Model for Locatmg Ancient Forests m the Cross Timbers of Osage County, Oklahoma. Master's thesis, University of Arkansas. Douglass, A. E. 1941. Crossdating m Dendrochronology. journal of Forestry 39: 825-831. Schulman, E. 1954a. Longevity Under Comfers. Science 119: 396-399. Schulman, Adversity m E. 1954b Tree-Rmgs and History in the Western Umted States. Economic Botany 8. 234-250. David W. Stahle is associate professor of geography and director of the Tree-Ring Laboratory at the University of Arkansas He documented the oldest known trees in eastern North Amenca, the baldcypress at Black River, North Carolina, which are over 1,600 years old. Currently he is conducting tree-ring research m the United States, Mexico, and Afmca. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Transplanting and Establishment","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25173","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070bb6f.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Watson, Gary W.","article_content":"Tree Transplanting and Establishment Watson Gary W. Both experience and research make it clear that almost any size tree of any species can be transplanted. Success depends on the reestablishment of a normal spreading root system. An understanding of how roots grow and take up water can aid the process, equipto even on difficult sites. Many aspects of transplanting change ment over time. Modern it has made possible transplant larger trees with \"soil balls\" more affordably. Containerized production has grown in popularity for many reasons, including the ability to plant in any season. One thing remains the same-plants must quickly establish or reestablish a normal, spreading root system on the new site to minimize susceptibility to stress and assure survival. transplanting, often called transplanting shock, is caused primarily by drought stress. Field-grown trees can lose up to 95 percent of their roots Stress after when they are dug from the field. This small portion of the root system has difficulty absorbing enough water to meet the needs of the tree. Plants grown in containers are also subjected to drought stress after planting, not because of root loss, but because water drains out of the light soilless container media much faster after it is planted m the ground than when it was in the pot. To compound the problem, irrigation is typically less frequent than it was in the container nursery. All newly planted trees will be subjected to stress until a normal spreading root system has developed. When the root ball is planted high to improve dramage, the soil should slope from the existmg grade to the top of the root ball. 12 Planting Site Preparation requires extensive preparation before planting. The soil in undisturbed sites and landscapes in older neighborhoods is often of very good quality. Site preparation must be more intensive on disturbed sites or sites with naturally poor quality soils. Soil conditions on urban planting sites can be very difficult for root Not every site increase its size. Most tree roots are concentrated within the top foot of soil. Since the most vigorous root growth is likely to occur near the surface, efforts should be concentrated there. In many compacted urban soils, root growth from growth. Planting site preparation can provide an optimum environment for root growth for only a limited time. Considering that the roots of a tree can normally spread two to three times as far as the branches, the long-term needs of even a small tree cannot be completely provided for at planting time. Long-term survival will depend more on selecting a species that will be able to survive, and thrive, under the existing site conditions. Planting site preparations should focus on providmg the highest quality environment possible for initial root growth during the first year or two after transplantmg-possibly longer for trees over 4 inches (10 cm) in caliper. Even in cool northern climates, tree roots with average growth rates may extend 3 feet (1m) or more from the root ball after two years. Though it would be desirable to prepare a larger area, in most cases it would be impractical. Planting Hole Size and Shape Trees are expensive. Planting the tree properly and maintaining it until it is established will protect the substantial investment m the tree. To emphasize the need for adequate site preparation, gardeners often advocate preparing a five-dollar planting hole for every fifty-cent tree. The primary objective of planting site preparation is to provide a quantity of backfill soil that promotes rapid initial root development and does not restrict root spread beyond the planting hole. Ideally, these objectives should be achieved with a minimum of cost and effort. To prevent settling, the root ball must be supported by undisturbed soil. Since most new roots will grow horizontally from the sides of the root ball, compacted soil at the bottom will not substantially affect overall root growth. When a deeper planting hole is not an option, widening the planting hole is the only way to the bottom half of a 12-to-18-inch (30-45 cm) deep root ball will be inhibited by inadequate drainage and aeration. In these soil conditions, a wide hole for the entire depth of the root ball may not be as useful or efficient as a hole with sloped, or stepped, sides. With this configuration, the majority of the effort is directed towards surface soils where the new roots will grow most vigorously. A hole with sloped sides will not restrict root spread. Deeper roots will grow towards the surface soils and continue to spread if they are unable to grow into the compacted subsoil (Figure 1). ~. A planting hole that is two to three times the width of the root ball at the surface, with sides sloping towards the base of the root ball, is optimum for most situations. The root ball can hold less than 5 percent of the original root system. A hole only 25 percent greater in diameter than the root ball will allow the root system to reach less than 10 percent of its original size before poor-quality site soils slow root growth. A hole three times the width of the root ball with sloped sides will allow the root system to grow rapidly to 25 percent of its original size before being slowed by the poorer quality site soil. The well-aerated surface soil is increased up to tenfold by the wide, shallow configuration. This increased volume of high quality backfill soil promotes rapid root growth and will make the tree less subject to severe drought stress than the tree in a smaller hole. Trees transplanted with a tree spade also benefit from a larger plantmg hole. The tree spade's metal blades dig cone-shaped holes whether extracting a tree or creating its new home. In this situation, cultivation around the root ball after planting may be the only practical method. ~ _ Backfill Soil Modifications The change in soil type at the mterface between backfill soil and the surrounding undisturbed soil is often blamed for poor root development in the undisturbed soil, but this stems from a confusion between mability of roots to cross the 13 Figure l. Where roots have difficulty penetratmg compacted site soils, sloped sides allow roots to contmue to grow mgorously towards the better soils near the surface. Roots that do penetrate the site soil along the sloping mterface mll probably grow more slowly Figure 2. Plantmg the root ball so that approximately one-third of it is above grade can help to promde better drainage and aeration for roots. interface and inability of roots to grow vigorously in the soil material on the other side. While the interface can have a major effect on soil water movement, it usually does not affect roots. If the backfill soil has been amended, the abrupt change in soil texture can affect soil properties such as water movement but probpoor tant more soil amendments may be but still probably not as imporimportant, as digging a large planting hole. quality sites, Drainage Adequate drainage from the bottom of the planting hole is very important for root regeneration. Gravel in the bottom of the planting hole can make drainage worse. Water will not move from the finer textured soil above to the layer of coarse gravel below until the fine-textured soil is completely saturated. This results in waterlogged soil above the gravel. Drainage tubing may be used to drain water from the bottom of the planting hole if the water can be discharged at a lower level nearby. Planting with the top of the root ball slightly above grade can also increase survival on poorly drained sites. No more than one-third of the root ball should be above grade, and the soil should be gradually sloped between the top of the root ball and the original grade (Figure 2). (. ably not root growth. When three types of backfill soils were used on a compacted urban planting site, including unamended soil, there was no difference in root development in any of the backfills. (Note that unamended soil is not the same as unaltered soil.) Root development in the soils outside of the planting hole was lower than in any of the backfill soils, but this appeared to be due to the overall reduced root growth in the compacted clay site soil, rather than an inability of the roots to grow across the interface between the soils. On moderate sites, amending the soil may be unnecessary, but not harmful. On extremely 14 Establishment After Transplanting The establishment period can be defined as the period required for a plant to grow a normal root system. During this period the plant is susceptible to extreme stress. The length of the establishment period is affected by many environmental and cultural factors. Growth rate also provides an indication of stress (Figure 3). . Growth will slow immediately after transplanting and recover to pre-transplanting levels as the root system regenerates and stress is reduced. Plant growth is always limited by somebut after thing-temperature, light, nutrients, geneticstransplanting, water is usually the most limiting factor. Transplanted trees rely heavily on moisture in the root ball throughout the first growing season. For balled-andthe moisture contained within the root ball represents only a small fraction of the water that was available to the tree before transplanting, and it is small relative to the transpiration demands of the tree. Root ball soil moisture can be depleted very quickly, even while backfill soil just outside the root ball burlapped trees, stays very moist, because there are few roots to absorb the water there. The water from the backfill soils is not able to move into the root ball quickly enough to effectively replace what is being removed by the tree. Just two days after watering, the root ball soil can become dry enough to stop new root growth and to reduce the capacity of the existing root tips to absorb water. (In experiments with trees of two-inch caliper transplanted into backfill soil, it took four to five months to develop roots just outside the root ball that were sufficiently dense to allow significant amounts of soil moisture.) It may take several days for growth to resume after watering. With frequent, repeated soil drying, root growth may be halted for long periods. Calculating the amount of water held in the root zone m relation to usage by the plant is another way to estimate the water needs of new plantings. The supply of soil moisture available to the expanding root system of a recently planted shrub increases more rapidly than does water use by the slower growing crown. Twenty-one weeks after planting, the soil water Figure 3. Root loss rate is twig growth result of transplantmg causes a corresponding decrease m twig growth Recovery of closely related to regeneration of the root system. as a 15 5 Figure 4 Trunk sections of transplanted spruces \/Picea sp.~ show that growth of the larger transplanted tree (size at the time of transplantmg is shown by the cmcleJ is slowed for several years, while normal growth of the smaller tree resumes more qmckly. By the time both of the trees are estabhshed, the relative size of the two trees may be equal or reversed. a proportionately small soil volume. Moreover, root growth rates are similar for large and small trees. What is very different is the distance that roots must grow to develop the full spreading root system necessary for complete establishment. A smaller tree requires fewer increments in annual root growth after transplanting than a large tree in order to replace the original root system. Since the smaller tree recovers vigor faster, it may one day be nearly the same size as a larger tree transplanted at the same time (Figure 4). Soil temperature also affects root growth after transplanting. In climates where the soils are warm year round, roots will grow faster and plants will become established sooner. In the north temperate climate of the upper midwestern United States, twig growth of a four-inch caliper tree is reduced for four years after transplanting. In other words, the establishment period is approximately one year per supply of small shrubs was only eleven days. Two-inch caliper trees may require two growing seasons before attaining a large enough root system for a similar soil water supply. Duration wise confined to of Transplanting Stress planting, fully established after transthe tree must develop a full root system on the new site. The partial root system in the root ball, or the confined root system of the container, must develop into a normal spreading root system that can utilize soil moisture and nutrient resources from a large soil volume. This will take several years. Root establishment takes longer for large trees than for small trees. When standard specifications are followed, the size of the root ball or container is proportional to the size of the plant. Regardless of size, the root ball holds only this same small percentage (4 to 18) of the root system. The root system in container plants is likeTo be considered 16 caliper inch. In the subtropical climate of northFlorida, where roots grow much faster, trees reestablish at a rate of approximately three months per caliper inch. ern survival and maximize vigor than anything else, with the possible exception of high-quality, siteappropriate plant material. The successful establishment of transplanted trees is dependent primarily on the reestablishment of a normal spreading root system on the new site. This process can be slowed by inadequate site preparation and difficult sites. Root growth is naturally slower in colder climates. Larger trees have larger root systems and take longer to regenerate after transplanting. Both experience and research make it clear that almost any size tree of any species can be transplanted. Large and small trees transplanted at the same time may eventually be similar in size. The choice may depend on size of budget and willingness to wait for a small tree to grow. For Further During the second half of the establishment period, stress may not be as apparent. Nevertheless, the reduction in growth can be measured. At this time, monitoring should be continued, but it may be possible to limit supplemental watering to periods of drought. Comparisons Among Growmg Methods Researchers have compared the establishment of traditional field-grown trees with conventional root balls to that of container-grown trees and of trees grown in in-ground fabric bags. Based on data on water stress, trees that were transplanted from field soil or from fabric bags establish more quickly than trees planted from - plastic containers. Container plants were Reading smaller and sustained very little root loss at transplanting and yet took longer to establish. Although measurable, the differences were not great enough to warrant avoiding containergrown plants. Adequate irrigation will easily overcome the difference, and container plants have many other advantages. The need for regular watering of all trees cannot be overemphasized. As long as the roots stay primarily confined to the root ball soil, they will be susceptible to rapid drying when irrigation or rainfall is absent for even a short period. Both periodic and chronic stress can reduce growth in any plant. If a high level of care and a consistent environment is maintained above and below ground, the plant will establish faster. Water stress reduces photosynthesis and root growth and also increases susceptibility to certain disease and insect problems. Adequate site preparation and judicious watering throughout the growing season will do more to assure Barnett, D. 1986. Root growth and water use by newly transplanted woody landscape plants. Pubhc Garden 1: 23-25 Beeson, R. C., and E. F. Gilman. 1992. Dmrnal water establishment of slash production methods. Journal of Arbomculture 18: 281-287. stress during landscape pme differs among three Watson, G. W, and G Kupkowski. 1991. Soil 227. moisture uptake by green ash trees after transplanting. Journal of Envmonmental Horticulture 9: 226Watson, G. W., G. Kupkowski, and K. G. von der 1992. The effect of backfill soil texture and planting hole shape on root regeneration of transplanted green ash. Journal of Azbonculture 18 130-135. Heide-Spravka. Gary Watson is Root System Biologist at The Morton Arboretum m Lisle, Illinois His book Transplanting Trees will be published later this year by the International Society of Arboriculture. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Kind of Botanic Mania","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25167","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070ab6b.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Goodwin, Joan W.","article_content":"A Kind of Botanic Mania joan The W. Goodwin simplicity of Linnaeus' classification system opened the field of botany to amateurs and its study was soon seen as \"peculiarly adapted to females.\" paid some attention to seventeen-year-old Sarah Alden Bradford (1793-1867) to fourteen-year-old Abigail Bradford Allyn (1796-1860). \"It is not a very useful study, although a very pleasing one,\" summer \"I have this nist husbands and fathers. Linnaeus's Botany,\" wrote Elizabeth Christina rescence saw her report on daughter phospho- \" in nasturtiums published in the Transactions of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1762.3 In this country, Jane Colden she continued. \"It is however an innocent amusement, and enables us to discover Divine Wisdom, even in the construction of the smallest flower.\" Anticipating her family's move later that year of 1810 from Boston to Duxbury, where her third cousin Abigail lived, Sarah added her intention \"to try to persuade you to join with me, in examining plants, and arranging them under their respective classes.\"'I Apparently she succeeded. Soon Sarah's father was writing to her brother at Harvard that \"Sarah & Abba are studying Botany and one would think they hold converse only with the flowers for they in a manner seclude themselves from human observation & from communication with animal nature. I dont know what flower they affect to emulate but I dare say they are known to each other under some order or class of the Lin[na]ean system.\" If the Harvard student should write to his sister, Bradford advised him to \"talk about calyx, corolla, & petals & I will engage you will be read.\"2 Without realizing it, Sarah and Abba were part of a fashionable trend that was drawing many young women into the study of botany. The simplicity of the new binomial system of classification devised by Swedish botanist Carolus Linnaeus (1707-1778)-which categorized plants according to the number and position of the stamens and pistils of their flowersopened the field of botany to amateurs, many of whom made major contributions in describing and classifying plants. Wives and daughters were introduced to the study as helpers of bota- (1724-1766) was introduced to botany by her father, Cadwallader Colden, who wrote the first local flora of New York based on the Linnaean system. Jane corresponded with experts in the field on both sides of the Atlantic, was widely praised for her botanical drawings, and was commended to Linnaeus himself.4 From the mid-eighteenth century on into the nineteenth, the study of botany was considered especially appropriate for young women who, it was assumed, liked flowers, were nurturing by virtue of their gender, and would benefit from healthful but not strenuous outdoor exercise. As Almira Phelps wrote in her Familiar Lectures on Botany (1829), \"the study of Botany seems peculiarly adapted to females; the objects of its investigation are beautiful and delicate; its pursuits, leading to exercise in the open air, are conducive to health and cheerfulness.\"5 However, there was some concern that since the Linnaean system was based on the sexual characteristics of plants, it might offend delicate sensibilities. In Britain, \"desexualized\" texts were created for female audiences, and in France Jean Jacques Rousseau omitted the Linnaean system in his 1771 Lettres elementaires sur la botanique, written for a mother to use with her daughter. Thomas Martyn's English translation, Letters on the Elements of Botany, addressed to a lady, on the other hand, suggested that the Linnaean system be used for classification.6 Though much has been written about botany as \"the female science,\" the letters of Sarah Alden Bradford provide a rare record of the 18 8 natural history collections. It may well have been Judge Davis who first interested her in botany. Martyn's version of Rousseau was available to Sarah in Judge Davis's library, along with Linnaeus's own Genera Plantarum (1754), Philosophla Botanica (1790), and Flora Lapponica (edited by J. E. Smith, 1792), and James Lee's popular exposition of the Linnaean system, Introduction to Botany (Edinburgh, 1797).' Back in Boston after a happy year in Duxbury, Sarah continued her literary and botanical correspondence with Abba. From Judge Davis she borrowed The Botanic Garden ( 1789-1791\/, m which Charles Darwin's grandfather Erasmus Darwin combined mythic and scientific elements in verse. This portrait m 1846, now of Sarah Alden Bradford Ripley at fifty-three, drawn by Cheney hangs m the Old Manse m Concord, Massachusetts. The first part, \"The Economy of Vegetation,\" depicts the goddess Flora and numerous spirits as directing the vegetable kingdom. The second part, \"The Loves of Plants,\" dealt with the Linnaean system in metaphors of courtship and marriage. Sarah described the first part to Abba as \"very beautiful\" though \"highly figurative\" and \"splendid perhaps even to a observations of a particular young woman caught up in the general excitement during those years. Sarah read French as well as English, and Gamaliel Bradford, her broadminded sea captain father, had even permitted her to learn Latin along with her brothers. When Sarah and Abba were not botanizing, their heads would be close together over the Aeneid, for John Allyn, Abba's father and Duxbury's minister and schoolteacher, also believed m educating daughters as well as sons. Sarah found another mentor in Judge John Davis, a Boston neighbor whose avocation was natural history. He welcomed Sarah to his library and his extensive fault.\" She did not expect to like the second part so well because \"[i]t is founded on the sexual system of Linnaeus, that the dust of the anthers is absorbed by the pistil, and is absolutely necessary to the production of perfect seed, which system has since been exploded, and proved to have been but a fanciful idea of that great botanist.\"8 She praised Linnaeus for \"making the number and situation of the stamens and pistils the ground of distinction between the classes, orders, &c\" and for reducing the number of classes, \"which were before very numerous depending on differences in the leaves &c of 19 she thought that \"[t]he idea of sexual distinction in plants, forming so striking an analogy between the animal and vegetable lcmgdoms, giving so important a part in the economy of vegetation, to the dust of the anthers, which otherwise appears entirely useless to the plant, so caught the imagination of Linnaeus, that he overlooked difficulties in the way of his favorite system, which have since been proved conclusive arguments against it.\"9 Indeed, the Scottish professor Charles Alston, among others, disputed Linnaeus's claim that the \"dust of the anthers\" was essential to reproduction in plants and mstead likened pollen to excrement, thrown off by the plant as superfluous.' Sarah would soon learn, however, that Linnaeus's system had not been \"exploded.\" In this instance and in others that follow, it is interesting to see the scientific controversies of the time from the viewpoint of this young devotee. In 1813, though longing to return to the woods and fields of Duxbury, Sarah was reconciled to spending the summer in Boston by her father's offer to take her to a series of botanical lectures by William Dandridge Peck. \"[T]hey commence next week,\" she wrote excitedly to Abba, \"and we are besides to have the privilege of visiting the Botanic garden as often as vegetables.\" However, we please.\"\" Professor Peck, appointed to Harvard's newly created chair in natural history, was also director of the Botanic Garden, bounded by the present Linnaean, Garden, and Raymond Streets and augmented by a gift of land from the adjoining Andrew Craigie estate. 12 According to Peck, the garden was \"intended for the cultivation of plants from various parts of the world, to facilitate the acquisition of botanical knowledge. It was also intended to receive all such mdigenous trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, as are worthy of attention, as being useful in domestic economy, in the arts, or in medicine.\" Begun with contributions from nearby greenhouses, it was gradually enlarged by travelers to the East and West Indies and Africa.'~ Soon Abba was treated to a secondhand version of the Peck lectures. In fact, Sarah's letters over the next few years offer a striking parallel to contemporary botanical texts written for people in epistolary form. The British author Priscilla Wakefield, for example, used the device of letters between two teenage sisters, Felicia and Constance, one of whom is learning botany and explaining her lessons to the other. 14 Whether or not Sarah had read the American edition of Wakefield (1811),she was as eager as the young woman in the book to share her discoveries. \"I warn you before you begin you will hear nothing except de classe et ordine et genere, for there prevaileth hereabouts a kind of Botanic mania,\" Sarah wrote. She had obtained \"our great desideratum a work almost wholly confined to Genera and species, so that if I find a flower whose name is unknown to me, I have only to turn to the page where its particular class and order (whatever they may be) are written above after the manner of a dictionary, and compare it with the descriptions of the several Genera under that class, which are so exact that it is almost impossible to mistake them, and when I find one agreeing with it exactly, I have its Generic name, I then turn to that Genus in another volume on species and find its common or trivial name as botanists say, its properties, the places where it usually grows &c.\"'s Sarah shared her new knowledge of willow trees (\"which you know are of the class Dioecia\"), giving a meticulous description of the blossoms, including \"a nectarium scarcely discernable to the naked eye but very plainly seen with the help of that microscope we had last summer.\" She urged Abba to examine the willows in Duxbury and instructed her further about the nectarium \"which varies very much in different flowers and in some makes almost their whole bulk, as in the Columbme, which you will find in the swamp at the back of your house, those four hollow tubes resembling horns are the nectana which I know by experience for I have sucked the honey out of them many a time.\"'6 She also learned about Cryptogamia when \"Mr. Peck, our lecturer gave us a curious plant called Equisetum or horsetail, it bears its fructifications in a spike, which is composed of little plates in the form of shields supported on short foot stalks, their edges hung round with bags which when viewed with the microscope young 20 resemble the fingers of a glove, when they are ripe they burst open and drop out balls which are supposed to be the seeds, to which are affixed four strings resembling and supposed to be antherae.\"1' Another friend of Sarah's to receive accounts of the lectures was Mary Moody Emerson, one of whose young nephews would later become famous. \"We have been attending a course of Botanical lectures, and have found them numerously frequented by the beau-monde,\" Sarah mformed Mary, adding archly that \"we are pleased to see so rational an amusement in fashion ; by exciting a taste for nature it may perhaps render the country supportable to some of our fine ladies.\" \"Linnaeus was the lady's man,\"she observed later, \"and the ladies have just found it out.\"'8 For Mary, Sarah described henbane: \"Its lurid disagreeable aspect and foetid smell would repel all but the botanist. The whole plant is covered with a fine kind of glutinous hair. The colour of its blossom is a dirty yellow striped with dark purple. It is a most deadly poison, but as is generally the case with plants of its affinity has been discovered to possess great medicinal virtue.\" Knowing that Mary was more interested in the state of her soul than in her newly acquired knowledge, Sarah added a religious note. \"Instances like these daily multiplied are unspeakably delightful,\" she wrote. \"They vindicate the ways of God to man. What a world of wonders the vegetable creation unfolds to the enquiring eye! If the grand, magnificent, stupendous frame of some parts of the Divine scheme have oft compelled the exclamation 'what is man that thou art mmdful of him' how instantly is the doubt relieved when we behold the admirable and complicated provision for the preservation, multiplication, and disperson of the most minute and to limited human knowledge apparently most useless species of vegetation!\" She went on with a poetic description of the variety of seed dispersal: \"those furnished with silken wings soar aloft wafted by some propitious breeze to their destined spot. Those armed with hooks avail themselves of passing travellers' aid for conveyance. Some confined in an elastic case, when ripe burst their prison, and are propelled abroad with and amazing force; others borne as it were in a light balloon cut the liquid air, or skim the surface of the wavel\"'9 As the lectures came to an end, Sarah was bursting with things to tell Abba. She was particularly struck with Professor Peck's account of Linnaeus's discovery of the sleep of plants. \"He [Linnaeus] was presented with some unknown plants in blossom, and not having time to examine them, he ordered the gardener to set them out, and take particular care of the blossom. At evening being at leisure he visited them and to his chagrin and disappointment the flowers were not to be found. The gardener was reprimanded and promised to be more careful in future. The next morning they were visible and Linnaeus engaged again deferred visiting them till evening when the flowers had disappeared as before. This was done thrice, and at length examining them more closely, he found the floral leaves at the base of the blossoms had risen and completely enveloped them. Struck with the idea that some such change might take place in all plants, at midnight with a lantern he visits his greenhouse, and there sure enough he finds his dear family all sound [asleep]. The solemn hour of night combined with the silence and novelty of the scene affected Linnaeus even to tears. They were the tears of admiration and gratitude we may suppose a parent might shed at the development of some new faculty in a beloved offspring.\" As a demonstration to his class, \"Mr Peck brought a plant asleep one morning, which was very carefully wrapped up in cotton wool to keep it from the light; the leaves were curiously folded together, but by exposing it to the influence of the sun's rays, before lecture was over it had begun to recover. \"zo When Professor Peck lectured on Linnaeus's experiment with the fig tree, Sarah was convinced, if she had not been before, of the sexual function of flowers. She described for Abba \"an exhibition with the solar microscope of the flowers of the fig tree which grow within the fruit, and are curious also as being an example of the 23 class. The fig was quoted and termed fructussine flore in contradiction to an assertion of Linnaeus that flowers were absolutely necessary to the production of fruit. [However, 21 Linnaeus] discovered place of the blossoms the and hiding taught his opponents that in many cases, in order to form an accurate judgment it is necessary to look beyond the surface.\"2' The following summer found Sarah still enthusiastic about botany. She encouraged Abba to visit her, writing, \"Craigie's swamp will be full of flowers, Smith's botany will be published, and we will enjoy ourselves finely together. \"~2 In 1814, Jacob Bigelow, founder and president of Boston's Linnean Society, brought the American edition of James Edward Smith's popular English botany text, trusting that \"the present edition will not be unacceptable to the public, particularly to students attending the botanical lectures m this place, for whose use it was originally undertaken. \"23 He added notes on American plants and an expanded glossary of botanical terms. In Smith Sarah could read the full account of the \"luminous experiment\" in which Linnaeus removed the anthers from Wilham Dandndge Peck, professor of natural history and foundmg a flower, destroying the rest of the dmector of the Harvard Botanic Garden In Cambridge (1805-1822), day's blossoms, and another day credited his mterest m natural history to an \"imperfect\" copy of repeating the process but sprinkling Lmnaeus's Systema Naturae that he retmeved from a ship wrecked pollen from another flower on the near his home m Newbury, Massachusetts. Almost immediately on stigma of one from which he had being named director of the yet-to-be-created Harvard Botamc removed the anthers. When the Garden m 1805, William Peck set sail for Europe, where for three he visited the great gardens, collectmg seeds, plants, books, first flower produced no fruit while years and ideas. the second produced perfect seed, made. Its pleasures spring up under our feet, Linnaeus had proved his point, according to Smith.z' and, as we pursue them, reward us with health In Smith's eyes, the facts of plant life did not and serene satisfaction.... The more we study the works of the Creator, the more wisdom, detract from the delight of botanical study. \"The natural history of animals, in many respects beauty and harmony become manifest, even to our limited apprehensions; and while we even more interesting to man as an animated admire, it is impossible not to adore.\"25 being, and more striking in some of the pheAs we have seen, Sarah, with her Unitarian nomena which it displays, is in other points less to a tender and delicate mind,\" he upbringing, had already found botany to be a pleasing wrote in his preface, while \"[i]n botany all is religiously illuminating experience. \"If you have never examined a dandelion flower,\" she elegance and delight. No pamful, disgusting, wrote Abba, \"you will find it very curious, the unhealthy experiments or inquiries are to be out 22 A Plan for the Botanic Garden at Cambridge The idea for \"a large well-sheltered garden and orchard for students addicted to planting\" was broached at Harvard as early as 1672, and in 1784 the King of France offered \"to furnish such [botanic] garden with every species of seeds and plants which may be requested from his royal garden, at his own expense.\" Finally, in 1805, a collaboration between the College and the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture provided for a professorship of natural history; among the duties of the professor was the formation of a \"Botamc Garden on the grounds that shall be provided for that purpose.\"* William Dandndge Peck promptly set sail for a lengthy tour of western Europe. Uppsala Peck acquired seeds of 150 species of plants and 500 herbarium specimens that \"are such as are rare and valuable, especially as they are from persons of the At information.\" He was told there \"that the arrangement of plants m a garden according to Classes and orders in the [Linnaean] System is both difficult and inconvement; but the disposition of them according to their natural orders m concentric circles is much more commodious.\" In 1808 he sent a plan (top right) from Paris that grew out of several conversations at the Jardm des Plantes with M. Thoum, \"a gentleman of eminence in the profession of ornamental gardening.\" It provided for various trees and flowering shrubs; small lawns with flowers and shrubs; hothouse, greenhouses, cold frames, and hotbeds. The \"garden of Arrangement or Botamc School\" forms the large central oval (D). From Kew Peck had written, \"A reservoir of water fed and kept sweet by a small spring is the best situation for aquatic plants.\" Accordingly, \"Bason or reserves with running and stagmost correct nant waters\" are designated at center (C). Peck had seen the Garden's site only briefly before his European trip, and although he remembered the wetland, he did not recall the shape of the grounds. In the 1888 plan (bottom right) some of the elements of the 1808 scheme can be seen, including a pool for aquatic plants at the center of the concentric planting beds. Native and exotic trees and shrubs were planted at once, and later came a conservatory; native herbs around a spring in the southwest corner ; seedplots, cold frames, and hotbeds screened by a hedge of European beech; a gardener's cottage. ' Goodale, George L. 1991 The Botamc Garden at Cambridge. Harvard Register, Vol. 3 (Jan.). 23 the seeds by which they are scattered far and wide. The perfect uniformity of the little flowers, each with its pistil and five stamens united by the anthers, the filaments separate, almost too small to be distinguished with the naked eye. The same order, regularity and beauty are as visible in the least as in the greatest of the works of creation. Do you think a dandelion could have been the work of chance? Surely that study cannot be entirely useless which can make even this most despised of flowers a source of admiration and entertainment, a demonstration of the hand of a Creator.\"z~ Two years after the lecture series, Sarah wondered if Abba was reading Smith and recommended the sixteenth chapter on the functions of leaves. \"It is amusing,\" she wrote, \"to trace the striking analogies between the animal and downy wings of vegetable kingdoms in respiration, secretion & all the similar and diversified effects of the vital principle in each. Theories which pretend to explain these effects in vegetation on chemical or mechanical principles are unsatisfactory.\" Smith had mentioned heat and wmd as possible causes for the flow of sap from root to branch.z' It seemed to Sarah that \"[t]he attraction of cohesion may account for the ascent of fluids to small heights, but not for the propulsion of the sap from the spreading roots of the oak throughout the unnumbered ramifications of its towering limbs; that this most important function should depend on the agitation of the inconstant breeze is equally inconceivable; if you ascribe it to the vital energy and suppose some action of the spiral coated sap vessells similar to the pulsation of the arteries, a distinction sufficiently broad is marked between organic and morganic bodies, and the operations of animal and vegetable organs analogous in their curious structure and combinations, are explained from similar causes. How regular the gradation too from species to species in the long series of feel her dignity much impaired by kindred with the majestic elm or delicate sensitive plant,\" she wrote, \"but how would you receive the hand of fraternity extended by a potato or toadstool? Distinctions which appear so striking and marked when extremes are compared blend insensibly mto each other as we descend, and genus is linked with genus in a chain which the delighted philosopher cannot nor does not wish to dissolve. Nature never disturbs us with abrupt transitions in any of her operations; broad day softens into twilight, twilight deepens into the shades of evening; the process of vegetation, from the first swelling of the seed till the perfect plant appears in all the luxunancy of foliage and beauty of fructification, is so imperceptible that we are affected with no wonder or admiration at the secret agency of Divine power in the successive stages of its progress and are astonished only when we compare what it is with what it was.\"2~ \" organized existance! \"zs Sarah continued botanical study throughout her life. Three years after she wrote the letter Just quoted, she married the Rev. Samuel Ripley, the Unitarian mmister in Waltham who also kept a boarding school to prepare boys for Harvard. In addition to teaching Latin, Greek, and mathematics in the school, Sarah raised her own seven children and an adopted niece and managed the large household with only sporadic help. Collecting excursions to Prospect Hill and visits from an expert amateur botanist, the Rev. John Russell, provided much-needed recreation during those busy years. When Asa Gray was appomted Fisher Professor of Natural History at Harvard in 1842, he was told about \"a learned lady in these parts, who assists her husband in his school, and who hears the boys' recitations m Greek and geometry at the ironing-board, while she is reads smoothing their shirts and jackets! German authors while she is stirring her pudding, and has a Hebrew book before her, when ... Continuing her line of thought, she confronted Abba with a botanical extension of the popular philosophical idea of the Great Chain of Being supposed to link deity and the hierarchy of heavenly spirits with humans and the lower animals. \"I suppose your ladyship would not knitting.... Even my own occupation may soon be gone; for I am told that Mrs. Ripley (the learned lady aforesaid) is the best botanist in the country round. \"30 Soon Gray was sharing his books with this learned lady. One, \"a beautiful edition of a 24 french work sure on botany,\" gave Sarah \"great plea11 lz at the mind of a man of genius scientific method.\" She found it \"much more satisfactory to begm from the root and study upwards, than to pick open a flower, count the stamens refer it to a class and give it a name.\"3' When a book on European mosses came to the botanical library, Gray promised to loan it to her as soon as he had finished with it himself.32 Sarah spent her last years in retirement at the Old Manse in Concord, Massachusetts, where some of her mounted specimens may be seen. In her seventies, she was still teaching botany, writing to a young grandson, \"I long to have the bright days of summer come for you and dear little Ezra to gather flowers of all kinds.... And poor old GrandMa will tell him all she knows, and put them in a book that has pretty flowers, which have been pressed and kept a great while, and are still bright and beautiful.\"33 in getting through his by Jacob Bigelow, M.D. (Boston: Bradford & Read, 1814), 253. Smith names Tournefort and Pontedera as being of the same opimon. SAB to ABA, n.d. (1813\/, SABR. Jeannette E. Graustein, Harvard's Only Massanotes chusetts Professor of Natural History, Harvard Alumm Bulletm (December 13, 1958\/, 243. 13 William Dandndge Peck, A Catalogue of American and Foreign Plants Cultmated in the Botamc Garden, Cambndge, Massachusetts (Cambridge: University Press, 1818). 14 Pmscrlla Series 15 Wakefield, An Introduction to Botany, m a of Familiar Letters (1st British ed., 1796, 6th ed., Philadelphia: Kimber & Conrad, 1811). \/. SAB to ABA, n d. (1813), SABR. Sarah offers no authors or titles for the books she was using pnor the publication of the American edition of Smith. to '~ 17 18 19 zo z' Ibid. Ibid SAB to SAB to SAB to - MME, n.d (1813);Sept 51817?SABR MME, n.d. (1813), SABR. ABA, n.d. (1813), SABR. Endnotes zz Ibid. SAB to ABA, n.d. (1814), SABR. Jacob Bigelow, \"Advertisement to the Edition,\" Smith, v. Smith, 253. Ibid., 18-20. SAB to ABA, n.d. 1812? SABR. Smith, 54-55. SAB to ABA, Sept. 30 (1815), SABR. American 1 SAB ABA, n.d (1810?), Sarah Alden Bradford Ripley Papers, MC 180, Schlesrnger Library, Radcliffe to z3 College, hereafter cited as SABR. 2Gamaliel Bradford to Gamaliel Bradford, Jr., za zs z~ z' \"Thursday\" (1810?),Bradford Papers, bMS Am 1183.32, by permission of the Houghton Library, 3 Harvard University Ann B. Shteir, \"Lmnaeus's Daughters. Women and British Botany,\" in Barbara J. Harris and Jo Ann K. McNamara, eds., Women and the Structure of Society (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1984), 69. See Mary Harnson, \"Jane Colden: Colomal Amencan Botanrst,\" Arnoldia (Summer, 1995) 55(2): 19-26. Quoted in Vera Norwood, Made From This Earth. Amencan Women z$ z9 3o Ibid. Jane Lonng Gray, ed., to 4 Houghton, Mifflin, 1893),I' 31 SAR Letters of Asa 289 Gray (Boston: George F. Simmons, June 26, 1844, SABR. 5 Unfortunately, 32 33 and Nature (Chapel Hill: Sarah failed to mention the name of this \"man of genius\" or the title of his book. Dec. to 6 University of North Carolina Press, 1993)( Ann B. Shterr, Cultmatmg Women, Cultivating Science. Flora's Daughters and Botany in England, 1760-18G0 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1996), 19-20, 23. Ibid, SAR 12, 1844. Sydney Thayer, n.d. (wmter, spring, 1867?), MS Storage 296 ~#51\/, by permission of the Houghton Library, Harvard University to William ~ s Catalogue of the Pmvate Library of the Late Judge Dams (Boston: Alfred Mudge, 1847), 17, 20, 43. SAB to ABA, Nov 3 ~ 1812? SABR. Ibid. Acknowledgments The author wishes thank Peter Stevens of the Harvard University Botany Department and Mary Harnson, Arnold Arboretum volunteer, as well as Arnoldia editor Karen Madsen for their helpful comments. W Goodwm, who lives in Brookline, Massachusetts, is an mdependent scholar now completing a biography of Sarah Alden Bradford Ripley. 9 lo Shteir, Cultmatmg Women, Cultivating Science, 17. James Edward Smith, An Introduction to Physiological and Systematical Botany, First American, from the Second English Edition, with Joan "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Multitude of Botanies: Book Essay","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25168","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070af6f.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Stevens, Peter","article_content":"A Multitude of Botanies: Book Peter Stevens Essay Cultivating Women, Cultivating Science: Flora's Daughters and Botany in England1760 to 1860. Anne B. Shteir. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, pages 1996. women. During the 1790s commentators began distinguishing between the 'botanist' and 'botanophile', between the scientist and enthusiast ... Hardcover, 312 What does the word botany bring to mind? A nosegay held by a young girl? Field studies by amateurs that result in finds of new plants subsequently reported in the proceedings of botanical clubs using sesquipedalian words with Latm and Greek roots? Classificatory studies carried out in the cavernous halls of a large herbarium? Physiological and ecological studies of a prairie grass? In the nineteenth century these were seen by many as being competing ideas, and what we call botany in the twentieth century-and different people still define it in different waysowes much to debates in the late eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. These were between professional botanists promoting very different visions of their discipline, and between what we might call amateurs and professionals, both men and women, as they, too, strove to shape public interest in a particular area of botany, or simply responded to what they saw as a market for particular kinds of botanical works. Shteir's Cultivating Women, Cultivating Science-clearly written and well-illustratedhelps us understand the issues involved. Her subject is women in both popular and more scientific cultures of botany in the period 17601860, and she summarizes some of the topics that will engage her as she outlines how Linnaeus's classification, all the rage m the 1760s, came to be perceived at the begmning of the nineteenth century: \"Teachers continued to explicate Linnaean botany for students, but increasingly it was seen as the gateway, or the lower rung of the ladder of botanical knowledge, associated with children, beginners, and male and masculine botanophile usually female and feminine. As a result, during the 1820s some botanists began to generate strategies to 'defeminize' the public image of the science.\"'I Botany proper, these male botanists thought, was not simply the Linnaean system; botany was not a subject that interested women alone; botany was an exciting science worthy of attention by men. Much ink was to be used in defining what botany was all about, yet the same arguments were being made at the end of the century, as we will see. the botanist was and the Shteir first summarizes how Linnaean botanythe identification and naming of plants using Linnaeus's system-became part of the social culture of women by the early nineteenth century. This was despite criticism by those who found the Linnaean sexual system offensive, and by some Romantic poets who felt that the rigidity of Linnaeus's approach was antithetical to their artistic concerns. Shteir then focuses on two groups of women writers responsible for the integration of Linnaean botany with popular middle- and upper-class culture. A group of these women wrote botanical books that specifically addressed mothers and governesses of children, especially girls. Such books were much in demand, judging by the numbers of times many of them were reprinted. She then discusses the work of three women, Maria Jacson, Agnes Ibbotson, and Elizabeth Kent, who made careers in botanical writing, whether or not they made a living by their work. Agnes Ibbotson, who died in 1823, is particu- larly interesting. Her interests were in more \"philosophical\" botany, that is, botany that 26 included over physiology, anatomy, and work with microscope, and they engrossed her energies for twenty Exeter, the southwest of England. Largely without contact with metropolitan botanical colleagues, she nevertheless contributed to periodicals such as The Philosophical Magazine and Annals of Philosophy. However, when she sent a summary of her life's work to the doyen of British botanists, Sir J. E. Smith, president of the Linnean Society and owner of Linnaeus's collections, she received no encouragement. I would love to know more about Ibbotson's work and to see some of the illustrations she drew and to find out about Smith's own ideas about philosophical botany. (Staunch upholder of the Linnaean system though Smith was, Shteir notes he wrote An Introduction to Physiological [philosophical] and Systematical Botany.\/ Without such information, it seems premature to years at near suggest that Smith felt challenged by Ibbotson's work, or to compare her work with that of the Nobel Prize winner Barbara McClintock. John Lindley is the next to figure in Shteir's narrative. More than any other botanist in Britain in the first half of the nineteenth century, Lindley linked what might be called professional botany, polite middle- and upper-class amateur botany, and gardeners and horticulturists. He is still remembered for his work on orchids (the recently founded orchid journal, Lmdleyana, attests to this), and he was closely associated with the Horticultural Society for almost his entire working life. However, his activities seem almost contradictory. Shteir notes both that Lindley attempted to rescue professional botany from women yet at the same time m his copious writings, perhaps most notably his Ladies' Botany, or a Familiar Introduction to the Study of the Natural System in Botany of 1834-1837, he introduced the natural system to popular audiences in general and women in particular. Furthermore, David Mabberley, in his recent biography of the great botanist Robert Brown, tends to dismiss Lindley's efforts, suggesting that Lmdley \"tamed\" botany, making it palatable to Victorian England- her home in \"Floras had to be written, Science left by the back door.\"2 Robert Brown had taken the lead in the introduction of a classification system that reflected ideas of nature to British professional circles barely a generation before Lindley wrote his book, and Brown's achievements inform Mabberley's judgment. But in an anecdote recounted by Shteir, we find Lindley, holed up in his summer house on a rainy day with family and visitors, forced to play indoor games, and indisposed to start botanical conversations with the botanical author Mary Kirby. The author of Ladies' Botany is here not even a popularizer of botany, although the conditions for any sort of botanical tete-a-tete on that occasion would seem hardly ideal. The place of women in society was not static, and Jane Loudon changed the title of Botany for 27 Ladies ( 1842) to Modern Botany1851Shteir suggests that in the middle of the nineteenth century \"women's spaces disappeared as the site of [botanical] science\" with the disappearance of books written specifically for them. Shteir links this change to changing ideas of educationwomen's and men's education should not differ. However, even by Shteir's own telling, women had never been more than margmal contributors to the masculine, professional world of botanical science, however defined; they did contribute to a broader science culture, but very little to then-current classification systems. And in the last two chapters we find women later in the nineteenth century still very active m botany, as illustrators, collectors, and writers, but mostly of juvenile or general popular literature. Shteir shows clearly that there were several groups of people interested in botany in the middle of the nineteenth century. (She also mentions the work of Anne Secord on British artisan botanists-another semi-independent community of botanical devotees with their own particular interests and customs.) We can relate these groups to the equally diverse ways in which zoology, natural history, and m par- ticular, botany were perceived. Lindley wasn't proat jumping mto a field dominated by women; fessional botany, which that time in England was largely synonymous with systematic studies, was dominated by men. But there is guilt by association-women and plants, especially flowers, were connected m the public mind3and thus he wanted to disassociate women from the philosophical botany that he considered most exciting. Yet philosophical botany itself was not botany toute courte, as Sir J. E. Smith himself acknowledged in his opening address to the fledgling Linnean Society in 1798 and as Smith's and Lindley's contemporaries such as Lamarck and the great Swiss botanist Alphonse de Candolle also made clear. Similarly, the Victorians for whom Lindley \"tamed\" botany were a rather different group of people from those for whom Brown wrote earlier in the century, and both are different from Secord's artisan botanists. Some of the contradictions noted above disappear. Indeed, throughout the century, botany as a science remained almost synonymous with classification studies, and botany m the eyes of the public remained associated with women and flowers. In 1895 John Merle Coulter, a major figure m the introduction of Lindley's philosophical botany (in its late nineteenth-century garb) into the United States wrote, \"recommended especially to ladies as a harmless pastime... it [botany] was an emasculated science, which regarded merely the cut of the clothes rather than the man beneath. In spite of the subsequent revelation of the botamcal man, the capacity of plants for usefulness in the domain of aestheticism still brands botany in certain quarters as an emotion rather than a study ... But the botanical man has been liberated, and his virile strength is becoming daily more evident.\"' Coulter may have thought the virility of botany (and he did not mean classificatory botany) was self-evident; he certainly acknowledged, albeit unwittmgly, \"the pervasive factor of gender in shaping the scientist, science education, and science writing,\" to quote Ann Shteir in the Epilogue. If in this review I have taken a rather narrower view of botany-as-science, and of botany itself, than Shteir does in her admirable book, it is because I find this the easiest way to work towards the much-needed \"broader conversation about the culture of botany\"-again quoting the Epilogue-by emphasizing its subcultures. Both views are essential if we are to understand where botany stands at the end of the twentieth century. Endnotes 2 1 1 Shteir, 30-31 D. Mabberley, Jupiter botanicus: Robert Brown of the Bmtish Musuem 3 (Braunschweig: J. Cramer, 1985), 399 Jack Goody's discusses this. recent The Culture of Flowers (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993) 4 The Botamcal Outlook Nebraska Press), 4. (Lincoln: University of Peter Stevens is professor of botany at Harvard University and author of The Development of Biological Systematics Antome-Laurent de Jussieu, Nature, and the Natural System, published by Columbia University Press in 1994. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1996","article_sequence":5,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25169","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070b328.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"28 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data -1996 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation 60 40 50 62.98 inches 89.9 inches Total Snowfall Warmest Temperature ' 97 -6 on on August 7 Coldest Temperature Date of Last --\" February 5 May 13 - Spring Frost 31on 32 144 on -- - - - Date of First Fall Frost October 5 Growing Season Note: days Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1996 was an extremely wet year with temperatures slightly below normal and sunshine well below normal. This was the mnth wettest year on record. January, July, and September were double the norm for precipitation, while October was triple the norm. The 9.99 mches that accumulated m October from the 19th to the 22nd was the second greatest rainfall on record and is considered a hundred-year storm. The snowfall totaled 89.9 mches, which is more than double the past average for the year This was due to the of snow that fell early in the year. At year's end, the new snow season had brought less than normal snow. January broke the snow record for that month, and it was the second snowiest month recorded m 106 years. Only fifty percent of possible sunshme was measured, down four percentage pomts from the average. glut "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 56","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25170","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070b36d.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 5G parentheses refer to issues, those (1996) boldface m to illustranons of the entnes Acer palmatum (2) : 27 -platanoides (1\/: 16; (2): 27 pseudoplatanus (2): 19 -rubrum (1): 16 6 - saccharum (1): 16 Actmidia, bower (2): 13 Actinidia (2): 30 1 arguta (2\/: 13, 27, 31 Akebia qumata (2): 24 6 Alder (3\/: 16 - red (3) : 8 Alexander, John III, \"Would a Lilac by Any Other Name Smell So - 5 Basswood (3) : 15 - Sweet? A Search for Fragrance\" (1)'25-28 (2) : 10 Allyn, Abigail Bradford (4): 17-21, Allee 23 Almond, flowering (2) : 25 Alnus rubra (3\/: 8 Alston, Charles (4) : 19 Alyssum, sweet (2): 18 Ames, Blanche Ames, drawmg by 9 (1J:9 Ancient forests (4) : 2-3, 4-9 Andersen, Phyllis, \"Art and Nature m a Garden: Book Review\" ( 1 )~ 29-32, \"Lives of New England Gardens' Book Review\" (3)' 26-28 Andromeda, mountam (2): 28 6 Arbutus, trailing (3): 16 Anstolochia macrophylla (2) : 13, 30 Arnold Arboretum ( 1 2, 4, 22-23, 25, (2\/. 4, 9, 28, 31, 32-37; (3): 15, 21,25 -- Bayberry (3\/~ 9 6 Beal, F E \/3\/: Beecher, Cathenne (2). 7 8 Begonras, tuberous (2) : 18 Berberis vulgams ~2\/ 24 Betula popuhfolla (3\/: 9 2 Biltmore, NC ~2\/: 12 Birch (3). 15 5 9 - gray (3) : 6 Bittersweet (3): 16 3 - American (2). 13 6 Blackberry vines (2). 16 6 Blueberry (3): 9, 16 Borers ( 1 21 1 Boston ivy \/2\/~ 13, 30 Boston park system (2) : 4, 7, 12 Botanic Garden, Kiev 1 5 5 0 Boxwood ~2\/. 10 Bradford [Ripley], Sarah Alden (4) : 17, 18-21, 23-24 - Colaptes auratus (3): 7 Colden, Jane (4) : 17 7 Columella ( 1 \/: 6 Comptoma peregnna (3\/: 2-11, 5, 7, 8,10 Concord, MA (3) 3, 5, 10; (4): 24 Connecticut 9 (3): College Arboretum Cornelian 25 - cherry (11: 2-7, 4, 5; (2) : 5 cultivars( 15 G cultivation( 16 - - use (1): 6 G propagation(1) 6 \"Cornehan Cherry: From the - harvest and Shores of Ancient Greece,\" Lee Reich \/1): (: -mas 8 Bradford, Gamaliel (4\/~ 18 Brambles, double flowering (21: dwarf (21: 24 6 flonda (2\/: 1G (1\/~ 2-7; (2). 25 G --'Flava' (1\/: 4, 5, G - sangumea ( 1 6 -sencea (2): 24 2-7 Cornus 24 Cotoneaster, small-leaved (2) Cotoneaster 25 Broadmoor Audubon Sanctuary, Natick, MA ( 112-13 Brookline, MA \/2y 3-4, 21, 4 Buddhist shnne ~114 Buffalo-berry (2): 25 2-11 1 Buttonbush ~3\/: 16 6 microphylla (2) 24 Cottonwood (2) : 22 Cottonwood Vista, Gwmn [OH] ( 1 \/: inside back cover 26 Cox, Paul Alan (2). Crat~gus (2\/: 24 38-39 \"Bulldozers and Bacteria: The Ecology of Sweet Fern,\" Peter Del -crus-gal7i (2): 24 Creech, John (3y 21, Crossdating (4) : 4 Tredicy3\/ 25 Cronartium comptomae (3). 9 lilac display\/ 1back cover scale model (3). inside front cover Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data-1996 (4): 28 \"Art and Nature m a Garden. Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen ( 1 ): 29-32 Aruncus dioicus (2) : 25 Ash (3): 15 - green - Callaham, Dale (3): 7 Calycanthus flomdus (2\/: 25 Cambndge Botamc Garden, Harvard University (2) : 9 9 Canopy decline116, 18-19 Carya illmoensis (2) : 24 Case Estates, Weston, MA \/ 1 \/: 1011,25 Ceanothus amencanus (21: 25 Cedar, northern white (4y 5, 7 - red ~3\/. 9; (4) : 3, 8 Celtis occidentahs \/2\/: 24 Central Park [NY] (2): 7, 9, 13 1 Cercis canadensis ~1\/: 21 Chaenomeles ~apomca (2)' 25 5 Chestnut, American (3): 15 Clark, Sandra, \"When the Roots Go Round and Round\" with Gary W. Crown dieback (4): 4 Currant, Missouri (2). 25 Cypress, bald (4). inside back cover, 7 6, - pond (4)' 4 Cypmpedmm cover, acaule (1)' inside front 8, 9, 10-13 Dana Greenhouses Daphne, Mezereon - mezereum white 1 ( 121 (2): 30 Aspen, quakmg (3): Aster (2) : 24 Azalea (2): 25 6 - swamp (3) : 16 9 Daphne cneorum (2): 25 8 Darwin, Erasmus (4)' 18 Del Rosso, John ( 123 Del Tredici, Peter, photos by ( 1 \/: front cover; (2). inside front cover; \"Bulldozers and Bacteria. The (2). 31, (2) : 25 (2) : 25 37 Ecology of Sweet Fern\"; (3) 2-11; photos by front cover; (4) front and back covers Balick, Michael J. (2) : 38-39 Bamboos (2): 25 Barberry, common (2) : 24, 25 Bartram, Wilham (3) : 4, 8 Watson(1):15-21 Celastrus scandens ~2\/: 13 Clematis (2). 24; (3). 16 Clethra almfoha \/2\/: 12, 25 Dendrochronology (4). 2, 4, 7 Dennstaedtia punctilobula \/2\/: Deutzia (2): 9 16 30 Deutzia - gracihs (2) : 25 - scabra (2y 24 Diermlla sessihfoha \/2\/: 25 3 Dogwood13 red-twigged (2\/: 24, 25 Douglass, Andrew E. (41: 3-4 5 pennsylvamca \/ 1\/: 21 9 Fungi, soil ( 1 ]. Furlong, John, photos by (2): front cover, inside back cover - Dowmng, AJ ~2\/ Drainage (41: 13 Drought 11-12 \"Dugout Canoes, Arrow Poisons, and the Cure for Cancer: Book Review,\" Todd Forrest ~2) 38-40 Dutch elm disease (1\/: 15, 21; (2y 30 stress (4) : Gallagher, Percival (2): 9 1 Garden and Forest (2). 21 Gardenia (3): 16 Gardens, New England (3): 26-28 Gerard [John] \/1\/: 3 Girdling root formation ( 1\/: 15-17, 18 Donald H Voss (3): 21-25 Itea ihcifoha (3) : 21 -7apomca (3) 21, 24, 25 vmgimca (3): 21, 22-23, 24-25 --'Beppu' (3) : 21, 23-24, 25 1 - -'Henry's Garnet' j3)' 21 1 yunnanensis (3~: 21 - Ivy, English \/2\/: 13, 1G, 30 Japanese (2~: 24 Jacques, George ( 132 Jacques, Lilhe ( 1 \/. 32 Jardms des Plantes (4). 22 Dutchman's pipe (2) 13, 30 9 Duxbury ~MA~ (4\/: 17-19 Frank 13): 9 Elm (3): 15 Goatsbeard spirea (21: 25 Golden-ram tree (2). 32-37 Goldenrod \/2] 24 Goodwm, Joan W., \"A Kmd of Botamc Mania\" (4) 17-24 Grape, wild (3y 16 Gray, Asa (4)' 23 Greenough, Mrs. Henry V., garden 1 (2] 11 Gnswold, Mac, \"Fairsted A Landscape as Olmsted's Looking Glass\" (2]: 2-20 Growth nngs (4) : 3-4, 10 Guyette, Richard P., drawmgs by (4) 7-9 Gwmn [OH] 29-32 Johnson, Edward (3): Josselyn, John (3) : 4 1 Jumper (2): 21 Jumperus vmgimana 3 Egler, - (3~: 9, \/4\/~ 3, 8 American cover, (1).15, 21, 31; (2\/~ front 15 5 Kalm, 6, 24, 26, 30; ~3\/: - (2) : 24 Emmet, Alan, \"A Park and Garden m Wahoo (3). 4 6 latifoha (2): 16 Karson, Robin ( 129-32 Kimball, Theodora, photo by (2~: Peter Kalmia ~ ___ Webbs 20 Vermont. Olmsted and the at Shelburne Farms (3) : 121G 6 back cover \"Kmd of Botamc Mama,\" Joan W. Goodwm (4) : 17-24 Epigaea repens (3\/. Kitt, Greenwood (2~: 16 Establishment after transplanting radicans (4y 14-16 Ethnobotany ~2) 38-40 Euonymus fortunel var 13,30 ( 1inside back cover, 30 ~2\/~ - plan of ( 1 ~ 5 Klimenko, Svetlana (1).5 Koehler, HansJ \/2J: 16, 17, 18 Koelreutena bipinnata (2) 34-35 - pamculata (2y 33, 35 'Rose Lantern' (2) inside front 2014 2014 Fairsted, Brooklme ~MA~ (2\/ cover, front cover, inside back cover, back Hall, Pamela \/ 112 Hammond Woods, Newton, MA \/ 1 [: 10-11, 13-14 Hand cover, 2014 2014 32-37, 35 'September' (2): 32-37 Koller, Gary (3~: 21, 25 Lake 2-20, 8, 13, 17, 19; 26-31, 27,30 - pollination \/ 1~: 10, 11, 12 Hamson, Jim, photo by (3) : inside front cover Harvard Botamc Garden 23 - Hollow (2): 6, 7, 9, 12-13; planting plan, 14-15, 16, 17; 2728, 29 (4): 19, 22, -plan ~2\/. 6 - rock garden (2) : 6, 9, 12, 27 \"Fairsted. A Landscape as Olmsted's Lookmg Glass,\" Mac Gnswold ~2\/: 2-20 6 Fern, hay-scented ~2) 16 Fig (2) : 25 Indian ~2\/: 24 Fir, balsam (3): 15 - Douglas (3). 16; ~4\/. 8 Flicker, yellow-shafted (3) : 6 7 Folk medicme\/ 17 Forests, ancient ~4\/: 2-3, 4-9 Forrest, Todd, \"Nature's Relentless Onslaught, Redux\"122-24; - plans for (4): 22 Harvard Forest (3[: 4 Harvard [College] (4) 17, 22 Harvard, school of landcape (2\/ 9 design Hedera hehx (2). back cover, 13, 30 Heidelberg, Castle of [Germany] 3 (1).3 Champlam \/3\/. 12-13, 15, 18 Landscape architecture, profession of \/2~: 17 6 Laurel, sheep (21: 16 Leucothoe, droopmg (2): 28 Leucothoe fontanesiana (2) : 28 Ligustrum vulgare \/2\/: 24 Lilac(1): 25-28; (2~: 9, 25 - arch \/ 132 Beauty of Moscow ( 1front cover \/: display [Arnold Arboretum] ( 1 - - Hemlock - - (2\/~ 27; (3): 15 5 Hickory (3): 15 Honeysuckle (2~: 23 bush (2). 25 Japan (2): 24 Hunnewell garden, Wellesley, (3 [: 27 - back cover Lilies (2~: 15, 16 5 Lilmm cvs. (2\/: 15 speciosum 'Album' (2~: 15, 16 Lmdera benzom (2): 24 Lmdley, John (4) : MA 26-27 Linnaean classification system 17-18 22 (4) : \"Dugout Canoes, Review\" Arrow Poisons, Linnaeus, Carolus (3) : 3-4; (4) 17- and the Cure for Cancer Book ~2\/: 38-40 Forsythia \/2\/: 25 Forsythia suspensa (2). 24 Fragrance [hlacs] (1) 25-28 Frankia (3) : 4, 8 Fraxmus amemcana (2) 30 Ibbotson, Agnes (4) : 25-26 2 Ilex gla bra (2\/: 12 2 Inkberry (2~: 12 Inyo National Forest, CA (4) : 4, 7 Ins (2): 16, 18 \"Itea 'Beppu': The Return of the Native,\" Peter M. Mazzeo and 7 Lmnaeus, Elizabeth Christina (4): 17 Lmnea boreahs (3): 16 \"Lives of New England Gardens: Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen (3~: 2G-28 Lomcera \/Qponjco 'Halliana' (2): 24 31 Loudon, Jane (2): 7, (4): 26-27 3 Loudon, John Claudius ( 13 Lycium barbarum (2)' 24 - overcup (4): 6 - - - post (4): inside front cover, 5 red \/ 1 21; 22-23 white (4): 5 Magnoha, (2) : 6, 28 Magnoha acummata (2~: 28 - cucumber - zemi ~ 123 Mahoma, Japanese (2y 25 Mahoma aqmfohum (2)' 25 ~apomca (2) : 25 Manning, Warren ( 129, 31-32; 9 (2~: Maple, Japanese (2): 27 Norway ( 115, 16-19, 20, 21; (2): - mlt( 121 Oleander (2) 25 Olmer, Daniel (3): -longaeva (4): 4, 7 - ponderosa ~4y 3 -ngida (3\/. 9; \/4\/: 5-6 strobus (3): 6 - taeda \/3\/: 9 - \"Plan for 24 a Small Homestead Olmsted Brothers (2): 3, 11-12, 27 Olmsted Center for Landscape 1 Preservation (2). 31 Olmsted, Fredenck Law (1). 31; (2): (1888),\"Fredenck Law Olmsted ~2\/~ 21-25 Plantmg site preparation (4) : 12-13, 16 2-20, 5, 7; \"Plan for a Small Homestead (1888),\" 21-25, 26-31; 7 (3) : 12-16, 17 Olmsted, Frederick Law, National Historic Site (2) : 27-29 Olmsted, John (1): 23; (2) : 5, 7; photos by, 7, 8, 16, 18; \/3): 14 Olmsted, Jr , Frederick Law (2): 5, 8 17, 18 Olmsted, Manon (2y 5 8 Olmsted, Mary Perkms (2) : 5, 18 Opuntia (2): 24 Orchid, pmk lady's slipper ( 1 \/: Platt, Charles \/1\/ 29, 31, (2) : 10 4 Pliny ( 14 6 Plutarch( 16 Populus momhfera (1). inside back cover - 27 8 - red ( 1~: 16, 18 sugar \/ 1 ~: 16, 18 March, Sylvester G. (2): 32-34 Marr, T. E., photos by ( 1back cover ; (31: 17, 18 Marshall, Humphrey \/3y 4 7 Martyn, Thomas (4): 17 Maskirch, Chateau of [Germany] 3 (1~:3 - tremuloides (3) : 9 MA Potter, J S., grounds, Arhngton, front cover (3): inside back cover, 28 Pnmack, Mark, photo by ( 1inside Pnmack, Richard, \"Science and Serendipity The Lady's Slipper Project\" (1)' 8-14 Pnngle and Horsford, nursery (3) : 15-16 Massachusetts Society for Promot- inside front cover, 8, 9, 10-13 Agriculture (4): 22 Mather, Elizabeth Ireland \/ 130, Mather, William ( 1\/: 29-30, 32 Matrimony vine (2) : 24 mg Oregon 32 grape (2). 25 Pnvet, common Ovid 3 ( 13 18 8 Prunus tnloba ~2\/: 24 (2) 25 Pachysandra (2)' Pseudotsuga menziesn ~3) 16 Pyracantha coccmea ~2\/: 24 Quercus alba (4\/~ 5 -lyrata (4): 6 -pnnus ~4\/: 5 -rubrum ~1\/: 21 stellata (4) : inside front cover, 5, 7 Qumce, Japanese 12): 25 - Mazzeo, Peter M., \"Itea 'Beppu': The Return of the Native\" with Donald H. Voss (3\/~ 21-25 McAllister, A. A , photos by (3~: 19 McArdle, AlrceJ (2) 34 McDamel, Joseph C. (2): 32-34 Meadowsweet (3\/~ 9 Meier, Lauren, \"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants at Fairsted\" (2) : 1 2G-31 Metasequoia ( 1 ~ 22-23 Meyer, Fredenck G. (2\/~ 33-34 Mockorange (2): 25 Mount Auburn Cemetery (2) : 9 Mt. IL (1)' 15-18, 21 \"Multitude of Botames~ Book Essay,\" Peter Stevens (4): 25-27 \"Park and Garden m Vermont Olmsted and the Webbs at Shelburne Farms,\" Alan Emmet - (3)' 12-20 7 Parkmson, John ( 17 Parthenocissus (2\/: back cover qmnquefoha (2\/: 12, 23, 30 tncuspidata (2): 13, 30 'VeItchl1' (2) 24 Pecan (2): 24 Peck, William Dandndge (4). 19-21, - Raspberry, black and red (31: 16 Redbud\/1) 21 Reich, Lee, \"Cornelian Cherry From the Shores of Ancient Greece\" ( 1 2-7 Rhizoblum (3) : 4 22 8 Peony (2) 18 7 Phelps, Almira (4): 17 Philadelphus (2) 25 Prospect, Picea, trunk sections (4). 15 Rhododendron maximum \/2\/. 28 Rhododendron ~2\/ 16, 25, 27; (3). 16 - Mymca pensylvamca (2\/: 25; \/3~: 9 National Arboretum 21 1 6 - pungens (3y 16 Piens flonbunda (2) : 28 Rhus - rosebay (2\/: (3)~ 9 28 (: (2~: 32-36; (3): - Pilat, Ignaz (2y 13 Pme (3): 15 bnstlecone (4): 4, 2014 7 National Park Service (2) : 18, 26-27 \"Nature's Relentless Onslaught, Redux,\" Todd Forrest ( 122-24 Nettle tree (2) : 24 Nitrogen fixation (3~: 4-5, 7-8 Nitrogen-fixing bactena (3~: 3 \"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants at Farrsted,\" Lauren Meier radial section back covers - ~ack \/3) 9 -loblolly (3) 9 2014 - (41: front and aromatica (2) 24 typlzma (2): 12 Ribes odoratum (21: 25 Robertson, R. H. (3): 13-15, 18 Romero, Gustavo, photo by (3) : back cover - pitch (3): 9; (4). 5-6 Ponderosa (4): 3 -shortleaf \/3). 9 -white (3): 6 Pmus anstata, radial section (2~: - 1 26-31 (4): Oak (3) 15 chestnut (4): 5 front and back covers bankslana (31: 9 - echmata (3) : 9 - crowns117-18 (1J: 21 - growth (4) : 12-16 loss as a result of transplanting (4). 14, 16 - system (4): 11-12, 14-15 Roots, girdling ( 115-19, 20-21 frequency of m relation to plantmg depth(1):21 Root -flare - - - 32 9 - pmmary \/ 1 17-19 8 - secondary ( 117-18 8 - tertiary \/ 117-18 Rosa multiflora \/2J: 12 spmosissima (2): 12 2 vmgmiana (2\/: 12 Rose (2) : 24, 25 - rambler \/2\/: 18 8 Scotch Briar (2\/: 12 shrub (2): 12 2 - tea (3): 16 -mld (3) 16 - 2 Stacy, Elizabeth (1). 12 Stahle, David W., \"Tree Rings and Ancient Forest Relics\" (4) : photos by, inside front and back covers, angustzfolzum (3). 9 corybosum (3) : 9 Vanderbilt, William Henry (3): 12Vaccznzum - 14 4 \"'Rose Lantern'~ A New Cultivar of Koelreutena pamculata, the Golden-Ram Tree,\" Frank S. Santamour, Jr., and Stephen A. Spongberg (2) : 32-37 Rose of Sharon (2~: 9 7 Rousseau, Jean Jacques (4) : 17 Rubus ulmifolms `Bellidiflorus' (2): 24 2-10 Stan Hywet, Akron [OH] (2) : 9 Stevens, Peter, \"A Multitude of Botanres: Book Essay\" (4): 25-27 Sumac (3): 9 2 staghorn (2): 12 Summersweet (2) : 12 Sweet fern (3): 2-11, 5, 7, 10 --blister rust (3): 9 Sweetspire (3): 21 Symphomcarpos albus (2)~ 24 meyen ( 1 ) 28 oblata ( 1 ): 2G subspp. (1) 28 - Verticillmm mlt ( 121 1 Viburnum (3) : 16 6 Viburnum dentatum (1): 32 7 Vrrgrl ( 17 Virginia creeper \/2\/: 13, 16, 23, 25, 30 1 Virginia willow (3) : 21 Von Reis, Sm (2) : 38 Voss, Donald H., \"Itea `Beppu'~ The Return of the Native\" with Peter M. Mazzeo (3) 21-25 Wakefield, Pmscilla (4): 19 Watson, Gary W., \"When the - pubescens ( 1\/: 25 --subspp. (1)' 28 - vulgans (2): 25 --'Krasamtska Moskova' front cover Roots Go Round and Round\" with Sandra Clark ( 1 15-21; \"Tree (1): (: Sahx humilis var. tmstis \/2~: 28 Santamour, Jr., Frank S , \"'Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of - - cvs. ( 1 ): 2G-28 -x - chmensis Koelreutema pamculata, the Golden-Ram Tree\" with Stephen 7 Spongberg \/2~: 32-37 Sargent, Charles Sprague (2): 9, 21; 5 (3\/: 15 Schmidt, Franz, illustration by \/3)~ 3 Schneider, Camillo (3): 24 Schulman, Edmund (4) 4 Schultes, Richard Evans (2) : 38 \"Science and Serendrpity: The Lady's Slipper Project,\" Richard Prrmack ( 1 \/: 8-14 Shelburne Farms \/3~: 12-20, 13, 17, A x hyacmthiflora cvs.1):28 cvs. ( 1 26-28 (4\/ inside Transplanting and Estabhshment\" 6 (41: 11-16 Waxberry (2) : 25 Weather( 122-24 Weaver, Jr., Richard E. (2) : 32 Webb, Lila Vanderbilt (3): 12-14, 16, 18-19 Taxodium distichum back cover, 6, 7 --var nutans Webb, William Seward 18-19 (3): 12-16, 10 0 18,19 - - plan of (3~: 14 Shepardia \/2\/: 25 Shipman, Ellen \/1\/. 29, 31-32; (2): 1 10, 11 Smith, James Edward (4~: 21, 23, 26 (4): 4 (2): 28 'Repandens' (2): 28 - cuspidata (2\/: 28 5 Taylor, Arthur (3): 15 Tea, Jersey (2): 25 Thoreau, Henry David (3): 6, 8, Thorn, cockspur (2): 24 - fiery (2) 24 Thorns (2) 21 Thu~a occidentahs (4\/: 5 Torrey, John (3) : 4-5, 7 Transplanting (4)' 11-16, 17 - shock (4): 11 1 - stress (4). 15-16 Taxus baccata 2014 2014 Wezgela (2\/ 9, 25 Weld [Brooklme, MA] (2) : \"When the Roots Go Round and Round,\" Gary W. Watson and Sandra Clark (1) 15-21 1 Willow (2). 21; (3) : 15 5 10 0 6 (3): 16 (2): 28 6 weeping (3): 16 Winter-creeper, Japanese (2): 13 euonymus (2): 30 Wzstena (2): 13, 23 Chmese (2): 25 Wisterza (2): back cover, 30 sznenszs (2): 13, 27, 31 1 Witch hazel (3) : 16 6 \"Would a Lilac by Any Other Name - pussy - shrub - - - Snowberry (2y 24 \"Tree Rmgs and Ancient Forest \/4~: 12-13 Specimen, five-millionth, Harvard University Herbaria (3)' back cover Spicebush (2): 24 Spmaea (3): 9 -7apomca (2): 25 thunbergm (2)' 25 Spirea (2\/~ 25 - Soil modifications - Relics,\" David W. Stahle (4): 2-10 Transplanting and Establish6 ment,\" Gary W. Watson (4) : 11-16 Tree-ring chronology (4): 2, 5 dating (4): 3 Tsukamoto, Yotaro (3): 25 6 Tulips (2\/: 16 6 Twinflower (3): 16 \"Tree Smell So Sweet? A Search for Fragrance,\" John Alexander III ( 1 ): 25-28 Wyman, Donald (2)' 33 - Spongberg, Stephen A., Koelreutema \"'Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of - pamculata, the 24 Golden-Ram Tree\" with Frank S. Ulmus alata (2) : 24 Umted States Department of Agriculture Station, Glenn MD - (2): 18, 27 English (2): 28 English weepmg (2): Japanese (2): 28 Yosemite (2): 12 Yew 28 Dale, Zaitzevsky, Cynthia (2). 27 Santamour, Jr. \/2\/~ 32-37, \/3~: Spruce, trunk sections (4): 15 - (2) : 35 21 1 Umted States National Arboretum Colorado (3) : 16 6 (2y 32-36; (3)' "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25171","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070b726.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum WIN T E , . , \" S . \", \"7 Spongberg Is Awarded the RHS Gold Veitch Memorial Medal Sheila Connor, Horticultural Research Archivist Celebrating 125 Years of Discovery Mark these events on your calendar and join Arboretum staff and friends for our 125th anniversary celebration. Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum at An artistic display of three eras of Arboretum bonsai the New England Spring Flower Show March 8 through 16, 1997-Bay.rzde Exposition Center, Boston Harvard University Herbaria Open House Stephen A. Spongberg, Arboretum horticultural taxonomist, recently traveled to London to receive the Gold Veitch Memorial Medal, one of the foremost honors of the horticultural world. Recipients of the medal are selected by England's Royal Horticultural Society for their outstanding contributions to the field and are deemed \"persons who have helped the advancement of the science and practice of horticulture.\" Presented annually since 1873, the medal commemorates James Veitch (1792-1869) of the famous and influential family of British nurserymen. By all accounts, the man who inspired the award was not only a skilled plantsman and accomphshed cultivator but a generous supporter of horticultural charities. In fact, a medal was selected ~ the behind-the-scenes view of the work of Herbaria staff in of plant collection, scientific research, and biodiversity conservation, highlighting the historic and current significance of the Umversity's botanical collections A rare areas Thursday, May 8, 1997-Harvard Unzver.rzty Herbaria, Cambrtdge Lilac An Arboretum tradition Sunday celebrating one of North America's premier lilac collections Sunday, May I8, 1997-Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plazn Annual Fall Plant Sale Our most popular event for members, this year featuring a new plant introduction-Syrznga x chinenrt.r 'Lilac Sunday' Sunday, September 21, 1997-Ca.re E.rtate.r, Werton Arboretum Open House & Lecture Tour the Hunnewell Building, view our new exhibit, meet the staff, and ~oin us for a lecture by renowned British plant hunter, horticulturist, and author Roy Lancaster Friday, October 17, 1997-Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plazn contenued on page 2 ~ from page I suitable memorial to Veitch only after the Society's subscribers had considered-and subsequently rejected-the establishment of a club, an almshouse, and pensions for either disabled plant collectors or for aged gardeners. However, James Veitch was also an astute and venturesome businessman. Fiercely competitive in the arena of plant introduction, under his aegis the nursery of Messrs. James Veitch & Sons rose to prominence by being one of the first commercial enterprises to compete with royalty and learned societies in the sponsorship of far-off plantas a hunting expeditions. While the Veitch medal is the highest accolade that the Royal Horticultural Society bestows on a foreign national, half a century would elapse after its inception before the medal would first cross the Atlantic. With Steve's recent honor he has joined a very exclusive group-to date only fifteen medals have gone to North Americans with Steve being the fourth member of the Arboretum staff to be so honored. In 1926, the Arboretum's famous plant explorer Ernest Henry \"Chinese\" Wilson, then a British subject, received the Veitch medal inscribed for \"his introductions to gardens and his books.\" On that occasion, newspaper accounts exclaimed, \"British Award Won by Boston Horticulturist This medal has never before been given to any person in America!\" Almost twenty years later, when the second Arboretum recipient William H. Judd, born in England but a naturalized American citizen, received the medal for \"exceptional work in propagation,\" he wrote in his journal, \"I believe that this is the first time by any man other than English to receive it.\" Donald Wyman, horticulturist extraordinaire, but with no obvious British ties, accepted the coveted award \"for his contribution to the science, to the practice, and to the lmerature of horticulture\" upon his retirement from the Arboretum in 1969. While Steve has won the medal for his \"major contribution to horticultural taxonomy at an international level,\" he could have easily been recognized, like Wilson, for his plant exploration in China. Steve has participated in several ... plant-collecting expeditions to Asia and was a member of the U.S. team of botanists who took part in the 1980 Smo-American Botamcal Expedition to western Hubei Province in the eastern People's Republic of China, the first cooperative venture between Chinese and American scientists after China opened its doors to the West in the late 1970s. The Arboretum's collections and American gardens have been made richer through the introduction of Magnolaa zenii, Heptacodium miconaoide.r, and Sorbus yu'ana, among other new plants collected during the 1980 expedition. Or like Wilson and Wyman, Steve might have been recognized for his contributions to the field of horticultural and botanical literature. He has written many articles both popular and scientific on north temperate woody plants, and his acclaimed book on the introduction of ornamental plants mto North American and European landscapes, A Reunaon of Trees, has become the standard on the history of plant exploration. On a more personal level, Steve is valued by his colleagues here at the Arboretum for the scholarship, dedication, and love he brings to the herbarium, library, and living collections. We join in congratulations with Roy Lancaster who has written to Steve, \"Welcome to the club, one of the horticultural world's most exclusme. I'm sure E. H. Wilson and all those other luminaries will be smiling up there.\" Living Collections Apprentice Arrives Alistair Yeomans has joined the staff as Arboretum apprentice. A native of western Scotland with a bachelor's degree in horticulture from Strathclyde University, Alistair specializes in pathology. In research on Botrytz.r ctnerea, a common mold that is destructive to plants, he tested the effectiveness of Dichlofluanid, an ingredi- for the disease. Alistair will be working with all the units of the living collections department for a wellrounded view of the maintenance of a scientific collection of woody plants. During his year here he'll study the broad range of hostpathogen interactions that a collection like the Arboretum's treatments can ent in various commercial provide. IMLS Conservation Grant for Shrub and Vine Review With the recent award of an Institute of Museum and Library Services conservation grant, the Arboretum began the first step in a long-range plan to develop a special, synoptic shrub and vine collection to be located near the Dana Greenhouses. The IMLS, a federal agency that strengthens museums to benefit the public, has provided funding for a complete curatorial review of the Arboretum's shrub and woody vine collections over the course of calendar year 1997. Under the supervision of horticultural taxonomist Stephen Spongberg, each shrub and woody vine accession in the Arboretum's living collections will be individually inspected and evaluated, and observations will be recorded in the Arboretum's living collections database (BG-BASE). For verification of each accession's identity, existing voucher specimens will be located in the herbarium and, if necessary, added to the curatorial database; missing herbarium specimens will be made as required. Lists of species needed for the collections will also be developed, map locations verified for accuracy, and candidates for repropagation identified. In the long term, the results of this survey will ensure that the Arboretum's collections of shrubs and woody climbers will both be accurately identified and comprehensive and that attention will be given to the cultural requirements of these accessions. Joining Steve Spongberg in this team effort are Andrew C. Bell, curatorial associate; Susan Kelley, curatorial associate for mapping and labelmg; Kyle Port, curatorial assistant for plant records; and Patrick Willoughby, grounds superintendent. Additional support will be provided by volunteers Sheila Magulhon and Robert Reynolds and this summer's horticultural interns. Curatorial Associate Rejoins Staff Andrew C. Bell has returned to the Arnold Arboretum for a third time to join the curatorial staff in its IMLS-supported survey of the shrub and vine collections. Andy served his first stint as a horticultural intern in 1994, helping with mapping and labelmg in the curatorial office. Following graduation with a bachelor's degree in ornamental horticulture and botany from the University of Tennessee in 1995, he returned for another summer, as a Putnam Fellow assisting Stephen Spongberg his taxonomic research. This time Andy returns in after having completed a one-year for the master's degree program in science at the University of Edinburgh and the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. While his plans for the future after this year at the Arboretum are yet to be finalized, they do focus on plants (particularly woody plants) and either further graduate study or work at a botanical institution. Arboretum Collaborations Peter Del Tredici, director of the was living collections, recently presented a program at the Boston Museum of Science on Leonardo Da Vinci's contributions to botany. His lecture was part of a series presented to the docents who will be interpreting the museum's new exhibit on Leonardo Da Vinci to visitors. Peter pointed out that Leonardo interested in more than just the accurate depiction of naturehe was concerned with how structure and function were interrelated, and he was a master green industry trade show, which brings together thousands of participants from the nursery, landscape, and garden design professions. Staff members Peter Del Tredici and Tom Ward, of deducing function from careful observation of structure. The Arboretum was a co-sponsor of this year's New England Grows, the Northeast's largest greenhouse manager, presented programs on plant collecting in China and viburnums, respectively. During the course of the ~~ contanued on page 4 from page 3 show the Arboretum distributed more than 1,000 complimentary back issues of Arnoldia and answered numerous questions about Arboretum projects and ~~ 1997 American .. Landscape Lecture Series ~ THE . ~ . Lectures in memory , , : -, , programs. Stephen Spongberg, Arboretum horticultural taxonomist, hosted a mini-symposium on taxonomic problems in the Maloideae, a subfamily of the Rosaceae. It was held at the Harvard University Herbaria in conjunction with the Flora of China translation project, which operates out of the Missouri Botanical Garden. HUH houses one of the Flora'r editorial centers, which is coordinated by David E. Boufford, assistant director for herbaria collections. The project will publish the first mod- This fifth year of the American Landscape Lecture Series is dedicated to the memory of the late John Brinckerhoff Jackson, pioneer in the cultural interpretation of landscapes. Each speaker will offer a unique reading of the American landscape. The series is a collaboration among the Arnold Arboretum, Olmsted National Historic Site, the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and other landscape-oriented sponsors. We thank the Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities for its support. All lectures are free and begin at 6:30 pm at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, 48 Quincy Street, Cambridge. For information, call the National Park Service at 617\/566-1689 x 220. Thursday, February Landscape Health 13: Social Connections as Clues to Cultural English-language account of the vascular plants of China, based on the Chinese language Flora Republrcae Popularz.r Sznicae. For a more complete account, visit HUH's Flora of Chrna web site ern (http:\/\/flora.harvard.edu\/china\/). of Archztecture and Geography, Unzverrzty of California, Berkeley Thursday, February 27: Prospects Aplenty: Scale, Identity, and Change in Regional Landscapes of America Muhael P. Conzen, Professor of Geography, Unzverrzty of Chzcago Thursday, March 13: The Midwest: America's Homegrown Utopia Pezrce Lewz.r, Profe.r.ror Emerztur of Geography, Pennsylvania State Unzverrzty Thursday, April 3: Reinventing Eden: Landscape as Narrative Carolyn Merchant, Professor of Environmental History, Phzlo.rophy and Ethics, University of California, Berkeley \/ 1 Paul Groth, Associate Profe.r.ror 1 The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and landscape design. A selection of spring courses is shown here. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call 617\/524-1718 x 162. Note that fees shown in boldface are for Arboretum members. For information about becoming a member, call 617\/524-1718 x 165. ART 120 Botanical Perceptions: Drawing from Plants BOT 343 Reading the Forested Making Sense of Place Landscape: Jan Arabas, Artzrt and Art Instructor What do the artists Leonardo DaVinci, Claude Monet, and Georgia O'Keeffe have in common? They all turned to the botanical realm for instruction and inspiration. In this course we will emulate these artists and observe plants carefully, working toward good technical skills in a variety of art media, aiming to draw clearly what we see, and to learn about plant structure in so doing. 2 Fee: $93, $112 6 Mondays, April 7, 14, 21, 28, May 5, noon Tom Wessels, Director, Environmental Bzology Program, Antioch New England Graduate School You may know how trees to identify your neighborhood but not know why pines are dominant in one place and maples in another. You may notice fungus growing on a beech trunk but not know the devastating impact of the blights on our forests over the centuries. Unlock the mysteries of the forest in this slide-illustrated lecture by the author of Readzng the Forested Landscape: A Natural Kutory of New England. 5 Fee: $12, $15 ' 12\/ 10 :00- (DG) Tuesday, April 29\/ 7:00-8:30 pm (WCC) w 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23509","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060856e.jpg","title":"1996-56-fall","volume":56,"issue_number":4,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bulldozers and Bacteria: The Ecology of Sweet Fern","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25163","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070a36f.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Bulldozers and Bacteria: The Peter Del Tredici Ecology of Sweet Fern Comptonia peregrina, a common roadside plant in eastern North America, provides a case study both of how nature copes with disturbance to the land and of just how convoluted the study of this process can be. Sweet fern, Comptonia peregrina, is a shrubby member of the Myricaceae, or bayberry family. Its common name is derived from the pleasing fragrance that its tiny, resin-filled, glandular hairs give off when crushed or rubbed, and from its coarsely lobed, somewhat fern-like leaves. Comptoma, a distinctly unprepossessing plant, has a natural range that covers a large portion of eastern North America. Forming a rough triangle, the eastern flank of this range extends from Prince Edward Island and Nova Scotia south into the mountains of north Georgia; the western edge reaches from the southern Appalachians north through Tennessee and Minnesota all the way to central Manitoba; and the northern edge runs from the Canadian plains through central Ontario and Quebec to the Atlantic (Elias 1971Sweet fern typically grows to three or four feet in height and, over time, forms extensive colonies-up to twenty feet acrossfrom suckers produced by its roots. As to habitat, sweet fern shows a strong preference for dry, sandy soils with full exposure to the sun. These sites, which include dry, piney woods, exposed mountain slopes, abandoned pastures, pine barrens, highway bankings, gravel pits, weathered mine tailings, and cut-over forested land, have typically experienced some form of disturbance in either the recent or distant past (Schramm 1966; Schwintzer 1989). Two attributes equip Comptoma for the pioneering role of a colonizer of disturbed soils. The first is its use of nitrogen gas from the atmosphere to produce mtrates-a feat it accomplishes by forming root nodules in symbiotic association with nitrogen-fixing bacteria. The second is an ability to propagate itself vegetatively by means of long, thick roots that run an inch or so beneath the soil surface. These shallow roots form numerous buds in the fall that grow into shoots the following spring. Under the right conditions, Comptonia behaves as a areas shrubby groundcover, spreading over large by means of these root suckers. Historical Considerations Sweet fern's distinctive form and pungent odor made a strong impression on the early European settlers of North America. Nowhere is this more apparent than in a passage from a book written in 1654 by one Edward Johnson, Wonderworking Providence of Sion's Saviour in New England. Johnson was presenting a secondhand account of the arduous journey made in 1636 by the first English settlers of Concord, Massachusetts, led by Captain Simon Willard. Starting from Boston, they traveled by boat as far as Watertown and then made their way overland, more or less followmg the meandering Charles River. Johnson describes (and undoubtedly embellishes) a scene in which the wearied pilgrims confront \"a scorching plame, yet not so plaine, but that the ragged bushes scratch their legs fouly, even to wearing their stockings to The charactemstics that mspmed the common name sweet fern-tmy, resm-fllled hams and fern-like leavesbe seen m this plate from Franz Schmidt's Osterreichs Allgememe Baumzucht (Vienna, 1792). The plant we know as Comptoma peregnna is labelled under a hybrid of the two names given it by Carolus Lmnaeus m his Species Plantarum. It was Charles L'Hemtier who demonstrated that the plant did not belong m either of the genera suggested by Linnaeus. can 4 their bare skin m two or three hours.\" Those have had the without \"bootes or buskings trickle downe at every step.\" And injury bloud was compounded when \"the sun casts such a reflecting heate from the sweet ferne, whose scent is very strong, that some herewith have beene very nere fainting, although very able bodies to undergoe much travel.\" John Josselyn's reference to sweet fern in his classic work New-Englands Rarities Discov... 1\/ had gotten a violent toothache. To cure it she boiled the Myrica aspleniifolia, and tied it, as hot as she could bear it, on the whole cheek. She said that remedy had often cured the toothache before.\" The medicinal use of sweet fern must have been widespread, given that later authors and travelers make frequent reference to its use not only by various tribes of Native Americans, but also by European settlers (Erichsen-Brown 1979). William Bartram mentions sweet fern only in his Travels, but more sigmficantly, he offered it for sale in his famous Catalogue of American Trees, Shrubs, and Herbaceous Plants, published in 1783 (Fry 1996). In this broadside, Bartram listed sweet fern under a hybrid of the two Lmnaean names, Liquidambar Aspleni Folia, noting that it grew on \"Light once ered, written in 1672, is considerably more benign: \"Sweet Fern, the Roots run one within another like a Net, being very long and spreading abroad under the upper crust of the Earth, sweet in taste, but withal astringent, much hunted after by our Swine: The Scotch-men that are in New-England have told me that it grows in Scotland.\" Josselyn was an astute observer, as his description of the spreading roots of the plant clearly indicates. His Scottish informants, however, were dead wrong; sweet fern is native only to eastern North America. It was Carolus Linnaeus who assigned the first modern scientific name to sweet fern, which he did in Species Plantarum, published in 1753. Unfortunately, he confused the situation by accidentally giving the plant two names, Liquidambar peregnna on page 999 and Myrica asplenifolia on page 1024. Subsequent authors were left to choose which name to use. The currently accepted name of sweet fern's genus, Comptonia, was established in 1789 by the French botanist Charles L'Heritier, who demonstrated that the plant did not belong in either of the genera suggested by Lmnaeus. dry sandy Ridges.\" Two years later, Humphrey Marshall produced the first detailed description of the sweet fern in his book, Arbustrum Americanum, also using Bartram's hybrid name, Liquidambar asplenifolia. Marshall's publication, which is considered the first book by an American about American trees and shrubs, brings to a close the early history of Comptonia. Later botanical authors continued tinkering with the name, but added little original information to the basic understanding of the plant itself. Desperately Seeking Sweet Fern My own involvement with 1971 when I started sweet working fern began in for the late Dr. L'Heritier's name commemorates Henry Compton(1632-1713~, Bishop of London, a lover of trees and an early supporter of botanical research and exploration. Linnaeus' student Peter Kalm, who may well have collected the specimens on which Linnaeus' original description was based, provided a particularly interesting reference to sweet fern in his book, Travels into North America, written in 1770. In this work, a report of his travels between 1747 and 1750, Kalm noted the medicinal use of sweet fern by indigenous people: \"Among the Iroquois, or Five Nations, on the Mohawk River, I saw a young Indian woman, who by frequent drinking of tea John Torrey at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, just after he had shifted the focus of his research from root physiology to nitrogen fixation. He selected Comptonia as his experimental subject and hired me to grow it in the laboratory. At that time, the symbiosis of legumes with the nitrogen-fixing Rhizobium bacteria was well understood, but almost nothing was known about nitrogen fixation by the so-called nonlegumes that form a symbiotic association with a totally different type of bacterium in the genus Frankia. When Dr. Torrey's project started, no one, despite seventy years of trying, had succeeded in isolating the causative bacterium from a nonleguminous root nodule or in culturing it independent of its host. This 5 Sweet fern is seen with quaking aspen growing along Route 2 in Concord, Massachusetts them between the thumb and the forefinger to extract the seeds. Once we had managed to collect enough seeds to work with, the next hurdle was to get them to germinate. We tried all the standard techniques for stimulating seed germination in woody plants and all of them failed. Subsequent research with excised embryos grown in a sterile culture demonstrated that the failure resulted from the presence of chemical inhibitors located m the innermost seed coat. These inhibitors are not unique to Comptonia. In most temperate plants, however, chilling effectively counteracts the inhibitors-not the case with sweet fern seeds. It was only when Dr. Torrey suggested treating the seeds with gibberellic the block that held up progress in the subject. researching With an overabundance of enthusiasm and a dearth of experience, I was hired to bring sweet fern into the greenhouse-domesticate it, if you will-so that we could study the mtrogenfixation process in a controlled environment. To cultivate Comptonia under laboratory conditions, we couldn't just dig up plants from the field because the roots were always contaminated with fungi and bacteria other than the one we wanted to study. No, Dr. Torrey insisted, we had to grow the plant from seed in sterile sand. In central Massachusetts, sweet fern's seeds, technically considered to be frmts, ripen around the fourth of July. They are light brown in color, four-to-five millimeters long, and, as they mature, they become enveloped in a burrlike structure that is covered with long, green bracts. The burrs are soft to the touch and give off a delicious, almost spicy scent when one rubs was failure acid, a naturally occurring plant growth regula- tor, that we were able to get any of them to sprout. Eventually we learned that soaking scarified seeds m a dilute solution of gibberellic acid for twenty-four hours would produce up to 6 germination (Del Tredici and Torrey While these results were satisfying in 1976). that they allowed the research program to move forward, they were also frustrating because we could not relate the gibberellic acid treatment to the way the seeds behaved in nature. The problem stumped me for some time. In four years of studying Comptonia I had examined thousands of plants all across New England but had never found a wild seedling. Invariably, every small plant I found was attached to a root that emanated from an established plant. For whatever reason, I never found Comptonia seedlings under an existing clump of sweet fern. In frustration, I stopped thinking about the problem of seed germination in nature until one day in the spring of 1976, on a walk in the woods in northwest Connecticut, I came upon a site where hundred-year-old white pines (Pinus strobus) had been clearcut and then bulldozed the autumn before. Among all the weeds and whatnot that were emerging, I was amazed to see seedlings of sweet fern growing, their cotyledons still attached. There were no adult plants to be found, just seedlings. In all, I counted 194 of them in an area of less than an acre (Del Tredici 1977). According to my reasoning, these seedlings must have arisen either from dormant seeds buried in the soil (the so-called seedbank) or from seeds brought in by some dispersal agent. Given the relatively large size of the sweet fern seed and its lack of any specialized dispersal structures, transport by rain or wind could be ruled out; and its inconspicuous appearance and lack of fleshy coverings make dispersal by animals extremely limited. Indeed, the only animal ever reported to eat the sweet fern seeds is the yellow-shafted flicker (Colaptes auratus), a ground-feeding member of the woodpecker family. One F. E. Beal examined 684 flicker stomachs in 1911 and found an undisclosed number of Comptonia seeds in one of them. However, in order to explain by animal dispersal the 194 seedlings that appeared just one year after clearcutting, one would need to postulate a sizeable flock of flickers roaming the countryside, eating sweet fern and defecating exclusively on this one acre in the woods. 80 percent The lack of any obvious dispersal mechanism left buried seeds as the only likely explanation for the seedlings in the Connecticut clearcut. The question was, how did they get there? In nature, most Comptonia seeds come to rest within a half meter of the parent that produced them and are soon buried in the leaf litter that collects beneath the plant. As I see it, deep chemical inhibition prevents germination for several years, by which time the seeds are well covered. The litter contributes to delayed germination either indirectly, by excluding light, or directly, by giving off specific chemicals that suppress germination. In either case, a buried seed will not sprout unless brought to the surface after its own internal dormant state has been neutralized. In the Connecticut woods where I found my sweet fern seedlings, this resurrection was facilitated, albeit inadvertently, by the state forester who upon completion of the logging operation had the whole area bulldozed to encourage the \"natural\" regeneration of white pine seedlings. Clearly bulldozing was just what the sweet fern seeds needed. They had been deposited in the soil before the pines grew up, while the land was in pasture, and then germinated after the logging operation brought them to the surface. On the basis of ring counts of the cut pine trees, I estimated that the canopy of pines had closed about seventy years before I came on the scene, the point when sweet fern would have disappeared from the site because of insufficient sunlight. Seventy estimate years, then, is a minimum of the time the seeds could survive in the soil. I have no idea what the maximum is. It is clear, however, that soil disturbance is an absolute reqmrement for the germination of Comptonia seeds. Henry David Thoreau made essentially the same observation m his journal on October 22, 1860: \"I notice that the first shrubs and trees to spring up in the sand on railroad cuts in the woods are sweet-fern, birches, mllows, and aspens, and pines, white and pitch; but all but the last two chiefly disappear in the thick wood that follows.\" All of the above species, save Comptoma, have wind-dispersed seeds that exhibit no capacity for long-term survival in the soil. Clearly sweet fern's buried seed 7 fixation in Comptonia. Using gibberellic acid to stimulate germination, we were able to produce abundant nodule growth that roots on vigorous seedlings were grown with their dangling in a nutrient (aeroponics). This system, water culture (hydroponics), allowed the plant roots to develop the hairs through which the bacteria penetrated the root itself (Zobel et al. 1974). By repeatedly subculturing the nodules from one mist box to the next, we eventually were able to produce \"clean\" nodules that were relatively mist unlike 1\/ free of other microbial taminants con- (Callaham were and Torrey 1977; Bowes et al. 1977). These nodules surface-sterilized, together with special digestive enzymes, and incubated then macerated on an elaborately formulated ent agar. nutri- Sweet fern in frmt at the height of summer. strategy, which evolved in response to natural disturbance such as fire and erosion, had adapted well to the human-induced changes of the twentieth century. Sweet fern, as a pioneer species, can play an important role in revitalizing land that has been traumatically stripped of its plant cover. Nitrogen Fixation Eventually, after seven years of work, Dr. Torrey's research team succeeded in isolating the bacterium that is responsible for nitrogen After three weeks of culture, Dale Callaham, who did the isolation work, observed several small colonies of bacteria with filamentous growth. While the unusual morphology of this organism clearly resembled that of an actinobacterium, it was unlike any that had been previously described. It was not until we had obtained a second generation of functional nodules by re-innoculating fresh Comptonia seedlings with a culture of the isolated bacterium that we knew we had the real thmg. This conclusion was corroborated when we isolated the filamentous bacteria from the second-generation nodules and found them to be identical to those of the first generation. It was only by following this elaborate procedurereferred to as fulfilling Koch's postulates-that we could prove that we had the causative organism in hand. These successful results, published 8 1978, marked the conclusion of nearly seventy years of frustrated attempts to isolate a Frankia bacterium from its host plant. This breakthrough opened wide the floodgates of research on actinorhizal plants, whose important role in colonizing in bare, nutrient-poor ground was just starting to be appreciated. Most of the nitrogen fixed by these plants enters the nutrient cycle slowly through the decomposition of fallen leaves, twigs, branches, and fine roots, but over time the contribution of actinorhizal plants to the total ecosystem nitrogen budget can be substantial. Research on red alder (Alnus rubra) in A micrograph of the Frankia bacteria showing its long, branchmg filaments the Pacific Northwest, for under Nomarski phase mterference optics at a magmfication of ISOOx example, has shown that pure stands of the tree can add up to 280 pounds of There are several reasons for this, not least the nitrogen per acre per year to the forest plant's reputation for being difficult to propa(Schwintzer and Tjepkema 1990). It is important gate. Germination from seed, as shown above, is to keep in mind, however, that nitrogen-fixing virtually impossible, and digging the plant up can typically hold their own against comfrom the wild is seldom successful, given the plants when soil conditions are poor. On petition only ropy nature of its root system. It wasn't until the fertile ground they seem to lose some of their early 1970s that a research team at the Univercompetitive advantage to other trees and sity of Massachusetts, Amherst, developed techshrubs. In a very real sense, nitrogen-fixing niques that allowed for the plant's commercial plants sow the seeds of their own replacement production (Hyde et al. 1972). The authors of that study were seeking to by elevating the nitrogen content of the soil. identify plants that would rapidly cover highPropagation and Cultivation way bankings, and sweet fern was one of the Sweet fern's ability to propagate itself from root plants that interested them. They designed an suckers is another important component of its experiment to determine both the best time of colonization strategy. Once the plant gets a footyear to take root cuttings as well as their optihold in a location to its liking, it comes to domimal size. Two different-sized cuttings were colnate the area by sending up numerous root lected twice a month for a period of one year: suckers. The ever-observant Henry Thoreau three inches long by one-quarter-inch diameter made note of this on March 18, 1860: \"The and three inches long by one-eighth-inch diamsweet fern grows in large, dense, more or less eter. Forty-five days after the cuttings had been rounded or oval patches in dry land. You will see stuck in individual pots, they were checked to three or four such patches in a single old field. It see whether they had produced leafy shoots. is now quite perfect in my old bean-field.\" No significant difference was found in the William Bartram's 1783 offering of sweet fern number of shoots produced by the two different notwithstanding, the plant has never made cutting sizes over the course of the year, but the much of an impression in the nursery industry. time of cutting was highly influential. At least \" 9 80 percent of the root cuttings taken between February 24 and May 1 produced shoots, while those taken between May 15 and August 1 pro- duced few or no shoots. Cuttings taken between August 15 and December 10 produced good-topoor percentages of shoots, depending on the date the cuttings were made. (No cuttings were taken between December 10 and February 24 because the ground was frozen.) Based on these results, the authors recommended that root cuttings be taken before the parent plant started to leaf out, around May in the Boston area. Root cuttings made after the stock plant's leaves emerged produced shoots in very low percentages. Their observations clearly suggest the existence of an inhibitory hormone produced by the leaves that suppressed the development of the root buds into shoots. shrub cover on fresh roadcuts and bankmgs. The authors found that root pieces of sweet fern could be stuck directly into a bare bank in early spring. According to recommended procedure, root cuttings of Comptonia, which can be anywhere from one-sixteenth to one-quarter of an inch in diameter and four to six inches long, should be planted an inch deep and six inches apart and mulched with two to three inches of wood chips. If this \"direct stick\" procedure is followed, sweet fern will produce a closed, weed-resistant canopy within three to six years. Pathological Problem The final chapter in the Comptonia story pits one plant against another in a battle to the A Landscape Uses: A Community Approach Frank Egler, working with researchers at the Connecticut College Arboretum m New London, was among the first to recognize the potential role that sweet fern, as well as other suckering shrubs, could play in the formation of low-mamtenance, naturalistic plantings along highway bankings and power company rightsof-way (Kenfield 1966; Niering and Goodwin 1974). In the course of their studies of old-field succession m the Northeast, the authors developed techniques-specifically the use of herbicides to selectively kill trees-to \"arrest\" the successional process at the shrub stage of development. Their goal was to manage existing vegetation to form a distinctively beautiful, low-growing landscape that would not interfere with power lines or highway sightlines. In New England, these low-maintenance associations commonly include, along with sweet fern, the death. It concerns a disease that I became aware of only after publishing an article advocating sweet fern for landscape use. To my surprise, several plant pathologists wrote to chide me for my recommendation. Sweet fern, it turns out, is the alternate host of a fungus, Cronartinm comptoniae, that causes sweet fern blister rust on hard pines with needles in bundles of two or three. In the Northeast, jack pine (Pinus banksiana) and pitch pine (P. rigida) can be infected, as well as other introduced hard pines. In the South, shortleaf pine (P. echinata) and loblolly pine (P. taeda) can be seriously infected. During the course of its life cycle the blister rust has two hosts, the susceptible pine species and either sweet fern or its swamp-dwelling relative, sweet gale (Myrica gale). The fungus lives one stage of its life on the leaves of the sweet fern and the second inside the stem of the pine tree. Although Comptonia is only slightly following woody plants: pitch pine (Pinus rigida), red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), gray birch (Betula populifolia), meadowsweet (Spirea sp.), bayberry (Myrica pensylvamca), sumacs (Rhus sp.), low and highbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium and corybosum), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). The University of Massachusetts group took the Connecticut College concept further by working out specialized techmques for actually planting-as opposed to simply managing-the affected by the fungus, the susceptible pine can be seriously damaged or even killed. Control of the disease is difficult, given sweet fern's wide natural range, but the forestry literature makes a few simple recommendations, including taking care not to plant infected pine trees and clearing out sweet fern colonies within a quarter mile of any commercial hard pine plantation. In a report on the susceptibility of loblolly pine to sweet fern blister rust, J. D. Artman and T. N. Reeder (1977) observed that sweet fern \"may become a major ground cover when dry sites are intensively prepared for planting.\" What the authors mean by intensive 10 A few last leaves clmg to the stems of Comptonia peregrina even through the snows of winter. is, of course, bulldozing before This observation, buried deep planting within a technical report, confirmed once again the intimate relationship between Comptonia and catastrophic disturbance. site preparation trees. Conclusion No discussion of Comptoma would be complete without saying something about its effect on the human senses. As the first settlers of Concord learned all too well, the scent of Comptoma on a warm summer's day can be overwhelming-a thick, resinous pungency that borders on the unpleasant. More spicy than sweet, the warm scent conjures up the fullness of summer, which no doubt explains why Comptonia foliage is often dried for use in sachets and potpourris. I suspect, too, that the use of Comptonia as tea by Native Americans and Europeans may have had as much to do with its pleasing fragrance as with its supposed medicinal attributes. A second trait of sweet fern, one that catches the eye rather than the nose, is its tendency to hold onto its leaves late into the growing season. Even in the middle of winter one can find a few leaves clinging to the stems of the plant. Thoreau described this feature in his journal entry for January 14, 1860, along with his response to it: \"Those little groves of sweet-fern still thickly leafed, whose tops now rise above the snow, are an interesting warm brown-red now, like the reddest oak leaves. Even this is an agreeable sight to the walker over snowy fields and hillsides. It had a wild and jagged leaf, alternately serrated. A warm reddish color revealed by the snow.\" And finally, in a passage that moves from mundane detail into emotional description, Thoreau writes of the sweet fern stem, densely covered with fine hairs: \"As 11 I on the advent of frost, puts and tawny dress, so is not man clad more in harmony with nature in the fall in a tawny suit or the different hues of Vermont gray? I would fain see him glitter like a sweetfern twig between me and the sun\" (October 16, nature generally, (Myncaceae) Hyde, L in culture. Amencan Journal of on a russet Botany 64: 476-482. C., J. Troll, andJ M. Zak. 1972. Growing sweet fern in low-fertility soils Amencan Nurseryman 136 (6): 12, 30-36. 1859). References Johnson, E. 1654. Wonderworkmg Promdence of Sion's Savior in New England. London: Nath. Brooke Artman, J. D., and blister T. N Reeder, Jr in rust found 1977 Sweetfern young loblolly pine Josselyn, J. (1672) Society 1972. New-Englands Ramties Discovered. Boston: Massachusetts Historical plantations m Maryland and Delaware. Journal of Forestry 75: 136-138. Beal, F. E 1911. Food of woodpeckers of the Umted States USDA Biological Survey Bulletin 37. D. Kalm, P. ( 1770~ 1987. Travels mto North America, ed. A. B. Benson. NY: Dover. Kenfield, Bowes, B., Callaham, and J. G. Torrey 1977. Time- Landscape W. G. 1966. The Wild Gardener NY: Hafner. m the Wild lapse photographic phogenesis in root peregnna, the sweet 137:262-268. observations of mornodules of Comptonia fern. Botanical Gazette Lmnaeus, C. \/1753~ 1957. Species Plantarum. Facsimile ed., 2 vols. London: Ray Society. Marshall, Nrenng, Callaham, D , and J. G. Torrey 1977. Prenodule formation and primary nodule development in roots of Comptonia (Myncaceae). Canadian Journal of Botany 55: 2306-2318. H. 1785. Arbustrum Americanum, Amencan Grove Philadelphia: Hafner. the W. Callaham, D., P. Del Tredici, and G. Torrey. 1978 Isolation and cultivation in vitro of the actmomycete causing root nodulation in Comptonia Science 199: 899-902 P. 1977. The buried seeds of R. H. Goodwin 1974 Creation of stable shrublands with herbicides: arresting \"succession\" on nghts-of-way and pastureland. Ecology 55: 784-795 A., and relatively Schramm, J. R. 1966. Plant colonization studies wastes on black Del Tredici, peregnna, the sweet Comptonia fern. Bulletin of the Pennsylvania. Philosophical Society 56\/1\/: Schwintzer, from anthracite mining in Transactions of the Amencan 1-194. Torrey Botamcal Club 104: 270-275. Del Tredici, P., and f G. Torrey. 1976. On the germination of seeds of Comptonia peregnna, the 268 sweet C. 1989. All field-collected actinorhizae exammed on Comptoma peregnna and Mynca pensylvamca m Mame are spore negative Canadian \/ournal of Botany 67: 1460-1464. fern. Botamcal Gazette 137. 262- and J. D. Tjepkema. 1990 The Biology of Frankia and Actmorhizal Plants San Diego: Academic Press. Elias, T. S. 1971. The genera of Myncaceae southeastern Umted States. Journal Arnold Arboretum 52: 305-318. in of the the Thoreau, Enchsen-Brown, C. 1979. Medicmal and other uses of North Amencan plants Toronto: General Publ. Co. H. D. 1962. The fournal of Henry D Thoreau, 1837-1861, ed. B. Torrey and F. H. Allen. N.Y.: Dover Publ., repnnt of the 1906 edition. Zobel, R. W., P. Del Tredici, and J. G Torrey. 1976. Method for growmg plants aeroponically. Plant Fry, J. T 1996 Bartram's garden catalogue of North Amencan plants. Journal of Garden History Physiology 57: 344-346 1 G~ 11-66 Goforth, P. L , and J. G. Torrey. 1977. The development of isolated roots of Comptonia peregnna Peter Del Tredici is Director of Living Collections Arnold Arboretum. at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Park and Garden in Vermont: Olmsted and the Webbs at Shelburne Farms","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25162","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060896b.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Emmet, Alan","article_content":"A Park and Garden in Vermont: Olmsted and the Webbs at Shelburne Farms Alan Emmet With the Adirondacks as a backdrop across Lake Champlain, the W. S. Webbs, with guidance from Frederick Law Olmsted, entirely transformed their property to accord with their own vision. Owing to a continuity of ownership and planning, the landscape of the Webbs has lasted now for over a century. Anyone who walks through the woods in New England can hardly miss the stone fences. Lichen-covered, often half-buried in pine needles, they thread their way up hill and down, now and then meeting each other at odd sharp angles. These fences are such an obvious sign of a drastically altered land use that you begin to wonder how the land once looked. And then you marvel at the sheer strength and determination of the region's first farmers. The terrain at Shelburne Farms is different. Here, beside Lake Champlain in northern Vermont, you could walk through a thousand acres of woods and pastureland without encountering even a remnant of the typical old stone fences. The landscape is idyllically pastoral, with Brown Swiss cows browsing in verdant rolling meadows. This bucolic setting, unique now in the rapidly developing periphery of Burlington, Vermont's largest city, has long been an anomaly. The truth is that Shelburne Farms was deliberately made to look different from the surrounding countryside. The boundary walls of the old agricultural order were removed, stone by stone, in the 1880s, and the terrain was reshaped on a new and grand scale. William Seward Webb (1851-1926) had grown up in New York City, where his father was the \"pugnacious\" editor of a New York paper.' Seward Webb studied medicine in Europe and at Columbia. He practiced for only three or four years before turning to finance on Wall Street, where he established his own brokerage house. Before long he became involved in railroad busi- with William Henry Vanderbilt, oldest and chief heir of \"Commodore\" Cornelius 2 Vanderbrlt.2 Dr. Webb travelled to Vermont in 1880 to look at the Rutland railroad with an eye to annexing it to the Vanderbilt empire. Although he did not favor acquisition of the railroad, he liked what he saw of Burlington and the Champlain Valley. He also liked the Vanderbilts. In 1881, Seward Webb married Lila Vanderbilt, the next-youngest of William Henry's eight children. Not long after his marriage, Dr. Webb was named president of the Wagner Palace Car Company, suppliers of sleeping cars to the Vanderbilt-controlled New York Central Railroad. For a wedding present, Lila's father gave her a house on Fifth Avenue at 54th Street, just a block from his own mansion and those of other family members. Their Fifth Avenue house was to be the Webbs' primary residence for thirty years. As the location for their requisite country house, they promptly settled upon the remote and unfashionable part of Vermont that had appealed to Dr. Webb. On the shores of Lake Champlain at Burlington, the Webbs built a rustic summer cottage called Oakledge.3 This was all very well for a young couple, but the Webbs had something grander in mind. Scouting out the area, Seward Webb decided the most desirable land lay along the lake in Shelburne. The farms there may have been worn out, but the topography and the scenery were special. The shoreline was irregular, with rocky promontories and curving ness son 13 Steamer off Shelburne Pomt, oil by Charles Lewis Hyde. This mldcentury painting illustrates the mew that Olmsted admired m 1845. The typical agranan Vermont landscape m the foreground later became part of William S Webb's Shelburne Farms and was subjected to a grand zeordenng. bays. From any point along that stretch of shore, one had the extraordinary view of the blue Adirondack mountains, rising tier on tier, on the far side of the lake. From Lone Tree Hill in Shelburne, three hundred feet above the water, the view to the west was even more impressive. Webb began negotiating in 1885 to buy up parcels of land in Shelburne. In December of that year, his father-in-law William Henry Vanderbilt died, having doubled the fortune that his father, Cornelius, had bequeathed to him a mere eight years earlier.4 Lila's inheritance was only a small fraction of her father's $200-million estate, but added to Seward Webb's own rapidly growing fortune, the couple's means seemed limitless. The Webbs could have almost anything they wanted. Dr. Webb enlarged the scope of his plans for Shelburne and accelerated the pace of his land purchases. Through an agent, he negotiated with local farmers, many of them impoverished, but not all of whom were pleased to learn that they had granted sales options to the same mysterious buyer.' By 1891, Webb had purchased all or portions of twenty-nine farms, covering 2,800 acres. The prices Webb paid varied widely, but the average was less than farm buildings added little if any value; Webb was interested only in land.~ Still he continued to buy. Eventually he owned almost 4,000 con- tiguous acres. Dr. Webb intended all along to reshape the separate farms he was buying into one great unified whole. His first move was to hire an architect to design ings. one a suitable house and major farm buildwas a His choice of R. H. Robertson happy $150 per acre over a six-year period. Existing for both men. Robertson was known to Webb as a designer of railroad stations and as architect of the Gothic Revival Church of Saint James in Manhattan. He worked for Webb for years. With Webb as his patron, Robertson's major work was done at Shelburne. One of Dr. Webb's first directives to Robertson was to ask Frederick Law Olmsted, then the nation's preeminent landscape architect, to come as soon as possible to Shelburne to 7 confer in regard to the \"landscape department.\"' In his June 1886 letter to Olmsted conveying Webb's mvitation, Robertson wrote that he had been retained to design \"a most important Country house, stock barns-stables etc.\" for the 1,700 acres that Webb had by that time purchased along the lake. To make sure that 14 design public parks for cities, including Boston, Detroit, and Washington, DC. He advised on campus plans, ranging from Groton School to Stanford University. He collaborated with prominent architects such as H. H. Richardson on designs for private estates. At about the same time that he took on Dr. tice had taken him all try. He continued to over the coun- Webb as a client, he was working for other members of the extended Vanderbilt family in Newport, Lenox, and Bar Harbor. Biltmore, by far his largest undertaking for a private client, was still ahead. Olmsted's connection with the Vanderbilts had even included laying out the grounds for the family mausoleum on Staten Island. 10 Staten Island, as it happened, had for Part of Plan for Laymg Out the Shelburne Farms been the site of Olmsted's first contact Prelimmary Study Estate for Dr. W. S. Webb, by F. L. and J. C. Olmsted, 1887. The lake with the Vanderbilts. In 1848, aged shore is at the lower edge of this plan; the house, shown at the center, twenty-six and unsure of his life work, with its \"home grounds\" and \"home stables\" on top of Lone Tree Hill, Olmsted had attempted to run a farm was actually built close to the lake, contrary to Olmsted's advice. The bought for him by his father. He lasted plan mdlcates Olmsted's division of the estate mto separate areas of only two years on Staten Island but farm, park, and forest. did get to know a neighboring farmer, William Henry Vanderbilt Olmsted realized the significance of the project, father, much Robertson wrote that \"if justice is done to the later, of Lila Webb).\" Vanderbilt was exactly the same age as Olmsted. He had been rustisituation and conditions it will without doubt cated to farming by his father, Cornelius, who be one of the most important and beautiful at the time considered him \"an improvident country places in America and in view of this dolt.\"'z Dolt or not, Vanderbilt's farm, unlike fact I hope you can undertake the problem.\" Olmsted wrote to Dr. Webb immediately, Olmsted's, was quite prosperous. to make an inspection trip to arranging Throughout his career as a landscape archiShelburne the very next week, adding that his tect, one of Olmsted's primary goals was to for a preliminary visit would be $100 and charge improve the environment of the burgeoning Within a month after his cities where more and more people spent their traveling expenses.8 first visit, Olmsted had formulated the basis for lives. At the same time, he perceived the imporhis proposal, which, as he outlined it to his coltance of planning to preserve wilderness areas and places of particular natural beauty. Olmsted league, Charles Eliot, was to be \"a perfectly worked to protect Yosemite and Niagara Falls, simple park, or pasture-field, a mile long on the lake, half a mile deep, the house looking down places he deemed to be national treasures, the over it.\"9 birthright of all Americans. His work for rich Olmsted was at the peak of his career when private clients was just as firmly grounded in he agreed to advise Dr. Webb. Ten years earlier, his belief in the necessity for conserving natural having completed his work on the New York resources. Wherever he worked, Olmsted was keenly City parks, he had moved his office to aware of the character and scenery of the locale. Brookline, Massachusetts. Since then, his prac- (the \" 15 5 was what the word \"landscape\" realized that this concern set him apart from others m his field. Most designers, he observed, were unfortunately attuned only to elements, incidents, and features, rather than the landscape itself. This he held to be the direct result of their training as gardeners. \"A training which is innocently assumed to be a training in landscape gardening is a training in fact away I from it.\"\" At a time when there were no academic programs in landscape design and planning, Olmsted's own education had depended on his remarkable powers of observation. Even as a young man, he had been keenly aware of scenery and well able to describe what he saw. In an 1845 letter to his father, he had by chance described the actual setting of what, forty years later, was to become Shelburne Farms. Exploring that part of Vermont on a horse, he had observed the marginal state of the region's agriculture. He rode past burnt stumps, patches of mullein, and so little grass that \"I should thmk the poor sheep would find it hard work enough to live, without troubling themselves with growing wool.\" South of Burlington, standing probably on Lone Tree Hill, the highest point at Shelburne Farms, Olmsted encountered one of the finest views he had ever seen. He admired Lake Champlam with its bays and islands, but the \"chief charm\" was the mountain backdrop across the lake. This, to him, meant. He manded the best of everything. He employed Olmsted because Olmsted was unquestionably the foremost landscape architect m the country. Olmsted, in turn, was impressed by the breadth of Webb's vision, the grand scope of his scheme, and, doubtless, the apparently unlimited extent of Webb's resources for carrying out an idea. When he first embarked on the project for Webb, Olmsted, like Robertson, was convinced that, when completed, the design of Shelburne Farms \"would be the most interesting and publicly valuable private work of the time on the American continent.\"ls One of Olmsted's proposals for Shelburne farms, the one that he most ardently promoted, that the estate include an arboretum of all the trees and shrubs native to Vermont. The arboretum was to accord with the guidelines established by Harvard professor Charles Sprague Sargent in planning the Arnold Arboretum. To stock this \"Arboretum Vermontii,\" Olmsted urged Webb to take advantage of the distinguished nursery of Pringle and Horsford, located just six miles south of Shelburne.'6 After discussing the idea with his superintendent, Arthur Taylor, who would be responsible for planting and care, Webb agreed to proceed with the arboretum.\" As envisioned by Olmsted, the arboretum was to follow the curving roadways he had laid out, being set back from the road on both sides. Such a scheme meant that the arboretum would be an integral and very visible part of Shelburne Farms, which was exactly Olmsted's intent. He placed orders with nurseries all across the country for species that Pringle and Horsford were unable to supply in sufficient quantity. Thousands of trees and shrubs were planted under Taylor's supervision, beginning in 1887. For the sake of economy, a vast number were grown to planting-out size in an extensive nursery established on the Shelburne property. As was his custom, Olmsted had recommended native and hardy plants, based on his analysis of the site. His plant lists included most of the northeastern native trees: ashes, basswood, birches, elms, hickories, oaks, and willows, as well as the American chestnut and the American elm.'H Balsam fir, hemlock, and various native pines were ordered in quantity. was I never saw mountams rise more beautifully one above another the larger ones seemmg to cluster round and protect the smaller, nor did the summer veil of haze ever sit on them more sweetly. Back of all rose some magnificent thunderheads and they rose fast too, compellmg me at 5 o'clock to take refuge and toast and eggs in a little road-side inn.'4 in The setting was certainly no less impressive 1886, when Olmsted responded to Dr. Webb's summons. Relations between Webb and Olmsted were unfailingly polite, but not entirely harmonious. Both were men of strong character, with firmly held convictions. Despite disagreements, however, their respect for each other never wavered. Dr. Webb, the client, always sought and de- 16 6 Olmsted expected Pringle and Horsford to collect many shrub species by the hundred from the wild: alders, swamp azalea, blueberry, buttonbush, elderberry, pussy willows, black and red raspberries, wild roses, viburnums, witch hazel, and others. He also ordered native vines, including bittersweet, clematis, and wild grape. Olmsted asked for wildflowers, such as twinflower (Linnea borealis) and trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens). The plants ordered for Shelburne Farms were certainly far different from the typical ornamentals with which gardeners and estate managers were decorating most other country places at the time. Olmsted's ultimate aim seemed to be to reproduce the plant diversity that the region might have supported a century or two earlier, before the land was cleared for farming. The only alien plants he ordered were western evergreens from P. Douglass & Sons: Colorado spruce (Picea pungens) and Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga Olmsted lost his enthusiasm for Shelburne Farms when he realized that Webb did not share his belief in the educational and scientific importance to the public of the work they might have accomplished there together. After the summer of 1888, Olmsted's sons and associates attended to the work at Shelburne. The senior Olmsted, meanwhile, was becoming deeply involved with an even larger private project, and a much more sympathetic patron. At Biltmore in the North Carolina mountains, George W. Vanderbilt, Lila Webb's brother, granted Olmsted the trust and the latitude that he had not received from the Webbs. Much of Olmsted's preliminary plan was implemented, as were his carefully articulated principles of design and the separation of conflicting uses. Olmsted divided the property into three areas: \"Ist Tillage and pasture lands in rotation; 2nd Park or permanent pasture lands; 3rd Forest Arboretum Vermontii.\"2'He insisted that cattle should be kept from the home grounds, the main roads, and the forest, but without the continual nuisance of gates. To this end, Olmsted proposed the use of sunk fences with retaining walls, like the unobtrusive ha-has of the English landscape school, to confine the livestock. Fences, particularly near the house, were to be as inconspicuous as possible. Even the main entrance gates to the estate could generally be left open, under Olmsted's plan. The existing \"straight and graceless\" roads were to be changed in course and character to suit the terrain and the lush farmland through which they would run. The new trees and shrubs were to be set back from the roads, with here and there a grouping brought forward in an apparently random way. \"Fine specimen trees of the old spontaneous growth are to be preserved,\" Olmsted wrote.22 Groups of trees and the undergrowth were to look as natural as possible. Olmsted emphasized to Webb the importance of having a definite plan before proceeding. Ongoing land purchases made this difficult, if not impossible. In 1889 after purchasing five pasture farms to the south of his original tract, Webb finally agreed to plant the hilly northern part of the estate in trees, as Olmsted had recommended all along.23 menziesii). Webb's ideas for planting began to diverge from Olmsted's as soon as he fully undertood what Olmsted was proposing. Webb wanted to include ornamental varieties; the greenery indigenous to Vermont seemed too stark for the Shelburne Farms he envisioned. He began to request tender and exotic species, such as rhododendrons, weeping willows, tea roses, and gardenias. Olmsted pointed out that these would not survive at Shelburne and would be entirely out of character with the landscape.]9 He refused to involve himself with the growing of tropical flowers under glass, if that were Webb's desire. A great deal of planting was done according to Olmsted's recommendation, but the Vermont Arboretum was never completed. This may have been Olmsted's greatest frustration at Shelburne. He had believed strongly that Shelburne Farms, although privately owned, would have a public purpose. As he wrote when he submitted his preliminary plan to Webb in July, 1887, I have satisfied myself by personal exammation of the feasibility of such an arrangement and that a beautiful, interesting, instructive and pubhcly important arboretum can be so obtamed, the present natural woods formmg an appropnate and harmonious background for it and addmg directly to its scientific value.z 17 7 of one of the new roads, here passmg between old-growth forest by T. E. Marr, ca. 1900. plantmg. A stretch trees mterspersed with recent Photo 18 8 The Webbs' house at Shelburne Farms, designed by R. H. Robertson, photo by T. E. Marr, Boston, The rooms on this western side face Lake Champlain and the Adirondack Mountams. ca 1900. The English parks that Olmsted had so admired on his first trip abroad as a young man in 1850 were the chief source of his inspiration throughout his long career. The design principles on which he based his public and private work came from his interpretation of English landscape styles. The idyllic pastoral landscape of Shelburne Farms is typically Olmstedian. The mam road rolls through broad meadowland, then up a gentle rise into a stretch of deep woods. Upon emerging again into the open, one glimpses at a distance the lake, or, at another point, the great house. Then the road bends away, and the distant vision is hidden once again. The views that seem so accidental were arranged with care. Transitions from forest to pasture to lawn and flower garden are smooth and gradual. There is a sense of fitness and inevitability about this landscape. garden was laid out in geometrically patterned beds, reportedly modelled after the garden at Hampton Court.z4 The beds were planted each year with massed annuals that had been raised m the estate's greenhouses. By 1911, Lila Webb was taking more interest in the garden. She was Webb devoted much attention to agriculture at Shelburne Farms, using the latest scientific techniques, which he hoped would set an example for Vermont farmers. Close to the manor house, the Webbs had an ornamental flower garden. There is no indication that the Olmsted office was involved in its design. The earliest dissatisfied with what she had. Apparently, she herself planned the Italianate garden on which work began in 1912.25 The new garden ran the entire length of the house, between it and the lake. Long, low brick walls divided the gentle declivity into shallow terraces. At one end of the upper level, a pergola curved around an oval basin. On the lowest terrace, between the arms of a balustraded double stairway, was a lily pool. The garden ended at a parapet, bowed out above the cliff at the lake's edge. Each season, tubbed bay trees were put out along the balustrade. The scene looked for all the world like Isola Bella at Lake Maggiore or like the Italian-inspired garden of 1850 at Bantry House in Ireland that overlooked a bay of the sea, with mountains all around. In northern Vermont such a garden was definitely unusual. A garden of this style and magnitude was not uncommon, however, on the estates of the rich in pre-World War I America, when formality 19 fashionable and European prototypes were valued. The Webbs, on their frequent trips abroad, had statuary and a sundial shipped home. Stanford White allegedly brought them an antique fountain sculpture from Italy.26 The Webbs had a mason who worked full-time to maintain the walls and stonework while a troop of gardeners managed the flower beds. There was were peony beds, a rose garden, and deep perennial borders backed by majestic spires of delphiniums that echoed the shades of blue in the mountains across the lake. Lila Webb amassed a comprehensive garden library as her interest grew. Her 1847 copy of (Samuel B.)\/ Parsons on the Rose is inscribed \"Lila from Seward, 1912.\" She had English books, From the flower garden, steps descended to a lily pool and a curved parapet overlookmg Lake Champlam Bay trees in Italian pots were set out each summer along the balustrade Photo by A. A. McAllister, 1916, SFF~ already classics, by John Sedding and Gertrude Jekyll, as well as the recent works of Helena Rutherfurd Ely, Louise Beebe Wilder, and Mrs. Francis King, among others. Her books included at least three on Italian gardens, those by Charles Platt, Edith Wharton, and George S. Elgood. A tiny 1914 diary by Lila Webb reads as if it were intended to be a calendar of practical hints to other gardeners. If she had filled it with authoritative \"dos and don'ts\" for each month or week of the The Webb family m the flower garden, ca. 1916. Dr. and Mrs. Webb flank their year, her book could have followed a time-honored tradi- grandchildren m the front row. The delphinium display was a feature of the borders. In the background is a long, curved pergola Photo by A A tion : \"Plant Sweet Peas as soon perennial McAlhster. as the frost is out of the cator of the insidious onset of neglect, all the ground.\" Unfortunately, Lila Webb's literary efforts petered out not long after the frost would potted bay trees along the parapet were killed have been out of the Shelburne ground that year. by an early frost.z' The glory days were over. Shelburne Farms had been built up very quickly. In typically American fashion, it flourished as Seward Webb died at Shelburne Farms in 1926. The following year, by act of God or as an indilong as did its creator. Its decline was precipi- 20 tous-to a point. The survival and rebirth of 14 Ibid., 64-65. Shelburne Farms could be a case study in preservation. Dr. Webb's descendants have shown as much determination, and as much devotion to Shelburne Farms, as their progenitor. Endnotes 1 15 April 1888, 16 Frederick Law Olmsted to William Seward Olmsted Papers. Frederick Law Olmsted to William Seward March 1887, Reel Al:68, Olmsted Papers. Webb, Webb, 11 1 17 7 17 Seward Webb Dead m Vermont,\" New York Times, 30 Oct. 1926. William Seward Webb to Frederick Law March 1887, Olmsted Papers. Olmsted, 26 18 2 Wayne Andrews, The Vanderbilt Legend (NY: Harcourt Brace, 1941 147. Joe Sherman, The 3 (Middlebury, 4 House at Shelburne Farms VT: Paul S. Enksson, 1986), 9-11. 19 The Olmsted firm placed orders with Pnngle & Horsford and nine other nurseries in the spring of 1887. See Olmsted Papers and \"List of Trees and Shrubs Proposed to be ordered for Dr. W. S. Webb,\" 22 April 1887, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, Brookline, MA. 's John Tebbel, The Inhentors: A Study of Amenca's Great Fortunes and What Happened to Them (NY: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1962), 30. Webb, F. L. Olmsted & J. C. Olmsted to William Seward 24 Jan. 1889, Reel A3:140; Frederick Law Olmsted to William Seward Webb, 7 March 1888, Reel A2:249, Olmsted Papers. 2o S Sherman, 6 The House at Shelburne Farms, 16. Land records of the Town of Shelburne; William C. Lrpke, ed., Shelburne Farms. The History of an Agncultural Estate (Burlington, VT: Robert Hull Fleming Museum, University of Vermont, 1974\/, 16. R. H. Robertson to Frederick Law Olmsted, 17 June 1886, Job File 1031, Box B-74, Frederick Law Olmsted Frederick Law Olmsted to William Seward July 1887, Reel Al:887, Olmsted Papers. Fredenck Law Olmsted to William Seward July 1887, Olmsted Papers. Webb, Webb, 12 2 zi 12 2 22 7 Ibid. William Seward Webb to Frederick Law Feb. 1889, Olmsted Papers. 23 Papers, Manuscript Drvrsron, Library of Congress. 8 Olmsted, 20 Frederick Law Olmsted to William Seward June 1886, Olmsted Papers. Webb, 18 8 24 Wiecek, \"Shelburne Farms,\" 44 a 25 9 Frederick Law Olmsted to Charles Eliot, 20 July 1886, quoted by Joan Wiecek, \"Shelburne Farms,\" Master's Degree Project, Dept. of Landscape Architecture, Umversity of Massachusetts, 1984, 21. Albert Fein, Fredenck Law Olmsted and the Amemcan Envmonmental TradW on (NY: Braziller, 1972), 166-69. Susan Cady Hayward, \"Gardens of Vermont Life 42 (Summer 1988\/: 6. Gilded Age,\" zb 1o Isabell H. Hardie, \"The Garden of Mrs. W. Seward Webb,\" Country Life m Amenca 32 (Oct. 1917):6263 ; \"The Garden at Shelburne Farms,\" Arts and Decoration 11 (June 1919):66-67. z~ Sherman, The House at Shelburne Farms, 76. 11 Laura Wood Roper, FLO' A Biography of Fredenck Law Olmsted (Baltimore: Johns Hopkms University Press, 1973), 55-66. 12 Andrews, Vanderbilt Legend, Quoted m 25. 13 Kimball, Fredenck 1922), 128. Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., & Theodora Law Olmsted, Landscape P. Putnam's Architect, 1822-1903 (NY: G Sons, This article is excerpted from the chapter on Shelburne Farms m Alan Emmet's So Fme a Prospect. Historic New England Gardens, newly published by the University Press of New England. Her article on the Boott family's garden m Boston, a subject she returned to in her new book, appeared in Arnoldia 47(4). The author is a consultant m garden history as well as a writer. Her book is reviewed on page 26. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Itea 'Beppu': The Return of the Native","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25164","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070a728.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Mazzeo, Peter M.; Voss, Donald H.","article_content":"Itea 'Beppu': The Return of the Native . Peter M. Mazzeo and Donald H. Voss A \"garden variety\" observation suggests a taxonomic puzzle. sort The authors In it out. a 1980 article in Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum horticulturist Gary Koller gave a cultivar name-'Beppu'-to a deciduous Itea growing on top of a stone wall below the Dana Greenhouses in dry, acid soil and full sun. Having grown in that location for six years, the Arboretum's three plants were then about 0.7 to 0.9 meters (two-and-a-half to three feet) tall. In addition to their compact habit, Koller noted their vigor, graceful summer flowers, and the wine-red to reddish purple color of their autumn foliage. These features, he thought, added up to an Itea better for gardens in the Northeast than any other then available. The plants, accessioned as AA 144-74, came to the Arnold Arboretum from the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Regional Plant Introduction Station at Experiment, Georgia, identified as Itea japonica Oliv. and \"Kyushu 226131.\" In 1955 USDA plant explorer John Creech, later director of the National Arboretum, had collected six specimens of a compact form of Itea japonica growing outdoors at Hot Springs Utilization Station, Beppu, Kyushu, Japan. These were subsequently designated as USDA Plant Introduction 226131 and given the notation \"dwarf.\" Eventually they were propagated and distributed to a number of testing locations, including the Arnold Arboretum. Thus, the complete name of the cultivar designated by Koller was 1. japonica 'Beppu'. However, observation of the habit and flowers of two plants of Itea, each nearly 1.8 meters (six feet) tall, growing side by side in a private garden in northern Virginia led us to question the species identification of I. 'Beppu'. One is I. 'Beppu', the other an unnamed selection of I. virginica that was received in a 1980 Arnold Arboretum distribution of plants propagated from a specimen found near Sharpsburg, Georgia. These plants are so similar in foliage, flower, fruit, and autumn color as to support the hypothesis that they are members of the same species, namely the North American I. virginica, not I. japonica. The generic name, Itea (the Greek word for willow) derives from a resemblance of the leaves of I. virginica to those of willows. A member of the saxifrage family, its common name is sweet- spire, or Virginia willow. Itea includes about ten species of evergreen or deciduous shrubs and trees ranging in the wild from the Himalaya western Japan, the Philippines, and Malesia, plus one species in the eastern United States (Mabberley 1989; Ohwi 1965). through China to Valued for their evergreen, holly-like leaves, as well as for long, pendulous flowers in summer, the Chinese 1. ilicifolia and 1. yunnanensis are cultivated in warm temperate climates. The only deciduous Itea widely cultivated in North America is I. virginica, which includes the cultivars 'Beppu' and 'Henry's Garnet'. The native ranges of Itea species are warmtemperate to tropical; hence cold-hardiness limits their use as ornamental plants in the Overleaf~ This illustration of Itea virgmica from Curtis's Botamcal Magazme (50(1823): t.2409) mcludes an atypical tnlobed leaf and, on opened flowers, the \"starry\" petal omentation sometimes found m the southern Umted States. More generally, petal omentation is nearly erect, gmmg the inflorescences a \"bottlebrush\" appearance. The branches beanng mflorescences are usually archmg, not upmght, as depicted m this plate. 22 23 northern United States. In the wild, 1. virginica thrives in moist soils on the coastal plam from southern New Jersey to Flomda, along the Gulf Coast to east Texas, and up the Mississippi valley to southern Illinois. The plant will survive in the Boston area but not without winterkill of branches. The native habitats of 1. japonica reach from the southern part of Japan's Kinki To test it (including Mie, Nara, and Wakayama prefectures) on Honshu southwestward to Shikoku and Kyushu (Ohwi 1965). Thomas Everett(1981) comments that 1. ~apomca is \"probably hardy in sheltered locations in the vicinity of New York City\" but that the evergreen I. ihcifoha is not hardy north of the Washington, DC, area. district our hypothesis regarding the identification of 'Beppu', we compared herbarium specimens of with specimens of Itea japomca and I. virginica collected in the wild. The typical herbarium specimen consisted of the terminal 20 to 30 centimeters (eight to twelve inches) of a flowering branch. Because leaf size varies greatly on individual plants of Itea, we averaged the petiole (leaf stalk) length and the length and width of the lamina (leaf blade) from the four or five largest leaves on each herbarium sheet. Measurements of floral parts were also averaged. The tabulation below summarizes the typical sizes and shapes of the structures measured; the lower and upper ranges of measurements have been placed in parentheses. Note: 25.4 millimeters equals 1 inch. 24 When English botanist Daniel Oliver described Itea japonica in 1867, he indicated that smaller flower size distinguishes the species 1. japonica: \"The petals, stamens, and styles are much shorter than in I. virginica. \" German botanist Camillo Schneider later noted that the flowers of 1. japonica are scarcely half as large as those of 1. virgmica. Also distinguishing the species is the amount of leaf serration: the leaves of 1. japonica average five to seven per centimeter while those of 1. virginica average eight to ten near the widest part of the lamina. Koller especially admired the compactof 'Beppu'. The plant's siting-in acid soil in full sun-may have dry, had something to do with its stature. Moreover, this dryish moisture regime occurs in an area well north of the climatic range native to either Itea ness (1Itea vmgmca'Beppu' ~labelled I. ~aponica'Beppu'~ (S. Elsik c~J Makepeace, 1260, 20 June 1984, at map location 42A-b, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plam, MA (A~J L japonica or 1. virginica. Dr. Stephen horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum, tells us that 1. Spongberg, japomca 'Beppu' \"is only marginally hardy here at the Arboretum, and consequently it dies to the ground each winter. However, each growing season our plants put on new growth to about three feet in height, and they have formed a clump about four feet in diameter.\" In contrast, plants of this clone observed growing in the Washington, DC, area approach a height of 1.8 meters, indicating that Itea 'Beppu' is hardly \"dwarf.\" Nor do they die back to the ground in winter, and unlike the plant in Jamaica Plain they receive at least some artificial watering. These factors undoubtedly contribute to their greater height. On the matter of autumn color, we suggest that it undoubtedly develops more reliably in the Boston area than in Washington, DC, where warm weather \" (2J Itea virginica (R. W Tyndall c'~7 K. McCarthy, Maryland Natural Hentage Program, 87261, 7 June 1987, Carolma Bay within 5 km of Goldsboro, MD (NAJJ sometimes results in persistence of green color and leaf retention mto early winter. And that leaves us with one last (3) Itea japonica (Y Tateishi eJ J. Murata, 4217, 4 June 1978, Japan : Honshu, Nara Prefecture (NAJ) 25 piece of the puzzle: was 1. mrgimca growing m Japan m 1955? Had it been introduced prior to Dr. Creech's collecting trip? The answer is yes. One of the herbarium specimens we examined was dated 1929, attesting to the presence of I. virginica in Japan well before the introduction into the United States of USDA P.I. 226131. Judging by the printed heading (\"Flora Japonica\") on the label of yet another herbarium specimen, this one dated 1910, it too was presumably collected in Japan. Indeed, Dr. Yotaro Tsukamoto, Professor Emeritus of Kyoto University, believes that 1. virgmica may have been m Japan That as early as 1887. said, we feel confident m con- cludmg that USDA Plant Introduction 226131 from Beppu, Japan, is indeed Itea virgmica, not 1. japonica, and that the Arnold Arboretum's 'Beppu' is, in truth, a clone of 1. virginica. But we note that, independent of species association, this returned native remains the same attractive landscape plant with mteresting flowers, good foliage, and fall color that caught the attention of both Dr. Creech and Gary Koller. References The pendent racemes of Itea vmgmca appear m midsummer. Everett, Thomas H. 1981. The New York Botamcal Garden Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture, vol. 6 NY. Garland Publishmg. U.S Department of Agriculture. 1964. Plant inventory no. 163: Plant material introduced January 1 to December 31, 1955 (Nos. 222846 to 230876) Washington, DC. Koller, Gary. 1980 Itea Summer Flowers and Autumn Color Arnoldia 40\/1): 23-29. Mabberley, Ohwi, J. 1989 The plant book, reprinted with corrections NY: Cambndge University Press. D. Acknowledgments The authors gratefully acknowledge G. Dr. Fredenck Meyer's suggestions for emendation of the ongmal Jisaburo. 1965 Flora of Japan (m English~ Eds F. G. Meyer and E. H. Walker. Washmgton, DC: Smithsoman Institution Oliver, Daniel 1867. [Protologue for Itea ~apomca Oliv., sp. nov.] Journal of the Lmnean Society IX: 164. draft. They also thank Dr. S. A. Spongberg, who read the draft and checked acquisition records at the Arnold Arboretum. They are also grateful to the curators of herbana at the Arnold Arboretum, Missoun Botanical Garden, and Smithsoman Institution for their cooperation in supplymg specimens used in this mvestigation. is a botamst, now retired from the U S National Arboretum and residmg in Wmter Haven, Florida. Donald Voss is a horticulturist and a volunteer m the herbanum of the National Arboretum. Peter Mazzeo Schneider, lllustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde, vol. I. Jena. Gustav Fischer, 396-397. C. 1905. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lives of New England Gardens: Book Review","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25165","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070a76d.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Lives of New England Gardens: Book Review \"The Kingdom of England don't afford so Fine a Prospect as I have.\" -Thomas Hancock (1702-1764) Phyllis Andersen So Fine a Prospect: Historic New England Gar- dens. Alan Emmet. University Press of New England, 1996. Hardcover, 238 pages, $45.00 as defined by Marc Treib in a Dumbarton Oaks publication, is based on the interaction of geographical, biological, environmental, and cultural factors. Regionalism in Treib's definition is a dynamic entity constantly evolving and modifying garden form. Building a case for regional identity on too sweeping or static a construct can lead to perilous scholarship. Alan Emmet avoids this pitfall in her admirable new book on historic New England gardens by her very careful rendering of the physical character of site and the personal visions of the garden creators. Certamly there are themes in New England gardenmakmg: Anglophilic models, the need for a country seat to balance lives based in commerce, the valuing of horticultural pursuits in a region with a rich nursery tradition. In her elegant style Emmet renders the life of over fourteen gardens-some our grand masterworks: Wellesley, the Hunnewell estate; Shelburne Farms, the Webb family country home, Edith Wharton's The Mount. Others, small, eccentric: Potter's Grove in Arlington, Massachusetts; Roseland in Woodstock, Connecticut; Celia Thaxter's garden on Appledore Island. Of the gardens covered, four are lost and recreated through documentation, most are extant and open to the public in some form of preserved condition, still others remain in private use. Emmet reflects on the definition of \"garden\" and establishes her own: \"The best gardens convey this sense of their own separateness, a feeling of seclusion and sanctuary from the workaday world.... their appearance owes as much to what they exclude as to what they con- Emmet values the garden well as refuge, albeit a prospect prospect that is controlled and exclusive. She is precise in her selection criteria: the garden must typify a tain.\" Like as Olmsted, as Regionalism, particular period and must or exemplify an innovation recent have a sufficient written record. She begins with the gardens of the early republic in Boston and in Portsmouth, New Hampshire, and ends with Eoha, the Harkness estate in Connecticut, completed just before World War I. One of the most interesting early gardens is that of the Boott family in Boston. In a chapter aptly titled \"Radishes and Orchids,\" Emmet describes the fascinating and sometimes sad saga of a family of amateur horticulturists with ties to England. The Boott garden was located in Bowdoin Square on the site of what is now the twenty-two story state office building on Cambridge Street in downtown Boston. Kirk Boott, the founding father, marked his success as an importer of English goods with a substantial mansion and attached greenhouse. With an amateur's zeal he grew tender flowers and fruit. His sons added orchids to the family collection. Emmet captures the spirit of horticultural competition that affected the Boott family and that was supported by such role models as Theodore Lyman and his estate, the Vale, in Waltham and Gardiner Greene and his exquisite terrace garden at the foot of Beacon Hill. Emmet's rendering of the \"lost gardens\" is poignant because their loss had as much to do with the fickleness of the second generation as it had with failing fortunes and the imposition of the personal income tax. The ghostly garden traces of Vaucluse, the classically inspired landscape built by the Elam family near Newport, Rhode Island, owes much to Rousseau's romantic, melancholy retreat at Ermenonville. Several families were associated with Vaucluse, none Geometnc topiary m the Hunnewells' Italian garden, Wellesley, Massachusetts, ca 1870 of sustaining its beauty. Sadder yet is the story of the spectacular \"Bellmont,\" the capable Using a focused on vaguely Reptonian model, Cushing display: fruit trees, rose and flower His interest in technical was as 117-acre Cushing estate garden in Watertown, gardens, fountains. mnovation Massachusetts. Downing described it as a \"residence of more note than any other near Boston\" on account of its extensive range of glasshouses and the \"high culture of the gardens.\" The mansion and glasshouses were designed by Asher Benjamin, but the garden was designed for the most part by its owner, John Cushing, whose fortune was made in the opium trade in China. strong as his desire for plants of rare and exotic origin. Cushmg's fortune and social and business connections made his garden the setting for extravagant entertainments for prestigious visitors. Four years after Cushing's death his sons sold the property for $100,000, not because they needed the money but because their interests were elsewhere. 28 Emmet notes that even today enormous trees loom up in unexpected places in this corner of Emphatically creation is the personal garden of Celia Thaxter on in this category of Watertown, evidence of Cushing's lost garden. high-style gardens, Emmet includes several that could only be called personal, highly individual to their owners\/creators. Roseland, the Gothic Revival cottage and garden of Henry Bowen in Woodstock, Connecticut, is pictured with its resplendent flower parterres that were planted to be at peak bloom when Bowen hosted a Fourth-of-July party of huge proportions. Roseland, now owned by the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities, was evidence of personal patriotism and love of small town civic life. Potter's Grove in Arlington, Massachusetts, was a threeacre parcel just off the main street. Joseph Potter, an individual whose career in commerce In addition to and politics was as eclectic as his garden tastes, developed this parcel of land as a private indulgence in a personal rendition of the picturesque. The quirky assemblage of viewing tower, classical urns, mini-cascade, and a pair of dozing lions quickly attracted the public's interest. Potter in the Isles of Shoals off the of Maine. This garden, well known in its day to a coterie of writers and artists who gathered in cultish form around Thaxter, is equally popular today through the reissue of her book, An Island Garden, and its Childe Hassam watercolor illustrations. Leon Edel, the noted biographer of Henry James, has noted that \"no lives are led outside history or society.\" Emmet has produced a series of garden biographies that are as enlightening in their rendering of ideas about garden design and social history as they are in their revelations about personal character. Garden creation is a messy business. Books are read, friends give advice, travel inspires new ideas, plants die. Emmet has breathed life into archival documentation to produce a work of scholarship that will inform our garden visits as well as broaden our knowledge of this important segment of New England culture. coast Appledore Island encouraged public visitation, especially photographers ; hence Potter's Grove, now long gone, is memorialized through stereopticon views. U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF Phyllis Andersen Arboretum. is Landscape Historian at the Arnold OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1 Publication Title Arnoldia 2 Publication No 0004-2633 3 Filing Date~ 21 November 1996 4 Issue Frequency Quarterly 5 No of Issues Pubhshed Annually 4 6 Annual Subscription Price $20 00 domestic, $25 00 foreign 7 Complete Mailing Address of Known Office of Publication Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 8 Complete Mailing Address of Headquarters of General Business Office of Pubhsher Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 9 Full Names and Complete Mailing Address of Publrsher, Editor, and Managing Editor Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519, publisher, Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519, editor 10 Owner The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 11 Known Bondholders, Mortgagees, and Other Security Holders Owmng or Holdmg I Percent or More of Total Amount of Bonds, Mortgages, or Other Securities none 12 The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed dunng the preceding 12 months 13 Publicauon Name Arnoldia 14 Issue Date for Circulation Data Below Summer 1996 15 Extent and Nature of Circulation a Total No Copies Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months 4,313 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 4,500 b Paid and\/or Requested Circulation ~1\/ Sales Through Dealers and Carners, Street Vendors, and Counter Sales Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months none Actual No Copies of Single Issue Pubhshed Nearest to Filing Date none ~2\/ Paid and\/or Requested Mail Subscriptions Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 3,087 Actual No. Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 3,301 c Total Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months 3,087 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 3,301 d Free Distribution by Mail Average No. Copies Each Issue During Precedmg 12 Months 219 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 174 e Free Distribution Outside the Mail Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 145 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 220 f Total Free Distribution Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 364 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 394 g Total Distribution Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months 3,451 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 3,695 h Copies Not Distnbuted (1~ Offrce Use, Leftovers, Spoiled Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 862 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 805 ~2~ Return from news agents Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Precedmg 12 Months none Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date none r Total Average No Copies Each Issue During Preceding 12 Months 4,313 Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date 4,500 Percent Paid and\/or Requested Circulation Average No Copies Each Issue Dunng Preceding 12 Months 89% Actual No Copies of Single Issue Published Nearest to Filing Date. 89% I certify that all information furnished on this form is true and complete Karen Madsen, Editor "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25166","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add070ab26.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum F , - ~ - 1 .. , 6 New Exhibit Opens: Science in the Pleasure Ground as a resource for exploring both cultural and natural history. It illustrates a range of topics that include the Arboretum's role in For 125 years, the Arnold Arboretum, the country's oldest arboretum, has been a source of scape vignettes of various periods, forming a \"mosaic of instance, one time.\" For enjoyment and education in and vignette portrays the mansion and landscape plantings of the and beyond its 265 acres in Jamaica plant conservation, exploration, and research as well as in the evolution of landscapes, both private and public. An 8-by-16-foot model of the Arboretum takes center stage in the exhibit. In 40-to-1 scale, more than cate Plain. In October, as the first event in a milestone anniversary celebration, the Arboretum unveiled a new, permanent exhibit in the Hunnewell Visitor's Center. Titled \"Science in the Pleasure Ground,\" the exhibit looks back at the Arboretum's history and reflects on the value of its land- mid-19th-century merchant gentleman farmer Benjamin Bussey, whose estate later became the Arnold Arboretum. Another vignette depicts the archeological dig that confirmed the existence 4,000 miniature trees repli- of prehistoric habitation on the grounds many thousands of years ago. A rail around the perimeter of the model accomodates further the living collections. The model also features historical new 8-by-16-foot model, a vignette of the devastation wreaked by the hurricane of 1938 be seen on the slopes of Hemlock Hill. High winds knocked down 1,500 trees. Across the road is a replica of the sawmill known to have stood on Bussey (then Sawmill) Brook in 1654. In the Arboretum's can interpretation of the landscape's evolution. Surrounding the model, five exhibits illustrate other aspects of the Arboretum's history: the design of the landscape; plant-collecting explorations; forest conservation here and abroad; American horticulture; and the various uses of wood. The exhibit's combination of historic photographs, plans, and drawings as well as physical artifacts, video clips, and interactive features is designed to appeal to viewers of varying interest levels. In the plant explorauon exhibit, visitors can test their knowledge of the origin of trees in the \"plant-matching game,\" which provides clues about some of America's most popular plants. Another exhibit tells the story of the design collaboration between Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, and Frederick Law Olmsted, America's preeminent landscape architect and designer of Boston's Emerald Necklace park system. Features in this part of the exhibit include a replica of Olmsted's drafung table, original landscape drawings dating to 1872, and then-and-now photos of the landscape. Funded by the National Endowment for the Humanities and by private donations, the exhibit grew out of an earlier NEH-funded book trilogy about the Arboretum published between 1991 and 1995 : A Reunion of Trees by Stephen A. Spongberg, New England Natzver by Sheila Connor, and Sczence zn the Pleasure Ground by Ida Hay. It is from the wealth of information generated by this trilogy that the \"Science in the Pleasure Ground\" exhibit, in addition to a program of tours, signage, and children's field study, developed. The participation of Living Collections staff ensured that all 4,000-plus miniature trees were planted in their proper places on the new model. Just before completion, Stephen Spongberg organized a treeplanting opportunity for all staff members. Seen here from left are Sheila Baskin, Perry Rivera, Stephen Spongberg, Kyle Port, and John Del Rosso. new model are five exhibits that illustrate the history of the Arboretum in images, artifacts, video clips, and interactive features. Above is Gilbert Stuart's 1809 likeness of Benjamin Bussey, a Boston businessman who pursued scientific farming and experiments in reforestation at \"Woodland Hill,\" one of Boston's grand country estates. Surrounding the \"Bussey'sWoods,\" seen at fresh air and natural scenery. When right in an 1892 etching, was a popular destination for Bostonians seeking Bussey died in 1842, he bequeathed his Jamaica Plain farm to Harvard University for purposes of agricultural research. Above is E. H. Wilson, one of the Arboretum's most famous plant explorers, seen in 1907 on one of his collecting expeditions to China. On trips to Japan, Korea, and Formosa (Taiwan) as well as China, he collected more than two thousand plants that were new to Western gardens. Above at right is a travel permit issued to Wilson in western China. Over the years the Arboretum has sponsored many expeditions to Asia and continues to do so. The herbarium specimen at right documents a plant collected in Sarawak, Borneo, by John Burley, Arboretum Research Director, in 1987. National Cancer Institute researchers, in a test designed to identify properties that inhibit the AIDS virus, discovered that under laboratory conditions an extract of the plant, Calophyllum lanigerum var. austrocoriaceum, \"essentially halted HIV-1replication.\" Friends of the Arboretum explored the new exhibit at an October gathering to celebrate the opening of \"Science in the Pleasure Ground.\" Professor Xue Ji-ru Visits Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg, Horticultural Taxonomist On the afternoon of October 11, the staff of the Arnold Arboretum was honored by a visit from Professor Xue Ji-ru from Kunmmg m Yunnan Province, China. Professor Xue (who has published many botamcal studies under the name Hsueh Chi Ju) was the Chinese forester who m 1946 visited the remote hamlet of Modaoqi in Hubei Province and collected the type specimens on which the Chinese botanists H. H. Hu and W. C. Cheng based their 1948 description of Metatequoza glyptostroboides. In January of that year E. D. Mernll, then director of the Arnold Arboretum, received the first shipment of Metasequoia seeds from China. Merrill was largely responsible for distributing the seeds of this \"living fossil,\" frequently known as the dawn redwood, to sister institutions and interested individuals around the world. While Professor Xue has devoted his long and fruitful career to the study of Chinese bamboos, he was particularly interested to examine the many dawn redwoods growing in various locations in the Arboretum. Earlier in the day he visited the Arboretum's collections in the Harvard Umversity Herbaria in Cambndge where he saw one of the specimens of Meta.requoza he had collected fifty years earlier. At a small reception held in his honor in the late afternoon, Professor Xue met many Arboretum staff members and reminisced about his plant discoveries in China. Stephen Spongberg, Professor Xue, and Peter Del Tredici in the shadows of the Arboretum's original Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Open The was House highlight of the 1996 Fall Open House the opening of the Arboretum exhibit, but the event also featured tours of grounds and new greenhouses, a bucket truck and backhoe demonstration, and refreshments. Once again this year, children's program staff and volunteers guided a mapletree treasure hunt for families. Despite brisk winds and threatening skies, it was very well attended. Harvard University Herbaria Incorporate S,OOO,OOOth Specimen The Harvard University Herbaria celebrated a major milestone in October-the addition of the 5,000,000th specimen to their collections of dried plant and fungal material. The Herbariawhich include those of the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium, the Farlow Herbarium, the Botanical Museum, and the New England Botanical Club-now form the eighth largest such plant collection worldwide, with the largest collection of Asian plants in the United States, the second largest orchid collection in the world, and more than 150,000 type specimens. In each of the past five years, the Harvard Herbaria have acquired approximately 20,000 specimens and have sent out an additional 7,500 specimens in exchanges with other herbana. The Herbaria also make over 300 loans (25,000 to 30,000 specimens) annually to researchers at other institutions throughout the world. Harvard's rich and varied botanical collections can be traced back to Asa Gray who, after coming to Harvard in 1842, described and catalogued the wealth of plant samples that were being collected in the American West and in the Old World. Many of these plants were new to science, and Gray's activities led to the founding of the herbarium that bears his name. Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, was one of several of Gray's students and associates who also developed separate botanical institutions at Harvard. A systematic collection was founded at the Arboretum soon after its establishment in 1872. This herbarium now contains approximately 1,307,000 specimens; those of cultivated origin are housed in the Hunnewell Building in Jamaica Plain, those of wild-collected origin are in Cambndge. The Arboretum collections are especially strong material from Indo-Malesia (India to the Philippines and Papuasia), China, and eastern and southeastern Asia in general. The Chinese and Philippme collections are probably as comprehensive as any in the world. The collections are rich in type specimens largely due to the work of staff members such as Richard A. Howard, E. D. Mernll, E. J. Palmer, A. Rehder, C. S. Sargent, and E. H. Wilson. Several special collections reflect the interests of former staff members. Among them are the Susan McKelvey Agave and Yucca spirit collection and the Shaw collection of the genus Pinus. The herbarium of culuvated plants in Jamaica Plain contains approximately 160,000 specimens and, as might be guessed, is especially strong in woody plants cultivated in in temperate regions. New Plant Inventory Available Arnold Arboretum Tot Trot Chris Strand, Outreach Horticulturist More than a hundred runners with strollers lined up m front of the Hunnewell Building on Sunday, September 8, for the start of the Tot Trot, a race to benefit the Italian Home for Children and the New England Home for Little Wanderers. When Boston mayor Thomas Menino punched the starter's horn, the runners surged forward like a scene out of Charzotr of Fzre crossed with Mr. Mom. Fathers, mothers, and grandparents pushed their tiny passengers over a 3-mile course that wound its way through the Arboretum. Prizes were awarded for fastest single, double, and triple stroller as well as to runners in different age categories. No one walked emptyhanded: raffle prizes and chrysanthemums were given to those who didn't finish at the top of their class. All were happy to be supporting two worthwhile charities. The race was organized by Liza Draper with the help of dozens of volunteers. They plus several away sponsors, including the City of Boston and the Baby Jogger Company, were was responsible for the race's success. More than $3,000 raised for the two chanties for their work with at-nsk children. Field Study Experiences Tried-and-True Arboretum Visits for Elementary Schoolchildren Diane Syverson, Manager of School Programs early each year, and many teachers return annually. The approximately 3,000 participants are accompanied by more than 300 teachers, teacher aides, and ents. Describing the Arboretum's field study program for schoolchildren has never been simple. To call them field trips mimmizes the rich contribution these visits can make to a classroom's science curriculum. Consider, for example, the experience of Ann Glick, a teacher at Dorchester's Ellis Mendell School. Last year, Ms. Glick brought her fourth- and fifth-graders for three field study experiences, outdoor investigations used in tandem with her classroom science units. In the fall her students concluded several weeks of seed study with the Arboretum's \"Plants in Autumn\" program. Back at school, they de- \"Plants in Autumn,\" \"Seeds and Leaves,\" \"Hemlock Hill,\" \"Around the World with Trees,\" parare Field study programs and \"Flowers.\" New this year are \"Native Plants, Native People\" and \"Landscape Explorers.\" \" veloped a seed-dispersal classification system using ideas and seeds Mofford, Field Study Coordinator, joined the staff this spring to replace California-bound Annette Huddle. Lauren's work experience includes both classroom teaching and volunteer coordination. Thus she comes well prepared both to teach elementary school groups and to work with a staff of forty-two volunteers. Lauren holds degrees from Simon's Rock of Bard College and Lesley College, the latter a B.S. in Lauren gathered dunng the Arboretum visit. Ms. Glick is especially pleased that the field study activities build on edge, validating and experience. the children's knowltheir opinions The program schedule fills environmental studies. New Staff in Living Collections Kyle Port, a recent graduate in environmental horticulture from Washington State University in Pullman, Washington, joined the staff in July of this year as Curatorial Assistant for Plant Records. He replaces Todd Forrest, who began graduate studies this fall at the Yale Umversity Forestry School. In his new position, Kyle is responsible for the computerized database, BG-BASE, that records and monitors each accession (and individual plant) throughout its hfe at the Arboretum. Kyle also assists Susan Kelley with the computerized mapping of the collections and Stephen Spongberg and Peter Del Tredici with the day-to-day curation and development of the collections. He is also expected to play a major role in implementing the Institute of Museum Services grant recently awarded for a yearlong, in-depth survey of the Arboretum's current holdings of shrubs and woody climbers that will begin in 1997. Kyle was a horticultural intern in grounds maintenance this past summer. 1996 Fall Plant Sale A Great Success Lisa Hastings, Senior Development Officer Take one beautiful fall day, add thousands of choice plants, and the result is a festme, busy, and very successful Fall Plant Sale. The line of members wamng to enter the barn wound behind the schoolhouse, up the hill, and through the auction tents; by end of day, not a plant remained. Over 1,300 plants were given the 800 members who came to collect their plant dividend(s). They also took the opportunity to purchase Arboretum plants at member discounts. The plant sale to preview permitted early entrance to the barn to 150 upper-level members. Overall attendance was up 45% over our rainy day last year and 20% over 1994. The sale raised $30,000 to benefit the Living Collections at the Arboretum, a 16% increase over last year. A variety of factors account for the increase, not least the return of the silent auction Metasequoia glyptostroboides and, Jr., Sheila Magullion at from left, Diana Parker, the 1996 Fall Plant Sale. Henry Meyer, and a larger straight sales area. Over 100 nurseries, plant orgamzations, and individuals supported the event with donations of plants. The Annual Fall Plant Sale remains the Arboretum's largest member event, and our primary vehicle for providing members with access to unusual plants. Mark your calendar for the 1997 sale scheduled for Sunday, September 21, 1997. Grow with ' ' < us ... When you give cash, stock, or other property to a life income plan supporting the Arnold Arboretum, you will: . \" receive income for life . realize avoid an income tax deduction . . capital gains gift and estate taxes benefit from Harvard's professional tax save on - . investment management at no cost to you invest in the future of the Arboretum There are several plans in which you can For more information, please contact: Lisa M. Hastings, Development Officer Arnold Arboretum . participate. Anne D. McClintock, Director Planned Giving Office, Harvard - . -\" or University 617\/524-1718 ext. 145 800\/446-1277 or 617\/495-4647 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23508","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0608528.jpg","title":"1996-56-summer","volume":56,"issue_number":3,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fairsted: A Landscape as Olmsted's Looking Glass","article_sequence":1,"start_page":4,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25157","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060bb6b.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Griswold, Mac","article_content":"4 interesting because most it embodies many of his cherished residential landscape ideas. Olmsted always held that the contemplation pastoral scenery-a passive, nonauthoritarian, and beautiful presence-was therapeutic. It encouraged people to become civilized, to develop that \"combination of qualities which fit [a man] to serve others and to be served by others in the most intimate, complete and extend[ed] degree imaginable.\"' Even the most modest home landscape could induce \"a quiescent and cheerfully musing state of mind\" where \"the eye is not drawn to dwell upon, nor the mind to be occupied with, details.\"2 Fairsted's modest but considered \"rurality\" (Olmsted's word for abundant nature held serenely and productively in check by man) conveys this mid-nineteenth-century suburban ideal. By the time Olmsted moved permanently to Brookline in 1881 (where at first the family rented a house), he was both a wide-ranging intellectual and a truly effective activist. His urban parks, the works for which he is best known, gave reality to what has been called a utilitarian transcendentalism. They were to be restorative, both for the individual and the crowd, especially through the power of \"unconscious recreation. \"3 He also intended them to be democratic, bringing different classes together harmoniously. This concept, which resonates with Emersonian thought, was set apart by Olmsted as the highest value scenery could afford. His suburban planning, though intended only for an upper middle-class elite, was also intended to offer restorative powers but in a residential setting. of quiet sphere that he found so civilized, an atmosphere fostered by the same intellectual ideas he had found compelling as a young man. It seemed very different from the corrupt and moneygrubbing New York City Olmsted was leaving with relief; a city which, as he saw it, was incapable of wholehearted civic effort. The Brookline that Olmsted observed was a template for the suburbs he wished to create. The town had transformed itself from conservative agricultural village to liberal suburb without losing its character or mtimacy.4 For him, it stood as proof positive that well-planned suburban communities could accommodate change and stress, could benefit the cities of which they were a vital part. If the great nineteenth-century moral and social question of how to reconcile idealism and matemalism, family and community, rural and urban values, could thus be answered in Brookline, why could it not be answered in every planned community in America? by the Finding Brookline Olmsted had moved to Brookline because he found work in the Boston area which interested him, and he had a wide circle of congenial friends and colleagues there. Chief among them was the architect Henry Hobson Richardson. Richardson, who lived in Brookline himself, urged Olmsted to settle there when he began his large-scale work on the Arnold Arboretum, the first portion of Boston's park system, which he designed in the late 1870s. The deciding factor for Olmsted was the rural yet progressive atmo- Brookline's transformation had been speeded mass arrival of Boston's rich merchants as summer residents beginning in the 1820s-an odd variation on Brookline's settlement history as a summer pasture for livestock! Over the next fifty years, many of these summer residences became elaborate gentlemen's farms, supported by their owners' large city incomes. By comparison, life at Fairsted was modest and some of its immediate surroundings were redolent of an older, simpler order. At the nearby corner of Walnut and Warren Streets, a triangular green marked the earliest center of the town, which once held a schoolhouse (1713), Congregational meetinghouse (1715), and cemetery (1717). But the population center shifted when Brookline Avenue opened in 1821, and by the 1880s the Walnut and Warren neighborhood was largely residential-only the green, and a new, fashionable Unitarian church on the site, remained to mark the spot's older civic history. Olmsted bought a \"farmstead\" of two acres: like many Brookline \"farms,\" it produced only orchard fruit, firewood, and a little summer grass for cattle. Nineteenth-century atlases show the hundred-and-more acre properties of Boston Brahmin families cheek by jowl with residences the size of Fairsted or smaller.s Unflattermg family pictures can shed hght on family dynamics. Here, Mary Perkins Olmsted, in checks, dommates a fuly 1885 gathermg at Fairsted Fredemck Law Olmsted, Sr, looks attentively out from behmd her. At left stands john Charles, Mary's oldest child and Olmsted's partner and nghthand man, caught m a blink that unmttmgly illustrates his retmmg character. Marion, the spinster daughter who never left home, is at far nght, while two umdentified women complete the group. Missing is Fredemck Law Olmsted, Jr., then fifteen years old and known as \"Rick.\" \" Though many were tenant houses belonging to the larger neighbors, such a wide range of adjoining property sizes also reflected a hierarchy of income that must have seemed attractively democratic to Olmsted. The Olmsted Family Olmsted arrived with his wife of twenty-four years, the tiny, doughty, acid-tongued, competent Mary, who would live to be ninety-one, and with three of their seven children. John Charles, aged thirty-one, and Marion, aged twenty-two, were both Olmsted's stepchildren; Frederick, thirteen years old, was Olmsted's only biological son and the apple of his father's eye. Marion would live at home all her life, a victim of Victorian spinsterhood and her own nervous temperament.6 Frederick would become his father's most trusted colleague and confidant in the years just before Olmsted's retirement in 1895, when failing mental abilities hastened Olmsted's retirement. Frederick would inherit Fairsted on his mother's death in 1921. John Charles was already the firm's office manager and a partner (1884) in the earliest Fairsted years. In photographs he is short, delicate-featured, bespectacled, semous, and reticent-seeming to the point of remoteness. Because Olmsted Sr. traveled on business so extensively during the 1880s, it is John Charles who is credited with actually transforming the threadbare sketch of a farm into a place that looked like an illustration from the most influential treatise on picturesque home landscape in the nineteenth century, A. J. Downing's Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening.' How- 6 office, The 1904 survey by White c'~J Wetherbee, Cml Engmeers, accurately indicates the as well as the location of the different landscape features. fmal footprmt of both home and A. Hollow B. East office entrance C. Front door D. Entrance arch & circular drive E. Cucumber magnolia F. Rock garden G. H. American elm I. South lawn Conservatory slope Garden; after 1926, parking lot L. Office courtyard M. Laundry yard N. 1880s cutting garden & coldframes J. West K. 7 John Charles home there are few written records about the making of Fairsted's landscape, as he and his stepfather quite naturally talked it over instead. From what Olmsted wrote about the physical and emotional benefits of well-designed landscapes, both public and private, and from the lists of outdoor practices that nineteenthcentury women's household management and gardening books prescribe, one can begin to reconstruct how this family and their servants used their tmy green haven. We can assume that residential Fairsted was intended for quiet pastimes, not sports, and for the kinds of outdoor household work and garden production common at the time. We can also assume that the south and west, or residential, sides were used mostly by the women of the family, since their lives were so much more homebound than those of Olmsted or his sons and employees. Sitting for contemplation or for reading aloud to children, walking for health, light gardening, with a male gardener to help with the heavy tasks, painting to elevate the mind, all were some of the outdoor activities recommended for women by educator Catherine Beecher and garden writer Jane Loudon. (The works of both women were widely circulated, both in serial and in book form.)H Where would such activities have taken place? Although no actual description exists, there are some clues in planting as well as design. A friendly, flowlived at ever, because By 1885, when the sixty-year-old Olmsted stood m the wintery landscape of Fairsted, he had completed projects such as Central Park and Riverside m Chicago that became national models. In his remammg years m Brooklme his office would carry out hundreds of pro7ects, among g which the most mfluentlal were the Boston park system (begun 1878J, Stanford Umversity campus (1886-1891), and the World's Columbian Exhibition (1888-1893). His nephew, stepson, and partner, John Charles Olmsted, photographed him m the Hollow, Fairsted's sunken garden, agamst a rugged outcrop of Brooklme's charactemstic sedimentary rock, Roxbury puddingstone. The ledge defmes the shape of the httle garden as well as the local context 8 John Charles' 1900 wmter mew from the second story of the house surveys Famsted's entrance gate and drive turnaround. Wild-lookmg plantmgs, which screen out Warren Street and yet harmomze with the natural growth on the rocky mdge beyond, carry out Olmsted's residential ideal- to offer both domestic pnvacy and umty with the larger landscape and the commumty. around the corner to the west of the conservatory on the south front. It was tucked into the sunny angle between the laundry yard lattice fence and the path that led to the production area of Fairsted: the original flower garden and cold frames (west of the barn ery little area lay just and parallel to it), and the vegetable garden. (The locations of both the flower garden and the vegetable garden were changed at least once; they eventually were merged together in the enclosure which in 1926 became the firm's parking lot.) This little area, close to but not part of the 9 service end of the house, was planted with shrubs such as deutzia, weigela, rose of sharon, lilac-all familiar creatures of the New England dooryard garden, the traditional domain of women. These plants, with the exception of lilac, are not seen elsewhere at Fairsted in the early years. This end of the lawn, bright, protected from the wind by the bulk of the house and from intrusion by its distance from the street, would have had a particularly domestic and private atmosphere. It combined the old-fashioned floweriness so often associated with women with proximity to the household end of the building. The conservatory, which is located towards the west end of the house and whose large glass panes command a view of almost the entire south landscape, would have been the closest position for overseeing the kitchen areas and the working gardens to the west-the household \"engine,\" and traditionally the \"business side\" of the house for women. Similarly, the presence of a door to the drafting rooms and the use of the house front door to enter the partners' office might be said to mark \" the east entrance front as the \"men's side.\" Together with the continuous stretch of lawn which curled around the south front and gave onto the entrance drive circle, the rock garden was the landscape attraction that linked the south and east exposures. Where the lawn is expansive, a place to walk companionably or to pull out chairs to sit in the fresh air, the rock garden seems intended for more solitary purposes. Its paths are narrow for two abreast and were originally screened from the lawn by plantings, many of them evergreen. One can imagine this was a place for private, contemplative strolls, both for the family and members of the office staff. Here the eye could rest absentmindedly on an embroidery of groundcovers, and on the details of lichen- and moss-covered rock, patterns as abstract as thought itself. long drafting table. Later office enlargements slowly extended the north end of the house even farther toward Dudley Street, in workmanlike angular mcrements that fit in nicely with an old barn that had been joined to the rear of the house sometime in the eighties. By 1904 the final footprint was complete. For more than fifteen years (until Harvard a founded the first formal training program in 1900), the home office at Fairsted was effectively the only school of landscape design in America, providing practical experience in design and execution, urban planning, and horticulture. Every landscape vignette at Fairsted be seen as a miniature version of some larger idea of Olmsted's: for instance, the rock garden is reminiscent of Central Park's Ramble. It would be difficult to trace exactly how these surroundings influenced the work of firm members, but all of them doubtless absorbed something of Fairsted's essence, whether they stayed with the firm or set up independent practice. Echoes of Fairsted's quiet, shaggy, green imagery resonate in many of their works. Warren k can Manning's quarry garden at Stan t. Hywet, in Akron, Ohio, and Percival Gallagher's ravine garden at what is now the Indianapolis Museum of Fine Art both seem like variations on the at Hollow, the signature sunken wild garden The Office Olmsted's first office improvement the Fairsted front entrance turnaround. Besides enjoying the best design apprenticeship, young staff members also found themselves in one of the horticultural and botanical centers of the nation. Less than five minutes' walk up Warren Street lay Holm Lea, Charles Sprague Sargent's estate filled with botanical introductions from afar. The Arnold Arboretum, directed by Sargent, was located in neighboring Jamaica Plain, and not much farther away were the Cambridge Botanic Garden of Harvard University, Mount Auburn Cemetery, and the Boston Public Garden, all rich with horticultural collections. Reports of what was in bloom on a single day at any one of these places sometimes ran to fifty plants.9 to the exist- ing structures was very same new time that other simple: in 1884, at the changes were made to his north dwelling, he added about ten feet to the parlor of the farmhouse to accommodate Olmsted's Ideals Embodied at Fairsted Olmsted's career was fueled by an optimism about human progress, but a guarded optimism. He looked to what were then progressive ideas: 10 fresh air, sanitation, new transportation methods, and contact with what he called \"Nature,\" to preserve or restore the values of an older, van\" ishing society in a larger, more urban, more complex world. He looked back in time to the small town, in memory a golden Hartford, Connecticut, where he had grown up in the first half of the nineteenth century, in what was then the new republic, before the Civil War and the turmoil that accompanied industrialization. The \"communitiveness,\" as he called it, of that tight-webbed life of shared values and efforts, which at the same time respected the individual, was his ideal. 10 For him, social engmeering to create on a larger scale that healthy, thoughtful, neighborly state of mind began with the wise design of public space, which in turn was rooted in the design of the home and its surroundings. Air, light, orderliness, beauty, and easy access to the outdoors were all part of his program for domestic life. Olmsted's often-repeated desire to blend residential design into the larger surrounding while still preserving privacy emerges at Fairsted. It was to be a part of the town in its apparent openness, but also a family retreat. Two design elements ensured that this double purpose was served. The choice of a spruce pole fence to encircle the property was one such element. Sinuous, malleable, cut to fit over every root and rock it traversed, and made of the rustic, natural materials Olmsted preferred, the fence is airy, a screen rather than a wall, because the poles don't fit together tightly. The front entrance creates the impression of openness while actually preventing the passerby from seeing in. The arching driveway gate piled with vines is welcoming, but the little turnaround mound directly within, topped with a tree whose root crevices still sprout jack-in-thepulpits in spring, hides the front door almost until the visitor arrives. the teens and twenties by the firm, as well as by other contemporary practitioners, such as Charles Platt, Albert Davis Taylor, or Ellen Shipman. In those fifty years, the American economic climate changed enormously, and with it the taste of the firm's residential clientele, who were the rich and influential, many of them newly rich. They traveled frequently to Europe, and they read magazines such as House ~J Garden (first published in 1901) and House Beautiful (1896), whose only subject was the life they could enjoy with their wealth. Photographs in these mass magazines promoted the use of historical architectural detail and gave to designed space a visual meaning that had never before been available to laymen unable to read a plan. A professional class, landscape architects, ready to create such space. From the late 1890s up to the 1929 crash, lavish architectonic formality seemed imperative and there was money, talent, and labor available to achieve it. Even in Brookline, where the hilly topography of ledges and bogs is better suited to naturalistic treatments like that at Fairsted, great formal gardens were carved out, such as Charles Platt's designs for Mr. and Mrs. Charles F. Sprague's Faulkner Farm (1897) and Mr. and Mrs. Larz Anderson's Weld (1901).\"1 Fairsted had almost none of the garden feanew stood Interpreting Design The design of residential landscape changed dramatically between the time that Olmsted created the Fairsted landscape-the 1880s-and the period to which it is now being restored-the late 1920s. The shift can be measured by comparing Fairsted with the landscapes made during tures that from the turn of the century onward became standard in the designs of the Olmsted firm for this new clientele, on small properties as well as large. At Fairsted there was neither rose garden nor herb garden; neither Japanese garden, nor water garden. No extensive supportmg facilities existed, such as a greenhouse or a hot bed. There was a vegetable garden, a cut flower garden, and at various times in different locations cuttings were grown on, plants heeled in, and bulbs and annuals tested. But a visitor did not find a walled court, a collection of boxwoods, an allee, or a formal vista. Garden seats, Chinese ornaments, stone or turf terraces with flights of steps and balustrades, mossy statues, clipped hedges-none. There was no summer house or pergola or shingled child's playhouse, no sundial, nor any trace of historically accu- rate-or even inaccurate-\"period style\"-no Colonial Revival, French, or English architectural details. There was no tall stone wall, no 11 1 wrought-iron entrance gate with urn-topped posts, no landscape program that progressed from symmetry near the house to pastoral informality at the edges of the property. 12 The difference between Olmsted Sr.'s work and the later work of the firm is not )ust a change in taste; it reflects differing ideas as to how best to achieve social and political ends through landscape architecture. Olmsted Sr., whose landscape philosophy was progressive and socialist, had always been reluctant to undertake private residential work for the very rich. Henry V Greenough's garden, an Ellen Shipman pro7ect of 1926, exemplifies the trend towards compartmented design Mrs. Above, formal on smaller properties m Brooklme and other suburbs. Bmck walls, a controllmg axis that ties the garden to the house, sculptural ornament, and mchly planted perenmal beds are typical of Shipman's work. Such features can also be found m many pnvate gardens laid out nationwide by Olmsted Brothers m that same decade. Below, the landscape plan, unhke Fairsted's, would not be a surprise today. The walled garden has a well-equipped vegetable-andcuttmg garden tucked compactly behind it; steps lead down to a pool whose oval shape is echoed by the lawn. A wmdmg path mvislble from lawn or house circles the tree-screened property. Two pocket gardens fill the lot corners. a bank of naturahstic plantmgs and a mld pond It's a bnlhant solution for the owner of a small suburban property who wants it all pnvacy, formal and natural beauty, changes m level, the use of water, and home produce Compactness, symmetry, formahty, and an absence of connection with the landscape beyond are what chiefly differentiate it from a home landscape of Falrsted's date.l3 12 He did so ambivalently, and generally only when some aspect of it served a purpose beyond the client's personal satisfaction. For instance, he embarked on George Vanderbilt's Biltmore, in North Carolina, because he felt an arboretum and privately managed forest would exemplify national goals for conservation and arboriculture. While the Olmsted brothers certainly did not neglect the public sphere, they clearly felt no such ambivalence about expensive private display designed for its own sake, if one is to judge from the large body of elaborate estate work they executed. At Fairsted, among the most striking original features (all of which still survive) are a great elm standing m an irregular pool of lawn, and the \"borrowed scenery,\" a view over the meadow and groves of the adjoining property. But most significant of the original survivors is \"the Hollow,\" a rugged little garden that lies next to and below the house entrance, a deep dimple in an outcropping of Roxbury puddingstone. Any \"improver\" except Frederick Law Olmsted would have filled it in when gradmg the grounds. He kept it-the kind of geological reminder of place that appears everywhere in his work. If the Hollow stands as an emblem of Olmsted's respect for wild nature, then the continuity of the 1.74-acre landscape, which flows without breaks like a Japanese screen painting, illustrates how he viewed the relationship between interior and exterior-or between man and his manmade surrounding. The sense of unbroken flow persists even as one walks slowly through the former living quarters of the house, where the rock garden, lawn, borrowed pasture view, and shrub bank melt into one another through the old wavy window panes. It is Olmsted's ideal landscape, tamed and in miniature: a continuous whole, an ideal he expressed again and again in writing about both natural and designed landscape. Describing Yosemite in 1864 he said \"... not in one feature or another, not in one part or one scene or another, not any landscape that can be framed by itself, but all around and wherever the visitor goes, constitutes the Yo Semite the greatest glory of nature.\"\" The landscape at Fairsted is indeed \"all around,\" unlike the firm's later, more architec- tonic projects. When the Beaux-Arts concept of the axes and lines of the house outdoors took hold shortly after the turn of the century, compartment, or \"room,\" gardening was the consequence. Each indoor room has its outdoor counterpart. This sequenced architectural feeling (one that still usefully rules in the small spaces of today) is very different from that of Fairsted's integrated, organic design. extending Interpreting the Plantings Fairsted's original plantings, so different from those found in large estate gardens of the early twentieth century, shaped the design as much as did the requirements of use, or any idea of ideal landscape form. By the twenties, hybridizers were producing compact forms of shrubs and dwarf or fastigiate forms of trees to suit smaller properties. By contrast, Fairsted's shrub plantings were species, or older cultivars, with wide-sprawling branches. Just a look at Fairsted's roses is telling. There is not a tea rose to be found. Instead there are big hardy shrub roses: American native Rosa luclda (now R. mrginiana) with its clear yellow fall foliage; beautiful but dangerously invasive Rosa multiflora, with its staggering fragrance and huge bouquets of translucent single white flowers; Rosa spinosissima, the old \"Scotch Briar,\" with its creamy flowers and ferny foliage. Native American shrubs-such as staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina), inkberry (Ilex glabra), and (Clethra almfoliaJ-show up on the plan of 1904. Both these plants and the species roses were used by Olmsted in the Boston parks, perhaps indicating their presence at Fairsted in the 1880s as well. Generally, the landscape depended on contrasting plant forms and foliage textures for its effect, rather summersweet than on blossom. In its use of large species forms and American natives for even the smallest suburban landscape, Olmsted's original planting aesthetic was indeed different from that of the 1920s. It had been equally distinct from that of his contemporaries. His taste as a young man had been formed at the same time that a taste for the picturesque in a domestic settmg finally became popular in America, fifty years or so after its vogue in England. But Olmsted's version of the picturesque at Fairsted was even wilder, less 13 In summer, perhaps as early as the twenties and certamly by 1935, the date of this photograph, a chair and table had appeared m the shade of the Hollow. The narrow foreground path circles a central bed and the ledge of Roxbury puddingstone looms beyond. The reconstruction of the wooden entrance arch can be seen at the t. left. norm upper manicured than the American Vines grew of its time. everywhere. Photographs taken at the turn of the century show house walls and fences dripping with climbers, many of them fast growers to thirty feet or so: Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla, formerly A. durior), Japanese winter-creeper (Euonymus fortunei var. radicans), bower actinidia (Actinidia arguta), the American shrubby bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), and Boston ivy (P. tricuspidata, formerly Ampelopsis tricuspidata), wisteria (probably Wisteria sinensis), and English ivy (Hedera helix). What such a display of almost tropical intensity meant to Olmsted is expressed m an 1863 saw letter to Ignaz Pilat, the Austrian horticulturist of Central Park. Writing from Panama, Olmsted describes the \"jungled variety and density and intricate abundance\" of the isthmus, saying it \"excited a wholly different emotion from that produced by any of our temperate-zone scenery excited it instantly, instinctively and directly. If my retrospective analysis of this emotion is correct, it rests upon a sense of the superabundant creative power, infinite resource, and liberality of Nature-the childish playfulness and profuse careless utterance of Nature.\"'S How to duplicate this in the Ramble in Central Park, Olmsted asks himself. He cites the Virginia creeper, so much in evidence at Fairsted, as perhaps the best temperate-zone ... Overleaf: Plan #33, the 1920s reworkmg of the Hollow, refreshed the green framework and groundcovers and the judicious removal of shrubs that had outgrown their original locations. The small garden was groomed as a display garden and, besides the plants hsted here, quantities of other corms and bulbs were added for a contmuous succession of bloom from early April through August. 14 OLMSTED BROTHERS L. Olmsted Estate) Brookline, Massachusetts (F. ~ TO ACCOMPANY PLAN NO. File No. 673 PLANTING FOR \"HOLLOW\" 33 Landscape 1. Olmsted Brothers Architects Brookline, Mass. October 5th, 1923. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. Cotoneaster horizontalis, 14 plants Juniperus communis, 6 plants Hosta sieboldiana, 2' apart, 30 plants Taxus cuspidata, 10 plants Taxus cuspidata capitata, 7 plants Taxus repandens, 4' apart, 36 plants Pachysandra terminalis, 9\" apart, 1859 plants Taxus repandens, small size, 25 plants Epimedium macranthum, 9\" apart, 756 plants (or other kinds) Juniperus japonica, 11 plants Juniperus chinensis pfitzeriana. 5 plants Taxus 9 plants Phlox 9\" apart, 105 plants Phlox subulata Vivid, 9\" apart, 125 plants Phlox subulata G. F. Wilson, 9\" apart, 70 plants Saxifraga cordifolia, large-leaved variety, 30 plants Dryopteris marginalis, 1' apart, 50 plants Dennstedtia punctilobula, 1' apart, 125 plants Salix tristis, 1 1\/2' apart, 170 plants Diervilla trifida. 2' apart. 45 plants Euonymus radicans acutus, 1 1\/2' apart. 75 plants Iris Prince Victor, 1 1\/2' apart, 5 plants Iris Ingeborg, 1 1\/2' apart, 10 plants Taxus canadensis. 3' apart, 50 plants Hosta lancifolia, 1 1\/2' apart. 80 plants \" . _____________________________ ) (riot ~~) cuspidata n a subulata The hst also mcluded another 38 vaneties on of ms, a total of 639 corms. For mstant ef fect, they were closely planted~ for example, Iris A. B. C. D. cristata 9-mch centers Add The a few rocks. gap to be filled in with shrubs from existing rhodotypos. place, preferably E. F. G. H. All of the rhododendrons to be taken out of here and used somewhere along southerly boundary of grounds. (Next Mrs. Gardner's) Practically all of the existing shrubs on this slope to be eliminated, and perhaps used elsewhere on the grounds. The box, a crataegus, probably a pyrus are to be left; decisions will have to be made at the time of carrying out the work. The vines growing up from the base of this rock probably to be eliminated. This is to be considered on the ground again. It is worth considering rebuilding these steps. It is worth considering rebuilding this walk and the platform with more artistic looking material. Leave Crataegus pyracantha. 15 LILIES Planted Fall 1924 reddish orange, spotted. shaped flowers: varying from yellow to orange; spotted inside. Croceum - Bright orange flowers. Henryi - flowers a rich deep orange-yellow. Fine foliage. Regale - flowers, white, shaded pink; canary-yellow center. Speciosum album - large pure white fragrant flowers. Speciosum melpomene pink spotted flowers; last 3 weeks or longer. Canadense - Superbum - bright funnel dull apricot, orange anthers. Pardalinum Californicum - deep orange, maroon spotted; tips of petals, intense scarlet. Parryi - flowers of soft yellow ; conspicuous brown anthers. Batemanni - clear glowing apricot flowers-Brown Browni - large trumpet: inside, pure white; outside shaded chocolate brown. Monadelphum Szovitzianum - pale citron-yellow to deep yellow. Testaceum - Circles mdicate only approximate locations, not areas occupied, and the numbers m cmcles indicate the number of bulbs planted A group of tall, pure white Lilium speciosum `Album'(see arrow) greets the visitor descendmg the steps and is then silhouetted agamst the Hollow's steep south wall of greenery and stone when seen from the far end of the central path. 16 substitute. Years later, visiting England in 1892, he wrote to John Charles that the best ornamental grounds he saw were those in which the vines and creepers were outwitting the gardener. Fortunately, in refurbishing this landscape after the turn of the century, the firm largely followed Olmsted's example by using common hardy plants like Virginia creeper or English ivy, all in great quantity. They grew well, quickly providing nature's \"childish playfulness and profuse careless utterance.\" Quantities sometimes ran very large indeed: a memo of August 6, 1924, specifies ninety (!) sheep laurel (Kalmla IatifoliaJ, one to one-and-one-half-foot-tall, for \"planting about path in southeast corner of lawn.\" One wonders what thinning procedures were used; perhaps the nineteenth-century practice, \"Plant thick and thin quick,\" which Olmsted Sr. used in his parks, was used here as well. Similarly, for ferns m the same corner, the hardiest, easiest-to-grow ferns are specified, such as hay-scented fern (Dennstaedtia punctilobula, formerly Dicksonia punctilobula), which is exceptionally drought-resistant. Planting Changes after Olmsted Sr. The only areas where planting schemes did change in the forty years between the 1880s and the 1920s were m the Hollow and the rear court- yard. Both of these areas, which are on the office side of the grounds, were planted more elaborately. The additions were predominantly notable for the bloom and seasonal appeal provided by bulbs and annuals, rather than for their year-round form. The man with the most direct responsibility for the horticultural development of the grounds from 1910 through 1930 was Hans J. Koehler, who worked for the firm for forty years. Not a landscape architect, Koehler was a horticultural specialist who made most of the plans and plant lists for the Hollow and the rear courtyard. (Another longterm presence was Greenwood Kitt, the gardener, who worked on the place from about 1897 through 1922 and probably helped shape its horticultural character.)( Koehler's great familiarity with garden plants introduced wider horticultural variety at Fairsted during the years of his employment. This change was also impelled by the firm's desire to have a showplace for clients, and its need to experiment with plants that could produce an unbroken sequence of bulb and perennial bloom in clients' gardens-a new concept of planting that became the rule at the turn of the century. By 1930 the Hollow was still the \"mass of shrubs and flowers\" reached by \"rough rock steps\" that the budding landscape gardener Beatrix Jones (Farrand) described in 1894. But there had been changes m garden architecture, use, and planting. The alteration of the steps is a metaphor for the changes in general: at Koehler's suggestion, they were rebuilt in 1924 for an easier descent so that, although their location and rustic nature were retained, their roughhewn appearance was reduced by regularizing the height and variety of the risers. The increased ease of access, and the use of a table and chairs for staff members at lunchtime, domesticated the Hollow in a way not envisioned before: it became a garden room instead of a remnant of nature that one glanced into or walked through for spiritual refreshment. By 1930 as many as forty-one different iris cultivars, twenty-three kinds of tulips (species, single early, cottage, and Darwin types are all represented), and thirteen lilies had been indicated for the Hollow. No planting list exists from the 1880s, but it seems doubtful that Olmsted Sr. would have mcluded so many cultivated varieties of bulbs in this wild-looking place, given his expressed preference for keeping flowers in the garden and out of the landscape. Given his taste for subtle, overall effects would he have planted pure white, one-and-a-halfmeter-tall Lillum speciosum 'Album' in the center of this diminutive wild garden as was done m 1924? Would he have proposed, as Koehler did in a 1911 memorandum to F. L. Olmsted, Jr., that \"the coarse blackberry vines and some other coarse things on slope to the west of the rhododendron group under the Cornus florida are to be eliminated\"? Cut back, perhaps; eliminated, no. Olmsted Sr. himself had written to John Charles m 1884 while the original landscape was being created, that he didn't \"object to the cutting away of certain bramble patches if brambles are to take their place....\" The reorganization of the employees' rear courtyard was even more radical in planting \" 17 7 and design intent. Koehler did the final 1925 plan, but undoubtedly it was approved by Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., then the firm's deciding voice on Fairsted matters. The yard was transformed from an unceremonious back areaway into a pleasant, modest entrance garden. Vines grew on the high walls of the new brick plan vault, and flowers bloomed in beds lining the sides of the courtyard and in a single bed set in a stone dust cement aggregate floor (presumably poured for practicality, before a garden was envisioned). Within the context of the firm's work, the new courtyard design and plantings were neither origmal nor beautiful. changes Nonetheless, they are interestmg historically because they mirror changed attitudes towards the workplace and the profession of landscape architecture. Further, they demonstrate the emergence of certain design conventions, such as symmetry, not seen before at Fairsted. These improvements to the courtyard certainly indicate a change in the status of the firm's employees. Their growing numbers and the recognition of landscape architecture as a respected profession endowed clerks and other support staff (both men and women by the 1920s) with enough importance to assure them of more than a naked \"back door.\" Then too, the 1926 automobile parking lot on the site of the former vegetable garden brought more people through this rear \/I entrance. By comparison with the Hollow, such a landscape comes What m the earhest years of the firm was an unceremomous back door used by the staff had become cheerful though modest office a garden by the late 1920s. The pyramidal yews at either side of the path mark not only an entrance but also the use of symmetry not seen before at Fairsted across as less sophisticated, less considered and permanent in its plantings; it had less to do with the natural site and more to do with human use. Unlike the Hollow, which was essentially the older \"front entrance garden\" to the same office space, the courtyard did not have a stone path and steps, nor a refined array of shrubs for yearround structure, nor a choice selection of small 18 8 ily for most of the 1920s. Thus the early twenties became a turning point when the focus of Fairsted tipped away from the home and towards the needs of the firm. The emphasis turned now to the design elements that could illustrate possibilities for visiting clients. In the previous forty years, between 1883 and the early twenties, the Olmsted family's need for a soothing and private landscape had been equally important; it had served as a multiple-use, domestic fabric whose spatial patterns shaped and were shaped by daily life. The National Park Service Restoration The present restoration will return the design to its composition in the late 1920s. Those were the years when the firm's business was at its height but before the mechanical lawnmower had erased many of the subtle curves where greenStaff horticulturist Hans J. Koehler's plantmg study for the rear office sward meets shrub border. Nor courtyard makes the best of an unpromismg space mnth an abundance of perennial border plants that are a hallmark of the firm's later style: had the growth of seedling invaders and the death of many ms, peonies, and a rambler rose, along with annuals such as sweet alyssum and tuberous begonias. In wmter, yews and pachysandra make mature trees changed the a sketchy evergreen framework. composition of the family side. In choosing the landscape of this period, the restoration intends to reestabbulbs and lilies. Instead, many of the courtyard lish the delicate balance that still existed in the were annual flowers, which provided plants the immediate appeal of summer color and 1920s between the old residential landscape and that of the office, at the same time that it for people hurrying in to work. Symfragrance brings back the lush, profligate look so emblemmetry (more or less), tight pyramidal yews, the popular pink rose 'Dorothy Perkins' (introduced atic of Olmsted's original design and landscape in 1902), and an edging of sweet alyssum philosophy. marked it as a modest early twentieth-century Endnotes suburban \"cottage\" garden whose planting This article is adapted from a longer essay written as part from that of an aesthetic was very different of a cultural landscape report prepared by the Olmsted earlier Fairsted. Center for Landscape Preservation for the Frederick Law John Charles Olmsted died in 1920, and the Olmsted National Historic Site of the National Park death of his mother followed in 1921. The house Service. It will be published m its entirety m 1997. was rented in that same year, and Frederick I Frederick Law Olmsted (hereafter FLO) gives his defimtion of civilization most completely m \"Notes Olmsted, Jr., moved to California with his fam- 19 The Dudley Street entrance area reflects Fairsted's changmg usage: first a vegetable garden for a family, then bnefly considered as an expenmental annual plot for the fmm, it finally became m 1926 a parkmg lot for the expanded staff. The spruce pole fence, equally flexible in its own way, has been cut to fit the root flare of an Acer pseudoplatanus, at left. the Pioneer Condition, Section 2, Defining Civilization,\" in Ranney, 659. Z FLO expressed his ideal of the domestic landscape in \"Plan for a Small Homestead,\" Garden and Forest 1 (May 2, 1888)I: 111 3 FLO, \"Trees m Streets and m Parks, The Samtanan (September 1882) X\/114~: 517. ' Alisa Behnkoff Katz, \"From Puritan Village to Yankee Township: A Social History of Politics m Brookline, 1705-1875\" m Brookhne, the Soclal History of a Subon urban Town 1705-1850, ed. David Hackett Fischer (Waltham, MA: Brandeis University, 1986), 264. 5 Atlas of the Town of Brooklme (Philadelphia: G. M. Hopkms, 1884), plate 15, and Town of Brookline Special Committee, Report of Committee on Mumcipal Policy of the Town of Brooklme, Massachusetts (Brookline, MA: Rmerdale Press, 1925),3-13 a discussion of women's psychological illness m the 19th century, see Barbara Ehrenreich and Deirdre 6 For 20 Advice 7 English, For Her Own Good 150 Years of the Experts' to Women (Garden City, NY: Anchor Books\/ Doubleday, 1978), 102-140. Dowmng's book, which first appeared in 1841, was reissued in eight editions throughout the century. Ranney, Victoria Post, Gerard J. Rauluk, and Carolyn F. Hoffman 1990. The Papers of Fredenck Law Olmsted. Vol. V, The Cahforma Frontier,1863-1865. Baltimore: Johns Hopkms University Press. s Catharine E. Beecher and Harriet Beecher Stowe, American Woman's Home (NY: J. B. Ford, 1869; Roper, 9 Hartford, CT: Stowe-Day Foundation, 1975\/, 117, 294-296, 379-402; also see Jane Loudon, Gardemng for Ladies (1840), The Ladies' Compamon to the Flower-Garden (1841~, The Ladies' Flower-Garden (1839-48), Amateur Gardener's Companzon (1847), The Lady's Country Compamon \/ 1850( Hans J. Koehler, Bloommg Date Notebook, March 6, 1910, November 16, 1910, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site Plant File. to Laura Wood. 1973. FLO, A Biography of Fredemck Law Olmsted Baltimore: Johns Hopkms University Press. Tishler, William H., ed. Architecture 1989. Amencan Landscape Places Designers and Washmgton, DC: Preservation Press. Zaitzevsky, Cynthia. In press. Cultural Landscape Report for the Fredenck Law Olmsted National Historic Site, \"Famsted Vol. I: Site History, with an afterword by Mac Gnswold Brookline, MA: National Park Service, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. . 1982. Frederick Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. \" 1o 11 12 \"communitiveness,\" see \"Notes on the Pioneer Section 2, Defining Civilization,\" in Ranney,659 Keith N. Morgan, Charles Platt. The Artist as Architect (NY: Architectural History Foundation, 1985), 48-53, 56-58. Mac Gnswold and Eleanor Weller, The Golden Age of For Condition, Acknowledgments For all the assistance offered in so many ways with this article, I would like to thank Robert Cook and Phylhs Andersen of the Arnold Arboretum, Lauren Meier and Amencan Gardens Proud Owners, Pmvate Estates, 1890-1940 (NY Harry N. Abrams, 1991~ 13-15, 45-48. 13 Ellen Shipman, \"Variety of Form and Abundance of Bloom Within a Small Area, The Garden of Mrs ~4 15 Henry V. Greenough, Brookline, Massachusetts,\" House Beautiful (March, 1931(, 259-262. FLO, \"The Yosemite Valley and the Manposa Big Trees: A Prehmmary Report (18G5~,\" m Ranney, 500. FLO to Ignaz A. Pilat, September 26, 1863, m Ranney, 85. Joyce Connolly of the National Park Service, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, Cynthia Zaitzevsky, Karen Madsen, Robm Karson, Arleyn Levee, Keith Morgan, Victoria Ranney, Judith Tankard, and the staffs of the Brookline Public Preservation Commission. Library and the Brookline Select Bibliography Bevendge, Charles E., and Paul Rocheleau. 1995. Frederick Law Olmsted Designing the Amencan Landscape NY: Rizzoh International. 1990. Fredemck Law Olmsted The of a Pubhc Artist. NY: New York Umversity Press. Passion Mac Gnswold's most recent book is The Golden Age of Amencan Gardens ( 1991 an illustrated history of turnof-the-century plutocratic gardemng m the U.S., written with Eleanor Weller She is also the author of \"A History of Gardemng in the Umted States,\" in The New Royal Kalfus, Melvin. Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardemng (1992\/, edited by Sir Aldous Huxley. Her articles and book reviews have appeared m The New York Times, Vogue, House & Garden, Hortus, The Magazme Antiques, Landscape Architecture Magazme, Gardens Illustrated, and Garden Design, where she is a contributing editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plan for a Small Homestead (1888)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":21,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25159","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add0608528.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Olmsted, Frederick Law","article_content":"\"Manifestations of refined domestic life\" ranked high on Frederick Law Olmsted's scale of values. He called them \"unquestionably the ripest and best fruits of civilization.\"In 1888 he published his plan for a residence in East Greenwich, Rhode Island, in Garden and Forest, Charles Sargent's journal of horticulture, landscape art, and forestry. Within this small site Olmsted accommodated many modes of outdoor living-a vine-canopied garden room, a tiny pleasure garden to be considered a part of the house, a \"retired seat\" for quiet pursuitsand with an artful planting design, connected the homestead to the larger landscape, achieving the sense of Nature's infinitude that the owner desired. Olmsted never put into writing his intentions for his own home in Brookline, but we can assume that the Rhode Island design exemplifies his ideal, combining \"the enjoyment, the comfort, the tranquillity, the morality and the permanent furnishings, interior and exterior, of a home. \" Plan for a Small Homestead d Frederick Law Olmsted Conditions and Requirements.-The site is upon the south face of a bluff, the surface of which is so steep that the rectangular street system of the city, to the east and south, had not been extended over it. The diagonal streets, M and N, have been lately introduced and building lots laid off on them, as shown in Figure 1. The triangular space between L and M Streets is a public property containing the graves of some of the first settlers of the region. Its northern and western parts are rock and partly covered by a growth of native Thorns and Junipers, east of which there are Willows and other planted trees. At A there is a meeting-house and parsonage. Arabic figures show elevations above city datum. The lot to be improved is that marked IX. The usual convemences of a suburban cottage home are required, and it is desired that it should be made more than usually easy and convenient for members of the household, one of whom is a chronic invalid, to sit much and be cheerfully occupied in out-of-door air and sunlight. A small fruit and vegetable garden is wanted and a stable for a smgle horse and a cow, with carriage room and lodgings for a man. Water for the house, garden and stable is to be supplied by pipes. There is a sewer m order and provide such gratification of taste as with good gardening management the circumstances will allow. The north-west corner of the lot is 21 feet higher than the south-east corner, the slope being steeper m the upper and lower parts than in the middle. There is a small outcrop of a ledge of limestone about 30 feet from the south end, and the ground near it is rugged and somewhat gulhed. M Street, which has a rapid descent to the eastward, opposite the lot, was brought to its grade by an excavation on the north side and by bank- good M Street. The problem is to meet the requirements thus stated so snugly that the labor of one man will be sufficient, under ordmary circumstances, to keep the place in 22 on its south side, the bank being supported by a and dreamy. Such a foreground can be formed within retaining wall. The excavation has left a raw bank two the hmits of lot IX, and, strictly speakmg, the forming to five feet high on the street face of the lot. of it will be the only landscape improvement that can Lookmg from the middle part of the lot over the roof be made on the place. It is, however, to be considered, of the parsonage a glimpse is had of a river, beyond that when the middle of the lot is occupied by a house which, in low bottom land, there is a body of timber, but small and detached spaces will remain to be furchiefly Cottonwood, over which, miles away, low, pas- mshed with verdure or fohage, and that anythmg to be tured hills appear in pleasing undulations. put upon these spaces will come under direct and close The narrower frontage of lot IX, its irregular out- scrutiny. Hence nothing should be planted m them that lines, its steepness, its crumpled surface, the raw, cav- during a severe drought or an intense winter or in any ing bank of its street face and its apparent rockiness and other probable contingency is likely to become more barrenness, had made it slower of sale than any other than momentarily shabby. Further, it is to be considon the hill streets, and it was, accordingly, bought at so ered, that when the eye is withdrawn from a scene the low a price by its present owner that he is not unwill- charm of which lies in its extent and the softness and ing to pay liberally for improvements that will give him indefimteness, through distance, of its detail, the natusuch accommodations upon it as he calls for. From the ral beauty in which the most pleasure is likely to be taken will be of a somewhat adjoining lots and those higher the distant view... can evidently up the hill to the north the complementary or antithetical view which has been referred character. But to secure such be improved by placing in its to, over the roof of the parsonbeauty it is not necessary to a body of vigorous, dark foreground age, is liable to be curtamed off provide a series of objects the foliage, in contrast with which the interest of which will he m feaby trees to grow, or houses to be e built, on the south side of them. light gray and yellowish greens of the tures and details to be seen Either this liability has been woods of the river bottom will appear separately, and which would be overlooked or the view has most enjoyed if each was placed a more delicate and tender quality, been considered of little value of on a separate pedestal, with and the grassy hills beyond more others near it of contrasting by those who have bought them. \"Most people,\" says the mysteriously indistinct, far away, qualities of detail, each on its owner of lot IX, \"find their love own separate pedestal. It may unsubstantial and dreamy. of Nature most gratified when be accomplished by so bringing they have a trim lawn and a display of flowers and deh- together materials of varied graceful forms and pleasing cacies of vegetation upon it in front of their houses. I tints that they will intimately mingle, and this with find Nature touches me most when I see it m a large such mtricate play of light and shade, that, though the whole body of them is under close observation, the eye way; m a way that gives me a sense of its infinitude. I like to see a natural horizon against the sky, and I thmk is not drawn to dwell upon, nor the mind to be occupied that the advantage we shall have here m that respect with, details. In a small place much cut up, as this must will fully compensate us for the want of a fine lawn- be, a comparative subordination, even to obscurity, of hke front, provided the place can be made reasonably details, occurring as thus proposed, and not as an effect convenient.\" Fortunately his wife is essentially hkeof distance, is much more conducive to a qmescent and minded. \"I am a Western woman,\" she says, \"and would cheerfully musmg state of mind than the presentation not like to live in a place that I could not see out of of objects of specific admiration. without looking into the windows of my neighbors.\" Anatomical Plan.- The important common rooms Controllmg Landscape Considerations.-The only of the family and the best chambers are to be on the valuable landscape resource of the property lies in the southern side of the house, in order that the view over distant view eastward from it. Looking at this from the the river, the south-western breeze and the western house place, it can evidently be improved by placing m twilight, may be enjoyed from their windows. (See its foreground a body of vigorous, dark foliage, in configure 2.) It follows that the kitchen and the main trast with which the light gray and yellowish greens of entrance door to the house are to be on its north and the woods of the river bottom will appear of a more east side. Were it not for excessive steepness, the best dehcate and tender quality, and the grassy hills beyond approach to the house would be on a nearly straight more mysteriously indistinct, far away, unsubstantial course between its east side and the nearest pomt on M mg out \" 23 Street-i.e., the south-east corner of the lot; this partly because it would be least costly and most convement, and partly because it would make the smallest disturbance of the space immediately before the more important windows of the house. But to get an approach of the least practicable steepness the place will be entered at the highest pomt on M Street-i.e., the south-west corner; then a quick turn will be taken to the right, in order to avoid the ledge, then, after passing the ledge, another to the left. On this course a grade of one m twelve and a half can be had. (The grade on the shortest course would be one m seven.) Opposite the entrance to the house there is to be a nearly level space where cut for grade of M retaining wall four feet high along the front of the lot. This will allow a low ndge, nearly level along the top, to be formed between the wheelway and the street, making the wheelway safer and a less relatively important circumstance to the eye. Even m the part of the lot chosen, as being the least steep, for the house, a suitable plateau for it to stand upon can only be obtained by an embankment on the south and an excavation on the north. The embankment is to be kept from sliding down hill by a wall ten carriages can rest. The caving bank made by the Street requires a feet in front of the wall of the house. This retaining wall is to be bmlt of stamed and crannied, refuse blocks of limestone which have been formerly thrown out from the surface in opening quarries on the back of the bluff. They are to be laid without mortar and with a spreading base and irregular batter. Where the ledge can be exposed they will rest upon it, and the undressed rock will form a part of the face of the wall. A railing two and a half feet high is to be carried on the top of the retammg wall, and the space (b) between this and the wall of the house will be an open terrace upon which will open half-glazed French windows on the south of the library, parlor and dmmg-room. At c (figure 2) there is to be a little room for plants in winter, the sashes of which are to be removed in summer, when the space is to be shaded by a shdmg awning. At d a roof covers a space large enough for a tea table or work table, with a circle of chairs about it, out of the house proper, formmg a garden room. This roof is to be sustamed by slender columns and latticework, and lattice-work is to be carried over it and the whole to be overgrown with vines (Honeysuckle on one side, Wistaria on the other, the two mingling above). The space ee is reserved for a tiny pleasure garden, to be entered from the house and to be considered much as if, m summer, it were a part of it carpeted with turf and embellished with foliage and flowers. At f there is to be a retired seat for reading and mtimate conversation, and east of this an entrance to the service gardens, to be described later. The laundry yard, h, and the kitchen yard,1, are to be screened by high lattices covered by Virginia Creeper ~Parthenocissus quinquefoha). The court yard, 7~, is to be smoothly paved with asphalt blocks or fire brick, which it will be easy to thoroughly hose and swab every day. In one corner of it is a brick ash house, k; in another a dog house, m The stable and carriage house are entered from the court yard, but hay will be taken mto the loft from a wagon standmg m the passage to the back lane. At n is the stable yard. Landscape Gardenmg.- The soil to be stripped from the sites of the house, terrace, stable, road and walks, will be sufficient, when added to that on the ground elsewhere, to give full two feet of soil wherever needed for turf or plantmg. Trenches, nowhere less than two feet deep, are to be made on each side of the approach road south of the 24 and to be filled with highly enriched soil, the surface of which is to slope upward with a shght concavity as it recedes from the approach. The base of the wall is to merge irregularly into this slope. The space between the terrace and the street is so divided by the approach, and, in the mam, is so steep and dry, that no part of it can be well kept in turf, nor can trees be planted in it, because they would soon grow to obstruct the southward view from the house and terrace. The steep dry ground and the rock and rough wall of this space are to be veiled with vines rooting in the trenches. The best vine for this purpose is the common old clear green Japan Honeysuckle (Lonicera Halhana [now L. japonica 'Halliana']). In this sheltered situation it will be verdant most, if not all, of the winter, and terrace But both the limestone soil and the situation is unfa- vorable to them. Next, a dark compact mass of roundheaded Conifers would best serve the purpose of a foreground to the distant view, but there are none that can be depended on to thrive long in the situation that could be kept within the required bounds except by gmmg them a stubbed and clumsy form by the use of the kmfe. The best available material for a strong, low mass, with such deep shadows on the side toward the terrace as it is desirable to secure, and which is most sure to thrive permanently m the rather dry and hot situation, will be found in the more horizontally branching of the Thorn trees (Crat~gusJ, which grow naturally in several varieties on other parts of the hill. Their heads may be easily kept low enough, especially in the case of the Cockspur (C. blooming, not too llauntmgly, all the natural beauty in which of the summer. It can be trained Crus-galhJ, to leave the view open not only over the rough, sloping the most pleasure is likely to be from the terrace without taking wall of the terrace, but also over forms. But as a thicket of taken... may be accomplished lumpy the railing above it, and here to these spreading thorn bushes, fifty be kept closely trimmed, so as to by so bringing together materials feet long, so near the eye, might be a little stiff and monotonous, a few appear almost hedgelike. Also it of varied graceful forms and shrubs are to be blended with may be tramed up the columns of tints that they will pleasing the shelter and along its roof; the them, some of which will send odor from its bloom will be pleas- intimately mingle, and this with straggling sprays above the mass ing on the terrace, and will be per- such intricate play of light and and others give delicacy, grace and ceptible, not oppressively, at the shade, that, though the whole liveliness, both of color and texwindows of the second story. ture, to its face. Common Pnvet body of them is under close Other vegetation is to be intro[Ligustrum vulgare], red-twigged duced sparingly to mingle with it, observation, the eye is not drawn Dogwood [Cornus sericea], comthe wild Rose and Clematis of the to dwell upon, nor the mind to be mon and purple Barberry ~Berberis neighborhood; the Akebia vine vulgamsJ, Deutzia scabra, Spiceoccupied with, details. bush (Lindera benzomJ and (Akebia qumata], double flowermg Brambles [Rubus ulmifolius 'Bellidiflorus'?], and, Snowberry ~Symphoricarpos albus] may be used for in crevices of the wall, Rhus aromatica, dwarf the purpose. Amemcan Elms have already been planted Brambles, Cotoneaster microphylla, Indian Fig [Opun- on the lot adjoining on the east. The Wahoo Elm tia sp.], Aster, and Golden Rod, but none of these m (Ulmus alata) and the Nettle tree (Celtis occidentalls) conspicuous bodies, for the space is not too large to be are to be planted m the space between the approach occupied predominatingly by a mass of foliage of a and the boundary. They will grow broodingly over the nearly umform character. Near the southwest corner of road, not too high, and mass homogeneously with the the pleasure garden, Forsythia suspensa is to fall over larger growing Elms beyond. Near the stable two the wall, and, also, as a drapery m the extreme corner Pecans (Carya oliva?formis (now C. illmoensis]J are to (because the odor to those near the bloom of it is not be planted. The three trees last named all grow in the pleasant), Matrimony vine (Lyclum vulgare (now L. neighboring country and are particularly neat and barbarum)J. Upon the walls of the house east of the free from insect pests. A loose hedge of common Privet terrace, Japanese Ivy (Ampelopsis Veitchii (now havmg the effect of a natural thicket is to grow along Parthenocissus tricuspidata 'Veitchii']) is to be grown, the boundary. No other shrub grows as well here and before it a bush of the fiery Thorn (Crata'gus Pyra- under trees. As the pleasure garden is to be very small, to be cantha, [now Pyracantha coccinea)). For the ground on the street side of the approach, pp, smooth-leaved shrub closely associated with the best rooms, and to be not evergreens would be chosen were they likely to thrive. only looked at but used, it must be so prepared that no 25 (as in watering, mowing, nese Quince (Chaenomeles ~apomca), Japanese Mahoand rollmg\/, to keep it m superlatively neat, ma (M. ~aponica), Spm~as, and the Mezereon Daphne sweepmg fresh and inviting condition. No large trees are to be (D. mezereumj. J. In the third tier, Deutzia gracihs, Oregon Grape grown upon or near it by which it would be overshadowed and its moisture and fertility drawn upon to the (Mahoma aquifolium), flowering Almond (white and injury of the finer plantings. It must be easy of use by red) (Prunus triloba), Spmxa Thunbergm and S ladies when they are shod and dressed for the house and Japomca, Waxberry (Mymca pensylvamcal), Daphne not for the street. Its surface is to be studiously modCneorum, small-leaved Cotoneaster, and the Goatsbeard Spm~a [Aruncus eled with undulations such as the pleasure garden~'s~ is to dioicus]. The Virginia Creeper be formed where a surface might strong stream is turned aside be studiously modeled with undulations is to be planted against the walls of the house, Chinese abruptly into a deep and nar- such as might be formed where a strong Wistanas near the garden row passage with considerable stream is turned aside abruptly into a room. Oleanders, Rhododendescent. It will be hollowing near the house and the walk, and narrow passage with consider- drons, Figs, Azaleas and Bamdeep and will curl and swell, hke able descent. It will be hollowing near boos, grown in tubs, are to be set the terrace in sumheavy canvas slightly hfted by the house and the walk, and will curl mer.upon are to be kept in a the wmd, in the outer parts. They and swell, like heavy canvas slightly Wherever it is to be left in turf cold pit during the wmter. the undulations are to be so The service garden (gg, Fig. the wind, in the outer parts. lifted by gentle that close mowing, 2) will have a slope of one to rollmg and sweeping will be easily practicable. The five inclining to the south. It is intended only for such upper and outer parts are to be occupied by bushy fohsupplies to the house as cannot always be obtamed m the public market in the fresh condition desirable, and age compassmg about all the turf; high growmg shrubs next the fences and walls; lower shrubs before them; is divided as follows: trailers and low herbaceous plants before all. But there g 1. Roses and other plants to provide cut flowers must be exceptions enough to this order to avoid forand foliage for interior house decoration; mahty, a few choice plants of each class standing out g2. Small fruits; smgly. The bushes are to be planted thickly, not simply g 3. Radishes, salad plants, Asparagus, Peas, etc.; 3~ '\" to obtain a good early effect, but because they will grow g 4. Mint, Parsley, Sage, and other flavoring and better and with a more suitable character m tolerably garnishing plants for the kitchen, close As the sense of the ... excessive labor will be needed ' ',i compamonship. good lady who is to be mistress of this garden ranges more widely than is common beyond matters of taste, it may be hoped that due thmnmgs will be made from year to andthat the usual mutilation ofbushes under the e name of pruning will be prevented. The following little trees and bushes may be used for the higher range: The common, trustworthy sorts of Lilac ~Symnga vulgaris), Bush-honeysuckle [Diervilla year Cold-frame, wintering-pit, hot-beds, compostbin, manure-tank, garden-shed and tool-closet. Brookline, Mass., l4th April, 1888 BrooK~r!6,MaM.,MM~.prn,~888 g 5. sesslfolia), Mock-orange ~Philadelphus), Forsythia, Weigeha, the Buffalo-berry (Shepardia), common Bare berry, the Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas) and the red erry, orne Ian erry , . ,.. ~ ere twigged Dogwood. In the second tier, Missouri Currant [Ribes odoratum), Clethra (C. alnifoha), Calycanthus [G. flondus), Jersey Tea [Ceanothus americanus), Japa- \"Plan for a Small Homestead\" was published m VolumeI of Garden and Forest (May 2, 1888), pages 111-113 The first two quotations m the editor's mtroduction are from \"Report Upon a Projected Improvement of the Estate of the College of Cahforma, at Berkeley, Near Oakland,\"June 19, 1866, m The Papers of Fredenck Law Olmsted, Volume V, The Calyorma Fronuer, 1863-1865, edited by V ctoma Post Ranney, Gerard J. Rauluk, and Carolyn F. Hoffman (Baltimore: Johns Hopkms University Press, 1990), 548. The last quotation is from a letter of April 28, 1864, to Henry Whrtney Bellows, ibid., 226. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants at Fairsted","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25158","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060816f.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Meier, Lauren","article_content":"Notes on Restoring the Woody Plants of Fairsted Lauren Meier The restoration of the Olmsted landscape at Fairsted is a complex undertaking, requiring extensive historical research and documentation, landscape analysis and planning, and finally, implementation and maintenance. In this article, the project manager reviews the part of the process that deals with woody plants. In 1991 the National Park Service began restor- niques of vegetation management that ing the 1.74-acre landscape of Frederick Law Olmsted's home and office in Brookline, Massachusetts, with a view to creating a living exhibit of his design process and principles. This project has enabled us to study in a very detailed way Olmsted's use of woody plants in a small-scale residential landscape. The project has also served as a testmg ground for methods and tech- applied States. on at may be historic sites around the United Olmsted incorporated many plants already the site into his design, most notably a magnificent American elm, as well as a broad range of other woody plants, both natives and nonnatives. The final design-a diverse landscape of undulating lawn (the south lawn), a rustic Volunteer trees-predommantly Norway maples (Acer platanoides) with some Japanese maples (A. palmatum) and sweet birch (Betula lenta~-on the west slope of Famsted as they appeared in the spring of 1994. 27 dell (called the Hollow), a rocky outcropping (the rock garden), a bank of trees and shrubs (the west slope), a circular drive, and service see areas-illustrates in miniature his own domestic landscape ideals. (For a plan of the property, page 6.) Rich documentation exists for both the original design of the landscape at the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site and for changes that occurred over time. Plans, photographs, and plantmg lists, when combined with the results of tree coring and archeology, reveal the history of most plants on the site. This wealth of documentation has been compiled into a twovolume cultural landscape report by landscape historian Cynthia Zaitzevsky and the staff of the National Park Service with technical assistance from the Arnold Arboretum. It is on the basis of this documentation that the National Park Service is restoring the landscape to its appearance at the end of the 1920s, when the Olmsted Brothers firm was at the height of its activity and the landscape still retained the overall organization and design created by Olmsted Sr. before his death in 1903. The documentation shows that the landscape changed after 1930 in ways that obscured some of its original qualities. Most notable was the reduction in diversity and numbers of shrubs. Volunteer trees, primarily Norway and Japanese maples (Acer platanoides and A. palmatum), altered the canopy and the site's spatial organization, while growth in all trees and shrubs altered sun and shade conditions and reduced available growing space. Where seven vines had been growing on the building walls and spruce pole fence in 1930, only two (Wisteria smensis and Actinidia arguta) remained in 1991. Later additions, such as the 1960s plantmgs hemlock, of rhododendrons, and yew, had also Restoration of the west slope began trees m October, not overall, some two hundred and shrubs 1994. On the property present m 1930 were removed. altered the original design. At the start of the renovation in 1994, all trees and shrubs not present in 1930-some two hundred plants-were removed, and many of the 28 remaining plants were pruned to greatly increase sunlight penetration. Organic compost was added to the soil to overcome years of depletion in a landscape dominated by exposed bedrock. An above-ground, seasonal nutrient irrigation system-a field pipe buried a few inches under leaf mulch with spigots at every Competition Between Old and New Plants Over the years, root space had also become limited, and the numbers of plants to be reintroduced is so voluminous (66 trees, 632 shrubs, 129 vines, and 2,875 herbaceous plants), that analysis of available space and sunlight required. In some instances, the restoration required either pruning or removing existing shrubs, such as the Japanese yew. In other locations, the design's intended effect was achieved by reducing the numbers of plants from that indicated on historic plans. This was the case was careful fifty feet-was installed around the site periphery for watering new plantings. Olmsted's planting designs were typically lush and diverse in species. The task now underway is to reestablish the plants present in the late 1920s but since lost. Rich though the documentation is, it is not definitive, and gaps have had to be filled by informed assumptions. Nor has it been possible to carry out an entirely pure restoration: alterations in planting designs have been required-especially in quantities of plants-to allow for plant growth and to create a sustainable design. Following is an overview of some of the types of problems confronted by the restoration team. Scale with certain shrub massings, such as a group of English weeping yew (Taxus baccata 'Repandens') in the Hollow and a large collection of drooping leucothoe (Leucothoe fontanesiana) and mountam andromeda (Pieris floribunda) along the south lawn. include those native to the Northeast as well as exotic species in cultivation between 1883 and 1930. In any restoration project, locating the exact historic species or cultivar is a difficult task. For example, Salix tristis was identified on a 1923 plan and on the planting order for the Hollow, but the plants seen in historical photographs were not consistent with specimens currently available in commercial nurseries. Since willow species hybridize freely and are typically variable, it is possible that the Salix tristis of the mid-1920s was renamed. Consultation with staff of the Arnold Arboretum and research in published floras of the northeastern United States confirmed that it is now known as Salix humilis or S. humilis var. tristis, a shrub willow native to coastal shores in northern New England. However, it has not yet been located in commercial cultivation, so custom propagation of plants from the wild or from a botanic garden may be required. Availability of Original Plants The woody plant species at Fairsted Many of Fairsted's woody plants have grown dramatically since the landscape was developed between 1883 and 1930. Some of these plants, such as the cucumber magnolia (Magnolia acuminata), blend gracefully into the landscape, while others, especially certain shrubs, have outgrown their location. In the Hollow, which was both heavily planted and limited in space, this problem was especially acute at the start of the restoration. One solution was to lightly prune the rosebay rhododendrons (Rhododendron maximum) to encourage new, vigorous growth and to make space for other shrubs included m the original plans but now absent. The existing yews proved more challenging, especially along the Dudley Street bank. The English yews (Taxus baccata) were heavily pruned to make way for rejuvenated growth within a much smaller area. The upright form of the Japanese yew (T, cuspidata), on the other hand, adapts less well to hard pruning. An especially large specimen (18-foot canopy) was removed and will be replaced with a smaller one. In the rock garden, where space is less constrained, another large Japanese yew was successfully pruned to make room for underplanting without sacrificing its picturesque form. Susceptibility of Old Plants to Disease or Other Problems The goal of the restoration of the Olmsted National Historic Site is to reestablish an example of Olmsted's rich planting design with a high degree of historical accuracy. Especially important are certain individual trees and shrubs that are crucial to the overall design. For this reason-and because the level of maintenance 29 The planting plan for the restoration of the Hollow and part of the front dnve at Famsted is based on many historic plans, plantmg hsts, and photographs, as well as surmvmg plants. Plants and their quantities are Common boxwood (Buxus sempervmensJ 1 Native barberry (Berbens vulgams) 1 Rock (Cotoneaster homzontahsJ quince (Cydoma oblonga) 4 Downy hawthorn (Crataegus molhs) 1 cotoneaster 14 Common Scarlet fmethorn (Pyracantha coccmeaJ 1 Red oak (Quercus rubra) 1 Rosebay rhododendron (Rhododendron maximum) 1 Schhppenbach rhododendron (Rhododendron schhppenbachmJ 2 Dwarf bush honeysuckle (Diervilla IomceraJ 26 Bush honeysuckle (Diermlla sessifohaJ 5 Shrub willow (Sahx tmstisJ 39 Common hlac (Syrmga vulgans) 2 Winged euonymus (Euonymus alata) Wintercreeper euonymus var. radicans) 74 6 (Euonymus fortunel Enghsh yew (Taxus baccata) 5 English weeping yew (Taxus baccata 'Repandens') 11 I Chinese ~umper (Juniperus chinensis) 4 Common juniper (Juniperus communis) 5 Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) 5 Tuhp tree Cucumber (Lmodendron tuhpiferaJ 1 magnolia (Magnoha acummataJ 1 (Taxus canadensis) 16 Japanese yew 'Capitata' (Taxus cuspidata 'Capitata') 3 Japanese yew 'Nana' (Taxus cuspidata 'Nana') 7 Yellowroot (Xanthorhiza simphcissimaJ 25 Canadian yew The Hollow in its present state of restoratson Plants not present m 1930 have been removed and some of the missing ones have been replaced. The plantmg m this small garden was enhanced m the mid-1920s to create, as Hans Koehler wrote to Fredenck Law Olmsted, Jr, \"a place that we should be proud to take chents mto, and a place of mterest to and for study by the men m the office. \" will be very high-the restoration will include species with higher susceptibility to pests and diseases than would be acceptable where the historical integrity of the woody plants is less example, to ensure consistency original landscape, the American elm from the northern edge of the circular missing drive will be replaced with another American elm in spite of its susceptibility to Dutch elm disease. Similarly, the white ash (Fraxinus americana) that was originally located east of the rock garden will be replaced in kind despite the species' vulnerability to rust, borers, and ash yellows. Like the American elm, this tree will be carefully monitored; if the replacements do not prove viable, the decision to replace these individuals with the original species will important. with the For the clapboard building walls, which must be preserved as well. The solution is a trellis system constructed of spiraled steel strapping that provides a substrate for the twining vines (Wisteria and Actinidia). Snap hooks allow for the vines to be lifted away from the house when repair work or painting is required. The trellis thus provides sufficient distance between the wood facade and plant material to allow for air circulation, thereby minimizing moisture damage. Other vines that will be replaced on the arch and fence as well as the buildings are wintercreeper euonymus (Euonymus fortuneii var. radicans), Dutchman's pipe (Aristolochia macrophylla), Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus qumquefolia), and English ivy (Hedera helix). be reevaluated. Landscape vs Architecture Vines presented one of the most challenging aspects of the restoration. Olmsted covered all structures with a profusion of climbing plant material. This constitutes an essential feature of the site's historic character, but it also damages Planning for the Replacement of Significant Plants Several of the plants at Fairsted are characterdefining features of great historical significance. First and foremost, because of its association - with Olmsted as well as its great age, is the American elm on the south lawn. Already a 31 large tree when Olmsted acquired the property, he planned the entire landscape around it. Other plants on the site are significant for their horticultural characteristics. Plants such as these that are in decline or potentially unavailable for that would be difficult toration to duplicate in most res- projects. An important byproduct will replacement at are being vegetatively propagated the Arnold Arboretum. Cuttings or grafts were propagated at the Dana Greenhouses and are kept in a special nursery to grow until a replacement is needed. be the reports published by the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation on the methods and techniques that have been developed for this project. But in the end, perhaps the most valuable result-for both interested professionals and casual visitors alike-mll be the reestablishment of a living example of Olmsted's principles of planting design. Restoring Fairsted's landscape with an exactiLauren Meier is a historical landscape architect with the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation of the tude that can communicate the design principles of the Olmsted firms has required the combined efforts of historians, landscape architects, taxonomists, horticulturists, and grounds staff. A wealth of historical documentation together with a very high level of technical expertise has permitted an attention to detail National Park Service, which is based at Fairsted. This article is adapted from her contribution to A Forum on Vegetation Management for Histonc Sites, to be pubhshed m 1997 by the Arnold Arboretum and the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation of the National Park Service. drawing and photograph illustrate the trellis system that was developed at Famsted to support the twming Wisteria smensis and Actinidia arguta. Constructed of spiraled steel strappmg, snap hooks permit the vmes to be lifted away from the house for mamtenance. The vmes "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden-Rain Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25160","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060856d.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Santamour Jr., Frank S.; Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"'Rose Lantern': A New Cultivar of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden-Rain Tree Frank S. Santamour, jr., and Stephen A. Spongberg Modern techniques of molecular biology can be a valuable tool in unravelling the confusion that occasionally surrounds important horticultural plants. The discovery of a new cultivar sometimes involves a degree of serendipity, particularly when one has known the plant in question for many years and has assumed that it was correctly identified when it was received. These circumstances certainly apply to the situation recounted here, and we hope that this article will help to resolve any confusion that may have arisen surrounding two very promment trees growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. On October 7, 1994, the senior author (FSS, Jr.) was visiting the Arnold Arboretum, and the junior author (SAS) was pleased to be able to accompany his colleague from the United States National Arboretum through the Arboretum's collections and to help locate plants of particular interest. Two accessions of Koelreuteria paniculata Laxmann were pointed out, along with plants of the same species of a somewhat smaller stature that had been grown from seed collected in Korea in 1977 by Spongberg and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. (Spongberg, 1978). While the plants of Korean provenance were of interest because of their habit, the senior author was truly astonished by the two older accessions (AA 577-66 and 771-68), which were labeled as the cultivar 'September'. Knowing this cultivar only from the Arboretum accessions, the junior author was likewise surprised to hear that the Arboretum plants differed from the true 'September' by virtue of their rosy-red capsules. He wondered how this could possibly be, particularly since the older accession had been received from the National Arboretum, the institution that had helped to make 'September' widely available in the mid-1960s. The explanation requires that we start at the beginning and trace the history of Koelreuteria paniculata 'September' as well as the \"discovery\" of 'Rose Lantern', the cultivar name we have chosen for the two Arnold Arboretum trees. Between August 25th and 27th of 1958, the late Joseph C. McDaniel of the University of Illinois' Department of Horticulture, attended a meeting of the American Institute of Biological Sciences on the campus of Indiana University in Bloomington. While there, he was surprised to see two mature trees of Koelreuteria m full flower so late m the growing season: most golden-rain trees flower in late June and early July, and the capsules on their large infructescences have already developed by mid-August. McDaniel continued to observe these trees for several years and found that they consistently flowered from late August into early September. Seeds from these trees were subsequently distributed to several attendees at the 1960 meetmg of the International Plant Propagators Society, Eastern Region. In addition, more on Decem- ber 5, 1960, seeds of the floriferous of the two trees were supplied to Sylvester G. March at the National Arboretum, where the seed lot was given the accession number NA 16548. Several seedlings of this accession were planted in a nursery at the National Arboretum in 1961. The first of these plants flowered and fruited in 1965, and all of the them flowered in 1966; in both years none flowered earlier than August 20. In 1966, according to National Arboretum records, six seed-grown plants of this accession were growing in the nursery, ranging between nine and eleven feet in height. The records show that the plants varied in the size of their capsules, but no other attributes were recorded, and none 33 The large mflorescences of the golden-ram tree produce hundreds of bmght yellow flowers and enhven any landscape m which the tree is planted. Normally, the trees flower m late June and July, but the cultivars 'September' and 'Rose Lantern' postpone their floral display until late August and early September when few other trees are in flower. been given a cultivar name. letter to March dated January 28, 1966, Professor McDaniel suggested that these trees, as well as the parent trees at the University of Indiana, might conform to Koelreuteria apiculata Rehder & Wilson. In his response that September, March noted that Frederick G. Meyer of the National Arboretum staff believed that the trees were merely late-flowering variants of K. paniculata. Indeed, in his subsequent monograph of the genus, Meyer (1976) placed both the specific and varietal designations of apiculata in the synonymy of K. paniculata. The late Donald Wyman, then Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum, had received a carbon copy of McDaniel's 1966 letter to March, and in February of that year he wrote to March requesting seeds or seedlings from the National Arboretum trees for the Arnold Arboretum col- has ever In a lections. Since neither seeds nor seedlings were available, March offered root cuttings for propagation. In his typical fashion, Wyman penned his response to this offer on the original letter and returned it to March, commenting, \"We can certainly try root cuttings, if you can spare them, but don't hurt the tree.\" Sixteen root pieces from one or more of the six seed-grown plants at the National Arboretum (NA 16548) were subsequently sent to Wyman on March 21. At the Arnold Arboretum these materials were accessioned as \"K. pamculata-Special,\" and given accession number AA 577-66. In 1967 McDaniel and March described and proposed the cultivar name 'September' for the most floriferous of the two late-flowering trees growing at the University of Indiana, which by that time was being propagated by softwood cuttings. This cultivar name was duly registered 34 with the Arnold Arboretum (which at that time served as International Registration Authority for cultivar names of otherwise unassigned woody genera), and a fruiting specimen collected from the Indiana tree on September 28, 1966, was deposited in the Arboretum's Jamaica Plain herbarium to document the plant to which this cultivar name was applied. It was not until November, 1968, that the National Arboretum received a plant of 'September' vegetatively propagated from the University of Indiana original. The four-inch-tall rooted cutting that Professor McDaniel sent was accessioned as NA 31132. Four additional individuals of 'September' were subsequently incorporated into the National Arboretum's collections, but accession records for these plants are missing. Meanwhile, only a single plant resulted at the Arnold Arboretum from the sixteen root pieces that had been received from the National Arboretum and accessioned under number AA 577-66. And once McDaniel and March had published the cultivar name 'September', the assumption was made that the Arnold Arboretum's solitary plant represented this clone. Consequently, its name in the Arboretum's records was changed from \"Special\" to 'September' in 1969, and the sole representative was planted adjacent to other is native to areas south of the 30th in China and is not as cold hardy as K. parallel paniculata. In 1984 the National Arboretum collections included two thirty-foot trees of K. ter species bipinnata (NA 34048) as well as four smaller specimens (NA 44305Both of these accessions had been received from the Los Angeles State and County Arboretum in Arcadia, California, in 1972 and 1980, respectively, and the trees of the older accession were vigorous plants with upright crowns. Meyer (1976) had described the color of the capsules of K. bipinnata as \"rosepurple while young,\" and in some years the fruiting display on the National Arboretum golden-rain trees in a prominent position along Meadow Road, across from the Cotinus and Acer collections. One additional plant, propagated in 1968 as a rooted softwood cutting from AA 577-66 and given accession number AA 77168, was incorporated into the Arboretum's collections in another prominent location, on the edge of Bussey Hill Road where the birch and cherry collections merge. Both of these trees begin flowering during the last weeks of August and continue to please visitors to the Arboretum with their bright yellow floral display into the month of September, followed by their equally handsome display of reddish pink capsules into October and November. (The capsules can be seen on the inside front cover.) The next sequence of events began in 1984, when the senior author, along with his colleague at the National Arboretum, Alice J. McArdle, attempted to hybridize Koelreuteria paniculata and K. bipinnata Franchet. The lat- truly spectacular. goal of the interspecific hybridization program was to combine the upright growth habit and reddish capsule color of Koelreuteria bipinnata with the cold hardiness of K. paniculata. Because K. bipinnata normally flowers in late August and early September, K. paniculata 'September'-in flower during the same period-was the obvious choice for the paniculata parent in the hybridization expemments. Hybrids between the two species were indeed obtained, and McArdle and Santamour (1987) were able to verify the hybrid status of the seedlings using a process known as gel electrophoresis on isoperoxidase enzymes extracted from tissue at the base of leaf petioles. This process is similar to the DNA analysis of human tissue that is increasingly used in today's forensic laboratories. The researchers analyzed hundreds of hybrid plants and found only three major anodal peroxidase bands-\"A,\" \"B,\" and \"C.\" The enzyme profile of 'September' proved to be \"AC,\" while that of all six plants of K. bipinnata used in the hybridization program trees was The was \"B.\" Twelve of the progeny from crossing 'September' as the seed parent with K. bipinnata as the pollen parent were identified as \"true\" hybrids inasmuch as they exhibited enzyme patterns of either \"AB\" or \"BC,\" with the \"B\" band inherited from K. bipinnata and either the \"A\" or \"C\" band coming from K. paniculata. Further confirmation came from later studies of isoperoxidases in cambial tissue (Santamour, unpublished), which yielded enzyme banding patterns identical with those obtained earlier from petiolar tissue. The interspecific hybrids, 35 The oldest plant of Koelreuteria pamculata Rose Lantern' m the Arnold Arboretum grows along Meadow Road across from the Cotinus and Acer collections. As can be seen m this photograph, it has a rounded habit. It measured 34 feet m height with a crown spread of 40 feet m july of 1996. Note that the K. paniculata on the left is m frmt while 'Rose Lantern' rs m flower. planted at the United States Department of Agriculture Station at Glenn Dale, Maryland, in 1986, have exhibited hybrid vigor in their growth rate (they were twice as tall as equalage seedlings of the parent species in 1994), yet unfortunately, the hoped-for capsule color had not been captured. was because of the senior author's failed attempts to produce a hardy, red-fruited plant of the golden-rain tree through hybridization of the normally red-fruited Koelreuteria bipinnata with K. paniculata that he was literally dumbfounded when he visited the Arnold Arboretum in the fall of 1994. For there, growing along Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, were two golden-rain trees with rosy-red capsules glowing like Japanese or Chinese lanterns in the October sunshine-the very plants he had hoped to syn- It thesize through hybridization, except that the Arnold Arboretum trees exhibit a rounded rather than an upright growth habit. And both of these trees, as explained above, were labeled as representing the cultivar 'September'. Not convinced of their identity, the senior author collected material from the younger tree (AA 771-68) for enzyme analysis. There was the outside possibility that these Arnold Arboretum trees did indeed represent 'September', and that geographic location and climatic differences between Boston and Washington, DC, were responsible for the development of their rosyred capsules, which are most highly colored on the surfaces exposed to the sun. (This phenomenon is a typical response to sunlight of anthocyanin pigments, which are frequently responsible for imparting a red coloration in plant tissues and structures.) 36 electrophoretic analyses of cambial tisconfirmed that the oldest National Arboretum specimen of 'September' (NA 31132) carried the enzyme phenotype \"AC,\" as did the other four trees known as 'September' at the National Arboretum, the question became: Did the Arnold Arboretum tree have the same Since sue and would have been the easiest tree from which to collect root pieces. However, tree number 6, like all the others, produces green trees immature enzyme profile? No! It produced only one enzyme band in electrophoretic analysis, the \"A\" band. The six unnamed seed-grown plants at the National Arboretum accessioned as NA 16548-the plants from which the root pieces the Arnold Arboretum originatedshowed three enzymatic profiles: two plants with \"A,\" two plants with \"C,\" and two plants with \"AC.\" Further analysis of stem cambium of Arnold Arboretum accession AA 577-66 and root cambium of both AA 577-66 and AA 771-68 confirmed the \"A\" enzyme phenotype for both Arnold Arboretum trees. It seems reasonable to assume that the root pieces of NA 16548 sent to the Arnold Arboretum in 1966 were taken from tree number 6, at the end of the National Arboretum's nursery row, since it has the same enzyme profile (\"A\") as the Arnold Arboretum sent to for the rosy-red the Arnold Arboretum trees is that a rare somatic mutation-a genetic change, in this instance affecting capsule color-occurred during the process of bud initiation on the root piece that developed into the original Arnold Arboretum tree. This seems quite possible in view of the fact that shoot meristems produced by roots normally have a different structure from those produced by stems (Peterson, 1975). The distinctive coloration of the Arnold Arboretum's trees is the attribute on which we base the naming of this genotype as a distinct cultivar. The name 'Rose Lantern'-given because the papery rosy-red capsules look like miniature Japanese lanterns-has been submitted to the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, which now serves as the International Registration Authority for otherwise unassigned woody genera, and specimens from both trees have been deposited in the Arboretum's Jamaica Plain one The capsules. likely explanation capsules on Size and Shape The cultivar 'September' is not a well-formed or robust plant, its only special virtue being its late flowering period. In October of 1994, measurements were made of all the specimens at the National Arboretum that had been derived from the University of Indiana original. By then, the tree labelled 'September', received in 1968 as a propagated plant (NA 31132), was 26 years old. It measured 16.7 feet m height, with a crown spread of approximately 20 feet, and its trunk was 7 inches in diameter at one foot above ground level. According to the Royal Horticultural Society's color chart, its immature fruit capsules are a yellow-green, ranging from RHS 145-B to 150-C. At the same time, the six trees grown from seeds of the original Indiana tree-received at the National Arboretum m 1960 (NA 16548)-ranged in height from 34 to 39 feet, with trunk diameters measuring from .5 to 14.6 inches. Smce these trees are growing in a short nursery row, crown spread was difficult to measure, but the trees at either end averaged a 39-foot spread. The color of the immature capsules was similar to that of 'September'. The two Arnold Arboretum trees, now christened 'Rose Lantern', are also of rounded habit. The older of the two trees (AA 577-66) has a single trunk with a diameter of 1 foot 7 inches at one foot above ground level, but at 2 feet 6 inches the trunk diverges into three mam limbs. Its crown spread measures 40 feet, and the tree is 34 feet in height at thirty years of age. The younger tree (AA 771-68) is 28 feet in height with a crown spread of 35 feet. It has three trunks growing from the base, with diameters at one foot above ground level of 5.5, 10, and 11inches. Both of these individuals, like Koelreuteria paniculata 'September', flower at the end of August and into the first weeks of September, but their immature capsules are a decided rosy-red (RHS 180-A). 37 herbarium. On a cautionary note, however, it should be kept in mind that the plant we are now calling 'Rose Lantern' has been growing on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum under the name 'September' since 1969, and that propagation material has been shared with growers under that name. Depending on the source of propagation material, then, some of the plants being sold as 'September' could, in fact, be the newly named cultivar 'Rose Lantern'. The pink immature fruit capsules would be the telltale trait. The next question that arises concerns the most efficient and effective way to propagate the two Arnold Arboretum trees to ensure that their flowering and fruiting attributes are maintained in subsequent progeny. More than likely, a high percentage of the seedlings arising from selfpollination of the two trees would produce rosyred capsules. We can assume for simplicity's sake that there is one gene (with two alleles) for fruit color. Any mutation would likely occur m only one allele, and even though that mutation might be dominant-as the red pigmentation appears to be-the plant would be heterozygous at that locus (that is, with both the dominant and recessive alleles present). Self-pollination would then result in a seedling population that is 25 percent homozygous red (two dominant alleles), 50 percent heterozygous red, and 25 per- only in low percentages. To date, commercial production of the cultivar 'September', or 'Rose Lantern', is done mamly by midsummer budding on seedlings of K. paniculata. Currently, propagation trials of Koelreuteria paniculata 'Rose Lantern' are underway at the Arnold Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses using both root and softwood cuttings. In the meantime, budwood and scions of 'Rose Lantern' are scheduled for distribution to commercial nurserymen and sister institutions via \"PIPD,\" the Arboretum's Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program (Tripp, 1995). We hope that this late-flowering, rosy-red fruited variant of the golden-rain tree will gain the popularity in the horticultural marketplace we feel it deserves, and that those now growing 'Rose Lantern' under the misapprehension that it is 'September' will note the distinction between the two late-flowering cultivars. Literature Cited - McArdle, A. J., and F. S. Santamour, Jr. 1987. Isozyme verification of hybrids in Koelreuteria HortScience 22: 649-650. McDaniel, J. C., and S. G. March. 1967. Koelreutema paniculata 'September'-a new cultivar. Amencan Horticultural Magazme 46: 95, 96. the Arnold Arbo- Meyer, F. G. 1976. A revision of the genus Koelreutena (Sapindaceae). Journal of retum 57: 129-166. homozygous green (two recessive alleles). Seedling populations from the Arnold Arboretum's trees should obviously be grown to sexual maturity to test this hypothesis. Such a trial would also provide the opportunity for further selection of outstanding plants from within these populations and their naming and introcent Peterson, R development of buds. The development and function of roots Ed. J. G. Torrey and D. T. Clarkson. London: Academic Press, 125-161. root L. 1975. The initiation and Royal Horticultural Society. London. 1966. R H. S Colour Chart. duction into the horticultural trade. However, because of the possibilities outlined above, seed propagation of 'Rose Lantern' would not necessarily guarantee late-flowering and rosy-red fruited trees. Ideally, Koelreuteria paniculata 'Rose Lantern' would be vegetatively propagated by rooting stem cuttings. However, this has proved to be a difficult procedure, typically successful Spongberg, Tripp, S. A. 1978. Korean Adventure Arnoldia 38' 132-152 K. 1995. Arnold Arboretum mtroduces new distribution program. Amencan Nurseryman 182(12): 14. Frank S. Santamour, Jr., is Research Geneticist at the U.S. National Arboretum; Stephen A. Spongberg is Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dugout Canoes, Arrow Poisons, and the Cure for Cancer: Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":38,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25156","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060bb26.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Forrest, Todd","article_content":"Dugout Canoes, Arrow Poisons, and the Cancer: Book Review Todd Forrest Cure for Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline. Edited by Richard Evans Schultes & Siri von Reis. Dioscorides Press\/Timber Press, 1995. Hardcover, 414 pages, $49.95 Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany. Michael J. Balick & Paul Alan Cox. Scientific American Press, 1996. Hardcover, 228 pages, $32.95 occasionally give tours of the Arboretum friends and relatives who are not entirely convinced that plants are either interesting or relevant, I have developed a two-part strategy for persuading them of the joys of botany. The first part of the strategy is an appeal at the visceral level. I have my guests inhale the fragrance of a Magnolia tripetala flower, lick the inner bark of a Betula lenta, smff a root from a Sassafras albidum sucker, or eat the fruits from Amelanchier laevis, Actinidia arguta, or Vaccinium corymbosum. If these gastronomic and olfactory treats fail to pique their interest, I switch to a topic that seems to hold universal appeal: the human uses, both traditional and modern, of the plants we grow. This part of the strategy is almost always successful-I've had visitors shrug impatiently at a Cornus florida in full bloom only to light up with intense curiosity when I explain that the wood of this species was once used to make wheels for roller skates and shuttles for mdustrial looms. The anthropocentrism that guarantees my success on Arboretum tours might account for the recent rise in the mainstream popularity of ethnobotany, a science that focuses on the role of plants in human societies. Ethnobotanists employ the observational techniques of anthropology and the analytical tools of botany and chemistry with the broad aim of understanding both the people and plants they study. Smce Since I to unknown plants and little-studied culfound in the nonindustrialized regions of the world, ethnobotany often entails travel to exotic destinations far away from the world's largest cities, creating an aura of adventurous romance that appeals to those of us who missed out on the Age of Discovery. This romantic view of the science inspired a movie about an ethnobotanist working in the field (Medicine Man, starring Sean Connery), but it is not just desire to experience the exotic or nostalgia for a simpler way of life that motivates real ethnobotanists in their work. In addition to expanding our knowledge of people and plants, the information they accumulate might eventually provide solutions to some of the world's most vexing health problems and aid in the preservation of rapidly disappearing traditions. Plants, People, and Culture: The Science of Ethnobotany, written by Michael J. Balick and Paul Alan Cox, and Ethnobotany: The Evolution of a Discipline, edited by Richard Evans Schultes and Siri von Reis, discuss ethnobotany's growth and change from the simple cataloging of useful plants to a complex, multidisciplinary science. In their wellillustrated and clearly written text, Balick and Cox illuminate a general introduction to ethnobotany with examples of their own fieldwork and some classic stories of plant research and discovery. Schultes and von Reis have edited a collection of somewhat technical essays by leading ethnobotanists and professionals from the many fields that overlap within the science, rangmg from chemist Albert Hoffman to classicist Carl Ruck. On their own, each of these books presents a different image of ethnobotany ; together they give a thorough and engaging view of this fascinating and continually evolving science. most tures are 39 As a person who is deeply interested in plants but often impatient with stolid academic prose, I was pleasantly surprised by the readability of Plants, People, and Culture. Balick and Cox have written their text for a broad audience without presupposing much knowledge of either botany or anthropology. The result is a lucid, beautifully illustrated tour of historical and current ethnobotanical research. Instead of simply describing the science, the authors let plants and people tell the story. Each chapter focuses on a different way people use plants (as medicines, building materials, food, spiritual aids) and gives examples of these uses from all over the world. Balick and Cox describe the manufacture of arrow poison, the use of plantbased hallucinogens, the domestication of some of our most important food crops, the construction of boats, and many other interesting and unusual uses of plants. These detailed descriptions are infused with the authors' obvious enthusiasm for their field, making reading the book seem like participating in an ethnobotanical expedition. While Plants, People, and Culture is informative and entertaining, it is also something of a polemic. Balick and Cox argue that the issues ethnobotanists tackle are relevant to all of us. Using the stories of the discovery of reserpine, digitoxin, quinine, and vmblastine-drugs developed from plants using clues obtained from ethnobotamcal research-they show that even in these days of gene-splicing and chemical engineering, plants still have the potential to provide us with new cures. The authors claim that because of their botanical training, their complete immersion in the cultures they study, and their respect for indigenous peoples' knowledge, ethnobotanists are singularly qualified to find these cures. But if ethnobotanists are going to find \"new\" medicines, foods, or building materials, they're going to have to do it quickly. Balick and Cox point out that many of the cultures described in their book exist in places where the environment and therefore the cultures themselves are endangered by development. In some cases, the threat is so immediate that ethnobotanists drop the role of impartial observer and act to preserve both plants and traditional knowledge. Two examples of such efforts come directly from the authors' own research. Residents of the Fijian island of Kabara were known throughout the Pacific for their shipbuilding skills, but as European colonists brought their own ships and technology to the island these skills started to vanish. Ethnobotanists, fearing the complete disappearance of this knowledge, commissioned one of the last skilled boat builders among the Kabara islanders to build a traditional ship, employing dozens of islanders and keeping the ancient industry alive. When people in Falealupo, a village on Savaii Island in Samoa, were faced with selling logging rights to their forest to pay for a new school, Paul Cox and some colleagues, recognizing the cultural and biological importance of the forest, raised money to help pay for the school, saving the land from development. The book ends with the caveat that in order to achieve their goals, ethnobotanists must respect and work closely with the people they study. If Plants, People, and Culture is an engaging overview of ethnobotany, then Ethnobotany: The Evolution of a Discipline is an in-depth analysis of its raisons d'etre. More academic than entertaming, Ethnobotany is divided into sections, each of which includes essays concerning different aspects of ethnobotany written by a variety of social and natural scientists. There are sections on such diverse topics as the history of ethnobotany, the relevance of ethnobotany to anthropology, the contributions ethnobotany has made to medicme and agriculture, and the role of ethnobotany in conservation. Since the book is a collaborative effort, each essay is written in a different style, from Janis Alcorn's pedantic analysis of the philosophy of ethnobotany to Edward Anderson's lively discussion of the role of the liberal arts m the field. As a result, Ethnobotany is an informative, if somewhat arrhythmic, read. It wasn't until 1895 that the term ethnobotany was coined by University of Pennsylvania botanist John Harshberger, but the true beginnings of the science extend much further into the past. According to E. Wade Davis, in its early days ethnobotany was indistinguishable from general botany, involving no more than the description and classification of useful plants. 40 Herbals such as De Materia Medica by Dioscorides, the Codex Badianus of the Aztecs, or the Chinese herbal Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien can be viewed as ethnobotanical texts because they are compilations of traditional knowledge of plant uses. As Europeans started exploring Asia, Africa, and the Americas, ethnobotany became a means of identifying new commodities for import into the West. The spread of corn, tomatoes, tobacco, peppers, and other important plant products was a direct result of this early version of the science. Although they are still concerned with discovering new and useful plants, contemporary ethnobotanists interpret their observations of plant use from a broader perspective that involves not only systematic botany but linguistics, anthropology, and chemistry as well. Weston La Barre, for example, argues that ethnobotanical data have given anthropologists insight into the way cultures obtain and structure their knowledge of the surrounding world. Ethnobotany is no longer simply the description of useful plants or a means of exploitmg of the world's resources: it has become a tool for general cultural interpretation with the goal of recording disappearing ways of life. Articles by Mark Plotkin, Ghillean Prance, and C. Earle Smith discuss how ethnobotanists can aid conservation efforts by creating lists of species to target for protection. Due to the overwhelming diversity of flowering plants, the hope of protecting all plant species from extinction is probably unrealistic. Ethnobotanists can help narrow the field by determining which wild species have the most cultural importance in areas threatened by development. Some of these plants are generally unknown in the West, others are wild populations of important food crops such as sweet potato, corn, and rice that may represent new sources of genes for disease and pest resistance. And, just as Balick and Cox argue in their book, it is clear that in preserving useful plants we aid in the preservation of the cultures that depend on them. Ethnobotany is not written primarily for the layperson with a passing interest in the field, though many of the essays would be of mterest the general reader. I particularly enjoyed the sections titled \"Historical Ethnobotany\" and \"Ethnobotany and Geography,\" but in many cases the book gave me the sense of listening to a panel of experts called in to defend the legitito macy of ethnobotany against skeptical \"hard\" scientists. Part of this effort involves coming up an unambiguous defimtion of the science (and dispelling the notion that ethnobotany is simply a newer form of romantic exploration), but because of the complexity of the issues ethnobotanists address, this task is more difficult than it might seem. Most of the definitions given are some variation of \"the description of the various methods by which local peoples utilize plants\"1 or \"the study of plants in relation to people.\"z In spite of this somewhat defensive tone, the essays in Ethnobotany taken together paint a comprehensive picture of both the long history and broad scope of field. with tell As the ethnobotanists in both of these books us about plant use in indigenous cultures, they also remind us of the debt our society owes to the observational and experimental skills of these cultures. Imagine our society without quinine, morphine, rubber, corn, or chocolate-all m use long before they were \"discovered\" by Europeans. Knowledge of the origins of these essential plant products should convince the reader of the importance of continuing ethnobotanical research. Plants, People, and Culture and Ethnobotany explam the methodology of and ideas behind this research and should appeal to anybody with an interest in plants or anthropology, or even in the history of science. ' Endnotes ~J. O. Kokwaro, \"Ethnobotany m Africa,\" Ethnobotany : The Evolunon of a Discipline, 1995, page 216. z C. B. Heiser, \"The Ethnobotany of Domesticated Plants,\" Ethnobotany 1995, page 200. The Evolunon of a Disclphne, Todd Forrest, former plant recorder at the Arnold Arboretum, is a student at the Yale Graduate School of Forestry. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25161","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add0608926.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum SUM . - , ,~ - 1 .. , 6 1872-1997: Celebrating 125 Years at the Arnold Arboretum Robert E. Cook, Director Nineteen ninety-seven will mark the 125th anniversary of the founding of the Arnold Arboretum. On March 29, 1872, the President and Fellows of Harvard College accepted from the trustees of the estate of James Arnold the gift of the Arnold Endowment to establish a scientific collection of shrubs and trees. It seems like an occasion for a year-long party. The anniversary celebration will be launched this October 18th with the opening of our new permanent exhibit, \"Science in the Pleasure Ground.\" Funded by grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, the exhibit will feature four themes that mark the cultural history of the Arboretum: the design of the landscape; plant collecting around the world; American horticulture; and the conservation of forests at home and abroad. The exhibit will be anchored by an eight-by-sixteen-foot scale model of the Arboretum, complete with detailed vignettes depicting the history of the land and people, funded by a generous gift from Mr. and Mrs. Haying near Center L. Street, I )3 The meadw m flood, March 12, 1936. Fall Plant Sale and Auction on September 21, and a scientific symposium will wrap up the anniversary year in November. While acknowledging our notable past, the 125th anniversary will also provide a wonderful opportunity to enjoy the promise of the future. We hope you will Loms J. Appell, Jr. In spring, 1997, we will further mark the anniversary with the re- lease of our to new Syrznga x cbznen.ru be made lilac introduction, 'Lilac Sunday', cation will follow later in spring. Other celebratory events will include a special exhibit at the New England Spring Flower Show, publication of a special edition of available, appropriately enough, on Lilac Sunday, May 18, 1997. A large garden party to formally honor 125 years of achievement in science and edu- Arnoldaa, summer tours dinary gardens, of extraorand creation of an . anniversary T-shirt and poster. The celebration will continue into the fall with our traditional join us. Meyer Gift to Support Children's Education Henry and Nod Meyer, longtime friends of the Arnold Arboretum, recently established the Nature Study Fund for City Children with a generous gift that reflects the Meyers' interests in horticulture and children's environmental education. In 1994, the Meyers initiated and funded a project to enable schoolchildren from Chelsea, Program introduces primary schoolchildren to science through a series of field trips to the Arboretum. \"I firmly believe that the Arboretum is an ideal location for young people to learn firsthand their responsibility in preserving their and our environment,\" says est is Henry Meyer. \"My primary interin helping the younger stuto are still positive inputs.\" The gift to the endowment dents while their minds open Massachusetts, to participate in the Field Studies Program at the Arboretum. The Field Studies Meyers' will support ongoing programs in children's education with prefergiven to primary schoolchildren from Chelsea. Nod Meyer has been actively involved with the Arboretum for over 20 years. An avid horticulturist, she has collected plant material from around the world and is best known at the Arboretum for her ongoing volunteer work at the Dana Greenhouses. Nod is currently a member of the Visiting Committee and the Fall Plant Sale Committee. ence Wherever You Go, There You Are: The New Orientation System The ____ qualities that make the Arboretum so beautiful can also make it hard to navigate. First-time visitors can be quickly confounded by the sinuous road and path system, the changes in topography ranging from a low-lying marsh to one of the highest points in Boston, and the collection of 15,000 curated trees and shrubs interspersed with native woodland. With this in mind, the Arboretum's Orientation Committee hired Clifford Selbert Design of Cambridge to design a wayfinding system that will meet the needs of both new and experienced visitors to the grounds. It will be in place this fall. Early in the design process, director Bob Cook challenged the design team to create an orientation system that would minimize the intrusion of signs into the landscape. To paraphrase him, \"you shouldn't see the signs until you need them.\" This aesthetic consideration resulted in a dual orientation system that uses \"you are here\" maps combined with markers at intervals of one-eighth mile. The maps will be located at each entrance gate and will show visitors where they are, what they can see, and how they can use the orientation system. Within the Arboretum, milestone markers will be embedded at ground level along the main road from the start at the Hunnewell Building to its end at Peters Hill. Each marker gives the distance to these two destinations. This system has a real advantage for the visitor you can leave the road to explore for plants, return to a marker at the road, and know exactly where you are relative to the Hunnewell Building or Peters Hill. At the same time, this new system preserves the visual serenity and naturalness that makes the Arboretum landscape an island of calm in a visually chaotic city. ~ Kim Tripp Goes to Smith Peter Del \"It is that mind-boggling wealth of plants that brings someone like myself to the Arnold Arboretum.\" With these College Tredici, Director of Living Collections Pam Thompson: Harvard Hero . words, written in Feb- ruary 1994, Kim Tripp announced her arrival. And now, exactly two- and-a-half years and countless memories later, Kim is leaving us for the greener pastures of the Connecticut River valley. Dr. Tripp has recently begun work as Director of the Smith College Botanic Garden in Northampton, Massachusetts, where she will oversee the operations of the botanic garden, teach a year-long horticulture course to undergraduates, and conduct and supervise research as a faculty member in the Department of Biological Sciences. As a Putnam Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, Kim has been a whirlwind of activity: lings, evaluating plants, teaching courses, giving lectures, and writing articles for Arnoldra-all the while maintaining an active research program on the subjects of resource allocation in woody plants as it affects their performance in landscape situations; plant propagation; and woody plant evaluation. The silver lining to her leaving that she has become so intiwith the Arnold Arboretum that she cannot really leave. In a special agreement worked out with Smith College, Kim will continue her collaboration with us as a research fellow. For this purpose, the Dana Greenhouses will serve as the base of operations for her ongoing research on propagation and resource allocation With this arrangement in place, we can say that Kim isn't really leaving, she's lust making a is In June the staff at the Arboretum mately entwined taking photographs, leading tours, rooting cuttings, measuring seed- slightly longer commute. Pam Thompson, coordinator of adult education programs, for her designation as a Harvard Hero in recognition of her exemplary service to Harvard. Two years ago Harvard's Vice President for Administration, Sally Zeckhauser, to whom the director of the Arboretum reports, created an employee recognition program that has informally come to be known as Harvard Heroes, after the theme song played at the first annual ceremony. The program allows each of the units managed by Mrs. Zeckhauser to recognize individuals whose service has demonstrated exceptional quality and commitment. In a celebration that included family and friends, Pam was cited for managing the program's day-to-day operations with unusual skill and creatmty-as well as with her usual good cheer. congratulated Living Collections Memorial Fund to a growing number of inquiries about planting memorial trees on the grounds, the Arboretum recently established the Living Collections Memorial Fund. Gifts to In response Cedrus libani stenacoma at the Arboretum. the Living Collections Memorial Fund in memory of family and friends support the ongoing maintenance and curation of our magnificent landscape and unique collections of trees, shrubs, and vines. While memorializing specific trees is incompatible with the scientific mission of the Arboretum, gifts made to this fund support the annual spring planting of trees that represent new additions to the collections or repropagations of rare plants or of plants in decline. Gifts to this fund support not only the scientific mission of the Arboretum, but also the goal of maintaining an urban landscape open to the public, free of charge. For information about memorial gifts and the Living Collections Memorial Fund, contact Lisa M. Hastings, Senior Development Officer, at 617\/524-1718 x 145. Summer Interns of 1996 This year's interns worked in four areas-science education, greenhouse and nursery, mapping and labeling, and grounds maintenance. Major tasks included digging plants in the nursery and planting them on the grounds. Interns also helped prune post-drought deadwood and clean up the rockery. Kneeling at left is Justin Grigg; counterclockwise from center left are Stacy Senflug, Nicole Sullivan, Ann Cook, Lauren Buckland, Kenneth Bray, Seth Cain, Chris McFadden, Dana Doyle, Jill Horton, Leslie Marty, Kyle Port, Jeffrey Rowan, Kristin McDonnell. PIPD Workshop Tom Ward, greenhouse manager, standing third from right, led participants of the first annual Subscribers' Propagation Workshop on an early-summer tour of the Arboretum's shrubs. is part of the Arboretum's new Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program for professional and commercial horticulturists. The robust plant behind them is Viburnum sargentii 'Flavum', an 1872 introduction, that survived last year's drought very well. The workshop Arboretum Cleanup Luis Colon and Bruce Munch of the Arboretum grounds staff worked with 200 energetic City Year corps members who gave a day's service this past June to clean up the newly acquired Stony Brook Marsh. Thanks are due to them and to the Arnold Arboretum Committee for coordinating the effort. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23507","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060816e.jpg","title":"1996-56-spring","volume":56,"issue_number":2,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cornelian Cherry: From the Shores of Ancient Greece","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25150","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060ab6d.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Reich, Lee","article_content":"Cornelian Cherry From the Shores of Ancient Greece Lee Reich In late March at the Arnold Arboretum the signs of spring are few and subtle. Cornus mas is one of the first woody plants to bring color back to the landscape. A first-class ornamental, it offers a graceful habit, attractively mottled bark, soft yellow flowers, and-not least-fruits. One summer day as I happened upon and ate cornelian cherries from a tree in New \/; York City's Central Park, I had to assure a concerned passerby that I was not experimenting with a possibly poisonous new food. Instead, I was partaking of a fruit that has been enjoyed by humankind for the past seven thousand years. At a site in northern Greece, early Neolithic peoples left remains of meals that included cornelian cherry along with einkorn wheat, barley, lentils, and peas. Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas) was well known to the ancient Greeks and Romans, and references to the plant abound in their literature. Speaking of the Golden Age in ' ' ~ Cornus mas in frmt, drawn by V. Arlein. 3 Metamorphosls, Ovid wrote: And Earth, untroubled, or plowshare, brought forth all That men had need for, and those men were happy Gathering berries from the mountam sides, Cornel cherries, or blackcaps, and edible acorns. The plant was grown in monastery gardens of continental Europe through the Middle Ages and was introduced to Britain about the sixteenth century. The great herbalist Gerard wrote in 1597 that \"there be sundry trees of the cornel m the gardens of such as love rare and dainty plants, whereof I have a tree or two m my garden.\" By the eighteenth century, the plant was common in English gardens, where it was grown for its fruits, sometimes called cornel Unharmed by hoe cherry-like in size and appearance: oval, fireengine red, with a single, elongated stone. Even the flavor is akin to that of a cherry, a tart cherry, somewhat austere when the fruit first colors, but developing sweetness and aroma with full ripeness. Botanically, cornelian cherry is a species of dogwood, unrelated to grocers' cherries. The word \"cornehan\" refers to the similarity in color of the fruit to cornelian (or carnelian) quartz, which has a waxy lustre and a deep red, reddish-white, or flesh red color. \/Carnis is Latin for flesh.)\/ plums. The fruit was familar even enough European markets to be found in up to the end of the nineteenth century. Cornelian cherries were especially popular in France and in Germany, and the fruit was reputedly a favorite with children. Cornelian cherry is native to regions of eastern Europe and western Asia, and in certain parts of these regions it is appreciated for its fruit even today. Baskets of klzilcik, as the Turks call the fruit, are found in markets in Istanbul. Cornelian cherry is a backyard tree m Moldavia, Caucasia, Crimea, and the Ukrame. Although it is not native to the Ukraine, the plant reached that region about nine centuries ago and became established in monastery gardens. A former monastery garden (now a botanical garden) near Kiev has trees 150 to 200 years old that still bear regular crops of fruit. In spite of the long history of use in some regions of the world, and the recognition of superior fruiting types, just about all cornelian cherry plants that are cultivated are from seedlings rather than from more reliable clones. Over most of Europe and North America today, cornelian cherry is admired solely (for no apparent reason) as an ornamental plant. Even so, the bright fruits do not go unnoticed as they festoon the tree in summer. Fruits generally are Plant Description Cornelian cherry grows to a maximum height of about twenty-five feet, becoming a large shrub or an oval-headed tree, usually branching near the ground. In full sun the branches are largely upright, whereas in shade the branches spread wide, as if to embrace the limited light available. Though the cornelian cherry never grows large, it is a long-lived plant that produces bushels of fruit on into old age. In Arboretum and Fruticetum, John Claudius Loudon wrote that during travels in Germany in 1828, his party: stopped at the gardens of the ancient Chateau of Maskirch; and m a small enclosure close to the chateau, we found a labyrinth, the hedge of which consisted entirely of Cornus mas, with standard trees of the same species at regular distances, which were at that time bearing ripe fruit, which we tasted, and found of very good flavour. Later m the same year, we were shown, in the grounds of the Castle of Heidelberg, the famous cornelian cherry trees which were planted there m 1650. Cornelian cherry has the pattern of leaf attachment and leaf venation characteristic of other members of the dogwood genus. Leaves oppose each other at each node, in contrast to most other trees, on which leaves alternate along the stem. The major veins of a dogwood leaf trace out almost to the leaf margin, then join together and parallel the margin to the leaf's apex. The leaves are satiny green in summer, often turning mahogany red in the fall. (Fall leaf color is not wholly reliable, however, for with Cornus mas `Flava' can be seen m Its mature form multistemmed speclmen stands twenty feet high mth at a the Arnold Arboretum near Meadow Road. This spread of equal dimensions. clones and in some climates-probably parts of the plant's range-leaves eventually drop to the ground while still green.)( In winter, the plant is notable from a distance for its rounded form. Step a bit closer to appreciate the bark, flaking off in muted shades of tan and gray. And get right up to the plant to see the distinctive flower buds, perched atop short some warmer previous west the nodes of branches that grew the season, and on spurs of older wood. Flowers appear on leafless branches early in the season, blooming with the \"first breath of stalks at wind\" (in Italy, at least, according to Pliny, in the first century A.D.) or just before forsythia. Individual flowers are tiny, but are born in such profusion that the bare branches writing 5 5 appear swathed in a yellow veil. more The effect is a all the ing against backdrop of a strikdark wall or evergreen plant. Despite the early bloom, fruit production rarely suffers since the blooms have an extended flowering period and an inherent tolerance for some frost. The flowers may not be completely self-fertilizing, because cross-pollination sometimes increases fruit production. The names of the few cultivars of cornelian cherry that have been available from nurseries reflect the plant's use as an ornamental rather than as a comestible. 'Golden Glory' is an upright, columnar plant with especially dark green leaves, and 'Nana' is a cultivar diminutive in stature and leaf size. The variegated leaves of 'Elegantissima' and 'Variegata' make for brighter looking plants throughout the summer. Occasional leaves of 'Elegantissima' are completely yellow or tmged with pink. The The developing frmt of Cornus mas `Flava' mpens and turns yellow at t leaves of 'Variegata' have irregu- the Arnold Arboretum m fall. lar, creamy white margins. As mentioned previously, cornelian cherry and acidity ranges from one to four percent. fruit has always been considered ornamental. Vitamin C concentration in cornelian cherries 'Macrocarpa' is notable for its large fruit and commonly averages twice that of oranges. 'Alba' for its white fruit. The fruit of 'Flava' is If qualities such as large-size fruit and a conlarge and yellow, and a whit sweeter than those genial blend of sweetness and acidity could of most other cultivars. Ripening occurs from be bred into a single plant, the result would be summer to fall depending on the clone. a highly ornamental plant bearing especially If you were to wander into a Macedonian or delectable fruit. The average seedling produces Bulgarian forest, the wild cornelian cherry trees acceptable fruits, and for over two decades there would not all be bearing fruits resembling Russians have been selecting clones with supethe common cherry. Within the wild population rior fruits. Since the recent breakup of the are plants bearing fruits that are barrel-shaped or Soviet Union, some of the cornelian cherry pear-shaped and some with fruits over an inch varieties that were selected there for their long. In fruit color, the spectrum runs from fruits have become available here. These cream to yellow, orange, and fire-engine red to a include 'Helen', 'Pioneer', 'Red Star', and dark red-violet, and almost black. Were you to 'Elegant', all bred by Svetlana Khmenko at the taste fruits from a number of trees, you would find similar variations m flavor. The sugar content of fruits ranges from four to twelve percent, Botanic Garden in Kiev and available in this country through the nursery One Green World (telephone 503\/651-3005). Cultivation Cornelian cherry transplants easily and once established grows at a moderate rate. Calcereous soils are particularly suitable, though the plant in fact is not choosy about soil, tolerating even those that are somewhat dry. For best fruiting, plants need full sun, or almost so. Cornelian cherry will survive in shade but will not yield well. Grow cornelian cherry as a specimen tree or shrub, or even as a large, sheared hedge. Space specimen plants twenty to twenty-five feet from other trees or shrubs. Space plants twelve feet apart for a hedge. Cornelian cherry will grow in USDA hardiness zones 4 through 8, but languishes somewhat in the southern part of this range. At its extreme northern limit, fruiting is uncertain, since the flower buds are hardy only to the colder portions of zone 5. Cornelian cherry is a plant from which you can expect annual harvests with little or no time, cornelian cherry seedlings will produce perfect flowers. If only cornelian cherry cuttings rooted as easily in reality as in legend. Plutarch (in Life of Romulus) wrote that Romulus once to try his strength threw a dart from the Aventme Mount, the staff of which was made of cornel, which struck so deep mto the ground, that no one of many that tried could pluck it out, and the soil bemg fertile, gave nourishment to the wood, which sent forth branches, and produced a cornel stock of considerable bigness. pruning sects or or spraying. It is rarely subject to in- disease, but do expect some competition from birds and squirrels for the fruit. Propagation Cornelian cherries are usually propagated from seed. This is unfortunate because seedlings produce fruit of variable quality and must be at least a half-dozen years old-sometimes into their teens-before commencing to bear fruit. Seed germination is usually delayed until the second season, though this defect can be overcome by artificially subjecting the seeds to warmth and moisture for four months prior to a one- to four-month period of cool, moist stratification. Nicking the seed coat should suffice in lieu of the four-month, warm, moist treatment. Do not be disappointed if no fruits set when seedlings finally do begin to flower. Ancient writers referred to the cornelian cherry as the \"male cornel\" because those first flowers are male. This characteristic is the source of the specific epithet mas, meaning male in Latin. (The \"female cornel\" of the ancients was C. sanguinea, a shrubby, precocious species whose fruit is neither prominent nor palatable.) With Ovid's version (in Metamorphosis) is even fantastic: \"No less amazed was Romulus when he saw the spear he planted suddenly put forth leaves.\" With optimum conditions fifty percent of softwood cuttings might take root. The best time to take softwood cuttings is in late July or early August. Make each cutting about ten inches long with all but the top two leaves removed, and mamtain partial shade and high humidity, preferably with mist. Rooting hormones (a modern horticultural aid unavailable to Romulus) greatly facilitate rooting of both hardwood and softwood cornelian cherry more cuttings. Use IBA in talc, at concentrations in the range of 0.3 to 0.8 percent. The percentage of cuttings that root varies from clone to clonesoftwood cuttings of the cultivar 'Flava' rooted one-hundred percent under ideal conditions. Opinions differ as to the ease with which cornelian cherry propagates by root cuttings and layering, but no matter, for the easiest method to propagate a superior clone is by any common method of grafting. Use seedlings as rootstocks and graft low. Because cornelian cherry branches low to the ground, take care that all branches on a grafted plant arise from the scion rather than the rootstock. Harvest and Use Cornelian cherries ripen from summer through fall, the time varying from clone to clone. Average yield from a single tree typically lies in the range of thirty to seventy pounds of fruit, though there are trees that bear over two hundred pounds of fruit. 7 Fruits from a single tree ripen over an extended harvest period. The simplest way to harvest in quantity is to periodically give the branches a gentle shake once the fruit has colored, then collect fallen fruit from the ground. Ripe fruits hang well on the tree, becoming with time more concentrated in flavor and sweetness. Some people prefer to allow harvested fruit to sit at room temperature for a day or more, in which case the flavor becomes sweeter, but more sedate. A century or more ago, when the fruit was popular in Britain, it was rarely eaten out of hand, probably because better-tasting clones were unknown there. The fruits were held in high esteem for the delicious tarts they made, and shops commonly sold rob de corms, a thickened, sweet syrup of cornelian cherry fruits. The juice also added pizzazz to cider and perry. In other parts of Europe where cornelian cherry is still eaten, the fruit finds a variety of uses. Since ancient times, the unripe fruits have been pickled as olive substitutes. The generic epithet Cornus is derived from the Latin word for \"horn,\" alluding to the hardness of the wood. Pliny wrote that cornelian cherry wood was used for makmg \"spokes of wheels, or else for making wedges for splitting wood, and pins or bolts, which have all the hardness of those of iron.\" The wood's hardness was also put to more menacing use, in spears. From the many gory passages relating this use by ancient writers, the following lines from Virgil's Aeneid serve as example: Winging through the soft Cornel shaft sank m, Stuck air the Itahan deep m the chest open chasm there, and the black wound's a Yielded foammg wave of blood. Cornel-berries, which we use mstead of olives picked while they are still hard and not very ripe; they must not, however, be too unripe. They should then be dried for a day m the shade; then vinegar and must boiled down to half or one-third of its onginal volume should be mixed and poured m, but it will be necessary to add some salt, so that no worms or other form of animal hfe can be engendered in them, but the ... should be Returning to beneficent uses of cornelian cherry, we find many parts of the cornelian cherry plant apphed in folk medicine. The fruit allegedly is beneficial in the treatment of gout, anemia, skin diseases, painful joints, and disrupted metabolism. Fruit, leaves, or bark have been employed for gastromtestinal disorders and tuberculosis. Used in a kind of contemporary folk medicine, Russians report that the fruit contains components that leach radioactivity from the body. But I digress-our primary interest here is with the gustatory pleasure afforded by the fruits, especially fresh fruits of a superior clone carried straight from the tree to the mouth. The fruit is as worth cultivating today as it was three centuries ago when John Parkinson wrote of the cornelian cherry (in Paradisi m Sole), that \"by reason of the pleasantnesse in them when they are ripe, they are much desired ... also preferued [sic] and eaten, both for rarity and delight....\" \" better method of preservation is when two parts of must boiled down to half its original volume are mixed with one part of vinegar. (Columella, On Agmculture, lst century A.D.)( Cornelian cherry is a favored ingredient of Turkish serbert, a fruit drink sold in stores and from portable containers carried like knapsacks on the backs of street vendors. (Another common English name for cornelian cherry is \"sorbet,\" though it is not the only fruit ever used for the Turkish serbert.) In the Ukraine, cornelian cherries are juiced, then bottled commercially as soft drinks. There, the fruits are also made into conserves, fermented into wine, distilled into a liqueur, and dried. Lee Reich, Ph.D., is a horticultural consultant and writer in New Paltz, New York. While working as a fruit researcher for the USDA, and then Cornell University, he became mterested m lesser known fruits, an mterest that resulted m his 1991 book, Uncommon Fruits Worthy of Attention A Gardener's Guide, from which this article is drawn. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Science and Serendipity: The Lady's Slipper Project","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25152","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060af6b.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"Science and Serendipity The Pink Lady's Slipper Project Richard Primack What is the An cost important hypothesis of reproduction? is put to the test. 9 The study of plants can sometimes lead to disan unexpected nature. For over a decade now, I have been investigatmg the reproductive biology of the pink lady's slipper orchid (Cypripedium acaule). When I was growing up coveries of out These ments fungi When form extensive networks of filain the soil that absorb water and nutrian 1960s, my mother the occasional pmk lady's slipper as a special, rare plant to be held in respect, and I remember feeling almost reverential toward the exquisite flowers when I discovered them on hikes as a teenager. Hikers in the eastern United States still react with excitement when they encounter the plant during a late spring excursion, but although the flowers are beautiful and well worth seeking out, certainly would point in Boston in the 1950s and they are no longer rare. The idea that the pink lady's slipper is endangered stems from events earlier in this century when the species was indeed rare. At that time gardeners often dug up wild plants to transplant in their own yards, and this was perceived as a primary threat to the species' survival. Media campaigns to protect wildflowers targeted the pink lady's slipper, and the campaigns appear to have left a lasting impression on the public. During the last few decades, however, the plant has achieved a tremendous increase in numbers in New England. Woodland areas that once had a few scattered plants now boast dozens, hundreds, or even thousands. In some areas of Boston, pink lady's slippers have become the most common woodland herb, forming dense populations. Although it is tempting to see a simple cause-and-effect relationship between the preservation campaign and the new abundance of the species, the truth is much more complicated. The success of the pink lady's slipper might also be explained by the recovery of its previously disturbed habitat. Much of the eastern United States was cleared for agriculture during the early history of our nation, and the landscape has only gradually returned to forest in the last century. It may be that the specific growing conditions it requires were not present earlier in the young forest. One of the missing requirements may have been the species of soil fungi with which the orchid has a peculiar obligate relationship. orchid seed germinates, the seedling by the fungus filaments, which provide all the water, minerals, and carbohydrates the seedling needs to survive. In this early stage, the orchid seedling is just a small blob of white tissue below ground. Only after five years or so does the orchid begin to produce its first green leaves above ground. As the orchid increases in size over subsequent years, it finally becomes photosynthetically self-sufficient. At this point, the orchid begins to supply the fungi with excess carbohydrates in exchange for a continued supply of water and mineral nutrients. If the fungi had been extirpated from the soil after centuries of farming, then the orchid would not be present until the forest-and the fungi-had become firmly reestablished. Yet another unusual characteristic may have limited the lady's slipper's ability to increase: Its flowers rarely become fruits. The reason for this peculiarity is that the flowers contain no nectar to attract pollinators. In fact, the flowers are mimic flowers that depend on the naivete of bumblebees and other large insects searching for new nectar sources. If bees visit several flowers in a row in their search for nectar, they may transfer pollen from one plant to the stigma of another plant in the process. Once this happens, the petals droop to prevent further bee msits, the ovary swells, and over the next four months a grape-sized capsule containing tens of thousands of seeds develops. In the fall, the tiny seeds filter out of slits in the capsule and are carried away by the seasonal breezes. Unfortunately for the pink lady's slipper, there are not enough naive bees in the forests of New England. As a result, most orchid flowers remain ents. is tended unvisited, even in large populations. In a typical population, only one or two percent of the flowers develop fruits. Yet because of the large number of seeds per fruit, the populations can increase over time even with low rates of fruiting. Under different circumstances, however, the orchid has the potential for prolific reproduc- Cypripedium acaule (pmk lady's slipper orchid) rendered m pen and mk by Blanche Ames Ames (1878-1969) 10 manipulated to increase or decrease their levels of reproduction, how would the change affect the rate of growth and survival in a particular species? readily makes fruits when artificially pollinated, I decided to test the hypothesis using large natural populations in Because the orchid The young orchid frmt expands rapidly following pollmation. The grape-sized capsule contains tens of thousands of seeds. tion. When flowers researchers and are artificially pollinated by volunteers, the rate of fruit set I can easily increase to ninety percent. In 1984, realized that this property made the pink lady's slipper orchid an ideal subject for testing an important but unproven hypothesis: namely, that reproduction exacts a cost from plants and animals. Most biologists accept the idea that each organism has a finite supply of resources available for use in growth, survival, and reproduction. Thus, any individual organism that devotes a large portion of its resources to reproduction will have a slower growth rate and a reduced probability of survival and subsequent reproduction. These reductions are collectively termed the cost of reproduction. The hypothesis is supported by observations that trees grow slowly in years when they fruit heavily, and that pregnant animals lose weight and suffer higher mortality. However, a crucial missing element was experimental evidence: if individuals were Massachusetts-at the Hammond Woods in Newton and the Case Estates in Weston. With the help of volunteers, experimental plants at these two Boston-area sites were hand pollinated, while other plants in the populations were left untouched as controls. Hand pollination of the pink lady's slipper orchid involves gently spreading open and bending back the petal pouch with one hand, then inserting the index finger of the other hand into the resulting gap between the pouch and stigmatic column until the finger contacts the sticky yellow pollen mass. If one does this just right, the entire pollen mass sticks to the finger in one grainy clump. At the next flower, the process is begun in the same way, but this time one must bend the petal pouch back further to expose the stigma surface. The pollen mass on the mdex finger can then be rubbed onto the glistening green stigma. If the pollen and the stigma are at the right stage of stickiness, the entire stigma surface will be coated with a covering of pollen. By the spring of 1985 I was eagerly awaiting the flowering season to see the results of my experiment of the previous year. To my surprise, I found no difference between the control and the experimental plants at the Hammond Woods site, either in the number of plants flowering or in the average size of the plants. At the Case Estates a few more control plants than experimental plants were flowering and the experimental plants seemed smaller, but the difference was not substantial. At this point I had a real dilemma: should I write up the results right away, boldly announcing that there was no cost of reproduction in the pink lady's slipper orchid? Or should I continue the experiment to see if the cost showed up after a second reproductive episode? Because the two populations seemed to be showing somewhat different patterns, I decided to continue the experiment using a \"press\" 11 1 most Hand pollmatmg requmed physical popular aspects of the project. contortions of the volunteers, but nonetheless it proved to be one of the design. That is, every experimental plant handpollinated in 1984 was pollinated for a second was thus given a chance to make a second fruit. The hand pollinations were successful, with most experimental plants making a second fruit by the fall. As in the previous year, the control plants did not make fruit. By the spring of 1986, the results proved worth the wait. A tremendous difference in plant size appeared between the experimental plants and the control plants, particularly at the Case Estates, where the experimental plants had lost twenty-five percent of their size in comparison with the control plants and far fewer of the experimental plants were in flower. The results were striking, but I decided to put off writing up the results for publication m favor of conducting the experimental pollinations one more time. By 1987, after the experiment had been repeated three times on individual plants, the cost of reproduction was clearly evident at time in 1985 and both sites. The results were slightly different, however, due in part to a contrast in plant health at the two localities. At Hammond Woods, the control plants grew larger over the course of the study, while the experimental plants stayed the same average size. At the Case Estates, however, a disease turned the leaves black every summer and probably killed many plants outright. The average size of control plants at this site declined over the years, but the experimental plants declined in size more precipitously. Clearly, the extra cost of producing fruits added to the stress of disease had major effects on the plants. The experiment allowed us to test a related hypothesis as well. Scientists have speculated that plants may partially offset the cost of producing fruit by increasing their photosynthetic rate, thereby capturing more light energy. In this scenario, perhaps the chlorophyll might process light energy more rapidly, or the stomates 12 chamber and then measuring how rapidly the leaf absorbs carbon dioxide from the enclosed volume of air. The experiments showed, however, that the rate of photosynthesis did not depend on physiological changes to the plant, such as fruiting or removal of one of its two leaves, but did vary accordmg to microenvironmental differences. Plants in full sun, whether control or experimental plants, have higher rates of photosynthesis than plants in shady areas. Four years into the fieldwork I had a good story to write for publication, so I enlisted another of The pollen mass stickmg is to young volunteer about stigma Hand pollination flower becoming a fruit. on the mdex finger of a be rubbed onto the results m almost every to graduate students, Pamela Hall, to perform all the elaborate statistical calculations needed to demonstrate the exact cost of reproduction. In the meantime, we continued the experiment, repeating the pollination and adding a third site at Broadmoor Audubon Sanctuary in Natick, which had much larger and apparently older plants than the other sites. Though we published our initial findings in 1990, I decided to continue the study, and by 1994, after further analysis by a third graduate student, Elizabeth Stacy, we had found several intriguing patterns. Of the control plants, which had never been hand pollinated, 73 percent had not produced even a single fruit over the entire duration of the my the leaf surface might stay open wider or longer to absorb more carbon dioxide. Some limited laboratory evidence supports this idea, but we decidedgiven our success thus far-to test it in the field. With the aid of an infrared gas analyzer, my former student Miao Shili and I examined the experimental and control plants to discover if the experimental plants were absorbing more carbon dioxide than the control plants-a sure mdicator of higher rates of photosynthesis. The analyzer works by enclosing a living leaf inside a transparent To measure the rate of carbon dioxide absorption, a lming mside the transparent chamber of an mfrared gas analyzer. leaf is enclosed 13 The larger plant, on the left, is an experimental plant that never made frmts. experimental plant that has made many fruits and has become exhausted. The smaller plant is an study, whereas every experimental plant had produced at least one fruit. At the Hammond Woods and Broadmoor, 50 percent of the plants had produced five or more fruits over the years of the study. At the Broadmoor site, three of the largest experimental plants had produced thirteen, fifteen, and seventeen fruits over ten years in contrast to control plants with no fruit at all. At each site, the effects of fruit production were seen in the lower probability of flowering and much smaller leaf area in subsequent years. However, these effects peaked three to seven years after the start of the experiment. After several successive years of fruiting, the experimen- lished the cost of reproduction. Through the years, I had come to know the characteristics of individual plants, almost regarding them as special summer friends. After eleven field seasons, I leave this project with a great sense of satisfaction : my initial love for and curiosity about this beautiful and unique mldflower species had blossomed into a full-scale scientific investigation yielding new insights into the natural history of the species. Select Bibliography tal plants seemed exhausted to the point where were very small and unable to flower. The flower, however, gave the plants a rest, which after a few years allowed them to many Pnmack, R , and P. Hall. 1990. Costs of reproduction m the pmk lady's slipper orchid: a four-year experimental study. American Naturahst 136: 638-656. inabihty to and flower again. summer of 1995, I felt it was time to this project, as we had clearly estabwrap up recover By the Primack, R., M. Shili, and K. Becker. 1994. Costs of reproduction m the pmk lady's slipper orchid (Cypnpedmm acaule) Defoliation, mcreased fruit production, and fire. American Journal of Botany 83: 1083-1090. 14 Synge, H., ed. Wells, T. C. 1981. The Biological Aspects Conservation NY: Wiley. of Rare Plant Dennis Whigham, Doug Gill, and Bill Brumback. Permission to the field sites was granted by the Arnold E., and J. H. Willems, eds. 1991. Population Ecology of Terrestnal Orchids. Academic Pubhshmg. Whigham, The Hague: SPB Arboretum of Harvard University, Broadmoor Audubon Sanctuary, and the Newton Conservation Commission. D. F. 1990. The effect of experimental defoliation on the growth and reproduction of a woodland orchid, Tipulana discolor Canadian Journal of Botany 68: 1812-1816. Richard Pnmack Boston is a professor of plant ecology at Acknowledgments The manuscript benefited from the comments of Elizabeth Platt, Margaret Pnmack, Renee Delatizky, is the author of three recent books. Essentials of Conservation Biology (Sinauer Associates, 1993), A Primer of Conservauon Biology (Sinauer Associates, 1995), and Ecology, Conservation and Management of Southeast Asian Ramforests University and (Yale University Press, 1995, co-edited Lovejoy). with Thomas Along the Way Many unusual incidents occurred over the course of the lady's slipper project, but prob- ably the strangest was the appearance of carefully arranged rock gardens at the Hammond Woods field site beginning in 1987. Groups of ten to twenty stones arranged in concentric circles, often planted with native wildflowers and carefully tended by unknown gardeners, simply appeared from time to time. The gardens varied in size from one only three feet across to a miniature Stonehenge six feet across made of elongated stones set upright in the ground. Curiously enough, none of the gardens interfered with my research plants. Over the years, I occasionally noticed cut flowers, bowls of rice and incense, and redpainted Sanskrit letters on the garden rocks. Though I still didn't know who had made the gardens in the midst of my study population or why they had done so, I began to appreciate them for their beauty and even tended them from time to time, removing dead leaves and fallen branches. Finally, in the spring of 1990 I observed an elderly man shnne remmscent of miniature standing quietly behmd a tree. I introduced A Buddhist at the Hammond Woods asite. Stonehenge myself and asked if he knew anything about the rock gardens. He told me that he had built them with a community of Buddhists and that they often came here to worship. Knowing from my wire tags next to the plants that someone was studying the orchids, he had not disturbed the plants and had even helped to keep them free of fallen branches, just as I had cleared his rock gardens. After that one meeting I never saw him agam, and the gardens have gradually fallen into disrepair. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"When the Roots Go Round and Round","article_sequence":3,"start_page":15,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25154","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060b728.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Watson, Gary W.; Clark, Sandra","article_content":"When the Roots Go Round and Round Gary W. Watson and Sandra Clark Investigations of girdling root formation in landscape trees shed light on life in the tree pit. Several decades ago, American elms dominated our urban landscapes. When large numbers of them succumbed to Dutch elm disease, new they were replaced by plantings that were somewhat less homogenous, but still limited in most cases to a handful of species. Maples, especially Norway maples, were commonly included in these replacement plantmgs in the Midand elsewhere. Norway maples were considered well suited to urban landscapes because of their attractive form and foliage. Moreover, they are easy to propagate and transplant, as well as tolerant of a wide variety of soil conditions. A few decades later, as of these Norway some west maples approached rity, many started to matu- decline unexplainably, raising new fears of devastating tree losses. Typical canopy symptoms included reduced growth, abnormal color, early fall coloration, and dieback. There was no evidence of diseases, pest infestation, or any other aboveground problem. However, investi- gations below the ground The canopy of a Norway maple m Mt Plensant, Illmois, shows symptoms of gmdlmg roots~ reduced growth, abnormal color, and dieback. 16 Excavation of the root crown reveals a typical gmdlmg root formation m and the an older Norway maple to reveal that a high percentage of these had girdling roots.l A girdling root has been defined as \"a root that grows around another root or stem, thus tending to strangle the plant. \"2 Where the girdling root contacts the trunk, radial growth of both the trunk and root is distorted and reduced. Normal movement of water and nutrients from the roots to the canopy is greatly decreased, leading to stress and then to decline. How and why these girdling roots form on field-grown trees is unknown. When plants are grown in containers, of course, roots often circle around the interior of the pot. If not cut or removed when the plant is moved into the landscape, these \"circling roots\" can also strangle the tree as it grows larger. In the case of fieldgrown stock that has never been in a pot, however, some other mechanism must be involved. began trees Chicago Girdling roots nized all over on the country Norway maples are recogas a major problem, seventeen percent of all street of the Norway maples were reaching trees, mature size by 1987, and some were declining because of girdling roots. At that time, we initiated a study to learn what caused girdling roots and how they might be corrected or prevented. Because girdling roots had been reported on sugar maple (Acer saccharum) and red maple (A. rubrum) as well as Norway maple (A. platanoides), all three of these species were included in the study.3 The first phase of the work, involving excavation of the roots of large Norway maples (over twelve inches in diameter), showed that girdling roots can wrap around the entire trunk circumference before crown symptoms develop. In fact, by the time canopy decline becomes evident, the girdling is often at an advanced stage, with the roots so intertwined that little can be done some example, they represent area is no exception. As an in the suburb of Mt. Prospect, where 17 7 the problem. In these cases, the advisof removing girdling roots is uncertain abihty even where the individual roots are distinct enough to make removal practicable: if a large root constricting the trunk is removed, a substantial portion of the root system may be lost with it. Root loss can also cause stress, decline, and even death of the tree. After these disappointing initial excavations, the Mt. Prospect study focused on younger parkway trees that had been in place for only three to ten years. Trees of this age are well enough established so that the stress from root crown excavation is minimal, but young enough so that severe girdling has not yet developed. In this second phase of the study, a total of 120 root crowns were excavated over a two-year period. The number of girdling roots was recorded, and these girdling roots were removed when this to correct could be done without substantially reducing the total root system. The approximate age of each root removed was determined by smoothing a cross section and counting the number of annual rings. Tree roots can be classified as ( 1primary roots, which radiate out from the base of the tree-like spokes of a wheel; (2) secondary roots, which are lateral branches of primary roots that grow almost perpendicular to them; and \/3\/ tertiary roots, which are lateral branches of secondary roots. Almost all the girdling roots found were secondary or tertiary roots. This is not surprising since the nearly perpendicular branches of the spoke-like primary roots are more likely to wrap around the base of the trunk or cross other roots. A strong relationship between transplanting and girdling root formation became apparent in This chart relates the age smce of the gmdlmg roots of Norway, red, and sugar maples to the number of years transplantation. 18 8 all three maple species, with the majority of the girdling roots being initiated within one year of transplanting. This fact, together with the finding that most girdling roots are secondary or tertiary roots, enabled us to construct a hypothesis of the way girdling roots may be formed on field- transplanted trees. Normally, secondary roots grow slowly and remain quite small as long as the primary root is intact. When the tree is dug in the nursery and the large radiating primary roots are severed, however, the secondary roots often begin to grow more rapidly. In addition, new secondary roots may form some distance behind the cut end of the primary root. All these vigorously growing secondgrown are located close to the base of the trunk and are well positioned to become girdling roots as both the roots and the trunk grow larger. If severing the primary roots during transplantmg is indeed the stimulus for girdling root formation, it is easy to understand why girdling roots do not generally occur in forests. The Mt. Prospect study found that young Norway maples and sugar maples had an average of four girdling roots per tree. Red maples had even more-nearly twice as many. Why is it, then, that only the Norways show canopy decline when they mature? Excavation of root crowns of sugar and red maples twenty-one to twenty-eight years after transplanting revealed very few girdling roots. Those that were present were relatively small, and all were less than twelve years old. By contrast, girdling roots of Norway maples of similar age were much more numerous and ranged in age up to twenty-four years. For unknown reasons, it seems that the girdling roots that develop on red and sugar maples as a result of transplanting are short-lived, unlike the case of Norway ary roots drawings describe the probable mechanism mvolved girdlmg root formation: (aJ The major roots of a tree normally radiate out from the trunk. These roots and some of them lateral roots are severed during transplantmg (b) After transplantmg, new roots that are mltiated from the cut ends follow the same dmectlon as the omgmal. Growth in m These maples. How can we prevent or correct girdling roots? Numerous girdling roots were removed during the first phase of the Mt. Prospect study in hopes of preventing existmg and new lateral roots is stimulated and these can become gmdlmg roots, as mdicated by the arrows. 19 canopy decline in the future; the process of excavation and root removal is time consuming but would be worth the effort if it effective. To determine whether this the case, one quarter of the same Norway maple trees were excavated again in 1992 and their roots compared to photos taken at the time of the 1987 excavation. It soon became clear that one or more roots had consistently regenerated from each root removal site. The new roots, just like the old ones, were usually nearly perpendicular to the radially oriented primary roots and well positioned to become girwere was dling roots. This finding was discouraging, but there may still be hope. It was encouraging to learn that the root systems of Norway maples have diverse growth habits. Those with many large girdling roots at the time of the first excavation showed many large regenerated girdling roots four years later. Likewise, root systems that initially had fewer and smaller girdling roots showed fewer and smaller regenerated roots. And of the sixty older Norway maples examined in the first phase of the study, girdling and potentially girdling roots were completely absent on two trees. Theoretically, this genetic diversity may allow root stock to be selected and propagated so as to reduce or eliminate girdling roots altogether. Until better root stocks are developed, communities should avoid overplanting Norway maples (or any other smgle species) and be prepared to accept substantial losses from girdling roots as the trees reach maturity. What these losses may amount to can be estimated only imprecisely at between ten and forty percent.4 We don't know exactly how long Norway maples would survive if they didn't develop girdling roots. The average life span for all urban trees is only thirty-seven years, however, so it is possible that on average girdlmg roots shorten the life of Norway maples by only a few years.' It would be easy to say that we shouldn't plant Norway maples because of the girdling root problem, but then we might also These photos show the gmdlmg roots of a Norway maple (a) before and (b) after correcuve treatment, and then agam (c) four years later. The arrows mdicate the same location m all photos. 20 ~~~ -~- ~ These photos show examples of the diverse character of Norway maple root development Selection of root stock like that seen on the right m the lower photo may be the best way to ehmmate most gmdlmg root problems m the future. 21 stop planting redbuds (Cercis canadensis) because they can get verticillium wilt, green ashes (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) because they can get borers, and red oaks (Quercus rubrum) because they are susceptible to oak wilt. There is an appropriate place for every tree. For reasons of historical significance, American elms are still planted on the National Mall m Washington, DC, even though they may eventually die from Dutch elm disease, and in fact, they may survive the harsh site conditions as well as or better than any other tree. You have to might not want to plant a Norway maple in a location where survival for many decades is important, but if a life span of thirty years is acceptable, there is no reason not to plant one. The Village of Mt. Prospect continues to plant Norway maples, but tries to use them in mixed species plantings so that no single problem can wipe out all the trees in an area. Gary Watson is Root System Biologist at The Morton Arboretum m Lisle, Illmois. Sandra Clark is Supermtendent of Forestry, Village of Mt Prospect, Illinois. Frequency of girdling roots in relation to planting depth for all maple species often contended that trees planted too deeply have more girdling roots, but the matter has never been formally studied. The Mt. Prospect study found no relationship between planting depth and girdling roots. However, the data do show how often trees are planted too deeply in the landscape. Over half the trees studied had been planted two to eight inches too deep, even though all were planted by reputable commercial It is landscape companies. Planting too deep is one of the major causes of death of trees of all species planted in the landscape. No soil should cover the top of the root ball when the planting job is complete. Endnotes 1 Robert L. Tate, Bole characteristics associated with girdled Norway maple trees, Journal of Arbomculture \/1981) 7(10) : 308. z A Techmcal Glossary of Horticultural and Landscape Termmology Washington, DC. Horticultural Research Institute, 1971. 3 Three other species, green ash (Fraxmus pennsylvamcaJ, honeylocust (Gleditsia tnacanthosJ, and littleleaf hnden (Tilia cordata) were also studied but were found to have less than half as many girdling roots as any of the maples. Girdling roots were especially mfrequent m lindens The authors' documentation of these findings can be found in Journal of Arbonculture 1G\/8~: 197-202 and 19\/5\/: 278-280. 4 5 These percentages are based on R. L. Tate's number of girdling roots and percent of encirclement as well as on data and experience from our own work This figure for average life span is taken from B. Skiera and G. Moll, Trees m the Red, Urban Forests 12\/1\/. 9-11. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nature's Relentless Onslaught, Redux Todd Forrest","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25151","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060af26.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"Nature's Relentless Todd Forrest Onslaught, Redux If watching woody plants endure extreme weather is your interest, then 1996 looks no less promising than 1995. Ambivalence, not indignation, is the healthier attitude to have towards the weather. It's not that the weather doesn't provide ample cause for complaint-it does-but any protest about the heat, or the rain, or the cold, or the snow is an invitation to compounded frustration. This spring was a case in point. Last year's drought made Arboretum horticulturists anxious for early spring precipitation, and even after the winter's recordbreaking snowfall we were still tense when the end of March and first week of April turned out to be abnormally dry. The possibility of another seven-month drought was enough to give us nightmares about our favorite plants withering away on the grounds. Nervously watch- ing long-term forecasts, we con- sulted our almanacs, looked for solace from meteorologists, and prayed for rain. Then it snowed. On Monday, April 8, four inches of snow fell, most of which melted by that afternoon. Two days later it snowed for real, dumping eleven-point-five inches of wet and heavy snow across New England, covering cor- nelian cherries and magnolias and daffodils with nature's version of wet cement. Our much-needed precipitation did even more structural damage to the Arboretum's plants than the ice storm of March 1995. The weak crotch between the two mam leaders of this nmety-yearold red oak couldn't stand the combmation of v~nnd and wet, heavy snow brought by the snowstorm on Apml 10 The tree spht m half, crushmg a httle cherry, manglmg an osage orange, and stmppmg the lower branches from the Metasequoia m the background. 23 All that was left of the red oak after the were storm. recorded by the of pruning, needing grounds and roughly thirty of those had to be removed entirely. Some of the destruction was spectacular, like the ninety-year-old oak growing on the southeast flank of Peters Hill that split in half, crushing a small Prunus and peeling all of the lower limbs from a forty-eight-year-old Metasequoia. The Metasequoia still stands but it looks like a fish skeleton that's been stripped of twothirds of its ribs. Three mature beeches dropped thousand-pound limbs, and the snow knocked off most of the recently opened Acer rubrum and A. saccharinum flowers, creating a scarlet carpet at the bases of the larger trees. Our oldest specimen of Magnolia zemi (Arnold Arboretum accession 1485-80-B), the Arboretum's official 1 harbinger of spring since it first flowered on 31 March 1988, lost many buds and didn't fully open until 15 April, two weeks later than usual. But like most things that happen in a garden, the storm also provided us with new informaAbout one-hundred plants crew as some sort tion about the collections. After spending more than a week finding and removing seriously injured trees, arborists John Del Rosso and John Olmsted began to see a pattern in the broken and fallen limbs. \"Most of the serious damage found could be traced to a pre-existing condition in the tree,\" observed Olmsted. \"Weak crotches [where two limbs or leaders meet and form a narrow, V-shaped intersection] and old cracks formed by prior storms or badly healed pruning cuts caused most of the big breaks,\" Del Rosso added. According to Olmsted and Del Rosso, there were a lot of minor cracks and stress damage from last year's ice storm and these grew during the subsequent drought as the wood dried and contracted. Eventually, those cracks got big enough to undermine the tree's ability to endure the combination of wind and snow that came with the spring storm. A few arborists claim that some species are more prone than others to breaking up in heavy winds, rain, or snow. Olmsted and Del Rosso we 24 found little evidence to substantiate this theory: instead, they found that a tree's location is the primary determination of whether it withstands or succumbs to severe weather. Large trees planted along roads or on hillsides exposed to the wind were more likely to lose major limbs while trees protected by buildings or planted amidst other plants tended to fare better. Conifers, shaped by evolution to allow snow to slide off their branches, showed their inbred capacity to weather such an unexpected spring storm: very few of our large pines, firs, or spruces lost limbs and none had to be removed. On the other hand, many of the small ornamental cherries and apples, planted in the open to maximize the effect of their flowers, lost many large branches and about a dozen had to be removed. This spring snowstorm added to the list of things that need to be done this season to restore and rejuvenate plants in the Arnold Arboretum. Members of the staff are still looking for the inconspicuous cracks and breaks that, if left untended, will cause spectacular damage in the future. Unfortunately, with over twelve thousand accessioned trees and tens of thousands of spontaneous plants growing on the grounds, we will never quite catch up. But even if we don't find all the damage now, we can count on future storms to show us exactly what we missed. Acknowledgments Thanks to arborists John Olmsted and John Del Rosso for taking time out of one of their long days of pruning to discuss what they observed on the grounds after the latest snowstorm. This has been a busy spring for John and John-the responsibility for all of the major pruning and removals at the Arboretum falls onto their shoulders, and all of our recent severe weather has left them with a considerably increased workload. Todd Forrest Arboretum, studies at the plant recorder at the Arnold least until August, when he will begm the Yale Graduate School of Forestry. is at Corrigendum: In the report of the Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data-1995, which appeared in Volume 55:4, the length of the growing season was incorrect. It should have read 187 days. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Would a Lilac by Any Other Name Smell So Sweet? A Search for Fragrance","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25155","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060b76d.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"Would a Lilac by Any Other Name Smell So Sweet? A Search for Fragrance john H. Alexander III The quest for all-encompassing knowledge of his favorite genus has taken the Arboretum's plant propagator down many byways. This one required a cadre of volunteers and a high-speed computer. The nose perfect lilac should have flowers at eye and level; the new growth should not obscure the flowers; it should sucker enough to replace old stems; it should not suffer from powdery mildew or leafroll necrosis; it should be available in your favorite color, single- or doubleflowered ; and it should be fragrant! For years I've sought those perfect lilacs and the prospective parents of new perfect lilacs. I've made many notes on flowers and collected years of data on the susceptibility of different cultivars to foliar diseases, but inevitably the question arises, Is it fragrant? question I often hear when I'm recommending a lilac. My usual response is, \"I'll show It's a you the plant and you can tell me.\" The problem is that I am not very sensitive to fragrances. I can usually detect them, but it seems that my are quickly overwhelmed by strong and I am then unable to differentiate fragrances, or even notice them. Wanting to fill out my knowledge of potential lilac breeding stocks, I enlisted volunteers to sniff in my stead. It would be a simple, informal survey. I would act as clerk; all these selfproclaimed \"fragrance-oriented\" people need do was to sniff and assign a grade. We undertook this task in 1982 and again in 1983. During peak lilac bloom, two testers and I worked our way through the Arnold Arboretum's collections in Jamaica Plain and, in 1983, at the Case olfactories Estates. We began lilacs, including widely considered to be one of the most fragrant, although spicier a by sniffing few is Syringa pubescens, which than the traditional lilac fragrance. We then moved from plant to plant. They sniffed and independently (without discussion) decided on a rating from 0 to 3 with 0 having no fragrance and 3 being the maximum. At first I doubted the ability of the testers and so I tested them, steering them to different plants of the same cultivar 26 and even, same they twice, repeating the very Their ratings convinced me that could detect and grade with consistency. once or plant. The Results The mean fragrance level of all 456 samples was 1.08. Of these, 195 plants were sampled in 1982 and 261 in 1983. The overall mean for 1982 was 0.78 whereas it was 1.3 for 1983. Of these, 112 plants were sampled both years; the mean fragrance level for these was 0.84 for 1982 and almost twice as high in 1983 at 1.48. Why the difference? Conjectures are many, but perhaps the most plausible is that like the taste of wines, the fragrance of lilacs is just better some years. Certainly, few samples were taken for most cultivars, and with more years of sampling the results would be more accurate. I am less confident of the negative results than the positive ; I am reluctant to say that lilacs sampled once or twice and found not to be fragrant are never fragrant. Therefore, for the following tables I have selected lilac cultivars that either were sampled more than once or received higher fragrance scores. The latter are included on the conviction that a lilac with a grading higher than the overall mean average can confidently be considered fragrant. When complaints are made that fragrance has been bred out of lilacs, it is generally cultivars of Syringa vulgaris that are targeted. In view of that assertion, I included in our 1982 sampling two specimens of S. vulgaris that were collected in the wild in the Balkans. The testers gave them grades of 1 and 0.5 (on the scale of 0 to 3), (, which combines to give a mean of 0.75, a number very close to the overall mean for all plants tested that year ~0.84~. Certainly it's fair to say that the fragrance of these two specimens was only average. Some of the cultivars sampled possessed more fragrance, just as some had less. Undoubtedly, the same would be true of individual plants in the wild. The first table below lists selected cultivars of the species Syringa vulgaris and S. x hyacinthiflora, which is a hybrid of S. vulgaris and the earlier blooming S. oblata. Cultivars of S. vulgaris and S. x hyacinthiflora look and smell much the same, the most obvious difference being that S. x hyacinthi flora bloom earlier than S. vulgaris, as much as ten days earlier. The fragrances of the species, hybrids, and cultivars listed in the second table, while generally thought pleasant, differ from the hallmark lilac fragrance. Instead, they are often described as spicier and more pungent. Table 1 The asterisks mark cultivars of the hybrid Syrmga x hyacinthiflora, which is a hybrid of S S. vulgaris and the earlier blooming S oblata. All others are cultivars of vulgaris. I I 27 key: flower type-D: double; S: smgle color-I: white; II: violet; III: blue; IV: hlac; V: pmk; VI. magenta, VII purple 28 Table 2 For Furthex Information on Lilacs John H. Quest for the Perfect Lilac. Arnoldia 49\/2\/: 2-7. This article includes a list of the Alexander, fifty best lilacs for the gardens of New England plus an additional ten favorite uncommon lilacs. III. 1989. The . 1978. The Uncommon some Lilacs-Somethmg Old, Somethmg New. Arnoldia 38~3~: hlacs. 65-81. This article discusses of the less common Acknowledgments Thanks to testers Ellen McFarland, Leshe Oliver and Richard Dwight. The fascmation that hlacs nent. Molly Mason, Michele Krahmer, and Pat Penfield, and to computer aides, the late exert on the Plant Propagator of the Arnold Arboretum appears to have a genetic compoHis great-grandfather, The Dahha King of East Bndgewater, Massachusetts, raised lilacs in his commercial nursery. A generation later, his son, Jack's grandfather, propnetor of Dahliatown m Middleborough, had made hlacs a specialty of his nursery. Jack himself has long been active m many capacities in the International Lilac Society, which has m turn bestowed on him their Director's Award and Award of Ment. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Art and Nature in a Garden: Book Review","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25149","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060ab28.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Art and Nature in a Garden: Book Review Phyllis Andersen The Muses of Gwinn: Art and Nature in a Garden Designed by Warren H. Manning, Charles A. Platt and Ellen Biddle Shipman. Robin Karson. Sagapress in association with The Library of American Landscape History, 1995. 204 pages. Hardcover. $39.95 Gwinn, five miles east of Cleve- land, on a amphitheatre-like bluff overlooking the shores of Lake Erie, is the result of a unique collaboration: a house and garden that involved the design talents of three of the leading lights of the American country place era, the architect Charles Platt (1861-1933) and the landscape architects Warren Manning (1860-1938) and Ellen Shipman (1869-1951).Robin Karson, author of Fletcher Steele, Landscape Architect, has structured her book on Gwinn only to describe the evolution of a beautiful and evocative landscape but to reveal the creative process that wove three very different pomts of view into a coherent whole. Manning, Platt, and Shipman -the Muses of Gwinn-would not A mew through the lilac arch. From The Muses of Gwmn. have been a rather unruly lot without the disci- plined hand of the client, William Mather (1857-1951).Mather, whose fortune was based on Great Lakes shipping, had a consistent vision of his country place and like a true patron gave his designers the opportunity to work out their ideas within a disciplined framework. Inspired by travel and by his indulgence in the collecting impulse that seems to affect most estate build- ers, Mather continued to refine his view of Gwinn over forty years and, to his credit, kept his designers personally engaged with the qual- ity of its effect. Like that of many other founding families of Cleveland, the origmal Mather family home was built on Euclid Avenue. (In 1868 Samuel Clemens called it one of the finest streets in America!) In 1905, at the age of 48, to Mather felt the need leave the city for a 30 Estate plan of Gwmn showmg home grounds and mld garden, 9 May 1914. country house and garden suitable for the expansive life and entertamments that a maturing fortune allowed. Role models included John D. Rockefeller and his Cleveland estate, Forest Hill, and the Cyrus McCormicks and their country home, Walden, in Lake Forest, Ilhnois. Mather, aided by his wife, Elizabeth Ireland, guided the ongoing design and refinement of Gwinn with the firm, gentlemanly deportment that characterized his business dealings and philanthropic endeavors. Karson relates the story of Gwinn using the extensive correspondence between Mather and the designers (none were based in Cleveland), the many extant historic plant lists and photo- graphs, and the extensive coverage Gwinn received in architectural and garden design publications in the second and third decades of this century. The subtle tensions between the formal and naturalistic elements at Gwinn added greatly to the quality of its design. In her introductory essay, Karson reveals the artificial nature of the intense polemic that pitted formal against informal and permeated the writing about architecture and garden design of that period. Current renderings of garden history can also be faulted for relying too strictly on this dichotomy (a legacy of art historical determinism) to categorize designs. In detailing its historic roots, Karson notes that the argument 31 in the late nineteenth century when the work and ideas of Frederick Law Olmsted, who extolled the cultural and environmental superiority of the pastoral landscape, were pitted against the theories of beaux-arts trained designers who were committed to a deliberate symmetry that tightly controlled the house and garden spaces. The Olmsted legacy was championed well into the twentieth century by Manning, Jens Jensen, Wilhelm Miller, and, most visibly, by the writings of Mariana Van Rensselaer and J. Horace McFarland. The formalist camp was filled with architects: McKim, Mead and White, William Welles Bosworth (the architect of the M.I.T campus), Charles Platt. One of the most influential among the latter was Guy Lowell, the architect and son-m-law of Charles Sprague Sargent. Lowell's book, American Gardens1902), traced the history of the formal garden and highhghted such showplaces as the Platt-designed Faulkner Farm in Brookline, Massachusetts. Gwinn was clearly admired for its blend of the two approaches by designers who chose not to take sides. Karson then gives brief biographical studies of the three designers. Here she draws on a recent confluence of biographical work already completed by other scholars, confining her descriptions to facts relevant to their work at Gwinn. Charles Platt, whose career has been documented by Keith Morgan in Charles A. Platt: the Artist as Architect, 1985, is described through his country house work. Ellen Shipman, whose work is soon to be available in a forthcoming book by Judith Tankard (The Gardens of Ellen Biddle Shipman), is given credit for her extensive residential work both m concert with architects and as an mdependent gained momentum designer. Warren Manning produced a significant body of work that spanned two generations of landscape architectural practice. He is the the only figure in this group still lacking a full biographical treatment. From his early association with the office of Frederick Law Olmsted to his estate design work in New England and the Midwest and * * his mnovative work in environmental planning, which predated Ian McHarg's designwith-nature methodology by some sixty years, Manning was a important figure who connected the worlds of ornamental horticulture, planting design, and town planning. Like Olmsted's, the Manning office operated an apprentice program that nurtured the careers of many young landscape architects. Some, like Fletcher Steele and Dan Kiley, would go on to form the core of a modernist approach to landscape design. The Gwinn complex centered on the house designed by Charles Platt in the Italian villa format he adapted so well for American clients. He tied the house to the dramatic site by a series of terraces and stairs and by a long curving seawall. Platt was also responsible for the structure of the formal garden, for its geometric relationships, its ornaments, and its controlled views. Manning, who was brought into the process early to consult on site selection and later returned to consult on planting design, became, in fact, a full partner. He and Platt agreed on the selection of the site, a sheltered cove with a spectacular view of Lake Erie. Manmng evaluated the existing vegetation, a not very promising community of elm, beech, and maples on poor clay soil. He worked with Platt on the planting of the formal garden. Through what Karson calls \"dialogues,\" Manning and Platt proved that planting design is not incidental to architecture but integral to forming the character of a garden. The correspondence to the client from Platt, the refined New York-based architect with European training (\"Platt is all taste\"), (, and from Manning, the nurseryman's son from Reading, Massachusetts, who trained through apprenticeship, is very revealing of their backgrounds and training. Mather's responses in mediating a solution between two slightly diverging views is a lesson for all clients of large projects. Karson suggests that the creative tension between the two designers resulted in some of the most refined parts of the landscape, especially in the transition zones between formal and natural-m the main drive with its double row of American elms underplanted with a on to Manmng's hfe and work, see Lance Neckar, \"Developing Landscape Architecture for the Twentieth Century: The Career of Warren Manning,\" Landscape Journal 8 (Fall 1989~: 78-91. For the best treatment of 32 mass of Viburnum dentatum and in the lilac arch that created a boundary between the formal garden and the lawn. Manning's great contribution to Gwinn were the wild gardens, the first a small bosque adjacent to the formal garden and the second created out of twenty-one additional acres across Lake Shore Boulevard purchased by Mather in 1912 with a view to developing it as \"a species of wild garden.\" The irony, of course, is that the wild gardens were not wild at all, but plantings carefully manipulated by Manning, whose knowledge of plant communities can be dated to his youthful botanizing and to his work on the Flora of Middlesex County (1888). The dense plantings, replaced and realigned over the years, featured masses of rhododendrons, wildflowers, and ferns. Mather used his Great Lakes steamers to transport crates and crates of wildflowers from the upper peninsula of Michigan to Cleveland (iron ore and violets as Karson puts it). Ellen Shipman was brought in as a planting consultant for the formal garden in 1914 and again in the 1930s and 1940s. She produced her characteristic lush and dramatic planting plans, captured here in period photographs. Like much of Shipman's work with herbaceous plants (which are so vulnerable to change), her continuous plantings at Gwinn are no longer extant. How- ever, her extensive plant lists and nursery orders are in the Gwinn archive, making restoration possible. To Karson's great credit she not only documents the work of the designers but that of the gardeners as well. Gwinn's first superintendent, George Jacques, born and trained in England, played an important part in the process. When Jacques died in Lillie Jacques, George's daughter, was 1923, hired on Mannings' recommendation and became the only woman garden superintendent in the world and the only female member of the American Gardeners' Association. She continued her work on the estate until the mid-1930s. As someone who grew up in Cleveland (albeit on the banks of the Cuyahoga River rather than the shores of Lake Erie), I have a distinct picture of Gwinn in my mind's eye despite never having been there. The famous fountain terrace was photographed so often by the local press as the site of social and cultural events that Clevelanders came to identify the term \"garden party\" with Gwinn. Mather died at Gwinn in 1951 at the age of ninety-three. His widow, Elizabeth, died in 1957. Before her death she made arrangements for Gwinn to become a small conference center for nonprofit activities. Hence Gwinn made the transition from private to semipublic use almost forty years ago. The integrity of the garden has been preserved although some of the more labor intensive parts are no longer in their original form. Karson began this work as a case study to guide the present staff through their preservation activities. As a case study the book is a great success, but it is more than this: because of the vividness with which the story is told, Karson renders Gwinn as a living entity-not just another icon in the history of American gardenmaking. gardenmaking Phyllis Andersen is Arboretum. Landscape Historian at the Arnold The Cottonwood Vista (Populus momhfera) m the \"mld garden\" ca. at Gmnn, on Lake Erie near Cleveland, 1930. Photograph courtesy of Gwmn Archmes. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25153","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060b36f.jpg","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum S P R IN G . N E W S - 1 9 9 6 A New Board and Council Robert E. Cook, Director Over the past winter some friends of ours on gathered together several occasions to discuss the creation of a new organization of volunteers to support the work of the institution. These meetings grew out of a recognition that most museums and cultural orgamzauons like the Arboretum enjoy the active involvement of a board of trustees. Such groups have proven immensely helpful in promoting knowledge of the institution's programs and in raising funds for annual operations and capital improvements. No such group exists for the Arboretum. By tradition, the Director has reported to the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Science at Harvard. Since 1989 my boss has been Sally Zeckhauser, Vice President for Administration, who in turn reports to the President. Also by tradition, the Arboretum has had a Visiting Committee appointed by Harvard's Board of Overseers to review the programs and progress of the organization and report back findings to the Overseers every three to five years. Basically, the Visiting Committee performs the vital role of commumcations with the administration of the University. The new creation will begin regular meetings next fall and will At the April meeting of the Arboretum's Visiting Committee, Putnam Fellow Kim Tripp (right) signed copies of her book, The Year in Trees, for Professor Hardy Eshbaugh of Miami University of Ohio (left) and Bob Bartlett of Bartlett Tree Company. Bob Cook stands to Kim's right. Also in the photo, on the library table, is one of the plants of Heptacodium miconioides that were given to committee members. be called the Director's Admsory Board. A group of fifteen to twenty-five individuals will meet through the year to provide counthe Director, recruit new volunteers, and develop strategies for raising funds for annual support and future programs. The Advisory Board will have several to sel standing committees (executive, campaign, nominating), as well as commitees focused on specific programs. Our friends have also recommended the creation of a second, larger body called the Arboretum Council. This group will meet once or twice each year and will of three kinds of members: individuals new to the Arboretum who would like to learn more about its programs before volunteemng the greater commitment required by the Board; individuals with limited time but great interest in the Arboretum; and former members of the Board and the Visiting Committee. If you would like to become more involved in supporung the Arboretum and its programs, perhaps as a volunteer for one of these two new groups, drop me a note or an E-mail. I would enjoy talking with you about the possibilities. consist \"New\" Plants From Kim a New Program at the Arnold Arboretum Director of Tripp, Putnam Fellow, and Peter Del Tredici, Living Collections The Arnold Arboretum is home to 278 acres of woody plants, many of which have proven to be beautiful, stress tolerant, free of serious pests and diseases, unusual, and yet adaptable to modern nursery production and landscape use. In order to make plants with excellent ornamental potential more widely available to nurseries and, eventually, to the gardening public, we have instituted a new Arnold Arboretum plant introduction, promotion, and distribution program. Our goal is to get exceptional woody plants now in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum into the hands of progressive nurseries and other botanical institutions. To achieve this goal, we will be selecting woody ornamentals with good landscape potential from the collecuons for increased promotion and direct distribution. Each year the Living Collections staff will select plants of particular merit and distnbute small Abies young borisii-regis, King Boris fir, develops a uniformly dense habit as tree and keeps good winter color with no bronzing or dieback. formance history Arboretum at a quantities of scions and cuttings to professionals who can then propagate plants for trial and eventual sale to the gardening public. The excellent collections records at the Arboretum has enabled the staff to evaluate performance of these plants over a penod of decades. Extensive records of propagation tr~als, in combination with ongoing propagation work at the Dana Greenhouses, also enable us to offer sound propagation recommendations. Professional horticultural orgamzations and commercial nurseries are invited to subscribe to the Arnold Arboretum Plant Introduction, Promotion, and Distribution Program on an annual basis. Subscribers will be offered: the Arnold An mutation to an annual Subscribers' Propagation Workshop, which will include guided opportunities to collect from much of the Living Collections. Our 1996 selections are Abze.r borzrzz-regz.r, King Boris fir (USDA zone 5), Magnolia grandzflora 'Tulsa', a clone of bull bay magnolia selected by Lester Case of Winchester, Massachusetts (USDA zone 6), and Prunus cyclamzna, cyclamen cherry, a highly ornamental species with unusual reliability (USDA zone 6, possibly 5). Funding generously provided from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust and the Willowwood Foundation has made it possible for us to initiate this new program. If you are a nursery professional or professional horticulturist interested in learning how to participate m the program, please contact Kim Tripp by fax at 617\/524-6413. The very ornamental bark of Prunus cyclamina, cyclamen delivery of scions, cuttings, or seed of exceptional plants in the collections Written reports and plant profiles including: descriptions, propagation and cultural recommendations, and landscape per- Direct cherry. Spring Planting Peter Del 1996 Tredici, Director of Living Collections thing that can be said for certain about this weather is that it has been good for the plants Unlike the past few springs with their below-average precipitation, this one provided subtantial moisture at intervals that seemed to occur every other day. In addition, the cool temperatures in May held the plants back enough to allow the entire list of spring plantings to be dug in before leafing out. Were it not for a surprise snowstorm late in April, 1996 might qualify as a perThe one spring's fect spnng for transplanmag. Among the highlights of the planting season was the completion of the replanting of the Chinese Path area, we added more Corylopsu species, four specimens of Lindera obtuszloba, a young plant of Cbzonantbus retusus (the Chinese fnnge tree), and the relocation of a twentyfoot-tall specimen of Acer trzflorum. The addition of these plants, together with containerized plants to come later this spring, will conclude the renovation of the area, making it not only more beautiful, but also much more accessible to pedestrians. where It on was a particular pleasure to see the new plantings superintendent Patrick Willoughby next Magnolia stellata, in the jaws of a tree spade that has uprooted it for replanting near the Hunnewell Building. Grounds to Hill, which featured numerous accessions of cherries, pears, hawthorns, and crabapples, thereby Peters for future generations of Arboretum visitors. Over the course of the last three area insuring the beauty of that area years, the Peters Hill has undergone a nearly com- plete transformation that will capped with a redesign of the summit sometime in be 1997 these two areas, the rest of the Arboretum was liberally sprinkled with a vanety of In addition to new plants, including maples, new alders, birches, the Cornus florzda x kou.ra hybrids from Rutgers University, oaks, redbuds, ashes, and the disease-resistant cultivar of the American elm, 'Pnnceton'. Perhaps the most unusual specimen planted this year was a hackberry from China, Celtz.r vandervoetzana, which is perhaps the only one of its kind in North America. We hope this new generation of trees will in some measure compensate for the weather-related losses of the past two This specimen of Ulmus americana 'Princeton' has been growing on Bussey Hill since 1935. Scions of this disease-resistant cultivar were among the new spring plantings. years. The Arboretum Becomes a New Stop on the Information Superhighway Chris Strand, Outreach Horticulturist The first page of the Arboretum's World Wide Web site as seen on the computer screen. the Arnold Arborebecame part of the growing community of botanical gardens offering information over the World Wide Web. The web, as it is often abbreviated, is a global computer network that allows users to view images, send electronic mail, read articles, and query databases-all from a personal computer. The Arboretum's new home page is orgamzed by five basic areas of content: living collections, library and archives, membership, public programs, and visitor information. Some of the page's highlights include a library catalog, a On April 1, tum detailed bloom schedule for the Boston area, an inventory of our living collections, course listings summer educational programs, and articles on woody plants and landscape for spnng and design. The World Wide Web is a and potentially powerful way to communicate with new audiences. As of 1995 nearly 10 o million users had accessed the web for information, and it is predicted that over 15 million will access the web in 1996. Most classrooms have or are acquiring connections to the World Wide Web, and our own children's convement education program has begun a project called the Commumty Science Connection that will link sixteen schools to the Arboretum and one another through the World Wide Web. To some of our members, this emphasis on technology may seem somewhat uncharacteristic. Although it is true that our web site was unveiled on April Fool's Day, we are serious in our commitment to find new ways to share the Arboretum with the public. After all, create a we are not proposing to virtual Arboretum-there remains no silicon substitute for walking beneath trees. 0 Annual Fall Plant Sale Lisa Hastings, Development Officer Planmng is well underway for the Arboretum's Annual Fall Plant Sale, which will take place this year on Sunday, September 15, from 9:00 am-1:00 pm at the Case Estates in Weston. One of the premier hortmultural events of the fall season, the plant sale offers distinctive and unusual trees, shrubs, and perennials, many propagated from the Lmmg Collections at the Arboretum. Our largest member event of the year, members receive a free plant dmdend, discounts on all purchases, and early entrance to the sale. A sampling of the plants to be offered this year include: Cornus florzda 'Xanthocarpa', Pzrtacza cbznen.ris, Abelzophyllum dzrtzcbum 'Roseum', Euonymus carnosus, Hyperzcum buckleyz, Ilex vertzczllata 'Winter Gold', Nezllza tl7zbetzca, Prznsepza sznenszs, Clematzr .rerratzfolza, T'ruga dzver,rzfolza, and Spzgelza marzlandzca. A complete plant sale catalog, including plants in the Collector's Choice category, will be mailed to all members in early August. This year's plant sale will also feature the return of the Silent Auction, to take place from 9:00 to 11:15 5 and the Rare Plant Auction at 11:30 am. The auctions, proceeds of which benefit the curation and mainam, tenance of the Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections, will feature rare and unusual plants donated by nurseries located throughout the United States. Finally, plant societies from around New England will participate in Society Row, located in the field and open from 9:00 am-1:00 pm. If you have question about the plant sale or are interested in volunteering, please contact Chris Strand, 617\/524-1718 x 125, or Kara Stepanian, x 129. Mark your calendar and plan to~ozn ur! - In April, a young cork tree (Phellodendron amurensis) was planted near Meadow Road in the former shade of the 121-year-old veteran that fell under the weight of twenty-two sixth-graders last fall. The five-year-old was welcomed with great ceremony, and Winsor School students presented Director Bob Cook with a $300 check to help ensure a long and happy life for the newcomer. Wanted! Needed! Help! The Arnold Arboretum is currently working on a permanent exhibit for the Hunnewell Bmlding that will be unveiled in October. We are searching for two items that are intrinsic to our \"story\": a 1950s-era wheelbarrow in relatively good condition and two or three empty burlap bags-preferably with no marks on one side. If you can donate these items, you will receive a special invitation to the opening along with our heartfelt thanks. Please contact Chris Strand at 617\/524-1718 x 125. Gone West of Education and Public Programs since 1992, has left the Arboretum to undertake the directorship of Descanso Gardens, La Canada Flmtridge, in his native southern California. Descanso boasts the world's largest collection of camellias as well as an outstanding rose collection, but even more interesting botamcally is its native vegetation. This includes an extensive area of chapparal and a pristine woodland of coastal live oak, Quercur agrzfolza, one of the few that are publicly accessible in southern Califorma. Descanso can be visited via the World Wide Web at http. \/\/www.mobot.org\/aabga\/member.pages\/descanso.html\/. Richard came to the Arboretum in 1989 as a Putnam Fellow and quickly took the role of coordinator of the master planning project. He was instrumental in interpreting both the cultural and scientific missions of the Arboretum, and to him goes credit for the National Endowment for the Humamties grants for the development of a permanent exhibit to be unveiled this autumn. Richard has been a much valued colleague; we wish him all the best. We regret to announce that after this issue a name will disappear from the roster of our Edi- torial Committee. Richard Schulhof, Director New Staff ---.- ---- The Development Department at the Arboretum Kara tant. the addition of two new staff members. Kelly Harvey replaces David Sieks as the Membership Assistant. In this newly expanded role, Kelly manages all activities related to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, including new member acquisition, special membership events, and the membership database. She joins us from the Harvard Graduate School of Design, where as office manager she coordinated the school's computer helpdesk. She also brings prior experience in public relations and fundraismg from previous work as circulation assistant of the Harvard University Gazette and as membership assistant for Harvard's Sports Alumni Friends groups. announces Stepanian joins the Arboretum in the newly created position of Development Assis- Kara's activities will focus on our fundraising initiatives including the live and silent auctions at the annual fall plant sale, creating and managing a development database, donor research, and special events. Kara comes to us from Harvard's Graduate School of Arts and Sciences Alumni Association where she worked with the alumni advisory council, planned events, and wrote for the alumni publication. Prior to that, she worked in development for the Seattle Symphony in Washington State. 0 v 1 ~ 1 The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and landscape design. A selection of summer courses is shown here. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, call 617\/524-1718 x 162. Please note that fees shown in boldface are for members of the Arboretum. For information about becoming a member, call 617\/524-1718 x 165. HOR 338 Basic Care for Trees and Shrubs Jo.reph J. Camzllzere 111, Con,rultzng Arborzrt Trees and shrubs are key structural elements in the landscape. Learn the basic techmques used to care for and enhance woody ornamental trees and shrubs, from identifying stresses to pruning and feeding. Session 1: Basic Anatomy and Physiology Understanding tree growth and function Session 2: Evaluating Trees and Shrubs Recognizing the signs and symptoms of insects, diseases, and environmental stresses; applying basic treatment tactics BOT 119 The August Shrubs, and Vines Landscape: Trees, Richard Stomberg, Manager, Harvard Unzverszty Herbarza Glasshouses The ornamental potential of plants in August can be overlooked when heat-dazzled Bostomans concentrate their attention on beaches and vacations. Sopbora ~aponzca, Evodaa danzellzz, and Clerodendrum trzcbotomum will be among the plants explored on this warm-weather walk through the Arboretum. 5 Fee: $12, $15 Saturday, August 17\/ 10:00-noon (DG) Session 3: Proper Care for Maximum Health Pruning, maintaining shrubs at desired sizes, feruhzmg-what to use and when, mulching and root care, preventing mechamcal injury, when to HOR 136 Ornamental Grasses Darrell Probst, Horticultural Consultant and Landscape Deszgner In the diverse world of ornamental grasses exist , call a professional arbonst Fee: ~45, 54 3 Mondays, July 8, 15, 22\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (CE) Planning the Drought-Tolerant HOR 393 Garden Gary Koller, Senzor Hortzculturz.rt, Arnold Arboretum The drought of 1995 took its toll on the gardens of New England and left many gardeners wondering how to proceed. This class will focus on design concepts of xeriscapmg, or planning the garden for greater drought tolerance and less dependence on supplemental irrigation. Participants will look at the concepts of water conservation in the garden, designs that group plants based on watering needs, and plant selections that are both drought tolerant and efficient in water plants gardens of every size and for sunny, shady, wet, and dry locations. Some grasses are so large and dramatic that they can be used as shrubs or specimen planungs; others are miniatures, at home in the small-scale landscape. Their colors form a rainbow of greens, pinks, creams, blues, golds, and whites. This introduction to decorative grasses will focus on these versatile perennials. Fee: $16, $19 Tuesday, August 20\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (CE) suitable for usage. Sessions will include discussion, practical planting layouts, and plant lists, as well as a walk to look at drought-tolerant plants growing collections. in the Arnold Arboretum Fee: $58, $70 3 Wednesdays, July 10, 17, 24\/ 4:00-6:00 pm (DG) 0 Lilacs 1996 A Cause for Celebration Jack Alexander, Arboretum Plant Propagator and lilac specialist, with Outreach Horticulturist Chris Strand. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23506","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0608128.jpg","title":"1996-56-winter","volume":56,"issue_number":1,"year":1996,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nature's Vagaries: The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25146","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060a326.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Forrest, Todd","article_content":"Vagaries: The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections of the Arnold Arboretum Nature's Todd Forrest The result of 1995's ice storm and drought will probably be the decline of many Arboretum plants, but it's all part of the institution's mission to determine the hardiness of native and exotic species. In early August 1995, as meteorologists in Boston crowed about six straight weekends of * perfect beach weather, the leaves of Magnolia macrophylla, Arnold Arboretum accession 1041-70-D, were turning crisp around the edges and rolling inward. By mid-August, after two more weeks of hot, sunny days, the plant's desiccated brown leaves littered the ground on the gentle, east-facing slope by Centre Street. In mid-September, after nearly forty days without appreciable rain, most of the young trees and shrubs planted in the spring had dropped their foliage, the largest specimens of Clethra almfolia were wilted, and the entire collection of Rhododendron calendulaceum looked like it had been torched. When it finally did rain on September 17, the ground was so hard and dry that most of the rainwater ran off immediately and an already scaled-down fall planting was postponed until October. Although this injury disturbs the Arnold Arboretum's staff and visitors, it is in fact an inevitable result of the horticultural Darwinism central to the institution's mission as a place for plant research. The Arboretum's grounds are an outdoor laboratory where woody plants from around the world are tested for their ability to survive the New England climate. In order to facilitate this research, the Arboretum follows a conservative approach to plant maintenance. The vast majority of trees and shrubs are pruned only to remove dead or diseased wood and very The few mature plants are watered or fertilized. While more than 120 years of this management policy has enabled Arboretum horticulturists to determine the hardiness of many exotic species, the knowledge has often come at the expense of individual plants in the collections. Favorite specimens break up in storms, mass plantings succumb to drought and disease, and tender species freeze in colder than average winters. ? With an eye to monitoring plant hardiness, the Arnold Arboretum's staff has always compiled data on the weather. During the early years the curator kept records of severe weather indirectly through the plants file. If a specimen was killed by an early or late frost, suffered storm damage, or died in a drought, he recorded this information on an index card with the plant's accession number, its location on the grounds, and the date of the field check. When Arboretum director Charles Sargent or plant recorder J. G. Jack wanted to know what range of temperature a given species could withstand, they scanned the records of all the individual plants of that taxon and checked for patterns in their survival rates. Sargent and Jack used these data for their \"Notes From the Arnold Arboretum\" column in Garden and Forest-a source of some of the earliest observations of ornamental plant hardiness in American horticulture.' To supplement the indirect weather records kept in the plants file, the greenhouse staff has also kept a log of temperature and precipitation. drought lastmg from February to September was not the only weather record set m 1995. This photo, taken early December, shows a cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus libani~ after one of the storms that helped break the record for the most snowfall before the official start of wmter on 21 December m 4 -, Seven microchmates, descmbed below, are indicated on this map of the Arnold Arboretum. From 1918 to 1946 propagator William Judd recorded daily maximum and minimum temperatures and made brief notes about precipitation and cloud cover. His entries were simple: he kept his comments to the point and fit his observations onto a single line in a small notebook. For example, on 21 September 1938, the day of the most destructive storm in Arboretum history, Judd noted that the minimum and maximum temperatures were 61 and 80 degrees F, respectively, and commented simply, \"rain, terrific hurricane. \"2 In 1934 ecologist Hugh Raup set up thermometers and rain gauges in eight different sections of the Arboretum. His data, interpreted by Alfred Fordham in a 1970 issue of Arnoldia, describe seven microclimates within the Arboretum. (The equipment set up on Peters Hill was stolen one month after the project started.)( 4) protected area on an east-facing slope along Centre Street, now known as the a Centre Street bank 5) 6) 7) a flat spot in the valley where Bussey Brook and a spring converge a protected cove amidst the mature on hemlocks a Hemlock Hill . plateau near the old site of the Bussey on Institution South Street Each of these 15.9 seven zones shows differences in average minimum temperatures (from 10.9 to 1)the slope on the southwestern side of the Administration building, across from the meadow 2) 3) cold, low spot on the northeastern side of Bussey Hill (the site of the present Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants) a open site with good air drainage near the summit of Bussey Hill (the present site of Chinese Path) an by factors such as expodegrees F) sure and air drainage. Using this information, Raup and later Fordham concluded that the Centre Street bank-area number 4-because of its warmth in the winter and its protection from sun and wind, has the microclimate most favorable for marginally hardy specimens.3 Subsequent horticulturists have used Raup's data to choose this and other protected locations where plants might survive the region's worst winters. Like Judd and Raup, Donald Wyman was fascinated by the weather. While working as Horticulturist at the Arboretum from 1935 to 1970, he vigilantly observed and recorded plants' responses to various storms, droughts, and untimely freezes. This information formed the core of his many publications on ornamental caused 5 The Hurricane of 1938 One of the most common notations in the card file of plant records is the phrase \"destroyed in hurricane.\" Over the course of the Arboretum's history, hurricanes have swept through and shaken up the living collections by snapping branches, splintering trunks, and uprooting trees of all sizes. Among the major named hurricanes to hit the Arboretum over the last half century (they weren't given names by the National Weather Service until 1950) were \"Carol\" and \"Edna\" in 1954, \"Donna\" in 1960, and \"Gloria\" in 1985. None of these storms did half the damage caused by an unnamed storm that 1 blew in from the south at about 4:30 p.m., 21 September 1938. This hurricane followed a week of soaking rains that had permeated the ground and raised rivers and streams to on the slope behind the adminisbmldmg. The bmldmg m the background is the Adams Nervme Asylum, and 7udgmg by its toppled chimney, it too suffered from the 87mph wmds of the hurricane of 1938. Devastation tration Fallen trees blockmg South Street after the hurncane of 1938. It took months to clean up the nearly 1500 trees that blew over, and even now, 58 years later, the hurmcane's effects can still be seen throughout the collections. * flood stage, creating unstable soil conditions and making large trees vulnerable to gusting winds of up to 87 miles per hour. By 8:00 p.m., when the wind finally died down, the power was out and trees were strewn across the grounds like pick-up sticks. In total, 1490 Arboretum trees were blown down in a matter of four hours, mspiring a new phase of planting and-despite the temporary devastation-ultimately reinvigorating the collections. * Information on the hurricane of 1938 comes from three sources: Ida Hay's book Science m the Pleasure Ground, William Judd's weather records in the Arnold Arboretum Archives, and the Arboretum's Bulletm of Popular Information, senes 4, volume 8~1940~. 6 and aided in the development of the Arnold Arboretum hardiness map, the precursor to the current USDA hardiness map. Wyman observed the effects of harsh weather on plant groups such as rhododendrons, conifers, and legumes. His articles gave gardeners a sense of which plants could survive not only the \"normal\" weather for the region, but also the occasional extremes that must be factored into any functional description of hardmess. In a 1945 article about winter injury suffered by rhodo- plants making general comparisons. According to Lautzenheiser's reports, the past three summers have been warmer and drier than usual, but this trend has been interrupted by typical New 5 England inconsistencies and exceptions. 1995: The Year in Review Nineteen a ninety-five was a remarkable year for reasons: number of from 1 December 1994 dendrons, Wyman wrote: If there out as is any one factor which can be singled being responsible for the m~ury, it might well be the rainfall, or better, the rainfall and the through 28 February 1995, average temperatures were 3 degrees warmer (making the average mark 33.9 degrees F and mterfering with the dormancy of many plants) and there were 17.2 inches less snow than normal. Nineteen ninety-five had the driest January 1 through September 16 on record with only 16.87 inches of precipitation-roughly 12 inches less than normal-depriving plants of essential moisture throughout the entire growing season. October was 3.6 degrees warmer and had 3.12 inches more precipitation than usual, inspiring new growth in plants that had gone dormant in snowfall.... Dunng November and December of 1943 there was a rainfall of only 3.15 inchesless than half the normal amount for those two months. By November there was already a 5 inch deficit in the rainfall. Hence the rhododendrons went into the winter (after the soil had frozen) in a very dry condition. With practically no snow cover, and evaporation of water from the soil surface throughout the winter, the situation aggravated. `~ Wyman used his observations to make recommendations for planting, caring for, and protecting those species he found prone to damage was under unfavorable conditions. Perhaps his best advice was to avoid planting broadleaved evergreens in southwest-facing locations where they might suffer both m summer and in wmter. On 15 August 1962, the Arnold Arboretum became an official substation of the National Weather Service. Every morning at around 8:00 a.m., a member of the greenhouse staff reads a rain gauge and a maximum\/minimum thermometer to gather data for climatologist R. E. Lautzenheiser. Each January, Lautzenheiser produces a comprehensive summary of the past year's weather, including a historical perspective, part of which is printed in Arnoldia. Although Lautzenheiser's observations are primarily based on data from Boston's official weather station at Logan Airport (which tends to have more precipitation and to be slightly warmer in the wmter and cooler in the summer than the Arboretum), those data are similar enough to the Arboretum's to be useful in drought. Late November and December brought a record snowfall of 28 early inches, doubling the total for the entire winter of 1994-1995. Added to these deviations from normal weather patterns was the siren storm that coated the Arboretum in ice for six days in early March. This spectrum of extreme weather made extra work for the grounds staff over the course of 1995, and though it might take a few years to determine the extent of the injury sustained by plants in the living collections, it gave the institution ample opportunity to further its investigations of plant hardiness and drought tolerance. Mild Winter In early December 1994, after four days of mean temperatures of above 50 degrees F, curator Stephen Spongberg toured the collections to see how the plants were responding to the unseasonable warmth. Walking on the west side of Bussey Hill, he noticed a specimen of Lonicera standishii f. lancifolia in full flower. Although in warmer climates this species may flower in winter, at the Arnold Arboretum it has traditionally flowered in early spring. In fact, in \"Notes From the Arnold Arboretum\" in the 23 response to the 7 graph showing normal monthly precipitation (m inches) m Boston and the actual amounts for 1995 at the Arnold Arboretum and Logan Airport The subtle differences m rainfall between the two locations result from a combination of proximity to the ocean (Logan is closer) and elevation (the Arboretum is higher). A May 1888 issue of Garden and Forest, J. G. Jack mentioned that this taxon was flowering in early May.6 Aware of the opportunity to see variation in the flowering time of similar species, Spongberg initiated a winter-long, weekly patrol of the grounds to search for other plants flowering out of sequence. This search was fruitful: fully fourteen taxa, from Chaenomeles japonica to Viburnum farreri 'Candidissima', flowered in December, with many continuing to flower intermittently throughout the winter and into the spring. The winter of 1994-1995 was also remarkable for its lack of snow. There was only one significant storm (6.5 inches on February 4), and the total snowfall for the season was 14.4 inches-6.7 inches less than Boston received in just the month of December 1995 alone. These mild temperatures and lack of snow relief to some after the very cold and wet winter of 1993-1994. Anyone who spent that winter in New England remembers the relentless snow, high winds, and cold temperatures that arrived in December 1993 and stayed through March 1994. With 96.3 inches of snow recorded at Logan Airport (about 57 inches more than average), that winter surpassed the previous record of 89.2 inches set in 1947-1948.7 In 1965-1966, a season with two feet less snow than either of the winters mentioned above, Donald Wyman wrote about the effects of heavy snow on the living collections. In his article, Wyman discussed the potential damage from the weight of wet snow on densely branched plants and recommended that gardeners concerned about their plants go out with \"a bamboo cover came as a 8 Plants that flowered in winter Chaenomeles japonica \/Japanese flowering quince) Chaenomeles speciosa 'Nivalis' (Nivalis flowering quince) Euonymus bungeanus v. semipersistans (Winterberry euonymus) Tasminum nudiflorum (Winter jasmine) Lonicera standishii f. lancifolia (Narrowleaf Standish honeysuckle) Magnolia kobus (Kobus magnolia) Prunus nipponica (Takane cherry) Prunus subhirtella v. ascendens (Weeping cherry) Prunus subhirtella v. autumnalis (Autumn-flowering cherry) Rosa'Seafoam' (Seafoam rose) Spiraea x arguta (Garland spirea) Syringa vulgaris 'Princess Marie' (Princess Marie lilac) Viburnum x . bodnantense 'Dawn' Viburnum farreri 'Candidissima' a broom, or rake\"8 and tap the snow off threatened branches. He does caution against being too rough-one might make matters worse for the tree-but neglects to warn against standing directly beneath the tree being swept. pole, The Ice Storm February 1995, as a light rain fell on Boston, the temperature dropped 10 degrees overnight. The next day the Arboretum was glazed in ice. Typically, ice from a storm like this melts quickly as the sun comes out and the temperature rises, but in this case cold, overcast days prolonged the effect for a full week, ending on March 8, when the temperature rose to 67 degrees. This unusual phenomenon was a boon to photographers but destructive to the living collections. For as long as the ice remained on the trees, they were susceptible to breaking in the wind or snapping under their own weight. Indeed, the curatorial staff recorded that nearly sixty trees had to be removed or pruned heavily, and countless more lost leaders, branches, and buds to the shearing weight of the ice. Since the damage often occurred high in the crowns of trees and was not always obvious, it has been On 28 The ice storm m early March 1995 was destructive yet the trees for six days, causing an off-season peak m to capture the dazzling effects on film. difficult to find and repair. Over time rot will set in on the jagged breaks, followed by disease, creating problems that will be visible for twenty years or more. Among the notable wounded were Acer diabolicum, AA 2625-A, collected by Charles Sargent in Japan in 1892 and planted near Willow Path, and two mature specimens of Franklinia alatamaha, AA 2428-3-A and C, growing on Chinese Path. Drought As mentioned ary above, 1995 had the driest Januthrough September in 125 years of record keeping. The dearth of snowmelt in the spring and of rainfall throughout the entire growing season had an immediate and visible effect on living collections. Plants initially raised in containers were especially hard hit: containergrown plants are more likely to experience the because of their constrained root systems and differences in drainage between the soil in the containers and in the ground where they are planted. Most of the Arboretum's one- and two-year-old plantings dropped their leaves by August and many subsequently died. By early September even well-established plantings stress beautiful. A thm on msitauon as layer of perfectly clear ice remamed photographers from all over Boston tried 9 10 the leaves of many trees wilted, dropped prematurely, and fruit production was reduced in nearly all species. The rain that came in late September and stayed throughout the fall perked up the collections a bit, but it also inspired some plants, dormant in response to the drought, to put on new growth. This tender new growth did not get a chance to harden off and was killed in early November as temperatures dropped below freezing on two successive nights. Viewed alone, the 1995 drought was destructive; combined with a wet fall and the subsequent frost, it could prove to have been devastating. Mature specimens of Styrax obassia are among the Arboretum's most handsome plants. Unfortunately, this species suffered conspicuously from the combination of last year's dry summer and wet fall. The foliage of AA 150077-A and B dried out in mid-July, roughly one month after flowering, and the desiccated leaves remained on the trees until the second week of September. No new growth occurred during this time and very few fruits developed, a sign the trees had gone dormant. In the early fall, a significant amount of rain fell and the average temperature was about three degrees warmer than normal. These were perfect conditions for new growth, and the trees responded by dropping their dead leaves, putting out new foliage, and showed signs of some stress: The overwmtenng flowerbuds of the prmcess tree (Paulownia tomentosa), encased m ice, testify to the attractions of the ice storm; at top, breakage in the collections shows its destructive side. In fact, 1500-77-A was flowering on November 11, five months out of schedule, when a hard frost killed all of its succulent new growth. The drought was doubly damaging to specimens of Styrax obassia. Kept from producing enough photosynthates over the course of the summer, the plants went dormant; forced out of dormancy in the fall they were slammed with a hard frost. It will be interesting to see how these trees will respond this coming spring. This was not the first time Arboretum plants have experienced a combination of drought followed by deluge. After a wet and stormy 1938, the summer of 1939 was very dry. Only .34 inches of rain fell in July of that year, as opposed to 11.10 inches in July 1938.9 Exasperated by this broad difference, Donald Wyman wrote about the condition of lilacs, rhododendrons, and viburnums in the living collections and be- flowering. 11 1 moaned the unpredictability of New England weather. \"[I]t would seem,\" he wrote, \"that the plants in eastern Massachusetts are being subjected to all the vagaries which an unpredictable Nature can provide in the short period of one year.\"' His complaint did not go unanswered: after three months of drought, it rained heavily throughout August 1939, adding yet another loop to the climatic roller coaster Arboretum plants are forced to ride. Plant Response Of course, lack of snowmelt and rainfall relate to the amount of available water, and as any gardener who has neglected to water his plants knows, it is axiomatic that plants need water to survive. In an herbaceous plant, response to drought is obvious and immediate: plant cellsdeprived of the water that provides the mternal pressure to keep their cell walls rigid-collapse, and the plant wilts. Trees and shrubs, supported by woody cells used for water storage and transport, show a more subtle response, generally suffering only leaf scorch, wilting, or, in the worst cases, defoliation. When the soil is moist, fine feeder roots just below the soil surface take up water through osmosis. This water, powered by evaporation from a plant's leaves, flows in a steady stream from the roots, through the trunk and branches and to the leaves where it is used in photosynthesis and to maintain cell pressure. During a drought, transpiration occurs at a rate faster than the uptake of water from the soil, causing leaves to dry out and interrupting photosynthesis and sugar production. If drought conditions persist, severe water loss will interrupt normal growth, increase susceptibility to insects and disease, and upon the destruction of enough actively growing cells, cause death. Why are some species better able to withstand drought than others? Some plants, particularly those native to arid climates, have developed measures to conserve water. Obvious examples are succulents and cacti with waxy, water-conserving surfaces and a large portion of each of their cells dedicated to water storage. To prevent the water and nutrients absorbed from moist soil from leaching back out when the soil dries, the root cells of nearly all plants use a recently planted hickory (Carya sp.)showing the full effects of six months with less than normal precipitation. By September, the majority of new plantmgs were equally desiccated, and many will need to be replaced A combination of a slimy coating called mucigel on their exterior surfaces, a waxy coating called suberin on their interior surfaces, and a complex system of membranes that works like a one-way valve. Drought conditions mspire some plants to close the stomata on the undersides of their leaves during the heat of the day, reducing the intake of carbon dioxide and, therefore, the rate of photosynthesis and water consumption. Similarly, broadleaved evergreens curl their leaves during hot, dry weather and severe cold spells to reduce the surface area exposed to sun and slow the rate of transpiration. In winter, when the soil freezes and roots can't absorb 12 water, deciduous trees in temperate regions drop their leaves and go dormant just as some limited to immediate effects like wilting leaves, reduced fruit production, and premature are dry-seasonal tropical trees drop their leaves to conserve water during the annual dry period. Cultivated trees and shrubs are more prone to drought damage than those occurring naturally. In an artificial landscape like the Arnold Arboretum, human error in matters such as siting may expose plants to conditions that exceed the capacities of their natural defenses. Hardy, moisture-loving plants like willow or alder will suffer during a dry period if placed on a welldrained slope but will do well if planted where the water table is high. Given this potential for error, Arboretum horticulturists must look carefully at specimens in a variety of sites on the grounds in order to make useful judgments about a species' drought tolerance. Since it is impossible to ascertain the longterm physiological effects of drought based on one season of observation, the measures of plant response leaf fall. Depending on soil type and exposure, the location of plantings within the Arboretum either limited or compounded the injury caused this past year by the lack of water. Ironically, the area by Centre Street considered to be the most favorable for planting cold-tender specimens turned out to be the location hardest hit by this year's drought. Nearly all taxa growing there showed some degree of damage, including Clethra alnifolia, Stewartia spp., Magnolia macrophylla, Rhododendron calendulaceum (previously thought to be the most droughttolerant azalea), and Styrax obassia. In contrast, the native and naturalized plants growing in wooded areas (Caryaspp., Quercus alba, Tsuga canadensis, Betula lenta, Acer spp.) showed less severe signs of stress-they are adapted to the extremes of this climate. The area near the s 13 Plants that resisted the effects of the Aesculus turbinata ~ drought of 1995 Magnolia fraseri (Fraser magnolia) Magnolia salicifolia (Anise [or willow-leaved] magnolia) Poliothyrsis sinensis Sorbus yuana (Yu's mountain ash) Viburnum rhytidophyllum (Leatherleaved viburnum) In general, (Japanese horsechestnut) Aralia californica (California aralia) Bumelia languinosa (Woolybucket bumelia) Chionanthus retusus (Chinese fringe tree) Enkianthus perulatus (White enkianthus) ponds, including the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants and the legume collection, presented a puzzle: by late August, as the ponds became puddles, plants growing adjacent to the as Hamamelis virginiana and Nyssa sylvatica-had dropped their leaves roots, shrubs, handicapped by their shallow performed worse than trees. The table on species that showed signs of stress page 12 lists water-such regardless of where they were planted. While as a whole the living collections looked listless all summer, some taxa showed little or no negative effects of the dry weather. This was due to factors such as the plant's native habitat or, in the case of cultivars, improved selection. A notable example of drought-tolerant plants was a group of crabapple cultivars (Malus spp.)( while those of the same species planted twenty feet away on higher, drier ground maintained their vigor throughout the summer. Drawing conclusions from the condition of individual specimens in the living collections is not always straightforward. While most Arboretum plants are left to fend for themselves, there are some exceptions to this tough-love approach. To ease the transition from the nursery to the grounds, all new plantings are watered during their first two growing seasons. Given the intensity of last year's drought, the fall 1994 and spring 1995 plantings would have needed more watering than usual to survive. Limited by the size of the Arboretum and the 500-gallon capacity of our water wagon, the grounds staff could not water them sufficiently to counteract the effects of the drought. Most of these plants suffered conspicuous injury and many will need to be replaced or severely pruned. Conversely, the lilac collection, the Hunnewell Building landscape, and the Bradley collection are served by an irrigation system and were watered throughout the summer; therefore, no valid conclusions could be drawn from the condition of plants in those locations. However, the vast majority of the collections were not watered, and many established plants showed some degree of wilting, leaf scorch, or retarded growth. nese Chionanthus retusus (Chmese fringe tree) on ChiPath. In spite of the drought, 1995 was a good year for this plant It flowered profusely in May and was covered with bnght blue fruits m September, makmg this a good plant for fairly dry sites. 14 generously donated Nursery in in March 1995 by Schmidt Oregon. These plants retained their foliage throughout the summer and actually showed a little growth. As staff waited nervously to see how mature pines, spruces, and firs would respond to the lack of rain, they were amazed to see that the majority of the comfer collection held its own-little immediate damage could be seen. Other trees and shrubs that demonstrated resilience regardless of where they were planted are listed on the preceding page. This table is meant to supplement traditional lists of drought-tolerant species (Flint 1983, Wyman 1986) and mcludes only trees and shrubs not already widely recommended for planting in dry sites. If the weather sometimes seems engineered to aggravate horticulturists, it also permits us to learn more about the plants we grow. Bad weather has played an important role in shaping the Arnold Arboretum, both as a scientific institution and a public landscape. In some ways the Arboretum is a sustainable landscape: limited by insufficient irrigation and the size of the collections, the grounds staff cannot go to heroic lengths to protect plants from drought and cold, which leaves only those species tough enough to make it on their own. This laissez-faire management, along with a history of detailed weather and plant records, has aided the institution in its research by enabling Arboretum horticulturists to determine of the hardiness of many exotic species. According to the records, the spring and summer of 1995 were the driest in 125 years of record keeping-by far the most extreme year in the recent cycle of drought. The plants in the living collections showed a spectrum of responses to the lack of water, providing the opportunity to make some generalizations about their hardiness. Since the makeup of the living collections is always changing, these experiments never become redundant and new information is added with every new storm or drought. It is too fruits of Sorbus yiiana, Aesculus turbinata, and Poliothyrsis sinensis. These species held up well during the drought of 1995 and should be considered for plantmg m sunny, well-dramed sites. The manent early to know the extent of the perdamage from last year's weather, but the cumulative result of the ice storm and drought will probably be the decline of many 15 plants in the Arnold Arboretum's living collections. In any case, the grounds staff and interns will be busy planting and pruning next year, perpetuating the tradition of testing woody plants for their ability to endure the inevitable onslaught of \"Nature's vagaries.\" Endnotes 1 the amount of precipitation the amount for the Arnold can see how similar (but not identical) these amounts are. Using Fordham's article as a guide, one might infer that just as different sections of the Arboretum show different average minimum temperatures, they also might show variation in rainfall. One could investigate microclimates ad nauseum, and in order to avoid this I have chosen to use the statistics from Logan. 30(5\/. 191. Looking at recorded Logan Arboretum, one at versus Garden and Forest, edited by Charles Sargent and 7 1888 to 1897, was a botamcal and horticultural catchall. It included a mix of articles published from about J. G. Jack, Garden and Forest (1888\/ I. 154. landscape architecture, timber management, public policy, and garden history as well as descriptions of cultivated and wild plants. 2 8 Once again, R E. Lautzenheiser provided these figures. 9 D. Wyman, Arnoldia (1966) 2G( 12. Wyman, Bulletm of Popular Information (Arnold Series 4, VII (9~. 41. W. J. Judd, Arnold Arboretum Archives. The Arboretum's archives are a storehouse of information io D. the history pertaining not only but to the history of American horticulture, botany, and forestry. I found William Judd's notebooks next to old accession books, above Charles Sargent's personal correspondence, and across from E. H. Wilson's photographs of his travels through China. Given the well-orgamzed, comprehensive nature of the archives, it was very easy to construct a history of recording the weather at the Arnold Arboretum. to of this institution Arboretum), ~' Ib~d. References Flint, Hay, H. L. 1983. Landscape Plants for Eastern North Amenca NY: John Wiley & Sons. 1. 1995. Science m the Pleasure Ground Boston: Northeastern Umversity Press. D. 1988. Plant Anatomy. Menlo Park, Benjamin Cummings. CA: - 3 A. J. Fordham, Arnoldia (1970) 30(5). 186-193. Fordham's article provides a detailed description of the variations in minimum temperatures at each of these locations given a range of different wind conditions and cloud cover. It also describes the differences in temperatures and amounts of precipitation between the Arnold Arboretum Weather Station and Logan Airport. ' Mauseth, J. Smclam, Wyman, W. A. 1987. The Diseases of Trees and Shrubs Ithaca, NY: Cornell Umversity Press. D. 1986. The Donald Wyman. Arnoldia (1944\/ 4~ 4\/: 19. Encyclopedia of Gardening NY: Macmillan 5 Mr. Lautzenheiser's work is a weather watcher's dream. He produces monthly and annual reports with detailed information about cloud cover, degree days, precipitation, and temperature. See page 36 of this issue for the 1995 summary of weather data. see Zimmerman, M. H. 1983. Xylem Structure and the Ascent of Sap. Berhn: Sprmger-Verlag. ~ Once again, microclimate at Alfred Fordham's article on the Arnold Arboretum, Arnoldia Todd Forrest maintains the Arnold Arboretum. plant records system for the 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hardy Asian Alders","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25144","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15e8928.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Tripp, Kim E.","article_content":"Hardy Asian Alders Kim E. Tripp The alder, whose fat shadow nourishethEach plant set neere him long flourisheth. -William Browne, 1613, Brittania's Pastorals, Book I, Song 2 About thirty-five species of Alnus are found around the world, all of them in the northern hemisphere with the single exception of A. acuminata, which extends below the equator into Andean South America (Furlow 1979a, b). Among the alders are some of the most cold hardy of broadleaved trees, including shrubby species in subarctic regions as well as numerous species adapted to cool mountain climates. They are most often found growing on poor soils, especially in wet conditions, and will thrive where many other woody plants cannot.' The search for new and unusual plants with handsome ornamental character and reliable landscape performance is as old as horticulture itself. The peak period of plant exploration may have passed with the likes of E. H. Wilson in the earlier part of this century, but at the Arnold Arboretum new plants from around the world are still being added to the living collections and evaluated as ornamentals. Potential new ornamentals must meet a demanding set of criteria before being declared good landscape plants. They should thrive in diverse landscapes under conditions of low maintenance, with minimal supplemental water and fertilizer. They should be reasonably drought tolerant and suffer no significant pest or disease problems. They must be easy to propagate using standard nursery techniques and grow rapidly enough to be commercially profitable. Obviously they must also possess attractive ornamental features, preferably several for multiseason interest-showy flowers, fruit, fall color, attractive winter habit or bark color, or handsome foliage with useful shade or evergreen characteristics. The great wonder of the woody plant world is the number of new plants that are continually being found to meet these criteria-either as brand-new finds from the wild or from breeding programs, or as rediscoveries from the forgotten corners of gardens and landscapes. In the latter category, one neglected but fascinating genus holds extraordinary promise for demanding modern landscapes-the genus Alnus, or alder. The Genus Alnus Alders are of interest biologically, botanically, and ecologically. The genus comprises an ancient group of deciduous trees and shrubs in the Betulaceae (birch family), of which the closely related Betula and Alnus may be considered the most primitive members (Furlow 1979a). The Latin name Alnus is variously believed to derive from the classical Latin verb alo (to nourish, probably referring to its usual close association with water); or from the Celtic al (near) and lan (riverbank) (Furlow 1979a). Indeed, Alnus are most often found growmg in moist or wet habitats-in or near streams, rivers, ponds, lakes, swamps, wetlands, and on moist slopesbut some species inhabit moderately dry upland sites, and others can grow in a range of environments from very wet to relatively dry. They are most often found at low to middle elevations, but a few notable exceptions climb nearly to timberline. This pair of Manchuman alders (Alnus hmsuta) along Willow Path at the Arnold Arboretum makes a handsome feature m the wmter landscape 18 8 which bears nodding pistillate catkins.)One related group of alders, the A. subgenus Clethropsis (A. maritima, nepalensis, A. mtidaJ, flowers in the fall, while all the others flower in the spring. As seed develops, \"female\" catkins mature into small dry infructescences, oval in shape, with many woody scales enclosing singleseeded, narrowly winged nutlets that are later dispersed by wind and These infructescences resemble those of birches when young, but whereas the infructescences of Alnus are woody and persist after the seed matures, those of birches are papery and fall apart. Alders' pistillate catkins can develop into mature infructescences even when seed has not been fertilized; in that case, the seed develops into an empty, shrunken nutlet. There is some evidence of limited development of viable seed without fertilization through a process known as apowater. mixis (Furlow 1979a, Santamour 1995). Whether filled with viable seed or not, mature alder infructescences look very much like the diminutive true cones of a conifer. On most alders of flowering age (at least two years old), the spent \"cones\" are conafter the The refmed silhouette of Alnus japonica is lovely in all four spicuously persistent long seed has fallen, producing a delicate seasons of the year. ornamental feature as well as a disLike other members of the Betulaceae, alders tinctive field-key character. These attractive are monoecious, bearing separate staminate infructescences are sometimes gold plated and sold as jewelry. and pistillate (\"female\") catkins, or (\"male\") on the same tree. (Catkins are compact aments, Perhaps the most fascinating aspect of alder of individual flowers in a single biology is the ability of all species to \"fix\" atmoaggregates structure, like the staminate \"tassles\" of oak.) spheric nitrogen in a process analogous to that of leguminous plants like beans and peas. Fixing Both staminate and pistillate catkins develop in the axils of the leaves or as the terminal bud. nitrogen is the process of converting atmoStaminate flowers mature on pendent catkms spheric nitrogen into a form usable by plants and other biota. This unusual ability enables similar to those of birches, while the small pistillate catkins are for the most part relatively alders to pioneer successfully on sites of low fererect and less conspicuous at time of flowering. tility, where over time they contribute signifiis Alnus firma var. multinervis, cant nitrogen to the soil, principally as leaf litter (An exception 19 As a result, Alnus is often of the first species to establish itself after fire, clear cutting, volcanic activity, or other disturbances to forest environments (Furlow 1979a~. Its vigorous growth can prevent or significantly inhibit colonizing by other plants, both wild and cultivated. For example, following the eruption of Mt. St. Helen's, vigorous hybrid poplars (PopulusJ were planted on mudflows caused by the eruption. Alnus rubra (red alder) seedlings rapidly established themselves naturally on these sites, however, outgrowing the Populus and other species to the extent that after six years the stands on the mudflows were 93% Alnus (Binkley et al. 1994). Alders' nitrogen-fixing ability has also been used to advantage for many years in mine spoil reclamation (Tarrant 1968). (. Their ability to fix nitrogen combined with their rapid growth rate also permits alders to outperform other species in managed environments, sometimes in an undesirable way. For example, in the northwestern United States, (Binkley et al. 1994). one are The graceful fohage and catkms of Alnus japonica lllustrated in this drawmg by C E Faxon. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum native Alnus rubra was historically eradicated from recently harvested and disturbed sites by commercial forestry managers who considered it a weed in competition with high-value conifers. More recently, red alder's rapid growth and its ability to produce biomass on marginal sites is receiving the recognition it deserves, and its use-both as a \"nurse crop\" to provide nitrogen for higher value crops and as a primary crop whose wood value is itself on the increase-is now a major subject of research in United States forestry science (Hibbs et al. 1994). Hardy Asian Alders of Ornamental Potential From a horticultural standpoint, the alders' ability to fix nitrogen and to thrive in wet soils The bold foliage and catkms of Alnus hirsuta are drawn m fme detail by C. E. Faxon. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. makes them a natural choice for many difficult sites with low fertility. The horticultural merit of ornamental alder species has been far more widely appreciated in Europe, Asia, and western North America than in the eastern United 20 States, possibly because the alders native to those areas include handsome, full-sized trees. In contrast, the alders native to eastern North America are generally a shrubby, disheveled lot-biologically tough and ecologically important, but less than aesthetically pleasing. This has given the entire genus an undeservedly poor reputation in the eastern half of the United States, where the vigor and attractiveness of Alnus could make an important contribution to gardens and other landscapes. European species like Alnus glutinosa and A. cordata are already widely grown in Europe and the United States and each has notable cultivars. The Asian alders, on the other hand, have received little attention, although they include some of the most beautiful taxa of the genustaxa with rapid growth rates, no significant pest or disease problems, and useful degrees of cold hardmess. Rather than attempt to treat all of the approximately thirty-five alder species in an article of this scope, I have chosen to discuss only hardy Asian alders of particular horticultural merit-plants which, unlike their European cousins, have been neglected as specimen, shade, and street trees. Herein, \"Asian\" refers to the regions inclusive of China, Japan, Korea, Sakhalin, the Kuriles, Kamchatka, and the eastern and central regions of the former USSR (that is, Russia's non-European regions); while \"hardy\" refers to plants that will survive and grow in areas with winters at least as severe as those of USDA hardiness zone 6. Many alders fall into that nebulous category of \"large shrubs or small trees,\" depending on where they are growing and on whether they have been pruned to one or a few main trunks. Many species that grow at both low and high The Other Asian Alders Two * categories of Asian alders are not included in this article: the ornamental but not hardy, and the hardy but not ornamental. Some species, like the beautiful Alnus subcordata of the Caucausus, which is widely grown in Europe, and the recently named white-barked A. glutinosa ssp. betuloides, fall into the former group (Ansin and Ozder 1993). Also in that category are the tender but lovely A. formosana and A. orientalis and the unique but only semihardy A. cremastogyne of China that bears its \"cones\" on long pendent peduncles. In the second group are hardy Asian alders that are of botanical, if not horticultural, interest. Alnus trabeculosa is a small to medium tree of southeastern China and, rarely, Japan (Ohwi 1965). Its foliage is oval and narrows abruptly to a distinctively long, nearly round with a notched apex be 4 to 5 inches in diameter, the size of teacup saucers. Leaf size and shape are fairly variable. Its close relative, A. matsumurae, is a medium-sized tree (occasionally shrubby in the high mountains) that is similar to A. fauriei, which has an overlapping range in Japan but which grows up into are often can and A. higher elevations (Ohwi 1965, Sargent 1916). fruticosa is the common, widely dispersed, shrubby alder of northeast China, Mongolia, European Russia, and much of the former USSR (including Siberia). It is a plant range of soils and pointed apex. A. fauriei shrub or grows as a large northern and central Japan (Ohwi 1965). The foliage of this species is its most distinctive feature. Leaves small tree in * of great tenacity that thrives in an incredible conditions, from wet lowlands to alpine scree (Hulten and Fries 1986). Some botanists assign A. fruticosa to the genus Duschekia (noted under A. maximowiczii, Shemberg 1992), while others elevate the populations found on the Kamchatka peninsula to a different Alnus species, A. kamtschatica (Czerepanov 1995, Voroshilov 1966, 1982). See Krussman ~1984) and The of the entire genus. Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardemng1992) for overviews 21 elevations usually grow as trees but are shrubby at the highest elevations in their range (for example, Alnus hirsuta, A. matsumurae\/. Most of the species described below develop as trees of various heights and dimensions; an exception is the shrubby A. maximowiczii, which is included for its horticultural potential. I have included the USDA hardiness zones in which the plants are likely to survive. With few exceptions, the germplasm of these species now grown in the United States originated from propagules of relatively limited geographic provenance. No doubt cold hardiness for most of these species could be improved by future collections from their coldest provenances. The ornamental attributes of Asian alders are quiet and subtle but nonetheless effective in the landscape. None have dramatically showy flowers, but some have eyecatching and colorful catkins in spring. None have fall color, but all have persistent catkins that are delicately attractive. The arboreal alders also have very handsome winter architecture of diverse types, and some have beautiful, beech-like bark. Alnus firma, native to Japan, is a deciduous, multi-trunked tree of small to medium size, or occasionally a large shrub, that can reach 40 feet in the wild but is generally seen in cultivation at heights of 15 to 25 feet, depending on habit. It has a narrow, graceful spread with somewhat pendent branches, and its foliage is among the loveliest of any deciduous tree. Its glossy, emerald green leaves, about 2 inches wide and 4 inches long, are regularly, slenderly oval and deeply veined. When emerging, the foliage appears pleated and is as attractive as when fully expanded. Hardmess of this species varies widely by provenance and is reliable through USDA zone 7, but its subspecies are generally hardy through zone 6. In the wild, A. firma is usually found in wet sites near water and does best with full sun or light shade in moist to wet soils that do not dry out significantly. In containers, however, it tolerates moderately uneven watering with no adverse effects in the Northeast. Alnus firma var. hirtella is also native to Japan and resembles the typical variety except for a dense orange to light tan pubescence on the The silvery gray bark of Alnus hirsuta is ornamental m wmter. leaves and twigs. The degree of pubescence varies somewhat but where it is heavy, it is quite showy. A. firma var. multinervis (sometimes named A. pendula) is native to Japan, Korea, and eastern Asia. It differs from other A. firma taxa in bearing more numerous pairs of veins on the leaves, a trait that adds to its ornamental character. Its pistillate catkins are nodding or pendent, in contrast to the more erect catkins of other species-a characteristic that has been the basis for elevating this taxon to the species level (A. pendula) by some authors (Ohwi 1965). (. As a small ornamental tree, Alnus firma var. multinervis offers graceful habit, exceptionally handsome foliage throughout the growing season, persistent infructescences of delicate ornamental character, and unstoppable tenacity in 22 sites of low fertility. Growth is rapid in containers and in the field. A. firma var. multmervis exquisite small tree for large pocket parks or urban squares, or a lovely lawn tree for small, low-fertility suburban lots where the topsoil has been stripped. an might make containers in Alnus hirsuta (Manchurian alder) is a large deciduous tree reaching 50 to 80 feet in the wild and, with age, similar heights in cultivation. It has an upright, uniform, pyramidal habit similar to that of mature A. glutinosa. Its leaves are rounded to broadly ovate, about 3 inches wide and 3 to 4 inches long, variably toothed and pubescent. The foliage retains a good, grass-green color throughout the season, while the spent infructescences are prolific and persist attractively through the winter. Bark color is quite variable, ranging from a warm, light silvery gray to brown-charcoal, and it can be as ornamental as that of European and American beeches (Fagus sylvatica and F. grandlfolia). A. hirsuta is hardy through at least USDA zone 4, but the provenance of wide-ranging species like this one can significantly affect cold hardiness; more collecting and testing is needed to determine whether plants from its northernmost provenance are significantly more cold hardy than Zone 4. This species and its botanical varieties are widely distributed throughout Russia (including Siberia, the Amur region, Sakhalin, Kamchatka, and the Kuriles), and in Manchuria, Japan, and parts of Korea (Kabanov 1937). In the wild, Manchurian alder is found in a diverse range of conditions from poorly drained river bottoms to dry upland. There are two botanical varieties (rarely elevated to species) distin- guished chiefly by provenance, foliar morphology, and degree of pubescence. Alnus glutinosa var. mandschurica, found m Manchuria, has rounded foliage and is pubescent only along the veins on the undersides of leaves, while var. sibirica is the essentially glabrous-foliaged form of wide distribution. In cultivation, Manchurian alder is one of the most beautiful and useful of the arboreal alders, thriving in wetlands, moderately dry sites, and sites with variable moisture. Growth is rapid in the field and in containers (as much as 5 to 6 feet per year). Alnus hirsuta has been grown for The fohage of the Asian alders -from top to bottom, Alnus firma var. multinervis, A. hirsuta, and A. ~aponrca-is diverse and beautiful _ 23 about twenty years at the Arnold Arboretum and has proven to be one of the most handsome and reliable of all the Asian alders here, with no significant pest or disease problems. In addition, it is the only one of several Asian species planted at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, in the early 1980s that has remained vigorous in a plantation situation with low maintenance. The handsome bark and foliage of the Manchurian alder, its persistent \"cones,\" uniform branching pattern, and stately habit make it an excellent shade tree for parks or streets. Its tolerance of low fertility and of poor dramage or fluctuating moisture enables it to tolerate lowmaintenance and urban sites that defeat other shade trees. The vigor and beauty of this species suggest that its best individuals should be selected and named and that it would be profitable to collect more plants from its coldest provenances in the wild. Alnus japonica, Japanese alder, is a deciduous tree of small to medium size, generally reaching 30 to 50 feet, with a narrowly oval habit and slightly pendent, fine-textured branching. Its elegant leaves of a smooth, glossy, bright green are narrowly oval, about 1.5 to 2 inches wide and 3 to 4 mches long-very finely toothed but without the prominent venation of A. firma. The foliage remains green and glossy very late into the fall. Its bark is a medium gray, and the spent infructescences are prolific and persist through the winter with delicate ornamental character. When the staminate catkins flower m spring, many plants develop a distinctive and attractive cherry-red hue. Japanese alder can be found growing widely in Japan as well as in Manchuria, in parts of Russia (near the shore in the maritime region, on Sakhalin, and in the Kuriles), and in Korea. It is reliably hardy through at least USDA zone 6; plants from the coldest provenances may be more hardy. Two botanical varieties are distinguished by provenance (A. var. koreana, found in Korea) and by foliar morphology (A. var. minor, with leaves much smaller than the species, about 2 to 4 inches long). A. x mayrii, an especially handsome tree, is a naturally occurring hybrid of A. japonica and A. hirsuta that resembles ~aponica but has wider leaves and a more robust habit. The Japanese alder has a notably narrow and elegant silhouette both in summer, with its dense, glossy foliage cover, and in winter, when its persistent \"cones\" and appealing habit add a Japanesque character to the landscape. It could be especially useful as a low-maintenance shade A. Propagating the Asian Alders Alders propagate readily from seed, giving best results when the seed is fresh and has not been allowed to dry out before sowmg. If the seed has dried, good results can also be obtained with relatively short periods of stratification (one to two months in a moist medium at 35 to 40 degrees F). It is useful to note that alder species that flower simultaneously may hybridize readily where they are found growing in relative proximity (Furlow 1990). Such species m the wild are generally kept separated by geography and habitat, but garden plants are freed of these natural limitations. Seed collected from cultivated alders, therefore, may well give random hybrid progeny-especially as all the Betulaceae, including Alnus, are windpollinated and the pollen can travel great distances. This tendency to hybridize in nature and cultivation has resulted in some confusing nomenclature, as well as some attractive plants. There are some naturally occurring, distinctive, consistently named hybrids (for instance, A. x mayrii\/, as well as many names for putative hybrids that have entered the taxonomic literature. Alders can also be rooted successfully from softwood cuttings. Cuttings should be harvested when the wood has just begun to harden and rooted under relatively frequent mist with pretreatment of moderate concentrations of IBA hormone preparations. Best results have been obtained when temperatures in the propagation area stayed below 80 to 85 degrees F. 24 tree in narrow strips of poorly drained land, or in or small where courtyards gardens with poor soil an elegant deciduous tree is wanted. sites with low fertility and drastically fluctuating moisture conditions. on Alnus maximowiczii is a deciduous shrub or occasionally a small tree that can reach surprising proportions with great age. (Richard Weaver, Jr., 1978, reported seeing trunks 3 feet in diameter from Hokkaido forests.) In the wild it generally reaches heights of 15 to 25 feet, with similar spread, but in cultivation in North America it is more often seen at heights of 8 to 15 feet, with wider spread. Leaves are about 3 inches wide and 4 inches long, heart-shaped to broadly ovate, with distinct serrations. They emerge a glossy emerald green with handsomely prominent venation and darken to a rich, matte blue-green as they mature. A. maximowiczii begins flowering before the leaves emerge, and both staminate and pistillate catkins are surprisingly showy. The pistillate catkins are small and erect, turning a deep cherry red at flowering time, while the staminate catkins elongate to 3 to 4 inches and turn a golden yellow. While its floral display will certainly not rival the brazen showiness of trees like the deciduous magnolias, it does offer an equally lovely, albeit quieter, spring character. A. maximowiczii is widely distributed in Japan (primarily in mountainous areas), in the former USSR (including Sakhalin, Kamchatka, and the Kuriles), and in parts of Korea. It grows in a wide range of elevations, climbing to alpine heights but also descending to sea level in some areas. This species has been included by Russian botanists in their split genus Duschekia (Czerepanov 1995), which has also included several other species of alder from time to time. The genus Duschekia is not widely accepted by Western botanists. Alnus maximowiczii is a handsome shrub that will thrive in virtually any site with full sun. It is hardy through at least USDA zone 4 and grows rapidly for a large landscape shrub. With its appealing spring display and foliage that remains in good condition throughout the season, it is a good choice for embankments and other difficult sites where a tall, lush green, massing shrub is desired. It is especially useful the Arnold Arboretum For a century, alders have made an important contribution to the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum. E. H. Wilson was particularly interested in the genus and collected several Asian alders-Alnus fauriei, A. firma, A. fruticosa, A. hirsuta, A. japonica, and A. maximowiczii among them-as well as more tender species like A. formosana and A. nepalensis. Charles Sargent was also enamored of the genus and he too collected and wrote about alders. More recently, Richard Weaver, Jr., and Stephen Spongberg made significant Alnus collections in Japan and Korea. Although championing Asian alders initially felt like an original effort, this is certainly not the first time their cause has been promoted at the Arboretum. Long ago Charles Sargent himself recognized the horticultural potential of the hardy Asian alders-offering his premier endorsement for this premier group of woody plants. It is especially appropriate, then, to close with words from his Garden and Forest article on Alnus hirsuta (then A. tinctoria) and to reiterate that \"the object of this note ... is to call attention to a promising ornamental tree\" at Alders (Sargent 1897). Literature Cited Ansm, R., and Z. Ozder. 1993. A new taxon of black alder-Alnus glutinosa subsp. betuloides (Betulaceae). Kara~a Arboretum Magazme, cilt II: 47-51. Binkley, D., K. Cromack, Jr., and D W. Baker. 1994. Nitrogen fixation by red alder: biology, rates and controls. The Biology and Management of Red Alder Ed. D. Hibbs, D. DeBell, and R. Tarrant. Corvallis: Oregon State Umversity Press, Browne, pp. 57-72. W. 1613. Brittama's Pastorals, Book I, Song 2. The Biology and Management of Red Alder. Ed. D. Hibbs, D. DeBell, and R. Tarrant. Corvallis: Oregon State University Press, p. ix. S. K. 1995. Vascular Plants of Russia and Ad~acent States (The Former USSR). Czerepanov, : 25 Cambridge, GB: Cambmdge Umversity Press, pp.114-115. Sargent, C S. 1897. tinctona. --, New or little known plants. Alnus Garden and Forest 10(510): 472. Furlow, John. 1990. The genera of Betulaceae southeastern Umted States. Journal Arnold Arboretum 71(1): 1-67. m of the the ed. (1916) 1988. Plantae Wilsomanae. Vol. II. Portland, OR: Disocorides Press, pp. 488-508. M. A. 1992. Betulaceae. Tomus 5. Flora of Siberia in 14 Tomis. Ed. I. M. Krasnoborov and L. I. Malyschev. Novosibirsk: Nauka Shemberg, . 1979a. The systematics of the American species of Alnus (Betulaceae\/, Part I. Rhodora 81(825\/: 1-121. Publishers, Tarrant, R. of p. 61. on . 1979b. The systematics of the Amemcan species of Alnus (Betulaceae\/, Part II. Rhodora 81(82G\/: 151-248. F. 1968. Some effects of alder the forest environment. Biology of Alder Proceedings Hibbs, D., D. DeBell, and R. Tarrant, eds. 1994. The Biology and Management of Red Alder. Corvallis: Oregon State Umversity Press. Symposium of Northwest Scientific Pullman, WA, 1967. Ed. M. Trappe, et al., p. 193. Association Held at Voroshilov, . V. N. 1966. Flora of the Soviet Far East Moscow Nauka Publishers, pp. 3-10, 151-152. Hulten, E., and M. Fries. 1986. Atlas of North European Vascular Plants. I. Konigstein, FDR: Koeltz pp. Scientific, Kabanov, 312-313, 1030. 1982. Keys to the Plants of the Somet Far East. Moscow' Nauka Publishers, p. 199. R. 1978. 83-101. N. E. 1937. Matemals for the Flora Sakhahn. Moscow, pp. 832-833. of Soviet Weaver, Jr., Japanese journal. Arnoldia 38\/3\/: Krussman, G. (1976\/ 1984. Manual of Cultivated BroadLeaved Trees and Shrubs. Volume I. OR: Timber Press, pp. 132-140. Portland, Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges and Irma Kadis for her Ohm, J. 1965. Flora of Japan Washington, DC: Smithsoman Institution, pp. 374-376. patient translations from the Russian literature, as well as Sheila Connor, Peter Del Tredici, Mark Krautman, Stephen Spongberg for critical discussion and Royal Horticultural Society. 1992. The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening Volume I. NY: Stockton Press, pp. 117-119 F. S. 1995. Flowering, fertility, and fruit production m an intersubgenenc Alnus hybrid. HortScience 30(7): 1467. recommendations, or assistance with archival literature. The author also gratefully acknowledges the support of the Willowwood Foundation for aspects of the work included here. Santamour, Jr., Kim E. Tmpp Arboretum, is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold using the living collections for research, teaching, and wntmg. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia Symbiosis","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25142","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15e816b.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia Symbiosis A Peter Del Tredici Some of the plants we scorn as weeds perform important biological functions. By adding nitrogen to impoverished soils, nonleguminous nitrogen-fixing trees and shrubs play a key role in the process of forest succession. It's a great irony of the botanical world that plant growth is often limited by the availability of nitrogen in the soil when almost eighty percent of the atmosphere is composed of dinitrogen gas \/NZ~. The explanation lies in the chemical stability of nitrogen gas. Before atmospheric nitrogen can be used by plants, it must be \"fixed,\" that is, split and combined with other chemical elements. This process requires a large input of energy and can occur either biologically, within the cells of various bacteria, or chemically, in fertilizer factories or during lightning storms. Among all living organisms, only bacteria have evolved the complex biochemical mechanisms required for nitrogen fixation. All \"higher\" plants and animals that are said to fix nitrogen are really only the symbiotic partners of the bacteria that do the actual work. Among plants, the cultivated legumes (peas, beans, peanuts, etc.) are the best-known nitrogenfixers, but many plant families besides the Leguminosae can also fix nitrogen. On a worldwide scale, these nonlegumes, as they are somewhat negatively called, fix as much nitrogen as legumes, but for a variety of historical reasons they have been relatively neglected This flat of southern bayberry seedhngs (Mynca cenfera) was supposedly grown both without mtrogen and without the Frankia bactena. One of the seedhngs, however, did manage to form Frankla-induced root nodules, producmg a clearcut by scientists. Quite nitrogen-fixing legumes are native to North America and are mostly found in impoverished, sandy soils a non- advantage over its sibhngs. in the few of these low in nitrogen. The most common are alder (Alnus sp.) in wet, open land; bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica in the North, M. cerifera exposed sweet fern sandy (Comptonia peregrina) on exposed, dry, sandy soils; sweet gale (Myrica gale) in swamps; and New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus) on on the seashore and soils back from the coast; South) 27 in open, wooded sites. On the west coast of North America, the most common various Ceanothus and Alnus species the are nonlegume nitrogen-fixers. In arid mountains of the West, buffalo berry (Shepherdia canadensis), bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and the mountam mahogames ( Cercocarpus spp. ~ are important. In southern Flomda, the introduced and somewhat weedy Australian pine (Casuanna spp.) is important for stabilizing beaches, and throughout the Midwest and East Coast the autumn and Russian olives (Elaeagnus umbellata and E. angustifolia) have been widely planted along highway embankments. All of A Frankra-mduced nodule on a root of sweet fern, Comptonia these plants thrive in poor soils peregnna. Note the upwardly growmg roots emanatmg from the where little else grows. Their abil- lobes of the nodule. ity to fix nitrogen is a significant the bacteria, by producing large quantities of the factor in their survival under conditions that hormones that normally occur in very small would be inhospitable to ordmary plants. concentrations in the plant, force the root cells In legumes and nonlegumes alike, the actual to proliferate much faster than normal, causing fixation of nitrogen is done by bacteria living multi-lobed swellings, or nodules, to form inside the roots of the host plant. It is a classic wherever the bacteria have penetrated. Among of a mutually beneficial symbiosis: the example plant provides the bacteria with sugars and a the actinomycete-nodulated plants, properly referred to as actinorhizal plants, these nodules variety of minerals, and the bacteria provide the have a well-defined structure and a rather strikhost with a usable supply of nitrogen. In the case of the legumes, the bacterium may be one ing appearance, being densely branched and more or less spherical. The nodules are perenof several different species of the genus Rhizonial and increase in size each year, eventually bium, a rod-shaped bacterium found naturally available commercially in in most soils and becoming over an inch in diameter. In some most seed catalogs as legume inoculant. In the plants, such as alder, the individual lobes that make up the nodule are very tight and compact. the bacterium involved is an actinonlegumes, In others, such as sweet fern, each lobe of the or filamentous bacterium, in the nomycete, nodule grows out into an upwardly growmg root Frankia. Unlike the rhizobia, which exist genus as discrete cells, the actinomycetes grow in long creating a sort of witch's broom effect. These nodules are the site of nitrogen fixachains of cells similar to fungal hyphae, but tion. Both Rhizobium and Frankia bacteria posmuch smaller. All of the plants infected by sess special enzymes, nitrogenases, that allow Frankia, with one exception, are trees and them to transform the nitrogen gas in the air whereas among the legumes both shrubs, into ammonium which, in turn, is converted annual herbs and trees may be infected by into amino acids. Because the reaction can only rhizobia. occur in a low oxygen environment, the process The microorganisms enter the plant through is often dependent on hemoglobin compounds the root hairs and grow in the cells of the roots, found in the nodules, which are virtually idenstimulating them to grow and divide. Basically, 28 Several old nodules of the root system of the southern bayberry, Myrica cerifera, growing on the sand dunes along the outer banks of North Carolma. The root, with its attached nodules, was exposed by the wmd, which m this area never seems to stop blowmg. tical to those found in the red blood cells of animals. By binding with oxygen, the hemoglobin in the nodule helps to create the microenvironment that the nitrogenase enzyme requires. It is interesting to note that when actinorhizal plants are grown in water culture, the young, succulent nodules are often pink in color, due to the presence of hemoglobin. Work on actinorhizal plants took a giant step forward in 1978 when a research team that included Dale Callaham, currently of the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, the late Professor J. G. Torrey of the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, and the present author, successfully isolated and grew, independent of its host plant, the slow-growing Frankia bacteria responsible for fixing nitrogen in sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina). This was the first time that the bacteria from any actinorhizal plant of the nonlegumes had been cultivated independently, and it marked the end of nearly seventy years of unsuccessful attempts to isolate the orgamsm responsible for nitrogen fixation from an actinomycete-nodulated plant. In contrast, the faster-growing Rhizobium bacterium was first isolated in pure culture ninety years earlier, in 1888. This disparity is the main reason why the actinorhizal symbiosis is not nearly as well understood as the Rhizobium association. In general, actinorhizal plants are sunloving pioneers in early successional stages of revegetation of the north and south temperate regions (with the exception of Casuarina and Myrica species in the tropics). They do best on sandy or swampy soils where nitrogen is scarce and their ability to extract it from the air is a distinct advantage. Usually they are not found in shady, forested situations or on rich farmland, where they would lose their competitive advantage. Most nitrogen-fixing legumes, on the other hand, are tropical and subtropical herbs that 29 have migrated north and become important in agricultural environments. It is primarily because the legumes are involved with food production that they have attracted the lion's share of scientific attention, but this situation is changing rapidly. People are becoming aware that the potential value of actinorhizal plants is of equal importance, if not equal conspicuousness, to the legumes. Experiments have been conducted by forestry managers in which actinorhizal plants are grown in conjunction with various economically desirable trees: red alder and Ceanothus with Douglas fir on the West Coast, alder with poplar for pulp on the East Coast, and Elaeagnus with black walnut in the Midwest. In all cases, the experiments resulted in richer soil and faster growth rates in the desired tree species. In the Northeast, sweet fern, bayberry, and Elaeagnus are used extensively for stabilizing roadside bankings and revegetating traumatically disturbed ground. Actinorhizal plants have a much longer history of human use in Europe and Asia than they do in North America. In Japan, the Asian species of Myrica and Alnus are grown in association with various conifers to improve the soil and stop erosion, while along the northern coast of Europe and the British Isles, the sea buckthorn, Hippophae rhamnoides, is cultivated for the purpose of stabilizing shorelines, as well as for its edible fruit. Throughout the tropics, the genus Casuarina is not only important in stopping seashore erosion, but is also an important source of fuel and timber in areas that otherwise produce very little. The future looks bright for the actinorhizal plants, especially in the context of forestry and habitat restoration, as land managers move from experimentation into The root system of Comptonia peregnna four weeks after mnoculation with a pure culture of Frankia bactena. The bactema stimulated the development of over fifty-five nodules on this ten-week-old seedling. Bayberry is an attractive midsize shrub that keeps its leaves longer than most plants and is covered for most of the winter with waxy gray berries (the source of bayberry candles). In addition, bayberry is highly salt tolerant and performs equally well near the seashore or on highway embankments where road salt applied during the winter tends to accumulate. The arborescent alders have traditionally been thought of only in terms of land reclamation, but recently commercial nurseries have begun to recognize their ornamental potential. Finally, the autumn and Russian olives, which were widely planted in the 1970s, have a beautiful silver-gray foliage and fruits that birds love to feed on. Unfortunately, the birds love the fruits so much they have dispersed the plant well beyond its initial area of cultivation. As implementation. The fact that actinorhizal plants grow where little else can makes them particularly useful for covering bare ground. Apart from this functional recommendation, however, many of these plants are aesthetically pleasing as well. Various Ceanothus species, which are widely grown in mild climates, are covered in springtime with blue, pink, or white flowers. Sweet fern, which is fast growing and small, is perfect for any situation with full sun and sandy soil. 30 The Australian pme, Casuanna equisetifolia, growmg on the beach at Haena Point on the north of Kaual, Hawam. Incessant wave action has exposed the massme, layered root system of the tree. No doubt this species'ability to fix atmospheric mtrogen is pmmamly responsible for its ability to surmve the harsh conditions. coast 31 result of this weedy tendency, the olives are no longer recommended for large-scale erosioncontrol plantings. Measurements of nitrogen fixation in actinorhizal plants taken over extended periods of time have shown that pure stands of alder bush are capable of fixing up to 280 pounds of nitrogen per acre per year. This is much greater than the amount of nitrogen fixed by soybeans (90 pounds a year) or peas (66 pounds year), but comparable to that fixed by alfalfa. Most of the nitrogen fixed by the actinorhizal plants enters the nutrient cycle through the decomposition of fallen leaves, twigs, branches, and fine per per acre acre per per This process is much slower than that which occurs in agricultural situations, where leguminous cover crops are plowed into the soil at the end of a single growing season. It is worth keeping in mind that the greatest degree of nitrogen fixation, in legumes and actinorhizal plants alike, occurs when soil levels of nitrogen are relatively low. High levels of nitrogen, applied as fertilizer, tend to reduce bacterial activity. What this means is that the plant and the bacteria work best together when conditions are worst: the The silvery gray fohage of the Russian olme, Elaeagnus angustifolia, can be very stmkmg m the landscape, as shown here at the symbiosis is most effective when it Montreal Botanical Garden. becomes most necessary. To put it another way, the nitrogen-fixation symbiosis is Torrey, J. G., and J. D. Tjepkema, eds. 1979. Symbiotic nitrogen fixation in actmomycete-nodulated a dynamic interaction between two indepenplants. Botamcal Gazette Special Supplement dent organisms that is entered into when eco140.SI-SI26. logical conditions are such that neither partner could survive long without it. Acknowledgments roots. References Callaham, D., P. Del Tredici, and J. G Torrey. 1978. Isolation and cultivation in vitro of the actinomycete causing root nodulation in Comptonia Science 199: 899-902. The author thanks Dr. John Tjepkema of the Department of Plant Biology and Pathology, University of Mame at Orono, for reviewing this article, and acknowledges the late Dr. John Torrey for his mspiration. Schwmtzer, C R , and J. D. Tjepkema. 1990. The Biology of Frankia and Actmorhizal Plants. San Diego Academic Press. Peter Del Tredici is Director of Arnold Arboretum. Living Collections at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Year in Trees and Words: Book Note and Excerpt","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25148","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060a76f.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"The Year in Trees and Words: Book Note and Excerpt The Year in Trees: Superb Woody Plants for Four-Season Gardens. Kim E. Tripp and J. C. Raulston. Timber Press, 1995. 204 pages with 206 color plates. Hardcover. $44.95 Raulston, director of the North Carolina State University Arboretum and a man of many adages, holds that in any given region of the United States, 40 trees and shrubs make up more than 90% of the landscape plantings. If, as he also asserts, somewhere in this country as many as 15,000 different landscape plants are available for the finding, then why do we see the same few over and over? Twenty years ago Raulston started the Arboretum at NCSU to ameliorate this situation by testing the garden-worthiness of a wide range of plants. A recent count of plants collected and evaluated numbered 9,000; having identified some of the most viable and attractive, the next task was to encourage their production and use. To that end, during Kim Tripp's postdoctoral stint at the NCSU Arboretum, one of her weekly chores was a press release in the form of a plant portrait. Those portraits-150 in total-have been joined to 206 handsome color photos, mostly by Raulston, in The Year in Trees: Superb Woody Plants for Four-Season Gardens. Those who've heard either Raulston or Tripp speak know that they possess a wealth of information, especially on plant adaptation and response to climate.* This is a book for the plant lover, a celebration of trees and shrubs that's solid and informative enough for a place on the reference shelf. Although the NCSU Arboretum primarily tests plants for hardiness in the warm, moist summers of USDA zone 7, many of them grow well in New England. A sampling of Tripp's portraiture follows. J. C. Corylus avellana 'Contorta': Harry Lauder's walking stick There just is no escaping it-eventually, at some level or another, all gardeners succumb to the quest for the rare and unusual. This yen may manifest as the drive to find and rescue the rarest of native populations of a tiny fern with only five remaining plants that grow in only one spot on the entire planet (currently endangered, of course, by planned construction of a transglobal shopping mall) or it may develop as an insatiable hunger for a cutting of that dwarf, contorted, pink-andgold-variegated, cutleaved, sterile, chartreuse-flowered form of a hitherto-believedto-be-extinct, cold hardy to zone 1, heat-tolerant, broadleaved evergreen shrub rumored to now exist only in the collections of the extremely remote Atlantis Botanic Garden (a garden known only to a few seriously intrepid collectors, which refuses to participate in Index Semina exchanges). Whatever form this yearning for the unusual takes, even the most blase of horticulturists eventually find themselves searching for choice plants of one form or another. One magnificent plant that has long been a traditional source of choice garden character is Corylus avellana 'Cortorta', Harry Lauder's walking stick. This unusual shrub or small tree is a contorted form of the commercial European filbert, Corylus avellana, which is grown and highly valued for its delicious nuts. The ' See . Arnoldia \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardmess\" by J. (54:3). C. Raulston and Kim E. Tripp in the Fall 1994 33 branching of this form is twisted into striking, spiral contortions throughout the entire plant. It is a spectacular addition to the winter garden, where the sculptural patterns created by the branches can be clearly seen. Native to Europe and parts of Asia and northern Africa, the species Corylus avellana is a small tree or large, woody, multistemmed, thicket-forming shrub. Its deciduous dark green foliage, about 3-4 inches (7.6-10.1 cm~ long and almost as wide, is rather coarse and hairy. The flowers are tiny, with the male flowers borne on long, narrow catkins, and female flowers in shorter, thicker catkins, similar to those of its close relatives the birches (Betula spp.) and alders (Alnus spp.). The catkins of male flowers are yellow and put on a handsome show in late winter before the leaves emerge. The female flowers are much more subtle and require closer inspection to see the delicate but amazingly carmine-colored floral parts emerging from the buds. Corylus avellana 'Contorta' is much like its parent species with one important exception-its contorted growth. This fascinating plant is interesting in summer because the leaves are also somewhat contorted, but it is at its peak in late winter and early spring. It does not bear fruit. The plant will reach 10 feet (3.1 m~ with some age, but it is a relatively slow grower, which makes it an excellent specimen plant for small gardens. It is completely hardy to zone 4. Corylus avellana 'Contorta' will perform well in a range of soils in full sun or with a little shade. It is propagated by grafting scion wood of the cultivar onto rootstock of the species. The species understock tends to sucker and the suckers must be continually removed to avoid overgrowth of the cultivar. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Celebration of Crabapples: Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25141","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15e8126.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Schulhof, Richard","article_content":"A Celebration of Richard Crabapples: Book Review Schulhof solid discussion of tree form, and 245 color photographs, crabapples at last have a work that speaks to their value and versatility in the landscape. Yet perhaps the book's strongest value is its history of the events and people that have brought us the crabapple of today. Father Fiala, also the author of Lilacs: The Genus Syringa, presents a highly personal per- Flowering Crabapples: The Genus Malus. Fr. John L. Fiala. Timber Press, 1995. 340 pages. Hardcover. $49.95 The late Father John Fiala was well known in horticultural circles for his lifelong work to improve lilacs and flowering crabapples. For a few years, his horticultural legacy endured in the landscape of Falconskeape, his garden in Medma, Ohio, but ultimately preservation efforts proved unsuccessful. Fortunately, Fiala's great devotion to crabapples has found more lasting commemoration through the publication of his book, Flowering Crabapples: The Genus Malus. The crabapple, touted across much of the \" country as \"America's favorite flowering tree,\" is valued for its adaptability to cold climates, ease of production, and great diversity of color and habit. Defined as those taxa in the genus Malus that bear fruits 2.5 inches in diameter or smaller, crabapple trees range in shape from rounded to columnar and weeping, with flower color extending from white to deep reds and purples, and fruit from black-red to brilliant gold. Interest in developing a better crabapple has, over the decades, led to an accumulation of some 900 named varieties. The story of their development and landscape use, the subject of Fiala's book, is of particular sigmficance to the Arnold Arboretum and other institutions with a crabapple history. An inveterate breeder, that, \"Like most hybridizers working over a lifetime, I am certain I have named too many crabapples, but, be assured, I have discarded a hundred times more!\" In profiling the key figures in crabapple breeding, Fiala disspective on he admitted cusses the commercial nurseries and university programs whose breeding efforts owe much to the raw material provided by the plant exploration and introductions of the past century. This bounty has yielded a prolific and rather continuous stream of crabapple cultivars. While in some genera, particularly roses, the release of a new cultivar does not always signal an improved or significantly \"new\" plant, many recent crabapple introductions offer benefits to both the gardener and the ecological health of the landscape. Indeed, crabapple breeders deserve praise, for although imtially focused on flower color, annual bloom, and other ornamental traits, they have, in recent decades, responded to growing sentiment against the use of pesticides by developmg forms with increased resistance to applescab, fireblight, and other diseases. Fiala's book describes these breeding efforts and resulting cultivars in encyclopedic fashion, offering information on their lineage, attributes, and weaknesses, as well as providing generous helpings of personal experience and opinion. wealth of long-standing commitment to crabapple display and evaluation. Clearly this handsome volume is much more a horticultural overview than a techmcal treatise, and while some of Fiala's taxonomic details may remain in dispute, the absence heretofore of any color-illustrated, near-current guide to crabapples makes it a valuable contribution to the literature. With separate sections on landscape uses, propagation, pests and disease, a As Father Fiala recounts, the Arnold Arboretum nently and other botanic gardens figure promiin the development of the modern 35 are among the cultivars developed significant at the Arboretum by Karl Sax, Wyman, and others. The publication of Fiala's book gives occasion to revisit the progress of the Arnold Arboretum's Malus collection. It is worth noting that the work of both Sargent and Wyman survives today in the Arboretum's collection of over 170 crabapple species and varieties. The collection has been further enhanced by twenty years of systematic 'Don Wyman' crabapple. While any discussion of crabapples in the United States would include mention of Arboretum horticulturist Donald Wyman, who did much to evaluate the performance of cultivars and popularize the plant, Fiala also gives special notice to the work of Charles Sargent, the Arboretum's first director: No horticultural institution did as evaluation ot disease resistance by the late Dr. Lester Nichols of Pennsylvania State University. More recently, the Arboretum's Living Col- much for introducing and discovering new species, varieties or special clones as did the Arnold Arboretum Especially under Professor Charles Sargent, who took an active interest in crabapples, the Arnold Arboretum not only sought out new crabapple materials in Siberia and Japan, but it also energetically promoted any crabapple found in its gardens or elsewhere. ... Arboretum contributions include the tea crab (Malus hupehensis), the Siebold crabapple (M. sieboldii), and Sargent's crabapple (M. sargentii), which were collected by Sargent or his agents in Asia at the turn of the century. 'Dorothea', 'Blanche Ames', 'Mary Potter', and lections staff has modernized and updated the collection with 20 new cultivars that will be evaluated for disease resistance and landscape performance. Eventually, after sufficient trial and testing of the most promismg varieties, the Arboretum will display the best crabapples for southern New England. Fiala's book would make a fine companion for a May trip to the Arboretum and is to be recommended to those with a serious interest m the group. Any controversies within crabapple circles over Fiala's nomenclature overlook the larger value of this book as the chronicle of one of America's preeminent horticulturists reflecting on a lifetime of dedicated involvement with one of our most important landscape plants. Richard Schulhof is Director of Education and Public Programs at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1995","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25143","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15e856f.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data -1995 Average Maximum Temperature Average Mimmum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall _ 60 40 50 35.35 inches 34.5 inches 96 -2 on on Warmest Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost August 2 February 6 and May 2 7 31 on 29 207 on November 5 Growing Season Note: days According to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1995 was a year for the record books. It was very dry with temperatures slightly above normal and sunshine slightly below average. January set a record with 13 consecutive days of measurable precipitation. However, this was followed by several months of below-average moisture levels. The combination of both March and April was the driest since March and April of 1966, and the fifth dnest on record. April was also unusual because the temperature never reached the 60-degree mark at the Arnold Arboretum. June too was very dry, with only 50% of the normal rainfall for the month, makmg it the fifth dry month in a row. July followed as the sixth dry month in a row, settmg another record for the lowest amount of precipitation over this six-month period. The months of August and September continued the dry pattern by giving us a 41-day period, from 8 August to 17 September, in which only .3 inches of precipitation was recorded. The drought broke on 17 September, the day of the Arboretum's annual plant sale; on that day we received 2.32 inches of ram. This made September the first month since January with above-normal moisture. October set records for combined warmth and moisture, making it the warmest and wettest October on record. November continued the pattern of welcome moisture while also bemg the coolest November since 1980, with the least sunshine since 1977. December seemed to round off this peculiar year. It was very snowy, quite cold, yet on the dry side with normal levels of sunshine. The snowfall in December was more than three times the norm, making it the fifth snowiest on record. Oddly, the snowfall for the year was )ust average, the dearth of snow early in the year offset by the bonanza at the end. In the end, we found ourselves 6.40 inches below normal m precipitation for the year. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 55","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25145","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15e896d.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 55 - parentheses refer to issues, those - (1995) boldface m to illustrations of the entries 8 Acanthopanax (3\/: 18 Acer (4~: 12 - damdm ( 1 \/. 15, 18 diabohcum \/4~: 8 - gnseum ( 1 \/: 9, 12, 14-16 - henry ( 115, 18 -mono \/1\/: 15, 17-18 palmatum (2\/: 29 - rubrum (3\/. 5-6 saccharum (3)' 5-6 9 -tnflorum (1\/:9 Acomtum ( 1 15, 17 7 7 Actimdia chmensis ( 1~: 17 -dehciosa (3~: 18 8 Adiantum pedatum ( 1~: G -- var. aleuticum ( 1 6 --var subpumilum (1\/~ 6 5 Adiantum venustum ( 15 Aesculus hippocastanum (4~: 12 8 -parmflora (2\/: 29; (3~: 18 turbmata (4) : 13, 14 Aethionema oppositifolmm (1~: 6 Ailanthus alussima (3~: back cover, - Weather Station Data, 1995 \" Caulophyllum thahctroides (3): 6 . ` - (4\/: 36 ----- 1994 (1): 40 \"Arnold's Promise Fulfilled,\" James L. Jones (2) : 27-32 8 Aroma (3): 18 Artocarpus altihs \/3\/: 12 9 Asarum europaeum \/ 1 9 Ash (3): 8-9 - white (3) : 6 7 Asimina tnloba (3) : 12, 17 2 Aspen, quaking (3): 12 3 Asperula mtlda puberula \/ 13 - - ssp. hirtella (1) 3 Asplemum ceterach ( 110 6 tnchomanes ( 16 Atropa mandragora (2) : 4 8 Azalea (3)~ 18 torch (4\/: 12 - Ceanothus, species and cultmars (1\/: (: 21-23; (4) : 26, 27, 29 -amemcanus 'Roseus' (1): 21, 22, 23 7 Cedrela sinensis \/3): 17 Cedrus hbani (4y 3 8 Celastrus (3): 18 \"Celebration of Crabapples: Book Review,\" Richard Schulhof (4) 34-35 - Cephaehs ipecacuanha (2): 6 Cephalotaxus, culuvars and species (1)~ 24-39 drupaceae ( 127, 28, 29, 30, 33, 36,37 - fortunei ( 1\/~ 28, 29, 30 - harnngtoma \/ 125, 28, 30-33, 37 - koreana \/ 130, 31, 32, 33, 37 olmem ( 127, 29, 31, 33-34, 37 sinensis ( 1 )~ 15, 24, 26, 28, 29, 30, - - - 17 7 7 Akebia qumata ( 117 Albizia tulibnssm (2~: inside back 7 cover; (3~: 17 (2) : 28, 30 9 Alchemilla molhs ( 19 Alder (3) : 7; \/4~: 16-30 --'Rosea' Alnus, culuvars and 25 ; 27, 29 - species (4) 16- acummata var. mulnnerms (4\/: 18,21,22 hirsuta (4): 16,19-24 - ~apomca (4~: 18-19, 22, 23-24 Ambrosia (2)' 25 artemisifoha (2~. 25 7 Amelanchier (3\/. 17 Amorpha (3\/: 18 Androsace (1\/: 3, 6 0 -'Mrllstream' ( 110 Anemone \/ 1 9 9 5 qumquefoha \/ 1~: Anemonella thahctroides (1\/: 10 Araha (3\/: 13; 18 cahformca (4~: 13 Araucana cunmnghamia (3~: 13 5 Ansaema ( 1 4, 15 7 consangmmum ( 1 \/. 17 1 sikokianum ( 110, 11 8 Anstolochia (3~: 18 Arnold Arboretum ( 13, 7, 9, 12, 19, 22-23, 25, 31, 33, 37; (2\/~ inside front cover, 8, 12, 15, 16, 17, 27-32; (3).inside back cover, 3, 13-14, 22-24; (4) 2-15, - Bard, Samuel (2): 22 Bartram, John(2y 19, 21-23 Bartram, William (2) : 22 Basswood (3) : 6-7 Bayberry (4): 26, 29 southern (4): 26, 28 8 Beauty berry( 118 8 Beauty bush ( 118 Beech (3). 2, 6-10 - American (3)' 6, 12 8 Berbens (3) : 18 Betula lenta (4) : 12 Bignonia capreolata (3) : 18 Botrychmm vmgmianum (3). 6 7 Broussonettia papynfera (3): 17 Bumeha languinosa (4): 13 Bussewitz, Al, photo by (2): back - 34,37 \"Cephalotaxus~ The Plum Yews,\" Kim E. Tmpp \/ 1 24-39 8 Cercis glabra \/ 1 ). 18 Cercocarpus (4) : 27 8 Chaenomeles (3) : 18 ~apomca (4)~ 7, 8 -speciosa 'Nivalis' (4)~ 8 Chamaecypans (1): 7 Cherry, autumn-flowemng (4\/~ 8 - Takane (4) : 8 weepmg (4) : 8 Chinese medicine, traditional (2) : - \" - 12-18 retusus (11: 9; (4) 13 5 Cimicifuga (1): 9, 15 7 acerma ( 1 17 1 simplex ( 1): G Cmchona (21: 13 officmahs (2) : 6 7 Cladrasus (3) : 17 5 Claytoma vmgmica( 15 Clematis \/1\/: 2; \/2\/: 25; (3\/: 18 -recta (2)~ 32 vmgimana (2) : 25 8 Clerodendrum (3)~ 18 tmchotomum (1): 15; (2) : 28, 29, - Chionanthus - cover - 3 Butterbur, large-leaved \/ 13 Buxus sempervmens 'Vardar (2) 32 Valley' Cailiang, Mao, et al., \"Plant \/: Collecting on Wudang Shan\" \/ 1 12-20, 13 8 Callicarpa japonica ( 1 ). 18 Camelha (3): 18 Campsis radicans (3\/: 18 8 Caragana (3)' 18 4 Cardamme pentaphyllos ( 1). 7 Cardiocrmum cathayanum \/ 1): 17 Carya (3): 17; \/4): 11-12 Cassia marilandica (2)' 32 8 Castanea henry (1). 18 Casuarina (4). 27-29 -eqmsetifoha (4). 30 7 Catalpa (3): 17 Catharanthus roseus \/2): 7 . 30 Clethra (3) : 13 - -almfoha \/3): 18; (4): 3, 12 8 Clethropsis \/4): 18 Clmtoma \/1) 4 Colden, Cadwallader (2): 19, 21-23 Colden, Jane (2). 19-26 Collinson, Peter (2) 19, 21-22 Comptonia peregnna (3) 13, 18; (4) : 26,27,28,29 Comfers, dwarf \/ 16, 7 5, 9-11, 13-14, 23-24, 34-35 38 Connor, Sheila, \"Mystical, Medici- (3) : 20-21 Conrad, Kevin, et al., \"Plant \/: Collecting on Wudang Shan\" ( 1 G 12-20, 13, 16 Copus (2): 24 nal Witch Hazel\" Ellis, John \/2): 19, 23-24 7 Emmenopterys henry ( 1): 17 Enkianthus perulatus Cork tree (3): 23-24 --Amur (3\/: 22 8 Cornus \/3\/: 18 controversa ( 1 \/~ 15 5 flonda (2\/: 28 - kousa \/ 1 \/: 9, 14, 15; (2)'28 - racemosa (3) : 5-6 Corylus avellana 'Contorta' (4): - - (4)' 13 Ephedra simca (2): 14 4 Ephedrine (2): 14 Epimedmm ( 19, 15 stellatum ( 115 6 Engeron compositus ( 16 4 Erythromum ( 14 - amencanum (1): 5, (2): 25 Erythroxylum coca (2): 6 Eucommia ulmoldes (2): 12-18, 14, - Gmgko biloba ( 134, (2): 13; (3): Glaucidmm palmatum (1): 4, 5 7 Gleditsia triacanthos (3): 17 Glorybower (1):15, (2): 29 Gronovius (2)' 21-24 7 Gymnocladus dioicus (3\/~ 17 13 - Halesia \/3\/: 17 7 5 Hamamehs molhs (1\/: 15 vmgimana (3): front cover, 20-21; 15 32- 33 -maxima (3): 18 7 Euonymus (1). 18; (3): 17 bungeanus v. semipersistans \/4): 8 -eleganussima (1). 18 - (4): 13 7 Hangzhou Botanic Garden (2): 14, 17 \"Hardy Asian Alders,\" Kim E. Tmpp (4) : 16-25 8 Harnson, Mary, \"Jane Colden: Colomal American Botamst\" 19-26 (2) : (4): Counus (31: 18 Cotoneaster dmamcatus Crabapple (4) : 13, 34-35 7 Crataegus (3J 17 -laemgata (3) : 14 punctata (3\/: 13 - -hamiltomanus ssp. sieboldianus (2) : 30 - (2) : 30 yedoensis (2): Evodia (3): 17 Fatsia Harvard Forest, 30 Petersham, MA 23, 28 Helleborus (2): 24 4 Helomas bullata ( 14 Heptacodmm micomoides ( 19; (2): 30 19 2 Fagus grandifoha (3\/: 6, 12 Cunninghamia lanceolata (1)back cover (3): 18 8 7 Cydoma oblonga \/3) 17 8 Cynlla racemiflora (3): 18 Cystopteris bulbifera f. cmspa (1\/: Faxon, C. E , drawings by (4\/~ Fern, Chnstmas (3): 6 - grape Herbarium Bogoriense, Indonesia 6 Dacrydium zanthandrum (3): 13 8 Daphne ( 19; (3\/: 18 -alpma (1): 3 arbuscula (1) G 6 3 cneorum 'Eximia' ( 1 3 Decaisnea fargesm (1\/: 15; 18 Del Tredici, Peter, \"Requiem for a Cork Tree,\" (3\/: 22-24; \"Shoots - From Roots: A Horticultural Review\" (3): 11-19; \"A Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia (3)' 6 - ostrich ( 19 9 spmulose wood (3): 6 - sweet (3): 13; (4) : 26, 27-29 Fiala, Father John (4): 34-35 Ficus canca (3): 17 7 Fir, China\/ 1back cover Douglas (4): 29 - ~omt (2). 3, 14 three-pomted \/ 1): 29 Fordham, Alfred ( 13; (4): 4 Forrest, Todd, \"Two Thousand - (2): 8-9 5 Hevea brasihensis (2\/: 15 I Hickory (4). 11 Hippocrates (2) 3-4 Hippophae rhamnoides (3\/: 18; (4\/: 29 Holt, Saxon, photo by ( 1front cover - Years of Eating Bark: Magnolia officmahs var. biloba and - Symbiosis\" (41: 26-31; photos by ( 1back cover; (3inside front cover, back cover; (4): cover et al., \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan\" ( 112-20, 13 Dentama diphyllum (3) : 6 3 Digitahs purpurea (2\/: 13 8 Diospyros lotus (1\/: 18 - m Traditional Chinese Medicine\" (2): 1218 ; \"Nature's Vagaries The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections\" (4) : 2-15 Eucommia ulmoldes 8 Forsythia \/3): 18 5 giraldiana ( 1): 15 - Honeysuckle, narrowleaf Standish 8 (4\/: Horsechestnut (4). 12 Japanese (4). 13 Hubei Province, China (1). 12-20 Hull, Catherine, \"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines\" ( 12-11, 9 Hurricane of 1938 (3\/: 3; (4): 4-5 Hutchinsia alpma (1\/: 6, 7 8 Hydrangea quercifolia (3\/: 18 Hypemcum ( 118 8 -calycmum (3) 18 vmgmicum (2): 23 - Fortunana sinensis 7 ( 117 23-24 Dodecatheon maedia 'Album' 5 (1\/:4,5 5 Dogwood, Chinese pagoda ( 115 2 flowering ( 12 gray (3 5-6 kousa \/ 1 14 4 Dryoptens austnaca var. spmulosa 6 (3\/: - Foster, Lmcoln ( 1 ): 2, 5 Fothergill, John (2). 19, 8 Fothergilla (3) : 18 9 - gardenm \/ 19 -ma~or (1): 9 Frankia (4): 26-29 Ilex (3\/: 18 8 -perny (1\/: 15 Ilhcmm - - 8 flondanum (3) : 18 Imperial Botamc Garden, St. Petersburg (3) : 22 8 Indigofera \/3\/: 18 pseudotmctoma (2\/: 31-32 Franklma alatamaha (4) : 8 Fraxmus amencana Fringe tree, Chmese (3): (4) : 6 13 3 22-23 Indonesia, Arnold Arboretum's exploration in (2) : 8 Ipecac (2) 6 : Ipomoea purga (2). 6 Ehret, George Dionysms, drawing by (2) : 20 Elaeagnus (3) : 18; (4): 29 an~tMtj\/oJja (4): 27, 30 5 pungens ( 1 \/: 15 umbellata (4): 27 Elliottia racemosa (3) : 17 7 - - - Garden, Alexander (2): 19, 8 Gardema (3): 18 -7asmmoides (2): 23 Gentiana acauhs (1): 6 scabra ( I 5 5 Gerard, John (2)~ 4 - Jack, J. 26 G. (4): 3, 7 \"Jane Colden: Colonial Amencan Botanist,\" Mary Harnson (2): 19- \/asmmum nudiflorum (4) : 8 39 2 John Evelyn (3): 11-12 Jones, James L., \"Arnold's Fulfilled \/2\/: 27-32 Judd, William (4) : 4 Malus Promise - Kalmiopsis leachiana 'Umpqua Valley' \/ 13, 4 7 Kalopanaxpictus \/3\/: 17 7 Koelreutena pamculata ~3\/: 17 Kolkmtzia amabilis (1): 18 8 Koller, Gary, \"Rehder's Ceanothus: Ceanothus x palhdus 'Roseus\"' ~ 1 \/: 21-23 8 Lagerstroemia mdica ~3\/: 18 Laurus nobilis ~3\/: 17 Lautzenheiser, R. E. (4) : 6 Lelophyllum buxifolmm var. 3 prostratum1\/: Leitnena flomdana (3) : 18 Lespedeza thunbergm (1). 9 3 Lemsia ~1\/: 8 brachycalyx\/ 18 Ligulana \/1\/: 15; \/2\/: 31 6 - dentata (1\/: 16 Lilac, Pnncess Mane ~4\/: 8 8 Lmdera glauca1\/: 15, 18 Lmnaeus \/1): 21; (2): 7, 19, 21-22, 24 Liqmdambar styraciflua ~3\/: 11, 14, - (3~: 17; (4~: 13, 34-35 hupehensis \/4~: 35 sargentn (4) : 35 sieboldm \/4\/: 35 Maple (3): 2, 8-9 - Japanese (2~: 29 G - paperbark ( 112, 14-16 red (3): 5-6 5 snakebarked \/ 1\/: 15 sugar (3): 5-7 Marks, P. L., \"Readmg the Landscape : Primary vs Secondary Forests\" (3)' 2-10 9 Matteucia struthiopteris ( 1 ~: McDonald,J Andrew, \"Medicinal Plant Exploration-Past and Present\" (2~ 2-11; photo by (2): - Orixa ~apomca (21 27; (3\/~ var. 18 Paeoma obovata 7 ~1\/~ 17 mllmottiae - - front cover \"Medicinal Plant ExplorationPast and Present,\" J. Andrew 1 McDonald (2)~ 2-11 Mehosma \/3) 18 Mentha \/2~: 28 Meyer, Paul, et al., \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan\" ( 1 12-20, 13, 19; photo by ( 1inside front cover \/ 1\/: 18; \/3\/. 5, 18 fragrantissima ~2\/: 30 -standlshm f lancifoha \/4\/: 6, 8 8 Loropetalum chmense ( 1\/: 18 Lycopodmm flabelhforme \/3\/: 6 5 Lyoma ovahfoha ~1\/: 15 - 17 7 Lonicera Maackia 7 (3): 17 Macleaya cordata (2): 32 Maclura pomifera ~3\/~ 17 7 amurensis (2y inside back cover Moluccas (2). 8 Monarda didyma (2)' 25 7 Morus (3) : 17 Mulch \/ 110 Mynca \/3~: 13, 18; \/4\/~ 28, 29 cenfera (4~ 26, 28 -gale \/4y 26 pensylvamca (4\/. 26 \"Mystical, Medicinal Witch Hazel,\" 1 Sheila Connor (3) : 20-21 Mimosa - \" 1 -suffruticosa (2) : 31 1 --'Joseph Rock'(2): 31 8 Pahurus ~3\/: 18 4 Panax gmseng \/2\/: 14 4 qumquefohus ~2\/. 14 trifolius (21: 24 8 Papaver alpma ~1\/: Paulownia tomentosa (3). 17; 4): 10 7 Pawpaw (3) : 12, 17 1 Peony, tree (2): 31 Pepperbush, sweet ~4y 12 Periwinkle (2) : 7 8 Persimmon, wild ( 118 Petasites hybmdus ~1\/: 3 Phellodendron amurense (3\/: inside back cover, 17, 22-24 Phoebe bournei ( 115 8 Phouma \/ 118 Physoplexis comosa (1). 10 8 Phyteuma orbiculare ~1\/: Phytolacca ~2\/: 24 amencana \/2\/: 24 decandra ~2\/: 24 Picrasma quassioldes (3) 17 7 Pme (3): 8 Australian (41: 27, 30 - ground (3) : 6 3 - red (3) : 4 tabletop ( 114 - white (31: 6 Pmus resmosa (3) 3 - strobus ~3\/. 6 tabulaeformis ~1y 14 \"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan,\" Peter del Tredici et al. ( 1 \/: - - - - - - Madsen, Karen, photo by (1).inside back cover - 8 Magnocuranne ~2\/. 17-18 Magnolia ashm (4) : 12 frasem ~2\/: 17; (4\/: 13 -grandiflora (2\/: 29 - hypoleuca ~2\/: - 16 kobus (4\/: 8 - macrophylla (2\/: 17; (4\/ 3, 12 7 -officmahs (2\/: 16-17 --var. biloba (2) : 12-18, 16, 17 -sahcifoha (4) : 13 - tnpetala (4) : 12 2014 vjr~jnjilM 'Milton' NACPEC (North Amencan-Chma Plant Exploration Consortium)I 9 ( 112, 19 Nandma \/3~: 18 \"Nature's Vagaries The Weather of 1995 and the Living Collections,\" Todd Forrest (41: 2-15 New Guinea (2) 7 Nicotiana tabacum (2) : 6 \"Nitrogen Fixation: The Story of the Frankia Symbiosis,Peter Del Tredici (4) : 26-31 1 North American-China Plant \" 12-20 1 Plant exploration, medicmal ~2\/: 2-11 Pokeweed (2): 24 Magnolia, (4) : 13 - anise 12): 29 (or willow-leaved) 12 ' Exploration Consortium (NACPEC~ \/ 112 North Carolina State University Arboretum \/4~: 32-33 Nyssa sylvatica (4): 13 bigleaved (4): Fraser ~4\/: Kobus (4) : 13 3 8 2 umbrella (4): 12 1 Mahoma aqmfolmm (2\/: 31 7 - bealm \/ 117 1 - japonica (2\/: 30-31 - - Oak (3~: 2, 7, 24 4 chestnut ( 114 Olive, autumn (4) : 27, 29 Olive, Russian (4~: 27, 29, Opuntia (2): 6 30 Pohothyrsis sinensis \/4\/: 13, 14 Polygala senega \/2\/: 25 Polystichum acrostichoides ~3\/. 6 Poncmus tnfohata (2). 28 Poppies, alpme ~(1):2, 6 Populus (3) : 11, 17; (4): 19 tremuloides (3) : 12 2 4 Pnmula ~1\/: denticulata (1\/: 4 1 - ~apomca ~111 7 - kisoana ( 1\/: 4 x 'Frances P K ' ~ 1 4 Propagation (3): 11-19; (4y 23, 34-35 Prunus (3) : 11, 17 - nipponica (4): 8 subhmtella v ascendens ~4\/. 8 - - v. autumnahs (41: 8 7 Pterocarya \/3\/: 17 Pteroceltis tartmowm ~1\/: 17 7 Ptilotnchum spmosum 'Purpureum' 6 (1\/:6 - - 40 . Pueraria lobata 7 (1).17 Purshia tndentata (4): 27 Pyracantha coccmea (3): 18 7 Pyrus calleryana (31: 17 Sassafras albidum (2~: 4; \/3y 12, 15, 17 7 - Tsuga canadensis (3) : 6, (4) : 12 Qrfa, Zang \/ 112, 13 Quercus alba (4): 12 -ahena (1): 14 - serrata - 8 Saxifraga longifoha \/ 1~: 4 pensylvamca ( 1\/: Scabiosa lucida (1): 8 Schulhof, Richard, \"A Celebration of Crabapples: Book Review\" (4) : 6 tanakae ( 1~: \"Two Thousand Years of Eating Bark: Magnoha of ficmahs var. biloba and Eucommia ulmoldes \" m Traditional Chmese Medicme,\" 8 Todd Forrest (2~: 12-18 Tsusiophyllum - 8 ( 118 suber (3) 24 8 variabihs ( 1\/: 14, 18 Qumce, Japanese flowering (4) : Nivalis flowering \/4\/: 8 Qmmne (2): 6, 13 Racz & 34-35 5 Scott Arboretum, PA (3) : 15 U.S. National Cancer Institute (2): Senna, native (2) : 32 Sequoia sempermrens (3\/: 13-14 8 7, 13 Ulmus (3~: 11; (3) 17 - glabra \/3y 20 6 parmflora ( 1\/: \"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines,\" 1 Catherine Hull( 12-11 - Shepherdia 27 \"Shoots From Roots. A Horticultural Review,\" Peter Del Tredici 9 (3) : 11-19 canadensis (4\/: \" Debreczy, photos by (2): 4 inside front cover, inside back cover; (3~: inside back cover Silk tree (2\/~ inside back cover 7 Smomlsoma henry \/1\/: 15, 17 Smilax (2~: 6 2 Snowbell, fragrant (4) : 12 Sohdago rugosa \/3~: 5 7 Sophora 7apomca (3~: 17 Sorbana sorbifolia (3) : 18 Sorbus yuana (4) : 13, 14 5 Spicebush, Chinese ( 115 8 - evergreen ( 1 \/ 18 Spmaea \/1\/: 18; (3~: 18 x arguta (4~: 8 Spongberg, Stephen (1\/~ 37; \/4~: 6-7, - Raup, Hugh \/4~: \"Reading the Landscape: Primary vs Secondary Forests,\" P. L. Marks (3~: 2-10 \"Rehder's Ceanothus' Ceanothus palhdus'Roseus',\" Gary Koller x -- (1). 21-23 Rehder, Alfred ( 123, 34, 37; (2) : \"Requiem for a Cork Tree,\" Peter Del Tredici (3~: 22-24 Rhamnus cathartica (3~: 5 Rhizobmm (4) : 27-28 Rhododendron \/ 12, 18; (31: 18 1 -'Blue Peter' (2)- 31 2 calendulaceum (4~: 3, 12 1 -maximum (2\/: 31 Rhodotypos scandens (3~: 18 Rhus (3) : 13, 18 Ribes \/3\/: 18 8 - 16 24 7 Staphylea (3) : 17 Steele, Fletcher \/ 1\/ 2-G Stewartia (1)~ 9; \/4~: 12 - smensis ( 1\/: 14, 1 G-17, 18 4 Stewartia, Chinese ( 114 Stolons (3\/: 13 Styrax obassia (4\/: 10, 12 Sweet gale (4) : 26 1 Sweetgum (3~: 11 8 Sweetleaf, Chmese \/ 118 8 Symphoncarpos (3~: 18 Symphyandra hofmannii (1~: 8 wanneri ( 1 10 8 Symplocos chmensis (1\/: 18 9 Syrmga meyen 'Palibm' ( 1~: vulgans 'Pnncess Mane' (3): - 8 Vaccmmm (1\/: 9; (3) : 18 3 macrocarpon 'Hamilton' ( 1 ~: 9 Vancouvema hexandra ( 1 9 Viburnum \/ 1 \/: 9; (3): 18; (4): 12 -acemfolmm (3): 6 dentatum (3) : 6 farren 'Candidissima' (4): 7, 8 -rhytidophyllum \/4~: 13 x bodnantense 'Dawn' (4~: 8 6 Viburnum, arrowwood \/36 leatherleaved \/4~: 13 -mapleleaf (3) : 6 8 Viola vanegata ( 18 Violet, dogtooth (2~: 25 - - - - - Waldsteima 32-33 ternata (1~: 9 Walking stick, Harry Lauder's (4) : Weather Station Data, Arnold _ (2) : 4 al., \"Plant Collect3 ing on Wudang Shan\" \/ 1 12-20, 13 Robinia (3) : 13 -hispida (3\/: 18 -pseudoacacia \/3\/: 12, 17 1 Rock gardemng\/ 12-11 5 Rodgersra ( 1\/: 9, 15 9 Root cuttings (3) : 11-19 Root suckers \/3~: 11-14 Rosa (3~. 18 -'Seafoam' (4): 8 foetida (2~: back cover Rose, Austrian copper briar (2y back Ricmus commums Riming, Hao, et - 18 8 Arboretum, 1994( 140 ----- 1995 (4\/. 36 Wilson, E. H. \/ 112, 17-18; 25, 34, photo by 36, 37; (2~: 12, 15, 16; (4) : 17,24 8 Wisteria (3~: 18 1 Witch hazel (3): front cover, 20-21 tree (3): 20 5 - - Chinese ( 115 Wudang Shan, China (1).inside front cover, 12-20, 13, 18 Wyman, Donald (4~: 4, 6-7, 10, 35 7 Xanthoceras sorbifohum \/3\/: 17 Xanthorhiza simphcissima (3\/: 18 8 \"Year in Trees and Words: Book Note and Excerpt\" (4~: 32-33 Yew, plum, species and cultivars 24-39 Yi, Lii ( 112, 13 8 Zanthoxylum (3): 18 5 - molle ( 115 Zelkova serrata \/ 116 6 smca ( 1 15-16 6 7 Zizyphus ~u~uba (3) : 17 - - - - cover 2 - hybrid tea \/ 12 seafoam (4) : 8 Rubber tree, hardy (2) : Rubus (3) : 15, 18 - \/ 125 baccata (2)' 13 bremfoha (2) : 7, 13 Tea, New Jersey \/4~: 26 1 Telekia speciosa (2): 31 Thomas, R. William, et al., \"Plant \/: Collecting on Wudang Shan\" ( 1 Taxus . 12-20 15 5 I Thoreau, Henry David (3~. 1 Tiha amencana (3\/. 6 Tmcertis macropoda ( 1 16 Tmllmm grandiflorum (1~: 10; (3\/: 6 2014 2014 'Flore Plenum' (1): 5 recurvatum \/ 1 ): 5 Tmpp, Kim E., \"Hardy Asian Alders\" (4): 16-25; photo by (4) : - (1 \/: 3 Sahx alba (2): 13 - 6 arbuscula\/ 16 G hylematica ( 1\/: Sambucus (3p 18 Sargent, Charles ( 137; (4~: 3, 8, 24, 35 inside cover "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25147","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add060a36b.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum WIN T E R . N E W 5 . 1 9 9 5 - 1 9 96 A Wetland Restoration Robert E. Cook, Director The spring of 1996 will mark another milestone in the evolution of the landscape of the Arnold Arboretum. A 24-acre parcel of land known as the Stony Brook Marsh will be formally added to the grounds and incorporated into the park system of the City of Boston. It has been a century and a year since such an action was last taken. In 1895 the Peters Hill tract was placed under the original 1882 agreement whereby the Arboretum land was given to the City for parks and leased back to Harvard University as a center for the scientific study of trees. The Stony Brook Marsh is a low-lying area of wetland vegetation marking the merger of Bussey Brook into Stony Brook. It separates the south flanks of Hemlock Hill and Bussey Hill from the Forest Hills subway station and rail tracks leading to Dedham. Onginally part of the Bussey Institution of Harvard Universityone of the first agricultural colleges in the country-the land has been abused and has fallen into decay over the past half century. It became a dumping ground for refuse, and its higher ridges were invaded by a heavy growth of weedy shrubs and trees. A decade ago, local friends of the Arboretum formed the Arboretum Park Conservancy and took on the goal of incorporating this urban wild into the lease agreement with the City as part of the Boston park system. After years of political and legal maneuvering, they have succeeded in reaching a mutually beneficial arrangement between the City and the Arboretum. In taking responsibility for the management of the Stony Brook Marsh, the Arboretum will commit itself to restoring the habitat to a more tion. natural wetland condian valuable part of our educational efforts-for casual visitors and adult classes, but especially for our children's educational program with local schools. In this special sense, it will be symbolic of the vision that led Charles Sprague Sargent and the City fathers to form the original partnership for the people of Boston over a century ago. It will become immensely Native People, Native Trees children's interest in both trees and Native Amencan culture. Developed in collaboration with local schoolteachers, the program shares much of what we know about the relationships that once existed between Native Americans and the land known today as the Arnold Arboretum. Thanks to a field reconnaissance survey conducted by Boston city archaeologist Steve Pendery, we know that Native Amencan occu- As part of a new Arboretum field study, Boston-area children will soon explore the meadows and comfers of Bussey Brook valley to discover how Native Americans denved vital sustenance from the northern forest. The program, \"Native People, Native Trees,\" began in 1994 when Arboretum field study coordinator Annette Huddle set out to create field activities for grades three through five that would encourage pation of a site near the Arboretum's Bussey Brook began nearly 8,000 years ago and continued sporadically up until the time of European colonization. \"Native People, Native Trees\" revisits this era and enables children to consider the challenges faced by the Arboretum's earliest inhabitants through a search for white cedar, white birch, and other species that were critical to human comfort and survival. With pilot testing of the program now complete, we look forward to introducing the study to schools later this year. We thank the Massachusetts Cultural Council for their support of the project. Annette Huddle leading a storytelling session on Hemlock Hill. New Staff and is currently enrolled in the M.S.L.I.S. program at the Simmons College Graduate School of Library and Information Science. ~ Elizabeth Kolster joined the Arboretum in December as an information systems project manager working with the biodiversity conservation project in Southeast Carol Mita has joined the Botany Libraries staff as Serials Manager. She is responsible for all incoming serials, bindery operations, and the serials exchange program. Carol has held other serials and cataloging positions in the Memorial Library and the Middleton Health Sciences Library of the University of Wisconsin, Madison. She received the B.A. in zoology from the University of Wisconsin, Madison, Asia. Liz will be developing a national biodiversity database system for the Government of Indonesia, and she bnngs extensive expenence with computers to the project. She has worked as director of information systems at Boston University and for the Faculty of Arts and Sciences at Harvard. She is particularly interested in geo- graphical information systems that combine map-based informacritical natural the biodiversity countries in tropical of developing Asia. Liz is also an avid sailor. on tion with data resources, such as ~ ~ , Error Noted: In last issue's \"Cork Tree's Last Hurrah Provides a Science Lesson on Leverage,\" the Resistance Force should have read as 7,763 pounds (or 3.9 tons). 1996 American This winter Landscape Lecture Series marks the fourth year of collaboration the Arnold Arboretum, Olmsted National Hisamong toric Site, the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and a number of other sponsors to present a lecture series exploring our changing relationship with the Amencan landscape. This year's series, Memory in Place, examines landscapes, museums, and literature that seek to commemorate and encourage reflection about the places, figures, and events of our collective past. The Arboretum extends its thanks to the Massachusetts Foundation for the Humanities for its special support of the series. All lectures are free and begin at 6:30 pm in the Piper Auditorium of the Harvard Graduate School of Design at 48 Quincy Street, Cambndge. For mformauon, call at i~ -J 617\/566-1689 x the National Park Service 220. Thursday, February 22 The Power of Place. Urban Landscapes as Public History Dolores Hayden, Professor of Archztecture, Urbanism, and Amerzcan Studies, Yale ZJnzverszty Wednesday, March 6 Preserving Memory: The Making of the United States Holocaust Memorial Museum Edward T. Lznenthal, Professor of Relzgzon and Amerzcan Culture, Unzverszty of Wzsconszn Thursday, March 14 The Invention of Place: Environmental Perceptions m American Literature Lawrence Buell, Professor of Englzsb, Harvard Llnzver~zty - ,, , Tuesday, April 2 The Garden as Narrative: Lawrence Halpmn's Franklm Delano Roosevelt Memorial Reuben M. Razney, Professor of Landscape Arehztecture, L7nzverszty of Vzrgznza . .,.. Monday, April 8 Memory Gardens: The Poetry and Gardens of Ian Hamilton Alec Finlay, Poet, Edinburgh, Scotland Finlay _ Free Tours at the Arnold Arboretum Willows, cherries, magnolias, dogwoods, crabapples, lilacs, I roses, mock and many, many more plants will be highlighted oranges, hydrangeas, on free monthly walking tours at the Arnold Arboretum. These tours will be offered March through September, on the fourth Saturday of each month, beginning at 10:30 am on the front steps of the Hunnewell Building and lasting approximately an hour. For further information, or to find out if a tour has been canceled due to weather, call our general information message at 617\/524-1718 x 773. date March 23 3 April 27 5 May 25 hzghlzght witch hazels and willows Arbor Day: great trees of the Arnold Arboretum dogwoods and lilacs roses and mock oranges bottlebrush buckeye oakleaf hydrangea and scholar trees franklinia and witch hazels , June 22 July 27 August 24 ' September 28 1995-1996 Annual Lisa AppealI Development Officer Arnold Arboretum members and friends are responding generously to the 1995-1996 Annual Appeal, with a total of $54,159.91 in gifts received to date. In his letter seeking annual support, Director Bob Cook reflected on the recent passing of the 125-yearold Amur cork tree. The tree died when a group of local schoolchildren climbed onto a low-lying limb for a photograph. Over time, the cork tree had come to symbolize in a unique way the many facets of the Arnold Arboretum-as scientific institution, public park, and historic landscape. As one of the Arboretum's oldest trees, its accession number was recorded by Charles Sprague Sargent in 1874 when it arrived in the form of dry seed from the Ruusan Imperial Garden of St. Petersburg. During its long life, the tree came to be loved by Hastings, children of all ages. \"The generous support received from our members is most appreciated,\" says Bob Cook. \"The Arboretum has always meant different things to different people. Gifts to the annual appeal represent a strong vote of confidence in our commitment to grow and curate an exceptional collection of trees.\" \" Senior I & ~ 1 The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and landscape design. A selection of spnng and summer courses is shown here. For a complete catalog of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call 617\/524-1718 x 162. Note that fees shown in boldface are for members of the Arboretum. For information about becoming a member, call 617\/524-1718 x 165. ~. .< i HOR 498 The Collector's Garden: Designing with Extraordinary Plants Ken Druse, Author and Photographer In this slide-illustrated us on a some WAL 168 Private Gardens of England and Wales Daphne Foulsham, Chair, Sit back and seen Natzonal Gardens Scheme lecture, Ken Druse will take journey to memorable gardens and introduce of the people and plants that will be shaping the direction of gardening in the 21st century. enjoy an armchair tour of rarely private gardens in England and Wales. Mrs. Foulsham's slides capture a diversity of gardens, ranging from cottage and country gardens to historical landscapes and sophisticated town gardens. 5 Fee: $12, $15 Tuesday, April 23\/ 7:00-8:00 pm (HB) Fee: $15, $18 Friday, April 12\/ 7:30-8:30 pm (State Laboratories) Lilac Sunday, May 19,1996 There are thousands of flowering plants to admire in the Arboretum, but only one, the lilac, is singled out each year for a daylong celebration. On Lilac Sunday garden enthusiasts from all over New England gather at the Arboretum to enjoy picnicking, watch Morris dancing (English folk dancing), take tours, and purchase lilacs. On the day of the event the Arboretum will be open from dawn to dusk with lilac plants and refreshments available for purchase from 10 am to 4 pm. For information, call the Arnold Arboretum at 617\/524-1718 x 100. 0 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23301","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15ea36b.jpg","title":"1995-55-4","volume":55,"issue_number":4,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reading the Landscape: Primary vs. Secondary Forests","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25137","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eb36b.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Marks, P. L.","article_content":"Reading the Landscape: Primary vs. Secondary Forests ' P. L. Marks In much of the eastern United States, the forests within a region vary enormously. young thickets while others consist of old, majestic trees. There are oak forests and there are maple forests; some are wet, others dry. Distinguishing between primary and secondary forests can help to explain some of the variation. Some forests are \"Secondary forests\" are those growing on land that was once cleared for farming, and \"primary forests\" are on land that has never been cleared for agriculture. Both primary and secondary forests are common in the eastern United States, and their distribution is largely a function of land history. How land has been used, in turn, has been strongly influenced by intrinsic features such as soils and topography. In prime agricultural regions secondary forest is generally uncommon because little farmland has been abandoned. In mountainous regions secondary forest is also uncommon, in this case because very little land is suitable for farming. In other areas where agriculture was widely practiced and then substantially abandoned, secondary forests are common today. This essay focuses on why and how these two kinds of forest differ and, using the example of beech trees, discusses the process of succession that occurs when land is reverting from agricultural use to forest. The term \"primary\" forest should not be confused with \"old-growth\" forest-forest free from significant human disturbance or influence. The few old-growth stands that exist today in the eastern United States are all primary forests, but the reverse is not true. The vast majority of primary forests are not old growth because they have been substantially disturbed by the activities of people, most commonly by logging and grazing. Despite having been disturbed in vari- ways, often repeatedly, primary forests have had continuity of forest habitat for thousands of years. ous Looking for Clues Trying to decipher the history of forests when walking in the woods is fun and informative. Sometimes it is easy. Younger secondary forests (say twenty to forty years since farming) are readily recognizable from their scrubby or thicket-like structure, the absence of large trees stumps, and the presence of some trees with spreading growth forms resembling specimen trees in lawns. As secondary forests age, however, they gradually take on some of the appearance of primary forests. After sixty or ninety years or more, they can be more difficult to distinguish and closer scrutiny is required. One useful clue is the degree of undulation in the ground surface. Conspicuous irregularities are normally present in the ground surface of primary forests, the result of centuries of treeuprooting by wind. The mounds and pits, as these small-scale topographical features are called, tend to be on the order of one to two yards across. In contrast, the ground under secondary forests is relatively level because over the years agricultural plowing smoothed the surface of the ground. Other features useful in distinguishing primary from secondary forests can be seen at the or open, 3 _.__n_________m.......___n- ~ ~ The imtial stage of wmd, the mounds are the pit-and-mound formation. In this photo of red pme trees ~Pmus resmosa) uprooted by root balls and the pits are the ongmal locations of the root balls When soil is displaced by an uprooted tree, a mound and a closely associated pit are formed The pits and mounds in this photo, of Hemlock Hill m the Arnold Arboretum, were created nearly sixty years ago, in the hurricane of 1938 4 A well-defmed edge (above the arrow) between an older pnmary forest to the mght and a younger secondary forest to the left. Note the profusion of spreadmg branches on the left side of the edge. Secondary forest grows on both sides of this older hedgerow of trees, which runs from the left foreground of the picture to the center rear. Note the spreadmg branches growmg out on both sides of the hedgerow. 5 of stands. One hundred (or more) years when the sites that today support older secago, ondary forests were still being farmed, the edges of farm fields were commonly either hedgerows or primary forest. Many of the trees that once grew on the edge of these fields retain evidence of their former edge environment. Specifically, trees on the edge of a primary forest adjacent to secondary forest will show a pronounced asymmetry in their branching, with more large, nearly horizontal, low-to-the-ground branches on the formerly sunny side. Older hedgerows with older secondary forest on both sides will likewise show evidence of a remnant branching pattern, but in this case large, spreading branches grow out on both sides of the trees. Sometimes, the large, spreading branches have died but their former existence can be deciphered from the large, bulging branch bases along the trunk. Rocks can also tell a story. Rock piles or walls are common occurrences along the edges of secondary forest, generally indicating that the rocks were moved to the edge of the field to facilitate plowing. Sometimes it is unclear at first from which side of an edge the rocks came, but a bit of sleuthing usually reveals the answer. edges They Differ In Species? Secondary forests contain more sun-loving, open habitat plants than do primary forests. Examples are Cornus racemosa (gray dogwood), Lonicera spp. (honeysuckle), Rhamnus cathartica (buckthorn), and Solidago rugosa (goldenrod). These open habitat species typically invade early in old field succession; they are present in secondary forests because they can persist, at least for a while, in a shady forest understory. A number of the open habitat shrub and herbaceous plants are exotic species, and How Do thus another difference between primary and secondary forests is that the latter have more (nonnatme) plant species. are other noteworthy differences in species, if we consider just the common plants of primary forests. Secondary forests contain a subset of the forest plants and animals found in primary forests; a few examples of plants that exotic There example, two common situations are (1)an edge between primary and older secondary forest and (2) two older secondary forests separated by a hedgerow that was present when the forests were fields. Suppose that the edges in both situations contain rock piles. Which site did the rocks come from, and how can you be sure? In the first situation, the secondary forest would have relatively smooth ground, the result of previous plowing, and thus the rocks must have been removed from that site; the adjacent For in contrast, would show mounds and pits. Confirmation should come from the branching pattern of the edge trees: many more large, spreading branches should be growing out into what is now the secondary forest. In the second situation, mounds and pits would most likely be absent from both sites, suggesting that the rocks came from fields that were on both sides of the hedgerow. If the branches of the larger hedgerow trees are growing outward on both sides, this would confirm secondary forest on both sides of the hedgerow. primary site, in each kind of forest in the northUnited States are listed in Table 1. Even within a group of closely related species, we sometimes find that one species is common only in primary forests, while another is common in both secondary and primary forests, as shown in Table 2. For example, m central New York (and elsewhere) Acer rubrum \/red maple) is common both in primary and secondary forests whereas A. saccharum (sugar maple) is abundant m primary forests but is seldom abundant in secondary forests. Where forest plants are present in secondary as well as primary forests, we can assume that they colonized the secondary forest sites from the primary forests and hedgerows that surround most fields. Why have some forest plants been so successful in colonizmg secondary forests from source populations in primary forests and hedgerows? To answer this question, consider the different land-use histories of primary and secondary forests. Clearing of the original forests, combined with the sustamed use of a site for agriculture for the better part of a century, would elimmate the forest plants and animals present at the time of clearmg. Thus, when a farm field is abandoned, primary forest plants and animals can colonize it only if they can get there from nearby forests and hedgerows. The distances over which forest species must travel in order to are common eastern Table 1. A list of selected plants that are characteristic of forests in the northeastern United States primary or secondary Primary Fagus grandifolia (American beech) Acer saccharum (sugar maple) Tilia americana (basswood) Tsuga canadensis (hemlock) Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) Trillium grandiflorum Dentaria diphyllum (toothwort\/ Caulophyllum thalictroides (blue cohosh\/ ' Secondary Acer rubrum (red maple) Fraxinus americana (white ash) Pinus strobus (white pine) Cornus racemosa (gray dogwood) (arrowwood viburnum) Botrychmm mrgmianum (grape fern) Lycopodium flabelliforme (ground pine) Viburnum dentatum . Table 2. Examples of plant differences between primary and in the northeastern United States secondary forests Primary Trees Secondary Acer rubrum (red maple) ........... Acer rubrum Acer saccharum (sugar maple) Viburnum dentatum ............ Viburnum dentatum Shrubs Herbs (arrowwood viburnum) acerifolium (mapleleaf viburnum) Dryopteris austriaca var. spinulosa (spinulose wood fern) Polystichum acrostichoides (Christmas fern) Viburnum ..... Dryopteris austriaca var. spinulosa colonize abandoned farmlands are often not species are uncommon in secondary forests, per- great-perhaps fifty to several hundred yardsbut they are nonetheless significant because plant species differ so much m seed dispersal ability. Some forest species are much better than others at dispersing seeds to abandoned fields. Thus one reason secondary forests differ in species from primary forests is that they contain species with better dispersal capabilities. I suspect this explains why secondary forests contain herbaceous plants with tiny spores that drift long distances on the wind, such as spinulose wood fern. But not all forest species capable of dispersing to abandoned farmlands are well represented in secondary forests. Some shade-tolerant forest haps because they open conditions of cannot tolerate the sunny, rundown, abandoned fields. finally, plants may be uncommon in secondary forests because of seed size. Small seeds give rise to small seedlings, which compete poorly with the dense meadow vegetation of abandoned farm fields. The scarcity in secondary forests of the primary forest species listed in Table 1 can presumably be explained by one or And more of the three factors just described. The Case of Beech Tree Colonization Beech (Fagus grandifolia) behaves quite differently in secondary forests than it does in primary forests, and the pattern of its invasion . 7 Investigating Two Centuries of Change In the eastern United States, the mixture of forest and open nonforest land has changed dramatically over the last two hundred to three hundred years. A recent study esti- mated how much forest was present in rural Tompkms County, central New York, in 1790, 1900, 1938, and 1980. Our estimates were drawn from a variety of sources. We used contemporary information for 1790, 1938, and 1980. Records from the original land surveyors indicated that in In studying how much of Tompkins County's forest was once 1790, 99.7% of the county was cleared for agriculture, we made extensive use of aenal phocovered in forest. By carefully tographs. This one shows pnmary forest as well as abandoned examining aerial photographs agricultural fields m the process of becommg secondary forest. taken in 1938 and 1980 we determined the amount of forest present at basswood, beech, hemlock, and other trees. Cattail marshes, other marshes, beaver meadthose times: 28.5% in 1938; 50.7% in 1980. Old agricultural census records revealed that ows, and alder thickets are some other landthe maximum acreage in farmlands occurred scape components present today and in 1790. between 1890 and 1900. This was a key date There are also present today landscape combecause the amount of forest in Tompkins ponents that were rare or absent in 1790. Exwould have been at its lowest when County amples are active and abandoned cow pastures and abandoned crop fields (old field succesthe amount of agricultural land was at its maximum. Before 1890, forest was still being sion). Thus, we see that landscape compoconverted to agricultural land; after 1900, nents have changed both quantitatively and agricultural lands were being abandoned. Forqualitatively over the last two hundred years. Many of the original components are still tunately, the short time interval between with us, but we have less of each one. At the 1900 and 1938, when the earliest aerial photowere taken, meant that we could dissame time we have some distinctly new comgraphs on the 1938 photos young forest ponents. tinguish How general are the results from Tompkins growing on abandoned agricultural fields from older forest that had been present in 1900. By County? The results probably apply to many this means we estimated that only 19.4% of parts of the eastern United States, provided that allowance is made for differences in both the county was forested in 1900. Thus, in the dates and the amount of forest cleared. For only two hundred years, the landscape of example, the chronology would be shifted earTompkins County changed from being all forlier in southern New England. ested, to mostly agricultural, to an equal mixture of agricultural and forest lands today. This information is based on two collaborative The major kinds of vegetation present in studies, which are cited at the end of the article 1790 are here today: oak forests, swamp forE B Smith, P L Marks, and S. Gardescu, 1993, and P L Marks and S Gardescu, 1992 ests, and various forests with sugar maple, ~~- 8 illustrates one of the general principles underlying plant succession. I first noticed that beech was showing an interesting pattern about ten years ago when I was studying forests around Ithaca, New York, to determine whether each stand was primary or secondary. After a while I realized that if I saw a stand with large beech trees-trunks greater than about fifteen inches in diameter-invariably the forest had not been cleared for agriculture. (Incidentally, the reverse was not true. Not all forests that lacked large beech trees had been farmed. Some were primary forests, but the soil was too wet or too dry for beech.) Subsequently I began to notice the widespread occurrence of beech seedlings and saplings in secondary forests, the same forests that lacked large beech trees. Apparently, secondary forests were being invaded by beech, since there were small, vigorously growing beech in the understory but no large beech trees in the overstory. On my own land, there is a well-defined edge between secondary and primary forest. The primary forest contains lots of beech, ranging from large trees to small stems. The adjacent secondary forest grew up in a field where agriculture had been abandoned around 1920, an estimate derived from examining old aerial photographs and deed records. Maples, pines, and ashes, but not beech, are among the dominant, tall tree species in the secondary forest today. These trees are sixty or seventy years old, having invaded the field within a decade or two after the last time crops were grown. In the understory, seedlings and saplings of beech are common. Many of the large beech in the adjacent primary forest are close to the edge of the secondary stand, and there is every reason to think that these trees have produced large numbers of beech seeds for a hundred years or more. Nevertheless, beech has been able to invade the former agricultural site only in the last couple of decades. Why? Why has it apparently taken so long for beech seedlings to get started after the field was abandoned? Students in the plant ecology course at Cornell University have studied beech invasion in secondary forests, and it is instructive to examine some of their results. In several older secondary forests-on land that was last farmed Beech leaves on saplmgs and lower tree branches throughout ~nnnter, making it easy to spot beech m a forest when other deciduous trees are remain leafless. about seventy years ago-the density of beech seedlings and saplings is about one stem per hundred square feet, dense enough to produce a beech forest in the future if most of these stems survive. The ages of the beech invaders are revealing, as can be seen in the graph on the next page. In the secondary stand on my own land, beech began to invade about forty years after abandonment-thirty to forty years after the other tree species got started. The beech invasion continues, and most of the beech seedlings and saplings became established in the last twenty years. However, we can't tell whether the low density of beech dating from the 1960s and early 1970s is due to mortality or to a gradual beginning of the invasion. More specifically, how might we explain the failure of beech seedling establishment in the first forty years following agricultural abandonment and the clearly successful establishment over the ensuing twenty-five years? As with vir- 9 Abundances of different ages of beech seedhngs and saplmgs (m gray), and of the oldest trees of other species (diagonal lmesJ, showing the years m which they omgmated, m a secondary forest that developed on farmland abandoned about 1920. (Younger maple and ash are not shown.) tually all such questions in the science of ecology, there is more than one plausible answer. First, although as I have suggested above beech seeds have no doubt been available throughout the past seventy-five years, perhaps seeds began dispersing into the site only after it had become a forest, rather than in its earlier stages of meadow or thicket. In this part of the world, around forty years are necessary for an abandoned agricultural field to develop into young forest through natural succession. A second possible answer persing is that beech seeds have been disinto the site for the entire seventy-five were years but unable seedlings to until become established as something changed about thirty to years ago. How do beech seeds disperse from one place another? What sorts of changes might have occurred thirty years ago that could have favored the establishment of beech seedlings? The answer to the first question hinges on the behavior of the animals that disperse beech seeds. Beechnuts are contained in prickly burs, which hold two shiny brown triangular nuts, each the size of a small acorn or a large lima bean. The burs open in early fall, at which time the seeds are eaten by birds such as blue jays, grouse, and turkeys, and by mammals ranging from chipmunks and squirrels to fox and deer. Of these animals, blue jays, squirrels, and chipmunks do carry beechnuts away from the trees, burying them to eat later. Blue jays, for example, can carry up to fourteen nuts at a time and may fly several miles from the beech trees back to their feeding territories, where they bury the nuts individually beneath the leaf litter covering the soil. When food is abundant in the fall of the year, these animals store beechnuts, acorns, and other tree seeds in their feeding territories, returning over the winter to eat the nuts. Even though the number of nuts left behind may be a small fraction of the number stored in the feeding territory, these seeds have been \"planted\" by the animal and thus stand a good chance of germinating and becoming established as seedlings. The explanation for the delay in beech invasion could involve the behavior of the dispersal agent. It may be that blue jays, squirrels, and chipmunks bury beechnuts mainly in forests. In other words, forty years or so are required to produce the kind of habitat where these animals bury nuts. There is an alternative explanation, however. Blue jays, and for shorter distances, chipmunks and squirrels, could be burying beechnuts during most or all of the forty years 10 from farm abandonment to young forest, but the uneaten nuts may seldom become vigorous seedlings during this early period because beech seedlings require shade to keep their roots from drying out. Several decades would therefore be needed to produce the forest conditions that permit beech seedlings to thrive. Whatever the reasons for the delay in beech invasion into post agricultural forest, the phenomenon illustrates one of the earliest theories about how succession works-namely, that the first invading plants alter the characteristics of a site in ways that favor invasion by other plants. These first invaders might cast shade that favors plants that do better away from direct sunlight. Or they might be legumes that fix nitrogen and thus favor plants that do better in richer soil. But this process of \"facilitation\"-of early invaders facilitating later invaders-is not the only determinant of succession. When-or even whether-a species invades involves an element of chance. For example, a tree species might invade an abandoned field if it happens to be common around the edges of the field, or if it has a good seed year during a critical decade of succession, or if the weather is favorable during a critical stage in the life cycle (for example, during seed germination). In the case of delayed invasion of beech in secondary forests, both of the likely explanations appear to involve facilitation : Before beech trees can become established, an abandoned farm field apparently must become young forest either to encourage burial of beechnuts by animals, or to provide the environmental conditions that allow beech seedling establishment, or both. the landscape. At the same time, other elements of the landscape are relatively old; they are present today and were also present hundreds of years ago. Deciphering the landscape's history enriches our understanding by allowing us to see it as dynamic, as something that has changed from an earlier condition, and that is still changing today. Acknowledgments This article is \"Reading the an adaptation from the author's series, Landscape,\" published m Cornell Wmter 1993, Summer 1994, and Summer 1995. The author is mdebted to S. Gardescu for help m preparing the paper and for commentmg on a draft manuscript, and to Cornell University students Celia Harvey, David Jadidian, Chris Jonas, and Marcia Kmmus for the use of their results. Plantauons, Sources and Readings Black, J. D. 1950. The rural economy of New England A regional study Cambndge~ Harvard University Press. Johnson, . C., & C S. Adkisson. 1986. Amhftmg the oaks. Natural History (October) 41-46. W. 1985 Dispersal of beechnuts by blue jays in fragmented landscapes. American Midland Naturahst 113: 319-324. Marks, P. L., and S Gardescu 1992. Vegetation of the Central Finger Lakes Region of New York in the 1790s. In Late Eighteenth Century Vegetation of Central and Western New York State on the Basis of Original Land Survey Records. New York State Museum Bulletin No. 484. Albany, NY: State Education Department, 1-35. 1966. The view from John Sanderson's farm: A perspective for the use of the land. Forest History 10: 2-11. Raup, H. M. The history of the landscape cannot be read with certainty, but that hasn't stopped historically minded ecologists from thinking about it. There is much to learn about today's landscapes by developing a picture of how they were in the past. Because landscapes are constantly changing, especially under the influence of humans, there are striking contrasts between contemporary and historical landscapes. Such contrasts help our present understanding by revealing how recently certain kinds of habitats, which we may take for granted, have become part of Smith, B. E., P. L. Marks, and S. Gardescu. 1993. Two hundred years of forest cover changes m Tompkms County, New York. Bulletin of the Torrey Botamcal Club 120 (3) : 229-247 G. G. 1994. From Coastal Wilderness to Frmted Plam. Cambridge, GB. Cambridge Whitney, University Press P. L. Marks is a professor and the chair of Cornell Umversity's Section of Ecology and Systematics. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Roots From Shoots: A Horticultural Review","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25139","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ebb28.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Shoots From Roots: A Horticultural Review Peter Del Tredici Many successful plant propagation techniques were inspired by observations of plants in nature. What plant propagator has not seen suckers arising at some distance from the main stem of a tree or shrub and concluded that this is plant that could be propagated from root cuttings. Such observations can be traced back at least to the days of the ancient Greek philosopher a Theophrastus (371-287 BC). he was in most As botanical matters, Theophrastus was the first to describe the process of root-sucker formation and to attempt to elucidate the causes: produce these trunk, the roots being here most shallow; and the olive produces them from Now most trees suckers next to the the base of the trunk as well. But the pear, pomegranate and all trees that produce suckers not only close to the trunk but at a distance from it, have long roots, and send up the shoot wherever the long root comes near the surface, for it is here that the conflux is formed with the resulting concoction as it is warmed. This is why there is nothing fixed about the place of the sucker, for there is nothing fixed about the approach of the root to the surface and the site of the conflux (Book 1 : 3.5). The earliest description that I could find of actual propagation of trees from roots is by John Evelyn, who m 1706 (and perhaps as early as 1664) noted that species of Ulmus, Prunus, and Populus produced root suckers that could be . A stand of root sprouts from a smgle forty-year-old sweetgum tree, Liquidambar styraciflua. The sprouts range m age from one to fifteen years, and some are over five mches m diameter at breast height. The gnds are one meter on each side. Photograph by P P. Kormanik, U.S. Forest Service, Athens, Georgia, from Kormamk and Brown, 1967. 12 . dug up and planted. Evelyn went so far as to include detailed instructions for how to propagate trees from roots: \"To produce succers, lay the roots bare and slit some of them here and there \" discretely, and then cover them.\" The most famous case of plant propagation from root cuttings is, of course, that of the breadfruit, Artocarpus altilis. This was the plant that the notorious Captain Bligh of the HMS Bounty was charged with transporting from the South Pacific to the West Indies. It was during the breadfruit's five-month propagation period in Tahiti that the Bounty's crew developed the taste for liberty that ultimately led to their infamous mutiny in 1789. new edition of Silvics of North America, edited by Russell Burns and Barbara Honkala and published in 1990. Of the 108 nontropical, native trees listed in Silvics, 22 of them (21 %\/ are reported to reproduce from root sprouts. Whether this ratio of root-sprouting to nonrootsprouting species would hold true for a wider sample of trees remains to be determined. The most well-known root-suckering tree is the quaking aspen, Populus tremuloides. This in the species plays a particularly important ecological role in the Rocky Mountain region, where \"clones\" of a single tree have been found covering more than 107 acres and totalling an estimated 47,000 distinct stems. In the East, Sassafras albidum spreads primarily from root suckers, as does the ubiquitous black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia, and the understorydwelling pawpaw, Asimina triloba. Another root-suckering species that has been extensively studied is the American beech, Fagus grandifolia, which grows over much of eastern North America. In the northern and eastern parts of its range, the species grows at moderate elevations on cool, rocky slopes and root suckers profusely following logging or diseaseinduced injury. In the southern and western parts of its range, however, beech is a bottomland species and shows little or no tendency to root sucker. Because this trait is difficult to put onto a herbarium sheet, however, few taxonomists have recognized it as a legitimate character for distinguishing the southern and northern ecotypes as distinct subspecies. The Ecology of Root Suckering In addition to its importance to propagation, root suckering in trees and shrubs also has significant ecological implications, as documented Propagation From Root Cuttings Since the mid-1800's, an extensive literature on the propagation of plants from root cuttings has appeared. Especially noteworthy is an article by the German author, Wobst (1868),that provides an extensive list of species-including many not referred to by other authors-that can be propagated from root cuttings. Other early articles on root-cutting propagation are by an American (Saul 1847), a German (Katzer 1868), and an Englishman (Lindsay 1877, 1882). Interestingly, references to root-cutting propagation are more An old specimen root of the Amemcan beech growing at the Arnold Arboretum. It has produced abundant suckers. _ in the older literature than in the modern. This is probably because modern advances in softwood stem-cutting technologynumerous 13 species that have been reported by more than one author to reproduce from root cuttings (see Tables 1 and 2). I have made an exception to this requirement of independent confirmation if an author provides documentary evidence of successful root-cutting propagation with a given species. Of necessity, this article is limited to hardy woody plants. To critically evaluate the extensive literature on tropical plants or herbaceous perennials propagated from root cuttings would be a massive task that is well beyond this author's experience or expertise. It is worth noting that all of the species listed in this article as being propagated from root cuttings are angiosperms. The only two gymnosperms ever documented as producing root suckers in nature are tropical conifers, Araucaria cunnlnghamii (Burrows 1990) and Dacrydium xanthandrum (Wong 1994). Interestingly, A. cunninghamii was also listed by Wobst in 1868 as propagated from root cuttings. Despite reports that Ginkgo biloba and Sequoia This specimen was of sweet fern (Comptonia peregnna) from the mld and placed m a closed \"mist box.\" Buds developed along the roots within a dug up month. mist-have rendered the slower and more cumbersome process of propagating by root cutting obsolete. Nevertheless, a number of difficult-to-root woody plants-primarily in the families intermittent including the use hormones, and of polyethylene film, rooting Anacardiaceae, Araliaceae, Leguminoseae, Myricaceae, and Rosaceae-are still most effectively propagated from root cuttings. In particular, there are many native shrubs that, because of their root-suckering habit, are ideal candidates for stabilizing roadside banks and other difficult habitats. Species in the genera Rhus, Comptonia, Myrica, Robinia, Aralia, and Clethra do well under such conditions and can all be propagated from root cuttings. Unfortunately, much of the literature on rootcutting propagation is difficult to interpret because of imprecise use of terminology. In particular, many horticulturists consider any woody structure that occurs underground to be a root, regardless of its anatomical origin. This means that plants that produce shoots from un- derground stems-including rhizomes, stolons, or lignotubers-are often incorrectly classified as \"root sprouters.\" Another problem is that many horticulturists have uncritically copied plant lists from earlier writers without either evaluating the validity of the prior observation or citing a proper source (e.g., Donovan 1976). The primary purpose of this article is to cut through the confusion that has plagued the literature on root cuttings by identifying those Root suckers produced by Crataegus punctata (AA#5608) growmg at the Arnold Arboretum. 14 root sprouts (Donovan research (Del Tredici 1992) has shown that these gymnosperms produce shoots from underground stems (lignotubers) not from sempervirens produce 1976), recent roots. The anatomy and is a physiology of root sprouts 3) Induced suckering. This category includes plants that form root suckers in response to superficial injury to the root, such as that caused by lawn mowers. Induced suckering also occurs following traumatic injury to the trunk of a tree or shrub, provided its root system is left intact. Many of the tree species listed in Silvics of North America (Burns and Honkala 1990) fall into this category insofar as they only produce root sprouts following logging. 4) In situ whole root cuttings. This category includes plants that form suckers from a root that has been completely severed from the par- very complex subject, and well beyond the scope of this paper. For information on this topic, one should consult the excellent review by Peterson (1975). For a detailed ecological study of root sprouting by a tree in its native habitat, consult Kormanik and Brown (1967) on Liquidambar styraciflua. What follows is a summary of the information available on the techniques for propagating woody plants from root cuttings, as described in the English-language horticultural literature. After the section on techniques are lists of species that have been successfully propagated from root cuttings. Types of Root Cuttings When discussing the propagation of plants from root cuttings, precise terminology is needed to describe the so-called polarity of the root. Proximal describes the end of the root nearest to the stem from which the root grew; distal describes the end furthest from the parent stem. This is important to remember because when a root cutting develops a bud, it typically forms at the proximal end. Following the classification system established by Hudson (1956), five distinct types of root propagation can be distinguished among woody plants, based on the relationship between parent plant and root sprouts, or suckers, as they are also known: 1) Natural suckering without division. This category includes species that produce root suckers naturally near the parent trunk, forming a densely packed cluster of stems. 2) Natural suckering with division. This category includes plants-mainly shrubs-that sucker from uninjured roots at some distance from the base of the parent plant. Under undisturbed conditions these plants form large, spreading colonies. The connecting roots have a tendency to wither away, thereby creating natural fragments of the parent plant that can be Successfully propagated root cuttmgs of the Enghsh hawthorn, Crataegus laevigata. ent plant but left in situ until a sucker has grown from the proximal end. This phenomenon is often observed in nurseries after a tree or shrub has been dug, leaving numerous severed roots behind. Provided they are not disturbed, these roots will give rise to new shoots. 5) Ex situ detached root cuttings. This category includes plants that form suckers from root cuttings dug up in the fall or winter, cut into short segments, and planted in the field or in containers. From the propagator's point of view, this is the most important category of root-cutting propagation because it allows for rapid increase in the number of plants produced. readily transplanted. Cuttings When propagating plants from root cuttings, the source of the propagules is critical. The following generalizations apply: , Source of Root 15 1)There is a clear distinction between roots spouting in nature and induced sprouting from root cuttings. Some species that do not appear to sucker in nature can be induced to produce sprouts from root cuttings propagated under nursery conditions. tions a 3) While it may seem obvious, to it is important remember that horticultural selections grafted onto seedling understock cannot be propagated from root cuttings. from many horticultural selecin which the desired mutation consists of periclinal chimera, including many desirable 2) Unfortunately, 4) Younger plants reproduce more reliably root cuttings than older plants. 5) Thick pieces of the root proximal to the variegated plants, will not come true from root This is because root buds typically cuttings. arise endogenously from the interior of the root, while buds that are produced on shoots arise exogenously from more superficial tissue layers. This difference in the point of origin produces different types of meristems in root versus shoot buds, a difference that is most strikingly seen in blackberries (Rubus spp.), in which plants propagated from stem cuttings are covered with thorns while those from root cuttings are thornless (Creech 1954; Peterson 1975). parent trunk seem to produce shoots more readily than thin root pieces distal to the parent trunk (Creech 1954). 6) Some species can readily be propagated from ex sltu detached root cuttings, while others will only produce shoots from in situ whole root cuttings. Experience is the only way to determine the most effective type of propagation method for any given species. Timing for Root-Cutting Collection Most authors agree that late fall or early winter-from October through December, when roots possess their maximum carbohy- A grove are of Sassafras albidum at the Scott Arboretum demved from root suckers of Swarthmore College in Pennsylvama. All the stems 16 drate concentrations-is the best time to collect cuttings (Browse 1980b; Macdonald 1987; Hartman et al. 1990). In areas with cold climates, root cuttings are also collected in late winter to early spring (Saul 1847; Flemmer 1961).Because root buds must develop de novo from the inner tissues of the root, they can sometimes be quite slow to develop. In contrast, dormant buds on the trunk are preformed and sprout out rapidly following injury. In general, the later in the season the root cuttings are collected, the warmer the environment they require for successful propagation (Hudson root slightly above the soil surface. also be placed horizontally in flats Cuttings and covered with a centimeter or two of soil (Creech 1954; Macdonald 1987). tings just at or can 1956; Browse 1980b). Size of Root Cuttings The optimal size of the cuttings is determined by the environment in which the cuttings will be placed. In general, cuttings stuck in a greenhouse can be three to six centimeters long, while those planted directly out-of-doors should be ten to fifteen centimeters long (Flemmer 1961; Dirr and Heuser 1983). As Browse (1980b) points out, however, such generalizations can sometimes oversimplify the situation: \"Only experience can dictate the length of the root cutting of any particular plant and only then in relation to the environment to which it will be subjected-usually a prepared outdoor bed, a cold frame, or a glasshouse bench-the size of the cutting needed decreasing with the warmth of the environment. Size is, of course, a function of two parameters, length and thickness, and although it has been shown that thicker cuttings produce shoots more effectively, those produced from thinner roots establish better.\" \" Cuttings fungicide greatly improves the success rates of root cuttings (Browse 1980b; Macdonald 1987). Once cuttings have been made, they can either be put in a plastic bag with a powdered fungicide and shaken so that the entire root piece is covered or dipped briefly in a liquid formulation. Treating root cuttings with superficially applied cytokinin does not appear to significantly enhance shoot production above that of untreated controls (Brown and McAlpine 1964; Macdonald 1987). The use Treatment of Root of Winter Storage of Root Cuttings Root cuttmgs collected in the fall can be stored in boxes or flats, covered with a moist, well- aerated medium, and put m a minimally heated storage structure until early spring. During this storage period, the cuttings will callus over and begin the bud formation process. (Browse 1980b; Macdonald 1987). Polarity of Root Cuttings All authors agree that the so-called polarity of the cuttings must always be respected. Buds tend to form most readily at the proximal end of the cutting (that closest to the trunk). Most authors recommend that this end of the cutting be given a straight horizontal cut, while the distal end of the cuttings receives a sloping, diagonal cut (Flemmer 1961; Macdonald 1987). This makes it easier to establish proper orientation when sticking the cuttings into the propagation bed. Cuttings can be stuck either vertically or diagonally, with the proximal end of the cut- Propagation Environment 1) Out-of-doors. In areas with mild winters, root cuttings can be planted directly in the field in late fall or early winter. In areas with severe winters, root cuttings can be collected in the fall and put in cold storage until spring, when they can be planted directly in the nursery. Direct field planting works best with shrubs that natu\/. rally form root buds (Flemmer 1961). 2) Cold frames. These have reportedly been used successfully in areas with relatively mild as Great Britain or the Pacific Northwest. They afford more protection to the cuttings than does field planting and therefore offer a greater chance of success. 3) Cool greenhouse. Fall-collected root cuttings that have been kept in cold storage can be propagated very well in a cool greenhouse when \"direct stuck\" in individual containers in late winter. Root cuttings collected in late winter or early spring should be immediately planted in a cool greenhouse with bottom heat (Dirr and winters, such Heuser 1987). 17 7 Additional information on the relationship between the propagation environment and root cutting performance, as well as the optimum environment for propagating selected species, can be found in Browse (1980b) and Macdonald (1987). Propagation Medium The rooting medium should be very well drained to provide maximum aeration. Good drainage inhibits the growth of pathogenic fungi and enhances root development (Flemmer 1961; Browse 1980b; Macdonald 1987). Successful mixes consist of various percentages of peat, to generate new roots (Creech 1954; Macdonald 1987). Typically, new roots do not form on a cutting until after the shoot is formed, and often they develop from the base of the new shoot rather than from the original root piece. Because of this phenomenon, a modified technique has been developed that involves removing shoots propagated from root cuttings m the greenhouse and using them as softwood cuttings. Because these shoots are physiologically juvenile, they tend to root more readily than cuttings taken from other parts of the tree (Creech 1954; Flemmer 1961; Fordham 1969). failing bark, sharp sand or grit, Root and perlite. In Situ Root Cuttings as a Source of Shoots for Stem-Cutting Propagation Interestingly, many root cuttings will produce shoots relatively quickly, but soon collapse after Cutting Techniques It is important to keep in mind that there are many species that sucker naturally in nature, the pawpaw, Asimina triloba, that been successfully propagated from ex situ root cuttings. These species must be prosuch have as not Table 1. Hardy trees that have been successfully propagated from followed by their appropriate literature citations Ailanthus altissima: 2, 4, 6, 14, 17, 23, 26, 28 Albizia julibmssin: 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, 15, 17, 23, 26 Laurus nobilis: root cuttings, 2, 12 2 Liquidambar styraciflua: 3 Maackla amurensis: 4, 8, 10 Maclura pomlfera: 4, 5, 22, 26 Malus spp.: 4, 10, 14, 17, 24 Morus spp.: Amelanchier spp.: 4, 10, 14, 23, 28 Asimma tmloba: 1, 2 Broussonettia papyrifera: 2, 10, 17, 23, 28 26 Carya spp.: 2 2, 14, 28 tomentosa: Catalpa spp.: 2, 4, 23, 26, Cedrela sinensis: 1, 2, 4, 23 Cladrastis spp.: 2, 4, 10, 23 1, 28 Cydoma oblonga: 2, 12, 26, 28 Crataegus Elliottia spp.: racemosa: 15 Euonymus Ficus spp.: 1, 12, 24 Evodia spp.: 2, 4 carica: 17, 28 Gleditsia triacanthos: 10, 24 Gymnocladus dioicus: 4, 10, 22, 23, 26 Halesia spp.: 2, 26 Kalopanax pictus: 10, 23 Koelreuteria paniculata: 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 17, 23, 26 6, 23, 26, 28 Phellodendron amurense: 2, 4,10, 23 Picrasma quassioides: 15, 23 Populus spp.: 1, 10, 14, 17, 23, 25, 26 Prunus spp. : 1, 2, 4, 8, 14, 17, 24, 28 Pterocarya spp.: 1, 10 Pyrus calleryana: 10, 17, 24 Robima pseudoacacia~ 2, 14, 17, 23, 25, 28 Sassafras albidum: 2, 4, 14, 17, 23, 26 Sophora japomca: 17, 28 Staphylea spp.: 2, 10, 28 Ulmus spp.: 10, 14, 17, 28 Xanthoceras sorbifohum: 1, 2, 4, 8, 10, 21, 23 Zizyphus ~ujuba: 2, 17, 28 . Paulownia 18 8 pagated using in situ techniques applied to plants in the late fall. The method involves cutting around the stem(s) of a plant with a sharp spade, then moving out fifteen to twenty-five centimeters and cutting a second, concentric, circle around the first. All roots are ground, and shoot buds will form at their distal ends come spring. Such \"pre-cut\" plants can easily be dug and potted up in the fall or the following spring. This technique is particularly effective for propagating shrubs that sucker left in the naturally. Hardy shrubs and vines that have been successfully propagated from root cuttings, followed by their appropriate literature citations Acanthopanax spp.: 2, 17 7 Actimdia dehciosa: 10, 17 7 Aesculus parviflora: 4, 10, 14, 17, 23 Table 2. Amorpha spp.: 4, 28 Aralia spp.: 1, 2, 4, 10, 14, 17, 23, 28 Anstolochia spp. : 1, 22 Aronia spp.: 4, 24, 28 Berberls spp.: 12, 28 Bignoma capreolata: 4, 23, 26, 28 Camelha spp.: 8, 19 Campsis radicans: 4, 14, 17, 23 Caragana spp.: 2, 28 Celastrus spp.: 1, 2, 4, 14, 17, 28 Chaenomeles spp.: 2, 4, 8, 10, 14, 17, 23, 24, 26, Clematis: 21, 28 Clerodendrum spp. : 1, 4, 10, 14, 17, 23, 22 Clethra almfolia: 1, 8, 10 Comptonia peregrina: 1, 4, 10, 14, 17, 23, 28 7 Corylus maxima: 12, 17 Cotmus spp.: 11, 24 7 Cyrilla racemiflora: 8, 10, 17 Daphne spp.: 4, 8, 10, 17, 23, 28 Decaisnea 28 ' fargesn: 23 2, 26 28 Elaeagnus spp.: Fatsia spp.: 2, 4 Forsythia spp.: 12, 17, 24, Fothergilla spp. : 10, 28 Gardema spp.: 19, 28 Hippophae rhamnoides. 2, 26, 28 Hydrangea quercifolia: 10, 14 Hypericum calycinum: 17, 12 Ilex spp.: 8, 11, 24 Ilhcium flomdanum: 10, 11 1 Indigofera spp.: 4, 10, 23 Lagerstroemia mdica: 4, 8, 10, 23 Leitneria floridana: 1, 4 Lomcera spp.: 12, 28 Meliosma spp.: 4, 23 7 Mynca spp.: 10, 14, 17 Nandina: 26, 28 Orixa japonica: 4, 23 Palmrus spp.: 2, 26 Pyracantha coccinea~ 10, 24 Rhododendron spp. (azaleas\/: 8, 16, 28 Rhodotypos scandens: 10, 24 Rhus spp.: 4, 10, 14, 17, 23, 26, 28 Ribes spp.: 10, 28 Robinia hispida: 4,10, 14, 17, 23 Rosa spp.: 2, 10, 14, 17, 21, 23, 28 Rubus spp.: 1, 2, 4, 10, 14, 17, 18, 23, 28 Sambucus spp.: 2, 23 Sorbana sorblfoha~ 2, 10 0 Spirea spp.: 11, 24 Symphoricarpos spp.: 17, 24 Syrmga vulgams: 2, 8, 10, 14, 17, 23, 24, 28 Vaccinium spp.: 1, 2 Viburnum spp.: 24, 28 Wisteria spp.: 4, 8, 14, 28 Xanthorhiza simplicissima: 14, 28 Zanthoxylum spp.: 2, 4, 10, 23, 28 . 19 Literature Cited 1990. Plant propagation 1980-1995. NY: Pnnciples and ( 1 ~ Arnold Arboretum propagation records, (2) Bailey, (3) Brown, L. H practices. Englewood Chffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. 1923. The nursery manual Macmillan Co. (18) Hudson, J. P. 1956 Increasing plants from roots1. Gardeners' Chromcle 139: 528-529. ' C. L., and R. G. McAlpme. 1964 Propagation of sweetgum from root cuttings. Georgia Forest Research Paper 24. P. M. 1980a. The roots (19) Katzer. 1868. Beitrag zur wurzel-vermehrung. Deutsches Magazin fur Garten und Blumen- kunde, 141-142. (4) Browse, (5) . propagation of plants from Gardeners' Chronicle 169(3): 22-28. (20) Kormamk, P. P., and C. L. Brown. 1967. Root buds and the development of root suckers m sweetgum Forest Science 13: 338-345. R. 1877. Propagation of plants by cuttings. The Garden 12: 389 root 1980b The propagation of plants from root cuttings. Plantsman 2( 154-62. (21) Lindsay, (22) . (6) Burns, R. M., and B. H. Honkala. 1990 Silvics of North America, vol. 2, hardwoods U.S D.A. Forest Sermce, Agriculture Handbook 654. 1882. Root and leaf propagation. The Garden 21. 73-74. (7) Burrows, 1990. Anatomical aspects of root bud development in hoop pine (Araucaria cunmnghammJ Austrahan fournal of Botany 38. 73-78. G. E L 1954. Root \/23~ Macdonald, B. 1987. Practical woody plant propagation for nursery growers, vol. 1. Portland, OR: Timber Press. (8) Creech, J. cuttings. National Horti- (24) Orndorff, C. by root cultural Magazme 33: 2-4. Propagation of woody plants cuttings. Combined Proceedings, International Plant Propagators' Society 27: 1977 402-406. (9) Del Tredici, P. 1992. Natural regeneration of Gmkgo biloba from downward growing cotyldonary buds (basal chichi). American Journal of Botany 79: 522-530. 1251 Peterson, R. L. 1975 The initiation and development of root buds, pp. 125-161. In J. G. Torrey and D T Clarkson, eds., The development and function of roots London: Academic (26) Saul, Press. A. 1847. On propagating trees and shrubs, by pieces of the roots. Horticultunst 1: 400-401. (10) Dirr, M. A., and C. W. Heuser, Jr. 1987. The reference manual of woody plant propagation Athens, GA: Varsity Press. (11) Donovan, D. M. 1976. A list of plants regenerating (27) Theophrastus Trans. from root cuttings. Plant Propagator 22\/ 17-8. 1976. De Causis Plantarum, vol. I. Emarson and G. K. K Lmk. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. B. 1868. Vermehrung der pflanzen durch wurzelsteckhnge. Gartenflora 17: 292-296. on root sucker production the conifer Dacrydium xanthandrum (Podocarpaceae) on Mount Kmabalu, Sabah. Sandakama 4: 87-89. (12) and R. Johnson. 1977. A supplementary list of plants propagated by root cuttings. Plant Propagator 23(2\/. 14-15 (28) Wobst. (13) Evelyn, J. 1706. Silva, or a discourse of forest trees and the propagation of timber in his majesty's domams 14th ed.). London. W. 1961. (29) Wong, K M. 1994. A note in (14) Flemmer, root Propagating woody plants by cuttings. Combined Proceedmgs of 1 International Plant Propagators' Society 11 42-50. Acknowledgments This article origmated m a paper presented at the annual meetmg of the Eastern Region of the International Plant Propagators' Society in Hartford, Connecticut, on 3 (15) Fordham, A. J. 1969. Production of juvenile shoots from root pieces. Combmed Proceedmgs of International Plant Propagators' Society 19 284-287. (16) Galle, F. 1979. Propagation of North American azaleas. Plant Propagator 25\/1\/: 10. H. November 1995, which will be published in full in the Combined Proceedings of that organization. The author would especially like to acknowledge the inspiration of Mr. John Wilde of St. Charles, Illinois, and thank him for the encouragement he has provided since 1982 Peter Del Tredici is Assistant Director for Living (17) Hartman, T., D E. Kester, and F. T. Davies, Jr. Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mystical, Medicinal Witch Hazel","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25136","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eb326.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"Mystical, Medicinal Witch Hazel Sheila Connor Fall is our native witch hazel's best time. In this season it will reward the passerby with a faint, clean scent reminiscent of spring and the sight of ribbons of gold among equally golden leaves. But because it has long been used as a natural astringent, Hamamelis virginiana may be more familiar to most people as a bottle of liquid on a shelf in the medicine cabinet than as an understory species of the New England woodland. As an all-purpose home remedy, our extract witch hazel has outlived many of the patent medi- cines of great-grandparents' day. Commer- cial manufacture of witch hazel extract began in 1866, when Thomas Newton Dickinson, a minister and entrepreneur, built a witch hazel distillery in Essex, Connecticut. Originally, witch hazel brush was cut locally and then transported either by boat or by horse and wagon to the distillery. The company has always obtained the witch hazel it needs from the forests of southern New England, and most of the harvest now comes from the northwestern corner of Connecticut. And today, as in the past, the brushcutters-farmers and woodcutters working their own land or land they have contracted to clear-sell directly to the distiller. Work begins in October and often continues until late spring. Sometimes only the branches are cut; otherwise, the plant is cut to the ground. But because witch hazel quickly sprouts from stumps, only a few years will pass before a plant may be harvested again. The invention of the portable chipper allowed the refining process to begin right on site, and now the brush arrives at the factory ready to be distilled in stainless-steel vats, where steam is applied for more than thirty-six hours to the chopped brush. The vaporized essence, which comes from the cambium layer just under the outer bark, is \"scrubbed\" in washing chambers, reheated to vapor, condensed, and filtered. Today's modern equipment and techniques still deal with three basic elements-witch hazel brush, water, and heat-and T. N. Dickinson's \"formula.\" The clear liquid you see in a bottle of hamamelis extract is 86 percent \"double distilled\" witch hazel and 14 percent alcohol. Witch hazel's applications seem to have changed as little as its manufacturing process. The explorer-botanist Peter Kalm reported the use of Hamamelis virginiana by Native Amemcans in treating eye diseases as early as 1751. They called the plant \"magic water,\" boiled the stems and used the liquid not only for their eyes but also to treat cuts, bruises, and scratches. The many modern-day applications of aqueous witch hazel approved by the Food and Drug Administration mclude treating sores, mmor lacerations, sprains, and tired and puffy eyes. There is also a mystical side to Hamamelis virginiana: its use in the occult arts. The common name witch hazel was given to H. virginiana by early English settlers because they believed it possessed the ability to \"divine.\" Our native tree was not the first plant to be called witch hazel; the colonists brought the name with them across the Atlantic. Its application is an example of how often a common name reflects an association people make with a plant, rather than an accurate description of it. In Great Britain, dowsers used their native elm, Ulmus glabra, which they called the \"witch hazel tree,\" to find hidden veins of precious metal or underground springs. In 21 endurmg commercial of witch hazel may he in imagmatme marketmg Early advertising of the E. E. success The Dickinson Witch Hazel Company took advantage of romantic legends, as m this label for a bottle of Witchal, a stronger mix of witch hazel and alcohol: \"In the early days it was beheved that when the good witches boiled the witch hazel twigs in them caldrons it was a sign that the potion was ready for use when the phantomhke shape of a beautiful young woman could be seen nding through the steam.\"Apparently the batch in this illustration isn't quite ready. English, wice meant \"lively\" or \"to bend,\" and as a dowser approached the site of, say, a potentially productive spring, the branch would become \"lively\" and begin to point to the source. The pliant branches of the elm were also used by archers to make their bows. When it was reported that the \"aborigines\" made the Old same use of Hamamelis virginiana for their weapons, it seems that the colonists transferred all the elm's associated powers to the New World plant. Although many plants were used for dowsing, witch hazel became the preferred one for use as a divining rod. Sheila Connor is Horticultural Research Archivist at the Arnold Arboretum. This article is adapted from her book, New England Natmes A Celebration of Trees and People, published by Harvard University Press, 1994 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Requiem for a Cork Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25138","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eb76f.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Requiem for a Cork Tree Peter Del Tredici Around two o'clock on the afternoon of Thursday, 28 September 1995, one of the best loved trees at the Arnold Arboretum died-the old Amur cork tree, Phellodendron amurense, which grew along Meadow Road. It died as it freely to an lived, giving of itself adoring public: a group of twenty-two schoolchildren from the Winsor School in Boston were perched in the tree, posing for a photo- when the weight of the caused the tree to crack group audibly and collapse. The children hastily climbed down, with no one suffering injury. Without a doubt it was the graph, most photographed tree in the Arboretum, and the most loved. In fact, it was loved to death. The tree had been in a slow state of decline, particularly over the last ten years, as Phellodendron amurense, AA #143-A, age 121 On 29 September 1995, a steady parade of trampling the day after the \"accident, \" the massive chmbmg Izmb is on the ground feet compacted the soil around its base, smothering its roots, and as children years, Arboretum pruners had had to remove and adults of all ages climbed among its low, dead branches from the tree, making it ever limbs. Those pressures simply comthinner and weaker. The low, spreading limb, spreading the health problems that are normal where all the children perched, had descended pounded for a tree that is over one-hundred-and-twenty from four feet above the ground in 1983 to only two feet in 1995. This past summer's drought, years old. Over the years, the Arboretum staff had tried various techniques to keep the public bringing forty straight days without rain, was out of the tree but found none that could overjust one more problem for the tree to cope with. come its sheer magnetism-the irresistible urge The cork tree had an altogether remarkable it inspired to go up and touch the soft bark that history. It arrived in Boston as a seed from the had been rubbed to a smooth polish by countless Imperial Botanic Garden in Saint Petersburg, of Boston children. So the decision generations Russia, on September 14, 1874, just two years was made to let the cork tree die as gracefully as after the Arboretum was founded. It was asIt became the only tree in the Arborepossible. signed the accession number 143-A, indicating tum that people were \"allowed\" to climb. it was the one-hundred-and-forty-third tree to be acquired by the Arboretum and very likely When the end finally came, the tree was clearly on its last legs. Every year for the last ten one of the first trees planted on the grounds. ! 23 - --------------- - ~~ ~~~ of hfe m April 1924, at age fifty, the cork tree's broad, spreadmg crown formed. Obmously, children have not yet started to climb among the branches. In the pmme is fully In july 1946, at age seventy-two, a tradition of photographmg the beginnmg to emerge and the cork tree's lower hmb is addmg girth. tree with children is 24 . When death finally came, at the hands of its friends, it had passed its one-hundred- and-twenty-first birthday only weeks before. One of the interesting things about cork trees is that they are two dioecious, meaning there are separate male and female individuals. Our beloved specimen was a male. Despite its common name and the corky feel of its bark, Phellodendron amurense is not the source of commercial cork used for wine bottles and bulletin boards. (That product comes from a species of oak that grows in the Mediterranean region, Quercus suber.)The amurense, refers the tree's origin in the Amur River Valley of Manchuria, a region with very severe winters. Many other plants from this region are growing well at the Arboretum and seem particu.~~-.:,--~.---~ larly well adapted to the rigor- By 1988, one of the cork tree's lower limbs ha5 betn zemoved and children ous climate of New England. are clearly comfortable chmbmg along its spreading hmbs. specific name, to *' U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) lA, Title of publication Arnoldia 1B, Publication number 00042633. 2, Date of filing 27 Sept 1995 3, Frequency of issue Quarterly 3A, Number of issues published annually 4 3B, Annual subscription price $20 00 domestic, $25 00 foreign 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 6, Full names of the publisher Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519, publisher, Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519, editor 7, Owner. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, MA 02130-3519 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other secunty holders ownmg or holding I percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities none 9, The purpose, function, and nonprof~t status of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed dunng the precedmg 12 months 10, Extent and nature of circulation A, Total number of copies Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months 4,531 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 4,500 B, Paid and\/or requested circulation 1, Sales through dealers and carners, street vendors, and counter sales Average number of copies of each issue dunng precedmg 12 months none Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date none 2, Mail subscription Average number of copies of each issue dunng preceding 12 months 3,264 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 3,341 C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation Average number of copies of each issue dunng preceding 12 months 3,264 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date' 3,341 D, Free distribution by mail, carner, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies) Average number of copies of each issue dunng precedmg 12 months 105 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 180 E, Total distribution Average number of copies of each issue dunng preceding 12 months 3,584 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 3,566 F, Copies not distributed 1, Office use, leftovers, spoiled Average number of copies of each issue dunng preceding 12 months 947 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 934 2, Return from news agents Average number of copies of each issue dunng precedmg 12 months none Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date none G, Total Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months 4,531 Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date 4,500 11, I certify that the statements made by me are correct and complete Karen Madsen, Editor "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25140","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ebb6d.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum F A L L - N E W S - 1 9 9 S Cathaya Comes to the Arnold Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg, Horticultural Taxonomist The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University has recently received fifty seeds of Cathaya argyrophylla Chun & Kuang, a rare and endangered conifer endemic to China, which has not been grown or cultivated previously outside of the People's Republic. Like the dawn redwood, Metasequoia glypto.rtrobozde.r, which was known as a fossil before living trees were discovered in China in the early 1940s and subsequently introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum in 1948, Cathaya is known as a fossil from Tertiary sediments in Eurasia and was only discovered as a living plant by Chinese botanists in the early 1950s. Small native populations of this unusual cone-bearing tree are now known to exist in six counties in Guangxi, Hunan, Sichuan, and Likuo Fu (left) and Nan Li (center) from the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Beijing, with Peter Del Tredici and Kim Tripp of the Arnold Arboretum and conifer specialist John Silba. It was wonderfully serendipitous that Professor Fu was visiting the Arboretum when the Cathaya seeds arrived in Jamaica Plain from Edinburgh. Guizhou promnces in China, yet the tree ranks as a rare and endangered species and is listed in the Cbzna Plant Red Data Book. Cathaya is intriguing from an evolutionary perspective inasmuch as its embryo and pollen are similar to those of the true pines (species of Pznu.c), while its wood resembles that of the Douglas firs (species of P.reudotruga), and its overall habit and seed-producing cones are much like those of the spruces of the native populations was provided by Professor Likuo Fu, Director of the Herbarium and Laboratory of Taxonomy and Plant one (species of Pzcea). The consignment of seeds received at the Arnold Arboretum was forwarded from the offices of the Conifer Conservation Programme at the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where a quanmty of seed collected from Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, in Beijing. Professor Fu had requested that the seeds be shared with other botanical instmutions in Europe and North America. While these seeds promde the first opportunity to attempt germmation of Cathaya at the Arboretum, the propagation staff is optimistic that plants will result. Diverse treatments will be applied to induce germination, but it may be six to eight months before it is known if plants will result. If Geography, plants are successfully grown, asexual propagation will be under- taken to increase their numbers. The young trees will ultimately be included in the living collections of the Arboretum to evaluate cold hardiness and performance under New England climatic conditions. Material of Cathaya will also be available for further botanical and horticultural investigations by scienusts utilizing the Arboretum's collections. It is hoped that the success rate with the Cathaya seeds will be similar to the high germination levels obtained with the Metarequota seeds received in 1948 and that this umque conifer will be preserved in cultivation as well as in nature in China. Plant Sale Ends This summer's Drought forty-day drought came to a spectacular end on the day of the 1995 Fall Plant Sale. Despite the downpour, the was a great success. Over six hundred members and friends participated in the sale, Rare Plant Auction, and Plant Society Row. event A Visit From Mike Dirr This fall Mike Dirr (center), author of Manual of Woody Landscape Plants and former Arboretum Fellow, gave a lecture and led two walks through the living collections for over two hundred students. Here, Gary Koller (left) enters into an animated exchange on the virtues of various cultivars. 2 How to Create a Bob Cook, Director There comes a time in Logo the life of when it confronts every the logo issue, that desire to project a modern, with-it image. Such times typically follow the arnval of a new administration. The usual procedure is to put a blank check in the hands of highly paid consultants who will bring a progressive understanding of marketing to the design of an emblem that-once created-will be ridiculed by your entire staff and vihfied by at least half your institution constituency. Instead, about a year ago we decided to tackle this issue ourselves with the help of Arnoldia designer, Andy Winther. Our first decision was recognition of reality: If one's institution is an arboretum, one can hardly avoid a tree in the logo. Next we asked whether there was something lying around that we already liked. Our attention immediately turned to an old, much-loved bookplate used by our first director, Charles Sprague Sargent. Could it be modified to enhance its symbolic content and simplify its design while retammg the quality of antiquity appropriate for the oldest public arboretum in the country? With a reduction in ornamentation, we decided to keep the Victorian frame and banners but to seek a different, more emblematic tree. We quickly chose in 1947 to retrieve seed. Following the arnval of the first shipment in early 1948, the Arboretum distributed the newly discovered species to over six hundred botanical institutions around the world. The first dawn redwood repatriated to North Amenca after an absence of several million years is growing in the Arnold Arboretum today. By choosing this species for our new our Metasequoia glypto.ctroborder, more popularly known as the dawn redwood, to replace the nondescript pine in the bookplate. This species was once abundant in the forests of North America millions of year ago, known to logo, we hope to symbohze stone. During World War II the was dawn redwood growing in discovered an traditional mission to support research and education through the collection of trees from distant lands. At the same time, by setting the dawn redwood against a rising sun, we hope to signal a new dawn for the future programs a remote nver Western species science only as in an extinct central China, and preserved fossilized sponsored expedition valley of Arboretumwas sent late of the institution. 3 Cork Tree's Last Hurrah Provides a Science Lesson Christoj~her Randall Can there be a on Leverage silver lining teaching cork in the science the passing of an old friend~ As someone who has spent more than ten years classroom, my first reaction after an mual sadness was to consider the toppling of the to tree in terms were on a of a science lesson. Soon after hearing the news, I was bursting with questions: How many girls does was the branch? How much grader weigh~ How long they were sitting on> This tragedy was shaping up into a great lesson on levers and leverage. The cork tree was a classic example sixth the branch of a lever. The tree was similar to a seesaw, albeit a very unequally proportioned one. This seesaw had one in- credibly long side, the branch, and a phenomenally short side, roughly the diameter of the branch were the tree. The roots at the base of the trunk directly under the fulcrum at the \"center\" of this lopsided seesaw. Intuitively, we know easier it is seesaw, girls as in that on a seesaw, the farther out we sit or the more weight we add to our side, the lift our partner. Furthermore, if we place a great deal of weight at the extreme position of our we can lift even an enormous partner. To determine the effect of a particular force (the weight of the this case) at a certain position, one can use the following equation, known in physical-science parlance to the Law of the Lever: Effort Force x (Gzrl's Wezght) Effort Distance (Gzrl's Posztzon) = Resistance Force (Force on Roots) x Resistance Distance (Root's Dzstance from Fulcrum) That fateful day, 22 sixth-grade girls seated themselves along the branch, as had been the custom each year the end of their class visit to the Arboretum. Let's assume that the average sixth grader weighs 100 pounds and that the branch is 27 feet long--quite close to the actual situation. To calculate the cumulative force the group developed, the force each girl contributed must be calculated. Since each girl sat at a different distance from the fulcrum, the force each girl contributed must be calculated individually, and then each of these forces must be added together to find the total force on the effort side of the above equation. Assuming the at girls were equally spaced along Let's now assume the branch, this force amounts to 31,050 foot-pounds! to four feet in diameter, again not far off the actual dimension. the Law of the Lever, the relationship between the two sides of the fulcrum can be stated as: that the tree was According 31,050 foot-pounds = Dividing Resistance Force = 4 feet x ~Resistance Force this through yields: 15,600 pounds (or 7.8 tons) By using leverage, 2,200 pounds worth of sixth graders translated themselves into 7,763 pounds of force. Add to this the considerable weight of the branch itself, and it is no wonder the tree roots gave way. Interestingly, the fact that the tree's central leader and a large lateral branch had been removed a few years ago meant that the appreciable counterbalancing effect of the original trunk was absent. Additionally, the rot affecting the roots on the opposite side of the limb may have weakened the roots' ability to support the girls that day. I am not sure anyone approves of extending this lesson to other trees in the Arboretum, but I am sure that our beloved friend would appreciate knowing that we could leverage this calamity into a corker of a science lesson. Chris Randall taught sczence for more than ten years zn Baltzmore, MD, and Cambridge, MA. Currently at the Center for the Enhancement for Sczence and Mathematzcs Education (CESAME) at Northeastern Unzverszty, be works wzth math and sczence teachers on program zmplementatzon. 4 The cork tree's very long, horizontal branch has been left in place on the ground, one end still attached to its foreshortened trunk, the other propped up by a log. The Arboretum staff sought to make the death of \"Corky\" an educational experience by describing the negative effects of soil compaction on tree health. When heavy loads-or lots of small loads-are applied over the tree roots, the pores between soil particles are compressed and the amount of oxygen available to the roots is diminished. Over time, the effect on a tree can be lethal. The Arboretum was among a select group of American museums to receive a grant for general operating support from the federal government's Institute of Museum Services. The grant of $112,500 is awarded through a peer review process that evaluates general standards in collections management, education, and other areas of museum operation. Spongberg m the spirit of the larger Olmsted\/Sargent landscape. Jack Alexander, Chief Plant has been elected a Fellow of the Eastern Region of the International Plant Propagators' Society. He is one of twentysix to receive the honor since it was instituted in 1990 to recognize outstanding contributions to managing, propagating, and remtroducing the endangered Magnolza vzrgznzana at its only verified Massachusetts location Peter Propagator, reported on the mual stages in of this work April 1981 Arnoldia, March\/ Kim won The New England Chapter of the Victorian Society in Amenca recognized one of the Arboretum's most outstanding landscape features, the Eleanor Cabot Bradley Garden of Rosaceous Plants, with their 1995 Preservation Award. Funded by the late Eleanor Cabot Bradley, it was designed by Gary Koller and Stephen plant propagation through research, teaching, or leadership. Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections, was awarded a Presidential Citation at the annual Presidents' Conference of the Garden Club FederaPeter Del tion Tripp, Putnam Fellow, has the 1996 Research Grant of the International Plant Propagators' Society-Eastern Region for a collaborative project with Dr. Anne Stomp of the Department of Forestry, North Carolina State University. The grant will be used to test the influence of Agrobacterium rhzzogene.r on the rootmg of stem cuttings in woody ornamen- of Massachusetts, Inc., by President Arabella Dane, for his significant work in documenting, tals that do not respond to standard propagation techniques (for instance, Cerczt and some Prunus). 5 Autumn As we Beginnings for Visitor Learning Director for Education and Public Affairs Richard Schulhof, Assistant began testing two new pro- grams this fall, ideas about education at the Arnold Arboretum grew by leaps and bounds. Over the past ten years, the Arboretum has reached thousands of adult and elementary school students with classroom courses, lectures, and field studies in horticulture and life science. On a drizzly Saturday afternoon new in October, we broke i i , ground by testing programs designed to provide visitors to the grounds with equally rich opportunities for discovery and learning As part of our Fall Open House event, Candace Julyan and Diane Syverson of the Communmy Science Connection (CSC) project set out to enable parents and their children to explore the diversity of maples and the wonder of fall color change in leaves. The hands-on activity, called Reading j i ' I \/ i ~ ! 6 Maples, included a tabletop exhibit of maple specimens, products, books, and a treasure hunt map that guided families in the search for leaves and data from a number of maple species. Created for Arboretum visitors as well as CSC participants, the program tested strategies that utilize the living collections to foster exploration and the exchange of observations and ideas about the natural world. On the same afternoon, outreach horticulturist Chns Strand asked visitors to help test new onentation signage for the grounds. Consisting of \"you are here\" maps and roadside location markers, the system is designed to encourage visitors-particularly those visiting for the first time-to more confidently explore the Arboretum's full 265 acres. With installation scheduled for 1996, we envision the new signs and maps greatly ~mpromng access to the diverse collections and natural sites of the Arboretum landscape. In the jargon of the museum world, these efforts seek to support \"informal learning,\" the kind of exploration that occurs around exhibits and in discovery rooms, in which learners investigate at their own pace, responding to their own curiosities and interests In keeping with Charles Sargent's vision for the Arboretum as a \"great museum of public instruction,\" such are the kinds of experiences we wish to make available for our visitors and the surrounding community. Remembering Buzzy On a beautiful Sunday in October, well over a hundred friends of Albert W. Bussewitz gathered in remembrance at the Arboretum. Many spoke eloquently of Buzzy, who died of heart failure this past August. Included in this group were associates from his years with the Massachusetts Audubon Society in Sharon and Norfolk and his earlier years spent in Rochester, New York, as well as Arboretum staff, volunteers, and fnends. Director Bob Cook, who hosted the occasion, announced that the Bussewitz family will give Arboretum As it Cleanup than a has for more dozen years, the Arnold Arboretum Committee, a commumty support organization, recently coordinated a fall cleanup of perimeter areas of the Arboretum. Working with City Year, an organization for volunteer youth, over 125 volunteers removed woody weeds and general debns from the abutting stateowned parcel as well as the Arboretum's South Street tract. We are indebted to volunteers from Keyport Life Insurance Company of Boston and to Mercer Management of Lexington, which contributed a second year of service. Compliments and thanks are also due to the staff of the State Laboratory Institute and to Arboretum staffers Julie Coop, Kit Buzzy's many superb photographs of woody plants to the Arboretum. The collection will eventually be housed here and made available for educational use. The family asks that donations in remembrance of Buzzy be sent to the Arboretum, where they will be designated for the curation of his photo- graphic legacy. Ganshaw, Jim Papagens, and Patrick Willoughby. 7 Grow with us ... When you give cash, stock, or other property to a life income plan supporting the Arnold Arboretum, you will receive income for life ~~ realize avoid an income tax deduction capital gains tax save on gift and estate taxes benefit from Harvard's professional at no cost to 1IJI ~~ investment you management invest in the future of the Arboretum are several plans in which you can participate. information, please contact: There more For Lisa M. Hastings, Development Officer Arnold Arboretum or Anne D. McClintock, Director Planned Giving Office, Harvard University 617\/524-1718 ext. 145 800\/446-1277 or 617\/495-4647 Flora of the Lesser Antilles Copies of the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Anttlles, a long-term project of Dr. Richard A. Howard, former director of the Arnold Arboretum, is still available in limited quantities. These six volumes constitute the first comprehensive flora of the area, and the treatments present keys to the genera as well as the species for easy identification. For each genus and species a complete modern description is provided; it includes coloration as well as measurements of floral parts. The descriptions are followed by geographic distribution both within and without the Lesser Antilles. All volumes are abundantly illustrated with line drawings that are both botanically correct and highly artistic. All species known in the Lesser Antilles, both native and introduced, are included. The six volumes are available either individually or as a com- plete set. For the complete set a special price of $260 is offered that includes shipping and handling within the USA. (Add $5 for shipping outside the USA.) For volumes 4, 5, and 6 only, the special price is $205. Individual volumes may be purchased at the prices given below, plus $2 per volume for shipping and handling: Volume 1: Orchidaceae Volume 2: $20 $25 Ptendophyta Volume 3: Monocotyledoneae (other than Orchidaceae) $35 Volume 4: Volume 5: Volume 6: Dicotyledoneae 1 $75 Dicotyledoneae 2 $85 Dicotyledoneae 3 $85 Checks should be made payable to the Arnold Arboretum, and all orders should be addressed to the attention of Frances Maguire, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130, USA. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23300","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14e896a.jpg","title":"1995-55-3","volume":55,"issue_number":3,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Medicinal Plant Exploration- Past and Present","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25133","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eab6f.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"McDonald, J. Andrew","article_content":"Medicinal Plant Exploration-Past and Present j. Andrew McDonald The Arnold Arboretum, in collaboration with the U.S. National Cancer Institute and the Indonesian Herbarium Bogoriense, is exploring the tropical forests of Asia for potential treatments for AIDS and cancer. Since prehistoric times, the fields of botany and medicine have enjoyed an enduring and fruitful relationship. Whether in the sophisticated setting of a modern pharmaceutical laboratory or an herbalist's hut on the banks of the Amazon River, plants provide a critical source of treatments for the myriad diseases that afflict humans. In either setting, the principal challenge of the medical practitioner is to distinguish plants that possess pharmaceutical properties from those that are toxic or medicinally inert. Although methods used to screen the plant kingdom for bioactive compounds have changed considerably over the course of human history, the invaluable selection of cures and therapeutics available to modern medicine is the product of a long history of pharmaceutical experimentation. preliterate cultures, whose lifestyles closely mirror those of our distant ancestors, maintain oral traditions of medical practice that depend primarily on native vegetation. By the time literacy developed means The Past can only conjecture as to when and where the search for herbal remedies began. Archeological remains dating back sixty thousand years reveal that Neanderthals laid their dead to rest with plants that later became staples of ancient pharmacopoeias, such as millefoil (Achillea), St. Barnaby's thistle (Centaurea), and joint fir (EphedraJ.' Whether these plants were actually used as medicines or simply served as a farewell gesture to the deceased may never be established with certainty. We do know, however, that most contemporary We into a basic of human communication, the application of botanical lore to the practice of medicine was firmly established and systematized. Sumerian clay tablets and Egyptian papyri (2000 B.C.) describe ancient prescriptions and pharmacopeias in considerable detail.z Many of the plants that appear in these early records are now known to possess highly bioactive constituents, evidence for which can be found in our own medicine cabinets. Codeine, derived from the opium poppy and used as a narcotic analgesic in Nyquil@, appears in medical traditions that predate modern pharmacology by thousands of years. Similarly, salicylate (aspirin) was originally extracted from willow bark, and ephedrine, the flu remedy in Vicks@, was derived from Ephedra. Approximately twentyfive percent of all modern prescriptions contain natural plant extracts, most of which were used in traditional medicine.3 Moreover, a significant number of synthetic medicines are derived from plant products whose therapeutic qualities have only recently been improved by chemical tinkering. The first records of the systematic application of scientific methods to traditional medicine are found in Greece. Hippocrates (fifth to fourth Large trees can present challenges to collectors of tropical plant matenals. When the trunks cannot be shmmed, chmbers often use smaller trees as \"steppmg stones\" to reach the summit of a canopy tree Above, a branch mll be pruned to provide samples for the drug screenmg laboratomes of the National Cancer Institute. 4 century BC), for example, earned his title \"father of medicine\" by subjecting folk remedies to open and critical discourse. From the Corpus Hippocraticum, written twenty-three hundred years ago, we know that practitioners of his school of thought paid limited attention to the spiritual source of disease and focused on the effects of diet and weather on health. Cures were based on the regulation of diet and the use of pills, potions, poultices, gargles, ointments, and inhalations derived from a variety of native and foreign plant products. Four hundred years later (first century AD), Dioscorides acquired his medical knowledge while travelling throughout Europe and Asia Minor as a surgeon to the Roman army of Nero. De Materia Medica describes his medical practice and illustrates the use of over five hundred plant species. Among these, the use of mandrake (Atropa mandragora) as a sedative and castor oil (Ricinus communis) as a purgative are known to have descended from guilds of priests and seers in Egypt and Mesopotamia.4 Dioscorides also outlined the natural history of drug plants, specified the parts of plants that contain bioactive properties, and described the methods for preparing medicines. The encyclopedic breadth and utility of De Materia Medica ensured its survival for more than a millenium; scholastic monks throughout medieval Europe copied and made use of the work until the Renaissance. By 1655, an English translation of the work provided a model from which emerging European schools of pharmacology developed. Preceding the Renaissance, however, Christian Europe made notably few advances in medicine. The literate population, usually living as monks in cloisters, were isolated from folk practices and discouraged by church and state from openly questioning established bodies of belief Frontispiece from the Spanish seu and knowledge. These impediments to progress in medical practice persisted until the end of the fifteenth century, when a new era of exploration revealed rich stores of novel plant lore in foreign lands. Owing to early contacts with tropical America, Spain took the lead in the new search for medicinal plants. Seventeenth-century friars and scribes were sent to record the medical practices of native American herbalists, resulting in several works of historical significance. A classic example of these, Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus, seu Plantarum, Animalium, Mineralium Historia, written in the seventeenth century by a physician to the king of Spain, Francisco Hernandez, summarized the findings of his five-year study of Aztec medicine. The unusual frontispiece of the work depicts the layers of cultural influence that were affecting the practice of European medicine during this period. While Spain was exploring tropical America, England and France were discovering new and useful drug plants in temperate North America. De Bry (1593) provided early descriptions and illustrations of medical treatments in Florida that paralleled those used at the time of Hippocrates (i.e., herbal potions, vapors, smoke.s In Boston, works such as New-Englands Rarities Discovered by John Josselyn, published in 1672, described the \"physical and chyrurgical remedies wherewith the Natives constantly use to cure their distempers, wounds and sores.\"6 Many of these native North American drug plants were assimilated into the comprehensive English Herbal of 1633 by John Gerard, including sassafras (Sassafras albidum) from Florida, employed \"to comfort the weake and feeble stomacke, to cause good appetite ... stay vomiting, and make sweet a stinking breath,\" and treatment on Aztec medicme, Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus, (1651). The bizarre mixture of Greco-Roman and Latin Amemcan images mdicate anachromstic and exotic mfluences on the practice of European medicine durmg the Renaissance. The upper portion portrays a pillar m the form of a medieval castle turret flanked by two wmged serpents, suggestmg elements of the caduceus of the Greek god of healmg, Asclepms. Just below sit two female figures, one holding m her lap a symbol of the Latm goddess Fortuna, h fe's horn of plenty, the other with a globe of the world, suggesting the Grecian concept of Mother Earth. The globe does not represent, however, the world of antiquity ; rather, it portrays a contemporary mew of the world with the Amemcan contments in them proper geographic posmons. Underneath is a detailed map of central Mexico flanked by Historia two native Plantarum, Animalium, Mineralium Amemcans, one standmg by a bundle of medicinal herbs. 5 6 sarsaparilla (Smilax spp.) from Virginia, provid\"a remedie against long continuall paine of the joynts and head, and against cold diseases. \"' To supplement drug materials from temperate regions, the Society of Apothecaries in Chelsea, England, tried to circumvent the Spanish monopoly in tropical America. In 1729 ing the Society commissioned the British surgeon William Houstoun to procure drugs and dye plants from the New World tropics for mtroduction into the mild climate of Georgia. Priority was given to such products as the popular jalap root, the cochineal beetle and its host plant, Opuntia, and \"Jesuit bark\" (quinine, Cinchona officinalis). Although this particular project was cut short by the premature death of Houstoun, the global search for new medicines was by this time firmly established as a worthy scientific and commercial enterprise. During the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, American medicinal plants and their byproducts were exported to Europe by the tons. Major exports from Mexico included the purga- jalap root (Ipomoea purga) and tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), valued for its stimulating, anti-infectant, and anthelmintic properties. Coca leaves (Erythroxylum coca) were shipped tive from South America to be sold as a stimulant and local anesthetic, while ipecac (Cephaelis ipecacuanha) was marketed as an emetic and antidysenteric.8 Apothecaries throughout Europe began dispensing New World medicinal plants and their extracts on a commercial scale. At the same time, society's expectations for improved health care and the desire to increase trade helped justify yet more exploration. To facilitate the study of pharmaceutical botany, former palace retreats such as the fardin Theodor De Bry, whose Grands Voyages was pubhshed m 1593, observed practicing medicme through the use of herbal potions, smoke, and vapors. natme Amemcans m Flomda 7 du Roi in Paris were transformed into educational and scientific establishments.9 Both living and preserved plant collections were assembled by trained naturalists who were commissioned to accompany trade ships around the world. 10 European physicians and botanists such as Sir Hans Sloane of England, Paul Hermann of the Netherlands, and Carolus Linnaeus of Sweden received large shipments of specimens originating from Asia, Africa, and the Americas. These extensive collections allowed Linnaeus to attempt the first global inventory of the earth's flora. He estimated the total number of species at ten thousand, a number that probably errs by a factor of at least twenty-five. Yet, even with this limited view of the size and complexity of the plant kingdom, eighteenth-century botanists required a lifetime of dedication to cover the full breadth of their subject. As a consequence, the focus of botanical science shifted away from medicine, leaving practitioners of medical botany to establish their own specialized discipline, known today as pharmacology. The Present Over the course of the following two centuries, the science of medicine became more sophisticated and specialized than any Renaissance herbalist could have imagined. Indeed, recent developments in the use of laser beams, ultrasonic waves, and genetic engineering continue to challenge the imagination of modern innovators. Surprisingly, this rapid progress in the medical sciences has also reaffirmed the continuing relevance of botany to medicine. Technical innovations have accelerated the search for medicinal substances in natural products by providing increasingly simple and economical methods for screening massive quantities of plant samples.\" During the last few decades, discoveries of plant products with antitumor, antimalarial, antibiotic, and immunostimulating properties have demonstrated that we are far from exhausting the medicinal potential of botanical resources.'2 With our increased access to the full range of the earth's biological diversity, the possibilities for finding effective treatments for human diseases have never been better. New Guinea, the Tor Rmer Travelling inland from the northern coast of unexplored forests on the banks of are surveyed m search of a suitable site. collection This optimistic view of the future is obscured, however, by the accelerating loss of natural resources that accompanies the exponential growth of human populations. On a global scale, catastrophic rates of deforestation and other kinds of environmental degradation threaten the existence of the rich biological diversity on which the tradition of drug exploration has always depended. This problem is also compounded by the loss of ancient medical practices found in native cultures. In many regions of the world, the traditions of plant use are simply being forgotten. As a consequence, agencies involved in drug research and development are beginning to appreciate the need to preserve these disappearing medical resources. In one exemplary program, the U.S. National Cancer Institute (NCI) is collaborating with tropical countries to inventory plant species and assess their potential for anticancer and anti-AIDS treatments. 1937, modmethods of medical research have isolated a number of plant products that have been successful in treating different types of human cancers. Examples include the antileukemic agent vincristine, derived from a tropical periwinkle (Catharanthus roseus), and the ovarian cancer therapeutic, taxol, derived from the yew plant of the Pacific Northwest (Taxus brevifoliaJ.l3 Pharmacologically active compounds like these are ern Since the establishment of NCI in identified tissues to by exposing crude extracts of plant living cultures of cancerous or HIV- peditions in collaboration with the Herbarium infected cells. If an extract exhibits an effect on diseased cells, the active constituent of the Bogonense, Indonesia's national plant collection facility located in Bogor, on the island of Java. Study sites have mcluded the other major islands of the Inan sample is isolated, chemically characterized, subjected to clinical analysis. Up to ten years of study and hundreds of millions of dollars are required to demonstrate that a promising chemical agent is effective, safe to use, and economically producible. 14 The success of these efforts in drug development depends, however, on a critical first step: a program to collect and screen samples of potentially useful plants. This program requires and teams of botanists and the collaboration of a worldwide network of botanical institutions.'s Medicobotanical explorations focus primarily on the floristically diverse regions of tropical America, Africa, and Asia, and are led by botanical institutions that specialize in these regions: the New York Botanical Garden, the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Arnold Arboretum, and collaborative research institutions of host countries. As one of the leading institutions in the study of Asian flonstics, the Arnold Arboretum is responsible for securing plant material from Indonesia, a tropical country with an exceedingly rich flora (about 37,000 species). Over the past seven years, botanists of the Arnold Arboretum have conducted numerous drug plant ex- country-Kalimantan (Borneo), Jaya (New Guinea), Sulawesi (Celebes), Java, and Sumatra-as well as the lesser islands of Bali, Kabaena, Sumba, and the Moluccas. Just to reach these sites presents the first of many challenges that confront the modern plant explorer. While air transport greatly facilitates travel between the larger islands, moving about the smaller islands can require anything from chartered missionary airplanes to fishmg boats. Inland transport depends largely on tropical river systems, with each island presenting a distinctive set of obstacles. In Borneo, for example, only large boats with powerful motors can navigate the island's swift and rocky rivers. The waterways of Irian Jaya, on the other hand, are littered with sunken hardwood trees that permit only small pontooned boats with shallow drafts. At each site, the plant explorer gathers bulk samples of leaf, stem, bark, and fruit material from about 350 species for analysis at the NCI pharmaceutical laboratories. In addition, up to 1,000 herbarium specimens are collected to identify and document the screening samples and inventory the regional flora. Since 350 bulk collections can weigh more than 1,000 pounds, Distribution of sites explored for drug plants by the Arnold Arboretum and Herbarium Bogonense. 9 A small, pontooned craft with promsions for two months departs the northern coast of New days of ocean and mver travel will be requmed to reach the planned destination. a team Gumea. Three of workers is needed to help collect, transport, and process plant materials. At least four young men with a talent for tree climbing are engaged to sample material suspended up to 150 feet above the forest floor. A knowledgeable resident provides the research team with local names and traditional uses of plants. As samples are brought into camp, other workers process the plant materials as quickly as possible to prevent fungal contaminations. Fresh bulk samples are chopped into small pieces to facilitate drying, while herbarium specimens are pressed and preserved in alcohol in plastic bags. Miscellaneous tasks required to live and work at the camp-gathering fresh vegetables or hunting meat from the forest, sending messages to nearby collection sites-often occupy the entire population of a small village. After two months m the field, dried bulk collections and preserved herbarium specimens are brought back to the Herbarium Bogoriense. Indonesian staff members carefully press and dry the voucher material in small ovens to finish preparation of herbarium specimens for future study and reference. Screening samples are shipped immediately to NCI laboratories m the United States, where they wait in cold storage for further processing. During the early phases of testing, up to five percent of the samples exhibit some degree of neighboring villages, or scouting out routes to efficacy against AIDS or cancer. Subsequent investigations by toxicologists will eliminate most of these possibilities, however. Since 1986, 1 10 New Gumean promde a over villagers help prepare plant matemals for drymg m northern Inan Jaya. The dmed broad range of plant products that mll be screened for antitumor and anti-AIDS activity. name samples 50,000 plant extractions have been screened at the NCI, of which fewer than ten have been identified as potentially useful drugs.'6 Success rates have been particularly low in the search for antitumor agents. By comparison, the more recently initiated anti-AIDS research has been more promising: after only a decade, a number of potential anti-HIV compounds have been extracted from plants collected in distant continents (Ancistrocladus in just a few-potential pharmaceutical Africa; Calophyllum in Malesia; Conospermum in Australia; Homolanthus in Samoa).17 All of these promising discoveries are presently under study by clinical physicians and toxicologists. Although modern medicine has yet to identify cures for AIDS, many cancers, and a host of other human maladies-arthritis, obesity, schizophrenia, parkinsonism, depression, to for many of these conditions undoubtedly reside in the rich chemical diversity of the plant kingdom. Modern tools of pharmacology have greatly improved on the methods of the forest shaman, the Egyptian seer, and the Aztec herbalist, but we have yet to discover or invent a richer selection of chemical possibilities than that which nature has already provided. So long as the natural diversity of the earth's vegetation remains accessible to scientific inquiry, the tradition of medicinal plant exploration is likely to continue for centuries treatments to come. Andrew McDonald is a research associate at the Arnold Arboretum. He studies flonstic diversity m Asia and the classification of waterhhes. 11 I Endnotes agent,\" Journal of the National Cancer Institute ~ 1990) 82: 1 R. S. Solecki, \"Shanrdar IV, burial m a Neanderthal flower northern Iraq,\" Science \/1975) 190 880-881. 14 1247-1259. J. A. DiMasi, R. W. Hansen, H. G. Grabowski, and L. Lasana, \"Cost of mnovation m the pharmaceutical z S. N. Kramer, \"First history,\" pharmacopeia m man's recorded Amemcan Journal of Pharmacology (1954) 126: 76-84; C. P. Bryan, The Papyrus Ebers (London: new mdustry,\" Journal of Health 107-142. ls Economics ~1991) 10: Geoffrey Bles, 1930). 3 N. R. Farnsworth, \"Screening plants for medicines,\" Biodmersity, ed. E. O. Wilson and F. M. Peter (Washington, DC: National Academy Press, 1988). 4 Campbell, \"The importance of floristic inventory m the tropics,\" Flonstlc Inventory of Tropical Countmes, ed. D. G. Campbell and D. Hammond ~NY: New York Botamcal Garden, 1988\/. D. G. 16 E. Kremers and G. Durdang, History of Pharmacy (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippmcott Co., 1963); R. Campbell Thompson, A Dictionary of Assynan Botany (London: The British Academy, 1949); Genesis 30: 14; Cragg, M. R. Boyd, M. R. Grever, and S. A. Schepartz, \"Pharmaceutical prospectmg and the potential for pharmaceutical crops. Natural product drug discovery and development at the Umted States G. M. National Cancer Institute,\" Annals of the Missoun Botamcal Garden (1995) 82: 47-53. 17 Bryan, 5 6 7 s op. cit. T. De Bry, Grands Voyages (Frankfort, 1593). ). J. Josselyn, 1672. J. Gerard, 1633. F. Guerra, \"Medical colonization of the New World,\" Medical History (1963) 7: 147-155. F \" 9 Stafleu, \"Botamcal gardens before 1818,\" \/1969) 14:31-4G. 1969). Boissiera Boyd, Y. F. Hallock, J. H. Cardellina II, K. P. Manfredi, J. W. Blunt, J. B. McMahon, R. W. Buckheit, Jr., G. Brmgmann, M. Schaffer, G. M. Cragg, D. W. Thomas, and J. G. Jato, \"Anti-HIV michellammes from Ancistrocladus korupensis,\" Journal of Medicmal Chemistry \/1994\/ 37: 1740-1745; Y. Kashman, K. R. Gustafson, R. W. Fuller, J. H. Cardellina, J. B. McMahon, M. J. Currens, R. W. Buckheit, S. H Hughes, G. M. Cragg, and M. R. Boyd, \"The Calanolides, a novel HIV-inhibitory class of M. R. coumarin derivatives from the ramforest tree lo A. M. Coats, The Plant Hunters (NY. McGraw-Hrll Book Co., 11 Calophyllum lamgerum,\" Journal of Medicinal Chemistry (1992) 35: 2735-2743; L. A. Decosterd, I. C. Parsons, K. R. Gustafson, J. H. Cardellina II, B. McMahon, G. M. Cragg, Y. Muratta, L K. Pannell, J. R. Stemer, J. Clardy, and M. R. Boyd, \"Structure, absolute stenochemistry, and synthesis of conocurvone, a potent, novel HIV-mhibitory naphthoqumone tmmer from a Conospermum sp.,\" Journal of Amencan Chemical Society ~1993) 115: 6673-6679; P A. Cox, \"The ethnobotamcal approach to drug discovery: strengths and limitations,\" Ethnobotany and the New Search for New Drugs, ed. D. J. Chadwick and J. Marsh (NY: John Wiley & Sons, 1994). \" M. R. Boyd, \"The future of new drug development,\" Current Therapy m Oncology, ed. J. Niederhuber ). (Philadelphia: B C Decker, Inc., 1993). J. 12 N. R. Farnsworth and D. D. Soe~arto, \"Global importance of medicmal plants,\" The Conservation of Medicmal Plants, ed. O. Akerele et al (Cambrrdge: ). Cambridge University Press, 1988). 13 E. Rowmsky, a L. A. Cazenave, and \"Taxol: novel R. C. Donehower, investigational antimicrotuble 12 The wmter habit of a mature Eucommia ulmoides growmg near the Hunnewell Bmldmg m the Arnold Arboretum. The plant was received from the Veitch Nursery of England in 1907 and was probably grown from seed collected by E. H. Wilson on an early expedition to Chma. - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Two Thousand Years of Eating Bark: Magnolia officinalis var. biloba and Eucommia ulmoides in Traditional Chinese Medicine","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25135","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eaf6d.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Forrest, Todd","article_content":"Two Thousand Years of Eating Bark: Magnolia officinalis var. biloba and Eucommia ulmoides in Traditional Chinese Medicine Todd Forrest of urgency inspired by the rapid disappearance of plant habitats, most researchers are focusing on tropical flora as the source of plant-based medicines. However, new medicines may also be developed from plants of the world's temperate regions. With a sense working in his garden in the spring of 1763, English clergyman Edward Stone was positive he had found a cure for malaria. Tasting While the bark of a willow (Salix alba), Stone noticed a bitter flavor similar to that of fever tree (Cinchona spp.), the Peruvian plant used to make quinine. He reported his discovery to the Royal Society in London, recommending that willow be tested as an inexpensive alternative to fever tree. Although experiments revealed that willow bark could not cure malaria, it did reduce some of the feverish symptoms of the disease. Based on these findings, Stone's simple taste test led to the development of a drug used every day around the world: willow bark was the first source of salicylic acid, from which Bayer chemist Felix Hoffman synthesized aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid) in 1899. The recent search for new plant-based medicines has focused on tropical species, but aspirin is not the only drug derived from garden plants of the temperate zones: the antitumor agent taxol and the heart stimulant digitoxin come from plants found in front yards across North America. During random screening of plant material in 1980, the U.S. National Cancer Institute discovered taxol in the bark of the endangered Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia). Since then, chemists have developed a method for extracting the active compound from the needles of the English yew (Taxus baccata), a species common in cultivation. Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea), the source of digitoxin, had a long history as a folk medicine in England before 1775, when William Withering found it to be an effective cure for dropsy. Doctors now prescribe digitoxin treatment for congestive heart failure. EGb 761, a compound extracted from the maidenhair tree (Gingko biloba), is another example of a drug developed from a plant native to the North Temperate Zone. Used as an herbal remedy in China for centuries, ginkgo extract is now packaged and marketed in the West as a treatment for ailments ranging from short-term memory loss to impotence. Although the claims made for the extract might seem too miraculous to be true, research has shown that ginkogolides (the active ingredients in EGb 761) do have a beneficial effect on symptoms associated with aging.' Inspired by these results, pharmaceutical companies have established ginkgo plantations in Europe, China, and the United States. Gingko is only one of many Chinese plants used as medicine. With an estimated 3,118 indigenous genera and more than 25,000 native species of seed plants, the flora of China is the largest and most diverse in the North Temperate Zone.2 For thousands of years, practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine have developed treatments from plants, changed these treatas a 14 empirical research and availability of raw materials, and documented their findings in herbals. Trade within China has enabled herbalists in Kunming to use the same plant materials as herbalists in Beijing, over a thousand miles away. Always searching ments in response to for better cures, the Chinese have also looked to the rest of the world for useful plants: as early as the eighteenth century, the Chinese were importing American ginseng (Panax quinquefolius) from eastern North America to complement their own medicinal plants. The documentation of traditional Chinese medicine goes back to the Han Dynasty (206 AD). Written in approximately 100 BC, Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien (The Herbal Classic of the Divine Plowman) is China's earliest known pharmacopoeia. This materia medica lists 365 traditional remedies, including 252 derived from plants, categorized into three classes based on toxicity: first-class remedies BC-220 with no adverse side effects, used regularly to promote overall health; middle-class remedies, applied carefully to treat a smaller range of ailments ; and lower-class remedies with potentially dangerous side effects, used to treat specific illnesses. Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien gives general advice on the application of these remedies and specific instructions for their identification, preparation, and use. Among the plants mentioned in this twothousand-year-old work are joint fir (Ephedra sinica) and ginseng (Panax ginseng), both of which have been appropriated by Western medicine. Joint fir is the source of ephedrine, an active ingredient in asthma and hay fever medicines. Ginseng, an important herbal medicine in China, is gaining popularity in the West as an adaptogen-a drug used to treat a variety of symptoms, to increase resistance to pathogens, and to promote general health. Research has shown that the active substances in ginseng Eucommia ulmoides m the Hangzhou Botanic Garden is elaborately sheathed to protect it from local bark harvesters. Even though most herbalists remove only part of the bark from a given tree, thepopulantyof the drug that is demved from Eucommia ulmoides makes every tree vulnerable to damage or even death from harvesting 15 Eucommia ulmoides deciduous tree with lustrous, leaves and inconspicuous, unisexual flowers, Eucommia ulmoides is the sole species in the Eucommiaceae. Native to the Tsinling Mountains in central China, eucommia was not seen by Western botanists until 1886, when specimens collected by Augustine Henry, a British customs official, trained medic, and amateur botanist, arrived at Kew Gardens. It was first grown in Europe in 1892, from seeds sent by French missionary Paul Farges to Maurice de A medium-sized, serrate Vilmorin, name, the a Parisian plantsman. Its common hardy rubber tree, refers to the white strands of latex found in its inner bark, leaves, The bark of Eucommia ulmoides was photographed by E. H. Wilson m Chma m 1907. The white band of fibers m the middle of the slab is the latex that gives the tree its common name, the hardy rubber tree stimulate nerve centers, improve the metabolism and vascular system, and lower cholesterol levels.3 While ginseng and ephedrine are familiar to many Westerners, some Chinese medicinal plants are essentially unknown outside China. Two of these plants, Eucommia ulmoides and Magnolia officinalis var. biloba, grow in the Arnold Arboretum. Many Chinese use soups, pills, teas, and tinctures made from dried eucommia leaves and bark to lower blood pressure and increase strength. Herbal practitioners prescribe magnolia bark to treat coughs and colds and use magnolia flower buds to improve digestion and ease menstrual cramps. Both species are uncommon in cultivation outside China but will grow in Boston gardens. and fruit. This latex attracted the attention of Europeans as early as 1903 when The Gardener,s Chronicle claimed \"there is good reason for believing that it would be worth while to plant [eucommia] in the warmer parts of the British Isles as a probable source of rubber. \"4 Though the Chinese do produce some rubber from eucommia, it is not of high enough quality to be a replacement for the traditional, tropical source of rubber, Hevea brasiliensis. The Chinese value eucommia more for its therapeutive properties than its latex. Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien lists duzhong, the medicine derived from eucommia bark, in the first class of remedies, claiming it \"revitalizes the internal organs, increases prowess, strengthens the bones, muscles, and tendons ... and delays aging when taken continuously. \"S Augustine Henry found duzhong to be potent, telling William Watson of Kew Gardens that it is \"tonic, invigorating, and ... a most valuable drug with the Chinese, selling at 4s to 8s a pound.\"6 Farmers harvest eucommia in April, when the bark can be easily removed from the trunk of the tree. The process involves a number of steps. First, harvesters peel bark from trees with a diameter of greater than six inches, being careful not to girdle and kill the plants. They then tie the strips of bark together in bundles and sweat them under straw for a week or until the white inner bark turns black. Next, they lay the strips m the sun, drying the bundles so they can remove the outer bark, leaving only the stringy inner bark. They then chop the strips of inner 1G . indisputably wild provenance, apparently the result of overharvesting.~ However, due to wide cultivation, the species is not in danger of extinction : farmers grow the tree in plantations in Sichuan, Hubei, Shaanxi, and Guizhou provinces, exporting the bark throughout the rest of China. Magnolia officinalis The Chinese also cultivate Magnolia officinalis for its medicinal properties. The China Plant Red Data Book lists this unusual magnolia, native to central China (Hubei, Sichuan, Guizhow, and Guangxi Provinces), as vulnerable, with most of its wild population destroyed by the over-harvesting of its valuable bark.9 Magnolia officinalis is a fast-growing deciduous tree with large, obovate leaves and fragrant white flowers as large as twelve inches in diameter. In its native range, it occurs at elevations of nine hundred to six thousand feet, generally reaching a height of forty-five feet in full sun and welldrained soil. This species has been plagued by taxonomic confusion since 1885, when it was first collected in Hubei Province by Augustine Henry. Nearly identical in appearance to Magnolia hypoleuca, a closely related Japanese species, it was identified as such until 1913, when E. H. Wilson and Alfred Rehder examined specimens Wilson had collected for the Arnold Arboretum in Hubei six years earlier. Rehder and Wilson gave the Chinese plant the species epithet officinalis, Latin for \"of the shops,\" to signify its medicinal importance. They also named a variety, Magnolia officinalis var. biloba, distinguished from the type variety by the deep notches at the leaf apices and a slight variation in its native range (native to southeastern Chma-Hubei, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Hunan Provinces). The bark of both is used as an herbal remedy. In their description of Magnolia officinalis in Plantae Wilsonianae, Alfred Rehder and E. H. Wilson wrote, \"the Chinese designate this species 'Houpo' tree, and its bark and flower buds constitute a valued drug which is exported in quantity from central and western China to all parts of the empire.\" Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien lists houpo in the third class of remedies Magnolia officinalis var. biloba, approximately t twenty feet tall, m the Arnold Arboretum This plant was grown from seed sent by the Hangzhou Botanic Gardens m 1981. bark mto blocks and send them to market. Herbalists prepare these blocks according to a number of different recipes, depending on the needs of the patient.' There are twelve accessions of eucommia represented in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, including AA #14538-A, received as a plant from the Veitch Nursery Company of England in 1907. It is likely that this plant was grown from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in 1900 on his first trip to China for the Veitch firm. Almost ninety years old, this tree is now thirty feet tall with a spread of about twenty feet. Although no direct provenance information is available for this accession, Wilson's description of eucommia in Plantae Wilsomanae indicates that it is probably of garden omgm. Wilson reported that he found no eucommia of 17 7 The spectacular fohage of Magnolia officinalis var. biloba. to the part of the tree from which it tube houpo, from the trunk; boot houpo, the irregular remnants of tube houpo; root houpo, also known as \"chicken intestine po\"; and branch houpo. Since houpo is toxic in large doses, it is never given to pregnant women and always prescribed with other herbs. Herbalists decoct the bark and use the extract in mixtures with rhubarb, liconce, ginger, or other herbs to make teas, powders, and tinctures. Magnolia officinalis has not performed well in the Arnold Arboretum, but its variety biloba has thrived. Not available outside China until 1936, this interesting plant, like eucommia, grows mostly in botanic gardens and arboreta. Seeds obtained by the Arnold Arboretum from the Hangzhou Botanic Garden in 1981 (AA #398-81 ~ have already grown into plants twenty feet tall. Like M. fraseri and M. macrophylla, both native to North America, its leaves are because its active ingredient, the alkaloid high concentrations. magnocurarine, The Chinese, Wilson observed, use it as \"a cure for coughs and colds, and as a tonic and stimulant during convalescence.\"' More recently, the Harvard botanist Lily Perry described the drug extracted from the bark as \"bitter, pungent, and warming\" and said it is prescribed for \"flatulence, nausea, lack of appetite, shortness of breath, and dysentery.\"The dried flower buds, called Yu-po, are used to treat intestinal problems, and are \"esteemed as a medicine for is toxic in according comes: women.\"'2 Harvesters do not show the same concern for magnolia when removing its bark as they do when harvesting eucommia. In May they cut down twenty-year-old trees and strip the bark from the roots, trunks, and branches. After drying the bark, first in shade and then in sun, the harvesters steam it, roll it into tubes, and sort it 18 8 arranged in false whorls at the ends of its branches, giving the plant an open, tropical appearance. The combination of these eighteeninch-long, notched leaves, light gray bark, and large, fragrant flowers make this a striking ornamental tree. Although M. officinalis var. biloba is not yet used medicinally in North America, its exotic habit and foliage have made it a popular plant for zoo horticulture-curators use it to create tropical exhibits for zoos in temperate climates. Western chemists have examined both Eucommia ulmoides and Magnolia officinalis and isolated active compounds from their bark. Tests done at the University of Wisconsin sup- Endnotes IF. V. DeFeudis, Gmkgo Biloba Extract (EGb 761): Pharmacological Actmues and Clmcal Apphcations (Paris: 2 Elsemer Press, 1991) Ying, Y. L. Zhang, and D. E. Boufford, The Endemic Genera of Seed Plants of Chma (Beyng: Science Press, 1993), 1. T. S. K C. 3 (Boca Raton, 4 Huang, The Pharmacology of Chmese Herbs FL: CRC Press, Inc., 1993), 21-45. \" William Watson, \"A Hardy Rubber-Yieldmg Tree,\" The Gardener's Chromcle (1903) 842: 104. Ben Cao Chien by Shm-yng Hu m \"A Contribution to Our Knowledge of Tu-chung-Eucommia ulmoides,\" Amemcan ~ournal of Chmese Medicine ( 1979\/ 1: 6. 5 Quoted from Sheng Nong port the claim that duzhong has potential as an antihypertensive drug. 13 Magnocurarine, the alkaloid in houpo has \"a neuromuscular blocking effect and cause[s] relaxation of the skeletal 6 muscles.\"14 Pharmaceutical companies have not developed these compounds for use in North America because there are already similar drugs on the market. With a sense of urgency inspired by the rapid disappearance of plant habitats, most researchers are focusing on the diverse flora of the tropics as the source of plant-based medicines. However, as drugs such as taxol and EGb 761 demonstrate, new medicines may also be developed from plants of the temperate regions of the world. Of these regions, China offers the highest floristic diversity and a more than twothousand-year-old tradition of using plants as medicines. This long history of herbal medicine has already proven valuable to Western medicine and may do so again in the future. Todd Forrest came to the Arnold Arboretum as an mtern in 1994 and now mamtams the plant records system for the institution. Augustine Henry quoted m William Watson, op. cit. An excellent reference for Henry's travels m Chma is his own Notes on Economic Botany of Chma ( 1893; reprint, Kilkenny, Ireland: Boethius Press, 1986). 7 Shiu-ying Hu is an mvaluable source of information on all Chmese medicinal plants She translated the sections of the Sheng Nong Ben Cao Chien dealing with Eucommia ulmoides and Magnolia officmahs for me and kmdly pomted me towards many other sources. Dr. A. Rehder and E. H. Wilson, Plantae Wilsonianae vol I, ed. C. S. Sargent (Cambndge~ Harvard University Press, 1913), 433. 8 9 Chma Plant Red Data Book-Rare and Endangered Plants, vol. I, ed. L. K. Fu and J. M. Jm (Beyng: Science 10 Press, 1992), 416-417. Rehder and Wilson, op. cit., 392. m L. M. Perry, Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1980), 250. 12 Rehder and Wilson, op. cit., 392. 13 Hu, op. cit., 27-28. 14 Huang, op. cit., 174. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Jane Colden: Colonial American Botanist","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25132","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ea76b.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Harrison, Mary","article_content":"Jane Colden: Colonial American Botanist Mary Harrison \"She deserves to be celebrated,\"wrote Peter Collinson to Linnaeus of Jane Colden, whom he described as \"perhaps the first lady that has perfectly studied Linnaeus' system.\"1 early eighteenth century only a few in Europe or the American colomes were involved in botany or any other science. Those few were usually related to a man working in the subject: Sophia Sarah Banks assisted her brother, explorer and naturalist Joseph Banks; Caroline Herschel became an astronomer through her association with her brother William. And Jane Colden (1724-1766), the subIn the women Bartram whom she had met when he visited her father's estate at Coldengham, New York. In a letter written in January 1757, he thanks her for her letter and reports that he has read it \"several times with agreeable satisfaction.\" He adds, \"Indeed I am very careful of it and it keeps company with the choicest correspondents, ye european letters\"-a high honor, for his European correspondents included the predominant naturalists of the day: Peter Collinson, a ject of Peter Collinson's praise to Linnaeus in his 1756 letter, was initiated into botany by her father Cadwallader Colden.2 We know directly of Jane Colden's botanical work through a single manuscript of hers that now resides in the British Museum. Nonetheless, there is little doubt that she was a respected member of an international community that was deeply involved in the exchange of plants and botanical information that followed the discoveries of new plant material in North America. Contemporary botanists in England and the colonies discussed her in their correspondence, describing her with such accolades wealthy London draper and plant collector; Philip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden; Carolus Linnaeus; and John Fothergill, patron of scientists and plant collectors.4 Another friend and correspondent, Dr. Alexander Garden of Charleston, South Carolina, in a letter to John Ellis in 1755, passes on the information that Dr. Colden's \"lovely daughter is greatly master of the Linnean method. \"5 And John Ellis, in a letter to Linnaeus written in 1758, reports on Jane's botanical activities and her knowledge of \"assiduous,\" \"accomplished,\" \"scientifically skilful,\" \"ingenious.\" Collinson wrote enthusiastically about her not only to Linnaeus but to John Bartram: \"our Friend Coldens Daughter as a Scientificall Manner Sent over Several sheets of plants very Curiously Anatomised after [Linnaeus'] Method I believe she is the first Lady that has Attempted any thing of this Linnaeus' system. In view of the limited educational opportumties available to women in the eighteenth cen- Has in Nature. \"3 Only a few letters written by Jane Colden survive, none of them dealing with her botanical work, but we know she corresponded with botanists in Europe and America, among them John tury, Jane Colden's acceptance by this august group of naturalists and botanists is all the more remarkable. Like most women of her station and period, she had no formal education, but she was blessed with parents who recognized her talents and encouraged and equipped her to pursue her interests. Cadwallader Colden, the son of a Scottish minister, studied at Edinburgh University. He abandoned his original intention of entering the Church of Scotland and turned instead to medicine. Since his father was financially unable to help him establish a career in 21 Scotland, Colden left for the American colonies in 1710. Aided by family connections, he settled in Philadelphia. In 1715 he returned to Scotland and married Alice Christy. They left Scotland for Philadelphia in 1716 and moved to New York a few years later. Through his acquaintanceship with the governor of New York, Dr. Colden was named to the position of Surveyor General of the colony, the first of many important offices he held. The governor also offered him a stipend to compile a list of the plants and animals of New York; however, funds were not forthcoming and the project did not materialize. Later Colden was to assemble an inventory of plants growing on his own estates. In 1719 Colden received a grant of two thousand acres of land situated in what is now the town of Montgomery in Orange County, New York, followed shortly by another grant of one thousand acres. It was here, behind the highlands of the Hudson, about ten miles west of Newburgh, that Colden built \"Coldengham,\" his country house, and settled with his family. Even before the family moved into their new home, Colden had begun to cultivate the land and in 1727 was recording in his journal the details of crops sown and harvests gathered. Jane was four years old when the Colden family, now with six children, moved to this wilderness estate, in the words of her father, \"the habitation of wolves, bears and other wild animals.\"6 There was no school available in the area so the charge of educating their children fell entirely to Alice and Cadwallader Colden. Mrs. Colden was the daughter of a clergyman and had been brought up in Scotland in an intellectual atmosphere. Dr. Colden was a man of infinite interests and talents: he wrote on anthropology and philosophy as well as medical subjects, but he claimed little knowledge of botany except for the rudiments acquired during his medical training. In letters to Collinson and Gronovius he refers to his \"ignorance in botany as a sci- stand ence\" and his awareness that he could \"underso very little botany.\"' Some years after to Coldengham, however, he records that he \"accidentally met Dr. Linnaeus' Genera Plantarum. I was so taken with the accuracy of his characters, that I resolved to examine them with the plants that grow near my house. And this is the sole occasion of what you have seen from me in Botany and which is so inconsiderable that I can have no pretensions of merit m the Science.\"8 Nevertheless, his collection and documentation of plants around his home resulted in the first local flora of New York, \"Plantae Coldenhamiae,\" which Linnaeus published in 1749.9 Lmnaeus' ideas had infiltrated the American colonies some years earlier. In 1737 Collinson wrote to John Bartram, \"The Systema Naturae is a curious performance for a young man; but [Linnaeus'] conning a set of new names for plants, tends but to embarrass and perplex the study of Botany. As to his system on which they are founded, botanists are not yet agreed about it.\" But by 1743 Collinson was able to report to Linnaeus, \"Your system, I can tell you obtams much in America. Mr. Clayton and Dr. Colden at Albany of Hudson's River in New York are complete Professors.... Even Dr. Colden's daughter was an enthusiast.\"' (Linnaeus' binomial system reduced plant names to two words, the first the generic name, the second the specific name. As an example, before Linnaeus, the common flax that we know botanically as Linum usitatissimum-where Linum is the genus and usitatissimum is the specific namewas listed as Linum raris foliisque alternis lmearilanceolatis radice annua. ~ Testimony to Jane's interest in botany is also offered in a letter of 1755 from Colden to Gronovius. moving I have a daughter who has an mclination to readand a curiosity for natural phylosophy or ing natural History and a sufficient capacity for at- Opposzte: George Dzonyszus Ehret drew and engraved this \"tabella\" of Lznnaeus' so-called sexual system of plant classification zn 1736 In this system, plants were grouped according to the number of reproductzve parts m the flower. By countzng the number of stamens and pistils zn its flower, a plant could be put znto any one of Lznnaeus'twenty-four classes. Ehret labelled the twenty-four classes with the letters of the alphabet and selected representatzve plants to zllustrate the first eleven and the last four classes. Lznnaeus used Ehret's engravzng in his Genera Plantarum of 1737 The orzgznal watercolored drawzng zs m the Natural History Museum, London. 22 tainmg a competent knowledge I took the to pams explam to her Linnaeus's system and to put it in English for her to use by freing it from the Techmcal Terms which was easily don by usemg two or three words m place of one. She is now grown very fond of the study and has made such progress in it as I believe would please you if you saw her performance Tho' perhaps she could not have been persuaded to learn the terms at first she now understands to some degree Linnaeus' characters notwithstanding that she does not understand Latin.\"l if you know any better books for this purpose as you are a better judge than I am I will be obliged to you m making the choice.'S Jane's lack of knowledge of Latin was characteristic of women of her time both in England and in the American colonies. Seventeenthcentury writers commenting upon the lack of Latin instruction recognized it as a miserable handicap. \"Not to read Latin was to go in blinkovercame this put up with \"those wise Jests and Scoffs that are put upon a Woman of Sense and Learning, a Philosophical Lady as she is call'd by way of Ridicule.\"12 Jane's mother, and Jane herself, were not far removed from such attitudes and were certainly not yet liberated from the traditions that produced them. Nevertheless, Jane's father was able to report that her enthusiasm for botany did result in the acquisition of \"some knowledge of Botanical Latin.\" Women were not alone in suffering from lack of knowledge of Latin. \"Learned languages,\" according to Colden, were little understood in the colonies, and the need for English botanical works was crucial. He begged Collinson, who had cultivated North American plants in his garden for many years, to publish descriptions of them, for \"We have nothing in botany tolerably well done in English.\"'3 Though he was pleased that living in the country protected his children from \"the temptations to vice which youth is exposed to in the city,\"'4 Dr. Colden was aware that the isolation and lack of cultural opportunities in a young colony were very restricting for a young woman with a serious interest in botany. He wrote to ers,\" and the few females who difficulty had to Collinson, [Jane] cannot have the opportunity of seeing plants m a Botamcal Garden I think the next best As see the best cuts or pictures of them for which purpose I would buy for her Tourneforts Institutes and Morison's Historia plantarum, or is to Collinson was able to acquire \"Tournefort's Herbal ... in excellent preservation.\" He also provided two volumes of Edinburgh Essays and \"2 or 3 of Ehrett's Plants for your ingenious Daughter.\" More prints were promised but they had to be sent \"by another ship\" as they were \"liable to be taken\"-a reference to the piracy prevalent at the time.'6 In addition to providing her with a good library and sharing his correspondence with her, Colden was able to offer Jane the company of other botanists. One of many visitors to Coldengham was Peter Kalm, a student of Linnaeus who had been sent by the Royal Academy of Sweden to study the natural history of the northern parts of North America. A notable gathering in 1754 included Alexander Garden of Charleston, South Carolina, then a young man of twenty-four, and William Bartram, fourteen. Garden, an active collector of his local flora, later corresponded with Jane, exchanged seeds and plants with her, and instructed her in the preservation of butterflies. The young Bartram was already recognized as a skilled illustrator of plants, birds, and animals, though he had had no formal instruction in this art. In Peter Collinson's words, \"He paints them in their natural colors so elegantly so masterly that the best judges here think they come nearest to Mr. Ehrett's, of any they have seen.\" Collinson had, in fact, written to Colden that \"I wish your fair Duagt. was Near Wm. Bartram he would much assist her at first Setting out.\"\" John Bartram, too, recorded visits to Coldengham where he and William \"looked over some of the Doctor's daughter's botanical curious observations.\"'8 Another young visitor who shared Jane's interests was Samuel Bard, who later became physician to George Washington. The son of John Bard, a friend of Colden, he was fourteen when he spent the summer of 1756 with the Colden family. His memory was filled \"with pleasing recollections both of the society and studies to which it introduced him ... In the family resided Miss Colden ... With this lady, differing in years but united in tastes, Mr. Bard formed an intimate friendship; under her instruction 23 he became skilful in botanizing ... to the end of his life he never mentioned the name of his instructress without some admiration or attachment.\" 19 Colden seems to have closely supervised his daughter's botanical activities and acted as her negotiator and in some cases her amanuensis. In 1755 he wrote to Gronovius, collaborator with Linnaeus in the cataloging of the Flora of Virginia, introducing his daughter who \"has a curiousity for natural history\" and offering her services if \"she can be of any use to you. She will be extremely pleased in being employed by you either in sending Descriptions for any seed you shall desire or dried specimens of any particular plant.... She has time to apply herself to gratify your curiosity more than I ever had.\"zo Alexander Garden apparently asked Colden's permission to use Jane's work. In a 1755 letter he wrote, \"It gives me great pleasure that you give me leave to send Miss Colden's Description of the new plant to any of my correspondents.\"z' And it was Colden who sent one of Jane's plant descriptions to John Fothergill. One wonders whether her father's supervision was a form of protection for a young woman operating in an unfamiliar sphere. Or perhaps Jane was too busy performing her domestic responsibilities and keeping her botanical records to conduct her affairs independently. We know she corresponded with John Bartram, with Alexander Garden, and with two Edinburgh doctors, Whyte and Alston, but her letters do not survive.22 Since her father's interests were not confined to botany, Jane became increasingly responsible for collecting and recording the plants discovered on their vast acres. There is no record that she ventured beyond Coldengham boundaries, and indeed the times did not favor the most intrepid collectors venturing into the wilderness. The French and Indian wars were spreading, making travel very threatening. Bartram complains in a letter to Alexander Garden, \"I want much to come to Carolina to observe ye curiosities toward ye mountains but ye mischievous Indians is so treacherous that it is not safe trusting them. No traveling now. \"z3 Indeed, in December 1757 Colden was \"forced out of my own house and farm\" and removed his family to Flushing, Long Island. Villages in the vicinity of were being burnt and destroyed and \"cunning French spies are everywhere. \"z4 On March 12, 1759, Jane married Dr. William Farquhar, a Scottish widower and a medical practitioner, \"distinguished for his knowledge and abilities in New York City and vicinity.\"2s There is no evidence to suggest that she continued botanizing during her brief marriage. Nor do we know the cause of her death m 1766 at the age of forty-two; her only child also died in that year. In spite of the great impression she obviously made on her contemporaries during her brief botanical career, Jane received no formal recognition during her lifetime. One of her plant descriptions was published in full in Essays and Observations, Volume II (Edinburgh, 1770), four years after her death. Jane had received a specimen of the plant in question, Hypericum virginicum (marsh St. Johnswort) from Garden in 1754. She herself had already discovered it the previous summer, and as first discoverer, had named it Gardenia, intending to honor her friend. It must have been a great disappointment to discover that John Ellis, the English botanist, had given the name Gardenia jasminoides to the Cape jasmine and under the conventions of botanical nomenclature was entitled to its use. In 1758 John Ellis, a fellow of the Royal Society, informed Linnaeus that Dr. Colden had sent Coldengham 24 Dr. Fothergill a new plant described by Jane Colden and called by her Fibraurea, a translation of its common name, goldthread. Ellis pointed out to Linnaeus that \"this young lady merits your esteem and does honour to your System,\" and suggested that Linnaeus name for her the plant she had described: \"Suppose you should call this Coldenella, or any other name that might distinguish her among your Genera,\" adding that Jane had described four hundred plants \"m your method only. \"z~ Linnaeus did not recognize the genus as distinct, however, and placed the plant in the already known genus Helleborus. His decision was subsequently countermanded by Richard Anthony Salisbury, who gave it the name Coptis. Jane's father was among those who admired her prowess, of course, and in spite of his understated manner one senses his pride when he writes to Gronovius in 1755, reporting of Jane, to \" was a circuitous one. After the author's death it became the property of Captain Frederick von Wangenheim, a Prussian who served in a Hessian regiment during the American Revolution. We don't know how he acquired it, though his interest in forestry might have steered him in the direction of other areas of botany and its practitioners. An introductory letter by him, included with the manuscript, is marked New York, 1782, but gives no information on how he acquired it. Later it passed through the hands of Godfrey Baldinger, Professor of Botany at the University of Gottingen, who added a title page. Ultimately it was acquired by Sir Joseph Banks17431820). It was at his death that the manuscript went to the British Museum. Jane Colden's manuscript consists of 341 descriptions and 340 illustrations. Records are written She has allready a pretty large volume m writing of the Description of plants ... That you may have some conception of her performance and her manner of describmg I propose to inclose some samples in her own writting some of which I think are new Genus's. One is of Panax I never had seen the fruit folys ternis ternatis of it till she discover'd it ... Two more I have not found described any where and m the others you will find some things particular which I thmk are not taken notice of by any author I have seen.27 ... in a legible, consistent hand with neatly underlined headings and subheadings. Latin and common names for the plants are given. Some of the vocabulary used is unfamiliar to modern readers: cup for calyx, chives for stamens, tips on tor stigmas, fibers tor veins. Observations each part, including root and seed, are noted in great detail. The month of flowering is recorded and the habitat described. Often the medicinal use of the plant is given, information gleaned through her familiarity with the remedies used by Indians and country people, and no doubt through consultation with her father. Suggestions are given to aid in propagation, as in her entry on pokeweed, Phytolacca decandra (now P. ... americana some ). The manuscript that comprises Jane's \"pretty large volume\" is now part of the Botany Library of the British Museum (Natural History) in Kensington, London. Its journey to England England have endeavoured to propagate this plant by the seed braigth from America, but could not produce any plant from the Seed. The propagation from this plant is maket in America in the Dung of birds. For this reason it may be necessary to give in Europe the berries to birds, and to plant the seeds with the Dung of the fowls through which they curious persons in pass mtme.28 25 hours she must have spent visiting and revisiting the plants under study. Of red mint, Monarda didyma, she writes, \"There are but few of the flowers blown at the same time, those in the middle or top blow first, and those towards the edges gradually afterwards, as they do not continue long the first are fallen before the last come out.\" When technical terms elude her she resorts to her own vocabulary and describes one leaf rising through the \"hollow neck\" of the first leaf in the dogtooth violet, Erythronium In her senega, description of snakeroot, Polygala an \"Observat,\" task, for he additional section is headed in which she takes Linnaeus to describes this as being a Papilionatious Flower, and calls the two largest Leaves of the Cup Alae, but as they continue, till the Seed is npe and the two flower Leaves, and its appendage fol together I must beg Leave to differ from him. Added to this, the seed Vessell differs from all that I have observed of the Papilionatious Kind.29 americanum. The female flowers of the mon com- ragweed (Ambrosia artemisifolia), she She continues in this stern vein in her description of Clematis virginiana, pointing out to Linnaeus that \"there are some plants of Clematis that bear only male flowers, this I have observed with such care that there can be no doubt about it.\"30 The descriptions include observations of plants as they develop and indicate the long grow at the \"Arm Pits\" of the leaves.31 These descriptions portray plant characteristics that are familiar to most modern gardeners, and much of their appeal is evoked by the charm of the language and an awareness of the period in which they were written. Jane Colden was documenting for her countrymen, and for eager Euro- writes, peans, new an entirely flora, and it is with this in mind that we can fully understand her delight in botany and appreciate her con-. tribution. There seems to ~ have been agreement concerning high quality of Jane's descriptions, and the manuscript the 26 confirms that judgment. In the case of her illus- 7 Ibid., 3: 88. 8 trations, however, a disparity exists between the surviving comments about her work and the illustrations themselves. Walter Rutherfurd, a contemporary admirer though not a botanist, wrote to a friend, \"[Jane] draws and colors [her illustrations] with great beauty.\"32 However, the manuscript illustrations are very simple sketches, and while venation, shapes, and arrangement of leaves are clearly portrayed, there is little evidence of artistic merit. Certainly those of \"great beauty\" were not used in her manuscript and, like her letters, are not available to us. Unfortunately, Jane's manuscript was out of the reach of succeeding generations who might have been inspired by her enterprise; and more than two hundred years after her death the major part of her work remains unpublished.33 Nevertheless, by its compilation, though she might not have shattered the contemporary view that natural history was only \"an amusement for ladies,\" she has provided us with an intimate glimpse of the initiation of a woman into colonial botany. Mary Harrison is a Ibid., E. 4: 260. 22. 9 lo Vail, \"Jane Colden,\" Berkeley and D. of S. Berkeley, fohn Clayton: Pioneer Amencan Botany (Chapel Hill: Umversity of North Carolina Press, 1963), 84. (New York: Alfred A. 11 papers of C 12 Colden 5: 30. 85. A Fraser, The Weaker Vessel Knopf, 1984), 465, 13 14 ~5 Papers of C Colden 5: 203; 2: 282. Ibid., 2: 262. 16 17 I8 19 Ibid., 5: 37. Ibid., 5: 37, 139, 149, 190. Ibid, 5: 190. Correspondence of J Bartram, 360. H. W. Rickett and E. Hall, eds., Botamc Manuscnpt of 9 fane Colden (New York: Chanticleer Press, 1963\/, 19 Papers of C Colden 5: 30. -- zo 21 22 Ibid., 5: 10. za 24 Ibid., 5: 263; Vail, \"Jane Colden,\" 32. Correspondence of J. Bartram, 404. Papers of C. Colden 5: 212, 213. Rickett and Hall, Manuscript of Colden, 18. f volunteer at the Arnold Arboretum. zs zb 27 Endnotes Britten, \"Jane Colden,\" 14. 1 James Britten, \"Jane 33: 15. 2 Colden and the Flora of New Papers of C Colden Rickett and 5: 30. York,\"Jouznal of Botany, British and Fozeign \/1895) For the 2' 29 Hall, Manuscript of f. Colden, 82. history of women in science, two recent 3o 31 Ibid., 51. works are Women in Science ~ Antiquity Through the Nmeteenth Century. A Biological Dictionary by M. B. Ogilvie (Cambridge : The MIT Press, 1986); and gritten, \"Jane Colden,\" 15... Rickett and 114. Hall, Manuscript of J. Colden, 29, 143, 32. 3 4 S 6 Hypatia's Hentage A History of Women m Science from Antiquity Through the Nmeteenth Centuzy by M. Alic (Boston: Beacon Press, 1986). E. Berkeley and D. S. Berkeley, eds., The Correspondence of John Bartram, 1734-1777 (Gainesvrlle: University of Florida Press, 1992), 393. Ibid., 414. A. M. Vail, \"Jane Colden, An Early New York Botamst,\" Torreya (1907) 7(2): 30. Letters and Papers of Cadwallader Colden, 9 vols. (New York: New York Historical Society, 1918-1937) 2: 263. 32 33 Vail, \"Jane Colden,\" In 1963 the Garden Club of Orange and Dutchess Counties, New York, commemorated their fiftieth publishmg fifty-seven of Jane Colden's descnptions with illustrations m a limited edition of anmversary by fifteen hundred copies. In 1989 the manuscnpt was bound m red leather by the Botany Library at the Natural History Museum, London, m a volume measuring approximately 12.5 x 8.75 X 2.25 mches. On the spine, pnnted below the Botany Department symbol, we read: \"J.Colden, Flora Nov. Eboraensis.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold's Promise Fulfilled","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25131","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ea726.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Jones, James L.","article_content":"' Arnold's Promise Fulfilled Tames L. jones ' worthy plants available the gardening public, whether through cuttings workshops, the annual plant sale, direct requests to the propagators, or simply casual seed collection. An avid gardener reports on how these plants fare once they've left the grounds. One of the roles of the Arnold Arboretum is to make to a warm December day some twenty-five years ago I was strolling through the Arboretum when suddenly I found myself pelted by On seeds. I traced the source to the bare branches of a twiggy, twelvefoot shrub and took some of the seeds home with me. This incident was brought back to me re- cently when, browsing through my garden records, I was struck by the number of plants I've acquired from the Arnold Arboretum. I've taken advantage of its plant offerings for nearly thirty years, long enough to get to know a number of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous perennials quite thoroughly. The The big, bold, and blocky Orixa ~aponica on the grounds of the Arnold following notes relate my experi- Arboretum. ence with several of them, focusOrixa japonica sing chiefly on the success stories, but also one or two interesting failures. It was this species that set my review in motion. including The plant that resulted from those importunate My garden is to the west of Boston and enjoys a zone 5B climate, with -10 degrees Fahrenheit seeds has proven valuable as either a hedge a very rare occurrence and the all-time low over plant or a distinguished specimen, big, bold, these thirty years of -13 degrees. The soil is a and blocky. Its attractive properties include reasonably good, well-drained acidic loam. The shapeliness, even after years of absent-minded sharp western wind has been tamed to some exhacking; glossy foliage that produces a pleasant tent by a row of spruces. Fertilization and other scent when rubbed; and a useful habit of slow soil amendments have been on the low end of but steady suckering, offering a good number of standard. Except where noted, no special condioffsets ready for instant use. My single specitions have been provided. men doesn't pester me with seeds, however, 28 since male and female flowers separate plants. are borne on Albizia julibrissin 'Rosea' Starting trees from seed is usually a long-term venture-for instance, two of my other acquisitions, Cornus florida and Cornus kousa, both grown from seeds collected at the Arboretum, took a little over twenty years to flower after a 1970 sowing. An outstanding exception to this rule is Albizia julibrissin 'Rosea': mine went from seedling to flowering size in a mere seven years ( 1967-1974), reaching thirty feet in height before poor siting (too close to the house) forced me to cut it down. The next batch of self-sown seedlings, more appropriately placed, was already well underway and is now pushing the thirty-foot mark as well. This tree has many things going for it besides quick growth: a graceful, spreading form; fragrant, fuzzy, pink flowers late in the summer; ferny foliage that admits dappled sunlight when mature but appears so late in the season that several cycles of early bloomers can run their course beneath the tree's bare branches. Those quickly spreading branches can be a liabilityfor instance, if the tree is placed right next to the house-and the blossoms are messy if they drop onto low-growing plants. I now have my albizias in a separate grove, with Clerodendrum trichotomum and chocolate mint ~Mentha sp.) romping at their feet. Year by year I trim off the lower branches to get more of the airy effect I have in mind. I have had no problems with hardiness ('Rosea' is considered the most cold tolerant), although a plant protected by the house grew more swiftly than did one in the open; nor has the wilt disease seen in southern states been a problem in the Northeast. Poncirus Ihe seen wickedly sharp thorns of Poncirus tmtohata in April. as trifoliata This small tree, the hardy orange, produces a crop of perfect little oranges chock full of seeds. Plants from seeds I acquired at the Arboretum grew the first few inches very quickly; then they remained almost static for several years. Even- tually-1970 to 1987 in one case, 1982 to 1993 in another-they reached a height of some eight feet and began to put forth fragrant, citrus-like blossoms in May, with the fruits ripening in October if the summer has been warm. This last year a particularly heavy crop of fruit raised a pressing question: What to do with all those fruits? They are edible, though pithy and seedy and even more sour than lemon, with a bitter aftertaste. I once tried them in a chiffon pie, and though it wasn't bad I felt no real need for another. Instead I use the juice (in moderation) in a fruit salad, where it provides an excellent zing. Placement of Poncirus (which can reach twelve feet) may be a problem, since the branches are heavily armed with long, stout, wickedly sharp thorns, and pruning is a hazardous undertaking. However, it is visually one of the better small trees around, never more so than when bedecked with its improbable orange globes. Like Orixa, another member of the rue family (Rutaceae), its leaves are glossy and aromatic. 29 Aesculus parviflora The seeds of the buckeyes, are Acer palmatum immensely parviflora, 1980 I planted one from a large, spreading, suckering plant twenty feet high and forty feet across. including Aesculus appealing. Back in I had those dimensions in mind when I Fifteen years ago I gathered seeds from one of the smaller, redder cultivars of Japanese maple, motivated by the unquestionable charm of these trees as well as the high cost of plants. I have especially enjoyed the wide range of characteristics among the resulting specimens, from slow to vigorous and from red-leafed to green, with a one-hundred percent correlation between redness of leaf and slowness of growth. The tallest is now some twelve feet high, the shortest less than three feet. I early on placed the redder ones as accents m small garden areas (even then they were clearly slower growing) and positioned the taller, greener ones as individual specimens. Magnolia virginiana 'Milton' I purchased Magnolia vmgimana 'Milton' at the Arboretum's fall plant sale in September 1991, too recently to do more than report on its good health and pass on the advice someone else gave me: keep the plant in its pot (in a greenhouse or plunged in a coldframe) for at least a year before planting it out. Following that advice I succeeded with this plant where I had failed several times in the past. It will in time be a fifteen-foot tree with fragrant, relatively small white flowers. The 'Milton' cultivar is evergreen; at this stage, however, my plant hangs onto only a single leaf over the winter, with spring bringing a new covering of leaves. The leaves are smaller in all dimensions than those of M. grandiflora, better suited to dealing with the snow loads that can be the death of the larger species, even for those cultivars that are otherwise quite hardy. Clerodendrum trichotomum At the extreme of its range, the hardy glorybower is somewhere between a shrub and Aesculus parviflora with photographed m August. its spmes of flowers chose a spot for the resulting seedling, but since I was dealing in years compared to the Arboretum's decades, it soon became clear that a more prominent location could be risked. The plant was already three feet high with a root almost as long, but against the apparent odds it survived and flourished. Perhaps somewhat delayed by the setback of moving, it began flowering in May 1992 and is now a delightful twelve-foot tree, single-stemmed and showing no tendency to spread by suckers, though the occasional seedling will pop up. It deserves a prominent position, giving value in all seasons with spires of white flowers in summer, large pleated leaves that briefly turn a pleasant yellow in fall, and a spreading tree-like form that can be enhanced by removing lower limbs. herbaceous perennial, dying to the ground winter but still sprouting and blooming the next summer. In fact, it is one of the most precise indicators of local climate I know: a fifteenfoot mini-tree in coastal Rhode Island; from zero to eight feet here west of Boston, depending on the severity of the winter; and a surefire winter casualty only a little to the north and west. Where growable, it is a wonderful plant, bearing fragrant, pale pmk flowers in late summer folan over 30 lowed by eyecatching turquoise fruits surrounded by deep pink bracts. Have some care with the leaves, however; they stink when bruised. I started my plants as cuttings in 1972. In general, I treat cuttings with a certain benign neglect, simply sticking a two-to-six-inch length in a sand and peat moss mix kept moist in a north-facing coldframe, without benefit of rooting hormone. Rooted cuttings are then kept in a coldframe or greenhouse, depending on species and degree of root development, until the following season. My C. trichotomum plants first bloomed in 1982 and grew to eight feet after several relatively mild winters. The harsh winter of 1993-1994 cut all but one plant to the ground, branch thick, yet rigidly upright. The initial cutting was taken in 1980; within eight years suckers and self-sown seedlings had yielded enough material for a space-saving screen around a nursery area, spangled in late summer and fall with a generous helping of red berries. Euonymus hamiltonianus ssp. sieboldianus (E. yedoensis) This was another mistake, irremediable this time. It seemed to be just what I had in mind when I saw it in the Arboretum, a small tree of interesting shape that would provide light shade properly sized vertical accent for a garden developing. Seeds sown in 1977 came along nicely, the resulting seedlings becoming large enough to be put in place about seven years later. After another seven years they were unceremoniously ripped out as their multitude of faults became apparent: susceptibility to insect attack (especially tent caterpillars) and aggressive seeding and suckering, not to mention a contorted, lopsided shape. and a I was Lonicera The fragrant late-summer flower clusters Clerodendrum trichotomum. of fragrantissima plant I requested from the Arboretum, having a need for something that bloomed early and sweetly. The cuttings I received rooted easily, but the plant turned out to be much too large and vigorous for the intended space, which was a sunhouse (a greenhouse heated by sun alone). I moved it to the front entrance of the house where, seven years later at a height of five feet, it began perfuming the April air with its heady fragrance. Its growth should be controlled by sharp pruning, since the basic form is awkward, somewhere between a shrub and a vine, This is a but all survived to flower again. For nice latesummer effects I grow the glorybower with the albizias in one area and with Heptacodium miconioides in another. Cotoneaster divaricatus cutting nurtured as another species eventually proved to be Cotoneaster divaricatus, a big, unkempt plant I would never have consciously invited into the garden. But by then I had moved it here and there, pruned it as necessary, and disA with branches jutting out in all directions. It increases by suckers at a reasonable rate. It is almost evergreen, the foliage remaining in good condition through most of January. The thoughtful gardener will position it near a sidewalk as a kindness to passersby at a time of year when a bit of fragrance is sorely needed. covered that it made an excellent two-dimensional hedge, six feet high and little more than a Mahonia japonica I acquired Mahonia japonica as a cutting in 1980, and its long sprays of coarsely toothed evergreen leaves make it one of the most attractive plants in my garden. It is hardy where the 31 native, M. aquifolium, is not, and if it protected from the winter wind, the cold will not scar its foliage. It grows quite rapidly to about six feet, with a narrower spread. In April of a very good year it bears fragrant yellow flowers, although they are usually destroyed by the cold. With just the least protection-as in a sunhouse-it may begin blooming in December western P. suffruticosa 'Joseph Rock' but with a center is that's yellow care rather than purple. Tree peonies placement because of their overwhelming (if brief) springtime presence and the require in and carry on right through the winter. However, the foliage is quite exceptional enough without flowers. Cuttings root with the greatest ease; I simply stick them in the ground in the spring on the north side of my house. Paeonia Tree dowdiness of their bare stems in winter. I addressed both concerns by draping one with Rhododendron 'Blue Peter', low growing enough that the peony flowers poke through, large-flowered enough to hold its own and, of course, flowering at the same time. When the embrace of the rhododendron became too suffruticosa very slow to grow from seed, two years just to germinate, but the are smothering, simple pruning set things right again. High shade is another matter, the peonies being quite tolerant of it. Telekia speciosa Even herbaceous perennials require a year or two of care before being put into the open garden. Mine go into a nursery bed where they can be carefully watered and monitored. The soil there is somewhat improved by the addition of leafmold. Though Telekia is indeed a herbaceous perennial, I found that it developed with almost treelike slowness, not flowering until July 1990 though I acquired it in 1985. It was worth the wait, with golden yellow flowers four inches in diameter. Like the better known Ligularia, Telekia is a shade-requiring member of the composite family. It stands equally as tall, two-anda-half to three feet, but has majestically large leaves that form a massive clump and flowers of a gentler shade of yellow. Like Ligularia it will droop under direct sun and yet needs good light to flourish. And flourish it will under the right conditions-one gardener reports that it becomes rampant when grown in high shade and with even moisture. It flowers at the same time as Rhododendron maximum, and the pair add a surprising flash of color to the shady summer garden. Telekia can readily be grown from seed, but as with many composites the seed must not be sown right away. I suggest storing it until fall in a place protected from sun and rain. peonies can requiring results sown be spectacular. My onginal seed was in 1982; the resulting plant flowered in May 1989-a huge, sumptuous white flower held proudly erect, reminiscent of photos of The extravagant flower of Paeonia suffruticosa, photographed at the Arnold Arboretum m mid-May. Indigofera pseudotinctoria Indigofera is a good example of the plants sent by the Arboretum to its members-little known but with great garden potential. It is an eightinch-high subshrub that bears a scattering of 32 pink pea flowers from July to September. Mine arrived in 1986 and began flowering a year later. It makes an excellent groundcover in a sunny spot, shapely and not overly aggressive, having spread to only a square yard in seven years. I use it at the base of box (Buxus sempervirens `Vardar Valley') for a well controlled, slightly formal effect. Offsets can be detached for transplantation. Cassia marilandica Our native senna is an excellent garden plant, shrublike in appearance, arching to four-and-a- receptive when my C. recta cutting (a plant diviarrived in the mail. The resulting plant been disappomting, though not wildly exciting either. It shares the shrublike though herbaceous quality of the Cassia marilandica, but instead of having a dignified upright stance, it sprawls, making placement a good deal more difficult. However, its abundant white flowers in June are showy, and the foliage is distinctive and attractive. I grow one in a sunken area where a two-and-a-half foot high retaining wall forces it into a semblance of tidiness and another behind a sturdy Buxus sempervirens 'Vardar Valley'. It is three feet high and equally broad. It would probably do better in a larger garden where it could billow to its heart's dend) has not half feet over the summer but dying to the ground each winter, with attractive pinnate foliage and pleasant pea flowers of a subdued yellow in July. It would fit in very well with clumping grasses in a mannered meadow garden. It sets plentiful seed, and I have had germination with sowing; I have seen no self-sowing although others have found it almost too prolific. I purchased my plant in 1988 and had my first flowers two years later. Senna can be divided before growth starts in spring, which gives a lot of leeway, since it is one of the latest plants to begin seasonal growth. For maximum drama I combine it with Macleaya cordata, the two of them giving massive cover where only bare ground had been brief months before. Clematis recta I had been unsuccessful in my attempts to raise nonvining clematis from seed, so I was entirely content. plant records make clear, serendipitous gardening of the sort I practice can succeed if the gardener is willing to experiment, to learn from failures, to continue working with plants until a satisfactory effect is achieved. Experience with As my my Arnold Arboretum acquisitions has demonstrated that many happy surprises are in store for the gardener who goes beyond the tried-andtrue and gives garden space to some of the lesser known species and varieties. is a gardener of wide-rangmg mterests with a special fascination for the obscure. At present he is president of the North American Rock Garden Society. Jim Jones "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25134","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15eaf28.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum SUM MER. - N E W S - 1 9 9 5 Albert W. Bussewitz, 1912-1995 Jim Gorman a rarely man's love for nature becomes rulzng przncrple wrth bzm, a lzke youth's affection for a maiden, a but more endurrng.z All nature u my brzde. Henry Davrd Thoreau` 7 April 23, 1857 How looking at-the petals of a plant, the plume of a bird-how one form relates to another. As a natu- ralist, I try to nects to to keep the doors open - Educator, naturalist, photographer, Albert W. Bussewitz, or \"Buzzy,\" as he preferred, died this past August 8 of heart failure. The Arboretum's staff, volunteers, friends, and visitors will sorely miss his special warmth and quality of character as well as the encyclopedic knowledge of the natural world that he so readily shared with all. For the past seventeen years, Buzzy made the Arboretum his primary outdoor studio and classroom, developing many deep He had been a sanctufriendships. ary director and educator for the Massachusetts Audubon Society for twenty-seven years before, as he used to say, he was \"granted an honorable dismissal, having qualified chronologically.\" In 1978 he and his wife, Flora Quirin, moved to Jamaica Plainduring the infamous February blizzard-and he \"was recycled instead of retired.\" As the Arboretum's preeminent docent, Buzzy enthralled thousands of visitors as well as staff on his walks, which encompassed not Just botany but the total natural environment. \"Being a teacher,\" he said, \"you share with others the opportunity to see what you're show how one form of life conall others, as in a spider's web, where in touching one strand you touch the whole.\" Buzzy loved words nearly as much as nature; he was our resident lexicologist. How he delighted in creating phrases with unexpected words. Richard Warren, longtime friend of both the Arboretum and Buzzy, observed, \"He had a store of words and phrases that, while grammatical, were not usual. They could worry the listener in that an involved sentence might seem to have no ending, but he always crashed through with the most dramatic and grammatic word to save the day.\" Born on a 160-acre farm m Juneau, Wisconsin, Buzzy's formative years exposed him to agriculture and the out-of-doors. He later would recall that he learned the songs of bobolinks, redwing blackbirds, and meadowlarks while walking the purebred Holsteins back home down a long country lane. \"These walks also exposed me to the landscape,\" he said in a 1985Harvard Gazette interview. \"I remember a limestone quarry where salamanders lived under the rocks and where in spring I first got acquainted with the frogs and their sounds. I was, I suppose, the only one in Juneau with the audacity or maybe the A gathering in remembrance of Buzzy will be held Sunday, October 8, at 1 pm at the Hunnewell Building. to forage through the landscape with a butterfly net.\" He graduated from Northwestern College in nearby Watertown, then entered Lutheran theological training, where he learned Greek courage and Latin. Later he would attend the University of Wisconsin, studying biology, entomology, and other natural history. His professor of wildhfe management was Aldo Leopold, author of A Sand County Almanac and a founder of the Wilderness Society. Soon after school, he came east, settling in Rochester, New York. A first job in the flonst business was followed by work in the testing lab of Bausch and Lomb's precision optics department. It was m Rochester that his avocational affiliation with several natural history organizations began; he was a founder of the Genesee Ornithological Society and served as editor of their journal, Goshawk. He and Flora would stay nine years in Rochester, and it was there that their three children, Robert, Betty Ann, and Barry, were born. In 1949 he took the position of director of the Massachusetts Audubon Sonety's Moose Hill Sanctuary in Sharon, the oldest sanctuary within the oldest Audubon Society in the United States. Responsible for outdoor and classroom education and, in summer, for nature camps, he influenced scores of individuals in their decisions to pursue careers with an environmental focus. Later, when Stony Brook Sanctuary opened in Norfolk, he was asked to assume responsibility there. In 1966 he moved to Audubon's Rocky Knoll Nature Center in Milton and worked as natural history lecturer for sixth graders in many communities south of Boston. At his retirement Massachusetts Audubon Society's Allen Morgan praised him as \"one of the true pioneers in environmental education.\" Of all the myriad programs, walks, and lectures Buzzy developed throughout his life, perhaps the most notable was \"Through the Seasons with Thoreau.\" Combining excerpts from theJournalr with his own interpretive images, this remarkable performance was Buzzy's magnum opus. First presented at Concord's Thoreau Lyceum in 1971, his \"synergistic message,\" as he called it, was continually revised. \"Doesn't have to be finished,\" he would say. \"I keep it as an ongoing effort.\" At the time of his death, he was returning from CarletonWillard Village m Bedford, where he had presented \"Through the Seasons with Thoreau.\" Flora, his beloved wife of fifty-five years, was at his side. One of the excerpts from Thoreau's journal for September 7, 1851, that he recited to that audience pertained to Buzzy as well: ence. \" we knew have seen much that we would otherwise have missed. We join the multitudes who are indebted to this noble, yet us know that because we Buzzy, humble, poetic teacher who man, a special inspired us all. Pamela Thompson Appointed Adult Education r Coordinator On August 1, Pam Thompson, former course registrar, took over as the new coordinator of Arboretum adult education. Over the past four years Pam has spoken with many of you over the phone as she has been responsible for _ How to extract u.r honey from Always photographing, Buzzy's was panoptic, taking in all parts of plants. Many of us were particularly struck by his skillful use of light, which revealed the translucency of fruits or the softvision the flower of the world, that sr my everyday business. I am as busy as a bee about rt; I ramble over all the fields on that errand and am never ro happy at when I feel myself heavy wath honey and wax. I am lake a bee .rearchzng the lifelong day for the sweets of tomentose leaves. His exquisite photography was often seen on the covers and pages of this and other publications. He ness was a of nature. longtime member, officer, and judge of the Boston Camera Club and its Nature Group. In 1980 he was named a Master Member of the New England Camera Club Council. A member and past president of the Thoreau Society, Buzzy had carefully studied all of Thoreau's wntings, especially the fourteen volumes of the Journals, and would often easily recite a passage to accentuate a moment with an audi- To recall his tours and walks the Arboretum is to remember fine performance art. We can think of no one who presented botanical information so colorfully and eloquently, interwoven with poetry, prose, and art as well as science. He was inspired and he inspired those with whom he came in contact, casual visitor or expert plantsperson. Often at the end of his tours he would remind you that it would take another lifetime or two to see the Arnold Arboretum, and even then you might miss something. Many of at overseeing course registrations and many other aspects of the program. Prior to her work for the Arboretum, she served as Director of Administration for the Center for Plant Conservation. Pam has a particular interest in creating programs that further utilize the living collections and that provide learning activities for families. She invites your sugges- and comments as she plans for 1996 (617\/524-1718 8 x 162). When not aranging classes at the Arboretum, Pam enjoys caring for her own garden as tions courses well as spending time with her six-month-old daughter, Ailsa Jeffnes. We also wish to send our congratulations to former program manager Marcia Mitchell, who has just entered a degree program at Harvard's Kennedy School of Government. Marcia's dedication and good humor will be sorely missed. AA\/NPS Forum The Arboretum as a partner in the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation held a Forum on Vegetation Management for Historic Sites on August 3. An audience of over eighty maintenance managers, field personnel, and landscape preservation professionals attended. Topics included the application of principles of preservation to vegetation management, the management of mature specimen plants, and woody plant succession on historic sites. Speakers included, in the back row, left to right, Bob Cook of the Arboretum, Charles Birnbaum of the National Park Service, David Barnett of Mt. Auburn Cemetery, Richard Harris of the University of California at Davis, Edward Toth of Prospect Park in Brooklyn, Phyllis Andersen of the Arboretum; center row, left to nght, Lauren Meier and Nora Mitchell of the National Park Service, Lucy Tolmach of Filoli in Woodside, California; and front row, the Garden ConserPeter Del Tredici of the Arboretum, Elizabeth vancy, Vizza of the Halvorson Company, Charlie Pepper of the National Park Service. Missing from the photograph are Glenn Dreyer of the Connecticut College Arboretum and Stephen McMahon of The Trustees of Reservations. to left right, John Fitzpatrick of Summer Interns of 1995 1995'sfifteen interns come from thirteen different institutions across the U.S. and from Ireland. From left to right in the outermost circle are Heather Storlazzi, Emma Ross, Niamh Page, Landry Lockett, John Creasey, Benjamin Zaitchik, and Scott Ritchie; inner circle, Brian Grubb, Crystal Lee, Angela Ingerle, Tanya Sandberg-Diment, Laura Brogna, Knsten Kleiman; front center left, Sonya Del Tredici, nght, Jeremy Fink. Each summer, the Horticultural Traimng Program brings students interested in horticulture, botany, or landscape design to the Arboretum for work and study. Work ranges from sharpening lawnmower blades and runmng woody plants, transplanting living collections. revolves around twice-weekly classes in plant Study chippers to pruning trees, and computer-mapping the identification, pests and diseases, weeds, pruning, planting and transplanting, taught by Arboretum staff. Assistant Superintendent of Grounds Julie who supervises the program, leavens the with field trips. This year these included Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Ponkapoag Pond in Canton, Blithewold Arboretum and Newport estates in Rhode Island, as well as the rest of the Emerald Necklace, the Boston park system of which the Coop, mix Arboretum is a part. 3 Arboretum Hosts Wood Collectors Meeting Chris Strand, Outreach Horticulturist On June 24 the Arnold Arboretum hosted a meeting of the New England Chapter of the International Wood Collectors Society (IWCS). As the staff member responsible for coordinating this meeting I confess I was wary of their intent. The term \"wood collectors,\" so prominent in the name of their organization, made me suspect that they would be asking questions like \"How many board feet of lumber do you have at the Arboretum?\" I was in for a surprise. IWCS president Alan Curtis gave a slide presentation of his expenences at the Fairchild Tropical Garden, where he and other volunteers helped clean up in the aftermath of Hurncane Andrew, which literally destroyed the garden. As the garden's crews removed logs, Curtis and volunteers from the Wood-Mizer Company sawed them into boards. At a public sale later in the year they auctioned off 8,000 board feet of Chris Strand, second from right, exchanges tree lore with members of the New England Chapter of the International Wood Collectors Society. ~ pleasant lumber and raised $32,000 for the Garden. After Curtis' lecture, Jim Gorman, Tour Coordinator at the Arboretum, and I led the group on a walking tour. We were able to share with them the botanical and horticultural qualities of the plants, and they shared with us the charactenstics of the respective woods. For example, an IWCS member was able to explain why the wood of the princess tree exotic (Paulownza tomentosa) ~s so highly valued in Japan, namely, for its use in special obi boxes. If the box is made correctly it will swell shut from the humidity in the season when the obi is not worn and will open in the season when it is worn. It is this property that makes the Paulou~nza wood so dear. As the meeting continued into the afternoon with a lecture on the restoration of a savanna forest in South Aftica, it had become clear that the wood collectors were, like all true aficionados, interested in many aspects of trees including their growth, unique qualities, and conservation. GCA Visits Boston The national meeting of the Garden Club of America, held in Boston this past spring, provided several opportunities for Arboretum staff and GCA members to share knowledge about plants, horticulture, and preservation. Director Bob Cook spoke on the Arboretum's collaboration with the Olmsted Center for Historic Landscape Preservation, discussing the work of the Center and recent developments in the rapidly evolving preservation field. On Mother's Day, Arboretum staff hosted a GCA tour group, providing attendees with an excursion into the living collections and a plant recently introduced by the Arboretum, Weigela subsessilis. 4 Arboretum Join Open House, Saturday, October 14 Arboretum staff for a special open house welcoming the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and the larger Boston community. Scheduled to run from 2:00 to 4:00 pm, the event will feature tours of the landscape, greenhouse, and Hunnewell Building and offer opportunities to chat with Director Bob Cook and other staff about Arboretum plans and programs. Please mark your calendars. We look forward to seeing you this October! Samuels Parsons, Jr: The Art of Landscape Architecture Presented by the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site and the Arnold Arboretum and National Park Service's Historic Landscape Initiative, will present a lecture on the work of Parsons on Thursday, 26 October, 7:30-8:30. It is free and open to the public. For reservations, please call 5241718 x162. Samuel Parsons, Jr. (1844-1923), worked extensively in the design of parks for American cities, helping to define landscape architecture for the generation that followed Frederick Law Olmsted. The son of an accomplished horti- culturist, initial Parsons received his sponsored by Wave Hill, The Bronx, the exhibition Samuel Parsons, Jr: The Art of Landscape Architecture will be on view m the Arboretum's Hunnewell Building, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, from 1 October through 15 5 December 1995. Charles A. Birnbaum, curator of the exhibit and coordinator of the training at Parsons & Sons Company Nursery. Later, Parsons served as Landscape Architect for New York City, where his innovative inner-city parks marked a new direction in American park design. The exhibit and lecture will trace the development of Parsons' career through his work for New York City as well as projects for San Diego, Washington, DC, and other cities across the country. 5 New Staff at the Arboretum Kirsten Ganshaw, a 1994 intern, has returned to the Arboretum as a member of the grounds staff. She is responsible for the seven-acre Bradley Garden summer in water gardens; and crew supervisor m many situations. She holds a BS in natural resource management and applied ecology from Moreover, he is responsible for planning and developing initiatives in Internet access, a World Wide Web home page, and visitor center computer kiosks. Andrew has worked in information technology for the last fifteen years in the fields of bio- College, Rutgers State University, where she worked as greenhouse technician in the Department of Entomology. Andrew Hubble has joined the Arboretum to serve as curator of computers. His official title is Network Systems Manager; as such he will ensure that our PC and Macintosh computers are able to talk to our UNIX and Novell Cook technology, library automation, and academic research. He is a graduate of the University of California at Davis with a BS in plant science. of Rosaceous Plants where her work includes pruning, trans- planting, weedmg, mulching, updating the plant records in the computer interns as database, and they rotate through overseeing the garden as part of their summer experience. She is presently working the erosion and weeds that plague Dawson Pond. Kit bnngs to her job fifteen to contain servers. He also to provides technical years' experience in landscape gardening. She's been senior gardener at a Arboretum and Hersupport barium staff in Jamaica Plain and in Cambridge, especially in connection with the Asian public botanic garden; land- biodiversity project, community science supervisor garden; a contractor specializing scape on an estate education programs, and the living collections database. Deby Pasternak is the newest addition to the Arboretum's Development Office. She has worked in development at the Berklee College of Music and at the Harvard Business School. She also has experience in environmental education in the photovoltaics industry and as a volunteer science teacher on the Hudson River Sloop Clearwater. Deby helps to Have You Finished The one Reading 54 :1 ? organize events, 54, number 1: the with the statuesque Lombardy poplars on the cover-has been in especially heavy demand. We ran out of copies many months ago, and still the requests come in. We're especially concerned about the missing-issue claims from horticultural and botanical libraries, where the lack of 54:1 will interrupt complete collections. If you've finished reading 54:1 and have no further need of it, would you consider returning it to the Arboretum for redistribution ? We'd be very grateful. issue Spring 1994 of Arnoldra-volume researches funding sources for the Arboretum's many environmental and educational programs, and provides invaluable support to the development staff as the Arboretum embarks on its first campaign since the Charles Sprague Memorial Campaign of 1927. A graduate of Amherst College, Deby is also a performing and recording musician. , EVENTS The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and landscape design. A selection of fall courses is shown here. For a complete catalog of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call 617\/524-1718 x 162. Note that fees shown in boldface are for members of the Arboretum. For information about becoming a member, call 617\/524-1718 x 165. SEPTEMBER\/OCTOBER BOT 224 The Mosses of New Benito speaking trips to Boston this fall. England Dr. Dirr's many Tan, Bryologrst, Join Dr. Benito Tan mosses m the field and in the laboratory. This course will focus on moss species that are common and biologically unique to New England. The class will visit a site rich in mosses where the instructor will supervise the limited collection of moss samples for study in the laboratory. Most class time will be spent in learning to recognize moss species with a hand lens and under the microscope. Discussion will touch only briefly on the horticultural use of mosses. Equipment needed: 7x or lOx field lens and a small pocket knife for collecting. Unzversrty Herbaria to learn about New England Harvard friends and students know that early registration is needed to ensure that they will hear his latest information about newly introduced plants and new cultivar availability. 8 Fee: $15, $18 Friday, October 20\/ 7:00-8:30 pm (HB) NOVEMBER HOR 246 The Plant Connoisseur: Annuals and Half-Hardy Perennials Brean McGowan, Owner, Blue Meadow Montague Center, MA Nursery, Many desirable garden plants warmer Fee: $85, $100 Wednesdays, September 27, October 4, 11, 18, 25\/6:00-8:00 pm (HUH) and 1 Sunday field trip, October 1 (TBA) 5 HOR 419 The Year-End Garden: Plants for the Fall and Winter that are perennial in climates are not used in New England gardens because they cannot survive our winters. Brian McGowan specializes in growing these plants, and his talk provides the information necessary to overwinter tender perennials and even some annuals. His slide presentation introduces some of the hundreds of new annuals and tender perennials now being grown for the home gardener. 5 Fee: $12, $15 Gary Koller, Senior Horticulturist, Arnold Arboretum Learn the palette of plant material, both herbaceous and woody, that provides interest in the garden as the year wanes and the weather turns cold. At the first class meeting, we will discuss the fall possibilities for flowers and foliage color, especially the plants for late fall. Weather permitting, we will visit the Case Estates teaching garden, which peaks in fall. Wednesday, November 8\/ 7:00-8:30 pm (CE) WAL 339 Plant Interactions: Vegetation Dynamics of Southern New England Wzllzam A. Nterrng, Professor of College, and Editor, Restoration Botany, Connecticut Ecology Fee: $30, $35 2.Wednesdays, October 18, 25\/ (CE) 5 :00-7 :00 pm Looking at Plants with Michael Dirr Michael Dirr, Professor of Horticulture, University of Georgia Dr. Michael Dirr, world authority on woody plants and author of the standard reference work Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, will make one of his rare HOR 450 Well-known plant ecologist William A. Niering, author of The Audubon Soceety Field Guede to North American Wildflower.r, will speak on plant mteractions in upland and wetland regions of southern New England. Competition among these plants largely determines their success in different habitats. Knowledge of changing conditions, and how plants affect each other under these changing conditions, is important to understanding future patterns of plant growth. o Fee: $8, $10 Thursday, November 2\/ 7:00-8:30 pm (HB) 7 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23299","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14e856a.jpg","title":"1995-55-2","volume":55,"issue_number":2,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25130","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ea36d.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hull, Catherine","article_content":"Uplands: Life Among the Alpines Catherine Hull I Rock gardening is a spell-if you succumb to it there is seldom any turning aside from the passionate love of small wild things. There is no point pontificating or preaching-it swoops you up or it leaves you cold. Do you choose gardening or does it choose you? I thought I had chosen to make a perennial garden, first in a suburb of Washington, D.C., and later in a small town north of Boston. Then one day I saw from a friend's window a wild mountain poppy growing in a crevice of rock, the orange flower moving gracefully with every breath of air, no bigger than a small butterfly. Instantly I dropped the idea of a lush herbaceous border and began a love affair with wild things, especially those that grow high in the mountains, called alpines. Soon I joined the North American Rock Garden Society. At my very first meeting, which was held at the foot of Mt. Washington, the principal speaker was Lincoln Foster, the guru of all rock gardeners. Then and there my gardening life changed forever. A very strenuous future stretched before me. Happily, my conversion followed closely the purchase of our new home. The property is on a hill a hundred feet above sea level looking out to Massachusetts Bay. The landscape architect Fletcher Steele had designed a small upland garden here in the 1930s. He made a wisteria arbor with stone columns, a border of hybrid tea rose and clematis along a narrow lawn, a goldfish pool with a full-size statue of Neptune presiding at one end, and a long border of rhododendron and laurel. My only previous gardening experience had been in backyards, where I had struggled with double digging to incorporate better soil and compost. But here, one thrust of a shovel and CLANG!-a rock! It was soon obvious that the hill was literally solid granite with only a thin skin of soil. No hole deeper than four inches could be dug except in the middle of the lawn. (We later learned that Steele had had to import truckloads of loam to create that lawn.)But at last there was a reason for rock-a wonderful reason-rock plants. My first efforts began on an island in the driveway where a granite ledge underlies a rather thick growth of trees-pines, hemlocks, oaks, and some Japanese maples planted in Steele's time. By clearing a section of ledge and filling depressions and pockets with the basic rock garden mix of leaf mold, topsoil, and sharp sand, I made a setting for a small rock garden. It was intensely satisfying to have my first love, alpine poppies, grow from seed and do well in the company of some other easy-to-please low plants such as Dianthus and Iberis. This early success led me next to the longovergrown border of rhododendron and laurel near the lawn. Lincoln Foster had said that if he had to create a space to grow rock plants, nothing could compare to the planted wall. It seemed wise to follow his advice, all the more because a rock wall was available: it supported the rhododendron bed that lay along a walk Steele had planted with flowering dogwood. The trees could provide the high dappled shade needed for the wall's southern exposure. I felt no compunction about removing the old laurel and rhododendron ; they had been aging unhappily for reasons that became evident when they were dug. The soil they lived in was desiccated and pale, with no possibility of moisture retention, hardly deserving the name of earth. 3 Neptune, rescued from a water tower m Needham by Fletcher Steele, stands over the reflectmg pool at Uplands. Two colomes of Steele's signature plant, the large-leaved butterbur, Petasites hybmdus, can be seen to the mght of the pool; the Atlantic Ocean is beyond. The stones in the existing wall were round and unattractive; it was a bonanza to find a tumbling wall of well-weathered granite fieldstones at the foot of the hill. I must have been the despair of the skilled masons doing the job, insisting as I did that the lichened side of any rock be turned outward and that they pack between the stones the special mix I had prepared. They were able to fill the whole depth of the old laurelrhododendron bed with newly mixed soil suitable, we hoped, for a stony scree for mountain plants. In nature, scree is the loose rock debris found at the base of large rock masses or left behind on slopes by the movement of glaciers. To create it artificially in a raised bed one needs deep underpinnings of small stones or rubble. We put in well over a foot, then sandwiched in some leaves or hay to prevent the finer soil mix on top from sifting down. I had been gathering small plants from specialist nurseries and from friends' coldframes, and I had also grown some from seed. Many of the smallest were inserted between the stones on the face of the wall; others were placed on top in the prepared scree bed. The plants were mulched with at least two inches of gravel or stone chips to keep the roots cool and protect the leaves from soil spattering. Soon after the granite wall and raised bed were completed, plants were flourishing. The backbone was provided by small conifers and shrubs, such as Daphne, both cneorum'Eximia' and alpina, Leiophyllum buxifolium var. prostratum, and the nearly prostrate Vaccinium macrocarpon 'Hamilton'. The loveliest of all was Kalmiopsis leachiana 'Umpqua Valley' propagated by Alfred Fordham at the Arnold Arboretum. Lewisia were soon thriving, as were small saxifrages and an Asperula nitida ssp. hirtella (or A. n. puberula, as it is often known) recently collected by an explorer in Turkey; Androsace sowed themselves-in short, it was 4 Kalmiopsis leachiana 'Umpqua Valley' Dodecatheon maedia 'Album' gorgeous. So much more so that I wanted wild mountain plants, not only from peaks but from bogs and Glaucidium palmatum woodlands as well. With a book in one hand and shovel in the other, I tried to dig a bog, succeeding in getting down only about four or five inches before striking granite. I dutifully followed the book's instructions to line the designated bog space with several layers of plastic and to fill it with dampened peat laced with a small amount of sand, although as the years go on I realize that the layer of ledge alone would undoubtedly have kept the moisture in. Not everything in that spot is a bog plant, but Helonias bullata, Saxifraga pensylvanica, Primula denticulata, and Cardamine pentaphyllos do well. Along paths Fletcher Steele must have planned many years ago, we added woodland plants, among them both the single and double Trillium and Sanguinaria, Clintonia, Primula, Erythronium, Primula x 'Frances P. K.' Arisaema, and ferns. In a fairly 5 Trillium open recurvatum area near an old hemlock we planted Glaucidium palmatum, which has become one of the showiest early spring bloomers and an enormous favorite. Below a low rocky cliff by the lawn we planted one of my best-loved ferns, a maidenhair, Adiantum venustum, and above on the level shelf of rock a single Dodecatheon maedia 'Album', which has selfsown and created a community. Gentiana scabra, the Japanese fall gentian, behaved the same way, colonizing the cliff. A few Claytonia virginica planted early on have made a wonderful white spring carpet for the shooting stars-a serendipitous result. Euonymus and ivy groundcovers, thoroughly entrenched, had been planted by Steele as \"maintenance free\" for his client in the 1930s. When we pulled them away, some good natives appeared as if released from jail. The most exciting was Erythronium americanum, which continues to spread, with considerable bloom in early spring. A few patches of Anemone quinquefolia came to life and have been hopping about ever since. Little by little, the garden was being extended. We made a dwarf rhododendron collection on raised islands-homes for cuttings from Polly Hill's North Tisbury hybrid azaleas and for a few crosses made by Lincoln Foster at his in Falls Village, ConnectiOther encaceous plants came back with us from trips to England and Scotland, along with many plants for the rock garden's scree. garden, Millstream, cut. Not all the effort was expended on the upland garden. We had been in the house only a few weeks in the fall of 1967 when one night we heard the sound of rushing water outside. Early the next day we thrashed our way downhill through the dense growth of brush and trees and found a stream struggling through thickets of alders. Had the gods read my wish list? A stream had always been near the top, but neither the real estate agent nor the former owner had ever mentioned one. Our discovery triggered vast effort to clear the alders, deepen the channel, accentuate the rocky waterfalls, and create a few pockets to hold water even in summer. The desire to see the stream from the house helped us confront the forty years' growth of briars, poison ivy, nettles, wild grape, and unwanted trees on the hillside-the growth that comes after land has once been cleared and is reverting to its natural woodland state. Oak, beech, and ash had been strangled and stunted by the competition. In these days of raised ecological consciousness, it is considered wicked to call any natural state a horticultural mghtmare, 6 but we had to come to terms with this tangled wilderness in order to let in more air and light, to widen the view of the ocean at the upper level, and to make paths down the hill and up again. For several years, my husband and a succession of college students pulled and cut. I followed with salt-marsh hay and piles of newspapers (we haven't thrown one out for twenty-eight years). There may be better ways to discourage unwanted vegetation, but I can only report on what we did here. The biodegradable paper and hay are adding a richer, deeper soil quite rapidly. Of course, much that is unwanted gladly seeds in, but so do more welcome volunteers. I still needed more space for my growing collection of alpines. Where could I make another bed assorted-sized pieces of tufa were embedded in a long series of mounds of prepared soil. Soon after this pudding was completed and some plants put in, the elements took a hand. The result was a sunken souffle: I had made the mix too humus-y, with too much peat and leaf mold. So I began again and belatedly listened to advice from others. We buried cinder blocks along the edge near the lawn to support the largest, base pieces of tufa and instead of a soil mixture used only coarse sand to position the other pieces, with occasional chunks of granite wedged underneath to hold them in place. A four-inch layer of the regular rock garden soil mix was topped with two inches of stone mulch to give the plants a start. They responded with the usual euphoria of young plants in fresh soil in to their liking. alpine poppies blazed over the long bed, Saxifraga settled in, Androsace, Hutchinsia alpina, Aethionema oppositifolium, some Penstemon, Dianthus, and Erinus-a pleasant mosaic of small plants colorful in May and early June. Many of the small ferns took gladly to the tufa, and I have had much better luck with Adiantum pedatum var. subpumilum (often known as A. p. var. aleuticum) and Asplenium settings Soon with sufficient light, away from the shade and the drip of trees, preferably with a northern exposure? The answer was the ailing rose and clematis border. My attempts to make those plants happy had been a complete failure. The roses were leggy and had blackspot. The clematis were supposed to climb only sixteen inches to the top of the dressed-slate retaining wall, then lie down flat and show glad faces to an admiring audience sipping tea on the terrace above. But it didn't work that way for me. In spite of my teasing and training the vines along a horizontal trellis on top of the wall, there was more wilt than bloom. Once again, plants were dug out for anyone wishing to take them. I had been hearing more and more about tufa-that calcareous rock, very porous, pocked with holes and narrow tubes. It was our great good fortune to learn of an estate where a cache of tufa-treasure to rock gardeners-was unwanted by the owners. They let several of us take away all we could carry. With that unexpected windfall we soon had an Aladdin's supply in all shapes and sizes. Fortunately the rose and clematis bed was at the edge of the long lawn Fletcher Steele had made with imported soil, so it was possible to dig. At about two feet down we poured in bags of vermiculite, as I had read of its ability to hold moisture under a large raised bed. Next we added lavish loads of gravel and sand; then trichomanes in that porous rock than in the granite. Cystopteris bulbifera f. crispa has taken a very determined and welcome hold. The hap- piest combination may have been a small pink Erigeron compositus endemic to the Wallawa Mountains in Oregon and Gentiana acaulis grown from seed. The past tense applies to that companionship as the large gentian gave up after a season of twenty-four blossoms; young to see if they the good years. There are small shrubs: Salix arbuscula and S. hylematica, Tsusiophyllum tanakae, Daphne arbuscula indigenous to the Tatra Mountains, Ulmus parviflora, Ptilotrichum spinosum `Purpureum', and others to provide a different interest and change of texture. Certainly some plants selfsow too vigorously and others fade quietly away, but on the whole the tufa bed still gives us great pleasure. You seldom see a rock garden without dwarf conifers. The high mountains have only occasional windbent stems or twisted trunks above can recreate gentians have been planted 7 Dnfts of the white Hutchinsia alpmum, the ever-faithful of the tufa bed, remam constant while other plants come and go. In the upland garden, spnng's color gives way m summer to various greens and the mterest of differmg textures while meadow plants flower on the lower hill. Notwithstanding the blaze of the New England woods, fall in the garden is a quieter season, when the plants begm to collect themselves and prepare to return to their begmnings. the treeline, but in a garden landscape more persistent punctuation is needed, some backbone for small plants. A little difference in eye level is welcome as one looks at the scree, raised bed, or wall, and a conifer's dark green shape helps accentuate the plants around it. Juniperus, Abies, Picea, Tsuga, Chamaecyparis, all are useful and present in various sizes in our tufa and granite beds. Many of these so-called dwarf conifers proved eager to become giants and had to be moved down the hill, where they are now anchors of dark green or steel blue in all seasons. Enormous help came to me from courses the Arnold Arboretum, and I wish I could have taken others at the New England Wild Flower Society. One acquires books along the way-I started out reading them like detective stories-and there are answers from the experts who lecture at seminars, clubs, and plant societies. For a rock gardener the North American Rock Garden Society is a constant source of help, of plant sales and swaps, and of seeds. The contagious zeal of all plantspeople is a never- long. at ending propellant. One of the ABC lessons I have been shame- My education as a rock gardener has proceeded slowly over the years. It is curious to see what remains constant in one's affections and what begins to pall. to lessons are not all the And startling how hard some learn. It is painful to realize that plants you love will stay with you fully slow in absorbing is the continually changing nature of a garden. Some plants have a tendency to move out from the place where they have performed beautifully and seek new ground. I am thinking, for instance, of Pnmula kisoana, the special color form that Dr. Rokujo Papaver alpina Saxifraga longifolia Lewisia brachycalyx with Viola variegata Adiantum pedatum Japan sent to Lincoln Foster. It made a striking splash over a yard wide by a woodland path in for several years, then began to meander all over, leaving a blank space behind. Many plants that don't wander away or die simply become weak images of their former selves. The scree bed in the granite wall has been in need of rejuvenation for several years, and piecemeal efforts have not produced much I am seeking solutions to avoid the upheaval a total rebuilding would require. I have allowed some biennials too much license: Symphyandra hofmannii has been a lusty invader, Scabiosa lucida another. For a while Phyteuma orbiculare was a threat. Honesty and rocket are all over the place. After battling briars and poison ivy, such comely takeovers seemed almost welcome, but the day of reckon- improvement. 9 comes relentlessly: digging and renewing the soil and replanting are urgently needed. When I tire of working with tiny seedlings in a small corner of the granite scree or tufa bed, I plunge downhill. There I can thrash around, cutting back dock, overzealous daisies, and exuberant goldenrod; plant some of the taller Penstemon, Perovskia, Anemone, different forms of Digitalis, varieties of Cimicifuga and Rodgersia, and other plants I like. I am not sure yet whether I regret introducing some of the ornamental grasses. Many of them can become monstrously large and difficult to move. Scattered over the hillside are shrubs such as Fothergilla, both major and gardenii, ing Viburnum, Daphne, Syringa meyeri 'Palibin', Heptacodium miconioides, Vaccinium, Lespedeza thunbergii, and others. We are planting only small trees and individual specimens, among them Acer triflorum, A. griseum, Cornus kousa, various forms of Stewartia, and a Chionanthus retusus collected by members of the Arnold Arboretum staff on the SinoAmerican Expedition in 1980. In spite of the clearing and cutting of our early years here, only about one-third of the hill is in full sunshine. The most encouraged as to grow shaded areas are being different species of ferns well as lots of Cimicifuga, Epimedium, Vancouveria hexandra, Alchemilla mollis, Aruncus, and much else. Some of the ferns-the (Matteucia struthiopteris) is oneadopting a belligerent tone and marching fiercely up the hill. Asarum europaeum and Waldsteinia ternata are taking hold along the edges of paths, and many other plants have been moved down from the woodland garden where they had multiplied beyond their space. Schools of thought on gardening are continuare ostrich The author down the hill m her \"mlderness. \" as gardens themselves do. One of the most observant writers, Mac Griswold, has said that gardeners want to know if it's possible to restore the environment and have a garden, too. There is even an outcry in some places against doing battle with slugs, chipmunks, and woodchucks. It takes a tremendous mental wrench to perceive their presence as anything but invasive; in fact, it is more than I can do in parts of the garden. Is a favorite plant ally changing, just 10 Symphyandra wanneri with Anemonella thalictroides. to Korean stone lantern obscured by Tmllium grandiflorum and Arisaema sikokianum. to a be lost because it is caviar was chipmunk or Is it to be struck from our list because it is not native? I am sorry that the ecological crisis has thrust guilt on some gardeners. Can it be lifted where just what the slug waiting for? done unscientifically, without additional inoculants, letting nature do the work. Wheelbarrows and trash barrels are indispensable parts of our gardening efforts-a wheelbarto the various bins and individual put in by the bucketful, the choice of which bin and how much depending on whether the mix is for woodland plants in shade or for plants on the open hillside. For the rock garden the mix is made more fastidiously with only leaf mold (mainly oak since that is our principal tree) and helpings of peat, occasionally manure, and ample amounts of sand and bags of granite chick grit to provide good drainage. row is taken concerned and channeled instead onto overspraying with pesticides and herbicides and the overuse of chemical fertilizers? One ecological theme can hardly be contested-the one praising compost. For lack of loam and soil on our property we have turned compost-making into a homescale industry with cinder block bins in an out-of-the-way spot and a shredder to speed up the process when there is time to use it. Every fall and spring the shredder is in heavy use chopping up the autumn crop of leaves and coping with those left behind in spring as well. These leaves are used for surfacing the paths, for mulch, for compost. The bins are like the cannisters on a kitchen shelf in which flour, sugar, and salt are stored; here there are bins for leaves, horse manure, sand, gravel, weeds, seaweed, and sheep and cow manure when we can get it. When shredding time or strength runs out in the fall, we pile unshredded leaves in a large wire bin, the first of three, so that in three years there is compost of a rough sort for general use in the woodland and on the hillside. This has been plants are ingredients Why do gardeners garden? Especially, why try so hard to grow temperamental plants with fussy requirements and unpredictable personalities? And what makes a plant a favorite? Summon the poets-let me count the ways. It is as irrational, personal, and idiosyncratic as the gardener's genes. Often I think I would give up a large section of a rock bed if I could have one perfect specimen of Androsace 'Millstream' or Physoplexis comosa, or have a fern return and flourish as Asplenium ceterach once did. For rock gardeners it has to do with delicacy, the structure of leaf and flower fitting together with a clock's perfection of parts, far too rigid a com- 11 I parison for shapes so fragile. But contradiction with every word: there is nothing visibly leaps fragile about the cushion of a saxifrage-often a sturdy community of minute rosettes-but the flowers that open on the nearly invisible stems above that cushion are as thin in petal as silk, their very stature and texture speak of crystal pect of more shrubs whose fragrance in season can suffuse the whole garden, or forego a recently discovered plant that quickens the blood? Did I just imply moderation~ Or use the word reconcile ? As long as there's life, let spring come and let me at the trowel! air, high places, freedom, uniqueness. Nothing humdrum, nothing overdone or blowsy, or repeated too often. We wait for the blossoms, are enraptured by them, and then wait again for another season-fleeting, evanescent-all the qualities that are hard to capture or tame. Plants from all the wild places-meadows, swamps, bogs, woodlands, as well as alpinesare there to satisfy the yearning for flowers that are slender rather than fat; unusual rather than commonplace; elegant and graceful rather than bulky. When an alpine is well grown, it is said to be \"in character,\" conforming to the ideal in the wild. Fertilizers, overwatering, too much cosseting, can change the height, the size of the flowers, the very look of the plant. An alpine generally needs to be only a few inches high; a woodland plant graceful, not heavy. Plants from the wild are my weakness, it's true, but I also garden just for the feel and the smell of it. Mere earth in spring can summon the heart as imperatively as the fragrance of any familiar flower. But the moment is at hand to reconcile the urge to grow plants with the need to spend more hours on other pursuits. Adjusting expectations, refocusing goals, coming to terms with what is rather than what is wished for-these are lessons I need to learn. No sooner said than the thought of a new planting of Arisaema sikokianum pops up or a bank of species azaleas to transform a boring corner. How not answer the challenge of convincing Primula japonica to settle in permanently by the stream? Who would willingly shun the pros- Suggested References Beckett, Kenneth. 1993. Alpme Garden Society Encyclopaedia of Alpmes Avon Bank, England: AGS Publications Ltd. Foster, H. Lmcoln. 1968. Rock Gardemng~ A Gmde to Growing Alpmes and Other Wildflowers in the Amencan Garden Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. and Laura Louise Foster. 1990. Cutrings from a Rock Garden Plant Portraits and Other Essays Ed. Norman Smger. NY: Atlantic Monthly Press. Harkness, Mabel G., and Deborah D'Angelo, eds. 1986. The Bernard E Harkness Seedhst Handbook. A Guide to the Plants Offered m the Ma~or Plant Societies'Seed Exchanges. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 1992. The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening New York: The Stockton Press. Huxley, Anthony, ed. Ingwersen, Will. [1978] 1986. Ingwersen's Manual of Alpme Plants Portland, OR: Timber Press. Quarterly Bulletm of the Alpme Garden Society (Great Bntam). Rock Garden Journal of the Scottish Rock Garden Club. Rock Garden Quarterly: Bulletm of the North Amencan Rock Garden Society Catherine Hull is a gardener and a lecturer on horticulture specializmg m alpmes, rock plants, and woodland wildflowers. She is a member of the North Amencan Rock Garden Society and other plant societies. As a trustee of The Trustees of Reservations she is particularly mterested m the Sedgewick Gardens at Long Hill. She has served on Harvard's Visiting Committee to the Arnold Arboretum, where she has also worked as a volunteer. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25127","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14e856b.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter; Meyer, Paul W.; Riming, Hao; Cailiang, Mao; Conrad, Kevin; Thomas, R. William","article_content":"Plant Collecting on Wudang Shan , Peter Del Tredici, Paul Meyer, Hao Riming, Mao Kevin Conrad, and R. William Thomas American and Chinese botanists describe the locales and Cailiang, . \" vegetation China's Northern encountered during Hubei Province. a few key days of their expedition to From September 4 to October 11, 1994, representatives from four botanical gardens in the United States, together with botanists from the Nanjing Botanical Garden, participated in a collecting expedition on Wudang Shan (shan=mountain) in Northern Hubei Province, China. The American participants were from member institutions of the North AmericanChina Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC), ), a group established in 1991 to facilitate the exchange of both plant germplasm and scientific information between Chinese and North American botanical institutions. Paul Meyer, director of the Morris Arboretum, led the expedition. He was joined by Kevin Conrad from the U.S. National Arboretum, Peter Del Tredici from the Arnold Arboretum, and Bill Thomas from Longwood Gardens. The Nanjing Botanical Garden was represented by two botanists, Mao Cailiang and Hao Riming, assisted by Lii Yi and Zang Qifa. Deng Zhidong, director of the Science and Technology Committee of Dang Jiang Kou City, was in charge of logistical arrangements, assisted by Zen Jiafu. Wudang Shan was selected for its exceptionally diverse flora, among the richest in the temperate world. Ernest Henry Wilson, the English plant explorer who collected in China first for the Veitch Nursery and later for the Arnold Arboretum, spent considerable time in Hubei Province (then known as Hupeh) in the late 1800s and early 1900s but never went as far * north as Wudang Shan. He did, however, visit the town of Fang Xian, about fifty kilometers to the southwest.* The first systematic study of the flora of Wudang Shan was done in 1980 by a team of botanists from Wuhan University, who made extensive herbarium collections. In the spring of 1983, the British plant collector Roy Lancaster visited the region with a group of tourists, making him the first Western botanist to explore the mountain (Lancaster, 1983, 1989). ). Wudang Shan is famous throughout China as an important center of Ming Dynasty Taoism. Over five hundred years ago, about three hundred thousand workers were employed on the building some forty-six temples, seventy-two shrines, thirty-nine bridges, and twelve pavilions, many of which are still standing. A modern paved road takes visitors up to mountain about 900 meters, where a hotel and several small inns are located. Beyond this point a steep stone path leads up to the summit, the Pillar-ofHeaven Peak, which is crowned with the small but spectacular Golden Temple. Hundreds of thousands of Chinese tourists and pilgrims visit the mountain throughout the year, but their impact is generally confined to the immediate vicinity of this main path. While the vegetation adjacent to the path shows signs of wear and tear, one finds well-preserved forest very close by as well as on all the secondary trails. Remnants of ancient forest in China are typically found only in the vicinity of Buddhist or at was The old Acer gnseum (paperbark maple) growmg along Chmese Path collected by Wilson at Fang Xian m 1907 (EHW # 719). the Arnold Arboretum \/AA# 12488-B) 13 Members of the Peak. From left Wudang Shan expedition pose for a group photo at the summit of the Pillar-of-Heaven are Mr. Zeng, Lu Yi, Zen Jiafu, Kevm Conrad, Peter Del Tredici, Mao Caihang, Paul Meyer, Hao Rimmg, Zang Qifa. Not shown are Bill Thomas and Deng Zhidong. All supplies must be carned on foot up an ancient stone path to the summit of Wudang Shan. 14 temples, a fact that explains the relatively good condition of the forests surrounding the main peak of Wudang Shan. At lower elevaTaoist tions, below about 600 meters, the forests have replaced by field crops or are being intensively managed for fuelwood production. The only relatively undisturbed forest that we found was above 900 meters on slopes punctuated by inaccessible peaks, steep cliff faces, and boulder-strewn valleys. The Wudang Shan Range, which is located in the northwestern corner of Hubei Province, extends for a distance of about 400 kilometers either been along a southeast\/northwest axis (from 11057' to 111 14' east longitude and 3223' to 33' north latitude). It is bordered by two large rivers: the Han, which flows about 30 kilometers to the north, and the Yangtse, about 150 kilometers to the south. The upper slopes of Wudang Shan consist of a series of seventy-two jagged peaks, the highest being 1,612 meters in elevation. Above 1,000 meters, the terrain is dominated by steep cliffs and deep, moist ravines. The soil is well-drained, having been formed mainly by erosion of sedimentary limestone and sandstone, and is classified by the Chinese as \"mountain yellow-sandy loam.\" Soil pH ranges between 5.5 and 7.5, with the top of the mountain more acid, between 4.5 and 6. The mean annual temperature is 8.5 degrees Centigrade ; the mean annual precipitation of 963 millimeters is quite evenly distributed throughout the year. Our goal in this article is not to describe all the plants encountered on Wudang Shan but rather to give the reader a sense of the locale and its vegetation, as well as of the plant-hunting process, by outlining the observations we made during a few key days of the expedition. An ancient specimen of Quercus vanabihs that has repeatedly cut back for firewood production. Farmers have coppiced most of the trees on the lower slopes of Wudang Shan m similar fashion. been The weather September 21: Hubei Horticultural Heaven was alternately foggy and rainy, a in the forest. the main trail leading to the summit, we entered a forest dominated by large specimens of pine and oak, Pinus tabulaeformis, the tabletop pine, and Quercus aliena, an oak similar to our native chestnut oak. Continuing along the path, we came upon a rustic stone house built into the side of a ver- creating mysterious mood Shortly after leaving tical cliff. A little way beyond this cottage, a bend in the road looped back on itself as it followed the contours of a ravine. The conditions were moist, shady, and steep, with an oak overstory. Our guide, Mr. Zeng, a collector of medicinal plants, pointed out two specimens of Stewartia sinensis, the Chinese stewartia, both with beautiful, smooth cinnamon-red bark, a wonder to behold and to touch. Growing nearby were several kousa dogwoods, Cornus kousa, and a small specimen of the paperbark maple, Acer griseum. The Americans in the group could hardly contain their excitement, as though they had died and gone to horticultural heaven. The only thing missing, sadly, was seed on any of the plants, probably due to the previous summer's drought. The understory of this exquisite tableau consisted of the beautiful 15 mono, and As we snake-barked maple, Acer davidii. emerged from the dense forest into a a more open area, we came across a straggling specimen of Decaisnea fargesli, bearing several of its unusual long, blue fruits, and several multistemmed specimens of a maple, Acer henryi, that resembles our native box elder. We also saw an ancient specimen of Zelkova sinica growing on a cliff face that may once have housed some kind of shrine. Its exfoliating orange bark made it stand out clearly in the thick mist. As noted earlier, Cornus kousa was quite common in the woods, represented by several old specimens a third of a meter or more in diameter, along with large specimens of Comus controversa, the Chinese pagoda dogwood. A little way beyond the Zelkova shrine, we found several plants of Chinese witch hazel, Hamamelis mollis, loaded with unopened seed capsules. We were particularly pleased to collect this winter-blooming species, which has recently been gaining popularity in American gardens. After seemg so many plants without seed, it was a treat to find one in fruit, and we greedily collected every seed capsule we could find. The plants were growing on a dry, shady hillside near another plant in the witch hazel family, Sinowilsonia henryi; a large specimen of the beautiful broadleaf evergreen tree, Phoebe bournei (Lauraceae); and a few small plants of Cephalotaxus sinensis, growing in dense shade. As the path became more open, we found ourselves surrounded by flowering specimens of Elaeagnus pungens in full fragrancy, growing together with Forsythia giraldiana, in seed. Epimedium Its sp. Shan. Because it was growing on the slopes of Wudang lackmg both frmt and flowers, report by Roy Lancaster, stellatum. evergreen identity is uncertam Based on a newly pubhshed it could well be Epimedium holly, Ilex pernyi; the ubiquitous spicebush, Lindera glauca; and Lyonia ovahfolia. As on much of Wudang Shan, the forest floor was carpeted with a bewildering array of ferns and herbaceous perennials, including species of Aconitum, Ligularia, and Cimicifuga, all in flower. Jack-in-the-pulpits (Arisaema) were everywhere, their stalks heavy with seed, along with unidentified species of Epimedium and Rodgersia. Shortly after passing through the Stewartia ravine, we stopped for lunch in a small cave Chinese where Mr. Zeng, who had gone on ahead of us, had built a fire to warm us. Just outside the mouth of the cave was a large specimen of the somewhat weedy glory bower, Clerodendrum tmchotomum. After lunch we continued on, collecting seeds of Zanthoxylum molle, Acer September 30: The Paperbark Maple At about 900 meters on a steep northwest-facing slope, we found two large specimens of Acer griseum, covered with seed. One specimen was about 6 7 meters tall and had three a large trunks emerging from a swollen base; the other, about meters tall, had meters in diameter. mature forest, we seedlings of this species growing in dense shade on very steep, well-drained terrain. Ecologically speaking, A. gnseum appears to be late successional, clearly able to persist under conditions of deep shade, periodic drought, and intense root single trunk about 15 centiThroughout this area of saw numerous saplings and 16 competition. When a gap in the forest canopy develops, the tree is perfectly positioned to expand into the newly available space. Our excitement at finding Acer griseum was exceeded only when we noticed two trees with bright orange bark farther up the slope. More Stewartia sinensis, we thought at first, but on closer examination we discovered them to be specimens of Zelkova sinica. This outstanding tree is rare in cultivation in North America and deserves thorough testing to determine whether matches that of its Z. serrata. On the slopes of Wudang Shan, the orange bark of Z. sinica, which exfoliates in discrete plates like pieces of its tall, and about fifteen seedlings less than 30 centimeters tall. This makes for a mixed-age population of approximately forty plants. The three largest trees were situated at the base of a steep cliff, and we nearly killed ourselves trying to reach them. Some horticulturists have suggested that the slow growth of Acer griseum in cultivation might be symptomatic of inbreeding that has occurred as a result of its genetically limited introduction by Wilson at the turn of the century. However, our field observations suggested that its slow growth is probably an adaptation to the ecological niche it occupies in the forest understory. Most of the specimens we saw were spindly and gnarled, with light, airy crowns. About 95% of the Acer griseum seed we collected was hollow. Why this should occur within a healthy, mixed-aged population is not readily apparent, but the scant rainfall in the area since late spring may be one explanation. The fact that fertility problems have been widely reported in cultivated paperbark maples suggests a possible biological cause: it may be that the broad, green wings of the seeds are performing a photosynthetic function in addition to their more obvious dispersal function. If this is the case, the \"seeds\" may be persisting on the tree in order to produce carbohydrates, regardless of whether or not they contain an embryo. However, we found numerous paperbark maple seedlings growing in the understory, clearly indicating that not all A. griseum seeds are hollow and that the species is capable of reproducing even in dense shade. October 1: The Ravine Trail Leaving the main tourist trail behind, we started climbing a steep, moist ravine. In the distance we could hear the loud cries of a troop of rhesus monkeys (Macac mulatta) as they moved through the forest on the slopes across the valley. Almost immediately we were in the midst of numerous herbaceous plants, many in full flower. They included two species of annual Impatiens, one yellow, the other pink; the Chinese bugbane, Cimicifuga simplex, with its meter-long flowering spike; the toad lily, Tricertis macropoda; the stately, yellowflowered Ligularia dentata; and three species potential as a street tree more common cousin, a jigsaw puzzle, was every bit as spectacular as that of Acer griseum. In this area alone we found five large paperbark maples with diameters of 10 centimeters or more and ten smaller trees with diameters between 3 and 6 centimeters. There were ten juveniles between 30 and 200 centimeters Kevin Conrad reloading his long day of collectmg. camera at the end of a 17 7 of monkshood (Aconitum spp.). In addition, a large number of perennials in the seedpod stage were present, including Cardiocrinum cathayanum, the giant lily, with fruiting stems up to a meter tall; two jack-in-the-pulpits, Arisaema consanguinium and another as yet unidentified; and a second bugbane, Cimicifuga acerina. We also collected spores from at least four different species of ferns that abounded in the moist, shady understory. We can only imagine how spectacular this area is in the spring. Climbing farther up the moist ravine, to about 1,000 meters, we came upon a cluster of stone terraces. were According to Mr. Zeng, they built around 1962, during the Cultural Revolution. They had been planted with corn and soybeans, but were abandoned five years later because they were too far from people's homes. Numerous sun-loving plants had invaded the terraces, chief among them Pueraria lobata, the dreaded kudzu vine. It was amazing to see this plant behaving in its homeland much the way it does as an introduced species in North America-that is, swarming up and over everything in its path. Indeed, large areas on the lower slopes of Wudang Shan were completely covered with kudzu. The Chinese kiwi vine, Actinidia chinensis, was also common throughout the woods, easily recognized by its coiling stems hanging languidly from the branches of canopy trees. The fruits of this species, which is a parent of most commercially available varieties, are moderately sized, about 3 to 5 centimeters long, and very tasty. The local residents do a brisk business selling them to tourists setting out for the top of the mountain. As in the case of kudzu, the kiwi vine seemed to require some form of disturbance (usually human) in order to establish itself. Rounding out a triumvirate of weedy vines that sprawled over the lower slopes of Wudang Shan was Akebia quinata, with its clusters of banana-shaped, purple fruits filled with a sweet, white pulp and numerous hard, black seeds. More than once these fruits proved a pleasant snack for the collecting team. Farther up the slope, at about 1,200 meters in tall and 48 centimeters in diameter. The listed in the Chinese Red Data Book (1992) of endangered plants and is classified as \"vulnerable.\" It produces showy, white flower clusters with subtending bracts that persist into mid-autumn, taking on a rose-to-tan color as the small fruits ripen. Mr. Zeng showed no hesitation about climbing the tree barefoot in order to collect some seed. For the Americans, it was a thrill to find what E. H. Wilson considered \"one of the most strikingly beautiful trees of the Chinese forests\" (Sargent, 1917). Growing nearby was a large specimen of Acer mono, along with numerous specimens of Pteroceltis tartinowii, literally clinging to a rocky cliff face. A beautiful shrub, Mahonia bealii, was also common in the understory; Mr. Zeng, a practitioner of traditional Chinese medicine, collected a fair number of its stems, which when taken internally \"put out the fire within the body.\" meters tree is \" Other Highlights of the Forest meters meters elevation, we came upon a particularly exciting find-a giant specimen of Emmenopterys henryi (Rubiaceae, or madder family), some 18 to 20 from the main path, at elevation, we found an absolutely spectacular specimen of Stewartia sinensis, 15 meters tall and 55 centimeters in diameter at breast height. The bark was perfectly smooth and a cream-pink in color, unlike the reddish bark of younger plants. W. J. Bean captured the essence of the tree when he described the bark as being \"smooth as alabaster and the colour of weathered sandstone\" (1981). ). Our specimen had no branches below 8 meters, making it impossible to collect either seeds or specimens. According to local legends, this is a sacred tree; Taoist pilgrims typically burn sacred paper, symbolizing money, as an offering at its base. Unfortunately, the area around the tree is used as a refuse dump, spoiling an otherwise sublime setting. Growing in the shady understory near the giant Stewartia, we found a peony in fruit, Paeonia obovata var. willmottiae. The three-valved pod was reddish-purple on the inside and filled with a mixture of viable steelblue seeds and red, aril-like structures. The species produces beautiful white flowers in the spring. It was originally collected by E. H. Wilson in Fang Xian. At higher elevations we collected seed of Sinowilsonia henryi and Fortunaria sinensis, Not more than 20 about l,100 in 18 s both in the family Hamamelidaceae. The former reached tree-size proportions on Wudang Shan, upwards of 10 meters, while the latter was decidedly shrubby. At lower elevations we encountered the marginally hardy but very beautiful Loropetalum chinense, growing up to 4 meters tall. This plant produces large masses of beautiful white flowers in late winter, but unfortunately can be grown out-of-doors only in the southern portions of the United States. Maples were well represented on Wudang Shan, including the aforementioned Acer henryi, A. davidii, and A. mono. We also came across a small-seeded chestnut, Castanea henryi; the wild persimmon, Diospyros lotus; and a large tree-form redbud, Cercis glabra. The canopy was dominated by several species of oaks, most notably Quercus variabilis and Q. serrata, remarkable for their ability to thrive in poor, eroded soils and to sprout back after being cut down. At other locations on the mountain, farmers used logs of both these species as substrates for cultivating a wide variety of woodeartype fungi. Among the shrubs, the genus Euonymus was particularly well represented on Wudang Shan. We found at least five different species, including the aptly named E. elegantissima, with gracefully pendant four-angled fruits. We were particularly pleased to find seeds of the beauty bush, Kolkwitzia amabilis, growing in moist ravines. This species, which has beautiful pink and white flowers and a graceful growth habit, was first collected by Wilson in 1901. It achieved great popularity in the 1920s and 1930s but is now, sadly, out of fashion. Other shrubs of note included three species of smallleafed Rhododendron; the beauty berry, Callicarpa japonica; and the Chinese sweetleaf, Symplocos chinensis. The evergreen spicebush, Lindera glauca, was ubiquitous in the understory, reaching heights of 4 to 5 meters. We also found species in the familiar genera Lonicera, Hypericum, Photinia, and Spiraea. All A spectacular specimen of Stewartia sinensis, IS meters tall and 55 centimeters at breast height, growmg at an elevatlon of 1,100 meters on Wudang Shan. Conclusions told, the Wudang Shan expedition yielded 185 collections of seeds and cuttings. For each collection the exact location (latitude, longiwas tude, elevation) determined by a battery- 19 Paul Meyer checkmg latitude and longitude using a Global Positionmg Device. itself. As tedious as powered Global Positioning Device and carefully recorded, along with a detailed description of the surrounding habitat. In addition, each collection was documented with five replicate herbarium specimens, to be filed in both Chinese and North American herbaria. These will function as the permanent record of the trip that will allow future generations of botanists to study the nature of vegetation change in the Wudang Shan area. They were also essential to the success of our trip in allowing us to check our field identifications against documented material in the herbarium of the Nanjing Botanical Garden. Indeed, without herbarium vouchers, the scientific value of the expedition would have been minimal. When recounting the excitement of collecting plants, one often forgets the more mundane aspects of the plant-hunting process, namely seed cleaning and packaging, which occupied almost as much of our time as the plant collecting these tasks sometimes seemed, they are necessary in order to ensure that insect and\/or microbial pests are not inadvertently introduced into the United States. Shortlived seeds, such as those of oaks, maples, and chestnuts, had to be carefully packed in moist sphagnum moss to keep them from drying out during transit. Upon were our arrival in San Francisco, the seeds inspected by officials from the U.S. Department of Agriculture before being released for entry. Later, they were divided among the various NACPEC institutions for cultivation. At the Arnold Arboretum, those seeds requiring a chilling period in order to germinate were immediately placed in the refrigerator, while those lacking embryo dormancy were sown directly in the greenhouse. Even as this article is going to press, many of them have already germinated. Surplus seedlings, should there be any, will be distributed to other botanical gardens as well 20 \"Yes.\" As regards the plants, we have succeeded in bringing in new germplasm of species already in cultivation in North America but represented by only one or two prior collections that may or may not include the hardiest ecotype available. We also made a contribution to the ex situ conservation of several rare Chinese plants that are threatened by extinction due to widespread habitat destruction. And finally, we introduced into cultivation several species that have never been grown in the United States. On the human side of the equation, the trip produced lasting friendships among all the expedition participants and strengthened the ties among a number of U.S. and Chinese botanical institutions. unequivocal References Bean, W. J. 1981. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the British Isles. 8th ed. rev. New York: St. Martin's Press. Fu, L. K., and J. M. Jm, eds. 1992. China Plant Red Data Book-Rare and Endangered Plants. Vol. I. Beijing: Science Press. Lancaster, One of the many bmldmgs clmging to the chffs near the top of the Pillar-of-Heaven Peak. as to R. 1983. The Wudang Mountains of Northwest Hubeh. International Dendrological Soczety Yearbook 1983. 50-54. in . 1989. Travels China Woodbridge, Suffolk: 'Wudang Star'. (March 1995) III. Antique Collectors Club. commercial nurseries. Over time, young plants will be put in the ground and evaluated for performance under a variety of field conditions. In the grand scheme of things, seed collection is only the first step of a lengthy process that includes propagation, cultivation, evaluation, and selection. . 1995. Epimedium stellulatum The (RHS) Garden (London) 120(3): 134-135 Sargent, C. S., ed. 1917. Plantae Wilsonianae Vol. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. Stapf, O Zheng, remains, \"Was After all the work is done, the question it worth the effort?\" In the case of our Wudang Shan trip, the answer is an Magazme 1916. Paeoma willmottiae. Curtis's Botanical 142: tab. 8667. Z. 1993. Hubei Plants Complete (in Chinese). Wuhan: Wuhan University Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rehder's Ceanothus: Ceanothus x Pallidus 'Roseus'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25128","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14e896f.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Rehder's Ceanothus: Ceanothus Gary Koller x pallidus 'Roseus' Drought resistance in a plant is not only admirable but in many cases a necessity. Add to its profile toughness, persistence with minimal care, longevity, pest resistance, compact size, and adaptability to soils of low fertility, and you have a plant of merit independent of ornamental characteristics. Ceanothus x pallidus 'Roseus' offers all of the above plus ornamental quality. These attributes are common to the entire genus Ceanothus, which is well known to West Coast gardeners but is rarely seen in eastern gardens. Muted in color, it is easily integrated with stronger floral colors and is equally suited to formal landscapes as well as the more casual. Its pale rose-colored flowers appear in mid-June, well after the great spring rush of flowers, and remain for several weeks. If spent blossoms are removed immediately, some recurrent flowering will occur. If allowed to mature, flowers give way to light green fruits that mature mto small wine-colored spheres scattered throughout the foliar green like small jewels. These fruits provide a strong visual attraction for several weeks in late summer, especially when set against plants with pink flowers or backed by burgundy foliage. With final ripening, the capsules turn beigebrown and split open along three suture lines, remaining on the plant well into the winter months. Summer foliage is a medium green and, in my experience, entirely pest-free. The leaves remain in good condition until late October, then fall away with no significant color change. The new season's stems remain thin and supple all summer long. Those on the side exposed to the sun take on a dull burgundy color while on the shady or protected side they remain a achieve a height of three feet and a spread of three to five feet by early June. Unpruned plants will be slightly taller but more open and rangy. Their consistently tight habit makes them useful in restricted spaces; they are not likely to exceed their allocated space. Individual plants spaced thirty inches apart in good light will coalesce into a continuous, dense surface from soil level to the upper tips, with no thinning or dieback where the plants merge. 'Roseus' is therefore useful both as a specimen plant or in a small hedge or mass planting. Ceanothus, a member of the buckthorn light green. The plant forms a mound, flat-topped to dome-shaped. If completely cut to the ground in spring, just as new growth begins, plants family (Rhamnaceae~, is exceptionally drought tolerant; indeed, it will not thrive in heavy or wet soils but instead prefers a soil with very good drainage. The ability to thrive with little water makes it ideal for the sandy soils of seacoast areas as well as inland on poorer, rocky soils. In poorly drained or frequently irrigated soils, Ceanothus becomes highly susceptible to root rots. They should never be planted where excess moisture is a problem, especially near irrigation systems. Ceanothus comes from the Greek, Keanothus, and was first applied to prickly plants. Linnaeus reassigned the name to this genus in 1753 when he described Ceanothus americanus in the Species Plantarum. The genus, which has fifty to sixty species, is entirely North American, with representatives in Canada, the United States, and Mexico. The majority of the species and natural hybrids are native to California. Four species are native east of the Mississippi River: C. microphyllus in parts of Florida, Alabama, 22 Ceanothus x pallidus 'Roseus' and Georgia; C. serpyllifolius in a few scattered areas of Florida and Georgia; C. americanus from Maine to North Dakota, south to Florida and Texas, and in southern Canada from Ontario to Manitoba; and C. ovatus in eastern and central states. C. americanus was the first species introduced from the American colonies to Europe in 1713, but it never became popular in gardens. A century later, C. coeruleus, with its showy panicles of sky blue flowers, was discovered in Mexico, and its introduction to Europe paved the way for a number of garden hybrids developed in French and Belgian nurseries before 1830. C. x pallidus 'Roseus' was one of these hybrids. The parentage of Ceanothus x pallidus 'Roseus' combines stock that thrives in the alkaline soils of the West as well as in the acid soils of the East. (Plants at the Arnold Arboretum grow in an acid pH.) This tolerance of poor soils and salts extends the plant's range to include highway use. Sunlight exposure can range from full sun, which is preferable, to light shade, which causes some reduction of vigor and flowering as well as a more sparse overall effect. At the Arnold Arboretum this Ceanothus dies back when temperatures dip to about zero degrees Fahrenheit with no snow cover. This requires removal of all dead and injured stems just before the new growing season, but at the same time it allows the plant to renew its aboveground parts. Even after dieback, plants with strong well-established root systems will produce a quick new flush of growth that remains full and robust. Annual dieback may in fact contribute to greater longevity. Ceanothus is often regarded as short-lived, persisting for no more than ten or twenty years, but the Arboretum's original plant, acquired in 1889 from the nursery of Victor Lemoine in Nancy, France, still thrives after more than a century. In milder climates there is no need to cut back the plant annually, but doing so every few years may help to keep plants tight and bushy. Major 23 be limited to once a year to mound that is relaxed and informal, rather than tight and sheared. The Arboretum's original plant found its way to the old shrub collection where for the first ninety-five years or so it received no exceptional care or, for that matter, much interest. I remember it in 1976 as a sad little plant with a great deal of old deadwood, invaded and nearly swamped by switch grasses. In 1986, as part of the renovation of the Eleanor Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants, it was lifted and divided into five or six parts. A group of four was placed in the Dwarf Conifer Garden just below the Bonsai House, on top of a stone wall in very dry soil with excellent drainage and no irrigation. During 1994, from late June until mid-September, several thousand cuttings were taken from this planting to be propagated for this year's spring distribution to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Steve Effner, propagator at Quonset Nursery in South Dartmouth, Massachusetts, where the plants were grown, had the best results with cuttings taken just as the plant begins to harden up. Treated with mormodin #3 and stuck individually into #72 pots, a high proportion rooted within three to four weeks. They seemed to be adversely affected only by excess maintain a shearing should moisture. Termmal panicles ol pa~e rose-colored flowers appear mid-June, at the end of the current season's growth, well after the great sprmg rush of flowers, and remam over several weeks. in Rehder, in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, reports that the hybrid complex known as Ceanothus x pallidus originated before 1830, thought to be the result of a cross between C. ovatus, which is native from New England to Texas, and Ceanothus x delilianus, itself a hybrid of the eastern C. amemcanus and the Mexican C. coeruleus. Thus, C. x pallidus 'Roseus' represents a mix of plants from warm and cold climates. On receipt in 1889, our plant carried the name Ceanothus \"hyb. flore Alba Pleno.\"It was Alfred Rehder who applied the name C. x pallidus 'Roseus', a name that appears to be unique to the Arnold Arboretum; I cannot find it listed elsewhere. It may well exist in the European nursery trade under another name. Could it be the same as the plant 'Marie Simon'? Perhaps not, for I suspect that 'Marie Simon' blooms slightly later. Problems of nomenclature aside, C. x pallidus 'Roseus' has thrived for well over century at the Arnold Arboretum. The wonderful forms of Ceanothus seen in European gardens offer an incentive to further hybridization work. Ceanothus x pallidus 'Roseus', while among the hardiest, might be improved still more. Recombination with more garden-worthy forms selected for flower and leaf color and other desirable characteristics could enrich the palette of Ceanothus cultivars for northern landscapes. a References Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy m North America 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Dioscortdes Press. Van Rensselaer, Maunsell. 1942. Ceanothus Santa Barbara, CA: Santa Barbara Botanic Garden. at Gary Koller is Semor Horticulturist Arboretum. the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cephalotaxus: The Plum Yew","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25126","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14e8526.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Tripp, Kim E.","article_content":"Cephalotaxus: The Plum Yews Kim E. Tripp yews] I saw grow in the rich forests at the foot of Higashi-Kirishima ... I saw many trees from 8 to 10 m tall with ... wide-spreading branches forming broad rounded crowns. Such trees, with their dark-green leaves pale or glaucescent on the under side, are very beautiful.... E. H. Wilson, The Conifers and Taxads of Japan, 1916' The largest ~Japanese plum describing the surprisingly large Cephalotaxus harringtonia he had seen growing in Kyushu, Japan. Although it was Wilson who introduced the plant into cultivaWilson was specimens of tion in the United States, he was not the first Western plant explorer to collect it and extoll its beauties. Long before, around 1829, the prominent plant collector and principal author of Flora Japonica, Philipp Franz von Siebold, had sent Cephalotaxus to Europe where it was received with interest and appreciation.2 Siebold grew five different Cephalotaxus in his own garden in Japan, along with many other plants he had discovered, cultivating them for their beauty and for evaluation as garden plants. Today, although plum yews are widely con- sidered some of the most beautiful and useful of evergreen conifers, their potential as ornamental and medicinal plants has yet to be fully explored and utilized. The endangered status of Cephalotaxus in the wild-particularly in China, its \"distribution center and refuge,\"3 where it is vulnerable to the increasing demands of an exploding human population-lends a sense of urgency to efforts to learn more about this fascinating genus. At the Arnold Arboretum, we are working to help conserve Cephalotaxus while continuing to study and propagate the genus for use in cultivation. Cephalotaxus The modern natural range of Cephalotaxus has diminished considerably from that of its early antecedents. Now the genus is restricted to southern and eastern Asia-Japan, Korea, south, central, and eastern China, Hainan, Taiwan, India, Burma, Laos, and parts of Vietnam.4 Cephalotaxus was also found in Europe and northwestern North America in the Miocene and Pliocene eras; moreover, during the Jurassic era its antecedents extended into what is now Greenland.s Because Japanese plum yew has been in cultivation in Europe and the United States for close to a century, many modern horticulturists are familiar with the Japanese species Cephalotaxus harringtonia, named in honor of the Earl of Harrington, one of the first to grow the plant in a European garden. Far fewer are aware of other equally beautiful members of the genus that were not found by Western explorers until the turn of the century. Six to twelve species and botanical varieties, depending on the taxonomist consulted, comprise an elegant genus with an inelegant name. While today Cephalotaxus is most often considered the single genus of the coniferous Cephalotaxaceae, it was earlier included in the Taxaceae with taxads like Torreya, Taxus, and Pseudotaxus.~ Distinctive aspects of the embryogeny and development of Cephalotaxus set it apart from this group, however, in spite of shared adult morphological characteristics like fleshy seed coats, two-ranked needles of similar shape, and low shrub to small tree habits.' A few modern authors include Amentotaxus in the one Cephalotaxus sinensis, seen here Chmese plum-yew species. \"d la mode\" m last winter's ice storm, is of the most cold hardy of the 26 The mature frmts of Cephalotaxus (C. sinensis is shown here) resemble olmes or small plums. Cephalotaxaceae, resulting in occasional references in the literature to two genera in the name Cephalotaxaceae.8 Plum yew's botanical taxus\" means is apt. \"Cephalo- the Greek \"kephale\" for head and the botanical name \"taxus\"for the yew genus. \"Head-yew\"refers to the flowering structures that are borne in tight clusters or \"heads\" and to its needles, which resemble those of yew. Another, more appealing common name, plum yew, refers to the plumlike shape and color of the ripened fleshy \"cone.\" Cephalotaxus is most often found growing as shrubs or small trees in soils rich in humus in moist subtropical or warm-temperate forests, generally as understory plants in at least light shade. They are primarily low- to mid-altitude plants, but a few variant types are found at higher elevations and on chalky gravel cliffs. The entire range of the genus, however, extends from tropical to cool temperate climates, and cold hardiness of cultivated taxa corresponds to provenance. \"head-yew,\" from While the foliage of plum yews generally resembles that of true yews, the reproductive strobili are quite distinct. Most of us are familiar with the bright red (or occasionally yellow), fleshy, nonpoisonous \"aril\" that incompletely surrounds the yew's very poisonous, small, rounded seed. Fewer are likely to be familiar with the seed of plum yew, which is significantly larger than that of yew, being about the size and shape of an olive or very small plum (0.75 to 1.25 inches long and 0.25 to 0.75 inches wide) and completely enclosed by a thin, hard shell and an outer fleshy coat. As the seed ripens, the fleshy coat changes color, maturing from an attractive, glaucous blue-green, through a warm cinnamon-red (hence \"plum yew\"), and finally to a dull tan or purple-brown before abscission of the entire \"cone\" and\/or degradation of the fleshy tissue. Male and female plum yew strobili are borne on separate plants. Male strobili develop in flattened heads of numerous small clusters of anthers, about 0.25 inches in diameter, regularly arranged in the axils of the needles along the 27 length of the branchlets. Female strobili develop twelve ovules in pairs held on an odd-looking, oval, initially mauve-colored head (or \"cone\"), that expands from about 0.5 inches in length at first visibility to the mature length of 0.5-1.25 inches (depending on the species). Usually only one seed matures per head.9 Three to five female heads are borne on stalks at or near the end of the current or previous year's branchlets.' Female cones are wind pollinated. Seeds of Cephalotaxus have a relatively long period of development. Depending on species and region, pollen cones require nine to eleven months to mature (from initiation to pollen dispersal), while female cones can take as long as twenty-one months, generally maturing at the end of the second growing season after initiation.\" Cephalotaxus is now rare and endangered in significant areas of its range.'2 Its lengthy seed maturation period, combined with a dioecious reproductive habit and an often sparse natural distribution throughout much of its range, may contribute to the seemingly low frequency of regeneration for the genus in the wild. According to Huang, animals and birds may also eat the seed.'3 There is also pressure on Cephalotaxus from human activity. It is harvested for timber in various parts of its range as well as used for firewood and for medicinal purposes. The female cones are sometimes collected for the oil expressed from the seed. 14 Ironically, increasing awareness of the endangered status of Cephalotaxus comes at a time when its potential value has expanded beyond horticultural uses to include anticancer compounds found in its seed and vegetative tissues. Experimental work with the ester alkaloids cephalotaxme, harringtonine, and allied chemicals has shown promise, although apparently no widespread therapeutic applications have yet been introduced.'S Sadly, two of the three species that are especially rich sources of these alkaloids, C. hainanensis and C. oliveri, are currently endangered, although the third, C. fortunei, is less vulnerable.'6 as useful clusters of six to exquisitely beautiful of modern landscapes, variety combining graceful habits and foliage with the tough stress resistance and ease of maintenance required by modern gardeners and landscape as materials, but a evergreens for contractors. Cephalotaxus are slow-growing conifers with dark olive to black-green foliage. Because their habits range from upright and shrubby to low and informally mounding, they can serve as hedges, masses, groundcovers, specimens, and foundation or container plants. They thrive in a variety of soils, including extremely dense clays. They are not only tolerant of shade butwith only one exception-perform well even in heavy shade, an unusual trait for a needled evergreen. Indeed, most Cephalotaxus produce the best foliage when given at least some shade, although some maintain excellent foliage color in either full sun or shade. Plum yews are extraordinarily heat tolerant in humid climates, another unusual trait for a needled evergreen. For this reason, they have been called \"the yew of the south,\" although they can serve as excellent landscape plants in an area extending far beyond the Southeast. Once established, they are tolerant of extended dry periods such as those experienced during most of our eastern summers. However, they are not good choices for hot, dry climates like those in much of the southwestern United States. Cephalotaxus are relatively deer resistant (I have come to believe that no evergreen is totally deerproof). Deer feeding on plum yews have been reported in areas with very heavy deer populations (for example, central New Jersey and Pennsylvania). Even in these cases, however, with only one exception, deer turned to Cephalotaxus foliage only as a last resort. Nomenclature and Taxonomy Unfortunately, there is no current monograph on Cephalotaxus available. This is especially troublesome since the nomenclature of this genus is particularly confusmg and is likely to remain a challenge for the foreseeable future; to the best of my knowledge, no taxonomic monograph of the entire genus is currently underway. Hence, one must simply dive in and make a first Cephalotaxus as a Garden Plant The various taxa of Cephalotaxus are of interest and value not only as endangered sources of 28 attempt at creating some order out of the chaos. Key characters listed in the literature have rarely been useful to me when dealing with plum yews. I have observed that widely cited key characters such as stomatal band whiteness, length and shape of needle, and bark color can vary with age of the plant and the microenvironment in which it is grown.\" Full sun, cool temperatures, and leaf maturity, for example, appear to promote whiteness of the stomatal bands on plants of the four species now grown in North America. In another case, an oft-cited, characteristic V-shaped trough formed by the angle at which needles are held-which has been used to separate what is now called C. harringtonia var. drupaceae from the rest of the species'a-can frequently be seen on plants of various species. What this translates to on a practical basis is that confirmed provenances and commercial sources are critical when working both with species and with cultivars. In the case of species, identifying individual plants is especially challenging because the key characters are mostly morphological intergrades. Therefore, knowledge of geographic origin is important, and even when armed with such knowledge only the morphological extremes of the genus (e.g., C. fortunei with very long needles versus the shorter-needled C. harringtonia) can be reliably and consistently separated from each other ex situ. Judging from what I have observed on diverse live plants and herbarium specimens, a pragmatic taxonomist might argue for including much of the genus in a single species, at least for plants found on the Asian mainland. The fol- Needle length vanes widely among plum yew species. Cephalotaxus fortunei (IeftJ has the longest needles, while C. harrrngtoma (lower right), m general, has the shortest. Other species, hke C. smensis (upper mght), are intermediate. 29 lowing duction discussion of forms offers a brief introto the diversity of plum yews. tered, shaded sites, zone into the warmer parts of Li is a 6. var. Cephalotaxus fortunei Hooker (Fortune's plum yew, San-chien-shan, Lo-han-shu, three-pointed fir) Fortune's plum yew is native to China, where in addition to wild populations, it is found planted near shrines and temples. This species has a in central and eastern China south of the Yellow River and has been collected in Shui-sa-pa (the \"Water Fir Grove\" near the border of Hubei and Sichuan provinces) as part of the Metasequoia flora. 19 It was introduced to both Europe (around 1849) and the United States (around 1858) by Robert Fortune, who collected it in China.2 The needles of Cephalotaxus fortunei are the longest of the genus, varying from two to over four inches; the most dramatically long-needled plants are the most elegant. Needle diameter ranges from extremely slender (1\/16th inch) to nearly as wide as that of other species ( 1 \/6th inch), with color of the stomatal bands on the undersides of the needles varymg from bright white to green. Bark is reddish-brown to dark brown and peels in plates as plants age. Mature female cones are longer (one-and-a-half to two inches) and often narrower than those of other Cephalotaxus fortunei alpina widespread range low form found in the mountainous forests of northwestern Yunnan and western Sichuan. C. fortunei 'Grandis' is an especially long-needled female form, originally from Hillier Nurseries. C. fortunei 'Lion's Plume' is yet another longneedled cultivar, originally received in the 1950s at the Willowwood Arboretum in New Jersey but no longer in the collections there. C. fortunei 'Prostrate Spreader' ('Prostrata') is a long-needled, low, mounding form, also from Hillier Nurseries, with lovely dark-green foliage; several other prostrate selections available in the United States may or may not be clones of the Hillier Nurseries plant. Cephalotaxus griffithii Hooker (Griffith's plum yew) Griffith's plum yew is one of the species found in India, specifically in the Mishmi Hills of Assam (at about 6000 feet) where it is a small tree fifteen to thirty feet in height. It is also found in western Sichuan, China. Needles are two to three inches long by 1\/8th inch wide. Herbarium specimens of this species appear similar to those of the geographically overlapping species C. mannii, C. oliveri, and C. sinensis.zl In the past, C. griffithii was cultivated at Kew, which received specimens from the Calcutta Botanical Garden sometime before 1890,zz but Kew's inventory does not currently list this species. I have not seen it in cultivation anywhere in the United States. Cold hardiness of this species outside of Asia is unknown. species. Cephalotaxus fortunei is a multistemmed shrub or small tree with an open, loosely rounded habit and slightly pendant branchlets. Height and spread will vary with provenance of seedlings and the climate in which the plants are grown. In China, depending on locale, C. fortunei is found as a shrub or as a small to medium-sized, multitrunked tree reaching heights in the range of thirty feet. In Europe and North America, warmer regions give faster, more upright growth, while cooler temperatures lead to shrubbier, slowergrowing plants. All of the C. fortunei selections I have seen do best in shade, which results in a more Cephalotaxus hainanensis Li (Hainan plum yew) Hainan plum yew is a tropical species found on the island of Hainan, China. Some authors include this taxon as part of C. mannii, which appears to be its closest relative. On Hainan, it can grow to tree size, reaching fifty to seventy feet in height. Needles are long and slender (two or three inches by 1\/8th inch); most herbarium specimens appear nearly identical to those of C. mannii except for a greater variability in needle length. Because of timbering and bark stripping, Hainan plum yew is seriously threatened in its open habit than is found in sunny situa- tions ; in North America, full sun usually causes at least some winter burn on the foliage. They prefer moist, loamy soil, but will also stand up to heavy clays if grown in light shade. They are reliably cold hardy through zone 7, and in shel- 30 natural range; of the species rich in It is not in cultivation in this country but is likely to be cold hardy it is also one anticarcinogenic alkaloids. only into zone 9. Cephalotaxus harringtonia (Forbes) Koch (Harrington's plum yew, Japanese plum yew, Inugaya) This was the first plum yew to be collected by Westerners and has been longest in Western cultivation. It is widespread in Japan from Kyushu north to Hokkaido and is also found in areas of northeastern China and Korea. In the warmer parts of its range it is usually seen as a small tree; in colder areas it most often appears as a rounded shrub of low to medium height. It is this latter habit that most frequently develops in cultivation in Europe and North America. Its needles are relatively short and often wider than those of mainland taxa (one-to-two inches long and 1\/6th inch wide), and its fruits are roundedovoid. The numerous cultivars have a variety of shapes, sizes, and foliage variegations. Siebold first sent this plant to the Leiden Botanical Garden in 1829 as Cephalotaxus drupaceae. Most modern authors separate C. harringtonia var. drupaceae from typical C. harringtonia. The primary difference appears to lie in the arrangement of the needles on the stem. In the literature, both historical and modern, the foliage of C. harringtonia var. drupaceae is repeatedly described as distinctive in its upright V-formation, but I have seen this characteristic on any number of Cephalotaxus species and cultivars in diverse sites. In North America (and in a brief survey of southern England), the V-shaped character appears to be more closely related to cultural conditions and to the stage of development of the needles and plants than to any consistent taxon-specific morphological trait. This V-shaped characteristic becomes especially pronounced on the flowering branches of many male Cephalotaxus, regardless of species or variety, as pollen-bearing strobili expand in the needle axils and appear to promote \"lifting\" of the two-ranked needles into a V-shaped trough. The degree of \"V\" also increases somewhat throughout the season on all plants of various species as leaves mature and in response to dry periods. I have The V-shaped foliage that is attributed to Cephalotaxus harringtoma var drupaceae can actually be seen m other species as well. Seen here m profile, from top to bottom, C. koreana, C. fortunei, and C. sinensis exhibit varying degrees of this same characteristic 31 Amass of mne Cephalotaxus koreana seedlmgs at the Arnold Arboretum has provcm itselr to be excepuonully success handsome and durable. had C. no separating what var. is called drupaceae from C. harringtonia in North America by relying on these morphological characteristics. Cold hardiness and landscape performance of C. harringtonia vary with cultivar and botanical harringtonia variety as noted below. in zone 6 at the Arnold Arboretum where foliage color remains attractive throughout the winter in the shade but bronzes heavily in full sun.24 C. harringtonia var. nana has a distinctively demure character in the landscape, and it would make a lovely small evergreen for shaded sites. a Cephalotaxus harringtonia (Hai-inugaya) is the variety found growing var. nana on seaside cliffs and mountamous areas of Hokkaido and eastern Honshu.23 Its needles are shorter and more slender than those of C. harringtonia, and the plants themselves are shorter, with a more upright, suckering habit. Its fruits are also smaller. In the wild, C. Nakai Cephalotaxus harringtonia 'Duke Gardens' is broadly rounded, dense shrub reaching about six feet by six feet in about ten years, depending on where it is grown. It was selected at Sarah P. Duke Gardens at Duke University in North Carolina. It makes a beautiful mass in sun or shade in zones 7 to 9 and thrives in soils from sandy loams to clays. Cephalotaxus harringtonia 'Fastigiata' is a harringtonia it var. nana spreads by layering; does the same in cultivation, albeit slowly. Overall it is more compact and more finely textured than the species and retains this habit in cultivation. Plants grown from collections made by Spongberg and Weaver have been cold hardy distinctive upright cultivar with dark green needles whorled around the stem m a bottlebrush manner. 'Fastigiata' grows even more slowly than the average Cephalotaxus, retainmg its broad columnar habit for the first ten to twelve years before beginning to spread into a 32 The bold fohage of Cephalotaxus koreana remams black-green and glossy even in winter. multibranched, upright mound. It does best in part shade; full shade causes it to open up and become untidy, while full sun can result in winter burn in severe years. 'Fastigiata' is reliably cold hardy through zone 6 and much of zone 5, especially in walled gardens and other semiprotected areas, but it will suffer from snow and ice damage in severe winters. C. harringtonia 'Fastigiata Aurea' is nearly identical to 'Fastigiata' except that its needle margins gold. Cephalotaxus harringtonia 'Fritz Huber' is a low-spreading cultivar with stiffer branches and a stiffer habit than other low-mounding types. Its needles are a brighter, more emerald green than other selections. C. harringtonia 'Gnome' is a dwarf, rounded mound growing to two feet in height, with light green foliage and shorter, stiffer needles than the species. It is a striking, impish little plant from Hillier Nurseries. C. harringtonia 'Korean Gold' ('Ogon', 'Ogon Chosen Maki'~zs is identical to 'Fastigiata' are except that new growth emerges bright yellowgold in spring and fades to green in summer. Also, its growth is slower than that of 'Fastigiata'. 'Korean Gold' is very effective in the spring garden. The name Cephalotaxus harringtonia 'Prostrata' is generally applied in this country to any and all selections with a low-spreading, low-mounding habit-plants often have somewhat pendant branchlets as well. However, it should, at this time, be used only for the Hillier Nurseries selection.2~ (See \"A Plethora of 'Prostrata's\" on page 35.) The true Hillier Nurseries cultivar 'Prostrata' is especially tolerant of and shows no foliar burn in the northUnited States, where other forms do burn. With its particularly pleasing, informally irregular, cloudlike silhouette, it is one of the most beautiful and useful selections of plum yew available to gardeners. Its quality was recently recognized by the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society with a Gold Medal Award. There is sun full eastern 33 a reliably named, exceptionally handsome old planting of C. harringtonia 'Prostrata' at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Cephalotaxus koreana Nakai (Korean plum yew) Korean plum yew is found at low to middle evations in el- Korea, northern and central Japan, an and northeastern China. It is upright, slowcoarse, foliage as seen in illustrations and on herbarium specimens is slender, gracefully tapering, and variable in length;28 even in a dried state it is strikingly beautiful. C. mannii is not in cultivation in the United States and is not likely to be cold hardy north of zone 9. It is exciting to learn that the Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh has recently acquired cuttings of this species for propagation. poses. Its growing shrub with broad, relatively black-green needles (about two inches by 1\/6th inch). Plants will reach eight to ten feet in as many years, with a narrow spread. Its dense branching and foliage cover make this species one of the most its exposed (zone 6) where other species have bronzed heavily. Cold even in an remarkably throughout the entire year, effective for massing. It retains beautiful black-green foliage Cephalotaxus oliveri Masters (Oliver plum yew) The foliage of this species is among the most distinctive of the genus with short, broad needles (one or one-and-a-half inch by 1\/6th winter site at the Arnold Arboretum hardiness will vary with provenance, but C. koreana is hardy at least through zone 6 and likely into zone 5. Further collections from the coldest parts of its range would be desirable. Cephalotaxus lanceolata Feng C. lanceolata is known from only a few places in northwestern Yunnan Province. It closely resembles C. fortunei; indeed, the majority of herbarium specimens are practically indistinguishable from those of C. fortunei. Its needles are long and slender (about three inches by I\/8th inch) and often with needle edges that are distinctly parallel up to a sharply acute apex (as opposed to tapering more gradually to an acuminate apex). Chinese authors distinguished this species from C. fortunei on the basis of its wider, thinner needles with sharper apices (hence its name, lanceolata).z' Cephalotaxus mannii Hooker (Mann plum yew) This species grows into a tree of about seventy feet in height. It is the southernmost taxon and can be found at low to middle elevations on moist, shaded slopes and gullies in woodlands in southern China, northeastern Burma, India, Laos, and Vietnam (and Hainan if one includes C. hainanensis within C. mannii). C. mannii is sparsely distributed and seriously endangered by harvesting for timber and for medicinal pur- The distinctive foliage of Cephalotaxus olivem is well illustrated in this figure from The Gardener's Chronicle (Apnl 1903), m which \"the leaves are a disposed, hke the teeth of comb.\" \" 34 inch) arranged in two militarily precise, nearly overlapping ranks. The needles are pectinate, that is, arranged \"like the teeth of a comb\";29 this trait remains distinctive even on diverse herbarium specimens. C. oliveri is a large shrub or small tree reaching ten to fifteen feet. It is sometimes found in drier, cooler areas than the other subtropical species of China, but is generally found growing at middle elevations in central, south central, and southwestern China, eastern India, and northern Vietnam. It was once in cultivation at Kew but is no longer listed in their inventory. It is not in cultivation in this country, but it might be a useful horticultural species thanks to its occurrence in somewhat drier and colder areas than other subtropical taxa, as well as because of its distinctive foliage and its moderate size. C. oliveri is an endangered species and is rich in anticarcinogenic alkaloids. middle elevations.31 It is a medium-sized tree, growing to thirty feet with pendant branches. Its needles tend to be slender and of moderate length (about two inches by 1\/8th inch). In the United States, it is likely be cold hardy into zone 8. C. wilsoniana is in cultivation at Kew and the Royal Botanic Garden at Edinburgh, but it is not in this country. Propagation My work with four of the most , hardy species Cephalotaxus sinensis (Rehder and Wilson) Li (Chinese plum yew) Currently also known as C. harringtonia var. sinensis and historically as C. drupaceae var. sinensis, this is another very widespread species. It is a medium-sized, somewhat open and rounded shrub with slender, medium-length needles (about two inches by 1\/8th inch). It will eventually reach ten to twelve feet in height with half the spread. It occurs naturally in moist woodlands and thickets on limestone slopes throughout eastern, central, and northwestern China, including Sichuan and Yunnan provinces. This species was first collected for the West and brought to the United States by Wilson as C. drupaceae var. sinensis; Rehder later changed the name to C. harringtonia var. sinensis and Li ultimately elevated it to C. sinensis.3 Plants are generally cold hardy may suffer winter burn but have held up well to ice and snow in Boston. C. sinensis makes a lovely evergreen shrub in appropriately shaded sites, where it contributes an elegant, yet informal ornamental character. through in exposed zone 6; they sites Cephalotaxus wilsoniana Hayata (Wilson plum yew, Taiwan plum yew) This species is endemic to Taiwan, being widely but sparsely distributed in diverse woodlands at and several cultivars indicates that similar propagation techniques are likely to apply to all Cephalotaxus.32 Propagation from seed or cuttings is quite a long process. Seed gives best germination after ten to twelve weeks of cold stratification and after removal of the fleshy seed coat (which, unlike the similarly constructed Ginkgo, is usually only very slightly malodorous). Seeds that have overwintered outdoors under the mother plants give reasonable germination results as well. Even in a warm greenhouse, seedlings take a worrisome length of time to completely emerge, and it is particularly important to maintain consistently moderate moisture during this period. One is tempted to conjecture that this slow seedling emergence may contribute to the apparently low regeneration rate of Cephalotaxus in the wild.33 Propagation from stem cuttings is not difficult, but it too is slow. In the northeastern United States, four- to six-inch stem cuttings can be successfully rooted throughout the year once the spring flush has been completed and foliage has hardened off somewhat (between July and March). In the southeastern United States, cuttings root best when taken during fall or winter (October to February), avoiding the peak heat of the summer. Stem cuttings will root even without rooting hormones, but moderate concentrations result in slightly larger, fuller root systems. With bottom heat, cuttings generally take about four months to develop a viable root system, although they can take as long as six months in low light. Heavily flowering branches from male plants should be avoided since profuse flowering competes with developing roots, and male flowers are a haven for fungal spores. Flowers on female shoots, on the other hand, have little effect on rooting and do not cause fungal problems. Informal observa- 35 A Plethora of 'Prostrata's There is great confusion in the trade over plum yew selections with low, creeping, horizontally spreading or prostrate growth habits. A plethora of prostrate forms have been propagated and given names like variety prostrata, forma prostrata, or cultivar 'Prostrata', 'Prostrate Form', or 'Prostrate Spreader'. Most of these prostrate forms are an artifact of propagation from stem cuttings that used lateral branches instead of terminal shoots. Rooted cuttings of lateral branches retain their lateral orientation, and so young plants grow horizontally for many years. Eventually, such plants will develop at least one upright leader and will begin to grow as an upright shrub or small tree, as most seedlings do in nature. It can take anywhere from three to thirty years for plants grown from lateral branch cuttings to develop a leader, depending on growing conditions and characteristics of the parent plant. Historically, many plants have been used as sources of cuttings for these prostrate forms. Thus, two individual prostrate plants, both, for example, with the botanical name prostrata may have been propagated from two very different parent plants. One, both, or neither of the parent plants, however, may have been prostrate in habit, and both parents may exhibit very different landscape characteristics, such as degree of cold hardiness and performance in full sun. At the turn of the century, to name a plant based on a developmental trait rather than a genetic trait was no problem because it was then correct usage. Confusion entered in the mid-1900s when the botanical designations forma and varietas were uncritically translated into cultivar names set in single quotes.' As a result, a primary source of confusion is that, unlike varietas and forma, cultivar names with single quotes now imply clonal parentage.2 This has become a particular problem with prostrate plum yews.3 For example, Hillier Nurseries now lists their exceptional selection of prostrate Japanese plum yew as cultivar 'Prostrata'.4 Unfortunately, that cultivar name has been indiscriminately applied in this country to many other plants propagated from the lateral branches of random parent plants, which may or may not have been propagated from clones of the Hillier plant. Horticulturists desiring all of the exceptional qualities associated with the Royal Horticultural Society's Gold Medal Award-winning C. harringtonia 'Prostrata' must look for plants produced from clonal propagations of the Hillier Nurseries plant. Notes 1 For innumerable examples, R.L~ see L. H. Bailey et al., Hortus III (New York: Macmillan, 1976). 2 For further discussion of this (Little Compton, 3 issue with regard to comfers, see H. J. Welch, Manual of Dwarf Conifers Theophrastus, 1979), 40-48, also 151-152, 392. Propagation of many different plants from lateral cuttmgs and mdiscmmmate naming of all of the resulting propagules 'Prostrata', regardless of parentage \/or quality of the plant), has led to great confusion among prostrate plum yews m the U.S. nursery trade (see K. E. Tripp, \"A Plum Yew Primer,\" Amencan Nurseryman \/1994) 180\/9)~ 28-37). \" 4 Hillier Nursenes, The Hilher Manual of Trees and Shrubs, 6th ed (Devon, England: David and Charles, 1991),584-585,677,679. 36 Cephalotaxus fortunei, thirty feet high altitude and three feet m circumference, photographed by E of 4000 feet near Wa-shan, Chma, September, 1908. H Wilson at an 37 tions in the eastern United States indicate that slower to root than lateral ones, sometimes needing an additional two to four weeks; these will, however, result in plants with upright growth. Lateral cuttings, while quicker to root, result in plants with prostrate growth, at least for a number of years. For some as yet unexplained reason, 'Duke Gardens' has been more difficult to root than other cultivars. The only challenge in propagating this genus is the degree of patience required. It would be worth experimenting with fog systems to see if they might hasten the process of rooting. Janick et al. reported success with micropropagation of C. harringtoma,34 but to the best of my knowledge no one has yet applied the technique on a commercial scale. are terminal cuttings collected by Peter from the northerly portion of its range, which may offer improved cold hardiness and winter performance in the winter landscape. Cephalotaxus was once an integral part of the prehistoric, indigenous flora of both North America and Asia. This genus has long since disappeared in North America and is now seriously endangered in Asia, yet plum yews are among the most interesting, beautiful, and useful of evergreen conifers. Cephalotaxus warrants increased study and conservation-with respect for its importance cultivated conifer. as both a wild and Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges Shiu-ying Cephalotaxus at the Arnold Arboretum The Arnold Arboretum has had a long and significant relationship with Cephalotaxus, having been among the first to collect and cultivate the genus in this country. Several men made important collections of Cephalotaxus for the Arboretum, among them Frank Meyer, William Purdom, Joseph Rock, and Charles Sargent; however, the many collections made by E. H. Wilson included some of the most interesting. In Japan, Wilson collected C. harringtonia, C. harringtonia var. nana, and C. koreana. In Chma, he collected C. fortunei, C. harringtonia, and C. oliveri, and was the first Westerner to collect what would eventually be named C. sinensis. Throughout his collecting years he consistently expressed an interest in the genus. Both Wilson and Alfred Rehder worked on describing and naming the genus over many Hu for translation and interpretation of texts from relevant Chmese systematic references, and smcerely thanks Jack Alexander, Allen J. Coombes, Peter Del Tredici, Michael Dirr, Al)os Far~on, Martm Gardner, Richard Hartlage, Andrew Knoll, Gary Koller, Cynthia Osman, M.D., Stephen Spongberg, Chris Strand, Bemto Tan, Tom Ward, and Elizabeth Wheeler for critical discussion, useful information, or helpful suggestions. Kim E. Tripp is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arbo- retum, usmg the and writing. Notes living collections for research, teaching, Wilson, The Comfers and Taxads of Japan Publications of the Arnold Arboretum, University Press, 1916), v-viri, 6-9. 2 P. F. von Siebold and J G. Zuccanm, Flora Japomca (1835). ~. 3 L. K. Fu, \"A study on the genus Cephalotaxus Sieb. et Zucc.,\"Acta Phytotaxonomica Smca (1984~ 22(4\/: E H. 1 (Cambridge: 277-288. J. T. 4 years.3s While none of the Wilson-era accessions their progeny survive at the Arnold, the Arboretum remains actively interested in Cephalotaxus, and its living collections are home to one of the country's most diverse collections of source-documented, wild-collected or germplasm. Among others, Stephen Spongberg has collected material in China, Japan, and Korea. The most recent collections of Cephalotaxus for the Arboretum were made by Peter Del Tredici in China last year. We are especially pleased to have new germplasm of C. sinensis Buchholz, \"Genenc and subgenenc distribution comferales,\" Botamcal Gazette ( 1948) 110( 1 \/~ 80-91; W. C. Cheng, Sylva Smca \/Berjrng: Editonal Commitee of Flora of Woody Plants of Chma, 1983), ), 379-385; W. C Cheng, L. K. Fu, and C. S. Chao, \"Cephalotaxaceae, Cephalotaxus, \" Flora Rezpubhcae Populans Smicae, tomus 7 (Beijing: Science Press, 1978), 422-436; H. H Hu, \"Distribution of taxads and conifers in Chma,\"Proc 5 Pacif Sci Congr (1934~ 4: 3273-3288; S. Y. Hu, \"Cephalotaxaceae,\" m \"Notes on the Flora of Chma IV,\" Taiwama ( 1964~ 10: 13-62, 25-31; S. C. Lee, \"Distribution of Woody Plants of Chma,\" Taiwama (1963) 9: 11-21; T. B. Lee (Tchang Bok Yi), Illustrated Flora of Korea (Seoul: Hyangmunsa, 1979), 58; H. L. Li., Woody Flora of Taiwan (Narbeth, PA: Livingston, 1963), 38-39; H. L. Li, \"New species and varieties in Cephalotaxus, of the \" 38 Lloydia (1953) 16(3): 162-164, H. L. Li, \"Present distribution and habitats of the conifers and taxads,\" Evolution (1953) 7: 245-261; J. Ohwi, Flora of Japan (Washington, D.C.: Smithsoman Institution, 1965), 111; A. Steward, Manual of Vascular Plants of the Lower Yangtze Valley of Chma (Corvalhs: Oregon State College, 1958), 61-62. 5 R. Flomn, \"The distnbution of conifer and taxad genera m time and space,\" Acta Horu Bergiana ( 1963) 20\/4\/: 121-326. 6 See, for example, A. Rehder and E. H. Wilson, \"Cephalotaxus,\" Plantae Wilsonianae, vol. II, ed. C. S. Sargent (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1916), 3-6. The exact position of Cephalotaxus has been argued back and forth since Neger placed it as a smgle genus in its own family m 1907 (Die Nadelholzer (KomferenJ und ubngen Gymnospermen, Leipzig[, which was contrary to A. W. Eichler's original placement within the Taxaceae (\"Coniferae\" in A Engler and K. Prantl's Die Naturhchen Pflanzenfamihen, Leipzig, 1889). ~ Sigmficant differences m the embryogeny and development of Cephalotaxus from the taxads and other comfers were reported by J. T. Buchholz (\"The embryogeny of Cephalotaxus Fortunel,\" Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club [1925] 52[6]: 311-322) but were most definitively elucidated by H. Singh (\"The life history and systematic position of Cephalotaxus drupaceae Sieb. et Zucc.,\" Phytomorphology [1961] 11: 153-197), whose work m this area has remained a standard reference for modern authors treating the group. 8 Bull Amencan Comfer Society[1989] 6(3): 57-59). In a 1988 pubhcation, Zou Shou-qmg reported that the forest cover of Xishuangbanna prefecture was cut from 60% to 33% over the prior twenty years and hsts C. olmem as one of the endangered relict species there (\"The vulnerable and endangered plants of Xishuangbanna prefecture, Yunnan provmce, Chma\" Arnoldia [1988] 48(2): 3-7) Both Cephalotaxus species listed in the Chma Plant Red Data Book are reported to be threatened by lumbermg, and C mannm is also reported to be endangered by harvesting for use as a medicinal herb (see Q. Huang, \"Cephalotaxus mannn Hook. f,\" and Z. C. Luo et al., \"Cephalotaxus olmem Mast.\" m the Chma Plant Red Data Book, 24-27). ~5 The importance of Cephalotaxus has expanded beyond horticulture source to of anticancer include potential use as a compounds found m its As, for example, m C. N. Page's \"Cephalotaxaceae,\" tissues (C. R. Smith, R. G. Powell and K. L. Mikolajczak, \"The genus Cephalotaxus, source of homoharnngtonine and related anticancer alkaloids,\" Cancer Treatment Rpt [1976] 60: 1157-1170). The ester alkaloids cephalotaxme, harrmgtonrne, and allied chemicals have shown significant antitumor activity m a number of m vitro studies, and there are recent reports of phase I chmcal trials (pharmacokinetic) (see D. M. Graifer et al., \"Effect of alkaloids of the Cephalotaxus group on the elongation of the polypeptide cham on human nbosomes,\"Molecular Biology [1991] 24(G\/: 13441350), and phase II clinical tnals (therapeutic) on human subjects as well (see C. T. Tan et al., in Cancer Treatment Reports [1987] 71 1245-48, cited m E. R. 9 The Famihes and Genera of Vascular Plants. 1 Ptendophytes and Gymnosperms, ed K. U. Kramer and P. S. Green (Berlin & NY: Springer-Verlag, 1990), 299-302; and m The New Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening (New York: Stockton Press, 1992), 569. K. R. Sporne, The Morphology of Gymnosperms Wickremesinhe and R. Arteca, \"Establishment of fast-growmg callus and root cultures of Cephalotaxus harrmgtoma,\" Plant Cell Reports 12 [1993], 80-83\/. Other recent publications indicate that progress has been made m development of separation (see D. G. Cai et al., \"Semipreparative separation of alkaloids from Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook f. by high-speed (U.K.: Hutchmson, 1965). 10 11 Page, H. op. cit. 12 A. Singh, op. cit. Far~on, C. Page, and N. Schellevis, \"A prelimmary 13 world list of threatened conifer taxa,\" Biodiversity and Conservation (1993[ 2: 304-326. Q. Huang, \"Cephalotaxus mannm Hook. f.,\" Chma Plant Red Data Book-Rare and Endangered Plants, vol. I, ed. L. K. Fu and J. M. Jm (Beijing. Science Press, chromatography,\" Journal Liqmd Chromatography [ 1992] 15: 2873-2881)and synthetic production systems for cephalotaxmes and harnngtonines (see T. P. Burkholder and P. L. Fuchs, \"Total synthesis of the Cephalotaxus alkaloids dl-cephalotaxme, dl-11-hydroxycephalotaxine, and dl-drupacme,\" journal Amencan Chemical Society [ 1990] 112: 9601-9613; and M. Ikeda et al., \"Synthetic studies on Cephalotaxus alkaloids. A synthesis of countercurrent la 1992), 24-25. Throughout the Cephalotaxus literature, both old and new, there are recurring references to destruction of its habitat due to pressure from humans-both from general activity, like forestry, and from harvesting of the Cephalotaxus itself for vamous purposes. E. H. Wilson noted the use of the seed as an oil source m Japan (op. cit., p. 7). Barry Ymger, after several trips to Korea, reported the general destruction of populations of C. koreana by clearcutting (\"Notes on Cephalotaxus, the plum yew,\" (=\/-cephalotaxme,\" Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletm [1993] 41(2): 276-281), as well as improvements on Cephalotaxus tissue proliferation techniques (see P. J. Westgate et al., \"Approximation of continuous growth of Cephalotaxus harrmgtoma plant cell cultures using fed-batch operation,\" Biotechnology and Bioengmeermg [1991] 38: 241246 ; and E. R. Wickremesinhe and R Arteca, op. cit.) 1~ T. P Chu, \"A study of the alkaloids m Cephalotaxus and their bearing on the chemotaxonomic problems of the genus,\" Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica (1979) 17[4\/: 7-20. 39 1~ The primary conifer references, such 1976 as Krussman's 27 See, for example, the primary reference, et W. C Cheng \" (1984 translation) Manual of Cultivated Comfers (Portland, OR: Timber Press, 66-69), pl. 63, and Humphrey Welch's 1990 The Comfer Manual, vol. I (Netherlands: Kluwer Academic) 191-194, rely 28 op. cit. Pl. 1523 m J. D. Hooker's ~op. cit., 1890) shows the al., \"Cephalotaxus mannm\" elegant character of this remarks in morphological characters to distinguish Cephalotaxus taxa. 18 A specific example of such a tenuous morphological trait used to distinguish a taxon is the \"V\" outline supposedly created by the fohage of C. harnngtoma var. drupaceae, which has been cited by many prominent references to separate C harnngtoma var. drupaceae from other Cephalotaxus In reality, this trait can be seen on many plants of Cephalotaxus regardless of species-see, for example, W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bntzsh Isles (England: John Murray, 1950), 405-406; P Den Ouden and B. K. Boom, Manual of Cultivated Comfers (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1965), 65-69; Hillier Nurseries, The Hilher Manual of Trees and Shrubs, 6th ed. (Devon, England: David and Charles, 1991),584on these often tenuous, foliage beautifully. Hooker the accompanying text on C mannm, \"A very distinct species ... but so hke Taxus baccata as to be easily mistaken for it.\" Recall the elegant, gracefully tapering outline of English yew, and you will understand the companson. z9 M. T. Masters, op. cit. ~ Alfred Rehder in the 1941 article, \"New species, varieties and combmations from the herbarium and 585, 677, 679; G Krussman, op. cit ;J Lewis, \"Cephalotaxaceae,\" The European Garden Flora, vol. I, ed. S. M. Walters et al. (London: Cambridge University Press, 1986), 73-74; and H. J. Welch, 19 the collections of the Arnold Arboretum\" (Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 22: 569-571) changed the name of what had been called C drupaceae to C. harrmgtoma ~he concluded that harnngtoma was the older of the two specific epithets), and hence, all of the included botamcal varieties became C. harringtonia Subsequently, H. L. Li, m his 1953 article, \"New species and varieties m Cephalotaxus, elevated it to the species C smensis. \" 31 32 op. cit. S. Y. Hu, \"The Metasequoia flora and its 20 phytogeographic sigmficance,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (1980) 61: 41-94. Interestingly, Fortune collected this species and sent it back to the USDA as part of a shipment of material collected on an expedition m search of the best forms of tea plants (Camelha smensis) (see R. Gardener, \"Robert Fortune and the cultivation of tea in 33 the 21 Umted States,\" Arnoldia ( 1971 ~ 31 ( 1\/: 1-18This was a fortuitous opportumty to mclude Cephalotaxus as part of the collections. In fact, C. olmem was originally confounded with C grzffithzi Oliver's 1890 illustration of C. gmffithn was C olmen H L. Li, 1963, op. cit. For further information on propagation of Cephalotaxus, see M A. Dirr and C. W. Heuser, Jr., The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation ~Athens, GA: Varsity Press, 1987\/, 104, A. Fordham and L. Spraker, \"Propagation manual of selected gymnosperms,\" Arnoldia1977\/ 37\/ 1\/: 48; and J. A. Young and C. G Young, Seeds of Woody Plants in North America (Portland, OR: Dioscorides Press, 1992), 93. Huang, op. cit., cites a naturally low pollination rate, and Luo et al., op. cit, report infrequent regeneration, but neither source cites other work m support of these statements. It is possible that a combination of (see D. Oliver, \"Cephalotaxus griffithii,\" \" p1.1933, Hooker's Icones Plantarum, vol. X, pt. I, 3rd series,J. D. Hooker, 1890) This was later clarified by Masters (see The Gardener's Chronicle [1903] 850: z2 34 226-228). \/. J. D. Hooker, Flora of Bntish India, vol. 1890), 647-648. As V (London, 35 23 reported by J. Ohwi in the 1965 Flora of Tapan (Washtngton, D. C.: Smtthsoman Instttution~, p. Ill, and as observed by S. Spongberg when traveling m Japan. reproductive biology, relatively slow seed and germination, seed predation by birds and mammals, increasingly sparse distribution of mature plants, and general destruction of habitat favorable for seedling survival and development, leads to the reported infrequent regeneration of Cephalotaxus J. Jamck et al., \"Micropropagation of Cephalotaxus harringtoma,\"HortScience (1994) 29\/2\/: 120-122. For details of taxa collected on specific expeditions and early taxonomic commentary on various taxa, see A. Rehder, \"Enumeration of the ligneous plants of northern China,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (1923) 4~3\/: 117-128; A. Rehder, \"New species, dioecious maturation za For notes on collections made during the Spongberg and Weaver expedition to Japan and Korea, see S A. Spongberg, \"Korean Adventure,\" Arnoldia (1978) 38(4~: 132-152, and S. A. Spongberg and R. E. Weaver, zs 26 Jr., \"Collecting expedition to Japan and Korea,\" Aznoldza ( 1978~ 38\/ 128-31 'Korean Gold' was descnbed in C. Hahn and B. Yinger, \"Cultivars of Japanese plants at Brookside Gardens,\" Arnoldia (1983) 43\/4\/. 3-19. Hillier Nurseries, op. cit. and combinations from the herbarium and the collections of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (1923) 4. 107; A. Rehder and E H. Wilson, \"Enumeration of ligneous plants collected by J. F Rock on the Arnold Arboretum expedition to northwestern Chma and northeastern Tibet,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (1928) 9~ 5-20; A. Rehder and E. H. Wilson, \"Cephalotaxus\"; E H. Wilson, \"The taxads and conifers of Yunnan,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (1926) 7' 39-68, and E. H. Wilson, The Comfers and Taxads of Japan, op. cit. vane ties "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1994","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25125","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14e816d.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"40 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data -1994 Note: Accordmg to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1994 was the 14th warmest year recorded in 124 years. It tied with 1951 and 1976. It was also wetter than average with 6.11 mches above normal. The summer months of June and July brought very high temperatures and minimal rainfall, causing the plants at the Arnold Arboretum to suffer with drought stress. However, the months of August and September were cooler than normal, and we received 11.94 inches of ram that once agam invigorated the plants. As a whole, 1994 was a very good growing year. The year ended with 205 growing days, 20 more than 1993, which in turn had 31 more growing days than 1992 at 154. However, 1991 exceeds all succeeding years with 222 growing days; 1990 had 193. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25129","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add15ea328.jpg","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum S P R I N G . N E W S - 1 9 9 5 The Visiting Committee Visits Robert E. Cook, Director Reading the history of Charles Sprague Sargent's directorship, which spanned the period from 1872 to 1927, one gains the distinct impression that he reported to no one in particular at Harvard University. Although he was appointed by the president of the University and submitted an annual report each year, he managed the Arboretum with a great deal of autonomy from the Cambridge administration. In these more democratic times, I retain a considerable amount of this autonomy, although a good third of my time is spent addressing administrative and Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections, guides members of the Visiting Committee on a tour of Chinese Path. From left are Donna F. Hartman, Christopher T. Bayley, chair, Elizabeth C. Sluder, and W. Hardy Eshbaugh. Committee members not shown are Gregory J. Anderson, Robert A. Bartlett, Jr., William B. Coughlin, Caroline G. Donnelly, Jane C. Edmonds, Thomas S. Elias, Corliss Knapp Engle, Francis O. Hunnewell, Joan M. Hutchins, Matthew J. Kiefer, Ellen West Lovejoy, Janine Evnin Luke, Edith N. K. Meyer, and Robert Ornduff. Peter Del University matters in Cambridge. In early May the Visiting Committee visited for a day and a half, focussing their attention particularly on the quality of care we bring to the maintenance and curation of the living collections here in Jamaica Plain. I am pleased to report that they were extremely supportive and very impressed with the appearance In this capacity, I report to the Vice President for Admimstration at Harvard, Sally Zeckhauser, who manages much of the physical plant and personnel side of the University on behalf of the sevenmember Harvard Corporation. However, like other schools and institutes at the University, the Arboretum has a Visiting Comgroup of individuals to review the workings of the Arboretum and report back of our our landscapes, the richness of holdings, and the extra lengths to which we go to mainaccurate records of all our shrubs and trees. We feel confident that we are setting the standard for what for serious scientific arboreta, and that we have the best documented collection of trees in the country. tain mittee, a appointed A Day to Celebrate Trees to the Board of Overseers, an elected body that governs alongside the Corporation. Our Visiting Committee includes horticultural and botamcal scientists, educators, and long-time friends of the Arboretum. On Saturday, May 6, the Arboretum held its first Celebrate Trees Day. It featured talks on urban forests and street trees, tours of the landscape, a children's storyteller, and giveaways of spruce trees and yellowwood seeds. By the end of the day we had distributed almost 200 spruce and over 100 pots sown with yellowwood. Despite a rather blustery and cool spring day, the volunteers and staff enjoyed the opportunity to spread the word about the importance of trees. ree pacture.r on page 7 Location Susan by Location-Mapping 265 Acres of Plants ' Kelley, Curatorial Associate informaof little value unless the plant in question can be readily located on the grounds, and since 1937 the Arboretum has maintained hand-drawn, finely detailed maps that enable Arboretum curators and visiting scientists to find and study individual specimens. To improve the accuracy and efficiency of plant records and mapping, the staff of the Arboretum made a commitment in the Since its establishment in 1872, the Arboretum has continuously developed and maintained a living collection of trees, shrubs, and vines from around the world, plants that now number nearly 14,000. The collections are a resource for resident and visiting scientists and graduate students of botany, horticulture, and landscape studies, all of whom rely upon the Arboretum's maps and the extensive records that are maintained for each plant in the collection. At the time a specimen is planted on the grounds, its record is opened with its unique identifying accession number and its botanical and common names; the plant's provenance (whether collected from the wild or obtained from a nursery or other botanical institution); how it was received (as a seed, a graft, an individual plant, etc.); and the region(s) of the world to which the species is native. Yet this tion is only the Arboretum but at fifty-five other botanical institutions around the world. (The Winter 1989 issue of Arnoldia [49:1was devoted to the whys and hows of curating the living at collection.) The first step toward the new mapping system was to contract Swissair Photo + Surveys, Ltd. (Zurich) to survey the Arboretum grounds. From aerial photography, Swissair Photo provided the Arboretum with a base map, compatible with a CAD (computer aided design) format, that shows topographic contour lines at intervals of 10 feet and roads, paths, water features, and buildings. A grid system overlaid onto the base map divides the property into 64 individual maps, each 400 feet by 600 feet, and each map is further divided into four quadrants labeled NW, NE, SW, or SE. v mid-1980's to convert to computerized systems the existing plant data (until then maintained on 3\" x 5\" index cards) and hand-drawn maps. With improved records management an immediate goal, a database was designed specifically for the maintenance of botamcal garden and arboretum plant records. The system, called BGBASE, is based on the Arnold Arboretum's documentation methods and is now in use not v conttnued on page 6 The map for bed 7A in the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants showing symbols denoting provenance type, accession number, and an abbreviated form of the botanical name. The dark circles denote multiple plants within a specific accession. 2 A New Face for Chinese Path: A Gallery of Asian Plants Richard Schulhof, Assistant Director a landscape known for trees of historical significance, the Arboretum's Chinese Path stands alone as a place where history is for Education and Public Affairs In written in plants. Roughly a hun- dred years ago, a series of events made possible the creation of a gallery of trees and shrubs near the summit of Bussey Hill that exists today as a magnificent living record of Asian plant explorations and introductions to the North American continent. This spring, work resumed on a project to enhance Chinese Path both aesthetically and as an interpretive display for Arboretum visitors. The site of Chinese Path, the 198-foot Bussey Hill, has long held significance for the people of Boston. During the Revolutionary War, Colonel Eleazer Weld, ancestor of Governor William Weld, owned \"Weld Hill\" as part of a larger property that included much of the present-day Arboretum. At that time, the summit's commanding views of the Boston basin gave strategic importance to Weld Hill, the site of an earthen fortificauon. In 1806, gentlemen farmer Benjamin Bussey acquired the property and made the hill the centerpiece of one of Boston's finest country estates. In addition to a mansion on the hill's southfacing slope, Bussey constructed an The Chinese fringe tree, Chinese Path. one of many Asian species to be enjoyed along tiated for the inclusion of the Arnold Arboretum in the Boston park system, Bussey Hill's out- Jamaica Plain. With space elsewhere already planted, the new Asian collections found a home on the former city property on the southwest side of Bussey Hill. The area, initially named Azalea Path, featured an extensive planting of the Royal azalea (Rhododendron rchlippenbacbzz), collected by John G. Jack in Korea in 1905. Over the next twenty years, specimens of other Asian species collected by Sargent, Jack, and most notably, the great plant explorer Ernest H. Wilson, filled adjacent beds called the \"Collection of Chinese Shrubs.\" Eventually this area expanded to form the broad horseshoe-shaped gallery known today as Chinese Path. This spring the Arboretum continued its efforts to transform Chinese Path into an interpretive exhibit that will trace the history of plant exploration and the ~ ~ ~ continued standing views were to once again determine its use and development. As part of its agreement with Harvard, the City of Boston at first specified that eleven acres near the summit of Bussey Hill be left unplanted for a picnic area. The picnic area was never realized, however, and in 1895 the City of Boston released the reservation area so that it could become part of the Arboretum proper. The timing of the City's decision was truly fortunate, as it provided space for an unprecedented influx of new species for the Arboretum collections. Beginning in 1892 with Charles Sargent's trip to Japan, the Arboretum launched a senes observatory at its summit where evenings of study included star gazing with fellow Bostonians who shared his scientific interests. By the time Bussey bequeathed the property to Harvard and the Arboretum was founded, the name \"Bussey Hill\" was firmly affixed of expeditions to eastern the property. When Charles Sprague Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted negoto Asia that resulted in the addition of over 1,000 species and varieties to the living collections in on page 4 3 ~~~ 3 from page introduction of new plants from East Asia. The redesign, prepared by Gail Wittwer, a student at the Harvard Graduate School of Design, aims to better guide circulation through the area and to update the collection with speci- through recent plant explorations. The path's defimng feature is the botanical legacy of E. H. mens obtained Wilson and other Arboretum explorers. Magnificent specimens from turn-of-the-century explora(Davidia rnvolucrata), Japanese stewartia tions-the dove tree (Stewartza p.reudocamelia), and a paperbark maple (Acer grueum) that many believe to be North America's most outstanding specimen-are now of Sorbus yuana, joined by plantings Ilex fargerzt, Rhodo- dendron farge.rtt, and other shrubs collected by the 1980 SinoAmerican botanical expedition, the first cooperative venture between American and Chinese botanists since 1947. The crowning glory of the area's new plantings will be a grove of more than a dozen wild-collected dawn redwoods (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) that will soon mark the southern terminus of the path. It is hoped that these historic specimens, together with pamphlets, story labels, and other exhibit materials to be Dawn redwoods propagated at the Dana Greenhouses await planting on the grounds. A grove planting of these trees will define the southern end of Chinese Path. provided through a grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, will reveal to visitors the story of over a century of plant exploration and its ~mpact on botanical science, horticulture, and the North American landscape. The Arboretum's Pat Willoughby and Don Garrick (from left) plant a Cornus kousa that was collected by the 1980 Sino-American botanical expedition. Susan Hardy Brown Honored Susan Hardy Brown, herbarium curatorial assistant, has been honored in a new program that recogmzes outstanding employees at Harvard University. Over the years, Susan has done an exceptional job in mobilizing and leading an active group of volunteers to help her and other plant mounters assemble dned plant material into labeled specimens for the collections in Jamaica Plain as well as those in the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambndge. Last year, 18,217 specimens were created in all. Many of the specimens constitute works of art as well as tools for research. Once mounted, they become cntical material in support of our efforts in botanical systematics and biodiversity conservation. In nommatmg Susan for this recognition, Bob Cook applauded the energy and intelligence she brings to her work and the great cheer and good spirits with which she accomplishes it. they consider the implications of their findings. In addition, the project will develop ways for parents to support their children's learning through science investigations conducted at home and through special science activities for families on the Arboenusts as retum grounds. Candace Julyan has joined the Arboretum staff as project director for the Community Science Connection, a new science education project funded by the National Science Foundation. Candace earned her doctorate at the Harvard Graduate School of Education where she investigated students' understanding of seasonal change in trees. Before coming to the Arboretum she developed and directed the National Geographic Kid's Network, a science education project in which students share experimental data about local environmental conditions across a national computer network. In addition to her work with the Community Science Connection, Candace is the developer and host of an interactive television program on MCET entitled \"The Changing Nature of Trees.\" The initial goal of the project, which began in February 1995, has been to create a community among the twenty-six teachers who will serve as the early pioneers in this effort. These teachers are from nine schools within a three-mile radius of the Arboretum : in Boston, the Agassiz School, the John F. Kennedy School, the Joseph P. Manning School, the Ellis Mendell School, the Richard J. Murphy School, and the John Wmthrop School; in Newton, the Mason-Rice and Memorial-Spaulding schools; in Computer Networks, Local Schools, and the Living Collection Candace L. Julyan, Project Director, Community Science Connection evolved from the Arboretum's continuing work with area schools, led by Diane Syverson, while introducing computer technology as a new element in this work. The $1.2 million grant will allow the Arboretum to work with teachers in the Boston, Brookline, and Newton schools to develop a series of investigations that students can conduct in their What role can or should the Arnold Arboretum play in providscience learning opportunities teachers and students in the surrounding communities? How might computer technology be used to support students' understanding of science? How can the Arboretum serve as a resource for parents interested in supporting their children's science education~ Over the next four years, many people at the Arboretum and in local schools will be grappling with these three questions as part of the NSF-funded project, Community Science Connection. As described in Bob Cook's recent Director's Report, this project has ing to Newton and in Brookline, the Lawrence School. This spring, the twenty-six teachers have been exploring their own understanding of the changing nature of trees through direct observations. In addition, they have been mastering the computer technology that they will be using with their students in the fall. This summer these teachers and Arboretum staff will develop the investigations that will serve as the foundation of the project's work. Some of these will involve schoolyards, in neighborhood natural areas, and tum on the Arbore- grounds. By exchanging letters and data on a computer network, students will be able to share their ideas with one another and interact with Arboretum sci- observations of seasonal changes; others may include working with Arboretum scientists. One possibility suggested by Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Director of Lmmg Collections, is to have students conduct some experiments for him on ammal feeding preferences by collecting data about which fruit squirrels select first when offered a selection that ~~~~ cont:nued on page 6 ~~ from page 2 Different features within the landscape are assigned to different laywithin the CAD system, so not only has the ease of managing the plants (which can be seen on their ers grounds are determined by measunng the distance to nearby plants already on the maps. Individual plants are then digitized the maps, with the exact location marked with a symbol that denotes a plant's provenance type (wild or garden collected). Linked to each symbol is the plant's accession number and an abbreviated form of its botanical name. All of this information is gathered directly from the database and is accessed from an active list within AutoCAD. Maps are then pnnted at a map book size of 11 inches x 17 inches for the onto the layer) been greatly improved, but information about landscape elements such as irrigation lines, utility lines, and abutting properties can now be readily obtained. Changes made in the collections are noted in the database and are reflected on the maps via a utilities program that links the own Arboretum staff who use them daily to locate individual plants for prumng, horticultural review, making herbarium specimens, or labelmg. Each plant in the Arboretum's collection is labeled with a dog tag of sorts, a credit card-sized aluminum strip on which is printed the specimen's accession number, botanical name, provenance information, a com- mapping system to BG-BASE. The locations of new plantings on mon name, and a map location. These labels serve staff and visiting researchers as well as students and the some 250,000 visitors who explore the Arboretum each year. New Staff Thornton, Landscape Preservation Assistant, joined the Arborestaff in January. Kirsten is participating in our collaboration with the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation of the National Park Service. With the help of the Arboretum's nursery staff she is in charge of establishing and maintaining a historical plant nursery in our south nursery area. The nursery will be a holding area for approximately 250 plants propagated from historically significant trees and shrubs from National Park Service sites. When the plants reach an appropriate size, they will be returned to their respective sites as a genetically identical replacement for a plant that has been lost or is in imminent danger. We are currently nurturing propagules from the Olmsted elm at Fairsted, in Brookline; from the yellowwood planted by the Adams family at their Quincy homestead; and from a number of historic apple trees from the home of Franklin Delano Roosevelt in Hyde Park, New York. Kirsten is a 1994 graduate of the University of Rhode Island with a degree in plant science. She was a 1994 Arnold Arboretum summer intern. Kirsten tum 5 ~ ~ ~ ~ from page tional teachers and schools and other tree< to ~oin includes the gingko the project. The CSC approach to science education is in keeping with many of the science education reform mtiatmes taking place in the state and in the nation. The unusual aspect of the project is its base in an institution like the Arnold Arboretum. We feel that our position as a community resource and a scientific research community makes us uniquely qualified to explore new possibilities for collaborations among schools and species. In September 1995 the first group of students will begin to communicate with one another and with the Arboretum staff about their findings. At the end oiF the school year, they will be invited to the Arboretum for a conference at which they will present their findings to each other and meet their electronic colleagues face-to-face. In the 1996-1997 school year, we will invite addi- informal science institutions. Throughout the project we will document our expenences in order to encourage and support other arboreta and botanical gardens interested in replicating our work. By the end of the project we hope to have answers to our questions about the role of the Arboretum in school science programs, about the role of computer technology in supporting meanmgful science activities, and about the role that parents can education. play in their children's A Day to Celebrate Trees: Events to Promote the Appreciation and Enjoyment of Trees A pot of yellowwood seeds (in the head for a new home. bag) and a young spruce tree Jim Gorman, second from left, led visitors to some of the highlights among the spring-flowering trees and shrubs. Magnolia 'Elizabeth' was the cynosure of all eyes and several cameras. Gary Koller, trees on not seen, led an informal forum on street Richard Schulhof, right, discusses the ideas behind the design of the Arboretum on a walking tour. Arborway as well as within the grounds. Among participants were (from left) Sydelle Pearl; Dave Bloniarz of the University of Massachusetts; Anne Joseph; Jim Gorman, Arboretum staff; and Corliss Engle, Arboretum volunteer and member of the Visiting Committee. 7 the "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23297","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14e8127.jpg","title":"1995-55-1","volume":55,"issue_number":1,"year":1995,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Preface","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25123","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14ebb6f.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"> t x . ~ Preface The process of selecting and naming cultivated plants is as old as human society itself, and the rise of civilization based on an agrarian society was in large measure dependent on the process. While plants of agricultural significance were the primary focus of attention, plants of strictly ornamental value were certainly not overlooked. Consequently, by 1629 John Parkinson (1567-1650) could author the first book devoted entirely to garden plants, Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestrls, and enumerate the many variants that had been selected and perpetuated through propagation and cultivation in gardens. The tradition of documenting and describing cultivars has continued since Parkinson's time and in 1753 took-along with botanical nomenclature-a new turn with the introduction by Linnaeus of binomial nomenclature. It was at this point that the polynomial or phrase names used to refer to the different types of plants were replaced by a two-word name incorporating a generic name coupled with a specific epithet (for example, Quercus alba, our native white oak). Subsequent to the time of Linnaeus, the plants intentionally selected by growers for a particular attribute or combination of attributes were accommodated within the botanical system of classification and named using the infraspecific ranks of varietas and forma a (e.g., Quercus robur f. fastigiata, now Q. robur 'Fastigiata'). However, because it is these same ranks that botanists use to name naturally occurring variants in the world's spontaneous floras, ambiguity was inevitable. Did a particular varietal or forma name refer to a naturally occurring plant or to one selected for a combination of attributes and perpetui ated only in cultivation by skilled propagators and knowledgeable gardeners? As confusion mounted, it became necessary to establish two separate systems of nomenclature: one for botanists studying forms occurring in nature, and another for horticulturists selecting and naming plants for economic or ornamental value. With the publication in 1953 of the first edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (W. T. Stearn, 1953, London: RHS) the term cultivar, which merged the two words \"cultivated variety\" into one, was officially introduced to the horticultural world, and the rules governing the naming of cultivars were formally divorced from the rules for naming botanical taxa. Henceforth, plants selected for unique attributes of horticultural importance were to be given so-called \"fancy\" names in the vernacular (e.g., Magnolia grandiflora 'Tulsa'), whereas botanical epithets at the species and infraspecific ranks would continue to employ names in Latin format (e.g., Magnolia acuminata var. subcordata). Additionally, the new \"cultivated code\" provided for the designation of national and international registration authorities that would serve as clearing houses for monitoring the use of cultivar names, thus insuring that their formation and application followed the recommendations of the Code. A further responsibility of registration authorities stipulated by the Code was the development of master checklists of cultivar names. This involved accounting for the 4 genus from the time of Philip Miller's The Gardenonward. The goal was to produce master checklists Dictionary (sixth edition, 1752) of cultivar names-in both Latin that predated the \"cultivated code\" and the vernacularin order to stabilize cultivar nomenclature and to avoid duplication of names. At the same time, lists of known synonyms and standard references for a given group of cultivated plants would be developed. Over the years since 1953, a great deal of progress has been made in attempts to achieve these goals, and literally thousands of new cultivars have been named and introduced into the worldwide horticultural marketplace. Locating these published names in the literature and finding descriptions and checklists, however, is often a daunting task for the uninitiated, and tracing elusive cultivar names frequently leads to a dead end. In providing an up-to-date listing of cultivar checklists and the widely diverse literature in which cultivar names and pertinent descriptions and illustrations can be found, Professor Tucker and his coauthors have provided a great service to horticultural science as well as garden historians and landscape architects involved in historic landscape preservation. This listing, moreover, gives us an indication of where we have been in the past and provides the basis for documentation of future developments in ornamental horticulture. The wealth of information contained in this listing is a particularly welcome summary of work to date inasmuch as a new, fourth edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants is due to appear later this year. Professor Tucker and his coauthors are to be congratulated for this unique and useful contribution. literature pertaining to each group ers or ~ Stephen A. Spongberg Horticultural Taxonomist Arnold Arboretum . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introduction","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25121","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eb726.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Tucker, Arthur O.; Kunst, Scott G.; Vrugtman, Freek; Hatch, Laurence C.","article_content":"Introduction traditionally traded plants over the back fence. For many, identification beyond \"grandmother's pink rose\" is not needed. Others, however, want to know the correct name of the cultivar (a term derived from cultivated vamety~. Is your old white iris Iris germanica 'Alba', or is it really 'Albicans'? An even more vexing problem is authenticating the identification of purchased plant materials from both mail-order and local nurseries. Nurseries receive plants under one name, often from a commercial grower, and are frequently slow to change. Is your 'Black Magic' iris correctly identified, or is it really 'Eleanor Roosevelt'? Have you purchased Rosa damascena 'Trigintipetala' because of its anticipated fragrance and light pink flowers but received instead a hybrid with no damask rose genes, dark pink flowers, and little fragrance? Correct identification of cultivars requires consultation of cultivar checklists and ultimately of period descriptions. This brings up another problem: who has published checkhsts of your favorite plant group? Our initial interest in compiling a list of cultivar checklists was generated by work in historical restoration. The task was to locate pre-1900 cultivars of ornamentals and to verify them by cumulative checklists (Kunst and Tucker, 1989). We have since expanded this to an attempt to locate all cultivar checklists for ornamental plants. (Because these lists are often scattered and sometimes difficult to locate, we would appreciate any corrections and updatings.)\/ In the following, some historical checklists are included, but we have concentrated on the most recent, updated, cumulative ones. Our cut-off date of publication, with few Gardeners have exceptions, is January 1994. The ideal checklist mcludes the name of the cultivar, the date of introduction (or registration), the name of the hybridizer, parentage, description, and colored photograph. Of course, this ideal is rarely achieved, especially in the older literature. For this reason, we have also mcluded botanical and horticultural revisions when cultivars are described and illustrated. Good general references to extant cultivars are Harkness and D'Angelo (1986) and Hatch (1986). The Wisley Trials in the Journal and Proceedings of the Royal Horticultural Society are recommended for cultivar descriptions; Wright (1984) also discusses many cultivars. Besides numerous cultivars in its \"Cultivar & Germplasm Releases\" section, HortScience has become the vehicle for publication of cultivar names for unassigned woody genera (Huttleston, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993; Vrugtman, 1994), genera at the Arnold Arboretum (Spongberg, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994a), Kalmia (Jaynes, 1989), and Syringa (Vrugtman, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1991, 1994b). Listings of other cultivars are supposed to be maintained by International Registration Authorities (American Association of Nurserymen, c. 1987; Leslie, 1986; Schneider, 1986a; Vrugtman, 1972, 1973, 1977, 1981, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1989c, 1990b, 1990d). These 6 designated authorities are further supplemented by cumulative checklists and origination lists maintained and published by specialist societies. The general starting point for valid publication of cultivar names is the sixth edition of Philip Miller's The Gardeners Dictionary (1752). The rules for naming cultivars are covered by Brickell (1980) and Greuter (1988). The American Association of Nurserymen (c. 1987) and Allan (1988) have published gmdes for the public. A recent problem that may confuse efforts to stabilize cultivar names is the substitution of trademarks. The statement by the AAN that \"under Federal law, plant variety (cultivar) names may not be trademarked\" actually runs counter to the current practice in some large wholesale North American nurseries. For example, many horticulturists know the trademarked name Ilex China GirlTM but have never heard of'Mesog', its registered cultivar name. Even the prestigious Modern Roses 10 (Cairns, 1993) does not list 'Wilwind', the cultivar name, but rather WindmillTM. What, then, is the real cultivar name? The Townsend-Purnell Plant Patent Act of 1930 provides a 17-year patent protection for asexually propagated cultivars, and the Plant Variety Protection Act of 1980 provides 18-year legal protection for sexually propagated cultivars in the United States. In order to circumvent this limitation of time, some nurseries have resorted to trademark names (Chadwick, 1988; Darke, 1991, 1992; Dates and Luby, 1988; E. McClintock, personal communication, 1990; Royon, 1986). While this is allowed by the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ~Brickell, 1980~, with this practice different cultivars may be substituted under the same trademark name from year to year. Although we understand the monetary reason for using trademark names, we must chastise the nursery industry for creating a vast confusion in the process, and no solution is envisioned for the immediate future. Ultimately, after having spent good money for 'Munstead' lavender because of its association with Gertude Jekyll, it is disappointing to consult the checklists and realize that you have really purchased 'Compacta'. Errant nursery cataloguers will only be corrected by gardeners who insist on correct labelling for their money. Arthur O. Tucker Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources Delaware State University Freek Vrugtman Royal Botanical Gardens Box 399 Hamilton, Canada Ontario L8H 3H8 Dover, DE 19901-2277 Scott G. Kunst 536 Third St. Ann Arbor, MI 48103 Laurence C. Hatch 1 P. O. Box 12011 NC 27605 Raleigh, U.S.A. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Checklist of Cultivars","article_sequence":3,"start_page":7,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25119","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eb328.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Tucker, Arthur O.; Kunst, Scott G.; Vrugtman, Freek; Hatch, Laurence C.","article_content":"Checklist of Cultivars Abies See conifers. Acacia See Australian & South African plants. Acer Cultivars of maples are listed by Bean (1970-1988), ), Bom (1982), Grootendorst ( 1969a~, Harris (1983), ~, B (1984-1986), Mulligan (1958\/, Murray (1970), (1919), and Weaver (1976b). The cultivars of the vine maple (A. circinatum Pursh) are discussed by Vertrees (1979). Cultivars of red maple (A. rubrum L.), sugar maple (A. saccharum Marsh.), Norway maple (A. platanoides L.\/, ), and silver maple (A. saccharinum L.) are listed by Santamour & McArdle (1982a, 1982b, 1982c, 1982d). The cultivars of Japanese maple (A. palmatum Thunb.) are thoroughly documented by Harris (1982) and Vertrees (1978, 1987) with color photographs. Additional recent registrations are recorded in Huttleston (1986, 1989). Kriissmannn Schwerin Achimenes See Gesneriaceae. Aconitum Some of the cultivars of the monkshoods are listed by Lord (1988\/ and Mussel (1986\/. Adiantum See ferns. Adonis Cultivars of Adonis amurensis Regel & Radde are discussed by Nakamura ( 1964). Aeschynanthus See Gesnenaceae. Aesculus The cultivars of the horsechestnuts are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst ~ 1967a), Krussmannn (1984-1986), and Wright1985). Agonis See Australian & South African plants. Agapanthus The cultivars of the Nile lilies are discussed in the Wisley Trials of 1977 (Royal Horticultural Society, 1978). Aglaonema The cultivars of the Chinese evergreens are listed by Jervis ( 1980). Allium The few ornamental cultivars of Allium, the onions, are listed by Davies ( 1992\/. Alnus Cultivars of the alders are listed by Ashburner \/ 1986) but without introduction dates or background. Grootendorst (1972a) and Schneider (1965a) also discuss the cultivars of alders. An additional registration of Alnus is recorded by Huttleston (1988). Cultivars of Alnus are also discussed by Bean (1970-1988) and Kriissmann (1984-1986). Aloe The South African Aloe Breeders Association has circulated an unpublished list of Aloe cultivars (for example, 1987), and many cultivars are published in Aloe and other South African journals. Alsobia See Gesneriaceae. Alyssum The cultivars of the alyssums are discussed by Dudley (1966\/. Amaryllidaceae Traub & Hannibal (1960) list the cultivars of Brunsvigia with later additions published in Plant Life. Traub (1961) lists the cultivars of x Crinodonna with later additions in Plant Life. Kelsey & Dayton(1942) and Anonymous (1958f) are the first to list the cultivars of the garden amaryllis, Hippeastrum, but the most comprehensme list is by Traub et al. ( 1964) with subsequent registrations in Plant Life. The nerines are hsted by Kelsey & Dayton (1942), 8 the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association ( 1991and Smithers (1993),but the most comprehensive lists are Menninger (1960), Roberts (1984), and Smee (1984) with later additions in editions of Plant Life. Amelanchier A checklist of ornamental and fruiting shadbush cultivars is Hilton (1982, 1984\/. Krussmann (1984-1986) also lists cultivars. Anigozanthos See Australian & South African plants. Anemone Many cultivars of Anemone are listed by Trehane (1989\/. The cultivars of A. nemorosa L. are listed by the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1991)and Toubol ( 1981The history and performance of cultivars of Anemone japonica (Thunb.) Sieb. & Zucc. are discussed by Clausen (1972a) and Hensen (1968, 1979). Antirrhinum The cultivars and performance of the snapdragons are listed by the Royal Horticultural Society (1913b). Arctostaphylos The cultivars of the bearberries and manzanitas are recorded by Keeley & Keeley (1994). Ardisia The Japanese cultivars of Ardisia japonica (Hornst.) Blume, the marlberry, are discussed by Yinger & Hahn (1985). Argyranthemum The cultivars of the marguerite are compared and contrasted with studio photographs by Cheek (1993). ). Aster The most comprehensive lists of the cultivars of the asters are by Meier (1973a, 1973b, 1973c, 1973d) and Jensma (1989); the latter is being expanded and revised. Kelsey & Dayton (1942), Royal Horticultural Society (1902, 1908a, 1926a), and Trehane (1989) discuss the cultivars of the hardy asters, but these are published without introduction dates or background. Ranson (1946) lists mostly species with few cultivars. The history and performance of cultivars of the asters are discussed by Allen (1983), Clausen (1973a), and Jehtto & Schacht (1990). Barret (1959) discusses the performance of cultivars of A. ericoides L. Astartea See Australian & South African plants. Astilbe The most comprehensive published list of Astilbe cultivars is Ievinya & Lusinya (1975)with c. 170 cultivars, detailed descriptions of c. 50, and an extensive bibliography. Hensen (1969) discusses the history and performance of species and cultivars of Astilbe. Jelitto & Schacht (1990), the Royal Horticultural Society (1970b), Schneider (1968), and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars of Astilbe. Aubrieta The cultivars of A. columnae Guss., A. deltoidea (L.) DC., and A. intermedia Heldr. & Orph. are thoroughly discussed by Clausen (1973c) and Hensen (1976). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars of Aubrieta. Australian & South African plants The Australian Cultivar Registration Authority has circulated a continually updated list (for example, 1988) of registered cultivars of Acacia, Agoms, Anigozanthos, Astartea, Baeckea, Banksia, Baura, Blechnum, Boronia, Brachychiton, Brachycome, Callistemon, Callitris, Ceratopetalum, Chamelaucium, Correa, Crowea, Epacris, Eremophila, Eriostemon, Eucalyptus, Eucryphia, Gremllea, Hakea, Hardenbergia, Helichrysum, Hypocalymma, Kennedia, Kunzea, Lechenaultia, Leptospermum, Lophostemon, Melaleuca, Myoporum, Pandorea, Pimelea, Plectranthus, Prostanthera, Pultenaea, Scaevola, Spyridium, Telopea, and Tetratheca. 9 Baeckea See Australian & South African plants. Banksia See Australian & South African plants and Proteaceae. Baura See Australian & South African plants. Begonia The most comprehensme checklist of begonias is Ingles (1990). This should be supplemented with Kelsey & Dayton (1942), Thompson (1976-1978, 1984), and Thompson & Thompson (1980, 1982). Cultmars of B. semperflorens-cultorum hybrids are published by Maatsch (1962), Maatsch & Nolting (1969, 1971a), and Nolting & Zimmer (1975a, 1980a, 1985, 1987). Cultivars of tuberous begonias are listed by Haegeman (1978, 1979) and Langdon (1969). Cultivars of other begonias are published by the American Begonia Society (1957, 1958, 1962, 1967, 1985). Registrations in The Begonian are summarized by Vrugtman( 1972). These should be used in conjunction with Japan Begoma Society (1980), Misono (c. 1974-1978), and Thompson & Thompson (1981). ). Berberis Schneider (1923) covers the publication history and descriptions of cultivars of the barberries. The cultivars of the barberries are also listed by Ahrendt (1942, 1949, 1961), ), Krussmann (1984-1986), Laar (1972), and Wyman (1962b). Bergenia The cultivars of the bergenias are discussed by Beckett (1983), Laar (1973\/, and Yeo (1971a, b\/. Betula Cultivars of the birches are listed by Ashburner ( 1980\/, Fontaine ( 1970a\/, Grootendorst (1973a), Jong (1986), Santamour & McArdle (1989), and Wyman (1962c). Cultivars of Betula are also discussed by Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann( 1984-1986). Blechnum See ferns. Boronia See Australian & South African plants. Bougainvillea The most comprehensive discussions of cultivars of bougainvillea are Choudhury & Singh ( 1981 ) and MacDaniels ( 1981Previous checklists are Anonymous ( 1959c) and Gillis (1976). Subsequent registrations are recorded by Singh (1986). Brachychiton See Australian & South African plants. Brachycome See Australian & South African plants. Bromeliaceae A preliminary checklist of bromeliad cultivars has been prepared by Beadle (1991)\/ and the Bromeliad Society (1989). Brunsvigia See Amaryllidaceae. Bucinellina See Gesneriaceae. Buddleja The cultivars of the butterfly bushes are listed by Leeuwenberg ( 1979) but without dates of introduction or hybridizers. Cultivars of the butterfly bushes are also discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1972b), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Bulbs The cultivars of many hardy and tender bulbs are published by the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (most recent is 1991).Many cultivars are also listed in Trehane (1989). Buxus A guide for registration and documentation of cultivar names of Buxus is provided by Dudley & Eisenbeiss ( 1971The cultivars of boxwood are listed by Bean (1970-1988),Batdorf (1987, 1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Wagenknecht (1965, 1967, 1971, 1972). Cactaceae Cultivars of many succulents, including cacti, are listed by Jacobsen (1977). The cultivars of Epiphyllum, the orchid cacti, are thoroughly discussed by Rainbow Gardens ( 1979), along with cultivars of Epiphyllum x Aporocactus. This should be supplemented with 10 (c. 1982-1985), who provides good color photographs and English captions in his of Epiphyllum; additional color photographs are presented by Leue (c. 1987). The guide cultivars of Schlumbergera are discussed by Horobin (1985\/. ). Caladium The cultivars of the caladiums are evaluated for landscaping by Wilfret (1984\/. Callistemon See Australian & South African plants. Callistephus The cultivars of the China aster, C. chinensis (L.) Nees, are assembled into checklists by Maatsch (1958, 1964), Maatsch & Nolting (1971c), Nolting & Zimmer (1975c, 1981, ). 1987), and Olmsted et al. (1923). Callitris See Australian & South African plants. Calluna A guide to naming heather cultivars is McClintock (1986\/. Bean (1970-1988), Chapple (1951),Johnson (1956), Krussmann (1984-1986), Laar (1968, 1970a, 1974, 1977a), Letts (1966), Proudley & Proudley (1974), and Underhill (1990) list many cultivars of heathers. Munson (1981, 1984) provides a comprehensive key to the species and cultivars of Calluna with full botanical descriptions in the 1981 thesis. Camellia Bean ( 1970-1988Durrant ( 1982\/, Erdman ( 1949~, Gerbing ( 1945~, Hertrich ( 1954-1959~, Hume (1955), Krussmann (1984-1986), Macoboy ( 1981and Sharp ( 1957) list many cultivars of camellias, but Woodroff & Donnan (1990) is probably the best compact checklist, while Savige (1993) is probably the most complete list with 41,000 cultivars. The Japanese cultivars of camellias are listed by Tuyama (1968), while the Chinese cultivars are listed by the Kunming Institute of Botany, Academica Sinica(1986\/. The International Camellia Society expects to publish the International Camellia Register. Campanula The history and performance of cultivars of the bellflowers are discussed by Clausen (1976) and Lewis & Lynch (1989). Trehane (1989) also lists the cultivars of the bellflowers. Canna Kelsey & Dayton (1942) has published a list of canna cultivars without dates and hybridizers. Additional information is given by the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1991), \/, Royal Horticultural Society (1908b, 1909), and Trehane (1989). ~ Mukherjee & Khoshoo (1970) provide botanical characteristics of Hashizume to taxa - ~ are sometimes grown as ornamentals (e.g., and Andrews (1984) records extensive information on these cultivars in her monumental book. Carnivorous plants Named cultivars of Drosera, Nepenthes, and Sarracenia are listed by Schlauer (1986, 1987; note that the first list neglects to capitalize the cultivars) and Kusakabe (1987). Additional cultivars of Sarracenia are later listed by Mellichamp & Gardner (1987). The hybrids of Nepenthes are reported by Fleming (1979). Fleming's list is reprinted in Pietropaolo & Pietropaolo (1986). An additional cultivar of Nepenthes is listed by Robinson many cultivars. Capsicum The peppers 'Fips'), (1989). Carpinus Cultivars of Ostrya, the hop hornbeams, and Carpinus, the hornbeams, are discussed by Rushforth (1985), Schneider (1965a), and Wright (1986). Cultivars of Carpinus and Ostrya are also discussed by Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986). Castanea The cultivars of the potentially blight-resistant chestnuts are discussed by Jaynes & Graves (1963) and Nienstaedt & Graves (1955). Ceanothus Van Rensselaer & McMinn~1942) provide the most comprehensive listing of the wildlilacs and buckrushes. Additional cultivars are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Hogan (1988), ), 11 I (1986\/, Keeley & Keeley (1994), Krussmann (1984-1986), Schmidt (1962), and Smith (1979). Ceratopetalum See Australian & South African plants. Cercis The cultivars of the redbuds are discussed by Raulston (1990\/. Chaenomeles The cultivars of the Japanese quinces are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1968a), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Weber (1963). Chamelaucium See Australian & South African plants. Chrysanthemum See Argyranthemum for the marguerite and Dendranthema for the florist's chrysanthemum. Cistus The cultmars of the rock roses are discussed by Bean ( 19701988), Warburg (1931),and Warburg & Warburg (1930). Citrus The cultivars of Citrus, some ornamental, are listed by Hodgson(1967). Clematis A general clematis checklist is Lloyd \/1965, 1989\/; ); Fretwell (1989) provides good color photographs. The cultivars of C. viticella L. are listed by Rogerson (1985). The large-flowered clematis hybrids are published by Evison ( 1985and Spingarn (1935), while the hybrids of section Atragene are published by Pringle (1973). Kelsey & Dayton (1942) also provide a list of Clematis but without introduction dates and background. Some cultivars are also published by Laar (1985), Markham (1935), and Trehane ( 1989\/. Codiaeum The list for the garden croton, Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Blume, of Kelsey & Dayton (1942) provides no introduction dates or background. Additional cultivars are listed by Anonymous ( 1959a) and Brown (1960). The latter provides good color illustraHuttleston tions but also includes a number of botanical errors. Coleus-Plectranthus While no proper checklist exists for coleus cultivars, Pedley & Pedley ( 1974) and Stout (1916) provide many materials for the production of such a list. Recent registrations of Plectranthus are listed by the Austrahan Cultivar Registration Authomty (1988). ). Columnea See Gesneriaceae. Conifers Lewis (1986a, b) provides a guide for the naming of conifer cultivars. The Royal Horticultural Society has started an ambitious registry of conifers; so far Ables to Pherosphaera have been published (Lewis, 1985; Lewis & Leslie, 1987, 1989). Meanwhile, Welch & Haddow (1993) have published a world checklist of conifers. Den Ouden & Boom (1978) and Krussmann (1985) present the cultivated conifers with introduction dates and descriptions, while Cope (1986) provides scant information on dates or origins. Welch (1991) is an updating of both den Ouden & Boom ( 1978) and Welch ( 1979). Many cultivars of conifers are also listed by Bean ( 19701988). Munson (1973) has prepared a vegetative key to dwarf and slow-growing conifers, while Obrizok (1991)provides growth forms of dwarf conifers. The cultivars of the firs (Abies spp.\/ and spruces (Picea spp.) are listed by Gelderen (1975). Silver firs, Abies alba Mill., are discussed by Horsman (1984). Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica (L. f.) G. Don, cultivars are treated by Kortmann (1987) and Tripp (1993). Juniper (Juniperus spp.) cultivars are listed by Gelderen (1984) and Grootendorst (1968c). Pine (Pinus spp.) cultivars are listed by Gelderen (1982), while the cultivars of Japanese five needle pine, P. parviflora Sieb. & Zucc., are listed by Valavanis (1976). The cultivars of yews, Taxus, are listed by Chadwick & Keen (1976). The cultivars of American arborvitae, Thuja occidentalis L., are listed by Grootendorst \/1971b), while Wyman 12 (1961c) discusses cultivars of four arborvitae species. Hemlock (Tsuga spp.) cultivars are documented in Swartley (1984). These should be supplemented with the color photographs of Harrison (1975) and Gelderen & van Hoey Smith (1986) and the black and white photographs of Welch (1979). Cordyline A list for the cultivars of the ti, Cordyline terminalis (L.) Kunth, is Kelsey & Dayton (1942) but without introduction dates and background. Additional cultivars are listed by Anonymous (1959d). Cornus Cultivars of the dogwoods are listed by Bean (19701988),Howard ( 1961Krussmann (1984-1986), and Santamour & McArdle (1985a). Jaynes, Brand, & Arnow list the cultivars of the kousa or Japanese dogwood, C. kousa Hance. Additional registrations are recorded by Spongberg (1988, 1990). Correa See Australian & South African plants. Corylus Bibliographic references to the cultivars of the filberts are recorded by Debor (1978). ). Cosmos The Indian cultivars of cosmos are listed by Anonymous (1959b). Cotoneaster The cultivars of the rock sprays are treated by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1966a), Hachmann et al. (1987), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Crataegus Wyman ( 1962d) lists the cultivars of the hawthorns but with few introduction dates and little background. Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1967c), and Krussmann (1984-1986) x also discuss the cultivars of the hawthorns. Crinodonna See Amaryllidaceae. Crinum The cultivars of the spider lilies are listed by Hannibal ( 1970-71~. Crocosmia The cultivars of the montbretias are listed by Kostelijk ( 1984~. Crocus The cultivars of crocus are documented by the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association \/. ( 1991but further information is provided by Ruksans (1981) and Trehane (1989). Crowea See Australian & South African plants. Cryptomeria See conifers. Cyclamen Some cultivars of Cyclamen are recorded by Grey-Wilson (1988\/, the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association ( 1991Trehane (1989), and Wellensiek ( 1961while a comprehensive list of cultivars is Wellensiek et al. (1961). \/. Cytisus The cultivars of the brooms (Cytisus and Genista) are treated by Bean (1970-1988), ), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Laar (1971). \/. . listings of heaths and heathers (e.g., Johnson, 1956; Munson, 1981; Underhill, 1971),and separately by Bean (1970-1988),Krussmann (19841986), and Laar (1977b). Dahlia The most comphrehensive checklist of dahlias is that of the Royal Horticultural Society (1969a) and later supplements (1988d, 1989c, 1992a). Unfortunately, with one exception (a cultivar from 1850), this list omits all cultivars 1789-1859 and many of the cultivars 18601900. Many early twentieth-century cultivars are amply covered in Norton (1924), Olmsted et al. (1923), and Sandhack (1927). Recent cultivars are listed by the American Dahlia Society (e.g., 1989) in a paperbound booklet as a supplement to the Bulletin of the American Dahlia Society. Dalbergaria See Gesneriaceae. Daboecia Daboecia cultivars are included in many : 13 Daphne The cultivars of Daphne are listed by Brickell & Mathew (1976). Bean (1970-1988), Hodgkins (1961),and Krussmann (1984-1986) also discuss the cultivars of Daphne. Delphinium The Royal Horticultural Society (1970a) is a checklist of delphinium names that updates a list previously published in 1949. International registration of delphinium cultivars is handled by the Delphinium Society (Cooper, 1984, 1986, 1987, 1989, 1990b, 1991, 1992, 1993, 1994). Edwards (1987) and Trehane (1989) are recent lists of cultivars. Bishop (1949), Cooper (1990a), Edwards (1989), Genders ( 1963a), Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Ogg ( 1961and the Royal Horticultural Society (1926e) also list many cultivars. Kelsey & Dayton (1942) also lists delphiniums but without introduction dates and background. Dendranthema The cultivars of D. x grandiflorum (Ramat.)Kitamura, or florist's chrysanthemum, are first listed by Olmsted et al. (1923) and Kelsey & Dayton (1942). These lists omit all cultivars 1789-1889. Cumming (1964) presents some history. Scott & Scott (1950) are also recommended for early cultivars and hybridizers. Additional cultivars are listed by Gosling (1964, 1973b, 1980) and the [U.S.] National Chrysanthemum Society ( 1991Genders (1961), \/, Gosling (1973a), Jelitto & Schacht ( 1990), and Trehane (1989) also list some cultivars. Niwa (1936) should be consulted for Japanese cultivars. Desmodium The cultivars of the tick trefoils are listed by Lemmens ( 1985\/. ). Deutzia The cultivars of the deutzias are discussed by Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1958b). Dianthus The Royal Horticultural Society has published the international register for pinks and carnations( 1983) with supplements (1984b, 1985b, 1986b, 1988b, 1988c, 1989b, 1990a), which supersede the 1974 list. These lists are very comprehensive, but American cultivars (such as 'Aqua') are slow to be mtegrated. These checklists should be used in conjunction with Bailey (1990), Mansfield ( 1951Sitch (1975),and Smith (1990). The history and performance of D. gratianopolitanus Vill. and D. plumarius L. are discussed in Hensen (1981).Kelsey & Dayton (1942) include American carnation cultivars. Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list many cultivars of perennial Dianthus. Diastema See Gesneriaceae. Diervilla The cultivars of the bush honeysuckles are discussed by are Schneider ( 1930\/. Dracaena The Indian cultivars of the dracaenas listed by Anonymous (1959d). Drosera See carnivorous plants. Echeveria Carruthers & Ginns (1973\/ list cultivars of Echeveria but provide no dates. Epacris See Australian & South African plants. Epimedium The cultivars of the epimediums are listed by Laar (1981a). Epiphyllum See Cactaceae. Episcia See Gesneriaceae. Eremophila See Australian & South African plants. Erica A guide to naming heath cultivars is McClintock (1986). Bean (1970-1988),Chapple (1951),Johnson (1956), Krussmann (19841986), Laar ( 1970a, 1977a), Letts (1966), Proudley & Proudley ( 1974\/, Underhill (1990), and Laar (1974) list many cultivars of 14 heaths. Munson (1981, 1984) provides a comprehensive key to species and cultivars of Erica with full botanical descriptions in the 1981 thesis. Erigeron The history and performance of cultivars of the daisy fleabanes are discussed by Clausen (1972b), Hensen (1966), Jelitto & Schacht (1990), and Oudshoorn (1975). Trehane (1989) also lists many cultivars of the daisy fleabanes. Eriostemon See Australian & South African plants. Erodium The cultivars of the heron's bills are listed by the British Pelargonium and Geranium Society (1970). Erythrina The species and cultivars of Erythrina are listed by McClintock ( 1982\/. Escallonia The cultivars of the escallonias are listed by Bean ( 1970-1988), Krussmann ( 19841986), and Schneider & Laar (1970). Eucalyptus See Australian & South African plants. Eucodonia See Gesneriaceae. Eucryphia The cultivars of Eucryphia are discussed by Wright (1983a) but with no introduction dates or background. Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann(1984-1986) also list some cultivars. Recent registrations are listed by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (1988). ). Euonymus The cultivars of Euonymus are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Ilsink & Jong (1986), Krussmann (1984-1986), Laar (1979), and Lancaster (1981).An additional registration is recorded by Huttleston (1986). Euphorbia Ecke (1976) lists cultmars of the poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima Willd. ex Klotzsch. Additional registrations are recorded by Huttleston (1989). Trehane (1989) and Turner (1983) discuss the cultivars of the hardy spurges. Fagus Wyman (1962a, 1964) lists the cultivars of the beeches but with few introduction dates and little ), background. Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1975), and Krussmann (1984-1986) also discuss the cultivars of the beeches. Spongberg (1988, 1989) records additional registrations. Ferns Maatsch (1980) lists cultivars of ferns with descriptions, background information, and English vernacular names. Jones (1987) and Mickel (1994) list many cultivars of ferns. The cultivars of Adiantum, maidenhair ferns, are listed in Goudey (1985). The cultivars of the staghorn ferns, Platycerium, are listed by Vail ( 1984\/. The cultivars of the royal ferns, Osmunda regalis L., are listed by Anderson (1971).Recent registrations of Blechnum are listed by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority( 1988\/. Forsythia The cultivars of the forsythias are published by Bean ( 1970-1988), Hebb ( 1971 \/, Krussmann (1984-1986), Werken (1988), and Wyman (1961a, 1961b). Spongberg (1988) records additional registrations. Fraxinus The cultivars of the ashes are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Bom (1982\/, Grootendorst (1966b), Krussmann (1984-1986), McArdle & Santamour (1984), and Santamour & McArdle (1983c). Fuchsia Parker \/ 1986) provides a guide for fuchsia cultivar identification. A comprehensive checklist of cultivars of fuchsias is Boullemier (1975, 1980, 1982, 1985). Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986) discuss some hardy cultivars. Ewart ( 1982, 1987) and Saunders ( 1971- 15 s ' 1973)describe and picture many of these cultivars. These should be used in conjunction with Manthey (1990), Proudley (1975), and Thorne( 1959). Gaillardia The cultivars and performance of the gaillardias are listed by the Royal Horticultural ). Society (1930c). snowdrops are listed by Bowles( 1956), the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1991),Trehane (1989),and Yeo (1975). ). Genista The cultivars of the brooms (Cytisus and Genista) are treated by Bean (1970-1988), ), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Laar (1971). ). Gentiana Bartlett (1975) includes many cultivars of gentians in her book. Many cultivars are also hsted by Trehane (1989). Geranium The history and performance of cultivars of the hardy geraniums are discussed by Clausen (1974b). Yeo (1985) includes information on many cultivars of the hardy geraniums in his comprehensive book. Clifton (1992), Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Trehane (1989), and Walsweer (1988) list many cultivars. Gesneriaceae Cultivars of Achimenes, the orchid pansies, are listed by the American Gesneria Society (1957), Arnold (1969), and Townsend (1984). Cultivars of Aeschynanthus are listed by Dates (1990). Cultivars of Columnea and allied genera (Bucinellina, Dalbergaria, Pentadenia, and Trichantha) are listed by Arnold (1963b, 1966) and Dates (1987). Cultivars of Episcia and Alsobia, the carpet plants, are listed by the American Gesneria Society (1957), Arnold (1963a, 1968, 1977), and Dates (1993). Cultivars of Kohleria, the tree gloxinias, and Smithiantha are listed by the American Gesneria Society (1957), the American Gloxinia Society (1962), Batcheller (1985), ), and Moore (1953). Cultivars of Nematanthus are listed by ~ Galanthus The cultivars of the Arnold (1978). The master variety lists for Samtpaulia, the African violets, are published by Boland (1983, 1984, 1985, 1986, 1987, 1988), Frank (1975), ), Rector (1963), and Tretter (1976) and should be supplemented with Kawakami (c. 1981),who includes English captions and a Japanese text with color photographs. Cultivars of Sinningia are listed by Arnold (1975) and Dates (1988). Cultivars of Streptocarpus, the Cape pmmroses, are listed by Arnold (1972, 1979) and Brown (1973). Intergeneric hybrids in the tribe Gloxinieae (which includes Achimenes, Diastema, Eucodonia, Gloxinia, Heppiella, Koellikeria, Kohleria, Monopyle, Moussonia, Niphaea, Parakohleria, Smithiantha, and Solenophora) are listed by Dates (1986). Geum The history and performance of cultivars of Geum are discussed by Clausen (1975) and Mallett (1983). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list many cultivars. Ginkgo The cultmars of ginkgo (G. biloba L.\/ are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Bom (1982\/, Krussmann (1984-1986), and Santamour, He, & McArdle (1983). ). Gladiolus Pieters (1905) is the first list of cultivars of gladiolus that we have discovered. The cultivars of gladiolus are later listed by Hottes (1916), Olmsted et al. (1923), the American Gladiolus Society (1931),Birch (1940), Pridham (1932), the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association ( 1991Sandhack (1927), and Trehane (1989). Many of these cultivars are incorporated into Fisher et al. (1975). Additions are published by Fisher (c. 1983). ). Gleditsia Bean (1970-1988), Bom (1982\/, Haserodt & Sydnor (1983\/, Krussmann (1984-1986), 16 Santamour & McArdle (1983b), and Wagenknecht (1961a) discuss the cultivars of the honey locust (G. triacanthos L.). ). Gloriosa Narain (1988\/, the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1991\/, and Trehane (1989) list cultivars of the climbing lilies. _ Gloxinia See Gesneriaceae. Grevillea The grevilleas are discussed by Larkman (1985\/. Recent registrations are listed by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (1988). See also the entry for Proteaceae. \" Hakea See Australian & South African plants and Proteaceae. Halesia The cultivars of the silverbells are listed by Fontaine ( 1970b). Hamamelidaceae The cultivars of the Hamamelidaceae are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), ), Krussmann (1984-1986), Sanders ( 1982), Weaver (1976a), and Wright (1982). Grootendorst (1965, 1980a) and Lancaster (1970) record the background and performance of witch hazel (Hamamelis spp.) cultivars. Huttleston (1989) records an additional registration of Hamamelis. Hardenbergia See Australian & South African plants. Hebe Chalk (1988) lists cultivars of Hebe and Parahebe. Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (19841986) also discuss the cultivars of these two genera. Hedera The most comprehensive listing of cultivars of ivies is Heieck (1980). This should be supplemented with Fearnley-Whittingstall (1992), Hatch (1982), Krussmann (1984-1986), Lawrence & Schulze (1942), Lawrence (1956), Nannenga-Bremekamp (1970), Pierot (1974), (1980), Schaepman (1975), and publications in the Ivy Journal. Hedychium The cultivars of the ginger lilies are discussed by Schilling (1982). Hedysarum The cultivars of the Hedysarum species are listed by Lemmens (1985). Helianthemum The history and performance of cultivars of the rock roses are discussed by Clausen (1968) and the Royal Horticultural Society (1926d). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list Rose cultivars. Helianthus The history and performance of cultivars of the sunflowers are discussed by Clausen (1974c). Trehane (1989) also lists cultivars. Helichrysum See Australian & South African plants. Heliconia The cultivars of Heliconia are discussed by Berry & Kress (1991). \/. Heliopsis The history and performance of cultivars of Heliopsis are discussed by Clausen (1974a) and Hensen (1983b). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars. Helleborus The cultivars of the hellebores are discussed and illustrated in black and white drawings by Ahlburg (1993) and appended to the rear of Mathew (1989b), but the most comprehensive descriptions, with color photographs, seem to be Rice & Strangman (1993). Hemerocallis The daylihes are first listed by Stout (1934) and Norton et al. ( 1949\/, and later in publications of the American Hemerocallis Society (1957, c. 1973, c. 1984). The species and old cultivars are discussed by Kitchingham (1985). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars. Additional information is provided by Munson (1989) and Webber (1988). These should be used in conjunction with Darrow & Meyer (1968), Erhardt (1992), and Stout (1986). Heppiella See Gesneriaceae. 17 7 Heuchera The history and performance of the coralbells are discussed by Clausen (1970) and Hansen & Sieber (1970). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars. Hibiscus Krussmann (1984-1986) discusses the cultivars of Hibiscus. The American Hibiscus Society (1984, 1987) and Chin (1986) are checklists and illustrated catalogs of cultivars of Chinese hibiscus (H. rosa-sinensis L.). Beers & Howie \/1985, 1990), Harvey \/ 1988~, and Howie (1980) are checklists of mostly Australian cultivars of Chinese hibiscus. Cultivars of rose of Sharon (H. syriacus L.) are published by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst \/ 1968b), Huttleston ( 1986, 1988, 1990, 1991and Wyman ( 1958\/. Kelsey & Dayton (1942) provide a list of cultivars for both species but without introduction dates and background. - Hippeastrum See Amaryllidaceae. Hoheria The cultivars of the lacebarks are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Wright ~ 1983a\/. Hosta The most comprehensive discussion of the hostas is Schmid ( 1991The cultivars of the hostas are also listed in the comprehensive works by Hensen ( 1963a, 1963b, 1983a,1985with comments by Grenfell (1986). These should be supplemented with Aden (1990), Fisher (1979), Grenfell (1990), Jehtto & Schacht (1990), Laar (1967), and Trehane (1989). ). Houseplants Cultivars of houseplants are pictured and briefly discussed by Graf (1986a, 1986b). Hyacinthus The cultivars of hyacinths are documented by the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1991),but further information is provided by Darlington, Hair, & Hurcombe ( 1951Trehane (1989) also hsts the cultivars of hyacinths. Hydrangea The most comprehensive discussion of the cultivars of the hydrangeas is Mallet, ), Mallet, & van Trier (1992). Cultivars of the hydrangeas are also covered in Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1973b), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Haworth-Booth (1984). Ilsink (1988) covers the cultivars of H. paniculata Sieb., while Wilson (1923) covers the cultivars of H. macrophylla (Thunb.) Ser. Hypericum The cultivars of the St. Johnsworts are listed by Bean ( 1970-1988), 1986), and Schneider (1965b, 1966a). Hypocalymma See Australian & South African plants. Krussmann ( 1984- Ilex In 1953 the Holly Society of America published a preliminary checklist (Wister, 1953b). This checklist is being revised in accordance with the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. First in this series is Eisenbeiss & Dudley (1973) for I. opaca Aiton, the American holly. Eisenbeiss & Dudley (1983) is an Ilex cultivar registration list 1958-1983. Andrews (1983, 1984, 1986) and Gelderen (1988) discuss the cultivars of I. x altaclerensis. The varieties of 1. aquifolium L. are listed in Gelderen (1988) and Paul (1863). Wyman (1960) and Dudley & Eisenbeiss (1992) are checklists for 1. crenata Thunb. Dirr (1988) and Eggerss & Hasselkus (1992) cover the cultivars of the deciduous hollies. Bean (1970-1988), Gelderen (1971),and Krussmann (1984-1986) also list the cultivars of the hollies. These should be used in conjunction with Hansell, Dudley, & Eisenbeiss (1970). New cultivars of hollies are published in the Holly Society Journal. Impatiens The cultivars of the New Guinea impatiens are discussed by Agnew & Lang (1992\/, ), Eichin & Deiser (1988), and Winters (1973). Indigofera The cultivars of the mdigos are hsted by Lemmens (1985). ). 18 8 & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) list many cultivars of the hardy iris but with information. In contrast, the listings of cultivars of bearded irises published by Peckham ( 1929, 1940), Douglas (1949), Knowlton (1959), Nelson ( 1971and Nelson & Keppel ( 1981, 1991, 1992a, 1992b, 1993) are rich with information. The Royal Horticultural Society (1928, 1930b) and Sand (1925) provide additional descriptions of many pre-1930 bearded irises. While the American Iris Society has published yearly checklists since the 1979 checklist, the 1989 checklist is still in press. Cultivars of the reblooming iris are listed by Brookins (1991a). Cultivars of the dwarf irises are listed by the Dwarf Iris Society (1975, 1988) and Wright (1927). Cultivars of Japanese ins (I. kaempferi Sieb. ex Lem.) are published by Brookins (1992) and the Society for Japanese Irises (1988), supplemented by McEwen (1990). Cultivars of the Siberian irises (I. sanguinea Hornem. and I. sibirica L.) are listed by Brookins (1991b) and Warburton (1986). Cultivars of the arils are listed by the Aril Society( 1976, 1978, 1980, 1982). The Louisiana irises are listed by Fritchie (1982), and some color photographs, dates, and background are given by Caillet & Metzweiller (1988). Cultivars of the medians are listed by the Median Iris Society (1984, 1992). Cultivars of the spurias are listed by Foreman (1985). Cultivars of the bulbous irises are discussed by Hoog (1980) and the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association ( 1991 \/. Ixora Anonymous \/1958c) is a checklist of the cultivars of the ixoras.. Iris Jelitto scant jasminum The cultivars of the jasmines are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986). An additional cultivar is listed Juniperus See conifers. Green (1965\/, and by Huttleston (1986). Kalmia The cultivars of the mountain laurels are published in Jaynes ( 1975, 1983, 1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986); additional cultivars are published in HortScience (Jaynes, 1989). Kennedia See Australian & South Afmcan plants. Kniphofia The cultivars of the torch lilies are discussed by Jelitto & Schacht ( 1990), Taylor (1985a, b), and Trehane (1989). Koellikeria See Gesneriaceae. Kohleria See Gesneriaceae. Kunzia See Australian & South African plants. _ Lagerstroemia The cultivars of crape myrtles are hsted by Egolf & Andrick ( 1978) and Krussmann (1984-1986). Lantana The cultivars of the lantanas are listed by Anonymous ( 1958d), Howard ( 1969\/, and Krussmann (1984-1986). An additional cultivar is recorded by Spongberg (1988). Lathyrus Kelsey & Dayton ( 1942), Royal Horticultural Society \/ 1926b), and Unwin ( 1926) are checklists of sweet peas, Lathyrus odoratus L. Cultivars of the hardy perennial species are listed by Trehane( 1989). Lavandula The cultivars of lavender (L. angustifolia Mill.) and lavandin (L. x mtermedia Emeric ex Loisel.) are discussed by Hensen (1974), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Tucker & Hensen (1985). Lechenaultia See Australian & South African plants. Leptospermum Krussmann ( 1984-1986) and Metcalf ( 1963 ) are checklists of Leptospermum cultivars (mostly L. scoparium J. R. Forst & G. Forst). Recent registrations are listed by the Australian Cultivar Registration Authority (1988). 19 Lespedeza The cultivars of the bush clovers are listed by Lemmens (1985~. is listed by Huttleston (1991). ~. Leucadendron See Proteaceae. An additional cultivar Leucospermum See Proteaceae. fontanesiana (Steud.) Sleum., the drooping leucothoe, are discussed ). (1984-1986), and Green (1963). by Lewisia The cultivars of the lewisias are discussed by Mathew ( 1989a\/. Ligularia The cultivars of Ligularia are discussed by Dress ( 19G2~. Lilium Checklists of lilies are published by Leslie (1982) with supplements (Royal Horticultural Leucothoe The cultivars of L. Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann Society, 1982, 1984a,1985a,1986a,1987a,1988a,1989a,1990b,1991a,1992b,1993a,1994). The North American Lily Society also has its checklists of lily hybrids (Fisher, 1978; Collmgs, 1986) but gives scant information on cultivars pre-1940. Additional listings are carried by Trehane (1989\/. Liquidambar The cultivars of the the sweet gums \/L. formosana Hance and L. styraciflua L.) are discussed by Bom (1982), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Santamour & McArdle (1984). Liriodendron The cultivars of the tulip tree (L. tuhpifera L.) are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Santamour & McArdle (1984). Liriope See Ophiopogon-Liriope. Lobelia The tetraploid cultivars of the Lobelia siphiliticaL. cardinahs complex are listed by Bowden (1983). ). Lonicera The cultivars of the honeysuckles are discussed by Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), Laar (1988), Schneider (1971),Wright (1983b), and Yeo (1964). Lophostemon See Australian & South Afmcan plants. Lupinus The cultivars and performance of the lupines are discussed by the Royal Horticultural Society (1931a). Lythrum The cultivars of Lythrum are discussed by Harp (1975). Magnolia Tresender (1978\/ lists many cultivars of magnolias, and while dates and hybridizers are generally absent, the descriptions are good. Gardmer (1989) thoroughly discusses magnoha hybnds with photographs. Additional registrations are listed in Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Vrugtman~1972). Fogg & McDaniel (1975) is a comprehensive list of magnolia cultivars. New cultivars of magnolias are pubhshed in Magnolia Journal. Mahonia The cultivars of the grape hollies (and x Mahoberberis) are listed by Bean \/ 1970-1988\/, ), Brickell (1979), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Laar (1975). Malus Bom \/1982), den Boer (1959\/, Grootendorst (1964a), Lombarts (1984\/, Preston (1944\/, Van Eseltine (1933, 1934), and Wyman (1943, 1955) include descriptions and introductions of crabapples. (The 1943 edition of Wyman has some information dropped from the 1955 edition, including discarded cultivars and citations to a bibliography.) Jefferson (1970) clarifies the misnaming of crabapple cultivars and provides an extensive bibliography. Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986) also list the cultivars of the ornamental crabapples. Lately, crabapple registrations have been carried by the Arnold Arboretum and published in HortScience (Spongberg, 1988, 1989). Melaleuca See Australian & South African plants. 20 Melia The cultivars of the Persian lilac or Chinaberry (Melia (1993\/. azedarach L.) are listed by Mabberly (1984). Monarda The beebalms are discussed by Oudolf Monopyle See Gesneriaceae. Moussonia See Gesneriaceae. Myoporum See Australian & South African plants. Nandina The landscape values of cultivars of heavenly bamboo, N. domestica Thunb., are discussed by Raulston (1984). Narcissus For many years the Royal Horticultural Society printed classified lists of daffodils (1908d, 1910, 1931b, 1938, 1948, 1955, 1958, 1961, 1965, 1969c, 1975), but many of these were not cumulative. The most comprehensive list of cultivars of daffodils is by the Royal Horticultural Society (Kington, 1989a), which updates the 1969 classified list and the classified list and international register of 1975 with supplements 1-14; supplements 15-18 are printed separately (Kington, 1989b, 1990, 1991, 1992). A checklist of daffodils has been provided as a continually updated computer printout by Throckmorton (n.d.), but very old cultivars are listed without a date. The history of cultivar registration of daffodils by the Royal Horticultural Society is documented by Donald (1986). Trehane (1989) also lists cultivars of daffodils. Abridged lists of exhibition daffodils are ). published by the American Daffodil Society (1977, 1985, 1989). These should be used in conjunction with Bourne (1903), ), Bowles (1934), Lee (1966), Tompsett (1982), and the \"Narcissus editions\" of Herbertia (vol. 13, 1946) and Plant Life\/Herbertia - (vol. 9, no. 1, 1953). Nematanthus See Gesneriaceae. Nepenthes See carnivorous plants. Nerine See Amaryllidaceae. Nerium The cultivars of the oleanders are discussed by Anonymous (1958a) and Pagen (1987). ). Nigella The cultivars of Nigella are listed by Sorvig (1983\/. Niphaea See Gesneriaceae. Nymphaeaceae The most comprehensive list of waterlily cultivars is Swindells (1989b). The cultivars of waterlilies are also treated in Anonymous (1960); Conard (1905); Henkel, Rehnelt, & Dittmann (1907); Kelsey & Dayton (1942); Swindells (1983); ~; and Trehane( 1989~. Ophiopogon-Liriope The cultivars of Ophiopogon and Liriope are discussed by Hume ( 1961 \/. Orchidaceae A guide to orchid hybrid (grex) registration is published by Hunt (1986). While lists have been previously published by Sanders, Sanders\/ 1946\/ is the last cumulative checklist of orchid hybrids; a list of intergeneric taxa is listed in Table II. Later, noncumulative supplements have been published (Sanders & Wreford, 1961; Royal Horticultural Society, 1972, 1980, 1981, 1985c, 1986c). Japan Orchid Growers Association (n.d.) has excellent color photographs of cultivars derived from Cattleya. Only Poliakoff (1987) lists Vanda cultivars with the percentage of genetic background of each ancestral species. Gilmour, Greatwood, & Hunt (1976) give the names of intergeneric hybrids. 21 Origanum The cultivars of Origanum, the marjorams, Trehane (1989) lists some additional cultivars. Osmunda See ferns. are discussed by Tucker & Rollins ( 1989\/. ). Ostrya See Carpinus. Paeonia The cultivars of the & peonies are first listed by Coit (1907\/, later by Beal (1920) and Kelsey Dayton (1942), and most recently by Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989). The most comprehensive listing is by Kessenich (1976). These checklists should be supplemented with Wister (1962) for fuller descriptions and a comprehensive bibliography. Haworth-Booth (1963) and Krussmann (1984-1986) also supply further information on the tree peonies. American peony hybrids are listed by Kessenich (1990). Later introductions have been published in the American Peony Society Bulletin. Pandorea See Australian & South African plants. Papaver The primary reference on poppy cultivars is GreyWilson (1993). The cultivars of the oriental (P. orientale L.), Iceland (P. nudicaule L.), and other poppies are also listed by Kelsey & Dayton (1942). Parakohleria See Gesneriaceae. Parthenocissus The cultivars of Boston ivy, P. tricuspidata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Planch, are listed by Laar (1981b, 1992). Passiflora The cultivars of Passiflora, the passion flowers, are thoroughly discussed by Vanderplank (1991). \/. Pelargonium The most readily available guide to geranium cultivars is Krauss (1955). Bagust (1988) lists the cultivars of the dwarf geraniums. Moore (1955a, 1955b) provides background mformation on many species and some cultivars. The Australian Geranium Society (1978, 1985) has published the first two sections of a comprehensive Pelargonium checkhst. Clifford (1970) is also useful. Penstemon Lindgren (1993) has provided a gmde to registration of Penstemon cultivars. The most comprehensive guide to the genus is Lindgren & Davenport( 1992\/. The American Penstemon Society (McWilliam, 1973, 1977) also lists registered cultivars. Pentadenia See Gesneriaceae. Perennials, herbaceous Grunert (1982), Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Krussmann, Siebler, & Tangermann (1970), Phillips & Rix ( 1991Thomas (1990), and Wehrhahn (1931)rank high among the available reference works on hardy herbaceous plants because of the wealth of information. The perennials registered by the International Registration Authority for Hardy Perennial Plants are listed by Sieber (1990a, 1990b). The cultivars of perennials, based primarily upon British catalogs, are listed by Philip (1992); perennial cultivars based upon northern European sources are listed by Laar & Fortgens (1990). Cultivars of perennials based upon American catalogs are listed by Isaacson (1989). Trehane (1989), emphasizing the cultivars available in the United Kingdom and Northern Europe, provides many dates and names of introducers. Though these latter three publications are excellent, they reinforce some incorrect synonyms by uncritically accepting catalog listmgs. Pernettya The cultivars of Pernettya are listed by Laar (1969) and Vogel (1969). Petunia Petunia cultivars (1975b, 1980b, listed by Maatsch & Nolting ( 1968, 1971b) and the earliest cultivar in these is dated 1947. 1984, 1987); are Nolting & Zimmer 22 Philadelphus The mock orange cultivars are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Dolatowski (1986\/, Hu (1954-1956), Janaki Ammal (1951),Kapranova & Lukina ( 1972), Krussmann (1958c, 1984-1986), Sampson (1965), Schneider (1934), Wnght (1980), and Wyman (1965). Recent mock orange cultivars are published by Huttleston (1988). ). Phlox Probably the most comprehensive list of phlox cuhvars is Trehane (1989), but very few dates are provided. Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Kelsey & Dayton (1942), Kharchenko (1975), and Symons-Jeune (1953) also list phlox cultivars. Phormium The cultivars of New Zealand flax are discussed by Cheek1979) but more thoroughly by Heenan ( 1991New cultivars are listed by Hornback( 1994\/. Phygelius Cultivars of Phygelius are discussed by Coombes (1988). Trehane (1989) also lists cultivars. Picea See conifers. Pieris The cultivars of the Japanese andromedas are listed Bean (1970-1988), Bond (1982), Gelderen (1979), Ingram by (1963), ), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Wagenknecht (1961b). Spongberg (1988, 1990) records additional registrations. Pimelea See Australian & South African plants. Pinus See conifers. Plagianthus The cultivars of Plagianthus are listed by Wright (1983a). Plant patents The U.S. plant patents and their common names have been assembled by the American Association of Nursery- (1957, 1958, 1959, 1960, 1961, 1962, 1963, 1967, 1969, 1974, 1981) for plant patents 1-4359. These have been published in one directory (American Association of Nurserymen, 1990) with patents 1-7088. Patents 1-477 are also listed in Kelsey & Dayton (1942). men A review of the U.K. system of Plant Breeders' Rights (PBR) is Goodwin (1986). The patentPatent Convention (EPC) and The International Union of the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) has been reviewed by Byrne (1986), Mast (1986), ing of plants under the European and Schneider ( 1986b\/. Platanus The cultivars of the plane trees are discussed by Santamour & McArdle ( 1986\/. Platycerium See ferns. Plectranthus See Coleus-Plectranthus. Plumeria The checklist of the Plumeria Society of America (1988) should be supplemented with the color photographs of Chinn & Criley (1982), Eggenberger & Eggenberger (1988), and Thornton & Thornton (1985). Another checklist of cultivars is Anonymous (1958b). Poaceae, Cyperaceae, and Juncaceae The best listings of the ornamental grasses, sedges, and rushes are Darke (1990), Hensen & Groendijk-Wilders (1986b), and Trehane(1989).These should be supplemented with Jelitto & Schacht ( 1990\/, Loewer (1988),Meyer ( 1975Grounds (1979), Ottesen (1989), and Reinhardt et al. (1989). Lawson (1968) lists some cultivars of bamboos. Populus Checklists of poplar cultivars are Broekhuizen ( 1977\/, International Poplar Commission (1971, 1990), Koster (1972), and Roller, Thibault, & Hidahl (1972). Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986) provide additional information. Potentilla Hachmann et al. ( 1986a\/, Jelitto & Schacht \/ 1990\/, Schmalscheidt ( 1984\/, and Trehane (1989) hst the cultivars of Potentilla. The cultivars of the shrubby potentillas are discussed by 23 Bachtell & Hasselkus (1982), Bean (1970-1988), Brearley (1987), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Rhodes ( 1954\/. The cultivars of P. fruticosa L. are listed by Bowden ( 1957), Laar ( 1982\/, Schneider (1967), and Wyman (1968). An additional registration is discussed by Huttleston (1990). Primula The best listings of cultivars of Primula is Trehane (1989\/. Blasdale (1948\/, Genders (1962, 1963b), Haysom (1957), Hecker (1971),Hyatt (1989), Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Lyall (1959), Puttock (1957), Swindells (1989a), and Wemyss-Cooke (n.d.) also list many cultivars. Prostanthera The few cultivars of the mint shrubs are briefly mentioned by Althofer ( 1978\/. Protea See Proteaceae. Proteaceae Matthews (1983, 1993)and Vogts (1982) provide descriptions and excellent colored illustrations of cultivars of genera of the Proteaceae: Banksia, Grevillea, Hakea, Leucadendron, Leucospermum, Protea, Serruria, and Telopea. A guide to cultivar registration for Proteaceae is presented by Brits (1988a, c), while a \"sample list\" of Proteaceae cultivars is presented by Brits (1988b). Prunus Chadbund ( 1972) is recommended for cultivars of many flowering cherries. The Omental flowering cherries are listed by Russell (1934), while the purpleleaf plums are discussed by Jacobson (1992). Only the Sato-zakura group of the Japanese flowering cherries has been published as a separate checklist (Jefferson & Wain, 1984). The bibliography of this checklist, however, gives invaluable references on other ornamental Prunus. These should be supplemented with Bom (1982), Grootendorst (1964b), Ingram (1948), Laar (1970b), Miyoshi (1916), Ohwi & Ohta (1973), and Wilson (1916). Other ornamental Prunus are listed by Bean (19701988), Huttleston (1986, 1990), and Krussmann(1984-1986\/. Pterostyrax The cultivars of the epaulette trees are listed by Fontaine ( 1970b\/. Pulmonaria Cultivars of the lungworts are reviewed by Mathew (1982\/, Jelitto & Schacht (1990\/, and Trehane (1989) but generally without introduction dates or names of originators. Pultenaea See Australian & South African plants. Pyracantha Cultivars of the fire thorns are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Laar (1966\/, Hachmann et al. (1986b), Krussmann (1984-1986), Schmalscheidt(1984\/, and de Vos (1958). Pyrus Bean (1970-1988), Bom (1982), and Krussmann (1984-1986) list ornamental cultivars of pears. The cultivars of the Callery pear (P. calleryana Decne.) are discussed by Santamour & McArclle pJtS3a~. Quercus The cultivars of the oaks are listed by Wyman (1962f) but with few introduction dates and little background. Bean (1970-1988), Bom (1982), Grootendorst (1980b), Krussmann (1984-1986), and McArdle & Santamour (1985, 1987a, 1987b) thoroughly discuss the cultivars of oaks. Rhododendron Brickell ( 1980\/ provides guidelines for naming Rhododendron cultivars. The cultivars of rhododendrons and azaleas are first documented in Fletcher (1958), and this is updated by Royal Horticultural Society (1964, 1969b, 1988e, 1989d, 1989e, 1990c, 1991b, 1992c, 1993b); the registrations from 1962 to 1987 were originally published in The Rhododendron and Camellia Yearbook and Rhododendron with Magnolias and Camellias. Kraxberger (1980) lists American Rhododendron hybrids, many of which were originally published in Rhododendrons and Rhododendron Notebook; more recently the American 24 hybrids have been listed in the journal of the American Rhododendron Society. German Rhododendron hybrids are discussed by Schmalscheidt ( 1980~. These checklists should be used in conjunction with Bean (1970-1988), Bowers (1960), Bulgin (1986), Cox (1985), Cox & Cox (1988),Galle (1985),Gelderen & Hoey Smith (1992), Greer (1982), Grootendorst (1954, 1967b, 1969b, 1969c, 1979a), Ihei (1984), Krussmann (1984-1986), Leach (1961), Lee et al. (1965), Livingston & West (1978), Morrison (1953), Phillips & Barber (1967, 1979), Salley & Greer (1986, 1992), and Schneider (1965c, 1966b). Robinia The cultivars of the locusts are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Gibbs (1929), Grootendorst (1971a), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Rosa A proposed guide to rose name registration is Gioia (1986). The most comprehensive recent checklist of cultivars of roses is Modern Roses 10 (Cairns, 1993), but Modern Roses 9 (Haring, 1986), Modern Roses 8 (Meikle, 1980) and Modern Roses 6 (Allan, 1965) are also important for some rose cultivars. Stock (1984) lists the older and foreign checklists (especially important for heritage roses), such as Boitard (1836), Desportes (1828), Gravereaux (1902), Mansfield (1943), Nietner (1880), Park (1956), Simon & Cochet (1906), and Singer (1885). Jager (1960) is a reprint of a privately distributed list of 1936. The Royal National Rose Society also publishes selected checklists, most recently m 1976. These should be used in conjunction with Austin (1988), Beales (1985, 1988), Bean (1970-1988), Dickerson (19932), \/, Fagan (1988), Gault & Singe (1971),Griffiths (1984, 1987), Harkness (1991),Krussmann (1981), Moody (1992), and Phillips & Rix (1988). The Combined Rose List (Dobson, 1987, 1988, 1989, 1990, 1991; Dobson & Schneider, 1992) provides continued updating of available roses around the world with cultivar information. Rosmarinus The origins and essential oils of cultivars of rosemary are listed by Tucker & Maciarello ( 1986\/. Saintpaulia See Gesneriaceae. Salix Newsholme (1992) provides the most comprehensive descriptions of cultivars of Salix, the willows. The cultivars of the weeping willow (S. babylonica L.) are discussed by Santamour & McArdle (1988). Broekhuizen & Schneider(1969) discusses the cultivars of the white willow (S. alba L.). Anonymous (n.d.), Bean (1970-1988), and Krussmann (1984-1986) also discuss cultivars of willows. Sambucus The cultivars of European red elderberry, S. racemosa L., are described in German and Latin by Wolf (1923). Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1984-1986) also discuss cultivars of the elderberries. Sansevieria The cultivars of the snakeplants are listed by Morgenstern (1979), Stover (1983), and Swinbourne (1979) but without introduction dates and background. Chahinian (1986) thoroughly treats the cultivars of S. trifasciata. Sarracenia See carnivorous plants. Saxifraga The saxifrages are listed by Kohlein ( 1984\/ but without introduction dates or background. Jelitto & Schacht (1990), Trehane (1989), and Webb & Gornall (1989) are comprehensive lists of species and cultivars. 25 Scabiosa The annual derivatives of S. atropurpurea L. are listed by the Royal Horticultural Society (1926c). Perennial cultivars are listed by Jelitto & Schacht (1990). Scaevola See Australian & South Afmcan plants. Schizostylis The cultivars of the Kaffir lily are listed by Straley ( 1984). Schlumbergera See Cactaceae. Sedum Praeger ( 1921 ) and Trehane ( 1989 ) list the cultivars of Sedum. The history and performance of cultivars of Sedum are discussed by Clausen (1978). Hensen & Groendijk-Wilders (1986a) discuss the sedums cultivated in Europe. Some cultivars of sedums are listed by Evans ( 1983 ) and Jelitto & Schacht (1990) but without introduction dates or background. Sempervivum The cultivars of Sempervivum (and Jovibara) are listed by Mitchell (c. 1973) with some color photographs and good descriptions but without dates or background. Subsequent registrations for Sempervivum (and Jovibara and Rosularia) were published by Mitchell (1982, 1983, 1985). Trehane (1989) also lists the cultivars of the houseleeks. Serruria See Proteaceae. Sinningia See Gesneriaceae. are Skimmia The cultivars of Skimmia and Krussmann (1984-1986). Smithiantha See Gesneriaceae. discussed by Bean ( 1970-1988Brown ( 1980\/, Laar ( 1984), Solenophora See Gesneriaceae. Sophora The cultivars of the Japanese pagoda tree, S. japonica L., are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Schalk (1985). Sorbus The cultivars of the mountain ashes are discussed by Anonymous ), (1965), Bean (1970-1988), Krussmann (1984-1986), Mussell (1971), Wnght ( 1981and Wyman ( 1969b). Hensen\/ 1970) discusses the history and performance of cultivars of the S. latifolia (Lam.) Pers. complex. Huttleston( 1990) records an additional registration. Spathiphyllum The cultivars of the spathiphyllums are briefly listed by Chase et al. (1984). ), Spiraea The cultivars of the spireas are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1977), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Spyridium See Australian & South African plants. Streptocarpus See Gesneriaceae. Styrax The cultmars of the snowbells are listed by Fontaine (1970b) and reviewed by Raulston (1992). Syringa The cultivars of lilacs are thoroughly discussed in Fiala \/ 1988). This should be used in conjunction with Bean (1970-1988), Belorusets \/1990), Bilov, Shtanko, & Mikhailov (1974), Gromov (1963), Harding (1933), Kalva (1980, 1988), Kelsey & Dayton (1942), Krussmann (19841986), Luneva, Mikhailov, & Sudakova (1989), McKelvey (1928), Meyer (1952), Rogers (1976), Rubtsov, Zhogoleva, & Lyapunova( 1961Starcs (1928),Vrugtman ( 1990c, 1991and Wister (1927, 1942, 1943, 1953a). The latest inventory of Russian cultivars has been translated into English by the International Lilac Society (Rubtsov et al., 1982). Recently the registrations have been published in HortScience (Vrugtman, 1988, 1989a, 1989b, 1990a, 1994b), while Vrugtman (1988) and Wister (1963)summarize previous registrations of lilacs. Tagetes The African, French, and signet marigold cultivars are assembled in checklists by Maatsch & Nolting (1970) and Nolting & Zimmer (1975c, 1981, 1987). 26 Taxus See conifers. Telopea See Australian & South African plants and Proteaceae. Tetratheca See Australian & South African plants. Thuja See conifers. Thymus Flannery ( 1982J records the cultivars of thyme in her thorough Ph.D. thesis. Tilia Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1970), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Santamour & McArdle (1985b) discuss the cultivars of the lindens. The cultivars of the lindens are also listed by Muir ~ ' (1984, 1988) and Wyman (1962e) but with few introduction dates and little background. (1989) records additional registrations. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines (broad-leaved) The best general references on the introduction dates and descriptions of many broad-leaved trees, shrubs, and vines have been Bean (19701988) and Krussmann (1984-1986). Rehder (1940, 1949) also lists many forma epithets; because these are published before the first International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants in 1952, the forma epithets are now considered cultivar names. Other woody species are listed by Buckley (1980), Commissie voor de samenstelling van de Rassenlijst voor Bosbouwgewassen (1990), Darthuizer Boomkwekerijen B. V. (1987), Dirr \/1990\/, Hillier (1982, 1991), Laar (1989), and Wyman (1963a, 1963b, 1966, 1967, 1969a). The mimeographed Swarthmore Plant Notes (Wister, 1954) are a treasure trove of information on cultivars of woody plants but, unfortunately, are not widely distributed. Registrations of recent woody genera have been published in HortScience (Huttleston, 1986, 1988, 1989, 1990; Spongberg, 1988, 1989, 1990), while Huttleston (1986) summarizes previous registrations. Cultivars of street trees are summarized by Gerhold et al. (1989) and Wandell (1989). Some trees and shrubs are also discussed in Hogan (1988) and the journal Dendroflora (see the cumulative indices in numbers 20 and 25). Huttleston Trichantha See Gesneriaceae. Trollius The cultivars of the globe flowers are listed by Clausen (1973b) and Hensen (1959). Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars. lropaeolum A hst of cultivars of the common nasturtium is Kelsey & Dayton ( 1942) but without dates of introduction. Tsuga See conifers. Tulipa The cultivars of tulips are first hsted by the Royal Horticultural Society (1908c) with significant revisions m 1917, 1929, 1930a, and 1939. Later, in 1948 and 1952, the Royal Horticultural Society published revisions in conjunction with the General Dutch Bulbgrowers Society. Later the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Society (1958, 1960, 1965, 1969) and the Royal General Bulbgrowers' Association (1971, 1976, 1981)\/ published their own lists. The 1958-1965 editions are comprehensive, but the 1969-1981 editions only provided brief descriptions and dates for many tulips, and \"historical cultivars\" are appended at the rear of the list with no dates or descriptions. Kelsey & Dayton (1924), Kudryavtseva (1987), and Trehane (1989) are also recommended. Ulmus The cultivars of the elms are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Fontame (1968), Green (1964), Krussmann (1984-1986), and Touw (1963). ). Spongberg (1988, 1991) records additional registrations. Variegated plants The only work on cultivars of variegated plants is Yokoi 27 (1978). While the text is in Japanese, plant names are in English. history and performance of cultivars of Veronica are discussed by Clausen ( 1971 \/. Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list the cultivars of Veronica. Viburnum The cultivars of the viburnums are listed by Bean (1970-1988), Egolf (1968), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Grootendorst (1979b) discusses the cultivars of Viburnum plicatum. Vinca Barnes (1984) and Hensen (1980) discuss the history and performance of the cultivars of Vinca. Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989) also list cultivars. Viola Jelitto & Schacht (1990) and Trehane (1989~ list the cultivars of Viola. The history and performance of the cultivars of Viola cornuta L., the viola, are discussed by Clausen (1969) and the Royal Horticultural Society (1912, 1913a). The cultivars of violets are treated comprehensively by Coombs (1981).Cultivars of pansies, violas, and violettas are listed by Fuller (1990) without dates or introducers. & Hirose Veronica The ' The cultivars of the weigelas are listed by Grootendorst (1968c), Howard (1965), and Schneider (1930). Bean (1970-1988) and Krussmann (1958a, 1984-1986) also discuss cultivars. Spongberg (1988) records an additional registration. Wisteria Bowden ( 1976) and Browse ( 1984) review the available cultivars of the wisterias but without introduction dates or background. Sprenger (1911) lists the cultivars of W. sinensis (Sims) Sweet. Bean (1970-1988), Grootendorst (1968d), and Krussmann (1984-1986) also discuss cultivars. Huttleston (1988) records an additional registration. Weigela Zelkova The cultivars of the zelkovas are listed by Bean ( 1970-1988), Dirr ( 1990), Fontaine (1970c), and Krussmann (1984-1986). Zephyranthes The cultivars of the rain lilies are listed by Anonymous ( 1958e). Zinnia The modern cultivars of Zinnia are listed, with some history, by Sharma & Metcalf (1968). Acknowledgments We would like to thank the International Registration Authorities and the libranans at the Arnold Arboretum, Delaware State University, Longwood Gardens, Mann Library, National Arboretum, National Agricultural Library, Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, Royal Botanical Gardens, Smithsoman (Botany), and University of Delaware. The senior author also thanks the Cooperative State Research Service \/#801-15-O1C) and the State of Delaware for financial assistance. Frontispiece from the sixth edition of The Gardeners Dictionary by Philip Miller, 1752. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Literature Cited","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25122","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eb76b.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Tucker, Arthur O.; Kunst, Scott G.; Vrugtman, Freek; Hatch, Laurence C.","article_content":"Literature Cited Aden, P., ed. 1990. The hosta book. 2d ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. Agnew, N. H., and H. J. Lang. 1992. Outstanding New Guinea impatiens. Greenhouse Manager 10(10): 66-70. Ahlburg, M. S. 1993. Hellebores: Christmas rose, Lenten rose. Trans. M. S. Ahlburg and J. Hewitt. London: B. T. Batsford. Ahrendt, L. W. A. 1942. An analysis of the Am. Assoc. . Nurserymen. Hort. Soc. 67: 129-135. . 1949. The Berberis stenophylla hybrids. J. Roy. Hort. 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","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1994-Literature Cited"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Arnoldia, Volume 54","article_sequence":5,"start_page":60,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25120","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eb36d.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":",. I Index to Volume 54 Numbers m parentheses refer to issues, those in (1994) boldface to illustrations of the entries !nara (2) 4 : Acanthosicyos hornda (2) : 4 Acclimation, relationship to hardmess (3) : 22-31, environmental cues for (3) : 25-26 Acer palmatum and ~apomcum, assorted leaves (4) : cover Acer rubrum ( 16-7; (3~: 28 --'Armstrong' (1\/: 32, 33 Acer saccharum \/1\/: 7 Aesculus hippocastanum (1\/: 4, 14 Allees, French ( 113-23 Aloe \/2\/: 5 Alphand, Adolphe (2) : 12-13, 18 Amerongen, park \/Holland~ \/2): 14 Anacardiaceae (2). 21 Andersen, Phyllis, \"Mon cher armThe Letters of Edouard Andre to Bartram, William (2~: 31 1 Cashew family (2y 21 _ Beech, Dawyck (1):32, 33 9 - European ( 19 fastigiate ( 132, 33 Benech, Louis \/ 115 Benguela Current, southwest Africa 2 (2) :2 Berkeley Botanic Garden (3): 5 9 Betula mgra ( 1\/: 9 Birch, mver \/ 1 \/: 9 Black gum \/ 19 Blanade, engraving by \/2~: inside - - - Catalpa speciosa \/1\/: 4 Caucasus Mountams (2) : 20 7 Celtis laemgata ( 1\/. 7 occidentalls \/ 1): 6 x 'Magnifica' ( 1 6 Central Park, New York (2): 8 inside front cover, 18 , 19; (3): \"Century of Grasses,\" Rick Darke 1 (3): 2-11 9 Cercidiphyllum ~apomcum \/ 1): Charles River Esplanade, Boston ( 1 ): front cover 31,32 16 I (3). 11 -latifolmm (3): 7 1 China, Great Wall (2): 21 Chittamwood (2): 21-22 Citrulhs ecchmrosus \/2): 4 Cladrastis kentuckea (lutea) (1\/: 7, 9 Cleveland, Horace W. S (2): 17, (3): Charles Sprague Sargent\" (2): 1119 ; Book Notes (3) : 35-36 Andre, Edouard (2) : 11-19, 12 Blenheim\/ 124, 27 Blois, Garden of Louis XII (2). Bluemel, Kurt (3): 4-5 Bluestem, little (3): 11 Bois de Boulogne (2): 13 Bois de Vmcennes (2): 13 Bornmann, C. H. (2~: 5 Bornstem, Carol (3): 5 Boston Public Garden (3y 18 Boston Chasmanthmm 17-18 8 6 Codman, Henry \/2): 1G 7 Coffee tree, Kentucky ( 17 7 Colbert, Jean-Baptiste ( 117 1 Cold hardmess (3): 22-31 5 Conservation of trees (3): 15 \"Considering Cotmus,\" Kim E. Andre, Rene (2~: 11 Andropogon (3): 8-9 -vmgmicus (3) : 11 Angehca gigas (3) : 9 Arboretum et Fruticetum Bntanmcum ( 1 25, 27 Society of Natural History Boston (3): 12-13, 19-20 Boxwood \/3\/: 23 Bnghton Meadows, Buffalo \/3~: 20 Bmtton, Nathaniel Lord (2): 35 [NY], Goat Island (2) : 17 Arnold Arboretum ( 132, 33, 34, 35; (2~: 11, 20, 21, Meadow Road, 23, 24, 28, 29, 32, 32, 34, 34, 36; establishment of (3): 12-21, 19; Bussey, Benjamin \/3): 12, 20 Bussey Brook, Arnold Arboretum Tnpp (2): 20-30 Cooper-Dnver, Gillian A, \"Welwitschia mirabilis-A Dream 0 True\"2): 2-10 7 Copeland, Robert Morris (3): 17 Copley Plaza, Boston (3): 27 Cornish, New Hampshire ( 128 Cortadema \/3): 3, 8 -7ubata \/3): 8 Cotmus, propagation of (2): 27-28 - coggygna (2): 20, 21-30, 23 seopol \/2): 22 Cotmus nana (2): 26 obovatus (2) : 21-22, 27, 28, 29 - szechuanensis (2): 27 5 Cotoneaster (2): 15 -homzontahs (2) : 14 Crassula family (2) : 6 Come -- (3) : 19 Bussey Hill, Arnold Arboretum \/3~: 19 32-34 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data ( 1 36 Arnold, James (3): 12-13, 18-19 Arnold, Sarah Rotch (3): 13 Arrhenatherum (3~: 8 -'Vamegatum' (3) : 10 Art des ~ardms (2\/: inside front cover, Bussey Institution (3) : 21 Buttercup family (2): 31 Buxus sempervmens (3~: 23 11, 18 Arthraerua leubnitziae Arundo (3) : 3 \/2~: 4 1 -donax'Vamegata' \/3~: 11 Ash (3) : 16 Aspen, upright European \/ 131 Aspergillus niger \/2~: 8 Azalea (3~: 26 Back Bay, Boston ( 132; \/330 (2) : 16 Calamagrostis brachytncha (3\/: 4, 7 fohosa (3~: 5 x acutiflora 13): 8 - -'Karl Foerster' (3): 4, 9, 11 CAM (crassulacean acid metabolism) (2) : 6 Canker, Cryptodiaporthe \/ 129 Canker, Dothichiza ( 129 Cape Negro, Angola (2) : 2 \"Care and Feeding of the Noble Allee,\" Marc Treib ( 113-23 Carex spissa \/3\/: 5 ~: Carpinus betulus 'Columnans' ( 1 - Crassulacean acid metabolism Bailey, L. H. \/ 1 28 Bartram's Garden, Philadelphia 33,34,34 Case Estates (3\/: inside back cover (CAM) (2): 6 Creech, John (3) : 4 5 Cmbier, Pascal \/ 115 Critical daylength, relationship plant hardmess (3): 26 8 Cucumber tree ( 18 to 61 Cumulative temperatures, relationship to plant hardmess (3): 27 Field Museum, Chicago, photo from 13 14 Harvard Yard ~2\/: cover Cupressus sempervmens \/ 128 Cynara cardunculus \/3). 9 Cypress Hill Cemetery, Philadelphia Flacourtiaceae (3) : 32 Flemmg, Mary Rotch (3)' Foerster, Karl ~3\/: 3, 6 Fraxinus (2): 16 Cypress, Italian ( 128 Forestier, Jean-Claude Nicolas (2) amencana ~3\/: 16 ( 1inside front cover, 2-11,5,6,8,10 Hatch, Laurence C., with Arthur O. Tucker, et al., \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" (4): 5-59 Haussmann, Baron (2) : 11-12 Hay, Ida, \"George Barrell Emerson - Darke, Rick, \"A Century of 1 Grasses\" (3): photo by, cover, 2-11 Del Tredici, Peter \"Restonng the Harvard Yard Landscape,\" with Michael Van Valkenburgh ( 1 )~ 3-11; Book Notes (3) : 36 Deschampsia cespitosa (3) : 10 flexuosa\/3): 7 Dirr, Michael A. ( 132 Dixwell, John James (3) :19 Dollar bush (2): 3, 5 Downmg, Andrew Jackson ( 1 ). 24, 26 ; (3) : 18 Dropseed, prairie (3) 11 Drmd Hills Park, Baltimore (2): 16 Dummer Academy (NH) (3): 12 Dutch elm disease \/ 13, 9 Ecole d'Horticulture de Versailles 1 (2): 11 Eliot, Charles (2) : 16, 20 Elm, American ( 13, 5, 8; (3): 14 - lace bark ( 19 9 1 Elymus arenamus (3): 11 condensatus 'Canyon Pnnce' (3): 5 Emerson, George Barrell (3): 12-21, - Fnesenborg (Denmark), park of Count de Fnese ~2): 13-14 Garden and Forest \/2\/: 14 Gardeners Dictionary, Philip Miller 6 ~4)~ 4, Gardens, meadow, grasses m (3) : 9 \"George Barrell Emerson and the Establishment of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Ida Hay ~3): 12-21 and the Establishment of the 1 Arnold Arboretum\" (3) : 12-21 Helianthus (3): 9 1 Hehctotmchon sempervmens \/3\/: 11 Hemerocalhs (3\/: 9 Hemlock Hill, Arnold Arboretum (3) : 19 Henry, Augustme ( 124; (3):32 Heptacodium miconioides (31: 32 6 Herbarium, Harvard (3) : 16 Hibiscus (3) : 9 Hirsh, Allen (2) : 36 Hooker, Joseph D. (2): 2 Hornbeam, columnar ( 134 - Schmoo ( 133, 34 6 Horse chestnut \/ 1 4, 13, 14, 16 Horwood, F. K. (2) : 8 Huntmgton Gardens, San Marino 8 (2\/: Hydathode (2) : 6 Hystnx patula (3\/: 7 Georgetown Cemetery, Washmgton ~2)~ 16 Gilpm, William \/ 131 9 Gmkgo biloba19 Gleditsia triacanthos15-6 var. mermis ~ 1 7 7 Glycena maxima ~3\/: 8 1 --'Variegata' \/3p 10-11 Gnetophyta, orders of (2\/: 9 Gnetum \/2\/~ 9 Goanikontes, Namibia ~2\/: 4 Grand Canal, Sceaux(1):17-22, 19, - 21 Grand Couvert, Tmlemes \/ 113, 14, 17 Idesia (3): 32 Idesia polycarpa (3\/: 32 4 Illustration Horticole \/2\/. 14 Grass, deer (3) 6 : - pampas - Imperata cylmdrica (3) : -'Red 11 1 13 Emmenopterys henry (2): inside back cover, 36 English Classical 12 - School, Boston (3y 12 - - English High School, Ephedra (2): 9 Erianthus Boston (3): ravennae (3) : 7 Ermenonville, France ( 126 \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness,\" J. C. Raulston and Kim E. Tripp (3): 22-31 (3): 9 Grasses, as groundcovers ~3\/: 11 1 grown m contamers (3): 11 ornamental 131: 2-11 1 1 perennial, culture of ~3\/: 6-11 true, general description of \/3\/: Gray, Asa (3): 16, 20 Gunnera (3)' 9 Gymnocladus dioicus \/1): 7 7 I Hakonechloa macra (3\/~ 11 'Aureola' 13)' 10 Hamilton, William ( 124-25 Baron' (3\/: 10 Inkbush, xerophytic (2): 3-5 International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants 14): 3, 4, 6 Ims (4) inside back cover Jamaica Plam, Boston (3): 19 Japanese pagoda tree \/ 14, 5, 8 7 Jenney, William Le Baron (2): 17 6 Hackberry16, - Fagus sylvatica 'Fastigiata' ( 132, 33 Fastigiate trees ( 131-34 Faxon, Charles (2): 14 Fenway, Boston( 125 Festuca (3) : 8 Festuca cahformca (3) : 5 \"Few Suggestions on Tree Planting,\" by Charles Sargent, comments on (3): 21 Hardening off, relationship to hardmess (3) 23 Hardmess, effects of human mtervention on \/3): 28-31 - m plants (3): 22-31 Hardmess zone (1J: 9 Khan River, Namibia (2\/~ 2 2 Kirkland, John Thornton (3): 12 Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden (2). 8 Koelema (3): 8 Kmseb River, Angola (2): 2 Kunst, Scott G., with Arthur O. Tucker, et al., \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" (4) : 5-59 Katsura tree maps, discussion of ~3\/~ 24 Harvard Botanic Garden ~3\/: 20 Harvard College ~3\/~ 12, 20 Harvard Herbarium (3): 16 Lagerstroemia indica (3\/: 27, 29 Lancaster, Roy \/2\/: 21, 27 Landscapes, native, grasses m (31: 9 9 Larch, European ( 19 62 9 Larix decidua ( 1 9 \"Late Summer Ornamental: sinensis (3): 3-9, 4, 11, inside back A. cover - white ( 18 8 mllow ( 15, 8 - Pohothyrsis smesis,\" Stephen Spongberg (3): 32-34 8 Le N&tre, Andre ( 1 13-18 Le Vau, Louis ( 113 Liechtenstem, Prince, park of (2): 14 Lighty, Richard (3): 4 9 Lrnden, pendant silver \/ 19 Lmnaeus (4): 3 Liqmdambar styraciflua ( 1 \/: 9 Lmodendron tuhpi fera \/ 16, 8 Lithop (21: 5 Locust, honey ( 15-6, 7 thornless ( 17 7 Longfellow, Henry W. (3): 20 1 Longwood Gardens 13): cover, 4-5, 11 Loudon, John Claudius ( 125, 27; 7 (3): 17 6 Lowell, Guy (1): 28; (2\/: 1G 1 Lowell, Lucy (3): 21 Luxembourg, Citadel of (2): 14 - --'Cabaret' (3~: 4, 5 --'Cosmopolitan' \/3~: 4 --'Graziella' (3~: 5 --'Malepartus' (3) : 5 'Morning Light' (3): 4 --'Sarabande' \/3): 5, 7 --'Yaku Jima' (3~: 4 2014 2014 Oehme, Wolfgang (3): 4 Old Yard, Harvard University ( 1 ): 8 5-6, Olmsted, Frederick Law (2): 11, 13, 16-18; (3): 18, 21 Orloff-Davidoff, park of (Russia) (2): Miscanthus transmomsonensis (3~: 4 14 Mohma'Skyracer' \/3\/: 10 \"Mon cher amm The Letters of Edouard Andre 11-19 Monte 14 to Charles Sprague Page, Russell ( 118 Pagels, Ernst (3): 4, 5, 7 Pamcum - \" Sargent,\" Phyllis Andersen (2): ~3): 8 Carlo, public gardens of (2): (Uruguay), redesign of 10 --'Hanse Herms' (3): 10 vmgatum (3): 5, Montevideo \/2y 14 Montreal Botanic Gardens (2) : 8 Mopane Savanna, Namibia (2): 2 Mormon tea (2) : 9 Morris Arboretum (3): 4 Morton Arboretum (2): 25 \"'Most Dangerous Tree': The Paradisi in sole paradisus terrestns \/4) inside front cover, 3, inside back cover Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, Pans (2): inside front cover, 13, 16, 17, 18 Parc Montsouns (2): 13 Park International (2): 18 Park Street, Boston ( 125-26 M'Mahon, Bernard ( 125 Madsen, Karen, photo by ( 1inside front cover; \"Punctuating the Skylme: Alternatives to the Lombardy,\" 31-34 Magnoha (3): 30 8 acummata ( 1 8 -ashei (3): 28 Maple, Armstrong red( 132, 33 red ( 16-7; (3): 28 sugar ( 1 ). 7 March, Sylvester (3): 4 Marlborough Street, Boston ( 133 1 Marsh, George Perkms (3): 21 1 Maschuk, Mount (USSR) (2): 21 - Lombardy Poplar m Landscape Gardenmg,\" Christina D. Wood \/ 1 \/: 24-30 Mount Auburn Cemetery, Boston (3) : 17 Muhlenbergia mgens (3\/: 5, Museum d'Histoire 6 Pans - Naturelle, 29 - (2) : 12 Myrtle, crape (3): 27, Massachusetts Horticultural Society 7 (3): 17 Namib Desert, Namibia \/2): 2-5, 3 Namib-Naukluft Park, Namibia (2): 2 Nan~mg Botanical Garden (2): 36 New York Botanical Garden (2): 25, 35 Mattern, Anke (3): 4 Meadow Road, Arnold Arboretum Nicolau River, Angola (2) : 2 Nooney, Jill, \"'A Very Valuable Shrub': Xanthorhiza Parker, Francis E. (3): 18-20 Parkmson, John (4) 3 Parsons, Samuel ( 131 Parthenocissus cmquefoha (2): 18 Peck, William (3): 12 Pei, I. M. ( 115 Penmsetum (3): 3, 8-9 setaceum (3): 11 1 mllosum (3): 11 Petasites (3) : 9 Phalans arundmacea'Feesey' (3): 5 Photopenod, relationship to acclimation (3): 25-26 Piazza Bianca, Rome (2): 14 Picea pungens (3): 28 Pilococcus miscanthi (3): 7, 9 4 Pme, white ( 14 4 Pmus strobus ( 1 4 - Plant Variety Protection Act, 1980 6 (4): \/2\/: 23, 28, 32 Mealybug, miscanthus (3): 7, Meyer, Frederick G., America\" \"A Rare m 9 simplicissima\" \/2\/: 31-35 North Carolina State University Arboretum (3) : 29 9 Nyssa sylvatica \/ 19 Plantae Wilsonianae Platt, Charles \/ 128 \/2): 36 Chmese Tree Flowers North (2) : 36 Meyer, Paul (3) : 4 7 Michaux, Andre (2): 14; (3)' 17 7 Michaux, Fran~ois Andre (3): 17 Microclimates, effect on hardmess 1 (3):30-31 Miller, Philip (4): 4, 6 Milhum effusum'Aureum' \/3): 10 Miscanthus mealybug (3): 7, 9 Miscanthus 'Giganteus' (3) 9 'Purpurascens' \/3): 2, 7 - Oak, black \/3~: inside front cover 7 - bur ( 1 ~: - fastigiate \/ 121 -pm (1~: 8 - red ( 14, 5, 8 scarlet ( 15, 8 8 Shumard red \/ 18 8 swamp white \/ 1 8 - upright English \/ 120, 31, 33 - Plum, Japanese Kelsey (2): 15 Poaceae, general description of (3): 6 Poison ivy (2) : 21 Pohothyrsis smesis (3): 32-34, 33-34 Poplar, Bolleana \/ 131 Poplar, fastigiate white ( 131 Lombardy \/ 1front cover, inside - back cover; 18, 19, 20, 24-31, 25, - Populus - - 26, 27, 29; (3): 19 alba 'Pyramidalis' ( 131,32 mgra 'Itahca' ( 1 front cover, 1, 18, 19, 24-30 1 \" 63 - sp. ( 1 \/: 31 - tremulus 'Erecta' \/ 131 Probergrothms sexpunctatus (2\/: 7 Prospect Park (31: 18 Royal Botanic Gardens, Rubiaceae (2) : 36 Rudbeckia maxima Kew (2) : 2, 8 (3)' 9 Stellenbosch, University of, Botanic Gardens \/2\/: 8 Style composite, codification of (2) : 18 7 Sugarberry (1):7 Rue de Rivoli ( 116 Saccharum ravennae (3\/: 7, 9 Samt-Gaudens, Augustus ( 128 Salicaceae ( 124 Santa Barbara Botamc Garden (3) : 5 Sargent, Charles Sprague (2): 11, 12, 17-18; (3): 21 Saw Mill Brook, Arnold Arboretum (3): 19 Sceaux, France ( 1cover; 13, 17-22, Provenance, relationship to hardmess (3) : 28 \"Punctuating the Skyline: Alternathe Lombardy,\" Madsen ( 1 J: 31-34 Pyatigorsh (USSR) (2) : 21 Pyrrhocomdae (2) : 7 tives to Sumac, Venetian \/2~: 21 \"Sunset Zones\" (3): 24 Karen Swakop River, Namibia \/2\/: 2-4 Swakopmund, Namibia \/2\/: 2-3 Sweet Gum \/ 1 9 9 Tercentenary Theater, Harvard Yard ( 1front cover, 6, 6-7 Testa, Ron, photo by (2\/: front and back covers Tiha petiolans \/ 19 9 Tours, Jardm des Plantes (2) : 16 Townsend-Purnell Plant Patent Act 6 (4\/: - 8 Quercus alba ( 18 8 bicolor \/ 18 coccinea - ( 15, 8 7 ( 17 8 palustns( 18 phellos ( 15, 8 - robur 'Fastigrata' ( 120, 31, 33 8 - ru bra ( 1 J: 4, 5, shumardi ( 18 8 velutma (3): inside front cover Qurgley, Jennifer Reimer ( 135 Quirinal, Rome (2) : 14 - macrocarpa - 18-21 - - - 5 RaLChe, Roger (35 Ranunculaceae (2) : 31 \"Rare Chmese Tree Flowers m North America,\" Frederick G. Meyer (2) : 36 Raulston, J. C., and Kim E. Tnpp, \"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness\" (3): 22-31 Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growmg Naturally m the Forests of Massachusetts, George Barrell Emerson, quotations from (3). 15 \"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape,\" Michael Van Valkenburgh and Peter Del 1 Tredici ( 1J ~ 3-11 Revue Horticole 12): 14 Rhododendron (3). 27 Rhus (2): 21 Rhynchelytrum repens \/3) Ricmus (3) : 9 Ritterberg Nature Conservation Office, Swakopmund, Namibia 3 (2): Robinson, William (2) : 11 Rock Garden Society, New England Chapter( 135 Rocky Nook, Hrngham (MA) \/3\/: 14 Rose (4) 29 Rothschild, Baron Nathaniel de, park of (AustnaJ (2): 14 Roubaud, Fran~ors ( 115 11 1 Schizachyrmm \/3\/: 9 1 -scopanum (3\/: 11 7 Schnebelen, Jean 11): 16-17 Scorch, sun (3): 30 - winter (31: 30 Sefton Park, England (2): 13 1 Seslena autumnahs (3\/: 11 caerulea 13): 11 1 - nitida (3\/: 11 1 Seven-son flower (3). 32 Shanghai Botanical Garden \/3\/. 32 Silphium terebmthmaceum (3\/: 9 Silva of North America (2) : 14, 18 8 Simon, Richard (3): 4 Sino-American Botanical Expedition, 1980 (3\/: 32 Smith, W W. (2):27 Smokebush (2): 21-22, 23, 27 Smoketree 12): 21, 27 - Amencan (2\/~ 21-22, 24, 28 distribution of (21: 22 Song, Leo, Jr. (2) : 8 Sophora japonica (1\/: 4, 5, 8 ): Sorghastrum nutans 'Sioux Blue' (3): -- Toxicodendron radicans \/2~: 21 Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts by George Barrell Emerson, drawmg from (3): inside front cover, quotations from, 15 Treib, Marc, \"The Care and Feedmg of the Noble Allee\" ( 113-23; Tnpp, photo by \/ 1front cover Kim E., \"Considering Cotmus\" (2) : 20-30; \"Explonng the Complexities of Plant Hardiness,\" withJ C. Raulson (3): et 22-31 Tsamma (2): 4 Tucker, Arthur 0., al., 17 \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" (4) : 5-59 Tuileries \/ 112-16, Tuhp poplar ( 16, 8 9 Tupelo ( 19 5, 10 8 South Park, Chicago (318 South Street Tract, Arnold Arboretum (3) : 19 Spartina (3): 7 -pectmata \/3y 8 0 --'Aureomargmata' (31: 10 Spodlopogon sibiricus (3\/: 7 Spongberg, Stephen A., \"In Memonam : Jennifer Reimer Quigley\" ( 1 \/: 35; \"A Late Summer Ornamental\" (3): 32-34; Preface (4): 3~ 1 Sporobolus heterolepis (3\/: 5, 10-11 Spring Grove Cemetery, Chicago (2) : U.S National Arboretum 4 Ulmus amencana ( 1 3 3 9 parmflora \/ 19 - (2) : 36; (3): Urban landscapes, stresses 3 of: \/ 1 )~ Van Jaarsveld, E. (2) : 8 Van Rensselaer, Marianna \/ 1 26 Van Valkenburgh, Michael, and Peter Del Tredici, \"Restonng the 1 Harvard Yard Landscape\" \/ 13-11 Vaux,Calvert(2): 16, 18, 19 16 6 Spruce, blue (3)' Standard ture 28 Cyclopedia of Horticul( 1\/. 28 Vaux-le-Vicomte ( 120 Verbascum bombyciferum (3)' 9 Versailles ( 113 \"'Very Valuable Shrub': Xanthorhiza simphcissima,\" Jill 64 Nooney (2~: 31-35 Villa Welwitschia mirabilis (2) : cover; 29 10,3,5-7,9 Woodhouse Moor Park, Leeds (2) : 13 Borghese, Rome (2): 14 Virginia creeper (2) : 18 Von Willert, D. J. (2~: 7 Vrughtman, Freek, with Arthur O. Tucker, et al., \"A Sourcebook of Cultivar Names\" 14): 5-59 Walter System (3): 24 Weather Station Data, 1993, Arnold Arboretum ( 136 4 Welham, park (Holland\/ (2) : 14 Welwitsch, Fnednch (2) : 2, 4 Woodlands, Philadelphia ( 124-25 Xanthomaculma convoluta (2\/: 4 Xanthorhiza simphcissima (2\/: 31- \"Welwitschia mmabihs-A Dream Come True,\" Gillian A. CooperDnver ~2\/: 2-10 0 Welwitschia Park, Namibia (2): 3 Welwitschia Plains Drive (2) : 3 Willow family ( 124 35,32-34 Yellowroot (2\/: 31-35 Welwitschia Flats, Namibia (2~: 2 (2\/: 34, 36; (3) : 32 Wmter trunk damage (3): 30 Wood, Christina D., \"'A Most Dangerous Tree': The Lombardy Poplar in Landscape Gardening\" (1):24-30 Wilson, E. H. Yellowwood ( 1\/: 7, 9 Yokohama Nursery catalog Yunnan (2) : 26-27 (4) cover Zelkova serrata ( 1 9 9 Zygophyllum stapfm (2\/: 3 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1A, Title of publication: Arnoldia 1B, Publication number: 00042633. 2, Date of filing. 7 Dec. 1994. 3, Frequency of Quarterly. 3A, Number of issues published annually: 4. 3B, Annual subscription pnce: $20.00 domestic, $25.00 foreign. 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names of the publisher : Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plam, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519, editor. 7, Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other secunty holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securrties: none. 9, The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed dunng the preceding 12 months. 10, Extent and nature of circulation. A, Total number of copies. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 4,530. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000 B, Paid and\/or requested circulation. 1, Sales through dealers and carrrers, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies of each issue during precedmg 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. 2, Mail subscrrption. Average number of copies of each issue during precedmg 12 months: 3,040. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date: 3,550. C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,040. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date: 3,550. D, Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number of copies of each issue during precedmg 12 months: 916. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date: 475. E, Total distribution. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,856. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,925 F, Copies not distributed. 1, Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after pnntmg. Average number of copies of each issue during precedmg 12 months: 574. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date: 975. 2, Return from news agents. Average number of copies of each issue dunng preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. G, Total. Average number of copies of each issue dunng precedmg 12 months: 4,530. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. 11,I certify that the statements made by me are corissue: rect and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":6,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25124","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14e8128.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum N WIN T E R . N E W 5 . 5 1994-199 A Literary Trilogy Completed Robert E. Cook, Director summer of 1840, William Henry Channing became close friends with the transcendentalist Margaret Fuller, disciple of Ralph Waldo In the Emerson and editor of the transcendental journal, Dzal. Channing later wrote of one msit with her: radzant and refreshing morning. She proposed a walk rn the open azr. She led the way to Busrey's wood, her favorite retreat durzng the past year, where she had thought and read, or talked wzth zntrmate frrends. We clrmbed the rocky path, resting a moment or two It was a ... at every s pretty point, trll, reaching a moss-cushroned ledge near the summit, she seated herself. For a time she was szlent, entranced in delrghted communion with the exquurte hue of the sky, seen through interlacing boughs and tremblrng leaves, and the play of shine and shadow over the wide landscape. Thirty-two years later, Bussey's wood became the Arnold Arboretum. It seems that Benjamin Bussey, gentleman farmer of Jamaica Plam, opened his entire estate to the community from the time he acquired the land in the early 1800s until he bequeathed m to Harvard University. In this sense, the Arboretum has been en~oyed by the public for many more years than those since its founding m 1872; the formal establishment of the institution simply recogmzed what was a mdely appreciated but mformal practice of excursions to enjoy the beauty of the setting. ~ contrnued on page 2 A REUNION OF TREES ~ from page 1 institution as expressed in those The occasion for my discovery of this fact, and of the quote from Channing above, was publication the recent of Sczence zn the Pleasure Ground, the third of a trilogy of books by staff members about the scientific and cultural importance of the Arnold Arboretum. Science in the Pleasure Ground is skillfully authored by Ida Hay, formerly Curatorial Associate here, and it recounts in nch detail the changes in the Arboretum landscape over time and the history of the volumes, changes. The earlier A Reunzon of Trees by Steve Spongberg and New England Natzver by Sheila Connor, spun narratives about the importation of exotic woody plants from the Far East into North Amenca and about economic and horticultural uses of the native species and forests by the several cultures that have occupied the land of New two begun over ten years ago and supported by several grants from the National Endowment for the Humanities, that has provided us with a much deeper understanding of the humanistic dimensions of the Arboretum and the critical importance of our living collection of trees to the scientific and cultural developments of the past century. I congratulate all three authors for the high quality of their work, and for the heritage they have rendered accessible to us all. England. The publication of Ida's book completes a magnificent project, MHS Honors John H. Alexander IIIl The Massachusetts Horticultural Society bestowed the prestigious Jackson Dawson Medal on Arnold Arboretum propagator John H. Alexander III in recogmtion of his skill and thoroughness in developing and disseminating propagation techniques. Jack, whose career at the Arboretum began in 1976, is well known for his work with the Arboretum's lilac collections and his extensive teaching as well as for his many contributions to the propagation of woody plants. He is seen here at the 1994 Honorary Medals and Awards Ceremony with, on his nght, Walter Pile, Jr., Chairman of the MHS Board of Trustees, and Executive Director John C. Peterson. The Jackson Dawson Medal itself honors an Arboretum propaM. master plantsman, and longtime superintendent whose forty-three-year career here began gator, in 1873 as Sargent's founder Charles S. first staff member. Friends of the Arboretum Gain Free Admission to More Than 100 Arboreta & Botanical Gardens We are pleased to announce a new benefit for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum: free admission and gift shop discounts at over onehundred arboreta, botanical gardens, and conservatories across the United States and Canada. Among the many institutions participating in this reciprocal admission program Garden, are the Brooklyn Botanic New York Botanical the Strybing Arboretum Botanical Gardens, Missouri Botanical Garden, Denver Botanic Gardens, and the Royal Botanic Gardens in Hamilton, Ontario. Arboretum members also benefit from the reciprocity arrangement by receiving free admission to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's annual New England Spring Flower Show, taking place Garden, & this year March 11through 19. All current Arboretum members will receive a new membership card and a complete list of participating institutions. Simply present your Arboretum membership card to take advantage of the new program. If you have questions, or would like to open or renew membership, please contact Lisa Hastings at 524-1718, ext. 145. Hemlock Hill-The End of an Era Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections Hemlock Hill has always occupied a special place in the history of the Arnold Arboretum as a little piece of wilderness in the heart of the big city. E. H. Wilson summarized the pride felt by Arboretum staff members in his 1925 book, Amerzca'r Great Garden, \"Within the hemlock grove reigns the stillness of primeval forest broken only by the babbling of the waters which wash its feet ... within the limits of no other city can such a grand and mspmng bit of natural forest be found.\" Research published by Hugh Raup in 1935, however, made it clear that Hemlock Hill was far from being a \"primeval\" wilderness-it had been heavily lumbered during the late 1700s and early 1800s, and the hemlocks that dominated the landscape when the Arboretum was founded in 1872 had grown up after this logging. Regardless of its origin, however, Hemlock Hill has always had a wild feeling, very different from the rest of the Arboretum. Unfortunately, a large portion of Hemlock Hill came crashing down during the great hurricane of September 21, 1938, when over 400 trees were blown over, mainly on the southeast slope. These included some of the largest, which dated back to at least 1780. In the two or three years following the hurncane, the hill was replanted with new hemlock seedlings to help stabilize the slopes and to restore the forest, with Donald Wyman bleakly predicting that \"It will take the better part of a century before the magnificent grove of Hemlock Hill will again approach its perfection of September 1938.\" By the time I started working at the Arboretum in 1979, however, Hemlock Hill had once again achieved the feeling of a wild forest, with a few old specimens interspersed among a mass of much younger trees. Seedling regeneration has always been virtually nonexistent on the hill, a function of the dense shade that hemlocks cast, of their highly absorptive root systems, and of the heavy foot traffic that parades up and down the slopes. Periodic storms and hurricanes since 1938 have continued their relentless program of tree removal, culling specimens with rotten cores or weak roots. This combination of ongoing mortality and lack of seedling recruitment has been a source of concern for the staff for many years, with no obvious solution in sight. The big nor'easter that struck Boston on December The \"hanging wood\" of Hemlock Hill in 1905 by T. E. Marr. photographed 24, 1994, was yet another reminder that the problem of Hemlock Hill will get worse before it gets better. Two of the biggest trees left on the top of the hill were blown down. Both were there before the Arboretum was founded, and both were totally hollow at the base. One of the trees, approximately 80 centi- diameter, had 125 rings at 15 feet above the ground, suggesting an age of at least 150 years. The other tree was over 90 centimeters m diameter and appeared to be of about the same vintage. Along with these two giants, five smaller trees, probably planted after the hurricane of 1938, also came down. From a management point of view Hemlock Hill has always been problematic. On the one hand, it receives minimal maintenance because we like to think of it as a \"natural\" area. On the other, it is heavily trafficked, and erosion and vandalism meters m (mainly fires) can become very senous problems if not treated or prevented. And just to make matters worse, a new pest, the hemlock woolly adelgid, has recently been found on Arboretum property. This insect, whose arnval had been anticipated for several years, has devastated hemlock populations, both wild and cultivated, throughout the mid-Atlantic region. More recently, the insect has been spotted in hemlock forests throughout southern new England. ~ continued on page 4 3 ~ from page 3 While the pest can be controlled by spraying dormant oil, it is difficult, if not impossible, to control its spread in dense stands of tall trees. Only the Chinese species, Tsuga chrnen.ru, appears to be fully resistant to damage from the adelgid. These factors have led the Living Collections Committee to revise its management program for Hemlock Hill. The first change has been to allow as much organic matter as possible to remain on the hill in an attempt to encourage natural seedling re- generation. This translates into a policy that calls for chipping up the branches of the tree (thereby minimizing the fire hazard) and leaving the trunks where they fall to act as \"nurse\" logs. The second step will be to plant open areas with Tsuga chinen.ru m an effort to head off total devastation by the adelgtd. This species is rarely cultivated in North America. While we have a few old specimens at the Arnold Arboretum,we have begun assembling specimens from various parts of its natural range, With a little luck they will be ready to plant out in three or four years. Mercer Fellow Lisa Curran has been granted a two-year Mercer Fellowship to work with the Arboretum's Indonesian Biodiversity Collections project. Since receiving her undergraduate degree from Harvard University in 1984, Lisa has been investigating the ecology, use, and Kalimantan timber concessions and affiliated wood-based industries, she evaluated the ecological, economic, and social impact of government policies and timber company practices on forest resources and local village communities. management of tropical forests m Kalimantan (Indonesian Borneo). She assisted the Indonesian government with biodiversity surveys and research programs in two forest reserves that were later upgraded to national park status. She also conducted a number of field courses in tropical botany while in Kalimantan, and on several occasions served as a forestry consultant to the government of Indonesia. In field surveys and investigations of over seventy In July 1994, Lisa received her Ph.D. from the Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at Pnnceton University with a thesis entitled \"The ecology and evolution of mast-frmung in Bornean Dipterocarpaceae: A general ectomycorrhizal theory.\" It was based on her eight-year study of the reproductive biology and regeneration of the prominent family of Southeast Asian commercial timber trees and their insect and vertebrate seed preda- tors Her current research interests impact of forest policies and practices on biodiversity center on the in tropical canopy trees and the effects of seedling recruitment fluctuations on the maintenance of species diversity. Lichens: Fine Details of the Natural Landscape Lichens-actually symbiotic associations between fungi and algae or cynobacteria-are among the most ubiquitous forms of life across the globe. From February 21 to May 15, the Arboretum will present a photographic exhibit that explores the natural history of this fascinating group of organisms. \"Lichens: Fine Details of the Natural Landscape\" will be available for viewing in the Arboretum's Hunnewell Building at 125 Arborway in Jamaica Plain. The Arboretum will also offer a free lecture, \"Lichens, a Special Biological Interaction,\" by Donald H. Pfister, Asa Gray Professor of Systematic Botany, Harvard University. The lecture will be held on Tuesday, April 4, at 7:30 pm in the Hunnewell Building. To register, please call 617\/524-1718 ext.162. 4 What Is Landscape? ...\"A piece of land which is old or has nature\" ...\"How the land works\"...\"What you can see through your eyes\" Richard Schulhof, Assistant Director for Education and Public Affairs Over one hundred 6th-grade students at the Doherty Middle School in Andover ventured a response to the key question addressed in the new Arboretum program, Junior Parkmakers: What is landscape? Supported by grants from the National Endowment for the Arts and the National Park Foundation, the Arboretum and the Olmsted National Historic Site are working together to introduce Boston-area children to the concepts of landscape and landscape history. Development of the program began this past fall with focus groups comprised of local teachers and museum educators. Mary Chmielecki, a teacher at the Doherty School, tested the power of the word landscape with her students. She asked them to define their idea of it in one sentence and then to draw it. Their responses underscored the word's ability to evoke a wide range of personal interpretations. Although the highly varied responses made categorization difficult, roughly 25 percent thought of it as a verb (\"making the lands look better\"), 30 percent interpreted it as natural or aesthetically pleasing place (\"beautiful, fresh-looking scenery\"), and 40 percent as a quantity or un~t of land (\"land for about a mile\"). While all of the participants included trees in their drawings, a few children described landscape as construction sites or areas for dumping and included bulldozers or abandoned cars in their drawings. These descriptions provide an extremely useful snapshot of the diverse perspectives that participants will bring to the program. We extend our many thanks to Ms. Chmielecki and her students for their creative and enlightening contribution. Junior Parkmakers will be field-tested later this year; it will include classroom activities and visits to the Arboretum designed to connect kids with Boston's rich heritage of historic and designed landscapes. a Understanding Urban Trees: Getting to the Root of the Matter Kim E. Tripp, Putnam Fellow ' ` ' ~ ~ ' ' ' \" ' Trees m cities have much to contend with. Restncted rooting areas, high winds, severe temperature fluctuations, extremes of drought and flooding, compacted or contaminated soils with high concentrations of salt, and repeated mechanical damage affect the tree's ability to maintain actively growing and functional roots. Moreover, they must cope with these extreme conditions immedi- ately following one of the most stressful perturbations that managed woody plants are subjected to, namely, transplanting. No tree in nature is subjected to this kind of disturbance-seedlmg trees may be chewed on, crushed by fallen limbs, stepped on, or attacked by disease, but they are not uprooted to be replanted miles away in an alien, stressful In modern environment. dominant factor in determming survival. My research project at the Arnold Arboretum addresses this issue in two ways: Which ornamental woody plants in the diverse living collections of the Arnold Arboretum have over time demonstrated good potential for surviving in stressful managed environments~ And among these successful plants, are there similarities in root growth patterns show great potential for urban use. I am currently working to document optimal propagation techniques for these plants and to promote them for commercial production. I have addressed the second by investigating how woody plants invest in root growth relative to shoot growth. My previous work and that of others has uncovered a clear coincidence between success in environments hostile to root growth and allocation of significantly greater proportion of overall growth to roots than to other parts of the plant. This pattern holds up even among closely related plants. For example, if we grow two closely related hollies from rooted cuttings-one that performs well in stressful root environments and one that doesn't-we find that the successful holly consistently allocates much more of its growth to its root system than to its aboveground parts. This preference for investment in root growth versus shoot growth remains consistent throughout early development from rooted cuttings, through the containergrown stage, and on through two seasons in the field. These findings help us understand urban tree growth and development. They may also allow question horticulture, young tree seed, cuttings, and trees are brought from a range of climates around the world to nurseries where they are grown with nearly optimal fertilization and irrigation. In field-production nurseries, plants may lose as much as eighty to ninety percent of their root systems when they are dug for shipping to a new site. The advent of the mechanical tree spade has made it virtually impossible to trees without losof their mass of fine roots-those roots most important for water and nutnent uptake in support of the whole organism. This means that, once replanted, trees must be able to regrow significant masses of fine roots as quickly as possible in order to survive. That ability, which varies widely among species and even among cultivars and hybrids with shared parentage, becomes a A successfully rooted cutting of Alnus japonica, the Japanese alder. transplant large ing most that permit us to generalize about what leads to successful root development and long-term survival in stressful environments, and thereby better predict which trees might thrive in such sites? The first question is readily answered by straightforward evaluation of the collections with reference to the invaluable records that detail source, age, and prior management. Over the past year I have had the great pleasure of discovenng many interesting and unusual ornamental woody plants that develop relatively rapid for successful urban plants simply by rooting cuttings and growing seedlings of untried speus to screens and cultivars. This two-fold project is a unique opportunity for me to take advantage of the great diversity and excellent documentation of the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum in service to both practical and theoretical horticulture. cies . & EVENTS Spnng and summer are prime seasons for gardeners, and the Arboretum offers many short courses in horticulture and botany. Begin your gardening career with introductory courses, or improve your skills with advanced courses in horticultural techniques and plant study. A selection is shown below. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, call (617) 524-1718, ext. 162. Please note that course fees printed in boldface are for Arboretum members. APRIL HOR 327 Starting and Running a Home Nursery John H. Alexander III, Arnold Arboretum Chzef Plant Propagator, suitable for New England gardens, their culture and the landscape. 5 Fee: $12, $15 Thursday, April 6\/ 7:00-8:30 pm (Case Estates) uses in Are you growing so many plants that you sometimes feel you might as well be running a nursery? Would you like to sell some of the plants you produce? In this workshop for the serious amateur, your questions will be answered. Is a greenhouse required~ Where should you buy supplies, stock, liners, equipment? What are the legal aspects of starting a nursery? What about trrigauon> How should you inform customers of your offerings? Can you manage without a catalog~ Extensive handouts are included. Bnng a lunch. HOR 110 Fundamentals of Gardening Laura Ez.rener, Landscape De.rzgner Whether you are a novice starting your first garden or an old hand looking for a firmer foundation, this practical course will satisfy your quest for basic gardening information. In four sessions this course will cover basic techniques of gardening, including site analysis and soil preparation, irrigation, drainage, watermg, plant selection, and horticultural requmements of plants. Weather permitting, there will be some hands-on work at the site, in addition to lectures and demonstrations. Fee: $117, $134 2 Fee: $85, $100 4 Saturdays, April 1, 8\/ 9:00 am-3:30 pm (Dana Greenhouse) HOR 195 Successful Tree and Shrub Planting James F. Martin, Professional Arborzst and Horticultural Instructor Fridays, April 7, 14, 21, 28\/ 10:00 am-12:30 pm (Case Estates) MAY Establishing young trees and shrubs is an important spring gardening task for the homeowner and garden professional. Learn planting techniques that will give a new tree or shrub the best chance of survival. This course will cover decisions to be made at the time of purchase, transportation, planting hole preparation, settling the plant in, fimshmg touches, and maintenance. The course is appropriate for both novice and experienced gardeners as well as for horticultural professionals. Please dress for the outdoors. Fee: 2 Identification of Temperate Woody Plants Arnold Arboretum Staff Memberr Gary Koller, Stephen Spongberg, Chru Strand, and Kzm Tripp. Marcza Mitchell, Course Coordinator introductory course, taught by Arnold Arborestaff members, is designed to provide a solid foundation for the identification of woody plants hardy in New England. Students may begin the two-semester curriculum in either fall or spring. This tum $40.00, $46.00 Saturdays, April 1, 8\/ 9:30-noon (Case Estates) HOR 101 Identification of Temperate Woody Plants (Spring) includes deciduous shrubs, small flowering trees, and the spring characteristics of larger landscape trees and conifers. HOR 172 Bamboos in the Home Landscape Chrzs DeRosa, Owner, New England Bamboo Company Bamboos add movement, grace, and elegant form to your garden. Beautiful as they are, gardeners know that some bamboos can become invasive garden problems. Jom Chris DeRosa, a recognized bamboo expert, to learn about the variety of hardy bamboos HOR 102 Identification of Temperate Woody Plants (Fall ) includes the autumn aspect of these genera and species, and presents conifers, broadleaf evergreens, and other plants whose key charactenstics are best observed in the fall and winter. Fee: $125, $150 7 Tuesdays, May 2, 9, 16, 23, 30, June 10 :00-noon (Dana Greenhouse) 6, 13\/ 7 New Staff at the Arboretum Her immediate concern will be to continue to update online access in order to accelerate research efforts. Carol is a graduate student of library science at Simmons College and comes to us from the Lucien Howe Library of Ophthalmology and Otolaryngology at Massachusetts Eye and catalog. Ear Infirmary. Carol David brings five years of librarianship to her position as the new Library Assistant at the Horticultural Library. Her responsibilities include reference services, acquisitions, and technical services. At present ninety percent of on the horticultural collection is not HOLLIS, Harvard's online Lisa M. Hastings recently joined the Arboretum as Development Officer. Her responsibilities include managing the Arboretum's membership and annual appeal efforts and planning and organizing events related to the Arboretum's participation in the University's Capital Campaign. She joins us from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in Worcester where, as Director of Young Alumni Programs, she was responsible for all aspects of fundraismg and program management for WPI's young alumni constituency of seven thousand. Lisa is a longtime volunteer at the Fisher Museum of Forestry at the Harvard Forest in Petersham and at the Worcester County Horticultural Society. I 1995 Winter Lecture Series: The Nature of Cities This winter marks the third year of collaboration among the Arnold Arboretum, Olmsted National Historic Site, the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and a number of other sponsors to present a lecture series exploring our changing relationship with the Amencan landscape and natural environment. This year's series will discuss the future of urban open space and examine the ongoing debate about how \"nature\" can best be shaped and managed as an Maurrts C Esther, Nrghtand Day, Philadelphia Museom oFArt Grven by Mrs Herbert C Morris integral part of the American city. All lectures are free and begin at 6:30 pm in the Piper Auditorium of the Harvard Graduate School of Design at 48 Quincy Street in Cambridge. The Arboretum extends its thanks to the Massachusetts Foundation for the Humamties for its support of the senes. I I February 9: The Future of the Garden in America-Beyond the Wilderness and the Lawn Michael Pollan, Author of Second Nature February 23: A Manifesto for the Charles River Sam Bass Warner, Jr., Urban Historian March 9: Regrounding Nature in the New City Catherine M. Howett, Professor, School of Environmental Design, University of Georgia March 23: Imagining the New Urban Park Diana Balmori, Principal, Balmon Associates "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23277","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d1608926.jpg","title":"1994-54-4","volume":54,"issue_number":4,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Century of Grasses","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25113","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14ea36f.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Darke, Rick","article_content":"A Century of Grasses _ _ Rick Darke public taste has been turned to the advantageous effect of grasses landscape gardening. Ferns had the credit of first winning attention from colour to form, and grasses next stepped in to confirm the preference for grace and elegance over gaudy colouring....\"Margaret Plues, British Grasses (1867) in \"Of late years more than a century old, these lines much of the spirit behind the current capture fervor for ornamental grasses. Grasses are indeed enjoying a renaissance as gardeners learn to look beyond flower color to embrace the more subtle satisfactions of line, form, texture, and translucency. Lacking typical broadpetaled, brightly colored flowers, grasses derive much of their beauty from a unique set of attributes centered on line, light, and movement. Grasses provide a strong linear presence that results from the close parallel arrangement of so many narrow leaf blades. Their flowers are delicately translucent, particularly when dry, and they glow brilliantly when backlit or sidelit by the sun. Coaxed by the wind, the plumes move in and out of sun streams, creating magical flickering effects while the glossy foliage below alternates between translucency and shimmering reflec- Though Stirring gently in a summer breeze, dancing before an autumn storm, or flying in a spring gale, grasses mirror nature's moods and bring a special dynamism to the garden. Modern designs feature these luminous qualities and movement. Also responsible for the renewed interest in grasses is a dramatic increase in the number of species and varieties available to today's garMiscanthus tion. dener. In the Victorian heyday of ornamental grasses, a limited few such as Arundo, Cortaderia, Miscanthus, and Pennisetum were repeatedly employed, most often as specimen curiosities set into broad lawns. Plant exploration, introduction, breeding, and selection in recent decades have enriched the modern palette of ornamental grasses so that it now includes myriad variations in size, form, texture, and color to suit a multitude of purposes in the garden. The innovative nurseryman Karl Foerster (1874-1970) was an early and constant promoter of ornamental grasses, and his influence has been wide ranging. Foerster assembled plants from around the world and grew them for evaluation in his nursery in PotsdamBormm, Germany. By the 1940s his catalog offered more than one hundred varieties of ornamental grasses. Foerster also developed a more naturalistic style of garden design based on his nursery trials and his observation of grasses growing in association with other plants in native habitats. His 1957 book Einzug der Graser und Farne in die Garten (Using Grasses and Ferns in the Garden) provided a record of his experiences and is still one of the most compelling works on the subject. Foerster's teachings have inspired two 'Purpurascens' m the author's own garden. All photos by the author. 4 1 Pagels (seen here with horticultunst Anke Mattern), a student of Karl Foerster, has selected and introduced many spectacular early bloommg cultivars of Miscanthus at his nursery in northwestern Germany. Ernst generations of German horticulturists. A superb feather-reed grass, Calamagrostis x acuti flora 'Karl Foerster', is named for him and is now common in gardens around the world. Richard Simon of Maryland brought some of Foerster's influence and plant palette to North America in the late 1950s, when availability of ornamental grasses was at a particularly low ebb in the United States. With the help and encouragement of landscape architect Wolfgang Oehme and nurseryman Kurt Bluemel, both German-born advocates of Karl Foerster's philosophies, Simon began offering ornamental grasses through his Bluemount Nursery catalog. Bluemel's own Maryland 1964, has since become the premier commercial introducer of grasses to the United States. Bluemel has worked to propagate, promote, and develop the market nursery, founded in for new grasses introduced by institutions such as the United States National Arboretum and Longwood Gardens. One such example is the feather-reed grass Calamagrostis brachytricha discovered by Richard Lighty while on a Longwood-sponsored plant collecting expedition to Korea in 1966. John Creech and Sylvester March of the National Arboretum introduced a number of ornamental grasses from Japan in the mid-1970s, including the variegated Miscanthus cultivars 'Cabaret', 'Cosmopolitan', and 'Morning Light', as well as the diminutive green-leaved Miscanthus 'Yaku Jima'. These mainstays of modern horticulture were first offered commercially by Kurt Bluemel, as was Miscanthus transmorrisonensis, introduced from Taiwan in 1979 by Paul Meyer of the University of Pennsylvania's Morris Arboretum. In the 5 Fohage detail of Miscanthus 1980s a sinensis 'Cabaret', mtroduced from Japan by the U S National Arboretum number of stellar introductions such virgatum 'Heavy Metal' and Miscanthus sinensis 'Sarabande' originated from Bluemel. In recent years he has been an important conduit for selections from England such as Phalaris arundinacea 'Feesey' and the spectacular early blooming Miscanthus cultivars developed by Ernst Pagels of Leer, Germany, including 'Graziella' and 'Malepartus'. During the 1990s, many of the most important additions to the gardening world's palette of grasses have been native North American species and cultivars thereof. A fresh look at American grasslands by horticulturists from coast to coast is generating an abundance of widely adopted ornamentals. Native plant specialist Roger Raiche at the University of California's Berkeley Botanic Garden has as Panicum californica, Muhlenbergia rigens, Calamagrostis foliosa, and Carex spissa into the garden's displays and ern as natives such Festuca has worked with nurseries to make them available. At the University of California's Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Carol Bornstein's initiative to explore native grasses has resulted in fine introductions such as Elymus condensatus 'Canyon Prince'. Prairie Nursery in the Midwest has extolled the virtues of previously obscure but highly ornamental prairie species such as Sporobolus heterolepis. In the eastern states, Longwood Gardens' nursery trials of native American grasses have produced Bluemel has nutans 'Sioux Blue'; Kurt developed Panicum virgatum 'Squaw' and'Warrior'; and Bluemount Nursery Sorghastrum woven many beautiful, drought-tolerant west- has selected a giant, blue-leaved form of Panicum virgatum named'Cloud Nine'. Muhlenbergia rigens (deer grass), a stunning, little-known naturally sidelighted against boulders in 07ai, California. which constitute the family Poaceae, among the most highly evolved on the earth. It should be no wonder plants grasses are proving such a treasure trove of ornamentals : this truly cosmopolitan group of herbaceous annuals, perennials, and semiwoody plants includes over nine thousand species belonging to more than six hundred genera. Members of the grass family are found on all the continents in nearly all habitats. Grasses are part of almost all ecological formations and are the dominant vegetation in many, such as prairies, steppes, and savannas. Karl Foerster's characterization of grasses as \"Mother Earth's hair\" is not just fanciful: grasses are the principal component in more than one-fifth of the planet's vegetation cover. Immensely important economically, grasses The true grasses, are native of the western Umted States, is seen include all the cereal crops as well as sugarcane, bamboos, canes, and reeds. Herbaceous perennial grasses are unquestionably the most varied, versatile group for purposes of landscape design. Perennial grasses are among the easiest to grow of all garden plants. Properly utilized, they can contribute to richly rewarding landscapes that are truly low in required maintenance. Grasses are adaptable to a wide range of soil, temperature, and moisture conditions and are relatively free of pests and diseases. In native habitats the greatest number of grasses prefer sunny sites, and this is also true for the majority of ornamental species in the garden. Sun-loving species often need two-thirds to full-day sun for best performance. Shading these grasses usually results in lax, elongated 7 growth and diminished bloom. Light requirements may vary considerably even among related cultivars, however. Most Miscanthus varieties demand considerable sun, yet the cultivar 'Purpurascens' stands upright and flowers well in half shade. Some grasses need both full sun and long growing seasons. For example, many Miscanthus fail to develop flowers in the short seasons of the northeastern United States and northern Europe. Again, proper alleviate this problem. Ernst Pagels developed his recent Miscanthus introductions (including 'Graziella', 'Malepartus', 'Kleine Fontane') with the goal of producing plants that would flower in the relatively cool, short season of northwestern Germany. These plants are extremely useful in much of England and in cooler parts of the United States. Grasses imported from warm southern climates, on the other hand, sometimes succumb during winters in northern countries. The cause may be not the low temperatures in the new environment, but instead a lack of hardiness resulting from a weak sun in the growing season. For example, Saccharum ravennae (better known under its synonym, Erianthus ravennae) flowers well and easily tolerates winter lows of zero degrees Fahrenheit in parts of the United States that enjoy hot summers. In England it often does not bloom and may fail in winter. Although fewer than sun-loving species, there are a number of grasses native to moist, shady woodlands and woodland edges. Some of these, such as Calamagrostis brachytricha, Chasmanthium latifolium, and Spodiopogon sibiricus are highly ornamental choices for the shade garden. Other ornamental species such as Deschampsia flexuosa and Hystrix patula grow happily in very dry shade, which is always a difficult niche to fill in the garden. Grasses are tolerant of many different soil types. An inquiry into the particulars of a grass's native habitat often provides insights useful for siting plants in the garden. For example, grasses such as Miscanthus or Spartina that naturally inhabit wet areas tolerate low soil aeration. These species often are ideal can choice of cultivars choices for poorly aerated garden soils such as heavy clays. Species found on infertile sands in the wild will obviously tolerate similar garden conditions; however, many also appreciate a rich garden loam. Some, such as the fescues, demand well-drained soils. These types will succumb to root rots in soils that stay moist, especially in winter. Although woodland natives respond particularly well to fertilization, it is generally unnecessary for most grasses except when they are planted in infertile sands. On rich loams and clays, fertilization can produce an overabundance of soft growth and may cause grasses to flop over. The fibrous root systems of grasses are very efficient, making most grasses extremely drought tolerant. Once established, most ornamental grasses rarely need supplemental waeven in the driest summers. However, there is sometimes significant variation in the drought tolerance even among closely related cultivars. For example, the narrow-leaved Miscanthus 'Sarabande' will go through extended droughts with only minor tip burn. Broader-leaved Miscanthus 'Purpurascens' will scorch badly under the same conditions. Grasses roll the edges of their leaves inward in response to moisture stress, and this can be used as an indicator of the need for watering. Shade species such as Chasmanthium or Spodiopogon will perform well in full sun if given additional water in dry periods. Grasses are generally free of pests and diseases. However, a mealybug, Pilococcus miscanthi, introduced to the United States in the late 1980s, now poses a serious threat to Miscanthus. Believed to be of Asian origin, the tering one generation per year, overwintering as adult females, with eggs hatching in spring. By fall the lower culms and mealybug produces insides of the leaf sheaths may be caked white with mealybugs. The mealybug attacks all parts of the plant including the roots, so aboveground mechanical or chemical methods are not sufficient for control. Drenching with systemics has proved effective; however, this is a management technique that needs to be used with the greatest caution. Preferably, 4 8 extreme care should be taken uninfected stock. to obtain Herbaceous perennial grasses may be grouped categories, warm season season loosely into two growers, based on the plants' physiologic cycles. Warm season grasses like it hot. They tend to sulk in cool growers and cool spring weather, but once temperatures reach approximately 80 degrees Fahrenheit they begin a vigorous growth that continues unabated through summer. Most bloom toward summer's end and then die back to ground level with the onset of cold temperatures. In colder climates it is risky to divide or transplant warm season grasses in autumn; the plants' food reserves are lowest after flowering and seed set, the leaves are no longer photosynthesizing, and the roots are relatively inactive in winter. Detail shows newly mtroduced miscanthus mealybug, Pilococcus miscanthi. Therefore, are warm season grasses are best divided or transplanted in spring after strong growth has resumed. Examples of warm season growers season Miscanthus, Cortaderia, Pennisetum, Panicum, and Andropogon. Cool grasses behave tively easy to control. On the other hand, they can result in high landscape maintenance if planted for groundcover since they will not fill in spaces where individual clumps have weakened or died. The rhizomes of running types such as are oppositely, growing best at temperatures below 80 degrees Fahrenheit. New winter or foliage begins to grow in late early spring, followed by spring or flowers. Cool some season Spartina pectinata or Glyceria maxima early summer growers sulk in summer: simply interrupt growth, while others go into a full summer dormancy, dying to the ground. Growth resumes in autumn and often continues until winter temperatures drop below 40 degrees Fahrenheit. Cool season grasses may be divided or transplanted almost any time of year except during their hot are summer lull. Examples Arrhenatherum, species, Koeleria, and Calamagrostis x acutiflora. most Festuca Although all grasses spread to some extent by rhizomes or stolons, for horticultural purposes they can be segregated into clumping and running types. Each type has its strengths for different design uses. The majority of perennial species-fescues, for exampleproduce only a modest annual increase in girth, effectively remaining in a clump or tuft. Since they stay in place, these types are rela- invasive and may travel nearly three feet in a single growing season. Restraints will be required if plants are commingled with less aggressive companions. However, these are ideal for groundcover use. Only a minority of perennial grasses have the potential to be seriously invasive. Nonetheless, this aspect should be given careful consideration in choosing plants, especially if the garden is located near a sensitive native plant community. The popular Miscanthus sinensis, for example, is rapidly naturalizing coastal areas and bottomlands in the mid-Atlantic and southeastern United States. The new early blooming cultivars, especially those from Pagels, will certainly accelerate the naturalization of this species. The potential for invasiveness of any particular grass varies from climate to climate. Cortaderia jubata is a serious problem in coastal California, but it poses no threat in the cold eastern states. aggressively 9 Grasses that self-sow to prolifically can add bold foliage such as Silphium tere- substantially den. Fortunately they are few. Especially for mass plantings near vulnerable natural commaintenance chores in the gar- munities, acutiflora sets grasses such as Calamagrostis x 'Karl Foerster', which rarely if ever viable seed, are more responsible choices. In 1909 the nursery catalog of Storrs & Harrison Company, Ohio, commented on the place of ornamental grasses in landscape design: In the a laying out of lawns and artistic gardens few of the many beautiful hardy grasses should not be overlooked. Their statelmess, tropic luxuriance, and soft colors harmoniously punctuate the prevailing green, while their graceful, smuous yielding to every wmd gives animation to gardened landscapes too apt to look \"fixed.\" These lines acknowledge the subtle beauty of grasses and celebrate the movement they bring to the garden. However, they also stereotype grasses as curious afterthoughts useful chiefly for providing contrast with the ubiquitous lawn. Other contemporary writings and many of surprisingly more recent vintage suggest that grasses are best grouped by themselves in the garden. It is unfortunate that these two approaches have been so widely adopted since they rarely realize the potential for grasses' contribution to the landscape. There is also a genuine concern that ornamental grasses will eventually suffer from overuse. In the American South, pampas grass has long since passed from favorite to cliche. More recently, Miscanthus and Pennisetum have become staples in the obligatory landscaping that tries to mitigate the monotony of commercial sites, but this trend may be forestalled as the wide diversity of grasses becomes better known. The characteristic fine texture and linearity of grasses is most effective when visually balanced by other garden elements-annuals, biennials, perennials, shrubs, and trees-that contribute strong, solid forms to the composition. These might be companion plants with binthinaceum, Rudbeckia maxima, Petasites, or Gunnera. A number of coarse biennials such as Verbascum bombyciferum, Angelica gigas, and Cynara cardunculus, as well as annuals like Ricinus and Helianthus are also ideal. Large-flowered companions such as Hemerocallis and Hibiscus provide exciting contrast, as do the dark, massive trunks of trees. An unusually versatile group, ornamental grasses can serve infinite capacities in the garden, limited only by the imagination of the designer. Native landscapes offer a rich source of inspiration. It takes little observation to know that grasses often occur naturally in huge sweeps and masses. In savannas and prairies, they are the form and foundation, the matrix of the landscape. Space permitting, many ornamental grasses are most effective when used in these ways in the garden. Meadow gardens, by their nature, should have a consistent framework of grasses through which flowering forbs make seasonal appearances. Prairie natives such as Andropogon and Schizachyrium are obvious choices for massed plantings, especially in naturalistic gardens. Coastal lowlands in Japan are a splendid sight when millions of native Miscanthus bloom shoulder to shoulder in autumn. A bit of this drama can be recreated in large gardens by planting Miscanthus in mass. In modest gardens, a sweep of refined grass such as Calamagrostis x acutiflora 'Karl Foerster' can create a mass effect without actually occupying so much area. This same grass and taller species such as Miscanthus 'Giganteus' or Saccharum ravennae can also be massed to enclose or form garden spaces. Most grasses need not be cut back until late wmter. Screens and hedges will disappear temporarily after grasses are cut back, but most reappear quickly and are fully functional through summer, autumn, and most of winter. In wild landscapes and in the garden, grasses are especially beautiful near water. Their fine foliage is stunning when mirrored in the broad surface of a dark pool or pond. Many grasses are native to wet habitats. Ornamental vari- 10 Hakonechloa macra `Aurcola' m ants a bonsai park near Tokyo. The Japanese have long grown grasses m contamers. color. Modern cultivars offer in countless shades of green summer as of these species, such as Glyceria maxima 'Variegata' or Spartina pectinata 'Aureomarginata', will thrive along pond edges and streambanks. Another winning combination borrowed from native foliage white well as feathery grasses landscapes is that of tumbling over massive boulas ders. Species such Panicum virgatum and Deschampsia cespitosa literally produce clouds of the finest textured inflorescences. These grasses are dramatic when set among rocks or stones in the garden and can make a superb backdrop for garden sculpture. Garden pathways of stone offer similar contrast. They should be wide enough to allow grasses and other plants to spill over them. Grasses are also ideal for softening overly heavy architectural features in the garden. Although they may pale in comparison with tropical flowers, grasses are hardly without (Arrhenatherum 'Variegatum'), yellow (Millium effusum 'Aureum'), blue (Sorghastrum 'Sioux Blue'), and red (Imperata 'Red Baron'\/. These are followed by an autumn array of golds (Molinia 'Skyracer'), burnt-umbers (Sporobolus heterolepis), and burgundies (Panicum 'Hanse Herms'). Indeed, grasses are unparalleled in their ability to enliven the autumn garden. The rigors of winter fail to diminish the beauty of ornamental grasses. In the opinion of more than a few gardeners, this is their peak season. The splendid autumn tones of foliage and flowers weather gracefully to winter hues of chestnut, fawn, and russet. Frost often traces the graceful lines of grasses on winter mornings. Even in dormancy, many species 11 1 shape and stature through sleet, freezing rain. Little bluestem, Schizachyrium scoparium, and broomsedge, Andropogon virginicus, paint broad goldenon winter's white canvas. Encrusted in ice, the spikelets of Chasmanthium become jewel-like. And the plumes of Miscanthus that were downy in summer become stunning filigrees in winter. Thoughtful placing of grasses so that they may be viewed from inside the house can be quite rewarding. Through a window, the movement of the grasses may catch the eye, providing a subtle connection and beckoning the gardener into the garden even in winter. Many grasses make reasonably good retain their snow, and jects in Western gardens. Grasses with colored foliage such as Helictotrichon sempervirens orange brushstrokes provide steady, multiseason interest when planted in containers with annual flowers or foliage plants. Tender perennials such as Rhynchelytrum repens, Pennisetum villosum, Pennisetum setaceum and its red-leaved forms may be enjoyed in containers outdoors during the warmer months. Also, many perennial grasses are sufficiently cold hardy to remain outdoors in unprotected containers or through winter. Calamagrostis x acutiflora groundcovers. Even though they are clumping types, the sturdy Seslerias, including Sesleria caerulea, Sesleria autumnalis, and Sesleria nitida, are low growing, long lived, and evergreen in milder climates. Prairie 'Karl Foerster', for example, has easily survived zero degrees Fahrenheit in a modestsized concrete urn at Longwood Gardens. Allowing for their seasonal ebb and flow, grasses can be stunning specimen focal points or accents. For example, the classic symmetry of a variegated giant reed, Arundo donax dropseed, Sporobolus heterolepis, is another clumpformer suited to groundcover massing. Deeprooted and extraordinarily drought tolerant once established, Sporobolus remains attractive for decades without the need for division or 'Variegata', might serve as a living sculpture. Many truly have multiple seasons of interest carry a design through much of the In these instances it is especially imporyear. and can resetting, a claim that can be made for few perennial flowers. Spreading or running species such as Elymus arenarius, Glyceria maxima 'Variegata', and Hakonechloa macra often make good groundcovers. Flowering bulbs such as narcissus and tulips are happy to coexist with groundcover grasses. The bulbs usually flower earlier than the grasses and afterward their foliage is effectively masked by that of the grasses. Japan has a long tradition of growing grasses in containers. The red-leaved Imperata cylindrica and variegated forms of Hakonechloa macra are rarely planted in Japanese landscapes, but for more than a hundred years they have been grown in decorative containers as companions to specimen bonsai. These and a host of other grasses deserve more frequent experimentation as container sub- advantage of natural backlighting sidelighting to feature the grasses' luminous qualities. The net result of this century of design development is that ornamental grasses are no longer stereotyped as curiosities that punctuate the lawn, and the myth that they should be relegated to segregated \"grass garden\" groupings has been dispelled. Rather, they have become integral to the well designed year-round garden. It seems certain that the unprecedented diversity now existing in ornamental grasses will firmly and permanently establish their place in the garden palette. tant to or take This article is excerpted in part from the forthcoming Royal Horticultural Soclety Manual of Grasses Rick Darke is also author of For Your Garden. Ornamental Grasses, pubhshed m 1994 by Little, Brown and Company He is Curator of Plants at Longwood Gardens m Kennett Square, Pennsylvama, where he has been responsible for the development of the ornamental grass display. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"George Barrell Emerson and the Establishment of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25117","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eab6b.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Hay, Ida","article_content":"George Barrell Emerson and the Establishment of the Arnold Arboretum Ida Hay \"When shall we be able to point to a complete, or even a respectable, American collection of our indigenous trees and shrubs?\" Perhaps more than any other individual, George Barrell Emerson was responsible for filling this need in nineteenth-century New England. The Arnold Arboretum was officially established in March 1872, when an mdenture was signed by which trustees of a bequest of James Arnold agreed to turn the fund over to Harvard College, provided the college would use it to develop an arboretum on land bequeathed earlier by Benjamin Bussey. Mastermind of this scheme was George Barrell Emerson (17971881one of the trustees of the Arnold bequest. A schoolmaster and educational reformer, he widely promoted the study of natural history and pursued an interest m trees to the extent of publishing a scholarly work on them that remains valuable today. Raised in Wells, Maine, when that state was still part of Massachusetts, Emerson spent much of his boyhood roaming the fields, woods, and seaside and working on the family's farm. After a few years of preparation Dummer Academy in Byfield, New Hampshire, the young Emerson entered Harvard College in 1813, concentrating in mathematics at tion, and as a boy George had learned as many of the trees and plants around Wells as he could. He was pleased that Peck recognized them instantly from his descriptions. It was an exciting time at Harvard, its Au- gustan age of literary achievement. Under the administration of John Thornton Kirkland, the college adopted progressive methods of education ; students were being urged to think rather than recite facts by rote. Upon graduating, Emerson began a career in education himself. First as master of a private boys' school recently established in Lancaster, Massachusetts, then as the first headmaster for Boston's new English Classical School (later called English High School), he developed many of his own ideas on the best methods of education. In 1823 he opened an institution for young women in Boston. Emerson lectured widely and published on and Greek. Apparently the first thing Emerson did after getting settled at college was to visit Harvard's botanic garden, hoping to learn from Professor William Peck the names of some plants he had found in Wells that he could not identify. His father, a Harvard-educated physician, had taught him the Linnaean system of classifica- such topics as the education of girls and women, moral education, health, home economics, and sanitation. When the Boston Society of Natural History was founded in 1830, Emerson helped to organize it. He was a very active member, holding several offices, curating one of the collections, and regularly attending meetings. In 1832, at the beginning of Emerson's second decade as master of his school, his wife 13 George Barrell Emerson (1797-1881), a leader of movements to improve natural-history education at all levels, m fluenced his brother-in-law James Arnold (1781-1868) to leave the bequest that was used to start the Arnold Arboretum (From, respectively, R C. Waterston, Memoir of George Barrell Emerson, LL.D., 1884, and the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). ). and assistant in the school became ill and died. George was left with three children, aged seven, five, and three, whose healthy and proper upbringing was a source of concern to him. After two and a half years, in late November 1834, he remarried. Emerson's second wife, Mary Rotch Fleming, was a widowed sister of Sarah Arnold, wife of James. With his second marriage, George commenced a close friendship with the Rotch family, including James and Sarah Rotch Arnold. During visits to New Bedford, George and Sarah found they shared an interest in shell collecting, and James led them to neighboring geological sites. geological survey, BSNH members proposed to undertake botanical and zoological surveys for the Massachusetts legislature. Emerson not only acted as commissioner fof the surveys but conducted the investigation of trees and shrubs himself. He worked on the project for nine summers, whenever school was not in session. One of the goals of the surveys was to collect information on the economic importance of each subject. To find out more about how Mas- Report on Trees and Shrubs By 1836 Emerson had been chosen president of the Boston Society of Natural History. The fol- lowing year, inspired by a recent state-funded sachusetts' trees were used and how forests or woodlots were managed, Emerson sent a circular with twenty questions to some fifty landowners in the state, and their responses provided valuable information. On his own fact-finding excursions, Emerson visited shipyards in Boston, New Bedford, and other towns, as well as numerous sawmills, machine 14 George B. Emerson traveled throughout Massachusetts to observe its trees, and he noted particularly large mdmduals of each species. In Hmgham, he admired this old Amemcan elm at Rocky Nook. Emerson reported its dimensions as thirteen feet m cmcumference and sixty or seventy feet m height, with a crown more than mnety feet in breadth (From L. N. Dane and H. Brooks, Typical Elms and Other Trees of Massachusetts, 1890). 15 5 shops, and workshops for making furniture, agricultural implements, and other articles using wood. Issued in late 1846, Emerson's Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts turned out to be the most popular of the volumes published in the survey. His ability to present accurate scientific information with lucidity and contagious enthusiasm was universally praised. \"It is a work that every intelligent farmer, educated at a New England School, may read and understand fully-and which is at the same time as truly (not pedantically) learned, as if it had been prepared for the Academy of Sciences,\" reported Andrew Downing's Horticulturist (Anonymous, 1847, p. 566). The main portion of the work consisted of descriptions that, drawn as they were from firsthand observation, had a freshness and vitality that took the reader out into the woods with the observant schoolmaster. The plants were arranged according to a natural system of classification based on Lindley's mterpretation of the works of the Candolles. The discussions accompanying the treatment of each species incorporated such facts as the tree's usual habitat, the uses that might be made of its wood or bark, its qualities as fuel, the size it usually attained, and the locations of particularly large children. This profuse waste is checked, but it has not entirely ceased. It is, however, giving way to better views. Even since this survey was begun, a wiser economy shows itself. May it be umversal. A brief consideration of the general use of forests on a great scale may have a tendency to produce this effect (G. B. Emerson, 1846, p. 2). What followed was an enumeration of the benefits forests provide for man: improving and holding soil, moderating the climate, providing material for fuel and uncountable necessary objects. Emerson also discussed the nonmaterial, the aesthetic and spiritual, merits of forests and trees. smgle tree by a farmer's house protects it, and gives it a desirable air of seclusion and rest; as if it must be a residence of peace and contentment.... while an unprotected, solitary house seems to shiver m the north wind, and we involuntarily wish for the mhabitants a more cheerful home (G. B. Emerson, 1846, p. 9). A examples. The introduction presented an instructive overview of Massachusetts forests. Emerson summarized the report's chief A few generations ago, an objective: almost unbroken forest covered the continent. The smoke from the Indian's wigwam rose only at distant mtervals; and to one looking from Wachusett or Mount Washington, the small patches laid open for the cultivation of maize mterrupted not perceptibly the dark green of the woods. Now, those old woods are everywhere falling. The axe has made, and is making, wanton and ternble havoc. The cunning foresight of the Yankee seems to desert him when he takes the axe m hand. The new settler clears in a year more acres than he can cultivate in ten, and destroys at a smgle burning many a winter's fuel, which would better be kept m reserve for his grand- Massachusetts trees, he argued, could be used not just to supply timber, but, thoughtfully planted, they could beautify many a human environment-dooryards, pastures, roadsides, estates, and public grounds. In a section entitled \"Continuation and Improvement of the Forests,\" Emerson argued for conservation, management, and restoration of forest resources. Such ideas were just beginning to be discussed in America. There were no governmental authorities to regulate forest use nor any forestry schools, and conservation organizations did not yet exist. Emerson summarized the experience of many landowners who answered his circular on such topics as how to plant timber trees, when to thin and prune them, how many years each species required to reach suitable size for harvest, and the methods and timing of felling. On these topics, Emerson realized that his report was merely a starting point. Much more scientific study was needed, as well as further development of the fine art of \"the best disposition of trees in the landscape.\" Emerson was sure that Americans should start to conserve forests and plant trees. Educating them to appreciate trees 16 6 A forest of ashes (Fraxinus americana) m Mame as pictured m Emerson's Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts. He wrote, \"The ash has been called the painter's tree. It is, at least while young, remarkable for its gracefulness, for the light and easy sweep of its branches, and for the softness and mellow green of its fohage. It produces a fine effect m contrast with the darker woods, and should, on that account, always have a place where it is the object to exhibit the vanous beauty of the forest trees\" (From Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts, Fourth Edition). step in the right direction; founding an institution with this role would be another step that Emerson would take. was a Natural History and Landscape Gardening trees contacts Emerson's research into Massachusetts widened his and fostered his reputation as a serious scholar. He was offered the Fisher Professorship in Natural History in 1838, but declined to take it. A few years later he supported the appointment of Asa Gray to the post. The two naturalists began a cordial relationship as soon as Gray was established at the botanic garden. Emerson sought the new professor's counsel for his report and found Gray especially helpful when composing the key to identification included in the book. The two men together measured some of the state's noteworthy trees. When Asa Gray donated his herbarium to Harvard, Emerson was instrumental in raising the fund college, to endow it. After its transfer to the Emerson served on the visiting com- mittee for the herbarium, and Gray turned to 17 7 him when funds were needed to advance its work. This behind-the-scenes activity is typical of Emerson's ever present support of botanical research and of his interest in education. Emerson cherished his summers working in the countryside among the trees, and he was impressed by the estates he had seen in the course of his research. In 1847 he purchased thirty acres of land on the northeastern side of Chelsea harbor, on a promontory that stretched into Boston Bay. Although the barren site had poor, sandy soil, he was determined to clothe it with trees and anticipated his family's future pleasure in watching them grow. Emerson was one of the first clients of the newly established landscape-gardening partnership of Robert Morris Copeland and Horace William Shaler Cleveland. Cleveland, Emerson's friend and former student, credited Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts with influencing his own endeavors, and the two of them shared an experimental frame of mind with and shrubs in America. After a discussion of the contribution of the French botanists Andre Michaux and his son, Franrois Andre, he stated: trees To these two persons, chiefly, are the French plantations mdebted for their surpassingly nch collections of American trees and shrubs; which long since gave rise to the remark, as true at this day as it was twenty years ago, that American must visit France to see the productions of his native forests. When shall it be said that this statement is no longer true? When shall we be able to point to a complete, or even a respectable, American collection of our indigenous trees and shrubs (Gray, m C. S. Sargent, 1889, vol. 2, p. 74~? an regard to tree planting. On Emerson's excessively poor and exposed land they set out many European varieties of oak, beech, birch, linden, maple, elm, ash, mountain ash, and pine to find out whether they were more hardy than the corresponding American trees. Twenty years later, in the second edition of his report, Emerson stated that the European species he had performed better than their native planted American counterparts at his seaside property. George Emerson's relationship with Cleveland undoubtedly made the schoolmaster more aware of the goals of the emerging landscape profession. Certainly he kept abreast of activities such as the founding of Mount Auburn Cemetery and became a corresponding member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Arboretum Concept Refined Emerson's conception of a public tree collection grew from many sources. As early as 1844, in an essay on the longevity of trees, Gray condemned the lack of a good living collection of More than once Gray suggested to Harvard's administration that its botanic garden be supplemented by a collection of woody plants. From discussions in the horticultural literature and reports of recently established arboreta in England, as well as from unexecuted American proposals, the concept of an arboretum as combining a beautiful space with a scientific function was beginning to emerge. Just as the naturalistic style of landscape design was introduced from Britain, so too was the formula for an all-inclusive garden of hardy trees and shrubs after which the Arnold Arboretum would be patterned. Most active in this field was John Claudius Loudon, who may have been the first person to use the word arboretum in modern times. His dual facility with botany and horticulture allowed him to develop the notion that an arboretum could serve both educational and aesthetic purposes. In the creation of an arboretum for Derby, England, and in all his publications mentioning the arboretum idea, Loudon continually emphasized five elements that define this type of garden: it is a tree and shrub collection; it includes only plants hardy in the outdoor climate where the garden is located; of these, it is to be all inclusive, with at least \"one of every kind\" being grown; the plants must be arranged in some rational order, preferably according to a natural system of classification; 18 8 and the plants must be labeled. He further stressed that the educational tree collection should be accommodated in a pleasing landscape, often suggesting that the best way to achieve this would be to arrange the collections along one main path that forms a circuit, so that arrangement could be viewed in order by the visitor. Unexecuted American Arboreta Americans were apprised of English arboretum activities through reports in the horticultural literature, and the ideas were given considerable discussion in American publications. Before the creation of the Arnold Arboretum there were a few proposals for such gardens in America-most notably, Andrew Jackson Downing's 1841 plan for the Boston Public Garden and Vaux and Olmsted's 1858 Greensward plan for Central Park-but they went unexecuted. Included in these plans were many of the suggestions put forth by Loudon. For Central Park Vaux and Olmsted planned to include native American trees and shrubs in an arrangement that harked back to Loudon's many proposals: The northeast section of the upper park is shown as an arboretum of American trees, so that everyone who wishes to do so may become acquamted with the trees and shrubs that will flourish m the open air m the northern and middle sections of our country.... The principal walk is intended to be so laid out, that while the trees and shrubs bordering it succeed one another in the natural order of familres, each will be brought, as far as possible, into a position corresponding to its natural habits, and m which its distinguishmg characteristics will be favorably exhibited (Olmsted and land. In 1869 Olmsted engaged him to do some work for Prospect Park in Brooklyn. The following year Cleveland moved to Chicago, where he was placed in charge of South Park and the approach boulevards under development by Olmsted and Vaux. There Cleveland proposed that a fourteen-mile-long parkway connecting the city's three parks be treated as an arboretum on a grand scale. He thought that the usual enhancement of natural topography with plantations would not work in Chicago because the land was so flat and featureless. Instead, he suggested, Let the avenue arboretum, form in its whole extent, an compnsmg every variety of tree and shrub which will thnve m this climate, each family occupymg a distmct section, of greater or lesser extent, accordmg to its importance (Cleveland, 1869, p.17). tree He proposed using masses of each kind of in botanical sequence along the boulevard rather than individual specimens, stressing the artistic as well as the educational effect of such an arrangement. Unfortunately Chicago's political and economic situation, the latter exacerbated by the great fire of 1871, prevented Cleveland's vision from being realized. Emerson Masterminds the Indenture 1855, George Barrell Emerson turned his school over to a nephew but continued to tutor and counsel former students and stayed active in educational affairs. He began to spend In more time on for example, on a philanthropic activity, serving, commission responsible for history education, on native forests, recruiting teachers for schools for freedmen in the South during the Civil War. Many affairsthe need for better natural concern over 230, 335). ~. down to the order of tree families, the Right full description of the proposed arboretum is pp. Kimball, 1973, man's impact the importance of trees and naturalistic land- scaping in improving public grounds, and the of the Arnold Arboretum, with which Olmsted would be involved nearly twenty-five years later. In the interim, there was another arboretum proposed for an urban park system by Emerson's lifelong friend, Horace W. S. Cleve- prophetic proposals for arboreta-were on Emerson's mind during the 1860s. At this time James Arnold, too, was thinking of philanthropy as he revised his will after the deaths of his wife and only child in 1860. In this matter, he turned to Francis E. Parker, 19 Seat uf Ben~amm Bussey, Esq., at Jamaica Plain Oil on canvas by William A. Cobb, 1839. This landscape mcludes the areas of the Arnold Arboretum that have come to be known as Bussey Hill, Hemlock Hill, and the South Street Tract. South Street is plamly mslble, and it is easy to see where Saw Mill Brook-now Bussey Brook-crosses it. The Bussey mansion, apparently surrounded by Lombardy poplars (Populus mgra `Itahca'J, appears in the middle ground Bussey had begun buying up farmsteads in 1805 and contmued to do so over the next thirty years. Some of the hedgerows that delineated the separate parcels appear in the painting. On the south slope of the hill, a hlac hedge, still extant today, formed one of these bounds. This view of the Arboretum from Walk Hill, near the Forest Hills Station, remams virtually unchanged today (Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). ). who was one of Boston's finest trust lawyers, skilled in helping others turn their good ideas into permanently funded institutions. It was through Parker's influence that, although Arnold was convinced that an arboretum was a much needed resource, he left his will sufficiently indefinite to allow his trustees flexibility to act. Arnold named another family friend, John James Dixwell, as the third trustee of what became the arboretum bequest. Dixwell was a prosperous merchant and president of the Massachusetts Bank. He and Emerson had long been united in their support of the Boston Society of Natural History. On his Jamaica Plain estate, on Moss Hill, Dixwell grew as many kinds of trees as he could obtain, and it was this fondness for trees that formed a bond between him and the Arnold family as well. James Arnold died in 1868. More than three years passed from the time Arnold's will was approved by the court until the trustees, Emerson, Dixwell, and Parker, signed an in- 20 denture with Harvard establishing the Arnold Arboretum. With an arboretum in mind, the trustees had spent the time weighing how best to carry out their duty. To turn the Arnold fund over to Harvard College, the oldest and most prestigious center of learning in New England, would be a sure way to provide for the continuance of the trust. Both Emerson and Parker were graduates, and all three had close social and professional connections with the college. Some time was spent considering the best place to locate the hoped-for arboretum. Since the trustees knew of Asa Gray's opinion that a tree collection was needed to complement the herbaceous plantings of the Harvard Botanic surmised that using land already in possession of the college would leave the entire Arnold fund available for development of the arboretum. Apparently, the parties involved agreed such use of the land would be compatible with Bussey's wishes, clearing the way for a final pact to establish the arboretum on part of the Bussey property in West Roxbury. In the indenture, signed 29 March 1872, Emerson, Dixwell, and Parker agreed to turn the Arnold fund over to the president and fellows of Harvard College, provided the college allow some 120 acres of its Bussey estate and the income of the fund to be used for: the establishment and support of an Arbore. tum, to be called the Arnold Arboretum, which shall contain, as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air at the said West Roxbury, all which shall be raised or collected as fast as is practicable, and each specimen thereof shall be distmctly labelled, and [for] the support of a professor, to be called the Arnold Professor, who shall have the care and management of the said Arboretum, subject to the same control by the said President and Fellows to which the professors m the Bussey Institution are now subject, and who shall teach the knowledge of trees m the University which is m the charge of the said President and Fellows, and shall give such other instruction therein as may be naturally, directly, and usefully connected therewith. And as the entire fund, mcreased by the accumulations above named, under the best management and with the greatest economy, is barely sufficient to accomplish the proposed object, it is expressly provided that it shall not be diminished by supplementing any other object, however meritorious or kindred in its nature. - Garden, they pondered two sites suggested by the professor of botany. While one, the grounds around the astronomical observatory, had the advantage of proximity to the botanic garden, its size was limited. Gray also urged the use of \"Brighton Meadows,\" a flat parcel along the Boston side of the Charles River that Henry W. Longfellow was planning to purchase and present to the college. George Emerson and the poet discussed this possibility, but another tract showed much greater promise than the, Charles floodplain, the undulating, partially wooded land in what was then West Roxbury, bequeathed to Harvard by Benjamin Bussey. Bussey had left his farm and funds to the college stipulating they be used to start an institution for the study of agriculture, horticulture, and related subjects. After his death in 1842 the property was subject to the life tenancies of Bussey's heirs. At the time Arnold trustees were contemplating the disposition of the fund left in their care, Harvard established the Bussey Institution, having gained the approval of Bussey's granddaughter to utilize seven acres of the West Roxbury estate. Harvard's new president, Charles Eliot, consulted with Emerson on the education programs for the agricultural center in 1869, and after completion of the building for instruction in 1871 the Bussey Institution officially opened to students. George B. Emerson wisely . ` With the site and an endowment secure, establishment of the Arnold Arboretum achieved many of Emerson's and his colleagues' objectives. Here would be a living collection to augment the \"cabinet\" of the Boston Society of Natural History. With one of every kind of tree and shrub, each labeled and 21 available for study, and arranged after Loudon's models, it would be Emerson's report come alive, a living inventory of the region's arboreal resources. Cleveland, H. W. Chicago: S. 1869. The Public Grounds of How to Give Them Character and Expression. Chicago: Charles D. Lakey. on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally m the Forests of Massachusetts Boston: Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Emerson, G. B. 1846. Report kept in touch with the Arboretum the ensuing decade. He and director Charles Sargent shared an interest in the writings of Vermont conservationist George Perkins Marsh, and Emerson urged Sargent to educate the public on the potential effects of forest destruction. One of the first efforts in this direction was publication of A Few Suggestions on Tree Planting (1875) in which Sargent argued for planting trees and for halting the uncontrolled clearing of forests. George B. Emerson was so pleased with the pamphlet that he wrote Sargent, \"If the Arboretum had never produced or would never produce anything else, I shall be richly paid for all I have done for it\" (Arnold Arboretum Archives, G. B. Emerson correspondence, 9 March 1876). Emerson was also instrumental in Sargent's appointment as investigator on forest trees for the Department of the Interior's Tenth Census. In March 1881, when Sargent and Olmsted were at the height of their campaign to convince city officials to bring the Arboretum into the Boston park system, Emerson died at the Brookline home of his daughter, Lucy Lowell. In memorial tributes written upon his death, Emerson was remembered fondly for his inspirational leadership in the field of education and for his activities promoting the study of natural history, not the least of which was his influence on the founding of the Arnold Arboretum. Emerson during 1878. Reminiscences of an Old School Teacher. Boston: A Mudge and Son. S. May, and T. J. Mumford. 1876. Memoir of Samual Joseph May Boston: American Umtarian Society. Loudon, J. C. 1835. Remarks on laying out public gardens and promenades. Gardener's Magazine 11: 644-649. 1840. The Derby Arboretum London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans. H. 1881. George Barrell Emerson, LL.D. Umtanan Remew 16: 59-69 Morison, J. Olmsted, F. L., and T. Kimball, eds. 1973 Forty Years of Landscape Architecture Central Park. Cambridge, MA MIT Press. Raup, H. M. 1940. The genesis of the Arnold Arboretum. Bulletin of Popular Information, 4th senes, 8: 1-11 Sargent, C. S., ed. 1889. 2 vols. Boston Scientific Papers of Asa Gray. Houghton, Mifflin. Waterston, R. C 1884. Memoir of George Barrell Emerson, LL D and Son. Cambridge, MA: John Wilson Wmthrop, R. C. 1887. Tnbutes of the Massachusetts Histoncal Society to Francis E Parker. Cambridge, MA: John Wilson and Son. References Anonymous. 1847. Reviews 565-67. A Report on the Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts. Horticultunst 1: Arnold Arboretum Associate living in Ida Hay was on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum for over twenty years. This article is excerpted from her book, Science in the Pleasure Ground, which will be published in December by Northeastern University Press. Now an Northampton, MA, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25116","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eab26.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Raulston, J. C.; Tripp, Kim E.","article_content":"Exploring the Complexities of Plant Hardiness j. C. Raulston and Kim E. Tripp as a , We often use cold-hardiness ratings for given region. But in plant performance in the a actuality, landscape. the sole indicator of plant suitability much broader range of factors determines plant hardiness has usually been interpreted as cold hardiness-the ability of a given plant to survive the winter of a given region. However, even in our most northerly regions, plant survival depends on a In the United States horticultural research and evaluation effort, with far less attention paid to the other factors. Nonetheless, no prediction of a plant's viability can be accurate without considering the diverse combination of landscape conditions. far broader set of environmental conditions than just those found in winter. In addition to extremes of cold temperature, survival is linked to the amount and seasonal timing of precipitation, the intensity of light, the annual cycle of daylength, the texture and fertility of soil, the consistency of temperatures, and the duration and degree of high temperatures. Cold, heat, sun, clouds, drought, flood, early frosts, late ice storms, compacted soils, chainsaw-bearing contractors-all can mfluence a plant's hardiness. While in any region, a plant's viability depends on its fit with this entire range of local conditions, the relative importance of each environmental factor varies geographically. In the North, tolerance to cold usually assumes the greatest importance, whereas in the South, heat hardiness is more often the limiting factor, and in most of the West, drought tolerance is the predominant influence on survival. All often focus on cold hardiFlorida and California, perhaps because at least superficially, winter damage is dramatically visible and easily understood: a cold front comes through tonight and tomorrow the plants are brown. This may explain why cold hardmess has been the focus of much the same, ness, we most even in Dealing With Frost: Tolerance vs Avoidance Like all forms of life, plants consist largely of water, and when temperatures drop low enough, that internal water, like all water, can freeze. Perennial plants fall mto two categories based on the way they deal with frost and freezing temperatures: they can either tolerate freezing by employing a variety of physiological mechanisms; or they can avoid freezing by shedding or insulating vulnerable plant parts. Most temperate perennial plants use a combination of tolerance and avoidance to survive winter's freezing temperatures, but rely prima- rily on the tolerance mechanisms (which are generally more effective for surviving long periods of freezing temperatures) to protect aboveground, persistent tissues. For example, evergreen woody plants tolerate freezing in both stems and leaves while deciduous trees avoid freezing in their leaves by dropping them and tolerate freezing only in their persistent branches and trunks. The Importance of Acclimation A frost-hardy plant's ability to get through the winter depends on the seasonal change in its metabolism to a quiescent or dormant state 23 Buxus sempervirens (boxwood) all dressed up for winter These plants against damage from snow and ice (Peter Del Tredici). extreme, albeit artistic, measures protect the known as acclimation, which is influenced by a variety of environmental factors. Acclimation is the process whereby the plant \"hardens off\" for winter. In order for a normally coldhardy plant to survive the most severely cold temperatures it is genetically capable of surviving, it must complete the acclimation process before experiencing severe cold; otherwise it will be damaged. Similarly in the spring, as temperatures warm and days lengthen, plants need to deacclimate in order to resume active 2. When premature freezing occurs before has acclimated in the fall, plant even if the plant is potentially able to survive those temperatures in midthe winter ; 3. When unusually late freezes occur in the spring after the plant has deacclimated, even if it can survive those temperatures while it is hardened off in midwinter; and 4. When there are prolonged swings in temperature during the winter that cause the plant to deacclimate before the threat of severe freezing is over. Only the first case relates to the traditional definition of cold hardiness-the definition expressed in hardiness zone maps. In the other three cases, freezing damage occurs not be- growth. four cases in which a plant can be by freezing temperatures: damaged There are 1. When temperatures fall below the plant's maximum cold-hardiness limit, even after normal acclimation has occurred; 24 cause the plant is located where temperatures fall below its potential maximum cold tolerance, but because its stage of acclimation is out of step with the weather. If a woody plant that is normally winter hardy to -20 degrees Fahrenheit experienced such temperatures in July, it would suffer severe damage and is likely to die. However, this same plant could experience decades with those minimum winter temperatures and thrive. Mapping Cold Hardiness Hardiness zone maps generally identify areas with similar average minimum temperature ranges in which, theoretically, the same groups of plants should be viable.' But these systems have a serious limitation. They do not take into account all of the different environmental conditions that vary from region to region, from soils to rainfall patterns, and this limitation causes problems. Consider just one example, zone 8, which encompasses Raleigh, North Carolina; Dallas, Texas; Phoenix, Arizona; and Seattle, Washington. Then compare the plants that are grown in those areas. At least twenty-five species of palm grow in Phoenix that won't grow in Raleigh. The extremes of temperature are very different even though the averages lump Raleigh and Phoenix into the same zone. by moisture availability, can influence a plant's ability to survive the winter. Clearly hardiness cannot zones a based on temperature alone predict plant's ability to survive. A better system for mapping plant adaptability is the one developed by Sunset Books, called the \"Sunset Zones.\" This system, which includes Colorado and points west, presents twenty-four zones that are defined by many variables, including high and low temperatures, dry desert winds, rainfall, and other moisture (for instance, fog cover). This system is widely used in the West and has proven very helpful there. It's especially effective at pinpointing microclimates, a critical tool on the West Coast, where great differences occur over short distances. Los Angeles alone has nine different zones. Another excellent system is the Walter System, developed in Germany. It is based on a graphic presentation of average monthly temperatures combined with average monthly amounts and kinds of precipitation over a full year, using data collected from Walter Stations in cities all over the world. By looking, for example, at the graph for Seattle we can see not only the amount of rainfall but also the temperatures during the months of high and low rainfall. Each station graph also shows the extremes of temperature recorded for the station and altitude of the station. In just one visual image the Walter System gives a much more complete picture of what the growing conditions are for that area than the temperature-based USDA zone map can give. turns up in the hardifor Europe and China that maps were published in Germany in the 1970s.2 There we find Raleigh in the same zone as London. However, Raleigh has more extreme temperatures (especially during the summer), more variable precipitation, more frequent ice storms, less cloud cover and fog, and much higher light intensity year-round. These differences influence cold hardiness, and a given plant grown in England may be less cold hardy there than the same plant same The problem ness zone grown in Raleigh. Over an entire year, vari- ables like availability of photosynthate for growth, accumulation of storage carbohydrates, timing of flowering and fruiting, and amount of root development as influenced 1 2 See Peter Del Tredici, Arnoldia (Fall 1990) 50 ~3~:16-20. Gerd Krussman, Manual of Cultivated Broad-Leaved Trees and Shrubs, Vol. 1. Timber Press: 1976. 25 Why Plants Die of Cold importance of acclimation, need to look at the process whereby plants die from the cold. There are several kinds of cold injury, but a primary cause of frost- or freeze-related death in woody plants is water freezing within the plant's cells. When water crystallizes and freezes within a cell, it ruptures and kills the cell. If enough cells are killed, the plant will suffer significant stress and the entire organism may die. On the other hand, if freezing is restricted to water in the intercellular spaces of the plant's tissue-that is, in the spaces between the cells, outside the boundary membranes of the cells themselves-then usually the cells are not damaged and the plant does not suffer. The cells' contents change during acclimation such that the concentration of solutes increases. We know that adding certain solutes to water can retard its freezing, and that the higher the concentration of these solutes, the lower the temperature required to freeze the solution-this is how antifreeze works in a car radiator. In general, the intercellular solution in a woody plant-the liquid between the cells-has a lower concentration of solutes than the solution inside the cells. This difference is accentuated after acclimation, leading to more solutes in the cells. Therefore, the solution outside the cell walls freezes at a higher temperature-and earlier-than the solution inside the cell walls. Because of this differential solute concentration, ice formation is restricted to the intercellular spaces during normal winters. If the temperature goes significantly below the plant's tolerance, however, the osmotically driven maintenance of the concentration differential between the inter- and intracellular solutions cannot be maintained; in that case, ice finally forms inside the cells, causing them to rupture and die. The lesson here is that for plants to acclimate themselves to winter, temperatures must drop during the appropriate season and at the appropriate rate. A plant of ivy (Hedera helix) that has had a chance to acclimate can survive we -30 To understand the degrees Fahrenheit, but it will freeze at 25 degrees Fahrenheit if that temperature occurs in the summer during active growth. In any discussion of hardiness, it is important to remember that plants are made up of many different organs. The specific mechanisms of acclimation that result in freezing tolerance or avoidance vary among organs, and therefore hardiness does as well, which makes sense considering the different environments in which various plant organs occur. Roots, for example, are much less hardy than the shoots of woody temperate plants. Because of the insulating properties of soil, roots experience much less variation in temperature throughout the year than occurs in the air above it. This becomes an especially important consideration when dealing with container plants. The temperatures that containerized plant roots are exposed to are potentially much more extreme than those experienced by roots insulated in the soil-lower m winter and higher in summer. There can also be significant differences in hardiness even among the aboveground parts of the plant. For example, flower buds are usually much less cold hardy than vegetative buds. Here in Massachusetts you are likely to see effects of the snowline in the spring where parts of the plant below the snowline have survived, be they floral or vegetative. But above the snowline, the flower buds may be killed while the vegetative buds will break and develop healthy foliage in the spring. Environmental Cues for Seasonal Acclimation The mechanisms described above-collectively referred to as acclimation-are triggered within the plant by environmental cues, of which the most important are seasonal changes in daylength and temperature. Differences among plant species range from the purely photoperiodic in which temperature plays almost no role to those that are purely temperature-controlled with no response to photoperiod (i.e., daylength). Most plants fall somewhere between these two extremes. In 26 The (J. C. flowermg pattern of this azalea clearly demonstrates that Raulston). once wmter's kill lme comcided with its snow Ime daylength extends beyond a cerpoint-known as critical daylengthdeacclimation is initiated m photoperiodically sensitive species, active growth is triggered, and the plant will not become quiescent again until the shortened daylengths again trigger acclimation the following fall. Because the daylengths differ throughout the year at differspring, tain ent as spring and thus be subject to freezing damage. On the other hand, if you moved a Canadian red maple south to Florida, the days may never get long enough to trigger active growth in the northern plant, and the plant would never break dormancy and grow. Photoperiod responses can be influenced by artificial lights as well as by the sun. There are documented instances of delayed leaf fall in autumn on trees distances from the equator, the a cues that trigger spring growth (and winter acclimation adjacent to streetlights, as well) in plant of Floridian provenance will be slightly different than those for a plant of Canadian provenance. In Canada, critical daylength will be much longer than in Florida. Not only is winter longer in Canada, but also the days become much longer earlier in the spring the farther north you go. So if you moved a Florida red maple north to Canada, it might begin active growth too early in the well as premature initiation of growth on conifers decorated with large, nonflashing Christmas lights in midwinter. This is usually not a significant problem because cold temperatures generally override the influence of artificial lights. In nonphotoperiodically triggered species, temperature is the most important cue for winter acclimation. Not only absolute tem- 27 Rhododendrons on protected by snow (T. Boston's Copley Plaza show dessication caused C. Raulston). ). by sun and wind on parts of the plant not peratures, but also cumulative temperatures throughout the growing season play an important role, especially when we start moving plants around the globe. Many woody plants that are native to climates with long, hot summers can withstand very cold winter temperatures when grown in similar climates, yet if grown in climates with cooler summers and mild winters they are less cold hardy. In other words, the conditions for the previous season's growth can effect a plant's ability to withstand cold. This makes sense when we consider that growing conditions can affect processes like photosynthesis and carbohydrate metabolism. If a plant grows in a high light environmentfor example, in the American Southwest-it may be able to store much greater quantities of carbohydrate, which may improve its ability to acclimate to severe cold. If you take the same plant, however, and grow it in a lower light climate, even one with a milder winter-Britain, for example-this same plant may not be able to survive that milder winter because the conditions of the previous growing season have prevented the plant from satisfying its physiological requirements for optimal winter acclimation. As a specific example, crape myrtles (Lagerstroemia indica) are perfectly winter hardy in North Carolina where sunlight is intense, the summers are long and hot, night temperatures are high, and winter temperatures routinely drop to zero degrees Fahrenheit. But try to grow crape myrtles in England, where light is low and summers are cooler, and the plants will not survive winter, even though the temperature rarely falls below 10 degrees Fahrenheit. This is an example of the cumula- 28 tive effect of annual conditions hardiness. on winter recent The Significance of Provenance a being of within We tend to characterize an entire species as a certain degree of hardiness. Even glacial era, these plants germinated successfully south of the glacial front but did not survive m glaciated areas. As a result, these species retreated southward in front of the slowly advancing glaciers. This long-term process did not cause a loss of cold hardmess in species, however, individual plants adapt to the cues that are present in their specific region at the critical transitional times of the year-for example, daylength, light intensity, cumulative temperature, or moisture conditions. When we move a plant to another region, we may interfere with those cues and prevent the plant from exhibiting its \"normal\" hardiness. Reproduction from seed is a sexual process that results in genetically variable offspring. Any population of seedlings will demonstrate an amazing array of variability. For example, a row of seedling \"blue\" spruces will mclude green, blue, and gray Picea pungens. Part of what genetic variation is about is survival. The populations of a species now found in a given region are therefore those that adapted over many thousands of years to the specific climate of that region. If over a few hundred years the weather gets colder in part of a species' territory, seedlings that are more cold hardy will survive and those that aren't will be frozen out. The result, then, is a population that varies widely in cold hardiness from one end of its range to the other. Red maples (Acer rubrum), for example, occur in wild populations from Florida through Canada, but red maples of Floridian provenance are likely to be far less cold hardy than red maples of Canadian provenance. (It is important to note that the hardiness of a given seedling depends not on the location of the nursery where it was grown, but rather on the ancestral location of the parent trees from which the seed was collected.)( But the combination of evolutionary genetics and long-term climate changes can play tricks on us. For example, there are several species of plants now found growing only in Florida that are completely cold hardy at far more northerly latitudes. During the most \" plant's genome, which had evolved preglacially in much colder environments than those in which the surviving plants were later found. As a result, one can grow Magnolia ashei, which is now native only to the panhandle of Florida, as far north as Chicago and Toronto. Red maples in Florida, however, are the product of continuous evolution in that region, rather than of migration from the north ahead of the glacier. Unlike M. ashei, therefore, a Floridian red maple seedling is not likely to perform well in Chicago or Toronto. Nonetheless, conventional thinking holds that Acer rubrum is significantly more cold hardy the than M. ashel. The Effects of Human Intervention on Cold Hardiness Whether a plant can thrive in a specific environment depends on the interaction of the plant with its environment. In other words, we must consider not only what the environment is doing, but also what the plant is doing. Humans often influence both elements and thereby significantly affect the cold hardiness of a given plant. It's easy to imagine how we can change the environment to influence a plant's cold hardiness-an extreme example would be to put it in a greenhouse-but it's harder to imagine how we can influence the plant itself to affect its hardiness. However, horticulturists can influence a plant's hardiness both intentionally and unintentionally. For example, watering and fertilizing late in the season, to keep plants looking attractive or to push a second flush of growth, can lead to disaster. Comparison at North Carolina State University of azaleas fertilized throughout the growing season with plants fertilized only in spring demonstrated that the heavily fertilized plants looked 29 attractive in the fall but suffered much greater winter damage and were less attractive the following spring. In another experiment, more promoted and distributed plants of a Japaspecies of crape myrtle, Lageistroemia fauriei, after finding it hardy to -10 degrees Fahrenheit. However, growers complained that their plants died after experiencing miniwe nese mum winter temperatures of +10 Fahrenheit. The growers had prevented the plants from hardening off for winter by prolonging irrigation and fertilization into late fall in order to increase annual growth and, thereby, profitability. The result was that the plants went into winter with soft, nonacclimated growth that was very vulnerable to freezing damage. In effect, the plant's metabolism was affected by growing practices that created an artificial Hardiness Evaluation for the Southeastern United States Gardeners in the Northeast enjoy the benefits of a long tradition of plant importation and hardiness evaluation, but in the Southeast there has been very little institutional evaluation of plant adaptability and performance-until recently, that is. Just seventeen years ago, the North Carolina State University Arboretum was founded with a dual mission: determining the adaptability of new and uncommon landscape plants for use in the southeastern United States, and promoting the production and utilization of superior, adapted plants. Since 1977, the Arboretum has collected and evaluated over 9,000 plants from forty-five countries-this on only eight hard-working acres. Those and they have been many. In the years since the Arboretum was established we have experienced almost every extreme of weather including the coldest temperature ever recorded, the hottest summer, both the wettest and the driest years, and the earliest and latest frosts. We've found wonderful surprises among both exotics and North American natives. Certainly natives have been underused and deserve greater attention and selection, but the key to the suitability of a plant lies in its I adaptability, not its nativity. Many natives eight acres currently contain over 5,000 450 different species and cultivars in genera. over Experience has led us to believe that the only way to test a plant's adaptability is to try growing it. This method results in large numbers of killed plants, but it has also uncovered exceptional plants that perform beautifully despite very different provenances. of the southeastern United States evolved in very specialized environments. Those from the cool, moist southern mountains often don't survive in the hot, wet summer of the Piedmont while exotics from analogous climates-for instance, humid areas of Japan and Korea-have proved very useful. Since the Arboretum's mission is to encourage the production and use of the widest possible array of plants, our distribution and advocacy program is just as important as our evaluations. We make material available to the public, to other botanical gardens, and to the nursery trade-so far over 60,000 plants of 1,000 taxa have been distributed to nurseries and other growers around the world, and in order to move these plants to the public quickly, growers themselves have collected over 2,000,000 cuttings from the deaths as what happened that we find indications of how the plant or the environment can be modified for future success. We retain for selection and promotion those plants of significant ornamental value that have survived the various environmental stresses- We've learned as much from the from the successes. It's by studying plantings. 30 microclimate to which the plant was not adapted. It is especially effects in order ment easy to create microclimate to moderate local climate considerably, planting near small water features can extend your season, just as planting near south-facing water can interactions in influence plant\/environan urban environment. brick same or stone walls can, and it shares the The magnolias on east-west streets in Boston's Back Bay are a case in point. Magnolias on the south-facing side of the streets reach full bloom when those on the shady north-facing side are just budding up. A late freeze would kill the blooms on the south-facing side, while the blooms on the north-facing side may be potential problem-spring growth may be induced so early that the microclimate is unable to protect the new growth from severe late freezes. Just tion as north-facing or south-facing orienta- only minimally damaged. By planting early blooming plants in northern exposures or under higher canopies, we can minimize this kind of damage. Likewise, since a body of The wmter m~ury to this south-facmg side of a tree trunk might have been avoided by slting it m the shade or wrapping it during the Wlllter (J. C. Raulston) have a major impact on plant performance, whether a plant is primarily in sun or shade can make a dramatic difference in winter survival and performance. This can be a particularly important consideration in preventing winter damage on broad-leaved evergreens, especially the damage we call winter scorch. Plants lose water through their leaves constantly in the process of transpiration. Deciduous plants drop their leaves in the winter, avoiding this problem, but evergreens must contend with it year-round. Transpiration is increased by sunlight and wmd. One of the ways this happens is that sunlight on the leaf increases the difference in temperature between the leaf surface and the air, thereby increasing water loss from the leaf. In winter, when water in the soil is frozen, it is impossible for the plant replace the water that is lost from the leaves, and the leaf dessicates and may die. But if it is sited in shade the plant will be more protected from the possibility of winter scorch. Sun scorch in winter can also occur on the south-facing side of trunks of trees. This is caused by the rapid expansion and contraction of the trunk in response to rapidly changing temperatures. Wrapping the trunk so that it is effectively shaded all winter (being sure to remove the wrap during the growing season) can help to ameliorate this problem. (Make sure to wrap from the bottom up if using a wrap of narrow width so it doesn't collect water that freezes and thaws against the trunk, damaging bark and promoting disease.)\/ In the final analysis, the complexities of plant hardiness lie in the maze of environmental conditions that both plant and gardener can 31 must negotiate each year. Because these condiso Li, P H., ed. 1987. Plant Cold Hardiness Alan R Liss. New York: from one neighborgreatly, to the next, and because humans ing landscape can drastically alter the immediate growing environment of a plant, there is only one sure way to determine if an individual plant will thrive for you: you must try it in your own garden. To paraphrase the great English plantsman Sir Peter Smithers, I consider every plant hardy until I have killed it myself. tions vary even Li, P H., and A. Sakai. 1982. Plant Cold Hardiness and Freezing Stress Mechamsms and Crop Imphcations Press. Vol 2. New York: Academic Li, P. H., and A. Sakai 1978. Plant Cold Hardiness and Freezmg Stress Mechamsms and Crop Imphcations New York: Academic Press. References Alden, J., and R. K. Hermann. 1971. m Aspects of cold Botamcal J. C. Raulston is director of the North Carolina State University Arboretum and professor of horticultural science Kim Tripp is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. a hardiness mechamsm Review 37: 37-142. plants Previously she was curator of comfers and postdoctoral associate at the North Carolina State grew out of University Arboretum. This article Mazur, P 1969. Freezmg injury m plants. Annual Review of Plant Physiology 20: 419-48. lecture given Arboretum a by Dr Raulston at the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Late Summer Ornamental: Poliothyrsis sinensis","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25114","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14ea728.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"A Late Summer Ornamental: Poliothyrsis sinensis . Stephen A. Spongberg A handsome shrub with many desirable traits seeks ~ a common name. few shrubs or small trees are notable for their characteristic of flowering late in the summer season and into the fall, when the ornamental attributes of most woody plants consist of their fruits and fall foliage color. Within the past fifteen years, however, the Arnold Arboretum has received two shrubs as new introductions from China, both previously lost to cultivation, that have proved to be noteworthy, late summer-flowering ornamentals. The so-called seven-son flower (Heptacodium miconioides) has received some attention in the horticultural press (Koller, 1986). Introduced by the 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition, Heptacodium has become established in the nursery trade and is now available both locally in New England from Haskell's nursery in New Bedford, Massachusetts, as well as by mail order from Wayside Gardens, Hodges, South Carolina. The second plant, Poliothyrsis sinensis, however, has not to my knowledge been heralded in the American horticultural press although English botanists and plantsmen have chronicled its history in cultivation in the British Isles. It is so little known, moreover, that no common name has been coined for this interesting plant. This species, the sole member of the genus Poliothyrsis, belongs to the otherwise largely tropical plant family Flacourtiaceae, and the only other genus in the family grown in the Arnold Arboretum is Idesia, also represented by a solitary species, I. polycarpa. First discovered by Augustine Henry at the end of the last Relatively century in central China, P. sinensis was not introduced into western gardens until the legendary plant collector E. H. Wilson supplied the Arnold Arboretum with seeds in 1908. Interestingly enough, these seeds were shared with botanical and horticultural institutions in Europe, where the plant has survived in cultivation to this day. At the Arnold Arboretum, however, established plants grown from Wilson's seed introduction were inexplicably removed from the collections in 1933. The reintroduction of the species to our collections in 1981, when seeds were received from the Shanghai Botanical Garden, has provided us with another opportunity to evaluate this plant under Massachusetts growing conditions. Two plants resulting from the seedlot from Shanghai were planted in a sunny location near the site of the old Bussey mansion. They are now multiple-stemmed shrubs approaching twelve feet in height, although in nature the plants apparently develop into moderatesized trees to fifty feet in height. In habit our shrubs are rather upright, although their ultimate shape and height, as well as the bark of the stems, will undoubtedly change should the plants persist in our collections. Both, however, have been flowering annually-commencing in 1990-during late August and Numerous small, yellowish-white produced in moderately large inflorescences on the current year's growth and contrast nicely with the dark, emerald-green leaves, which are borne on reddish stalks. Indeed, it was the attractive, lustrous green September. are flowers 33 leaves that first drew my attention to these shrubs. And while the reddish or almost magenta-colored petiole suggested that the fall color of the leaf blades might be of a similar hue, those of our plants assume a warm yellow in late October and November. The flowers are either staminate or carpellate (the plants are monecious) and include four to six sepals, the whorl of petals being absent. The carpellate ones develop into interesting capsules reminiscent in size and shape gray to of those of the lilac. These ripen to a greenishcolor, when the outer covering falls away reveal the tan inner walls of the capsules. Once the outer walls have been sloughed off, the inner walls dehisce by three valves from the apex, and likewise, by three from the base. While the capsules are dissimilar in shape and substance from those of Franklinia alatamaha, the dehiscence pattern-from both the apex and base of the capsule-is shared by these otherwise unrelated genera The mflorescences of Poliothyrsis and contrast smensis are racemes ~nnth the dark green leaves produced on the current year's growth (Rdsz ~ Debreczy). m termmal corymbose 34 ....- ~.~..., _ from seeds received m 1981 are now approachmg a height of twelve feet (Karen MadsenJ. ). Two Poliothyrsis sinensis grown and is unknown in other woody genera cultivated in the Arnold Arboretum. These opened capsules, moreover, persist on the shrubs into the winter months, adding to the landscape interest of the plants during that time of year. To date, our plants from Shanghai have suffered no winter damage, and the fact that the original plants introduced by Wilson persisted in the Arboretum's collections for twenty-five years suggests that Poliothyrsis is perfectly hardy in the Boston Basin. Its limits of hardiness and its potential as a landscape plant, however, have yet to be determined. Poliothyrsis sinensis is currently available in the North American nursery trade from Woodlanders, Inc., 1128 Collecton Avenue, Aiken, South Carolina 29801; Glasshouseworks Greenhouses, P.O. Box 97, Stewart, Ohio 45778; and Heronswood Nursery, 7530 288th Street NE, Kingston, Washington 98346. And plans have been made to propagate the plants at the Arnold Arboretum and to make them available at a future Arboretum Plant Sale. As a consequence, this interesting Chinese species, easily propagated by seed and softwood cuttings, will undoubtedly find its way into the gardens of those who enjoy growing the curious and little known-in this instance a shrub that flowers and provides landscape interest at an unlikely time of year. Imtially lime green m color, the frmts mature to a light tan color before dehiscmg to disclose the numerous, small, winged seeds produced mthm (R6sz c~J Debreczy). References Bean, W. J. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the British Isles, 8th ed. (Ed. D. L. Clarke and Sir George Taylor), Vol. III. New York: St. Martins Press, Inc., 1976. Jeffrey, Koller, C. Pohothyrsis smensis. `Botamcal Magazine (1965) N.S. 175: t. 480 G. L. Seven-Son Flower from Zheyang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium ~asmmoides Airy Shaw. Arnoldia (1986) 46(4): 2-14. (Note: The correct name for this species is Heptacodium micomoides Rehder.) R. Poliothyrsis smensis. The Garden, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society (1992) 117(10): 482, 483. Lancaster, , Spongberg, S. A. Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia (1990) 50(3): 29-32. This article reports the change in name from Heptacodium ~asmmoides to H. micomoides. Stephen A. Spongberg, Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum, was a member of the 1980 and 1986 Smo-Amencan Botamcal Expeditions to Chma. At the Arboretum he is responsible for the curation of the hving collections. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review and Notes","article_sequence":4,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25115","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14ea76d.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOK NOTES The Planters of the English Landscape Garden : Botany, Trees and the Georgics. Douglas D. C. Chambers. New Haven: Yale University Press for the Paul Mellon Centre for Studies in British Art., 1993. 214 pages. Hardcover. on a new generation of estate builders. Evelyn's writings encouraged a massive replanting of English woodlands devastated by war. His motivation has been described as eco- $45.00 Garden history is a young field, and like all adolescents it is struggling to free itself from familial ties, in this case the disciplines of art history and literary theory. Chambers, a professor of English at the University of Toronto, moves the field of garden history beyond the social history of patrons and the documentation of careers of designers to an approach in which plants and planters-gardener, nurseryman, and amateur botanist-owner alike-take center stage. He focuses on the period from the middle of the seventeenth century to the middle of the eighteenth, when Stowe, Stourhead, Chiswick, and Rousham, the great icons of the English landscape garden, were being developed. Chambers' descriptions of the processes and materials of gardening are greatly enhanced by his familiarity with the botanical and horticultural history of the period. This was an era of extensive plant exploration and importation combmed with the profound scientific contribution of Linnaeus' elaboration of the principles of taxonomy. The opening essay, \"The Patriots of Horticulture,\" is an excellent stand-alone commentary on English garden theory and its relationship to classical ideas of husbandry. Chambers identifies Virgil's Georgics as the aesthetic model for this new landscape. From this text he extracts classical concepts of arcadia, including the idea of rural withdrawal, the integration of farming and gardening (\"the unity of beauty with profit and use with pleasure\"), and the alliance of science and imagination in our understanding of nature. Chambers also cites the influence of John Evelyn's Silva (1664) and Dendrologia (1706) technical, but the Silva had the uneffect of promoting the great wealth expected of trees available to the British gardener, not least the newly imported and highly valued North American species. His book inspired the planting of thousands of acres of both native and imported species, an effect that in turn required the development of new methods of transportation, planting, nursery management, and propagation. Chambers examines the writings of Stephen Switzer, Lord Shaftesbury, and others for their ideas about appropriateness in plantings in a world of expanding options. Chambers also nomic or focuses in detail on the work of Lord Petre at Thorndon Hall, his estate in Essex. Petre's plans included massive tree-planting schemes that are described as combining beauty with botany: \"The landscape and the greenhouse are one continuum.\" Chambers' book is not unique in its focus on plants and planting techniques. Claudia Lazzaro, in her recent book, The Italian Renaissance Garden: From the Convention of Planting, Design and Ornament to the Grand Gardens of Sixteenth Century Italy (Yale University Press, 1990), places great emphasis on the contribution of plants to the architectural character of the Italian garden. She describes specific plants and their treatment as features in a larger composition. In her epilogue, she reflects on the transformation of these gardens over the years due to the maturation of plants and the changes in maintenance that have been dictated by changing tastes. This is an area all too often neglected by historians and one that needs far more work to support reponsible efforts in present-day garden restoration projects. Landscape historians John Dixon Hunt and 36 Joachim Wolschke-Bulmahn have recommended that garden history reach out beyond \"high culture\" to \"lost habits of mind\" to illuminate subjects that have been relegated to the margins. Both Chambers and Lazzaro are to be commended for bypassing a traditional academic approach and revealing the rich history of the planting process, a blend of craft, science, and technology. Phyllis Andersen . this is the first publication of Books III through VI in English. (Volume 1, encompassing Books I and II, was published in 1976 as Loeb Library no. The Greek Plant World. Hellmut Baumann. Translated and augmented by William T. Stearn and Eldwyth Ruth Stearn. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1993. 252 pages; 481 illustrations, most in color. Hardcover. $29.95. De around 370 BC, is the author of the most important botanical works that have survived from classical antiquity. He was in turn a student, collaborator, and successor of Aristotle at the Lyceum. Like his predecessor, he was interested in all aspects of human knowledge and experience, especially natural science. His writings on plants form a counterpoint to Aristotle's zoological works. Books II and IV of De Causis Plantarum covers techniques of cultivation and agricultural methods in ancient Greece, while Books V and 471.)\/ Theophrastus, born Causis Plantarum. Volumes 2, 3. Theophrastus. Translated and edited by Benedict Einarson and G. K. K. Lmk. Greek and English texts on facing pages. Cambridge: Loeb Classical Library (nos. 474 and 475), Harvard University Press. 1990. 361 and 465 pages respectively. $15.50 each For those interested in historic landscapes The Greek Plant World is a must. The author has painstakingly collected all references to plants in the writings of ancient Greeks-as well references in works about the ancient Greeks-and assembled them in highly coherent and readable fashion. An excellent index makes it easy to track down what Homer, Herodotus, Plato, or Dioscorides had to say about a particular plant. It would be a great book to read before visiting Greece, given that most of the plants covered are illustrated in sharp color photographs and are still growing there today. The armchair traveler, too, will find interest in its portraits of daily life in ancient Greece. In a related vein, it is worth noting the recent publication of the final two volumes of Theophrastus' great work, the two-thousandyear-old De Causis Plantarum. Remarkably, as From The Greek Plant World. VI take up causes of plant breeding, diseases and other death, and distinctive flavors and odors. in Theophrastus, the of these long-awaited books is cause for celebration. After two thousand years, it might even be called the pubhshing event of a lifetime. For those interested publication Peter Del Tredici "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum News","article_sequence":5,"start_page":37,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25118","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add14eaf6f.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The no Arboretum F , L L - N E \" S - 1 ~ . , Arboretum\/National Park Service Partnership Receives Two Major Grants Phyllis Andersen, Landscape Historian The Arboretum's partnership with the regional office of the National Park Service, known as the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation, is strengthened this year by the receipt of two grants for historic landscape preservation of national importance. We have just received a grant of $40,000 from the National Center for Preservation Technology and Traimng to produce a technical publication on the preservation of woody plants in historic landscapes. The pubhcation will evolve out of a series of working group sessions in- - .- .-- -------- volving professionals actively engaged in the landscape manageof historic sites. It will address historic tree maintenance, the management of features such as woodlands, hedges, and vistas, the inventory and documentation of woody plants and the use of computer technology for both mapping and inventory control. We are particularly proud that this grant, one of only two awarded to landscape projects, is among the first group given by the newly created National Center for Preservation Technology and Training, which is located at Northwestern State University of Louisiana in Natchitoches. The Center, estabhshed in 1992 by an Act of Congress, is part of the National Park Service. Its mission is ment Kristin Claeys, landscape preservation field assistant, Jack Alexander, chief plant propagator, and Gary Koller, senior horticulturist, comparing lilac cultivars from the Vanderbilt National Historic Site in Hyde Park, New York, to plants in the Arboretum's collection. develop and disseminate skills and technologies for both architectural and landscape preservation and conservation. The Olmsted Center has also received a grant of $12,500 from the Preservation Assistance Division of the National Park Service to hold a Forum on Historic Vegetation Management at the Arnold Arboretum in the spring of 1995. This one-day event will bring together speakers from all over the to replacement strategies for woody plants of historic importance. The Forum will be geared to individuals responsible for the and ongoing management of historic sites with some space available for the general public. Our partnership with the Olmsted Center continues to place us in the forefront of landscape preservation work. We are umque as an arboretum in our commitment. By bringing our traditional strengths in plant identification, propagation, and woody plant management to bear on the newly emerging methods of landscape preservation we are adding solid botanical and horticultural skills country to participate in panel discussions on a variety of topics including arboncultural practices at historic sites, the management of plant succession, and the identification, condition assessment, to those preservation of landscape architects, professionals, and general maintenance specialists. Our projects are diverse. Peter Del Tredici has identified plants lost to Fairsted, the home and office of Frederick Law Olmsted, from historic photographs of that site. Peter's work has contributed a new layer of authenticity to the preservation, training, and technology development. The future of our partnership looks promising, and we are currently engaged in strategic to continue to planning to enable it play a leadership role in cultural and natural land- scape preservation. National Preservation Conference Honors Arboretum Staff Bob Cook, director of the Arnold Arboretum, was given a Heritage Hero award by Roger Kennedy, director of the National Park Service, on the occasion of the 48th National Preservation Conference sponsored by the National Trust for Historic Preservation held in Boston, October 26-30, 1994. Heritage Hero awards are given to individuals who have made major contributions to the preservation mission of the National Park Service. Boston Mayor Thomas Menino was also honored with this award at a ceremony at the Park Plaza Hotel on October 27. The renovation of Harvard Yard, including the Yard landscape, buildings, and encircling fence received the National Preservation Honor Award from the National Trust for Historic Preservation. Peter Del Tredici, assistant director for living collections, was a member of the committee that prepared the replanting plan, which will add over 250 trees to the Yard over the next 7 to 10 years. The replanting plan is a unique contnbution to the field of landscape preservation in its detailed and sensitive approach to dealing with the loss of the key landscape element, the American elm. plan currently being implemented at Fairsted. Jack Alexander has grafted old apple treatment varieties from Weir Farm, the home of American impressiomst painter Alden Weir, now a property of the National Park Service, and from the Franklin Delano Roosevelt site in Hyde Park, New York, provide replacement plants for histonc orchards. The to Olmsted Center, now located at the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site in Brookline, has been nationally recognized as the only facility within the National Park Service devoted exclusively to historic landscape x ~~ ' ~ f '~l~ ~ :a FIRM The Arnold Arboretum interns of 1994 are, from left to right in the front row, Kirsten Thornton, Todd Forrest, Amy Spencer, Debra Castellano, Kirsten Ganshaw, and in the back row, Vincent DiFusco, Andy Bell, Amy Capron, Scott Wunderle, Lisa Farino, Chris Fannin, Merrill Whittington, Kyle Orr, and Pam Snow. Irina Kadis is missing from the photo. Their training included hands-on experience in grounds maintenance-including an extra dose of hard work on Peters Hill and Bussey Hill-labelling and mapping of trees and shrubs, plant propagation, and library curation. They also participated in plant identification and landscape maintenance classes and joined Arboretum staff members for tours and talks. 2 The Rain Forest Connection Robert E. learning, decision-making, and technology. ongoing search for plants containing anti-cancer and anti-AIDS compounds in Indonesian tropical forests, The Ram Forest Connection will combine real-life narratives with collaborative problem-solving based on actual scientific research on the discovery and management of biological resources. The CD-ROM will include video, animation, still images, data sets, maps, remote sensing images, sound and music Because each student \"expert\" the has Based on our Cook, Director umque information, succeed only by sharing their knowledge and ideas. As the teams make decisions, the direction team can Last month the Arboretum entered into an unusual collaboration with a company called Tom Snyder Productions. Supported by a $90,000 grant from the National Science Foundation, we will be working with them to develop The Rain Forest Connection, an interactive CD-ROM-based curriculum package for middle-grade students. CD-ROM is a technology that places vast volumes of information on a compact disc that can be rapidly accessed at any point. Tom Snyder Productions has extensive experience in creating award-winning educational materials that effectively integrate science content with cooperative of the narrative changes, re- flectmg the consequences of their choices and presenting new opportunities for problem-solving and decision-making. John Burley, director of our programs in Indonesia, and Andrew MacDonald, our research associate who has just returned from six months m the forests of Borneo, will be working with me and a production team at Tom Snyder to develop the narrative and ensure scientific accuracy. It to be a very creative collaboration and will bring the work of the Arboretum to thousands of schoolchildren across the to provide story, information, background, incentives, and feed- back. Classroom students will work in small cooperative teams made up of different scientific \"experts.\" Each team will collect, organize, and analyze data from the CD-ROM, print booklets, and related hands-on activities. promises country. Preliminary Report of the 1994 NACPEC Germplasm-Collecting Trip to Wu Dang Mountain, Hubei Province, China: September 4 to October 11,1994 Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections Hubei Province figures prominently in the history of the Arnold Arboretum. It has been the source of many of our most prized introductions. E. H. Wilson collected many plants in the vicinity of Yichang (on the Yangtze River) in the late 1800s and early 1900s, and in 1980 Chennongjia Mountain in the western part of the province was the pnncipal site of the SinoAmencan Botanical Expedition, the first major plant- collecting expedition to China since 1949. This fall, representatives from four of the institutions in the North American-China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC), working in cooperation with the Nanjing Botanical Garden, joined in a collecting expedition to Wu Dang Mountain in northern Hubei Province. I was accompanied on the trip by Paul Meyer of the Morris Arboretum, Philadelphia, Kevin Conrad from the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C., Mr. Zen of the Science and Technology Committee, Dang Jiang Kou City in Hubei Province, holds a on fruiting specimen of Emmenopterys henryi collected the 1994 NACPEC Expedition. 3 R. William Thomas from Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, and two botanists from the Jiangsu Institute of Botany, Mao Cailiang and Hao Riming. As well as being botamcally interesting, Wu Dang Shan is famous throughout China as one of the principal centers of Daoism during the Ming Dynasty. Over 500 years ago, some 300,000 workers were employed in the building of some 46 temples and halls, 72 shrines, 39 bridges, and 12 pavilions on the mountain, many of which are still standing. The mountain itself is 5,285 feet in elevation. A good paved road takes visitors up to about 3,000 feet, where a handful of hotels are located. Beyond this point a steep stone path leads to the summit, which is crowned with the spectacular Golden Temple. Chinese tourists and pilgrims visit the mountain at all times of year, but their impact is generally confined to the immediate vicinity of the stone path. While the vegetation adjacent to the path shows signs of wear and tear, one can find well-preserved forest just a short distance from it. Indeed, it was very exciting to see many \"old friends\" from the Arboretum growing in their native habitat. Among the most interesting plants whose seeds we collected were Acer gruzum, Castanea henryi, Emmenopterys henryz, Hamamelz.r mollzr, and Sinowzlronza henryr. In all, we made 127 collections of seed that are now being processed for germination at the Dana Greenhouses. With luck, this new generation of Chinese plants will flourish at the Arboretum well into the next century. In addition, many of them will be distributed to other botanical gardens and nurseries in order to diversify the germplasm currently available in this country. Readers of Arnoldia can expect a more detailed report on the trip in the near future. Support for Field Studies Arnold Arboretum Committee president Jim Gorman recently presented a check to Diane manager of school programs, and friends from the Syverson, Joseph Lee School in Dorchester. The recent donation caps a total of $26,000 contributed by the Committee to support the participation of Boston Public School students in the Arboretum's Field Study Experiences Program. Open House Sunday, October 16, Arboretum members and friends from the surrounding community joined director Bob Cook and staff for a special open house. In addition to tours of the landscape, greenhouses, and Hunnewell On Building, participants enjoyed a demonstration of the Arboretum's High Ranger truck (above) with arborist John Olmsted and grounds superintendent Patrick Willoughby. 4 Growing Classroom Gardens As every good gardener knows, the expenence of cultmaung plants engages our best observational skills and provides a fascinating close-up window on the natural world. Through a recent grant from Northeastern University's CESAME (Center for the Enhancement of Science and Mathematics Education), the Arboretum will make this experience part of the science programs at elementary schools in Dorchester, Hyde Park, and Mattapan. Coordinated by Arboretum school program manager Diane Syverson, the project will enable teachers from the Arboretum's LEAP (LEarning About Plants) program to lead children in gardening science Association. Known as The Growth Connection, the program is part of the Arboretum's ongoing efforts to tap the potential of the world of plants and horticulture for hands-on science Gardening learning. r Volunteer investigations developed by the Arboretum and the National Recognition Arboretum Renovation Receives Preservation Award Each year the Boston Preservation Alliance recognizes exemplary contributions to the preservation of the City's rich architectural and landscape heritage. This October the Arnold Arboretum received a 1994 Preservation Award for \"its outstanding restoration and the creation of handicapped access in the historical Hunnewell Building, circa 1892.\" Preserving the historic character of both the Hunnewell Building and the sur- rounding landscape was a pnmary goal of the recent renovation, and we wish to extend recognition for the project's success to Arboretum renovation manager Sheila Connor (and horticultural research archivist), landscape architect Carol Loretta Wilson and Flora Bussewitz were among the many honored at the recent luncheon held in recog- Johnson, and architectural consultants The Primary Group. nition of Arboretum volunteers. Al Bussewitz's illustrated lecture on Henry David Thoreau was the highlight of the event. New Staff at the Arboretum the Arboretum's plant records usretail nursery ing accessioning and planting lists and nursery inventory. In Oregon, Todd worked for as a a Indonesia. Ann-Marie comes to us from the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology. landscape design consultant and spent his free time studying the ecology of the Douglas fir forof the Western Cascades. He 1991 graduate of Wesleyan Umversity and an inveterate ests is a plantsperson. ...-~~=~\"W\"V='~'~ , Todd Forrest, our new curatorial assistant in the Mapping and Labelling department, the Arboretum from came to Portland, Oregon, as a grounds-crew intern in April of this year. His primary responsibihty will be updating Ann-Marie Luciano is a recent addition to the Arnold Arboretum staff at the Harvard University Herbaria. She will be assisting John Burley with day-to-day tasks on the Biodiversity Collections Project with the government of She was awarded a B.S. m ~ournalism and pubhc relations from Northeastern University in 1993. 12th Annuall Plant Sale and Auction A splendid selection of unusual and choice plants from the Arboretum and other botanical collections, nurseries, and private collectors ensured a highly successful 12th Annual Arnold Arboretum Plant Sale and Auction. The Arboretum expresses its many thanks to the 55 5 volunteers who contributed over 780 hours of excellent effort to the event. - . -_..,~-- -- Members choose their bonuses outside the Case Estates barn. The calm before the storm: volunteers prepare to register bidders before the 12th Annual Rare Plant Auction. England plant societies and horticultural organizations gathered on Society Row. New A magnolia and other plants head for new grounds. 6 , EVENTS The Arnold Arboretum's Education Department offers many short courses, lectures, and programs during the winter months. These cold months give gardeners the time to plan their gardening activities for the coming season, and to learn about new plant materials and horticultural techmques. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, call (617) 524-1718, ext. 162. Please note that course fees printed in boldface are for Arboretum members. JANUARY HOR 377 Woody Plant Groupings: With Trees and Shrubs Laura Eztener, Landscape Derzgner Designing This class will examine the ways in which woody plants can be combined to shape space in boundary plantings. The instructor will also discuss canopy layers, understory levels, groves, allees, and orchards. The last session will emphasize ornamental pruning as a way of enhancing the effect of the tree and shrub groupings. Slides and plan drawings will be used to illustrate striking uses of woody plants. plan drawings. Students will participate weekly critiques of their plans in progress. Please note that all class members create a plan for the garden visited during the first class. Prerequisite: Some knowledge of the basics of plan drawing is needed in this course. Fee: $95, $110 1 Sunday, February 5\/ 1:00-3:00 pm (Hunnewell Building and required site visit) and 5 Tuesdays, February 7, 14, 21, 28, March 7\/ led to in the final ' 6:30-8:30 HOR 277 The Business of Design Carol Julzen, Garden De.rzgner Fee: $64, $77 4 Thursdays, January 5, 12, 19, 26\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (Dana Greenhouse) FEBRUARY HOR 406 Building the Design: How Problems in Landscape Construction Bob Hanss, Landscape Architect and to Every landscape practitioner, whether to landscape spe- architect, designer, installer, cialist, has business issues that need Solve or maintenance be success- fully resolved. Experienced garden designer Carol Julien will introduce and discuss many of these business-related questions. DeazgnlBuzld Profe.r,rzonal This course is designed for the needs of landscape professionals, but homeowners or gardeners interested in doing their own subcontracting are also slides of current or rethat illustrate how to deal cently completed projects with the many problems and issues of turning a plan into reality. Topics to be covered include cost analysis and materials selection. welcome. The class will see Fee:$40,$46 3 Mondays, February 6, 13, 27\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (Dana Greenhouse) WAL 311 Classic and Choice Garden Roses Stephen Scanniello, Rorarzan, Brooklyn Botanic Garden As Chairman of the Heritage Rose Foundation and a judge at the International Rose Competition held each year in Pans, Stephen Scanniello sees and evaluates the best rose introductions. This beautifully illustrated slide lecture will give rose admirers a chance to shake the winter doldrums and plan Fee: $54, $65 3 Wednesdays, February 1, 8, 15\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (Dana Greenhouse) spring purchases. 8 Fee:$15,$18 Design Douglas Reed, Landscape Architect Gardening begins with a plan, whether you are renovating an existing garden or starting from scratch. This course will help participants to visualize good garden design, get a plan down on paper, and choose plants consistent with the design. instructor will use lectures and slides to the steps in developing a plan, using beforeconvey and-after slides of garden sites and the sketches that HOR 210 Fundamentals of Garden Thursday, February 16\/ 7:30-9:00 pm (Hunnewell Building) BOT 100 Introduction to Botany James Martzn, Arborzrt and Horticultural Instructor An introduction to botany for students new to the discipline and a refresher for those who feel the need to brush up on old skills. Among the topics to be explored are plant cells and tissues, cell division, plant anatomy and morphology, plant diversity, 7 The "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23275","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160816f.jpg","title":"1994-54-3","volume":54,"issue_number":3,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Welwitschia mirabilis: A Dream Come True","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25112","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170896b.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Cooper-Driver, Gillian","article_content":"Welwitschia mirabilis-A Dream Come True Gillian A. Cooper-Driver It's been said that if botanists were to invent the ideal plant for a desert environment, like Welwitschia. surely they would never come up with a monster Welwitschia mirabilis has always inspired exresponses. It was the Austrian botanist and physician Dr. Friedrich Welwitsch, one of the foremost collectors of African plants, who first discovered this extraordinary plant in 1859, in southern Angola near Cape Negro. When he saw it, \"he could do nothing but kneel down on the burning soil and gaze at it, half in fear lest a touch should prove it a figment of the imagination\" (Swinscow, 1972). In the first detailed scientific description of the plant, Joseph D. Hooker, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew from 1866 to 1885, wrote, \"it is out of the question the most wonderful plant ever brought to this country, and the very ugliest.\" Recent papers published on Welwitschia have used such titles as \"Welwitschia-Paradox of a Parched Paradise\" ; \"Welwitschia, the Wonderful\"; \"Voyage into the impossible-I meet Welwitschia\"; and \"The ugliest plant in the world-the story of Welwitschia mirabilis. I myself first heard of Welwitschia mirabilis about thirty years ago from a native of the Scottish isle of Iona, a long way from the deserts of southwest Africa where this strange plant grows. As we made our way in a small boat across the ocean, my companion told me of a strange plant, halfway between a flowering plant and a conifer, which Darwin had described as \"'the platypus of the plant kingdom.\" From that brief encounter, it had always been my ambition to see the miracle plant for myself. treme \" Welwitschia mirabilis grows naturally in area in the world. Its distribution is restricted to an extremely arid strip of land about seven hundred fifty miles long along the west coast of southern Africa, from the Nicolau River in Angola to the Kuiseb River in the Namib Desert of Nambia. The amount of rain in the Namib Desert varies greatly from year to year and ranges from zero to a half inch near the coast and two to four inches inland, as compared to a temperate deciduous forest, which receives approximately thirty to one hundred inches of rain a year. Welwitschia is not restricted to desert. It occupies the northern and central part of the Namib, but may also occur in subtropical grassland to the east and even in the Mopane Savanna (von Willert, only one 1985). ~. Off the shores of southwest Africa is the Benguela Current, which flows from south to north and is extremely cold. Warm onshore winds flowing over the cold water create a belt of fog that forms on the coast at night and often remains well into the morning. This condensed moisture gives life to many lichens and to other specialized forms of insects, animals, and plants-including Welwitschia mirabilis. One of the most accessible places to see Welwitschia is in the Namib-Naukluft Park in the Welwitschia Flats between the Khan and Swakop Rivers, about thirty miles east of Swakopmund. This plain of weathered granite, quartzite, shale, limestone, and marble is ' 3 Welwitschia mirabilis in the Namlb Desert. Photo by the author. home to what are probably the oldest and most dense communities of Welwitschia. As many as five to six thousand specimens have been counted in this area. It was a bright clear day, the first day in June, when I set out with two friends to find Welwitschia mirabilis. Before starting on the Welwitschia Plains Drive, it is necessary to obtain a permit and a guide pamphlet from the Ritterberg Nature Conservation Office in Swakopmund. The drive starts about three miles outside Swakopmund, a few yards from an abandoned steam engine. (This engine was imported to Namibia in 1896 to carry freight across the Namib Desert. Unfortunately, it survived only a couple of trips before grinding to a halt within sight of Swakopmund. It is named after the preacher Martin Luther, whose words, \"Here I stand; God help me, I cannot do otherwise,\" are engraved on its pedestal.)At the engine you turn right and drive across the Swakop River to the entrance of Welwitschia Park. The land around this part of the Swakop River is dry and at first glance entirely barren, resembling the spectacular images we have seen of the moonscape. However, closer inspection revealed several different plants. Among the more conspicuous were two drought-resistant shrubs, the dollar bush (Zygophyllum stapfii) with round succulent leaves similar to coins and the xerophytic 4 inkbush (Arthraerua leubnitziae) with its tiny leaves reduced to mere scales. Others were \"!nara,\" or Acanthosicyos horrida, and \"tsamma,\" or Citrullis ecchirrosus. Both of these plants provide a source of water for travelers in the desert. Parts of the moonscape are covered with a variety of lichens in colors of orange, black, and gray-green, the most conspicuous of which is Xanthomaculina convoluta with its bright yellow color and twisted filaments. These lichen fields, which are more extensive in the Namib than in any The natural distribution Museum. of Welwitschia mirabilis. Dramng by Clara Richardson courtesy of the Field other desert in the world, depend for their survival on the condensed moisture that moves in from the sea at night. Several miles into the moonscape, a road turns off to the left to form a loop leading to Goanikontes, an old farm near the Swakop River. Here many different trees are found: the camel thorn (Acacia erioloba); anaboom or white thorn (Acacia albida), the largest acacia; Cape ebony (Euclea pseudobenus); tamarisk (Tamarix usneoides); and introduced species of Eucalyptus and Casuarina. These trees provide shade from the hot sun and offer a startling contrast to the vegetation of the desert area. On this day in June, the farm was completely deserted and silent. We left this fertile green area and returned to the moonscape. Granite cliffs, intersected with bands of black dolerite, rose on either side of the road, and then suddenly there they were, three Welwitschia plants growing up the sides of the gravel cliffs. The first sight of Welwitschia mirabilis is so totally unexpected in this bleak desert environment that it is easy to understand why Friedrich Welwitsch fell down upon his knees. Farther along the drive, the land flattens out, and more and more plants become visible. They spread across the desert, often in densely massed groups or in long lines fading away into the distance; it is rare to find a single plant all by itself. Using carbon-14 dating botanists have estimated that many of the smaller plants are thirty or forty years old, medium-sized plants a few hundred years old, and some of the larger plants are as old as fifteen hundred or even two thousand years. It is Welwitchia's leaves that give this plant its strange appearance. It has only two permanent leaves. These stiff, strap-like leaves grow from a thick, almost totally submerged, woody stem and can be as much as ten feet in length. Since the leaves grow from their base, the cells at the tips are older and in time begin to turn brown and die. In the desert the leaves grow very slowly, about four to six inches per year. As the years and ultimately the centuries pass, the wind and the scouring sand split the leaves 5 In their natural habitat Welwitschias occur in densely massed groups distance, as can be seen in this photo by the author. or in long lines fading away into the longitudinally into ribbons, some ten inches or more wide, supporting Bornmann's description of the plant as looking \"like a stranded octopus on a bare desert surface.\" Leaf-stripping also occurs when oryx antelopes feed at the leaf base (Brinckmann and von Willert, 1987) or when microarthropods graze on the undersurface of the leaves (Marsh, 1987). These leaves are unusual not only in appearbut also in size. Nowhere else in the Namib Desert does one see plants with such large leaves. One way for desert plants to deal with the scarcity of water is to develop anatomical and morphological structures that minimize water loss. For example, succulents like lithops and aloes, as well as the dollar bush mentioned earlier, have in their leaves a special central tissue that stores water (Von ance et al., 1992). Other plants, such as the inkbush, cope with the desert environment by having highly reduced, leather-like leaves, Willert which minimize the loss of water vapor. Small leaves also reduce the high leaf temperatures that the intense solar radiation of a desert environment can cause. Therefore it is paradoxical to find a plant like Welwitschia with its very large leaves growing in the middle of a desert, especially since its leaves appear not to have special water storage tissues. The leaves of Welwitschia are unusual not only in their structure, but also in their manner of development. The plant begins life as a winged seed. In a process similar to that of most broad-leaved flowering plants, the plant embryo first develops two primary leaves, or cotyledons. Above these and at right angles, 6 Welwitschia is again unusual for a desert plant in the way it obtains its carbon dioxide for photosynthesis. In most temperate plant species, stomata remain open during the day to take carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, then close at night. But in succulents and other desert plants, the process is reversed with stomata remaining closed during the day to reduce water loss and opening for water uptake at night (when atmospheric humidity is high and temperatures are low). Desert succulents also take in carbon dioxide from the atmosphere during the night, converting it into the organic acid malate by a process called crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM). During the day, when the stomata are closed, this malate provides a readily available source of carbon dioxide to allow photosynthesis to proceed in the normal way. Most succulents use CAM as a basis for their survival. It is therefore surprising to learn that Welwitschia, which lives in an environment that would favor CAM, behaves not like a succulent but like a temperate plant. Its stomata open in the morning and early evening, no organic acids accumulate during the night, and there is a marked daytime loss of water vapor from the leaves. How then does Welwitschia obtain enough water to survive? One might suppose that Welwitschia acquires its water from the mist that settles over this part of the world. Some desert plants, such as members of the crassula family, have structures called hydathodesspecialized forms of stomata-that take in water from the air. However, Welwitschia leaves do not have these structures, and it appears that its leaves cannot absorb dew or mist water. A second possibility is that the water comes from the root. Welwitschia has a large taproot that extends downward for as much as three to five feet. Depending on the soil, lateral roots move out from the taproot at various depths, and multiple branches in the roots have been observed. It is possible that sufficient water is somehow available in the deepest soil layers and that Welwitschia taps into it through it deep-reaching root system. portions. Welwitschia's taproot grows to massive proIt can extend downward for as much as three to five feet; the apex shown here is about four feet m diameter. Courtesy of the Field Museum (360395), Chicago. the two permanent leaves arise, and the cotyledons wither away. Unlike all other land plants, no further leaves develop because the apical meristem (the cells from which leaves form) ceases all further activity and becomes nonfunctional. Only a pair of low crests representing primordia of a second leaf pair develop. Because it generally produces only two leaves, Welwitschia has been described by Martens as \"a seedling arrested in development\" or as \"a plant without a head.\" Plants use their leaves to manufacture sugars and other organic compounds from atmospheric carbon dioxide and water by the process known as photosynthesis. Carbon dioxide enters the cells of the leaf through special pores, or stomata, on the leaf surface. Water also enters and leaves the plant via stomata. in the desert is the Particularly important to plants growing ability to retain water and a yet maintain carbon dioxide balance so that photosynthesis can occur. 7 strangely shaped leaves apparently water-gleaning function, they do help it cope with the problem of heat, which causes water evaporation. Von Willert, serve no While Welwitschia's who has worked on Welwitschia in the Namib Desert for many years, has found that only 55% of the solar radiation is absorbed in Welwitschia's leaves with as much as 40% being reflected away. (Compare this to most trees, from which about 25% of radiation is reflected.) Reflecting away the heat is probably the best strategy that a desert plant with large leaves can have for conserving water. Other unusual features become apparent as one inspects Welwitschia more closely. The stem has a woody appearance and a large surface area. From the junction of the stem and the leaves arise branches on which the reproductive structures (the male and female cones) can be easily differentiated. By October most of these cones are fully developed. The cones indicate that Welwitschia is a gymnosperm, related to pines and other conifers. However, a closer look at the reproductive structures reveals several features that differentiate Welwitschia completely from the conifers. A notable instance is the presence of distinct male and female \"flowers.\" The flowers on the male plant have a single ovule, which is surrounded by a fused ring of \"stamens\" that produce the pollen. Unlike the \"ovule\" in the female flower (as can be seen in the drawing below) the apex of the ovule in the male is expanded into a prominent funnel. This ovule never develops a mature seed. Instead, this sexually nonfunctional ovule may play a role in attracting pollinators as the funnel secretes a large drop of fluid precisely at the time the pollen is shed. Pollination occurs from about November to the end of March. It is still not completely clear how the pollen reaches the ovules in the female cones. One might think it was carried by the bright red and yellow insects (yellow bugs and their red larvae), Probergrothius sexpunctatus (Pyrrhocoridae), that presented a dramatic sight when we saw them in June. However, all experts agree that red beetles and their larvae are not responsible for pollination; it would appear that other insects are respon- The pollen-producmg (male) mflorescences of Welwitschia mirabilis have numerous small \"flowers\"borne m the cones. The reproductme organs resemble a tiny bisexual (or hermaphodmteJ \"flower\" with a single stenle ovule (analogous to the female gynoecium m a female flower) surrounded by a fused nng of six structures (analogous to stamens). These latter structures produce the pollen. Although similar to a flowering plant, the ovule seems to be nonfunctional and never develops mto a mature seed. The female \"flower,\" on the other hand, has an ovule but contams no traces of stamens. Drawings by Clara Richardson courtesy of the Field Museum. 8 Cultivating Welwitschia - Welwitschia was first grown successfully from seed to seed in the Botamc Gardens of the Umversity of Stellenbosch, and it is presently being grown with considerable success in the Montreal Botanic Gardens; the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew; and the Huntington Gardens, San Marino. Because of the fragility of its root system, it is best cultivated from seed. Even then, however, it is notoriously difficult. Of the ten to twenty thousands of seeds produced by a female plant, only twenty to two hundred may be capable of germination (Bustard, 1990). The most critical stage is the first six months of life, as seeds collected from populations in the wild are often heavily infested with the fungus As- pergillus mger (van Jaarsveld, 1992). As described by H. Teuscher of the Montreal Botanic Gardens, growing Welwitschia is an enormously complicated business. First the seeds trace must be sown in very well drained pans a containing granitic sand, crushed brick, and of leaf mold. To ensure drainage the bottom of the pans should be covered with broken bits of crockery. The pans should then be covered with glass and placed m filtered light at a minimum temperature of 50degrees F. The seedlings must be watered from below to avoid dampmg-off disease. Under these conditions, the seeds of Welwitschia usually germinate within two weeks. At five months the seedlings will have developed five-to-six-inch long unbranched taproots and must be transferred to clay drainpipes or clay pots that will accommodate the long taproot-the trickiest part of the growing process. A layer of broken crockery an inch-and-a-half deep should be placed in a twelve-inch pot with a drainpipe approximately three inches in diameter inserted vertically. Then the seedling is to be carefully inserted into the drainpipe, making sure the roots are fully outstretched. The dram can then be slowly filled with seedpan soil to a height of approximately three inches, followed by a mixture of one part crushed limestone and one part granitic sand, topped by a thm layer of crushed limestone. At this stage, the cotyledons should be lying flat along the top of the limestone. In the space between the pot and the drainpipe, two to three inches of topsoil and sand should be placed, followed by some leaf mold and a sprinkle of bonemeal and dehydrated sheep manure. Above this layer, crushed limestone and sand must be added, topped by a final layer of crushed limestone. Watering is done m the area between the drainpipe and pot. From April to September water should be enriched with a small amount of a complete liquid fertilizer, with plam water being used from the fall to the spring. Teuscher, whose method represents the conservative end of Welwitschia culture, advises against repotting Welwitschia because of the serious hazard of damaging the root system. Instead, every three years after the plant is established, the stone and sand mixture along with the soil between the pot and drainpipe should be removed from around the roots. Fresh soil enriched with a small dose of fertilizer should then be added. In Teuscher's experience, it takes ten to twelve years for cones to develop. Teuscher presents a daunting view of Welwitschia culture; however, others suggest that it may not be so difficult. For instance, Horwood goes so far as to say that it may not be necessary to cultivate the plants in drainpipes. Leo Song, Jr., maintains that these plants are not difficult to grow if certain basic conditions are given-full sunlight and abundant heat, protection from prolonged low temperatures, a fast draining growing medium, regular watering and fertilizing (preferably in a program of continuous feeding), and ample room for the root system. Song reports that he is growing Welrmtschia in pumice in large pots with substantial success. Van Jaarsveld also emphasizes the importance of allowing sufficient space for the taproot to develop. He attributes the success in cultivating Welwitschia at the Kirstenbosch Botanical Garden to bottom heat during the winter months, the rich, well-drained \"Vanrhynsdorp\" sand, and regular watering. 9 Gnetum is a tropical genus of about thirty species found as a clinging vine in the rainforests of Asia, northern South America, the Pacific Islands, and Africa north of Namibia. But even within its own division Welwitschia is distinctive-unusual in its appearance, in its geographical restriction, and in occurring only as stout This model of young Welwitschia plant shows the a taproot and the two leathery leaves that the plant retams throughout its entire life. Courtesy of the Field Museum (B81801). ). wasps, flies, or ants, and that the ovule's fluid may act as an attractant. Insects visit the drops of nectar secreted by the ovules in the female plants and in the process transfer pollen grains from the stamens of the male flowers. After fertilization and following the sporadic February and March rains, the seeds fill out rapidly and the female cones spread their ripe seeds from about mid-June to mid-July. On the first of June, 1994, the seeds were just being released. By October, the mature cones will have shed virtually all their seeds and next season's cones will have appeared. Welwitschia is generally classified as a gymnosperm in the division Gnetophyta. Within this division are three orders, Ephedrales, Gnetales, and Welwitschiales, each consisting of a single family and genus. Like Welwitschia, the two other members of this division are rather unusual. Ephedra, often called Mormon tea, is a shrub-like desert genus consisting of about thirty-five species and occurring in the United States in the deserts of California, Nevada, Utah, Arizona, and New Mexico. sible, possibly single species. Ephedra, Gnetum, and Welwitschia, as a group, are regarded as the closest living relatives of the flowering plants (Doyle and Donoghue, 1993). Unlike the other gymnosperms, the Gnetophyta resemble angiosperms in having special water-conducting cells, called vessels, for increased efficiency in transporting water. Whether this implies a direct evolutionary relationship or is an instance of convergent evolution resulting from adaptation to desert environments is still a subject of some debate (Muhammad and Sattler, 1982). A possible evolutionary relationship between the Gnetophyta and the angiosperms is also suggested by certain reproductive characterisa tics, such as the unusual male \"flowers\" and in fertilization techniques (Gifford and Foster, 1989; Friedman, 1990). All in all Welwitschia mirabilis is canny In its an un- paradox. unique development and ambiguous relationship to the flowering plants, its very existence is a challenge to botanists. Certainly it was a privilege to see this living legend. Acknowledgments I would hke to thank Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum, for his enthusiastic discussions and John Trager, Huntmgton Gardens, San Marino, Cahforma, for a supply of cultivated Welmtschia seeds. I would also like to thank Anthony Ashworth and Judy Butterman for accompanying me on this expedition and the Fulbnght Commission for making my visit to southern Africa possible. References Bornmann, C H 1978. Welmtschia-Paradox and of a Parched Paradise. Capetown Johannesburg: C. Strmk Publishers. Bnnckmann, E., and D. J. von Willert. 1987. In~ury and 10 recovery of Welwitschia mirabilis. Dintena 19: 69-76. Muhammad, A. F., and R. Sattler. 1982. Vessel Bustard, L. 1990. The ugliest plant Welwitschia Magazine 7: 85-90. story of in the world: the mirabilis. Kew of Gnetum and the origin of angiosperms. American Journal of Botany 69: 1004-1021. structure Rowley, Crane, P., and C. D. Hult. 1988. Welwitschia the Wonderful. Life as a Survivor in the Desert of Southwestern Africa. Field Museum of Natural History Bulletm (February), 22-29. G. 1972. Voyage into the impossible-I meet Welwitschia. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 97: 346-350. Song, L. C. 1980. Gross morphology of developing male and female strobili of Welmtschia mmabihs Hook. f. Cactus and Succulent Journal (U.S.~ 52: 30-32. V. 1972. Friedrich Welwitsch, 180672 : A centenmal memoir. Botany Journal of the Linnean Society 4' 269-289. Craven, P., and C. Marais. 1986. Namib Flora- Swakopmund ' to the Giant Welmtschia ma ' Goamkontes. Goodwood, Cape: National Book Printers. Gamsberg, Swmscow, T. D. Doyle, J. A., and M. J. Donoghue. 1993. Phylogemes and angiosperm diversification. Paleobiology Teuscher, Van 19: 141-167. H. 1951. Welwitschia mirabilis. The National Horucultural Magazme 188-189. E. 1992. Welwitschia mmabilis in cultivation at Kirstenbosch. Veld & Flora Friedman, W. Ephedra, a nonflowenng seed plant: its bearing on the origm of angiosperms. Science 247: 951-954. in E. 1990. Double fertilization Jaarsveld, (December), Von 119-120. Gifford, 1989. 3rd ed. Morphology and Evoluuon of Vascular Plants. New York: Freeman and Co. E. M., and A. S. Foster. Willert, D.J. 1985. Welmtschia mirabihs -New Aspects m the Biology of an Old Plant. Advances in Botanical Research 2: 157-191. Von Hooker, J. D. 1863. On Welmtschia, a new genus of Gnetaceae. Transactions of the Lmnean Society of London 24: 1-48. Horwood, F. K. 1974. Succulent Safari to Africa, Part 11. Cactus and Succulent journal (U.S.) 46: 260-261. Willert, D. J., B. M. Eller, M. J. A. Werger, E. Bnnckmann, and H. H. Ihlenfeldt. 1992. Life Strategies of Succulents m Deserts with Special Reference to the Namib Desert Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Letter, addressed to on the Botany of Benguela, Mossamedes Etc., in Western Africa. Journal of the Proceedmgs of the Linnean Society Botany 5: 182-187. F. 1861. Extract from a Sir William J. Hooker, Welwitsch, Marsh, B. A. 1987. Micro-arthropods associated with Welwitschia mirabihs in the Namib desert Southwest Africa. South African Journal of Zoology 22: 89-96. Handbuch der Pflanzenanatomie Band 12 Tell 2. Berlin: Gerbruder Borntraeger. P 1971. Les Martens, Gnetophytes. Gillian Cooper-Dnver is an Associate Professor of Plant Biochemistry at Boston University. She has ~ust returned from spendmg ten months at the National University of Lesotho on a Fulbnght Award. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mon cher ami: The Letters of Edouard Andre to Charles Sprague Sargent","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25110","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170856d.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Mon cher ami: The Letters of Edouard Andre to Charles Sprague Sargent Phyllis Andersen The friendships formed by Charles Sprague Sargent over his long life were dazzling by anyone's account, international in scope, and carefully cultivated through correspondence. Letters are a biographer's lifeblood, \"unpre- meditated transmitters of fact.\" Nothing else can convey the vitality of life as lived-the immediacy of emotions-so well as this intimate form of personal exchange. One of the most interesting items in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum is a group of thirty-five letters to Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding director of the Arboretum, from the French landscape architect Edouard Andre (18401911).The letters, written in French, date from 1886 to 1905 and include two letters from Andre's son Rene written shortly after his father's death. The Arboretum does not have copies of Sargent's half of the correspondence, but it is likely that he too wrote in French as he knew the language well enough to translate DeCars' Treatise on Pruning Forest and Ornamental Trees (Paris, 1864) into English in 1881. Andre's letters to Sargent reflect a friendship based on deep professional respect and personal affection. They shared a strong interest in plant exploration, in taxonomy, and the newly emerging theories of landscape style in park and garden design. They exchanged seeds, plants, and books. From time to time, when Sargent visited Paris, they met. (Andre visited the United States in 187G-as we know from his L'Art des Jardins where he mentions his admiration of Boston's garden cemetery-but no documentation of a visit to Sargent has been located.) Andre was Sargent's Paris connection, the source and expert on all things French. Despite clear differences in personality-Sargent diffident yet imperious, Andre clearly charming and gregarious-the two men were mutually supportive. They favorably re- viewed one another's books and noted each other's accomplishments in their respective publications. They shared a strong attraction to large, challenging projects and an avid curiosity about the world. Edouard Andre is known to landscape histo- designer, an architecte-paysagiste, a figure in the Parisian park-building projects directed by Baron Haussmann for Napoleon III in the last half of the nineteenth century. He is the author of a comprehensive text on garden and park design, L'Art des Tardins, the designer of hundreds of private gardens and numerous public parks, a friend of Frederick Law Olmsted and of the English garden writer and designer William Robinson. In 1892 he was appointed Professor of Garden Architecas a rians visible L'Ecole d'Horticulture de Versailles, the first person to hold that position. To horticulturists, Andre is known as a plantsman with strong credentials. He was a self-described botanical traveler. In 1875 he was sent by the French government on a plantture at 12 On the left, Edouard Andre zn a portrait that appeared in Volume 47 (1895) of the Englzsh 7ournal The Garden, which was dedzcated to him. On the right is Charles Sprague Sargent in a portrait taken by Horace McFarland, c. 1904. The correspondence between the two was warm and mutually supportive. In a letter of 8 April 1905, Andre wrote, \"I have just received your beautiful and useful volume, Manual of the Trees of North America, and I'm sending you rzght away my thanks and complzments, before speaking of it zn the Revue Horticole. You have known for a long tzme how much I admire your znexhaustzble creatzmty. \" South America, a trip that and resulted in 3,400 speciback to Paris. His travels also being took him to Russia, the Mediterranean, Turkey, and the United States. He amassed a personal herbarium of thousands of specimens, meticulously labeled and maintained. At his country home in Lacroix where he spent his summers, he developed an experimental nursery and arboretum. He was an expert on bromeliads and the genus Andrea of the Bromeliaceae was named in his honor. He published numerous plant profiles, articles on plant culture, and several monographs on his botanical collecting trip to took two years mens sent Born in Bourges, France, the son of a nurseryman, Andre apprenticed for a year with the municipal horticulturist of Angers and finished his education in Paris, studying for a year the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle. In 1860, the age of twenty, he was named head gardener (fardinier Principal) of the city of Paris by Adolphe Alphand, the chief park designer for Haussmann. With this position Andre joined the team that implemented Alphand's designs, which transformed Paris from a sprawl of disconnected enclaves into a model of monumental city form that sparked international interest. The new parks and boulevards of Paris were on the itinerary of every tourist, at at explorations. 13 Andre's design for L'Art des Jardins.J Sefton Park m Lmerpool included a botamc garden, seen m the plan above (From Andre's student, and landscape professional who barked on em- the Grand Tour. Andre worked with Alphand on the Bois de Vincennes, the Bois de Bologne, and the Parc Montsouris, but his reputation today rests on his work on the Parc des Buttes-Chaumont, the crescent-shaped strip of land in the northeast quarter of Paris. It was molded from a municipal dump and gallows site into a park of dramatic topography, deliberate rusticity, and romantic symbolism. Andre was responsible for the planting of the site, a complex project because of the variety of environments-rock escarpments, water edges, woodland, open meadow. Andre's approach to planting design has often been compared to Olmsted's. The similarities are there: a reliance on rich foliage texture, a sense of appropriateness, and a suspicion of anything decorative or overly manipulated. Like Olmsted, Andre believed that landscape improvements elevated human morals, and he used the \"ill-famed\" reputation of the Buttes-Chaumont site as an example. In 1866, Andre of a won a competition for the design large public park in Liverpool, to be built on land given to the city by England, Lord Sefton. Sefton Park emerged as a project of urban design not unlike those Olmsted was tackling in the United States. Andre was responsible not only for the parkland but for the adjoining boulevards and building lots. The Sefton Park project, which took ten years to complete, allowed him to set up a private office in Paris, and in subsequent years of professional practice he designed parks and gardens all over the world. The list is staggering. It includes Woodhouse Moor Park in Leeds; the park of Count de Friese in Friesenborg, 14 Denmark; the garden of Count Orloff-Davidoff in Russia; the parks of Prince Liechtenstein and Baron Nathaniel de Rothschild in Austria; as well as many private gardens in France. Andre enjoyed his wealthy clients and shared with Sargent the conviction that they alone allowed him to display his artistic aptitude. All the same, a large part of his practice was taken up with public parks. He transformed the Citadel of Luxembourg into a large public garden and the public gardens of Monte Carlo into a grand showcase of tropical plants. Sargent praised the latter gardens in a short article in Garden and Forest (April 29, 1891)( for the skill and refinement with which Andre treated this important waterfront site. In Holland he managed the reconstruction of two seventeenth-century gardens, Welham and Amerongen, and their conversion into parks for the public. He worked in Rome, refining plans for the Piazza Bianca and the Quirinal and working with Roman designers to transform the gardens of the Villa Borghese from a private garden into a public park. Andre also prepared plans for the redesign of Montevideo in Uruguay, predating his countryman Jean-Claude Nicolas Forestier's urban design work in South America by some twenty years. The Andre letters to Sargent center on Sargent's decision to have the plates of his tenvolume Silva of North America ( 1890-1902~, which were drawn by Charles Faxon, engraved in Paris. He requested Andre to find an engraver and to supervise production. The details of these transactions form the heart of the letters. If the business details are routine, the subtext of Andre's measured diplomacy, mediating between a temperamental French engraver and a demanding and parsimonious American client, makes for amusing reading. Nonetheless, Andre felt honored to assist Sargent with the project. \"You also know that I am not insensible of the very natural feeling of pride created in me by your choice of our country to prepare the illustrations of your great work. It will soon be a century since my compatriot Andre Michaux transformed the Cmadel of Luxembourg mto large public garden. Part of his scheme of 1871 was a botanic garden dedicated exclusively to native flora. Andre's idea, which he believed to be novel, was to present a complete Iming display of the flora of Luxembourg's fields, woods, meadows, and crags that would acquamt the pubhc mth them botanical classification, uses, and names, ornamental qualities. (From L'Art des Jardins.) a Andr~ published his beautiful studies on American dendrology [North American Sylva, 18101817~. I congratulate you on having resumed and rebuilt his work on such a grand scale, with all the resources that botanists-your compatriots and others-have accumulated century, and after havin the works of your predecessors by your personal contributions to the knowledge of North American flora\" (Andre to Sargent, 2 March 1887). Andre edited L'Illustration Horticole from 1870 to 1880 and the prestigious Revue Horticole from 1882 until his death. He was sympathetic to Sargent's tribulations as editor of Garden and Forest and contributed regular short pieces on developments in French hortiover three quarters of a ing made broad advances 15 Lacroix, 31 October 1887 My dear friend, Your two letters reached Olneya 15 and 17 7 time as your and Cereus seeds, which have me at of October same the been carefully planted. Accept my thanks. I hope soon to be able to let you know that e they are prosperlng. I am going to keep the under glass at Lacroix during young plants the winter, and send them in the spring to my gardens at Cannes. Nothing has yet been decided for Kew. M. Th(iselton-]Dyer is proposing rather hard conditions; I nevertheless hope that we will be able to conclude things soon. As soon as we have a solution, I will answer you about the collection for the herbarium at Harvard University. I would be happy to know that one of my collections will be part of the herbarium at that wonderful institution. We will return to Paris the 4th of November to take up winter residence. As soon as I arrive I will see to the trees and shrubs that you want to obtain from the City of Paris, and I hope to be able to send them to Waterer very soon, following the instructions that you gave me. If, from your side, you send something to England, I would like to request that you add some grafts or a young specimen of a new variety of plum tree that is being much talked about in the United States. It is the japanese Kelsey Plum. They are found at Bruckman's, in Augusta, and elsewhere, I believe. I am sending you along with this letter some seeds from a new Cotoneaster brought from China by Abbe David, which I am cultivating under the name of C. horizontalis Decaisne. It is the prettiest plant that I know of for rocks, and I have a specimen at Lacroix that is really the prettiest thing one could ever see, with its purple leaves and its scarlet red fruits. It has the habit of C. of the section Microphylla with the fruits of the section Nepalensis. Perhaps you already have this species, which however is not widely disseminated and almost unknown in France. Professor Gray, and do the same with Olmsted. And believe that I remain, my dear friend, your very devoted and af fectionate.....E. Andre. to Please remember me 16 were offered. Andre's Paris office was open to a number of Sargent and Olmsted proteges. Henry Codman, Sargent's nephew, spent a year in Andre's office before returning to the United States to join Olmsted's office. Charles Eliot, traveling in Europe in 1886, spent time with Andre, who university degrees guided him to key parks and gardens in Paris and explained his business practices. Andre offered hospitality to Sargent's daughter Harriet on her honeymoon trip to Paris with her young husband, the architect Guy Lowell. He appears to have grown very fond of the \"young Lowells,\"as he called the couple, who .Andr ornamented this picturesque path m Parc des Buttes-Chaumont with a vanety of lush vegetation. In L'Art des Jardins, he noted that if the rocks were arranged with taste, m a natural way, this treatment could serve as a model for similar scenes in hilly parks and gardens. often visited the Andre family at their summer home in the Loire. Andre became the official host to an expanding circle of acquaintances passing through Paris. He was generous with his time, arranging itineraries through the French countryside with the attention of a personal travel agent. A detailed trip through the Loire that he prepared for Olmsted during his 1892 visit to France included several private chateaux in Orleans and the Garden of Louis XII at Blois. In Tours he recommended the public garden and the Jardin des Plantes with its fine collection of conifers. He also recommended a visit to M. Manse's residence at Les Bouches, where Andre \"took Professor Sargent and some other American gentlemen.\" Andre's friendship with Olmsted dated back Andre's trip to New York in 1876. After being introduced through a mutual acquaintance, Olmsted arranged a large dinner for Andre at Delmonico's to introduce him to his co-designer of Central Park, Calvert Vaux, and other colleagues. Olmsted then drafted an itinerary for Andre's visit to the United States, which is a revealing summary of Olmsted's preferences in landscape design at the time. In Philadelphia Olmsted recommends\"besides what is a matter of course\"- Cypress Hill Cemetery and Bartram's Garden; in Washington D.C., Georgetown Cemetery and the Soldier's Home; in Baltimore, Druid Hills to above a bit of frank culture, criticism: \"Your journal becomes better with each day, and it contains a quantity of original material of the highest quality. I am happy to was not but he you my compliments on it. But it is too \"high class\"; with your American habits of abundant information, you should perhaps have more text concerning ordinary efforts in horticulture and the choice of ordinary plants\" (Andre to Sargent, 14 July 1888). Apprenticeship was the accepted form of training for the young field of landscape archi- give \" tecture in the late nineteenth century, before 17 7 Park; in Cincinnati, Spring Grove Cemetery; Chicago, the park laid out by Professor [William Le Baron] Jenney and another rearranged horticulturally by Mr. [Horace W. S.]] Cleveland. He recommends a day in Buffalo to see Goat Island but warns that in leaving Niagara the scenery is interesting but \"rather triste\" (Olmsted to Andre, 16 August 1876, draft). Andre's relationship with Olmsted has rich potential for further research. Theirs was a more formal relationship, perhaps because of age differences; Olmsted was born in 1822 whereas Sargent was born in 1841, only one in year after Andre. From the Andre correspondence to Sargent, it seems that Olmsted was a source friends and colleagues, not unusual for a man of great accomplishment and influence. \"I was much struck by what you said about Olmsted, that he was drowning in an infinity of details instead of having assistants who could take care of that for him.... It seems that one becomes more difficult and more meticulous as one gets older, and that more and more one takes one's inspiration from the English proverb: 'Triflers make perfection, and perfection is not a trifle.' What one should do, by contrast, is to look only at the large lines and get rid of the small ones (Andre to Sargent, 12 to was Andre's indirect advice Olmsted in the same letter: \"When you see Olmsted, give him my best wishes. Tell him More January 1894). poignant of constant speculation among his The Virtues of In 1882, on an Neglect m reflectmg on Central Park in \"Spoils of the Park,\" Frederick Law Olmsted drew experience with Edouard Andre Paris. years I did not again see the ground. It was occupied as a camp; horses were pastured in it; it was cut up by artillery; fires were made in it. As a park, it was everywhere subjected Neglect for considerable periods may do no serious permanent harm.... Neglect, if it continues not too long, may even have its advantages. The landscape-architect Andre, formerly in charge of the suburban plantations of Paris, was walking with me through the Buttes-Chaumont Park, of which he was the designer, when I said of a certam passage of it, \"That, to my mind, is the best piece of artificial planting, of its age, I have ever seen.\" He smiled, and said, \"Shall I confess that it is the result of neglect? I had planted this place most elaborately, with a view to some striking immediate effects which I had conceived, and others, to be ultimately obtained by thinnings. I had just worked out my plan, when the war came; and for two * complete neglect. When, at back to it, expecting to begin length, my work over again at all points, Nature had had one summer in which, as well as she could, to repair damages; and I declare to you, that, on arriving at just this point, I threw up my hands with delight, for, spite of some yet unhealed wounds, I saw at once that in general aspect there was a better work than I had been able to imagine. That which was weak and unsuitable in my planting had, by natural selection, disappeared; and in the struggle for existence nearly all that remained had taken a wild character, to most the I came such as in an art we may aim at, but see can how the true (But hardly hope artist at once bowed himself before his tutor, and recognized and seized the opportunity.\")* to attain.\" * From Forty Years of Landscape Architecture: Central Park, edited by Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., and Theodora Kimball. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press\/1973\/, 144. 18 8 that right now is the time for him to prepare a great work, well illustrated, in which he expounds on his theories of the art of the garden, bolstered by examples of his personal creations. This is what I would like to see soon. He is rich; he can give himself this satisfaction. As soon as I can, I will do the same...\" A year later Olmsted's last illness required that he be permanently hospitalized at McLean's Hospital in Belmont, Massachusetts. Andre's own great work was L'Art des Jardins, published in Paris in 1879. It was a work of grand scale, a compendium of garden history, techmcal guidelines for construction, and esthetic standards. It included plant lists for specific settings and was profusely illustrated with eleven chromoliths and two hun- dred fifty wood engravings. It was Andre's attempt to codify landscape design and to describe in a workmanlike manner the techniques available to accomplish a transformation of landscapes on a grand scale. The only portion of L'Art des Tardins to be translated into English was Chapter Seven, \"A Division A rockwork ravine in Parc des Buttes-Chaumont ls planted in Vmgima creeper (Parthenocissus cinquefolia) and other chmbmg plants. (From Andre's L'Art des Jardins.) and Classification of Parks and Gardens,\" which was published in Park International in July of 1920. This section was Andre's attempt at a typological description of landscapes, by size, by land use, by historic precedent. His need to classify seemed most appropriate for a late nineteenth-century treatise by a designer\/ horticulturist. The chapter served as an excellent introduction of Andre's work to American readers. It displayed the precision and clarity of his thinking and his theory of appropriateness of design to site conditions and natural character. Olmsted was so impressed with the book that he offered to help Andre find an American publisher and act as the American editor, but this appears not to have happened. The reputation of Edouard Andre rests on his ability to codify the style composite, the overlay of the jardin anglais on the French formal style. This hybrid of English pastoralism within an architectural frame was refined by Adolphe Alphand in his designs for the parks of Paris. Andre's contribution was a lush planting style based on horticultural appropriateness enhanced by the introduction of compatible exotic species, a practice that aligned him with Olmsted and his followers. Critical opinion has not rendered Andre as an original thinker but as a strong spokesman for the French interpretation of the pastoral style. His writings, his teaching, and his professional comportment influenced a generation of young practitioners, both French and American. When Charles Sprague Sargent dedicated the tenth volume of his Silva of North America to Andre-\"Artist, Explorer, and Student of Plants\"-it was not a simple payback for handling the often frustrating negotiations with French engravers but as a gesture of 19 an acknowledgment of Andre's valuable contribution to the world of horticulture and design. friendship, Acknowledgments The author would like to express gratitude to Mary Jane Kaplan for her translation of the Andre letters and to Charles Bevendge, the series editor of the Frederick Law Olmsted Papers, for sharing a portion of the Andre\/Olmsted correspondence. accomphshments m the other. Volume The Garden (London) was dedicated to Andre and a short mtroductory essay m that volume describes his hfe and work to that date. Two memorial articles written at his death give the best documentation of his accomplishments: Gardeners' Chromcle (11 November 1911) and Revue Horticole (1 Novembre 1911).). Dorothee Imbert m her book, The Modermst Garden m France (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993\/, gives an excellent summary description of Andre's contribution to French landscape design within the context of the precursors to modernism. 42 (1895) of recogmzmg his Bibliographic Note Information about the life and work of Edouard Andre is scattered among the publications of landscape design history and horticulture, with the one field not fully Andersen is Arboretum. Phyllis landscape historian at the Arnold Andre mcluded this illustration of Calvert Vaux's mushroom kiosk for Central Park in his L'Art des Jardins. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Considering Cotinus","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25109","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add1708528.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Tripp, Kim E.","article_content":"Considering Cotinus ' Kim E. Tripp spellbound by the combination of the prunus and sumach [Cotinus] painting the hillsides with bold bands and splashes of fiery orange and red it created an unforgettable picture ...\" \"I was ... Like Roy Lancaster marvelling at the combination of a cherry and a smokebush near the Great Wall of China one autumn, I was spellbound myself by an exceptional plant of Cotinus coggygria (smokebush, smoketree, or Venetian sumac) creating a billowing cloud of soils, and most can be vegetatively propagated. Plus, there is a handsome, in a range of \"smoke\" along Meadow Road at the Arnold Arboretum. It was amazingly dense and uniform, with surprisingly simultaneous development of its inflorescences throughout the canopy. Inspection of its label revealed that this notable Cotinus was a seedling grown from wild-collected seed, and a little digging through the Arboretum's records told me that the seed was brought back from Mt. Maschuk above the city of Pyatigorsh during the Arboretum's 1980 expedition to the then USSR. What a striking sight it made with its light pink smoke dramatically framed by the deep burgundy foliage of a nearby Japanese maple. The drama and appeal of this plant set me to thinking about this interesting genus and to wondering why, even though it has been in species. Add its multiseason interest, and it begins to seem like a perfect plant for the modern landscape. The genus Cotinus is a member of the Anacardiaceae, or cashew family, and as such is botanically related to the sumacs (Rhus) and our familiar poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans); but Cotinus only rarely causes dermatitis and, unlike poison ivy, is not invasive. Because of their close botanical relationship, the smokebushes were originally placed in the genus Rhus, but they are distinguished from that genus by their simple (that is, undivided) leaves. Cotinus is comprised of two, three, or four species depending on whether certain Chinese populations are considered as variants of an all-inclusive Cotinus coggygria; there are sound points that favor both approaches. The wood of Cotinus has been an important source of orange-yellow dye wherever the plant is found and continues to be so used in China. native cultivation since at least the mid-seventeenth century, plants such as this exceptional seedling are not used more widely in landscapes and gardens. After all, Cotinus is a well-known genus of lovely summer-flowering, deciduous shrubs or trees of limited size. Members of the genus are pest and disease resistant, drought tolerant, and relatively cold hardy. They thrive The American smoketree Rafinesque (sometimes known as chittamwood) is arboreal, reaching twenty to thirty-five feet in height. It is generally larger and coarser in character than Cotinus coggygria, and its flowers are more modest. Its leaves are Cotinus obovatus obovate in outline and can be ten to 22 widely used in our landscapes, especially in light of the current demand for regional natives. more Cotinus Cotinus coggygria Scopoli J The shaded areas on a partial, county map of the United States indicate the very limited range of our natme smoketree (Cotinus obovatus). (From Elbert L. Little, Jr., Atlas of Umted States Trees, Vol. 4, 1977.) twelve inches in length. While the leaves emerge from the buds a rich burgundy, they soon change to green. Their fall colors, which cover a spectrum that includes brilliant or- scarlets, purples, and russets, are among the most spectacular of all woody plants. As the mostly multitrunked trees mature, the bark develops an interesting fishscale texture. Cotinus obovatus occurs naturally on rocky, calcareous soils in a few hilly and mountainanges, ous areas in south central United States. While abundant, it is no longer under the pressure it experienced during the Civil War when it was harvested nearly to extinction for its dyewood. An excellent, tough, small tree, it not thrives in a far greater range of conditions under cultivation than those in which it naturally occurs. For instance, it is completely cold hardy through Zone 6 and into areas of Zone 5 and will grow with no pest or disease problems in soils that are poorly drained just as well as in those similar to its native terrain. (For an extensive discussion of the horticultural attributes of C. obovatus, see Koller and Shadow, 1984.) It is currently available or soon to be available in the United States and could be far coggygria is a large shrub that generreaches heights of six to fifteen feet with a ally variable habit and a potentially equal or greater spread. The irregular, multitrunked habit contributes to its interesting architecture. The common name for C. coggygria, smokebush, refers to the unique inflorescences of the entire genus, which are covered with tiny, persistent hairs that give the inflorescences the appearance of plumes of smoke. The panicles are borne at the ends of the branches, and they can be anywhere from three inches to a foot in length. Usually they are about half as wide as long, with a rounded, feathery tip. Small, dark seeds develop among the panicles over several weeks and in exceptionally prolific years can detract slightly from the ornamental quality of the inflorescences. The inflorescences range in color from a smoky ivory to rosy pink, grayish purple, and deep burgundy. At least in this country, most seedlings will bear dusty pink inflorescences that mature to smoky ivory and actually dry to shades of tan rather than the gray described in some of the older literature. (A few cultivars retain deep wine-hued panicles until they break apart.)The lovely inflorescences of C. coggygria are light and airy-the slightest breeze will set them dancing and waving-but they hold their structure and maintain an effective display for weeks. Leaf shape and color are also exceptionally variable. The leaves can be three-fourths to four inches long with a circular, obovate, or elliptic outline. Color ranges from light graygreen to dark blue-green to burgundy and shades of purple. New spring growth is often burgundy fading to green in autumn palette includes clear yellows, oranges, scarlets, muddy wines, burgundies, purples, and brown. red-purple or maturity. The 23 An exceptional smokebush (Cotmus coggygria) framed by surrounding trees on Meadow Road (Kim Tripp). Cotinus coggygria is the most widespread of the species, in nature as well as in cultivation, with a broad Eurasian native range. It occurs from south central Europe into the Mediterranean region and, with discontinuities, across the continent through the Himalayas and into China-a range it and its antecedents have occupied through fifteen million years of change. Throughout this range there is great variability of habit, foliage shape, size, and color (in new growth as well as fall display), color of inflorescence, and degree of floriferousness. Cotmus coggygria is a tough plant that thrives in diverse landscape conditions. It will perform well in soils that range from welldrained and sandy to heavy clays, and from Zones 4 to 9. It is very drought tolerant and has no significant pest or disease problems, although some leaf spot occurs occasionally. In Zone 4 it usually dies back to the ground each winter. The root collar is hardy, however, and the new flush of growth each year is vigorous and, colored. in especially purple-leaved plants, deeply Still, it is Cotinus coggygria's widely diverse leaf characteristics that have been so frequently described and widely debated. This variability of foliar and habit characteristics among any seedling population argues for inclusion of all Eurasian populations of Cotinus in one species-C. coggygria-but see C. szechuanensis and C. nana, which are discussed below. This variability no doubt explains why C. coggygria has been the source (in two cases as a hybrid parent) of most existing horticultural cultivars. Considering the potential for selection among such an apparently diverse gene pool, there are surprisingly few cultivars. Habit and size of almost all of the nonhybrid cultivars is very similar but can vary among individuals depending on site and culture. 24 Plants in full sun are vigorous, dense, floriferous, and deeply colored. In shade they are more open and scraggly, slower growing, with sporadic flowering and reduced color. In general, the plants are multistemmed and will reach from ten to eighteen feet in height with an equal or greater spread. Plants are often broader than tall with an informal rounded to arching habit when young. With age they can develop a very irregular architecture that ranges from fascinating and picturesque to gangly and unattractive. Color retention in the cultivars with purple foliage varies with region. Plants in the north generally hold their color longer than do those in the warmer south. However, color retention can differ drastically among plants of the same cultivar depending on whether they have been grown unpruned rather than as coppiced or natural die-back shrubs, the new growth of coppiced and die-back plants being more intensely colored than that of unpruned plants. Descriptions of selected cultivars follow. This list includes only those that the author has had personal experience of or has been able to obtain reliable information and documentation on. Unless otherwise noted, habit is as described above for the species. 'DAYDREAM' was selected at Newport Nursery in Michigan for its dense, sterile, red-pink inflorescences and its especially deep bluegreen foliage. It is sometimes advertised as a more compact form than other selections of Cotinus The fishscale pattern of the bark smoketree (Rdcz e`7 Debreczy). of the Amemcan coggygria. However, although it is tree-like proportions of C. is intermediate in size and character between those of the parents. Inflorescences are showy and pink, but it was for its dramatic scarlet-to-orange fall foliage that 'Flame' was selected. reaching the more obovatus, and its foliage slower growing, it will eventually reach similar proportions. (For example, at the Arnold Arboretum a twenty-year-old plant of 'Daydream' is more than fifteen feet tall.The inflorescences themselves are significantly tighter and more compact than other C. coggygria inflorescences. The smoke display tends to peak somewhat later, and panicle structure remains intact longer than that of other selections. 'FLAME' 'FOLIIS PURPUREIS' named for its ('RUBRIFOLIUS') was purple foliage, which emerges plum a to wine colored and retains varying degrees of this color depending on climate. In cool climates it holds color well but it fades to (C. coggygria x C. obovatus) is a selection from Hillier's Nursery in England. Originally sold as C. obovatus, it is now recognized as a hybrid. It is larger than C. coggygria, ones. Inflorescences Other cultivars with red-pink light pink. purple leaves (like 'Velvet Cloak' or 'Royal Purple') are far more dramatic and useful in the landscape (some of which have been developed from this cultivar). medium green to in hotter are 'GRACE' one of five (Cotinus coggygria x C. obovatus) is hybrid seedlings raised in 1978 by 25 Nursery from a of 'Velvet Cloak' pollinated by C. obovatus. Only Clone #2, 'Grace', has been named to date, and it received an award from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1983. 'Grace' is extraordinarily vigorous, quickly becoming a small tree of about twenty feet with large leaves up to six inches long. The leaves emerge burgundy colored, fade to a green still tinged with burgundy, and develop brilliant orange and red fall color. The rosy pink inflorescences are exceptionally large and showy. Its habit is more narrow and upright as a young plant than that of nonhybrid cultivars. It is an excellent choice for large gardens and landscapes, but it is too vigorous for small spaces. Peter Dummer of Hillier's cross foliage may show tinges of purple or red. This cultivar is especially floriferous with lovely clouds of light, clear pink inflorescences. It has performed especially well in the southeastern United States and retains its smoke display for a longer period than other green-foliaged, pinksmoked forms, even though most inflorescences are developed simultaneously in most years. 'PURPLE SUPREME' bears 'NORDINE RED' ('NORDINE') is promoted as the most cold hardy of the purple-leaved forms (which are less cold hardy than green-leaved forms). Named in honor of the prominent propagator Ray Nordine by Interstate Nurseries in Hamburg, Iowa, it actually originated at the Morton Arboretum in Illinois. The plant was grown there from seed received as Cotinus coggygria f. purpureus from the New York Botanical Garden. Its leaves and inflorescences clear red-purple, with the leaves turning scarlet-purple in the fall. Summer color retention is reported to be highly variable. It is a are a deep purple leaves that hold their color well through the summer. Its inflorescences are a light, smoky pink. 'PURPUREUS' ('ATROPURPUREUS') was named for its pale, purple-tinged inflorescences (as opposed to the foliage, which is always graygreen). This is one of the oldest cultivated forms and is frequently indistinguishable from most plants of Cotinus coggygria that tend to have purple-tinged inflorescences. Some have distinctly pink-purple inflorescences and a handsome upright habit, but these characteristics vary greatly. Other named selections will be more predictable in color, but this is an old, reliable form, common in established landscape plantings. For irregular massed plantings in large settings it is a good choice, but newer selections are more dramatically and uniformly ornamental. 'RED BEAUTY' is die-back shrub in colder areas of the country where other purple forms of C. coggygria are also die-back shrubs; consequently it is not yet known whether this cultivar is significantly more cold hardy than other purple-leaved forms. Nonetheless, its red-purple color makes it a striking cultivar. 'NoTCUTT's VARIETY' is nearly identical to 'Royal Purple', from which it was developed, but its foliage is slightly redder and less blackpurple than that of its parent. Unlike its parent, leaf color is not retained well in the eastern United States. 'PENDULUS' is an old form reported by Krussman as having weeping branches, and one that may no longer be in cultivation. 'PINK CHAMPAGNE' is form from this time. a striking, purple-red-leaved Boskoop in the Netherlands that is apparently unavailable in the United States at 'ROYAL PURPLE' bears deep black-purple leaves and dark, burgundy-colored inflorescences that age to a dusty wine pink. The leaves hold their color well, even in hot climates, and brighten to a red-purple in the fall. Of the purple-leaved forms, this is the darkest hued, probably the least cold hardy, and certainly the most widely available. ('Velvet Cloak' runs a close second.) It is occasionally advertised as a compact form, which it is not, but its growth rate is somewhat slower than vigorous seedlings and hybrids. Its smoke display often begins later than in green-leaved forms, and while it is generally prolific and handsome, it is not always uniform in develop- leaved form, an essentially greenalthough early in spring the new 26. experience, 'Royal Purple' has purple-leaved form for use as an unpruned plant. It is spectacular in combination with silver-leaved perennials, blue-green ornamental grasses, or silver and blue-gray been the best ment. In my foliage turns a brilliant, translucarmine-purple in the fall, but in the most northerly areas of the country, it may simply brown and drop. cent season, the conifers. CLOAK', with its intense red-violet and light red-purple inflorescences, is foliage one of the most dramatically colored cultivars. 'VELVET Its foliage is generally a brighter red-purple than that of 'Royal Purple'. The duration of its smoke display is especially protracted but not as dense as in other selections. The performance of this cultivar depends on whether it is grown as an unpruned or coppiced shrub. 'Velvet Cloak' is reported to hold its color well throughout the season, but these observations relate to plants grown as coppiced or die-back shrubs. When grown unpruned, the leaves lose more color over the summer than those of 'Royal Purple'. However, as a coppiced or die-back shrub, 'Velvet Cloak' gives the brightest red-purple foliage display and is the best choice for new foliage color. In warmer areas of the United States, where there is a long fall Cotinus nana W. W. Smith Found in the dry areas of mountainous regions of Yunnan but not yet in cultivation in the United States, this species has been described as a low, compact shrub that reaches only three to four feet in height. Its leathery leaves are one-half inch long, and its flowers are crimson. Separating species by plant habit and leaf size is a debatable practice, especially within such an inherently variable genus as Cotinus, but the dramatic differences reported between this species and C. coggygria argue for further investigation. Whether the exceptionally compact habit and small leaf size are functions of environment or would be retained in cultivation is unknown. Limits of cold hardiness, drought tolerance, and other cultural information are also as yet unknown, but a truly compact Cotinus with red-to-pink inflorescences would be invaluable in urban landscapes, espe- These photographs eJ clearly illustrate the wide range of density of the m florescences of Cotinus coggygria (Rdcz Debreczy). 27 What's Behind the \"Smoke\" in \"Smokebush\"? The common names for Cotinus, \"smokebush\" and \"smoketree,\" refer to its unique display as it flowers and fruits-a display that looks like a cloud of smoke throughout the summer. The ornamental smoke consists of numbers of upright, many-branched inflorescences (panicles of six to eighteen inches) that develop at the ends of the shrub's branches. Inconspicuous cream or yellowish flowers, about one-eighth of an inch across, generally appear sometime in late May or June. Fertile flowers then develop into small black seeds that resemble flattened peppercorns. Infertile flowers disintegrate, but the structure of the highly branched, paniculate inflorescence persists. Its branches bear tiny, pinkish hairs (at the bases of the pedicels) that continue to elongate and persist for weeks after flowering is finished, even if no seed is present. It is these hairs that create the smoke of the smokebush. The color, density, rate of development, of the hairs varies widely plants. Cotinus obovatus is, with male and female flowers on different plants), and while the smoke display of this species is not as showy as that of C. coggygria, male plants of C. obovatus give better smoke displays than female plants. On the other hand, C. coggygria is primarily monoecious (male and female reproductive structures are borne on the same plant) with some reports of polygamous plants (unisexual flowers plus some bisexual or \"perfect\" flowers on the same plant). Therefore, unlike C. obovatus, the quality of C. coggygria's display is not affected by whether the plant is male or female but instead depends on density and longevity of the hairs on an individual plant. Cultivars of C. coggygria have been selected for prolific, deeply colored smoke displays as well as for purple foliage, good fall color, and cold hardiness. and longevity among individual is dioecious (that cially if its fall color were handsome. Collecheading to the mountains of Yunnan might wish to keep a weather-eye for this tors coggygria's antecedents, perhaps during the in which the Himalayan Mountains formed. This isolation of antecedents may argue for continued recognition of C. szechuanensis. It is not in cultivation in the United States, and cultural information is unknown. However, in its native habitat in Szechuan, it is a plant of dry, open areas, and its cultivation requirements are likely to be similar to those of C. coggygria. Roy Lancaster recently collected seeds of C. szechuanensis in China, and they have been successfully germinated at Hilliers Nursery in England. period were Cotinus, which W. W. Smith described very beautiful little shrub. Cotinus szechuanensis A. Penzes as a Cotinus szechuanensis, another Chinese Cotinus that has been recognized as separate from C. coggygma, differs from the latter species in foliar characteristics. Its leaves are relatively small, almost round in outline, and with conspicuous tufts of white pubescence in the vein axils on the lower surface of the leaves. Additionally, the leaves may have a wavy margin. New foliage can be a bright red-purple. Separation of this species is debatable. However, during the history of Cotinus, populations of C. szechuanensis' antecedents were Propagation Cotinus can be propagated from seed as well as vegetatively from rooted cuttings. (Grafting also works but is generally not necessary.) Seeds require two periods of stratification. The best seed germination is obtained with about probably geographically isolated from C. 28 A century-old American smoketree (Cotinus obovatus) on Meadow Road (Rkcz c~7 Debreczy). 29 one hour of acid scarification followed by three months' cold stratification. Some growers sow seeds outdoors in the fall. In the case of C. obovatus, which is dioecious (that is, male and female flowers are borne on separate plants), both male and female plants are required for fertile seed production. (Very rarely, an individual plant will bear both male and female flowers that may produce a few fertile seeds.)( Cuttings should be harvested as early in the plant develops leaders not possible (while growth is soft), then treated with high (1%)\/ concentrations of KIBA (potassium salt of indolebutyric acid) and rooted under a relatively frequent mist regime. Mist frequency should growing season as still very that with age may or may height typical of the It remains to be determined if the species. groundcover habit is truly stable or whether it might be the result of microclimate or a natural process related to layering. A low-growing selection of Cotinus coggygria would be very useful and attractive in dry sites. Groundcover forms of C. obovatus in the wild have also been informally reported by Don Shadow of Shadow Nursery in Winchester, Tennessee, but to date none have been collected for evalureach the full ation. Cotinus performs admirably as a coppiced plant in a host of landscape settings. Selections be reduced as soon as the cuttings show signs of rooting; otherwise cuttings will quickly deteriorate. Cuttings should be overwintered undisturbed until they begin growth the fol- lowing spring. Selections for the Future The potential for breeding and selection of superior hybrids and seedlings from the wideranging wild populations of Cotinus remains underexploited. For example, among wildcollected seedlings at the Arnold there is tremendous variability in time of initiation, density, and duration of smoke display. Some plants develop inflorescences over a protracted period, leading to a less dense but longer-lived display than other plants whose inflorescences develop nearly simultaneously (which leads to a very showy, dramatic display that usually lasts for a shorter period of time). The disintegration of inflorescence panicles also affects the display. Some plants lose panicle structure quickly and neatly while others break apart over an extended period, which leaves the plant looking ragged during this period. There is also a range in plant habit, including what appear to be groundcover types. 'Hillside Creeper' is a selection named for evaluation by Gary Koller that is currently under observation at the Arnold Arboretum as a spreading groundcover form reaching one to two feet in height with gray-green foliage. The could be chosen specifically to optimize new foliage color and vigor when cut back to the ground or grown as die-back shrubs. Flowering, however, is generally reduced or even nonexistent when the plant is grown this way, and to my eye the dramatic beauty of the full display of smoky inflorescences atop an irregularly branched crown is never equalled by dieback or coppiced shrubs grown for the foliage alone. However, periodic coppicing is an effective way to rejuvenate older plants, and when it is performed on an infrequent basis, it does not permanently sacrifice the smoke display. Cotinus seedlings and hybrids selected for optimal combinations of uniformly dense, handsomely colored, long-lived smoke displays with bold red spring foliage and brilliant fall color would make handsome plants in the landscape. Whether under power lines, in the mixed border, in urban gardens, massed in parks, sited between hardscape elements, in droughty chalk, in wet clay, in the heat of the South, or in cold northern sites, Cotinus makes a reliably handsome ornamental from spring through fall. Acknowledgments The author gratefully acknowledges Dr. Shu-ymg Hu for mvaluable translation and interpretation of relevant text from Flora Reipublicae Populans Smicae, and sincerely thanks Andrew Bunting, Allen Coombes, Peter Del Tredici, Robert Hays, Gary Koller, Don 30 Don Shadow, Stephen Spongberg, and Swmlc for critical discussion and information. Selinger, Lloyd England: Antique 57, Collectors' Club, Ltd., 56- References Mien, Cheng, and Mmg Cotinus. Flora Tien lu. 1980. Anacardiaceae, Reipubhcae Popularis Simcae Dirr, M. A. 1990. Manual 4th ed. Champaign, IL: 256-259. of Woody Landscape Plants, Stipes Publishing, . 45\/1\/.Beijing, China: Science Press, 96-99. Acta Penzes, A. 1958. Cotmus szechuanensis. Botamca Smica 7(3): 165-166. Dummer, P. 1984. Cotinus 'Grace'. The Plantsman 6(2) : Fernald, M. 125-126. L., ed. 1970. Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th ed. NY: Van Nostrand Remhold Co., 976. 1958. Data to the ecology and taxonomy of the Cotmus genus. Acta Botamca Simca 7(3): 167-174. Smith, Hillier Nurseries. 1991. The Hillier Manual of Trees and Shrubs, 6th ed. Devon, England: David and Charles Publishers, 126-127. W. W. 1916. Cotinus nana. Notes from the Royal Botamc Garden of Edmburgh 9: 101. Spongberg, S. A. 1990. A Reumon mto of Trees, the Discovery of Exotic Plants and Them Isaacson, R. 1993. Andersen's Horucultural Library Source List of Plants and Seeds Chanhassen, MN: University of Mmnesota Landscape Arboretum, 48-49. Introduction North Amencan and European Landscapes. Cambndge, MA: Harvard Umversity Press, 5-11. Vogel, Koller, G. L., and D. 0. Shadow. 1984. In praise of the American smoke tree. Amoldia 44(2\/: 17-22. P. de. 1969. Cotinus coggygna 'Red Dendroflora G: 75. Beauty'. Krussman, G. 1976 (tr. 1984). Manual of Cultmated Broad-leaved Trees and Shrubs. OR: Timber Press, 380. Portland, Suffolk, Tripp is a Putnam Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, usmg the living collections for research, teaching, and writing. Previously she was Curator of Kim E. Lancaster, R. 1989. A Plantsman's Paradise. Comfers and a postdoctoral associate Carolina State University Arboretum. at the North "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'A Very Valuable Shrub': Xanthorhiza simplicissima","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25108","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170816f.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Nooney, Jill","article_content":"\"A Very Valuable Shrub\": ~ . ~. ~ . Xanthorhiza Till Nooney simplicissima Little has been written about it and it does not appear in most nursery catalogs, but yellowroot, as it's commonly known, possesses a long list of winning attributes. was one of the botanizing Bartrams of eighteenth-century Philadelphia, the plantexplorer William, who first described Xanthorhiza simplicissima. He wrote in his journal of late June or early July, 1773, from Buffalo Lick, Georgia, \"This evening I discoverd a very curious Little Shrub, growing It on the bottoms of these Hills & on the steep banks of the Creek. The Foliage & form of groath a little resembled the Aralia, but what was the most remarkeble in it, the root affording strong Yellow Tincture, near as fine as that of Gum boge, It has long slender branching Roots which run & spread about just under the surface of the earth, filling a large patch of ground with a numerous offspring[.] The shrub rises about 2 feet high sending up slender bending knotty stalk covered with a white smoothe bark which on being rubed off discovers a perfectly lucid Yellow wood, which dies as well as the Root, it is my Opinion a very valuable Shrub, on this account, where a fine Yellow dye is wanted.\"'I It was in fact as a dyewood that the plant was initially valued, but while it was found to give a handsome yellow to silk, on cotton and linen that yellow turned to olive when exposed to the sun. For a time it was also valued for its medicinal qualities. The roots of Xanthorhiza contain the yellow crystalline alkaloid known as berberine, and for much of the nineteenth century the plant was included in the American Materia Medica as being \"preferable to all our native bitters.\"2 Xanthorhiza's qualities as dyewood and medicine have been largely discounted, but as a landscape plant it is more valuable than ever. Xanthorhiza simplicissima (a monotype of the Ranunculaceae, or buttercup family) is a deciduous shrub that attains from one to three feet in height. Its yellow roots (the source of the generic as well as the common name) are fibrous and suckering. The stout, yellowishbrown, brittle stems do not branch, thus the specific name simplicissima. The alternate pinnate leaves usually bear five sharply lobed and toothed leaflets that sometimes divide again pinnately. The leaf scar is narrow and nearly encircles the twig, giving it the segmented appearance William Bartram described in his diary. The leaves themselves, which cluster at the shoot tip, emerge as a bronze- purple color, changing to a bright green as they grow. They attain a length of four to ten inches at maturity. Autumn color is initially a clear yellow, then changes to red or purple and, as winter approaches, to tan. The foliage holds as late as December in the Boston area. 32 . This planting of Xanthorhiza simplicissima along Meadow Road at the base of the legume collection is more than a century old. Charles S. Sargent, founding dmector of the Arnold Arboretum, used American shrubs as borders along many of the roadways (Karen Madsen). The flowers, which are plum-colored shad- ing into chocolate brown, emerge erect, then droop in panicles of two to six inches long that crowd together at the ends of the stem. As they are interesting rather than showy; in mass, they create a purplish haze in March and April, before and just after the individuals leaves emerge. A native of damp woodlands from New York to Florida and as far west as Texas, Xanthorhiza is extremely adaptable in cultivation. It tolerates climates from Zone 3 to 9 and has survived laboratory tests to minus 55 degrees Fahrenheit. As might be expected given its natural habitat, it prefers shaded moist areas but will grow in full sun and in loose both of which are said to curb its vigorousness. Firsthand experience indicates that it will thrive even after being submerged in water for two to three weeks in spring. Nor did it show signs of distress in full sun with no irrigation during a droughty summer. A soil with high pH has been reported to cause some chlorosis.3 Xanthorhiza has no serious insect or fungal problems. Its suckering roots choke out most weeds. Indeed, the plant can become a weed itself if it is not carefully sited. Despite reports that its suckering is limited to three to six feet, experience in New England indicates that the roots will slowly spread until they are held by concrete, steel edging, or other impenetrable sandy soil, 33 barrier. Typical of its adaptability, Xanthorhiza tolerates soil compaction as well as drought. Spring or fall is the best time to plant Xanthorhiza. Stagger the roots in rows eigh- teen to twenty-four inches apart and mulch well to keep weeds down. Once established, the plants need little care. A relatively minor hazard occurs with ice and piled-up snow, which can break the brittle stems. If the plants The flowers of Xanthorhiza simplicissima emerge unfoldmg of the leaves (Racz ~ Debreczy). erect at the end of the shoot and open before or mth the 34 Year-old plantings of Xanthorhiza simplicissima renovated Hunnewell Building (Karen Madsen). 's form part of the new landscape m front of the Arboretum's raggedy or overgrown, cut them down spring and they will quickly renew themselves with fresh growth. The plant is easily propagated by division and from fresh seed become in sown in autumn. With its fibrous, suckering roots and tolerance of flooding, Xanthorhiza is a good waterside plant to hold banks in place and prevent erosion. The root structure as well as the plant's fairly fast growth rate also qualify it for wetland reclamation. The plant is attractive to wildlife as well as humans; upland game birds, songbirds, and small animals feed on the fruit. Because it grows in fairly deep shade, the plant can provide understory habitat and food where few other plants can survive. Once established Xanthorhiza lives a long life. Plantings at the Arnold Arboretum have maintained their clean, neat foliage and remarkably uniform height for more than a century. E. H. Wilson considered it the finest deciduous-leaved groundcover at the Arboretum, where it was \"very freely employed in border planting. \"' As a tall, large-scale groundcover it possesses enough character to be featured alone whether in full sun or partial shade and, in fact, it makes an excellent transition from sun to shade as well as from dry to wet soils. In full sun, its habit is regular and very dense, whereas in shade it is more open and loose. It forms an excellent base for interplantings of taller trees and shrubs and 35 can be especially effective under older plantings that have grown leggy. Its woodland look suits it to naturalistic plantings, but it is also attractive in more highly cultivated set- Annotated by Francis Harper. Tiansactions of the Amencan Philosophical Society 30 (New Semes, Pt II~: 140. it is wise to contain its vigor within restricted areas. Its shallow, fibrous tings, where 2 James Woodhouse. 1808. Account of a New, Pleasant, and Strong Bitter, and Yellow Dye, prepared from the Stem and Root of the Xanthorhiza tinctoria, or Shrub Yellow Root; with a chemical analysis of this Vegetable. Amencan system and extreme cold hardiness also qualify it for roof gardens. In 1929 Nathaniel Lord Britton, former director of the New York Botanical Garden, wrote, \"This low shrub has long been of great interest to botanists, pharmacists, and horticulturists.\"5 If so, in recent years the interest has been invisible and inaudible. Handsome, tough, infinitely adaptable, it's surprising that Xanthorhiza simplicissima has not captured the imagination of a great many horticulturists. As a landscape plant, its combination of virtues is hard to match. root journal of Pharmacy 58. 3 161-162. Michael Dirr. 1990. A Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, 4th ed. Champaign, IL: Stipes Pubhshmg Company, 930. ' E. H. Wilson. 1925. America's Greatest Garden, The Arnold Arboretum Boston: The Stratford Company, 95. 5 N. L. Britton. 1929. The Shrub Yellow-Root. journal of The New York Botamcal Garden 30 \/359): 265. Endnotes ' Wilham Bartram. 1943. Travels in Georgia and Florida, 1773-1774. A Report to Dr. John Fothergill. Jill Nooney is a landscape designer in Lee, New Hampshire. She is near completion of a certificate at the Radcliffe Seminars Graduate Program in Landscape Design. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Rare Chinese Tree Flowers in North America","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25107","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170bb6b.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Meyer, Frederick G.","article_content":"A Rare Chinese Tree Flowers in North America ' Frederick G. Meyer Ernest H. Wilson, in Plantae Wilsonianae (1917), describes Emmen- opterys henryi Oliver of the Rubiaceae as \"one of the most strikingly beautiful trees of the Chinese forests.\" Although Wilson brought seeds to the Arnold Arboretum about 1907, no living plants are known from this early introduction. The purpose of this notice is to report what is believed to be the first flowering of Emmenopterys henryi in the New World, an event that occurred late in July, 1994, in the collection of Dr. Allen Hirsh of Silver D.C. The to an Emmenopterys henryi photographed in flower in Silver Spring, Maryland, by the author. Spring, Maryland, a suburb of Washington, origin of this material can be traced forty to eighty feet tall. introduction by the Arnold Arboretum in 1979 (AA#579-79). The seeds, which came from the Nanjing Botanical Garden, were delivered by hand to the Arnold Arboretum by a touring delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China. The seeds germinated after a month of cold stratification, and extra seedlings were subsequently distributed to a variety of locations, including the Woodlanders Nursery in Aiken, South Carolina. It was from this source that Dr. Hirsh purchased his plant in 1988. The plant is now about fifteen feet tall with widespreading branches and thick, dark green leaves with reddish petioles. The showy white flowers, three-fourths of an inch long, occur in a flattish inflorescence with marginal white bracts as are found in some genera of the Rubiaceae, notably in Pinckneya pubens of the southeastern United States. The flowers are fragrant and the bracts turn pinkish as the seeds ripen. In China, Wilson reported trees It can also be reported that the specimen in Silver Spring, Maryland, and some other specimens at the U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., survived unscathed from the frigid winter of 1994 when the temperature plummeted to -10 degrees Fahrenheit and stood at 0 degrees for several days in an unprotected site. Outside of China, flowering of Emmenopterys henryi has been reported only in Italy in 1971 and in England in 1987. Herbarium specimens documenting the flowering of Dr. Hirsh's plant have been deposited in the U.S. National Arboretum herbarium (Meyer 22604). If readers know of any other plants of Emmenopterys henryi that have come into flower, please report the information to the Curator of the Herbarium, U.S. National Arboretum, 3501 New York Avenue, Washington, D. C. 20002. Frederick Meyer is Supervisory Botanist Emeritus, in charge of the herbarium, of the U.S. National Arboretum. formerly "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25111","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add1708926.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS from the Arnold Arboretum Indonesia Supports Major Program for Biodiversity Conservation Robert E. Cook, Darector us wonderful for the Arboretum. We have been awarded $2,375,000 from the Government of Indonesia for a five-year contract to provide technical assistance as part of a August brought news documented. Indonesia's maintain and enhance increase the capability of Indonesian scientists and government agencies to conserve the country's biodiversity and manage its natural resources. Dr. John Burley of our staff has assembled an international team of experts drawn from Harvard University, London's Natural History Museum, the National Museum of Natural History, and the Rijksherbarium of the Netherlands, and the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization (CSIRO) of Australia. The Arboretum is the lead institution in this collaborative effort, which is being funded by the World Bank through a program it manages called the Global Environment Facility (GEF). Indonesia contains 10% of the world's tropical forests and is second only to Brazil in the richness of its fauna and flora. Many sectors $12,000,000 project to ability to knowledge of its biodiversity is severely limited by a shortage of trained staff with expertise m botany and zoology, by inadequate storage and research facilities, by deteriorating zoological and botanical collections, and by a lack of modern computer technology and a system for information management. With the Biodiversity Collections Project, the Arboretum will create an international model for biodiversity conservation through technical assistance to a developing country. This assistance will provide support for the restoration and development of zoological and botamcal collections, the creation of biodiversity databases, and the training of Indonesian scientists in An Indonesian botanist collecting a specimen of Finschia (Proteaceae), a canopy tree of the lowland tropical forest. of future leadership in Asian botany, zoology, information management, and resource conservation. I believe this project will place the Arboretum in a clear position systematic biology. More importantly, it will directly address the threat of species extinction and the loss of tropical biodiversity in the most fundamental way possible : by helping the Indonesians themselves to protect their environment and prudently conserve their natural heritage through the development, management, and wise use of knowledge about the fauna and flora of their country. Boston Teachers Learn Arboretum Science Richard Schulhof, Ar.restant Director for Educataon and Publec Affairs The need to better educate our children about science is well known, but education reformers are just discovering that much of the needed change must begin with teachers. Across the country, school systems are working not only to enhance the scientific knowledge of teachers but also to provide training in the inqmry- of the economy are dependent upon the sustainable management of these resources. Yet 30% of the flora and 90% of the fauna are not fully described or scientifically Boston teachers who participated in the Arboretum's science education workshop pose for Syverson, Arboretum school science program manager, is on the far right. a class photo. Diane based teaching methods that can succeed in engaging children in science learning. Yet in our larger cities this can be a daunting task. With only limited resources and under the pressures of urban classrooms, how can teachers increase their knowledge as well as reshape their teach~ng~ In the Boston area, Arnold Arboretum summer workshops are proving to be at least a small part of the answer. This past July the Arboretum hosted twenty-six teachers for an intensive two-week workshop led by school science program manager Diane Syverson and instructors Debbie Knight and Helen All participating teachers were alumni of previous Arboretum workshops, thus permitting the group to hit the ground running with a particular emphasis on how living plants can be used to involve students in the excitement As the ers workshop drew to a close, both project staff and teachlooked forward to continued learning during the school year through meetings at the Arboretum and classroom visits from Arboretum staff. In the words of one teacher, \"I have discovered many new ways to use the ArboreI expect take off in my plant classroom.\" With planning undertum as a resource.... of actual scientific observation, questioning, and discovery. In the Arboretum landscape teachers examined \"weeds\" that can be found near the schoolyard and used for life science explorations, while indoors they conducted seed experiments that serve as models for science to way for next year's workshop, plant science may be taking off across the Boston Public School scientific investigation. system. McElroy. Supported by a grant from the Dwight D. Eisenhower Math and Science Education program, the goal of the workshop was to provide advanced training for teachers from schools in Arboretum Open House, Sunday, October 16 Join Arboretum staff for a special open house welcoming members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and the larger Boston community. Scheduled to run from 2:00 to 4:00 pm, the event will feature tours of the landscape, greenhouse, and Hunnewell Building and offer opportunities to chat with Director Bob Cook and other staff about Arboretum plans and programs. Please mark your calendars. We look forward to seeing you this October! Dorchester, Jamaica Plain, Hyde Park, Roxbury, and other nearby Boston communities. 2 The Library Is Back return. Although we came up dedicated library committee, the in better order than Shezla Connor, Hortzcultural Archivzst Among my friends there are a few who, while otherwise quite mature and respectable, are intimidated by libraries. I know this because they often confide in me, expecting, I am sure, a certam amount of sympathy. Unfortuforthcoming nately, very little is is an scheme that allowed each shelf of books to be removed and stored in strong, ridged, sealable crates that would not only keep the books and the journals in order but would protect them during their year in limbo, there always loomed the possibility that a crate or crates would be misnumwith a library is now affliction that I simcannot understand. ply There is nothing like a library, and there are no two libraries that are alike. I can walk into one anywhere, and even if the classificafor this tion scheme is unique and the titles are in a foreign language, I instantly feel a sense of order, sta- somehow go astray. was also possible that I had mismeasured the amount of new shelving needed even though I measured and figured it at least four ways from Sunday. Or worse yet, because the library was going to be rearranged, I may have totally miscalculated absolutely everything. So although I had bered or Moreover, it bility, and security. I feel at home. That probably explains why throughout the year of our recently completed renovation of the Hunnewell Building I felt more than displaced, I felt lost. On occasion I found myself concocting any kind of excuse that would enable me to use another library. I not only missed what was inside the books, I missed how they looked and how they felt. I even missed how they smelled. (No, not that damp musty odor of books stored too long in the basement, just that slight hint of leather and library paste.) The Arnold Arboretum's missed the library sorely, you can understand that it was with both anticipation and genuine fear that I welcomed it back. I am delighted to report that it fit. And through the combined efforts of an able assistant, the staff of the Botany Libraries, volunteers, summer interns, and a it was before the renovation occurred. Its setting has been so improved that now the quality of its surroundings matches the value of its content. With new lighting and paint, refimshed floors, tables, and a whole range of appropriately sized new shelving, the library is better appointed than it was in 1892 when the Hunnewell Building first opened. I can say this with no disloyalty to Charles S. Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, nor to Longfellow, Alden and Harlow, the bmlding's original architects. Of course, the climate control that we now have in the library and throughout the building had not yet been invented, but it would appear that Sargent had an innate fear of electricity (and perhaps of natural gas as well) for the Hunnewell Building was not lighted until after his death in 1927. I should allay any fears that those familiar with the library library-books, journals, pamphlets, photographs, glass plates, maps, files, bindery equipment, and a good part of the archiveswere packed up and shipped off for the duration. It is to move a no mean feat The classificalibrary. tion sequence of the monographs and the organization of the journals must not be disturbed. In fact, everythzng must remain m order or chaos will reign upon its May the Arnold Arboretum held a special event honoring the memory and accomplishments of Donald Wyman, Arboretum In horticulturist from 1935 to 1970. Pictured here with a portrait of Dr. Wyman are Donald Wyman, Jr., and Donald Wyman Thomas. 3 might have concerning changes in its ambiance. The beautiful reading room-with its grand oversized table and walls of windows that allow a glimpse of the living collections, as well as the wonderful corridor space and alcoves with wooden shelving that extends all the way up to the high ceilinglooks brighter and cleaner but otherwise exactly the same. (Well, we do now have a whole complement of Harvard chairs around that wonderful table.) The most dramatic, and welcome, change has come in the stacks, the part of the library housed in the herbarium wing. Gone are the darkgreen jerryrigged, recycled stacks that were shimmed to the ceiling and in constant danger of letting go. All have been replaced with light-colored metal shelving that is sturdy and stable, sized to fit oversized books and archival boxes as well as journals and monographs. Now that the atrium has reopened-and glassed in on the library level-the core of light that passes through the center of this room imparts an extraordinary feeling of openness. We have also added something new, a spe- been general, plus monographs on North Temperate Zone plants, dendrology, ecology, forestry, landscape gardening, seaside plants, hedges, screens, and windbreaks (just to name a few), the cial laboratory, care a room set aside, library is in my estimation-and I think that those who have used it would agree-the best library in the nation, if not the world, dedicated to understanding, identifying, and growmg woody plants. So we are back to purchasing books and checking in journals. There is one other thing. There has been, for me, an unanticipated benefit derived from the renovation. The library is back in place, but it's not back in exactly the same the place-everything has been shifted. So now when I walk through the stacks to retrieve a book I can no longer depend on rote; I now see titles that I once overlooked. The benefit is that I've discovered a whole library of new books. dedicated and outfitted for the and repair of books. As for the content of the to library, we have developed a mission statement-it is provide and maintain a collection of scholarly materials on North Temperate Zone woody plants in support of the curatorial, research, and educational programs sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum. Thus the library reflects the Arboretum's mission and, through its holdings in botany, horticulture, and related fields, supports its curation. With a collection whose range includes books and periodicals on arboreta and botanic gardens, botany and horticulture, and North Temperate Zone floras in Arboretum Assists Brookline Tree Chrzs Strand, Outreach Horticulturist The word is getting the out Inventory long-term savings about that can be achieved by planting trees in cities and suburbs. Trees make it less costly to heat and cool buildings; they absorb air pollution and provide a wide range of other environmental benefits. An article in last April's New York Times described how the planting of 95,000 trees would reap an estimated net benefit of $38,000,000 over thirty years. This sort of costbenefit analysis is prompting local communities to take a serious look at their urban trees. This past spring the town of Brookline, working with the Arnold Arboretum, the University of Massachusetts, and the Brookline Greenspace Alliance, organized an inventory of its street trees as a first step toward managing its urban forest. Instead of sending professional arbonsts to complete the inventory, a process that can be prohibitively expensive, the town organize teams of volNinety-two volunteers signed up and agreed to participate in the five-day project. On the first day of the project to unteers. decided volunteers came to the Arnold Arboretum for a six-hour training session. As part of their training, volunteers learned to measure the DBH (diameter at breast height) of a tree, assess its condition, and iden- Use of the Arboretum's living collections for horticultural education is an ongoing focus in the work of outreach horticulturist Chris Strand. tify its pruning needs. In addition, Richard Schulhof and I volunteered to use the Arboretum's collections to teach the volunteers how to On the Grounds Peter Del Tredici, Asszstant Director for Living Collections For the ment, identify 23 At the common street trees. taught them how to use a dichotomous key. On the remaining four days of same time, we Living Collections Departstaff, grounds crew, and interns alike, the summer of 1994 project through the neighborhoods of Brookline measuring, assessing, and identifying trees. Project organizers were pleasantly surprised of three volunteers completed average of 250-300 trees per day. All totalled, the volunteer force inventoried 101 miles of roadway over the two weekends. Preliminary results indicate that Brookline has over 11,000 street that each team an the the volunteers walked trees or in (not including trees in yards parks). Using the data the has been the summer of Peters Hill. Our renovation project began last autumn when, with the support of a grant from the Institute of Museum Services, former intern David Giblin was hired to review all of the plantings on Peters Hill. This spring, with David's recommendations in hand, the process of plant removal began with specimens that were diseased or m poor condition or were deemed superfluous to the scientific needs of the Arboretum. In all, some 3,000 plants were evalu- Don Garrick of the to convert grounds crew the Peters Hill helping dump into the Peters Hill recycling center. these deletions, many of the remaining trees were pruned (for volunteers collected, the University of Massachusetts will create a map and database to help the town ated, resulting in approximately develop management strate- gies for the trees. 150 removals and 100 relocations of plants from Peters Hill into the core collections area on the other side of Bussey Street. Following This past spring and summer the Arnold Arboretum Committee worked with Waste Management, Inc., City Year Corps members, and other volunteers on highly successful cleanups of Arboretum perimeter areas. The Arboretum's Jim Gorman is seen here (lower left) with members of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Green Team. Many thanks to all for a job well done! the first time in years), and invasive vines that had climbed into the crowns of many of them were removed. All of this work, of course, is preparatory to replanting Peters Hill with a new generation of collections-quality plants, which is scheduled to begm in the spring of 1995. Planning for this replanting was instituted this past spring and will be finalized over the coming winter. We hope to present the plan to readers of Arnoldaa in an upcoming issue. Less obvious than the work on the plantings, but no less important, was the completion of the clean-up of the \"dump\" on Peters Hill, located in the old stone quarry along Bussey Street. This monumental job, which actually began a year ago, was coordinated by superintendent Pat Willoughby with assistance from grounds crew member Don Garrick. With ancient mountains of brush reaching some 30 feet in height, the job was the Arboretum equivalent to 5 the cleaning of the Augean stables. Construction as well as arboreal debris had been dumped there for countless years, and all of it had to be processed, sorted, and screened before it could be reused or hauled away. Stones were set aside for future construction projects, brush was ground up into woodchips, and metal and were stumps hauled off in 30-cubic-yard dumpsters (14 of them). The end result of all this was a tall mound of screened loam and another of woodchips that will be used to help future plantings off to a good start. As a final touch, a new gravel road was effort in the quarry, giving the area from above as well as from below. In effect, this project has transformed an old dump into a new recycling center where we will reprocess the massive amounts of woody debris generated by the living collections. installed access to NEA Awards $25,000 for New Arboretum Program tional Historic Site in Brookline. Called Junior Parkmakers, the program will center on an Arboretum field trip complemented by activities and teacher's guide materials designed for classroom use. With an emphasis on outdoor ment The National Endowment for the Arts has awarded $25,000 to the Arnold Arboretum to introduce the study of landscape and landscape architecture as a new that can be understood from scientific, aesthetic, and social perspectives. The program will be developed Boston in consultation with multidisciplinary subject for Boston-area classrooms. The program will be developed as part of the Arboretum's collaboration with the Frederick Law Olmsted Na- exploration, program activities will seek to examine the landscape as a part of the human environ- teachers and will be address curriculum designed goals in science, the arts, and social studies. Pilot testing of the new field study is scheduled to begin in the fall of 1995. area to Programs ~ Events The Arboretum's Education Department offers a wide variety of courses, programs, and lectures in horticulture, botany, and garden history. Come to the Arboretum this fall to study such diverse topics as tree identification, year-round garden maintenance, and horticultural writing. A selection of fall courses is shown here. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call (617) 524-1718, ext. 162. Please note that fees shown in boldface are for members of the Arboretum. For information about becoming a member, please call (617) 524-1718, ext. 165. ART 420 Horticultural Writing Workshop Kam E. Trapj~, Putnam Fellozo, Arnold Arboretum This new course will offer a hands-on opportunity to learn the ABCs of horticultural writing and publication. Students will explore creativity and technique through a series of reading and writing exercises and roundtable discussions. Horticultural references and computer resources will be illustrated. The class will discuss the range of publication opportunities for new authors and learn how to submit ideas to specific publications. Students can choose to be guided through the process of initial submission of a finished piece to an appropriate gardening publication. Limited enrollment. 0 Fee:$96,$110 WAL 273 Arnold Arboretum Landscape Architects and Designers Discussion Series On three Thursday evenings in October, some of New England's most highly respected landscape architects and designers will present their work and design philosophy. Each will illustrate his or her projects with slides, and explain the rationale and constraints that affected the outcome of the projects under discussion.The three architects and designers represent a range of design opinion, and the work shown in the series will encompass public, residential, and industrial projects. In an informal discussion period following the lecture, audience members will be able to ask questions and further explore the thinking of the architect or designer. WAL 270 Carol Johnson October 13 3 WAL 271 Michael Van Valkenburgh October 20 WAL 272 Susan Child October 27 6 Tuesdays, October 4, 11, 18, 25, November 1, 8\/ 1 :30-3 :30 pm (Hunnewell Building) An Arnold Arboretum course offered zn cooperatzon with the New England Wald Flower Society. 6 WAL 273Series Fee: Single Lecture Fee: $40, $46 8 $15, $18 3 Thursdays, October 13, 20, 27\/ 7:30-9:00 pm (Hunnewell Building) to all corners of the United States to photograph the latest uses of herbs in garden landscapes of all sizes and styles. Jim will show slides of these wonderful gardens and talk about the newest and best herbs for landscaping, culinary, and craft uses. On the practical side, he will discuss the importance of soil preparation for herb culture and the long-term maintenance of herb gardens. Jim Wilson is known to the audience of The Victory Garden as the popular co-host; he is also a prolific garden writer and lecturer with several books to his credit. Herbs, Jim Wilson traveled Fee: $14, $18 Saturday, November Sl 10:00 am-noon (Hunnewell Building) Co-sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum, Massachusetts Hortzcultural Society, the New England Wild Flower Society, and the Worcester County Horticultural Society HOR 459 Multi-Season Perennials, Shrubs, and Trees Hardy in New England Galen Gates, Chzef Hortzculturzst, Cbacago Botanic Garden Photographers Elise Laurenzi and Ken Druse discuss a scene. ART 412 Landscape Photography Workshop Many of the hardiest plants for New England are also star performers in the Midwest, where Galen Gates grows and evaluates them for the Chicago Botanic Garden. His plant enthusiasms are many, and he will introduce herbaceous and woody plants that are tough enough for the cold and wind of the Midwest, and therefore make fine candidates to try in New England. Davzd Akiba, Photographer This workshop will explore both technical and aesthetic approaches to color landscape photography using the peak of fall foliage color in the Arboretum as our laboratory. The Saturday class will begin in the Dana Greenhouse with a brief lecture and discussion of materials and equipment, and will be followed by a photographing field trip through the Arboretum. A critique on Tuesday evening will examine each student's work, technically and visually. Participants will be encouraged to investigate new and more personal ways of rendering the colorful panorama of fall in the Arboretum. An equipment list will be sent on pre-registration. Fee: $12, $14 Thursday, November lOt 7:30-9:00 pm (Hunnewell Building) BOT 249 The Sex Life of Plants James Martzn, Botanzst and Horticultural Instructor Fee: $83> $92 Saturday, October 15\/ 9:00 am-4 :00 pm (Dana Greenhouses and Arboretum grounds) and Tuesday, October 18\/ 6:30-8:00 pm (Dana Greenhouses) HOR 264 Landscaping with Herbs: A Morning with Jim Wilson Jim Wilson, Co-host of The Victory Garden and Horticultural Wrzter In of time, plants have evolved reproductive of great precision. Many angiosperms have strategies developed complicated biochemical pathways to produce the bright colors and exotic perfumes that attract specific insect pollinators. The basic biology of reproduction in plants will be covered in this course, which is designed to meet the needs of gardeners and plant propagators. Over eons Fee: $48, $54 3 Mondays, November 28, December 5, 12\/ 6:3fl-8:30 pm (Dana Greenhouses) researching his latest book, Landscaping with "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23274","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160bb6e.jpg","title":"1994-54-2","volume":54,"issue_number":2,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25105","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170b76d.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Valkenburgh, Michael Van; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Restoring the Harvard Yard Landscape {... , Michael Van Valkenburgh and Peter Del Tredici The spirit of Harvard Yard resides in its canopy of trees, tall, reaching groves that define spaces and passageways and create an evocative sense of place. Simplicity and understatement are the prevailing qualities of Harvard Yard's landscape, the result of a New England aesthetic that might also be termed frugal elegance. It is an almost completely built artifice that has evolved over than three centuries of intervention and transformation. As a composition, the landscape and the buildings within Harvard Yard are inseparable. Yet it is the landscape-a simple order composed of a continuous ground plane of grass crossed with paths-that has retained the more enduring, timeless character. The lawn establishes a base on which a broad range of building types in various styles are sited. Overhead a high canopy of deciduous trees completes this majestic landscape. Combined, the lawn and the canopy unify the spaces of the Yard and engender a unique sense of place. The maturity of the tree canopy and the imminent loss of most of the American elms have become pressing concerns. A nearly catastrophic number of trees were felled during the last two decades. Many of these were elms that were infected with the Dutch elm disease, but many others succumbed to stresses common to the urban landscape: soil compaction, root damage effected during construction projects, salt used for ice melting, and fluctuations in the water table. Still other trees were lost due to damage in the snow and ice storms of the late 1970s and early 1980s. more * Despite the continual buzz of chainsaws in the Yard over the past two decades, few new trees have been planted. As a result, Harvard now needs to make up for lost time. Almost two hundred trees at semi-mature sizes must be planted throughout the larger Harvard Yard area to recreate the presence of the grove. Because trees grow slowly, the need to replant 1 the Yard's canopy has become urgent. In 1991 the University undertook a study of the series of large and small spaces that constitute Harvard Yard, broadly defined as the Old Yard, the Tercentenary Theater, Seaver Quad, the Science Center Overpass and Memorial Hall, Quincy and Prescott Streets. As a first step, an ad hoc tree committee was convened.* The product of this group's effort, a list of trees suitable for Harvard Yard, can be seen below. Sixty-eight trees have been planted this spring. Another six will be added this fall and two more next spring. The New Tree Canopy The predominating American elms (Ulmus americana) have imprinted themselves on all who are familiar with the Yard. As a species, the elm is fast growing, readily available, easy to transplant in large sizes; and highly tolerant of compacted soils. Its natural form provides a was a tall, high-branched canopy. Understandably, it favorite of our predecessors, but its fate strongly suggests that replanting not be domi- Bernard Keohan, Robert Lyng, Robert Mortimer, Peter Del Tredici, Michael Van Valkenburgh, and Tim Barner. 4 nated by a single species of trees, which might again leave the Yard vulnerable to the devastating effect of insects and diseases. All replacements must be well suited to stressful urban growing conditions, and in the interests of a unified composition, trees with odd colored bark, flowers, or leaves should be excluded since they would not blend with other resulting from the removal of branches require more time to heal. Over the next twenty years, additional branches will be removed gradually as each larger cuts more mature the tree increases in height. species. To recreate a canopy reminiscent of the character of the American elms-to retain not only their memorable quality but also unimpeded views across the Yard-each of the main spaces should be planted with a careful blend of two, three, or four tree species. In combining trees the visual character of each species in every season of the year must be considered: the overall form and color when the tree loses its leaves in the autumn; leaf color in spring, summer, and fall; any significant flowers or fruit. The committee left open the possibility that occasionally an additional, single species may be added, or preserved, if it is an existing tree in good health. For example, the few remaining white pines (Pinus strobus) should remain as effective counterpoints to the new canopy. Indeed, a new white pine will be planted this fall, along with a catalpa (Catalpa speciosa) and a horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), not so much for canopy replacement but to help reinforce the existing specimens of the same species. In replicating the character of the American elm grove, which retained few branches below twenty feet above ground level, it must be remembered that once a tree grows a branch, the height of that branch does not change with later growth. For this reason, high-branched specimens have been planted from the inception of the Yard's new grove. Trees grown with lower branches removed to six or seven feet above ground constitutes the minimum standard for transplanting into Harvard Yard. At the time of planting, additional low branches have been removed to a height of eight or nine feet above ground level. Branches should always be removed when they are quite small, as The recommended transplant size for new trees in Harvard Yard is five or six inches in diameter at six inches above the ground; this is typically a tree about twenty to twenty-eight feet tall. Re-training the form of the trees requires careful selection of specimens with good structural development and a strong central leader, rather than trees with several leaders. Many of the species on the tree committee's list, including the Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica) and red oak (Quercus rubra), lend themselves, with attentive maintenance, to a high-branched and elmlike form even though their natural character, when grown in an open location, is a low-branched and rounded form. A lightly shaded growing environment where there is competition for sunlight alters the growth habit of a tree and yields a reaching elmlike character. New trees, if carefully located in the light shade of other trees in the Yard, are encouraged to grow taller as they reach for the sunlight above. New trees have not been planted directly under existing trees, but rather outside their drip line. Within Harvard Yard there are numerous microclimates that affect tree growth. In selecting species, the nuances of each planting site have been carefully considered, with particular attention to soil type, drainage, wind, available sunlight and shade, soil moisture content created by variable drainage conditions, density of traffic, and extent of pavement coverage, which increases soil temperatures in the root zone in summer. Also considered was the proximity of new trees to existing large trees, which create root competition and shade that affect their development. The tree committee recommended that all trees in poor condition be removed between 1993 and 1994. Trees rated in fair condition may have several years of life remaining and will not be removed-except for design rea- - 5 Newly planted canopy trees in the Old Yard (Karen Madsen). ). sons-until they decline further. In some in- fair condition remain on our these are especially venerable trees that, plan; with special care and attention, may survive for many years. stances trees in Old Yard To many, the Old Yard is Harvard Yard. It is the largest and oldest space, with generous proportions and a commanding presence. Its perimeter of enclosing buildings, which define the sides of the space, is perceptively simple but spatially sophisticated. Through time the placement of buildings has foiled what otherwise would be an unrelenting length spanning the two long sides of the Yard (750 feet), yielding instead stepped and ambiguous alignments. In contrast, the short ends of the Old Yard (250 feet) are completed with single buildings. The stepped sides coupled with the stolid ends create an impressive volume that, when filled with trees, establishes an aura of calm power. The spirit of the Old Yard is largely attributable to its enveloping canopy of majestic deciduous trees, which create an embracing grove. While this grove has been dominated by the American elm for most of the twentieth century, other species have been included to produce a more complex composition. The form of these other trees, most notably red oak and honey locust, has been managed to make them more elmlike in character. Branches have been removed for the first eighteen to twenty feet of each tree. In the Old Yard, we have planted a mix of honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos), Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora japonica), red oak (Quercus rubra), scarlet oak (Quercus coccinea), and willow oak (Quercus phellos). The trees have been planted in four existing north-south rows with spacing irregular within the rows. A fifth row has been re-established in front of the west 6 The tree canopy in the Tercentenary Theater is reinforced with new plantings installed by Hartney\/Greymont, Inc., of Needham, MA (Karen Madsen). side of Thayer and Weld Halls. Red oaks were used in front of Thayer and scarlet oaks in front of Weld. Two rows of tulip poplar trees (Liriodendron tulipifera) form an allee to frame the statue of John Harvard. These rows start at the Johnston Gate and are embedded in the existing grove of the Old Yard. Hackberries (Celtis x 'Magnifica') have been planted west of the Johnston Gate, at the site opened up by the removal of the existing yews at the gate. These two trees, with their elmlike shape, take the place of two downed elms. Library and Memorial Church and the commanding nature of their broad bands of stairs create a space that has became the symbolic center of the Yard. It is its geographic center as well and is the most important ceremonial space on campus, where people from the entire university gather for graduation and other celebratory events. The character of the grove of trees planted in the rectangular space further compliments the ceremonial quality of the Tercentenary Theater. In contrast to the darker oaks and maples at the periphery of the space, honey locusts (Gleditsia triacanthos), with their fine textured foliage, allow dappled light to permeate the center ground of the space and to form a halo of light in the middle. Additional honey locust trees have been planted to supplement the existing ones. Red maples (Acer rubrum) have been planted as a rectangular perimeter Tercentenary Theater The Tercentenary Theater is the heart of Harvard Yard and one of the major time-honored landscape spaces. The enclosure of the Tercentenary Theater was completed by Memorial Church in the 1930s. The symmetry of Widener 7 around the irregular placement of the honey locusts. This patterning will not be apparent until the autumn when the yellows of the honey locusts will be framed by the spectacular scarlet foliage of the red maples. Yellowwoods and quality of specimens are eries. Tree available from nurssuitable for the periphery of species the Yard presented in Part II. (Red Maple) PART I: CANOPY TREES Acer rubrum (Cladrastis kentuckea), which bloom at time, have been planted ir- regularly periphery of the space. Three coffee trees (Gymnocladus dioicus) Kentucky and two bur oaks (Quercus macrocarpa) were planted on the lawn west and north of Widener Library. The three legumes share a characteristic flat-topped crown, and although clearly distinct from one another, have similar enough forms to create a sense of harmony. It is essential that all trees planted in the Tercentenary Theater be limbed up from the bottom as they grow, to allow unobstructed views throughout the landscape. The new trees will appear young for ten to fifteen years, and then although they will still be quite small, they will begin to blend with the remaining large trees. Eventually two hundred-plus trees are to be planted; there are commencement at the This midsized tree produces great spring and fall color and is tolerant of compacted soil conditions. Red maple will perform well in the Yard and will add interest in the fall, a feature that is currently lacking. * Acer saccharum (Sugar Maple) This tree has beautiful fall color but is intolerant of compacted soil and road salt. It has a roundheaded crown and casts a dense shade. In the Yard it will need to be carefully sited away from areas with heavy pedestrian or vehicular traffic. Celtis laevigata* (Sugarberry) This species, which is very tolerant of compacted soils, is well worth trying in the Yard although specimens may be difficult to find. It is larger and more robust than the common hackberry, Celtis occidentalis, and can be quite elm-like in its form. Gleditsia triacanthos var. approximately three-hundred-thirty existing trees within the perimeter of the Yard Fence. The Tree List inermis Following is the final list of tree species selected for planting in the Yard. The tree committee gave careful consideration to overall (Thornless Honey Locust) Because of its graceful form, the honey locust visual character, leaf density, color, scale, and form. The list is intended to provide the landscape architect with flexibility in dealing with the unpredictable issues of size and availabil- ity that inevitably complicate any landscape is the tree that many horticulturists view as the ideal replacement tree for the American elm. We should be cautious not to overuse the tree as was done with the American elm, given that it is susceptible to a number of serious dis- job. The list of canopy trees focuses on species with a strong tendency to form a tall, straight trunk and a broad, spreading crown in a relatively short time. Species marked with an asterisk (*) are considered secondary choices insofar as they possess some characteristic that causes maintenance problems; are slowgrowing ; are difficult to transplant; or hard to locate in nurseries. The decision to use these secondary species should be based on finding the right location for them as well as the size The fact that grass grows well under the honey locust makes it an excellent choice. Using male selections will reduce the litter problem posed by seed pods. eases. light canopy of the Gymnocladus dioicus\"\" (Kentucky Coffee Tree) Kentucky coffee tree, while it has a very sparse growth habit and stark winter outline, is a strikingly beautiful tree. Like the honey locust it casts a light, delicate shade that allows grass to prosper. Male selections should be planted if possible. * 8 Liriodendron tulipifera (Tulip Poplar Tree) Tulip poplar tree has an upright growth habit and very beautiful flowers and leaves. It grows extremely large, so should be planted only in larger spaces. It forms a tall, straight trunk and has good yellow fall color. Magnolia acuminata* (Cucumber Tree) Cucumber magnolia is a very stately singletrunked tree that could be used sparingly in the Yard. It does not appear to have any disease problems, but its large leaves might be seen as a litter problem in the fall. Quercus bicolor (Swamp White Oak) Swamp white oak would be a great addition to the Yard if large specimens can be located. It is slow to establish itself, but well worth the wait. The white oak, Quercus alba, is equally acceptable from a landscape point of view but considered more difficult to transplant. Quercus coccinea (Scarlet Oak) Scarlet oak is similar to pin oak in habit and leaf shape but is somewhat slower growing and more difficult to transplant. It does, however, have much better fall color than pin oak. Quercus shumardi, the Shumard red oak, is similar in many respects to the scarlet oak, and some growers consider it a better performer. Quercus palustris (Pin Oak) Pin oak casts a The shadow of an American elm falls on Hall in the Old Yard (Peter Del Tredici). Stoughton lighter shade than red oak and to see trees can be located in a nursery, willow oak would make a nice addition to the Yard. needs to be limbed up in order its beau- tiful, smooth trunk. It is tolerant of both poorly drained and compacted soils. When young, this species tends to hold its brown leaves throughout the winter. This problem can be overcome by selecting trees in the nursery that have outgrown this \"juvenile\" trait. Quercus phellos'\"(Willow Oak) The narrow, willowy leaves of this beautiful tree cast a light shade. It is relatively easy to transplant and tolerant of wet, compac , _d soil. A common street tree in the south, the species has traditionally been considered marginally hardy in the Boston area. However, experience indicates that its range trees Quercus rubra (Red Oak) Red oaks are already abundant in the yard, but a few more could well be planted. Because it casts a dense shade, trees of this species should not be planted too closely together or the grass will suffer. Many other tall oaks, including Q. acutissima, imbricaria, and macrocarpa, would perform well in the Yard, and their use is limited only by their availability. (central plants from more New from the northern parts of Jersey) are hardier than southern areas. If northern Sophora japonica'~ (Japanese Pagoda Tree) The Japanese pagoda tree is a beautiful alternative to the honey locust. It does, however, have a tendency to retain its lower branches. For this reason, tall specimens that had been limbed up in the nursery should be specified for planting in the Yard. 9 PART II: PERIPHERY TREES These In are species suitable for special purposes. general, they are somewhat smaller in stature than the canopy trees listed above; have a narrow as opposed to a spreading growth habit; or show a pronounced tendency to retain their lower limbs. They should be used near buildings or around the edges of the Yard to lower Only male plants with a spreading habit, opposed to the narrow 'Fastigiata' should be planted. clones, Larix decidua (European Larch) in autumn. as the canopy. Betula nigra For (River Birch) Yard, river birch that has planting been trained to a single trunk should be used, as opposed to specimens grown as a clump. The tree has peeling, buff-colored bark and is very tolerant of compacted soil. It is the only species of birch that can be considered reliably in the This deciduous conifer is tolerant of compacted soil and would add a nice touch of yellow fall color to the yard. Being of relatively narrow growth habit when young, it could be used in fairly close proximity to buildings. It can be limbed up with impunity. disease-resistant. Cercidiphyllum japonicum (Katsura Tree) This is a beautiful, midsized tree that casts a light, delicate shade. It would make a nice addition to the Yard and is relatively maintenance free. Cladrastis kentuckea (lutea) (Yellowwood) This elegant leguminous tree has performed well in other locations at Harvard and would grow well in the Yard. The tree produces its beautiful white flowers in early June, just in time for commencement. Because yellowwood tends to keep its lower branches, it needs to be sited in locations where heavy pruning is not Liquidambar styraciflua (Sweet Gum) Sweet gum is very tolerant of compacted soils and has extremely beautiful fall color. The tree is not a favorite with maintenance people because it drops spiny \"gumballs\" in the winter, two months after leaf fall, necessitating a second cleanup. Nyssa sylvatica (T~xpelo or Black Gum) This species has sensational fall color and beautiful winter form. While somewhat slow to establish itself and difficult to transplant, tupelo would make a nice addition to the Yard if we could locate large specimens. Tilia petiolaris (Pendant Silver Linden) This is one of the most beautiful of the lindens because of the silvery white underside of the leaves and because the branches are gracefully weeping. The tree grows to be quite large and, relative to other lindens, has good fall color. , required. Fagus sylvatica (European Beech) This long-lived tree is already widely planted throughout Harvard. It is an excellent choice for the north sides of buildings that are shady particularly and cool and where foot traffic is minimal. We recommend the upright form for areas where there is not enough 'Fastigiata' room for a full-sized, spreading specimen. Ulmus parviflora (Lace Bark Elm) This is one of the few elms that is truly resistant to Dutch elm disease. While not as tall or graceful as the American elm, it has beautiful, exfoliating bark and an airy crown composed of small leaves with good fall color. On the down side, lace bark elm tends to leaf out several weeks later than other elms. Zelkova serrata (Zelkova) This species is often touted as a replacement for the American elm, but it is considerably smaller in stature. For planting in the Yard, we recommend using one of the tall, upright selections such as 'Village Green', as opposed to random seedlings. Ginkgo biloba (Ginkgo) While stiff and awkward when young, the tree develops great character as it ages. It is tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, and if given enough sun and moisture, grows quickly. The fan-shaped leaves turn a beautiful clear yellow 10 The previous list identifies the trees that the committee selected as appropriate for use in Harvard Yard; the list on the right gives the trees actually obtained in nurseries for the first phase in the Yard replanting program. The map shows which existing trees will be retained, which will be removed or transplanted, and where new trees will be sited. The Old Yard (on the left of the map) is bounded by Holworthy, University, and Grays Halls. The Tercentenary Theater is delineated by Widener Library, Memorial Church, and Sever and University Halls. Sever Quad (on the right) extends from Sever Hall to Robinson and Emerson Halls and Quincy Street. HARVARD YARD REPLANTING PROGRAM PHASE ONE (1994) 11 1 Michael Van Valkenburgh is chair of the Department of Landscape Architecture at Harvard University's Graduate School of Design and principal of Michael Van Valkenburgh Associates, Inc., Landscape Architects. Peter Del Tredici is Assistant Director for Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum, and also teaches at the GSD. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Care and Feeding of the Noble AllAe","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25106","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170bb26.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Treib, Marc","article_content":"The Care and Feeding of the Noble Allee Marc Treib Two of France's most ' engaging seventeenth-century landscapes are once more __ being rethought. The story goes that a certain professor of landscape architecture at a California university was dismayed by what a French student had proposed for her second planting design project. The trees were, in fact, arranged in two very straight and parallel lines, arranged in what in her country of origin is termed an allee. The professor's sole comment was, \"Hmmm. So you've lined them up again?\" After a moment or two of searching for a more pointed response, he played his trump card, \"But what if one should die?\" What indeed? He needn't have worried. After all, trees have been growmg-and dyingin French allees for three centuries, more or less. But questions of life process within the garden are central to any landscape design, and to some extent they are made more transparent in gardens conceived geometrically. When the pattern is apparent, the presence-or absence-of any single element is highlighted. If a tree anchoring the corner of a square is missing, that loss is more noticeable than one fallen within an informal clump. But in spite of the test of horticultural skill, formal gardens have been created in virtually every part of the world, either as domestic or imported products. Trees arranged in lines have constituted a central feature of landscapes from the tunnello of Renaissance Italian gardens to the allee of French formal gardens to the street \" trees of nineteenth-century American cities. Allees are a magical part of the formal garden. But what if one should die? Versailles may be Andre Le Notre's largest work, but two of his most engaging designs are the gardens at the Tuileries and the park at Sceaux. The first has always been an element of the city, now circumscribed by Paris and the Seine. Like Central Park it is a respite from urbanity rather than a place where the city meets the field. Sceaux, on the other hand, located south of the capital, was created as an exurban estate to serve as a retreat from both the city and the suffocating protocol of the court. Today, it hosts dog walkers, runners, the elderly, soccer fanatics, model boat pilots, lovers, and those who derive pleasure from photographing long lines of Lombardy poplars. The Tuileries Until 1871, the gardens of the Tuileries spread outward from a palace of the same name, which had been recast during two prior rebuildings. By 1576, the chateau had already broken out of the enclosure surrounding the almost perfectly rectangular garden of the medieval structure.' The domain changed drastically with Louis Le Vau's major building renovation of 1664 and the vast plan for the grounds proposed by Andre Le N6tre ~(16131700), the royal gardener.2 I Tuileries. Newer plantings in the gmd of the Grand Couvert. Horse chestnuts predominate (Marc Treib). 14 Tuilemes. The central allee extending the relatively young (Marc TreibJ. ). axis of the Louvre to the arch of La Defense. Many of the trees are His scheme, which was more or less realized by 1680, figured the garden as a play of varied arabesques planted within rectangular parterres ; the dimensions of each were carefully adjusted to conjure a sense of regularity when the site wished otherwise.3 Typical of Le Notre's designs, many of the purely geometric figures were adjusted to counter the foreshortening apprehended from the palace to the east, from which point the principal views were cast. To disguise the slope across the site, banks were raised along its northern and southern edges. Ramps joined the principal levels and a set of horseshoe-shaped ramps connected the ground with the embankment at the garden's western terminus.4 In Le (Aesculus hippocastanum) extends the line through from the Tuileries, past the vast Place de la Concorde, along the Champs-Elysees to the Arc de Triomphe, through the Porte Maillot and, as of 1989, on to the square arch at La Defense. was Le Notre's vision elegant, restrained, and gridded; architectonic areas adjacent to the palace gave way to bosks of mixed plantings. Here, horse chestnuts planted on a grid roughly fifteen feet apart (known today as the \"Grand Couvert\") defined spaces within the larger space, provided shade as a respite from the summer sun and served as a screen for dalliance. As depicted in contemporary engravings, the design of the bosks was not consistent. Some a were Notre's time rows of trees extended the thrust of the axis from palace to fields. Today a forest high, some low; some intricate, some simple. This permitted, within structural of regularly planted (mostly) horse chestnuts theme, variation in form, use, 15 sunlight within an order immediately perceived. On the north terrace, silkworm-nourishing mulberry trees had been planted during the royal experiment to develop a silk industry. Horse chestnuts replaced them amount and of in 1677 as part of the great renovation, at which time spruce also entered the garden.s In garden, lindens replaced elms, originally planted in clipped bushes of varying heights and trees of varying species. The Tuileries had traditionally been open to the polite segments of the population; in the aftermath of the Revolution the park became a National Public Garden.6 But political imbroglio nevertheless took its toll on the vegetation and the chateau. Burned by the Paris Commune on May 23, 1871, the Tuileries palother parts of the stood as a ruin for over a decade while its was debated. In 1882, the remnants of the building were pulled down, the site was cleared and reformed as a link between the Louvre and the Tuileries. In the later part of the nineteenth-century, during the reign of Napoleon III, the land that once accommodated the palace was reserved for imperial use.' Over the centuries various species of treesLondon planes (Platanus x acerifolia), for example-crept into the garden although horse chestnuts continued to predominate. In 1990, an invited competition was held for the redesign of the Tuileries gardens.8 While the principal instigation for the contest was the great renovation by I. M. Pei to the adjacent Louvre, the garden itself was in serious need of study and reinvigoration. The care of the garden had been attached to the duties of the architect for the Louvre; no master plan guided maintenance and replanting, and over time the grounds began to show the piecemeal decisions of generations of gardeners. The scheme selected for execution (by Pascal Cribier and Louis Benech with Fran~ois Roubaud) accepted the Le Notre structure as a framework within which to work, but called for major reformations to the design of the bosks and to the ground beneath the trees. New pools were to be added, new bedding, new ace fate of schemes for the Tmlemes by CnbierBenech-Roubaud (foreground) and Wirtz (radiating lmes in the background. The Seine is on the right A model (EPGL\/ F. Caplame). plantings, new modulations of the ground plane; all within Le N6tre's prevalent structure.9 The results appear, at first glance, to be conservative and archaeologically pure, with a prevalent formality that conforms to the historical structure of the park. But with a more careful viewing, one finds changes effected at the level of horticultural execution. Within the bosk areas, for example, new plantings of linear hedges will softly articulate the space beneath the trees. Most of these lines will remain low, planted with Alexandrian laurel (Danae racemosa), flowering raspberry (Rubus odoratus), and cranesbill geranium (Geranium macrorhyzum). In certain areas, however, the vegetation will form a true hedge. The proposed lines of hedges will be 16 Tmlemes. A principal allee paralleling the (Marc Treib). Rue de Rmoh, seen with the raised embankment at the far mght overwatered and used as irrigation for the horse chestnuts, which have not prospered in the polluted Parisian air, a problem compounded by relatively dry summers of late. The landscape architects have also produced a protocol for maintenance and restoration to guide future work within the gardens. Having been a royal domain, the Tuileries remains directly under the administration of the Ministry of Culture's Department of Preservation, and prior to the competition there had been no firm policy for maintaining the integrity of the Le Notre or any other design. Instead, as is so often the case, the decisions were made by the gardeners on a day-to-day, item-by-item basis. Historically, the royal gardeners seemed more interested in sustaining a planted rhythm than in maintaining a species-pure planting. Although the gardens have relied on horse purposely chestnuts, a number of alien species have been planted: one London plane, for example, is dated as about one-hundred-fifty years old. Other species were planted as the horse chestlost.1o toward plantmg continues to evolve. Policy Mr. Jean Schnebelen, technical director for the Department of the Hauts-de-Seine's Espaces Verts (forests, parks, and gardens), noted that the horse chestnut, long the mainstay of French parks and formal gardens, is becoming increasingly more difficult to procure; nurseries prefer to cultivate lindens, and hence, these are more available. Horse chestnuts are also plagued by a fungus that appears at the end of the growing season and whose effect is only too noticeable in the brown edging of the leaves in late summer and autumn. In place of the golden tones taken by their northern cousins, in Scandinavia for example, the canopies nuts were 17 7 Tmlemes. A typical bosk in the Grand Couvert (Marc Treib). area of the trees in the Paris tractive appear as an unat- agglomeration of dun-toned pennants hanging limply from their branches. Today, the multiple allees are far from pure in family and age, although the effect of the gridded bosks overwhelms these disparities. Only the specialist would notice that all is not coherent in the state of the Tuileries; the Le Notre structure Sceaux predominates. If the Tuileries is an urbane and restrained green setting in which the city echoes, the park at Sceaux is a gash of geometric order incised into the countryside. The chateau one sees today is not the original built around 1670 by the same Jean-Baptiste Colbert who managed the seventeenth-century renovation of the Tuileries gardens. That structure, like the palace of the Tuileries, was destroyed in the last century. The existing building, an emblem of the decline in taste and means in the centuries that followed in the wake of the Grand Siecle, is undersized and meager in comparison to the park itself. At the request of Colbert's son the Marquis de Seignelay, Le Notre executed major renovations and additions to the gardens from 1685 to 1696.11 The cross axis, set parallel to the chateau terrace, was strengthened by a new and quite Grand Canal, which collected groundwater while contributing to the garden an enormous mirror in which to reflect the skies and the glory of the patron. In the earliest existing plan, which dates from 1730, the triple allees of trees surrounding the Grand Canal are carefully delineated, but the species of tree intended by the landscape architect cannot be ascertained with any precision. They are rendered only as generic shapes; no specif- 18 8 Sceaux. Detail of the1730 plan (Musee de 1'Ile de France). are listed. Perhaps the available or acceptable species were so well established that there was no need to note them. Perhaps the landscape architect was more interested in the structural and spatial purposes served by the long rows of trees and less interested in the means by which to realize them. Elm, horse chestnut, and slightly later, linden, were frequently used in formal gardens such as these, and one can assume that at least one of these species would have been used at Sceaux (that is, if the allees were ever planted in their ics entirety). Whatever the species, the trees had long deteriorated by the first decades of this century. By the 1920s the entire park was in desperate condition. Segments of the stone walls of the Grand Canal had collapsed, and only scrubby planting maintained the lines intended by Le considered a health hazwere stagnant and fetid, and the once majestic water feature was caustically described as \"an open sewer.\" Ownership of the park was transferred from private ownership to the Department of the Seine in 1923, and the public cry for greater attention ultimately resulted in a major refurbishing of the park.lz The canal, which had been the target of public abuse, was drained, rebuilt, and waterproofed; 13 an allee of Lombardy poplars was planted to ring the canal. The refurbished park was officially opened in 1935. The landscape designer Russell Page, visiting Sceaux in the mid-1930s, could report: \"Now the canal has been cleaned; lines of Lombardy poplars have been planted down each side and there are boats and facilities for swimming. The work continues and, by degrees, as much of the old Park as possible will be developed in playing fields and tennis courts.\"' By the end of the 1930s the trees were beginning to mature and by the close of the following decade, they began to display signs of the majestic scale they possess today. Populus nigra 'Italica' entered France for the first time only in the mid-eighteenth century, that is, long after Le Notre. Thus there was no historical precedent for this choice of tree. But today the poplars are so dense, dramatic, and architectonic, that it is difficult to conceive of the canal without them. The Lombardy poplar is a tree accepted by gardeners but adored by architects. Cylindrical in shape with relatively quick growth and heights up to one-hundred feet, the Lombardy poplar is the perfect ingredient with which to create green architecture.'S It also appeals to those who would realize a regrowth quickly. On the down side, the structure of its wood is brittle, the tree is relatively short-lived, and its roots can be invasive. They tend to destroy foundations like canal walls although this has not been a problem at Sceaux after the work in the 1930s. Within the last few years, the poplars have matured to a point where their continued existence has become questionable. At sixtyfive-plus years, they have nearly reached the Notre. The site was ard, the canal waters \" 19 9 Sceaux. The Grand Canal, derehct> m 1924 (Musee de 1'lle de France). Sceaux. The Grand Canal, probably m the mid-1930s, refurbished and planted with allees of Lombardy poplars (Musee de 1'lle de France). 20 Sceaux. The poplars already mature, probably in the 1950s (Musee de 1'lle de France). expected life span. A major storm February 1990 destroyed a sufficient number of the trees to force a rethinking of the planting strategy around the canal. Sceaux, after all, is not a small and private garden but a major public park that seems to host an international meeting of canal joggers each evening in as end of their the sun sets. not been going well. According to Mr. Schnebelen, who is responsible for maintaining the park's vegetation, the oaks have taken very poorly and are, in many places, dying. No new solution has been found, and there is a possibility that in spite of their limited longevity, the poplars will be replanted. For the most part, the poplars around the has robur'Fastigiata' (upright English oak) has been planted to replace those poplars that have passed on to allee heaven. Presumably its narrow and upright form while young made it a viable choice to substitute for the Lombardy poplar. That it may acquire a pyramidal form when mature seems to have been of less concern to those responsible for new plantings. In the interest of truth-inarboriculture these new trees have been clearly marked by signs noting that the planting is only experimental. The experiment, in fact, In places, Quercus Grand Canal have been left untouched and are pruned on an individual basis as required. Certainly they have not received the constant the linden allees approaching extending from the chateau. These plantings (called arbres rideaux, or \"curtain trees\") are clipped annually when in leaf, usually between May and September. What was once accomplished with ladders, clippers, and a sort of whiplike pole with a blade at its end-still to be seen in use at Vaux-leVicomte-is now executed with electric shears on grooming lavished and 21 J'ceaux. Experimental plantmg of fastigiate oak, marked mth a sign, 1992 (Marc TreibJ. ). Sceaux. The Grand Canal In 1993 (Marc Treib). 22 in the hands of gardeners elevated in a cherrypicker. In spite of this contemporary technology, the task remains enormous given 2 The project for chateau and Director of Public Works to Sun King back from his seat by Jean-Baptiste Colbert, Secretary of work.)\/ the kilometers-long allees that structure the idea of Sceaux. The French, however, remain up to the task. At Sceaux even more than the Tuileries, the allees have received as much care as funding allows.'6 In the summer, the shade of the allees at Sceaux provides welcome relief from the long day's sun. Like blinders on a horse, they direct-or coerce-the visitor to continue moving: first to the chateau, then to the cascade, down to the octagonal basin, and, of course, on to the canal. In winter the dense and intricate branch structures become sculptural forms set against the sky. In any season, however, the line of the planting and the rhythm of the interval modulate the walk of those who follow the directed path. Is this, yet again, the French predilection for valuing geometry and architectonic purpose over natural growing patterns? Perhaps. But the conflict between nature and human construct does not create a major problem. Gardening practice will continue to evolve to meet the changing environmental, economic, and political conditions, whether in the use to which the park space is assigned or in the selection of species. The traditional allee will receive its care and feeding. But, again, what if one should die? In some instances, the eye will continue what nature has removed; the mind will complete the gap. The missing element can, in fact, create a syncopation that enriches rather than detracts from the rhythm. A missing tree can actually contribute to a design, as a young tree can remind us of the life cycles of living organisms. And then, if one should die, you can always conceived State and Louis XIV, to woo the at Versailles. (It didn't garden was 3 For a chronology of the gardens at the Tuileries, see F. Hamilton Hazlehurst, Gardens of lllusion: The Genius of Andre Le Nostre (Nashville- Vanderbilt University Press, 1980), 167-186. 4 Today this overlooks and forms one side of the Place de la Concorde, one of Pans' most sublime traffic carrousels. _ 5 Hazlehurst, 183, note 9. Hazlehurst translates what was probably sapm in the original as Norway spruce. Louis Benech suggests that the species was more likely the native Abies pectmata (silver fir). 6 See Jean-Pierre Babelon, \"Les Tuileries dans 1'histoire et dans la mlle,\"5-13, and other essays in Monuments Historiques, 1991),No. 177. Les Tuilenes (November ~ In the years from 1881 to 1893 this area was recast by chateau architect Edmond Gmllaume m a quasimmrormg of the first panel of the Le N&tre scheme. Thus, on the site of the demolished palace, circular beds substituted for the pools of water, and specimen planting gave the garden a slight flavor of the fashionable English and\/or gardenesque manner. While a trifle discordant m taste and form, Guillaume's scheme succeeded m joining the Louvre to the Tuileries garden proper through symmetry and repetition. His task was made more difficult by the extension of Rue des Pyramides southward to the Seme as Avenue du General Lemonmer. The road effectively separated the Louvre from the gardens. 8 Kmetyk, \"The Politics of Gardening,\" (July 1993), 20-27, for a candid report of the competition, its implementation, and the politics that mfluenced its realization. See Tams Pans City \" 9 Sadly, politics plant a new one. Notes w 1 Androuet du Cerceau, Les Plus Excellents Bastiments de France 1576, 1579), reprint edited by David Thomson (Pans: Sand & Conti, 1980~, 220225. reared its ugly head, in a manner characteristic of France but almost impossible to explam on any rational level. The Cnbier-BenechRoubaud scheme was truncated; Jacques Wirtz, another competition mmtee, was given the design of the Cour du Carrousel. The two teams were thus forced into a marriage of mconvenience, and judging from the resulting design-the clash of competing ideologies was aggravated by the Pei terrace between them-the menage looks to be made for divorce. The reasoning behmd the Wirtz 23 scheme is difficult to ascertam, and the relation of the radiating hedges to the embankment agamst which they will bump due to a level differential, appears clumsy at best. That the Tuileries will be designed in fragments is unfortunate; the opportunity to once agam reunite the full sweep of the gardens has been lost. 1o Washingtonia palm is another I-beam par excellence, with only a small topknot of greenery to suggest that it is actually alive and growing. 16 Fran~ois Roubaud believes that on average some fifty trees per acre are cut and replaced each year, and that as a Like most places in the world, the maintenance budgets for the park systems of Paris and the surrounding areas have been drastically reduced. The number of gardeners tendmg parks like Sceaux has dropped accordmgly, making even routine upkeep a challenge. result a considerable portion of the park's 11 trees is actually quite young. overview Acknowledgments see For a historic 233-256. of Sceaux, Hazlehurst, (Vol. VIII), '2 Philippe Diloe, \"Sceaux,\" 1931, unpaged. Beaux-Arts 13 Hazlehurst \/234-236\/ believes this waterproofmg to have been a mistake because it may have hastened the collapse of segments of the canal's retaining wall shortly after the refurbishing. Root intrusion could have been the primary culpmt, however. The author thanks Francois Roubaud and Louis Benech for discussmg their work on the Tuilenes; Jean Schnebelen for explaimng mamtenance practice at Sceaux; and Jean-Michel Cuzm at the Musee de 1'Ile de France for helping to locate early photos and other documents on Sceaux. Appreciation is also due to Dorothee Imbert, who interviewed Mr. Schnebelen, helped with translations, and critically (and ruthlessly) reviewed an early version of the text. Marc Treib is professor of architecture at the m 14 Russell Page, \"Sceaux: A Chateau Garden,\" Landscape and Garden (Winter 1936), 211. is University of California at Berkeley and is currently m Pans studying modern landscape architecture Europe, 1930-1955, under the auspices of Guggenheim Robert Riley of the University of Illmois has anointed this the Fragrant I-Beam School of Landscape Design, with trees and shrubs substituting for plywood and concrete. The Fulbright fellowships. He is the editor of Modern Landscape Architecture~ A Cnucal Remew \/ 1993\/, coauthor of A Guide to the Gardens of Kyoto ( 1980\/, and author of Sanctuaries of Spamsh New Mexico (1993). and "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'A Most Dangerous Tree': The Lombardy Poplar in Landscape Gardening","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25100","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170ab6d.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Wood, Christina D.","article_content":"\"A Most Dangerous Tree\": The Lombardy Poplar in Landscape Gardening ~ Christina D. Wood The history of the Lombardy poplar in America illustrates that there fashions in trees just as in all else. are \"The Lombardy poplar,\"wrote Andrew Jackson in 1841, \"is too well known among us to need any description.\"' This was an extraordinary thing to say about a tree that had been introduced to North America less than sixty years earlier. In that short time, this distinctive cultivar of dominating height had gained notoriety due to aggressive overplanting in the years just after its introduction. The Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra Downing originated in Persia or perhaps the Himalayan region; because the plant was not mentioned in Roman agricultural texts, writmay have 'Italica') is a very tall, rapidly growing tree with a distinctively columnar shape, often with a buttressed base. It is a fastigiate mutation of a male black poplar (P. nigra).2 As a member of the willow family (Salicaceae)North American members of the genus include the Eastern poplar (Populus deltoides), bigtooth aspen (Populus granditata), and quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)-the tree prefers moist, rich soils but tolerates a wide range of conditions. Easily propagated from woody stem cuttings, it is hardy from Zone 9 to 3 and can attam its full height of one-hundred feet or more in twenty to thirty years. With a spread of only ten to fifteen feet, it presents a striking form in the landscape. The Lombardy was disseminated throughout Europe in the mid-eighteenth century from Italy, where it was found growing on the banks of the Po River in Lombardy. There was speculation in the nineteenth century that it reasoned that it must have been introduced Italy from central Asia.3 But subsequent writers have thought it more likely that the Lombardy sprang up as a mutant of the black poplar. Augustine Henry found evidence that it originated between 1700 and 1720 in Lombardy and spread worldwide by cuttings, reaching France in 1749, England in 1758, and North America in 1784.4 It was soon widely planted in Europe as an avenue tree, as an ornamental, and for a time, for its timber. According to at least one source, it was used in Italy to make crates for grapes until the early nineteenth century, when its wood was abandoned for this purpose in favor of that of P. nigra. The first cuttings to reach England were planted at Blenheim,s where the cultivar can still be seen. It was the avid plant collector and landscape gardener William Hamilton who introduced the tree to North America. Documents indicate that his use of the tree followed practices in Great Britain and Europe. In 1788, a visitor to the Woodlands, Hamilton's showplace on the Schuylkill River west of Philadelphia, wrote that the walks were \"planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there ers to 25 wanted without shade, not to introduce it on the south side of any garden or orchard, unless at a distance of at least twice its ordinary height. \"$ Easily propagated and rapid of growth, the Lombardy quickly became exceptionally popular and demand for it was high. A short thiryears after its introduction at the Woodlands, a nursery in Newton, Massachusetts, devoted two full acres to its cultivation.9 The next year (1798), the Prince Nursery in Flushing, New York, advertised ten thousand teen Lombardy poplars for sale, each a height of ten to seventeen feet.' By the early years of the nineteenth century it was said that \"they infested the whole island [of Manhattan], if not most of the middle, northern, and many southern States.\"\"l European use of the Lombardy as an avenue tree had not gone unnoticed in North America. John Claudius Loudon had recorded in his influential Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum of 1838 \"an avenue of Lombardy poplars, the oldest and the highest in Germany; none of the trees are under 90 ft. high, and many of them are above 120 ft. Nothing of the kind can be more sublime.\"'2 In images of Boston made shortly after the turn of the nineteenth century, they can be seen lining Park Street, along the top of the Common. Americans, in a great hurry as always, prized the rapid growth that brought nearly instantaneous shade. No doubt they were very beautiful while they lasted, and they offered ancillary benefits: \"The elevation of the tree is also favourable for inviting and protecting singing-birds ... Since the streets of some of the American towns have been planted with Lombardy poplars, the [Baltimore] orioles are constant visitors Lombardy poplars on Boston's Fenway, Wilson). ). 1919 (E. H. left to give you a view of some beautiful prospect beyond ...\" One of Hamilton's own letters indicates other uses. In 1789 he referred to a flower border \"in front of the necessary [privy] skreen of cedars & Lombardy poplars.\" The leftover poplar cuttings were to be planted \"in the Gaps long the orchard fence next the road placing them as not to exceed a foot from each other as the season is so far advanced they should be planted very deep or will fail. 2 Eyes above ground will be enough. \"6 The first American guide to openings are fine trees or planting, published in 1806 by Philadelphia nurseryman Bernard M'Mahon, also recommended it as a hedge.' Its sheltering qualities were widely recognized, and for this purpose it ...\"'3 be cut at top and sides to form a narrow wall. \"It is an excellent tree for sheltergreen ing or shading either fields or gardens in a flat country; but care must be taken to plant it at a sufficient distance; and, where shelter is was to There is nothing like widespread use to uncover the weaknesses of a plant, and the Lombardy's shortcomings got ample exposure. Problems appeared shortly after the tree came into widespread use on streets. Like other members of the genus, its wood is weak and prone to break. The roots disrupt sidewalk 26 The Lombardies that encmcled the tomb of Jeanjacques Rousseau at Ermenonmlle, France, formed one of Europe's most famous tree plantmgs. The tableau was often imitated (Promenade ou itineraire des jardins d'Ermenonville [5. Girardin], ), 1788). pavement above ground and penetrate and clog water and sewer pipes below ground. Boston's Park Street Lombardies were replaced by American elms as early as 1826. By 1871, an ordinance compelled the removal of existing specimens and banned the planting of new ones in Albany, New York. By then, many cities, including Washington, D.C., and Brooklyn, no longer tolerated the Lombardy. 14 By mid-nineteenth century it had fallen from favor elsewhere, too. Downing, that period's chief arbiter of landscape taste and American disseminator of English practices, complained in 1841 that it had been so over-I used as to become \"tiresome and disgusting.\"'S Another writer commented in 1870 that The 1915 caption read: \"This tree has a special landscape value which no other tree possesses and under special conditions it can be used to better advantage than other trees\" (Lemson, Amemcan Forestry, Vol. 21 J. \"when first introduced into this country the rage for it was so great that town streets, and country roads, and farm-house yards, were everywhere filled with them; but familiarity has bred contempt.\"'~ Just before the turn of the twentieth century, Marianna Van Rensselaer noted that \"we do not see it so often, although our fathers dearly loved to plant it. It has suffered much from disease in recent years, and, moreover, the canons of such gardening taste as we possess say that its formality is inappropriate in naturalistic landscape-scenes.\"\" Notwithstanding reservations, it was acknowledged throughout the nineteenth century and into the twentieth that properly used, the tree played a sigmficant role in the land- 27 \"A over degree of sublimity\" Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, published in eight volumes the years 1834 to 1837, remains an important compendium of centuries of information on British trees, native and introduced. In it, he gave eleven pages to the Lombardy poplar, saying, \"We have been induced to enlarge on the subject more than we should have done, from seeing the frequent misapplication of the tree in the neighbourhood of London, as well as its good effects in various instances.\"* He therefore offered several examples \"to show how easy it is, by means of the Lombardy poplar, to add to the effect of a landscape, or to destroy the harmony of its different parts. In short, the Lombardy poplar, like the weeping willow and birch, is a most dangerous tree in the hands of a planter who has not considerable knowledge and good taste in the composition of landscape.\" Below are some of Loudon's examples. John Claudius Loudon's The mass Lombardy poplar, considered as a tall comcal of foliage, becomes of great importance in scenery, when contrasted with round-headed trees. It known rule m the composition of landscape, that all horizontal lines should be balanced and supported by perpendicular ones; and, hence, the bridge [at Blenheim] in figure 1, displaymg a long and conspicuous horizontal line, has its effect greatly mcreased by the poplars planted on each side of it. Not only the lines of the bridge are balanced and supported by the upright poplars, but lengthened and pleasmg reflections from the water are produced; which, breaking the horizontal gleams of light, not only produce variety and mchness, but by mcreasmg the length of the perpendicular lines formed by the poplars, confer a degree of sublimity on the picture: smce it is allowed by all writers on the material sublime, from Burke to Dugald Stewart, that gradually tapering objects of great height create the emotion of sublimity. This poplar, or some equally fastigiate tree, should appear in all plantations and belts that are made with a view to picturesque effect; as m figure 2 where the outline is vaned as well as the face of the plantation. Masses of round-headed trees, such as figure 3, though they might be seen to advantage m some situations, when groupmg with other objects, is a ' yet, when contemplated by themselves, are quite uninteresting, from their dull and monotonous appearance; but add the poplars, as in figure 4, and you immediately create an interest and give a certain character to the group, which it did not before possess.... The branches of the poplars, rising stiffly upwards, contrast with, and render more graceful, the horizontal or pendant masses of the round-headed trees; and the stems of the poplars being clear of branches to a greater height than the other trees, form an agreeable variety in the lower part of the group. Loudon, Arboretum et Fzuticetum Britanmcum, Vol. III (London. A. Spotuswoode for the Author, 1838~, 1660-1670. 28 scape. Downing recognized its beauty and the elegant effect it could produce when employed to give \"life, spirit, and variety to a scene composed entirely of round-headed trees ... when a tall poplar, emerging here and there from the back or centre of the group, often imparts an air of elegance and animation to the whole.\"'8 In L. H. Bailey's influential Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, first published in 1900, it was recommended \"to give such points of emphasis in green landscape as does the churchspire in the village.\"'9 And the Lombardy was surely one of the plants Guy Lowell had in mind when he wrote in American Gardens in 1902: traveling abroad is sure, after seethe formal gardens of Rome and of Northing ern Italy, to wish to reproduce them in some form in his own country. He does not always remember that climatic conditions are not the same ... different flowers, trees, and hedges have to be used in attemptmg to produce effects similar to those in Italy, for it is impossible to grow here many of the broad-leaved evergreens which give so much character to the villa gardens of Rome. The lines and masses may be similar, the principles of design may be the same, but the effect in detail is different, for different elements must be used, or must needs be changed to meet new conditrons?o An American Cypress Alley, Villa Gamberaia, Italy, as lllustrated in An Introduction to the Study of Landscape Design by H. V Hubbard ~ Theodora Kimball, 1915. are planted solely for their architectural value. The house is rather narrow and high. These tall, slender \"Lombardys\" seem to belong to the scheme of the house and bring it into bet- The resemblance of the Lombardy's narrow, aspiring head to that of the Italian cypress ` (Cupressus sempervirens) came in very handy in the Gilded Age when wealthy Americans acquired the taste and means to import European models of landscaping. In an early, relatively modest instance, artists and writers, beginning with the sculptor Augustus SaintGaudens in the 1880s, transformed New England farmhouses in Cornish, New Hampshire, into versions of hillside Italian villas. A 1906 article in Century Magazine described Saint- ter proportion.21 was in Cornish, on his own property and that of four neighbors, that the artist, architect, and landscape designer Charles Platt developed the Italianate villa style that played such an important part in the country house It movement in turn-of-the-century America. He Gaudens' use of Lombardies: Lombardy poplars have more than once been used with excellent effect by Cornish gardeners, and, what is rarer, with reserve ... The single poplars, which, on Mr. Saint-Gaudens's place, stand one on each comer of the terrace used the Lombardy as Italians use their cypress, to frame views and accent architecture .22 The poplar's susceptibility to disease has been problematic since its earliest years of cultivation in Europe and North America. It is prone to a canker-forming fungus that kills the tree from the top down, destroying its shape and shortening its lifespan. Cryptodiaporthe 29 An allee of Lombardy poplars directs visitors through the entrance of an estate in Lenox, Massachusetts, (Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). But its sures a an 1920 also known as Dothichiza canker, is of the major diseases of poplars in general, but it affects the Lombardy most severely. Identified in the United States in 1915, the canker occurs wherever Lombardies grow, but regional conditions and the preexisting health of the individual plant appear to affect the extent of infection. No cure is known.'~ So while the Lombardy is still grown, especially in Mediterranean climates or more northern regions, for many of us in the Northeast it persists mostly as a memory. If Downing were writing today, he could no longer say that it is too well known to need description. For so many years a lead player in the cast of trees favored for landscape effect, it has become a bit player in most schemes. canker, one splendidly dramatic size and form enmemorable impact whenever it makes . appearance. Notes I Andrew Jackson Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardenmg \/1841; repnnt, Little Compton, R.I.: Theophrastus Pub- lishers, 1977), 2 154-155. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bntrsh Isles, 8th ed. (London: John Murray, 1976), 320. W. writes that the so-called \"female Lombardy poplars\" are almost certamly seedlings of typical P mgra pollinated by \"Italica,\" and are generally less Bean columnar than the male parent. 3 John Claudius Loudon, Arboretum Bntannrcum; or, et Fruticetum The Trees and Shrubs of Bntam, 30 Vol. III (London: A. Spottiswoode for the Author, 1s Downing, 152. Frank J. Scott, The Art Home Grounds 1838), 4 1661. 16 Augustine Henry, \"The Black Poplars,\" The Gardeners' Chronicle (July 4, 1914) LVI, Third Senes (NY: D. of Beautifymg Suburban Appleton, 1870\/, 363. (1,436) : 5 1-2. s 1~ Schuyler [Marianna] Van Rensselaer, Art Outof-Doors (NY: Charles Scnbner's Sons, 1893), 274. Mrs. ' Loudon, 1660, 1662. Karen 18 Downing, 152. Mannmg, \"The Art of Designing Landscapes,\"The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, ed. L. H. Bailey, Vol. II, 2nd ed. (NY: The Macmillan Company, 1928), 1786. Warren , ~ 6 Madsen, 19. \"To Make His Country Smile: Arnoldia William Hamilton's Woodlands,\" ~Sprmg 19 1989\/ 49\/2\/: ~ Bernard M'Mahon, Amemcan Gardener's Calendar (Philadelphia: B. Graves for the Author, 1806), 257. Loudon,1668. zo 8 Guy Lowell, Introduction, (Boston: Bates & Guild Company, 1902), unpaged. Frances Duncan, \"The Gardens of Century Magazine (May 1906) 72: 3-19. The American Garden 9 U. P. Hednck, A History of Horticulture in America to 1860 (NY: Oxford University Press, 1950), 146. 21 Cormsh,\" 1 zz Stephen A. Spongberg, A Reumon of Trees (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1990), 80. J. W. Francis Old New York; Or Reminiscences of the Past Sixty Years (New York: Charles Roe, 1858\/, (, in 11 23, quoted Iz Spongberg, 60. 23 Keith N. Morgan, Charles A. Platt: The Artist as Architect (NY: The Architectural History Foundation : 1985), 24-26. Morgan writes that Platt \"worked broadly with existing stands of mature trees, favormg groves of birches and pmes and \" addmg Lombardy poplars for architectural accents.\" Loudon, Vol. I, 147. Wayne 13 Loudon, 1666-1667, quotes The Magazme of Natural History, Vol. I, 418. A. Smclair, Howard H. Lyon, and Warren T. Diseases of Trees and Shrubs (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press: 1987), 184. Johnson, - 14 J. J. Levison, ed., \"Ornamental and Shade Trees,\" Amencan Forestry (October 1915) 21 (262): 995. Christina Wood is pursumg a certificate m the history of landscape design at the Radcliffe Semmars of Radcliffe College. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Punctuating the Skyline: Alternatives to the Lombardy Poplar","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25104","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170b728.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"Punctuating the Skyline: Alternatives to the Lombardy Karen Madsen Tree-experts may warn me that they are liable to borers and bark-lice, and that they lose their leaves early in the season, and in many ways invite the use of the axe. It may be so. I have enjoyed them, howeve~ for a number of years and they are entirely healthy yet, although surely a score of years in age. It will be a long time, therefore, before an axe under my direction will touch them. Even the tendency to lose their leaves early m the season would not induce me to use the axe, for their lofty spire-like forms dominate everything and establish that variety of skyline so much to be desired by the lawn-planter. Let the hmbs be bare and the trunk scarred and seamed with borers, the noble outline is there ... Samuel Parsons (1891)( More than hundred years later, there remain \"lawn-planters\" who stand with the nineteenthcentury superintendent of New York City Parks on this issue-dedicated, as he was, to the proposition that the Lombardy poplar offers qualities not available in other trees. For these steadfast few, \"the noble outline,\" the fast growth, sublime height, and sinuous leaf movement are irreplaceable and irresistible, more than offsetting a short life made shorter still by canker. In the face of all odds, they continue to plant the Lombardy. But for those whose commitment to the problem-ridden Lombardy falls short of Mr. Parsons', there are other fastigiate trees that are worthy of consideration for specific situations. a P. alba 'Pyramidalis' (Bolleana or fastigiate white poplar) are candidates, although not free of problems themselves. The latter can be seen on the Charles River Esplanade in Boston. Very like the Lombardy in habit (although rather wider in proportion to its height), it can be recognized in summer by the cottony white of the underside of its leaves. It is easily propagated, but does not grow as fast as the Lombardy nor quite so high. Like many fastigiates, which concentrate their resources on growing upright instead of spreading, it tends to become bare at the base. Populus sp. The Lombardy hadn't been long in cultivation when one special quality was noted by William Gilpin \/ 1791that is, \"the waving line it forms when agitated by the wind. Most trees, in this circumstance, are partially agitated: side is in rest, while the other is in motion. But the Italian poplar waves in one simple sweep from the top to the bottom, like an one ostrich feather on a lady's head.\" All poplars have the flattened leafstalk that makes the Lombardy's blade so responsive to the wind, and thus another poplar is a logical choice to replicate its movement and sound. Populus tremulus 'Erecta' (upright European aspen) or Quercus robur 'Fastigiata' (Upright English Oak) Nearly all long-cultivated trees have deviated into erect-growing-as well as weeping-forms, and among them is the oak, emblem of strength and longevity. The upright English oak is large and imposing; a mature tree may be sixty feet or more in height with a span of only ten to fifteen feet. When leafless, it greatly resembles the Lombardy in form. It has the advantage of being longer-lived and freer from insect attack, although mildew can be a serious problem. Since oaks are relatively difficult to propagate vegetatively, cultivated specimens are generally grown from seed, which creates the possibility of wide variation in form. Most seedlings-as many as eighty or ninety percent 32 Populus alba `Pyramidahs' nses like a vertical spire from a homzontal lme of trees on the Charles River Esplanade, Boston, giving contrast to a weepmg willow and providing the exclamation point in a composition of rounded trees. All photos by the author. to Dirr-do acquire the columnar habit of the parent. Specimens that grow true to form approach the Lombardy in outline and effect. according Fagus sylvatica `Fastigiata' (Fastigiate or Dawyck Beech) The fastigiate beech shares the grace and majesty of its parent species, as well as its beauty, especially when twigs take on a purplish tinge in the spring sunlight and the shapely buds have begun to expand but are still enclosed in their delicate, bronzy carapaces. It is also true to the species in its glossy foliage, smooth gray bark, and fibrous roots. The fastigiate cultivar can attain eighty feet. Dense and amenable to shearing, it makes an admirable hedge, screen, or wall. Its breadth is greater than the Lombardy's or the upright its density gives it a bushier form than either. The fastigiate beech seen in a photo to the right is one of three that stand in a sunken garden in Boston's Back Bay. Now fifty years old, they have broadened to a pear shape; with age, side shoots tend to come off the main branches and to splay out, especially with the weight of rain. In the past few years, the lower third of these trees have been pruned. Acer rubrum oak's, and 'Armstrong' (Armstrong Red Maple) Both 'Armstrong' and A. rubrum 'Columnare' are grown at the Arnold, but here it is the Armstrong that is more nearly upright. Fast growers (as much as twelve feet in five to seven years according to Dirr) and moderately weak-wooded, they can attain seventy or more feet in height, gradually spreading out over Quercus robur `Fastigiata' (upright English oakJ m Weston, Massachusetts. Fagus sylvauca Fnstigiata (fastlglate or Dawyk beech) on Marlborough Street, Boston. Acer Wuum at Armstrong' (Armstrong red ruupleJ the Arnold Arboretum. Carpinus betulus `Columnaris' (the Schmoo hornbeam) at the Arnold Arboretum. 34 is too great, the plant accepts its dense habit is itself so neat that it looks naturally as by though it had been sheared. With its impenenarrow tree pruning very well. However, trable branches, the columnar hornbeam makes a superb hedge, and as a sheltering screen it is hard to beat. Its very erect branches take a slender spire-like form when young, later approaching the oval, but always very striking and elegant. Sources and References Bean, W. J. 1907. \"Fastigiate Trees.\" The Gardeners' Chronicle 41 (Third Series) : 149-150, 184185, 200. 1976-1980. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bnush Isles, ed. D. L. Clarke. 8th ed. rev. 4 vols. London: John Murray. 1988. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bntish Isles, Supplement. London: John Murray. Plants. Their Identification, Ornamental Charactemstics, Culture, Propagation and Uses. 4th edition., Champaign, IL: Stipes Dirr, Michael A. 1990. Manual of Woody Landscape Pubhshmg Company. Gilpm, Carpinus betulus 'Columnaris' pinus at the Arnold Arboretum. share the among other Car- William. 1791. Remarks on forest scenery and other woodland mews (relative chiefly to picturesque beauty) illustrated by the scenes of New-Forest m Hampshire. 2 vol. London. New time from an initial width of about fifteen feet. Parsons, Samuel, Jr. 1891. Landscape Gardemng. York: G. P. Putnam's Sons. They early spring flowers, lovely silver-gray bark, and fall color of their species. The Armstrong serves well as an avenue tree, especially in crowded urban conditions. Carpinus betulus 'Columnaris' (Columnar Hornbeam) The sheltering qualities of the Lombardy are more than equally supplied by the columnar hornbeam (or the \"Shmoo,\" as it is affectionately known at the Arnold). If the height of this relatively small (forty to sixty feet) and Wyman, Donald. 1965. Rev. and Trees for American Gardens. enlarged ed. New York: Macmillan Publishmg Co., Inc. Acknowledgements Thanks for arboncultural advice are due Phyllis Andersen, Peter Del Tredici, and Gary Koller and to Mary Jane Kaplan for literary advice. Karen Madsen is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Memorium: Jennifer Reimer Quigley (1946-1994)","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25102","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170af6b.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"IN MEMORIAM jennifer Reimer Quigley 1946-1994 It is with deep regret and sadness that we record the death of Jennifer Reimer Quigley on 30 March 1994, after a three-month battle with cancer. Known to many as Jennifer Hicks, Jennie joined the staff of the Arnold Arboretum on 29 March 1976 as Horticultural Secretary, a position she held until she took charge of the plants records office in March of 1979. It was in this latter position that Jennie truly found her niche at the Arboretum, a position that utilized her numerous talents and skills of organization, cartography, calligraphy, and her great attention to detail. To the position she also brought her considerable knowledge of botany and horticulture and botanical nomenclature, not to mention her great persistence in seeing enormous tasks to completion. Literally thousands of zinc records labels were created by Jennie on the now-antiquated addressograph machine, and the vast majority of records in our computer database were her entries. Jennie was also instrumental in evoking change in the fundamental ways in which the records, labeling, and mapping office operated to insure the proper curation of the Arboretum's living collections and to make information readily available to all who needed it. It was during Jennie's tenure that the Arboretum staff began the initial computerization of the living collections files under her direction, an attempt that was doomed by virtue of hardware failure, but one that led to the development of BG-Base and the establishment of a computer network at the Arboretum. Working as Kerry Walter's chief Arboretum consultant, Jennifer's imprint is present throughout the plant records side of BG-Base, the computer software that is now used at the Arnold Arboretum and at botanical gardens and arboreta worldwide. Over her eighteen years at the Arboretum Jennifer was also responsible for training and supervising a cadre of horticultural interns, many of whom have gone on to career positions at other botanical gardens and arboreta. It was a recurring and familiar event when one of these former interns would return to the Arboretum, specifically to seek out their former mentor in her basement office, which prior to the renovation of the Hunnewell Building served as the nerve center for the living collections department. While deeply involved with the curation of the woody plant collections of the Arboretum during working hours, Jennie spent untold time in her own garden during late afternoons and evenings and on weekends. An active member of the New England Chapter of the Rock Garden Society, Jennie served that society in various capacities including board member and chapter chairperson from 1991 to 1993. In the plant world her true love focused on small herbaceous perennials suitable for cultivation in the rock garden, and her knowledge of these plants was encyclopedic. During the winter months, moreover, Jennie's free time was usually spent reading about plants, seeking sources for new unusual ones, and coaxing seeds received from fellow enthusiasts to germinate in the warmth of her comfortable, cat-inhabited home. Ever helpful in providing needed information to both staff and the steady stream of visitors that came to study and utilize the collections at the Arboretum as well as her many friends on various computer networks, Jennifer Quigley will be sorely missed by all her friends. We have lost not only her efficiency and knowledge but also her humor, her straightforward approach to problem solving, her kindness, and her devotion to plants and the Arnold Arboretum. -S. A. Spongberg "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1993","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25101","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170af26.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data -1993 According to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1993 was very close to normal in precipitation and sunshine. The months of May, June, July, and August were sunny, hot, and dry, creating a drought-like atmosphere at the Arboretum. The high temperature of 99 was accompanied by twenty other days in the 90's. This was seven 90 days above our normal count. September brought a reprieve with cooler temperatures and abundant moisture. This trend continued through October, November, and December, allowing our plant material to recover before the freeze of winter. Overall, there were thirty-one more growing days in 1993 than in 1992. Note: "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25103","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170b36f.jpg","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS A New Relevancy Robert E. Cook, Director The Historical Challenge More than a century ago, a new institution was born through the vision of three men. Frederick Law Olmsted, newly appointed architect of Boston's park system, designed an extraordinary plan for the land. Charles Sprague Sargent, newly appointed head of the Arnold Arboretum, directed the assemblage of a magnificent collection of trees for scientific research. Charles William Eliot, newly appointed president of the Harvard Corporation, declared this Arboretum to be an essential part of a great educational enterprise, Harvard University. Fifty-four years after its founding, the Arboretum faced a grave challenge upon the death of Sargent, its first and only director. How would this vision, nurtured by his leadership and supported by the annual generosity of his close associates, survive the financial storms ahead without the living spirit of its leader? Only a strong investment in the future, through the creation of an endowment fund the in his memory, would secure of financial staneeded to sustain its mission bility to collect and study the trees of the world. A goal of $1,000,000 was set, and a campaign was launched. A loyal group of Sargent's friends from across the country rose to meet this challenge. And what friends they were. In New York alone, the Charles Sprague Sargent Memorial Fund was chaired by Henry James with J. P. measure Morgan serving as treasurer. They Arboretum education initiatives aim to make children partners in science learning. raised $1,021,884. Today, the Arnold Arboretum is known the world over for its leadership in the study of trees, especially those of the Asian continent. A New Relevancy It has been sixty-six years since that great campaign on behalf of the Arboretum. Today the institution faces a new challenge. Our world has grown very small in the last half century. The common environment that sustains our daily existence is under increasing assault. Where once Sargent would have traveled thousands of miles to collect the seeds of exotic Chinese trees, today those rich forests of temperate Asia have been decimated by the axe. Over the past several decades, the accelerating loss of forests in tropical Asia has contributed to irreversible changes in the very climate that surrounds us all. Closer to home, the next generation of children, who will inherit this altered world, are leaving our school system unprepared for the future. We are failing to educate all Americans in the basic understanding of science and technology that permits them to evaluate critical environmental issues and execute the obligations institutions are being called upon to transcend their traditional mission of scholarship. Much more than in the past, their resources are forest management policies that can enhance sustainable development. Here in our own community, the Arboretum has become a center for science learning among the schoolchildren of Boston. Each year we bring hundreds of classrooms to experience our landscapes, and we work directly with elementary teachers to enhance their knowledge of basic biology and support their instruction of science in the classroom. Through the use of telecommunications technology, we will soon link neighboring schools in Boston and Brookline directly with each other and with the educational resources of the Arboretum. This electronic commumty will reinforce the development of a social community for science learning through our collaborative work with families, teachers, and their students. Because this service to society is an amplification of our historic mission, it places new demands on our financial resources. We must continue our traditional role of curating our collections and fostering scholarship. At the same time we must confront a challenge today that parallels that con- being asked to address urgent social, economic, and international through direct service to society. issues The Arboretum has heard this call, and we are in a unique position to respond. On the one hand, as part of Harvard University, we curate the collections and cultivate the knowledge that will be required for the resolution of pressing problems. (See box below on the upcoming expedition to China.) On the other hand, as part of the urban fabric of Boston, we experience an added obligation to transform this knowledge into service for the community around us. Consequently, we have begun to answer this call. With the support of international agencies such as the World Bank, we are bringing the expertise of our staff to collaborate directly with the governments of Asian nauons. Working closely with country scientists, we are of responsible citizenship. It is no surprise that all of our providing assistance for the conservation of their critical biological resources through botanical exploration and inventory, the identification of promising medicinal plants, and the generation of fronted ensure by Sargent's associates How can we our sixty-six years ago. that present commit- pleased to announce its participation in a plant-collecting expedition to Wudang Shan Mountains in Hubei Province, China, planned for Fall 1994. As a member of the North American China Plant Exploration Consortium (NACPEC), which will cooperate with the Nanjing Botanical Garden in this venture, the Arboretum will be represented by Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Director for Living Collections. Other members of the Consortium who will be participating in the trip include Longwood Gardens, Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, and the U.S. National Arboretum. The Arboretum is 2 apply our knowledge to urgent societal problems will not ment to new relevancy in in our mission. This friends our erode in the face of future financial pressures? The Challenge for a New Generation We must look once again to our friends for help. Our goal is $8,000,000, to be secured in an endowment for the service of a goal matches, today's dollars, the aspirations of the Sargent Memorial Fund sixty-six years ago. As part of The University Campaign, it reaffirms the vision of our founders and the commitment of Harvard to it. The Arboretum Campaign calls forth the confidence and support of our invest in the future of augmented mission. At a time to our when children and our world for leadership, the challook lenge is clear and our obligation unambiguous. With this help, we shall meet this challenge again. to us Adapted from the Mayl3 Supplement to the Harvard Unzverrity Gazette. a First Impressions of the Arnold Arboretum from Winter Transplant Kim E. Tripp impression was of in spots, and cold The very first snow-deep not too down my boots-but definitely deep to keep me from tramping (and sliding, slipping, and bumping) along a slick conifer path to the firs-firs with whom I had been greatly looking forward to renewing a friendship. That was on the first day, and I finally stood below one of the Abies were x umbellata, whose limbs ever so bowed slightly with that same snow. that, while less than thrilling down my boots, was perfect garb for the striking dimplecone fir. Snow that seemed Snow to somehow stay miraculously new and fresh for weeks (because, in reality, it actually did-I'm certain it snowed at least once a day during my first weeks here). Snow that, after seven years in snowless climes, was nothing less than sheer pleasure to me, even as it hung on in stubborn, dirty lumps, melting into April's mud. The old friend made new again for me by the trees at the Arnold--a kind of arboreal renewal I keep finding around every bend in the living collections. The Arnold Arboretum has a long history of plants and plantspeople, a history that is snow was an Kim Tripp arrived at the Arboretum in February as a Putnam Fellow with a two-year appointment to do research, teaching, and writing focused on the Arnold's living collections. Kim comes to us from the North Carolina State University Arboretum where she worked with Dr. J. C. Raulston as a postdoctoral research associate. She acquired her Ph.D. in Horticultural Science from North Carolina State and an M.S. in Vegetable Crops from Cornell University. She is a researcher with many skills and an impressive list of publications. At the Arnold she will be engaged in the evaluation and propagation of selected collections (including Alnus and Cephalotaxus), and in basic plant physiology research. She's seen above with Cephalotaxus sinensis. 3 far from any endeavor here. legacy of over 120 of dedicated work by many years individuals naturally runs the human gamut from bungling to brilliance, but it is apparent to any newcomer that brilliance has more often than not won out. As a result, the living collections at the Arnold are one of the great gifts of that historical legacy to the world. But the Arnold's living collecnever The historical landscape plants generally bear relationship to the environments in which those plants originally evolved and, therefore, can little lovely landscape through which wander again and again, from winter through fall, and conone can be far more stressful because of those disparities. Simple differ- ences, like a plant's genetic dispoto invest more growth in than shoot, can allow it to thrive in environments fatal to other plants. The living collections of the Arnold offer an unparalleled opportunity to explore such differences in growth across roots sition are much more than a living legacy. As I go off in search of each day's elusive treasure (I know that last Cephalotaxus must be down this path somewhere ... ), I am tions learn for a lifetime. Old and young saplings, fond giants familiars and exciting unknowns, native groves and exotic specimens, are all growing together to continually re-create this arboretum. This is a place of great complexity, a place of rich tradition and significant history, of modern challenge and new opportunity, of disciplined research and pure silvan tinue to struck by the sense of newness and ongoing evolution in these 265 rolling acres of woody plants. that comes with the on venerable Picea wrlsonrr. with freshly dug nursery trees stacked ready for planting, with the flats of rare young seedlings growing on in the greenhouse, with each unexpected encounter of the plant kind (Oh! Here's Styrax obassia!), or with the late evening light glowing through the grove of American beeches. After only a few weeks of exploring the grounds, I have already found favorite plants and places but, all of my efforts to the contrary, I have only begun to scratch the surface of the mindboggling wealth of plants here. It is that mind-boggling wealth of plants that brings someone like myself to the Arnold. My efforts to understand the growth and \"behavior\" of plants in horticultural environments, especially as relates to their roots, has often left me scratching my head over the unexpected differences bea sense new It is growth astounding breadth of plants, both between and within botanical families and genera, from an impressive range of native environments. I will be exploring such differences in growth in search of patterns that relate to their performance in different environments. an magic-an unforgettable place I am coming to know as the Arnold. Spring Planting Peter Del Tredici By increasing our understanding woody plants survive and prosper in managed environments, we improve our chances of carrying a strong diversity of trees into the increasingly stressful and urof how banized environs of the future. I have been delighted to discover that the chance to work here excellent access not only living collections themselves, but also to the experienced and insightful staff of the living collections-a unique opportunity that has already led to rewarding exchanges of ideas and information. In addition, the libraries are a world-class resource, where one can easily and happily lose entire days without realizing they have gone by and where I have found time to begin research for some of me to offers the Julie Coop After the crew were and Susan Kelley. unforgettable winter of 1993-94, the staff and grounds of the Arnold Arboretum particularly anxious to start the year's spring planting. As of this writing, seventy-five new trees have been planted on the grounds with an equal number yet to go in. We are most excited about the dozen new birches that have been set out, especially in view of the tremendous losses we have experienced in that genus over the last years (seventy-plus trees removed). In terms of impact on the two my writing projects. But my first impressions of the very closely plants grown in the same environment. The environments we create for tween related Arnold Arboretum invariably back to the plants, the trees, the thousands of wonderful woodies spread across Olmsted's come collections, devastation of the birches by the bronze birch borer 4 has been equal to or greater than that of the elms by Dutch elm disease. We wish the new birches a long and fruitful life. Other notable additions to the collections are a small group of tupelos (Nyssa sylvatica) along the southern edge of Dawson Pond, including a rare specimen of Nyssa sylvatzea `Pendula'. We've also planted two new hardy pecans (Carya illanoensss) as companions to our one lone specimen. Come around in ten or fifteen years, and we'll have our own sweet pecans to brag about. John Olmsted and John DelRosso pruning a honey locust on Peters Hill. Jim Nickerson with the Lilac Collection. the debris from the clean-up of Spongberg, Peter Del Tredici, planted Aesculus x carnea 'Briotii'. Steve and a newly in the rear, John From left in front: John Olmsted, Jim Papagiris, Mark Walkama, Julie Coop, Joan Mullins; Luis Colon, Bob Famiglietti (standing), DelRosso, Karl Holmes, Pat Willoughby, Bruce Munch, Dennis Harris, and Don Garrick. Kenny Clarke, Jim Nickerson, and Maurice Sheehan are missing from the picture. 5 Programs & Events During the summer, the Arnold Arboretum Education Department offers garden visits and tours, short in horticulture, and talks on many aspects of gardening. A selection of summer courses is shown here. For a complete catalogue of programs and events at the Arboretum, please call (617) 524-1718, ext. 162. courses Please a note that fees shown in boldface are for members of the Arboretum. For information about member, please call (617) 524-1718, ext. 165. becoming HOR 330 Perennial Combinations for Summer Elise Laurenzz, Garden Designer Learn how to combine perennials for complementary texture and color whether you garden in full sun or partial shade. Participants will see how to combine native plants with exotics, select plants for foliage as well as flowers, and choose plants appropriate for a variety of sites. Cultural practices and design techniques for low maintenance will be discussed. Fee: $16.00, $19.00 HOR 110 Fundamentals of Gardening Laura Eisener, Landscape Designer Whether you are a novice starting your first garden old hand looking for a firmer foundation, this practical course will satisfy your quest for basic gardening information. In the four sessions you will learn a variety of the basic principles essential to or an good gardening. This course will cover basic techniques of gar- Monday, June 20\/ 10:00-noon (Case Estates) the Sea dening, including: site analysis and soil preparation, irrigation, drainage, watermg, plant selection, and horticultural requirements of plants. There will be some hands-on work at the site, in addition to lectures and demonstrations. Fee: $85.00, $100.00 by Landscape Architect Newport, Rhode Island, has a long and romantic garden history. The former estate gardens, with their staffs of gardeners, are largely a thing of the past, but the Newport tradition of gracious gardening remains. Smaller gardens flourish now in the benign Newport climate. In a full day of garden visits, we will be escorted by Newport-area landscape architect Kate Field, who will show us lovely pnvate gardens, and discuss the gardening traditions of Newport, past and present. The gardens will be near the peak of bloom for roses as well as the classic palette of perennials. On one of our stops we will enjoy a picnic among the flowers, overlooking the sea. A special day for garKatherine Alexander Field, den lovers. Fee: tion WAL 133 Private Gardens 4 Thursdays, July 7, 14, 21, 28\/ 9:00-11:30 (Case Estates) am HOR 280 History Underfoot at the Arnold Arboretum Richard Schulhof, Assistant Director, Education and Public Affazrs, Arnold Arboretum Although best-known for programs of botanical research and extensive collections of plants, the Arnold Arboretum with its 265-acre landscape contains a wealth of human and natural history. Based on historical research conducted under a recent grant from the National Endowment for the Humanities, this class will explore the evolution of the plant collections as well as the site's prehistory and its role in Native American, Colonial, and Country Estate periods. Wear comfortable shoes for this vigorous rain-or-shine walk. Fee: $10.00, $12.00 $110.00, $125.00. and lunch. Fee includes transporta- Friday, June 24\/ 8:00 am-6:00 pm. Bus departs from the Arnold Arboretum Main Gates. Saturday, July 9\/ 10:00 am-12:30 pm (Hunnewell Building and Arboretum grounds) WAL 110 The Blue Hills - An Author's Perspective with T'homas Palmer, Naturalist and Author of Landscape Reptile: Rattlesnakes in an Urban World Rosa rugosa 'Salt Spray' Question: What do rattlesnakes have m common with the Blue Hills? Answer: Both have been the objects of years of fascinated study by author Tom Palmer. Darrell Probst teaching an adult education course in perennials at the Case Estates, Weston. Explore the Blue Hills with this author and naturalist who has spent uncountable hours exploring the Hills in search of Crotalus horridus, the timber rattlesnake. Palmer will lead a walk up his favorite peak and share his knowledge of the region's history, ecology, geology, and folklore and perhaps introduce some of its inhabitants. (Rattlesnake sighungs, however, are not likely.) The Blue Hills is a low range of hills just south of Boston. Participants should be prepared for a rigorous walk covering one to two miles of rugged terrain. Bring a snack and a beverage. Participants may also wish to bring a picnic supper to enjoy after the hike. Meet at Houghton's Pond in Milton. Directions will be sent with registration confirmation. Fee: Vitex, chaste-tree; Buddleta, butterfly bush; Genz.rta, dyer's greenweed; Clethra. summer-sweet; Clerodendrum, glorybower; Calluna, heather; and many others. This is an outdoor walking course held rain Fee: or shine. $21.00, $25.00 Friday, July 29\/ 9:30-noon (Dana Greenhouses) HOR 136 Ornamental Grasses Darrell R. Probst, Horticultural Consultant and Land- scape Designer In the diverse world of ornamental grasses exist plants suitable for gardens of every size and for sunny, shady, wet, and dry locations. Some grasses are so large and dramatic that they can be used as shrubs or specimen plantings; others are miniatures, at home in the small-scale landscape. Their colors $12.00, $15.00 Sunday, July 10\/ 3:00-6:30 pm (TBA) HOR 134 Summer Flowering Shrubs Paul Martin Brown, Naturalist and Hortzculturzst The long hot, humid days of midsummer bring a wide variety of both color and texture to the shrub border. Many genera offer unusual species that deserve consideration in the design of the summer garden. This class will focus on the culture and habitat requirements of a range of mid- and late-summer flowering shrubs, including Aesculus, dwarf buckeye; form golds, and whites. rainbow of greens, pinks, creams, blues, This introduction to decorative grasses will focus on the culture, management, and design potential of these versatile perennials. Saturday's field trip will be to the Quansett Nurseries in Westport, MA. a $48.00, $55.00 Thursday, August 18\/ 6:30-8:30 pm (CE) and 1 field trip, Saturday, August 20\/ 11:30 am-3:30 Fee: pm (TBA) 7 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23273","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160b76d.jpg","title":"1994-54-1","volume":54,"issue_number":1,"year":1994,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Emerald Metropolis","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25094","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add1608928.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Haglund, Karl","article_content":"Emerald Metropolis Karl Haglund One hundred years ago the founders of Boston's .i Metropolitan Park Commission realized a transcendentalist vision by reserving as public open space \"the rock hills, the stream banks, and the bay and the sea shores\" of the region. At the height of the Panic of 1893 Charles Francis Adams and his brother Henry \"packed up our troubles and made for Chicago\" to see the World's Columbian Exposition. Like thousands of others they were captivated and astonished by the fantastic ensemble of images they saw there-neoclassical buildings, all perfectly white, arrayed according to Frederick Law Olmsted's site plan to display \"the successful grouping in harmonious relationships of vast and magnificent structures.\" Employing the talents of America's best architects, the fair's \"White City\" generated enormous enthusiasm for what soon came to be called the City Beautiful movement.'1 In his autobiography, Henry Adams puzzled over the exhibits and the architecture of the exposition. Given that these extraordinary white structures had been \"artistically induced to pass the summer on the shore of Lake Michigan,\"the question was, did they seem at home there? More than that, Adams wondered whether Americans were at home in the fair's idealized New World city. But neither of the Adamses, in their published works or private writings, connected what they saw in Chicago with Charles' work as chairman of the Metropolitan Park Commission in Boston. In January 1893 the six-month-old park commission had published its report, written by Sylvester Baxter and Charles Eliot, the commission's secretary and landscape architect ; Adams wrote the introduction. Their re- port addressed the urban environment, but not by focusing on the city center as Chicago's White City had done. Nor did they advocate taking control of suburban developmentstreet plans and public transportation as well as parks-an approach that Olmsted and others had unsuccessfully urged in New York City in the 1870s. Looking instead to the margins and the in-between spaces of the region, they envisioned an \"Emerald Metropolis.\" More than a city in a park, more than a second Emerald Necklace, more, even, than a system of parks, it was a visual definition of the region's structure that could be sustained, they were convinced, even in the face of unimagined growth. The Emerald Metropolis would help Bostonians feel at home by preserving what Eliot called \"the rock-hills, the stream banks, and the bay and the sea shores\" of greater Boston-the natural edges, paths, and land2 marks of the region. The Idea Defined Eliot and Baxter moved as shape the region by reserving open space large tracts hitherto unbuildable but now on the verge of developto ment ; the shores of rivers and beaches still marshy or shabbily built up; and the most picturesque remaining fragments of the aboriginal New England landscape. The natural features of the region should establish the armature for urban development, not the existing haphazard assemblage of streets, lots, railroads, and 3 1890s the Middlesex Fells was entirely surrounded by rapidly growmg towns whose boundaries met in the middle of the woods. The towns had already begun to purchase land around the ponds to protect their water supply when the reservation was created m 1894, expandmg the protecuon of the watershed. This view looks across Spot Pond toward Pickerel Rock. From Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners, 1895. By the streetcar lines. Once set aside, these reservations would forever enhance the city's fitness for human habitation, joining unique and characteristic landscapes to the placemaking power of the city's historic landmarks. The park commission's plan offered the citizenry of Boston an opportunity to see the metropolis in an entirely new way; the figure and ground of the region's topographical features would be transposed. Baxter and Eliot had begun formulating these ideas several years earlier. In February 1890, Eliot responded to an editorial by Charles Sprague Sargent in his new periodical Garden and Forest that since the cities and towns around Boston had failed to act, the provision of \"well-distributed open spaces\" for public squares and playgrounds would have to wait for the establishment of a commission by the legislature. Eliot, however, was concerned with another sort of open space. He looked out from the State House and saw, within a tenmile radius, many still-surviving remnants of the New England wilderness. There were half a dozen scenes of uncommon beauty, \"well known to all lovers of nature near Boston ... in daily danger of utter destruction.\" He urged the immediate creation of an association to hold \"small and well-distributed parcels of land ... just as the Public Library holds books and the Art Museum pictures-for the use and enjoyment of the public.\" Generous men and women would bequeath these irreplaceable properties to such a group, just as others give works of art to the city's museums. Eliot helped organize a standing committee of twenty-five, which set to work in the spring of 1890. As an energetic member of the committee, Baxter drew on his ties to newspaper editors and writers across the state and to other 4 of the twenty-year-old campaign to the Middlesex Fells. The legislation preserve to create a privately endowed Trustees of Public Reservations was signed in May of 1891.3 Though Eliot did not note the distinction in his letter, the analogy with the art museum and the public library suggested two apveterans appeared, Eliot read it and proposed they work together to realize the metropolitan park system. At their urging the newly organized Trustees of Public Reservations agreed to convene a meeting of park commisBoston that proaches to preserving open space, one private and the other public. Even before the campaign to organize the Trustees was completed, Eliot and Baxter moved-first separately and then jointly-to promote a public regional park authority. Eliot wrote a letter to his boyhood friend Governor William Russell in December 1890, recommending that the State Board of Health develop a plan for metropolitan reservations. Three months later, Baxter wrote a series of articles in the Boston Herald about what he called \"Greater Boston.\" He too scanned the ten-mile view from the State House, but he described an image that was the very inverse of Eliot's fast-disappearing landscapes. From that height he observed \"a billowy sea of buildings stretching away in nearly every direction, apparently without interruption, as far as the feet of the chain of hills that encircles the borders of the bay from Lynn around to Milton.\" The pattern of construction paid little heed to town boundaries, and the limits of Boston covered only a fraction of the true city. The proper management of this Greater Boston would be a regional commission with authority over all the major public sioners from across Greater Boston in December 1891. After public hearings the following spring, a temporary Metropolitan Park Commission was authorized by the legislature in June 1892.5 Baxter's concerns were the administrative inefficiencies and parochial jealousies of the myriad cities and towns in the Boston basin, and Eliot knew firsthand how the wariness of town officials affected the development of public open space. From his extensive explorations on the region's fringes, he knew that town boundaries often bisected the most scenic areas, especially along ponds and river valleys. It would be senseless, he said, for one town to act without the other, but too often one city had refused to spend money for fear that the adjoining city would enjoy what it had paid for.6 So when the park commissioners planned a series of daytrips through the district in September and October of 1892, they invited city officials and prominent residents of the towns to join them. The secretary's minutes recount the itinerary of these ten excursions, which took the commissioners and their guests throughout the metropolitan district. Several required transit by train, carriage, barge, and steam launch, all in the same day. The places they visited were unfamiliar to most of the members, and Baxter wrote later that the outings \"were like voyages of discovery about home.\" Again and again the minutes of these journeys underline the fascination with obtaining grand and scenic views. On Milton Hill they found \"one of the noblest prospects in the neighborhood of Boston.\" The outlook down the valley of the Saugus River toward the meadowland, the serpentine stream, and the uplands \"formed a picture of exceptional charm.\" The view from the twin summits of Prospect Hill in Waltham was \"wide and glorious.\" On their inspection tours the travelers supply, sewerage, fire, police, schools, highways, transit, parks. Here Baxter's perspective joined with Eliot's. Of all these functions, Baxter reserved his lengthiest description for a chain of pleasure grounds extending (under regional administration) from Lynn Beach and the Lynn Woods to the services-water \"mountain-like\" Blue Hills range. Taken to- gether with the recently completed parks in the City of Boston, these large woodland reservations would constitute one of the grandest park systems in the world .4 Olmsted urged Baxter to publish the Herald articles in book form, and soon after Greater 5 The park plan was bounded by the rock hills-the forest reservations laid out along the ring of hills that surround Boston about ten miles from the State House. The radial spokes of the park system were the three rivers 2014 the Mystic, the Charles, and the Neponset. The beaches of the bay and seashores comprised the third element of the plan. Parks and parkways were proposed along the rivers, and parkways also linked Revere Beach with the Mystic River and the Middlesex Fells, the Charles River with Fresh Pond, Stony Brook with the Arnold Arboretum, and the Blue Hills with Franklin Park. By 1899, over nine thousand acres of reservations and parkways had been acquired. Cartography by Olmsted Brothers; from Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners, 1899. 6 Plans and Planners What we now know as the Emerald Necklace was conceived and executed as a single, unified work by Frederick Law Olmsted. By contrast, it is impossible to attribute the authorship of the metropolitan park system to a single author. Except for relatively small parcels within the larger reservations-for example, Revere Beach (1895) and the Charles River Esplanade (1936)2014 MPC lands have been largely untouched by \"design.\" They represent the first metropolitan application of the idea of \"reserving\" natural landmarks that began with Yellowstone, Yosemite, and Niagara Falls. In the second half of the nineteenth century, When Copeland moved to Vermont, his ideas for a metropolitan system were advanced by his former associate, the engineer Nathaniel Bowditch. In 1874 Bowditch published a metropolitan park plan that included many of Copeland's ideas and anticipated Eliot's proposal of two decades later. For almost fifteen years Copeland had lived in a house along Beaver Brook in Belmont, near the famous Waverly Oaks, an area he included in his metropolitan system. When the MPC was organized in 1893, Beaver Brook was its first acquisition. Sylvester Baxter not afford to attend the recently opened architecture school of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (the first in America), Baxter went to work for the Boston Daily Advertiser in 1871. It seems likely that he would have read Bowditch's 1874 proposal for a metropolitan park system in the Advertiser. From 1875 to 1877 Baxter studied at the universities of Leipzig and Berlin and was especially interested in German municipal Having determined that he could people campaigned to preserve various undeveloped areas around Bosthe Lynn Woods, the Middlesex ton-including Fells, Beaver Brook, and the Blue Hills. Among the park advocates who took a comprehensive, metropolitan view, the most influential included Robert Morris Copeland, Sylvester many woodlands and Baxter, and Charles Eliot. Robert Morris A Copeland landscape gardener listed in Boston city directories from 1855 to 1872, Copeland prepared the plan for the village of Oak Bluffs on Martha's Vineyard and wrote the popular book Country Life: A Handbook of Agriculture, Horticulture, and Landscape Gardening. During the park debates of post-Civil War Boston, Copeland wrote a remarkable editorial proposing a system of parks as well as a grand circular boulevard around Boston that would follow the its encircling ring of hills; bridges and ferries across the harbor islands were to complete the loop. Copeland suggested that the surrounding towns \"were now Boston,\" but their citizens \"come here to earn money, and go home to enjoy it.\" It should be possible, he thought, to choose park improvements that would benefit Boston as well as the surrounding suburbs, but this task was beyond the means of individual cities and towns. He appears to have been the first to suggest a \"metropolitan commission\" as the vehicle for this parkmaking.1 Eliot Sylvester Baxter (above) and Charles (facing page) Photographs by Elmer Chickering, ca. 1893, courtesy of MDC Archives 7 administration. On his return to Boston he became involved with Elizur Wright in the campaign to preserve \"Stone's Woods\" in Malden, Medford, and Winchester. (He also promoted renaming the area \"the Middlesex Fells.\") In 1880 he wrote Olmsted, who had not yet moved to Boston, about the Fells. Baxter's interests covered an extraordinary range. In 1881 he joined an archeological expedition to investigate Zuni ruins in the Southwest, and the following year wrote an article about the visit of several Zuni chiefs to Washington and Boston, where the Zuni conducted a sunrise ceremony on the beach at Deer Island. He also wrote several books of poetry as well as a history of Mexican architecture. His abiding interest, however, was his vision for Greater .2 Boston.2 family privilege and accomplishment heightened Charles' anxieties when as an upperclassman he realized he \"could find no practical bent or ambition anywhere about me.\" At one point in his senior education. The burden of year he came near to giving up his studies Charles Eliot Periods of elation and tranquility (especially when he was away from Cambridge in nearby countryside or the wilds of Maine) alternated with recurring episodes of self-doubt and depression in Eliot's early life. His mother died when he was nine. By the time he began his studies at Harvard, his father had been president of the college for ten years and was well on his way to Olympian status in American higher after graduation a conversation with his uncle Robert Peabody, an architect who lived near Frederick Law Olmsted in Brookline, persuaded Eliot that he should become a landscape architect. Since there was then no recognized training for the field, he entered Harvard's Bussey Institution, where the Department of Agriculture and Horticulture was located. The following spring Eliot was introduced by Peabody to Olmsted, who offered him an apprenticeship. Within a week he had dropped out of his classes and taken his first inspection tour with Olmsted as a full-time employee of the firm. He soon discovered how well his extracurricular pursuits had prepared him for his profession-the childhood drawing lessons, the long hikes around Boston, the adolescent mapping of imaginary towns and real neighborhoods (like Norton's Woods in Cambridge), the college summers organizing a group of college friends to study the natural sciences on Mt. Desert Island. After an apprenticeship of two years, Eliot left for a year in Europe. On Olmsted's advice, he ignored the monuments of the \"Grand Tour\" in favor of public parks, botanical gardens, city streets, and landscape books in the British Museum. He returned with an extraordinary breadth of professional knowledge-from landscape construction to styles and philosophies of design. By 1892, after five years of managing his own office, he was well equipped for his part in the creation of the Metropolitan Park System.' 1 Robert Morris Copeland, \"The Park Question,\" Boston Daily Advertiser (December 2, 1869), 2. 2 entirely. Not long [Sylvester Baxter] \"Sylvester Baxter,\" in James Phmney Baxter, The Baxter Family A Collection of Genealogies (N.p. 1921), 94-102. 3 [Charles W. Eliot] Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (Boston- Houghton Mifflin, 1901), 1-34. 8 also noted unique and distinctive landscapes. They were deeply impressed with the remarkable beauty of the landscape of the ancient Waverly Oaks in Belmont and with the need to preserve them for the public.' The commissioners were able to see beyond then-current conditions as well. The Charles River shore \"was marred by industries merely in search of cheap land\" and made ugly by \"squalid hovels, dump heaps and other nuisances.\"Its banks were \"inky black\" with foul sewage deposits, though they should be \"a popular pleasure ground.\" There were a \"number of ugly fish houses and an equally ugly Hotel\" on Nahant Beach, but it was nonetheless one of the most beautiful sites on the Massachusetts coast. After their ten outings, all the members presented their views before the board, and then Baxter and Eliot drafted the streams, the islands, and the promontories,all may be made to harmonize in one grand panorama ...\"The landscape gardener Robert Morris Copeland had published a plan in 1869 that encompassed not only the ring of hills from Lynn to Quincy, but a grand circuit that report.8 the Park System The rationale for the Metropolitan Park System drew on a reservoir of ideas that dated back more than a generation, ideas that had now gained widespread acceptance: \"Picturing\" The life history of humanity has proved nothing more clearly than that crowded populations, if they would live in health and happiness, must have space for air, for light, for exercise, for rest, and for the enjoyment of that peaceful beauty of nature which, because it is the opposite of the noisy ugliness of towns, is so wonderfully refreshing to the tired souls of linked the North Shore across harbor bridges and ferries to the southern beaches (though he believed the banks of the Charles would always be needed for wharves and docks). Copeland was probably the first to call specifically for a metropolitan commission to execute this ambitious plan. Separate campaigns had been forwarded for several of the large forests around Boston. Elizur Wright and others had lobbied since the 1870s to create a \"forest conservatory\" at the Fells, and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in its reports had urged the reservation of both the Fells and the Waverly Oaks. A \"water park\" for the Charles River Basin had many advocates in the 1870s and 80s, among them Uriah Crocker and Charles Davenport.10 The 1893 metropolitan scheme encompassed the rivers and the shores of Greater Boston in spite of their then-degraded state. Eliot sketched the symmetry of this plan near the end of his \"Report of the Landscape Architect\": ocean at Revere Beach was reached by a ten-mile drive from Winchester down the valley of the Mystic River, so now the bay shore at Squaw Rock is reached by a ten-mile drive from Dedham down the lovelier valley of the Neponset. Half-way between these northern and southern nverways we find Charles River, leading, by another course of ten miles, from Waltham through the very centre of the metropolitan district to the basin just west of the State House. Nature appears to have placed these streams just where they can best serve the needs of the crowded populations gathering I fast about them.\"I As the townspeople.9 In Eliot's summation, these general prin- ciples gave strong support for the concept of the park system. The real genius of the 1893 report, though, was its integration and extension of a series of earlier, less comprehensive proposals for the Boston region. eccentric Scot named Robert in Boston for two years for the treatment of insomnia, had proposed \"conIn 1844 an Gourlay, residing Here, as throughout the two men's writings, images were crucial to their visionary narratives. During the report's preparation Eliot the commissioners that his \"special work\" for the park commission was \"the picturing by printed words, photographs, and wrote to to the greatest advanthose rare and beautiful features which tage Nature has here thrown together\" so that \"the necting and exhibiting 9 The most visionary acts of the park commission were the schemes to reclaim the riverbanks and beaches, which were occupied by tenements and industry. The transformation of Revere Beach required the relocation of streets and railroads and the demolition of numerous shanties and saloons. Photograph by Nathaniel L. Stebbms. From Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners, 1898 are still obtainable near Boston.\" The \"details of the legal machinery\" could all be resolved once this \"picturing\" aroused the necessary public support.12 Like others before and since who have projected greater Boston into the future, the two men appealed to the visual as well as the moral imagination. Eliot divided his report's twenty-five pages of \"picturing\" into three parts. First was a physical and historical geography of the parks district, followed by a study of \"the way in which the peculiar geography of the metropolitan district ought to govern the selection of the sites of public open spaces.\" Finally, Eliot documented the opportunities still available to acquire open space according to the principles he had outlined. 13 Those principles reflected widely expressed contemporary concerns for public order and rational structure in American cities. A study maps of those open spaces which of the natural features of the region, Eliot believed, would \"bring forth the facts in the case\" and result in \"the scientific selection of lands for public open space.\" Such \"scientific planning\" would proceed from the greater to the lesser, recognizing that the larger spaces could never be had if they were not acquired at the right time. The larger reservations would offer not only the \"fresh air and play-room\" of smaller spaces but also the \"free pleasures of the open world of which small spaces can give no hint.\" Executing these general principles would require particular attention to the visual and functional logic of the reservations' boundaries. Wherever possible the boundaries should be established on public roads or on lines where roads would likely be built. And the commission should avoid taking \"only half a hill, half a pond or half a glen,\" since fragments of such landscape types would be less satisfying as natural scenery. 14 10 The Park Commission was authorized to build parkways in 1894 to create jobs in a time of recession. Primanly intended for \"pleasure vehicles,the parkways provided scenic access to the reservations. The Speedway, a departure from the scenic values of the park system, was bmlt near Harvard's Soldiers Field. The tidal flats along the lower Charles offered the only place near Boston for a mile-long course unmterrupted by cross streets. From Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners, 1902. Picturing the park system also meant citing appropriate administrative models. Though Eliot hinted at the possibilities for parkways, Baxter's \"Report of the Secretary\" addressed the issue of public roads in a regional context advocated \"Special Pleasurelink the metropolitan parks and reservations. One precedent was the boulevards of Chicago, created by the Illinois boulevard act, which allowed the park commissioners to seek the consent of municipal authorities and abutting landowners to connect parks with such pleasure roads. Commonwealth Avenue, the parkways of the Emerald Necklace, the planned improvements to Blue Hill Avenue, and the proposed parkway from the Arnold Arboretum to Stony Brook were cited as examples, made possible because the annexation of several adjoining towns had given the City of Boston the necessary geographical range. By and strongly to ways\" contrast, the region north of the Charles River, carved up into many small cities and towns, lacked not only extensive parks but clearly delineated routes to the center of Boston as well.ls In Baxter's view, the proper structure for \"the peculiar political geography\" of the region was not annexation, however; it was the Metropolitan Sewerage Act of 1889. Baxter also saw a fiscal precedent near at hand for the Commission's plans to reclaim degraded natural areas. Olmsted's recreative treatment of the Back Bay Fens was clearly both \"the cheapest and most effective\" remedy.16 Assembling the Reservations The effort of \"picturing\" the metropolitan parks in the report, aimed at Boston's \"highhanded and liberal\" Yankee aristocracy, was completely successful. The \"legal machinery\" 11 passed by the legislature and signed by Russell, permanently establishing the Metropolitan Park Commission on June 3, 1893. Charles Dalton, the chairman of the Boston Park Commission, thought the report was Governor would be one of the most important contribu- tions to the literature of public parks ever made. Charles Francis Adams observed to the board that \"Our work is chiefly educational. We cannot expect to accomplish practical re- sults immediately, but to prepare the public to do something in these directions some years hence.\"\" Eliot, however, had other intentions. He moved with what now seems almost incomprehensible speed to map the reservation boundaries, and the Park Commission acquired almost seven thousand acres of mostly open land in its first eighteen months. Its first taking, in 1893, was Beaver Brook, including the Waverly Oaks. Responding to the depression, the legislature authorized funding for the development of parkways the next year. By 1899, only six years after the park commission was established, the park system comprised eleven reservations and seven parkways, totalling over nine thousand acres.18 At the heart of Eliot's vision for the derelict spaces along the rivers and shores was the Charles River Basin, extending upstream from the western slope of Beacon Hill. The basin, he predicted, would become the central \"court of there was instead \"a contemptible scavenger's street, thirty feet wide, backing up against the unmentionable parts of private houses.\"'9 No single reservation took more of Eliot's time than the Charles. Before and during his tenure as consultant to the MPC, he served on several state commissions organized to study the river's sanitary problems, and was also the landscape architect for the new (1893) Cambridge Park Commission. Cambridge acted first, and at Eliot's direction the city acquired and began filling more than four miles of salt marsh, almost the entire length of the city's southern boundary. Though Eliot hoped that some of the region's riverine marshes would be preserved, he told the MPC that the ten miles of Charles River salt marsh below Watertown \"must sooner or later be made usable.\" Like many others, Eliot was persuaded that damming the Charles near the harbor to create a water park would return annually increasing profits to the community. A separate MPC appropriation for land acquisition along the river was passed in 1894, and over five hundred acres were purchased during the next three years. In spite of these extensive investments, the opposition-led by residents on the water side of Beacon Street-successfully resisted the construction of a dam until 1903. (The Es- planade was completed in 1936. )20 Reservations and Natural Scenery For the forest lands, Eliot pressed vigorously to acquire as much of the identified reservations as possible, but he struggled in vain to educate the park board on the need for what he called \"general plans\" for each reservation before roads and structures were built. When the pace of acquisition slowed in 1896, he organized a project to classify the broad categories of vegetation throughout the park system. Published in 1898, a year after Eliot's untimely death, Vegetation and Scenery is a detailed complement to his planning principles outlined in the 1893 report. Though in the earlier document he had advocated a \"scientific\" selection of lands, the vegetation study would merely honor\" of the visionary drawings in metropolitan district. Gourlay's in 1844 had already imagined the basin as a single, designed space, but 1893, the river was still a noisome expanse of sewage-laden tidal flats, unfit for the central role in any story of park design or civic foresightedness. The river's frontage was occupied by two prisons, three coal-burning power plants, and numerous shabby commercial and industrial structures. Two large slaughterhouses, one near the harbor and the other downstream from Watertown Square, dumped offal into the shallow waters. Even in the elegant Back Bay, said Richard Henry Dana, where a public roadway should face the river, 12 record the existing conditions in the reservations ; it was neither \"an historical or even a scientific inquiry.\"21 Here we are left to puzzle over what Eliot meant by \"historical\" and \"scientific.\" Certainly the Vegetation report corroborated his earlier statements that both the beauty and ugliness of the existing vegetation were primarily the work of men, \"chopped over, or completely cleared, or pastured, or burnt over, time and time again.\" While the reservations differed sharply from each other topographically, recent human action had rendered the vegetation of the woodlands very much alike and \"re- markably uninteresting. \"21 Then why-apart from a few scattered natural and geologic oddities-had these forests been acquired? Natural reservations, Eliot had said, \"were the cathedrals of the modern world,\" and the metropolitan reservations had been acquired as a \"treasure of scenery.\" The beaches and the river shores offered expansive water scenery of the rock hills was problematic. Only on the rocky summits and in the swamps was the vegetation \"natural.\" The opportunity of the park system's stewards was to \"control, guide, and modify\" the forest growth so that the reservations would be \"slowly but surely induced to present the greatest possible variety, interest, and beauty of the landscape.\" Eliot encouraged his protege Arthur Shurcliff to sketch before-and-after scenes in the reservations, and Shurcliff's drawings were included in the printed report to \"picture\" the enhancement of the landscape through the judicious use of the axe.23 Standing in the way of such landscape improvements, Eliot wrote, was a \"small but influential body of refined persons\" who opposed these efforts to adapt parks and reservations to new requirements. He observed that these people could live in a little bower and read Thoreau with delight, but they could not understand a whole landscape. They \"talk of 'letting Nature alone' or 'keeping nature natural', as if such a thing were possible in a world which was made for man.\" The idea that it views, but the to control or modify the existing verdure was nonsense. Even the six thousand acres of the Blue Hills, situated as it was on the rim of the metropolis, did not constitute a wilderness-in fact, the vegetation was \"really artificial in a high degree.\" Eliot's priorities for both the large and small reservations were clear: first, to safeguard the scenery of these natural areas before it was too late; second, to make that scenery accessible to the public; and finally, to enrich and enhance the beauty of the reservations.24 Even if there should be sufficient public support to accomplish the first and second of these tasks, could the enhancement of scenery ever be justified at public expense, when \"ordinary people will never appreciate the difference\" ? Eliot answered emphatically in the affirmative. Following Olmsted, he argued that in the presence of \"unaccustomed beauty or grandeur,\" even the average person experienced \"sensations and emotions, the causes of which are unrecognized and even unknown.\" This principle, he thought, was the basis for the public commitment to schools, libraries, and art museums. It was well exemplified in many already completed public parks, and in Eliot's mind it was the foundation for the met- might be \"sacrilegious\" ropolitan reservations .21 The Park System Acclaimed The significance of the metropolitan parks was widely acclaimed in Boston, in other American cities, and especially in Europe. In November 1893, after Eliot and Olmsted's son John had became his partners, Olmsted wrote to them: nothing else compares m importance to us with the Boston work, meaning theMetropohtan quite equally with the city work. The two together will be the most important work of our profession now in hand anywhere in the world.... In your probable life-time, Muddy River [part of the Emerald Necklace], Blue Hills, the Fells, Waverly Oaks, Charles River, the Beaches will be pomts to date from in the history of American Landscape Architecture, as much as Central Park. They will be the opening of new chapters in the art.26 ... 13 The popularity of canoeing on the Charles River peaked dunng the two decades after the construction of Norumbega Park and the Riverside Recreation Grounds m Newton and Weston in the 1890s. More than four thousand canoes were said to be moored along the middle Charles. The regatta shown here was held at the Waltham Canoe Club about 1912. rust downstream of the canoe club is the smokestack of the American Waltham Watch Company, and on the west side of the nver is Mt. Feake Cemetery. Farther downstream, below the Watertown Dam, the nverbanks were lined with slaughterhouses, power plants, and other polluting industries, and boating was dommated by the colleges and the rowmg clubs. Courtesy of the MDC ArchIves. The endeavor of \"picturing\" the parks did end with the first report, nor was the audience limited to Bostonians. The metropolitan not park commissioners prepared a one-ton plaster topographical model of the metropolitan area for the Paris Exposition of 1900 that was later exhibited at the Pan-American Exhibition in Buffalo(1901),at the Louisiana Purchase Exposition at St. Louis (1904), and at the Lewis and Clark Centennial Exposition in Portland (1905). A 1905 article by the secretary of the City Parks Association on \"The Development of Park Systems in American Cities\" included a lengthy description of the Boston metropolitan parks, and suggested that \"readers have doubtless so identified the park movement with Boston as to be almost totally ignorant that anything of a similar nature has been undertaken elsewhere.\"27 In 1910 the international competition for the planning of Greater Berlin resulted in an influential exhibition and a widely circulated two-volume catalog. A lavishly illustrated chapter on American park systems described their significance as the basis for city plans and their importance in relieving urban congestion. Several pages were devoted to the Boston city and metropolitan parks, with a full-page map of the metropolitan park system and photographs of the Blue Hills and Revere Beach. 14 The section of the exhibit on American parks was later mounted separately in several German cities.28 The judgment of planners and civic officials at the turn of the century has been echoed by modern urban historians. In their view, it was in America that \"open space first emerged as a potential structural element for the entire city.\" The work of Baxter and Eliot has been called \"the most notable scheme of comprehensive metropolitan park planning\" in the United States and \"the first such organization of land in the world.\" Closer to home, an eloquent study of the Back Bay Fens authenticates the reservations' importance: \"If Mount Auburn Cemetery was the forerunner of the Fens, Metropolitan Park System represented its evolutionary glory.\"29 the 2014 2014 \" -- The Fate of the Idea 1919, the Park Commission merged with the Metropolitan Water and Sewerage Board to create the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC). More than a dozen new parkways were constructed in the next decade. The passage of open space bonds in the 1980s funded significant additions to the reservations, and today the park system comprises more than 16,000 acres. After a hundred years' experience with this regional pattern of open space, it is fair to ask what these reservations now mean in our urban lives. In Workmg double shifts for eight months, twenty-one people built this model under the direction of the \"geographic sculptor\" George Carroll Curtis. It took six months to make a wax model, then plaster casts were made m ten sections The finished model was almost eleven feet in diameter and weighed one ton Its handpainted surface was \"planted\" with 200,000 evergreen and deciduous trees and depicted 250 miles of railroads, 300 miles of streams, 2,750 miles of streets, and 157,000 dwellings. Even the Frog Pond on Boston 15 The founders of the park system were practical enough to see that the water edges of rivers and shores could provide open space without taking large tracts off the tax rolls. The city's ponds and rivers, as Eliot told the Cambridge park commissioners, offered \"per- writings these park advocates knew well, declared that \"in every landscape the point of astonishment is the meeting of the sky and the earth.\" The New England teacher Horace Mann put it more plainly: \"Water is to the landscape what the eye is to the face.\"30 A hundred years ago Eliot was convinced that reservations of scenery had become the cathedrals of the modern world. Are they now? The historian Sam Bass Warner has argued that at the end of the twentieth century \"we are escaping a different city; we are in search of a different Mother Nature.\" It is not just the highways everywhere, splitting the Blue Hills and the Fells, and separating the Esplanade from its neighborhood. Across the manently open spaces provided by nature without cost\"; capturing their edges for the public opened \"these now unused and inaccessible spaces with their ample air, light, and outlook.\" But behind these matter-of-fact statements was a transcendentalist vision of the mystical power at the edges and margins of the natural world. The human craving for landscapes is most deeply realized where earth connects with water and sky. Emerson, whose Common and the bridge over the lake m the Public Garden were shown m scale. The model was exhibited fust at the Paris Exposition of 1900, then at international expositions in Buffalo, St Louis, and Portland. For almost eighty years the model was displayed at Harvard Umversity museums. In 1980 it was moved to the Boston Museum of Science, at the geographical center of the Metropolitan Park System. From G. C. Curtis, A Description of the Topographical Model of Metropolitan Boston, 1900. 16 country \"greenways\" are created on former railroad beds, along canals, and in other onceunimaginable \"public open spaces,\" and Olmsted is acclaimed as the \"father of the 3 greenways.\" Greenways, however, longer peaceful byways for \"restoring the tired souls of townspeople.\" We now jog, sunbathe, cycle, and skate in many reservations where, until recently, such activities were forbidden. Scenic reserves for many people have become landscapes of speed and motion.31 The incursion of structures, highways, and wheels of all kinds notwithstanding, the natuare no Eliot, \"Report of the Landscape Architect,\" Report of the Board of Metropolitan Park Commissioners (Boston: Wright & Potter, 1893), 91, cited below as MPC Report (1893). Charles Eliot, \"The Waverly Oaks,\" Garden and Forest (March 5, 1890), 117-18. Eliot first proposed that the association be called \"The Trustees of Massachusetts Scenery.\" The name chosen, \"The Trustees of Public Reservations,\" was the source of some confusion since the organization was privately organized and funded. In 1954 it became \"The Trustees of Reservations.\" Its history is described in Gordon Abbott, Jr., Saving Special Places- A Centennial History of the Trustees of Reservations: Pioneer of the Land Trust Movement (Ipswich, MA: ral landmarks of Greater Boston, drawn into the public domain according to the park system's visionary scheme, have shown surprising steadfastness. Perhaps the past hundred years have vindicated the definition of stewardship that Baxter and Eliot propounded: first, secure open spaces that reinforce the park system at every opportunity, even if they cannot be developed immediately (remembering the lesson of the reclaimed rivers and shores-that it is never too late to acquire or recover public spaces); next, offer access for people without destroying what has been reserved; and then when the means permit, improve the natural domainthe hills, the rivers, and the shores-of the Emerald Metropolis. Notes Ipswich Press, 1993). 4 Charles Eliot to Governor William Russell, December 19, 1890, in [Charles W. Eliot] Charles Eliot, Landscape Architect (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1901), 356-57, hereafter cited as Charles Eliot. Sylvester Baxter, Greater Boston' A Study for a Federahzed Metropolis Comprising the City of Boston and Surrounding Cities and Towns (Boston: Philpott, 1891),8(reprinted from the Boston Herald). 5 Baxter's recollection that Eliot proposed a joint effort to realize the park system is found in his \"Wonderful Progress During the Past Seven Years of Work on the Great Metropolitan Park System,\" Boston Sunday Herald (May 20, 1900), 41; and m Baxter, \"Greater Boston's Metropolitan Park System,\" 6 Boston Evening Transcript, Part Five 7 (September 29, 1923), 1. Eliot to Russell, quoted in Charles Eliot, 356. Minutes of the temporary Metropolitan Park Commission, 1892. Ibid. 8 1 Jack Shepherd, The Adams Chronicles' Four 10 Generations of Greatness (Boston' Little, Brown, 1975), 424. Thomas S. Hmes, Burnham of Chicago. Architect and Planner (New York: Oxford University Press, 1974), quotes Daniel Burnham, the chief architect of the Chicago Fair, on the color of the buildings, 101; and Charles Eliot Norton, Harvard professor of fine arts, on their arrangement, 115. Walter Creese unnecessarily simplifies the Metropolitan Park System by mapping it as \"Eliot's Emerald Necklace\" in \"The Boston Fens,\" The Crowning of the American Landscape: Eight Great Spaces and Their 9 MPC Report (1893), 82 Robert Fleming Gourlay, Plans for Beautifying New York and For Enlargmg and Improving the City of Boston (Boston. Crocker & Brewster, 1844), 17; Robert Morris Copeland, \"The Park Question,\" Bmldmgs (Pnnceton : Pnnceton University Press, 1985). Henry Adams, The Education of Henry Adams (Boston: Houghton Mifflm, 1974), 340. For a discussion of Olmsted and J. J. R. Croes' 1876-77 plans for the Bronx, see David Schuyler, The New Urban Landscape' The Redefinition of City Form m Nmeteenth-Century America (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), 174-79. Charles Daily Advertiser (December 2, 1869), 2; \"The Waverly Oaks,\" Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1884, Part II (Boston: Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1884), 272-73. According to Baxter, painters connected with the Boston Art Club had suggested that the club purchase the Waverly Oaks in the 1870s; \"By Bicycle to the Waverly Oaks-II,\" Garden and Forest (August 17, 1892) 3(234): 387. Beginning in the 1870s, the Charles was frequently compared with rivers in European cities, especially Hamburg's Alster Basin, which served in a general way as the model for the development of the Esplanade in the 1930s. See City of Boston, City Boston Document No 128 (1869), 7, 264 11 MPC Report (1893), 106. Baxter considered Eliot's 17 of the banks of the system of park development, see Baxter, \"Wonderful Progress,\" 40. 12 Charles Eliot, 383. 13 MPC Report(1893), 82-110. 14 MPC Report (1893), 83, 92; MPC Report (1894), 14. For a broad view of the period, see Robert Wiebe, The Search for Order, 1877-1920 (New York: Hill & \"comprehensive rivers\" reservation in three unique a Richard Bushman, The Refmement of America: Persons, Houses, Cities (New York: Knopf, 1992). 25 26 MPC Report (1897), 51. Olmsted to Partners (John Olmsted and Charles Eliot), October 28 and November 1, 1893, Olmsted Papers, Library of Congress. As Keith Morgan has pointed out, all but the first of these parks were Wang, 1967). 15 Baxter included a draft \"General Parkway Law\" in his part of the report. MPC Report (1893), Appendix 16 17 B, 62-66. MPC Report (1893), 3-19. The characterization of Boston politics in this period as \"both high-handed and liberal\" is from Martin Meyerson and Edward C. Banfield, Boston. The Job Ahead (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1966), 106; Dalton's comment is cited in Baxter, \"Wonderful Progress,\" 41. Two decades later, Adams was still startled by the speed of the Commission's progress: \"Wholly opposed to the policy of rapid growth and what I could not but regard as premature development, I found myself powerless to check it. I was, in fact, frightened at our success in the work we had to do.\" By June 1895 Adams was \"bored to death and fast getting cross\" with week-to-week administrative matters, and resigned from the board. Writing at the end of his life, however, he doubted \"whether at any period of my life, or in any way,I have done work more useful or so permanent in character ... as saving to the people of Massachusetts the Blue Hills and the Middlesex Fells.\" Charles Francis Adams, Diary, June 10, 11, 1895; Charles Francis Adams, 1835-1915, An Autobiography (Boston: Houghton 27 initiated and directed by Eliot; Keith Morgan, \"Held In Trust: Charles Eliot's Vision for the New England Landscape\" (Bethesda, MD: National Association for Olmsted Parks, 1991),1. MPC Annual Report (1905), 30-31; Andrew Wright Crawford, \"The Development of Park Systems in American Cities,\" Annals of the American Academy (1905), 223 28 Chnstlane Crasemann Collins, \"A Visionary Discipline: Werner Hegemann and the Quest for 29 18 the Pragmatic Ideal,\" Center- A Journal for Architecture m America 5 (1989), 79-80 Jon C. Teaford, The Unheralded Triumph. City Government m America, 1870-1900 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984), 256-257; Creese, 168; Anthony Sutcliffe, Toward the Planned City. Germany, Britain, the United States, and France, 1780-1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1981), ~, 197; Creese, 30 183. 19 Mifflin, 1916), 185. Charles Eliot, \"The Boston Metropolitan Reservations,\" New England Magazine 15: 1 (September 1896), 117-118. Richard Henry Dana, letter to the editor, Boston Daily Advertiser, June 13, 1874. MPC Report (1897), 43. Charles Eliot, Vegetation and Scenery m the Metropolitan Reservations of Boston (Boston: Lamson, Wolffe, 1898), 8 (hereafter cited as Vegetation and Scenery). Vegetation and Scenery, 9; MPC Report (1895), 31. Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot to the Metropolitan Park Commission, June 22, 1896, quoted in Charles Eliot, 655; Eliot, Vegetation and Scenery, 9, 22. Charles Eliot, \"The Necessity of Planning,\" Garden and Forest (August 26, 1896), 342; Arthur A. Shurchff, \"What Mr Eliot Said,\" 1897 ms. Houghton Library, Harvard University; Eliot, Vegetation and Scenery, 9, 22, MPC Report (1895), 32. For the cultural roots of urban landscape improvement, see 31 Eliot, Preliminary Report on the Location of Parks for Cambridge (October 16, 1893); quoted in Charles Eliot, 423-24. George H. Snelhng, \"Testimonials in Favor of the Modification of the Plan of Building on the Back Bay Territory: April 2, 1860\"; Ralph Waldo Emerson, \"Nature,\" in Brooks Atkinson, ed., The Complete Essays and Other Writings of Ralph Waldo Emerson (NY: Random House, 1940), 410; Horace Mann is quoted in Creese, 192. Olmsted, Olmsted & Eliot to the Metropolitan Park Commission, June 22, 1896, quoted in Charles Eliot, 655; Sam Bass Warner, Jr., \"Open Spaces,\" New Republic 170 29 (March 23, 1974), 30; Noel Grove, \"Greenways: Paths to the Future,\" National Geographic 177: 6 (June 1990), 93. was 20 21 Acknowledgments Encouragement for this research generously 22 23 extended by the Metropolitan District Commission and by Commissioner M. Ilyas Bhatti. Professor Keith Morgan, Julia O'Brien, MDC Director of Planning, and Sean Fisher, MDC Archivist, offered insightful comments. Special thanks is expressed to Katie and Tony Strike. 24 Karl Haglund is the project manager of the New Charles River Basin, the extension of the Charles River Reservation from the Esplanade to Boston Harbor. He has written about historic architecture, urban design, and the landscapes of the American West. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Waverly Oaks (1890)","article_sequence":2,"start_page":18,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25099","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170ab28.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"The Waverly Oaks Charles S. Sargent __ -~....... ~....._ _..~ _.. ___ _ _ ~ The impetus to preserve Beaver Brook, which in 1893 became the first of the reservations of the Metropolitan Park Commission, was the desire to save the Waverly Oaks. The founding director of the Arnold Arboretum advocated their preservation in this editorial in Garden and Forest, February 19, 1890. There is in Belmont, one of the suburbs of Boston, and formerly a part of the ancient town of Watertown, a group of Oaks which has come to be known in recent years as the Waverly Oaks, from the village near which they stand. These Waverly Oaks are, all things considered, the most interesting trees in eastern Massachusetts, and although there are larger Oaks in New England and in the Middle States, a group containing so many large trees is not often seen now anywhere in eastern America. There are in this group twenty-three large Oaks and one large Elm growing on an area of two or three acres. The Oaks are all White Oaks, with the exception of a single Swamp White Oak. They occupy mainly the slopes of a terminal moraine, along the base of which flows Beaver Brook, the \"Sweet Beaver, child of forest still,\"sung by Lowell. The Waverly Oaks are well known to all Bostonians interested in nature, and strangers not infrequently make the pilgrimage to Belmont to look upon these venerable products of Massachusetts soil.... The Committee on Grounds of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society visited the Waverly Oaks on the 28th of June, 1884, and the chairman, Mr. J. G. Barker, joined to its report printed in the transactions of the society for that year ... a timely suggestion for their preservation. This suggestion we desire to repeat and enforce.... The age which these trees have attained and the vicissitudes they have survived entitle them to respect, and the people of Massachusetts might wisely secure their preservation through the purchase and dedication to public use of the land on which they stand. The age of these Oaks can only be surmised. One famous naturalist is said to have declared that the smallest of them had existed through more than a thousand years. It is probable that this statement is greatly exaggerated. The largest tree in the group girths seventeen feet three inches at three and a half feet from the ground. The principal tree in our illustration is smaller, with a girth of only thirteen feet four inches, measured at the same distance from the ground. An actual examination of the wood of this tree shows that it has increased three inches in diameter during the last twenty-four years. Had it made the same rate of growth during the whole period of its existence, it would have been 408 years old, and the largest tree in the group would be, with the same rate of increase, 508 years old. It is probable that they are both younger than these estimates make them. They may have grown less rapidly for several years at the beginning of their life, but there must have been a number of years, probably several hundred, when they increased more rapidly in diameter than they have during the last quarter of a century. The appearance of the trees justifies this supposition. They are still healthy, and are growing with considerable vigor; ' - 19 In 1892, Sylvester Baxter wrote of the oaks m Garden and Forest, \"The proposition to secure the preservation for public enjoyment dates somethmg like twenty years back. Some of the painters connected with the Boston Art Club then urged their purchase by that institution as a sketchmgground for Boston artists, as Fontainebleau serves for Pans. Fontainebleau, however, is not comparable with the Waverly Oaks in any of the elements of landscape-beauty \" Photograph by W. H. Rollms, from Garden and Forest, 1890. but there can be no doubt that their period of most rapid development has passed, or that, while they may continue, with proper care, to live and increase slowly for centuries perhaps, they will grow less rapidly now that they did one or two hundred years ago. But after making all due allowance for differences in the rate of growth at different periods in the existence of these trees, it is safe to surmise that the youngest of them had attained to some size before the Pilgrims landed on the shores of Massachusetts Bay, and that the oldest was at that time a tree of some size.... The Waverly Oaks grow within a few hundred yards of the station at Waverly, on the Boston & Fitchburg Railroad, on a piece of ground directly opposite the property of the trustees of the Massachusetts General Hospital, occupied by the country home of that institution. The whole region is undergoing rapid development, and houses are springing up on every side. The establishment of a small public park at this place, which need not exceed three or four acres in extent to accomplish this object, would protect the trees from the dangers which now threaten them, and would make a valuable and interesting public resort within walking or driving distance of the homes of a very large number of people. As fate would have it, the oaks survived only a few decades beyond the establishment Beaver Brook Reservation. By the 1920s they had succumbed to ice storms and old age. < of the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Landscape","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25095","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160896d.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Landscape Stephen A. Spongberg and Peter Del Tredici ~~, ` The plantings and the landscape in the immediate vicinity of the Arboretum's Hunnewell Building have undergone repeated changes since the construction of the building in 1892. The 1993 renovation of the building called for a landscape renovation as well. The need for plantings in the newly contoured landscape in front of the Hunnewell Building provided a valuable opportunity. It was a chance to transform the area into a living exhibit that would explore the history of the Arboretum through plants. By planting species relevant to the Arboretum's botanical explorations of eastern Asia, we hoped to introduce visitors to the ancient connections between the floras of Asia and North America that have been the focus of Arboretum research for well over a century. In 1858 Harvard's Professor Asa Gray, arguably the preeminent botanist of his day, published a benchmark paper in which he hypothesized a close floristic relationship between the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia. Gray based his theory on some of the first botanical specimens brought to the West after the opening of Japan by Commodore Matthew Perry in 1854. Later in the nineteenth century, Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arnold Arboretum's founding director, inaugurated the Arboretum's exploration of the floras of eastern Asia with a full understanding of Gray's hypothesis and an awareness of the climatic similarities of the two regions. Sargent reasoned that many plants of eastern Asiatic origin would prove hardy when culti- vated in the Arnold Arboretum. As a consequence of a continuing series of Arboretum expeditions to China, Japan, and Korea, scores of new woody ornamentals have been introduced into Western gardens and now grow in close association with their eastern North American counterparts in the Arnold Arboretum and elsewhere across North America. The plants the Arboretum staff have chosen for the new landscape demonstrate these close floristic relationships and simultaneously reinforce the original taxonomic planting established for the Arboretum by Sargent and landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted. This scheme followed the Bentham and Hooker system of plant classification, which was then current and widely accepted, and arranged the plant families according to their degree of morphological complexity. The magnolia family falls near the beginning of the Bentham and Hooker sequence, and several existing magnolias have been retained in the Hunnewell landscape, including Magnolia kobus, M. zenii, a picturesquely multistemmed star magnolia (M. stellata), and several varieties of the saucer magnolia (M. x soulangeana). For the majority of the new plantings the existing collections of the Arboretum served 21 as the source. Large specimens were carefully dug, moved, and incorporated into the site, including three large specimens of Enkianthus campanulatus and a solitary specimen of E. perulatus, both from Japan. Among the larger trees moved from another Arboretum location was a thirty-five-foot specimen of a hybrid tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera x Liriodendron chinensis) that truly exemplifies the close floristic relationships between China and eastern North America. Only two species of the genus are known, one (L. tulipifera) widespread in eastern North America and the other (L. chinensis) of scattered and localized distribution in eastern and central China. Separated from one another in nature by thousands of miles on opposite sides of the globe, the two species now grow together in the Arboretum. While the two are distinct in form, they have remained similar enough genetically to produce hybrid progeny when artificially crossed. The hybrid plant now installed in front of the Hunnewell Building has special Arboretum associations. It was raised from seeds obtained from intentional crosspollinations made by Professors Clifford Parks and Norton G. Miller (a former Arboretum staff member) at the Coker Arboretum on the campus of the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. Interestingly, the tree of Liriodendron chinensis that was used in these experiments was a gift to the Coker Arboretum from the Arnold Arboretum; it had been grown from the seed originally received from the Lu Shan Arboretum in China. And the hybrid plant itself was a gift from the Coker Arboretum to the Arnold Arboretum, received in 1981. The flower of Liriodendron tulipifera x chinense, which now grows in the landscape of the Hunnewell Building. Photograph by Rdcz et) Debreczy. Each of the plants that shape the newly planted landscape has its own historical associations with the Arboretum. For example, the large specimens of the longstalk holly (Ilex pendunculosa) represent a species introduced into Western gardens by Charles Sprague Sargent when he first traveled to Japan in 1892. The Arboretum's most famous plant collector, Ernest H. Wilson (1876-1930), is memorialized three individuals of the so-called threeflowered maple, Acer triflorum, which constitute a small grove along the curved ramp that facilitates wheelchair access to the building. This maple, introduced into cultivation in the West by Wilson, is a distinctive ornamental tree noted for its loose, papery, reddish- or yellowish-gray bark and for the spectacular golden yellows and pumpkin shades of its leaves in fall. Seeds of this species were collected by Wilson in October 1917in the forests of Korea and sent to the Arnold Arboretum. So impressed was Wilson by this handsome species in its native habitat that he wrote to Sargent urging that all of the seed be sown. He considered the plant to be the best ornamental located on his last expedition to Asia for the Arboretum. The three young individuals in the new Hunnewell planting will ensure the species' continued presence at the Arboretum for generations to come. The incorporation of two genera of the Theaceae, or tea family, strengthens the taxonomic sequence that ordered the original by 22 planting plan. The genus Stewartia is represented by a wonderful thirty-foot specimen of S. pseudocamellia, an early summer-flowering Japan and Korea with a dual ornamental value in its attractive camellia-like flowers and its exfoliating, mottled bark. While two species of Stewartia are native to the southeastern United States, they were not included in the Hunnewell landscape for reasons of hardiness and cultural requirements. Instead, a specimen of Franklinia alatamaha, the Franklin tree, has been chosen to represent the American branch of the tea family. Of all the woody plants native to the eastern United States, few, if any, are surrounded by a more interesting history than Franklinia. Briefly told, it was first discovered growing on the banks of the Altamaha River in northeastern Georgia in 1765 by John and William Bartram of Philadelphia, but it was not brought into cultivation until 1773 when tree native to William Bartram revisited the area. Like species of Stewartia, the Franklin tree produces beautiful camellia-like flowers that appear continuously from late summer until fall, when its leaves turn scarlet. The plant quickly became a horticultural novelty even before 1785, when it was described and named by Humphrey Marshall (John Bartram's cousin) to honor Benjamin Franklin, the foremost American scientist, philosopher, and statesman of the day. As a consequence, it was soon extirpated from its very limited native habitat and was last seen as a naturally occurring plant in 1807. Although now extinct in the wild, Franklinia has persisted in cultivation, with the majority of individuals in cultivation today having originated from the plants in the Bartrams' Philadelphia garden. The photos below provide a visual summary of changes in the Hunnewell Building's front yard over the past hundred years. The Hunnewell Arboretum. Building under construction m 1892. All photos are from the Archives of the Arnold Shortly after the Hunnewell Building was completed in 1892, Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata) was planted on its walls. By May 1903, when the photo above was taken by T. E. Marr, the vines had reached the roof, and other landscape elements began to assert themselves. The dominant feature m the photograph is a hedge of barberry, Berberis sp., clearlyintended to separate the building from the pubhc thorough fare. Note also the large flowering shrubs planted in front of the building and the Hydrangea in flower behind the barberry hedge. By 1917, when this photograph was taken, the Berberis hedge had been removed, along with many of the large flowering shrubs, producmg a much more open landscape. Two magnohas are clearly visible in the photograph, a specimen of M. stellata m the left foreground and a M. x soulangeana in the right background. The Boston ivy has been left to ramble freely over the front of the building, creatmg a dramatic \"Olmstedianeffect typical of the period. Photo by G. R. King. As the landscape matured, more magnolias were planted in front of the Hunnewell Building. In this photograph, taken in May of 1928, the magnolia theme is well established, with a young, leafless M. acuminata, in the center of the photo, poised to become a dominant feature m the future. In the left foreground is M. x soulangeana 'Candolleana' (AA #15160-A), which grows in the same spot today. Photo by Walter Merryman. The same view 111 1952, with both the M acummata and M. 'Candolleana' at full maturity The Hunnewell Building in August 1992, a year before renovation. The several specimens of Magnolia stellata are over twenty feet tall and the Ilex pedunculosa over fifteen. The sheer mass of plants creates the impression of an overgrown foundation planting that completely masks the bottom two stones of the building. The new look of 1993. Photo by Warren Patterson "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Asian Connection","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25098","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170a76f.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"The Asian Connection .- , ,. , , Robert E. Cook . While Arboretum horticulturists have tested the hardiness of east Asian plants in the Boston climate, botanists have been theorizing about the causes of their similarities to eastern North American plants, employing a range of methods to investigate their relationships to one another. Harvard botanists have long been entranced by the flora of east Asia. Although the floristic similarity of eastern Asia and eastern North America was first noted by Linnaeus in the middle of the eighteenth century, it was Harvard's Asa Gray who in 1859 focused scientific attention on the many common or closely related species found in the two regions and nowhere else. This disjunct pattern of distribution seemed to suggest a once more extensive flora now broken up into two smaller regions by geological and climatic causes. Gray has been followed by numerous students and staff (Sargent, 1894; Fernald, 1931; Hu, 1935; Li, 1952; Wood, 1971; Boufford and Spongberg, 1983; Tiffney, 1985) who have studied and written about the causes of this relationship. Inevitably, alternative explanations have been postulated to account for the similarities of the floras. Perhaps a distinct flora found in one region migrated as a whole across a land bridge connection to the other region. The similarity might also result from the random but repeated dispersal of individual species across great ocean barriers. Or the apparent similarity may not be real at all. Unrelated species could have evolved similar morphologies because the climate and soils of the two regions are similar. Over the last half century our understanding of past climatic and geological history has deepened. We believe that whole continents, now separated by thousands of miles of ocean, were once connected as a single land mass. We know that major changes in the earth's climate have brought about repeated periods of glaciation in northern regions of the world as well as cycles of wet and dry periods in tropical regions, leading to massive dislocations of flora and fauna. Changes in sea level and the uplifting of mountain ranges have completely altered the shape of terrestrial land and inland seas. Plant fossils discovered in high latitude regions such as Greenland, northern Europe and Asia, and the arctic lands of North America clearly demonstrate that many southern species were once more widely distributed. Each new piece of evidence about climate, geology, or historical plant distributions has been used by botanists to argue for one over another cause of the striking similarity of the floras on the two continents and the apparent close relations of many of their species. As is so often the case in science, the real explanation for such a complex but distinct pattern is likely to be a combination of several factors interacting over long spans of time. The similarities seen in one group of plants may have its own distinctive history of causes when compared with a different group. 27 Liriodendron chinense photographed in Patung Hsein, China, altitude 4,000 feet, by E. H. Wilson in June 1910. At 60 feet in height this individual is at the upper end in stature for its species. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 28 A Common Ancestry Underlying all of this, and at the heart of the perceived pattern, is the belief that species found in the two regions are indeed closely related and that the pattern represents the of a shared evolutionary history. It could be otherwise. Two species can appear very similar in many characteristics and yet be quite unrelated as in the case of Acer pseudoplatanus (Sycamore maple) and Platanus occidentalis (Sycamore). This phenomenon has been called convergent evolution by botanists who strive to distinguish this misleading similarity from true relationship. remnants What does it mean to say that two species closely related? What constitutes a true relationship? To an evolutionary botanist it means that they share a large number of genes in common because at some time in the past they shared a common ancestor. In essence, the two species were once one species, which are subsequently split mon into two. Our most com- definition of a species is a group of interbreeding individuals that do not interbreed with any other such group. The members of a species all share genetic information in a way analogous to the sharing of information among members of a human population who use a Liriodendron tulipifera, the Amencan tulip tree, photographed in North Carolina, is a far taller plant than its Chmese relative. For this individual, the height to the first limb alone is 65 feet. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 29 language or dialect. And just as isolation over time can lead to the development of distinct language dialects, so too can isolation trigger the process of speciation in plants. If parts of a species' population become isolated from each other-perhaps by a geographical common related species. Therefore, in theory, one can the degree of genetic similardirectly Molecular systematics, as it is called, ity. promises to bring a higher order of evidence to questions of the relationship between species measure that may or may mon ancestor. not have once shared a com- barrier such as a mountain range or a riverthen the exchange of genetic information is interrupted and the two isolated parts begin to develop genetic differences. If this isolation continues long enough, the two isolated parts may no longer be capable of interbreeding. Speciation has occurred. The goal of the plant systematist is to organize the diversity of plant species in such a way that their degree of relatedness (in the sense of shared genes due to shared common ancestors) is revealed in the classification. Ideally, then, the names given to species and the way they are placed in genera and families will reflect our understanding of the history of speciational events during evolution that led to the diversity we see today. Genes can best be analyzed when they are extracted from living plant tissue that has been quickly frozen in extremely cold temperatures. Researchers use a liquified form of nitrogen to achieve such temperatures. The need for living tissue close at hand from a wide diversity of plant species has greatly increased the importance and value of well-documented collections of trees such as are maintained with great care in the Arnold Arboretum. Samples from these specimens can be supplemented with fresh collections obtained on expeditions to the native habitat of the species under consideration. History of Two Tulip Trees The value of this new, molecular approach can be seen in recent work on a classic case of a Chinese-eastern North American disjunct distribution, the tulip tree. Liriodendron tulipifera, which ranges from New England to northern Florida, appears closely related to Liriodendron chinense of central and eastern China. In addition to sharing a great deal of morphological similarity in leaf, flower, and fruit characteristics, these two species are capable of cross pollination to form viable hybrid offspring. By these criteria, they might almost be judged a single species. Yet the vast geographical distance separating them clearly prevents such hybrids from forming naturally. Based only on morphological evidence, one might conclude that these two species were once part of a large, interbreeding population (that is, sharing a common ancestor) and that the split into two populations had occurred Measuring Relatedness How have systematists tried to measure this degree of relationship among species? The earliest efforts, beginning with Linnaeus two hundred years ago, examined the degree of morphological similarity under the assumption that this accurately revealed the underlying genetic similarity. But we now know that very similar plant morphologies can develop from very different sets of genes. Therefore, morphology may in many cases be misleading. In their search for the characteristics that more closely represent the genetic identity of to the proteins that blocks of tissues, orbuilding gans, and mature morphologies. Through biochemical isolation and separation they were able to evaluate a new set of characteristics believed to be the direct products of genes. In recent years this approach has been further eclipsed by the revolution in molecular biology, which allows one to identify individual genes and compare sequences of genes species, botanists turned constitute the relatively recently. new evidence on the true genetic between these species, Clifford similarity Parks and Jonathan Wendel at the University of North Carolina extracted the genetic material (DNA) in leaf tissue from a large number of To obtain as they are represented in two presumably 30 . samples throughout the range of both species, which would directly determine the degree of difference in selected genes. The result of their analysis revealed that approximately one and one-quarter percent of the genetic material differed between the two species. Using statistical models based on the rates at which genetic material changes over time, these botanists were able to estimate how long ago these two species shared a common ancestor. They concluded that L. tulipifera and L. chinense were part of a single interbreeding population twelve and a half million years ago. A Confirmation from Fossils Parks and Wendel argue the need for similar studies of other genera, such as maples (Acer), silverbells (Halesia), witchhazels (Hamamelis), and ginsengs (Panax), all of which show an Asian-North American disjunct distribution. Clearly molecular systematics, utilizing the rich living collections of institutions such as the Arnold Arboretum, will provide a powerful tool for illuminating ~ our ancient Asian connection. References Boufford, Parks and Wendel then turned to the fossil record to assess the historical evidence for past distributions of Liriodendron and other temperate deciduous species found in both Asia and North America. They wished to test their estimate based on genetic analysis against the actual dated presence of the species in particular locations. Reviewing the discovery of fossil plants in western Canada and Alaska, and taking into account the position of the continents ten to twenty million years ago, they concluded that a broadly distributed, temperate forest existed in a band across North America through Alaska and into central Asia at the start of this time period. A global cooling trend around the middle of this time brought the invasion of coniferous forests into Alaska and northeastern Russia, displacing deciduous forests to the south and effectively severing the Asian connection. Fossil dating showed that this disjunction occurred about thirteen million years ago. Despite the great morphological similarity between L. tulipi fera and L. chinense and their ability to produce hybrid offspring, the molecular and fossil evidence reinforce each other and suggest that they have been separated for more than twelve million years. While their genes have continued to evolve during this separation, their morphologies have remained relatively unchanged, thus giving a false picture of their degree of relatedness. D. E., and S. A. Spongberg. 1983. Eastern Asian-North American phytogeographical relationships 2014 A history from the time of Linnaeus to the twentieth century. Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden 70: 423-39. Fernald, M. Specific segregations and identities floras of eastern North America and the Old World. Rhodora 33: 25-63. L. 1931. in some Hu, H. H. 1935 A comparison of the ligneous flora of China and eastern North America. Bulletm of the Chinese Botanical Society 1: 79-97. Li, H. L. 1952. Flonstic relationships between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Transactions of the American Philosophical Society 42: 371-429. Parks, C. F. Wendel. 1990. Molecular between Asian and North American of Liriodendron species (Magnollaceae) with implications for interpretation of fossil floras. American E., and J. divergence Journal of Botany 77 (10): Sargent, 1243-56. C. S. 1894. Forest Flora of Japan Notes on the Forest Flora of Japan. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin & Company. Bruce H. 1985. Tiffney, Perspectives on the origin of the flonstic similarity between eastern Asia and eastern North America. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 66: 73-94. Wood, C. E., Jr. 1971. Some floristic relationships between the Southern Appalachians and western North America. In P. C. Holt [ed ], The Distributional History of the Blota of the Southern Appalachians. Part II. Flora, 331-404. Virginia Polytechmcal Institute: State University Research Monograph 2. Bob Cook is Director of the Arnold Arboretum and lectures m introductory biology at Harvard University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introducing Weigela subsessilis","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25097","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170a36b.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Introducing Weigela subsessilis ' Stephen A. Spongberg The Arnold Arboretum is variegated color. pleased to offer an ornamental shrub of intriguingly _ . in Korea on the Arnold Arboretum's 1977 collecting expedition to Japan and Korea (Spongberg and Among the seeds collected brids are known from which many cultivars have been selected, named, and made available in the nursery trade (Howard, 1965; Krussman, Weaver, 1978; Spongberg, 1978; Weaver, 1978) were two lots representing a species of Weigela that had not previously been grown and tested at the Arboretum. At the time the capsules were gathered, the identity of the species was not known. It was not until eleven years later-after plants grown from these seeds in the Arboretum's collection had flowered and fruited, and herbarium voucher specimens had been taken-that the plants were identified as Weigela subsessilis (Nakai) Bailey. When first described by the Japanese botanist Takenoshin Nakai in 1918, this Korean plant was placed in the genus Diervilla, a genus of shrubs that is now limited to three North American taxa, while the Asian plants previously included in Diervilla have been grouped in the exclusively Asian genus 1986). Weigela subsessilis is apparently endemic to the Korean peninsula, and the 1977 introduction of the species into the collections of the Arnold Arboretum may, in fact, have represented its first successful introduction into North American gardens. Alfred Rehder included it in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1940), but he questioned whether it had been introduced into cultivation in North America, and the species appears in none of the other standard references on cultivated woody plants, including those by Bean (1980), Krussman (1986), and Dirr (1990). The Supplement to the eighth revised edition of Bean (Clarke, 1988) credits its introduction from South Korea to the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, in 1982, five years after the Arnold Arboretum had obtained its two accessions of seeds. One specimen in our herbarium (S. G. March, s. n. 5 April 1983) resulted from an earlier introduction by the United States Department of Agriculture (PI 371794), using seed received from Professor T. Bok Lee of the Department of Forestry, Seoul National University, in March of 1972. However, the plant or plants resulting from that introduction and grown at the U.S. National Arboretum Weigela (Bailey, 1929; Hara, 1981).The spe- cific epithet, subsessilis, refers to the very short petioles of the opposite leaves, which cause the leaves to appear stalkless, or sessile. The genus Weigela is well known for its spring-flowering shrubs, many of which are of considerable ornamental value. About twelve species are native to eastern Asia, with eight of them occurring in Japan, three or four in China, and four in Korea. Most of these species are also cultivated in North American and European gardens, and several interspecific hy- (#40580) were apparently never propagated or distributed, except as herbarium specimens. 32 Weigela subsessihs. (a) flowering branchlet, (b) detail of matunng capsules; (c) individual leaf; (d) style; (e) open corolla tube and anthers (From Nakai, 1921). The Arnold Arboretum collections now include three accessions of Weigela subsessilis. Two plants accessioned under #1906-77 were grown from seed collected on the wooded trail to the temple on Yongmun-san in Kyonggi-do Province northeast of Seoul. Another set of plants (#1901-77) was grown from seeds collected from plants growing on the wooded slopes of Kyebang-san in Kangwong-do Province, farther to the east. Plants of the third accession (#587-83) also trace their origin to seed collected on Kyebang-san by Chollipo Arboretum staff and offered in their 1983 Index Seminum. These three sets of plants have had varying results. Plants of the third accession (#587-83) have been incorporated into the Arboretum's collections so recently that their performance has not yet been evaluated. Plants of the second accession (#1901-77) were planted as a group on the slope of Bussey Hill, along Oak Path in a shaded, relatively dry location, but have failed to grow well in this location. By contrast, two (#1906-77) that tion in moist plants of the first accession planted in a sunny locabut well-drained soil along were near the Dana Greenhouse drive have performed very well. These two shrubs are multiple-stemmed from the base and have grown to about five feet in height with a spread of about three feet. Compact and twiggy, these individuals have been free of disease and insect pests. Moreover, they have proven to flower generously each spring, and the gradual color changes in the flowers make these plants intriguing ornamentals m the Bussey Hill Road spring landscape. The flowers are produced as on new growth are ex- from second-year wood the leaves 33 Each inflorescence consists of clusof three or four, even up to six flowers. When fully open, the flowers measure between 2.5 and 3.5 cm in length. As the flower buds enlarge, they assume a yellowish-green color that gradually changes through various shades of pink to a pale lavender when the flowers are in full bloom. Since inflorescences are profuse and individual flowers represent different stages of maturation, the overall effect of the shrub is a unique combination of pastel colors from pale yellowish-green to lavender. While these shrubs cannot be considered year-round ornamentals, their profusion of flowers in early May recommend them for trial in New England gardens and elsewhere in North America. The species has proven hardy in the Boston region, but the limits of its hardiness in more northern climates has not been tested. Weigela subsessilis may also prove of interest to hybridizers interested in incorporating both its interesting flower color and its floriferous habit in a new generation of hybrid Weigela cultivars. panding. ters Isles. Vol. 4. 8th ed. (D. L. Ed.). London: John Murray. Clarke, General Clarke, D L. 1988. Trees and Shrubs British Isles Hardy m the Supplement London: John Murray Hara, H. 1983. A Revision of Caprifoliaceae of Japan with Reference to Allied Plants in Other Districts and the Adoxaceae Gmkgoana No. 5 (Tokyo). in Howard, R. A. 1965. A Check-list of Cultivar Names Weigela. Arnoldia 25:49-69. Krussman, G. 1986. Manual of Cultivated Broadleaved Trees a) Shrubs. Vol. 3. Timber Press Portland, OR: Nakai, T. 1918. Botamcal Magazme (Tokyo) 32: 229. t. - 1921. Flora Sylvatica Koreana 11: 88. 41. Spongberg, S. A. - & R. E. 1978. Korean Adventure. Arnoldia 38: 132-53. Weaver, Jr. 1978. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea. Arnoldia 38: 28-31. Weaver, R. E., Jr. 1978. 82-101. Japanese Journal. Arnoldia 38: References Bailey, Bean, L. H. 1929. The Case of Diervilla and Gentes Herbarium 2: 39-54. Weigela. Stephen Spongberg is horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum and author of A Reumon of Trees' The Discovery of Exotic Plants and Their Introduction mto North Amencan and European Landscapes (Harvard University Press, 1990). W. J. 1980. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British The Arnold Arboretum is pleased to offer to our Friends plants of Weigela subsessilis. They were propagated from rooted cuttings and are generally 12 to 18 inches tall. Donation, payable upon receipt of plants, is $20.00 per plant. Shipment will be in the spring of 1994. Spring Plant Distribution, The Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Dana Greenhouse MA 02130 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chaenomeles x Superba 'Mandarin'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25093","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160856f.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Chaenomeles Gary L. Koller A x superba 'Mandarin' superior cultivar of a robust, long-time favorite is offered for trial. The flowering quince is an extremely tough shrub that's available in a wide range of colors. Blooming before its leaves appear, so early in spring that it very nearly has the garden to itself, the plant is also grown for its dense habit. It is a genus of only three species, but they occur in an astonishing number of varieties. In 1963, when Claude Weber undertook to examine and list the cultivars of all species and hybrid groups, she uncovered 550. In aid of the overwhelmed horticulturist, she offered a shorter list of 234, classified by colorwhite, white-and-pink, pink, orange, and red. These she further narrowed to 41 for special commendation. From this large company, we have singled out one cultivar, Chaenomeles x superba 'Mandarin'. Each of its single flowers radiates a saturated reddish-orange, the Mandarin red that gave it its name, but what makes this plant even more distinctive is the disease resistance of its foliage. Many flowering quinces drop their leaves in summer, but 'Mandarin' retains a full complement of lustrous green foliage till frost. Characteristically, the plant takes a nicely rounded shape. Its rich foliage combined with full branching makes it an ideal low-maintenance shrub, useful as a hedge in itself or as a member of a varied group of plants. Its yellow-green fruits, which ripen in autumn, are lightly fragrant and ovoid or obovoid in shape, something like a small, gnarled apple. They are edible and can be used to make jams. 'Mandarin' originated as a seedling at the Clarke Nursery Company in San Jose, California, where it was selectea for introduction into the trade in 1947. Two small grafted plants arrived at the Arnold Arboretum in 1950. One of these (accession #281-50) has been growing in its present location in the Bradley Collection of Rosaceaous Plants since 1958 at least. This winter, as the plant approaches the age of forty-five, it has grown to about eight feet in height and by the rooting of its ground-level branches has spread to a breadth of fifteen feet. Size may limit the use of 'Mandarin' in very small gardens, but it should be ideal for larger gardens or for institutional, commercial, and park plantings. 'Mandarin' is quickly established and if planted two or three feet apart, in a few growing seasons it will simulate a thicket that's showy in flower and forms a thorny year-round barrier to direct pedestrian traffic. Quinces grow well in almost any welldrained, even droughty, acid soil. They will tolerate rocky soils, exposure to moderate amounts of salt spray, and even, it seems, atmospheric pollution. Full sun is required for optimal flowering and fruit production, but moderate shade is tolerated. The northern limit of cold hardiness is not yet fully established, but 'Mandarin' should prove hardy to at least -10 degrees F. Plants damaged in winter storms benefit from renewal pruning immedi- ately following flowering. At the Arnold Arboretum, we have successfully repropagated 'Mandarin' by cuttings, 35 Chaenomeles x superba 'Mandarin', photographed by the author Its flowering season can be extended from late winter to early spring by forcmg cut branches for mdoor display. 36 which avoids the understock suckering that can occur in grafted material. Reproduction from cuttings is vastly more cost efficient from a commercial viewpoint, resulting in less costly plants for gardeners. Softwood cuttings are treated with IBA (indolebutyric acid) or KIBA (potassium salt of indolebutyric acid), stuck in a mixture of equal parts of sand and perlite, and misted intermittently until rooting. The Bradley Collection includes two repropagations from the original plant, one from hardwood cuttings taken in March 1983, the other from softwood cuttings taken in July of the same year. In general, the success rate with softwood cuttings is close to 100 percent while with hardwood it is closer to 10 percent. 'Mandarin' is well worth growing, not only brilliant addition to the early spring garden, but for its proven track record of problemfree performance. as a Literature Weber, Claude. 1963. Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles. Arnoldia 23 (3): 17-75. Wyman, Donald. 1969. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. New York: Macmillan, 159-162. is Senior Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum and Lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. Gary Koller The Arnold Arboretum is pleased to offer plants of Chaenomeles x superba 'Mandarin' to our Friends. They were propagated from rooted cuttings and are generally 12 to 18 inches tall. Donation, payable upon receipt of plants, is $20.00 per plant. Shipment will be in the spring of 1994. Spring Plant Distribution, Dana Greenhouse The Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 53","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25096","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add170a326.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers in to Volume 53 - parentheses refer to issues, those (1993) boldface m , to illustrations of the entnes. Chestnut, - Abies balsamea (1):27 Acer - Berberis sp. (4): 23 American cover (2): 26-27; (4): 30 28 campestre (121, 22 2014 pseudoplatanus (4): - tnflorum (4): 21 Adams, Charles Francis (4) : 2, 11 Adams, Henry (4): 2 Alton, William (3): 13 Akiba, David, photos by (2): front cover; (3) front cover; (4) : front cover cover Allspice, Carolina (1).13 Amelanchier arborea (1):front vulgans [1): 17-18 Berlin, Greater, 1910 planning competition (4) : 13 Biltmore estate [NC] (3): 20 Black stem rust disease (2): 17-18 Blister rust fungus (1): 26 Blue Hills [MA] (4): 5, 6, 12, 13 Bonsai (1): 19-23 Boston Metropolitan Park Commission (4): 2-17, 14-15 Boston Public Garden (3|: 16 Boston, Greater (4): 4, 5, 7-9, 13, 1415, 16 Botanical inside back sweet or Spanish (2): 13 garden (1):2-7 Chollipo Arboretum [Korea] (4): 32 Cmnamomum camphora (3) : 27 City Beautiful movement 14): 2 Clarkia [ID] fossil site (2): 3-9, 4 Chinese Classification systems, taxonomic American Forestry Association ( 1 ): 35 American Horticultural Society (3): 3 Andersen, Phyllis, \"Trees as Urban Infrastructure: Book Review\" (1): \/: 32-35; Book Notes (3): 31 Anderson, Larz, Bonsai Collection (1): 19 gardens, historical development of (2): 19 science Botamcal Register (1):16 Botany, emergence of as a Aquilegia (1):10 Aquihna multiplex (1):10 Arnold Arboretum (1): 30; (2) : front cover, 22, 23; (3)' 3, 17, 18, 19, 22; (4): front cover, 18, 20-25, 22-25, 31-32, 34, 36, inside back Data cover, - - - (2): 20 Bowditch, Nathaniel (4): 6 Brooklyn Botanical Garden (3): 18 Browallia, spreading (1):12 Browalha (1): 12 ahenata (1):12 demissa (1): 12 2014 elata[B): 12 grandiflora (1):12 Bussewitz, Al, photos by (1):front cover, back cover back cover Arnold Arboretum Weather Station 7 Bussey Institution |4): (1):36 Arnold, Henry, \"Sustainable Trees for Sustainable Cities\" (3): 4-12 \"Asian Connection,\" Robert E. Cook (4). 26-30 Aster, China (1) 11 - New England (1): 11 Aster novae- anghae (1): 11 tradescantli(1).11 Averrhoa carambola (1):22 - - Callistephus chmensis (1):11 Calycanthus (11: 9 flondus [I): 13 Cambridge [MA] Park Commission (4) : 11 Camphor tree (3) : 27 Candolle, Augustin Pyramus de (3): 14 (3): 13-23 Clayton, John (1):15 Clusms, Carolus fl):11 Coevolution, concept as evidenced in Thoreau's writings (2): 24 Coker Arboretum [NC] (4) : 21 Colder, Cadwallader (1):14 Colder, Jane(1): 14 Collinson, Peter (1):11, 13, 15 Columbine (1):10 Compression wood( 127 Conifer collection, Arnold Arboretum (3) : 18 Cook, Robert E., \"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small?\" (1): 19-23; \"The Asian Connection\" (4): 26-30 Copeland, Robert Morris (4): 6, 8 Cornus florida (3): front cover Corylus avellana (2): 13, 14 -colurna (2|: 13 maxima (2) : 13 Crabapple, flowering (3): back cover Cranberry bush, European (2): 18 Crataegus laevigata (2): 14 oxycantha (2): 13 Crocker, Uriah (4) : 8 Crown imperial (1): 11 Curtis's Botanical Magazine (1): 11, - - Candollean classification system (3) : 14, 15, 16, 17 Barberry (2): 17-18; (4) : 23 Barcelona, Montjuic (1):34 Bartram, John (1) 11, 13, 14, 15; (4): 22 Carambola (1): 22 Castanea dentata back cover - (2): 27, inside 15 12, 13, 15, 16, 17 Curtis, George Carroll (4) : 14-15 Curtis, John |1):15 Curtis, William[1):16 Custis, John(l):11 Cypress, Hinoki (1):19 Bartram, William (4) : Baster, John(l).13 Bauhima (3) : 11 Baxter, Sylvester (4): 2-4, 6-8, 10, 14, 16, 19 Beaver Brook [MA] (4) : 6, 11, 18-19 22 sativa (2): 13 Catesby, Mark(l):13, Dalton, Charles (4): 11 Central Park Arboretum (3): 16, 17 \"Chaenomeles x superba 'Manda- Bentham and Hooker system of plant classification (3): 14, 15, 17, rin',\"Gary L. Koller (4) : 34-36, 35 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' |1): 19 Champs Elysees (3): 7 Charles River [MA] (4): 5, 6, 8, 10, 1 Dana, Richard Henry (4): 11 Darwin, Charles (3): 15, 17 Darwin, Erasmus (3): 13 Davenport, Charles (4): 8 Del Tredici, Peter, \"The Upright White Pine\" (1): 24-31; 3, 5, 6, 7; 18, 20; (4) : 20 Bentham, George (3). 11, 12,13 14 Chelsea Physic Garden (1):12, 13 \"Faith in a Seed and a Squirrel: Book Review and Excerpt\" (2): 2429 ; \"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima\" with Hiromi Tsuchida (3): 24-29; 38 h photo by (3) back cover; \"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Landscape\" with Stephen Spongberg (4): 20-25, photo by (4) back cover Derby Arboretum (3): 15, 16 Disjunct plant distribution (4) : 26A. 30 DNA (2|- 3; (4): 29 Dogwood, flowering (3) : front cover Downing, Andrew Jackson( 125; (3): 16 Edwards, Sydenham T. (1):11, 12, 13,16 Eliot, Charles (4) : 2-16, 7 Ellis, John(l):13 Elm, American (1): 32; (3): 6 Elm disease, Dutch (1): 32 Garden, Alexander (1):13, 14 Garden and Forest (4): 3, 18 Gardema (1):14 3 GeHong(l)-2, Gerard, John, Herball or Generall Histone of Plants (1): 9, 10, 16 Gmgko biloba 11): 21, 22; (3): 29 Ginseng (4): 30 Gourlay, Robert (4): 8 Gray, Asa (4): 20, 26 Gypsy moth (2): 16 to Cultivate,\" Gary Koller (2): 21-23 Haglund, Karl, \"Emerald Metropolis,\" (4): 2-17 Halesia (4): 30 Halifax Public Garden (3): 16 Hamamehs (4) : 30 Hardhack, fountain (2): 21-23 2014 latifoha f. rubra (1):back cover Kew Gardens (3): 13 Kew Magazine (1): 16 Kienbaum, Francis (2) : 3 Koller, Gary L., \"A Habit to Cultivate\" (2): 21-23; \"Chaenomeles x superba 'Mandarin\"' (4): 34-36 Korner, Ch. (1):21-23 Lanx decidua \"Habit Larch, European (1):22 (1):22 Laurel, mountain (1):back cover, 14-15 Leaf formation (1):19-23 Lee, T. Bok(4):31 Leiden Botanical Gardens (1): 11 Richard W, Book Notes (3): 30-31 Lilac (2): 17 Lighty, Metropolis,\" Karl Haglund (4): 2-17 Emerald Necklace [Boston] (4) : 6 Engler, Adolph (3): 14, 15, 20 Enkianthus campanulatus (4): 21 -perulatus (4): 21 Environmental value of urban trees street \"Emerald Harrison, Mary, \"Plant History: Expanding the Horizons of a Small Garden\" (1):8-18 Hawthorn, common (2) : 13, 14 - (3) : 10 Epmasty, delayed (1):27 Esplanade [Boston] (4): 6, 11, 15 Eucalyptus sp. (3): inside back cover \"Faith in a Seed and a Squirrel: Book Review and Excerpt,\" Peter Del Tredici (2): 24-29 Hazelnut, European (2): 13, 14 Turkish (2): 13 Heat islands [urban] (3) : 4, 6 Hemlock Gorge Reservation [MA] (4): inside front cover \"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima,\" Hiromi Tsuchida and Peter Del Tredici (3). 24-29 Higgmson, Francis (2): 12 Lily, sunk (1): 12 Linden collection, Arnold Arboretum (3): 22 - European (1):22 Lingering Garden [Suzhou, China] (1 1:3-7 Linnaeus, Carolus (1):12, 13, 14; (3): 13; (4): 26, 29 Lmodendron chmense (4) : 1, 21, 27, 29-30 - - hespena (2): back cover tulipifera (4): 21; 28, 29-30 tuhpifera x chmense (4): 21, back cover Hiroshima (3) : 24, 25-29; inside back cover 6 Lmope spicata (1):6 Faxon, C. E., drawing by (2): inside front cover, inside back cover Hogg, Thomas(1):15, Holden Arboretum 16 [OH] (3): 20 Figlar, R. B., \"Stone Magnolias\" (2): 3-9, 4, photo by (2) back cover Filbert (2): 13 Fir, balsam (1):27 Fitch, John Nugent (1):16 Fitch, Walter Hood (1):16, Forest 17 Holly, longstalk (4): 21 Hooker, Joseph (1):16; (3) :14 Hooker, William Jackson (1):16 Howard, Richard (3) : 3 Hydrangea (4) : 23 Hypencum (1):14 [Suzhou, China] (1):3-7 Loudon, John Claudius (3): 16 Lu Shan Arboretum [China] (4): 21 Lynn Woods [MA] (4): 6 Liu Yuan Magnolia (4): - 20 cover 7 - Clarkia fossil (2): 5, cucumber (2) : inside front saucer - succession, Thoreau's concept of (2): 24 Fossil Bowl [Clarkia, ID] (2): 4, 5 Fossils, leaf (2): 1, 2, 3-9, 7, back cover; (4) : 30 Fossil site, P-33 Miocene, Clarkia (3): 21 Fothergill, John(l):14 Fothergllla (1):9, 14 2014 gardenn (1): 14 2014 major ( 1 inside back cover Franklin tree (4): 22 Franklin, Benjamin (4) : 22 Frankhma alatamaha (4): 22 Fritillaria imperials (1):11-12 Fungus disease (1):24 [ID] (2): 3-9, 4 Foster Botanical Garden Ilexpendunculosa (4): 21 9 Impatiens (1).9 \"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd,\" KongjianYu(l):2-7 \"Introducing Weigela su bsessihs, Stephen A. Spongberg (4): 31-33 Ivy, Boston (4): 23 Johnson, Thomas (1):10, 9 Josselyn, John (1):9 Juglans regia (2): 13 16 (4): 20 slope (2). 1, 7 star (4): 20 Magnolia acummata (2): inside front cover, 5, 6, 7, 9; (4): 24 2014 grandiflora (2): 5-9 -kobus (4): 20 -latahensis (2): 2, 3, 5, 8 2014 hhflora (2) : 9 -stellata (4): 20, 24, 25 x soulangeana (4): 20, 23 'Candolleana' (4): 24 -- Jussieu, Antome Laurent de (3): Jussieu, Bernard de (3): 14, 16 14 2014 zenn (4): 20 Maintenance of urban street trees (3) : 11 Kalm, Peter (1):14-15 Kalmia latifoha(1) : 14, 15 Malus (2): 18 -'Donald Wyman' (3): back cover 39 sylvestns (2): 18 Maple (4) : 28, 30 - hedge (1):22 three-flowered (4) : 21 Marshall, Humphrey (4): 22 Massachusetts Bay Colony (2): 12, - 13, 15 Massachusetts Horticultural Society (3): 3; (4): 8, 18 Medbury, Scot, \"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design\" (3): 13-23 Medicinal herbs (\"simples\") (2): 16, 19 Menstem(l):20-23, 22 Metasequoia glyptostroboides (2): front cover Metropolitan District Commission [Boston] (4): 14 Metropolitan Park Commission [Boston] (4): 2-17, 14-15 Michaux, Andre (1):15 Middlesex Fells [MA] (4) : 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 12 Peabody, Robert (4): 7 Peace Park, Hiroshima (3): 25 Physic gardens [Europe] (2): 19 Pine tree (3): 26, 27 white 11):24-31,26, 28 - fastigiate (1):24-31, 29, 30 Pmnodes strobi (124 Pmus strobus (1) : 24-31, 26, 28 'Fastigiata' (1): 24-31, 29, 30 thunbergn (3): 26, 27 Plane, London (1):10,32 Plant development (1):19-23 \"Plant History: Expanding the Horizons of a Small Garden,\" Mary Harrison (1) :8-18 Plant migrations (2) 11-20 Planting specifications, street trees 8 (3): Platanus occidentahs (1): 10, 33; (4): 2014 \" Serviceberry, downy (1):front cover Shadblow( 1front cover Shukukeien, garden in (3): 29 Shurchff, Arthur |4): 12 Silverbell (4): 30 Smiley, Charles J. (2): 3, 4, 5, 6 Smith College, plan of botanic garden (3): 14 8 Smith, John (1):8 Snowball (2) : 10, 18 Speciation in plants (4): 29-30 Speedway [Boston] (4): 10 9 Spiderwort |1):9 Spongberg, Stephen A., and Peter Del Tredici, \"Historic Plants in a New Setting: The Evolution of the Hunnewell Building Land- 28 - 2014 Millar, Robert (1):12 Miller, Norton G. (4): Miller, Phillip(1):12, 21 13 Missouri Botanical Garden (3) : 20 - onentahs (1):10 x acerifoha (1) : 10 Plum, common (2) : 19 Plymouth Plantation (2): 12, Prantl, Karl (3)- 14, 15, 20 Prunus (2): 18 domestica (2): 19 scape\" (4): 20-25; \"Introducing Weigela subsessihs\" (4): 31-33 St. Johnswort (1): 14 Stashko, Edward, \"Ecology for Your Backyard: Book Review\" (2): 30- 13 (1):15 (1):15, 17 2014 pseudocamelha(1):15, 17; (4): 22 \"Stone Magnolias,\" R. B. Figlar (2): - ovata 32 Stewartia malacodendron Molecular systematics (4): 29 3-9 Moraea, Sara Lisa (1):12 Morgan, George H. (1):30 Morris Arboretum Morus alba (2): 15 2014 mgia (2): 15 Quince, flowering (4): 34-36, 35 Racz & (3): 20 ): Debreczy, photos by( 1 (3): 16 (3): 4-12 Stuart, John(l):15 Street trees Stourhead 9 Moses-in-the-Bullrushes (1):9 inside front cover, inside back cover; (3). inside front cover Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden 20 Red oak (2): 26 \"Sustamable Trees for Sustainable Cities,\" Henry Arnold (3): 4-12 Sycamore, 28 American (1):10, 33; (4): Moth, gypsy (2): 16 Mulberry (2)- 15 Munch, Ernst (1):27 Murray, J. A. (1):14 Mystic River [MA] (4): 5, [CA] (3). Synnga vulgaris (2): 17 Taoism Redwood, dawn (2): front cover \"Remembering Donald Wyman\" (3): 8 (1):2-3 3 Research Institute of 8 23 Revere Beach 18 Ecology and 22- Nakai, Takenoshin (4): 31 Neponset River [MA] (4): 5, Nerium indicum (3) : 27 New York Botanical Garden Botany, Vacratot, Hungary (2): \"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design,\" Scot Medbury (3): 13-23 Tertiary Research Center, University of Idaho (2): 5 Theorhidon, section, distribution of 8 (2): Thoreau, Henry David, book review of and excerpts from Faith in a Seed' The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History (3): North Carolina Botanical Garden (3): 21 \"Notes on Transatlantic Migrants,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (2): 11-20 Oleander (3): 27 Olmsted Brothers (3): 20, 21 Olmsted, Frederick Law (1):33; (3): [MA] (4): 6, 9, 13 Rose, guelder (2): 10, 18 Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew (1): 16; (4): 31 Royal Horticultural Society : [London] (1): 16; (3) 3 Rust disease, black stem (2): 17-18 Sackville-West, Vita (1):12 Sahx sp. (3): 29 Sargent, Charles Sprague (4): 3; \"The Waverly Oaks,\" 18-19; 20, 21 Schulhof, Richard, Book Notes (3): 31-32 Scone Palace 16, 17; (4): 2, 6, 7, 12, 16,20 Paleobotamcal detection (2): 7 Panax (4) : 30 Parkmson, John1):9, 10 Parks, Clifford (2) : 8; (4) : 21, 29 Parthenocissus tricuspidata (4): Pauley, Tristan (1):32 Writings (2): 24-29 Thorn, white (2): 13, 14 Tiha collection, Arnold Arboretum (3): 22 cordata (1):21, 22 Tradescant, John (1):8-9 9 Tradescantia1):9 9 virginiana (1):9 - - (3): 16 \"Trees Securinega suffruticosa (2): 21-23, 23 22 as Urban Infrastructure: Book Review,\" Phyllis Andersen Sericulture (2): 16 (1):32-35 Trelease, William (3): 20 40 Trustees of Public Reservations [MA] (4): 4 Tsuchida, Hiromi, \"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima\" with Peter Del Vegetation and Scenery, Charles Eliot (4): 11-12 Versailles (3): 14 Viburnum opulus (2): 10, 18 sieboldii (3): inside front cover Tredici (3): 24-29; photo by (3): inside back cover - \"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small?,\" Robert E. Cook(l):19-23 Willow tree (3): 28 Wilson, E. H. (1): 30; (3): 3; (4) 21, 27 Witch alder (1):inside back cover, 14 Tulip - (4): 27, 28, 29 fossil leaf of (2): back cover hybrid (4): 21, back cover tree U.S. National Arboretum (4): 31 U.S. Bureau of Forestry (1): 24 Wallace, Alfred Russell (3): 15 Walnut, English, Persian, or royal (2): 13 Waltham [MA] Canoe Club (4) : 13 Waverly Oaks [MA] (4): 6, 8, 11, 12, 18-19 Witchhazel (4): 30 World's Columbian Exposition [Chicago] (4): 2 Wright, Ehzur (4): 7, 8 Wyhe, Samuel (1):13 3 Wyman, Donald (3): 2, Yu, Konguan, \"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd: Understanding the Chinese Garden (1):2-7 3 Yuanmmg (1):2, University of Washington Arboretum (3) : 20, 21 \"Waverly Oaks,\" Charles (4) : 18-19 S Sargent \"Upright White Pine\" Peter Del Tredici(l |: 24-31 Urban street trees (3): 4-12, 5, 7, 11 Utilities, value of urban street trees as (3): 4-12 Vaux, Calvert (3): 16, 17 Weather Station Data, 1992, Arnold Arboretum (1):36 Weber, Claude (4): 34 Weigela subsessihs (4)- 31-33, 32 Wendel, Jonathan (2|: 8; (4): 29 White pme weevil (124-26 8 White, John (1):8 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE Zelkova, Japanese (1):22 Zelkova serrata (1):22 STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) lA, Title of publication: Arnoldia. 1B, Publication number: 00042633. 2, Date of filing: 31 Dec. 1993. 3, Frequency of Quarterly. 3A, Number of issues published annually: 4. 3B, Annual subscription price: $20.00 domestic, $25.00 foreign. 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names of the publisher : Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519, editor. 7, Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: none. 9, The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 10, Extent and nature of circulation. A, Total number of copies. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 4,500. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4,500. B, Paid and\/or requested circulation. 1, Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. 2, Mail subscription. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,917. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,910. C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,917. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,910. D, Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number issue: of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 222. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 222. E, Total distribution. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 4,139. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4,132. F, Copies not distributed. 1, Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 361. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 368. 2, Return from news agents. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. G, Total. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months 4,500. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4.500. 11,I certify that the statements made by me are correct and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23343","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260b76e.jpg","title":"1993-53-4","volume":53,"issue_number":4,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Remembering Donald Wyman","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25090","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160bb6d.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Remembering Donald Wyman 1904-1993 thirty-five years Horticulturist of the Arnold Arboretum, died 6. From 1935 to 1970, Dr. Wyman was largely responsible for the care and maintenance of the living collections of the Arboretum. He grew up in Philadelphia and later described himself as a city boy who became interested in growing things in his room. He took a bachelor's degree in horticulture at Pennsylvania State College in 1926 and received a master's in forestry in 1933. On receiving a Ph.D. in horticulture at Cornell University in 1935, he joined the Arnold Arboretum, without pay for six months, and in 1936 was named Horticulturist. Richard Howard, director emeritus, Donald Wyman, for on September commented that when Wyman came to the Arboretum as a young Cornell graduate, he undertook major responsibility for one of the principal arboretums in the world-at one of the worst times. Charles Sargent, the founding director, had died in 1927, and E. H. Wilson-thereafter Keeper of the Arboretum-met an untimely accidental death in 1930. As Horticulturist, Dr. Wyman reinstituted a comprehensive plant labeling and mapping program and initiated a judicious thinning of old and declining specimens. He also departed from the original method of planting only in botanical sequence, making exceptions when valued ornamental plants would be displayed well at a turn of the road or as the focal point of a vista. He saw his primary responsibility as the introduction of new plants. In 1960-1961 alone, he located seeds or plants of 586 species and varieties not then in the Arboretum. A trip to Europe in 1965 netted 930 species and varieties, many of them first-time introductions into the United States. Wyman viewed arboreta as the best places to evaluate the ornamental qualities of trees and shrubs. It was in fulfilling this mission that Wyman established his reputation and for which he will long be remembered. More, perhaps, than any other single person, certainly of his era, he advanced the knowledge and appreciation of hardy woody plants through his articles (numbering in the hundreds), published in Arnoldia and elsewhere, and his seven books, which included the acclaimed Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens, Trees for American Gardens, and the bible of horticulturists, Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia. With a personable style and a willingness to make unequivocal recommendations, he published comprehensive lists and then subdivided them into practical groupings recommended for special uses-shady spots, urban environments, seaside landscapes. A synthesizer and popularizer, he translated a great deal of technical information into a form nonprofessionals could understand. His work may now seem familiar, but only because it's been so often imitated. His achievements did not go unrecognized. He was president, director, and trustee of the American Horticultural Society and trustee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. He was awarded the Liberty Hyde Bailey Medal, the foremost honor of the American Horticultural Society; the George Robert White Medal, the top honor of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; and the Veitch Memorial Gold Medal, the highest award available to a foreigner, from the Royal Horticultural Society of London. In an interview at age eighty-seven he remembered, \"At a certain point in my studies, I had to choose which area of horticulture to devote myself to, and I chose to concentrate on ornamental woody plants. When I came to the Arboretum, there they all were, needing loving care and attention. I enjoyed working at the Arboretum. I loved every bit of it.\" \" 2022 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sustainable Trees for Sustainable Cities","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25091","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add1608126.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Arnold, Henry","article_content":"Sustainable Trees for Sustainable Cities Henry Arnold Large shade trees make an enormous contribution to sustainable cities, but all of the trees planted every year will not survive long enough to attain effective size. Many factors are involved, but certainly an important one is the relationship between longevity and planting methods. too many The idea of sustainable cities is linked to an older concept of sustainable plant communities. The theoretical basis for both is a closed system where everything is continuously recycled. Natural resources are renewed rather than depleted. In undisturbed natural areas a kind of sustainability is achieved through the natural cycles of the biosphere. However, this kind of sustainability for trees in the city cannot be achieved because the natural cycles have been interrupted there. Continuity of urban trees depends on human intervention. independently than most other major changes, and it would show results sooner. Trees have enormous appeal not only aesthetically but also for their air-conditioning value; they are beautiful utilities. A large tree in the city is ten to twenty times more beneficial to the environment than a rural forest tree (Akbari et al. 1992). This is a result of the combined effects of trees on air conditioning and atmospheric carbon reduction in the urban \"heat islands.\" They not only cool the city but they save energy used to air condition buildings. Hence they reduce atmospheric carbon produced by burning fossil fuels to generate electricity. The enhanced benefit of urban trees depends on this multiple effect when planted in urban spaces, as \"infrastructure.\" Present Deficiencies With the increasing awareness of the danger of global warming there have been scores of national, state, and local efforts to increase the number of trees growing in urban areas, espe- Making Cities Sustainable Sustainability in the broader sense for cities involves human populations and all of their activities. A major concern, in considering what makes cities sustainable in this social sense, is their desirability as places to live. The city has the great advantage of compactness, which makes possible human interaction and cultural enrichment. Today the city suffers many ills that counter these advantages, not the least of which are incompatible transportation and deteriorating infrastructure. To a great extent these problems are interwoven and cannot be successfully resolved indepen- cially in large cities. Many tree planting programs blossomed during the 1980s, but without the crucial component of coordinated interagency planning. Each program follows its own course of action in deciding where to plant, what to plant, and how to plant trees resulting in loss of visual continuity and less dently. If, however, one were to pick a logical starting place, retrofitting the city for trees has appeal on several levels. It could be done more 5 Trees m downtown Brooklyn, NY, planted m paving usmga soil mixture with prevent loss of pore space under compaction from heavy pedestrian use. expanded slate aggregate to durable tree plantings. This is usually a consequence of not making tree planting part of the space. Such urban areas can support and would greatly benefit from large healthy trees. city's comprehensive planning. Trees are not looked upon with the same seriousness as utilities, streets, and building heights. This may be one reason for failing to effectively plant the \"hard-core\" areas. By this term I mean those precincts of every city where there are no large trees and where it does not appear that large healthy trees could grow. These are the zones of continuous paving supporting intensive pedestrian and vehicular ac- Understanding These Deficiencies An obstacle to effectively planting American cities is the continuation of three widespread cultural biases inherited from the nineteenth century. These notions about the city still operate against the bountiful use of trees. Without reconsidering these issues there is little chance of establishing an effective urban forest in the downtown areas of our cities. The first is the popular belief that greater diversity of tree species creates a more durable and healthy forest. Diversity of plant species does not produce stable plant communities tivity. These hard-core areas include central boulevards, traffic islands, crowded sidewalks, pavement over structures, urban squares, commercial plazas, and building roofs. They constitute a significant part of the city center, possibly sixty to eighty percent of the open (Wilson 1989). Rather, species diversity occurs as a result of long periods of stable habitat con- plant communities that have developed species diversity are very fragile. Any disturbance to their habitat is likely to greatly ditions. Old reduce the number of species that can survive. This certainly applies to forests, especially in the city where the harsh habitat is so unsuited for most tree types. Therefore we cannot expect to create a suitable urban habitat for trees by simply planting many different tree types. The appropriate habitat conditions are required first to support species diversity. Many urban sites will not support tree species diversity because of the biological limitations of the space. For example, poor air quality, disturbed water cycle, chemical pollutants, and soil restrictions prohibit all but a very few adaptable tree types to grow in these disturbed locations. Well-meaning but illinformed efforts to create variety by planting many tree types on a single block or street are counterproductive. The best principle to follow on urban sites such as city streets is to plant desirable tree types that are growing in and have survived similar conditions for many years. Diversity of age is likely to be far more important in creating sustainable urban tree plantings than varying species. If all of the trees in a particular urban location become old at a the same time, there is greater likelihood of catastrophic loss. A continual replanting pro- gram that staggers the ages of the street trees could prevent possible extensive periodic tree losses (Richards 1982\/1983). At the very least we should avoid the now common practice of seeking species diversity as an end in itself. This is not to discourage testing other tree types on a limited basis. Yet misguided imposition of species diversity is being mandated by new tree planting regulations in almost every urban community. This can have serious negative consequences for urban tree sustainability. I believe this is the wrong reaction to the widespread loss of American elm trees. Planting more tree species, most of which are poorly adapted to urban locations, will not result in greater longevity of urban trees. Selecting the best adapted tree type for each specific habitat will allow citywide diversity adequate to provide insurance against major tree epidemics. We do not need to install five or more species of trees in every block of every street. Sketch area to center of an urban heat island profile shows how summer temperatures can vary from a rural city by as much as 7 degrees Fahrenheit on a summer day. From Akbari 1992. 7 The Champs Elysee in Parjs, where trees defme the streets and spaces of the city. The use of trees as infrastructure maximizes their architectural values. Our best examples are The second bias concerns deployment of in the city. There is a predisposition for the open-grown tree form with broad, low spreading crown. Trees are placed far apart to develop individual symmetrical crowns, decreasing their effectiveness as urban forests. Alternatively, consider trees as infrastructure, that is, as a whole system. In this recommended approach, trees are used as groves, arcades, connectors, buffers, canopies, and colonnades. As strong geometric compositions they unify chaotic streets and tie the urban spaces together. The resulting network of vegetation conditions the air, light, and sound of the city, shaping a habitat that is unifying and soul satisfying. Used this way trees are a connecting tissue that is a part of the fabric of the trees European cities, most notably Paris. Large city, not just decorative trim. line every street forming shaded arcades that echo the rhythms of the building architecture. They are as much a part of the city as buildings and streetlights and roads. In the modern cities of temperate North America trees can be a welcome visual contrast to our often less distinguished architecture. Tree shadow patterns enrich the walls and pavement, compensating for lack of architectural richness. The third bias is a preference for the use of suburban planting techniques in urban areas regardless of the specific site conditions. The planting methods still being used in the city were developed for rural or suburban sites. trees 8 Street Tree Planting tree planting detail. Conventional planting technique showing typical tree pit used for planting street trees contammg about fifty cubic feet of prepared soil. This detail is effective in suburban areas where there is good growing soil surroundmg the planting pit, but not in most dense urban areas. Figure A. Standard drawing showmg prepared to grow large street trees on an intensively used site. Street trees planted this way can become part of the urban infrastructure. Figure how B. Isometric cut-away root space is A. IMPERVIOUS SIDEWALK PAVEMENT B. PAVING BLOCK WITH OPEN JOINTS - C. AIR VENT PIPES FOR TREE ROOTS Figure C. Section perspective showmg how roots can tree D. SUBDRAIN PIPES BENEATH ROOT ZONE E. SPECIAL POROUS SOIL MIXTURE F. be accommodated on a narrow street retrofitted for pedestrians, bicyclists, and trees. Note large volume of special soil and subsurface POROUS DRAINAGE LAYER UNDER SOIL drainage. G. ROADWAY PAVEMENT OVER UTILITY TUNNEL One approach to solving the problem of supporting paving around trees while preserving pore space for the roots is to use a mixture of expanded aggregate and topsoil. Open-jointed paving blocks are then set directly on the compacted soil mixture. Other methods involve supporting the pavement on a layer of coarse aggregate that retains air or bridging the pavement over the planting soil to prevent compaction. Each of these methods has its advantages and limitations and must be designed to meet the constraints of site and budget. 9 They don't work in the city's hard-core spaces. These unnatural sites require planting methods that are very different from those used on suburban sites. The value of trees, especially in the city, is dependent on their longevity, which depends in turn on how the root space is prepared when the trees are planted. Special soil are required to maintain porosity to supply roots with essential air. Tree roots need air, but urban trees cannot usually find suit- trees. It is not only a result of improper species selection and planting methods, but also a failure to ask questions about our objectives. Are we most concerned with quantity as shade mixtures opposed to size or longevity? One tree that fifty years is worth more than twenty trees that last only ten years. The benefit of an urban tree is directly proportional to its crown size or volume. Therefore, average crown volume multiplied by longevity gives the truest lasts a tree's worth. This is further exthe accelerated rate of growth of the plained by crown after the first ten years. Considering the economics, wouldn't it be more effective to trade fewer trees that grow large for a larger quantity of trees that last less than ten years? This is not meant to suggest planting trees further apart, a practice that compromises the visual continuity and shade effectiveness of urban trees. Rather, it suggests reallocating resources used to reforest cities so that they will become more effective over time. It is especially important that the large number of recently established tree planting programs be guided by a long-term approach, recognizing the relationships between the benefits of tree longevity and effective urban tree able growing space under the pavement. A medium to large urban tree, with a branch spread of eighteen to twenty feet, needs at least one thousand cubic feet of well-aerated, welldrained soil to survive and be healthy (Bassuk et al. 1991). Unless these special provisions are built into the typical city site when it is planted, there is very little chance that the tree will last long enough to provide significant benefit. picture of The Effect of Current Tree Planting Practices Our cultural attitudes and their influence on the way we plant trees help to explain why there are millions of trees planted every year in our cities that will not survive to a beneficial age-that is, they will not grow to be large Urban tree canopy size measured as cubic feet of crown volume showing estimated size mcrease with age for a hypothetical urban street tree planted correctly. Crown growth accelerates after the first ten years, later declmmg as branch spread fills the space. Adapted from Arnold 1993. 10 planting methods. Most urban trees are still being planted using outdated installation practices. Unfortunately the success of these planting programs is being measured ten years too soon, that is, before the tree roots outgrow the site. Preparing a difficult city street site for a tree so it will grow for many years requires a specially designed soil mixture, underdrainage system, and an appropriate ground surface material. The site preparation an A More Effective Approach three things: to four times as expensive good-sized nursery grown tree. However, the measurable benefits exceed the higher planting cost by a factor of ten (see graph below). A tree costing five thousand dollars to plant would yield fifty thousand dollars in accumulated benefits, using estimated values from a U.S. Forest Service study (Ebenreck 1988). While such estimates are bound to be imprecise, they yield plausible figures without even counting intangible benefits. From this perspective, trees are our most economical as a alone may be three The specialized planting techniques recommended here are not meant to supplant the tree planting methods successful at less cost on less disrupted sites. The new methods have been developed for hard-core urban sites where only trees over four inches in caliper when planted can survive the characteristic abuse (Nowak et al. 1990). Such areas require complete replacement of the existing urban soil with a special growing medium to allow the development of mature trees. Trees planted over structures, in manufactured soil recessed below the pavement, illustrate one such condition. If more knowledgeable practices for urban trees are widely adopted, the success of city trees will improve dramatically. The three most critical of these practices are: 2022 The use of special installation techniques where they are required to accommodate tree roots. urban utilities. 2022 Selecting the tree type on the basis of it will take ten years Comparison of cost and benefit of urban street tree. Using a dollar value comparison, from the time a five-inch cahper street tree is mstalled until the cumulative costs equal the cumulative benefits However, the benefits will greatly exceed the costs for the remammg thirty-five years of fifty-year tree cycle. From a Arnold 1993. 11 I Bauhinia trees planted on a rooftop plaza m Smgapore the structure so that there are no raised planters. near a large shoppmg complex. Trees are recessed mto experienced survivability under the specific site conditions in that locality. Planting and dealing with trees as urban infrastructure, not as of maintenance can make trees that are individual specimens. This discussion deliberately concentrates on planting practices for sustainable urban trees because these issues are still being ignored or overlooked. Other issues such as maintenance of trees, many will argue, are just as important. However, these concerns have received much greater attention. The experience of some arborists and landscape architects suggests that incorrect installation of trees on hard-core urban sites is the number one obstacle to making our cities tree-shaded havens (Perry 1982; Urban 1989). Trees that are incorrectly installed so that they last less than ten years are an unfortunate waste of resources. No amount planted this way sustainable. There is an exceptional opportunity to make unimagmed changes to cities, conferring benefits that multiply with time. Trees can have a major role in recreating cities that are biologically fit for human enjoyment. It requires installing a whole new utility system consisting of branches and roots and leaves, utilizing sustainable planting methods. The planting sites of central city streets and plazas will challenge our technical ingenuity to reshape the open city. Artistry and scientific skill combine to convert old cities into places of delight and culture, with trees that outlive people. Now may be the moment in history to capture this great opportunity. Making cities livable by installing trees that last will contribute to regional and global sustainability. spaces of the can 12 Literature Cited Akban, Hashem, Susan Davis, Sofia Dorsono, Joe Huang, Steven Wmnett, editors. 1992. Coolmg Our Communities: A Guidebook on Tree Planting and Light-Colored Surfacmg. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. Arnold, Henry. 1993. Trees in Urban Design 2nd ed. New York: Van Nostrand Remhold. Patricia Lindsey, James Urban. 1991. From the ground down. Landscape Architecture 8(1): 66-68. Arboriculture practical significance thereof. Journal of 8(8): 197-211. N. A. 171. street tree Richards, 1982\/1983. Diversity and stability in a population. Urban Ecology 7 :159- Urban, James. 1989. New techniques in urban tree planting. Journal of Arbonculture 15(11): 281-284. Bassuk, Nina, Jan Goldstein, Wilson, Edward O. 1989. Threats Scientific American 261(3) : to biodiversity. 108-116. Ebenreck, Nowak, Sarah. 1988. Measuring the value of trees. American Forests 94(7\/8): 30-31. Henry Arnold practices landscape architecture as principal of Arnold Associates, based in Princeton, New Jersey. The firm's awarding-winning projects include Constitution Gardens and the Vietnam Veterans Memorial, both in Washington D.C., and the Trenton Marine Terminal Park in New Jersey. His advocacy for urban trees takes many forms, including his book, Trees in Urban Design (2nd edition, 1993), urban landscape design projects in the U.S. and S.E. Asia, lectures, and articles. David J., Joe R. McBride, Russel A. Beatty 1990. Newly planted street tree growth and mortality. Journal of Arbonculture 16(5): 124-129. O. The Perry, Thomas ecology of tree roots and the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25092","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160816b.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Medbury, Scot","article_content":"Taxonomy and Arboretum Design Scot Medbury joined natural history embodiments of the Victorian In the second half of the nineteenth century, arboreta and zoological gardens as fascination with the natural world. museums archetypal Grouping plants by type is a familiar practice in North American gardens where small, sepacollections of maples, oaks, or other genfeatures. Although it is now unusual to follow a taxonomic scheme in the layout of an entire garden, such arrangements were the vogue in nineteenth-century botanical gardens and arboreta. The plant collections in these gardens were frequently grouped into families or genera and then planted out along rate era are common tions. This is especially problematic when the concept is applied to a plant collection that strives to be all-inclusive. The arboretum projects of the Olmsted landscape architectural firms illustrate some of these problems and also exhibit how changes in plant taxonomy were expressed in the landscape. Historical Background The historical antecedents for arranging plant collections taxonomically include the first European botanical garden, the Orto Botanica, founded in Pisa in 1543. The plants in this garden were grouped according to their medicinal properties and, by the end of the sixteenth century, by morphological characteristics as well (Hill 1915). As the science of botany advanced during the Renaissance, the practice of storing herbarium collections in a taxonomic order developed, and this probably contributed to the practice of arranging living collections in a similar fashion. Following the publication of Linnaeus' comprehensive plant classification system in 1753, botanical taxonomy changed radically, and taxonomic gardens quickly followed suit. William Aiton used the Linnaean system in laying out the original nine-acre botanical garden at Kew in 1760, as did the Reverend Erasmus Darwin (grandfather of Charles Darwin) when designing his private garden at Litchfield in winding pathway so that visitors encountered specimens in a taxonomic sequence. Growing related plants together, in effect, organizes a collection into a living encyclopedia, allowing for comparison of the characteristics of species within a genus or genera within a family. By planting related taxa in an evolutionary progression, the more complicated sequential taxonomic arrangement reveals the ancestral affinities of modern floras. Good examples of this display theme are the \"order beds\" of herbaceous plants at gardens like Kew and Cambridge, which have long provided botany students with a compact synopsis of the plant kingdom arranged in a taxonomic sequence. Despite the educational advantages, there significant horticultural and management problems that result from the application of taxonomy to the layout of a garden. Because plant families tend to be ecologically heterogeneous, they require a variety of cultural condiare England (Simo 1988). 14 This plan, which illustrates the entry on botanic gardens m Liberty Hyde Bailey's 1914 edition of the Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, reflects taxonomy's role as the standard method of organizing plant collections m botanic gardens. 1759, the French botanist Bernard de Jussieu became dissatisfied with the Linnaean In system while laying out a taxonomic garden at Versailles. Jussieu began moving plants around in pots in an attempt to express an arrangement that reflected \"genealogical\" relationships. Linnaeus himself had allowed that this was the goal of botanists although he had not been able to provide more than outlines for such an arrangement. Bernard's arrangement was further developed by his nephew Antoine Laurent de Jussieu, and his classic Genera Plantarum fairly soon gained broad acceptance in Europe and became the basis for taxonomic arrangements in gardens. Following Jussieu's work, three successive systems of classification have been principally employed in the layout of sequentially ordered taxonomic plant collections. In chronological order, these were (1) the system of the Swiss botanist Augustin Pyramus de Candolle, which was based on rather different principles than that of Jussieu, although the main difference might seem to be in the plant with which the sequence of flowering plants startsDutchman's-pipe (Aristolochia) for Jussieu, and buttercups (Rananculus) for Candolle; (2) the system of George Bentham and Joseph Dalton Hooker, published in England between 1862-1883, and in some ways an elaboration of the Candollean system; and (3) the post-Darwinian system of Adolph Engler and Karl Prantl, published in Germany between 18871915 and the first widely accepted system to be based on evolutionary progression. In order to appreciate the progression of plant families in taxonomic gardens, it is first necessary to understand the placement of the 15 gymnosperms and subdivisions of the an- tems was not intended to show evolutionary to re- giosperms (i.e., monocotyledons and dicotyledons) within each of these classification systems. The sequence of dicot families is especially important, for although the pre-Darwinian systems of Candolle and Bentham and Hooker began with the polypetalous (manypetalled) buttercups and magnolias, Engler and Prantl's dicot sequence commenced with the willows and birches, whose apetalous (petalless) flowers they considered to be more primitive. Both the Candolles (Augustin as well as his son Alphonse) and Bentham and Hooker placed the gymnosperms between the monocots and dicots because they thought that gymnosperms really were very progression. However, they did attempt complex organisms, just like dicotyledonous trees, whereas Engler and Prantl as the purported of the angiosperms. progenitors The sequence of families in Jussieu's, Candolle's, and Bentham and Hooker's sys- placed them first, flect their authors' general ideas of the progression of morphological complexity. Jussieu's arrangement, as far as can be ascertained, forms a basically linear sequence, but the Candolles and Bentham and Hooker were adamant that plant relationships did not follow a linear sequence, although the printed page forced such a sequence on them. Most plant classification systems appearing after the work of Charles Darwin and Alfred Russell Wallace have been predicated on an understanding of descent and evolution and, therefore, have tried to establish \"evolutionary\" relationships among plants. In the first of these phylogenetic systems, such as Engler and Prantl's, plant families were placed in a sequence beginning with the most primitive plants and ending with the most advanced. This is still the case today, although a veritable forest of evolution- Contour plan of the Derby Arboretum, 1839. The arboretum path that winds around the peripherys concealed from the mam walk at the center by thick evergreen shrubbery and six- to ten-foot berms. From } C. Loudon's catalog, The Derby Arboretum, published m London, 1840. 16 produced. Each tree show the complexity of the relationships between plant families that cannot be accomodated by the linear sequence of the printed book. purports to ary \"trees\" has been The It Derby Arboretum the Candollean system that the was to English author and garden designer John Claudius Loudon looked when laying out the Derby Arboretum in England in 1839, the most influential of the taxonomically arranged British gardens. Early in his career Loudon had become intrigued by the novel marriage of science and landscape beauty that a taxonomic garden presented (Simo 1988). In 1803 he seized upon Jussieu's system as the organizing structure for a large arboretum and flower garden at Scotland's Scone Palace. In 1811 he recommended a similar \"living museum\" for the city of London, with plantations arranged by the Linnaean system in one area and by Jussieu's system in another. Neither the Scone Palace nor the London garden materialized as envisioned. But with the taxonomic design for Derby, Loudon brought the arboretum into a new era, where it joined the natural history museum and the zoological garden as an archetypal embodiment of the Victorian fascination with the natural world. The Derby Arboretum was designed to be viewed in a prescribed sequence. This concept drew on the eighteenth-century English tradition of emblematic landscape gardens such as Stourhead, where statuary and classical temples, as they were revealed sequentially to the viewer, were intended to call up specific ideas and allusions, usually from classical history or poetry. At Derby, however, a new paradigm was evoked, that of science. The paths were designed to follow, in sequence, the \"natural order\" of the plant collections. The main walk at Derby is on a central axis that brings visitors to a seating area in the middle of the park. The tree collection was planted along a secondary walk that takes a serpentine course around the park's perimeter, the entire collection, and then leave by the same gate without retracing their steps. Loudon employed the \"gardenesque\" style (which he created and advocated) when planting the arboretum, displaying the trees singly with sufficient room for each specimen to develop without touching others. Such careful planning notwithstanding, the arboretum was intended to be torn up and replanted every few decades, in order to remove outsized trees and to permit the addition of new taxa (Loudon 1840). The Derby Arboretum greatly impressed both the American landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., and his friend and mentor, Andrew Jackson Downing, America's first native-born professional landscape designer and most influential transmitter of contemporary English design for American use. Both men, when given the opportunity to design public parks, included taxonomic arboreta in their proposals, drawing heavily on Loudon's writings and his seminal design for the Derby Arboretum. North American Examples North America's first botanical gardens were planted without particular attention to taxonomic or other thematic arrangements. The continent's first proposal for a taxonomically arranged garden appears to have been made in 1839, for Nova Scotia's Halifax Public Garden, followed closely by a design by Downing for a Derby-like arboretum in Boston's Public Gar- den, probably in 1841 (Zaitzevsky 1982). But it was Olmsted and Calvert Vaux's inclusion of a taxonomic arboretum in their 1858 \"Greensward\" plan for New York's Central Park that most became the significant early proposal, since it inaugurated eighty years of involvement in taxonomic arboretum design by the allowing visitors to enter the park, experience Olmsted firms. As with the Derby Arboretum, the fortyacre Central Park Arboretum was designed to be a self-contained and sequential experience. Also like the Derby, its plan followed Candolle's system of classification. Since the Derby Arboretum had been criticized by 17 Downing for its \"peculiarity of design,\" a reference to the use of \"scattered single trees and shrubs\" (Downing 1850), Olmsted and Vaux's planting plans for the Central Park Arboretum avoided the aesthetic shortcomings of such spotty, gardenesque planting by displaying tree species both as specimens and en masse (Zaitzevsky 1982). Olmsted and Vaux not only attempted to make the taxonomic arrangement appear picturesque but also tried to place families where they would grow best. Thus they attempted to reconcile one of the major problems of taxonomic arrangements. Strict adherence to taxonomic groups and a fixed, linear sequence of published after the appearance of Darwin's Origin of Species (1859), did not embrace Darwin's views. The trees were set out by genera, ordered according to Bentham and Hooker's sequence. Every species to be included was planned for in advance, which required modifications later when unanticipated species and subspecific taxa (subspecies, varieties, and formae) were acquired. As with the Candollean system, Bentham and Hooker's classification begins with the magnolias and their relatives, which were assembled at the entrance to the then one-hundred-and-thirtyacre arboretum. The rest of the collection then followed according to sequence, although this time it was to be viewed from a winding carriage road instead of a pedestrian path, a sensible innovation given the size of the property. The design also arranged species geographically within each generic group. The plants of North America were the first to be encountered, followed by those of Europe, and finally those of Asia. This created considerable complexity in the layout. To add to this complexity, the species within each continental subgroup were placed in the sequence in which they appeared in Bentham and Hooker's book. Because the main collection was intended to be permanent, specific places for individual specimens and groves were designated on the plan. Early studies for the distribution of plants placed related species on both sides of the road, as Olmsted had done in the Central Park Arboretum plan. But in the final Arnold plan, species groups were assembled on one side only, with the next genus appearing across the road, and so forth, in staggered fashion. The Bentham and Hooker sequence was followed quite closely in Olmsted and Sargent's families may locate plants on unsuitable sites, where they will not flourish. After all, membership in a botanical genus or family implies little or nothing about a particular species' cultural requirements or preferences in habitat. Species within the same genus may originate in such widely dissimilar habitats as bog and desert, as occurs, for instance, within the gePinus. Given this formidable problem, Olmsted and Vaux did their best to bring each family \"into a position corresponding to its natural habitats,\" in some locations winding the paths to achieve this. Nevertheless, in their design nus they were preoccupied with preserving the botanical sequence rather than concerned with the habitat preferences and performance of individual species. Olmsted's 1858 plan for the Central Park Arboretum never came to fruition, but fifteen years later he was presented with an even greater opportunity, this time in Boston. The result was the Arnold Arboretum, North America's quintessential taxonomically arranged plant collection. The Arnold has developed out of the collaboration and foresight of a variety of institutions and individuals, among them Charles Sprague Sargent, its first director and, with Olmsted, co-designer. Olmsted and Sargent chose Bentham and Hooker's classification as the taxonomic guide for their planting plan, which, although Bentham and Hooker's Genera Plantarum was plan. Only one major genus, Salix, appears to have been placed out of sequence and that was due to cultural necessity. The moisture-loving willows were planted in wet ground near the arboretum entrance, far from their proper place the end of the dicot sequence. Bentham and Hooker placed the conifers after the dicots; consequently, Olmsted deployed the dicots along winding roads so as to terminate at an at 18 In the Bentham and Hooker sequence, comfers followed the dicotyledons. This 1991 photo by Debreczy captures part of the Arnold Arboretum's collection at just over the century mark. Rdcz and existing stand of native hemlocks. Nearby, he created a pinetum for cultivated conifers. Unlike the plan for Central Park, where families containing mostly shrubs were interspersed in proper sequence among the tree families, Sargent arranged the shrubs at the Arnold in a separate fruticetum (from the Latin frutex, meaning shrub), also arranged in a the plan called for magnolias to be planted near the entrance, but some tender species have had to be sited elsewhere, where warmer microclimates prevail. Similarly, the flowering cherries had been established in one of the coldest areas in the arboretum. In subsequent years, the sequence has been modified when necessary to accomodate the cultural requirements of the progressional sequence Bentham and Hooker according to (Gamboni and Hamburg plants. The Arnold Arboretum undoubtedly had an impact on the development of American gardens that followed, including the New York Botanical Garden and the Brooklyn Botanical Garden, where parts of the permaenormous 1983). In a few cases, strict adherence to the taxonomic scheme resulted in poor performance among various groups of plants. For instance, I I U < *S ~ o g I 'a ~cj 00 I S M 2022a M 'C! I a I ~g 8 u o o ~Cj CO ! ~ ~ i \"& q i 5 oo 20 collections were laid out taxonomically. Olmsted maintained a profound interest in the creation of arboreta throughout the remainder of his career, producing arboretum plans for the city of Rochester, New York, Stanford University, and other institutions. Olmsted's last commission, the Biltmore estate in North Carolina, included an ambitious proposal for what would have been the world's greatest collection of trees and shrubs, arranged taxonomically along a sinuous nine-mile drive. The collections policy for the Biltmore arboretum was the broadest imaginable: every woody plant from the world that might be hardy, cultivars included, was to be acquired and planted, whether it was currently in cultivation or not. (Throughout much of the Arnold Arboretum's history, its collections policy has focused on hardy species of woody plants, bypassing most cultivars.) Such comprehensiveness ultimately proved to be the Biltmore arboretum's undoing. Because the layout of the collection was determined by a plant classification system (in this case, Bentham and Hooker's), it was necessary to know in advance how many hardy tree and shrub species would be represented in each genus so that adequate space could be allocated in the proper sequential location. Due to an incomplete knowledge of temperate floras (especially of Asiatic regions) and widespread synonymy in the nursery trade, compilation of such a master planting list was a daunting task, as it would be today. This impasse no doubt played a part in the collapse of the arboretum project at the turn of the century. As successors to the senior Olmsted's practice, the Olmsted Brothers firm continued a tradition of making taxonomic plans for arboreta and influenced other landscape architects to do the same. The firm was commissioned to generate plans for the Missouri Botanical Garden, the Holden Arboretum in Ohio, the original Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden in southern California, and the University of Pennsylvania's Morris Arboretum. Unfortunately, all of these designs either went unexecuted or no longer exist. nent The Missouri Botanical Garden project is notable in that it roughly coincided with the publication of Engler and Prantl's classification system, the first system based on Darwinian ideas of evolution to achieve wide use. William Trelease, the garden's first director, decided to make use of both the Bentham and Hooker and the Engler and Prantl systems when engaging the Olmsteds to lay out two new geographic collection areas. The Bentham and Hooker was chosen for the American collection for its familiarity among botanists. A larger garden devoted to the \"universal flora\" followed the Engler and Prantl system because it illustrates evolutionary affinities among plants. Both gardens were to contain mere synopses of their respective floras. In this way, the designers avoided the horticultural problems that have plagued other taxonomically arranged gardens because representative species from a particular family or genus could be selected based upon their horticultural compatibility. In addition, the designers did not have to wrestle with the planning issues arising from a comprehensive collections policy, such as those that confounded the Biltmore project. In 1936, the Olmsted Brothers produced the firm's last taxonomic arboretum plan, for the University of Washington Arboretum in Seattle. The Engler and Prantl system was exclusively applied here to a collection intended from the outset to be comprehensive in scope. Following the post-Darwinian system of Engler and Prantl, the taxonomic sequence began with Gingko biloba, the most primitive hardy gymnosperm, followed next by the conifers, the woody monocots, and finally by the dicots. The dicot sequence was initiated not by the magnolias as in Bentham and Hooker's system, but with apetalous families like the willow and birch. Despite the aesthetic and intellectual appeal of their strikingly rendered plans on paper, the Olmsted Brothers' last arboretum design revealed a sharp decline in conceptual quality. The firm appears to have been copying aspects of the Arnold Arboretum plan merely out of 21 custom, without reexamining the theoretical basis for arranging plants in a taxonomic sequence. Incredibly, the critical interrelationship between the botanical sequence and the pedestrian circulation was omitted, thereby stripping the design of the educational elements that justify the use of a taxonomic sequence in the first place. Fortunately, the University of Washington Arboretum has since developed independently of the Olmsted Brothers' plan for it, with greater sensitivity given to the physical characteristics of the site and the cultural requirements of the plants. Disadvantages With few exceptions, North American botanical gardens founded after the 1930s have eschewed sequential taxonomic arrangements in favor of geographic, ecological, or strictly aesthetic schemes (or combinations thereof). Gardens continue to present small displays organized by evolutionary sequence, such as the Prehistoric Glen at Honolulu's Foster Botanical Garden or the Plant Families garden at the North Carolina Botanical Garden, but the comprehensive application of taxonomy to garden design is virtually forgotten today. For purposes of comparing related plants, the approach works reasonably well with herbaceous perennials, where the plants are small and the flowers within reach-asubstantial amount of diversity can be encompassed within a relatively small area. Woody plants lend themselves less successfully to a sequential taxonomic treatment. The flowers are often out of reach and the plants are spaced farther apart. This makes comparisons of floral characters difficult. However, there remains the advantage of comparison of overall form as, for instance, in the collections of maples and lindens. A redrafted version of the Olmsted Brothers' taxonomic plan for the University of Washington Arboretum, which employed the classification system of Engler and Prantl From the Bulletin of the University of Washington Arboretum, Volume 1, Number 1, December 1936. 22 A view ot the Arnold Arboretums linden (Tilia) collection m 1991 A taxonomic scheme offers the opportumty for side-by-side compansons of overall form. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. developments in taxonomy also pose problems for sequentially arranged taxonomic collections of woody plants. While a herbaceous garden can be torn out and replanted following acceptance of a new taxonomic system, such a drastic approach is impractical in a mature arboretum. Nevertheless, woody collecNew the use of time, do justice to natural relationships, whether as understood in 1850 or 1993. From the point of it a taxonomic sequence. At the same is clear that no planting sequence can view of means none. teaching natural relationships, some of organizing a collection is better than obsolete classification system are anachronisms, worth maintaining for their historical interest but lacking in some of the educational values that originally led to an tions that follow The most serious drawback to a taxonomic arrangement, however, deals with horticultural issues. The point has already been made that taxonomic groups above the species level 23 often contain plants from widely dissimilar habitats. The varying degrees of sun and shade tolerance as well as the differing nutritional and moisture requirements found among groups of related species cause problems when these plants are grown together under similar conditions. Many plants will simply die when placed in the wrong spot. Others will struggle for years in a sickly or stunted condition and consequently form poor examples of the average size, growth, or appearance of a particular Archives Arboretum Documents Collection, Miller Library, Center for Urban Horticulture, University of Washington, Seattle. Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, MA. Olmsted Associates Records, Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, Washington, DC. Olmsted National Historic Site, National Park Service, Brookline, Sources and MA species. There are ways of avoiding some of the aforementioned problems of sequential taxonomic arrangements. Planning a synoptic collection rather than a complete one affords the opportunity of choosing plants based on ease of culture and other factors. Diversity of terrain also permits greater flexibility, as the linear sequence can be bent to site taxonomic groups in the positions best suited to the majority of their member species. Species clusters composed of the often smaller generic unit rather than of families have also tended to be more Suggested Readings Connor, Sheila, and B. June Hutchmson 1979\/1981. \"The Original Design and Permanent Arrangement of the Arnold Arboretum as Determined by FLO[lmsted] and CSS[argent]: A Chronology.\" Unpublished paper. Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Downing, A. J. 1850. \"The Derby Arboretum.\" The Horticulturist 5: 266-267. Gambom, J. F., and B. successful, a since one is most likely T. Hamburg. 1983. \"The Arnold Arboretum and the History of the Shrub Collection.\" Unpublished paper. Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. to find tolerable site for a smaller group of species. As at the Arnold Arboretum, curators must make exceptions to a hard-and-fast pursuit of any scheme. Hill, A. W. 1915. \"The History and Functions of Botanic Gardens.\" Annals of the Missouri Botamcal Garden 2:185-240. Loudon, J. C. 1840. Longman. Simo, The Derby Arboretum. London: Acknowledgments This article originated m the author's M.S. thesis at the University of Washington, where he investigated the application of taxonomy to the display of plant collections. An earlier version was published in The Pubhc Garden, July 1991. The author thanks Peter Del Tredici, Karen Madsen, Richard Schulhof, Stephen Spongberg, and especially Peter Stevens for their comments and suggestions during the preparation of this version. The assistance of Sheila Connor at the Arnold Arboretum Archives, Joyce Connolly at the Olmsted National Historic Site, and Paul Ledvma at the Manuscripts Division, Library of Congress, is also M L. 1988. Loudon and the Landscape New Haven: Yale University Press. Zaitzevsky, C. 1982. Fredenck Law Olmsted and the Boston Park System Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. program gratefully acknowledged. Medbury is a Beatrix Farrand Scholar in the Ph.D. in environmental planning at the Department of Landscape Architecture, University of California at Berkeley. Scot 24 star marks the hypocenter bomb blast. Circles indicate the drstances 1 kilometer, 2 kilometers, 3 kilometers from the hypocenter. Adapted from Hiroshima by Hiromi Tsuchida, Kosel Pubhshing Co., 1985. Map of Hiroshima. The of the atomic 0 Eucalyptus tree (Eucalyptus sp.) 0 Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora) 0 Gmkgo tree (Ginkgo biloba) ^J Pine tree (Pinus thunbergii) @ Willow tree (Salix sp )\/ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25088","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160b76f.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Tsuchida, Hiromi; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Hibaku Trees of Hiroshima* Photographs by Hiromi Tsuchida. A series of Text by Peter Del Tredici striking photographs presents the trees that survived the atomic bomb blast of August 6, 1945. In this era of forget that by human activities constant global crises, it's easy to it is not the earth that is endangered so much as humanity itself. Over the course of three and a half billion years of environmental fluctuations and catastrophes, organisms of all types have developed tremendous powers of regeneration. Some species, typically referred to by humans as weeds, seem severe especially adept at not merely surviving disturbance, but of actually flourishing organisms are all too familiar to most people and, in the temperate world, include such well-known creatures as rats, cockroaches, dandelions, and purple loosestrife. Regardless of what fate awaits the earth, it is clear that life will go on, with or without people. Nowhere is this truth more evident than m Hiroshima, Japan, the first city on the planet to experience the full force of a nuclear bomb on August 6, 1945. In most people's minds the detonation of an atomic bomb connotes total and absolute destruction, yet this was hardly the case. At the hypocenter of the blast, the devastation was indeed complete, yet just a few hundred meters away many people, as well as many plants and animals, survived, albeit seriously damaged. I have long wondered about the trees that survived the atomic bomb blast, curious to in the face of it. These * know which species were most resilient to the shock wave and fireball that were responsible for the most serious damage. My interest in this question was first whetted when I read about a ginkgo tree growing in the Hiroshima \"Peace Park,\" a few hundred meters from the hypocenter, that supposedly had survived the atomic bomb blast (see P. F. Michel, Ginkgo Biloba: L'Arbre Qui A Vaincu Le Temps, 1986). While attempting to validate the truth of this report (which I was unable to do), I came across the work of the Japanese photographer Hiromi Tsuchida, who has meticulously documented the existence of many authentic hibaku trees. Hiromi Tsuchida was born in Fukui, Japan, in 1939. He has published a massive three-part photographic work about Hiroshima, produced between 1976 and 1983, that focuses on the history and memory of the atomic bomb. Using hundreds of pictures, he presents a systematic and measured chronicle of the aftermath of the atomic apocalypse. Not only has Tsuchida photographed the trees that survived the bomb, but also the people and their personal belongings. Tsuchida's photographs illustrate the human dimensions of the tragedy and transform everyday objects into horrifying images of a deadly nightmare. Looking at Tsuchida's photographs of trees, the sense of tragedy gives way to a sense of it is Hibaku is a Japanese word meaning \"something that has experienced a nuclear bomb.\" Typically the form hibakusha meaning \"people who have survived a nuclear bomb.\" used in 26 wonder at the indomitable vitality of life. These are the true survivors, plants that can withstand the worst humanity has to offer. While it is impossible to say why one particular individual survived while others didn't, studies done by Japanese scientists in the years immediately following the bombing have generated a list of those trees that showed the greatest powers of survival. Most of these reports are written in Japanese and have had very limited distribution, but their content was summarized in English in the remarkable book Hiroshima and Nagasaki: The Physical, Medical, and Social Effects of the Atomic Bombings, published in 1981 by Basic Books. Quoted below is the section that deals with the effects on trees: The ent degree of damage [to trees] was quite differby direction. At places far from the hypocenter, only the side of the tree trunk facing the hypocenter was burned, while the opposite side was frequently normal in appearance. In some trees, there were no branches on the side facing the hypocenter, while the other side had many branches. to plants was found only in the exposed aboveground, and portions underground were not directly damaged. Consequently, the root and the underground stalk put forth new buds even in those whose aboveground portion was completely burned. New buds were Damage portions in Pine tree 1985. (Pinus thunbergii), Sumiyoshi Shrine, 1,400 meters from the hypocenter, photographed 27 found coming out from the stumps of trees, which were standing burned without any branches. These sights were seen two months after exposure to the atomic bomb at the time of the primary survey. New buds did not sprout from the damaged side of the trees within 700 meters of the hypocenter. Regeneration differed greatly by species of plants: some regenerated rapidly, while others withered. Broad-leaved trees in japonica (spindle tree), Fatsia japonica [Japanese general regenerated actively, especially Cinnamomum camphora (camphor tree), Meha azedarach var. japonica (chmaberry), willow, Robima pseudoacacia (black locust), Chinese parasol [Firmiana simplex], fig tree, hemp Celtis sinensis var. japonica (nettle tree I, Nenum mdicum (oleander),* azalea, and bamboo.... The poorly resistant herbs were needleleafed trees such as Japanese cedar [Cryptomena japonica] and pine. Cedar and pine forests far from the hypocenter were frequently reddish in color, and trees apparently normal during the first year sometimes withered the following year. This tendency was especially marked with Pmus densiflora (Japanese red pine). araha], palm [Trachycarpus fortunei], sago palm [Cycas revoluta], gmkgo, eucalyptus, Euonymus What follows, then, are Hiromi Tsuchida's portraits of trees of indomitable vitality-hibaku trees that survived man's inhumanity not only to himself but to the entire living world. The * same tree photographed in 1993. designated the official flower of the city of Hiroshima for its remarkable powers of regeneration. Kiyoshi Hashimoto, director of the Hiroshima Botanical Garden, explains that after the disaster, it seemed that nothing could grow for at least three decades. ButNenum mdicum bloomed the next year! Its flowers encouraged the citizens, and since then, every summer it has consoled the victims in their misfortune. The oleander has been Above: in 1979. Below: The Camphor tree (Cinnamomum camphora), 1,200 meters from the hypocenter, photographed same tree photographed in 1993. Above: Willow tree (Salix sp.), Hijigamahoncho, 1,600 meters from the hypocenter, photographed in 1993. Below Ginkgo tree (Ginkgo bilobal, Shukukeien garden, 1,400 meters from the hypocenter, photographed in 1993 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Notes","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25087","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160b36b.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Lighty, Richard W.; Schulhof, Richard; Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"BOOK NOTES Perennials and Their Garden Habitats, 4th edition. Richard Hansen and Friedrich Stahl. Translated by Richard Ward. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1993. 450 pages. Hardcover. $49.95 This English translation of a book first published in German in 1981 will be a watershed event for serious perennial gardeners. There is no other book that treats the aesthetic use and cultural care of perennials in such a thorough and organized manner. The senior author was director of the testing and evaluation garden at The heart of this book, however, is the classification of garden habitats, each accompanied by an annotated list of plants suitable for the sites described. Such categories as Woodland, Woodland Edge, Open Ground, Rock Garden, Border Perennials, Water's Edge and Marsh, and Water are subdivided into even finer divisions. Thus the section on Woodland Edge has subsections on perennials confined to the woodland edge; perennials more loosely bound to the woodland edge; perennials for special conditions on or near the woodland edge; and spring-flowering bulbs and their allies. A final level of classification breaks each of these down even more specifically. For example, the section on perennials more loosely bound to the woodland edge is subclassified into perennials with border character for garden-type maintenance; invasive perennials; tall perennials with border character for moist soils, and so on. Each of these small categories is associated with a list of perennials, annotated as to their garden characteristics and to other lists that, taken together, encompass the breadth of a species' habitat tolerance. The lists also key each species to the aesthetic groupings for which they are best suited (called requirements, and cross-referenced Weihenstephan, near Freising, Germany, and as such is a philosophical lineal descendent of the great German horticulturist Karl Foerster. The book is the distillate of information from three decades of objective study of the performance of a wide range of perennials in various aesthetic combinations across many habitats. The beginning sections describe in a general way the variety of growth forms into which perennials are classified, their propagation, long-term performance, and how the habitat and gardener influence them. Separate sections \"sociability\"). This is a complex book, and one packed full of information that experienced gardeners will find extremely useful. It comes at an opportune time, when the North European garden idiom is finding wide acceptance in America and when naturalistic gardens are in fashion. I have found it most useful when planning for a new garden area or trouble-shooting in problem areas of the garden. I merely describe the habitat as well as I can and look in Hansen's book for the classification that most closely fits. The plant lists associated with that classi- provide insight into and maintenance. siting, design, planting, 31 fication suggest possibilities that I adapt to my specific needs. This work represents the magnum opus of an outstanding plantsman. Its beauty lies in its completeness. It is not simply a copy or update of previous works, but an entirely new and unique treatment of perennials. I find little difficulty in using the book as a guide for American garden conditions and feel that we are fortunate to have this translation available. Richard W. Dick Lighty Lighty is Director of the Mt. Cuba Center for the Study of Piedmont Flora in Greenville, Delaware. 2022 2022 2022 Willows: The Genus Salix. Christopher Newsholme. Portland, OR: Timber Press, 1992. 224 pages, 65 color cover. National Willow Collection on his property in Devon, has produced a long-needed treatise that outlines not only the classification and economic uses of Salix, but also provides a thorough review of cultivated forms and their culture and use in the landscape. As Newsholme demonstrates, making a case for willows as worthy landscape plants is not difficult. Numbering over three hundred species, the genus Salix is one of the most diverse of temperate woody genera-afact well illustrated by a visit to the willow collection of the Arnold Arboretum where throughout the year little-known willow species, ranging from stately trees to prostrate shrubs, contribute to the beauty of the landscape. Beginning in early January near the Arboretum meadow, the cottony-white one- to two-inch catkins of the violet willow (Salix daphnoides) emerge in abundance on a strongly columnar twentyfive-foot tree. Later, in early spring, a nearby seven-foot shrub of black pussy willow (Salix photos. Hard$34.95 gracilistyla var. melanostachys) displays curiblack-brown catkins that are soon dotted by orange-red anthers that mature to a pale yellow. On Chinese Path, Salix fargesii, introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1910, displays lustrous deep green summer foliage followed in the fall and winter by shining red bud scales that are abundant on low, almost horizontal, two- to three-foot branches. Willows: The Genus Salix illustrates these and many other hardy forms with many line drawings, sixty-five color plates, and wellwritten descriptions that emphasize ornamental features, seasonal effects, habit, and other information essential to selecting and siting willows in garden settings. Newsholme's book deserves particular praise for its organization. Rather than describe willows in the typical encyclopedic format, the author has organized the species into four groups based on scale and use in the landscape. Ranging from Ornamental Trees and Shrubs for Large Gardens, Parks and Estates to Tiny Willows for Sink Gardens, ous Whether gracing the Charles River or grow- ing in a vacant lot, familiarity. Ubiquitous in many regions, willows are often overlooked by horticulturists who have come to associate the regrettable traits of commonly encountered forms with the entire genus. While many willows are, in fact, troubled by numerous pests and brittle branches, an array of relatively unknown species are fine garden performers and offer a wealth of multiseason ornament. That many of these species have remained undiscovered is more a consequence of ignorance than any lack of merit. Christopher Newsholme can be credited for doing much to remedy this situation with his new book, Willows: The Genus Salix, Mr. Newsholme, who maintains Great Britain's willows bane of suffer the 32 these categories allow the willow neophyte to proceed with confidence in sorting out the right plants for particular landscape roles. If Newsholme's guide has a shortcoming, it more precise information about cold hardiness. One can only hope that an American author will eventually provide detailed information about the performance of willows in the extremes of our climate, as well as indicate where many worthy but uncommon species can be located in American nurseries. Until then, Willows: The Genus Salix is certainly the best available reference for those gardeners willing to experiment with the unusual forms of a familiar genus. is its lack of Richard Schulhof 2022 2022 2022 All teach at the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies. The book is a product of a graduate seminar with students credited as contributors. The subject was chosen to give focus to the complexity of environmental education. By describing the cost and physical effect of fertilization, water supply depletion and pollution, and waste disposal in relation to lawn care, the subject is tied to the larger issues of global environmental planning. The authors define two types of lawns: the \"industrial lawn,\" carefully limited in grass species, regularly mowed and watered, and dependent on the lawn industry for sustenance; and the \"freedom lawn,\" a diverse mix of droughttolerant grasses in combination with other plants that are stress resistant and require minimal intervention for survival, and hence are Redesigning the American Lawn: A Search for Environmental Harmony. F. Herman Bormann, Diana Balmori, and Gordon T. Gebaille. Lisa Vernegaard, Editor-Researcher. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993. 166 pages. Hardcover. environmentally benign. $19.95 plan for RiverIllinois (that half-town, half-country setside, ting for an idealized life), to the crabgrass suburb of current culture, America has long had a love\/hate relationship with the lawn. Is it a pastoral setting for family and community life or an environmental anachronism? This book is neither a guide to the perfect lawn nor a condemnation of a national obsession. It is a carefully measured and highly readable essay on the lawn as a typological phenomenon. It details our devotion to perfecting the type and makes recommendations for an ecologically responsible continuance of this deeply ingrained American landscape tradition. The readability is a credit to intelligent editing as this book has a complicated authorship. Bormann and Geballe are forest ecologists while Balmori is a landscape architect. From Frederick Law Olmsted's The book offers case studies of homeowners who have developed alternatives to the lawnwildflower meadows, woodlots, groundcover beds. But the \"freedom lawn\" allows the traditional greensward with all its attendant pleasures : recreation, community gathering, visual unity. The book's unique contribution is the weaving together of landscape history and ecological theory. The idea of the green lawn as a setting for a detached house is traced from its source in the mild, moist climate of England to its transformation as the matrix for American suburban towns. Frank J. Scott, the chronicler of the birth of the American suburb, wrote in 1886, \"an unbroken lawn around the dwelling should typify the unwritten page in the opening book of earnest life.\" The \"freedom lawn\" proposed in this book permits the opportunity for the earnest life to be played out on a bed of green while improving the local environment and contributing to a heightened recognition of our collective responsibility for a healthy earth. Phyllis Andersen "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25089","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160bb28.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS ^V9MPVW^PW9YW!Ww>M99\/s\/7^^^^l New Exhibit Celebrates Reopening of Hunnewell On November 22, the newly renovated Hunnewell Building will reopen to the public with an exhibit entitled \"Museum in the Garden: Longfellow, Alden, and Harlow at the Arnold Arboretum.\" Exploring the building's rich design history as well as its recent renovation, the exhibit will feature archival materials from the Building IMBHIBIIIiimIt~ mfti rrffiTiiiii _ I ti 'm i!! c: ^Bliii'u Urn ><~ >~ Project managers Sheila Connor and George Oommen, renovation architects The Primary Group, Inc., and landscape architect Carol Johnson were committed to achieving these changes access. Arboretum, original Longfellow drawings, and photographs highlighting the goals of new construction. Alexander Wadsworth Longfellow designed the Hunnewell Building in 1892. Longfellow, who trained with H. H. Richardson and founded the well-known Boston firm of Longfellow, Alden, and Harlow, went on to design train stations for Boston's Orange Line, several exhibit to discover both the improvements wrought by recent renovation and the beauty revealed in Longfellow's historic design. The exhibit, located in the Hunnewell Building, is open free of charge, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m., Monday through Friday. For more information, please call Carnegie libraries, Cambridge City Hall, and a number of commissions for Harvard that were to establish the direction of the University's architecture for over preserving the building's landmark heritage. We hope you'll soon visit the Hunnewell Building and the new while also 524-1718. fifty years. The recent renovation of the Hunnewell Building sought to preserve the IMS Grant Supports Peters Hill Initiative major genera. In support of these expansion plans, the Institute of Museum Services (IMS) has awarded the Arboretum a $25,000 conservation integrity of Longfellow's original design while addressing a number of contemporary challenges, including the need to correct structural deficiencies, update utility systems, address code issues, and provide barrier-free The Arnold Arboretum Master Plan, soon to be completed by Sasaki Associates of Watertown, designates Peters Hill as the site for expansion of the Arboretum's collections tain of crabapples, moun- ash, hawthorn, and other grant to evaluate exmaterials and prepare for isting the integration of new accessions. (continued on page 4) Al Bussewitz Honored Bussewitz, the dean of the Arnold Arboretum's corps of volunteers, is our Volunteer of the Year. Al has been guiding tours of the Arboretum for many years, and his warm smile has introduced thousands of new visitors to the Arboretum's grounds and living collections. Al is a highly knowledgeable naturalist, now retired after a long career with the Massachusetts Audubon Society. His enthusiasm for the plant world has proved Al infectious, bringing many new the Arboretum for repeat visits, always in the hope of encountering Al and his wife, to friends back Flora, again. An Arboretum Guide to New England Trees This November marks the arrival of New England Natives: A Celebration of People and Trees, a new Arboretum guide by Horticultural Research Archivist Sheila Connor. Beginning with the arrival of Native American peoples over 10,000 years ago and extending to the present, New England Natives explores how successive human cultures have utilized the region's native trees and forests. It is the second volume m the three-part series of comprehensive Arboretum guides supported by the National Endowment for the Humanities. The first volume, A Reunion of Trees (1990) by Horticultural Taxonomist Stephen Spongberg, told the story of plants that came to the Arboretum from around the nation and the world. The third, Scrence in the Pleasure Ground (due next year) by Research Associate Ida Hay, will chronicle the Arboretum's evolving role in botanical and horticultural research. To order, call Harvard University Press at 1-800\/448-2242. Support for Arboretum Teacher Training Federal Arboretum LEAP teacher training, now in its third year, has been awarded a $36,000 grant by the Dwight D Eisenhower Math and Science Education Program. Part of a national education initiative, the award provides vital continuing support for the Arboretum's efforts to enhance the teaching of science m the Boston public schools. This past summer an earlier Eisenhower grant enabled Diane Syverson, Arboretum school science a five Boston public school elementary teachers. Led by Arboretum staff and educators from the Harvard Graduate School of Education, the workshop utilized hands-on activities, landscape explorations, and discussions to introduce teachers to the basic plant science concepts and projectbased learning strategies of the LEAP curriculum. The new grant will enable these same teachers to return to the Arboretum in 1994 to expand their knowledge of science and to design new lesson plans for the classroom. In addition, teachers will participate in fifteen teams, each representing a targeted Boston public school. After the workshop, these teacher teams will return to their home schools to disseminate their newly acquired knowledge and skills to additional educators, ultimately bringing LEAP and related Arboretum resources to over program manager, to conduct fifteen hundred ten-day workshop for twenty- Boston public school students. Plants for Historic Landscapes Stephen Spongberg, shown here holding a leaf from the Dutchman's-pipe vine (Anstolochia) at the Codman House m Lincoln, is team- teaching a course, Plants for Historic Landscapes, in the Radchffe College Seminars Graduate Program in Landscape Design with colleagues Gary Koller (seen on the right) and Peter Del Tredici. Phyllis Andersen, Arboretum landscape historian, is coordinating the course. (continued from page 1) The sixty-six acres of Peters Hill were not added to the Arboretum Flora of the Lesser Antilles Copies of the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Antilles, a long-term project of Dr. Richard A. Howard, former director of the Arnold until 1895, several years after Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, and Frederick Law Olmsted had completed their comprehensive plan for the original property. As a consequence, the landscape design and collections of Peters Hill were never fully integrated with those of the original landscape. The initiation of master plan- Arboretum, is still available in limited quantities. These six volumes constitute the first comprehensive flora of the area, and the treatments present keys to the genera as well as the species for easy identification. For each genus and species a complete modern description is provided; it includes coloration as well as measurements of floral parts. The descriptions are followed by geographic distribution both within and without the Lesser Antilles. All volumes are abundantly illustrated with line drawings that are both botanically correct and highly artistic. All species known in the Lesser Antilles, both native and introduced, are included. The six volumes are available either individually or as a com- plete set. For the complete set a special price of $260 is offered that includes shipping and han5 dling within the USA. (Add $5 for shipping outside the USA.) For volumes 4, 5, and 6 only, the special price is $205. Individual volumes may be purchased at the prices given below, plus $2 per volume for shipping and handling: Volume 1: Orchidaceae Volume 2: Volume ning two years ago provided an opportunity to finally \"connect\" Peters Hill with the core area of the Arboretum. Arboretum staff worked with the Sasaki design team to create a plan that allows both for much-needed expansion of key collections and the develop- $20 $25 Pteridophyta 3: Monocotyledoneae (other than Orchidaceae) $35 Dicotyledoneae 1 $75 Volume 5: Dicotyledoneae 2 $85 Volume 6: Dicotyledoneae 3 $85 Checks should be made payable to the Arnold Arboretum, and all orders should be addressed to the attention of Frances Maguire, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Volume 4: of a landscape on Peters Hill that is more consistent with the naturalistic character of the original Sargent\/Olmsted design. ment Work to be conducted under the IMS grant by Arboretum Horticultural Taxonomist Dr. Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130, USA. Stephen Spongberg and his team will provide the essential curatorial foundation for the Peters Hill initiative. With respect to the future, their taxonomic review and field of existing specimens, together with the Sasaki design plan and the planting of assessment new accessions, comprises an important chapter in the Arboretum's ongoing efforts to collect and study the woody plants of the North Temperate Zone. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23341","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260b36e.jpg","title":"1993-53-3","volume":53,"issue_number":3,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Stone Magnolias","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25086","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160b326.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Figlar, Richard B.","article_content":"Stone R. B. Magnolias Figlar extraordinary fossil site in Idaho, seventeen-million-year-old leaves look remarkably like present-day leaves-in many cases, in better condition than At an autumn's windfalls. just walked into look at my magnolias, several of which were in full bloom. Suddenly my attention was riveted on the evening news: Dan Rather was describing the successful extraction of DNA from a seventeen- to twenty-million-year-old Magnolia leaf found in Idaho. As a certified magnoliaphile I was immediately captivated and had to learn more. My quest led me to Charles J. Smiley of the University of Idaho in Moscow, manager of the Clarkia fossil site for many years and author or co-author of several papers on it since its discovery in 1971. With his help I was able to obtain much of what had been published on Clarkia. Later, in 1991, he invited me and my wife, Anita, to visit and collect at the site. It was April of 1990 and I had a my kitchen after broadleaf trees not common in that part of Idaho, Kienbaum telephoned the University and eventually contacted Dr. Smiley. What Kienbaum had uncovered is now regarded as the best preserved Miocene plant fossil site in the world. Those black leaves were the organic remains of leaves that fell there at least seventeen million years ago. In the ensuing years Dr. Smiley and his team of researchers discovered more than 130 different plant species in the nine-meter-thick sediments, including fossil Magnolia latahensis (Berry) Brown and perhaps one or two other species of Magnolia as well as fossil equivalents of many of its present-day associates (Golenberg et al. 1990). These include tulip tree (Liriodendron), sweet gum (Liquidambar), baldcypress (Taxodium), oak (Quercus), persimmon (Diospyros), red bay (Persea), tupelo (Nyssa), beech (Fagus). Also present in the fos- History of the Site The fossil beds are located about fifty miles northeast of Moscow, Idaho, in the valley of the St. Maries River near the town of Clarkia. The principal fossil find there, called the P-33 site, is located on the property of Francis Kienbaum. In September 1971, while Mr. Kienbaum was grading a portion of his land for use as a snowmobile racetrack, he noticed that the bulldozer was turning up a lot of black leaves, some even blowing around in the wind. Fortunately, it aroused his curiosity. Noticing that most of these leaves appeared to be from several genera now confined to Asia, such as dawn redwood (Metasequoia), China fir (Cunninghamia), katsura (Cercidiphyllum), Zelkova, and princess tree (Paulownia) (Smiley and Rember 1985). Though the assemblage of plants matches the present flora of southeastern North America more closely than that of any other region, it appears that the Miocene Clarkia flora was more diverse than any existing flora of temperate North America. sil record eastern are The author in the St. Maries River valley near the Clarkia, Idaho, P-33 site. Photo by Anita Figlar. Origin of the Clarkia Flossil Beds About twenty million years ago, during early Miocene time, widespread volcanic activity was underway in the Pacific Northwest. One of the largest known lava flows overspread eastern Washington and is manifest today as the Columbia River basalts. Farther east, in the proto-St. Maries River valley, similar volcanic activity occurred; one of the lava flows suddenly dammed the valley, creating a deep, narrow lake (Smiley and Rember 1979). The lake must have been cold-bottomed and limited in oxygen with very little microbial or scavenger activity, thus favoring the preservation of any plant parts deposited from the nearby shore. The lake silted in fast, probably from airfall ash, clays, silt, and other products of erosion, perhaps filling in completely within a thousand years or less. This gentle but rapid infill- ing of sediment on the lake bottom entombed the leaves and fruits in finely laminated sediments where they remained, saturated with water. Untouched by weather or erosion, running water, glaciers, or any of the other geological processes that have modified most of the earth's surface, they survived the past seventeen million years virtually unaltered. Everything had to go right and it did. Exploring Clarkia We arrived in the Clarkia area by way of the University of Idaho in Moscow in early July 1991. Though it was nearly midsummer, northern Idaho looked oddly spring-like as black locust trees (Robinia pseudoacaccia), widely planted as ornamentals, were still in bloom. On the hourlong drive to the fossil site, Dr. Smiley provided a detailed geological and 5 botanical narration as accompaniment to the roadside scenery. Basaltic extrusions give evidence of the Miocene lava flows in the roadcuts. These are often interbedded with clay-like layers known to geologists as the Latah sediments, which are sometimes fossil bearing. As we traversed the gently rolling topography, the existing flora-grand fir (Abies gmndis), douglas fir (Pseudotsuga mensiesii), western white pine (Pinus monticola), western larch (Larix occidentalis), subalpine fir (Abies lasiocarpa), quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides)-contrasted markedly with my mental image of the rich magnolia-beech-baldcypress forest that existed in Miocene time. A sign that read \"Fossil Bowl,\" the name of Mr. Kienbaum's racetrack, signaled that we had arrived at site P-33. Bill Rember, Yang An unusually well preserved Miocene fossil, an immature Clarkia Magnolia fruit aggregate, next to its present-day counterpart, Magnolia grandiflora. Hong, and other researchers were taking core samples of stream and lake sediment. As Rember told us about some of his recent discoveries, including \"a really big leaf\" believed to be a Magnolia, possibly belonging to section Rytidospermum (a group of closely related Magnolia species often called big leaf or umbrella magnolias), I kept looking at the ground. Leaves, black leaves, mostly baldcypress, were all over the place. Within minutes I had picked up pieces of shale containing dawn redwood, sweet gum, chestnut (Castanea), and yes, even Magnolia. Dr. Smiley suggested that we could get better specimens if we chopped them fresh from the sediment. Chopping Fossils This method calls for a pulaski, a kind of pickax, to chop out small blocks of the soft shale sediment. Individual bedding surfaces are then split off with a pocket knife. Each bedding surface usually reveals one or more fossil leaf compressions, many of which still show original green or red pigmentation for a short time before turning black. Sometimes fruits and twigs are also present. This is how we explored this ancient forest: I would chop and Dr. Smiley would split and identify while our wives, Peg Smiley and Anita Figlar, wrapped and labelled specimens. As we lifted the leaves from the ancient sediments, my sense of time often became confused; for all intents and purposes, these seventeen-million- year-old leaves looked like present-day leaves, better than those that fell last fall. We had time to dig pond for only an hour or so, but in that short time we collected fossil leaves of numerous Miocene species, including the Magnolia latahensis and what appears to be a second species of Magnolia, one that resembles the extant cucumber magnolia (M. acuminata) of section and in most cases, own into my Tulipastrum. Later, we visited the main fossil collection at the Tertiary Research Center of the University of Idaho. There, Dr. Smiley showed us many of the better specimens of Magnoliaceae from Clarkia. Most impressive in this collection was an exceptionally well preserved fossil of an immature Magnolia fruit aggregate. Even more remarkable is the extraordinary resemblance of this fossil fruit aggregate to that of the presentday southern magnolia (M. grandiflora) of the section Theorhodon. Close examination of the fossil showed nine tepals, approximately 250 stamens, and some 120 carpels-all of these being well within the ranges for M. grandiflora. Also impressive among Dr. Smiley's collection were the quality and quantity of fossil tulip tree leaves and fruits. Looking for Modern Analogues Back home in New York State,I determined to questions raised at Clarkia. Did more than one Magnolia species exist in the Miocene Clarkia flora? Do these fossil Magnolias have modern analogues? Which extant species do they most resemble? The possibility of more than one Magnolia species in the Miocene Clarkia flora was raised by Smiley and Rember (1981) in the course of a stratigraphic analysis of a column of sediment 7.6 meters deep. In this study the researchers selected a one-meter-square area at the P-33 site, then painstakingly peeled off layer after layer of sediment, each usually less than one centimeter thick. All plant fossils in each layer were collected, identified, quantified, and tabulated for the entire 7.6-meter depth of the column. The resulting data suggested that different plant communities occurred at different levels of the column. Some layers of the column revealed fossil evidence of a swamp assemblage species such as baldcypress, tupelo, and Magnolia latahensis, whereas other layers reflected a slope assemblage dominated by oak, beech, and dawn redwood. In this latter assemblage Smiley and Rember found fossils of a species of Magnolia whose leaf morphology was suggestive of present-day M. acuminata. Smiley told us that unlike those of M. latahensis, fossils of this species occurred rarely and were typically found in a more fragmented, abraided condition, indicative of long-distance transport by running water. Using both close-up photographs and actual fossil material, I compared leaf structures and venation patterns of the two fossil Magnolias to each other and to numerous species of living Magnolias. While the sample size of fossil material was small, the specimens were in excellent condition and showed leaf venation down to the smallest details. Comparative pursue the analysis of these characters indicated that the two fossil species, M. latahensis and the slope magnolia, showed a closer resemblance to living M. grandiflora and M. acuminata, respectively, than to each other or to any other living Magnolia species studied. In fact, the structural details and venation parameters for both fossil species were well within the ranges for each of their proposed living analogues. Smiley's comment that the abraided leaves of the slope magnolia suggest thin, fragile deciduous leaves, further supports the affinity between the slope magnolia and living M. acuminata. In the case of M. structure latahensis, both the leaf stratigraphic evidence of a swamp assemblage suggest an affinity with living M. grandiflora, a conclusion that is bolstered by the extraordinary morphological similarity of the fossil fruit aggregate to those of M. grandiflora. An even more convincing case for the latahensis \/grandiflora affinity and the would be made if it could be demonstrated that the fossil fruit aggregate did in fact belong to M. latahensis and not to the slope species. Probability suggests that since only one type of Magnolia fruit was found at Clarkia, it came from the species that produced the most leaves-that is, M. latahensis. Unfortunately, the fossil fruit did not have any leaves associated with it, making it impossible to prove that it was produced by M. latahensis. A Change in Climate Some time after sediment had filled the lake at the Clarkia site-in the middle and later parts of the Miocene epoch-the Cascade Range formed, producing a rainshadow effect Clarkia and surrounding areas. Not only did the Cascades rising to the west cause precipitation and humidity to decrease, but this climatic barrier also allowed more frequent invasions of arctic air masses from the north. These combined effects would eventually doom Magnolia latahensis and the rest of the moisture-loving Miocene Clarkia flora in favor over 7 Paleobotanical Detection: Leaf Structure of Magnolia acuminata Compared to a Miocene Fossil In contrast to conventional botany, paleobotany Fossil leaf of the socalled slope magnolia. deal with fragmentary evidence. The fossil leaf may be nearly pristine, but the paleobotanist does not have the luxury of examining parts of the plant that would have been attached to the leaf, nor the habitat in which it grew. This presents a special problem with Magnolia since its leaves can easily be confused with those of other genera such as the tupelo and pawpaw (Asimina) whose leaves are of similar size and shape and, like Magnolia, are entire margined (that is, without lobesl. To address this issue, we studied leaf venation patterns of most of the modern equivalents of the entire-margined Miocene Clarkia genera and found that even when the leaves were similar in size and shape, most could be distinguished from Magnolia by the number of secondary veins on either side of the primary vein. Magnolias typically have ten to fourteen of these secondary veins (except for section Rytidospermum, which ordinarily have twenty or more), while the leaves of most other entire-margined genera have fewer than ten. In two genera, Nyssa and Asimma, the number of secondary veins did not differ from those in Magnoha, but other characteristics (for example, the behavior of loop-forming branches of secondary veins) were used to differentiate them requires one to Leaf of extant I Magnolia acuminata. J (Dilcher 1974). Having found a way to distinguish Magnolia from other genera using leaf evidence only, we still needed to distinguish among the various species of Magnolia. In M. acuminata the angle of divergence of the secondaries from the midrib is usually between 45 and 65 degrees, with the angle tending to be more acute near the leaf apex. Frequently, the secondaries in the basal half of the leaf are recurvate (curving down before curving back up again), especially in proximity to the midrib. These and other venation characteristics peculiar to M. acuminata were also found to be present on fossil leaf specimens of the slope magnolia. Other extant Magnolia species with leaf delavayi, up to 90 degrees; M. denudata, less than degrees. Further evidence of the close relationship between M. acuminata and the fossil slope magnolia was found when we compared ultimate 45 venation structures such as areoles and veinlets under forty-times magnification. Areoles are usually pentagonal or quadrangular shapes formed by shapes comparable to M. acuminata, however, show less acute or more acute angles of divergence of the secondaries from the midrib: M. grandiflora, 60 to 70 degrees; M. campbellli and M. the lower order veins. In M acuminata these areoles are usually 0.5 to 1.0 millimeters across. Typically more than half of these areoles contain veinlets that \"dead end\" inside the areoles. These features are clearly visible in the fossil and appear to closely match those of extant M. acuminata. Other extant magnolias (M campbellu, M. sprengen, and M. delavayi),however, have larger (2 to 3 mm) areoles, while in M. grandiflora and in fossil M. latahensis veinlets are rarely present or are indiscernible, possibly because of the leathery leaves. 8 of the more drought-tolerant and boreal flora found today throughout interior western North America. Miocene counterparts tend to retain their ancestor's morphological characteristics. In contrast, species found in more xeric habitats Other Miocene fossil records, though less well preserved, indicate that many Clarkiatype floras existed throughout western North America, including the Miocene Latah flora near Spokane, Washington, and the Miocene Puente flora in the Los Angeles area (Axelrod 1939). Fossil Magnolia corrallina Chaney, from the Miocene San Pablo (Neroly) flora of west central California, is said to resemble presentday M. grandiflora just as the Clarkia latahensis does (Condit 1938; Chaney and Axelrod today generally show greater morphological divergence from their Miocene ancestors. Grounds for Speculation The fragmentary nature of paleobotanical evidence allows, even encourages, speculation. For instance, one can speculate that some twenty-five million years before the presenta during the late Oligocene\/early Miocene-a species resembling M. grandiflora was distributed continuously from what is now far western Canada southward through the Great Basin into Mexico and Central America, then back up through south-central United States into New England and perhaps beyond. Later, in middle Miocene time-fifteen million years before the present-alarge gap in the distribution might have developed in the American Southwest as that region became more arid. At the same time, mountains rising along the western coast of North and Central America would begin starving other Theorhodon populations of moisture, resulting in many disjunctions. And finally, the New England leg of the distribution would shrink southward as the Miocene and Pleistocene climates cooled. The western North American populations would vanish by the end of the Miocene. 1959). More recently, in a report on fossil Magnolia seeds found in Brandon lignite of the Oligocene epoch (twenty-five to forty million years ago) in west-central Vermont, Tiffney describes two fossil Magnolia species, M. septentrionalis and M. waltonii, whose seed morphologies suggest affinity to living species of section Theorhodon and section Tulipastrum, curiously similar to the affinities described here for Clarkia fossil Magnolias. The Clarkia evidence, which shows close morphological similarity in the leaves of the Miocene M. latahensis and present-day M. grandiflora as well as other section Theorhodron species, supports the view proposed by Parks and Wendel that species that persist in the same moist habitats as their 9 Eventually, in Quarternary time-perhaps as recently as ten thousand years ago-climatic change would force another separation of the Theorhodon distribution between Texas and American Chaney, R. W., and D. I. Axelrod. 1959. Miocene Floras of the Columbia Plateau. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 617. Condit, C. 1938. The San Pablo flora of west central California. In R. W. Chaney et al., disjunctions in Mexico. These Central disjuncts, having been genetically isolated for so long, have evolved into separate species (Vasquez-G 1990). M. grandiflora, the Contributions Institute of to Paleobotany. Carnegie Publication 476. Washington, Dilcher, which still has a sizable continuous distribution in southeastern United States, is all that remains of the original continental distribution of M. latahensis. A similar migration could be posited for the ancestor of the cucumber magnolia (M. acuminata) except that, being a more temperate species, its range may have extended farther north, perhaps originally as far as coastal Alaska during the early Miocene epoch. The fact that the closest living relative to the cucumber magnolia, M. liliflora, is found in Asia suggests that the ancestral species could still have been genetically \"communicating\" across the continents via the Alaska land bridge to Asia during or shortly before the early Miocene. This relatively short period of isolation, about twenty-five million years, might have resulted in the morphological similarity that exists between the section Tulipastrum species, M. acuminata and M. liliflora. These scenarios seem plausible, but for now two extant D. L. 1974. Approaches to the identification of angiosperm leaf remains. Botanical Review 40(1): 1-157. Golenberg, E. M., D. E. Giannasi, M. T. Clegg, C. J. Smiley, M. Durbin, D. Henderson, and G. Zurawski. 1990. Chloroplast DNA sequence from a Miocene Magnolia species. Nature 344: 656-658 Parks, C. R., and J. F. Wendel. 1990. Molecular divergence between Asian and North American species of Lmodendron (Magnoliaceae) and implications for interpretation of fossil floras. American Journal of Botany 77(10): 12431256. Smiley, C. J., and W. C. Rember. 1979. Guidebook and Roadlog to the St. Manes River (Clarkia) Area of Northern Idaho. Moscow: Idaho Bureau of Mines and Geology Information Circular 33: 1-45. C. J., and W. C. Rember. 1981. Paleoecology of the Miocene Clarkia lake (northern Idaho) and its environs. In A. J. Borecot, J. Gray, and W. B. N. Berry (eds.), Commumties of the Past. Stroudsburg, PA: Dowden, Hutchmson, and Ross, 551-590. C. J., and W. C. Rember. 1985. Composition of the Miocene Clarkia flora. In C. J. Smiley (ed.), Late Cenozoic History of the Pacific Northwest. San Francisco, CA: American Association for the Advancement of Science, Pacific Division, 95-112. B. H. 1977. Fruits and seeds of the Brandon lignite : Magnoliaceae. Botanical Journal of the Linnaean Society 75: 299-323. Smiley, they are largely conjectural, given the fragmenjust the amazing at Clarkia have brought us much findings closer to understanding Magnolia's past in North America, future studies there might someday unlock still more secrets. tary fossil evidence. But as Smiley, Tiffney, Acknowledgments While this manuscript was being prepared, my mother, Adelene Greenwood Figlar, passed away. She was a kind and lovmg lady and, probably because of me, developed a great fondness for magnolias. This article is dedicated to her memory. Literature Cited Vazquez-G., J. A. 1990. Taxonomy of the genus Magnolia in Mexico and Central America. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin M.S. Thesis. Axelrod, 1938. Miocene floras from the western Mohave Desert. Contnbutions to Paleobotany, 55-56. Carnegie Institute of Washington, Publication 516. D. I. Dick Figlar is a past president of the Magnolia Society who grows more than thirty kinds of Magnoha in his own garden in Pomona, New York. He is developing a personal arboretum of Magnolia in the foothills of the Blue Ridge Mountains of South Carolina. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Transatlantic Migrants","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25085","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160af6d.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Notes on Transatlantic Migrants ., Stephen A. Spongberg Records of the early colonial period in New England illustrate the multidirectional plant exchanges that followed the discovery of the New World. Populations of plant species have been migrating from one part of the world to another for millennia. It has long been known that some plants considered \"native\" to one region were actually carried by man or his domesticated animals from another region, sometimes continents away. For instance, the chestnut, the filbert, and the \"English\" walnut trees-all considered thoroughly at home in Englandwere actually brought there by the Romans in relatively recent times. But the most significant of all floral transmigrations may have been the one begun by Columbus. As early as his second voyage to the New World, Columbus inaugurated a biological exchange of plants, animals, and pathogens between the New and Old Worlds that laid the foundations for colonization of the New World by Europeans in the early seventeenth century and has continued to the present day. From the first, this exchange had tremendous consequences for the aboriginal peoples of the New World as well as for its floras and faunas. Consequences of equal magnitude were to follow in Europe and throughout the Old World. The exchange fueled the European economy through the exploitation of the New World's abundant natural resources. Equally important, it hastened development of the \"new science,\" which had slowly begun to replace the medieval perception of the world that was rooted in the classical writings of the ancient Greek and Roman scholars. Columbus' Second Voyage On that second voyage in 1493, Columbus sailed with twelve hundred men in seventeen ships to Hispaniola. Included in the ships' cargo were seeds and cuttings of common Eastern Hemisphere crops including chickpeas, melons, radishes, onions, salad greens, grapevines, and as well as the stones and seeds of orchard trees. Later explorers continEuropean ued to introduce plant species from the Old World to the New. By 1516 the banana had been introduced to the Caribbean region from the Canary Islands. Ginger and garlic-the latter quickly adopted into the diets of the native Americas-were early transplants, and coffee, an Old World plant, was to flourish in the New World where climatic conditions suited its growth. American production of the coffee bean was soon helping to satisfy the Europeans' seemingly unquenchable thirst for the brew, a thirst that initiated the birth of the coffeehouse in England and on the continent. By the year 1600, twenty years before the Pilgrims landed at Plymouth, all the major food plants of the Old World had been introduced and were being grown in the Americas, doubling or even tripling the number of species that were known as food plants. But scores of sugar cane, Viburnum opulus, the guelder rose or snowball, from Flora Danica, Volume 4, By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. published in Copenhagen,1770. 12 plants had in turn been carried back to the Old World in the holds of the caravels and galleons. Peanuts, sweet potatoes, white or \"Irish\" potatoes, squashes, pumpkins, chile peppers in infinite variety, the tomato, manioc (sometimes known as cassava or tapioca), and beans of many sorts-including the lima, pole, kidney, snap, haricot, and French-all attested to the agricultural prowess of the aboriginal Americans. Most important of all were the numerous varieties of maize or Indian new plants in order to subsist. Therefore, the Pilgrims as well as other colonists who soon followed brought with them seeds of all the vegetables and salad greens familiar in European fields and gardens at that time. Even melons, squashes, cucumbers, and maize, which had been brought to the Old World from the New shortly after upon unknown corn-vegetable gold-that were adapted to to growing conditions from sea level well over Columbus's maiden voyage, returned with the settlers to help them establish in the new colonies gardens similar to those they had left behind in Europe. The pattern of plant introduction established by the Spanish in New was repeated by the English in New England. They too cultivated familiar foodstuffs in order to transplant their version of eight or ten thousand feet in the mountains. While maize was not widely accepted as a human comestible in northern Europe, it quickly found a use as feed for livestock. Many other New World crops helped to revolutionize Old World cuisines and to provide new crop plants adapted to a wide variety of growing conditions, among them the pineapple, the avocado, cacao (the source of chocolate, which Linnaeus later gave the name Theobroma, \"food of the Gods\"), the papaya and guava, and cashews and Brazil nuts, all of which began to reach European markets in the seventeenth century. In fact, so successful were American food plants in the Old World that the population increase experienced in Europe and elsewhere throughout the Eastern Hemisphere during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries has been tied to the availability and acceptance of increased food supplies from American crop plants. Plants the Pilgrims Brought Specific illustrations of these migrations between the Old World and the New-and back again-can be drawn from surviving records of the early colonial period in New England. When the Pilgrims came ashore on Cape Cod to establish the Plymouth Plantation in 1620, they arrived fully resolved to reestablish their ordered European lifestyle in the new colony. Despite the vegetable abundance of the Spain European society and culture ness. to the wilder- Thus warm history records that on the unusually morning of Monday, the nineteenth of March 1621, the Pilgrims set about the task of allotting garden plots to the various families comprising the Plymouth Plantation. Six acres of barley and peas were planted while twenty Indian corn. In their work assisted by the kindly Indian they Squanto, who, legend has it, instructed them in the Indian technique of planting the kernels in hills that had been fertilized with fish. Familiar with Europeans by virtue of having been kidnapped and taken to Europe but returned to New England before the arrival of the Pilgrims, Squanto was one of the few survivors of the Patuxet group of the Wampanoag tribe, which had been devastated by an epidemic of the plague a few years before 1620. Soon after 1629, when Governor Endicott arrived at Naumkeag (Salem) and established the Massachusetts Bay Company settlement, the Reverend Francis Higginson, who led the second emigration to the colony, observed the following in a letter carried back to England. acres were sown to were territory they were colonizing, they came prepared for the worst, not intending to depend already planted a vineyard hopes of increase. Also mulberries, plums, raspberries, currants, chestnuts, filberts, walnuts, small nuts, hurtleberries, and haws of white thorn.... They have tried our English with great Our Governor hath 13 corn [wheat] at New Plymouth Plantation, so that all our several grains will grow here very well, and have a fitting soil for their nature. (Slade 1895) fact, included in the list of stores that were sent to the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1629 were the following plants and seeds: \"vine-planters, wheat, rye barley, oats, a hogshead of each in the ear: beans, pease, stones of all sorts of fruits, as peaches, plums, filberts, cherries: pear, apple, quince kernels: pomegranates, woad seed, saffron heads, liquorice seed, madder roots, potatoes, hoproots, hemp seed, flax seed, currant plants, and madder seeds\" (Slade 1895). Domesticated animals, chickens, pigs, and goats rounded out the biological cargo. Cattle had arrived earlier, by 1624. Not finding suitable species for forage in the native flora, the ineptly named Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis L.), white and red clover (Trifolium repens L. and T pratense L., respectively), and probably alfalfa (Medicago sativa L.) were brought from English meadows In to be and pastures and over the years have become completely naturalized across eastern North America. Of course, this was not the first migration for many of these species. Of the woody plants listed in Higginson's letter, the chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller), sometimes known as the Spanish or sweet chestnut, is native to southeastern Europe, ern western Asia, and north- Crataegus oxycantha, the white thorn or common hawthorn, from Flora Danica, Volume 4, published in 1770. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard Umversity. probably introduced into Roman times. Valued for the England during sweet meat of its nuts as well as for its timber, the tree was widely planted in England. The nuts were sometimes roasted before open fires Africa, was and ground with oats or barley to make a kind of bread by the poorer classes. Likewise the filbert (Corylus maxima Miller) and \"small nuts\" (probably Corylus avellana L., European hazelnut, and C. colurna L., Turkish hazelnut) were valued for their nutmeats and for their extremely tough and flexible shoots that were used to make a variety of objects from hoops and wattles to fasteners for roof thatch. Both the filbert and Turkish hazel are native to or southeastern Europe and western Asia and had been introduced into Britain, again probably by the Romans, while the European hazel is indigenous to all of Europe including England. The \"English,\" \"Persian,\" or \"royal\" walnut [Juglans regia L.), native to an area extending from southeastern Europe to the Himalayan region and China, was also widely cultivated throughout Europe by the early seventeenth century, and like the chestnut, filbert, and Turkish hazelnut, had probably been carried to the British Isles in Roman times. Its chief value lay in its edible nuts as well as its fine- 14 Corylus avellana, the European hazelnut, from Recueil de Planches de Botamque de l'Encyclopddie, Volume 4, 1823. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. grained timber, which was utilized, as it is today, for cabinets and particularly for gunstocks. White thorn or common hawthorn (Crataegus oxycantha L. or, perhaps more cor- rectly, Crataegus laevigata (Poiret) De Candolle) is a widely distributed European species that was well known to New England's first settlers. Plants of this small thorny tree among the first used to create the hedgerows, living fences that remain a characteristic and prominent feature of the English were countryside. When planning for the new colony in New England, the Pilgrims doubtless considered the white thorn necessary to protect their garden plots from freely roaming livestock as well as from wild marauding animals. The development of horticulture in the new colony would depend on the settlers' ability to establish enclosures that animals could not penetrate, which may seem strange to us today, living in an era when animals are fenced in rather than out. But beyond the anticipated need for garden enclosures, the Pilgrims had a variety of other reasons for bringing the hawthorn along on their first voyage to New England. It had long been associated with folk customs and rituals welcoming the spring season. Since Greek and Roman times, the first of May had been a day of celebration that centered on gathering the flowering boughs of the hawthorn. In addition, 15 alba, the white mulberry of the Orient, from Recueil de Planches de Botanique de 1'Encyclopedie, Volume 4, 1823, Paris, which accompamed Lamarck's Encyclopedie Methodique. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard Umversity. Morus the hawthorn's small, applelike fruits had a history of medicinal use, and many legends tell European or black mulberry (Morus nigra L.). Perhaps both species were represented since both were cultivated in England. Governor Endicott of the Massachusetts Bay Company was not the first European to attempt their cultivation in New World soils. As early as 1548 the Spanish had introduced plants of the black mulberry into Mexico, and English settlers had established mulberries in the Jamestown region as early as 1619. An earlier attempt to establish the trees in 1609 had failed when the ship on which the plants were being transported from England was lost at sea. While the Pilgrims occasionally ate the seedy mulberries, sometimes directly from the tree, it is unlikely that they brought these trees of the power of its flowers' scent to revive the spirits and counteract poisons. Other legends tell of the use of hawthorn branches to form Christ's crown of thorns or of the plant's miraculous appearance (apparently out of nowhere) to signify a favorable omen of religious import. In all probability, the first colonists carried along to New England not only the hawthorn itself, but all the European traditions, legends, and superstitions associated with it as well. The mulberries referred to by Higginson could have been either the white mulberry of the Orient (Morus alba L.) or the common 16 England for their fruit. More likely, they included them in their gardens for their milky-sapped leaves, the major food of the silkto New worm, the larval stage of the silkworm moth (Bombyx mori). The trees are therefore prerequisites for sericulture, an industry that Endicott may have intended to establish in New England. Given the enormous demand for silk in England and in other parts of Europe, to produce silk. The desired hybrid was never produced, but the effects of this experiment are still visible in the damage to northeastern forests that began when gypsy moths were accidentally released from their unique capacity cages. sericulture might have proved very lucrative for the colonists. Silk from China was known in Europe from Greek times, and the craze for the luxurious fabric, the \"queen of textiles,\" had resulted in the establishment of trade routes, the so-called silk road, between Europe and Cathay during Greek and Roman times. The closely guarded Chinese technique of sericulture had been brought to Europe at about the beginning of the sixth century by monks who had also carried the precious eggs of the moths concealed in the hollows of their canes; seeds of the white mulberry tree were introduced at about the same time. The industry (including both the animal and plant component) spread through southern Europe and became firmly established in Italy. But by the beginning of the seventeenth century the increasing demand for silk in Europe, particularly by the nobility, prompted James I to issue an edict promoting the planting of mulberry trees in England in order that the industry might be established there. Mulberry seeds were distributed to anyone who would sow them, and steps were taken to encourage the colonists in Virginia to abandon the profitable cultivation of tobacco and replace it with sericulture. No one has yet succeeded in establishing a silk industry in New England, but the desire to do so gave rise to sporadic experimentation long after the colonial period. In one of these experiments, in 1869, the gypsy moth was introduced from Europe into Medford, Massachusetts, for cross-breeding with the silkworm. The goal was a hybrid that would feed on oak leaves, like the voracious gypsy moth larvae, while possessing the silkworm's Living Apothecary early colonial gardens also included many imported nonedible plants, some of which have become naturalized in New England, but the seeds for these plants were not given space in the settlers' tightly packed chests for their ornamental value. Just as today's travelers invariably include aspirin and any required prescription drugs in their luggage, so did the Pilgrims include medicine chests in the form of seeds with their other essential belongings. The colonists' ability to survive and establish themselves permanently across the Atlantic would depend on their success in growing medicinal herbs, since medical practice of the time still relied on these \"simples,\"or their lookalikes, the bulk of which had been listed by Dioscorides, Pliny, and Theophrastus in Greek The and Roman times. In the summer of 1631, the Lyon anchor in Agawam (Ipswich) harbor, to A dropped bringing John Winthrop, Junior, an assortment of seeds from England, perhaps to reestablish plants that had not survived the previous winter. A list of the species represented has survived, showing not only a variety of vegetable seeds but numerous medicinal herbs as well. Ann Leighton, in her Early American Gardens: \"For Meate or Medicine,\" made the following observations about the plants on the list. The list of seeds could have belonged to any distinguished Pompeian householder, except for a few additions of hardier plants culled from the English countryside and brought into garden cultivation before the colonizers of William the Conqueror arrived with a few reliable herbs of their own. There is no concrete example of the many thrilling new discoveries which suddenly burst upon gardeners and willing experimenters in the art of physic from the Spanish conquests in South America-even to tobacco. On the 17 whole Wmthrop's seed list is a very old and reliable one indeed, well tried for more than a thousand years. Plants for Beauty Unlike medicinal and culinary herbs, ornamental plants were not essential to the establishment of European settlement in New England, but no doubt a few were brought from English and Dutch gardens if only for sentimental reasons. The common lilac (Syringa vulgaris L.),native to mountainous regions of eastern Europe, had been introduced into western Europe in the middle of the sixteenth century. Although no documentation has been located, it was probably one of the first exotic shrubs to be carried from Old World gardens to newly established ones across the Atlantic. It has become as characteristic of New England gardens as it is of English villages, and in New England its longevity and persistence in fields and woodlands often signal the site of a now abandoned homestead. Circumstantial evidence suggests that the common barberry (Berberis vulgaris L.) was also an early introduction into New England. The alternate host of black stem rust disease of grain, the barberry provides an essential link in the life cycle of the microscopic rust plant. Without the barberry as alternate host the rust cannot infest wheat, oats, barley, and rye, and without these grains, barberries are likewise apt to be free of the rust. But if barberries and grains grow near one another the conditions are satisfied for the growth and reproduction of the rust, and grain plants in the vicinity will become infected by its airborne spores. Damage to the grain plant ensues, reducing considerably the amount and quality of the crop yield. Apart from small, orange, circular pustules that appear on the upper surfaces of its leaves, infected barberry plants show few if any effects from the rust. Wheat or \"English corn,\" rye, barley, and oats were among the staple crop plants brought to New England by the earliest settlers, and damage to these grains was noted at an early Berberis vulgaris, the common barberry, from Icones Plantarum Medicinalium by Joseph Jacob Plenck, published in Vienna, 1790. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. date. While the relationship between the rust disease of cereal grains and the barberry shrub was not proven scientifically until early in the 18 nineteenth century, the cause and effect relationship must have been fully suspected by the middle of the eighteenth century. In 1726 the Connecticut colony, followed by Massachusetts in 1755, enacted legislation forbidding the planting of barberries and promoting their eradication. Presumably, large enough populations of barberries were present in those two colonies to support the rust and cause widespread damage to the grain crops, prompting concern and legislation. Like the white thorn, the spiny barberry shrubs were undoubtedly imported primarily as hedging plants; their dense habit of growth coupled with their sharp spines formed an imposing barrier to both man and animal. Barberries offered an expedient substitute for the more labor-intensive process of fence or stockade building when a low enclosure was desired. The plant was also useful in other ways. The bark of the roots and stems provided a yellow dye, and the pleasingly acidic leaves served as seasoning for meat and as a salad green. The small red fruits were frequently used for syrups and jellies, andbecause of their astringency-as a purgative and all-purpose tonic. Tolerant of shade as well as full sun, seedlings had probably become established in the woodlands surrounding settlements by the early eighteenth century, where, despite attempts to eradicate them, survivors can still be found today. Another imported shrub that may have been among the first woody ornamentals cultivated in New England is the guelder rose or snowball, not a rose at all but a form of the European cranberry bush (Viburnum opulus L.). Known from European gardens since the sixteenth century, its large, snowball-like inflorescences formed by numerous double, sterile flowers made the guelder rose an immediate favorite as a decorative shrub. Not known as a wild plant, this garden form is reputed to have originated in the Netherlands, in Guelderland. The numerous fruit trees introduced into New England by the first colonists not only yielded essential and valuable harvests of Malus sylvestris, a parent of apple cultivars, from Flora Danica, Volume 7, 1799. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. apples (cultivars selected from complex hybrids probably involving Malus sylvestris Miller, Malus dasyphylla Borkhausen, and Malus praecox (Pallas) Borkhausen), pears (cultivars of Pyrus communis L., another complex hybrid involving several species), peaches (Prunus persica (L.) Batsch), and plums (cultivars of Prunus domestica L., a probable hybrid between Prunus spinosa L., the sloe, and Prunus cerasifera Ehrhart), but also added to the beauty of the landscape when in flower. Until the middle of the eighteenth century the 19 ple food crops had been the simples required for practicing the type of medicine brought by the Pilgrims to New England. Largely confined within the walls of monasteries during the Middle Ages, the \"physic gardens\" that provided simples slowly became linked with universities and the teaching of medicine. In 1542 the first botanical garden in Europe was established at Padua, west of Venice in northern Italy. Soon after, botanical gardens were established in Montpellier, in Paris, and in Germany, and plants became the focus of experimentation and close observation as well objects of increasingly accurate illustraknowledge was documented in the great illustrated herbals that were produced as the tions. Botanical Prunus domestica, the common plum, from Medical Botany by William Woodville, M.D., Second Edition, Volume 3, published in London, 1810. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University.. few written accounts that document horticultural and agricultural activities in New England focus primarily on the development of orchards throughout the settled areas, recording the yields of particular harvests and commenting on the sporadic origin and attributes of new varieties of apples, pears, and other orchard fruits. At the same time that the first settlers in the wilderness of New England were trying to establish an agrarian society based on the traditional European model, gardening in Europe was experiencing a minor revolution. For centuries the only plants cultivated other than sta- from the late fifteenth century well into the late seventeenth century, primarily serving the medical community and only secondarily the broader botanical community. But by the middle of the sixteenth century, with the increasing number of new plants that were introduced into Europe from the Levant, Asia, and the Americas and with the increased awareness of the natural world that had been thrust upon European society by the discoveries of their navigators, gardening and the cultivation of curiosities became pastimes of royalty and the wealthy. Even the flora of Europe itself was scrutinized for the first time since the Greeks and Romans. Plants were placed in the landscape for architectural effect; flowers were arranged to beautify banquet tables, and gardens became pleasure grounds. All of North and South America contributed to the gardens of Europe, and dried specimens of botanical novelties from the Americas as well as Africa and Asia accumulated in the European centers of botanical study, which were in an embryonic stage when the first settlers brought their familiar food plants and medicinal herbs to the New World. The immigrants to New England left Europe at a time when plants were just beginning to be studied and appreciated in their own right, over and above their economic potential or their real or imagined medicinal value. Slowly and then 20 with quickened pace, in gardens, in \"cabihistory, and in libraries, the materials-dried specimens, the living plants themselves, and increasingly detailed publications about plants-began to accumulate. These materials would enable botany to a nets\" of natural Actes: Histoire des Sciences Naturelles et de la Biologie 8: 47-49. Hamilton, emerge as a branch of science distinct from medicine. Botanical and horticultural exploration would follow, the two alternating in emphasis, but always closely linked. The Pilgrims and other early settlers cannot be given credit for bringing a multitude of horticultural treasures to New England, but they did play a part in the biological exchange that followed the discovery of the New World by establishing in New England the basic food plants we still rely on. Each succeeding generation of New Englanders would produce individuals who played increasingly active and important roles in the development of botany, horticulture, and plant introduction in the \"newe founde world.\" E. J. 1976. What the New World gave the economy of the Old. In: First Images of America: The Impact of the New World on the Old, Vol. II. Berkeley: University of California Press. Heald, F. D. Heath, D. 1926. Manual of Plant Diseases New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company. B., ed. 1986. Mourt's Relation' A Journal of the Pilgrims at Plymouth. Cambridge: Applewood Books. Hednck, U. P. 1950. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860. New York: Oxford University Press. r Jones, E. L. 1974. Creative culture, 510-528. 1620-1820. disruptions agriAgncultural History 48: in American Leighton, A. 1970. Early American Gardens: \"For Boston: Houghton Meate or Medicine Mifflin Co. \" Sourcesand Suggested Reading G. 1986. Amenca in m McManis, Europe: A History of Reverse. San Diego: D. R. 1975. Colonial New England: A Historical Geography. New York: Oxford Arcimegas, University Press. the New World Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. Rahn, J. E. 1982. Plants That Changed History. New York: Atheneum. Crosby, A. W., Jr. 1972. The Columbian Exchange: Biological and Cultural Consequences of 1492. Contributions in American Studies No. 2. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press. Sauer, C. O. 1941. The settlement of the humid East. In: Climate and Man: Yearbook of Agnculture. Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture. 1971. Sixteenth Century North America: The Land and the People as Seen by the Dodge, B. S. 1959. Plants That Changed the World. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. in seeds and plants between continental North America, England, and France during the seventeenth century. Resumes des Ewan, J. 1968. Traffic Europeans. Berkeley: University of California. Communications\/Sommaires, XII Congres Slade, D. D. 1895. The Evolution of Horticulture in New England. New Rochelle, New York: The Knickerbocker Press, O. P. Putnam's Son's. international d'Histoire des Sciences, Paris, August 25-31 1969. Silk culture in the colonies, with particular reference to the Ebenezer Colony and the first local flora of Georgia. Agncultural 1 History 43: 129-141. Tuckerman, E, ed. 1865. Introduction and Notes. In: \/. Josselyn: NewEngland's Rarities. Boston: William Veazie, 1865. 1971. Traffic in seeds and plants between continental North America, England, and the Continent during the 16th and 17th centuries. Stephen Spongberg is horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum and author of A Reunion of Trees: The Discovery of Exotic Plants and Their Introduction into North American and European Landscapes. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Habit to Cultivate","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25081","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160a726.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"A Habit to Cultivate Gary Koller Securinega suffruticosa, a plant that's both tough and graceful, deserves some recognition. Visually and spatially unsatisfactory landscapes often result from the need to keep the size and scale of plants within bounds. To control them people tend to get out their shears what the the time of year or how the pruning plant will affect growth or flowering next year. The only thought is to keep the plant at bay with as little time, effort, and expense as possible. The shears appear and the disfigurement of the execute a crewcut no matter or rious flower and thrown to the winds any con- and plant begins. Plants that were meant to grow together as thicket end up as tight little gumWhatever the plant's innate grace and drops. beauty, it is lost, maybe forever, and as added injury its maintenance needs have just escalated. Keeping the plant frozen as an awkward caricature raises the chore level considerably. As often as not, the fault lies in the initial selection. The plant may simply be too big for its location, and this is where the workings of the market come in. The nursery industry seeks plants that propagate easily, in costeffective percentages. They must grow rapidly, ideally reaching a marketable size in eighteen to thirty-six months. But plants that grow that fast in the nursery almost always continue at the same rate once they're established in the home garden. They quickly outgrow the space a mass or sideration of how much and how quickly that plant will grow. (As a general rule of thumb most shrubs grow as wide as they are tall-a a six-foot tall shrub will be six-foot wide.) Just as in the long run the overall composition of plants is more important than the effect of any one individual, so a cohesive, billowy, freeflowing effect is more important than an ephemeral floral or seasonal effect. This is where the plant's habit, or form, comes into play. In plant selection habit often takes precedence over any other characteristic, such as flower color or size. Plants that play their part without constant restraint become very valuable, and some of those plants may well lack major ornamental qualities as we generally think of them. Such a plant is Securinega suffruticosa, the fountain hardhack, which does not merit its almost total anonymity. It deserves to be known and used, especially for its graceful form and size. A Cascade of Foliage allotted them. Enter the buying habits of the too-typical gardener. At one time or another we've all succumbed to the attractions of a plant in full, glo- matures from upright branching into a gradual outward arch that in summer is a bright yellowish green. In autumn the cascading effect is enhanced when the foliage turns a clear, bright, buttery yellow. Its saturated color and delicate, airy texture combine to form a golden waterfall. In winter the plant presents another pleasing effect when its colony of twiggy stems mimic a Securinega suffruticosa 1 22 , A group at of four sixteen-year-old Secunnega suffruticosa plants grow on a dry bank near the top of Bussey Hill the Arnold Arboretum. They were propagated from seeds collected m South Korea on the Arnold Arboretum expedition of 1977. Photo by Margot Balbom. results occur after three months of cold stratification. A member of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) that is native to northeast Asia, Securinega su f fruticosa was introduced to cultivation in North America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1881. In The Flora of Japan Jisaburo Ohwi reports that it is a common native that grows in thickets and on grassy slopes in the lowlands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Cultivations of Securinega in the Arboretum landscape represent several wild populations. In the autumn of 1977 Stephen Spongberg and Richard Weaver brought back wild-collected seeds from South Korea. In 1984 botanists from the Research Institute of Ecology and Botany, Vacratot, miniature woodland. Whereas in summer the new stems are a bright green, in fall they turn a light tan that contrasts with the darker browns and blacks of most shrubs and trees. The foliage is alternate with a simple, ovate shape. In late summer the plant bears a multitude of small greenish yellow flowers in the leaf axils, but the blossoms will be missed by all but the most observant. The fruit, the size of a small peppercorn, is divided into three sections with three to six seeds and adds an interesting beading effect to the branches. It ripens from pale green to brown at maturity. At some point in the ripening process the capsules burst open and fling out their contents, reaching distances of three to five feet or more. Germination trials indicate that optimum 23 Hungary, collected seeds from a mixed, rocky, broad-leaved forest and pinewood on granite hills at three hundred meters altitude in North Korea, and shared these seeds with us, helping to further expand the genetic diversity of our living collections. A Variable Habit The plant's habit varies with age and vigor. At the Arnold Arboretum a planting approximately five years old grows in full sun at the top of a dry bank. Here the plants range in height from five to eight feet tall, and they remain upright overall. Elsewhere on the grounds a ten-year-old planting that stands in dappled shade has grown three to four feet tall and has acquired a strongly arching habit. Much older plantings also share this size and parks and smaller-scale residential landscapes. Its drought and cold tolerance as well as its graceful habit make it an excellent candidate for difficult conditions such as rooftops and other situations requiring large containers. It might even serve as a delicate barrier in highway median strips. In 1992 I featured this plant in American Nurseryman, a publication of the nursery trade, but response was limited to one or two in shape. At the Arnold Arboretum these plants thrive in full sun to light shade, and they seem exceptionally tolerant of dry conditions. To my knowledge there is no history of dieback from either winter damage or summer heat and not an drought. Indications are that the plants will tolerate heavy or poorly drained soils nor exposure of are than moderate shade. The least USDA Zone 4. plants hardy The occasional occurrence of spontaneous seedlings suggest that the plant may prove invasive, a potential that should be guarded more to at requests for seed. This reflects the trade's need to stay with proven winners, which in turn contributes to landscape plantings that are tried, true, and boring. Nurseries will not produce this plant-and we will not discover the full potential of this quiet but beautiful Asian shrub of tough character and graceful habituntil innovative gardeners and landscape designers are willing to experiment with it. The Andersen Horticultural Library's Source List of Plants and Seeds, which lists commercial sources for over 47,000 plants, includes one for Securinega suffruticosa: Sheffield's Tree and Shrub Seed, 273 Auburn Road, Route 34, Locke, New York 13092. We have collected seeds from established plantings at the Arnold Arboretum and will be happy to supply a packet to anyone who asks. You need only send my attention a self-addressed, stamped envelope and a donation of $5 to help defray our expense in supplying the seeds. to against. The bright yellowish green of the summer foliage mixes well with other plants to create compositions of shape, texture, and form. For autumn and winter viewing Securinega makes an excellent thicket for border plants, useful Gary Koller is Senior Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum and Lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Faith in a Seed and a Squirrel: Book Review and Excerpt","article_sequence":4,"start_page":24,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25083","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160ab6f.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Faith in a Seed and and Excerpt Peter Del Tredici a Squirrel: Book Review Faith in a Seed: The Dispersion of Seeds and Other Late Natural History Writings. Henry David Thoreau, edited by Bradley P. Dean. Island Press\/Shearwater Books, 1993. 283 pages with line drawings by Abigail Rorer. Hardcover. $25 For most were Americans, especially those who assigned Walden in college, Thoreau sticks in the mind as a homespun philosopherhermit who willingly went to jail for his beliefs. But students who dig a little deeper find another Thoreau, a naturalist tramping the fields and forests of Concord, recording minute observations, and trying to tie them together in a unified natural philosophy. Until now, this other Thoreau was visible only in his journal-some three thousand pages of it-which, while fascinating to browse, cannot be considered a finished literary work. In the later part of his life Thoreau undertook to organize his natural history observations into a coherent work of science. He died before the task was complete, leaving behind two unpublished manuscripts, \"The Dispersion of Seeds,\" published in its entirety in this volume (154 pages), and \"Wild Fruit,\" only a small part of which is published here (27 pages). The main body of \"Dispersion\" consists of a description of the various mechanisms by which seeds of common New England trees are dispersed-wind, water, and animals-along with a painstaking discussion of his theories on the relationship between seed dispersal and forest succession. For those who have read the essay entitled \"The Succession of Forest Trees,\" published in 1860, much of the information on forest succession will not be new. That essay can be viewed as a preamble to \"Dispersion,\" which covers the same ideas but with many more details to support the theories. Indeed, it is precisely these details that form the heart of \"Dispersion,\" just as they form the heart of all natural history studies. Had \"Dispersion\" been published at the time Thoreau wrote it, the book would most certainly be considered a seminal volume, significant for its groundbreaking treatment of interrelationships between plants and animals-afield that has recently become fashionable under the name coevolution. Because \"Dispersion\" did not appear in print until 1993, one hundred and thirty-one years after it was written, the book is primarily valuable for the light it sheds on Thoreau's mind and for its descriptions of New England natural history. For this reviewer the most interesting parts of the book are those that deal with Thoreau's concept of forest succession, incomplete and somewhat skewed though it is. The core of this idea, as he saw it, is that forests are in a continual state of flux and the dominant species of today will be replaced by others tomorrow. A key ingredient in Thoreau's theory is that birds and small rodents play a crucial role in this process by \"planting\" the seeds of the replacement generation. Indeed, the idea 25 expressed most frequently in \"Dispersion\" is that squirrels are the ones who are responsible for making the New England forests look the way they do. To a certain extent, possibly in reaction to the creationist view of nature then of consciousness about its forestactivities. planting In the following passages Thoreau's customary brilliant attention to detail is accompanied measure by a less customary use of scientific method. prevailing, Thoreau portrays the homely gray squirrel as the driving force behind forest succession, exaggerating its role and going so Note, too, that he proposes that the earth itself is a living organism, presaging James Lovelock's \"Gaia\" hypothesis hundred and ten years. by at least a far as to attribute to the creature a small Yes, these dense and stretching oak forests, whose withered leaves now redden and rustle on the hills for many New England mile, were all planted by the labor of animals. For after some weeks of close scrutiny I cannot avoid the conclusion that our modern oak woods sooner or later spring up from an acorn, not where it has fallen from the tree, for that is the exception, but where it has been dropped or placed by an animal. Consider what a vast work these forest planters are doing! So far as our noblest hardwood forests are concerned, the animals, especially squirrels and jays, are our greatest and almost only benefactors. It is to them that we owe this gift. It is not in vain that a squirrel lives in almost every forest tree or hollow log or wall or heap of stones. Thus, one would say that our oak forests, vast and indispensable as they are, were produced by a kind of accident, that is, by the failure of animals to reap the fruits of their labors. Yet who shall say that they have not a dim knowledge of the value of their labors?-that the squirrel when it plants an acorn, and the jay when it lets one slip from under its foot, has not sometimes a transient thought for its posterity, which at least consoles it for its loss? But what is the character of our gratitude to these squirrels-to say nothing of the others-these planters of forests, these exported dukes of Athol of many generations, which have found out how high the oak will grow on many a mountain, how low in many a valley, and how far and wide on all our plains? Are they on our pension list? Have .- a 26 in any way recognized their services? We regard them as vermin. The farmer knows only that they get his seed corn occasionally in the fields adjacent to his woodlot, and perchance encourages his boys to shoot them every May, furnishing powder and shot for this purpose, while perhaps they are planting the nobler oak-corn (acorn) in its place-while up-country they have squirrel hunts on a large scale every fall and kill many thousands in a few hours, and all the neighborhood rejoices. We should be more civilized as well as humane if we recognized once in a year by some symbolical ceremony the part which the squirrel plays in the economy of Nature. we 2022 2022 2022 , On entering the wood I began at once to look about carefully for oak seedlings or anything else of the kind, and directly, in a part of it almost exclusively oak, I was surprised to see a cluster of little chestnuts six inches high and close together. Working my hand underneath, I easily lifted them up with all their roots-four chestnut trees two years old, which had partially died down the first year, yet were quite flourishing, with the four great chestnuts from which they sprang still attached, but not the burr; and also four small acorns which had sent up puny little trees of the same age beneath the chestnuts, but it is remarkable that these were either dead or dying. These eight nuts all lay within a diameter of two inches, about an inch and a half beneath the present leafy surface, in a very loose soil of but half-decayed leaves. I have no doubt that they were buried there two falls ago by a squirrel, or possibly a mouse. 27 It is very rare that you distinguish a seedling chestnut in this neighborhood, and I do not remember that I had ever met with any of this age before, though it is very likely that I have. I had come forth on purpose to look for them, but did not expect to find them so soon. Such is the difference between looking for a thing and waiting for it to attract your attention. In the last case you are not interested at all about it, and probably will never see it. Burr of the American chestnut (Castanea dentata). surprised at the sight of these chestnuts, for these are not to my knowledge, and I am thoroughly acquainted with that wood, any seed-bearing chestnut trees within about half a mile of that spot, and I should almost as soon have expected to find chestnuts in the artificial pine grove in my yard. Nevertheless, I was ... 2022 proceeded onward over hill and dale through the mixed pine and oak woods toward Lincoln, with my eyes more widely open than ever, now looking for chestnuts and not waiting for them to call to me, I found many chestnut seedlings two or three years old, and some older and even ten feet high, scattered here and there but more numerous as I approached the chestnut woods. I should say that on an average there was one every half-dozen rods, made more distinct by their yellow leaves on the brown ground, which was the more surprising to me because I had not attended to the spread of the chestnut before, and every one of these came from a chestnut placed there by a quadruped or bird, which had brought it from further east, where alone it grew. As I 2022 2022 2022 one of the old limestone quarries in the north part of Concord in November, I noticed in the side of an upright sliver of rock, where the limestone had formerly been blasted off, the bottom of the nearly perpendicular hole which had been drilled for that purpose, two or three inches deep and about two and a half feet from the ground, and in this I found two fresh chestnuts, a dozen or more pea- Exploring 28 vine (Amphicarpaea) seeds, as many apparently of winterberry seeds, and several fresh barberry seeds, all bare seeds or without the pericarp, mixed with a little earth and rubbish. What placed them there-squirrel, mouse, jay, or crow? At first I thought that a quadruped could hardly have reached this hole in the perpendicular side of a rock, but probably some rude kinds could easily ; and it was a very snug place for such a deposit. I brought them all home in order to ascertain what the seeds were, and how they came there. Examining the chestnuts carefully in the evening, and wondering if so small a bird as a chickadee could transport one, I observed near the larger end of one some very fine scratches, which it seemed to me might have been made by the teeth of a very small animal while carrying it-certainly not by the bill of a bird, since they had pricked sharply into the shell, sucking it up one way. I then looked to see where the teeth of the other jaw had scratched it, but could discover no marks and was therefore still somewhat in doubt about it. But an hour afterward I examined these scratches with a microscope, and then I saw plainly that they had been made by some fine and sharp cutting instrument like a pin, which was a little concave and had plowed under the surface of the shell a little, toward the larger end of the nut, raising it up. And, looking further, I now discovered on the same end at least two corresponding marks made by the lower incisors, plowing toward the first and about a quarter of an inch distant. These were Skeleton a Skeleton , , of a deer ouse (Mus us scarcely obvious to the naked eye, but quite plain through the glass. I now had no doubt that they were made by the incisors of a mouse, and comparing them with the incisors of the common wild or deer mouse (Mus leucopus, whose skeleton I chanced to have), I found that one or two of the marks were exactly the middle of its two incisors combined, or about a twentieth of an inch, and that the others, though finer, might have been made by them; and the natural gape of the jaws corresponded. On one side at least it had taken fresh hold once or twice. I have but little doubt that these seeds were placed there by a deer , mouse eucopus. leucopusj. , , deer mouse, our most common wood mouse. 29 The other chestnut, which had no marks on it, I suppose was carried by the stem end, which was now gone from both. There was no chestnut tree within twenty rods. These seeds thus placed in this recess will help to account for chestnut trees, barberry bushes, and so on growing in chinks and clefts, where we do not see how the seeds could have fallen. There was earth enough even in this little hole to keep some very small plant alive. 2022 2022 2022 The consequence of all this activity of the animals and of the element in transporting seeds is that almost every part of the earth's surface is filled with seeds or vivacious roots of seedlings of various kinds, and in some cases probably seeds are dug up from far below the surface which still retain their vitality. The very earth itself is a granary and a seminary, so that to some minds its surface is regarded as the cuticle of one great living creature. Peter Del Tredici is Assistant Director for Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ecology for Your Backyard: Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25082","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160a76b.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Stashko, Edward","article_content":"Ecology for Your Backyard: Book Review Edward Stashko Noah's Garden: Restoring the Own Ecology of Our Backyards. Sara Stein. Houghton Mifflin Company, 1993. 294 pages. Hardcover. $21.95 The axiom \"Think globally, act locally\" urges us to preserve our wetlands and protect endangered species, but nonetheless it has often been easy to miss the ecological opportunities that backyards. Sara Stein's new fascinating story of her personal discovery of the magical ecological processes that unfold in her backyard garden or, better said, the portion of the ecosystem that is found within her backyard. The design of landscapes has for too long been overly concerned with form and structure exist in our own a book tells the expense of the functions of the landscape, both within itself and its relationship to surrounding areas, as Stein began to recognize just as she and her husband Marty finat ished creating what has become the epitome of the suburban landscape-great expanses of rolling lawns, liberal use of yews as foundation plantings, exotic specimen trees, and flower beds neatly confined in rectangular beds, raked and weeded free of any untidiness. Her uneasiness with the results of their hard labors coincided with the completion of her previous book, My Weeds: A Gardener's Botany, which documented the taming of their New England garden. After clearing brush, removing rocks, cutting down trees, repairing stone walls, establishing lawns, and digging flower beds, they quickly realized that by opening their landscape for themselves they had closed it to all manner of animals. Stein's discomfort arises when she compares the sterility of her typical suburban garden with the richness of the landscapes of her childhood. Where had all the fireflies and frogs gone? Why didn't the pheasants patrol the backyard anymore? Stein lamented that the rich pleasures of nature that she enjoyed as a child are now largely missing from our daily lives and can only be relived in brief visits to preserves established to house remnant ecosystems. As her tale of restoration unfolds, Stein relies on her memories, mental snapshots, and an intrepid sense of exploration to guide her efforts. She draws an analogy between inviting guests to a party and planting a mix of trees and shrubs to see what dialogue results. When it comes to conversing with her plants, Stein proves to be an excellent listener. After wading through the botanical section of the Cornell University Library, she fashioned a landscape that is greater than the sum of its parts. Function rules over form in her backyard. Noah's Garden provides a wealth of insights into the complexities of landscapes as ecosystems that will enlighten both gardener and student of ecology alike. The book explores the intricacies of creating diverse natural systems as it delves into predator-prey relationships, succession, competitive interactions, symbiosis, pollination, and seed dispersal systems. Stein demonstrates an uncommon ability to present these often eye-glazing topics in a way that lets the reader not only understand but use these concepts to create and maintain healthy landscapes. The book would make an excellent companion reading for any student of ecology wading through the usual dry texts espousing theoretical ecology. For example, her explanation of nutrient cycling falls under the head- 31 The Steins' rectangular perennial garden originally stood alone in a sea of lawn, isolated from two rock gardens. Now the gardens are continuous, cut through by mower-width paths and occasional clearings. The area shown is about half an acre. ing of \"Where the gone goose went,\" in which she relates how she left the School of the Neat and Clean for the messier but more efficient system of letting leaves, stones, earthworms, and the plants themselves provide essential a day where a property might be valued as much for its plant and animal carrying capacity as it now is for the number of bedrooms and expanse of lawn. A tax abatement for a frog pond? She does a very convincing job of selling the advantages of reducing labor-intensive chores such as double-digging beds and endless lawn cutting as not only saving time and sore backs but providing ecological benefit. Her meadow and forest restoration projects provide habitat for a broad variety of wildlife, improve soils for the future, and yet require less labor and expense. She continually searches for connectionslinks between plants and soils, pollinators and flowers, fruits and seed dispersers, plants and other plants. The most important connection made is the larger one between her six acres in Pound Ridge, New York, and all the land that surrounds it. Cities and suburbs have become vast deserts. The few patches of green that serve as refuges for wildlife are scattered in an ever-increasing archipelago of islands with dispersal distances that many plants and animals cannot conquer. Ecologists have only recently recognized that so much damage has been rendered to natural systems that nature's capacity to restore itself has often been surpassed. nutrients. Stein envisions 32 Our attempt to actively direct natural processes to restore landscapes has been termed biocultural restoration. Noah's Garden is a handbook for a careful tread-lightly, thinktwice strategy for achieving this end. Stein proposes a plan (with credit to Michael meadow same ecology but included to satisfy the consumer impatience that demands McKeag) that uses plantings to link personal landscapes: groves of trees at the back of the lot are tied to the front yard with hedgerows, which in turn blend into the front yard with native grasses and wildflowers. The focus is always on establishing connections, the most important linkage being the restoration of key interactions between species. Whether done for reasons of ecology, economy, or style, she urges both individual and community responsibility in creating a new tradition in which land is valued for the life that it harbors. The book holds a treasure trove of advice to gardeners that is often laced with a wry humor. Referring to exotic plants that require plenty of help to survive, she suggests, \"I learned at least to avoid anything that comes with a full paragraph of instructions for its care.\" In taking on such popular techniques as integrated pest management, biological controls, and grassland restoration, she points to the many pitfalls involved. \"A meadow in a can is a misnomer; the can we bought was real enough, but no meadow could have come from it. An essential ingredient was missing: grass. The mix was flavored with empty calories-slimbodied, shallow-rooted annuals alien to instant soups.\" We quickly learn that there are few shortcuts to succession. The book is delightfully illustrated by the author and filled with valuable references. The appendices include useful lists of plants important to butterflies, berrying plants for hedgerows, botanical names, and helpful books. Despite the latter, a bibliography with full citations for the many books and authors mentioned in the text would have been helpful. Given the book's focus, some references to key ecological texts might also have been useful. Noah's Garden is a bold reexamination of many of the basic traditions of gardening and will certainly generate a great deal of discussion as we take a new look at our backyards and how they relate to our neighbors' backyards. It is a peculiarity of how we perceive time that many old ideas seem new and radical when scrutinized by a new generation. Rarely is the case for reexamination made as eloquently and clearly as Sara Stein has done in this book. Edward Stashko, Ph.D., is Director of Conservation and Tropical Programs for the School for Field Studies and is an instructor in the ecology of landscapes and ecological restoration at m the Radcliffe Seminars Graduate Program Landscape Design. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25084","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160af28.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS .froiii II)e Arnold Ai-boi-eiiiiii The Renovation Nears Completion Robert E. Cook, Director The essence of the Arboretum is nowhere captured more fully than in the design of the new entrance to our just-renovated Building. The challenge here was to develop a means of surmounting our original set of eight slate steps with a Hunnewell wheelchair ramp that was consistent with both the spirit of the 1992 Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) and the mission of the Arboretum. Through a creative design by landscape architect Carol Johnson, our new seamlessly weaves a rising and accessible sidegently entrance walk into the historical character of our 1892 building. The effective solution lay in the use of earth for elevation. Now as you look at the entrance from the road out front, you see a set of new, bluestone steps, straddled on each side by black, wrought-iron railings. They rise up nearly eight feet to an elevated plaza edged with elegant wooden benches. Behind this platform stand our historical oak doors, newly restored with their oversized iron hinges and black metal grills. To each side of the seating area a grassy berm drops gently to the ground. Climbing the steps, you realize that accessibility has been achieved with a branch in the sidewalk that splits from its beginning at the road to follow the berm of earth along its ridge, rising to enter the seating arena at its edge. A slightly sloping bluestone bridge carries the visitor past the massive wooden doors into the building. The entire landscape has been planted with mature woody specimens that have been chosen to illustrate the long historical interest of the Arboretum in the flora of Asia and its close relationship to the flora of eastern North America. This provides an exceptional opportunity to conduct an excursion into the collections within one hundred feet of the entrance. The renovation, as beautifully captured in this new entrance, has sucessfully integrated the regulatory requirements of a modern research and educational facility serving the public interest while preserving the historical integrity of our landmark building. It is a fitting symbol for an institution committed to the highest quality in its programs consistent with the preservation of its traditional mission to advance our knowledge and understanding of trees. Japanese Delegation Tours Arboretum On June 30 the Arboretum was honored with a visit by the Japanese Association of Botanical Gardens. Comprised of directors of Japanese Botanical Institutions, the delegation is touring major American gardens to learn about our methods of curation and management. Archaeologists Dig the Arboretum Richard Schulhof, Assistant Director for External Relations Thousands of years before Charles Sprague Sargent began planting the Arboretum, the landscape was home to a number of prehistoric settlements. This past spring City Archaeologist Steven Pendery of the Boston Landmarks Commission (seen on the left in the photo) investi- Bussey Brook valley. Working with a grant from the National Park Service and support from the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Pendery uncovered gated history with a dig conducted in the vicinity of this evidence that the area has been inhabited repeatedly over the past six to eight thousand years. Of the site and its significance he reports, \"The Spring Village site appears to have been occupied Chris Strand periodically over thousands of years precisely because of its strategic setting with ready access food and water resources. Its relationship to other natural resources and sites within the surrounding 265 acres can still be studied. This type of site probably survives nowhere else so close to Boston.\" to Joins Arboretum Staff The Arboretum is pleased to announce that Chris Strand has joined the staff as Outreach Horticulturist. Chris is a graduate of the University of Delaware's Longwood Program and previously served as an interpretive horticulturist at Callaway Gardens in Georgia. At the Arboretum, he will work with visitor education, orientation, The project was greatly assisted by an energetic group of volunteers that included thirty Boston teachers who participated through a collaboration between the Boston Public Schools and the National Faculty Program. and public services programs, and pursue his special interest in the interpretation of botanical collections. As always, summer brought interns to the Arnold Arboretum. Their training here includes hands-on experience in grounds maintenance, labelling and mapping, and plant propagation. They also participate in plant identification classes and join Arboretum staff members for tours and talks. 1993 interns are, from left to right, Angela Cerruti, Jochen Martz, Sandra Chuck, Joan Mullins, Alana Dudley, Keith LeBlanc, Tracey Goldberg, Jason Diauto, Mark Dugan, and John Evers. David Giblin is missing from the photo. Choice and Unusual Plants for New England Gardens Annual Plant Sale, Auction and Members' Bonus of The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Sunday, September 19,1993 TO BE HELD AT THE . CASE ESTATES 135 Wellesley Street, Weston, Massachusetts catalogues, Lunch 20142014201420142014201420142014 For more information and plant sale call (617) 524-1718. Plant Information EVENTS OPEN TO THE PUBLIC Plant Sale 10:30 AM - 2:00 PM Annual Silent Auction of Selected Plants 9:00 AM - -1:00 PM TABLES CLOSE Specialty Plant Societies Sales and Information 9:00 am -2:00 PM SEQUENTIALLY BEGINNING AT 11:00 AM Members receive bonus plants and discounts beginning at 9:00 AM. Become a member today. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23340","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260b328.jpg","title":"1993-53-2","volume":53,"issue_number":2,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd: Understanding the Chinese Garden","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25075","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25e816d.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Yu, Kongjian","article_content":"Infinity in a Bottle Gourd: Understanding the Chinese Garden - _ Kongjian As Yu with photos by Peter Del Tredici places where humans exercise control over space and nature, gardens can serve as eloquent expressions of cultural ideas. The author offers a model of a fairyland or utopia as a guide to the structure and meaning of Chinese gardens. Once there was an immortal who lived in a bottle gourd and emerged each morning to sell medicine. Every night he returned to the bottle gourd to sleep. Curious about this strange behavior, a mortal followed him into the bottle gourd. There he found a spacious fairyland with landscapes of unearthly beauty. This story was told by Ge Hong, an important figure in the development of Taoism, in his fourthcentury biographies of the immortals, Sheng Xian Zhuan, and thus for the Chinese \"the world in the bottle gourd\" became a synonym for paradise. A similar bottle gourd space was described by the Tao Yuanming (365-427) in his prose poem Records on the Land of Peach Blossoms (Tao Hua Yuan ji). He told how a fisherman lost his way as he travelled along an unfamiliar stream. Suddenly he is surprised by a pure stand of peach trees stretching along the length of the streambank. The peach forest ends at the source of the stream, at the foot of a cliff. The fisherman spies a small hole in the cliff. A beam of light shines from it, and he leaves his boat to explore the hole. Narrow and rugged at the start, the passage opens out into the light as he penetrates deeper into it. He comes upon a peaceful and flourishing landscape where young and old, all equally comely, play He learns that the people of the Land of Peach Blossoms are descendants of refugees from the warring dynasties. They have lived in this isolated world free from intrusion for hundreds of years. Over time the Land of Peach Blossoms (the Heaven of Peace) has become the most influential of Chinese models for utopian society and landscape. The desire for longevity and peace, or perhaps the fear of death and unrest, are the essential motivations behind these stories, but what interests us here is the structure of their physical settings: An enclosing wall pierced by a narrow hole that leads to a generous space, that is, a bottle gourd model. It is this model that remains the ideal landscape in Chinese culture (Yu 1990a, 1990b). With the model in mind it becomes much easier to understand the \"confusion\" or \"magic\" of the Chinese garden that Keswick, Jencks, and other Western writers have remarked on. together. The Chinese Garden as an Infinite Hierarchy of Bottle Gourds Classical Chinese gardens were the monopoly of the elite, a class that has traditionally aspired to scholarly taste in their gardens (Tung 1978). It was Taoism that provided the strongest conceptual framework for garden 3 Figure 1. The Lm Yuan (Lingering Garden), Suzhou, west of Shanghai. design: \"The Tao (the Way, meaning the Order of Nature) inspired its followers to be profoundly conscious of the process of change in nature. Taoist humility in the face of nature is clearly expressed in the design of landscapes and in the adaptation of buildings to their site. Taoist philosophers, motivated by a desire to obtain peace of mind, were the main advocates of the observance of nature\" (Johnston 1991). \/. Thus the ideal landscapes described by Taoist scholars like Tao Yuanming and Ge Hong became the favorite theme of the garden. The bottle gourd model expresses these concepts in visible structure. One of the most famous Chinese gardens, the Liu Yuan (Lingering Garden) in Suzhou, can serve as an illustration of the structure of classical Chinese gardens. Three distinctive types of gardens developed in China: the smaller private gardens of scholar-officials, the large and extravagant imperial gardens, and gardens associated with temples. The Liu Yuan, with a total area of two hectares, boasts one of the largest scholar gardens in Suzhou, a city famous for the number and beauty of its gardens. It was built between 1522 and 1566 (Liu 1978). A quick visit or a glance at the plan reveals the remote gate, narrow and twisted corridors leading to various enclosed spaces, and most important, the high, solid walls that enclose it. Like Ge Hong's fairyland or the utopian Land of Peach Blossoms, it stands apart from the secular urban landscape. \"We can feel a pure atmosphere around our table and chair; the common dust of the world is far from our souls\" (Ji 1988). And yet, a bottle gourd of two hectares or less is too small and too monotonous, ways to 4 Figure 2. Plan of the Liu Yuan, Suzhou: A hierarchy of bottle gourds. Modified by permission from Keswick1986. enlarge and enrich the spaces must be found. One solution is to construct more bottle gourds within it, each with its own theme dominated by certain landscape features. For example, space I is dominated by intricately eroded limestone rocks (Figure 2). Staring at the slim rock (Figure 3), one can imagine a graceful lady, perhaps the owner's favorite daughter, combing her long and elegant hair by the pond, her in the water. In space II the Rock forms the main theme (Figure 4) Eagle while water dominates space IV. image reflected 5 Figure 3. Guan Yuan Peak (Fantastic Cloud Peak): A beautifully water-worn limestone rock comprises the main theme m Liu Yuan. one Figure 4. Detail of the Eagle Rock, located m of several gardens within the space II. Like other rocks in the Lm Yuan and gardens throughout China, it is of limestone excavated from Lake Tai near Suzhou. Figure 5. A corridor wall pierced with openings divides the space and yet allows adiacent scenes to leak through, enlarging and enriching the garden, and sometimes, as here, adding three or four layers to the visual experience. Figure 6. A wmdow pierced m the cracked ice pattern, one of many symbolic patterns used in windows and paths. 1 6 straight line between two points is the shortest. Thus, twisting the lines of corridors, paths, watercourses, and even the boundaries of buildings makes a space feel larger (Figure 7). And yet another way to enlarge and enrich a space is through reflections in a body of water or simply a piece of mirror (Figure 8). This is same technique a shrewd storekeeper uses display his goods. Thus Chinese classical gardens depict the owners', or rather the scholars', ideal of an abode after the basic landscape model of the bottle gourd. While efforts were made to produce a small isolated refuge, techniques were also invented to make this bottle gourd refuge feel larger and richer. This is one principle for understanding the meaning as well as the structure of Chinese gardens. the to References Jencks, C. 1978. Meanings of the Chinese Garden. In: Keswick, M. The Chinese Garden. History, Art ed Architecture. 2nd rev. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. Ji Cheng. 1988. The Craft of Gardens. Translated by Alison Hardie. New Haven: Yale University Press. a Figure 7. Liriope spicata lines twisted path that makes the walk longer and the space seem larger. Johnston, Keswick, Cambridge, R. S. 1991. Scholar Gardens of China. GB: Cambridge University Press. Another way to make a small garden feel larger is to borrow scenes from outside the garden. Walls that separate the spaces within the garden are not solid. Pierced with openings of various shapes and configurations, scenes can be stolen from other spaces (Figures 5 and 6). This technique creates a montage of very different landscape elements, creating a scroll of painting out of pieces from a variety of landscapes. This contributes to the powerful and confusing \"magic\" of the Chinese garden. A third technique is to avoid straight lines. The simplest law of geometry is that the M. 1986. The Chinese Garden: History, Art et> Architecture. 2nd rev. ed. New York: St. Martin's Press. Liu, D. 1978. Suzhou Classical Gardens [in Chinese]. Bei)ing: China Building Industry Press. Tung, C. 1978. Soochow Gardens [in Chinese with English abstract]. In: Liu, D., Suzhou Classical Gardens. Beijing: China Building Industry Press. Yu, K. 1990a. The ideal environmental model for the Chinese and its ecological origin [in Chinese with English abstract]. Journal of Bering Forestry University 12 (1): 9-16. 7 Figure 8. Water features mirror the scene and double the space. Yu, K. 1990b. Exploration of the deep meaning of the ideal Feng-shul landscape model [in Chinese with English abstract]. Exploration of Nature 9(1):87-90. Kongjian Yu has studied and taught in the Department of Landscape Architecture of Beijing Forestry University, P.R.C., where he received two national awards for his research and teaching. The ideal landscape model m Chinese culture is a frequent theme m his publications. He is currently studying in Harvard University's Doctor of Design Program, concentrating on planning and design for China's federally protected landscapes. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant History: Expanding the Horizons of a Small Garden","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25077","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25e856b.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Harrison, Mary","article_content":"Plant History: Small Garden Mary Harrison Expanding the Horizons of a While waiting for spring, the pleasures of plant history dimension to the pleasures of the garden. can add another to covet the acres the country or even suburban garenjoyed by dener whose every plant whim, we imagine, can be readily indulged. With no space limitations the need to choose carefully and eliminate ruthlessly evaporates. Each new object of desire can be acquired and, within limits, given the best possible living conditions. Not so for us. Each and every plant acquisition must be justified on a very rigorous set of values. No variable can be ignored: color, size, seasonal interest, exposure, prejudice, the family, the neighbors, even the cats. At the beginning of winter, rather than yearn for plants my plot cannot accomodate, I turned my thoughts to the plants that lay buried in the snow. As individuals appeared in my mind's eye, I realized that I didn't know much about them beyond their physical characteristics and their willingness to survive. I began to make an inventory, thinking perhaps to compare their qualifications, justify their presence. I found my city lot supported quite a large collection. Most of the trees and shrubs, bought as seedlings at Arnold Arboretum plant sales, are barely out of their adolescence and still cause anxiety when any threat to their development is manifest. But their size and age do not reduce the pleasure of observing them gradually acquire some of the characteristics We city gardeners tend that make their mature brethren so desirable. As I continued to think and read about this hodgepodge of plants, a new dimension began to absorb me, to transform my attitude to the \"collection,\" and double its interest for me. I have been exploring the origins and history of these plants: When were they discovered and by whom? Where did they originate and who introduced them to the worlds of botany, horticulture, and domestic gardening? Who named them and what factors contributed to those names? Suddenly my diminutive plot seems as large as the world itself. Not only do these trees and shrubs and flowers connect me with all the hemispheres, but they take me back in time and introduce me to the company of gardeners, natural historians, clerics, physicians, illustrators, and botanists, many of whose names are borne by the plants themselves. These people were part of a long established tradition and a time when professions and occupations were not neatly compartmentalized. The boundaries of explorer, botanist, and geologist were blurred. Politicians might also be gifted illustrators and observers of nature. John White, of the colony of Roanoke, recorded all classes of the animal kingdom he observed, as well as the flora and people of the area. John Smith, of the Virginia colony and friend of John Tradescant, thought of himself primarily as a 9 soldier of fortune, Yet he has left us vegetation, the explorer, and mapmaker. descriptions of the geography, and geology he an detailed observed in North America. It is our great good fortune that these were glorious days of letter writing and journal keeping, when it was routine to record and comment upon everything new. It was to just such journalists and recorders that I eventually turned for the details of plant histories. As in tracing human genealogy a good starting point seemed to be the origins and meanings of plant names. This proved profitable and very entertaining. Many plants have names that describe features of their structure (Calycanthus) or behavior [Impatiens); some have names derived from the names of naturalists (Fothergilla) or collectors (Tradescantia). Although I explored the names of all the plants on my list, it was largely the group whose names are associated with people that most appealed to me, and I began the next stage of the search with Tradescantia. Tradescantia I referred earlier are the selection process my to, yet I find one of the most interesting and well documented has joined the garden uninvited. Indeed, I see it popping up in sidewalk cracks and intruding in otherwise disciplined perennial borders. I refer to Tradescantia, spiderwort, whose blues range from the palest to the deepest in these spontaneous outbursts. It bears the name of John Tradescant (1570-1638), gardener to Charles I and collector of plants in his own Lambeth garden. John Tradescant traveled in Egypt, Europe, and the East in search of new plants, and his son John (1608-1662) had the good fortune to travel to North America at a time when its vast and diverse vegetation was becoming known to Europeans. As was observed by John to plants subjected Tradescantia virginiana, Herball of 1633. spiderwort. Gerard's may stand in Competition with the any Countrey in Europe.\" plants of Josselyn, a seventeenth-century English visitor and author of New England's Rarities Discovered, \"The plants of New England for the variety, number, beauty, style, and vertue John Parkinson (1567-1650), a contemporary collector and writer about seventeenth-century gardens, tells us, \"This spiderwort is of late knowledge, and for it the Christian world is indebted unto that painfull industrious searcher and lover of all nature's varieties, John Tradescant.\" He adds that he \"first received it of a friend [John Tradescant, the son] that brought it out of Virginia.\" Tradescant records receiving another spiderwort in 1633, this one with white flowers. By 1640 a third, with pink and reddish blooms and known as Moses-inthe-Bullrushes, had joined the others in the gardens at Lambeth. 10 England, and that the cross might have been a more benign climate and the issue brought to England. Whatever its origins, there is a tradition that the London plane grew in the Tradescant garden. Spiderwort would certainly have been among its companions. Spiderwort and plane, both tough survivors, continue their association on this side of the Atlantic, and the street tree outside my garden provides afternoon shade for its seventeenth-century commade in panion. Aquilegia Almost as tenacious as the spiderwort is the columbine, another plant collected by Tradescant in North America and taken by him to England. Parkinson, in Theatrum Botanicum, published in 1640, described it as \"a plant newly introduced from Virginia by Mr. John Tradescant.\" It had already appeared in France, having been collected by Jesuits in Canada in 1633. John Gerard approved of the columbines and recommended they be \"sowne in gardens for the beautie and variable colors of the floures.\" He described their wanton behavior of producing a large range of colors, saying, \"these floures are of a colour somtimes blew, at other times of a red or purple, often white or mixt colours.\" Of the double varieties he says, \"The floures thereof be very double, that is to say, many of those little floures (having the form of birds) are thrust one into the belly of another, sometimes blew, often white and otherwhiles of mixt colors, as nature list to plaie with hir little ones.\" John Parkinson observed the columbine's way of surprising us each year by appearing in new locations and varying hues, and commented, \"The rarer the floures are the more trouble to keepe; ordinary sorts on the contrary will not be lost, doe what one \" will.\" Aster It seems that contemporaries kept very close track of what went on in the Tradescant garden. Gerard noted that \"There are kept in the Aquilina multiplex, Gerard's name columbines. Gerard's Herball of 1633. for double A companion to these acquisitions was another North American plant, Platanus occidentalis L., our native sycamore. In 1640 the younger Tradescant took some form of propagating material of P. occidentalis to England from a collecting expedition in North America. Thomas Johnson (1604-1644) noted that \"growing in the Tradescant garden were one or two young Asian planes (P. orientalis L.)\" Some botanists have speculated that a natural hybrid, P. x acerifolia Aiton, the London plane, resulted from the proximity of the two species. Others think that the Asian plane might not flower freely and thus not produce pollen in 11 I gardens of Mr. Tradescant two starreworts which bear blueish floures said to have come from Canada or Virginia.\" Indeed, this aster was collected in North America by John Tradescant the Younger. It was first known as Aster virginiana and later as A. tradescantii L. This was the first of many asters introduced by Tradescant before 1633, and it is not surprising that he remarked, \"Sure your country is inexhaustible in asters,\" a commentary that anticipated Asa Gray's. \"Never was there so rascally a genus, they reduce me to despair.\" Aster tradescantii grows from southern Nova Scotia to New York and west to ... ... Michigan, but not in my garden. A. novaeangliae L., the New England aster, continues to be my prime representative. In 1710 it, too, found its way to England. The transatlantic traffic in asters went two ways, and Peter Collinson (1694-1768), who was very active in introducing North American plants to England, sent the \"China aster,\" Callistephus hortensis (now C. chinensis L.) to his good friend John Bartram in 1735. Fritillaria imperialis L. A plant with the name Fritillaria imperialis would inevitably have a less democratic background than plants with vulgaris and canadensis in their names, and indeed this proved to be so. It is a native of Persia and the Himalayas and was introduced to Vienna by Carolus Clusius (1526-1609), Director of the Botanical Gardens at Leiden. Gerard knew it as Crowne Imperiall and described it in the section on lilies. (Fritillaria was then known as the Chequered Daffodill.) Crowne Imperial reached England in 1596 and by 1597 Gerard had it in his garden \"in great plenty.\" It was on the list of plants in the Tradescant garden by 1634 and came to North America by way of Peter Collinson, who sent seed to John Custis, father of Martha Washington. According to Parkinson, it \"doth grow sometimes to be as great as a pretty bigge child's head, but somewhat flat withal\" and \"of an orange color.\" Gerard's description of the nec- Fritillaria imperialis, Sydenham Crown imperial, drawn by T. Edwards. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1809. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Harvard University. Library, taries at the base of the petals inspired him to write, in his characteristically lyrical fashion, \"In the bottom of each of these bels there is placed six drops of most cleare shining sweet water in taste like sugar, resembling in show sweet orient pearles.\" These nectaries inspired a story in the plant's Persian homeland. It tells of a queen who was unjustly doubted by her husband. A compassionate angel turned her into Fritillaria imperialis, and until the queen is reunited with her husband, her tears remain. 12 Another legend says fritillaria was too proud bow with the other flowers as Christ entered the Garden of Gethsemane. When reprimanded, it blushed and hung its head in shame and ever since has had tears in its eyes. But not everyone sees it in the glow of romance. The name Stink Lily has been bestowed on it for the \"root being rub'd a little smells as like a Fox, as one Fox smelleth like another.\" to 2014 (Parkinson rose to its defense, stressing its \"stately beautifulness,\"adding that the smell was not unwholesome.) More recently Vita Sackville-West described it as a \"sullen and for- eign looking thing.\" Browallia Seeds of Browallia were gathered in the neighborhood of Panama by Robert Millar, who gave them to Phillip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden in 1735. He in turn gave a specimen to the Royal Society under the name Dalea. Linnaeus named it Browallia in honor of his friend Browall, fellow countryman, botanist, and Bishop of bo in Sweden. An entry in Allen J. Coombes' Dictionary of Plant Names provoked a search into the question of the specific names attached to Browallia. Coombes states, \"Browallia demissa (weak). Renamed by Linnaeus from B. elata (tall) after falling out with Browall.\" Further reading revealed that Browall had advised Linnaeus to finish his studies abroad, then marry a rich girl-this despite Linnaeus' engagement to Sara Lisa Moraea. Linnaeus did, indeed, spend the winter of 1737-1738 in Leiden and went on to France. While abroad, he had news that \"his best friend B.\"had taken advantage of his absence to court Sara Lisa Moraea and had almost succeeded in persuading her that her fiance would never return to Sweden. However, the bishop's suit failed; Sara Lisa and Linnaeus were married in 1739. The entry under Browallia grandiflora in Curtis's Botanical Magazine of 1831 reports: \"The intimacy and subsequent rupture between Browall and Linnaeus were commem- Browallia demissa, spreading browallia, drawn by Sydenham T. Edwards. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1808. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard Umversity. orated by the latter in the specific appellations which he bestowed on the only three individuals of the Genus then known. B. elata expresses the degree of their union; B. demissa its cessation; while the ambiguous name of a third species, B. alienata, while it intimates the uncertain characteristics of the plant, implies the subsequent difference between the two parties.\" Much to my regret I have so far 13 not tracked down any other reference alienta. to B. Calycanthus floridus L. This shrub is one of the great number of plants John Bartram (1699-1777) brought back from his many collecting trips. A farmer by occupation, Linnaeus considered him \"the greatest natural botanist in the world.\" His interest in botany led to an active role as agent, collecting and exchanging seeds and plants with notable clients in England. Peter Collinson, the prosperous English merchant, was among his most enthusiastic recipients. In 1765 Bartram became Botanizer Royal to King George III, and in addition to this honor, received a small stipend. Calycanthus floridus, Carolina allspice, had neither flowers nor seeds when Bartram came upon it in South Carolina, so he wrote a description of its location to Samuel Wyly, an Irish Quaker in whose house he had been staying before setting out on this collecting trip, and asked for his help. Wyly sent Bartram a plant that grew vigorously in his garden at Kingsessing, Pennsylvania. Seeds were sent to friend Peter Collinson in England, and calycanthus was blooming in his garden by 1763. Alexander Garden(1730-1791),aScottish physician who settled in Charlestown in 1752, said of calycanthus, it diffuses \"an aromatic fragrance seemingly of strawberry, pineapple, and the clove, called sometimes by the name of Bubby Blossoms from ladies often carrying them in their bozoms.\"Garden first referred to it as Buereria, or Frutex cornifoliis, the sweet shrub. This last name was used by Mark Catesby, the English naturalist, collector, and artist, to accompany the illustration of calycanthus that he included in the first volume of his Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. John Ellis, an Englishman who corresponded with Garden and received new plants from him, wrote to Linnaeus suggesting the plant be called Gardenia, but Linnaeus declined. He Calycanthus flondus, Carolina allspice, drawn by Sydenham T Edwards. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1801. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. did, however, suggest that Garden send him a genus from North America so that he could name it Gardenia. This request went unheeded at the time. Calycanthus also escaped being called Basteria, which Phillip Miller of the Chelsea Physic Garden wanted to name it in 1753, \"in honor of his worthy friend, Dr. John Baster.\" Eventually Linnaeus gave it the botanical new 14 description Calycanthus, which means calyx flower, \"because the sepals and petals are indistinguishable.\" \" Pennsylvania, Garden found a plant he thought to be a Hypericum. He sent a description of it to Jane Colder, the daughter of Cadwallader and herself a collector and documenter of plants. She was familiar with it but had it filed in her collection only under the identification \"Number 152.\" She told Garden that, \"using the privilege of a first discoverer,\" she would name the plant Gardenia in his honor. The plant was demonstrated not to be a new genus and was indeed a Hypericum. Garden's name was finally attached to a plant that was unfamiliar to him-the \"Bay leaved Jasemin,\" acquired by a Captain Hutchinson who found it at the Cape of Good Hope, a plant with \"the most wonderfull fine smell and large double white flowers.\" This naming process was an experience in part shared by Bartram. He, too, was unfamiliar with the Bartramia named for him. It was a native of Florida and was subsequently placed in another genus, one species of which retained bartramia as a specific name. The genus name was later revived and applied to a genus of Bartram originally regarded mosses looks upon a pair of new barn doors,\" but eventually he \"made good progress in that branch of Botany, which really is a very curious mosses. Fothergilla The first recorded collection of Fothergilla, the witch alder, was made by Alexander Garden. He found it in the Carolinas and thought it was a new genus, which he called Anemelis. He sent information concerning it to Linnaeus in 1765 and later dispatched specimens both dried and pickled \"in spirits of wine.\" Linnaeus thought it was a species of Hamamelis, and a series of letters passed between the two men between 1765 and 1773 in which they argued over the classification of the witch alder. Garden finally prevailed in establishing it as a new genus, but it was named Fothergilla by Linnaeus after Dr. John Fothergill (1712-1780), an English philanthropist with a lifelong interest in natural history. In 1773 Garden wrote to Linnaeus, \"I am elegant shrub, called by me Amemalis, has at length obtained its proper place, for I was much afraid that it must have submitted another.\" \" very glad that the most to range under the banner of \"as a cow Linnaeus never published a formal description of the witch alder. The founding of the genus and the formal description is attributed to J. A. Murray (1740-1791), a pupil of Linnaeus, who revised a portion of Linnaeus' work. Garden's name, however, was given to part.\" Kalmia latifolia L. In 1748 Peter Kalm (1715-1779), Finnish botanist and pupil of Linnaeus, came to North America to collect plants that might be suitable for cultivation in the Scandinavian climate. He found and admired an evergreen plant whose flowers \"rival that of most of the known trees in nature.\" Its most common name is mountain laurel, but it is also known as spoon- \" Fothergilla gardenii Murray. Fothergilla was grown in the Bartram's garden under the name of Gardenia about the year 1785, the first fothergilla recorded in cultivation in North America. the species Hypericum Hypericum, St. Johnswort, was briefly another candidate for the name Gardenia. After a stay with Dr. Cadwallader Colden on the Hudson River, near Newburg, New York, Alexander Garden travelled south to continue his observations and acquisitions of new plants. About a mile from New York City on his way to wood, a name linked to the Indian practice of making spoons and trowels from the wood of the root. When dug, the root was easily worked but became hard and smooth when dry. In spite of its beauty, the plant is said to be so toxic that even the nectar secreted by the flowers is suspect. One wonders with what consequences mountain laurel spoons were used, and 15 which he first found and which were never known before. I also owe him much, for he possessed that great quality of communicating everything he knew. I shall therefore in this work, frequently mention this gentleman.\" On Kalm's return to England Bartram continued to supply him with seeds, but Kalm, when he catalogued his collection of new plants, failed to acknowledge the great help he had received from Bartram, who was justifiably disap- pointed. Stewartia In 1687 the Reverend John Clayton located the first plants of stewartia near Williamsburg, Virginia. The population from which he gathered specimens is still in existence. This species, S. ovata (Cavanilles) Weatherby, was also observed in the Carolinas by Andre Michaux (1766-1803), botanist to Louis XVI. He had come to North America in search of plants and was especially interested in American trees to replenish the French forests and birds to populate them. In 1742 another John Clayton (1686-1773), whom Jefferson called \"the first American botanist,\" sent to Mark Catesby in England plants of another stewartia, S. malacodendron L., a native of the coastal plain from Virginia to northern Florida. Catesby reported, \"For this Kalmia latifolia, mountain laurel. Curtis's Botanical Magazine1792. By courtesy of the Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. whether a connection was ever established between their use and the longevity of their users. Mark Catesby had seen this plant during his travels in Carolina and in 1726 imported both seeds and plants to England where it initially proved difficult to propagate. However, Peter Collinson had success with plants he requested of Colonel John Curtis of Virginia in 1736. elegant plant I am obliged to my good friend, Mr. Clayton, and three months after its arrival it blossomed in my garden at Fulham.\" Dried herbarium specimens of Clayton's stewartia ultimately reached Linnaeus, who founded the genus Stewartia. He named it for John Stuart, Earl of Bute, acknowledging his efforts to establish a botanic garden at Kew. The most commonly cultivated species of stewartia grown in North American gardens is S. pseudocamellia Maximowicz probably because of all the stewartias its exfoliating bark is considered the most attractive. It was Apparently his plants came from a more northerly part of America than Catesby's. It is possible that Kalm, having visited Collinson's garden on his way to America in 1748, saw mountain laurel in cultivation before he collected it in the wild. Kalm met Bartram on his travels and recorded in his notebook his impressions: \"We owe to him the knowledge of many rare plants intro- duced by Thomas Hogg (1820-1892), a first-generation American who was sent to Japan on a diplomatic mission by Abraham Lincoln. Like many of his collecting predecessors, Hogg man- 16 Botanical Illustration 2014- Perhaps next winter's diversion will be the history of botanical illustration, a wonderful and vast subject scarcely touched upon in this essay. The art as we know it appeared in the West in the early Christian era, in the form of illustrated manuscripts icinal use of plants. John Gerard a on by the Royal Horticultural copyright was transferred back to the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, and since 1984 it has been incorporated was over taken Society. In 1970 the into Kew Magazine. the med- The earliest plates (1545-1612), Magazine were in Curtis's Botanical hand-colored engravings. practicing surgeon, gardener, plant collec- tor, and herbalist, published his Herball or Generall Historie of Plants in 1597. It contains eighteen hundred woodcut illustrations, printed mostly from blocks used in previous herbals. In 1633 a second edition was published, \"corrected and amplified\" by Thomas Johnson (1604-1644), an apothecary, botanist, and publisher. This edition included three hundred newly discovered plants from the New World and is the edition most frequently cited. It was one of three herbals, Culpeper's and Parkinson's being the others, that seventeenth-century settlers in New England consulted. Curtis's Botanical Magazine was the creation of William Curtis (1746-1788), an apothecary who forsook that business to follow his interest in botany. Aiming to describe and illustrate the great eighteenthcentury influx of plants to Europe, Curtis established his magazine in 1787 and remained its editor until his death in 1799. William Jackson Hooker (1785-1865) took over the direction and illustration of the magazine in 1826. When he became Director of the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, a connection between the two institutions was forged. In 1904 the text of the magazine began to be written by a number of writers instead of solely by the editor. When in 1922 the magazine fell into financial trouble, it This method was replaced by lithography in 1845, and hand coloring, surprisingly, ceased as recently as 1948, to be replaced by offset lithography. Among the most notable of the artists whose work appeared in the magazine is Sydenham Teast Edwards (1769?-1819). Son of a Welsh schoolmaster, Edwards was brought to London for further instruction in art by William Curtis after he was introduced to some of Edwards' drawings. They became companions on botanical expeditions, and in 1788Edwards' first plate for the Botanical Magazine was published in the second volume. In the next twenty-seven years almost all the drawings in the magazine were his. In 1815 Edwards left the Botanical Magazine to establish a rival publication, The Botanical Register. Walter Hood Fitch (1817-1892), a young apprentice to a firm of Glasgow calico designers whose first plate was published in 1834, became the magazine's sole artist, illustrating it until 1877. Sir Joseph Hooker described him as \"an incomparable botanical artist\" with \"unrivalled skill in seizing the natural character of a plant.\" Walter's nephew, John Nugent Fitch, lithographed nearly twenty-five hundred drawings for the magazine. He also illustrated The Orchid Album (1882-1897), now in London's Natural History Museum. aged to combine his political and horticultural interests. On the death of his father, he and his brother had taken over his nursery in New York City, and it was to add to their increasing collection of Japanese plants that Thomas Hogg introduced the Japanese stewartia. 17 ity, of course, they partook of the full range of human attributes and frailties: The generous and dedicated are easily exploited; the arrogant complacently ignore those they have depended on; one-upmanship and political contrivance abound. But the delight in the enterprise is none the less for that. Among them were writers able to convey the excitement of their discoveries and artists who documented, often with exquisite skill, their observations in a language universally understood. Through them it is possible to appreciate the long journey many plants have taken before settling comfortably in our gardens among representatives of other times and other continents. Bibliography Bailey, L. H. 1976. Hortus Third: A Concise Dictionary of Plants Cultivated in the United States and Canada. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co. Berkeley, E., and D. S. Berkeley 1969. Dr Alexander Garden of Charles Town. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press. 1982. The Life and Travels of fohn Bartram: From Lake Ontario to the River St. fohn. Tallahassee: University Presses of Florida Blunt, Stewartia ovata (then S. pentagynaj drawn by Walter Hood Fitch. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 1842. By courtesy of the Gray Herbanum Library, Harvard W. 1950. The Art of Botanical Illustration. of London: Collms. 1971. The Compleat Naturalist: A Life Lmnaeus New York: The Viking Press. University Stewartia _ Bnckell, C., pseudocamellia leads me out of Brickell, the nineteenth century into the present, out of the safety of winter history into the horticultural reality of spring. Has my stewartia survived the winter? Will it outgrow the problems that threatened it last fall? It has been an enlightening sojourn in the company of people I was inclined to romanticize, for the names summoned up visions of benevolent gardeners in smocks and of gallant and intrepid collectors, all sharing their common interest and plants in harmony. In real- and F. Sharman. 1986. The Garden' A Conservation Guide London: John Murray. Vanishing to Plants C. 1989. The Royal Horticultural Society Gardeners' Encyclopedia. London: Dorling Kindersley. Coats, A. M. 1956. Flowers and Their Hulton Press Ltd. History London: 1992. Garden Shrubs and Their Histories. New York: Simon and Schuster. Coombes, A. J. 1985. Dictionary of Portland, OR: Timber Press. Plant Names. 18 Desmond, R. 1977. British and Insh Botanists and Horticulturalists London: Taylor & Francis Ltd. Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature. Salem, MA. Smith, Dirr, M. A. 1990. Manual 4th Co. rev. of Woody Landscape Plants. ed. Champaign, IL: Stipes Publishing A. W. 1963. A Gardener's Book New York: Harper and Row of Plant Names. Spongberg, S. A. 1990. A Reunion of Trees. MA: Harvard University Press. Cambridge, Downe, M. A., and M. Hamilton. 1980. And Some Plants in a New World. Toronto: University of Toronto Press. Brought Flowers: and A. Fordham. 1975. \"Stewartia-Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons.\" Arnoldia 35 (4): 163-180. Fisher, J. 1982. The Origin of Garden Plants. London: Constable and Co., Ltd. Stafleu, F. A. 1971. Linnaeus and the Linnaeans. The Spreading of Their Ideas Gerard, J. 1633; 1979, rev. ed. The Herball or Generall Historie of Plants. New York: Dover Press. Heywood, V. H. 1985. Flowenng Plants of the World Englewood, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc. m Systematic Botany,1735-1789. Utrecht: A. Oosthoek's Uitgeversmaatschappij N.V. Stearn, W. T. 1990. Botamcal Latm 3rd rev. ed. North Pomfret, VT: David and Charles Still, C. 1975. Classical Plants. London: Publishing House. Hooker, J. 1831. Browallia Grandiflora, LargeFlowered Browallia (3069).Curtis's Botanical Magazme Vol. V, New Series (or Vol. LXVIII). W. Hamlyn Leighton, A. 1976. American Gardens Boston: of the Eighteenth Boston: Stuart, D., and J. Sutherland. 1987. Plants From the Past New York: Vikmg Penguin Inc. Century. 1970. Houghton Mifflin Co. Trehane, Early American Gardens. Houghton Mifflin Co. Wimborne, Wright, P. 1989. Index Hortensis. Vol. 1. Perennials. GB: Quarterjack Publishing. Leith-Ross, P. 1984. The John Tradescants, Gardeners to the Rose and the Lily Queen. London: Peter Owen. C. 1854. Arboretum et Fruticum Vol. I. M. 1984. The Complete Handbook of Garden Plants. New York: Facts on File Publications. Wyman, D. 1987. Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia. New York: The Macmillan Company. Loudon, J. London McClmtock, D. 1966. Companion G. Bell & Sons, Ltd. to Flowers London: is a volunteer in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. Since her retirement from teaching, she has devoted full time to her lifelong interest in horticulture. Mary Harrison Olmsted, F. L., F. V. Coville, H. P. Kelsey. 1923. Standardized Plant Names. American Jomt "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small?","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25080","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160a36d.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Cook, Robert E.","article_content":"Why Are Bonsai Leaves Small? Robert E. Cook The Japanese term bonsai translates literally as \"planted in a container,\" but in popular usage it also denotes any ornamental plant that is dwarfed by means of pruning. obvious that plants, unlike most anido not have a brain. But it is not so clear where they make those critical decisions that govern their lives. You who garden certainly know that plants have a mind of their own. Given that humans, and the majority of animals, solve many of their stressful problems (say, hunger) with a change in behavior (foraging for food), where are these decisions made in It seems mals, plants? intriguing, and visually pleasing, example of such decision-making can be seen in An bonsai. These dwarfed trees, which have suffered severe pruning, bondage by wire, and permanent confinement in a small ceramic pot, respond by forming a canopy of miniature leaves that are essential to the aesthetic of this Asian art. It need not be this way. One could imagine a tiny tree, rooted in shallow soil, with its slenThe compact Hmoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba', m the \"octopus\" shape, started m Japan in 1787, part of the Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Often grown m containers and mtenslvely pruned, this cultivar der limbs sprouting foliage of normal or nearly normal size, as though someone had planted a well-shaped branch. It would hardly qualify as the elegant and delicate creation characteristic of a refined horticultural sensibility. In fact, the bonsai leaves of deciduous species may be thirty to fifty times smaller, while conifer leaves or needles are one-fifth or one-eighth the size of those on trees growing unconstrained in the ground. So why are the leaves of bonsai plants so small? responds by producmg congested, planar foliage and contorted, horizontal branches. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. The Modular Organism The answer can be sought in an understanding of how leaf size in general is determined. Like most living organisms, the body of a plant consists of different kinds of very small cells 20 l arrayed in combinations of types to form The Growing Shoot organs such as roots or leaves. Plants, however, grow and develop in a way fundamentally different from animals, especially higher vertebrates. In a population of rabbits, for instance, one can determine the size of the population by counting the total number of ears and dividing by two. In general each individual has a very predictable number of any kind of organ: one liver, two eyes, ten toes. That number is determined in the embryo and remains the same throughout growth and maturation. Plants, on the other hand, are modular organisms. The basic unit of construction, so to speak, is the leaf, with an associated bud capable of growing as a branch and a section of stem connecting the leaf and bud to the other units of the plant. Similarly the root is really an interconnected network of branched, growing root tips. New modules are continually produced by growing shoot tips where decisions about size and shape are made at the time of module construction. Unlike many animals, plants have no fixed adult size and can continue increasing their stature throughout life through the generation of more modules, each of which is more or less the same size whether produced at the age of twelve or one hundred and twelve. The number of such organs, however, depends upon the history of growing conditions experienced by the individual. It can potentially increase throughout the life of the plant. Given that individual leaves live only for a year or two, the ability to continue leaf production must also be retained throughout life. How do plants do this? The answer lies in the behavior of the growing tip at the end of each twig or branch. Here, where all the decisions regarding the number, size, and shape of organs are made, the annual production of leaves, stems, and buds (new modules) will, when repeated by multiple growing tips each season, give trees the shapes so distinctive of different species. The growing shoot tip, called the meristem, is the most intriguing plant organ of all. When I lecture students in introductory biology about plant development, I bring in a looseleaf head of lettuce with which to search for its meristem. A head of lettuce is really just a growing shoot with lots of green leaves, compact in some varieties and loose in others. With a good deal of dramatic flourish, I hold up the head and proceed to strip away the largest leaves, one by one. Try this sometime. It quickly demonstrates that successively younger leaves toward the center of the head are smaller and smaller, that this sequence of leaves is arrayed in a spiralling geometrical pattern around the center, and that the last identifiable leaf, now sitting atop a tapered stem base, is exceedingly small to the unaided eye. There at its tip, too small to see without a microscope, lies the shoot meristem. It is less than one one-hundredth of an inch across. This meristem, from which all the lettuce leaves have been formed, consists of a small population of proliferating cells that retain the ability to form daughter cells through cell division. Both parent and daughter cells may continue dividing for several generations until a subset of the descendents stop dividing, begin to expand, and subsequently specialize as a form of functioning tissue for photosynthesis or the transport of nutrients. Newly formed descendent cells remain unspecialized as part of the meristem for a number of division cycles before making the decision to specialize. Thus plant cells in the growing meristem cannot continue dividing and specialize at the same time. The meristem as a whole has a distinctive dome shape, sometimes broad or narrow, depending upon the species; and the cell divisions occur in such a way that this overall shape is maintained through the life of the shoot. In a sense, the meristem functions like the principal of an endowment in the bank: it generates income (specialized cells in plant organs) to support the whole while remaining more or less the same size over time. 21 Leaf size differences between normal and bonsai individuals of the same plant species. Redrawn from Korner 1989 by Susan Hardy Brown. Leaf Formation Leaves are formed from the meristem when a clump of cells on the side of the dome divide in a different direction such that a bump begins to emerge from the surface. This bump continues growing away from the meristem tip and gradually takes on the shape of a leaf. Within a short time, another bump appears on the opposite side of the meristem, followed by another to form the characteristic spiral sequence of leaves around the stem. Each of these young leaves also develops a small bud at its base. Initially this bud will remain dormant and later it may begin growing away from the stem to form a new branch with its own shoot tip generating new leaves. While it still lies wrapped within the protection of older leaves, a newly formed leaf will increase in size very slowly because growth consists primarily of continuous cell divisions; each cell appears to divide a certain number of times before specializing and individual cells remain relatively small. After multiple generations this period of cell division gradually declines and the leaf enters a phase of cell expansion, coincident with tissue specialization, which greatly increases its size until the mature leaf size is reached. For many species that are dormant during the winter season, the overwintering bud contains a number of small leaves that have formed most of their cells but have yet to enter the expansion phase. With the coming of warm temperatures and rising sap, these leaves quickly begin expanding to rapidly approach maturity. Thus the size of a leaf is determined by the average size of its mature plant cells and the number of such cells that are produced in the cell division phase early in the life of the leaf. to our bonsai plant, we can ask whether its miniature leaves are smaller because the average leaf cell is smaller or because there are fewer cells in each leaf. To answer this question, Professor Ch. Korner, a European botanist working at the University of Innsbruck in Austria, selected six Returning 22 The photomicrograph on the left shows a slice through the middle of the shoot tip of an 18-day-old flax plant. The developing leaves are shown numbered on each side of the domed menstem. The 45th leaf has just emerged from the side of the dome Leaves not shown (44, 43, and 42, for instance) are on parts of the dome not captured in the slice. The drawing on the right of a 15-day-old flax shoot tip was reconstructed from a sequence of slices startmg at the tip of the longest leaf (#14) and shcing across at very small mtervals. Using a microscope, each slice in sequence is drawn to create the 3-dimensional form. Leaves #13, 16, and 18 have been omitted to permit the shoot tip to be seen. Note the spiral arrangement of successively smaller leaves around the shoot tip. Reprmted from The Shoot Apex and Leaf Growth, R. F. Williams, by permission of Cambridge University Press. species of trees-Carambola, Averrhoa carambola; Japanese zelkova, Zelkova serrata; hedge maple, Acer campestre; European linden, Tilia cordata; gingko, Ginkgo biloba; and European larch, Larix decidua-to conduct a comparative study of leaves in samples from normal trees and trees that had been grown as bonsai for six to seventeen years. Five individual leaves per plant were cut and examined with a light microscope to measure the length and width of individual cells, and the thickness of the leaf as a whole. Any differences found between the normal plants and the bonsai were statistically tested for significance. In four out of the six species, the average size of the cells in the bonsai were larger than normally grown plants; cells of the remaining two species appeared to be the same size in normal and bonsai leaves. However Korner did find that bonsai leaves are about twenty percent thinner than normal leaves because there are only four cell layers instead of the usual five. Still, this difference cannot account for the much smaller overall size of the leaves in bonsai ; clearly each layer has many fewer cells, each of which is normal in size or even somewhat enlarged. Korner concluded that the dwarfed leaves of bonsai result from reduction in the production of cells, not from any shrinkage in average cell size. Based on evidence from studies of other plants that produce dwarf or miniature leaves under stressful conditions, Korner also concluded that the greatly reduced number of cells in bonsai leaves is not due to a reduction in the rate of cell division; during development such 23 cells divide as frequently in normal and dwarfed leaves. The decision to form a miniature leaf appears to be made at the time a leaf is first initiated on the surface of the meristem. Korner believes that the bump itself starts smaller (that is, many fewer cells decide to alter the direction of division to form the bump). Consequently, although the future leaf grows at the normal rate and specializes on meristem responds to the same conditions by schedule, its size at maturation is greatly reduced because it commenced growth with a smaller starting capital of cells. I should mention one note of caution with Korner's interpretation. It is a practice of some bonsai growers to strip off the first set of leaves produced in spring to stimulate the production of a second set. Korner's paper gives no indication that the bonsai he examined were so treated, but such spring pruning might have contributed to the very small sizes seen by Korner. or even increasing, the size of the blocks (cells) and producing fewer of building them to form a leaf. Cell size, unlike leaf size, is highly conserved under stress. Perhaps the larger lesson for the botanist and gardener lies in the magic of the meristem itself. This organ, which sits hidden amidst the packed layers of expanding leaves in the growing shoot, is never seen by the naked human eye. Yet it is here that the critical decisions are made each season that will come to form the final size and shape of the leaves and stems of each individual. Such sequential decisions, made by the entire network of connected branch tips can, carried over the lifetime of the plant, create the characteristic architecture of trees that is so pleasing to our human sense of maintaining, nature. The Magic of the Meristem What remains unclear is how the conditions of growth characteristic of a bonsai cause the many meristems at branch tips to make these decisions for each new leaf. The stressful environment surrounding a bonsai plant is due to the constrained nature of root growth in a very small pot, coupled with occasional, but severe, root pruning. In some way the roots of the plant, restricted in their ability to absorb water and minerals, communicate this stress to the arborescent parts of the plant growing above the soil. At the level of individual growing shoots, each tiny meristem responds by allocating many fewer cells to the initiation of a new leaf and this leads to leaves which, when fully mature, are in a decidedly dwarfed size appropriate for a miniature tree. At one level, therefore, the bonsai plant responds to stressful growing conditions by reducing the size of its modular building blocks (leaves); but at a second level, each How all of this is coordinated, and how such coordination reaches from the deepest root tips to the tallest growing shoots on the tree, is unknown. But it is remarkable that, despite the harsh treatment we humans sometimes impose on bonsai, such coordination survives this mutilation intact, leading to the elegantly miniaturized leaves so essential to the beauty of these plants. References Dale, J. E. 1992. How Do Leaves Grow? BioScience 42 (6): 423-432. P. Menendez-Riedl, and P. C. L. John. 1989. Why Are Bonsai Plants Small? A Consideration of Cell Size. Australian Journal of Plant Physiology 16: 443-448 Korner, C., S. Lyndon, R. F. 1990. Plant Development. The Cellular Basis London: Unwin Hyman. Bob Cook is Director of the Arnold Arboretum and lectures in introductory biology at Harvard University "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Upright White Pine","article_sequence":4,"start_page":24,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25078","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25e896f.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Upright White Pine Peter Del Tredici What's in a name? In the case of Pinus strobus 'Fastigiata', the fate of an excellent tree. All too often the acceptance or rejection of a plant lies not in its physical attributes but in the aptness of its common name. The so-called fastigiate white pine deserves a new one. The white pine most (Pinus strobus) was once the newly founded forestry departments of several universities as well as the United States Bureau of Forestry initiated programs of scien- important timber tree in North America. tall, straight trunk and lightweight wood were perfectly suited for all types of building projects. So valuable were large pines for ship masts that in 1711 Queen Anne of England, through an act of Parliament, took possession of all the white pines in her colonies that were larger than twenty-four inches in diameter and were not the property of any private person. She justified her action on grounds of national security, the trees being needed \"for the Masting of her Majesties Navy.\" This peremptory seizure outraged entrepreneurial New England lumbermen, who considered the trees their private property even though they held no legal title to the land on which the trees were growing. Their outrage found an eventual outlet, some sixty years later, in the American Its Revolution. In the period following the Civil War, New England white pines became less important as the white pine forests of the Great Lakes states and the extensive softwood forests of the Far West began to be cut. Around 1890, however, there was a reawakening of interest in white pine, when the New England farmland that had been abandoned during the Civil War started producing a marketable crop of white pine lumber. As this crop was being cut, the tific silviculture directed at cultivating white pine on a commercial scale. However, the unpredictability of weather, the wide variation in soil types, and the competition from fastgrowing deciduous trees frustrated most of these efforts. In the few white pine plantations that were successfully established, the young trees still had to face the infamous white pine weevil (Pinnodes strobi). This native insect destroys the leading shoots of vigorous young white pines. Unfortunately for the forester, once the leader is destroyed, the basic shape of the tree is damaged and its utility diminished. At its worst, what was intended to be a straightgrowing, single-stemmed tree is reduced by the weevil to a multistemmed bush. When weeviled trees reach harvestable size, many are either too crooked or too branched to be used for lumber. In addition to the white pine weevil, early foresters had to contend with the white pine blister rust, a fungus disease that was inadvertently imported from Europe around the turn of the century. These two pests also adversely affected the use of white pines in landscape design. In the 1880s, the white pine was a widely planted 25 But the weevil epidemic of the early 1900s and the introduction of the blister rust changed all this. A single tree planted in a lawn could not be counted on to produce the desired effect. More often than not, the tapering form never materialized. In its place, a bushy \"cabbage\" pine arose. True enough, many old pines that have been weeviled develop a certain picturesque appearance, but this is the result of many years of searching for a leader. Many modern landscapers suggest that the white pine be used in group plantings, where competition from neighboring trees will force it to grow straight in spite of repeated leader loss. A Matter of Branch Angles An Act for the Preservation of White and other Pme Trees in Her Majesties Colonies of New Hampshire, Massachusets-Bay for the Masting of Her Maiesties Navy. A facsimile of the 1711 decree of .... appropriation of all white pines greater than twentyfour mches in diameter. ornamental, grown both in groups and as single specimen trees. Writing in 1841 in The Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Andrew Jackson Downing summarized the position that the tree occupied in landscape gardening: This species-the White Pine 2014 seldom becomes flattened or rounded on the summit in old age, like many other sorts, but preserves its graceful and tapering form entire. From its pleasing growth and color, we consider it by far the most desirable kind for planting in the proximity of buildings, and its growth, for an evergreen, is also quite rapid. has provided gardeners with a way out of this unfortunate situation in the form of the so-called fastigiate (or, as I prefer, upright) white pine, Pinus strobus 'Fastigiata', which is distinguished from the normal white pine by the more vertical angle at which the lateral branches are carried. In order to appreciate the implications of this seemingly trivial difference, it is necessary to understand how a normal white pine grows. In the spring, when the terminal cluster of buds breaks, the laterals and the terminal all begin growing vertically. As the season progresses, however, the laterals slowly move downward, away from the terminal, under the influence of hormones produced by the terminal. This process continues through the year until, by the following spring, they are at angles of between fifty and seventy degrees to the main stem. By the end of the second year, the laterals are at angles of about seventy to ninety degrees to the main stem. By the end of the third year, almost all of the laterals are at right angles to the trunk. This is the normal, genetically controlled pattern of growth for undamaged white pines. In the upright pine, the laterals and the terminal start out the way they do in the normal pine, but for some reason the laterals fail to move down into the horizontal position. The downward migration stops prematurely at an angle of about thirty degrees to the main stem. Happily, nature 26 vigorous lateral assumes dominance and becomes the newly anointed leader. By virtue of this rapid leader replacement, the upright white pine will maintain its shape in spite of repeated losses of its leader. In contrast, when the leader of a normal white pine is killed, there are no ready replacements, and the re-erection of horizontal branches results in several laterals competing with one another, ultimately producing a multileadered specimen that looks more like a bush than a tree. occurs, the most The weeviled crown of a white pine. As well as preadapting the tree for rapid leader replacement, the ascending branches of the upright white pine give it a greater ability to shed snow; hence, it suffers less winter damage than does the normal pine with its horizontal branches. In addition, because the lower branches grow upward and not outward there is less of a tendency for them to be shaded out by the upper branches. Both of these factors contribute to the creation of a tree that, if given full sun, is green from top to bottom for many, many years. At maturity the tree has an imposing presence-abroad column of green that seems to reach out directly at the viewer to create a only with increasing age (after ten years) that the laterals begin to sag down to angles greater than thirty degrees. When they do, it is the result of the weight of the limbs rather than of a predetermined genetic pattern, as it is in the normal pine. In other words, in the upright white pine the branches stay in a position alongside the main axis for a good ten years, while in the normal pine the laterals are alongside the leader for less than a year before moving down into a horizontal position. This discussion of branch angles has implications that go beyond mere academic interest. Because its branches remain alongside the main axis for a longer time, the upright white pine is better able to replace a dead leader than the normal pine is. When the leader of a young tree is destroyed by either the white pine weevil or the blister rust fungus, there is already a lateral branch in position to replace it immediately. In the same season that the attack It is unique ascending appearance. Proposed Change of Name You might ask why, if this tree is so superior for landscaping, its use has not been suggested before. One part of the answer is simple: the A is not very well known. From time to time people have tried to popularize it but generally to no avail. In 1920, for example, when yards were big and landscaping grand, E. H. tree Wilson predicted that the upright white pine was \"destined to be of great importance.\" Unfortunately, the tree planters of the day ignored this prophecy. This excellent tree has been planted here and there, but not nearly in the abundance it deserves. A second part of the answer is that the plant does not live up to its common name. Certainly a change in the tree's common name from fastigiate white pine to upright white pine would not only be more accurate but 27 Compression Wood In the white pine, a as in most production of specialized the type of wood conifers, known as compression wood plays an integral part in the development of a tree's shape. A cross section of the lateral branch of a white pine reveals the compression wood as a crescent-shaped, red blotch on the lower side of the branch. This \"red wood,\" as it is called, is most conspicuously formed when the leader of a straight-growing conifer is destroyed and a lateral branch grows upward to become the new leader. Large amounts of compression wood are formed along the underside of the branch, forcing it upward. In an undamaged conifer the situation is more complicated. The innate tendency of the laterals to erect themselves is countered by hormones produced by the leader, which are aimed at pushing them down. The balance between these two opposing forces results in a specific amount of compression wood being laid down, which in turn results in branches being carried at angles that are specific for each species. In the white pine, this ened, the vassals fight for the leadership until one of them has reached the top and in his turn suppresses the others.\" angle is nearly ninety degrees, to or horizontal, the main stem. This process was first described by the great German tree physiologist Ernst Munch, who called it \"delayed epinasty.\"Ina classic article, \"Investigations on the Harmony of Tree Shape\" (1938), he makes an analogy comparing \"the terminal shoot with a tyrant who suppresses his subjects and prevents them from development. As soon as the tyrant is removed or weakwould probably stimulate a greater appreciation of this distinctive cultivar. While this may seem a trivial distinction, the fact of the matter is that people expect a plant to live up to its name, and when it doesn't they blame the plant and not the name. When I first saw the tree, I thought it was a perfect example of another useless horticultural Compression wood in Abies balsamea, the balsam fir, produced along the underside of a leanmg trunk, pushing it up into a vertical position. Note the eccentric radial growth caused by the production of darkly stamed compression wood on the lower portion of the cross section. Photo by T. E. Timell. selection. True, it was narrower than a normal white pine, but fastigiate? Never. When I first became interested in the plant in the early 1980s, I asked knowledgeable people about the plant and found that there is general agreement that the tree, although fastigiate when young, should be cut down when it fills out. When I started looking more closely at some of the old 28 Pinus strobus, the normal white pme, growing along Route 2 m Acton, Massachusetts. s 29 The upiight white pine, Pinusstrobus 'Fastigiata , at the Arnold Arboretum. 30 trees in the Arnold Arboretum, however, I realized that they were indeed quite different from the normal white pine and that they were beautiful in their own right. Indeed, like many other plants, the upright white pine seemed to be condemned to oblivion more for what it is not than for what it is. The Origin of the Upright White Pine The history of Pinus strobus 'Fastigiata', while not quite as revolutionary as that of the normal white pine, is an interesting one. According to E. H. Wilson, in Aristocrats of Trees, \"the original tree was discovered about 1895 in a garden at Lenox, Massachusetts, and the trees now growing at the Arnold Arboretum are grafts from this.\" Arboretum records reveal that, indeed, Pinus strobus pyramidalis (the At center is the original Pinus strobus 'Fastigiata' photographed by the author in Lenox, Mas- sachusetts, in 1980. The index card record of Arnold Arboretum accession #4013, Pinus strobus 'Fastigiata', originally Pinus Strobus pyramidalis, a scion of Mr. Morgan's Arboretum scions had come. After much searching, which involved climbing onto the roof of the old mansion, I finally spotted the tree's original tree. later changed to 'Fastigiata') scions received from a Mr. Morgan of Lenox on April 5, 1897, and that two of these original propagations are still alive. On a hunch I called the Lenox town assessor and discovered that, name was were distinctively pointed crown. yes, J. P. Morgan's brother, George H. Morgan, lived in the town and was a great lover of And yes, his old estate, Ventfort Hall is still standing. I went out to Lenox as Villa, soon as I could to try to locate the original upright white pine from which the Arnold once trees. The tree was about a hundred and twenty feet tall and at four feet from the ground was twenty-seven inches in diameter, a perfect ship-mast pine. The spread from branch tip to branch tip was about thirty-two feet. There was no sign of any graft union near the base, and the straight trunk (devoid of branches for its first fifty feet) showed no evidence of weevil or blister-rust damage. The fact that the tree was growing close to other, equally large, normal pines suggests that several trees were planted as a group before Morgan recognized that one of them was different. Fortunately, he 31 had the good judgment to send scions to the Arnold Arboretum, whence the tree eventually made its way into the nursery trade. The upright white pine is easily propagated by grafting and is available from several nurseries, particularly those specializing in conifers. It grows best in the natural range of the normal white pine: Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia (in the higher elevations), and west to Minnesota. It grows as quickly and as tall as the normal white pine (one hundred to one hundred and fifty feet after a century), so it needs lots of room. It does best when planted in a sandy loam with good drainage, but it is tolerant of thin, stony soil as well. If grown in full sun, the upright white pine will keep its lower branches for as long as it lives. This tendency, together with its narrow growth habit, makes the tree a perfect choice for a tall hedge or a screen. As a specimen plant, the upright white pine presents a fuller, neater appearance than the normal white pine. It is striking enough to be used in a position of prominence, either close to a house or at the edge of a deciduous wood. References Downing, A. J. [1841] 1977. A treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardenmg. Reprint. Little Compton, Rhode Island: Theophrastus Books. Malone, J. J. 1964. Pine Trees and Politics. Seattle: University of Washington Press. McKmnon, F. S., G. R. Hyde, and A. C. Cline. 1935. Cutover old England Munch, E. 1938. field pme lands m central New Harvard Forest Bulletin No. 18. Untersuchungen uber die Harmome Baumgestalt. Jahrbucher fur Wissenschafthche Botamk 86: 581-673 (English translation available from Translation Center, John Crerar Library, 35 West 33rd St., Chicago, IL 60616). der Smnott, E. W. 1952. Reaction wood and the regulation of tree form. Amencan Journal of Botany 39: 69-78. Timell, T. E. 1986. Compression Wood in Gymnosperms, 3 vols. New York: Spnnger- Verlag. Wilson, E. H. [1930] M. Reprint. New York: Zimmerman, H., and structure 1974. Aristocrats of the trees. Dover Books. C. L. Brown. 1974. Trees. and function. New York: Springer- Verlag. sea Albion, R. G. 1926. Forests and power. the timber problem of the royal navy,1652-1862. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press. P. 1982. Del Tredici, Resurrecting the white pine. Peter Del Tredici is Assistant Director for Living Horticulture 55 (5): 17-20. Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Trees as Urban Infrastructure: Book Review","article_sequence":5,"start_page":32,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25079","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add160a328.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Trees as Urban Infrastructure: Book Review Phyllis Andersen Trees in Urban Design. Second Edition. Henry F. Arnold. Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1993. 197 pages. Hardcover. $39.95 When the first edition of this book was published in 1980, it was called a classic-an intelligent and complete proposal for the transformation of cities through structured tree planting. Arnold, a landscape architect based in Princeton, New Jersey, views trees as an integral part of urban infrastructure rather than as a decorative palliative. He feels that tree planting structured by architectural principles of scale, massing, and perspective can transform American cities from barren, eroded landscapes to rich human environments enhanced by shade, pattern, texture, and enclosure. biological diversity and environmental responsibility. The dispute resurrected the age-old suspicion that designers, remote from the dayto-day care of a vulnerable and disrespected tree population spun out ideas remote from reality. Arnold held his position, criticizing municipal arborists as shortsighted, willing to sacrifice the profound aesthetic effect of designed tree planting in an overreaction to the loss of the American elm and to the inevitable maintenance demands of trees in cities. Principles of forest ecology cannot be transported to cities where plants grow under artificially controlled conditions. Through planned growth and change, cities can be biologically \"fit\" communities-healthy and stimulating places in which to live. Arnold emphasizes that species diversity has meaning only at a regional level. Mandating that four or five species be planted on each street, as has been done recently in New York City, does not affect a regional ecosystem and contributes to the chaos of city streets. European tree managers look with bemusement on American planting methods. Several years ago I met with Tristan Pauley, Chief of Paris Plantations. A recent inventory of Paris street trees had revealed too strong a reliance on the London plane (43% of the total It was a simple proposal-large caliper specimens of a single species planted at closely spaced intervals would, if properly maintained, of branches and elements of streets and create a system of linked green spaces of the kind so admired in create a continuous canopy foliage that would unify the unrelated European cities. Arnold's conviction of the power of geometry, his insistence on single species planting and close spacing, was seen as a powerful affront to the caretakers of city trees, the arborists, horticulturalists, and municipal tree superintendents who were exhausted after battling years of deferred maintenance and the devastation of Dutch elm disease. Classic confrontations occurred in meetings and conferences across the country, pitting landscape architects inspired by the spatial manipulation of LeNotre against the arborists, who were newly aligned with the proponents of population). Paris is now implementing a plan to diversify species. This new plan continues to emphasize single species planting on all streets and boulevards to reinforce the strong spatial order that is such a powerful characteristic of that city. The early chapters of the second edition of Trees in Urban Design largely repeat those of the first, describing the value of geometry in tree ten-year 33 Platanus A. E. occidentalis, the American sycamore, along Memorial Drive m Cambridge, Massachusetts. Photo by Bye. urban planting, the details of spatial composition, and the characteristics of growth and form of species recommended for urban planting. The excellent photographs and diagrams of the earlier edition have been updated with pro1980s. References and the comprehensive bibliography have been expanded to reflect the broad spectrum of new ideas that Arnold draws on to expand his closely reasoned argument-from Mandelbrot's fractal geometry to Edward O. Wilson's ideas on biodiversity. In the first edition, which coincided with the beginning of the resurrection of the jects from the reputation of Frederick Law Olmsted, Arnold, while respectful of the significant contribution of Olmsted, offered a critical analysis of the limitations of the pastoral park in the modern city. In this new edition Arnold carries these ideas further by pointing out the fallacy of appropriating emotionally charged ideas about agrarian nature or, worse, concepts of wilderness ecology for urban situations. Arnold does not want to define cities by what they are not. He has, with some fortitude, tried to define what constitutes the character of urbanity so admired in the capitals of Europe and so valued 34 Carretera de Miramar, Montjuic, Barcelona. Photo by Karen Madsen. method of providing new green space within the density of central cities. Boston's Post Office Square, built over an underground parking garage, is an excellent example of good design and new technology. This section also describes the pervasive shortsightedness of government agencies. These \"new\" techniques have been around for a number of years but have been rejected by municipalities because of their increased cost. Cities refuse to provide adequate underground conditions for trees but will replace a single specimen three or four times in as many years, claiming the demise to be a sign of the hopelessness of planting in cities. New tree planting techniques is hampered by a lack of knowlege. Only recently have biologists begun to seriously study tree roots and as a consequence we have substantially altered our view of growth in the successfully planted areas of American cities. In this second edition Arnold clearly sets out realist and a practichapter with detailed on how to deal with urban environmental problems. He rejects the standard \"suburban\" tree planting method, which assumes soil suitable for plant growth. New techniques that deal with improved soil mixtures, subsurface drainage, drip irrigation systems, and venting systems for root aeration are described and illustrated. Substantial information on ground-surface treatment from permeable pavers to the standard European detail of stabilized crushed stone are offered as alternatives to mounds of mulch. He describes the technique of planting at grade over underground structures, an increasingly popular to defend his position as a tioner. He offers a new technical instructions 35 patterns and growth requirements. It is clear from recent projects documented by Arnold that trees with adequate conditions for healthy root growth can withstand the standard litany of urban stresses, sustain growth, and become low-maintenance additions to the fabric of the city. In a final chapter titled \"A Longer View,\" which addresses the inseparable issues of trees and governance, Arnold discusses the financial aspects of tree planting in the context of cost-benefit analysis. He compares the cost of urban planting with the benefits accrued as a result. While admitting that this is an imprecise exercise, he describes how his accounting method can help increase municipal tree budgets. The seamless integration of trees into the pattern of a city involves master planning: a tree inventory, a municipal tree policy, a tree plan, and detailed standards and regulations. This is not a new idea. Haussmann's plan for Paris included tree planting schemes still admired today. L'Enfant's plan for Washington, D.C., and turn-of-the-century plans for sec- professional status with the strong promotional efforts of the American Forestry Association. The advantage of this high visibility is offset by the profession's insistence on applying principles of forest ecology and silviculture to city streets and by its alltoo-obvious bias toward suburban settings. The fact that trees create beneficial local climate conditions has been well documented in the popular media. Yet few authors have taken on the integration of physical benefit, emotional effect, and urban design. Trees in their evolving form (Arnold's term) can contribute a unique sense of order within the dynamics of city life. A study completed in 1987 by the American Forestry Association indicated that American cities have half the number of street trees that they can accomodate. Civic design, a term with visionary appeal, could be the discipline to lead the planting effort. By setting aside conflicting agendas, professionals and community tree advocates can come together to integrate successful tree planting into the complex organization of cities. one, has received full tions of New York City have resulted in communities of great character and livability. The value of trees in cities has received a great deal of attention since the first edition of this book. Urban forestry, an odd term that satisfies no one but persists for lack of a better Phyllis Andersen, Landscape Historian at the Arnold Arboretum, has served as consultant to a number of government agencies including the Boston Parks Department and the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1992","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25074","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25e8128.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 1992 Avg. Max. Avg. Min. Temp. Temp. Avg. Temp. Max. Min. Precipitation Snow- Temp. Temp. fall (F) JAN FEB (F) 18 20 25 35 45 (F) 28 (F) 59 55 (F) 4 6 10 25 32 48 52 51 38 30 20 8 (in.) 1.04 1.4 2.77 2.88 1.28 4.87 5.18 4.98 2.73 2.0 4.82 7.58 (in.) 0 1.8 1.7 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.1 2.6 37 39 43 55 69 79 85 MAR APRIL MAY JUNE JULY AUG SEPT OCT NOV DEC 79 74 60 47 38 57 59 59 53 39 31 24 29 34 45 57 68 72 69 64 50 39 31 60 76 94 88 89 93 86 72 61 53 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 59 39 49 41.53 inches 6.2 inches 94 3 on Temperature Spring Frost May 23 Coldest Temperature Date of Last on January 17 28 31 on on April 29 October 1 Date of First Fall Frost Growing Season Note: 154 days According to the state climatologist, R. Lautzenheiser, 1992 averaged 1.3 per day below normal, with the average temperature being 50.2. This was a great contrast to 1991, at 53.4, the third warmest on record. There were two days with temperatures in the 90's and the low was a fairly mild 3. Precipitation at 41.53 inches was just .09 inches less than normal. This is with snowfall still 13.7 inches less than normal. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25076","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25e8526.jpg","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS Endowment for Endangered Plants Robert E. Cook, Director - tions and growth. a the Arboretum has its collection Over the years brought into total of twenty-one species. When administrative space at the Arboretum became a critical resource for the Center in 1991, it reached a decision to relocate to the Missouri Botanical Garden to receive direct administrative support as part of the Garden. The Center also launched a nationwide L N early a decade ago the Arnold Arboretum was home to the birth of the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC). This organization ceived to was con- Nearly facilitate a collaboration between selected botanic gardens around the country for the preservation of endangered plant species. It fundraising campaign to endow its national collections, and it encour- simple idea Each participating garden would bring into cultivation a genetic sampling of endangered species capable of growing in its region. This collection would preserve the germplasm of each species and provide the basis for rewas a aged participating gardens to supPrunus alhghamensis nance by C E. Faxon. and to of the national collection establish an endowment for maintenance. port this effort. With this endowment need in mind, I approached a group of our future In the Hunnewell Visitor Center, the Arnold a introduction into the wild, should the species become extinct in its native habitats. The Center would raise funds to support the mainte- Arboretum provided home for the administrative operations of the national headquarters of CPC for the early years of its opera- volunteers, known as the Arnold Arboretum Associates, to solicit their support for endowing the collection of endangered plants at the Arboretum. In December they made a magnificent gift to us which, Conttnued on page 2 Endangered Plants at the Arnold Arboretum Abies fraseri Amelanchier nantucketensis Fraser fir Nantucket shadblow Piratebush I Buckleya distichopbylla Clematis viticauhs Conradina vertiallata Corema conradu Diervilla nvulans D. sessihfolia Leiopbyllum buxtfoltum Magnolia pyramidata Paxistima canbyi Prunus alleghaniensis Rhododendron austnnum R. prunifohum R. vaseyt myrtle Pyramidal magnolia Canby paxistima Allegheny cherry Plum-leaf azalea Pinkshell azalea Bridal-wreath Bracted viburnum Sand Cumberland rosemary Broom crowberry Bush honeysuckle Southern bush honeysuckle Mountain witch alder Box huckleberry Fothergilla major Galussaaa bracbycera Ilex collina Spiraea virgintana Torreya taxtfolia Viburnum bracteatum Holly A Fund-Raiser for the Children's Field Study Program On March the Boston Junior League Garden Club hosted two benefit the Children's Field Study Program. On both occasions Gerald Allan Doell and M. Christine Klim Doell, garden historians and landscape preservation planners, presented a slide lecture, A Garden in Good Order, Two Centuries of Garden-Making at the White House, that traced the evolution of the \"President's Square\" from rubble-strewn expanse to romantic events to of Magnolia x loebnert 'Leonard Messel' were carefully packaged and shipped, thanks to the efforts of volunteers Frank and Doris Ahearn, Richard Brooks, Louise Cies, Dorick Corbo, Charles Doherty, Helen and Lillian Hagopian, George Hibben, Isabel Horan, Al Fordham Sophie Kulik, Dan Linehan, Nod Meyer, Eileen McNeil, Abby Nelson, Pauline Perkins, Joan Poser, Bob Reed, Bob Reynolds, Robert Siegel, Doris Smith, and Loretta Wilson; Arnold Arboretum Al Fordham Named Fellow of IPPS interns Joan Mullins and Jason landscape. The Boston Junior League Garden Club has worked to support children's field studies at the Arnold Arboretum since 1984. Coordinated with the Boston Public School Science Curriculum, the program serves more than 3,000 elementary schoolchildren and teachers each year. Thanks to the efforts of the Boston Junior League Garden Club, the Arboretum Committee, and other local organizations, the program is A Alfred J. retum Diauto; and staff members Jim Gorman, Mike Gormley, Jim Papargiris, Richard Schulhof, and David Seiks. A fragrant and beautifully flowering tree, visitors to the Arboretum can see a mature Research Fordham, Arnold ArboHorticulturist, re- tired, whose career at the Arnold Arboretum began in 1929 as a student trainee, has been named by the Eastern Region of the International Plant to specimen by Meadow Road. It should be in Propagator'sSociety bloom in early May, and it will be featured at our Annual Plant Sale in their second class of Fellows. September. During twenty of his nearly fifty years at the Arboretum Al carried the title of Plant Propagator. He continues to pursue research inter- entering its tenth year of operation. now ests, especially seed dispersal trees. mechanisms and abnormal growth in Endowment for Endangered Plants Continued from page 1 t Spring Plant Dividend when matched by grant funds at CPC, will completely endow the Arboretum's collection for the future. We are immensely pleased, Each year the Friends of the are deeply appreciative, of the generosity of the Associates. This gift, and the endowment ensures a it and Arnold Arboretum enhance their own invited to creates, a gardens membership benefit, the Spring with Magnolia x loebneri 'Leonard Messel', the Spring Plant Dividend, photographed at the Arnold Arboretum by Racz and Debreczy. future for these critically endangered plants. Plant Dividend. This year more than 2,500 bare-rooted cuttings 2 (photo top left) Recipients of the Certificate in Gardening Arts and their advisors, (photo bottom right) Richard Schulbof presents Elizabeth Ann Fagan with her Certificate in Gardening Arts as Jack Alexander looks on. Photo by Mama Mitchell Certificate in Gardening Arts Ceremony Held Faculty Club at V^\/n tum. November 12, twenty-one students received Certificates in A luncheon and Gardening Arts from the Arboregraduation ceremony was held in their honor at the Harvard Faculty Club, with remarks by Gary Koller, Senior at Horticulturist the Arboretum, and Richard Schulhof, Assistant Director for Education and Public Affairs. recipients were James M. Bilderback, Mary Buscher, Judith Lang Day, Judith Dembsey, Diana Demuth, Caroline G. Donnelly, Frances Doyle, Elizabeth Ann Fagan, Matthew P. Giroux, Mary Harrison, Roberta Jean Certificate Photo by M<ircia Mitchell Hodson, Keith Kurman, Mary Mady, Margaret W. Millar, Madeleme Messina, William Noble, Christine O'Connor, Linda O.-Finer, Catherine Schwenk, Denise Stiller, DeBlasi and Mary Faith Wilson. The Arboretum thanks student advi- Brown, Laura Eisener, Darrell Probst, and Ruthanne Rogers. sors Paul Martin 3 This spring National Park Service Rangers (from left to right) Alan Banks, Chris Lamond, and Tim Maguire will lead tours of the Arboretum landscape. Sponsored by the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site in Brookline, the program will explore the Arboretum's 's rich design history with a focus on the contributions of Olmsted and Charles Sprague Sargent. The tours are part of the Arboretum's ongoing collaboratzon with the Olmsted Site and will be offered, free of charge, beginning at 2:00 PM on May 1, 8, 15, and at 5:00 PM on May 29 andjune 5. For more information, call 566-1689. Celebrate Roses in the Bradley Rose Garden provide a demonstration of proper pruning techniques for species roses. a The afternoon will end with Each become year since more its installation in stroll among the roses, an informal discussion of the species roses in the 1985, the Bradley Rose Garden has beautiful, the species to roses more graceful and floriferous. On June 13, from 10:00 AM 3:30 PM, the Education Department will offer talks, slide presenta- tions, and walks among the roses with rose experts from the Arboretum, who will be joined by Stephen Scanniello, Rosarian of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Mr. Scanniello joins us just prior to his departure to serve as chairman of judges at the rose trials in Bagatelle, France. Luncheon will be served Rose Garden in garden and the other memrose family that grow nearby Among the roses that are expected to be at their best at this time are Rosa galhca, R. tnultiflora, R. pimpinelltfolia, R. roxburghn, and R. hugonzs. The speakers will describe the hybrid descendants of these and other species that thrive m the New England climate, providing outstanding bloom with bers of the little of the chemicals and work that roses often require. Sunday, the June 13, from 10:00 AM-3:30 PM. Rosa galltca 'Versicolor'. following the morning of talks, after which the Arboretum's own rose care specialist will Department, 524-1718, ext. 162, to register. Preregistratron requzred. Call the Education 4 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23339","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260af6e.jpg","title":"1993-53-1","volume":53,"issue_number":1,"year":1993,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Where the Wild Gingkos Grow","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25073","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25ebb6f.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"arnoldia Volume 52 Number 4 1992 Page 2 Arnoldia (ISBN 004-2633; USPS 866-100) is published quarterly by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Second-class postage paid at Boston, Massachusetts. Where the Wild Ginkgos Grow Peter Del Tredici The Convenience of Arabidopsis Elizabeth A. Kellogg The Flying Dogwood Shuttle Sheila Connor Native Dictates 12 17 7 Subscriptions are $20.00 per calendar year domestic, $25.00 foreign, payable m advance. Single copies are $5.00. All remittances must be in U.S. dollars, by check drawn on a U.S. bank, or by international money order. Send orders, remittances, change-ofaddress notices, and all other subscription-related communications to: 23 Gary Koller 33 Circulation Manager, Arnoldia, The Books Arnold Arboretum, 125 02130-3519 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA Telephone 617\/524-1718 Judith Tankard 35 Front Index to Volume 52 at Postmaster: Send address changes to: Arnoldia, Circulation Manager The Arnold Arboretum 125 cover : A grove of birches, Betula spp., Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Al Bussewitz. the Arborway Madsen, Editor Inside front cover: is The fruit of Rhus Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519 Karen staghorn sumac, typhma, the bright crimson in early fall, darkens Arnoldia is set in Trump Mediaeval typeface and printed by the Office of the University Publisher, in the cold of winter, and often remains colorful into spring. From The Sylva of North America by C. S. Sargent, drawn by C. E. Faxon. Harvard University. Back cover: The late-summer fruit of Ailanthus altissima Photo by Al Bussewitz. Inside back cover: Winter at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. Copyright 1992. The President and Fellows of Harvard College Where the Wild Peter Del Tredici Ginkgos Grow _ __ ` The question of whether there are wild Ginkgos in China has bedeviled botanists for years. After visiting Tian Mu Mountain in Zhejang Province, the author concludes that the question may not be as important as it once seemed. The question of whether or not the Ginkgo still exists in the wild has been debated by scientists for over a century. Based on very limited fieldwork in Asia in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, western botanists-including both C. S. Sargent and E. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretumexpressed the often-quoted opinion that Ginkgo was probably extinct in the wild and that it was saved from total extinction by Buddhist monks who cultivated it in the gardens surrounding their temples. This romantic idea, which was based more on speculation than fact, became embedded in the horticultural literature despite the report in 1915 by F. N. Meyer of the U.S. Department of Agriculture of a large population of Ginkgos growing spontaneously in the forests of eastern China. Meyer communicated his discovery in a letter to his superiors in Washington (Cunningham, 1984), but unfortunately he failed to write up any of the details for publication. It was C. S. Sargent and E. H. Wilson who saved Meyer's observations from archival oblivion by quoting from the letter in two separate publications: One of the remarkable things about the Ginkgotree is the fact that although it has been undoubtedly cultivated by the Chinese for many centuries, the region where it grows naturally and spontaneously has remained unknown, travelers having failed to find any trees growing in the forests or anywhere except in the neighborhood of temples or shrines where they had evidently been planted. A year ago [May, 1915], however, Mr. F. N. Meyer, the well-known botanical explorer for the Department of Agriculture, found the Ginkgo growing spontaneously in rich valleys over some ten square miles near Changhua Hsien, about seventy miles west of Hangchou, in the Chekinag province. There were many seedlings and the trees here were so common that they were cut for firewood, something which has never been seen before in China. It is by no means certain that this is the original home of the Ginkgo as these trees may all have descended from a planted tree. It is exceedingly interesting, whatever may be the history of these trees, to find that there is at least one place in China where the Ginkgo grows in the woods and reproduces itself spontaneously. (Sargent, 1916) _ According to Frank N. Meyer, botanical explorer for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, \"the Ginkgo grows spontaneously in rich valleys over some ten square miles near Changhua Hsien, about 70 miles west of Hangchou in the Chekinag province, China.\" There \"the trees are so common that they are cut for firewood.\" It is however by no means certain that this is the original home of the Ginkgo as these trees may all have descended from a planted tree. Meyer's discovery, however, is interesting, for there is no other evidence of the Ginkgo growing spontaneously or that it is cut for any purpose. (Wilson, 1916) presented by Sargent and Wilson, Meyer's discovery is considerably diminished by their unjustified suggestion that a population covering some ten square miles As 3 Figure 1. A view of the south-facing slope of the government nature reserve. west peak of Tian Mu Shan, now protected as part of a Chinese \"may all have descended from a planted tree.\" Sargent's restatement of Meyer's letter is particularly misleading because no quotation marks distinguish Meyer's words from Sargent's interpretation of them. Be that as it may, in the late 1920s and 30s, was corroborated by Chinese botanists who not only visited Changhua Hsien but also reported the existence of other \"wild\" populations of Ginkgo in the surrounding area, primarily in the vicinity of Tian Mu Shan (Tian Mu Meyer's discovery Mountain) in Zhejiang Province (Cheng, 1933; Li, 1956; Wang, 1961).In 1956 the Chinese scientific community determined that Tian Mu Shan was of sufficient biological interest to warrant a formal proposal recommending its protection, but it was not until 1960 that the Chinese government acted on the proposal and established the Tian Mu Shan Nature Reserve, encompassing one thousand hectares on the south-facing slope of its western peak. Despite the establishment of the Tian Mu Shan Reserve, questions about the \"wildness\" of the Ginkgo population have persisted. A detailed census of the population published by the Zhejiang Forestry Bureau in 1984 concludes that the Ginkgos are wild, as does Ling Hsieh of the Zhejiang Forestry Bureau (1965).Wang and Chen(1983) and Chen (1989), on the other hand, doubt the wildness of the trees, suggesting instead that they are the offspring of plants that were cultivated in the vicinity of an ancient temple located near the top of the mountain. One 4 recent report by Wang and his colleagues (1986) concludes ambiguously that \"The question of whether this area is part of the natural distribution of wild Ginkgo needs further study.\" The Tian Mu Shan Environment At 1506 meters in elevation, the main peak of Tian Mu Shan (119 25' E; 30 20' N) is one of the highest mountains in Zhejiang Province (Figure 1).The steep slopes are crisscrossed with a network of streams and ridges that create a mosaic of sheltered valleys and exposed cliffs. Subtropical evergreens, typical of south China, mingle with temperate conifers and deciduous plants on the slopes of the reserve, resulting in an exceptionally rich flora consisting of some 1,530 species of vascular plants (Zhejiang Forestry Bureau, 1984; Zheng, 1986). Three distinct vertical zones of vegetation have been described on Tian Mu Shan: (1)\/ between 380-800 meters, a mixed subtropical forest with a canopy of conifers, broadleaf evergreens, and deciduous trees; (2) between 800-1200 meters, a warm-temperate forest with a canopy of conifers and deciduous trees and a subcanopy rich in broadleaf evergreens ; and (3) between 1200-1506 meters, a deciduous dwarf forest with a canopy of stunted trees and shrubs. In addition to its rich species diversity, Tian Mu Shan is also noted for its exceptionally large trees. According to the only published census of the reserve, prepared by the Zhejiang Forestry Bureau in 1984, the most and a mean height of 18.4 meters. According to the Zhejiang Forestry Bureau report about ten percent of the Ginkgo population is estimated to be over a thousand years old. Along with these three gymnosperms, exceptionally large Torreya grandis, Liquidambar formosana, Nyssa sinensis, Cyclocarya paliurus, Litsea auriculata, and Emmenopterys henryi are also common in the woods, as well as extensive stands of the timber bamboo, Phyllostachys pubescens. Three plants are recognized as endemic to Tian Mu Shan, and a total of twenty-nine taxa growing within the reserve are included in Volume One of the Plant Red Data Book of rare, endangered, and threatened plants of China (Zheng, 1986; He et al., 1987). on Tian Mu Shan Located just ninety-four kilometers west of the ancient and populous city of Hangzhou, Tian Mu Shan has been visited by monks, herbalists, poets, botanists, and tourists for close to fifteen hundred years. The most famous structure on the mountain, at 1,020 meters elevation, is Kaishan temple built by Buddhist monks between 1283-1287. Around 1665, a second temple, Chanyuan, was built at 330 meters. Other smaller temples and shrines are located elsewhere on the Human Activities mountain. In 1941 the area, Japanese bombing sacking Chanyuan temple. In 1958, during Mao Zedong's \"Great Leap Forward,\" many of the trees in the forest were cut down to make charcoal. When the reserve was established in 1960, only the relatively undisturbed south-facing slope of the west peak was included within its boundaries. Between 1960 and 1965 considerable clean-up was done in the reserve, including the planting of more than a hundred Ginkgo seedlings just above the main gate. Maintenance of the reserve was suspended during the ten years of the \"Cultural Revolution,\" from 1966 to army invaded the the mountainside and ran- large tree species is Cryptomeria japonica var. sinensis, of which there are 398 common individuals with a diameter at breast height (DBH) greater than one meter. Pseudolarix amabilis, the golden larch, also grows wild on the mountain with some 98 individuals with a DBH greater than half a meter and heights mainly between 40 and 50 meters. Most notably, there are 244 large individuals of Ginkgo biloba growing throughout the reserve with a mean DBH of 45 centimeters 5 upper reserve covers both sides of a sheltered valley that extends from 420 meters to the summit at 1506 meters. A stone path, built a hundred years ago, follows the of the main stream, crossing it several times, to Kaishan temple. Portions of this path are lined with large Cryptomerias that were probably planted at the time of its construction (Del Tredici, 1990). Beyond the temple a narrow footpath leads to the summit where an army weather station is located. about course The In Figure 2. Map of the Tian Mu Shan Nature Reserve. Located on Ginkgo Population October, 1989, the author, along with two Chinese collaborators, Ling Hsieh of the Zhejiang Forestry Department and Yang Guang of the Nanjing Botanical Garden, counted the Ginkgos growing in the reserve. During the course of our work, we walked all the paths and trails in the reserve and measured and mapped the locations of all the Ginkgos that we could locate. Ginkgo leaves were turning yellow when we were there, making it easy to locate the trees even distance. To be on the conservative be said that we located all the Ginkgos within fifty meters of the extensive network of paths. We measured the DBHs of all trunks greater than 10 centimeters and estimated the heights of all the trees. Unfortunately, the steep terrain of the site and the fact that the top of many trees could not always be clearly seen made accurate height measurements difficult. Under every tree we also made a thorough search of the immediate vicinity for intact seeds or the remains of seeds and for the presence of seedlings. For the purposes of our study, we divided the Ginkgos into two groups, those in the upper reserve, which have experienced little disturbance due to human activities, and those in the lower reserve, which have experienced much more human disturbance. We found a total of 167 spontaneously growing Ginkgos, with a mean DBH of 52 at some the south-facing slope of the west peak of Tian Mu Shan, the total area of the upper reserve is 652 hectares and the lower reserve 366 hectares. side it can 1976, and effective protection was not achieved until 1982 when construction of the reserve headquarters was completed. Unfortunately, the forests surrounding the reserve are not protected and, as of 1989, they were rapidly being cut, primarily for charcoal manufacture by the local population. Administratively, the reserve is divided into two sections: the lower reserve, covering 366 hectares, which includes the lower Chanyuan temple, numerous hotels, houses and the reserve headquarters. (With the exception of the temple, all of the other buildings were built after 1960.) The upper, \"special,\" reserve, consisting of 652 hectares, has experienced relatively little disturbance in comparison (Figure 2). The locations where the effects of soil erosion readily apparent. With the exception of three large trees growing in front of Kaishan Temple, none of the Ginkgos in the upper reserve appeared to have been planted. In the lower reserve, where signs of human activities were much more common, many of the 95 censused trees were obviously were Figure 3. Professor Lmg Hsieh is dwarfed by Ginkgo #42, located in the upper reserve. It consists of three large trunks 106.7, 85.3, and 61.8 centimeters in diameter and mnumerable small suckers. during the course of the survey, figure considerably lower than the 244 trees found by the Zhejiang Forestry Bureau in 1984. No doubt this discrepancy is due to our brief stay in the reserve. In ten days' centimeters a some of the trees that than fifty meters away growing from the paths. In the upper reserve, where 72 trees were located, the Ginkgos were were more in the upper reserve had a DBH of 123 centimeters and in the lower reserve it was 121 centimeters. The heights of the larger trees were quite variable, with a maximum of just over 30 meters. The Ginkgos were growing between 330 and 1,200 meters elevation, where the terrain has an average slope of seventeen percent. Despite reports of Ginkgo seedlings in the woods, we were unable to locate a single plant with a basal diameter less than 5 centimeters. There were only three trees with a basal diameter between 5 and 10 centimeters in the upper reserve, and only two trees within that range in the lower reserve. Clearly the Ginkgo population was not actively reproducing from seed under the shady, mature forest conditions that currently prevail on the mountain. The most striking feature of the Tian Mu Shan Ginkgos was the multistemmed form of many of the larger trees (Figure 3). One individual, growing on the edge of a steep cliff at 950 meters occupied a total surface area of approximately twelve square meters and consisted of fifteen stems larger than 10 centimeters DBH planted. The largest Ginkgo (Figure 4). In contrast to time we did not locate most common on microsites, including slopes, and the disturbance-generated stream banks, rocky edges of exposed cliffs, all such multistemmed trees that were common in the woods, the three cultivated Ginkgos growing near the Kaishan temple were all single-trunked specimens. In the upper reserve fifty percent of the Ginkgos had at least two trunks greater than 10 centimeters DBH, while in the lower reserve, the figure was one-third. Of these 67 multistemmed trees, the primary trunk was intact in seventy-three percent, clearly indicating 7 Figure 4. The author standing next to the \"living fossil\" Ginkgo on Tian Mu Shan. This ancient ovulate tree occupies an area of approximately twelve square meters and consists of fifteen stems greater than ten centimeters in diameter. The fence protecting both the tree and the tourists was built m 1980. that cause logging in the area is not the primary of secondary sprouting (Figure 5). Vegetative Reproduction From Basal Chichi While we could find no signs of recent seedling reproduction on Tian Mu Shan, most of the larger Ginkgos were reproducing vigorously from suckers arising near the Wherever the base of the trunk of a large Ginkgo came into direct contact with a large rock or where its base was exposed by erosion, these structures developed. They either enveloped the rock or grew around it, extending up to two meters from the parent trunk (Figure 6). When these growths reach friable soil, they produce lateral roots, base of their trunks. In some cases these basal suckers came out of the ground anywhere from two to twenty centimeters away from the trunk, and in others they were attached to large rhizomelike structures that originated from the trunk at ground level. develop vigorous, vertically growing shoots, and continue their downward growth. Superficially, these structures resemble the well-known \"air-roots\" produced on old cultivated trees, called \"chichi\" (nipple or breast) in Japan and \"zhong ru\" (stalactite) in 8 above. The strongly clasping nature of this a unique structure helps the species survive on sites where disturbance to its root system is common and no doubt they play a crucial role in the long-term persistence of the species on such sites. Based on subsequent greenhouse work with cultivated seedlings, I have been able to demonstrate that basal chichi develop from suppressed cotyledonary buds (Del Tredici, 1992). phenomenon, Figure 5. The distribution of the number of stems greater than ten centimeters for 167 Ginkgos on Tian Mu Shan. Forty percent of the population had more than one stem greater than ten centimeters diameter. China. These unusual, downward growing burls form along the underside of large lateral branches. The first anatomical description of chichi was published by Fujii in 1895, who considered them a \"pathological formation\" that developed in association with an embedded shoot bud. The only chichi that we saw on the Tian Mu Shan Ginkgos were those that originated from the base of trees, particularly those that had experienced damage due to erosion or logging. These growths should be called \"basal chichi\" to distinguish them from the more familiar \"aerial chichi\" described Seed Production and Predation According to the reserve records, 1989 was a light year for seed production on Tian Mu Shan. In our census work we found intact seeds or the remains of seeds under 54 of 167 trees (32%). Seed drop typically occurs during the last two weeks of September on Tian Mu Shan, depending on the weather. By the time of our arrival on October 3, very few seeds were left on the trees, and we were able to collect more than a hundred seeds from under only two trees. It turns out that most of the nuts had been collected before our arrival by the local populace. The fact that people have been living in the Tian Mu Shan area for at least a thousand years and that Ginkgo nuts have long been considered a valuable food and medicine (Li, 1956; Del Tredici, 1991)suggests that the collection of seeds by people could well be an important factor limiting seedling establishment on Tian Mu Shan. Under every tree that produced seeds in 1989 we found probable signs of feeding activity by the locally abundant red-bellied squirrel (Callosciurus flavimanus var. ningpoensis). The fleshy outer coat of the seed, which is notoriously foul smelling and can produce a skin rash in animals as well as people, had been pulled off and left uneaten while the edible kernel was consumed, leaving only fragments of the sclerified shell behind. Since we never actually saw squirrels eating or \"scatterhoarding\" Ginkgo seeds, however, their potential role as dispersal agents of Ginkgo seeds is still unclear. 9 (1990) reported observations of local peasthat the leopard-cat, Felis bengalensis, consumes Ginkgo seeds and that some of the nuts pass through the cat's digestive system undamaged. The existence of these two independent reports of members of the Carnivora consuming intact Ginkgo seeds raises the interesting possibility that the foul ants smell of the rotting seed coat may be attracting dispersal agents by mimicking the smell of rotting flesh, making Ginkgo a carrion mimic, if you will! Figure 6. The chichi-developed shoot system of Ginkgo #163, probably planted, growing over the face of an old rock wall in the lower reserve. At least three generations of stems can be seen: the oldest represented by the cut trunks A, B, and C (diameters 55, 40, and 37 centimeters); the second by the living trunks A' and B' (diameters 26 and 20 centimenters); and the thud by suckers arismg from the zone of active chichi proliferation (stippled). Drawing by Laszlo Meszoly, based on photographs by the author. = = 7. The masked palm civet, Paguma larvata. Photo repnnted with permission from Walker's Mammals of the World by R M Nowak. Figure Conclusions Because tant Gingko is an economically imporplant and because Tian Mu Shan has Long-time workers in the reserve reported that a \"catlike\" animal with a long, thick tail also eats Ginkgo seeds in their entirety, vesicatory seed coat and all, and that some of the seeds pass through its digestive system intact. While we did not ourselves see the animal or any signs of its feeding, the workers were probably referring to Paguma larvata, the masked palm civet (Viveridae), an omnivorous carnivore (Nowak, 1991) (Figure 7). Interestingly, in the only other study of a \"semiwild\" Ginkgo population located in Hubei Province, Jiang and his colleagues been the site of human activities for approximately fifteen hundred years, it is very difficult, if not impossible, to resolve the long-standing argument about the wildness of the Ginkgo population. In many ways the debate has more to do with the definition of the term \"wild\" rather than with the biology of the plant itself. Such semantic considerations should not be allowed to obscure the important biological implications of the Tian Mu Shan Ginkgo population that have existed as part of a complex, natural community for a least a thousand years (Figure 8). More than any other factor, the presence of Kaishan temple has raised doubts about 10 ing there, by tinct virtue of their size and their multistemmed growth form, give the disimpression of being wild. The significance of the lack of Ginkgo seedlings in the reserve is also difficult to interpret. On the one hand it might be seen as evidence that Ginkgo is not native to the on the other it can be viewed as evidence that Ginkgo does not reproduce from seed under the closed canopy conditions that now prevail on Tian Mu Shan. This latter suggestion is supported by the 1990 report on the \"semiwild\" Ginkgo population in Hubei Province, in which Jiang and his colleagues from the Wuhan Institute of Botany concluded that Ginkgo is a high light-requiring species and that seedling establishment occurs only in those portions of the forest where the canopy had opened up. While it is difficult to answer with certainty the question of whether the Ginkgo population on Tian Mu Shan is \"truly\" wild, it is clear that the phenomenon of secondary trunk formation from basal chichi is an important factor in explaining the species' long-term persistence on the mountain. It is also possible that vegetative reproduction from basal chichi may have played a significant role in the extraordinary persistence of area, but Figure 8 A schematic representation of the hfe cycle of Gmkgo biloba on Tian Mu Shan. Ginkgo throughout geological time. the origin of the Ginkgos. In this regard, however, Hui-lin Li has pointed out that throughout China such temple sites were initially selected because of their great scenic beauty, and that the forests surrounding them were secondarily preserved by resident monks-both Taoist and Buddhist. The fact that some of the large Ginkgos and Cryptomerias in the reserve were planted by humans should not be interpreted to mean that all of them were. Such guilt by association may be the cautious position, but it is not necessarily the correct one. Away from the paths, at elevations between 800 and 1,200 meters, there is little indication that the surrounding woods have been disturbed by humans, and the Ginkgos that are grow- Acknowledgments This article was excerpted from a more detailed study, \"The Ginkgos of Tian Mu Shan,\" written by P. Del Tredici, H. Ling, and G. Yang, published in Conservation Biology 6: 202-209 (1992). Literature Cited Chen, S.-C. 1989. Status of the conservation of rare and endangered plants 178 in China. Cathaya 1: 161- Cheng, W. C. 1933. An enumeration of vascular plants Chekiang, I. Contributions of the Biological Laboratories of the Science Society from of Chma 8(3). 298-307 Cunningham, m 1. S. 1984. Frank N Meyer, Plant Hunter Asia Ames: Iowa State University Press 11 Del Tredici, P. 1990. The trees of Tian Mu Shan: essay Arnoldia 50 (4): 16-23 Del a photo Sargent, C. S. 1916. Gmkgo biloba. Bulletin of Popular Information Arnold Arboretum n.s. 2: 51-52 Forests of China Maria Moors Cabot Foundation Publication #5. Cambridge: Harvard University K. Chen. 1983. A contribution to the Tredici, P. 1991. Gmkgos and people: a thousand years of interaction. Arnoldia 51 (2): 2-15 Wang, C.-W. 1961. The Del Tredici, P. 1992. Natural regeneration of Ginkgo biloba from downward growing cotyledonary buds (basal chichi). American Journal of Wang, F. H., and Z. Botany 79: 522-530 Fujn, K. 1895. On the nature and origin of so-called \"chichi\" (nipple) of Gmkgo biloba L. Botanical Magazine (Tokyo) 9: 444-450 embryology of Gmkgo with a discussion on the affinity of the Gmkgoales (in Chinese). Acto Botamca Smica 25: 199-211 Wang, Y. W., S. D. Xiang, and Q. C. Zheng 1986. Studies of vegetation on southern slope of West Tian Mu Shan [in Chinese], Journal of Hangzhou He, \" S. A, Z. B. Yang, M. J. Wang, S. X. Zhong, J. Y. Shen, andJ C. Tao. 1987. Investigation and introduction of in some rare University 13 (supp.): 26-42 and endangered species In: Botanic Conservation Wilson, Wilson E. H. 1914. Plantae Wilsonae. Cambridge: Nanjing Botanical Garden. and the World Harvard University E. H. 1916. The Gardens Press Strategy, pp. 255-260. London: Academic Jiang, M. Y. Conifers and Taxads of Japan. Arboretum Publication #8. Cambridge: Harvard University Arnold Jin, and Q. Zhang. 1990. on A preliminary Wilson, Wilson, E. H. 1919 The romance of our trees-II. The Ginkgo. Garden Magazine 30(4): 144-148 E. H. 1920. The Romance Gmkgo biloba in Dahongshan region, Hubei [in Chinese). Journal of Wuhan Botanical Research 8(2): 191-193 study of Our Trees. Boston: Li, H. L. 1956. A horticultural and botanical history of Gmkgo Bulletin of the Morris Arboretum 7: 3-12. H. 1965. Stratford Zhejiang Forestry Zhejiang Zheng, Bureau. 1984. The Reserves of Province [m Chinese]. Zhejiang Ling, [in Chinese]. Nowak, fifth Origin and distribution of Gmkgo biloba Bulletin of Biology 3: 32-33 Province, Hangzhou, China C. 1986. A preliminary Tian Mu Shan [in R M 1991. Walker's Mammals of the World, ed. Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins conifers, I. analysis of the flora in Chinese]. Journal of Hangzhou University 13 (supp.): 11-17 Living University Press Sargent, C. S. 1897. Notes on cultivated Garden and Forest 10: 390-391 Peter Del Tredici is Assistant Director for Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Convenience of Arabidopsis","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25071","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eb726.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Kellogg, Elizabeth A.","article_content":"The Convenience of Arabidopsis Elizabeth A. It's Kellogg small, it's plain, it's absolutely ordinary, but it's become one of the most popular lab plants around. It's Arabidopsis thaliana, and its most important characteristic is that it's handy. Scientists have a long tradition of working with the handy stuff, literally the things close at hand, to answer questions about phenomena that are otherwise inaccessible. Charles Darwin opens The Origin of Species with a chapter that describes in some detail breeding experiments were on pigeons. Pigeons as a convenient and served model. If people could select pigeons for complex characteristics, Darwin reasoned, then could select other organisms the way. Hence, evolution by natural selection: an all-encompassing theory supported in part by experiments on the very nature same plain, thoroughly homely pigeon. Using whatever's handy is of course an art fully exploited by schoolteachers. If they want to make a mask or a turkey, they use a paper plate. An egg carton does fine for an alligator (or stegosaurus or a bouquet of flowers), and noodles are clearly necklace material. Lab scientists use a lot of those same items. Just like Charles Darwin and schoolteachers everywhere, we work with whatever's One This same procedure can be done with specialized chemicals like dextran sulfate-dextran sulfate being notable because it costs about $400 a pound-but for many purposes ordinary powdered milk from the supermarket works just fine. The standard procedure then involves washing a bit of high-tech nylon membrane in powdered milk in a plastic kitchen container. When the procedure is finished the piece of nylon is wrapped in Saran Wrap. (In fact, in the standard chemical stockroom Saran Wrap is on the shelf right next to all the fancy chemicals.) This procedure is like many others in research; for some purposes only a very particular tool will do (like the special bit of nylon membrane), but there are many cases where you can simply use what's handy. This same \"principle of handiness\" applies choosing organisms to study, especially in rapidly growing field of plant molecular biology. People who study plant molecular biology are trying to understand exactly how plants work, down to the details of the DNA to the handy. common procedure in molecular biology labs, called Southern blotting after the who invented it, is carried out in Tupperware containers. Rubbermaid does fine, too; the lid just has to be watertight. man that make up their genes. Because almost anything they discover will be new, several plants are equally good to begin working on. So why not start with the most convenient? I currently make my living studying genetic relationships in the wheat tribe, a group that Arabidopsis thaliana. Photo and by Kurt Stepnitz, MSU\/DOE Plant Research Laboratory. 14 . includes species, Turkey, rye and a lot of other many of them native to Mongolia, and the Mideast. It happens, how- barley and described it as the plant equivalent of a ever, that three wheat-related species are weeds that grow near the parking lot of the Harvard Bio Labs, and another grows next to the playing fields in my Cambridge neighborhood. It's obvious which ones I looked at first. As the study has progressed I have had to seek out the less accessible members of the group to fill in the story, but the starting point was arbitrary and determined as much by convenience as by logic. That's the major attraction of Arabidopsis thaliana to molecular biologists. It does have a common name-mouse ear cress-but it's rarely used. The plant has no horticultural value. It isn't edible. But for some purposes it is very convenient, and it has thus become important because of its value as a scientific tool, analogous to the fruit fly [Diosophila). Arabidopsis thaliana is a tiny relative of the cabbage and part of the same family, commonly known as the mustard family and botanically as Cruciferae or Brassicaceae Hyundai. For many studies this makes it the plant of choice. The Boston Area Arabidopsis Group alone includes sixty or so scientists who specialize in topics such as hrp, GA, auxin, rubisco activase, and ribozymes. Most of these formidable-sounding specialities have direct applications to understanding the crop plants that feed humanity. Hrp, for example, is a gene or set of genes involved in the plant's response to a pathogenic fungus or bacterium. If we know exactly how plants respond to pathogen attack and what allows some plants to resist some pathogens, then we might be able to find ways to reduce our dependence on the toxic chemicals that are now used to control damage by plant pests and to engineer resistant crop plants. GA and auxin are plant hormones that control the rate and timing of growth and development. It's all basic research, the fertile ground that fosters direct applications. So it is that a modest weed is achieving an eminence formerly reserved for crop plants. There are seedbanks that store Arabidopsis seed, there is an Arabidopsis newsletter and an Arabidopsis Information Service as well as an Arabidopsis Research Initiative. It is (either name is acceptable). At maturity it is about eight inches tall. It can be germinated by the hundreds on petri plates. Populations of thousands of plants fit easily on one greenhouse bench. The generation time (seed to seed) is about three months. Compare this to that other workhorse of the plant genetics world, maize. Maize plants are large, well over eight inches tall, and planting thousands requires acres of land and scientists with strong backs. The generation time is about six months, but to get two generations a year requires that you plant one winter crop in Hawaii. Arabidopsis clearly has a logistical advantage, although you do lose the excuse to winter in Hawaii. Arabidopsis is also handy in that its internal workings, its genetic machinery, are unusually simple. No extras, no add-ons, no window dressing. One scientist, Dr. Jerry Fink of the Whitehead Institute, has becoming, in its own curious way, cally important. economi- There are, of course, questions that A. thaliana can't help us with. Since we know almost nothing about the relatives of Arabidopsis and very little about its natural history, it is almost useless in studies of evolution within the mustard family. It has, however, become a big part of one story that promises to tell us a lot about the evolution of flowers and their multiple forms. If you look closely at a developing flower during the very early stages when it is best seen with an electron microscope, you will see tiny nubbins for all the floral parts. In Arabidopsis there are four that will be sepals, four that will become petals, six stamen nubbins, and two carpels that will form 15 A. The top of the inflorescence and flower buds. B. A flower bud with one sepal removed to show nubbins that will become stamens; the mound in the center will become the pistil. C. A flower at a slightly later stage. P petal; LS lateral stamen; MS medial stamen ; G gynoecium (pistil). D. A flower bud shortly before openmg. Some of the sepals and petals have been removed. Note that the stamens have not yet elongated fully. Bar 10 mm m A, B, and C; 100 mm thick. Photographs reproduced with permission from Bowman et al. (1 992). = Scanning electron micrographs of a developing Arabidopsis flower. = = = = 16 the two halves of the ovary. Scientists in a California lab headed by Elliot Meyerowitz have found the chemical signals that tell the various nubbins how they should develop. Altering these chemicals can make the stamens turn into petals, or the petals turn into stamens, or even turn all the flower parts into leaves. (This last idea-that flower parts can be viewed as modified leaves-was first suggested in the eighteenth century by the German poet Goethe.) Comparing work on Arabidopsis with studies done on snapdragshows that similar substances appear in other dicot flowers as well. It is now a tantalizing possibility that these chemicals may be involved in generating some of the startling diversity of floral form that we enjoy in our gardens, fields, and forests. Scientific papers are typically written as though the scientist had thought of an unanswered question, carefully designed an experiment, chose a perfect model system, and concluded with a formal and thoroughly rational analysis. (This, incidentally, was not the structure used by Darwin.) Such papers ons fairly easy to read once you get the hang although rarely as pleasurable as The Origin of Species. The style of the scientific paper is simply a late-twentieth-century convention. Unfortunately, it obscures the way that science actually works, the way are of it, decisions are made and directions taken. There is a lot of serendipity involved. There are insights from chance conversations, opportunities created by particular combinations of people, place, and time. And there is the very practical tendency to grasp the tools at hand. Reference Bowman, J. L., H. Sakai, T Jack, D. Weigel, U. Mayer, and E. M. Meyerowitz. 1992. SUPERMAN, a regulator of floral homeotic genes Arabidopsis. Development 114: 599-615 ol in Elizabeth Kellogg is Research Associate in Organismic and Evolutionary Biology at Harvard University and an Associate of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Flying Dogwood Shuttle","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25072","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eb76b.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"The Flying Dogwood Shuttle Sheila Connor In earlier times it was the strength and durability of dogwood, not its beauty, that attracted attention. to the end of World War II the production of wooden goods played a major role in the New England economy. While fuel wood, pulpwood, and lumber for ties, poles, and beams left the forest or sawmill in rough form, a thriving concentration of regional industries converted forest resources into more finished \"secondary\" products. The shuttles, spools, and bobbins manufactured for the textile mills as well as the lasts and fillers destined for shoe factories were not only made and used in New England but were also exported worldwide. And all of Right up Working with wood once meant dealing with either the whole tree or with products made from portions of its trunk, and the qualities specific to each species-its capacity to bend, its moisture content, hardness, strength, or brittleness as well as its ability to hold nails, take paint, and saw easilydetermined which trees were used. One such tree, the native flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, is now best known for its beautiful spring blossoms. But in earlier times it was the strength and durability of its wood, not its beauty, that attracted attention. The Demand for the Dogwood Shuttle For over a century, the dogwood's usefulness to the nation's textile industry would compete with its value as an ornamental tree. From the American Industrial Revolution's northern beginnings until long after most textile manufacturers moved their operations south and left New England's mills standing silent, the wood of the flowering dogwood was an intrinsic part of the weaving process. In the complex process of weaving cloth, one simple device remained unchanged: the fast-flying, bullet-shaped shuttle made of dogwood. The first shipment of dogwood logs bound for England left America in 1865. After their arrival, it is presumed that these logs were cut, seasoned, and turned into shuttles for England's textile mills. Up until midcentury, boxwood (Buxus sempervirens) shuttles had New were England's products-wooden or notpacked and shipped in pine crates and out excelsior of mills from Maine to Connecticut. By the 1960s, textile and shoe manufachad all but forsaken New England. Like their predecessors the tanning, naval stores, and shipbuilding industries as well as the arms and charcoal makers, they had ceased to be great consumers of wood. New technologies evolved, and just as large-scale manufacturing dwindled in New England, so too has the role of wood. The age of the plastic \"peanut\" has no need for paper packing or its nearly forgotten precursor, the wonderfully fragrant excelsior. Pocket calculators have completely replaced rock-maple and even plastic slide rules. Cedar and spruce canoes are made of Kevlar and fiberglass ; and baseball bats, formerly made of ash, are now fabricated in aluminum. turers 18 19 been the mainstay of the industry, but as the lumber needed for shuttles rose proportionally to the number of looms in operation in the Northeast and in England, the American tree became a popular substitute. By the third quarter of the nineteenth century, the use of dogwood had increased markedly. The wood of flowering dogwood is hard, heavy, tough, close-grained, and abrasionresistant. When textile manufacturers realized that the longer a dogwood shuttle was in use the smoother its satiny wood became, dogwood became the wood of choice. Smoothness rose to top priority soon after John Kay, an English carpet weaver, invented a mechanized shuttle in 1733. Prior to Kay's invention, almost any hardwood made a satisfactory shuttle; hand weavers simply passed the small, oblong piece of wood that held the bobbin from one hand to the other. As a weaver of carpets, Kay had to deploy two workers, one on either side of his large, oversized looms, to toss the shuttle back and forth. Besides requiring two people for the work of one, the shuttle often dropped uncaught onto the warp threads, damaging the fabric and stopping the loom. Inspired, no doubt, by clumsy workers, Kay devised a driver attachment controlled by a cord that propelled the shuttle from one side to the other. But because the shuttle now remained in contact with the warp threads as it shot back and forth, a wooden shuttle that checked, split, or had rough edges was worse than useless. Kay's invention, aptly called the flying shuttle, was the first step in the automation of weaving. The bullet-shaped weavmg shuttle made of dogwood was pnzed for its satmy smoothness Photo by the author. produce began operating in Lowell, Massachusetts, in about 1875. Like its English counterparts, the Lowell mill acquired dogwood logs from the forests of Virginia. Flowering dogwood to The Lowell Mills The first American mill ern Maine southward into northern Florida. Even in the center of its commercial range, which is in the southern Mississippi Valley and the southern Appalachian Mountain region, this tree is seldom found growing in pure stands. In the years of its commercial use, woodcutters had to scour between ten and fifteen shuttles acres of forest before finding enough flowering dogwoods to harvest a cord grows in the wild from extreme southwestThe fruits and flower buds of wood. While it is not rare in eastern Massachusetts, this small understory tree appears with greater frequency in the Connecticut River Valley and in Rhode Island and Connecticut. of Cornus florida. 20 had been tried, no wood with similar qualities had been found. Farmers and woodlot owners were urged to contact block mills or buyers to arrange for the sale tutes of marketable trees. As late as 1945 a U.S. Department of Agriculture publication commented, \"Shuttles are indispensable to the cotton, woolen, and silk mills of the country.\" Plastic shuttles replaced wooden ones shortly thereafter, but they didn't last long. New shuttleless looms were designed, and within a generation New England mills still using the old machines were antiquated, surpassed by their southern competitors. Except hand looms and a few who create one-of-a-kind specialty fabrics on older wooden power looms, fabric is now woven entirely by shuttleless looms. Flying shuttles made of satin-smooth dogwood have become a thing of the past. for artisans who use weavers Although boxwood was used in the original Plympton Skate, as shown here m an 1884 advertisement m Spalding's Manual of Roller Skating, it was soon replaced by the stronger, more durable dogwood. The roller skate was invented by furniture manufacturer James Leonard Plimpton. Having enjoyed a winter of ice skatmg m Central Park, he was determined to continue skating year-round. Withm one year he had invented and patented his roller skate, organized the New York Roller Skating Association, and undertaken a promotion campaign directed at the \"educated and refined class \" By 1926, ninety percent of the flowering shuttles. Most manufactured in Massachusetts and Rhode Island, and over half were exported to Germany, France, and Great Britain. In 1942, demand for military cloth and waruse textiles heightened the need for shuttles to the point that the country ran out of reserve supplies. The U.S. Department of Agriculture issued a plea for harvested dogwood, noting that although many substiwere dogwood harvest went into The Future for New England Forest Products Today new methods for processing wood and tree products determine how many New England species are used. In some cases, these advances have permitted the substitution of one wood (or a combination of woods) for another. The development of durable synthetic resin adhesives during World War II expanded and redefined an entire range of wood-based products. Glue-laminated timbers, exterior plywood, and sandwich panels (two thin facings of wood bonded to a thick core of weak and low-density material such as rubber foam, foamed glass, cloth, metal, or even paper) increased the capacity of wood to bend, weather, and provide thermal insulation. It even makes the wood more fire resistant. Raw materials need not come from the forest in log form: particleboard, flakeboard, waferboard, and oriented stand board all use wood that is first reduced to small fragments and then bonded. Sawmills no longer create waste; every part of a log is usable, whether as bark, chips, or sawdust. And coarser 21 The Dogwood Through the Seasons stalks. In spring the peduncle lengthens to become an inch to an inch-and-a-half long. The bud's protective scales, the bracts, begin to unfold, enlarge, and turn white. Some trees have pinkish-white bracts, and occasionally a tree will sport bracts of a When the dogwoods flower the Arnold Arboretum seems to sparkle. Although most of the Arboretum's major groups of trees are arranged taxonomically, when it came to siting the dogwoods Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, wisely chose to ignore scientific dictates and instead followed the advice of Frederick Law Olmsted. Rather than restricting them to their place in botanical sequence, Sargent interwove them throughout the grounds just as they grow in natural forests. Flowering dogwoods can reach forty feet in height, but in New England they usually grow to only fifteen to twentyfive feet. Cornus florida flowers well in shade or sun but forms a more compact shape with a flattopped crown when growing in the open. With wide-spreading horizontal limbs that are delicately ~ _ - deeper pink. By midsummer, two to five berrylike drupes, each containing two very hard, notched stones that enclose the seeds, have developed. By fall, these oval-shaped drupes are a brilliant red and become a source of food for migrating flocks of birds. Dogwood leaves are from two to five inches long, have wavy margins, and grow opposite one another. The fall color of this aligned mature tier upon tier, as a dogwood as tree can often become is wide it high. In spring these small understory trees are covered with large, handsome, bright-white bracts that surround the small clusters of the true, minute yellowish-green flowers. The flowers begin to form during the previous summer. Throughout fall and winter they remain enclosed and protected by four light-brown to grayish involucral scales. In winter the flower buds are conspicuous. Looking like little Turkish caps or turbans the size of a large pea, they are held up from the ends of the branchlets by stout, reddish, quarter-inch peduncles, or A\"\" .. small tree's leaves and berries make the dogwood as handsome a tree during that season as it is in spring. By October the upper surfaces of the leaves have turned from a dark green to a shiny rose, scarlet, or violet color. Providing an ideal foil for these deeper hues, the underside of the leaves remain as pale and whitish as they have been throughout their growing season. 22 residues from secondary forest products, such as planer shavings, plywood mill waste, round wood waste, and wood chips, have become an important source of raw material for fiber-based reconstituted woods. Insulation board, fiberboard, and laminated paperboard are just a few of the products composed of wood that is first reduced to fibers (or fiber bundles) before being reconstituted by a manufacturing process that produces panels of relatively large size and thickness. Innovations such as these have impelled the industry to improve forest management practices. region's land surface is once again covered by forest. Today over 108,000 New Englanders work either in the forest or with the forest's products. Of these, over 61,000 people hold jobs associated with the paper industry. Lumber and wood products employ an additional 30,000 people, and close to 17,000 workers make furniture and other wooden fixtures. While synthetics are now often substituted for wood, wood remains the best material for much of what we use daily. Tradition and aesthetics influence our preference for wood, but in many instances its durability, coupled with its renewability as a resource, makes it a sound, economically and environmentally wise choice as well. Thus New England's forests continue to support a multitude of specialized industries and countless small, family-owned businesses that transform trees into durable goods. New Englanders are makers of paper and boxes, wooden ware and picture frames, tennis rackets, tool handles, toys and snowshoes and musical instruments. Working with lathes, saws, and drills, skilled operators turn out cabinets, doors, windows, and millwork as well as sashes, trims, plywood, and pallets. And artisans make everything from furniture to boats with hand tools, occasionally in conjunction with ancient woodworking machines driven by waterpower. In so doing, they insure that many of our old ways with wood endure. _ Regrowth of the Forest Early New England colonists came to a land that they described variously as \"a wellwooded earthly paradise\" or \"a hideous and desolate wilderness.\" By the nineteenth century, fear that the nation's forest resources could be depleted had taken hold. In 1880 Charles Sprague Sargent, then the young and ambitious director of a new Arnold Arboretum, undertook a study of the nation's forests, \"the much needed work [to show] the great wealth and value of our forests, and the dangers with which their destruction will threaten us.\" He could not have foreseen our situation in 1992. At no time since the arrival of the first Europeans has so much of New England's landscape been forested as today. It's neither paradise nor wilderness, but a new Yankee forest aptly described as a patchwork of wildlands and woodlots. From the sandy promontories of Cape Cod, where the wind sculpts the waist-high scrub oaks and twisted pitch pines, westward to Connecticut's stands of oaks and hemlocks, and northward into the \"big woods\" of Maine, the country of spruce and balsam spires, eighty-one percent of the The excerpted from Sheila Connor's forthbook, New England Natives (Harvard University Press, 1993), part of the Arnold Arboretum Sourcebook Series funded in part by the National This article is coming Endowment for the Humanities. Sheila Connor is Horticultural Research Archivist at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Native Dictates","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25069","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eb328.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Native Dictates Gary Koller - . Invasive exotic plants and attempts to curb them through legislation have been the subject of debate among horticulturists, landscape designers, and other professionals concerned with the environment. Here's why one horticulturist advocates continued access to introduced plants along with improved access to native species. \" , i ft. a gardener do you see yourself as an environmental bandit? Few horticulturists would characterize themselves as threats to the American landscape, yet this is an As increasingly common viewpoint in state legislatures and municipalities. Urged on by environmentalists, some officials now believe that gardeners and the landscape industry are helping to destroy the \"natural\" American landscape by introducing, producing, selling, and growing non-native plants. Around the United States, several ordi- already require landscape architects, designers, and contractors to include a certain percentage of native plants in their projects. The possibility of much more nances example. The introduced species Lythrum salicaria has become so rampant there that it is now illegal to sell any Lythrum-not just L. salicaria-and the state is considering more extensive legislation. Last year Minnesota's nursery industry narrowly averted the passage of a law that would have banned the sale of all plants not growing in the state before 1800. cern. restrictive laws is very real. Minnesota is one prominent naturalized in American landscapes, crowding out weaker, less competitive species and radically altering local ecosystems. Consider, for example, Polygonum cuspidatum, called Japanese knotweed or Mexican bamboo. This plant was included in the original planting plans for Boston's Emerald Necklace. Today it takes enormous amounts of time, energy, and money to keep this plant from completely overtaking our urban parklands. Many species of bamboo are becoming popular in home and public landscapes, but plant a running bamboo in the native habitat of a lady's slipper orchid and it's quite possible, in fact almost certain, that the orchid will be overrun and wiped out. Environmentalists are trying to keep natives from being pushed out of their niches, from being run out of their own home grounds. The environmentalists' arguments have merit-and I do want to see native plants better used and more respected-but we need non-native tant plants, too. They serve as imporoptions for regreening the hostile envi- Environmentalists have a legitimate conSome introduced plants have become ronmental conditions found in more and more urban sites. To protect the landscapes of today as well as build those of tomorrow we need all the useful plants we can get-whether from five or five thousand miles away. 24 Imagine a diet restricted to native foods. typical American dinner-say pork chops, white rice, lettuce and tomato salad and peach cobbler-would be unthinkable. None A of those foods native are North American. To eat a dinner, you'd have to substitute something like buffalo for the main course, Jerusalem artichoke for the vegetable, blueberries for the dessert. A purely native American agriculture would be just as lacking in diversity. Wheat, corn, soybeans, potatoes-all are non-native crops. In fact, in terms of commercial value the biggest native North American crop is the sunflower. The landscape industry and in turn the home garden is in a similar situation. Imagine spring without callery pears, cultivated crabapples, Yaku rhododendronseven dandelions. If environmentalists had passed non-native legislation fifty years ago, would not have many of the species, hybrids, and cultivars that have become important to our daily lives. Many plants grown in North America today, in vegetable gardens, flower and shrub borders, in parks, on streets, and in orchards, have a hybrid parentage. Often, interbreeding of American, Asian, and European species has resulted in increased cold hardiness, greater productivity and yield, more vigorous and dependable growth, improved pest resistance, adaptability to a wider range of growing conditions, or the expansion of desirable ornamental features. Would we, as gardeners, want to return to a strict North American diet of garden, nursery, and forestry crops? Beyond the simple desire for diversity, there are several reasons for believing that legislation banning non-native plants would cause as many problems as it might solve. we Photo Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, the by the author. Lawson cypress. agreement that all plants growing in North America before such-and-such a year are to be considered native, that alone won't solve the problem. For instance, if you live on the East Coast, you probably don't consider the West Coast to be exotic. Nevertheless, in the strictest sense a plant like Lawson cypress (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana), which hails from a tiny area of the Pacific Northwest, is just as exotic in New England as paperbark maple (Acer griseum), which is native to China. Take another case, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, which in modern times was introduced to North America from China in the late 1940s. A careful examination of the fossil record has shown that it, like the ginkgo, grew in North America several million years ago. Should they be viewed as native plants in the places where the fossils were recovered? The Danger in Overly Restrictive Definitions Those who would ban non-native plants face at least one immediate difficulty: how to define the term native. Even if there were 25 The tiny dotted Lawson cypress in the Pacific Northwest shows the very limited range of the (Chamaecyparis lawsoniana). From Atlas of United States Trees, Volume 1, by Elbert L. Little, Jr. U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous area Publication No. 1146,1971 26 Here's an example of far more consequence. The honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos) has a fairly small native range-from and Nebraska south to Texas. This beautiful tree has had a profound impact on cities like New York and Boston, but it's no more native to those places than is ginkgo. What if, when the honey locusts in gardens and parks and along streets outside its native range die out, we could not replant them? Would that make any sense? What replacements could provide comparable survival, growth, and longevity? Horticulturists have been very successful with this tree, selecting thornless, seedless cultivars, developing different forms and foliage colors. I don't see how honey locust could ever be restricted to Pennsylvania Mississippi and its true native range; it's tant to our simply too impor- built landscapes. Yet this is where a narrow definition of the term native would lead us. The Need for Plants That Meet Specific Needs In 1992 we marked the quincentennial of the arrival of Europeans in North America. Certainly our presence here over the past five hundred years has changed the way America looks, and it can be fairly said that it has not enhanced the well-being of our land, water, and air. Consider the urban environment. We have created artificial wind tunnels along city streets. We douse those streets with de-icing salts that kill the plants we have squeezed into the barest minimum spaces. We build roof gardens that are warm underneath and cold on top. Foot traffic and heavy vehicles compact the soil of our public spaces. These and many other factors, occurring both singly and in combination, make for difficult sites, demanding as a first order plants that will survive. Our urban landscape is a completely non-native environment. Should we now be restricted to planting natives, knowing that many opportunistic exotics actually thrive in l.\"\"~1o;U\" Gleditsia tnacanthos, the honey locust. Photo by the author. human-altered landscapes? The Tree-of- (Ailanthus altissima) is a prime example. It waits for us to disturb the soil, then quickly invades and establishes itself, outcompeting other vegetation. It would not make sense to outlaw such trees. Rather, we should encourage the research community in its investigations of the biological factors that enable its rapid establishment. Our landscape needs extend beyond the city. We have transformed the countryside by carving it into suburban homesites, many too small for the kinds of plants that originally grew there. In altering the natural landscape, we have opened the door to erosion and flooding. Even worse, we have dumped pollutants on our earth and pumped them into the air, creating the need for plants that thrive under polluted conditions and at the same time brush, scrub, screen, and filter those pollutants. Heaven 27 The dotted area shows the range of the honey locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). From Atlas of United States Trees, Volume 1, by Elbert L. Little, Jr. U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publication No. 1146, 1971 28 Tilia amencana, the Amencan lmden or basswood. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. than a dead or dying native? Or worse, tic substitute? a we need tough, adaptable plants enhance the landscape while making a real ecological contribution. Instead of restricting ourselves to natives or to introduced plants, we need to ask which plants, regardless of origin, can be most useful in our built landscapes. Isn't a live exotic better In short, plas- that can Natives Are No Panacea It's often thought that native plants are inherently better than introduced plants. Natives grew up with the local climate, 29 pests, and soils so they must be tougher and better adapted. But look at our native chestnut (Castanea dentata) or the American elm [Ulmus americana). Planted in monocultures, native plants can be just as vulnerable as exotics-sometimes more so when a disease or pest is introduced from another country. Dogwood is a more recent example. With dogwood anthracnose (a fungus called Discula sp.) occurring from Atlanta to Boston as well in the Pacific Northwest, many gardeners are reluctant to plant native dogwoods (Cornus florida and C. nuttallii). Cornus florida is a beautiful plant and had been allowed Just growth. thinking what a reasonable solution it was to a blighted area, my mother said, \"I wish they would take out this messy-looking stuff and put in some nice to revert to native as I was bushes.\" By \"nice bushes\" she meant something like 'PJM' rhododendron, forsythia, or callery pears. Her attitude is not uncommon. How many gardeners are itching to try sweet fern (Comptonia peregrina), native sumacs [Rhus typhina), or goldenrod (Solidago spp.)? Too many gardeners see them as weeds of the roadside. To promote and sell native plants there must be consumers who can appreciate them. Native plants must be valued not as flashy ornamentals but as part of a complex community that gives definition to a specific area and fosters a sense of place. Education programs like those at the Arnold Arboretum and the New England Wild Flower Society help to change attitudes but often only for an audience that is already well informed and sympathetic to the cause. extremely important in our landscape. But in Boston it's not as cold-hardy as the Chinese species, Cornus kousa. Neither is it as drought-hardy, and it's certainly not as anthracnose-resistant. For now, at least, C. kousa or some of the new Kousa x florida hybrids may be better, more dependable choices than our native dogwood. In New England parks we use a lot of European horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum). This exotic is a good, tough plant, but it is very susceptible to summer leaf scorch and browning. Yellow buckeye (Aesculus octandra) seems more resistant to scorch, and it's being used more often as a substitute. But A. octandra is no more native to Massachusetts than A. hippocastanum. Strict native dictates would mean that, in Boston, we could not test or use either of these species in our city parks, along our streets, and in our home and institutional Regional Identity Louisville, Kentucky, zelkovas, sugar maples, and callery pears are among the common landscape trees. In Boston, and Seattle the same trees are used Chicago, with the same degree of frequency. But who In landscapes. The Market Factor Many of the most ornamental of the garden plants tend to be non-natives and their cul- Louisville to look like Boston, and who wants Boston to look like Seattle? Yet the most frequently used trees are so pervasive that there are few options for creating a landscape with a true regional flavor. Littleleaf linden (Tilia cordata) is one of the street and parkland trees most commonly deployed by landscape architects and wants Enjoying high consumer name recognition, they can be marketed far more easily tivars. than unfamiliar plants. Aesthetic sensibility also plays a part. Earlier this year I visited my mother in central Pennsylvania. On a drive we passed an abandoned quarry that commissioners. As young plants they resemble uniform lollipops, but with age they loosen up and achieve a majestic style and form. Today all the big nurseries grow and offer littleleaf linden, and many street tree continue to make cultivar selections even though there the market. already thirty Personally, I find are or forty on it almost 30 grew it as a garden plant. During the of 1991 a few plants could be found, but during the summer of 1992 Eupatorium entered Boston's retail market in quantity. Despite the inroads of many nurseries, there is still progress to be made in the production of native plants. Many of our finest native plants are rare or difficult to obtain, and locating quantities of plants in larger sizes or matched in size, form, and structure is difficult. I know a landscape designer who is looking for a hundred matched specimens of sweet birch (Betula lenta) in a larger landscape size. She could probably find six-inchtall Betula lenta seedlings in quantity, and it might be possible to locate a handful of one summer is also called black of Betula lenta, the sweet bnch, which or cherry birch. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. The catkm impossible to distinguish the merits of each because the distinctions are so poorly defined, illustrated, and explained. And I can't help wonder if the glut of European littleleaf lindens shouldn't open the door for further development of native lindens, like Tilia americana. In the past native plants had to go to Europe to get \"cultured\" before they could be brought back and accepted in the gardens of North America. This has rapidly changed as skilled plantspeople with excellent observational skills comb our native plant communities for improved and superior selections. The recently introduced Boltonia asteroides 'Pink Beauty' is one of those. JoePyeweed (Eupatorium maculatum) is another good example of a native plant that is becoming widely available in the commercial market. Three years ago almost no three-foot-tall plants, but nowhere could she locate a hundred large, matched specimens. They are probably not to be found anywhere across the land. Too few nurseries offer our native trees and shrubs in the sizes and quantities that will give landscape designers and gardeners those kinds of choices. This in turn forces us back to the same short list of trees that are available, locatable, inexpensive, tried and tested and preferably failsafe. And that in turn forces our landscapes into ever more homogenized and characterless forms. , Landscape Needs Our modern landscapes constitute a demanding range of environments. Just as some sites cry out for natives, others require that we survey the entire plant world for those that will thrive under the existing conditions. For our toughest city and urban locations I firmly believe that the most important color we can add is the green of trees, with the quality of flowers, fruit, and autumn color being rather minor or ephemeral characteristics. One of the least understood aspects of horticulture today is how to take a disturbed wetland and turn it back into a native wet meadow or marsh. In most cases we still don't know how to recreate a representative plant community, how to effectively estab- 31 Carya ovata, the shagbark hickory. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. lish it, and how to manage it once we put it in. At the Arnold Arboretum Lythrum salicaria is slowly taking over the wet meadow in front of the Hunnewell Building, and it's been suggested that we eradicate the lythrum. Well enough said, but how is this accomplished without affecting neighboring plants that remain desirable? Here's another example. Suppose I'm trying to restore a mine spoil in the spent coalfields of Pennsylvania. One plant that not only survives but in fact thrives on these 32 highly altered soils is black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia). Ask almost anyone who knows this tree and you get a similar response. \"Black locusts get borers and locust leaf miner. It suckers up. It's weak-wooded. It's dirty.\" They're right; black locust has all these problems. Still, there is a place for it in the American landscape. Black locust is often shunned for street plantings, but it ought to be available for specific applications such as mine spoil reclamation. Environmental Responsibility Having made a case for exotics, I in turn need to make the case for environmental responsibility. The great majority of exotic plants rarely become problematic; they just aren't that invasive. There is, however, a group of plants that is well equipped to leap over the garden wall. They are more than capable of scattering multitudes of fertile seeds or sending rhizomes over great distances as Callery pears, vas. littleleaf lindens, and zelko- Do largely America to be with European and Asian we want re-greened plants? Do enough about the quality of our natural world to grow and market a larger array of natives so that the process of restoration will be easier to plan and implement? I grew up in Pennsylvania where hickory (Carya spp.) was mixed into the woodland. Who's planting hickories in our parks and suburban landscapes? It's known that hickories don't transplant well and that the fruits make ideal missiles for child's play. Nonetheless I want the children of tomorrow to be able to go into parks and see hickories, not just vast stands of Norway maple, which is where a continual thrust in the direction of a few useful exotics will ultiwe care mately push us. Many gardeners shun natives because they supposedly lack pizzazz. Some do have wonderful foliage, flowers, bark, or winter color, but we they conquer new territory. In need not advocate them for those rea- the potential for trouble is well many documented. It is from this group of plants that we must protect our native vegetation. While I am a great proponent for the use of the arborescent, running bamboo species, I also believe a warning label should be attached to each plant so that less informed gardeners will recognize the invasive potential of these beautiful woody grasses and implement effective measures against it. Individually and collectively gardeners are part of the re-greening of America. How will our countryside look a hundred years from now? Five hundred years from now? In New England we worry that our woodlands will be filled with Norway maple, European and Japanese honeysuckles, and buckthorn. Today as we replant our parks in both cities and small towns, all too often it is with cases We need them because they are part of the native environment of each region and a part of our native heritage. If we want to maintain, protect, and restore these environsons. ments, we must have an expanded availability of native plants ranging all the way from grasses and wildflowers to trees and shrubs. For Further Reading 43(1): 39-44 Harnson L. Flint. Native Plants: Another View. Arnoldia Gary Koller is Senior Horticulturist of the Arnold Arboretum and Lecturer in the Department of Landscape Architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. This article is adapted from a talk presented at The Management Clinic of the Wholesale Nursery Growers of America, which was subsequently published in American Nurseryman 175(12): 7-10. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25067","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eab6b.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Tankard, Judith B.","article_content":"BOOKS Judith B. Tankard Keeping Eden, A History of Gardening in America. Walter T. Punch, general editor. A Bulfinch Press Book, in association with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1992. 277 pages. Hardcover. $50.00 Green-jacketed picture books on American gardens, planting design, and garden ornament swell the shelves of bookshops across America, but it's rare to find a beautifully one that is well written and does the manifold issues in American justice garden history. This splendid book combines rich visual material with an unusually high standard of writing that makes it a book definitely worth keeping. Green jacket notwithstanding, its handsome presentation is certain to attract many unsuspecting readers to an entirely new and rewarding territory. That territory encompasses garden literature, horticulture, science and technology, horticultural institutions, and the cultural and economic issues that shaped America's garden history. Walter Punch, librarian of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, conceived and edited the book, and it is appropriate that the concept of the book came from a librarian although it was originally envisioned as a television series. He commissioned essays on a highly personal selection of topics, and the result is a pleasant mix of scholarly and popular writing styles. The work of well-known historians such as William Howard Adams, Diane Kostial McGuire, and Melanie Simo, accompanies that of others not so well known, whose work is usually buried in scholarly tomes often unseen by the general public. More popular writers, such as Mac Griswold and illustrated to Tovah Martin, each of whom has published several books, give balance to the book. The essays that concentrate on a single topic are more successful than the broad overviews, but on the other hand, those more general essays may be precisely what the neophyte finds most helpful. Gordon De Wolf traces the earliest interest in gardening by the explorers of the New World, who out of necessity had to glean information on native plants and methods from native peoples. The familiar later gardens of the colonists in Virginia and elsewhere on the Atlantic coast, which were heavily influenced by English and European sophistication, are considered by Diane McGuire. David Streatfield's chapter, one of the best in the book, follows the settlers as they moved westward and explains how distinctive garden styles echo geographical concerns. Melanie Simo considers modernism in the context of regionalism from the Midwest to California. American artists have provided a visual resource for information about flowers, gardens, and landscapes, and some of the more spectacular examples are included in Mac Griswold's essay, including a painting by Georgia O'Keeffe and one of Mattie Edwards Hewitt's evocative garden photographs. Charles Willson Peale's portrait of William Paca, squire of Annapolis, demonstrates the documentary uses of garden art. A tiny detail provided information for an accurate restoration of Paca's eighteenth-century garden. Consideration is given to public gardens, cemeteries, and townscapes as well as private gardens. Phyllis Andersen traces the relationship of city and garden as colonial 34 . towns evolved into dense urban centers. changing needs for g-een space that began with the colonists' ideal pastoral city can be seen today in traditional community gardens as well as in small townhouse gardens. Walter Punch offers insights into the role of horticultural societies, garden clubs, and the botanical gardens and arboreta in public education, and considers the relevance of an entirely twentieth-century venture, the Garden Conservancy, which seeks to orchestrate the survival of America's premier gardens. Some of the elements in the creation of vast The gardens-books, plants, technology-are subjects that the volume skillfully introduces to the novice. One of the most obvious topics in any discussion of American gardens is the diversity of horticultural books that shaped and recorded the subject. The late Elisabeth Woodburn, whose extensive knowledge of the topic grew out of forty years' experience as an antiquarian dealer specializing in gardening and horticulture books, sketches the nineteenth-century work of Bernard M'Mahon, Joseph Breck, and Peter Henderson as pre- the explosion of gardening titles by such as Neltje Blanchan and Louise Beebe Wilder in the early twentieth century. Peggy Newcomb details the colorful history of plants in American gardens with illustrations from seed catalogues and plant monographs in the collection at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The scientific aspects of the garden are pondered by D. Keith Crotz who discusses plant culture as well as some of the paraphernalia necessary to maintain the garden, from hand tools and garden carts to water sprinklers and Budding's lawnmower. More follows on the lawn from Michael Pollan, who concludes the book with a provocative afterword. Excellent notes,bibliographies, and reference material enhance the usefulness of the book. This is a book to be enjoyed chapter by chapter, provided the reader is not sidetracked by a trip to the library to learn more on the chapter just finished. Keeping Eden should become a standard text on American garden history; certainly it can play a role in educating the public about America's garden heritage. to women lude "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 52","article_sequence":6,"start_page":35,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25068","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eaf6f.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers in to Volume 52 (1992) Bamboo parentheses refer to issues, those in boldface to illustrations of the entries. (1): 29, 30-31; (4): 4, 32 Barberry (3): 13 Basal chichi (4). 8 Basswood (4): 28 Bean, W. J. (1):10 Beans, Mediterranean and New World (2): , Acer gnseum (4): 24 Actmida chinensis (3): 27 Aden, Paul (1): 29 Adonis amurensis (2) : 36; Aesculus hippocastanum Aesculus octandra (4) : 29 cultivars, 37 (4): 29 25 Agave (2) : 17 Agave bahamense (2) : 18 -missionum Ajes (2): 23-24 8 Bedker, Peter (2): Bellwort(l):32 mentorensis (3) : 13 thunbergn (3) : 13 Betula spp. (4): front cover albo-smensis var. septentnonahs (2): 30 -lenta (4): 30 Biltmore Estate, Ashville, NC (1):31 Black birch (4) : 30 Black locust (4): 32 Black pepper (2): 21 Bleeding heart (3): 10 Bletilla stnata (2): 38 9 Bliss, Mildred (1):9 Bloodroot (3): 10 Blueberry (3): 27 Boltoma asteroides 'Pink Beauty' (4): 30 \"Botanical Legacy of Joseph Rock,\" Jeffrey Wagner (2): - (2) : 18 Berbens Ailanthus altissima (4): 26, back cover Alchemilla pubescens (3): 10 Aloe (2): 17, 18, 19 Aloe barbadensis (2): 17, 18 Ambrosia beetle (1): 7 7 American chestnut (2): inside back cover, 3-9, 8; range - of, 4 American chinquapin (2): 3 American elm (4): 29 American Genetic Association American holly (3). 11 American linden (4): 28, 30 - (3): 26 Anagnostakis, Sandra L., photo by (2) : back cover and Bradley Hillman, \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight\" (2): 2-10 Andromeda (3): 3, 12 Anemone canadensis (1): 25 Angehca gigas (2): 38 Annonaceae (3): 21 Arabidopsis (4): 12-16, 15 Arawaks (2): 20-27 Arnold Arboretum (1): 12-16, 18; (2): 30; (4): 29 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data-1991 (1):36 Artemisia stellerana 'Silver Brocade' ( 1 25, 26 Arum itahcum (2): 37, 38 Aruncus canadensis (3): 10 Arundmaria vmdistnata (1) : 29 Asarum canadense (1) : 26; (3): 10 Asimina (3): 21-23 -mcarna (3): 21-22 2014 longifoha (2): 22-23 -obovata (3): 22-23 2014 parviflora (3): 22-23 -pygmaea (3): 22-23 2014 reticulata (3): 22-23 -tetramera (3): 22-23 triloba (3): front cover, 20-28, 23, 24, 26, 27, range of, 25 2014 xnashh (3): 22-23 Astilbe chinensis 'Pumila' (3): 10 'William Buchanan' (3): 10 Azaleas (3): 3, 12 \"Azalea Border,\" Beatrix Farrand (1):13 - 29-35 Boxwood (4): 17 3 Bristol, Peter (1): Bromeliad (2): 28 Brookside Gardens (1):7, 8 Brown, Jane, \"The Lady as Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand at the Arnold Arboretum, Part 2\" (1):9-17 7 Garden, Far Hills, NJ (2) : 37 Burbank, Luther (2) : 5 Burnham, Charles (2): 6 Bussewitz, Al, photo by (3): front cover, 23, 26; (4): Buck front cover, back cover Bursera simaruba (2): 19, 20 Buxus sempervirens (4) : 17 Calabash tree ,_ (2): 25 Callaway, M. Brett, and Dorothy J., Pawpaw: The \"Our Native Next New Commercial Fruit?\" (3) : 2014 - subsp. nepeta (2): 39 Callery pear (4): 29 Campanula takesimana (1) : 26 Canadian ginger (1):26 I Canadian hemlock (3): 11 Capsicum (spp.) (2): 21 annuum (2): 22 frutescens (2): 22 Carex comca 'Variegata' (3): 10 20-29 Calammtha nepeta . 36 - - siderostricta 'Variegata' (1):26, 28 stricta 'Bowles Golden' (2): 39 - , Carya (spp.) (4): 31 2014 laamosa (1): front cover ovata (4): 31 Cassava (2): 22, 23, 24 Cassia hebecarpa (2): 39, 40 Castanea (2): cultivars, taxonomy, 7 crenata (2) : 3; cultivar, 7 dentata (2): 2, 3; cultivar, 7; (4): 29 -henryi (2): 5; cultivar, 7 2014 molhssima (2): 5, 6; cultivar, 7 2014 pumila (2): 3; cultivars, 7 sativa 12): 3, 7; cultivar, 7 2014 segumu (2): 5; cultivar, 7 Cazabe (2): 24 CecropIa peltata (2): 20 Ceiba pentandra (2): 26, 27 Chamaecypans lawsoniana (4): 24; range of, - ** ' - - - Dartington Hall (England) (1): 10 Darwin, Charles (4): 13, 16 Dawson, Jackson ( 1): 20 de Leuu, J. J. C. (2): 6 Decaisnea fargesu (1): 11 Del Tredici, Peter, photos by (1): front cover, back cover; \"The 'Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston,\" with Stephen A. Spongberg (1): ): 18-23; photo by (3): back cover; \"Make Mine Mulch,\" (3): 30-32; \"Where the Wild Gmkgos Grow,\" (4): 2-11, 7 Dicentra eximia 'Zestful' (3): 10 7 Dillard, Shelly (1):7 ' 2014 - 6 Diller, J. D. (2): 7 Dirr, Michael (1):7 Disporum flavum (2): 40 Dogwood (4): 17-22, 29 Du Pont de 25 - obtusa (3): inside back cover Chaulamoogra tree (2): 29 Cherry birch (4): 30 Chestnut (4): 29 Chestnut blight (2): back cover Chichi (4): 7, 9 Chinese chestnut (2): 5 Chinese chinquapin (2): 5, 6 Chvany, P., photo by (1):inside back cover \"Christopher Columbus as a Botanist,\" John M. Nemours, Eleuthere Irenee Dumbarton Oaks (1):9 9 Dunbar and Hunter (3): 14 Dwarf spiraea (3): 13 (2): 3 Kingsbury(2): 11-28 Cinnamomum zeylamcum Cinnamon (2): 21 (2): 21 Clematis tangutica obtusmscula (1) : 11 Climbing Plants in Eastern Mame, Beatrix Farrand (1): 11 ~>* Clark, Frances (2): 42 Clusia rosea (2): 28 Columbus, Christopher (2): 11-28 Comptonia peregrma (4): 29 Connor, Sheila, \"The Flymg Dogwood Shuttle\" (4) : 17-22 \"Convenience of Arabidopsis,\" Elizabeth A. Kellogg (4): 12-16 Convolvulaceae (2): 23, 24 Copper birch (2): 30 Corn (2): 26 Cornus flonda (4) : 17-22, 18, 21, 29 -kousa (4): 29 -nuttallii (4): 29 Corydahs lutea (2): 39, 41 Cotton (2): 26 Crescentia cujete (2) : 25 Cryphonectna parasitica (2): 3, 6-9 Cryptomena 7aponica 'Yoshino' (3): 11 smensis (4): 4, 10 Cucurbita spp. (2): 25 Cyclocarya paliurus (4): 4 ` Eck, Joe ( 1 ): 29 Ellwanger and Barry, Mt. Hope Nursery (2) : 5 Elmhlrst, Leonard, and Dorothy Whitney Straight (1):10 Emerald Necklace, Boston (4): 23 Emerson, George, On the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally m the Forests of Massachusetts (2): 3 Emmenopterys henryi (4): 4 Endothia parasitica (2) : 3 _'' Enkianthus (3): 3, 13 Enkianthus campanulatus (3): 13 Epimedium (1):27 -pmnatum var. colchicum (1):24 Epiphyte (2): 28 Euonymous alatus (3): 13 Eupatonum maculatum (4): 30 Euphorbiaceae (2): 23, 24 European chestnut (2): 3, 7 European horse chestnut (4): 29 Eurytides marcellus (3): 24 \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight\" (2): 2-10 _ False Solomon's-seal (2): 45 Farrand, Beatrix (1):9-17 Farrand, Max (1): 9, 11, 16 Faxon, C. E., drawing by (3): inside front cover; (4): inside front cover Felis bengalensis (4): 9 Ferguson, Al (3): 17 Ferns (3): 10 Filipendula camtschatica -' ~ ' - Dandy, James E. (1):18 Daphne burkwoodli 'Carol Mackie' (3): 13 (2): 41 Fink, Jerry (4): 14 Fir (2): 30 Flick, John (3): 17 \"Flymg Dogwood Shuttle,\" Sheila Connor (4): Flyspeck (3): 24 Forsythia intermedia 'Arnold Dwarf' (3): 13 Fortunearia smensis (1): 18 17-22 37 Foster, David (2): 3 5 Fragrant snowbell (1):5 Frost, Robert, \"Evil Tendencies Cancel\" (2): 9 - Garden in the Heart of Heaven (3): 3 Garden in the Woods (Framingham, MA) (2) : 42 Geranium endressi 'Johnson's Blue' (3): 10 -sangumeum (3): 10 Giant feather grass (2): 45 Ginkgo (4): 24 Gmkgo biloba (4): 2-10, 6, 7, Japanese cypress 3): inside back Japanese garden (3): 2-13 Japanese hydrangea-vine (1):11 Japanese knotweed (4) : 23 Japanese snowbell (1):2-8 Jaynes, R. A. (2): 6 cover Jefferson, Thomas (3): Joe-Pyeweed (4): 30 14 8, 9 Gleditsia tnacanthos (4): 26; range Goatsbeard (3) : 10 Golden hop vine (2): 41 Golden larch (4): 4 Golden wood millet (2): 42 Goldenrod (4): 29 of, 27 9 Jones, Mary Cadwalader (1):9 Jorgensen, Neil, \"Books\" (1): 34-35; (2): 46 Judd, William Henry (1):9, 11, 12, 13 Jumper (2): 30; (3) : 13 Jumperus chmensis 'Sargenti' (3): 13 procumbens 'Nana' (3): Juvemle foliage (2): 27 - 13 Gossypium spp. (2) : Graves, A. H. (2): 6 26 \"Groundcovers for the Garden Designer,\" Gary Koller (1):24-33 Guang, Yang (4): Gumbo limbo 5 tree (2): 19, 20 Haircap moss (3): 10 Hale, J. H., nursery (2): 5 Harvard Forest (2): 3 Henry, Patrick, home of (3): 15, 16 Hickory (4): 32; shagbark, 31 Hill, Arthur (1):10 Hillman, Bradley, and Sandra L. Anagnostakis, \"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight\" (2): 2-10 Holden Arboretum 7 (1):7 \" Holly (3): 13 Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston,\" Stephen A. Spongberg and Peter Del Tredici (1):18-23 Honey locust (4): 26; range of, 27 Hosta (3): 10 Hosta montana 'Aureo-marginata' (2): 41 Hsieh, Ling (4): 5, 6 Humulus lupulus 'Aureus' (2): 41 9 Hunnewell, Louisa (1):9 Huntington gardens (1):10 9 Huntmgton, Henry E., Library fl):9 I Hydrangea petiolans (1):11 Hypovirulent strain (2): 7-9 ' Holm Lea (1):9 9 \"'Hope of Spring' Okakura (3): 4 latifolia (3) : 12 Kapok (2): 26, 27 Karesansui (3): 6 Kay, John (4) : 19 Kehr, August(1):22 Kellogg, Elizabeth A., \"The Convenience of Arabidopsis\" (4): 12-16 Kelly, J. W. (2): 5 Kerna faponica (3): 13 Kmgsbury, John M., \"Christopher Columbus as a Botanist\" (2) : 11-28 Kiwi (3): 27 7 Klehm, Roy, photo by (2) : front cover Koller, Gary, \"Groundcovers for the Garden Designer\" (1):24-33; \"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Designer\" (2): 36-45; \"Native Dictates\" (4): 23-32 Korean azalea (3): 12 Korean fairy-bells (2) : 40 Kuma-zasa (1): 30 Kumbum Monastery (China) (2): 30 Kakuzo, Kalmia Ilex opaca (3): 11 - pendunculosa (3): 13 Interrupted fern (2): 42 Ipomoea batatas (2): 23, 24, 25 Ins (3): 3, 10 2014 cnstata (3): 10 -ensata (3): 10 2014 sibinca (3): 10 Japanese chestnut (2): 3; cultivars, 5 Labrang Monastery (China) (2): 31 \"Lady as Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand at the Arnold Arboretum, Part 2,\"Jane Brown (1):9-17 7 Lady's mantle (3) : 10 Lagenana sp. (2) : 25 Lawson cypress (4): 24; range of, 25 Leaf feeders (3): 24 Leafspot (3): 24 Leopard-cat (4) : 9 Lee, Jong-kyu (2): 9 Lesser calammt (2) : 39 Lesser celandine (2): 43 Lighty, Richard (2): 44 Lilyturf (1):27 Lmdera obtusiloba (3): back cover Liquidambar acaylcma (1):18 formosana (4): 4 Lmodendron chmensis x L. tuhpifera (I): 18 Lmope muscan (1):27 -specata (3) : 10 Litsea aunculata (4): 4 - , . - 38 Living Buddha (2): inside front cover Littleleaf linden (4): 29 \"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Designer,\" Gary L. Koller (2): 36-45 Lomcera tragophylla (1): 11 Nyssa sinensis (4) : October 4 2014 Lysichiton amencanum (2) : 41, Lythrum salicara (4): 23, 31 Maclura pomifera 42 1 cherry (3): 11 Olmsted, Frederick Law (1): 13; (3) : 8; (4): 21 Omphalocera munroei (3): 24 Ongm of Species, Charles Darwin (4): 13, 16 Osage orange (3): inside front cover; 15-19 Osmunda claytomana (2) : 42 (3): inside front cover, 14-19, 15, 16, 17 18; cultivars, 16, \"Our Native Pawpaw: The Next New Commercial Fruit?,\" M. Brett and Dorothy J. Callaway (3): 20-29 \"Magnificent Maclura-Past and Present,\" John C. Pair (3): 14-19 Magnolia biondn (1):18-23, 19, 21, 22 offianahs var. biloba (1):18 I -stellata {3): 11 j Mangelsdorf, Paul C. (1): 9, 13 Mamhot esculenta (2): 22, 23, 24 Manioc (2): 24 Maple (2) : 30; (3): 3 3 March, Sylvester (1):3 Masked palm civet (4): 9 Mastic (2) : 18-19 McDonald, Bruce (1):30 McKelvey, Susan Delano (1):9, 10 McMurtne, Cornelia (1):29 Messervy, Julie Moir, \"Tenshm-en\" (3): 2-13 Metasequoia glyptostroboides (4): 24 Meyer, F. N. (2): 3, 5, 6; (4): 2 Meyer, Paul, \"The Snowbells of Korea\" (1):2-8 Meyerowitz, Elliot (4) : 16 Mexican bamboo (4): 23 Mihum effusum 'Aureum' (2): 42 Millais, J. G. (1): 20 Miller, Wilhelm, What England Can Teach Us About 9 Gardening (1):9 Mistletoe (2): 27 Mock orange (2): 30 Moraceae (3) : 14 Morris Arboretum (1): 2, 7 Mt. Hope Nursery (2): 5 Mountain ash (3): 11 Mountain laurel (3) : 12 Mulch (3): 30-32 Murray, John (1):10 Museum of Fine Arts, Boston (3): 2-13 Mycocentrospora asimmae (3): 24 Mycorrhizal fungi (3): 30-31 - Pachysandra termmahs 'Cutleaf' (3): 10 Paeonia 'Joseph Rock' (2) : front cover -suffruticosa subsp. rockii (2): 30 Paguma larvata (4): 9 Pair, John C., \"Magnificent Maclura-Past and 14-19 Renato (1): 18, 20, Paperbark maple (4): 24 5 Parsons, S. B. (2): Patterson, Robert W. (1):13 Pawpaw (3) : 20-28 Present\" .. , (3): ' Pampamm, 22 Pearson, Richard J. (1):30 Peduncle borer (3) : 24 Pepper, black (2) : 21; bell, pimento, cayenne, tabasco, 22 Petasites japomcus 'Vanegata' Piens flonbunda (3): 13 2014 taponica (3): 13 Phaseolus vulgans (2): 25 Pheasant's-eye (2): 36 Phoradendron spp. (2): 27 Phosphorus (3): 30 Phyllostachys pubescens (4): 4 Phyllosticta asimmae (3): 24 I Pmus densiflora (3) : 11 I 'Umbraculifera' (3): 11 Piper nigrum (2): 21 Pistacia lentiscus (2) : 19 Plantae Wilsonianae (1): 18 Plant Red Data Book (4): 4 or paprika, chill, red (1): 28 -- Kmsaku (3): 4-6, 8 Shiro (3): 6 Nanjmg Botanical Garden (China) (4): 5 National Geographic Society (2) : 28, 30 \"Native Dictates,\" Gary Koller (4): 23-32 New England Wild Flower Society (4): 29 Nakane, Nakane, Plantago major 'Atropurpurea' (2): 43 Pleloblastus virldistriata 11): 29 Plympton Skate (4): 20 Podophyllum hexandrum (2): 43 Polygonum cuspidatum (4): 23 Polystnchum commune (3): 10 Poplar (2): 30, 31 Populus simonli (2): 35 Prairie Farmer (3): 14 Prunus sargentll (3) : 11 I 1 2014 subhirtella 'Autumnalis' (3): 11 I --'Pendula' (3): 11 Pseudolanx amabihs 14): 4 Racz and Debreczy, photos Ranunculus ficaria (2): 43 4 Raulston, J. C. fl):4 Red pine (3): 11 I _ \" . . ' . (2) : 22-23 Nienstaedt, H. (2) : 6 Nippon lily (2): 44 8 Normandy, Philip M. (1):8 Nuss, Don (2): 8 Niames by (1): inside front cover 39 Redwood-ivy (1):33 Reef Point (Bar Harbor, ME) (1): 10-12 2014 Reef Point Gardens Corporation (1):10, 16 Rehder, Alfred (1):11, 12, 18, 20; (3): 16 Rhododendron (2): 30 Rhododendron mucronulatum, varieties (3): 12 obtusum var. kaempfen (1): 12 - - I 2014 poukhanensis (3): 11 smogrande (2): 28 Rhopalocomdmm asjmmae (3): 24 Rhus typhma (4): inside front cover, 29 Robmia pseudoacacia (4) : 31 Rock, Joseph, photo by (2): inside front cover, 29-35 Roche Institute of Molecular Biology (2): 8 Rohdea japomca (2) : 44 Rose (2): 30 Rowan (2):30,31 Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh (2) : 31 Rubus calycmoides 'Emerald Carpet' (1): 29 - Straley, Gerald (1):28 Styrax cultivars (1):7-8, 18 japomcus (1): inside front cover, back cover, inside back cover, 2-8; cultivars (1):7-8 obassia (1): 2-8 , Sugar maple (4): 29 Sumac (4): 29 Sweet birch (4): 30 Sweet fern (4): 29 Sweet potato (2): 23, 24 Sweetgum (1): 18 Synnga oblata (2): 30 '- Taiwan Sanguinana canadensis (3): 10 Sargassum (2): 14-16 Sargassum fluitans (2): 16 Sargassum natans (2) : 16 Sargent, C. S. (1): 2, 9, 11, 13, 16; (2): 5; (4): 2, 21, 9 Sargent, Mrs. C. S. (1):9 9 Sargent, Ignatius (1):9 Sargent cherry (3): 11 Sasa veitchii fl): 30 Sassafras albldum (3): back cover 22 Sax, Karl (1):15 Schizophragma hydrangeoides(1):11 Seaweed (2): 13-16 Sedges (3) : 10 Segume (2). 5 Shagbark hickory (4): 31 Shellbark hickory (1):front cover Shibataea kumasaca (1): 31 Silvestri, P. C. (1):18,20,22 Sinojackia rehdenana (1):18 creeping raspberry (1):29 Talponia plummeriana (3): 24 Tankard, Judith, \"Books\" (2): 47-48; (4): 33-34 Tanyosho pine (3): 11 Tapioca (2) : 24 Taraktogenos kurzli (2): 28 Tatter, Terry (2): 9 Taylor, Roy (1):28 Teal, John (2) : 16 Tenshin, Okakura (3): 4, 13 \"Tenshin-en,\" Julie Moir Messervy (3): 2-13, 4, 5, 7, 9, 12 Tian Mu Shan (4): 3, 7, 8, 10; Nature Reserve, 3, 5 Tiha americana (4): 28, 30 -cordata (4): 29 Ting, Y. C. (l):20 Torch azaleas (1):12 Torreya grandis (4): 4 Tovara virgimana 'Variegata' (2): 44, 45 Tree-of-Heaven (4): 26 Tree peony (2): 30 Trillmm grandiflorum (3): 10 Tnpterygmm regehi (1):11 Trumpet tree (2): 20 I Tsuga canadensis (3) : 11 Turbinana (2): 16 v. Turner, Jonathan (3): 14 Ulmus amencana - zylocarpa (1):18 Smilacma racemosa (2) : 45 Smithsoman Institution (2): 28 \" Snowbells of Korea,\"Paul Meyer f (4): 29 8 (1):8 U. S. National Arboretum (1):2-8 University of British Columbia Botanical Garden (1): 26,30 Uvulana Uvularia Solidago spp. (4): 29 Sorbus decora (3) : 11 -'Joseph Rock' (2): 31 Spiraea japomca 'Little Princess' (3): 13 Spongberg, Stephen, and Peter Del Tredici, \"The 'Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston\" (1): J: 18-23 grandiflora (1): 32 sessihfoha 'Vanegata' (1):32 BC) (2): 43 Spruce (2): 30, 31 Spurge family (2): 24 SSV Westward (2) 10, Vaccinium spp. (3): 27 7 Van Dusen Botanical Garden (Vancouver, Vancouvena hexandra (1): 32 Vegetative reproduction (4): 7 Vicia faba (2): 25 9 Vivendae (4): 12 Staghorn sumac (4): inside front cover Star magnolia (3): 11 Steele, Fletcher 1 1):28 I Stewartia pseudocamelha (3): 11 Stlpa gigantea (2): 45 Waddick, James (1):26 Wagner, Jeffrey, \"The Botanical Legacy of Joseph Rock\" (2): 29-35 Weaving shuttle (4): 17, 19-20 Weeping cherry (3) :11 40 \"Where the Wild Ginkgos Grow,\" Peter Del Tredici (4) : 2-11 7 Xylosandrus germanus (1):7 Whitehead Institute (4): 14 Wild ginger (3): 10 Wild gourd tree (2): 25 Wilhelm Miller fl):9 9 2 Wilson, E. H. (1): 18; (4): Winterrod, Wayne (1):28, 29 Winterthur Gardens (2): 37 Witch hazel (1):18 Wright, John A. (3) : 14 Wyman, Donald (1):12, 13, 15 Yellow skunk cabbage Zea mays (2): 42 * \" * V i.V \" Yinger, Barry (1):3, 8, 27; (2): 36, 38, Zelkova 44 (2): 26 (4): 29 4 Zhejiang Forestry Bureau (4): 3, Zimmerman, G. A. (3): 26 Zygophiala lamaicensis (3): 24 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by issue: 39 U.S.C. 3685) lA, Title of publication: Arnoldia. IB, Publication number: 00042633. 2, Date of filing: 31 Dec. 1992. 3, Frequency of Quarterly. 3A, Number of issues published annually: 4. 3B, Annual subscription price. $20.00 domestic, $25.00 foreign. 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names of the publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-3519, publisher; Karen Madsen, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519, editor. 7, Owner: The Arnold Arboretumof Harvard University,125Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: none. 9, The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months 10, Extent and nature of circulation. A, Total number of copies. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. B, Paid and\/or requested circulation. 1, Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. 2, Mail subscription. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,921. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4,112. C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,921. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4,112. D, Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 47. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 47. E, Total distribution. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,968. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 4,159. F, Copies not distributed. 1, Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 1,032. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 841. 2, Return from news agents. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. G, Total. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. 11, I certify that the statements made by me are correct and complete. Karen Madsen, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25070","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eb36d.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS A Rhododendron Display Garden for the Case Estates Robert E. Cook, Director a Last November, after more than year of discussion, I signed a collaborative agreement with the Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron that will Society permit the Society to develop a five-acre display garden at the Case Estates in Weston, Massa- chusetts. This agreement facilitates long-standing partnership to grow display the finest rhododendrons hardy in New England. The Society now plans to expand its collections with examples of the work of prominent New England hybrida and izers such as Ed Mezitt of Weston Rhododendron 'Album Nurseries For tum over a Elegans' than decade the Arbore- has nual struggled to justify the anexpenditure of approximately $150,000 for the maintenance of the land and gated in the greenhouses at the Arboretum. During the many years when Dr. Donald Wyman lived in one cultivars), a change consistent with the original intentions of Charles Sprague Sargent, the director buildings of the Case Es- tates, which was donated to the Arboretum nearly half a century ago. Located ten miles from our living collections in Jamaica tates was lished of the houses there, he estabdisplay collections of horti- of the Arboretum for its first cultural cultivars throughout the Plain, the Es- used many years ago as a suburban nursery for plants propa- landscape. In 1978, several years after the retirement of Dr. Wyman, the collections policy of the Arboretum was thoroughly revised to concentrate on fifty-five years. By the 1980s, the container production of propagated plants on site at the Arboretum was far more (continued on page 2) wild-collected species (rather (continuedfrom page 1) efficient than transport to and from a suburban nursery. Forty acres of fallow Case Estates land was Visitor Survey most e What about and what the are do visitors value We discovered, for instance, that the Arnold Arbore- sold to tum? How do the Town of Weston in 1985. In people get here, their needs and in- 1988, a new mission statement no for terests once the Arboretum contained explicit they arrive' To find answers to these and other goal to develop display collections of horticulturally interesting cultivars. Consequently, in 1991,I relocated the grounds staff from Weston to our primary collections in Jamaica Plain. We land now questions, Arboretum staff, volunteers and Rangers from the Olmsted National Historic Site surveyed the interests and impressions during the study period a full 70% of our visitors came by automobile, 15% by foot, 9% used public transportation, and 6% came by bicycle. And what was important to these visitors once they arrived-1 As shown by the accompanying graph, 99% stressed the importance of clean, wellmaintained grounds, 96% of over five hundred visitors in through a manage the Estates' local landscape con- during a six-week period the tractor, and we continue to hold horticultural classes there. spring in 1992. Visitors were asked to respond to a questionnaire on stressed the importance of welllabeled collections, 90% valued visitor center information, and 87% emphasized the importance of educational exhibits These and other survey results basic Despite this changing role for the Case Estates, many people missed the pleasures of horticultural demographic infor- mation 2014 age, zip code, visit frequency-as well as a range of display collections there. Now the license with the Rhododendron So- questions on what they enjoy will inform plans to better provide for the educational interests about the Arboretum and what and basic ciety allows an organization whose to mission is dedicated cultivars and their display to develop a landscape -they'd like to see in the future. Coordinated by staff member Jim Gorman, the survey pro,., 1 1 1 rr needs of our estimated 250,000 annual visitors. Special thanks go vided tion some invaluable informa- garden without great cost to the Arboretum. Although we receive no financial benefit from allowing this use Lyn Gaylord, Anne Joseph, Pauline Perkins, Loren to volunteers about the Arboretum visitor. Stolow, and Arlene Theis. of the land, we will be able to incorporate the Society's collections into appropriate classes in our education program. Because the display WHAT DO YOU THINK IS MOST IMPORTANT AT THE ARBORETUM? garden will be open to the public free of charge, it will surely make a real contribution to gardening and horticulture in New England. ~~ Aid for the Fairchild Tropical Garden In response to the distress call issued to tural and botanical colleagues in the horticulcommunity by Klein, Jr., Arboretum Fairchild August Before Tropical 24, on was sunrise the Fairchild'sDirector, Dr. William McK a Garden in devastated by Miami, Florida, Hurricane Andrew. Winds of over 165 mph swept away many of the Garden's renowned botanical collections of palms and cycads from around the world. The largest tropical botanical garden m the continental United States was reduced to a tangle of broken trunks and leafless branches. Staff at the Fairchild estimate that about seventy percent of the trees were blown over or Director Robert E. Cook forwarded contribution from the Arboretum especially from the Arnold Arboretum Associates The $5000 contribution represents a portion of the net profit from our annual Rare Plant Auction held last September. and I- --Nmmx~ Pbyllis Andersen Phyllis Andersen Joins Arboretum Staff snapped. Botanical which trees The pleased triage, selecting cut should be and which with the aid of cranes and replanting braces, began within six days. The Garden was not fully insured against damage, and funds to cover new might survive the costs of restoraand shade tion, cloth greenhouses, needed. areas are Arnold Arboretum is to announce that Phyllis Andersen has joined the staff as Landscape Historian. She will be working on implementation of the Arboretum's cooperative agreement with the National Park Service that includes the development of a curriculum plan for training professionals in historic landscape preservation techniques. She will also be partici- ' ~l , _ _ . , k tf.r_ t~ _ , . pating with other AA staff members in a plant identification project at three National Park Service sites in New England: the Longfellow House in Cambridge; the Adams National Historic Site, Quincy; and the Saint Gaudens National Historic Site in Cornish, New Hampshire. Phyllis has been a consultant to a number of government agencies including the Boston Parks Department, the M.W.R.A., and the Department of Environmental Management. She is an instructor in the Radcliffe Seminars Graduate Program in Landscape Design and has also taught at the Boston Architectural Center and in the Yale College Seminar Program. WANTED! Rollerskates with dogwood wheels and other treasures!! \" r~ ~. In preparation for an Arnold Arboretum exhibit on the role of wood .a ~~ . ~ are in New England history, we looking for 18th-, 19th-, and early 20th-century wooden objects If you have any wood tools, >~- \",.JI utensils, machine parts, or other With the Hunnewell Visitor Center closed for renovations, participants in the Arboretum's field Study Experiences Program enjoyed temporary quarters under a in tent objects you'd be willing to donate or loan, please call Richard Schulhof at 617\/524-1718 x!13. the fall landscape. Upcoming Lecture Series link to regional and community needs large-scale ecosystem protection. 18 MARCH 1993 Landscapes in Transition: Rethinking Regionalism The Arnold Arboretum THE FUTURE OF THE GREAT joins the 18 FEBRUARY 1993 100 YEARS OF PLAINS, A PRESERVATION Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site of the National Park Service; the Harvard University Graduate School of Design, Department of Landscape Architecture; and Historic Massachusetts Inc. in sponsoring this series of lectures. All are PROPOSAL Frank Popper and Deborah Popper, Rutgers University Mounting economic and environmental difficulties THE METROPOLITAN PARK SYSTEM Program Moderator Alan Altshuler Harvard M. provide the free of charge and will be held in Piper Auditorium, the Harvard University Graduate School of Design at 48 Qumcy Street, Cam- University Panel background for this landscape preservation proposal for the Great Plains sometimes called Buffalo - Ilyas Shatti Commons - and its implications bridge, at 6:30 p.m. For more information, call the Olmsted Historic Site at 617\/566-1689. 4 FEBRUARY 1993 LANDSCAPF AND THE AMERICAN WRITER William Princeton MDC Commissioner for other rural regions. William J. Geary MDC Commissioner 1983-1989 John W. Sears MDC Commissioner 1970-1975 NEW PUBLICATION! The 1993 edition of the Arnold Arboretum's Howarth, University The Boston Metropolitan Park System celebrates its centennial as one Inventory of Just been Living Collections has of the nation's earhest examples published. This 161-page, bound volume lists all the names and locations of the 5,909 different plant taxa found in the Arboretum's Drawing on the works of Hemingway, Faulkner, and recent writers such as Annie Dillard and Barry Lopez, Professor Howarth examines American ideas of space and region and the tendency of our artists to invoke a nostalgic \"sense of place\" in response to environmental of regional park planning. Karl Haglund, MDC Planner, will present an overview of its history. The panel will discuss the past, present, and future of these treasured lands. A magnificent living addition, this new collections. In reception will follow the program. 4 MARCH 1993 INTEGRATING SOCIAL change. NEEDS AND CONSERVATION; CASE STUDIES FROM THE NATURE CONSERVANCY'S BIORESERVE PROGRAM inventory contains over fifty full-page illustrations of many Arboretum plants, reprinted from A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants by Carroll E. Wood, Jr., professor emeritus and former Arboretum staff edition of the member. be obtained made tum in George Fenwick The Nature Conservancy Mr. Fenwick will describe rent cur- Copies of the inventory can by sending a check out to the Arnold Arbore- the amount of $20.00 to: Nature Conservancy projects in- Arnold Arboretum Inventory The Arnold Arboretum 125 Arborway Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 cluding the Virginia Coast Reserve and the Texas Hill Country, which "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23327","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070af6c.jpg","title":"1992-52-4","volume":52,"issue_number":4,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tenshin-en: a Japanese Garden at Boston's Museum of Fine Arts","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25066","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25eab26.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Messervy, Julie Moir","article_content":"Tenshin-en: A Japanese Garden of Fine Arts Julie Moir Messervy An urban haven for at Boston's Museum contemplation that embraces two cultures. Westerners, the idea of owning a Japanese garden is an unreachable dream. Busy, stressed in their workaday world, they imagine returning home to a serene paradise For many of ancient stones perfectly set in a bed of moss, flanked by rippling waters of a koi pond. Here, in this miniature world, they can give voice to their inner thoughts, daydreams, and spiritual longings; they can become their true selves in a garden of beauty. us will have the space, find the have the money to create such a sanctuary in our lives. How fortunate it is, then, that the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, built just such a garden for all of us to experience and enjoy. Sitting within its walls, closed off from busy Boston traffic and passersby, one feels sheltered in an oasis, paradoxically surrounded by, yet removed from, present-day urban life and times. One sits in a curiously transcendent world, feeling the stones as venerable souls set with a modern freshness and vigor, reminiscent of rocky shorelines of New England, yet universal in the abstract power of their dry composition. At first, the visitor feels overwhelmed by the energy of the place, nearly 200 rocks, set here and there, and Few of or time, mixture of design prowess and accident. Equally impressive are the lushness and quantity of the plantings: over 70 species-1750 specimens in all-adorn the landscape, changing the feeling and form of the garden through the seasons. In early spring, the white-panicled flowers of andromeda hang as tresses from the shiny green of the shrub's leaves. Mid-spring into early summer brings a continuous bloom of azaleas in shades of white, fuchsia, rose, salmon, and pale pink, hummocking as small hills at the feet of tall stones and lanterns. Early to midsummer brings the purple, yellow, and white iris, standing in upright sheaths behind rocks. In fall, the maples, azaleas, and enkianthus turn brilliant hues of red, yellow, and orange to mark the onset of colder weather, before the snows drape the garden in winter. One could attend the garden every day and discover oneself anew through the continuously changing appearance of plants amidst the unchanging stolidity of the stone elements. senses a A Merging of Cultures viewing garden located at the north side Tenshin-en, the Garden of the Heart of Heaven, is a 10,000-square-foot contemplative at The Japanese lantern located near the water basin Tenshin-en. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. 4 The crushed gravel \"sea\" at Tenshm-en. tesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Raking gives the effect of ripples on the water's surface. Photo cour- of the West Wing of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. Completed in 1988, the garden is named in honor of one of the museum's first curators of Asiatic Art-Okakura Kakuzo, also known as Okakura Tenshin. Tenshin-en is one of New England's few semipublic viewing gardens in the Japanese ism with feeling of beauty and repose that England landscape. Rocky coastlines, deep forests, soft hillsides, and a evokes the New craggy mountains are abstracted and recreated to remind viewers of the beauty and style. A true Japanese garden, according to diversity of this region. The intent, according to Professor Nakane, the garden's designer, was to create in the garden \"the essence of mountains, the have New seen ocean and islands ... as I them in the beautiful landscape of cultural traditions, derives-and takes inspiration-from the landscape around it. In this spirit the project team of landscape artists flew over the New England region in a small plane to gain a sense of its geography and aesthetic qualities. The resulting garden is an interpretation of two cultures, combining the depth of meaning of Japanese garden symbol- England.\" Each rock, plant, and paving stone was chosen from local materials and combined with artifacts selected from the Museum's collection or brought from Japan. Together these intermingle to create a contrast 5 Lookmg along the curved path towards the gate at Tenshin-en. Photo courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. between natural materials and human objects and arrangements. Origins of Tenshin-en The Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, asked an internationally known garden master from Kyoto, Professor Kinsaku Nakane, to design and construct a Japanese garden as an important addition to the museum's worldrenowned Asiatic collection. Funds for the project were donated by the Nippon Television Network Corporation, Mr. Yosoji Kobayashi, Chairman of the Board. As the garden master's project coordinator, my responsibility was to assemble a project team to carry out his conceptual designs. The Halvorson Company, a Boston landscape architecture firm, was chosen to produce the technical documents and details necessary to build a garden of another culture in this country. Our mandate was to combine an acute sensitivity to the nuances of Japanese design with a full understanding of the legal and technical requirements of building projects in this country. Also included in the team were various subcontractors from this country and from Japan, each of whom brought specialized training and craftsmanship to different aspects of the project. The landscape contractor was Donald B. Curran, Incorporated of Ipswich, Massachusetts. 6 The garden evolved through a style of collaboration quite different from normal American landscape architectural practice. The garden master's concept and execution were upheld by the efforts of every team member in an atmosphere of unstinting commitment to the creation of a work of art: the Museum's curatorial staff guided the garden process and provided and conserved many of its artifacts; the Italian masons set Kyoto roof tiles on its walls; the Japanese carpenters built a traditional gate in Kyoto, dismantled it, and reinstalled it on site with the American carpenters' help. All upheld the master's concept, in a collaboration of the highest order. On one of his trips to the site, Professor Nakane was present to set the critical elements that make up the structure of the garden. To watch him was to see a true master at work. For six hot days in July, 1987, Professor Nakane established the positions of the rocks in the garden. Attending to an image of power and beauty that existed only in his sketches and in his imagination, he set almost two hundred stones. With the aid of a 100-foot hydraulic crane, its highly attentive operator, and three landscape crews, the shape of the garden began to emerge. One by one, the boulders, filling eight tractor-trailer trucks, were bound and chained to the crane's wire. Like the conductor of a symphony orchestra, Professor Nakane would indicate to one crew how deep into the ground they should dig, and to another which way the stone should faceand where its head, feet, front, and back should be positioned. The crew placed the stones, some weighing as much as eight tons, in the ground and made minute adjustments under Professor Nakane's watchful eye. All this was done without a word spoken, as Professor Nakane speaks only Professor Nakane, in a calm and almost casual way, would set one stone at the takiguchi (waterfall), the next stone on the tsurujima (Crane Island), and the next in the foreground of the garden. He saw the final result in his mind's eye and worked around the whole garden to balance his composition right from the start. As well as fitting into the design as a whole, each stone grouping had to be balanced in its own right-all of which Professor Nakane accomplished with split-second decisions. When the composition was complete, nothing needed to be altered; the whole felt dynamic and yet balanced. After he had set the stones, Professor Nakane returned to Japan while the walls and new sidewalks were installed. On his next trip to Boston he set fifty-two trees on the day he arrived, but unexpectedly returned to Japan the following day, called back because of a death at the Osaka University of Fine Arts, which he heads. At that point, his son and chief assistant Shiro Nakane took over and set the remaining plantings, ornaments, and stepping stones, and supervised the erection of the Japanese gate. Professor Nakane returned one more time for the opening of the garden on October 24, 1988. At that time, he declined to speak but chose instead to paint a sign for the garden in sumie-Japanese ink. Inscribed is ten, shin, and en (with Chinese characters) in his own beautiful calligraphic hand. Since then, Tenshin-en has been opened to the public from spring through fall and is visited by thousands of people every year. Japanese. The plan Boston. Design Features of Tenshin-en Tenshin-en is designed as a viewing garden in the karesansui style, harkening back to Zen temple gardens of the fifteenth century in Japan. Kare means \"dry,\" san, \"mounBoston. of Tenshin-en at the Museum of Fme Arts, Reproduced courtesy of the Museum of Fme Arts, 7 Ii' t- 4~t< tg 11 S ~ I \"- ~ * B!Bo = -0 r *! .4 -0 1 Z, m u = ,,~~ 0 <c C 'O 60 ~.~. v. C u 6G O .'t`. u CQ i3 ...J ::0.. O Z n. 0 BE - ~, ~ 1 s 1 , >II1Ij S>K -5 w g I- 5 E~.3~~e-BJ ~2 -3 o ~ 2? S 2EE= c ? M - I ~j 8 < S3 (J Q W 8 it is a \"dry mountain water\" garden, or a dry landscape garden. Water is suggested by the raked gravel \"sea,\" which unites all the landforms tain,\" and sui, \"water\"; thus garden-the mountains, islands, and rocky shoreline formed by mounded earth of the and rocks. Tenshin-en relates to its surroundings by a technique called shakkei, that is, by borrowing and echoing the distant landscape and bringing it into the garden walls. Curved shorelines and bridges within the garden echo the lines of the Fenway landscape that abuts the museum on its north side, designed by America's premier garden master, Frederick Law Olmsted. Olmsted designed parks and green spaces during the late 1800s, creating Boston's \"Emerald Necklace,\" the park system that links open space from Franklin Park to the Boston Commons as one nearly continuous sweep of green. Although conceived and designed on a scale far vaster than Tenshin-en's miniature landscape, Olmsted understood the need to evoke a harmonious understanding of nature, as he wrote in 1879: \"We want a ground to which people may easily go after their day's work is done, and where they may stroll for an hour, seeing, hearing, and feeling nothing of the bustle and jar of the streets, where they shall, in effect, find the city put far away from them.\" A them in their gardens. To the left is kamejima, the Tortoise Island; to the right is tsurujima, the Crane Island. Looking carefully, one can see the head, feet, tail, and flippers of the tortoise, and the head, wings, and tail of the crane. According to Professor Nakane, \"The mountains and islands symbolize the natural beauty of this region [New England], and, at the same time, mean enduring prosperity and happiness for the Museum visitors.\" If one studies the garden's design features, the rocky coastline to the right recalls the Maine Coast, and the two large rocks on Crane Island suggest Mt. Fuji (on the right) and one of New England's best known peaks, Mt. Monadnock (on the left). Looking carefully, one can see a profile much like that of New Hampshire's \"Old Man in the Mountain\" on the floating island between the Crane Island and the rocky coast. The stepping stone path area is an abstraction of deep forests, and the mossy hillside behind the Crane Island recalls the softly forested landscape of New England. The Stones Deeper Reading of the Garden Visitors who understand the garden's sym- bolism will probably have a richer experience of it. The dry \"waterfall\" (takiguchi) to the back and left of the garden represents the Buddhist concept of shumisen or Mt. Japanese garden, the stones are the backbone and provide the overall structure. Rocks from Topsfield, Boxford, and Rockport, Massachusetts, total about 390 tons. Each is placed according to ancient rules and traditions dating back to the Middle Ages of Japanese history. A dark granite vertical stone and base, carved in Japan, is located to the left of the waterfall, and says Ten-shinen in Chinese characters, a gift of the garden's donor, Yosoji Kobayashi. In the Sumeru, a mythic mountain thought to support the heavens above and the world below, and around which the universe was believed to be centered. The two \"islands\" in the left and right center of the garden are two of the \"Mystic Isles of the Immortals,\" Taoist mythical islands said to bring immortality and prosperity to those who incorporated The Wall and Japanese Gate The wall is a modern interpretation of a Japanese mud-and-wattle wall, seen in temple compounds and surrounding traditional gardens all over Japan. This wall, varying in height from five to seven feet, was constructed of poured concrete mixed with a light colorant, which was then sandblasted 9 One of the curved budges which link the \"islands\" to the \"mainland.Photo courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. roughen the texture. The base band is of granite from Deer Isle, Maine, resembling to the facade of the museum's West Wing. From the outside, one can see only a narrow round cap of tiles of a simple design to meld with the spare lines of the West Wing. From the inside, one sees the full slant of the roof that protects a typical wall from the elements. These silver tiles are made of clay baked four times rather than the usual two, in order to accommodate Boston's more climate. An old Kyoto firm, severe Yokoyama Seiga Kojo, specializing in shrine and temple roof tiles supplied the 1500 pieces that make up the roof, including round roof tiles, stacked tiles, beam tiles, and eaves tiles. A special Museum of Fine Arts emblem tile, onigawara, featuring the museum's seal, was also made up and grouted to the end wall at the Education Entrance. The imposing Japanese gate is called kabuki-mon, meaning \"hanging gate\" (and does not refer to the famous Japanese the- ater.)A traditional gate for a mountain castle or large palace in Japan, it was chosen as a Japanese-style horizontal counterpoint to architect I. M. Pei's large concrete beam at the entrance to the West Wing. The gate is built of Japanese cypress, a wood with excellent natural preservatives. Special design features of the gate are the 13-inch-wide post 10 Perennials in Tenshin-en Six hundred perennials adorn the garden. Ferns of many varieties are used with hostas and liriope to soften the appear- of the rocks. Leatherleaf ferns as as lady, hart's tongue, Japanese painted, Christmas, and maidenhair ferns, abound in the garden. Hostas include 'Gold Standard', 'Green Fountain', 'Francee', 'Blue Cadet', 'Nakiana', and 'Flavo Circinalis', with five giant hostas featured outside the walls ('Halcyon', 'Christmas Tree', 'Nigrescens', 'Frances Williams', and 'Blue Angel'). Other perennials include bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), trillium (Tnllium grandifloance well rum), goatsbeard (Aruncus canadensis), lady's mantle (Alchemilla pubescens), iris [Iris ensata, sibirica, and cristata), geraniums (Geranium endressi 'Johnson's Blue', G. sanguineum), astilbes (Astilbe chinensis 'Pumila', 'William Buchanan'), bleeding heart (Dicentra eximia 'Zestful'), wild ginger (Asarum europaeum), liriopes, and sedges (Liriope spicata, Carex comca 'Variegata'). One can also spot pachysandra (P. terminalis 'Cutleaf') planted as a specimen near the water basin and stepping stone path. The groundcover moss is Polystrichum commune, known as haircap moss. and beams (kasugi, or \"umbrella wood\" curved beams above the two small doors), the ornamental nail covers, and ironwork. The gate was constructed in Japan by Suzuki Komuten, carpenters who specialize in building traditional Japanese structures. After being erected once for approval in Japan, it was disassembled and rebuilt in Boston. The wrought-iron fittings, hinges, and nail covers, also fabricated in Japan, are of traditional design. The Water Basin The water basin, visitor to large stepping stone upon which one kneels to partake of the water is called a maeishi, or \"front stone\"; the stone to its right is the yuokeishi, or \"hot water container stone,\" on which such a container would be placed so that guests could add hot water the basin to warm their hands. The stone the left is the teshokuishi, or \"hand candle stone,\" on which a guest might place a portable candlestick when using the garden in winter to to at night. or chozubachi, enables a ritually purify his or her body and mind as preparation for contemplating the garden and for receiving inspiration and renewal from its spiritual meaning. Similar stone basins were used in tea gardens as vessels for ritual cleansing before taking tea. This chozubachi is in the fusen style, fu meaning \"to proclaim\" and sen meaning \"spring of water.\" The stones around the water basin are arranged in the original Koho-an style. The The Stone Lanterns Stone lanterns were originally used as votive lights placed in front of Buddhist temple buildings. In later years they played a more ornamental role and were designed specifically for garden use-to light the path to a tea house or to light certain areas of a garden. Near the water basin is a small Japanese lantern of the Edo period(1603-1867), originally located in the Japanese Court of the museum's Asiatic Collection. It has a tall mushroom-shaped \"hat\" and is placed so that it can cast light over the water basin at night. 11 In the northeast corner of the garden is a path for the than an kasuga-style lantern, a reproduction of one from the Kawageta Temple, the original considered a \"very important cultural property\" by the Japanese Government. Dating from 1311, the lantern is a very good example of late Kamakura-period (1185-1333) lanterns. It shows the then prevailing concern with power and beauty in its attacking lion and peacock carvings. Single petals of lotus are carved at the base, a Buddhist symbol of the soul's ascent from mud to the glory of flow- viewer to take a visual rather actual journey. These bridges, called soribashi, or \"curved bridges,\" are as long as 17 feet and weigh as much as 1.5 tons. The Plantings ering. Just inside the gate is another kasuga-style lantern, a reproduction of the main lantern at the Joruri-ji Temple near Kyoto, carved about 1366. The shape of this lantern follows the composition of the Kawageta lantern but it is narrower overall: the lotus petals are taller, the window is smaller, and the curve to the roof is steeper. A large Korean lantern in a fourteenthcentury style, originally located in the courtyard of the museum, is situated in the southeast corner of the garden. Outside the garden wall is a Meiji-period lantern, dating from about 1880, featuring ornamental friezes of mountains and deer. species of plants give color and the garden. Cherries, Japanese maples, and pines are all signature plants of a Japanese garden and serve as symbols of the changing seasons. Tenshin-en is composed of a mixture of Japanese and American species; such plants as Japanese Cryptomeria combine with American holly to create a new horticultural interpretation of an ancient art form. Over seventy texture to The Paths are based on the prinThe path outside the gate is of the shin, or \"formal\" style, the stepping stones are of the so, or informal style, and the curved nobedan path is of the gyo style (somewhere between informal and formal in style). The cut stones on the curved path are surrounded by black-washed Mexican river stones set in mortar. This path brings one to the cut stone terrace on which are three shogi benches of traditional design. The informal stepping stones paths called tobiishi, take the visitor to the Korean lantern, the water basin, or are used as an alternate route back to the Japanese gate. There are also three bridges that link the \"islands\" with the \"mainland\" and form a Japanese garden paths ciple of shin-gyo-so. Japanese maples, called kaede, or \"frog's hand\" or momiji, are mainstays of a Japanese garden. Used to create a feeling of mountain scenery at the edge of a forest, they link open land to forested land. Broadleaf evergreen trees are generally not hardy in the Northeast, so American hollies, Ilex opaca, were used in place of some of the evergreen oaks that, in Japan, act as tall evergreen screens to give the sense of a deep forest. Needle-leaf trees, including compact selections of the Canadian hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and Cryptomeria japonica 'Yoshino', are used to create a lush background to the waterfall and mountain path areas. Cryptomeria is part of the indigenous vegetation in Japan and are planted extensively in holy areas such as shrine precincts. Red pines (Pinus densiflora) and tanyosho pines (Pinus densiflora 'Umbraculifera') are used to highlight the islands. Deciduous trees used in the garden include Stewartia pseudocamellia, mountain ash (Sorbus decora), star magnolia (Magnolia stellata), and of course cherries: the weeping cherry by the gate (Prunus subhirtella 'Pendula'), October cherries (Prunus subhlrtella 'Autumnalis') and Sargent cherries {Prunus sargentii). The Japanese admire cherries as symbols of a life well-lived-they Trees: 12 Stone lanterns are used to light paths and highlight special areas of the garden's design. Photo taken m1988 and reproduced courtesy of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston. suddenly and abundantly, but are gone nearly overnight, suggesting a good way bloom to midseason bloomers of various colors: salmon ('Guy Yerkes'), silver-pink ('Kaempo'), face death as well. Shrubs: The 1100 shrubs in the garden provides its finished and colorful look. About 500 azaleas of many varieties provide color over two months in the spring. Early bloomers include the Korean azalea (Rhododendron poukhanensis) and varieties of R. mucronulatum. The popular 'Delaware Valley White' azaleas and early reds ('Hinocrimson' and 'Hinodegiri') mix with white with pink throat ('Geisha'), white ('Girard's Pleasant White', 'Polar Bear'), rosered ('Vyking'), and the beautiful 'Purple Gem'. Late-blooming varieties include the North Tisbury hybrids ('Wintergreen', 'Yuka', and 'Marilee'). Azaleas are pruned in the karikomi, or cloud-form shape, to suggest the billowing forms of hills and to soften the base of the stones. Other shrubs used extensively are mountain laurels [Kalmia latifolia), andromeda 13 (Pieris japonica, P. floribunda), enkianthus (Enkianthus campanulatus), kerria (Kerria japonica), daphne (Daphne burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie'), forsythia (Forsythia intermedia 'Arnold Dwarf'), barberries (Berberis thunbergii, B. mentorensis), junipers [Juniperus procumbens 'Nana', J. chinensis 'Sargenti'), euonymus (Euonymus alatus), holly (Ilex pendunculosa), and dwarf spiraea (Spiraea japonica 'Little Princess'). Maintenance Contrary den is to not a One day a open season, popular opinion, a Japanese garlow-maintenance landscape. week throughout the garden's a maintenance crew comes to tend the garden. Every week the crew prunes certain trees and shrubs, weeds the moss, and rakes the gravel. Other gardening chores occur at specific intervals during the year: moss is trimmed for propagation, perennials are cut back or divided, fertilizers or horticultural sprays are applied, hemlock bark mulch is spread; azaleas are deadheaded and also pruned at least twice a year to maintain their shape and size. Viewers are always curious about how the garden is raked. Crushed granite gravel from Mt. Airy, North Carolina, represents the \"sea\" of the garden's landscape. A heavy sixtine rake is used to give the effect of ripples on the water's surface. Starting from the near right-hand corner of the garden, the crew rakes in lines parallel with the West Wing wall. When the raker reaches an obstacle, such as a stone or island, he stands on it and rakes around it in a circle, continuing the pattern under the bridges and around all detached stones. Finally, the raker follows the edge of the garden's \"sea\" around the perimeter until meeting the gate. The abstract lines of \"water\" are most apparent during rainy or cloudy days, or when the textures are emphasized by a thin veneer of snow. Tenshin-en is frequented by viewers coming to learn about another culture's garden art, to enjoy the verdant atmosphere, or to seek a moment's peace. In the Garden of the Heart of Heaven, visitors will feel the truth of the words of Okakura Tenshin who once said, \"One may be in the midst of a city, and yet feel as if one were far away from the dust and din of civilization.\" to Museum of Fine Arts from April to November, Tuesdays through Sundays, from 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. Tenshin-en is open visitors The designer of the Arnold Arboretum's Linda J. Davison Memorial Path and the project coordinator of Tenshm-en during its construction, Julie Moir Messervy is a landscape designer living in Wellesley. She is author of Contemplative Gardens (Howell Press, 1990) and is be published 1993. currently finishing a new book, The Inward Garden, to by Little Brown and Co. m September "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnificent Maclura- Past and Present","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25062","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24e896b.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Pair, John C.","article_content":"Magnificent Maclura-Past and Present John C. Pair New cultivars of the Osage orange have stimulated interest in this distinctive native tree. The Osage orange, Maclura pomifera, has a long and interesting history of use by both Native Americans and early pioneers (Sand, 1991Its wood was once in demand for making hubs and wheel rims for horse-drawn vehicles, mine timbers, posts, and other uses where resistance to rotting was important. Its decay resistance is due to the chemical 2, 3, 4, 5-tetrahydroxystilbene, located in the wood and toxic to many fungi (Smith and Perino, 1981). ). Perhaps the species is best known as a \"living fence\" because of its stout thorns on zigzagging branches, ease of propagation, rapid growth, and tolerance to heat, drought, and wind. Osage orange was first cultivated in the South in the early 1800s. The plant reached Jacksonville, Illinois, by 1830, brought north by Professor Jonathan Turner, a biology teacher from Illinois College, and promoted through the efforts of John A. Wright, editor of The Prairie Farmer. By 1847 Turner was convinced that Osage orange was the best fencing material available, describing it as \"horse high, bull strong, and pig tight\"; it functioned as a fence long before the invention of barbed wire, which did not come into wide use until 1875 (Dick, 1975). Maclura pomifera, a member of the mulberry family (Moraceae), grows best in the rich bottomlands along the Red River between Texas and Oklahoma. It also occurs naturally across southern Missouri, Ar- kansas, and parts of Louisiana (Smith and Perino, 1981The species is often referred to as hedge apple, or just \"hedge,\" from its common use as hedges and windbreaks in the plains states. Dunbar and Hunter suggested the idea of cultivating Osage orange as a hedge to President Thomas Jefferson upon return from their expedition to the Red River in 1806 (Morton, 1967). The common name of the plant comes from its globular, characteristic fruit, about the size of a large orange, borne on female trees of this dioecious species (Figure 1). The French found the Osage Indians making their bows from its wood and called it bois d'arc (meaning wood-of-the-bow). Such bows were so highly regarded by Indian tribes to the north that they were considered worth a pony and a blanket in trade. Recently the tree has been advocated as an urban tree for difficult planting sites (Powell, 1979). The Champion Tree The champion Osage orange tree in the United States was reported in 1939 to be located in Charlotte County, Virginia; it measured 15.5 meters (50.9 feet) high, with a circumference of 7.5 meters (24.5 feet) and a spread of 28.2 meters (92.5 feet) (Collingwood, 1939). Recent correspon- dence has indicated that this same tree, although somewhat in decline, is still on IS .1; Figure1 'I~pical \/rujt and thorns of Maclura pomifera, both undesirable when the scape use. tree is planted for land- the front lawn of the restored home of Patrick Henry, near Red Hill, Virginia, and is now nearly 18 meters (59 feet) high with a crown spread of 30.5 meters (100 feet) and a trunk diameter of 2.7 meters (9 feet) (Figure 2). The Henry family reports that the family physician present when Patrick Henry died on June 6, 1799, became so upset at not being able to save the legendary patriot that he went outdoors and \"threw himself underneath a large tree, weeping bitterly\" (Daily, 1983). The Osage orange is thought to be the \"large tree\" mentioned, a living landmark of another era. The largest Osage orange in Kansas grows in Labette County and measures 18 meters (59 feet) tall with a 21.3-meter (70 feet) spread and a 4.8-meter (15.8 feet) circumference. Although doubts have been expressed about the hardiness of this southern species, it has survived as far north as the Platte River in central Nebraska (Dick, 1975). Large specimens occur across southeastern Iowa and central Illinois and Ohio, and it has also been planted along the West Coast. Internationally, it has been reported growing in the British Isles, France, Germany, Italy, the Netherlands, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Switzerland, and Australia (Spaulding, 1956). After the Osage orange became widely planted as fencing around small farms, it quickly invaded the prairies, occurring as small, pure stands or with mixed hardwoods; crown 16 Figure 2. The champion Osage orange tree at the home of Patrick Henry in Charlotte County, Virginia. The a tree is nearly sixty feet tall, with nine-foot trunk diameter. it moved into the eastern states, becoming naturalized in abandoned fields. The species has no natural pests. Kansas State University has been identifying evaluating thornless selections for over twenty-five years (Pair and Keen, 1980). The and Thornless and Fruitless Selections Although Rehder (1967) reported a thornless variety of the Osage orange, Maclura pomifera var. inermis, such specimens are uncommon, and some horticulturists suggest that they are merely mature specimens of trees that were typically thorny when they were more juvenile. However, isolated thornless trees have been identified, and a few are creeping into the commercial trade. first introduction made in the mid-1970s was 'Pawhuska', named after an Osage Indian chief. The most recent release is 'Wichita' (Figure 3), a thornless male selection found growing near Wichita, Kansas (Pair, 1991). \/. Other selections propagated from large specimens located in Oklahoma, Kansas, and Iowa continue to be evaluated. Quite promising is one called 'Whiteshield', found growing along Whiteshield Creek, and 17 named after a Cheyenne Indian chief. The tree has glossy, cordate-shaped leaves (Figure 4) and was discovered by John Flick near Hammond, Oklahoma. Another large male specimen without thorns, found by Al Ferguson growing in an old nursery near Denmark, Iowa, is being propagated for comparison with nine other clones at the Horticulture Research Center in Wichita, Kansas. Propagation Osage orange is easily propagated in a variety of ways. Seedlings, traditionally used for windbreaks or as understock for improved selections, are grown from stratified seed removed from the large, leathery fruit collected in the fall. Seed slip easily from the pulp if allowed to ferment in water for several days. Stratification for 30 to 45 days at 4 degrees Centigrade (40 F) is usually sufficient to break dormancy so seed can be planted in the greenhouse in January or February. If sown outdoors in the fall, germination will occur in April or May the following spring. Seedlings large enough for T-budding can be produced by mid-August. Budding can be done in August using vigorous, current season's growth directly from any superior plant. Such buds will remain dormant until forced out the following April or May. Alternatively, dormant scionwood can be collected during winter and stored for June budding once bark slips on the understock. Bench grafting is also easily accomplished using either a whip and tongue or cleft graft in midwinter. Grafts should be allowed to callus six weeks at near 12 degrees Centigrade (55 F) before potting up or lining out in the spring. The rootstock should be the same size as the scions used, or larger. Wrapping with grafting tape or masking tape secures the union until callusing occurs. Cuttings, both softwood and hardwood, are commonly used to propagate thornless and fruitless selections vegetatively. Tender 3 A ten-year-old specimen of Maclura pomifera 'Wichita', a thornless, male cultivar. Figure shoots, fifteen centimeters taken in May or (6 inches) long, early June and placed under intermittent mist, will root in five to six weeks. Rooting hormones greatly increase the percentage and the numbers of roots produced. Concentrations of indolebutyric acid (IBA) ranging from 2,500 to 5,000 parts per million are usually adequate. The commercial talc formulation Hormodm No. 2 (3,000 ppm) works well. Softwood cuttings ready for potting in August need winter protection before lining out the following spring. Hardwood cuttings can also be propagated easily with wood collected from January to March. With this method, plants of sufficient size can be produced for lining out the same season. Pair and Khatamian (1984) 18 Figure 4. A fruitless and thornless selection of Maclura with glossy, cordate-shaped leaves. strong in this found basal stem portions rooted better than terminal sections when taken off mature trees. Wood collected in winter should be tendency for multiple can stems to occur eight-inch cuttings, dipped in ppm IBA, and placed over bottom heat near 21 degrees Centigrade (70F) in a cool greenhouse (13 to 18 degrees Centigrade [55-65 F]). The rooting medium can be either perlite or a mixture of perlite cut into six- to 5,000 to 10,000 and peat in a two-thirds to one-third ratio, and should be kept moist, but not too wet. Bottom heat allows callusing and rooting to occur before leaves emerge from the cuttings (Figure 5). as late as March 1 often three weeks and can be potted up in eight weeks-until of sufficient size for lining out in early summer. Since there is a Cuttings taken root in be grown for one species, cuttings season without pruning or training. If the plant is cut back to a single bud near the base the following spring (as in propagation by budding), a strong central leader can be produced to form a better, single-stemmed tree. Osage orange has seldom been used as a common residential tree. Its wide-spreading root system requires ample space, but its rustic beauty-particularly when the glossy green leaves turn yellow in autumn-can provide shade and ornamental value to parks and landscapes and at the same time symbolize the American frontier. As improved selections become available and the demand for stress-tolerant, pestresistant trees increases, greater use may be 19 American Desert Lincoln: Nebraska State Historical Society, pp. 72-81. Morton, C. V 1967 Freeman and Custis account of the Red River expedition of 1806, an overlooked publication of botanical interest. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 48 431-459. Pair, J. C 1991. Maclura pomifera'Wichita'. Amencan Nurseryman 174 (8): 146. - and R. A. Keen, 1980. Propagation of thornless-fruitless selections of Osage orange. Proceedmgs of the International Plant Propagators Society 30: 348-353. - andH.Khatamian 1984 Rooting of thornless Osage orange by hardwood cuttings as affected by IBA concentrations and stem portion. The Plant Propagator 30(1) : 6-7. T. 1979 Powell, Figure 5. Rooted hardwood cuttings of Maclura after a four weeks of bottom heat and treatment of 5,000 ppm IBA Taming the Osage orange. The Avant Gardener 2(13):1. Rehder, Sand, A. 1967. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs New York: Macmillan Co made of male Maclura cultivars. From the windswept prairie to the inner city, this tree may fill the need for those difficult planting sites where few other species can survive. References S. 1991. A tree history: the Osage orange. American Horticulturist 70(10): 37-39. Smith, J. L., andJ. V. Permo. 1981. Osage orange (Maclura pomifera): history and economic uses. Economic Botany 35: 24-41. Spaulding, P. 1956. Diseases of North American Forest Trees Planted Abroad USDA Handbook 100. Collingwood, Daily, Dick, G. H. 1939. Osage-orange. Amencan Forests 45: 508-510 P. 1983. Osage orange at Red Hill: tale of a Virginia Forests 39(3): 22-23. 1975. Fences. In tree. John Pair is a Research Horticulturist for Kansas University at State in the Horticulture Research Center E. Conquenng the Great Wichita, Kansas. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Our Native Pawpaw: The Next New Commercial Fruit?","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25065","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25ea76d.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Brett, M.; Callaway, Dorothy J.","article_content":"Our Native Fruit? M. Brett and Pawpaw: The Next New Commercial Dorothy J. Callaway can Asimina triloba to your table. add a distinctive look to your garden and a tropical taste If someone told you about a tree bearing fruits that are delicious and exotic in flavor, custard-like in texture, and larger than any other native to the United States, you would probably assume that this fruit was already popular in the marketplace. If you learned that this same tree possessed large, highly ornamental, dark-green leaves that turned a brilliant gold in the autumn, you would suspect that you had probably seen it in many yards. You would, however, be mistaken in both cases. The tree in question is the native pawpaw, Asimina triloba. But why is a fruit with such potential not already a commercial crop? How can the pawpaw benefit from what we know of the commercial development of other fruit crops? emerged. The flowers is, the stigmas before the in a are protogynous, that mature given flower Flower petals are arranged in two whorls of three (or more rarely, four). The fruits are cylindrical, stamens. many-seeded berries, usually ranging in length from 2 to 9 centimeters (1-4 inches), although some specimens of A. triloba bear fruit as long as 15 centimeters (6 inches). Table 1 provides a comparative list of Asimina species, their synonyms, flowering and fruiting times, and other plant characteristics. The most recent taxonomic study of the Species and Taxonomy The genus Asimina has the northernmost range within the primarily tropical family, the Annonaceae. It includes eight species and one named hybrid, all native to temperate North America. Each of the eight species and one hybrid of Asimina are briefly described below and in Table 1. Either deciduous shrubs or small trees, Asimina species produce flowers in the spring, often before the alternately arranged leaves have Asimina genus Asimina was carried out by Kral (1960). His treatment is widely followed, except for one species that Kral calls A. speciosa, but that is more commonly referred to in the literature as A. incana or A. incarna. We believe A. incarna to be the legitimate of this species. Detailed distribution for species in the genus Asimina are maps name provided by Callaway (1990). Species in the Genus Asimina Asimina incarna, a small shrub with obovate leaves and white flowers, is native to sandy ridges and old fields from central Florida north to southeastern Georgia. tnloba, from The Sylva of North America by C. S. Sargent. Drawn by C. E. Faxon. 22 23 A. pygmaea, a dwarf shrub with obovate or oblanceolate leaves and maroon flowers, is native to flatwoods and savannahs from central Florida to southeastern Georgia. A. reticulata, a shrub with oblong or elliptic leaves and white flowers, is native to most of the Florida a peninsula. or A. tetramera, to shrub with oblanceolate elliptic leaves and maroon flowers, coastal sand dunes in the area and Palm Beach counties, Florida. A. is x is native of Martin nashii, the only named Asimina hybrid, naturally occurring cross between A. mcarna and A. longifolia. Described by Kral as occurring where the ranges of the two parent species overlap, it is a shrub with white flowers; its leaves are intermediate in size between the two parents. Although other Asimina hybrids were discussed by Kral (1960), only A. x nashii was named. a The attractive Al Bussewitz. foliage of Asimina tnloba. Photo by A. longifolia, a small shrub with narrow leaves and white flowers, is native to flatwoods and sand ridges from northeastern Florida to southeastern Alabama. shrub or small tree with obovate leaves and white flowers, is native to dry sand ridges, coastal dunes, and hammocks throughout most of peninsular Florida. Asimina triloba, by far the most widespread and northernmost species of Asimina, deserves special attention. A shrub or small tree with maroon flowers, it is native to most of the eastern half of the United States from Florida to Ontario, west to Nebraska and Texas (see range map). The fruit of A. triloba, unlike that of most of the other species, is commercial palatable, large, and deserving of exploitation. A. obovata, a A. parviflora, a large shrub or small tree, oblong leaves and maroon flowers, is native to rich woods, lime sinks, and alluvial with soil of coastal hammocks from Florida to southeastern Virginia, west to Tennessee and eastern Texas. Horticulture of Asimina triloba Because of transplanting difficulties, pawpaws are best started as seedlings in deep containers and grown to a height of 0.6 to 0.9 meters (2-3 feet) before they are transplanted to the field. Seedlings should be protected from direct sunlight for the first year of growth because of their sensitivity to ultraviolet light. In their second and subsequent years, however, plants should be placed in full sun for best fruit production (Willson and Schemske, 1980). The limited cultural 24 flower loss in some years. A number of vertebrates (foxes, opossums, and squirrels) are known to eat pawpaw fruit. Propagation not be allowed to dry planting. Small quantities are placed in polyethylene bags containing damp sphagnum moss. Cold stratification at 2 to 4 degrees Centigrade (35-39F) for 60 to 100 days is recommended (USDA, 1948). Rate of germination is improved by bottom heat (27 to 30 degrees C [80-86F]) and shading (Callaway, unpublished; Evert and Payne, 1991; Peterson, 1991).The most reliable method of vegetative propagation is chipbudding. Root cuttings have also been successful (USDA, 1948). Tissue culture and out Pawpaw seed should before softwood propagation methods have been satisfactorily developed. Varieties not Growing m the understory of a forest m South Carolma, the alternate arrangement of the foliage of the pawpaw is both obvious and distinctive. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. information available for pawpaw is rized by Callaway (1990, 1993). Diseases and Pests Diseases summa- of Asimina include flyspeck (Zygophiala jamaicensis) and a leaf spot caused by a complex of pathogens (Mycocentrospora asiminae, Rhopalocomdium asiminae, and Phyllosticta asiminae) (Nasu and Kunoh, 1987; Peterson, 1991).None of these diseases cause significant damage to the fruit. Insect pests include two leaf feeders, Eurytides marcellus and Omphalocera munroei (Damman, 1986), and one peduncle borer, Talponia plummeriana (Allard, Compilations of information on past and present varieties of Asimina triloba have appeared in reports by Callaway (1990, 1993) and Peterson (1991).Much of the information available on varieties is subjective and of questionable value. Many so-called varieties are trees that were named by their owner and reported in the literature of various fruit-grower societies, but never propagated for distribution. However, until properly conducted variety trials are carried out, these are the best sources of information available. Of the sixty-eight varieties listed by Callaway (1993), commercial suppliers are known for nineteen. However, only 'Sunflower' is listed by more than two nurseries. (It is listed by six.) Eight are listed by two nurseries and 10 by only one. 'Davis', 'Overleese', and 'Sunflower' are probably the most widely grown varieties. 'Overleese' and 'Sunflower' are generally considered among the best selections currently available. Selected from the wild around 1950 in Rushville, Indiana, 'Overleese' bears fruit weighing approximately 350 grams 1955). T plummeriana may cause serious (12.3 25 The range of Asimma tnloba, the pawpaw. From Atlas of United States Trees, Vol. 4, Minor Eastern Hardwoods. 1978. USDA Misc. Publ. 1342. ounces) and ripens about the first week of October in Michigan. 'Sunflower' fruits, somewhat smaller, weigh approximately 250 grams (8.8 ounces) and ripen in Michigan at about the 'Sunflower' same ties (Alkofahi et 1986; Rupprecht al., 1989; Rupprecht et al., et al., 1990). Pawpaw also time as 'Overleese'. Kansas. originated in Chanute, are Utilization and Prospects develops into a very handsome ornamental plant. In the open, trees assume a pyramidal form. Throughout the summer they are adorned with large, drooping, dark-green leaves which turn brilliant golden in the fall. Despite the fact that pawpaw is native to the United States, its commercialization is apparently more advanced in other countries, such as Japan and Italy. We are aware of only one commercial planting in the United States and their plants are still too small to bear fruit. Fortunately, this lack of interest seems to be changing. Pawpaw plants have recently been selling briskly in the nursery Currently, pawpaws as fresh fruit. They primarily consumed may also be processed into ice creams, juices, and other products as are their Annona relatives. In addition to food uses, scientists at Purdue University have isolated compounds from vegetative parts of the pawpaw that exhibit highly effective pesticidal and anti-tumor proper- 26 The fmit of Asimina tnloba hangmg from a tree at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Al Bussemtz. trade, particularly grafted varieties, and none of the nurseries selling pawpaw varieties have been able to meet the demand for plants within the last two years. Although adequate assessment of market demand for new crops is quite difficult, recent trends indicate that the prospects for successful commercialization of this fruit appear to be In the Old improving. Difficulties in New Crop Introduction Asimina triloba was widely used by Native Americans before European settlement. Although early settlers also used pawpaw, they also brought fruit-such as apples, peaches, and pears-with them from Europe. World, superior varieties of these fruit had been selected over several centuries and propagated widely by grafting. Therefore, these improved fruits were more widely grown than unimproved native fruits. Although exceptional specimens of pawpaws can be found in the wild, the proportion of superior plants, as with any wild fruit (apples, peaches, and pears included), is small. Historically, many years are required for exceptional specimens to become widely distributed. Early efforts at collecting exceptional specimens were made by the Amer(Anonymous, 1916, 1917) and by a few individuals, most notably Dr. G. A. Zimmerman (1938, 1940, 1941)of ican Genetic Association 27 A selection of Asimma triloba producmg exceptionally large fruits Photo by Brett Callaway. Domestication of the Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Unfortunately, many specimens identified during this period were lost during World War II. In recent years renewed efforts by a few individuals have led to a resurgence of popular interest in pawpaws. The improvement of crops through breeding is particularly slow for tree crops because of the long intervals between generations. evaluate five or six generations in an entire career. When one considers that a corn breeder can evaluate three generations a year, the comparative difficulty of developing new varieties of fruit crops from trees or shrubs becomes obvious. However, there have been successes. a blueberry (Vaccinium spp.)has taken place entirely in the twentieth century (Galleta, 1975). The first commercial plantings were established in Florida in the late 1800s (Lyrene and Sherman, 1979) and breeding work began in the early 1900s. 'Tifblue', probably the most widely grown rabbiteye type of blueberry (V. ashei) is derived from parents collected from the wild Often breeder is only able to (Austin, 1985). Kiwi (Actinidia chinensis) is another example of a recently developed fruit enjoying commercial success. Therefore, Asimina germplasm collections made in recent years by Peterson (1986) and Callaway (1991),and a number of superior varieties collected from the wild (listed by 28 Callaway, 1993), provide the foundation for pawpaw breeding work to begin. Crops Important lessons are to be learned from the Lessons from Other Callaway, M. B. 1990. The pawpaw (Asimma tnloba). Publication CRS- Kentucky State University HORT-901T. Callaway, M. B. early efforts at commercialization of blueberries. Between 1921 and 1925, a boom in the Florida blueberry market took place. Hundreds of thousands of plants were dug from the wild and planted in commercial fields. The extreme variation in fruit quality from these wild plants (as would be the case for any wild fruit) led to a decline in demand for the Florida fruit and caused the industry to shift to more northern parts of the U.S. where superior varieties were clonally propagated and grown (Lyrene and Sherman, 1979). The great demand for pawpaws in recent years has led to a shortage in plants of superior varieties. Customers are placed on waiting lists, sometimes for years. Under these conditions, as in the boom years of the Florida blueberry industry, the temptation to plant seedlings of variable quality is great. However, this practice is shortsighted and can potentially destroy a nascent 1991. Germplasm collection using public contests-the Asimina tnloba example. Hortscience 26: 722. Callaway, M. B. 1993. Pawpaw (Asimma tnloba), a \"tropical\" fruit for temperate climates. In J. Janick and J Simon (eds.). New Crops Exploration, Research, Commercialization New York: John Wiley. Damman, A. J. 1986. Facultative interactions between two lepidopteran herbivores of Oecologia 78: 214-219. Asimina Evert, D. R., and J. A. Payne. 1991. Germination of tnloba Asimina and A. parviflora. Hortscience 26: 777. Galleta, G. J. 1975. Bluebernes and cranberries. In J. Janick and J. N Moore (eds.). Advances in Frmt Breedmg, pp. 154-196. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press Kral, T. 1960. A revision of Deenngothamnus (Annonaceae). 12(4):233-278. Lyrene, P. Asimma and Bnttoma industry. M., and W. B. Sherman. 1979. The rabbiteye blueberry industry m Florida-1887to 1930with notes on the current status of abandoned References plantations. Economic Botany 33:237-243. Nasu, H., and H. Kunoh. 1987. Alkofahi, A., J. K. Rupprecht, J. E Anderson, J. L. McLaughlin, K L. Mikolajczak, and B. A. Scott. 1989. Search for new pesticides from higher plants, pp. 25-43. In J. T. Arnason, B. J. R. Philogene, and P. Morand (eds.). American Chemical Society Symposmm Senes 2, No. 387. Scanning electron microscopy of flyspeck of apple, pear, Japanese persimmon, plum, Chinese qumce, and pawpaw. Plant Disease 71:361-364. Peterson, R. N. 1986. Research Allard, H. A. 1955. The native pawpaw. Atlantic on the pawpaw (As1mma the University of Maryland. Northern Nut Growers Association Annual Report 77: 73-78. tnloba) at Naturalist 10(4): 197-203. Peterson, Anonymous. 1916. Where are the best papaws? Journal of Heredity 7 291-296. Anonymous. 1917. The best papaws Journal of Heredity 8(1)'21-33. Austin, M. E. 1985. R. N. 1991. Pawpaw {Asimma). In J. N. Moore and J. R. Ballington (eds.). Genetic Resources of Temperate Frmt and Nut Crops, pp. 567600. International Society for Horticultural Science, Wageningen, The Netherlands. Rabbiteye blueberry breeding. Unpublished mimeo. Rupprecht, J. K., C.-J. Chang, J. M. Cassady, and J. L. McLaughlm. 1986. Asimicm, a new cytotoxic and pesticidal acetogenm from the pawpaw, 29 Asimma tnloba 24:1197-1201. (Annonaceae). Heterocycles Growers Association Annual 102. Report 29 :99- Rupprecht, J. K., Y -H Hui, and L. McLaughlin 1990. Annonaceous acetogemns a review. Journal of Natural Products 53:237-278. Zimmerman, G.A. 1940. Further report on the papaw. Northern Nut Growers Association Annual Report 31 133-134. Zimmerman, G. A. 1941. Hybrids of the American U. S. Department of Agriculture. 1948. Asimma tnloba (L.) Dunal, pawpaw. Woody-Plant Seed Manual. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Misc Pub. 654. M. papaw. Journal of Heredity 32(3):83-91. Willson, F., and D. W. Schemske. 1980 Pollinator limitation, fruit production, and floral display in pawpaw [Asimma tnloba). Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 107:401-408 M Brett Callaway is Tropical Germplasm Manager for Pioneer Hi-Bred International and Adjunct Assistant Zimmerman, G. A. 1938. The papaw. Northern Nut Professor of Horticulture at the University of Kentucky. is a freelance horticultural writer and author of The World of Magnolias, soon to be published by Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Dorothy Callaway "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Make Mine Mulch","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25063","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25ea36f.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Make Mine Mulch Peter Del Tredici Using mulch in the garden not only reduces maintenance, but also contributes to the overall health of the plants. The use of organic mulches in landscape situations mimics the natural processes that occur in deciduous forests where a \"blanket\" of leaves is deposited on the forest floor every fall. Leaves not only act to insulate the soil during the winter but also are the mechanism by which carbon and mineral nutri- and by soil aeration. Mulch is the most increasing cost-effective way of improving the compacted condition of many urban soils. tilth and water-holding capacity, ents are recycled through the ecosystem (see The Organic Matter \"Recycle\" flow chart). In the list below I have summarized the principal benefits of mulch from the gardening perspective, along with some cautions about 4. Adds Mineral Nutrients As organic mulching material decays, mineral nutrients are absorbed by symbiotic its use. mycorrhizal fungi, which pass them on to plants in \"exchange\" for carbon (see flow chart). These nutrients, including phosphorus in particular, are essential for the healthy growth of plants. 5. Moderates Soil Temperature Mulch helps protect the root zone of plants from fluctuations in temperature. In summer, the soil under mulch is both cooler and more uniform in temperature than bare ground. In winter, mulch can act as an important soil insulator, particularly in years when there is no protective snow cover. By reducing soil temperature fluctuations, mulch also helps to prevent small plants from being heaved out of the ground during the winter. Benefits of Organic Mulch 1. Conserves Water The most immediate effect of mulch is to reduce water evaporation from the soil surface. By protecting the soil surface from the drying effects of the sun and wind, mulch promotes water conservation. 2. Inhibits Weed Growth A one- to two-inch layer of mulch will suppress the growth of many weeds, especially annuals, thereby reducing the weeding time required. 3. amount of 6. Reduces Soil Erosion Improves Soil Structure Organic mulch acts as a source of carbon for soil decomposers, which turn it into humus. Humus benefits the soil by improving its Soil covered with mulch is better able to absorb rainfall than bare soil, thereby reducing soil erosion, particularly on steep slopes. (continued on page 32) 31 The Organic Matter \"Recycle\" 32 Problems With Mulch 1. Can Cause Temporary Nitrogen plants. With Deficiency Because of the high tent ratio of most should be the maximum depth with woody herbaceous perennials, too much mulch can lead to rot problems, par- carbon-to-nitrogen conorganic mulches, they should always be top-dressed with a light sprinkling of an all-purpose garden fertilizer (such as 5-10-5) in the spring. Supplemental nitrogen not only speeds up the decomposition process, but also serves to minimize the translocation of nitrogen from the temporary soil to the mulch layer by fungal decom- ticularly during a wet growing season. Conclusion From the gardening perspective, mulch accounts for the improved growth of plants in two ways: first, it improves conditions for the growth and development of beneficial soil microorganisms by providing them with both carbon and mineral nutrients; and second, it promotes increased root growth by increasing the water-holding capacity of soil and improving its tilth. The use of organic mulches in the garden promotes the same harmonious interactions between plant roots and soil microorganisms that occur naturally in our native forests. posers. 2. Can Provide Habitat for Herbivorous Animals Mulch provides excellent habitat for voles and other rodents, as well as for slugs and snails, making control measures more difficult than they would be if the soil were bare. 3. Can Be Applied Too Thickly On young plantings, too much mulch can be detrimental by inhibiting water penetration and air flow. In general, two inches of mulch Peter Del Tredici has recently been appointed to the position of Assistant Director for Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. He has served as Editor of Arnoldia for four years. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25064","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add25ea728.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS from the Arnold Arboretum A Mission Reaffirmed Robert E. Cook, Director mission of the Arboretum has been captured in the story of E. H. \"Chinese\" Wilson, vividly recounted by Steve Spongberg in his wonderful book about botanical exploration, A Reunion of Trees. In a disastrous collision with a rockslide on a mountain trail in central China, Wilson suffered a severely broken leg that re- The Arnold historical quired three operations. Despite this, he managed to return to Boston with 1,285 packets of seeds and than 50,000 more pressed and dried a herbarium specimens. As there grows result today, on the south side began bis first Arboretum-sponsored expedition with the purchase of a houseboat for travels on the Yangtze River. Pictured here with its crew in 1907, the craft E. H. Wilson was of Bussey Hill, accession number 7272, a magnificent specimen of the Sand Pear (Pyrus pynfoha) that first came to christened 'The Harvard. \" public education, about the biology of trees. The modern execution Dr Wen is scientific examining an old collected China. this country in seed lot 395 by Wilson near Ichang, of this mission, and its roots in the heritage problem: Why do so many of plants native to eastern species North America also have closely related ern In 1988 the President and Fellows of Harvard College reaffirmed the historical mission of the Arboretum: 2022 of Wilson, is embodied in the work of Dr. Jun Wen, a Putnam Research Fellow past m sister species growing in eastAsia? Is this an evolutionary co- at the Arboretum For the months she has been travelnative two To maintain and curate a docu- ing her China to collect incidence, or were these species once part of widely distributed ancestors? With her collections of living tissue from the Arnold Arboretum and from distant locations in China, Dr. Wen will be using the techniques of molecular biology to isolate DNA from her specimens and compare the genes of these apparently closely related species. By combining these mented collection of woody plants seeds, prepare herbarium specimens, and hardy in the Boston climate; 2022 To study such plants through maintenance of a library and herbarium for research and teaching; To give instruction, including 2022 sample living tissue, which is in liquid nitrogen for later analysis These collections will complement comparable collections she gathered at the Arboretum last frozen spring. (continued on page 2) (continued from page 1) results with traditional cal and morphologipaleobotamcal evidence library found in the herbarium and collections of the Arboretum, she will be able to reconstruct the history of divergences that created these groups and come to a much more fundamental their evolutionary understanding of relationships. Dr. Wen also collected and shipped seeds of a number of Asian species to the Arboretum, some of which have never been grown in this The Arnold Arboretum Associates conducted their Tenth A nnual Rare Plant Auction on country before. Of special interest are propagules of Aralia henryi and September 20. Shown here are some run so Halesia matgregom. They have been of the volunteers whose hard work made the event smoothly. They, and many others,deserve congratulations and a big thanks for a tradttton of excellence that has brought people and plants together in support of the Arnold computer database for future germination and planting logged the into our Arboretum. grounds There, beside the original collections of Wilson, they will someday provide critical mateon A Federal Grant for LEAP Dtane Sy underlie the LEAP curriculum. Par- ticipants will mentor others in their rial for unseen some other research project Person Arboretum has been a $37,000 grant from D. Eisenhower Math home schools, ultimately introducing the LEAP curriculum and related Arboretum resources to a total of 75 Boston teachers and their students. by us today. As we lay plans for the next at awarded The the quarter century we are the Arboretum, Dwight continually returning to the the historic and Science Education the teacher Program for fundamental importance of our col- lections, including Olmsted are set. landscape in which they maintain our training component of the 1993 LEAP (Learning About Plants) Teacher Project. Allocated First Arboretum Deland Award We shall tradi- tional tional commitment to care their excepand curation. At the same time we are new actively seeking opportunities for the use of our was these collections that transcend Higher Coordinating Council, this fundmg will support an expanded Arboretum commitment to improving the quality of science education in the Boston elementary Education schools. In collaboration with the Boston Public School Science Department, 25 teachers from twelve schools will be selected to participate in the 1993 summer workshop. These teachers will take part in an through the Massachusetts Sat tuart trees. Davies, a graduate student University, has received the Arnold Arboretum's Deland Award in support of his studies of the comparative systematics and ecology of tropical rainforest The Deland Award was re- Harvard historical mission As with E. H. Wilson in the case early years of this century, challenging opportunities, often in distant, unexplored regions of the world, will make the Arboretum an international leader in botanical research and education. the cently established from a bequest of F. Stanton Deland, Jr., to support research on the biology of woody plants. Mr. Davies, the first recipiof the award, will combine ongoing field studies in Malaysia with research in the Harvard University ent study of botany, horticulture, and ecology that emphasizes the basic plant science concepts and hands-on learning strategies that intensive Herbaria in Cambridge. Completion of the Lilac Renovation Peter Del Tredia ; = c BV\/ ltn * the planting of eighty restorawas new accessions, the over tion of the lilac area, which started five years ago, has been Most notable among the are completed. new mens additions that forty large speciin were moved from the Case Estates with the generous assistance of labor and equipment by Ollie Capizzi of Capizzi and ComThe Arnold Arboretum has been awarded the in pany of Acton, Massachusetts. Working with Tony Capizzi City of Boston'1: 1992 Auardfor Best Kept and a mechanical tree spade, Jim Nickerson and Bruce Munch of the Arboretum grounds crew dug the forty plants over a three-day period and moved them on a Open Space category. The people responsible for keeping the Arboretum are, Neighbor to right, top rou : Bruit Munch, Pat Wdlougbby, Bob Farmgliett\/.Jim from left Nickenon, Mike Gormley, LuisColon, Julie Coop, Karl Homes; bottom rou: Dave the Gatnck into Jamaica Plain were Moran, Jim Papargins. Mark Walkama. Dennis Hams. Kenny Clarke is missing from the picture. been in a Maurice Sheehan. and Don flatbed truck All planted studying patterns of regeneration variety of woody plants, including Kalmia. Castama. and Sequoia in their permanent locations within a week of being dug, no small task that many of the plants weighed close to a thousand pounds. given containing seven cultivars recently introduced by the late Father John Fiala of Medina, new A bed Ohio, has also been established. All of the introductions selected for the display have spectacular flowers and appear to be fairly mildew resistant. To round out With this leaves the turns issue Peter Del Tredici the renovation, Dana thirty lilac accessions from the Greenhouse nursery were planted throughout the lilac area In all, over one editorship of Arnoldta and attention to the Living Collections He was appointed Assistant Director for the Living Collechis full this past summer. Peter has been associated with Harvard Unitions Karen Madsen has been Editor of Arnoldia. She experience appointed brings long hundred plants were added to the collection, all within the space of six weeks, a remarkable feat con- versity for 20 years, first at Harvard Forest in Petersham as a researcher, then as Assistant Plant Propagator of was sidering that the Arboretum was the Arnold Arboretum He packing up and moving during the same time period. A hearty congratulations to everyone who worked so hard. biology by Boston University in 1991 for study in the evolution and natural history of Gingko btloba. Recently Peter has awarded the PhD in m editing both books and periodicals and is an instructor in the Graduate Program in Landscape Design and History of the Radcliffe College Seminars A past contributor to Arnoldia. Karen has participated in many of the courses and tours of the Arboretum She will welcome your opinions and ideas work on the next issue as she begins 3 Botany Courses at the Arboretum Marcia Mitchell these most invariably some of the popular courses offered in the are botany for students new to the discipline, this course also serves as a refresher for those who feel the need brush up on Arboretum's adult education program. For those who find that their to bot'a'ny n. The division of biology that treats of plants with reference to their structure, functions, classifica- curiosity is whetted by the display around them, the Arboretum's botany courses will introduce the Among the to be explored are plant cells topics and tissues, cell division, plant anatomy and morphology, plant diold skills. versity, tion, careful observer to new worlds of etc. evolution, and ecology. plant appreciation people first encounter A Selection and enjoyment. BOT 228 The Conifers Many the Arnold Arboretum's Liv- of Botany Offerings The are a conifers, or cone-bearing plants, ing Collections on a casual stroll through the grounds. On subsequent visits, as they become familiar with the geography of the Arboretum's 265 acres, they come to see the diversity of plant structures and the variations in form and texture. Some visitors remain quietly interpursue ested observers, content to England: Comprehensive Survey This course provides an opportunity for the experienced plant enthusiast to gain a comprehensive knowledge of our native New England flora. Participants will learn the region's major vascular plant families, including characteristic species and A BOT 131 Flora of New major component of the New England landscape. We will discuss the natural history of conifers and recognize the native genera and species. Students will see what traits distinguish one conifer learn how to species from another, how conifers reproduce, and why conifers are such special plants. Please call the Education private thoughts they walk the Arboretum's roads. For other visitors, initial vast or conversations as habitats. Department, however, the BOT 100 Introduction to Botany 524-1 718, or to contact with the Arboretum's Designed as an introduction to request catalogue register for Arnold Arboretum to a course plants is the of a lifelong exploration. beginning is collection of woody for these has visitors It that the Arbo- retum tion courses in long offered adult educabotany, as well as in horticulture. many courses Through these courses, most designed to cover the planned material in six course sessions gain a or fewer, adult students can greater ap- preciation of the links between species of woody plants, and an understanding of the systems of classification by which plants are described. Some of the Arboretum's botany courses are designed solely as classroom learning: many of these take place during the cold winter months. Others are planned around and shrubs and study on of specimen trees Lilacs, recently moved tn from the Case Estates, had to be planted with a backhoe. the Arboretum's grounds, 4 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23326","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070ab6b.jpg","title":"1992-52-3","volume":52,"issue_number":3,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Evolution of the Chestnut Tree and Its Blight","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25058","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24e816f.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Anagnostakis, Sandra L.; Hillman, Bradley","article_content":"Evolution of the Chestnut Tkee and Its Sandra L. Blight Anagnostakis and Bradley Hillman Recent research into the genetics of the fungal blight provides hope that chestnut trees may someday return to the forests, parks, and orchards of New England. American chestnuts (Castanea dentata) have been in this country for a long time. When biologists started looking at the leaves preserved in the Clarkia fossil beds of northern Idaho, some of the 17- to 20-million-yearold leaves were chestnut. Pollen records prove that they were on Long Island at least as long ago as between the last two glaciers, about City in 1904, they were found to have girdling cankers caused by a fungus. At first pathologists thought that a resident fungus had mutated and become lethal to our chestnut trees, but nothing exactly like the fungus could be found in the United States. Murrill reported in 1908 that Japanese chestnut trees (Castanea crenata) in the New York Botanical Garden had the disease, and that the Botanical Garden's American chinquapins (Castanea pumila) were also attacked. When F. N. Meyer discovered the same fungus in Asia on Chinese and Japanese trees, he reported that they were rarely killed by the disease. Since Japanese trees had been imported and planted here since 1876, the fungus probably hitched a ride on some of them. Pathologists named it Endothia parasitica, but the name has now been changed to 30,000 to 50,000 years ago. They expanded their range northward as the last ice receded, and became a major component of New England forests. The studies of David Foster and his colleagues at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, revealed abundant chestnut pollen in 2000-year-old soil layers. When George Emerson reported On the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts in 1846, he mentioned several very large American chestnut trees in the state. One Castanea dentata on Monument Mountain near Sheffield had a trunk that was almost 3 meters (9.5 feet) in diameter at the base. A reliable, yearly crop of tasty and nutritious nuts fed people and their domestic animals, as well as many of the wild creatures of the forest (Figure 1). The hard, durable wood had many uses, and the split-rail fences built in the last century still wend their way through forests where large American chestnut trees are no longer found. When American chestnut trees suddenly started dying in the Bronx Zoo in New York Cryphonectria parasitica. The Search for Resistance As chestnut blight disease proceeded unchecked through the whole native range of the American chestnut tree (essentially the eastern half of the United States), a desperate effort was made to find a substitute for these valuable trees (Figure 2). The European chestnut trees (Castanea sativa), which had been widely planted since early importation by Eleuthere Irenee Du Pont de Nemours (1799), were also very susceptible. Large orchards of 4 Figure 2. The natural range of the American chestnut. From Atlas of United States Trees. Vol. Hardwoods by E. L. Little, Jr. USDA Forest Service Misc. Publ. 1342, June 1977. 4: Minor Eastern 5 C. sativa established in New Jersey and Penn- sylvania blight disease. were decimated by the chestnut by Japanese chestnuts that had been imported S. B. Parsons of Flushing, New York, in 1876 proved both disease-resistant and able to survive our winters. Two of these are still growing in southern Connecticut. Ellwanger and Barry's Mt. Hope Nursery near Rochester, New York, had been selling trees of the Japanese chestnut cultivar 'Japan Giant' by mail order for several years, and Luther Burbank, in Santa Rosa, California, sold 'Mira- cle'. Three of Burbank's other selections of Japanese chestnut became 'Hale', 'Coe', and 'McFarland' and were sold by the Connecticut nursery of J. H. Hale. All of these Japanese chestnuts were shorter in stature than American trees, with a branching habit that made them unsuitable for timber. Although their nuts were larger than American chestnuts, they were often bitter. The U.S. Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction Section had imported Chinese chestnuts (Castanea mollissima) as early as 1901, and when they proved to be resistant to chestnut blight, imports were increased. C. S. Sargent sent Chinese chestnut seed to the Arnold Arboretum in 1903, but the seedlings raised from these have not survived. The oldest living Asian chestnut in the Arboretum is a Chinese, planted in 1918 (AA #7892A). This tree was sent by the Rochester (N.Y.) Parks Department, with whom the Arboretum had close ties. J. W Kelly in Rochester is fairly certain that this was one of the seedlings from Plant Introduction #36666, a shipment of 250 pounds of chestnuts collected in the Pang Shan region, northeast of Beijing, by the famous plant explorer F. N. Meyer (Figure 3). In the next few years, the U.S. Plant Introduction Section shipped, to Massachusetts alone, 3,441 Chinese chestnut trees and about 30 pounds of seed, 553 Japanese chestnut trees and 60 pounds of seed, 15 seguine (Castanea seguinii) from China, and 11 trees and 1 pound of seed of Castanea henryi, the Chinese chinquapin. Since other also available from nurseries, way of knowing with how many non-American chestnuts certainty have been planted in Massachusetts (Table 1). What happened to all of these trees? Many were planted in forested areas by people hoping to restore some kind-any kind-of chestnut to the Massachusetts woods. Plant breeders, who were trying to cross Asian and American chestnut trees to produce American-like trees with blight resistance, soon discovered that all of the species of chestnut were cross-fertile. Thus, all of the Asian chestnut trees in Massachusetts were able to cross with each other, and with any American sprouts that survived long enough to flower. Chestnuts planted by diligent squirrels may survive the winter, unfound or unneeded for food. As these germinate and grow, many will be killed by deer browsing on the foliage and tender stems. Those that survive to grow are the beginning of a \"natural\" breeding experiment. In time, chestnut trees with the coldhardiness of the American chestnut, the tall stature that would allow them to compete in the forest canopy, and the blight resistance genes of the Asian chestnuts would probably evolve in our New England forests. Many people who have found chestnut trees surviving with blight in Massachusetts have sent leaf samples to the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station for identification. All of these have been hybrids. Since all of the sprouts formed from the bases of killed chestnut trees come from a few dormant cells, mutations could lead to some blight resistance. Trees have been located in Connecticut and New York that are clearly American but are resisting the blight better than expected. If this is really genetic resistance, it is another potential starting point for the evolution of trees able to survive in the presence of chestnut blight. However, plant breeders are impatient to see results sooner than the slow progress likely to occur without our intervention. A backcross breeding program was outlined for the Asian chestnut trees we were have no 6 Figure 3. The trunk of a large specimen of the Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima) described by Frank Meyer as \"showing some big wounds caused by bark fungus. My assistant, Mr. 1- 1- C. de Leuu, is standing beneath. Near San tun ying, Chili Province, Chma, June 1, 1913.\" Photo by F. N. Meyer. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. American chestnut by Charles Burnham. His experience in corn genetics convinced him that a few generations of crossing resistant Asians, and then their hybrids, to susceptible American trees and of selecting resistant progeny would provide us with the kinds of trees we want much more quickly. Chestnut breeding was started in the 1930s at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, and that some of their best trees still survive in the Connecticut orchards makes it possible to select the fittest for new breeding experiments. Evolution of the Blight Fungus The blight fungus has maintained its destructive vigor in New England for at least eighty years (Figure 4). The original chestnut trees, \"killed\" by C. parasitica in the early 1900s, sprouted from the base only to have the new stems reinfected by the blight and \"killed\" again. This seemingly endless cycle of sprouting and reinfection has continued unabated its collection of trees of all of the species of Castanea is probably the finest in the world. Hybrids of all kinds were made by A. H. Graves, W Van Fleet, J. D. Diller, H. Nienstaedt, R. A. Jaynes, and many others. The fact 7 CHESTNUT SPECIES SECTION Castanea Castanea Castanea Castanea Castanea Castanea [three nuts per bur] American Chestnut dentata (Marshall) Borkhausen sativa Miller European Chestnut Chinese Chestnut Japanese Chestnut Chinese Dwarf Chinquapin mollissima Blume crenata Siebold\/Zuccarini seguinii Dode SECTION Balanocastanon [one nut per bur] American Castanea pumila (Linnaeus) Miller neglecta Dode bur] Chinquapin, Bush Chestnut variety pumila variety ozarkensis (Ashe) Tucker Castanea X Ozark Chinquapin Possible wild hybrid between dentata and pumila SECTION Hypocastanon [one nut per Castanea henryi (Skan) Rehder\/Wilson Henry Chinquapin Table 1. Taxonomy of the genus Castanea this day. It was only with the discovery of weakened strains of the fungus in Italy that researchers in the United States were spurred on to search for similar \"hypovirulent\" strains in this country that were not virulent enough to kill healthy chestnut trees. The European hypovirulent strains lacked the orange pigment of virulent strains, and produced fewer spores (the \"seeds\" of fungi). As these spread through the chestnut orchards of Italy and France, the trees began to survive longer, and to \"heal\" over the blight cankers with lumpy bark tissue. Similarly, cankers in Michigan, Tennessee, Virginia, and West Virginia yielded orange strains of the blight fungus that were also less able to kill chestnut trees. Virologists have now confirmed that these American strains, and the European hypovirulent strains of C. parasitica, are infected with viruses (see back cover). to When scientists put bits of a hypovirulent blight fungus into holes in the bark around killing cankers, viruses move into the virulent strains that caused the cankers. The cankers then stop expanding, and the tree's natural defenses of walling off invaders succeed in protecting the tree's living cambium. Once hypovirulence has been established in a chestnut blight population, hypovirulent spores are moved around in test orchards and in the forest by every creature that moves up and down the trees. The European hypovirulent strains have effected a biological control of chestnut blight in the orchards of C. sativa in France and Italy (Grente and Sauret, 1978). Tests were begun here in 1978, and for four years in a row, blight cankers in an orchard of American chestnut trees at the Experiment Station Farm in southern Connecticut were stopped by treat- 8 ing them with mixtures of hypovirulent fungal cultures. No cankers on these trees have been treated for the last ten years, although new infections occur every year. A few branches are killed, but most cankers are swollen and superficial by the time that they are large enough to be noticed. The trees have continued to grow and produce nuts, and are now being used for breeding purposes. In the Connecticut forest, hypovirulent strains have survived and have spread slowly. They have allowed American chestnut trees on good soil, with plenty of water, to grow large and bear nuts, but on poor sites the trees do not compete well. Many other woody species are striving to capture the sun and nutrients, and the energy used by the chestnut trees to deal with blight infections puts them at a disadvantage. A little more resistance, or more effective viruses, might give them a competitive edge. What Are These Viruses, and Can Figure 4. Chestnut blight canker on an American They Change? Don Nuss and his colleagues at the Roche Institute of Molecular Biology in New Jersey chestnut tree. The fungus has grown in concentric circles m and under the bark from the point of infection, which was probably the broken branch on the left. Photo by R. A. Jaynes. have determined that the closest relatives of these viruses are plant viruses that are responsible for many important plant diseases. The viruses from hypovirulent strains discovered in the United States are not closely related to viruses from European hypovirulent strains, based on tests of their nucleic acids, but most appear to have evolved from the same progenitor. In a recent summary of the research on hypovirulence viruses in C. parasitica, Hillman suggests they can be divided into at least three distinct families, but most of them belong to one common family (Figure 5). The European types, which belong to this common family, have been studied the most, and all strongly affect the way strains of the fungus look in culture in the laboratory. When Peter Bedker was searching wooded areas in New Jersey for American chestnut trees to use in his experiments, he found some that were surviving in spite of many blight cankers. Hillman tested the normal-looking C. parasitica isolates from these cankers and found that they contained viruses very similar to the European hypovirulence viruses. The genes in the New Jersey viruses were different enough to allow more sporulation by the fungus and to allow the fungus to make its normal orange pigment (the European hypovirulent strains are white in culture and produce few spores). We have no idea whether the pigment change will help the hypovirulent strains survive, but the increased sporulation will certainly help them spread around. The New Jersey discovery resulted in a phone call to Connecticut to discuss the find. A search of Experiment Station records revealed that European hypovirulent strains had been sent to experimenters in New Jersey five times, beginning in 1978. Thus the strains found by Bedker and Hillman were either the fittest survivors of the early canker treatments, or were strains that contained mutants of those original viruses, which were rapidly 9 Connecticut records show that hypovirulent strains were sent to twenty-one other states after the U.S. Plant Quarantine Office lifted the restriction on transfer in 1976. Fourteen such shipments were made to people in Massachusetts, and Anagnostakis has been treating the chestnut trees at the Arnold Arboretum for several years. Terry Tatter and his student Jong-kyu Lee at the University of Massachusetts are now studying chestnut blight in the state and using hypovirulent strains to establish biological control. So far, they have not found any \"natural\" hypovirulence in Massachusetts. Reason to Hope are Figure 5. Characteristics of the viruses that cause hypovirulence in the chestnut blight fungus, based on the research of Bradley Hillman. The genes that American chestnut trees in Connecticut hypovirulence are on nucleic acids called double-stranded Riboses Nucleic Acids (dsRNA). When hypovirulent strains of C. parasitica are ground up and their nucleic acids purified and separated on gels usmg an electrical current (electrophoresis), different patterns of dsRNA pieces result. Stram EP155 is a typical virulent strain of the fungus and contains no dsRNA; the others are all different hypovirulent strains, representing three different types of viruses. EP713 and NB58 are related to one another, while C18 and NB631 are distinct. cause surviving better, thanks to hypovirulence, making it easier for us to carry on Burnham's backcross breeding program. In a decade we should have true-breeding resistant hybrids to plant in our forests. The presence of hypovirulence viruses in the blight fungus population should also make it easier for resistant trees evolve in the forest-whether from rare mutations or because of resistance genes in natural hybrids derived from planted Asian trees. Perhaps the hypovirulence viruses that we have introduced will adapt to provide even better control of chestnut blight disease in the future. We hope to be able to tell our grandchildren that we had a hand in restoring chestnut trees to the forests, parks, and orchards of New England. In the words of Robert Frost: to selected because they were better adapted to the New Jersey woods. Rapid mutation and selection are qualities typical of viruses adapting to new situations. It is interesting that no white hypovirulent blight strains have been found in New Jersey, even though many were used to treat cankers there. Anagnostakis in Connecticut and MacDonald in West Virginia both have noted that orange isolates of the blight fungus are now common in test plots where European hypovirulence was used to control chestnut blight. No tests have been made of the nucleic acids of these orange strains, but Hillmarfs results suggest that they should be checked. This may be our first glimpse of the evolution of hypovirulence viruses, adapting to the American chestnut blight and to the American climate. Will the blight end the chestnut? The farmers rather guess not. It keeps smoldering at the roots And sending up new shoots Till another parasite Shall come to end the blight. 2014\"Evil Tendencies Cancel,\" 1932 References Anagnostakis, S. L. 1978 The Amencan Chestnut: New Hope for a Fallen Giant Bull. 777, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven. 10 Anagnostakis, S. L. Anagnostakis, 1989. Chestnuts and the blight. Massachusetts Wildlife, Fall, pp. 30-35. Massachusetts. Boston: Dutton and Wentworth. S. L. 1989. An historical reference for chestnut introductions into North America. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Associa- Murrill, W. A. 1904. A serious chestnut disease. Tournal of the New York Botanical Garden 7: 143-153. Murrill, W. A. 1908. The spread of the chestnut disease. tion, pp. 132-143. Tournal of the New York Botamcal Garden 9: 23-30. Burnham, C. R. 1988. The restoration of the American chestnut. American Scientist 76: 478-487. M. F. 1990. Paillet, F. L. 1988. Character and distribution of American chestnut sprouts m southern New England Cochran, National Chestnuts-making a comeback? Geographic 177 (February)' 128-140. woodlands. Bulletm of the Tbrrey Botanical Club 115: 32-44. Cunnmgham, I. S. 1984. Frank N. Meyer: Plant Hunter in Asia. Ames: Iowa State University Press Emerson, George B. 1846. A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growmg Naturally in the Forests of Sandra Anagnostakis has worked at the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station m New Haven, Connecticut, for twenty-five years; Bradley Hillman teaches at Rutgers University in New Brunswick, New Jersey. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christopher Columbus as a Botanist","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25057","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24ebb6b.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Kingsbury, John M.","article_content":"Christopher John Using M. Columbus as a Botanist Kingsbury a Columbus' log as a guide, from a botanical perspective. biologist retraces the Voyage of Discovery \"Demimillennial\" rings more grandly to my than \"quincentennial.\" The question of which word to choose arises from the fact that 1992 follows 1492 by five hundred years. By whichever name you call it, 1992 will see pageantry of a lifetime on both sides of the ocean that was first crossed at tropical latitudes by Christopher Columbus, thereby ear stretching minds, opening pocketbooks, changing civilizations, filling royal coffers, inviting wars, enslaving peoples, and incidentally moving plants around the globe in a way that a single historical event has rarely entrained before or since. As part of the celebration, WGBH-TV Boston produced a seven-program series on the voyage of Columbus that first aired on PBS in the fall of 1991 and is scheduled for rebroadcast in 1992. An unexpected set of circumstances suddenly involved me in that television series. On six short weeks' notice I found myself in San Salvador, Bahamas, a probable spot where Columbus first made landfall on New World shores. There I boarded the SSV (Sailing School Vessel) Westward, a magnificent 125-foot staysail schooner belonging to the Sea Education Association of Woods Hole, Massachusetts (Figure 1). The ship was about to retrace, with a small class of students and the WGBH filming crew, the course Columbus took from island to island as he explored the New World. My role was to lecture to the students about the plants and plant materials Columbus was looking for, what he actually found, and what he thought he found. A most important aim was to attempt to deduce from the roughly 250 botanically related entries in Columbus' log of this first voyage as much as I could about the man himself. Along the way, my deductions met counterfoil and amplification from the several nautical, archaeological, and historical specialists aboard and ashore as we worked together to flesh a log account written five centuries ago into a real person and to materialize the now almost first into a real event. voyage Here I wish to share with readers some of mythical the more interesting insights that have come from this experience, really an unparalleled adventure, that began in San Salvador and ended in Puerto Plata, Dominican Republic. Our general route took us first southsouthwest through the southern Bahamas, where we turned east as did Columbus, sailing into the trade winds, making several stops along the rural Cuban coast. We sailed across to Hispaniola and made several more stops along the northern shore of Haiti, including the spot where the Santa Maria sank and the sites of the first and second European settlements in the tropical New World, Navidad and Isabela (Figure 2). Columbus Encounters Sargasso The botanical entries actually begin early, however, on the transatlantic leg of Columbus' voyage from the Canary Islands. 12 Figure 1. The 125-foot staysail schooner, course through the New World. Photo SSV Westward, under sail in the Caribbean by John M. Kmgsbury. as it follows Columbus' 13 Figure 2. The route of the SSV Westward through the Caribbean a m 1990. They record observations that had special significance in the changing attitudes of the crews, as the three small vessels traversed unknown waters, and the increasing urge toward mutiny. The Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria were crewed by some eighty-seven to ninety men, most of whom were simple sailors who had rarely been far offshore, recruited suddenly and perhaps with some coercion from the ordinary maritime people of the Spanish seashore. The first botanical entries in the log (which, in a nautical sense, is really more of daily journal or diary than a simple record of courses, distances, sail settings, and weather) had to do with seaweed. The seaweed entries begin on September 16, the tenth day away from the Canaries, and continue until October 8, two days before land was sighted. Altogether there are twelve entries on seaweed in that four-week period of sailing into the unknown. Christopher Columbus had perhaps, or even probably, heard some sketchy accounts of what we know now as the Sargasso Sea from Portuguese mariners who had ventured 14 far eastern enough west to have encountered its edge. But Columbus was the first person to experience it fully, to traverse its vast- a transect of it. This is of historical and biological importance. Of great equal importance is the reaction of his sailors to the seaweed with which the Sargasso Sea ness, and to record is populated. In most instances when we look at the botanical entries, we first have to overcome the problem of what Columbus actually meant when he identified a plant with a word or phrase in the Castilian Spanish of five cen- turies ago. names Fifteenth-century Spanish plant contemporaries brought were, of course, those of two and a half centuries before the great Swedish botanist some Linnaeus and his into botanical nomenclature. The seaweed of Columbus, however, is stability two reasons: no ocean. easily identified with the genus Sargassum for Columbus described it well, and other seaweed lives in that part of the open In the log entry for September 16, Columbus records: \"We have begun to see large patches of yellowish green weed, which seems to have been torn away from some island or reef. I know better because I make the mainland to be farther on.\" September 17: \"I saw a great deal of weed today from rocks that lie to the west. I take this to mean we are near land. The weed resembles a grass except that it has long stalks and shoots and is loaded with fruit like the mastic tree.\" The two species of Sargassum that inhabit the Sargasso Sea are yellowish branching plants with long irregular stalks, leaf-like blades (with midvein), and small, spherical, fruitlike bladders scattered in the branchlets (Figure 3). Columbus' description fits the plant quite well. Nearly all seaweeds, whether of the red, green, or brown groups, are firmly attached to the substrate. Unlike land plants, they do not have roots, nor do they obtain mineral nutrition from the substrate. They do not have to because the seawater surrounding them contains everything they need, though not always in abundance. What they do require is that the Figure 3. Sargassum collected by the author in the Sargasso Sea. Note the spherical, fruitlike bladders that are scattered along the branchlets. their surfaces be continuously to rocks or other permanent, hard underwater surfaces, a seaweed stays put as waves and currents wash by, bringing it new nutrients and taking its wastes away. If you tear a seaweed free from its rock attachment, look at it, and then put it back in the water, it floats about, moving with the water surrounding it, and soon exhausts the nutrients within immediate reach of its surface. Its wastes accumulate there, too. Usually within a matter of days under these conditions the seaweed dies, decays, and disappears. Although they may not have known the reason why, the sailors on the Nina, Pinta, and Santa Maria did know from experience that water next to replenished. By attaching 15 healthy seaweeds floating in the water meant rocks in the near vicinity! At least that had always before been the case. The fleet of small, square-rigged vessels bearing Columbus and his men westward from the Canary Islands was being blown \"downhill\" by the prevailing, strong easterly winds at that latitude (the trade winds). Columbus, who was a widely traveled mariner, knew about those winds and planned to use them for a fast downwind passage to the East Indies, the location of which he also was sure he knew. (He did know the latitude from observations made by the overland spice traders; it was the longitude that gave him trouble.) The crew saw it differently. They were being blown inexorably away from their homes in vessels that, as square-riggers, could not turn about and make headway back into the wind. How would they ever get home? How long would their provisions last? Or would their end come soon, shipwrecked on the rocks the seaweeds promised? Unlike their admiral, they had not moral certainty about good things ahead (September 20, twenty-two days out): \"And we saw much weed of the kind I have already mentioned, even more than before, stretching to the north as far as you can see. In a way this weed comforted the men, since they have concluded that it must come from some nearby land. But at the same time, it caused some of them great apprehension because in some places it was so thick that it actually held back the ships. Since fear evokes imaginary terrors, the men thought that the weed might become so thick and matted that there might happen to them what is supposed to have happened to St. Amador when he was trapped in a frozen sea that held his ship fast. For these reasons we kept as clear as possible from those mats of weed.\" The explorers were now far enough away from home (as I see it) that in the minds of the sailors the danger of wrecking on rocks began to lessen before the greater danger of never finding land. Apprehension remained strong and fostered a new worry, that of entrapment by seaweed. Real entrapment of the vessels was, of course, not possible; but in light winds, the Sargassum (which sticks some of its branches above the water and blows somewhat with the wind) probably moved downwind at about the same speed as the beamy, blunt vessels, which therefore did not make much visible passage through it. One of the characteristics of Columbus that appears and reappears throughout the log is his ability to talk with his men, give reasonable explanations of things from his store of experiences, and calm their fears. Columbus was able (though barely at times) to overcome whatever fear the Sargassum engendered among the men and to talk them out of mutiny. Every few days from September 21 to October 3, Columbus says something, but not much, about the floating seaweed; either it is abundant or scarce. By now (a month out) it have been clear to all hands that the SarSargasso Sea does not mean either land ahead or rocks nearby. On October 3, a new element arises: \"There is more weed, but it is withered and appears old. There is a little fresh weed that bears something like fruit.\" Here is my interpretation of that entry. First, the Sargassum was not doing well. Perhaps it was not the same kind of Sargassum as that typical of the Sargasso Sea. Sargassum exists in many species (some fourteen in the tropical Americas). Only two of those species account for the floating, healthy Sargassum of the Sargasso Sea. All the remaining species are found solely as typical attached seaweeds of the shore, and they soon die if torn free in a storm. Perhaps the fleet had newly encountered some of these attached kinds ripped by a storm from the fringes of the Caribbean islands, where they are common, withering and dying as they floated about. Second, a new seaweed of about the same color (or Columbus would probably have noted the difference) had appeared in the drifting Sargassum. It bore \"fruit\" different from must gassum of the 16 the small, spherical bladders of Sargassum (or he would not have noted them specially in the log). This weed was \"fresh\" I think Columbus probably found some Taibinaiia with its heavy, somewhat pear-like tips, among the withered \"island\" Sargassum. Thibinaiia will not grow unattached, but it does remain alive longer than most tropical seaweeds when torn free from its substrate. Did the combination of withered old Sargassum and fresh, different weed finally mean land ahead? On October 8 comes this entry: \"Very fresh weed has been seen.\" Then, late on October 10, landfall was made. Ultimately, the seaweeds were right. Land was ahead. Was the evidence of the Sargassum \"wrong\" at first? No. Christopher Columbus was the first person to record a new life form of seaweed, one that lives, grows, and reproduces afloat at sea and nowhere else. Only two species of Sargassum (S. natans and S. fluitans) have evolved that ability. Unlike their relatives at the shore's edge, these species have become unusually efficient at absorbing and recycling nutrients while drifting with the oceanic surface water masses. They have facilitated the evolution of a complex community of animals and microscopic plants that attach or shelter among their branches, aiding in the capture and recycling of nutrients from what is, au fond, a desolate and unusual niche in which no other seaweed has been able to compete, those two species of Sargassum have given up the sexual reproduction characteristic of shore-based species of Sargassum. an branching point, two separate plants appear where there was but one before. The size of the population measured by numbers of individuals in this way is also determined by a balance between growth and death. Over the past five hundred years, growth and death of Sargassum have been in relatively good balance. The log entries describe a Sargasso Sea of patchy nature-no weed some days, dense mats or windrows on others. That is the way it still is; although, as shown by studies aboard SSV Westward, weathered petroleum and plastic granules permeate all of it now, and some evidence suggests that the Sargassum is not as plentiful as it was when Columbus first described it five centuries ago. Nevertheless, we still do have the Sargasso Sea. Moreover, John Teal of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution has noted that, by the nature of this process, some of the Sargassum out there now, which is in a sense immortal, must have seen Columbus pass by. In Botany, Columbus Was \"Dismal\"-Or Was He? A recent, well-received colloquial English translation of the log of Columbus' first voyage (1492-1493) is that by Dr. Robert H. Fuson (The Log of Christopher Columbus, 1987; International Marine Pub- (American) lishing Company, Camden, Maine). In a com34, Professor Fuson assesses Columbus in the following words: \"In summary, the log tells us much about Columbus the sailor, the scientist, and the captain. As captain\/sailor he was unsurpassed. As a scientist, he lacked much, especially in botany (dismal !), ornithology (only fair), and ichthyology (poor). In other sciences he was better: astronomy (good), meteorology (better than ment on page impoverished source. Having adapted to increase solely by vegetative A branch grows by active cellular division at the tip. As the plant ages, the cells at the other end of the axis eventually die and disappear. The amount of plant material existing at any one moment thus reflects the consequences of a race between the amount of tip growth and the rate of death catching up from behind. Occasionally a tip develops into two branches, creating a branching point in the axis behind. When death catches up with that Instead, they means. average), navigation (A plus), ethnology (good), geography (excellent)!' In a similar vein, L. A. Vigneras says of Columbus in a foreword to Cecil Jane's earlier familiar translation of Columbus' journal: \"His knowledge of flora and fauna was limited and most are of his identifications of trees and plants only approximate.\" 17 Figure Figure 4. Aloe from the Old World, Aloe barbadensis. 5. One of the native Amencan Agaves that Columbus mistook for Aloe barbadensis. The few writers on Columbus, such as Robert H. Fuson and Samuel Eliot Morison, who have immensely valuable, practical firsthand knowledge of the sea and the lands that Columbus explored as well as the academic tools and abilities to review his writings critically, appear, nevertheless, to have lacked the professional expertise needed to assess closely the botanical entries themselves. Fuson gives no specific credit for his botanical treatments, but has certainly sought informed help in writing his addendum on plant tubers as well as many of the footnotes. Morison credits several of Harvard's eminent plant specialists for his botanical names and comments. Despite this collaboration of experts, botanical misunderstandings have occasionally occurred and useful insights have escaped capture in the most widely read accounts of Columbus' first voyage. Columbus himself was the first to admit that he didn't know much about plants. He notes about a week after the first landing (October 21): \"I am the saddest man in the world for not knowing what kinds of things these are because I am sure that they are valuable.\" As expressed to Queen Isabella and the king, Columbus proposed to attempt three things in 1492: first and foremost, to find a direct water route to the exceedingly valuable spices of the East Indies; second, to find wealth; and third, to bring Christianity to the natives. Although gold was the name of the 18 game when Columbus returned home in 1493, spices major objective when he set forth. Let us then look at the matter of spices, broadening that definition a little to include as well drugs, herbs, and other plant extracts of high value. The most valuable spices that came only from the distant east in the time of Columbus were a num, A. or century plant: Agave missiobahamense, and perhaps others. While these agaves are distinctly larger than aloe and the leaves not as fleshy, leaf color, shape, and the general appearance of the agaves and aloe are quite similar (Figure 5). That the local \"aloe\" was larger than the European aloe did not trouble Columbus over- is an agave ~ pepper, ginger, rhubarb, cardamom, cinnamon, nutmeg, mace, and perhaps cloves. We were know for sure that Columbus was seeking at least pepper and cinnamon because he says, on November 4: \"I showed samples of cinnamon and pepper, which I had brought with me from Castile, to some Indians:' The Wrong Kind of Aloe The first thing Columbus found, however, that he thought he recognized was not one of the precious spices, but what he called \"aloe.\" On October 21, about a week after the first landing, Columbus records: \"I recognized the aloe here, and tomorrow I am going to have one thousand pounds of it brought to the ship *\" because they tell me that it is very valuable.\" The next day: \"I have taken as much aloe as I could find.\" And on October 23: \"And I know nothing except this aloe which I am carrying to your Highnesses in great quantity.\" Unfortunately, he didn't find the \"right\" aloe (Aloe barbadensis), the one he had probably known in the Mediterranean region from which he came (Figure 4). A. barbadensis didn't grow in the New World in 1492, though it is common in the Caribbean now. Today the principal use of Aloe barbadensis is in skin conditioners and similar cosmetics. As a home remedy, the mucilaginous \"pith\" of the leaf is commonly used to soothe burns. In the fifteenth century, A. barbadensis had a different, more important use. The yellow sap that drips from the cut leaf was collected, dried, and used in small doses as a potent laxative. It will cleanse the human gut quickly and thoroughly. If not Aloe barbadensis, what did Columbus actually find? The common Caribbean plant that looks superficially like aloe much if he noted and wondered about it. Because he arrived in the West Indies during the rainy season, Columbus found everything lush and green. He saw open fields of tall, luxuriant grasses that at home would have been eaten down by cattle, horses, sheep, goats, and the like-while on these islands there were no large herbivores at all. The forests had not ever been cut and the size of the mature trees impressed him greatly. His log entries frequently display a feeling that everything is and ought to be generally larger, more lush, more showy, or more fragrant in the New World than at home. That the Caribbean aloe was bigger was quite reasonable in this context. Perhaps some of the enthusiasm embedded was aimed at sellIsabella on his discoveries-mild hype is ing understandable in the circumstances, and must have been effective, because the Spanish crown furnished Columbus with seventeen vessels and some twelve hundred men on royal salary for his second expedition to the New World in late 1493. Even so, much of Columbus' enthusiasm was clearly genuine and entirely supportable. Columbus mentions aloe six more times in the log from November 5 to January 7. His enthusiasm for it had clearly decreased over that period because in each of those six entries he mentions it only in passing. For example, on November 7: \"There is a lot of aloe but it is the mastic that is worth paying \" attention to ... Aloe is not among the materials Columbus listed as being removed from the Santa Maria, after she foundered on a reef near Cape Haitien on December 26. One wonders if his half ton of fresh century plant in the hold had in Columbus' comments 19 begun to mold or ferment in the warm, moist maritime air and had been heaved out long since. Columbus rarely if ever admits in the log of having made a mistake, but that and a great deal of other evidence suggest that neither did he ever alter an entry in the log once it had been made. In this instance and in several others, we see glimpses of a progression from enthusiastic but uninformed certainty, to doubt, to no further mention-admission in his own mind if not on paper that things weren't exactly as he first thought. Mastic from Gumbo Limbo What was the \"mastic\" that was more desirable than the \"aloe\"? Before the epic voyage of 1492, Columbus had visited or lived for a time on the island of Chios, off the Greek mainland, then politically a satellite settlement of the city-state of Genoa, where he probably was born. That gave him an opportunity to become familiar with the growing and harvesting of mastic. Chios at that time was the primary, perhaps sole, source of the highly valued mastic resin. European mastic is a yellowish resin that bleeds as occasional \"tears\" from the bark of Pistacia lentiscus, the mastic tree. It can be harvested more copiously if the bark is scored with a knife. Columbus makes brief mention of mastic first on October 17: \"[Another] had leaves like mastic ...\"He identifies it definitely on November 5, about three weeks after the first landing. That day and the next two he gives it lots of attention (four lengthy entries) including the following: While the Nina was beached, its boatswain came to me to beg a reward for finding mastic. But he did not sent bring a specimen because he had lost it. I two men to the trees, and they brought a little of it, which I kept to carry to the Sovereigns. I also kept some of the tree, for I knew that it was mastic. Although it must be gathered at the right time of year, there is enough in this vicinity to produce fifty ... the leaves and fruit of this tree appear to be those of the lentiscus, the tree here is much larger than the trees on Chios I ordered many of the trees tapped in order to get resm. I could only get a little bit since it has ramed every day, but I am bringing it to Your Highnesses. Also, it may not be the season to tap them. I think it should be done after winter, Just as they are about to flower. Here the fruit is almost npe. Nor is that the end of it. Eight more entries appear that mention mastic: one in November, three in December, and four in January. Columbus didn't lose his enthusiasm for mastic resin the way he did for aloe, but he couldn't get any significant amount from the trees, and he explains, quite reasonably, why that is so. His later references pay passing attention to the abundance of mastic trees (which the crews gathered as firewood), but the evidence suggests he gave up trying to obtain financially significant amounts of the resin to take back to Spain. What was the New World mastic? Pistacia lentiscus did not grow in the Caribbean area when Columbus arrived. Undoubtedly Columbus' \"mastic\" tree was Bursera simaruba (Figure 6), which today is variously called gumbo limbo, gum elemi, turpentine, birch gum, or tourist tree in the Englishspeaking Caribbean islands-the last because its trunk is always red and peeling. Among the several uses of European mastic was treatment of diarrhea, and the New World Indians told Columbus that the resin from their tree was good for stomach pains. Given Columbus' proclivity to believe everything was bigger and better in the New World, who can blame him for this mistaken identification? Would the average American tourist have done better? A Case of Mistaken On the very first Identity day after landing, Columbus tons a year. But it is the mastic worth paying attention to, for is found only on Chios and they derive over fifty thousand ducats a year from it, as I recall. Although it saw something no white man had ever seen before; on November 6, just three weeks later, he realized what it was. October 12: \"[The Indians] brought us many other things, a kind of dry leaf that they hold in including great esteem.\"October 16: 'Also, he had ... some of those dry leaves which are much ... 20 Figure 6. The gumbo limbo tree, Bursera simaruba. to me with two pieces of cinnamon and said that a Portuguese sailor on his ship had seen an Indian who was carrying two very large handfuls of it ... The boatswain of the Pinta said that he had found trees of cinnamon. I went to see for myself and found that it [the trees] was not cinnamon. I showed samples of cinnamon and pepper, which I had brought with me from Castile, to some Indians [who] recognized these spices and indicated by signs that there was a great deal of it nearby.\" November 6: \"My men showed the Indians the cinnamon and pepper and other spices I had given them, and they were told by signs that there were many such spices nearby ... but they did not know if they had those things in their own village.\" What would an Indian be carrying \"two very large handfuls of,\" that looked like cinnamon? valued by these people, for they brought some to me on San Salvador as a gift November 6: \"My two men found many people who were going to different villages, men and women, carrying a charred hollow wood in their hand, and herbs to smoke in this wood, which they are in the habit of doing.\" The herb was, of course, tobacco. The word tobacco is Arawak, the native language of these island tribes. The charred hollow wood in which it was smoked (through the nostrils) might have been a small pithy branch from Cecropia peltata (trumpet tree) with the pith reamed out, or a piece of a bamboo-like cane, several kinds of which are native to the American tropics. We can, now, perhaps deduce what it was that Columbus mistook for cinnamon. November 4: \"[Martin Alonzo] Pinzon came 21 True cinnamon (Cinnamomum zeylanicum) didn't grow anywhere in the New World when Columbus arrived. Cinnamon spice is the thin brown bark peeled off young branches of the cinnamon bush. The bark from small branches tends to roll up into tubes or cylinders. Coarse tobacco leaves also tend to roll up and turn brown as they dry. I suspect the Indian was carrying two handfuls of tobacco. Columbus was doubtful about the identification of cinnamon bark from the first, as he reports it as hearsay from Captain Pinzon (whom he didn't particularly trust), who in turn lays it to \"a Portuguese sailor.\"He was certain the identification was wrong when he went to see the trees themselves. Note that no further entries about cinnamon appear in the log after those two. Even the Indians were doubtful that they had cinnamon, telling Columbus (as usual) what they thought he wanted to hear (that there was plenty nearby), while admitting that they didn't know if it was to be found in their own village. Score another botanical point for Columbus! Pepper by Another Name The spice Columbus was most anxious to find Figure 7. The immature fruits of the black vine, Piper mgrum. taste pepper probably pepper. nigrum) was imported was True pepper to (Piper which the Indians used copiously in Just when this first happened is not determinable, but after the Santa Maria grounded, Columbus dined with the Indians regularly and surely ate frequently from the Arawak pepper-pot stews. On his very last day on land in the New World (January 15), Columbus writes his sole entry about pepper in the log: \"There is also much aji, which is their pepper and is worth more than our pepper ; no one eats without it because it is very healthy. Fifty caravels can be loaded each year with it on this Isla Espaniola.' The New World peppers are species of Capsicum. These plants grow as herbaceous shrubs and produce the familiar red, yellow, and green peppers of the vegetable garden. The fruits range widely in hotness and the two common species have many varieties. Capsitheir stews. its native Asia and India in Columbus' time and was paramount in importance among the imported spices. Old World black pepper, distributed as peppercorns, is prepared from the green berries of the pepper vine (Figure 7). The Europe from berries are harvested, fermented a little (thus blackened), and then dried. White pepper consists of the same berries picked a little later (ripened a little more), soaked in water, and rubbed to remove the outer layers, thereby yielding a hard, gray peppercorn. As can be seen in the log entry for November 4 (see cinnamon), Columbus was actively seeking pepper, but despite what the Indians told him about its being plentiful nearby, never found anything he believed to be Old World black or white pepper. He did experience something with a similar pungent he 22 includes the bell, pimento, and red or cayenne peppers. paprika, chili, Capsicum frutescens includes the tabasco peppers. The Arawaks used the dried fruits of one or the other both as a spice and also for preserving foods. They have been shown to have antibacterial, and perhaps antioxidant, abilities. American peppers are one of the most important gifts of the New World to the Old. Columbus deserves credit not only for realizing that our peppers were something quite different from the peppers known in the Old World, but even more for recognizing their potential value. He deserves credit, also, for describing the New World pepper situation accurately in his log. Although Columbus made several worldshaking discoveries on his first voyage, he actually found not one of the spices he was after. Sublime irony lies in the fact that, in seeking a fast route to the \"pepper islands,\" Columbus got the wrong islands, named the wrong Indians, and found the wrong peppers. Until his death, Christopher Columbus believed that he had found the right islands, but from his very first encounter with it he knew he hadn't found the right pepper. One could conclude from this superficial assessment that Columbus' botany was brilliant, while navigation and ethnology were the studies in which he was \"dismal.\" cum annuum Figure 8. Local Caribbean\"bread,\"made from cassava tubers, Manihot esculenta. When Columbus and his men arrived in the New World in October of 1492, their fresh provisions were largely exhausted. Although find- ing spices was officially a top objective of the expedition, of practical necessity Columbus took an immediate overriding interest in what the Arawaks were eating and in trying these new foods himself. October 14: \"Some brought us water; others things to eat ... Many men and women came, each one with something.\"October 16: \"He carried a bit of bread about the size of your fist.\" Columbus soon realized that the native bread (Figure 8) was made from tubers, but he had a lot of trouble identifying or describing them. At various places and times in the log, he compares the Arawak tubers with carrots and radishes, yet clearly he recognized that the Arawak tubers were neither carrots nor radishes. In appearance, he found them more like certain large tubers he had experienced on his voyages to northern Africa. In the African tongue, those tubers were called, as transliterated, niames. Thus on November 4 we find: \"These lands are very fertile. They are full of niames, which are like carrots and taste like chestnuts.\"And on November 9: \"The roots that taste like chestnuts are their principal food, and much land is planted to it.\" In Keeping Counts Alive, It's the Starch That The islands of the Caribbean had been settled, over the period of a millennium or so, by agricultural Indians who had worked their way in large dugout canoes from northern South America to Trinidad, and then, island by island, north and west to Cuba and the Bahamas. These Indians carried their principal food plants with them as they migrated. They called themselves the Arawaks, a word which, I have heard, means the \"tuber eaters.\" Certainly two root crops that they carried with them in the canoes were among their most important staples. j 23 Figure 9. The main Arawak tubers: [left and center], the cassava, Manihot esculenta, in the Euphorbiaceae; [right], the sweet potato, Ipomoea batatas, in the Convolvulaceae. In mid-December Columbus had occasion learn quite a bit more about the Arawak tubers and how they were grown. December 13: \"They brought the bread of niames, which are tubers and look like large radishes. They are planted in all their fields and are their staff of life. They make bread from them and boil and roast them, and they taste like chestnuts-anyone who eats them will say they taste like chestnuts.\" December 16: \"These fields are planted mostly with ajes. The Indians sow little shoots, from which small roots grow that look like carrots. They serve this as bread, by grating and kneading it, then baking it in the fire. They plant a small shoot from the same root again in another place, and once more it produces four to five of these roots. They are very palatable and taste exactly like chestnuts. The ones grown here are the largest and best I have ever or seen refers to bread or tubers in well over a dozen log entries. In these entries, the Arawak word for the tubers (ajes) replaces the word Columbus first used for them (niames) on December 16, and niames does not appear in the entries after that date. This seems clear evidence, if such were needed, that Columbus never exactly equated the New World tubers with the African niames, but merely used that word for lack of a better one until he learned the Arawak word. By late December Columbus had learned the Arawak word for the bread made anywhere.\" Altogether, Columbus 24 from aje tubers. The log for December 26 notes: \"And other foods they have, including their bread, which they call cazabe.\" A Niame by Another Name The Arawak tubers were two: Ipomoea batatas, the sweet potato of the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae), and Manihot esculenta of the spurge family (Euphorbiaceae) (Figure 9). The latter and its products possess several names in English, principally manioc, cassava, and tapioca-all three words are transliterations of Indian names. If Columbus was confused about the Arawak tubers, it was only in how many kinds there were. At first it seems he did not differentiate between the sweet potato and cassava. As time went on, however, he undoubtedly saw both as they grew in the Indian fields. While their tubers are grossly similar, the plants themselves could hardly be more different. The sweet potato grows as a compact, ground-hugging, viney plantsomething like a squash, with small, pinnately veined, pointed leaves. Cassava plants (as Columbus notes on December 16) start as erect shoots that eventually grow into longstemmed, upright, head-high, almost woody plants with large, long-stalked, palmately veined and divided leaves. Even a dismal botanist could not have confused these two (HCN) when eaten. The cyanide potential in raw tuber depends partly on genetics and partly on growing conditions. Somewhat loosely, the \"sweet cassava\" varieties are genetically of low toxicity, while the \"bitter cassavas\" usually are highly toxic. Small the quantities of sweet cassavas can be eaten raw with little risk (though they can become fairly toxic under certain conditions of growth), but bitter varieties should never be eaten raw, even in small amounts. The Arawaks had, of course, learned all about these properties of cassava. They used bitter cassava as a source of spear poisons. They routinely detoxified the cassava they ate. Fortunately, cyanide is easily destroyed by simple treatments of the raw tuber, even if present in high concentration. Cooking (boiling or roasting) is always effective. Cassava tubers were typically cut into pieces and cooked in the ubiquitous pepper pot of the Arawaks. The other usual method of detoxifyto make it into bread in the Columbus himself described. The juice way is squeezed out of the scraped and kneaded pulp, and the dough thus prepared is baked in a fire. The common method was to spread it in a thin layer on a hot flat stone or a pottery wheel made for the purpose. Modern cassava bread is prepared in a similar way. These tubers, the sweet potato and the cassava, were the staples of Indian life, their primary source of carbohydrates. The Spanish sailors had to accept them when their supplies of boat provisions ran out. Like most ing cassava was plants as one. On December 26 (just after the Santa Maria reef), Columbus records that he has eaten with his Indian hosts \"a meal with two or three kinds of ajes ..Today, both cassava and sweet potato exist in many horticultural varieties, including different flesh colors among the sweet potatoes; and it is likely that, in the millennium during which the Arawaks had been island hopping, they had already established several selections of each species with differing tuber characteristics. Thus, Columbus could easily have had several varieties of ajes at the Indians' table. The flesh of the cassava tuber is poisonous if eaten raw. Its toxicity comes from the presence of a glycoside that releases cyanide grounded on a people, they preferred familiar foods to something new. On subsequent voyages to the New World, Columbus (and others) brought seeds for growing European grain crops. None grew well, if at all. Subsisting on native tubers was a source of dissatisfaction to the conquering Europeans and was seminal in generating the unrest, insubordination, and downright mutinous behavior that often prevailed in the early sixteenth century. But subsist when return tubers the Europeans did else was available. On the nothing leg of the first voyage (January 13): \"I on 25 sent the men ashore to get some ajes to eat.\" men came January 15: \"... and many other with cotton, bread, and ajes'.'Thus were the Nina and the Pinta reprovisioned. They departed Hispaniola before dawn on January 16. When these two tiny vessels eventually reached Spain after weathering a severe storm and other difficulties, some of the sweet potato store was still sound. These sweet potatoes were planted locally, and this act constituted the initial introduction of Ipomoea batatas to Europe. Beans and Gourds The only European food bean in the time of Columbus was the broad bean of the Mediterranean region (Vicia faba). Columbus probably knew this one bean when he left the Canaries. On November 4, about three weeks after the first landing, he writes in his log: \"They [the Arawaks] have beans very different from ours ...\" Two days later: \"The land is very fertile and well cultivated with those niames, beans very different from ours, and panic grass.\" The \"very different\" beans Columbus found were Phaseolus vulgaris, now selected and bred into such varieties as navy beans, pea beans, kidney beans, green and yellow string beans, French horticultural beans, Kentucky wonders, and so forth-another major gift of the Old. Columbus was New World beans are very different from those of the Old World. The Arawaks carried these New World beans, as well as corn and squashes, from South America with them as they migrated. the New World accurate in to Figure 10. The calabash or wild gourd tree, Crescentia cujete. observing that the Columbus in the never once mentions squashes log, but surely does note them under gourds on December 3: \"I climbed a mountain and came to level ground, which was sown with many different crops and with gourds.\" New World as (Cucurbita spp., Lagenaria sp.) by that name species of Cucurbita can be used utensils when the squash skin has been cleaned out and dried. They also can be eaten as vegetables when fresh. The cultivated \"gourds\" that Columbus saw were squashes and not those described next. There are six entries on gourds in the log, scattered from the day after landing to late December. Beyond the one just quoted, the other five entries have to do with an entirely different kind of gourd, one used for carrying water. On October 13, for example, when Columbus was watching the Indians right an overturned dugout canoe, he notes: \"Then they bail out the rest of the water with gourds that they carry for that purpose.\"And in another entry, on December 21: \"They also brought us water in gourds and in clay pitchers shaped like those of Castile.\" The gourds the Arawaks used principally for carrying or storing water were undoubtedly from the wild calabash tree (Figure 10) or wild gourd tree (Crescentia cujete). These native 26 Caribbean implements are still used for bailing and are definitely less damaged by prolonged contact with water than is a squash gourd. They are also usually more nearly spherical and larger, and are not cultivated or used for food. Corn, Of Course Columbus never mentioned corn (maize) as such in the log either, but we can be quite confident he saw it. The best clue lies in the entry quoted above, which mentions the cultivation of \"panic grass.\" The actual Spanish word for the latter is panizo, and is perhaps best understood as meaning any tall, coarse, broad-leaved grass. The corn, Zea mays (whose species name is from the Indian mahiz and becomes maize in English), of the Arawaks was not the highly carefully bred plant we know today. Instead, it was a waist-high, broadleaved grass with extending sparse tassels and separate heads of grain hidden below, among the leaves. These heads of grain were small, and the grains themselves somewhat similar to today's flinty popcorn kernels. Knowing that, and remembering the absence of large herbivores on the island, the reader of the log can understand better some entries, such as that of December 6: \"... beautiful fields ... all cultivated, or at least a large part of it, and the crops look like wheat in the month of May in the vicinity of Cordoba.\" Or December 7: \"... a very large valley. It was all sown with something resembling barley, and I thought there must be a large (human) population.\"There was no wheat nor barley, nor any other cultivated, large coarse grass except corn on the islands Columbus visited. He definitely found corn, perhaps the greatest gift of all from the New World to the Old. Figure 11. The selected and kapok tree, Ceiba pentandra. the mountains to the size of large trees. I believe that they can gather it any time, for I saw pods already open and others just opening, and flowers all on one tree.\" Can we really believe Columbus saw cotton growing on trees? At the time of Columbus, cotton was well known in the Mediterranean region. It was obtained from Gossypium arboreum and G. herbaceum, of Africa and Asia. These cottons were like the New World cottons except that large Kapok day he first observed Arawak beans (November 4), Columbus also made another discovery: \"They have beans very On the same Cotton and the fiber length (staple) was shorter. Columbus should definitely have known cotton (the white fuzz) when he saw it. New World cotton is obtained from Gossypium hirsutum and G. barbadense. These different from ours, and a great deal of cotton, which they do not sow and which grows in distinctly long-staple cottons (which agreed with Columbus' concept that everything is bigger and better in the New World). Although the Arawaks didn't sow cotton are 27 annually, they did transport it to and among the islands with them. They traded from island to island regularly in their canoes. If a naturalized cotton thicket gave out, they could easily reintroduce it from the next island over. The Arawaks had learned to spin and weave cotton. They also made hammocks from it (the word hammock is of Arawak origin). Columbus was much impressed. He writes about cotton nineteen times in the log. Here are a few representative entries. October 12 (the day of the first landing): \"They brought us balls of cotton thread.\" November 4: \"Today many canoes came to the ships to trade things made of spun cotton, including the nets in which these people sleep called hammocks.\" November 6: \"[The ships' crews] saw a great quantity of cotton that had been gathered and spun and worked-in one house alone more than twelve thousand pounds of it. Two hundred tons could be had there in a year. I have already mentioned that they apparently do not plant this cotton and that it bears fruit all year. It is very fine and has a large pod ... It is true that the women wear a cotton swatch only large enough to cover their private parts and no more.\" One of the European cotton plants (G. arboreum) grows into a larger bush than either of the common New World species of Gossypium. This seemed to violate Columbus' idea of \"bigger and better\" in the New World. But then he found \"large trees\" of cotton. Did he make up this entry to satisfy the \"bigger and better\" doctrine? I think not. Columbus probably found some mature kapok trees (Ceiba pentandra). These magnificent smooth, gray-barked trees (Figure 11) with buttressed bases can reach up to 45 meters (150 feet) or more. They bear copious quantities of cotton-like pods with cotton-like (though grayer) fuzz within, the source of the kapok used in life preservers before the advent of man-made fibers for that purpose. The Ceiba tree is generally called the silk-cotton tree in English-speaking Caribbean areas, and most people would undoubtedly think it was ... another kind of cotton if they saw only the and the fuzz from each. Five centuries ago people had concepts about \"kinds\" of plants, not genera and species or genetic relationships. Columbus was lumping in the word cotton two closely similar kinds of pods and fuzz, one from bushes, the other from trees. Perfectly reasonable. pods Oddity Of all of the plant entries, the one that most predisposes people to think that Columbus' botany was dismal comes early in the log, on October 17: \"Many of [the trees] have branches of different kinds, all on one trunk; one twig is of one kind and another of another, and so different from each other that it is the greatest wonder of the world. For example, one branch has leaves like cane, another like mastic; thus on one tree five or six kinds, and all so different. Nor are these grafted so that one can say the graft does it, for these trees are right there in the woods, and the people do not take care of them.\" This makes one think of early medieval times and of herbals with drawings of plants bearing human arms and legs, does it not? What could Columbus have seen that could come even near to this description? For a person who looks at trees while visiting the Caribbean islands even today, the answer is not difficult. It consists of three parts. The first is the phenomenon of juvenile foliage. Sometimes when a tree is injured it will respond by budding forth branches that bear leaves of a different size (often larger) or shape from the mature leaves. These are the same kind of leaves that are characteristic of seedlings of that species, but may look startlingly different when they appear among the mature foliage of a large tree. The second is the ubiquitous presence of the green, woody, parasitic mistletoe (Phoradendron spp.) on tree hosts of all descriptions. On anything but the closest examination, the mistletoe branch appears to grow directly as a lateral from the host branch. Usually the leaves of the mistletoe are dis- A Botanical 28 tinctly different from those of the host in color, size, shape, placement, and the like, and we have a tree ostensibly with two conspicuously different kinds of branches. The third type of \"different branches\" one in the Caribbean is the epiphyte. When Columbus visited in 1492-93, the island forests were better provided with mature trees, denser in the foliage canopy, richer in species, and more like a true rain forest than the impoverished and exploited remnants existing today. These forests conserved moisture better too, creating high humidity among the tree tops, and the opportunities for epiphytes to grow in bark crevices high in the branches sees were more numerous. although Columbus' botany uninformed, his observations were accurate, his descriptions were excellent, his conclusions were mostly correct (discounting a little hype for the queen), and that he was willing to admit occasional mistakes, perpetrating them no further once recognized. My knowledge of the admiral has increased significantly as a result of this little study. My was I conclude that, admiration for him has increased even more. One can envisage Columbus looking up into such a tree and seeing a bromeliad with grasslike strap leaves, or an autograph tree seedling (Clusia rosea) with large, heavy leaf blades contrasting with the foliage of the host while appearing to grow forth from it. Did Columbus see trees with five or six different kinds of branches? Perhaps he exaggerated a little, but a single tree with three or four apparently different kinds of branches is not at all unrealistic. , 1 ,..., 1 . Acknowledgments The author acknowledges with appreciation the helpful comments made in preparation of this article by the Hon. Mauricio Obregon, Colombian ambassador to the Caribbean, and Dr. Norton H. Nickerson, professor of botany at Tufts University. 1 .., ., John M. Kingsbury is Professor Emeritus of Botany at Cornell University. He received both his A.M. (1952) and Ph.D. (1954) degrees from Harvard University. He is a former Director of Cornell Plantations as well as a founding director of the Shoals Marine Laboratory on Appledore Island in Maine. This article first appeared in the Cornell Plantations Quarterly (Vol. 45, No. 4, 1991), and is reprmted in abbreviated form with permission. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Botanical Legacy of Joseph Rock","article_sequence":3,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25061","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24e8926.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Wagner, Jeffrey","article_content":"The Botanical Legacy of Jeffrey Wagner Rock not only collected remarkable photographs. Joseph Rock Joseph some remarkable plants but also took some Joseph Rock's rich botanical legacy is especially impressive considering he was a selftaught botanist and already thirty-six years old at the time of his first expedition to Asia. He established his name in botanical circles through his work on the flora of the Hawaiian islands between 1910 and 1920. During his years there, he explored extensively and wrote several landmark works on Hawaiian plants. He almost single-handedly established Hawaii's first official herbarium collection with over twenty-nine thousand specimens, most of which he collected himself. This work prepared him well and set the stage for his next career as a botanical explorer and plant hunter in Asia. The United States Department of Agriculture was Rock's first employer in this new role and, in 1919, sent him to India and Burma to locate and collect seed of the Chaulamoogra tree (Taraktogenos kurzii and related species), which provided a substance proven effective in the treatment of leprosy. Rock's expedition was a success, and the seed he collected resulted in a plantation of several thousand trees in Hawaii. geography and geological past. The only other area of the world remotely similar is eastern North America, with its extensive yet comparatively homogeneous forests dominated by oaks, hickories, ashes, maples, and a few other species. In western China, however, with some of the world's highest mountains and deepest river valleys, as well as close proximity to tropical and subtropical evergreen forests and expanses of desolate uplands, the flora is correspondingly diverse. It is no surprise that Rock and his explorer colleagues collected and sent shipment after shipment of plants that held both botanists and horticulturists in wonder. Rock was a latecomer to the field, and since many before him had made their reputations on the discovery of countless plants new to science and horticulture, he was destined to follow in their footsteps and collect the discoveries of others. He did this with care and acumen, but never published a single book or article on China's flora. On the first Chinese expedition, Rock collected nearly eighty thousand plant specimens for the Smithsonian's herbarium and seed of innumerable plants from the high alpine meadows of the Yulong Xueshan range and the immense montane forest covering the slopes and valleys of the SinoTibetan borderlands. Among these plants were several horticulturally valuable forms of rhododendrons, from the fifty-foot Rhododendron sinogrande tree to the smaller alpine species that carpet the mountain meadows with blue, violet, pink, white, or yellow flowers. Many of Rock's exceptionally handsome, The National Geographic Society and the Smithsonian Institution were his first sponsors in China. From 1922 to 1924, Rock was based in Yunnan province and, as had the plant explorers before him, he began to discover the incredible diversity of China's montane deciduous and evergreen forests. This is a unique temperate flora, unusually rich in species and habitat diversity because of the particular circumstances of southwest China's 30 )i hardy, floriferous forms still grace the public and private botanical collections of Scotland, Wales, southern England, northern continental Europe, and America's Pacific Northwest. After this first expedition, Rock became known for his meticulous, thorough collecting and well-prepared specimens in many duplicate sheets; these enabled herbaria to trade or distribute the extra sheets to allow other institutions ample material for their own studies. Another valuable aspect of Rock's collecting was his passion for plant photography, illustrating a particular plant's habit and habitat, and supplementing the pressed material and his field notes to make an invaluable botanical record of the rugged areas through which he traveled. He is remembered as well for the quantity, quality, and purity of the seed he China. On two more sent back from expeditions, one for Harvard Arnold Arboretum and another University's for the National Geographic Society, Rock explored areas farther to the north, all the way .. ~t~.. r~r:~..t~..~ _...._~..........t..............--...............\",..........1-.....,.<\" ..c ~~,o %-, to the Minshan range, the upper reaches of the Yellow River, the Kokonor Lake, and beyond. These regions yielded fewer yet hardier plants, several of which are still in cultivation and production as ornamentals. One incomparable contribution by Rock was a stunningly beautiful copper birch (Betula albo-sinensis var. septentrionalis). This tree has a shimmering, dark, coppery-red trunk, the result of a silky smooth, paper-thin bark that peels away to reveal a waxy bloom underneath. Previously known to grow well in cooler climates such as that of northern Europe, Rock's find was an exceptional, horticulturally superior form. Another excellent plant that Rock collected is a tree peony that bears his name, Paeonia suffruticosa subsp. rockii. He found it growing inside Choni Monastery in Gansu province and, although he had never encountered it in the wild, thought sufficiently highly of this specimen to photograph it and collect seed. It is a remarkable hardy and attractive shrub, some four feet tall, with large white flowers, each with a single layer of and each petal stained deep purple at the inside base. It is a favored plant in both Europe and America and with age becomes increasingly impressive, covering itself each spring with more and more blossoms. The original plant was destroyed in 1928 when Muslim soldiers attacked and burned Choni to the ground. No other example of the subspecies has been found since in China. Farther to the north, the country was very barren, as a result of climatic extremes, but again at a lamasery-this time the famous Kumbum Monastery-in the Yellow River's desolate loess plain, Rock collected seed from a venerable old lilac (Syringa oblata). It was, he claimed, the very tree that inspired Tsongkhapa, founder of Tibetan Buddhism's Gelugpa school. The fourteenth-century lama reputedly saw a thousand shining images of the Buddha in the leaves of this lilac. The expedition conducted for the Arnold Arboretum was a botanical and horticultural success. In addition to the birch, peony, and lilac, Rock collected species of fir, spruce, petals, rowan, linden, maple, poplar, rose, mock rhododendron, mock orange, and many other trees, shrubs, and alpine species. These valuable herbarium specimens and propagation juniper, rhododendron, orange, materials were sent back to the Arboretum and further distributed to other institutions in North America and Europe. His contributions today provide an excellent record of the flora of western China, now under great pressure from exploitation. Rock's last expedition, sponsored by the National Geographic Society, to the Minya Konka region in Sechuan provided such a great volume of material that it has not yet been worked over completely by botanists. One of his best-known yet least-documented finds comes from this area, and there is irony in the fact that this plant, one of obvious ornamental quality, cannot be unequivocally attributed to Rock. It is an attractive rowan whose outstanding qualities include its emerald-green, finely sculpted, and divided leaves that in autumn turn a fiery red in colorful contrast to its amber-yellow fruit. It appeared as a chance seedling among Rock's 31 The people of Chingshui, Kansu, are gathered in front of the inn where Joseph Rock stayed, listening to his phonograph playing the sextet from Donizetti's Lucia di Lammermoor. Soldiers are guardmg the entrances to the mn. Photographed 11 April 1925. collections Edinburgh. at the Royal Botanic Garden in No record could be found of an herbarium specimen or field note, and some even believe it to be a hybrid. It is variously classified either as a hybrid or as a species form of other Chinese rowans. It goes by the name Sorbus 'Joseph Rock' and most likely will never be classified with absolute state of native among the last botanists to see several now-extinct plant species growing in their native habitats. appalled at the besieged He was Hawaiian plants. certainty. Although Rock continued to do some collecting during his final years in China, mostly for the American Rhododendron Society, he did not return to botany with real zeal until the last years of his life in Hawaii. During this time, while in his seventies, he would often dash up a volcano to collect a specimen of some nearly extinct plant for the botanic gardens of Kew, Edinburgh, or elsewhere. Rock reported to botanists at Kew that he was The solid achievements of this self-taught botanist in the rugged and spectacular world of plant hunting in western China will long outlast the eccentricities of character and scholarship for which he is otherwise remembered. Jeff Wagner, who holds a master's degree in forestry, did his research for this article at the Arnold Arboretum. This article was reprinted from Michael Aris, Lamas, Princes, and Brigands: Joseph Rock's Photographs of the Tibetan Borderlands of China, the catalogue of an exhibition at China Institute m America, New York, April 18 through July 31, 1992. The photographs are from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Overleaf: \"The central portion of the Labrang Monastery, Kansu, China, showmg the large buildings, either yellow red, the market, and a crowd of people can be seen to the left near the trees. Spruces are in the left hand corner, while poplars are in the squares near the bottom of the picture.\" Caption written by Rock. Photographed 30 April 1926. or 32 33 34 in \"Pale red sand stone mountains, absolutely bare and deeply eroded as if sculpted, a valley back of Kansu, which is situated directly in the valley of the Yellow River, west of Shun Hoa.\" 24 November 1925. 'An pass summit of Tsarekika,\" Joseph Rock wrote, \"the last the Minshan to the valleys debauching into the Tas River. It was here that our party was attacked last year by Tebbu brigands and one of my men badly wounded. It is a rendezvous place of Upper Tebbu robbers as three trails converge there.\" Elevation 11,250 feet. Photographed 18 September 1926. alpine meadow at the across 35 Populus simonii growing at Chom, southwest Kansu, China. Note the large burl at the base of the tree and the smaller ones along the trunk. Elevation 8,300 feet. Photographed in January 1926. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Designer","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25059","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24e8528.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Little-Used Perennials for the Garden Gary L. Koller More unusual Designer plants for the adventurous gardener. As a garden designer, I find that my reputation depends on applying unusual plants in unexpected applications. I also attempt to achieve planting compositions that look finished from the start but will age well, as some plants-chosen for a short-lived roleget squeezed out by the growth and maturation of neighboring plants. Herbaceous perennials, which are essential at the start in oidei to achieve the look of a \"finished\" landscape, will soften and age gracefully, eventually allowing the woody materials to take over. Learning about and applying new plants becomes part of the satisfaction of garden making, for isn't it more challenging to try new combinations than to repeat standard gardening formulas? While I do learn and draw from thework of others, I am constantly trying to acquaint myself with new plants and to envision creative design solutions that include them. I'd like to share some of my recent plant discoveries, which I am still getting to know at this point. I will feel more comfortable using them once I gain greater familiarity and experience with their habits. I would like to hear from readers with any additional observations about these plants, based on their own site and environmental conditions, as well as their talent for gardening. Unless otherwise noted, all the perennials mentioned are hardy and can be grown successfully in the Boston area. Adorns amurensis in bloom. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Adonis amurensis This plant, known as pheasant's-eye, is an early ephemeral that comes and goes so quickly that it is apt to be forgotten until its surprise return the next season. At the first warmth of spring, it is especially cheerful to see small golden flowers perched atop bright green ferny foliage. In New England the flowers last two weeks or slightly longer, and are significant for their abundance and earliness. Barry Yinger, Supervisor of Horticulture 37 The foliage of Arum italicum. Photo by Gary Koller. to dark yellow, and pale to dark orange, as well as flowers that are semior fully double. While presently not common in gardens, the reason certainly is not that Adonis lacks toughness, for once established it is durable and long-lived. I blame its scarcity on gardeners' lack of familiarity with the plant, the difficulty of propagation (the seeds are either rare or short-lived), and a flowering time that occurs before most people have focused on the spring planting season. Adonis thrives in deep, moist, well-drained acid soil in a location where it has full sun at the time of flowering and light shade after flowering. This shade protection can be achieved by planting it near deciduous trees or shrubs. People who have access to this plant will find that it can at the Buck Garden in Far Hills, New Jersey, tells me that he has collected six cultivars and they are thriving at his Pennsylvania garden. The earliest in bloom was 'Beni Nadeshike', which began flowering on January 13, while the other cultivars extended the bloom season near-white, pale into early May. One of life's great treats is to take a stroll along the March Walk at Winterthur Gardens in Delaware and see sheets of Adonis amurensis 'Fukujakai', mixed with Galanthus, scat- tered across the woodland floor. According to Yinger, 'Fukujakai' with a single goldenyellow blossom, is the most commonly grown clone in the United States. 'Beni Nadeshike', with a single orange flower, is the most common of the non-yellow clones in Japan. He also described clones with flowers that are 38 be easily flowering. increased by division just after Angelica gigas During the summer of 1990,I first discovered Angelica gigas, a Korean native, displayed in the gardens of some of the finest plantspeople in Massachusetts, New York, and Vermont. All these plants could be traced back to an introduction made by plant collector Barry Yinger. Angelica gigas is a statuesque plant with large, textured, boldly incised foliage borne on a a stout, straight central stem. In New England, flowering occurs in July and August. Prior to opening, the flower buds are enclosed in a lime-green tunic and presented on axillary stems with a charming crook in their \"necks.\" Blossoms look like maroon heads of cauliflower and unfurl over the course of several weeks. The flowers are presented in a fashion that displays them handsomely, and, in my opinion, majestically. The color provides a nice echo displayed with maroon foliage plants, such as Berberis thun- bergii var. atropurpurea 'Rose Glow', Cotinus coggygria 'Royal Purple', and Sedum maximum Atropurpureum'. Plants like some protection from the hottest sun and thrive in lightly dappled shade. In my own garden I lost Bletilla striata in bloom. Photo by Richard Weaver. plants to some kind of, as yet undetermined, browsing animal. With optimum environmental conditions, seeds are abundant, and therefore this Angelica should quickly move into the trade. Arum italicum An unusual growing cycle characterizes Arum italicum: the foliage emerges in early autumn, remains green throughout the winter, and dies early summer. In spring, greenishwhite, calla lily-like flowers appear, followed in the summer by a stalk of berries that ripen to a shiny bright red and are quite showy in the autumn garden. What attracts my attention is the handsome white markings on the leaves, markings that are quite variable between individual plants. Although selections have been made (I have observed beauaway in Pamela Harper's garden in that they are yet Virginia), available in North America. commercially Since the plant is grown from a corm, it should be possible to achieve quick stock increase. While still uncommon in the gardens of New England because of hardiness limitations, it has been successful in many southern gardens where it has naturalized freely. It should thrive in Cape Cod and on Nantucket where the climate is more moderate than in the Boston area. at tiful variants I am not aware Bletilla striata This terrestrial orchid, native to Japan and China, thrives in locations as diverse as Nantucket and Kansas City, as well as many locations in the Pacific Northwest. On Nantucket, 39 where I have observed it most frequently, it forms a dense clump of broad, lance-shaped leaves that, at the edges of the colony, arch outward. Plants prefer locations with cool summers, growing in open sandy soil with good drainage and in full sun to light shade. Mature plants stand 30 to 60 centimeters tall (1 to 2 feet), bearing medium-green leaves that appear gently pleated. The foliage tends to be very architectural in design, and I consider it blossoms are pale white, but with the onset of autumn, they assume tints of pale lilac. The flowering stalks tend to be a bit lax and arch across neighboring plants. Garden designers will find this habit a desirable characteristic as a filler and weaver-to soften the distinction between individual plants. Carex stricta 'Bowles Golden' This elegant solely as a foliage plant. Multiple plants look attractive as a ribbon flowing through a ground cover of contrasting texture, prostrate junipers or Asarum europaeum. In northern areas Bletilla can be grown in pots set out in the summer and overwintered in a cold frame or other sheltered as such sites. Flowering occurs in mid-June and, depending on the type, can be a rich purple or a pure white. Just beginning to make its way around in gardens is a variegated clone on which each leaf is bordered by a white pinstripe and whose flowers are a rich purple color. An entirely different variegation is represented in a plant with yellow stripes on its leaves; the stripes are most evident in spring but gradu- sedge is normally a plant of moist soils, thriving on lake and stream banks in full sun or light shade and forming a small haystacklike mound with golden-yellow leaves. Flowering is insignificant, but the plant does produce thin, wiry flowering stems that move and produce animation in the landscape. 'Bowles Golden' grass is visually effective because of the wispy habit of the plant and the distinctive foliage color of golden-yellow to chartreuse-green that is dependable in its presentation all summer long. These features can be combined with other herbaceous perennials to create pleasing compositions in the garden. Cassia hebecarpa A native American plant that in nature inhabits moist stream banks and open woodlands, Cassia hebecarpa in cultivation thrives in full meters sun ally fade, becoming less distinctive by midseason. The green-leaved, purple-flowered form of Bletilla has been available in the United States for some time, but has remained largely ignored by the gardening tall and poor soil. Plants grow 1 to 2 (3 to 6 feet) and bear attractive, pin- public. As I surveyed nursery catalogues, I was amazed at how many mail order nurseries list this plant for the 1992 growing season. Perhaps Bletilla will not remain unknown for nately compound foliage topped by goldenyellow blossoms from mid- to late summer. Since its growth habit is tall and bushy, it functions almost like a small shrub. It can be used in the landscape as a summer barrier, but it dies back to soil level in the autumn, exposing a much simplified landscape scene. After flowering, it seeds abundantly and produces a surplus of new plants for the next season. long. Calamintha nepeta subsp. nepeta Lesser calamint is a perennial native of Europe that has naturalized itself in several of the mid-Atlantic states. Growing 30 to 60 centimeters tall (1 to 2 feet), it blooms from mid-summer until frost and provides the effect of a long-flowering baby's-breath. In full flower, it tends to be thin in density and wispy in appearance, with small, mint-like blossoms occurring in clusters. During mid-summer Corydalis lutea The delicately cut, light-green foliage of Corydalis lutea reminds one of ferns or Dicentra eximia. The plant bears charming, tiny golden blossoms all summer long, making it one of the longest-flowering perennials. Many years ago, I visited Lincoln and Timmy Foster, 40 Cassia hebecarpa in flower. Photo by Gary Koller. flower and is western skilled rock gardeners in northConnecticut. Their front entry included a large stone wall engulfed with supremely spreader. For many it may be a choice, but I like the \"weediness\" of lutea. probably less aggressive as a preferred Corydalis Corydalis that conveyed a sense of exuberOnce established, Corydalis lutea has the appealing tendency of making itself at home and seeding itself about the garden in nooks and crannies. Some might call this behavior weedy, but it allows nature to participate in loosening up the garden and providing change, as plants appear in unexpected locations. Like bleeding heart, the stems of this plant are fragile and easily broken by errant feet or careless garden maintenance. ance. several occasions I purchased Corydalis lutea at a garden center only to end up with Corydalis ochroleuca, which has a pale, cream-colored on One note of caution: have We-Du Nursery, first introduced me to this elegant woodland plant more than ten years ago, and after learning of its merits, I marvel that it isn't grown more widely. Korean fairy-bells form a multiplestemmed clump growing 80 to 100 centimeters tall (2.5 to 3 feet) and stand erect in a statuesque fashion. Stems, rather open at the base, are topped by foliage that remains attractive all summer long. Appearing in May, the flowers are nodding, roughly bell-shaped, and golden-yellow. Plants thrive in light shade Disporum flavum Richard Weaver, of 41 and, when grown in moist, organically rich soil, increase rapidly, but not invasively. Richard Weaver tells me that in North Carolina this plant sometimes emerges so early in the spring that it gets cut back by late frosts. He hastened to add that he never experienced this problem when growing Disporum in Boston. In my garden, Disporum flavum cannot is tough and durable, but intensity of full sun. endure the Filipendula camtschatica Large, dramatic plants are useful for the back of the border and for creating effects of enclosure and division in cultivated settings. In wet meadows, bold plants also offer a size and scale appropriate to vast outdoor spaces. One giant perennial that offers exciting opportunities for creating spatial modulation in the garden is Filipendula camtschatica. I have seen Corydalis lutea in flower. its best at the Photo by P. Del Tiedia. it growing beautifully in a garden in northern Maine situated in front of a tall walled enclosure. The plants stand nearly 3 meters tall (10 feet), and the blossoms appear as huge billowy puffs of creamy white. In Maine, full bloom occurs from the end of July till early August. Hosta montana golden colors appear approach of twilight when its as visual highlights. Humulus 'Aureo-marginata' I find this hosta especially useful in creating visual compositions in the shaded landscape. The plant has an upright, vase-shaped form, and each leaf has a bold margin of goldenyellow. A dramatic composition can be achieved by underplanting with the ornamental grass Hakenochloa macra 'Aureola; which forms a ground cover of fine leaves to mimic the color and tone of the hosta foliage while allowing a change of height and texture. For a planting at Harvard University, I used these two plants in combination with Berberis thunbeigii 'Aurea' to create a composition of golden foliage that remained visually showy all summer long. This planting, beneath huge old elm and oak trees, is growing in moderate shade. I find it most attractive on cloudy, gloomy days when it resembles a shaft of sunlight brightening the landscape. It also is at lupulus 'Aureus' Commonly seen in English gardens, the golden hop vine is just beginning to make its way here, distinctive for its medium-sized, pale golden-yellow, lobed leaves. This color persists from the time leaves emerge until early summer, when the yellow foliage turns for the rest of the summer. When I given the plant, the donor warned me that, once established, it could grow 9 to 12 meters (30 to 40 feet) each season. After two years, my plant, which I grow on pea netting, has almost exceeded this potential. Each autumn after the plant has died to soil level, I cut it back to the ground and remove and replace the netting. The hop vine is exceptionally hardy, and I have seen it growing luxuriously in Banff, Canada, where winters are often long and severe. to green was Lysichiton americanum Planting and managing wetland areas are still poorly understood and rarely done well by gardeners. I am, therefore, always delighted to 42 the Lysichiton among the tangle of the willows. The distinctive foliage of the Lysichiton worked well, she added, when planted along pathways where it was visually tied to the landscape. Milium effusum 'Aureum' The golden wood millet, a grass that grows 45 to 60 centimeters tall (18 to 24 inches), does best in light shade, in which case its foliage remains a lime green all summer long. Of delicate, textured, upright habit, it can be used as a specimen to provide spots of chartreuse in shade. In my own garden, however, I have used it as a small hedge or border combined with Hakonechloa macra Aureola', as they both have similar textures but different growth habits. When sited in particularly appropriate locations, the Milium will seed itself and wander about the garden. I particularly like it mixed with Corydalis lutea as a color echo; both naturalize themselves in unexpected spots and form changing color schemes in the garden. The foliage of this grass emerges early in springand looks especially attractive when combined with the blue flowers of Chionodoxa. Lysichiton Glattstein. amencanum in flower. Photo by Judy find the yellow skunk cabbage thriving in wetland gardens in New England. One might assume that Lysichiton americanum, a native of the West Coast from California to Alaska, would not be particularly successful in New England, yet it thrives at the Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts. The foliage is boldly elegant, especially effective in spring and early summer, if somewhat tattered by late summer after slugs have feasted on the leafy tissue. Individual leaves are elliptic in shape, 30 to 100 centimeters long (1 to 3 feet), light green, of a thick and fleshy substance, and grow clustered, rising from a crown. Frances Clark, at the Garden in the Woods, tells me that she has seen it in Alaska where it grows along streams beneath thickets of willows. She remarked on how odd the combination looked with the bold foliage of Osmunda claytoniana Elegant and statuesque best describe this beautiful native fern. The form of the plant is an upright vase shape, and the foliage is a pale green. The common name of this plant, interrupted fern, refers to the fact that the middle portion of the fronds are occupied by fertile spore-bearing structures of a dark cinnamon brown that attractively divide the leaf. More drought-tolerant than most ferns, Osmunda claytoniana mixes handsomely among evergreen ground covers such as Hedera helix, Vinca minor, and Juniperus horizontalis. In Maine landscapes, this plant is often found growing through masses of Pachysandra terminalis. Interrupted fern can be used around the base of houses as a substitute for small shrubs. The advantage is that it never overwhelms the structure by growing - 43 excessively tall; the disadvantage is that it dies to the ground in fall, leaving the base of the house exposed. Plantago major 'Atropurpurea' A noteworthy colony of this purple-leafed plantain grows along the edge of a brook in the Van Dusen Botanical Garden in Vancouver, British Columbia. While the leaf shape is similar to the common turf grass weed, the foliage of this type tends to be somewhat larger and of a rich maroon color. At Van Dusen, combined with other plants of silver foliage and white flowers, it made a beautiful visual composition. Plants in my Massachusetts garden seem a duller and less intense purple than those I remember in Vancouver, but they are still attractive to me. This is an abundant seeder of easy germination. Podophyllum hexandrum Our native mayapple, Podophyllum peltatum, forms great spreading colonies beneath the trees and shrubs of Eastern woodlands. While the spring foliage is quite beautiful, it tends to go dormant in early summer. As an alternative, I admire an Asian species, P. hexandrum, with several desirable characteristics. The new season's leaves emerge in May and for several days resemble small umbrellas as they rise up and unfurl. While the leaves remain still somewhat gathered together, the flower bud sits perched atop the leaf and opens wide to reveal a white flower with maroon stamens. The flower is followed by a roundish fruit about the size of a plum, which ripens to a beautiful reddish-orange color. The leaves, a light green with pale maroon markings, persist throughout the summer, becoming unattractive only in the fall or when suffering from drought. The plant forms dense clumps and is more easily contained in the garden than the native species. Podophyllum hexandrum looks beautiful interplanted with Hedera helix, for the light-green, young-season foliage of the mayapple makes a stunning visual contrast against the dark green of the ivy. Snulacma racemosa in f ull fruit. Photo by Gary Koller. Ranunculus ficaria Many of you may view this plant as a weed that needs to be eradicated from the landscape. Others will see it as a charming and colorful interloper that spreads freely in moist meadows brightening the late April landscape. I find it interesting in that, once established, tubers will be moved about in the process of lawn mowing and garden cultivation so that it will eventually spread over much larger areas than originally planted. At the Arnold Arboretum, lesser celandine inhabits moist areas adjacent to Goldsmith Brook and mixes with Scilla bifolia and Scilla sibirica in great masses of yellow and blue, which drift discreetly, and ephemerally, across the landscape. While many know the typical golden-yellow form, few gardeners are aware of several wonderful color forms, ranging from whitish to 44 Tovara virginiana 'Vanegata'. Photo by Gary Koller. buff to bright orange. Tubers can be obtained from Potterton and Martin, a specialty bulb company in England. Rohdea japonica Broad, fleshy, strap-shaped leaves characterize Rohdea japonica, the Nippon lily. Individual specimens grow from a crown sending up the are bold evergreen leaves that green or either solid beautifully variegated. Rohdea is highly prized by collectors in Japan, who, according to Barry Yinger, have made over 700 named selections based on leaf color, size, fruit color, and overall growth form. Two of the most common garden forms are 'Taishokan' which has been long cultivated in Japan to produce foliage for the florist industry, and 'Miyako No Jd, which is a strong-growing, green-leaved type. Richard Lighty of Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, has established a large colony resembling a ground-cover planting, with all the plants grown from the same individual by division. Although established for many years, the colony has yet to fruit (fruits occur in cone-like clusters and ripen to a bright red color). The Arnold Arboretum has supplied Lighty with several seedlings with a different genetic base, in the hope of cross pollinating with his stock to achieve seed production. The American literature suggests that Rohdea japonica is hardy only as far north as Washington, D. C., but it has proven to be cold-hardy in the Boston area. It does not die 45 back in the wintertime, and flowers and fruits freely. Yinger suggests that the plant is probably only reliably hardy to USDA Zone 7, and that it needs careful microclimate selection in colder areas. The plant thrives in welldrained, acid soil. In my experience, the plant grows slowly, needs little care, and is exceptionally drought tolerant. Perhaps the greatest potential for our gardens comes from the as yet unavailable fancy-leafed forms, which will require performance evaluation under our growing conditions. The variegated-leaf forms can be used as stripes, ribbons, clusters, or colonies interplanted with Vinca minor; and the greenleafed forms can be beautifully set among a bed of Asarum europaeum. Smilacina racemosa False Solomon's-seal is a native woodland plant that deserves to play a greater role in garden making. It forms clumps of upright stems with many longitudinally parallelveined leaves of a lovely light-green color. Tiny creamy-white blossoms appear in great feathery terminal clusters, the weight of the inflorescence causing the stems to arch over. And during late summer, clusters of pea-sized fruits ripen, ranging in color from purplish to orange-red. While Smilacina racemosa is widespread across North America, I am unaware of horticultural selections, though I have heard of a variegated form available in England. It seems reasonable that selections could be made for form, larger inflorescences, and enhanced fruiting characteristics. Stipa gigantea Dramatically veiled and filmy best describe the flowering effect of the giant feather grass. This grass forms a dense clump of foliage that stands about 60 centimeters tall (2 feet). During May, thin, erect stalks of flowers rise a meter (3 feet) or more above the foliage. These delicate stalks draw the observer's eye through to distant views, as they divide space, create a foreground, and bring animation to the garden when each stirring of the breeze sets the stems swaying. Ibvara Thvara virginiana 'Variegata' virginiana var. This cultivar competes for attention with filimormis 'Painter's Palette'. Each has a green leaf splashed with creamy yellow, but in 'Painter's Palette', markings of chocolate and pink are added. I prefer 'Variegata' as I have found it to be a stronger and more dependable grower. In addition, I prefer the appearance of the creamy variegation by itself-without the intrusion of the browns and pinks. I have seen plants used in Kansas City, Missouri, as bold clumps in full sun where they functioned as small shrubs. Personal preferences aside, both types are useful for they allow designers different coloring opportunities. The plant seeds abundantly, and seedlings sprout freely, creating white spots against the dark brown earth. Gary Koller is Senior Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum. His companion article on \"Ground Covers for the Garden Designer\" appeared in the Spring 1992 issue of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":46,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25056","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24ebb26.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Tankard, Judith B.","article_content":"BOOKS Neil Jorgensen The Exuberant Garden and the Controlling Hand by William H. Frederick, Jr. Little, Brown, 1992. 342 pages. Hardcover; 230 color photographs and 38 appendices. $50.00. There is so often in landscape gardening a special difficulty: that gap so hard to bridge, between good design and good planting the gardener or designer who can combine ... the A two is a rare bird. -Russell Page sidering the wealth of information that shares, it is a bargain. His organization is splendid. The book contains five chapters, one for each of five different kinds of gardens, among them gardens for viewing, stroll gardens, and swimming pool gardens. In each chapter, he compares several examples of that particular garden type. For each, he provides a clear plan, a rationale for the design, an illustrated list of the plants used, and a chart of bloom sequence to show how visual interest progresses through the Frederick year. bird indeed! The horticultural ignorof so many landscape architects is a great failing of the profession. But as both a master plantsman and a wonderfully creative designer, landscape architect William Frederick is a happy exception to the stereotype. Beyond the surprise and curiosity of a planting book written by a landscape architect, The Exuberant Garden and the Controlling Hand is important in other ways. First, it is a book of opinion and personal knowledge gained from over fifty years of hands-on gardening; this experience alone would make it worth owning. Second, it is a book of case studies using actual gardens that Frederick has designed. Third, it is a visual treat both for its layout (designed by Susan Marsh) and for its illustrations. Fourth, it is a valuable reference book written for professionals and serious gardeners. Frederick has chosen his audience; he doesn't pander to the vast population of gardening beginners. Though big and glossy, The Exuberant Garden is a far cry from the vacuous gardening \"lifestyle\" books-full of pretty pictures but little else of substance-that regularly appear in bookstores each spring. Its fiftydollar price is about ten dollars higher than the average of these lifestyle books, but conrare ance example, Frederick expands a particular design feature into a more general discussion on some aspect of garden design: one feature is a comparison of rectilinear and curvilinear design, another discusses fragrance, yet another suggests plants for interest, and so on. The appendices, which account for over half of the book, are database charts of what landscape architects call \"plant materialfor those with little horticultural experience who might need a blue-flowered, three-foot-high, winter After each shade-tolerant, June-blossoming, Zone 6 shrub for a garden project. Even accomplished plantspeople would find these exhaustive lists useful to keep the various possibilities in reading Edward Tufte's superb book, Envisioning Information, I am perhaps oversensitive to shortcomings in tabular layouts, but I can't help feeling that the design of these charts does not match the design of the main body of the book. The information in each could have been easily condensed onto one page, symbols used at times instead of confusing initials, the names of the plant families dispensed with entirely, specific Latin names given in italics, and notes placed at the mind. After 47 bottom of the page as footnotes rather than listed on a separate page. The charts are still useful, but a better design would have made them easier to read. For years I have owned two copies of Frederick's earlier book, One Hundred Great Garden Plants, just in case I loaned out one copy and never got it back. I don't know how many times, when confronted with a vexing planting problem, I have turned to Bill Frederick for advice. The Exuberant Garden does not cover the same ground but almost begins where this earlier book leaves off. a My only other criticism of the new book-a minor one-is that since One Hundred Great Garden Plants, Frederick's sentences have grown in length, perhaps because many of his ideas are complex. Though his writing remains read a one word of the text-which would be pity-the book is well worth owning for the garden plans, for the plant databases, and above all, for the sumptuous photographs. I'll admit it: William Frederick is one of my gardening idols. For years I have seen snippets of his work in various publications. Three years ago and again this to good fortune year, I have had the visit his Delaware garden in person. The blue butterfly chairs against the brilliant bank of azaleas-the same view that is on the book jacket and frontispiece of his splendid new book-will always remain in my memory. clear, sometimes making two sen- of one would have increased the readability of the text. But even if you did not tences out The Exuberant Garden and the Controlling Hand should be in the library of every landscape architect and serious gardener here in the East. And while you are at the bookstore, pick up a copy of One Hundred Great Garden Plants. That should be on your bookshelf as well. Judith B. Tankard The Golden Age of American Gardens: Proud Owners, Private Estates, 1890-1940, by Mac Griswold and Eleanor Weller. Harry N. Abrams, in association with the Garden Club of America, 1991. 408 pages. Hardcover. $75.00. Not since the Garden Club of America spon- sored the publication of Gardens of Colony and State over sixty years ago has there been such an imprPssive attempt to record an important era of America's rich garden history. The earlier publication presented a rarefied view of select colonial gardens known to the GCA at the time. It was edited by Alice B. Lockwood, who assembled contributions from the club's membership network. As soon as the two large folio volumes appeared in 1931-34, handsomely designed and produced by Scribner's, they rapidly became a major document for a number of the gardens, many of which vanished within a few years. This present publication is a worthy successor, and one hopes that it will enjoy an equally valued existence. The inspiration for the new book is a collection of over 1400 hand-colored glass lantern slides originally commissioned by the GCA to document representative members' gardens. After the original collection was reassembled about a dozen years ago, it was augmented by 60,000 35-millimeter slides of other American garden imagespostcard views, plans, and black-and-white photographs. That enlarged collection, now known as the Archive of American Gardens, is housed at the Smithsonian Institution where it is presently being catalogued and where, after 1993, it will be available for use by researchers. Unquestionably the collection provides extraordinary visual documentation 48 of a long-vanished era, and the present authors set out to create a book around the material. Their initial task was to identify the gardens shown in the slides, and by the end of six years of research, they had unearthed enough information to fill many volumes. The publisher is to be commended for undertaking the project, but it is regrettable that the opulent book-publishing standards of the 1930s have become as obsolete as many of the gardens described in the book. The realities of present-day trade publishing apparently precluded spreading the information out over the multiple volumes the project deserved, setting the text in a readable typeface, and presenting the book in a larger, more traditional format. The minute point size selected for the back matter is a tragedy, as the reference material alone is worth the price of the book. Reproductions of the over-colorful slides form the backbone of the book. The previous book was enhanced immeasurably by the halftone illustrations, so it is refreshing that the present book has been created entirely around archival images in an era when glossy photography emphasizing color and detail is the norm. The slides that were hand-painted in the studio range from enchanting to lurid, but it is the black-and-white photographs that reveal more about garden design. The chronicle of American estate gardens prior to World War II, when the economic conditions that supported such activities changed dramatically, is arranged geographically from the Northeast to the West Coast, loosely following the trail of land exploration, development, and culture. With tantalizingly brief entries on some of its notable gardens, each region cries out for its own individual volume. Unlike Gardens of Colony and State, which seems a quarters for newly established American dynasties. The style of architecture and gardens was a mix of eclecticism and the latest advances in artistic and cultural developments as promoted in popular Englishstyle books and periodicals of the time. In horticulture, the lessons from England were sometimes abused, as in Mrs. Curtiss James's all-blue garden in Newport that relied heavily on annuals and expensive tricks to create the effect; at times the climate proved a challenge, as in the case of Lila Vanderbilt Webb's \"Shelburne Farms\" in Vermont where the terraces overlooking Lake Champlain were decorated with tubbed bay trees. Uniquely in America, women were able to play an enormous role in shaping the character of some of these gardens, whether through their own writings and the development of the garden club movement, or through the work of design professionals. Outstanding contributions to garden design in the country house era by women such as Ellen Shipman and Marian Commin are presented alongside the better-known work of Charles Platt and the Olmsteds, thereby providing a viewpoint not often stressed in more traditional studies of the period. Even though the book has scholarly reference material, including forty-five columns of endnotes, thirty columns of bibliography, and extensive caption information, the text is more contemporary than scholastic in style and is thereby accessible to a broad audience. Skimming, however, is not possible. Whether a novice to the field of garden history or a seasoned professional, one is encouraged to work through the book, slowly digesting the wealth of information. A newly corrected second printing is expected early this summer. The authors, the publisher, and the Garden Club of America have produced a serious but splendid book that deserves a permanent place in libraries and book shops, alongside equally notable studies on the American country house. quaint period piece in comparison, the book treats that vast expanse of America between Mississippi and California. American estates were more than homes of millionaires; they were the regal family head- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25060","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24e856d.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS from the Arnold Arboretnm Where Do Plants Get Their Food? L education ast November, when I dedicated our one annual Fall Appeal to our wrote me a note program for children, with an of our members only support the important work of to restrict her gift to whatever responded purpose she designated. Her concern, however, gave me pause Is the the Arboretum. I saying that she felt her dollars should offer education of children The trustees an important part of our mission? so. of two local foundations think a Last month the Ar- boretum received tional Foundation ton area very generous grant of $40,500 from the Davis Educa- to support the costs of our training workshop for Bosto a new suc- teachers this coming summer It will introduce teachers curriculum, called LEAP (LEarnmg About Plants), that has proved : cessful as a friendly medium for teaching basic science concepts. Earlier us a this spring, the Jessie B Cox Charitable Trust also awarded grant of Bringing the Arboretum to $28,000 which will cover the administrative costs of the program and permit us to Boston provide teachers with in-class assistance during the school year. effort last winter found that this of the Schoolyards Our the pilot follow-up support is critical to training. is this an important priority for the Arboretum> Our work Why with school children and their teachers is the most significant way in which we reach out to our neighboring community in the City of Boston success Ifyou Schools believe most Boston are surrounded by asphalt and concrete, look again, just outside the schoolyard gate You may find As both a scientific arboretum and is a major component of the Boston Park nearby open spaces where the potential for outdoor science studies promises a new kind of classroom for Boston ideally situated to apply the educational research of Harvard University to the critical need for reform in our public schools, especially in the area of math and science. And in the end, I am convinced that children who truly understand at the age of seven that plants make food will become adults who are in a far better position to appreciate the importance of preserving the world's flora, and who will value the work of institutions dedicated to system, the Arnold Arboretum schoolchildren Some fifth grade teachers from the Joseph Lee School near Franklin Field in Dorchester made just such a discovery, and asked Diane Syverson of the Arnold Arboretum a Children's Program to come have site visit came a look From that first this purpose ~ Robert E. Cook, Director proposal to adapt the Arboretum's program of Field Study Experiences to the mini-ecosystems of a small cemetery adjoining the schoolyard. Working with $400 out of the school improvement fund, Lee school teach(continued on page 2) (continued from page 1) ers collaborated with Arboretum staff conduct a to and a successful pilot program, later the Massachusetts Culyear tural Council awarded the Children's Program $8,600 to extend the program to 4th and 5th graders at the Lee School and the Mattahunt School in Mattapan. Involving activities both at the Arboretum and in schoolyard natural areas, the collaboration sought to sensitize children to the beauty and intri- cacy of nearby ecosystems. As 4th grade teacher Ann Connolly enthused, \"My children are really turned on They're bringing in flora and fauna, my room is jumping!\" Kids learned about the winter Marcia Mitchell Joins Arboretum Staff survival tactics of nounce The Arboretum is pleased to an- plants and animals on Hemlock Hill, and then made a spring study of the plant diversity in their schoolyard. To understand the challenges of botanical exploration, fifth graders used compasses and the historic plants of Bussey Hill to relive the travels of plant explorers, while in their own neighborhoods they used map and compass to chart their explorations of schoolyard natural areas. How do the appointment of Marcia Mitchell as Adult Education experience in horticultural writing and program development, and, as Manager. Marcia brings many years of president of the Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron has worked Society, retum staff in the closely with Arbodevelopment of the at in maintaining bibliofiles and organizing and idengraphic tifying the botanical collections of L.J. Brass from four Archbold Expeditions to New Guinea, as well as those made by C. Kajewski and Mary Strong Clemens. Certainly \"Merrill and Perry\" have named more of the plants of Papua-New Guinea than any other botanists or team. For this work, Miss Perry learned the Dutch language in order to translate the important descriptive articles of H.J. Lam and others. These translations were published and proved of great value to the U.S. Armed Forces in the World War II battles from New Guinea and Guadalcanal northward. Miss Perry reached retirement age in 1960 but she was permitted to continue her work on a manuscript which became the book \"The Medicinal Uses of Plants of Southeastern Asia,\" published by the M LT. Press. A A grant f-_~ ..L_ TT_- ___t Institute _C from the National T_--'.. of Health supported this work which has become a model for current work in with him ...- -.. Rhododendron Garden tates. the Case Es- Please join us in welcoming Marcia as she works to continue the ethnobotany In 1971 she was honored by Acadia University with the degree Doctor of Science, honoris causa. worked new in think this idea the end' It created lots of we Arboretum's tradition of excellence horticultural education. in Dr. Perry was born in New Brunswick, Canada and graduated a learning and new friends, and ento from Acadia abled the Arboretum further en- Dr. courage the curiosity all children have about the natural world, and demonstrate Lily May Perry Dr. E D. Merrill came to as 1895 -1992 how good that grain The Children's teaching can build on Program University in 1921. She degree from Radcliffe in 1925 and a Ph.D. from Washington University in 1932 She worked under two directors of the Gray Herearned M.A. staff thanks the Massachusetts Cultural Council for its support, and expresses special appreciation for the fine work of program volunteers Barbara W When Cambridge barium and three of the Arnold ArboHer published contributions include 60 papers, most of which appeared in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. She was indeed a friend to the many botanists who used the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum which she helped to develop for so retum the Arnold Arboretum Su- pervisor of Botanical Collections in 1936 he found Lily May Perry working as an assistant to Professor M.L. Fernald at the Gray Herbarium in Balasa, Stepha Genelza, Marianne Rothme, and Loren Stolow. Merrill needed help with the collections of plant specimens he was acquiring from the South Pacific area He recruited Miss to Perry, trans- many years. ferred her Jamaica Plain, and for the next thirty years she worked closely - R. A. Howard Arboretum and Neighbors Clean Up! E if arlier it this spring it seemed as rained every weekend All the better when vided a clear sunny successful clean-up Saturday, May 6, proday for a hugely in and around the Arnold Arboretum. The Arnold Arboretum Com- has organized many clean-ups during its ten year history. This spring, the Committee worked with neighbors to clean-up the Walter! mittee Weld Tract, tation an Arnold Arboretum parcel abutting the Hebrew RehabiliCenter. Altogether, two dozen people of many ages and backgrounds came together to make a positive difference at the Arboretum Through their hard work, well were scores of bags of accumulated tires and hubcaps, as unwieldy metal refuse, litter, ubiquitous as more finally removed. This ambitious project was worked energetically alongside other greatly aided by the generous support provided by Waste Management Inc. of Somerville. WMI employees Charles Bockman and John Cronin Arboretum supporters, and volunteered the disposal truck that later hauled away a total of 20,550 pounds of rubbish We express special thanks to our neighbors, the Arnold Arbore- Committee, and Waste ManageInc , for dramatically enhancing the appearance of the Arboretum and turn ment, the surrounding community. 3 These first six volumes constitute the comprehensive flora of the area, and the treatments present keys to the genera as well as the species tor easy identification For each genus and species a complete modern description is provided, which includes coloration as well as measurements of floral parts The descriptions are followed by geographic distribution both within and without the Lesser Antilles All volumes are profusely illustrated with line drawings that are both highly artistic and botanically accurate. All species known from the Lesser Antilles, both native and introduced, are included. All volumes in the six-volume still available either indi- Jeanne Bamforth, Elzzabeth Henza, Sonya Del Tredici, Todd Burns, Betsy Hopkins; 2nd row, Lalo Castillon, Elizabeth Caffrey, Gary Bregman, Erin Crawley, Suzanne series are Thimet; 3rd raw, Lisa Mackinnon-Rambo, Brzan Core, Rob Chambers. Community Master Plan Meeting 1992 Summer Interns Arrive vidually or as a complete set. The complete set is available at a special price, including shipping and handling, of $260 (add $5 for shipping outside of the U.S. ). For volumes 4,5 and 6 \"~t...t,~....- ~.,t ... only, the special__ *2O5 price is at~na OnApril 22, over eighty friends and neighbors gathered at the Summer exceptional trainees to tum. has brought another State Labs auditorium for an introduction to the Arboretum's master planning process Director Bob Cook and Victoria Williams, Assistant Commis- group of horticultural learn from the staff and liv- chased Individual volumes may be purat the prices listed below, plus $2 per volume for shipping and ing collections of the Arnold ArboreThe ence in handling: Volume 1, Orchidaceae $20 Volume 2, Ptendophyta $25 Volume 3, interns get hands-on experiseveral aspects of Arboretum sioner, Boston Parks and Recreation, began the meeting by defining the Arnold's dual mission as university ar- including grounds maintelabeling and mapping, arboriculture, and plant propagation. operations, nance, Monocotyledoneae (other than Orchidaceae $35 Volume boretum and public open space. Joe Hibbard and Martha Lampkm of Sasaki Associates, the Watertown planning firm responsible for master As part of their training, interns participate in classes in plant identification, and join Arboretum staff mem- 4, Dicotyledoneae, 1 $75 $85 Volume 5, bers for tours and talks. Dicotyledoneae, Volume 6, 2 plan development, then discussed their ongoing work with visitor serof gates, fences and walls, and other Arboretum planvices, the management Flora Of The Lesser Antilles Dicotyledoneae, 3 $85 to Checks should be made payable Arnold should be addressed Frances to the ning issues. Arboretum, and all orders the attention The next meeting, which will include a analysis progress report on recent site and design studies, will be to The Flora Arnold Arboretum announce is pleased of that the six-volume of the Lesser Antilles, a long-term Maguire, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA held this fall For more information, please call Richard Schulhof at 524-1718. project of Dr Richard A. Howard, a former director of the Arnold Arboretum, is still available in limited quantities. 02130, USA 4 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23325","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070a76a.jpg","title":"1992-52-2","volume":52,"issue_number":2,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Snowbells of Korea","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25055","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eb76d.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Meyer, Paul W.","article_content":"The Snowbells of Korea Paul Meyer Styrax japonicus and obassia touch of elegance in recent years. to any small, spring-blooming trees that add a species have gained in popularity garden. are Both I When horticulturists think of the origin of many oriental garden plants, Japan and China most frequently come to mind. Though overlooked until recent years, Korea is also home to an exceptionally rich temperate flora and contributes much to our American gardens. When the Korean climate is compared with that of the northeastern United States, strong similarities are evident, often more pror.;,n:~ccu tl~am ~W~ii~i~iC~ w the climates of most of Japan or China. When a species occurs across a wide geographical range that includes parts of China, Japan, and Korea, the Korean populations may be the most adaptable to the growing conditions of the northeastern United States. Over the past fifteen years, a number of American institutions-the U. S. National Arboretum, the Holden Arboretum, the Arnold Arboretum, and the Morris Arboretum-have aggressively collected plants in Korea. I personally have participated in five trips to Korea in search of trees and shrubs well adapted to the growing conditions of the eastern United States. During the course of these expeditions, I have become interested in the genus Styrax, the so-called snowbells, represented in Korea by two species, Styrax japonicus Siebold and Zuccarini and Styrax obassia Siebold and Zuccarini-both outstanding horticulturally as small flowering trees. Although familiar to American gardening connoisseurs for more than a hundred years, both species are little known beyond the circles of avid gardeners. These Korean snowbells are among the hardiest of some one hundred and twenty Styrax species. The genus, largely tropical and subtropical, occurs in East Asia, the West Indies, South and Central America, the Mediterranean region, and North America. ~ij'isi~ juwiiia,ii~-jd~)allCJC J110WUe11 Both the scientific epithet and common name of this species obscure the full breadth of its natural range. It is indeed native to Japan, where it was first collected by Western botanists, but it is also native to Korea, China, Taiwan, and the Philippines. Japanese snowsmall tree, seldom much taller than maturity. When young, it can be narrow and upright, or multistemmed and spreading. At maturity it broadens to become a spreading, flat-topped tree. At the Morris Arboretum, a plant of unknown origin is at least seventy-seven years old, and measures 11 I meters tall by 12 meters wide, with a trunk diameter of 48 centimeters measured at breast height. Another plant at the Arnold Arboretum (AA #17334), raised from seed C. S. Sargent collected in Japan in 1892, is still thriving, having reached a height of 10.8 meters, with a spread of 14.6 meters. Both trees branch relatively low to the ground, and their trunks have a distinctly sculptural quality. Bark on the trunk and older branches, dark a bell is ten meters at 3 Close-up of the flowers of Styrax ~apomcus. Photo byP. Del ~edici. niches from relatively well-drained lowlands to higher elevations. Most commonly found in the understory and edges of oak-pine woodlands, it grows in association with Quercus dentata, Q. aliena, Pinus thunbergiana, and charcoal in color, is relatively smooth and sinewy. The leaves are small, dark green and fine textured, and give the tree a refined numerous pendulous flowers horizontal layers of white beneath the already dense green foliage. When seen from above, the bell-shaped flowers are scarcely visible, but from below the effect is striking. The flowers are followed by pendant, oval, lightgreen fruits which, though interesting when examined closely, have little landscape merit. These fruits contain the poison egosaponin. When the fruit is crushed, its poison can stun fish if sprinkled on a pool of water. In the Orient, it is used as part of a traditional fish- appearance. In late May, create densiflora. During a 1984 United States National Arboretum expedition to Korea that I participated in, along with collectors Barry Yinger, Sylvester March, and Peter Bristol, an interesting, naturally occurring variant of Styrax japonicus was spotted. The plant was growing in dry, sandy soil just a short distance from the coast of the Yellow Sea, exposed to salt spray, periodic drought, and reflected heat. We P. gathering technique. Widely distributed japonicus occurs in south a in Korea, Styrax variety of ecological noted that this collection had particularly large, glossy, leathery leaves, and speculated that plants adapted to these stressful natural conditions might be well adapted to analogous 4 Sargent. Photo by The multistemmed trunk of Styrax japonicus P. Del l~edici. (AA #17334J raised from seed collected m Japan m 1892 by C. S. urban conditions. Six-year-old seedlings from this parent plant are now under evaluation in a relatively stressful site in the Morris Arboretum parking lot. They range between 2 and 2.3 meters tall and all are 3 centimeters in diameter. One seedling in particular, which shows the distinct leathery leaf characteristics of its parent, will be evaluated closely over the next few years for possible introduction. Other young plants of Styrax japonicus of known Korean origin are growing throughout the Morris Arboretum. The oldest ones, ranging from 2 to 6 meters tall, are eleven years of age. Phenologically, these Korean collections bloom about one week earlier than other older plants in the collection of unknown natural origin. In years when a late frost occurs, this earlier blooming tendency might be problem. Plants grown from seed are highly variable, some individuals growing upright with a strong central leader, while others are multistemmed and spreading. a J. C. Raulston of North Carolina State University Arboretum has promoted another interesting natural form of Styrax japonicus. Collected in 1986 on Souhuksan Island off the southwest coast of South Korea, this form is notable for its large flowers and exceptionally large, lustrous leaves, nearly twice the size of the typical species. The hardiness of this cultivar, which is of a more southern origin, is not yet established. A specimen of this clone at the Morris Arboretum continued to produce new growth late into the autumn in 5 The pendant frmts of Styrax japonicus. Photo by Peter Del l3~edici. 1991, and may, therefore, be particularly susceptible to winter damage. Though promising for some regions, this clone requires further evaluation before it can be widely promoted, especially in the Northeast. As one might expect with any widely distributed species, Styrax japonicus is quite variable. Prior to recent collections, most plants in cultivation in this country came from a few individuals introduced at the turn of the century and therefore represented only a narrow slice of the potential genetic diversity of the species. Newly introduced populations from Korea may, in time, result in characteristics, thus increasing the adaptability of this attractive landscape tree. Styrax obassia-Fragrant Snowbell Although grown in the U.S. since 1879, Styrax obassia is still rare. Like Styrax japonicus, it is a meters. ate a relatively small tree, usually under 10 Its large, bold, heart-shaped leaves, up to 20 centimeters across, crestrong textural element in the landscape. Racemes of fragrant white flowers open in mid-May in the Philadelphia area (in late May measuring around clear Boston)-about a week before Styrax In the autumn, the leaves turn a japonicus. hardiness, stress tolerance, disease resistance, overall form, and landscape improved winter yellow before falling away to expose a smooth, sculpted, gray trunk. On the young The flowers and fohage of Styrax obassia growmg m 1935. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Harnsburg, Pennsylama. Photo by J. ' Horace McFarland, branches, the brown bark peels off in long, narrow strips, often persisting for some time before falling away. Like Styrax japonicus, S. obassia is a plant of open woodland understory or edges. It grows best in moist well-drained soil and is tion was probably based on plants collected in warmer parts of its range in Japan and China. In South Korea, my colleagues and I susceptible to drought, especially a newly established plant. In many ways the natural habitat and horticultural adaptability of both these species are similar to those of the native American flowering dogwood (Cornus florida). literature, Styrax obassia is reported hardy only to Zone 6. This informaIn older have collected populations north of Seoul where winter temperatures drop to -35 degrees Centigrade. We're eager to test these populations in the hope that they will provide individuals with greater winter hardiness. At the Morris Arboretum, these new populations have performed well so far. One plant, grown from Korean seed collected in 1979, stands 5 meters tall and 2.2 meters wide. Nine plants from a 1981 expedition to Korea average 10 centimeters in diameter, 5.4 meters in height, 7 and 4 meters in width. It is common for young plants to grow more than a meter a year when well sited. Dr. Michael Dirr of the University of Georgia has been testing the hardiness of a number of different individuals within this species in the laboratory. As one might predict, early results indicate that these northern populations show superior hardiness. In particular, one northern collection showed laboratory hardiness to at least -30 degrees Centigrade. Trees from this population are growing at the Morris Arboretum and the Arnold Arboretum, and seeds from these plants are now being distributed to interested nurseries for further evaluation. Insect and Disease Problems Styrax japonicus and Styrax obassia are rarely affected by most msect or disease problems. However, the Morris Arboretum, Brookside Gardens, and the Holden Arboretum report some problems in both species with ambrosia beetle (Xylosandrus germanus), an insect that bores into the wood, destroying the vascular tissue. Although it was previously thought to attack only plants under stress, recent observations at these three institutions indicate that ambrosia beetle can also attack The mature frmts Arboretum. Photo of Styrax obassia at the Arnold by Peter Del 'I~edici. vigorously growing plants. Though plants were often killed to the ground, they subsequently resprouted from the base; in other instances, only lateral young, infested moist, lowed warm stratification for 150 days, fol- branches tum, cus a were killed. At the Morris Arboregroup of ten plants of Styrax japonigrowing in full sun on a hot south-facing slope was severely mfested with ambrosia beetle. Our observations suggest that both species grow best on a cool, moist, woodland edge, or in an open understory. Under these conditions, plants are less likely to be attacked by ambrosia beetle. Propagation Shelly Dillard, propagator at the Morris Arboretum, reports that seeds of S. japonicus and S. obassia are readily germinated after by moist, cold stratification. Some seeds, though, may not germinate until the second year. Plants of Styrax japonicus can also be grown easily from softwood cuttings. At the Morris Arboretum, cuttings taken in June are dipped for 10 seconds in a solution of 2000 ppm of indolebuteric acid (IBA) dissolved in propylene glycol. Cuttings are stuck in a 3 to 1 perlite\/peat mix and misted approximately 6 seconds every 8 minutes. Some selected cultivars are also propagated by grafting. Cultivars Until recently, virtually no cultivars of Styrax were available to American gardeners. In 8 the 1980s, however, Brookside Botanic Gardens introduced several cultivars of Styrax japonicus obtained by Barry Yinger from Japanese nurseries. Currently, no cultivars of Styrax obassia are available in the American nursery trade. The recent introduction of new germplasm of these two species into the U.S., however, will more than likely result in new cultivars over the next decade. The following cultivars are currently available in North America: Styrax japonicus `Carillon' This cultivar was first received in the United States by Brookside Gardens from Shibamichi Nursery of Angyo, Japan, through the collections of Barry Yinger. Philip M. Normandy, Curator of Brookside Gardens, reports that their largest plant of this cultivar was planted outdoors in June, 1983, as a two-gallon plant. It now measures 1.4 meters tall by 1 meter wide and has a diameter at ground level of 3.8 8 centimeters. Where_ac its fl_n~n,Ta_rc and foliage are typical of the species, its branches are weening nr nPrlln\"e_ This cultivar ~uy ?. trained to form a small tree by staking the leader until the desired height is reached. Its dense, mounded habit resembles that of cutleaf Japanese maple cultivars. Normandy reports some winter branch dieback, but the plant subsequently grows back vigorously. The cultivar name 'Carillon' was applied by Brookside Gardens, after determining that the Japanese name 'Shidare' was invalid. to Brookside Gardens. The larBrookside Gardens, received in gest plant April 1981, now measures 4.5 meters tall by 2.1 meters wide and is 8.9 centimeters in diameter at ground level. Normandy reports that it reliably produces an abundance of attractive pink flowers and is similar in other respects to the species. Both cultivars root readily from soft wood cuttings, although high losses can be expected during the first winter. The weeping trait comes partially true in plants grown from seed, indicating that this cultivar might be appropriately classified as forma pendula. At Brookside Gardens, ambrosia beetle has not been a problem on either of these clones so far. Barry Yinger at Bibliography Bean, W J. 1980. Z~ees and Shrubs Hardy in the Bntish Isles. London: M. Bean and John Murray. 1986 Outstandmg Styrax species feature handsome flowers Amencan Nurserymen 163 Creech, John L. - (5) : 48-49 Dirr, Trt_~ 1.w~1 ~ . i~7o. ~ ii. i.~ymauc au~wUCli~. Hmerlcan Nurserymen 147 ~12~: 7-8, 87-90. Hahn, C R., and Barry Ymger. 1983. Cultivars of Japanese plants at Brookside Gardens. Arnoldia 43 \/4~: 13-19. Normandy, Philip M 1988. Styrax Chimes'. The Pubhc Garden 3 ~apomcus 'Pink (3): 33-34. Sargent, Charles S. 1917 Plantae Wilsomanae bmdge: Harvard University Press. Cam- Styrax japonicus 'Pink Chimes' This cultivar was selected for its light pink flowers. The petals, pale at the top and darker at the base, tend not to fade. Branches of young plants are slightly pendulous, but become less so as the plant ages. This cultivar was introduced into cultivation in Japan about 1976 by the Shibamichi Kanjiru Nursery Company, of Angyo. It was brought originally to North America by the U.S. National Arboretum and then reintroduced in 1978 by Spongberg, S A. 1976. Styracaceae hardy m temperate North America. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 57' 54-73. Webber, B. C., and J. E McPhearson. 1983. Life history of the ambrosia beetle, Xylosandrus germanus Annals of the Entomological Society of America 76 455-462. Paul W Meyer, former Curator at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania, has recently been appointed its Director. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Lady as Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand at the Arnold Arboretum, Part 2","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25054","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eb728.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Brown, Jane","article_content":"The Lady as Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand the Arnold Arboretum, Part 2 lane Brown \"Your trust in my at training as is the greatest honor of my fifty years of active practice:' -Beatrix Farrand 1 appointment to Dr. Paul C. Mangelsdorf, May 15, 1946, on her Consultant Landscape Gardener to the Arboretum Having launched the young Beatrix Jones on her career in the late 1890s, Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, her \"Chief as she called him, was a continuing benefactor in her progress. Beatrix and her mother, Mary Cadwalader Jones, invariably visited Holm Lea for the rhododendron parties each June, on their annual northward migration from New York to summer in Bar Harbor. (Beatrix, in her turn, most frequently used the hybrids connected with her friends, Mrs. C. S. Sargent, Ignatius Sargent, and Louisa Hunnewell in plantings for her clients.) The Professor never failed, it seemed, to give her a discreet good recommendation where he could, and even gave her Christmas presents of significance; in 1911 it Wilhelm Miller's What England Can Teach Us About Gardening, in which Holm Lea was much praised, and where Beatrix found the corroboration for many of her own opinions.' The Sargents, loving her, were doubtless overjoyed, as were her other friends, by her happy marriage to the historian Max Farrand in December 1913, and though the pattern of her life changed, she worked as hard as ever, and still paid frequent visits to the Arnold Arboretum, with her notebook, to refresh her knowledge of plants for a new commission or situation. The relationship between Beatrix and her Professor was aptly was illuminated by Mildred Bliss at the very start of the commission for Dumbarton Oaks: having put forward all her design ideas, Beatrix was keen to make a brave start and wrote to Mrs. Bliss, sending photographs of three cedars, which she could obtain from the Arboretum for $300 each for digging and packing. Mrs. Bliss replied promptly in favor of the cedars, noting that if \"Mr. Sargent loves you enough to part with them,\" then go ahead.2 When Charles Sargent died, aged eighty-five and still working, in March 1927, Beatrix was about to embark on a major diversion from her life's pattern because of Max Farrand's appointment as Director of the Henry E. Huntington Library at San Marino, California. From then on the Farrands' lives were divided basically into winters in California and summers at Bar Harbor, though much of Beatrix's time was taken in long train journeys to keep her scattered commissions in Chicago, Long Island, Washington, D. C., and at Yale in order. She had little time for her old haunts, except for a brief call on Alice Sargent at Holm Lea to design a new trellis for the house walls. Connections with the Arboretum were maintained through Susan Delano McKelvey3 and Chief Propagator William Henry Judd.' It was to these two people that she turned for help when she agreed to her longest-distance 10 work for Leonard and (the former Dorothy Whitat Dartington Hall in Devon, ney Straight) England, in 1932. She needed to renew English contacts, so William Judd (who had been trained at Kew and was secretary to the Kew Gardeners of America) introduced her to Sir Arthur Hill, then Kew's director, and Mrs. McKelvey paved her way to the doyen of English plantsmen, W J. Bean, who was working on the third and final volume of 'I~ees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles (1933), following his retirement from the Royal Botanic commission of all, to Dorothy Elmhirst Garden. Reef Point The contacts worked well and Beatrix was grateful. Susan McKelvey became a frequent visitor to the Farrands' Bar Harbor home, Reef Point, and she rarely arrived empty-handed. Many varieties of clematis and lonicera went from the Arboretum to Reef Point, where their progress in that northerly and sea-girt habitat was eagerly reported. William Judd went freauentlv to Reef Point, ht W ct ac often orrncc the country to the Huntington gardens, where there were not only the exotic delights of the cactus garden, but also other visiting experts for entertainment. Beatrix greatly enjoyed putting her plant-expert friends together, introducing one to another, and leaving them to enjoy their private worlds: during the thirties Judd helped her to educate and entertain two head gardeners from Dartington Hall for whom she arranged grand tours, as well as John Murray from Yale Botanical Garden and various park superintendents from New Haven. The latter she felt were \"much in need\" of Judd's skill and help, and in general it seems clear that if she could have dispatched every head gardener and grounds superintendent (let alone a few of the architects!) that she encountered to the Arboretum for enlightenment and inspiration, her working life would have been a much smoother path. By the end of the 1930s (Beatrix was sixtyfive in 1937), the Farrands' lives became more Beatrix Farrand in her late sixries, c. 1937. Reprmted with permission from the Prmceton University Library. devoted to where they felt really at Reef Point. They set up the Reef Point Gardens Corporation in 1939, with Mrs. McKelvey as a member, to carry forward their plans to turn their home and garden into an educational center for people interested in every kind of gardening. The prime objects were to demonstrate \"what outdoor beauty can contribute to those who have the interest and perception that can be influenced by trees and flowers and open air composition\"5 To these ends they set about the reorganization of the garden and, most importantly, the naming and recording of the plants. It was soon revealed that, in several aspects of the garden, the educated but mainly instinctive acquisitions of the years had grown into interesting collections, especially for a garden in eastern Maine, of rhododendrons and azaleas, climbmore and home, at 11 ing plants on the house, and single-flowered hybrid tea roses. Thrown back into the puzzles of identification and nomenclature, Beatrix naturally returned to the sure ground of her associations with the Arnold. Perhaps to smooth her path, she wrote to Dr. Alfred Rehder on 25 June 1940 in her characteristically modest vein: \"You have doubtless forgotten an old acquaintance who used to see you when she was occasionally at the Arboretum with her \"'chiefProfessor Sargent ;' but she wanted to thank him for his Manual of Cultivated 'I~ees and Shrubs, which had given \"so much aid to a working landscape gardener\" over the years. The occasion was her receipt of a revised edition.b Dr. Rehder, of course, had not forgotten her but chided, \"when Professor Sargent was still with us, you used to come much more frequently\" and hoped she would return to the Arboretum soon.' Beatrix took the opportunity, at least by letter, and tackled Chief Propagator Judd on the identification of her loniceras, which he did; they were both pleased with her Lonicera tragophylla, the Wilson introduction, with large butter-yellow heads of flowers, which had thrived since coming from the Arboretum. The naming process went on through Reef Pomt's clematis, some pears, apples, barberries and hemlocks, sempervivums and alpines. Soon a formal arrangement to pay Judd's expenses was made, and the Arboretum was also offered, in return, any cuttings that might be wanted, as long as specific instructions were sent as to how to take them and how to pack them. The rare Decaisnea fargesii, with remarkable metallic blue pods was offered, and a couple of little Clematis tangutica obtusiuscula were accepted. The Arnold Connection The record of plants sent from the Arnold to Reef Point is by no means complete, but there seemed to be two particularly successful Arnold \"children\" A docket dated May 12, 1924, lists the 'Il~ipterygium regelii, which Professor Sargent sent, telling Beatrix that Reef Point was most welcome to it as it was \"dud\" plant. In \"Climbing Plants in Eastern Maine\"$ she writes: \"This species of the Celasa was planted on the southeast of the house, and started to grow with rampant cheerfulness. Its sweetly scented trusses of tiny flowers are often nearly three feet long, and in July the whole side of the house where it grows is as murmurous with bees as any English lime-tree walkThe other success story was the Japanese hydrangea- trus family corner vine, Schizophragma hydrangeoides, sent from the Arnold on October 9, 1931: this grew marvelously up to the second-floor windows on the north corner of the garden house, only outdone in magnificence by two big Hydrangea petiolaris, which clambered to more than thirty feet. In the early 1940s, Reef Point's garden flowered as its makers intended; both Farrands worked very hard for their project, our \"little horticultural foundation;'as Beatrix described it to William Judd in July 1942. \"You may like to know,\" she continued, \"that already at this early season we are sure that more than 300 people have visited the garden\" and as she dictated the letter she could see more people wandering around.9 Both Farrands were now entirely devoted to this dream project, but within a very short time Max Farrand's poor health marred their happiness. For his last year Beatrix worked doubly hard to achieve their plans for the education center and the library, and yet to keep the seriousness of his illness from him. When he died, in June 1945, just two days before her seventy-third birthday, she was both exhausted and stunned. The only thing she could do was to carry on, with now a kind of obsessive energy devoted to fulfilling Max's hopes and plans. William Judd must have been a little perturbed to find a letter from her so soon, dictated the day after Max's death, at the moment the announcement appeared in the Boston Herald, asking him to identify her rhododendrons. Furthermore, she had already organized the cutting and packing of over sixty flower heads, and almost immediately these were tumbling out onto the laboratory 12 Torch azaleas Beatrix Farrand's article on the Arboretum that Co. From the Arnold Arboretum Archives. (Rhododendron obtusum var. kaempfery gromng on Bussey Hill in 1928. This pm.ture accompamed appeared m Arnoldia m 1946. Photo by J. Horace McFarland table. Judd, Dr. Rehder, and Donald Wyman dropped all they were doing, and prepared a list of names that was sent to her by return mail. She was not very satisfied; she queried many of their attributions, and sent another twenty-five blooms. In all they identified more than eighty specimens, mostly the species calendulaceum, japonicum, myrtifolium, and arborescens, with some Ghent and Fortunei hybrids, plus the cultivars 'Boule de Neige' 'Bijou des Amateurs,' 'Louisa Hunnewell,' and 'Lady Armstrong' Even so, she was forced to admit that Reef Point might need a real rhododendron expert, \"so-called.\" She knew that she was being ungracious, and \"a nuisance to my friends\" but it was her grief and desperation that made her so; fortunately, within a month she had resumed her appreciation of the \"kind and helpful\" William Judd and was hoping he would be her welcome guest later in the summer. A Major Appointment The following spring she was both surprised and delighted to be appointed as Consultant Landscape Gardener to the Arboretum. \"Your trust in my training is the greatest honor of my fifty years of active practiceshe wrote to 13 Mangelsdorf.' She accepted \"in great humility of spirit\" and with the \"hope\" that her colleagues would not be disappointed ; she looked forward to working with Judd and Dr. Wyman. However, it was not to be, for a few days later William Judd died of a heart attack. The Arnoldia of June 7, 1946, paid tribute to him, and in the same issue, Beatrix's appointment was announced. There was a justice in that her last important commission was at the place where she had started her career, but it was perhaps surprising that an almost seventy-five-year-old lady should start striding around the Arboretum, measuring, taking notes, and asking pertinent questions. She brought in an assistant, Robert W Patterson, an architect and landscape architect from Bar Harbor,\"to do the strenuous work, but she also warned Dr. Mangelsdorf, \"You will need patience and understanding of physical limitations of age which are most irksome to me, but which must be 2 recognized *\"I' Dr. Paul C. much of a \"tidal wave\" Within a week Mangelsdorf had replied that Donald Wyman, who was Curator of the Living Collections, had all the authority required to make decisions about moving plants as necessary, which appeared a carte blanche to proceed. Donald Wyman, whom Beatrix had found \"frosty\" at first, had \"thawed\" considerably towards her, and they were getting on well, particularly when he visited her at Reef Point for discussions. The result was their list of twenty-three landscape problems needing immediate attention. Surveys, plans, and discussions had taken half of her first year as consultant. Arnoldia of November 1, 1946, printed her draft paper on her approach to the design problems, which was a classic summation of landscape variabilities: time, soil depletion, a deterioration of soil quality in some places, new plant introductions, visitor problems, changes in taste, and particularly the devastating hurricane of September 21, 1938, had all taken their toll on Olmsted's original design for Sargent's conception. It seemed clear that one of the reasons for Beatrix Farrand's appointment as consultant was just that she was one of the few people around who could actually remember what Sargent said he was trying to do, and certainly her loyalty to the Professor was unshakable. She concluded, \"Old friends of the Arboretum may feel aggrieved in seeing some of the plantations altered, but they will be less distressed when they realize that these are in the truest sense of the word restorations, as they are intended to restore the design to the original conception of the great botanist and artist who was its first director.\"'^ She must have been busy with frequent visits to the Arnold for two and a half years, though no drawings or correspondence of work in progress appears to have survived. Her first descriptive report of the work she had supervised appeared in Arnoldia of April 15, 1949.'This elegant piece, \"The Azalea Border ;' is a gem of landscape writing, beautifully balanced in its treatment of the botan- No such limitations seemed evident, for within two months of her appointment, that is, on 12 July 1946, she was writing to Dr. Mangelsdorf that Dr. Wyman, Patterson, and herself were in \"hearty agreement on the main points.\" These points were no timid tinkerings, but recommendations for major revisions to the appearance of the Arboretum. \"Project One\" advocated a remodeling of the planting at the main entrance, around the Hunnewell building, and at the Forest Hills entrance; a long-term plan for Hemlock Hill; and a revision of the planting on Bussey Hill. \"Project Two\" envisaged the removal of duplicates, and aged and outworn plants throughout the collections, and \"Project Three\" was for the establishment of a 25- to 40-acre nursery outside the Arboretum.'3 Immediate approval was sought for these recommendations, but Peter's Hill, the marsh at the main entrance, and a planned watering system for the whole Arboretum also required urgent consideration. She felt in a certain \"psychological fog\" as to how to obtain decisions or actions, and hoped her report was not too very alterations 14 Beatrix Farrand's plan for the azalea border along Meadow Road. From the Arnold Arboretum Archmes. ical and visual aspects of planting design. The accompanying plan was deceptively simple, for she and her colleagues at the Arboretum had achieved far more than just a \"border.\" The land opposite the Hunnewell building, between Meadow Road and the marsh, had been cleared as a home for the family Ericaceae, a family of \"distinction and elegance ... from the flat and fragrant mats of mayflower to the tall rhododendrons and sourwoods.\"'6 Loads of peat had been imported and great care taken to place lovers of the damp places just where they could keep wet feet, but the design priorities had also been carefully interwoven with the planting: \"Immediately inside the entrance the quiet open view over the marsh is maintained by low ground-hugging shrubs like bearberry, low blueberry and pachistima, ending in a higher mass after the first vista has been enjoyed.\"~~ Then came the early-flowering deciduous rhododendrons (\"the crinkled petals of mucronulatum, when they first appear, look as though they had been ill packed during the winter in a small valise\"), keeping the lavender and purply shades separated from the pinks by \"islands and tufts of shadbush, Labrador tea and leatherleaf with huckleberries and tall blueberries. The rhododendrons progressed through American natives and Chinese schlippenbachiis with Enkianthus and \"good Phellodendrons\" as well as old sumacs, to separate species from hybrids and pinks from oranges and scarlets. Once these had all settled, \"further little tufts and wisps of the smaller Ericaceae will be tucked into the bays and hollows\" and the grass path on the marsh 8 side would be made.' In the autumn of 1949,'9 Beatrix explained her designs for Peter's Hill, where Professor 15 A mew Archives of Meadow Road on 27 May 1950, with pinkshell azaleas and a flowemng dogwood in bloom. of the Arnold Arboretum. From the Sargent's thorns had become a thicket and a fire hazard. Her plan showed how beautifully the plantations of Crataegus and Malus, the walks, and open glades would flow with the grain of the hill form, while the grove of native oaks and some old conifers on the west slopes were carefully saved. The very top of the hill, a typical New England knoll, was to be kept open for its view of Boston \"with radiating vistas.\" The Final Years By the time her piece on Peter's Hill appeared, Beatrix was well into her fourth year as the Arboretum's consultant (at a maximum of $2,000 a year, though what she actually charged is not known). She had given of her best and very considerable skills, but she was still keen to do more: \"It looks as though our next big job were the rearrangement of the shrubs in the present shrub collecting area;' she wrote to Dr. Karl Sax, the new Director, on November 9, 1949.2 She was full of plans for herself and Donald Wyman to work on this area through the winter, and she was to come at the end of the month and discuss it all with them. Her plan was prepared but never carried out, and her correspondence ceases. What happened is not entirely clear: perhaps Donald Wyman, boosted by the publication of Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens in 1949 and Trees for American Gardens in 1951, felt he should be able to arrange his own collections, or perhaps Dr. Sax was over- 16 whelmed by the mounting controversy over moving the library, herbarium, and some of the Arboretum's staff to the new building in Cambridge. Another clue might lie in the constant reassurances and provisos with which she had had to package every move so far, in deference to the \"old friends\" of the Arnold who wanted nothing changed.z' Troubled times were ahead for the Arboretum, but it seems sad that its distinguished landscape consultant was the first casualty. And after all, Beatrix Farrand was eighty in 1952. She had to face the bitter truth that her beloved Reef Point Gardens, the \"little horticultural institution\" she had set up with her husband, could not be maintained. In 1955 she took steps to dismantle everything they had created, even the home which she had known since she was ten years old. That element of desperation, so evident in her actions immediately after Max Farrand's death, reasserted itself in her final acts. She disposed of her plants, destroyed her house and garden, and gave her life's working drawings (together v.'ith those of Gertrude }ekyll), 1 a.:;tt-~.t~c.,....cr-..._~__.1_._,___\"~ ,ilr-.L ~ulle~iun of prints and library of 2,700 books ~including many rare herbals, floras, and gardening books) to the Department of Landscape Architecture at the University of California's Berkeley campus. There are rational reasons for this course of events, but questions persist: if Beatrix Farrand's appointment as the Arnold's landscape consultant had not ended so ignominiously, would it not have been perfectly natural for the Arnold to have had her collections? And if the Arnold and Harvard had not been so embroiled in the controversy over the Jamaica Plain library and herbarium, should they not have been duty bound to conserve her legacy in its natural habitat? For the saddest thing was that in sending her legacy to California she had to flout the abiding rule of her landscape life-that of the fitness of any work for its setting. It was the rule that Charles Sprague Sargent had taught her. Now, on the 120th anniversary of her birth, Beatrix Farrand's name is perpetuated at the \" . Arnold Arboretum by some splendid specimens of \"her\" Forsythia,22 a tetraploid hybrid from'Arnold Giant' raised in 1944, with magnificently rich, deep-yellow flowers, andperhaps \"an upright and vigorous\" growth habit. Acknowledgments I am particularly grateful to Sheila Connor, Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum, for help with this part of my research ' on Beatrix Farrand. 2 3 Miller, W. 1911. What England Can Teach Us About Gardenmg. New York Doubleday. Letter from Mildred Bhss to Beatrix Farrand, 14 April 1924, Dumbarton Oaks Garden Library. Schofield, E. A. 1987. A life redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum. ArnoMia 47 (4~: 9-23. 4 William Henry Judd, 1888-1946; see Amoldia 6~6~: 5 25-28. Reef Pomt Gardens Bullerin Vol. 1, No. 1, August 1946. Reef Point Gardens Collection, Documents Collection, College of Environmental Design, University of Callfomla, Berkeley. . Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Tl~ees and Shrubs Hardy in North America, 2nd ed. New York: T~(,......;11.... Alfred Rehder to Beatrix Farrand, 27 June 1940, Arnold Arboretum Archives. prints and library of 2,700 books (includ- 7 8 Farrand, B. 1954. Chmbmg plants in eastern Maine. Plants and Gardens 10~1~: 40-44. 9 There were 2,000 visitors to Reef Point in the summer of 1945, and the total number after its closure m 1955 was many times that. 10 Beatrvt Farrand to Paul C Mangelsdorf at the Institute for Research m General Plant Morphology, Harvard University, 15 May 1946, Arnold Arboretum Archives. \" Robert W Patterson's fees were to be mcluded 1n her own allowance of $2,000 per year. 12 Farrand to Mangelsdorf, 15 May 1946, Arnold Arboretum Archives. 13 Farrand to Mangelsdorf, 12 July 1946, Arnold Arboretum Archives. The nursery was part of the use proposed for the Case Estates, which had been given to the Arboretum m 1942 \" Arnoldia 6~10~: 45-48, 1946. 'S Arnoldia 9~2~: 6-7, 1949. 16 Ibid., Ibid. p. 6. p. 7. 17 \" Ibid., Arnoldia 9\/9\/~ 38-43, 1949. z Beatrix Farrand to Karl Sax, 9 November 1949, Arnold Arboretum Archives. 17 2' Beatrix had always conscientiously dealt with the \"old friends\" of the Arboretum who were shocked at her changes. In 1947, Dr. Sax asked her what she thought about the idea of forming a Friends' Association-she agreed and sent names of subscribers, adding, \"What do you hope people will subscnbe, $10, $100, or $1,000 a year~\" Farrand to Sax, 20 August 1947, Arnold Aboretum Archives. 22 The specimens of Forsythia 'Beatnx Farrand' were located and identified for me one fine afternoon in 1991 by Michael Dirr, author of Manual of Woody Landscape Plants ~Champaign, Ill : Stipes) Jane Brown is a well-known writer on the history of land- gardening The information m this article is based her forthcommg book on Beatrix Farrand's life and work, scheduled to be published by Vilmng m the spring of 1993 scape on "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The 'Hope of Spring' Magnolia Finally Flowers in Boston","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25053","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eb36f.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.; Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The \"Hope of in Boston Stephen A. Spring\" Magnolia Finally Flowers and Peter Del T~edici Spongberg After a difficult start, Magnolia biondii from China flowered in the Arboretum for the first time in March of 1991. The spring and early summer of 1991 at the Arnold Arboretum were extraordinary with regard to the heavy flowering of many of the trees and shrubs within the Arboretum's collections. Nor was this phenomenon restricted to the confines of the Arboretum, for across the Northeast crabapples, flv~y.riWg dogwoods, and other ornamental trees and shrubs Ync~llrar~ an ~lwnr~~n~nr ~f 1-.lv~,-,.` `ly.y i ^..t_^.7 the season as outstanding. The relatively mild winter of 1990-1991 and the abundant rainfall that fell during the summer of 1990 combined to make the spring of 1991 an exceptionally floriferous one. Not only was there an abundance of bloom, but many of the newer accessions at the Arboretum, some of which have been considered only marginally hardy in our location, also flowered for the first time. Included in this group were two species of Sinojackia (S. rehderiana and S. xylocarpa), rare members of the Styrax family from China, Liquidambar acaylcina, a recently described species of sweetgum, also from China, and Fortunearia sinensis, a little-known genus in the witch hazel family named to honor the well-known nineteenth-century plant hunter, Robert Fortune. Several members of the magnolia family also flowered for the first time, including a hybrid tulip tree that combines the American and Chinese species (Liriodendron chinensis x biloba, and Magnolia biondii. While we were eager to examine each of these in turn, and document their flowering with voucher herbarium specimens and photographs, the first flowering of the last-named magnolia presented us with the opportunity to examine the flowers of tills species and to fix its position in the classification of the genus to T A _ _ _ _ _ 7' tvtu~ttVllCt. L. tulipifera), Magnolia officinalis var. the Italian botanist Renato Pampanini in 1910 based on specimens collected in Hubei Province in central China in 1906 by the Italian missionary and naturalist, P. C. Silvestri. The plant was next collected in 1907, also in Hubei Province, by E. H. Wilson, who was traveling in China on his first expedition sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum. Wilson's specimens, one of which was in fruit, were studied by Arboretum taxonomist Alfred Rehder, and the two men named another new species, M. aulacosperma, based on Wilson's collections. This new species was described and published in Plantae Wilsonianae in 1913, with the added note that it formed \"a shapely tree with many rather slender and spreading branches and wealth of leaves:' However, the late James E. Dandy of the British Museum, a noted English authority on the genus, determined that Rehder and Wil- Early History of the Species Magnolia biondii was first described by 19 Bloommg for the very first time at the Arnold Arboretum, the dehcate, creamy-white flowers of Magnolia biondm (AA #1216-77-B) were photographed on 29 March 1991 Photo by Racz and Debreczy 20 Magnolia aulacosperma was the same species collected by Silvestri and originally named by Pampanini in 1910. As a consequence of his earlier description, Pampanini's name, M. biondii, is the correct one for this central and northern Chinese species, which is now known to occur in eastern Sichuan, Honan, and Shensi provinces, as well as in western Hubei, where it was first encountered by both Silvestri and Wilson. Nowhere a common tree and apparently occurring only as widely scattered individual specimens, it has son's cylindrica, a similar Chinese species, with M. biondii. First Successful Introduction To our knowledge, Magnolia biondii was first successfully introduced into cultivation in North America by Professor Y. C. Ting of Boston College in 1977 when he traveled to Honan Province to visit his homeland and relatives (Ting, 1977). Professor Ting had been encouraged to obtain seeds of this elusive Magnolia by members of the American Magnolia Society, and on returning home to Boston after a successful trip-a similar journey the previous year had been curtailed by a severe earthquake-he kindly gave half the seeds he had obtained to members of that Society and half to the Arnold Arboretum. These seeds, accessioned as #1216-77, germinated in the Arboretum greenhouses in the spring of 1978, and twenty-seven seedlings resulted. Cuttings taken from these plants ~~ere rooted in the summer oi i98i and distributed to members of the American Magnom vw,av.~y in im. j~iiil~ Vl 170G ~1JCI lICCIl(;1 and Alexander, 1981). The plant that flowered for the first time in the spring of 1991 was one of the original seedlings from lot #1216-77. It now stands nearly four meters tall and three meters wide. While it has a central leader at this point, there are also several secondary trunks that will probably become codominant, suggesting that this particular individual will eventually become a multistemmed tree. We cannot say whether this condition is due to the genetics of the species or to the fact that this specimen was somewhat stunted in its development by virtue of being grown in a container until 1984, when it was finally planted in the magnolia collection adjacent to the Hunnewell the northernmost distribution of any Chinese magnolia with the exception of M. sieboldii, a species that occurs in eastern and northern China and also in Japan and Korea. Its Chinese common name, wan chun hwa, means \"hope for spring flower ;' and refers to its early flowering in late winter to early spring (Ting, 1977). Silvestri's collection consisted of flowering specimens, and although Wilson procured sufficient fruits so that seeds were processed at the Arnold Arboretum ~PPnl~p,~,,g~o,S neither man successfully introduced the species into !'77~t,Vatinn in ,eractarn crnr~Anc T7olz.ae. (1~127 1940) nonetheless listed its year of mtroduction as 1908, but the seeds entrusted to Jackson Dawson at the Arboretum greenhouses either failed to germinate or the young plants failed to grow in the Arboretum nurseries, and there is no record of the plants having been added to the Arboretum's collections. In this regard, sometime before 1927 Wilson wrote to J. G. Millais, another noted English authority on the genus, \"It is the only Magnolia I found in China which I failed to introduce into gardens\" (Millais, 1927, p.85). Following Wilson's failure, the introduction of Magnolia biondii into cultivation in Europe and North America became clouded by speculation, inasmuch as unsubstantiated rumors of its existence in the nursery trade building. Thxonomy Pampanini's original description, Magnolia biondii has been thought to belong to the Buergeria section of the genus Magnoon England and its inclusion in collections in Canada, the United States, and Germany were occasionally reported (Savage, 1974; Kehr, 1986). Apparently, these erroneous reports were based on the confusion of Magnolia in Based 21 Magnolia biondn it in bloom on 29 March 1991. The plant is just over four will become multistemmed over time. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. meters (ten feet) tall and looks as if 22 lia, a group of five species restricted to eastern Asia characterized by the precocious appearance of the flowers in spring before the foliage and by an outer whorl of three very small, often early-deciduous, sepal-like tepals. However, the lack of flowering specimens of M. biondii in western herbaria (other than Silvestri's in the herbarium in Florence, Italy) has left the question of sectional placement tentative. While most magnolia enthusiasts have accepted Pampanini's description as correct, uncertainty has remained, especially on the part of those who prefer to see evidence firsthand. This uncertainty was compounded when August Kehr reported that scion material of M. biondii that he had received from the Magnolia Society distribution had flowered in his North Carolina garden in the spring of 1986, undoubtedly the first time the species produced flowers outside of its native China. It turns out that Kehr had grafted the scion onto a mature specimen of M. kobus, and that he could not dctcct the expected outer whorl of small sepal-like tepals on the fln~W arc \"rn~\"..o.7 y .. v, biaLm,u V1d11v,11 - r_ .,.\"....,..1~., ~li.i.... I~_.7 t_ Ii1C111, , , A view of the stamens and gynoecium biondii. Photo by Peter Del Ttedici. of Magnolia 1986). As a consequence, it was with great interest that we inspected the morphology of the flowers produced by the Arnold Arboretum plant for the first time on March 27, 1991. Suffice it to say that these flowers corresponded to the requirements for placement of Magnolia biondii in section Buergeria: a whorl of three, linear, greenish-white tepals, each measuring about 10 millimeters in length by about 4 millimeters in width, comprises the outermost whorl of tepals. By contrast, the tepals of the inner two whorls (each consisting of three tepals) measure 50 millimeters in length and 25 millimeters in width, and these obovate to spatulate tepals are white with the bases tinged purplish. The small tepals of the outer whorl, however, were seen to fall from many flowers along with the protective bud scales as the flowers opened, and unless only partially opened flowers are inspected, the small tepals may not be found. Occasionally, the three small tepals do persist aiter the wooiy bud scales have fallen, but rarely do they persist for more than a day or two. This fact easily explains Dr. Kehr's observations of the flowers produced in his garden in the spring of 1986. Other characteristics of species of section Buergeria (particularly Magnolia salicifolia, the so-called anise-leaved or willow-leaved magnolia) are shared by the Arnold Arboretum plant of M. biondii and combine to confirm its sectional placement. These features include the yellowish-green coloration of the young twigs and a pronounced lemony or anise-like odor emitted when the fresh twigs are broken or otherwise bruised. Now that a flowering specimen of M. biondii is growing in the Arnold Arboretum, comparisons between it and the other members of section Buergeria, which include the above-named M. salicifolia from Japan, M. kobus and M. stellata also from Japan, as well as a second Chinese species, M. cylindrica, can be easily facilitated in our collections. As of this writ- 23 ing, the Arboretum plant of M. biondii has numerous large flower buds, which promise that the plant will flower again in the spring of 1992. The fact that its flowers opened very early in the spring of 1991 (March 27) suggests that the species is a prime candidate for damage from late frosts. By coincidence, M. biondii opened its flowers on exactly the same date as another early-blooming magnolia recently introduced from China, M. zenii (Del Tredici and Spongberg, 1989). Whether this curious synchrony will occur again this year remains to be seen. In order to determine the limits of hardiness of Magnolia biondii, as well as to learn more about the length of time necessary for the species to reach sexual maturity, the authors would like to hear from anyone who received one of the distribution cuttings in 1982. References Del Kehr, A. E 1986. Magnolia biondii, the 'Hope of Spring'. Magnolia 22~1~: 7-10. Mtllats, J. G. 1927. Magnolias London: Longmans, Green. Pampanmt, R. 1910. Nuovo Giornale Botamco Itahano 17 275. Pampanini, R 1915. Le Magnoha Sprengen Pamp Magnoha aulacosperma e la Rehder et Wilson. Bull della R. Soc. Toscana di Orticultura 40: 99-102. Rehder, A. 1927, Sargent, C Savage, Ting, P. 1940. Manual of Cultmated Tl~ees and Shrubs. New York: Macmillan. S. 1913. Plantae Wilsonianae, Vol. 1. Jamaica Plam: Arnold Arboretum J. 1974. The beautiful ivory nude Newsletter of the Amencan Magnolia Society 10(2). 3-9. Y. C. 1977. Collecting Magnolia biondn in China. Newsletter of the Amencan Magnoha Society 13(2) : 19, 20. Tredici, P., and J H Alexander 1981. Magnoha biondn distribution. Magnolia 17(2): 29. Del Tredici, P., and S A Spongberg. 1989. A new magnoha blooms in Boston. Amoldia 49~2y 25-27. Stephen Spongberg is Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arboretum, Peter Del Tredici is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Groundcovers for the Garden Designer","article_sequence":4,"start_page":24,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25051","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eaf26.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Groundcovers for the Garden Gary L. Koll er Designer An eclectic selection of unusual plants for innovative gardeners. With one foot firmly planted in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum and the other in the Landscape Architecture Department of the Harvard Graduate School of Design, I look at plants for novel uses that may not be fully appreciated by the gardening public. I have long believed that the cohesiveness of a well-crafted garden relies heavily on the successful application of groundcovers. These plants can be used as a \"substrate\" through which other plants emerge, and which knits the planting into a composition that is visually and spatially pleasing. Given time and the appropriate conditions for growth, groundcovers potentially can reduce the maintenance requirements of the total landscape. Having the opportunity to visit many plant collections as well as developed gardens, I have come across a number of plants that appear to have all the qualities of a successful groundseldom cultivated as such. What qualities, you might well ask? Most good groundcovers are little more than very successful weeds controlled and put to good use. The plants not only must maintain themselves in the spot where they are planted but also must be able to spread outward and colonize an ever-expanding area. With many good groundcovers, the primary concern is not to encourage their growth, but rather to contain them by installing restraining devices at the perimeter of the space allowed them. A good groundcover should be rather low and dense enough to suppress the intrusion are are cover, but those Epimedium pmnatum var. colchicum in bloom. the Arnold Arboretum Archives. From of to most volunteer survive weeds, and tough enough neglect, poor soils, and extremes of drought and cold. Groundcovers should maintain their foliage in good condition all summer long and not die back prematurely, leaving a patch of bare earth where late sum- 25 Artemisia stellerana `Silver Brocade' m bloom. Photo by Gary Koller. Anemone canadensis weeds can move in. While a groundcover can be either woody or herbaceous, the focus in this article will be on less familiar herbaceous species that deserve greater recognition and testing. As you read about the following plants, bear in mind that each one has strengths that can be used to advantage in garden-making as well as weaknesses to be mer suppressed. What follows is a selection of plants that I am still learning about and that seem to have a bright future as groundcovers for our gardens. I hope that one or more of them may be unfamiliar to you, and that I may entice you into acquiring them for testing under your own growing conditions and maintenance regime. My comments are offered here in the spirit of challenge-to encourage you not only to keep an eye out for plants with unusual variations but also to experiment with nontraditional uses of these plants. I welcome hearing from any readers who might know of similar plants that deserve wider recognition. The rapid growth habit of Anemone canadensis leads some gardeners to dub it as \"invasive;' and I have been cautioned against deploying it in the landscape. However, it is precisely this trait that enables the plant to make a tight, dense cover and to persist in difficult locations. While it may not be a plant for the mixed perennial border, it could be used very appropriately in challenging areas: beneath trees and shrubs, or in locations where it can be contained by barriers that restrict its spread. envision this plant being used to good in parking islands, between sidewalks and buildings, and in urban parks to fill in empty spaces that invite weeds. The small I can advantage white flowers in early summer persist for several weeks and are charming if not spectacular. The attractively lobed foliage remains green and in good condition all summer long. This anemone might be improved by the selection of compact forms with darker green 26 foliage and is also the longer flowering period. There possibility of hybridizing Anemone a canadensis with other anemones to extend the floral color range, the season of bloom, or the spreading tendency. A. canadensis is often compared to A. sylvestris, a plant that blooms several weeks earlier, but one I find a weak grower under those conditions where A. canadensis thrives. _ Artemisia stellerana `Silver Brocade' sunny growing conditions present a in many areas of the country. Artemisia stellerana is one of those plants that loves to bake in the sun and that naturally inhabits sand dunes and poor soils. A native of Asia, it has naturalized itself on beaches from Quebec to Virginia where it Parched, challenge with pale yellow variegation in the leaves. There is some question whether this is a natural variation or a population with a virus. If, however, some types are discovered with good stable variegations, they would be a definite plus for the shade garden. Horticulture can be enriched by observant individuals combing wild plant populations for individuals with superior traits for garden use. Once found, the plant needs to be propagated and evaluated under different environmental conditions. If the plant maintains its unique characteristic and is garden worthy, it can then be publicized and distributed. holds and stabilizes the shifting sand. The cultivar 'Silver Brocade', a recent introduction of the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, was selected for rich gray foliage, a more finely cut leaf, and a lower, more compact growth habit. In the landscape, it can look beautiful edging a bluestone path where it has the opportunity to spread out and soften the hard lines, while at the same time echoing the blue-gray color of the stone itself. In coastal New England, this plant is one of the best choices for the harsh environmental assaults encountered by the dunes along the ocean. Asarum canadense and moderate well as the Canadian ginger. It grows naturally in the understory of woods in Ohio, Kansas, and Missouri where it forms diffuse, but widespread colonies. In cultivation and with some level of attention, it stays dense and displays a beautiful moderate green foliage all summer long. It combines naturally with ferns and other woodland plants. In the future, this plant could be improved by some selection for more vigor and darker colored Few plants tolerate drought as shade Campanula takesimana This campanula is familiar to only a few dedicated perennial gardeners, who mostly use it in the mixed border. Spreading at a deliberate pace, it forms sizable colonies over time, and because of this tendency, it seems well adapted to use as a groundcover. The leaves are roughly heart-shaped with attractive, scalloped edges. The flowers are produced in large terminal panicles, which rise out of the basal cluster of leaves to a height of 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 24 inches). Because of the number, weight, and size of the individual flowers, the inflorescence has a tendency to arch over. Individually the flowers are tube-shaped, and range from a pale, pink-beige to ivory, with chocolate or bronze markings on the inside of the blossom. If flowering stems are cut back as the blooms fade, the plant is capable of flowering two or three times a summer. This tendency to rebloom varies directly with the amount of light available. Repeat flowering also appears to be dependent on soil moisture, for in extremely dry seasons I have observed that these plants flower less frequently. In any case, I have found that the foliage itself is quite drought-resistant. foliage. James Waddick of Kansas City, Missouri, `Variegata' landscapes (Zones 5 and 6), Carex siderostricta 'Variegata' has the potential to be In northern Carex siderostricta recently took me to see a wild population used much as Liriope muscari 'Variegata' is in the south-except that its greater cold 27 ~ ----- ~ ,-,-- The fohage of Campanula takesimana. Photo by Gary Koller. where. Barry Yinger, a noted collector of Japanese plants, tells me that, while there are several mediocre forms in terms of degree of variegation, a spectacular form is available from Watanabe Nursery. While I am not aware that they exist yet, would it not be desirable to select epimediums for unusual leaf types, for richer, more saturated, autumn foliage colors persisting into wintertime, or for foliage marbled with contrasting colors of green? We need to seek out new forms actively and introduce them to the gardens of America. I'll be the first in line to purchase them. hardiness is accompanied by a deciduous habit. Carex siderostricta 'Vamegata' forms broad clumps of cream-colored variegated foliage, which stand 20 to 30 centimeters tall (8 to 12 inches). It thrives in light shade and soils that vary from dry to moist. In extremely dry locations, I have noticed the white markings of the leaves will assume a tired, brownish cast by late summer. This species mixes well with hosta, astilbe, and ajuga, forming tapestries of foliage texture and color. Epimediums Few plants are as tough, dependable, and persistent in shaded landscapes as the various species and cultivars of Epimedium. These plants could be made more useful by the introduction of variegated types, which presently exist in Japan and perhaps else- Liriope muscari Southern gardens are rich in many forms of lily turf, which allow for numerous creative applications of this attractive groundcover. In 28 realized that plants with huge leaves and great stature could provide visual excitement and spatial illusion for smaller landscape spaces. At maturity, Petasites can stand over a meter tall (3 to 4 feet), reaching the limit in height of what is considered acceptable as a groundcover. What makes Petasites japonicus 'Variegata' a desirable addition to garden design is that the early-season leaves are richly marked with cream-colored blotches, which appear different from leaf to leaf. These foliage markings are most intense in spring, The growth habit ot Carex siderostricta `Variegata:l Photo by Gary Koller. and as summer advances, they become somewhat muted. In conditions of adequate soil moisture and light shade, the plant thrives and spreads vigorously. It is particularly useful as a design element to bring boldly textured, cream-colored leaves into shaded locations. Here they provide a color accent all summer long. This is a plant large enough to be planted along the edge of lakes and rivers where the size and scale will not be dwarfed F`j' tl:e expanse of the CouWiySidi,, and it is equally at home in the small garden when .....,....pY~op:.u~.,~y. At present only a lucky few have this plant in New England, but in time the plant should c;ro~ ., ;..~.~1.. have no reliable cold-hardy forms, although I have heard of rock gardeners growing this species farther north than it should be expected to grow. Have they hit upon some secret treasure? Thinlc of the market potential if a selection could be made that would extend Liriope muscari by another hardiness zone, making it reliable for the urban areas such as Boston, Montreal, and Chicago. It seems that a nursery with a pioneering spirit could make a greater market impact by selecting a more cold-tolerant form rather than yet another cultivar of questionable distinctiveness. we the north become a common component of our gardens, especially gardens with an area that is moist and lightly shaded. I first heard of it through Wayne Winterrod of Reedsboro, Vermont. When he learned that I was making a trip to the Pacific Northwest, he assigned me the task of bringing back a division for him. Upon inquiry, I located what probably is the original colony introduced into North America, growing in the Asian Garden at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, Petasites japonicus 'Variegata' Earlier in this century, Petasites was the signature plant of the landscape architect Fletcher Steele, who found a place for it in each of his garden compositions. One can still find the plant thriving in the garden at Naumkeag in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. Steele Straley, Curator of Collections, showed me the colony and gave me permission to gather divisions to bring back to Boston. The plant was originally introduced to the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden by its then Director, Dr. Roy Taylor, who found it growing in a field near an airport in Japan. He collected divisions to bring back to Canada, and from there it is now finding its way across North America. Vancouver. Dr. Gerald 29 Back in Boston some months later, I spoke with Paul Aden of Long Island, who for many years has collected rare variegated plants. I thought I had a new plant for him, but he informed me that he had a \"whole field of it.\" He could not understand why no one grew or used it as a landscape plant. The answer is, of course, that no one can grow a plant if it's not distributed. Crocus tomasinianus, Galanthus nivalis, and Eranthis hyemalis. I find I must cut the bamboo back at the end of winter so that the bulbs will have head space to grow and to be seen well as they flower. As the bulb foliage begins to ripen off, the bamboo begins its new growth. This bamboo is a strong, vigorous grower and, once established, can run outwards 1.6 meters (5 feet) or more each season; therefore, permanent and strong containment is essential. Pleioblastus viridistriata is tolerant of considerable abuse, and I have found it a Pleioblastus viridistriata (= Arundinaria viridistriata) a weakness for plants with foliage in shades of yellow to gold. As a result, I have long admired and grown Pleioblastus viridistriata, a yellow variegated bamboo that stands 60 to 120 centimeters (2 to 4 feet) tall. In sunny exposures the new foliage emerges with an irregular pattern of golden-yellow stripes alternating with green; in shade, however, the I have in urban particularly suitable choice for raised beds parks and for islands along city and suburban streets. Here the golden foliage pro- _ _ _ _ --.-- foliage of Pleioblastus viridistriata. Repnnted from The Horticultural Bamboo Species in Japan by H. The Okamuza, 1986. variegation is muted and appears light greenish-yellow. In full sun the golden-yellow color is retained all summer long and into the fall or winter, when severe cold causes the foliage to turn beige. I find the foliage most attractive in the autumn landscape, for it blends well with other autumn foliage colors and generally looks attractive until Christmas vides the illusion of abundant color all summer long and works, from a color standpoint, somewhat like a planting of marigolds-with the advantage of coming back each season. In the Vermont garden of Wayne Winterrod and Joe Eck, this bamboo occurs in a mixed planting with the white-stemmed raspberries (Rubus lasiostylus var. hubeiensis). Cornelia McMurtirie, a local landscape designer, showed me photographs of one of her designs where the client was attempting to create a strong tropical landscape effect. In the design, she combined the Pleioblastus with Yucca filamentosa and rhubarb to create a bold, nontraditional effect. A planting at Haskell's Nursery in New Bedford combines the bamboo with a goldvariegated form of Acer negundo so that the gold color is visually pulled from ground level to a height of 8 to 10 meters (25 or 30 feet). In my own designs, I have combined the bamboo with Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Cripsii; a gold-leaf form of this Japanese conifer, which worked as a gigantic echo of the yellow color. All of the above plantings create a strong and consistent color effect lasting several months. Rubus beyond. colony in my yard is underplanted with minor spring bulbs-Crocus chrysanthus, or The calycinoides `Emerald Carpet' Taiwan creeping raspberry is a plant suitable only for the warmest sections of New England-Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Block Island. The wild species occurs at high elevations in Taiwan and, while its hardiness 30 The winter in Species is not aspect of Sasa veitchii, growing Japan by H. Okamura, 1986. on a mound m Japan. Reprinted from The Horticultural Bamboo it is thought to be USDA Zone 7. hardy Rubus calycinoides is a plant that hugs the ground while it spreads outward, forming a solid mat of foliage. Evergreen in mild locations and semi-evergreen to deciduous at the northern fringe of its range, this plant tolerates exposures ranging from full sun to moderate shade, but in northern locations some protection from the winter sun and wind may fully documented, to may turn a coppery color. Neither flowers nor fruit on this plant is a significant ornamental attribute. Rubus calycinoides 'Emerald Carpet' was propagated from seed collected for the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden by Dr. Richard J. Pearson at Ho Huan Shan, foliage Taiwan it is (elevation 2900 meters), in 1978. First introduced to the horticultural trade in 1985, just now the difference between success and failure. It will also probably benefit from being placed in a location with excellent soil and mean England. to Bruce becoming available in New McDonald, Director of the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, suggests that this plant is well suited cover air The drainage. foliage is bright green, with three- to small townhouse gardens as a low groundfor shaded or semi-shaded areas. five-lobed leaves of an unusual crinkly texture. The visual quality of the leaf surface is distinctive and adapts well to tapestry plantings, which bring unusual combinations of height and texture together. The autumn Sasa veitchii One of the most important and frequently used species of bamboo for Japanese garden design is kuma-zasa. In the United States it 31 Shibataea kumasaca ma landscape setting in an Amencan garden. Photo by Gary Koller. has proven to be root hardy to -31 degrees Centigrade (-25 degrees F), and it is reliably hardy in the Boston area. The plant, standing 60 to 150 centimeters tall (2 to 5 feet), has a relatively wide leaf blade that is a moderate green color all summer. The arrival of shorter and cooler days in the autumn causes the margin of each leaf to turn beige or straw color in a band roughly 0.6 to 1.2 centimeters wide. It is at this time that the plant is most visually distinctive, for the leaf color variation is a striking part of the autumn landscape. In areas where winter temperatures and winds are not so severe, the leaf remains evergreen; with more exposure, the entire leaf becomes desiccated and fades to beige. Unable to thrive in full sun, Sasa veitchii requires light shade. It is an ideal groundcover under mass plantings of large trees and shrubs and for stabilizing steep, wooded slopes in cul- tivated locations. The soil must be well drained for it is intolerant of wet and poorly drained locations. While it does spread outward, I have found it to be less aggressive than most of the other stoloniferous bamboo species. Shibataea kumasaca A bamboo of small stature with a distinctively erect habit and lustrous, dark green foliage, Shibataea kumasaca can range in height from 1.6 meters (3 to 5 feet). Long-established plantings observed by this author have produced colonies so uniform in height that they resemble the top of a table. A fine example of mature growth can be seen at the Biltmore Estate in Asheville, North Carolina, where a huge colony grows near the edge of the driveway leading to the main house. In 1 to locations with a winter climate similar to 32 Boston, the plant requires shade in order to remain evergreen. The winter sun can beat and tatter the foliage, and recovery takes until mid-July when damage. new growth masks the Uvularia grandiflora This plant is native to woods and thickets from southwest Quebec to North Dakota, and in the south, ranges from Georgia to Oklahoma. In the wild, it inhabits calcareous soils, but I have seen it cultivated in more acidic conditions. In garden use, one normally sees it as an individual mixed among other woodland species; it is displayed in this manner at the Gardner Museum, Boston, where a large plant emerges through a simple groundcover of Hedera helix. Groundcover-style mass plantings can be seen in the native plant section of the Landscape Arboretum at the University of Minnesota and at the Calgary Zoo in Alberta, Canada. In both of these locations, plants arc situated in what appeai to be dry sites, with considerable tree shading. v umu Sauuuytvlu ~___ ~ , TT~.~1....:...... -ltll.._._ ~J1VW ,tI.GJ 11411, , , green leaves that, when full grown, can reach heights of 30 to 100 centimeters (1 to 3 feet). Its yellow flowers are small, nodding, and delicately showy, for they appear before any sigudlx Uvularia grandiflora, the bellwort, native North America. Photo by Gary Koller. to eastern nificant leaf expansion each spring. Individual plants expand slowly to form a robust clump that is generally circular in shape. To achieve a solid continuous cover, some attention must be given to spacing and placement, or else the colony appears as scattered circles of foliage. Once established, plantings seem to be persistent, dependable, and attractive throughout the entire summer. Uvularia sessilifolia 'Variegata' This quietly variegated plant bears creamy white stripes on each leaf and is similar in size, habit, and spreading qualities to Disporum sessile 'Variegatum'. It naturally inhabits dry to moist woodland sites and forms colonies that range from dense to diffuse in character. Blossoms are small pale yellow, nodding bells. The plant has thin, wiry stems, spread outward. Uvularia sessili folia 'Variegata' looks beautiful when woven through Vinca minor, drifted through colonies of European ginger, or rising out of masses of bronze and purple-leafed Ajuga reptans. The only problem I have ever noticed is that the variegated leaf sections sometimes turn yellow or brown when the plant is excessively dry or located in too much sun. and its colonies Vancouveria hexandra This Epimedium relative, native to the Pacific Northwest, provides a low, tightly knit mass of thin-textured, light-green leaves, which stand 15 to 45 centimeters tall (6 to 18 inches), with height depending on the clone and the conditions of the site. Small individual leaflets are positioned in such a way as to give 33 the total plant a very delicate visual effect, not unlike that presented by ferns. The flowers are also small and rather insignificant but at their finest contribute to the delicate veiled effect. While Vancouveria will never be regarded as a great flowering plant, the color and texture of the foliage make it useful when weaving foliage tapestries into the landscape. It can be successfully interplanted with hellebores, which rise above it with bold dark-green foliage; with hosta cultivars selected to mimic the same foliage color; with trilliums, which poke up through the foliage of the Vancouveria and appear to float across a cloud of deli- leaves; and with many ferns, which provide contrasts in height, color, and texture. From a cultural standpoint, it requires little cate more than some shelter from the sun and a moisture-retaining, well-drained soil. Established plants need little attention and can remain undisturbed for many years. In the West, the plant bears the charming common name redwood-ivy. Gary Koller is Senior Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum and teaches a course on Plants as Elements of Design at the Harvard Graduate School of Design. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25050","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eab6d.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Jorgensen, Neil","article_content":"BOOKS Neil Jorgensen Second Nature by Michael Pollan. Atlantic 1991. 320 pages. Hardcover. Monthly Press, $19.95. This book has received acclaim from every reviewer that I have read. I must dissent. As an autobiography, it is splendid; as a local history, it is vivid; as a dissertation on gardening-actual dirt gardening-my delight in the book turned to disappointment. It takes years to become a good naturalist; it takes even more years to become a good gardener. Unfortunately, Pollan has not yet served his time. It shows all through the book. His many references suggest that he has read nineteenth-century Naturphilosophie, it is a good place to begin. But as a book about nature and gardening, Second Nature is I guess almost worthless. Michael Pollan is an uncommonly good writer. Though many people have learned to write clearly and succinctly, only a few can paint with words like Pollan. His writing makes thereaderfed like a hungiy~ucai. en. a gourmet dinner, on the one hand wanting to wolf the insights but at the same time wanting to savor the metaphors. In his first chapter, \"Two Gardens ;' Pollan's autobiographical account of his early gardening days reminded me of Russell Baker's wonderful Growing Up. Pollan tells us about his gardening mentor, a grandfather who, upon a gourmet dinner, on the one hand wanting widely on gardens and gardeners, but reading about gardens is not the same as doing gardens. Pollan just plain lacks first-hand experience. The gardening discussions are so naive and simple-minded that they killed whatever enthusiasm I might have otherwise had for the book. Shall I weed my garden? Shall I build a fence around my vegetable garden to keep the woodchuck out? Shall I ~iam a willow in the meadowf Uh, come on. Pollan gets into even bigger trouble when he tries to give us practical gardening Advice. For one of the many examples, read the following : Watch the way [an expenenced gardener] handles seedlings Compared to the novice who treats his young plants gingerly, the experienced gardener seems almost rough with them. Who are these experienced gardeners he's been watching, and what seedlings have they been almost rough with? If he is referring to coarse and husky young tomatoes or zinnias, maybe they can stand being slammed around. But use that same treatment on tiny and fragile primula or gentian seedlings and see how many of those survive. Again it comes back to experience: Pollan either has not transplanted enough different kinds of seedlings, or he has not met enough experienced gardeners. Or both. semiretirement, developed a vegetable garden that single-handedly could have supported a farm stand. How the crafty old businessman would disarm his negotiating opponents with bushels of fresh produce is the stuff of dramatic comedy. And the scene of his nongardening father in his underwear-his usual leisure outfit-tinkering with a permanently defective sprinkler system made me laugh out loud. I wish that this part of the book had never ended. But, alas, end it did. And when Pollan turned his attention from autobiography to 35 he calls \"Planting a extended and uplifting philosophical discussion-ranging from oaks in Germany to cypresses in California, from William James and the Puritans to Zeus himself-what species does he finally choose to bring shady pleasure to future generations in rural Connecticut? A Norway maple. A Norway maple. What a gift! In the pantheon of bad trees, the Norway maple is right up there with the strangler fig. Coarse leaves, greedy roots, gloomy shade, and seedlings everywhere: what more could anyone want? Sadly but surely, a number of other gardening novices will now follow Pollan's example and also plant this dreadful tree to shade their houses. In his chapter \"Weeds Are Us\"-whatever that means-Pollan admits to having read too much Emerson. Though he seems finally to reject Ralph Waldo Emerson's old canard about weeds being plants whose virtues no one has yet discovered, he typically dwells upon it far too long. Even if such horticultural a Pollan has chapter Tree.\" After an terrors as poison ivy, goutweed, or Campanrapunculoides eventually turn out to be saviors of the world, they will still be noxious ula to anyone who has the misfortune of them in the garden. finding And nowhere in this weedy threnody does he mention the value of mulch, that great natural weed-suppressing weapon. Of course, no mention either of the controversial but wonderful weed fighter, Roundup and Surfan. At least I don't think there was; when I went to the index to see if I had missed them, I found that the publisher neglected to include an index. In another chapter, Pollan tells us that Nature abhors a garden. Nonsense. Nature only abhors some gardens. And from Pollan's description of his own gardens, I suspect they would be at the top of Nature's hate list! weeds When you get right down to it, almost any human intervention on the land-merely moving a spadeful of earth-could be considered an unnatural act, yet there are plenty of gardeners and gardening styles that try to work with Nature, not against it. Wildflower meadows, woodland gardens, the new ornamental grass gardens, naturalistic tree and shrub plantings at places like the Arnold Arboretum-all of these gardening styles seem hardly to bother Nature, much less enrage her. You can tell Nature doesn't mind them because well-executed gardens in each of these styles stay beautiful with only a minimum of upkeep. My quarrel is not with Pollan's choice of subject matter. Any gardening book can focus more on the philosophical than the practical. But I don't think a discussion of such lofty ideas as whether or not God is a gardener, how to honor the past landscape, or what Thoreau really thought about his bean patch can compensate for a lack of experience in the discussion of weeds, carrots, and compost. In natural history and gardening, hours in the library don't take the place of hours in the field or in the dirt. And I always have believed that people should first become authorities on a subject before they write a book about it. So why all the hype over Second Nature? Why all the gushing reviews? As a colleague pointed out, it is ironic indeed, when there are so many gardeners and naturalists with important things to say who never get the chance, that a neophyte like Michael Pollan gets a huge chance and then says almost nothing important. A book jacket endorsement proclaims, \"You don't have to be a gardener to love Second Nature.That may be the answer Vegetable gardens are unnatural; perennial borders are unnatural; orchards are unnatural; rose gardens are extremely unnatural. popularity. Perhaps if you are a person for whom nature and gardening happen on country weekends sometime between tennis and cocktails, you may find this book fascinating. But if you're a serious gardener or naturalist, you'll probably want to pass it by. to its "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1991","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25049","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eab28.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"36 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 1991 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 61F 45F 53F 42.9 inches 20.4 inches Temperature Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost 99 -1 ' July 20 and 21 on January 23 on on 28 March 31 1 November 9 , Date of First Fall Frost 32 222 on Crowing Season days Note: According to state climatologist R. Lautzenheiser, 1991 was the third warmest year in the 121 years of record keeping by the National Weather Service. This follows 1990, the fourth warmest year on record. Nine months were warmer than average with February showing the greatest discrepancy at 5.4 degrees above normal. Precipitation was 1.56 inches above normal; snowfall was 16.9 inches below normal. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25052","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24eaf6b.jpg","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS Why Renovate? Robert Cook, Director \/\"\"'~ iven that a major renovaof our main administration building, the Hunnewell Visitor Center, will be both highly disruptive and rather expensive, why are we tion doing it? we First, and foremost, renovate to must keep gally functioning. The herbarium wing has major structural problems that will the building le- require steel rein- forcements to the floors, and this work alone will trigger a number of regulatory requirements for other parts of the facility. The plumbing and electrical systems need to be significantly upgraded. We must strengthen our fire presystems with smoke and heat detectors, alarms, and a sprinkler system. The passage of the Americans with Disabilities Act, vention Beyond regulatory requirements, we must achieve a standard of everyday operation appropriate to the Arnold Arboretum. We have an obligation to establish conditions of climate control that will There is, however, a third justification. This renovation, along with our master plan being devel- oped by the landscape consulting firm of Sasaki Associates, will permit us to renew our commitment to prevent the continuing deterioration of public education in a profound which became law earlier this year, requires that all aspects of the building need to be modified in order to accommodate individuals who may have physical handicaps. To do this we will add an elevator tower to the west library holdit is not acceptable ings. Similarly, our valuable to ask staff members to work with way. Our current classroom in the building will be enlarged to accommodate more individuals for our side of an the building, along with interior stifling heat each summer and space heaters in winter. Finally, the public should not be greeted with inadequate bathroom facilities when they come to visit the Arnold Arboretum. Our renovation plans will address all of these issues. continuing adult education program and other major lectures. We will also be creating a significant interpretive exhibit, currently under planning with a grant from fire stairwell. We will also be designing a new entrance that will the National Endowment for the Humanities, that will provide individuals with a permit wheelchairs to approach our greatly enhanced front door with ease. (continued on next page) educational experience focused our historic Olmsted landscape on Arboretum the Renovation Richard Schulhof Assistant Director looking further into the future, to maintain the Arnold Arboretum's .,......,.,... \".......\",,\",v. miaSiOe W W c Arboretum. The centerpiece of this exhibtt ww be a large-scale model of the Arboretum which, in con- Prograrns During junction with new brochures and signage on the grounds, will allow visitors to choose from a menu for F~cternal Relations over a century the Hunnewell Center's elegant, red-bricked facade has beckoned high standards m education and public service. Since the early 1890s when Professor Charles Sargent first arranged a program of public lectures, the Arnold Arboretum has been known as a center for the of potential interactions with the plants in our magnificent landscape. At the end of the day, therefore,I see the renovation as a major occasion for revitalizing our commitment to public education and visitor enjoyment of the Arbowill be establishing a standard of operation consistent with our dedication to quality in all that we do. we For JL visitors through the Arboretum's splendors of the study of botany and horticulture. Evolving from modest beginnings-26 students in 1891-Arboreturn main gate to the education programs have a landscape. Indeed, the past decade has brought even greater public use, for as grown into nationally recognized over retum. At the same time ter has served as the Hunnewell Centhe primary site program serving dents annually. 7,000 stu- growing education programs as an increasingly popular meeting and resting place for Arand As the pending temporary closure of the Hunnewell Center ~~ boretum visitors. While the building is about to undergo extensive has prompted many of our friends and supporters to inquire about the future of the educational offerings which depend on this facility, we currently underway to ensure the continuity of are renovation, plans wish to share our plans for these programs. our education programs, and, Adult Education Due to construction, the Hunnewell Center will be closed to the ter. At that time, programs for chil- In the coming year we ask dren will return to their current level. Future public from September of this year through the fall of 1993. Although course offerings must be reduced ture plans for the Child- your patience as we prepare the Hunnewell Visitor Center for another century of service. Further, invite any comments or questions you may have concerning eiwe Program promise a greater commitment to improving the ren's by 25% due to the tempo- quality of science education in Boston area rary closure of the Hunnewell lechall, classes will continue year-round in the classroom facility at the Dana Greenhouse and during the spring, summer and fall elassrooms. have made Beginning our ther the renovation or our plans for the future. We look forward to this year, we Studies Experiences able in several Boston schoolto Field program availfur- hearing from you. months at the Case Estates in Weston. Looking beyond the renovation, we plan to offer roughly 400 class meetings a year, the program size rent yards. In addition, we plan ther develop our teacher's training' program, LEAP. With the help of a generous grant from the Jessie B. Cox Charitable Trust, teachers from Boston area schools will come to Arnold Arboretum Public Meeting contracted T he represented by our cur- Arnold Arboretum has Sasaki Associates, and planning conInc., landscape sultants from Watertown, Massa- spring\/summer catalogue. the Arboretum for training chusetts, to create a master plan As for the content of the program, we plan to take fuller ad- in this nationally recognized curriculum. Visitor Services vantage of the living collections in for our landscape in Jamaica Plain. Funded with grants from the Institute of Museum Services, the National Endowment for the Arts, and the Stratford Foundation, the master plan will develop recom- Jamaica stronger focus on the biology and horticulture of woody plants. While courses in landscape history, design and herPlain with a Under the umbrella of Visitor Services we include weekend tours and the Bookstore. will continue Sunday tours mendations and long-range lines guide- baceous materials will continue to during May, June, concerning the upgrading be offered, it is our aim to more September, and October of the renovation year, while the Bookstore will close, along with the rest fully address the Arboretum's traditional strengths in botany and arboriculture. The Children's Program As with the adult education program, the renovation will necessitate a reduction in the activities of our of visitor services, the enhancement of our entrances, walls, and other perimeter elements, and the of the Visitor Center, on September 8, 1992. When the Hunnewell Center reopens in 1993, we look forward to offering a higher level of visitor information and services. Thanks to management of lands peripheral to the historic As Olmsted\/Sargent landscape. part of the planning prothe Arboretum will hold a secess, ries of three public meetings. Please Children's Program. During construction, classes will be staged out of a tent in an area below the Dana Greenhouse, while guide training will take place in the support provided by the Massa- join us on Wednesday, chusetts Foundation for the Humanities and the National Endowment for the Humanities, the future April 22 at 7:00 p.m. in the auditorium of the State Laboratories Building located on South Street (a short walk from the Forest Hills Subway Station) to meet the Sasaki team Greenhouse classroom facility. AI- Hunnewell Center promises new interpretive exhibits that tell the story of the collections and landscape, improved visitor orien- though dren a smaller number of chil- be accommodated via this arrangement, it will allow us to maintain the program until the can ning For and discuss the master planprocess. Parking is available. reopening of the Hunnewell Cen- tation, and an information center that will offer books, pamphlets, and other materials specific to the Arboretum's world-renowned living collections. more information, please call 524-1718. 3 National Park Service at the Arboretum The National Park Service has in recently to joined partnership with the Arnold Arboretum to expand interpretive services available Park Arboretum visitors this spring. Rangers from the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site in Brookline will introduce Arboretum history and design in a program of weekend walking tours covering various portions of the landscape. Park We welcome you to join Rangers Alan Banks and Christopher Lamond on Saturdays and Sundays from April 18 through June 21 for special walkand 2:30 Each no-fee tour will leave p.m. from the Park Service Ctaoin~s arn~ Forest Hills Gate to the ArboivatyclJ W111 AIJV pC 51.3tioned at this location weekends from 10:00 a.m. to 4:30 p.m. to near ing tours at 10:30 a.m. av.,,uim. supply information and handouts. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23324","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070a36a.jpg","title":"1992-52-1","volume":52,"issue_number":1,"year":1992,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introduction","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25041","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add2708126.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Introduction Peter Del Tredici This special issue otAmoldia commemorates its fiftieth anniversary by reprinting some of the more interesting articles that have appeared in the past. Started in 1941, Arnoldia was a continuation of the Bulletin of Popular Information, a publication which had been started in 1911 by the Arboretum's first C. S. Sargent. Dr. Donald Wyman was Amoldia's first editor, a position he held for twenty-nine years until his retirement in 1970. Over the course of his tenure, Dr. Wyman wrote an unbeliev- undoubtedly, future. continue to do so into the director, able 173 articles for the magazine, most of them based on his own observations of plants growing at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates in Weston. Through his writings in Arnoldia, which were subsequently reprinted in his various books, Dr. Wyman had a profound influence on the development of ornamental horticulture in America during the 1950s and 1960s. What I have tried to do in this collection is to select articles that are not only informative and well written, but also transcend some of the more \"trendy\" aspects of horticulture and botany. In no way should one consider this selection the \"best of' Arnoldia. Rather it is a representative sample of the kind of work that has been going on at the Arnold Arboretum for the last half century. In all cases I have tried to pick articles that reflect the eclectic blend of horticulture and botany that has distinguished the work of the Arnold Arboretum from its inception and that will, To go back and read through the old Arnoldias is to take a trip back through time. One can watch the various trends in maintenance and landscape design come and go. Certain plants become fashionable, until their horticultural Achilles heel is discovered, when they are suddenly dropped. The most interesting thing about reading through the old Arnoldias has been finding out that plants that seemed new and wonderful in 1991 were already old hat in 1940. And so, like everything else in life, horticulture seems to move in broad sweeping cycles that repeat slowly time. It should be noted that, in the interests of space, all of the articles in this collection have over undergo some measure of editorial Without exception these have involved removing either overly technical material or material that has, over time, become out of date. In addition, the extensive bibliographies that make Arnoldia articles so useful have been cut. This decision was made in view of the fact that anyone wishing to get more detailed information on one of the subjects covered can always refer to the articles as they originally appeared in Arnoldia. It is the editor's hope that this collection not only illustrates the work of the Arboretum over the last fifty years, but also helps to lay a solid foundation for the work of the next fifty. to cuts. had 4 i Portrait of Asa Gray, circa 1865. From the Archives of the Gray Herbarium Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia Charles F Jenkins Jenkins of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was both an excellent writer and active horticulturist. He served as editor of The Farm journal for many years, and wrote several books on American history. In 1931, he founded the \"Hemlock Arboretum\" and published the well-known Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin until his death in 1951. In the Arnoldia article reprinted here, Jenkins, who was an important supporter of the Arnold Arboretum, tells the intriguing story of Asa Gray and C. S. Sargent searching for the botanical equivalent of the Holy Grail. C. E an The word bewitched has antipodal meanings. The first, sinister, fearsome, savoring of Salem trials and clouded minds; the second, charmed, enchanted, captivated. In this second sense Asa Gray was bewitched. For forty years, the greater part of his productive life, the memory of a fragmentary, dried, incomplete specimen in a neglected herbarium cabinet in France haunted him. The assurance of its existence as a living plant and the hope of its rediscovery were with him constantly. A shy, evergreen groundcover with dainty, creamy-white flowers in early spring; cheerful, shiny, bright green leaves in summer ; a winter coloring rich and rare-it well deserved his lifelong devotion. When the search was ended and the visible assurance of its existence was placed in Gray's hands, he could well exclaim, as he did: \"Now let me sing my nunc dimittis.\" On November 9, 1838, Gray sailed in the packet ship Philadelphia for Europe. He had received appointment to a professorship in the newly planned University of Michigan at Ann Volume Arbor. As the buildings were not ready, he was granted a year's leave of absence, a salary of $1500, and $5000 was placed at his disposal to purchase books for the new University library. The main object of his trip, however, was to examine the original sources of American flora as they existed in the principal herbaria of Europe. After a twenty-one-day voyage he landed in Liverpool and then began a year crowded with rich cultural and educational experiences. Everywhere he made friends among the botanists and scientists and everywhere he found in the old established herbaria specimens of American plants collected through the past century by a long list of botanists and travellers. 2(3, 4): 18-28, 1946. the Herbarium Specimen in France By the middle of March, Gray had reached Paris where he remained nearly a month. Here he worked over the collections of Andre Michaux (1746-1802), that indefatigable collector and botanist, who fifty years before had spent eleven years in the United States, sending home to France great quantities of botanical treasures. Among these in a cabinet of unidentified plants was a faded, incomplete Finding specimen with the label: de Carolinie novuml\" In his \"Hautes montagnes An pyrnla specAn genus Michaux not plant, but gives careful directions so that future botanists might also locate it in the \"High Mountains of Carolina.\" Michaux's Journal in French, as written, is not readily available, nor is there a translation of the whole Journal for English readers. Through the courtesy of Professor Edith Philips, of the French Department of Swarthmore College, the following translation of that small portion relating to the finding of Shortia is here presented. It will give some idea of the hardships borne by the botanist in his travels and covers his experiences on four disagreeable winter days when he came upon the little plant which has intrigued botanists for one hundred and fifty-four years. The roads became more difficult as we approached the headwaters of the Keowee [spelled Kiwi by Michaux] on the 8th of December, 1788.... Two miles before arriving there I recognized the Magnolia montana which has been named M cordata or aunculata by Bartram. There was m this place a little cabm inhabited by a family of Cherokee Indians. We stopped there to camp and I ran off to make some investigations. I gathered a new low woody plant with saw-toothed leaves creeping on the mountain at a short distance from the river. [Michaux here refers to Shortia.] The weather changed and it ramed all night Although we were m the shelter of a great Strobus pine our clothing and our covers were soaked About the middle of the night I went to the cabin of the Indians, which could scarcely hold the family composed of eight persons, men and women. There were besides six big dogs who added to the filth of this apartment and to its inconveniences. The fire was placed m the middle without any opening in the top of the cabin to let the smoke out; there were plenty of holes, however, to let the rain through the roof of this house. An Indian came to take my place by the fire and offered me his bed which was a bear's skm. But finally the ram having stopped and annoyed by the dogs which kept biting each other continually to keep their place by the fire, I returned to the camp. This place which is called the source of the Keowee is incorrectly so indicated. It is the junction of two other rivers or large torrents which unite at this place and which is known only as the forks of the Keowee. carefully kept journal, Andre only tells of the finding of the On December 11 it froze hard and the air was clear and keen. I noted a chain of high mountains which extended trom west to east and where the frost was little felt m places exposed to the sun. I gathered a Jumperus [repens] which I had not yet seen in the southern part of the United States but it must be noted that I saw on these mountains several trees of the northern regions such as Betula mgra, Cornus ~~~~~ altemifoha, Pmus strobus, Abies, Spruce, etc. We crossed a space of about three miles in the midst of Rhododendron maximum. I came back to camp with my guide at the head of the Keowee and gathered a large quantity of the low woody plants with the saw-toothed leaves that I found the day I arrived. I did not see it on any other mountain. The Indians of the place told me that the leaves had a good taste when chewed and the odor was agreeable when they were crushed, which I found to be the case. [Michaux's directions for finding Shortia] The head of the Keowee is the junction of two of considerable size which flow m cascades from the high mountains. This junction takes place in a small plam where there was once a Cherokee village. On descending from the junction of these two torrents with the river to one's left and the mountains which face north on the right, one finds at about 200-300 feet from the junction, a path formed by the Indian hunters It leads to a brook where one recognizes the site of an Indian village by the peach trees which still exist in the midst of the underbrush. Continuing on this path one soon reaches the mountains and one finds this plant which covers the ground along with the Epigaea torrents repens. journal for April 8, 1839, Gray records the find in the herbarium of the Paris Museum which immediately aroused his In his interest: \"But I have something better than all this to tell you. I have discovered a new genus in Michaux's herbarium-at the end, among plantae ignotae. It is from that great unknown region, the high mountains of North Carolina. We have the fruit, with the persistent calyx and style, but no flowers, and a guess that I made about its affinities has been amply borne out on examination by Decaisne and myself. It is allied to Galax, but is 'un tres distinct genus\/ having axillary one-flowered scapes (the flower large and a style that of a Pyrola, long and declined). Indeed I hope it 7 of it until fourteen years after Dr. Short's death. Apparently the latter never made the penalty pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina in search of his namesake. His own large collection of dried plants passed to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, but his name is still to be found on the twenty-five thousand herbarium specimens he is said to have generously distributed to like-minded enthusiasts throughout the world. The Search of the Carolina Mountains Returning from his trip abroad, Gray reached home early in November, 1839, and immediately plunged into the task of completing the Flora of North America. Shortia, however, was always in his mind. It was Michaux's incomplete and misleading label \"Hautes montagnes de Carolinie\" on the herbarium specimen in Paris that delayed for nearly forty years the satisfaction he was to have in holding in his hand a living plant. In anticipation of a botanizing trip Dr. Gray now consulted Michaux's journal. But one must read carefully to find the reference, although in all the journal no species location is so faithfully described as that of Shortia, but Gray unfortunately missed the significance of Michaux's directions, or did not realize that the passage reproduced above appertained to the much desired Shortia. With two friends, John Carey and James Constable, he started on his first quest late in June, 1841. To the \"High Mountains\" they went, Roan, Iron, Grandfather, Black, and others, all over 5000 feet in height. Michaux had also visited them. He recorded in his journal that on the 30th of August, 1794, standing on the summit of Grandfather, which he thought was the highest peak in all the Appalachians, he and his guide, John Davenport, had chanted the Marseillaise and cried \"Vive 1'Amerique et la Republique Francaise, Vive la Liberte!\" The Gray exploring party made its headquarters in the little town of Jefferson, the county seat of Ashe County, North Carolina. None of the party knew that Shortia flowered C. E. Faxon'sdrawing of Shortia galacifolia, first pubhshed in Garden and Forest m 1888. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. will settle the riddle about the family of Galax, and prove Richard to be right when he says Ordo Ericarum. I claim the right of a discoverer to affix the name. So I say, as this is a good North American genus and comes from near Kentucky, it shall be christened Shortia, to which we will stand as godfathers. So Shortia galacifolia, Torr. and Gr., it shall be. I beg you to inform Dr. Short, and to say that we will lay upon him no greater penalty than this necessary thing-that he make a pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina this coming summer and procure the flowers.\" Charles Wilkins Short (1794-1863) and Asa Gray never met. Their friendship was founded on a voluminous correspondence and a mutual respect for the botanical writings and attainments of each other. Both had been graduated in medicine and both were college instructors in science. Short was Gray's senior by sixteen years. He never saw the dainty little plant so honorably named, nor the dried specimen in the Paris herbarium. This and the few lines in Torrey and Gray's Flora of North America were all that were definitely known 8 A map showmg the limited distribution of Shortia in the southern Appalachian mountains, as known in 1950. Since that time some new populations have been located, but others have been destroyed as a result of flooding associated with reservoir construction. Repnnted from Rhodora, volume 52, 1950. in late March or early April, nor did they know at what altitude it grew. Reporting on his extended trip in a classical account which he wrote for Sir William J. Hooker, Gray says: \"We were unsuccessful in our search for a remarkable undescribed plant with a habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, which was obtained in the high mountains of Carolina. The only specimen extant is among the 'Plantae incognitae' of the Michauxian herbarium, in fruit only; and we were anxious to obtain flowering specimens, that we might complete its history; as I have long wished to dedicate the plant to Professor Short, of Kentucky, 9 whose attainments and eminent services to North American botany are well known and appreciated both at home and abroad.\"In a footnote from this quoted passage is the first published description of the genus Shortia Torrey and Gray. Two years passed and the position at Michigan having been abandoned, on April 30, 1842, Gray was appointed to the Fisher Professorship of Natural History at Harvard College. Again Shortia called him and for nearly three months in 1843, this time with another friend, William S. Sullivant, he herborized in the same general territory, the happy hunting ground of many distinguished botanists, both before and since. But again he was searching in the wrong place and again was disappointed. In neither trip did he come within many miles of where the little plant had been first discovered. Dr. John Torrey was the first to suggest, as early as 1852, that Shortia was probably an early spring plant and further that it might disappear after flowering and perfecting its seed. \"One should be pretty early on the ground to find it in flower,\" he wrote Dr. Short who was anticipating a journey to the Carolina mountains in quest of it. John Carey about the same time was urging Dr. Short to ascertain the name and whereabouts of Michaux's old guide, John Davenport, from whom he might learn his track \"in general if not in particular.\" that Rediscovery at Last! It was in May, 1877, seventeen-year-old George McQueen Hyams(1861-1932) of Statesville, N.C., found Shortia growing on the banks of the Catawba River near Marion, the county seat of McDowell County, N.C., some seventy miles in a direct line from the discovery. His father, M. E. Hyams (1819-1891), was an herbalist but did not know the plant and eighteen months later sent a specimen for identification to a friend, Joseph W Congdon of East Greenwich, R.I. He in turn wrote Dr. Gray telling him he thought he had Shortia. The latter wrote \"Send it on\" site of Michaux's and at last the search of nearly forty years was at an end. Dr. Gray was triumphant. \"No other botanist has the news,\" he hastened to write, on October 21, 1878, to his close friend and fellow botanist William M. Canby, who was to be the first to share with him the jubilation over the rediscovery. In the period of forty years of waiting, many deserved honors had come to him, including college degrees and memberships in fifty learned and cultural societies throughout the world. A few months previously he had been elected a member of the Academie des Sciences of the Institut de France, one of the most coveted rewards to a scientific man. Yet the discovery he was communicating to his friend, \"has given me,\" he said, \"a hundred times the satisfaction that the election to the Institut did.\" And then he continues: \"If you will come here I can show you what will delight your eyes and cure you effectively of the skeptical spirit you used to have about Shortia galacifolia. It is before me with corolla and all from North Carolina! Think of that! My long faith rewarded at last.\" Dr. Gray wrote to M. E. Hyams, October 27, 1878, telling him how much immortality had been lost for his son by not sending the specimen when it was found eighteen months before, in order that the description might have been included in the edition of the Flora which had gone to press in the meantime, but promising to make his name famous through an article in \"Silliman's Journal pro tem\" He also informed M. E. Hyams that he or Mr. Canby, or both, would be down the following May, call for the boy, and ask to be taken to the spot. Mr. Hyams in replying, October 31, tells of the finding of the plants: \"We were passing along the road and my attention was called to an elevated hillside that I could not ascend as being at the time rather exhausted, being sixty years old, requested him [his son] to ascend and bring whatever was in flower. I have forgotten the locality, but he is fully known to it, as he lived within two miles of the place for several years.\" Now that a definite station for Shortia had been located, Dr. Gray early in the spring of 10 1879 organized a real excursion to see it growing in the wild.Mrs. Grayand her brother with the latter's wife and their two daughters and his botanical friends, William M. Canby of Wilmington, Del., Dr. Charles S. Sargent of Brookline, Mass., and J. H. Redfield of Philadelphia, Penna., composed the party. The four principals of the party arrived in Statesville, N.C., by train and were entertained by a Mr. Wallace, a leading citizen of the town. Redfield wrote a full account of the trip but only that portion relating to Shortia is included here. He says: \"The recent rediscovery of Shortia in North Carolina has created much interest among botanists.... Searches repeated in the course of many years had proved fruitless, so that to the botanical fraternity and particularly to the author of the genus the recovery was somewhat like that of a long lost child.... The object was not only to see Shortia but to find more of it if possible and to explore some portions of the mountains which the oldest member of the party [Dr. Gray] had visited in 1841 and 1843.... \"A visit to the root and herb warehouse belonging to Wallace Brothers and under the charge of Mr. Hyams, furnished evidence that this branch of industry has reached an extent and importance of which few are aware. The printed catalogue of indigenous plants, dealt in by this house, enumerates about 630 species.... These simples find a large market, both in this country and Europe, and the orders come mainly from the wholesale druggists and the manufacturers of patent medicines. Think of a single order for fifteen tons of Hepatica triloba! \"Being now in McDowell County, the Shortia locality was visited under the guidance of Mr. George M. Hyams, the actual discoverer. In the secluded and well-protected station, well overshadowed by Rhododendrons and Magnolias, was seen the little colony of the plant, so long sought and by many so long doubted. Its companions were Mitchella repens, Asarum virginicum and Galax aphylla. The space over which the plant extended was perhaps 10 feet by 30 and in all ... there may have been 50 to 100 plants. As the nltmultiplies 1sy stolonsc it ic arlrah plant lrinl;Ag by ~!, it is remarkable that its area should be thus restricted and since in the struggle for life of two allied plants the weaker 'must go,' Dr. Gray suggested the possibility that its stronger cousin, the Galax, had crowded out the Shortia. And here indeed, in what may be the last foothold of the rarity, Galax appeared to be actually doing so. Yet the plants, though comparatively few, were vigorous and healthy. Other stations may be looked for; but they must be hard to find. When we consider the long search which has been made for this plant, how all the mountain region of the Carolinas and Tennessee has been examined by the sharp optics of P Buckley, Rugel, M. A. Curtis, Dr. Gray, Canby, Le er, Roy and Ruger, the Vaseys, elder and young- Chickering and others, it is very certain that if there be other localities they must be 'few and far between.'... Dr. Sargent Finds Shortia Dr. Sargent was not satisfied with the meager results of the search for Shortia in 1879 and again visited the Carolinas in the early autumn of 1886 hunting for Magnolia cordata, mentioned by Michaux. At Sapphire, Transylvania County, N.C., he and Mr. Stiles, who accompanied him, were met by Frank E. Boynton of Highlands. One evening after a botanizing trip Dr. Sargent produced a leaf and asked what it was. Mr. Boynton thought it might be Galax but examining it more closely said he did not know. Mr. Stiles jokingly said: \"That is Shortia\" and it turned out so to be. It was a coincidence that in the evening mail the following letter arrived from Dr. Gray: September 17, 1886 My dear Sargent: Would I were with you. I can only say crown yourself with glory by discovering a habitat-the original habitat of Shortia which we will believe Michaux found near where Magnolia cordata came from m that first expedition. Yours, Asa ever, Gray 11 Dr. Sargent could not recall where he had found the Shortia leaf. He and his party had travelled all day over rough mountain country searching for Magnolia cordata. So the two Boynton brothers were sent back to locate the growing plants from which the leaf had been plucked. Frank Boynton remembered that Dr. Sargent and he had Unfortunately passed through Bear Camp, a small settlement on Bear Camp Creek, a little stream flowing into the Horse Pasture River, which in turn the Keowee. Here they found Shortia and gathered a small amount, and it was one of these living plants which Dr. Sargent hands as coming from the placed in Dr. Michaux land, \"the headwaters of the Keowee;' for it was at this place that Michaux first enters Gray's found it on December 8, 1788.... As has been stated, up to the time of the rediscovery of Shortia Dr. Gray had received fifty honorary degrees and memberships in learned societies. Twenty-one more were to come to him before his death, which occurred January 30, 1888. He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Mass., where a simple stone bearing a cross marks his last resting place. It may not be too late to suggest that, with the soil properly prepared, there might be planted on his grave an ever green and ever beautiful blanket of the little flower which he so loved and which he pronounced \"perhaps the most interesting plant in North America.\" 12 A drawmg of the type tree tration, provided through the courtesy of Dr. H H Hu, of Metasequoia glyptostroboides growing at Modaoqi village. This illusis from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25035","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270af6d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Jenkins, Charles F.","article_content":"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia Charles F Jenkins Jenkins of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was both an excellent writer and active horticulturist. He served as editor of The Farm journal for many years, and wrote several books on American history. In 1931, he founded the \"Hemlock Arboretum\" and published the well-known Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin until his death in 1951. In the Arnoldia article reprinted here, Jenkins, who was an important supporter of the Arnold Arboretum, tells the intriguing story of Asa Gray and C. S. Sargent searching for the botanical equivalent of the Holy Grail. C. E an The word bewitched has antipodal meanings. The first, sinister, fearsome, savoring of Salem trials and clouded minds; the second, charmed, enchanted, captivated. In this second sense Asa Gray was bewitched. For forty years, the greater part of his productive life, the memory of a fragmentary, dried, incomplete specimen in a neglected herbarium cabinet in France haunted him. The assurance of its existence as a living plant and the hope of its rediscovery were with him constantly. A shy, evergreen groundcover with dainty, creamy-white flowers in early spring; cheerful, shiny, bright green leaves in summer ; a winter coloring rich and rare-it well deserved his lifelong devotion. When the search was ended and the visible assurance of its existence was placed in Gray's hands, he could well exclaim, as he did: \"Now let me sing my nunc dimittis.\" On November 9, 1838, Gray sailed in the packet ship Philadelphia for Europe. He had received appointment to a professorship in the newly planned University of Michigan at Ann Volume Arbor. As the buildings were not ready, he was granted a year's leave of absence, a salary of $1500, and $5000 was placed at his disposal to purchase books for the new University library. The main object of his trip, however, was to examine the original sources of American flora as they existed in the principal herbaria of Europe. After a twenty-one-day voyage he landed in Liverpool and then began a year crowded with rich cultural and educational experiences. Everywhere he made friends among the botanists and scientists and everywhere he found in the old established herbaria specimens of American plants collected through the past century by a long list of botanists and travellers. 2(3, 4): 18-28, 1946. the Herbarium Specimen in France By the middle of March, Gray had reached Paris where he remained nearly a month. Here he worked over the collections of Andre Michaux (1746-1802), that indefatigable collector and botanist, who fifty years before had spent eleven years in the United States, sending home to France great quantities of botanical treasures. Among these in a cabinet of unidentified plants was a faded, incomplete Finding specimen with the label: de Carolinie novuml\" In his \"Hautes montagnes An pyrnla specAn genus Michaux not plant, but gives careful directions so that future botanists might also locate it in the \"High Mountains of Carolina.\" Michaux's Journal in French, as written, is not readily available, nor is there a translation of the whole Journal for English readers. Through the courtesy of Professor Edith Philips, of the French Department of Swarthmore College, the following translation of that small portion relating to the finding of Shortia is here presented. It will give some idea of the hardships borne by the botanist in his travels and covers his experiences on four disagreeable winter days when he came upon the little plant which has intrigued botanists for one hundred and fifty-four years. The roads became more difficult as we approached the headwaters of the Keowee [spelled Kiwi by Michaux] on the 8th of December, 1788.... Two miles before arriving there I recognized the Magnolia montana which has been named M cordata or aunculata by Bartram. There was m this place a little cabm inhabited by a family of Cherokee Indians. We stopped there to camp and I ran off to make some investigations. I gathered a new low woody plant with saw-toothed leaves creeping on the mountain at a short distance from the river. [Michaux here refers to Shortia.] The weather changed and it ramed all night Although we were m the shelter of a great Strobus pine our clothing and our covers were soaked About the middle of the night I went to the cabin of the Indians, which could scarcely hold the family composed of eight persons, men and women. There were besides six big dogs who added to the filth of this apartment and to its inconveniences. The fire was placed m the middle without any opening in the top of the cabin to let the smoke out; there were plenty of holes, however, to let the rain through the roof of this house. An Indian came to take my place by the fire and offered me his bed which was a bear's skm. But finally the ram having stopped and annoyed by the dogs which kept biting each other continually to keep their place by the fire, I returned to the camp. This place which is called the source of the Keowee is incorrectly so indicated. It is the junction of two other rivers or large torrents which unite at this place and which is known only as the forks of the Keowee. carefully kept journal, Andre only tells of the finding of the On December 11 it froze hard and the air was clear and keen. I noted a chain of high mountains which extended trom west to east and where the frost was little felt m places exposed to the sun. I gathered a Jumperus [repens] which I had not yet seen in the southern part of the United States but it must be noted that I saw on these mountains several trees of the northern regions such as Betula mgra, Cornus ~~~~~ altemifoha, Pmus strobus, Abies, Spruce, etc. We crossed a space of about three miles in the midst of Rhododendron maximum. I came back to camp with my guide at the head of the Keowee and gathered a large quantity of the low woody plants with the saw-toothed leaves that I found the day I arrived. I did not see it on any other mountain. The Indians of the place told me that the leaves had a good taste when chewed and the odor was agreeable when they were crushed, which I found to be the case. [Michaux's directions for finding Shortia] The head of the Keowee is the junction of two of considerable size which flow m cascades from the high mountains. This junction takes place in a small plam where there was once a Cherokee village. On descending from the junction of these two torrents with the river to one's left and the mountains which face north on the right, one finds at about 200-300 feet from the junction, a path formed by the Indian hunters It leads to a brook where one recognizes the site of an Indian village by the peach trees which still exist in the midst of the underbrush. Continuing on this path one soon reaches the mountains and one finds this plant which covers the ground along with the Epigaea torrents repens. journal for April 8, 1839, Gray records the find in the herbarium of the Paris Museum which immediately aroused his In his interest: \"But I have something better than all this to tell you. I have discovered a new genus in Michaux's herbarium-at the end, among plantae ignotae. It is from that great unknown region, the high mountains of North Carolina. We have the fruit, with the persistent calyx and style, but no flowers, and a guess that I made about its affinities has been amply borne out on examination by Decaisne and myself. It is allied to Galax, but is 'un tres distinct genus\/ having axillary one-flowered scapes (the flower large and a style that of a Pyrola, long and declined). Indeed I hope it 7 of it until fourteen years after Dr. Short's death. Apparently the latter never made the penalty pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina in search of his namesake. His own large collection of dried plants passed to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia, but his name is still to be found on the twenty-five thousand herbarium specimens he is said to have generously distributed to like-minded enthusiasts throughout the world. The Search of the Carolina Mountains Returning from his trip abroad, Gray reached home early in November, 1839, and immediately plunged into the task of completing the Flora of North America. Shortia, however, was always in his mind. It was Michaux's incomplete and misleading label \"Hautes montagnes de Carolinie\" on the herbarium specimen in Paris that delayed for nearly forty years the satisfaction he was to have in holding in his hand a living plant. In anticipation of a botanizing trip Dr. Gray now consulted Michaux's journal. But one must read carefully to find the reference, although in all the journal no species location is so faithfully described as that of Shortia, but Gray unfortunately missed the significance of Michaux's directions, or did not realize that the passage reproduced above appertained to the much desired Shortia. With two friends, John Carey and James Constable, he started on his first quest late in June, 1841. To the \"High Mountains\" they went, Roan, Iron, Grandfather, Black, and others, all over 5000 feet in height. Michaux had also visited them. He recorded in his journal that on the 30th of August, 1794, standing on the summit of Grandfather, which he thought was the highest peak in all the Appalachians, he and his guide, John Davenport, had chanted the Marseillaise and cried \"Vive 1'Amerique et la Republique Francaise, Vive la Liberte!\" The Gray exploring party made its headquarters in the little town of Jefferson, the county seat of Ashe County, North Carolina. None of the party knew that Shortia flowered C. E. Faxon'sdrawing of Shortia galacifolia, first pubhshed in Garden and Forest m 1888. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. will settle the riddle about the family of Galax, and prove Richard to be right when he says Ordo Ericarum. I claim the right of a discoverer to affix the name. So I say, as this is a good North American genus and comes from near Kentucky, it shall be christened Shortia, to which we will stand as godfathers. So Shortia galacifolia, Torr. and Gr., it shall be. I beg you to inform Dr. Short, and to say that we will lay upon him no greater penalty than this necessary thing-that he make a pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina this coming summer and procure the flowers.\" Charles Wilkins Short (1794-1863) and Asa Gray never met. Their friendship was founded on a voluminous correspondence and a mutual respect for the botanical writings and attainments of each other. Both had been graduated in medicine and both were college instructors in science. Short was Gray's senior by sixteen years. He never saw the dainty little plant so honorably named, nor the dried specimen in the Paris herbarium. This and the few lines in Torrey and Gray's Flora of North America were all that were definitely known 8 A map showmg the limited distribution of Shortia in the southern Appalachian mountains, as known in 1950. Since that time some new populations have been located, but others have been destroyed as a result of flooding associated with reservoir construction. Repnnted from Rhodora, volume 52, 1950. in late March or early April, nor did they know at what altitude it grew. Reporting on his extended trip in a classical account which he wrote for Sir William J. Hooker, Gray says: \"We were unsuccessful in our search for a remarkable undescribed plant with a habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, which was obtained in the high mountains of Carolina. The only specimen extant is among the 'Plantae incognitae' of the Michauxian herbarium, in fruit only; and we were anxious to obtain flowering specimens, that we might complete its history; as I have long wished to dedicate the plant to Professor Short, of Kentucky, 9 whose attainments and eminent services to North American botany are well known and appreciated both at home and abroad.\"In a footnote from this quoted passage is the first published description of the genus Shortia Torrey and Gray. Two years passed and the position at Michigan having been abandoned, on April 30, 1842, Gray was appointed to the Fisher Professorship of Natural History at Harvard College. Again Shortia called him and for nearly three months in 1843, this time with another friend, William S. Sullivant, he herborized in the same general territory, the happy hunting ground of many distinguished botanists, both before and since. But again he was searching in the wrong place and again was disappointed. In neither trip did he come within many miles of where the little plant had been first discovered. Dr. John Torrey was the first to suggest, as early as 1852, that Shortia was probably an early spring plant and further that it might disappear after flowering and perfecting its seed. \"One should be pretty early on the ground to find it in flower,\" he wrote Dr. Short who was anticipating a journey to the Carolina mountains in quest of it. John Carey about the same time was urging Dr. Short to ascertain the name and whereabouts of Michaux's old guide, John Davenport, from whom he might learn his track \"in general if not in particular.\" that Rediscovery at Last! It was in May, 1877, seventeen-year-old George McQueen Hyams(1861-1932) of Statesville, N.C., found Shortia growing on the banks of the Catawba River near Marion, the county seat of McDowell County, N.C., some seventy miles in a direct line from the discovery. His father, M. E. Hyams (1819-1891), was an herbalist but did not know the plant and eighteen months later sent a specimen for identification to a friend, Joseph W Congdon of East Greenwich, R.I. He in turn wrote Dr. Gray telling him he thought he had Shortia. The latter wrote \"Send it on\" site of Michaux's and at last the search of nearly forty years was at an end. Dr. Gray was triumphant. \"No other botanist has the news,\" he hastened to write, on October 21, 1878, to his close friend and fellow botanist William M. Canby, who was to be the first to share with him the jubilation over the rediscovery. In the period of forty years of waiting, many deserved honors had come to him, including college degrees and memberships in fifty learned and cultural societies throughout the world. A few months previously he had been elected a member of the Academie des Sciences of the Institut de France, one of the most coveted rewards to a scientific man. Yet the discovery he was communicating to his friend, \"has given me,\" he said, \"a hundred times the satisfaction that the election to the Institut did.\" And then he continues: \"If you will come here I can show you what will delight your eyes and cure you effectively of the skeptical spirit you used to have about Shortia galacifolia. It is before me with corolla and all from North Carolina! Think of that! My long faith rewarded at last.\" Dr. Gray wrote to M. E. Hyams, October 27, 1878, telling him how much immortality had been lost for his son by not sending the specimen when it was found eighteen months before, in order that the description might have been included in the edition of the Flora which had gone to press in the meantime, but promising to make his name famous through an article in \"Silliman's Journal pro tem\" He also informed M. E. Hyams that he or Mr. Canby, or both, would be down the following May, call for the boy, and ask to be taken to the spot. Mr. Hyams in replying, October 31, tells of the finding of the plants: \"We were passing along the road and my attention was called to an elevated hillside that I could not ascend as being at the time rather exhausted, being sixty years old, requested him [his son] to ascend and bring whatever was in flower. I have forgotten the locality, but he is fully known to it, as he lived within two miles of the place for several years.\" Now that a definite station for Shortia had been located, Dr. Gray early in the spring of 10 1879 organized a real excursion to see it growing in the wild.Mrs. Grayand her brother with the latter's wife and their two daughters and his botanical friends, William M. Canby of Wilmington, Del., Dr. Charles S. Sargent of Brookline, Mass., and J. H. Redfield of Philadelphia, Penna., composed the party. The four principals of the party arrived in Statesville, N.C., by train and were entertained by a Mr. Wallace, a leading citizen of the town. Redfield wrote a full account of the trip but only that portion relating to Shortia is included here. He says: \"The recent rediscovery of Shortia in North Carolina has created much interest among botanists.... Searches repeated in the course of many years had proved fruitless, so that to the botanical fraternity and particularly to the author of the genus the recovery was somewhat like that of a long lost child.... The object was not only to see Shortia but to find more of it if possible and to explore some portions of the mountains which the oldest member of the party [Dr. Gray] had visited in 1841 and 1843.... \"A visit to the root and herb warehouse belonging to Wallace Brothers and under the charge of Mr. Hyams, furnished evidence that this branch of industry has reached an extent and importance of which few are aware. The printed catalogue of indigenous plants, dealt in by this house, enumerates about 630 species.... These simples find a large market, both in this country and Europe, and the orders come mainly from the wholesale druggists and the manufacturers of patent medicines. Think of a single order for fifteen tons of Hepatica triloba! \"Being now in McDowell County, the Shortia locality was visited under the guidance of Mr. George M. Hyams, the actual discoverer. In the secluded and well-protected station, well overshadowed by Rhododendrons and Magnolias, was seen the little colony of the plant, so long sought and by many so long doubted. Its companions were Mitchella repens, Asarum virginicum and Galax aphylla. The space over which the plant extended was perhaps 10 feet by 30 and in all ... there may have been 50 to 100 plants. As the nltmultiplies 1sy stolonsc it ic arlrah plant lrinl;Ag by ~!, it is remarkable that its area should be thus restricted and since in the struggle for life of two allied plants the weaker 'must go,' Dr. Gray suggested the possibility that its stronger cousin, the Galax, had crowded out the Shortia. And here indeed, in what may be the last foothold of the rarity, Galax appeared to be actually doing so. Yet the plants, though comparatively few, were vigorous and healthy. Other stations may be looked for; but they must be hard to find. When we consider the long search which has been made for this plant, how all the mountain region of the Carolinas and Tennessee has been examined by the sharp optics of P Buckley, Rugel, M. A. Curtis, Dr. Gray, Canby, Le er, Roy and Ruger, the Vaseys, elder and young- Chickering and others, it is very certain that if there be other localities they must be 'few and far between.'... Dr. Sargent Finds Shortia Dr. Sargent was not satisfied with the meager results of the search for Shortia in 1879 and again visited the Carolinas in the early autumn of 1886 hunting for Magnolia cordata, mentioned by Michaux. At Sapphire, Transylvania County, N.C., he and Mr. Stiles, who accompanied him, were met by Frank E. Boynton of Highlands. One evening after a botanizing trip Dr. Sargent produced a leaf and asked what it was. Mr. Boynton thought it might be Galax but examining it more closely said he did not know. Mr. Stiles jokingly said: \"That is Shortia\" and it turned out so to be. It was a coincidence that in the evening mail the following letter arrived from Dr. Gray: September 17, 1886 My dear Sargent: Would I were with you. I can only say crown yourself with glory by discovering a habitat-the original habitat of Shortia which we will believe Michaux found near where Magnolia cordata came from m that first expedition. Yours, Asa ever, Gray 11 Dr. Sargent could not recall where he had found the Shortia leaf. He and his party had travelled all day over rough mountain country searching for Magnolia cordata. So the two Boynton brothers were sent back to locate the growing plants from which the leaf had been plucked. Frank Boynton remembered that Dr. Sargent and he had Unfortunately passed through Bear Camp, a small settlement on Bear Camp Creek, a little stream flowing into the Horse Pasture River, which in turn the Keowee. Here they found Shortia and gathered a small amount, and it was one of these living plants which Dr. Sargent hands as coming from the placed in Dr. Michaux land, \"the headwaters of the Keowee;' for it was at this place that Michaux first enters Gray's found it on December 8, 1788.... As has been stated, up to the time of the rediscovery of Shortia Dr. Gray had received fifty honorary degrees and memberships in learned societies. Twenty-one more were to come to him before his death, which occurred January 30, 1888. He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Mass., where a simple stone bearing a cross marks his last resting place. It may not be too late to suggest that, with the soil properly prepared, there might be planted on his grave an ever green and ever beautiful blanket of the little flower which he so loved and which he pronounced \"perhaps the most interesting plant in North America.\" 12 A drawmg of the type tree tration, provided through the courtesy of Dr. H H Hu, of Metasequoia glyptostroboides growing at Modaoqi village. This illusis from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia, Another 'Living Fossil'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25042","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270816b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"Metasequoia, Another \"Living Fossil\" E. D. Merrill modern-day equivalent of the Shortia story, we have the case of the dawn redwood. The tale of its discovery is here told by Elmer D. Merrill, For a who director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1935 to 1946. He will always be remembered for arranging the first introduction and distribution of dawn redwood seeds from the wilds of Hubei Province, China. was Ginkgo biloba, a monotypic genus of very ancient lineage, in fact from the standpoint of geologic history, outside of the Cycadaceae, the most ancient of living trees, is often spoken of as a \"living fossil.\" The sole species, once of very wide geographic distribution in the North Temperate Zone, can scarcely be distinguished from fossil forms of ancient Mesozoic times. This is a beautiful example of the persistence of selected life forms, in highly organized groups, through many millions of years. Ginkgo has persisted in cultivation in China, but there are a few places in that country where it is spontaneous in limited forested areas. Whether or not it is truly native in such places, or merely occurs as a descendant from planted trees, is not definitely known. It was introduced into Japan about AD 700, into Europe about 1730, and into the United States in 1784. Now another striking case develops, not quite as old geologically as is the Ginkgo, through a remarkable discovery originally made by Mr. T. Wang in 1945. Metasequoia, previously known only from paleobotanical records, is now shown to exist in the form of a single living species in a very limited area, and it, or its immediate ancestry, goes back to Mesozoic times.... Volume 8(1): 1-8, 1948. Wang's fragmentary specimens of 1945 supplemented by additional material collected in the following year, originally three large trees representing this strange conifer having been located in northeastern Szechuan, very close to the Hupeh border. With the additional collections made in 1946, the discovery then developed into one of extraordinary interest in that the tree proved to be a living species of a genus, Metasequoia, which, up to that time, had been known only from paleobotanical records. Various species of North America and Asia originally ascribed to the genus Sequoia as fossil forms, proved not to belong in that genus, and in 1941 the new genus Metasequoia was proposed to accommodate these; and only four years after that genus was described, a living species was actually found in China. This, because of the ancient lineage of Metasequoia, and its former wide geographic distribution (various parts of North America, Japan, Saghalien, Manchuria), is a most extraordinary circumstance. The proposed paleobotanical species are Metasequoia heerii from North America, M. japonica and M. disticha from Japan, and M. chinensis from Manchuria and Saghalien. Assuming that all of these extinct species are actually congeneric, then, in former geologic times, Metasequoia was a genus of very wide Mr. were 14 _ One of the Metasequoia seedlings raised from the original batch of seeds collected by C. J. Hsueh in China in 1947 (AA #528-48). The young girl is pointing to where the growth of the tree started in spring 1951. The photograph was taken m September 1951. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. the sole surviving representative of a former widely distributed genus, was apparently not far from the verge of extinction as a living entity in its native habitat. As noted above, the first observer located only three trees. A second expedition was sent out by Professor Wan-Chun Cheng of the National Central University, Nanking, in 1946, and Mr. C. J. Hsueh, his assistant, who led this expedition, brought the census up to about 25 trees. When botanical specimens were received at the Arnold Arboretum in the latter part of 1946, I immediately became interested in the possibility of securing seeds of this extraordinary species, and accordingly communicated with Dr. H. H. Hu, Director of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology in Peiping, one of the joint authors concerned with the actual description of the species. Incidentally, Dr. H. H. Hu was trained at the Arnold Arboretum, receiving his Sc.D. degree from Harvard University in 1925. Dr. Hu responded favorably and accordingly a modest grant was made from the Arnold Arboretum restricted Chinese exploration fund provided by the late Harrison W Smith of Tahiti, himself a graduate of Harvard in 1895 and long interested in matters Chinese. On the basis of this grant Professor Cheng organized a third expedition to the type locality, this also led by his assistant Mr. Hsueh. He flew from geographic distribution, as was Ginkgo. The latter is represented by only a single living species and this apparently now persisting only because it was preserved in cultivation in China. And now this striking Metasequoia is found, confined to a relatively few individual trees scattered along small streams and on the slopes of northeastern Szechuan and the adjacent parts of Hupeh. It is sufficiently extraordinary, only four years after Metasequoia was actually described from the fossil records, that a livgenus should be found in but what is perhaps even more extraorChina; dinary is that when found, this living species, Nanking to Chungking on September 3, 1947, and arrived at Mou-tao-chi, 110 kilometers east of Wan-hsien, Szechuan, on September 11, where the type of the species was originally discovered. This is very close to the Hupeh border. He spent approximately three months prosecuting field work in this part of Szechuan and in adjacent parts of Hupeh. He reports somewhat more than one hundred large trees representing the species, occurring on slopes, along small streams, and near rice paddies (some of the trees planted) between the altitudes of 900 and 1300 meters scattered over an area of about 800 square kilometers. This is a region of considerable rainfall, with some ice and snow in the winter months. The center of its greatest abundance is in the Shui- ing species of the 15 a second and sit. Seeds were larger shipment is now in tranplanted in our propagating One of the original Metasequoia seedlings m all its glory at the Arnold Arboretum. Photographed in 1990 by Racz and Debreczy in Hupeh Province, where there least 1000 of the trees, including the small ones; but there are no groves or forests made up of the species. In other places, such as Houng-pin-ying and Mou-tao-chi, there are only a very few trees. It is of interest to note that the valley where most of the trees are now found takes its name from that of the tree, the tree itself known as shui-sa (shui fir or spruce), the place of its water, sa sa-pa valley are at = = being Shui-sa-pa. largest tree which was measured was 35 meters high, its trunk 2.3 meters in diameter. While 1947 was reported as not being a good seed year, an ample supply of seeds was secured during the time that Mr. greatest The occurrence Hsueh was in the field. These were delivered in Nanking early in December; the first small sending reached Boston January 5, 1948, and house early in January, and many of these germinated before the end of the month. Thus it is that in due time the Arnold Arboretum will have a certain number of living plants for distribution. Following long established Arnold Arboretum practice, packets of seeds have been widely distributed to institutions in the United States and Europe. It is, of course, not known whether this remarkable species will prove to be hardy under the rather difficult climatic conditions characteristic of the Boston area. With excellent germination records it is now certain that we shall be able to establish this ancient but now nearly extinct type in various parts of the United States and elsewhere, for somewhere, with us, favorable climatic conditions will be found-if not in the northeast, then in the south or on the west coast. The point is emphasized that in spite of the present unfavorable economic conditions, in spite of adversities in China rendering travel difficult, and in spite of unfavorable exchange conditions, this cooperative project did succeed; that as a result an ample supply of seeds is available; that the seeds are viable; and, this being the case, the Arnold Arboretum has made an important contribution, working through its Chinese associates, in thus being involved in an attempt to preserve a remarkable conifer, and a species that in its native habitat is apparently not far from the verge of extinction. Incidentally, Professor Cheng who, with Dr. Hu, cooperated with us, writes that without the modest grant made by the Arnold Arboretum, it would have been impossible for his representative to make the trip to Szechuan and Hupeh in 1947, and comments on the fact that trees are being rapidly destroyed by cutting in this region as well as in various other parts of China. He specifically mentioned Picea heterolepsis Rehder & Wilson, which was described in 1914 from collections made by E. H. Wilson for the Arnold Arboretum in western Szechuan in 1910, and a species now growing in our grounds. Not a 16 single tree can now be found in the type localhave the Chinese botanists been 2ble ity, to locate the species anywhere since 1932. The actual grant made by the Arnold Arboretum to finance this trip to Szechuan in 1947 was only $250 which, because of the extreme nor highlights regarding this remarkable discovand to call attention to the fact that via- 2014 ery, ble seeds of the species have been received, from which young plants are now being grown. It has been argued in some quarters that we inflation, actually yielded $9,750,000 some in idea of Chinese currency. This will give the current financial difficulties under which the Chinese botanists are carrying on their work. This new \"living fossil\" is a large tree, attaining a height of at least 115 feet, with a trunk diameter of at least 7.5 feet. One of its striking characteristics is that, like the various species of Larix (larch) and Pseudolarix (golden larch), and our Taxodium (swamp cypress), its leaves are deciduous, the trees being leafless in the winter months. In general appearance the leafy branchlets suggest those of the genus Glyptostrobus. It is needless to repeat here the technical characters of this remarkable species, as these will be available when the formal description is published. All I have attempted to do has been to give the approach the condition of diminishing returns in the botanical exploration of China, a field that has long been one in which the Arnold Arboretum has specialized. This statement is doubtless true to a certain degree, but from what has appeared in extensive collections made within the past three decades, I am still of the opinion that a vast amount of field work is still called for and is still justified. This remarkable Metasequoia find bears out this belief. In spite of all that has been published on the enormously rich flora of China in the past century, and particularly within the past four or five decades, there are vast areas still remaining to be explored, and the already known flora will be very greatly increased, as to the number of actually known species, when the more recently assembled collections are studied in detail. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25046","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24ea326.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Chi-ju, Cheng Hseuh","article_content":"Collecting the Type Specimens Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hsueh It was Reminiscences of of Chi-ju by complete chance that Dr. Peter Ashton, then Director of the Arboretum, happened to meet Professor Hsueh in Kunming, China, in 1984. The following article, which is an outgrowth of that meeting, is unusual on several accounts. In the first place, American audiences seldom get to hear about Chinese plants from Chinese botanists. And second, it puts Professor Hsueh's early work with Metasequoia in a very personal light. years ago, I happened to see the speciof Metasequoia glyptostroboides that Mr. Wang Zhang had collected at Modaoqi Forty men (which means, literally, knife-grinding) village in Wanxian county, China. The next year, following the route Mr. Wang had taken, I made to collect perfect specimens conduct further investigations. Although I am old now, the two trips are still fresh in my memory. I graduated from the Forestry Department of the former National Central University at Zhongjing (Chungking) in 1945 and then worked on the gymnosperms, studying for a master's degree under the guidance of Profes- two trips there to and sor Cheng Wanjun. One day in 1945, Wang Zhang, who worked at the Central Forestry Experimental Institution, sent a cone-bearing specimen collected at Modaoqi to Professor Cheng for identification. Its vernacular name was shui-shan (water fir), and it was somewhat similar to Glyptostrobus pensilis (G. lineatus). After making a preliminary identification, Professor Cheng considered that it might belong to a new taxon of the since the opposite arrangeof the leaves and cone scales differed from that of G. pensilis and other members of the Taxodiaceae. Since the specimen Mr. Wang collected had no male inflorescences and since the cones had been picked up from the ground, we didn't know how the cones grew on the branches. In addition, we had no information on whether it was deciduous or evergreen, on its flowering season, or on its ecological characteristics and distribution. Further research being necessary, Professor Cheng naturally advised me to collect some perfect specimens and to make an investigation. Since we had no funds and everybody was quite hard up, I could only go to the place on my own, carrying a few pieces of simple baggage and specimen-clips. I left Chungking city by steamboat and, after two days, arrived at Wanxian county, on the northern bank of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River. After crossing the river, I had to walk 120 kilometers [72 miles] to my destination. In 1946 I made two trips from Chungking to Modaoqi, in February and May, respectively, both times single- Gymnospermae, ment Volume 45(4): 10-18, 1985. handedly. 18 sent to Professor Hsueh Chi-ju, who collected not only the type specimens of Metasequoia, but also the seeds that were the Arnold Arboretum for distribution worldwide. Photographed in 1984 by P S. Ashton. 19 The First Trip to Modaoqi I remember that on my first trip the boat was moored in Fengdu county for the first night. On a hill behind the county town was a temple regarded in the Old China as an inferno where the \"Lord of Hell\" reigned. Dead souls were supposed to go there to register. So I made use of this rare opportunity to take a solitary night walk in this weird and dreadful place-evidence that I was full of vigor and in my youth. At that time there was no highway from Wanxian county to Modaoqi village. My trip was very difficult, the trails threading through the mountains being less than one foot wide. The region was inhabited by the Tu minority They dared not go any farther and returned to morning. As for me, I was that colossal tree and collectfinding ing more specimens, so I resolutely continued my trip along the route marked out by Mr. Wang, without any fear or hesitation. Finally, at dusk on the third day, I reached my destination safely. I set out immediately to search for that colossal tree despite hunger, thirst, and fatigue, and without considering where I would take my lodging. It was February 19th, and cold. The tree was located at the edge of the southern end of a small street. In the twilight nothing was discernible except the withered and yellowed appearance of the whole tree. My excitement cooled. \"Am I to bring back just some dried branches?\" I asked myself. The tree was gigantic; no one could have climbed it. As I had no specific tools, I could only throw stones at it. When the branches fell from the tree, I found, to my great surprise, that there were many yellow male cones and some female cones on the leafless branches. I jumped with joy and excitement. The weather being cold, many plants were not yet in flower. Since I was short of money, I returned to Chungking city three days later. bent on Wanxian the next curiosity and had been isolated from the outside world for ages. During the war of resistance against Japan, the Hubei provincial government moved to Enshi county in its neighborhood; thenceforward its intercourse with the outside world had somewhat increased. Since this region was located on the border between Sichuan and Hubei provinces, an area characterized by difficult and hazardous roads, murder and robbery occurred frequently. It was regarded as a forbidding place and was seldom visited by travellers. On my trip, I set out from Wanxian and stayed at Changtanjing for the night. My fellow travellers were several peddlers. While we chatted around a fire at night, the innkeeper came to give us a warning: \"If you go any farther you will travel along a narrow valley cut by the Modaoqi River. Travel will become more dangerous and threatened with robbery, which often occurs at dangerous turns of the river. Travellers from both directions are robbed by being jammed together, or 'rounded up.' Therefore, if you see no travellers coming your way for a long time, it is very likely that a robbery has occurred ahead, and you had better take care. Only a few days ago we witnessed such an incident in this vicinity.\" The innkeeper then gave a vivid and horrible description of a murder. The poor peddlers, my fellow travellers, were very frightened. The Second Trip to Modaoqi The second trip was in May of the same year, its purpose being to collect the cone-bearing specimens in addition to ascertaining the natural distribution of Metasequoia and the flora of the region. On my way to Modaoqi, about half a day's walk from my destination, I came across a peasant carrying a bundle of fagot mixed with some Podocarpus nagi. The wood was said to have been cut from a nearby mountain. I took two twigs and pressed them as specimens. This indicated that P. nagi, another primeval gymnosperm, occurred in the vicinity. This time I took measurements of the Metasequoia tree. It was 37 meters (about and still grew 122 feet) high and 7 meters (about 23 feet) in girth, vigorously. 20 Two things impressed me deeply. came across One was One of the many herbarium specimens of Metasequoia that Professor Hsueh collected during his first trip to Modaoqi. This specimen is in the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by D. E. Boufford. quoia, none To ascertain the distribution of MetaseI interviewed many local people, but of them knew. The innkeeper did tell me that a whole stretch of shui-shan trees might be found at Xiahoe, in Lichuan county, Hubei province, about 50 kilometers (30 miles) away. As I had almost exhausted my travelling allowance, and as communication was extremely inconvenient, I had to give up my attempt to extend my trip to that place. Nevertheless, the innkeeper had provided an important clue for a more thoroughgoing exploration later. All I could do was-taking the original spot as a center-to make a reconnaissance within the area I could cover in one day. In a few days I had collected more than one hundred specimens. whole stretches of Geastrum sp. (an earthstar fungus) mixed with small stones of a similar shape, forming a peculiar landscape. The other thing that impressed me was an incident. Not even by the day before my departure had I given up on the possibility of making a reconnaissance. At four in the afternoon of the last day, I met a traveller coming from the southeast and asked him where the shui-shan tree could be found. He told me that it could be got near a small village about 5 kilometers (3 miles) from where we were. Upon hearing this I almost broke into a run, intending to return to the inn before dark so that I might leave for Wanxian the next day. After trotting for a while, I met another peasant and asked him how far it was to the village. (I can't be sure now, but it may have been Nanpin village in Lichuan county.) \"Five kilometers\" he replied. Mountain people sometimes differ considerably in their gauge of distance. I was wavering as to whether to go or not. If I should go, it was certain that I could not have returned to the inn before dark and that the innkeeper would worry. Then, too, I had already hired a man to carry the specimens for me; we had agreed on the next morning as the time for departure. I could not break my word! But finally I made up my mind to make another reconnaissance for shui-shan. It was getting dark when I arrived at the small village. The villagers in their isolation seldom met outsiders, especially \"intellectuals\" such as I was. My arrival aroused their curiosity. They surrounded me, making all sorts of inquiries. But I was anxious to see the Metasequoia trees. When I was told that there were no such trees, I was very disappointed. However, I did not give up hope, and asked the villagers to accompany me to make one last reconnaissance. There was, indeed, no Metasequoia. I did collect some specimens of Tsuga chinensis, however. I intended to return to the inn in spite of the dark night. However, the friendly villagers had already made arrangements for my food that I 21 and lodging, and had warned me repeatedly of the frequent robberies on the way, insisting on my leaving the next day, escorted by some local people. Yet I could hardly fall asleep, thinking that I could not cause them so much trouble or break my word to the hired carrier. And then I thought that in the depth of the night there would be no \"bandits,\" since there would be no travellers to rob. So at two in the morning I awoke my roommates, explaining to them the reason for my prompt departure, and left the villagers a letter of acknowledgment. Since the door was locked, I could only jump over the wall so as not to disturb others. In the moonlight I passed through stretches of dark pines, returning to the inn before dawn. That very day I left for Wanxian. As the local people looked upon the Metaseas a sort of divine tree, they built a shrine beside it. Among the villagers there were quite a few traditions about the Metasequoia. As a result, the villagers considered its fruit-bearing condition to be an indication of the yield of crops, and the withering of its twigs or branches a forecast of someone's death. It was also rumored that, some time after the founding of the Kuomin Tang govern- quoia foreign missionaries who were passing through the village were willing to buy the tree for a big sum of money. The villagers refused to sell, however, because of the geomantic nature of the place. Thus, it was ment, some Geomancy Spared the Type Tree Modaoqi was a very small village, to the southeast of which stood the Chiyue Mountains. Its altitude was 1744 meters [about 5755 feet]. At the time it was in Wanxian county, Sichuan province. It was so called because of its situation at the source of the river. As modao in Chinese means \"knife-grinding\" and suggests sinisterness, the name was changed to Moudao, which means \"truthseeking\" in Chinese. At present it is under the jurisdiction of Lichuan county. because of feudalistic superstition that the tree had survived. Its age is estimated at four hundred years. With the advent of well-regulated highway communication, the poor village of the former days changed its aspect long ago. The Metasequoia tree, which had survived the ravages of time and is reputed to be a \"living fossil,\" has not only persisted, but is being disseminated. Now Metasequoia trees are \"settled\" in many countries of the world. It is only natural that people, when admiring this species of primeval tree, should wonder about its original habitat and should wish to know how it was discovered. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America","article_sequence":5,"start_page":23,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25044","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add2708928.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Rehder, Alfred","article_content":"On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America Al fred Rehder This is one of the very few popular articles that Alfred Rehder ever wrote. While initially written in English in the early 1930s, it was never published because American horticultural magazines considered it too technical. Faced with this rebuff, Rehder published the article in Germany in 1932. In 1936, the Arboretum librarian, Miss Ethelyn M. Tucker, translated the article back into English for publication in the National Horticultural Magazine. While our knowledge of the history of the introduction of plants has increased considerably since Rehder's time, this work is still of value because it provides a firm foundation for future studies. The introduction of North American woody plants into Europe has been treated frequently, while of the introduction of woody plants from other countries into North America almost nothing has as yet been written. It will, therefore, be appropriate to give here a brief sketch as to when and how foreign and also western American woody plants reached the gardens of eastern North America, as well as to mention the earliest and the most important gardens and arboreta. The history of the introduction of ligneous plants into North America may be divided into three periods, the first of which embraces the time from the arrival of the first European settlers up to the middle of the 18th century. This period is characterized by the fact that the introduction of European woody plants is restricted chiefly to fruit trees and other useful plants with the addition of but a few ornamental shrubs. This is not to be wondered Volume at since pioneers in a strange land have a hard 6(4, 5): 13-23, 1946. existence and are forced to seek first to assure for themselves the necessities of life, and only with increasing wealth and security of possessions do they find leisure to think of beautifying their surroundings. The first fruit tree introduced into the New World was the peach, which as early as the 16th century was brought into Florida by the Spaniards; from there it spread west and north and was planted by the white settlers as well as by the Indians. The introduction of woody plants in the North began in the first half of the 17th century. The first account of this we find in Josselyn (New England Rarities Discovered, published in 1672; and Account of Two Voyages to New England in 1638 and 1663, published in 1674) where he mentions the apple, pear, quince, cherry, plum, and barberry as thriving in New England; he mentions also Salvia of ficinalis and remarks that Artemisia abrotanum, rosemary, and lavender were not suited to the climate of New struggle for 24 England, which shows that their introduction was attemnted, but was successful only in the Of ornamental shrubs he mentions only the rose. We can, however, be almost certain that some other ornamental shrubs, such as the lilac, snowball (Viburnum opulus f. roseum) and box had already in the second half of the 17th century been found here and there, as in the garden of Van Cortlandt in Croton on Hudson established shortly after 1681, and in that of Peter Stuyvesant in New Amsterdam (New York) which was established somewhat earlier; but as to what other plants these gardens may have contained we have no knowledge. The sources of information concerning the garden plants of this period are very few and unreliable ; it is, however, to be assumed that some native ligneous plants also were cultivated, especially shade trees such as sugar maple, elm (Ulmus americana), red oak, and farther south Catalpa. Here, too, it may be mentioned that in the year 1645 Endicott, Governor of Massachusetts, introduced Genista tinctoria as a dye plant, which soon escaped from cultivation and is now thoroughly naturalized in eastern Massachusetts. The second period is characterized by the introduction of an ever-increasing number of ornamental trees and shrubs, exclusively, however, from European gardens, and may be considered as extending from the middle of the 18th to the middle of the 19th century. In this period two men are outstanding figures, southern states. garden stand today, preserved in their original form. The second man is Robert Prince. who in the year 1730 founded a nursery in Flushing, Long Island, which has been managed continuously through five generations of the same family. Although in the beginning intended only for the raising of fruit trees, the management gradually broadened to include ornamental trees and shrubs, and since 1793 the nursery has been continued under the name Linnean Botanic Garden. From the catalogues which were issued it is evident what foreign trees and shrubs were in commerce at that time; from the catalogue of 1790 the following plants may be mentioned, though only the English names are given: Cotinus coggygria, Koelreuteria paniculata, Colutea arborescens, Laburnum anagyroides, Populus nigra var. italica, Viburnum opulus f. sterile, Hibiscus syriacus. In the earlier Prince estate still stand the oldest specimens in America of the cedar of Lebanon and Atlas cedar, Paulownia, the copper beech, Asiatic magnolias, and others. Toward the middle of the 18th century, pioneers in garden-craft. One is John Bartram, botanic garden at Kinsessing Philadelphia, where he and cultivated American trees and planted shrubs, which he had collected in his travels extending from Lake Ontario to Florida. He was in active communication with England and introduced many American plants there; in exchange he received plants from European gardens and propagated them in America. Among these may be mentioned the horse chestnut, which probably came to America in the year 1746. His work was continued by his sons, John and William. Bartram's house and a near who in 1728 established wealthy landowners, especially in Pennsylvania and Virginia, began to lay out large gardens in which among other things one finds box, lilac, Taxus baccata, and Salix babylonica. Washington's garden at Mount Vernon, begun about 1760, was one of the most important and contained many American and foreign trees and shrubs. One other very rich garden was laid out some years later by William Hamilton on his estate, \"The Woodlands,\" near Philadelphia. This estate was later converted Cemetery planted by Hamilton still stand, among them the first Ginkgo in America which was planted in 1784. Humphry Marshall, inspired by his cousin, John Bartram, began in 1773 the foundation of an arboretum in Bradford, now Marshallton, in Pennsylvania. In 1785 he published his \"Arbustrum Americanum'the first work written by an American on American trees and shrubs. Many of the trees which Marshall planted stand today. The first actual into a cemetery, \"Woodlands ;' in which today many of the trees 25 A view of the Elgin Botanic Garden in New York City, established by Dr. David Hosack in 1801. Tbday Rockefeller Center in midtown Manhattan occupies the site on which the Garden once stood. From the Archives of the Gray Herbanum. botanic 1801 garden in America was founded in David Hosack in New York under the by name \"Elgin Botanic Garden.\" In the year 1810 it was taken over by the state of New York and later transferred to Columbia University, but was finally discontinued for want of funds. The second edition of the catalogue of this garden in 1811 contained many European and a number of Asiatic trees and shrubs, among which are Gleditsia sinensis, Malus spectabilis, Rosa multiflora, Magnolia liliflora, Hydrangea macrophylla (H. opuloides), Sophora japonica, and Aucuba japonica, the last two grown as greenhouse plants. A second botanic garden was established at the beginning of the 19th century in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and still exists at the Botanic Garden at Harvard University. In the year 1818 a catalogue of the garden by W D. Peck was issued listing the following Asiatic trees and shrubs not mentioned in the catalogue of the Elgin Botanic Garden: Vitex negundo var. incisa, Eriobotrya japonica, and Thuia orientalis. Other eastern Asiatic trees and shrubs listed in Prince's catalogue for 1828 are Ulmus parvi folia and Wisteria sinensis. In the year 1806 an expedition under command of Lewis and Clark, sent to the west coast by the United States government, brought back to the East the first western American plants, which were distributed by Macmahon and Philip Landreth, two gardeners in Philadelphia ; by far the most important woody plants so brought were Mahonia aquifolium, Ribes aureum, and Ribes sanguineum. At the beginning of the 19th century, a greatly increased interest in gardening and plant culture, and especially in the cultivation of trees and shrubs, was evidenced through the collection of ligneous plants begun in 1800 by the brothers Samuel and Joshua Pierce in Longwood, Pennsylvania, and through more than 26 50 years carried on by the family. The garden I which still contains many of the trees planted the Pierce brothers is now the property of by Pierre S. du Pont [today it is part of Longwood Gardens]. Another well-known collection is the Painter Arboretum, near Lima, in Pennsylvania, founded in 1825 by the brothers Minshall and Jacob Painter, who extended and maintained the arboretum up to the time of their death in the 1870s. The garden exists today and contains, among other plants, the oldest specimen of Sequoiadendron gigantea in eastern North America. In the year 1828, John Evans founded a conifers which he was able to from here was distributed Pinus ponderosa f. pendula. Another pinetum was established by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, of Wellesley, Mass., in the year 1852, and is still maintained by the family. No garden in the eastern United States can boast a better collection of fine large specimens of various conifers. Here also mention should be made of some famous nurseries such as that of Ellwanger and Barry in Rochester, New York, established in 1840; the nursery of Samuel B. Parsons and his brother Robert established at the same time in Flushing, Long Island; and later that of Thomas Meehan, in Germantown, near Philadelphia, in 1853. All these firms carried a large number of trees and shrubs and thereby made many of the plant treasures of European gardens available to American garden lovers. A third period may be marked from the year 1861 in which the first Japanese plants were sent to America, and thereby direct communication with Japan and later also with China raise all the garden on the Ithan Creek near Philadelphia and brought together a remarkable collection of trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants. He corresponded with both Hookers, father and son, and exchanged seeds, and also received seeds of Himalayan plants which Joseph Hooker had collected. In the year 1841, Henry Winthrop Sargent bought the estate Wodenethe above Fishkill Landing in the state of New York and planted and attempted to obtain; initiated, countries which were destined enrich American and European gardens through a large number of beautiful and valuable trees and shrubs. Up to this time America had received eastern Asiatic woody plants entirely by way of Europe, with the possible exception of a few important trees and shrubs such as Rosa laevigata Michx., which had previously come direct to America and by the end of the 18th century was already growing wild in the southern states. How it may have come there remains unknown. In the year 1861, Dr. George R. Hall, who spent nearly fifteen years in China and had also visited Japan, sent a number of plants from Japan to America; in the following year he brought still more Japanese plants, some of which he sent to Parsons' Nursery in Flushing, some to Francis Parkman in Boston, and some he planted on his own estate in Bristol, Rhode Island, where many of them are growing today. Among the plants which he introduced may be mentioned some then not even known in Europe, as his Mains Halliana, Magnolia stellata and M. kobus, Hydrangea paniculata f. grandiflora, Hypericum patulum, Taxus cuspidata f. nana, Sciadopitys verticillata, Phellodendron lavallei, Euonymus patens, and Lilium auratum. Other Japanese plants were introduced by Thomas Hogg, the American consul in Japan in the years 1865 and 1873, and propagated in Parsons' nursery; among these Cercidiphyllum japonicum, was to Hydrangea petiolaris, Symplocos paniculata, Magnolia parviflora, and M. obovata (M. hypoleuca) deserve special mention. In the year 1872, the Arnold Arboretum was founded as a department of Harvard University with Professor C. S. Sargent as Director, institution whose purpose was to grow all the woody plants which would be hardy in the climate of Boston. All plants already cultivated in European and American gardens were collected and planted. As to those not yet found in cultivation, the director made it his aim to introduce from eastern Asia the rich ligneous flora up to that time only slightly known in western gardens. The first shipment an 27 of seeds from eastern Asia was sent to the Arnold Arboretum in the 1880s by Dr. F. Bretschneider, who was physician to the Russian embassy in Peking. It consisted chiefly of trees and shrubs from the mountains west of Peking, among which may be mentioned Syringa pubescens and S. villosa, Sorbus pohuashanensis and S. discolor (S. pekinensis), Deutzia parviflora, Rhododendron dauircum var. mucronulatum, Pyrus bretschneideri, P. betulifolia, and P. found some previously collected by him for Veitch: Abies fargesii, Actinidia chinensis, Aesculus wilsonii, Berberis sargentiana, and B. triacanthophora, Cercis racemosa, Corylopsis veitchiana, Cotoneaster divaricata, and C. hupehensis, Dipteronia sinensis, Fagus lucida, Hydrangea sargentiana, Ilex are pernyi, Tasminum mesnyi (f. primulinum), Kolkwitzia amabilis, Malus hupehensis, phaeocarpa. From Japan the Arboretum received in Populus lasiocarpa, Picea asperata, Rosa moyesii, Salix magnifica, Sargentodoxa cuneata, Sinowilsonia henryi, Sorbaria arborea, Spiraea veitchii, Styrax wilsonii, Syringa reflexa, Viburnum rhytidiphyllum. Also a part of the seeds of woody plants collected in eastern China by C. Schneider for the Austrian Dendrological Society in 1914 came to America owing to the interruption of communication with Europe by the World War. In the year 1914, Wilson went again to eastern Asia and this time to Korea and Japan. Of the Korean ligneous plants which he introduced, those deserving special mention are Forsythia ovata, Pentactina rupicola, Stewartia koreana, Buxus microphylla var. 1890, through Dr. William S. Bigelow, seeds of Prunus sargentii. Two years later, the director, Professor Sargent, visited Japan and brought back seeds of many trees and shrubs chief among which were Rhododendron obtusum var. Kaempferi, one of the most valuable introductions of the Arboretum, Malus sargentii, Acer capillipes, and Sorbus alnifolia. In the year 1905, J. G. Jack made a trip to eastern Asia and brought back, among other plants from Korea, Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhanense, Tripterygium regelii, and Evodia daniellii, and from northern China Quercus aliena and Salix matsudana. A year earlier the Japanese botanist Uchiyama had sent seeds of Korean woody plants to the Arnold Arboretum, among them Abies holophylla and Neillia Uekii. In the years 1907 and 1908, E. H. Wilson, who had formerly collected very successfully in China for the English nursery firm of Veitch, traveled for the Arnold Arboretum. Two years later he undertook a second journey to China, chiefly to western China, to collect seeds of conifers which in 1908 had borne no cones. During these three years Wilson sent more than 1,200 numbers of seeds to the Arnold Arboretum as well as a number of cuttings and young plants of Populus and Salix and some other woody plants. Many of the plants collected by him proved to be new not only to cultivation, but also to science. Wilson's new introductions and even those of horticultural merit are too numerous to mention here and only the following selection may be noted, among which koreana, Thuja koraiensis, and Syringa velutina ; of the Japanese ligneous plants may be named the numerous garden forms of Japanese cherries and the Kurume azaleas. From Formosa, which he visited in 1918, he introduced the only recently discovered Taiwania cryptomerioides, the tallest conifer of eastern Asia, a counterpart of the Sequoiadendron gigantea of California. In the years 1910 and 1911, William Purdom visited the northern provinces of China and sent back a large number of valuable seeds of ligneous plants, such as Malus transitoria, Prinsepia uniflora, Berberis circumserrata, and B. purdomii, Sorbus koehneana, Deutzia grandiflora, and D. hypoglauca, and Picea meyeri. The last collector for the Arnold Arboretum in eastern Asia was J. F. Rock, who in the years 1925 and 1926 collected in northwestern China, after he had previously traveled for the United States Department of Agriculture in southwest China, Burma, and Siam. Among the woody plants collected by him that were 28 The ongmal introduction of the spreadmg Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata 'Nana,' growing on the site of Dr. Hall's former estate in Bristol, Rhode Island. The specimen, planted m 1862, is now over 30 feet tall and 130 feet in circumference. Photo by P Del Tredici, 1987. new to cultivation may be mentioned the folBetula japonica var Rockii, Quercus lowing : funiperus tibetica, f. distans, j. glaucescens, laotungensis, Spiraea uratensis, Caragana brevifolia, and C. densa, Euonymus nanoides, and E. przewalskii, Rhododendron rufum, and R. capitatum. During the sixty years of existence, the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into American gardens some 2500 species and varieties besides the garden forms of Syringa, Rhododendron, Rosa, Diervilla, and others.... Also to the Department of Agriculture with its experiment gardens in different parts of the country, America is indebted for many new introductions of trees and shrubs through collectors sent to all parts of the world. One of the most successful of these collectors was Frank N. Meyer, who in the years 1907-1914 its traveled in central and eastern Asia, where by accident he lost his life in the Yangtze River. Among his new introductions may be mentioned funiperus squamata var. Meyeri, Syringa meyeri, Albizzia kalkora, Betula chinensis, Buxus microphylla var. sinica, Daphne giraldii, Wisteria villosa. The botanic gardens with arboreta connected, such as the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis founded by Henry Shaw as a private garden and opened to the public about 1860, the New York Botanical Garden founded in 1894, and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden established in 1910, have contributed but little to the introduction of foreign trees and shrubs. The same is true of other arboreta founded in more recent times, as the Knox Arboretum in Warren, Maine; the Sanford Arboretum in Knoxville, Tennessee; and the Morton Arboretum, 29 near Chicago. The last named is, next the Arnold Arboretum, the most important arboretum in the United States; in it are special plantations, largely of trees of value for forestry purposes, but it is also very rich in its collection of ornamental trees and shrubs. From the preceding statements it is evident that the introduction to American gardens of most of the trees and shrubs was not direct from their native country but through the medium of European gardens. Not until the second half of the present century did introductions begin to be made direct. Even many American plants, especially those from the Rocky Mountains and from the western states, came by way of Europe into eastern American gardens.... Of the woody plants introduced into North America from Europe and Asia, many have found conditions so favorable for their growth that they, especially in the eastern states, have to a large degree escaped from cultivation, and many are so well established that they actually form a part of the native flora. Among such woody plants that have become naturalized in many places may be mentioned the following : Picea abies (P excelsa), Salix fragilis, Populus alba, P nigra, Alnus glutinosa, Berberis vulgaris, B. thunbergii, Ribes sativum, Philadelphus coronarius, Sorbaria sorbifolia, Malus pumila, Sorbus aucuparia, Crataegus oxyacantha, Pyracantha coccinea, Rubus in Lisle, to caprifolium, L. japonica, L. tatarica, L. xylosteum, L. morrowii, and many others. Their number increases from year to year so that in time the flora of the wooded areas, at least in the more densely populated regions, takes on a mixed character. For the most part, however, the foreign trees and shrubs will probably never become so predominant as is the case with herbaceous plants on cultivated and uncultivated ground in proximity to settled communities. Here the native plants are often almost crowded out by the European aliens, and when a European who has a knowledge of plants comes to northeastern America he will scarcely be reminded by the surrounding vegetation, so long as he stays in and near the cities and does not go out into the country, that he is in another part of the world. In Europe this is far less the case; American plants have not become naturalized to such a degree as to change the character of the vegetation; in contrast to the European plants, the American plants appear to possess less vitality, which possibly may be explained by the fact that the European plants represent a geologically younger flora. The American plants belong in the main to the tertiary flora, while the European flora has developed and spread since the ice age. But the European and Asiatic flora will also change with time. As a consequence of the intercourse between the different countries ever becoming closer, one may expect that an increasing mixture of floras of each of the climatic zones will take place and that finally each climatic zone around the world will have more or less the same or similar vegetation, as this is already the case today to a higher degree in the tropics than in the temperate zone. laciniatus, Rosa canina, R. eglanteria (R. rubiginosa), Prunus persica, P avium, P cerasus, P. spinosa, Genista tinctoria, Cytisus scoparius, Ailanthus altissima (A. glandulosa), Euonymus europaea, Rhamnus cathartica, and mezereum, R. frangula, Daphne vulgare, Solanum dulcamara, Ligustrum Paulownia tomentosa, Lonicera "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise'","article_sequence":6,"start_page":31,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25038","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270b76f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise' Richard E. Weaver, Jr. In recent years, this , early spring-blooming shrub has become a sensation on the American gardening scene. In his article, Dr. Weaver, a former Arboretum taxonomist, presents the story of the development of this striking hybrid as only a \"parent\" can. gardens and arboreta, plants of closely related species are often grown in close proximity for display, educational, or research purposes. Hybridization between species results much more commonly in such situations than in the wild where the habitats of the same species may be separated by hundreds or even thousands of miles. Over the years many interesting and valuable ornamental plants have arisen in gardens through the unknowing intermediacy of the honey bee, making its daily rounds. Forsythia x intermedia, for instance, a hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima, was first observed to be growing in the Gottingen Botanic Garden in Germany around 1885. Since then, the hybrid has been recreated many times, and has given rise to most of our common garden forsythias. In the same way, a number of plants have arisen at the Arnold Arboretum, including among them one of the finest shrubs ever to In botanic appeared to be hybrids. The pollen parent (analogous to the father plant) was eventually determined to have been a closely adjacent plant of H. japonica, the Japanese witch hazel. Alfred Rehder in 1944 named the hybrid H. x originate on its grounds. In 1928, William Judd, the propagator at the time, collected seeds from a intermedia because its character was intermediate between its parents. Seven plants grew from the original hybrid seeds collected by William Judd in 1928. The colors of the flowers varied from reddish through copperyorange to yellow. Most bloomed rather sparsely, and the flowers on others were partially obscured by persistent withered leaves, an unfortunate trait inherited from their Chinese parent. But one was spectacularly different with its profuse, slightly fragrant, clear yellow flowers. Its merit was eventually recognized and it was given the clonal name 'Arnold Promise'. In general, witch hazels are large shrubs and small trees with a scattered distribution in eastern North America and eastern Asia. Four plant of the Chinese witch hazel (Hamamelis mollis). Its parent plant, illustrious in itself, had been grown from seeds collected by E. H. Wilson in China in 1905. The resulting seedlings turned out to be not H. mollis, but rather Volume 41(1): 30-33, 1981. species are usually recognized. Although they are rarely grown as ornamentals in this country, they are extremely valuable because of their unique blooming times. Our native common witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) blooms from early October through midDecember in good seasons. In some years the Ozark witch hazel (H. vernalis) overlaps slightly, but it normally commences to bloom in early January. The extremely fragrant 32 A close-up of the flowers of Arnold Promise.' Photo by Racz and Debreczy. delicate but they are unharmed by subfreezing temperatures. They merely coil up like a spring on unusually cold days and recoil with more temperate weather. Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise' is the very best of the early-blooming witch hazels, at least for New England gardeners. It is a far better plant than either of its parents, particularly blooms of the Chinese species follow closely near the end of January, and the Japanese species ends the season with its flowers in March. The bright but not spectacular, fragrant flowers of witch hazel would perhaps not be much appreciated if they appeared during the riot of May, but they are a treasure in the drab winter. Its four strap-shaped petals appear very 33 mollis flowering. The flowers of H. individually more attractive and they are extremely fragrant. But they are seldom profusely borne in our climate and they are often damaged by severe cold. The flowers of H. japonica are larger, but they are rather in regard to its are dull-colored. The flowers of 'Arnold Promise' are unusual among witch hazels in that the spidery petals spread more or less downward rather than outward. They are consistently borne in great profusion, even after the coldest of recent winters, appearing from midFebruary to early March depending on the season. The habit of the plant is also better than that of most witch hazels. The original plant, now 52 years old, is a shapely, broadly vaseshaped shrub with numerous, gently ascending stems. It is presently about twenty feet tall and almost as broad. The autumn foliage is the color typical of many of its genus-clear, bright yellow-and the withered leaves never persist into the winter. The ornamental merit of 'Arnold Promise' has only recently been recognized, and it is just beginning to be available in the nursery trade. The original plant is still tucked away in a comer of the Administration Building out of view from the passing public. However, its modest position, close at hand, keeps it always in mind of the staff of the Arboretum. They see in it, as Donald Wyman put it so well, \"an old friend, known for its performance, counted on because it has been there a long time, and not considered unusual for these reasons.\" But the 'Arnold Promise' is special. Its promise is the promise of spring. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Forsythia Story","article_sequence":7,"start_page":35,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25048","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24ea76f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"The Forsythia Story Donald Wyman v , During his years at the Arboretum, Donald Wyman was not only the horticulturist but also the first editor of Arnoldia, a post he held for twentynine years. Wyman did more to define and communicate the purpose of the Arboretum to the general public than any other staff member since the days of Sargent and Wilson. In this article one gets a taste both of his distinctive style and of the breadth of his knowledge. Forsythia suspensa sieboldii was the first forsythia introduced into Europe from the Orient, going to Holland in 1833. Unquestionably, it was popular. Here was a new plant with brilliant yellow blossoms each spring, always dependable. It was soon learned that in good soil it would have more blossoms than in poor soil, but even when the growing conditions were difficult, it would grow into an interesting, green-leaved bush which was not susceptible to serious inroads from insect or disease pests. As time went on, and more horticulturallyminded individuals visited the Orient, other species were introduced. Forsythia viridissima was brought from the Orient by Robert Fortune in 1844. It is of interest to note that other Korea is the homeland of Forsythia ovata (introduced to America by E. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum in 1918), as well as Forsythia viridissima koreana (introduced in 1917), and F. japonica saxatilis (introduced in 1924). Although most of these have probably been grown in Japan for centuries, F. japonica is the only species native to that country. None is native to North America. So the two introduced species growing in Europe by 1850 (suspensa and viridissima) can be considered to be the \"ancestors\" of the many cultivars we are growing today. Undoubtedly these two species were grown side by side in several places and, of course, eventually had the opportunity to hybridize. species have not contributed much to the beautiful cultivars we grow today. The European Forsythia of Albania is not outstanding and was not even \"discovered\" until 1897. Two years later it was introduced into England. China is the habitat of both Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima, as well as F. giraldiana, which was not introduced until 1914. Volume 21(5): 35-38, 1961. Then the great Spath Nurseries in Berlin, Germany, became interested in growing seedlings. The seeds were collected from plants which obviously had an opportunity to hybridize, and in 1885 the hybrid species Forsythia intermedia was described. Seedling selections were made by Spath in this group and several were introduced. These were more upright and vigorous in growth than the arching F suspensa, and several of the new hybrids produced larger and more profuse flowers. Also, some clones were selected because they 36 had lighter (or darker) yellow flowers than had been noted before. Because these plants grew rapidly and were easily propagated by cuttings, they were widely distributed, and some have been popular ever since. The parade of \"new\" varieties started in 1899 with the introduction of 'Vitellina' by the Spath Nurseries. It will be noted that this is not one of the best for ornamental purposes in modern gardens (Arnoldia 19: 11-14, 1959). This was quickly followed by the introduction of 'Densiflora' by Spath in 1899, long a popular plant. Now it is superseded by others. Two years later 'Decipiens' a poor-flowered clone of Forsythia suspensa, originated at Spath's, but it never proved popular. However, in 1906 this same nursery introduced Forsythia intermedia 'Spectabilis' which was extremely popular right from the start, and has been so to the present time. For a profuse display of deep golden yellow flowers, this is the one that any new cultivar has to beat when it comes to critical comparisons. Never before had any forsythia produced as many flowers or such deep-colored flowers as did this new hybrid selection. Another selection of F. suspensa named 'Pallida' appeared in Germany in 1906 and merited some attention at the time because the flowers were a much lighter color than those of the more popular 'Spectabilis'. During the ensuing years, these forsythia were, of course, being grown in the United States, and in the Arnold Arboretum an attempt was made to grow them all. There, about 1912, a new seedling was found and later named 'Primulina'. This was another cross between Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima and was appropriately named because of its pale yellow flowers. Many liked it, especially those who did not prefer the strikingly brazen yellow of 'Spectabilis'. In Mentor, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland, a gardener of some note by the name of M. H. Horvath had been experimenting with plants for several years, growing new seedlings, selecting some and discarding others. In his garden there was a plant of 'Primulina' which he watched carefully from year to year. In 1930 he noted that one branch consistently produced larger flowers than those on the rest of the bush, and they were certainly more densely arranged. Cuttings of this were taken, producing plants that were superior to 'Primulina' and about 1942 this was introduced to the trade by Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio, as 'Spring Glory', a plant that has been one of the most popular of all forsythias ever since. The forsythia story continued on the other side of the Atlantic, in a beautiful garden called Lynwood in northern Ireland, where the owner, Miss Adair, was growing, among other things, a plant of Forsythia 'Spectabilis'. Miss Adair noted that a branch of this plant had flowers that were more open and better distributed along the stem than were those of the rest of the plant. Cuttings were taken and grown by the Slieve Donard Nursery of Newcastle, Ireland, and named 'Lynwood' about 1935 in honor of the estate where it originated. Unfortunately, in the early years it was not properly described, and somehow or other, by 1949 when it had reached America, where to coin new supersalesmen are sometimes overly anxious plant names, the name was changed to 'Lynwood Gold'. The plants are the same. This cultivar is known all over England as 'Lynwood', and in America as 'Lynwood Gold'.It, too, is one of the most popular forsythias at the present time. Back in America, the New York Botanical Garden enters the story, for slightly before 1939 an extremely dwarf forsythia was found there. This was named Forsythia viridissima 'Bronxensis' by T. H. Everett in 1947. It was early to bloom, but difficult to propagate and grow properly, an unfortunate characteristic, since all forsythias are commonly considered easy to grow. At the same time, Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum became interested in the Forsythia clan and started treating some plants with colchicine and hybridizing others. Many seedlings were grown; a few have been named. 37 was named. This produces dense clusters of flowers, is upright and dense in habit, slightly darker in flower than 'Spectabilis' under some conditions, and now widely popular. During these years, several seedlings were sent out for trial by the Arboretum and one, which was a between'Arnold Giant' and an unknown forsythia, proved to be a tetraploid and was noted as being hardier in the Midwest. This was named 'Karl Sax' by Dr. J. L. Thomas of the Arnold Arboretum for Dr. Sax, who origicross Forsythia Debreczy. suspensa f. pallida. Photo by Racz and 'Arnold Giant' was produced by treating a seedling of Forsythia intermedia with colchicine. The resulting plant was a tetraploid, but it was unfortunate that it was ever named and released. Although vigorous, it proved too rigidly upright and was hard to propagate by cuttings. Two years later, in 1941, a very dwarf forsythia was produced as a cross between F. intermedia and F. japonica. This roots extremely easily, makes an excellent plant for banks, and is now widely available. It was named 'Arnold Dwarf. More crossing and experimenting on the part of Dr. Sax and his students and careful examination of earlier seedlings brought to light another seedling, a cross between'Arnold Giant' and Forsythia ovata. This was a triploid, first called 'Farrand' by Dr. Sax and later changed to 'Beatrix Farrand' at the request of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand, for whom it nated it. The Swiss nursery firm of Mertens and Nussbaumer named 'Mertensiana' in 1949, but it has not proved a very desirable ornamental. A variegated form of Forsythia viridissima originated in England some time before 1951, and a more ornamental cultivar of F. suspensa atrocaulis was selected and named 'Nyman's Variety' in 1954, in honor of the beautiful estate in the south of England where it originated. Undoubtedly yellow-leaved plants have appeared in the past, most of them suffering severely when exposed to full sunlight, but the one which has been named F. intermedia Aurea' (1958) was found in a garden near the Beardslee Nurseries of Perry, Ohio. And so it is seen how two species introduced into Europe from the Orient before 1850 started a colorful procession of cultivars. Many individuals, in widely separated places, have been responsible for the selections. Others yet unknown may have tried crosses without striking results. Certain it is, however, that although several species have been introduced from the Orient since 1900, it is chiefly Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima from China which have been largely responsible for the best of the forsythias grown today. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Buckleya- The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":38,"end_page":42,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25036","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270b326.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Buckleya-The Oldest Cultivated in the Arnold Arboretum Richard A. Howard Plant While not a particularly important plant from either an economic or a horticultural point of view, Buckleya distichophylla, or the piratebush as it is now called, is nonetheless a semi-parasitic plant of some mystery that intrigued both Asa Gray and Charles Sargent. In this article, Dr. Howard, Director of the Arboretum from 1954 to 1978, manages to blend history, botany, and horticulture into a classic plant portrait. Although the Arnold Arboretum was legally established in 1872, the first plantings on the grounds did not occur for several years. It is of interest, therefore, that a plant collected in Tennessee by Asa Gray in 1843 was transplanted to Hemlock Hill in Jamaica Plain in 1946 and so represents the oldest documented cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum. The plant was found again in the spring of 1843 by Samuel Bradford Buckley, a naturalist Strangely, it is a semi-parasitic plant with an unusual history. It is not common in cultivation, has no well-known common name, and is to be recommended only for its oddity. Buckleya distichophylla (Nutt.) Torrey was seen by Thomas Nuttall in his travels along the French Broad River in East Tennessee in 1816. Nuttall, an English-American botanist and ornithologist, was to become the first director of the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge, Mass., in 1822, preceding the more famous Asa Gray. His discovery was described by him as Borya distichophylla in his book The Genera of North American Plants in 1818. Unfortunately, he assigned it incorrectly to a genus in the Oleaceae, the olive family. Volume 37(3): 151-155, 1977. and plant collector for Professor John Torrey of Columbia College. Torrey then correctly assessed the plant to represent a new genus of the sandalwood family, Santalaceae, and named it Buckleya in honor of Mr. Buckley. Torrey recognized that the proper specific name was that published earlier by Nuttall, and made the transfer and new combination. Professors Torrey and Gray had published A Flora of North America, containing short descriptions of all the known indigenous and naturalized plants growing north of Mexico, and were continuing a program of collecting unusual plants. Thus Gray sought out Buckleya in the fall of 1843 and returned with herbarium specimens and plants and fruits of the rare Buckleya for cultivation at the Harvard Botanic Garden, then under his direction. The introduction to cultivation of a living partially parasitic plant is unusual, yet it was successful. Herbarium specimens from this plant labelled \"Hort. Cantab.\" or \"Botanic Garden of Harvard University\" are dated 1852, 1879, 1926, and 1930; the last two, by John George Jack for the Arnold Arboretum herbarium. 39 Archives Buckleya distichophylla. Drawing by C. of the Arnold Arboretum. Charles Sargent was E. Faxon, first published in Garden and Forest 3, p. 237, 1890. From the the director of the Botanic Garden of Harvard University in Cambridge from 1873 until 1879, and there Paint Rock and sent back several hundred seeds packed in damp soil as well as a num- he prepared plans and plants for the develop- of the Arnold Arboretum property in Jamaica Plain. One can assume that Sargent noted the lack of fertile fruits on the Buckleya in the botanical garden and attempted vegetative propagation. When this was unsuccessful, he sought additional plants from the wild, and in 1888 he and W M. Canby made a trip across the Smoky Mountains of Tennessee, including a \"detour to the French Broad for the purpose of looking up Buckleya,He reported that he found plants in ripe fruit at ment ber of small seedlings. All arrived at the Arboretum in good order, and the seeds germinated \"at once.\" These accessions were recorded in the numbered inventory of the Arnold Arboretum as \"#3255,\" a plant collected by Sargent at Paint Rock, Tenn., Oct. 1888, and \"3255-1 seeds\" from the same area. Herbarium vouchers of fruiting specimens support the collection data. We have no record of the length of time the plants or seedlings obtained by Sargent were maintained in the living collections, for the existing records show only the undated annotation \"dead or 40 disposed of,\" representing a period when nonornamental nlants were removed from the living collections. Sargent wrote of his search for this plant and of its introduction to cultivation in an article on \"New or Little Known Plants\" in Garden and Forest in 1890. A plate prepared by Charles Faxon was included and is reproduced here. Buckleya, as a native plant, was not included in any edition of A Manual of Botany as prepared by Asa Gray, although several of these editions included the state of Virginia, where the plant has been found. It was first mentioned in the eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany published by M. L. Fernald in 1950. Sargent mentioned the plant only briefly in a footnote in his Silva of North America. Buckleya is included in Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, but supporting specimens for this record are only those of the Botanic Garden of Harvard University. When the Botanic Garden in Cambridge abandoned in favor of university-sponsored housing at the end of World War II, the shrub introduced by Asa Gray in 1843 and cared for by Charles Sargent in 1873 was transplanted to the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum in 1946. It continues to thrive in a natural stand of Tsuga canadensis, the Canada hemlock. Buckleya is a genus of dioecious shrubs, the male and female flowers occurring on different plants. The specimen Asa Gray collected is a female plant. Buckleya is known to be a semi-parasitic plant, that is, during part of its was development it is dependent as a parasite on the attachment of its roots to those of other plants. The plant becomes a shrub, has green leaves, and does manufacture its own food. I have not been able to locate a 19th-century reference to this parasitism, but herbarium specimens from the Biltmore Herbarium, collected in 1897, were made deliberately to show the haustorial connection with Tsuga canadensis. Since the natural range of Buckleya distichophylla is also that of the Carolina hemlock, botanists speculate that Tsuga caroliniana might have been the original host plant. In the last decade, other botanists have _ reported an association of Buckleya with species of Pinus, and, in fact, as many as twentyfive different forbs, grasses, and ferns as well as broad-leafed trees. Even today it is not clear at what stages of growth or for how long or to what degree Buckleya must be dependent on a host plant. Sargent reported in 1890 the lack of success in attempts to propagate vegetatively the specimen of Buckleya in the Botanic Garden in Cambridge. Since that time the Arnold Arboretum has acquired several seed lots of Buckleya distichophylla from native locations and from other plants in cultivation in the United States, and one infertile seed lot from the Forest Botanic Garden, Charlottenlund, Denmark. Mr. Fordham, longtime plant propagator for the Arnold Arboretum, has conducted many experiments with this species. In spite of Sargent's early report that seeds germinate \"at once,\"Mr. Fordham has found that seeds failed to germinate when planted directly upon receipt. However, seeds given a cold treatment of 40 degrees for two or three months produced seedlings in over 50 percent of the cases. In 1962, a generous quantity of seeds and cuttings was received from Mr. Fred Lape from plants growing in the George Landis Arboretum in Esperance, New York. Mr. Lape wrote that the original plants in his collection came from seed collected by F. M. Crayton of Biltmore, North Carolina; they germinated well and are established in the Landis Arboretum as well as in an old woodlot. He reported that in one place \"there is a spread of it the size of a small room ;' and that the large plants fruit heavily each year. The cuttings received rooted poorly under mist propagation and developed roots only at the very base of the cutting. Other cuttings treated with Amchem 60-89 diluted to 5000 ppm produced better roots. The seeds developed and the seedlings appeared to flourish without a Tsuga or any other host plant present in the container. Thirty-five of the vigorous seedlings were planted on Hemlock 41 A young, vigorous Buckleya distichophylla seedlmg, raised from seed sent by the George Landis Arboretum in Esperance, New York, in 1978 (AA #166-78). It was planted m a pot with a Canada hemlock (seen on the left) in 1980, and planted outdoors in 1983. Photo by P. Del Tredici, 1986. 42 Hill in the Arboretum in 1963, but by the fall of 1Q64 all had died Other seedlings planted near a hemlock in the nursery area persist to preserving in process, is sold neat as a condiment, the present but have yet to flower and so are unsexed. Regrettably, these plants, even if staminate, are too far from the older pistillate plant for normal cross-pollination. The fruits of the American Buckleya distichophylla are drupes resembling a small olive in size and shape. When mature they are a yellow-green in color and they turn a tan or light brown color on drying. The fruits may possess four narrow lanceolate bracts at the summit which are shorter than the fruit. These often fall early but if they persist are certainly of no aid in dispersal. In 1846 the German botanical collectors Philip Siebold and Joseph Zuccarini described in their Flora of Japan a plant they called Quadriala lanceolata, literally referring in the name to the four large bracts found on the fruit. Friedrich Miquel, in 1870, recognized this plant to be of the same genus as Buckleya distichophylla of the United States and published the combination. Thus Buckleya was recognized as one of the many genera occurring in the southeastern United States and in Japan and China. Buckleya distichophylla is known today from Tennessee, Virginia, and North Carolina. Buckleya lanceolata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Miq. is known from Japan (Honshu) and China (Hona, Hupeh, Shensi, Szechwan) with a possible second Asiatic species, B. graebneriana Diels from Shensi in China. Two other species from Asia have been referred to B. lanceolata in herbarium annotations made by Rehder. In 1892 on a collecting trip to Japan, Charles Sargent found fruiting specimens of Buckleya lanceolata on the steep banks of the Kisogawa near Agematsu in Nagano prefecture of central Honshu in Japan. Upon his return Sargent wrote in Garden and Forest of the Japanese Buckleya: \"Indeed it is so common in some parts of the country that the fruit, which is gathered when about two-thirds grown, having been subjected to some pickling or wooden boxes Nikko _ packed small is the headquarters of the industry, and in late autumn the fruit of Buckleya is displayed in many of the shops which line the street leading through the straggling village up to the burial place of the founder of the dynasty of the Tokugawa Shoguns. To appreciate the flavor of Buckleya, the culture and refinement of the Japanese palate is essential.\" There is no record of the seeds Sargent described being grown at the Arnold Arboretum, but in 1905, John George Jack, Sargent's colleague, and obtained comherbarium specimens. It appears that both men might have attempted to introduce this species into cultivation. In 1964 the Arnold Arboretum received fruits of Buckleya lanceolata from the Kobe Municipal Arboretum in Kobe, Japan. After a cold treatment of 40 degrees for three months, several seeds germinated, but the seedlings could not be established. In 1902 the Japanese botanist, S. Kusano, in an article in the Journal of the returned to the same area parable fruiting College of Science of the Imperial University of Tbkyo, noted that no information had been published on the host plants of Buckleya or for the abundant local species. He described the haustorial connections with species of Cryptomeria, Abies, and Chamaecyparis as well as nine genera of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs. Although he did not locate naturally occurring parasitism with Pinus or Torreya, he was able to establish such relationships experimentally. Buckleya lacks a common name and never will be widely cultivated or useful as an ornamental plant. It is, however, a good example of a rare plant of limited distribution showing unusual phytogeographical relationships, representative of a small family, and worthy of a place in the educational collections of an arboretum. The oldest cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum also has a historical connection with several of America's distinguished botanists. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Allegheny Pachysandra","article_sequence":9,"start_page":43,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25047","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add24ea36b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Dirr, Michael A.; Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"The Allegheny Pachysandra John H. Alexander III Michael A. Dirr and While everyone knows the common pachysandra, used so often as a groundcover, few realize that it is native to Asia, and fewer still realize that it has a beautiful, horticulturally neglected American cousin. Mike Dirr was spending a sabbatical leave from the University of Georgia at the Arnold Arboretum when he wrote this article with Jack Alexander, who is currently the Arboretum's plant propagator. Repetition seems to be the rule with groundused repeatedly, and few attempts have been made to educate the public or to offer alternative selections. Euonymus fortunei 'Colorata' Hedera helix, Pachysandra terminalis, and Vinca minor are the dominant offerings and comprise probably 50 percent of the total groundcovers used in the East and Midwest. None of these is without problems and in recent years same taxa are covers, for the This fact has been lamented by other authorities, and the species suffers a fate common to other quality plants: entrapment in merce. the confines of an garden. are Two reasons arboretum or botanic for the lack of visibility the limited Japanese of propagation. Division, which is the traditional means of increase, is excessively slow cousin and the publicity compared to its purported difficulty Pachysandra terminalis, Japanese pachysandra, has been afflicted with Volutella pachysandrae, a fungal pathogen, that causes cankers and stem dieback. A severe infestacan devastate an established planting. Controls are available, but often by the time the homeowner recognizes that a problem exists, it is too late for effective treatment. The monoculture of trees should have taught tion us something; however, it appears the same type of mistake is with groundcovers. though being repeated as An American species, Pachysandra procumbens, Allegheny pachysandra, is one of the most handsome plants for groundcover use, yet is seldom seen in gardens or in com- for commercial purposes. The plant was discovered by Andre Michaux in the 1790s and was described in his now classic Flora Boreali-Americana. Its range was listed as the western Allegheny mountains; hence the derivation of the common name. In 1937, Braun noted that the species is found in Kentucky, Tennessee, northern Alabama, Mississippi, and northern Florida. The species also occurs in North and South Carolina. Wherry studied native stands of Allegheny pachysandra from Somerset, Kentucky, south to the Gulf of Mexico. He noted that the plant abounded on rocky slopes, being most at home in woods, but persisted even where trees had been cut and land pastured. The underlying rock was limestone and soil reaction was circumneutral (around pH 7). According to Wherry, most plants were Volume 39(1): 16-21, 1979. situated on slopes along streams. 44 The contrastmg foliage of Photos by M. Dm. Pachysandra procumbens (above) and P. terminahs (below). 45 The species is hardy far north of its range and is successfully cultured at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, as well as at Champaign-Urbana, Illinois, where temperatures may reach -20 to -25 degrees Fahrenheit. A planting has been maintained since 1962 at the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum where winter lows reach -30 The flowers are develop long spikes that emanate from the base of the stem. A single stem may have up to three spikes, but one is more common. The position of the flower provides another means of separating the two species, for on Japanese pachysandra the inflorescence is at the top of the stem in the middle of the pseudo-whorl of leaves. The flowers of P. procumbens are a purplish- or pinkish-white (stamens may be pink in color) and possess a pleasing fragrance. Wherry termed the odor rancid and musky, but based on personal observation this is not the case. The flowers are unisexual and apetalous with male and female on the same inflorescence. A few female flowers are confined to the base of the inflorescence while the conspicuous and abundant stamens occur at the top. Both species have naked (not hidden by bud scales) inflorescences, which are formed the summer and fall prior to flowering. Unfortunately if the Allegheny pachysandra is killed to the ground, the flowers will be lost. Even though they are basal, they elongate and partially rise above the foliage which is often flattened by winter weather. The early flowering date couples the species with Acer rubrum and together they could be considered \"harbingers of spring.\" Fruits are not showy and apparently seldom develop in cultivation. Examination of herbarium specimens of material collected from the wild showed that the fruit is a three-valved capsule that contains small lustrous, dark brown seeds. The fruit is not ornamental on either species, but perhaps controlled crosses might be made between the two, thus result- in March and especially attractive and April on 2- to 4-inch- degrees Fahrenheit; however, snow cover is usually constant and affords protection. The Arnold Arboretum has plantings that have not been disturbed since June, 1943. One measures 3 by 4.5 feet, and another, 3 by 7 feet. The former is on the east side of the Hunnewell Building while the latter is on the north side and hemmed in by the parking lot and building so it can spread in only two directions. There is no evidence of any disease or insect problems in the plantings. The species' extreme shade tolerance is evidenced by the excellent performance in these locations. Under landscape conditions, a moist, welldrained, organic, slightly acid soil would probably prove optimum. Any plant that increases by rhizomes or underground rootstocks benefits from a loose, friable soil because there is less physical impediment to the expanding structures. foliage ranges from a grayish- to bluish-green with a slight mottle and does not possess the luster of Japanese pachysandra. Summer The leaves assume a bronze color in the late fall and by winter's termination range from greenish-brown to brown. The foliage is not truly evergreen and may vary from deciduous to semi-evergreen. Leaf retention depends on siting and geographic location. The species forms a handsome carpet that varies from 6 to 10 inches in height. If the foliage deteriorates over winter, abundant new shoots will have developed to form a solid cover by May or June. The leaves are much wider than the Japanese species and display more prominent (coarser) serrations. Although alternate in arrangement, the leaves appear whorled because the nodes are so closely spaced. They range in size from 2 to 3.5 inches long and are almost as wide. ing in interesting hybrid progeny. The Cornell Plantations reported in 1978 that Allegheny pachysandra was unfamiliar to many visitors and stimulated more questions than any other plant in their groundcover collections. They further noted that the species was not evergreen in Ithaca, New York, but was perfectly hardy, and that twelve-year-old plantings showed no disease or dieback problems. 46 may have limited in the past, but this is offerings no longer a problem. Cuttings of vigorous semi-hardened growth taken in June have rooted readily. In experiments at the Arnold Arboretum, cuttings collected in September rooted no less than 80 percent in eight weeks when placed in sand and perlite under mist. Ten treatments were employed and even the Propagation difficulties commercial controls rooted, but indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthaleneacetic acid (NAA) when applied as dips (pure chemical dissolved in 50 percent ethanol) resulted in 100 percent rooting and large root systems. Allegheny pachysandra functional alternative to is an aesthetically the more common groundcovers. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Persimmon, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes","article_sequence":10,"start_page":47,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25043","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270856f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Spongberg Date Plums, and Chapotes A. Stephen As horticultural taxonomist at the Arboretum for over twenty years, Dr. Spongberg's interests are very wide ranging. Among them are the persimmons, a group he came to admire during the course of his many trips to the orient. The genus Diospyros is not at present an important genus of ornamental woody plants in North America, and while native persimmons once were valuable fruits in the eastern United States, the fruits produced by Ebenaceae tains or Ebony Family, the genus conupwards of 400 species that occur in both the Old and New Worlds with the greatest concentrations of species occurring in Madagascar (over 100 species), in Malaysia, and in Africa. The relatively few species native to regions of temperate climate come Diospyros species no longer are important food items in the American home. In the countries of eastern Asia at least two species of Diospyros are among the most common trees encountered in dooryard gardens and orchards, where they are cultivated for their edible fruits as well as for other uses and for their ornamental beauty. J. J. Rein, a German traveler and author, wrote in 1889 that Diospyros kaki Linnaeus f. was \"undeniably the most widely distributed, most important, and most beautiful fruit tree in Japan, Korea, and Northern China.\" And in Japan, where D. kaki is second in importance as an orchard crop only to citrus fruit, the kaki often is referred to as the national fruit. The rarity with which species of Diospyros are found in cultivation in cool-temperate North America is partially due to the fact that most are native to regions of tropical and subtropical climate and are not hardy in areas of temperate climate. A member of the Volume primarily from eastern Asia, but two species, D. virginiana and D. texana, are indigenous the United States. A second reason even the hardy exotic and native species are rarely cultivated undoubtedly is related to a general lack of knowledge to can be stored for future use, and prepared. eaten, While I always begin to look for persimmons in local markets and on Arnold Arboretum trees as the fall advances, many persons' experiences with these fruits understandably end when they first bite into a hard, astringent, and puckery persimmon. Such disappointments no doubt have contributed to a lack of demand for persimmons in American markets. Despite the fancy prices asked for oriental persimmons or kakis in local vegetable stands and supermarkets, I am hopeful this article will stimulate enough interest to encourage readers to buy and enjoy a persimmon or two concerning when and how the fruits 39(5): 290-310, 1979. 48 The American persimmon, Diospyros virgimana, growing at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. 49 and to experiment with different ways of serving, and perhaps, preserving them. If native or American persimmons grow nearby, they can be gathered at little or no cost. I also am hopeful that both the oriental and American species will be more widely planted both for their fruits and as biologically interesting ornamentals. another. In still other, rarer instances, a few perfect flowers, that is, flowers that contain both functional male and female parts, may occur on staminate or carpellate plants or on plants producing both carpellate and staminate flowers. Flowering occurs in late spring and early summer, usually during late May and June in the Arnold Arboretum, and swarms of small honey bees have been noted to work the flowers during this period. Due to their small size, their nodding position in the leaf axils, and also because of their greenish and whitish to yellowish color, flowers of Diospyros are often unnoticed, and it may be only the activity of large numbers of insects visiting the flowers for pollen or nectar or both that draws attention to the fact the trees are in flower. Initially green, hard, and with their high tannin content, extremely astringent, the fruits and their subtending calyces increase in size as the season progresses and gradually assume their mature color and texture. Depending on the cultivar, the fruits may ripen any time between July and December or even February, and contrary to some reports, frost apparently is not necessary to reduce astringency or to hasten ripening. As a matter of fact, some cultivars of the oriental persimmon or kaki are sweet and edible when still green and hard, looking like, and with the texture of, green apples. Ripe persimmons may either contain seeds or, surprisingly, be totally free of seeds. Fruits containing seeds probably result from the normal sexual process whereby the egg cells contained in the ovules of the ovary of a carpellate flower are fertilized, and seeds and fruit develop. Seedless persimmons, on the other hand, develop without fertilization. The development of fruit without fertilization and hence without seeds is known as parthenocarpy. What factors are necessary to Characteristics of Hardy Exotic and Native Persimmons The genus Diospyros, the name derived from the Greek Dios, of Zeus or of Jove, and pyros, grain, in allusion to the sweet fruits fit for the gods, consists of trees and shrubs, and while some are evergreen plants, all of the species considered below are deciduous. The wood of the majority of species is very hard with a watery sap, and the heart wood is often blackish. The heart wood of several of the tropical species, especially that of D. ebenum Koenig ex Retzius, is the source of ebony, a hard, black wood often used for piano keys and for other inlaid cabinetry work and undoubtedly the most widely known product of this otherwise little-known genus.... The sexuality of persimmon trees and the production of persimmon fruits are poorly understood and in need of further detailed study. From what is known, persimmons are a biologically intriguing example of a variable and complex reproductive system. In general, the staminate and carpellate flowers are restricted to different individual plants, and the species is classified as dioecious (i.e., two households, male and female individuals separated). However, in some instances, flowers of both sexes occur on a single individual plant, a few branchlets of an otherwise carpellate tree bearing staminate flowers or vice versa. Under these circumstances the species is said to be monoecious (i.e., one household, separate male and female flowers on the same plant). Yet another added complexity in Diospyros is that some plants consistently produce flowers of both sexes, but others change from year to year, producing flowers of both sexes in one year, but not in trigger parthenocarpic development in persimis not known to me and constitutes another aspect of the variable and complex reproductive mechanisms of the genus. mons 50 Moreover, circumstantial evidence involving a presumable tot;illv carpellate tree of in the Arnold Arborethat regularly produces seed-filled fruits, yet is a considerable distance from the nearest staminate tree, suggests the possibility that some seeded fruits also may be produced without pollination and fertilization. The latter type of asexual seed production, termed apomixis, is known in some plant families, but has not been documented in Diospyros or the Ebenaceae. It might explain some of the variability of some species of Diospyros, including the kaki, and help in interpreting taxonomic complexities of the genus. The species of Diospyros known to me to be cultivated in cool-temperate regions of eastern North America are discussed individually below.... Diospyros virginiana tum blackish color, is irregularly and deeply fissTireri into small blocklike plates, and resembles that of the flowering Cornus florida L.... The fruits of the American persimmon vary in size from that of a small cherry to that of a large plum about 4 centimeters in diameter, and in color from orangish to pinkish-yellow, or dogwood, often with a grayish bloom when ripe, to dark purple or bluish-black in f. atra Sargent. The fruits are an important food to many forms of wildlife, and opossums, raccoons, and squirrels often strip the trees of any fruits remaining on the branchlets during the winter months. The fruits also were important food items to the Indians of eastern North America 1. Diospyros virginiana Linnaeus, Sp. P1.2: 1057. 1753. The American persimmon, common persimmon, simmon, or possum wood, is native to a wide area of the eastern United States, from southern New England and Long Island south to southern Florida, and westward into eastern Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern Texas. Infrequent in southern New England, it reaches the northernmost limit of its natural distribution at Lighthouse Point in New Haven, Connecticut, but it is hardy further north and can be cultivated successfully throughout USDA Zones 5a and 5b. Common south of New England both east and west of the Allegheny Mountains, Diospyros virginiana is particularly plentiful in the southeastern states where it often invades fallow fields and forms dense thickets along roadsides, spreading by means of black, fleshy, stoloniferous roots. The trees usually grow in sandy, well-drained soils, but also occur in rich, wet soils of bottomland forests. An extremely variable species over its wide range, the American persimmon occasionally develops a shrublike habit, but generally is a small tree to 10 or 15 meters, rarely to 35 meters, often with spreading and pendulous branches. The bark, hard and of a brownish the first European settlers and explorers. Easily grown from seed, American persimmons were sent back to England and established in English gardens some time before 1629. The Spanish explorer Don Fernando de Soto learned of the food value of the persimmon from the Indians of Florida in 1539 and probably was the first European to write about the fruit. In the next century, Captain John Smith, among others, took an interest in the putchamins of the Indians, and likened them to medlars (Mespilus germanica L.), noting that \"if it not be ripe it will drawe a mans mouth awrie with much torment; but when it is ripe, it is as delicious as an Apricock.\"The name putchamin, L. H. Bailey suggests, probably is a phonetic rendering of the Indian name for the plant. Hedrick, in his History of Horticulture in America to 1860, states that \"of the several plants used by the Indians, two, the persimmon and sassafras, were of importance to the [colonists] of Maryland and Virginia.\" European settlers in the southern states prepared a persimmon or simmon beer and used the fermented juice to distill an apparently very as as to well In Pennsylvania, Isaac Bartram treatise on the preparation of persimmon wine. Persimmons also were eaten when ripe, or prepared in puddings, breads, or as preserves, while dried persimmons were good brandy. wrote a 51 the fact that the American appetite for perlimited, and the Californiaproduced oriental persimmons satisfy the current market demand. Nonetheless, local native and occasional cultivated trees help to satisfy those of us who enjoy our native perto simmons is simmon.... 2. Diospyros lotus Linnaeus. Sp. Pl. 2: 1057. 1753. The date plum, Diospyros lotus, is very similar to the American persimmon in its morphology and may be the closest living relative of our native species.... In the Old World, D. lotus is very widely distributed as An old tree meters of Diospyros lotus, approximately 26 tall, growing at the base of Fei-Yiieh-hng, Ching Chi Hsien, western Szechwan Province, China. Photo by E H Wilson, 1908. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. native, naturalized, or cultivated plant from southern Europe, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor eastward through the northwestern Himalayan region, and into China, Korea, and Japan. In cultivation since ancient times, the natural occurrence and original distribution of D. lotus no longer are possible to ascertain. In England and other areas of northern Europe, the date plum has been cultivated as an ornamental since the 16th century. In North America, the date plum is hardy at least as far north as the Boston area. It probably was introduced into North America when seeds were received at the Arnold Arboretum in 1884 from the Imperial Botanical Garden at a stored and eaten as we eat figs and dates. The wood of the common persimmon has been valued for its hardness and density and has been used locally for innumerable items; it once was preferred for shuttles over any other American wood. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, considerable interest centered on the American persimmon as a potential orchard crop, and numerous cultivars, selected for fruit color, taste, size, and early maturation, were selected from wild populations and named.... While interest in cultivars of Diospyros virginian has continued to the present day, primarily in the Midwest, to my knowledge American persimmons never have been grown successfully on a commercial scale. Undoubtedly, this in large part is due usually with a rounded crown, that with age may attain 30 meters in height, Diospyros lotus is valued in Asia for its small, yellowish-brown to bluish-black fruits, which have a taste similar to dates and often are dried for winter consumption. The Chinese name for the species, Ghae tsao, signifies black date. The fruits attain a diameter of about 2 centimeters, and those I have examined or eaten always have been almost completely filled with brown, oblong, and flattened seeds. F. N. Meyer, a plant collector for the USDA, reported a seedless type from China. The date plum is especially valued in eastern Asia as an understock onto which scions of the oriental persimmon are grafted. Diospyros lotus grows, either as a native or naturalized plant, in rocky, protected ravines, St. Petersburg. A small tree, 52 along mountain streams, and on rocky slopes. In }apan i saw a fruiting and healthy-appearing growing from a crevice in a rock outcrop the Pacific Ocean beach at Matsushima. The date plum may prove of value as a small ornamental tree in coastal areas where salt spray limits the effective use of other ornamental species. tree on 3. Diospyros kaki Linnaeus f., Suppl. Pl. 439. 1781. The kaki, Chinese persimmon, Japanese persimmon, or oriental persimmon, with fruits sometimes the size of large tomatoes, is the persimmon that occasionally appears in American markets and abounds in markets in Japan, Korea, and China during the late summer and fall and into winter. Like the date plum, kakis have been cultivated for such an extended period of time that the natural species range has become totally obliterated. Grubov, a Russian botanist, has suggested that the wild progenitor of the cultivated forms was native to northern China, while Rehder and Wilson in Plantae Wilsonae (1916) state that Diospyros kaki var. sylvestris Makino, the reputed wild form of the kaki, with smaller, yellow, and often hairy fruits, is \"abundant in the mountains of central and western China up to 4000 feet altitude, where it forms a large tree 50 or 60 feet tall.\" That selection for differing fruit types has occurred is evidenced by the upwards of a thousand cultivars or forms of the kaki that are cultivated in Asia and maintained by ringbudding or grafting, primarily on date plum rootstock. Ranging in size from about 2 centimeters in diameter, the size of a small plum, to about 8 centimeters in diameter with a weight of over a pound, kakis can be astringent or sweet, seedless or seeded, and conical, round, flattened, or almost cubical in shape, and some cultivars have longitudinal or horizontal ridges or furrows. The 'Tamopan' or grindstone persimmon is one of the bizarre forms, with an equatorial to near basal furrow, while the more regular, oblong-conical fruits of 'Hachiya' with rounded apices terminating in small, black, stylar scars, are probably the ... of peeled persimmons (Diospyros kaki) hung dry in the village of Siku, Kansu Province, China, where the local name, Fang sze tze, signifies \"square persimmon.\" Photo byE N. Meyer, 1914. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. up to Cords kaki in American produce markets. As noted previously, the astringency of persimmons is a variable character caused by tannins that, depending upon the cultivar, may or may not be present when the fruits are green and hard. Some forms never lose their astringency, even when soft. The tanninbearing cells are scattered in strands throughout the flesh of the fruit, and the tannin is associated with a mucilage-like carbohydrate that coagulates and \"absorbs\" the tannin during ripening. Oxidation of the absorbed tannin causes the tannin-filled cells to turn red in some cultivars; the strands of cells are then easily distinguished. Kaki fruits are also very most common high in vitamin C and sugar content (glucose ca. 18 percent), the latter a variable character, like astringency, but have relatively low percentages of protein and fat. In Japan, hard, astringent persimmons were sometimes placed in used sake casks or tubs to ripen, and these \"tub persimmons\" which absorbed the flavor and perfume of the sake, were considered a delicacy. However, the Japanese appar- 53 ently often ate the hard, unripened fruit, a fact that prompted Charles Sargent to observe that the kaki was \"consumed in immense quantities by the Japanese, who eat it, as they do all their fruits, before it is ripe, and while it has the texture and consistency of a pavingstone.\" Unlike Americans, who regard the kaki as a fresh fruit to be eaten when ripe or, more rarely, frozen for later use, the peoples of eastern Asia for centuries have dried the fruits for storage and use during the winter and early spring months. The persimmons, either whole or sliced, and occasionally skinned, are dried in the sun until their flesh attains the consistency of a dried fig. I have seen sliced persimmons drying on wooden platforms on rooftops in Korea, while a photograph taken by Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer in China for the U.S. Department of Agriculture early in this century, shows the fruits strung on stout cords and suspended from a simple scaffold to dry in the sun and wind.... Meyer's photographs also document another way in which the persimmon is used. In certain areas of China, the sugar, which collects on the cut surfaces of the dried kakis, is compacted into thin, round cakes or loaves and then pressed into molds to produce ornamented tablets. The Chinese characters on the surface of the tablets photographed by Meyer signify \"double happiness\"; couples engaged to be married often present these tablets to friends from whom they have received wedding gifts. The tablets of sugar also are served as one of the eight comestibles offered with tea during the first course of traditional Chinese banquets. The kaki is grown in Asia for more than its edible fruits. Numerous medicinal properties have been attributed to different parts of the plants. The green unripe fruits of what in China is known as the oil persimmon, Diospyros kaki var. sylvestris, the reputed wild form of the domesticated kakis, are used to make a varnish oil that renders hats and umbrellas waterproof. In Japan, Shibu, a highly astringent, milky, light or dark gray fluid rich in tannin, is prepared from unripe kakis and date plums during the summer and is used to toughen paper, wood, and fishnets. It also is required in one stage of the complicated process of making fine Japanese lacquer work and in the preparation of sake and certain dyes. Sir Joseph Banks, botanist on Captain James Cook's first voyage around the world, is credited with the introduction of Diospyros kaki into Europe, while the first trees of the kaki in North America probably were grown from seeds obtained in Japan by Commodore Perry in 1856. Likened by some to an apple or pear tree in size and shape, but with larger, lustrous green leaves that turn scarlet in the fall, when it is particularly handsome with its brilliant fruits, the kaki was considered by Sargent to be the most beautiful of any fruit tree of cold temperate climates. Knowing that the kaki is hardy in Peking, Sargent speculated that it would be hardy in New England \"if *\" plants of a northern race can be obtained.\" Unfortunately, kakis, even some grown from seed obtained near Peking, never have survived in the Arnold Arboretum for longer than a few growing seasons.... 4. Diospyros texana Scheele, Linnaea 22:145. 1849. Unlike the carpellate flowers of the American persimmon, the date plum, and the kaki, carpellate flowers of the chapote, black persimmon, or Mexican persimmon lack sterile stamens or staminodia. Moreover, the flowers appear on the branchlets of the previous year's growth, and the anthers of the staminate flowers open by short, apical slits, while those of the other species dehisce by longitudinal slits that continue down the entire length of the anther. These differences help to distinguish Diospyros texana from the other species of the genus and were considered by John K. Small of enough significance to merit placing D. texana in a separate, monotypic genus, Brayodendron. However, most botanists have continued to regard the chapote as a unique species of Diospyros. chapote further differs from the other species discussed in this article in its shrubby, The 54 and the layers exfoliate in irregular sheets, exposing thesmooth, gray, inner bark. outer In appearance, it is reminiscent of the mot- tled bark of the crape-myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica L.) and is one of the characters that recommend the chapote as an ornamental plant. Native to the United States, the chapote is distributed in central and western Texas and ranges southward into the Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo Le6n, and Tamaulipas. Over its range it grows in rich moist soils of bottomlands as well as on dry rocky mesas and in isolated canyons. The small, hairy, black fruits mature to 2.5 centimeters in diameter. When mature, they are sweet but rather insipid. According to Paul Standley, they leave an \"indelible black stain upon everything with which [they] come in contact\" and have been used by Mexicans of the Rio Grande Valley to Square tablets of persimmon sugar obtained from the dried fruits of a vanety of Diospyros kaki with the Chinese name Pen sze sse. The Chinese characters signify \"double happiness.\" Photo byF. N. Meyer, 1914. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum dye sheepskins. Sargent notes that this species should prove valuable as a cultivated ornamental for its attractive, lustrous foliage, the interesting black fruits of the carpellate plants, and its mottled bark. It is recorded as cultivated in many-stemmed habit, although it may develop into a single-stemmed twiggy tree that occasionally reaches 25 meters in height. The bark of the chapote also is distinctive; it is smooth, light reddish-gray or reddish-brown, often Virginia and in Pennsylvania, and although it has not yet proven hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, it may be hardy as far north as southern New England. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree","article_sequence":11,"start_page":55,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25040","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270bb6d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Shadow, Don O.","article_content":"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree Gary Just L. Koller and Don O. Shadow as a prophet is without honor in his own land, so it is with this plant. Under only the rarest of circumstances will one find this beautiful southeastern native growing outside of a botanical garden. As Arboretum horticulturist Gary Koller and Tennessee nurseryman Don Shadow explain, this is an injustice that cries out for remedy. Have you ever wondered why one introduced species within a genus flourishes in the nursery and landscape industry while a native American plant with notable traits remains obscure? An example of this occurs in the genus Cotinus. Cotinus coggygria Scop., the common smoke tree or smokebush, whose native range extends from South Europe to Central China, is frequently seen in residential landscapes here. It is sought after because of its many fine qualities: a long period of cies with its Asian relative. We have observed fruit panicles in the wild that are quite showy, though it is fair to say that those on the Arboretum's trees are not. We shall lay comparison aside here and give our native species the attention it deserves. Robert A. Vines, in his book Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines of the Southwest, states that Cotinus obovatus occurs on \"rocky limestone hills of Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Alabama, Tennessee, and Kentucky. midsummer floral and fruit ornamentation, showy plumose fruit panicles (which create the smokelike effect that gives the plant its common name), vivid autumn foliage colors, ease of culture, and longevity (the oldest plants extant at the Arnold Arboretum are 108 years old and healthy). Our native American smoke tree, C. obovatus Raf., on the other hand, is rarely seen. It is often missing even in the horticultural literature. Older books on landscaping omit it completely. When it is included, it is described in almost disparaging terms: \"the fruiting panicles are not showy it is useful only for autumn color ... where the smaller smoke tree will suffice, the American species can be omitted.\"Writers always attempt to compare the American spe... Volume 33(2) 17-22, 1984. Nowhere very abundant or widespread.\" Thomas S. Elias, in Trees of North America, says that it generally grows in limestone soils of dry, rocky slopes, in mountain canyons, or on high hills. It is found at elevations up to 1000 meters. Because it inhabits locations with hot humid summers and relatively mild winters, many assume that it will not thrive under the soil and climatic conditions of northern landscapes. Yet we have found a planting as far north as the Landscape Arboretum at the University of Minnesota. Dr. Harold Pellett, on the staff there, told us that the arboretum had had success with seed of a cultivated plant from the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, in 1963. Today, one of the resultant seedlings, which grows in an exposed site, is nearly 5 meters tall. It is stem hardy at temperatures above approximately 56 Cercis canadensis, and Quercus piinoidcs. At the Arnold Arboretum a 102-year-old specimen flourishes in highly acidic soil near the edge of a meadow. Peter lium, The multistemmed habit of the Arboretum's staminate Amencan smoke tree. Note the scaley texture of the bark. Photo by Barth Hamburg. -25 degrees Fahrenheit. The minimum temperature at which the roots are cold hardy has not yet been determined. Information on the original native locale of this plant is unavailable. A more cold-hardy genotype may yet be found. A second welcome feature of the American smoke tree is its adaptability to various soil conditions. In Tennessee it occurs on southfacing rock outcroppings of limestone, where the pH is 6.5 to 7.0. Very little soil is present on top of the rocks, so the roots must invade the cracks and crevices to anchor the plant and obtain moisture and nutrients. In the same area it also grows in sites with better soil, where it associates with funiperus virginiana, Rhus aromatica, Viburnum prunifo- Del Tredici, of the Arnold Arboretum staff, observed the plant thriving in alkaline clay soils in the Chicago area. Excess soil moisture, however, may detract from optimum autumn foliage coloration.... The fall-foliage colors of this tree are stunning. At the Arnold Arboretum few plants match it in terms of brilliance and intensity. In full sun the colors are scarlet, orangescarlet, and claret; and in shade apricot, gold, and yellow. A. C. Downes acclaimed the plant for its fall colors in 1935 in The Gardeners' Chronicle: \"seen with the autumn sun shining through its translucent leaves, decked out in all shades of flaming orange and scarlet, it has been a sight not easily forgotten.... It is just the translucent quality of its foliage that causes the warm fiery glow that is its great charm. Other plants can show colors as vivid in themselves (as, for example Rosa nitida), but their thicker leaf blades rob them of the wonderful effect.\" Soil moisture and soil nutrition seem to affect autumn brilliance. One writer suggested that when grown on rich soil that is high in nutrients, the resultant lush, soft growth produces poor fall color. A. J. Anderson, in a 1945 issue of The Gardeners' Chronicle, said, \"the most beautifully colored examples I have seen are growing on an exposed, dry bank of poverty-stricken soil. A moist, rich medium should definitely be avoided as it always results in vigorous, sappy growth which is detrimental to autumn coloring.\" Fall weather also seems to affect color brilliance. At the Arnold Arboretum, one plant varies from very colorful to dull depending on sunlight and temperatures in early October. In the wild, autumn color varies substantially from one plant to the next.... The bark of the American smoke tree provides pattern and detail in the winter landscape. Bark plates have bases lifted slightly and pulled away from the stems, creating a ... 57 The oldest and largest specimen of the Amencan smoke tree growing at the Arnold Arboretum, raised from seed collected in 1882. This staminate plant is nine meters tall, with several major stems. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. 58 fish-scale-like effect. The scale pattern varies d-XiJ-V^iig, \"\"'----f\"'''''''''''' AAJAJ-A V J.VJ.UdJ.O, ~.....,~;\",..~...1,.......1.......,.........1 ClAiVJ ft,r HIV -,~.,r~ ,..\".1.7 LJJ.O-.LJ.I. t^UUiU benefit from selection for this characteristic. Plants must reach approximately 20 years of age before the mature bark pattern develops. At this point the plant can be pruned to expose the bark to view. The bark can be an interesting focal point of a winter landscape. The tree can also be planted en masse to create a mini-forest of textured stems. Cut logs of the American smoke tree match Juniperus virginiana in durability and longevity and have been used as fence posts and walking sticks. When the tree is cut for logs or burned over by fire, the stump has the ability to resprout quickly, resulting in multistemmed specimens. As a result, most wild plants are multistemmed and not very straight. Color on freshly cut wood samples varies from bright yellow to pale orange. Extract from the wood was an important source of a natural dye, especially during the Civil War period. Flowers and fruit are borne in large terminal panicles. Attached to the upper end of each panicle are slender stalks clad in fine hair. These create the smokelike effect, which in the wild varies in color (from light brown to fleshy tones and pale purple), size, and den- occur usually on separate occasionally on a single plant. In plants the horticultural literature the male plant is reported to be superior for \"smoke produc- sity. The sexes but tion.\"All of these factors suggest that selection could produce a more beautiful tree. Fruiting is said to be sparse in the wild. Seed is often difficult to find, as squirrels gather it before it ripens. The height of the plant varies considerably, though this may be attributable to environ- mental conditions. The largest plant documented is a national champion tree at the Deane Hill Country Club in Knoxville, Tennessee. The tree is 13 meters high, with a crown spread of 10 meters, and a trunk girth of 1.5 meters The oldest and largest plant at the Arnold Arboretum came from seed sent by Charles Mohr of Mobile, Alabama, in 1882. As of February 1984, this plant stands 9 meters tall, with a crown spread of 8 meters and with five stems arising from ground level, of which the largest two are 45 centimeters in circumference. In poor soils and under harsh environmental conditions in the wild, the plant can be found in spreading thickets free of other species. Such varied growth habits allow great opportunity for the selection of individuals for specific purposes. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation","article_sequence":12,"start_page":59,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25037","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270b36b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Elliottia Racemosa and Its Propagation Alfred J. Fordham Alfred Fordham was the propagator at the Arboretum from 1958 to 1976. During this time he built up a reservoir of knowledge about plants and their propagation that few people are able to match. In this article, Al Fordham displays the skill that earned him his well-deserved reputation. Elliottia racemosa, the Georgia Plume, is a small tree or large shrub in the Ericaceae or Rhododendron family, native to the state of Georgia. A review of the literature concerning it reveals a history of frustration and disappointment. Despite the fact that it was discovered 160 or more years ago, and despite the fact that its impressive ornamental characteristics have been often described, it is still exceedingly rare in cultivation. It has been reported to have lost its ability to produce seeds, to be difficult to transplant (even in areas where it is native), and to have failed in most propagational efforts. For a time Elliottia was considered lost. Elliottia was discovered in Waynesboro, Georgia, by Steven Elliott who was in the process of preparing his \"Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia.\"Other stands were later found in the same region and across the Savannah River in South Carolina. Mr. P. J. Berckmans, of Augusta, Georgia, moved several plants to his nursery and from these succeeded in propagating a few by using root cuttings. Through the cutting of the woods and the clearing of land for agriculture, the original stands of Elliottia disappeared. Dr. Charles S. Sargent wrote, \"The range near Volume is now entirely barren of Elliottia. Unless another locality is found, I should not be surprised if the species is preserved only on P. J. Berckmans' grounds.' Dr. Asa Gray also visited the region and wrote, \"Not a vestige of Elliottia (in Columbia county) remains. A small patch is said to exist in Edgefield county, South Carolina, but all efforts to find it have failed.\" Fortunately the threat of extinction no longer exists, for a number of stands have been found more recently both in the area of the original find and also down into central Georgia. Two attempts were made to establish Elliottia at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. The first in 1894, consisting of a few plants donated by Mr. Berckmans, resulted in failure while the second in 1902, from the same donor, led to the establishment of two specimens. J. Robert Seeley, writing in Bartonia (1938), spoke of one remaining plant at Kew Gardens as the only representative of its species in Britain and possibly in Europe as well. He also noted that every effort to propagate Elliottia at Kew had failed. Augusta 29(1): 17-20, 1969. Propagation of Elliottia racemosa In 1962, while visiting Mr. Henry Hohman of Kingsville Nursery, Kingsville, Maryland, we viewed his two plants of Elliottia and discussed its propagation. A month or so later, 60 m The original specimen of Elliottia racemosa sent full bloom by Racz and Debreczy in 1988. to the Arboretum by Henry Hohman in 1962. Photographed 61 Mature seed pods and viable seed of Elliottia racemosa Photo by P. Del Tredici. the smaller of the two, a fine eight-foot specimen, arrived at the Arnold Arboretum from Mr. Hohman with his suggestion that we work out methods for its propagation. While at Kingsville Nursery, we discussed the use of root cuttings in the propagation of Elliottia. When Mr. Hohman dug the plant, he did not fill the resulting crater but let it remain. He thought that the severed roots left in the crater wall might produce shoots. This worked well, and in 1963, eighteen plants were harvested from within the crater. Mr. Hohman's plant has prospered at the Arnold Arboretum and it flowers profusely each year. It should be added that Elliottia has not proven hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Our accession records show that all prior to establish it have ended with the notation, \"winter killed.\"Alfred Rehder in his Manual of Trees and Shrubs considered Elliottia a Zone 7 plant. Therefore, our specimen is lifted each autumn and placed in a cold efforts storage unit. Propagation by Seeds Some years, fruit capsules appear on our Elliottia, while in other years there are none. They, however, have always been devoid of sound seeds. In October of 1962, several fruit capsules matured on Mr. Hohman's remaining plant and he sent them on to us. By carefully pick- 62 ji we obtained eleven plump seeds which appeared viable. These were sown without pretreatment. By March of 1964, they had all decomposed. In June of 1964, several capsules were received from Miss Claremont H. Lee of Savannah, Georgia. Some were light brown in color while others were of darker hue. This difference would indicate that those light in color were from the 1963 fruit crop while those more weathered were from the previous year. The seeds were carefully separated from the capsules and some appeared well filled and sound. Cut tests were not made since those seemingly viable were so few. The seeds were divided into two lots: Lot #1 was sown without pretreatment, while Lot #2 was provided with a two-month period of cold stratification at 40 degrees Fahrenheit. One seedling germinated in Lot #1. When Lot #2 was sown, one seedling also appeared. After five months in the greenhouse, no further germination took place so Lot #2 (which still contained sound seeds) was placed in our winter cold storage unit for three months. The temperature there is maintained at about 34 degrees. It was then returned to the greenhouse and after a lapse of three months, three more seedlings appeared. This behavior leads one to suspect that Elliottia seeds might be doubly-dormant or two-year seeds. However, the sample was far too small for this to be other than a suspicion. ing them apart, was mediocre. The next effort I whether or not root pieceswould shoots. Shoots that arise produce multiple from roots are physiologically juvenile and will usually root despite the fact that stem cuttings from the same plant will not. With this fact in mind, root sections about 3\/8 inches in diameter and about 4 to 5 inches long were taken from the plant when it was dormant. They were placed horizontally about half an inch deep in flats of sandy soil. This was done on March 24 and by May 19, multiple shoots began to appear. The pressure of spring work was such that cuttings were not taken from the roots until July 14. By this time they were firm and woody. The first crop of cuttings was divided into two lots. Lot #1 was treated with a product containing 3 milligrams of IBA in a gram of talc with Thiram added. Lot #2 was treated with a similar formulation but with 8 milligrams of IBA. In each case all cuttings rooted. The root pieces were left in place and continued to produce shoots for over a year. The largest root pieces that we could get from our plant were only about 3\/8 of an inch in diameter and these produced well. It seems reasonable to suppose that, if root sections of larger diameter were used, the crop of shoots could be vastly increased. Root cuttings have not presented survival problems and all have ings. Success was to test prospered. If propagators set root pieces horizontally as described above, and gather the easrooted shoots as they appear, there seems ily no reason why this beautiful subject should not become commonly established in cultiin flats, vation. Propagation by Cuttings Repeated attempts were made cuttings of Elliottia using an to root stem assortment of root-inducing substances and a variety of tim- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Humility","article_sequence":13,"start_page":63,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25045","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270896d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Propagating Leatherwood: Peter Del Tredici A Lesson in Humility being a good propagator means being able to listen to what the plants \"saying.\" This brief article by former propagator Peter Del Tredici makes that point nicely. are Part of It is often assumed that because I work in the greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum, I should be able to solve any plant-propagation problem that comes along. With all that heat and light, the reasoning goes, you should be make dead sticks sprout. Unforis not always the most effective solution to the difficulties that arise with plants. This fact was brought home to me rather dramatically recently in attempting to determine the seed-germination requirements of Dirca palustris, the Atlantic leatherwood. This beautiful little shrub in the Thymelaeaceae family is native to the east coast of North America, from New Brunswick to Florida and east to the Mississippi. In the wild, Dirca tends to form dense thickets in the forest understory, growing best in moist areas that have a high limestone content. Henry David Thoreau tracked the plant down in its native haunts in Brattleboro, Vermont, to able tunately, technology which bends like lead (Gray says it is brittle'), the different layers separating at the end I cut a goodsized switch, which was singularly tough and flexible, )ust like a cowhide, and would answer the purpose of one admirably. The color of the bark is a very pale brown. I was much interested in this shrub, since it was the Indian's rope. Frost said that the farmers of Vermont used it to tie up their fences with. The great tensile strength of the bark of leatherwood has been noted by nearly all botanical writers-before and after Thoreau-who have discussed the plant. None, however, have presented quite so memorable a description as the late Edgar Anderson, former dendrologist of the Arnold Arboretum and long-time botanist at the Missouri Botanical Garden: Delicate though the flowers may be, the species is well deserving of its popular name as anyone will find who attempts to gather the flowering twigs without a sharp knife. The branches are surprisingly limber and the bark is tough and strong. One can actually tie the twigs m bow knots. If one attempts to snap off a branch quickly, the wood itself may break and separate from the bark. It may even come away altogether, leaving the startled flower-gatherer with a perfectly bare twig m his hand and on the bush, dangling like an empty glove, the bark with its flowers and leaves still intact. on September 8, 1856: for the first time I see growing indigenously the leather-wood, the largest on the low interval by the brook. I notice a bush there seven feet high. In this form it is somewhat like a quince bush, though less spreading, its leaves are broad, like entire sassafras leaves; now beginning to turn yellow. It has remarkably strong thick bark and soft white wood ... Dirca palustns, Volume 44(1): 20-24, 1984. Dirca is noteworthy for reaother than its bark, not the least of which is that it produces bright yellow flowers Horticulturally, sons 64 The unusual growth habit of leatherwood Photographed in full bloom on May 1, 1989, by Racz and Debreczy. Because were in early April, when most other plants are still dormant. Another point of interest is its ten- either nonexistent dency to develop a single stem. This habit, which is unusual for a shrub, gives the plant the appearance of a miniature tree and makes it extremely useful in rock gardens and perennial beds. Despite leatherwood's preference for moist, shady sites in the wild, it will tolerate full sun under cultivation. Interestingly, when grown in the open, the plant assumes a more compact habit of growth, and the foliage, which is light green in the shade, takes on a distinct yellowish cast. took a that time there were two Dirca plants at the Arboretum, both collected in New Hampshire in 1961. In early June the mature fruits were falling off. They were green at that point, with a slight tinge of yellow. The fruit is a berry with a fleshy outer seed coat and a hard, black propagation data on leatherwood or imprecise, I underseed-germination project in 1979. At inner coat surrounding a single large embryo. I followed my usual practice when processing seeds preparatory to sowing them: I put them in a plastic bag and set them on a head- 65 The delicate flowers of Dirca palustns. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. house bench until the fleshy part of the fruit softened enough so that it could be easily washed off. This \"fermentation\" cleaning, as it is called, usually takes about one week and works wonders with fleshy fruits like those of Malus, Cornus, and Sorbus. While this technique is not generally recommended in the seed-germination literature, it has long been used successfully with many types of plants at the Arboretum. After a week I removed the rotting Dirca fruits from the bag and washed them clean 66 with water. I then subjected the seeds to vari\"^^ n *-,-,<-~*~<-202 202 o orv^p T o *->ttt-1 ~ -v- *-vs Aril rtfQITT 1- the greenhouse, some I stratified (this involves packing the seeds in a moist medium and storing them in a refrigerator for three months), and some I treated with the plant hormone gibberellic acid (GA3). To my disappointment, none of these treatments seed-germination test I could think of: stratification in the refrigerator as well as ii *^e greenhouse, gibberellic-acid soaks, and scarification with a knife. Finally, I carefully excised over 400 embryos from their seed coats and gave them the same treatments. To my amazement, of the 1100 seeds so produced would a single plant. Trying again in 1980,collected 1177 seeds and designed an experiment that I thought cover all possible types of seeddormancy mechanisms. I put all the fruits in a plastic bag for fermentation cleaning, except for 77 that I pulled out at the last minute to use as a control. These I sowed in a flat, which was then planted outdoors to simulate the carefully cleaned and treated, not a single seedling was produced, but of the 77 uncleaned ones planted outdoors, 47 seedlings germinated the following spring-a staggering 61 percent. Here I had brought to bear nearly 10 years of experience in botanical research, along with a barrage of hormones and climatecontrol devices, when success could be achieved only by doing nothing. Humility is the main thing that I learned from this experiment.... conditions the seeds would have been sub- jected to had they been allowed to fall from the plant. The remaining 1100 seeds were allowed to rot for several days, after which they were cleaned and then subjected to every possible Clearly some plants propagate themselves best when left to their own devices. With Dirca palustris, letting nature run its course is not only very easy, but also very effective. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 51","article_sequence":14,"start_page":67,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25039","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270bb28.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 51 Numbers m (1991) boldface to illustrations of the entries. \"Books,\" Nan Sinton (2): 40 \"Books,\" Neil Jorgensen (1):38-39 Bonsai, Japanese (3): 6 Borderland (North Easton, Mass.) (3): 31 Boston Natural Areas Fund (BNAF) (2) : 33, 39 Brandegee, Edward (2): 35 Brown, Jane, \"Lady into Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand's Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum\" (3): 2-10 \"Buckleya-The Oldest Cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Richard A. Howard (4): 38-42 Burly, Dr. John (3): 17 Bussewitz, Al, photos by (2): front cover; (4): front cover, back cover parentheses refer to issues, those m Acer grisium Academia de Ciencias de Cuba (3): 32 (4): inside back cover Alexander, John H. III, and Michael Dirr, \"Ilex glabra-the Inkberry Holly\" (2): Alexander, John H. III (3): 18 Allandale Spring (2): 33,34 16-22 \"Allandale Woods: A Fragment of the First Families of Boston,\" Richard Heath and Richard B. Pnmack (2): 33-39 \"Allegheny Pachysandra,\" Michael A. Dirr and John H. Alexander III (4): 43-46 American Society of Landscape Architects (3): 7, 9 Ames, Blanche (1):1, 33 Ames, Oakes(1): 33; (3): 22, 23, 27, 31 Amyema (3): 16 Ancient Trees Management Group (Shanghai) (2): 5 Anemone canadensis Bussey, Benjamin (2): 34 (1):16 Cadwalader, John Lambert (3): 4 Cahan, Marion D., \"The Harvard Garden in CubaA Brief History\" (3): 22-32 Calycanthus chinensis (118-22; 19, 21 Cape Cod National Sea Shore Visitor Center (Mass.) (2): 17 Carya (sp.) (1):inside front cover Castanea sativa (2): 10 Chavany, P. (1):inside front cover Chelsea Physic Garden (1):10 Chang, W. C. (1):18 Chinese species, recent introductions (1):2, 3; 18-22 Chinese wax shrub( 118-22 Cienfuegos (Cuba) (3): 22, 23, 26, 27, 32 Clay, Henry (2): 6 Clement, Dr. Duncan, (3): 29, 30 Clethra almfoha (3): 18-21 Codman, Henry Sargent (3): 7 Compaction, soil (1):25-28 Compositae (2): 23-31 Coneflower, purple(1):16 1 Corey, Prof. E. J. (2): 11 Cotinus coggygna (4): 55 obovatus (4): 55-58 Craul, Phillip J., \"Urban Soil: Problems and Promise\" (1):23-32 Cross, Jim (2): 18 Cuban National Exposition (3): 28 Apple scab (1):35 Arceuthobium (3): 11 Arnold Arboretum (2): 33, 38; (3) 3, 8, 14, 29; (4): 2 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data 1990 ( 1 ) :40 Aruncus dioicus (1):16 \"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia,\" Charles F. Jenkins (4): 4-11 Aster novae-angliae (2) 24, 25 novi-belgii (2): 23-26 tradescanti (2) : 25 Asters, fall-blooming (2): 23-31 New York (2): 25 Atkins, Edwin F. (3): 22, 26, 27, 28, Atkins, Elisha F. (3): 23, 26 Atkins Fellowships (3): 30 Atkins Garden (3): 22-32 31 Atkins Garden and Research Laboratory (3): 29, 30 Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum (3): 29, 31 Bailey, Liberty Hyde (2): 26 Barbour, Thomas (3): 31 Bartram, William (2): 5 Bartram's Ginkgo (2): 6 Beijing Botanical Garden and Institute of Botany (China)(1): 13 Bergamot, wild(1):16 Bonhof, Hugo (3): 27 68 \"Daisies of Autumn,\" Judy Glattstein (2): 23-31 Dana Greenhouses (Arnold Arboretum) (1):2, 13 2014 'Decipiens' (4): 36 'Pallida' (4): 36-37 - viridissima : (4): 35, 37 7 _ ___ Dawson, Jackson (3): 8, 9 Del Tredici, Peter (1):3, 34; \"Ginkgos and PeopleA Thousand Years of Interaction\" (2): 2-15; 'Bronxensis' 'Aurea' (4): 36 x intermedia (4): 31, 35, 37 7 --- photos by (2): inside front cover, inside back 32, 35, 36, 37; \"Introduction\" to fiftieth anniversery issue (4): 2-3; \"Propagating Leatherwood : A Lesson in Humility\" (4): 63-66; 41, 61 Dendrophthora (3) : 11, 14 Diospyros kaki (4): 47, 52-53 cover, -- (4): 37 'Spectabilis' (4): 34-35 'Lynwood' (='Lynwood Gold')(4): 36 \"Forsythia Story,\" Donald Wyman (4): 34-37 (4): 51-52 (4): 47, 53-54 virginiana (4): 47, 48, 50-51 Dirca palustris (4): 63-66 Dirr, Michael A., \"Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation\" (3): 18-21 and John Alexander III, \"Ilex glabra-The Inkberry Holly\"(2): 16-22; \"The Allegheny Pachysandra\" (4): 43-46 Dongting Mountain (2): 8, 9 Dorr family (3): 5 Downing, Andrew Jackson, \"Neglected American Plants\" (2): 27 Drainage, improving (1):28-31; subsurface (1):29 Dumbarton Oaks \/3) : 9 texana - lotus Earle, Theresa (3): 9 Eliot, Charles (3): 7, 9 Ekman, E. L. (3): 14 \"Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation,\" Alfred J. Fordham (4): 59-62 Enterolobium cyclocarpum (3): 23 Euonymus radicans (3): 7 Gallberry holly (2): 16-22; cultivars (2): 19-22 Garden and Forest (3): 9 Garden in the Woods (Framingham, Mass.) ( 1): 1 5, 16 3 Ghost bramble (1):3 Ginkgo (2): 2-15; and blood-flow (2): 11; correction (3):32; cultivation for leaf production (2): 11-13; medical use (2): 10-11; nut production (2): 8-10; pollination (2): 9; street tree (2): 4; vegetative propagation (2): 6-8 Ginkgo biloba (2): front cover, inside back cover 'Fastigiata' (2): 8 'King of Dongtmg Mountain', nuts of(2) : 10 Ginkgo plantation(Sumter, S. C.) (2): 12, 13 \"Ginkgos and People-A Thousand Years of Interaction,\" Peter Del Tredici (2): 2-15 Ginkgolide B (2): 11 Ginkgolide compounds (2) : 11-13 Glattstein, Judy, \"The Daisies of Autumn\" (2): 23-31 Goldenrods (2): 23, 26-31 Goodale, George L. (3): 22, 23 Gray, Asa (4): 4-11 Grey, Robert M. (3): 23, 27, 28 \"Growgun\" machine (1):26 (Brookline, Mass.) (3): 8 (3): 2-10 Firebhght(l):34 Flemer, Bert (2): 20 Flemer, William III (2): 8, 19 Flora of the LesserAntilles (3): 13 Fordham, Alfred J., \"Elliottia racemosa and Its propagation\" (4): 59-62 Forsythia giraldii (4): 35 japonica (4): 35,37 f. saxitalis (4): 35 ovata (4): 35, 37 suspensa (4): 35, 37 Farrand, Beatrix - Fairstead \"Hamamelis mollis (4): 31 - japonica (4): 31 - xintermedia (4): 31 'Arnold Promise,\"' Richard Weaver, Jr. (4) : 30-33, 32 Hamilton, William (2): 5 Harvard Biological Laboratory (Cuba) (3): 28 Harvard Botanic Station (Cuba) (3): 22, 27, 28 Harvard Botainical Garden (Cambridge, Mass.) (3): 22,27,28 Harvard Experiment Station (Cienfuegos, Cuba)(3):29 \"Harvard Garden in Cuba-A Brief History,\" Marion D. Cahan (3): 22-32 Harvard Magazine (3): 32 69 Harvard tropical garden (Cienfuegos, Cuba) (3): frontcover, 23, 24-25, 26, 29, 30 Harvard University Herbaria (3): 14 Haustormm (3) : 11 Heath, Richard, and Richard B. Primack, \"Allandale Woods: A Fragment of the First Families of Boston\" Jorgensen, Neil, \"Books\" (1):38-39 Judd, William Henry (3): 3, 8 Kalmia latifolia (2): 27 Kellogg, Elizabeth A., \"Why Study Mistletoes?\" (3): 11-17 Kevorkian, Dr. Arthur G. (3): 29 Kew Gardens (2): 5 Koller, Gary L., and Don O. Shadow, \"In Praise of the American Smoketree\" (4): 55-58 (2): 33-39 13 Henry, Augustine (1):6, - Heptacodium (1):13-14 jasminoides(1):14 miconioides ( 1 ) :13-14 - \"History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America,\" Alfred Rehder (4): 22-29 Kolterman, Holly, inkberry (2): 16-22 Holm Lea (3): 4, 5, 7 Honeysuckle family ( 1 ) :14 Hookers' Icones Plantarum (1):13 Hortus Duane (3): 32 Korean mountain ash (1):5 5 Kuijt, Job (3): 12, 13, 14 \"Lady into Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Farrand's Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Jane Brown (3): 2-10 Lancaster, Roy (1):18, 22 Lautzenheiser, R.(1):40 Leatherwood, Atlantic (4): 63-66 Li, H. L. (2): 3 Lighty, Richard (2): 30 Ling, Hsieh (2): 3, 4 Liquidambar acalycina (1):8-9 formosana (1):8,9 Longland, David, \"Meadown Making-Caveat Emptor\"(l):15-17 Longwood Gardens (Penn.) (2): 17, 20 Loranthaceae (3): 11, 13 Lu, L. T. (1):13 Lythrum salicaria (1):16 - 7\/7(2): 28, 29, 30 Howard, Dr. Richard (3): 13, 15; (4) \"Buckleya-The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum\" (4): Hsueh 38-42 Collecting the of Metasequoia glyptostroboides\" Type Specimens (4): 17-21 Chi-ju, Dr. S.-Y. \"Reminiscences of Hu, (3) : 32 (2): 22 Hunnewell, 13): 7 Hura crepitans (3): 26 estate Hunnewell H. H. Ilexcoriacea (2): 17 crenata (2): 17, 22 glabra (2): 16-22 'Densa' (2): 19 - - forma leucocarpa (2): 18 - vomitoria (2): 17 \"Ilex glabra-The Inkberry Holly, \" Michael A. Dirr and John H. Alexander (2): 16-22 \"In Praise of the American Smoketree,\" Gary L. Koller and Don O. Shadow (4): 55-58 Inkberry holly (2): 16-22; cultivars (2): 19-22 - Jack, J. G. (3): 30 Jardin d'Essai (Algiers) (3): 9 Jekyll, Gertrude (2): 25, 26; (3): 9 Jenkins, Charles F., \"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia\" (4): 4-11 Jones, Frederic Rhinelander (3): 4 Jones, Mary Cadwalader Rawle (3): 4 Magnolia (1):14-14 acuminata (1):front cover glauca (= virginiana) (3): 7 macrophylla (3): 7 parviflora (= sieboldii) (3): 7 stellata (4): back cover x soulangiana 'Alexandrina' (1):front cover xloebneri 'Merrill' (4): back cover zenh (1):13 Malus baccata (I):12 - 'Blanche Ames' (1):33-37 7 'Dorothea' (1):33 'Profusion' (1):33 spectabilis 'Puversii' (1):33 Martinez, Modesto (3): 31 2014 - - - - - - - - 70 \"Meadow Making 2014 Caveat Emptor,\" David re ^ ^ ~ Longland \/I I- H 17 IS Mendel, Gregor (3): 15 Merrill, E. D., \"Metasequoia, Another Living Fossil\" (4): 12-16 Metasequoia, Another Living Fossil, E. D. Merrill (4): 12-16 Metasequoia glyptostroboides (4): inside front cover, \" _______________________ Pnrlnsnhnprn Platelet-activating factor (PAF)(2): 11 Ipncntrirh\/i 111-34 Powdery mildew ( 1 ) : 34 Pratt, Mary (Weld) (2): 35 \"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis-Chinese Wax Shrub,\" Gerald B. Straley (1):18-22 Primack, R. B. and Richard Heath, \"Allendale Woods-A Frament of the First Families of Boston\" (2): 32-39 Princeton Nursery (2): . 12-21, 12, 14, 15, 20 Michaelmas daisies (2): 23, 25 Miles, Mary Comber (1):painting, back cover 8, 19 \"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Humility,\" Miller, Philip (1):10 Milner, Henry Ernest (3): 9 Peter Del Tredici (4): 63-66 Prunus mackii (4): front cover Missouri Botanical Garden (3): 14 Mistletoes, research on (3): 11-17 Montpelher Botanic Garden (France) (2): 5 Morus alba 'Venosa' (3): inside back cover Mt. Cuba Center for the Study of Piedmont Flora Racz and (Delaware) (2): 30 Debreczy, photos by (1):4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, inside back cover; (2): 16, 18, 21, back cover; (3): inside front cover, 19, 20, inside back cover; (4): inside front and back covers, 15,30, 32, 37, 48, 57, 64, 65 Raulston, J. C. (1):18, 22 Ravenala madagascarensis (3): front cover Rawle, Mary Cadwalader (3): 4 Reef Point (Bar Harbor, Maine) (3). 4, 6 Reef Point Bulletin (3): 3 Rehder, Alfred (3): 3, 23, 26, 30; (4): 22; \"On the History of the Introduction of woody Plants into North America\" (4): 22-29 Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" Hsueh Qi-ju (4): 17-21 (3): 17 American Plants,\" Andrew Jackson \"Neglected Downing (2) : 27 New England Wild Flower Society (1):15; (2): 37 \"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes,\" Stephen A. Spongbeg (4): 47-54 Nut production of Ginkgo biloba (2): 8-10 Nutrient cycling, interrupted (1):25 National Cancer Institute - - Olmsted, Frederick Law (3): 6, 8 Frederick, Jr. (3): 6-7 John Charles (3): 7 Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot (2): 35 44 Rhododendron calendulaceum (2): 1 'Smoky Mountaineer' (2): back cover Rhus chinensis (1):10, 11, inside back cover Robinson, William (3): 9 - Rosa sp. (3): 8 28 Roses, collection in Cuba (3): Pachysandra procumbens (4): 43-46, terminalis (4): 43, 44 Parkman, Francis (3): 7 Parsons, Samuel (3): 9 Persimmons, hardy, exotic, and native (4): 47-54 Phoradondron (3): 11-17 ficulneum (3): 13, 14 -guatemalense (3): 13 -leucarpum (3): 11 molinae (3): 14 piperoides (3): 13, 14 tnnervium (3): 15 Piratebush (4): 38-42, 39, 41 - (3): Roxbury pudding stone (2): inside front cover Royal Horticultural Society (Wisley, England) (2): 25 Rubus lasiostylus var. hubeiensis1):3, 13 9 Rovell, brothers , - Sargent Charles S. (2): 6; (3): 6-10 Sargent, Mary (Mrs. Charles S.) (3): 3, 4 Sassafras albidum (3): inside front cover Sax, Dr. Karl (1): 33; (3) 3 : - - Schustermann, Heidi (1):31 Shadow, Don and Gary L. Koller, \"In Praise of the American Smoketree\" (4): 55-58 71 Shanghai Botanical Garden (China) (1): 18 Shennongjia Forest District (China) (1): 2, 12 Shortia galacifolia (4): 4-12, 7 \"Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple-'Blanche Ames, \"' Michael Yanny (1):33-37 Smo-Amencan Botanical Expedition (1980) (1):2-14 \"Sino-American Sampler,\" Stephen A. Spongberg (1): ): 2-14 Underdramage (1):29, 30, 31 University of British Columbia Botanical Garden (Canada) (1):18, 19,22 \"Urban Soils: Problems and Promise,\" Phillip J. Craul(l): 23-32 Rensselaer, Mariana Griswold (3): 4 Vault system (1):30, 31 Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) Van Smocalycanthus chinensis(1):18-22, back cover Smowilsoma henryi (1):13 Smton, Nan Blake, \"Books\" (2): 40 Soil drainage classess( 129 Soil microorganisms (1):25 Soil reaction to heat (1):25 Soil rooting volume (1):30-31 Soledad (Cienfuegos, Cuba) (3): 22-32 Sohdago (2): 23, 26-31 canadensis (1):16 - cultivars (2): 26-31 Sorbus (1):4 4 5 alnifolia(1):5 hemsleyi (1):6-7 yiiana (1):4-5 Souther, Maria (2): 34 Souther estate (2): 32, 34, 35, 38 Spongberg, Stephen A., \" A Sino-Amencan Sampler\" (1): 2-14; (2): 2; \"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes\" (4): 47-54 Steyermark, Dr. Julian (3): 14 Stillman, E. G., photos by (3): 24-25 Straley, Gerald B., \"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis-Chinese Wax Shrub\" ( 118-22 Street trees, care of (1):23-32 Strybmg Arboretum(San Francisco) (1):20 Sugarcane cultivation (3): 22, 23, 26, 27; 'Cristalina' variety (3): 27, 28 \"Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation,\" Michael A. Dirr (3) : 18-21 - (2): 4 Viscaceae (3): 11, 13 Viscum (3): 11 -album (3): 11, 12 Water drainage, control of (1):28 Promise'\" Weaver, Richard, Jr., \"Hamamelis 'Arnold (4): 30-33 Weld, Col. Ebenezer (2): 34 Weld estate (2): 35 Weld family (2): 33, 39 Weld, Joseph(2) : 33, 34 Weld, Thomas (2): 34 Weld, William (2): 33 Wharton, Edith (3): 4, 9 \"Why Study Mistletoes?\"Elizabeth A. Kellogg (3): 11-17 Wildflower meadows (2): 39 Wilson, E.H.(l):13 Witch hazel (4): 30-33 Woodlands Cemetary (Philadelphia) (2): 5 Woodlands estate (2): 5 World's Columbian Exposition (Chicago) (3): 5 Wyman, Donald (2): 18; \"The Forsythia Story\" (4): 34-37 Yang, Guang (2): 3 Yang, Linda (2): 40 Yanny, Michael, The Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple\" Table Rock Taxus (Allandale Woods, Mass.) (2): 37, 38 brevifolia (3): 17 \"Terralift\" machine(1):26 Tian Mu Shan (China) (2): 3, 4 Topophsis (2): 7, 8; in Gmkgo (2) : 7 1 Tree planting systems( 1 ) :30, 31 Trelease, William (3): 13, 14 Trenching and backfill ( 127 Trinidad Sugar Company (3): 27 'Blanche Ames'\"(1):33-37 Yaupon holly (2): 17 Yii, T. T. ( 1 ): 4, 13 Zhejmag Forestry Department (2): 3, 4 Zhejiang Province (China) (1):18 Zwijnenburg, P. G. (1):22 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23388","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e8528.jpg","title":"1991-51-4","volume":51,"issue_number":4,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lady into Landscape Gardener- Beatrix Farrand's Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25030","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270a36d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Brown, Jane","article_content":"Lady into Landscape Gardener: Beatrix Early Years at the Arnold Arboretum Jane Brown Farrand's landscape gardeners, Beatrix Farrand was deeply influenced by Professor C. S. Sargent, the Arboretum's first director. One of America's great long and successful consistently and loyally appreciative of the place she regarded For the whole of her career, Beatrix Farrand as was her alma mater, the Arnold Arboretum. through her from a piece she called \"The public writings, Debt of Landscape Art to a Museum of Trees\" for the Architectural Record of November 1918\/ to her pieces for Arnoldia in 1949, describing her work on the azalea border and her layout plan for Peters Hill.2 Her friendship with Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, her adored \"Chief,\" who had taught her \"by precept and example,\" was maintained until the end of his life in 1927; and after that, she conducted a lengthy and vigorous correspondence with Alfred Rehder and Karl Sax, and especially with William Henry Judd, the Arboretum's English propagator, who died in 1946. Judd, who had first come to the Arnold in 1913, was her closest contact after Sargent's death, and there was a rather sad irony in that Arnoldia of May 31, 1946,3 announced his sudden death from a heart attack at the same time it made public Beatrix's appointment as consultant landscape architect. Beatrix's last surviving letters on Arboretum matters-she Her gratitude and affection shine refers to herself as \"the old lady\" whose mind works very slowly-are dated in the spring of 1953, just six years before her death. This well-documented relationship of her later years will be the subject of a future Arnoldia article, but for the moment, I would like to concentrate upon how it all began. For my forthcoming book on Beatrix Farrand's life and work, I have had to piece together much more elusive evidence on how she came to study at the Arnold in the 1890s and what she did there. She left no diaries or letters of that time, and her references to it were persistently vague, even to the drafting of what amounted to her own obituary, for the Reef Point Bulletin, where she mentioned \"a fortunate meeting\" (one of many in her life) with Mrs. Charles Sargent and how the Professor became interested in her love of plants. She then became \"the grateful guest\" of the Sargents, at which time the facilities of the Arboretum were thrown open to her. Thus, as she also wrote, her life was changed; it most certainly was, for chance and circumstances had brought her into the realm of perhaps the only person, in the only place, where the restrictions imposed by her native society could A portrait photo courtesy of the of Beatrix Cadwalader Jones at her debut, circa 1890, the year she first met the Sargents. Reprinted College of Environmental Design Documents Collection, University of California, Berkeley. 4 1 be overcome, and she could be launched into the world of men as an independent professional woman. Connections Jones was born into a rigid society of old-money New York in the 1870s, where it was decreed that a lady's name only appeared in print to announce her engagement and her death. She was an only child, born on 19 June 1872, something over two years after the marriage of her parents, Frederic Rhinelander Jones and Mary Cadwalader Rawle. Her father (who had a young sister who would grow up to be the novelist Edith Wharton) was rich, fun-loving, and purposeless; her mother was lively, bookish, and used to the company of scholarly Philadelphia lawyers and soldiers in the society from which she came. Mary had probably married in haste, and she and Freddy soon discovered their deep incompatibilities, so that by the time Beatrix was ten her father was virtually absent from her life. Beatrix was highly intelligent and well educated ; she grew up to be a handsome young lady, of elegant bearing, always beautifully turned out, but with an awesome briskness of manner. This was probably a self-protective device, a result of her fatherlessness. She was surrounded by her mother's friends, a predominantly female society with a sprinkling of eminent men, including John La walader Jones became busy with other things, Beatrix took control of the garden and was probably in charge of its progress by the time she was fifteen or sixteen. A Suitable Profession Family Beatrix Farge, John Singer Sargent, Francis Marion Crawford, and later Henry James, as well as Mary's dour and fastidious cousin, the lawyer John Lambert Cadwalader. But of almost equal influence as any person on Beatrix (except for her mother) was the place she loved most, Mount Desert Island and Bar Harbor in particular, where she spent her summers. Beatrix explored every inch of the island, she was an expert on its trees and wildflowers, and she sailed her catboat around its rocky shores. At her home, \"Reef Point\" in Bar Harbor, she learned to garden with a sympathy for the soils and conditions of the island. She learned from her parents at first, but as Mary Cad- passion for the Maine landscape and gardening, it seems likely that John Lambert Cadwalader suggested that she should study the subject seriously; he could well have been prompted by his friend Mariana Griswold van Rensselaer's timely approval of landscape gardening as a career for ladies. But the key to her decision was, as Beatrix wrote, her \"fortunate meeting\" with Mary Sargent. Beatrix was immediately attracted by Mrs. Sargent's skill in botanical illustration; she was nearing completion of her set of watercolors of the flowers, leaves, and fruit of each tree represented in Professor Sargent's collection of the woods of America. In her turn, Mary Sargent probably enjoyed Beatrix's enthusiastic and knowledgeable chatter about plants, which was in a lighter vein than the high-flown table talk of the Professor and his academic friends. Anyway, Beatrix Jones4 was soon swept up into the comfortable and capacious milieu of the Sargents' house, Holm Lea, where apparently the Professor too appreciated her interest in plants. Her good looks and elegance were not wasted upon Sargent, but of course she in turn was quite used to distinguished gentlemen, and would not have been shy or daunted by his stem gaze and the aloofness of his Boston soul. By the summer of 1893, the Sargents were convinced of the seriousness of Beatrix's interest in landscape gardening. Beatrix and her mother Mary had visited Holm Lea en route from New York to Maine (this became a regular habit in later years) in June when the rhododendrons were at their best. The Sargents may have visited them at Reef Point (this too became a regular event in later years), but the Professor had most certainly instructed Beatrix to make the most of her summer, to use her eyes, to observe good landGiven her 5 The pond at Professor Sargent's estate, Holm Lea, Thomas Marr. in Brookline, Massachusetts. Photographed in 1900 by scape effects and plant relationships and note them down. Her summer flew by, as happy holidays are wont to do, but towards the end of September she remembered that she needed something to show her \"Chief,\"and bought a brand-new notebook. This was almost certainly not her first, but it was the only one she kept as a treasured reminder of what were to be some of the most momentous days of her young life. the Landscape The notebook begins on 10 October 1983 with her comments on the landscape around Bar Harbor; one of her favorite haunts is the Dorr family's Oldfarm at Compass Harbor, where Observing she finds many good planting ideas, but she is noticeably critical of exotics on her island setting, including Mrs. Dorr's \"unfortunate\" weakness for magnolias. Her last holiday entries are made on the train as she leaves for Boston to meet up with the Sargents, who had promised to take her to the World's Colombian Exposition in Chicago, to see the wonders of the fair, but especially the triumph of Olmsted's landscape setting. After a short rest at Holm Lea, Beatrix and the Sargents are bound for Chicago, where they arrive on October 19. For a week she wandered around the Exposition, investigating details of design and planting, and noting them down; she was mys- 6 An aerial view of Beatrix Farrand's home, Reef Point, m Bar Hurbur, Maine. Repnnted courtesy of the College of Environmental Design Documents Collection, University of California, Berkeley. tified by the first Japanese bonsai that she saw, but entranced by the mix of gardens and contrived wilderness on Olmsted's precious wooded island. Being at the fair under the Sargents' wing taught Beatrix a great deal, but it also brought her into the inner circle of her chosen profession. She was no longer on the outside, but having met so many people and heard so many conversations on the hard-won triumph of the fair, she became one of the \"few\" who realized, as Sargent had thundered in Garden and Forest \"that the harmony of the scene and the perfection and convenience of the whole scheme of arrangement were due to the genius of one man, Frederick Law Olmsted.\"5 Beatrix returned to New York to continue her future was decided and have been talked about; the following February (1894) she and her mother were in the Sargents' party to visit Biltmore, which caused Olmsted to remark rather grumpily that she was \"inclined to dabble in Landscape Architecture.\"6 This much-quoted slight reveals the depths of the difficulties Beatrix had to overcome, and just how important Sargent's faith in her was to her eventual success. Olmsted was on the summit of his fame, yet conscious of his failing energies; he had a punishing schedule of travels that spring of 1894, and was obsessed with the \"exceptional\" education of his son, Frederick, Jr., who, on her reading, but must 7 the point of graduating from Harvard, was fitted to be his heir. No man, with Olmsted's almost messianic fervor, could look kindly on a society lady who dared to dabble in his precious profession. But, on Beatrix's side, was it not hard for her that her contemporaries, her equals in so many ways, Charles Eliot, Henry Sargent Codman, and Frederick Olmsted, Jr., should be pampered, eased, and ushered through the surveying and field work, the European travels, and the office experience necessary to becoming a landscape architect? She had to do it all on her own. It was this imbalance that made Sargent's encouragement crucial. He was kindly, he had that Brahmin tendency to give a serious-minded woman encouragement, and just perhaps, she appeared at the right moment, with her brightness and enthusiasm, to fill the gap left by the death of his former protege, Henry Sargent Codman, in early 1893. Beatrix probably never knew of Olmsted's slight, but the situation was clear enough; it was to affect her life greatly, as well as her later relationship with the American Society of Landscape Architects. She refused to call herself a landscape architect, always preferring the term gardener. After the trip to Biltmore in February 1894, she returned to Holm Lea in the summer for what was to be her longest stay; she studied at the Arboretum and was ushered around Brookline by Sargent (including a visit to H. H. Hunnewell at Wellesley, and he was impressed by her knowledge and manner). On June 5, she faced up to her Waterloo, taking a chance to visit Olmsted's office (in his absence). She was allowed a thorough look around the shrine she could never enter professionally. Her notes were detailed: \"The entrance is quite charming, a lych gate covered with Euonymus radicans, both the plain and variegated, and quite bushy on top. The road goes around a tiny island with shrubs planted on a high mound and completely shutting out the gate. To the right the ground has been dug away making a little dell...\" Her description goes on, and has gathered interest with time, for the entrance 99 Warren Street is still much the same as she saw it. She describes the planting around the house, noting some \"badly arranged\" shrubs and the clashing azalea flowers in bluish pink and bright orange. But she was really interested in the Olmsted office, and she was allowed to see every aspect of the work, as her detailed notes reveal. She was shown, perhaps by the affable John Charles Olmsted, how design layouts and areas for planting were sketched on tracing paper over the site surveys, and how planting plans were made by reference to a card index, which gave size, shape, availability, and required growing conditions for each plant. The plants were keyed into the design by a number. All she saw was of vital interest to Beatrix, and she carried all the ideas and methods away with her for future reference. On the following Sunday, June 10, 1894, Professor Sargent drove her to the Arboretum; she took this in her stride since for her to have a private tutorial was almost certainly not a unique occasion, but it is the only excursion she recorded in detail: to being stopped and looked at Mr. Parkman's collection of shrubs. It was awfully dreary-house and grounds taken by the Park Commission, house being torn down [Parkman had died the previous year]. Only a year ago the grounds were under cultivation and now they look as if they had been deserted for years, paths overgrown, and long grass springing up everywhere. St. Brunds lily in full bloom-Azalea calendulacea still fine too, Magnolia macrophylla not flowering yet-the largest in the neighborhood. Aruncus spirea in bed quite handsome althd a little coarse ... Jamaica Pond is lovely-or at least must have been lovely before the Parkway took it-Mr S. is trying to make the Commission give up the plan for the road along the shore in one of the loveliest spots. In the Arboretum itself a great deal of work has been done, especially behind the building [the Hunnewell laboratory was completed m 1892] where the Magnolias are to On the way we begin. Beatrix noted Magnolia parviflora [= M. sieboldii) in bloom, though only a small bush, and Magnolia glauca (= M. virginiana), per- fumed almost like a rose. Professor Sargent led 8 An 1894 on June 5 of that photograph of F. L. Olmsted's Brookline home and office, Fairstead. year. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service. turn. Beatiix Farrand visited Fairstead her on to the roses-Rosa spinosissima in bloom and also R. nitida, R. lucida, R. setigeia multiflora, and the Austrian briar were all noted for future use. Other shrubs that caught her eye were the hydrangeas, stewartia, Viburnum molle, and V dentatum in bloom and Fothergilla gardenii, just beginning to fruit. Sargent must have insisted-if Beatrix needed any bidding-that she attend J. G. Jack's dendrology lectures, which he gave that June; and being Beatrix, she would have made the most of every chance to learn from that remarkable character, the chief propagator and Arboretum superintendent, Jackson Dawson. Beatrix would have found him an immensely attractive personality, always willing to answer her questions and explain what he was doing. It seems likely that her later friendship with Chief Propagator Judd was founded on her earlier good relationship with Jackson Dawson. If Beatrix had acquired a foundation of good plant knowledge from her visits to Holm Lea and the Arboretum, especially in that summer of 1894, she still needed to learn in other ways. In the autumn she made arrangements for private courses in technical drawing and Dawson, jovial, good-natured Yorkshireman, resplendent each morning in a fresh boiled a (on which he invariably wiped his plant labels), knew everyone who had any business among his precious plants in the Arborewhite shirt surveying from the teachers at Columbia's fledgling School of Architecture, and she made plans for her very necessary European study tour. This first important tour lasted for six months, from March until October of 1895; 9 she and her mother traveled alone (except for their lady's maid) but met old and new friends in many places, including Teddy and Edith Wharton. Beatrix wrote that Sargent exhorted her \"to see all the gardens she could, and learn from all the great arts as all art is akin.\"He gave her introductions to the Jardin d'Essai in Algiers, where she studied subtropical plants, and to the Rovelli brothers who had a collection of azaleas and rhododendrons near Milan. Charles Eliot was also very helpful, with good advice on parks and gardens he had seen in Paris and Berlin, giving her as well an introduction to the \"very kindly\" Carl Bolle and his marvelous garden of trees on an island in the Tegel. Sargent may well have paved the way for her to meet the reigning triumvirate of English gardeners, William Robinson, Gertrude Jekyll and Theresa Earle, which she did, all in one week in July. Olmsted's advice to William Platt had included his opinion that the \"fine and costly\" Italian gardens had less to offer the young landscape architect than the carefully observed details of the everyday landscape and common places. Beatrix, attuned by Holm Lea dinner-table conversations to the sensitivities of formal versus natural landscape tastes, adopted right from this start her carefully judged position along the middle way, that was to mark the whole of her career. She saw over twenty villa gardens in Italy, as well as the great formal gardens of Germany, France, and England, but it is interesting to note that her first contribution to Garden and Forest (and her first published piece of writing)7 was on the merits of a vernacular stone bridge she had seen in the English Lake District. (She designed very similar bridges for the woodland at Dumbarton Oaks over thirty years afterwards.) She pursued further egalitarian interests in city parks on her return, and it was her ideas for these that brought her to the notice of Samuel Parsons and eventually the embryonic American Society of Landscape Architects. In the April 7, 1897, issue of Garden and Forest, she wrote about a paper that the land- Portrait of Jackson Dawson, chief propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, and a good friend of Beatrix Farrand. Photograph from the Arnold Arboretum Archmes. scape gardener Henry Ernest Milner had delivered in London on \"The Garden in Relation to the House;' which was really concerned with the architect in relation to the landscape gardener. By this time also, Professor Sargent had delighted her by finding her a little job, which she described as to do \"some tree thinning and remodel a little planting on a garden slope.\"By the following autumn, when she gave her first professional interview to the New York Sun (October 31, 1897), she could speak with a breezy, though conscientious confidence of her work-draining a 25-acre swamp, clearing a 40-acre forest plot in Bar Harbor and transforming it \"into a pleasing grove,\" laying out a cemetery at Seal Harbor, as well as more garden work in Bar Harbor and the landscaping of the entrance to Tuxedo Park in New York State-these last two jobs 10 The bridge over the River Kent at Levens Hall, from Garden and Forest, 1896 (vol.9, no. 25). In her first published article, Beatnx Jones described the bridge this way: \"The simple lines and quiet color of this ivy-draped bridge in Westmoreland are what make it satisfying to the eye and an added charm to the stream; it is made from of the country, and the native plants grow about it as familiarly as though it were a boulder playfully deposited there by nature m the ice age.\" the stone being current. The Sun reporter noted her long box full of plans, the three hundred books on her subject, and asked if landscape gardening was profitable, and could a young woman afford to marry on it? Beatrix laughed as she replied that \"she did not think a young woman dedicated to her profession could afford to marry at all.\" Miss Jones, was he also opened up for her his living textbook of shrubs and trees, her professional stock in trade. Endnotes Vol. 44 (5). 407. 2 Arnoldia 9 (2): 6-7, Vol. 9 (9)- 38-43. 3 Vol. 6 (4): 5. 4 Beatrix married Max Farrand in 1913. 5 May 3, 1893, editorial. 6 Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted, John Hopkms, 1973, p. 455. 7 Garden and Forest, January 15, 1896. 8 E. H. Wilson, quoted m A Reunion of Trees, by S. A. Spongberg, Harvard U. Press, 1990. \"twenty-five on years old and to a full and comely\" life and a professional reputation for fine busy work that was truly deserved. Beatrix, whose honesty was one of her most engaging features, never ever forgot that she owed so much well her way, that \"kindliest of autocrats,\"8 her \"Chief' Charles Sprague Sargent and his generously helping her over so many of the professional hurdles that time and society placed in her way. Probably we shall never now know the full extent of his kindnesses. And, of course, to Jane Brown studied landscape design, but, as she says, \"happily diverted to writing.\"She is a prolific writer on the subject of garden history and design, and is currently working on a biography of Beatrix Farrand, from which the above article is extracted. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Why Study Mistletoes?","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25034","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270af28.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Kellogg, Elizabeth A.","article_content":"Why Study Elizabeth A. Mistletoes? Kellogg provides insight into the purposes and processes of This unlikely plant group basic research. nauts If athletes get athlete's foot, what do astroget! Yup, you guessed it-mistletoe. I am getting to an age when I am pleased that I can remember anything I learned in the fourth grade, even if it's just a joke. Fortunately, I have some reason to remember the astronaut one fairly frequently as I continue work on the genus Phoradendron, the largest genus of mistletoes in the Western Hemisphere. It is a group of plants that so few people know about that I feel compelled to write this article in self-defense, not only to explain what mistletoes are (they are often beautiful plants) but also to explain what I am doing with them and a bit about why I am and nutrients. Thus they grow right into the tree trunk or branch, unlike other epiphytes, such as orchids and tropical ferns, that merely perch. Mistletoes have fleshy fruits with a layer of sticky mucilage surrounding the seed. The fruits are generally bird-dispersed. After the seed has passed through the bird's gut, the mucilage allows it to stick firmly to a branch where it will then germinate and form a new haustorium. Taxonomy of a Little-Known are The mistletoes sometimes Family grouped in a doing it. The most familiar mistletoe, of course, is the waxy little plant that is hung in strategic places at Christmas time. In this country the species is Phoradendron leucarpum, a U.S. native; most plants sold commercially come from New Mexico and Oklahoma (Howard and Wood, 1955). Its European counterpart is Viscum album, a plant that figures in Norse mythology and later was endowed with magical properties by the Druids. All mistletoes are parasites on woody plants. Like most other plants, they have green leaves and manufacture their own food, but unlike other plants, they have no roots; instead they form a complex absorptive organ called a haustorium that penetrates the vascular system of their host, absorbing water single family, the Loranthaceae, but the loranths are more often divided into several different families (Loranthaceae, Viscaceae, Eremolepidaceae, and Misodendraceae) because of major differences in floral form and possibly of evolutionary history; Loranthaceae and Viscaceae together comprise by far the majority of the species. The Loranthaceae, in its most narrow sense, includes mistletoes mostly with large, strikingly colored, birdpollinated flowers and equally showy fruits. The mistletoes that I study, however, are in the Viscaceae, in which the major genera are Viscum, Phoradendron, and Dendrophthora, all bearing tiny, inelegant flowers with three or four sepals and no petals at all. Also included here are dwarf mistletoes, the genus Arceuthobium, a serious pest in timber trees in the western United States. As the haustorium of these dwarf mistletoes penetrates the wood, it causes strange deformations and 12 . Vicium album, the legendary mistletoe of Europe. In North America, species in the genus Phoradendron are used as substitutes for this plant at Christmas time. From The Biology of Parasitic Flowering Plants by Job Kuijt, University of California Press, 1969. branching, which effectively ruins that portion of the tree for lumber. Despite the lack of showy flowers, Viscaceae are frequently beautiful when alive. Their leaves are thick and glossy, often a yellowish green that contrasts with the surrounding trees. The plants have white, red, or orange berries that stand out against the leafy stems. excessive When the plants are collected, pressed, and dried, however, they become something only a taxonomist could love-and only a few taxonomists at that. The glossy foliage becomes dull and turns dark brown; the berries shrivel and lose their color; the flowers solidify. More annoying, the jointed stems tend to break at the nodes, so the leaves and inflorescences fall 13 off. All herbarium specimens are accompanied by an envelope of fallen leaves, broken stems, and inflorescences; in fact, with some specimens, nothing is glued to the herbarium sheet at all-everything is stuffed into the envelope. A Personal Encounter I began studying mistletoes seven years ago while I was working with Dr. Richard Howard, former director of the Arboretum, on his Flora of the Lesser Antilles. At that time he asked me to prepare descriptions and keys for the Loranthaceae and Viscaceae of the area (Kellogg, 1987a, b). Writing up most genera was straightforward because I could refer to the work of Dr. Job Kuijt (now at the University of Victoria, Victoria, B. C.), who has spent his studying the natural history, taxbiology of parasitic plants (for example, see Kuijt, 1961, 1966). Possibly the only group Job has tried to avoid is the genus Phoradendron. As I began working on it, I could see why. The problems with Phoradendron are several: First, there are between 100 and 150 species, primarily in Central and South America, with many of these extending into the Caribbean region. Second, leaf shape within a single species is very variable, making it hard to tell if two dissimilar plants may really be representatives of the same species. Third, and most important, the botanist Wilcareer onomy, and Phoradendron guatemalense Kuiit. Reprinted from Proc. Kon. Ned. Akad. v. Wetensch. Vol. 93, no. 2, p. 146 (1990). liam Trelease worked on the genus; in 1916 he published a massive volume on its taxonomy (Trelease, 1916). Trelease, like many botanists around the turn of the century, had what is called \"a narrow species concept.\" This means that virtually any variation, no matter how subtle, was assumed to represent a different species and thus to require a new name. If the slightly different plant occurred in a different place, all the more reason to name it. Thus, for example, Phoradendron piperoides is a South American species, and the name had also been used for similar plants in the Caribbean. Trelease, however, felt that some of the Caribbean plants had a distinc- shape, which meant they should get he called them P. ficulneum. My task in studying the Caribbean Phoradentive leaf a new name so drons was to link up these names and to determine if Trelease's distinctions held up. In some cases they did, but in others, like P. piperoideslficulneum, there seemed no reason to think that the two were different species; hence all are now grouped under the name P. piperoides. An aid in this sort of detective work is the requirement that all botanists designate a type specimen when they describe a new species. Thus when Trelease gave the name Phoraden- 14 of plants, he noted being a representative of that name. The specimen happens to have been collected by E. L. Ekman in Haiti and a duplicate (isotype) is in the herbarium dron ficulneum a to a group as particular specimen at Kew. When I went men (among others), to Kew to see the speciit was easy to see that it could be included in P. piperoides. I also discovered that Trelease occasionally same type specimen for two differspecies names, that is, he named the same thing twice, perhaps an easy mistake to make used the ent when you consider how many names he produced in his lifetime. Once I determined what had happened, I could correct it, with the earliest name taking precedence. The results of this work were presented in a regional monograph, or revision (Kellogg and the necessary information for Steyermark's flora (now being completed under the editorship of Dr. Paul Berry). In the process of doing this flora, we have found what appear to be several new species-ones without any names at all, Trelease notwithstanding. This is not surprising for a plant that grows on rain forest trees: the trees themselves are often poorly known, and plants growing in their uppermost branches are even more unlikely to have been found. My study of Phoradendron is in many ways a typical piece of systematic work, the kind of study undertaken by research botanists at the Arnold Arboretum since its establishment. In this large genus, new species are rou- tinely found by plant collectors; the existing taxonomic literature is large and somewhat Howard, 1986). The Job Gets Bigger Some time after I had finished the Caribbean work, I was asked by the late Dr. Julian Steyermark, of the Missouri Botanical Garden, to write keys to the species of Phoradendron for his Flora of the Venezuelan Guyana, the eastern part of Venezuela that includes the tepuis. Job Kuijt was working on Dendrophthora, the closest relative of Phoradendron, as well as all the other Venezuelan mistletoes, but Phoradendron required a major independent commitment of time. Furthermore, the nature of the work in Phoradendron demands a big herbarium with a comprehensive library, such as the Harvard University Herbaria, one of only a few institutions where this sort of study can be easily done. In undertaking the project, I have had to become familiar with the South American members of the genus and have begun to produce a full monograph, which will quite likely be completed by Job, including all the names (wrong ones linked with the right ones), complete species descriptions, and lists of representative specimens. I have nearly finished the Venezuelan species, and from the long monographic manuscript I have extracted - Phoradendron molinae Kuijt. Reprinted Missouri Bot. Gard. Vol. 74, p. 520 from (1987). Ann. 15 confused. The approach I take is illustrative of the analytical nature of taxonomy: the specimens are first grouped into sets of plants that look alike; they are quite literally put into piles of matching plants. This is the most time-consuming part of the process, and the stage at which most of the analysis takes place. It requires solving dozens of smaller problems along the way: for example, if leaf shape varies among some of the plants, does this mean that they belong in separate stacks of specimens (that is, represent separate spe- cies), or does it just mean that shape changes in response to light or moisture conditions? Or, as another example, if one plant is wholly male and another wholly female, do they really belong together, or have I found the male of one species and the female of another? Once I am happy with the contents of each stack of specimens, I write a formal species description. Only then can the appropriate name be determined-by working out which type specimens fall into each stack. Finally, an identification key can be constructed. Traditionally, all this is solitary work; the Phoradendron study is somewhat unusual in that it requires close collaboration with Job. Although he is studying the sister genus to Phoradendron, the two groups are so similar that we sometimes make mistakes and end up with each other's specimens. What Is Basic Research? But all of the foregoing begs the question, So what? How do I justify days and weeks spent writing descriptions and keys of an obscure tropical plant? The answer lies in part in the nature of basic research: basic, as opposed to applied, research is work with no immediate application. It increases the store of human knowledge on the assumption that the increase is a good thing in itself, and will lead to future application. Consider, for instance, the work of Gregor Mendel, whose experiments and results are studied and memorized by every beginning student of biology. Mendel was an Austrian monk who, in the midnineteenth century, did a series of experi- The mucilaginous fruits of Phoradendron trinervium. Photographed in Montserrat by R. A. Howard. on garden peas, experiments that form the basis of the modem science of genetics. Mendel crossed plants that produced smooth yellow peas with those that produced wrinkled green peas and counted the number of smooth and wrinkled yellow and green peas in the resulting offspring. He was able to show that each characteristic was controlled by a single inherited factor that we would now call a gene. But we can be sure that he didn't know that his work would form the basis for such diverse applications as plant breeding, animal production, and understanding of such heritable diseases as hemophilia and cystic fibrosis. This is typical of basic research-its immediate value is negligible and its ultimate ments 16 Tbby Kellogg collecting a mistletoe in the genus Amyema in Australia in 1988. 17 value cannot possibly be assessed. The work itself seems arcane, even silly at times; somehow counting smooth and wrinkled peas does not fit with an image of \"serious\" scholarship. Yet that work has profoundly affected our lives over a century later. There are currently many questions about the relationship of basic research to society today: how much scientific effort should be directed to basic, rather than applied, research? To what extent should the general public foot the bill? How should something without obvious application be evaluated? These are not easy questions, particularly in times when public money is in short supply. The Desire to Know But there is a more immediate and personal question, and that is, How does an individual motivate herself for such work? I don't get paid to do it, and even those who are paid will never become wealthy, so money is hardly the answer. There is a large element of deferred gratification, in some respects like teaching, in that a teacher will probably never really know the sort of impact she has had on her students. Similarly, I may never know the value (if any) of my work on Phoradendron. Certainly any taxonomic study of a tropical plant group can be justified by the rapid destruction of the rain forest. We need to know what grows there before it is gone forever; we need to know areas of greatest diversity to set priorities for what to preserve. And there is the argument that many, many medicines were originally extracted from plants. The National Cancer Institute continues to fund plant collection in order to screen plants for anticarcinogens; some of this work is currently being done by Dr. John Burley at the Arboretum. Similarly, the Pacific yew, Taxus brevifolia, has been used effectively in treating some forms of ovarian cancer. This application has generated interest in other species of the genus, which in turn requires that someone has already completed the basic work describing what species there are and how to tell them apart. But I would never work on Phoradendron if the sole incentive were the possibility that someday someone would find a use for it. The motivation is much more immediate and fundamental, what the poet Robinson Jeffers called \"the curious desire for knowing.\" It is something as human as the desire to create a symphony or a song, or a sculpture or a story. It is the desire to solve a puzzle that explains part of the world. The truth is Phoradendron is fun. Which brings me back to the fourth grade. Remember how clever you felt when you thought you'd learned a secret? I now know a lot about some very curious plants-I know a secret now. And the next most fun part of secrets, of course, is telling them to your friends. References Howard, R. in A., and C. E. Wood. 1955. Christmas plants the Boston area. Arnoldia 15: 61-84. Kellogg, E. A., and R. A. Howard. 1986. A revision of the West Indian species of Phoradendron (Viscaceae). Jour Arnold Arbor. 67: 65-107. Kellogg, E. A., and R. A. Howard. 1988 Loranthaceae. In Vol. 4, Flora of the Lesser Antilles, R. A. Howard (ed.). Jamaica Plain, Mass.: Arnold Arboretum, pp. 97-101. Kellogg, E. A., and R. A. Howard. pp. 102-114. 1988. Viscaceae. In Vol. 4, Flora of the Lesser Antilles, R. A. Howard (ed.). Jamaica Plain, Mass.: Arnold Arboretum, Kuijt,.J. 1961. A revision of Dendrophthora (Loranthaceae). Wentia 6: 1-145. Kui]t, J. 1969. The Biology of Parasitic Flowering Plants. Berkeley: Trelease, W. U. Calif. Press. 1916. The genus Phoradendron. Urbana: U. Illinois. Acknowledgments Thanks to L. Pierce and J. ments on the manuscript. Kuijt for their helpful com- Elizabeth Kellogg earned her Ph.D. in biology from Harvard m 1983, and is an Associate of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25033","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270ab6f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"Sweet Pepperbush: A Summer Sensation Michael A. Dirr Native is now to the wetlands of much of eastern North America, Clethra spreading into the cultivated landscape. alnifolia My olfactory dated by the ingly occurs have often been inunfloral perfume of the seemubiquitous sweet pepperbush that senses rounded because of its sweet along water edges and moist areas throughout its Maine to Florida range. While Clethra alnifolia's landscape worthiness has never been exploited by gardeners and nurseries, new and resurrected cultivars of the species are nature. Size is variable with a of 2 to 3 meters to 9 occurring most However, at the Howe Estate height commonly. at a suckering, colonizing extremely (6 feet) currently stimulating interest. Gardeners are pleading for flowering shrubs out of synchronization with the April-May bonanza. Clethra typically flowers in July and August, and it is obvious from observing native populations that selections for a continuum of flowering times could be made. The delightful sweet floral fragrance from which the plant derives its common name is among the best in the shrub world. The individual five-petaled, white flowers are 8 millimeters in diameter and occur in racemes 5 to 15 centimeters long (2 to 6 inches) and 2 centimeters wide (0.75 inches). The fruit is a dry, dehiscent, five-valved capsule that persists into winter. to dark green leaves 3 to 10 centimeters long (1 to 4 inches) and sharply serrate. In the fall the leaves develop a lovely golden to yellow color that ages to a are Island, I stared in disbelief six-meter-tall (18 feet) specimen and muttered repeatedly, \"It's not supposed to grow this large.\" In the Arnold Arboretum's extensive collections, Clethra alni folia is represented by seventeen different accessions, with #23139-A (a compact, densely branched, heavily flowered colony of unknown origin) measuring 2.5 meters high (8 feet), 12 meters wide (36 feet), and 13 meters long (40 feet). Remarkably it is prospering in the shade and root competition of two large shagbark hickories (Carya ovata). Propagation Clethra is easily propagated from seeds that require no preconditioning and can be sown as soon as in Newport, Rhode ripe. Softwood cuttings root read- The lustrous medium golden brown. The fall foliage, like that of Fothergilla and Calycanthus, is quite longlasting, due in part to its resistance to damage from freezing temperatures. The growth habit of this late-summerblooming shrub is distinctly rounded to broad- ily with or without a hormone treatment, but a five-second dip in an aqueous solution of 1000-ppm KIBA is an inexpensive insurance. Jack Alexander, chief propagator at the Arboretum, and I conducted a media rooting study utilizing Clethra alni folia as the test plant. Rooting was 94% in a peat and perlite mix, 83% in perlite, 78% in peat, and 56% in sand or sand\/perlite. Clethra is one of the few plants in which cuttings continue to grow while under mist. 19 A the large colony of Clethra alnifolia, Accession #23139-A, growmg at the Arnold Arboretum. Of unknown colony is now 2.5 meters high, 12 meters wide, and 13 meters long. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. summer as age, The cultural adaptability of Clethra alnifolia is phenomenal, and I have observed thriving specimens throughout the upper Midwest, New England, and south into Georgia. The species adapts to wet and dry sites as well as to a variety of soil pH's. The dry New England of 1991 exposed many shrubs, such weigela, deutzia, philadelphus and hydrangea, as less than drought tolerant. Sweet pepperbush, however, showed no signs of drought stress. But mites can be a problem when conditions are extremely hot and dry. 20 With the new and resurrected cultivars, Clethra can find a home in any landscape. Mass plantings along waterways and shady areas are always effective. Use the pinkflowered or compact forms in shrub and perennial borders. I used the pink form as a foundation plant in my Georgia garden and have pruned it back once in thirteen years. Since flowers develop on the new growth of the season, late winter or early spring pruning is recommended. Cultivar List 'Anne Bidwell' was grown by Mrs. John Bidwell, of Cotuit, Massachusetts, from, C. alnifolia seed purchased through F. W. The inflorescences of Clethra alnifolia, Accession #23139-A. Photograph by Rdcz and Debreczy. 21 Schumacher of Sandwich, Massachusetts. The habit is more restrained (4 to 6 feet high) than the species, but the genuine difference resides in the large, multibranched, almost fluffy, flower panicles that are 10 to 15 centimeters long (4 to 6 inches) and 8 to 12 centimeters wide (3 to 5 inches). In Massachusetts the flowers open two to three weeks later than those of the species. This clone is currently being propagated and will soon be released through the Arnold Arboretum's Plant Introduction Program. An announcement of its availability will appear in a forthcoming issue of Arnoldia. produced a range from 7 to 19 centimeters (2.75 to 6.25 inches) with an average length of 10 centimeters (4 inches). At Swarthmore College, 'Hummingbird' is used as an effective ground cover. I am extremely inflorescences positive about the landscape possibilities of this selection. Fred Galle of Hamilton, Georgia, is responsible for bringing this plant into cultivation. 'Paniculata' supposedly represents a clone with multibranched inflorescences. What currently poses in the trade for 'Paniculata' is doubtful and certainly no better than what can be found in many wild populations. I surveyed several native populations on Cape Cod and found everything from the single unbranched raceme type to many clones with the multibranched racemose-panicle. 'Pink Spires' and 'Rosea' (forma rosea) are pink-flowered forms with the wonderful fragrance of the species. Although 'Rosea' is described as pink fading to pinkish white, plants in my Georgia garden maintain the pink coloration until senescence. Supposedly, 'Pink Spires' remains uniformly pink throughout the flowering cycle. I examined both clones at the Arnold and saw no difference in color. 'Rosea' was introduced in 1906, and it is possible that 'Pink Spires' is simply a rename. Both clones are vigorous growers, easily reaching 2 to 3 meters (6 to 9 feet). The leaves are lustrous dark green, perhaps several degrees darker than the white-flowered types. Inflorescences average 7 to 9 centimeters (3 to 3.5 inches), and the buds are deep rose-pink while the open flowers are lighter pink. In both of these clones, the peak flowering period is about a week later than the species. 'Compacta' ('Nana') was given to me by Mr. Simeone, an undergraduate at the University of Georgia, who obtained it from a friend on Long Island. It is more compact than the species and will probably mature between 1 and 1.5 meters tall (3 to 4 feet). Leaves and flowers, to date, are smaller than those typically found in the species. Vincent 'Creel's Calico' is, as of this writing, an unreleased selection with beautiful variegated foliage. The leaves emerge with cream variegation that is primarily speckled but with some solid areas on some leaves. In transition the leaves are bright green with creamy variegation ; in maturity, they are black green with pure white variegation. The leaves are large and average 10 centimeters long (4 inches). The original plant was a stoloniferous colony about one meter high (3 feet). To my knowledge, this is the first variegated clone of the species. In shady environments, a mass planting would provide eye-catching color. 'Hummingbird' is the current haute couture of plant fashion. Its compact habit (1 to 1.5 meters), in conjunction with normal-sized leaves, flowers, and fruits, is this cultivar's principal asset. Plants will be wider than high at maturity. Random measurements of twelve Michael Dirr is a Professor of Horticulture at the University of Georgia m Athens and recently concluded a sabbatical leave as a Putnam Fellow of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Harvard Garden in Cuba- A Brief History","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25032","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270a76b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Cahan, Marion D.","article_content":"The Harvard Garden in Cuba-A Brief Marion D. Cahan in 1899, the Atkins Garden became History Begun a model for the development of many later tropical botanical gardens. The Harvard garden in Cuba was Harvard's virtually unknown jewel. Few people, other than those actively involved in the study of tropical plants, have ever been aware of its existence. While the garden was primarily devoted to the improvement of sugar cane for commercial purposes, it was also the site of research in other areas of tropical agriculture and botany. The unique blend of economic reality and academic vision that characterized the garden produced farsighted results that subsequently served as a model for the development of tropical botanical gardens in other countries. As a center for tropical plant research and sugar cane investigation, the Harvard Botanic Station was established on the Atkins sugar estate at Soledad, Cienfuegos, Cuba, in the summer of 1899 at a conference attended by businessman Edwin F. Atkins and Professors Oakes Ames and George L. Goodale, both of Harvard University. This meeting initiated the development of what was to become one of the richest tropical gardens in the world. Without the vision of the those who were so deeply involved in its conception and implementation, this institution would probably not have been created. Agriculture, to seek his opinion about expanding the sugar cane industry in Cuba. Wilson discouraged him, believing that the climate of Cuba was not suitable for the enterprise, and warned against spending large sums of money on a wholly doubtful venture. Atkins's response at the time was, \"When one lawyer gives me advice that I do not like, I go to another lawyer,\" and so he consulted Professor George Goodale of Harvard for his opinion, who in turn consulted his colleague, Professor Oakes Ames of the botany department. Both Goodale and Ames supported Atkins's proposal with enthusiasm, and history eventually proved Atkins right about the suitability of Cuba for expanded sugar cane cultivation. As a result of that first meeting in Cuba in 1899, Edwin Atkins gave Harvard University a gift of $2,500, of which $2,000 was to be used for a traveling fellowship in economic botany. The recipient of this fund was to visit certain stations in the far eastern and western tropics where experiments on the improvement of economically important plants, par- ticularly Inception of the Garden As a businessman, Edwin Atkins was interested in increasing the profits from his sugar cane operation. He had previously consulted Edward Wilson, then Secretary of The sugar cane, were in progress. In these early days, there was no official connection between the Botanical Garden of Harvard University and the garden in Cubathe latter being Mr. Atkins's personal property-nor was there an endowment or land to which the university had title. The cooperative efforts of Atkins and Harvard to further research and development in the field 23 Enterolobium feet tall with cyclocarpum (Legummosae) growing in the Harvard tropical garden in Cienfuegos. The a spread of 100 feet. Photographed in 1928 by Alfred Rehder. island became tree is 50 of tropical botany served their mutual benefit. The first superintendent, Robert M. Grey, was paid by the Atkins fund, chiefly for services rendered in the development of sugar cane. Both Ames and Goodale were optimistic and keenly interested in establishing a biological institute in Cuba. Goodale, whose primary interest was zoology, \"adopted\" the garden on his own authority. At a later date, Professor Ames was appointed its first official director. a colony of Spain, and slaves eventually brought in from Africa to work the fields that were created by cutting down the indigenous forest. While the island was initially populated by the descendents of these slaves and by immigrants from Spain, many other nationalities settled in Cuba, including an influx of North American were Early History The history of the garden is inextricably linked to the history of Cuba. Shortly after the discovery of the island by Europeans, the native American Indians were either killed or died as a result of introduced diseases. The businessmen in the mid-1800s. The town of Cienfuegos, located on the western side of Cuba, was founded in 1819 as a result of the development of sugar lands by Trinidadian families who had come to the island with their slaves for that purpose. Eventually the area became one of the most economically important parts of the island. An American, Elisha F. Atkins, had established 24 ' A panoramic view of the palm collection at the Harvard tropical garden. Photograph by E. G. Stillman, 1941. A vista of the Harvard tropical garden. Photograph by E. G. Stillman, 1941. 25 26 Hura crepitans (Euphorbiaceae) growing in front of the Harvard house at the Harvard tropical garden in Cienfuegos. in 1928 Photographed a by Al fred Rehder. At the age of sixteen, Edwin had left the in Boston on January 24, 1866, and had sailed from New York to take charge of his father's business interests in Cien- sugar business in Cuba in 1838, heading the firm called E. Atkins & Co. Initially he had started a banking commission business for Cuban sugar producers, advancing money on sugar crops and molasses to be shipped to the United States. Through purchases and foreclosure proceedings, the Atkins Company eventually acquired many sugar estates, including Soledad, the most important one family home fuegos. Initially a receiving clerk, within two years he was given responsibility for the management of the business, his father having assumed the vice presidency of the Union Pacific Railroad, a post he held until his death in 1882. The year 1882 marked the beginning of the Atkins sugar-producing business in Cuba. developed prior to 1850. When Elisha Atkins first came to Cienfuegos, practically all the sugar business was in the hands of Spanish merchants. This situation changed during the 1870s when beet sugar produced in Europe first provided serious competition to cane sugar. To counteract this situation, Elisha's son Edwin expanded his father's commission business to include the actual cultivation and production of sugar. Soledad, the primary plantation, which consisted of 4,500 acres of beautiful land isolated by hills and mountains, was taken over by Atkins by foreclosure in 1884. With Edwin assuming active supervision, the mill was ready for production within a year with a labor force comprised of Africans and 27 Chinese. He gradually acquired more land and, within twenty-five years, had one of the most modern and progressively managed sugar estates on the island. In 1892, Edwin took over another large plantation in the city of Trinidad on a long-term lease and became president of the Trinidad Sugar Company, eventually acquiring many adjacent sugar estates. The success of these ventures attracted a large colony of Americans to the In area. appointed superintendent of the garden, with his salary paid out of the Atkins fund. His tasks were to lay out trial beds for vegetables and to produce new varieties of sugar cane by hybridizing different strains. The overall purpose of the project was to develop cane that not only was resistant to the fungal diseases but also had a higher sugar content. Perfecting his own techniques with great success, Grey remained in Cuba for over thirty years, maintaining a record of distinguished service until his retirement in 1936. During the first few years, operations at Cienfuegos were largely devoted to the sugar cane work; however, Grey also imported many other plants and fruit trees from Florida for experimentation, developing one of the largest collections of tropical plants in the Western Hemisphere. An additional purpose of the garden, beyond the study of sugar cane, was to introduce as many different kinds of plants as possible and to experiment with their cultivation. Letters from 1901 to 1902 sent to Professor Ames by Hugo Bohnhof, an assistant to Mr. Grey, reported good results with lettuce, tomatoes, cabbage, beans, cucumbers, and artichokes. In later years, experiments with bananas, cocoa, coffee, and rubber proved successful; however, cotton and tea crops were unrest spread throughout Cuba, due primarily to Spain's increasingly repressive presence on the island. Serious problems existed in the form of low production, unemployment, theft, hunger, 1894, general political and poverty. Because of these persistent difficulties, Atkins kept plantation employment at a low level. Fostered by American business interests, there was a growing sentiment in the United States to encourage the indepen- dence of Cuba. The island was still under Spanish military rule in 1896 when Atkins lobbied Washington to protect American properties. The political tensions ultimately led to the Spanish-American War, which Spain lost-along with Cuba, her last colony. A brief American occupation of the island followed the conclusion of the war, and in 1898 the United States recognized the independence of Cuba. The Growth of the Garden The original Atkins fund, established in 1899, was to be used to support the garden after Edwin's death. In 1901, the Harvard Botanic Station for research and sugar cane investigation was formally inaugurated, situated in the area called Colonia Limones, a barren but picturesque site. Robert M. Grey, a renowned horticulturist employed by Professor Ames, was commissioned to visit Soledad in December 1900 to investigate the cane-flowering conditions and to locate a site for the new garden. He had lived in the warm tropics of South America and was admirably qualified for this new task in subtropical Cuba. In 1901, he was failures. In the early days of the garden, many of the best-known tropical fruit trees were established on a trial basis. Citrus was one of the early subjects of the research program; hundreds of hybrid mango seedlings were produced and tested. A choice collection of ornamental plants from Professor Ames's conservatories in North Easton, Massachusetts, were also sent to the garden in 1901, along with seeds and plants from the Harvard Botanical Garden in Cambridge. Sugar Breeding Before the inception of the garden, and during its early years, the principal variety of sugar cane grown in Cuba, 'Cristalina,' was performing badly because of a combination of factors, primarily fungal diseases, exhausted 28 soil, and climatic problems. tion of newer cane A small collecvarieties was immediately little or no the older cultivars. improvement Between 1902 and 1904, the first improved cane seedlings were produced as a result of the successful hybridization experiments initiated by Grey. During the cane breeding season of 1906-07, planted, but these produced years. Grey also hybridized oranges, grapefruit, mangos, and many other fruit trees that flowered in the garden. But sedges, planted over 320 clones, mostly hybrid seedlings produced by Grey, were retained for use in the canebreeding program. Several varieties, superior 'Cristalina' in size and sugar content, were selected for large-scale commercial cultivation. They proved drought resistant, disease tolerant, and high yielding under a variety of soil types. The best all-round performer was Harvard #12,029. In 1908, experimental hybridizing between the best varieties of these commercial canes and Japanese canes took place. Eventually these seedlings were crossed with Chinese and North Indian varieties, and they too proved to be commercially successful. By 1912, at the second Cuban National Exposition, the Atkins garden exhibited thirty distinct varieties of the new Harvard seedlings. These plants had the distinction of being the only canes of Cuban origin among the many others exhibited. Subsequently, cane breeding on other estates in Cuba was successfully carried out. to experimentally, grew so rapidly that they were a costly nuisance and were eventually eradicated. Forage legumes and grasses also gave unsatisfactory results. In 1908, experiments with flowering and ornamental plants (northern annuals, herbaceous perennials, bulbs, and roses) failed because of the hot, damp summer weather and the prevalent fungal diseases. The rose collection brought together in 1908 was discontinued in 1925, at which time there about seventy different varieties. were On June 3, 1911, a forty-five minute cyclone severely damaged or destroyed buildings, trees, and crops. Replanting was initiated immediately and recovery was rapid. The following years were devoted to planting new species and increasing the garden area. By December 31, 1925, the garden contained 144 families, 629 genera, and 1358 species-exclusive of native species. Stronger Ties with Harvard Pleased with the sugar cane research and other developments at the garden, and by this time deeply interested in the scientific approach to tropical agriculture, Atkins, on Building the Collections By 1903, the garden contained some 243 genera and 400 species of plants. The growing collection, constantly augmented by imported plants as well as native species from different parts of the island, necessitated the construction of a second greenhouse in 1907. Also in 1903, eighteen Cuban-grown banana varieties were brought together to form a collection, which was still being maintained in 1926. There were, in addition, a few species of cycads, a large palm collection, and a fine assemblage of bamboo and other grasses. Leading varieties of strawberries and their hybrids were successfully cultivated for many December 9, 1919, gave $100,000 to perpetuate the project. From the beginning, the Harvard Botanical Station in Cuba and Harvard University had maintained a hazy relationship, as Atkins had never passed any land to Harvard and had paid only for the expenses of the garden. In 1920, the connection between the garden and Harvard was cemented by this large gift of money, and the garden became a recognized part of the university. Edwin Atkins died in Cuba in 1926 at the age of seventy-four; his wife continued the family interest in the garden throughout her long life. In 1924, the Harvard Biological Laboratory was constructed at the garden, along with a house for the use of scientists who came to study. Scholarships were available to Harvard 29 students interested in tropical biology. A new section of several acres was added to the garden in the spring of 1929, devoted to the cultivation and preservation of native hardwoods and timber trees. Unfortunately, this project was short-lived; most of the trees were destroyed when the land was cleared for cane cultivation and other agricultural pursuits. In 1932, administration of the Harvard Experimental Station in Cuba was transferred to the Arnold Arboretum and renamed The Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, as voted by the Harvard Corporation; interest then shifted from commercial crops to the planting of tropical tree species imported from Florida, Jamaica, the East Indies, Australia, tropical Africa, and Central America. In the following years, the collections grew, more land was purchased, and numerous researchers came to the Atkins Institution to pursue botanical field work. The garden reached its zenith of beauty and diversity at this time. The travel restrictions imposed during World War II, however, made it difficult for botanists to travel to Cuba, and the number of foreign visitors declined. In 1946, the garden was divorced from the Arnold Arboretum, and the name, once again, was changed-to the Atkins Garden and Research Laboratory, with Dr. Arthur G. Kevorkian as the first resident director. His job was to convert the garden to a tropical agricultural research facility, concentrating on crops specifically adapted to the environmental conditions prevailing in Cuba. Dr. Kevorkian resigned in 1949, and Dr. Duncan Clement (Ph.D. Harvard '48) became the new director. Under his aegis, the garden assumed greater significance as a scientific institute. The garden flourished during the ensuing years, benefiting tropical research and horticulture, and advancing the welfare of Cuba. Some of the damage caused by a severe storm at an unknown date. 30 Professor j. at G. Tack, of the Arnold Arboretum staff, at the Harvard tropical garden in Cienfuegos. Photographed in work pressing specimens in the Harvard house laboratory 1928 by Alfred Rehder. or Jamaica. Those botanists who recognized the growing importance of tropical botany and who had made use of the garden's facilities felt a tremendous loss. Harvard University's operation of the Cuban garden was suspended indefinitely on September 1, 1961. By 1957, the garden's influence extended well beyond the confines of the island. In 1958, Cuban society was disturbed by political unrest, and by 1959, the Communist revolution was in full progress. Initially this had little effect on the garden, and work there continued as before. By 1961, however, increased uncertainties and difficulties caused a breakdown in the operation. Dr. Clement left Cuba in January 1961, financial support was terminated by Harvard in August of that year, and all plant records were transferred to Cambridge. Satisfactory operation of the garden had become a casualty of the deteri- orating political situation. When diplomatic and consular relations between the United States and Cuba terminated, traveling to Cuba from the United States became very difficult, requiring a visa from a third country such as Mexico, Canada, The Garden Tbday With improved political conditions, it was hoped that the Atkins Garden and Research Laboratory would be reactivated and would resume its former position in the Institute of Plant Sciences at Harvard. To date, this has not come to pass, but the monies set aside to support the garden are still used to support research in tropical botany through the Atkins Fellowships administered by Harvard. According to Dr. Duncan Clement, who wrote to the author on February 9, 1991, from Pembroke Pines, Florida, the garden survives 31 Oakes Ames2014 A Harvard Botanist Oakes Ames and his critical role in the history of the Cuban garden's development and its absorption into the Harvard administration. Oakes Ames was an instructor in botany at Harvard from 1899 to 1909, and almost concurrently (from 1900 to 1910) was director of the Harvard Botanical Garden in Cambridge. A practical botanist, Ames had an extensive knowledge of plant growth and form. Shortly after he became director of the Arnold Arboretum, he interested President Lowell in transferring the administration of the Cuban garden to the Arnold Arboretum, and with the financial support of Edwin F. Atkins, the garden in 1927 became known as the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum. It had been Ames's wish to endow a professorship at the garden and thus give it worldwide academic stature, but this never occurred. Although Oakes Ames was involved in the development of a variety of economically important plants at the Cuban garden, his prime interest was in orchids, which he collected from many sources, including Cuba, and cultivated in his greenhouses in North Easton, Massachusetts. His estate, called Borderland, consisted of some twelve hundred acres and included a stone house (completely fireproof for the protection of his books) over which still hangs a huge bronze and gold bell he purchased from the sugar estate at Limones, once used to call the slaves to and from work. This tract of land and the imposing stone house were transferred to the Commonwealth of Massachusetts in 1971. Now called Borderland State Park, it is open to the public. Oakes Ames was a sensitive man with the mind of a scholar and the soul of a poet. He was deeply disturbed \"by holding in bondage one's fellow man and driving him to and from work by the note of the doleful bell, a kettle drum aided by the stinging of the lash.\" It was this bell that he brought back with him to hang over his house in North Easton, as if it were a symbol for him of the liberation of the slaves of Cuba. Ames fervently hoped that the garden would be a thing of beauty in addition to its practical and scientific value. He introduced showy palms and other trees for the purpose of enhancing the appearance of the garden for visitors. A letter, dated December 17, 1930, from Modesto Martinez to Thomas Barbour, who succeeded Ames as director of the garden in 1922, demonstrates how ably Ames succeeded: The Garden is a Garden of Dreams, is a Paradise. Even the oriental trees and palms remmd the visitor of the biblical legend; I found, bordering a pond, the bullrushes where Moses was found by the Pharaoh's daughter. One detail will give you an idea of how I felt m that Garden: I was for ten hours there, seeing every tree, every plant, every bush, without any food because I was so happy and I was learning so many things. 32 today as a tourist attraction. He noted that two tourist events involving the garden had an of Edwin F. Atkms. Cambridge, Mass.: Riverside Press, privately printed. article in El Nuevo language edition of the Miami Herald), excerpted from the Cuban newspaper Granma. These were, first, Cuban Aviacion has inaugurated a new weekly route from Toronto, Canada, to Cienfuegos, which the paper called the \"third most important tourist destination in Cuba\"; and, second, the German cruise ship Miss Berlin included Cienfuegos in its itinerary between Key West and Grand Cayman. Granma emphasized that tourists could enjoy the three four-star hotels in the city, as well as other attractions, such as the \"Jardin Botanico.\" The most recent information on the garden comes from Professor Duane Kolterman of the department of botany at the University of Puerto Rico. Writing in Harvard Magazine (July-August 1991), he notes that the garden is administered by the Academia de Ciencias de Cuba: \"It has a director, a small scientific staff, and maintenance personnel. While the plant collections are in fine shape, the staff expressed considerable interest in exchanging information and library materials with botanists and horticulturists outside of Cuba.\" References been mentioned in Herald (the Spanish Barbour, T. 1943. Natural at Brown. Large. Boston: Little, Barbour, T., and Grey, Soledad. H. M. Robinson. 1940. Forty years of Scientific Monthly 51: 140-146. R. M. 1927. Soledad Estate, Cienfuegos, Cuba. In Report of the Harvard Botanical Gardens. Cambridge, Popenoe, W. Mass.: Harvard U. Press. 1929. The Harvard botanic garden at Soledad. Harvard Graduate Magazine 37 (3): 281-285. Primary Sources from the Harvard University Archives: Records of the Atkins Garden and Research Laboratory, 1898-1946; four containers. Subjects: Sl Ames, Oakes: S2 Barbour, Thomas; S3 Kevorkian, Arthui; S4 Atkms Institution of the Arnold Arboretum; S5 Botany-Cuba. Location: Harvard Archives: UAV231.xxx Letters and writings of Ames, Oakes (botany); two boxes. Contents: Letters to his family and autobiographical writings (MS), 1902-1949 This collection formed the basis for Pauline Ames Plimpton's book about her father, Oakes Ames: Jottings of a Harvard Botanist (1979). Atkins, E. F. 1926. Sixty Years in Cuba. Reminiscences Marion Davis Cahan is a graduate of Radcliffe College, an architect, and presently a volunteer at the Arnold Arboretum. She would be delighted to hear from any readers who have visited the garden since the revolution. CORRECTION: Ginkgo biloba In the article that appeared in the last issue of Arnoldia (vol. 51, no. 2, 1991) entitled \"Ginkgos and People: A Thousand Years of Interaction,\" a sentence on page 10 reads, \"The Ginkgo tree is apparently mentioned in the oldest Chinese herbal, Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, dating from 2800 B.C. (Michel and Hosford, 1988).\" According to Dr. S.-Y. Hu, a former staff member of the Arnold Arboretum, \"I have turned the pages of the three volumes of Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing (1854 edition) page by page and checked the entries item by item. Ginkgo is definitely not in this publication.\" Since Michel and Hosford do not cite any sources for their statement that Ginkgo is mentioned in Shen Nong Ben Cao Jing, their statement must be considered as unfounded, particularly in light of the fact that no Chinese-speaking authors mention this reference. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25031","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270a726.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"FROM NEWS THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Historic Landscape Maintenance Workshop Despite the fury of Hurricane Bob on the previous day, Tuesday, August 20 saw eightyfive managers and horticulturists from historic sites across the country-from California, Louisiana, Georgia, and the Midwest to Washington, New York, and New England-travel to the Arnold Arboretum for a three day national workshop. As the first tangible result of the new cooperative agreement Plant Sale 1991 People listening ered\" on to National Public Radio's \"All Things Consid- between the Arnold Arboretum and the National Park Service, the program included talks covering, \"Plants as visual cues in the historic landscape,\" Friday morning, September 14, heard one of New England's event selection. best-kept secrets revealed when the Arnold Arboretum's annual horticultural extravaganza was the featured weekend The result? A larger than ever crowd (over 2,500 \"Developing a systematic approach to preservation maintenance,\" and \"The evolution of turf management.\" The people), undeterred by cool weather and overcast skies, lined up for their chance to acquire some of the unusual plants on sale in the Case Estates barn. Meanwhile, the Arnold Arboretum Associates' \"straight sales\" table recorded its first purchase at 7:30 a.m., a prelude to the frenzied bidding in the later silent and rare plant auctions. Members of the various participating plant groups-the Herb, program, which included lectures, problem solving discussions, and field work- shops, was developed and cosponsored by the Arboretum, the North Atlantic Region of the National Park Service, and the Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site. The roster of speakers included Nation Park Service personnel from Washington, D. C., the North Atlantic Region Office, and the Olmsted and Longfellow Historic Sites. Continued on page 3 Hosta, Iris, Rhododendron, and Bromeliad societies-joined together with old and new Friends of the Arboretum to make this a for the New England to special day \"plant community.\" Almost $46,000 was raised support the work of the Arnold Arboretum, and our thanks go to everyone who helped to make the event another memorable occasion. The Deland Award Robert Cook, Director Why, for many years now, have individuals continued to give major bequests to the Arnold Arboretum? Perhaps they have shared the same belief as the original trustees of the James Arnold estate. In 1872 these three men choseto establish an arboretum at Harvard University, the most pre-eminent institution for scholarship in the country. They believed that by choosing Harvard, their investment in research and teaching would be of the highest quality, all for the benefit of humankind. They hoped too, that others would see their example and so be similarly encouraged to invest in work of exceptional quality. And, indeed, others have. In 1987 we received a generous bequest from the estate of F. Stanton Deland, Harvard Class of 1936, and long-time friend of the Arnold Arboretum. After discussions with Mrs. Sue Deland and her family last spring, the Arboretum established an endowment in memory of Stan Deland. Each year the income from this endowment shall be used to make one or more awards, called the Deland Award, to support the research of a graduate student or advanced undergraduate working on the comparative biology of woody plants. Such studies may include F. Stanton Deland other institutions may apply as well. award fellowships and research Preference will also be given to projects that utilize the 5,500 different kinds of woody plants in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. We anticipate making the first awards in 1992. The Deland Fund joins the other endowments which support research here. For many years, Mercer Fellows have joined the permanent staff of the Arboretum to engage in research and study using the library and herbarium collections largely housed in Cambridge. In addition, through generous gifts from the Putnam support from the Katherine H. Putnam Fund. Putnam Fellows are chosen for projects that specifically use the Living Collections of the Arboretum. The most recent Putnam Fellow was Professor Michael Dirr from the University of Georgia who spent a sabbatical semester at the arboretum in the spring of 1991, We deeply appreciate the generosity of these individuals and the far-sighted vision that inspired these gifts to our endowment. More than any other area, critical support for research at the Arboretum will benefit us all for many generations to come. family, we now SYMPOSIUM ' ecology, reproductive biology, genetics, physiology, or development. While preference will be given to students enrolled at Harvard, graduate students at 2 American Landscape Design as a response to the nation's varied topography and rich cultural heritage, as well as present-day issues in conservation and restoration will be explored by landscape designers and architects on Saturday, November 16, in a day-long symposium co-sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum and New York Botanical Garden. Speakers include John Fitzpatrick (Monticello, Virginia), Isabelle C. Greene (Santa Barbara, California), Dan Kiley (Charlotte, Vermont), and Darrell Morrison (University of Georgia). To request a brochure on the program, call (212) 220-8720. =mj?ll?feJUIU=KclJ;ll=|il ~ Foretaste of the Future Which of the plant introductions now being tested in American nurseries will be voted \"most likely to succeed?\" What are the sources of these new plants, and how do leading nurseries locate and decide among them? Join Steven Frowine, Director of Horticultural Research and Information at White Flower Farm in Litchfield, Connecticut, for a thought-provoking slide-lecture titled, \"Distinctive Plants for the Year 2000\" to find out how new plants are found, tested, and evaluated. This is a rare The lecture is open to the public and will be held at the Hunnewell Visitor Center from 7 p.m. to 8 p.m. on Thursday, November 7. The fee is $12 for members and $15 for nonmembers. understanding for some of the ways in which we presently envision the connection between building and landscape in Understanding Types. Architecture and the Garden Beginning on January 8 for three Wednesday evenings a special lecture series discusses relationships between the development of architecture (house) and the Architectural Historian Judith B. Tankard traces the development of the Arts and Crafts Style of small enclosed Garden exemplified in the work of Lorrimer in Scotland and Lutyens and Jekyll in England. Diane Kostial McGuire examines the work of Beatrix Farrand and her distillation of the best of European style for use in the American landscape. site (garden). Gary R. Hildebrand, Landscape architect, Graduate School of opportunity to preview plant treasures from Britain, Europe, and the Far East that have yet to enter the commercial Design will help us to develop an Call (617) 524-1718 for registration information. pipeline. Landscape Maintenance Workshop Continued from page 1 Arnold Arboretum staff presented several lectures, using the Jamaica Plain site as an example of an historic landscape. Guest speakers included Dr. Michael Dirr, Scott G. Kunst, Rudi Favretti, Dr. Martin Petrovic, and Paul Rogers. As a result of this popular workshop (many would-be registrants had to be turned away due to space limitations), the Arnold Arboretum will begin development of a bibliography for historic landscape preservation and will work with the National Park Service to design a curriculum that will permit working professionals to increase their expertise in landscape preservation practices. Ornamental garden gate at Wodenethe, the residence of H.W. Sargent, Esq. (circa 1856) 3 George Pride George H. Pride, the Associate Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum from 1967 1978, died of a heart attack on Sunday 21, July at the age of 79 years. Many of our members will remember George not only for the classes he taught and the horticultural information he dispensed so freely, but also for initiating the Arboretum's s Friends organization in the early seventies and for hosting the \"Meet the Staff\" and \"Meet the Friends\" presentations at the Case Estates. Born in Westbrook, to From 1937 to 1967 he taught biology at Senior High School in Worcester. George travelled widely and brought back seeds from many other gardens to the Arboretum. He had an excellent talent in photography and developed an outstanding series of botanical travelogues. He was always in demand as a lecturer. young Roy Lancaster to the United States to address a meeting of the American Rock Garden Society. In his \"thank you\" letter to George, Roy noted: \"You are a mine of information and I cannot think that you have an equivalent in Great Britain nor a peer in your own George's interests in terms of plants was wide ranging, but he showed a distinct favoritism towards bulbs and perennials, country.\" doing extensive hybridization with iris, hemerocallis, lilies, Maine, George graduated from North High School in Worcester in 1930 and from Clark University in 1936, also receiving a Master's Degree from that institution in 1941. gladiolus, amaryllis, and orchids. Many of the daylilies he hybridized while living at the Case Estates are still growing along the Wellesley Street stone wall. George also did extensive planting of the rock garden adjacent to the Red School House. In 1976 George was instrumental in bringing the then George Pride NEW ARRIVALS in the Bookstore for Todays Gardens A Natural History of Trees by Donald Culross Peattie, 2 volumes. Reprint of an eloquent and informative classic of natural history. Eastern and Central North America $18.95; member's price, $17.06. Western North Indian Herbalogy of North America by Alma R. Hutchens. The definitive illustrated guide to more than two hundred native medicinal plants and their uses. $17.00; member's American Wildflowers 1992 Engagement Calendar. Abbeville Press in association with the National Wildflower Research Center. Striking pho- tography from across the country of wildflowers in their natural habitats. $11.95; member's price, $10.76. The Bookstore is open daily, 10 to 4 p.m. Stop by or call (617) 524-1718 for mail order in- price, $15.30. Northeast Gardening by Elvin McDonald. A practical guide that speaks directly to the considerations of New Englanders. America, $16.95, member's price, $15.20. a.m. $35.00; member's price, $31.50. formation. 4 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23386","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e8128.jpg","title":"1991-51-3","volume":51,"issue_number":3,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ginkgos and People: A Thousand Years of Interaction","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25026","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add2608526.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"and Interaction Ginkgos People2014 A Thousand Years of -~ II Peter Del Ttedici the effects of Ginkgo leaf extract in promoting blood flow have stimulated renewed interest in this ancient plant. Recent discoveries on Above all else Ginkgo biloba is a survivor, not only of the ravages of geological time, extending back at least 70 million years to the Paleocene, but also of the ravages of human time, the so-called Internecine. Indeed, the Ginkgo tree has a documented history of cultivation by the Chinese for close to a thousand years and an undocumented history that no doubt extends back much further. As a result of this interaction, Ginkgo biloba has become so closely intertwined with human beings that its existence outside of cultivation has been the focus of an unresolved debate for over a hundred years. In the Western literature, Buddhist monks are widely credited with preserving Ginkgo from extinction by planting it in their temple gardens (Wilson, 1920), but little documented evidence supports this notion. The argument of H. L. Li (1956) that the tree was first cultivated for its edible and medicinally active seeds provides a more plausible, if somewhat less romantic, motivation for its preservation. As a wild species in China, Ginkgo was probably a member of the temperate, mixed mesophytic forest that once covered the hill country bordering the Yangtze River valley for most of its three-thousand-kilometer length. now been cut down except for remnants found in a few isolated valleys and on a few steep mountainsides (Wang, 1961). During the fall of 1989, the author and his colleagues, Professor Hsieh Ling of the Zhejiang Forestry Department and Guang Yang of the Nanjing Botanical Garden, visited one such area in eastern China, the famous Tian Mu Mountain in Zhejiang Province, where Ginkgo biloba still grows in a semi-wild state. Our ecological observations made on Tian Mu Shan indicate that Ginkgo is well adapted to growing on disturbed sites where light intensity is high, particularly along stream banks, on rocky slopes, and on the edges of exposed cliffs (Del Tredici et al., Most of this forest has in press). The purpose of this article, however, is not to examine the question of whether Ginkgo still exists in the wild but to examine the mutually beneficial interactions that have occurred between Ginkgo biloba and Homo sapiens over the last one thousand years. From the botanical perspective, these interactions have resulted in a tremendous expansion of the tree's range from its native Chinese home into every country in the temperate world. From the human perspective, the interactions 1. One of the largest Ginkgos in Asia, growing on the grounds of Yongmun-san temple in Korea. The tree, about 60 meters tall and 5 meters in diameter, is reputed to be 1100 years old. Photograph by S. A. Spongberg. Figure 4 have yielded a beautiful ornamental tree that rvmHiirpca mitritiniic f-rBnrB onrlo iriiiiaVdp medicine. _2014 2014 .... 2014 _ 2014 ~- 2014 2014 .2014 20142014 . 2014 2014 -~-2014~r The Quintessential Survivor Ginkgo is considered to be one of the toughest of all cultivated trees, a belief borne out by a famous specimen growing near the hypocenter of the 1945 atom bomb blast over Hiroshima, Japan. According to Michel and Hosford, the tree that still grows there today survived the bomb by sprouting from its base after its trunk was completely destroyed! Another indication of Ginkgo's exceptional power of survival is its long life span. Throughout Asia there are many large and ancient specimens that are in excess of a thousand years old (Figure 1). (Miyoshi, 1936; Ling, sor 1965; Spongberg, 1978). According to ProfesLing of the Zhejiang Forestry Department, Province. It is an ovu- the largest and perhaps oldest Ginkgo in China is a specimen growing in Folaishan in Ju County, Shandong late (female) tree, approximately three thousand years old, with a diameter at breast height (DBH) greater than 4 meters and a height of 26.5 meters. In Zhuji County, Zhejiang Province, the author saw one old ovulate tree with a DBH of 2.3 meters and a height of 33 meters (Figure 2). In 1988 this tree produced a remarkable 379 kilograms of cleaned nuts. If Ginkgo is indeed a pioneer species, as our work on Tian Mu Shan suggests, then it must be considered a persistent pioneer that can outlast several successional Figure 2. An ancient ovulate Ginkgo growing in Yang Tang village, Zhejiang province. The tree had a diameter of 231 centimeters and was 33 meters tall in 1989. In 1988 the tree produced 379 kilograms of cleaned nuts. According to reports in the horticultural literature, Ginkgo will grow in a wide variety of soil types are cycles. Under cultivation, Ginkgo is considered highly adaptable, growing well in most parts of the temperate world with a distinct seasonality and moderate rainfall, including areas with a Mediterranean type of climate as well as those with a cold temperate climate, where the minimum winter temperatures can reach -30 degrees C. Ginkgo seems to grow best when planted in full sun, although it also shows the ability to persist indefinitely under conditions of low light, such as when planted along the cavernous, downtown streets of many cities in eastern North America. 6.5. Under typical conditions of outdoor cultivation, the roots of most Ginkgos are infected by vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae (VAM) that play an important role in the uptake of the element phosphorus (BonfanteFasolo and Fontana, 1985; Fontana, 1985). In addition to its great powers of survival, another characteristic that makes Ginkgo a particularly successful street tree is its high degree of resistance to insect damage and to fungal, viral, and bacterial diseases, relative to other cultivated trees. Contrary to the to (with the exceptions of those that alkaline or show a pronounced but it prefers soils with a pH of 5.5 hardpan) very wet or ! 5 anecdotal reports, however, tolerance of air pollution, particuGinkgo's larly sulfur dioxide and ozone, is not that much better than other trees, and the tree is no less susceptible to damage from ionizing radiation than other gymnosperms (Major, numerous 1967; Hepting, 1971; Sharma, 1989). Under conditions of moderate soil fertility, grows quite rapidly, averaging up to per year when young. With the onset of sexual maturity, between 20 and 30 years, height growth generally slows down as the tree fills in its rather sparsely branched juvenile framework. At full maturity, Ginkgo is not a particularly tall tree, reaching a maximum height of about 30 meters, although one specimen in Korea has been measured at Ginkgo half a meter introduction into that country. The first Ginkgo reported to produce fertile seed in Europe was a large male tree growing in the Botanic Garden of Montpellier, France, in 1835. This anomalous situation was brought about by the fact that scions from a female tree (growing near Geneva, Switzerland) had been grafted onto it some years earlier. This \"hybrid\" tree was still alive and in good health when the author visited the garden in 1990. The first report of a Ginkgo growing in North America comes from a letter by William Hamilton of Philadelphia to his private secretary, Mr. Smith, who was in charge of his estate, Woodlands, in his absence. Writing from London on November 2, 1785, Hamilton admonishes Smith: The Cistus's the Heaths, eleagnus, Ginkgo, Laurus's, Tamarisks, Yucca glonoso, the Carolina mahogany, Zantoxylon sempervirens &c, should be secured by skreens of Dry straw or some other means, but by [no] means let dung be put to their Roots for it will inevitably kill them ... (Smith, 1905) 60 meters (Figure 1) (Spongberg, 1978). In the fall of 1989, I interviewed horticulturists in Shanghai, China, who worked for a division of the Ancient Trees Management Group of the Shanghai Public Garden Administration. They had catalogued and measured the height and girth of all the large Ginkgos in the province, and had found a total While one staminate individual from this of four hundred trees over one hundred years old, half of which were over three hundred years old. They were willing to share their findings concerning the growth of Ginkgo only in qualitative terms, and told me that the growth rate in Ginkgo, measured in terms of centimeters of girth increase per year, is rapid and increasing between the ages of 1 and 40 years. Growth rate slows down between the ages of 40 and 110 years, and between the ages of 110 and 150 to 200 years, it is more or less constant. From 150 to 200 years and beyond, the growth rate of Ginkgo appears to diminish. original introduction of Ginkgo was still alive and well in 1981, growing on the grounds of what is now the Woodlands Cemetery in Philadelphia (Del Tredici, 1981), the tree has since been cut down. Although there are no records to prove it, a large Ginkgo growing nearby in William Bartram's garden is thought to be a siblmg of Hamilton's tree (Harshberger, 1920) and is now assumed to be the oldest Ginkgo in North America (Figure 3). In the early 1800s, Ginkgo began to be grown in many parts of the United States, primarily in the private gardens of wealthy Cultivation in the West Ginkgo was introduced into Europe from Japan at the Botanic Garden in Utrecht, Holland, about 1730, where a tree that is probably one of the original introductions is still in very good condition (Dallimore and Jackson, 1966). In Kew Gardens, England, a Ginkgo is still growing that was planted in 1754 and was probably part of the original individuals. Remarkably, many of these early introductions are still alive and healthy. In 1841, the nurseryman and horticulturist Andrew Jackson Downing was among the first Americans to advocate the use of the Ginkgo as an ornamental: As the foliage is of that kind which must be viewed nearby, to understand its peculiarity, and as the form and outlme of the tree are pleasmg, and harmonizes well with buildings, we would recommend that it be planted near the house, where its unique character can be readily seen and appreciated. 6 of the oldest . Ginkgos growing in North ---- Amarirn &..&..&._......-... >nrc tt\"\",.a.,-, from 1:.......cr1......,....r1 on~ ..&..&..&..&..1\"''''''''''''''''''''''' .......-...........A..J.A.\"'-b.&.-\"\"\",,,,,,,,,,,,u u_--- lings, which most likely had been raised from imported Japanese seed. By the late 1800s and early 1900s, after the original American introductions started producing seed in abundance, Ginkgo became popular as a street tree on the east coast, primarily in urban areas from Boston to Washington, D.C. (Corbett, 1903). Its tolerance of the particulate air pollution produced by burning coal was highly touted by horticulturists of the day, along with its high degree of resistance to fungal diseases and insect pests. The horticulturist's love affair with the Ginkgo began to fade in the 1920s and 1930s when many of the widely planted seedling street trees began reaching sexual maturity. At this point, ovulate trees started producing large quantities of seeds, which, when crushed by passing foot traffic, resulted in a foul-smelling mess, reminiscent of the odor of vomit. In the horticultural literature, this scent is variously referred to as \"disagreeable,\" \"evil \"offensive,\" \"disgusting,\" \"repulsive,' \"nauseating:' and \"abominable.\" To make matFigure 3. The Bartram Ginkgo, presumably the oldest specimen in North America, planted circa 1784. When photographed in 1988, its height was 32 meters and its diameter at breast height was 103 centimeters. the odoriferous sarcotesta contains anacardic acid, a compound known to cause a severe skin rash on those who happen to touch or walk barefoot on the seeds (Mitchell and Rook, 1979). ters worse, According Sargent, the first Ginkgo to produce fertile seed in North America was a specimen growing on the grounds of the former Kentucky Military Institute in Frankfurt, Kentucky, in 1877. These trees were planted in the 1850s by Henry Clay, who, as an influential United States senator, had somehow acquired them directly from Japan (Del Tredici, 1981). Within the next ten years, many of the trees growing in Washington, D.C., were producing large quantities of seed, which were widely distributed to nurseries on the east coast (Falconer, 1890). With the exception of a few saplings that came directly from Japan, it appears that most to C. S. Vegetative Propagation In response to the perceived litter problem posed by the production of seeds by female Ginkgo, Western horticulturists generally recommend the planting of vegetatively propagated male plants for street-tree use. Over the years, many male clones have been selected for this purpose, along with clones displaying a wide variety of distinctive leaf and habit characteristics (Santamour et al., 1983). Ginkgo clones are remarkably easy to propagate vegetatively either from cuttings or by grafting. The author has had good success rooting cuttings of Ginkgo at virtually any time of the year, including: (1) softwood cutMost 5 7 in Figure 4. 7bpophytic effects in Ginkgo biloba. This rooted cutting was originally collected from a mature tree February 1989. The photograph, taken in May 1991, clearly shows the \"fixed\" horizontal orientation of new growth. tings collected in summer and placed under intermittent mist; (2) hardwood cuttings taken in the fall at the time of leaf drop; and (3) hardwood cuttings taken in the spring just prior to bud break. While treatment with indolebutyric acid (IBA) does not seem to be necessary in order to achieve a high percentage of rooting (Doran, 1954), there does seem to be some variation in the rooting response of different individuals, perhaps due to the age or vigor of the tree they were taken from (Vermeulen, 1960). Despite their high degree of rootability, Ginkgo cuttings usually grow slowly the first season following propagation, producing only rosettes of leaves and little extension growth. It is not until their second growing season that they will produce long shoots. For this reason most nurseries prefer to propagate Ginkgo by grafting scions of selected cultivars onto seedling rootstocks, a Although the preferential planting of male clones is widely recommended in the horticultural literature, one very important fact has made this goal largely unattainable: the vegetative propagations of Ginkgo, whether from cuttings or grafts, generally suffer from a developmental problem known as topophysis. Topophysis is defined as the organizational status of a meristem that is determined by its position on the plant and that remains stable through vegetative propagation (Halle et al., 1978). In other words, if a lateral branch of Ginkgo is rooted or grafted onto a seedling rootstock, the resulting propagule will congrowing in the direction it maintained while it was still attached to its parent trunk (Figures 4 and 5). This means that vegetatively propagated Ginkgos seldom show the dominant central leader and whorled branch arrangement typical of seedlings. Instead, the branches grow out at erratic angles, producing low-branched trees with poor form from tinue procedure that results in abundant extension growth during the first season of growth. 8 tation to begin with. At the present time such fastigiate trees are are selections that only male Ginkgo widely available to the the general public. Cultivation for Nut Production While Western horticulturists have concentrated on the ornamental uses of Ginkgo, Asian horticulturists have focused their attention primarily on the cultivation of the tree for its edible nuts. According to Dr. Frank Santamour and his colleagues (1983), Chinese horticulturists have selected at least 28 varieties based solely on the size and shape of the edible nut. Ginkgo nuts are highly nutritious and, when fresh, consist of 37.8 percent carbohydrate, 4.3 percent protein, and 1.7 percent fat (McCarthy and Matthews, 1984). While most of the carbohydrate is in the form of starch, small amounts of sucrose, glucose, and fructose are also present, giving the nuts a sweet taste. Figure 5. Rooted cuttings from a single branch of #144-39-A. Softwood cuttings were taken in August, 1981 and rooted under intermittent mist. (top) The two cuttings on the left were taken from diagonally growing lateral shoots, while the one on the right was taken from the vertical termmal shoot. Photographed in December 1985. (bottom) The same cuttings photographed in February 1991. For scale, the index card is 7 centimeters by 13 centimeters. Ginkgo biloba 'Fastigiata'AA the point of view of street-tree plantings. The only way that nurseries have been able to circumvent the problem of topophysis is through the practice of \"stooling\" in which young stock plants are repeatedly cut back low to the ground to stimulate the production of numerous vertical replacement shoots. When these vigorous terminals are used as propagation material, they will produce a vertically growing tree. According to William Flemer of Princeton Nurseries, this technique seems to work particularly well with fastigiate (upright) clones of Ginkgo in which many of the laterals tend to possess a vertical orien- When Ginkgo is cultivated for its edible nuts, the cultivar is generally grafted onto a seedling rootstock. As is the case with vegetatively propagated cultivars in North America, the grafted Chinese trees show strong topophytic effects (Figure 6). When the author was in eastern China during the fall of 1989, he visited Dongting Mountain on the shores of Lake Tai in Jinagsu Province. This wellknown Ginkgo nut-producing area is the home of the famous cultivar 'King of Dongting Mountain,' which produces the largest nut of all Ginkgo cultivars (Figure 7). Old grafted trees in Dongting Shan were scarcely more than five meters tall and were branched low to the ground. They tended to lack both a central leader and whorled branches. While such a shape would be undesirable in a tree cultivated for ornamental purposes, it is considered advantageous in terms of nut production because it facilitates harvesting. This situation provides a clear example of the \"domestication\" of a plant by selective propa- gation. cultivated in In conversations with agriculturists who Ginkgo for its nuts in Zhuji Xian Zhejiang Province, the author learned the 9 Figure 6. A grove of grafted Ginkgos cultivated for them edible nuts on Dongtmg Shan, Jiangsu Province, China. presence of barriers, such can as buildings, which inhibit the flow of pollen. 5. Seed production can be increased by manually placing branches of male trees within the crown of female trees during the time of pollination (Ling, 1983). In China, the processing of the nuts for market is a very straightforward process. Either they are knocked off the trees in midSeptember with long bamboo poles, or they are collected from the ground shortly after they fall. After collecting, they are allowed to sit for a few days in plastic containers, until the fleshy outer coat begins to soften (and smell). At this point the seeds are washed in running water so that the fleshy outer coat rises to the top and can be poured off, leaving the heavy nuts to sink to the bottom. It is imperative to wear gloves during this process since the fleshy coat contains anacardic acid, which causes a severe rash in many people. following about the commercial production of Ginkgo nuts: 1. Ginkgo bears a heavy crop of seeds every other year, with relatively light crops in alternate years. 2. The grafted female trees produce nuts three to five years after grafting, as opposed to the twenty to thirty years it takes for seed- lings to begin bearing. 3. In the older Ginkgo nut plantations, the male\/female ratio was about 1 per 100. This ratio has been raised to 3 to 5 per 100 in recent to more effective pollination and greater nut production. 4. For successful pollination of female trees, the distance of the nearest male tree to the females is not as critical as (a) the size of the male tree-the taller it is, the better the pollination ; (b) the direction of the wind-male trees should be planted upwind of females to achieve maximum seed set; and (c) the times, leading 10 traditional Chinese medicine (Perry, 1980). For mirnncpc ~~~~~~~\"~~2022~~~~~~~~~2022~~* *2022-.~2014*.*.****. W......U .*^.>.SW... *-li nr MOTTm^rl-ir* Bry a I rnncumntinn f \"\"\"'\"\" f *-\"~''** W *\"**~ seed must be cooked. Usually they are boiled in water until the hard shell cracks open and the kernel can be removed. Traditionally either these kernels are boiled in sugar water to make a sweet soup or they are pan-fried and eaten plain. They can also be mixed in with other ingredients. The flavor and texture of the Ginkgo nut are reminiscent of the sweet chestnut, Castanea sativa. In several places I visited in China, I was warned not to eat more than seven Ginkgo nuts at one sitting; otherwise I would experience toxic side effects. Young children, in particular, are warned about eating too many Ginkgo nuts. Because Ginkgo nuts are considered a delicacy throughout Asia, they sell for a considerable amount of money per kilogram. Most of the seeds that are produced in China are sold to foreign buyers, who, in 1988, paid 5 yuan per kilo (approximately $1.50). The price was depressed to 3 yuan per kilo in 1989 as a result of a lack of foreign buyers caused by the Tiananmen Square disturbances in the spring of that year. Chinese living in other Asian countries are the principal consumers of the crop, although a substantial amount of seed is also shipped to Chinese population centers in Europe and North America. While the author was unable to obtain exact figures on total seed production for China, he was told that in 1984 the yield was more than 5 million kilograms of dried seeds. V.*..*.^ V\"V Figure exceptionally large nuts produced by the Ginkgo cultivar 'King of Dongtmg Mountain' on the top, with a more or less typical Ginkgo nut on the bottom. Scale is m 7. The millimeters. After the seeds are washed, they are spread out to air-dry for one to two weeks, at which point they are bundled up and put in a cool environment for storage. Raw Ginkgo nuts, which are rich in lipid compounds, are considered toxic to humans, and it is in this state that they are used in Ginkgo as Medicine The Ginkgo tree is apparently mentioned in the oldest Chinese herbal, Shen Nong Ben Cao ling, dating from 2800 B.C. (Michel and Hosford, 1988). Specific reference to the medicinal use of the leaves, however, does not come until 1436 (in Lan Mao's Dian Nan Ben Cao), which recommends the external use of the leaves for treating skin and head sores, as well as freckles. The first mention of the internal use of Ginkgo leaves comes in 1505 in a text by Liu WenTai, Ben Cao Pin Hue fing Yaor. In modern Chinese medicine Ginkgo 11 leaf preparations are recommended as \"benefiting the brain,\" as an astringent to the lungs, and to relieve symptoms of asthma and cough (Foster, in press). Numerous pharmacologically active constihave been extracted from the leaves of Ginkgo, such as flavones, biflavones, organic acids, and flavonoid glycosides, including kaempferol, quercetin, and isorhamnetine. It is the diterpene lactones, however, including ginkgolides A, B, C, J, and M, and the sesquiterpene, biloablide, that have aroused the most interest and have been the focus of most modern research. A, B, and C are found both in the leaves and the \"bark\" (cortex) of the root, whileJ is found only in the leaves and M only in the root cortex (Boralle et al., tuents Figure 8. The chemical composition of ginkgohde B, a unique 20-carbon cage molecule with a tert-butyle group (tBu) and methionine (Me) Incorporated into 1988). The ginkgolide compounds are unique 20-carbon cage molecules that possess an electron-rich cavity ideally suited for the binding of cations or polarized molecules (Figure 8). Recently, Professor E. J. Corey and his colleagues at Harvard University have synthesized ginkgolide B under laboratory conditions, but the prohibitive cost of the procedure makes it unlikely that a synthetic product will ever replace the natural extract. The ginkgolides also show varying degrees of potency as specific antagonists of plateletactivating factor (PAF), a compound identified as a crucial mediator of a wide range of physiological processes and pathological conditions. Of the five naturally occurring ginkgolides, B is considered the most active from the point of view of antagonizing PAF the framework. The electron-nch cavity, formed by the three lactomc groups (-OC= O), is ideally suited for the binding of positively charged cations. extract has been shown to short-term memory function in both healthy, young volunteers and elderly patients suffering from vascular disorders (Hindmarch, tests, Ginkgo increase 1988). Positive results with the extract have also been achieved in the treatment of the inflammation of the bronchial airways associated with asthmatic attacks. The extract was more effective in the treatment of asthma when administered directly into the lungs as an aerosol rather than taken orally (Roberts and Barnes, 1988). Ginkgo leaf extract has also been proven effective in the treatment of arthritis, airway blood (Braquet, 1988, 1989). Numerous pharmacological and clinical studies with Ginkgo leaf extract have demonstrated a positive effect in increasing vasodilation and peripheral blood-flow rate in the capillaries of patients suffering from a variety of circulatory dysfunctions. In Europe, the Ginkgo leaf extract is most popular among the elderly, who take it either to treat the minor symptoms of aging, such as dizziness, ringing in the ears, and short-term memory loss, or to treat the side effects of major disorders, such as hyperactivity, thrombosis, endotoximea, poor circulation, and gastrointestinal ulceration. It has also been shown to be useful in the treatment of various eye, ear, and skin diseases. After nearly fifteen years of clinical trials in Europe, there are no reports of toxic side effects. Alzheimer's disease. In one series of Cultivation has been cultivated specifically for the Ginkgo purposes of leaf production for ginkgolide extraction since 1982, when large-scale plantings were established in Bordeaux, France, and Ginkgolide 12 9. The Ginkgo plantation in Sumter, South Carolina, of the irrigation system are about 45 meters long. Figure in early spring. For scale, the individual segments in Sumter, South Carolina. Seedlings 40 centimeters apart in are Freshly havested Ginkgo leaves have a planted meter rows one apart, comprising a stand of approximately 25,000 trees per hectare. For the 400 hectare (1000 acres) plantation in Sumter, this amounts to an amazing 10 million Ginkgos -surely the largest Ginkgo forest on earth, at least since the Paleocene (Figure 9). In Sumter, the leaves are harvested from mid-August to mid-September while they are still bright green, and the resulting yields are between 3,000 to 4,000 kilograms of dried leaves per hectare (2,640 to 3,520 pounds per acre). The trees are severely pruned in the winter following the harvest to induce multiple branching and to keep the plant small enough to make it possible to harvest the leaves mechanically (Figure 10) (McClintic, moisture content of about 75 percent. Moisture is reduced to 12 percent by passage through a gas-fired, 15-meter-long rotary drum drier. The dried leaves are then compacted into 180-kilogram bales, wrapped in burlap and polyethylene, and then loaded into containers and trucked to Charleston, South Carolina, where they are loaded on a ship that takes them to extraction plants in Europe. In Europe, the extract is marketed under the brand names \"Thebonin,\" \"Tanakan,\" and \"Rokan,\" and gross annual sales in 1988 amounted to about $500 million (Corey et al., 1988). While the use of Ginkgo leaf extracts has proved to be very popular both in Asia and in western Europe as a prescription drug, the product has yet to be marketed to any great extent in 1991). the United States. This unavailabil- 13 Figure 10. Some of the highly variable, and exceptionallylarge, leaves produced by the heavily fertilized Ginkgos growing on the plantation in Sumter, South Carolina. Scale bar at the lower left is 10 centimeters long. Some leaves are so highly dissected that they might almost be considered compound. assisted the author with Chinese translations. Much of the work presented here is part of the author's Ph.D dissertation at ity is primarily due to the fact that the extract does not meet the purity standards of the United States Food and Drug Administration for prescription drugs. As a result, the extract is only available in health food stores as a rather expensive herbal remedy. It is sold under a wide variety of names, but mainly these products are just a repackaging of the products produced in Europe. At this point, it is unclear if Ginkgo leaf extract will ever receive FDA approval as a prescription drug available to consumers in Boston University on Ginkgo biloba, com- pleted in the spring of 1991. References Bonfante-Fasolo, P., and A Fontana 1985. VAM fungi in Ginkgo biloba roots: their interaction at cellular level. Symbiosis 1: 63-67. Boralle, N., P. Braquet, and O. a review R. Gottlieb. 1988. its Ginkgo the United States. Acknowledgments The author would particularly like to thank Dr P. Braquet of the Institut Henri Beaufour, Dr J.-P. Balz of Garnay Inc., Dr. R Cook, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Dr S.-A. He, Director of the Nanjing Botanical Garden, and Dr. R. B. Primack of Boston University for their support and encouragement with this project. S.-L. Miao chemical composition. In Gmkgohdes 2014 Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacology and Clinical Perspectives, vol. 1. J. R. Prous, Barcelona. biloba: of Braquet, P. (ed.). 1989 Ginkgohdes 2014 Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacology and Clinical Perspectives, vol. 2. J. R. Prous, Barcelona. Corbett, L. C. 1903. The Japanese Ginkgo makes avenue tree. Amer. Gard. 24: 587-588. a fine 14 Corey, E. J., M. Kang, N Hrmnis M. C. 1988 Desai, A. T Ampr K. Ghosh, and I. Cbpm W lln. McCarthy, M. tmn A , and R. H. Matthews. 1984. Composinf Fnn\/if Nut rmd 'sppd Prnrtnrts Knur nnA Handbk. 8-12. USDA, 649-651 Processed. Agriculture Washmgton, DC. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. 1966 A Handbook of Coniferae and Gmkgoaceae. Edward Arnold, London. Del McClmtic, D. 1991. Medicine-tree farm. The ary 30-31. Furrow, Janu- Tredici, P. 1981. The 41: 150-161. Gmkgo in America. Arnoldia Del Tredici, P., H. Ling, and G Yang. In press. The Gmkgos of Tian Mu Shan. Conservation Biology. Doran, W. L. 1954 The vegetative propagation of Gmkgo. J. Forestry 52: 176-177. Downing, A. J. tice 1841. A Treatise on the Theory and Pracof Landscape Gardemng. Wiley and Put- nam, New York. Falconer, W. 1890 The Gmkgo tree. The Garden 38: 602. Fontana, A. 1985 Vesicular-arbuscular mycorrhizae of Gmkgo biloba L. in natural and controlled conditions. New Phytol. 99: 441-447. Foster, S. 1991 Gmkgo biloba Botanical Series 304. American Botanical Council, Austm. Texas. Michel, P.-F., and D. Hosford. 1988. Ginkgo biloba: from \"living fossil\" to modern therapeutic agent In Gmkgohdes2014 Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacology, and Clmlcal Perspectives, vol. 1, P. (ed.), pp 1-8. J. R. Prous, Barcelona. Halle, E, R. A. A Oldeman, and P. Tropical Berlin B. Tomlinson. 1978. Trees and Forests. Sprmger-Verlag, Braquet Harshberger,J. W 1920. The old gardens of Pennsylvania, I. Bartram Arboretum and Park. The Garden Magazine 32: 78-80 Mitchell, J., and A. Rook. 1979 Botamcal Dermatology. Greengrass Press, Vancouver, Canada. Miyoshi, Perry, M. 1936. Giant and Noted Trees of lapan. Imperial University, Tokyo. Heptmg, G. H 1971. Diseases of Forest and Shade Trees of the United States. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Agr. Handbook. 386. L. 1980. Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia. MIT Press, Cambridge. Hindmarch, 1. 1988. Activity of Gmkgo biloba extract on short-term memory. In Funfgeld (ed.), pp. 321-326. Sprmger-Verlag, Berlin. Roberts, N. M., Li, H. L. 1956. A horticultural and botanical Gmkgo. Bull. Morns Arb. 7: 3-12. history of and P. J. Barnes. Evaluation of BN 52063 In Gmkgohdes 2014 Chemistry, Biology, Pharmacology, and Clinical Perspectives, vol. 2, P. Braquet (ed.), pp. 855-870. J. R. Prous, Barcelona. in man Santamour, Ling, H. 1965. Origin and distribution of Ginkgo biloba. Bull. Biol. 3: 32-33 (in Chinese). Ling, H. 1983. The technique of high yield of Ginkgo biloba Bull Sci Tech Zhejiang Prov. 5: 30 (in F. S. Jr., S.-A. He, and A. J. McArdle 1983. Checklist of cultivated Gmkgo. \/. Arboriculture 9: 88-92. Sargent, C. Sharma, S. 1877. The sexes of Sahsbuna Gardener's Monthly 19' 358. The Chinese). Major, R. T. 1967. The Gmkgo, the most ancient tree. Science 157: 1270-1273. living G. K. 1989. Modification in Gmkgo biloba L. in response to environmental pollution. \/. Tenn. Acad. Scl. 64: 26-28. 15 Smith, B. H. 1905 Some letters from William Hamilton, of the Woodlands, to his private secretary. Penn. Mag of Hist and Biog. 29. 143-144. 1978. Korean adventure. Arnoldia 133-152. Spongberg, S. A Vermeulen, J. 38(4): 1960. Propagation of Ginkgo biloba by cuttings. Comb. Proc. Intern Plant Prop. Soc 10: 127-130 Wang, C.-W 1961. The Forests of China. Maria Moors Cabot Foundation, Publ. No. 5. Harvard Univer- sity, Cambridge. Wilson, E. H. 1920. The Romance of Our Trees. Boston. Stratford, Zhejiang Forestry Bureau 1984. The Reserves of Zhejiang Provmce. Zhejiang Province, Hangzhou, China (in Chinese). Peter Del Tredici is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ilex glabra- The Inkberry Holly","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25027","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260856b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Dirr, Michael A.; Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"Ilex glabra-The Inkberry Holly Michael A. Dirr and John H. Alexander III This native evergreen shrub has finally stepped into the landscape limelight. Ilex glabra (L.) Gray, the inkberry or gallberry, is a wallflower among the hollies, lurking in the shadows where few gardeners now notice its existence. Such a pity, for the species, a broadleaf evergreen shrub, is an under-utilized native, with wide geographical adaptability and a plethora of other admirable landscape attributes. A quote from the Holly Letter, October 1974, puts it aptly: \"If inkberry had come from Japan, people would rave about it.\" Several nurseries have introduced compact cultivars with improved foliage such as 'Compacta\/ 'Nordic,' and 'Shamrock,' all of which have helped raise the species to a higher level of consumer acceptance. However, these cultivars are scarcely garden buzz words compared to the better-known 'Convexa,' 'Helleri,' and 'Hetzii' cultivars of Ilex crenata (the Japanese holly), or the 'Nana' and 'Stokes Dwarfcultivars of Ilex vomitoria (the yaupon holly). Ilex glabra offers great opportunities for future selection and some of the best forms may still be in the crystal-ball stage. Usually found in moist to wet soils, Ilex glabra has an extended distribution from Nova Scotia to as far south as Florida and west to Missouri. In the deep South, Godfrey (1988) describes the species as growing in pine savannas and flatwoods, shrub-tree bogs and Characteristics of the Species To our knowledge, inkberry is one of the few stoloniferous evergreen holly species (I. coria- another), and colonies a century or old have been described (Hume, 1953). As colonies increase in size, billowy masses of green are formed that create a soft, pleasing texture foreign to most of the I. crenata and 1. vomitoria cultivars. Size is extremely variable within the species, but 1.5 to 2.5 meters tall (5 to 8 feet) and 2 to 3 meters wide (8 to 10 feet) encompass reasonable biological boundaries. For years, an elegant, dark green-foliaged compact form that graced a display bed in front of Longwood Gardens in Kencea is more nett Square, Pennsylvania, was a suspected bays, open bogs, seepage areas in woodlands, and on the lower slopes and bottoms of wooded ravines. It also occurs near the ocean and displays a high degree of salt tolerance. In controlled studies (Eberwine and Dirr, 1978), it was found to be essentially resistant to soil-applied sodium chloride. \"named selection.\"Inquiring as to its exact identity, we were informed that proper pruning was the reason for the shape. Nurseries from Massachusetts to Georgia are experiencing increased demand for inkberry and are increasing production in response. As part of the native plant movement, and with its superior adaptability, \/. glabra is a natural for increased landscape use. Recent emphasis on wetland mitigation is another plus for the species. Inkberry has been utilized around the Cape Cod National Sea Shore Visitor Center in Eastham, Massachusetts, where the large irregular foliage masses make the building look as if it were set among them rather than the reverse. Frequently confused with I. crenata and I. vomitoria, inkberry has a longer leaf, 2 to 5 centimeters, with a few serrations, often oppo- 18 site one another at 1 the apex of the leaf. The \" , 1 UL11C1 .1.. 1 LWU SpCL-iCS lldVC SllldllCi iCdVCS dilU dlC serrated from the apex to near the base of the leaf. The leaves are a lustrous medium to dark green throughout the year; however, in exces- sively sunny or windy locations, some yellowing (bronzing to purplish tints) may result. The dioecious flowers are produced in the axils of the current season's growth from midto late June in Boston, and in late May in Athens, Georgia. On male plants, the flowers occur in groups of threes; on females, they occur singly or in clusters up to three. Five to eight cream-colored petals are present in the small flowers, which are a source of pleasanttasting honey in the South. Unlike the fruit of many other hollies, the flattened, globose drupes of the inkberry are a lustrous black color but seldom a cause for celebration. In fact, they are generally produced underneath the foliage and remain obscure from an ornamental point of view. Fruits generally ripen in October, persist throughout the winter; and are often still present when the new flowers emerge. White- and red-fruited forms are known and will be discussed in the cultivar section below. Compelling reasons for the rebirth of interest in I. ness The glossy black fruit of inkberry. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. glabra are its landscape tough- and environmental adaptability. The species displays a penchant for survival under conditions ranging from full sun to moderate shade and from wet to dry, clayey to sandy soils of acid to neutral pH. Inkberry is easily transplanted, literally by pulling it out of the ground and relocating it. Jim Cross of Environmentals Nursery of Cutchogue, New York, relates that it is one of the few broadleaf evergreens that survive in heavy clay soils where irrigation systems continue to operate whether needed or not. Most cultivars, as well as the species, are both field- and containergrown, and are easily transplanted on a yearround basis. Dr. Donald Wyman (1970) mentioned the rejuvenation of weak and spindly plants at the Arnold Arboretum: plants 2.5 meters tall (8 feet) were cut to about 15 centimeters (6 inches) from the ground in April, by fall these plants were 30 to 45 cen(12 to 18 inches) and quite dense. Ilex glabra, at least the northern forms, should be cold-hardy to -15 to -20 degrees F. Contributing factors of winter sun and wind may compound low-temperature injury. It and timeters would be worthwhile to compare the cold hardiness of selections from the New England, Middle Atlantic, and Southeastern provenances. Surprisingly, the white-fruited forma leucocarpa from Florida is hardy to at least -15 degrees F. Propagation Propagation is frighteningly easy, and firm cuttings root year-round when provided with 1000-parts-per-million indolebutyric acid (IBA) quick dip (five seconds), or a commercial rooting powder under either mist or polyethylene tent. Even without such treatments, somewhat lower percentage of cuttings will The species can also be propagated by transplanting the suckering shoots that develop around the base. a root. 19 Since cuttings are easily rooted, seed propa- gation routinely practiced. In general, seeds of the genus flex have immature embryos at the time of ripeness, necessitatis not ing a period of after-ripening before germinaoccur. Experiments performed at the Arnold Arboretum by former propagator Alfred Fordham in 1963, and again in 1973, suggest that the best results are obtained by sowing the seed in a warm greenhouse and then waiting for germination to occur. After eight months, 57 percent of the freshly collected, cleaned seeds germinated. The seeds of the inkberry are easier to germinate than those of many Ilex species, which have germination times of eighteen months or longer. Significant variation in growth habit, foliage color and retention, and fruit color has encouraged nurseries and plant collectors to select forms for greater uniformity and increased consumer palatability. The following cultivar list is based on the authors' personal observations, discussions with nursery tion will (15 feet) on the campus of Swarthmore College outside Philadelphia. So much for plants reading their press releases! This form, like the species, becomes leggy at the base and loses a portion of the lower foliage, but if pruned in a timely and artistic manner, it will remain a handsome plant. The original plant grows next to the Princeton Nursery office and was described by William Flemer III in recent correspondence: wide The Princeton clone of Ilex glabra 'Compacta' was selected in 1937 by William Flemer II from a block of seedlings on our nursery. These seedlings came from seed collected in the New Jersey pine barrens near Whiting, New Jersey. The parent plant was planted near the nursery office for further observation. It proved to be of interest as a compact, very hardy, broadleaf evergreen shrub and was first listed for sale in the Princeton Nursery's wholesale price list for the fall of 1948. Some plants may have been sold a couple of seasons earlier than this, but no record of such sales survives. It has been successfully grown in northern Vermont and Maine. It has also been shown to be somewhat more resistant to winter feeding of deer than regular seedling-grown Ilex glabra, as well as being much more resistant than Ilex crenata plants. However, it is by no means totally immune to deer damage in areas with a very high deer population. people, and a review of the literature. Cultivars 'Bronze'- According to Hume (1953), this form has closely spaced, coriaceous, bright green leaves (2.5 to 4 centimeters long and 1 to 1.5 centimeters wide), that assume a pleasing bronze color in winter. The glossy black, 'Densa'- This clone develops an oval-rounded uniform outline with upright branches. The globose fruits are produced abundantly on compact plants, 1.5 to 1.8 meters tall (5 to 6 feet). The plant was selected by Elizabeth C. White of Whitesbog, New Jersey, but the authors have no idea whether or not this cul- tivar remains in cultivation. 'Compacta'- This clone, selected and introduced by Princeton Nursery of Princeton, New Jersey, is notable for its (1) compact, ovalrounded habit, (2) fine-textured branches, (3) dark green leaves (3 to 4 cm long by 1 cm wide), and (4) lustrous, jet-black fruits that persist through the winter. Originally described as maturing to between 1.5 and 1.8 meters tall (4 to 6 feet), we encountered a specimen 3 meters tall (10 feet) and 5 meters Ilex glabra 'Densa,' Gardens by M. Dirr. photographed at Longwood 20 leathery dark-green leaves average 4 cenr4mPrAra ~~nrt nnr~ ~ ~ cent~eter~ ~'.Tide. Sp~se fruit set was observed on Arnold Arboretum plants. Longwood Gardens has a planting in front of the west side of the conservatory com- plex that is reasonably full and dense; however, on a visit in April, 1991, we noticed slightly naked lower branches. In the Arnold Arboretum collections, a 2- to 3-meter-tall (6to 10-feet) specimen is to devoid of leaves over the lower 30 40 percent of the plant. Frederick (1975) notes that 'Densa' was selected by Bert Flemer at F & F Nursery from a batch of five hundred seedlings planted in 1938. He mentioned its mature size as around 2.5 meters by 2.5 meters (8 feet by 8 feet). originally considered of the above-mentioned forma leucocarpa, but after examining both herbarium and living specimens, realized that they were distinct. 'Ivory Queen has leaves that are more leathery, darker green, and more densely set than those of f. leucocarpa ; leaves average about 5 centimeters long by 1.5 centimeters wide. t .1it11 b!~ck Ot ut due to the scar. We ently branch sport, and the ~fruit rneivory is W.aat t--e ~ a v~ a stylar this a rename as 'Nigra' 2014 Although this selection is described having purple foliage in winter, this is not 'Georgia Wine'- This selection develops lovely burgundy winter foliage coloration. The leaves, 4 centimeters long by 2 centimeters wide, are lustrous dark green in summer. The plant was discovered and named by William Craven, Twisted Oaks Nursery, Waynesboro, Georgia, and will be released to the public within the next few years. The parent colony ranges from 0.8 to 1.0 meter high (2.5 feet to 3 feet) and 2 to 2.3 meters wide (6 to 7 feet). The plant is female and produces abundant black fruits. the case on the specimen of 'Nigra' at the Arnold Arboretum. Indeed, its foliage color is a lustrous dark green, and the plants, relatively compact, do not appear to be as leggy as other clones. Wayne Mezitt of Weston Nurseries mentioned that 'Nigra' was not as cold-hardy as 'Compacta' or 'Viridis.' The leaves are 3 to 4 centimeters long by 1 to 2 centimeters wide. 'Nordic'- James Zampini of Lake County Nursery Exchange, Perry, Ohio, selected this leucocarpa- This unusual whitefruited form was discovered by Frank W. Woods in Jackson County, Florida, in 1955, and was distributed by the U.S.D.A. as #275847 and by the U. S. National Arboretum as #14278. This form has been cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum since 1961. The leaves are a lustrous medium to dark green and averForma age 4.5 centimeters long by 1.5 centimeters wide. The habit is distinctly broad-rounded, and a specimen at the University of Georgia's Experiment Station in Griffin is 2.6 meters tall (8 feet) and 4 meters wide (12 feet). Forma leucocarpa 'Ivory Queen'2014 This white-fruited selection was discovered by C. R. Wolf of the New Jersey Silica Sand Company of Millville, New Jersey. It was appar- patented clone for its compact growth habit and dark green foliage. Mr. Zampini relates that while surveying a field of more than two thousand inkberry seedlings in early March, he noticed one plant in the middle of the field that was distinct from the others. This plant had the best foliage color and a distinct broad, pyramidal growth habit. 'Nordic' has a mature height and width of about 1.7 meters (5 feet). The leaves, slightly larger than those of the species, maintain their dark-green color through the winter. Mr. Zampini also mentioned that 'Nordic' has performed admirably in areas where the winter temperatures range from -20 to -30 degrees F. 'Shamrock'- This cultivar is receiving considerable attention from gardeners, designers, and producers. It was selected in 1977 from a block of approximately five hundred seed- lings by John Tankard, Tankard Nursery, Exmore, Virginia. Distinguishing characteris- 21 Ilex glabra growing under the tulip trees at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. At tics include compact habit and bright, glistening new green foliage that overlays the previous year's mature dark green foliage, the leaves averaging 4 centimeters long by 1.3 centimeters wide. Mature plants are 1.5 meters tall (5 feet) and equally wide. Mr. Tankard feels that 'Shamrock' holds its lower leaves better spread for a mature landscape specimen. Weston Nurseries and the Arnold Arboretum, plants held their The Future lower branches better than 'Compacta,' but did develop slight legginess. Exciting activities are occurring in holly than other forms. 'Viridis'- This plant has a distinct pyramidal form with upright branches and dense foliage. The leaves, 3.5 centimeters long by 1 wide, are distinctly lighter green 'Compacta' and 'Densa.' We estimate a maximum height of 1 to 1.3 meters (3 to 4 feet) for the plant, and slightly less in centimeter than those of breeding, and while wandering through Rutgers University Ornamental Test Garden, we spotted what we thought was a rose-redfruited form of Ilex glabra. Dr. Elwin Orton, who hybridized this unusual form, crossed I. serrata, the fine-tooth holly, a red-fruited deciduous species, with a white-fruited I. glabra. While Dr. Orton had hoped to produce a non-leggy Ilex glabra, he ended up with a 22 1. plant 2 meters tall by 3.2 to 4 meters wide (6 bv ID tn 19fpetl with mnrp nr Ipss red fmit Fifty-eight years ago J. K. Small (1933) reported finding a red-fruited form of the inkberry in Florida, but he did not name it, and apparently never been cultivated. Other cultivar names found in the literature but elusive in the nursery trade include 'Cole's Frederick, W H. _ 1975. 100 Great Garden Plants Timber Press, Portland, Oregon. Godfrey, R. K. 1988. Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines of Northern Florida and Adjacent Georgia and Alabama. University of Georgia Press, Athens, it has Georgia. Hume, H. H. 1953. Hollies. Macmillan, New York. Compacta' and 'Steed,' both compact-growing plants, and 'Hatfield,' an upright hybrid between 1. glabra and I. crenata, described by Robert Clark in Holly Letter No. 5 (1974) (this cross Small, J. K. 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. PubNew York. lished by the author, occurred at the Hunnewell Estate, Woods, F. W 1956. Ilex glabra forma leucocarpa: a whitefruited holly. Rhodora 58: 25-26. Wyman, D. 1970. Hollies for hedges, screens and barriers. Amer. Hort. Mag. 49 (4): 261-266. Wellesley, Massachusetts). Undoubtedly, the selection story of Ilex glabra is not yet complete. The species and its current cultivars are highly functional landscape plants, and the renewed interest in their use assures continued selection and Michael Dirr is a Professor of Horticulture at the University of Georgia in Athens and is currently spending a sabbatical leave as a Putnam Fellow of the Arnold Arboretum. Jack Alexander is the Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. improvement. References Eberwine, M., and M. A. Dirr. 1978. Salt tolerance of hollies. Holly Letter 62: 4-6. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Daisies of Autumn","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25029","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add270a328.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Glattstein, Judy","article_content":". The Daisies of Autumn Judy Glattstein While the - they in are fall-blooming asters and goldenrods are native to North America, gaining acceptance in their homeland only after domestication Europe. a very efficient kind of flower the reader may or may not be aware, there certainly are a lot of them. The family Compositae (or Asteraceae) has a cosmopolitan distribution, with members in Asia, Australia, the Mediterranean, North and South America, South Africa, and Europe. Its Daisies must be as because, roughly 20,000 species are dispersed into 950 examples as annuals (Cosmos bipinnatus), bulbs (Dahlia coccinea), vegetables (artichokes and lettuce), shrubs (Artemisia tridentata, the sagebrush of the west), and, of course, the ornamental perennials (Achillea, Anthemis, Aster, Boltonia, Chrysanthemum, Chrysogonum, Coreopsis, Doronicum, Echinacea, Echinops, genera and include such diverse sites are usually recognizable as daisies. Sometimes there are only ray flowers, as in chicory, Cichorium intybus, or the dandelion, Taraxacum officinale, and sometimes only disc flowers, as in Santolina chamaecyparissus. More often than not, the central group of disc flowers is surrounded by a ring of ray flowers. The flowers of the Compositae star in American grasslands, meadows, prairies, and Erigeron, Eupatorium, Gaillardia, Helenium, Helianthus, Heliopsis, Liatris, Matricaria, Ratibida, Rudbeckia, Santolina, Senecio, Solidago, Stokesia, and Vernonia2014 to name just a few of the more popular genera comgrown in the herbaceous border). There are so many members of this huge family that even taxonomists are perplexed by it. They divided the family into about a dozen tribes, simply to categorize the genera into manageable units. This classification is based upon: the presence or absence of bristles, the roadsides, creating a display worthy of the world's finest gardens. But all too often we ignore these local residents in favor of exotic imports, under the mistaken notion they are \"weeds.\" We buy back from abroad selected cultivars of our finest natives only after they have been \"domesticated\" in Europe. As specific examples, contemplate the situation with regard to those glorious flowers of late summer and autumn, the Michaelmas daisies and the goldenrods. monly Our Native Asters The scales on the enlarged end of the stem that bears the flowers, the sap (whether it is milky, colored, or clear), the type of corolla, and on and on. But to a gardener, most of the compo- fall-blooming asters are important herbaperennials in gardens throughout England and Europe. Their English name, Michaelmas daisies, commemorates the fact that their peak bloom period occurs around the feast of St. Michael the Archangel, celebrated on September 29th. The principal parent of these showy garden cultivars is the New York aster Aster novi-belgii, a plant that is generally considered a weed in its native ceous 24 i Aster novae-angliae, from How to Know the Wild Flowers by Mrs. W S. Dana. Scribner's Sons, New York, 1900 25 North America. Once again it is clear that the British are more appreciative of our own flora than we are. Miss Gertrude Jekyll was fascinated with Michaelmas daisies, using them creatively in her own garden. In Color Schemes for the Flower Garden, published in 1908, she devotes an entire chapter to the September flower border: There is another range of double border for the month of September alone ..This border is mainly for the earlier Michaelmas Daisies; those that bloom in the first three weeks of the month .. There is also, in quite another part of the garden, a later border of other Michaelmas Daisies that will follow this in time of blooming The appeal has not diminished to this day. The Royal Horticultural Society conducted trials of Michaelmas daisies at Wisley in autumn 1990, exhibiting numerous cultivars in a diversity of color-shades of lavender, blue and purple, pink, violet and red, a few whites. Flower forms varied from those with a small golden central boss offset by long narrow petals to those with shorter petals surrounding a larger, heavy center. Petals might be arranged in a single star-like row, or fully double, or anything between. To stand on the upper level and look onto the trial grounds at this wonderful display on a September day was to appreciate what has been accomplished in England with this meadow plant from New England. A charming garden in Wraxall, near Bristol, Aster which I had the pleasure of visiting that same autumn, belongs to the Misses Allen and Huish. It contains the so-called National Collection of Asters. Their garden embraces a lifetime of devotion to these plants. These two women have produced a little catalogue that enumerates 240 cultivars of Michaelmas daisy, Acter novi-belgii. An additional section lists 38 cultivars of New England asters, Aster novae-angliae. To round the collection out, 48 other aster species and their cultivars are listed. By comparison, the spring 1991 catalogue of a noted mail-order nursery in northwest Connecticut lists 5 tall-growing and 4 novi-belgn and Aster tradescanti. This drawmg and all others m the article were taken from Familiar Flowers of Field and Garden by F S. Mathews. G. P. Putnam's Sons, New York, 1927 dwarf forms of Aster novi-belgii, 4 Aster novae-angliae, and 2 species of asters. Realistically, 240 cultivars of Michaelmas daisies that are quite that vary by subtle differences of similar, color, form, and habit. But surely there must be more than a dozen asters worthy of cultimust contain many varieties or vation in American gardens. 26 Perhaps it is familiarity that breeds not so mntemnt a<j a larlrflHflisiral attitude plants enliven the late summer and autumn meadows and roadsides of New England and the prairies of the Midwest. If they grow wild, why bother to cultivate them? Unless, of course, they are British plants that we purchase at nurseries, order through the mail, or in some way describe as an \"herbaceous perennial\" as distinct from a \"native These mnrh ot the Popular euitivars of Aster novi-belgii A tew Dwarf-under 18 inches 'Buston Blue; 6 inches, small dark-blue 'Jenny; 12 inches, red 'Prof. Kippenburg; 12 inches, lavender-blue plant.\" the first and certainly not alone in my plea for appreciation of our native flora. In 1914, Liberty Hyde Bailey in The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture wrote: I am not asters are such abundant plants m the autumn flora, the species are not much known as cultivated plants, most of the specimens m gardens being the wild species transplanted In Europe, however, there are numbers of named garden kinds, some of them derived from American species that have long been cultivated there .. The native asters are amongst the very best plants for borders and roadsides. They should be better known. 'Snowsprite,' 15 inches, white In North America, where the Dwarf-under 4 feet 'Ada Ballard; 3 feet, lavender-blue 'Boningale White,' 3.5 feet, white 'Crimson Brocade,' 3 feet, crimson-red 'Eventide,' 3 to 4 feet, violet-blue 'Ernest Ballard; 3 feet, reddish-pink 'Patricia Ballard,' 3 feet, rose-pink Tall-4 feet or more feet, light blue Violet; 4 feet, violet-purple 'Fellowship; 4 to 5 feet, clear pink 'Climax; 5 'Coombe Aster novi-belgii is a variable plant that in generally grows anywhere from 2.5 to 4.5 feet tall, with a multi-headed, the wild corymbose-paniculate inflorescence, daisy about 1 inch in diameter, with 15 to 25 rays of rich blue-violet. It spreads quickly by means of wide-ranging underground tillers. Often the center of a clump dies out, so division and replanting of an outer portion in spring every few years will provide the bestlooking plants. Cultivars exist anywhere from six inches to six feet tall, with the latter needing some kind of mechanical support. In addition, the taller varieties need to have their buds pinched two or three times a season-with the last pinch in early July. This serves two purposes: it reduces the height, and it increases branching, which results in a more floriferous display. Gardeners should fertilize these taller plants with caution, however, since too much result in weak stems and increase the tendency to tilt away from the vertical. I've yet to find a successful method each of resurrecting toppled plants, so staking ought to be done before it becomes necessary. Generally the foliage withers on the lower portion of the stems by the time the plants bloom; therefore it is best to grow these tall asters in combination with other lowergrowing, earlier-blooming plants, which will conceal their bare shanks. I enjoy combining the taller cultivars with Solidago species, the tall and late-blooming Liatris scariosa 'September Charm,' large ornamental grasses, and other perennials with late-season ornamental effect. They can be used in a formal perennial border as did Gertrude Jekyll. Alternatively, they fit in a looser, more informal naturalistic style, now becoming popular with the desire for reduced maintenance. nitrogen can The Goldenrods Goldenrods (Solidago species) are even more neglected than the asters. To begin with, there 27 The Neglected American Plant!s except so far as a familiarity with their names in the books may be called an acquaintance. Others knew them, but considered them \"wild plants,\" and therefore, too little deserving of attention to be worth the trouble of collecting, even for curious foreigners. \"And so,\" he continued, \"in a country of azaleas, kalmias, rhododendrons, cypripediums, magnolias, and nyssas-you never put them in your gardens, but send over the water every year for thousands of dollars worth of English larches and Dutch hyacinths. Voila le gout Republique!\" In truth, we felt that we quite deserved the sweeping sarcasm of our Belgian friend. We had always, indeed, excused ourselves for the well known neglect of the riches of our native Flora, by saying that what we can see any day in the woods is not the thing by which to make a garden distinguished-and that since all mankind have a passion for novelty, where, as in a fine foreign tree or shrub, both beauty and novelty are combined, so much the greater is the pleasure experienced. But, indeed, one has only to go to England, where \"American plants\" are the fashion (not undeservedly) to learn that he knows very little about the beauty of American plants ... Perhaps the finest revelation of this is the clumps and masses of our mountain laurel, Kalmia latifoha, and our azaleas and rhododendrons, which embellish the English pleasure-grounds. In some of the great countryseats, whole acres of lawn, kept like velvet, are made the ground-work upon which these masses of the richest foliaged and the gayest flowering shrubs are embroidered. Each mass is planted in a round or oval bed of deep, rich, sandy mould, m which it attains a luxuriance and perfection of form and foliage, almost as new to an American as to a Sandwich Islander. The Germans make avenues of our tulip-trees, and in the South of France, one finds more planted magnolias in the gardens than there are, out of the woods, in all the United States. It is thus, by seeing them away from home, where their merits are better appreciated, and more highly developed, that one learns for the first time what our gardens have lost by our having none of the \"American plants\" in them. [The following editorial appeared 140 years ago, in the May 1851 edition of the Horticulturist. It was written by Andrew Jackson Downing, the father of American horticulture. More than anything else, this article reflects the depth of the inferiority complex that American gardeners have always felt about themselves and their plants in comparison to their European It is counterparts.] an old and familiar saying that a prophet without honor, except in his own country, and as we were making our way this spring through a dense forest in the state of New Jersey, we were tempted to apply this saying to things as well as people. How many grand and stately trees there are in our woodlands, that are never heeded by the arboriculturist in planting his lawns and pleasure-grounds; how many rich and beautiful shrubs, that might embellish our walks and add variety to our shrubberies, that are left to wave on the mountain crag or overhang the steep side of some forest valley; how many rare and curious flowers that bloom unseen amid the depths of silent woods, or along the margin of wild water-courses. Yes, our hothouses are full of the heaths of New Holland and the Cape, our parterres are gay with the verbenas and fuchsias of South America, our pleasure-grounds are studded with the trees of Europe and Northern Asia, while the rarest spectacle in an American country place is to see above three or four native trees, rarer still to find any but foreign shrubs, and rarest of all, to find any of our native wild flowers. Nothing strikes foreign horticulturists and amateurs so much as this apathy and indifference of Americans to the beautiful sylvan and floral products of their own country. An enthusiastic collector in Belgium first made us keenly sensible of this condition of our countrymen... by telling us that amateurs and nurserymen who annually import from him every new and rare exotic that the richest collections of Europe possess, could scarcely be prevailed upon to make a search for native American plants, far more beautiful, which grow in the woods not ten miles from their own doors. Some of them were wholly ignorant of such plants, is not 28 is the widespread misconception that golden- hay tever-an outright tallacy in plants that produce showy, colorful flowers in order to lure insect pollinators will also make heavy, sticky pollen for the insect to carry away. Fall hay fever is rods cause view of the fact that by light, wind-borne pollen produced by plants with inconspicuous flowers, such as ragweed, while plants with conspicuous flowers such as goldenrods often take the blame. The genus Solidago contains about 130 species, most of which are native to North America, with a few found in Europe, Asia, and South America. They flower in summer or in autumn, are good for cut-flower use, are easily raised from seed, and can readily be propagated by division. If it sounds like a nursery's dream, I can only assume that it is the public's perception of all goldenrods as noxious weeds that eliminates their use as garden perennials. It is time to reassess the garden worthiness of goldenrods, and this is slowly happening, especially in that segment of the horticultural world interested in native plants. Perhaps other gardeners will catch up with them-and sooner rather than later. There is tremendous variation (and consequent taxonomic confusion) within the genus Solidago regarding bloom time, shape of the flower head, overall height, and cultural needs. Nearly all the goldenrods have bright goldenyellow flowers, small individually, but clustered on a spiky raceme, a flat-topped corymb, or a plume-like panicle whose numerous flowers make a bright display. Following are some recommendations of species, largely unselected wild plants, valuable for their bright floral displays. Except where noted, I have chosen to follow the taxonomy caused presented in Hortus III. Solidago altissima has the appropriate common name of tall goldenrod, as it will reach 80 inches. It has long (up to 6 inches), rough, gray leaves with hairs on the stems and the underside of the leaves. This is one species that should be pinched back to encourage stout, sturdy growth, because in its native meadow habitat it grows among a host of other plants that provide mutual support. In the garden, it might be necessary to provide support in the form of stakes and string. This species is so vigorous that it looks better in a naturalistic setting than in a more manicured herbaceous border, and it looks particularly good in combination with tall grasses, such as the various Miscanthus cultivars. Solidago bicolor is a goldenrod with, surprisingly, white rather than golden flowers, and hence its common name of silverrod. It grows two to three feet tall, with unbranched gray, 29 hairy stems. The blooms have creamy-white ray flowers surrounding a yellow disc, and appear from August to September. The soil in which S. bicolor is planted should be well drained, with only average or poor fertility. Short-lived, this species is quite possibly biennial. caesia has several common names-wreath goldenrod, blue-stem goldenrod, and woodland goldenrod. The slender arching stems, about three feet tall, are glaucous purplish-blue. In September, the stems are wreathed with clusters of yellow flowers in the leaf axils, terminating in a loose, leafy panicle. Growing in deciduous woodlands, this species is an excellent choice for late color in the shady garden, and is easily propagated by division in the spring. Solidago The lance-leaved goldenrod, Solidago graminifolia, is unlisted in Hortus III but is mentioned in one of the best native plant books, Handbook of Wildflower Cultivation, by Kathryn S. Taylor and Stephen F. Hamblin (1963). A branching, bushy plant, this species grows two to four feet tall, with numerous, narrow, grass-like leaves. The many small, flat, clustered flower heads appear from midsummer through autumn on short branches at the top of the stem. Tolerant of a range of soil conditions, lance-leaved goldenrod will grow in wet or dry sites, and it is also easily propagated by division in spring. goldenrod, Solidago nemoralis, goldenrods to flower. Growing only one to three feet tall, this clump-forming plant has mottled, graygreen leaves. Its graceful, arching, one-sided flower stalk first appears in August, a sure sign that summer is drawing to a close. This species is somewhat short-lived, possibly biennial, and grows best on poor dry sites. or The gray old field is among the earliest will grow well not only in average soil, but even in poor sandy sites. The leaves autumn. It can be used for tea if harvested before floweras the intensity of flavor will then decline. ing begins, sweet goldenrod, Solidago odora, has fragrant, anise-scented foliage. Growing three to five feet tall, the one-sided panicle of The flowers is attractive from late summer into Solidago pinetorum is not listed in Hortus III but is offered for sale in catalogues. Commonly called early goldenrod, it flowers in midsummer. The bright green foliage grows in a low clump, with a four-foot-tall, rather arching flower stalk. This species is valuable for its handsome foliage and early bloom. 30 spectacular flowers appear in late CeuiiTy eiUtuillii, WiliiCUi~v.Lg apictyS of vivid yellow flowers atop vase-shaped plants. This species appreciates moist to average soil conditions, and combines well with Eupatorium purpureum, Joe-pye weed, for a lovely display in wet meadows. Given its height, it is best used at the back of the border. or more, its Summer OI - It will seed about and \"volunteer\" in the garden. Division in late winter is another means of propagation. The seaside rens, has waxy goldenrod, Solidago semperviadapted to harsh coastal conditions of sandy soil and strong winds, and reveals a coating on the somewhat succulent leaves. Not insistent on beach conditions, this species will grow perfectly well in average soil in the perennial border. Variable in bloom time and height, different plants can be seen in bloom from summer into October, anywhere from two to six feet high. The individual florets, large compared to most goldenrods, are carried in large flattened panicles. As this species tends to have a deep root system, especially in light soils, it is best to transplant it when small. Solidago speciosa is also unlisted in Hortus Growing two to three feet tall, it has twelve-inch-long wands of vivid yellow flowers. Growing in average soil conditions, it also tolerates nutrient-poor sandy soils and is a good selection for xeric landscapes. III. Stiff-leaved goldenrod, Solidago rigida, has flat-topped corymbs of golden flowers in either summer or early autumn. The plants grow three to five feet tall, with yellow-green leaves as much as a foot long at the base of the plant, diminishing to four inches as they ascend the stem. Solidago rugosa stemmed or, more goldenrod, since the wrinkled, veiny rugose leaves. Another large goldenrod, growing four to six feet tall commonly called roughaccurately, rough-leaved the specific name refers to is Solidago sphacelata 'Golden Fleece,' cordateleaf goldenrod, is a 1990 introduction from Mt. Cuba Center for the Study of Piedmont Flora in Delaware. Selected by Dr. Dick Lighty, the plant was discovered in a North Carolina garden where its spreading growth habit suggested its possible use as a groundcover for large areas. The heart-shaped, semievergreen rosettes of leaves provide good foliage interest, with 18- to 24-inch-tall, wiry flower stems in September and October. Another of Dr. Lighty's recommended goldenrods is Solidago flexicaulis, which he saw in 31 those of us who refuse to give up with the Labor Day holiday, who expect more gratification from the late season garden than planting bulbs. The dedicated gardener welcomes the display provided by our native asters and goldenrods and invites them into cultivation from the roadside, to brighten the fall of the year and to lead the There are gardening garden into its winter rest. Some Nurseries Offering Selection of Asters and a Goldenrods Holbrook Farm and Nursery, Route 2, Box 223B, Fletcher, NC 28732 Little River Farm, Route 1, Box 220, Mid- dlesex, Native NC 27557 (catalogue $2.00) Gardens, Route 1, Box 494, Greenback, TN 37742 (catalogue $1.00) Niche Gardens, 1111 Dawson Road, Chapel Hill, NC 27516 (catalogue $3.00) Prairie Nursery, P.O. Box 306, Westfield, WI 53964 (catalogue $3.00) Box 6000A, Andersonville, TN 37705 Sunlight Gardens, Hillvale Rt. 1, Road, (catalogue $2.00) Germany, used as a woodland groundcover in fairly heavy stem. shade. The flowering pattern is similar to S. caesius, with secondary flower clusters in the leaf axils, strung out along the Judy Glattstem is a landscape consultant who specializes in perennial-border design and the use of native plants in the landscape She lives in Connecticut and writes and teaches extensively. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Allandale Woods- A Fragment of the First Families of Boston","article_sequence":4,"start_page":33,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25024","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add2608128.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Heath, Richard; Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"Allandale Woods: A Fragment of the First Families of Boston Richard Heath and Richard B. Primack Weeds, wildflowers, and history the come together in this little-known corner of city. A turn down Allandale Street from the bustle and traffic of Center Street in Jamaica Plain is a turn down a country road, crowded with trees and lined by sturdy stone walls. Boston's can be from the road. In the summer it sells fresh sweet corn; in the autumn it sells sweet cider mashed from its own apples. The road straightens out past the farm, and on the left is a deeply shaded, wooden gate that leads into Walnut Hill Cemetery, the resting place of Professor C. S. Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, and his good friend, the architect H. H. Richardson. Also located on the road is the very private, early twentieth-century Brandegee estate with its decaying Italianate gardens. The centerpiece of the estate is an enormous Georgian house set on a great hilltop terrace overlooking sweeping green meadows. Opposite the former stables and the carriage house of the Brandegee estate, now the stables of the Boston Police Department, is a seemingly nondescript clump of woods, the Allandale Woods, the subject of this article. It is typical of the secondary growth that invades old fields, once they are no longer used for grazing. This fragment of land, along with much last working farm, Allandale Farm, seen of the present-day Arnold Arboretum, was the ancestral grounds of a number of old Boston families, including the famous Weld family of Roxbury, once again prominent because of the election of William Weld as present governor of Massachusetts. Across Center Street from the Arnold Arboretum (between Allandale Street and the VFW Parkway), visitors can explore for themselves the 31-acre Allandale Woods, a jigsaw puzzle of City of Boston parkland and private land to which conservation restrictions have been applied. The Boston Natural Areas Fund (BNAF) has taken the lead in managing the property, which has a special connection to the Arnold Arboretum in that both were part of the original land grant to Joseph Weld that included much of modern-day Jamaica Plain. Superficially, the Allandale Woods looks like an ordinary oak and maple forest of the metropolitan Boston area, most of it an undulating glacial landscape of ridges and valleys, streams, and rocky outcroppings of Roxbury pudding stone, but records reveal it as a place of considerable historical interest as well. A careful observer can see remnants of old farm walls, estate boundaries, abandoned structure is The old spnnghouse on the grounds of the former Souther estate, which once tapped into Allandale spring. This located on privately owned property adjacent to the publicly held portion of the Allandale Woods. Photo by P. Del Tredici. 34 apple orchards, and old foundations that clearly indicate former uses nf the land Prohably the most exceptional structure in the Allandale Woods is a six-sided wooden springhouse with a conical cap tipped by a large metal ball. This crumbling structure, built in the 1870s, sits over a pipe that taps the Allandale Spring, a famous source of water in the region. Surrounding the springhouse are several ancient, overgrown apple trees. Early History The human story of the Allandale Woods begins with the Indians who had camps and lodges in the Saw Mill Brook valley until 1000 B.C. This area was presumably hospitable, with abundant running water and level ground. When the first English settlers arrived in the region, Algonquin Indians lived not far away, near the Neponset River Valley in Quincy, making it easy to imagine Indian hunters and fishermen moving through the primeval Allandale Woods. The historical record begins on June 5, 1632, when the Reverend Thomas Weld and his brother Joseph arrived in Boston and settled in Roxbury. Joseph Weld became the captain of the Roxbury militia, and fought in the first major Indian war in the New England settlements, the Pequot War of 1637. After defeating the Indians, Weld was one of the commissioners who negotiated the peace treaty; a grateful Governor Winthrop rewarded Captain Weld handsomely with a large estate in the western end of Roxbury called Jamaica End. There is evidence to suggest that this estate covered all of the land from the present-day Arboretum to the VFW Parkway and north to the spring along Allandale Street. The property was used as a large farm for growing the crops of the day-rye, corn, squash, pumpkins, apples, beans, tobacco, and hay for feeding livestock. Much of the labor for the huge farm apparently came from Indian and black slaves until Massachusetts outlawed slavery in 1783. The remnants of the field boundaries can still be seen in the low rock walls found throughout the Allandale Woods. The land remained in the Weld family until During that year Coionpl Fleazer Weld\/ great-great-grandson of Captain Joseph, sold off a large portion of his estate to pay debts he may have incurred while supporting the Revolutionary Army. What was to become the most famous hundred acres went to Benjamin Bussey, a wealthy silversmith and owner of a woollen mill. Bussey's estate is today part of the Arnold Arboretum. The rest of the land-along the future VFW Parkway and what is now the Allandale Woods-became the estate of Thomas B. Williams. On a site near the rear of the presentday Church of the Annunciation, Williams built a farm that operated for most of the nineteenth century. In 1864, Williams sold twenty acres of his land facing Allandale Street to Henry W Wellington, and twenty years later, the land was purchased by Maria Souther, probably also a Wellington. The Souther estate consisted of a grand two-andone-half-story house set on a curving terrace. Below the house was a sixty-foot-long greenhouse and a meandering stream, with the springhouse built at its source and with a pond downstream. Maria Souther's daughter, Marguerite, lived here until 1968 when the house, greenhouse, and spring were sold to the Faulkner Hospital. Numerous remnants of the Souther estate can still be seen in the Allandale Woods, such as the curving drive with its enormous oaks and sugar maples. Unkempt crabapples, ornamental cherries, and butternut trees persist near the building site. The huge, overgrown apple trees along the stream survive but do not fruit under the shade of nearby trees. The six-sided springhouse, with its conical roof, remains elegant even as it falls into ruin. The meadow below the old estate is still beautiful with black-eyed Susans, crown vetch, and other wildflowers. Yet the vigorous growth of poplars, aspens, and other trees in the meadow suggests that the area will soon again become a woodland. The remainder of the Williams farm was purchased by the City of Boston in December 1894 to build a parkway that would connect 1806 35 One of two enormous sugar maples that line what vately owned. Photo by P Del Jredici. was once the drive leadmg to the Souther estate, now pri- the Arnold Arboretum and Franklin Park to the Stony Brook Reservation. The landscape architectural firm of Olmsted, Olmsted and Eliot furnished detailed plans in 1896, but the Veterans of Foreign Wars (VFW) Parkway was not completed until 1936. A great stone and cement wall was built at some point to separate these city lands from the private lands to the north. When this wall was built and who built it has yet to be discovered. It is about eighteen inches wide and about three feet high, and runs up and down the steep Country Club and included a 79-room, neoGeorgian house and Italian gardens on the north side of the Allandale Woods. Broken slabs of marble, pieces of Romanesque statuary, and rusty mowing machines can still be seen in the tumbledown garden sheds. Nearby are covered stalls that were once used for keeping domestic animals. Vegetation After three centuries of use both for farming and for the cutting of firewood, the Allandale Woods today is a young forest with mostly small trees that have colonized the area. The dominant vegetation along the sides and tops of the ridges consists of oak trees (including the white, black, red, chestnut, and scarlet species) with an understory of blueberry and huckleberry bushes. White pines are surpris- landscape. 1905, Allandale Woods second extensive Weld estate, became part of a that of Mary (Weld) Pratt who married Edward Between 1891 and Brandegee, a wealthy clothing manufacturer, in 1902. Her 195-acre estate extended as far as Newton Street opposite the Brookline 36 pignut hickory, and shagbark hickory. In many t~,aea ara.,o p~ti!:1,l12rly ~.~hP., rl;ar,~,-l.o~ hm there dumping, there is a dense understory of alder buckthorn and common buckthorn, multiflora rose, gooseberry, and a truly prolific growth of poison ivy that covers the ground and grows up tree trunks. On the edge of some of the most disturbed wet ground are large eastern cottonwoods, Asian cork trees, and castor aralias, the last two most likely started from seeds carried by birds from the nearby Arnold Arboretum. In the center of these disturbed areas of dumping and old quarrying, one finds a tangle of vines, such as wild grape, bindweed, Virginia creeper, catbriars, oriental bittersweet, and brambles. The wildflowers found in the Allandale Woods are almost exclusively weedy species characteristic of disturbed ground (butter-and-eggs, Canada hawkweed, goldenrods, asters, yarrow, and garlic mustard). Some of these are either escaped or persisting ornamentals, such as lily-of-the-valley and dame's rocket. Presumably because of the heavy human impact, only a few native woodland herbs are now found in the Allandale Woods including bastard toadflax, wild geranium, Indian pipes, sarsaparilla, dogbane, false indigo bush, yellow gerardia, cow wheat, Solomon's seal, wild lily-of-the-valley, and false Solomon's seal. nf dumping, is a denseunderstory of alder The long boundary wall that runs through part of the Allandale Woods. Photo by P. Del Tredici. only occurring as a few scattered garden sheds. Openings in the forest contain small trees of black cherry, trembling aspen, sassafras, gray birch, and sweet cherry. Common herbs include wild lily-of-the-valley and sarsaparilla. These ridge tops have thin, dry soil, which makes them prone to fire, such as the one that burned a rare, trees near ingly the old section of the woods in 1988. slopes that are damper and more protected, hickories, hemlocks, and beeches On Ecological Experiment Many common perennial wildflowers do not occur in the Allandale Woods even though they are common in conservation areas only a few miles away. Apparently during the period of intensive farming, many species were eliminated from the landscape and have been unable to return to the site via natural seed dispersal. In the fall of 1989, the BNAF decided to introduce a number of common perennial species into the Allandale Woods in an attempt to increase the number of native wildflower species present and to test alternative techniques for species introductions. The first part of the project involved collecting wild adult plants of foam flower (Tiarella An become more common, with numerous sprouts of American chestnut, patches of the maple-leaved viburnum, and scattered clumps of ghostly white Indian pipes. On these lower, damper slopes the forest is composed primarily of red maples and black birch, with scattered ash, sugar maple, mockernut hickory, 37 A distinctive outcrop P. Del Tredici. of Roxbury pudding stone capped with a glacial erratic, known as Table Rock. Photo by cordifolia), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), wood lily (Clintonia borealis), Jack-in-thepulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), Indian cucumber root (Medeola viiginiana), shining club moss (Lycopodium lucidulum), wood sorrel (Oxalis montana), and wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) from woods in Newton, Massachusetts, and Sunapee, New Hampshire. With the exception of Jack-in-the-pulpit, which is rare in Allandale Woods, none of these species apparently grows here even though the site looks suitable for all eight species. These plants were transplanted onto what appeared to be suitable sites along the path running from so-called Table Rock down along an old rock wall into a wooded dell. The transplants were checked in the spring and late summer of 1990 and again in the spring of 1991. Based on these limited observations, it is apparent that all species, with the possible exception of Indian cucumber root, have survived transplantation. The Jack-in-thepulpit, foam flower, and wood lily all flowered in 1991. While the success of the adult transplants demonstrates that the Allandale Woods is suitable for the growth of native species that do not occur there naturally, the experiment does not say anything about the process of their establishment from seed. In an attempt to investigate this crucial phase of their life cycle, the seeds of ten additional species were obtained from the New England Wildflower Society and introduced into the Allandale Woods at specific marked points during the 38 Allandale Woods and the surrounding area. The main public trail begms behmd the ornate Church of Our Lady of the Annunciation (arrow) and turns through the oak woodland to the distinctive outcrop and flat boulder known as Table Rock. ,'. fall of 1989. None of the species selected occurred in the woods, yet there were many sites that looked as if they were at least potentially suitable for the species. The purpose of using seeds was to simulate the natural process of establishment of new plant populations through seed dispersal by animals or wind. Species that grow in four different types of habitats were selected for the experiment. Seeds of the first group were planted in open, disturbed ground and included butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) and coneflower (Rudbeckia sp.). The second group, planted in lightly shaded, open forest, included columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), harebell (Cam- 39 panula rotundifolia), and wild pink (Silene caroliniana). The third group, planted in shaded forest with rich soil, consisted of wild ginger (Asarum canadense), golden alexander (Zizia aurea) and painted trillium [Tiillium undulatum). The fourth group, planted along wet stream banks, included cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis) and cow parsnip (Heracleum sphondylium). A cursory check of the sites in the late summer of 1990 and the spring of 1991 did not reveal any seedlings of any of these species. for the appearance of seedlings from the experimental seed introductions and for the persistence of the adult transplants. The results will help to determine which technique is the most effective for increasing the biological diversity of a young, disturbed conservation area, with the ultimate goal of partially restoring the original species com- position. During the last three-and-a-half centuries, the land has been the scene of key events both in New England history and in the history of the Weld family, with a cast of characters These failures suggest that the successful establishment of new populations from seed is probably a rare event, with many apparently suitable sites for a species actually being unsuitable for unknown reasons. Another possibility is that under field conditions the seeds may have to undergo a long period of dormancy before they will germinate. Under laboratory conditions there appears to be considerable variability among these species in their seed dormancy requirements. Seeds of butterfly weed germinated vigorously after three months of cold stratification, golden alexander seed required two three-month episodes of stratification, and painted trillium seeds did not germinate at all after two periods of stratification. Our experience in finding adult transplants far more effective than seed in establishing new populations is in agreement with the conclusions reached by numerous other workers who have tried to recreate wildflower meadows and prairie communities. Simply placing seeds in a new environment is generally not enough to achieve successful plant establishment. These sites in the Allandale Woods will continue to be monitored in the years ahead including Puritans, soldiers, farmers, slaves, Revolutionary War patriots, merchant princes, and, most recently, estate owners and dowagers who have built homes fit for royalty. An appreciation of this history can add to the enjoyment of a stroll through the Allandale Woods-far from the sounds of the modern world. Acknowledgments As it exists today, Allandale Woods consists of thirty-one acres of publicly owned or publicly accessible conservation land. The Boston Natural Areas Fund, a nonprofit organization dedicated to the preservation of urban green space, and the Boston Conservation Commission have worked together for the past twelve years to protect Allandale Woods through the outright purchase of land, with public and private funds, and through the procurement of conservation restrictions. The material presented in this article is the result of a project sponsored by BNAF, with funding from the Boston Parks and Recreation Department, to protect and enhance the city-owned Allandale Woods. Richard Heath is a landscape management consultant for the Boston Natural Areas Fund, and Richard Primack is a Professor of Biology at Boston University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25025","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260816d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Sinton, Nan Blake","article_content":"40 BOOKS Nan Blake Sinton The City Garden's Handbook: From Balcony Backyard by Linda Yang. Random House, 1990. 316 pages. 150 color photographs. 70 line drawings. Hardcover. $26.95. to problems of wind, pollutants, and soil conditions ; selecting, locating, planting, and caring for appropriate plants; and understanding the ways of uninvited garden visitors-insects, diseases, and resident squirrels. This is a book of answers-from a source list of mail-order suppliers of plants, tools, garden furniture, and accessories, to an almanac of seasonal tasks and reminders. The reader will also find useful guides, such as the \"Chart of Reduced Fertilizer Quantities,' which scales down applications to container and small yard proportions, and specialty plant lists covering such categories as plants for gardens with less than five hours of autumn sun, plants for medium-tall hedges, and weeping trees as accent plants on balconies. Copies signed by the author are available from the Arnold Arboretum Book Shop. Owning The City Gardener's Handbook by New York Times garden writer and columnist Linda Yang is like living next door to the most resourceful plant enthusiast in town, who also happens to write with grace and style. Based on years of hands-on gardening experience, developed the confidence to look at inhospitable area of concrete, shade, and pollution and immediately start planning its transformation into a garden space. This is not a coffee-table book, but a practical, comprehensive guide to gardening in an she has small and difficult situations. The numerous photographs, grouped in \"blocks\" for easy reference, are proof of the city resident's abil- ity to create gardens in unimaginable spaces. Linked to garden plans or accompanied by plant lists, the pictures show the garden in all and illustrate the creative use of and containers. Linda Yang's advice is useful to both novice and experienced gardeners. Her detailed chapter headings provide a ready trail of informative markers through the complicated process of creating a garden from scratch. The thirteen chapters include: starting off; assessment of seasons fences, trellises, furniture, Fifteen years ago, Linda Yang wrote The TerGardener's Handbook, which contained many excellent suggestions on gardening in containers. In The City Gardener's Handbook, the information on containers is once again comprehensive, accurate, and inspiring. From anchoring a window box to planting birches in wooden tubs, the emphasis is on both how and what to plant, coupled with their integration into a cohesive design. This is a book destined to bear the true mark of the gardener's companion-muddy thumb prints on every well-read page. With Linda Yang's assistance, city gardeners will be well equipped to create their own green spaces. Not trendy, not just decorative, this book is simply invaluable. race "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25028","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260896f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Summer Interns Arrive at the Arnold Arboretum year, sometime between the last blooms of Arnold's Promise and the first lilacs, a new crop of horticultural interns arrive at the Arboretum. Their arrival is as sure a sign of spring here as the magnolias and in many ways, as welcome by the staff. They are eager and full of enthusiasm; a diverse group who come to the Arboretum with a wide range of objectives. \"Looking for practical hands-on training,\" \"to get a background in the skills that go into the making of a public garden,\" and \"an opportunity to explore possible career Every choices,\" are among the why they apply to our horticultural training program. Many are students of horticulture, botany, or landscape design. Some are career changers-people who are finally able to realize their dream of working with plants. They come from all over--Germany, Canada, reasons left to right: Diana Drake, Ken McCallum, Darrell Sullivan, Angela Jones, John Merrill, Carol Keaney, Todd Burns, Nicholas Slabyj, Andrea Murmann, Joseph Jurek, Angelika Speckhard, Julane Fagnant, Jacqueline Kuhn, Aaron Piacentini, Amy Salvadore, James Wallace. (Not in the photo: Paul Callahan, Becky Joyner and Suzanne Kennedy.) From the back, The Arboretum's Horticultural Training Program is designed to give people interested in careers in horticulture an opportunity to learn about plants and public garden maintenance in both a hands-on and a classroom Wisconsin, Tennessee, Washington 2014 and they range in age from eighteen to over fifty. But despite these apparent differences they have one important factor in common, a love of plants and a desire to learn more about them. setting. This year's program offered eighteen positions in several different areas: the Dana Greenhouse, the library, the plant records department, the Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, grounds maintenance positions at the Case Estates and Jamaica Plain and the Federal Reserve Bank of Boston. The new positions at the Federal Reserve Bank will enable two interns to learn about the special challenges involved in maintaining a city roof Continued on page 4 From The Director By Bob Cook On a warm Sunday morning in early June, we took a walk in the Arboretum. One year after the dedication of the Linda J. Davison Rhododendron Path, I join Terry Colligan along with family and friends of Linda Davison to tour the new plantings at the north base of Hemlock Hill. Gary Koller, The Linda ]. Davison Rhododendron Path gate as I began to speak. \"In back of us lies the chief horticulturalist, gave a wonderful portrait of the design of the Path including the collections of rhododendrons and groundcovers that we planted the week before. Walking along the path, we could hear the babbling of Bussey Brook as it gently rippled over stone dams beneath a whispering canopy of tall hemlocks and white our pine. In the midst of this setting of tranquil beauty, my mind kept conjuring up quite contrary vision: the rusting hulk of an abandoned Volkswagon half submerged in a swamp. As noon approached, we left the Rhododendron Path and walked the short thirty yards to the edge of the Arboretum at the South Street Gate. Four or five autos were parked outside, litter decorated the roadside weeds, and broken glass sparkled in the sunlight. A pair of cars racing down South Street flashed past the a Davison Rhododendron Path, contemplative space of wonderful serenity. In front of us, on the other hand, lies a derelict, rubble-strewn tract of swampland, into the midst of which someone, many years ago, drove a stolen Voikswagon to set it afire among the cattails. There is no better contrast of images to embody our critical need to have a master plan for the future of the Arboretum.\" The \"urban wild\" known as the South Street Tract is half owned by Harvard University and half by the City of Boston. It will be one of a number of knotty urban issues addressed by Sasaki Associates, Inc., the consulting firm working with us on long-range planning. Together we will be identifying ways to bring this forbidding terrain under the control of the Arboretum, and integrate it into our existing landa Sounds complicated, and will be. That is why we it sought the quality and experience that Sasaki can bring to a master plan. Not surprisingly, producing this plan for the whole of the Arboretum will be expensive. But then, you get what you pay for; and we want a plan as far-sighted as the original vision created by Olmsted and Sargent. Fortunately, for the third year in a row, the Institute of Museum Services has awarded the Arboretum a General Operating Support grant for $75,000 which we will allocate to partially cover the costs of creating the master plan. We will need to raise more money to complete the job. However, preserving the immeasurable qualities of the Arnold Arboretum, symbolized by the Davison Rhododendron Path, is far too important to be constrained by financial considerations. scapes. 2 in the country, and its com- panion volume, Photographic Manual of Woody Landscape advisor at the University of Georgia, Mike also continues his research on the cold Plants, Mike is an old friend of the Arboretum. While here as a Mercer Fellow in 19781979, Mike worked with Gary Koller to write Street Trees for Home and Municipal Landscapes, and the third revision of his manual. Currently on sabbatical from his position as Professor of Horticulture at the University of Georgia, Mike is here to study the Arnold Arboretum's \"fabulous living collections,\" work on a fourth edition of hisManual of Woody Plants and a revision of Street Trees, interact with staff, and teach in our education program. He is also considering projects on cold hardiness testing and a photo essay book on the Arnold Arboretum's most notable trees. In addition to being an active and well appreciated teacher and graduate student hardiness, stress tolerance, and propagation of woody plants. He has developed a tissue culture program which is investigating the micro propagation of ornamental woody landscape plants which are difficult to propagate by seed or cutting and thus difficult to obtain in the commercial nursery trade. Beyond his vast knowledge and love of trees, Mike brings a personal vision and enthusiasm which are inspiring the staff to focus on the essential values of the Arnold Arboretum and move ahead with challenging projects. Dirr's passion for gardening is best summarized by the old Chinese proverb, \"A garden cannot be made in a day or week or year, it must be planned for, waited for and loved into being.\" Mike Dirr teaching his class Woody Landscape Plants for the Landscaper MICHAEL DIRR AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM A Putnam fellowship has provided the opportunity for the staff of the Arnold Arboretum to benefit from Mike's exuberant and knowledgeable presence. Author of Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation, and Uses, the most widely use teaching text Bookstore Nezv Arrivals Spring Poster Our 1991 Spring Art Exhibition winner captures the beauty and timeless appeal of Arnold Arboretum Suncatchers These colorful additions to any window are molded of recycled glass and were designed especially for us to depict some of our most notable trees and shrubs in bloom. Available by mail in sets offour; Forsythia, Lilac, Magnotia, and New Arboretum Mug This elegant white mug features a traditional lilac bloom with the words \"Arnold Arboretum Lilacs\" and an excerpt from Amy Lowell's wonderful poem trompe l'oeil style by artist Lydia painting lilacs in a Martin. A poster produced from the painting is available for $19.20 \"Lilacs\". A set of 2 mugs is available by mail for, $13.70 ppd. members, ppd. (postage paid) members, $21.00 ppd. non members. Rhododendron; $20.95 ppd. members, $22.95 ppd. non members. $14.90 ppd. non members. 3 FLORA OF THE LESSER ANTILLES The Arnold Arboretum is proud to offer for sale the sixvolume Flora of the Lesser d ,.. E;11.u.., .........,.., . All volumes in the series available, either individually or as part of a full set which is available at the special price, including shipping, are 1.,.... E.,...,..........a \"''-''''\"'0 ................... y.&_,\"\"''''''' nf \"R9AO CarM <RS fnr chinnmo, --.--,- - - ii2014 o of Dr. Richard Howard, former director of the Arnold Arboretum. These six volumes constitute the first comprehensive flora of the area, outside the US). For volumes 4,5, and 6 only, the special price is $205. Vol. 1 Orchidaceae $20 Vol.2 Pteridophyta $25 Vol.3. Monocotyledoneae $35 Vol. 4 Dicotyledoneae,1 $75 Vol. 5 Dicotyledoneae, 2 $85 Vol. 6 Dicotyledoneae, 3 $85 presenting keys to the genera as well as species. For each genus and species a complete modem description is given which includes color as well as measurements of floral parts. The descriptions are followed by a listing of each plant's general distribution and its distribution within the Lesser Antilles. All volumes are profusely illustrated with Brunfelsia americana. Drawing by Dr. Ihsan Al-Shehbaz. line drawings that are both highly artistic and accurate. All known species reported from the Lesser Antilles, both introduced and native, are included. Checks should be made payable to the Arnold Arboretum and all orders should be addressed to the attention of: Frances Maguire, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. Summer Interns Continued from page 1 than their main assignment. What happens to summer interns when they leave the garden and to gain some experience in interior plantscaping. All of the interns are Arboretum? Many return to school to complete their required to attend a series of classes on Woody Plant Identification, Landscape Design, and Horticultural Maintenance offered by the Arboretum's education department. There are also a number of field trips and garden tours and this year, three walks with Michael Dirr to supplement their classroom learning. This year the interns will have the opportunity for two week rotations to one or two departments other 4 degrees-Doug Cygan '89 returned to the University of Main at Orono; Amory Haight '89 is currently studying Landscape Architecture at Sheffield University in Sheffield, England; Carol Kohler '90 and Mary Altermatt '90 will begin Longwood Garden's graduate program this fall. Others find Horticulturalist for the National Fire Protection Association; Ellen Meyers '82 is Education Coordinator at the New England Wildflower Society; Deborah Cahill'80 is a partner in a New York design firm; Tom Ward '86 is the Assistant Plant Propagator at the Dana Greenhouse. Over the years the internship program has helped many people find their \"horticultural niche.\" If you are interested in learning more about the program, please write to Laurel Landers '89 at the Education Department, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. employment in their fields: Dennis Harris '67 and Mark Walkama '71, Arboretum grounds crew, are both former interns; Jim Allen'82 is employed as Senior "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23385","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ebb6e.jpg","title":"1991-51-2","volume":51,"issue_number":2,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Sino-American Sampler","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25017","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260ab6b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"A Sino-American Sampler Stephen A. Spongberg are Plants from the 1980 Sino-American Expedition the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. finding their way into Ten years ago this spring, as the intensifying rays of the sun streamed through the Dana Greenhouses at the Arnold Arboretum to warm seed flats on the benches, there was great anticipation among the staff who carefully inspected the trays for germinating seedlings. Not since the halcyon days of E. H. Wilson earlier in this century had the greenhouse staff attempted to coax so many seeds from China to germinate and grow in the New England climate. It was in the spring of 1981 that the rich harvest of seeds collected by the Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Western Hubei Province during the fall of 1980 began to germinate in the Arboretum's greenhouses. Specifically, the expedition spent six weeks during August and September of 1980 collecting in the Shennongjia Forest District of northwestern Hubei Province, in a high, mountainous region north of the Chang Jiang (Yangtze) River and on the border of Sichuan Province. Additional collections were made in the Metasequoia region of southwestern Hubei Province during October of that year. Many of the seedlings that resulted from these collections were destined to enter the Arboretum's nurseries adjacent to the greenhouse complex and, ultimately, to join their North American and other Asian cohorts on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, where they have added significantly to the diversity of the Arboretum's living collections. The results of the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition have been presented in a scientific report (Bartholomew et al., 1983), and a listing of the germplasm brought back to the United States was prepared shortly after the expedition had been completed (Dudley, lished (Hebb, 1982) of the excess plant material distributed through the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta in the spring of 1982. While it has not been possible to trace the ultimate success or failure of all of the living plants that resulted from the expedition, it seems appropriate to focus briefly on the results of this ongoing experiment, which has tested the hardiness of many Asian taxa in various localities and has allowed botanists and horticulturists both here and abroad to assess the ornamental and landscape attributes of these Chinese species. Included in these introductions are some that represent the first of their kind to be cultivated in western gardens. The following summary features a few of the plants that now grow at the Arnold Arboretum. Over 450 accessions of seeds and other propagules collected by the expedition were processed at the Dana Greenhouses, and as of this writing 103 accessions have been incorporated into the living collections. At first glance, this may seem like a low success rate, but a fair proportion of the collections failed to germinate at all, and many of the 1982, 1983). In addition, a catalogue was pub- 3 accessions that did germinate have proved not to be hardy. Finally, many of the slowergrowing accessions, such as the hollies and rhododendrons, are still being grown in the Arboretum's nurseries and will be planted out in the collections in coming years. Conse- quently, the Arboretum's collections will continue to enlarge as additional material is added in the future, and we can look forward to more new Chinese plants in our already rich collections of woody Asian plants. The ghost bramble, Rubus R Del Tiedici. lasiostylus var. hubeiensis, in winter. Photo by 4 The flowers of Sorbus yuana. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. Sorbus yuana Originally thought to represent Sorbus zahlbruckneri, this simple-leaved mountain ash proved to represent a new species, which was subsequently named Sorbus yuana Spongberg. The specific epithet, yuana, was given to leading Chinese plant taxonomist and student of the genus Sorbus, who was a staunch supporter of the 1980 Sino-American Expedition and of continued cooperation between Chinese and American botanists. Sorbus yuana has thus far proven hardy in the Arnold this species to honor Professor T. T. Yii, the 5 The fruits of Sorbus yuana. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. Arboretum, and trees in the living collections (AA #1539-80 and #1894-80) are approaching fifteen feet (4.5 meters) in height. Closely related to S. alnifolia, the celebrated Korean mountain ash, S. yuana produces large corymbs of pure white flowers in spring and large, cherry-red, ovoid fruits in fall. Its beautiful dark green, alder-like leaves turn golden yellow in fall, and the species promises to be an outstanding ornamental tree. 6 The author with Sorbus hemsleyi. Photo by 1. Racz. Sorbus More a hemsleyi tury, this species was described as new by Camillo Schneider and also, somewhat later, by Alfred Rehder as S. xanthoneura. It was not realized, however, that the two species were one and the same until the collections of the Sino-American Expedition were studied, and the seeds brought back by the expedition con- botanical curiosity than a promising ornamental, Sorbus hemsleyi is another of the simple-leaved mountain ashes collected by the 1980 Sino-American Expedition (AA #1771-80, #1878-80, and #1981-80). Originally discovered in Hubei Province by Augustine Henry toward the end of the nineteenth cen- 7 ~f The flowers of Sorbus hemsleyi. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. stitute its first introduction into western gardens and arboreta. Producing small corymbs of pale green flowers in spring, which are followed by small clusters of greenishyellow fruits, S. hemsleyi is most notable for its bold, simple leaves. These are dark emerald green on with a white tomentum on the lower surfaces. As a consequence, the plants provide interest in the landscape, particularly when the leaves are put in motion by a slight breeze. the upper surfaces but covered 8 The leaves of Liquidambar acalycina. Photo by Rjcz and Debreczy. Liquidambar acalycina one of the most exciting new introductions of the 1980 Sino-American Expedition is a plant that had only recently been described as constituting a new species by a Chinese taxonomist. We collected seeds of this plant, Liquidambar acalycina, from a venerable old tree growing by the roadside in the fabled Metasequoia Valley in a remote dis- To my mind trict of southwestern Hubei Province. At the time of collection, we assumed that the tree represented Liquidambar formosana, the common and widely distributed Chinese sweetgum. But on close examination of the voucher herbarium specimens, it became apparent that our collection represented L. acalycina Chang, a species first described as 9 The habit of Liquidambar acalycina. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. recently as 1959. Ours was undoubtedly its cies, L. formosana. And unlike L. formosana, first introduction to western gardens, and in the Arnold Arboretum a small grove of trees grown from this seed lot (AA #1634-80) now occupies space close to the American sweetgums. Ironically, this new Chinese species is more closely related to our American sweetgum than it is to the common Chinese spe- which-despite repeated attempts-has never been hardy in the Boston area, L. acalycina has withstood winters outside in the Arnold Arboretum since 1984. 10 Rhus chinensis in full bloom. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. Rhus chinensis Chinese sumac, Rhus chinensis, was first cultivated in western gardens by Philip Miller in the Chelsea Physic Garden in London during the middle of the eighteenth century. And while we grow several accessions of this wideranging Asian shrub at the Arnold Arboretum, the plants that resulted from the SinoAmerican Expedition constitute our only current accession of this taxon from China. One plant (AA #475-80-C) has become well established along Meadow Road adjacent to the Cotinus collection, where it has grown into The handsome foliage of Rhus chinensis. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. a large, multiple-stemmed shrub, already upwards of fifteen feet (4.5 meters) in height. In flower from late August into September, the ornamental value of this shrub centers on its large panicles of creamy-white flowers, which provide a rich source of nectar for foraging bees. Its compound leaves-each with a winged rachis and seven to thirteen leafletsadd interest to the plants in the late summer landscape, and particularly in fall when they turn a brilliant red. 12 Malus baccata Among the several species of crabapples collected in the Shennongjia Forest District in Hubei Province, a number were introduced by seed collections, and a group of these proved difficult to determine based only on their fruiting voucher specimens. One collection in particular (SABE #1298, now grown as AA #1843-80) represented a small tree that was particularly attractive in fruit, the small but abundantly produced, fire-engine red pomes suspended on extremely long stalks. Plants from this gathering have now flowered in the Arnold Arboretum, and by using both flowering and fruiting material, we have been able to determine the plant's identity. It represents Malus baccata, the so-called Siberian crab, and its occurrence in western Hubei Province represents a considerable extension of its known range. Its unexpected occurrence far south of its usual range in northern Asia confused us when we attempted to identify it at the time of collection, and we thought it might represent a new species. It was only through recourse to the flowering material from the plants grown in the Arboretum that its correct identity has been ascertained. As can be seen in the accompanying photograph, the flowers, too, are produced on very long pedicels, and en masse transform each limb of the flowering tree into a beautiful bower of white. Malus baccata with exceptionally long petioles. Photo by Rdcz and Debieczy. 13 Sinowilsonia henryi Another shrub now growing at the Arnold Arboretum for the first time since 1972 is of great historical significance, as reflected in its generic and specific botanical names. Sinowilsonia henryi, based on herbarium specimens collected in western Hubei Province by Augustine Henry and Ernest Henry Wilson, combines the names of these two famous collectors of Chinese plants. And its generic name, Sinowilsonia, refers to Wilson using the combining form Sino, which can be freely translated as \"Chinese\" Wilson, the name by which he was affectionately known by his botanical and horticultural colleagues. This species was originally introduced into cultivation by Wilson in 1908, and to my knowledge all of the plants of the solitary species of this Hamamelidaceous genus known in western gardens up until 1980 were derived from this single introduction. At the Arnold Arboretum, plants from this introduction grew in various locations until the severe winter of 1934, when all succumbed to extremely low winter temperatures. An attempt to reestablish the plant in our collections was made in 1965 when young plants grown from seeds gathered from a plant at the Planting Fields Arboretum on Long Island were established in the Center Street beds. These, however, were no longer growing when that area was surveyed in 1972. The most recent opportunity to establish this species in our collections resulted from the 1980 Sino-American Expedition, although only one seed germinated from those received at the Dana Greenhouses. This plant (AA #1970-80) has proven to be vigorous in growth and has been planted on the gentle slope above the east nursery near the greenhouse complex. It is hoped that it will continue to thrive in this protected location, and that it will eventually flower and fruit. While Sinowilsonia is not of great ornamental significance despite its close generic relationships to the witch hazel family, its historical associations alone dictate that it be included in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Sinowilsonia henryi, plate 2817 from Hooker's Icones Plantarum, vol. 29, 1906. and Heptacodium Several other introductions of the 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition have been featured in articles appearing in the pages of Amoldia. These include Magnolia zenii, which first flowered at the Arnold Arboretum on March 30, 1988, and the so-called ghost bramble, Rubus lasiostylus var. hubeiensis, which I had the distinct privilege of describing as new with my Chinese colleagues, T. T. Yii and L. T. Lu of the Beijing Botanical Garden and the Institute of Botany, Academia Magnolia, Rubus, Sinica in Beijing. 14 plant featured earlier in these shrub with a rather cumbersome common name, seven-son-flower. Originally introduced as Heptacodium jasminoides, its botanical moniker has been changed to H. miconioides, but despite the difficulties that incumber its nomenclature, it is a lovely latesummer flowering and fruiting member of the honeysuckle family that is a worthy addition to the Arboretum landscape. Even as the plants mentioned above grow and mature at the Arnold Arboretum, and as additional accessions from the 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition are incorporated into the Arboretum's landscape, new plants from other parts of China continue to flow into the Arboretum greenhouses. Ours is an ongoing experiment, one that continues to broaden in scope, for botanical and horticultural science as well as for the enjoyment of all. Another a pages is J. X. Wan, and T. S. Ying. 1983. The 1980 SinoAmerican Botanical Expedition to Western Hubei Province, People's Republic of China. four. Arnold Arboretum 64: 1-103. Del Tredici, P., and S. A. Spongberg. 1989. A new Magnolia blooms in Boston. Arnoldia 49(2): 25-27. Dudley. T. R. 1982, 1983. Inventory report of the 1980 Sino-Amencan Botanical Expedition to Western Hubei Province, People's Republic of China. Bull. Amer. Assoc. of Bot. Gard. and Arb. 16: 133-154; 1983. Ibid. 17: 6-32; 51-64; 77-96. Hebb, R. S. 1982. Distribution of important Chinese, Soviet and other plants at the June meeting. Bull. Amer. Assoc. of Bot. Gard. and Arb. 16: 17-30. G. L. 1986. Seven-son-flower from Zhejiang: Introducing the versatile ornamental shrub Heptacodium jasminoides Airy Shaw. Arnoldia 46(4): 2-13. 1990. The ghost bramble-Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis. Amoldia 50(3): 12-15. Koller, Schulhof, R. References Bartholomew, B., D. E. Boufford, A. L. Chang, Z. Cheng, T. R. Dudley, S. A. He, Y. X. Jin, Q. Y. Li, J. L. Luteyn, S. A. Spongberg, S. C. Sun, Y. C. Tang, Stephen Spongberg Arnold Arboretum. is Horticultural Taxonomist at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Meadow Making- Caveat Emptor","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25019","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260b328.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Longland, David","article_content":"Meadow David Making-Caveat Emptor Longland as According to the popular press, planting a meadow is can. Nothing could be further from the truth. easy as opening a Over the last seven years, we at the New England Wild Flower Society have been confronted with a fair mix of public curiosity and disappointment about the \"meadow myth,' the popular perception that growing a field of wildflowers is cheaper and easier than growing a lawn. Having experimented with meadow installation and maintenance at Garden in the Woods since 1983, we are in a position to draw a few conclusions about materials, methods, and the variability of the actual meadow-making process. It is true that \"wildflower\" meadow gardens can be ecologically and aesthetically sound alternatives to manicured lawns, ifit's done right. \"If\" can be such a big little word, especially here, because this \"if\" is usually omitted, petitiveness and resilience of surrounding native vegetation (deciding whether it needs be cleared out completely, sequentially, or selectively, and leaving plenty of lead time for planting or seeding); second, the physical and chemical properties of the soil; third, the slope of the site and its potential for erosion; fourth, whether or not to use a cover crop to to prepare or stabilize the soil. 3. If you use the best possible combination of methods and schedules to introduce and establish new plant species in the ignored, suppressed, or forgotten in too many promotions for creating a meadow. This particular \"if\" involves four essential conditions for the successful establishment of a wildflower meadow: 1. If you choose appropriate perennial species for the site. This means plants that are adaptable to present and future site conditions ; plants that are unlikely to impact adversely on the ecological diversity and relationships of the organisms surrounding or within the area; and plants that have complementary ornamental traits like seasonal color, height of bloom, fruit, and foliage. 2. If you prepare the site properly. This involves taking into account, first, the com- Often an integrated approach cost-effective returns. 4. If you expect that the process of establishing a mature wildflower meadow will probably take from three to five years, depending on financial resources, the size of the site, climate, and unforeseen factors, such as seed area. meadow produces the most viability. A so-called mature meadow is by no means static, but is a continually evolving composition-anatural work of art. And herein lies much of the potential charm of the meadow, for plants will flourish, recede, and migrate over time, in response to one another as well as to myriad environmental conditions. This unpredictability, however, is also the reason for management, for without some maintenance regime, the meadow will eventually change into a different kind of plant community, such as a woodland or a shrubland. 16 B Purple coneflower and wild bergamot Massachusetts. in the \"wildflower meadow\" at Garden in the Woods, Framingham, Mowing The unwanted invasion of trees and shrubs can best be prevented by mowing once a year in the late fall. Mowing can be done at one or more additional times during the growing season to favor or discourage the reproductive advance of certain aggressive species. At Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts, a meadow garden was first established as an experiment in 1984. The meadow is a quarter of an acre in extent, essentially a sunny hole in the woods. The site is slightly sloping-with a fairly rich, loamy soil. Some thirty-five species of native forbs and grasses were planted, and we have monitored their development for the last seven years. A few substantive conclusions can now be drawn: 1. The most aggressive of the planted species has been Canada anemone (Anemone canadensis). Other aggressive invaders came from surrounding areas and have included goatsbeard (Aruncus dioicus), Canada goldenrod (Solidago canadensis), and occasionally the notorious purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria). Plants such as these need to be removed every year. 2. The most desirable perennial species are those that can hold their own in competi- 17 tion with other species. So far the following species have perfomed best: In the upper, drier margin of the meadow area, the following species have performed best: Blazing star (Liatris pycnostachya) Purple coneflower (Echinacea purpurea) Wild bergamot (Monarda fistulosa) Turk's cap lily (Lilium superbum) Canada lily (Lilium canadense) Perennial coneflower (Rudbeckia fulgida) New England aster (Aster novae-angliae) Ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis) Cup plant (Silphium perfoliatum) Little bluestem grass (Schizachyrium scoparium) Northern dropseed grass (Sporobolus Butterfly weed (Asclepias tuberosa) Native lupine (Lupinus perennis) Blue false indigo (Baptisia australis) Little bluestem grass (Schizachyrium scoparium) all, establishing a meadow can be an entertaining ecological project, or a laborintensive disappointment. It all depends on the big IF. All in David Longland Flower Society. is heterolepia) Director of the New England Wild "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis- Chinese Wax Shrub","article_sequence":3,"start_page":18,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25021","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260b726.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Straley, Gerald B.","article_content":"Presenting Sinocalycanthus chinensis 2014 Chinese Shrub Gerald B. Wax Straley in the West, this Virtually unknown causing a stir. promising new plant from China is During my years as Curator of Collections at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden, I have begun a number of files on plants in our garden that were of personal interest, especially those for which I could find little or no information in the standard references. My files included such plants as Rehderodendron macrocarpum, both Kirengeshoma palmata and koreana, Dipteronia sinensis, and Sinocalycanthus chinensis. The goal in the back of my mind was to write something eventually on some or all of these plants for North American horticultural audiences. Sinocalycanthus (Calycanthaceae), the most recent addition to my list, has been unusual in that, since 1984 when I began the file, I have accumulated very little-only the original description and two brief notes. The first, written by J. C. Raulston in the North Carolina State University Arboretum Newsletter, discussed a plant he had received as a cutting from us that was flowering for the first time. The second, written in 1990 by Roy Lancaster, described a plant flowering in his garden-the first color photograph of the flower ever published. Since there is no mention of this shrub in any of the standard woody plant manuals, the present article is based largely on our experiences at UBC Botanical Garden with this choice and little-known shrub. Recent Introduction into North America First described in 1963 S. Y. Chang as new Calycanthus by W C. Cheng and chinensis, the species was moved by the same authors to a monotypic genus, Sinocalycanthus, the following year. In the wild, the plant is known to survive on only a few wooded mountain slopes at 600 to 900 meters (2000 to 3000 feet) in Zhejiang Province in Eastern China. Seed of the plant was distributed by Shanghai Botanical Garden in the early 1980s, following the end of the \"Cultural Revolution' and most of the plants now growing in western gardens can be traced back to these introductions. While presently established in several public gardens and a few private gardens in England, Holland, Canada, and the United States, Sinocalycanthus is largely unknown in botanical and horticultural circles. To my knowledge, it is not yet grown any nurseries. In 1980, the UBC Botanical Garden in Vancouver, Canada, received its first seeds, collected in the wild, from Shanghai Botanical commercially by Garden, labeled Sinocalycanthus chinensis. One seed germinated and the seedling, growing quickly, was planted out two years later in the Asian Garden, under the high shade of some nearby mature Western red cedars [Thujaplicata). In 1984, the plant, then about a meter tall and looking very much like the Calycanthus species, produced its first flower. 19 Sinocalycanthus chinensis in flower at the University of British Columbia Asian Garden. Photographed in July, 1990, by the author. Since then it has grown rapidly and is now about 3.5 meters tall (11feet) 2014 and even a bit wider. Flowers appear at the ends of most branches for about a month beginning in late June. Description Sinocalycanthus chinensis is a vigorous deciduous shrub, very similar in general growth habit, branching pattern, and leaf and fruit characteristics to the endemic North American genus Calycanthus. Although it was described as 1 to 3 meters tall (3 to 10 feet) in the wild, our young cultivated material is already beyond that and shows no signs of slowing down. The bark and twigs are pale buff, with prominent lenticels. The dichotomous branches are relatively sparse and stiffly upright, with thick twigs, more or less flattened toward the ends. The foliage, and especially the dried twigs, are sweetly aromatic when scratched, like those of Calycanthus. Prominent, raised C-shaped leaf scars surround slightly sunken buds. The paired, opposite (sometimes sub-opposite) buds are equally vigorous on the lower horizontal branches, whereas on the upper branches, one developing shoot usually overtops the other. Young 20 plants may grow 30 to 60 centimeters (12 to 25 inches) or more a year. In Vancouver, leaves and shoots emerge around the first of May, after most other deciduous shrubs are fully leafed out. At this point flower buds are readily visible at the ends of the new lateral shoots. The young leaves, at first very shiny and bronze-colored, become a lustrous pale to mid-green as they mature. The leaves are larger than those of Calycanthus, the blades typically up to 16 centimeters long (6 inches) and 10 centimeters wide (4 inches), on short petioles 0.5 to 1 centimeter Typical of the family, the flowers lack dissepals and petals, but reveal instead two distinct spirals of white tepals. The seven or eight large tepals (3 to 4 centimeters long by 2 to 3 centimeters wide) of the outer ring have inwardly curved tips and are nearly flat. These are pure white internally, often with a flush of pale pink on the outside, especially toward the tips. They have a thick, firm texture with tinct prominent, raised veins. The smaller staminoid-like tepals (1 to 1.5 long and about 1 centimeter wide) of the inner ring have an even harder, waxlike texture. These are creamy yellow at the tips, red-purple at the base internally, and white at the base externally. They are strongly curved inward, and largely conceal the stamens. The eighteen to twenty spirally arranged stamens are somewhat flattened and are borne on very short filaments. The anthers surround the protruding tips of several sericeous projections from inside the hypanthium. These partially conceal the fifteen or so delicate, slender stigmas. The woody, brown fruits are virtually indistinguishable from those of Calycanthus. They have an elongated pear shape, with prominent tepal scars spiraling around the fruit and around the slender fingerlike, sericeous projections from the contracted mouth. Bright green through the summer, the fruits turn brown in the fall, remaining on the shrubs into winter until they slowly disintegrate. The seeds (technically achenes) resemble elongated beans of a shiny, cinnamonbrown color, with a longitudinal ridge. The plants appear to be self-compatible, producing a few fruits with viable seed. centimeters long (0.2 to 0.4 the leaves can measure up to 25 centimeters long and 12 centimeters wide. The leaves are broadly elliptic to obovate with cuspidate tips, and cuneate to obtuse bases. The upper surface varies from smooth to slightly rough-textured and may be irregularly puckered. On the lower surface, the veins are very prominent. Short, dark-brown hairs are scattered along the midrib and the main veins on the underside of the leaf. Leaves show moderately good yellow autumn color, even on the Pacific Coast where the autumn color of many plants is often relatively poor. inches). On vigorous plants, Flowers and Fruits The unique characteristics that define the genus Sinocalycanthus are found on the flowers, which are produced singly at the ends of current-season growth, and appear in June or July in Vancouver. The large globular flower buds are purplish-green for some weeks before opening. Toward their base, large bud scales intergrade into four or five sepal-like tepals. Pale brown to yellowish-green, these tepals persist during flowering. The flowers are held at right angles to the ends of branches or are drooping, much like those of Magnolia sieboldii. The open flowers, very different from those of Calycanthus, are either flattened or bowl-shaped, and much larger, from 6 to 10 centimeters wide (2 to 4 inches). Unfortunately lacking a scent, the flowers resemble at a distance those of a camellia or a magnolia. Other Plants in Cultivation in the West The Botanical Garden of the University of California at Berkeley also received seed from Shanghai Botanical Garden in 1980, and one of the resulting plants was distributed to the Strybing Arboretum in San Francisco. From the same Chinese source, Brooklyn Botanic Garden received seed in 1981; one plant flowered in 1985 but was subsequently stolen. 21 Sinocalycanthus chinensis: a flowering branch in its natural orientation; a front view of the flower; a mature seed capsule; and a mature seed capsule in longitudinal section, with three ripe seeds. Drawings by the author. 22 Fortunately, plants propagated from cuttings had been retained in the nursery, one of which, now planted out, is over 2 meters tall and 2 meters wide (6 feet), flowering and fruiting yearly. P. G. Zwijnenburg of Boskoop, Holland, reports that the Boskoop Research Station has grown a plant since 1983; it first flowered in 1987. This plant grows in an unheated greenhouse where it has frozen several times to just the natural senescence of the flowers. The shrub is very late leafing out, at least in the cool spring weather of the Pacific Northwest. The angle at which many of the flowers are carried on the stem makes the shrub most showy when viewed from below, so young plants are less attractive than older plants whose flowers can be looked up into. The plants do not produce enough flowers to be showy from a great distance, and they are definitely best planted where the individual flowers may be inspected closely. Softwood cuttings taken in June or July, treated with 0.4 percent IRA powder, rooted readily under mist. Even though only a few flowers produce fruit, the plant is selfcompatible and viable seed is produced. A few seeds were germinated by Raulston after a three-month cold stratification period. This attractive shrub deserves wider recognition and at this time shows great potential for temperate gardens. Its flowering time comes after many of the spring shrubs have finished blooming, making it a desirable addition. Obviously, it needs to be further tested for winter hardiness, for its tolerance to extended summer heat, and for its adaptability to neutral or alkaline soils. Its close relationship to Calycanthus makes the potential for hybridization a distinct possibility, one well worth pursuing. typically -10 degrees C. The well-known plantsman Roy Lancaster reported that a plant flowered in 1989 in his garden in Hampshire, England; he had seen flowers for the first time in Vancouver the summer before. In 1985, the UBC Botanical Garden gave cuttings from its plant to Dr. J. C. Raulston of the North Carolina State University Arboretum; his plant flowered in May 1987. In Raleigh, the shrub flowers a full month to six weeks earlier than in Vancouver. Propagations from the UBC plant, especially through the notable generosity of Raulston, have now resulted in young plants growing in a number of locations throughout North America. A plant on the campus of the University of Washington in Seattle was grown from seed received from Hangzhou Botanical Garden. Cultivation and Propagation Thus far Sinocalycanthus appears adaptable to a fairly wide range of cultural conditions. It has suffered no summer or winter damage in USDA Zone 8, in either full sun or partial shade. Its winter hardiness has not been fully tested as yet, but it should survive to at least USDA Zone 6. It is extremely vigorous in the acid soils, wet winters, and relatively cool, dry summers of the coastal Pacific Northwest. And it seems to tolerate equally well the hot, humid summers of the southeastern United States; however, it may grow best in light shade in the East. Sinocalycanthus has no apparent serious insect or disease problems, although some flowers do blacken before fading, the cause of which, undetermined as yet, is most likely References Cheng, W. C., and S. Y. Chang. 1963. Calycanthus chinensis section Sinocalycanthus. Scientia Silvae 8(1): 1. Cheng, W. C., Acta and S. Y. Chang. 1964. Sinocalycanthus. Phytotaxonomica Sinica. 9(2): 135-139. 115(1): 10-11. Lancaster, R. 1990. Ornamental plants from the wild. The Garden Raulston, J. C. 1987. Sinocalycanthus. North Carolina State UniversityArboretum Newsletter 16: 8. Dr. Gerald B. Straley is Research Scientist and Curator of Collections at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Urban Soils: Problems and Promise","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25023","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260bb6f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Craul, Phillip J.","article_content":"Urban Soil: Problems and Promise Phillip f. Craul Street trees die for many reasons, but the best looking for causes is in the soil. place to start we have come to recognize the importance of trees in metropolitan areas not only for their ability to improve the quality of life but also for their ability to moderate the physical environment. Further, many authorities, such as Operation Global Releaf and the American Forestry Association, point out the need to plant more trees to offset the global warming trend of the \"greenhouse Recently, made with little appreciation of or attention to the character of the material that lies beneath the surface. Elaborate and expensive designs are produced and installed only to have the plants succumb to some malady even before the grower's guarantee-usually two years-expires. As Cox stated in 1916: The problems which have to do with soil conditions are less simple of solution and yet it is upon the skill shown in solving them that the success or failure of the whole operation must depend. To secure correct soil conditions, it is necessary to provide for each and every tree as follows: (1) a sufficient amount of good soil; (2) sufficient moisture; (3) proper drainage; (4) proper aeration of the soil; (5) a supply of plant food. effect.\" If we temporarily set aside the merits or limitations of the basic premise on which the warming forecasts are based, the success of the extensive tree-planting programs that have been proposed requires the application of sound tree-planting principles if they are to avoid some of the widespread failures of the past. Unfortunately, much of the information on the techniques and specifications of tree planting and soil preparation, uncritically repeated for years, has proven to be unsatisfactory or downright wrong for many situations, and little has been done to correct these practices. In recent times we have made some progress in distributing the correct information, but much of this updated material, based upon the experience of a wide range of professionals, has failed to reach the attention of those who need it most-landscape architects, architects, foresters, arborists, horticulturists, and landscape contractors. One of the most misunderstood, leastresearched, and least-documented factors is the urban soil (Spirn, 1984). Plantings are Since 1916 the situation has not changed that much. We are still concerned with fulfilling the same growth requirements for the same reasons, and we still do not fully appreciate the complexities of the soil conditions presented by the urban environment (Walter- scheidt, 1984). Description of Urban Soil Urban soil may be defined as soil that has been disturbed or manipulated by human activity connected with construction and urbanization. It has one or more horizons or layers, at least 50 centimeters thick, comprised of material that has undergone one or more of the following actions associated with urban activities: mixing, compaction, pulverization, filling, scraping, and\/or the addition of A 24 Figure 1. The superficial layers of urban soil are often construction materials. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. composed of small bits and pieces of miscellaneous 25 synthetic contaminants or toxic substances at levels above those of natural soil (Figure 1) (Craul, 1985a, 1985b; Blume, 1986; Zemlyanitsky, 1963). Because urban soils are always associated with human activities, their characteristics are determined by their previous construction history and by the degree of disturbance they have undergone. Therefore, urban soils typically show great variability in vertical profile, as well as horizontally across the landscape, due to the cut and fill, backfilling, and resurfacing that occur during the process of land shaping (Blume, 1986; Craul and Klein, 1980). The manipulation and disturbance to urban soils by various construction and restoration activities cause compaction of at least the surface layer and, in many cases, the lower portions of the soil profile as well (Alberty et al., 1984). Compaction affects the soil (1) by reducing the ease of root penetration, (2) by decreasing the ready movement of water, and (3) by causing a reduction in its water-holding capacity. In addition, compaction reduces the movement of gases into and out of the soil, particularly the inflow of oxygen, which roots require to function properly, and the outflow of carbon dioxide, which must be removed (Hillel, 1980). By reducing effective soil depth, compaction forces roots to grow close to or on the soil surface (Gilman et al., 1987). Elevated Temperatures and Soil Reaction Most urban areas behave as \"heat islands,\" as a result of the production of heat energy within the area through industrial, commercial, and residential processes and of the large amounts of heat that are stored and reflected off paved or otherwise covered areas, such as streets, highways, sidewalks, parking areas, building rooftops, and facades (Landsberg, 1981; Vittum, 1974). In addition, the large amount of covered land in cities means less open soil and less vegetation, which would ordinarily have a cooling effect. The net result of these factors is to raise not only the soil temperatures above those normally expected for the natural soils of the area (Halverson and Heisler, 1981), but also the air temperatures, thereby increasing the moisture stress on the urban vegetation and often leading to reduced vigor (Bassuk and Whitlow, 1985). The soil reaction, otherwise known as pH, determines to a large extent the form and availability of nutrients. Soil reaction also affects the activity and diversity of the soil's microorganism populations on which many nutrient processes are dependent (Alexander, 1980). To complicate matters, much of the water in urban areas flows over synthetic materials such stances as asphalt, concrete, and masonry. As it moves, the water dissolves sub- from these surfaces and also absorbs others from the deposition of air pollutants (Bryan, 1972; Halverson et al., 1982; Owe, 1981). These substances are carried into the soil and undergo reactions that tend to raise the soil pH. For some plants, this elevated pH increases vigor and may simplify the soil management for a given plant palette. For other species, particularly acid-loving species such as rhododendrons, the elevated soil pH may have detrimental effects, such as nutrient deficiencies and increased toxic-substance solubilities, making soil management a com- plex problem (Moore, 1974). Interrupted Nutrient Cycling Soil Microbes and Lack of on Organic are matter is periodically deposited various natural soils by trees and shrubs in the form of leaves and branches. These organic remains decomposed by soil-inhabiting organisms, and the nutrients and energy they contain are released for utilization by the organisms themselves and by the associated vegetation. In urban soils these cycles are interrupted by various factors: leaf litter is often swept up as trash, or very little litter falls on urban soils because of the low amount of biomass produced by the plants. As a result of the shortage of organic matter, the diversity and activity of soil microorganisms in urban soil are reduced below optimum levels. 26 Presence of Man-made Materials Most urban soils contain various forms of man-made materials, such as wood, metal, glass, plastic, asphalt, and masonry. The materials have several effects on the soil and on the vegetation it may support. They can physically obstruct root penetration, water movement, and gaseous diffusion on the one hand, or they can have the opposite effect by creating large voids, which permit the excessive drainage of water through the profile. In some cases, these man-made materials may, when decomposing, release products that are toxic to plants and soil organisms. The problems become particularly serious if the soils are contaminated by heavy metals, de-icing salts, herbicides, pesticides, and industrial wastes. Because of the complexity of the chemistry involved, mitigating such problems is complex. Bare soil in urban areas is subject to wet and dry deposition of air pollutants, including various hydrocarbons, their esters and fatty acids, and other substances produced by burning fossil fuels. These oil-based substances coat the soil particles, thereby making them water Figure 2. The \"Growgun\" and \"Terralift\" machines for reduction of deep soil compaction. 27 repellent (Jex et al., 1985). This phenomenon, coupled with crust formation due to compaction by foot traffic on the bare soil, greatly reduces or even prevents water infiltration, thus contributing to soil drought. Fortunately, these water-repellent crusts do not appear to form when the soil is covered by grass. The Effects of Compaction Compaction one of the major problems degrading urban soils, and the condition can often be prevented by prior planning and careful management of maintenance operations (Patterson, 1976). It is caused by shear and stress forces applied to the soil by foot and is vehicle traffic severe on (Hillel, 1980). It is usually most playing fields and other places where people concentrate. Soil may be compacted to considerable depths by vibration, or by traffic on the surface where that layer may have been exposed previously. It is very difficult to overcome deeply compacted conditions in most soils. Compaction is most severe when soil moisture is at some point between the plastic and liquid limits, which may occur any time there is heavy rain and the soil becomes thoroughly soaked but not saturated. Soil then remains wet for long periods and becomes quite hard when dry. Compaction reduces the total pore space and the mean pore size of the soil. Waterholding capacity may be increased, but the movement of water through the soil is reduced because water moves more slowly through small pores. In addition, the connections between bundles of pores may have been destroyed in the compaction process, and the water must follow a tortuous pathway to drain Figure 3. The trenching and backfill technique for loosening deep soil compaction around existing tree root systems (after Watson, 1990). affects the availability of and other nutrients, as well as nitrogen enhancing the presence of toxic forms of many substances. Poorly drained soils also exhibit greater impact from the presence of de-icing salts. Plant roots will grow only where the soil conditions allow them to survive (Himelick, also significantly 1986; Perry, 1982; Reynolds, 1975). Roots (Rose, 1966). mentioned, the pore space of a compacted soil is reduced, along with pore size. As a result, oxygen diffuses slowly into the soil, and carbon dioxide diffuses slowly out away As of the soil. The lack of oxygen at shallow has the same effect as a soil with a shallow rooting barrier. The reducing condition (the high pH) present in many urban soils extend themselves into soil by penetrating those pores that have a diameter greater than the minimum diameter of the root tip (no less than 0.01 mm). Root penetration is usually not a great problem in soils that have a large proportion of air-filled pores (macropores), most of which are at least 0.03 mm in diameter. Compacted soils generally have only a few, widely scattered macropores, significantly impeding root growth. In stony or gravelly soils, or soils with a large proportion of synthetic materials without large voids, the depths problem is more acute. A compacted layer below a layer of respread topsoil has the same effect as a shallow soil. 28 Correcting Compaction The best measure against compaction is to prevent it. This may be accomplished in the careful design (and sequencing) of installation and maintenance operations. If the soil becomes compacted during construction, it is wise to loosen the soil by rototilling, disking, or loosening with a backhoe shovel before respreading topsoil. Then the topsoil should be respread simultaneously with the installation of the planting stock, beginning in the center or inside of the design and working outward to prevent compressing the newly placed air into the soil at depth; then the newly formed voids are filled with vermiculite or similar material. Studies have shown mixed results in loosening the subsoil (Smiley et al., 1990) (Figure 2). Watson describes a trenching and compost-backfilling method attributed to an old Chinese technique that appears to have merit (Figure 3). Turf areas are amenable to aeration techniques originally developed for golf courses and playing fields. Improving Drainage Both surface and subsurface drainage must be considered in any design. Surface drainage may carry needed water away from a planting or may carry excess water (often contaminated with de-icing salts, or other toxic substances) into a planting. The final design grade must provide for swales, berms, and terraces, such topsoil. It is difficult to use certain newly developed methods for ameliorating compaction under trees or other already established plants without significant damage to the root systems. TWo machines recently tested \"explode\" Figure 4. Several practices to control surface water drainage. (From P. f. Craul, Urban Soils in Landscape Design. New York : Wiley, in press.) 29 as those shown in Figure 4, to create the most favorable drainage pattern across the project by carrying water away from plants sensitive tile grade at an appropriate excess water from the remove to excess water. When drainage at a given site is impeded by soil compaction or by a high clay content or by a shallow impervious layer, berms are an appropriate solution. Care must be exercised in developing the soil specification for the berm. The soil should not be self-compacting, should remain friable when wet, should have a low erosion potential, and should have an adequate water-holding capacity for its volume. Subsurface drainage or underdrainage design is required if the soil has limited natural drainage, unless the planting palette contains plants adapted to wet soils (Figure 5). Subsurface drainage design usually consists of perforated plastic pipe laid on sloping depth to carry away plant root systems The drainage must be adequate to (Figure 6). or the amount of water contributed to the site by precipitation during the dormant well as any runoff water that infiltrates the profile. Agricultural engineers and agronomists have developed these techniques to a high degree, and many designs are appropriate for application to urban soils. All too often they are ignored. If the planting is linear along a length of street, then the underdrainage can be continuous along the whole extent of the planting. Note in Figure 6 that the walls of the tree pit are flared outward to provide greater volume of loosened soil for lateral extension of the season as most important surface-feeding roots. Figure 5. Soil drainage classes as used by the USDA Soil Conservation Service, National Soil Handbook. 30 sions of 4 feet Figure 6. A typical application of underdrainage in an urban tree planting. Appropriate Soil Rooting Volume One of the major questions in urban tree planting in confined spaces is how much soil volume must be furnished for each tree. Because of design considerations, it is not simply a question of \"the more the better.\" Most planting specifications follow the old dimen- walks and streetside situations are much smaller than these dimensions; the author has found some as small as 2 feet by 2 feet, by 3 feet deep (12 cubic feet), supporting very poor plant specimens. As far back as 1916, Cox recommended streetside tree pits with dimensions of 4 feet by 8 feet, by 2 feet deep (64 cubic feet). Kopinga (1985) found that 75 cubic feet was the minimum volume for adequate (but not optimum) growth of the American elm in the Netherlands. Urban has examined the planting situations and tree-growth response of nearly 1500 trees in five major eastern cities of the United States. He shows that the healthiest and largest trees had about 600 cubic feet of soil by 4 feet, by about 2 feet deep (32 cubic feet). Many tree-planting pits in side- Figure 7. The Pennsylvania Avenue vaulted tree planting system. 31 available to them and that about 300 cubic feet was minimum for those trees with adequate vigor. It must be understood that trees planted in a favorable situation can be vigorous with much less space than 300 cubic feet. Obviously, open-planted trees do not suffer restricted rooting volume unless the surrounding soil is compacted. Systems for Improved Drainage Jewell (1981) reviewed various planting designs for sidewalk or paving-covered soil situations. A vault system that appears to be very successful is the one designed for Pennsylvania Avenue in Washington, D.C. (Figure 7). This design provides for aeration and irrigation of Figure 8. A linear streetside planting after a design by Heidi Schustermann. teristics include extreme variability in properties both vertically and spatially, elevated pH, presence of hydrophobic crusts, high soluble salt content, limited organic matter and organism population, interrupted nutrient cycling, and the presence of synthetic contaminants such as pesticides, heavy metals, building rubble, glass, and metal. Methods for the soil under the sidewalk, encouraging the extension of roots into additional soil. The design shows a 14-foot-diameter irrigation ring over a soil that is 24 inches deep. The potential rooting volume is at least 307 cubic feet and may well be more. The specified soil extends from one tree site to the next, so that the tree roots may eventually share rooting space. The willow oaks (Quercus phellos L.) are growing well, and only a few have been lost since installation fifteen years ago. However, the design is expensive to construct. Another technique for linear planting enhances rooting volume. In a design for Market Street, Philadelphia, Heidi Schustermann had long linear strips cut in the pavement and the soil excavated and replaced by specified backfill soil. Underdrainage was furnished for the entire length of the linear pit (Figure 8) and was connected with the storm-sewer system. The individual trees are now able to share rooting space, and the linear opening in the pavement allows the infiltration of more water than if the design were for individual tree the amelioration of compaction are available, but several are not applicable when plant root systems already exist. Careful planting design can overcome impeded drainage and poor aeration, and should also provide for adequate rooting volume appropriate for the situation. References Alberty, C. A., H. M. Pellett, and D. H. Taylor. 1984. Characterization of soil compaction at construction sites and woody plant response. f. Environ. Hort. 2(2): 48-53. 1980. Effects of acidity on microorganisms and microbial processes m soil. In Effects of Acid Precipitation on Thrrestial Ecosystems, ed. T. C. Hutchinson and M. Havas. New York: Plenum, Alexander, M. pits. pp. 363-374. 1985. Conclusion The major problems of compaction, impeded drainage and aeration, and lack of adequate rooting volume, coupled with intermittent but severe heat-load stress, are present in most urban soil situations. Other urban soil charac- Bassuk, N., and T. Whitlow. Evaluating street tree microclimates in New York City. In Proceedings of the Fifth Conference of Metropolitan Tree Improvement Alliance (METRIA), pp. 18-27. Blume, H-P. 1986. Characteristics of urban soils. In Man and the Biosphere, edited by the German 32 National Committee. International scientific Landsberg, workshop on soils and soil zoology in urban systems as a H. E. 1981. The Urban Climate. New York: Academic Press. on basis for management and use of green\/open spaces. Berlin: UNESCO, pp. 23-46. Bryan, E. H. 1972. Moore, D. P. 1974. Physiological effects of pH roots. Quality of stormwater drainage from urban land. Water Resources Bull. 8(3): 578-588. Borough of Manhattan. New York State Coll. of Forestry, Syracuse, bull. 16, no. 8. In The Plant Root and Its Environment, ed. E. W. Carson. Charlottesville: Univ. Press of Virginia, pp. 135-151. Cox, L. D. 1916. A Street Tree System for New York City, Owe, M. 1981. The distribution of heavy metals and petroleum residues in the soil from urban surface runoff. Ph. D. thesis, SUNY, Coll. Environ. Sci. and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y. Craul, P. P. J. 1985a. Urban soils. METRIA 5: 45-61. J. 1985b. A description of urban soils and their desired characteristics. \/. Arboric. 11(11): 330-339. Craul, Patterson, J. C. 1976. Soil compaction and its effects upon urban vegetation. Better Trees for Metropolitan Landscapes Symposium Proc. USDA-Forest Service. Gen. Tech. Rep. NE-22. Perry, T. 0. 1982. The ecology of tree roots and the practical significance thereof. \/. Arboric. 197-211. Craul, P. J., and C. J. Klein. 1980. Characterization of streetside soils of Syracuse, New York. METRIA 3: 88-101. E. 8(8): Gilman, F., I. A. Leone, and F. B. Flower. 1987. Effect of soil compaction and oxygen content on vertical and horizontal root distribution. \/. EnviHort. Reynolds, E. ron. 5(1): 33-36. 1981. Soil temperaasphalt. USDA NE-481. R. C. 1975. Tree rootlets and their distribution. In The Development and Function of Roots, ed. J. G. Tbrrey and D. T. Clarkson. New York: Academic Press. Halverson, H. G., and G. M. Heisler. tures Rose, C. W. 1966. Agricultural Physics. Oxford: Pergamon Press. under urban trees and Forest Serv. Res. Pap. Smiley, Halverson, H. G., D. R. DeWalle, W. E. Sharpe, and D. G. 1982. Runoff contaminants from natural and man-made surfaces in a nonindustrial urban area. In Proc. 1982 Intem. Symposium on Urban Hydrology, Hydraulics and Sediment Control. Lexington: Univ. of KenWirries. E. T, G. W. Watson, B. R. Fraedrich, and D. C. Booth. 1990. Evaluation of soil aeration equipment. \/. Arboric. 16(5): 118-123. 1984. The Granite Garden. New York: Basic Spim, A. W. Books. tucky, pp. 233-238. Hillel, D. 1980. Fundamentals Vittum, J. S. 1974. The physical of Soil Physics. New York: Wiley. Himelick, E. B. 1986. Root development of trees growing in an urban environment. Illinois Natural History Survey Report No. 262. structure of city space and its effects on microclimate and human thermal comfort. M.S. thesis. SUNY Coll. Environ. Sci. and Forestry, Syracuse, N.Y. Walterscheidt, M. same sermon J. 1984. Have we been preaching the for 60 years? \/. Aiboric. 10(1): 9-12. Jewell, L. 1981. Construction: planting trees in city soils. Landscape Architecture 71(3): 387-389. Watson, G. W. 1990. Tree growth revisited. Golf Course Management (6): 8-10, 12-14, 16, 18, 22, 24-25. Zemlyanitsky, Jex, G. W., B. H. Bleakley, D. H. Hubbell, and L. L. Munro. 1985. High-humidity-induced increase in water repellency in some sandy soils. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J. 49: 1177-1182. L. T. 1963. Characteristics of the soils in the cities. Sov. Soil Sci. (5): 468-475. Kopinga, J. 1985. Research on street tree planting practices in the Netherlands. METRIA 5: 72-84. Phil Craul is Professor of Soil Science at the State University of New York in Syracuse and a Lecturer in Landscape Architecture at the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple- 'Blanche Ames'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25022","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260b76b.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Yanny, Michael","article_content":"The Shy Yet Elegant Crabapple-'Blanche Ames' Michael Yanny The little-known Malus 'Blanche Ames' is both beautiful and unique. In my travels throughout the United States and Canada, I have seen few trees that rival Malus 'Blanche Ames' for beauty and elegance. It has bloom qualities similar to the flowering cherries commonly seen in the eastern and western United States, and its graceful, slightly weeping form is reminiscent of the Japanese maples that I have always wanted to but cannot grow in the harsh Wisconsin climate. Yet even with its many superb striking, with its purplish-brown limbs ascending upwards and outwards, like streams of water flowing from a fountain. In winter, the drooping maroon branchlets delicately mask the light gray trunks. In southern Wisconsin, 'Blanche Ames' out in early spring before most other woody plants, at about the same time as Larix decidua, in early to mid-April. About a month later, along with Malus 'Dorothea' and 'Profusion,' its crimson buds open to reveal white, leafs attributes, few people know about 'Blanche Ames\/ and very few nurseries grow and sell the tree. The plant that was to become the future 'Blanche Ames' was selected by Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum from a group of open-pollinated seedlings of Malus spectabilis 'Riversii' that he had raised in 1939. Originally known as \"Sax #6639,\" the tree was introduced into the Arboretum collections in 1947, but was not named 'Blanche Ames' by Dr. Sax until February 1955-to honor the noted botanical illustrator Blanche Ames, wife of the former Supervisor of the Arboretum, Dr. Oakes Ames. As a young tree, 'Blanche Ames' is taller than its width, but with age, it broadens out to form a dome wider than its height. The original plant at the Arnold Arboretum, which was 15 feet tall (4.6 meters) at fifteen years of age, is now, at fifty years old, 23 feet tall and 31 feet wide (7 x 9.5 meters). By com- semi-double flowers with a pink blush and a sweet scent. In full bloom 'Blanche Ames' creates a billowy, cloud-like impression. The individual flowers, about 1.3 inches in diameter (3.5 cm), are unique among crabapples : the approximately fifteen narrow straplike petals, when open, reveal a center full of golden stamens. The fully opened flowers, which look something like Rosa multiflora blossoms, are exquisite when seen close up. The tree has been a consistent annual bloomer in the Milwaukee area, as well as in and around Boston. The fruit of 'Blanche Ames,' while colorful, is not persistent enough to be considered a major attribute. The small, 0.3-inch-diameter (9 mm) crabapples color to a golden yellow by parison, a 28-year-old specimen at Boerner Botanical Gardens in Hales Corners, Wisconsin, is about 25 feet tall and 25 feet wide (7.6 x 7.6 meters). In silhouette, the tree is very early September in Madison, Wisconsin. a month, the slightly elongated fruit changes to a cardinal red, though a small shaded portion of the fruit usually remains yellow. Late-October frosts soften up the tiny crabapples, turning them a garnet brown. By late November, most of the fruit is taken by birds, thus eliminating the need for any fruit Within 34 The original plant of 'Blanche Ames' in full bloom at the Arnold Arboretum. Del Tiedici. Photographed in 1987 by Peter clean-up. Fall color may vary from year to year: in Madison, Wisconsin, the foliage was an attractive orange-red in 1989, but in 1990 it was a disappointing yellow. Disease Resistance In any discussion of the ornamental potential of crabapple trees, disease resistance is of major importance. The response of 'Blanche Ames' to the three most serious crabapple diseases is as follows: 1. Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha) is a foliar fungus disease that coats the new terminal growth of trees with a white powdery substance. The mildew causes leaves to become twisted, narrow, and cupped. It weakens terminal shoots, making them more prone to winter kill. This disease is a serious problem only in the hot, humid climates found in many parts of the southeastern United States. Unfortunately 'Blanche Ames' has not been evaluated to any extent under such conditions, and a meaningful disease rating cannot be given as yet. 2. Fireblight (Erwinia amylovora) is a bacterial disease and a major concern because of its ability to kill or severely deform susceptible Malus cultivars. The bacteria enter trees primarily through flowers, growing tips, and open wounds, transmitted by insects or by rainwater splash of the bacterial ooze. Once in the tree, the disease moves quickly through the vascular system. Symptoms of attack are a sudden browning or blackening of new vigorously growing shoots with a characteristic shepherd's crook bend at the tip. Fireblight was reported on 'Blanche Ames' only twice in the twenty-seven years from 35 The flowers of 'Blanche Ames' are unique among crabapple trees. Photo by Michael Yanny. 1963 to 1990, and those infections were rated mild. Ratings were done primarily in the Midwest, the East, and the Pacific Northwest; unfortunately, no trees have been evaluated in the Plains states where fireblight occurs with great regularity. 3. Apple Scab (Venturia inaequalis) is a fungus disease whose development is favored by wet, humid weather conditions. Symptoms include smoky gray spots on the leaves and brownish, corky spots on the fruit. Severely susceptible cultivars may be completely defoliated by mid-summer in many seasons. Mildly susceptible trees, on the other hand, show little evidence of the disease except for a few inconspicuous leaf spots. Blanche Ames' has had mixed reviews in terms of resistance to scab. Reports from the Pacific Northwest in 1985 indicate that as 'Blanche Ames' is severely susceptible to scab and is therefore not a good tree for that climate. In the drier, less humid areas, such as the Plains and the Rocky Mountain states, apple scab is of little concern. Midwest reports from 1973 to 1990 show 'Blanche Ames' to be only mildly susceptible to scab. Reports from the East, based primarily on observations at the Arnold Arboretum, show 'Blanche Ames' to be only mildly susceptible to apple scab. However, on two occasions, in 1973 and again in 1979, severe scab was reported on single trees, indicating that continued evaluation is necessary. Propagation and Cultivation Propagation of 'Blanche Ames' has been done by chip-bud grafting onto seedling understock in late summer. Because 'Blanche Ames' stops 36 The winter habit of a forty-year-old specimen by Peter Del Jiedici. of 'Blanche Ames' growing at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo growing relatively late in the season, it should be one of the last ornamental crabapples to be budded. In Wisconsin good results have been achieved in mid-August. When budded on seedling understock, trees will send up sucker shoots from the stock. This can be an annual maintenance headache. For this reason, a non-suckering, clonal rootstock, such as ELMA 111, should be used. Another possible alternative may be the rooting of softwood cuttings, thus eliminating the understock altogether. Like most ornamental crabapples, 'Blanche can be a tough, durable urban tree. The full extent of its hardiness, however, is unknown. Vigorously growing two-year-old trees planted in southeastern Wisconsin (USDA Zone 5a) showed some tip dieback on young branches, indicating the need for further hardiness testing in colder zones, as well as in the deep south. 'Blanche Ames,' with its many beautiful attributes, has numerous landscape uses. The tree can serve well as an accent or a focal point Ames' 37 in the garden. Imagine 'Blanche Ames' in full flower in the distance, fronting a border stand of tall, dark-green Austrian pines (Pinus nigra). In this situation, the tree will stand out and give the border depth and dimension as well as multi-season interest. Another use might be as a specimen limbed up high enough to accommodate a garden bench; in time, its pendulous branchlets will make a wonderful private sitting area, the destination of a garden path. And finally, the graceful 'Blanche Ames' overhanging a pond will create spectacular reflections when in bloom. Indeed, there are many possibilities for this fine tree, and it seems unlikely that it will remain unknown much longer. But who knows? Obscurity may be the nature of the very elegant 'Blanche Guthery, D. E. 1991. Flower, fruit, and leaf descriptions of Malus 'Blanche Ames7. Unpublished data. Madison: Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Wisconsin. Jefferson, R. M. 1970. History, Progeny and Locations of Crabapples of Documented Authentic Origin. National Arb. Cont. 2. Washington, D. C.: USDA. Nichols, L. P. 1961-1985. Disease Univ. Survey of Ornamental data. Penn. State Crabapples. Unpublished Nichols, L. P., J. E. Brewer, C. C. Powell, and E. M. Smith. 1970. The Flowering Czabapple2014A Tree for All Seasons. Cooperative Extension of Northeast States. NE 223, NCR 78. Ames' References den Boer, J. 1991. Descriptive characteristics of Malus 'Blanche Ames'. Unpublished data. Lisle, Ill.: Morton Arboretum. Smith, E. M., and S. A. Treaster. 1991. Evaluation of flowering crabapple susceptibility to apple scab in mary Ohio-1990. In Ornamental Plants: A Sumof Research-1991. OSI and OARDC Spec. Circ. 135, 10-15. Wyman, D. 1955. Crabapples for America. Amer. Assoc. of Bot. Gard. and Arb. Green, T. L. ples. Unpublished Arboretum. 1988-89. Disease survey of ornamental crabapdata. Lisle, Ill.: Morton Michael D. Yanny is the secretary for the International Ornamental Crabapple Society and is the plant propagator at Johnson's Nursery in Menomonee Falls, Wisconsin. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":38,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25018","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260af6f.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Jorgensen, Neil","article_content":"BOOKS Neil Jorgensen Color in My Garden by Louise Beebe Wilder. Atlantic Monthly Press, 1990. Reprint of the 1918 edition. 316 pages. 24 color plates. Hardcover. $29.95. They say that illiteracy is on the rise in America. A number of recent American gardening books tend to confirm this. The winning formula these days seems to be a lot of pretty pictures with a little filler text, mostly of garden platitudes, aimed at people with zero gardening experience. The use of large type in a number of these recent books suggests that their audiences are not only beginning gardeners but beginning readers! Color in My Garden is just the opposite. Here we have a book that is mostly text-a a book that demands its readers know the difference between a dahlia and a delphinium. But the most important difference is that Color in My Garden is a book of personal knowledge, knowledge that Louise Wilder gained by actually working in her garden. Personal knowledge is what makes the writings of such garden luminaries as Gertrude Jekyll and Graham Stuart Thomas so valuable. So much of garden writing is a rehashof other garden writing. Not only is her knowledge, gained as it was through her experience, more believable, but because Louise Wilder did her gardening near Suffren, New York, her experience is more useful to eastern American gardeners than that of Jekyll and Thomas, gardening as both did in the benign climate of southern England. And she gives us much that remains useful today. She has an artist's eye for color and provides dozens of excellent perennial combinations. Like Jekyll, she recognizes the value of gray-foliaged plants to cool down hot colors. Writing of bare places in the perennial border, she correctly points out that the problem is not lack of flowers but lack of foliage. She also anticipated by seventy years the trendy use of ornamental grasses in the perennial gardens of today. There is so much more. The chapter that most interested me, Color for the Shady Border, was unfortunately the second shortest in the book. This perhaps indicates how far shade gardening has come since 1918 (and maybe there is more on the subject in one of her other nine books). The sheer amount of knowledge that Louise Wilder shares cannot be absorbed in one reading. Color in My Garden is a book to be dipped into time and again. It is the sort of book that gardeners-especially perennial gardeners-should own. The twenty-four color plates, keyed to a plan of her garden, show better than words what Louise Wilder was up to. You've heard the good news; now for the bad news. On reflection, the bad news might be good news. Let me explain. Color in My Garden is a period piece. What modern readers might consider to be the book's shortcomings actually gives us some understanding of the gardening life seventy years ago. In those days, hostas were funkias, day lilies came only in orange and yellow, and hardly anyone had even heard of astilbes-false goatsbeards they were called. Between the lines, Color in My Garden is a nostalgic glimpse of a long-vanished era, of manicured formal gardens, of lattices and arbors and fountains, of garden houses where ladies probably drank tea following an afternoon stroll through the 39 flowers-an era brought War to an end by the Depression, World trations further gone by. II, and the changing lifestyie of the affluent. The misty color illus- help set this mood of times of biliousness every now and then, occasioned by such gush as \"the rarest embodiment of all that is delightsome, careless, touchingly fugitive,\" is more than compensated for by the depth and breadth of the solid information that Louise Wilder gives us when she's back on earth. If you are serious about perennial gardening and can overlook the florid passages, you will find Color in My Garden both an inspiration and a practical guide. Alas, the writing is of an earlier era, too. Typical of some garden writers of that time, Louise Wilder's style, in places at least, is excessively flowery. There is much too much of the \"fairy flax\" and the \"dancing with daffodils\" for my taste. But on balance, a wave "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data- 1990","article_sequence":7,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25016","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260ab26.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"40 Arnold Arboretum Weather Station Data - 1990 Average Maximum Temperature Average Minimum Temperature Average Temperature Total Precipitation Total Snowfall Warmest 62F 41F 51F 48.3 inches 29 inches Temperature 96 0 Coldest Temperature Date of Last Spring Frost Date of First Fall Frost August 5 February 26 28 on April 19 on on on 32 193 October 20 Growing Note: Season days According to the state climatologist, R. Lautzenheiser, 1990 was the third warmest year in the 120 years of record keeping by the National Weather Service. The fall was particularly mild, with October being the ninth warmest on record, November the seventh warmest, and December the warmest ever. Precipitation was 2.7 inches above normal and snowfall was 11.1inches below normal. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25020","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260b36d.jpg","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"Iii L- NEWS ~ May 19 is Lilac Sunday But don't wait for the lilacs! the bright yellow or rosy- Arboretum and in your own ' backyard. Have you spotted ~r~ '~`_~,: Hazel along your daily route of ~: travel? Now is the time to hunt ~ Spring is already unfolding on the grounds of the Arnold ~: ~_ ~ orange of Hamamelis sp.. Witch ~e through wetland areas to find ~~ .; the purple-hooded skunk the ': cabbage pushing through ~. frozen earth by creating its own ~~ progress by observing the ~~ ~'~~~~ ~ heat. You can monitor spring's rapidly changing blush of color buds of katsura and willow and the ~w This year at the Massachusettscypresses. Society's Spring The Massachusetts inconspicuous flowers of maple Horticultural the Arnold Ar- Horticultural Society honored ~-~~ Flower Show, as the tender young leaf E '' . _~ a~ a~ respond to the Mi-dal ~a the with a of sun and warmth. Don't miss boretum saluted the intrepid ~~ ~ andexhibit RibbonSilver for overall a Blue plant hunters whose scientific EM~~a~~ve~.~spring; take -. curiosity and love of beauty ~~ . excellence, the Emily SocibiT ~~ ~ the daily events of time to sec the beauty as you a Award for design of a naturalcontinue to embroider drive, walk; and work. in the changing theme istic garden, and ~~~ Then join us on the ,~'~ colorfulof our gardens. \" tional Certificate. pattern grounds of the Arnold Arbore:.. : The Arnold The Arboretum's awardArboretum tum for splashes of color ~~_'. winning exhibitpresenti*d a would like to thank its many ~~~' . ` beckoning call *~ ~' ~~r'` ' an Educa- provided by our collections of R. cherries and crabapples (early brought back striking yearwhich are now forsythia (mid April), magnolia and daffodils (late April), Dove Tree (mid May). sampler of exotic plants, all ~~ ' good originally from the Orient, industry who made this year's discovered and and friends in the landscape May), lilacs, azaleas, and the ~'~ , `'4 tum will be with for pedestriopen ans only, handicapped 1 parking available from 1 am to 4 pm. Lemonade and food on grounds of the Arnold Arbore- On Lilac Sunday the round features in many Newand moved the large blue and green species of Chaa colorful framework for the elegance of tree ~ar exhibit possible. Capi7zi Co. of Acton hand-dug, balled ~. England gardens. Gold, : maecyparis formed Chamaecyparis 2014 the fooil point of the exhibit. Kurt Tramposch of Weir Meadow ~-~ ~ astilbe, and thi* del- forced in the Arnold Arbore~ _ icate texture and iridescenttum Dana Greenhouses), and ~~~\" will be available the fronds of Japanese painted ~~ Allen Maskoll of New grounds and a shuttle buswill ferns. In the foreground, var-; lent trot; peonies and Bedford bamboos. take visitors from the Visitor ieties of perennial hostas with We thank them for their Center to the lilac collection generous support of our while Morris dancers and other their blue, green and gold w m spikes of peonies, the feathery and ferns (they were of u>urse Nursery lent his spectacular hostas, aitilbos entertainers perform for the ~, foliage echoed the dramatic activities. t crowds. ~~ appearanceof the false ~s sail,a~ d>iv 3 mm m POSTOEPICBSQUAI %S Architect's model of pedestrian entrance to the underground par*~~ipi|i|#~i~~|g~grJ|#~~~p~J| ~V~at-y ' city park placed above an \"' director, suggested somewhat 7\" . underground garage just the |i5\" \" *\"** ~yk~~~~~. % suggestion in a letter from Bob: JBotodLV$4~~ 1!i\"t*'\": ~e ' Weinberg that we put a part of* Bob embarked on his hunt our collection on \"permanent :''X. for \"living art* irons the `~ I was referring to the ~.. innocently that the Arnold Arboretum might be able to help project ~ow with th Post Office Square loan\" to a in Norman green soon to heart of the financial district of of the Friends (and of the ', ~ Boston. Bob is president of the neighboring Beacon CompaFriends of Post Office Square, nies). the folks whose vision has led to \" magnificent island of appear the ~ Arboretum at the request of LeventhaL chairman some trees,\" he quipped, about loaning us '\" A week later, as I rolled oxymoron over in my mind, it c trees that no longer meet the criteria of our scientific collections, They may be of undocu- Bob's take on a a number Each ~ began todeaccessionnice ring. of year we mented origin or of questionable parentage. Or they maybe unnecessary duplicates occupying needed space, Although falling short of our scientific standards, they may still be ~ .fa&iMfauam&ei gift aw? NormanEarlier that week and I had met at a~'~ ;_,. eeeltiijfl jpigf.jp>einganew ~~ ~ xo~rtoipl,i|ite|,rftiJ|Wff ks.of ~ , ., to sell the trees to Post Office ,~ Suppressing my first impulse , Square,I saw emerging an interesting collaboration, a return, as it were, on the original investment by the City of Boston : fbal enabled Professor Saf gent and Frederick law OlmSted to~~ ~~ construct the Arboretum, in a :\"af | Tim moving ~ujmtent drapifP, I|*ii#t fmm The f ib Uiirf 0;!; , ~ __ the trees, wo would bo extend- Assistant Director for turc, chose appropriatebetrees ~fi ing a piece of the Arboretum I lorticul; boutyour that would otherwise reinto the city. \"You have ii deal,\" I said to moved from our collections. Bob over the phone. \"Now a- ~' ' Meanwhile Bob Weinberg and I worked over the formal lan-^ ~. life insurance cover`~ ~~ guage of a Cooperative Agreeage for trees....\" Post Off iie Square Park, has ment for tho Permanent Loan. been beautifully designed by~~~~ ~ . Following the digging, trans- ~,,~\".~ with planting of those trees port, and m. Members'Plant Dividend~~'` T~\"'~~~ Forsythia xintermedia F 'GoldLeaf $ -5 a Td` C.: ~. ~!i A:the er.d of ~~ March, ~~ : palelle of an exceptionally rich plants, providing a magnificent the Halwr*<in Company setting for our six Halvorson and r dozens of vol un- this month, wo shallassemble on April 7th at Post Office ax~.~ ~ 3 tet-ri. n~~~~` specimens. Together Craig spectacular our c f i Square for a dedication cere- ~..E symbolic of our 119- year mony gathered~~~~, to age cind m;iil dormii nt bare rootiii pack- GaryKol er, collaboration Boston. of with the City n.~ ~ _. ART IN THE PARK seedlings of thisunique yellowleaved forsythia. A benefit of '~ Trees on Loan Thuja plicata-Two magnificent Western or Giant Arborvitae thatvi ~~ they have notified us that they ~~f ~ do not wish to receive this could reach 200 feet in their native benefit. Pacific Northwest. Neither tree Forsythia x intermedia~F as *~c~ld Leaf provides conforms to treesaccession policy ''Gold L~'' pra~vi~es ~~~ ~t our from docuseasonof growing color in shaded mented wildsources. j[ longMowing its largegardens~~ yellow ~~5~~ by membership, the plants are i~~ ~ ~~ , mailed to all Friends unless flowers with bright lime-green ~\" \" and Western Arborvitae, Thujaplicata _ Picea flM-This Norway Spruce is a duplicate in40our collection. Standing nearly The first specimen leaves. On cloudy days at twilight, the lime-green foliage catches the low levels of light and virtually glows. was $ ~~`~ ~ sent to the Arnold Arboretum by Mr. Robert Walters of `~~'~ ~'~~ ~,lm' feet tall, this trwj displays a or American ArborviLuWhite Cedar, now roach ing 35 fcet in height,the dwarf cultivar~ i it was originally described a* 'filiformis', and does not and Thuja occidentalis-.Bn Fastem a particularlyupright narrow form. ered that a single yellow-leaved branch of an old hedge had ~~~~~`` taken root where the branch rested on the ground. After Decatur, Illinois, who discov- ; ~ conform to the published description. unknownand ~~ ~ ~ ' Downy Birch, Betula pubescens Arnold Arboretum introduced 'Gold Leaf to the nursery trade in the 198Cys. studying the plant's hardiness and stability of color, the ~~ ~; ~~. ~ r. ~: For additional information on this plant, see the information brochure enclosed with your plant dividend or call the Membership i hybrid grown from soed Quercus rubra '-Though the ~, Betula mother of this 25 year old~~ ~F~~ Birch, grown is 5 pubescens- This Downy from seed collected ; in Poland in 1964, rame to the variety 'maxima', the father is~ Arboretum under anassumed ~' ~ Department. (617) 524-1718, for i7 a Red Oak. probably not name * that clearlyis not correct. a copy. ~~~` .. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23384","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ebb28.jpg","title":"1991-51-1","volume":51,"issue_number":1,"year":1991,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lost Crops of the Incas","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25011","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad0708926.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"National Research Council Panel on Lost Crops of the Incas","article_content":"Lost Crops of the Incas on National Research Council Panel Lost Crops of the Incas These long-forgotten plants may play a key role in food supply in years to come. diversifying the world's At the time of the Spanish conquest, the Incas cultivated almost as many species of plants as the farmers of all Asia or Europe. On mountainsides up to four kilometers high along the spine of a whole continent and in climates varying from tropical to polar, they grew a wealth of roots, grains, legumes, vegetables, fruits, and nuts. Without iron, wheels, or work animals for plowing, the Indians terraced and irrigated and produced abundant food for 15 million or more people-roughly as many as inhabit the Andean highlands today. Throughout the vast Inca Empire, sprawling from southern Colombia to central Chile-an area as great as that governed by Rome at its zenith-storehouses overflowed with grains and dried tubers. Because of the Incas' productive agriculture and remarkable public organization, they were said to maintain three to seven years' supply of food in storage. But Pizarro and most of the later Spaniards who conquered Peru repressed the Indians, suppressed their traditions, and destroyed much of the intricate agricultural system. They considered the natives to be backward and uncreative. Both Crown and Church prized silver and souls-not plants. Crops that had held honored positions in Indian society for thousands of years were deliberately replaced by European species (notably wheat, barley, carrots, and broad beans) that the conquerors demanded be grown. Remaining in obscurity were at least a dozen native root crops, three grains, three and more than a dozen fruits. Domesticated plants such as oca, maca, tarwi, nunas, and lucuma have remained in the highlands during the almost five hundred years since Pizarro's conquest. Lacking a modern constituency, they have received little scientific respect, research, or commercial advancement. Yet they include some widely adaptable, extremely nutritious, and remarkably tasty foods. This botanical colonialism closed off from the rest of the world a major center of crop diversity. Food plants of Asia, Mexico, and especially of Europe became prominent; those of the Andes were largely lost to the outside world. It is not, however, too late to rescue these foods from oblivion. Although most have been hidden from outsiders, they did not become extinct. Today in the high Andes, the ancient influences still persist with rural peasants, legumes, The Inca Empire measured more than 4,000 kilometers from end to end. Superimposed on a map of modern South America, it would begin on Colombia's southern frontier, stretch southward along the coast and highlands of Ecuador and Peru, sprawl across highland Bolivia into northwestern Argentina, and reach down into central Chile to lust below Santiago. This vast territory was probably the largest ever formed anywhere based on a \"Bronze Age\" level of technology. 4 J who are largely pure-blooded Indian and con- tinue to grow the crops of their forebears. Over the centuries, they have maintained the Incas' food crops in the face of neglect, and even scorn, by much of the society around them. In local markets, women in distinctive hats and homespun jackets (many incorporating vivid designs inspired by plant forms and prescribed by the Incas more than five hundred years ago) sit behind sacks of glowing grains, baskets of beans of every color, and bowls containing luscious fruits. At their feet are piles of strangely shaped tubers-red, yellow, purple, even candy-striped, some as round and bright as billiard balls, others long and thin and wrinkled. These are the \"lost crops of the Incas' That these traditional native crops have a possible role in future food production is indicated by the success of the few that escaped the colonial confines. Among the Incas' wealth of root crops, the domesticated potato, an ancient staple previously unknown outside the Andes, proved a convenient food for slaves in the Spanish silver mines and sailors on the Spanish galleons. Almost inadvertently, it was introduced to Spain, where, over several centuries, it spread out across Europe and was genetically transformed. Eventually, the new form rose to become the fourth-largest crop ,* Alexander Harvesting quinoa grain (Chenopodium quinoa) in Ilave, Peru. Hoveling through Colombia in the early 1800s, von Humboldt observed that quinoa was to the region what \"wine was to the Greeks, wheat to the Romans, cotton to the Arabs.\" He was excited by the crop because at the time starvation was rampant all over the world, and he had gone to South America looking for new foods to combat it. Photo by M. Sayago, IAF. 5 earth. Other Andean crops that reached the outside world and enjoyed spectacular success were lima beans, peppers, and the tomato. In light of this, it is surprising that more than thirty promising Inca staples remain largely restricted to their native lands and unappreciated elsewhere. Given research, these too could become important new contributors to the modern world's food supply. on For instance, a valley floor may have thick soils, abundant sunshine in the daytime, and severe frost at night, whereas immediately adjacent slopes may be thin-soiled, shaded, The Andean Environment The Andean region became an important center for domestication of crop species in large part because of its striking geographical contrasts. Along its western margin stretch narrow coastal deserts that are all but uninhabitable except where some forty small, fertile river valleys cross it. Behind this mostly barren plain towers the world's second-highest mountain range, the Andes, reaching an average of over 3,000 meters elevation. Its glacial heights were also uninhabitable, but intermontane valleys and basins are well suited to human occupation, and these became the home of the Inca rulers. Beyond the mountain valleys, on the eastern face of the Andes, are found subtropical cloud forests gently sloping into the Amazon jungle. The Andean region was quite unlike the other regions where clusters of crops were domesticated. Here were no vast, unending plains of uniformly fertile, well-watered land as in Asia, Europe, or the Middle East. Instead, there was an almost total lack of flat, fertile, well-watered soil. Andean peoples grew their crops on millions of tiny plots scattered over a length of thousands of kilometers and perched one above another up mountainsides rising thousands of meters. This complicated ecological mosaic created countless microclimates, including some of the driest and wettest, coldest and hottest, and lowest and highest found anywhere in the world. Perhaps no other contiguous region has such a broad range of environments as in the ancient Inca Empire. And the region is so fragmented that rainfall, frost, sunlight, and soil type can vary over distances less than a meter. and frost-free. To protect themselves against crop failure, ancient Andean farmers utilized all the microenvironments they could. Conditions causing poor harvests in one could produce bumper crops at another. Farmers deliberately maintained fields at different elevations, and this vertically diversified farming fostered the development of a cornucopia of crop varieties, each with slightly different tolerances to soil type, moisture, temperature, insolation, and other factors. The resulting diversity of crops served as a form of farm insurance, but the differing growth cycles of different habitats also permitted work to be staggered and therefore more area to be cultivated. The zapallo (Cucurbita maxima) is only one of many squashes native to the Andes. This species, noted for its rich diversity, has given rise to numerous commercially successful squash varieties, including Acorn, Banana, Buttercup, and Hubbard. 6 Inca Agriculture Western South America's dramatic stagecoast, valleys, highlands, and cloud forest- formed the setting for the evolution of Andean civilization, which emerged some 4,500 years ago. On the semiarid coast, up the precipitous slopes, across the high plateaus, and down into the subtropical jungles of the eastern face of the Andes, dozens of cultures flourished and faded before the rise of the Incas about A.D. 1400. The Incas inherited and built upon the products of thousands of years of organized human endeavor. It was they who, through military and diplomatic genius, first united a vast realm running the length of the Andes. Employing an inspired, if rigid, administration, they promulgated a social uniformity from their capital, Cuzco. The entire empire was a single nation, governed by the same laws, privileges, and customs. The union within the Inca Empire was surprising because the various lands it covered were so vastly different: seared desert, saline flats, vertical valley walls, windswept barrens, triple-canopy jungle, glacial sands, floodplains, Recreating Prehistoric Abundance of moisture. During droughts, moisture from the canals slowly ascends to extremes About 3,000 years ago, an ingenious form of agriculture was devised on the high plains of the Peruvian Andes. It employed platforms of soil surrounded by ditches filled with water. For centuries this method flourished because it produced bumper crops in the face of floods, droughts, and the killing frosts of those 3,800 meter altitudes. Around Lake Titicaca, remnants of over 80,000 hectares (200,000 acres) of these raised fields (waru waru) can still be found. Many date back at least 2000 years. Now, in a dramatic resurrection, modemday Peruvians working with archaeologists have reconstructed some of the ancient farms, and the results have been amazing. They have found, for instance, that this method can triple the yield of potatoes. In at least one experiment, potato yields outstripped those from nearby fields that were chemically fertilized. As a result of such observations, local farmers have begun restoring the ancient waru waru on their own. Government-sponsored restoration projects are also under way. The combination of raised beds and canals has proved to have remarkably sophisticated environmental effects. For one thing, it reduces the impacts of the roots by capillarity, and during floods, the furrows drain away excess runoff. For another, it reduces the impact of temperature extremes. Water in the canals absorbs the sun's heat by day and radiates it back by night, thereby keeping the air warm and helping protect crops against frost. On the raised beds, nighttime temperatures can be several degrees higher than in the surround- ing region. For a third, it maintains fertility in the soil. In the canals, silt, sediment, nitrogenrich algae, and plant and animal remains decay into a nutrient-rich muck. Seasonal accumulation can be dug out of the furrows and added to the raised beds, providing nutrients to the plants. The prehistoric technology has proved so productive and inexpensive that it is seen as a possible alternative for much of the Third World where scarce resources and harsh local conditions have frustrated the advance of modem agriculture. It requires no modern tools or fertilizers; the main expense is for labor to dig canals and build up the platforms with dirt held in by blocks of sod on the sides. 7 saline crusts, perpetual snow, and equatorial heat. This diversity is reflected in the Incas' own name for their empire: TahuantinsuyuKingdom of the Four Corners-coast, plateau, mountain, and jungle. Yet the Incas learned to manage the desolation and the variety of these most demanding habitats, and they made these regions bloom. This success was owing to several factors. First, the Incas were master agriculturalists. They borrowed seeds and roots from their conquered neighbors and forcibly spread a wealth of food crops throughout their empire, even into regions where they were previously unknown. To enhance the chances of success, the Incas purposefully transplanted the plants with their farmers, thereby spreading both the species and the knowledge of how to cultivate them. Second, the Incas created a vast infrastructure to support (or perhaps to enforce) the empire's agriculture. For example, they modified and conserved steeply sloping erodible terrain by constructing terraces and irrigation works, and by fostering the use of farming systems that attenuated the extremes of temper- Water in the canals absorbs the sun's heat by day and radiates it back by night, helping protect crops against frost. The more fields cultivated this way, the bigger the effect on the microenvironment. The platforms are generally 4 to 10 meters wide, 10 to 100 meters long and about one meter high, built with soil dug from canals of similar size and depth. Sediment in the canals, nitrogen-rich algae, and plant and animal remains provide fertilizer for crops. Illustration by Narda Lebo. 8 ridged fields still in were and water. These included, for example, and planting in small pits. In some areas, Inca terraces and irrigation systems covered thousands of hectares. Many are ature use. overnight in the freezing day, men, women, and children walked over the partly withered tubers, spread out and left air. The next Third, contributing to the infrastructure roads and footpaths that provided an extensive system for transporting products to all corners of the realm. As a result, massive of food could be moved on the backs of llamas and humans-for example, com into the highlands, quinoa to the lowlands, and tropical fruits from the eastern jungles to the heights of Cuzco. To implement this superb organization without paper or a written language, a mathematical system was developed that used knots tied in strands of yam (quipu). The code of the knots was memorized and so can never be solved. Today, they cannot be \"read,\"but they resemble the digital system of computers; the Incas could maintain highly elaborate and complex records and accounts. Further, the roads and footpaths made possible the exchange of information. Instructions and advice were carried quickly throughout the empire by an organized corps of runners. In this way, Inca sages sent predictions of the weather for the upcoming cropping season to and from all regions. The predictions were based on natural indicators such as the behavior of animals, the flowering of certain plants, and the patterns of the clouds and rainfall. The Incas were familiar, for example, with the phenomenon known as \"El Nind' that periodically changes the ocean currents off the coasts of Peru and Ecuador, wreaking havoc with regional weather. The Incas also developed methods for preserving their harvests for years, when necessary. It is estimated that in the central highlands of Peru alone there were tens of thousands of large, rock-walled silos and warehouses. Such stores were filled each year with dried and salted meat (called \"charqui,\" the source of the English word \"jerky\"). They also contained roots preserved by freeze-drying. When potatoes, for example, had been harvested at the highest altitudes, they were amounts the moisture that had been the freezing. The same process by was repeated over several nights and days, after which the potatoes were completely dehydrated and could be stored safely. squeezing out released The Incas' Descendents For all its size and splendor, the Inca Empire endured for only a century, and it was crumbled by fewer than two hundred Spanish adventurers. Today the region of the empirethe highlands from Colombia through Chile-is one of the world's most depressed areas. The infant mortality rate is one of the highest on the South American continentmore than one-fourth of the children die before their first birthday, a rate more than twice that of Latin America at large and about fifty times that of Sweden. Only one in seven homes has potable water, and only one in forty has indoor plumbing. Add to this the disruption caused by guerrillas, who have launched an armed campaign of terror in the Peruvian highlands, and it is no surprise that massive migration from the countryside to the cities has occurred. Exacerbating the highlands' difficulties are cultural and ethnic divisions. The Indians, who make up about half of the population, live a life apart from the modern sector. Most still speak Quechua, the lingua franca of the Incas; a few around Lake Titicaca on the PeruBolivia border speak Aymara, an even older language. The Indians' rural lives have not changed appreciably for generations. On the other hand, the whites and mestizos (persons of mixed European and Indian ancestry), who make up the other half of the population, speak Spanish and live in a modern urban world that is undergoing rapid change. The classes, therefore, are separate and unequal. And a concomitant notion is that their food plants are separate and unequal as well. It may seem irrational, but crops the world over are stigmatized by the prejudices held 9 The giant Colombian blackberry (Rubus macrocarpus) is one of the biggest berries in the world, almost too large to be taken in a single mouthful. Photo by Wilson Popenoe 10 Ahipa (Pachyrhizus ahipa) is one of the least known, but most interesting, of the plant kingdom's edible roots. The plants shown here were grown in Denmark, an indication that ahipa probably can be produced as a food crop in many places outside the Andes. Photo by F. Sarup. Kiwicha \"champion\" Luis Sumar Kalinowski with a seedhead of one of his advanced lines of kiwicha (Amaranthus caudatus). Photo by Noel Vietmeyer. characteristics that have adapted them for cul- tivation in regions well outside the heat of the tropics. However, additional uncertainties exist when a crop is to be transplanted from one part of the world to another-for exam- ple, day length (photoperiod) dependence, which could be particularly troublesome. Because the plants are native to latitudes near the equator (where the day and night lengths are equal year-round), some will not reach maturity during the long summer and fall days of the temperate zones. This difficulty has proved surmountable for potatoes, tomatoes, peppers, and lima beans, but it still could take growers some time to locate varieties or genes that can allow each of the crops described below to be grown as far from Difference in sensitivity to cold is another possible problem. Although the temperature variation in the Andean highlands often runs from a few degrees of frost at night to shirtsleeve temperatures at midday, the frosts in the Andes are extremely dry, and they rarely form ice on the plants. Therefore, whether frost-tolerance data recorded in the Andes can be extrapolated to other areas is uncertain. Nonetheless, the global promise of these plants is very high. In the last few centuries the tendency has been to focus on fewer and fewer species, but today many ancient fruits, vegetables, and grains are finding new life in world markets. This is heartening, because to the equator as North America, Europe, Japan, and Australasia. keep agriculture healthy and dynamic, farmers everywhere need plenty of options, especially now when markets, climates, national policies, scientific understanding, 11 and technologies are changing at a rapid pace. The necessary next steps toward crop development and exploitation are often interdisciplinary, involving diverse interests such as genetics, processing, marketing, advertising, and technical development from the farm to the exporter. Developing the lost crops of the Incas is the kind of research that scientists should undertake. In the process, they will rediscover the promise of these crops the Spanish left behind. The Inca Empire's grains, tubers, legumes, fruits, vegetables, and nuts are an enduring treasure for the Andes and for the rest of the world. Millions of people should quickly be introduced to these neglected foods of a remarkable people. A summary follows of the \"lost crops\" of the Incas, selected by the National Research Council Ad Hoc Panel. ROOT CROPS Ulluco (Ullucus tuberosus) produces brightly colored tubers that are a staple food in many regions of the Andes. Achira large-leaved lily. Its fleshy roots (actulong as an adult's forearm, contain a shmmg starch whose unusually large grams are actually big enough to see with the naked eye. This starch is easily digested and is promising for a somewhat like (Canna edulis, Cannaceae). Achira looks sometimes as ally rhizomes), pigs, it is most valued for its swollen roots. Resem- both food and industrial purposes. bling brown radishes, the roots are rich m sugars and starches and have a sweet, tangy flavor. Dned, they can be stored for years. Ahipa (Pachyrhizus ahipa, Leguminosae). Ahipa is a legume, but unlike its relatives, the pea, bean, soybean, and peanut, it is grown for its swollen, fleshy roots. Inside, these tuberous roots are succulent, white, sweet, pleasantly flavored, and crisp like an apple. An attractive addition to green salads and fruit salads, they can also be steamed or boiled and have the unusual property of retaining their crunchy texture even after cooking. Mashua The well-known garden nasturtium was a favorite Inca ornamental, and at high altitudes in the Andes, its close relative, mashua, is a food staple. Farmers often prefer mashua to other tubers because it requires less labor and care to grow, and it can be stored m the ground and harvested when needed. ceae). [Tropaeolum tuberosum, Tropaeola- Arracacha (Arracacia xanthorrhiza, Umbelto which it is related. Below ground, however, it produces smooth-skmned roots that look somewhat Mauka liferae). Above ground, this plant resembles celery, like white carrots. These roots have a cnsp texture and a delicate flavor that combines the tastes of celery, cabbage, and roasted chestnut. They are served boiled or fried as a table vegetable or are added to stews. Mauka has thick stems and yellow or salmon-colored fleshy roots that make it a sort of cassava of the highlands. The plant was unknown to science until \"discovered\" in Bolivia in the 1960s, and it now has also been found m remote mountain fields of Ecuador and Peru. If placed in the sun and then put in storage, the tubers turn very sweet, like sweet potatoes. (Mirabilis expansa, Nyctaginaceae). Maca a plant that resembles a radish and is related to cress, the European salad vegetable. Although its edible (Lepidium meyenii, Cruciferae). Macais Oca leaves are eaten m salads and are used to fatten guinea tionally hardy plant that looks somewhat like clover, oca produces an abundance of wrinkled tubers in an array of interesting shapes, and in shades from pink (Oxalis tuberosa, Oxalidaceae). An excep- 12 yellow. In the Andean highlands, it is second only the potato in amounts consumed, and is still a staple for Peruvian and Bolivian Indians living at high altitudes. The firm white flesh has a pleasant, sometimes slightly acid taste. to to GRAINS Kaniwa Potatoes The potato became one of the twenty or so staple crops that feed the whole world. Collectively, these are adapted to a wide array of climates and provide a genetic source of diversity, disease resistance, and new crops. Many have unusual and marketable properties. Some are golden yellow inside, a number have a decidedly nutty taste, and almost all have more concentrated nutrients than the common potato. common (Solanum species, Solanaceae). a protein connutritious grains, tent of 16 to 19 percent and an unusually effective balance of essential amino acids. It flourishes m poor rocky soil at high elevations, usually surviving frosts that kill other gram crops, and outyieldmg them in droughts. Incredibly, it thrives where frosts occur nine months of the year. (Chenopodium pallidicaule, Chenopodiaceae). This broad-leaved plant produces of the most of all with one Kiwicha Ulluco of the most striking-looking roots in Andean markets are ullucos. They are so brightly colored-yellow, pink, red, even candy-striped-that their waxy skins make them look almost like plastic imitations. Once a staple in the Inca diet, ulluco is one of the few indigenous crops that has increased its range over the last century. In some areas, it vies with the potato as a carbo- (Ullucus tuberosus, Basellaceae). Some protein and the essential ammo which is usually lackmg in plant protein. Kiwicha protein is (Amaranthus caudatus, Amaranthaceae). The seeds of the amaranth, almost levels of have an totally neglected grain crop, high acid, lysme, almost comparable to milk protein (casein) in nutritional quality, and it complements the nutritional quality of foods that normally would be made from flours of com, rice, or wheat. This makes kiwicha particularly beneficial for infants, children, and pregnant and lactatmg women. hydrate staple. Yacon distant relative of the sunflower. Grown in temperate valleys from Colombia to northwestern Argentina, it produces tubers that on the inside are white, sweet, and juicy, but almost calorie-free. Because of their succulence, they are eaten raw and are pleasantly refreshing; they are also eaten cooked. In addition, the main stem is used like celery, and the plant shows promise as a fodder crop. Yacon is a Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa, Chenopodiaof protein in the vegetable kingdom, known in cultivation outside its upland Andean home. However, experience in the United States and England shows that the gram is readily accepted by people who have never tasted it before. Qumoa can be grown under particularly unfavorable conditions, at high elevation, on poorly drained lands, in cold regions, and under drought. Much has already been learned about this plant, which is becoming a commercial success outside the Andes. sources (Polymnia sonchifolia, Compositae). the best ceae). Although the seed of this tall herb is one of is quinoa hardly LEGUMES Basul is a common (Erythrina edulis, tree of the Andean Basul Leguminosae). leguminous high- lands. It is unusual m that it produces large edible seeds and is one of the few trees that produces a basic food. Accordingly, it has promise as a perennial, highprotein crop for subtropical areas and tropical highlands. Beyond its use in food production, it is also a promising nitrogen-flxmg tree for use m reforestation, beautification, erosion control, and forage production. Nunas Mashua tubers (Tropaeolum tuberosum) thrive in the high cold altitude of the Andes. The plant requires little care and can be stored in the ground for months. Photo by Wilson Popenoe 13 several more domesticated peppers as well as some wild species. All of these are employed by local people, and they promise to add new pungency, new tastes, and new variety to many of the world's cuismes. Squashes and Their Relatives (Cucurbita species, Cucurbitaceae). Several of the fruits variously known as pumpkms, squashes, gourds, or vegetable marrows have their origins or greatest development in the Andes. These and some lesserknown botanical relatives are robust, productive crops, especially suitable for subsistence use. Many are littleknown elsewhere and offer promise of ter foods for scores of countries. new and bet- FRUITS Berries. Along the length of the Andes are found several dozen localized berry fruits. These include relatives of raspberry and blackberry (Rubus species, Rosaceae), blueberry {Vaccimum species, Ericaceae), and some small berries [Myrtus species, Myrtaceae) that are rather like mmi guavas. Capuli Cherry (Prunus capuli, Rosaceae). The black cherries that are found throughout the Amencas reach their best development in the Andes, where the capuli is a popular city and backyard tree. The cherryhke fruits are found in the markets three or four months of the year. Some are large, sweet, fleshy, and said to be at least as good as the traditional cherry. Basul (Erythrina eduhs) is a bean that grows on trees. Its extremely large seeds have a pleasant, slightly sweet flavor and are usually eaten like lima beans. They are also used in candies. Photo by Wilson Popenoe 14 become popular in African and Asian tropics, where the plant could conceivably flourish. Pacay (Inga species, Leguminosae). Among the most unusual of all fruit trees, pacay produces long pods filled with soft white pulp. This pulp is so sweet that the pods have been called \"ice-cream beans:' Not only are the fruits attractive and popular, this nitrogenfixing tree is extremely promising for reforestation, agroforestry, and the production of wood products. Passion Fruits Europe, juice (Passiflora species, Passifruit is floraceae). This exoticand otherbecoming popular North With its m conplaces. centrated perfume and flavoring ability, passion fruit \"develops\" the taste of bland drink bases, such as apple America, white grape juice. So far, all commercial have been based on a single Brazilian species. In the Andes there are scores of other species, some of which are reputed to be superior to the Brazilian one. or developments Pepino (Solanum muricatum, Solanaceae). A large, conical, yellow fruit with jagged purple streaks, pepinds mellow flesh tastes like a sweet melon. It is beginning to enter international commerce. Already gaining popularity in New Zealand and Japan, the delicate pepino seems destined to become a benchmark for premium fruit production. lamarillo Although many species of wild berries are found in the Andes, the mora de Castilla (Rubus glaucus) is the most famous and popular. This Andean counterpart of the loganberry could have a bright future. Test samples of its high-quality, deep-red juice have been well received at a large U. S. fruit-drink corporation. This product might prove valuable for giving pallid juices a rich ruby red color. Photo by Wilson Popenoe 15 The cherimoya (Annona cherimola), universally regarded as a premium fruit, has been called the \"pearl of the Andes,\" and Mark Twain declared it to be \"deliciousness itself!\" This article was reprmted from Lost Crops of the Incas: Little-Known Plants of the Andes with Promise for Worldwide Cultivation. The book makes up the report of an Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation Board on Science and Technology for International Development, established by the National Research Council. It was first published in 1989 by the National Academy Press, Washington, D. C. Copies of the book are available at the Arnold Arboretum Bookshop or can be obtamed for $19.95, prepaid, from: National Academy Press 2101 Constitution Ave., N. W Washmgton, D.C. 20418 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Trees of Tian Mu Shan: A Photo Essay","article_sequence":2,"start_page":16,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25015","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260a76d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Ttees of Tian Mu Shan: A Photo Essay Peter Del Tredici Tian Mu Mountain, located approximately 90 kilometers west of the city of Hangzhou, is the tallest mountain in Zhejiang Province, China. Rising 1506 meters above sea level, Tian Mu Shan is well known throughout China for its scenic beauty and for the diversity of its flora. It has a long and rich history, botanists, recognizing the uniqueness of the Tian Mu Shan flora, collected and described many distinct species from the area. Today at least three species are recognized as endemic to the mountain, and a total of thirty species growing within the reserve are included in Volume 1 of the Plant Red Data Book of rare, endangered, and threatened plants of China. In 1960, the Chinese government, recognizing the uniqueness of Tian Mu Shan flora, established a 1000-hectare reserve (400 acres) on the south-facing slope of the west peak, designed to preserve and protect the plants. In addition to its high species diversity, Tian Mu Shan is also famous for its exceptionally large trees. Foremost among them is Cryptomeria japonica var. fortunei, the cryptomeria, of which there are 398 individuals with diameters greater than one meter. The golden larch, Pseudolarix amabilis, also grows wild on Tian Mu Shan, with some 98 individuals larger than half a meter in diameter. Most interesting of all are the large specimens of Ginkgo biloba, the ginkgo, growing in isolated valleys and on steep cliffs. According to the only published report on the population, 244 trees were located, with a mean diameter of 45 centimeters and a mean height of 18 meters. Whether these trees are truly wild or are the escaped offspring of trees cultivated by monks has been debated by botanists for years. Researchers have yet to reach a clear consensus on the answer to this and has been visited by monks, herbalists, poets, botanists, and tourists for close to a thousand years. From a utilitarian point of view, the mountain is noted for exporting four comestible products: \"cloud and fog tea,\" collected from Camellia sinensis growing wild on the cool slopes; \"dried bamboo,\" derived from the young shoots of the locally abundant Phyllostachys pubescens; \"hickory nuts,\" the sweet seeds of Carya cathayensis; and lastly the numerous medicinally important herbal plants that were once widely collected. The most prominent symbol of Tian Mu Shan's long human history is Kaishan Temple, located two-thirds of the way up the mountain, at 1020 meters. Built by Buddhist monks in 1279, this small temple serves as a focal point for visitors, who often spend the night in order to view the sunrise the following morning. A second temple, Chanyuan, was built in 1665 and is located at the base of the mountain, at 330 meters. The topography of Tian Mu Shan is diverse enough to support a wide variety of plant associations. The subtropical evergreen forests typical of south China commingle with the warm temperate deciduous forests of the north on the slopes of Tian Mu Shan, resulting in a flora of some 1530 species of vascular plants, one of the richest in the temperate world. Beginning in the 1920s, Chinese question. In addition to these three rare gymnosperms, exceptionally large specimens of Thrreya grandis, Liquidambar formosana, Nyssa sinensis, Cyclocaria paliurus, Litsea 17 Ginkgo biloba in silhouette at 980 meters elevation. auriculata, and Emmenopterys henryi are also common. In the fall of 1989, I had the good fortune to visit Tian Mu Shan in the company of two very able Chinese botanists, Professor Ling Hsieh of the Zhejiang Institute of Forestry and Mr. Yang Guang of the Jiangsu Insti- of Botany. From October 6 to 15, the three tramped up and down the mountain mapping and measuring all the ginkgo trees we could find. It was a memorable time for me and one that I hope is captured in the foltute of us lowing photographs. 18 Professor Lmg and a large specimen of Pseudolarix amabilis, the golden larch, tall, with a diameter at breast height of 112 centimeters. 42 meters 19 Yang Guang with the \"living fossil\" ginkgo in the Tian Mu Shan reserve. This ancient ovulate tree occupies an area of approximately 20 square meters and consists of 15 stems greater than 10 centimeters in diameter. The largest trunk has a diameter of 110 centimeters. The Chinese describe this tree, perched on the edge of steep cliff at 950 meters, as \"an a old dragon trying to fly.\" The fence protecting the tree was built in 1980. 20 in association with Cryptomena japonica var. fortunei is the dominant tree on Tian Mu Shan. Here it is growmg a large specimen of Magnolia denudata, the yulan magnolia. 21 Several Cryptomeria japonica var. fortunei demarcate the stone path that leads to Kaishan Temple. About 300 years old, these trees may well have been planted for the purpose of erosion control. 22 Very common on Tian Mu Shan, Liquidambar formosana, the oriental sweet gum, is a very large tree. Here it is growing amidst a clump of Phyllostachys pubescens, a timber-producing species of bamboo. 23 At lower elevations on Tian Mu Shan, between 200 and 400 meters, on the widely cultivated windmill palm, commonly grows Trachycarpus fortunei, dry soils in full sun. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Fringe Tree and Its Far-Flung Cousins","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25013","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260a36f.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":" 25 Chionanthus retusus at the Arnold Arboretum (AA #13051). Tbp, the tree in full bloom; bottom, the wmter silhouette. Photos from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. 26 ; J fissured with streaks of reddish-brown when older. The leathery leaves are opposite, narrow elliptic to obovate-oblong, with entire margins, and are a shiny dark green above and pale dull green below. Fall color tends toward yellow, and the fruit is plum-like in color and shape, a half-inch drupe held singly or in clusters. The flowers of Chionanthus virginicus are, without a doubt, its most ornamental feature. In Boston they are in full bloom in early June, making an effective spectacle for about two weeks. Flowers are held on elongated panicles 10 to 20 centimeters long (4 to 8 inches), and these panicles can vary in appearance from slightly upright to slightly drooping. Flower petals are pure white, narrow, and straplike, measuring 2 to 3 centimeters (1 inch), and usually number four. Individually they are only mildly interesting, but as they are produced in great number on each panicle, and the panicles in turn blanket the tree, the effect is astounding. Because flowering begins before the leaves are fully extended, the plant initially appears as a fleecy mass of white, punctuated by a few spots of fresh green. During the bloom period, the leaves become more developed and the plant gives a more dappled effect. Close up, the flowers impart a spicy privet-like scent, and from underneath it seems as a the stage. The plants at the Arnold Arboretum, sited among the lilac collection, are almost always naked during \"Lilac Sunday,\" usually the third week of May. Amidst the spectacle of color, they seem almost embarrassed, a gray suit at the Mardi Gras. But as lilac-blooming season begins to wind down, they come alive and are in full flower in early June. Some horticulturists recommend using the American fringe tree as a focal point, a speci- for terraces or patios. In areas such New England, however, the late appearance of its foliage and bloom makes it look awkward when featured, and I suggest using it as men tree as a lawn tree or along the edges of a property. As many members of the Oleaceae have been used for hedges, this might make an interestThe American fringe tree is far hardier than its native range might suggest. The largest tree I know, 8 meters high (25 feet) by 10 meters broad (30 feet), grows on a lawn in Shelburne Falls, Massachusetts, around the to a town just below the Vermont border, in USDA Zone 5. The owner of this specimen thought it was planted of the century and was proud that, when in full flower, it has been known to stop busloads of Japanese turn point out though one is looking up through cloud of mist. As one walks farther from the plant, the airy white panicles coalesce, and the plant reads as a solid white mass. Chionanthus can be dioecious, with distinct male and female plants, or polygamodioecious, that is, individual plants have predominantly pollen-bearing or seedproducing flowers but may also have a few bisexual flowers or flowers of the opposite sex. Male plants of C. virginicus, some authors say, produce a more spectacular floral display, but no data have been published to support this, and I could not see significant differences in our few plants. The greatest drawback to the use of the plant in New England is that it begins its spring performance long after others have hit tourists. I have seen Chionanthus viginicus twice in the wild, in remarkably dissimilar habitats. In Stokes County, North Carolina, I was drawn to the banks of the Dan River, along with the local plant hunter Richard Schock. Our quarry was a purported population of Stewartia malacodendron, the silky stewar- an unusual occurrence for the foothills of the Appalachians. As it turned out, the herbarium specimen that led us to this locale was a misidentified sheet of Stewartia ovata, which was the plant we found. On the moist, humusy slope grew a canopy of American beech and Canadian hemlock, with the understory a tangle of Rhododendron maximum. Both the Stewartia and Chionanthus were occasional small shrubs that managed to rise above the Rhododendron and persist in the fairly dense shade. In its autumn colo- tia, 27 ration, Chionanthus did not distinguish itself, and Richard actually had to point it out to me. A few years later, while collecting Tbneya ern taxi folia in the Apalachicola bluffs of northFlorida, I was surprised to find the fringe tree in much different circumstances. The bluffs are dissected by steep ravines harboring at their base a forest adapted to moist, humid conditions. The bluff tops, however, are quite dry and sunny, and are dominated by Pinus palustris, the longleaf pine. At the crest of the slope, I found Chionanthus along with Quercus laurifolia, the laurel oak, Vaccinium arboreum, Oxydendron arboreum, and Cal- licarpa A americana. variant, variety maritimus, has been described on the basis of its more pubescent leaves, but perhaps the most intriguing form was described in 1812 by B. S. Barton: \"I am assured that Mr. Clayton discovered in Virginia and cultivated in his garden, a species, or variety of Fringe-tree, with rose-colored blossoms. I presume it is nothing but a variety of common Chionanthus virginica: and it is said that similar specimens of this shrub have been observed in other parts of the United States.\" Unfortunately, this rosy mutation has been lost to horticulture. The Pygmy Fringe Tree The other North American species of Chionanthus about which there is general taxonomic agreement is Chionanthus pygmaea. This is native only to the sandy soils of central Florida and is listed nationally as endangered. It was first described by J. K. Small, an American botanist who collected the type specimens \"on the ancient sanddunes between Avon Park and Sebring, Florida, May 23, 1921 (flower) and August 30 and 31, 1922 (fruit).\" Small reported that the shrub had an average height of about one-third of a meter (one foot), spread by underground stems, and was very floriferous. Though its flowers are only half the size of Chionanthus virginicus, its fruits are nearly twice as large, up to a monstrous on one The flowers of Chionanthus virginicus. Photo and Debreczy. by Racz 2 centimeters long (0.8 saw. inches) herbarium specimen I Another herbarium specimen collected by J. D. Ray describes the habitat of C. pygmaea as a \"yellow sand dry ridge with open shrubby covering of Quercus chapmanii, Quercus geminata, Sabal etonia, Befaria racemosa and Cyrilla arida.\" Sue Wallace of Florida's Bok Tower Gardens has worked on the propagation of the species and has seen the plant in its native environs. She has seen plants up to 2 meters tall (6 to 7 feet) and feels it is difficult to distinguish them from C. viginicus, except by their radically different habitats. She relates that C. pygmaea grows in almost desert-like conditions in deep sterile white sand. Dr. Dick Lighty has experimented with cultivating the plant at the Mt. Cuba Center in Greenville, Delaware, and considers it a shrub with outstanding ornamental potential. For him, C. pygmaea grows to be a medium-sized shrub with heavy, waxy, magnolia-like leaves. 28 . a very young age from seed and has withstood temperatures of -25 degrees C (-13 degrees F). Because the plant is endangered, it is illegal to collect specimens without permit, and because stocks of cultivated plants are still being increased, the plant is hard to find in nurseries. Clearly this rare southern gem is one of the plants of the future. It bloomed at The Asiatic Fringe Trees Chionanthus retusus, the Chinese fringe tree, is found in China, Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, and was introduced to the West by Robert Fortune in 1845. The cultivated Chinese fringe tree differs from our native fringe tree by its smaller, more leathery and elliptic leaves, its shorter, wider flower petals held in more upright panicles, and its later period of bloom. It flowers also on current season's growth rather than on previous season's growth, and the fruit, like that of the American fringe tree, is an oblong, blue-black drupe-but only twothirds the size. It grows in both shrub and tree forms attaining a maximum height of 25 meters (80 feet). Like its North American relatives, it occurs in a variety of habitats producing a wide variety of leaf and floral forms. In China, Chionanthus retusus is known to grow in a great many provinces, and can be found from near sea level to over 3,500 meters (11,000 feet). Our herbarium includes over a sixty sheets of wild-collected material-a number that vividly demonstrates the baffling diversity contained in this species. According to C. W Wang, one example of a habitat in which Chionanthus is found is the deciduous oak forest of Hebei. The upper canopy is dominated by Quercus aliena, Fraxinus chinensis, and Evodia danielii, while Chinese fringetree, although rare, can be found in the subcanopy layer, along with Acer mono, Tilia mandshurica, Tilia mongolica, Sorbus alnifolia, Celtis bungeana, and Ulmus Chionanthus retusus in Photographed in 1919 by Joseph northern Henan, China. Hers. including Sorbus alnifolia, Stewartia sinensis, Acer davidii, Acer palmatum, Cornus kousa, Betula luminifera, Nyssa sinensis, Magnolia officinalis, and Malus hupehensis. In China, Chionanthus reaches its greatest altitude in the mountains of northwest Yunnan. were Trees 10 to 13 meters japonica. In the coastal province of Zhejiang, the species has been reported on Tiantai Shan, a mountain with a mixed mesophytic forest, found by Joseph Rock and George Forrest at altitudes between 2500 and 3000 meters (8000 and 9500 feet). Among the specimens at the Grey Herbarium, the most illuminating were collected by Joseph Hers, a Belgian who lived in China in the early twenties. His collections include a high (30 to 40 feet) 29 dozen sheets from north Henan, south Shanxi, and north Jiangsu. He even pho- tographed one specimen at Lushih, Henan, an upright 10-meter-tall (33 feet) specimen quite different in habit from the Arnold Arboretum's mature vase-shaped specimen. His collections help to show the diversity of leaf size, shape, and character found in just one province. Leaf tips can be acute, blunt, or notched (with two different leaf shapes on one branch), and leaf margins can be smooth or have quite large serrations. According to H.-F. Chow, the only economic use for Chionanthus in China is culinary. Young shoots and leaves are eaten and the young leaves are used as a substitute for tea, called lung-tsing. In contrast to the situation in China, Chionanthus retusus in Japan is extremely localized, growing in just two areas. Between Korea and the main large island of Honshu lies a set of islands called the Tsushima Islands. It was here that E. H. Wilson found the plant while collecting for the Veitch Nursery in 1905. Of Japan's four main islands, the fringetree can only be found on Honshu, in the Mino-Mikawa floristic region, east of the metropolis of Nagoya. This is a region of botanical relics found nowhere else in Japan and includes among its rarities Rhododendron makinoi, Acer pycnanthum (a maple very similar to our Acer rubrum), Magnolia stellata, and Chionanthus retusus. Visiting the region for the Arnold Arboretum in 1986, I was able to find Magnolia stellata and Acer pycnanthum, but did not succeed in finding the fringe tree. According to S. Kurata, the plant prefers sunny and moist conditions in which it can attain a height of 25 meters (80 feet) and a girth of 70 centimeters (2 feet). It came as a bit of a surprise, when checking the background sources of the Arboretum's Chionanthus retusus, that despite its prevalence in China and the all-star cast of collectors who found the plant there, all of our plants were from Japan, Taiwan, and most recently Korea. Our oldest plant (AA #13051), probably the oldest and best specimen in the country, was grown from seed from the - The beautiful trunk of Chionanthus retusus (AA #13051). From the Arnold #13051). From the Arnold Arboretum archives. Imperial Botanic Gardens in Tokyo. Seed was received in 1901, and the resulting propagule now grows on the Chinese Path of Bussey Hill. It measures, after 89 years, 10 meters high (33 feet) with a spread of 11 meters (35 feet) and a circumference of 2 meters (6.5 feet) at its base. At about a meter from the ground, the trunk splits into nine sharply ascending trunks. This past severe winter seems to have inflicted some dieback on the newer branches (its first winter damage in memory), and no flowers were produced this spring. Chionanthus retusus is also native to Taiwan and Korea where separate species and varieties have been described. From Taiwan, C. serrulatus was described by B. Hayata in 1913 and segregated on the basis of its serrate leaf margins and shorter petiole. More 30 , recently, H.-L. Li, former Director of the Morris Arboretum, downgraded this species variety, while T.-S. Liu reduced it to synonymy with C. retusus. Based on the herbarium specimens I've examined, it appears that serration is found throughout the range and not limited to Taiwan, or to immature plants, to a as some authors have claimed. In Korea, the Forest Research Institute reports that Chionanthus retusus can be found growing from near sea level to over 900 meters (3000 feet). A separate species, C. coreanus, was described from herbarium specimens of J. Taquet by H. Leveille in 1910. It was found on Quelpart Island, a home to many endemics, at the Htepyang Falls, and is its lanceolate foliage. Modern treatments reduce this form to a variety of retusus. When one compares the two major species of Chionanthus, it is best to keep in mind the limited amount of germplasm of C. retusus in cultivation before making sweeping generalizations. But based on the few Chinese fringe trees I have seen, I would say I prefer it to its American cousin. The ninety-year-old specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is one of the outstanding ornamental trees in the country and almost every photo of C. retusus in publication depicts this tree. While in bloom, its slightly tiered, vase-shaped habit becomes covered in fleecy white blossoms, and it transforms itself to \"the snow tree\" that the Dutch so long ago called Chionanthus. I also find the naked architecture of C. retusus more interesting than the gangly, shrubbier C. vir- distinguished by Chionanthus retusus near Peking, China. Photograph taken in 1915 by F. N. Meyer; the caption reads: \"A large and old specimen of the Chinese fringe tree, about 30 feet high with a trunk over one foot in diameter at base. This tree was in full bloom and looked in the distance as if a white muslm cloth had been thrown over its head.\" From the Arnold Arboretum Archives. ginicus. Propagation Should a genus be highly ornamental, yet no cultivars exist, one has a sure signal that problems exist with vegetative propagation. This is indeed the case with Chionanthus, as few records of successful experiments with cutting propagation have been reported. One experiment set up by Arnold Arboretum Propagator Jack Alexander compared the rooting behavior of C. retusus and C. virginicus under mist using a medium consisting of half peat and half perlite. Although ten different lots of hormone treatment were tried, none of the C. virginicus cuttings rooted, and a 30 percent take was the best result with C. retusus (in a lot treated with 1 percent indolebutyric acid in a solution of 50 percent ethanol and 50 percent water). Seed is the most dependable means of propagation, although this results in a plant of unpredictable characteristics. C. virginicus has seed that are doubly dormant and seem 31 to require two warm\/cold stratification cycles Fedde, F. 1910. Repertonum Specierum Novarum Regni Berlin: Wilmersdorf. area. before germination occurs. After the first warm\/cold cycle, a radicle will emerge from the hard seed coat and drive itself downward into the soil. Following the second warm\/cold cycle, the shoot will emerge. Our records indicate that C. retusus will germinate in high percentages after a single cycle of warm\/cold stratification. Vegetabilis. Fogg, J. M. 1960. Chionanthus in the Philadelphia Morris Arb. Bull. 11(1): 3-6. Forest Research Institute. 1987. Illustrated Woody Plants of Korea. Seoul: Forestry Administration. Hyata, B. 1913. Icones Plantarum Formosanarum. Taihoku, Forrnosa: Bureau of Productive Industries. en Hers. J. 1922. Le culte des arbres Dend. France 45. Chme. Bull. Soc. The Arnold Arboretum is pleased to offer to our Friends plants of both Chionanthus retusus and Chionanthus virginicus. The C. Kurata, S. 1973. Illustrated Important Forest Trees of Japan. Tokyo: Shuppan Hanbai Co. Li, H.-L. 1963. Woody Flora of Morris Arboretum. Taiwan. virginicus seedlings are generally 6 to 12 Philadelphia: inches tall, and the C. retusus, 8 to 24 inches. Donation, payable upon receipt of the two plants, is $35.00. Shipment will be in the spring of 1991. Chionanthus Distribution Dana Greenhouse The Arnold Arboretum Li, H.-L. 1966. A new species of Chionanthus. Morris Arb. Bull. 17(4): 63-64. Li, H.-L. 1972. Trees of Pennsylvania. Philadelphia: U. of Pennsylvania Press. Liu. T.-S. 1962. Illustrations wan of Native and Introduced Ligneous Plants of Taiwan. Taipei: Natl. TaiUniv. Arborway Jamaica Plain, References 125 MA 02130 Ohwi, J. 1984. The Flora of Japan. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian. Rehder, A., and E. H. Wilson. 1927. An enumeration of the ligneous plants of Anhwei. J. Arn. Arb. 8: 150-199. Barton, B. S. 1812. Flora Viginica. Philadelphia: D. Hearte. Bartram, W. 1791. \"Ravels Through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida, the Cherokee Country. Philadelphia: James and Sargent, C. S. 1914. Plantae Wilsonianae. Harvard U. Press. Cambridge: Johnson. Chow, Chun, H.-F. 1934. The Familiar Trees Peking Nat. Hist. Bull. Small, J. K. of Hopei. Peking: 1924. Plant novelties from Florida. Bull. Tbrr. Bot. Club 51: 384-385. Small, J. K. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. New York: Publ. by author. W. Y. 1924. Chinese Economic Trees. Commercial Press. M. A. Dirr. 1980. Shanghai: Steam, W. T. 1976. Union of Chionanthus and Linociera (Oleaceae). Ann. Miss. Bot Fagan, A. E., and Gard. 63: 355-357. Frmge trees-ready to be propagated. American Nurseryman 152 (7): 14-15, 114-117. Wang. C. W. 1961. The Forests Harvard U. Press. of China. Cambridge: "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hunnewell Pinetum: A Long-Standing Family Tradition An Interview","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25014","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8add260a728.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Leet, Judith","article_content":"The Hunnewell Pinetum: A Family Tradition Interview Long-Standing by Judith Leet The collection of conifers begun by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell of Wellesley, Massachusetts, is now maintained by his great-grandson, Walter Hunnewell. In 1866, Horatio Hollis Hunnewell mentions in his diary, where he recorded the ongoing improvements to his country property in experiences with the hardiness of plants in Massachusetts as Sargent made plans for what was to become the Arnold Arboretum. Wellesley, Massachusetts, that he has prepared the ground for a Pinetum-for a collection of all the cone-bearing trees that he can make grow in New England. Since he had already planted conifers on the grounds of his estate for fifteen years or so, one might argue that the Hunnewell arboretum was already well under way before it was officially started. Or one might date the beginPinetum as 1852, the year that Hunnewell's imposing white country house was completed and he and his family moved to Wellesley from Boston for long summer stays. Whether it is 125 or 140 years old, the Pinetum has been continuously maintained as a private arboretum by H. H. Hunnewell's family for four generations, and is now cared for knowledgeably by his great-grandson, Walter Hunnewell. In recognition of this contribution, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society recently awarded the \"Hunnewell Family\" its highest award, the 1990 George Robert White Medal of Honor. The Pinetum was already a significant collection before the Arnold Arboretum was established in 1872, and Charles Sprague Sargent consulted with his older mentor H. H. Hunnewell and benefited from his A Simple Purpose ning of the more about the present condition of this unusual, if not unique, family arboretum, we went to Wellesley to speak to Walter Hunnewell, H. H. Hunnewell's great-grandson, on a sunny summer morning. A hands-on gardener, he greeted us from his perch on a one-seater power mower, after putting in a few early hours at work on the grounds-peaceful lawns enlivened by well-cultivated and To learn specimen trees. Entering the cool, spacious hallway of the main house, we were temporarily deflected from our purpose by a display of orchids too handsome to pass by unnoted; it turns out that Walter Hunnewell, a retired executive of the Gillette Company, now divides the year between his two major horticultural pursuits-indoors in winter with his orchids mature and outdoors in summer in the Pinetum. Whereas he has someone to help with the orchids in the greenhouse (some of which he collected in the wild as a young businessman traveling widely in Latin America), he almost single-handedly maintains the 360 or so towering conifers now growing in the Pinetum-with what he acknowledges as the 33 A view of the Pmetum 1906. at the turn of the century. Photo from The Life, Letters, and Diary of H. H. Hunnewell, published in of power rotary motors. Until about ten years ago, Walter Hunnewell lived close to the family home overlooking Lake Waban and would stop by to help his aging mother care for the Pinetum. His father, Walter Hunnewell, Jr., who died in 1964, had assumed responsibility for the family Pinetum in 1921 and had maintained it attentively for forty years; but in the fifteen years that Walter's mother had lived on the property as a widow, the condition of the Pinetum had gradually declined. \"She was interested in it because her husband had been interested, but she was not personally interested and she was already eighty when her husband died,\" Walter Hunnewell explained. \"I lived next door and would come indispensable help do some work, as did my brother Willard and sister Jane, who lived nearby; but basically the Pinetum went downhill. The grass wasn't cut as often, and weed trees sprouted over to up.\" When Walter Hunnewell moved into the family home in 1980 upon the death of his mother, much restoration of the collection needed to be done. \"We had to do relabeling, and Steve Spongberg of the Arnold Arboretum, starting about 1974, was very helpful in identifying trees where the labels had disappeared, as were Rich Warren and Zsolt Debreczy, later on. \"Identification is tricky because botanists can't seem to make up their minds: for example, Picea bicolor was renamed Picea alcoqui- 34 1 ana, but then was changed back to P. bicolor. And looking at the same tree, experts will have different opinions about what it is, so it's difficult to know whether to change a label or not. simple objective of my greatgrandfather, H. H. Hunnewell, was to find out what trees would grow in the climate of Massachusetts. At that time no one had any idea which trees would live here and which wouldn't. 'I'll make a collection of all the coniferous trees that I can find,' he wrote in his diary, 'and see what can grow here.' Of course he could do it on a scale I couldn't possibly do now,\" said Water Hunnewell. \"He'd experiment with small seedlings, perhaps 50 plants of each species, setting out 2,000 plants at a time. He had a mammoth nursery and would plant them all out, employing perhaps thirty gardeners on his many projects.\" Lessons in Hardiness \"The Though he had no formal training in horticulture, H. H. Hunnewell proceeded by observation, trial and error, and Walter Hunnewell next to \"the old oak\"on the front patience: if he lost lawn, the only tree that predates H. H. Hunnewell's fifty plants the first winter that he experimented with cone-bearing trees from New Zealand, he would plant fifty more the would continue to experiment and did not discourage easily. Those doggedly seedlings that survived in the sheltered nursery he would eventually plant in the Pinetum; when set out to face their first New England winters, many of the young trees would be winter-killed; over time these many losses narrowed down the selection of plants that he had hoped to introduce. H. H. Hunnewell had many good growing years up to 1867 and confidently wrote, in the American Journal of Horticulture, that his efforts were worthwhile, despite the heavy labor and financial investments: \"We have reason for congratulation, upwards of fifty new evergreen trees having been found adapted to our climate.\" But by the very next year, he recorded in his diary, \"The past winter has been very destructive to evergreens-the most next year. He plantings. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. so of any I ever experienced.\" After listing the many species that had been browned or badly injured or killed, he added, \"All this is very discouraging.\" Walter Hunnewell speaks feelingly of his great-grandfather's experiments and subsequent losses-sometimes of every single plant: \"Eventually, it was found that plants chosen from the northernmost limit of their range-where they had adapted to snow and freezing conditions for many thousands of years-were more hardy, and H. H. Hunnewell began to bring those trees in. Although he tried and tried, he just couldn't grow the cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus libani, and wrote in his diary, 'it just isn't hardy here in Boston.' But later, around 1900, a hardier variety was found in the mountains of Turkey and introduced by the Arnold Arboretum. Some of these were planted here, one of which is now particularly 35 The main house built by H. H. Hunnewell in 1851. Photo by Peter Del Tiedici. fine-some say rather better than those in the Arnold Arboretum. The cedars of Lebanon grown in England and Europe have a much broader shape, with spreading branches; the branches dip and turn up-very picturesque; here ours are straight as a beanpole. One explanation is that the hardier ones come from high in the mountains where only straight ones could survive; the spreading ones are sitting ducks for heavy snow.\" The Hunnewell family and the Arnold Arboretum have collaborated on planthunting projects over the years; the Hunnewells helped support E. H. Wilson's trips to Asia in the early 1900s, and in turn received plant materials for their collection, which now contains some of the oldest surviving examples of Asian introductions. \"Our relationship with the Arnold Arboretum goes back to the beginning of the Arboretum ;' said Walter Hunnewell. \"In the beginning, the Arboretum got a lot of good advice from my great-grandfather. He and Professor Sargent were good friends. My great-grandfather was the older of the two and had started firstbut the two of them worked together for twenty years, and Hunnewell gave a lot of good advice to Sargent. Since 1900, it's been the other way: for twenty years we helped the Arnold Arboretum; for ninety years, they have helped us,' said Walter Hunnewell, amused by the imbalance of favors. \"H. H. Hunnewell wasn't a botanist; he was an amateur who became knowledgeable. He lived to age ninety-three and had a wonderful full life-never was sick. He grew interested in horticulture in the 1840s when he was about thirty-five; he was fifty or so when he started the Pinetum. His life was more than usually interesting.\" 36 Horatio Hollis Hunnewell was born in 1810 of its of Watertown, Massachusetts, Walter Hunnewell, a general doctor, and Susanna Cooke. Invited to Paris by relatives as a boy of fifteen to learn the banking business, Hunnewell labored for years at Welles & Company, a bank that exchanged currency for traveling Americans, and earned a considerable fortune. He fully expected to spend the rest of his life in France, but in the severe financial crisis of 1837, the bank, on the verge of failure, went out of business, and he lost everything. \"All my brilliant prospects vanished, and the sleepless nights I passed in thinking what I had best do under these in the son gravelly, acid soil and interesting topography. \"The trees have no set arrangement; they are not laid out in rows. H. H. Hunnewell just totally unexpected circumstances were many,' his old age. He returned to dispirited, believing his productive life was all but over. In time he \"drifted into railroads,\" as he put it, and moved on to far greater financial success than he had ever wrote in planted trees of all different shapes and colors, mixed together. To me it looks better than, say, if he had grown all the hemlocks together. When Hunnewell planted an Abies cilicica, probably in 1860, he might have put out a tenyear-old tree. It is one of the older ones; we know that because it is one of the bigger trees. He didn't keep records; that was not his objective. He didn't particularly care where it came from, or when exactly it was planted, or whether it was a true type specimen-those things that interest us didn't make too much difference to he him\" America thought possible. A Country Place \"H. H. Hunnewell did things very thought- said Walter Hunnewell. \"When his prospects improved in Boston after the failure of the bank in Paris, he determined to build himself a nice house. Most of the land he planned to use for this country house was his wife Isabella's, that is, his father-in-law's land. Throughout the 1840s, he built the boundaries, put up a stone wall on Washington Street, and set out seedlings, thousands of seedlings of all kinds, forest trees, evergreens, fruit trees-apple, pear, cherry.\" The house, built from 1851 to 1852, was singled out and illustrated in the 1859 edition of Downing's Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, edited by Henry Winthrop Sargent, a good friend and cousin. \"H. H. Hunnewell had an idea,\" Walter Hunnewell said, \"of what he wanted to do for the groundsfor the forty acres; and he did it himself, without a landscape architect. In time he bought an additional property of fourteen acres that became the Pinetum. This piece of ground was perfect for the Pinetum because fully,\" the Pinetum The precise number of trees living in the Pinetum has varied over the years. Walter Hunnewell's computerized printout, as of the summer of 1990, lists 354 trees. At one time the Pinetum had as many as 400 conifers. Some of the new plantings specifically replace trees damaged or destroyed by natural causes. \"Back in June of 1988, a Picea pungens was hit by a bolt of lightning, which jumped to an Abies veitchii, and killed both. I planted new trees in the same spots. I let them live in the Pinetum for a year; if they survive, they then make the computerized list. I am horrified to see how small the young plants look in the Pinetum next to the full-grown trees. In the ground they seem minute, no higher than ten inches!' When he sets out new trees, Walter Hunnewell's attitude is much like that of his greatgrandfather : \"H. H. Hunnewell started the Pinetum when he was forty or fifty. It didn't bother him at all that he wouldn't live to see mature trees. He lived to see them grow for thirty or forty years, and he was planting small trees all the time. And I feel as he did; when I plant young trees, if they do well and grow nicely, it gives me a mammoth kick. \"There is a great temptation to plant them too close together when small. The branches Maintaining 37 director of the Arnold Arboretum, remarked on the way a Japanese Chamaecyparis had grown unnaturally when all alone. It had a mammoth jungle of young trunks growing around the original Chamaecyparis, and I don't like that. I prefer to plant them close enough so that the lower branches get shaded out and eventually die!' Clipping the Tbpiary Introducing and collecting conifers was only a part of H. H. Hunnewell's Wellesley garden. He began to introduce many varieties of rhododendrons unknown in New England but widely used on English estates, and in addition to opening his own rhododendrons to the he public, sponsored an exhibition on the Boston Common in 1873 to popularize them. He took boundless pleasure in improving and beautifying his property over the years, creating fanciful gardens-an orangery, a grapery, Abies cilicica, planted in 1870, is the largest conifer in the Pinetum. Walter Hunnewell is standing at the base of the tree. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. eventually will go out twenty or more feet. I have planted some too close, but on the other hand, all won't grow to be nice trees, so I weed those out. If two particularly good trees are too close together, you have to make a sacrifice. Or let them grow close together. I differ here from H. H. Hunnewell and my father; they wanted a tree with open space all around it, but after all, these are forest trees. Why shouldn't they be close enough together so that, as in nature, they lose their lower branches? \"I don't like it when they grow-or so it seems to me-unnaturally when planted too far apart. That is, the lower branches hit the ground and root, and in twenty or thirty years, they reroot, distorting the normal appearance of that type of tree. Peter Ashton, the former orchid greenhouses, French- and English-style gardens, as well as lilac and azalea displays. His Italian garden of clipped trees on six terraces-stretching for two hundred yards along the lake below-was all built by hand shovels. \"I hate to think;' Walter Hunnewell paused, \"of the effort involved. But he had plenty of labor to help; photos show him planting with six or eight men.\" For the Italian garden, H. H. Hunnewell experimented with clipping native American evergreens into formal geometric shapes; previously, European species had been used for such topiary effects. To maintain this steeply terraced topiary garden, Walter Hunnewell's four grown children and a son-in-law now gather every year or two and, working as a team for an entire week, trim the trees. \"I pick a week in August and hire a tree specialist with a cherry picker the tallest. My children and I set to work on the middle-level trees-still quite tall-and do it the old-fashioned way with a tall ladder, which two or three of us hold upright with ropes twisted around our hips, while someone else is up on the ladder trimming. Those on the ground can move the ladder back and forth and maneuver it around. to trim 38 and forthnot hard enough. If the person on the ladder looks down, it's a long way to fall.\" For the past fourteen or so years, the Hunnewells, including Walter's wife Maria Luisa, have pruned the topiary garden in this way. \"My children have to take a week out of their vacations-but usually all come. One did not come the last time, and there were lots of comments about that. It's a certain amount of fun. They all in a way enjoy it; I get the most pleasure-partially because it gets the job done.\" When asked if the succeeding generations had maintained the Pinetum to H. H. Hunnewell's standards, Walter Hunnewell replied, \"Very much so. Up until 1929, there was plenty of labor; the workers basically cut the someone's or There's lots of yelling back pulling too hard grass and weeds in the Pinetum with a horsedrawn mower or by hand with a scythe; it was labor-intensive and, because the land was steep, difficult work. \"My father struggled through the Depression, and there were times when he had an awful time. The staff was cut; my father, with the head gardener, put the children to work. All four children enjoyed working in the Pinetum, including my sister Jane. We removed the dead wood, trimmed out the dead branches, cut down trees, spread fertilizer, manure. It's fair to say, however, that, overall, the rhododendron were my father's primary \" interest.\" Another Generation Since he became responsible for the Pinetum, Walter Hunnewell has experimented with \"Italian garden and lake at Wellesley near Boston. Residence of H. H. Hunnewell, Esq.\" From the sixth edition (1859) of A. J. Downing's Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. 39 several innovative methods to facilitate caring for the property. \"We tried grazing a horse or a cow-to see if that kept the grass down; it didn't work. Then I found a good mower that hydraulically lifts the rotary blade up and down. That mower has made an enormous difference. In a short time, I can do what it took three or four men all summer long to do. I also have a tractor that comes in with a bigger rotary mower to do the flat areas, and that too has made a great difference. For the steepest slopes, we use a rotary handmower that runs on the end of a rope. Someone can stand on flat ground above and, like a dog on the end of a leash, send it down the bank. \"I can handle the Pinetum with the help of my children; they are good about it although, sometimes, when they are busy with their work, it is difficult to make time. I now do fertilizing and sprayhealthy. I always want to add have; I put them out mainly in the month of April when I dig them out of the nursery and move them a minimum amount of ing, but basically the trees are very trees I don't the Pinetum' Walter Hunnewell consulted his computer printout of trees to determine how many new trees he now puts out each to year. \"In 1989,I planted eighteen trees-one that I planted out in April was dead by \" October; in 1990, I planted twelve trees.\" The Pinetum now is very full and Walter Hunnewell will have to determine which trees to remove in the future. \"Some are likely candidates, such as an Abies concolor, a white fir, about forty years old, that had its top blown out in a storm. With four leaders broken off, the fir ended up looking like a bush.\" Deciding it would never be what it should be, he The \"Italian Garden\" at the Hunnewell estate. Photographed in 1990 by Peter Del Tiedici. 40 cut it down without compunction. \"You can always plant another\" he added, summing up his very reasonable approach to gardening. Asked about his own children-the fifth generation's future interest in caring for the Pinetum-Walter Hunnewell said: \"All are in a way interested in the place, which is their home; they'd like to keep it going.\" Unlike so many magnificent gardens, constructed with great care and labor, that are abandoned or neglected by later generations, the Hunnewells have carried on devotedly the legacy of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell. In late 1990, the condition of the Pinetum is flourishing and under the capable hands of the fourth generation of a family devoted to its well-being and to excellence in horticulture. References Hunnewell, H. H. 1906. The Life, Letters, and Diary of H. H. Hunnewell. 3 vols. Privately printed. Wyman, Donald. 1952. The Hunnewell Arboretum. Arnoldia 12: 61-84. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 50","article_sequence":5,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25010","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070856d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 50 to issues, (1990) in parentheses refer those boldface to illustrations of the entnes Coca leaf (2) 26-27 Cocoa (2) 32 12 Abies bommullenana cover - (3): inside back Bixa Orellana cihcica (4) 37 8 Acacias, East African( 1 ) 19 Acerpalmatum (3). Achiote (2) 23-24 Actimdia kolomikta (1):36-40, 37, 38, 39, back cover \"African Tropical Forest m Boston,\" Matthew A. Thurlow ( 122-23 Agassiz, Louis (3]\" 5 Agriculture, slash-and-bum( 1 ) 18 Ahipa(4). 10, 11 7 Ailanthus altissima ( 1 ) 7, 17 Airy Shaw, H K (3) 29 Albizia juhbnssin (1) 19 Alexander, Jack (4) 30 Amaranthus caudatus (4) 10, 12 Amazon flora (2) 21-34 Amencan Association of Zoological Horticulture (1) 12 Ananas ananassoides (2)1 22 comosus (2) 22-23 rmcrostachya (2) 22 Andean environment (4): 3, 5 Annona chenmola (4) 13, 15 - (2) 23-24, 23 Bixaceae(2) 23 Bradley Rosaceous Plant Collection (3) Brambles, ghost (3) 12-15, 14, 15 Barton, B S. (4) 27 Basul (4). 12, 13 Blackberry, giant Columbian (4) 9 Brazil nut (2)'23 Bromehaceae (2) 21 Bromelrn(2) 23 Bronx Zoo [New York] ( 1). 5, 7 Bryan, JohnE (2] 35-36 Bussewitz, Al, photo by (4) back cover Campsis radicans (1)18 Camelha sinensis (4) 16 Canadian Forestry Service (2) 7 Canna eduhs (4). 11 Capsicum spp (2) 33, (4) 13 Cardich, A, photo by (4). inside front cover Coggeshall, Roger (2) 9 Columbus, Christopher (2): 22, 24 Conifers, pollination of (2) 2, 3 Conservation efforts (1) 5 Comus flonda (2) 10, 11, 14-20, inside back cover, (3) 5, 6 - - kousa (2) 1, 8-19, 10, 11, 12, 13, inside back cover; (3) 5, 6 nuttalhi (2) 15, 19 Crataegus crus-galh (1)'20 Cryptomena japonica var fortunel (4) 16, 20,21 Csapody, Vera (3) 21, 22 Curcurbita maxima (4) 5, 13 Cupressaceae (2) 2, 3, 4 Curare (2) 24-26, 25 Cyphomandra betacea (4) 14 Cypress, hinoki (3) 9 sawara (3). 2, 7 - - Anthracnose fungus (2) 15, 16 \"Anthracnose Threatens the Flowering Dogwood,\" Craig R. Hibben (2) 16-20 Araha elata (1) 17, 18 spmosa (1) 18 Anstolochiaceae (3) 29 Arnvllana root rot (2) 18 Arnold Arboretum (3)- 4, 7 Conifer collection (2)- 2 Hunnewell Visitor Center (3) 4, 7 overview from Peter's Hill (3)' front - - - cover \"Arnold Arboretum m Winter: A Photo Essay,\" Istvan Racz and Zsolt Debreczy(l):24-29 1 Arracacia xanthonhiza (4) 11 Arrow poisons (2) 24-26 Asarum chmgchengense (3) 29, - 30, 32 magmficum (3) 29, 31 splendens (3)' 29, 30, 32 - (4) 13 Carpnfohaceae (3) 29 Carya cathayensis (4) 16 Cassava (2) 31-32 detoxification of (2) inside front cover Castanea molkssima 1) 21 Catalpa speclosa ( 117 Cathey, Marc (3) : 16 Cautchouc (2)- 31 Cedrela smensis( 1 )21 9 Cedrus deodara1) 8, hbam (4) 34, 35 Cephalotaxaceae (2) 2 Chamaecypans obtusa (3) 7, 9 pisifera (3) 2, 7 thyoides (2) 5 Chanyuan temple (4) 16 Cheng, C Y, and C S Yang (3) 29, 32 Chenopodium palkdicaule (4): 12 qumoa (4) 4, 12 Chenmoya (4) 13, 15 Chionanthus (4) 24-31 propagation (4) 30-31 pygmaea (4) 27-28 retusus (4) 25, 28-30, 28, 29, 30, Canca spp - Darwin, Charles( 1 )31 - theory of evolution (3) 5 Debreczy, Zsolt, interview with (3)' 21-23, 23 - - - and Istvan Racz, \"Arnold Arboretum in Winter A Photo Essay\" (1) 24-29 photos by (see Racz and Debreczy) De Candolle, Alphonse de (2) 21 Del Tredici, Peter136, photos by (2) 8, 11, 14, back cover, (3) 6, 7, 9, 23, inside front cover, (4) 34, 35, 37, 39, front cover \"New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone - Map\"(3) 16-20 \"Dendrologrcal Atlas Malung\" (3) 21-28 23 A Legacy in the - \"The Trees of Tian Mu Shan\" (4)' 16- Dendrological Atlas (3): 21-28; inside back cover - - back cover Bamboo (1). 4, 5, 9, 18 Barasaba Indians (2) 26 Bates, Henry Walter (2) 27 Beal, Helen (3) 11 Bertholletia excelsa (2) 23 Betula ~acduemontn ( 1 ) 9 - virginicus cover (4) 24-27, 27, inside back 32-33 tomentosum \"Dendrological Atlas A Legacy in the Making,\" Peter Del Tredici (3) 21-28 Desiccation theory, of leaf curling (1) 32 Dioum, Baba(l)12 Discula fungus (2) 17, 18, 19, 20 Dogwood anthracnose (2)15,16-20,16, 17, 18 Chocolate (2) Clematis, \/ Dogwood, flowering (1)7; (2)16-20; (3)-~ (2). 24-26 - Chondrodendron G 5,6 Biro, Gyongyver (3) 21, 22, 23 (1)18 Clematis pamculata (1): 18 Cocaine (2) 26 autumn (2| 8, 9-15,10, 11-13, back (3| 2, 4, 5, 6 Downing, Andrew Jackson (3) 6 cover, kousa 42 h - Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (4) 36, 38 D-tubocuranne (2) 26 Dutch elm disease (3) 8 22-23 - Gwhelma msignis (2) 27 mattogossensis (2). 27 rmcrocarpa (2) 27 speciosa (2): 27, 28 Realism: Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals\" ( 1 ) 13-21 - - Japanese plants (3): 2 jasmine, Clulean (1)18 Gwynne, John, \"Wilderness Horticulture Ecosystem, enclosed (1) Emerald Necklace [Boston] (3) 3 Epicormic branches (2) 18, 19 Erythnna eduhs (4) 12, 13 Erythroxylaceae (2) 26 Erythroxylon Coca (2) 26-27 - novogranatense (2)' 26 trua~llensis 12) 26 Euonymus fortunei (4): front cover Euphorbiaceae (2) 27 Eyde, Richard (2) 111 - Himalayan Highlands on the Hudson\" (1) 4-12 Hall, George Rogers, (3) 2, 5, 6, 8, 10-11 estate of (3). 6, 7 Shanghai residence of (3). 10 Hall, Helen Beal (3). 11 Hall's honeysuckle (3): 8 Harvard Botanical Garden (3): 4 Hawthorn, cockspur(20 Heptacodum jasmmoides (3) 29 rmcomoides (3) 29-32 Hers, Joseph (4) 28, 29 Heterotropa splendens (3)- 32 Hevea Benthamiana (2) 31 brasikensis (2) 27-31, 29 qwanensis (2) 31 Hiba arborvitae (3)- 2 Hibben, Craig R. \"Anthracnose Threatens the Flowering Dogwood\" (2) : 16-20 Himalayan Highlands Exhibit [New York] 8 (2) 4-12,5,6,8 Honeysuckle, Japanese (3). 8 Hooker, ID (1) 30 Horticultunst, The, or Journal of Rural Art and Rural Taste (3). 6 Houston, Mark (1) 39 Hovema dulci (3) 8 Howard, Richard A (3) 29, 32 Humboldt, Alexander von (2)- 24; (4) 4 Hunnewell, Horatio Hollis (4) 32, 34-38, - Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (3)' 29, illustrations from (3) 30, 31 fuglans neotropica (4) 14 fumperus commums (2) 3 virgmiana (2). 6 squamata (2): front cover - Falruda, Y (1) 31 \"Fascination with Dogwoods,\" Wakefield(2) 8-15 Fescue, red (1) 11 Ficus elastica [1): 22 - Mary M B temple (4) 16,21 Kalinowski, Luis (4) 10 Kiwicha (4) 10, 12 Kofan Indians (2) 25 Koller, Gary, \"Kolomikta Kiwi\" (1) 36-38, (3) 29 \"Kolomikta Kiwi,\" Gary Roller (1]36-38 Krumholz(l) 11 \"Landscaping for Realism Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals,\" Donald W Jackson (1) 13-21 Larch, golden (4) 18 Lavalle Nursery [Segrez, France] (1) 36 Lebo, Narda, illustration by (4) 7 LecythIdaceae (2): 23 Lee, Francis L. (3) 2, 3, 10 Leet, Judith, \"Books\" (2) 35-36 \"The Hunnewell Pinetum' A LongStanding Family Tradition\" (4) 32-40 Legume collection( 1 ) 27 1 Lepidium meyenn (4). 11 Levitt, Jacob (1)34 Lianas (1) 14, 18 Li, H L (4) 30 Lighty, Richard (4) 27 4 ligulana (1) Lmg,Hsiehf4) 17, 18 Linnaeus (2) 32, (4): 24 Lmociera (4) 24 Liquidambar formosana (4): 16, 22 Lomcera japomca (3) 8 Lost crops of Incas, list of (4): 11-15 prejudices against (4) 8-9 promise of (4) 9-10 sensitivity to cold (4). 10 \"Lost Crops of the Incas,\" National Research Council Panel (4). 2-15 Lost Crops of the Incas. Little-Known Plants of theAndes mth Prormse Worldwide Cultlvatlon, National Research Council (4) 15 Lupinus mutabihs (4) 13 - Kaishan - lyrata (1):22 pumila (1).22 retusa (1). 22 \"First Japanese Plants for New England,\" Stephen A Spongberg (3)' 2-11 Flora of China (3) 29 Flor de Cacao (2) 33 Fluet, Marcheterre, photo by (2) 5 Ford Tropical Ram Forest [Atlanta] (1) 14 Fortune, Robert (3): 11, (4) 28 Franldm Park Zoo [Boston] (1). 22-23, 23 Freezing damage theory of leaf curling(1). ). 34-35 Fringe Tree (4). - 24-31 American cover (4). 24-27, 27, inside back - 40 - Asiatic cover (4) 25, 28-30, 28, 29, 30, back - pygmy (4) 27-28 \"Fringe Tree and Its Far-Flung Cousms,\" Rob Nicholson (4) 24-31 Fujiyama rhododendron (3): 2 Fungicides (2) 18 - Italian Garden of (4) 37-38, 38, 39 and rhododendrons (4) 37 Hunnewell, Walter (4) 32-40, 34, 37 main house of (4) 35 Hunnewell family (4) 32 \"Hunnewell Pinetum A Long-Standing Family Tradition,\" Judith Leet (4) 3240 - Geramum himalayense (1). 4, 9 \"Ghost Bramble Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis,\" Richard Schulhol (3) 1215 \"Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World,\" Richard Evans Schultes (2): 21-34 Ginkgo biloba (4)- 16, 17, 19 Gleditsia tnacanthos var mermis (1) 19 Global warming (3)' 16 Gonlla, lowland (1)14, 15,23 Gray, Asa (3) 4, 5 Gray Herbarium (4) 28 Ilex vomitona( 1 ) 19, 20 Inca empire (4) 2-15 extent ot [map] |4): 2 Incas (4): 4 agnculture (4) 6-8 descendents (4) 8-9 food crops (4): 4-8 freeze drying practices (4) 8 lost crops of (4) 11-15 terraces (4). inside front cover Inga sp (4) 14 - - - - - - - Guang, Yang (4). 17, 19 Jackson, Donald W. \"Landscapmg for Maekawa, Fumio (3) 32 Magnoha acurmnata (1) denudata (4| 20 grandiflora (1). 16 - 17 - 43 - - halleana (3) 7 kobus (3) 7 - - macrophylla (1)15 steEata (3). 7 tnpetala (1).16 vugunana( 1 )17 Magnohaceae(1).17 Malus halhana (3) 2 Mandevilla laxa(1).18 - - (2): Mamhot esculenta (2) 27, 31-32, 30 Manual of Cultivated Trees, Alfred Rehder (3). 16, 18, 19, 21 Martyr, Peter (2) 24 Masai Mara East African Exhibit Mandioca 31-32 [Atlanta] (1) 20 Mashua tubers (4) 12 Massachusetts Horticultural Society (3) 3 Maximowicz, Carl136 Mecharucal theory of leaf curling( 1 )32 9 Meconopsis betomcifoka (1)'9 Memspermaceae (2) 24 Meyer, F N (4) photo by, 30 Michunn, j(1)38 Microchmates, Andean (4) 5 modification of (4) 7 3 Micropyle(2) 2,3 Mmo-Mikawa flonstic region (4). 29 Mirabiks expansa (4). 11 A4iscanthus (I]1 7 2014 smensis(1)20, 25 'Zebnnus' (1)21 Mora de Castilla (4): 14 Morusalba{B)18 Mottau, Gary, photo by ( 1front cover Mulberry, white (1)18 Museum of Natural History [Budapest] (3) 21, 22 - 1 Pachyrhizus ahipa (4) 10, 11 Palmae (2) 27 Pandas, red (1]5, 7, 9, 11 Parajubaea cocoides (4). 14 Parkman, Francis (3) 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 garden of (3). 3 Parsons and Company [Flushing, N. Y.] (3) 2, 6-8, 9, 10 Passaflora sp (4) 14 Paulowma tomentosa (1)' 17 Phaseolus vulgans (4) 12 Peach palm (2) 27, 28 Phillips, Roger (2) 35-36 Photomlubition theory ( 134 Photopenod (4) 10 Phyllostachys (1)18 pubescens (4). 16, 22 Physahs peruviana (4)- 13 Picea (2): 2, 4, 6 abies 'Pendula'(l) 28 Pmaceae (2) 4 Pineapple (2) 21-23,22 Pmus (2): 2, 3, 4, 6 contorta (2) 3 monttcola (2): 3 mugo ( 1 ) 26 nigra (2). 6 pungens (1) 24 Plant Hardiness Zone Map (3) 18, 19 Plant-stress physiology (1): 31, 32 Podocarpaceae (2) 2 Potlmation drop (2) front cover, 2-7 - (3) 8 Ray, J D (4)- 27 Rehder, Alfred (3) : 16, 18, 19, 21 Raisin tree Rhododendron [1)- 9, 30-35 arboreum {If9, 30 - - - brachycarpum (31 2 (1) 30, 31 9 species(1)9 yakusimanum (1)inside front cover, maximum inside back cover Rhusglabra (1)17 typhma (1): 16, 18 Rix, Martyn (2) 35-36 Rock, Joseph (4| 28 Royal water lily (2) 33, 34 Rubber (2) 27-31 - - Rubus - biflorus (31 12 - cockbumianus (3) 12, 13 - - glaucus (4) 14 lasiostylus (3) 12-15, 13 hubeiensis (3) 12-15 2014 macrocarpus (41 9 - - - - - - - Sahx graahstyla (1)front cover Sargent, Charles S. (4) 32, 35 Schulhof, Richard, \"Ghost Bramble- - Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis\" (3) 15 12- \"Pollination Drop Time at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Tokushiro Takaso (2) 27 Polymma sonchifoha (4) 12 Popenoe, Wilson, photos by (4)- 9, 12, 13, (4) 4 freeze-drying of (4) 8 Poutenalucuma (4): 14 Power of Movement m Plants, Charles Darwin (1)31 4 Pnmula, candelabra (1)4 Prunus capuh (4) 13 Pseudolanx amabihs (4). 16, 18 Puccirwstrum acamd~ae (1): 38 - Schultes, Richard Evans, \"Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World\" (2): 2134, photo by (2) inside front cover Sciadopitaceae (3) 4 Sciadopitys verticillata (3) 4 1 Siebold, Phillipp Franz von (3) 8, 11 Smo-Amencan Botanical Expedition (3) 12,29 9 Smo-Himalayan flora(1)9 Smton, Nan, photo by (11back cover Small, J K (4) 27 Snow leopards (1) 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10 Solanum muncatum (4) 14 qwtoense (4) 14 species (4) 12 Spongberg, Stephen A, \"First Japanese Plants for New England\" (3). 2-11 1 - A Reumon of Trees (3) 11 \"Taxononuc Notes from the Arnold Arboretum\" (3) 29-32 Steam, William (4) 24 Stercullaceae (2): 32 Strehtzia alba ( 1 22 - 14 Potato National Geograpluc Society, photos from (4) 9, 12, 13, 14 National Research Council Panel on Lost Crops of the Incas (4) 2-15 \"New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map,\" Peter Del Tredici (3) 16-20 Nicholson, Rob, \"The Fringe Tree and Its - - Far-Flung Cousms\" (4): 24-31 Niklas, Karl (2)' 4 Nilsen, Enk Tallak, \"Why Do Rhododendron Leaves Curl'\" (1) 30-35 North Farm [Bnston, R I.] (3)- 9 Norway spruce, weeping(1):28 Nymphaeaceae (2). 34 Old-man's-beard (4) 24-31 Orton, Elwin (2): 15 Owen, John (2)- 3 Oxahs tuberosa (4)- 11 Quaranbea funebns (2) : 33 Qumoa (4) 4, 14 - Racz, Istvan (3) 21,23 and Zsolt Debreczy, \"Arnold Arboretum in Strychnos sp (2)' 24 Takaso, Tokushiro, \" 'Pollination Drop' Time at the Arnold Arboretum\" (2): 2-7 4 Taxaceae(2) 2, Taxodiaceae (2) 2, 4 Winter, A Photo Essay\" (1).24-29 - and Zsolt Debreczy, photos by (1)8, 15, 17, 30-39, inside back cover; (2): 10, inside back cover; (3) 13, 14, 15, 21, 22, 23, front cover, back cover 44 . - Taxodium ascendens (3). back cover distichum (2)- 6 \"Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold \"Trees of Tian Mu Shan,\" Peter Del Tredici (4) 16-23 Tropaeolum tuberosum (4) 11,11 Waruwaru (4). 6, 7 \"Why Do Rhododendron Leaves Curl?\" EnkTallakNilsen(l)30-35 \"Wilderness Horticulture Himalayan Highlands on the Hudson,\" John - Arboretum,\" Stephen A Spongberg (3) 29-32 Taxus baccata (2) 6 cuspidata (3)' 7, 9 Temperature-sensitive leaf movements (1)30,32,33 Theobroma Cacao (2) 32 Thermotropic leaf movements( 1 )30-35 Thujopsis dolabrata (3) 2 Thurlow, Matthew A, \"An Afncan Tropical Forest m Boston,\"( 1 )22-23 Tian Mu Shan Reserve [China] (4) 16-23, front cover Tiha platyphyllos (3). 24, 25 tomentosa (3). 26, 27 Tomlinson, P B (2) 2 Toon tree (1) 21 Torreya nucifera (2). 7 Toxicity, of plants to animals(1)20 Trachycarpus fortunei (4) 23 Tropical deforestation( 1 )12 Trumpet vine ( 1 )18 Tupi-Guaram Indians (2): 21, 24 Ulluco (4) 11 Gwynne (1)4-12 Wilson, E H (2) 10, 11; (3). 29, (4). 29, 35 Windmill Ullucus tuberosus (4) 11, 12 Umbrella pme (3) 2, 4 USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map palm (4): 23 (3). 8, inside front Wistena tlonbunda (3). 16- cover 20,17,20 VaruUa plamfoka (2): 33 Vavilov, Nikolya (2)' 21 Veitch and Sons Nursery [England]( 1 ) 36 Victoria amazomca (2) 33, 34 regia (2| 34 von Martius (2) 24 - Witoto Indians (2) 22 Wyman, Donald (3) 17, 19 Yaupon holly(1]19,20 Yew, Japanese (3) 9 Yinger, Barry (3) 32, 38 Yuca(2| 31-32 Yukunas Indians (2). 27 - Wakeheld, Mary M B, \"A Fascination with Dogwoods\" (2)- 8-15, 8, 14 Wallace, Sue, (4) 27 Wang, C.W. (4). 28 Zapallo (4) 5, 13 Zelkova serrata (3)' 6, 8 Zoo Atlanta (1): 13, 14, 15, 18, 20 Zoo horticulture (1): 3, 16, 18, 21 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1A, Title of publication: Amoldia IB, Publication number: 00042633. 2, Date of filing: 28 September 1990. 3, Frequency of issue: Quarterly. 3A, Number of issues published annually. 4. 3B, Annual subscription price: $20.00 domestic, $25.00 foreign. 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795, publisher; Peter J. Del Tredici, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795, editor. 7, Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795. 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders ownmg or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: none. 9, The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal mcome tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 10, Extent and nature of circulation. A, Total number of copies. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. B, Paid and\/or requested circulation. 1, Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. 2, Mail subscription. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,364. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 3,525 C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,364. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,525. D, Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 43. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 31. E, Total distribution. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,407. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,556. F, Copies not distributed. 1, Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 1,593. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 1,444. 2, Return from news agents. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. G, Total. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. 11, I certify that the statements made by me are correct and complete. Peter Del Tredici, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25012","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070896b.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1 FROM THE ARNOLD NEWS ARBORETUM Master Planning: Looking Ahead to the Next Century preferred mode of transportation was the horse and carriage. The original design and circulation system has been remarkably well preserved over the years. However, the urban realities of the late 20th century could come to Why, the letter read, are you directions? This sounds like a good hiring fancy landscape architects when the original design of the idea, and it may well be one. But Arboretum by Frederick Law like most good ideas, it is likely Olmsted is doing just fine? to prove more complicated than it initially appears. Should left The writer of this letter was hand turns across traffic and into probably aware of our decision to seek an outside consultant to the Arboretum be permited as assist us in creating a master well? How would the light affect weekend parking that tends to plan, the first long-range effort since the original cluster around the entrance? planning Sargent\/Olmsted collaboration. What about pedestrians? And After interviewing a number of who should pay for all this? local firms with experience in Clearly the City of Boston, the planning and the preservation of Metropolitian District Commishistoric landscapes, we chose sion and the Arboretum will all Sasaki Associates of Watertown, Massachusetts. So why are we hiring Sasaki? I can best answer this be involved. Frederick Law Olmsted and threaten that preservation if we continue to operate without any comprehensive planning. So it is a master plan created with the experience of a firm like Sasaki Associates that will really allow the original Olmsted design to continue doing just fine well into the next century. Charles Sargent created the Arboretum in a day when the ~~ Robert E. Cook, Director question by recounting a conversationI had recently over the phone. A woman called me to complain about the number of cars driving through the Arboretum to exit by the greenhouse; they were endangering the many mothers and children who walk the roads during the day. In fact, she said, a schoolbus, no less, had nearly run down her I PLANT SALE BETTER THAN EVER daughter. She pointed out that drivers prefer to drive through the grounds because it is so difficult to leave by way of the primary entrance on the Arborway. Traffic lanes in the opposite directions are separated by a thin island of concrete and curbing, necessitating a complicated turnaround at the Forest Hills subway station which is further complicated by ongoing constructions. Why, she asked, don't we simply put a traffic light at our entrance and cut a passage through the concrete island to Over 8,000 plants were sold and more than $50,000 raised as approximately 2,000 plant buyers and browsers strolled from tent to tent collecting new let cars exit in both specimens for their gardens. The larger less crowded sales area in and around the barn and an increased number of cashiers enabled members to select their free plants without the congestion and waiting lines of previous years. Many thanks to the Arnold Arboretum Associates who organized this event and gathered the plants for the Rare and Silent Auctions. 1 SARGENT'S SILVA Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, brought together a wealth of information about the known forest trees in the The Silva of f North America. Undertaken for the Tenth Census of the United States, the fourteen volumes were published between 1890 and 1902. While changes in nomenclature and taxonomic perspective have occurred since its publication, Sargent's Silva remains today as the most authoritative and complete work of its kind. Charles Faxon, botanical illustrator for the Arnold Arboretum at that time, created illustrations which were engraved by the celebrated Parisian firm of Philibert and Eugene Picart and printed by the Riverside Press in Cambridge for inclusion in The Silva ofNorth America. In addition to complete sets of this work in our library, the Arnold Arboretum has the printer's over-run copies of these 10\" x 14\" Faxon drawings which are suitable for framing. Beginning in January, 1991, members at the Benefactor level ($1,000 and up) will be offered one of these prints as an annual gift from the Director. THE CONTRIBUTORY PORTION OF MEMBERSHIP DUES Internal Revenue Service regulations require that in determining the tax deductible status of a charitable contribution, the \"fair market value\" of benefits received must be taken into account. Beyond the value of these benefits, your membership dues may be claimed as a charitable, tax deductible contribution. Previously this contributory portion was determined by subtracting the \"fair market value\" of all benefits offered to each category of membership. This produced great complexity and confusion. Today only the value of Arnoldia, which is available to nonmembers for a yearly subscription rate of $20 ($25 foreign) must be considered \"fair market value\" of membership benefits and therefore not tax deductible. For members who elect not to receive Arnoldia, the total amount of membership dues is tax deductible. Payments for classes, symposia or Bookstore Faxon's drawing of Rhododendron Maximum, L., an illustration from Sargent's Silva. NEW CASE ESTATES MAP A new Case Estates information brochure and grounds map is available at the Case Estates and the Hunnewell Visitor Center. This brochure includes more information about the history of the Case Estates as well as descriptions of the new display areas. purchases are not tax deductible. For more information call the Membership Department at 617-524-1718. Arnold Arboretum Logo an The new map, adapted from accurate and detailed base S Al Fordham, formerly Chief Plant Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, admires the restructured stream bank and new waterfall where the eroded stream bed had been. THE Linda J. Davison Rhododendron Path As a result of a memorial trust given by Terence Colligan in memory of his wife Linda J. Davison, the portion of Bussey Brook at the foot of Hemlock Hill has been transformed into a beautiful dell where visitors may enjoy the sounds and sights of water rushing through the rocky stream bed. Boulders and tree trunks gathered from around the Arboretum have been woven into the landscape to stabilize and define the banks of the brook and create contemplative sitting areas and a bridge sensitive to Olmsted's design. Additional rhododendrons will be planted next spring to enhance the collections and the view. Arnold Arboretum staffconsult with Landscape Architect Julie Messervy and contractors. Maurice Sheehan, working Foreman of the grounds crew (second from left), designed the hen's tooth puddingstone wall which replaced the metal fence and supervised the project throughout. McLauglin; Back row: Donald Curran, Sean Curran, Nobby Mawby, Jere Trask, Henry Vaillancourt. The Donald B. Curran company ofIpswich, Ma. did a superb construction job. Standing on the bridge they built are from left: Front row: David Gordon, Stephen Talbot, Frank Sheila Connor, Horticultural Research Archivist, examines the eroded stream bed prior to work on the project. 3 \"THE ROMANTIC GARDEN\"-A NEW SYMPOSIUM Romance is in the air for gardenin the bleak month of February, when the Arnold Arboretum presents the first symposium to focus on the new Romantic Design movement. Fashionable, fragrant, and luxuriant, the style is claiming the attention of gardeners ers throughout the country. The all-day slide-lecture symposium is being presented in four cities: on Thursday, February 21, at the Chicago Botanic Garden, Glencoe, Illinois; on Saturday, February 23, at the Denver Botanic Gardens, Denver, Colorado; on Tuesday, February 26, at the New York Botanical Garden, Bronx, New York; and on Thursday, February 28, at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. This is an School children learn about the ecosystems of the Arnold Arboretum during school curriculum-based Field Study Experiences. They delve into the structure of a flower with hand lenses, use compasses and maps to hunt for unusual trees from other parts of the world, observe the interplay of plants, animals and man, and feel they have had a wonderful adventure. Children's Program Guides Needed Renew your sense of adventure and learn to teach children as they explore the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum. Guide training for spring begins on Thursday, March 21 and continues for five consecutive weeks. opportunity for Arnoldia readers outside the Boston area to get upto-date information on the history, philosophy, design elements, and color schemes of 'The Romantic Garden.\" Newly trained guides will join the program's staff of 39 volunteers in leading 3rd- to 6th-grade school groups through the Arboretum. Volunteers make their own schedules and teach during the morning. Registration fees are $106 for non-members, $96 for members of the participating institutions, and $53 for students with proof of full-time status. For further information or to receive a detailed brochure, call the Arnold Arboretum Education Department at 617-524-1718 or FAX your request to 617-524-1418. Mt. Bookstore Offerings WILDFLOWER CLASSICS: Growing and Propagating Wild Flowers by Harry R. Phillips, $14.95. A complete and expert treatment of wild flower propagation and cultivation. How To Know The Wild Flowers by Mrs. William Starr Dana. boxed edition, $19.95. A BECOME A DOCENT If you would like to join our group of knowledgeable docents and have the opportunity to lead adults on tours of the Arnold guide to the names, haunts and habits of our common wild flowers; richly illustrated. Arboretum, consider attending the Docent Training Program this Jim Gorman, Arnold Arboretum Committee president, presents a The Natural Garden by Ken Druse, $35.00. This volume spring. sessions will be The five three-hour given on Wed- nesday mornings beginning on March 15th. Contact our Tour Coordinator, 524-1718, for more information. 4 check for $4500 to Diane Syverson while visiting students from the Joyce Kilmer school look on. The committee's donation will provide scholarships for students from Boston Public Schools to participate in the Arboretum's Field Study Experiences. emphasizes low maintenance and natural beauty; filled with colorful photographs. Visit the Bookstore daily 10 or a.m. to 4 p.m. or call (617) 524-1718 to order these other books. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23434","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170a728.jpg","title":"1990-50-4","volume":50,"issue_number":4,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The First Japanese Plants for New England","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25007","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070bb6b.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"arnoldu Volume 50 Number 3 1990 Page 2 Arnoldia (ISSN 0004-2633; USPS 866-100) is published quarterly, in winter, sprmg, summer, and fall, by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. The First Japanese Plants for New England Stephen 12 A. Spongberg Subscriptions are $20.00 per calendar year domestic, $25.00 foreign, payable in advance. Single copies are $5.00. All remittances must be in U.S. dollars, by check drawn on a U.S. bank, or by international money order. Send subscription order, remittances, change-of-address notices, and all other subscriptionrelated communication to: Helen G Shea, Circulation Manager, Arnoldia, the Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-3519. Telephone (6171524-1718. Postmaster: Send address The Ghost Bramble-Rubus hubeiensis Richard Schulhof lasiostylus . 16 The New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map Peter Del Tredici 21 Dendrological Atlas: A Legacy Making An Interview with Zsolt Debreczy Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold The in the changes to: 29 Arnoldia, Circulation Manager The Arnold Arboretum Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg Arborway Jamaica Plain, 125 MA 02130-3519. Peter Del Tredici, Editor Judith Leet, Associate Editor Helen G. Shea, Circulation Manager Front cover: An overview from Peters' Hill. Photograph by of the Arnold Arboretum Racz and Debreczy. Inside front cover: The twining stems of an old specimen of Japanese wisteria (Wisteria flonbunda) growing at the former estate of George Rogers Hall in Bristol, Rhode Island. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. Back m Taxodium ascendens, the pond cypress, habitat in the Osceola National Forest m Northern Florida. Photograph by Racz and Debreczy. cover: its native Arnoldia is set Inside back cover: Abies bornmulleriana, a littleknown species, as portrayed m a plate prepared for the Dendrological Atlas. This fir was photographed its native habitat in Western Turkey, on Mt. Ulu Dagh, about 1800 meters. printed by in in Trump Mediaeval typeface and the Office of the University Publisher, Harvard Umversity. Copyright @ 1990, The Harvard College. President and Fellows of The First Japanese Plants for New Stephen A. England - Spongberg When an enterprising young American doctor, George Rogers Hall of Bristol, Rhode Island, sailed to the Orient to seek his fortune by opening a small hospital in Shanghai, his contribution was destined not to be in medicine but in horticulture. His shipment of the first living plants from Japan to New England in 1861 was intended for Francis Lee of Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts, but answering Lincoln's call for enlistments, Lee consigned the plants to the historian and horticulturist Francis Parkman, who cultivated them with great success in his garden in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. The following year Hall returned from Yokohama, Japan, with other new plants that he brought in person to Parsons & Company, a nursery in Flushing, Long Island, to propagate. It is difficult to overestimate the importance of these early introductions in modern American horticulture. Kousa dogwoods, hiba arborvitaes [Thujopsis dolabrata), Fujiyama rhododendrons (Rhododendron brachycarpum), sawara cypresses (Chamaecyparis pisifera), beautiful crab apples with semidouble flowers (Malus halliana Koehne var. parkmannii), and umbrella pines were among the first Japanese plants that arrived in Boston directly from Japan. F. Gordon Dexter, returning to New England from the Orient in 1861, agreed to take responsibility for this ligneous cargo on the seventy-day passage from Yokohama to Boston and to deliver the plants personally to Francis L. Lee of Chestnut Hill. This unique collection had been carefully assembled and established in Wardian cases for transport to Boston by Dr. George Rogers Hall, then a resident of Yokohama. During Dexter's absence from the states, Confederate artillery had bombarded Fort Sumter in the harbor of Charleston, South Carolina, and the Civil War had erupted. Francis Lee, about to respond to President Lincoln's call for troops by enlisting in the Union Army, was forced to entrust the nurture of the totally new plants to someone other than himself. He chose Boston's most celebrated horticulturist, Francis Parkman, his friend, (1823-1893) contributed greatly to the development of American horticulture. Best known as a rosarian, Parkman published The Book of Roses in 1866, but the diversity of plants he grew in his garden testi fied to broad horticultural interests. It was in Parkman's garden on the shore of Jamaica Pond that many Japanese plants were first successfully cultivated in North America. Francis Parkman 3 former Harvard classmate, and Jamaica Plain neighbor. When Parkman returned to Boston in the fall of 1846 after a summer of arduous adventure exploring the Rocky Mountain region, he was ill and physically exhausted. He had temporarily lost his sight-arecurring impairment that alternated with periods of poor vision-and suffered from headaches and an injured knee that severely restricted his mobility for the rest of his life. With assistance from his sister, the historian nonetheless began to dictate The Oregon Trail and plan for the numerous other historic accounts he would Turning to horticulture as an avocation, Parkman directed, from his wheelchair, a small grounds staff at his summer home on the shore of Jamaica Pond. Their labors and Parkman's plans transformed the three-acre site into a horticultural wonderland. The collection of roses alone consisted of over one thousand plants, and other horticultural novelties vied for the admiration of visitors. Lee knew that his new Japanese plants would be pampered under Parkman's supervision, and their growth and horticultural attributes would be duly noted and communicated at meetings of the Massachusetts Horticultural eventually write. Society. A view of Jamaica Pond from Francis Parkman's garden. The house is no longer standing (the land is now part of Boston's Emerald Necklace), nor is there a trace of the colorful garden that once flourished on the site. 4 The Umbrella Pine One of the evergreen Japanese conifers, in particular, caught the eye of Parkman, who probably gave it the protection of a greenhouse before deciding to test its hardiness out-ofdoors during a New England winter. Parkman may also have coined its common name, umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata [Thunberg] Siebold & Zuccarini), to denote the spokelike arrangement of its glossy green needles. Not a pine at all, this unique tree has been placed by botanists in its own familythe Sciadopitaceae-and, like the ginkgo, it has no close living relatives. Miraculously, it too has survived from the remote geological past. Fossils provide evidence that these trees once grew over a wide area of Eurasia and formed an important component of European forests. Brown coal deposits in Germany from the midTertiary are frequently characterized by the remains of the leaves of umbrella pine, attesting to its former abundance. It also once grew in Greenland and Canada, but today the single extant species is restricted in nature to forests occurring between three and six thousand feet in elevation in the mountains on the Japanese islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and - Kyushu. The Japanese umbrella pine has proven hardy in the environs of Boston, and a grove of fifty-year-old trees has firmly established the species in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. These individuals produce cones on a nearly annual basis, and as they mature the lower limbs die, exposing the trunks of the trees to view. Young trees rarely produce cones and usually retain their lower limbs; consequently, the cinnamon-brown bark of the trunk is obscured by the dense whorls of the dark-green, almost plastic-like leaves. As young trees, umbrella pines grow slowly and symmetrically, forming shapely, evergreen spires that are highly prized as specimen trees in the gardens of those fortunate enough to grow them. When plants can be located in the nursery trade, the prices they command reflect the esteem in which they are held. At The umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata) constitutes one of the finest conifers available for landscape use in eastern North America. Young plants are slowgrowing and achieve a symmetncal, conical habit. the Arboretum, a younger generation of these trees accents the plantings in front of the Hunnewell Visitors' Center and illustrates their landscape use. Kousa Dogwood * Another Japanese tree that Parkman was the first to grow in North America along the shore of Jamaica Pond would have aroused the interest of Asa Gray at the Harvard Botanical Garden in Cambridge. It is likely, moreover, that Parkman was aware of Gray's interest in the flora of Japan. Word of the debates at the meetings of the Cambridge Scientific Club 5 George Rogers Hall (1820-1899) of Bristol, Rhode Island, the physician turned trader, who first sent living plants from Japan directly to New England. Dr. and American Academy of Arts and Sciences that had raged between Gray and Professor Louis Agassiz in 1859 had surely reached the historian's ears. These spirited discussions had been spawned by Gray's hypothesis concerning the close relationships of the floras of eastern North America and Japan and Darwin's theories of evolution. Gray had argued for the descent of species in the two regions from common ancestors, while Agassiz had attempted to defend the multiple origins of related forms. Gray's reasoning, based on his empirical assessment of factual evidence, won the day and paved the way for the debate over Darwinism, which would occupy scientific center stage in the decades ahead. When the Japanese kousa dogwood (Cornus kousa Hance) first came into flower on the shores of Jamaica Pond in the middle of June, Parkman was confronted with the same sense of deja vu Gray had experienced when he sorted Charles Wright's brittle, dried specimens of Japanese plants in the herbarium. The morphological similarity of the Japanese species with the flowering dogwood (Cornus florida L.) of the eastern United States, which had flowered earlier in May, became immediately evident. Parkman was growing in his Jamaica Plain garden two closely related species from opposite sides of the world. Here was living proof of the distributional phenomenon Asa Gray had recognized and had gone far to explain. The similarities between the two species, moreover, could be comprehended based on the concept of descent from a common ancestor in the remote past. Like its eastern North American congener, the ornamental attributes of the kousa dogwood depend largely on the four white, leaflike bracts that subtend the small, tight clusters of true flowers. Held erect on long pedicels, the abundantly produced clusters and their associated bracts stud the branches of the shapely trees in June and appear like thousands of miniature, creamy-white pinwheels hovering above the trees' outstretched branches. The white bracts contrast abruptly with the bright green of the leaves, yet some individuals produce such an abundance of flower clusters that the foliage is almost completely obscured from view by the associated bracts. These disease and pest resistant trees are one of the most valued ornamental subjects available for planting wherever a small tree is required. Dogwood Fruits While the Asian and North American dogwoods are undeniably related, they differ from one another in several ways and each is classified as a distinct species. Among other differences, the fruits of kousa dogwoods differ from 6 individually borne seeds of the flowering dogwood, each of which sports a bright red seed coat. By contrast, the seeds developed from each flower cluster of the kousa dogwood are embedded in the flesh of a red, strawberrylike compound fruit. The weight of the fruit eventually pulls the initially erect pedicel downward, and the mature fruits hang suspended along the leafy branchlets. One very plausible explanation for the the difference in fruit types between the Oriental and Occidental species relates to their means of dispersal in nature. In the forests of eastern North America, the small fruits of the flowering dogwood are the right size for birds, which eat them and then disperse the seeds after they have passed unharmed through their digestive systems. In Japan and China, where the kousa dogwood is now known to occupy a wide range, monkeys, particularly macaques, are denizens of the same regions, and the larger, bright red, strawberry-like fruits appeal to these arboreal acrobats. These seeds also pass unharmed through the animal's digestive system and are dispersed prepackaged with primate fertilizer. Had New World monkeys occurred in the same regions as the flowering dogwood and not been blind to the color red, our native species might have evolved fleshy compound fruits similar to those of the kousa dogwood. Conversely, had monkeys not occurred in Asia, kousa dogwood fruits would probably be simple and their seeds dispersed by birds. Parsons and In April of A large specimen of Zelkova serrata growing on the site of Dr. Hall's former estate, North Farm, in Bristol, Rhode Island. Photographed in 1987by P. Del Tredici. Company 1862, a year after Francis Parkman received his horticultural windfall, a letter was published in The Horticulturist or Tournal of Rural Art d) Rural Taste, one of the leading horticultural periodicals of the day, which had been founded by Andrew Jackson Downing. Under the title of \"Japanese Trees,\" the notice was signed by Parsons & Co., Flushing, March 20, 1862, and the column began: A few frank, pleasant manner, introducing himself as Dr. Hall of Japan, whom we had for some time known by reputation ... He informed us that for the past two years he had resided m Yokohama, and being greatly interested m trees and plants, had, for his own amusement, collected in his garden all of any interest which Japan contained ... Expecting to return home this year, he had also collected a large quantity of seeds of trees and plants, many of them unknown either in Europe or this country. These plants and seeds he had brought with him, except some six Wardian cases yet to arrive, and proposed to place them all in our hands for propagation and culture. Relating the arrival of the Wardian cases, the article continued, If you have ever seen the eagerness with which a connoisseur in pictures superintends the unpacking of days since, while sitting m our office, there walked in a gentleman, with an intelligent face, and 7 The original introduction of the spreading Japanese yew, Taxus cuspidata, growing on the site of Dr. Hall's former Rhode Island. This venerable specimen is over 30 feet tall and 130 feet in circumference and has been the source of propagation material for countless generations of cuttings. Photo by P. Del Tiedici. estate in some gems of art, among which he thinks he may possibly find an original of Raphael or Murillo, you will have some idea of the interest with which all, both employers and propagators, surrounded those cases while they were being opened. Among the \"originals\" transported to Long Island in the glazed cases were the first plants of additional Japanese trees and shrubs that are now mainstays in landscapes in New England and across North America and Europe. Included were plants of the familiar kobus magnolia (Magnolia kobus De Candolle) and the now more ubiquitous star magnolia (Magnolia stellata [Siebold & Zuccarini] Maximowicz, in America first known and offered for sale as Magnolia halleana Parsons), both prized for their abundantly produced white or pink flowers that herald the arrival of spring. In the Arnold Arboretum both of these precocious flowering species grow near the Hunnewell Visitors' Center and in April annually provide one of the earliest floral displays of spring. Ten garden forms of the sawara cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera [Siebold & Zuccarini] Endlicher)-each selected and maintained by Japanese horticulturists-and plants of the beautiful hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa [Siebold & Zuccarini] Endlicher) were exposed to the fresh North American air from within the humid confines of the Wardian cases. Saplings and seeds of a 8 new elm-like tree, the Japanese zelkova serrata air and (Zelkova [Thunberg] Makino)-des- tined a century later to be widely planted in American cities and towns as a replacement for native American elms ravaged by Dutch elm disease-provided living evidence of new species to be found growing in Japan. Seeds of Japanese umbrella pines filled a small sack, and several horticultural forms of Japanese provided drops of sweet nectar to be sucked from the base of its tubular corolla. It has also provided untold hours of sweat and frustration on the part of those who have attempted, most often in vain, its eradication. So widespread and pervasive has it become that only its name suggests its Japanese origin. If he were alive today, Dr. Hall might be satisfied that his name has generally become disassociated from this plant. He would undoubtedly have preferred to leave the maples (Acer palmatum Thunberg), Japanese wisterias (Wisteria floribunda [Willdenow] De Candolle), and many others, including the raisin tree (Hovenia dulcis Thunberg), rounded out the shipment. While most had been described in the floristic accounts of Thunberg in the eighteenth century or later by Siebold in the nineteenth century, none had ever before been available to North American horticulturists. To the zealous plant propagators of the Parsons' firm and to American horticulturists of succeeding generations, several have become the botanical equivalents of canvases by Raphael and Murillo. One Unfortunate Introduction Ironically, among the horticultural treasures Hall brought back to the United States, one plant in the shipment was to become more comparable to the Norway rat brought to America by the first European explorers than to any work of art by an Old World master. This particular plant proved so well adapted to the climate and growing conditions of a portion of the eastern United States that it has become a pernicious weed that plagues forand naturalists throughout much of the southeast. Initially referred to by horticulturists as Hall's honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunberg), this vigorous, twining climber is now more frequently known as Japanese honeysuckle, or simply honeysuckle. This last name is most usual, particularly in the regions where the plant has invaded thousands of acres of woodlands on the Piedmont and Coastal Plain and literally overwhelmed the native vegetation. For many generations of Southerners, its flowers have perfumed the esters ' The flowers of Hall's honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica) produce a cloyingly sweet fragrance, which perfumes large regions of the South during the late spring and early summer. Since its introduction, the plant has become a pernicious weed, invading thousands of acres of woodlands along the eastern seaboard of the United States from New Jersey southward. 9 Japanese honeysuckle in his Yokohama garden. Little did he or the staff of Parsons' Nursery realize that the woodlands of much of the eastern United States from Pennsylvania southward would be forever changed by of a plant carefully transplanted from a Wardian case to a nursery row on Long Island in March of 1862. offspring A Valuable Introduction At North Farm, Dr. Hall's Rhode Island estate the shores of Narragansett Bay-now a condominium development-avenerable, multistemmed Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata Siebold & Zuccarini) planted by Dr. Hall on his return from Japan dominates one comer of the old garden. This tree is now over 30 feet tall and over 130 feet in circumference. A bronze plaque at its base indicates that it ranks as the first Japanese yew to be planted in North American soil. It was certainly not the last, for in northern regions of the United States this species has become the signature shrub of the modern-day urban and suburban landscape. While the Japanese honeysuckle has invaded southern woodlands, the Japanese yew has achieved the status of the quintessential landscape shrub in northern cities and on towns. yews constitute one of the mainstays of the American nursery industry. Japanese at The hinoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa) growing North Farm in 1987. Photo by P. Del Tredici. Countless thousands of balled and burlaped individuals annually fill the sales areas of bona fide nurseries as well as hardware stores, supermarkets, and other retailers who attempt to capture a part of the spring market for landscape trees and shrubs. Plants of this species used in foundation plantings alone probably number in the millions. All too frequently, yews are yearly clipped and shaped with pruning shears and hedge clippers into rounded balls, boxlike cubes, and cones. All across New England-like chessmen standing sentinel at entryways or guarding gravesites in suburban cemeteries-the Japanese yew is omnipresent and contributes to the monotonous repetition of suburbia. When not pruned to within an inch of its life but allowed to grow and develop naturally, the Japanese yew assumes a pleasing, widely branching habit. Its growth rate is slow, but it will eventually achieve a good size unless pruning shears are resorted to. Its lustrous, dark-green needles contrast with the abundantly produced seeds, each embedded in a bright red, fleshy aril-like covering, adding to the ornamental aspect of the plant. Another attribute that recommends its judicious landscape use is its tolerance of light shade. When a dark evergreen is needed in such a location, the Japanese yew should rank high on the list of candidates. 10 A painting Hall by an unknown Chinese artist of George Rogers Hall's Shanghai residence in the coastal city where founded the Seaman's Hospital. Dr. Hall's Medical Career But who was Dr. Hall, recently of Japan, who brought the Japanese yew to North America, who sent cases of exotic plants to his friend Francis Lee, and who generously offered the Parsons' Nursery horticultural treasures from native Rhode his Yokohama was born near Bristol in March of 1820 and graduated with the class of 1832 from Trinity College in Hartford, Connecticut. After graduation, Hall matriculated with the Harvard Medical School class of 1846. Once his medical education was completed, he sailed for China and the new opportunities that awaited enterprising Yankees in the wake of the Opium War. garden? A Islander, George Rogers Hall Settling in the foreign compound in Shanghai, Hall formed a partnership with another physician, John Ivor Murray, and in 1852, the two medics opened the Seamen's Hospital, with beds for twelve patients. As the number of foreign vessels calling at Shanghai increased, Hall's medical practice flourished and the hospital staff was enlarged to include another physician and an apothecary. But despite the influx of American and European seamen requiring medical attention, the venture realized only small profits. Compared with the fortunes being made in commercial ventures, the hospital business hardly repaid the efforts involved. Leaving the hospital and his medical prac- 11 behind, Hall joined with two friends in business enterprise. His new partners were Edward Cunningham and David Oakes Clark, both from Milton, Massachusetts. These young New Englanders had been encouraged to enter the China trade by an old hand in the business, Robert Bennett Forbes, long time Milton resident and partner in Russell & tice a accumulated in this way, and toward the end of his Oriental sojourn Hall decided to establish himself in Yokohama, where direct access to the recently opened Japanese market was possible. In Japan, George Rogers Hall's latent interest in plants emerged, and he diligently Company. Hall's decision to give up his medical career undoubtedly a difficult one, yet pressing financial need forced his hand. In 1850 he had returned to the United States to marry Helen Beal, daughter of a Kingston, Massachusetts, lawyer. Together they returned to Shanghai, and in the space of four years three sons were born to the young physician and his wife. With the Taiping Rebellion looming on the horizon-an internal revolt that nearly saw the overthrow of the Manchu dynasty, a revolt fueled by government corruption and a socioeconomic decline that had worsened in the wake of the Opium War-Mrs. Hall left Shanghai with their three sons and returned to America in 1854. Sadly, the youngest son, George Rogers, Jr., died on board ship. With a young family to support, Hall decided to remain in China long enough to make his fortune before returning to the States to rejoin his wife and family. was about assembling a collection of Japanese species in his Yokohama garden. Many plants set obtained from Philipp Franz von Siebold, who had returned to Nagasaki and his beloved Japan in 1859, the same year Hall moved to Yokohama. Robert Fortune visited Dr. Hall when he traveled to Yokohama in 1860, and arrangements were made whereby Fortune's collections could be held in the physician's garden until they could be planted in Wardian cases for shipment to England. Without a doubt, the Scots collector shared some of his collections with the Yankee physician turned trader and plantsman. And so it was that a first New Englandbound shipment of Japanese plants arrived in Boston in 1861, and a second larger consignment arrived in 1862 when Hall returned home to Rhode Island to be reunited with his family. George Rogers Hall was the first American to send a wide assortment of Asian plants to eastern North America, where most were destined to join their New World relawere tives in A Garden in Yokohama landscapes across America. It was at this time that Dr. Hall turned to business interests, and with his friend, Cunning- This article coming ham, first visited Japan on Cunningham's schooner yacht, the Halcyon. Dealing in fine Chinese and Japanese curios-porcelain, lacquer work, bronzes, jade, and ivory-brought significant profits, but even more money could be made through speculation in gold and silver. A considerable fortune was was excerpted from Dr. Spongberg's forthbook, A Reunion of Trees (Harvard University Press, 1990). This book is the first volume of a three-part Arnold Arboretum Sourcebook Series, funded in part by the National Endowment for the Humanities. Stephen Spongberg Arnold Arboretum. is Horticultural Taxonomist at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ghost Bramble- Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25008","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070816f.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Schulhof, Richard","article_content":"The Ghost Bramble-Rubus Richard lasiostylus hubeiensis Schulhof Expedition has produced yet another The 1980 Sino-American Botanical horticultural gem. To the chagrin of most of its inhabitants, winter renders the landscape of New England a quiet composition of browns and grays, speckled with evergreens and snow. Despite the somberness and length of our winter, the design of most cultivated landscapes does little to brighten the winter season, deferring all habit. Indigenous to the Shennongjia Forest District of Western Hubei Province in central was found growing amidst Sinarundinaria thickets on steep slopes and in disturbed meadow areas. Seeds of this species were brought to the United States through the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition, and seedlings raised in the Dana Greenhouses were planted out in the Arboretum's Bradley Rosaceous Plant Collection in 1985. It has sincebecome one of our most talked-about plants during the winter months. Appearing as if whitewashed or made of chalk, the whiteness of the canes derives from a thick, waxy bloom coating the stem. The arching six- to eight-foot plant develops a dramatic, fountain-like form, and is most remarkable for its ability to reflect light. On cloudless winter days at the Arnold Arboretum, the plant shines like a beacon, serving as a focal point for a broad expanse of landscape. In summer, R. lasiostylus hubeiensis partly recedes from view, cloaked in foliage that is generally free of both insects and diseases. Of medium texture, the four- to six-inch-long leaves consist of three to five ovate leaflets that can be either lobed or unlobed. A cool China, the plant always, it seems, to the more obvious bounspring. Yet there are plants that instill drama and beauty in the winter landscape, and make enjoyment of the garden more than a short, seasonal affair. The silver-stemmed brambles, appearing in the landscape as bold, arching stripes of white, are a notable example. ties of L While species of the genus Rubus are most commonly known as providers of delicious fruit, or as flowering ornamentals, at least three species-R. cockburnianus, R. biflorus, and R. lasiostylus-are grown for the winter of their silver-white canes. Although rarely found in American gardens and difficult to locate in the nursery trade, the silver-stemmed brambles are further recommended for their undemanding cultural requirements, their resistance to pests and diseases, and their adaptability to the stresses of urban environments. ornament Introduction in 1980 Rubus lasiostylus var. hubeiensis, or the lime-green color, they provide a pleasing conthe rust-red prickles and white stems. Notably, the prickles, though bristle-like, are vicious enough to make this plant an effectrast to \"ghost brambleis a relatively recent addition to this ornamental group and perhaps the best among them for winter stem color and over- tive barrier shrub. Attractive but unspectacular, the pinkishwhite, dime-sized flowers appear twice a sea- 13 The general habit of the ghost bramble, Rubus by Racz and Debreczy. lasiostylus hubeiensis, growing at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo The first-year canes produce a terminal inflorescence at the end of the summer. The following spring, the canes branch profusely, with each branch producing an abundance of flowers. The orange-red fruits that follow are described by some as more showy than the flowers, and though they are edible, they seem to lack the rich flavor of commercial raspberries. Maintaining the older canes for flower and fruit production does, unfortunately, mean sacrificing winter effect. In their second year, the canes tend to lose their glaucous bloom over the course of the winter, never regaining the striking whiteness of their youth. At the Arboretum, the unexceptional flowers and son. fruit are seldom seen as the plant is coppiced annually to produce a fresh crop of first-year canes. Aside from several minute botanical distinctions, the variety hubeiensis differs from variety lasiostylus in having fruits that are orange-red instead of whitish. Also, in the two specimens available for comparison, hubeiensis appears to have a whiter and fuller waxy bloom on the stems. Evidence that Rubus lasiostylus hubeiensis is the best of the silver-stemmed brambles comes from side-by-side comparison with R. cockburnianus, the most commonly cultivated member of the group. Not only does hubeiensis have a whiter and longer-lasting 14 The foliage of the ghost bramble. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. stem color-the true test for any \"ghost bramble\"-but also it possesses a more graceful and upright habit. Though debate persists in some quarters, performance comparisons at the Arnold Arboretum suggest the superior ornamental qualities of R. lasiostylus hubeiensis will, in time, make it the silverstemmed bramble of choice in winter gardens across the country. Propagation Experiments with the propagation of this var- iety are ongoing at the Arboretum. Thus far, unlike most members of the bramble clan, R. lasiostylus hubeiensis has proven surprisingly difficult to propagate. Hardwood cuttings taken in August rooted with only a 10 percent success rate, while root cuttings removed in April did even worse, producing shoots at only a 9 percent rate. Fortunately softwood cuttings taken in mid-June produce more favorable results. Among a variety of hormone treatments, \"Hormone Root B\" (IBA 4,000 parts per million plus 15 percent Thyram) was the most 15 Close-up of the canes of the ghost bramble. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. successful, with 87 percent of 24 cuttings producing roots. Though more trials are needed, the performance of R. lasiostylus hubeiensis in gardens both the East and West coasts suggests that highly adaptable, tolerant of heat and drought, pest free, and amenable to either full sun or light shade. It has also proven to be a vigorous grower, spreading both by suckering shoots and by rooting cane tips that come in contact with the ground. At the Arnold Arboretum, the ghost bramble appears ta be less invasive than many other Rubus species and can be effectively restrained by annual coppicing or by removing the suckers. Attractive as a specimen or in a small mass planting, the ghost bramble would contrast on beautifully against a carpet of Vinca minor or Ajuga a dark evergreen least USDA Zone 5, it backdrop. Hardy should be tried as a barrier shrub, as a bank planting, or in a winter garden where its architectural form and striking color may be repens, or against to at it is most effectively applied. cuttings of this For information on obtaining plant, please write to: Rubus, c\/o Richard Schulhof Arnold Arboretum 125 Arborway a Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 Richard Schulhof is Arboretum. Mercer Fellow at the Arnold "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25009","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad0708528.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The New USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map Peter Del Tredici The publication of this map hardiness zone maps. provides an opportunity to review the history of The new Plant Hardiness Zone Map, updated for the first time in twenty-five years, was released by the United States Department of Agriculture this past February. Unlike the previous edition, the map includes Alaska and Hawaii and is detailed enough to show county lines within the scates. In addition, the map includes Canada and Mexico for the first time. According to Dr. Marc Cathey, Director of the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., who oversaw the updating and production of the map, such expansion is appropriate given that \"we share many plants, both native and introduced, with these countries.\" The large-format map, measuring four feet by four feet, has eleven color-coded zones based on ten-degree (Fahrenheit) differences in the average annual minimum temperatures. As in the old map, each zone is divided into A and B regions based on five-degree differences. One new zone, Zone 11, has been added (including parts of Mexico, California, Hawaii, and Florida) where the average annual minimum temperature is above forty degrees Fahrenheit. Data from 14,500 weather stations, gathered between 1974 and 1986, went into this update -more than twice as many stations as were used for the maps introduced in 1960 and 1965. With the additional data, small areas of microclimates are indicated for the first time. These are either cool pockets caused by mountaintop elevations or hot spots due to the heat of cities or protected valleys. The wealth of new data used to create the map also allows the borders of the zones to be drawn in more detail than before. According to its makers, the new map does any global warming trend, but it does reveal some regional changes. On both coasts, but particularly in the Southeast, temperatures are given as five to ten degrees cooler in the winter than on the previous map. Isolated pockets of the Northeast are slightly warmer; and sections of the Midwest show some minor changes, as do not seem to uncover parts of Canada. Since 1960, when the USDA published its first zone map, considerable confusion has arisen from the fact that it used different temperature ranges to define its zones than did its well-established predecessor, the Arnold Arboretum zone map. The publication of the latest 1990 USDA map, based as it is on more abundant and more accurate data than the Arnold Arboretum map, provides the perfect opportunity to resolve this confusion. At long last, the United States has a single, standardized zone map. There can be little doubt that this new USDA map is superior to any, and all, previous efforts. Brief History of Hardiness Zone Maps This is perhaps the appropriate time to take a brief look at the history of hardiness zone maps, the first of which was published in 1927, in Alfred Rehder's ground-breaking Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. This 17 2 0 1 4 2 0 14 2 0 1 4 2 0 1 4 J The new 1990 USDA Hardiness Zone Map. divided the cold temperate United States into eight zones characterized by uni form five-degree (Fahrenheit) differences in the lowest mean temperature of the coldest month. All the plants listed in the Manual were assigned, at least tentatively, to one of the hardiness zones. As can be seen in early attempt the accompanying figure, the lines separating the zones were very approximate. Rough as it was, however, this map stood alone until 1938 when Donald Wyman, using data from a U.S. Weather Bureau map for the years 1895 through 1935, redrew its contours based on the average annual minimum tem- 18 The first Hardiness Zone Map from the first edition of Alfred Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, published in 1927. The contour lines are based on the lowest mean temperature of the coldest month. The second Hardmess Zone Map from the second edition of Rehder's Manual, published in 1940. The lines shown here are based on average annual minimum temperatures. contour 19 peratures, and published a new map in his book Hedges, Screens and Windbreaks. While based on a different temperature standard than Rehder's map, the contours of the two are remarkably close. Wyman's new map was published in the second edition of Rehder's Manual (1940), and the hardiness ratings of the various plants were adjusted accordingly. Wyman, with assistance from various Arnold Arboretum staff members, updated his map in zone map with zones based uniform ten-degree ranges in average annual minimum temperature. It is interesting to note that while both the USDA and the Arnold Arboretum maps were based on the same weather station data, their differences were only in where the contour lines were drawn. From this perspective, it is clear that the uniformity of the USDA zones is preferable to the arbitrary Arnold Arboretum zones. on its first hardiness 1951, 1967, and, ultimately, in 1971. Unlike Rehder's original map, however, Wyman's hardiness zones were not based on a uni form number of degree differences. Some of his zones had 15-degree ranges in the average annual minimum temperature, while others were based on 5- or 10-degree ranges. In particular, it is worth noting that Boston is located in one of the two 5-degree zones. This lack of uniformity was called into question in 1960 when the USDA produced Limitations In considering national hardiness zone maps, out should not overlook the intrinsic limitations of the whole concept of hardiness zones. one Alfred Rehder was the first to point limitations in his 1927 Manual: these There are, however, many other factors besides temperature in winter which will influence the hardiness and growth of certain plants, as soil, its physical as well as chemical composition, exposure, rainfall, The Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Zone Map from 1967. 20 The USDA Hardmess Zone Map published in 1960. humidity of the air, shelter from cold wmds. As a rule one may say that plants stand cold better in a drier situation than in a wet one, and that deciduous trees and shrubs prove hardier in a more exposed situation and in a climate with higher summer temperature, while evergreen plants prefer a sheltered situation, and like a more humid climate and less extreme summer and winter temperatures. the minimum winter temperatures. Taken with a hefty dose of skepticism, however, hardiness zone maps do provide gardeners with a useful guide to the plants they can grow safely in their area. Availability Copies of the new USDA Hardiness Zone Map are available through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC 20402, for $6.50 (Misc. Publ. Indeed, as most gardeners have learned during the 1980s, taking \"microclimate\" variations into account often allows gardeners to grow plants that, according to the hardiness maps, should not survive in their area. At the Arnold Arboretum, for example, it is known that the fluctuating temperatures of early spring can be more damaging to some plants (particularly those from northeast Asia) than 1475); or from the Arnold Arboretum Bookshop, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. Peter Del Tredici is Editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Dendrological Atlas: A Legacy in the Making An Interview with Zsolt Debreczy","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25006","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070bb26.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"The Dendrological Atlas: manual of A Legacy in the Making on An interview with Hungarian botanist Zsolt Debreczy trees his life's work - a proposed fourteen-volume and shrubs. If one were to take literally the adage \"one picture is worth a thousand words,\" then the Dendrological Atlas project, with its proposed 3,300 full-plate drawings and 20,000 photographs, is going to be worth millions. This monumental project is the dream of Hungarian botanist Zsolt Debreczy of the Museum of Natural History in Budapest, who has been authors as Alfred Rehder, W J. Bean, and Gerd totally original illustrations, visually oriented keys, and in-depth taxKrussmann but adds onomic working on it since 1971. Upon completion, the Atlas is projected to cover 6,500 species and 7,200 cultivars of cold-hardy, woody plants in fourteen volumes, with a grand total of 12,000 pages. Working in collaboration with Debreczy is his wife, Gyongyver Bir6, a microbiologist by training, who does the literature searches and helps with the writing and field work. Botanist-photographer Istvan Racz has been working with Debreczy since 1976, producing the photographic documentation for the project. In addition, several illustrators, including the late Vera Csapody, have worked with the team to produce pen and ink illustrations based on Debreczy's pencil sketches. The Dendrological Atlas team has traveled extensively throughout the temperate zones including Asia, Europe, North America, and North Africa. They first came to the Arnold Arboretum for a brief visit in 1983, and in 1988, as recipients of a Mercer Fellowship from Harvard University, they were able to return. descriptions. According to plans, the Atlas will consist of two parts: Gymnosperms (Volumes 1 to 3) and Angiosperms (Volumes 4 to 12). The format of the work can be seen on the following pages. Debreczy, Racz, and Biro hope to finish the project by the year 2000, almost thirty years after the the first drawings were made. The following interview with Zsolt Debreczy addresses some of the questions frequently asked the Dendrological Atlas team regarding this ongoing project. When did you start working on this project? I started it in 1971 with Dr. Vera Csapody, the renowned Hungarian plant illustrator, who had published or illustrated almost 60 books before I started to work with her. Her first undertaking, with the great research botanist Sandor Javorka, was on the Hungarian florawith over 4,200 drawings of the plants native to the Carpatho-Pannonian region (historical Hungary), published in 1934. After I wrote a successful book on the winter-hardy evergreens with Vera Csapody's illustrations, we started the Dendrological Atlas project in 1971. Was the The goal of the Atlas project is to create a comprehensive, beautifully illustrated work that includes all the trees and shrubs of the temperate climate zones of the world. The work builds upon the foundation laid by such project originally planned to be as large-scale as it now is? Not at all! At first we planned simply to illustrate Rehder's Manual, the most widely used reference book for identification of temperate trees and shrubs. We started with small, two- 22 dimensional illustrations based mainly on herbarium specimens. Following my sketches, Vera Csapody immediately worked them out in black ink. As time went on, we used more and more living specimens for making the drawings and of course they looked different from those made from pressed specimens. It soon became clear that a consistent style, a \"single voice,\" was needed to bridge this problem. Vera Csapody was in her eighties when we switched our format to produce fullpage, three-dimensional illustrations. This happened in 1975, and it marks the beginning of the project in its present format. We also had to solve the problem of consistency in the photographs, which we resolved in 1976 when Istvan Racz joined the team. Later my wife Gyongyver Biro and some younger illustrators joined the group, and the Atlas became a major project of the Museum of Natural History in Budapest. The collecting trips started in 1977. I organized them to cover most countries in Europe, North America, North Africa, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor. We worked in the best living collections of Europe, including many English parks and arboreta, and we studied in the best herbaria as well. We soon realized that if every major woody plant species in the temperate zones was to be illustrated with two pages, this would require at least five thousand pages of illustrations. That is when the Atlas became a whole series of books. To date, almost three thousand line drawings have been done, and our photo archive now contains more than sixty thousand pictures from which the photo plates will be assembled. The scope of the project seems to invite collaboration. Are you working with scientists in other parts of the world? We have already received tremendous help from many institutions, colleagues, private persons, and even family members. Without their help and generosity, our present status could never have been reached. In fact, this project is being supported by all those people who maintain the herbaria and living collections we use for study and for documenting specimens. At first we worked with various Hungarian and Central European institutions and arboreta, and later with the excellent German, Dutch, Belgian, and English collections, such as Bedgebury Pinetum and Kew Gardens. And now we are particularly pleased to be able to work at the Arnold Arboretum, built by such greats as Sargent, Wilson, and Rehder. Today we are cooperating with numerous research fellows and scientists on a consulting basis, and we incorporate their comments and suggestions into our work. Your project is as much art as it is science. How do you see these two often conflicting elements fitting together in your work? Many of the illustrations merit. The illustrator and may have artistic photographer are limited by the accuracy requirements of science. The illustrations and photographs have to reflect the beauty of nature, but they do not have the same kind of freedom that art does. In the Atlas, the text and the pictures share the same pages; they transmit different information in complementary ways. We intend our work to be precise and correct in terms of science, but much of this information may be out-of-date after a few years, or decades. We believe the illustrations will retain their value long after some of the taxonomy has been revised. In the same way, you try to fuse taxonomic botany and practical horticulture. Is this not also difficult? We are botanists but feel we are part of both camps. While we \"grew up\" doing extensive work, we have spent far living collections than most botanists. Horticulture can produce a tremendous amount of information regarding plant morphology and morphological diversity, but it is not always appreciated by botanists who find the data provided confusing or unreliable. The botanists, on the other hand, have the more herbarium and field time in 23 The Dendrological Atlas team, from left: Istvdn Rdcz, Gyongyver Biro, and Zsolt Debreczy. The film for this photograph, along with many of those taken for the Dendrological Atlas project, was generously donated by ORWO Filmfabrik in Wolfen, Germany. Photo by P. Del Tredici. necessary tools and experience to interpret the data and keep track of the proper classification. project of this magnitude seems overwhelming because it assumes that you know about all species of trees and that you will live long enough to complete it. Do you ever have doubts about your ability to finish this work? I was thirty years old when I started this A Now it would be too late for me to start a project on this scale. For the past nineteen years I have been working extensively on vegetation mapping and preparation of the Atlas. During this period I have not published anything in the field of taxonomy and I am glad that I did not. Rather, I worked with numerous colleagues and traveled as much I could, devoting most of my time and energy to see- ing and understanding the problems of the whole temperate world dendroflora. As a continued on page 28 often told: \"You are too young to start working on a project like this!\" project and I was Big-leaf Linden (Large-leaved Lime) Tilia platyphyllos Scopoli (1772) T europaea LINNAEUS in part (1753), (1790) T officmarum CRANTZ m part (1762), T grandifoha EHRHART Corresponding plates Chinese French German *f-fS Tilleul a grandes femlles, Tilleut femelle Sommerhnde, Grossblattnge Ltnde Hungarian Italian Polish Russian Nagylevell hdrs Tight) nostrale, Tiglio d'estate, Tigho a foghe grandt Lipa ivielkohstna Anna KpynHoAHcTHav, Anna nAOCKOAHcTHax ( Lvpa Krupnohstnaya Lipa ploskolistnaya ) Spanish- Tilo, Tela, Ttllera (Arag.); Telo blanco (Burgos), Tell, Tey (Catal.), Tila (Serrama de Cuenca); T. de Holanda (Arg.) NATIVE TO Europe, Asia Minor, West-Asia VERTICAL RANGE 10 to 1 900 m CLIMATIC ZONE VIII-VI-VII, X(VI-V-IV) HARDINESS ZONE 4 ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE occasionally as timber, excellent bee-forage HORTICULTURAL VALUE among the Undens good specimen tree, the first flowering TREE to 40 m, CROWN oval, TRUNK often multi-stemmed, without swollen burrs; BARK smooth, gray when young with rows of lenticels, dark gray and deeply furrowed when old, main BRANCHES upright at first, later horizontally spreading, light gray to brownish-gray and smooth when young, dark gray with suberous lines of longitudinal rows by age, BRANCHLETS greenish to reddishbrown, sometimes red above, green below with dense or MORPHOLOGY straight, scattered, upright, straight, simple hairs, rarely glabrous; BUDS (4 mm) globose to subglobose with two-three outer scales, dark reddish-brown above and hairy with elate, straight, simple hairs; LEAVES (15-5 + [6-12] x [4-11] cm) typically orbicular-ovate, rarely oblongish or trilobate, abruptly acuminate at apex, cordate, obliquely cordate, sometimes truncate at base, sharply serrate; dull green and pubescent above (rarely, except on the principal glabrous), usually densely pubescent below with yellowish-white, straight, simple hairs, axillary tufts represented by dense, simple, straight, at first whitish, later grayish or yellowish-brown, non-tufted hairs, normally extended along the main ribs, PETIOLE (1 5-5 cm) normally pubescent, occasionally glabrous, INFLORESCENCE 3-7 flowered cyme with membranaceous, thinly veined, lanceolate BRACT (6-13 x 0.8-1.7 cm), usually obtuse at the end, more or less pubescent only along the venation above, glabrous below except for the midrib near the junction of the peduncle; FLOWERS 12-16 (20) mm in diameter, light yellow, of \"open type\"- leaves of the perianth spread 180* or more, SEPALS (4-6 veins, scattered mm) imbricate, somewhat stellate tomentose at, and near the apex, long hairy at their margin and inside, PETALS (6-8 x 2-3 mm) oblanceolate, exceeding the sepals, light yellow; STAMENS (60, 8-10 mm) exserted longer than petals; PISTIL (up to 12 mm) exserted, ovary subglobose, cordate in outline; FRUIT (8-10 x 6-8 mm) very variable in size, form and other features, typically 5 ribbed (rarely almost smooth and globose), thick shelled, densely tomentose or pubescent, SEED (3-4 x 2-3 mm) dark shiny brown. HABITAT: Tilm platyphyllos is a common European linden, distributed north to Scandinavia, south to Hispama, to the Appenin- and Balkan Peninsula, and extending east to Asia Minor and West Asia Preferring a humid climate, this linden is a constant component of the beech, hornbeam, peduncle and sessile oak forests of Western and Central This species is Europe (associating with Fagus sylvatwa, Carpznus betulus, Quercus robur, Q petraea etc). also one of the main components of the Central *d Leaf- bract- and fruit variability within Tilia platyphyllos . (Scale 40 % here) This is the way that morphological variation, with the necessary data, will be presented in the Atlas The big-leaf linden is a particularly variable species, normally, the interpretation of variation will require less space (A pencil drawing by Zs Debreczy) Europaean ravine forests where it usually grows on rocky, north facing slopes with Acer platanoides, A pseudoplatanus, Cornus mas, C. sangumea, Corylus avellana, Fraxmus excelszor and Staphylea pinnata In areas of low humidity and relatively little rainfall (less than 550 mm per year), T platyphyllos tends to colonize narrow valleys and other level depressions that collect water In dryer woodland areas such as the Turkey oak-sessile oak forests of southern C Europe, it tends to form a small multistemmed tree or subcanopy shrub appendix) from both wild and cultivation. Recent studies show that these variants and \"hybrids\" are simply forms of the some of which, after a careful selection, could have horticultural ment CULTIVATION In Europe, T platyphyllos is often planted m large parks or along avenues It performs best in areas with a humid, maritime climate This tree has been known to live to be 900 - 1,000 years old There are many old specimens growing m Europe, of which a famous one in Oldenburg, Germany exceeds 14 m in girth and is thought to have been planted around 950 This linden is an excellent lawn tree but not appropriate for use as street tree for it is not very resistant to pollution and is often attacked by apluds and sooty mold species, platyphyllos var Aurea [LOUDONl KIRCHNER, T grandifoha var aurantia HORT ) [cultivated since 1838] Form with branchlets and buds conspicuous in winter There are yellow numerous CULTIVARS: 'AUREA' (T clones under this name, one has normal habit but slow with relatively small leaves, which are truncate or slightly cordate at base with strikingly white tufts below, later becoming brownish growth 'BANGITA' [J WAGNER, 1931, Hungary, prop cv nov ] Tree of normal growth, with very small (1 + [4-5 5]xl 3 cm) leaves most of which are somewhat roundish oblong-ovate, minutely serrate but deeply trilobed on the end of the shoot, reminding a tiny 'Vitifoha' 3 leaf The inflorescence is a short (5 x 3 cm) cyme with small bract (1 + + 2 cm) and relatively large (0 1 2 cm) flowers It was found and has been cultivated at Eszterhaza (Fertod), W Hungary, in the property of ~ '- The distribution of Tiha I I platyphyllos Count Eszterhazy 'BROWNII'(=T p ssp Braunn ISIMONKM] K K SCHNEIDER ') VARIABILITY and RELATIONSHIPS: Although there is great variability within the species, T platyphyllos is easily recognized since it is the only linden with dense, simple hairs both on the branchlets and on the leaf surfaces It is also one of the six European Tiha species that have no stammodes in their flowers. Other distinguishing characteristics that separate this species from other European lindens are 1) its prominent tertiary venation (except for T. begontfolia), 2) its axillary hairs (whitish at first, yellowish later) are simple and perpendicular to the corresponding veins, while T cordata, T dasystyla and T europaea have tufts with tangled or curly hairs and in T begomfolm and T euchlora the hairs are perpendicular but tufted, 3) the fruit shell in T platyphyllos is very hard and ribbed while that of the other European species is thin or medium-thick shelled and less or non-ribbed Mainly on the basis of the exceptionally variable leaf, inflorescence, flower and fruit characteristics, over one hundred varieties and more than thirty reputed hybrids had been described during the first decades of the century (see Pyramidal tree with ascending branches and branchlets reachmg 5 m in height and 3 m in width at about 15 yrs The leaves are similar but somewhat smaller than those of the species 'COMPACTA' [known since about 1930] Slow-growing, bushy tree with globose, compact habit, reddish-brown hairy branchlets and smaller leaves (3 + 7x5 cm) The oldest known specimen was 2 m tall when 30 years old and 4 m 10 years later pyramidahs 'FASTIGIATA' (T platyphyllos f fastigiata REHDER, T grandifoha BE1SSNER) [known smce 1854] Pyramidal form of cuneate'FASTIGIATA LACINIATA' oval habit with ascending branches and branchlets and normal vigor, about 6 m broad at a height of 18 m The occurrence of Tiha platyphyllos on a dry, west facing basaltic slope within the climate-zone of the xerothermic Balkan-type oakwood of Mt. Koves-hegy in Pannonia (Transdanubia), Hungary, Lake Balaton area. Altitude ca 250 m, annual rainfall 680 mm, average temperature of the growing season 18C (The climate diagram given for Tapolca, within a 10 km distance of Mt Koves-hegy) ^J N*\"~B A ' I n ~ f ^_ I i' Hungarian silver linden (European silver linden) Tilia tomentosaMOENCH U785) \/B1 SE Europe, Asta Mmor, West-Asia VERTICAL RANGE up to 1 500 m CLIMATIC ZONES VI\/V-V, VII\/VI, X\/IV, HARDINESS ZONE 4 Descriphon with detailed distribution map: see p.... NATIVE TO ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE occasionally as nmber, local uses as handcrafts, excellent bee-forage HORTICULTURAL VALUE very good specimen tree (attractive winter habit with light gray bark, ornamental foliage, abundant bloom) FL Mid- to late July ' B Photo plate Specimen 90 yrs, height 22 m, stem diameters 20-50 cm; Tilia tomentosa moench 28 continued I from page 23 have a deeper understanding of result, the diversity of this flora and a more solid basis on which to make taxonomic judgments now treated in our study. Our selection of plants is based on scientific considerations rather than on merely horticultural criteria regarding the hardiness of certain woody plants. than I would have had earlier in my career. Undertaking a project like this does not necessarily mean that one knows everything about all kinds of trees. The value of this work, we believe, stands on its genuineness: while using others' work, the Atlas is intended to give our own summation of the temperate dendroflora. Are you describing any new species or varieties in the Atlas, or are you working primar- ily with preexisiting taxonomies? This work differs from those produced in the era of plant exploration during the early part of this century. Taxonomic revisions will be presented in the Atlas, but these will be new combinations rather than descriptions of new taxa. New treatments of selected groups will be published elsewhere. How do you determine what species to include and what to exclude in the Atlas? Many on the proposed list of woody plants you include in your project are not very hardy. What makes them part of your geoflora? We define the \"hardy dendroflora\" as the woody flora of the winter-cold areas of the world. The dominant part of this \"geoflora\" is growing in the Northern Hemisphere and is a remnant of the so-called Paleoarctic or ArctoTertiary flora. The species of this flora became established in their present locations during the cooler periods of the Tertiary Whom do you envision as the audience for your work? In what ways do you think that it will be an improvement upon existing works? In general, we believe that the book will be used by both professionals in botany, horticulture, and silviculture as well as by amateurs. Botanists will use the written keys and the illustrative discussion of the variability and relationships given for each species. Others may find more useful the visual keys, the morphological illustrations, or the accounts of the cultivars. We hope many people will be captivated by the beauty of the dendroflora. The work is intended to be an improvement in keys and in the discussion of the introduction of the woody plants. It will also be more consistent in its descriptions and more systematically illustrated than other works. Except for a few historical plates, all the illustrations are original. What do you finishing the see as the on project major hurdles schedule, time to or money? Time! If we had more enough money ... Of course funds are needed for the Atlas, particularly for field trips, which is the only way to speed up the accumulation of data and photographs. It is also crucial to build a working relationship with some institution outside of Europe, perhaps in North America, to house period. In a sense, they were preadapted to survive the severe cold of the glaciations long before they occurred. Though this flora is an extratropical one, some of its members extend to subtropical-tropical high mountains as a result of recent migrations, and are therefore duplicate specimens, our working archives, and our reference materials. This would make it possible to have our scientific documentation preserved in more than one place and would allow other scientists easier our access to our material. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25005","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070b76d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Taxonomic Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Recent A. Spongberg changes in two Arnold Arboretum introductions. ` name new volumes in the continuing Flora of China series (Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, Volumes 24 and 72) appeared in 1988; these contain treatments, respectively, of the Aristolochiaceae and Caprifoliaceae as they occur in the Chinese flora. Consequently, two studies from these volumes are now at hand that treat two plants recently featured in articles published in Arnoldia. And in both of these instances, changes in taxonomic interpretation by Chinese botanists require changes in nomenclature. This brief note is intended to alert readers of Arnoldia to these changes in the hope that the old names can be replaced before they become too entrenched in our memories as well as in the botanical and horticultural literature. Two Now, after a careful comparison of materials reputedly representing both species, Professor Jia-qi Hu has determined that only one species can be defined, and consequently the name Heptacodium miconioides Rehder is the correct one for the solitary, highly ornamental shrub comprising this genus. Asarum splendens The second change of nomenclature concerns the identity and correct name of an Asarum introduced into cultivation in the West by Richard A. Howard, former director of the Arnold Arboretum. When visiting in China in 1978, Dr. Howard was given a living plant of an undescribed species of Asarum but was told that it represented Asarum magnificum, Heptacodium miconioides The first change of name concerns the socalled seven-son flower, featured in an article by Gary Koller in the Fall, 1986, issue of Arnoldia. In his article Koller referred to this species that was shortly thereafter described by two Chinese botanists, C. Y. Cheng and C. S. Yang, in the Journal of the Arnold a as new Arboretum in 1983. In the same article these authors also described Asarum chingcheng- plant Heptacodium jasminoides Airy Shaw, introduced into cultivation in the United States by the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition. Koller mentioned that the genus Heptacodium had been established by Alfred Rehder in 1916 when that Arnold as Arboretum taxonomist described Heptacodium miconioides Rehder, based on a collection made by E. H. Wilson early in this century. In 1952, thirty-six years after Rehder established the genus, the British botanist H. K. Airy Shaw described a second species, Heptacodium jasminoides. species closely resembling Asarum magni ficum in its leaf morphology but decidedly different in its floral structure. Once in cultivation, Dr. Howard's asarum was propagated and widely appreciated for its interesting mottled leaves. Details of its introduction, its history in cultivation, and its attributes as an ornamental plant were outlined in another article by Gary Koller that appeared in the Summer, 1989, issue of ense, a Arnoldia. In that article, Koller referred to the plant as the magnificent ginger, Asarum magni ficum. However, recently spotting a flowering 30 it Asarum splendens. Illustration from the was labeled A. chingchengense. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1985, volume 64, page 582, where 31 Asarum magmficum. Illustration from the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1985, volume 64, page 594. 32 T I specimen of this plant at a Philadelphia flower show, Barry Yinger, a keen student of Asiatic asarums, questioned the identity of the plant rum and suggested that it actually represented Asasplendens, a plant originally described in as a 1982 by a Japanese botanist, Fumio Maekawa, species of the related genus Heterotropa. remains to be introduced into North America and European gardens. The Arnold Arboretum records pertaining to both Heptacodium miconioides and Asarum splendens have been corrected to reflect these new names, and we hope that other growers will correct theirs as well. knowledge, Acting on this tip, we consulted the updated of Asarum presented by Cheng and in the Flora of China, and compared Yang photographs of the flowers of the Arboretum asarum to all the others. Through these comparisons it became apparent that the asarum introduced by Dr. Howard was not Asarum magnificum. From the articles published by Cheng and Yang, it became evident that our plant corresponded to Asarum chingchengense, and the photographs of the Arboretum plant matched those of Heterotropa splendens published by Maekawa. But in the Chinese Flora, Asarum chingchengense was reduced to the synonymy of Asarum splendens (Maekawa) Cheng & Yang, which in turn was simultaneously transferred from the genus Heterotropa to Asarum. Consequently, in accord with Cheng and Yang's treatment, the plant introduced into cultivation into the West by Dr. Howard is correctly known as Asarum splendens if it is placed in the genus treatment References Cheng, C. Y. and C. S. Yang. 1983. A synopsis of the Chinese species of Asarum (Aristolochiaceae). Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 64: 565-597. Cheng, C. Y. and C. S. Yang. 1988. Asarum, in Flora Reipublicae Popularis Simcae, Vol. 24. Beijing, Science Press, pp. 161-196. Hu, J. Q. 1988. Heptacodium, in Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae, Vol. 72. Beijing, Science Press, pp. 108-110. Koller, G. L. 1986. Seven-son flower from Zhejiang: Introducing the versatile ornamental shrub Heptacodium jasminoides Any Shaw. Arnoldia 46(4): 2-13. Koller, G 41-43. L 1989 The magnificent ginger Arnoldia 49(3): Maekawa, F. 1982. A new Heterotropa from Mt. Omei, China. Journal of Japanese Botany 57: 261-263. PI. 14. Asarum and not maintained in the genus Heterotropa. Asarum magnificum, to our Stephen Spongberg Arnold Arboretum. is Horticultural Taxonomist at the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25004","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070b728.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Flt()1B1THEA.tf..NOLbiA.R-BOlt...ET..U<M NEWS The main reason that the Arnold Arboretum look as good as it does is because of the work of the Grounds Crew, pictured here, from the left: Patrick Willoughby, Superintendent of Grounds, Maurice Sheehan, Jim Nickerson, Mark Walkama, John Olmsted, Bruce Munch, Jim Papargiris, Michael Gormley, Bob Famiglietti, and Luis Colon. Missing from the picture are David Moran and Ken Clarke. Photo by P. Del Tredici. Botanic Garden Meeting in Seattle This June, six staff members of the Arnold Arboretum took part in the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta annual meeting hosted by the Center for Urban Horticulture at the University of Washington in Seattle. Richard Schulhof gave a hands-on demonstration of the Arnold computer mapping and display system and its integration with the Arboretum's plant inventory through BG Base. This mapinstitutional considerations in developing a computer mapping system. The presentations were part of a sold-out Gardens.\" Also attending meeting were Arboretum Director Bob Cook and Tour Coordinator Jim Gorman. The four-day meeting brought together nearly five hundred botanic garden professionals from North American public gardens. In addition to at-tending a varied schedule of workshops and conferences dealing with all aspects of botanic garden operations, the participants visited major gardens in the Seattle area and explored the gardens and nurseries of the Pacific Northwest. Next year's meetings will be in Minnesota. pre-conference workshop on computer developments for botanic gardens. Gary Koller and Richard Schulhof spoke in the session \"Plant Pot- pourri,\" where they presented Sasa veitchii, Asarum splendens (formerly Asarum magnificum), and Rubus lasiostylus var. hubiensis. Nan Sinton, who serves on the Professional Staff Training and Development Committee, led off the \"Education Marketplace\" meeting with a ping application was recently developed with the support of an Institute of Museum Services grant. Jennifer Quigley led a discussion of presentation on \"Building New Audiences for Botanic 1 The LEAP Program by Dr. Robert Cook While I was director of Cornell Plantations, the National Science Foundation awarded us a grant to create an elementary science curriculum using plants as a friendly medium to teach children basic concepts in biology. Called LEAP (LEarning About Plants) this K through 6, hands-on curriculum is currently being successfully employed in the Ithaca, New York school district. Key to this success has been the training of teachers in a new pedagogical philosophy upon which the lessons are built. In 1991 the Arnold Arboretum, with seed money provided by a generous gift from the Stratford Foundation, will initiate a program of teacher training to bring this curriculum and its philosophy to the Boston area. mind, even at the earliest comes construct more accurate conceptions. ages, with many misconceptions Why should the Arnold Arboretum start training about the way the world teachers? First, we already works. Children will cling teto their personal naciously provide assistance to many world view despite the efforts schools through the excellent work of Diane Syverson in of teachers because these misconceptions explain things our Children's Program. LEAP will simply be an from the child's perspective. Lessons in school are superfiexpansion to professionalize cially learned only to achieve our efforts. In addition, there good test scores, and miscon- is a national crisis in science education. Teachers are ceptions persist. Only when without the means to provide the child confronts the contradictions between his or her own explanation and the actual way something works science instruction, and we have a moral responsibility to address this problem with our considerable resources and experience. We are, after all, an organization that has always been dedicated to to the classroom meaningful, long-term learning occur. Thus teachers, to be truly effective, must begin with an understanding of the diversity of misconcepcan professional training. Finally, I suppose, this director of the Arnold Arboretum is at heart a teacher himself, and he believes in extending a hand to professional colleagues in a time of great need. tions in the minds of children. LEAP, when combined with LEAP is unique because it is based on our current understanding of the way children learn. The young professional training, can equip teachers with classroom strategies designed to help children confront their misconceptions and successfully Dr. Robert Cook (third from left) shown with Barbara Bush and a group of directors of other Massachusetts institutions that received grants from the Institute of Museum Services in Washington, D.C. The Arnold Arboretum was awarded a $75,000 planning grant. ENDANGERED PLANTS EXHIBITION tum offers Original artwork portraying endangered plants was selected in cooperation with the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) from artists in the Boston area. The works may be viewed daily in the Hunnewell Visitor's Center from 10 am to 4 pm through October 20th. THE HERB GARDEN AT THE CASE ESTATES a rich cornucopia of outstanding programs to fit a wide range of interests. Here are some highlights of the Fall season: Dr. Peter Shaw Ashton, professor of Dendrology at Harvard University, and former Director of the Arnold Arboretum, has come back recently from meetings in Southeast Asia, where he worked with an international group of concerned social scientists and biologists to for the Mixed Border\"Russell lupines, Simons-Jeune phlox, and Frank Bishop delphinium hybrids, as well as shrub roses and tree peonies, in two all-day sessions beginning at 9:30 a.m. on Sunday, October 21 or on Monday, October 22 at the Dana Greenhouse. Participants will get hands-on experience propagating perennials and will get to keep the results of their efforts. Dr. plan long-term management of the tropical forest. \"Report from the Rain Forest,\" his slide-lecture at 2 p.m. on Sunday, November 25, at the Hunnewell Visitor Center, will bring up-to-the-minute details of this unprecedented multinational effort to save a John Einset of Eni- May of this year, The New England Unit of the Herb Society of America, in coopIn eration with the Arnold Arboretum, created a small display garden near the front steps of the Schoolhouse at the Case Estates. The purpose of the garden is to increase visitors' knowledge of herbs and to introduce the delights of growing and using them. More than twenty-two varieties of fragrant and medicinal plants are attractively arranged with stepping stones, around an ornamental bee hive. Visitors are invited to enjoy the remarkable variety of leaf colors, shapes, textures, and fragrances in the global resource. it- Three propagation seminars attest to the popularity of this activity in Arboretum circles. Jack Alexander, the Arboretum's Chief Plant Propagator, will run an all-day session starting at 9:30 a.m. on Saturday, October 20, at the Dana Greenhouse on \"Rare and mont, America, Inc., and former staff member at the Arnold Arboretum, will explore the latest developments in plant tissue culture at an all-day seminar to be held from 9:30 - 4:00 p.m. on Saturday, November 3 at the Hunnewell Visitor Center. He will discuss methods and equipment for clonal multiplication of plant material in \"The Latest in Micropropagation Technology and Research.\" **> In an entirely different vein, Ruthanne Rogers, Hard-to-Propagate Woody Plants.\" In this seminarworkshop horticultural professionals and advanced amateurs will learn specialized propagation techniques, take part in discussions, and collect on the Arnold Arboretum grounds. garden historian and president of the New England Garden History Society, will present a slide-lecture on the development of the designed American landscape, from the native American garden through 20th century. \"American Gardens: A Proud garden. FALL BOUNTY AT THE ARBORETUM From a first-hand report on progress in developing a History\" will be offered on Wednesday, November 14, from 7:00-8:00 p.m. at the Hunnewell Visitor Center. sustained-management strategy for the tropical rain forest to illustrated lectures on American garden history, through hands-on propagation workshops, the Arbore- David Smith, former Director of Horticulture at White Flower Farm in Litchfield, Connecticut, will give a lecture\/demonstration workshop on \"Classic Plants For further information on these and other programs contact the Education Registrar at the Arnold Arboretum. mmkm RECYCLING CONFERENCE On Saturday, November BOOKSTORE OFFERINGS ~ ' 10,1990 at the University of Massachusetts, Boston Harbor Campus, the Massachusetts Audubon Society is The Arboretum Bookstore will celebrate the Fall season with the following new publications : sponsoring a conference on RECYCLING FUTURES, designed to give participants hands-on ways to respond to the regional, economic, and environmental aspects of recycling. With an emphasis on the economics and environmental values of recycling at home and in the workplace, the program will address a variety of topics through workshops with visual presentations and A Reunion ofTrees: The Discovery ofExotic Plants and Their Introduction into North American and European Landscapes by Stephen A. Spongberg. Published at $35.00, special member's price: $27.50 until 12\/30\/90. Botany for Gardeners : An Introduction and Guide by Capon $29.95 The Healing Forest: Medicinal and Toxic Plants of the Northwest Amazonia by Richard Evans Schultes and Robert F. Raffauf: $59.95 Brian MEMBERS' SPECIAL LECTURE AND RECEPTION A Reunion ofTrees, Thursday, October 25, 7:00 PM. Dr. Stephen Spongberg, Horticultural ~ guest speakers. For more information contact: Conference Coordinator; South Great Road; Mass. Audubon Society; Lincoln, MA 01773 I ` Stop by the store 10 am to 4 pm daily or call (617) 524-5383 for mail order information. ILML I Ilk& . \" ~, I \" 'A I r. ~ 2022m A JjS .s* Ginkgo biloba growing on Tian Mu Shan in eastern China Arnoldia editor Peter Del Tredici attended an international conference on \"The Tree\" (L 'Arbre ) in Montpellier, France during the week of September 10-15. He was joined by participants from Europe, Africa, the Soviet Union, Asia and North America. Peter presented a paper on \"The Architecture of Ginkgo biloba \"which included some of the results of the recent research in eastern China. As well as being editor of Arnoldia, he is working toward his PhD in Biology at Boston University, and the ginkgo is the subject of his dissertation. I I I I ~ '\", ~ ~ I I I *\/i. Jj& JS Taxonomist for the Arnold Arboretum and author of this soon to be published book about plant exploration and introduction (see excerpt this issue) will discuss the creation of his book and describe the two other forthcoming volumes of this guidebook series by librarian Sheila Connor and curatorial associate Ida Hay. Following the brief lecture, members are invited to join Director Dr. Robert Cook and other staff for wine and cheese while Dr. Spongberg signs copies of his book, available to members at a special discount price. ~ I 1 1 1 1 I I ~ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23367","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270816e.jpg","title":"1990-50-3","volume":50,"issue_number":3,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Pollination Drop' Time at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25003","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070b36f.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Takaso, Tokushiro","article_content":"\"Pollination Drop\" Time Tokushiro Takaso Come at the Arnold Arboretum spring, the hidden pollination processes of conifers can be seen with a hand lens. Pollination is a critical event in the life of seed Thxonomic Distribution of Pollination plants. Observant gardeners tend to realize that conifer pollen, unlike that of most garden flowers visited by insects, is dispersed by wind. They are generally unaware, however, of the array of processes that relate to the capture of conifer pollen by the ovules-the future seeds. In the Arnold Arboretum's rich collection of conifers, pollen capture generally occurs in spring. These events are subtle and unobtrusive and can scarcely compete with the simultaneous extravagance of azalea and lilac blossoms. However, with a little patience-and the use of a hand lens-the viewer can observe a process that turns out to be both beautiful and mysterious. Gymnosperms, the group of seed plants to which conifers belong, are distinguished by possessing exposed (or \"naked\") ovules at the time of pollination. The apex of the conifer ovule (the micropyle) receives the pollen directly, usually by means of a drop of fluid Drops Conifers that are known to produce a pollidrop include all the species that have been studied in the families Cephalotaxaceae, Cupressaceae, Taxaceae, and Taxodiaceae. In the Pinaceae, only the genera Picea and Pinus nation produce a pollination drop (Abies, Cedrus, Larix, Pseudotsuga, and Tsuga do not). These genera have a range of ovular morphology and pollen-engulfing mechanisms that appear to be more specialized than the pollination drop and that are therefore thought to be derived, in evolutionary terms, from the drop system. Since non-coniferous gymnosperms like the (pollination drop). Angiosperms, or flowering plants, on the other hand, retain their ovules within a closed structure (the carpel), and the process of pollination does not involve a pollination drop. Although the pollination-drop phenomenon is easily observed, remarkably few detailed studies have ever been made of it. A large living collection of conifers, such as that of the Arnold Arboretum, offers the ideal opportunity to obtain basic information with relatively simple tools. cycads, Ginkgo, and Ephedra possess a pollination drop, it is usually assumed that this general mechanism is ancestral. There is even fossil evidence for the existence of a pollination drop (Rothwell,1977). Recently, Professor P. B. Tomlinson of Harvard University has determined that most of the Podocarpaceae in the South Pacific possess a pollination drop associated with unusual pollen-retaining features. Other Southern Hemisphere conifers, namely Agathis and Araucaria (Araucariaceae), lack pollination drops and have developed unusual mechanisms involving long pollen tubes. Pollination Drops In most conifers native to temperate latitudes, pollen release in spring is a clear indication Observing 3 conifers of western North America and discovered that individual ovules on the same tree can exhibit the drop for varying lengths of time, two to four days in Pinus contorta (Owens et al., 1981) or one to two weeks in Pinus monticola (Owens and Molder, 1977). Anyone having access to native or cultivated conifers can easily see the pollination drop. The chief problem is the logistical one of simply being able to locate ovulate cones, given that in large trees they are generally located only on the upper branches of the tree. On most cultivated trees, however, one can usually find a low-hanging branch with a few accessible cones. Pollination drops in the Cupressaceae are the easiest to observe, in particular those of the shrubby junipers. At pollination time, the ovulate cones are small and inconspicuous, but once located, they are seen to be attractive and often colored (either pink, yellowish, or green), and the drop can be spotted on the tip of the micropyle. If the drop is not visible on the tree, a cut branch kept in water and enclosed in a plastic bag will Juniperus communis. Each cone produces three ovules and three droplets, one of which was removed for this picture. The droplets remain separate because the integument orifice of each ovule has an oblique on en ta tion. usually produce drops in a warm room. One needs to make repeated observations to date the event in ent a given species because the time period varies among individuals and at differlatitudes and altitudes. that ovules are receptive. Conspicuous exceptions to this rule are Cedrus, which sheds its pollen in fall, and Calocedrus, which sheds its pollen in the winter. Table 1 lists the times when drops have been observed in various conifers in the Arnold Arboretum, as well as additional information about drops in natural habitats elsewhere in Massachusetts and Canada. While most of the data in Table 1 was collected during daylight hours, it is known that secretion of the drop occurs at night in most Pinus species. It seems likely that nighttime initiation of the drop is a general phenomenon, while its persistence into the day is variable. Dr. John Owen at the University of Victoria in British Columbia has studied the Exudation and Pollen Capture An ovule consists of a nucellus enclosed by its coat or integument. Above the level of the nucellus, the integument forms a narrow passage, the micropyle, which leads to a cavity surrounding the nucellar apex, the pollen chamber. Subsequent events that relate to fertilization occur within the nucellus and eventually result in the formation of an embryo. The integument becomes the seed coat as development proceeds, but these events all occur after pollination. At the time of pollination, the ovule takes the form of a vase with a short neck, the mouth of the vase being the opening of the micropyle. This mouth may be either bi-lobed or, more often, irregularly lobed. Secretion of the pollination drop is thought to be the result 4 of changes in cells at the apical part of the nucellus (Owens and Molder, 1980; Owens et al., 1981). Once produced, the fluid passes up the micropyle and makes a round droplet at its mouth. Examples of secreted drops are shown in the accompanying photographs. If the integument has two apical lobes or arms, as in Picea and Pinus, the fluid may simply form a film between them, held by surface tension. In principle, wind-borne pollen has to fall directly on the pollen drop to be available for fertilization. Since this is a very small target, it is not surprising that a variety of mechanisms have been developed to make the process more efficient. Karl Niklas at Cor- nell University has evidence from windtunnel experiments that the aerodynamic design of the conifer cone produces wind eddies that cause pollen to fall out of the air currents (Niklas,' 1985; Niklas and Pau U, 1982). These physical mechanisms, however, do no than deposit pollen in the general vicinity of the ovule. Pinus has apparently elaborated the mechanism of pollen capture by two further steps. First, the integument arms and surface of the ovule secrete microdroplets, only visible at high magnification, which can cause pollen to stick to the surfaces that produce them (Owens et al., 1981). Second, more , Table 1. Pollination Drop Observation Times , I TAXON LOCATION DATE Cupressaceae Chamaecyparis obtusa C. pisifera C. thyoides Juniperus chinensis * Arnold Arboretum Arnold Arboretum Gardner, Mass. Mass. Arnold Arboretum f. communis f. squamata J. virginiana * * Petersham, Concord, Arnold Arboretum Mass. Thuja occidentalis T. plicata Arnold Arboretum Arnold Arboretum 20 April, 5 May, 1989 26 April 1989 26 April 1989 3 April 1989 28 May 1989 20 April, 5 May, 1989 26 April 1989 3 April 1989 3 April 1989 Pinaceae Picea sitchensis*1 Pinus contorta *2 Taxaceae Sooke, B.C., Canada Victoria, B.C., Canada Arnold Arboretum late April 1978 May 4-20, 1980 9 Tbneya nucifera Taxodiaceae June 1989 Cryptomeria japonica Taxodium distichum Arnold Arboretum Arnold Arboretum 26 20 April April 1989 1989 ' , * Natural populations;Owens and Molder (1980);2 Owens, et al. (1981) 5 Chamaecyparis thyoides (White Cedar), scanning electron micrograph of young cone (x 240), collected April 20, 1989, at Cedar Swamp, Gardner, Massachusetts. The flask-shaped structures are ovules (young seeds) shortly before the time of pollination. Dissection and photography by Marcheterre Fluet. 6 Taxodium distichum. Two ovules develop in the axil of each fertile bract. Arrow points to the droplet. In most conifers, after pollen is drawn into the micropyle, the integumentary arms, if present, collapse, and the micropyle itself closes by cell enlargement and division. The pollen chamber is thus sealed off, and pollen germinates within the closed cavity. Whether the mechanism of pollen drop absorption Juniperus virginiana. Numerous pollination droplets terminate the female cones. the normal pollination drop secreted by the nucellar apex fills up the entire micropylar region and picks up any pollen adhering to the microdroplets. Withdrawal of the pollen drop is biological or physical remains unclear and only a few chemical analyses of drops have been made. The pollination drop of Pinus nigra contains three sugars-glucose, by drying or even active absorption pulls adhering pollen down the micropylar tube and into the pollen chamber. Repetition of secretion and absorption can occur in unpollinated ovules in Pinus, but probably not in Picea (Owens and Molder, 1980). In an experiment carried out in 1935, Doyle and O'Leary artificially added pollen to one of the two ovules of each bract of a pine cone. Where pollen was added, the drop was absorbed within five or ten minutes, while the fluid of an unpollinated ovule remained unchanged. The authors concluded that the presence of pollen is the stimulus for halting the secretion of the pollen drop. fructose, sucrose (McWilliam, 1958). In Taxus baccata, in addition to the same sugars, it contains phosphates, amino acids, peptide, and organic acids (Ziegler, 1959). A more recent study by Seridi and Chesnoy (1988) added an unidentified oligosaccharide that was consistently present in Cephalotaxus, Taxus, and Thuja. Additional amino acids and galacturonic acid are also present. Fructose seems to be the most abundant sugar, perhaps as a source of nutrition for the germinating pollen. More Work Is Needed between observations carried out in the field versus the laboratory. Ideally the subject should be examined in cones on attached branches, and an arboretum collection with Many uncertainties remain in our knowledge of pollination mechanisms in conifers. Doyle and O'Leary (1935) mention the differences 7 References Doyle, J. 1945. Developmental lines in pollination mechanism in the Comferales. Sci. Proc. Roy. Dublm Soc. 24: 43-62. 1935. Pollination in Pmus Sci. 21: 181-190. Doyle, J., and M. O'Leary. Proc. Roy. Dublin Soc. McWilliam,J. R. 1958. The role of the micropyle m the pollination of Pinus. Bot. Gaz. 120: 109-117. Niklas, K. J. Niklas, K. 1985. The aerodynamics of wind pollination. Bot. Rev. 51: 328-386. J., and K. T. Pau U. 1982. Pollination and airflow patterns around conifer ovulate cones. Science 217: 442-444. Owens, J. N., and M. Molder. 1977. Seed-cone differentiation and sexual pine reproduction m western white (Pmus monticola). Can J. Bot. 55: 2574-2590. Owens, J. N., and M. Molder, 1980. Sexual reproduction of Sitka spruce 58: 886-901. (Picea sitchensis). Can. \/. Bot. Torreya nucifera. The enclosed ovule droplet. of species is exuding a Owens, J. N., S. J. Simpson, and M. Molder. 1981. Sexual reproduction of Pmus contorta. I. Pollen development, the pollination mechanism, and early ovule development Can. J Bot. 59: 1828-1843. some diversity can facilitate this Rothwell, work. Pollination drops have great practical since they can be one of the facimportance tors that limit commercial seed production. Because seed supply often sets a limit to reforestation programs, pollination-drop research in British Columbia has been supported by the Canadian Forestry Service. At the same time, the academic biologist needs to know the evolutionary pathways by which alternative pollination mechanisms have been G. W. 1977. Evidence for a pollination-drop mechanism in Paleozoic ptendosperms. Science 198: 1251-1252. Sendi, R., and L. Chesnoy. 1988 Secretion and composition of the pollination drop in the Cephalotaxus drupacea (Gymnosperm, Cephalotaxeae), in Sexual Reproduction in Higher Plants, M. Cresti, P. Gori, and E. Pacini, eds. Berlin: pp. 345-350. Sprmger-Verlag, Singh, H. 1978. Embryology of Gymnosperms. Berlin: Zusammensetzung des und den Mechamsmus Geburder Bornstraeger. produced. Spring is lilac time at the Arnold Arboretum, and the period when public visitation is at its peak. Those visitors who stray from the well-trodden paths will find their daring rewarded among the conifers. The pollination drop, when viewed with a hand lens, provides a Ziegler, H. 1959. Uber die Bestaubungstrophens seiner Sekretion. Planta 52: 587-599. window into a seldom seen world where beauty and biology come together in harmony. a post-doctoral fellow at the Harvard Forest Petersham, Massachusetts. The research described in this article was supported with funds from a Putnam Fellowship awarded by the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Takaso is in "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Fascination with Dogwoods","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24998","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070a76f.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wakefield, Mary M. B.","article_content":"Polly Wakefield among her oldest kousa dogwoods, nearly thirty feet tall, planted along the path Photo by Peter Del Tiedici. down to the terraces. A Fascination with Mary M. B. Dogwoods Wakefield on Observations thirty-four years of growing Cornus kousa. always remember the day that my mother exclaimed: \"What are we going to do? Hector wants to remove the old granite steps from the path down the terraces. He says the horses can't see them in the tall grass and they'll stumble over them when dragging the mowing machine.\" At that time, over thirty years ago, the steps were all that was left to mark the path through the eighteenth-century cherry orchard after the last two trees had died. What a pity, I thought, to remove the last remaining vestiges of what had once been such an important feature of the place. After thinking it over, we decided to experiment. Why not try planting out some of the young dogwood trees that I had raised from seed collected during plant propagation classes at the Arnold Arboretum? By planting them at either end of each group of stepsthey were already tall enough to be seen above the hay-they might solve Hector's problem, and beautify the place at the same time. Thus began a project that eventually extended the length and breadth of each terrace and on into the fields beyond. It continues to this day. This all started in 1956 when I began collecting dogwood seed during a class in plant propagation at the Arnold Arboretum taught by Roger Coggeshall. Near the summit of Bussey Hill was a group of dogwoods, and members of the class were given their choice as to which trees to collect from. I chose the fruit of one particular Cornus kousa because it was much larger than that of those growing I will nearby. It was a round-headed tree, and it was growing near two other kousas, by which it may have been pollinated. number of years, I continued to take plant propagation course and each I collected from the same three trees, and year all the kousa dogwoods that I planted over the next thirty-four years-and I now have more than six hundred of them spread over several acres-are descended from these particular Arboretum specimens. The large-fruited kousa was No. 79-41-B, a grafted plant received by the Arnold Arboretum from Clarence Lewis of Skylands Farm, For a the same Sloatsburg, New York, on January 11, 1941. Its neighbors were Nos. 18386-A and -B, siblings grown from seed sent by A. Coffin of Locust Valley, New York, in 1923. The A plant had an interesting and distinctive bark, exfoliating to expose patches of light gray. It was more upright in habit than its sibling, which was round-headed and bushy. two As all my trees are the descendants of the describe the specimens growing at the Arnold Arboretum, this article can only attempt to variation that we have found in over thirtyfour years of selection and experimentation. Kousa dogwoods derived from other seed sources, or from the wild, would probably manifest variation in different characteristics. An Excellent Ornamental How fortunate for me that it was Cornus kousa seedlings that were available when we needed trees to demarcate the path. I have 10 before falling off in July. Unlike the native Cornus florida, the later kousa bracts are handsomely set off with a foil of green leaves. I have seen many interesting variations on this \"normal\" pattern: on some plants, the bracts never entirely whiten but become suffused with green instead. They are probably photosynthetic and often remain in place until the fruits ripen in October. On other plants, the aging bracts may develop an attractive pink tinge before they drop, or the bracts may develop irregular pink splotches, making exceptionally large fruits of Cornus kousa (AA #79-41-B), 3.5 cm in diameter (1.4 in). Seeds collected from this plant in 1956 were the source of Polly Wakefield's first kousa dogwoods. Photo by I. Racz and Z. Debreczy. The found them one of the most outstanding of all the flowering trees that will thrive in the changeable New England climate. Ornamental at every season of the year, these seedlings never cease to astonish me with their vigor, their hardiness, and, most particularly, their individuality. produces flowers some two three weeks later than Cornus florida. It is not until early June, when the weather has warmed up and after its leaves have expanded fully, that the kousa flower buds swell to their full size. By planting both species together, the homeowner can extend the dogwood season by three to four weeks. With both of these dogwoods, the structure most people refer to as a flower is not really a flower. In the words of E. H. Wilson, the true flowers are \"an insignificant crowded mass subtended by four, creamy white bracts, ovate and pointed and overlapping at the base, forming a cross some 3 to 4 inches in diameter:' At first the leaflike flower bracts are light Cornus kousa to them look like someone spilled paint on them. The intensity and duration of this color seem to be dependent upon the weather. The size and shape of the bracts are also extremely variable. On my trees the flower clusters, including bracts, have varied in length from 1.5 to 6.5 inches. The amount of overlap among the bracts is also variable. In some, the four bracts are completely distinct from one another, producing a star-shaped effect, while in others, the bracts are so broadly overlapping that the flowers appear square. The bracts may be evenly placed around the central flower or they may be arranged eccentrically, with three of them close together and one of them by itself. On some individuals, the flower bracts droop as they age, causing the central flowers to appear elevated, while on others, the bracts curl green but, as color, and they enlarge, they turn a cream then gradually whiten with age, Close-up of the true flowers of Cornus kousa subtended by showy bracts. Photo from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. 11 upward to produce a pronounced cup-shaped effect. A few of my trees produce \"double\" flowers with two or more extra bracts, and occasionally, on some trees, one or all of the bracts are fused together to create a very distinctive effect. Several times one of my trees produced flowers in clusters of threes. Unfortunately these unusual characters did not manifest themselves annually, and therefore cannot be considered stable traits. But with a seedling there is always hope-for that is the sport of seed propagation. The fruit of the native American dogwood, C. florida, is a single flesh-encased seed that appeals to birds, chipmunks, squirrels and raccoons. The fruit of the kousa dogwood is fleshy and strawberry-like, and the individual components are fused together into a single entity called a syncarp. According to a recent report by Dr. Richard Eyde, the fruit is particularly attractive to the macaque monkeys, native to Asia, who eagerly consume them, and in the process, disseminate the seeds. When the fruits first develop, the stalk that carries them is upright, but as they develop, they become heavier and more pendulous. When fully mature they dangle from the branch tips like Christmas tree ornaments. In New England, the fruits hang on the trees for several weeks once they are mature. On most trees, the fruits develop from green to yellow to orange to bright red at different rates of speed, so all the colors may be on one tree simultaneously! Normally the fruits are 1.5 to 2.5 centimeters (.5 to 1 inch) across, but sometimes they can reach 3.5 centimers (1.5 inches). The fruits, while somewhat gritty in texture, are edible with a delicate honeydew melon flavor that cries out for an inventive gourmet cook. growth habit varies greatly from plant to plant. A tree may have a strong central leader with weak laterals, to give an upright, essentially vertical, tree; or it can have multiple trunks that eventually produce a fan-shaped tree as the weight of snow and ice spreads the branches apart. Another variation in the kousa dogwood's general habit is the way in which it carries its flowers. They may be borne singly on short horizontal branches, or they may appear in lines of five to eleven flowers along the \"top\" of the branches, creating the impression of being laden with snow. One particularly important distinction in this regard is whether or not the tree can be classed as an \"upstairs\" or a \"downstairs\" tree. As I define it, an upstairs tree, because it holds its flowers along the upper side of its branches, Growth Habit Experts assure us that kousa dogwoods display the same horizontal branching habit as Cornus florida, but my experience suggests that this is not always the case. The only generalization that seems to hold is that The exfoliating bark of a twenty-year-old specimen of Comus kousa. Photo by Peter Del Tcedici. 12 Four different plants of Comus kousa showing variation in the arrangement, shape, and size of the showy bracts. Photos from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. 13 14 Polly Wakefield in her garden. Photo by Peter Del Tredici. is best viewed from above. A downstairs tree, the other hand, produces flowers that are somewhat turned down and is best viewed from ground level. No matter what the differences in flowers, fruit, or growth habit, all kousa dogwoods have beautiful exfoliating bark and leaves that turn a deep, rich wine-red color in the fall. In my garden, only the leaves of the native oaks and the Norway maples persist longer than those of the kousas. on ponds or streams where continually available. In times of extreme drought, they appreciate being on the fringes of woods with nurse trees to mitigate the direct rays of the sun. They especially resent long periods of full sunlight during dry weather. Not that they wont tolerate the heat near the banks of moisture is at such times, but their leaves are apt to curl 'Iirials and Tribulations In nature, both C. florida and C. kousa are understory trees, growing best in the shade of much larger deciduous trees. They prefer a light, well-drained soil, and seem to prosper ' temporarily and look less attractive. The first planting of dogwoods-on the terraces where cherry trees had thrived-was spaced rather closely together to discourage the grass growing beneath them, for back then mowing grass was a real nuisance. Today moss, forget-me-nots, violets, European ginger, lilies-of-the-valley, and toadflax have become established, eliminating the need for mowing. 15 spacing, the trees have shed most of their lower branches and exposed their handsome trunks. It is difficult to appreciate the subtle individuality of each plant, but en masse they create a lovely \"dog wood' One summer the town decreed that no water could be used for ornamental plants except by bucket-after a brief effort at compliance, I decided to dig my own well! One winter the mice wreaked havoc by nibbling the bark just above the snowline; after that, each tree was encircled with a protective chicken wire or plastic wrap. Over the years, I have tried a variety of mulches but have found none as satisfactory as old-fashioned wood chips. A thick layer of them not only reduces the competition from weeds but also acts to conserve moisture. Perhaps most important, the mulch serves to protect trees from trunk damage by power mowers and string trimmers. 1987 and 1988 were drought years in New England, and I was faced with the choice of losing recently transplanted kousas from lack of water or irrigating them with our overhead irrigation system. I decided to use our system liberally even though this sometimes meant running it right through the night. This practice unwittingly created conditions that were favorable to the spread of the recently described dogwood anthracnose fungus. [See article p. 16.] Fortunately, I found it on only a few trees and there has been no further sign of the disease on any of the kousas since we Because of the close enabling the purchaser to select an \"upstairs\" \"downstairs\" tree, one with large or small fruits, or one with broadly overlapping bracts or bracts that scarcely touch. Toward this end, my goal continues to be to select and propagate those trees with particularly distree or a tinctive characteristics. Over the years, I have named and patented several plants, including 'Fanfare' with a narrow, upright growth habit; 'Silverstar' with an arching, vase-shaped form; and 'Moonbeam' with unusually large flowers. Two of my selections, 'Triple Crown' with three flowers per cluster and 'Twinkle' in which some of the inflorescences produce extra bracts, are not reliable in these characteristics and are no longer distributed. My collection is the result of an amateur hobbyist working in her spare time without scientific skill or equipment. Today more and more researchers are working with the kousa dogwood, and recently Elwin Orton of Rutgers University successfully crossed it with both C. florida and C. nuttallii, opening the door to future improvements. References Eyde, R. H. 1985. The case for monkey-mediated evolution m big-bracted dogwoods. Arnoldia 45(4) : Fordham, Orton, A. J. 1984. Cornus kousa and its propagation. Intemat Plant Prop. Soc. Proc. 34: 598-603 stopped watering A Bright Future It is at night. E. R. 1985. Interspecific hybridization among Cornus florida, C. kousa, and C. nuttallu. Internat. Plant Prop Soc Proc 35: 655-661. Santamour, F. S. Jr. and A.J. McArdle 1985. Cultivar checklists of the large-bracted dogwoods: Cornus florida, C. kousa, and C. nuttallii. Jour. of Arboriculture 11(1): 29-36. that kousa dogwoods are surprising so little planted in this part of the world. This may change dramatically in the near future, however, given that C. florida is considered highly susceptible to the deadly dogwood anthracnose, while C. kousa is but little affected. My hope is that some day C. kousa will be so much in demand that the nurseries will find it worthwhile to carry cultivars, thereby to me Wilson, E. H. Bull. Pop. Info., 1930. Cornus kousa chmensis. Arnold Arb. ser. 3, vol. 4 (11) : 41-42. Polly Wakefield is a former trustee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. She has worked with the Friends of the Public Garden since its mception, and for twelve years she served on the Visiting Committee of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Anthracnose Threatens the Flowering Dogwood","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24999","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070ab28.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hibben, Craig R.","article_content":"Anthracnose Threatens the Craig R. Hibben Flowering Dogwood - Methods for diagnosing and controlling this new disease. Something unusual began happening to the flowering dogwood during the late 1970s. Coinus florida, one of eighteen species of Cornus native to the United States, and probably the most widely grown as an ornamental plant, began to decline over parts of the Northeast. The common also appear on the current year's branches as tiny sunken lesions that form in the bark. The tips of infected branches die, and a reddishpurple zone often forms between the living and dead bark. Infection progresses downward until entire branches die. stresses on dogwood-borers, soil-borne diseases, drought, and winter kill-did not appear to be major causal factors. From an investigation of declining dogwoods in arboretum and woodland sites in southeastern New York, the cause was identified as a new fungus disease, dogwood anthracnose (Hibben and Daughtrey, 1988). The nature and control of this threat to the flowering dogwood are of interest to all those who grow and appreciate this plant. Symptoms Dogwood anthracnose is easily recognizable. The most characteristic symptom is branch death beginning in the lower part of the canopy. Additional symptoms that can help the homeowner differentiate anthracnose from other diseases of dogwood are purplerimmed brown spots and larger brown blotches on the leaves. The blotches sometimes expand until the entire leaf blade becomes blighted. Blighted leaves often remain hanging on the branches, even over the winter Disease Figure U. S. 1. Natural range of Cornus florida in eastern period. (hatching) and approximate range of dogwood Infection spreads through the petioles of infected leaves into the stems. Infection can anthracnose (black) in 1989. Disease reports compiled by W Jackson and R. Anderson, U.S.D.A. Forest Service. 17 Dogwoods with dieback often produce clusters of epicormic branches (watersprouts) along the trunk and larger branches. When the epicormic branches become diseased and die back, infection moves into the adjoining trunk or branch causing cankers, which are detectable by sunken, swollen, or cracked areas in the bark. Cutting beneath the outer bark reveals patches of dead brown tissue in the inner bark and outer sapwood. The cumulative effect of the cankers is to girdle the stems, which leads to additional branch mortality. Anthracnose affects dogwoods of all ages and sizes. The disease moves dogwoods. Successful inoculations of healthy dogwoods with pure cultures of Discula provided the conclusive evidence that this fungus is the cause of the anthracnose disease of C. florida One theory suggests that recent periods of drought and unusually severe winters have weakened dogwoods, making it more susceptible to attack by Discula. The anthracnose fungi, including those attacking oak, maple, and sycamore, are strong pathogens, and they slower in trees located in sun-exposed sites. In fact, infected dogwoods that have received proper cultural care sometimes fully recover. Infected understory dogwoods in wooded sites, where moisture and shade conditions favor the disease, often die within five years. In some northeastern forest sites, once heavily populated with flowering dogwood, few live dog- woods, including seedlings, remain today. Wind-Dispersed Spores When leaves and branches from infected dogwoods are examined with a hand lens, numerous reddish-brown to black bumps can be observed on dead tissue. These are fungus fruiting bodies that, when moistened, exude 2. Lower-branch dieback in dogwood with anthracnose. Figure single-celled spores in gelatinous masses or threads. It is these tiny spores, wind spread during rainy periods, that initiate infection on the new leaves of dogwood in the spring. As more leaves and branches die, new spores are produced. The incredible abundance of spores that form on dead leaf and stem tissues assures that infection can reoccur throughout the growing season whenever moisture conditions are optimum. Even the hanging blighted leaves play an important role in the disease cycle, as dripping rainwater easily transports spores to the leaves below. From the structure and dimensions of the fruiting bodies and spores, the fungus was identified as belonging to the genus Discula. The Discula fungus has also been isolated repeatedly from leaves and stems of diseased Figure 3. In fected dogwood leaves showing spots and blotches 18 root systems, supplemental watering during Figure 4. Blighted leaves remam hanging on mfected dogwood. do not ease. To require a weakened host to cause disreverse the scenario, it is more likely that the infection by Discula has predisposed dogwoods to the detrimental effects of recent climatic events. For example, infected dogwoods in our woodland study plot showed far greater winter kill than uninfected dogwoods in the same site. Infected dogwoods are also more likely to be invaded by Armillaria (shoe string) root rot, a soil-borne disease that commonly attacks stressed trees. Control Recommendations Based on what we have learned about the biology of this disease, and from fungicide trials on recommend a three-part program for the control of dogwood anthracnose. 1. Good cultural practices applied to landscape dogwoods can reduce the incidence and effects of disease. Dead branches of infected trees should be pruned out promptly to reduce the sources of spores for new infections. Epicormic branches should be clipped off to prevent their infection and the subsequent formation of branch and trunk cankers. For dogwoods in wooded sites, the only practical control measure is to thin out and open up the sites to provide more sunlight and better air circulation. Since dogwoods are especially vulnerable to periods of drought because of their shallow dogwoods (Daughtrey et al., 1988), we can extended rainless periods is beneficial. Overhead sprinklers should be avoided because wet foliage is more likely to become infected. The application of a balanced fertilizer late in the fall or in early spring will improve tree vigor. Watering and fertilizing dogwoods will not necessarily increase their resistance to anthracnose, but the trees will be better able to recover from the detrimental effects of infection. 2. Fungicides will provide protection against infection. The fungicides Daconil 2787 19 infected C. florida and C. nuttallii, we concluded that identical or related strains of Discula were attacking both dogwoods. This new disease appeared to be attacking related hosts at the same time in both geographic regions. The periodic wet, cool springs of the Northeast and the yearly rainy season encountered in the maritime Northwest are conditions conducive to anthracnose fungi. But the reason for the sudden epidemic of the disease over part of the northeastern range of C. florida and for its coincidental outbreak in C. nuttallii is unknown. There are several hypotheses. The outbreak of the disease near ports of entry on both coasts of the U.S. raises the possibility of this particular Discula species being a recent import on some other host plant. Alternatively, perhaps the disease has been endemic but at levels too low to be noticed. A shift in rainfall and temperature patterns, or a mutation in the fungus resulting in a new, highly virulent strain, could account for the recent emergence of the disease. There is also some evidence that acid rain makes dogwood foliage more susceptible to invasion by Discula (Anderson et al., 1989). Figure 5. Proliferation of epicormic branches infected dogwood. on Fortunately, C. florida and C. kousa are sexually compatible. From a long-term breeding program at Rutgers University (Orton, 1985), several dogwood hybrids are soon to be introduced with improved vigor and pest resistance-including, everyone hopes, resistance to anthracnose. Origin of the Epidemic Attempts to explain the origin and timing of dogwood anthracnose raise some interesting questions about this disease\/In the mid-1970s, a similar outbreak of anthracnose occurred in the native western flowering dogwood (C. nuttallii) in the Pacific Northwest. Discula was identified as the cause (Salogga and Ammirati, 1983). After comparing fungal isolates from Figure 6. Pure culture of Discula fungus causing dogwood anthracnose. 20 more research is needed before the role of acid rain in dogwood anthracnose is fully understood. Dogwood anthracnose has now established itself in natural and ornamental populations of flowering dogwood in parts of the Northeast for over a decade. Surveys indicate that the disease has spread gradually southward and westward since the early 1980s. We anticipate that Discula sp. will continue to have a significant impact on dogwood-with disease severity varying considerably from year to year, depending on weather conditions during the growing season. In the meantime, research is continuing with emphasis on the epidemiology and control of dogwood anthracnose. But northeastern United States. Jour. ture 14: 159-164. of Arboricul- Hibben, C. R., and M. L. Daughtrey. 1988. Dogwood anthracnose.in northeastern United States. Plant Disease 72: 199-203. 1989. Field evidence for of Kousa dogwood to anthrac\/our of Arbonculture 15: 254 (Abstract). Holmes, F. W., and C. R. Hibben. the resistance nose. Orton, E. R., Jr. 1985. Interspecific hybridization among Comus flonda, C. kousa, and C. nuttallh. Internat. Plant. Prop. Soc. Proc 35: 655-661. Salogga, D. S., and J. F. Ammirati. 1983. Discula species associated with anthracnose of dogwood m the Pacific Northwest. Plant Disease 67: 1290. Santamour, References F. S., Jr., and A. J. McArdle. 1989. Susceptibility of flowering dogwood of various provenances to dogwood anthracnose. Plant Disease 73: 590-591. Anderson, R. L., J. L. Knighten, and S. Dowsett. 1989. Enhancement of Discula sp. mfection of flowering dogwood (Comus flonda) by pretreatmg leaves with acid mist. Plant Disease 73: 859. Daughtrey, M. L., C. R. Hibben, and G. W Hudler. 1988. Cause and control of dogwood anthracnose in Craig R. Hibben is Research Plant Pathologist at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden Research Center in Ossming, Dr. New York. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gifts of the Amazon Flora to the World","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25001","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070af26.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"Gifts of the Amazon Flora Richard Evans Schultes to the World Many valuable plants were originally domesticated in the now threatened rain forest of the Amazon basin. When the famous Russian botanist Nikolya Vavilov outlined the major regions of the world that had given man most of his principal cultivated plants, he did not include the Amazon Valley. Nor did his nineteenthcentury predecessor Alphonse De Candolle, the pioneer in the field of phytogeographic study, look to the Amazon as the source of important cultivated plants. Since the exploratory work of these two botanists, most modem specialists have concentrated either on one species or on members of one genus family rather than on entire regions. As a result, the Amazon basin, with few excepor never been accorded the intensive research that such a rich flora deserves, especially as a potential source of useful species. The Amazon drainage area, as large as the United States, is for the most part covered with a dense tropical rain forest and is bathed by one-fifth of the world's fresh water; it has a rich and varied flora of an estimated 80,000 species of higher plants. The more accessible areas have already given the world some of its more important economic plants while the vegetation of many of the hinterland regions is still unexplored, awaiting both botanical and chemical investigation. Unless strong conservation measures are tions, has Among the most important species that have entered the world economy as major players, as discussed in detail in the following article, are the pineapple, Ananas comosus ; the Brazil nut, Bertholletia excelsa; achiote, source of an orange-red dye for foods and cosmetics, Bixa Orellana; the curares, Chondrodendron tomentosum; the cocaineyielding shrub, Erythroxylon Coca; the edible peach palm, Guilielma speciosa; the rubber tree, Hevea brasiliensis; the tapioca plant or cassava, Manihot esculenta; and cacao, source of chocolate, Theobroma Cacao. Of the numerous ornamental plants that have come from the Amazon, we will discuss only one, the royal water lily, Victoria amazonica. PINEAPPLE Ananas comosus (L.) Merrill Family: Bromeliaceae The pineapple is unknown in the wild, but it may sometimes escape from cultivation and give the appearance of being wild. There is every indication that the plant is Amazonian in origin, although, as with other cultigens, some uncertainty remains. One theory holds that the Tupi-Guarani Indians first cultivated it in Paraguay and with their migrations took it to Amazonia. Evidence for this theory is the presence in Paraguay of several species strictly enforced, many species and even some genera may become extinct. It is vitally important to preserve as many sources of germ plasm as possible for the benefit of future generations. 22 The wild pineapple, Ananas ananassoides, considered by some botanists to be the ancestor Ananas comosus. Rio Piraparana, Comisana del Vaupes, Colombia. of the cultivated pineapple, believed to be related to Ananas comosus. All of these wild species are seedy types in contrast to the generally seedless pineapple. They all have the same chromosome number, and they all are capable of hybridizing with one another. Close relatives of the pineapple are also found in the Amazon, especially Ananas microstachya and A. ananassoides;and the area of greatest variability of A. comosus is the western Amazon. The Colombian Witoto Indians of the Igaraparana River area, for example, have more than twenty-four \"varieties\" of the pineapple, each with its native Indian name. Such variation suggests that A. comosus originated as a cultigen in the Amazonia of Colombia or Peru. By the time that Europeans arrived in the World, the pineapple was widely distributed throughout tropical America. Records before 1600 place the pineapple along New and both the Pacific and Atlantic coasts of South Central America. Columbus saw the pineapple on his second voyage, and one of his officers attempted to describe it: \"There were some fruits like artichoke plants but four times as tall which gave a fruit in the shape of a pine cone, twice as big, which fruit is excellent; and it can be cut with a knife like a turnip, and it seems to be wholesome.\" A pineapple was taken as a special gift to the Emperor Charles V of Spain, and one was presented to King Charles II of England in 1672. 23 The many references to the pineapple in the early chronicles indicate that this strange fruit caught the fancy of Europeans. It was introduced very early to the Old World tropics and reached virtually all parts of the Far East before the end of the sixteenth century. Today, as is well known, the commercial center of of Brazil nuts in the early 1600s. Today many thousands of tons are exported, more than ten thousand tons to the United States alone. cultivation is in Hawaii. The pineapple is unique among fruits in containing a chemical constituent that aids ACHIOTE Bixa Orellana Linnaeus Family: Bixaceae This small, profusely fruiting tree, known as achiote in Spanish and annatto in Portuguese, yields enormous amounts of seeds (up to 600 pounds per tree), each covered with a reddish aril, the source of an orange-yellow dye. The crushed seeds are usually soaked in water, and the water is then evaporated to make a Vivcv'. digestion, a proteolytic enzyme known as bromelin. Bromelin is milk-clotting and is employed in tenderizing meat and in the leather industry. In modern pharmacy, it is used in treating sprains, contusions, and other injuries since it is a depolymerizer and modifier of permeability. BRAZIL NUT Bertholletia excelsa Humboldt et Bonpland Family: Lecythidaceae One of the most majestic trees of the humid forests of Brazil, Guiana, and Venezuela, Bertholletia excelsa is the source of the Brazil nut of commerce. An enormous tree, primarily of the Amazon, it frequently attains a height of 160 feet. The globular fruit, which ripens from January to June, is often called the \"monkey pot.\"A woody or boney capsule with a terminal lid, the fruit measures six inches in diameter and weighs up to five pounds. Each fruit contains from twelve to twenty-four nutritious three-sided nuts, the white \"meat\" of which consists of 70 percent fat and 17 percent protein. Each tree can produce three hundred or more fruit pods. It is said that the monetary value of Brazil nut exportation from Amazonian Brazil is second only to that of rubber, but as the slowgrowing tree is not cultivated, virtually all production of Brazil nuts comes from wild forest trees. Dutch traders began exportation An early drawmg of achiote, Bixa Orellana. The pods contain seeds that are covered with a reddish aril, the source of an orange-yellow dye. Left- from Hernandez, Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus (1651). Right: from Piso, De Indias Utnusque Re Naturali et Medica Libri (1658). 24 brightly colored paste. The dye is added as a spice to soups, cheeses, and other foods, especially in tropical countries in both hemispheres. The dye is a good source of vitamin A, which is often deficient in the diets of many hot, humid areas. Much achiote is now exported to industrial countries in North America and types-the so-called their basic source true curares-use, as Europe, par- ticularly to color oleomargarine, since some of the synthetic aniline dyes formerly used are now believed to be carcinogenic. It is also employed as a dye for woolens and is sometimes employed in the paint, varnish, lacquer, cosmetic, and soap industries. Among many South American tribes, who plant by one of its Brazilian names as urucu), achiote is valued as a source (such of decorative body paint. Bixa Orellana, named for the early Spanish explorer of the Amazon river, Francisco de Orellana, is not know the known in the wild. Some suggest that it was domesticated from the large forest tree B. excelsa of the southwest Amazon of Brazil. Long before Europeans arrived in the New World, achiote had spread throughout tropical America. When the Spaniards conquered Mexico, it was already firmly established. The Aztecs, who called it achiotl (\"medicine good for dyeing\"), extracted a strong fiber from its bark, valued it as a dye, and even added it to their chocolate drinks. Medicinally, it is used as a gentle purgative. CURARE Chondrodendron et tomentosum Ruiz Pav6n Family: Menispermaceae The use of arrow poisons by Indians of the South American rain forests is a very old practice. Although many different kinds of arrow poisons are prepared from many different kinds of plants, they are all indiscriminately called curares. The two most important of toxicity, species of the loganiaceous genus Strychnos or the menispermaceousgenera, particularly Chondrodendron. The name curare is a corruption of two Tupi Indian terms meaning \"bird\" and \"to kill.\" The early traveler Peter Martyr first chronicled curares in numerous works written during the quarter century following Columbus's first voyage to the New World. He mentions several \"varieties\" of arrow poisons and records that the natives had an antidote for the poison and practiced cauterization for arrowpoison wounds. Martyr is responsible for a story, often repeated and embellished by later writers, of old women \"skilled in the art, who are shut in at certain times and furnished with the necessary materials; during the two days they watch and distill the ointment ... If the women are well and not found half dead from the fumes, they are severely punished; and the ointment is thrown away as being valueless; for the strength of the poison is such that the mere odour of it ... almost kills its makers.\" In the early nineteenth century, sundry naturalists and travelers wrote about curarevon Humboldt, Waterton, von Martius, the Schomburgk brothers, and others-but it was Baron von Humboldt who recorded the first eyewitness account of its preparation. Probably all these early accounts referred to Strychnos-based curare, since they came from travelers who had encountered the poison in Venezuela or the Guianas. Reports of the menispermaceous-based curares of the Amazon are of a much later date. The most important is undoubtedly that of the German plant explorer von Martius who, in the 1820s, found a species of Chondrodendron used in curare-making by Indians on the River Japura on the BrazilianColombian frontier. Nine species of the Menispermaceae are known to be employed in the preparation of curares. It is, however, the arrow poison made 25 Kofan Indian medicine man and his student preparing curare. This tnbe produces a wide variety of curares, many prepared from bioactive plants unknown m other parts of the Amazon Comisana del Putumayo, Rio Sucumblos, A Colombia 26 basically from Chondrodendron tomentosum that has become important in Western medicine during the last sixty years. This curare has a number of alkaloids but owes its activity as a skeletal muscle relaxant primarily to d-tubocurarine, which has become an indispensable adjunct of modern surgery and is used for treating various neurological conditions. The plant is an enormous forest liana, climbing into the crowns of the tallest trees. The active principles are contained in the bark, which must be scraped off. As a consequence, repeated exploitation eventually kills the vine. The plant has never been cultivated, mainly because it is extremely slow-growing. There appears, however, to be a danger that the source of the brownish, resinous syrup may become scarce as a result of intensive exploitation and increasing forest devastation. When the curare syrup can no longer be procured from natural sources, is there anything that can successfully supplant it? COCA LEAF Barasaba Indians collecting leaves from the coca plant, Erythroxylon Coca var. Ipadu. Comisaria del Vaupes, Rio Piraparana, Colombia. Erythroxylon Coca Lamarck Family: Erythroxylaceae Recent research has established that there two are distinct species of Erythroxylon and two varieties, all of which are excellent sources of the active principle, cocaine. Erythroxylon Coca, the most important species, is cultivated in the Andes at relatively high altitudes, between 1500 and 4500 feet, from Colombia south to Bolivia and northern Argentina. From this species the variety Ipadu has been developed, unusual in its ability to thrive in the tropical climate of the western Amazon. From E. novogranatense, a distinct variety truxillensis has developed on the drier parts of the Andean slopes, up to 4500 feet. This variety is now widely cultivated in the coca fields of the Trujillo region, and archeologic records indicate that it was formerly grown along the dry coastal regions of Peru as early as 1900 B. c. The method of coca use in the Amazon regions varies considerably from that of the highlands where there are natural sources of calcium or lime necessary for the extraction of cocaine within the user's acid mouth. In the Amazon, where sources of the alkaline admixtures are not readily available, the Indians have discovered that the ashes of a number of leaves are alkaline and can, when mixed with a powder of the coca leaves, result in the extraction of the active principle during mastication of the leaves. The principal alkaloid, cocaine, was isolated in 1860, and its physiological effects were studied in 1862. Two years later, it was 27 recommended in Western medicine as an excellent local anesthetic. It is still valuable, especially in ophthalmological and ear, nose, and throat surgery. It is the use of the purified alkaloid-not the aboriginal employment of the leaves or powder as a masticatory among South American Indians-that may lead to dangerous addiction. PEACH PALM Guilielma speciosa Martius (=Bactris Gasipaes HBK.) Family: Palmae Every Indian settlement in the western Amazonas has Guilielma speciosa planted around the houses as an excellent source of food in the fruiting season. The fruit-the size and color of a peach-is rich in carbohydrates (primarily starch) and has copious oil. Of high nutritional value, it is extremely delicious when roasted or boiled. Many of the native tribes have festivals during the first week of April at the time of the principal harvest; the Yukunas of Colombia hold their kai-ya-ree dance for four days at this time. At these festivals, flour of the fruit often takes the place of flour of Manihot esculenta, and unleavened bread is prepared from it in great quantities. While the edible fruit represents by far the most important economic value of Guilielma speciosa, the palm has a number of other uses in aboriginal societies. Some Indians esteem the palm heart; others employ the inflorescence as a flavoring agent in cooking. The hard \"wood\" is fashioned into bows, lances, and other weapons; and the usually spinecovered trunk has been used to make fences around houses to protect inhabitants from enemies. Even the root has often been considered medicinal. The precise locality of domestication of this palm is apparently unknown. The early explorer Henry Walter Bates wrote: \"[It] grows wild nowhere on the Amazons. It is one of those few vegetable productions ... which the Indians have cultivated from time immemorial and brought with them in their original migration to Brazil.\"Modern botanical research suggests that the plant probably originated on the eastern slopes of the Peruvian Andes, either from the wild Guilielma mattogrossensis, spreading into the central part of the Amazon by way of the Madeira River, or from G. microcarpa and G. insignis. In the western Amazon, especially in Colombia, there are many types of Guilielma speciosa in which the seed aborts, and the whole fruit then consists of starchy endosperm. Furthermore, there are types without the usual horrible spines on the trunk, making collection significantly easier. Recently, a comprehensive collection of germ plasm of the palm over a wide area has been initiated. It behooves these collectors to penetrate the northwest Amazon of Colombiadifficult because of rapids and waterfalls throughout the region-to salvage some of these interesting clones before they disappear. Guilielma speciosa is destined to play a very important part of future tropical agriculture, especially for third-world people living in overpopulated areas unsuited to modern agriculture. It is one of the most promising gifts of the Amazon forests. RUBBER Hevea brasiliensis (Willd. ex Adr. Juss.) Muell.-Arg. Family: Euphorbiaceae Undoubtedly the most important Amazonian gift to the world has been the source of Para rubber, Hevea brasiliensis. No other plant has had so rapid and drastic an effect on civilization as this tree, which today is the source of more than 98 percent of the world's natural rubber. It is also one of the most recently 28 nutritious The peach palm, Guilielma speciosa, is usually planted in circular or rectangular rows around Indian houses. fruit npens in late March or early February in the Western Amazon. Rio Kananan, Amazoman The highly Colombia. 29 Hevea brasiliensis, the quality rubber, Amazonas, Rio and of commercial rubber produced in plantations of Asia. This species produces the highest of the ten Hevea species native to the humid ram forests of South America. Comisaria del Loretoyacu, Colombia. source is one 30 domesticated of the major crop plants. Prior introduction to the Old World by the English in 1876, and its adaptation to plantations in the British and Dutch colonies of to its Asia, wild trees of the Amazon had satisfied the global needs of rubber. The production of rubber from forest trees led to an industry reducing thousands of A typical field of the cassava, Manihot esculenta, at Rio Kananari, Comisaria del Vaupes, Colombia. 31 Amazonian Indians to near slavery-in some regions amounting to actual slavery, torture, and wanton murder. When the plantations began to supply the world demand for rubber World War I, the nefarious forest industry gradually disappeared, for the wellsupervised Asiatic plantations could make available a better and cheaper product than that obtained by the uncontrolled tapping of wild trees widely scattered in the jungle. Thus the domestication of Hevea brasiliensis has had two beneficial results: it created a dependable source of high-quality rubber at a reduced price, making possible the development of numerous new industries, especially modern automotive and later air transportation ; and it saved countless thousands of Amazonian Indians and their cultures from annihilation. The changes that selection and genetic research have brought about in Hevea brasiliensis have been unbelievable, particularly in the yield of latex. The early plantations, based on seed material, gave 350 to 400 pounds of rubber per acre per year; numerous \"improved\" clones now yield more than 3000 prior to macacheira (Portuguese). The same plant is also the source of tapioca used by peoples in temperate zones around the world where Manihot esculenta cannot be grown. While we know hundreds of cultivated strains of this species, cassava is unknown in the wild. All the strains are grouped in two categories as either \"bitter\" or \"sweet\" cassava, depending on the amount and distribution in the root of cyanide-producing, highly toxic cyanogenic glycoside. Both strains contain the poison. In the bitter one, the glycoside is concentrated primarily in the rind, which must be peeled from the starchy root before use. In the sweet varieties, the glycoside is in the rind and also througha pounds per acre. There are ten species of Hevea, all native to the tropical forests of South America, especially in Amazonia. In addition to Hevea brasiliensis, two (H. Benthamiana and H. guianensis) yield usable rubber-but of an inferior quality. The latex of the other seven species is very low in cautchouc, the rubber molecule. CASSAVA Manihot esculenta Crantz Family: Euphorbiaceae Hundreds of thousands of human beings living in the tropics of both hemispheres receive their carbohydrate nourishment from a euphorbiaceous shrub variously known as yuca, cassava, mandioca (Spanish), or out the starch of the root. In the Amazon, the bitter strain is almost exclusively cultivated. From a taxonomic point of view, Manihot esculenta is one of the most complex economic plants known, and many \"species\" have been described, which we now know represent strains, races, or ecotypes. Early writers tended to identify northwestern Brazil as the region where this cultigen had its origin, while later authors favored the savannas of Venezuela and Bahia, Brazil. Mexico and Central America-and even Africa-have been suggested as sources, but without reliable supporting evidence. Recent botanists postulate that the \"sweet\" and \"bitter\" strains of Manihot esculenta originated separately and developed independently. And a most recent survey of the evidence-botanical, ethnobotanical, ethnological, and archeological-concludes that \"sweet\" cassava was first domesticated in Mesoamerica, whereas \"bitter\" cassava was probably first cultivated in northern South America. Since Brazil exhibits extreme cultigen diversity, as well as an abundance of related species of Manihot, that country would offer favorable conditions for the hybridization and development of new strains. Although there is no firm evidence, it is possible that cassava was among the first food plants to sustain man in the American tropics. Archeological remains indicate that 32 the plant has been used as a food in the humid tropics of the New World for at least 2500 years; secondary and circumstantial evidence suggests that its cultivation may go back some 4000 years. Early European voyagers to the New World tropics mentioned cassava. As early as 1696, one British writer on plants stated it was \"one of the most generally used of any provision all over the West Indies, especially the hotter parts, and used to victual ships.\" Now Manihot esculenta has spread throughout the tropics of the world, and in the warm parts of Africa and southeast Asia especially, it has become a staple food. It is one of the dozen plants that quite literally feed the human race. The chocolate plant, Theobroma Cacao, Colombia. CHOCOLATE Theobroma Cacao Linnaeus escaped and growing wild at Amanaven, Comisaria del Vichada, Family: Sterculiaceae Although apparently of chocolate and cocoa butter is a relatively small bushy tree believed to be of hybrid origin and native to the Amazonian slopes of the eastern Andes of Colombia and Ecuador. When and how it traveled to Mexico in pre-Conquest times are still mysteries, as it would have had to pass over high and cold mountains where this tropical cultigen could not survive. One theory proposes that Theobroma Cacao \"spread throughout the central part of Amazonia-Guiana westwards and northwards to the south of Mexico.\" But if it took this route, it would have had to traverse desert areas on the coast of Venezuela and Colombia where the cacao plant could not grow. Its odyssey remains a mystery to this The source not used by South American Indians before the arrival of Europeans, Theobroma Cacao was highly prized in Mexico where the Aztec ruler received as tribute from subjugated tribes tropical parts of the empire. Throughout Mexico and Central America, it was probably grown for more than two thousand years, and the natives believed that it was a gift directly from the gods. Perhaps Linnaeus concacao seeds of the day. The word chocolate comes from the Nahuatl name of the plant-chocolatl-among the Aztecs. In every European language except English, it is known correctly as cacao. Cocoa, which is a corruption of cacao, is not only wrong, but often leads to confusion with the names coca and coconut. sidered this belief when he named the genus Theobroma from the Greek \"food of the gods\" One of the earliest and most reliable of the Spanish chroniclers, Hernandez, the physician of the King of Spain, spent five years studying the medicinal plants of the conquered Aztecs. He distinguished four kinds of cacao in Mexico and wrote of the use of the seeds as food, drink, currency, and medicine (a treatment for dysentery). He warned, however, that immoderate use \"obstructs the intestines, destroys the complexion and caused a general degeneration of the health.\" The Aztecs had special spices or flavoring agents for their various chocolate preparations 33 including vanilla (Vanilla planifolia) and red (Capsicum spp.). Another, that is still today in Oaxaca, is the aromatic, fenugreek-flavored flowers of a bombacaceous tree, known today as flor de cacao (Quararibea funebris). pepper in use Of the six New World plants rich enough in caffeine or caffeine-like compounds to be used as stimulants, only Theobroma Cacao acquired enough worldwide fame to take place alongside coffee (Coffea arabica) and tea (Camellia sinensis) of the Old World. has a The world's largest water lily, Victoria amazonica. Each flower lasts one day: in the morning it is white. but during the day the floral parts turn first pinkish, then purple. By nightfall, the flower has been pollinated by a beetle Comlsana del Amazonas, Leticia, Colombia. 34 ROYAL WATER LILY Victoria amazonica Sowerby Family: Nymphaeaceae The world's lily, Victoria probably the most spectacular of Amazonia's gifts to ornamen- largest water thick, spiny ribs. The nocturnal flowers, opening in the cool of the afternoon and closing by noon the following day, are pollinated by a large beetle. The fifty or more petals change in this short period from white to dark pink. The local inhabitants employ a poultice of the leaves to soften ulcers and to treat infected wounds. Discovered in 1801, the Royal Water Lily, as it is called in English, was not well known for some thirty-five years, but during the past century and a half, it has been avidly sought as a greenhouse ornamental and may be seen among the water lily displays of most botanical gardens. amazonica, stands out as tal horticulture. Better known as V. regia, named in honor of Queen Victoria, this beautiful denizen of inlets, oxbows, and lakes of still waters is one of the natural wonders of the Amazon. It is remarkable for its enormous leaves, measuring up to six or more feet in diameter, and its huge fragrant flowers, reaching eighteen inches across when fully open. The leaves, green above but reddish on the lower surface, have an upturned margin five or six inches high, and underneath they are strengthened with a lattice-like network of Richard Evans Schultes is Jeffrey Professor of Biology and Director of the Botanical Museum of Harvard University, Emeritus. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25000","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070ab6d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Leet, Judith","article_content":"BOOKS Judith Bulbs Leet by John E. Bryan. Timber Press, 1989. 2 volumes. 451 pages. 750 colored photo110 colored graphs. plates. Hardcover. $120. fortunately, supplemented by many fine, albeit smaller, habitat photographs often taken in are and flaccid flowers. These pages, locations. remote The Random House Book of Bulbs by Roger Phillips and Martyn Rix. Random House, 1989. 255 pages. Colored photographs. Paperback. $21.95. new books on bulbs have recently appeared, one a completely handsome, deluxe two-volume set titled Bulbs by John Bryan, with a jacket photograph of the Keukenhof Gardens in Holland-the tulip beds beckoning the reader to open the book. The other, The Random House Book of Bulbs by Roger Phillips and Martyn Rix, edited by Brian Mathew, is- on close inspection- a revised edition of a book titled The Bulb Book, originally published in England in 1981 by Pan Books. It is a serviceable, affordable paperback, with a much less inviting cover of assorted cut flowers produced from bulbs, with a Fritillaria imperialis in the center. In heavily illustrated books, such as these, most readers probably study the photographs and captions before examining the text. In Bryan's encyclopedic two volumes-aten-year effort-the high-quality photographs show each species in peak condition either in its wild setting or in a garden (photographs are interspersed with full-page historical botanical plates from Curtis's Botanical Magazine). A remarkably high percentage of the 750 photographs not only offer essential information about the plant but are aesthetically pleasing. Authors Phillips and Rix, however, rely on \"laid out photographs\" in which they take four or five cut flowers, place them on a neutral background, and shoot a full-page illustration. At times the visual information is useful (particularly those that show the uprooted bulb), but at other times, the effect is of limp foliage I admit to a personal bias against the \"laid out\" photographs: since the plants are lined Two right and cast shadows against the background, the photographs strike me as a lifeless, artificial way of presenting flowers. For aesthetic considerations, I find myself more attuned to Bryan's approach. As to the texts, both books attempt to deal with bulbs on a large scale-from the most common to the rarest bulbs of the world. Phillips and Rix offer a concise and knowledgeable survey of the better-known plants whereas Bryan presents the broadest possible coverage of the subject, his treatment by far the more detailed. Bryan has arranged his two volumes alphabetically by genus, a scheme that is generally convenient and workable-and one that does not require repeated trips to the index. Even more helpful, he introduces each new genus with a brief general discussion so that the reader has a sense of how all the species fit into it. This introductory discussion I very much miss in the Phillips and Rix book, which is organized by sequence of bloom, and the reader moves from a discussion of a Narcissus species to a Tulipa species without any up left to warning or introductory text-not even a in the Phillips and Rix scheme, all the species of a genus may not be discussed together; the reader may be surprised to come upon Narcissus poeticus after many pages on tulips, separated from all the other Narcissus because of its later blooming time. Similarly, the reader may not realize a few Fritillaria appear pages ahead of the ninety or so species that are clumped together. For those who want it, Bryan goes into a brief explanation of the broad divisions of the heading. In fact, 36 larger genera-Crocus, Dahlia, Lilium, Narcissus, and Tulipa 2014 which helps put these familiar but potentially confusing groups into some perspective. No matter how large the genus, Phillips and Rix give their readers only short successive descriptions of individual must make whatever of the list, quite daunting when there may be pages of entries for a given genus. For clarity of organization and of index, my choice is Bryan, although I can see where some gardeners may find it useful to see the blooming sequence and learn what plants are available in the months when their gardens need livening up. Bryan follows his introduction of each genus with sections on Culture, Propagation, Pests and Disease, and Uses. And probably most useful of all for both the gardener and the bulb collector, Bryan then makes a selection of the most recommended species in each genus-taking full responsibility for the choices-and describes each of his choices briefly. He concludes with an often lengthy list of nonrecommended plants, either not available commercially or not garden worthy. Although Bryan allows that he has not included in his two volumes \"all known varieties and species,\" he has assembled a vast, mind-boggling number (230 genera), including many newly discovered bulbs, particularly from South Africa, as well as many that may be potential raw material for hybridizing. For those who consider themselves beginners, both books presuppose little knowledge; all the basics are explained or reviewed, including what a bulb is and where each species is native. Bryan's definition: \"Almost all bulbous plants have a common characteristic-a dormant period,\" brought about by either heat and dryness or cold and snow; and he includes true bulbs, corms, rhizomes, and tubers as falling under the general term bulb. Phillips and Rix also allow their wide definition \"to include all plants which form swollen underground storage roots or stems to survive the dry or cold season.\" species, and readers sense they can Both books take up all the bulbous plants that are true favorites of the garden, as well as exotic and unusual bulbs that the reader may or may not have seen. Especially noteworthy are the hundreds of rare bulbs that Bryan singles out for attention. Of Sparaxis tricolor, he comments: \"a plant of outstanding garden merit\"; of Spiloxene capensis, \"well worth a place in the rock garden ... where it will not fail to give you pleasure\"; of the genus Homeria, \"good plants for the sunny border where the unusual forms and colors can be appreciated.\" Phillips and Rix do not offer enough of these evaluating comments on the merits of the plants; with so many thousands of species and cultivars to choose from, the gardener needs guidance from and the insights of experts. Interestingly, Fritillaria is singled out for description many more times in Phillips and Rix, with over 95 species warranting entries, whereas Bryan considers only 25 species garden worthy. But which of the 95 do they recommend? Bryan's comment on F. michailovskyi is far more pungent, \"a favorite of those that know the genus\" than Phillips and Rix's: \"The dead petals remain around the seed capsule.\" Bryan's pithy evaluations are what make the lengthy lists of plant species come alive. In passing, Bryan makes an amusing comment on human destructiveness of species: \"Dr. Boussard who took this picture in the wild [of a beautiful Iris cycloglossa) in Afghanistan, reports that it dislikes being run over by Russian tanks.\" All in all, we are comparing an economy model-asmall compact that does the jobwith a luxury model, for those who want to travel in comfort, beauty, and style. The average gardener will be satisfied with the Phillips and Rix; the ardent gardener will want the Bryan-no question about it. The insatiable gardener may want both. Judith Leet is associate editor of Amoldia and wrote the text for Flowering Trees and Shrubs- The Botanical Pamtings of Esther Heins (Abrams, 1987). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=25002","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070af6b.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS was always cold. In the old days, visitors to the Arboretum would sit on the large sandstone rock and put their cups under the everflowing pipe. At one time the Maurice Sheehan and the recently restored \"Rockery Spring.\" J'hXoi~P.EMTfaSa. spring was fenced to keep leaves from blowing in and clogging it up. But time and vandalism took their toll, and around 1965 the fence had to be taken down. Following this, Rockery Spring fell into disrepair, becoming choked with leaves and overgrown with vegetation. Eventually, almost everyone forgot about it except Maurice, who suggested to Superintendent Pat Willoughby that the spring ought to be restored to its former state. Pat thought it was a great idea, and in April of this year the restoration project was begun. As well as pulling off twenty years of plant growth, new puddingstone stepping stones were installed to bring the spring back to its original condition. Clean gravel was added to the stone path and new plantings were put in below the spring, including ferns, astibe, lilies-of-the- Rockery Spring Uncovered days, but had been forgotten in recent times. Christened This year Maurice Sheehan is celebrating his twenty-fifth year as a grounds crew member at the Arnold Arboretum. Only Michael Gormley has been here longer than Maurice, by a scant six months. Both men deserve \"Rockery Spring,\" this freshwater outlet provided clean, cool water to generations of Arboretum visitors. A pipe leading from the spring was installed in the late 1800's when the nearby road was built, and until the drinking fountains were installed in the 1930's, it served as the only source of clean water available to the public. And even after the drinking fountains were installed, the popularity of the spring remained, particularly in late summer, because the water . hearty congratulations for their hard work and longtime dedication to the institution. This year, Maurice was involved in a unusual restoration project: to uncover an old spring that had been an important part of the natural and social ecology of the Arboretum during its early valley, bugbane and Kiringeshoma palmata. Thanks to Maurice we now have a beautiful \"new\" feature at Arnold Arboretum, just across the road and down from the rockery. Take a look at it next time you visit, but please don't drink the water since its quality has not yet been tested. The 1990 Arboretum Interns Arrive for Spring Ever since the days of E. H. Wilson, the Arnold Arboretum has been offering students summer internships in horticulture. The program has grown in breadth and depth over the years and has attracted world-wide recognition for its high quality. The interns get hand-on experience in several areas, including the grounds, the library, the greenhouse, and plant records, in Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates. As part of their training they participate in classes two afternoons a week to study woody-plant identification, horticultural maintenance, and landscape design. Several field trips supplement the classroom learning. This year eighteen interns were chosen from a record number of applicants to the program from Europe, Canada, and the United States. They are graduate or undergraduate students in landscape design, ecology, and plant and soil science. Some of the 1990 Arboretum interns: top left, Julia Hintringer, Putzbrunn, West Germany; David Callard, Winchester, MA; Judith Wasserman, Cambridge, MA; Karlton Holmes, Cambridge, MA; Donna Harrington, (no longer here); Carol Kohler, South Hadley, MA; Mary Altermatt, Portland, ME; Kevin Williamson, Medfield, MA; Hillary Quarles, New Haven, CT. Not shown are: Gail Allen, Plymouth, NH; Eddie Ashton, Truro, Nova Scotia; Greg Dowd, Dover, MA; Melanie Evans, North Chelmsford, MA; Matthew Giroux, Holderness, NH; Michael King, MA; Hillary Maharam, Brookline, MA; Andre McCloskey, Washington, DC; Maryellen Sullivan, Dorchester, MA. Photo by P. * Del Tredici. Amherst, ARBORETUM PARTICIPATES IN LINNEAN SOCIETY MEETING The Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat and the Commonwealth Science Council sponsored a meeting this May in London on conserving biological diversity in botanic gardens. The program included a presentation on \"Preserving Genetic Diversity through Curatorial Practices\" by the Arnold Arboretum verification project leader, David Michener, now working as Curator 2 at the Matthaei Botanic Garden of the University of Michigan. Donald Falk of the Center for Plant Conservation spoke on\"Integrated Strategies for Conservation of Biological Diversity.\" An audience of botanic garden professionals from Sri Lanka, Israel, the Canary Islands, Denmark, Holland and the United States attended, including Nan Sinton from the Arnold Arboretum. LILACS IN MONTREAL The Montreal Botanic Garden was host to this year's International Lilac Convention attended by Jack Alexander, Nan Sinton and former Arboretum Plant Propagator Al Fordham. The program included a visit to Mont Royal Cemetery where E. H. Wilson is buried. At the request of the members of the Lilac Society, Al gave an impromptu speech on his memories of the Arboretum's renowned plant explorer. The Arboretum will be the site for the International Lilac Society convention in May 1992. enough in bloom to delight the visitors. The arboretum has one of the largest collections of this spectacular plant anywhere outside of the were wild. The Ghent azaleas, which have strong genetic ties to the flame azalea, were at their peak of bloom. Among the evergreen rhododen- drons, numerous comments were Rhododendron calendulaceum growing under the oaks at the Arnold Arboretum RHODODENDRON SOCIETY VISITS Over two hundred participants in the American Rhododendron Society's Annual Convention visited both the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and the Case Estates on Sunday, June 3. The weather was cloudy and windy but, thankfully, dry. In Jamaica Plain the mass plantings of the flame azalea, Rhododendron calendulaceum, overheard concerning the improved maintenance in the Rhododendron Dell along Bussey Brook. The work that grounds crew, interns, and volunteers have put into the area over the last two years is clearly paying off. After leaving Jamaica Plain the visitors went to the Case Estates to view the Rhododendron Society Display Garden in Weston. SPRING ART EXHIBITION BLOOMS AGAIN The traditional Lilac Sunday Art Competition was revised this year to accommodate the thousands of glorious subjects and views offered by the Arnold Arboretum. Artists were solicited via art magazines and newsletters. A total of seventy three artists submitted two hundred sixty two slides for initial review. Selections for inclusion in the exhibit were based on relevance as Arboretum subject matter, design quality, and technique. The twenty nine final art works will be on display in the Visitor Center until June 30. The winner of this year's competition for the 1990 \" Artist Maria Paglia signing copies of the1990 lilac poster, \"Lilac Frenzy. poster was \"Lilac Frenzy\" by Maria Paglia of Harvard, Mass. The poster was repro- duced as a limited edition of 300 and was signed and numbered by the artist on Lilac Sunday, May 20. It sells for $40.00 and is available at the Bookstore. 3 r BACK ISSUES! Discover More About Plants fifty years, knowledgeable gardeners have been turning to Arnoldia solid, up-to-date information on horticulture and botany. A limited supply of back issues are available for only $5.00 per copy, including postage and handling. For for Please check the issues you would like: ~ Spring 1983 Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Arnold Arboretum Thoreau the Botanist Plant Conservation, Part I, the USA Plant Conservation, Part II, China and the Amazon Madrid Botanical Gardens A Guide to the Firs of the Arnold Arboretum Boston's Parks and Open Spaces I Boston's Parks and Open Spaces n The Taxonomic Verification Project at the Arnold Arboretum Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection Tree Roots - Facts and Fallacies Zoo Horticulture ~ Summer 1985 ~ Summer 1986 ~ Fall 1986 ~ Summer 1987 ~ Winter 1988 ~ Summer 1988 ~ Fall 1988 ~ Winter 1989 ~ Spring 1989 ~ Summer 1989 ~ Fall 1989 ~ Winter 1990 Name Address City Check or State Zip Money Order (payable to the Arnold Arboretum) Year Q Visa Q Signature Master Card ($20 minimum) Credit Card # Expiration date: Month Please send your order Arnoldia Back Issues Arnold Arboretum 125 to: Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 WV-M "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23433","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170a36e.jpg","title":"1990-50-2","volume":50,"issue_number":2,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Zoo Horticulture: Plants and Animals Together at Last","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24997","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070a36b.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"Special Issue Zoo Horticulture: Plants and Animals Together at Last For most of this century, the term zoological behaviors garden has seemed a misnomer, mocked by frustrated animals pacing back and forth in barren cages. Over the past twenty years, however, the reality of this grim image has slowly been eroding. New zoo design strategies have transformed animal enclosures into \"habitat exhibits\" which combine plants with other naturalistic elements to simulate the look and feel of \"wild\" nature. Horticulture has come of age in the field of zoo management, as carefully crafted plantings are seen as contributing both to the welfare of the captive animals and to the enjoyment and education of visitors. This issue of Arnoldia displays a small sampling of the creativity and skill that can be found in the modern zoological landscape. The creation of realistic habitat simulations in zoos serves two important purposes. It recognizes, first, that in nature animals exist in specific environments and, second, that the closer an enclosure can approximate the animal's natural home, the greater the probability the animal will exhibit more natural and, if all goes well, will reproduce successfully. Indeed, habitat exhibits evolved partly out of public concern and, in some cases, outrage over the conditions endured by many of the animals. A second force driving the evolution of habitat exhibits is their powerful influence on the way visitors perceive zoo animals. Designers of habitat exhibits supplant the often depressing experience of viewing animals in metal cages with that of being immersed in a wild landscape, where barriers between animals and the visitor are minimized. In some exhibits, traditional roles are reversed, and the visitor gets the feeling of being confined, while the animal roams free. The net result of these changes is that the visitor's appreciation of the animals is enhanced, and the link between animals, their habitats, and conservation is permanently etched on the mind of the viewer. At long last zoological gardens across the country are beginning to live up to their names. A field of small boulders used to protect grasses and wildflowers from the constant pressure of half-grown snow leopards at play.New York Zoological Society Photo. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wilderness Horticulture: Himalayan Highlands on the Hudson","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24996","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad070a326.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Gwynne, John","article_content":"Wilderness Horticulture: the Hudson John Gwynne Plants are playing an increasingly exhibits of leading zoos. Himalayan Highlands on important role in the \"immersion\" Imagine searching for a glimpse of the elusive leopard in the high Himalayan wilds. Your imagined trek would depart from main roads to wander narrow uphill footpaths, past thickets of wild magnolias and overarching bamboo, through groves of fir and birch, and up steep grassy meadows dotted with purpleblue Geranium himalayense. Perhaps you'd snow flimsy rustic bridge of rope-tied logs fitted between great boulders spanning a steep-sided mountain brook where ferns, Ligularia, and candelabra primula grow in the come across a moist soil. Terrific! A mother snow leopard with two cubs is spotted among the talus boulders of the grassy slope. Crouching behind boulders, Millions of Amencans can now witness a snow field scientists.New York leopard m the Zoological Society Photo. snow - a sight previously seen by only a few 5 The Himalayan Highlands exhibit has room for people to read graphic messages about conservation. the cats are almost perfectly camouflaged, tails slowly twitching, as a scarlet-chested tragopan pheasant works its way down the hillside, pecking at wind-scattered grass seeds. Just such an experience formed the basis for the design of a new type of ecological exhibition recently created, not in the mountain wilds of Nepal or China, but in an oak wood in New York City. Here a determined team of zoologists, field scientists, exhibition designers, landscape architects, horticulturists, sculptors, welders, and graphics specialists-all employed by the New York Zoological Society-joined efforts to build a place that captures the feeling of montane Asia. Together, they moved mountains of soil and scree, planted thickets of bamboo and twenty-five-foot firs, and even sculpted rocky outcrops and a great fallen tree of steel, concrete, and epoxy to match the site's geology and woodlands. Named \"Himalayan Highlandsthe exhibition at the Bronx Zoo offered the opportunity to build a sanctuary for snow leopards, red pandas, white-naped cranes, and Temminck's tragopans. The design team also purposely created a dynamic place where visitors are encouraged to learn about wilderness, about the importance of plant-animal interactions, and of the urgent need for special conservation efforts. 6 Potential for Public Education While conceiving of Himalayan Highlands as a naturalistic place for animals, the design team also recognized the potential to enhance the visitor's appreciation of wild places and wild species. The challenge was to transcend typical zoo formulas, which concentrate on exhibiting animals within containments that are clearly manmade (buildings, architectural moats, fences, faux rock cliffs) and that deal with the animals' natural ecology only second-hand by means of signs or explana- so that visitors would feel immersed in the same environment as the animals. Without having to read, they would see a snow leopard teaching her cubs or a crane probing for tubers along a pond edge, and they would be able to learn how this bit of nature works. Unlike traditional zoo design where the manmade dominates, here the intent was to recreate a wild environment worth exploring, worth learning about, and worth ways, by docents. Himalayan Highlands was to be different, a place that would try to create the primary experience of a trek across an Asian hillside. While transporting an actual mountain slope intact would have been optimal, the more practical challenge was to recreate enough similar elements, combined in appropriate tions preserving. The primary educational goal for Himalayan Highlands was to impart an overall affective message-to get people to care. Educational graphics were carefully designed to provide a subtle yet important sublayer of interpretation; for example, a replica of a weathered ibex skull encourages people to read a small sign discussing leopard diets. Messages deal with plants, habitats, animal Visitors wander through a simulated wilderness landscape in the Himalayan Highlands exhibit. 7 ecology, and conservation; and a concentrated involved in their writing, fabricaand siting so that they seem to fit into tion, the landscape. was a barrier between animals and visitors, it was decided to separate the two by giving most of the woodlands to the animals and by restricting people to a winding path that leads around rocks and plantings to several viewing structures. So in one place a wood ramp was designed to bring people up to a viewing deck that cantilevers toward the woodland treetops favored by red pandas for their daytime roosting. In another spot, a blind of rough poles was built in a wild-looking, ten-foot-tall thicket of giant Miscanthus grass providing an open view into a marshy pond for the cranes. In another location, the rustic underside of a Nepalese bridge provided the model for a shaded public structure at the edge of a grove of black cherry trees frequented by snow leopards. Here a gauzy screen of fine piano wire, stretched tautly vertical and darkstained, is attached to the underside of the rustic bridge, as if emerging from the scree below. Easy to see through, especially in the shadow of the bridge, this flimsy-looking film of wire is sufficiently strong to separate animals and people. Two of the nearby cherry trunks are actually thirty-foot aluminum poles, covered with a skin of epoxy, sculpted and painted to match the living trees. These poles support a tentlike aviary of fine wire mesh that keeps the cats in the foreground where visitors can see them but is itself nearly invisible in the flickering light of a natural woodland backdrop. Near the visitors, what looks like a large flat boulder is actually fabricated of fiberglass-reinforced concrete cast from a mold taken of a real boulder. Its secret is internal heat coils, which create a warm dry perch for the cats to enjoy on wintery days. By the careful siting of viewing places, designers could screen undesirable views and focus attention on handsome vistas deep in the woods. Painstaking attention to detail effort Sculpting with Bulldozers Because zoo biology mandates insured that such manmade elements as structural poles were hidden by rocks or plants, or disguised within the rustic vernacular architecture of Nepal. Authentic cultural details were used to reinforce the sense of place: prayer flags marked exhibit entrances, a pile of prayer stones were placed along the public path, and architectural details were painted by a Nepalese artist. When setting boulders to support rustic bridges, skilled New York masons were asked to transcend their usual professional neatness by building walls in a haphazard and unsound-looking fashion with no mortar showing, a detail that helps achieve the look of nature reclaiming human efforts. Special efforts were made to bring in many tons of topsoil and talus and to regrade the site-where possible around existing treesto create a rough undulating topography and multiple microclimates for new plant communities. To make Himalayan Highlands believable as a wild place necessitated developing a new attitude towards naturalistic gardening, which might be termed \"wilderness horticulture.\" The horticultural intent was to create an Asian planting with a feeling of wildness-alandscape that did not look newly planted, or even planned at all. The woodland site in the Bronx Zoo was chosen in large part for its existing bedrock outcrops and cool northeastern exposure. It was dominated by natural stands of oak, tulip tree, and ash, their trunks measuring up to three feet in diameter. The understory included black cherry, swamp maple, a few invading Ailanthus, and some previously planted flowering dogwood. Although American rather than Himalayan species, most were kept to enhance the final exhibition by providing not only important shade for the animals but also of scale and timelessness. Forgenera have close relatives that form part of the Asian forest. a sense tuitously, these Hardy Himalayan Plants for New York Finding authentic, hardy Himalayan plants was no easy task. The results of an exhaustive search of stock available from American 8 The graceful habit and Debreczy of Cedrus deodara, an important feature in the Himalayan Highlands exhibit. Photo by Racz 9 nursery catalogues were cross-referenced with research into the flora of sites in Nepal, Tibet, South China that might serve as a model for Himalayan Highland's planting list. Nepal or was sites initially favored, especially oak woodland near Annapurna, as ideal for this project because of the remnant presence of both snow leopards and red pandas, plus the distinctive beauty of local cultural artifacts. However, since New York's winter climate is harsher than that of much of the Himalayas and since hardy Nepalese plants (especially in large sizes) are relatively scarce in nurseries, a decision was made to expand to a generalized plant list of Sino-Himalayan flora, with a sprinkling of North American analogs. This was necessary to achieve the of scale and the desired effect. proper For example, it was frustrating to envision the dappled shade of a spectacular grove of whitebarked Betula jacquemontii from Asia when plants here were only available in one-gallon pots. To achieve the immediate effect of mature birch groves required the substitution of non-Himalayan species. In spite of frustrations, a remarkable number of hardy Asian plants could be located, obtained for experiment in a cool niche. Few of the true Himalayan wild \"species\" rhododendrons, so distinctive of Asian forests, are hardy enough. Some were tried (including Rhododendron campanulatum, R. campylocarpum, R. forrestii var. repens, R. nivale ssp. boreale, and even R. cinnabarinum and R. barbatum) and managed tentative footholds in protected locations, but could not be relied upon for mass effect. Consequently, several locally hardy rhododendron hybrids had to be used. Forms were chosen that are compromise sense immediately recognizable to most people (to avoid connotations of suburbia) or that have relatively small flower trusses similar to the wild species. Several good-sized plants of the white-flowered hybrid 'Dora Amateis; with one Himalayan parent (R. ciliatum), were donated. A few plants of the North Asian not R. mucronulatum 'Cornell Pink' were included for their unexpected sparkle early in spring and their willowy forms reminiscent of Himalayan lepidote thickets. The marvelous tree-sized blood-red R. arboreum that so impressed explorers in the early twentieth century would have been an appropriate and spectacular plant for the a sometimes in sizes large enough to plant on site accessible to the public. More than a dozen deodar cedars over fifteen feet tall were located in a mid-Atlantic nursery. Other appropriate woody plants included Callicarpa bodinieri, Acer griseum, Hippophae rhamnoides, Pieris japonica, Potentilla fruticosa, Mahonia bealei, Cotoneaster salicifolius, Viburnum ssp., Sarcococca hookerana var. humilis, and Hydrangea. Large clumps of bamboo (Phyllostachys aureosulcata) were transplanted from Long Island. Herbaceous Himalayan Highlands exhibit, especially as their groves are now being decimated by firewood gatherers in Nepal and elsewhere in Asia. R. arboreum is, however, impossibly tender for New York winters, so large plants of the dark currant-red Consolini\/Dexter hybrid 'Francesca' were substituted, chosen for their distinctive color and upright stature. Planted on berms, someday these red-flowered trees may arch over visitors' heads as the true R. arboreum does in Asia. Crucial Wilderness Planting Details Since the intent was not to create a garden but to recreate a wild place, care was taken during installation to site plants in appropriate places and with correct associations and to space them irregularly. Where possible, largersized plants were located in the center of a cluster to replicate natural growth patterns. Bamboo and magnolia fit naturally together on lower portions of the site, with fir and low- goatsbeard (Aruncus dioicus), bugbane (Cimicifuga simplex), and geranium (G. himalayense) were deemed tough enough to survive and eventually may be joined by temperate aroids and other specialties. A number of especially desirable plants posed special problems. The fabled blue poppy (Meconopsis betonici folia) was considered too intolerant of New York summers to warrant initial planting, but seeds of it have been 10 e Seeing snow leopards in a green environment enhances the quality of the interaction between New York Zoological Society Photo. visitors and animals. 11 growing rhododendrons on the rocky promontories. To suggest \"krumholtz\" wind pruning, distinctive of treeline firs, the team even discussed sandblasting lightly the northwest side of some plants. This idea was rejected, only because of the inappropriateness of this windblown look under overtowering oaks. Much of the site was heavily bermed to exaggerate the roughness of the topography and to screen visitors' views of one another. The zods own aged manure was used liberally in the topsoil mix to retain moisture, especially on slopes. While grounds keepers of most gardens and public parks carefully remove dead vegetation, old gnarled stumps and deadfall were purposefully incorporated into the plantings to make this site seem wilder. All visible saw-cut ends were buried or disguised by \"aging.\" Deadfall limbs were carefully sited among new plantings both for natural effect and to form low barriers to discourage people from wandering from paths. Not only were spacings between plants purposefully irregular but understory trees were planted at tilted angles to suggest their reaching for light. Plants with uneven shapes were obtained from nurseries in preference to symmetrical plants (undoubtedly to the delight of the local nursery). Where \"saucers\" of bark mulch were built around recently installed plants to facilitate watering, these regular forms were disguised with dead leaves. Much of the site, including mulched areas, was seeded irregularly with a fine-textured, \"uncut\" red fescue. On an irregular terrain, this clumping grass cover was effective in enhance the impression of naturalness. While not needing the maintenance typical of many public displays, Himalayan Highlands does require eyes trained in naturalistic horticulture. Weed species need to be recognized and removed. Pruning needs to be helping to disguise a newly planted look, to unify the massings of plants visually, and to lies People in an elevated viewing area beyond. can observe a red panda in the trees only a few feet away; the native forest 12 discreet and done with knowledge. The comparatively unorthodox beauty of a tuft of brown grass in winter needs to be recognized, appreciated, and left untouched, while a viburnum branch needs inconspicuous pruning when crowding a neighboring fir. Unlike increasingly insularized, inadequate, and degraded. The rate of tropical deforestation has recently accelerated to one hundred acres each minute. To try to combat the losses, zoos now are changing rapidly in order to become effective sanctuaries. While public interest in zoos has burgeoned and awareness of environmental destruction has increased, the idea of building educational wilderness immersion exhibits to reveal the beauty and ecology of wild places does not need to be the sole province of zoos. Imagine a botanic garden encouraging visitors to wander through a moody, beautiful, Carboniferous swamp forest of giant horsetails, cycads and tree ferns, along with an occasional primitive reptile. A huge greenhouse nearby could shelter a spectacular arid southmore exhibit, planted living place-its continual change creates new horticultural opportunities but also a static museum a site is a necessitates constant, subtle observation. Certain species, such as the bamboos, are maturing sufficiently to allow thinning for fresh browse for bamboo-eating red pandas. Other species require replacement, such as the initial short-lived plantings of American birches. The project will never be \"done.\" Indeed, the goal is that, over time, the analogous North American plants will be replaced by more authentic Himalayan species. While the exhibit needed to look established when it opened, it is also a living place that can develop and change. now western Madagascar spiny forest, complete Exhibits to Encourage Saving the Wilderness The Himalayan Highlands exhibit is both a subtly complex and popular place for visitors but, as an experiment in environmental \"immersion\" and \"wilderness horticulture ;' it is not unique. In the Bronx Zoo alone, Himalayan Highlands is joined by huge new with eroded stream beds for people to explore, as well as baobabs, rare tortoises, and marvelously specialized endemic flora. To lobby effectively for wild places, we must make their values evident. If we cannot actually bring thousands of people to primitive tree fern forests, montane Ethiopia, or a vanishing Himalayan forest, we do have the ability to convey some of the fascination and beauty of those places here. The words of the Senegalese philosopher Baba Dioum succinctly express this intent: In the end, we will conserve only what we love. We will love only what we understand. We will understand only what we are taught. wild habitats where visitors can wander through an extensive and dramatic Asian rain forest, visit a rhino wallow, or a sparse African alpine habitat. Serious commitments to expansive landscape replication and specialized horticulture are now found in several American zoos aided by the recently formed American Association of Zoological Horticulture. We are witnessing a world with its wild lands and biological diversity fast disappearing and with its scarce refuges becoming Trained as a landscape architect at Harvard's Graduate School of Design, John Gwynne is currently Deputy Director for Design at the New York Zoological Society. He is an avid gardener and has illustrated several books on the birds of Panama, Costa Rica, Venezuela, Columbia, and China. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Landscaping for Realism: Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24992","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060816b.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Jackson, Donald W.","article_content":"for Realism: Simulating the Natural Habitats of Zoo Animals Landscaping Donald W. Jackson In Atlanta, Georgia, horticulturists have created the illusion of a West African rain forest and an East African savanna with hardy, woody plants. What does a horticulturist or landscape architect strive to attain when choosing plants for a naturalistic animal exhibit in any major zoo? Should visitors come upon bananas and tropical figs complementing an exhibit featuring giraffes or zebras that naturally roam the hot, arid Serengeti? Let's hope not. Likewise, they should not be confronted by trees that resemble the acacias of arid Kenya and Tanzania in a lowland gorilla exhibit. In order to simulate a particular geographi- possible, zoo horticulthorough knowledge of the region's overall geology, climate, economy, and social customs-all critically important for installing an appropriate habitat for zoo area as cal closely a as turists must have Lowland gorilla in the African ram forest exhibit at Zoo Atlanta. 14 The lush feeling of the Ford liopical Rain Forest at Zoo Atlanta. animals. To create a lowland gorilla habitat in Zoo Atlanta, our goal was to gather as much information on the region as possible in order to simulate its home convincingly. Rain Forests What botanical characteristics tend to dominate the lush rain forests of Cameroon, West Africa, the home of the lowland gorilla? If we think back to our childhood and recall old movie footage of Tarzan, numerous lianas or tropical vines probably come to mind, a fairly accurate representation of the flora of the region. Brief but frequent rains and high humidity also characterize tropical areas in Cameroon as well as similar areas through- more the world, and the rain forest canopy has levels or strata than we are familiar with in the deciduous woodlands of eastern North out America. Simulating Tropical The tremendous diversity of animal life strikes anyone who has seen or read about a tropical rain forest. An almost unimaginable array of mammals, amphibians, reptiles, birds, fish, and especially insects lives in the tropics-agreat number of which scientists have yet to describe. Although the variety of plant life is equally diverse, many plants have certain features in common, such as large leaves with a relatively smooth, waxy upper surface and long \"drip tips,\" two features that help shed excessive rainfall in the humid 15 tropics. In contrast, species native to the Serengeti and other arid regions tend to have small leaves that help them conserve as much precious moisture as possible through reduced transpiration. The ideal method of landscaping a naturalistic exhibit of animals from tropical regions is to use exclusively those plant species that are native to tropical forests. To be truly accurate, only flora indigenous to Cameroon, West Africa, should be used to landscape a lowland gorilla enclosure, and only those plants that grow in the rain forests of Borneo and Sumatra should be selected for an orangutan exhibit. Although such choices would be optimum, this goal is obviously not realistic. Since very few American zoos are located in climates without frost, such an endeavor would make little sense in an outdoor exhibit. Even in an indoor exhibit, the costs of obtaining native plants both for the initial landscaping and for replacements over the long term-even if it were possible to procure them-would be prohibitively expensive. However, even when we substituted non- native material in our lowland gorilla complex at Zoo Atlanta, well over $40,000 worth of non-hardy tropical plants were used outdoors, including up to 20-foot-tall scheffleras, 16-foot- The foliage of Magnolia macrophylla, the bigleaf magnolia, at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. 16 palms, and countless numbers of philodendrons, anthuriums, and bananas. These plants are overwintered in large polyhouses and simply add a tropical flair to the exhibit during the warmer months. They must be viewed as \"icing on the cake,\" however, since the real horticultural backbone of nearly any zoo exhibit is made up of coldhardy species and cultivars that simulate the indigenous flora of the animal's native habitat. tall areca Ibmperate Trees with The large, glossy southern magnolia (Magnolia grandiflora) resemble the foliage of a number of tropical Look evergreen leaves of the a Tropical species, especially figs, quite effectively. A number of other magnolias are frequently used by zoo horticulturists to simulate the world's tropical habitats. The bigleaf magno- lia (M. macrophylla) and the umbrella magnolia (M. tripetala) are both superb simulators with their extremely large leaves. Those of the bigleaf magnolia measure two to three feet in length; those of the umbrella reach one to two feet. An added bonus is the huge flowers, produced in early summer; those of the bigleaf magnolia can grow to over twelve inches in width; those of the umbrella reach from seven to ten inches. The biggest deterrent to using either of these two species to create a tropical-looking landscape is not their appearance but their poor availability within the nursery trade. Because their coarsely textured foliage makes them difficult to incorporate successfully into either a residential or commercial landscape design, few nurseries grow either the umbrella or bigleaf magnolias. And those that are avail- The attractive compound fohage of Rhus typhina, the staghorn Arboretum. sumac. From the Archives of the Arnold 17 Aralia elata m full bloom at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. able in nurseries are usually only an inch or so in diameter and at best six to eight feet in height. Two other magnolias valuable for simulating a rain forest environment are the sweet- appealing in that they have a delectable fragrance of vanilla and green and orange coloring. Unfortunately, they are not produced in quantity until the tree reaches the age of fifteen years or more, and a height of twenty to thirty feet. Among the best of the cold-hardy plants for use in simulating the tropical rain forest are the empress tree or royal paulownia (Paulownia tomentosa) and the northern catalpa (Catalpa speciosa). The paulownia is particularly fast-growing and, like the catalpa, boasts very large heart-shaped leaves and tropical-looking flowers. Neither of these species is much sought after for planting in the home landscape or as street trees, so both are rather difficult to locate in large sizes within the nursery trade. Likewise, the ailanthus bay (M. virginiana) and the cucumber tree (M. acuminata), with leaves that can reach ten inches in length and bearing a reasonably long \"drip tip.\" The sweetbay is readily available; its glossy leaves and fragrant flowers are highly attractive but unfortunately do not grow as large as those of most other magnolias. The cucumber magnolia is much harder to locate although, with persistence, large specimens be found in the fields of old wholesale My experience with the cucumber magnolia corroborates the general opinion that it is difficult to transplant. Two additional members of Magnoliaceae often used in a simulated rain forest exhibit are the native American tulip tree or tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera) and the Japanese anise tree (Illicium anisatum). The flowers of the tulip poplar are particularly can nurseries. compound leaves the zoo (Ailanthus altissima) with its large pinnately remains a good choice for horticulturist striving to introduce a tropical flair to the landscape. The long pinnately compound leaves of the smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) and staghorn 18 sumac (R. typhina) make these species possiin rain forest habitats. Creative Methods for Forest Simulating a Rain ble candidates for use Both grow exceedingly fast and, except for the cut-leaf varieties, are not frequent components of the home landscape. The lantanaphyllum viburnum (Viburnum x rhytidophylloides), hardy rubber tree (Eucommia ulmoides), devil's walking stick (either Aralia spinosa or Aralia elata), and cultivars of the common rose mallow (Hibiscus moscheutos) are other hardy plants that can effectively simulate the atmosphere of tropical rain forests. The various species of temperate bamboos, particularly within the genus Phyllostachys, can be extremely important in habitat exhibits. In general, they are available from wholesale nurseries in sizes and quantities sufficient to meet the demands of landscaping large exhibit areas, and their coldhardiness is greater than many horticulturists realize. While the leaves of the white mulberry (Morus alba) are the food of silkworms, the fruitless (male) cultivars are valuable to the zoo horticulturist not only for their vigorous growth and spreading form but also because their foliage provides an excellent browse for many zoo animals from colobus monkeys to As mentioned, vines tant or lianas are very imporof the world's rain forests. components We found one of the best vines to use to simulate Cameroon, West Africa, is the trumpet vine (Campsis radicans) with its long tubular, two-inch-wide flowers and rampant growth. Its blooms can range in color from scarlet to orange or even yellow, depending on the cultivar; its Zone 4 cold hardiness allows it to be planted in most zoos throughout the country. The trumpet vine's large pinnately compound leaves, along with its wide availability, make it a first-rate choice to simulate the tropical habitats of many diverse animals-from a shy tapir to an agile and inquisitive siamang. Although a wide variety of vines, ranging from the paniculata) devilla laxa), more sweet autumn clematis to the Chilean jasmine can (Clematis be used (Manby zoos located in some southern are climates, of the best just not available in nurseries. As a substitute, the simple stringing of dead grapevines throughout the trees can give an amazvines giraffes. Willow (Salix sp.) is another multi-purpose plant for the zoo horticulturist. Although the leaves are not particularly large, their long narrow shape somewhat simulates the foliage of the bamboos characteristic of tropical areas. Branches of small diameter can simply be cut in early spring and stuck into moist soil where they quickly take root. These willow saplings soon form impressive thickets that can be easily and cheaply used to screen unsightly vistas or to hide the backs of small buildings. As the willows continue to mature and become too tree-like, they can be thinned out to keep the colony dense and shrubby. Like white mulberry, the leaves of willow are an excellent source of browse for many zoo animals and, with their fast growth, they can be frequently harvested for this purpose. ingly realistic effect to a rain forest exhibit. Also the strategic placement of deadfalls and brushpiles along public walkways can dramatically adda touch of authenticity to a rain forest exhibit. At Zoo Atlanta, a dead twenty-two-inchcaliper southern magnolia-with a wide multi-branched crown-was hoisted up by crane, and a portion of its lower trunk simply \"planted\" in concrete near one of the exhibit's main animal viewing areas. The tree had died a number of weeks before, but we used it to help convey an image of the struggle of life and death in the forest. More important, the use of deadfalls and brushpiles-when combined with interpretive graphics-depicts the destructive effects of slash-and-burn agriculture within the world's tropical rain forests and can provide an educational message regarding the wise use of our world's natural resources for visitors of all ages. 19 The flowers and foliage of Albizia julibnssin. the East African Plains From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Simulating In addition to the tropical rain forests, another environment that affords the zoo horticulturist a challenge is that of the plains of Kenya and Tanzania in East Africa. The plants used Simulating East African acacias is most often accomplished in zoos by planting broadcrowned, irregularly shaped honey locusts (Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis) and removing the lower branches to make them appear to have been browsed. Like those of the honey locust, the small leaflets of the mimosa (Albizia julibrissin) make it an excellent simulator of the acacias of the Serengeti. simulate the authentic habitat of giraffes, lions, zebras, elephants, and fleet-footed Thomson's gazelles look much different from those chosen to complement a lowland gorilla or a white-handed gibbon exhibit. Unlike tropical plants with large leaves and \"drip tips,\" the trees and shrubs that a zoo horticulturist would choose to depict the plains of Kenya and Tanzania would almost all have thorns or spines and small leaves to simulate the native flora's need to conserve water. Speto Although seldom recommended for the home landscape for a number of reasons, its broadspreading crown provides unique opportunities to zoo horticulturists. In the southeastern United States, the yaupon holly [Ilex vomitoria) is a common and often overused plant in the general landscape. Although its small leaves are valuable in simulating an arid environment, the form of specimens sold in nurseries is seldom very natural in appearance. We were fortunate cies and cultivars of selected ornamental grasses would also be appropriate, as are associated landscape features, such cial termite mounds. as artifi- 20 Large naturalistic yaupon holly (Ilex vomitoria), mtentionally planted on can an angle, in the Masai Mara East Afri- Savanna Exhibit. enough a to locate some very large and over- grown yaupons growing in the back corner of wholesale nursery, and they are now of the premier focal points of Zoo Atlanta's new East African plains exhibit. The two- to three-inch thorns of the cockspur hawthorn (Crataegus crus-galli) also make it a valued addition to any exhibit housing lions, zebras, giraffes, and similar animal species. While its thorns are very realistic, they are also potentially dangerous, particularly to small children. The use of this hawthorn in a zoological landscape is, therefore, large one restricted to areas that can be easily seen and appreciated but are totally inaccessible to both the animals and the visiting public. The following list of plants will help zoo horticulturists simulate the arid plains of Kenya and Tanzania: Adam's needle (Yucca filamentosa); small soap weed (Yucca glauca); Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifolia) ; Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii); Siberian pea shrub (Caragana arborescens); Warminster broom (Cytisus x praecox) ; pampas grass (Cortaderia selloana); ravenna grass (Erianthus ravennae); Chinese pennise- 21 turn (Pennisetum alopecuroides); maiden the drip lines of trees to guard against soil (Miscanthus sinensis 'Gracillimus'); eulalia grass (M. sinensis); and hardy orange (Poncirus trifoliata). Tbxicity and Other Constraints grass compaction. Plants must also be protected against the sheer strength of a lowland gorilla. Fiberglass tree casts can be used to protect the bark of mature shade trees within gorilla enclosures. Final texturing and coloring give the casts a realistic appearance when fitted around the tree's trunk. Significant damage to plants can be caused by a wide range of other animals. The bark of any tree must always be protected against the sharp claws of lions or leopards. Likewise, the playfulness of tiger cubs can be particularly rough on any landscaping within their exhibit if care is not taken. Finally, in areas where ducks and geese are allowed to range freely over lawn areas, the effects of grazing and soil compaction can be much more significant than most visitors would ever imagine. In some cases, human behavior can cause problems, as in the case of the Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima), which cannot be located near our gorilla exhibit because of its nuts. The nuts can be thrown by children, and its spiny fruit husks can present additional liabilities along pedestrian walkways. Suffice it to say that some plants that superficially appear useful in complementing an animal exhibit cannot even be considered by zoo horticulturists. Despite its constraints, zoo horticulture has come a long way in the past decade or two in an effort to display animals in a convincing simulation of their native environments. Look closely at the types of plants used around the exhibits on your next visit to a major zoo. You may be pleasantly surprised by what you Whether it be the simulation of a rain forest in tropical West Africa, the arid plains of Kenya and Tanzania, or some other region of the world, zoo horticulturists are constrained in many ways in their efforts to create the \"natural\" habitat of a specific animal. For example, oleander (Nerium oleander), commonly seen in gardens throughout the deep South, is not used in a zoological setting because of its toxicity. Likewise, while some plants may be difficult to locate in the nursery trade, others are impossible to obtain except through professional contacts at arboreta or botanical gardens. One example that comes readily to mind is the Chinese public gardens part of their collection, although its large pinnately compound leaves, strongly resembling those of the ailanthus, evoke a tropical feeling. While widely available, certain varieties and cultivars with variegated foliage or with crimsoncolored leaves, such as zebra grass (Miscanthus sinensis 'Zebrinus') or the ever-popular red-leaved Japanese barberry (Berberis thunbergii var. atropurpurea), are of little use for creating a natural-looking habitat. Animal-related damage to plants can be toon tree (Cedrela sinensis). claim it as Few can even quite extensive if precautions are not taken. Elephants and rhinos can be particularly destructive as a result of their immense weight and strength. Both animals must always be kept well away from the trunks and lower branches of trees within their exhibits. Boulders and other large-sized barriers, such as logs, can also be strategically placed around recognize. Donald Jackson m is Curator of Horticulture at Zoo Atlanta Atlanta, Georgia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An African Tropical Forest in Boston","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24990","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060bb6d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Thurlow, Matthew A.","article_content":"An African Tropical Forest in Boston Matthew A. Thurlow The newest indoor exhibit for revitalization. at Franklin Park Zoo in Boston is the centerpiece The \"African Tropical Forest\" is the newest exhibit at the Franklin Park Zoo in Boston. The object of this three-acre indoor-outdoor exhibit is to take the zoo visitor on a safari through a West African tropical forest. Each turn in the path offers a new chance to sight African wildlife in naturalistic habitats. No bars or cages separate the visitors from the animals. Moats disguised as stream beds permit unobstructed views of the animals, and strategically placed glass allows visitors to come face to face with some of the forest's more impressive animals. The African Tropical Forest is housed in the largest free-standing building of its kind in the United States, measuring 45,000 square feet, with over 28,000 square feet of general exhibit area. The tripod support beams rise 75 feet at the apex supporting the coated white cloth roof. Artificial rockwork throughout the (Ceiba pentandra). Many of the hundred birds the forest have found that the upper reaches are fine places to perch. The Hadada ibis roost throughout the upper story. To exhibit some animals, such as the pygmy hippos and yellow-backed duikers, a forestclearing effect was required. Medium-growth plants were installed to create this effect: banana plants, bird-of-paradise, Australian tree ferns, dracaenas, and philodendrons surround these cleared areas. The giant white bird-ofparadise plants (Strelitzia alba) have been a great success and bloom repeatedly to the delight of zoo visitors. Throughout the entire building, a lush understory planting features elephant ears flying freely through (Alocasia sanderana), ginger (Zingiber officinale), heliconias, and many fern species. Where streams from the waterfalls flow, umbrella plants (Cyperus alternifolius), Egyptian paper air plants, building designed provide planting beds, which hold the largest collection of tropical plants in New England. The planters are placed so that the flora will develop into a lush canopy of vegetation above the public walkways. The 150 animals may be the centerpiece of the African Tropical Forest, but it is the 3,000 plants that create the tropical-forest setting that makes the gorillas, hornbills, and bongos feel at home. was to over 75 plants (Cyperus papyrus), walking iris, and bamboos were planted. Epiphytes, or hang from the rock faces and trees. roothold. Creeping figs (Ficus pumila) are rapidly growing out of any crack or crevice in which they can get a A Developing Ecosystem The upper level of this indoor forest is sup- ported by fiddleleaf ficus (Ficus lyrata), rubber trees (Ficus elastica), banyan trees (Ficus retusa), schefflera (Brassaia actinophylla), fishtail palms (Caryota mitis), and kapoks The plants in the African Tropical Forest were installed in 1989, one year ago. Since that time many interesting changes have been noticed. Most rewarding is the tropical forest ecosystem that is developing. With the thickening of the forest canopy, light to the under- 23 A lowland gonlla m its tropical habitat at Metroparks' Franklin Park Zoo. story is being reduced, creating a mosaic of microclimates. Just as in an actual tropical forest, the plants compete for access to the light. In open areas where light is more intense, the plants grow and spread at their own rate. In the shaded areas, shade-tolerant plants have overtaken other species. The vines (Tetrastigma voinieranum and Clerodendrum thomsoniae) planted in the forest floor are beginning to creep up the stalks and trunks of other plants to fill in the gaps in the canopy. Certain trees partially defoliate in response to the reduced levels of light. Part of the routine maintenance inside the pavilion is the selective pruning of the trees to allow more light to reach the lower areas. Care is taken in the pruning to make sure that the trees maintain their natural appearance. The birds in the forest help in this endeavor. In landing on perches that will not support their weight, the birds break off branches in a random pattern. Pest control presents special problems in the controlled environment of the African Tropical such as Forest. Normal contact control, pesticides, systemics, or injecmeans of are not used because of their toxicity the animals. In general, infested plant material is cut off and removed immediately. Insecticidal soaps are used widely because they are nontoxic to the animals. Predatory insects are also being used on an experimental basis, with some noteworthy surprises. To combat the spread of aphids, 150,000 ladybird beetles were released within the pavilion. The aphids, which are deleterious to the plants, produce a honeydew on which ants feed. The forest's resident ant population has begun to protect the aphids from the beetles. The symbiotic relationship that has developed between the ants and the aphids is yet another reminder that the forest is a living, evolving ecosystem that humans cannot always control. tions, to Matthew A. Thurlow is the Director of Landscape Design and Maintenance for MetroParks Zoos in Boston and Stoneham. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum in Winter: A Photo Essay","article_sequence":5,"start_page":24,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24994","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad0608928.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Racz, Istvan; Debreczy, Zsolt","article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum in Winter A Photo Essay Istvdn Racz and Zsolt Debreczy Pmus pungens, the Table Mountam pme 25 Miscanthus sinensis by the pond 26 Pinus mugo and Roxbury puddmg stone near the old dwarf conifer beds 27 The legume collection 28 Picea abies 'Pendula,' the weepmg Norway spruce 29 The tracks of skiers and hikers among the lilacs The pictures in this essay were photographed on ORWO NP 15 and NP 22 film using a Pentacon Six camera, both made m East Germany. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Why do Rhododendron Leaves Curl?","article_sequence":6,"start_page":30,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24995","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060896d.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Nilsen, Erik Tallak","article_content":"Why Do Rhododendron Leaves Curl? Erik Tallak Nilsen A physiological ecologist movements leaf looks at the in Rhododendrons. significance of temperature-sensitive more than two hundred years, the genus Rhododendron has been a focal point for scientists and horticulturists. During the midnineteenth and early-twentieth centuries, a fascination with the genus stimulated many botanists to visit its center of diversity in remote parts of Burma and China in search of new species. The renowned botanist J. D. Hooker of Kew noted the leaf curling and For drooping of Rhododendron arboreum in his Himalayan Journals of 1855, and explorers such as E. H. Wilson, F. Kingdon-Ward, and R. Farrar made frequent notes on the temperature-sensitive (thermotropic) leaf movements in rhododendron. In addition, both amateur and professional rhododendron enthusiasts have made countless reports of leaf curling in various rhododendron species. Rhododendron maximum in winter. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. 31 Leaf movements in plants were first categorized by Charles Darwin in 1880 in his groundbreaking book The Power of Movement in Plants. Darwin pointed out that many plant parts, and particularly leaves, move in response to a number of extrinsic (environmental) and intrinsic (physiological) factors. The most important extrinsic factors are light intensity (phototropic), light direction (heliotropic), water content (hydrotropic), and temperature (thermotropic). The most frequently observed case of thermotropic moveoccurs in plants in hot, dry environments where leaves move upward and become vertical to avoid excessive light ments absorption. The thermotropic leaf movements of Rhododendron movements are are unusual because these in response to cold tempera- and the leaves become pendent rather than vertical. Research on the thermotropic movements of rhododendron leaves began in 1899 with the work of Harshberger. In 1933, a Japanese scientist, Y. Fukuda, studied the leaf-curling patterns of Rhododendron micranthum, making the important observation that its leaves could be kept from curling if he covered them with snow, thereby insulating them from cold air temperatures. Based on these observations, Fukuda concluded that the thermotropic leaf movements were correlated with leaf rather than air temperature. My research on thermotropic leaf movements of Rhododendron began in 1984 with three main questions: (1) What are the specific seasonal and daily patterns of leaf movements, and how are they affected by climatic factors? (2) What is the physiological cause of thermotropic leaf movements and how does it relate to the leaf ultrastructure? (3) What is the adaptive significance of leaf movements to rhododendrons in their native habitats? Before I began my research project, I was well aware of the popular dogma concerning the significance of leaf-curling and drooping movements, which claimed that this phenomenon was an accurate air temperature sensor. Frequently, I heard the statement: \"When I look out of my kitchen window, I tures diagrammatic representation of the leaf Rhododendron maximum. Changes in leaf orientation move from curled and pendent at 9:00 a.m. to flat and more horizontal by 9'20 a.m. Figure 1. A movements in know how cold it is by looking at my rhodo leaves.\" Most authors believed that this curling served one of two purposes: either it prevented water loss in a dry winter environment where the soil water was frozen and unavailable; or it protected the leaves from damage by repetitive freezing and thawing. Six Possible Theories My training in plant-stress physiology allowed me to propose six possible scenarios for the adaptive significance of thermotropic leaf movements in rhododendron. I will discuss possibility in turn, along with supportive or contradictory evidence from my research program. Evolutionary Relict Theory. This theory is the hardest to support or refute because it is based on a long-term evolutionary perspective. Theoretically, thermotropic leaf movements could have evolved in response to climatic conditions in the geological past, perhaps during the ice ages of the Pleistocene. Current interglacial conditions differ from those that led to the evolution of these leaf movements. each 32 Thus thermotropic leaf movements in rhododendron are a relict and have no adaptive significance to plants under the current climatic conditions. This theory is plausible because Rhododendron is an ancient genus, with a fossil history extending through several glacial and interglacial periods. In addition, this species is longlived and clonal, two characteristics that reduce the rate of evolutionary change. One argument against the evolutionary relict theory is that those rhododendron species that demonstrate cold tolerance are those species with the leaf movements. For example, R. ponticum and R. macrophyllum show little if any leaf movement in the same garden in Virginia, and these two species are not cold hardy. On the other hand, two extremely hardy species, R. maximum and R. catawbiense, show prominent leaf movements. In addition, my experiments on the physiological causes of leaf movements clearly indicate that they require no metabolic energy and that they occur after complete turgor loss. Since these movements do not require energy, there is no reason why evolutionary processes would select against them. Mechanical Theory. The leaves simply droop to protect themselves from mechanical damage due to the accumulated weight of rime, ice, and snow. Rhododendron leaves are subject to a considerable buildup of ice, up to 1.5 centimeters thick, during winter months. Even under these conditions, however, the leaves are tenaciously held to the branches, and I have never observed them damaged by ice buildup. Quite clearly mechanical protection is not a likely explanation for the adaptive significance of thermotropic leaf movements. Figure 2. The relationship between leaf curling and leaf temperature for four Rhododendron species growing in a common garden. Desiccation Theory. Many reports suggest that thermotropic leaf movements are a mechanism to prevent desiccation during cold periods. In fact, until recently this has been the main explanation for the significance of rhododendron leaf movements. According to this theory, the action of curling is thought to reduce the transpiring leaf area by creating a moist microsite around the stomata of the lower leaf surface to reduce water loss and protect against desiccation. Several lines of evidence can be brought against this theory. First, the leaf stomata are not open during cold periods. In fact, they cannot be induced to open during the cold months. When stomata are closed, the internal leaf water is unaffected by changes in atmospheric humidity. Therefore, leaf curling can have no impact on the leafs water balance. The fact that there is only a very small evaporative demand placed on the leaf during cold weather further suggests that very little water is conserved by the leaf-curling behavior. Second, the waxy cuticular layer on the upper surface of the leaf is relatively thick and effectively inhibits the flow of water through the epidermal cells. Theoretically, tension placed on the cuticle layer by curling could induce fissures in this cuticle and actually increase the loss of water from the epidermis. Third, I have taken many thousands of rhododendron leaf-water potential measure- 33 should have no impact on the response of the leaf to the lack of water moving up from the root zone. Heat Balance Theory.The thermotropic leaf in which vertical position, serve the purpose of reducing leaf temperature by reducing the total quantity of light absorbed by the leaf. Thermotropic leaf movements in rhododendron are different because these movements occur in response to cold rather than hot temperatures. Leaves that are horizontal and flat have a greater exposure to the sky than those that are pendent and curled. Energy budget calculations made with a model rhododendron leaf indicate that a horizontal leaf could have a leaf temperature 3 to 6 degrees Centigrade lower than the air temperature while the pendent and curled leaf temperature will match the air temperature. Temperatures between -25 and -35 degrees C. are usually considered lethal to Appalachian rhododendrons. Air temperatures in the mountains frequently reach -15 to -17 degrees C., suggesting that leaf temperatures could come close to the lethal values ifleafcurling did not occur. Interpreting the heat balance data is further complicated by the type of canopy trees shading the rhododendron plant. The presence of a thick deciduous canopy or a moderate evergreen canopy would cut down on heat loss. One might compare the canopy to a blanket for the subcanopy plants. In several wild rhododendron populations, with and without a forest canopy cover, I forced leaves to remain flat and horizontal during the winter months. Repetitive measurements of leaf temperature throughout several nights at all sites never found more than a 4 degree C. difference between leaves with or without curling and drooping movements. Actually, only the leaves on plants without an overhead canopy showed more than a one degree difference between the flat horizontal leaves and the night air temperature. This small effect of leaf movement on leaf temperature is not likely to be significant in preventing leaf damage due to freezing. In general, the canopy over the movements of many desert plants, a the leaves move upward into ments Figure 3. A diagrammatic representation of leaftreatused to determme the adaptive significance of leaf movements ments m the genus Rhododendron. during the winter and the summer in Virginia. These data provide no indication of during the winter months. I have found that leaf-water potentials (an index of the energy in water in the leaf) are directly related to temperature. When I measure the water potential of a leaf on a cold day, then let the leaf warm up and measure again, the warmed measurement will be larger than the cold measurement even though there has been no change in the leaf-water content. This means that the low water potentials measured by other workers in the winter are not the result of desiccation, but rather the direct influence of temperature on the leaf water. As a final point, the desiccation theory depends upon a limited availability of water from the soil as a consequence of its being frozen. The evidence does not support this notion because leaf movements in rhododendron begin months before the soil freezes. Also, the fact that leaf curling can be repetitively stimulated on detached leaves indicates no influence of the roots on the leaf curling or uncurling processes. The observation that curling fails to occur when the leaf is covered with snow further contradicts the desiccation theory. If leaf curling were dependent upon desiccation, the presence of snow on the leaf water stress 34 * rhododendron plants has a strong ameliorating effect on winter nocturnal leaf temperatures, and leaf movements have little to no effect in most of the wild rhododendron habitats on the East Coast. Photoinhibition Theory. A very active field of research in plant-stress physiology is the influence of multiple environmental factors on plant physiology. One of the first case studies involved the interaction of cold temperatures and bright light on leaf physiology. These studies demonstrated that leaf cell membranes are susceptible to damage by intense radiation when they are cold. The membranes most susceptible to damage are those in the chlorophyll-rich chloroplasts. In particular, the membranes supporting photosystem-2 (a group of proteins that captures light energy and converts it to chemical energy) are most susceptible. The damage occurs during cold leaf temperatures when there are no outlets for the light energy captured by photosystem-2. In this situation the protein-membrane association between photosystem-2 and the chloroplast membranes is disturbed, resulting in a physiological dysfunction termed photoinhibition. The quantity of light absorbed by the leaf during the winter is the critical determinant of the potential for photoinhibition. Irradiance conditions under a canopy of leafless trees are higher in the winter than in the summer, which means that rhododendron plants experience the highest radiation of the year during the coldest weather. Under these conditions, leaf drooping and curling act to reduce the quantity of light impinging on the leaf during the coldest temperatures, thereby Figure 4. Thermal emission (freezing point) and the temperature range for leaf curlmg of Rhododendron maximum and Rhododendron ponticum. During this leaf manipulation study, it was significant that leaf curling had little influence on the potential for photoinhibition. Rather, it was the drooping of the leaves that protected the leaves from photosynthetic damage. Indeed, leaf angle and leaf curling should be treated as distinct phenomenon. Leaf curling responds directly to temperature, while leaf angle responds to the water potential of the petiole. To be accurate, one should separate these movements in terms of both their physiological cause and their adaptive preventing limiting photoinhibition. I tested the possibility of cold-induced photoinhibition by high light in my leaf manipuor lation studies. My measurements of leaf decreased by as much as 50 percent in leaves prevented from moving during the winter. In addition, diagnostic techniques using the interaction between light intensity and photosynthesis clearly pointed to photoinhibition as the root cause of the decrease in photosynthesis. photosynthesis significance. Freezing damage theory. Along with many others, Jacob Levitt has demonstrated that most of the damage caused by leaf freezing is a result of ice crystals piercing cellular membranes, followed by too rapid a rate of rewarming after freezing. The field of cryogenics has clearly demonstrated that tissues are best preserved by rapid freezing and slow rewarming. Leaf freezing points of rhododendron in the Appalachian mountains are -8degrees C. on the average. Of course there is variability 35 between species and times of the year, but this amounts to a range of less than 2 degrees C. Winter temperatures in these mountains are normally -10 degrees C. or lower. Consequently, the rhododendron leaves freeze on most evenings. Daily temperature is normally near -2 degrees C., so the leaves also thaw daily. Rhododendron is one of the few evergreen genera on the East Coast that has the capacity to tolerate frequent freeze and thaw cycles. Energy budget models (as well as our field measurements) indicate that horizontal flat leaves will thaw more rapidly than the pendent curled leaves. In particular, leaf curling will reduce the leaf area exposed to light and thereby slow the rate of thaw, protecting the leaf from freezing damage. References Bao, Y, and E. T. Nilsen. 1988. The ecophysiological significance of leaf movements maximum m L. Ecology 69(5): Rhododendron 1578-1587. New Darwm, C. 1880. The Power of Movement in Plants. York: D. Appleton. Fukuda, Y. Hygronastic curling and uncurlmg moveof the leaves of Rhododendron micranthum Turcz with respect to temperature and 1933. ment resistance to cold. Tap Tour. of Bot 6: 199-224. Havis, J. R. 1964. Freezing of Rhododendron leaves. Proc. Amer. Hort. Soc 84: 570-574. Nilsen, E. T. 1985. Seasonal and diurnal leaf movements in Rhododendron maximum L. in contrasting irradiance environments. Oecologica 65: 296-302. 1985. Causes and Summary on leaf movements in Rhododendron over the past five years has answered several questions. Leaf curling and leaf drooping are distinct behaviors with different responses to climatic factors and possibly different adaptive significances. Leaf angle is controlled by the hydration of the petiole, as affected by water availability from both the soil and the atmosphere and by air temperature. In contrast, leaf curling is a specific response to leaf temperature, and the leaf hydration state has little effect. The physiological cause of leaf curling is not well understood, but the mechanism must lie in the physiology of the cell wall or regional Nilsen, E. T. Our research movements in significance of winter leaf Rhododendrons. \/our. Amer. 14-15. Rhod Soc 40(1): Nilsen, E. T. 1986. Quantitative phenology and leaf survivorship of Rhododendron maximum L. in contrasting irradiance environments of the Appalachian mountams. Amer four Bot 73: 822-831 Nilsen, E. T. 1987. The influence of temperature and water relations components on leaf movements in Rhododendron maxunum L. Plant Physiol. 83: 607-612. Nilsen, E. T, and Y. Bao. changes in tissue hydration. The thermotropic drooping of rhododendron leaves most likely serves to protect them from membrane damage due to high irradiance and cold temperatures during the long Appalachian winters. In addition, the thermotropic leaf curling in Rhododendron may serve to prevent damage to cellular membranes during the process of daily rethawing that often occurs during the early morning. Our initial results with 1987. The influence of age, season, and microclimate on the photochemistry of Rhododendron maxunum L. I: Chlorophylls. Photosynthetica 21(4): 535-542. 1988. The influence of age and microclimate on the photochemistry of Rhododendron maximum L. leaves. II: Chloroplast structure and photosynthetic light response. Amer. Tour. Bot. 75: 1526-1534. Nilsen, E. T, D. A. Stetler, and C. A. Gassman. species comparisons Enk Nilsen is Associate Professor of Biology at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University m Blacksburg, indicate that leaf movements may be an important factor determining cold hardiness in Rhododendron species. Virginia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Kolomikta Kiwi","article_sequence":7,"start_page":36,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24991","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad0608126.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Kolomikta Kiwi Gary L. Koller The 1990 Membership Dividend from the Arnold Arboretum. Exceptional hardiness, vigorous growth, delicious fruit, and brightly variegated leaves are the attributes that make the kolomikta kiwi (Actinidia kolomikta) the choice for the 1990 plant distribution to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Native to Manchuria, Korea, Japan, and northeastern China, the plant was first described by Carl Maximowicz in 1856 from specimens he collected in the northern Amur river valley of Manchuria, where the plant was called \"Kolomikta or Kotomikta\" by the local inhabitants. First introduced into Europe shortly after its discovery, Actinidia kolomikta was growing in France prior to 1872 and reached England by 1877. The Arnold Arboretum introduced the plant into North America when it obtained plants from Lavalle Nursery in Segrez, France, in 1880 and from Veitch and Sons Nursery in Chelsea, England, in 1881. The plant has been growing at the Arboretum ever since. In Western gardens, kolomikta kiwi is cultivated primarily for its pink-and-white variegated leaves. The variegation pattern in Actinidia kolomikta is both distinctive and unpredictable. The new leaves emerge green and remain so until near the time of flowering in mid-May when the youngest leaves begin to change colors. The half of the leaf adjacent to the petiole holds its green color while its distal tip first turns a light metallic green. This light green tip eventually turns white, which then becomes tinged with pink or raspberryrose, producing a dramatic tricolored effect. Interestingly, these color changes are limited to the upper surface of the leaf, the underside a uniform dull green throughout the whole process. The upper-surface variegation generally lasts several weeks until chlorophyll production returns to normal, masking the showy colors. While both male and female plants produce colorful leaves, growers report that the male plants produce the best foliage display. This has led to the selective propagation of male plants by nurseries, and may partially explain why very few plants in cultivation produce fruit. It is not known what function these leafcolor changes serve in nature. Peter Del Tredici, of the Arboretum staff, has speculated that they may function to attract pollinators to the flowers, which are largely hidden beneath the leaves. It may be that the bright colors function like the red bracts of the poinsettia plant (Euphorbia pulcherrima), which attract pollinators to the tiny flowers in their midst. From a distance, the colored leaves of Actinidia kolomikta make the plant look as if it is covered with showy flowers. If the plant appears this way to insects, then it may well be that the brightly colored leaves function to attract pollinators from a greater distance than the flowers by themselves could. All this is speculation, however, and field work planned for this spring at the Arboretum will determine just how closely flower production and leaf coloration are linked. Although this plant has been cultivated in North America for over a century, gardeners have only recently considered the genus Actinidia as a fruit-producing crop suitable for northern landscapes. Just two or three years remaining 37 The vanegated foliage of Actinidia kolomikta. From the ArchIves of the Arnold Arboretum. were was virtually impossible to locate kolomikta kiwi in nurseries, but now many offer it as a newly introduced plant. Unlike many other worthy species, the kolomikta kiwi was able to escape the confines of botanical gardens to reach a wider audience. ago it fruits selected for their earliness, size, as flavor, as once sugar, and vitamin C content, well for their greater In ability to stay on the vine ripe. 1986, vars were number of these Russian cultiimported from the Vavilov Institute a Russian Research After a century of testing, considerable information has been gathered about this plant. It possesses exceptional cold hardiness, for it is said to be able to survive winters as low as -40 degrees Centigrade (-40 F.) in parts of the Soviet Union. Such hardiness, coupled with its ability to produce a large crop of tasty fruits 18 millimeters long by 10 millimeters wide (0.7 inches by 0.4 inches), has made it a home-gardening success in the Soviet Union. Over the years, Russian horticulturists have introduced a number of cultivars whose Agricultural Experiment Station in Leningrad by Northwoods Nursery in Molalla, Oregon. During the spring of 1989, Northwoods shared the following cultivars with the Arnold Arboretum for evaluation: 'Aromatnaya,' 'Krupnopladnaya,' 'Matovaya,' 'Nahodka,' 'Paukste,' 'Pavlovskaya,' 'Sentyabraskaya,' and 'Urozainaya.' According to Northwoods Nursery the cultivar 'Krupnopladnaya' means \"large\" in Russian, and this is the cultivar with the largest fruit presently cultivated in North America. Michael McConkey of Edible Landscapes in Afton, Virginia, reports that 'Krupnopladnaya' has proved the strongest, most 38 I vigorous grower of the new Russian introductions in their area, and that it has attractive purplish winter stems. The cultivar'Ananasnaya Michurina; developed by the famous Russian fruit breeder I. V. Michurin, has been represented in botanical gardens in this country for many years. translates as \"Michurin's Pineand refers to the flavor of the fruit. apple\" Michurin has written that 'Ananasnaya' was a selection from a group of third-generation Actinidia kolomikta seedlings raised in 1925. European growers who have seen and grown this plant believe it is probably a hybrid of Actinidia arguta and A. kolomikta. Several American growers have shortened this cultivar name to 'Anna,' a practice that is bound to lead to confusion since many will think they represent two different cultivars. These new Russian cultivars will require a few years of trial to determine how they differ from one another, and which will perform best in our climate. The name the Kolomikta Kiwi Both vigorous and adaptable in its growth, kolomikta kiwi can climb to heights of fifteen meters (50 feet) in its native woodland habitat. Vines twine into the canopy of large shrubs and small trees, and then sprawl out across their crowns. The plant explorer Radde reported that the kolomikta kiwi thickets on the middle Amur were so thick that the forest was almost impenetrable. Barry Yinger, a contemporary plant explorer, reports finding this plant at high altitudes in northern Japan, in open woods of birch, spruce, and fir. It is an Cultivating Actinidia kolomikta. Tab. 9093 from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1925. throughout the summer. At the edges of the forest, and near the top of the canopy where light levels are high, the distal tips of many leaves become suffused with the characteristic white and rose-pink. Yinger reports that variation in leaf color in natural populations offers future growers the opportunity to select individuals with leaf colors and patterns more distinctive than those now in cultivation. At present, the introduction of new cultivars from Japan is restricted because of Pucciniastrum actinidiae, a rust that infects plants in that country. The vines thrive in full sun in northern areas, but as one moves south to areas with amazing experience, Yinger ter says, to encoun- brightly colored leaves hugging the tree trunks in the shade of the forest. This provides us with a clue for using the plant in urban conditions. Imagine the columns used to support a porch or shed transformed into pillars of tricolored leaves. In its native haunts, this forest plant remains in varying degrees of shade for most of the day. In dense shade, growth lacks vigor and the foliage of kolomikta kiwi stays green 39 longer, hotter some plants benefit from growth of kolomikta kiwi occurs on well-drained, fertile loam. Once planted, young vines usually require two to three years to get established before they produce either their tasty fruits or their colorful foliage. Several growers in the South have reported that the spring growth often breaks dormancy early, only to be cut back by frost. However, the plants resprout readily and are only seldom killed outright. Where soils are heavy or drainage is poor, this plant becomes susceptible to phytophora summers, shade. Best exceptional hardiness and shallow root system, kolomikta kiwi deserves to be tested for use in containers on terraces and Because of its rooftops. Planting for Fruit For a fruit crop, gardeners need to keep in mind that this species produces both staminate (male) and pistillate (female) plants, sexes are required for fruit set. complicate the matter, some plants may occasionally bear flowers of the opposite sex while others are reportedly bisexual. Nurseries and fruit breeders have selected plants that are reliably male or female for more dependable crop production. A ratio of at least one and that both To Mark Houston of the California Kiwifruit Commission reports that Actinidias are also susceptible to nematodes. Because Actinidias are shallow-rooted, they require root rot. mulching and supplemental irrigation during periods of drought. Actinidias grow best in acid soils with the pH between 7.0 and 5.0. The literature reports that roots are sensitive to fertilizers, and care must be taken with these chemicals. Actinidia kolomikta is the slowest-growing species in the genus. In Massachusetts, annual growth is generally about one to two meters (three to six feet) with a maximum spread of three to six meters (ten to twenty feet) during a single growing season. Kolomikta kiwi also tends to produce a lighter structural framework than other Actinidia species, making it a good choice where growing space is limited or labor required for pruning is in short supply. This characteristic is useful to the gardener, for it allows one to construct a support structure that is more delicate and open in its detailing than those needed for most other Actinidias. When the vine is grown primarily for fruit, it is better to set the plant on an arbor that one can walk beneath to facilitate the harvest. When grown primarily for foliage, kolomikta kiwi can be beautifully displayed on a lattice set directly against a wall or woven through a free-standing wire fence. It is also delightful when grown on a structure that can be seen from an upper-story window, allowing a clear view of the most brightly colored leaves. The blossoms of Actinidia kolomikta. Photo Racz and Debreczy. by 40 male plant to five to eight female plants is recommended to maximize fruit production. Bear in mind, however, that even in Manchuria, when both sexes are planted together in gardens, fruit set can be problematic. While other Actinidia species have been known to pollinate Actinidia kolomikta, it is best to use a male of the same species so that both plants will flower at approximately the same time and there will be no sexual incompatibilities. Where multiple species of Actinidia have been grown together, both natural and artificial hybrids have been reported to occur. It is these plants that offer the promise of increased fruit size, yield, vigor, and more colorful foliage for the gardens of tomorrow. In Massachusetts the flowers are produced in mid-May and stay in good condition for a week to ten days. The blossoms are white with dark-purple stamens, 1 to 1.5 centimeters across (1\/2 inch), and are borne in clusters of one to five flowers. They produce a mild fragrance, similar to that of lily-of-thevalley (Convallaria majalis), and are largely hidden beneath the foliage. Flowering occurs only on wood produced the previous growing season, so pruning is required to reduce the buildup of older non-flowering growth. In Massachusetts, kolomikta kiwi fruit matures in late August or early September, about one month earlier than Actinidia arguta. Depending on the cultivar, fruits range from the size of small grapes (1 to 1.5 cm) to that of a small plum (1.5 to 2.5 cm). They are smooth-skinned, bear a dark-green flesh, and have a taste more intense and flavorful than the commercial kiwis (Actinidia deliciosa) found in supermarkets. Because the fruits are smooth-skinned, they can be eaten without peeling-much as one would eat a grape. In Asia, fruits of Actinidia kolomikta are used for jams and jellies, are dried or salted; and are used for winemaking and as desserts and garnishes. According to Tanaka's Encyclopedia of Edible Plants, the Japanese also use the leaves in a variety of ways: they parboil them for soup, preserve them in salt, or use them as an ingredient in cooking. People who are interested in learning or sharing the latest information about the genus Actinidia should consult the Actinidia Enthusiasts Newsletter, P.O. Box 1466, Chalan, Washington 98816. This publication is on file in the library of the Arnold Arboretum. Bibilography Goodell, E. 1982. TWo ern promising fruit plants for northArnoldia 42: 103-132. landscapes. Li, Hui-Lin. 1952. A taxonomic review of the genus Actinidia. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 33(l):1-61. O. S. 1925. Actmidia kolomikta. Curtis's Botamcal Magazme, vol. 151, tab. 9093. Shishkm, B. K., ed. 1974. Flora of the U.S.S.R. Vol. 15, pp. 138-142. Translated from the Russian. Jerusalem : Keter Publ. House. Woeikoff, A. D. 1941 What Can the Manchurian Flora Give to Gardens. San Francisco: Paul Kourenoff. Gary L. Koller is the Assistant Director for Horticulture the Arnold Arboretum and teaches in the Landscape Architecture Department at the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. at "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24993","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060856f.jpg","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS F R 0 m T-H E A R NO L i) A ~ R130RETUM ARBORETUM A WINNER AT SPRING FLOWER SHOW Lilacs bloomed in March when the Arnold Arboretum presented a display focusing on the diversity of lilacs at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Spring Flower Show. Since lilacs are rarely shown as forced plants, the exhibit drew applause from both the public and judges. On opening day it received the Ruth S. Thayer Prize, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's $1000 cash prize, a Silver Medal, an Educational Award, and a Cultural Commendation. One of the premier awards in the show, the Ruth S. Thayer Prize, was given for the Arboretum's presentation of Syringa vulgaris 'Frederick Law Olmsted.' In keeping with the rules of the award, this free-flowering, lightly scented white lilac has not yet been introduced commercially. A seedling of 'Rochester' with a globose habit, 'Frederick Law Olmsted,' was selected by Richard (Dick) opening night. New Englanders are known for having a great affection for lilacs witness the crowds that visit the Arboretum each Lilac Sunday - During the ten-day run of the show lilacs and other plants were monitored, groomed and changed on a daily basis. The efforts were rewarded with the prestigious Arno H. Nehrling Award, judged on Thursday and presented \"to the exhibitor who executes an original design, who stages a display of excellence, who sets up on schedule, and maintains the exhibit in top condition throughout the Show.\" The Arboretum thanks Kurt Tramposch of Weir Meadow Nursery and Dale Chapman for assistance in obtaining plants, Chris De Rosa for the loan of stone, and David Kersey for the teak bench. The exhibit was designed and coordinated by Nan Sinton and Jack Alexander with much help from all the Arboretum staff and volunteers. (May 20,1990!). Peak visitation of 43,000 is said to have been reached in 1941. But during their ten-day appearance at the show more than 180,000 visitors had an opportunity to look, sniff and \"select\" their favorites. The exhibit included some of the classic French hybrids ('Mme Lemoine,' 'President Grevy') as well as the eye-catching Syringa vulgaris 'Sensation' with its picotee edging of white on the purple blossoms. Syringa x prestoniae 'Charles Fenicchia, formerly Park Superintendent, Highland Park, Monroe County Parks Commission, Rochester, New York. The Arboretum's Chief Plant Propagator and resident lilac specialist, Jack Alexander, won high praise from both experts and the public for achieving the \"impossible\" in forcing the plants for Hepbum' and Syringa x chinensis added tones of warm mauve-pink. Two \"standard\" Syringa meyeri 'Palibin' marked the entry to a rustic pathway and a small weathered bench surrounded by Syringa patula'Miss Kim'. 1 CHINESE PENJING AND JAPANESE BONSAI and unusual annuals to give a range of color in flower and foliage and keep a garden glowing into the fall. Plant Hunting in Kashmir. Thursday, April 26, by Christopher Chadwell. This lecture on the woody plants, perennials, and alpines of Kashmir will Despite the fact that the Chinese originated the concept of mini- aturizing trees in containers over 1200 years ago, most Westerners are familiar with this absorbing form of gardening only by way of the much younger Japanese bonsai. For a variety of his- Mr. Hu Yun Hua. Photo by Peter Del Tredici torical reasons, distinctive tion. The fee is $8 for mempenjing styles are virtually unknown to Americans. bers, $10 for non-members. The Arnold Arboretum, THURSDAY EVENING which has recently acquired ten specimens of penjing from LECTURES China, is honored to have the Gardens of America, Thursopportunity to present a day. April 12, by Diane lecture\/demonstration on Kostial McGuire. penjing styles and techniques From the by Mr. Hu Yunhua, a leading of New simple herb gardens England colonists connoisseur and practitioner through the imposing of the ancient art. Among his Chinese Penjing, gardenesque designs of the publications, Victorians to contemporary Miniature Trees and LandCalifornia outdoor rooms, scapes, and Penjing the Chinese this slide-lecture will illusArt of Miniature Gardens have trate the themes inherent in been translated into English. an astonishing range of This one-of-a-kind event American garden visions and will be held on Friday, April their relationship to the from 6:30 to 8:30 at the 27, cultural patterns of their Hunnewell Visitor Center. times. The fee is $15 for members and $18 for non-members. Mixing It Up in the Mixed On Tuesday, April 10 Border. Thursday, April 19, from 3:30 to 4:30 at the Hunnewell Visitor Center, by Elsa Bakalar. Arboretum staff member Creating a long-blooming Peter Del Tredici will present \"mixed border\" entails going a slide-lecture on the history beyond the familiar range of of the Larz Anderson bonsai plants. While perennials are collection, the oldest in North the backbone of the summer America. The lecture will be garden, the adventurous followed by a rare behindgardener goes a step further the-scenes tour of the collecand introduces summer bulbs 2 include cultural as well as botanical information about this beautiful part of the world by a knowledgeable and well-travelled botanist. All lectures are open to the public and will be held at the Hunnewell Visitor Center from 7:00 to 8:00 PM. The fee is $12 for members and $15 for nonmembers. THE RHODODENDRONS ARE COMING The Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron Society will be hosting the annual National Convention at the Tara Hyannis Resort and Hotel from Wednesday, May 30 through Sunday, June 3,1990. The theme of the convention is \"Rhododendrons for the 90's: The Northeast Perspective,\" and will feature hardy, adaptable plants with attractive foliage, improved color, and an extended blooming season. The Convention will offer numerous tours, lectures, and workshops, a flower truss show, and a plant sale. Additional information may be obtained from Anne Reisch at (508) 371-0755 after business hours. and a grid map for locating plants on the grounds. The cost is $21.00 including special price is $205. Vol. 1. Orchidaceae $20 postage and handling within the United States. Foreign orders with payment in U.S. funds should add $4.00 per book. Send orders to: The Bookstore, Arnold Arbore- tum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. Flora Vol. 2. Pteridophyta $25 Vol. 3. Monocotyledoneae $35 1 Vol. 4. Dicotyledoneae, $75 Vol. 5. Dicotyledoneae, 2 $85 Vol. 6. Dicotyledoneae, 3 $85 Checks should be made payable to the Arnold Arboretum andall orders should be addressed to the attention of: Frances Maguire, Arnold of the Lesser Antilles TWO NEW BOOKS AVAILABLE The Arnold Arboretum Plant Inventory 'New and improved, updated and easy to use\" may sound like advertising copy, but it serves to describe the recently published Plant Inventory. A major revision of the inventory of plants in the Arnold Arboretum collection has been made from the recently completed computerized plant records data base. Each plant in the Inventory now is listed: 2022 alphabetically by scientific name in clear, readable type with an indication of collection in the wild 2022 with Arboretum map coordinates This edition, three times the size of the previous Arnold 2022 2022 Arboretum Plant Inventory, contains a wealth of information about the approximately 6,000 taxa that make up the Living Collections of the Arboretum. It also includes an index of common names The Arnold Arboretum is proud to announce that the six-volume Flora of the Lesser Antilles, a long-term project of Dr. Richard A. Howard, formerly Director of the Arnold Arboretum and recently appointed VicePresident for Science, New York Botanical Garden, are now available. These six volumes constitute the first comprehensive flora of the area, presenting a keys to genera as well as species. For each genus and species a complete modem description is given which includes color as well as measurements of floral parts. The descriptions are followed by a listing of each plant's general distribution as well as a list of its distribution within the Lesser Antilles. All volumes are profusely illustrated with line drawings that are both highly artistic and accurate. All known species reported from the Lesser Antilles, both introduced and native, are included. All volumes in the series are available, either individually or as part of a full set, which is available at the Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 BOOKSTORE OFFERINGS The recently expanded Bookstore wants to remind all members of their benefit in taking advantage of their 10% discount. Realizing that many members are out of state, we will offer book and other merchandise selections via the Arnoldia insert. They will include new publications and products developed especially for the Arboretum. Your purchases help support the Arboretum and its programs. special price, including shipping, of $260 (add $5 for shipping outside the US). For volumes 4, 5, and 6 only, the 3 TREE CHEERS FOR KIDS AN ARBOR DAY EVENT To herald the coming of spring, and as part of a tradition of tree planting, the Arboretum will hold its annual Arbor Day celebration on Sunday, April 29. Winning elementary school poets who have been selected from among this year's Tree Cheers for Kids poetry contestants will be present to read poetry at the tree- Arnold Arboretum, continues to be in strong evidence and make contributions there. Our Maintenance Unit helps with routine maintenance such as the repair of benches. And, for the first time in recent history, under the initiative of the Major's capital plan for the city, we have been able to allocate funds for some capital repairs. In 1989 was $100,000 spent on the planting Walter Street wall. At the community meeting in which this decision was made, 1988 Arbor Day poetry contest winner, Julia Turner, helps the need for repair plant a tree at the Arnold Arboretum paving of the much travelled Bussey Hill road PARKS DEPARTceremony. \"Billy B.,\" and sidewalks as well as MENT AND the talented natural science drinking fountain repairs was ARBORETUM song-and-dance man, will articulated. This fall I met WORKING host this engaging ceremony with the Directorof the that honors the bond between TOGETHER Arnold Arboretum, Dr. children and their feelings memorandum was Robert Cook, and this need The following and imaginings about trees. was again brought to my recently issued by Lawrence A. These events, which will commissioner of the attention. The Parks Planning Dwyer, begin at 2:00 p.m., will be Boston Parks and Recreation and Development unit has followed by Billy B. in concert examined the full range of Department. performing such now-famous needs determined by a master songs as \"The Rock and Roll The 1000-year lease the plan written by the Arnold of Photosynthesis.\" Parks and Recreation Departstaff and feels this is an A variety of other activiment has with the Arnold appropriate project. As a ties will occur throughout the Arboretum constitutes the result of this and my discusday including vegetable and oldest park partnership in the sions with Dr. Cook, I have fruit printing, talks with a asked that bid documents be City of Boston. Under the state forester, tree-seed terms of the lease the Arnold prepared and work begin on planting in take-home conArboretum is responsible for this project. I thank you for tainers, tree games, and visits the \"living collection\" as well your continued interest in the from urban wildlife. as buildings. The Parks Parks and Recreation DepartIf you would like to be is responsible for ment and the Arnold ArboreDepartment involved as a volunteer for the infrastructure-the roads, tum. part of the day, please contact drainage, walls, etc.-and If you have any questions Diane Syverson, Children's safety. please contact Victoria Program Director, at (617) We enjoy a good relation- Williams at 725-4505. 524-1718. ship with the Arnold Arboretum. The Boston Park Rangers, begun as a program in the "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23365","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270bb6e.jpg","title":"1990-50-1","volume":50,"issue_number":1,"year":1990,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Roots: Facts and Fallacies","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24989","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060bb28.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Perry, T. O.","article_content":"Tree Roots: Facts and Fallacies Thomas O. Perry understanding of the structure become better gardeners. people A proper and function of roots can help Plant roots can grow anywhere-in the soil, on the surface of the soil, in the water, and even in the air. Except for the first formed roots that respond positively to gravity, most roots do not grow toward anything or in any particular direction. Root growth is essentially opportunistic in its timing and its orientation. It takes place whenever and wherever the environment provides the water, oxygen, minerals, support, and warmth necessary for deep sands, under pavements, down crevices, inside shopping malls, and in sewer lines. The Relationship Between Roots and Other Parts of the Plant The growth of a plant is an integrated phenomenon that depends on a proper balance and functioning of all parts. If a large portion of the root system is destroyed, a corresponding portion of the leaves and branches will die. Contrariwise, if a tree is repeatedly defoliated, some of its roots will die back. Proper functioning of roots is as essential to the processes of photosynthesis as are the leaves and other chlorophyll-bearing parts of the plant. Typical roots are the sites of production of essential nitrogenous compounds that are transported up through the woody tissues of the plant, along with water and mineral nutrients. The fine feeder roots of a tree are connected to the leaves by an elaborate plumbing system consisting of larger transport roots, trunk, branches, and twigs. Many researchers have weighed and estimated the proportions of various plant parts. Weighing and counting every root tip and every leaf is a heroic if not impossible task, and careful sampling is essential to growth. Human activities, such as construction, excavation, and gardening, often result in seri- be damage to trees. In some cases, trees can inadvertently injured by people who are trying to protect them. Indeed, people can kill trees in hundreds of ways, usually because of misconceptions about root-soil relationships, or because of a disregard of the basic functions that roots perform. ous trees In order to maintain the health of cultivated and shrubs, it is necessary to understand the morphology and physiology of tree roots in relation to the aerial portions of the plant. For those who are responsible for maintaining the health of woody plants, this article examines some widely held misconceptions about roots. It describes the typical patterns of root growth as well as their locations and dimensions underground. It also describes the relationship of healthy roots to typical forest soils as well as the behavior of roots adapted to making accurate estimates. Sampling errors atypical circumstances-growing through and variation among species produce variable results, but the biological engineering requirements of plants are apparently similar, and the relative proportions of both mature herbs and mature trees are of the same order of mag- 4 nitude: 5 percent fine or feeder roots, 15 percent larger or transport roots, 60 percent trunk or main stem, 15 percent branches and twigs, and 5 percent leaves (Bray, 1963; White et al., 1971; Meyer and Gottsche, 1971). A tree possesses thousands of leaves and hundreds of kilometers of roots with hundreds of thousands of root tips. The numbers, lengths, and surface areas of roots per tree and per hectare are huge. Plant scientists try to make the numbers comprehensible by talking about square units of leaf surface per unit of land surface-the \"leaf area index.\"If both sides of the leaf are included, the leaf area index of a typical forest or typical crop is about 12 during the height of the growing season (Moller, 1945; Watson, 1947; and many modern texts on crop physiology). The number of square units of root surface per unit of land surface, the \"root area index,\" can be calculated from studies that report the number of grams of roots present in a vertical column of soil. Such data are determined, (mycorrhizae), which functionally amplify the effective absorptive surface of the finer roots a hundred times or more. The pattern of conduction between the roots and leaves of a tree varies between and within species. Injection of dyes and observation of their movement indicate that, in oaks and other ring-porous species with large diameter xylem vessels, a given root is directly connected to a particular set of branches, usually on the same side of the tree as the root (Zimmerman and Brown, 1971; Kozlowski and Winget, 1963). Death or damage to the roots of trees with such restricted, one-sided plumbing systems usually results in the death of the corresponding branches. Other tree species possess different anatomies in which dyes ascend in zigzag or spiral patterns, indicating that the roots of the tree serve all of the branches and leaves (Figure 1). Death or injury to the roots of such trees does not lead to a one-sided death in the crown of the tree. The anatomy of trees can vary within species, and the patterns of connection between the roots of most species are unknown. Sometimes the pattern can be detected by examining the pattern of bark fissures, which usually reflects a corresponding pattern in the woody tissues concealed beneath the bark. Knowledge of the pattern of conduction between roots and leaves is of practical importance in predicting the results of treating trees with fertilizers, insecticides, and herbicides, or in predicting the results of one-sided injuries to trees dur- first, by taking core samples or digging out successive layers of soil and screening and sorting the roots and, second, by determining their average lengths and diameters as well as their oven-dry weights. The quantity of roots decreases rapidly with increasing depth in normal soils, so that 99 percent of the roots are usually included in the top meter (3 ft) of soil (Coile, 1937). A reasonable approximation for non-woody tissues is that the oven-dry weight is one-tenth of the fresh weight and that the density of fresh roots is very close to one. If one makes these assumptions for Lelbank's data (1974) for winter wheat (Tiiticum aestivum) and for Braekke and Kozlowski's data (1977) for red pine (Pinus resinosa) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera), the calculations indicate a root area index between 15 and 28. E. W Russell's data (1973) are of the same magnitude, clearly indicating that the surface of the root system concealed in the soil can be greater than the surface of the leaves! Amazingly, this conclusion does not take into account the fact that nearly all tree roots are associated with symbiotic fungi ing construction. Patterns of Growth and Development in Typical Soils Early observations of tree roots were limited to examining the taproot and the larger roots close to the trunk of the tree or to examining the vertical distribution of severed roots exposed by digging trenches and pits (Busgen and Munsch, 1929; Coile, 1952; Garin, 1942; Bohm, 1979). Attempts to examine the depth and extent of the larger roots of an entire tree were not really possible until bulldozers, backhoes, front-end loaders, and fire pumps 5 became available (Stout, 1956; Berndt and Gibbons, 1958; and Kostler et al., 1968). Unfortunately, most tree roots are less than one millimeter in diameter and are destroyed by the rough action of such heavy equipment. Examination of the small non-woody roots of trees and their relationship to the larger roots requires years of study, infinite patience, and the gentle use of heavy equipment. Walter Lyford and his colleagues at the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, were among the first to combine tweezers and patience with bulldozers and haste to develop a comprehensive picture of the normal patterns of root development for trees growing in natural situations. The following description of the growth of tree roots is a synthesis of Lyford's published descriptions, the author's personal observations, and recent books on the subject (Kostler et al., 1968, Bohm, 1979; Torrey and Clarkson, 1975; R. S. Russell, 1977; E. W. Russell, 1973). Tree roots vary in size from roots 30 centimeters (12 in) large woody or more in diameter to fine, non-woody roots less than 0.2 millimeters (0.008 in) in diameter. The variation in size from large to small, and the variation in categories from woody to nonwoody, perennial to ephemeral, and absorbing to non-absorbing, is continuous. This continuous variation makes the sorting of roots into various categories arbitrary. Nonetheless, classification and sorting are essential to comprehending the pattern and integrated function of the total root system. The first root, the radicle, to emerge from the germinating seed of some species, such as pines, oaks, and walnuts, sometimes persists and grows straight down into the soil to depths of 1 to 2 meters (3 to 6 ft) or more, until supplies of oxygen become limiting. If this \"taproot\" persists, it is usually largest just of water-conducting systems m comfers as shown by the tracheidal channels dyed by trunk infection. The numbers give the height in centimeters of the transverse section above injection. A Spiral ascent, turning right Abies, Picea, Larix and Pinus (Rehder's section 3, Taeda). B. Spiral ascent, turning left Pinus (Rehder's section 2, Cembraj. C. Interlocked ascent: Sequoia, Libocedrus and Jumperus. D. Sectonal, winding ascent: Tsuga and Pseudotsuga. E. Sectonal, straight ascent. Thuja Figure various 1. Five types beneath the tree trunk and decreases rapidly in diameter as secondary roots branch from it and grow radially and horizontally through the soil. The primary root of other species, such as spruces, willows, and poplars, does not usually persist. Instead, a system of fibrous roots dominates early growth and development. originate from the Between four and eleven major woody roots \"root collar\" of most trees and grow horizontally through the soil. Their to points of attachment the tree trunk are Chamaecypans. Oaks and many ring-porous species have a pattern similar to E. From Rudinski and Vite, 1959. Reprinted courtesy of the Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research. and usually ground level and are associated with a marked swelling of the tree trunk (Figure 2). These major roots branch and at or near decrease in diameter over a distance of one to 1 6 Figure 2. Plan-view diagram of the horizontal woody root system developed from a single lateral root of a red maple about 60 years old. Sohd circles show the location of other trees m the stand. Arrows indicate that the root tips were not found; therefore these roots continued somewhat farther than is shown. From Lyford and Wilson, 1964. four meters (3 to 15 ft) from the trunk to form an extensive network of long, rope-like roots 10 to 25 millimeters (.25 to 1 in) in diameter. The major roots and their primary branches are woody and perennial, usually with annual growth rings, and constitute the framework of a tree's root system. The general direction of the framework system of roots is radial and horizontal. In typical clay-loam soils, these roots are usually located less than 20 to 30 centimeters (8 to 12 in) below the surface and grow outward far beyond the branch tips of the tree. This system of framework roots, often called \"transport\" roots, frequently extends to encompass a roughly circular area four to seven times the area delineated by an imaginary downward projection of the branch tips (the so-called drip line). find trees with root with a diameter one, systems having two, or more times the height of the tree (Stout, 1956; Lyford and Wilson, 1964). In drier soils, pines and some other species can form \"striker roots\" at intervals along the framework system. These striker roots grow downward vertically until they encounter obstacles or layers of soil with insufficient oxygen. Striker roots and taproots often branch to form a second, deeper layer of roots that grow horizontally just above the soil layers where oxygen supplies are insufficient to support growth (Figures 3 and 4). The zone of transition between sufficient and insufficient oxygen supply is usually associated with changes in the oxidationreduction state and color of the iron in the soil It is not uncommon to an area 7 Figure second 3. Drawing, not to scale, of framework system of longleaf pme tree grown in well-dramed soil with layer of roots running in the soil layers where oxygen supphes become limiting. a Figure 4. Photograph of framework roots of longleaf pme including striker roots, 90 percent of the surface root system has rotted and washed away, Kerr Lake, North Carolina. 8 Mat of roots above the permanent water table exposed by digging a drainage canal, Green Swamp, North Carolina. A few species have specialized tissues contammg air passages and specialized metabolisms that permit their roots to penetrate several feet below the permanent water table where httle or no oxygen is available. Iron oxide deposits are typically associated with such roots Figure 5. (from reddish-yellow to gray for example). Water can hold less than 1\/10,000 the oxygen that air can hold, and limited supplies of oxygen are usually associated with wet soils. Drainage ditches in swamps reveal an impressive concentration of matted roots just above the permanent Feeder Roots A water than 1 2 millimeters long. These fine, nonconstitute the major fraction of the surface of a tree's root system. Their multiple tips are the primary sites of absorption of water and minerals. Hence they are often to woody roots table (Figure 5). complex system of smaller roots grows outward and predominantly upward from the system of framework roots. These smaller roots branch four or more times to form fans or mats of thousands of fine, short, non-woody tips (see Figures 6, 7, 8, and 9). Many of these smaller roots and their multiple tips are 0.2 to 1 millimeter or less in diameter and less called feeder roots. Root hairs may or may not be formed on the root tips of trees. They are often shriveled and non-functional. Symbiotic fungi are normally associated with the fine roots of forest trees, and their hyphae grow outward into the soil to expand greatly the effective surface area of the root system (Figure 10). The surface layers of soil frequently dry out and are subject to extremes of temperature and frost heaving. The delicate, non-woody root system is killed frequently by these fluc- 9 tuations in the soil environment. Nematodes, springtails, and other members of the soil microfauna are constantly nibbling away at these succulent, non-woody tree roots (Lyford, 1975). Injury to and death of roots are frequent and are caused by many agents. New roots form rapidly after injuries, so the population and concentration of roots in the soil are as dynamic as the population of leaves in the air above, if not more so. The crowns of trees in the forest are frayed away as branches rub against one another in the wind. One can easily observe the frayed perimeter of each tree crown by gazing skyward through the canopy of a mature forest. Such \"shyness\" is not seen below the ground. Roots normally extend far beyond the branch tips, and the framework root systems of various trees cross one another in a complex pattern. The non-woody root systems of different trees often intermingle with one another so that the roots of four to seven different trees can occupy the same square meter of soil surface (Figure 9). Injuries, rocks, or other obstacles can induce roots to deviate 90 degrees or more from their normal pattern of radial growth. These turnings and interminglings of roots make the determination of which roots belong to which tree extremely difficult. Furthermore, natural root grafts Figure 6. Schematic diagram showing reoccupation of soil area near the base of a mature tree by the growth of adventitious roots. 1) Root fans, growing from the younger portions of the woody roots, have extended to a distance of several meters from the tree 2) Root fans on adventitious roots have only recently emerged from the zone of rapid taper or root collar and now occupy the area near the base of the tree. 3) Vertical roots. From Lyford and Wilson, 1964. 10 Figure in the diagram showing woody and non-woody root relationships. 1) Stem. 2) Adventitious roots of rapid taper. 3) Lateral root. 4) Non-woody root fans growing from opposite sides of the rope-like woody root. 5) Tip of woody root and emergmg first order non-woody roots. 6) Second and higher order nonwoody roots growing from the first order non-woody root. 7) Umnfected tip of second order non-woody root with root hairs. 8) Third order non-woody root with single bead-shaped mycorrhizae. 9) Fourth order non-woody 7. Schematic zone root with smgle and necklace-beaded distance of about 1 centimeter. From mycorrhizae. The horizontal Lyford and Wilson, 1964. the bar beneath each root section represents a commonly same when many trees of the species grow together in the same stand. occur soil, are may not be multiple-branched, ephemeral. They and may or large woody tree roots grow horizontally through the soil and are perennial. They are predominantly located in the top 30 centimeters (12 in) of soil and do not normally extend to depths greater than 1 to 2 meters (3 to 7 ft). They often extend outward In summary, Why Roots Grow Where Do from the trunk of the tree to occupy an irregularly shaped area four to seven times larger than the projected crown area. Typically, the Roots grow where the resources of life are available. They do not grow toward anything. Generally they cannot grow where there is no oxygen or where the soil is compacted and hard to penetrate. In most soils, the number fine, non-woody tree roots grow upward into the litter and into the top few millimeters of of soil pores, and the consequent availability of oxygen, decreases exponentially with depth below the surface, the amount of clay, and the resistance to penetration (hardness). 11 diagrams of horizontal, woody, third order lateral roots of red oak, Quercus rubra. Emphasis is to the surface and elaborate into many small-diameter non-woody roots m the forest floor. Tbp view (above), side view (below). The squares are 1 meter on a side. From Lyford, 1980. Figure on 8. Scale roots the that return Frost action and alternate swelling and shrinking of soils between wet and dry conditions tend to heave and break up the soil's tions to trap plant nutrients and prevent their layers. Organic matter from the decomposing leaf litter acts as an energy supply for nature's plowmen-the millions of insects, worms, nematodes, and other creatures that tunnel about in the surface layers. surface The combined effect of climate and tunneling by animals is to fluff the surface layers of an undisturbed forest soil so that more than 50 percent of its volume is pore space. Air, water, minerals, and roots can penetrate this fluffy surface layer with ease. The decomposing leaf litter also binds positively charged cations (e.g., Ca++, K +, Mg++) and func- leaching into the deeper layers of soil. Soil analyses show that the greatest supplies of materials essential to plant life are located in the very surface layers of the soil, and, predictably, this is where most of the roots are located (Woods, 1957; Hoyle, 1965). Variations in Soil Conditions Roots are most abundant and trees grow best in light, clay-loam soils about 80 centimeters deep (3 ft) (Coile, 1937, 1952). Conversely, root growth and tree growth are restricted in shallow or wet soils, or in soils that are excessively drained. Roots can depths-10 meters and do grow to great (33 ft) or more-when oxy- 12 ': Figure 9. Photograph of roots mtermmghng m the soil. Mixed hardwood stand, Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts. The roots m front of the trowel were exposed by careful brushmg and pulling away of the litter. The roots m the background were exposed by digging down and destroying the fme surface roots in the process. The roots have been sprayed with whitewash to make them stand out. Photo by T. O. Perry. gen, water, and nutrients are available at these depths. Tree roots can grow down several meters in deep, coarse, well-drained sands. However, in these cases, overall plant growth is slow, and trees tend to be replaced by shrubs layer of roots that absorbs water and by the intermittent summer rains, and a deep, second layer of roots that allows survival under drought consurface nutrients made available ditions. Some soils of the western United States are topographies and soils that are drained excessively. Adapting to their situation, pines and other trees tend to develop a two-layered root system in the deep sands of the Southeast and other similar sandy locations. They form a on geologically young and unstructured, originating primarily from the downward movement of eroded particles of rock. Such deposits can form a layer 10 meters (33 ft) or more deep and are extremely dry, especially on the western 13 Figure out to. 10. Photograph of root tips growmg m the litter of a mixed hardwood forest. The mycorrhizae extend from the root tips to expand greatly the functional absorptive surface area of the roots they are attached Root diameters about 0.5 mm. Photo by Ted Shear, North Carolma State University. slope of the Sierras where summer rains are light and infrequent. Most water in the soils of this region originates from winter rains and snowmelt that travel along the surface of the unbroken bedrock that lies below the soil layer. Seedling mortality in such climates is extremely high, and years with sufficient moisture to permit initial survival are infrequent. Growth takes place predominantly in the early spring, and those trees that manage to survive and grow in the area are characterized by a taproot system that plunges down and runs along the soil-rock interface. Deep cuts for superhighways sometimes reveal these roots 15 meters (50 ft) or more below the surface. Some trees, like longleaf pine (Pinus palustiis), have made special adaptations to insure survival and growth on sands and other deep soils. During the initial stage of establishment, the tops of longleaf pine seedlings remain sessile and grass-like for four or more years while the root system expands and establishes a reliable supply of water. Only then does the tree come out of the \"grass stage\" and initiate height growth. Spruces, willows, and other species to grow characteristically on wet sites where oxygen supplies are very limited. Their root systems be shallow and multi-branched. species of the swamps and flood plains have evolved specialized anatomies that permit conduction of oxygen 30 centimeters (12 in) or more below the surface of the water and special metabolisms that eliminate alcohols, aldehydes, and other tend Tupelo, cypress, and other 14 produced when fermentation replaces normal respiratory metabolism. Many such flood-plain species can survive the toxic substances timeters (8 in), also contributed to this mor- tality. There are important genetic differences in the capacity of tree species and varieties to tolerate variations in soil chemistry, soil structure, or oxygen supply (Perry, 1978). The distribution of trees in the landscape is not random. There is no such thing as a \"shallowrooted\" or a \"deep-rooted\" species of tree. On the one hand, the roots of flood-plain species such as cypress, tupelo, maple, and willow, which are generally thought of as \"shallow,\" will grow deep into the soil and down sewer lines if oxygen and water supplies are adequate. On the other hand, the roots of pines, hickories, and other upland species, which are generally thought of as \"deep,\" will stay close conditions of low soil oxygen that result from several months of flooding (Hook et al., 1972). Other species, particularly cherries and other members of the rose family, are especially sensitive to conditions where oxygen supplies limit growth. Cherry roots contain cyanophoric glucosides, which are hydrolized to form toxic cyanide gas when oxygen supplies are limited (Rowe and Catlin, 1971). Flooding that lasted less than 24 hours killed most of the Japanese cherry trees around Hains Point in Washington, D.C., following Hurricane Agnes in 1973. Sediment buildup, which in some locations exceeded 20 cen- Figure 11. Roots growing in the crevices between bncks. There was no oxygen below the bncks that overlaid a compacted clay soil on the North Carolina State Umversity campus. Tree roots commonly follow cracks, crevices, and other air passages underneath pavement. Photo by T. O. Perry. 15 the surface if the soil is too compact, or if oxygen supplies below the surface are limited. Roots grow parallel to the surface of the soil so that trees on slopes have sloping root systems that actually grow uphill. In search of nutrients, roots often grow along cracks, crevices, and through air spaces for unbelievto able distances under the most impermeable pavements and inpenetrable soils (Figure 11). Roots commonly grow down the cracks between fracture columns (\"peds\") in heavy clay soils they could not otherwise penetrate. Tbmperatures and Tree Roots atures, which can be as high as 77 degrees C (170 F), also fry plant roots. Fortunately, most soil temperatures decrease rapidly with depth, and roots only a few millimeters below the surface generally survive, particularly if an msulating layer of mulch is present. As in the case of freezing temperatures, plants growing in containers are more susceptible to heat damage because of the lack of insulation. Roots, like shoots, grow most rapidly when temperatures are moderate-between 20 and 30 degrees C (68 and 85 F) (Russell, 1977). The roots of trees from temperate climates, unlike their shoots, have not developed extreme cold tolerance. Whereas the tops of many trees can survive winter temperatures as low as -40 to -50 degrees C (-40 to -60 F), their roots are killed by temperatures lower than -4 to -7 degrees C (20 to 25 F) (Beattie, 1986). In areas that experience severe cold, such as northern Europe or Minnesota, a good snow cover or a layer of mulch can often prevent the ground from freezing completely during the winter (Hart, Leonard, and Pierce, Misconceptions about Tree Roots and the Practical Consequences The rope-like roots at or near the surface of the soil have been obvious to diggers of holes for fence posts and ditches for thousands of years, as obvious as Galileo's \"shadow of the earth on the moon.\"However, trees can become huge-larger than the largest whale-and very few human beings have had the privilege of actually seeing even a small fraction of the root system of an entire tree. Illustrations in textbooks, in natural history books, and in manuals of landscape architecture or of tree care are usually the creations of artistic imaginations and highly inaccurate 1962). By repeatedly digging up, measuring, and then reburying them, researchers have observed that roots can grow throughout the winter-whenever soil temperatures are above 5 (Figure 12). An insurance company, hearing of Walter Lyford's work on tree roots, wanted to develop degrees C (40 F) (Hammerle, 1901; Crider, 1928; Ladefoged, 1939). One of the subtle impacts of raking leaves in the fall is that it exposes roots to destructive winter air temperatures that they would ordinarily be insulated from by the layer of leaves. Similarly, the potted trees so common in the central business districts of northern cities seldom survive more than a few years because their roots are exposed to air temperatures that are substantially lower than those of the soil. Skilled horticulturists are careful to move potted perennials to sheltered locations where they will be insulated from the full blast of winter. Contrariwise, soil surface temperatures in summer are often hot enough to \"fry an egg,\" as newspapers boastingly report. Such temper- idealized picture of tree roots, penetrating the depths of the soil and securely anchoring the tree in an upright position, as the symbol of the security its customers would achieve by purchasing its insurance. The company commissioned an artist to visit Lyford and examine his findings in order to prepare a logo of tree roots for its advertising campaigns. The projected logo and advertising scheme were never started because it is impossible to portray an entire tree with its roots accurately on the page of a typical textbook. As an example, take a healthy, open-grown oak tree, 40 years old, with a trunk 21 meters (70 ft) tall and 0.6 meters (2 ft) in diameter. The spread of the branches of such an opengrown tree is rarely less than two-thirds of the an 16 this reason, fertilizer broadcast on the surface of the soil is immediately available to tree roots. It does not have to move \"down\" into the soil. Even the reportedly immobile phosphates are readily available to tree roots. Careful research has failed to show any differences in the response of trees to fertilizer placed in holes versus that broadcast on the soil surface (Himelick et al., 1965; van de Werken, 1981). on millions of of land and achieve rapid and large returns on their investments. Except for where slow-release fertilizers are used for special effects, there is no justification for \"tree spikes\" or other formulations of fertilizer in holes bored in the ground or for fertilizer injected into the soil. The root systems of oneyear-old seedlings can take up nutrients ten or more feet from their trunks. The absorbing roots of larger trees commonly extend from their trunks to twenty feet beyond their branch tips. The tree will benefit from having fertilizer broadcast over this entire area. Herbicides and other chemicals should be used only with extreme care near trees and shrubs since their roots extend far beyond the tips of the tree's branches. When they grow in a lawn, trees can be thought of as \"broadleaved weeds\" and application of the common lawn herbicide dicamba (also called \"Banvel\") by itself, in combination with other herbicides, or in combination with fertilizers can injure trees. This chemical or its formulations, when improperly applied, can distort and discolor leaves and even defoliate and kill trees. Several tree and lawn-care companies are selling these chemicals mixed with fertilizer at home garden centers or are applying the chemical on a contract basis. Improper use of dicamba will distort the leaves of oaks and sycamores and defoliate and kill more sensitive trees like yellow poplar. \"Roundup\" (glyphosate) herbicide and its formulations are supposedly inactivated when they hit the soil or dirty water, but they do not have to actually penetrate the soil to interact with tree roots growing in a litter layer, lawn, or mulch. Dogwoods and other trees can show extreme leaf distortion and crown die- Foresters broadcast fertilizers acres Figure 12. Roots do not grow as this artist's conception mdicates. Inaccurate illustrations hke this one have led to harm ful practices m the management of trees in both forest and urban situations. Illustration from a brochure produced by the Society of Amencan Foresters. of the tree and is often equal to or greater than the height. The root system of such a tree usually extends more than 9 meters (30 ft) beyond the tips of the branches, generally forming a circle with a diameter two or more times the height of the tree. The problems of scale are overwhelming and can be appreciated by examining Figures 13 and height significant portion of the root system of all trees in all soils is concentrated in the top few centimeters of soil. Tree roots grow right into the litter layer of the forest, in among the grass roots of suburban lawns, and in the crevices of the bricks, concrete, and asphalt of the urban landscape (Figures 11 and 15). For 14. A 17 back even when herbicides do not strike the green portions of their trunks or their foliage. Since tree roots often grow in cracks and crevices of pavement, applications of sterilants and herbicides to kill weeds in these situations can inadvertently kill trees 20 (60 ft) or more away from where they applied (Figure 15). Remember, natural root grafts are common among trees of the same species, meaning that herbicides applied to kill one tree can meters are along root grafts to kill trees that treated. In addition, many trees, such as poplars, sweet gum, and American beech, send up sprouts from their roots that can be damaged when an herbicide is translocated from a treated stem through the root system to an untreated stem. In larger residential lots, say roughly 32 meters wide by 45 meters deep (105 ft by 150 ft), the roots of a large tree will commonly occupy the entire front or back yard and flash back were not Figure 13. Scale drawmg of Memonal Oak Tree (Quercus alba), Schenck Forest, North Carolma State University. The onginal drawing was made by tracmg the projected image of the tree (Figure 14) onto a piece of paper with a pen that produced a line 0.2 millimeters thick, the thmnest line that can be reproduced in most publications. The ongmal drawmg was 24 centimeters wide (9.5 m) and represents a typical root spread of 65 meters (212 ft). The Schenck Oak is about 33 meters tall (106 ft) and is represented on the vertical axis as 12 centimeters (4.7m). The ongmal drawmg represented a 274-fold reduction in the actual height of the tree. Most branches and 90 percent of the tree roots would not be visible if drawn to this scale. Indeed the width of a typical white oak leaf would be about the thickness of the lmes m the drawmg, and most of the roots would be located in the soil layer represented by the thickness of the lme representing the soil surface. The dash-dot lme is located 1.5 meters (5 ft) below the surface and very few if anyroots would penetrate beyond this depth m a representative soil. 18 are also killed by compaction from construc- tion equipment and by compaction from cars in unpaved parking areas. Compaction closes the pore spaces that are essential to the absorption of water and oxygen and hardens all but the sandiest of soils so that roots cannot penetrate them, even when oxygen sup- plies are use of mulch can induce fermenimmobilize nutrients, and cut off the tation, oxygen supply, thereby killing trees. Use of broad expanses of plastic, either as a surface covering or under a layer of organic mulch or stone, is a sure way to cut off oxygen and kill adequate (Patterson, 1965). Excessive As an alternative, porous landscape fabrics, which permit water and air to penetrate the soil, are a vast improvement over plastic. trees. Figure 14. This photograph of the Schenck Memorial Oak (Quercus alba) was projected and traced to produce Figure 13. The Schenck Memorial Oak is 32.3 meters tall (106 ft) and has a crown spread of 29 meters (94 ft) and a diameter at breast height of 1.07 meters (42 in). trespass into the neighboring property. No part of an urban yard can be treated carelessly with herbicides. Care must also be taken in disposing of toxic chemicals, deicing salts, old crankcase oil, and high-strength detergents. Careless disposal of chemicals and improper use of herbicides are among the most common causes of tree death in urban areas. The maximum leaf area index that a normal ecosystem can support is about 12, when both surfaces of the leaf are counted. The corresponding maximum root area index is between 15 and 30. A large planting of lawn, annuals, or shrubs underneath existing trees often results in a reduction in the root and leaf area indexes of the trees. Gardening under trees-planting lawns, daffodils, liriope, or Soil The Compaction largest single killer of trees is soil compaction-compaction from excessive use of city parks by people, from excessive grazing by livestock (including zoo animals)-and even from the feeding activities of pigeons, whose small feet exert more pressure per square centimeter than heavy machines. Trees azaleas and rhododendrons-tears up tree roots and will produce a corresponding death of twigs and branches in the crown of the tree. Surprisingly, turning over the soil when gardening is another common cause of tree death in urban situations. Gardeners should be aware of the biological compromises that need to be made in order to achieve the proper balance between trees and garden plants. It should be obvious by now that any earth moving or regrading that cuts or buries tree roots will result in the death of a corresponding portion of the branches in the tree. Unfortunately, this simple fact is often ignored when utility lines, parking lots, or even irrigation lines are being installed. Smearing six inches of clay from the mineral soil layer over the root system of an established tree or covering its roots with pavement can be as lethal as cutting it down with a chain saw. When a new house is constructed, the yard may have six different trench lines cut from 19 Figure 15. Many roots of trees grow closely intermingled with grass roots in the few top centimeters of a lawn. Therefore fertilizers and herbicides do not have to move down into the soil in order to affect trees. the house-for water, sewer, electricity, telephone, gas, and cable television. Over 90 percent of the pre-existing tree roots in the front yard are destroyed during construction and utility-line installation. In addition, the soil structure of the entire lot is street to the tunneling or concentrating utility-line installations in a single trench, this damage can be minimized. Careful watering and thinning of the can tree crowns to compensate for root losses usually completely destroyed by heavy equipment and the spreading of excavated heavy soil on top of undisturbed soil. The proud new homeowners are left to figure out for themselves why all their trees have severe crown dieback and continue to decline (or die) for a decade or more after they have moved in. save trees under impossible circumstances. The root systems of a large tree often occupy the entire building site, and buy time until new roots can be produced. It is often wiser and cheaper to accept a bad situation and cut down a tree before construction begins rather than to try to preserve a large specimen in the middle of a construction site. Performing tree surgery after construction is complete-and crown dieback is obvious-will be more expensive and may be late to save the tree. Planting a young, vigorous sapling after construction is completed not only may be more cost effective but also may provide greater long-term satisfaction. In urban situations, soil compaction and limited oxygen supplies are the major restraints to growing trees in city parks and in too Saving Trees People often try to it is without impossible to complete construction damaging some or all of its roots. By 20 highly paved areas. Inadequate supplies of usually secondary to these two fundamental problems. In terms of surviving these conditions, trees adapted to swamps and flood-prone areas, where soil oxygen tensions are normally low, often perform the best. Indeed, most of our common street trees, including pin oak, willow oak, sycamore, silver maple, and honey locust are flood-plain species that can thrive in compacted, urban water are Beatie, cost D. J. 1986. Principles, practices and comparative container grown landscape plants. Pennsylvania State University Agr Exp Sta , Southern Cooperative Series Bull. No 313. of overwintering Berndt, H. W, and R D. Gibbons 1958 Root distribution of some native trees and understory plants growing on three sites withm ponderosa pme watersheds m Colorado. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Exp Sta Paper No 37. Braekke, and F. H., and T T Kozlowski 1977 Distribution soils. Different trees grow on different sites in nature, and it is unreasonable to expect species adapted to well-drained upland or sloping topography to possess roots that would grow well in the compacted soils of a heavily used recreation area or in areas with extensive pavement. There are hundreds of ways to kill or injure trees. They range from zapping them with laser beams (as in the Omni shopping mall of Atlanta) to girdling them with the grinding tugs of dogs chained outside of college classrooms. Many tree deaths are accidental and involve misconceptions about the structure and function of tree roots. Why else would the City of New Orleans keep a rhinoceros caged on the root system of its symbolic Centennial Oak? Why else would the State of North Carolina use a ditch-witch in late June to install an irrigation system among the stately trees of the old Capitol building? Why else would the National Capital Parks in Washington, D.C., allow rows of newly planted, eight-inchcaliper trees in front of the new Aerospace Center to remain unwatered while the need for irrigation was recognized and supplied to trees on the mall across the street? People must know where tree roots are located and what they require if healthy trees are to become a gratifying part of the urban environment. Literature Cited growth of roots in Pinus resmosa and Betula papyrifera stands Norsk Institutt for Skogforskmng 33 (10). 442-451. Bohm, W 1979. Methods of Studying Root Systems. Berlin- Spnnger-Verlag. Bray,J R. 1963. net Root production and the estimation of productivity. Canadian Tournal of Botany 41 65-72 Busgen, M , and Munsch, E. 1929. Structure and Life of Forest Trees Translated by T. Thomson. New York- Wiley. Coile, T. S 1937. Distribution of forest tree roots in North Carolina Piedmont soils. journal of Forestry 36 247-257. Coile, T in Agronomy S 1952. Soil and the 4: 329-398. growth of forests. Advances growth in Cnder, F.J. 1928 68- 403-404. Winter root plants Science Duvigneaud, P, and S Denayer-DeSmet. 1970 Biological cycling of minerals m temperate deciduous forests, pp. 199-225, m Analysis of Temperate Forest Eco-systems, D. E. Reschle, ed. Berlin: Spnnger-Verlag Garm, G. I. 1942. Distribution of roots of certain tree species in two Connecticut soils. Connecticut Agr Exp Sta. Bull. No. 454 Hammerle,J 1901 Uber die penodizitat des wurzelwachstums bei Acer pseudoplatanus L. Beitrage zur Wiss. Bot 4: 105-155 R E. Leonard, and R. S Pierce. 1962. Leaf fall, humus depth, and soil frost m a northern hardwood forest. Forest Research, note 131. Hart, G., Himelick, E. B., D. Neely, and W R. Crowley, Jr 1965. Experimental field studies on shade tree fertilization. Illmois Natural History Survey, Biological Notes No. 53. Baskerville, G ture L. 1965. Dry matter production m immabalsam fir stands. Forest Science Monograph No 9 Hook, D. D., C. L. Brown, and R. H. Wetmore. 1972. Aeration in trees. Botanical Gazette 133 (4): 443-454. Baskerville, G ture L 1966. Dry matter production in imma- balsam fir stands roots, lesser vegetation, and total stand. Forest Science 12(1): 49-53. Hoyle, M C 1965. Growth of yellow birch in a podzol soil. Northeast Forest Exp. Sta Research Paper NE-38. 21 E. Bruckner, and H. Bibelnenthen. 1968 Die Wuitzem der Waldbaume. Hamburg' Paul Parey. Kostler,J N., P B Catlin 1971. Differential sensitivity to waterlogging and cyanogenesis by peach, apricot and plum roots. Horticultural Science 96(3). 305-308. Rowe, R B., and Kozlowski, T. T., and C. H. Wmget movement m forest trees 1963 Patterns of water Botamcal Gazette 124- 301-311 Rudmski,J A, and J phylogenetic Ladefoged, K. im P Vite 1959 Certain ecological and aspects of the pattern of water conduction 1939 Untersuchungen uber die penodizitat ausbruch und langenwuchstum der wurzeln Det in conifers Forest Science 5(3). 259-266 Foisthge Forsogsvaeseni root Danmark No 16 Russell, E W 1973 Soil Conditions and Plant 10th ed London: Longman. Growth, Lyford, W. H., and B. F. Wilson 10. 1964. Development of the system of Acer rubrum L. Harvard Forest Papers No 1977 Plant Root Systems Their Functions and Interaction with the Soil New York McGraw-Hill. Russell, R.S Stout, W H. 1975 Rhizography of non-woody roots of the forest floor, pp. 179-196, in The Development and Function of Roots J. G. Torrey and D. T. Clarkson, eds. New York: Academic Press. Lyford, trees m ous trees. B. A. 1956. Studies of the root systems of deciduBlack Rock Forest Bull No 15 ment Torrey,J G , and D. T. Clarkson, eds. 1975. The Developand Function of Roots Third Cabot Symposium. New York Academic Press Van de Lyford, No. 21 W. H. 1980. northern red oak Development of the root system of (Quercus rubra L.) Harvard Forest Papers F H , and D. Gottsche. 1971 Distribution of root tips and tender roots of beech, pp. 48-52, in Integrated Expenmental Ecology Berlin Spnnger-Verlag Meyer, Werken, H 1981 Fertilization and other factors enhancing the growth rate of young shade trees. Journal of Arboriculture 7(2) 33-37 Watson, D.J 1947 Comparative physiological studies on the growth of field crops 1 Variation m net assimilation and leaf area between species and varieties, and within and between years Annals of Botany, N S. 11: rate C M 1945. Untersuchungen uber laubmenge, stoffverlust und stoffproduktion des waldes. Sonderadruck der Mittelilungen von Det Forstlige. Forsogsvaesen i Danmark Kandrup and Wunsch. Moller, 41-76 E H , W L Pritchett, and W. K Robertson 1971. Slash pme biomass and nutrient concentrations, in Forest Biomass Studies, H. E. Young, ed. Symposium of International Union of Forest Research Organizations, No. 132. Orono University of Maine. White, Ovmgton, J vestns D. 1957. Dry matter production by Pmus L. Annals of Botany, N S 21 (82)- 277-314 syl- Patterson,J C 1965. Soil compaction and its effects upon urban vegetation, in Better Trees for Metropolitan Landscapes Forest Service Gen Tech. Rep. NE-22. Woods, F. 357-359. 1957 Factors sands of the southeastern coastal limiting root penetration in deep plain Ecology 38: L Brown 1971. Trees Struc- Perry, T. O. 1972 121: 29-36. 1978 Dormancy of trees in winter. Science Zimmerman, M. H., and C Physiology and genetics of root-soil mteractions on adverse sites, pp 77-97, in Proceedmgs of the 5th North Amencan Forest Biology Workshop, C. A. Hollis and A. E. Squillace, eds. Miami School of Forest Perry, T. 0 Resources and ture and Function. Berlin- Spnnger-Verlag. Conservation, University of Florida. W. L , and W H. Lyford. 1977. Slash pine root systems. Soil and Crop Science Society of Florida 37:126-131. Pritchett, Thomas O. Perry taught in the School of Forest Resources at North Carolma State University for many years, and now operates his own consulting business, Natural Systems Associates An earlier version of this article appeared in the Journal of Arboriculture 8 (8): 197-211, 1982. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Roots: A Photo Essay","article_sequence":2,"start_page":22,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24988","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060b76f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"22 \"Oak Roots.\" Photograph by Gertrude Jekyll, late 1890s. Photo album no. 4, 1279, negative no. 739, from the archives of the College of Environmental Design, Department of Architecture, University of photo no. California, Berkeley. Tree Roots: A Photo Essay A novel way of coping with the shallow roots of Ulmus americana, the American elm, the Harvard University campus in Cambridge, Massachusetts. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. on 24 An unusual Massachusetts. The American beech, in Watertown, during a storm but continued to grow despite being upended. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. tree specimen of Fagus grandifolia, the blew down 25 The buttressed roots of Ulmus americana, the American elm, growing in Cambridge, Massachusetts. This is one of the few species of temperate trees that spontaneously forms such buttresses. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. 26 a single forty-year-old sweetgum tree, Liquidambar styraciflua. The sprouts range in age from one to fifteen years, and some are over five inches in diameter at breast height. The grids are one meter on each side. Photograph by P. P. Kormanik, U.S. Forest Service, Athens, Georgia. A stand of root sprouts from 27 Unusual western roots of Betula allegheniensis, the yellow birch, growing on Mt. Greylock in Massachusetts. This tree probably started life by germinating on the stump of fallen tree, which subsequently eroded away. Photograph by Racz and Debreczy. a 28 The beeches at Moens Klint, Denmark. This location is literally \"land's end;' where Europe's most famous beech forest meets the Baltic Sea. Like legions going into battle, the trees march right up to the edge of the precipice while their adversaries, the waves, endlessly pound and attack from below. From time to time, sections of the cliff cave in, hurtling the trees into the sea. Opposite is a picture of one of the exposed root systems of just such a tree, washed clean by the action of the waves. Reprinted with permission from Trees by Andreas Feininger (Viking Press, New York, 1968). 29 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Fate of a Ficus","article_sequence":3,"start_page":30,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24987","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060b36b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Fate of a Ficus Peter Del Tredici A series of coincidences brings life and art together. The little details that make up one's daily life fit together like the links of a chain-achain that grows longer with the passage of time. On rare occasions, the past and present ends of this chain intersect, and, at this point, one always finds a tiny detail linking them I was lucky enough to stumble across a curious detail that united the past and the present in just this way. In the on to same Bulletin, Professor Ames went describe a remarkable coincidence con- cerning Sargent's drawing: During the preparation of the fourth number of the Bulletm, a search was being made in the Library of the Arboretum for colored plates of the Yoshmo cherry of Japan. The search led to the National Geographic Magazine where on page 191 of the fortysecond volume, attention was drawn to the reproduction of a photograph showing the roots of a strangling fig holding an old wagon wheel. It was not only a photograph of the same wheel which had engaged Sargent's attention, but a view of it taken from almost the same location from which Sargent had made his drawing. Through the kindness of the National Geographic Magazine, the Bulletin is permitted to reproduce the photograph and thus make possible a comparison between it and our reproduction of Sargent's drawing Fortunately the photograph which was made at Cutler, Florida, localizes Sargent's work and indicates those details which the artist suppressed in his interpretation of the scene. together. Recently, The story starts with some drawings made by John Singer Sargent towards the end of his life. Sargent was, of course, one of America's greatest portrait painters and a cousin of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum. The artist died in 1925, and in 1931 his two sisters, Miss Emily Sargent and Mrs. Francis Ormond, donated six of his botanical sketches to the Arboretum. Oakes Ames was the director at that time, and in the June 24, 1931, issue of the Bulletin of Popular Information, he reproduced one of the drawings, and described it: This subject, which is the most interesting of the Sargent drawings in the Arboretum collection, is a carefully worked up study of the roots of Ficus aurea, a strangling fig, that had become entangled with a discarded wagon wheel. The extraordinary association of fig roots and wheel must have made a strong appeal to Sargent, because the sketch was executed with meticulous fidelity to the original and constitutes a record that would not be out of place m a textbook of botany. The subject is botamcally unusual and hardly one that we should expect to find attracting the attention of a Indeed, the most striking difference between the two is the presence of two metal \"springs\" in the lower left-hand side of the drawing, which are hidden by the tree trunk in the photograph. When making his picture, Sargent was obviously standing a little to the right of the spot where John Gifford set up his camera. great portrait painter. Sargent probably produced the Ficus drawing during his only trip to Florida, a threemonth stay from February through April, 1917. He went to Florida to paint a portrait of the seventy-eight-year-old John D. Rockefeller, who was then living at his estate at 31 Ficus aurea. This photograph by John graphic Magazine, vol. 42, p 191 C Gifford ongmally appeared in 1922 m National Geo- Ficus-Florida. Reproduced from an original drawing by John Singer Sargent (original drawing 9-5\/8 by 7 inches). Donated to the Arnold Arboretum by Miss Emily Sargent and Mrs. Francis Ormond. 32 Ormond Beach, near Daytona. It took Sargent about three weeks to complete the commission, after which he traveled south to Miami to visit his long-time friends Mr. and Mrs. Charles Deering. While in the Miami area, he produced a number of watercolors and drawings, including Ficus Florida, reproduced here. Ames' 1931 article on the Sargent drawing was the last word on the subject until 1982, when, in the course of my own work on an Asian strangling fig, Ficus benjamina, I noticed for the first time that one of the drawings hanging on a wall in the Hunnewell Buildmg was of a Ficus. I was amazed to learn, upon closer examination, that it was a John Singer Sargent original. I had walked by the drawing countless times, but, like the proverbial swine before whom pearls are tossed, I took no notice. Excited as I was by the \"discovery\" of the Sargent drawing, it was nothing compared to my reaction while reading an article titled \"Florida's Ficus\" in the January-February 1981 issue of Garden magazine. The author, Yvette Cardoza, described over: a scene that bowled me The strangler, Ficus aurea, is perhaps the most aggressive of the Florida ficus: the drooping aerial roots can and will engulf just about anything that is stationary Landscaper Bert Newcomb remembers slashing one trunk and finding the remains of a turnof-the-century wagon wheel. Ficus aurea in Key West, Flonda, photographed m 1886 by James M. Codman, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 33 Could it possibly have been the same wagon wheel that Sargent drew? A phone call to Mr. Newcomb revealed a soft-spoken gentleman who, unfortunately, could not remember where the tree was located or when he had cut it down. The image of the wheel inside the fig tree was all he could recall, the same image that Sargent had captured with his pencil. To my mind, the tree had to have been the same one that Sargent captured in his drawinghow many such figs can there be in southern Florida? And besides, the chain of coincidences that surrounds this plant dictates just such a dramatic finish. the ground After the seed germinates, the roots, being geotropic, begin to grow downward At first they are slender, but as they develop, there takes place an increase in diameter After the roots enter the ground in their downward passage, the fig ceases to be an epiphyte in a strict sense and becomes a true terrestrial plant, the support for the leafy crown being largely composed of an interlacing and anastamosmg system of tough roots. In time, if the fig prospers, the roots completely enclose the trunk of the host tree or palm and a so-called stranglmg action begins. In the later stages of this strange association, the tree on which the fig began its development appears to emerge from a rigid gray sheath Finally the host tree dies, leaving the fig perfectly independent During the formation of the root system, rocks or other objects that are in the way are often enmeshed and securely held. Afterword In his article Professor Ames gives lent account of the life of a quote it here because it helps one an excelI strangler fig. appreciate Sargent's drawing more fully. Acknowledgment Special thanks are owed to Margaret S. Moore, Research Coordinator for the John Singer Sargent Catalogue Raisonne, for providing the author with a key reference the life of Sargent, American Traditions m WatercolorThe Worcester Art Museum Collection, edited by Susan E. Stnckler, Abbeville Press, New York, 1987. on Ficus aurea usually begins life as an epiphyte, that is, it springs from a seed that has been dropped, by a bird or some other agency, on the limb of a tree or in the leaf axil of a palm. In the beginning the plant is a true epiphyte, having no connection with Peter Del Tredici is editor of Amoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Parrotia persica: An Ancient Tree for Modern Gardens","article_sequence":4,"start_page":34,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24986","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060b326.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Parrotia Persica: An Ancient Tree for Modem Landscapes Robert G. Nicholson - _ , This unusual member of the witch-hazel garden throughout the year. family adds grace and _ beauty to the Superb woods of gigantic oak, beech, ash and waltrees, of apple, pear, cherry, plum and apricot trees, gladdened, though leafless, the eyes of the spectator, deeper in the mountains, where the foot of a European and botanist never yet trod .. nut son. as However, its flowers, appearing as early -F. Parrot, Journey to Ararat, 1845 The land of Persia, now known as Iran, has held a storybook fascination to Westerners ever since Marco Polo brought back tales of exotic customs and ancient cities. Botanists too have made pilgrimages to this mountainous country, bringing back such spring bulbs as tulips, narcissus, and fritillaria that have since become horticultural standards. Few people, however, realize that in addition to bulbs, a rich woody flora exists in certain provinces of Iran. One of the more noteworthy plants is the Persian ironwood,Parrotia persica, a little-known member of the witch-hazel family (Hamamelidaceae). This group of plants is familiar to most gardeners for its hardy shrubs, the yellowflowered witch hazels and corylopsis, as well as the delightful fothergillas, native to the southeastern United States. The family also includes several obscure tropical generaTrichocladus, Diocoryphe, Rhodoleia, and Altingia-as well as tree species, such as the sweet gum, Liquidambar styraciflua, and Parrotia persica, the subject of this article. Persian ironwood is considered by many horticulturists to provide interest in every sea- March in Philadelphia, are only noticeable upon close examination. Petals are lacking, but a dense cluster of scarlet stamens contrasts beautifully with the chocolate-brown, hairy bracts-abeautiful combination of colors that works well in early spring flower arrangements. British writers describe these flowers as producing a hazy, red effect en masse, but I have never seen this display in the United States and suspect either that they are growing different strains or that their climate maximizes flower production. The new foliage first appears with a reddish color (much like gamey meat) but turns in time to a lustrous medium green. The leaves are very similar to those of fothergilla and witch hazel, eight to ten centimeters long (3 to 4 in), with an asymmetrical base and a wavy, round-toothed leaf margin above their midpoint. Fall and winter are the seasons when Parrotia's stock begins an uptick. Its autumn colors are spectacular, at its peak a mix of scarlet, maroon, orange, yellow, and pink. It is similar to the fall hues of fothergilla-an impressionistic splash of vivid colors. Beneath its canopy of foliage one commonly finds a multi-stemmed trunk sheathed in a subtly beautiful, mottled bark. As with most trees displaying exfoliating bark, this character is not as apparent in the tree's youth 35 in its old age. Parrotia's bark, while similar in pattern to Pinus bungeana or Platanus as is unique in its color, showing irregusplotches of beige, tan, silvery gray, and silvery brown, which seem to flake off most species, lar heavily in the fall. Parrotia's Origins Of the five floristic regions of Iran, Parrotia occurs wild in only one, the Hyrcanian Region. This area falls within the provinces of Gorgan, Mazandaran, and Ghilan, and slopes from the Alborz mountains of northern Iran northward to the southern shores of the Caspian Sea. The Alborz rise as high as 5600 meters (18,375 ft) and form an effective barrier to rain clouds, making the region one of the wettest in Eurasia. Annual rainfall totals can reach 200 centimeters (80 in) in Ghilan. Climatically, the region resembles the coastal regions of northern California and the western slopes of the Sierra Nevada mountains. The weather is humid and mild, with a relatively limited range of temperature fluctuations. Spring is the driest part of the year, and fall and winter the wettest. Absolute minimum temperatures in some of the cities on the Caspian coast reach -9 degrees Centigrade (15 F), so it is probably safe to assume that at higher altitudes Parrotia is subjected to temperatures around -17 degrees Centigrade (0 F). One striking difference between the Caspian and northern California flora is the relative paucity of conifers that are found in Iran. While the northern half of California has almost two dozen species of Close-up of the bark, Parrotia persica. Photograph by M Dirr. conifers, only Thuja orientalis, Cupressus sempervirens, Taxus baccata, and two species of funiperus are found on the north slopes of the Alborz, in limited, sporadic distribution. The Hyrcanian flora shatters our preconceptions about this presumably arid country since over 200 woody taxa have been cata- logued from this region, including such familiar genera as Acer (maple), Betula (birch), Carpinus (ironwood), Cornus (dogwood), Fagus (beech), and Quercus (oak). In checking the records of the Arnold Arboretum, about a third of these 200 taxa are represented on the grounds, although many of them have a wide Eurasian range and were not necessarily collected from Iran. The trees of the Caspian forest that are found at higher altitudes, around 2130 meters (7000 ft), include Alnus subcordata, Acer hyrcanum, Ulmus glabra, Carpinus orientalis, and specimens of Fagus orientalis approaching 46 meters (150 ft) in height. The understory consists of Erythronium, Scilla, Blechnum, Galium, and a blueberry with beautiful fall color, Vaccinium arctostaphylos. Next to the sea, on the Caspian Plain, the climate supports a humid, mossy forest, in which Quercus castaneaefolia dominates an understory of Albizia julibrissin, Diospyros lotus, Gleditsia caspica, and Buxus sempervirens. Here too Pterocarya fraxinifolia, a 36 member of the walnut family, forms thickets along streams, and one also finds Mespilus germanica, the medlar, with its edible, rosaceous fruits. Parrotia persica is said to be found from sea level to over 900 meters (3000 ft) elevation, and our propagation files record shipments of seed collected wild at 20, 200, and 400 meters. On steep slopes; it forms forests in association with Carpinus betulus and the understory herbs Cyclamen elegans, Hypericum androsaemum, Primula heterochroma, and could identify was the Azerbaijani town of Masally, about 40 miles north of the Iranian border. A number of British collectors have recently surveyed the flora of Iran, including Roy Lancaster, John Simmons, and T. F. Hewer. Simmons, a curator from Kew Gardens, visited Iran in 1977, just prior to the outbreak of hostilities with Iraq. He describes with eloquent awe one stand of Parrotia that he visited: we were not disappointed by the parrotias which formed unique stands To go amongst these unexpectedly massive trees was to step back in time Great flecked trunks, the size of beech with aged specimens grafting boughs where they touched, and all festooned with dripping mosses The stillness of this scene and its associations was almost mystical, for beneath their seasonal shade grew the Caspian box, Buxus hycanus, and the monocotyledonous shrubs, Danae racemosa, with its large red berries, and Epimedium pinnatum. In the U.S.S.R., Parrotia is found on the western side of the Caspian Sea in the Talysh forest. From what I could determine from examining specimens in our herbaria and from published accounts, it grows in a very limited area of the southeastern Caucasus mountains. The northernmost location I But The oldest specimen of Parrotia persica at the Arnold Arboretum, #2230, planted in 1881. Photograph by M. Dm. 37 Ruscus hyrcanus, the Caspian butcher's broom, also fruiting, with a straggling Smilax making a related trio It is an Hyrcanian element, that is, a relic of the great Hyrcanian flora that dommated the Holarctic region during the late Tertiary period and this particular fragment of forest was seemingly unusually well preserved and m itself a rarity, a refuge amongst the refugia. The violent reds and yellows of the parrotia's autumn foliage have an almost unreal quality and happily too the seedlings from this ancient forest are now showing this inheritance at Kewthough, as hoped, each small tree is different, some more red, others yellow, so increasing the diversity available for gardens. Introduction into Cultivation The first published reference to Parrotia was by the French botanist Augustin de Candolle, who in 1830, using specimens collected by Hansen, described the plant as a species of Hamamelis, Hamamelis persica. A year later Karl Anton Meyer published an account of his collections in the Caucasus and correctly assigned the tree to its own genus, renaming the plant Parrotia persica, in honor of F. W. Parrot, a German naturalist who collected in the Caucasus and Turkey and was the first European to scale the massive Mount Ararat in 1829. a breadth of 23 meters (75 ft) and a height of 18 meters (60 ft), and developed a thickly leafed, broadly domed canopy. It is multiple-trunked with eight main trunks, two of which are almost a meter and a half (5 ft) in circumference near their bases. It is quite possibly the largest specimen of Parrotia in North America and certainly one of the largest in cultivation anywhere. Our two most recent accessions of Parrotia, planted near the original tree, were sent to us as seed in the 1970s from the Botanic Garden in Tehran. The older (#541-75-A) came from seed collected at Nouhahr and is 2.5 meters tall (8 ft), with a 35-centimeter (14 in) circumference. Its neighbor (#490-77-A) was grown from seed collected at Sinangan in the province of Mazandaran, and is now three meters high (10 ft) and multi-stemmed. Between these saplings and the aged giant is a grafted scion of our original plant, now 32 years old, with a height and breadth of 8.5 meters (28 ft). From these four trees we can see that Parrotia generally grows more in width than in height and that, when young, it has attained it can grow 20 to 30 centimeters a year. By 1840, Parrotia was reported in cultivaRussia, at the botanical garden in St. Petersburg, and Kew Gardens received a specimen from St. Petersburg the next year. By 1880, Parrotia reached the United States, growing at the Harvard Botanic Garden in tion in The Arboretum's original Parrotia has been used in a number of research projects as well as being a source of propagation material. In 1970, A. Linn Bogle used this tree in a comparative study of floral morphology and vascular anatomy in the witch-hazel family, and in 1980 William Buikema, a Harvard biology student, used the plant in a chromosome Cambridge, Massachusetts. The Arnold Arboretum's oldest specimen originated as a cutting from this plant in 1881. Indeed, most of the older specimens of Parrotia growing in the United States probably trace their lineage back to the Harvard plant. The collection of the Arnold Arboretum holds a number of accessions of varying ages, giving us a good indication of Parrotia's rate of growth here in Boston. Our largest specimen, from 1881 (#2230), is growing near the Center Street wall at the base of a small slope and is now crowding its neighboring Pterocaryas and witch hazels. In its 108 years, study. and Cultivars Despite its century and a half of cultivation, there has been limited selection and hybridization work with Parrotia. Sycoparrotia semidecidua is the product of hybridization with a near relative from Asia, Sycopsis sinensis. This hybrid is quite rare and, when planted outside at the Arboretum, failed to survive the winter of 1981, in which the temperature reached a low of -21 degrees Centigrade (-10 F). One wonders whether a hybrid with Fothergilla or Hamamelis would be possible. Hybrids 38 One particularly promising selection of Parrotia is the cultivar 'Pendula,' a weeping form the tree as a specimen in a conspicuous of the species. The noted English plantsman Roy Lancaster told me that this cultivar \"apparently was selected from a batch of seedlings at Kew in 1934 by its propagator, the late Charles Coates.\" It forms a compact mound of arching, pendulous branches, adding a graceful habit to the assets of splendid bark and vivid fall foliage. Many weeping trees are at their best when a light dusting of snow outlines their cascading architecture, and the reader can easily imagine how beautiful the weeping Parrotia would look with its mottled bark contrasting with the fresh snow. I recommend planting place-on a lawn, by a walkway, or in a small multi-leveled garden. Parrotia persica 'Pendula' has only recently been brought to the United States: the Arnold Arboretum and North Carolina State University both have imported plants within the last few years. With its gracefully mounding habit and brilliant fall color, this cultivar is sure to become more widely available in the near future. Propagation Like many members of the Hamamelidaceae, Parrotia roots quite easily, but unlike many of its tribe, it will break bud and leaf out after it has been overwintered. In a cutting trial a few years ago, I compared eight different hormone treatments, and two of them resulted in over 90 percent rooting. In one, a talc-based powder containing 0.8 percent indolebutyric acid (IBA) was used, while in the other, the basal ends of the cuttings were soaked for 24 hours in an aqueous solution of 0.04 percent IBA. In both cases, the cuttings produced extensive root systems and grew well after being potted up. In a more recent trial with the cultivar'Pen5 dula,' every cutting of the lot treated with 0.5 percent IBA (dissolved in 50 percent alcohol) rooted when placed under mist in a medium of pumice, perlite, and shredded peat (6: 3: 1 by volume). The seeds of Parrotia show a dormancy requirement similar to those of Hamamelis; that is, they germinate after being exposed to a warm stratification period of five months followed by a cold stratification period of three months. Bibliography Bean, Isles, W. J. 1976. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the British 8th ed., vol. 3, D. L. Clark, ed London: John Murray A. L. 1970. Floral morphology and vascular anatomy of the Hamamelidaceae. [ournal of the Arnold Arboretum 51- 310-366. Bogle, Parrotia persica, 1868, 3rd ser., from Curtis's Botamcal Magazine, vol. 24, tab. 5744. Clark, D. L. 1988. Supplement to WI Bean's Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the British Isles. London: John Murray. 39 Curtis's Botanical Magazine. 1868. 3rd ser., vol. 5744. De Candolle, A. P. 1830. Prodromus Pans: Treuttel and Wurtz. 24, tab. ' Systematis Natwahs. Djavanshir, K. 1967. Les chenes de 1'Iran. Thesis, Umversite de Montpellier. Hewer, T Society Afghanistan, F. 1971 A botanical expedition to Iran and 1969. Journal of the Royal Horticultural 46: 403-412. Lancaster, R. 1974. Paradise found Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 49- 103-109. Meyer, K. A. burg- 1831 Verzelchmss der Pflanzen. St. PetersKalserliche Academie der Wissenschaften. I. V. 1939. Flora Palabm, 209-210. of the US.S.R., vol. 9, pp. Parsa, A. 1978. Flora of Iran Tehran: Ministry of Science and Higher Education of Iran Parrot, F. 1845. Journey to Ararat. London: Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. Simmons,J. 1984. Reflections 421-425 on Iran. The Garden 109: Weaver, R. E. 1976. (Hamamelidaceae). The witch-hazel Amoldia 36 (3): 69-109. family Robert Nicholson, a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, writes often for Arnoldia and other horticultural publications. The Arnold Arboretum takes pleasure in offering its members young plants of both Parrotia persica and its cultivar 'Pendula.' A donation of $40 will entitle members to one Parrotia persica and one Parrotia persica 'Pendula,' the products of the propagation research described in this article. Send orders, along with checks payable to the Arnold Arboretum, to: Parrotia Distribution, Dana Greenhouse Arnold Arboretum 125 Arborway MA 02130-2795 Jamaica Plain, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":40,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24983","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060ab6f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Quigley, Jennifer","article_content":"BOOKS Jennifer Quigley Herbaceous Perennial Plants, by Allan M. Armitage, illustrated by Bonnie Dirr. Varsity Press, Athens, Georgia. Hardcover $45. 1989. Pp. xxiii + 646. Perennials for American Gardens, by Ruth Rogers Clausen and Nicolas H. Ekstrom. Random House, New York. 1989. Pp. xviii + 631. Hardcover $35. This year has brought us two encyclopedic references on the cultivation and characteristics of the plants that grow in modem American perennial gardens. Both books are impressive and authoritative works, resulting from the authors' years of experience with herbaceous plants, yet the two works stand quite distinct from each other and will serve different audiences. Assuming that one or the other belongs in every gardener's library (since it is time that we all had a reference as up-to-date as the nursery catalogues we receive), which book belongs on your shelf? If you want lavish color photographs, Clausen and Ekstrom will most likely be your choice. More than three hundred and fifty of them, many full page, appear in the text. Regrettably, the quality of their reproduction is highly variable, and the selection of illustrations is sometimes questionable, as in the case of Diascia stachyoides, which receives only a passing mention in the text: \"D. flanaganii, a fine plant indeed, is no longer considered distinct from D. stachyoides\" Armitage, on the other hand, has relegated a selection of ninety-six color plates, none larger than two-by-three inches, to the center of the book. The text contains instead the delicate line drawings of Bonnie L. Dirr, whose work also graces her husband Michael Dirr's Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. The authors have also chosen different approaches to the information presented. While Armitage is limited in his selection of genera, he covers each in great depth. His discussion of each genus includes a \"Quick Guide\" comparing height, flower color, and other characteristics in a tabular format, a \"Quick Key\" to the species covered, and a listing of specialized references, including journal articles. He provides detailed information concerning propagation methods, whereas Clausen and Ekstrom have chosen to use a single-letter code to identify the methods used. Clausen and Ekstrom present a wider range of plants than Armitage, although as a New England gardener, I must note that about 30 percent of the genera they include contain no species hardy beyond Zone 7. While Armitage covers fewer of these less hardy groups (something of a surprise since he gardens in Zone 8), he has included many bulbous species not found in Clausen and Ekstrom. Armitage's hardiness ratings are more conservative than those of Clausen and Ekstrom, varying by at least one zone in at least one direction on most entries. Achillea grandifolia, an extreme example, is listed by Clausen and Ekstrom as hardy in Zones 10 to 3 and by Armitage in Zones 5 to 8. Clausen and Ekstrom have included listings of nursery and seed sources, specialist societies, and display gardens, which will be helpful to the gardener seeking plant material or information, although they are not crossreferenced to appropriate plants. Both books include glossary, bibliography, common name index, and hardiness zone map. Although I found Armitage's common name index, which refers to page number, easier to use than Clausen and Ekstrom's, which refers to 41 botanical name, I found the colors of Clausen and Ekstrom's hardiness map easier to read (despite printing errors, which left some sections of the map colorless) than the varied hatching in the Armitage. The big difference between these references, however, is in the discussion of the plants themselves. Clausen and Ekstrom describe Heuchera micrantha var. diversifolia 'Palace Purple' as follows: has bronze leaves, beet red beneath, with a wrinkled surface. A superb foliage plant selected by the ... diveisifoha, H mlcrantha, and H amencana. Regardless of birthplace or pedigree, it is an eyecatchmg plant worth trying at the front of the shady garden. m. var. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Readily available. Armitage says of the same plant: Talace Purple' ('Powis Purple') is one of the finest introductions in recent years. The ivy-shaped foliage is deep purple but the color is deeper in the spring and fall, fading to bronze green under hot summer conditions. The flowers are of little consequence and should be removed. There is a good deal of variation in depth of color and those with the darkest reds should be propagated vegetatively A number of southern nurserymen .. are actively selecting for richness of color and performance in the South. Opinions differ as to its origin and taxonormc mche. Some argue that it was selected from plants at Powis Castle in Wales while others claim it to be the result of a chance seedling at Kew Gardens, England. It has been listed under H micrantha var. versicolor, H Clausen and Ekstrom, respected New York horticultural lecturers and design consultants, have produced a more beautiful volume and cover a wider range of plant materials, appealing to the adventurer in every gardener. Armitage, an associate professor of horticulture at the University of Georgia, has presented a more scholarly discussion peppered with personal observations, addressing those whose interest extends beyond the perennial border to research and production. Both books have limitations, and both have strengths; each will have missed at least one of your favorite plants. The choice of which volume belongs in your library is your own, although I expect that many will find both indispensable. Rest assured that whichever treatment suits your style, you will not give the book time to gather dust on the shelf. Jennifer Quigley is in charge of plant records, mapping, and labelmg at the Arnold Arboretum She is also an avid rock gardener. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 49","article_sequence":6,"start_page":42,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24984","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060af28.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index Numbers m to Volume 49 (1989) \/: 19; schedule for grounds staff (1): 71; taxa from Iran (4): 35; verification project staff (1):73; volunteers (1):28-35 Arnold Arboretum Associates (3): 10, 19 Arundmana gigantea humihs (2): 30 pumila (2): 31 - parentheses refer to issues, those m boldface to illustrations of the entries. Banvel Abies, water-conducting system of 5 (4): nephrolepis (1):21 Acer buergenanum (3) : 11, 18. 22, 23 - (4): 16 Bartram, John (2) : 20, 23 Acer hyrcanum (4) : 35 Acer palmatum (3) : 11, 18 'Dissectum' (3): 18 2014 platanoides (2): 21 - - Bebb, Michael S. (1):13 Beech, American (4): 24 European (4): 28, 29 \"Behind the Scenes at the Arnold Arboretum,\" David Michener, (2): 28 (l):3-4 Bennett, Ellen (1):30, 33 Bentham, George (1).16 Advanced Revelation fl):52, 53 Allanthus altissima (2): 21 Air pollution, effects on lilacs (2): 2 Albizia juhbnssm (4): 35 Alborz mountains [Iran] (4): 35 Alexander, John H. III (1):73; \"The Quest for the Perfect Lilac\" (2) : 31 (2): 31 vanegata (2): 31 vmdi-stnata (2): 31 Asarum magnificum (3).41, 42, pygmaea simonu - (2): 2-7 Alnus subcordata inside back cover Ash, dieback (2): 10, 11 - - - (4) : 35 American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta ( 1 42 American Gardener's Calendar yellows, (2): 10, 11 Ashton, Peter S. (1):3, 21, 34, 47, 73; \"The Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification - [M'Mahon] (2) : 19 American Horticultural (1):43, 56 Ames, Oakes (4): 30 Projects\" (1):7-10 Society Asociacion Mexicana de Orquideolo'Pictum' gia(l)47 Athynum goeringianum (3) : 43 AutoCAD(1):62, 63 Avery, Susan( 123 Awano, Ramosuke (3): Anderson, Isabel Perkins (3): 4, 6, 7, 9 Anderson, Larz (3) : 2-4, 6, 7-11, inside front cover Andrew W. Mellon Foundation (1):52 Arbustum Amencanum [Marshall] 8 (2) : 20 Armitage, Allan M. (4): 40-41 Arnold, James (1):11 Arnold Arboretum, accessions policy (l):20, 21, 36, 39, 41, 42, 49, 50; archives (1):58; bamboo collection (2) : 28-36; beginnings (1):11,12; behind the scenes (13,4; Bentham and Hooker planting sequence (1):16; bonsai collection (3): 9, 16; Case Estates (11: 20; Chinese Walk (1):14; computer operations (1):54-60; elm collection (1):13; expeditions for (1): 14; experiments at (3): 12; greenhouses (3): 41; herbarium (1): 29, 51; living collections (1):3, 10, 12, 17-19; maintaining living collections (1)65-72; planting plan (1):14; plant records office (1):28, 29, 39, 56-59; purpose (1):12, 18, Bailey, Liberty Hyde (1):17 Bamboos, at Arnold Arboretum (2): 28-36 Arrow (2) : 34 Dwarf Blackstem (2)- 33 Dwarf Whitestripe (2): 31 Giant timber (2): 32 Kumazasa (2): 34, 35 Meyer (2): 33 Nanhara (2): 35 Okamezasa (2): 35 Simon (2): 31 Sweetshoot (2) : 33 Umbrella (2) : 32 Yellowgroove (2) : 32 - Hooker, classification (1):7, 14, 16, 65; planting sequence (1): 16, 54 Betula (4): 35 allegheniensis (4) : 27 mgra (1): 65 papynfera (1): inside front cover; 4 (4): BG-BASE (11: 4, 22, 25, 27, 37, 39, 41, 51-53, 61, 63; file structure (1): 48; functions of (1):47-51; future of (1):51-53; history of (145-47; record keeping of (1):59-60 Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs [Rehder](l): 18 Birch, paper (4): 4 yellow (4): 27 Birch, William R. (2): 17; engraving by 18 Blueberry, barrens (3). 38-40 lowbush (3) : 38-40 7 Bogle, A. Linn (4): 37 Bonsai (3): 2-37; maintenance at Arnold Arboretum (3) : 13-19; Bentham and - - maintenance at Yokohama - - - Nursery (3): 36-37; repotting (3): 10, 13-14, 36-37; winter storage of (3): 18; wiring (3): 15 - - - \"Books,\" Richard Evans Schultes (3): 44 \"Books,\" Jennifer Quigley (4): 40-41 Botanical Libraries of Harvard - - University (1):40 Botanical nomenclature (1):40, 41 Botanical Society of America (3): 41 Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research (4): 5 - Bamboos- A Fresh Perspective [McClure] (2): 1, 35 \"Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum: A Midwinter Performance Evaluation,\" Gary L Koller (2): 28-36 Bradley Bibliography [Rehder] (1): \/: 17, 18 Bretschneider, Emil (1):13 43 Brooks, Richard (1):33 Bruns, Pamela, photos by (3)' 10, 7 Buikema, William (4): 37 Bussey, Benjamin (1):11 9 Bussey Institution (1):11; (3)9 Bussey Hill (1):62, 63 Buxus sempervirens (4): 35 16 Coates, Charles (4): 38 Codd, E. F.(1):45 Codman, James M., photo by (4): 32 Codman, Henry S. 11):54, 61 Cohort(1):16 Cold-stratification treatment (2): 25 Collecting cart, specimen (1):23; construction of ( 1 24 College of Environmental Design [Berkeley, Cal ] (4): 22 Complete Book of Everlastings [Silber] (3): 44 7 Candolle, Augustm (4): 37 Deenng, Charles (4): 32 De Laszlo, Philip, paintings by (3): 6, inside front cover Del Tredici, Peter (1):73; photos by (3): inside back cover; (4). 23, De 24,25 - - Cardoza, Yvette (4): 32 Carpmus betulus (4): 36 onentahs (4). 35 \"Cartographic Records of the Living Collections,\" Ethan W Johnson (1) : 61-64 Case Estates [Weston, Casoron (2): 3 \"The Fate of a Ficus\" (4): 30-33 \"Larz Anderson Bonsai Collec- - (3): 2-37 Stephen Spongberg, \"A New Magnolia Blooms in Boston\" (2): tion\" and Comptoma (3): 40 25-27 Computer-based plant records systems (1):43 Dempsey, Marie (1):30 Mass] (1): 20 Computerized mapping system - Caspian forest (4): 35, 36 Caucasus mountains (4): 36, 37 Cedrus hbam (1 front cover, 8, 9 Census, North American trees (1):13 Center for Plant Conservation (1): 4, 10\/45, 52, 53 Chamaecypans, water-conducting system of (4): 5 2014 obtusa (3) 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 18, 36 2014 2014 bievuatnea (3): 13, 19 'Chabo-hiba' (3): 11, 12, 13, 17, - (I)- 61-63 Conifers, collection of (1)16, 17 dwarf (3): 12 Connor, Shiela1 158, 73 Cornus (4) : 35 Corylopsis (4): 34 Country Seats of the United States [Birch] (2)- 23 Cox, Reginald |1)13 Creech, John (3) 36 Cnchton-Harms, Ann, \"Lowbush Bluebernes: Out of the Barrens and into the Garden\" (3): 38-40 Derdenan, Constance (3): 10, 11, 31 \"Designing a Computer-Software Application to Meet the PlantRecord Needs of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Kerry S Walter (1): 42-53 DeWolf, Gordon (1): 20 Dicamba (4) : 16 Dicentra spectabihs (2) : 4 peregnna [= pusilla] (3): 1, back - cover 18, 24-27, 30, 31, 34, 35 compacta (3) : 13, 19 - Diospyros lotus (4) : 35 Dirr, Bonnie (4)- 40 Dirr, Michael, photos by (4): 35, 36 - (3): 19 nana (3) : 5, 13, 14 'Nana Gracihs' (3): 19 'Verdoon' (3): 19 - pisifera (3) : 12 'Squarrosa' (3) 11, 18 Cheng, C.-Y (3)- 41 Cheng, W. C (2|- 25, 27 Cherry, Japanese (1):19, 31; (4) : 14 Higan(3) 11, 18, 28-29 China, expeditions to (1):14; Jiangsu Province (2): 25; ligneous flora of (1)17, 18; plant discoveries in [1B 25; - 'Graciosa' - - - - - - - - - Christianson, Jeanne, and Sandra Elsik, \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal (1)61 Cross-pollination (3) 39 Cryptomena laponica (3): 18, 37 Cullen, James (1):47 Cultivars, identification of, (1)'19, 20; 27, 39 Cupressus sempervirens (4): 35 Curtis's Botanical Magazine (4): 38 Cuscuta subinclusa (2) : 11 Cutler, Rev. Manasseh (2): 17, 18 Cyanophonc glucosides (4): 14 Cyclopedia of American Horticulture [Bailey] (1):17 Cypress, bald (4): 13, 14 compact hmoki (3) : 18, 25, 26, 27, Croizat, Leon - - Display labels(1):57, 66 Dogwood, flowering|1)16 and herbicides (4): 17 red osier (3). 39 yellow-twig (3): 39 Downing, Andrew Jackson (2): 21; (3) 6 Dudley, T R. (1): 20; (2): 25, 26 Dumaine, Susan (1):29 Dwight, Richard W. (2): 5, 7 - Ekstrom, Nicholas H. (4) : 40-41 Elm, American (4) : 23, 25 - collection at Arnold Arboretum 30,31 - (1)-13 Elsik, Sandra( 13, 23, 73; photo by (1):22 - hmoki|3):3, 9-12, sawara (3) : 11 18 \"From Each in a Voucher: Collecting the Living Collections\" (1):21- - Benefits\"(1):28-35 \"Chronicling the Living Collections: The Arboretum's Plant Records,\" Jennifer Quigley(l)54-60 Cladrastis lutea( 143, 44 kentukea (1)- 44 Clark, William Smith (1):13 Clausen, Ruth R. (4) : 40-41 DAPI fluorescence test (2): 8, 11 1 Database-management software (DBMS)(1): 45 27 ; - Davidia mvolucrata ana 1 1): 38, 39 var. vilmonm- and Jeanne Chnstianson, \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal Dawson, Jackson(1):14, 54, 55 Debreczy, Zsolt see Racz and Debreczy Benefits\"(1):28-35 Endymion hispamcus (2): 4 Englemann, George (1):13 44 Epstem, Barbara(1):30, 33 Erwin, Susan( 133 - Genera Plantarum [Bentham and G Hooker] (1): 16 Generic Flora of the Southeastern Henry, Augustine (1):14 Herbaceous Perennial Plants Fagus grandifoha (4) : 24 onentahs (4): 35 [Armitage] (4)- 40 Herbicides (2): 3; U.S. (1): 20 (1):inside \"Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification Protects,\" Peter S. Ashton (1)Gifford, John, C. (4)- 32; photo by - sylvatica back 'Tortuosa' (4): 16, 18 Hewer, T. F. (4):36 Hibben, Craig R. \"Mycoplasmal 2022 cover Fargesia spathacea (2) : 32, front cover \"The Fate of a Ficus,\" Peter Del 7-10 Tredici(4| 29 Fermentation 30-33 (4).31 Ginger, magnificent (3): 41-43, 42, - Faxon, Charles E.( 115 Feininger, Andreas, photos by (4): 28, - (4): 14, 18 - Fern, Japanese painted (3) : 43 Fertilizer, for bonsai (3): 15, 17, 18; slow-release vs broadcast (4): 16; tree spikes (4) : 16 Ficus aurea (4): 30, 31, 32, 33 benjamma (4): 32 Fig, strangling (4) : 30-33 Fir, Douglas (3): 10 - inside back cover cultivation (3): 41 rhizomes (3) : 42 propagation (3): 42 Gmkgo biloba (2): 21, 23 Gleditsia caspica (4): 35 Pathogens: New Causes for Old Diseases\" (2): 8-13 Highland Park [Rochester, N.Y.] (2): 3 Holm Lea [Brookhne, Mass.] (1):11, 12 Hooker, Joseph Dalton (1):16 Hooker, William Jackson (1):16 Hosta, variegated (3): 41 House Beautiful (3): 8 Howard, Heman (1):61 Howard, Richard (1).20; (3) :41, Hyrcanian flora [Iran] (4): 35 43 Glyphosate (4) : 17 Gomes, Tom, photo by (3)- 40 Goodell, Hank(l)73; (3):10 Gordon, George (3) : 13 Grape, wild (2): 19 Gray, Asa (1):11-14 Green Swamp [North Carolina] (4): Griffin, Ruth( 1):33 Groh, Nora and Zsolt Debreczy, drawing by (2) : 27 Groves, Kathy (1)-29 Green, Peter (1):20 Groundcovers |3|: 39-40 Hachi-no-ki [bonsai] (3): 2, 11 Hagopian, Helen (1):28 silver (2): 19 Fisher, Joshua Francis (2) : 23 Flat-file database design (1):44 Flood-plain trees (4): 13, 14, 20; specialized adaptations of (4): 8, 13 Flora, definition of (1)' 41, of eastern Asia( 114, of North America (1):13, 14,53 Flora Amencae Septentnonahs [Pursh] (2): 20 Flora North America database( 153 Fluorescence test for MLO (2)- 8, 10, 11 8 Ichang flora [China] (1):14 Imperial Botanic Garden [Leningrad] (1):36, 37, 39 Indolebutync acid (IBA) (4) : 38 Institute of Museum Services (I)1 22, 51, 52, 58 International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants-1980 (3) : 13 International Standards Organization (1): 51 International Transfer Format (ITF) (1) : 47, 53 International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN) (1): 6, 45; Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat ( 1 ): 53 Iowa State University ( 1 ) 38 Fothergilla (4): 34, 37 Foster, Elaine (1):29 Frankhma alatamaha ( 15; (2): 23, 31 - Hagopian, Lillian( 130 Hamamelidaceae (4): 38 Hamamehs (4): 37, 38 'Arnold Promise'(1): 55 - - Fraxinus(l):36;(2):8, 10, 11 amencana (2): 10, 11 angustifoha subsp. oxycarpa (I): 39 mgra (2) : 11 pennsylvamca (2) : 10 potamophila (1): 37 quadrangulata (1) : 55; (2) : 11 \"From Each a Voucher- Collecting in the Living Collections,\" Sandra Elsik(l):21-27 - Gamble, Garden Anne (1) : 31 Garden, The [British] (1):18 in the Woods 42 [Framingham, Mass.] (3): persica [= Parrotia persica] (4): 37 Hamilton, William (2)- 14-23, 19 Hancock County [Maine] (3) : 38 Harbison, John (1):13 Hardy Brown, Susan |1):26, 30, 33, 73 Harrison, Mary (1):31 Harvard Botanic Garden(1):11, 12; (4): 37 Harvard College (1): 11; (3) 4, 44 Harvard Corporation (1):11 Harvard Forest [Petersham, Mass.] (4) : 2, 5, 12 Harvard University Herbaria (1).40 Haskell, Allen (3) : 41, 42, 43 Hawthorns (1):13 He, Shan-an (2): 25 Heaths (3): 40 Heathers (3). 40 Hebb, Robert (1):20 Iran, bulbs from (4) : 34, flora of |4): 34 Ironwood, Persian (4): 34-39 Jack, John G. |1|:14, 15 Jefferson, Thomas (2). 14, 21, 23 Jekyll, Gertrude, photo by (4): 22 Jiangsu Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden [Nanjing, China] (2): 25 Johnson, Ethan W. (1):4, 74; \"Cartographic Records of the \/: Living Collections\" (1): 61-64 Jonas, Sandra (1). 30 Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (3): 41,42 Journey to Ararat [Parrot] (4) : 34 Judd, William|1):55 45 - - fumperus, water-conducting system of (4) 5 : honzontahs (3). 40 procumbens 'Nana' (3)\" 40 - Kalmia angustifoha (3): 40 Kirengeshoma palmata (3): back cover Kobuski, Clarence(1):18, Koller, Gary L. (1):4, 74 - 20 - at the Arnold ArboreA Midwinter Performance Evaluation\" (2): 28-36 \"Landscape Curation: Maintaining \"Bamboos tum : 13; witches'-broom (2): 10-13, 12 Linden, branching patterns (1):32 Liquidambar, specimen of (1): 22 styraciflua (4) : 26, 34 Living collections [Arnold Arboretum] (1):3-6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 17-20, 22, 27, 28, 36, 38, 40; early development of (1):12; computerization of (1): 20; value of (1): 5-6 Living Collections Committee [Arnold Arboretum) (1):58 Logix database system (1):58 Longwood Gardens( 143 \"Lowbush Blueberries Out of the Barrens and into the Garden,\" Ann Cnchton-Harns (3): 38-40 Lyford, Walter (4) : 5, 15; photo by 2 (4): Lyle, Anna Hamilton (2): Lyon, John (2): 20, 21 19 Medlar (4): 36 Meehan, Thomas. (1):13 Mespilus germamca (4): 35 Metasequoia glyptostroboides (1):34, back cover Meyer, Karl A. (4) : 37 Michener, David C. (1):3, 50, 74; photo by(1):23 - \"Behind the Scenes at the Arnold - Arboretum\"( 13-4 \"To Each a Name. Verifying the Living Collections\" (1):36-41 Missouri Botanical Garden [St. Louis] the Living Collections\" (1):65-72 - \"Magnificent Ginger\" (3) 41-43 Kormamk, P. P., photo by (4)- 26 Kulik, Sophie (1):30 Labels, display(1):57 Lancaster, Roy (4): 36, 38 Landscape (2): 17; aesthetics of (2): 15; art of (2): 23; English tradition of (1)7; natural beauty of (2). 15, 17, \"natural\" English (2): 14, 15 \"Landscape Curation: Maintaining the Living Collections,\" Gary L. Roller (1)-65-72 Lanx, water-conductmg system of 5 (4): \"Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection,\" Peter Del Tredici (3): 2-37 Larz Anderson Collection (3): 2-37, 9; inventory (3): 18; portraits of (3): 21-35 Larz Anderson Park Mass.] (3): 7 Lyonia (2) : 20 (1):3, 53 MLO (2): 8-13; control measures (2) : 10 M'Mahon, Bernard (2): 19, 21, 23 Moens Klint [Denmark] (4) : 28 Mohr, Charles (1):13 Moore, Margaret S. (4). 33 Mount Ararat [Turkey] (4): 37 Mount Greylock [Massachusetts] 18 New [Brookline, 7 Latrobe, Benjamin H. (2) 17 Laurel, Portuguese (2): 19, 23 Leaf area index (4): 4, 18 Leaf litter (4): 11, 16 Leaf roll necrosis (2): 5 Lee, Thomas (3) : 6 Leitnena, Lemome - at Arnold Arboretum (1): 68 hybrid lilacs (1):15 mock oranges(1):15 Leptomorph [bamboo] (2) : 30 Lewis and Clark, expedition of (2): 20, plant discoveries by (2): 19, 21 Libocedrus, water-conducting system of (4): 5 Lilacs, collection at the Arnold Arboretum (2): 2-7, 3, back cover; list of 50 best (2): 7; list of varieties susceptible to MLO (2): MacRinder, Duncan (1):45 Madsen, Karen, \"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's Woodlands\" (21: 14-24 \"Magnificent Ginger,\" Gary L. Koller (3):41-43 Magnolia acummata (1):54 denudata (2) : 27 kobus [!)~ 27 stellata (2) : 27 zenn (2): 25-27, 25, 26, 27 propagation (2): 27 Magnoliaceae, studies on (1):16 Maine Agricultural Experimental Station (3) 40 Malcom, James Peller, painting by (2) : 15 Manual of Trees and Shrubs Hardy m North Amenca [Rehder] (1): 18 Maples, collection of ( 122 Japanese (3): 10, 11, 18 Norway (2): 21 red (4): 6 silver (4) : 20 trident (3): 11, 18,22-23 Marr, T. E., photos by(1):11, 13; 3 (2): Marshall, Humphry (2): 20 Massachusetts Horticultural Society (3): 8, 10 - (4)- 27 Mmr, John(l):13 Mulch, benefits of (4): 15, \"Mycoplasmal Pathogens Causes for Old Diseases,\" Hibben (2) : 8-13 Craig R. - Mycoplasmahke organisms (MLO) 9 (2). 2, 8-12,9 Mycorrhizae (4): 4, 10, 13 National Geographic (4): 30, 31 National Science Foundation( 18, Nature - - - - 18, 20, 21, 58 Conservancy (1):53; BCD system of ( 1 53 Nematodes (4): 9, 11 1 Newcomb, (3): 44 Bert (4) : 32 New Environmental Age [Nicholson] - - - - - \"New Magnolia Blooms in Boston,\" Peter Del Tredici and Stephen Spongberg (2) : 25-27 Niagara Parks Commission School of Horticulture [Ontario] (2): 4 Nicholson, Max (3) : 44 Nicholson, Robert G. \"Parrotia Persica : An Ancient Tree for Matthaei Botanical Gardens [Ann Arbor, Mich.] (1):47 McClure, F.A. (2): 29, 30, 34, 35 Modern Landscapes\" (4) : 34-39 Nomenclature, botanical( 140; diversity of( 139; reference files to|l):29 Novell Local Area Network (LAN) (1):52 46 - - - Oaks, and Dicamba (4): 16; movement of dyes m (4): 4, 5 East Asian (1): 31 pm (4): 20 willow (4): 20 Observations of Modern Gardenmg [Whately] (2) : 19 Oleaceae, studies on (1): 20; (2) : 8 Olmsted, Frederick Law (1).7-8, 14, 16,61,65 (4): 30, 31 Ormond Beach [Florida] (4) : 32 Oxygen, conduction to roots (4): 13; limiting supplies of (4) : 5, 6, 7, 10, 13,14,20 Ormond, Mrs. Francis - - Pachymorph [bamboo] (2): 30 Pachysandra termmahs 'Green Carpet' (2): 4 Panda, giant (2) : 31, 32, inside back cover Francis (3) : 6 Parrot, F. (4): 34 Parrotia persica (4) : 34-39, Parkman, 35, 36, 38; Arnold Arboretum (4): 37; bark of (4): 34, 35, 38; origins of (4): 35-37; propagation of accessions at (4): 38 - 'Pendula' (4): 37 \"Parrotia Persica : An Ancient Tree for Modern Landscapes,\" Rober G. Nicholson (4): 34-39 Perkms, Isabel [Mrs. Larz Anderson] (3): 4, 6, 7, 9 Perkms, William (3) : 6 Perennial gardens, American (4): 40 Perenmals for Amencan Gardens [Clausen and Ekstrom] (4) : 40 Perry, Thomas O. \"Tree Roots: Facts and Fallacies\" (4) : 3-21 Philadelphia, map of (2): 16 Philip, Duke of Edinburgh (3) : 44 Phloem sieve tubes (2): 8-10 Phosphates, movement of (4): 16 - (2) : 29 'Hale' (2): 33 2014 nuda (2): 33 2014 vmdis [!)~ 34 Picea, water-conducting system of 5 (4): glauca (4)- 2 Pine, striker roots of (4): 6, twolayered root system of (4)- 12 Japanese white (3) : 11, 18, 32, 33 longleaf (4): 7, 13 4 red (4): white (4): 2 Prnetum, at Arnold Arboretum (1):17 Pmus, water-conducting system of (4) 5 : bungeana (4): 35 palustns (4): 13 parviflora (3) : 11, 18, 32, 33, 36 resmosa (3): 38; (4). 4 strobus (4): 2 Plantae Wilsonianae [Rehder and Wilson] (1): 17 Plant records (1):42; needs of (1):47; office of (156-59; system at Arnold Arboretum (1) 42, 54; updating (1).41 Plant Sciences Data Center (PSDC) (1): 21, 43, 56-57, 59-61 Platanus (4) : 35 Platt, Charles A. (3): 7 Poplar, Lombardy (2): 19, 21 yellow |4)- 17 Populus mgra 'Italica' (2) 21 Powdery mildew (2) : 2, 5 ~: Propagation, at Arnold Arboretum (1): - mgra - - velutma {I): 67; {2): 35 \"Quest for the Perfect Lilac,\" John H. Alexander III (2) : 2-7 2014 Quigley, Jennifer (1):4, 74 \"Chronicling the Living Collec2014 The Arboretum's Plant Records\" (1): 54-60 \"Books\" (4): 40-41 tions : - Istvan (3)- 19 Racz and Debreczy, Racz, - photos by (1):5, 8, 9, 18, 21, 26, 29-32, 34, 36, 57, 65, 67, 69, covers; (2) : 4, 26; (3): 23, 25, 27, 29, 31, 33, 35, (4) : 27, inside back cover Peter 3 (1):3 Raven, - \"The Value of Living Collections\" - - - - - - - - - - Photosynthetic productivity, 5 worldwide (1):5 Phyllostachys aureosulcata (2): bambusoides (2) : 32 bissetu (2): 32 congesta (2) : 32 dulcis (2): 33 flexuosa (2) : 33 makmoi (2): 33 meyen (2): 33 mdulana (2): 33 - 32 (1): 38 Pruning (3) : 2, 11, of bonsai (3): 15; of lowbush bluebernes (3): 39 Prunus apetala (1): 31 mume (3): 18 subhirtella (3): 11, 18, 28, 29 Pseudosasa japomca (2) 34 var. tsutsumiana (2)' 34 Pseudotsuga, water-conducting 5 system of (4): Pterocarya (4): 37 fraximfoha (4). 35 Pursh, Frederick (2): 20,21 - 70-71 Protein electrophoresis - - - - Quercus alba (1) 67; (2): 35 [see Q. velutma] - vanabihs castaneaefoha (4): 35 (1):30, 31 (1):5-6 7 Regel, A. (1):36, 37 Rehder, Alfred(1):7, 14, 15, 17-20 Relational database design (1)- 46 Report on the Forests of North Amenca [Sargent] (1): 13 Retmospora [= Chamaecypans] (3) : 19 Revelation {1): 51, 52, 53, 62 Rhizomes, bamboo (2) : 34; blueberry (3)- 40; ginger (3): 42 Rhododendron yakusimanum (1). 34 Rhododendrons, Asiatic (1):19 Richardson, H. H. (3): 6 Ring-porous trees (4): 4, 5 Rivers, Thomas (3) : 37 Robeson, Mary( 111 Rockefeller, John D. (4): 32 Root area index (4) : 4, 18 Root collar (4): 5, 9 Root grafts, natural (4): 9, 17 ' Root hairs (4): 8 Root sprouts (4): 26 Roots, tree (4): 3-21, 2, 6-14, 16, 19; adventitious (4): 9, classification of (4): 5; cold tolerance of (4)- 15; feeder (4): 3, 8-10; and fertilizers (4): 16; framework (4): 6, 7; and herbicides (4|- 16; non-woody (4)' 5, 8, 9, 10; patterns of growth of (4). 4, 5 ; photo essay on 22- 29; strangling (4)- 30-33; striker (4): 6, 7; transport (4): 3, 6; zone of rapid taper of (4): 9 Rosa (I): 68 Roses, hybridized by J. Dawson (1):55 Roundup (4): 17 Royal Botanic Garden [Edinburgh] (1) : 47 , 47 Royal Botanical Gardens [Hamilton, : Ontario] (2) 4 Royal Botanic Gardens [Kew] (1):16, 38, 43, 45, 53, 66; (4): Ryan, Priscilla (1):33 37 - (3)- 12, 13 Sorbus[B) 68 Sorensen, Paul 1120 Spongberg, Stephen (1):3, 37, 74 \"Establishing Traditions at the Arnold Arboretum\" (1):11-20 and Peter Del Tredici \"A New onentahs (4): 35 Thu;opsis dolobrata (3): 12 'Vanegata' (3): 18 Tilia amencana (1): 32, 33 - Santamour, Frank S. (2): 26 Sargent, Charles S. (1):7, 8, 19, 11-20, 36, 38, 60, 61; (2) 2; (3)- 6; (4) : 30; contributions of (1):13; correspondents (1):13, 14; and Rehder (1): \/: 14, 15 - - Magnolia Blooms in Boston\" (2) 25-27 Spring tails (4): 9 Spruce, roots of (4): 13 white (4): 2 - - - - - - cordata (1):32,33 x flavescens (1):. 32, 33 laponica (1): 32, 33 neglecta {B):32, 33 paucicostata (1):32, 33 petiolans (1) : 32, 33 platyphyllos (1):32,33 tomentosa { 1). 32, 33 a - - Sargent, John Singer (4): 30-33; drawing by (4): 31 Sargent, Emily (4): 30, 31 Sasa palmata (2): 29, 34 tessellata (2): 34 veitchu (2) : 34, 35, inside front cover Petersburg Botanic Garden Suzuki, Hamakichi (3): 3, 19 St. (4): 37 \"To Each Name: Verifying the Sax, Karl (1)-55 Schenck Memorial Oak [North Carolina] (4)- 17, 18 Schneider, Camillo (1):15 Schultes, Richard E. \"Books\" (3): 44 Schuylkill River [Pennsylvania] (2): 14, 17,23 Semiarundmana fastuosa (2): 35 Sequoia, water-conducting system of 5 (4): Shaller, George, photos by (2): 31, inside back cover Shear, Ted (4): 13 Shibataea kumasaca (2): 35 Shortia umflora (3): back cover Siegel, Robert (1): 31 Sierra Nevada mountains, climate of (4): 35; soils in (4) : 13 Silber, Mark and Terry (3): 44 Silva of North America [Sargent] Suzuki, Uhei (3): 3, 19 Sweetgum, root system of (4): 26 Swissair Photo & Surveys, Ltd. [Zurich] (1): 61, 62 Sycamore, roots of (4) : 20; and dicamba (4). 16 Sycoparrotia semidecidua (4) : 37 Sycopsis sinensis (4) : 37 Synge, Hugh(l).45 Synonyms, botanical ( 1 ) 39-41 Synnga (2): 8 x hyacinthiflora (2): 12 x josiflexa (2): 12 josikaea (2): 12 patula (2): 4 x persica (2) : 12 x prestomae (2): 12 reticulata (2) : 5 swegmzowii (2) : 12 villosa x swegmzowii (2) : 11, 12 vulgans |2). 6 - Living Collections,\" David Michener(l).36-41 \"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's Woodlands,\" Karen Madsen (2|- 14-24 Tokugawa Period [Japan] (3): 2, 3 Town and Country (3) 7 Tracheidal channels (4): 5 Tree roots, see Roots \"Tree Roots: Facts and Falacies,\" Thomas 0 Perry (4): 3-21 Tnticum aestlvum (4): 4 TROPICOS database (1): 53 True, R. H., photo by (2): 22 - - - Tsuga, water-conducting system of 5 (4).5 diversifoha (3): 14 - - - Tuhptree(l):16 Tupelo, roots of |4): 13, 14 Tyler Arboretum [Lima, Penn.] (1):43 Ulmaceae, studies on( 120 Ulmus amencana (4): 23, 25 glabra (4): 35 Ultimate source( 139, 40 - - - Tako (1): 13 Simmons, John (4) : 36 S. M Japanese 19 Nursery Co. (3) : 3, 17, shape [bonsai] (3) : 2 Talysh forest [Iran] (4): 36 Taproot (4): 4, 5, 6, 13 Taxonomic Databases Working Group (1):51, 53 Taxus baccata (4): 35 Tehran Botanic Garden [Iran] (4): Unger, Alfred (3)- 19, 36 Mary (3) : 36 Universal Exposition [Pans] (3). 3 University of Tennessee Arboretum - 37 (1):43 U S. National Arboretum ton, D.C.] (2): 25, 26 Vaccimum Smith, Benjamin H. (2): 24 Smith, Mr., letters to (2): 21 Society of American Foresters (4): 16 Soil, microfauna (4). 9; mineral layer (4) : 19; oxidation-reduction state of (4): 6; peds (4): 15; pores (4). 10, 18 Tenth Census of the United States [Washing- (1) 13 Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening [Downing] (3)' 6 Threatened Plants Unit angustifohum (3): 38, 39, [of IUCN] - front cover Soil types, clay-loam (4) : 6, 11; compacted (4): 10, 18-20; geologically young |4): 12; sandy (4). 12, 13; wet (4): 11; undisturbed (4) : 11 Somoku Kihm Kagami [Kmtaro] 11). 47 Thuja, water-conducting system of 5 (4): 2014 obtusa [= Chamaecyparis obtusa] (3): 3, 36, 37 'Chabo-hiba' (3): 12, - - 'Compacta' (3): 12, 13 arctostaphylos (4): 35 corymbosum (3): 39 \"Value of Living Collections,\" H. Raven (1): 5-6 Varle, Peter C., map by (2). 17 Veitch, House of (1). 14 J. (1) : 38 - Peter 48 . Verification project (1):3, 19-22,27, Warren, Richard (1):30 28, 37-40, 56, 58, 59 Viburnum furcatum (1):29 Vilmorm nursery (1):38 Vmca minor (3): 43 Vines, identification of (1):69 \"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum,\"Jeanne Christianson and Sandra Elsik(l):28-35 Volunteers, Arnold Arboretum (1): \/: 21, 22, 28-35 ; list of (1):35 Voucher specimens (1): 21-27, 37, 3941,59 Wagenknecht, Burdette ( 120 Walker, Nell (1):33 Walter, Kerry S.( 14, 59, 74 \"Designing a Computer-Software Application to Meet the Plant- Record Needs of the Arnold Arboretum\" (1): 42-53 Warren, Kathleen (1):29 Washburn, Bradford (1): 61 Washington County [Maine] (3): 38 Washington, George (2): 18 Water-conducting systems of conifers 5 (4): 4-8, Water table, and roots (4): 8 Weaver, Richard (11: 74; (3): 42 We-Du Nursery [Marion, N.C.] 13): (42) Weissmann, Mima (1):31 Weld [Brooklme, Mass.) (3) 4, 7 West, Ben)amin, painting by (2): 19 Whately, Thomas (2): 19,21 Whitehead, foAnn(l)30 Willows, collection of (1):16, 65; roots of (4): 13, 14 Wilson, Ernest H. (1):14, 15, 17-20, 29, 38, 51, 58; (2): 25, |3) 19; photos by (2): 32; (3): 5, 14 Witches'-brooms (2). 3, 9; in lilac (2): 10-12 Witch-hazel family (4): 34 Witch hazels (4) : 34, 37 Wolcott, Mary (I)' 29 Wood, Carroll E. (1) 20 Woodlands, The (2): 14-23; painting of (2): 15; engraving of (2): 18 Woodlands Cemetery [Philadelphia] (2) : 23 World Wildlife Fund (3): 44 Woronoff, Malcolm (2): 35: photo by (1):62 Wuhan Institute of Botany [China] (3): 41, 43 Wyman, Donald (1): 19, 20, 57, 61; (3) 9 : Yang, C.-S. (3): 41, back Zen's cover 43 Yokohama Nursery Company [Japan] (3): 3, 4, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13, 14, 17, 36, Magnolia (2): 25-27 3 Zmman, Roberta (1):3 U.S. POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) 1A, Title of publication: Amoldia. 1B, Publication number: 00042633. 2, Date of filing: 2 November 1989 3, Frequency issue quarterly. 3A, Number of issues published annually 4 3B, Annual subscription price- $12 00 domestic, $15 00 foreign. 4, Complete mailing address of known office of publication: Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 5, Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795 6, Full names and complete mailing address of publisher, editor, and managing editor- Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795, publisher; PeterJ Del Tredici, Arnold Arboretum, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795, editor 7, Owner- Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, 125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795. 8, Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: none. 9, The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 10, Extent and nature of circulation. A, Total number of copies. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. B, Paid and\/or requested circulation. 1, Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies of of each issue during preceding 12 months- none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date- none. 2, Mail subscription. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months 3,546. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date. 3,576. C, Total paid and\/or requested circulation. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,546. Actual number of copies of single issue , published nearest to filing date 3,576. D, Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means (samples, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 100. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 100. E, Total distribution. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months- 3,646. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,676 F, Copies not distributed 1, Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months. 1,354. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 1,324. 2, Return from news agents. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months none. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: none. G, Total. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 5,000. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. 11, I certify that the statements made by me are correct and complete. Peter Del Tredici, Editor. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24985","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060af6d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"FiU{)MTtfE...>AR...N<oiL.....o...ARBORETU..lB1 PLANTS SALE SUCCESS: $49,296 BROUGHT IN! The Arnold Arboretum Plant Sale is the \"Rite NEWS 11 of Fall.\" On Sunday, September 17, more than 2,000 people the Case Estates to take home some of the thousands of unusual plants sold to benefit the Arnold Arboretum. By 8 a.m. a line wound round the Barn. Inside the Barn, sponsors were thanked for their generosity with a continental breakfast and Preview Purchase Privilege prior to the opening of the main doors. During the course of the day, hundreds of plants were \"checked\" by 350 shoppers in the \"Plant Sitting\" service, 900 riders rode the shuttle bus from the parking areas to the sale, and a record 74 new members joined the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. The Silent Auction and Straight Sales areas, organized by the 25 Arnold Arboretum Associates, contained donations from 100 nurseries and 30 individuals, including plants from China and California as well as New England. The nearly 1,700 plants assembled by Auction hunter Ellen McFarland and her team produced a premier selection of 43 candidates for the Rare and Unusual Auction, the climax of the day. came to 201420142014MUM2014~~MKI2014reHW&JillllWIII ~ Will g, .Jfl ^\" iaMHM^1Wfc.^JP i ~^^^M^*Jlfca^B'T. JSM^mmSMOmem,^ fgTJItJFW Staff auctioneers Jim Allen, Gary Koller, and Dave Michener maintained a brisk pace to help the \"Rare\" raise a record high of $9,218. Allen Haskell of New Bedford, Massachusetts was the day's top bidder, donating $1,000 for a double-flowered Hosta. An Acer triflorum at $525 brought the next highest figure. Proceeds from Straight Sales and the Silent and Rare Auctions help support special staff projects through competitive proposals to the Arnold Arboretum Associates. readied for 1990. Next year look for greatly increased space and improved lighting and signage in the general plant sales area, more special parking areas, and additional use of paved parking lots. And of course More Plants. To whet appetites in advance, the staff and volunteers at the Case Estates will sponsor a Seasonal Plant Table each Monday morning during the growing season (call 894-0208 for details) from 9 a.m. to noon and on a \"selfservice\" basis throughout the week. It's all aimed at As 1989's Plant Sale ended, plans and plants were encouraging more people to join our \"growing obsession\" with plants. * 1 ' ~ 1 Arboretum Symposium ture with his en- WINTER LANDSCAPES: THE UNEXPLORED SEASON thusiasm as a home gardener in his work as Horticultural Director of Wayside Gardens. Formerly Curator of Hardy Plants at the Missouri Botanical Garden, he will survey \"Trees and Shrubs for the MultiSeason Garden.\" The fourth season of the year is the ultimate test of the success of a and entrance gardens in \"A Space for All Seasons.\" Peter Del Tredici, Editor of Arnoldia and a self-confessed conifer addict, will discuss the ecology, physiological adaptation to cold, and cultural requirements of both broadleaved and needled evergreens in \"Evergreens: Winter's Star Performers.\" experienced gardener to greater achievements, the Arnold Arboretum has garden. Encouraging the organized a special symposium for landscape architects, scape.\" designers, and gardeners The symposium will be held who want to increase the at the New York Botanical delights of the garden in Susan Dumaine is a garGarden on Thursday, March winter. Participating in dener-designer who plans for 1; in Jamaica Plain for the the symposium: four-season pleasure in her Arnold Arboretum at the Patrick Chasse teaches design at the Radcliffe Seminars, the Harvard Graduate School of Design, and the Arnold Arboretum. He also maintains an active landscape architecture practice in Northeast Harbor, Maine. He is director of the Maine Citizens for Historic Preservation and an advisor to The Michael Van Valkenberg, known for his innovative and award-winning designs, is also a professor at Harvard's Graduate School of Design and co-author of Gertrude Jekyll: A Vision of Garden and Wood. He emphasizes the sculptural qualities of winter in \"The Transparent Land- Garden Conservancy. Recognizing the importance of detail in the winter landscape, he will speak on courtyard sizeable garden in suburban Boston. Long known for her broad understanding of woodland gardening, as well as her work with the New England Wild Flower Garden, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and the Arnold Arboretum, she is well fitted to explore the topic of \"Hardy Flowers in Late Winter and Beyond.\" own Alfred L. Frechette Conference Center of the State Laboratory of Massachusetts on Friday, March 2; and at the Chicago Botanic Garden in Glencoe, Illinois, on Saturday, March 3. Special winter garden workshops are also scheduled for the three locations. For further information or to request a brochure call John Elsley combines his study of botany and horticul- (617) 524-1718... NEW DIRECTIONS FOR THE HARVARD FOREST mental Monitoring Station in a remote part of the Harvard Forest. The project will involve faculty of several departments of Harvard University including the Departments of officially transferred from the Harvard Forest to the Golden Family Foundation of New York City. The sale culminates years of uncertainty and controversy about the future of the woodland. According to the settlement that was reached, the Golden Family Foundation purchased the land for $400,000, which Harvard agreed to turn over to an endowment that will be used to defray forest maintenance expenses. The original Black Rock Forest endowment will be transferred to the Harvard Forest in Petersham. In November of this year, the Golden Family Foundation officially transferred ownership of the woodlands to the Black Rock Forest Preserve, a non-profit group that will manage the woods. \"The land is going to be absolutely restricted from any possible commercial use and will be used only for educational and scientific purposes,\" said William Golden, who heads the Foundation. Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, the Department of Earth and The Harvard Forest of Harvard University, located in a Petersham, Massachusetts, has recently been designated Long-Term Ecological Research (LTER) site by the National Science Foundation. Harvard University has been awarded a grant of $2.4 million for six years in support of the operation and development of the site in Petersham. Harvard Forest joins an existing network of 17 LTER sites around the United States for the study of Planetary Sciences and the Department of Landscape Architecture of the Graduate School of Design. The research effort will be coordinated by Professors J. G. Torrey and D. R. Foster. Close cooperation through the Program in Forest Microbiology will continue with the Yale School of Forestry and Environmental Studies of Yale University, with support of the A. W. Mellon Foundation of New York. i i* large-scale, long-term changes in ecosystems. On September 14,1989, ownership of the Harvard Black Rock Forest was The LTER-funded research at the Harvard Forest will focus on major problems confronting land utilization caused by natural catastrophies as well as manmade environmental problems. Initial phases of the study involve the installation of new computer facilities at the Harvard Forest, overflights of the Petersham area by NASA aircraft, and construction of a new Environ- Arnoldia Search The North Carolina Arboretum is seeking the followissues of Arnoldia. Please contact Clara Curtis, The ing North Carolina Arboretum, Route 3, Box 1249-B, Asheville, NC 28806, (704) 665-2492 if you have available copies. 1930, all (Bulletin of Popular Information) 1936, no. 1 and no. 2 (Bulletin of Popular Information) 1984, fall (vol. 44, no. 4) 1985, spring (vol. 45, no. 2) 3 NEW FACES AT THE ARBORETUM During the long life of the Arnold Arboretum, the living collections have grown to include a wide variety of plant material, both native and exotic. In the same way, the staff have come together from many different backgrounds. One recent addition is Richard Schulhof, who has a Putnam Fellowship for a year's work related to the Living Collections. Two others are Kendra Sikes and Kevin Burgess, who stayed after their summer internships in the Horticultural on the guidance of a well known plantsman, Capt. R. M. Steele. He studied at the University of Guelph, Ontario, and at the Nova Scotia Agricultural College, where he earned a diploma in Plant Science. He is interested in mapping and labelling, so he began his internship in that area. Since a position became available in the Plant Records office in September, when Ethan Johnson, Curatorial Assistant, moved to the Holden Arboretum in Mentor, Ohio, he has continued his work, using the Arboretum's new state-of-theart computerized plant records system. He says, \"Even in this short time I feel that the spirit of the Arboretum has entered me, and that I will leave the Arboretum enriched, having been, like its trees, collected from afar and brought to the Arnold Arboretum to grow.\" Training Program were completed. Richard is working at two separate but closely related tasks. Half his time is spent entering plants on the SEEING THE WOODS AND THE TREES IN FOUR SEASONS: Our new postcard series computerized mapping system in the Plant Records office, and the other half on working out a master plan for the Living Collections. A California native and University of California graduate, he attended the Longwood Graduate Program in Public Garden Administration before coming to the Arnold Arboretum. Kendra Sikes, also a California native, received her B. A. in Biology from Brown University in Providence, R.I., where she learned of the internship opportunity at the Arnold Arboretum. She began an internship in grounds maintenance in April, 1989. In September, she began to work in the Greenhouse. Kevin Burgess came to Arnold Arboretum from the Nova Scotia, Canada, in April, 1989. In Canada he worked for several years in the nursery business under 4 The Bookstore has introduced a new line of 25 postcard images of the Living Collections from the people who know it best, the Arboretum's own volunteers and staff, to provide a colorful sampling of the grounds at all seasons of the year. Individual cards are 50c with a special purchase available of the full set of 25 by sending a check for $10 to: Arboretum Bookstore, Postcards,125 Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23534","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260a728.jpg","title":"1989-49-4","volume":49,"issue_number":4,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24981","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060a726.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection Peter Del Hedici The history of these majestic plants some goes back to the Tbkugawa Period in Japan 400 years ago. The practice of growing plants in containers has a long history and is documented in the writing and painting of various ancient civilizations, including the Egyptian, the Hindu, the Greek and the Roman. But it was with the ancient Chinese that the idea of miniaturizing trees for ornamental purposes seems to have originated around A.D. 200. From China, the practice spread to Japan, probably during the Heian Period (782-1185). During the peaceful and prosperous Tokugawa Period of Japanese history (1603-1867), which began when the seat of the Tokugawa shogunate was moved from Kyoto to Edo (Tokyo), the arts and crafts relating to landscape gardening reached new heights. Many of the great Japanese gardens that still exist today were established during this period, and the selection and cultivation of native Japanese plants, such as azaleas and maples, reached new heights (Harada, 1928). Growing dwarf plants in containers was popular during the Tokugawa Period, but by modem bonsai standards such specimens would be considered too large and their containers too deep. The styles of the day were distinctive, with the so-called tako or \"octo- until the late 1800's, during the Meiji Period (1867-1912). In general, bonsai is considered an art form, with high aesthetic aspirations, while hachino-ki is considered primarily decorative in its function. Bonsai styles are characterized by miniaturized trees with natural shapes, growing in shallow trays. Bonsai masters derive their inspiration from nature, and the drastic training techniques they employ are intended to enhance the intrinsic beauty of the plant. Ultimately Japanese bonsai idealizes nature in order to achieve the philosophical goals of truth and beauty. In common usage in the West, the word bonsai has been popularized to mean any ornamental plant that is dwarfed by means of pruning and by being grown in a small container. It is in this generalized, nonphilosophical sense that bonsai will be used throughout the remainder of this article. use pus\" shape being particularly common. During the Tokugawa Period, the word hachi-no-ki, meaning a \"tree in a pot,\" was used to describe dwarf potted trees. The term bonsai, literally meaning \"planted tainer,\" does not seem to in a con- have come into wide The Larz Anderson Collection The dwarf trees that make up the Larz Anderson Collection were imported into the United States by the Honorable Larz Anderson in 1913, upon his return from serving as ambassador to Japan. While these plants are not the oldest bonsai in the United States, they have probably been under cultivation in North America longer than any other bonsai alive today. To be sure, Japanese bonsai had been imported into the United States prior to 1913, 3 \"A rare specimen of dwarfed Thuja obtusa (400 years old). A relic of the 'Ibkugawa Era.\" Illustration from the 1905 catalogue of the Yokohama Nursery Company. evidenced by an auction catalogue from 1904, discovered in the library of the Arnold Arboretum. This sale, sponsored by the \"S. M. Japanese Nursery Co.\"of West Orange, New Jersey, put some 600 plants on the auction block in New York City over a three-day period (May 4, 5, and 6, 1904). Similar events were probably held in other major U.S. cities, such as Boston, with ports actively engaged in trade with the Orient (Long, 1971), but few, if any, of these auction plants seem to have survived the ravages of time. It is particularly interesting to note that the S.M. Japanese Nursery display of bonsai antedates by five years an exhibit held in London in 1909, which is often described as the first bonsai exhibition outside the Orient (Yoshimura and Halford, 1957; Koreshoff, 1984). Indeed, as far as the author could determine, the date of the first public bonsai disas play outside Japan occurred in Paris in 1878, during the famous Universal Exposition, thirty-one years before the London exhibition (Carrier, 1889; Maumene, 1902). Anderson purchased his trees in 1913 from the Yokohama Nursery Company, which was started by the father and son, Uhei and Hamakichi Suzuki.'The Yokohama Nursery Company catalogues from 1901 to 1922 are impressive documents, beautifully illustrated with colored plates, line drawings, and photographs. Under the section titled \"Dwarf Trees Growing in Jardinieres,\" the catalogues show pictures of ancient specimens of the hinoki cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa, similar to those that are now part of the Larz Anderson Collection, captioned \"Relics of the Tokugawa Era,\" and provide lengthy instructions on how to care for the plants (see Appendix, p. 36). Exactly how much Anderson paid 4 for his plants is not known, but the 1913-14 edition of the catalogue lists the prices as ranging from one to fifty dollars (\"in U.S. gold\"). No doubt the older the plant, the greater the cost. Larz Anderson extraordinary and plenipotentiary.\" Anderson held this post for only six months, resigning in March 1913, with the change from the Republican Taft administration to the Democratic Wilson administration. This was the last official diplomatic position that Anderson held. Anderson married Isabel Perkins of Brookline, Massachusetts, in 1897. Isabel seemed to enjoy traveling as much as her diplomat husband did, writing no less than seven travelogues about her experiences. Isabel's family home in Brookline was called \"Weld\" (her mother's maiden name), and it served as the Anderson's country house during the summer months. As befits a diplomatic couple, the Andersons made Washington, D.C., their primary home. The part of Brookline where \"Weld\" was located, in the vicinity of Jamaica Pond, was one of the centers of American horticultural Larz Anderson was born in Paris in 1866, while his parents were visiting Europe. Originally from Cincinnati, Ohio, the Andersons traveled to Europe frequently and eventually moved to Washington, D.C. As a boy Larz attended a number of different schools and was tutored privately. Anderson enrolled in Harvard College and graduated in June 1888. Two months later, he set out on a trip around the world. The journey lasted two years and included his first visit to Japan. After serving in the military and holding a variety of diplomatic posts in Europe, he returned to Japan in 1912 as \"Ambassador 'Arbor of the Yokohama Nursery Company.\" Illustration from the 1908 catalogue. i 5 \"Chamaecyparis obtusa var. nana Carr. Genuine Yokohama Nursery Co., Tune 7, 1918.\" Photo dwarf tree about 70 years old. Value 50 yen. Grounds of the by E.H. Wilson, N-507, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 6 1 1800's up until the of Col. William Perkins, Thomas Lee, and Francis Parkman, the historian, were showpieces of their time. Later C. S. Sargent, H. H. Richardson, and F. L. Olmsted acquired property in the area, and the Arnold Arboretum was established nearby in 1872. In the now classic 1841 edition of The Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Andrew Jackson Downing described the area this way: activity from the early 1930's. The estates The whole of this neighborhood of Brookline is a kind of landscape garden, and there is nothing in America of the sort, so inexpressibly charming as the lanes which lead from one cottage, or villa, to another. No animals are allowed to run at large, and the open gates, with tempting vistas and glimpses under the pendent boughs, give it quite an Arcadian air of rural freedom and enjoyment. These lanes are clothed with a profusion of trees and wild shrubbery, often almost to the carriage tracks, and curve and wind about, in a manner quite bewildering to the stranger who attempts to thread them alone; and there are more hints here for the lover of the pic- Ambassador and Mrs. Larz Anderson. Portrait by Philip de Laszlo. Illustration from Larz Anderson, Letters and Journals of a Diplomat, edited by Isabel Anderson. 7 turesque in lanes than we ever saw assembled together in so small a compass. (pp. 40-41) \"Weld\" was famous in horticultural circles long before Anderson became involved in Japanese horticulture. The gardens, designed by Charles A. Platt, were featured in the March 12, 1904, issue of Tbwn and Country. The accompanying photographs show a lavishly ornate series of terraces laid out in a formal European style. Following Isabel's death in 1949, \"Weld\" was donated to the Town of Brookline and is now called Larz Anderson Park, best known for its collection of antique cars. Very little remains of the once glorious gardens. The Japanese Connection Larz Anderson's interest in things Japanese predated his assignment as ambassador to that country. In 1907, he built a Japanese garden at \"Weld,\" and before that, in 1889, he \"The bosquet at the end of the garden, the pergola, flower draped, the marble balustrade, the wall fountain and the great Ludovisi jars.\" Note the parrot in the center of the picture. Illustration from the article on the gardens at Anderson's estate, \"Weld,\" in the March 12, 1904, issue of Town and Country. \"Weld.\" Note how wires were used hold the branches in a honzontal position. Illustration from a House Beautiful article that appeared in June 1933. Chamaecyparis obtusa on display at to brought two dwarf maples back from his first in 1913 that he trip Japan. became enchanted with bonsai. His journal to But it was entry for February 1, 1913, shows this clearly: About us were dwarf trees of fantastic shape and stunted plum m fragrant bloom, white and pink, and gnarled trees hundreds of years old with branches blossoming out of seemingly dead trunks in pots of beautiful form and color. Isabel and I stopped so long m this little fairy place that we had to drive like the dickens through the congested streets of endless villages to Yokohama, which we reached without disaster in a little over an hour, in time for one o'clock luncheon. (p. 384) import but, once in the United States, to be maintained by gardeners they knowledgeable in the techniques of bonsai. Given the total lack of such knowledge among Americans of the time, Anderson was forced to hire a succession of Japanese gardeners to take care of the plants. The most famous of them was Rainosuke Awano, who maintained the collection while studying for his doctorate in philosophy at Columbia University. On at least two occasions, Larz Anderson sive to had Anderson must have purchased at least forty plants from the Yokohama Nursery Company shortly after this experience, since he returned to the United States a little more than a month later, on March 6. The purchase of these bonsai marked the start of Anderson's serious commitment to Japanese horticulture. Not only were the plants themselves expen- put his collection on public display: at the 1916 spring flower show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and again in November 1933 when the M.H.S. sponsored a show of chrysanthemums and Japanese dwarf trees. A popular article about the Larz Anderson bonsai collection appeared in the June 1933 edition of House Beautiful, featuring photographs of the plants and an interview with Awano. The author's anthropomorphic approach to her subject matter is obvious: 9 seems unholy to move such venerable patriarchs from the land where they have lived so long in meditation and repose. But they are here, nevertheless, in this country which was a wilderness when they and their art had reached a high degree of elegance and culture. And on the wide green terrace before the stately Brookline home of Mr. Larz Anderson, noted statesman and scholar, these noble trees, samurai of their realm, seem quite at home. That may be because adaptability is a quality of the nobly born. It In 1949, following Isabel Anderson's death, the remaining nine plants in the collection were donated to the Arboretum, including one that the Andersons considered the most special of all, an eighty-year-old hinoki cypress that had been given to them by \"The Imperial Household\" shortly before they left Japan. Following Anderson's death in April 1937, Isabel Anderson donated the major portion of the collection (thirty plants) to the Arnold Arboretum, along with the funds necessary to build a shade house for their display. This was situated on the grounds of the old Bussey Institution, now occupied by the Massachusetts State Testing Laboratories on the southeastern boundary of the Arboretum. Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum Unfortunately, the Larz Anderson Collection did not continue to get the attention of knowledgeable Japanese gardeners following its donation to the Arboretum. The staff did the best it could with its limited knowledge care of bonsai and the limited financial resources of the Depression era. Additional stress was put on the collection by the practice of periodically forcing it into early growth for the spring flower show of the Mas- of how to take The Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese dwarf Wyman, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. trees at the Arnold Arboretum, May 1938. Photo by Donald 10 sachusetts Horticultural Society. While this made for a spectacular display, it seriously weakened the collection and contributed to its general decline (Wyman, 1964). As a result of these factors, the collection shrank from the original thirty-nine plants to twenty-seven in 1962. Included among the casualties was the hinoki that had been the Japanese emperor's gift to the Andersons. Things began looking up for the collection in 1962 when work on the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum was completed. This new facility included an attractive hexagonal redwood lath house for displaying the collection during the growing season and a concrete-block cold-storage unit for winter protection. The construction of this building, which maintains temperatures between 33 and 35 degrees Fahrenheit, brought an end to the practice of \"plunging\" the pots in the ground for the winter. Not only was this practice dangerous to the health of the plants, but the consequent freezing of the root ball cracked many of the original Japanese containers. Another positive turn of events for the collection occurred in 1969 when Constance Derderian of Watertown, Massachusetts, was made curator. Connie had been teaching courses in bonsai at the Arboretum for several years prior to her appointment, and was well known to the greenhouse staff. Her own words describe how she became involved with the plants: Perhaps because I was the only Bostoman who, for almost ten years, had steadily pursued the study of bonsai the United States and in Japan, in 1969, the efforts of Mr. Alfred Fordham, Dr. Donald Wyman asked me to repot the Anderson collection of bonsai. I did and began a program to renew the vigor and beauty of these venerable trees. Dr. Richard A Howard, director, pleased with the mitial effort, had me appointed Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection. in through Working patiently and with a clear sense of began the long process of revitalizing the collection after years of neglect. She continued to care for the collection until 1984 when her failing health forced her to resign the curatorship. The author, having worked as her apprentice since 1979, became the new curator the year she resigned. Over the Columbus Day weekend in 1986, a break-in occurred at the bonsai house, and six plants were stolen, including three Japanese maples that were part of the original Larz Anderson Collection. Spurred on by this disaster, the Arnold Arboretum Associpurpose, Connie one Constance Derderian and Hank Goodell repotting of the Larz Anderson bonsai in 1969. Photo by P. Burns, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. finance a renovation of the bonsai house in the spring of deteriorating 1987, replacing the rotting redwood planks with the more structurally substantial, vertical-grain Douglas fir. New doors were designed that allowed visitors an unobstructed view of the collection. Most importantly, a new security system was installed. The renovations were completed in time for the 1987 ates to decided 11 illustration of Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba'from the 1901 catalogue of the Yokohama Nursery Company. June of that year, a ceremony held dedicating the structure to Mrs. Derderian. She died a year later on September 20, season, and in was According August 1989, fifteen plants still of the original thirty-nine plants in the collection. These include seven hinoki cypresses (Chamaecyparis obtusa), four Japanese maples (Acer palmatum), one trident remain 1988. As of dered hachi-no-ki rather than true bonsai. to Anderson's records, the oldest hinoki specimen was started m 1737, making it 252 years old in 1989. maple (Acer buergerianum), one higan cherry (Prunus subhirtella), one sawara cypress (Chamaecyparis pisi fera 'Squarrosa'), and one Japanese white pine (Pinus parviflora). There little doubt that in any list of \"ironclad\" to be included. The hinokis seem to be the toughest of all in that seven of ten original plants are still alive and healthy. They are also the most ancient and most beautiful plants in the collection. Technically they should probably be consican be bonsai, these species ought Nomenclature The one question concerning the Larz Anderson bonsai that has dogged the author for years is the correct identity of the specimens of Chamaecyparis obtusa, which make up the major portion of the collection. Are they normal hinokis that have developed their peculiar shape simply as a result of hundreds of years of pruning, or are they a horticultural selection that is genetically dwarf to begin with? Fortunately, the 1901 Yokohama Nursery catalogue contains an absolutely stunning woodblock print of its potted hinoki cypresses, identical to those in the Larz Anderson Collection, captioned \"Thuja obtusa var. Chabo- 12 ver same catalogue, golden and silvariegated varieties of Chabo-hiba are offered, which undoubtedly originated as sports of the typical green variety. hiba.\"2 In this combination, Chabo-hiba is best translated as \"compact or bantam cypress.\" Compounding the problem of the identity of the Larz Anderson hinokis is the fact that they were rigorously pruned for their entire lives. Based on an experiment at the Arnold Arboretum, such cultural practices seem to have affected both the character of their foliage and the orientation of their branches. In 1971 a few cuttings of the Larz Anderson hinokis were rooted in the Arboretum greenhouses. They were grown in the nursery for several years, unpruned, where they retained their dwarf habit, congested foliage, and twisted branches. In 1981, the author planted one of these specimens, which was about 20 centimeters tall and 20 centimeters wide (7 inches x 7 inches), in the Arboretum's dwarf conifer area-to see how it would develop if left unpruned. The plant continued to grow in a manner similar to the old specimens from which it had been taken until 1984, when it suddenly produced an upright leader with looser, less congested foliage. At eighteen years of age in 1989, this unpruned plant is completely upright, a meter and a half tall by a meter wide (60 inches x 39 inches), and has set an abundant crop of \"normal\" sized cones.3 That this is typical behavior for unpruned Chabo-hiba is attested to by the fact that in the 1913 edition of the Yokohama Nursery catalogue the listings under Chabo-hiba were changed to read, \"Thuja obtusa compacta or Chabo-hiba.\"On a nearby page there is a photo of a narrowly pyramidal evergreen, five to six meters tall (15 to 20 feet) and neatly trimmed, captioned \"Thuja obtusa compacta.\"This confluence of the historical evidence from 1913 and the experimental data from 1989 makes it certain that the appearance of the Larz Anderson hinokis is the result of continual pruning of the genetically compact, pyramidal variety, Chabo-hiba. The earliest use of the name Chabo-hiba that this author could uncover is from the three-volume book Somoku Kihin Kagami, published in 1827 and reprinted in 1976 with modem Japanese characters and Latin plant names (Kintaro, 1827; Tsukamoto, 1976). This Chabo-hiba is not in common use in Japan today, it took some work to uncover its exact meaning. By itself,the word hiba means hatchet-shaped (in reference to the foliage) and is the common name for the low-growing conifer Thu;opsis dolobrata (Kurata, 1971) as well as for various horticultural varieties of Chamaecyparis obtusa and pisi fera (Yoshio and Motoyoshi, 1891; Yoshimura and Halford, 1957). The word chabo literally means bantam chicken. In name Since the Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' #1100-71. This plant originated as a cutting from one of the old bonsai plants, but was left unpruned. At eighteen years of age, it is a meter and a half tall by a meter wide (60 in x 39 in). 13 work covers highly unusual hundreds of plants considered or very rare. While Chabo- hiba itself is not covered, a Chamaecyparis cultivar listed as Chaboyadori, meaning \"bantam's nest,\"is described. The accompanying illustration shows a plant with two types of foliage, the loose, feathery growth (\"Cryptomeria-like\") rising out of a \"nest\" of tight, congested growth (\"Chabo-hiba-like\"). In the text, the author states that he first noticed the plant as an unusual branch (or sport) on a specimen of Chabo-hiba, and propagated it specially. As this reference in Somoku Kihin Kagami indicates, the name Chabo-hiba has a long tradition of use in Japan that predates any possible description of the plant by Western botanists. With such priority, 'Chabo-hiba' can be considered a proper cultivar name accordout in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants-1980. Over the years, three Latin names have been 4 proposed to replace 'Chabo-hiba': breviramea* nana,5 and compacta. Of the three, only the last describes the plant accurately. Published in 1875 by George Gordon, his description of compacta reads: \"The leaves and branches of this variety resemble those of the species in every way, except that they are much smaller, and the plant has a very dense and compact habit.\"However accurate the name compacta may be, it suffers from the same drawback that affects all the Latinized botanical names for cultivated plants, namely that it can be and has been legitimately applied to a variety of plants other than the specimen originally described (Hornibrook, 1938). This lack of precision provides a second reason, priority being the first, for favoring 'Chabo-hiba' as a cultivar name over 'Compacta.' The historical record leaves little doubt that the Larz Anderson hinokis are best referred to as Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba,' defined here as a compact, slow-growing cultivar with dark green foliage that develops a pyramidal shape over time. Often grown in containers and intensively pruned, it responds to such treatment by producing congested, ing to the guidelines laid \"Thuja obtusa compacta\" Illustration from the 1914 catalogue of the Yokohama Nursery Company. planar foliage and contorted, horizontal branches. By restoring the Japanese name 'Chabo-hiba' to the Larz Anderson hinokis, one not only eliminates confusion but also achieves a better sense of their rich history. Bonsai Maintenance at the Arnold Arboretum What follows is a general outline of the various procedures used by the staff of the Arnold Arboretum to maintain the Larz Anderson bonsai collection in a healthy condition. REPOTTING: The smaller the pot, the more frequently the plant needs repotting. This procedure is best done in early spring, midto late March, before the plant shows any 14 of the Yokohama Nursery Co., Tune 7, \"Chamaecyparis obtusa var. nana Carr. Group of trained specimens. Tsuga diversifolia Maxim, in center. Grounds 1918.\" Photo by E.H. Wilson, N-509, Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 15 signs of growth. The plant is removed from its container, and approximately two to three centimeters (one inch, more or less) of roots, plus their attached soil, are removed all around the sides and bottom of the to root ball. Any roots thicker than a pencil are cut away roots. encourage the development of small feeder This process effectively rejuvenates the system of the plant and prevents lethal \"girdling\" roots from forming. After the root ball is trimmed, the plant is returned to its original container surrounded by fresh soil. The large hinokis are repotted every four to five years, while the smaller plants are repotted every two to three years. root SOIL MIXES: Plant roots are so intimately involved with soil particles that it is best to think of the soil as part of the plant itself. As such, a great deal of time and care needs to go into its preparation. In general, the potting mix should provide the plant with a balance of water retention and air circulation. Our repotting mixes consist of coarse sand (particle size 1-3 mm), peat moss or leaf mold, and screened loam in various proportions depending upon the plant being grown. In general, we use a mix that is one-half sand, one-quarter loam, and one-quarter peat for the conifers; and one-third sand, one-third peat, and onethird loam for deciduous trees. In either case, small amounts of superphosphate and organic nitrogen fertilizer are added to the soil mix. PRUNING: There are no universal rules about how much to prune a bonsai; the techniques vary according to the species being worked with. In general the best time to prune is when the plants are producing new growthin early spring for deciduous plants, such as the cherries and Japanese maples, in midspring for pines and spruces, and in early to mid-summer for the junipers and the hinokis. Generally, at least 50 percent of the new growth is removed at the time of pruning. If the plant produces a second flush of leaves later in the growing season, these also require With pines, the number of candles is thinned out by one-half to two-thirds, and those that remain are shortened. With spruces and firs, the newly flushing shoots are pinched back to half their length, inducing replacement buds to form at the base of the new growth rather than at the tip. With maples, the new shoots are pinched back to a maximum of two pairs of leaves and sometimes only one pair. Any verticalgrowing shoots are removed or are wired into a horizontal position. With hinokis and junipers, which produce new growth over an extended portion of the growing season rather than in a single flush, the new growth is pinched back several times. If the new growth is not rigorously thinned, it becomes excessively congested and subject to death by self-shading. . . 2022 . WIRING: In young vigorous bonsai, wiring the branches into pendant or horizontal positions with copper or aluminum wire is anr extremely important part of the training process. On plants as old as the hinoki cypresses in the Larz Anderson Collection, reorienting their twisted branches with wire is very difficult. These branches thicken so slowly that it may take two or three years for them to produce enough wood to overcome their old orientation. We have found that tying them down with nylon fishing line is more effective than wiring. For the other plants in the collection, we generally wire young vigorous branches into a horizontal position in order to achieve the effect of age. It is important to remember that wire should not be left on the tree more than a year, since the branch can easily be girdled by the wire. WATERING: Because the Larz Anderson Collection consists of such large plants in such small pots, their water requirements are quite high. During the period of spring growth, they need watering at least once a day. During the summer, one pruning. days when no daily watering is a minimum on rain has fallen, and often they 16 The bonsai house at the Arnold Arboretum, Arnold Arboretum. completed in 1962. Photo by P. Burns, from the Archives of the more than this. Extending this need for daily watering back into the past some two hundred years, one begins to appreciate the magnitude of continuity and commitment that has gone into maintaining these venerable specimens. To determine if a plant needs water, place the palm of the hand on the soil surface. If any feeling of moisture is detectable, the plant should not be watered. When the root ball is dry to the touch, the plant is watered. It is best to use the palm of the hand to make this determination because it is less heavily calloused, and hence more sensitive, than the require fingertips. The root ball of a healthy bonsai behaves like a sponge, that is, water is uniformly distributed throughout its mass at all times, so the moisture content of the surface is essentially the same as that of the base. When the plants are watered, care is taken not to get the foliage wet, particularly on sunny days when water drops can magnify the energy of the sun sufficiently to produce bum spots on the leaves. At watering time, the pot is filled to the top, and the water is allowed to drain through; the pot is then filled up a second time. This \"double dousing\" insures that sufficient water is provided to wet the 17 percolate out the drainage holes. If only the top part of the root ball is moistened, the bottom part will become excessively dry and the plant could be seriously injured. Less frequent, thorough watering is always preferable to frequent light watering for any containerized plant. entire root ball and to FERTILIZING: While the instructions provided by the Yokohama Nursery call for fertilizing the plants with powdered oil cake (consisting of soybean or rapeseed, after the oil has been pressed out) or bone meal, we use a centration of chemical fertilizer solution diluted to a conapproximately 0.01 percent Item #340 from the 1904 auction catalogue of the S.M. Japanese Nursery Company. The description reads: \"Chabo-hiba. One of the most imposing-looking specimens in this collection. This grand tree once belonged to the famous temple Hongau)i, Kyoto, the ancient Capitol of the Japanese Empire. It has been said that its most attractive shape, this specimen was admired by almost a million people, who made the pilgrimage to this noted temple of Buddha. It was trained by the several master gardeners who gave their services to the temple. Trained in the standard Jikka style. Note: its most graceful branches extended into both sides. About 100 years old; height, 2 feet, 6 inches. With Chinese pottery pot on stand.\" owing to 18 nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium. When growth commences in the spring, we water the plants with this dilute fertilizer every one to two weeks until mid-July, at which point we fertilize only once every two to three weeks through October. From this point on, the plants are going dormant, and we stop fertilizing them altogether. WINTER STORAGE: In the milder parts of the United States, as in much of Japan, bonsai can be left out-of-doors all winter with only minimal protection from the elements. In New England, however, with our more weather, the plants need to be from the cold. A plant that is perprotected fectly hardy growing in the ground is not as hardy when grown in a container above ground. This is due to the fact that the soil, which has great insulating power, never gets as cold as the air, which has no insulating value. The Arboretum bonsai are stored in a concrete-block structure for the winter. The temperature in the building is maintained between 33 and 36 degrees Fahrenheit, and the plants are checked for water once a week. In general, they need watering about once a severe winter THE LARZ ANDERSON BONSAI COLLECTION INVENTORY Plants 870-37 872-37 877-37 878-37 879-37 880-37 881-37 889-37 899-37 886-49 888-49 889-49 890-49 892-49 893-49 101-69 living in 1989, and year started as bonsai: Acer Acer buergerianum palmatum Chamaecyparis obtusa Chamaecyparis obtusa Chamaecyparis obtusa Chamaecyparis obtusa Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba` 'Chabo-hiba' 'Chabo-hiba' 'Chabo-hiba' 'Chabo-hiba' Prunus subhirtella Acer Acer Acer Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Squarrosa' palmatum palmatum palmatum Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' Pinus parviflora Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' or Maple Japanese Maple Compact Hinoki Cypress Compact Hinoki Cypress Compact Hinoki Cypress Compact Hinoki Cypress Compact Hinoki Cypress Higan Cherry Sawara Moss Cypress Japanese Maple Japanese Maple Japanese Maple Compact Hinoki Cypress Compact Hinoki Cypress Japanese White Pine Compact Hinoki Cypress Trident 1852 1887 1737 1787 1802 1832 1862 1852 1907 1887 1897 1897 1832 1787 1887 1969 Plants dead Acer Acer stolen (numbers of individuals of each palmatum (5) palmatum 'Dissectum' (1) Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba' (3) Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Squarrosa' (1) Cryptomeria japonica (1) Euonymous fortunei 'Kewensis' (1) funiperus rigida (1) species in parentheses): Photinia villosa (2) Prunus mume (2) Prunus subhirtella (2) Punica granatum (1) Spiraea thunbergii (1) Thujopsis dolobrata 'Variegata' (1) Zelkova serrata (2) 19 month. One must be extremely careful that the plants do not get overly dry during storage as they can become extremely difficult to rewet come spring. On the other hand, if the plants are kept too wet during storage, they become susceptible to fungal infections. As long as the temperatures remain below 36 degrees, the plants seem to survive, even in total darkness. Such dark storage will not work at higher temperatures. The key to successful winter storage is to make sure that the plants are fully dormant before they go in and that they come out before they show any signs of growth. Generally speaking, our plants go into cold storage on Armistice day (November 11) and come out on Patriots' Day (April 19), although a week either way makes little difference. Endnotes 1 a leader and foliage that are more or less \"normal.\" To put it another way, many of the dwarf forms of Chamaecypans obtusa seem to possess mutations in the genes that regulate the rate of development rather than m the genes that control specific morphological characters. 4 A second Latm name that is often listed as synonymous with 'Chabo-hiba' is var. breviramea (Yoshimura and Halford, 1957; Walker, 1976). This curious name was originally published by Maximowicz in 1866 to The Suzukis were employed by the Louis Boehmer Company while it was run by Boehmer himself, but in 1889 Alfred Unger became Boehmer's partner and the Suzukis went out on their own to establish the Yokohama Gardeners' Association, and, m 1890, the Yokohama Nursery Company (Unger, 1930, Yokohama The genus in 2 Catalogue, 1908) Chamaecypans was established by E. S Spach in 1842, but it was not universally accepted, and the older literature it is often treated as Thuia or Retimspora Fortunately the species name for the hinoki cypress, obtusa, has remained relatively stable 3 since its describe a supposed wild species from southern Japan. Later authors (Masters, 1881; Carrier, 1889, Beissner, 1900) reduced the name to a variety of obtusa, but still considered it a wild-growing plant that was cultivated as an ornamental. Rehder (1914) describes breviramea as a \"tree of narrow pyramidal habit, with short branches' branchlets crowded, glossy green on both sides.\" More recent authors have reduced breviramea to synonymy with the species (Ohwi, 1984). To use this essentially botanical name to describe the bonsai hinokis is inappropriate since 'Chabo-hiba' is clearly a horticultural variety that has been in cultivation in Japan since the 1700's. 5 The name nana was first published by E.-A. Carrier m 1867 as, \"much smaller than the species, this variety is distinguished mostly by its branches, branchlets and twigs which are very slender and very short.\" In the 1904 S. M. Nursery Company auction catalogue, 'Chabo-hiba' is listed as synonymous with Thula obtusa nanus. In 1918, E H Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum visited the Yokohama Nursery Company and photographed its specimens of 'Chabo-hiba,' which he labeled Chamaecypans obtusa var. nana. Since this name does not accurately describe 'Chabo-hiba,' it should be rejected. Acknowledgments The author would like to thank Dr. John Creech, former Director of the U.S. National Arboretum, for information concerning Unger and Boehmer; Mr. Barry Yinger, Head of the Horticulture Department, Somerset County Park Commission, for providing the author with a copy of Somoku Kihin Kagami; Mr. Hitoshi Kanegae of New England Bonsai Gardens for his help with the Japanese language; Istvan Racz for taking the pictures of the Larz Anderson Collection, and the Library of the Arnold Arboretum for keeping the Yokohama Nursery catalogues for all those years. A generous grant from the Arnold Arboretum Associates was helpful in funding the publication of this work. description by Siebold and Zuccarmi m 1844. The horticultural forms of Chamaecyparis obtusa are notoriously unstable m their morphology. Specimens of many of the widely grown dwarfs, such as 'Nana Gracilis,' sport out continually, the sport producing foliage much looser than that found on the rest of the plant. When one of these dwarfs produces seeds, the seedlings show a wide range of variability in size, rate of growth, and foliage characteristics (Spmgam, 1978). In the author's own work with seedlings of 'Graciosa,' 'Nana Gracilis,' and 'Verdoon,' they all pass through the developmental process that is normal for the species, first producing a few needle leaves (the juvenile foliage) and then, in their axils, branches consisting of scale leaves (the adult foliage) However, these scale leaves are much smaller and their \"mtemodes\" much shorter than is typical for the species, and a congested cone- or bun-shaped plant develops. The length of time that these plants retain their dwarf habit varies greatly, but I suspect that eventually all of them will produce Peter Del Tredici is Acting Editor of Arnoldia and Curator of the Larz Anderson Collection of Dwarf Plants. 20 References Anderson, I. 1937. Japanese dwarf trees collected by the Hon. Larz Anderson. Typed manuscript m the Archives Kurata, S., et al. 1971. Illustrated Important Forest Trees of Japan. Tokyo: Chikyo Shuppan Co. of the Arnold Arboretum. Anderson, I. 1940. Larz Anderson, Letters and Journals of a Diplomat. New York: Fleming H. Revell Co. Beissner, L. 1900. Interessantes uber coniferen. Mitt. Deutsch. Dend. Gesell. 9: 57-69. Long, C. R. 1971 An informal dia 31: 261-273. Soc. 18: 473-524. history of bonsai. Arnol- Masters, MX 1881. On the conifers of Japan. Jour. Linn. Maumene, A. 1902. Les Arbres Nams Japonair. Paris: DC: Smith- Brickell, C.D., al. 1980. International code of nomenclature for cultivated plants. Regnum Vegetabile 104. et Francois Tedesca. Ohwi, J. Carrier, E.-A. 1867. Traite General des Comfereres, 2nd ed. Paris: Chez LAuteur. sonian 1984. Flora Institution. of Japan Washington, Carrier, E.-A. 1889. Japonaiseries. Revue Horticole 61: Rehder, A. 1914. Chamaecyparls, in The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, L. H. Bailey, ed. New York: Macmillan. 374-378. Creech, J. 1988. Pioneer plantsmen in Japan. The Garden 113(8): 380-383. Derdenan, C. Derderian, C. Bonsai lour. E. 1971. Japanese tice. Arnoldia 31: 294-296. Spingarn, J. W. 1978. The Baldwin dwarfs. Bull. Am. Rock Gard. Soc. 36(1): 123-125. Tsukamoto, Y, et al. 1976. Explanation Volume to Accompany 1976 Facsimile Reprint of Somoku Kihm Kagami. theory-American prac- Tokyo: E. 1980. Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum. Seiseido (in Japanese). 3412): 25-26. 13(4): 75-78. Unger, A. 1930. Japan -betrachtungen und -erinnerungen. Die Gardenwelt Downing. A. J. 1841. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. New York: Orange Judd Co. The gardens 12-16. at Walker, E. H. 1976. Flora of Okinawa and the Southern Ryukyu Islands. Washmgton, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. Weld. 1904. Town and Country 59(1): Gordon, G. 1875. The Pinetum, new ed. London: Henry G. Bohn. Wyman, D. 1938. The Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees. Arnold Arb. Bull. Pop. Info., ser. 4, vol. 6: 31-39. Guthrie, E. 1933. The ancient art of bonsai. House Beautiful 73 (5): 284 F-N. Harada, J. dio Ltd. 1928. The Gardens Wyman, D. 1964. Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 24 (12): 101-104. O. of Japan. London: The Stu- Yoshio, T., and Zusetsu. 3 vols. Motoyoshi. 1891. Yuyo Shokubutsu Tokyo. Japanese Imperial Museum. Hornibrook, M. 1938. Dwarf and Slow-Growing Conifers. 2nd ed. Reprmt 1973. Little Compton, R.I.: Theophrastus. Yoshimura, Y, and G. M. Halford. 1957. The Japanese Art of Miniature Trees and Landscapes. Rutland, Vt.: Charles E. Tuttle. Kintaro. 1827. Somoku Kihin Kagami. 3 vols. Reprinted in facsimile in 1976. Tokyo: Seiseido (in Japanese). Young, D.S 1985. Bonsar The Art and Technique. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.:Prentice-Hall. Koreshoff, D. R. 1984. Bonsai: Its Art, Science, History and Philosophy. Brisbane: Boolarong. Portraits of the Larz Anderson Collection 1913-1989 22 La. 23 Acer buergerianum, Trident Maple (#870-37), Tbp left, the plant c. 1913, 58 cm high (23 in). Bottom left, the plant in 1933. Above, the plant in 1989, 70 cm high (28 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. Note how the plant has remained in the same container for started in 1852. over 75 years. 24 25 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba,' Compact Hinoki Cypress (#892-49), started in 1787. Left, the plant in 1952. Notice how the branches are tied to bamboo sticks to hold them in a horizontal position. Above, the plant in 1989, 160 cm wide (63 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. 26 27 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba,' Compact Hinoki Cypress (#880-37), started in 1832. Thp left, the plant in 1954. Bottom left, the plant in 1963. Above, the plant in 1989, 70 cm high (28 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. This unusual boat-shaped container is original and may well have been a gift to the Andersons, a \"travelling bonsai\" when they left Japan in 1913. 28 29 Prunus subhirtella, Higan Cherry (#889-37), left, the plant c. 1913, 61 cm high (24 in). Thp left, the plant in 1965. Note the same pot as in 1913. Above, the plant in 1989, 50 cm high (20 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. started in 1852. Bottom 30 31 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba,' Compact Hinoki Cypress. (#879-37), started in 1802. Thp left, the plant in 1963. Above, the final result of a successful operation performed by Connie Derderian in 1969. As she describes it, \"A lower branch had split away from the main trunk of 879-37. Rather than cut it off and lose it, a wedge-shaped piece of soil was cut away from the root ball to create a new plant. It was put into the container on the right.\"Bottom left, the lower branch (#101-69) in 1989, 60 cm wide (24 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. 32 33 parviflora, Japanese White Pine (#893-49), started in 1887. Left, the plant in 1952. Note how bamboo sticks were used in training the branches. Above, the plant in 1989, 100 cm high (39 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. Pinus 34 35 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Chabo-hiba,' Compact Hinoki Cypress (#878-37), started in 1787. Ibp left, the plant in 1938. Bottom left, the plant in 1954. Above, the plant in 1989, 120 cm high (47 in). Photo by Racz and Debreczy. Note how the curved branch to the lower left of the plant has remained a constant feature over time. 36 APPENDIX Bonsai Maintenance at Yokohama Nursery The Arnold Arboretum is fortunate to have in its library the catalogues issued by the Yokohama Nursery Company between the years 1901 and 1922. Interestingly they all contain exactly the same instructions for how to take care of the dwarf plants that the nursery sold. This information has great historical significance since it is one of the earliest English descriptions of how to maintain the health of bonsai plants. The instructions are reprinted below in their entirety. According to Dr. John Creech, these instructions could well have been written by Alfred Unger's American wife, Mary, who published two books on Japanese plants around 1898. air are necessary to maintain health, therefore keep the plants out-of-doors as much as possible. Maples and other deciduous trees take the same treatment as Thuja obtusa as regards watering, but are much more accommodating than evergreens; in fairly mild climates the maples may remain outof-doors all winter, but where the frost is very severe they should be kept in a cool cellar after the leaves have fallen in autumn; the soil must always be kept moist but not wet; early in spring put the plants out-of-doors and fully exposed to all weathers and when in full leaf use for decoration indoors as needed. MANURING: When the trees commence growing in spring, we give manure twice a month, say Dwarfed Trees Growing in Their Cultural Direction Treatment of Jardinieres and Thuja obtusa [= Chamaecyparis obtusa]. During spring and summer, by preference keep this plant in a sunny airy situation where the freely through the branches; water day giving just enough to make the soil moist; in dry hot weather it may be necessary to give water twice a day. Care however should be wind will pass once a March, April, May and June, again September and October. In the hot days of July and August, we give no manure and the same in winter and early spring, the plants then being at rest; the best manure is finely powdered oil cake or bone meal. To a jardimere one foot in diameter we give 3 or 4 large teaspoonfuls not heaped of this dry manure spread evenly around the edge of the jardiniere; a larger or smaller jardiniere will require more or less. For a small jardiniere, say three inches by six inches, half a teaspoonful will be ample each time. REPOTTING: This is done by us once in two or taken not to have the soil wet and never water unless the plant needs it. Watering overhead in dry weather is bad but rain is always beneficial. During winter keep the tree in a cold greenhouse partially shaded, or in an unheated orangery, giving water about once in 10 days; the soil however must never be allowed to get dry. (The science of successful culture of all plants in pots consists in judicious watering, giving too much or too little is equally bad.) above this plant is very ornamental balconies, terraces, etc. If this plant is kept indoors, it should always be placed out-of-doors at night and as often as it is not wanted for decoration. Indoors it should never be exposed to the dry heat from a stove or open fireplace, otherwise the leaves will drop off and the plant perish. Pinus pentaphylla [= Pinus parviflora] and pine trees in general growing in jardinieres require the same attention in watering and general treatment as Thuja obtusa but are not so much influenced by atmospheric conditions; nevertheless sun and Treated as on three years as follows; lift the plant out of the jardiniere and with a sharp pointed stick remove about one-third of the old soil around the edges and bottom, cutting away a portion of the old fine roots but none of the strong roots, then replace the plant in the same jardiniere first looking to the drainage; for a small shallow jardiniere we use a flat piece of tin or a flat crock over each hole; over this spread some rich fresh soil; neatly balance the plant and fill up with the same rich fresh soil to within onehalf an inch of the rim; this holds the water and prevents the manure being washed over the sides of the jardiniere; also the soil should be made sufficiently tight round the edges of the jardiniere to prevent the escape of water, it being of the first importance that the entire ball of soil around the plant be moistened at each watering. Should the watering of the plant at any time be neglected and the soil has become quite dry, put the jardiniere in a tub of water for 10 or 15 minutes, not longer, and if the injury is not too serious, the plant will recover. In the case of large plants, we use hollow 37 crocks for drainage, the same as is used by growers of specimen plants. After several repottmgs, the plant having increased in size, shift into a larger pot, but as dwarfness is the thing aimed at, the smaller the shift the better. Repotting should be done in February or March just before spring growth commences. We advise when it is possible to get the above work done by a good gardener who has been accustomed to the handling of heaths, New Holland plants, etc. In the case of very shallow jardinieres we find it desirable annually to replace a portion of the old soil to maintain a healthy late Mr. Thomas Rivers of Sawbridgeworth, England, when preparing his dwarfed fruit trees fruiting in pots. In Thuja obtusa we pinch out the points of the young growth all over the plant to maintain the form; this practice we also apply to Cryptomena and all other conifers except Pmus. Pinus: we pinch out the points of the irregular growth simply to maintain the shape of the plant. growth. PRUNING: To maintain dwarfness in the trees, pinch back the young growth; this we usually do from April to the middle of June and always with the finger and thumb, a practice followed by the Pomegranate, Lagerstroemia mdica, flowering peach, flowering cherry, etc.: we pinch back the nonflowering shoots either before or after blooming. Wisteria: in July and August we pinch back all the young growth leaving only four or five leaves on each shoot. Maple and other deciduous trees are pinched back at the same time as Thuja obtusa leaving two to four leaves as may be necessary to maintain the desired shape of the plants. Should a second growth be made, the same rule is followed of pinching out the points. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lowbush Blueberries: Out of the Barrens and into the Garden","article_sequence":2,"start_page":38,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24979","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060a328.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Crichton-Harris, Ann","article_content":"Lowbush Blueberries: Out of the Barrens and into the Garden Ann Crichton-Harris This neglected native has great potential as a landscape groundcover. Busloads of fall color-watchers spend countless hours traveling the roads of New England-north into New Hampshire and Vermont, west to the Berkshires, and northeast into the southwestern parts of Maine. These visitors get a wonderful show. The fall blaze of the New England maples is world famous and justly so. The color, of course, is evanescent. You have to watch the weather and the newspaper reports to catch it as it peaks, and it may be that you miss the best of the show because of a change in the weather. Under the best of conditions, the peak foliage color lasts only a week or two. There is a less well-known show that is equally brilliant in color but is even better in one respect-it lasts much longer. The rare autumn visitor to downeast Maine cannot fail to be amazed by the show of color of the thousands of acres of open barrens, as the local blueberry fields are called. Washington and Hancock counties are the places to go to see one of the most remarkable color shows anywhere. Starting around the first of September and running through the end of November, or whenever snow starts to fall, most tourists miss a display of astonishing beauty. While much of the color is visible from Route 1, it is better if you strike inland a few miles off the main road. Vaccinium angustifolium, the lowbush blueberry that carpets the area, has an exquisite palette. Punctuated by rocks and groups of red pine (Pinus resinosa) and other native plants, this part of Maine resembles an old French tapestry throughout the by year. A Multi-Season Display The blueberry is a plant for all seasons. In early spring the leaves range from bright yellow to dark green; in May the flowers may be either white or white tinged with pink. In July the berries are beginning to turn deep blue. In the fall the colors of the leaves run from greens to deep wine red, bright red, orange red, and even a rare bright yellow. The different types have different color sequences. They compete with one another for living space, one patch pushing against another, yet each managing to keep its more or less circular shape. By mid-October the leaves are gone but the dramatic effect continues. Most of the plants have bright red, or even bright green, stems. Very little attention has been paid to the use of these plants in ornamental horticulture. As a landscape designer in the downeast Maine area, I found this out when my clients asked me to produce a natural-looking landscape, low in maintenance, thriving on our peaty, acid soils, and having the potential to attract wildlife. Meeting all these requirements, lowbush blueberries seemed to be the answer. To my surprise, I found that local nurseries seldom, if ever, sell the lowbush blueberry, and 39 when they do, it is inevitably a variety selected for its fruit production rather than its ornamental characteristics. The wild blueberries are an important cash crop in the area, the bulk of the crop being processed for the commercial food industry. Most people who have tasted lowbush blueberries consider their flavor superior to the larger fruit of the highbush blueberry, V. corymbosum, generally the only fresh blueberry sold in grocery stores. The lowbush blueberry is called \"wild\" by virtue of its heterogeneous genetic background. If you wanted to design a field that would copy nature, and if you wanted to do it without waiting twenty years for the effect to take shape, it would be almost impossible. Although different clones (as the mother plant and her rhizomatous progeny are called) often have very different properties, you cannot at this time purchase fifty plants with, say, a deep red fall color that will retain their leaves a long time, and another hundred in bright yellow, and so on. Those that you see in the fields have been there for a long time, often hundreds of years, and if you dig a few here and there from the side of the road and plant them in your own garden, you will inevitably end up with a tweedy effect. If you had in mind drifts of color, rather like bulbs planted for naturalization, then you have to be able to buy quantities of plants that have specified characteristics. It should be possible to design an \"earth tapestry\" that will imitate nature, and possibly improve on it, showing broad brush strokes of color as from a Jacobean Close-up of the flowers of Vaccinium angustifolium. Photo by Racz and Debreczy. ing the plants lower and and more manageable, helps in controlling disease and weeds. In the wild, blueberries grow happily in full sun and in nutrient-poor, sandy soil. This means that if you plant them in rich garden palette. Blueberries Are Low-Maintenance As landscape plants, lowbush blueberries initially take some work, primarily weeding and attention to soil pH and texture, but as time goes on, they can definitely be classified as low-maintenance for landscape purposes. Once established, they need to be burned or mowed closely every second or third year. This results in more vigorous spreading and a much better harvest in the intervening years. The severe pruning also has the effect of keep- soil the weeds will benefit more than the blueberries. In general, blueberries are remarkably stress tolerant, but too much stress, such as lack of water or even a truck backing over the plants, will result in premature color change in the fall. If a harvest of berries is desired, it is better to plant a number of different clones for increased cross-pollination. The fruit is ready to be picked towards the end of July and will continue to ripen almost until the end of August. By the end of October, the leaves will have dropped, leaving the stems to shine in the sunlight, many of them shimmering green or red against the first snows, rather in the manner of the red osier or the yellow-twig dogwood. I think this effect, when seen in sunlight, is just as dramatic as that of the leaves. Hardy from U.S.D.A. Zones 7 to 3, lowbush blueberries are well adapted to an acid soil, 40 1 The blueberry barrens of Maine. Photo by Tom Gomes, University of Maine. preferably pH 4.3 to 5.0, with low nutrient content. Although small plots of earth can be adjusted for acidity by incorporating peat, sawdust, pine needles, or bark, larger plantings might better be restricted to the acidic, coarsetextured soils of the northeastern United States and Canada where they flourish naturally. With this in mind, companion plants such as Rhododendron, Comptonia, Kalmia angustifolia, funiperus, both horizontalis and procumbens 'Nana\/ and the heaths and heathers would be good choices for a wild or woodsy garden. Spacing for the blueberry plants is largely a matter of how long you want to wait. They propagate by subsurface, woody rhizomes and are not rapid growers, so one might start with plants fifteen inches on center for a residential area. The Future For the past two years, I've been collecting information on leaf and stem color, leaf retention, height, and, lastly, fruit yield of ten clones chosen initially for their striking autumnal color. This project began in Septem- at the Maine Agricultural Experimental Station in Jonesboro, Maine. My goal was to find clones worth propagating in quantity and eventually to make them available to both commercial horticulturists and home gardeners. I am looking forward to having named varieties with specific characteristics available in the next few years. Thus cottagers and homeowners interested in enjoying the look of the landscape-with just an occasional foray into picking enough berries for a pie or for morning cereal-will be able to realize their ambitions. Although my research has leaned particularly towards the visual aspect, I also harvested and weighed the yield from one square yard of each clone that I tagged. Yield ran from just two ounces to slightly over two pounds! Fortunately some of the highest producers in both quantity and flavor were the same ones that developed the best fall and ber, 1987, winter colors. Ann Crichton-Harris is a landscape in Columbia Falls, Maine 04623. designer who lives "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Magnificent Ginger","article_sequence":3,"start_page":41,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24982","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060a76b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"The Gary Magnificent Ginger L. Roller Introduced into North America already attracted attention. only ten years ago, Asarum magnificum has Horticultural and botanical aficionados who travel abroad often discover unfamiliar plants that look as though they might have garden application in their home countries. During May and June of 1978, Dr. Richard Howard, then Director of the Arnold Arboretum, visited the People's Republic of China on a tour sponsored by the Botanical Society of America and hosted by the Chinese Academy of Sciences. The delegates' travels were extensive and included a visit to the Wuhan Institute of Botany. It was here that Dr. Howard noticed an unusual Asarum (commonly called wild ginger) under cultivation. He immediately recognized it as \"very handsome and very different\" from anything he had seen before. He was given a small division only after promising not to write a description of the plant in the botanical literature, since the Chinese scientists who had discovered it in Hunan Province had not yet done so. Indeed, a full description of Asarum magni ficum was not published until five years later, in 1983, by C.-Y. Cheng and C.-S. Yang in, fittingly, The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. According to the authors, the plant grows over a wide geographical range, having been found in fifteen inches) tall. This large stature is one of the features that makes the plant handsome and different. Another is the large, heartshaped leaves, with two prominent lobes, that project back from the point where the petiole is attached. The upper leaf surface is a rich dark-green color with silvery markings. These silver patches form a continuous, but irregular, band aligned parallel to the leaf lobes. Between this band and the edges of the leaf there are numerous small flecks of silver. In fanciful terms, the magnificent ginger seems to combine the elegant foliage of some of the more familiar Asarums with the image and presence of a variegated Hosta. The flowers of the magnificent ginger are relatively large in comparison to the other species in the genus. They are about five centimeters across (two inches) and purple-brown in color. Unfortunately, they hug the surface of the ground and are often obscured from view by the foliage. Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hubei, and Guangdong provinces as well as Hunan. We believe that Dr. Howard's delivery of this plant to the Arnold Arboretum in 1978 was its original introduction into North America. Stunning Foliage The largest plant of Asarum magnificum known to this author forms a clump approxi- mately thirty to forty centimeters (twelve to Cultivation What have we learned about this plant during its first ten years in North America? For one thing it has the potential to become extremely popular in light of the fact that the original plant at the Arnold Arboretum greenhouses was stolen after a single division was put up for sale at the Arboretum's annual rare plant auction in 1985. Fortunately, the division had been purchased by Allen Haskell of New Bedford, Massachusetts, who generously donated a piece back to the Arboretum after the theft of our plant. Subsequently his plants and those growing in another nursery were 42 Asarum magnificum. Illustration from the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1985, volume 64, page 594. One half natural size. stolen. At this point, a decision was made to divide and distribute the remaining stock to various locations. This experience provides a clear example of the merit of sharing rare plants so that losses can be recouped by the exchange of surviving materials. We have determined that Asarum magnificum is hardy out-of-doors in Massachusetts. This is somewhat surprising since the large leaves are fully evergreen. Allen Haskell reports that one year he set out five plants in his garden in New Bedford in November, a time which is less than ideal, and that all five survived. This success may have been because they were growing in a location that was partially shaded. Because the rhizomes and roots are shallow, Haskell recommends that the be grown in a moist, organic soil and that it be well watered prior to the freezing of the soil. In addition, plants should be sheltered from both the summer and winter sun and strong winds, which might dessicate the foliage. One plant, growing at the Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts, which is a good five to ten degrees colder than New Bedford, failed to survive the winter. At the edges of its northern border of hardiness, it might be wise to protect the plant with an antidessicant. Richard Weaver, former staff member of the Arnold Arboretum and now co-owner of WeDu Nursery in Marion, North Carolina, also sent us a report based on his six years' experience growing the magnificent ginger. He states that the plant sends out rhizomes up to a foot in length, which, instead of forming a clump, will produce a leaf here and there, forming a diffuse and open plant. This open character makes the plant somewhat less beautiful in the ground than it is in a pot, and suggests that perhaps the plant needs to be confined in order to look its best. The plant is fully evergreen at his location in North Carolina where temperatures have fallen as low as minus six degrees Fahrenheit. Weaver also reports that late spring frosts have sometimes damaged the new growth on his plants and reduced their overall vigor. Last summer he moved one plant to a relatively wet site, which turned out to be a mistake. He has since moved it back to a location with better drainage. Experience has taught him that the magnificent ginger is easy to transplant at almost any time during the growing plant season. Propagation Propagation of Asarum magnificum is relatively easy, a feature that, along with its ornamental foliage, should help the plant to catch on quickly. Haskell has discovered that when he lifts and divides a plant, all of the remaining root pieces will produce new plants. When he divides a plant, he lays every root scrap horizontally in a mixture of leaf mold and sand, and covers them to a depth of 43 about one centimeter (one-half inch). Once the small plantlets emerge, he transplants them into peat pots. These he places in a flat that contains a shallow layer of compost. As the plants root through the peat pots into this underlayer of compost, he can harvest these roots to propagate the next generation. According to Haskell, an individual root piece can produce plantlets for up to two years. In the garden the magnificent ginger looks good either as a specimen or in a mass planting, similar to a large grouping of hostas. As a garden combination, the bold cordate leaves of the magnificent ginger contrast beautifully with the delicate foliage of the Japanese painted fern (Athyrium goeringianum 'Pictum'). It is also attractive when planted in islands carved within a bed of Vinca minor. The green of both foliages is the same shade, and visually the contrast in form and texture is elegant and appealing. As gardeners, we owe a debt of gratitude both to Dr. Howard for recognizing a plant of distinction and bringing it home so that we could discover its beauty and its uses in the garden and to the staff of the Wuhan Institute of Botany for generously sharing this plant with us. References and C.-S. Yang. 1983. A synopsis of the Chmese species of Asarum (Aristolochiaceae). Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 64: 565-597. Cheng, C.-Y., Howard, R. A. Republic 1978. Botanical impressions of the of China. Arnoldia 38: 218-237. People's Gary L. Koller is Managing Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum and teaches m the Landscape Architecture Department at the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":4,"start_page":44,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24978","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15e896f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"44 BOOKS Dr. Richard Evans Schultes by Max NicholCambridge University Press, Cambridge, England. 1987. Pp. xvii + 232. Hardback $27.95; paper $14.95. The New Environmental Age, son. Complete Book of Everlastings, by Mark and Terry Silber. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. 1988. Pp. ix + 214. $29.95. The plethora of publications on environmental conservation has produced a number of outstanding studies. The present volume, however, stands far above most of the run-ofthe-mill publications. It is superb. The author was \"one of the environmental revolutionaries of the early post-war years.\" The main thrust of this volume can be summed up adequately by a statement found in the introduction: \"It is one thing to be conscious of the damage we are doing; it is quite another matter to come to understand how to repair the damage already done and how to limit further damage in the future.\" The foreword is by Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh, himself an avid and extremely active conservationist and president of the World Wildlife Fund. The book is divided into nine chapters: (1) Context of the Struggle; (2) Early Years of Environmental Conservation; (3) Environmental Conservation Comes of Age; (4) Growth of Knowledge and the Spread of Ideas; (5) Organization and Resources of the Movement; (6) Interactions; (7) Pioneers of Conservation; (8) Critical Appraisal of the Movement Today; (9) A Forward View. The most cogent of these nine chapters are numbers 3, 4, 8, and 9, although much of inestimable value is presented in the other chapters. The whole book is outstandingly pertinent and deserves to be read and taken to heart by all interested in environmental protection and its significance to the future of the human race. charming book on a neglected horticulture, this contributionbeautifully illustrated in color and superbly published-is a magnificent credit to the authors and to the publishers. When Mark, one of my former students at Harvard, and his wife Terry, formerly art director of the Atlantic Monthly and author of A A most aspect of Small Farm in Maine, decided to live in the peace and quiet of Maine, they began to inves- tigate and cultivate \"everlasting\" plantsthose whose beauty is preserved, and in some cases enhanced, by drying. What started out as a hobby has become a full-time effort. For the authors it is not only a financially profitable occupation but also an artistic endeavor of the most unusual nature. The book contains very detailed data on how to collect and grow, preserve, prepare, and display many ever- lasting species. The book is divided into several sections: Introduction; From Seed to Harvest; Annuals; Perennials; Picking in the Wild; Designing with Everlastings. There is a selected bibliography and common-name and botanical-name indices. In the pages of The Complete Book of Everlastings, enthusiasts will find all that they need to know about this fascinating aspect of horticulture. Prof. Richard Evans Schultes is the former director of the Botanical Museum of Harvard University, a position he held for many years. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":45,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24980","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad060a36d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM PLANTS, GARDENS, AND LANDSCAPES GERTRUDE JEKYLL: A VISION OF GARDEN AND WOOD - October 14 - December 1: Hunnewell Visitor Center of the Arnold Arboretum. An exhibition curated by Michael R. Van Valkenburgh and Judith B. Tankard and made possible through the support of the Art Program of Bank of Boston. Pollarded Willows in winter, 1887. College of Environmental Design Documents Collection, Univer- AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM An unparalleled array of unusual plants at the Annual Plant Sale September 17, a major design exhibition, and a series of special lectures and symposiums on gardens and landscapes are all part on of activities at the Arnold Arboretum this Fall. sity of California, Berkeley PLANTS, PLANTS, PLANTS (THIS YEAR MORE THAN 5000!) The opportunity to obtain the rare, the unusual, and the recently introduced is key to the yearly popularity of the Arnold Arboretum's Annual Plant Giveaway and Rare Plant Auction (Sunday, September 17, at the Case Estates, beginning for members at 9:00 a.m.). The Arboretum has a long-standing reputation for its plant introductions (more than two thousand over the years), and this year's plant sale will include some firsttime offerings to North American plant enthusiasts. Plants collected by staff members in China and Japan; herbaceous perennials from shy to rampant; trees, shrubs, vines, conifers, and a few house plants - all will be waiting in the Barn at the Case Estates Beginning in 1885, English garden designer Gertrude Jekyll photographed gardens. This exhibit shows the evolution of her own garden, her fascination with the rural Surrey landscape, and her wide range of interests in the decorative arts. As her own eyesight deteriorated, she used the accurate vision of the camera to capture landscape images that she could no longer clearly see. Included in the exhibit are previ- pictures of her own garden over several decades. \"Gertrude Jekyll: A Vision of Garden and Wood\" will be on display in the Hunnewell Visitor Center of the Arnold Arboretum seven days a week from October 14 to December 1. In association with the exhibit architectural historian Judith (no telephone orders, no advance sales!) Also on the program are the Arnold Arboretum Associ- Tankard, co-curator with Michael Van Valkenburgh and co-author of the book \"A Vision of Garden and Wood,\" will present a slide-lecture on Gertrude Jekyll: on Tuesday, October 31 at 7:00 p.m. in the Hunnewell Visitor ~ Center. 1 competitive Silent Auction of specially donated plants and the Rare Plant Auction at 1:00 p.m. when the \"best of the best\" ~ go on the block. ates ously unpublished photographs of architecture and plant combinations as well as records of her design work at Millmead. A sequence, \"The Seasons of Munstead Wood,\" presents 48 Three Thursday Evening Lectures Fletcher Steele Collection What southern plants should northern gardeners be growing today? Which of our native southern shrubs and vines are not only hardy in the northeast but provide new interest in a familiar palette of plants? Is the southeastern United States indeed becoming \"the hub\" when it comes to new plants and SUNYCESF, Syracuse, N.Y. gardening techniques? The University of Georgia is home to Dr. Michael Dirr, horticulturist, author, (Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, Photographic Manual of Woody Plants, The Reference Manual of Woody Plant Propagation) and former Mercer Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. Opionionated, outspoken, and immensely knowledgeable, Michael Dirr will make a rare appearance in Boston when he takes \"A Fresh Look at Southern Plants for the Northern Garden\" in the first of the Arboretum's three Thursday evening lectures, October 19 at 7:00 p.m. This program will be held in the Frechette Conference Center of the State Laboratory Building, 305 South Street, Jamaica Plain. The auditorium is immediately adjacent to the Forest Hills \"T\" station. On-site parking is available for this lecture. ~ ta. ~ )*. ered an important link between 19th-century Beaux Arts formalism and modem landscape design. Throughout his career his gardens had historical references, though in his later works color and the shaping of abstract space were of increasing importance. \"In the spring,\" he wrote, \"one can have sheets of flat daring color that leave the frantic cubist Dublin, Dr. Nelson is also a garden historian, writer, lecturer, television gardening \"guru,\" and plant collector. Foundation chairman of the Irish Garden Plant Society, he is well known for his many books and articles on the history of gardening and garden plants (see Arnoldia Winter 1982-83, \"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chinese Flora\") and has collaborated with botanical artist Wendy Walsh on a series of books about Irish garden plants including, \"An Irish Flower Garden\" (1984) and two volumes of \"An Irish Florilegium.\" The Arnold Arboretum has joined with The Trustees of Reservations to co-sponsor a lecture by Charles Nelson, \"Irish Gardens and their Plants, A Heritage of Beauty\" on Thursday, November 2, at 7:00 p.m. at the Hunnewell Visitor Center. An informal reception with Dr. Nelson will follow the lecture.. ~ ~ ~ ~ painter speechless.\" Robin Karson, a Contributing Editor of Garden Design and Landscape Architecture, has written the first critical biography of Fletcher Steele. She will lecture at the Hunnewell Visitor Center at 7:00 p.m. on Thursday, October 26, on \"The Garden~ making of Fletcher Steele.\" ?&2022 a* t%* The long career of Fletcher Steele, who made his first garden in 1915, his last in 1970 a year before his death, is a landmark in the history of American gardens. The designer of Miss Choate's garden at Naumkeag (the Blue Steps, the Afternoon Garden), Steele called himself a \"landscape sculptor.\" He created more than 700 gardens, and wrote over a hundred articles and two books on subjects from history to horticulture. His work is consid- When virtually any aspect of the plants and gardens of Ireland is considered, the name of Charles Nelson comes to mind. Taxonomist to the National Botanic Gardens at Glasnevin, Other plants and gardens lectures at the Arboretum this Fall include Italianate Gardens in the New Hampshire Landscape, a survey of the elegant formal gardens near Cornish, New Hampshire, and the designs of Charles Platt, Rose Standish Nichols, and Ellen Shipman, as well as the gardens of Stephen and Maxfield Parrish and Augustus Saint-Gaudens (Wednesday, October 25, 2:30 p.m. HVC) and a continuation of the Home and Garden series in Great Gardens of Britain in the 20th Century. Three lectures will explore public gardens and the role of conservation; garden design and modern literature (the gardens of the \"Bloomsbury\" Woody Plant Identification class at the Arnold Arboretum This year's summer interns included students from Califor- Identification, and Landscape nia, Iowa, Virginia, Washington, and Nova Scotia, Canada. Design Principles as well as field trips to private and public come literary set); contemporary plantspeople and their private gardens: Christopher Lloyd, Penelope Hobhouse, Rosemary Verey, and Marjorie Fish. (3 Thursdays, November 2, 9, and ~ 16\/10:30 a.m.-12 :30 p.m. HVC). During their time at the Arboretum, trainees worked alongside the staff in the greenhouse, on mapping and labelling, and in grounds maintenance. They attended classes in Horticultural Maintenance, Woody Plant Recent trainees have from Australia, New Zealand, Germany, and England as well as all regions of the United States. Applications for 1990 will be available in October and are due by February 1, 1990. gardens. Two all-day garden design symposiums will be offered by the Arboretum this fall. Landscaping with Perennials : the Cultivated Choice on October 14 and European Garden Style: A Contemporary Interpretation on November 11. Perennials this year considers the many benefits of combining herbaceous perennials, bulbs, and annuals in the garden. Experts from London's Chelsea Physic Garden, New England, and the Southeast are among the speakers. A new symposium topic, European Garden Style examines the influence of classical stylistic elements and discusses their applications for the contemporary American garden designer. For further information on lectures and symposiums contact the Education Registrar at the Arnold ~ Arboretum. A 100-year-old penjing specimen of Gingko biloba recently purchased from Mr. Hu Yun-hua of Shanghai Gardening Service, China. Photo by Racz and Debresczy. BONSAI AUCTION TO BENEFIT ARBORETUM New England Bonsai Gardens, Inc. in South Natick will auction three specimen-quality bonsai trees on Saturday, October 14th, at 4:30 P.M. Twenty-five percent of the proceeds from these sales will be donated to the Arnold Arboretum to benefit the Arboretum's Larz Anderson Bonsai Collection. The auction is one of several events featured during New England Bonsai's weekend-long fall celebration. For further information call 508-6536330 or 617-237-5111 ' ' ' ' 3 HOW DOES YOUR GAURA GROW? As some of you know, this year's Plant Dividend mailing was not a at the annual Plant Sale on September 17. When you arrive at the Plant Sale, pick up a coupon at the Membership began identifying for Harvard University the contributory portion of membership dues paid, i.e. that amount in excess of the actual cost of benefits offered. Some of you have already received gift acknowledgements from Harvard, thanking you only for the contributory portion of your membership dues. These acknowledgements are intended for your use as a tax receipt. Gifts over and above your membership dues are 100% tax deductible and will be acknowledged as such. These include gifts to the Spring and Fall Sign- complete success. Approximately 10% of the plants did not arrive in good condition. We improved our packaging and Up desk before entering the Plant Sales area. Members who sent back the pink response card enclosed with the Gaura, notifying us of their plant's demise, will automatically receive bulbs unless they call to notify us otherwise. If you received a badly damaged Gaura which did not survive, but have not yet notified us, and want to receive bulbs or a replacement, please call or write Jeanne Christianson, 524-1718, as Appeals. possible. Again, we apologize for any inconvenience and disappointment and promise that next spring will bring you a dormant, but healthy, Actinidia kolomikta. soon as Following is a list of the Contributory portion of dues paid for each category of Friends Membership. Individual ~ THE CONTRIBUTORY PORTION OF YOUR Family Sustaining Organization Sponsor Patron Donor Benefactor MEMBERSHIP Gaura lindheimeri. Illustration by G. Nagy 1989 $8 $ 20 $ 67 $123 $162 $459 $959 $4959 On July 1, 1989, the Arnold Arboretum, in anticipation of Internal Revenue Service requirements, replacement plants, but even of those were beyond salvage, and many of you remain disappointed. We have learned the hard way that mailing perennials requires special packaging. Rather than send more plants in a third mailing attempt, sent some I ATTENTION ARNOLDIA SUBSCRIBERS I have offered the two following options to members who have reported problems with their Gaura. (1) Three Scilla pratensis, \"Meadow Squill\" bulbs will be mailed to you in mid-September. we Although not a newcomer, this late-flowering bulb is still unfamiliar to most gardeners and will bear brilliant, mildly fragrant, veronica-violet flowers on an 8 inch stalk in late May and early June. (2) You may pick up a live and healthy Gaura lindheimeri, or any other yellow-tag plant, Why not become a member of the friends of the Arnold Arboretum and receive additional benefits? A recent evaluation of the costs associated with publishing Arnoldia has forced us to realize that we cannot continue to offer subscriptions to nonmembers at the previous rate. Therefore, as of January 1990, the subscription rate for Arnoldia will be $20 for domestic subscribers and $25 for foreign. As an individual member of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum ($35), you would receive a number of exciting benefits in addition to Arnoldia: an Annual Rare Plant Dividend each spring, a free plant at the Fall Plant Sale, members-only Rare Plant Purchase Opportunities, discounts on courses and in our Shop, access to the Plant Information Hot Line, the Library, and the Plant Identification Service, a free Arnold Arboretum window decal, and a map of the grounds. Watch for the membership application form enclosed with your Arnoldia subscription renewal notice in November, or request a membership application form right now by calling 524-1718. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23532","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260a328.jpg","title":"1989-49-3","volume":49,"issue_number":3,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Quest for the Perfect Lilac","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24976","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15e8526.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"The Quest for the Perfect Lilac John H. Alexander III The lilac collection at the Arnold restored to its former glory. Arboretum, newly replanted, is being In 1926, shortly after the death of C. S. Sargent, the first Director of the Arnold Arboretum, the entire lilac collection was cut to the ground in an effort to rejuvenate it. With few blossoms expected for the spring of 1927, Lilac Sunday was cancelled, news that made headlines in the Boston papers. It is difficult to estimate how many people visit the Arboretum on any Lilac Sunday, but record attendance may have been achieved in 1941, when on May 18 an estimated 43,000 people visited. This amount of public attention inspires the staff to pay close attention to maintenance levels of the lilac collection, and a burst of labeling, pruning and primping takes place every year just before Lilac Sunday. Any changes that are made to the lilac collection are noted and commented on by just about everyone. (2) Air pollution has been implicated as the of another disease, leaf roll necrosis (LRN). When a plant is afflicted, leaf margins die, and leaves roll upward or downward, disfiguring the plant. Apparently caused by continuously high levels of atmospheric pollution, the symptoms are not obvious until late summer or early fall, about the same time that powdery mildew appears on the leaves. As in their reaction to powdery mildew, lilac cultivars vary in their susceptibility to air polcause lution injury. (3) Powdery mildew infection is not a new problem for lilac growers, nor is it a problem about which all lilac enthusiasts have to a fungus which grows on the surface of as well as inside the lilac leaves, feeding on the stored sugars. It thrives in humid coastal climates such as Boston, and is a pest that most experts suggest gardeners simply ignore. Lilacs are spring, and mildew is fall. It does very little damage to the plants since the leaves are close to dropping anyway. Even if the damage it does is negligible, powdery mildew is unsightly, and many gardeners would love to be able to control it. Given the fact that some cultivars are much more susceptible to powdery mildew than others, why not grow those with the best floral display and the least mildew? This is not a novel idea; surveys of lilac mildew have been conducted at least since the 1930's when I. H. Crowell surveyed the Arnold's collections and rated specimens for their susceptibility to mildew. (4) In an attempt to improve maintenance by reducing the growth of weeds in the lilac worry. It is Recently, it became evident that an overall decline of the collection had taken place over the last fifteen to twenty years. Although the exact cause of the decline was not obvious, a number of factors contributed to it. (1) The infection of the collection by mycoplasmalike organisms (MLO). These tiny creatures have been found to inhabit the tissues of many of the Arboretum's specimens and have seriously weakened them (see article by C. Hibben, page 8). While Syringa vulgaris, the common lilac, displays no visible symptoms, other species often exhibit witches'-broom formations when infected by MLO. Unfortunately, there is no known cure for this disease. Removal of infected plants seems to be the only recourse. 3 The Arnold Arboretum lilac collection, May 23, 1908. Photo by T. E. Mayr from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. collection, herbicides have been used. Major injury to the collection occurred about twenty years ago with applications of the then new herbicide Casoron, and the plants were very slow to regain their vigor. (5) Mechanical injury to lilacs often occurs when the grass is trimmed too close to the stems with a monofilament string trimmer or, obviously, with a lawn mower. The lilac collection is located on a hillside, parts of which are quite steep, and even when machines are operated with great care, they occasionally slide sideways a few inches, or a few feet, bumping and abrading the older lilac stems and shearing the younger stems that staff members would have encouraged in order to rejuvenate older specimens. more too must be considered as a facthe decline of the collection since more than 150 plants are beyond the age of 50, and 36 of them were planted before the turn of the century. With all these factors contributing to the decline of the collection, the staff felt that the lilac display could be greatly improved simply by reducing the stresses. Coupled with cultural techniques, judicious selection of superior cultivars would yield a vastly improved lilac collection lilacs for a new century. (6) Aging tor in - Displaying the Collection The Arnold Arboretum, Highland Park (Rochester, New York), and the Royal Botani- 4 cal Gardens (Hamilton, Ontario, Canada) have the major lilac collections of the Northeast. In each of these three gardens, most of the lilacs are displayed as single specimens. Each plant is placed within a lawn spaced some distance from its neighbors, and each plant is seen as a distinct entity. At both Highland Park and Royal Botanical Gardens, the soil immediately adjacent to the plant is cultivated, while at the Arnold, the turf is allowed to grow up to the stems. Both methods produce maintenance problems-proper lawn trimming and cultivating endanger the plants. Both types of planting also allow visitors to walk up close to the plants and enjoy their fragrance, but this results in compaction of the soil. Best serving the public, but not the plants, these types of displays are common to most public gardens. The lilac collection m The first deviation from standard public garden specimen planting that this author saw was at the Niagara Parks Commission School of Horticulture, Niagara Falls, Ontario. There lilacs are planted in beds ... and underplanted with ground covers and bulbs! The Niagara Parks School had demonstrated a way to keep mowers and feet at bay: mowers could be run right to the edge of the ground cover, clearly defining the bed, mak- August 1988, the second year Rdcz. after replanting. Photo by Istvdn ing a neat appearance, and requiring only a minimum of effort. With a power mower, one circuit of a bed that contains ten or twenty plants is so much less exacting and less timeconsuming, and at the same time is less hazardous for plants, than the traditional method. The Arnold staff agreed that its new approach to planting lilacs at the Arnold Arboretum should include planting in beds. The design of these new beds was carried out by Gary Koller, Managing Horticulturist. We agreed that groups of each cultivar would be more appealing, from a landscape viewpoint, than single specimens. Beds have been kept narrow enough so that each cultivar grouping has at least one plant that is near an outside edge of the bed, close enough for visitors to study and sniff. Underplantings are of Pachysandra terminalis 'Green Carpet', Dicentra spectabilis (bleeding heart) and Endymion hispanicus (Spanish bluebell). Initially we toyed with the idea of planting whole beds of white (or purple or blue) lilacs, each one different, thereby settling once and for all which is the best cultivar of a given color. This concept, not visually interesting and a nightmare when it comes to maintaining the identity of each individual cultivar, was rejected. The scheme finally chosen has, in large part, grouped the plants according to their origin. There is one bed for plants introduced by the famous French nursery family Lemoine. Another bed features the introductions of the Canadian hybridizer F. L. Skinner, and a third the plants produced by the Russian L. A. Kolesnikov. Examples of seedling variation within the species Syringa patula are planted together in one bed, and the \"New England\" bed features those cultivars that we consider best for this climate. Other themes are being planned for the future, since there are many more lilacs left to plant. The next task was to select the specific cultivars for inclusion in these groups. For example, of the over 200 cultivars that the Lemoines introduced, which twenty or thirty are their best? The choices were not entirely subjective, although one could not call them scientific. What, after all, constitutes the best? 5 These choices were left to the author, who for over ten years has annually surveyed the Arnold's lilac collection and recorded symptoms of powdery mildew and leaf roll necrosis. All of this data has been entered into a computer through the efforts of Arboretum volunteer Dr. Richard W Dwight. Obviously, the best lilacs should not be disfigured by powdery mildew or leaf roll necrosis, but because most lilacs are susceptible to these problems, some level of infection must be tolerated-preferably at a level that is not too noticeable in the landscape. Proper evaluation of lilacs cannot be done solely in the fall. Good foliage is desirable, but no one grows lilacs for their foliage display. In terms of flowers, are more blossoms better, or are bigger blossoms better? In a landscape display, the overall abundance of bloom is very important, but near pathways, large flowers and inflorescences may be most attractive. A good display combines plants with both attributes. in the eye of the beholder ... in perhaps in the nose as well, for is a major component of lilac fragrance beauty. Yet we have not felt that it was neces- Beauty is the eye, and sary to consider fragrance when choosing plants for the lilac beds because at lilac time, their fragrance so permeates the air that one is aware of their scent even at a distance. There are some cultivars (often those with white flowers) with little or no fragrance, while others are extraordinarily fragrant. Seeking out the latter is for many visitors a most important part of experiencing the collection. Photo Syringa reticulata, Arnold Arboretum #1111, started from seed in from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. 1876. This is the oldest lilac in the collection. 6 To check for fragrance I, along with two volun- be very sensitive to through the collection independently sniffing and rating the plants. We became more confident in the rating system when we came to the same cultivar in a different location and found that our ratings were the same or very nearly so. To determine which lilacs were the best, it became necessary to define the perfect lilac. Once perfection was defined, deviations from and permutations of perfection could be examined more objectively. Still, the definition itself was subjective. For the sake of argument, let us propose that the perfect lilac should: -be highly fragrant -be resistant to mildew and leaf roll teers to who claimed fragrance, walked necrosis -have flowers at eye (and nose) level-not high for comfortable viewing -have many inflorescences, displayed from top to bottom -have new growth that doesn't obscure the flowers -produce enough suckers to replace old or injured stems but no more. Ideally, for every flower color, every season of bloom, and every single or double form, a gardener should be able to find a perfect lilac to meet the requirements listed above. For the home garden, where available space may be more limited, one may wish to select cultivars with a high degree of fragrance and disease resistance, as well as ones that are visually attractive. A list of what I have observed to be, at present, the \"best fifty\" is provided on page 7. I qualify this statement with \"at present\" because as better plants become known, the list will change. Of course, the \"perfect\" lilac may exist only on these pages, yet as more beds are planted and better cultivars are added, the distance between reality and perfection is diminished. too Close-up of the flowers of Syrmga vulgans. Photo from the Arnold Arboretum Archives. References Alexander, J.H III. 1977. The uncommon lilacssomething old something new. Arnoldia 38(3): 65-81. Crowell, H.I. 1937. U S.D.A Plant Disease 134-138. Reporter 21(8)- iWalker, J. T., C. R. Hibben, and J. C. Alhson. 1975. Cultivar ratings for susceptibility and resistance to Amer. Soc. Hort Sci the leaf roll-necrosis disorder of lilac. four. 100(6): 627-631. John Alexander is the Plant Propagator Arboretum. at the Arnold 7 Fifty of the Selected Cultivar Best Lilacs for the Gardens of New H. Alexander III Flower Type Double 2022 England Flower Type Double Double Double by John Cultivar Miss Ellen Willmott Mme. Lemoine VIOLET BLOSSOMS Henri Robert Louvois \"g Mieczta \"BLUE\" BLOSSOMS Dr. Chadwick * Laurentian .# Maurice Barres Madame Charles Souchet President Lincoln . PURPLE BLOSSOMS Adelaide Dunbar . Paul Hariot President Roosevelt . Sarah Sands Sensation Zulu MAGENTA BLOSSOMS - Single Single Single Single Single Single Single Double Double Saint Margaret Sister Justena # LILAC BLOSSOMS Single Double Alphonse Lavallee Assessippi .# Excel .# Single Single Double Hippolyte Maringer Hugo Koster Hyazinthenflieder Michel Buchner Nokomis $~ . indicates * indicates a Single Single Double Single , Single Single Single Single Double an high degree of fragrance early-blooming hybrid Charles Joly : Glory Mme. F. Morel Single Single Double Paul Thirion Ruhm von Horstenstein . \"YELLOW\" BLOSSOMS Primrose \"PINK\" BLOSSOMS Single Single Single Single Single Single Double Recommended plants were selected based on their overall landscape and floral qualities, including their resistance to the foliar diseases, leaf roll necrosis and powdery mildew. Jack Alexander was assisted in the foliar disease research by Richard Dwight M.D., and in the fragrance project by Michelle Kramer and Ellen McFarland. TEN FAVORITE UNCOMMON LILACS The \"best Catinat .* Charm Churchill * General Sherman . Katherine Havemeyer . Lucie Baltet Mme. Antoine Buchner Scotia * Vauban .# fifty\" list includes only cultivars of Syrmga vulgans and the early-flowering S. x hyacinthiflora because they have the general appearance Single Double of the traditional or common lilac. Hybrids and selections of the species listed below have leaves, flowers and fragrance that are different, and offer adventurous gardeners the opportunity to break with tradition. Single Double Double Virginite WHITE BLOSSOMS Jan Van Tol Syringa lacmiata S. meyeri S. meyen 'Palibin' S. microphylla 'Superba' S. patula 'Miss Kim' S. pekinensis S. x prestoniae 'Agnes Smith' S. x prestoniae 'Miss Canada' S. pubescens S. reticulata Single Double Double Double Jeanne d'Arc Joan Dunbar Krasavitsa Moskvy Marie Legraye Maude Notcutt Single Single "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mycoplasmal Pathogens: New Causes for Old Diseases","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24974","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15e8128.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Hibben, Craig R.","article_content":"Mycoplasmal Pathogens: Old Diseases C. R. Hibben New Causes for Microorganisms residing abnormalities harmful to in the their hosts, phloem of plants induce growth including lilacs and ashes. a new era for plant researchers reported the pathology, Japanese discovery of pathogens heretofore unknown in plants. These were called mycoplasmalike organisms, or MLO. Several diseases thought to be caused by viruses were subsequently reexamined, and MLO were identified as the true causal agents. The significance of this discovery is shown by the wide host range of MLO: 700 herbaceous and woody plants in 424 genera within 99 families. These pathogens are responsible for diseases of many eco- The year 1967 as began shaped, assuming spherical, beaded, filamentous, or yeast-like appearare smaller than one millionth of a meter). Like bac(one teria, they appear to divide by a cleavage process, but their reproduction is not well understood at this point. As plant pathogens, MLO occur only in the phloem sieve tube elements of leaves, shoots, and roots. Their direct study in the phloem has been by electron microscopy, but a fluorescence test for MLO has simplified the process of infection diagnosis. In this test, the chemical DAPI (4'6-diamidino-2-phenylindole#2HCl) binds to mycoplasmal DNA and fluoresces when exposed to ultraviolet radiation. Thin sections of infected plants stained with DAPI can then be examined with a fluorescence microscope. In the early work with plant MLO, the fact that remission of symptoms could be induced by the injection of tetracycline antibiotics, but not by penicillin, was considered prima facie evidence for mycoplasmal infection. All attempts to achieve sustained growth of plant pathogenic MLO outside of their hosts have failed. This inability to grow MLO in artificial culture continues to be a limiting factor to characterizing them more completely. One direct consequence of this difficulty is the use of the cumbersome term MLO are variably ances. Most MLO micron nomically important vegetable, ornamental, forest, and plantation crops from cool temperate to tropical regions. The well-known triumvirate of fungal, bacterial, and viral pathogens of plants has now been joined by a prominent new member, the MLO. As an introduction to this unique group of microorganisms, this report will cover the nature of MLO, how woody plants react to them, and recent research on their impact on two genera in the family Oleaceae, Syringa (lilacs) and Fraxinus (ashes). Definition and Detection In simple terms, MLO are single-celled, nonmotile organisms somewhat smaller than bacteria. They are the smallest known living cells. More technically, they are wall-less prokaryotes, consisting of an elastic, triplelayered membrane enclosing cytoplasm that contains ribosomes and strands of DNA. \"mycoplasmalike.\" Recently, has been made investigating some progress serological rela- Figure 1. Mycoplasmalike orgamsms (arrow) in phloem sieve tube cells trom a leaf midnb of mfected lilac. tionships among plant MLO utilizing partially purified MLO as immunogens. Perfection of these serological techniques would allow rapid advances in research. Plant Reactions Infection also causes abnormalities in flower development, including greening, the production of leaflike parts, gigantism, sterility, and ultimately, total inhibition. Fruit of Mycoplasmal pathogens expressed can induce reduc- tion and stimulation of growth in their hosts simultaneously. Growth reduction is as stunted and misshapen leaves and floral parts, shortened internodes, and decreased annual ring width. At the same time, growth is initiated from axillary and terminal buds that normally would have remained dormant until the following season, and from adventitious buds in older wood. Witches'-brooms (dense clusters of stunted twigs) are the most dramatic manifestation of this abnormal growth. quality is produced, or fruiting ceases altogether. Yellowing and premature autumn coloration of foliage occur in some hosts. Long-term disease expression in woody plants ranges from yearly chronic symptoms to mortality within months of infection. In some cases, infected plants can be free of any obvipoor symptoms. The physiological modes of action by which MLO affect plants are not well understood. Phloem degeneration occurs, and a disruption of phloem function can be inferred by abnormal accumulations of starch in the leaves of infected plants. Stunting symptoms suggest inadequate movement of photosynthates to ous 10 Transmission and Control difficulty in achieving control of mycoplasmal pathogens is that they are easily spread. MLO are transmitted from plant to plant by phloem-feeding insects, such as leafhoppers, spittle bugs, and psyllids. The wide host range of these pathogens in woody and herbaceous plants makes the acquisition and spread of MLO by insect vectors more likely. Vegetative propagation materials such as cuttings, grafting scions and stocks, and shoot tips for micro-propagation can readily carry MLO. While plant tissue cultures are known to sustain MLO, their survival depends on the rapid differentiation of new phloem by the explant. Mycoplasmal pathogens are not One Figure 2. Hedgerow of white ash in southeastern New York State, where ash dieback has been severe since the 1950's. Most of these trees are now dead. seed-transmitted. Practical control measures are essentially limited to exclusion of the pathogen by the use of disease-free stock or by roguing infected plants out of the ground. Injecting trees with tetracycline antibiotics results in a temporary remission of symptoms in some hosts, but these treatments are not curative. Some measure of control of insect vectors is possible with insecticides, but excluding all vectors from susceptible plants is unlikely and impractical. Impact on Two Woody Hosts Two prominent members of the olive family growing points. Photographs of phloem sieve tube elements filled with MLO suggest a blockage in the downward transport of starches and sugars, as well as the diversion of these photosynthates to the growth of the pathogen. The loss of apical dominance and the flower abnormalities in infected plants are obvious indicators of a basic hormonal imbalance. In addition to the direct effects of MLO on their host, there is evidence that MLOinfected woody plants are predisposed to injury from non-biological stresses, such as low winter temperatures. We have observed the death of MLO-infected lilacs following a severe winter (Hibben et al., 1986), and others have noted subnormal cold hardiness in ash trees infected with MLO (Matteoni and Sin- (Oleaceae) appear to be favored hosts of MLO: Fraxinus and Syringa. From recent research, some of it conducted in the ash and lilac plantings at the Arnold Arboretum, we have learned that ash yellows and lilac witches'broom are mycoplasmal diseases of some importance. Ash dieback, characterized by a gradual dying back of the branches and eventual tree mortality, has been a major problem in the northeast since the late 1950's. White ash (Fraxinus americana) and green ash (F. pennsylvanica) have been affected in woodlands, roadsides, and home sites. Drought and canker fungi were initially implicated as causal factors, but in 1970, MLO were identified in witches'-brooms associated with ash in advanced stages of decline (Hibben and Wolanski, 1971). Cornell researchers, making clair, 1985). 11 3. Abnormal branch growth orgamsms. Healthy ash on the left. Figure m white ash (nght) is one consequence of infection by mycoplasmalike of the DAPI fluorescence test, discovered that mycoplasmal infection is widespread in ash, even in trees without witches'-brooms (Matteoni and Sinclair, 1985). The disease was named ash yellows. There is now convincing evidence that ash yellows is the primary cause of ash dieback in undisturbed sites where ash should be healthy. Ash yellows has been reported in several northeastern and midwestern states, and in southeastern Canada. The host range of MLO in Fraxinus is greater than first realized. MLO have been detected in blue ash (F. quadrangulata) and black ash (F nigra) (Sinclair, 1987). During a survey of ash in the Arnold Arboretum, we identified MLO in ten additional species of Fraxinus susceptible to MLO (Hibben and Franzen, 1987). These findings were especially use interesting because the infected ash trees were adjacent to the lilac collection which contained numerous specimens with the witches'-broom disease. This provided circumstantial evidence that the mycoplasmal diseases of ash and lilacs may be caused by the related strains of MLO. In support of this hypothesis, we were able to transmit MLO from infected ash to healthy same or lilacs, and from infected lilacs to healthy ash using the parasitic plant, dodder (Cuscuta subinclusa), as a carrier. The ability of the same MLO pathogen to infect more than one host would increase the likelihood of disease spread by insects, and make control strategies more difficult. Lilac witches'-broom was first reported in 1951, and the cause was presumed to be a 12 virus. In a 1986, we identified MLO, rather than as the true cause of the disease in virus, x josiflexa, S. x prestoniae, S. sweginSyrmga zowii, S. villosa x sweginzowii, S. josikaea, and S. x persica. The more widely grown S. vulgaris cultivars, including most of the or French hybrids, never showed these symptoms, even when interplanted with infected lilacs jHibben et al., 19861. Lemoine After further inspection of lilac collections in the eastern United States and Canada, we found that S. vulgaris cultivars are suscepti- ble to, but more tolerant of, infection than non-vulgaris lilacs. Diagnostic symptoms in S. vulgaris consisted of premature growth from current-year buds, growth from adventitious buds in older wood, and sometimes stunted twigs in bizarre zigzag growth patterns. Occasionally, MLO were detected in healthy looking lilacs. Witches'-brooms and Figure 5. Stunted, bunchy twiggrowth and scattered twig dieback are additional symptoms of woody plants infected by mycoplasmahke organisms. This is the lilac cultivar 'Royalty'. dieback were infected S.vulgaris. severe not associated with Figure 4. Witches'-brooms are dramatic symptoms of woody plants infected by mycoplasmal pathogens. This is the lilac cultivar 'Royalty'. A compilation of lilac taxa in which the witches'-broom disease has been identified (Table 1) shows that the late-blooming lilacs are especially susceptible, particularly those with a josikaea or villosa lineage. Mycoplasmal infection has not been detected in any of the early-blooming S. x hyacinthiflora cultivars. However, more research is necessary before lilacs resistant to MLO can be recommended with confidence. When the diseases of ash and lilac are compared, MLO are more lethal in ash, whereas reduced aesthetic value is usually the consequence of infection in lilacs. MLO may become a greater threat to lilacs in the future as their propagation by tissue culture becomes increasingly common. Contamination of lilac explants by MLO will have to be carefully monitored in order to assure the production of disease-free plants. We are convinced by our research on ash and lilac that these newly discovered pathogens constitute significant threats to horticulture and forestry. Clearly, the primary limiting factor to learning more about mycoplasmalike organisms is the inability to isolate and grow them in pure culture. When this has been achieved, I predict that they will soon rank in importance with fungi, bacteria, and viruses as recognized disease-causing agents in the environment. 13 References Hibben, C. R., and L. M. Franzen. 1987. Coincidence of lilac witches'-broom and ash yellows m two arboreta. Phytopathology 77: 118 (Abstract). Hibben, C. R., C. A. Lewis, and J. D Castello 1986 Mycoplasmalike organisms, cause of lilac witches'-broom. Plant Disease 70: 342-345. Hibben C. R., and B. Wolanski. 1971. Dodder transmission of a mycoplasma from ash witches'-broom. S. B. Silverborg. 1978. Severity and of ash dieback Tour of Arboriculture 4: 274-279. Hildebrandt, V. 1986. Lilac propagation by tissue culture: academic to commercial. Lilacs 15(1): 25-34. Lee, I. M., and R. E. Davis. 1986. Prospects for in vitro culture of plant-pathogenic mycoplasmalike Hibben, C. R., and causes Phytopathology 61: 151-156. Matteoni, J. A., and W. A Sinclair. 1985. Role of the mycoplasmal disease, ash yellows, in decline of white ash in New York State. Phytopathology 75: 355-360. Sinclair, W. A. 1987. Mycoplasmal infection found m four ash species in midwestern states. Plant Disease 71: 761. organisms. Ann. Rev. of Phytopathology 24: 339-354. McCoy, R. E. 1979. Mycoplasmas and yellows diseases, pp. 229-265. In The Mycoplasmas, vol. 3: Plant and Insect Mycoplasmas, ed R F. Whitcomb and J. G. Thlly. New York: Academic Press. Sehskar, C. E., and C L. Wilson 1981. Yellows diseases of trees, pp. 35-96. In Mycoplasma Diseases of Trees and Shrubs, ed. K. Maramorosch and S. P. Raychaudhun. New York: Academic Press. Additional Selected References Bove, J. M. 1984. Wall-less prokaryotes of plants of Phytopathology 22: 361-396. Ann. Rev. Dr. Craig R. Hibben is Research Plant Pathologist at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden Research Center in Ossmmg, New York. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's Woodlands","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24977","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15e856b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Madsen, Karen","article_content":"To Make His Country Smile: William Hamilton's - Woodlands Karen Madsen This famous estate on important position the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia occupies in the history of American landscape gardening. an Two hundred years ago the on preeminent sight with his visit interest was the southern approach to Philadelphia was a country estate lying just above the picturesque Schuylkill River. Created by William Hamilton (1745-1813), gentleman, landscape designer, botanist, and avid plant collector, the Woodlands was an icon in its time, one of the first American landscape gardens in the \"natural\" English style. It was to Hamilton that Thomas Jefferson wrote the letter now considered one of the key documents in American landscape history. Near the end he apologizes because \"I sat down to thank you for kindnesses received, & to bespeak permission to ask further contributions from your collection & I have written you a treatise on which art lessons would come to England in 1784-1786, that heightened. Of his tours there we have only a list of the counties he visited and a boast. Short as my absence from you has been [one year the time], I am bold to say I have seen as much of Eng'd & its metropolis as any of my countrymen who have preceded me [I] have left unseen nothing that I have ever heard of as worthy of notice. At every place where I have been I have attended to whatever was most curious, & by the help of my memorandums, I flatter myself, the impressions I received will not be easily effaced.3 at .. He was favorably impressed. \"England as a gardening generally, with in more you to me.\" In the same letter called the Woodlands \"the only rival Jefferson which I have known in America to what may be seen in England.\"1 Although it is now rarely given more than a paragraph or two in articles on the art of American landscaping prior to the nineteenth century, in Hamilton's time the Woodlands received a great deal of attention, both written and graphic. Hamilton inherited the Woodlands in 1747 when he was only two years old. His interest in \"improving\" what was then a country seat began very early; indeed, a schoolmate remembered listening to Hamilton's plans for its improvement when he was only a boy.2 But justice from country is an Elysium, & I should not have repined if circumstances would allow me a fixed Residence in it, with my family & property about me.\" He resolved to transport it to his own country. \"The verdure of England is its greatest beauty & my endeavours shall not be wanting to give the Woodlands some resemblance of it.\"4 He pledged, \"Having observed with attention the nature, variety & extent of the plantations of shrubs, trees, & fruits & consequently admired them, I shall (if God grants me a safe return to my own country,) endeavour to make it smile in the same useful & beautiful manner.\" And in the same letter he sets his secretary to work on his plans for improvements: \"To take time by the forelock, every preparation should immediately be made by Mr. Thomson [his gardener] who is on the spot, & I have no 15 fames Peller Malcom's watercolor titled The Woodlands From the Bridge at Gray's Ferry, ca. 1792. This is the perspective of travelers from Washmgton and other points south as they approached Philadelphia's limits. The house appears to loom over the nver, as if sited much closer to it than it really is. Tb the left, or west, of the house can be seen the wall of the greenhouse, the roof of the stable, and m the right middle ground, a path windmg down to the river. From City of Independence, Martm P Snyder. New York. Praeger Publishers, 1975, page 71, privately owned. doubt you will assist him your to the utmost of power.\"5 Hamilton's ambition-to make his country smile in the same useful and beautiful manner-can in no way be considered hob- byish, inconsequential, or in any way purely optional. Landscape was an issue of both aesthetic and intellectual concern. It was seen to have consequences in physical and economic well-being and to have important moral implications as well. It expressed the young country's aspirations. As one historian put it, \"The quality of American life and scenery assumed nationalistic overtones. The improved landscape not only provided evidence of the coun- progress but displayed its integrity and wholesomeness.\"6 Begun in the eighteenth century, by the nineteenth the process of adapting the English conception of natural beauty and order to the United States had taken a central position. It has been pointed out that \"the national landscape stimulated much of the most influential thinking, the most intense feeling, and the finest art of the American people.\"7 The try's English romantic landscape, widely seen as revolutionary in its concept, was and is considered England's greatest contribution to the arts in the eighteenth century. In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, that con- 16 17 cept also shaped American standards of natural beauty with all the implications that has had for our landscape and our way of life. With so many Americans born or educated in England, it was only natural that English taste should have its influence. Philadelphia, New York, and Boston might be major cities of an independent nation on the far side of the ocean, but culturally they were as dependent on London as any of the provincial cities in England itself. In 1798 Benjamin Henry Latrobe wrote in his journal, \"I could see no difference between Philadelphian and English manners. The same style of living, the same opinions as to fashions, tastes, comforts, and accomplishments. Nor can it well be otherwise. The perpetual influx of Englishmen, the constant intercourse of the Merchants-here the leaders of manners and fashion-with England, must produce this effect.\"8 But on one important point America had the advantage over the mother country, and that was in its natural beauty. In typical American fashion the advantage was often expressed in terms of its practical aspects, or as the English-born artist William Russell Birch put it, \"In the United States the face of nature is so variegated ... that labour and expenditure of Art is not so great as in Countries less favoured.\"9 The English canon on natural beauty did not neglect rivers. Those looking for \"pleasing and picturesque views\" were encouraged to follow the course of a river; winding through a country it was \"one of the most beautiful objects in nature.\"10The Schuylkill was early recognized as one of the most beautiful among beautiful objects, abounding in \"beautiful situations for retreats,\" as Birch, who portrayed so many of them, wrote in his autobiography.\"At the Woodlands the terrain was of the much admired hill-and-dale variety with several small streams crossing it. A detail is very broad here, touch of wildness and the visual interest of rock outcroppings. The most prominent feature in the landscape was the house, sited on a high bluff. Truly it fit the eighteenth-century English ideal of a beautiful object in a picturesque landscape. A well-traveled Polish nobleman called it the Villa Borghese of Philadelphia although it was on a scale far smaller than the Along the river, which there was a English or European (as was appropriate new to a republic).12 When on his return from England in 1786 William enlarged on the rural summer retreat his father had built, he followed the latest English fashion using curvilinear forms and detailing new to American architecture. But most significant, the house represents an early attempt-perhaps the earliest-to literally move out into the landscape. The south facade, with its giant projecting portico, faces square onto the most important vista, the river. It was there on an October evening in 1803 that the peripatetic Reverend Manasseh Cutler, then congressman from Massachusetts, and his colleague Senator Timothy Pickering, seeking shelter for the night from fever-ridden Philadelphia, found the owner of the manse, taking his ease on his piazza, smoking a cigar, no doubt chatting with family, surveying the traffic on the Schuylkill, and enjoying the view to the south.13By all accounts the views were exquisite. The prospect from every room is enchanting, as you enter the hall you have a view of a remarkably fine lawn, beyond that, the bridge over which people are constantly passing, the rocky ground opposite to Gray's, four or five windings of the Schuylkill, the intermediate country & the Delaware terminated by the blue mist of the Jersey shore-at the back the eye is refreshed with the sight of the most beautiful trees.14 mtersects Peter C Varle's map of Philadelphia, 1796. The Darby Road, running parallel to the Schuylkill, the Woodlands. The Schuylkill and Mill Creek, which flows into the Schuylkill, form two of the Woodlands' boundanes. When Hamilton mherited the Woodlands, it was about 356 acres in extent. A 1781 survey shows him to have mcreased its size to 600 acres. Most of the property was farmed with the exception of the area between the Darby Road and the Schuylkill. That is where Hamilton made his landscape garden. Courtesy of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. from ' 18 William Russell Birch, Woodlands, the Seat of Mr Wm Hamilton Pennsylv'a, an engraving from his Country Seats of the United States of North America, 1808. Birch was one of the first to depict country estates m the early years of our nation. His Country Seats resembles similar English publications of the period, the major difference being that the English pictured the manors of the nobility and a way of life attamable only by accident of birth, whereas Birch showed an American way of life, within reach of all. Courtesy of the Historical Society of Penn- sylvania. Contemporaries recorded that Hamilton was wonderfully charming, affectionate son and uncle, an enthusiastic and eager host. George Washington noted in his diary for 1787 a \"lavish entertainment at which were more than an hundred guests.\"15 On July 4, 1788, when Philadelphians celebrated the official acceptance of the Constitution with a three-mile parade ending at the Woodlands, seventeen thousand citizens spent the afternoon picnicking on the grounds.16 It is on the surviving bits of paper that we must depend for an idea of what England's only rival actually looked like. No plan of the landscape garden is known, nor can it be entirely reconstructed unless and until the tools of archeology are employed at the site. fond of show, and above all an Several contemporary accounts do exist. Add these what remains of Hamilton's correspondence as well as the evidence of surviving illustrations, and we can form an idea of the terrain, the views from the house, the \"pleasure ground ;' and the greenhouse and its surrounding area. We get only glimpses of outbuildings, terraces, and bordered walks as well as kitchen garden and orchard. Reverend Cutler described the pleasure ground as being \"in front, and a little back of the house. It is formed into walks, in every direction, with borders of flowering shrubs and trees. Between are lawns of green grass, frequently mowed, and at different distances numerous copse of the native trees, interspersed with artificial groves, which are of trees collected from all parts of the world.\" to 19 And collected in great numbers. In a letter from England Hamilton worries the fate of plants sent home, among them three hundred silver firs and five hundred Portuguese laurels.17 An account dating from 1788 tells us that the walks were \"planted on each side with the most beautiful & curious flowers & shrubs. They are in some parts enclosed with the Lombardy poplar except here & there openings are left to give you a view of some fine trees or beautiful prospect beyond, & in others, shaded by arbours of the wild grape, or clumps of large trees under which are placed seats where you may rest yourself & enjoy the cool air ... \"18 America's first planting guide, The American Gardener's Calendar (1806), was written by a man who knew the Woodlands well, Bernard M'Mahon, a Philadelphia nurseryman and (with Hamilton) one of the two recipients of the Lewis and Clark plant discoveries. His recommendations for Ornamental Designs, and Planting of The Pleasure, or FlowerGarden, echo the descriptions of the Woodlands, especially when he insists that screens be used to prevent the entirety from being taken in at one view, \"so that a spectator will be agreeably surprised to find, that what terminated this prospect, only served as an introduction to new beauties and varieties.\"19 Variety harks back to the delights of the Woodlands. It was also a hallmark of the landscape theories of Thomas Whately, whose very influential Observations of Modern Gardening, published in London in 1870, William Hamilton surely knew and, like so many tourists in England, surely used on his rounds of English estates. Mood was another effect that Hamilton exploited. Cordial host though he was, he was quite definite about when and how his landscape should be experienced. He may have taken his cue from Whately. \"To every view belongs a light which shews it to advantage; every scene and every object is in its highest beauty only at particular hours of the day; and every place is, by its situation or its about the countryside to such a point that he is in a dreadful humor when one comes to visit it during low tide.\"21 That was perhaps an exaggeration, but one of Hamilton's 1787 invitations did specify that \"should you wish to see the Woodlands to any advantage, it must be in the morning at this ness season.\"22 Benjamin West's painting of William Hamilton of the \"Woodlands\" and his mece Mrs. Anna Hamilton character, peculiarly agreable in certain months of the year.\"20 A visitor in 1798 contended that Hamilton carried \"his fastidious- of a distinguished and promment family, Hamilton's Scots-Amencan grandfather, Andrew (1676-1741), earned a considerable fortune as attorney for the Penns, held high public posts mcludmg Attorney-General and Speaker of the Assembly of the Provmce, and late in life won lasting fame as the \"Day Star of the Revolution\" for his celebrated defense of freedom of the press in the 1735 libel case of Peter Zenger. Hamilton's uncle fames (1710-1793) was first native governor of the province (and loyalist and prisoner on parole during the Revolution), an early president of the Philosophical Society, and a patron of Benjamin West and other artists. It was from James that William inherited the mamstay of his income, the rents on the five hundred acres of land on which Lancaster, Pennsylvama, is situated. Courtesy of the Historical Society of Pennsylvania. Part Lyle. 20 I Hamilton Among the Botanists Ever since William Penn founded Philadelphia as a \"greene Country Towne,\" it has I (d. 1818) devoted several years to exploring the Carolinas, Georgia, and Florida and was responsible for introducing a number of important plants into English gardens. The genus Lyonia commemorates his name, \"an indefatigible collector of North American plants, who fell a victim to a dangerous epidemic amidst those savage and romantic mountains which had so often been the theatre of his labors.\"3 The German-born Pursh (1774-1820) published in 1814 the second flora of North America north of Mexico, the Flora Americae Septentrionalis. It contained all the plants described by several botanists from the Lewis and Clark expedition. In its preface he credited Hamilton's collection with being \"particularly valuable for furnishing me with a general knowledge of the plants of that country preparatory to more extensive travels into the interior, for the discovery of new and unknown species.\" been a lively center for botanists and horticulturists. One of the most illustrious was John Bartram (1699-1777) who lived just south of the Woodlands and was a source of plants and information for William Hamilton. Botanist to King George III, correspondent of Peter Collinson and Carolus Linnaeus, he introduced many American plants to England. It was he and his son William who discovered the Franklinia along the Altamaha River in Georgia. Cultivated in their garden, it disappeared in the wild shortly after their discovery. All extant specimens in North America derive from layering of their original tree.' Humphry Marshall (1722-1801), collector of native plants, author of Arbustum Americanum, or The American Grove, or An Alphabetical Catalogue of Forest Trees and Shrubs, Natives of the American United States, Linnaean Arranged according to the Endnotes 1 System (1785), and cousin of John John W. Harshberger, \"The Old Gardens of Pennsylvania,\" The Garden Magazine, October 1920, page 78. not far to the south of Philadelphia. A few letters survive in which Hamilton requests both plants and information from Marshall, such as where over the mountains his servant can discover \"the oil nut, the Mentzegia or any thing else that is curious.\"2 Both John Lyon and Frederick Pursh were among Hamilton's gardeners. John Lyon Bartram, lived in Chester, 2 William Hamilton to Humphry Marshall, Letter of November 23, 1796, and undated letter. Dreer Collection, 3 HSP. Thomas Nuttall, The Genera of North American Plants, vol. 1. Philadelphia, 1818, page 266. of Hamilton's pleasure ground always to have ended with an ascent from Mill Creek to the greenhouse. Flanked by hothouses, it is reported to have been 140 feet long. As presented to visitors, looming above them as they approached, it was a breathtaking sight, \"than which nothing that has preceded it can excite more admiration.\" Unless it was its contents-the plants listed in the Hamilton correspondence are tour seems The breathtaking in themselves. A visitor in 1809 catalogued the greenhouse: nearly ten thousand plants, out of which number may be reckoned between five and six thousand of different species, procured at much trouble and expense, from many remote parts of the globe, from South America, the Cape of Good Hope, the Brazils, Botany Bay, Japan, the East and West Indies, &c &c. This collection, for the beauty and rich variety of its exotics, surpasses any thing of the kmd It contains -- 21 on this continent; and, among many other rare productions to be seen, are the bread-fruit tree, cmnamon, allspice, pepper, mangoes, different sorts, sago, coffee from Bengal, Arabia, and the West-Indies, tea, green and bohea, mahogany, magnolias, Japan rose, rose apples, chenmolia, one of the most esteemed fruits of Mexico, Bamboo, Indian god tree, iron tree of China, gmger, olea frangrans, and several of someone or else's having got hold of a new \"curious\" native plant that Mr. Smith has failed to obtain. We are grateful that Mr. Smith was neither so interested in horticulexotic varieties of the sugar cane, five species of which are from Otaheite. To this green-house so richly stored, too much praise can hardly be given. The curious person views it with delight, and the naturalist quits it with regret . 23 Nor did Hamilton forget either orchard or kitchen garden in his concern with ornamentals. In a letter of June 12, 1790, he plaintively beseeches: Pray have you had a plenty of peas & Beans? Have you got Strawberries! are they good have the celery plants put into the ground which was promised by the gardener Morris-How many thousand cabbage plants have been planted out. The seeds must have been wretchedly bad if they have not produced thousand of plants. But if they faild a small matter would purchase many pray are the pumpkins sowed or the potatoes planted I am thus inquisitive because I am really ignorant with respect to the state of all these things.24 his exotics and the edibles, the Lewis and Clark plant materials beyond that Jefferson sent him for cultivation, Hamilton was also himself collecting from the wilderness near and far, following Whately's dictum, \"The whole range of nature is open to the gardener, from the parterre to the forest; and whatever is agreable to the senses or the imagination, he may appropriate to the spot he is to improve: it is a part of his business to collect into one place, the delights which are generally dispersed through different species of country.\"25 To say that Hamilton was obsessed with plants is entirely justified. In 1784 the very last thoughts he recorded on board ship as it entered open seas bound for England were for \"Seeds to save & send: mimosa floridana, carolina sponge tree.\"26 Letters to his secretary often urge him to seek out particular plants or send him down to the docks to see if anything new has come in on the India ships. Hamilton complains bitterly when he hears And beyond resourceful at plant collecting as his employer. A good deal of what we know about William Hamilton and the Woodlands is owing to his secretary's failure to anticipate his master's wishes and carry out orders, and to the consequent reminders and rebukes he elicited when Hamilton was away from home. We know much less about the years when gardeners of the caliber of John Lyon and Frederick Pursh were in his employ. Hamilton was well known and often noted for his lack of generosity with at least certain plants and certain persons. Bernard M'Mahon complained of it in a letter to Jefferson,27 and it can be found as well in Hamilton's own correspondence, as for instance with a China rose that was not to get into others' hands as well as admonitions that no one should be allowed alone in the pot and tub enclosures.28 But it should be remembered that those were the times when, as Andrew Jackson Downing noted, \"the introduction of rare exotics was attended with a vast deal of risk and trouble.\" Hamilton is credited with introducing several plants into cultivation in North America, most notably the ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba), the the Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra ailanthus (Ailanthus altissima), and the Norture nor so 'Italica'), way maple [Acer platanoides).29 Individually, any one of these four species would have con- significant introduction. Taken as their impact on the cultivated landgroup, scape of North America has been enormous. Like all avid gardeners William Hamilton's work was never finished. In an article on the Woodlands dated 1809, when Hamilton had been hard at it for at least twenty years and probably many more, when he was sixty-four years old, laid low by gout and only four years from his death, a visitor reported \"much still remains to be done, for the perfecting it in all the capabilities which Nature, in her boundless profusion, has bestowed.\"30 We cannot know how William Hamilton displayed his collection of exotics and curious a a stituted 22 23 natives, combined foreign importations with native wilderness, contrasted open and closed spaces, or arrayed colors, textures, shapes. Nor we know exactly how he used the natural shaping of the ground-the genius of the place-as inspiration for his groupings; in short, whether he achieved a unified work of landscape art. But given the descriptions, given Thomas Jefferson's strong approbation-\"the chastest model of gardening which I have ever seen out of England\"31-and the high praise of others, given William Hamilton's own eye and constant concern for beauty, there is a high probability that he succeeded. He was aware that he was bringing English models in architecture and landscaping to America, and in so doing he knew he served do century-parks that a century later remain the quintessential American idea of a park. The Woodlands began to decline soon after Hamilton's death in 1813. \"Life is short, art is long\"-unless it is the art of the landscape. The fabulous collection of tender exotics was scattered, and gradually all else that required care died. His successors had little knowledge, taste, or money. The Woodlands' conversion into a rural cemetery in 1840 was applauded as a method of preserving the splendid estate-the cemetery's charter asserted that \"these groves and those prospects will be sacredly preserved\"-but although it did save the mansion, it could not save the landscape.32 The entire area is much changed. As long ago as 1864 Joshua Francis Fisher recorded: The city out-skirts have encroached everywhere now. Ugly buildings rise where meadows and groves bounded the quiet river. The trees around the marhave been cut down for wharves and a railgin. way. The fine woods of Gray's Gardens, the more distant plantations of the Bartrams, the picturesque projecting rocks m the foreground, over all of which we used to look while we traced the meanders of the tranquil Schuylkill on its way to the Delaware, all are gone! and the primitive floating bridge has given place to the great tasteless wooden viaduct of the Baltimore Railroad, which spoils the landscape and 33 obstructs the view his country, if for no other reason than because Thomas Jefferson often told him so. The landscape he adapted at the Woodlands had been fashioned by and for the aristocracy, but in this country it was to play its most important role in a decidedly democratic process. Birch, who included the Woodlands in his Country Seats of the United States, sought to \"promote the Fine Arts and propagate Taste,\" to spread it more widely among the populace of the young country. M'Mahon's readership seems to have encompassed all who both read and gardened. If, as it appears, he took the Woodlands as a model for the laying out of pleasure grounds, then the Woodlands would have had wide influence on the many Americans who relied on his advice throughout the first half of the nineteenth century. Thus the Woodlands is nothing less than a crucial way station on the road that led from English country seat to American country seat to rural cemetery to the great public parks of the nineteenth only to add more factories, oil tanks, more decay and dereliction. On the grounds themselves sweeps, curves, projections are obscured. Walks, borders, lawns, arbors, thickets, and groves are gone. Bulbous roots, ranunculus, double convovulus, franklinia, double peach, Portuguese laurels, and even the gmkgos 2014 all are gone. The Elysium on the Schuylkill, William Hamilton's Woodlands, has given way to the unkempt litter of modern America. more Time has served Philadelphia. Planted m 1785 by William it was 68 feet tall and 30 inches in diameter. Unfortunately this tree, along with a nearby female of approximately the same age, was cut down in the mid-1980's, followmg an incident in which the caretaker's dog took sick after eatmg some of the seeds produced by the female tree. This regrettable incident has settled the long-runmng debate about which is the A 1936 tree m photograph of the male gmkgo Woodlands Cemetery, Hamilton, this was long considered the oldest gmkgo in North Amenca. In 1981 oldest ginkgo m the United States: there is now no just a few mlles from the Woodlands. Photograph by R. doubt that it is the male specimen m Bartram's Garden H. True, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 24 Endnotes 1 Edwm M. Betts, ed., Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book, Letter of July, 1806. Philadelphia: American 2 Philosophical Society, 1944, pages 322-323. Sophia Cadwalader, ed., Recollections of Joshua Francis Fisher [1864]. Boston: Updike Publishers, 1929, page 218 3 William Hamilton to Thomas Parke, Letter of November 2, 1785. Society Collection, Historical Society of 4 5 Pennsylvania [hereafter HSP]. William Hamilton to Thomas Parke, Letter of September 24, 1785. 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 to Benjamin H. Smith, Letter of 1785. Smith Collection, HSP. Edward J. Nygren, \"From View to Vision,\" m Views and Visions- Amencan Landscape Before 1830, ed. Edward J. Nygren. Washington, D.C.: The Corcoran Gallery of Art, 1986, page 17. Edward C. Carter II, ed , The Virginia Journals of Benjamin Henry Latrobe, 1795-1798, vol. 1. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1977, page 465. Carter, ed., Virginia Journals, page 374 William Birch, The Country Seats of the United States Springland, Pa., by the author, 1808, unpaged. William Gilpm, Observations. Cumberland and Westmoreland (1789), quoted by Nygren, Views and Visions, page 54. The Life and Anecdotes of William Russell Birch, Enamel Painter, by Himself, typescript. Society Miscellaneous Collection, HSP, pages 19-20. Julian Ursyn Niemcewicz, Under Their Vine and Fig Tree- Travels Through America m 1797-1799, tr. and ed. Metchie J. E. Budka. Elizabeth, N. J: Grassmann Publishing Company, 1965, page 52 William P. and Julia P. Cutler, eds., Journals and Correspondence of Rev.Manasseh Cutler, vol. 2. Cincinnati : R. Clarke, 1888, page 144. \"L.G.\" to her sister Eliza, Letter of June 15 [1788?]. Society Miscellaneous Collection, HSP. John C. Fitzpatrick, ed., The Diaries of George Washington, vol. 3. Boston: Houghton Mifflm, 1925, pages 220-221. William Hamilton September 30, 16 David Freeman Hawke, Benjamin Rush, Revolutionary Gadfly. Indianapolis: Bobbs-Mermll, 1971, page 356. 17 William Hamilton to Benjamin H. Smith, Letter of November 2, 1785. Smith Collection, HSP. 18 \"L.G.\" to her sister Eliza, June 15 [1788?]. 19 Bernard M'Mahon, The American Gardener's Calendar. Philadelphia: B. Graves, 1806, pages 55-56. 20 Thomas Whately, Observations of Modern Gardening New York: Garland, 1982, pages 242-243. 21 Niemcewicz, Under Their Vine, page 52. 22 William Hamilton to Jasper Yeates, Letter of November 30, 1787. Yeates Collection, HSP. 23 Oliver Oldschool, pseud , \"American Scenery for the Portfolio, 'The Woodlands;\" Port Folio II, no. 6 (December 1809), page 507. 24 William Hamilton to Benjamin H. Smith. Smith Collection, HSP. 25 Whately, Observations, page 256. 26 William Hamilton to Benjamin H. Smith, Letter of October 8, 1784. Smith Collection, HSP. 27 Betts, ed., Jefferson's Garden Book, Letter of January 3, 1809, page 401. 28 William Hamilton to Benjamin H. Smith, Letter of June 1, 1789 Smith Collection, HSP. 29 Andrew Jackson Downing, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening Adapted to North America. Little Compton, R.I.1 Theophrastus Publishers, 1977, page 26; and John W. Harshberger, \"The Old Gardens of Pennsylvania,\" The Garden Magazine (April 1921), pages 120-121. 30 Oliver Oldschool, pseud , \"American Scenery,\" page 507. 31 Betts, Letter of May 7, 1809, page 411. 32 Charter of the Woodlands Cemetery Company. Philadelphia, 1845, page 1. 33 Cadwalader, Recollections, pages 218-219. Karen Madsen is a student of landscape design and history. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Magnolia Blooms in Boston","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24972","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eb76b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter; Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"A New Magnolia Blooms in Boston Stephen A. Peter Del Tredici and Spongberg Magnolia zenii flowered for the first time outside its native China in 1988. Without a doubt China is home to more species of hardy ornamental plants than any other country in the world, and many western botanical gardens have long histories of introducing them into cultivation. The Arnold Arboretum, principally through the efforts of E. H. Wilson, was a well-publicized leader in this area early in this century, when plant introduction from temperate Asia was at its peak. It is remarkable that even today new species of hardy woody plants continue be discovered in China, presenting ongoing opportunities for plant introduction into the to within a month and grew vigorously enough to be set out in the nursery in spring 1982. In 1984 the largest individual was planted in front of the Hunnewell Visitor Center where it has continued its rapid growth. By the fall of 1987 this individual was approximately 3.5 meters tall and had set about a dozen flower buds, the first of which opened on March 30, 1988. It has flowered again this year, remarkably opening its first bud again on March 30, producing a total of 49 flowers. Its three siblings, planted in a much more exposed site west. One such \"new\" plant is Magnolia zenii, an extremely rare, endemic tree from Jiangsu Province, China. It was first collected on March 31, 1933, in flower, by W C. Cheng in Chu-yun Hsien on Mt. Boa-hua (Paohua), at 250-300 meters in elevation and described by him in the same year. The tree was first brought into cultivation at the Jiangsu Institute of Botany and Botanical Garden, Memorial Sun Yat-sen, in Nanjing. In October 1980, the Director of this institution, Prof. He Shan-an, presented seeds collected from the only known wild population of M. zenii to Dr. Stephen Spongberg of the Arnold Arboretum and Dr. T. R. Dudley of the United States National Arboretum, who were visiting China at the time as members of the first Sino-American Botanical Expedition. Nine seeds were given to Dr. Spongberg, of which five were viable. These were given a three-month cold stratification treatment, after which they were sown in the Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum on February 10, 1981. Four seedlings germinated Magnolia zenii Cheng. A. a flowering branch; B. a fruitmg branch; C. a flower to show the stamens and carpels; D. a stamen; E. a mature carpel; F. a seed. Note the nine tepals. From Cheng, 1933. 26 along Goldsmith Brook, have not fared nearly as well, the largest being only about 2 meters tall. No doubt the shelter afforded by the Visitor Dudley. Both are now growing in the Arboretum's Asian Valley garden, but neither of them bloomed in 1988. This makes Arnold Arboretum #1545-80-B the first individual of its species to bloom in North America, and perhaps the first to bloom anywhere outside of China. The flowers of M. zenii are extremely fragrant, and the tepals (the technical term Center has contributed to this difference performance. According to Dr. Frank Santamour, the U.S. National Arboretum has two plants of M. zenii raised from the seed presented to Dr. in The overall habit of Magnolia zenii, m flower, April 1989. Photo by Rdcz and Debreczy. 27 kobus or M. stellata. While such precociousness does not bode well for the wide horticultural use of the species in eastern North America (where destructive spring frosts are the rule rather than the exception), M. zenii may possess other traits, such as its pronounced upright habit of growth, that may turn out to be useful in future magnolia hybidization. As a juvenile plant, M. zenii roots readily from cuttings. During the six years it has been under propagation at the Dana Greenhouses, the best results were achieved with softwood cuttings, approximately 15 centimeters long, taken between June 15 and 30. The base of each cutting was dipped for five seconds in a solution of 5000 parts per million IBA dissolved in 50% ethyl alcohol and 50% water, and then the cuttings were placed in the greenhouse under intermittent mist. With this treatment, 7 out of 10 cuttings rooted in 1982, 21 out of 26 in 1985, and 7 out of 8 in 1986. These rooted cuttings of M. zenii have been distributed in a limited manner by the Arnold Arboretum since 1984. Magnolia zenii at the Arnold Arboretum, specimen References 1545-80-B, in flower and fruit, 1988. Note the six tepals. Drawing by Zsolt Debreczy and Nora Groh. Cheng, W. C. 1933. Magnohaceae, in Vascular plants of to describe the petal-like parts of the typical magnolia flower) are marked with rosepurple streaks on the lower half of their outer surfaces. Each tepal, when fully expanded, is 7 to 8 centimeters long and 2 to 3 centimeters wide. Cheng's original description states that the flowers have nine tepals, arranged in three whorls of three. Flowers produced by 1545-80-B in 1988 and 1989, however, had only six or seven tepals. This sub-normal number used Nanjmg II, by C. P'ei. Cont. Biol. Lab., Sci. Soc. China, Botany Series 8(3): 291-293. Del Tkedici, P. 1983. Magnolia zenii. Magnolia 19 (1): 19. Dudley, Magnolia zenu: a rare magnolia recently introduced into cultivation. Magnolia 19(1): 20-22. Shan-an, H., Y. Zhi-Bmg, W. Mmg-Jun, Z. Shi-xian, S. Jiayu, and T. T. R. 1983. was due to the fact that on all of the flowers 1987. Investigation and and endangered species in Nanjmg Botanical Garden, Mem. Sun Yat-Sen, pp. 255-260, in Botanic Gardens and the World Conservation Strategy London: Academic Press. Jin-chuan. introduction of some rare produced by the Arboretum's plant, either two or three of the innermost whorl of three tepals failed to expand beyond one centimeter in length. It will be interesting to see if this tendency to expand less than the full complement of nine tepals persists as the plant ages. Magnolia zenii opens its flowers very early in Boston, about two weeks before M. denudata and about three weeks before either M. Spongberg, S. A. 1981. introduction. ArnoMia Magnolia salicifolia, an arboretum 41(2): 50-59. Peter Del Tredici is the editor of Arnoldia and Stephen A. Spongberg is a research taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum and editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum- A Midwinter Performance Evaluation","article_sequence":5,"start_page":28,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24973","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15ebb6f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Bamboos at the Arnold Arboretum-A Midwinter Performance Evaluation Gary L. Kollei This unusual group of plants is hardier than most gardeners think. Bamboos are extensively woody, evergreen grasses grown in Asia for food and shelter, as well as for landscape planting. There are believed to be 60 to 70 genera and approximately 1,200 species of bamboo worldwide, mostly growing in warm temperate or tropical climates. Only one species is native to the United States, Arundinaria gigantea, which has a natural range from Virginia, Kentucky, and southern Ohio to the Gulf of Mexico. Bamboo has been cultivated for centuries in Asia and is revered for its strength, its flexibility, and its utility. The fact that it keeps its uniform green color throughout the year is seen as expressing virtue, persistence, and an unyielding spirit in the face of severe conditions. As a result of these qualities, the Asian people have used them extensively in their gardens to create places of reflection, dedication, and withdrawal, where the rustling sounds of the stems and foliage and the fluttering shadows cast by the leaves can be fully appreciated. The adaptability of bamboo is remarkable. In nature they grow in plains, hilly areas, and high-altitude mountains, and in all soil types except those that are excessivly wet, dry, or alkaline. In the northeastern United States, little is known about the hardiness of Asian bamboos or their growth potential. Mention the word bamboo to most gardeners and they cringe in horror, thinking only of its reputation for invasiveness and aggressiveness. Few know there are also bamboos that are only modest growers and easily kept in bounds. The growth rhythms of bamboo are differfrom those of many woody plants. As the bamboo shoot, known as a culm, emerges from the ground, it is a fully preformed stem. It has the diameter it will always have, and it displays all the joints that will make up the entire length of the culm. Growth is strong and vigorous, and culms attain their full height in a few weeks. The culm never increases in height or diameter even though it may live for many years. The great strength and toughness of the bamboo arise from its rhizome, or underground stem, which produces the new sprouts and forms the structural foundation of the plant. Bamboos grow whenever soil and air temperatures are high enough to allow for such activity. When the stem is expanding above ground, the rhizome is dormant; and when the stem is fully grown, the rhizome becomes active. After planting, it generally takes bamboos three to five growing seasons for the rhizome system to develop enough size and vigor for the aerial parts of the plant to achieve their full size. Because the rhizome system densely invades the top foot of soil, bamboos tend to be excellent plants for protecting the earth and preventing soil erosion. Most bamboo rhizomes terminate in a sharp point, which facilitates their colonizations of new ground, and makes them extremely difficult to contain in the garden. They can penetrate cracks in concrete, bricks, or rocks, and have been ent reported to emerge directly through asphalt. While the majority of bamboo roots and rhi- 29 vegetative characteristics. Needless to say, this situation has led to incredible confusion in the botanical literature. Most bamboos, especially those that are widely cultivated, are listed under a wide assortment of scientific names. Without a doubt, many of the names currently used at the Arnold Arboretum are not the most up-to-date, since the experts themselves seldom agree about the correct name for a given species. Arnold Arboretum bamboo grows without any special care or winter protection. New plantings are started in the spring using vigorous, container-grown stock. This minimizes root disturbance and gives the the entire summer to become established in their new growing environment. Bamboos need adequate moisture during this period of establishment, but with time they plants become more drought tolerant. The growth of bamboo can be stimulated by periodic applications of balanced fertilizer in April, June, and September. Once plantings are established, fertilizer is required only to encourage crop production (for the commercial bamboo shoots) or to stimulate greater culm diameter. Selected examples of culm habit, illustrated diagramatically. (A) Sasa palmata; (B) Sinocalamus beecheyanus ; (C) Phyllostachys nigra; (D) Schizostachyum hainanense; (E) Dinochloa scandens; (F) Smocalamus affinis; (G) Bambusa textilis; (H) Arundinaria amabilis. Reprinted with permission from McClure, 1967. occupy the top foot of soil, a small percentage of them grow deeper, and these are a major impediment to effective containment in garden settings. I once asked a Japanese gardener how deep a barrier is used in Japan to contain the spread of a bamboo. He smiled, and said that even when a concrete barrier a meter and a half deep is installed, many bamboos still manage to escape. Since most species of bamboo flower only at highly infrequent intervals, there is a severe shortage of flowering specimens in most botanical herbaria. This lack of reproductive specimens has forced botanists to define many bamboo species solely on the basis of their zomes The Arboretum Bamboos in Winter The Arnold Arboretum has grown a few bamboos for decades, but over the last ten years the collection has been expanded to the point where 26 taxa are now successfully established out-of-doors. When we began adding to our collection some ten years ago, I was sure that most species would not be hardy and that harsh winter temperatures would restrain the vigor of those that survived. I now realize that many species are not only fully root hardy, but also completely top hardy, and that a great many of them, once established, exhibit exuberant growth. I am amazed by their toughness and their tenacity, and fearful of their advances now that many have thrived beyond all expectations. As a result of this experience, the Arnold Arboretum is beginning to establish a track record of how bamboos perform in our New England climate, and how they might be integrated into landscape designs. 30 The two basic types of bamboo rhizome, (A) pachymorph or clumping, consisting of short, thick segments that develop relatively close to the parent culm; (B) leptomoiph or running, consisting of long slender segments that develop relatively far from the parent culm. Reprinted with permission from McClure, 1967. as Not all bamboos are evergreen as far north Boston. To determine which ones were, I decided to make a midwinter observation tour of the bamboos growing out-of-doors at the Arnold Arboretum. I made my tour on February 8, 1989, a sunny day with a light dusting of snow, and temperatures in the upper twenties. As I began my survey, I looked upon the lack of evergreen character as disadvantageous from a landscape design standpoint. Once out on the grounds inspecting the plants closely, I found many with foliage bleached to beige, a warm color that I found to be an attractive addition to the dull browns, grays, and dark greens of the New England winter landscape. In addition I enjoyed the gentle sounds of leaves brushing against one another, which seemed to create the illusion of endless So that the reader might get to know these plants, I have prepared the following list of Arboretum bamboos, along with a map show- ing their planting locations (p. 36). The best way to learn about bamboos is to observe them firsthand through several seasonal changes. The notes that follow are based on midwinter characteristics, and readers should note that the summer colors are green, except for the variegated or colored foliage varieties. Arundinaria humilis Mitford 1352-83; map 33-b-4 whispering. Planted March 1985.This running bamboo is growing in light shade and typical acid loam, with excellent water and air drainage. The vigorous, upright culms are 4 to 6 feet(1-2 m) tall and form a dense clump. Foliage is 40% green and 60% tawny beige. 31 Arundinaria Mitford pumila Arundinaria viridi-striata (Sieb.) 22510; Makino map 15-c 1353-83; map 27-b-3 Planted March 1985. This plant is growing in typical acid loam, with excellent water and air drainage. The culms are 4 to 6 feet (1-2 m) tall, with a somewhat rangy habit due to crowding by a neighboring plant. The foliage is 95% beige and 5% green. Arundinaria pygmaea Asch. & Graebn. 262-85; map 33-d-2 . Planted March 1985. This species is growing in full sun to light shade, in acid soil with excellent water and air drainage. The culms stand 2 to 3 feet (0.5-1 m) tall and are densely crowded together. The plant is extremely invasive and forms a good ground cover when planted in a mass. The foliage is 100% beige. Planted in the early 1900's, this bamboo is growing in a bottomland situation with adequate moisture throughout the year. The plant has spread vigorously and occupies a large area. Growth is restrained by mowing the lawn around it. Culms are 3 feet(1 m) tall and the foliage is tawny beige with no sign of green. The plant would be taller if it were not cut to the ground annually with a rotary mower. This planting has a handsome winter appearance in contrast to the drab grays and browns of the surrounding lawn and woods. This plant adapts well to underplantings of bulbs such as Galanthus, Scilla, Chionodoxa and Puschkinia. Arundinaria simonii A. & C. Riv. \"Simon Bamboo\" 1357-83; map 27-b-3 Planted March 1985. This bamboo is growing in the middle of a bed of English ivy, in moderate shade, and in dry, gravelly soil. It is a weak grower, with culms growing only about 1 foot (0.3 m) tall. This lack of vigor is probably due to insufficient cultural support rather than to lack of hardiness. Foliage is 100% beige. Arundinaria variegata (Sieb.) Makino \"Dwarf Whitestripe Bamboo\" 474-86; map 32-c-l Planted spring 1986. This bamboo is growing in dry soil with sharp drainage, in the shade of a large specimen of Franklinia alatamaha. This is one of the most desirable of the dwarf variegated bamboos with culms that stand 1 to 2 feet (0.5 m) tall and form a small dense clump. The foliage is tawny brown. A female giant panda feedmg on the shoots ofa Fargebamboo in its native habitat in the Wolong Reserve in central China. Photo courtesy of George sia B. Shaller. 32 . Fargesia spathacea Franchet Phyllostachys aureosulcata McClure [ = Sinaiundinaria 851-81; murielae and Thamnocalamus spathaceus) \"Umbrella Bamboo\" map 32-c-2 \"Yellowgroove Bamboo\" 707-77; map 32-a-3 Planted March 1985. This bamboo is growing in full sun and typical acid loam with good water and air drainage. The culms are 10 to 12 feet (3-4 m) tall and stiffly upright. They Planted spring 1981. This elegant bamboo is growing in full sun and typical acid loam with excellent water and air drainage. The culms stand 6 to 9 feet (2-3 m) tall and form a large, non-invasive clump with a graceful fountainlike habit. The edge of each leaf is beigecolored, while the central portion is bright green, creating a delicate texture in the winter landscape. This species is very hardy and has been cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum since 1960. In China, the umbrella bamboo grows at elevations between 3,000 and 10,000 feet (1000-3000 m), and is often an important food item in the diet of the giant panda. bright green, marked with a yellow groove. plant is well established and shows vigorous spreading tendencies. The foliage is nearly 100% green. are The Phyllostachys bambusoides Sieb. & Zucc. \"Giant Timber Bamboo\" 369-80, 490-80; map 50-c Planted spring 1980. This species in is growing light shade and poor-quality dry soil. It is completely exposed to winter winds. The culms are 6 to 9 feet (2-3 m) tall and display little vigor and little spread. The foliage is 100% tan in color. Phyllostachys bissetii McClure 1405-84; map 27-b-2 Planted July 1985. This bamboo is growing in moderate shade and dry soil. The culms are 1 foot (0.3 m) tall and lack vigor, possibly due to the fact that the plant was pulled up by vandals shortly after planting. Foliage is 80% beige and 20% green. Phyllostachys congesta Rendle 371-80; map 50-c Fargesia spathacea in its native habitat in Fang Hsien, China, at 8000 feet (2500 m). The plants are 10-15 feet (4-5 m) high with yellow culms. This photo was taken by E. H. Wilson on June 19, 1910, and labeled Arundinaria murielae. Planted spring 1980. This bamboo is growing in full sun and poor-quality dry soil with full exposure to winter winds. The culms are 6 to 9 feet (2-3 m) tall and stiffly upright. The foliage is 95% green and is very attractive in the winter. 33 Phyllostachys dulcis McClure \"Sweetshoot Bamboo\" 405-68; map 16-d Planted spring 1970. This bamboo is growing in light to moderate shade in rich, moist bottomland soil. The upright culms are 10 to 12 feet (3-4 m) tall, vigorously spreading, and have formed a dense impenetrable thicket. The new shoots of this species are considered a delicacy by the Chinese. At the edge of the clump, the culms average 6 feet (2 m) tall, rising to 12 feet (4 m) in the center. A moderate to strong grower; all the outer leaves are tan, while the inner ones retain some green. Phyllostachys nidularia Munro 376-80; map 50-c Phyllostachys flexuosa A. & C. Riv. Planted spring 1980. This bamboo is growing in light shade and poor-quality dry soil, fully exposed to the winter wind. The culms are 6 to 9 feet (2-3 m) tall, and all the leaves are tan. The plant is not vigorous. 532-80; maps 50-c and 32-c-l Planted spring 1980. This bamboo is growing in full sun and moist, rich soil at one site and poor, dry soil at the other. Those plants in the better soil have become our most \"vigorous bamboo, spreading rapidly and occupying a large area. The culms are 12 to 15 feet (4-5 m) tall and broadly arching, presenting a very graceful appearance. The foliage is 95% green with only light winter damage on the sunny side of the clump. The leaves remain fully green until early spring when, in response to the brighter light and warmer temperatures, they turn beige. 373-80 and Phyllostachys nigra 'Hale' (Lodd.) 492-80; Munro map \"Dwarf Blackstem Bamboo\" 32-c-2, 32-c-4 Planted spring 1981. This distinctive bamboo, with black canes, is growing in full sun and typical acid loam. A strong grower, it has spread over a sizable area. The vigorous culms grow up to 6 feet (2 m) tall and are somewhat reflexed in their habit. In their second year, they turn a beautiful jet-black color. The foliage is 50% tan and 50% green. Normally the culms of this species develop their black stems in their second year, but the culms of the cultivar 'Hale' color during their first season. Phyllostachys Hayata 374-80; map 50-c makinoi Planted spring 1980. This bamboo is growing in light shade and poor-quality dry soil, fully exposed to the winter wind. The culms are 6 feet (2 m) tall, and the foliage moderately green with some beige around the edges. The Phyllostachys nuda McClure 369-85; map 49-d plant is not particularly vigorous. Phyllostachys meyeri McClure 375-80; map 50-c \"Meyer Bamboo\" Planted spring 1980. This Chinese bamboo is growing in full sun in moist, well-drained soil. Planted spring 1987. This bamboo is growing in light to moderate shade in a rich, moist soil. The culms are 6 feet (2 m) tall and upright in habit. The foliage is all green with very little tan. According to reports, this is the hardiest of the phyllostachid bamboos, perhaps because of its ability to drop all its leaves in response to extreme winters. 34 Phyllostachys viridis (Young) McClure . 380-80; map 50-c Sasa palmata Planted spring 1980. This bamboo is growing in full sun and poor dry soil, fully exposed to winter winds. The culms are 8 to 10 feet (2-3 m) tall. The leaves are mostly green, with beige around the edges. The plant does not appear to be particularly vigorous. Nakai 17578; map 16-d Planted in 1891 with stock from Sapporo, Japan. This very hardy bamboo is growing in a moist shady bottomland. The plant has formed a large, dense colony with culms 6 to 8 feet (2-3 m) tall. The thick, leathery leaves are about 15 inches (0.2 m) long and 3 inches (0.07 m) wide, giving the plant a bold, tropical appearance. An extremely hardy, rapidly spreading bamboo. About one-third of the Arboretum's colony flowered in May 1977, following a brush fire that occurred in 1976. The planting died back after flowering, and took about five years to recover. (Marliac) Sasa tessellata (Munro) Mak. 1354-83; The rhizome & Shib. map 33-b-4 of Phyllostachys viridis. Reprinted with 1967. permission from McClure, Pseudosasa japonica (Sieb. & Zucc.) Makino \"Arrow Bamboo\" , Planted March 1985. This bamboo is growing in light shade and typical acid loam with good water and air drainage. The culms are 4 to 6 feet (1.5-2 m) tall, and have formed a dense colony that is spreading vigorously. This plant produces the largest leaves of any bamboo growing at the Arnold Arboretum, 24 inches (0.6 m) long and 4 inches (0.1 m) wide. They are 382-80, 1355-83; maps 16-d and 27-b-l Planted March 1984. This bamboo is growing in light shade and poor-quality dry soil. The culms are about 3 feet (1 m) tall and form a dense clump. The foliage is all tawny beige and extremely handsome in appearance. 90% green in winter. Sasa veitchii (Carr.) Rehd. \"Kumazasa\" 1390-78; mapl-a, 2-b) Planted spring 1983. This bamboo is growing in moderate shade and moist soil. The culms stand 18 inches (0.5 m) tall and are spreading slowly. The foliage is 75% beige and 25% green. On many of the leaves one can still Pseudosasa japonica tsutsumiana Yanagita 1356-83; map 27-b-l var. Planted March 1985. This slow-growing bamboo is planted in light shade and poor-quality dry soil. The culms are about 2 feet (0.6 m) tall and form a small, dense clump. The foliage is 95% beige. The winter foliage on this cultivar is not as attractive as that of the species. detect the characteristic marginal stripe as a different shade of beige. During summer the foliage is solid green, but in early October a tan border develops along the margin of each leaf. From this point, through the following spring, the plant is visually most attractive. This species is used extensively in Japanese garden design (see inside front cover). 35 Shibataea kumasaca (Zoll.) Nakai \"Okamezasa\" 264-85; map 33-b-4 Planted March 1985. This bamboo is growing in full sun to light shade, in typical acid loam with excellent water and air drainage. The culms are 2 to 3 feet (0.7-1 m) tall, but many of them have been bent over by ice and snow. The plant is a slow but steady spreader, eventually forming a dense clump. The foliage is 90% green. Sources Dajun, W, and S. Shao-Jm. 1987. Bamboos of China. Port- land, Oregon: Timber Press. Freeman-Mitford, A. B. 1896. The Bamboo Garden. New York: Macmillan. McClure, F. A. 1967. The Bamboos. A Fresh Perspective. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Univ. Press. Ohmberger, D, and J. Goerrmgs. 1983-1988. The Bamboos of the World Odenthal, Germany: privately printed. Okamure, H., and Y. Tamaka. 1986. The Horticultural Bamboo Species in Japan. Kobe, Japan: privately printed. Shaller, G. B., H. Jmchu, P. Wenshi, and Z. Jing. 1985. The Giant Pandas of Wolong Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Stover, R. 1983 The Bamboo Book. Thstin, Calif.: Endangered Species Press. Young, R. A., and J. R. Haun. 1961. Bamboo m the United States: Description, Culture and Utilization. Sasa veitchii. A portion of a plant showing the rhithe diffuse clump habit, and the leafy culm with determinate inflorescences. Reprinted with permission from McClure, 1967. zome, Washington, D.C.: U.S.D.A. Agriculture Handbook No. 193. Semiarundinaria Makino \"Narihira Bamboo\" fastuosa Gary L. Koller is managing horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum and teaches Landscape Architecture at the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. (Marl.) 263-85; map 32-c-l Planted March 1985. This bamboo is growing in full sun and rich, well-drained soil. The culms are 6 to 8 feet (2-3 m) tall and very straight. This plant is a strong runner. The leaves are mostly green toward the interior of the clump. ERRATA, WINTER 1989 ISSUE: page 62. Photo credit should read: Photograph by Malcolm Woronoff, Air Photos of New England, Inc. with orthographic correction by Swissair Photo + Surveys, Ltd. as page 67. The oak should be identified Quercus velutina not Quercus alba. 0~ op 0B .o 14 I I e 0 s 2022a ~ 0 f ~ co CQ 0 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24975","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15e816d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"F ~ R~ 0 ~ ~ ~T i-HI~ E ~ A, R N 0:.~:~~A ~:~IR ~ B~i: O~ I R~ E: T I U ~~M NEWS the way light shining through glass affects the colors of petals and leaves, Krendel says, \"I try to get close to the mysterious spirit and poetry of light and place.\" Many will remember Krendel's show \"Paintings in Glass Houses\" at the Arnold in 1985. She has also exhibited at Widener University Art Museum in Chester, PA, and the Cosmos Club in Washington DC. She received her MFA at the University of Pennsylvania in 1979 and pursued post-graduate studies at the Royal Academy of Fine Arts in Antwerp, Belgium. Krendel's work will be on view in the Hunnewell Visitors Center from June 12 through September 18, daily, 10 a.m. to 4 p.m. Greenhouse Thrives Volunteers The Potting Shed on Friends of the Arboretum Invited to Art Preview Reception Members are invited to a preview reception of \"Paintings in Gardens and Glasshouses\" on Friday June 9 from 6 to 8 p.m. in the Hunnewell Visitor Center. (Please R.S.V.P. to 524-1718.) Andover painter Tamara Elizabeth Krendel returns to the Arnold Arboretum with a new exhibition of her watercolors and oils of greenhouse interiors, gardens, and an occasional landscape to delight horticultural enthusiasts and art collectors. The show \"Paintings in Gardens and Glasshouses\" opens to the public Recently I dropped by the greenhouse and long-time volunteer, Les Oliver, was sitting at a work table separating seeds from Cedar of Lebanon cones. I stopped to chat and asked him how he came to volunteer at the arboretum. \"I've been here since retiring in 1972 after reading in arnoldia that the arboretum was looking for volunteers.\" As he remembers it, his first assignment was labeling plants and he worked under chief propagator Al Fordham. \"I knew I wanted to work in the green house,\" he said, \"because it is the center of the institution, its meristem, so to speak.\" Although I'd been told that Les is the greenhouse's expert in seeds, he was too modest to comment on that accolade. The most that I could get him to say about his expertise was, \"I guess I do a lot of seed work, especially getting seeds ready for June 12. Dealing directly with subjects as diverse as rhododendrons, delphiniums and day lilies, Krendel transforms the shape of growing plants and botanical settings into compositions of light. Well-known for her paintings of greenhouse interiors that capture on (Continued on page 4) 1 Don't Miss the 7th Annual Plant Sale and Rare Plant Auction Sunday, September 17 9 a.m. to 4 p.m. Case Estates in Weston, MA Each year's Plant Sale features many of the trees and shrubs that you read about and seldom can locate. But rarity is not the only consideration in selecting plants for the sale, the Arboretum and the Associates also look for plants whose unique characteristics make them most suitable for specimen or accent use. For example, this year's sale includes: Actinidia kolomikta, a vine native to Northeastern Asia, Japan and China, which will grow to 20' or more in the Boston area. It is known for its showy foliage: heart-shaped leaves with pink. Acer triflorum, or three-flower maple tree, is native to Manchuria and Korea. It has exfoliating ash-brown bark and its fall foliage is rich yellow and red with an overall effect of orange. It grows from 20-30'. And, Franklinia alatamaha which is not known to grow wild anywhere. It has brilliant orange or crimson autumn color and its beautiful large, waxy white flowers bloom in autumn. Each year the Arboretum Associate's plant auctions offer a wide selection of choice plants from nurseries and private collections. Proceeds from these auctions have supported the following projects: 202219832014 Tissue Culture Laboratory equipment 20221984 2014 Children's Education Program Protective sleeves for photographs in the Horticulture Library Purchase of 20x40' tent for the Case Estates Computer software. NSF grantproposal costs. 20221985 2014 \"Reflected Spring\" Art Competition Brings More Than 200 Works of Art to Arboretum From more than 200 submissions to the spring 1989 competition for the gallery show, \"Reflected Spring\", 25 works of art celebrating the beauty of lilacs were selected by jury. One artwork was selected for reproduction on the 1989 lilac poster and the jury's selection was a gouache by Ellen Tikkanen of Cambridge. Her painting captures the arboretums' own lilac collection. Ms. Tikkanen grew up in Jamaica Plain, not far from the arboretum's Bussey Hill from which her work of art views the lilac collection, and she remembers the thrill of attending Lilac Sunday as a little girl. Now a free-lance designer, she attended Mass College of Art and has spent many of her painting hours in the arboretum. The 1989 poster is on sale in the Shop at the Arboretum for $14. ~: IY4P t t .~,i P 1%~tl ,'slu; ~ 1 ii r t . rn Winner of The Lilac Art Poster Tikkanen, Ellen. Bussey Hill. Cambridge mm Works for the Show Abbott, Jeannie, Lilac Breeze. Brookline Barbier, Suzette, Still-life.. Cambridge Ciaffaroni, Sara, Lilac. Boston Clave, Linda, Nostalgia. Boston fHm ~~ \"~ . mmE -mmmm H!Hp l^^^fl~t l^^^l. `g ,Ji| I^H~ ~ ' Computer for the Dana Greenhouse. Conversion of E. H. Wilson's glass plate negatives to safety film. Supplies for the Children's Education Hogan, I Clodgo, Christopher, Untitled. Everett Cohen, Marjorie, Harkness Lilacs. Leverett Comolli, Anna, Syrxnga Prestonia. Milford Francis, Christine, Le Printemps. Quincy Griswold, Joan, Summer Hat. Wellesley Hoey, Julie, May Flowers. Arlington Anna, Boquet. Lawrence K.-Pastuchiv, Olga, Lilacs. Somerville Kauffmann, Robyn Lilac Arch. Milton Levin, Phyllis, A Lilac Hedge Surrounded the Property. Levine, Phyllis, Ambition Drove Her Through Some jjUfflB; Funny Territory. Duxbury |HflB| tflHH~ ` iviCuOVvcn, iBuill, ijtuiC jiinuuw. vvinCliOSitil Patrick, Cyndy, (untitkd). Everett Rebek, Thomas, Lilac Walkway. Boston Program. Collection of Chinese specimens for Herbarium. Purchase and instillation of computer software for Education Program Purchase of Chinese books for Library Signage for Sargent Trail Conversion of herbaria drier to Regan, JoAnne, Lilac Spaulding, Dorothy, Window. Canton HfllI J^^^l1. l^^^lB .a2014mi year-round use 2 (Continued on Page 4) aH l^^^l Rabiner, Carolyn, (untitled). Newton Slade, Phila, Breath of Spring III. North Andover (untitled). Boston li^^lI |^^H~ Visvis, Elizabeth, Bowl of Lilacs. Wellesley Hills Wirth, Helena, Lilacs. Sherbom Wong, Janine, Midnight Lilacs. Cambridge II Now that we're blooming, a look back at people who make Spring happen .... Since the arboretum is over 100 years old, we are in process of re-invigorating a mature collection of woody plants. Work constantly goes on to repropagate and renew the collection even though trees may not be in any danger. It can take a long time for new plants to grow mature enough to be planted on the some of the grounds. Because the arboretum is a scientific collection, the focus is to conserve the collecexact plants with genetic duplicates. Thus, plants are propagated vegetatively; in other words, \"cloned.\" Jack Alexander (picture), the arboretum's chief propagator says, \"Cloning has been going on for thousands of years tions by replacing individual ]im Nkkerson using one of several tech- niques that take a vegetative part of the plant and put roots on it. Plants are begun using cuttings, grafting, division (for shrubs), and sometimes, tissue culture. New plants are also introduced and this work of the arboretum begins when botanists on staff set out on plant collection expeditions. Rob Nicholson (picture), a _ ~_ .. _ _.. propagation specialist, went to Mexico to search for rare conifers that may be hardy in Boston. , , '** Alexander , , Rob Nicholson He also collected seeds for the Center of Plant Conservation, an organization that coordinates the collection of rare and endangered U.S. flora. The arboretum's staff is constantly evaluating and replacing the plants. Gary Koller, chief horticulturist, and Patrick Willoughby, head of the grounds crew, are always as are the members of the grounds crew planning ahead planting and caring for the 14,000 woody plants growing on the arboretum's 265 acres, and, at the same time, managing for the 21st century. - Mark Watkama 3 Microwave oven for Jamaica Plain Volunteer Program Chairs for Case Estates 202219862014 Signage for Sargent Trail Matching grant for Herbarium cases' purchase IBM printer for Education Program Equipment for Children's Program Rare books for Library Documentation of slides in Horticultural Library Fans for Dana Greenhouse Volunteer guide books and vests Slide projector and loudspeaker system Books for the Arnold Arboretum Journal Data input for Living Collections Typewriter for Business Office Interactive exhibit for Education Department Alarm system for Bonsai House Library addition to catalog of the collections 20221987 2014 Computerization of the plant mapping system Restoration of the Bonsai House Fans for the Dana Greenhouse Volunteers (Continued from page 1) germination,\" but he's also worked with the records to support Jack Alexander's program in hybridization. Les, who has been an English teacher \"everywhere\", is a Harvard Ph.D. even though he hadn't planned on going to college, much less on even finishing high school. As the eldest male child, he had to work to help support his siblings. Having just one year of high school, he got himself a kit of tools and began repairing typewriters. But he was able to go to night school and was encouraged by a young woman teacher that there was more to life than repairing typewriters. With her support, he convinced the Oregon Agricultural College to enroll him even without a high school diploma and then went on to finish at Oregon State, where he got his feet wet teaching freshman English. After graduate work at Syracuse, he taught English and history at the Naval Academy. From there he went to the Colorado School of Mines where he wrote a text book on technical exposition. After receiving his Ph.D. from Harvard, he was fortunate to become an assistant in the Houghton Library where he helped to build their collection of rare books. After another stint teaching in the west at Washington State College in Pullman, WA, he returned to Cambridge and to Lelsey College where for 18 years he taught English. His favorite subjects? Shakespeare, the romantic poets, and the psychological novel. He retired in 1972 to begin a second career as an arboretum volunteer. He did not, however, come to the arboretum because he was a successful gardener with an extra green thumb. On the contrary Les said his house in Melrose sits on filled land without any soil good enough for planting. He came because of his first introduction to the arboretum when he lived in Jamaica Plain and would walk here, using he said, \" my eyes.\" Perhaps that'swhen he spotted the trees that have continued to be his center of interest, the Dawn Redwood and the Sourwood. I said it was interesting to learn hear how people were attracted to volunteering at the arboretum and asked Lizanne Chapin, another volunteer, who was now sitting across the table in the greenhouse, working on her own project, how she'd come to volunteer. She explained she'd majored in landscape architecture at Smith and worked in their greenhouse. She comes from a long line of gardeners, has a wild flower garden in Cambridge, and helped design the Dukes County Historical Society's display herb garden. She had always wished she could work in the Arnold's greenhouse but it wasn't until she met the newly-arrived Ashtons at aWild Flower Annual Meeting, that her wish came true. Ever since she's been the jack-of-alltrades at the greenhouse- from collecting seedlings to press for the herbarium to washing pots to potting up rare plants for the fall auction. Her favorite arboretum tree is the magnolia stellata, which she says is a favorite of hers in the winter, too, because of its pretty, soft green buds. Les and Lizanne invited me to help wash pots, but I said I'd come back another time and left them busily at their work. - Jo Procter "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23531","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070896e.jpg","title":"1989-49-2","volume":49,"issue_number":2,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mission Statement","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":2,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24966","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eab26.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"2 The Mission of the Arnold Arboretum The Arnold Arboretum is held in trust by Harvard University according to the terms of the Indenture of Trust of 1872. This legal document provided for the creation of the living collections as a practical demonstration of the variety of plants that could be grown in this climate. It also mandated the appointment of the Arnold Professor to manage the Arboretum and to teach the knowledge of trees and related topics. Although there have been many significant changes in the fields of botany and horticulture and the Arnold Arboretum itself has fulfilled many different purposes during the past century, the basic premises of the Indenture still hold. It is most appropriate to reemphasize the traditional strengths of the Arnold Arboretum through a strong focus on botany and horticulture. The mission of the Arnold Arboretum may be outlined as follows: (1) (2) (3) develop, curate, and maintain a well-documented collection of living woody plants from around the world that are hardy in the Boston area; to study these plants and their relatives and associates in nature through the maintenance of a herbarium and library and through directly related research in botany and horticulture; to provide instruction in botany, horticulture, dendrology, and other fields related to the living collections. to As part of the City of Boston's park system, the Arboretum's Jamaica Plain site functions outdoor museum open to the public. The highest priority of the Arboretum's administration is the proper curation and maintenance of these living collections. Proper curation includes acquisitions through field expeditions and exchanges with other institutions as well as cultivation and propagation of existing specimens to enhance and maintain the scientific and instructional value of the collections. The second priority of the Arboretum, the study of its collections and their relatives and associates in nature, directly benefits the curation of the collections. The preserved collections and the library are indispensable tools for this research, and their curation and maintenance are therefore essential. All of the Arboretum's resources-the living collections, the preserved collections, and the library-are available for scholarly research. The director of the Arnold Arboretum is responsible for ensuring that adequate and up-to-date materials are available for present and future scholars to teach and to pursue research in the areas as an represented. Educational programs are the Arboretum's third-highest priority. The Arnold Arboretum offers a variety of programs for public instruction in horticulture, botany, dendrology, and landscape gardening and, in addition, disseminates knowledge of plants through its publications. The director and Arboretum professional staff may also offer courses, as appropriate, within other academic programs of Harvard University. -Document approved by the Harvard Corporation, February, 1988. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Behind the Scenes at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":3,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24959","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14e8528.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Michener, David C.","article_content":"Behind the Scenes David C. Michener at the Arnold Arboretum The living collections are emerging from a decade-long process of renewal and verification in anticipation of a new era of activity Why does the Arnold Arboretum have living collections? Whom are they to serve, and how? How do we determine if the collections are meeting their own policies and goals? Such fundamental issues must periodically be addressed-and action then taken to ensure that the goals are met. This issue of Arnoldia, focusing on the curation of the living collections, describes the substantial review and upgrading of the Arnold Arboretum's living collections that began nearly a decade ago. A portion of the review has been called the \"verification project,\" but the work accomplished has been far more extensive and provocative than the sum of the individual grants and projects. In this issue are ten articles, written by the people most actively involved with the review, that describe distinct but interlocking parts of the purpose and operation of the Arnold Arboretum's living collections. Our living collections are unique both for the diversity of hardy, woody plant material they contain and for their documentation. They are an extremely complex resource to curate and maintain-and much of the complexity is not evident even to the most appreciative visitor. The articles that follow stand as a snapshot of our living collections in the late 1980's: why they exist, why we maintain them as we do, and how we, the staff, interact to ensure that the collections are capable of serving their many audiences. By necessity this issue has focused on the review of the living collections, so many functions and departments of the Arboretum are mentioned only in pass- designed to take you behind the reveal our policies and motives in working as we do to develop, maintain, and present the Arboretum's living collections that you support and enjoy. In the first essay, Peter Raven, director of the Missouri Botanical Garden and former chairman of our Visiting Committee, addresses the societal importance of living collections. Next, Peter Ashton, past director of the Arnold Arboretum, presents his perspective of the impetus that prompted the review of our living collections during the last decade; it was during his directorship that the verification project was begun. Rounding out the historical perspective of the development of the Arnold Arboretum's own living collections is the contribution by Stephen Spongberg, research taxonomist. The verification project itself is covered by Sandra Elsik, curatorial associate, and David Michener, research taxonomist, both of the Arnold Arboretum. Their complementary articles explain the steps involved in the vouchering and taxonomic review of the Arboretum's living accessions. Much of this work involved volunteers, and in recognition of the more than 6000 hours they have contributed to the project, an illustrated series of quotes, comments, and thoughts from the volunteers themselves illustrates how the living collections have been brought alive and made special to them. Little of the verification work could have been accomplished or maintained were it not for the Arboretum's records office and the ing. It is scenes to 4 extensive documentation maintained for well century. The records and mapping functions have been or are now being fully computerized. This is an enormously complex task for which there was no appropriate commercial software. Kerry Walter, director of botany and information systems at the Center for Plant Conservation, explains how and why he developed the computerized database called BG-BASE as an international effort, using the Arnold Arboretum's records as a complex trial system. Jennifer Quigley, curatorial associate in the plant records office at the Arnold Arboretum, describes the functions and interactions of that office, both at present and in days past. Ethan Johnson, curatorial assistant in the records office, outlines the history of our mapping system, as well as the ongoing computerization of our detailed inventory maps. The final article, by over a Gary Koller, managing horticulturist of the Arnold Arboretum, discusses issues in collections development and management under the restrictions imposed by a scientific collection. This issue of Arnoldia will raise many questions, which is understandable since it is uncommon to explain the underlying curatorial policies and practices of a major collection to public audiences. We hope your appreciation of the Arnold Arboretum will be deepened, and that you will support the continuing development of our unique and exciting living collections-the heart of the Arnold Arboretum-and the programs associated with them. David C. Michener directs the Arnold Arboretum's verification project. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Value of Living Collections","article_sequence":3,"start_page":5,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24969","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eb328.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Raven, Peter H.","article_content":"The Value of Peter H. Raven Living Collections Living collections maintain in trust gardens and arboreta for future generations in botanic are precious assets that we We base to our livelihood largely on our ability understand plants and to use them for our purposes: the Earth yields its rewards most abundantly to those who cultivate it best. At a time when human beings are using, diverting, or wasting more than 40 percent of total terrestrial photosynthetic productivity, saving plants has been converted from a harmlessly amusing pastime to a matter of life and death. In a global population that has doubled in size since the early 1950's, more than a billion people exist in a state of absolute poverty, and half that many receive less than 80 percent of the United Nations-recommended minimum caloric intake each day. Their situation, and our sustainable use of the planet's resources, can be improved only by a more complete knowledge of plants. Only a few hundred kinds of plants are currently cultivated on a wide enough basis to be considered crops in world commerce; of these, fewer than two dozen provide more than four-fifths of human caloric intake. Surprisingly in the face of these numbers, however, economic botanists estimate that tens of thousands of kinds of plants may be usable as sources of food, and that many more could potentially satisfy the need for the fuel that supports the energy requirements of fully 1.5 billion people-well over half of those who live in the warmer regions of the globe. As devastation spreads through the remaining half of the Earth's forests and carbon-dioxide loading in the atmosphere accentuates the greenhouse effect, people are becoming increasingly concerned with the kinds of plants that they may be able to use to reforest the cleared areas and thus contribute to a sta- Franklima alatamaha, cation in once endemic to a single lo- Georgia, is extinct in the wild and is now seen onlym cultivation. Although thema7orityof endangered plant species are in the tropics, Temperate Zone botanical preserve their climate's gardens and arboreta can help endangered species in living collections. Photograph courtesy of Rdcz and Debreczy. 6 ble and relatively prosperous world in the future. Nearly half of our prescriptions contain molecules initially derived from plants or microorganisms, yet only a very small percentage of such organisms have been examined for such useful products. The opportunities for future development, especially given the potential of genetic engineering, are virtually limitless. In this whole process, living collections, because of their accessibility and the potential for repeating diverse scientific observations on single, specified individuals, are of special importance. With next more than a quarter of the world's a matter 250,000 species at risk of extinction over the 20 years or so, it is of great satis- faction that perhaps 75,000 species of plants are already in cultivation-most of them only in botanical gardens or arboreta. Even though in most cases these plants do not represent genetically adequate samples, they are protected to some degree in the gardens and do constitute to a resource of incredible importance future human progress. Unfortunately, most samples represent temperate plants, and a much smaller proportion of tropical and subtropical floras is currently cultivated. This situation should be rectified as a matter of urgent priority by the formation and world support of a network of tropical botanical gardens and seed banks, and it is encouraging that the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources is pursuing just such a goal. Even for the plants of temperate regions, however, the preservation of adequate samples is of critical importance, and many species will disappear forever within the next few years unless they are accorded special attention. Building a stable world a century from now will be a daunting task, but the plants that we save in our time will constitute a major resource for this purpose. Viewed in this light, our living collections are precious assets, to be cherished and augmented not only because of their current usefulness, but for the sake of our children and grandchildren. In drawing wider attention to their potential, the current number of Arnoldia performs a valuable service ; the implications of its message should be brought to the attention of policymakers at all levels because of their urgent importance for us all. Peter H. Raven is the director of the Missouri Botanical Garden and an internationally prominent conservationist. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification Projects","article_sequence":4,"start_page":7,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24968","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eaf6f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"The Genesis of the Arboretum's Restoration and Verification Projects Peter S. Ashton The curatorial review of the Arboretum's living collections, although thoroughly modern in scope and method, is rooted in the original design Sargent and Olmsted by Some years ago, encouraged by the rediscovery of the original Olmsted plans, I wrote an essay (see Arnoldia, Volume 39, Number 5, pages 330-343, 1979) endeavoring to show that what Sargent and Olmsted had in mind when they created the Arnold Arboretum in the nineteenth century is consistent with its century English tradition, used copses and hangers of trees of similar form, rather than individuals, to set off the natural folds of the land as viewed from his majestic road system. Thus the Arboretum, though serving primarily an academic rather than a recreational function, was nonetheless part of an aesthetic unity with its stately neighbor, Franklin Park. Unfortunately, though our propagation and location records were still superbly maintained, the confirmation of the identity of each accession had become less consistent and rigorous after the retirement in the 1940's of Sargent's celebrated collections taxonomist, Alfred Rehder. This was potentially serious, because without accurate identification of the plants the collections lose much of their academic utility. Errors in identification can arise by several means. Woody plants in cultivation can differ vastly in phenotype from their sibling plants in nature, leading to subsequent questions of identity. Earlier in this century cultivated material was obtained from other gardens and nurseries, and all too often it consisted of garden hybrids, backcrosses, and sports not found or persisting in nature. In addition, mix-ups can arise in the nursery if labels or locations are inadvertently switched and the error is not caught before the stock is planted in the permanent collections. Finally, confusion and redundancy can result modern functions as a university educational and research collection and a public amenity. My interest was to define a curatorial policy, particularly an accession and deaccession policy, that would once again reconcile these potentially conflicting purposes and at the same time honor the historical landscape design. The uniqueness of the original concept of Arnold's Arboretum is now recognized by its status as a National Historic Landmark, and we should do well to respect that. Our inspection in the late 1970's of the maps of current holdings confirmed that major plantings from the days of Sargent and Olmsted still provided the backbone of the living collections. Their family groupings, arranged along the principal drive according to Bentham and Hooker's botanical classification, still not only suit the needs of botanical classes and researchers who require rapid access but also-and this is often not appreciated-are basic to Olmsted's way of using trees in the landscape. Olmsted, following eighteenth- rather than nineteenth- 8 Mature trees of Cedrus libani in their native habitat near of Thrkey. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy 1500 meters above sea level in the Taurus Mountains if the scientific nomenclature is not kept curif inadequate attention is paid to reconciling botanical and horticultural names, which sometimes differ since they are covered by separate international codes of nomenclature. In 1979 our preliminary surveys had already allowed us not only to confirm the contemporary validity of Olmsted and Sargent's scheme, but also to seek the assistance of the National Science Foundation in restoring the living collections to their former status as one of the world's best-curated living collections rent or of woody plants. We can now say that this goal has largely been achieved. Indeed, thanks to computer technology, our living collections are better curated than they have ever been before, setting a standard that is once again being followed by botanical gardens throughout the world. What has contributed to the success of this multifaceted review is not only the inspired and dedicated staff, but-far less obvious yet equally important-their effective coordination and interaction in identifying and accomplishing complex tasks. These interactions, 9 Cedrus libani growmg in the Arnold Arboretum. The cultivated material is about the same age as the wild in the previous trees of Racz photo, yet is and Debreczy. taller and has a more open crown and darker green needles. Photograph courtesy though not always without some (ultimately resolvable) controversy, have truly been the key to the project's success. Information about our plant accessions must be entered and updated, and it must flow seamlessly among the plant-propagation unit, the plant records office, the herbarium, and scattered members of the curatorial and maintenance staff. In a real sense, the computerization of the records was only an electronic modernization of exist- 10 ing channels of information flow, rather than the imposition of an experimental adminis- living collections at the Arnold Arboretum and the reevaluation of curatorial procedures have come at the right time. The increasingly pressing need for gardens to play their part in saving species from extinction can only be achieved if the gardens maintain precise and comprehensive records. It is therefore no accident that the National Center for Plant Conservation, Inc., decided to establish its national headquarters at our Hunnewell Building. Furthermore, the imminent revival of tropical botanical gardens as tools for the introduction of new plants for contemporary development needs will cer- trative structure. The restoration of the on the experience now gained by and other Temperate Zone botanicalgarden staff, in propagation as well as in tainly call our curation. Living collections, even of long-lived plants, constantly change. Now, though, thanks to this dedicated team there is a defined policy-acuratorial template-against which future policy modifications must be consciously considered and measured. Peter S. Ashton is a member of the Harvard University faculty and is a past director of the Arnold Arboretum He is currently president of the International Association of Botanic Gardens. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Establishing Traditions at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":11,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24963","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15ea36f.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Establishing Traditions at the Arnold Arboretum Stephen A. Spongberg Charles Sprague Sargent's early planting schemes and the collections he developed still form the backbone of the Arboretum today Sargent and the Arboretum's Beginnings On the twenty-fourth of November, 1873, Charles Sprague Sargent was appointed director of the recently established Arnold Arboretum by the President and Fellows of Harvard College. On the twenty-sixth of November, he married Mary Robeson of Boston. Within the space of two days, Sargent's life was forever changed and set on a new course. The thirtytwo-year-old Bostonian had committed himself to what would soon become two lifelong Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum, studies pine cones m the Arboretum's collection. Photograph, taken in 1912 by T. E. Marr, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. devotions: one to trees and the development of the Arnold Arboretum, the other to his wife and their enduring family life at Holm Lea, their home in Brookline, Massachusetts. When Sargent accepted the directorship of the fledgling Arboretum, he was also director of the now-defunct Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge and professor of horticulture at Harvard's Bussey Institution. The latter department was located on land in the Jamaica Plain section of Boston, which Benjamin Bussey had bequeathed to Harvard College on his death in 1842, the year that Asa Gray, Sargent's friend and professional mentor, had come to Harvard and the Botanic Garden in Cambridge. When James Arnold, a wealthy businessman and philanthropist from New Bedford, Massachusetts, died in 1868, he left a portion of his residual estate to three trustees and thereby set in motion the series of events that would result in the establishment of another Harvard-affiliated botanical institution. After Arnold's trustees had completed their negotiations with the Harvard Corporation, they agreed that the Arnold bequest would be transferred to the permanent trusteeship of the Corporation and that the income would be utilized for the establishment and support of an arboretum, to be known as the Arnold Arboretum. With a small income from the trust to devote to the Arboretum's development and 137 acres of the Bussey estate to use as its site, Charles Sargent was faced with the task of 12 bringing together a living collection of plants from all accessible corners of the earth for trial in the new Arboretum. The indenture of the institution, which had been drawn up and agreed upon by Arnold's trustees and the Harvard officials, clearly outlined the purpose of the first university-affiliated arboretum. Both parties hoped to see a comprehensive collection of trees established that would stand as a living museum. Specifically, the indenture stated that \"as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air...\" would be grown, and this allencompassing collection should \"be raised or ;' collected as fast as is practicable....\" With this overwhelming responsibility, it is in retrospect astounding that anyone was willing to undertake the directorship. Yet Sargent was ambitious and eager to begin the experiment. Wisely, and undoubtedly with approbation from Professor Gray in Cambridge, Sargent immediately narrowed his focus to include only ligneous taxa-trees, shrubs, and woody climbers-plants that would be the expected emphasis if the young institution was to develop into an arboretum, which is by definition a place grown with trees. Moreover, a rationale for this early policy decision was based on the fact that the seven-acre Botanic Garden in Cambridge comprised collections of herbaceous plants systematically arranged in family beds. What the University clearly needed was a collection of ligneous plants to complement the collections in Cambridge. Duplication of effort would result if the Arboretum focused on herbaceous plants, and the space required for establishing plantations of trees was available at the Jamaica Plain site, not in Cambridge. Fortunately, Sargent had not only the backing of Asa Gray in this early departure from the letter of the law, but also his respect and friendship. As the foremost American botanist of his generation and for thirty years the director of the Botanic Garden, Gray had inaugurated Sargent's botanical and administrative career when he engineered the young Brahmin's appointment as his successor at the Botanic Garden. As Gray's protege, Sargent had been introduced to the network of American botanists and naturalists who turned to Gray as the ultimate botanical authority in North America. By means of letters of introduction and by virtue of his stature as dean of American botanists, Gray also provided Sargent with an entree into European botanical and horticultural circles. On their honeymoon trip the Sargents sailed to England and traveled on the Continent, where they were cordially welcomed to Europe's botanical gardens and museums, and where the foundations of many lifelong friendships with European plantsmen were laid. Basing himself initially in the estate office at Holm Lea, Sargent launched into a prolonged planning phase for the Arboretum after returning from Europe in 1874. His first step was to inventory the trees that were growing naturally on the topographically diverse Jamaica Plain property. These trees ranged from the native hemlocks on Hemlock Hill, then known as Bussey's woods, to the native stands of oak and hickory woodlands that had survived on several of the glacial drumlins, sites that in earlier years had proven inappropriate for Bussey's fields or orchards. The Early Development of the Living Collections The trees and shrubs native to New England but not indigenous to the Arboretum probably constituted Sargent's first list of desiderata. Exotic species growing in the Botanic Garden in Cambridge were also propagated for establishment in Jamaica Plain and were among the first accessions to be planted in the Arboretum. The early records indicate that Sargent began an active correspondence with the curators of European botanical gardens and nurserymen in England, France, and Germany, and many of the species long cultivated in Europe were thus established in the Arboretum nurseries for eventual transfer to the Arboretum grounds. Sargent's real emphasis during the first two decades of his directorship, however, was on gathering a collection of native American 13 extremely wide range of trees and shrubs from were soon every region of the United States and Canada incorporated into the Arboretum's collections. Sargent had the assistance living view of the elm collection on the slope of Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum, illustrating Sargent's plan to include native trees in the collection as individual specimens and as groups, in order to approximate forest conditions. Photograph, taken in 1903 by T E Marr, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. A cadre of highly capable correspondents North America in his census work, and hundreds of pleas for seeds of locally common as well as little-known species, many of narrow range, accompanied his steady stream of requests for data on the forest resources of various regions. Among his correspondents were such great botanists, plantsmen, and naturalists as George Engelmann in Missouri, Charles Mohr in Alabama, Michael S. Bebb in Illinois, Thomas Meehan in Pennsylvania, a of across John Muir in California, Reginald Cox m Louisiana, and John Harbison in North Carolina. Due to their tireless efforts coupled with Sargent's, the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum began to become comprehensive in scope. trees and shrubs. Indeed, the diversity of American species was to form the backbone of the collection; Sargent based his planting on plan for the collection he intended to obtain the number of taxa known from North America and allocated space for each genus and family accordingly. In this work Sargent was again indebted to the influence of Asa Gray, who had recommended that he be given the responsibility of preparing a census report of North American trees for the United States government. Prior to Sargent's benchmark contributions to the Tenth Census of the United States (embodied in his Report on the Forests of North America), information concerning the extent, condition, and species composition of American forests was largely conjectural. A study of forests of the scope of Sargent's had never before been undertaken, and no comprehensive flora of North America, let alone of the United States, had been published. But having a governmental appointment and the ability to travel the length and breadth of the North American continent with a view to collecting information, specimens, seeds, and cuttings for propagation, Sargent gathered a massive amount of pertinent data. As an indirect result of these activities, an Encouraged by the results of his census work, Sargent began work on a natural extension of the project, and by 1890 a prospectus for his Silva of North America announced that this monumental undertaking would be published complete in 12 quarto volumes and illustrated with 600 plates. After the twelfth volume had appeared in as many years, however, two supplementary volumes were announced, which were needed to accommodate new species (primarily hawthorns) that had been discovered during the course of the work. Acquisitions from Overseas Sargent was occupied for more than a decade in the preparation of the Silva but still found time to stay abreast of botanical developments overseas, and he took every opportunity to broaden his network of correspondents to include botanically inclined residents of foreign lands. By 1878 this network had been enlarged to include William Smith Clark on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. In 1882 correspondence was inaugurated with Emil Bretschneider, a Russian physician who was stationed in Peking (Beijing), and during the last decade of the nineteenth century Sar- 14 gent was posting letters to Augustine Henry, an Irishman employed by the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service and living in Ichang, a town on the banks of the son, who had completed two expeditions in central and western China for the English nursery firm of Veitch, agreed to undertake a third expedition, this one under Arboretum Yangtze River in Hupeh (now Hubei) Province of central China. With much of his personal field work in the forests of North America completed, Sargent turned to eastern Asia as the next region he meant to explore in his continuing quest for woody plants to stand trial as cultigens in the Arnold Arboretum. This decision was based in part on the successful acclimation of Arboretum plants that had been grown from seeds sent by his Asiatic correspondents. The new direction was also based on Sargent's theoretical knowledge of the close phytogeographical relationship between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America, a biogeographic phenomenon that had first been fully investigated by Asa Gray in the middle of the nineteenth century. Although Sargent traveled to Japan in 1892, personally surveying Japanese forests and making extensive collections of seeds and specimens, he did not visit China until he was in his sixty-second year. In 1903 he undertook a world tour but spent only brief periods in China, Korea, and Japan. Sargent returned to Boston, however, fully aware that he personally would be unable to undertake the time-consuming and arduous field work necessary to begin to understand and catalogue the ligneous flora of the Chinese auspices. Wilson's exploits on all four of his Chinese expeditions-the fourth, in 1910-11, was also sponsored by the Arboretum-are well known in the annals of botany and horticulture. Not incidentally, they had an enormous impact on the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Quantities of propagation material of many new plants arrived in Jamaica Plain from China, and the onus fell to the greenhouse staff to coax the seeds to germinate and the cuttings to root. Confronted with unknown material whose germination and cultural requirements had to be determined by trial and error, Jackson Dawson and his crew in the greenhouse had results as exceptionally fine as Wilson's in the field. When Wilson's plants needed to be moved from the nurseries into the permanent collections, Sargent was faced with the fact that certain groups had not been allocated sufficient space in the overall Arboretum planting plan. The problem was that the Chinese and other Asian species of many groups had not been known when the planting plan, following the Bentham and Hooker classification, was devised, and Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted had been unable to anticipate the floristic wealth of central and western China. But Wilson's bountiful harvest was too good to be wasted, and exceptions to the original planting rules had to be made to accommodate the many new species that required testing in Boston's climate. One parcel of land, which had recently been added to the Arboretum acreage on the south-facing slope of Bussey Hill, was given over to many of Wilson's Chinese plants and is known today as the Chinese Walk. empire. John Jack, Sargent's right-hand at man Arboretum, traveled to eastern Asia in 1905, and as Sargent had before him, he to the returned the Arboretum with seeds and many Asiatic specimens of Ernest to species never before cultivated in North America. Henry Wilson's Expeditions China In 1907 Sargent was finally successful in finding an explorer and naturalist who had previously proven his worth as a collector in the Middle Kingdom and was willing to undertake additional botanical and horticultural exploration in China. Ernest Henry Wil- Sargent and Rehder Document the Collections While Charles Sargent was aggressively developing the living collections during the early years of the Arnold Arboretum, he was 15 identifying most of the accessions, the majority of which were of known wild provenance. Sargent was a practicing taxonomist, deeply involved with the woody plants of North America, and the leading dendrologist of his era. Many others sought his advice in matters of identity and nomenclature, and he was extremely careful that the collection for which he was responsible would be correctly named and labeled. Moreover, he had described many of the taxa involved, and some of the individuals growing in the Arboretum collections were the very plants from which type specimens had been gathered. Of the accessions received from European botanical gardens and nurseries, many comprised so-called \"authentic\" materials, meaning that the species involved had been also described by the donating correspondent, or-as in the case of garden forms-the cultivar had originated and been selected and named by the contributing nursery. Lemoine hybrid lilacs and mock oranges come immediately to mind as examples. Although many of these are only of historic interest today, the original plants or their asexually produced propagants are still growing in the Arboretum collections; they serve as living reference points for the garden forms popular during the decades surrounding the turn of this century. The identities of the Asian species that literally poured into the Arnold Arboretum as the result of expeditions by Sargent, John Jack, and E. H. Wilson were largely determined by Arboretum botanists who worked in the library and herbarium located in the Museum Building. Alfred Rehder, German born and a The taxonomic staff of the Arnold Arboretum pauses for a photo opportumty. From left to right Alfred Rehder; Ernest H. Wilson; Charles S. Sargent; Charles E. Faxon, herbarium curator and botamcal artist ; and Camillo Schneider, a German dendrologist who prepared treatments for Plantae Wilsonianae. Photograph ca. 1916, from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 16 The Bentham and Hooker Arnold Arboretum Planting Sequence in the The was When confronted with the problem of how the various accessions of woody plants were to be positioned in relation to one another in the Arnold Arboretum, Charles Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted chose to superimpose the natural classification system of Bentham and Hooker on the Arboretum landscape as a guide for the planting plan. In essence, Sargent and Olmsted intended to indicate the natural relationships between the various genera and families of plants represented in the Arboretum's collection by placing related groups in close juxtaposition, thereby increasing the educational value of the collection and allowing for easy access and botanical comparison. The system they chose to follow was one widely accepted by British and American botanists toward the end of the nineteenth century, which had been proposed by George Bentham (1800-1884) and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker (1817-1911) in their monumental threevolume publication, Genera Plantarum. Bentham and Hooker were leading English systematists during the nineteenth century and conducted their botanical investigations at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, where Sir Joseph had succeeded his father, Sir William Jackson Hooker, as director. The Genera Plantarum, published in Latin between the years 1862 and 1883, accounted for all of the genera of seed plants then known to science and included precise descriptions of each. These genera were grouped together based on their overall similarities into \"cohorts\" (a grouping equivalent to today's plant family), and the cohorts were similarly grouped into orders, classes, and three major subdivisions: dicots, gymnosperms, and monocots. Following the Bentham and Hooker system, plants producing flowers with separate or free floral parts were thought to be less advanced, or more primitive, than those producing flowers with united parts. magnolia family, the Magnoliaceae, considered one of the least derived groups of plants. Consequently, the magnolias and the closely related tulip trees were established near the Museum Building (now the Hunnewell Visitors' Center), where the planting sequence begins. Progressing through the collection from the Arborway Gate, one finds plant families of increasing morphological complexity (complexity that sometimes includes reduction, connation, or loss of floral parts). The conifers, which Bentham and Hooker placed together in a distinct group between the dicots and monocots, came last in the Arboretum's planting plan and were located along Bussey Brook at the end of the original road and pathway system. Inasmuch as there are few woody monocots, Sargent and Olmsted could end their planting sequence with the conifers, and as if by a stroke of luck, the grove of native hemlocks on Hemlock Hill fell into place in the planting scheme. Except for constraints placed on this plan by the ecological requirements of certain groups of plants, each cohort or family was allotted space in the Arboretum in a more or less linear sequence. Exceptions included the placement of the willows adjacent to the low-lying ground of the meadow, and the inclusion of ericaceous shrubs and flowering dogwoods in many locations because of their aesthetic appeal and their ability to knit the collection together into a harmonious whole. Over the years the Bentham and Hooker planting scheme has not always been strictly followed. Beginning in the early 1980's, however, restoration of the collections following the original plan has proceeded, so that today the major groupings in the collection adhere to the historic Bentham and Hooker classification. 17 A view of the pinetum, or conifer collection, above the banks of Bussey Brook. the ArchIves of the Arnold Arboretum. Photograph, taken in 1892, from self-taught taxonomist, arrived at the Arboreand was first employed to weed the shrub collection. Sargent, however, quickly recognized Rehder's keen taxonomic judgment and facility with languages. Moving Rehder indoors, Sargent gave him the enormous task of assembling the bibliographic data required for the Bradley Bibliography, a five-volume, 3895-page publication that brought together references to all of the literature on woody plants published up to 1900. tum in 1898 At the same time he was involved with the Arboretum's monumental bibliographic project-an undertaking that required a prolonged sojourn across Europe to visit libraries-Rehder was preparing the articles on the important woody genera for Liberty Hyde Bailey's Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. This work required intimate taxonomic knowledge of genera ranging from Abelia to Zenobia and Zizyphus. When E. H. Wilson's shipments of dried, pressed specimens, which simultaneously documented his seed collections and the ligneous flora of cen- tral and western China, arrived at the Arboretum, Rehder's interest in Asian plants was immediately aroused. He eagerly turned his attention to those rich and ample collections. Plantae Wilsonianae, a three-volume publication edited by C. S. Sargent, resulted from the herbarium and library studies involved in naming Wilson's plants. Although Sargent served as editor, Rehder did the bulk of the work required in preparing the taxonomic treatments of the genera represented by Wilson's collections. In many instances Plantae Wilsonianae gave synopses of all the Asian representatives of a particular genus. Wilson himself contributed to the monumental effort, as did specialists in Europe. Thus the foremost authorities of the day identified Wilson's Chinese plants now growing in the Arboretum and reviewed the pertinent nomenclature to determine their correct names. In many instances they established new taxa based on Wilson's collections, and living plants grown from Wilson's seeds were represented in the Arboretum's living collec- 18 tions. The botanical descriptions published for these plants relate both to Wilson's specimens filed in the herbarium and to the growing accessions in the living collections. By 1920 the collection of living plants that Sargent was responsible for bringing together on the Arboretum's Jamaica Plain site was truly a comprehensive living museum of the ligneous flora of the North Temperate Zone. With Sargent's death in 1927 and Wilson's tragic, premature death in 1930, the influx of plant materials intended for the living collections and generated by Arboretum-sponsored collecting trips slackened, but the ongoing curation of the living collections continued. Rehder had begun a card catalogue listing published references to north-temperate woody plants as he worked on the Bradley Bibliography. This index, which is referred to by Arboretum staff as the \"Rehder Cards,\" was maintained throughout Rehder's lifetime, with the result that changes in taxonomic interpretation and nomenclature were constantly monitored. Those changes that pertained to plants in the living collections were noted by Rehder and Clarence Kobuski (Rehder's assistant in the herbarium) and given to the appropriate staff, who made the necessary changes in the living-collections records and on the labels on the grounds. Another outgrowth of Rehder's ongoing involvement with the taxonomic aspects of woody north-temperate plants was his Manual of Trees and Shrubs Hardyin North America Exclusive of the Subtropical and Warmer Temperate Regions, the first edition of which was published in 1927. This treatise, based to a great extent on the Arboretum's living collections, quickly became the bible of horticulturists and nurserymen in the United States and abroad. Because of the great number of Chinese species described and included in its keys, the Manual also became the guide to woody-plant identification most frequently consulted by botanists in China! A second edition of the Manual appeared in 1940, and a concerted effort was then made to ensure that the identities and names of the plants in the Arboretum's living collections agreed with the treatments in the book. This task, undertaken by Rehder and Clarence Kobuski, constituted an earlier, comprehensive effort similar in pur- pose to the current National Science Foundation-funded project reported upon in this issue of Arnoldia. After his retirement from the Arboretum in 1940, which occurred four days before his seventy-seventh birthday, Rehder continued to work in the library and herbarium and once again turned to bibliographic work. The result of his final labors, which were based on his all-inclusive card file of literature references for woody north-temperate plants, was his Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. Published in 1949, a little more than a month before his death, Rehder's Bibliography provided references for the accepted names and listed synonyms of each species and infraspecific taxon treated in his Manual. Also included were the names and synonyms of species new to cultivation-plants like Metasequoia glyptostroboides-that had been Back issues of The Garden, a now-defunct weekly British publication. Developing and maintaining an extensive library and archives for sta f f and visitor use are part of the mission of the Arnold Arboretum. The library, herbarium, and living collections together compnse the interlocking institutional collections. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. 19 The Arnold Arboretum's goal is to cultivate all those woody plant species and their infraspecific taxa hardy enough to withstand the climate of the Boston Basin [Massachusetts]. Three individuals of each species are to be grown, and an attempt is made to include individuals originating from different points within the geographic range of the species to ensure genetic and phenetic diversity. Plants of documented wild origin are highly preferred to those of nursery or garden origin. Although the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are not complete by these standards, work continues towards the acquisition and maintenance of a collection that is as comprehensive as possible. (Compiled from the Collections Policy published in Arnoldia, Volume 39, Number 6, pages 370-376, 1979.) introduced after the appearance of the Manual. The enormous body of Alfred Rehder's bibliographic and taxonomic work (he was the author of more than 1000 scientific publications), coupled with Sargent's earlier work on North American and Japanese trees and Wilson's contributions to the taxonomy of various groups like the Japanese cherries and the Asiatic rhododendrons, was reflected in the meticulous curation and verification of the Arboretum's living collections. All three men, as well as succeeding generations of Arboretum taxonomists, utilized in their work the three major resources of the Arboretum-the library and its associated archives and photographic collections, the herbarium, and the living collections-to the benefit of the Arboretum as a whole. Specimens in the herbarium provided a basis for comparison with previously verified materials, many of which had been examined and annotated by the world's leading authorities. The extensive tematic studies by both Arboretum taxonomists and specialists from around the Additionally, the plants on the Arboregrounds were available for easy comparison using fresh materials, providing the opportunity to test the validity of taxonomic conclusions. They also allowed-as they do today-the study of characters not preserved in dried specimens. To observe aspects of growth habit, bark characteristics, and chromosome number (to name but three), it is best to study living plants. tum world. library provided ready access to original descriptions and the results of additional sys- Building on Established Traditions After Rehder's death the taxonomic review of the living collections continued, but the emphasis in acquisition shifted toward horticultural varieties or cultivars that the nursery trade was making available in increasing numbers. Donald Wyman, the Arboretum's first horticulturist, played a pivotal role in placing the nomenclature of cultivars on a firm footing and established in the Arboretum many cultivar reference collections for horticulturally important genera. In this work he 20 priority to obtaining authentic material from the originators to ensure correct identity. gave Since the names of cultivars are not as tightly tied to documenting specimens and published descriptions as are those of entities given botanical rank, errors are more frequent and determinations, often subjective, are more difficult to verify. With these considerations in mind, the Arboretum decided in 1979 to embrace an accessions policy that placed restrictions on the acquisition of cultivars and to reassert a collection policy that emphasized botanical taxa. Until the current National Science Foundation-funded verification project began, Arboretum taxonomists continued to make annotations to the cards in the livingcollections file in an unstructured fashion when undertaking revisionary, monographic, and floristic studies. Clarence Kobuski, who succeeded Rehder as herbarium curator, continued to survey new materials intended for the living collections to determine if they were accurately identified. A new system with regard to nursery materials was inaugurated after the Arboretum acquired the Case Estates property in Weston, Massachusetts. It became customary for the horticulturists to move plants to nursery rows in Weston after they had achieved an appropriate size in Jamaica Plain. Once in Weston, the plants were allowed to grow until they had flowered and fruited, at which time their identity could be checked for accuracy. Only after this precautionary step had been taken were the trees or shrubs in question placed on a planting list for establishment in their permanent location in Jamaica Plain. In more recent years this practice has been followed to a lesser extent, primarily because of the greater ease of growing materials in containers. As a result, most Arboretum nursery stock remains in Jamaica Plain until it is planted in a permanent location. Several former staff members have been instrumental in living-collections development and the curatorial aspects associated with taxonomic and nomenclatural review. Carroll E. Wood has contributed greatly to the curation of the plants of eastern North America, a labor of love that has been an outgrowth of his efforts toward a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. Peter Green conducted in-depth studies of numerous genera of Oleaceae and Ulmaceae, while Richard A. Howard, Donald Wyman, Paul Sorensen, Burdette Wagenknecht, T. R. Dudley, Robert Hebb, and Gordon DeWolf made extensive annotations in the records as they discovered errors in identification or changes in nomenclature during their tenures at the Arboretum. Current Arboretum staff continue to monitor nomenclatural changes and taxonomic revisions and to annotate the livingcollections records accordingly. They have also played a major role in helping to develop the computerized format for the collections data and to inaugurate the N.S.F.-funded verification project. It is highly appropriate that the nomenclature and taxonomic identity of this historically and scientifically significant collection be reviewed as the living-collections records are computerized; the data contained therein will be available in a multitude of new formats for all those interested in the woody plants of the North Temperate Zone. Charles Sargent, Ernest Wilson, and Alfred Rehder would be pleased. Stephen A. Spongberg is a research taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum and editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Each a Voucher: Collecting in the Living Collections","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24964","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15ea728.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Elsik, Sandra","article_content":"From Each a Voucher: Collecting in the Living Collections Sandra Elsik Arboretum volunteers have been instrumental in voucher specimens for verification collecting and organizing Tracking In Down the Accessions tracks each plant's collection status on the January, 1984, the verification project presented us with the challenge of collecting multiple voucher specimens from over 14,000 accessioned, or catalogued, plants on the 265 of the Arnold Arboretum. How were we to organize, implement, and complete this monumental project within the six years granted by the National Science Foundation? Taking Director Peter Ashton's suggestion to enlist the aid of volunteers for collecting specimens, we recruited, trained, and organized a large group into crews of three, each crew working three-hour shifts. We made a priority list of genera to try to collect during the first season; it consisted primarily of those that were to be identified by an out-of-house authority. We decided to collect from only one plant within each accession lot. Although we began collecting from the horticultural cultivars, we later discontinued that practice to concentrate on the naturally occurring species and variants. In an effort to avoid revouchering accessions, we began a tedious, methodical herbarium search to record existing voucher specimens. We found so few that we abandoned the effort. Volunteers later resumed the search, looking for specific vouchers. We knew the Arboretum had a good series of grid maps, with each accessioned plant's location clearly marked. (See the article on mapping by Ethan Johnson.) I developed a color-coded system of symbols that manually acres project's copies of both the printout (the Plant Sciences maps and the Data Center's computer listing of accessioned plants in our collection). The status of record labels on the Voucher specimens of Abies nephrolepis. Voucher specimens are cuttings taken from a plant, including leaves, flowers, cones or fruits, and other significant parts. In addition to preserving vegetatme and reproductive characters for identification purposes, the specimens also document stages or aspects of the plant's morphology as it existed at a particular date. Note that modern labels record much more m formation. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. 22 ' 1 plants and the accuracy of the maps are also tracked on this system. We have known all along that our tracking system could be handled very easily on a computer, but BG-BASE was still in the planning stages and our project's deadline prevented us from waiting for the system, which is now on-line (see the article on BG-BASE by Kerry Walter). The manual tracking system was the precursor for that portion of BG-BASE that tracks voucher has continued to field-check and remap major areas. Additional assistance came from summer student interns and volunteers in the plant records office. It still requires all of us working in cooperation with each other and with the horticulturist, the grounds supervisor, and the grounds crew to make the grounds and maps workable. (See the article on plant records by Jennifer Quigley.) specimens. Translating a specific map location into ground reality was not as simple as I had hoped. Due to years of being seriously short staffed because of financial problems, the living collections had become somewhat less than perfectly curated despite the best efforts of the curatorial staff. Some groups, such as the maples and the lilacs, were very well labeled and mapped; others were a nightmare. Record labels were missing or had \"traveled\" to the wrong plant; plants on the map were not on the grounds and plants on the grounds were not on the map; map locations were inaccurate; large, spontaneous plants of the target group had not been weeded out; and shrubs had layered into each other, making their separation extremely difficult. The volunteers spent a lot of time \"smelling the flowers\" while I tried to determine which specific plant we needed to collect. It was enjoyable for them but not very efficient, so solo trips became the way to sort out this multiplicity of records and mapping problems, make decisions, and place temporary labels on the plants. Although not originally perceived as a part of this project, such status verification, accomplished through field checks correlated with the study of both current and archival records and maps, was essential to the validity of the project: without accurate status Making the Voucher Specimens To collect and make the voucher specimens, we use a crew of three: a staff map person (usually me), a volunteer press person, and a volunteer label person. The map person must first locate the desired plant, find its record labels, and make sure that the map information agrees with the surrounding plants and their record labels. When finally satisfied that the plant under consideration is indeed the targeted accessioned plant, the map person must then determine if the plant is ready to collect. (Usually this means that the anthers of a flower are shedding pollen, or that a fruit has reached its final color and its seeds are mature. Flowers may be very ephemeral, last- information, is any subsequent taxonomic verification useless. Much-needed assistance to field-check and remap the densely planted areas at the top of Bussey Hill came in the form of a one-year Institute of Museum Sciences grant. At the completion of the grant, one of the curatorial assistants remained on the plant-records-office staff and A Liquidambar specimen bemg trimmed at the time of collection to the size of a herbanum sheet. Extra fruits are mcluded for later dissection or study. Photograph by Sandra Elsik , 23 more than a day or two. Later, we are often in competition with squirrels, birds, and even humans to collect the fruit.) The map person announces the genus name and accession number, which are written, along with the date, on both the margin of a newspaper sheet and a field-label form. The first volunteer, serving as the press person, examines the plant for branches with an ample sampling of reproductive material and then makes cuttings for (usually) three specimens. These specimens, arranged to show upper and lower surfaces, are placed inside the labeled, folded newspapers and are folded or trimmed to fit and to reduce overlapping. Large fruits are sectioned to reduce bulk and to show internal structures. The specimens inside the newspapers are stacked alternately with sheets of corrugated cardboard (corrugates) to make a plant press inside the col- ing no lecting cart. Meanwhile, the second volunteer, the label person, fills out the field-label form, recording name, number, and location of the plant. Any characteristics not visible in the finished specimen, such as height, habit, and DBH, are recorded. The DBH, or diameter at breast height (four and a half feet above ground level), is measured with a special tape that converts a circumference reading into a diameter measurement. It is measured on the largest stem of the plant, a simple task except when the stem is protected by sharp thorns or prickles or by a dense growth of poison ivy. We need not record characters such as the number of petals or the kind of pubescence because they will be visible in the finished specimen. Characters that are altered in the drying process must be noted; for this reason our field-label form reminds us to indicate the color of various parts and the presence of glaucousness (waxy coating), scent, or exudate. One early concern was our ability to reach the reproductive parts on tall trees. Fortunately, most of the trees produced flowers and fruits on limbs easily reached with our 12-foot pole pruner. For the exceptions, we were lucky to have the assistance of two members of our grounds crew, who reached the The collectmg cart stores maps, a clipboard with blank field-label forms, stacks of single-fold newsprint, the press ends and straps (threaded so that the rods will not be caught in the strapped-down press), cardboard corrugates, and other supplies Within the cart, the stack of corrugates shrinks as they are used to build the press, here Sandra Elsik and Volunteer Sue Averylower the shelf to allow more room for the growmg press With its flaps chamed shut, the cart is easily wheeled to a nearby collectmg spot When the work shift is over, the press is strapped down and is easily removed. Photograph by David Michener. us in the bucket truck or by the tree. climbing If there have been no major problems up to this point, the shift progresses with the press person collecting the specimens, the label person recording the necessary information, and the map person determining the next plant to collect. At the end of the shift, the press is strapped down securely and the cart is loaded into the back of the car. (As we approach the end of the project and the collecting within various plant groups is completed, we find ourselves moving around the grounds to collect from scattered plants rather than making many collections in a single area. Since it is difficult to move the cart over long distances, we now usually collect into field presses in the back of the car rather than use the cart.) Back in our basement workroom, foam pads may be inserted between thick specimens to maintain pressure on the leaves so that they specimens for 24 Construction Details for Our collecting cart carries Collecting Cart supplies and organizes work space for a three-hour work shift within a restricted collecting area. The box, of Viplywood (or aluminum, if weight is important), is bolted flush to the base of a hand truck. Internal measurements were calculated to provide tight fit for a standard herbarium press. The fixed wood top shelf is recessed to form a work surface with three sides. All other shelves are corrugates or the work materials themselves resting on pairs of 14\" metal rods that are longer than the width of the box. Rods, stabilized by a 90 bend at one end and a cotter pin through a hole in the other end, fit into paired holes in the box sides, allowing the shelves to be moved up or down. The flaps and chain allow access yet prevent supplies and the press from falling out. A pencil sharpener and a digital clock are glued on the upper exterior back of the box. Cart design by S. Elsik, construction by R. Famiglietti, illustration by Le-zhong Wang. dry wrinkle free. The press then lifts right out of the cart, ready for tightening and placing on the dryer. Plant dryers can be constructed of various materials and in different configurations. Ours is a long, low, rectangular, plywood box, open at the top and bottom. It is bolted together and fitted with a strip of incandescent light bulbs that produce just enough heat to flow upward through the channels in the corrugates. This heated air gently dries the specimens over a period of two days to two weeks (depending on their resistance to drying). The labeled newspapers containing the dried specimens are removed from the presses by our volunteers, who sandwich together all 25 the sheets from the same plant. Packaged in plastic, the specimens are frozen to kill any potentially harmful insects or their eggs. The packages are labeled by date of collection and stored in banks of herbarium cases. Meanwhile, the field-label form is matched with the corresponding entry in the printout in order to record the collection and its date. Several things are checked for accuracy: the scientific name and its spelling, the accession number, and the location. Any discrepancies must be resolved before the labels can be processed. Also copied to the printout are any notes on the record label or map questions encountered in the field. Later all problems of this type are reported to the plant records office. The field-label forms are passed on to the project typist, who looks up the immediate source information for the accession and the author citation for the name. All the information is then typed into a label-printing computer that creates the required number of herbarium labels. Processing the labels in batches by date of collection makes it easy to match them to their specimens, which were also stored by date. Volunteers assist again by inserting one label into each newspaper\/specimen. Specimens are then sorted and stored, this time by genus, in another bank of herbar- selected institutions. Corrections are made to which then serves as a packing list and a record of what specimens were sent to whom. Eventually listgen's data will be incorporated into BG-BASE. The sets are then packaged, refrozen, and mailed out-of-house or delivered to our herbarium for mounting by staff and volunteers. Finally they are ready for taxonomic verification. (See David Michener's article on verification.) listgen, Sorting out the Accumulated Confusion With the specimens distributed, the final task is to resolve the various problems now recorded in the project copy of the printout. The variety of difficulties that can occureverything from missing record labels or transposed accession numbers to very complex problems that involve searching the \"dead\" card file and archival maps-is always amazing. With misidentified plants being received and multiple chances for confusion to occur, any accurate record is a triumph. (BG-BASE on our new computer system will help prevent the repetition of many of these same errors.) After trying several other methods, we have found that it is most efficient to relay the problems masse to in an entire genus or family en representing a genus specimens of that genus are sorted by accession number so that the flower specimen can be matched to the fruit specimen. All the specimens from a given accession lot are spread across the table, and the accession numbers on the are ium cases. Once the collections complete, or nearly so, all the newspapers and the labels are checked to make sure that they agree. The specimens are checked against \"listgen,\" the list of vouchers that the label-printing computer says we have collected for the genus; occasionally we have to search for missing ones. The specimens are sorted into sets, each containing one flower and one fruit. One set is for the Arboretum, one is to be used as a gift for the out-of-house authority if any (in return for an identification), and others are for exchange with the plant-records-office staff. They then make the necessary changes to all the records and prepare any needed metal record labels for us to hang on the plants. Having all the collection activity recorded on the project copy of the printout allows quick scanning of a genus to determine which specimens still need to be collected. Often the targeted plant cannot be found on the map; further searches may reveal that the plant died some time ago but was never cleared from the records, or that the plant is still on the grounds although its map entry has been inadvertently deleted. The most frustrating and unresolvable problem is the number of plants that do not flower, or that flower but do not produce mature fruits. Whatever the reason for this functional sterility, we must look at the plant again and again, season after season, on the chance that it will eventually become reproductive. 26 Susan Hardy Brown prepares herbanum specimens by gluing the pressed, dried material to archival-quality ragpaper sheets. Susan, formerly a volunteer and now a staff member, advises the volunteers who perform this specialized task. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. When we have both the flower and the fruit specimens from a given accession, its accession-number entry is highlighted on the project printout with a yellow marker. Since the accession-number entries form a column of their own in the printout, our goal is to highlight the entire column. Any entry needing a specimen is marked with a color-coded sticker, which makes the scanning procedure even easier. Volunteers copy the highlighting and the collection stickers to the project maps. The map stickers are especially help- ful in seeing a glance what is needed from particular map. Often we write the expected at a on date of collection teers the sticker. Our volun- particularly enjoy copying the highlight- ing to the maps, since it means that one more plant's collections are complete. The goal is to highlight the entire map. As this process nears completion, occasionally a plant turns up on the map (and the grounds) that is not in the printout or the \"live\" card file-just one more way in which the dual tracking system allows us to double check, or verify, the 27 accuracy of our record entries. The concluding map procedure will be to compare our project maps to the official plant-records maps to assure that they are in agreement. Our Goals and Looking to the Future As the 1988 collection season came to a close, our collection goals, as originally defined, were essentially complete. We have made a total of 7480 collections averaging three sheets apiece. Immature plants, most cultivars, and certain hybrids were excluded. Now our volunteer crews eagerly anticipate fresh computer-generated lists and maps, complete with collection markers, as we begin collecting specimens from newly maturing plants as well as those previously sterile. Highlights of five years of field-checking, status verification, and detective work have included resolving major problems with accessions on Peters Hill, in the Center Street Beds, in the Weld Street Tract, and along Linden Path. A variety of special collections, such as the honeysuckle family, the legume family, the rose family (especially the cherries, hawthorns, and mountain ashes), the hollies, the rhododendrons, and the willows presented complex mapping and records problems. As Realizing result, by the end of the grant period, 1743 missing plants, 1346 plants needing record labels, and 1349 other miscellaneous problems will have been reported to the plant records office. There remain a few plants, mostly vines on fences, that are still mapping or records mysteries. Working on the verification project has been very satisfying. Breaking the project into small parts gave us a multitude of small goals to accomplish and provided important built-in a rewards for both staff and volunteers. Our achievements (complementing the work of the plant-records-office staff and everyone else working with our living collections), plus implementation of BG-BASE, have helped us realize an exciting and long-sought objective. How rewarding it is to be out collecting in an area that had previously been a problem and to be able to find our targeted plant, complete with record label, exactly where the map says it should be! Our future visitors, whether amateur plant lovers or professional plant researchers, will be able to access and use our living collections with ease and confidence. cation Sandra Elsik supervises the project. collecting phase of the verifi- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal Benefits","article_sequence":7,"start_page":28,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24971","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eb726.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Christianson, Jeanne; Elsik, Sandra","article_content":"Volunteer Keepers of the Arnold Arboretum: Effective Program Design Yields Reciprocal Benefits jeanne Christianson and Sandra Elsik in the program has transformed me from a devoted but domestic gardener into a fervent disciple of horticulture:' \"Working passive Structuring for Success This quote by volunteer Mary Harrison captures the spirit of commitment felt by the many individuals who, with their contribution of time, support the curation and management of the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum. In three separate but interrelated areas, they have collected specimens for the verification project, field-checked for the plant records office, and mounted specimens in the herbarium. Other dedicated volunteers work on virtually every aspect of the Arboretum. (See past and future issues of Arnoldia for articles on their work.) Although only about half of the Arboretum's volunteers are described in this article, we are deeply indebted to all of them. Using the words of the volunteers themselves, we hope to make others aware of how much our volunteers have contributed and express our gratitude for their tremendous help. There is no typical profile of the Arnold Arboretum volunteer; their backgrounds and interest in the program differ greatly. This diversity has added an element of interest and enjoyment for everyone involved. The group includes retired people now studying botany, horticulture, or home gardening as a second career; avid home gardeners who desire to help a worthwhile institution while gaining useful knowledge and contact with a professional staff; people working in related careers (as landscape designers, nurserymen, or arborists) seeking to enhance their knowledge of plants; others (secretaries, nurses, administrators, or homemakers\/mothers of young children) who are involved in unrelated careers but are seeking a balance in their lives; and a few who simply enjoy the altruistic satisfaction of helping a worthwhile institution. \"To contribute in any small way to help at the Arboretum is rewarding to me,\" reported Helen Hagopian. Some go to great lengths to find the time to help: one volunteers on his vacation days, one day at a time; a few work on limited weekend shifts. The amount of time worked by each volunteer ranged from ten to hundreds of hours. Many have become devoted to the Arboretum: some have worked in more than one area and ten have participated for the entire five years covered by this article. Of the three interrelated areas, the verification project has required the most massive input of volunteer hours. (See the article on collecting by Sandra Elsik) Without volunteer assistance, the project would have taken many years and been prohibitively costly. Fortunately, working with the plants on the grounds has proven a highly desirable volunteer position, so there has never been a shortage of enthusiastic assistants; since January, 1984, 84 volunteers have worked a total of 6809 hours. They have collected herbarium specimens, gathered the data needed for the specimen labels, and performed numerous less-exciting, but equally important, associated indoor tasks. During the collection 29 phase of the verification project, teams of two volunteers and one staff member have worked a regularly scheduled three-hour shift each week of the collecting season. The number of volunteers needed for collecting has steadily decreased as this phase of the project has neared completion. The first collection season, in the spring of 1984, required 38 volunteer assistants; in the fall of 1988, only 13 were needed to collect the few remaining specimens. In the plant records office volunteers have field-checked countless acres of the grounds, replacing damaged and missing labels and helping to provide the information necessary to the curation of the collection; they have ingly independent functions with a sense of accomplishment at the end of each shift. They have had the additional satisfaction of working on a long-term project that is maka very valuable contribution to both the institution and the science of botany. Susan Dumaine noted that she was \"fascinated by ing and learned from the complex yet facile organization and resourcefulness of both the plants and the project's leader over the past five growing seasons.\" Survey Elucidates Volunteer Motivations To assess the feelings of our volunteers about their involvement in the project, we conducted an informal survey. We discovered that assisted in records retrieval and maintenance and in the updating of nomenclatural reference files. Nine volunteers have worked in this department, three of them for the entire five years. (See the article on the plant records office by Jennifer Quigley.) In the herbarium 15 volunteers have mounted herbarium specimens. The process of arranging and gluing a dried specimen onto a sheet of archival paper is meticulous and time consuming, requiring artistic and scientific sensitivity as well as great patience. It does, however, offer the opportunity to examine a number of interesting plant specimens closely. Elaine Foster noted that \"volunteerhas made me much more aware of ing what goes on in an arboretum and given me a greater appreciation of plants and their importance to the environment, [as well as allowing me to work] with friendly, helpful staff in pleasant surroundings.\" Volunteer satisfaction, productivity, and longevity has been unusually high on livingcollections projects. \"I never have had a more satisfactory or rewarding volunteer job,\"said Mary Wolcott, and Kathleen Warren felt that \"the system appealed to my sense of order and to my training as an indexer.\"One factor contributing to this success has been the organization and structure of the volunteeer work ... assignments. Clearly structured, sensitively supervised responsibilities have provided volunteers with room to grow into increas- \"I had always taken trees for granted unless they were doing something 'special' like blooming or putting on their fall colors. Now I look at the features of each type of tree-leaf texture, growth charactensticsand can appreciate them for being plain ol' green!\" (Kathy Groves). Shown isa leaf detail of Viburnum furcatum, our specimen from wild-collected matenal gathered In Japan by E. H. Wilson m 1915. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. 30 their of reward for their labors was far more than the tangible benefits of free membership and courses. The unique opportunity for detailed, experiential learning from a living botanical collection and a professional staff was frequently cited as a highly valued benefit. Below are some of the statements that we received: sense I loved learning the Latm names. It helped me to understand the value of classical Latm 2014 its root words and descriptive terminology are universally understood.-Susan Hardy Brown As a student m the Radcliffe Landscape Design Program, [I have found that] the hands-on education has been invaluable. Rather than being intimidated by lists of plants in books, we were able to learn the plants one at a time while we collected their flowers, described them on the field label, and made mental notes about their ornamental characteristics. Later, collecting the fruits reinforced our knowledge. -Sandra Jonas Volunteers sometimes became poetic when describing how the program allowed them to develop a greater sophistication in their perception of beauty, noting the subtleties in textures and shades within a monochrome, forms of bark, plant architecture, miniature designs, and fruiting structures. For Sophie Kulik these new images allowed her to \"gain a greater appreciation of the Arboretum as a place of natural beauty for all to enjoy.\" Others cited similar experiences: Of course one could go on about the endless opporfor discovering and appreciating the natural life in the Arboretum I especially remember the amazement and joy that swept over me when I first saw a Populus and an Acer flower under magnification 2014 the intricacy and splendor were tunities ... [I remember] sitting the grass dissecting a tiny flower to finally learn the difference between a bract, a petal, and a sepal, or finding and identifying the ovary, style, and stigma. [We had] lengthy team discussions to give an exact color: \"Is it red?\" \"Scarlet?\" \"Try rust.\"... I had resisted the metric system at the gas tank, but by using it in the project it became a part of my vocabulary and I could think m terms of it.-Barbara Epstem on beyond words!-JoAnn Whitehead [Volunteering gave me] the opportunity to pursue botany and taxonomy with a staff who patiently answered all my questions and generously shared knowledge of nomenclature, plant lore, and a love of botanical structures.-Roberta Zmman Hard to summarize 25 years. In addition to the fel- lowship of working with the staff, the Arboretum has \"opened our eyes\" to what goes on with plants-a a rare opportunity for anyone lucky enough to have access to it.-Richard Warren Even after 15 years of volunteering, I find that I learn something each tune I go-from the collection, and from contact with the staff and other volunteers. Where else could I find such an opportumty?-Mane Dempsey Working at the Arboretum is a marvelous opportunity to observe plants at all seasons with an eye toward their use m landscaping: their forms, seasonal effects, disease and drought resistance, and hardiness. [It has been] a gold mine of horticultural information. 2014 Ellen Bennett Mounting leaf specimens for the Arnold Arbore- \"After seeing the fantastic-looking acorns of Quercus a vanabilis, we purchased seedling at the plant sale and gave it to some friends when their child was born\" (Mima Weissmann). The large acorns of this species, an East Asian oak, are enclosed in a bold and dramatic cup. Such details, often overlooked by visitors, are frequently encountered by volunteers. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. pleasant way to educate yourself about geography, botany, and artistry. 2014 Lillian Hagopian tum is a 31 \"Observing a leaf pattern-the bark of a tree2014 it was a horticultural class hard to come by\" (Genevieve Good). are the barks of a fapanese cherry, Prunus apetala (left), and an East Asian oak, Quercus vanabilis (nght). Photographs courtesy of Rdcz and Debreczy Shown here Working as a volunteer m the verification project has provided me with a very special familiarity with the Arboretum, to meet plants at both flowering and fruiting times and to discover the amazing variety of forms that exist It is truly refreshing to the soul to be outdoors each week, appreciating the natural beauty abounding in the Arboretum.-Anne Gamble so many wonders exquisite branches decked with gardenias in July; the bright red seeds of Magnolia dancing on silken threads; the fruit of Cornus kousa, as safely edible as it looks; Calycanthus with its discrete dark red flowers blooming shyly behind the main borders of the roadway; autumn witch hazel quietly blooming in October unseen amid its yellowing leaves.. These are the bounties of the volunteer... I have lived with the Arboretum on my doorstep for half my life and am grateful to the program for enablmg me to get to know it intimately at last.-Mary Harrison I have been introduced to its Stewarna, a chance to observe them closely, not Just when they are bloommg. How rewarding that can be1 For mstance, when we were checking the map. Prunus collection, it was pmg and labeling in the m October and the Prunus plums were fully ripe 2014 yellow, purple, orange, and blue. Our job description did not call for fruit sampling, but taste them we did. Tmy m comparison to their supermarket relatives but much more flavorful Shall we call this a fringe benefit?2014 Bob Siegel you get out collecting we stopped to look at Symplocos, also known as sapphire berry. There it was, right on the road between the lilac beds and the greenhouse, and it was covered with the most incredibly blue berries1 Apparently they only last a Once while the Working with the living collections gets you off the ... beaten paths of the Arboretum You see genera and species you might not otherwise see. And few weeks before the color darkens or the birds eat them. In 18 years of visits to the Arboretum, I had never walked by at the right moment1 Last week someone looked at one of the vases I had made and said it reminded her of water and trees-no drawings or any graphic representations 2014 just the vase itself. I took it as a great compliment, and I know that being out on the grounds has been a constant .. inspiration to me.-Mima Weissmann 32 33 My five-year collection trip at the Arnold Arboretum-the landscape was spectacular, the species exotic, and the natives very congenial. 2014 Sue Erwin We would like to give special recognition to the following Arboretum visitors that we have observed on the grounds. The Globetrotter Award: to the Brazilian cardinal seen flitting around the Visitor Center in the fall of 1986. The Most Dedicated Workers Medal' to the rangers who stalked us as we were submerged in the ten-foot flowering Jerusalem artichokes. The Best Hunters. to the red-tailed hawks who routinely catch the odd snake and the not-soodd Norway rat The Most Perfect Timing Award' to the mystery picker with his rake who combs the lowbush bluebernes under the pmes Just before we get there.-Nell Walker beautiful surroundings, out of doors, and in congenial company. The physical challenge is there for anyone aged 72, and a lot more fun than contrived exercises.-Ruth Griffin The staff or is fun to work with, or ram or shine, hot cold, grubbing on knees high in trees.-Ellen Bennett helping to unravel and set straight the confusion caused by missing and misplaced labels (I can still hear the shouts of triumph when one of us would discover a label, presumed missmg, under half a foot of oak-leaf mulch') and the satisfaction that I was part of the laudable effort to assure the taxonomic correctness of the Arboretum's records. 2014 Dick Brooks ... the discovery of unusual fruits [such as] those tenms-ball-green osage oranges.. To actually be allowed to pick the blossoms and collect the fruits at their peak of development was such a privilege It was like being Eve in the Garden of Eden and being given permission to pick the apples.... Collecting the silverbells (Halesia) was special. I had known about them from the poem \"In Praise of Silverbells,\" . which my mother had written. To describe them on the label became a challenge. Was the flower \"shellpink, like a tropical atoll,\" as my mother described? 2014 Susan Hardy Brown Volunteers also enjoyed working with a that provided opportunities for socializwhile the work was being accomplished. ing The friendships developed and ideas exchanged were a valuable bonus. In addition, the team format provided a predictable work environment and an interdependency that encouraged consistent attendance and involvement. In their words: team Volunteers and staff were challenged, both physically and mentally, by the rigors of working on the grounds (and in an old building lacking adequate climate control). Fortunately, such difficulties were usually perceived as part of the fun; camaraderie and dedication prevailed. Again, as our volunteers tell it: Regardless of exhaustion from the ram, heat, or cold in which we might have worked, I still felt exhilarated over what we had accomplished. -Barbara Epstein to Pleasant work with pleasant people made my time here each week a special segment of my life; a time to be with nature and a time to leam.-Pnscilla Ryan Working with a team was great because it provided the opportunity to explore the deepest, remotest areas I wouldn't have felt comfortable exploring alone. The people were great. We seemed to speak a common language, loving nature and our environment I've made very special friends who have taught me so much and brought a richer dimension to my life and to my art -Susan Hardy Brown There is life after retirement! It's good to be able participate in something ongoing.. and that in Although many of the volunteers surveyed for this article reported deriving great benefits and pleasures from their work at the Arboretum, the interaction is clearly reciprocal. It is difficult to say who benefits more. In addition to the tasks accomplished, the Arbore- \"In my mind's eye it is always January the month of my first visit to the Arboretum, when the tree architecture and the distinctive colors and markIngs of the bark are most apparent. I now know it at every month of the year, each month with its own special beauty\" (Pauline Perkms). Although this winter study shows them to have a wide range of branching patterns, all of these linden trees (Tilia) would have the same canopy profile in the summer. Since a living collection is located withm a particular climate, these structural differences in cultivated specimens reflect genetic differences inherent m the plants rather than environmental factors. Left to right, top to bottom: Tilia x flavescens, T. paucicostata, T. cordata, T. neglecta, T. japonica, T. americana, T. tomentosa, T. petiolaris, T. platyphyllos. Photographs courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. 34 bers and supporters educates them about the role and function of an arboretum. For Westy Lovejoy the frequent and intimate contact with the living collections, and the process of curation, gave her \"a better understanding of the quantity and quality of the Arboretum's collections;'as well as an appreciation for the scientific role of the institution and its importance to the world at large. Volunteers develop a sense of ownership and pride. For Caroline Blake her work meant \"learning more of the Arboretum, and thus feeling more a part of it' Thus they become more determined in their support and spread their enthusiasm to friends. Curation If the Arboretum is to flourish, it must continue to encourage this kind of involvement and commitment by the public as well as the scientific community. Part of the Arboretum's gains another important, less obvious long-term benefit. The involvement of memturn Never-Ending \"..The magic Metasequoia, tours\" (Mary Harrison). The trunks elegant in its winter conof the dawn redm wood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, grown country are ous this often dramatically buttressed and sinuPhotograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. mission must be to educate and inspire people to appreciate and make a commitment to \"Assisting in the phase of the verification project dealing with the genus Rhododendron has given me the opportunity to become more intimately famihar with this extraordmarily large and diverse genus\" (Dick Brooks). Rhododendron yakusimanun, shown here, is native to Japan. Photograph courtesy of Rjcz and their environment. Curation of a world-class botanical collection requires enormous longterm effort and resources. Although the effective management of a comprehensive volunteer program requires an investment of staff time and facility resources, the benefits to the organization make it clearly worthwhile. In the words of Peter Ashton, \"Each year new plants are tried in the Arboretum collections, some never before cultivated. Each year we must curate these introductions and celebrate their first flowering. So the greatest news of all is that the work will go on, and we will continue to need you, our volunteers!\" Jeanne Chnstianson is the membership, volunteer, and visitor-services coordmator at the Arnold Arboretum. Sandra Elsik supervises the collecting phase of the verification Debreczy. project. 35 Living-Collections Volunteers, January, 1984, VERIFICATION PROJECT to December, 1988 Mima Amy Kosmidis, Roslmdale Weissmann, Jamaica Avery, Medford John Bailey, Dover *Ellen Bennett, Weston Sue Sophie Kulik, Roslindale Plain Mary Jeanne Langevm, Milton Annie Lomuto, Jan Whitaker, Jamaica Plain JoAnn Whitehead, Jamaica Plain Caroline Blake, Dover Dick Brooks, Concord Wellesley Tony Bryan, Boston Susan Burke, Brighton John Carey, Norwood Janet Christrop, Jamaica Plain Tom Westy Lovejoy, Boston Betty MacKenzie, Dorchester Barbara Mahon, Jamaica Plain Louise Mary Wolcott, Manchester Wolkoff, Somerville 'Roberta Zmman, Newton Karen PLANT RECORDS OFFICE Makepeace, Warwick, Betty Jacobson, Dover Amy Kosmidis, Roslmdale Joseph Merriam, Brookline Jean Rosenberg, Arlington Donna Rowland, Jamaica Plain *Bob Siegel, Hingham 'Nell Walker, Lexington Jan Wampler, Jamaica Plain 'Richard Warren, Dedham Rhode Island Coulson, Chestnut Boston Dohlman, Weston Hill Susan Carin Davis, Phyllis Marx, Newton Melmda McCall, Jamaica Plain Melana McCann, Jamaica Plain Margaret Donahue, Watertown Paul Donnelly, Squantum Jean Dricker, Brookline * Susan Susan Dumame, Weston Dwyer, Norwood 'Barbara Epstein, Newton Centre *Sue Erwin, Cambridge Don Falk, Cambridge Terry McKiernan, Cambridge Jane McKmnell, Boston Peg Megowen, Carlisle Jane Morss (deceased), Chestnut Hill Melanie Moses, Cambridge Vincent O'Gorman, Chestnut Hill C. J. Patterson, Norwell Pauline Perkms, Brockton Robert Perkms, Jr., Cambridge HERBARIUM, PREPARATION SPECIMEN Esther Fich, Wmthrop Gerhold Fitz, Roslmdale Ruth Fried, Roxbury Sandra Fnedman, Wellesley Barbara Fnshkopf, Lexington Anne Gamble, Brookline Barbara Gard, Norwell Niki Gilsdorf, Cambridge Genevieve Good, Cohasset Ruth Griffin, Brighton Kathy Groves, Sherborn Helen Hagopian, Wellesley Susan Mary Ashton, Carlisle Caroline Blake, Dover Kathleen Daly, Jamaica Plain Marie Peterson, Cambridge Margaret Pfitzer, Boston Betty Porter, Concord Jean Rosenberg, Arlington Liz Ruth, Brookline Pnscilla Ryan, Somerville Karen Dempsey, Lexington Elame Foster, Chestnut Hill Sandra Fnedman, Wellesley *Lillian Hagopian, Wellesley Susan Liz Sargent, Boston Anne Shuhler, Cambridge Hardy Brown, Jamaica Plain Hardy Brown, Jamaica Plain Mary Harrison, Cambridge Haskell, Cohasset Isabel Horan, West Roxbury Laverna Shirley Hyland, Cambridge Sandra Jonas, Newton Anne Joseph, Whitman Andrea Knowles, North Billenca Siegel, Belmont Marjorie Smith, Cambridge Magen Solomon, Northampton *Lester Stockman, Roxbury Kathy Terzi, Jamaica Plain Elaine Tsomides, Brookline Jan Wampler, Jamaica Plain Kathleen Warren, Dedham 'Richard Warren, Dedham Ann Waters, Jamaica Plain Hiltrud Mary Harnson, Cambridge Sophie Kulik, Roslmdale Barbara O'Connor, Auburndale Ciba Vaughan, Cambridge Kathleen Warren, Dedham Mima Karen Weissmann, Jamaica Plain Wolkoff, Somerville *Five-year commitment. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"To Each a Name: Verifying the Living Collections","article_sequence":8,"start_page":36,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24970","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eb36d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Michener, David C.","article_content":"Tb Each a Name: Verifying the Living Collections David C. Michener in the living collections is assistance from around the world Identifying the plants a challenging task requiring Charles Sargent, founding director of the Arnold Arboretum, was determined that the newly established arboretum would have unrivaled living collections of woody plants native to all parts of the Temperate Zone. Also to be unrivaled was the documentation of each acquisition. This driving passion to amass the most and the best, so familiar to art collectors and often seen in founders of great institutional collections, was demonstrated early on in what can be called the \"quest for wild ash trees.\" The Quest case begins on March 12, 1878, when seeds of an ash (Fraxinus) were received from the Imperial Botanic Garden, St. Petersburg (now Leningrad), Russia. The seed lot was accessioned as number 1061, and if more than one seedling survived the early years we have no note of it. Although the resulting tree was listed in 1924 as missing, it remains on Bussey Hill, where it has matured into a magnificent specimen. Most botanical institutions would be pleased to have records as detailed as this (let alone the plant!), but our work on the verification project has shown that the records of the Arboretum are often a good deal in botanical Latin) into sections: those collected from within the garden first, and those from various czarist expeditions separately by expedition or region at the end. Our ash was recorded with the note of \"Regel,\"an obscure reference until one examines the seed lists from the 1870's and observes the recurrent section entitled Semina in regionibus Thrkestanicis ab A. Regel collecta. Our plant is thus evidently linked to, and representative of, ,~ Our more informative. Sargent's passion was not easily placated. This ash tree represented no ordinary acquisition. On delving into our archives and library, we were led to our very rare set of the seed lists published by the Imperial Botanic Garden. The anonymous compilers of the seed list meticulously divided the listings (all so The seed that grew into this specimen of Fraxmus an- accession number 1061, was collected on a czarist expedition to Thrkestan during the last century. Wild-collected materi- gustifolia subsp. als oxycarpa, our are a special focus of the Arnold Arboretum. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy. 37 a wild population in Turkestan! Sargent had wanted authentic material of unquestioned identity; the seeds that could be obtained from trees already growing in the Imperial Botanic Garden (they are listed, too) were inadequate for his exacting vision of the Arnold Arboretum's collections. Only wildcollected seed would do. One final confirming note appeared that depends upon details recorded in our original entry. Modern-day botanists consider the plant to be Fraxinus angustifolia Vahl subspecies oxycarpa (Bieb. ex Willd.) Afonso, but in Sargent's time other names were in use. This seed was received under the then-current name of Fraxinus potamophila Herderexactly the name used in the list of seeds collected by Regel and distributed by the Imperial Garden. Why Verify? The purpose of verifying a research arboretum's living collection is to ascertain that the plants are what they are claimed to be. For the Arnold Arboretum the underlying questions concern each accession's source documentation (where and how we obtained it), its identity and name (what it is), and our confidence in the accuracy of the first two responses. Answering these questions takes one through a procedure involving the plants on the grounds; the records, inventory maps, and archives; references in the library; and a major herbarium. For some taxonomically difficult genera we have also enlisted the assistance of outside specialists. One important aspect of verification is easily overlooked: years hence, the collection will be verified again, and the current staff must leave a documented trail of how and why they did their review and made their decisions, or else much of their work will be uninterpretable to the next generation of curators, researchers, and serious visitors. The value of this \"audit trail\" has been learned through the omissions of others. If only the past could speak! Answering the three questions posed above is the primary challenge of the verification project. In addition to distinguishing all the standards of sciensignificance (horticultural and historical significance are also important and will continue to be evaluated separately, although sometimes all types of significance are intertwined-see box), we are ensuring that the botanical names used in the collection are in keeping with current technical reference works. We are also attempting to make our approach to the collections consistent, regardless of staff interests, so that they can be critically evaluated for further renewal and development. Although not initially defined as a project goal, the development of BG-BASE became an operational necessity to tie together our curatorial information scattered among the records office, archives, library, and herbarium. This verification review will be used to focus the collection and acquisition of new plants, and to identify and aid in scheduling removal of existing plants that fail our criteria of scientific, horticultural, or historical value. As such, this project is a modern expression of the Arboretum's ongoing and episodic processes of renewal, more information on which can be found in Stephen Spongberg's article on the history of the living collections. accessions that meet our tific The Verification Process Verification of our collections is a conceptually simple, four-step process of voucher collection, documentation review, taxonomic verification, and record updating. This may already sound dreadfully dry, but it is far from it. One has to replace a dull expectation of glorified inventory control with a probing mindset that is always querying whether each accession is fully documented and, if necessary, determining how more information can be resurrected. Then comes the excitement of the taxonomic chase and the constant learning caused by working with the plants themselves. The first step in verification is to acquire high-quality reference specimens. These specimens are the focus of the subsequent verification activity. The curatorial issues involved in vouchering and specimen prepa- 38 History, Horticulture, and Science Also noted is the early propagation history of the solitary plant. \"Four cuttings and a layer were made. Two cuttings rotted in the pots. Of the other two, one was sent to the Museum [implicitly Paris], the other to Kew. The layer will be sent to Mr. Sargent\" (R. Andre, Davidia involucrata, Revue Horticole, 1902, p. 378; translation by the author). Evidently our passionate collector of wild trees and shrubs, \"Mr. Sargentwas well enough known that no further identification was needed even in the French horticultural literature. As a modern aside, we have a second accession of Davidia involucrata var. vilmoriniana that was received in 1911 from the English nursery of J. Veitch. This was the firm for which the Arnold Arboretum's great plant collector Ernest \"Chinese\" Wilson had once worked. Does this accession represent a different population of Chinese Davidia collected on a Veitch expedition Just as museum holdings are reviewed and verified so that the acquisitions can be recertified and directions for further development identified, so too are major living collections reevaluated. The focus of review may be on the piece's authenticity (who created it) and cultural milieu an art (its relation to other works of the same period). In a living collection of international significance, be it an arboretum or a zoo, the focus is on the identity, provenance (wild collected or original horticultural introduction), and documentation of the organisms. A collection based on wild-collected plants and seeds has been a fundamental strength of the Arnold Arboretum. Our wild-collected accessions form the core scientific collection, since new information about these plants can be extrapolated back to the natural population. This is an important intellectual link for some forms of research in ecology, population biology, and systematics-alink that is tenuous or nonexistent with material of garden or undocumented origin because such plants may represent hybrids, back-crosses, or subtle genetic recombinants that are unlikely ever to have been found in nature. The verification project has clarified the wild-collected status of numerous accessions. Ascertaining the wild source of our plants can involve sleuthing in obscure and beautiful publications. One example involves our dove tree, Davidia involucrata var. vilmoriniana, accession number 5159. Its identity has never been questioned, but its records-\"layer, Vilmorin, 1904\"-were enticingly incomplete. A quick review of the French publication Revue Horticole (possibly by Wilson), or is it a cutting from, perhaps, the plant Vilmorin had sent to Kew only a few years earlier? If the latter, then our two accessions are really just clones of one plant, and our Davidia collection is not genetically diverse and is very restricted for certain types of comparative intellectual inquiry. Questions of genetic identity are becoming important in modern curation and plant conservation, but few botanical institutions have yet addressed the genetic diversity (as opposed to the taxonomic diversity) found in their collections. In cooperation with a team at Iowa State University, we have a pilot study underway to resolve our Davidia questions through the use of protein electrophoresis. Under controlled laboratory conditions this methodology detects combined electrical and mobility differences in specific proteins synthesized by the plants; such differences can be interpreted to indicate genetic differences and similarities. This is the Arnold Arboretum's opening foray into molecular methods of curation. turned up a series of notes and articles on Davidia and its introduction by the Vilmorin Nursery. Modest amounts of seed had been obtained from two wild sources in 1897 and 1898, but only one seed, from the lot collected in \"Se Tchuen\" [Szechuan, China, according to additional collection data now in our records], ever germinated. 39 ration are discussed by Sandra Elsik elsewhere in this issue. The linkage of the plants on the grounds to the documentation kept in the plant records office is checked during the col- lection of these voucher specimens. Careful vouchering is absolutely critical to the success of the entire project, for if the specimens are gathered from the wrong plant, the accession numbers, records, and subsequent determinations will become almost hopelessly confused. If the voucher-records link is lost, then any subsequent taxonomic verification becomes useless. It should now be clear why the Arnold Arboretum invests such staff and financial resources in the records office and the mapping function, as well as in the development of BG-BASE (see the article by Kerry Walter): the quality of our records and their unambiguous linkage to the plants on the grounds define us. Source Documentation Documentation verification has one purpose: to find out all there is to know about the ultimate source of the plant in question. The ultimate source is where the plant was collected in the wild or, if a cultivar, the place or nursery where it was first found, described, or introduced. Once this ultimate source is known, many taxonomic and curatorial questions can be precisely refocused. The immediate source, by contrast, is the person or institution from which the Arnold Arboretum obtained the plant material. In the ash-tree Botanic Garden in St. Petersburg, while the ultimate source was in Turkestan. Our Davidia trees are in peak bloom in late May. Although our onginal accessions were obtained from two different sources, they are morphologically indistinguishable Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. plant to our list of wild-collected or horticulturally significant plants. more example Imperial the immediate source was the Identities and Names Taxonomic verification focuses on determining the proper identity and correct name for each accession and, as appropriate, any former of the plant. These former names, called synonyms, are the result of a variety of historical and philosophical factors. Resolving the proper name from synonyms is an important part of taxonomic verification, since different accessions of the same kind of plant can be listed under several names. This falsely inflates the nomenclatural diversity of the collection and leads the curators astray. The basic operating procedure in taxonomic verification is the comparison of our voucher names The records-office staff has a strong tradition of keeping increasingly detailed records of the ultimate, rather than just the immediate, sources of our plants. Many earlier accessions have only tantalizing notes from the immediate source-notes that indicate or imply that more was once known and may again be knowable about the accessions. Focused sleuthing in contemporary journals, seed lists, monographs, reference tomes, and archival materials yields occasional but invaluable results. It is satisfying to ferret out a significant ultimate source and thereby add one 40 specimens from the living collections to known reference specimens or descriptions. This process sounds easy enough, but in practice it is the most difficult and timeconsuming aspect of verification. Since familiarity with obscure technical details of plant structure and morphology is essential in many of the taxonomically difficult genera, we asked many out-of-house authorities if they would accept a set of specimens from our collection in return for their identifications. Botanists from around the world have assisted in this challenging task; without their help this project would have been greatly compromised. Arboretum botanists have identified the specimens of the remaining genera. Taxonomic verification is an exciting challenge that keeps the heart young and the ego in place. In the current project it is performed genus by genus. Once the majority of our voucher specimens of a particular genus have been delivered to the herbarium and mounted, they are sorted into accessionnumber sequence without regard to their current name. At this point any preexisting vouchers for the same accession number (some dating to the late 1800's) are pulled from the herbarium and inserted into the same numerically ordered stacks. The purpose of this step is to gather together all the herbarium vouchers (flowers, fruits, leaves, and winter twigs) that have ever been made for an accession regardless of the particular name under which each sheet may have been filed. This way, once the material is reidentified, all the sheets will have the same name and will be refiled together in the herbarium. We are then able to enter all the vouchers into the data base. This \"sort-by-numbers\" step rectifies the drift in names that we have experienced over time, when within a single accession some sheets exhibiting the taxonomically critical features have had their names changed while other sheets that lack these seasonally displayed features remained under an old name (a synonym). Genetic Lineages Once the stack is in numerical sequence, we work from the newest specimen back to the oldest. This allows us to pick up the allcritical genetic lineage, which is continued whenever the greenhouse staff asexually propagates a plant (as by cuttings rather than from seed). The mother and daughter plants are links in a genetic lineage. For some of our accessions, there are many sequential links to the lineage. By working with the newest accessions, we can find all the vouchers of the older ones that make up the genetic lineage and compare them to each other. Since all must be the same genotype, all must be morphologically similar (allowing, for example, for juvenility and differences between dry and wet years). If the mother and daughter plants are too different at this stage, we presume that some sort of a mix-up has occurred. The daughter plants that do not match the mother plant cease to be of scientific interest since they are effectively undocumented specimens. This sort of error is fortunately uncommon, but it must always be guarded against. Now comes the taxonomic fun. Taxonomic determination has two parts: determining what a plant is, and then which name is proper. Notice that identity and name are distinct. Although any object has only one identity, it may pass under several names; under the rules of botanical nomenclature, only one name is correct (with few exceptions), and the other ones that have been used are synonyms. Deciding which name is the correct name and which ones are synonyms often requires a good deal of library and herbarium work. Determining the correct identity of the plant now represented by a suite of herbarium specimens (all with the same accession number but often collected over a period of years, and some sheets bearing old names) requires access to a major reference library and herbarium. The Arnold Arboretum is fortunate in being part of the Harvard University Herbaria and the Botanical Libraries of Harvard University : superb resources are near at hand. Next one needs to know the ultimate source of the plant, since geographic origin is one of the most critical keys to all the technical references. In our work we accept for the moment that the plant name in the records office is correct. 41 We look at the immediate and ultimate sources to determine if the accession represents a wild population, and if it does we directly to the floras of that part of the (A flora is a technical manual to all the plants growing within a defined geographic unit.) If there is no modern flora for the area, we use whatever monographs can be found in the library. (A monograph is a major work by move world. monograph or flora and use the nomenclature presented there. When the two (flora and monograph) are in conflict and essentially of the same date, we usually follow the monograph, since it was written by a specialist who should have resolved many of the clatural problems. nomen- one or a few authors that treats an entire family on a regional, continental, or worldwide basis.) We check for monographs genus even or if there is a modem flora in order to track down more synonyms and to find alternate treatments of the genus, since taxonomic concepts change over time and differ between philosophical schools. These books are entered into BG-BASE and cross-referenced to the genus and family names so that future curators will know which sources were consulted in making judgment calls. Finally, we check our understanding of the species by reference to wild-collected herbarium specimens and then make our taxonomic determinations. Why not proceed directly to the herbarium and skip the library work? With that course one runs the risk of mistaking one of several closely related species for the plant at hand-we need to know not only what the plant is, but also what is related or superficially similar and how to differentiate them. On rare occasions we discover that we need to see the accession under review in life, so we go out to look at the living plant, or postpone the determination until the season when the plant will be displaying the necessary characteristics. Once we are satisfied with our determination (which by now may not be the determination given on the label), we have to find the proper name. Botanical nomenclature works on a system of historical priority, but this can become quite arcane. As an operating procedure, we usually defer to the most recent consists of putting the each voucher specimen (with an annotation label) and relaying the same information to the records office. As an internal check, a month is allowed to pass between the time when we make our report to the records office and the time when the report takes effect. During this month any staff member may query the determinations and comment upon them. From time to time, this system not only promotes an exchange of views, opinions, and observations about our plants but also allows real and perceived errors in the work to surface so that the final report is as accurate as possible. The final part of records updating is adding all the voucher specimens examined to BG-BASE so that it will be clear which specimens were seen in the course of the review. This completes the audit trail for those who will depend upon and review our work in the years ahead. What is the result of all this work? Simply put, it is a well-curated reference collection in which one has confidence that the material is accurately identified and as fully documented as possible-acollection most capable of supporting the widest range of scientific, horticultural, educational, and aesthetic pursuits at all levels of intellectual Records Records updating correct name on rigor. David C. Michener is the program verification project. taxonomist for the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Designing a Computer-Software Application to Meet the Plant-Record Needs of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":42,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24962","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14e896b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Walter, Kerry S.","article_content":"Designing Kerry a Computer-Software Application to Meet the Plant-Record Needs of the Arnold Arboretum S. Walter allow The Arboretum's specially designed databases retrieving, updating, and sharing records unprecedented ease in gardens and arboreta around the world have kept records on the plants in their collections; in fact, such records are often considered to be a primary difference between a botanical garden and a display, or public, garden. These records usually track the name of the plant; its provenance (wild collected or from cultivated material); the source, kind, and number of plants received; the location on the grounds, in the nursery, or in the greenhouse; and, often, related curatorial and maintenance information on plant health, size, flowering, and fruiting. Without a plant-record system, a botanical garden cannot manage its collection and in fact does not have a truly scientific collection. However, there are almost as many different record systems as there are gardens using them; a recent survey by the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (Bowden & Brown, 1988) showed a tremendous variation in plant-record systems, most unable to communicate electronically with one another. This article describes the development of international standards for transfer of plant records, and a software application built around those standards. For hundreds of years, botanical so that plants can be found by where they occur on the grounds. There is no stan- maps, dard format for accession cards-some institutions use preprinted forms, while others write or type on blank cards. The trend today is to use preprinted cards, so that similar information will show up in more or less the same on each card, making data retrieval faster and less prone to error. Such forms, however, are seldom flexible enough to track all desired information for all plants, especially those that have remained in the collection over a period of several decades or more; this often necessitates the use of follow-up cards clipped or stapled to the printed card. There is even less standardization in how accession books and maps are kept by differ- place ent institutions. Many gardens and arboreta, including the Arnold Arboretum, keep both accession books and a card file. Accession books are normally arranged in order of accession number, while cards are usually interfiled by the name of the plant. This allows the user to find information about a plant in either of two ways-by knowing its accession number or by knowing its name-and is better than keeping records in only one place and in only one order. However, there are still several problems associated even with this dual system. First, all data must be typed (or written) twice, once in the accession book and once on the card. Second, if information is subsequently changed in one place (for instance, if the name of an accession is changed), it must be altered Manual Record Systems Until the advent of electronic computers several decades ago, all records were kept manually, usually in accession books and\/or card files; an additional method of organizing information is to maintain a collection of 43 (and re-filed) in the other place, too. Third, there is often only one copy of each set of information, thus restricting access (at the Arnold Arboretum, the current year's accession book is kept at the Dana greenhouse complex, about two-fifths of a mile from the Hunnewell Visitors' Center and plant records office, where the card file is maintained and the old accession books are located). Fourth, there are numerous requests that cannot be readily answered with the information physically sorted and stored in only one or two orders; for instance, if a visitor only knows a common name or is interested in finding plants collected in a particular country or received from a specific nursery or botanical garden, the information is nearly unretrievable. This last problem is really the most serious one: a card-based record system requires that the records (cards) be physically re-sorted for each category desired. Some botanical gardens have partially solved this problem by making one or more photocopies of each accession card and then filing the copies by common name, by country of origin, and so on; however, this solution exacerbates the problem of updating the records, since there are multiple copies of the same information, all of which must be changed. An additional problem, common to all record systems but especially serious for manually kept ones, is that of security-in a fire or other catastrophe, the entire \"institutional memory\" could be destroyed. What is ideally needed is a single centralized source of information with the records concurrently sorted in various ways and copies simultaneously available at many sites. Such a system ensures that consistent data will be presented in a variety of formats to simultaneous users and that the information is not prone to catastrophic loss. This is exactly what a well-designed computer database can do. Arboretum, the Tyler Arboretum, and Longwood Gardens all moved their records to computers in the late 1960's; the Tennessee Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, computerized its plant records in 1969 (Anonymous, 1984). Beginning in the early 1970's, many other gardens, including the Arnold Arboretum, filled out special accession cards and sent them to a centralized record center (now known as the Plant Sciences Data Center) managed by the American Horticultural Society (MacDonald, Olson, & MacDonald, 1967; MacDonald & Reed, 1967). In the early days of mainframe computing, data entry was done laboriously through punched cards, keypunches, or paper tape; not surprisingly, the computerized versions of these plant records tended to be simple designs storing relatively little information. In spite of its limitations, computerization of plant records allowed the novel and often and interest m using unanticipated questions, computers to manage plant records increased. The recent advent of powerful and relatively inexpensive microcomputers has made it possible for virtually all botanical gardens to maintain their plant records on desktop machines. Computerization per se does nothing to correct incomplete or inconsistent information in a manual system; at most, it highlights the problem areas. The first generation of computerized plant-record systems often mimicked the format of the card or accession book from which the data were taken. Such an approach, while easing the user's transition from card or book to computer, resulted in the typing, storage, and manipulation of much redundant information. For instance, if a garden had ten accessions of yellowwood, Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) K. Koch, the words \"Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) K. Koch,\" along with the family name \"Leguminosae\" and the common name \"yellowwood,\" would have to be typed on every card and into every record in the computer; the nearly inevitable typographical errors and inconsistencies in punctuation, abbreviation, and capitalization would result in inconsistent data being stored. Computers are much less forgiving than user to obtain answers to Early Computer-Based Record Systems Botanical gardens took the first steps toward computerizing their plant records over 20 years ago. In this country, the University of 44 Example of a portion of a simple flat-file database design employing a fixed-length structure. Ten records and six fields (accession number, genus, species, family, source, source number) of a fabricated database are shown. Four problems are particularly evident: data redundancy (the family name must be entered for every record, yet it is determmed by the name of the genus and therefore could be calculated for, not stored m, each record), data truncation and wasted space (a long generic name, x Crataegomespilus, had to be truncated because its held had not been deflned long enough, while other records with the genus value Acer contam a great deal of wasted space-shown here as dots; the family fields for Scrophulariaceae and Magnohaceae and the source number for accession 85-58 were also truncated), and data inconsistency (the various ways of citing \"Hillier Nursery\" and \"Hillier's,\" and of citing and abbreviating the Arnold Arboretum, Kew, and the Holden Arboretumas far as the computer is concerned, there are ten distinct plant sources here, not just four; the difference m spellmg between \"pseudoacacia\" and \"pseudo-acacia\"; and the assignment of Robinia in different records to two apparently distinct families, Fabaceae and Legummosae, which in fact represent different names for the same family). separate record for each accessioned plant). A record consists of a series of related pieces of information; these pieces are called fields, attributes, or descriptors (an accession record might have several fields-one for accession number, another for plant name, etc.). Each record can be located by its key field, which must be unique within the file. A field can store a value (for example, the value for the field called ACC.NUM in the file called ACCESSIONS might be 80-47). This simple, \"flat-file\" structure can be represented as a matrix of intersecting horizontal lines (records) and vertical columns (fields). Each box so formed will either contain a value or be empty. Usually these boxes are of a predetermined length (fixed-length field structure); a value that is longer than the allotted length (determined when the file is created) must be truncated, while one that is shorter than the length of the box must be padded with blanks to fill out the allotment. humans when it comes to inexact information, so that a computer asked to find all \"Cladrastis lutea (Michx.) K. Koch\" would not find \"Cladrastis lutea K. Koch\" nor would it locate \"CLADRASTIS LUTEA (MICHX.) K. KOCH.\" As noted above, if the name Cladrastis lutea had to be changed (as it has been, to Cladrastis kentukea (Dum.-Cours.) Rudd), every occurrence of that name would have to be updated in all the computer records, just as in a manual system; therefore, the early computerized records did little, if anything, to solve the problems of data redundancy and consistency. Relational Database Design As is true of nearly all disciplines, computer science has a large and specialized vocabulary; however, only a few technical terms are crucial to this discussion. A file or table is made up of a collection of records or tuples (for example, an accession file would contain a 45 nothing particularly simple or straightforward about plant records. These records are, by their very nature, complex things, far more complicated than the typical database records maintained by banks on people, accounts, and transactions, for instance. This complexity arises for a variety of reasons: 1) A scientific name is composed of a series of parts, some required, others optional, but each having to follow specific rules of nomenclature ; these names become extremely complex in the case of hybrids and graft-chimeras. 2) The name of an accession may change due to an original error or later taxonomic revision, yet in many cases both the \"correct\" and the \"incorrect\" names must be maintained in the system. 3) The same kind of plant may have several scientific names applied to it, each at a different taxonomic level (for instance, species vs. variety) or within different genera. 4) A genus may be assigned to different families by different authorities. 5) Some families have two equally valid scientific names. 6) Many common names may be associated with a single scientific name, or the same common name may apply to many scientific names. 7) A single accession is often composed of many individual plants, each with its own history of propagation, curation, and location. 8) These locations-past and current-are dynamic, since plants are often moved, or they may sprout in a new location or resprout in one from which they had been removed. 9) A plant may die, but its progeny may still be extant, either with the same accession number or with a different one. 10) An accession may have multiple sources (for example, a plant may have come to the Arnold Arboretum from the Missouri Botanical Garden, which received it from The Holden Arboretum, each institution having its own accession number). Trying to manage this complexity within the flat-file structure, espe- There is shared data banks\" (Codd, 1970) that was to revolutionize computerized database design. In it Codd laid out the mathematical model for implementing a series of files related to one another by shared fields, thereby reducing the amount of redundant information that must be stored. Instead of having to enter the same information into several records, as was necessary in the earlier, flat-file approach to database design, in a relational model the designer creates a series of files and writes short programs to link them together. In the case of the Arnold Arboretum's database design, for instance, the NAMES file contains information on each plant name (regardless of any accession-specific information); the ACCESSIONS file contains a record for each accession (regardless of any name-specific information); PSOURCES has a record for each plant source, and so on. Obviously, these files must be linked electronically, or one would never know what name went with an accession, but the database-management software (DBMS) handles that automatically. Understanding and using (and certainly designing) a relational model is somewhat more difficult than understanding and using a flat-file model, at least initially, since information is stored in physically separate files, but the benefits of being able to enter information only once about a particular kind of plant (such as its scientific and common names, its natural geographic range, its hardiness or other horticultural characteristics) and then have that information available for all accessions of that name far outweigh these initial difficulties. cially a fixed-length one, was nearly impossible and often resulted in designs that were so oversimplified that they could not capture the subtle interactions between the information in these fields. In 1970 an EBM researcher published a paper entitled \"A relational model of data for large The Need for International Information Standards-aBrief History of BG-BASE In March, 1985, before my involvement with either the Arnold Arboretum or the Center for Plant Conservation, I met with Hugh Synge, Duncan Mackinder, and others at the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), housed at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. We discussed the need for a mechanism whereby gardens anywhere in the world could share data, much as 46 ACCESSIONS FILE: 32-187%434%735%123 41-30007.5021%% 48-1058%434%735% 49-332%5714%30% 50-623%7783%408 52-76%1747%1%492-60 48-1058%434%735% 67-1%504%1%234-32 85-57%3549%408 85-58%5529%408%181-79-01748 87-526%5021%30% NAMES FILE: 4347.%Acer7.palmatum7.Thunb.7.Japanese Maple%Japan & Korea 504%%Acer%rubrum%L.%Red Maple%Eastern North America 1747%x%Crataegomespilus%grandiflora%(Smith) Bean% 3549%7Paulownia7.tomentosa%(Thunb.) Steudel%Royal Paulownia%China 50217.7.Robinia%pseudoacacia%L.7.Black Locust%Eastern U.S.A. 5529%%Spiraea%chamaedryfolia%L.%Germander Spirea%Northeastern Asia 5714%%Syringa%vularis%L.%Common Lilac%Hungary & Bulgaria 7783%%Magnolia%pyramidata%Bateman%%Southeastern U.S.A. GENERA FILE: - Acer%Aceraceae%7.Mapl e$Boxel der% Crataegomespi 1 us%Rosaceae%Pomoideae%%Crataegus$Mespi 1 us Magnolia%Magnoliaceae%%% Paulownia%Scrophulariaceae%%Princess Tree$Empress Tree% Robin ia%Leguminosae%Faboideae%Locust% Spiraea%Rosaceae%Spiraeoideae7.Spirea$Bridal-wreath7. Syringa7.01eaceae7.01eoideae%Lilac% PSOURCES FILE: I%Arnold Arboretum%AAH%The Arborway%Jamaica Plain%MA%02130% 30%Hillier Nurseries Ltd.7.%Ampfield House%Ampfield$Romsey, Hants, S05 9PA%%%England 408%Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew%K%%Kew, Richmond, Surrey TW9 3AB%%%England 735%The Holden Arboretum%HOL%9500 Sperry Road%Mentor7.0H7.44060% Example of a portion of a relational database design employing variable-length structure. The ten records from the flat-file database in the previous figure are shown here as they might be stored m a relational database design; such records are hard for people to read but are very efficiently processed by a computer. Because fields can vary m length, there is no longer a series of fixed-length boxes. Fields are separated by a special field-dehmiter character (shown here as \" A\"); two field delimiters next to each other indicate a field lackmg a value. This system also allows for multivalue fields, and separate values within a field are separated by another special character, the value delimiter (shown here as \"%\"). Within a file, fields appear m the same order, and the fust field is always the key field, which must be umque within the file There are four fields shown m the ACCESSIONS file accession number (the key field), name number, plant-source number, and accession number of the plant source. Accessions 32-187 and 48-1058 share the name number 434, which points to the record for Acer palmatum m the NAMES file (this record need only be entered once, no matter how many times it is referenced by the ACCESSIONS file) Accession 41-3000 has a name number of 5021, which points to Robinia pseudoacacia, and so on There are six fields shown for the NAMES file' name number (the key field), hybrid indicator, generic name, specific epithet, author, common names (a multivalue field), and geographic range as used for display labels. There are five fields shown for the GENERA file- generic name (the key field), family, subfamliy. common name for the genus (a multivalue field), and parental genera (another multivalue field) There are seven fields shown for the PSOURCES file plant-source number (the key field), name, international code for the institution, address (a multivalue field), city, state, ZIP code, and country. 47 they were sharing plants. We realized that it would be impossible-and unwise-to attempt standardization at either the hardthe software level, with so many disparate systems already in existence, but that ware or that could be emulated by the computer system, which would have to allow simultaneous access to all records from any work practical and desirable to create for exchanging information. A protocol meeting was called later that summer in London to devise what has since become known as the International Transfer Format (or ITF) for Botanic Gardens (Anonymous, 1988). At that first meeting, hosted by the Threatened Plants Unit of the IUCN, were computer scientists and plant-records experts representing many botanical gardens from several countries. Further work was done by a subcommittee headed by James Cullen, of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and a draft of the ITF was presented to an international meeting of botanical gardens, sponsored by IUCN, in the Canary Islands in November, 1985. At this meeting, the draft was enthusiastically endorsed by the 175 participants (representing 39 countries), and IUCN was asked to proceed with implementing a system designed around the ITF, a request that IUCN then made of me: to create a microcomputer database application for botanical gardens, both large and small, based on the ITF. Some months prior to the Canary Islands meetings, Peter Ashton, then director of the Arnold Arboretum, had requested that I consider writing a computer application to handle the plant-records needs of the institution. I agreed, with the proviso that the application be made as generic as possible in order to meet the needs of many gardens, not just the Arnold Arboretum. The care taken in both manual and computerized record keeping at the Arnold Arboretum is probably unsurpassed by any other garden in the world, so the request to do a system at the Arboretum was both daunting and exciting-if it worked here, it should work almost anywhere. The difficult job was simplified, however, by the long tradition of many Arboretum staff using and contributing to the manual record system; thus, there was a pattern of information flow a it would be buildings. a design for a herbarium and living-plant collection-management applicaArmed with tion written for the Asociaci6n Mexicana de Orquideologia in early 1985 and with experience gained in helping the Matthaei station in two Botanical Gardens of The University of Michigan to computerize its records in 1973,I began in the summer of 1985 the work of creating an application that has since been named BG-BASE. From the beginning the design of BG-BASE has been a group effort; it has now involved more than 100 people from over 35 institutions. The authors of other articles in this issue formed the core of specialists contributing most to the eventual design of BG-BASE. For about two years, a group of five to eight of us met over lunch nearly every week to plan and to discuss the design, and eventually to test and criticize the implementation. Ideas for new data fields, new files, and new reports were presented regularly for general discussion, resulting in some fairly heated debates. The heart of the system was always understood to be based on the International Transfer Format, but since this format specified only 36 fields, we had a great deal of fleshing out to do. As it currently stands, BG-BASE comprises 564 fields spread over 12 major files. In addition to these major files, there are another ten index files that allow the user to look up information in a wide variety of ways. Functions of the BG-BASE Data Files The NAMES file is the central file to which most other files link, either directly or indirectly. There are 98 fields of information for each plant name, making this a challenging and time-consuming file for which to record, although incomplete perfectly acceptable and usual. As is true throughout the design of BG-BASE, these fields are fairly finely divided; for instance, the scientific name of a plant is complete a records are broken into 20 separate fields that are recom- 48 The file structure of BG-BASE. Instead of stonng all information in one large and heterogeneous file, as many gardens' record systems do, BG-BASE employs the relational model, lmkmg 564 fields m 12 major data files Each box represents a file, figures m brackets refer to the number of data fields defined m each file. Words in lower case refer to selected fields within the file. Lines connecting boxes mdicate lmkages between files. 49 bined during output to create the name as we expect to see it. This division into separate fields allows the program to process generic names, hybrid indicators, and infraspecific rank and names (subspecies, varieties, cultivars, and so on) easily, as well as naming authors, and it is possible to retrieve a name record by typing any word or words from either the scientific or the common name(s). There is considerable logic built into the NAMES entry screens so that many of the fields are skipped automatically, depending upon what kind of name is being entered. In addition to the full scientific name, the NAMES file stores synonyms and common names, a full description, information on plex file (many plant-record systems that do not employ the relational model have a single file, the accessions file, in which all information concerning the accession, the name, the source, the country of origin, the location, and so on, is kept; in BG-BASE, information that is not specific to the accession is kept in other, related files). An accession is a plant or a group of plants all bearing the same name from a single source; each accession is given a unique accession number. Besides this number, an accession record maintains a link to the correct name (stored in the NAMES file) as well as to the date of accession; the name under which the plant was originally received; how the accession was received (for instance, seed, cutting, division, tissue culture, and so on); a complete source history of the plant (immediate, intermediate, and original sources, along with each source's accession number); the provenance type (directly collected from the wild, from a cultivated plant of known wild origin, or from a cultivated plant not of known wild origin); the country, exact collection locality, collector, and other collection data such as habitat notes and associated species if wild collected; propagation history (including hormones applied, stratification and scarification techniques, and germination results). This file forms the basis of the accessioning system with two notable exceptions: all name-specific information is kept in the NAMES file, and all plantspecific information is stored in the PLANTS file. Currently, there are 13,560 accessions tracked (the more than 100,000 cards in the \"dead file\" are not yet computerized). The PLANTS file is at first difficult to separate conceptually from the ACCESSIONS file. Since each accession may actually contain many separate plants, each in a different location and suffering different disease and insect infrageneric classification, geographic range, hardiness, conservation status, and so on. Through links to the ACCESSIONS and PLANTS files, a list of all accessions of a name is displayed, along with the location of each of these plants on the grounds. As of the beginning of February, 1989, there were 8292 records in the NAMES file. The NAMES file links through its genus field to the GENERA file. For each genus in the collection, a record is created in which the genus is assigned to a family (family names in all other files are generated by looking up this information in the GENERA file, thus ensuring consistency of data). If the genus is of hybrid origin, its parental genera are listed in the record. Additionally, any plant sources specializing in the genus (a list maintained by a link to the PSOURCES file) and a bibliography for the genus (maintained by the DS file) show up automatically in the record. There are currently 630 genera records in the file. The FAMILIES file contains a record for each family of vascular plants (currently 694 records). Each record contains information on the higher taxonomic categories (for example, monocot or common dicot, subclass, order), family name(s), and so on. As is true for GENERA, FAMILIES records are linked to the problems, it was necessary to create a PSOURCES and DS files. The ACCESSIONS file has a record for each accession coming into the institution; with 120 fields in its dictionary, it is the most com- record for each plant (or massed planting) within an accession. If there is only one plant making up an accession, then there is only one PLANTS record; if there are seven plants in different places on the grounds, then there are seven PLANTS records, and so on. The key 50 field this file is the accession number (which must already exist in the ACCESSIONS file), along with a letter that uniquely identifies the plant within the accession (for example, a plant number of \"1010-57*C\" refers to plant \"C\" of accession \"1010-57\" and \"130-69*A\" refers to plant \"A\" of accession \"130-69\"). This file stores information on all locations that the plant has occupied during its existence in the collection, as well as information on field checks, measurements, and curatorial problems. It is the file that links to the computerized mapping program-the exact coordinates of each plant, as determined by aerial photography, are stored, as are the location codes (map numbers) that link to the LOCATIONS file. This file also stores the verification and voucher-specimen information essential to verifying the living collections, as described by David Michener in this issue. There are currently 16,681 records in the PLANTS file. The LINEAGES file is needed because at the Arnold Arboretum an accession is given a new accession number whenever it is propagated, either sexually or asexually. These \"sister\" and \"mother-daughter\" accessions share a common lineage number-that accession number under which the accession first came into the collection (for instance, lineage number 3786, representing Pyrus amygdali formis var. persica, came into the collecto the ACCESSIONS file maintains a list of all accessions received from a particular plant source. Thus, the record for the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew (plant source #408), shows that the Arnold Arboretum has received 266 accessions from Kew; for each accession, the Arnold Arboretum accession number and the plant's name are listed along with the number of plants, how they were received (for instance, seed, cutting, division, and so on), the provenance type, and Kew's accession number. This file is being expanded also to keep track of all accessions being sent to other institutions. bud tion in 1902 as a scion, was propagated as a graft in 1964 as accession 1046-64, and was propagated again in 1981 as a scion as accession 723-81). By maintaining a LINEAGES file, it is possible to ensure that all plants of a given accession lot bear the same name; without such a file, this would be a very difficult and tedious task, given the size, age, extensive propagation history, and com- plexity of the collection. There are currently 11,572 lineages represented in this file. The PSOURCES file keeps track of all plant sources with which the Arboretum exchanges plants. For the 1684 records currently in this file, the system stores addresses and telephone numbers, staff names, generic and family specialties, and several other fields. A link to to the code for the hand-drawn There is a description of the location by map. which the record can be retrieved (for instance, location #BRG-l-b reads \"Jamaica Plain; Bradley Collection; Bed 1, Section b\"), as well as two lists of plants (maintained by links to the PLANTS file): one list tracks all plants ever in the location, and the other tracks only those currently there. This file permits the production of inventory lists by location code for field-checking purposes. The DS file has records for every data source used in the rest of the system. A data source is defined as any book, article, unpublished work, survey, conversation, and so on, from which information has been taken. Each datasource record (there are currently 270) contains information on author, date of publication, title, subtitle, source, call number, keywords, and abstract. For example, by referring back to this number in the NAMES file, it is possible to store very efficiently the fact that Hortus Third (DS #3) calls Alnus incana the \"speckled alder\" but that Krussmann (DS #7) calls it either \"American speckled alder\" or \"common alder,\" or that Abies alba is given seven different common names in Liu's monograph of the genus (DS #73). There are links to the NAMES, COUNTRIES, STATES, FAMILIES, and GENERA files, and it is possible to create a bibliography for any record or group of records in these files. Since most fields in The LOCATIONS file currently contains 622 records. Each record represents a mapped area (usually 200 by 300 feet) whose key field corresponds 51 associated data-source any piece of information can be credited to a data source. The COUNTRIES file has a record for each country in the world, as defined by the International Standards Organization. Using the two-character country code, it is possible to store information about country of origin in the ACCESSIONS file, which then links to the COUNTRIES file. This permits the display of all accessions collected from a particular country in that country's record. There are currently 221 country records. In the STATES file is a record for each state or dependency of the United States, keyed on the two-letter postal abbreviation. This file is used mostly to verify addresses in the PSOURCES file and to code geographic information in the DS file. Once codes are agreed upon for the political units for each country (preliminary approval was voted at the 1988 meetings of the Taxonomic Databases Working Group), this file will be expanded to include the subcountry units for all countries in the world, not just the states of the U.S. The PHOTOS file arose from an Institute of Museum Services grant to computerize the data on photographs taken by E. H. Wilson in China, Korea, and other areas. It has fields for subject, country and province or state, date of photograph, and so on. There are currently 4994 photographs tracked in this file. Its structure is under revision to make it more generally useful and to link it more closely to the NAMES, ACCESSIONS, and COUNTRIES files. an the other files have field, virtually 65,000 characters, meaning that there concern is no about either truncation or padding with blanks. In addition, a single field can store more than one value, a vital feature for fields such as common names for a plant, or field checks for an accession. These two features-variable-length fields and multivalue fields-combine to make this one of the most powerful database-management tools available for microcomputers. As noted above, BG-BASE consists of over 560 fields, yet no one institution uses all of them. Although the master dictionary contains all of these fields, any particular garden might be using only half of them. A \"blue skies\" approach in the design of BG-BASEcreating a field for virtually every request from the various gardens using the system, regardless of whether others wanted to use that field-was possible since variable-length fields require only one character (a \"field delimiter\") of storage when they are not used, not the storage of vast numbers of blanks, as would be the case with a fixed-length field structure. This gives a garden the flexibility of utilizing a complex system at whatever level is appropriate to its internal record-keeping traditions ; as the data-processing needs of the institution change, fields already defined in the master dictionary can be turned on or off without disturbing existing data. Software Considerations None of this would have been possible without a powerful and flexible software product with which to build this complex application. After working for several years with many other microcomputer databasemanagement software (DBMS) products, I chose to use Revelation, then little used in the biological world, as a platform for BG-BASE because it puts very few restrictions or constraints on the designer of an application. A field can vary in length from zero to over The Way Forward: the Future of BG-BASE Even though BG-BASE has been installed in 22 gardens in four countries, its design is neither complete nor static. Suggestions come from the Arnold Arboretum staff, from other institutions using BG-BASE, and from the many visitors who visit Jamaica Plain to look at the Arboretum's plant records, and enhancements are still being added regularly. Areas of active development include horticultural maintenance, scheduling, and herbarium-voucher modules. Database files are being designed to track insect pests, fungal and bacterial diseases, Integrated Pest Management systems, pesticides, and the like. New report formats for the production of hardcopy accession cards, the yearly accession 52 I The Arnold Arboretum's Computer Network In the mid-1980's, the Arboretum was given an anonymous donation that was used to I install a network of microcomputers to handle the record-keeping needs of its living collections. Specifications were drawn up, computers were purchased, and in August, 1986, a trench was dug the twofifths of a mile between the Visitors' Center and the Dana greenhouse complex, into which computer cable and telephone lines were laid. The exact location of this trench was then added to all affected maps of the collection. Cable was also run between the various floors of the Hunnewell Visitors' Center (not an easy task in an 1892 building with three-foot-thick walls) to connect the four IBM personal computers to the file server (the central microcomputer that stores all programs and data), which was placed in the basement next to the plant records office. The file server was installed with a 30-megabyte hard drive; this storage capacity was later increased to 110 megabytes when the education and membership databases were added to BG-BASE. The system has now grown to include 11 microcomputers (with four more on order) linked to the original file server (which is slated for replacement in early 1989 by a machine that is three times faster and that has three times the disk-storage capacity). There are seven printers of various sorts, some shareable and others not, as well as a 24- by 36-inch digitizing table for mapping work. Tape backups are performed daily by the system operator, and the tapes are stored off-site for maximum security against catastrophic loss, vandalism, and theft. The work stations connect to each other and to the server through a Novell Local Area Network (LAN) operating system (a separate Novell LAN of eight microcomputers is used in the attic of the Hunnewell Visitors' Center by the Center for Plant Conservation's national office). All plant records, as well as the 12,125-record MEMBERS file, the 565-record COURSES file, and the 3223-record REGISTRATIONS file, are handled by the multi-user version of BG-BASE, which allows many people to access any file concurrently, although only one user can edit a particular record at a time (all records are date-stamped with the initials of the user who edits them). The network also serves most of the wordprocessing needs of the Arboretum, and there is a large-screen workstation used for desktop publishing. book, and pot and show labels, as well as a guide to the locations of all active names in the collection, have recently been created. Another important new link, discussed by Ethan Johnson elsewhere in this issue, is between BG-BASE and a computerized maping program. The Arnold Arboretum received a $25,000 grant from the Institute of Museum Services to design and implement this link as a model for other gardens, a process that is currently in progress. When this link is completed, staff, and eventually the public, will be able to generate a map for any plant or group of plants based on virtually any of the hundreds of fields of data stored within BG-BASE. As the mapping project progresses, BGBASE is being converted from Revelation to Advanced Revelation to increase its power and flexibility further. Although the way the user interacts with the database system will substantially altered, all the data will compatible between the two versions. Another major initiative, supported by the Andrew W Mellon Foundation, is to standardize to whatever degree possible the databe remain 53 base structures of BG-BASE, the Center for Plant Conservation, The Nature Conservancy, and the Missouri Botanical Garden. Together, these various databases, all based on Revelation or Advanced Revelation, contain over one million records and several thousand fields. This is a first-but massive-step toward the eventual goal of establishing a global plant-information system, with Missouri's TROPICOS and Flora North America databases contributing vast amounts of information about native and exotic plants, The Nature Conservancy's BCD system supplying facts on plant rarity, biological attributes, and distribution, and BG-BASE contributing data on plants in cultivation in botanical gardens and arboreta around the world. Already, various standards have been proposed to and adopted by the Taxonomic Databases Working Group to ensure the greatest possible compatibility worldwide (a sample data set of all wild-collected accessions from the Arnold Arboretum was sent on diskette as an ITF file to IUCN's Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, to test the exporting and importing of ITF records between disparate computing systems). BG-BASE is thus one piece in an evolving matrix of interlocking databases. The Arnold Arboretum hopes soon to be able to allow public access to the plant information stored in BG-BASE through a terminal in the Hunnewell Visitors' Center. Further funding is necessary before this and related projects-creating a visual database of the collection and providing on-line identificationcan be undertaken. Digitized photographic images stored on laser disks linked to BGBASE's data and mapping coordinates will eventually allow the casual visitor as well as the visiting scientist to interact with the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum as never Bibliography Anonymous. 1984 Catalogue of Living Plant Collections Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 98 pages. Anonymous. 1987. Plants to go \"online\" at Arboretum. Arboretum (Harvard University Gazette Supplement), November 6, 1987: 1, 4. Anonymous. 1988. The International Transfer Format for Botanic Garden Plant Records. Version 01 00 Botanic Gardens Conservation Secretariat\/Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh. (Plant Taxonomic Database Standards No. 1) Bowden, R. E., & R. A. Brown. 1988 Directory of Com- puter Use m Plant Record Keepmg American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta Swarthmore, 69 pages. A Guide to the Computerization of Plant Records. American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, Computer Information Services Committee. Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. 112 pages. Codd, E F 1970 A relational model of data for large shared data banks. Communications of the ACM 13(6): 377-387 Hills, A. 1987. Planting trees m the data fields. Manchester Guardian, November 12, 1987: 2. Judson, M 1987 Networked shrubbery-Harvard group practices high-tech conservation. LAN Times, July, 1987' 18, 19. MacDonald, R.D., M. E. Olson, & M E MacDonald. 1967. The International Plant Records Center pilot project 2014 Pennsylvania. Brown, R. A. 1988. preliminary report Arboretum and Botanical Garden Bulletin 1(3): 28-32. MacDonald, R. D., & M. I. Reed. 1967. The International Plant Records Center pilot project-present and future. Arboretum and Botanical Garden Bulletin 2(1): 29-35. Verhovek, S. H. 1987. Leafy census is flowering at the Botanical Garden. New York Times, August 8, 1987. Bl Walter, K. S. 1987. New database for Arboretum. Technology Window (Harvard University) 1(10): 1, 2. Walter, K. S. 1988. BG-BASE2014User's Manual Center for Plant Conservation, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. 180 pages Kerry S. Walter is the director of botany and information systems at before. developer the Center for Plant Conservation and of BG-BASE is the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chronicling the Living Collections: The Arboretum's Plant Records","article_sequence":10,"start_page":54,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24961","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14e8926.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Quigley, Jennifer","article_content":"the Plant Records Chronicling Living Collections: the Arboretum's Jennifer Quigley The plant records office's high-tech functions are at the Arboretum's newly integrated computer operation center of the The Arnold Arboretum's plant-records system has evolved over the 116 years of the Arboretum's history, and although it has undergone many changes, it has retained its integrity as a curatorial record, the oldest continuously maintained system of its kind in North America. The Development of the Records System Jackson Dawson, the Arboretum's first plant propagator, kept a series of journals in which he recorded plants added to the living collections using a numbering system quite different from the year-coded system that we use today. It is unclear in what year these journals were begun, although they may have been intended to accompany the maps generated from Codman's 1887 survey. The earliest entries follow the Bentham and Hooker sequence that had been established for the collections and show no chronological progression, suggesting that the journals started as an inventory of plants already present in the collections. The numbering system used, in which each new taxon added to the collection was assigned a base number from which the numbers assigned to subsequent accessions of the same taxon were derived, likewise suggests inventory numbers rather than accession numbers as we know them in today's system. Source information was recorded in these journals and\/or in a card file, suggesting the existence of a parallel record system that recorded all material received but was not at the time considered worthy of being kept once the information pertinent to the living collections had been transferred to the journals and cards. As new material was added, it was necessary to check the existing records in order to determine whether the taxon was (or had been) already represented. If so, a sequential suffix number was added to the established base number. For example, the first recorded accession of Magnolia acuminata, seed received in 1874, was assigned the number 35. The next, a plant received in 1877, received the number 35-1; and plants received in 1879, 35-2. Incoming materials of taxa not already represented were assigned new base numbers. When the identification of an accession was changed, its number was also changed in order to reflect the new taxon to which it was assigned. As the collection grew, so did the quantity of accessions representing the same taxon, and the use of the same base number for genetically unrelated accessions invited error and misinterpretation. It became clear that the system required a change, so a large proportion of the collection was renumbered: the first incoming accession of a taxon retained its number, but later accessions of the same taxon were assigned new numbers. Vegetative repropagations of material already in the collection continued to follow the suffix system, each bearing a number derived from either the original or the new base number assigned to the accession from which it 55 propagated. Although the system cumbersome, it was no longer for numbers to change with new necessary identifications, nor did the assignment of a number to a new accession require a thorough check of both current and dead records. In 1916, when William Judd assumed the post of plant propagator, he initiated a new system, assigning a year-coded number that consisted of a sequential number with an appended year code (for example, Fraxinus quadrangulata, 52-16, was the fifty-second accession received in 1916), an accession number in the current sense, to each accession received. In the same year the greenhouse produced its first accession book, quite distinct from the earlier inventorylike journals. A chronological listing of all plant materials received, regardless of whether they were added to the living collections, the accession books now serve as our primary reference in tracing the histories of our plants. As plants were added to the collections, however, they were assigned numbers in accordance with the older system and entered into the journals; both numbers appear on the records of material received during this period, although the inventory number has been the one used in curation of the collection. By 1934 it was apparent that the system was overly cumbersome. Base numbers had reached well over 22,000, and even in its new form, the suffix system was generating complications. Since that year the accession number assigned at the greenhouse has as a rule been retained throughout the recorded history of the result- had been remained Jackson Dawson, 1841-1916, the first superintendent of the Arnold Arboretum, had been passionately mterested m seeds since childhood Dunng the Amencan Civil War, some of his wounds were supposedly received while he was searching for plants and seeds A distinguished plant propagator, he was noted for \"seemmgly impossible\" accomplishments in graftmg, seed germination, and plant culture, as well as for hybridizing the Farquhar, W C Egan, Dawson, Lady Duncan, and Sargent roses Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. ing plants. Still, until the mid-1970's, it was common practice for material that did not fit the standard accession pattern to be assigned an inventory number. Plants resulting from the hybridizing work of Karl Sax during the 1950's, representatives of the Arboretum's spontaneous flora deemed worthy of curation, and individuals selected from their accession lots either because the accession lot was found to include more than one taxon or for introduction as cultivars (for example, Hamamelis Arnold Promise' selected in 1963 from accession 1173-28 and assigned number 23167) were among the exceptions to the system. A card file maintained at the greenhouse contains the information available upon accession of new material (name, date of receipt, immediate source, original source if known, quantity, type of material, locale of collection if collected from a wild population, and any additional information concerning growth habit, flower color, or other characteristics of the material being accessioned). This information is copied into the annual accession book. In addition, the greenhouse file is annotated with the methods used in propagating the accession (if seed, whether it 56 was stratified; if cuttings, whether hormones used to induce rooting, and so on). This file provides information used by our propagation staff in determining the most effective were means library references or correspondence, is used to update the maps, the card file, and a computerized record maintained out-of-house. The Arboretum and the Plant Sciences Data Center Since 1972 the Arnold Arboretum has been one of many North American gardens providing collection information to the American Horticultural Society's Plant Sciences Data Center (PSDC), located in Alexandria, Vir- of propagation for additional incoming material (or of repropagation for material already in the collections), and in responding to inquiries from the public or other professionals. A second card file, maintained by the plant records office, chronicles the living collections. This file, containing the accession information already recorded in the greenhouse files and the accession book, lists individual plants representing the accession lot and their locations on the grounds; it is annotated with information regarding the status of these plants each time a staff member checks on them. It is the responsibility of the plant-recordsoffice staff to perform regular field-checks in the collection to determine that all plants are properly mapped, recorded, and labeled (a full discussion of mapping procedures and our map system can be found in the article by Ethan Johnson in this issue). We conduct these field-checks map by map, with a full remapping cycle of the grounds requiring approximately ten years, and volunteers and seasonal interns have played a major role. In addition, other staff members working with the living collections report to the plant records office any discrepancies that they encounter between records information, maps, and plants on the grounds. In the course of their work, verification-project personnel have checked the collections in a pattern very different from the one traditionally followed by records-office field-checks. Timing their collecting activities to coincide with flowering or fruiting seasons and working with related groups at diverse locations on the grounds, they have been able to identify problems that had not been apparent during traditional field-checking. The information gleaned from records-office map checks, the verification project, and other staff members, together with any nomenclature updates or additional information obtained through ginia, and designed to function as a central databank. Initial input to the system was performed by staff of what was then known as the Plant Records Center from copies of our living-collections card file. Much of the data entered was incomplete or incorrectly interpreted during input, resulting in errors and omissions that continue to confuse and confound those who work with the printouts generated from these records, despite the number of corrections made to them in subsequent years. We update the PSDC records twice yearly with information concerning plants added during each of the Arboretum's planting seasons and with changes in status for existing material, which we type on standard forms and mail to PSDC for entry to their computer system. We note all additions, changes, and deletions on the current printout maintained in the plant records office, and each year when a new printout is received from PSDC, we check item by item to ascertain that all information has been properly recorded. The format for entries in the PSDC database requires that much of the information that we have maintained in our card file over the years be abbreviated or ignored entirely, since the system uses a flat-file structure and fixed-length fields. Despite the limitations imposed and the additional work necessitated for the plant records office, use of the database has provided us with a needed check on the accuracy of the card file and has served as a method of sharing our inventory information with other gardens through the PSDC's microfiche listing of the holdings of all gardens in the system. An additional benefit 57 Display and record labels provide different types of information The displaylabels are for the public and now list common and Latm names, plant famlly, and the species' geographic range The trunk display labels (scotch pme) are nalled to the trunk, while hangmg dislay labels (black poplar) are suspended from a branch Older displaylabels provided less information. The record labels (one shown with wire attachment) are used by the staff and hst curatonal information apphcable to that specific accession Photograph courtesy of Rdcz and Debreczy. that, unlike the card file, the printgenerated by PSDC is available in multiple copies and can be provided to numerous has been out make recommendations concerning whether the accession should be added to the collections and whether existing plants not meeting our standards or in poor condition should be removed as the new plants are added, and assign each individual a letter designation that differentiates it from others of the same accession lot. Embossed zinc record labels are produced for each plant and attached to it while it is still in the nursery. A record card and a PSDC entry form are completed for each, leaving only the map location to be filled in once it is determined. As planting progresses, individuals are added to the maps and their records are annotated with planting locations coded to the map system. The plant records office is also responsible for display labeling in the collections. In fact, it is only within the past two decades that the responsibility for maintaining the records has been with this office, and within the past one that the files have been housed here. Previously it was the horticulturist who held prime responsibility for the records system, and what we now know as the plant records office was concerned primarily with mapping and labeling duties. Display labels were produced in-house until 1985, many of them by a member of the grounds staff during the winter season. The process by which labels were made was staff members for reference use. The standard printout (PSDC's General Information Listing) arranged in alphabetical order by taxon, but special-use printouts have been generated in various formats, including listings by map location, year of receipt, and family. Listings of particular genera have been provided for use is in research studies. consuming, involving applying primer and top coats on a customcut sheet-metal plate, setting rubber type and printing display information on the label, and using a final protective coat of automotive vartime automotive nish Other Plant-Records-Office Functions When plants appear on a seasonal planting list for addition to the collection, plant-records staff trace their lineage to determine whether they meet collections standards, verify their nomenclature through literature search, check the records to ascertain whether the taxon is already represented by the three wildcollected accessions mandated by collections policy for each naturally occurring taxon, or polyurethane. Display labels are now produced out-of-house using the metalphoto process, in which a photographic negative is printed on sensitized aluminum. These labels are more durable than the earlier painted ones, image and the metal are fused in a that resists the cracking, chipping, and rusting that plagued the older labels. In January of 1949, Donald Wyman completed a listing of all taxa then represented in the Arboretum's collections, with their common names and natural range, to be used as a reference in preparation of display labels. This enumeration has been expanded and manner since the 58 Mindful of the Past, Considerate of the Future The Arnold Arboretum maintains substantial archives of documents, photographs, and objects to record its history and the development of its collections. Of special significance to the verification project has been material pertaining to E. H. Wilson. Wilson, active at the turn of the century, was the primary plant collector responsible for the diversity of Asian species found in our living collections. A recent grant from the Institute of Museum Services, supervised by S. Connor, has made this material far more accessible to the curatorial staff. We are now able to determine all the living accessions that trace to a Wilson collection, regardless of their accession numbers, read his newly transcribed field books for wild-source information that had not originally been recorded in the plant records office (his hand-written books are nearly indecipherable), and find the associated photographs linked to these plants and expeditions. Undoubtedly, some of the materials deposited in the archives were not considered terribly important at the time, but fortunately they were saved; this has allowed us to unravel and better understand part of Wilson's work. Archives are a quintessential element for the curation of collections that span generations and changing institutional priorities. current updated over the years by the records-office staff; since 1979, we have also used it to record family, author, and the reference used to document the nomenclature, as one facet of an attempt to centralize the information required for the effective curation of the collections but supervision of the plant records office. names Some previously scattered through files maintained in various offices or available only through library research. The Role of the Plant Records Office in Verification In 1979 the Arboretum applied to the National Science Foundation for funding that would enable us to begin a comprehensive verification of the collections and establish an in-house computer system for plant records. This application was funded, and work began with the documentation of all nomenclature in use in the collections. The Living Collections Committee had established a policy regarding nomenclature (see Arnoldia, Volume 39, Number 6, 1979, for a discussion of this policy with regard to infraspecific taxa), and a person was hired to review the collection records and perform a literature search to verify the validity of each name, under the had already been researched in the course of normal curation; others required extensive library work; still others proved impossible to document. We purchased an Onyx computer (the smallest computer then available that would accommodate so large a database) and two terminals, installed them in the plant records office and at the greenhouse, and established a connection between them using modems. After development of a database format using the Logix database system, input from the existing records began. Repeated failures of the Onyx hardware, however, forced the abandonment of the computer just as data entry was completed. Although the Arboretum bought Digital Rainbow personal computers soon thereafter for a number of applications including the recording of accession information and the maintenance of nursery inventories, they were not suitable for the full plant-records database. It was not until July of 1986 that the generosity of an anonymous donor permitted us to purchase and install a new computer system, and we made a new start on internal computerization (refer to the article by Kerry S. Walter 59 in this was issue). The present verification project designed as a continuation of the origi- nal grant project, and a usable database had been anticipated in planning for it. The unavailability of computerized records for the verification project necessitated changes in the way the project proceeded. The project personnel worked with printouts obtained from the Plant Sciences Data Center, which provided far less information than would have been immediately available through the computerized database and necessitated much cross-checking to the plantrecords card file. Notations made to the working printout (concerning, for example, missing or dead plants, plants that did not appear on the printout but were present on the grounds, plants in poor condition, plants needing replacement labels, and plants whose map locations needed adjustment), as well as identity determinations resulting from the project, had to be communicated to the records-office staff for updates to the records, instead of being immediately incorporated into the database. This increased the amount of labor on the parts of both verification-project and records-office staff, since notations had to be made in several formats to various systems, especially as computerization progressed and updates to the database were required. Further duplication of effort became necessary when the nomenclature guidelines established for the earlier grant project were discarded, and name changes that had been processed during that project had to be processed again, but in reverse. BG-BASE: a Long-Awaited Transformation in Record Keeping For many years there was a weak connection between the herbarium and the living collections. Although voucher specimens of plants in the collections had been made since the Arboretum's earliest days, it is only in recent years that they have been consistently identified by accession number. Taxonomists on the Arboretum staff have traditionally conducted a continuing review of both herbarium specimens and living material, annotating the living-collections records as well as herbarium vouchers with changes in nomenclature. When visiting taxonomists annotated vouchers, however, the inclusion of their determinations in the records of the living plants was not guaranteed; often it was not until a staff taxonomist discovered these herbarium annotations in the course of his own work that living-collections annotations were made. Likewise, changes in the livingcollections records based on horticultural rather than taxonomic review were rarely reflected in the herbarium. Although nomenclature in the living collections was updated as monographs, checklists, and manuals were published, such systematic annotations were seldom undertaken in the herbarium collections or in the records of accessions no longer represented by living material. Number changes in the living-collections records were not related to existing herbarium specimens, making the task of matching early specimens to the collections records or to living material of the same lineage increasingly difficult. In designing our second computerized database, we were fortunate to have the personnel for the verification project already present. This enabled us to obtain input from the verification-project taxonomist in our efforts to link the herbarium with the collection records. Our previous experience with database design also proved beneficial in our cooperation with Kerry Walter in the design of BG-BASE, since some of the problems inherent in the development of a plant-records database had been addressed in the earlier attempt. Entry of information to BG-BASE began very early in the system's development because of its design as interrelated modules. The first entries made were to the FAMILIES file, then to GENERA, PSOURCES (plant sources), and NAMES (taxa), and finally to ACCESSIONS and PLANTS (individuals representative of each accession lot). Data entry was an involved process, necessitating repeated passes through the existing records (one for the sources from which our plants had come, another for the taxa included in the 60 collections, a third for accession information, and a final one for individual plant locations and field notes). Had the database been fully developed prior to the beginning of data input, these functions might have been incorporated into a single pass through the files, but the completion of data entry would have been significantly delayed, and the modification of problem areas in the database would not have been the evolutionary process that it was. In working with each module of the system independently of the others, we were able to identify problems before subsequent modules compounded them, rendering them more difficult to revise; our weekly meetings provided a forum for discussing alternatives and additions to the design. Serving as the testing ground for the database proved to be a challenging and exciting experience for all involved. The plant-records card file and PSDC records have been maintained throughout the process of computerization, serving their original functions while the database was growing and now providing a check on the accuracy of the information in the database. Soon the card file will be replaced by one generated from the computerized records, a \"hard copy\" reference to the collection much easier to interpret than the old handannotated cards. The greenhouse card file, as well as the annual accession book and a number of reports for curatorial purposes, will likewise be computer generated. We will save countless hours at the typewriter copying information from one place and one format another (thus eliminating the possibility of in the process), yet our curatorial information will be more comprehensive than ever before. We have started to computerize the Arboretum's photographic archives, allowing reference to yet another of the resources that will aid in the curation of the collections and increase their value for research and public education. The map system, currently in the early stages of computerization, will be integrated with the database, enabling maps to be updated automatically when changes are made to the records and opening a range of possibilities for special-purpose maps generated from a selected subset of the full collection. Plans for future expansion of the system include public access to the database through a terminal at the reception area and graphicdisplay capabilities to increase the value of the database to the public. When I joined the staff of the Arnold Arboretum in 1976, we all looked on the days of Charles Sprague Sargent as the Arboretum's \"Golden Age\" We now find ourselves at the dawn of a new Golden Age, with a comprehensively verified collection, access to which is enhanced by a computerized system linking departments and interests to make the collection usable in ways that Professor Sargent could never have imagined. to errors manages the plant records office and system administrator for the Arboretum's computer network. Jennifer Quigley serves as "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cartographic Records of the Living Collections","article_sequence":11,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24960","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14e856d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Johnson, Ethan W.","article_content":"Cartographic Records Ethan W of the Living Collections Johnson new The Arboretum's maps will database, allowing extremely The first map trees accurate ultimately interface with the computer tracking of accessions on the grounds field-checked and the maps traced and revised by Heman Howard. Howard field-checked the entire collection on a two-year cycle and revised the maps on a six-year cycle; his efforts produced results that were unparalleled by his contemporaries. From 1970 to 1979, the mapping duties fell in turn to three separate individuals. Following the departure of Donald Wyman, horticulturist, in 1970, the maintenance of the card-file plant-records system and the responsibility of providing records information to the Plant Sciences Data Center (see article by Quigley) became part of the duties of the individual performing the mapping function. Field-check rates decreased, and the cycle of map revision was set at ten years. Since 1979, the Arnold Arboretum has actively sought an alternative to its antiquated system of maintaining cartographic records. documenting the placement of in the permanent planted systematic arrangement was made by Henry Sargent Codman in 1887. Only two years before, Charles Sprague Sargent and Frederick Law Olmsted had decided upon the final planting plan and landscape design, and implementation had begun in the spring of 1885. Codman, a cousin of Sargent, prepared a series of genus or group maps on a scale of 20 feet to the inch, showing the actual position of each tree with the number that appeared on its label. The question of preserving the identification of every tree in the collection in a more secure manner than that afforded by the labels used in the living collections was therefore resolved at an early stage of the Arboretum's development. The Second Wave of Leon Survey a Croizat, using 150-foot tape and a plane table equipped with an alidade, resurveyed the entire grounds between October 1, 1937, and October 5, 1938. He established a A New Age In 1987 the Arnold Arboretum was granted $25,000 by the Institute of Museum Services grid system that was aligned to conform with the boundaries of the Arboretum instead of being set on the usual north-south axis. The standard maps were again made at a scale of 20 feet to the inch, each representing an area 400 by 600 feet, but there were still some that did not conform to the grid. These maps, done to show a specific genus or other group of plants, were made at a scale of ten feet to the inch (or sometimes five or even two feet to the inch) when the areas were densely planted. From 1938 to 1970, the living collections were for the development of a model computerized mapping system. The goal of the project is to remap accurately the 14,500 plants in the Arboretum on a system that will interact with its plant-records database (BG-BASE) to produce continuously up-to-date, computergenerated maps that reflect the topography of the Arboretum's diverse landscape. With the help of Bradford Washburn, then the director of Boston's Museum of Science, the Arboretum contracted a photogrammetric survey of the grounds by Swissair Photo + Sur- 62 Our detailed mventory maps show every accession. Here, on the summit of Bussey Hill, the base map (right) shows the mafor plantmgs and specifies which inset maps cover thickly planted areas. The aenal photograph (above) is used m conjunction with the current maps and a computer-lmked digitizing tablet to find the true coordmates of every accession distinguishable on the photograph The photographs will help remove distortions caused by the irregular topography Storing all the information on a database will allow us to update and prmt standard and specialized maps as needed Photograph by Swissair Photo + Surveys, Ltd. veys, Ltd. (Zurich). On a cloudless day in April, 1979, the survey crew took a series of aerial photographs, which were then transformed into orthographically corrected images displaying an exceptionally accurate picture of the Arnold Arboretum at a scale of 100 feet to the inch. A ground-survey team was hired to complete the contours in certain areas of the Arboretum that are covered by an evergreen canopy. Swissair provided the Arboretum with a base map of the grounds that illustrates true north, contour lines at intervals of ten feet, physical features (roads, paths, walls, and buildings), and reference points. This information was also provided in electronic form on floppy disk requiring a format conversion of the data from ware Intergraph to AutoCAD, the computer-aided design softobtained by the Arboretum for the map- ping project. Hardware purchased for the project includes a Compaq Deskpro 286 computer equipped with a monochrome monitor, Nth Engine Graphics, an Intel 80287 math coprocessor, a 24-by-36-inch Calcomp 9100 digitizing tablet, and an NEC Multisync II monitor for color graphics display. A Safe Standby Power System was obtained as insurance against computer crashes due to power failures. An interface between AutoCAD and the plant-records database software (Revelation) is being written by Jung\/Brannen Research and 63 Development Corporation of Boston. The Arnold Arboretum will construct a mapping system that is interactive with BG-BASE, wherein attributes and changes in the plantrecords database will instantly be reflected in the mapping component (AutoCAD). Location data for specimens in the aerial photographs is entered into the graphics database by taping a photograph onto the digitizing tablet, calibrating the reference points, and digitizing the center of each plant visible on the photograph. The accession number for each specimen is entered at this point by comparing the photographs to the existing handdrawn maps, thereby linking the graphics database with the plant-records database. This linkage will open the door to the production of specialized maps based on any number of fields of data stored in BG-BASE, including plant family, collector. genus, species, age, origin, and taking advantage of the computerized mapping system, the benefits of which will begin to be realized when the project reaches completion. Before we can generate maps, though, we must finish entering the data for all accessioned plants on the grounds-atask scheduled for completion by August 31, 1989. Acquiring our own plotter will greatly facilitate map production and will eliminate the need for costly out-of-house services. Considerably less labor should be necessary to keep the computerized cartographic records current, since we will no longer have to draft the maps by hand. Specialized maps tailored to needs of individual staff Great Expectations We look forward to 64 members and visiting scientists will be produced with speed, accuracy, and precision. Furthermore, in the future we expect that a much greater range of visitors will have access to the cartographic records that are a key to unlocking the intricacies of the Arnold Arboretum's living collections. Ethan W. Johnson records office. is a curatorial assistant m the plant "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Landscape Curation: Maintaining the Living Collections","article_sequence":12,"start_page":65,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24965","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15ea76d.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Curation: Collections Landscape Gary Maintaining the Living L. Koller maintenance at the Arboretum must respect history and while allowing easy access and unhindered future growth of taxonomy accessions within an Olmsted landscape Modem-day Design of the Collections goal is to collect all of the temperate woody plants that are hardy in the Boston area. This task becomes yet larger when we impose upon it our desire to include three examples of each plant, of our At the Arnold Arboretum ized environmental needs of groups such as the willows, which were planted at the edges of a wet meadow rather than strictly according to their taxonomic placement. Today we strive to achieve a compromise among con- three different ages and from three different geographic locations. In essence, for each taxon we wish to have young, middle-aged, and mature specimens that can demonstrate long-term changes in architecture and form and seasonal alteration in chemistry. Both initial design and long-term maintenance affect our ability to curate a collection. In the past we thought that everything we planted needed to be provided with both the space and the resources to develop into a specimen plant. Later the grounds became cluttered because we planted in every available space. Established plants grew to enor- sizes, obscuring views, squeezing out neighboring accessions, interfering with mous access, and ultimately leading to the feeling that certain areas were unsafe because of the dark, hidden spaces thus created among the plantings. try to integrate new plantings within the concept of the historic planting scheme. The master plan, based on late-nineteenth-century concepts and arranged according to Bentham and Hooker's system of plant taxonomy, grouped plants by genus. It attempted to accommodate specialwe At the Arboretum new generation of Betula mgra (center) ensures continuity for the collection once the mature specimens (left and nght) declme and are removed Acquisition of new matenal and repropagation of existing plants are crucial to the long-term stability of the hvmg collections. Repropagation of old plants is important because it allows future generations to study materials genetically identical to those examined by past and current staff and visitors Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy A 66 . siderations of strict taxonomic grouping (for easy study and comparison), optimal environmental conditions, ease of curation and maintenance, and aesthetics. We place the majority of plants of a genus together so that they are quickly found, allowing easy comparison of the different taxa. Trees We always or more old. This is still young for many spe- cies, but what will their condition be in 50 years? In a collection with so many trees of the same age, we need to be careful that all will not enter a period of decline or senescence at the same time or become especially vulnerable in old age to drought or storm damage. For example, the great storm that struck the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew in October, 1987, devastated large numbers of trees, many of which were hundreds of years old. Here at the Arboretum we attempt to conduct a programmed yearly harvest of poor- plant trees in groves, which are intended to be reminiscent of a New England landscape. For example, maples, lindens, and horse chestnuts are near one another. Over time, these trees are relatively easy to keep track of since they usually have one discrete stem that can be readily found using our inventory system. If weed trees invade, they are nearly always of another taxon and do not correspond to what is shown on the map. We generally mow the grass around the trees to lessen the likelihood of weed intrusion. However, hundreds of Rhamnus, Malus, Phellodendron, and Kalopanax seedlings inevitably appear in the unmown, uncultivated space beneath trees. Many of these weeds become quite large before being removed, and in some cases they compete with the crowns of smaller trees, eventually distorting the form of the accessioned plants. Labels on the trees allow us to check field maps to determine whether a particular tree should or should not be there. Display labels nailed to the trunk are far more permanent than record labels affixed to a branch with bell wire; the latter are frequently lost during maintenance or a storm and are easily removed by small children and vandals. Visitors sometimes find a stray label lying on the ground and, in an attempt to be helpful, rehang it on the nearest-but incorrectplant. It may take us years to discover the inaccuracy, even if the error is a seemingly obvious one. Meanwhile, visitors (as well as interns, volunteers, and inexperienced staff members) are relying on incorrect information. quality, inadequately documented, duplicate, or declining plants, with an emphasis on trees. This means that the the tree collections on a staff periodic basis must survey to With any collection of trees, it is important consider the future. Many of the existing trees at the Arnold Arboretum are a century to determine their quality and to assess the need for maintenance, repropagation, andeventually-removal. Requesting, coordinating, and monitoring this care are tedious and time-consuming tasks that have been and will continue to be greatly facilitated by our electronic inventory system. We have determined that it is not cost effective to maintain plants that are in a state of active decline. In the past we have made extraordinary efforts to rescue declining plants; this ended up being a waste of time and money since we were seldom successful in doing anything more than prolonging the decline. In an attempt to keep a plant looking good physically, we would prune out the dead and dying wood, slowly dismembering the tree and giving it an increasingly grotesque appearance. Maintaining plants that are unattractive representatives of a species also reflects poorly on the image, dynamics, and vitality of the institution. A garden staff must be diligent in its review of long-existing collections to assure that health, vigor, and representation are being maintained. There is a tendency in gardens for the current staff to be so caught up in its own discoveries and introductions that it neglects the curation and care of plants introduced earlier and\/or by others. It is understandably difficult to get excited about curating a decrepit, 110-year-old, wild-collected Picea 67 A majestic white save oak, Quercus alba, in an early stage of declme Rather than focusing on costly and heroic efforts to particular trees or limbs, crew efforts are directed to maintaining the overall health and vigor of the collections. Photograph courtesy of Racz and Debreczy 68 abies when new species await discovery in exotic far-off lands. We believe that the Arnold Arboretum maintains a healthy balance, hampered only by lack of personnel, between acquisition of new material and vigorous management of old. Shrubs Many shrubs are difficult to track over time. Large shrubs with one or more trunks are as easily tracked as trees, but problems arise from those that form thickets or colonies by means of underground stolons or by rooting in where branches touch the soil. When two plants of the same colonizing shrub are planted side by side, it often becomes impossible to tell where one ends and the other begins. In just a few years they intermix and become physically inseparable. An example in the Arboretum's collection is provided by the Leitneria swamp, where four separate accessions were planted years ago. Today they have all merged, and since it is impossible to tell which is which, they are virtually useless in scientific research where their provenance is important. In another area we planted various species of the genus Rosa. These plants have slowly sent up sucker growth or tip-layered into From experiences such as these, we have learned that we must never place plants of the same taxon side by side unless there is vigorous annual maintenance curation to keep them apart or some type of in-ground barrier to maintain their separation. It is also important to insert marker or reference plants. For example, in a bed of Philadelphus this might be a plant of the same genus that is distinct enough in some attribute to be recognizable at all times of the year, or a member of the genus Deutzia, which is in the same family but can be easily distinguished. During the past several years we have acquired a huge collection of Sorbus taxa from documented wild sources. To ensure that we can track individual plants efficiently for future retrieval, we are integrating them in a naturalistic style with the conifer collection. In this situation, the Sorbus plants and the conifers will serve as markers for each other. A current problem in the shrub collections is the overmaturity of many plantings. Many adjacent space, forming neighboring thickets that have penetrated one another. To compound the problem, birds have eaten the fruits, and the seeds contained in their droppings have resulted in unknown seedlings among the known accessions. Where similar plantings are tightly grouped be a planting scheme, an institution must strongly committed to frequent rounds of field-checking, marking weeds for removal, and reducing the number of layers that render long-term retrieval of specific individuals into difficult. Without constant curation and maintenance, important collections quickly deteriorate, becoming little more than a mass bloom time. Such indistinguishable masses become candidates for elimination when we need space to add properly documented plantings. We have often lost important accessions in this way. at of pretty flowers The Leitnena swamp was originally planted with several different accessions The plants have suckered and fused into an indistinguishable mass that accurately portrays the species but is of limited use when retrieving matenal hnked to the ongmal sources is important. Photograph courtesy of Rdcz and Debreczy. 69 are 100 or more years old. This means that they grow more slowly, are more prone to pest and environmental problems, and are more easily invaded by weeds. We are attempting to redress this situation quickly by two methods. With shrubs that are multiple stemmed and form a thicket, we cut the plant back to soil level in early spring, lift the root system out of the ground with a backhoe, and divide off four to six healthy layers near the outer perimeter of the plant, much as one would divide a herbaceous perennial. The plants are reaccessioned and relabeled to reflect their renovation. They are then planted in large containers and provided adequate water, fertilizer, and time to allow them to recover and establish strong growth. Most plants lifted and divided in the spring of 1989 will be ready to go back into the collection in the fall of 1990. We have improved our methods, shortened the production cycle, reduced the mortality rate, restored health and vigor, and gained new replanting opportunities. With single-stemmed shrubs or those that do not respond well to division, we often take cuttings or grafts. Due to the small size of the initial propagation material, this method frequently requires a production cycle of three to five years before the resulting plants are large enough to put into the permanent collections. Vines From a long-term identification standpoint, vines have been the most problematic group in the Arnold Arboretum. Planted along the perimeter fences to screen them and to pro- A collection of vines on a fence or wall becomes imposthe original planting becomes entangled in its own seedlmgs or is invaded by root-suckers and layered stems from neighboring plants Which stem is from which plants Additional problems anse as the sible to curate once birds introduce many other species that obscure or overwhelm the original accession Photograph courtesy of Rdcz and Debreczy softening of the mechanical enclosures, our vines have grown enthusiastically, climbing over neighboring shrubs and outcompeting them for light. They have clambered up into nearby trees, strangling the trunks and tangling with adjacent vines. Branch layering and spontaneous seedlings have worsened the problem. When planted near walkways, vines such as Wisteria and Actinidia seem to reach out and snag pedestrians. Keeping these rampant growers under vide visual control and in bounds is a maintenance chore that is often done infrequently, ineptly, or incompletely; as a result, tracking individual vine accessions has become next to impossible. The Arboretum used to have a vine trellis, which provided a more efficient system of locating individual plants. Each kind of vine was planted next to a leg or an upright of the trellis, which was numbered in our mapping system. This way, one could always go back to the same numbered post. Two problems occurred, however. First, as birds sat on the trellis eating fruits (of Celastrus, for example), 70 they left droppings containing seeds of practically every other accession on the trellis, resulting in such a tangle that it was practically impossible to separate the intruders from the desired plant. Second, the vine trellis became old and structurally unsound; legs had rotted off and sections had tipped over. During a landscape revision of the entire area, decided to remove the collections from the trellis, and at the time we did not have the resources to reestablish a new trellis at another location. As we expand and extend our vine collections in the future, we need to keep better track of what plants we have and what they are doing. We believe that it will be best to grow clinging vines up trees that will then become marker plants for them, and to grow twisters and twiners, which we can curate and maintain better, on a trellis. we Once a request for propagation is made, our methods of tracking the targeted individual or individuals is still imperfect. Collectors occasionally harvest propagation materials from the wrong mother plant because of close similarity exact among neighboring plants or in- mapping coordinates. Difficulties can also occur in the propagation chambers. It is important to pay close attention during the first potting because it is easy to mix up the as they are lifted from their propagation flats. This sometimes happens when cuttings are grown in adjacent rows that are not plants tings clearly separated from one another. The cutare removed and-in haste, or if our a row one attention is diverted-confused. In of is several plants where only the first labeled, if someone rearranges them the order may be changed and the plants mixed with similar accessions such that none of them except those bearing labels can be identified with certainty. To reduce the possibility of such mix-ups, we supply each plant in a container with an accession-number label that is inserted in the pot at the time of transplant- Propagation Management of an existing collection involves propagating selected high-quality plants and conserving them over the long Plantings must be periodically surveyed figure out which plants to propagate and when. We make a special effort to determine term. to ing or repotting. Propagation is not as simple as making a what material is unique or historical and take steps to increase its population for long-term safety. Reproduction by seed results in an individual genetically different from its parparents and thus does not constitute direct replacement of a specific individual. (Seeds, especially those from a garden collection, are genetically unknown because of open pollination.) Therefore, most of our replacement plants need to be produced by vegetative methods. This requires an experienced propagation staff equipped with the right facilities and resources to ensure success. When a plant, such as a willow or an arborvitae, can be reproduced by cuttings, we need only determine the appropriate time and technique; with many plants, however, we must resort to layering, grafting, tissue culture, or another ent or a specialized technique. request to have the work done. We may graft an oak tree only to have all the grafts fail or the young plant perish at transplanting. We therefore need to maintain the parent plant for months or years before we can guarantee that the specific genetic individual will survive. Unfortunately, the slow, often obvious decline of a plant can lead visitors to wonder why it has not been removed and replaced and even to suspect that we maintain our collections poorly. If we allowed ourselves the expediency of going to a nursery and purchasing replacement plants, the process would be much simpler; we could quickly rip out the old plantings and install new ones. However, since we wish to preserve specific plant lines, old plants must be retained until the replacement generation is successfully established. In the past, our lack of effective inventory control in the nursery often led to confusion. We would repeatedly repropagate the same 71 A General Schedule for the Grounds Staff January-March: repairing equipment and preparing it for a new season, cleaning up major problem areas, harvesting poor-quality trees, pruning trees, chipping brush, mulching planting beds, applying preemergence weed killers, fertilizing plantings, lifting and dividing plants scheduled for rejuvenation. April: planting for spring, mulching beds, removing tree stumps, pruning, mowing. May: completing spring plantings, beautifying grounds for our primary visitor season, with particular attention to the lilac collection, mowing, and pest and weed control. June-August: mowing, pest and weed control, watering, routine pruning, preparing beds for fall plantings, removing plants. September: mowing, pest and weed control, correcting problems in beds and plantings, repairing and upgrading poor-quality lawn areas. October-November: planting for fall, removing spontaneous weeds at bases of trees and exotic invaders in natural areas, fertilizing selected plantings, aerating lawns, mowing, removing poor-quality plants scheduled for harvesting, mulching planting beds, spraying young evergreens with an ugly mixture to prevent their theft for holiday greens. December: removing trees (especially evergreens scheduled for recycling as Christmas greens), cleaning up problem areas, mulching planting beds. Year-round: surveying collections to determine needs, repropagating, removing plants and providing specialized care, cleaning up trash, controlling vandalism, making minor repairs associated with visitor wear and tear. declining individual over successive years, ending up with multiple replacements and wasting our limited resources. Modern electronic tracking has allowed us to determine more quickly which propagation requests have been carried out in the past year and which attempts have been successful. In addition, electronic file-sorting allows us to determine the present condition of the parent plant, find duplicates within our nursery holdings, and prevent repeated plantings of the same ing each plant's records to make sure that it is needed, preparing labels and accession lineages. Adding Plants to the Permanent Collections Twice each year, in spring and fall, we move plantings from the nurseries to our permanent collections. A major task, this involves identifying what is ready to be planted out, review- information, finding a planting location suitable from both collections and environmental standpoints, digging and replanting the plants, making sure that each one is mapped, and providing aftercare includmg staking, pruning, and watering. The process is cumbersome and labor intensive because we deal with small quantities of so many different plants. We have become efficient at producing large numbers of plants new to the collection, as well as high-quality replacement plants. At the same time the mortality rate associated with transplanting has dropped substantially. Such increased efficiency has created a logistical problem, however, for there are too few hands to deal with this semiannual process. 72 result, plants have backed up in the sysbecoming too large for our staff to manage with available resources; they have often crowded and damaged neighboring plants in tightly spaced rows. We have streamlined the process by growing the plants in containers, but this causes problems in inventory control. Although such plants are more easily shifted about in the nurseries to allow additional growing space, they are more difficult to keep track of. Furthermore, when plants of the same lot are separated, additional records work is necessary in preparing for the plantings. In the past many young replacement plants went out without there being a plan to remove the parent plant. After a season or two of overlap, the parent plant should have been As a The tem, Given 117 years of Changing Landscape planting, it is not surpris- ing that areas of the Arboretum have become crowded, both physically and aesthetically, and that habitats in certain areas have changed as the young trees of the late 1800's have become the towering canopy trees of today. Regrouping young plantings allows us to use shrubs to create, divide, and separate space as was typical in the Olmsted landscape. By integrating different taxa, we can vary form, color, texture, flowers, fruits, and autumn foliage, allowing both separation of easily confused taxa and long-term access to individual accessions. If these steps are followed carefully and creatively, they can result in more interesting year-round spatial, visual, removed to make space for others and to simplify the collection. In a number of cases, the removal request has only been partially implemented. Sometimes the records and mapping information have been removed from the files, but we have forgotten to remove the plant; alternatively, the accession information has sometimes remained in the active files although the plant has been removed. and aesthetic effects, adding to the gracious informality that characterizes the historical landscape style of the Arnold Arboretum. Gary L. Koller is managing horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum, as well as an instructor for a course entitled \"Plants in Design\" vard University at the Graduate School of Design, Har- CORRECTIONS In the final paragraph of the article \"Dr. Robert E. Cook is New Director of the Arnold Arboretum\" in the Fall 1988 issue of Arnoldia (Volume 48, Number 4, page 3), the first sentence should read: \"Dr. Cook's own research interests are in plant population biology in general and in the biology of clonal plants in particular.\" The last sentence should read: \"Dr. Cook has also been program director of population biology and physiological ecology at the National Science Foundation.\" In the Fall 1988 article \" 'So Near the Metropolis'-Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting;' by Elizabeth Hope Cushing, all illustrations except the map on page 49 were used through the courtesy of the Lynn Historical Society. On page 51, the biographical paragraph should read: \"Elizabeth Hope Cushmg is a Ph.D. candidate in the American and New England Studies Program at Boston University. She serves as landscape historian for the Lynn Woods and High Rock projects of the Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program (Department of Environmental Management, Commonwealth of Massachusetts) and is the author of the project reports for both parks.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Past and Present Arboretum Staff Involved with the Renovation, Records Computerization, and Verification of the Living Collections between 1978 and 1988","article_sequence":13,"start_page":73,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24967","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad15eab6b.jpg","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"Past and Present Arboretum Staff Involved with the Renovation, Records Computerization, and Verification of the Living Collections between 1978 and 1988 First and foremost are the grounds crew, whose efforts keep the plant collections in superb condition year-round: J. Allen, V. tographs ; she has emphasized archive's resources repository P. both the and their function as the for modem records. Antonovich, J. Bottoms, L. Colon, R. Famiglietti, M. Gormley, R. Green, M. Hanson, D. Harris, A. Hill, J. Kreidermacher, C. Mackey, A. MacNeil, B. Munch, R. Nicholson, J. Nickerson, T. O'Leary, J. Papargiris, M. Sheehan, D. Thompson, M. Walkama, and P. Ward. Specific staff contributions ranged widely. J. Alexander, plant propagator, is substantially involved in the computerization of the plant records. Dalton, curatorial associate, worked to document plant nomenclature during the initial phase of the verification project. P. Del Tredici, assistant plant propagator, interacts with the verification project, espe- cially on names that can be interpreted as cultivars C. or forms. Ashton, director of the Arnold Arboretum to 1987, originated the restoration projects. He is the principal investigator for all P. Dohlman, archival trainee and volunteer, finding Wilson's material and in interpreting his handwritten texts in the assisted in from 1978 archives. S. three National Science Foundation grants for the computerization of plant records and the verification of the living collections. D. Boufford is one of the staff taxonomists who provided assistance. V. the Elsik, curatorial associate, is responsible for vouchering phase of the verification project. She also trains and supervises volunteers for numerous jobs performed in conjunction with this project. H. Burley, verification-project typist, handles the production of herbarium labels for the entry. Goodell, superintendent of buildings and grounds, coordinated day-to-day work activities associated with maintaining the living collections. S. project and much of the herbarium-based data J. Christianson, membership chairman, over- former teers Hardy Brown, herbarium technician and volunteer, prepares herbarium speci- sees visitor services and the volunteer program. S. Connor, archivist, assists in tracking source information and in locating old plans and pho- Jamaica Plain and assists with volunwho work in this capacity. Before she assumed these duties, A. Eisenberg, H. Fleming, and A. Sholes served as specimen preparers for various periods in Jamaica Plain. mens at 74 I. Hay, curatorial associate, oversees the herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain and the addition of verification-project specimens to this collection. She has led many teams of volunteers on their half-day collect- J. Quigley, curatorial associate, participated in writing the initial proposal, designed our first plant-records database, integrated verificationproject data into the records system, and coordinated our input in the development of BGBASE and its interface with computer map- ing forays. ping functions. She serves as computer-system Johnson, curatorial assistant, first worked on the curatorial review of the Bussey Hill collections and then transferred to the plant records office, where his focus is on mapping, labeling, and documentation. E. K. administrator. S. man Spongberg, research taxonomist and chairof the Living-Collections Committee, is one of the staff taxonomists involved with verification. Kane, archive assistant, worked with the materials in the Wilson archives. A. Kelly, typist, helped with the Wilson archives conservation project. G. Walter, director of botany and information at the Center for Plant Conservation, serves as our primary consultant for the computerization of plant records and is the developer of BG-BASE. K. systems Koller, managing horticulturist, has planned, designed, and guided the renovation of the living collections since his arrival in 1976. Major accomplishments are designing and implementing the Bradley Collection of Rosaceous Plants, restoring the lilac plantings and the Olmsted path system, and extending shrub plantings to Peters Hill. C. McMurtrie, volunteer coordinator, helped recruit volunteers during the initial phase of Williams, superintendent of buildings and grounds, worked with the collections during the initial phases of the restoration work. R. Weaver, horticultural taxonomist, was one of the organizers of the initial proposals to restore and verify the collections. R. the project. D. Willoughby, acting superintendent of buildings and grounds, coordinates the ongoing maintenance and care of the living colP. lections. Michener, research taxonomist, is respon- sible for most of the taxonomic determinations in the verification project and coordinates the work with out-of-house taxonomists. Involvement in computerization of the records, grant-writing, and organizing this issue of Arnoldia became allied functions. addition, we would like to acknowledge the help of G. Carty, M. Hill, R. Lane, and J. Low, short-term grant-supported staff who have functioned primarily out of the plant records In office. Acknowledgments Our decade-long process of review and verification has been strengthened by the generous assistance of individuals and institutions throughout the world. In addition to our volunteers, we wish to thank R. Adams, for comments on our funiperus collections; S. Anagnostakis, for notes on selected Castanea accessions; V. Bates, for writing the computer programs that print labels; C. Burnett, for assistance with the Wilson archives as photographic conservator; Z. Debreczy, for challenging the determination of some accessions ; E. DeVoto, for help in editing this issue; R. Famiglietti, for building the collecting cart; J. Gurevitch, for queries on Acer determinations ; J. Hutchinson, for assistance with the original Olmsted plans; R. Keen, for comments on our Taxus cultivars; K. Klier, for ongoing work with Davidia isozymes; J. Nickerson and M. Walkama, for collecting fruits and cones from the tops of trees; J. Procter, for assistance with titles and headers for this issue; W Punch, for assistance with turn-ofthe-century European seed catalogs at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society library; I. Racz, for challenging determinations of accessions and providing most of the photographs contained in this issue; E. Schmidt, for editing this issue of Arnoldia ; E. Schofield, for early assistance in organizing this issue of Arnoldia ; Swissair, for converting aerial photographs to a machine-readable form and producing a topographic base map; R. Warren, Arnold Arboretum Associate, for his dedicated work over many years on the identification of our conifer collections; and B. Washburn, for facilitating the aerial photography and production of base maps. For out-of-house taxonomic assistance with entire genera and families, we thank G. Argus, National Museums of Canada, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada (Salix); B. Barnes, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan (Populus) ; Z. Blahnik, Botanical Institute, Czechoslovak Academy of Sciences, Pruhonice near Prague, Czechoslovakia (Lonicera); L. Bogle, University of New Hampshire, Durham, New Hampshire (Hamamelidaceae); T. Delendick, Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, New York (Acer); M. Donoghue, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona (Viburnum); T. Dudley, U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. (Ilex); J. Eckenwalder, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada (Populus); J. Furlow, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio (Betulaceae); A. Gordon, Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources, Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada [Picea); R. Gornall, University of Leicester, Leicester, England (Cotoneaster); H. Hatta, Tsukuba Botanical Garden, Tsukuba, Japan (Cornus); G. Johnson, Lindsey Wilson College, Columbia, Kentucky (Castanea); R. Kral, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee (Pinus); W Manning, Bucknell University, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania (Juglandaceae); P. Mazzeo, U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. (Tilia); E. McClintock, University of California, Berkeley, California (Hydrangea); Z. Murrell, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina (Cornus); K. Nixon, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York (Quercus); M. Okamoto, Osaka Museum of Natural History, Osaka, Japan (Fagaceae); J. Phipps, University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada (Crataegus); A. Skvortzov, Academy of Sciences of the State U.S.S.R., Moscow, U.S.S.R. M. Westwood, Oregon University, Corvallis, Oregon (Pyrus); S. Young, Mercer Arboretum and Botanic Garden, Humble, Texas (Poaceae subfamily (Salicaceae, Betula); Bambusoideae). Major financial support has been provided by contributions and grants from the National Science Foundation, the Institute of Museum Services, the Amelia Peabody Foundation, the Associates of the Arnold Arboretum, and an anonymous donor. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23530","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd0708928.jpg","title":"1989-49-1","volume":49,"issue_number":1,"year":1989,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Robert E. Cook Is New Director of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":2,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24950","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eab6d.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":" DR. ROBERT E. COOK IS NEW DIRECTOR ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF THE Dr. Robert Edward Cook, a biologist with a special interest in plant population has been appointed Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Cook is currently Associate Professor of Ecology and Systematics at Cornell Plantations, the university's arboretum and botanic garden. biology, \"We one were delighted to recruit some- of Bob Cook's caliber who combines outstanding managerial and leadership skills with a strong scientific background,\" said Sally Zeckhauser, Harvard University's Vice President for Administration and chair of the search committee. Cornell Plantations receives about twenty percent of its operating budget from Cornell; the remainder must be raised from private and public sources. Under Dr. Cook's direction, Plantations has undergone a five-year period of growth, doubling its budget, its permanent staff, and its supporting membership. A successful fundraising program implemented among alumni and friends resulted in increased unrestricted giving to Cornell Plantations and a sixty percent rise in special gifts for capital projects. hundred fifty acres of ecologically important land. A new service building was designed, funded, and constructed. Dr. Cook also initiated a series of research projects at Plantations with funding from outside organizations. Ecological research on endangered plant species and a review of national recovery plans, for example, were funded by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, New York State, and the World Wildlife Fund. The National Science Foundation (NSF) is supporting ecological research on grasses, trees, fire, and grazing in the Kenyan savannah. Research on curriculum development for elementary-level science education (Project Leap-LEarning About Plants) is being jointly funded by NSF and New York State. Dr. Cook's own research interests are in plant propagation biology in general and in the biology of clonal plants in particular. A native of Warwick, Rhode Island, and a 1968 graduate of Harvard College, he received his doctorate from Yale in 1973. He was a Cabot Fellow at Harvard in 1974 and 1975 and served as assistant professor in the Department of Biology from 1975 to 1980 and as associate professor from 1980 to 1982. Dr. has also been as program director in population biology and physiological ecology at NSF. Major capital projects undertaken during Dr. Cook's tenure included garden, trail, and landscape renovations as well as the acquisition of more than two "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'He Sowed; Others Reaped': Ephraim Wales Bull and the Origins of the 'Concord' Grape","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24953","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eb36f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Schofield, Edmund A.","article_content":"Sowed; Others Reaped\": Ephraim Wales Bull and the Origins of the `Concord' Grape \"He Edmund A. Schofield While Emerson and his colleagues were designing a philosophy for the unique needs of an expanding nation, one of their townsmen was quietly developing a grape to match the demands of its rigorous physical environment The Origins and Spread of \"The Vine\" In their peregrinations over the ages, the grape and mankind have crossed paths, have even trod the same path, many times. East and West, for millennia, they have followed similar routes of history, myth, and romance-first in the Northern Hemisphere, in Asia, in Europe, in North America, and then, within the last few centuries, in the Southern Hemisphere as well. Companion to mankind from dimmest antiquity, the grape has been one of mankind's most important, most esteemed fruits. In the West, the story of the grape has been largely the story of Vitis vinifera Linnxus\"the vine\"-from which all cultivated varieties of grapes were derived before Europeans came to North America. Cultivation of the vine-called viticulture-is a very ancient art: from earliest times and in every country, wherever it would thrive, the vine has been cultivated with care, especially here in the West. What wheat is to other cereals the vine is to other fruits-the most important in Western eyes, as era, grapes and wine were of considerable importance to Middle Eastern and Mediterranean peoples. Thousands of years ago the Egyptians were well acquaintcd with the use and properties of wine, which their traditions say were revealed to them by Osiris. Their chief vineyards were planted on the banks of the Nile. Joseph's dream, described in Genesis, gives evidence that the vine was cultivated in Egypt at least eighteen hundred years before Christ. Grape seeds have been found with mummies in Egyptian tombs that are at least three thousand years old, and details of grape growing appear in mosaics of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt (2440 B.C.) and later. Viticulture was practiced very early in Palestine (\"And Noah began to be a husbandman, and planted a vineyard.\"-Genesis 9:20). By 600 B.c., the Phoenicians probably had carried varieties of wine grapes to Greece, rice is in Eastern eyes. Asia Minor, somewhere between and south of the Black and Caspian seas, apparently is its home. From Asia Minor, its culture spread both west and east. In early history viticulture was carried out largely to Long before the supply grapes for winemaking. beginning of the Christian which were carried thence to Rome and on to southern France. Hundreds of varieties now are cultivated in the vineyards of the winegrowing country there. Ancient records show that the Chinese had vineyards of native grapes at least one thousand years before Christ. During the second century B.C., Vitis vinifera was introduced into China from western Asia, by way of Persia and India. Viticulture flourished in Greece during Homer's time. It was Dionysus, god of revelry and protector of the vine, who gave them the 5 vine, they say, and taught them viticulture. have been introduced very into Italy also, by the Greeks. The early Roman writers Virgil, Cato, the Plinys, Varro, and Columella describe numerous varieties of the vine, list many types of wine, and give directions for training and pruning vines and for making wine. For a time the Romans seemed to prefer Grecian wines to their own; not until about the first century of the Christian era did Italian wines begin to find favor in their own land. In Virgil's time the varieties in cultivation seem to have been exceedingly numerous ; and the varied methods of training and culture now in use in Italy are in many cases identical to those that Columella and other Roman writers described. Because viticulture was so important in Roman life, it is often referred to in Roman poetry, such as Virgil's Georgics. Bacchus, god of the vine, whom the Romans identified with Dionysus, was enormously popular at Pompeii, which was destroyed in A.D. 79 by the eruption of Mount Vesuvius. Archxologists have found the sites of many vineyards at Pompeii, some of them surprisingly large. They have found also numerous wall paintings of the vine, countless wine shops, and innumerable amphoras. All of this arch~ological evidence attests to the importance of the grape as a staple of daily life in Pompeii and verifies the information on viticulture given in the writings of Pliny the Elder, Cato, Varro, and Columella. During Roman times grape culture extended inland from the coast, moving up the Rhone River valley of France and as far north as the Rhine and Moselle valleys. By the second century A.D. the Romans had taken the vine to Germany. Well before the second century, raisin and table grapes had spread around the eastern end of the Mediterranean Sea to the countries of North Africa. Because the customs and religions of North Africa differed from those of the northern coast of the Mediterranean, the raisin and table grapes on the one hand, Viticulture must and the wine varieties, on the other, spread along different routes. Centuries later, when Europeans colonized lands around the globe, the grape was always among the plants they took along. In the fifteenth century viticulture became established in Madeira and the Canary Islands. Later it spread to South Africa, Australia, and South America. The first wine grapes were brought to California from Mexico late in the eighteenth century. During the first half of the next century grape growing and winemaking became established in California and expanded rapidly between I8G0 and 1900. Grapes and Their Uses Most grapes (Vitis spp.) are coarse, woody vines that cling to their supports by means of tendrils. Some species native to arid regions are almost-erect shrubs rather than vines. Grapes are members of the Vitaceae, or Vitidacex (the Grape, or Vine, Family). The genus name Vitis, which is the classical Latin name for the grape, was conferred by Carolus Linnxus. Over the years Vitis has been variously defined to include or exclude the genera Cissus and Ampelopsis, from which it is distinguished on the basis of small differences in floral structure. (Cissus was the Greek name for the ivy, and Ampelopsis, the name created by Michaux, comes from the Greek ampelos, the vine-i.e., the grape-and opsis, appearance.)Vitis is widespread in the Northern Hemisphere, especially in the temperate regions. Defined strictly, it includes around sixty species; when Ampelopsis and Cissus are included, it consists of some two hundred fifty species. As noted, grapes may be cultivated for any of a number of purposes: for making wine, for example; for eating out of hand as \"table grapes\"; for drying as currants and raisins; for preserving as jams, jellies, and preserves or for nonalcoholic beverages; and, latterly-owing to the elegance and rich color of the leaves of some grapes or to the shade they afford-as ornamentals, perhaps one of their least known uses. Several species recommend themselves as ornamentals: Vitis some, heavy leaves reach ten inches in diameter and turn red in the fall. Probably the fastest growing of the grapes, gloryvine is ideal as a screen, its shoots increasing their length by as much as fifty feet in a single season, and a single plant of Vitis coignetia? can cover a coigneti~, known as the gloryvine, is a handfast-growing, climbing vine. Its very large, of these ... a native of that part of Europe where grapes grew ... found vines hung with their fruit, which induced Leif to call the country Vineland.\" The English colonists found the coast of what is now New In one thousand square feet of trellis in a few years. It produces inconspicuous and inedible fruits. Hardy to Zone 5, Vitis coigneti~ was introduced into the United States from Japan by the Arnold Arboretum in 1875. Vitis amurensis, the Amur grape, is a vigorous vine native to the Amur River region of eastem Asia. Hardy to Zone 4, it is grown as an ornamental. Producing black fruit, Vitis amurensis comes into its own in the fall, when its coarse foliage turns crimson to purplish. Introduced to horticulture around 1854, this species is hardier than Vitis to be profuse in grapes. In 1621, Edward Winslow wrote that in New England \"are grapes, white and red, and very sweet and \" strong also.\" England granted on Governor's Island, in Boston Harbor, was to Governor John Winthrop in 1632 coignetia?. Vitis cahfornica, the California grape, is hardy to Zone 7. It is native to the West Coast, from Oregon to California and like Vitis amurensis is effective in the fall, its coarse leaves tuming red at that season. Although rather dry, its glaucous-white fruits are, nonetheless, pleasant-tasting. Vitis riparia, the riverbank grape, is a very hardy, high-climbing vine that is native to a large area of the United States. \/It is hardy to Zone 2.) Vitis riparia produces purple-black fruit that are covered with a dense bloom, and it bears leaves with lustrous, bright-green undersides. Its staminate flowers are fragrant, but they are too small to be effective ornamentally. Grapes of the New World North America has been called a natural the first record of the continent is also a record of its grapes, which grow wild in the greatest profusion in the wooded parts of the continent, from the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. When the early explorers visited North America, wild grapevines were so prominent that the region was repeatedly called \"Vineland.\" Leif Ericson, for example, reached our northeastern shores in about the year 1000. \"Farther south and westerly they went,\" says Justin Winsor's narrative, \"and going up a river came to an expanse of water, where on the shores they built huts to lodge in for the winter, and sent out exploring parties. vineyard: condition that he plant a vineyard or orchard on it. The island early became known as \"The Governour's Garden.\" In the Middle Atlantic region, the native grapes also attracted the attention of colonists and travelers. In Virginia in 1607-09, for example, Captain John Smith saw \"[o]f vines, great abundance in many parts, that climbe the toppes of the highest trees in some places, but these beare but fewe grapes. But by the rivers and Savage habitations where they are not overshadowed from the sunne, they are covered with fruit, though never pruined nor manured.\" The Spanish colonists of Florida and the French voyageurs were attracted by the abundance of grapes. Even as far north as Michigan the voyageurs found the banks of streams festooned with grapevines. John Adlum's vineyard near Georgetown in the District of Columbia, which was planted in 1820, first successfully produced grapes on the Atlantic coast. His introduction of the 'Catawba' into general culture would eventually yield valuable new cultivars. In 1860, nine-tenths of the 5,600 acres of vineyard established east of the Rocky Mountains were 'Catawba' grapes. The Mission Fathers in California were the first to grow successfully a variety ('Mission') of Vitis vinifera in what is now the United States; they brought it to San Diego in 1769. 'Mission' remained the leading variety grown until 1860, when European varieties were introduced. Between 1860 and 1870 in California there was a rapid increase in the acreage of varieties derived from native American grapes. It was during this time that the culti- 7 var 'Concord' became the leading commercially grown grape of American origin. The vine of Europe and of history, Vitis vinifera has always led a precarious existence was introduced into the eastern United States. It has been supplanted there by derivatives of the native species-Vitis labrusca (the northern fox grape), Vitis a?stivalis (the summer grape), and Vitis rotundi folia (the southern fox grape)-and by their hybrids with Vitis vinifera. Being essentially table fruits, the American grapes are quite different from their Old World counterpart, which, as has been said, is a wine fruit. Thus, European writings historically have dealt with \"the vine,\" American writings with \"grapes.\" But early American writings also dealt with the vine and with wine; it was not until the middle of the last century that the native grape began to be appreciated and understood as a table grape. Each species, native or introduced, has many varieties, is best adapted to specific regions of the country, and is managed according to its own special requirements. The \"vinifera grapes,\" or \"European grapes,\" as they are sometimes called, are grown in California and other areas with mild climates and, as said, descend from Vitis vinifera. They are cultivated in vast quantities in all major grape-growing regions of the world except eastern North America. Some of the American varieties have been introduced into France and other countries that became infested with phylloxera in the latter half of the nineteenth century, to serve as stocks for the better kinds of European vines, because their roots suffer less injury from attacks of this insect than do European species. Vitis labrusca produces purple-black fruit and has leaves that are dark green above. It is a rampant grower, ranging widely throughout the eastern United States, from New England to Georgia, Tennessee, and southern Indiana, and is hardy to Zone 5. Vitis labrusca is the parent of most of the American grapes now in cultivation and is the mainstay of grapegrowing east of the Rocky Mountains, with whenever it the most extensive plantings near the southern shores of the Great Lakes. 'Concord' may be the most famous American cultivar; it is certainly the most widely grown. Because of its wide adaptability it is produced in almost every grape-growing state of the Union. Although often considered as pure Vitis labrusca, it more likely is a hybrid of that species with another species. In fact, most of the older American grapes are thought to involve more than one species. Therefore, \"Vitis labruscana L. H. Bailey,\" a name used in some horticultural literature, has been applied to American grape cultivars of Vitis labrusca parentage. 'Concord': A Hardy Grape for American Vineyards The story of 'Concord' is one of the more interesting chapters in the history of North American viticulture. While not the first or only important cultivar developed in America, 'Concord' may well be the most noteworthy. It and Ephraim Wales Bull, its originator, are the protagonists of the account that follows. The past has been a long prologue to their story. Ephraim Wales Bull came to serious grapegrowing and to the town of Concord, Massachusetts-after which his cultivar was named-in a roundabout way. He was born in Boston on March 4, 1806, the day on which Thomas Jefferson was inaugurated for his second term as president. The farmhouse in which he was born stood in the area of Washington Street that would later become known as \"Newspaper Row,\" around the corner and a mere five hundred feet from the house on Milk Street where Benjamin Franklin was born almost precisely a century before. Ephraim was the eldest son of Epaphras Bull, a silversmith who had left the hamlet of Bull's Pastures (now Bullsville), New York, for Boston. His family was descended from Captain Thomas Bull, who had come to America in 1635 on the ship Hopewell. Boston was, in those days, a large, thriving town, and Washington Street, now one of the 'j 8 principal and most congested thoroughfares in the \"Hub,\" was a village highway. Cows grazed on Boston Common. Behind the Bulls' house was a large garden where young Ephraim indulged a love of horticulture, experimenting in grape growing, among other things. A studious child, Ephraim received the Franklin medal at school in 1817, when he was only eleven years old. In 1821 he was apprenticed to Louis Lauriat in the trade of goldbeating-the beating of gold into leaf, then much in demand by bookbinders and gilders. At about this time his family moved to nearby Dorchester, Massachusetts. While pursuing his trade as goldbeater, young Bull devoted all his spare time to horticultural pursuits, particularly to small-scale grape growing, in his home garden. (Bull raised the varieties 'Isabella', 'Catawba', and 'Sweetwater'.) This was the period during which 'Isabella' was first grown in Boston. In 1826 Bull acquired a shop of his own, and on September 10 of that year he married Mary Ellen Walker, a relative of President James Walker of Harvard College. After their marriage the Bulls moved back to Boston, taking a small house on Fayette Street, in the South End. Bull was by now a first-class gold-beater, working long hours in a hot, dusty shop on Cornhill (near modern Government Center). He continued to indulge his interest in horticulture during his off hours, in the small garden garden behind his house. Eventually, Bull developed lung trouble, and his doctor advised him to live in fresh air and away from Boston's chill east winds. In August 1836, therefore, he quit Boston, buying seventeen acres of land in Concord, a town located some twenty miles northwest of Boston. There the Bulls lived in a little white house on the road to Lexington. Though he continued his trade as goldbeater in a tiny shop behind his home, Bull loved farming more. Whenever the gold business slumped he would have time to putter in his garden. His passion by now was the grape, and the 'Isabella', 'Catawba', and 'Sweetwater' grapes he had cultivated in Boston had come with him to Concord. He was unable to ripen the grapes in open culture, however, even in favorable seasons. This was due, he said, to \"the late spring and early autumn frosts, which we are liable to in this deep valley of Concord.\" Bull had moved to an interesting town during an interesting period of American history. Concord was hardly a typical rural village. There, where \"the shot heard 'round the world\" was fired in 1775, the American Revolutionary War had begun. Decades later a social movement, American Transcendentalism, took root and flourished in Concord around the writer and philosopher Ralph Waldo Emerson. The land on which Ephraim Bull had settled made him next-door neighbor to the Bronson Alcotts and later to the writer Nathaniel Hawthorne, with whom he was soon on friendly terms. During the years of struggle before he discovered the famous grape, Bull was assisted and encouraged by these and other neighbors and townsmen, many of whom were members of the Emerson-Thoreau-Alcott Transcendentalist group. In strategic ways, many of which will never be known in full detail, Bull worked alongside his Transcendentalist friends when antislavery agitation reached its peak in Concord just before the Civil War. Hawthorne's son, Julian, recalled Bull in his book, Hawthorne and His Circle. \"Another neighbor of ours,\" he wrote, \" hardly less known to fame [than the Transcendentalists], though in a widely different line of usefula very distinct picture in my mind; this was Ephraim Wales Bull, the inventor of the Concord Grape. He was as eccentric as his name; but he was a genuine and substantial man, and my father took a great liking to him, which was reciprocated. He was short and powerful, with long arms, and a big head covered with bushy hair and a jungle beard, from which looked out a pair of eyes singularly bnlliant and penetrating. He had brains to thmk with, as well as strong and skilful hands to work with.... He often came over ness, makes 9 and sat with my father in the summer house on the hill, and there talked about politics, sociology (though under some other name, probably), morals, and human nature, with an occasional lecture on grape culture. In 1841 Bull bought the Eben Dow farm, which adjoined his property, setting out many trees, shrubs, and vines. The farm's soil was sandy, and a south-facing slope suggested to Bull great possibilities for grape growing. Determined to develop an earlier-ripening grape that would be hardy in Massachusetts, he obtained from every available quarter vines having local reputations for excellence. (He knew about Jean Baptiste Van Mons' success in raising pears from seeds and concluded that the same process could be applied to grapes.) Again he was disappointed but persevered-eventually turning to wild vines he found growing nearby. He had been watching carefully an earlyripening native of the northern fox grape, Vitis labrusca, growing in a distant part of his garden, noticing, when it fruited at the end of August 1843, that it possessed at least some of the essential qualities he sought. The grape was of good quality, and the idea immediately occurred to him that another generation would be a still greater improvement. He removed and planted it near his 'Catawba' vine, by which it was probably pollinated. Bull (he informs us) planted the resulting grapes from the wild vine \"whole, into the ground, skin and all, at a depth of two inches, and covered the row with boards. \"I nursed these seedlings six years,\" he informs us further, \"and of the large number obtained only one that proved worth keeping. On the tenth of September 1849, I was enabled to pick a bunch of grapes, and when I showed them to a neighbor who tasted them, he exclaimed, \"Why this is better than Isa\" bella' !\" \"I looked about to see what I could find among our wildings,\" Bull would reminisce later. \"The next thing was to find the best and earliest grape for seed, and this I found in an Ephraim Wales Bull in 1861. From Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1908. accidental seedling at the foot of the hill. The crop was abundant, and of very good quality for wild grape. I sowed the seed in the of 1843. Among them the Concord was the only one worth saving.\" The exact source of the accidental seedling is obscure. Bull had bought his house in Concord in 1836. That year, he told Liberty Hyde Bailey decades later, boys brought up from the Concord River some wild grapes and scattered them about the place. A seedling appeared in a corner of the garden, evidently the offspring of these truant grapes. The stray seedling grew at the base of what is now called Revolutionary Ridge, an interesting landform so named for the key role it had played in the battle between the Americans and the British on April 19, 1775. Extending a mile or so eastward from the center a autumn 10 of Concord, this sandy, gravelly ridge is a kame delta that was deposited some ten to twenty thousand years ago in Glacial Lake Concord by meltwater rushing from the retreating continental ice sheet. British troops, advancing from Lexington to Concord North Bridge along the road that parallels the Ridge, passed Bull's cottage en route to the bridge, and passed it again during their ignominious retreat to Lexington and Boston. The Concordians, knowing their native terrain far better than did the alien British, who kept mainly to the public highway, travelled across lots, on the far (north and eastern) side of the Ridge, rushing from the Bridge to Meriam's Corner, a fork in the road located only three hundred yards east of Bull's cottage, at the eastern tip of Revolutionary Ridge. There the Americans ambushed the British troops. In one of his romance fragments, the posthumously published \"Septimius Felton,\" Nathaniel Hawthorne makes Revolutionary Ridge the scene of a duel between Felton and a British soldier. vegetables and was nearly overlooked by the judges. In the perhaps embellished account of a journalist, when the show opened and Bull's new grape had not arrived, two members of the Society went out to Concord and said, \"Where are those grapes you promised to send inr\" Quite taken aback, Bull stammered, \"I did send them in, by a neighbor.I was too sick to make the trip myself, but I sent them just as I said I would.\" Very much puzzled, the committee went back to the horticultural show. They rummaged around and found the grapes hidden in a pile of squashes and turnips and other vegetables. One look and they knew they had something. They looked at the big round, juicy fruit that had ripened fully two weeks before any other grape and then snitched a couple to eat. They smacked their lips and said, \"I'll bet he girdled the vines-we better make sure there's no trickery here.\" So back to Concord they hastened, notebooks in hand, and gave poor Mr. Bull quite a going over. But he showed them the vines and some other clusters-far bigger and better than those he had sent to the show. Once convinced, the committee announced to the world that, at last, a grape had been developed that would grow in New England-bigger and better than any grown before. \" \" 'Concord' Makes Its Debut 1849, Bull paid a visit to the editorial offices of the Boston Cultivator, telling its editor, Samuel W. Cole, that he had a new and promising seedling black grape that he wished to exchange for one of 'Diana', which the Cultivator had offered for sale to its readers. Cole, who owned a nursery in Chelsea, had his foreman set the cutting out. It soon fruited, but little was made of it. Bull had stipulated that it was not to be propagated for sale. In the spring of 1853, Bull took the limited stock propagated at Cole's nursery, having decided that the best way to publicize the new cultivar would be to exhibit it at Horticultural Hall in Boston, during that fall's meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Accordingly, 'Concord' was exhibited for the first time on September 3, 1853, three years after it had produced its first fruit. It is said that, through some mixup, the 'Concord' originally was exhibited among the In The next issue of Hovey's Magazine of Horticulture reported that, \"Mr. Bull's new, early and delicious native variety, was exhibited before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, on Saturday the third of September, fully ripe, being more than two weeks before the Diana was mature. It has not only proved by far the earliest grape we have, but also one of the most delicious, having in place of the musky flavor of Isabella, the rich aroma of the Catawba, with which, probably its parent was somewhat fertilized. Specimens were exhibited before the committee who say it fully maintains the high character heretofore given it.\" \"We are \" gratified to announce,\" Hovey's continued, \"that Mr. Bull has decided to offer it for sale in April next, and has placed the entire stock in the hands of Messrs. Hovey & Co. for disposal.... It will be called the CONCORD grape, having been raised in the town of that name, very near the spot so . 11 1 memorable in the annals of our history, and known as the Concord battle ground.\" When Hovey & Company introduced it in the spring of 1854, it attracted considerable attention and was placed on the grape list of the American Pomological Society as one of the \"new varieties which promise well.\" It attracted still more attention in 1855. The next few years found 'Concord' in the catalogs of every nursery in the country, and it spread rapidly throughout most of the eastern and midwestem states. Within the brief period of a year, 'Concord' was growing in the West. One source, George Husthat in the winter of 1855 he secured buds of 'Concord' at Hermann, Missouri, from James G. Soulard of Galena, Illinois-half way across the continent. In 1858 8 mannn, states corresponded with a Dr. J. C. Bennett of Great Falls, Iowa, who he hoped would market 'Concord' in Iowa. \"The Charter Oak and the Concord are entirely different in all respects,\" Bull wrote. The Charter Oak is very large in berry though small in bunch, coarse, foxy,and wild. The Concord is as handsome in bunch as a black hamburgh [the variety 'Black Hamburg'] and as andhas a rich aromalarge, delicate,afull of juice, as as unlike wild grape possible. It is hardy in wood and foliage and berry, which is not the case either with the Catawber ['Catawba'] or Isabella with me-both being infected by rot this very season, while the Concord is wholly free from any of these things. the and Middle By 1860, vineyards of 'Concord' had been 'Concord' was placed on the regular list of recommended varieties by the American Pomological Society, where it remains. Bull himself took a hand in promoting 'Concord'. In August 1854, for example, he planted in Chautauqua County, New York. In 1865 it was awarded the Greeley prize and called, prophetically, \"the grape for the millions.\" During this period horticultural societies would maintain frequent contact with another about new fruit varieties and cultural practices; by 1867 the Ohio Horticulone The original \"Concord\" grape vine, still growing af ternearl y a century and a half. Photograph by the author. 12'1 tural Society was writing about the extensive plantings of the \"noble Concord\" in Ohio and Missouri. Within fifteen years of its introduction, thousands of acres of vineyards had been planted to 'Concord' all over the country. By the mid-1870s more 'Concord' had been planted in the Northeast than all other varieties put together. It had become the outstanding grape for both fresh and processed use. Fruit was shipped from the grapc belts of the Lake Erie region to most of the major cities of the United States. Dr. Sylvester proceeded to cite a large number of authorities, statements of farmers, nurserymen, vineyardists, and vintners in all parts of the country, showing that 'Concord' was more successful and gave more satisfaction than any other grape. Horace Greeley then spoke: As thc prizc I offcrcd has bccn directly alluded to by Dr. Sylvester, I may say that with the award of that committee I had nothing at all to do. When they came to their decision I paid over the $100. But the end I had in view was not attained by that investigation. I intended to stimulate the production of new and better vines, and hoped some grape would be brought out having the hardiness Greeley Affair\" In 1866, journalist Horace (\"Go West, young man! Go West!\") Greeley, editor of the New York Tribune, offered a prize of one hundred dollars \"for the best grape for general cultivation.\"'Concord' won. When the winner was announced before the Farmers' Club of the American Institute of New York City in Octobcr of that year, there was unanimous applause from the audience. Many members of the public later would express strong opposition, however, among them Horace Grceley himself! A Dr. E. Ware Sylvester described the controversy at a Farmers' Club meeting in March 1869 (Horace Greeley was in atten- \"The and dance), sparking a lively exchange: An effort has been in progress to discover among our native grapes, one which in healthfulness, exhibited the 'Concord' at a fruit show of the American Institute of the City of New York], whoever he was, did to deserve his $100. The Concord was widely cultivated, and all my money did was to advertise a grape already known; thus improvement was not stimulated, but rather checked. I am a little discouraged by the result, and do not propose to offer another bank note for a plate of common grapes. To my taste the Concord has no quality superior to the wild wood grape of my boyhood. [Greeley grew up in New Hampshire.] I admit that it is hardy and prolific; but after all,is it much of a frui t? I hope others will take up this matter, and at length brin out a grape flavored. hardy, productive, adaptive and Concord, good bearing qualities, and, what the Concord wants, high and delicate flavor. But the award was to the Concord, and I could never see what that man ]not Bull, but William H. Goldsmith of Newark, New Jersey, who recently had adaptability to soils and climates of the highly P. T. Quinn responded to Greeley's re- hardiness and productiveness, should be adapted to the wants million. To this end the prize of $100 was, years ago, offered by Horace Greeley, and other prizes have since been awarded. You are well aware that the Greeley prize was given to the Concord. This brought out a torrent of abuse mainly from those interested in other vines, and even Dr. Greeley, with his usual kindly feelings, a thought it best to apply Tribune soothingplaster to the wounded head of Iona island. [The cultivar 'Iona' was developed by Dr. C. W. Grant of Iona Island, New York, which is situated in the Hudson River about forty miles north of New York City.] To the base insinuations which were made in the public prints, the members of the Greeley committee made no reply, and make none now; they were willing that time and expeof agricultural rience the great regulators were sure to matters, should justify, as they do, the award of the committee. of the marks : As a member of that committee, a word of explanation may be in order. There were two committees. The first decided on the Iona, and Dr. Grant claimed the award as the originator of the Iona. But there was a protest, a delay, a change in the personnelle of the comrruttee, and the feeling with those who made the final award was that a grape like the lona, known only to a few amateurs, did not come up to the requirements of Mr. Greeley, and should not receive the money. Greeley responded that complain of is the eagerness of the committee. I did not care if they waited five years, and thus gave grape culturists a chance to enter new varieties. How do we know but Caywood's grape, What I 13 for instance, the Walter, is as hardy and well suited to different soils as the Concord? If the prize were now open the Walter might take it for aught I know. Dr. Sylvester countered that Two years or more have elapsed since that award, and has any grape risen up that could contest the palm with the Concord? This last fall, did not Concord receive the silver cup at Cincinnati for being the best wine grape, and the best table grape? A Mr. Fuller assured Greeley that his worth saving; but, growing more critical, he discarded most of them. Marshall P. Wilder, a noted nineteenth century horticulturist, stated that, \"Had Mr. Bull done nothing else for the benefit of mankind, than originate the Concord grape, his name would be held in grateful remembrance, while the fruit of the vine shall cool the parched tongue, or the juice make glad the heart of man.\" Judge Hoar asserted that \"had Bull conferred such a public benefit as originating the Concord grape in the Old World, were money had not been wasted: While I agree with Mr. Greeley as to the qualities of the Concord, yet I must say that he never put out $100 that has done more good to the farmers of this country. It arrested attention everywhere, began to buy Concord vines who never bought before. Ithas been the means of planting a vine in 10,000, yes, 100,000 yards and gardens. Of course we are not to rest in the Concord; but it is so much better than no grape, besides it affords the best sort of a stepping-stone to something and people superior. to Despite his harsh remarks, Greeley is said have relented, calling the 'Concord' \"a \" grape for the millions.\" the government would have conferred its recognition upon him, whereas in his own country what he had given years of patient study and toil to attain, was accepted as a \" mere matter of course.\" Ephraim Wales Bull received scant pecuniary reward for his work after selling stock to Hovey & Company. He had sold 'Concord' vines directly at five dollars apiece during the first year, receiving a total of $3,200 in net income, but almost nothing thereafter because the commercial nurseries were propagating and selling it to the public in vast quantities and paying no royalties to Bull. He did garner many honors nonetheless: he was invited to lecture at Harvard on grape Life after 'Concord' Bull's success with 'Concord' did not end his experimenting. On the contrary, it led him to grow twenty-two thousand seedlings over a period of thirty-seven years, of which he selected twenty-one for introduction. A white grape, which he believed to be the most beautiful he could produce, he named 'Esther' in honor of his mother, for example; another, later production he named 'Cottage', out of love for his home, the little house which survives to this day as \"The Grapevine Cottage\" ; yet another, 'Rockwood', he named after his lifelong friend, Judge Ebenezer Rockwood Hoar. 'Iona' and 'August Rose' were among his later introductions. Many seedlings he left unnamed. At one time he had one hundred twenty-five vines that he thought A corner Bull's workshed. Public Library. of Ephraim Wales Bull's house, showing Courtesy of the Concord Free 14 ' Bull deserved to benefit handsomely from his dedicated and painstaking work in developing'Concord', but nearly all profits from it went to the commercial nurseries. Had his later cultivars been properly introduced they might have brought him wealth, but because 'Concord' had failed to be profitable, he hated t commercial grape culture and, refusing to put them on the market properly, grew disap- pointed and embittered. Thus, Bull had to be content with less tangible rewards: much respect and affection at home and a modest fame abroad. He saw his'Concord'spread over the continent, leaving great wealth in its wake, while he, its grew more and more impoverished. From a simple, frank, neighborly man he became a suspicious recluse, spending his days tending plants in a small greenhouse behind his cottage. This became the chief solace of his lonely later life. Ephraim Wales Bull died on September 26, 1895. The epitaph on his grave is an apt description of his life: \"HE sowED; OTHERS originator, Monument to the 'Concord' grape and Ephraim Wales Bull erected in front of the Grapevine Cottage and the original 'Concord' grapevine by the town of Concord. \" REAPED.\" The True Place of 'Concord' growing, for example; he was elected a member of the Massachusetts House of Representatives from Concord and was chairman of the committee on agriculture; he later held the same position in the Massachusetts Senate; and he was appointed to the Massachusetts State Board of Agriculture. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded him three medals for the production of the 'Concord' grape and the best seedling grapes, including, in December 1873, a gold medal \"for the production of the best hardy seedling grape, the Concord, which has proved, after a thorough trial, so universally adapted to general cultivation throughout the United States, and the most reliable grape for vineyard cultivation in Massachusetts.\" Later, he became an honorary member of the Today, a century and a half after it was developed, 'Concord' remains the preeminent grape of the eastern United States. It is well adapted to conditions in that part of the country, whereas the European varieties are not. According to a recent survey, more than seventy percent of the grapes produced in the northeastern, north central, and northwestern states are of this cultivar. As a progenitor of many other cultivars'Concord' has an even greater claim to fame. Among the more familiar cultivars of 'Concord' parentage are 'Worden', 'Martha', 'Cottage', 'Niagara', 'Diamond', to 'Moore's Early', 'Highland', 'Cole- rain', 'Brighton', and 'Black Eagle'. A score of others are either directly or indirectly linked the family tree of 'Concord'. Other claims have been made for the 'Concord', some of them patently false or exaggerated-although no doubt made in Society. 15 5 good faith-some of them true. Local folklore, for example, claims that 'Concord' and varieties derived from it \"saved the vineyards of Europe\": Cuttings of 'Concord' went to Europe directly from Ephraim Wales Bull's own vineyard in the late 1870s was these that provided stocks for susceptible vines in Europe and elsewhere, not 'Concord' or its descendants. In any event, the folklore is in error on at least one other score: \"the of or early 1880s, when the phylloxera devastating the vineyards of France. An agent the Emperor Napoleon came to America to Bull in Concord and investigate American grapes. The agent visited was of 'Concord' cuttings. presented with a bunch The phylloxera is an insect, Phylloxera viti folia? Fitch, that is indigenous to the eastern and central United States. Imported into Europe between 1858 and 1863 on American vines taken there for grafting purposes, it has since reached almost every vine-growing country in the world. The first definite record that the phylloxera had reached Europe was made in 1863, in England; soon thereafter it was identified in France, through whose vineyards it spread rapidly. Within twenty-five years it had destroyed nearly one-third of France's vineyards-in all, more than two and one-half million acres. By 1885 the phylloxera had extended to most other grape-producing countries of Europe and had reached Algeria, Australia, and southern Africa. It was first discovered in California in 1880, but there is evidence it had reached that state more than twenty years earlier, having been introduced along with American vines from east of the Rocky Mountains. The truth is that 'Concord'-like Vitis 7abrusca in general-is only slightly resistant to the phylloxera. Other American species and cultivars derived from them are notably resistant to the Emperor Napoleon\" died decades before his agent is alleged to have visited Bull, and there is no evidence that the French government of the time dispatched an agent or agents to obtain 'Concord' from Ephraim Wales Bull. Representatives of the French government, led by PierreViala, did visit other Americans s those bleak years for French viticulduring ture, however, even visiting William Gilson Farlow of Harvard University, who was a cryptogamic botanist, but they would have had little or no reason to visit Bull. Nevertheless, 'Concord' holds a venerable place in American viticulture. After nearly one hundred fifty years, it is still propagated and planted from coast to coast, and its end in nowhere near. Until 'Concord' appeared, grape growing in eastern North America had been difficult at best. Bull, by developing 'Concord', proved that native species could be employed in viticulture, and that viticulture could be made profitable in eastern North America. 'Concord' was only one step toward the improvement of the grape, but it was a crucial step. Bull's success prompted many further efforts to adapt viticulture to the trying demands of the New World. Note Because this article is an early version of part of a larger, ongoing project centered on the history of the 'Concord' grape, some of the interpretations and conclusions must remain tentative. phylloxera, however; it is Edmund A. Schofield is editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Laura Dwight's Magnolias","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24955","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eb76d.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Leet, Judith","article_content":"Laura Dwight's Magnolias judith Leet Determined to halt the decline of her beloved Back Bay neighborhood, civic activist Laura Dwight launched a community-wide drive to plant hundreds of saucer magnolias along Boston's elegant Commonwealth Avenue during the early 1960s Dwight's idea was to make Boston's particularly Commonwealth Avelook as beautiful in spring as Washingnue, ton's Tidal Basin-a great public welcome to Laura elegant Back Bay section of Back Bay, the new season. She foresaw the effect of having the whole avenue bloom at once with floriferous of trees, the a rich pink at the base and a creamy white at the petal tips. And the trees were to be democratically planted in the front yard of everyone's nineteenth century Victorian brownstone. In the 1960s, Miss Dwight, a resident of the Back Bay who was then in her sixties, conceived of such a scheme for beautifying Commonwealth Avenue and had the energy and persuasiveness to carry it out. One contemporary who knew Dwight in gardening and horticultural circles describes her as a very appealing person: \"It was like being pushed by a fairy or an elf; you couldn't say no to her. I'm sure that's why there are so many magnolias on Commonwealth Avenue.\" A younger friend remembers her as \"forceful, even pushy-but pushy in the right direction.\" From her apartment on Commonwealth Avenue, Laura Dwight observed the oncea row of the most saucer magnolia-its showy flowers Boston deterioratall around her, and she became aroused, ing even irate at the apathy and detachment of local residents. Hoping to help reverse this downward trend, she devoted her considerable energies to neighborhood-improvement projects and became an early member and later an officer of the Neighborhood Association of the Back Bay (NABB), a group working to restore stability to the area. An activist by nature, she first involved herself in small-scale beautification projects-organizing house tours and garden tours, and front- and back-yard contests to award prizes to those who had created the most appealing city gardens (often judged by \" Portrait of Laura Dwight by Bradford Bachrach. Courtesy of Anne H. Jennings. officials from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society). Such events encouraged residents to clean up, plant, and care for their often overlooked yards. Although she at this point had no garden of her own, she sponsored most of these events and signed up other sponsors, inviting them to a formal tea, often catered, at her comfortable apartment, filled with paintings, antiques, and mementoes of her forebears. With the hearty approval of the NABB, Laura Dwight carried out her first large-scale street-planting project in the fall of 1963. She personally rang doorbells and convinced owners-some of them friends, others total strangers-that it was a good idea to plant one or several magnolia trees in their front yards 18 jA and participate in a collective, street-long display. She offered to provide free labor to plant the trees on a designated weekend, the material to enrich the soil, and a young tree, to year saw the saucer magnolias installed on the sunny side of the street along with a few Magnolia stellata, the second year, dogwoods which would be delivered to the door. The resident only had to agree to the idea in principle and to pay a nominal sum for the young tree. Although agreed time were some absentee landlords could that far from a homogeneous groupstudents, young married couples, transients in rooming houses, administrators of junior colleges, and small-business people. But the idea had a logic and appeal of its own, and Laura Dwight motivated many to participate. One supporter of the planting, for example, was Emil \"Sax\" Rohmer, involved in real estate in the Back Bay, who donated two magnolias to be planted at 3 Commonwealth Avenue, a building rented by the French consulate and owned by Oliver S. Ames. Esther Ames, Oliver's wife, recalls planting a magnolia at 20 Gloucester Street and remembers that everyone in the neighborhood had heard about the street planting, either through the NABB or by word of mouth. Much discussion took place in meetings over the merits of Magnolia Xsoulangiana versus those of Magnolia stellata for the Boston climate; some argued against the not be located, a majority of those to participate. The residents at approached (Cornus florida) planted on the shady side. And, in retrospect, many would argue that the basic decision was correct: Magnolia Xsoulangiana is a neater, more compact tree than the dogwoods, which have a looser, lighter habit and often a less exuberant display. When asked about the project in 1981, Laura's sister, Frances Dwight, then in her eighties, wrote: \"Laura had read somewhere that Boston was about as far north as the magnolias could be expected to pull through the winter.\" Laura Dwight had also admired the magnolias already well established and blooming profusely in front of a few Back Bay townhouses, such as the Magnolia denudata at 6 Commonwealth, the residence of Mrs. Montgomery Sears (now the Boston Center for Adult Education). There was, in fact, even before Laura Dwight's campaign something of a tradition of planting trees in the Back Bay. A long-term resident recalls that the original owners, in early summer, would place white dust covers over the furniture and depart for their country homes. Therefore, they deliberately planted in the small front yards of their city houses a tree that would come into flower while they were still at home to benefit from it. Witnesses of the street plantings in the 1960s give Laura Dwight full credit as the moving force behind the project: she was the one who made arrangements with nurseries to truck in plants; she arranged for MIT students living in a fraternity house on Commonwealth Avenue to donate manpower; she made sure that seedling trees were given a proper start with loam, peat moss, mulch, watering (since the Back Bay was gravel-filled land, this improvement of the soil was prudent to ensure long-term success). An attractive price was set: eight dollars bought a smallish tree for those who were willing to wait for results (and even a young early magnolias altogether, nominating other species that would be less susceptible to an early-spring frost (the white magnolia petals quickly turning a dismal brown); some favored later-blooming native dogwoods (Cornus florida); others debated which species would be better for sunny and which for shady locations. A compromise was reached, but Laura Dwight's idea of the uniform planting of the colorful, large-petaled saucer magnolia (Magnolia Xsoulangiana) prevailed for the sunny (north) side of Commonwealth. Eyewitnesses recall of planting between two successive years 1963 and 1965: the first 19 magnolias planted on Commonwealth Avenue as a result of Laura Dwight's campaign were by no the first to be planted there. This Magnolia denudata, which stood on the Sarah G. Sears estate, was photographed in 1933 by John C. Marr. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. means The 20J magnolia produces a few choice blooms); those who wanted quicker results bought a larger tree at twenty dollars. According to Frances Dwight, \"residents' gardeners were brought from as far away as Beverly and Duxbury to help the student workers. Laura saucer (Twenty-eight of John descendants had attended Yale by Dwight's 1860, and one of these, Timothy Dwight, became president of Yale in 1795.) in Dedham in 1634. Laura Dwight was born in Detroit, Michigan, in 1899, one of two daughters of Percy Dwight and Grace Buel Dwight. Colonel Percy Dwight was at one time president of Wilson Body Company, makers of wagon and carriage bodies, a prosperous company found it very time-consuming, a great deal of detail with owners and nurserymen was involved.\" The late Mrs. Edwin Webster, a venerable resident of Back Bay, with a townhouse on the corner of Commonwealth and Dartmouth, who always kept a colorful display of freshly blooming flowers in her conservatory for passersby to enjoy, also agreed to participate in the collective street planting. Her gardeners, imported from her estate in Chestnut Hill, planted three sizeable specimens of Magnolia xsoulangiana that now take their place with the others planted by Laura Dwight-all now forming a long row of thriving, mature trees on Commonwealth Ave\" nue. Although many people have the impression that \"hundreds\" of trees make up the display, a recent survey shows that there are roughly as few as five and as many as fifteen magnolias on the sunny side of each long block of Commonwealth Avenue. In thrifty Boston fashion, the planting uses rather limited resources to make an effective, even dazzling, display. And twenty-five years after the planting, the late-April appearance of the pure-white and rich-pink blooms is one of the memorable spring sights in Boston-especially recommended for a leisurely walk on a balmy spring evening. The Dwight founded by his father, who owned considerable real estate in Detroit and Jackson, Michigan. (The two eldest Fisher brothers, who later founded the Fisher Body Company and became principal stockholders in General Motors, worked as young men for Percy Dwight.) The family summered in Williamstown, Massachusetts, on a large estate called Hillside House (now torn down), with well groomed gardens, memorable roses, riding stables, and dogs-including a decorated German shepherd who had served his country as a message dispatcher in World War I. The two daughters, Laura and Frances, were educated by a German governess (both sisters could recite German poetry-Schiller, Goethe, Heine-all their lives) and traveled extensively in Europe, a then common educational path for daughters of prominent families. Neither sister married, and they were referred to, in the polite phrase of the period, as \"maiden ladies.\" Both of independent means, Laura devoted herself as a volunteer to Republican politics and women's clubs; Frances amateur was an accomplished horsewoman, painter, and supporter of animal welfare, particularly interested in saving whales and seals. Accustomed to many servants, two or three in help, the Dwight sisters never learned the practical survival skills of cooking or homemaking. Visitors to their Boston apartment noted that neither sister was able to make their meals, and that even making a simple sandwich posed a challenge. A much younger friend recalled that the Dwights' teas were legendary, especially when the sisters Family Although many committee members assumed she was a native Bostonian because she participated so actively in many community projects, Laura Dwight was neither born nor raised in Boston and lived in the Back Bay only during her later years. Her roots did extend back nine generations in Massachusetts, however, to John Dwight, who settled 21 advancing in years. \"Usually when you to tea, especially in a proper Boston home, you expect tea and something in it. At Laura's, you might or might not get something to eat-and you might not even get the tea.\" Members of her garden club agree that Laura was clearly accustomed to someone else's making the tea for her. The many Boston ladies whom she mobilized respected her ability to get results-while shaking their were are invited cinths, a flowering dogwood, and brickwork to enhance the setting. After some very active disagreements among members about how to carry out the plans-some threatened to resign on the spot-Laura Dwight diplomatically calmed everyone. To the members' unfeigned surprise, the exhibit was judged a skillful solution to the design problem, was photographed for the Boston Globe, and won a heads in fond disbelief at her minimal skills at entertaining. Encouraged by the enthusiasm generated by the street plantings, and planning to do more such projects, Laura Dwight organized and became first president of the Back Bay Garden Club in 1967. The fledgling club was soon asked to exhibit at the prestigious annual flower show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society-to face the stiff competition of long-established clubs. The new group developed plans for a small urban garden, incorporating a real, albeit tiny, Japanese car into the exhibit, displayed behind a trellised carport, with many apricot tulips, grape hya- blue ribbon. Some of her motivation for neighborhood improvement might have come from personal experience. After tripping on the broken bricks of a Boston sidewalk and breaking her leg, she sued the City of Boston for damages. \"She was a gutsy lady to fight City Hall,\" her cousin Douglas Campbell remarked, \"but she won the $4,000 she sued \" for.\" Her sense of community involved her, as a founding member, in the Friends of the Public Garden-to aid in the rescue of the once well manicured Boston park that had fallen into weedy neglect. And her early interest in the environment-at a time when very few people had even heard of \"ecology\"-led her to found the \"Order of Preservation of Clean Air,\" or, as members called it, \"Citizens for Clean Air,\" one of her less successful ventures. When the group decided to disband, a surplus of $300 in the treasury caused some amused consternation among the members: no one knew how to dispose of the surplus in a way that would contribute to cleaning the air. One of the members and a close friend, Irene Pitz, remembers Laura Dwight fondly: \"Laura was always interested in 'good works.\"' Among these good works, she was Program Chairman for the Women's City Club, arranging for guest speakers; a director of the Gibson House, a Victorian museum on Beacon Street; and a member of the Colonial Dames and of the Junior League. Like all other Boston ladies, Laura Dwight devotedly at- Laura Bay Dwight photographed during a neighborhood backyard-garden contest. in the Back tended the Boston Symphony Orchestra's Friday afternoon concerts. 22 In addition to their distinguished Dwight lineage, Laura and Frances Dwight were also ninth in descent from one John Mason, born in England in 1601, who settled in Dorchester, Massachusetts, in the early seven- Producing the largest flowers of any woody plants in the Temperate Zone (Magnolia macrophylla~, magnolias have undoubtedly been admired by human beings since prehistory. Evidence suggests that the Chinese cultivated flowering magnolias at least as early as A.D. 600-or fourteen hundred years ago; by the fourteenth century, Chinese artists were decorating porcelain ware and other art objects with accurate and aesthetic renderings of the magnolia. The Asian magnolias have the attribute of in earliest spring on bare branches-before any leaves cover or compete with the blooms. Known to be among the most skillful of gardeners, the Chinese, and later the Japanese, learned how to graft, propagate, and force magnolias, selecting the aesthetically most desirable plants for temple and palace gardens. The Asian species introduced into cultivation were selected and improved over the centuries, while the plants remaining in the wild became increasingly scarce and limited in their range. By contrast, the American magnolias were uncultivated trees surviving without human assistance in the wilderness. The flowers of some species, such as Magnolia tripetala, appear more disheveled and less elegantly formed than their more pampered and highly selected Asian relatives. And even more significantly, the American species bloom later-after the leaves have sprouted-and so the flowers are less conspicuous than those of the precocious Asian magnolias, which bloom on bare branches. Europeans, lacking any native species of magnolia (all were wiped out by the last ice age), were delighted with their first magnolias, introduced from the New World (Magnolia virginiana in 1688, and later Magnolia grandiflora) but quickly lost interest in the American species after the first Asian magnolias were imported in the 1790s (Magnolia liliiflora and Magnolia denudata). Thirty years after these Asian introductions, a cavalry officer returning from the Napoleonic teenth century. The two sisters were the last surviving members of their immediate family. Toward the end of their lives, each sister expressed in private, to the same family advisor, her worry about dying and leaving the other sister to cope alone. The two elderly sisters died within five days of each other, in 1983. blooming Species Selected Dwight and her committee selected Magnolia Xsoulangiana for their street planting, the first magnolia hybrid and one that became immediately popular after its development in the 1820s, the result of a cross between two long-cultivated Asian species. Experts believe that the oldest magnolia fosLaura The sils are on the order of one hundred million years old, making Magnolia one of the oldest genera of flowering plants. Since these fossils are very similar to species still in existence, the plant is thought to have undergone only relatively minor evolutionary change over the millennia; magnolias exhibit one of the simplest types of flowering structures, with sepals and petals that are similar, overlapping in whorls of three; with stamens arranged in spirals; and with single, unfused pistils. Over the ages, magnolias were mainly pollinated by beetles (Nitidulid~ spp.), which also underwent little adaptation over inconceivably large spans of time. Together, the magnolia and its beetle pollinators have survived the ages. The beetle is thought to penetrate the closed bud, crawling between the tight petals and entering the flower chamber to pollinate the receptive stigma-the stamens shedding their pollen after the flower bud opens and the stigmas have been fertilized. This sequential ripening of the male and female parts of a flower prevents self-fertilization from taking place. s 23 conceived the idea of developing hybrids from them, trying to achieve the best qualities of each parent. After Waterloo in 1815, Etienne SoulangeBodin concluded that fighting wars was a worthless task, that both he and his opponents would have done better to have cultivated their own gardens rather than to have destroyed those of others. He vowed to devote his remaining energies to horticulture, and in the 1820s crossed two of the Asian magnolias, the white, tree-like Magnolia denudata, with the purple, shrubbier, later-flowering Magnolia liliiflora, to achieve an extravagantly beautiful hybrid, the Magnolia Xsoulangiana, an immediate success and now one of the most popular magnolias planted in the United States. The great French botanical wars interests, Back Bay, to a begin the task of filling in the major engineering project of the artist, Pierre-Joseph Redoute, speedily painted a single closed bloom for his Choix des plus belles fleurs (1827-1833). ). The Siting on Commonwealth Avenue Before Commonwealth Avenue was first planned as a major city avenue in the 1850s, the land west of the Public Garden (from what is now Arlington Street to Massachusetts Avenue and beyond to Kenmore Square) was a mudflat, filled and drained by each salty ocean tide moving up the Charles River. In the 1820s the Boston and Roxbury Corpora- no funds had been allotted for for the work, the wily fathers payments agreed to pay the construction engineers, Goss and Munson, with some of the valuable houselots they would produce with their fill. Utilizing the recently invented steam shovel and railroad, engineers excavated gravel from a site in nearby Needham and brought it nine miles by rail to the Back Bay. In the initial phase starting in 1859, land was filled on average at a rate of almost two large houselots a day; four thirty-five-car trains made twentyfive trips a day. Although filling went on through the late 1860s and 1870s, the final phase was not completed until 1882. Planners had laid out the area in what was, compared to jumbled colonial Boston, an orderly geometric grid, with five streets to run parallel to the Charles River and smaller cross streets to bear names in alphabetical period. Since sequence (Arlington, Berkeley, Clarendon, Dartmouth, and so on). The centerpiece of the scheme, Commonwealth Avenue, was to be two hundred feet wide, with a center mall, or park, one hundred feet in width, for strolling, attempted to supply power to various proposed commercial mills by constructing a tion dam across the Back Bay a mile and a half long, built along what is now Beacon Street and running parallel to the Charles River. But the Back Bay, when completely drained, produced unpleasant natural odors on the mudflats that were exacerbated by the odors from city sewerage also funneled into the area. Many of the proposed mills were built along the Merrimack rather than beside the Charles. As complaints about health and sanitation grew-as well as the need for more residential property close to the city-the city fathers agreed, in a merger of state, city, and private and each house was to be set back twenty feet from the sidewalk, allowing for small front yards.' Arthur Gilman, architect of the Arlington Street Church, is credited with the overall planning of the grid of the Back Bay, modeled on a smaller scale after the Parisian taste for grand boulevards; George Snell and landscape designers Copeland and Cleveland probably contributed to the plans for Commonwealth Avenue. In the early years of Commonwealth Avenue, private townhouses were built at rather random intervals; historical photographs reveal clusters of brownstones separated at irregular intervals by vacant lots. In one photograph, taken around 1875, Commonwealth Avenue remains incomplete between Clarendon and Dartmouth streets: several lots toward Dartmouth and one in mid-block await houses. And the generally bleak 24 Commonwealth Avenue between Exeter and Dartmouth streets during the 1880s. the Bostonian Society. Photograph courtesy of appearance of the street is primarily due to the absence of trees and shrubs. Over several decades all the vacant lots-through to Massachusetts Avenue-were slowly filled inmore attractively by private owners and less so by developers. During the 1880s, Frederick Law Olmsted laid plans for diverting and draining the Muddy River, a scheme that allowed the filling in of Commonwealth Avenue to continue toward Kenmore Square and Brookline Village. By the 1880s, Dartmouth and Exeter streets' empty lots were completely filled in by adjoining brownstones, each varied but sharing many common architectural details. Gradually, these private residences emerged as an American interpretation of French-inspired (Second Empire) townhouses-but overall a relatively homogeneous architectural composition. To Walter Muir Whitehill's eye, \"the Back Bay is still the handsomest and most consistent example of American architecture of the second half of the nineteenth century now existing in the United States.\" Those Bostonians who first bought lots \" and built imposing five-story townhouses were from among the most distinguished of local families-and lived in a now-lost style of many servants, much leisure, and a closeknit social community. As more of the Back Bay was filled in, these citizens surrounded themselves with the monuments to their way of life: Symphony Hall, Horticultural Hall, the Museum of Fine Arts, Harvard Medical 25 School, the Museum of Natural History, and numerous churches, private clubs, and schools. beginning in the Depression, and certainly by the end of World War Two, the Back Bay had lost its fashionable cachet; most of the original families had sold the brownBut on the street but were enclosed in their protected fenced-in gardens. Magnolias, once they have been established for a year or two, are tough and hardy and require little care, not even prumng, except for the removing of dead branches-qualities that make them appealing to the busy city dweller, who often knows little about pruning. directly and moved out of the city-to properties with more land and fresh air. Many small colleges acquired the former private residences for dormitories and classrooms; the Back Bay streets were overrun with students. The now too large, elaborately paneled houses, already broken up into apartments, were further divided into rooms for transients. The once tidy Public Garden was no longer kept up but was marred by broken benches, trash, unkempt flower beds. It was during the 1960s, a low point in the life of the area, that public-spirited Bostonians pulled together to resuscitate the Back Bay with an array of new, private organizations whose purpose was to improve and beautify the city. Among them, on the front lines, serving on many of the boards as a volunteer, was Laura Dwight. The magnolias on Commonwealth Avenue were just one of her many projectsbut one that remains a living memorial to her and one that will continue to bring refreshment and pleasure to Bostonians for many stones Acknowledgments Esther Heins began researching this article in 1981, when Frances Dwight was still living at 250 Beacon Street and Laura Dwight was in Sherrill House, a nursing home in Boston, after having suffered a severe stroke. She also spoke to Mrs. Charles Howard, whose late husband was president of the Neighborhood Association of the Back Bay when the street plantings took place. I am most grateful to and would like to thank those who willingly spent time stirnng their memories over events that occurred over twenty-five years ago: Irene Pitz, Mrs. R. A. Sawyer, Esther and Oliver Ames, Elizabeth Lay, Ann Twaddle, Sally Mead, Douglas Campbell, Liz Ann Chapin, Patsy Boyce Sidlowsky, Anne Jennings, Laura Dwight Lewis, Donald Dwight, Henry Flynt, Lyman Parsons, Daniel Needham, Polly Wakefield, and the Reverend Schuyler Jenkins. I would be pleased to hear from anyone who recalls additional information about the plantings or about Laura Dwight. Sources Frances Dwight. 1981. Private letter to Esther Heins, July 5, Faber, Neil Treseder. Magnohas. London: Faber and 1978. 243 pages. Walter Muir Whitehill. Boston: A Topographical History. Second edition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1968. 299 pages. Susan Wilson. Commonwealth Mall. The Boston Globe, May 28 1988. springs to come. Endnote 1 It was this small, front-yard space that allowed Laura Dwight's planting project to be successful. Peter Del Tredici of the Arnold Arboretum ascribes the survival of the magnolias to the fact that they were not planted Judith Leet is an editor and nutHill, Massachusetts. writer who lives in Chest- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park Partnership","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24957","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14ebb6b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Connor, Sheila","article_content":"The Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park Partnership Sheila Connor Just over a century ago-through sheer force of willpower-Charles Sprague Sargent clinched a unique partnership that for the next 895 Arnold Arboretum to all the people of Boston a stroll through a beautiful city also a tour of a university research facilpark ity ? Not often, but if one is strolling through the Arnold Arboretum, it is. Designed for use by scientists and laity for the study and enjoyment of botany and horticulture and created with private funds, the Arnold Arboretum broke with tradition. For, although the late nineteenth century was a harvest time for museums, no university botanic garden or arboretum had yet been planned with the public in mind. Following tradition, too, was the design of public pleasure grounds: the prevailing \"picturesque theory\" stressed naturalistic design, avoiding the use of specimen trees or plantings. No tree was selected to display the details of its bark, leaves, flowers, or fruit. The botanist, however, needed to focus on just these specifics for study and comparison. The challenge of meeting, in a single setting, the divergent needs and expectations of botanists and the general public alike required both an exceptional designer and \"creative years secures the How often is financing. Charles Sprague Sargent, a well connected Boston Brahmin and the Arboretum's first \" director, was just the man to find both. He convinced Frederick Law Olmsted, Amer- leading landscape architect, to create a design that would be naturalistic and that yet would arrange plants according to a specific taxonomic scheme. Then, in order to serve ica's the dual purpose he believed the Arboretum would have, Sargent had to persuade the City of Boston and Harvard College to undertake a joint financial venture. His motives were not entirely altruistic: he needed additional money to build and maintain the Arboretum. The idea of shared financing occurred to Sargent as early as 1874, when the city began to hold hearings on a public park system. Although this was four years before Olmsted agreed to work on either the Arboretum or the park system, Sargent outlined his ideas: \"It has occurred to me that an arrangement could be made by which the ground could be handed over to the City of Boston,\" he wrote, \"on the condition that the City spend a certain sum of money laying out the grounds and agree to leave the plantings in my hands....\" Evidently, Olmsted liked the idea, for he adopted and championed it. By 1880 he would write to Charles Eliot Norton, professor of fine arts at Harvard, about his frustration with the Arboretum project. \"The scheme is that the city shall lease the condemned... land to the college at a nominal rent for a thousand years and the college shall establish and maintain the arboretum.... This is the whole of the scheme as I would have it. I am sure that it is a capital bargain for both parties.... The sole difficulty is that nobody (feeling free to act) is alive to the opportunity. I have been shaking Dalton [chairman of the Park Commission] and 27 A view of Bussey Brook in the Arnold Arboretum, taken m 1949 by 1'rofessor Karl Sax, who was the Arboretum's Director at the time. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Sargent and have tried to stir up Mr. Pulsifer at the Herald....\"Perhaps Sargent and Olmsted recognized a political advantage in its being Olmsted's idea, for Sargent's annual report for 1881 credits Olmsted with the plan. The negotiations lasted four years. The Arboretum's nurseries were bursting at the seams. Sargent could not begin to implement Olmsted's design without commitment from the city. The proposition finally came to a vote by the City Council on October 13,1882, after lengthy debate, but it failed to pass, receiving only 36 of the required 59 votes. Proponents of the Arboretum on the Council quickly moved to set up an Arboretum Committee, and Sargent and Olmsted stepped up their efforts to rally support. A public-relations drive was launched that had the \"Arboretum Question\" debated in the city's newspapers. November's headlines read: \"VOICES OF THE PEOPLE IN ITS FAVORTHROWING AWAY A BARGAIN,\" \"THE ARBORETUM'S VALUE TO BOSTON,\" \"AN EDUCATIONAL PARK AT A BARGAIN.\" Sargent pulled out all stops with the circulation of a petition, to which 1,305 of the 28 most powerful people added their signatures. If Olmsted had failed to shake up someone at the Herald, the petition certainly succeeded. A story in its issue of December 1 read, in part: sity was to collect the plants, design the Arboretum, and maintain the collections and programs. The petition to the city council in favor of the Arnold Arboretum is probably the most influential ever received by that body. It includes almost all of the large taxpayers of Boston.... Nearly all of the prominent citizens are there, including ex-mayors and ex-governors.... The petition would be a prize to a collector of auto- graphs. The campaign worked. On December 27, 1882, terms similar to those Sargent had proposed eight years earlier were agreed upon. It took another year to work out the details, but on December 20, 1883, a thousand-year lease was signed, and an unprecedented agreement between the City of Boston and Harvard College began. As the earliest of Boston's \"Park Partners,\" the Arboretum has had a long and celebrated history, and both the City of Boston and Harvard recognize the wisdom of this early arrangement, which is now in its 106th year. Under the terms of the agreement, the Arboretum became part of the City of Boston's park system. The city was to be responsible for the construction and ongoing maintenance of the driveways and boundary fences throughout the Arboretum. Harvard Univer- The Arboretum has been consistently well maintained since its beginning, and it stands out as the centerpiece of the famed Emerald Necklace. Its original master plan has been maintained to this day, although there is substantial restoration work to be done on the Arboretum's roads, walkways, drinking fountains, and benches. Happily, the Parks and Recreation Department is beginning a long-term program of capital repairs that one day will return the Arboretum to its former pristine state. Funds from the Olmsted Restoration Project will also contribute substantially to this effort when they become available. The Arnold Arboretum's fame as a botanical garden has spread worldwide, attracting scientists and students from around the globe to study its vast collections. At the same time, hundreds of thousands of people enjoy the Arboretum as a scenic and restful escape from the ever-increasing congestion of Boston. It is a rare jewel created through the inspired vision of people who believed in the value of urban open space, and who understand the ever more valuable role of botany in modern life. Sheila Connor is Horticultural Research Archivistat the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Franklin Park, Boston's 'Central' Park","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24951","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eaf26.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Heath, Richard","article_content":"Franklin Park, Boston's \"Central\" Park1 Richard Heath The embodiment of Frederick Law Olmsted's agrarian ideal, Franklin Park vies with the Arnold Arboretum as the centerpiece of the Boston park system Since the 1890s, Franklin Park has been Boston's central park, the hub of an enormous system of parks stretching from the Back Bay to the newly annexed towns of Dorchester, Roxbury, and Jamaica Plain. Frederick Law Olmsted, advising the Boston Park Commissioners, recognized that Boston's growth would require large open spaces in which citizens could relax and engage in recreation. In his Notes on the Plan of Franklin Park ( 1886\/, ), Olmsted described Franklin Park as having a square mile of relaxing scenery that would ease the harried city dweller. Because it was intended to be an ample country park, it was placed, not in the middle of the city, but southwest of City Hall, approximately four miles from Boston Common, in what was then an undeveloped part of the city. Indeed, all of the sites considered for the Park lay four to five miles from the central-business, government, and residential core of Boston, which had long been built up. Placing the new park outside of the center city would perfect Olmsted's theory that the \"agrarian ideal\" should be brought to the city. The new park was to be-or appear to beas little built-up as possible, with many convenient footpaths meandering through it. parkway, which would connect the other parks in the Olmsted system and, by a meandering parkway, lead to the inner city. (Of Olmsted's parks, only the Arnold Arboretum and Mont Royal Park, in Montreal, have fewer structures than Franklin Park.) A circuit drive for carriages would lead into the Excerpted and adapted from the first chapter of Franklin Park: A Century's Appraisal. Franklin Park Coalition A bucolic viewacross Scarborough Pond in Frank- Bulletin1985~. lin Park. This and the following two scenes of Franklin Park by Richard Howard are used through the courtesy of the Boston Foundation and the Boston GreenSpace Alliance. 30 . even while driving to the park, one would never have to leave parkland. The 500 acres of Franklin Park (originally there were 527 acres) were purchased between 1881 and 1883, and construction began early in the summer of 1885. Streetcar lines were just beginning to move out to the edge of the park, and subdivisions were begun in adjacent blocks even as the park was being constructed. The principal reason for annexing whole towns, such as Dorchester, Roxbury, and West Roxbury, had been to provide living space for the center city. Franklin Park's boundaries were drawn so as to lie along main thoroughfares, near exist- Thus, ing transportation lines; to open its entrances, care- fully planned people as possible, as sible, were built to coincide with transportation. Two thoroughfares today are major routes into park to as many conveniently as pos- the the city, and the transportation lines are important trunk lines for the metropolitan Boston public-transit system. Franklin Park was designed for many uses, with five distinct landscaping features: a 100acre woodland, a a 200-acre meadow, a 7-acre Ranger teaches the basics of fishing to a youngster in Franklin Park. The park's square mile of natural landscape brings A Boston Park Olmsted's agrarian ideal adults alike. to city children and formal entranceway, and a 30-acre playing field, all interconnected by walks and drives, with three overlooks. Although primarily designed for passive relaxation-in keeping with the times-it had a carefully landscaped playing field in recognition that active sports were becoming more important in Americans' leisure life. The playing field was segregated from the passive parks by landscaping techniques so that the two groups of people-those engaged in sports and those engaged in less vigorous activities-would not interfere with one another. To shut out the city completely, a thick screen of trees, some on earthen berms, framed the entire square-mile park. Structures were limited to one wood and three stone shelters, three stone bridges, a stone arch that carried foot traffic under Circuit Drive, and several flights of stone-slab steps. This left the park completely open to the imagination of the visitors. There were no restrictions on the spaces within the park except for the playing field and the acre or two set aside for lawn tennis in Ellicott Dale (which today is a baseball diamond). In no other park had Olmsted been able to create a truly country effect. Fortunately, Franklin Park remains to this day uncluttered, especially the lovely broad meadow. Learning from Central Park-where from almost the first day people had begun putting up statues-Olmsted planned a space for just this type of commemorative sculpture in the Greeting, the formal entranceway. The Mall in Central Park and the Concert Grove in Brooklyn's Prospect Park were Olmsted's artificial pond, 31 Catching leaves in Franklm Park. earliest responses to this impulse, but Franklin Park had far more space for statuary, concerts, and large group activities than either of them, and that was exactly the original purpose of the Greeting. A long, broad berm to the south was thickly planted with oaks and beeches to separate the Greeting from the rest of the more passive parkland. Even while Franklin Park was under construction, public pressure had caused the landscape architects to revise their design by adding a pond, which they placed at the southwestern corner of the Park. Franklin Park was the last urban park that Frederick Law Olmsted designed (he retired in 1895, when the park was nearly finished). It completes the theories of landscape design first put into practice in Central Park in 1858 and in some ways perfects them, particularly in the careful use of the site for the enjoyment of thousands of people, at the same time providing solitude for two or three. Richard Heath is the former director of the FrankUn Park Coalition. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Full Foliage and Fine Growth': An Overview of Street-Tree Planting in Boston","article_sequence":6,"start_page":32,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24952","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eaf6b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Andersen, Phyllis","article_content":"Foliage and Fine Growth\" : An Overview of Street-Tree Planting in Boston Phyllis Andersen With the benefit of the experience it has gained over the past century and half, Boston is well poised now to exploit the aesthetic and communityunifying qualities of street-tree plantings a \"Ful1 Boston is a green city. The great Olmsted park system, its parkways, and its neighborhood parks and squares are the legacy of enlight- ened nineteenth century planners and city officials. Despite inappropriate intrusions, changing physical conditions, different patterns of use, damage, and neglect, the integrity of the system, if not its details, remains reasonably intact. Both the Commonwealth of Massachusetts and the City of Boston have recognized the value of this unique system of open space and have created programs to finance restoration of the parks, to reestablish them as a major component of the special quality of life in Boston. But a vital link in the green-space network-the planting of trees along the city's streets-has not withstood the complex forces of growth and change. The continuous avenue plantings of earlier days are now fragmented, and the strong visual impact of tree-lined streets has been lost in many parts of the city. What remains of earlier plantings are individual specimens of great horticultural and historic interest, but these are disconnected from one another and are often isolated from the community as a whole. As we reclaim park spaces it is important also to recognize the value of street-tree plantings for their environmental benefits, for their aesthetic and humanizing appeal, and for their unique ability to define and link neighborhoods across the city. Tree-lined streets scaled to human activity persist as a standard for urban life. While this image may derive from small-town ideals, it now serves as a protective device against the overwhelming scale and continuous change of modern urban life. The streets of Boston's early Shawmut Peninsula were not lined with trees. The narrow street pattern was based on topographic limitations and on the English rural village model known to the first residents. The street planting as we know it today originated during the great land-filling and building period of the mid- to late nineteenth century. The major impetus for that period of planting came from the grid, that traditional urban-planning device. The laying out of streets at right angles to one another created long, uninterrupted vistas and gave designers the opportunity to soften and enrich those vistas with continuous, regularly spaced tree plantings. Commonwealth Avenue and the Back Bay The full flowering of the grid format is seen best in Arthur Gilman's plan for Boston's Back Bay and its axial boulevard, Commonwealth Avenue. Based on the new boulevard 33 schemes resulting from Haussmann's redeParis in the mid-1800s, Commonwealth Avenue is now a street defined both by its formal tree planting and by its controlled building fa~ades. To the credit of its early supporters and, perhaps, to the bemusement of its current protectors, Commonwealth Avenue has become a paradigm of elegant, sophisticated urban life. In 1880 Charles Dalton, Chairman of the Board of Park Commissioners, asked Frederick Law Olmsted and Charles Sprague Sargent to develop a planting plan for Gilman's boulevard. Their plan, based on the need for a dignified vista and for responsible planting standards, recommended a double row of a single species. City officials overruled them, however, basing their decision on the need for short-term effect, and the Commonwealth Avenue Mall was planted with a row of four trees and a mixed planting of American, English, and European elms. The crowded conditions predicted by Olmsted and Sargent quickly prevailed, but unforeseen and more devastating was Dutch elm disease, which has progressively killed most of the original planting. To break the monoculture that exacerbated this problem, a dedicated private group has replanted Commonwealth Avenue with a variety of species. Elm varieties thought to be disease resistant were used first; when these sign of Commonwealth Avenue between Exeter and Dartmouth streets during the 1880s. Photograph courtesy of the Bostonian Society. proved unreliable, zelkovas, maples, gums, and green ashes were sweet introduced. The resulting mixed planting may be more horticulturally responsible, but it is not as aesthetically satisfying, failing as it does to provide the dignified vista so valued by Sargent and Olmsted. After years of being viewed as a neighborhood street, the Commonwealth Avenue Mall has become a focal point for visitors to the city. There is now a clear need for the city to develop a visual policy to guide future planting on the Mall. In the last few years there has been an enormous resurgence of interest in boulevard restoration and design that has, in turn, stimulated interest in formal tree-planting techniques. Commonwealth Avenue is looked to as a model for both urban designers and developers who seek to impart a sophisticated, expansive image to their projects. Despite the problems of disease and overcrowding, the one hundred-foot-wide planting strip of the Commonwealth Avenue Mall has sustained tree growth for over a century. Other street plantings in the Back Bay relegated to tree pits have not fared so well. Lower Beacon Street, for example, had a major planting of little-leaf lindens early this century. Very few specimens remain. On the other hand, Beacon Street, as it enters Brookline, still benefits from the road layout designed by Olmsted, which includes a deep planting strip that still supports mature shade trees. Many of the London plane trees planted some years ago on Boylston Street have been de- stroyed or seriously damaged. Current plans t 34 ~ to transform this important commercial street into a Champs type of boule- Elysees vard offer the possibility for a very significant tree-planting project for the city. The wide sidewalks offer a unique opportunity to plant a double row of trees in some locations, to install continuous tree pits in others. The layout of the South End followed that of the Back Bay, and planners for the city used the grid here as well, albeit more modestly. Differing in a number of ways from the layout of Back Bay, that for the South End introduced the English device of laying out streets around a residential square, or park, and of eliminating street-side planting so as not to obscure views of the square from inside the houses. These small parks are still viable and can best be seen at Union Park and Rutland Square. They hold to the English tradition of the informal grouping of horticulturally interesting trees and shrubs. Several years ago Columbus Avenue, designed as one of the major axial streets of the South End, underwent a major streetscapeimprovement program by the Boston Redevelopment Authority that included a major planting of red oaks to add dignity and scale to this mixed commercial and residential street. Formal street planting moved into Boston neighborhoods first along commercial streets, then adjacent to institutions, and eventually to the smaller residential streets. Of perhaps some solace to municipal officials today, the care of the existing population has always been a frustrating and little-appreciated process. Past Frustrations and Successes In 18877 there were about 30,000 street trees in Boston, but their condition evoked the dismay of William Doogue, Superintendent of the Common and Public Grounds and newly appointed guardian of the street trees. Doogue commented that summer work crews sent out in 1887 to work on the street trees did little to improve and a great deal to harm them, cutting off the trees' roots and damaging their \"nutritive apparatus.\" In those days trees were also damaged by underground coal-gas leaks and, most especially, by the gnawing habits of horses, who showed little respect for young plants. Doogue went on to note that at least one-sixth of the tree population was either dead or dying because of the neglect, and that time, money, and careful training would be required to replace them in \"full foliage and fine growth.\" The American elm was deemed by many in the nineteenth and early twentieth century to be the perfect city tree because of its unique arching habit and tolerance of urban conditions. It was heavily planted in Boston and most other major cities, and we are still suffering the loss of that magnificent tree. Other species were planted as well and were quite successful. Asa Gray, writing in 1881 on the native vegetation of the Boston peninsula, commented that a number of species imported from Europe had quickly adapted to conditions on Boston's streets. Gray makes special note of the Norway maple, the littleleaf linden, and the horsechestnut. Tracing the types of professionals responsible for planting street trees reveals the shifting roles of professionals in urban planning. The great avenues of Europe were laid out and supervised by architects and engineersBaron Haussmann, Jean Charles Alphand, John Nash. They participated in very specific ways in the placement of trees and the selection of species. The highest value in this process was the artistic arrangement of the plantings. In Boston, after architects and engineers had laid out streets and prescribed planting areas, municipal employees with a variety of backgrounds and skills would be called upon to maintain plantings. At the turn of the century a very significant state law organized shade-tree care on a municipal level. In 1899, the Massachusetts legislature passed an \"act to codify and amend the laws relative to the preservation of trees.\" It man\" 35 dated the appointment of a tree warden for every city and town in the Commonwealth. The first law of its kind in the country, it indicated the high value that the Commonwealth of Massachusetts placed on its shade trees. Today, the complexity of planting and maintaining trees requires a team: a landscape architect, an soil specialist, and, As arborist-horticulturist, perhaps, an engineer. a Planting for the Future we look to the future, several issues need to be fully and thoughtfully addressed as we seek ~ to restore, enhance, and rethink our street plantings. The most visible issues to residents, aside from maintenance, are species selection and planting method. Some species, such as Norway maple and little-leaf linden, have been overplanted in Boston. As a result, their faults and limitations have been magnified. As Ernest Wilson, Keeper of the Arnold Arboretum, said of trees for street planting, \"they must be veritable angels among trees.\" Like cornices and window mullions, trees become fashionable, and their is dictated more by out-of-context taste than by an integration of design and horticultural requirements. The honey locust, so admired by architects for its light, transparent foliage and by aruse borists for its resistance to urban stress, has had tremendous popularity over the past fifteen years. In addition to its extensive use as a street tree, it has become the ubiquitous urban-plaza tree. A number of South End streets have benefited from the planting of the honey locust, which creates a wonderful quality of dappled sunlight and does not obscure the details of the Victorian townhouses. The Callery pear, a favorite of arborists and utility-line companies because of its small, compact size, is being appropriately planted on many narrow streets of the city, including those of Beacon Hill. In other locations it cannot rival the mature effect of oaks, maples, or lindens. The green ash, another Tremont Street in the mid-1870s. Top: Looking eastward near Massachusetts Avenue, from top of the Chickering Building. Bottom: Looking westward from Dwight Street toward Montgomery Street and Montgomery Square. Photographs courtesy of the Massachusetts Historical Society. 3G :1 favorite, is tough and dependable but essentially undistinguished as a specimen tree and looks best when planted in close groups. Other, more exotic species are doing current There is a whole body of state and municipal laws concerning the ownership and stewardship of public trees. Legally, the City of Boston and its designated agency, the Department well and should be used more often. The mature ginkgos on Tonawanda Street in Dorchester, native to China and remnants of a much larger planting, are horticulturally very significant and should have much needed preservation work. Young ginkgo plantings on Appleton Street in the South End and on Bowker Street in Government Center are very successful. The katsura, a very beautiful tree and also native to China, could also be used more widely in Boston. Investigations must also be made into enlarging the number of small, upright growing species used in Boston. The North End, Charlestown, and Beacon Hill all have very narrow streets where tree growth is severely restricted. Street trees in Boston, as in every other of Parks and Recreation, has jurisdic- tion over street trees on public property. The Boston Parks Department has made a firm commitment to improve both the street-tree population of the city and the professional management of that population. But no major city in this country relies exclusively on city funding and city labor to plant and maintain public trees. Many private nonprofit and volunteer groups devoted to public street-tree planting and care have been organized and developed over the past twenty years. Friends of the Urban Forest in San Francisco and the New York City Street Tree Consortium have done significant work in those cities as cooperative partners with city government to fund and maintain new plantings and, most importantly, to highlight the value of trees to the major city, are traditionally planted in tree pits cut into the sidewalk. Continuing this tradition is important, but too many tree-pit city. Trees are often seen as an end product of plantings are failing to rely on this method exclusively. Restricted planting area, poor soil and drainage, lack of water, and excessive damage from cars and trucks have been repeatedly enumerated as the causes of poor survival rates. New methods of public tree planting must be used. Continuous planting strips-long, streetside planting areas where tree roots have room to spread in larger areas of soil are one solution. Off-street grove planting is another option. Many areas of this city are too narrow for planting. They create pedestrian hazards and impossible survival conditions for the trees. Tree planting on very narrow streets can only be reasonably viewed as gentrification. Yet many cities have shown that community feeling and action can be initiated around tree planting as the beginning of a neighborhood-improvement process. Trees in Boston have a long tradition, but, as we have seen, tradition alone does not sustain trees. Trees must be valued, and their needs and idiosyncrasies must be understood. The maintenance and replenishment of out street trees must be accepted as a continuous process. temporary planting and probably should be done with private funds. Phyllis Andersen, a landscape design consultant, is executive directorof the Shade TreeAdvisory Committee for the City of Boston. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'So Near the Metropolis'- Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24956","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14ebb26.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Cushing, Elizabeth Hope","article_content":"\"So Near the Metropolis\"-Lynn Gem in an Urban Setting Elizabeth Hope Woods, a Sylvan Cushing Having slowly and inexorably declined for the better part of a century, the City of Lynn's 2,300-acre Lynn Woods Reservation now seems due for a dramatic reversal of fortunes Lynn Woods has served as an important source for municipal water and as a community recreation area for more than a century. But the woodland and water reservation of more than 2,000 acres has significance well beyond its value for the City of Lynn, Massachusetts. The story of the creation of this forest park and its reser- intimately tied to the emergence of national trends in natural area conservaregional landscape planning, recreation and American attitudes towards the wilderness. While the Woods have been neglected or abused for many years, the qualities that inspired the late nineteenth century citizens of Lynn to create this progressive municipal park still exist and merit careful nurture for future generavoirs is tion, tions. -From Historic Landscape Report, Lynn Woods, Lynn, Massachusetts. Prepared for the Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program, Department of Environmental Management, Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Boston: American and New England Studies Program, Boston University, 1986. 38 In 1985 the Massachusetts Legislature appro- priated thirteen million dollars toward the restoration of twelve parks in Massachusetts that Frederick Law Olmsted designed. In doing so, the Legislature set in motion an ambitious and farsighted course of action intended, in part, to set a precedent for other states with Olmsted-designed parks, as well as to create a structure-the Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program (a part of the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management)-that would facilitate further restoration of Olmstedian and other important open spaces in Massachusetts. Among the cities chosen to receive funds, Lynn, Massachusetts, was awarded over two million dollars to restore two areas: High Rock, a three-acre park in the middle of the city, and the Lynn Woods Reservation, a tract of land at the outskirts of the metropolis covering approximately twenty-three acres of undulating woodland and containing four bodies of water used as reservoirs by the City of Lynn. Enormous historical significance is invariably attached to the early settlement of such Massachusetts towns as Hingham and Ipswich, Cambridge and Boston. Yet many towns, founded at very nearly the same time as they, have meandered into the twentieth century all but unknown beyond their own boundaries. Such a town is Lynn, Massachu- In it he describes the the forest streams of Lynn as \"far different from the waters of England, being not so sharp but of a fatter substance, and a more jettie color, it is thought there can be no better water in the world.\"1 Wood went on to describe in detail the kinds of wood that were garnered from the forest and the uses to whi ch the wood was put, resorting even to verse: Englands Prospect. waters in Trees both in hi!!s anrlplaines, in plenty de, ?he long !iv iI Oal~e, anrl mournefu!lCyprr:s tree, Sl~.ie towring pines, anclCheftnuts coaterlrough, The laftiacg Cerlar, witfi the 'Walnut tough: The rozin rlropping'fiire for mafts in ufe, The doatmen feel~e for Oares light, neategrozune fprewse, ?de drittlx r~fh, tF,e ever tremdling Slfpes, `pFe droa~I fprea~I'Elme, wfiofe concave har6ours hundred wafpes, fpungie ~flergoorlfor nought, Sma!!`El.~lerne dy th' In~Lian ~jletchers fouglit, The l~nottie Maple, pa!!irlBirtch, 9-lawthornes, `Ihe 9forne dounrL tree that to be cloven fcornes; `Which from the ten~fer Nine oft tal~es his fpoufe, ~lNlw twin~fs imdracing armes about his doughes. `Within this Inrlian Orcharrlfruites 6e fome, The ru~lrlie Cherrie, anr! the jettie Plumde, Snal~e murthering 9laze!!, with fweet Saxaphrage, ~lNhofe fpurnes in deere a!layes hot fevers rage. The water The DiarsShumach, with more trees there 6e, 'That are dothgoorl to ufe, anrf rare to fee. Situated some eleven miles northeast of the State House in Boston, Lynn nestles in a curve of the North Shore. Originally it stretched six miles along the shore and five miles inland, into a rich, undulating woodland known as the Lynn Woods. The written history of the Lynn Woods dates back to records of the Pawtucket Indians' using the area as a hunting ground and the settling of the Lynn area by Europeans in 1629. The forest lands were held in common at that time for the use of the entire community for the gathering of timber and fuel. Fortunately for posterity an early resident of Lynn, William Wood, returned to England and published a book in 1634 entitled New setts. One of the earliest structures in Lynn Woods was a stone bridge built over one of the streams. The bridge became known as Penny Bridge and the stream as Penny Brook-for each man who used this convenient access to the Woods for fuel gathering was charged one penny until the bridge was paid for. Wolves and Pirates Prowl Lynn Woods In 1686 the white inhabitants of Lynn officially purchased the land they had settled on and the surrounding woodlands from the Native Americans for seventy-five dollars. 39 Agitation for the division of all common lands began in 1693, but it was not until 1706 that the Town Meeting voted to divide them among the landholders of the town. being set aside for a general killing of wolves in Lynn Woods. Certain universal menaces drew the townspeople together in the Woods nonetheless : wolf pits, which exist to this day, although the authenticity of their use has been called into question, were supposedly dug in the early seventeenth century to confront the 5 danger presented to livestock. As late as 1735 there are town records of two days in August Probably the most significant remnant from the seventeenth-century period of the Woods involves their link with pirate lore and pirate treasure. The tale was often told of a ship anchoring near Lynn Harbor. Four pirates rowed ashore and left silver in exchange for handcuffs and leg irons made for them at the nearby Saugus Iron Works (Saugus was part of Lynn at that time). They then disappeared, only to return, purportedly depositing An earlymap of Lynn, Massachusetts. Saugus was and Winnisimet is Chelsea. set of f from Lynn in I815. Naumkeagis nowcalled Salem, 40 a treasure of great cave magnitude within a natural in a rocky portion of Lynn Woods. When they once again appeared, three of them were captured, tried, and hanged. The fourth, a man named Thomas Veal, escaped and hid in the natural cave where the treasure was buried. There he dwelt, periodically mending shoes for the people of the town in order to buy supplies, but chiefly secluding himself at his hideout. Several different versions of the pirate's life have been told, but in one respect they all concur. In the year 1658 there was an earthquake that shook Lynn severely. Tho- Veal was in his treasure cave at the time. splintered and fell in upon him, entombing Veal forever with his illgotten hoard. From that time onward the spot has been called Dungeon Rock. News of the buried treasure continued to echo through the years, creating a never-ending interest in the site. The Woods continued to be used throughmas The rock above the eighteenth and early nineteenth century as it had always been-for fuel. A growout ing number of people, however, came to appreciate the forest for its sylvan beauty. Chief Wolf pits in the Ox Pasture of Lynn Woods, re- t Penny Brook in Lynn Woods, so named because it cost the early English settlers a penny to use a stone bridge that was built over the brook as a more convenient means of access to the Woods' supply of timber. The one-penny tolls financed construction of the bridge. minders of New England's primeval wilderness. These were baited, stone-lined traps designed to catch wolves, which in colonial times were a common threat to people and livestock alike. One age-old tale tells of an Indian woman who fell into one of these traps and found herself face to face with an incarcerated wolf. According to the tale, the two spent the night in terror, cowering in their respective corners, until help arrived the next morning. 41 a self-educated botanist by the name of Cyrus M. Tracy. A Lynn resident from his early youth, Tracy roamed the wooded areas of Essex County and recorded specimens of botanical and geological interest that he observed in his travels. In 1850 he formed the Exploring Circle with four other Lynn residents, a group dedicated to the exploration and recording of the plants, animals, and geological phenomena of the area. They made frequent field trips to the Woods to gather information, and each member was required to present papers and reports among these enthusiasts was monthly to the Circle. Part of their charter included the measurement, exploration, and recording of areas of Lynn Woods previously little known to local residents. The Spiritualists Take Up the Search In 1851 another chapter in the history of the Woods opened as well. Lynn had become a gathering place for Spiritualists, an increasing force in the mid-nineteenth century. A man named Hiram Marble from Charlton, Massachusetts, felt himself called to the Lynn Woods to follow up on the legend of At the end ofacircuitous cartpath leading from the town ofLynn to Dungeon R ock (in backgroundHiram Marble and his son Edwin built a \"prim little cottage... cozily situated on a sort of shelf. \" They soon made a garden and transformed the cart path into a carriage road. 42 , J Dungeon Rock and its buried treasure. He the hilt of a purchased the Rock and five acres surrounding it, and fell to the task which was to consume all of his resources and the rest of his life: finding Thomas Veal's hoard. There is little doubt that it was his deep belief in Spiritualism that motivated him, for there was no reward and little gratification for this particular life's work. Marble consulted frequently with mediums, who would make contact with the spirits. The spirits, in turn, would guide him where to go next. For the first few months he lived alone at the site, digging straight into the hillside. Six months later fear of collapse made him discontinue that route and begin in a more circuitous manner. The bits of stone to be seen on the hillside to this day date from the blasting of that period. Marble brought his family to join him, in particular Edwin Marble, his son, who worked all of his life as well to find the treasure. Together they built a house for the Marble family to dwell in. In the summer of 1855 they laid out a carriage way from the Rock to the town of Lynn. This road, according to the reminiscences of Charles O. Stickney, who visited the site in his youth, was a \"rude, newly made road, now down a sudden and almost breakneck descent, now around the base of a hill, the sharp curve so narrow and sidelong as to threaten an upset, with partial openings affording glimpses of wild ravines and lovely dells.\"Z Stickney was in a horse and wagon, but today the road to the site remains steep and winding. Stickney and his friend saw a \"prim little cottage ... cozily situated on a sort of shelf,\"3 with Hiram Marble himself on the roof building a chimney. The Marbles opened the tunnel they were excavating to tourists in order to raise money for the project. A later visitor observed that above the grated door to the tunnel was a sign which read, \"Ye who enter here leave twenty five cents behind.\" Edwin Marble himself took Stickney and his friend around, first inviting them into the house to view the museum, which incorporated the various products of the excavation, including a dirk, scissors. Two sword, and an ancient pair of pencil sketches of the pirate's cave, one with Veal's bones in full view, had been drawn by an invisible artist during a Spiritualist sitting at the house. The Marbles worked on. In 1856 a woman medium, Nanette Snow Emerson, spent six weeks writing a book called The History of Dungeon Rock in order to raise funds for Marble's work. An intricate and fanciful version of the pirate's tale is woven. In describing the area around Dungeon Rock the medium gives an idea of the ancient, wild beauty of the spot. She also indicates Hiram Marble's intention for the site after he had recovered the treasure: \"All this is to be revived again; the woodland to be laid out in groves, and parks and forest....\"5 In light of the fact that this was literally the naissance of the era of public parks in America, within two years of the competition for Central Park in New York City, this seems a generous and enlightened view for the space. On November 10, Hiram Marble died, and Edwin Marble took over full responsibility for the excavation, which he continued until his own death in 1880. Hiram was buried in Charlton with his family, but Edwin chose to remain on the southwestern slope of the Rock. Because of the burial laws a mound of earth had to be placed above him. A large boulder serves as his headstone and fragments of rock, blown out by Edwin and his father, encircle his grave. After digging and blasting one hundred and seventy-four circuitous feet into the solid rock, neither man succeeded in his mission, and eventually the Rock was left abandoned by the Marble family. Another well known Lynn resident, the singer John Hutchinson, wrote of the Marbles' endeavor: Hiram Marble told me he would either prove the truth of Spiritualism or dig its grave. So for many decades those earnest, honest men, whom the world may call mistaken, drilled and dug and tunnelled.... There [the tunnel] remains, an eloquent evidence of what men will do to prove 6 their faith.b 43 The Exploring Circle Digs In During the period of the Marble residency the Woods were visited by the curious but also by nature enthusiasts. The Exploring Circle spent a great deal of time charting ar. ~i investigating the area. In 1858 Cyrus Tracy published a book entitled Studies of the Essex Flora. In it he describes several spots in the large county of Essex, but he dwells lovingly upon the area of the Lynn Woods. He considered them botanically undiscovered: \"Those who love pleasant and finely toned scenery have often found much satisfaction in this vicinity, and the culler of choice old histories and romantic legends has long esteemed it a productive field,\" but the botanist seemed to have overlooked it, being unable to believe \"that a district so near the metropolis might contain some things worth looking for.\"' Here Tracy hits upon one of the unique and valuable features of the Lynn Woods, both then and now. \"So near the metropolis\" is a theme that the reader must bear in mind, for it is one of the essential reasons that the Woods are so important to this day. The Exploring Circle recorded the various botanical wonders they came across in their travels and kept watch for the biggest threat to the forest: fire. The people of Lynn from early days learned to dread the uncontrollable conflagrations which raced through the Woods, destroying acres of timber. The Circle was interested in geology as well as botany. In 1858 a \"Committee on Bowlders and Erratic Rocks\" was formed. Because of ancient glacial paths Lynn Woods are strewn with gigantic boulders. Once again, thorough descriptions were given of unusual formations, frequently accompanied by Ruskinesque drawings of them. By the time of the Circle's peregrinations of the early 1860s, the original town of Lynn had been interested in \"Ruskinesque\" sketch of a glacial erratic, a \"rocking stone,\" in Lynn Woods. The Explormg Circle was geology as well as botany, and in 1858 formed a \"Committee on Bowlders and Erratic Rocks. This drawing was made by Stephen Decatur Pool in 1854. \" 44 by William Wood in 1634. It was a natural spot for damming and establishing storage basins, and the Water Board looked to four brooks in the Woods, Hawkes, Penny, Birch, and Beaver, to meet the demand. They wished to create four artificial ponds, or storage basins, for fire and for a general water supply. With this step the Public Water Board had to make roads in order to reach, establish, and maintain the new water sources. By 1873 a drive fifty feet wide and one and one-half miles long had been created around the Breed's Pond Reservoir. For the first time since white men had established the ancient cart paths, an inner section of the Woods had made more easily accessible to people. The effect on the Lynn Woods was obvious. Suddenly land that had always been treated as too rocky and barren to be used was open to development. The alarm was raised for people who wished to preserve the sylvan setting so close to a growing town. A later park report states, \"The Water Board's ponds and girdling roads punctured the Woods and exposed them to undesirable occupation.\"8 It is not surprising that Cyrus Tracy was the first person to recognize the threat to this unspoiled environment. The 1891 Lynn Park Commission report states: His call, his inner inspiration was to teach the people of Lynn that they had in the Woods \"an He led asylum of inexhaustible pleasures.\" parties of enthusiastic naturalists to scenes of beauty and grandeur hitherto unseen, save by his eyes. He dedicated hilltops and glens with mystic ... Sketch of the \"Big Cedar,\" which once grew on Cedar Hill in Lynn Woods. The sketch, which is preserved in the records of the Exploring Circle, was probably made by Stephen Decatur Pool in 1855. divided into three communities: Lynn, Lynnfield, and Saugus. The vast woodland where they roamed remained primarily in Lynn, with sections in both of the other communities. In 1869 Lynn suffered a trauma that had reverberating effects upon the community. A ferocious fire consumed a section of the factory district of the town. Officials felt it was time that Lynn faced the necessity of providing a better water supply, for the fire department had been hopelessly inadequate in the face of the disaster. Their first purchase of a water supply was in 1870-an abandoned mill pond in Lynn Woods known as Breed's Pond. A Public Water Board was formed. Water and the 9 rites The Floodgates of Development development of the water sources of Lynn is of primary importance to the fate of the Lynn Woods for two reasons. By 1872 the Water Board was assuming the role of supplying all of Lynn's water. This meant that there was a rapidly growing need for water sources and water-storage facilities. The Lynn Woods had the pure streams so glowingly acclaimed And that is exactly what he did. He established \"Camp Days\" in the forest and published notices in the local papers encouraging the citizens of Lynn to join the Exploring Circle in naming and dedicating various sites in the Woods with elaborate ritual, speeches, poems, and songs. Tracy himself would lead tours for the sake of \"rambling, studying the splendid views, botanizing and the like,\" as an 1881 Lynn Transcript article describes it. Throughout the 1870s he endeavored to en- 45 interest in the preservation of the Woods. In 1880 the Lynn Transcript had editorialized : \"Foremost among the public wants in our city is the need of public parks, where the denizens of the hot and dusty city may get a sight of the green grass.\"lo By 1881 Tracy felt the threat to the Woods so intensely that he guided the Exploring Circle to the decision to insure the preservation of the Lynn Woods for posterity. After a great deal of consultation with the city government, on December 6, 1881, the \"Indenture Adopted for the Purpose of Constituting the Free Public Forest of Lynn\" was adopted. Tracy describes in the Records of the Trustees of the Free Public Forest the method used to establish the Indenture. He insisted that the current mayor sign the Trustees into acceptance as an official body connected with the town government. He felt, correctly, that without official status the Trustees of the Free Public Forest would never have been established as a permanent institution: gender it would be psychologically necesopen spaces for the working who could not otherwise escape from people the dust and noise of the city. \"Breathing room\" became a ubiquitous cry, and by the 1870s the enlightened elements of society ensued, sary to ensure By [the mayor's] compliance, the measure was invested with the character of great public benevolence, and thus admissible, under the statutes, to become a perpetuity. And thus was secured the most important point of all; for if any plan for the preservation of a forest cannot be in its nature perpetual, it is at once liable to every kind of change and derangement, and simply remains a failure.\"` Tracy considered the Lynn Forest the \"ancient legitimate inheritance of the people of Lynn,\" a reference to its many years as land, and he set about gathering land for the enterprise with unbounded zeal. common and politics were gathering forces to create a permanent park system for Boston. After numerous struggles the Park Act of 1875 was passed by the Boston City Council. That June, the voters of Boston gave the plan their approval. The first person the newly formed Park Commission called to advise them was Frederick Law Olmsted. Thus began a long association between Boston and the famous landscape architect and with his firm. In 1882 the Massachusetts Legislature passed a bill known as the Park Act which allowed municipalities of the Commonwealth to condemn and purchase lands within their boundaries for the purpose of establishing public parks. This act was to be used by many cities and towns of Massachusetts as the basis for their park program. By 1882 the Trustees of the Free Public Forest were setting up their program in earnest. It is clear that they considered themselves to be pioneers in the effort to preserve forest lands in the tradition espoused by Elizur Wright, a Massachusetts man in the vanguard of forest preservation. Wright actually participated in one of the Camp Day rituals in the Lynn Woods. The Trustees published the Indenture in the newspaper and solicited donations of land and money. \"The Trustees will come to you and urge you to act as benefactors to that which is, after all, only your own interest.\"12 Subscriptions slowly began to come in as The Tide Begins To Turn The nationwide park movement by this time was an established fact of American life. New York landscape architect Frederick Law Olmsted was the reigning champion of urban open spaces-for the sake of aesthetic considerations to be sure, but also because he keenly observed that with the growth of cities, and the consolidated living arrangements which the Trustees embarked upon their program for the betterment of the forest. During the 1880s they improved the roads and paths left from the days of fuel gathering and livestock holding. They made efforts to clear out underbrush and thicket, both for fire control and for better access to the forest. Signs, seats, and shelters were provided, but vandalism reared its ugly head, raising the need for a forest 46 1 patrol. By donation and purchase the Trustees acquired acreage in small bits. By 1887 a prominent and wealthy citizen of the town, Philip A. Chase, had become involved in the forest's preservation. It was a fortunate day for the Lynn Woods when he did, for he was a tireless and enthusiastic supporter all his life. When the thirteen acres of the incomparably beautiful Penny Brook Glen, with its brook, rare and wonderful wildflowers, and seventeenth-century bridge, were about to fall into the hands of lumbermen it was Chase who rallied support to save it and raised the necessary money to buy it and the surrounding land. Next, he aided in purchasing Dungeon Rock and the area around it from the Marble heirs. In 1888 the City Council of Lynn authorized the construction of a new reservoir, to be achieved by the damming of Hawkes and Penny Brooks. The new basin, a large one, was to be established in the center of the Woods, in an area known as Blood Swamp. The construction began at once and with it came a more serious threat to the sanctity of the Woods. The swamp was set much deeper into the Woods than Breed's Pond. A park report stated, \"The construction of the water basin in Blood Swamp, and the road around it, made Lynn Woods more accessible and liable to human occupation. The gifts of land and money ceased.\"'3 In November of 1888 the voters of Lynn were asked to exercise their franchise on the question of the 1882 Park Act. The resulting tally was in the affirmative, a resounding vote of confidence in the work already being done by the Trustees and a confirmation of commitment to the idea of public parks. This was the impetus needed for the park movement in Lynn. The Lynn Transcript of June 1889 argued strongly for the protection that only a public park could offer to the Woods: The Park Act passed by the Legislature a few years ago,-and accepted by our city-was the beginning of a movement which if completed will secure results that are incalculable for the public good. The public parks are the breathing places of our great cities,-near and inexpensive retreats, where the tired worker can find rest and recreation.... We have within our forest domain a territory ... capable of bringing benefits to future generations that can not be measured in money. For who can measure that social and moral education of communities, which is the outcome of a line of influences where nature and art unite in appealing to every sense of beauty, and where the moral instincts are quickened by the presence of every uplifting emotion, and by the absence of 4 every debasing or sordid suggestion.\" Mr. Chase Makes His Move Once again Philip A. Chase moved forward to a leadership role. He invited the Mayor and the City Council, the Water Board, park preservationists, and prominent citizens to the Woods, ostensibly to see the site of the new storage basin but actually to inspire enthusifor making Lynn Woods a public park. Among the speakers of the day was the Water Board chairman, who enunciated a theme that was to thread throughout the history of the Woods : the Lynn Woods' \"beauty consists in its naturalness; leave it as nature has made it and we shall have a rustic resort, so unique in its character that Lynn will acquire a reputation from its Forest Park as it now has from its unrivaled shore and magnificent beaches.\"'S The mayor of the city was enthusiastic as well: \"It is impossible to estimate the benefits to posterity that will accrue from this great enterprise.... [I]t behooves us to make further provision for the prosecution of this work by an annual appropriation for improvements.\" 16 And make further provisions they did, for in July of 1889 city bonds worth thirty thousand dollars were issued to facilitate the implementation of the Park Act. The Board of Park Commissioners was appointed in October of that year, with Chase serving as chairman. The first two acts of the Commission were to hire a surveyor and to establish a \"Citizens Fund\" for the Reservation. This fund eventually swelled to over twenty thousand dollars, thanks to the solicitation and enthusiasm of Philip Chase. asm 47 Chase, who later served as a commissioner on the Metropolitan Park Commission, had written earlier to Frederick Law Olmsted to seek his advice about how the Park Commission should best superintend the Lynn Forest. Olmsted visited the Woods in August, and wild, rugged and rude condition.... The reason it has been allowed to remain of such a character is found in the outcropping ledges and boulders and gravel with which its surface is strewn. few days later to Malden journalist and park advocate Sylvester Baxter. The two men were clearly working on methods to promote interest in the park movement and seeking ways to further their cause. This letter, with its promotional advice for Baxter, may well have been the inspiration for Baxter's 1891 Lynn's Public Forest: A Handbook Guide to the Great Woods Park in the wrote a City of Lynn. In the letter the essence of Olmsted's philosophy for the park is distilled, and Olmsted allows himself a certain candor reserved for personal observation. He thought the forest \"a continuation of the Middlesex Fells\" and \"a roving ground not for Lynn and the northern suburbs only but for the people of Boston\"-important concepts to bear in mind considering how hard Charles Eliot later attempted to incorporate the park into the metropolitan system he created. Of primary importance to Olmsted was the question of maintaining the Woods in their present natural state: It should be to Boston something like Fontainebleau to Paris and Richmond & Windsor to London. The townspeople of Lynn do not appreciate Olmsted's Recommendations Those very qualities that had saved the site from development, however, made it impossible for Olmsted to envision a \"park-like\" character for Lynn Woods. He felt that \"decorative features commonly seen in parks would appear fussy and impertinent, every where jarring upon the natural scenery.\" Olmsted's fear was that the impossibility of creating a traditional, formal park might prevent people from understanding Lynn Woods' value as a place for public recreation. He stressed that most communities did not have such a situation offered to them, for the wild parcels of land were usually taken up with industrial development or domestic architecture that were incompatible with wild areas. The advantage of the setting of the Woods was that, being slightly outside the city, it could maintain its many sylvan qualities, containing points from which the city could not even be seen, \"supplying a place of refreshing, and restful relief from scenery associated with the more wearing part of the life of the towns-people.\" Olmsted felt that a relatively inexpensive program of management could be arranged. \"What is mainly required is that a method of improvement shall be pursued steadily, systematically, continuously, for a series of years.\" Three main areas stood out for the process: to gradually thin the forest, allowing the most promising trees to grow properly; to introduce new vegetation at particular points, both to cover barren areas and to \" It it,I judge. Probably want a park or public garden. is, what is so much better, a real forest. In November of the same year Philip Chase, in his capacity as chairman of the Lynn Park Commission, received Olmsted's formal recommendation for the forest. Olmsted first gave a brief definition of the principal elements of a park and stated: The most striking circumstance of your property is that although near by populous and flourishing communities, much of it is in a state of undisturbed nature and as a whole it is in a singularly replace unhealthy plants growing in moist areas with plants better suited to such sites; and, lastly, to \"enlarge, strengthen and emphasize a local character\" by planting vegetation that increased that character and removing vegetation that detracted from it. The Park Commission set to work at once to accumulate land and to put into effect the 48 ~1 wise counsel of Olmsted. By 1890 they had acquired nine hundred and ninety-six acres and by 1891 the total acreage was up to sixteen hundred. This rapid expansion of the public holdings in part resulted from the fact that the Park Commission often pooled its resources with those of the Water Board as the reservoirs required large areas of undeveloped land as watershed protection. providing protection for the visitors. Horse sheds were built at Dungeon Rock (one of the great favorites of tourists), carriage turnabouts were provided at important vistas, and wells were dug at various intervals. The Park Commissioners took their responsibility to the Woods seriously, and the members were able to take a long view of the process of preservation. The foresight and as Whatever this city can do for the preservation of the forests, it is bound to do, not for the enjoyment of the living only, but for the generations that succeed us. Fifty years hence the population within a radius of ten miles of Boston, if the present rate of increase of large towns continues, will number not less than 3,000,000. These forest spaces for air and exercise, which can be provided today at such a trifling cost, will be of inestimable value to the large population which will seek relaxation and rest in Lynn Woods. ` -Park Commissioners, Lynn, Massachusetts, 1890 Roads and paths were cleared or built, thinning, lopping, and clearing of trees was an on-going process, partly to establish the incredible vistas for which the Reservation was famous. The views from high Lynn Woods hills extend for miles and drew visitors from miles around. Eventually towers for fire spotting were added to three of the hills which increased visitor interest in the spot. Public transportation in the form of trollies were brought from the center of Lynn to ensure access to the park for everyone. Special features of interest such as Dungeon Rock, the wolf pits, Penny Bridge, and the bodies of water had to be protected as well wisdom of the following statement from the 1890 report of the Park Commission reflects a deep commitment to the park and to the community: city can do for the preservation of t the forests, it is bound to do, not for the enjoyment of the living only, but for the generations that succeed us. Fifty years hence the population within a radius of ten miles of Boston, if the present rate of increase of large towns continues, will number not less than 3,000,000. These forest places for air and exercise which can be provided today at such a trifling cost, will be of inestimable value to the large population which will seek I relaxation and rest in the Lynn Woods.\" Whatever this 49 topographic map of the Lynn Woods Reservation, compiled for the Lynn Park Commissioners in 1892 and revised in 1910. The original map accompanied the Commissioners' report for 1892, which was the first report to contain a list of the Woods' animals and plants. A 50 Philip Chase sawing wood at Bassett Camp, Lynn Woods. Bassett Camp was a small cabin built by William Bassett. The cabin contained a stove, dishes, and other niceties for both day excursions and overnight stays in the Woods. ' Because of their obvious and unusual far- sightedness, selves as playing an forest-preservation movement: the Commissioners themrole in the important saw The preservation of forests is becoming a question of vital interest to the whole country. The destruction of timber m the mountainous regions that make the watershed of our great rivers, has aroused the public mind to consider the consequences. In our small field we may show a public spirit, and bestow a care upon the forest around us, that may be a healthful example.\" The Lynn Woods Today-And Tomorrow And so the great forest tract of Lynn Woods was established. I wish I could report that the initial support received by the Park Commis- sion had continued unabated. Alas, as in the case of most public spaces, support diminished as the years went by, despite heavy use by the public and valiant efforts on the part of the Park Commission and Park Department to maintain the forest through the years. Eventually, this valuable tract of public open space reached the state of degradation it has come to today. It is fortunate that the Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program chose Lynn Woods among its projects. All of the elements that made this Reservation such a treasure in the past still exist. The restoration project is a fine beginning, but maintenance and-more importantly-a resurgence of interest from the public will be required to reinvigorate the site and bring it 1 51 the position of prominence it deAs the Boston area becomes more and more populated, the words of the 1890 Park Commissioners' report will become even more prophetic. It is time that the Reservation again be a place of \"inestimable value to the large population which will seek relaxation and rest in Lynn Woods.\" back to serves. A Maine Man Gets Reminiscent.\" Item, 22 July 1905, page 5. Daily Evening \" If You Visit important to realize that the present condition of the Lynn Woods Reservation bears little resemblance to that of its heyday in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries. Budget cuts and a general lack of interest have created the inevitable problems of overgrown vegetation, trash, and neglect. Vandalism and neglect are among the many issues that the City of Lynn and the Department of Environmental Management are working to eliminate so that the work of restoring the park to its original beauty, and the process of building an enthusiastic and committed It is 3 Ibid. 4 Kip Whitson, editor, Massachusetts 100 YearsAgo. Albuquerque : Sun Books, 1976, page 12. 5 Ennesee [Nanette Snow Emerson], The History of Dungeon Rock. Boston: Bela Marsh, 1856, page 67. 6 John Wallace Hutchinson, The Story of the Hutchinsons. Volume 2, Boston: Lee and Shepard, 1896, page 273. 7 Cyrus Mason Tracy, Studies of the Essex Flora. Lynn: Stevenson & Nichols, 1858, pages 5 and 6. 8 Third Annual Report of the Park Commissioners of the City of Lynn, 1891. Lynn: Whitten & Cass, 1892, page 16. 9 Ibid. 10 Lynn Transcript, 22 June 1880, page 2. 11 \"Records of the Trustees of the Free Publi c Fo rest,\" 12 January 1882, page 7. The \"Records\" are located at the Lynn Historical Society. Movement,\" Lynn Transcript, 21 January 1882, page 2. 13 First Annual Report of the Park Commissioners of the City of Lynn 1889. Lynn: Whmuer & Cass, 1890, 12 \"The Forest page 6. \" 14 \"Our Public Park,\" Lynn Transcnpt, 7 June 1889,\" page 2 15 \"The Lynn Free Park,\" Lynn Transcript, 28 June 1889, page 2. 16 Asa T. Newhall, \"Mayor's Address.\" City Documents for the City of Lynn 1889. Lynn: Whitten & Cass, 1890, page 8. 17 Second Annual Report of the Park Commissioners of the City of Lynn 1890. Lynn: Whitten & Cass, 1891, page 7. constituency can begin. Even in its present condition the Lynn Woods Reservation is an unusually lovely place in which to walk (cars are not allowed because the roads are badly washed out in several places), but, as with any large tract of unsupervised land, it is wise to visit with a friend or small group. Endnotes 1 Alonzo Lewis and James R. Newhall, History of Lynn: 1629-1864. Lynn: George C. Herbert, 1890, page 70. 2 Charles O. Stickney, \"'Pirates Home' in Lynn Woods: Elizabeth Hope Cushing is a graduate student in Boston University's American and New England Studies Program. She is coauthor of Historic Landscape Report, Lynn Woods, Lynn, Massachusetts (1986). CORRECTION The second sentence of the third paragraph of Mark Primack's article, \"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces,\" in the Summer 1988 issue of Amoldia (Volume 48, Number 3, page 10, text lines 25 and 26), should read: \"Now, a century later, some sixty-eight percent of Boston's housing units are rented; most have no backyards. Twenty percent of the city's population lives in public \" or subsidized housing.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Introduction of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to Massachusetts","article_sequence":8,"start_page":52,"end_page":57,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24958","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14e816f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Michener, David C.","article_content":"The Introduction of Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to Massachusetts David C. Michener Though it is a firmly entrenched member of the Commonwealth's flora, the black locust is not native to Massachusetts Our common black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.)is not native to Massachusetts but is an escaped and naturalized tree native to the central and southern Appalachian Mountains. Nonetheless, many people believe that it was present in the original forests of the state. When was black locust introduced to Massachusetts? How did it become such a common tree in a region far to the north of its original range? The answers to these deceptively simple questions are shrouded in myth and obscured by the inaccuracies and incompleteness of the historical record. Indeed, the ubiquity of black locust in such areas as Cape Cod reflects significant aspects of our region's history. My questions thus shift for their answers to the cultural forces that led to the black locust's introduction to Massachusetts and its subsequent spread throughout our area. I hope here to clarify the historical record and to correct several commonly held misconceptions about the species' introduction and spread. Robinia pseudoacacia is one of the few arboreal species of the Pea Family (Fabaceae) found in Massachusetts. Here it grows to be a tree of medium height, usually less than fifty feet (15 m) tall; I have seen trees over eighty feet (25 m) high in its native range in the Great Smoky Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. Its leaves are compound, usually consisting of seven to nineteen leaflets. Its flowers, borne in June in the Boston area, are The woody pods mature by late summer and remove any doubt a nonbotanist might have that this species is indeed a member of the Pea Family. The black locust is noted not only for its vigorous growth-young trees can reach twenty feet in just a few years-but also for its aggressive suckering. Early travelers and naturalists found this vegetative fecundity astounding. Jean Hector Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur's account of his travels in North America ( 1786) typifies the impression made by suckering black locusts: \"An acacia [Robinia], that was planted twenty feet from the parsonage house... sent a root across the cellar of the house, which penetrated the side of a well Jfeet beyond, and to the depth of 15 5 feet below the surface of the ground, insinuating itself among the stones of the well.... [I]t then ... threw up a small tree.\" Lest his contemporary readers should find this incredible, Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur provided his own observation from a small church along the Hudson River in New York: heavily fragrant. June, 1769,attended the service this church, and being obliged to remain for a short time in the neighborhood, it so occurred that two Sundays afterwards I again repaired to this place of worship; and I never was more astonished, than when, on opening the door, I perceived a young acacia [Robinia], which, in this short interval, had forced its way through the floor and had grown to the height of four feet. This tree was the sucker from a root ... 49 feet long. at On the 17th of 53 Modern black locusts are no less vigorous; the asphalt sidewalk in front of my Arboretum residence is plagued by Robinia suckers from a tree situated a good thirty feet away. Resistance to frequently recommended it [Robinia trenails] ... but all to no purpose, till about 20 years ago [the 1760s] when I was settled in trade at Rhode Island, I persuaded some ship-builders to try the experiment: but, notwithstanding all my endeavours, the use of locust tree-nails still continued to be little practiced or known, till it happened to be adopted by a builder of some eminence at New York, and of late years has been introduced into general use there, and in some parts of New England: but, as yet, the use of the locust-tree in shipbuilding is confined to the article of tree-nails on account of its scarcity....\" The major use Decay Of great importance to colonists to the south of Massachusetts was the soon-discovered resistance of Robinia pseudoacacia wood to decay. The naturalist Mark Catesby( 1767\/, as well as Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur (1786), comments on the high esteem in which the wood was held by Americans farmers for this reason. Robinia wood was prized for fenceposts and construction timber in contact with the ground. It was also noticed that Robinia plants would colonize poor, dry soils, thus giving farmers marketable timber from otherwise marginal land. [This is due in part to the nitrogen-fixing ability of symbiotic bacteria in the root nodules of Robinia, a symbiosis common in the Pea family.] The value of Robinia wood in the early 1800s was demonstrated by Michaux, who noted (quoted in Withers, 1842) that \"[Robinia is] allowed to remain standing in the newly cleared lands, because the inhabitants can never have enough of the wood....\" Agricultural use turned out to be only one facet in the development of a market for Robinia wood. Withers' friend Joseph Harrison, in a letter of 1782 (printed in Withers, 1842), recalled from firsthand experience the trials of Robinia in American shipbuilding \"about 1733.\" Robinia wood was used for trenails \/pegs used to fasten planks to a ship's frame), instead of iron, with great success. \"When unloaded she [the ship] was hauled ashore upon the bank in order to be searched both outside and inside, when, on the strictest examination, it was found the locust treenails, that had been substituted instead of iron bolts, seemed, to all appearance, to have effectually answered the purpose intended. ...\"This development did not, according to Harrison, spread quickly in shipbuilding. \"I in g Robiniapseudoacaciain wmter. This tree (growing Czechoslovakia) was sixty-three feet tall; its trunk was nearly fifteen feet in circumference. Photograph (dating from 1905) from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 54 1 of Robinia trenails in shipbuilding produced significant market. By 1819, Philadelphia alone annually exported over one hundred thousand Robinia trenails for ship construca tion. Several clues have about the introduction and naturalization of Robinia pseudoacacia in New England have come to light: durable wood useful in shipbuilding and agriculture, rapid growth of young trees even on poor soils, and clonal growth of groves from initial plantings. Include the the aesthetic attraction of fragrant blooms and one has the e makings of a tree popular in a rural, maritime economy. the peas, but nothing so big,\" and he observed that the Indians used it to make bows. Strachey's observation has been taken to be one of the earliest records of black locust (Sargent, 1892), but it could also refer to the redbud, Cercis canadensis L. While Robinia was found at the time of the establishment of the southern colonies, what of Massachusetts ? Here we come to the second myth. Apparent Source of the Error A statement in the seventh edition of Philip The first myth (and an entrenched one at that) concerns the initial source of Robinia pseudoacacia. Linnaeus, the great Swedish botanist, named the genus Robinia in honor of Jean Robin ( 1550-1629\/, a major botanist at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. Robin is usually credited with introducing seeds of from Canada in 1600 or 1601. A Canadian seed source at this time would certainly imply that Robinia could well have been native in New England, too. However, Charles Sprague Sargent (1892) reiterated the claim that it was the son of Jean Robin, the botanist Vespasian Robin (1579-1662), who introduced the plant to Paris in 1636, and this without a definite source. In this case, which I take to be correct (remember that Linnaeus was writing over a century after the latter date), the error in citing a Canadian source for the original French introduction has little bearing on our quest. Early American records can be divided into two groups: those that note a peculiar new tree that can be identified as Robinia and those that make no note of a tree with any combination of its distinguishing characteristics (floral fragrance, woody pods, durable lumber, rapid growth, and clonal habit). William Strachey (quoted in Sargent, 1892) saw during his journey into Virginia in 1610 \"a kynd of low tree, which beares a cod like to to France Miller's authoritative Gardeners Dictionary (1756-1759) appears to be the original incorrect citation of the \"fact\" that Robinia wood was used in the first buildings of Boston, a \"fact\" that quickly found its way into the European botanical literature. (See, for example, the citation of Jose Quer, 1762, in Austrich, 1987.) The statement in the Gardener's Dictionary is: This Sort grows to a very large Size in America, where the Wood is much valued for its Duration; mo f t of the Hou f es which were built in Bo f ton in New England, upon the firft Settling of the Englifh, was with this Timber, which continues very found at this Time. Robinia As this in the only reference I have found to an original presence of Robinia in Massachusetts at the time of settlement (other than the possibility that it could have been here if the species had been introduced from Canada around 1601),the veracity of this \"fact\" (written over a century after the settlement of Boston) must be evaluated critically. I have found no evidence to support the statement but have found numerous cases that cast severe doubt upon it. Massachusetts is fortunate that its early settlers were literate and left written records, including notes of new plants. John Josselyn's NewEngland's Rarities Discovered in Birds, Beasts, Fishes, Serpents, and Plants of that Country (1672) has sections on \"Plants as are proper to the Country\" and \"Of such plants as are proper to \" the country, and have no name.\" 55 are featured such novelties as pitcher-plants under the name of \"Hollow Leaved Lavender,\" Indian beans, squashes, sumach, hemlock trees, pitch trees (here meaning Abies), larch trees, \"cran berry,\" pyrola, a \"hellibore\" with the note \"the whole plant scents as strong as a fox\" (skunk cabbage to us), plus a weirdly fanciful sketch that seems to have more to do with Ezekiel's vision of wheels-in-wheels than anything truly terrestrial. Nothing like a Robinia is mentioned, figured, or described. Josselyn also authored his Voyages, or accounts of his sea voyages to and adventures in New England. Published in 1675, it has only one possible reference to an unknown tree that might be a Robinia: \"The Line-tree with long nuts, the other kind I could never find.\" William Wood's propagandistic NewEngland's Prospect ( 1634) also lacks any reference to a tree with the characteristics of a Robinia. The botanical explorers and writers of the late 1700s and early to mid-1800s leave little room to believe that Robinia pseudoacacia was ever native to Massachusetts. The Rev. Manasseh Cutler's Account (1785) described the species as native to \"southern statesonly cultivated here.\" Fran~ois Michaux Here, for many pages, naturally in the northern part of the Middle States.... It does not grow spontaneously near the sea-coast, even in the Southern \" States.\" Escape and Naturalization Note the gap in time from the earliest colonial records of New England, in which black locust is not mentioned, to the botanical writings of the late 1700s and early to mid1800s, in which Robinia pseudoacacia is described as naturalized. A major development in the Robinia story occurred in this period. First was the destruction of the original forests in Massachusetts (and the other colonies) as the colonists changed the forested territory to settled farm and pasturelands. New England is probably more forested at present (the 1980s) than at any time since the arrival of the colonists, thus it is easy for us to forget that much of the arable land of the state was practically clearcut. In addition, grazing was a component of agricultural settlement and much additional land, including parts of Cape Cod and the islands, was further stressed by this factor. Second, various attempts were made to reforest some of the abused land and exotic species were certainly tried. Evidence of more recent trials can be seen in the early ecological literature, as where an old private reforestation at Woods Hole was evaluated (Chrysler, 1905\/. The condition of this property in 1850-essentially deforested-was undoubtedly a widespread condition and was anything but new. The reforestation of New England occurred primarily through the natural forces of forest succession on abandoned farms and pastures. Black locust probably became locally common by escaping from cultivation once it had been planted. Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur's account ( 1786) of the rapid spread of Robinia pseudoacacia in the colonies focuses on all the critical points of human interest for growing the tree: the fragrance of its flowers, the durability of its wood, and the rapidity with which it grew vegetatively, even on poor (cited areas in that the tree Withers, 1842) categorically states did not grow naturally in any Browne state east of the Delaware River, trees in those having been planted. Daniel (1832) reiterated Michaux's statement and noted that the wood was not much used in construction except to support the sillsfurther evidence that Miller's source was incorrect. Torrey's Flora of the State of New York (1843)described the tree as \"not indigenous in any part of the State .... [A]lmost naturalized in many places.\" Finally, George B. Emerson's Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massa- \/ 1846\/ concisely claimed that \"[Robinia] is not known to be, nor is it generally considered, a native of the State or of New England; and it is doubtful whether it grew chusetts 5G . Specimen of Robinia pseudoacacia in the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, planted Augusta of Wales. Photograph by and courtesy of Istvkn Rbcz. soils. Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur recounts the development of nurseries for the production of robinias, and the establishment of robinias on Long Island, New York, on a major scale. He does not overlook New England: It has been already observed, that the Americans plant the acacia [Robinia], with the view of meliorating such poor and defective soils, as they intend to put under crop, for a series of years; and, as the woods annually diminish in the inhabited parts of the country, it is no uncommon thing to see the old forests replaced by plantations of acacias. It is in Long Island, New Jersey, Provi- in 1762 by Princess dence, and in the vicinity of Boston, that I have particularly noticed the good effects of these plantations. In several places there were formerly moveable sands [that] by means of inclosures of acacias, and by planting a great number of trees in different ways, these moveable sands have been fixed. He also notes the use tendency of Americans to black locusts as shade trees near watering spots, and to hold firm eroding river banks. Black locust must have been introduced to Massachusetts by the mid-1700s (Catesby, 1767, recorded it as \"very numerous in most 57 northern colonies\"), the introduction having been driven by the overlapping forces of strong demand for the wood in both agricultural and marine markets, by the then-ongoing destruction of the original forests, and by the consequent need for a fast-growing tree capable of tolerating marginal agricultural land. Robinia pseudoacacia fit all these needs. Since the species is semi-weedy, once it was established within a region it was only a matter of time before naturalized populations became permanent and the species spread as a part of the secondary woodlands on disturbed and abandoned sites. The Robinia craze in the United States witnessed by Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur was ultimately thwarted by the presence of a native insect borer. The borers stunt individual trees, and greatly reduce the commercial quality of the wood. Sargent (1892) considered only the borers to prevent Robinia pseudoacacia from being one of the most important timber trees in North America. A significant Robinia craze swept Europe in the early 1800s, aided in good part to the horticultural phenomenon in the person of one Mr. William Cobbett. Between 1817 and 1819 he managed a farm on Long Island, New York. He became enthralled with \"especially the our of Austrich, References Ricardo R. 1987. El Real Jardin Botnico de Madrid and the glorious history of botany in Spain. Arnoldia, Volume 4 7, Number 3, pages 2 to (Quer is quoted on page 7.) 1832. The Sylva Americana. Boston: W. Hyde and Company. 296 pages. Catesby, Mark. 1767. Hortus Europx Americanus. London : J. Millan. 41 pages. Chrysler, Mintin A. 1905. Reforestation at Woods Hole, Massachusetts.-A study in succession. Rhodora, Volume 7, Number 75, pages 121 to 129. Cobbett, William. 1828. A Year's Residence in the 24. Browne, Daniel J. Cutler, United States of America. Third edition. London: B. Bensley. 370 pages. Rev. Manasseh. 1785. An account of some of the vegetable productions, naturally growing in this part of America, botanically arranged. Memoirs of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, Volume 1, pages 396 to 493. Emerson, George B. 1846. A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts. Boston: Dutton & Wentworth. 547 pages. Josselyn, John. 1672. New-England's Ramties Discovered. London: G. Widdowes. 169 pages. (Reprinted in 1865 by W. Veazie, Boston.)( Miller, Philip. 1756-1759. The Gardeners Dictzonary. Seventh edition. London: The author. Unpaginated. Saint-Jean de Creve Coeur, Jean Hector. 1786. Memoire sur la culture & les usages du faux Acacia dans les ~,tats-Unis de 1'Amerique septentrionale. Memoires d Agziculture (Pans], pages 122 to 143. (Bound separate in the Arnold Arboretum\/Gray Herbarium library. Also translated in Withers, 1842 [below].) Sargent, Charles Sprague. 1892. The Silva of North America. Volume 3, Anacardiacex-Legu minosx. Boston and New York: Houghton, Mifflin and Company. 141 pages (Robinia, pages 37 to 42). Withers, William. 1842. The Acacia Tree. London: Longman. 411 pages. A compendium of all articles about Robima pseudoacacia that were known to Wtthers. Included are extracts from many articles translated mto English Wood, William. 1634. New Englands Prospect. London: Thomas Cotes. 131 pages. (Reprinted in 1865 by John Wilson & Son, Boston.) Flowering Locust, or Acacia, which, in my opinion, surpasses all other trees, and some of which, in this Island, are of very great height and beauty\" (Cobbett, 1828). Upon his return to Europe, he established a nursery and is supposed to have sold more than one million Robinia seeds and trees; that leads to another chapter in horticultural history. There is an irony here. One Robinia craze fed another, and both ended with Robinia pseudoacacia permanently naturalized far beyond its homeland in the central and southern Appalachian Mountains. Robinia's naturalization has been so convincing that I have been assured-incorrectly-that the extensive groves of Robinia on Cape Cod most certainly are not artifacts of European settlement. David C. Michener directs the Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections Verification Project. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books Miriam Z. Ezust.","article_sequence":9,"start_page":58,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24949","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eab28.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Cahan, Marion D.","article_content":"BOOKS Encyclopa?dia of Ferns: An Introduction to Ferns, Their Structure, Biology, Economic Importance, Cultivation and Propagation, by David L. Jones. Portland, Oregon: Timber xvii + 433 pages. 250 color 150 black and white photographs, and numerous line drawings. Introduction by A. Importance of Ferns,while not the strongest chapters in the book, give a good overview of the subjects to be covered later. In Chapters 3 through 6 Jones presents his botanical basics: the structure, reproduction, life cycle, and classification of ferns and fern allies Press, 1987. plates, Clove Jermy. $50.00 hardbound. (Exclusive distributor: ISBS Inc.) MIRIAM Z. EZUST - (Psilotum, Lycopodium, Selaginella, Isoetes, Equisetum, and others). The text of these chapters is very clear, and terminology is explained as it is used. There is also an excellent glossary. Unfortunately there are no figure numbers to accompany the author's line When a new fern book comes to my attention I am always eager to read it and learn more about my favorite plants. David L. Jones' Encyclopa?dia of Ferns had more than justified my initial enthusiasm. In addition to beinga prized reference work for amateur and professional fern-growers, this book will also be of considerable interest to anyone who grows indoor, greenhouse, or outdoor plants and is looking for something different, exotic, and interesting to grow. Jones' book is so broad in scope and yet so rich in detail that it can be appreciated instantly for the beauty of its illustrations and drawings and it also can be studied carefully as an instruction manual for the successful growing of these fascinating plants. The book is divided into seven parts, each in several chapter. The seventh part consist of appendices. Jones presents his material with depth, logic, and common sense. His readers will quickly become familiar with the many forms, shapes, colors, sizes, and other decorative features of hundreds of species of ferns and fern allies. The first two chapters, \"Introduction to Ferns and Fern Allies\" and \"The Economic drawings so that a great deal of page-flipping is required to match illustrations with text. Moreover, captions do not indicate sizes of the illustrated subjects so, to a naive reader, a leaflet could appear as large as a sporangium. The thirty-two gorgeous color photographs by E. R. Rotherham illustrating some of the many variations of soral patterns on fertile leaves (pages 17 to 20) are consistently mislabeled \"economic importance\" and belong more properly on page 32 in the chapter on structure. These three criticisms are the only complaints I have, and as minor flaws they are certainly overpowered by the strength of the rest of the work. Jones discusses and carefully illustrates not one, but thirteen representative classes of ferns and allied plants in his chapters on structure, reproduction and life cycles. These chapters will be of inestimable help to the fern grower in deciding which spores will be likely to germinate readily and which would be especially difficult or impossible for the home grower to start. Part One ends with a brief but highly informative chapter on cultivars(of special interest to growers) and a chart 59 of terminology usually associated with these botanical oddities. Part Two, the \"Cultural Requirements of Ferns,\" and Part Three, \"Pest, Diseases and other Ailments of Ferns,\" are essential to have on hand whenever disaster strikes. The descriptions of problems and their effects on ferns are vivid and detailed and will enable even a novice grower to make rapid diagnoses, employ effective remedies, and reduce the likelihood of future difficulties. Part Four is the part that every amateur and professional fem grower will want to read most carefully. It deals with propagation and hybridization of ferns, and includes the sim- Jones has placed the most beautiful and fascinating portion of his book last. In Part Six, \"Ferns to Grow,\" a worldwide selection of more than seven hundred species of ferns, fern allies, and cultivars are discussed. Brief but comprehensive information about each one is provided. Their grouping is not strictly by genus, but by the consideration of their cultural requirements, making it more convenient for growers to use. The use here of line drawings, black and white photographs and color plates give the reader a real sense of the habits and most distinguishing visual characteristics of most of the ferns under dis- cussion. plest vegetative propagation techniques, complete directions with illustrations for the more sophisticated home techniques, and an excellent article on tissue culture. In Chapter 17, \"Propagation from Spores,\" Jones lists fourteen steps to follow to ensure good results in spore germination. There are sound reasons given for each step. Even if you have never before attempted to raise ferns from spore, and even if you have accepted the myth that it is too difficult, I am sure that you, too, will have success following the excellent instructions in this chapter. It is also worth mentioning the Jones provides a list of fern societies and study groups from whom it is possible to obtain spores. Indeed, you might become too successful and wind up with dozens of diminutive gametophytes demanding to be nurtured. Part Five gives many suggestions about the general needs for your window-sill-sitters or greenhouse inhabitants, and how to show them off to their best advantage, whether they spread, climb, or cascade. Moreover, eleven of the twelve appendices list material pertinent to this sections. Eight will be of All in all, this a a delightful and practical book for any horticulturist to own and enjoy. It may also serve as a valuable bridge between the more popular (but less technical) fern books and the more sophisticated and specialized fern literature. (Mimi) Ezust assists in the curation of ferns in the Harvard University Herbaria and avidly grows ferns in and around her home. Miriam The Garden and Farm Books of Thomas Jefferson, edited by Robert C. Baron. Golden, Colorado: Fulcrum, Inc., 1987. 528 pages. MARION D. CAHAN The greatest service which can be rendered any country is to add a useful plant to its culture. -Thomas Jefferson particular interest to gardeners in New England : there are more than one hundred species listed which are cold-hardy, and quite a few, though not native to that area, can withstand frost and snow. The major portion of this book contains a printed copy of Thomas Jefferson's \"Garden Book\" and his \"Farm Book.\" In addition, there is a section of selected letters to friends and family members in this country and abroad on the subjects of gardening and farming. These poetically written letters provide great insight into the inner life of Thomas Jefferson-his character, his warmth and 60. enthusiasm, and above all his obsession and fascination with gardening. Thomas Jefferson was by nature a gardener. The following excerpt provides the reader with a personal aspect of the writer: never before knew the full value of trees. My house is entirely embosomed in high plain trees, with good grass below and under them I breakfast, dine, write, read and receive my company. What would I not give that the trees planted nearest round the house at Monticello were full Commager, entitled \"Thomas Jefferson and the Character of America.\" Professor Commager presents an absorbing account of historical events in Jefferson's time, simultaneously weaving facts about Jefferson's activities, accomplishments, ideas, and ideals. As an ardent proponent of \"Enlightenment\" throughout his life, Jefferson's social, political, and moral concepts of Man are brought forth and interlaced into the entire essay. Jefferson's attitude toward slavery provides information about his character. He expended much energy and thought to the eradication of slavery, even though he himself was a large slaveholder. His success was limited to ameliorating slavery, not ending it, but his influence was far reaching and significant. I grown. -Letter to Anne Cary Randolph (his grand daughter), November 6, 1807 Jefferson's \"Garden Book,\" written over a period of almost sixty years (from 1766 to 1824), is a detailed account of every aspect of what he planted-the dates, the development, the transplanting, the observations of temperature and weather conditions, the failand successes. What with his keen observation of nature, Jefferson constantly experimented with new varieties of plants while exchanging ideas, seeds, and cuttings with gardeners in America and all over the world. He succeeded in making Monticello a truly botanical garden. The \"Farm Book\" was written from 1774 until a few weeks before his death in 1826. In it Jefferson recorded not only detailed information on all farm operations-the tools, machinery, planting, animals, and buildings-but also extensive information about the slaves (he had more than two hundred)-their names, locations, life spans, and what material possessions, primarily clothing and bed supplies, that Jefferson afforded them. The reader becomes drawn into the daily life of Monticello. Jefferson's systematic attention to accuracy and detail is fascinating and ures Much of Jefferson's writing took the form a crusade against ignorance. He worked endlessly to establish and improve the laws of for educating the common people. While in his seventies he wrote, \"Enlighten the people generally, and tyranny and oppression of body and mind will vanish like spirits at the dawn of day.\" \" Commager's essay provides a penetrating background to Jefferson not only as a political figure but as a unique human being. The Garden Book and Farm Book sections of this volume would be incomplete without this rich information that emphasizes and expands Jefferson's human side. The excellent quality of the paper used is enhanced by the beautiful color photographs of Monticello and the truly arresting black and white portrait of Thomas Jefferson by Rembrandt Peale. This book would not interest the casual reader but rather the historian, the horticulturist, the farmer, and-with the aid of the included horticultural bibliography-gardeners who would create their personal Monticellos. sometimes amusing. As an eminent agriculturist, Jefferson believed that agriculture was a science of prime importance and strongly recommended that agriculture be included in the curriculum of every college and university. A significant inclusion in this book is an essay by the renowned historian Henry Steele Mamon D. Cahan serves as volunteer editorial assistant t for Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 48","article_sequence":10,"start_page":61,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24954","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14eb728.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 48 (1988) -holophylla, (11: 19, 30, 32; inside bark of (Numbers is parentheses refer to issues, those in boldface to illustrations of the entries.) \"A Guide to the Firs (Abies var. gr~ca, (1): 21 -chensiensis, (1): 5, 25, spp.)of the Arnold 27 Arboretum,\"by -chinensisvar. fabri, (1\/: Richard Warren and Ethan W. Johnson, (1\/: 25 2~8 var. geor ii, ( 1 25 Aberdeen (Scotland), (2): 18 var. ( 125 -cilicica, (1): 22 30; Abieslgenus) (1) 1-48; back cover; smi t~ii, barjc of ( 1 f : 4 6, 12; branchlets -alba, I1\/: 16, 18, 19 38; oE, ( 111 var. 19 6 cones of, ( 1 ): 5, 6, 11, 12; distinguishing -concolor, ( 1\/: 4, 7, 15, characters of, ( 1\/: 5 18, 23, 30, 31, 35, 43, front cover; bract cones ( 1): foliagee ofleaves4; habit \/: of, 4; of, ( 1 of, ( 1\/: 10; branchlet hairs of ( 1): 9; branch4, 12; resin canals of, lets of, ~1): 6, 8; cone 1 : 4, 6; similar genera, bracts of, (1):11; leaf 5; stomata of,1): 6 attachments of, (1): 7; resin canals of, 10, branchlet hairs of, ~1): 9; 6 branchlets of, (1\/: 6; 11; stomata of, 16 buds of, ( 1\/: 6; cone 'Candicans', (1): 7, o~ (1): 4, 6, 12; buds of, ( 14 6, 12; conebracts of, (1~:6; branchlets of, ~1): 6; buds of, ( 1 \/: 6; cone bracts of ( 1\/: 11; resin buds of, (lJ: 6; cone bracts of \/1): 11;resin canals o~ (1 : 11 6 stomata ot 1 : -homolepis~ f : 7, 23, branchlets of, (1): 6; ( 1): 6 8; ): 26 27, 31 ~bark of, ( 1 cone 1 39; branchlets of, \/1\/: 6; buds of, \/ 1): 6; cone bracts of ( 1\/: 11; resin canals ot~, ( 1 11 'Pendula', (1):38 -numidica, (1[: 5 -pardei, ( 1 5 -pindrow,( 1 \/: 5 pinsapo, \/ 1): 4 21, 35, stomataol!, (1I111; ot, : \/: canals forma tomomi, (1): 31 var. 6; ~ranchfets of,of,(1):\/:16, 11; ( \/: 8; of, ( 1 11 bracts resin canals 39, 43; inside tront cover; ( 16; cone bracts of 1 : 11; resin canals ( 1~: umbellata ,1j~ I1 (Abies Xumbellata), cones of, (1\/: 5 -Xinsignis, ( 140 S -kawakamii, ( 15 -koreana, ( 14 33, 47; 'Glauca', (1\/:39; 9 leaves of, ( 1 ): forma glauca, ( 1 ): 14 o~) l (: 11; stomata of, (1~:6 6 branchlets of, ~1\/: 6; bracts cone bracts of canals (1\/: 11; resin 23 acudfolia,(1): -amabilis ( 116 17 18, 38; branchlets of, (1f: 6; conebractsof (1\/:11; resin canals 'Conica', (1): 23 'Violacea', ( 1\/: 23 -var. lowiana, (1\/: 24, 29 o 10, 11 'Aurea', \/ 1 \/: 33 (1):33 leaves canals of, (1\/: 11; of 1f \/: 9; resm 1 -procera, ( 14, 17, 35, 36, 37 41, 43; branchlets of, ( 16; cone bracts of, resin canals \/ 111; leaves of, of ( 1 ): 9; 6 ( 1~: 11; stomata of, ( 16 'Glauca', (1): 42 --delavayi, (1): 5, 46 5 ( 11: ~urangensis, 3 -equi-trojani, ( 1\/: 5 stomata of, ( 1 \/: -ernestii, ( 15 \/: 'Spreading Star', ( 1 -fargesii ( 1\/: 25; branch17 of, ~1\/: 6; cone bracts of ( 1\/: 11;resin -balsamea, (1\/: 16, 18, canals o!! ( 1): 11 28 34, 46. bark of, ( 1 ): \/: var. faxoniana,( 1 8; ~ranchfets of ( 16; 25 cone bracts of (1\/: 11; var. sutchuensis, resin canals of, ( 1 \/: 11 -Xborisii-regis, (1): 19, (1): 25 of, 21, 30; -firma ( 1 \/: 26 31, 32; \/: (1):\/: 6; conebracts of, ( 1 cone bracts of, ( 1 \/: 11; ): 11; resin canals of, ( 1 6 leaves of ( 19; resin 11; stomata of, ( 16 canals -Xbornmuelleriana, ( 1): of, 6 1):11; ( lets branchlets -brachyphylla, ( 131 -bracteata, ( 1\/: 5, 30 -cephalonica, (1\/: 19, 20, 21 40 branchlets of, (1)~ 6. buds of jl):6; resin canals 0 , (1): 11; stomata of, ( 1): 6, 10 var. apollinis, (1): 21 6; cone bracts of( 1\/: resin canals of, (I 1(:I:11; stomata of, (of6 16 l 11; 15, 20, 21; branchlets branchletsol!,(1\/:6; stomatao~, (1 I111; ot, : \/: -fraseri, ( 1 \/: 18, 28; 6 branchlets of, ( 1 \/: 6; cone bracts of ( 1 \/: 11; resin canals resin canalso~, ( 1\/: 11; -grandis, ( 1 :2, 24, 29, 6; cone bracts of, ( 1 11; -guatemalensis, ( 13, 5 5 -hickeli, ( 1 ): 30; branch~ets of, ( 1 leaves canals o 6 stomata of ( 1 ): o~, (1):11; (1): 42 -recurvata, (1): 25, 27, -lasiocarpa, (1): 4, 18, 34, 43; branchlets of, ( 1\/. 6; cone bracts of, ( 1 11; 43, back cover. leaves of (19; resin branchlets of, ~16; canals o~, cone bracts of, (1): 11; leaves of (1\/: 9; resin stomata of, 1 6 6 canals 5 -religiosa, ( 15 16, 10 var. arizonica 37, 44 45, 46. bark o~, \/1\/: 6; ~ranchfets of, (1): 'Compacta' ( ~1):J: 34 36 1 4,35 -magnifica, 6; cone \/: 11; resin canals of, (1\/: 11 42, 43; branchlets o~, \/ 16; cone bracts of, (I): var. mayriana, (1): ): 44 11; resin canals of, (1): \/: 6 var. nemorensis, (1): 11; stomata of, ( 16 44 'Nana', \/ 1 \/: 36 var. shastensis, (1): -sibirica, (1\/: 3, 37, 44, 36,43 45, 46; branchlets of, 5 (1\/: 6; cone bracts of, (1\/: -mariesii, ( 15 -Xmarocana, \/1\/:40 11; resin canalsof, ( 1 \/: 6 11; stomata of, ( 16 -me~cana, (1 : 5 var. nephrolepis, (1): -nebrodensis, (1): 5 37 -nephrolepis, ( 1): 33,37, -squamata, (1): 5 44, 45, 46; branchlets of ( 16; cone bracts of, -Xumbellata, (1):31; 'Prostrate Beauty', 'Glauca Prostrata', stomata oE, (1~:11; ot, I 11: 11; -sachallnensis, ( 1): 33 bracts of, \/ 1 o~,\/1\/: 9; resin 1: 11 of, ~1(:11; chlorocarpa, ll: forma 11 resin canals cones (1):37; cones of, (1): 5 -nobilis, ( 1 ): 42 -nordmanniana, (1):4, 16, 17, 18, 20, 22, 38, -veitchii, ( 116, 17, 18, 33, 46; bark of( 16; branchlets of, ~1\/: 6; cone bracts of ( 1 ): 11; foliage, ( 1 ): 1; habit, ( ): 1 1; leaf attachments of, of, ( 1): 5 62 . var. \/1): 7; resin canals of, 1 '1': 11 var. sac~alinensis, 5 -vejari, \/ 15 ( olivacea, (1):: 5 46; cones of \/ 1): \/1):44 -Xvilmorinii, (1):40 Academia Sinica, (2) 4 : Achasma yunnanensis, (2): 7 Adams, Sally Aldrich, \"Interview: Chinese 1 \/2): 30~1 7 Addis, J. M., (2) : 37 Alaska, ( 1 ): 34 8 Alberta, \/1):18 22 ~4\/: Armoracea la pa thi folia, 23 (2\/: 7 \"Arlington,\" (3\/: 35 Arlington Street (Boston), (3\/: 47; (4): 23 Arlington Street Church Boston), (3): 16,38, 39; SIS, Boston, (3) : 2-3; (4) : 54; (3): 33 map Boston and Roxbury ot, 3 Burma, (2):3 Bussey Brook (Arnold Arboretum), (4): 27 Corporation, (4): 23 Boston Basin, (3): 18 Boston Center for Adult Education, (4): 18 Boston City Council, (3): 34,35, 43, 44; Budget Committee, (3):44 32, 36; (4): 29; Boston Bussey Institution for Research in Applied Biology, (2): 11, 13, 14 Cahan, Marion D., book review by, (2): 39; (4): (2): 4 4 -nambariensis, (2): 4 (2): 59-60 Calamus flagellum, Arnold, James, (2) : 9 Botany and the Odyssey of Dr. Shiu-ying Hu,\" \" 35,37; (41: 26-28, 27, 5 29,35 3 Artocarpus (genus), (2): -lakocha -Arboretum, (2): 20, 31, (3I: 24 Common, (3) : 2-3 of, (3): 13 Boston renewaf Globe, (2): 12; (4\/: palusttis CalfIsland (Boston ash,green, ~4):33 35,36 -Manchurian, ~3): 29 Asia Back Bay (Boston), ~2J:7 7 All-China Federation of Scientific Societies, (2): Back Bay Garden Club (3): 38; (4): 17-25, 29, 32-33, 34 Minor, ( 1J: 20 21 Boston Harbor, (3): 2-3 Boston Harbor islands, (3):: ( 2-3, 20 ; map of, (3): 19, 21 \"Boston Harbor Islands State Park\" (reprinted), Harbor), (3): 19, 23, 25 California, (1): 17, 23, 41 California, University of, (2): 17, 19 at Berkeley, (2): 14; College of Agriculture, (2): 16 Callicarpa yunnanensis, Alphand, Jean Charles Alsophilaspinulosa, (2): 6 4 Altingia excelsa, (2): -collection (Massachu- Adol phe, (4): 34 Amelanchier s p., (3): 47 Ames, Esther ~4): 18 ~liver S., ~4\/: 18 (Boston\/, (4J: 21 bamboo, (2) : 27 Barnard, Rev. Charles, (3): 34 Baxter, Sylvester (4): 47 Lynn's A Handbook Pu~lic Forest: 47 Beacon Hill setts),(1):30 Amethyst Lakes region (Canada), (1\/: back cover 4 Amomum villosum, \/2): Amoora calcicola, (2): 7 Amoy IChinaJ, (2): 26 of Lynn, mentioned, (4\/: (: (Boston), (3): (41: 34; (4) : 35, 36 t Guide to the Great Woods Park in the City Anagajlisarvensis, (3): 23, 24 Beacon Street (Boston), 33 Beaver Brook(Lynn, Boston Harbor Islands State Park, (3 : 20-21; 16 6 master Boston Herald, (4): 27 28 Boston Park Rangers, (: 42 Boston Public Garden, (3) J: : 32-47 Boston Symphony Orchestra, (4) : 21 \"Boston's Parks and Open Spaces: I,\" (3): 2-47 \"Boston's Parks and Open 1 Spaces: II,\" (4): 17-51 (3) :21-22 plan, (3) : Cam~ridge (Massachu7 I2): 7 Calo hyllumpolyanthum, (2.7 Camellia sinensis ~3): setts\/, (1):33 var. -taheishangensis, (2): 6 Cam anumc~a parviflora, assamica, (2): 4, 7 6 (2~ Campbell, Douglas, (4): 21 camphor tree, (2): 27 Canada, ( 1): 18; (4): 54 Canton Botanical Garden of XishuBowker Street 36 Boxer War, 3 Cananga odorata, (2):3 (Chmal, 30, 31; liberation Anatolia,\/1): 3 Anchangiopteris henryi, 6 \/2): Andersen, Phyllis, \"'Full Foliage and Fine Massachusetts), (4): 44 Beijing (China), (2\/: 9r 14, back cover Bei ing Botanical Garden, angbanna (China), (2): 5 (2) : 17 7 Canton Christian of, f\/2\/: 21 2': College, 21, 31, 33, 37, inside (Boston), (4): Cape Cod (Massachusetts), (2): 13 30 1 (3): 28-31 Anemone fihsecta, (2): 6 Anogeissus acuminata var. lanceolata, (2): 7 Anonacex, (2): 3 Growth': An Overview of Street-Tree Planting 7 in Boston \" (4): 32~7 \"Islands Anderson, of Tension\" (reprinted), Bel 2):35 Isle Marsh (Boston), (, (Boston), Boylston (3):46; (41: 33 Breck, Joseph, (3):34 Breed's Pond 46 BelleIsle Marsh Reserva1 (Boston) (3): 11 Berkeley Street (Boston), 8 Berlin (Germany), (2) : 18 \"Big Cedar\" (Lynn, Massa- E~gar, '3): 12 tion (4\/: 23 Massachusetts), (4): 44, Breed's Pond Reservoir Street ~Lynn, Cascade (3): 18; (4): 52, 55, 56 Capparis ~ohaiensis, (2): 6 Carallia (2): 7 Caryota urens, (2): 5 7 lancexfolia, Case, Marion, (2): 10, 16 fornia), (1) : 41 Mountains(Cali- Case Estates (MassachuCassia siamea, (2): 3 Castanea americana, (3): 118 Castanopsis s p., (2): 27 Birch Brook chusetts) (4\/:44 Anthocephalus chinensis, 4 (2) :4 Antiaris (genus), (2): 3 -toxicaria, \/2): 7 3 Aphanamixis (genus), (2): Appalachian Mountains, 27; (4): 56 Appleton Street (Boston), ~1): ~4\/: 36 Aquilaria sinensis, (2\/: 7, 8, 26 chusetts), (4I. 44 Birkenhead (England), (3\/: 34, 35 Bixa orellana, (2\/: 3 Black Sea, (1): 20 blackberry, cut-leaf, (3): 24 iLynn, Massa- Massachusetts), '4.44 : Bretschneider, Emil, (2) 9 Britain, (I):16, 29 \/L~nn, 16 setts), (1\/: 44; (2): 10 Brook Farm (Boston), 14, Park Castle Brookline (Massachusetts), Brookline Village(MassaBrowallia (genus), (3): 44 Buchanania yunnanensis, 7 (2): (4): 33 chusetts), (4~ 24 Blood Swamp (Lynn front cover Arboretum Committee, (4): Massachusettsl,(2~4): 46 \/: Boissier, Pierre,(1 :39 7 6 Bull, Ephraim Wales, (4): 9 Argemone mexicana, (2\/: 7 Arls--ma austroyunnanen- Bombaxinsignis, \"Books\"(column), (2): 39; (4) : 58-60 9 Boris, King, ( 119 Bornmuller, Joseph, (1): 20 Borthwickia trifoliata, (2\/: inside front cover, 5-16, Bumpkin Island (Boston Harbor) (3): 21, 22, 23 Bunge, Aleksandr von, (2): 33 Harbor), (31: 19, 31 Catesby, Mark, (4): 53 10 \/2): cedar, salt, (3): 23 Cedrus (genus): ( 1): 14 -li bani, ( 122 (2) : 7 Cenocentrum tonkinense, 6 (2): Central Artery (Boston), (3): 17 Central Park (New York), (3): 34; (4): 30, 31 Cephalostigma hookeri, Island (Boston Catskill Mountains, Celtis wightii, 63 6 (2): Cephalotaxus oliveri (2): 6 Cercis capadensis, (4~: 54 Champs Elysees (Paris), (4): 34 -mollifolium, (2): 4 hirsuta cinquefoil, three-toothed, (3) : 23 var. Cissampelos 6 Charles River, (3): 2-3, 18; \"Citizens ~or Clean Air\" (Boston), (4): 21 Citrus grandis, (2): 4, 7 City Council (Boston), (4): 27,45 City Council (Lynn, Massachusetts), ~4): 46 Clarendon Street (Boston), (4): 23 6 Cobbett, William, (4): 56 Cochlospermum vitifolium, (2): 7 coffee tree, Kentucky, (3):: ( 38 4 Coixlacryma-jobi, (2):4 Colona sinica, (2): 7 Colorado, ( 123 (2~ 4 araira Coeur, Jean Hector Saint-Jean de, (4): 52, 53,55,56 3 Crinum asiaticum, (2): Crosby, Irving B., \"The Creve New Director of the Arnold Arboretum,\" (4): 2~ Dukakis, Governor Michael S., quoted, (3): 21 Charles Street (Boston), (3): J: Charlestown (Massachu- (4l:23 33, 34, 36, 42, 46 setts), (4): 36 (4) : 41, 42 Chase, Philip A., 46, 50 S., Chater, (3 ): 42 Che u Do (island), (1): 33 (Massachusetts), (4) : 39 Chen Huanyong, (2):9-25, 12, 21; death of, (2): 23 Chen Shuzhen, (2 : 19 30 Chengtu (Chma), chestnut, (2): 27 18 -Amencan, (3): 8 Chieh Tai Ssu Temple (China), (2): inside back Charlton (Massachusetts), (4): ProfpClifford Harbor,\"of Boston (3):24 Crypteronia paniculata, (2):7 Cucumis hystrix, (2): 7 Cunninghamia lanceolata, (2): 26 Cupressus spp., (2): 34 Hope, Cushing, Making Dungeon Rock sachusetts), 40, 41, 42,46,48 Dutch elm disease, (4): 33 ~4~ (Lynn, Mas- Dwight, Colonel Percy, (4): 20 duzhong, (2(: 22 Elizabeth \"'So Near the -Frances, (4): 18,20,22 -Grace Buel, (4): 20 -John, (4): 20 Chelsea lis'-Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting,\" (4): 1 37-51 Metropo- -Laura, (3): 1, 42; (4) : ~2): Columbia University, 22 (2): Columbus Avenue Combretum olivxforme, 7 (2): \"Committee on Bowlders and Erratic Rocks,\" (4):: ( 43 (Boston), (4): 34 -siamensis, (2~: 6 Dai Cutler, Rev. Manasseh, \"Account,\" mentioned, (4): 55 Cyathocalyx yunnanensis, 6 (2): Cycas pectinata (2): 2, 4, 6 -Timothy, (4): 20 Dysoxylum (genus), (2): 3 -binecexfolium, \/2): 4 Eastern 17-25,16,21 Edinburgh (Scotland), (2): 18 Eliot, Charles, (4): 47 elm, American, (3)' 38; (4): -Dutch (3):38 -Englistl, (3):38; (4): 33 elms, European, (4):33 Elsholtzia blanda, (2): 4 \"Emerald Necklace\" 13 (3): 18 23, 25 26 Deciduous Forest, cover 4 Chieh-Hsiu, (2): 34 I Chien, S. S., (2): 11 China, ( 125,30; development of botany in, (2) : minority (China), (2) : 5 2,5 Dalbergia fusca, (2) : 7 var. enneandra, (2): 4 Cyclobalanopsis rex (2): 7 33,34 Commonwealth Avenue 18 China Foundation, (2): 17, (Boston), (3): 42, 48; hont cover; (4): 17-25, China Merchants Steam- 18, 19, 20 ship Navigation Company, (2) : 13 Chinese Academy of Sciences, (2) : 4, 21, 22 1 Composita:, (2):31 Commonwealth Avenue Mall (Boston), (4) : 33 24, 32~3, 33 Dalton, Charles, (4): 33 Dartmouth Street (Boston), (4): 23,33 Dashujiao Reserve (China), 5 (2): Deer Island (Boston), (3): 1, 20; (4): 28; restoration of, (3): Emerson, George Barrel, Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests Coniferae, 7leaf attachments Coniothalamus chinensis, 6 (2): Connecticut, (1): 18 Connelly, Patrick J., (3): 28 Connor, Sheila, \"The Chinese Economic Trees, Alli11 1 of, (1): (Boston 1 Harbor), (3):31 Del Tredici, Peter, photograph by, (3): front cover (2) : 15 Chinese Students' 1 ance, (2): 10, 11 Chinese Students' Monthly, (2\/: 10, Ching, R. C., (2): 13 Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park Partner- Delano, Frederic Adrian, 8 (2): -Warren, (2): 8 Delaware River, of Massachusetts, mentioned, (4): 55 -Nanette Snow Deng Xiao Ping,'2': 28 \/4\/: 55 (\"Ennessee\"), The History of Dungeon Rock, mentioned, (4): 42 Choanji, Kon o-san inside back (Korea): (1~ cover Choix des plus belles Chukrassia tabularia var. \"Chun\" 4 velutina, (2): fleurs, by Pierre-Joseph 23 Redout~, (4~: ship,\" (4): 26-28 Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the Science Society of China (periodical), i, (2) : 15 Cook, Dr. Robert E., (4): 2, 3 Dennstxdtia punctilobula, (2): inside front cover 23 Chun, W. Y., (endnote 1 -Woon-Young (2):9-25 -Woon-Yung, ~2): 23 (endnote 1 )( 1 Chung, H. H., (2): 11 [Chen Huanyong], Cleveland Copeland and23 yunnanensis (2): 6 Dicranopsis linearis, f 2): 26 Dilleniacex, (21: 3 Diospyros atrotricha, (2): 7 Dipterocarpace~, (2): 3 Distilopsis yunnanensis, Desmos (3): 24 Encyclop~dia of Ferns: An Introduction to Ferns, Their Structure, Biology, Economic Importance, Cultivation, and Propagation, by David L. Jones, 2): 7 pus, Cinnamomum austroyun6 nanensis, 27 -camphor, Chxtocar uscastanocar- (2~ 2: 2:6 (4): Massachusetts), (3): 21; Copenhagen (Denmark), 8 (4):34 Erythroxylum kunthia( Copley Square (Boston), (3):: 7 num, (2): setts), (4 : 22, 29,30,36 13-14; restoration of, Dorchester Shores Esplanade (Boston), (3): 2-3 '3\/: 13 Essex County (Massachucork tree, Amur, (31: 29 (Boston), (3): 14 (3): 1 Cornell Plantations (New setts), (4): 41 Douglas, David, ( 1 :41 Eucommia genus), (2): 22 27 York): (4) : 3 Douglass, Robert, 1 Cornell University (2): 11 Andrew Jackson, Exeter Street(Boston),(4): 33 Cornus florida, 18 8 (3\/: 34 Cotoneaster (genus), (2): 34 \"Dr. Robert E. Cook Is Exploring Circle (Lynn, ~firm), ~2): 18 (2) : 7 dock, seabeach, (3): 23 Doogue, William, (3) : 36 ; Environmental Management, Department of reviewed, (4): 58-59 corv ~t:ree,Amur, Dorchester IMassachu~3): Downing, 4) :38,51 (4~ 64 Massachusetts), (4): 41, 43-44,45 Ezust, Miriam Z., book review by, during the Cultural Revolution,\" by Richard B. Primack, (2) : 26-29 Fort Andrews Gleason, Herbert Wendell, photograph by, ( 1front cover Georges EugBne, (4\/: 33, 34 Hawkes Brook (Lynn, Mas\"'He (4): 58-59 Fabacex, (4). 52 Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, (2): 21 Fan Memorial Institute of Botany (Beijing), (2): 17 Farges, Pere Paul Guil- laume, ( 1 ): 25 Faxon, Charles Edward, Fay, Joseph Story, (Boston Harbor), (3): 22 Fort (Boston (3): 22 Fort Warren (Boston Harbor), (3): 19 Fortune Robert, (2): 33, 34 Fox Hill (Boston), (3J: 32, Gmelina arborea, Goss and Munson Strong Harbor), Gould, Dr. Augustus Addison, (4) :23 2): firm), 4, 7 (3~35-36 Government Center (Boston), (4): 36 Governor's Island (Boston 1 Harbor), (3):31 grape, (3): 24 = Concord', (4): 5-16, 9 Grape Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 21, 22, 23, 25 9 Grapevine, 'Concord', j4): Gray Herbarium, (2): 13, 19 Gray, Asa, (2): 9; (4): 34 -Horace, (3) : 33, 34 drawing by, ( 1\/: 2 33 -royal, (3\/: 24 24 -sensitive, (3): Ficus genus), fern, hay-scented, 3 : 24 (2): 3 fir, (1): 18 -Bulgarian, ( 119 -Caucasian,( 1 ): 38 26 -Chinese, -Cilician, (1 :22 4 -cork-bark 4): 34 -Douglas,~1): -European silver, (1): -Farges's, ( 1 \/: 25 28 -grand, (1): 2, 29 ~reek (1):21 -hedge~og,( 1 ): 39 -Khmghan, ( 1 ): 37 -Korean,(1): 33 -lovely, (1): 17 \/3I: 27 Franklin Park 30 31 (Boston), (31: 36, 43; (4J: 29-31, 29, balsam, \"Franklin Park, Boston's 'Central' Park,\" by Richard 29-31 Free Pubhc field,(4):4-16s \"Franklin Heath, Park, Boston's 'Central' 1 Park,\" (41: 29~1 Heliciopsis lobata var. microcarpa, (2): 6 J Heliciopsis terminalis, (2):: Buh and the Origins of \" the 'Concord' Grape,\" by Edmund A. Scho- sachusetts), '4): 44, 46 Sowed; Reaped': Ephraim Wales Others Richard, 6 5 Hemlocks, the, ( 15 Henry, Augustine, (2): 13 7 -Benjamin, (2): 17 7 -James McClure, (2): 17 -Rev. Benjamin, (2) : 13 Hers, Joseph, (2): 34 Heath,(4~ (2,1 : Friends of the Boston 16 Forest (Lynn, Massachusetts), (4J: 45; trustees of, (4) : 45, 46 -William, (3) : 33 Great Brewster Island (Boston Harbor), (3) : 19, 21,22,25 1 Great Britain, ( 1 ): 41 Great Proletarian Cultural Hibiscus austroyunnanen- -Fraser, ( 1 41-47; (4): 21 Committee on Friends of the Public Garden (Boston), (3): Harbor Islands, (3): 21 Revolution (Chma), (2): Great Smoky Mountains 22-23, 26, 27 sis, (2): High Rock (Lynn, Massa(4): 38 Hillcrest Gardens (Weston, 10 0 Massachusetts), 7 chusetts), stown, (4): 20 4 l2): 18 8 -Min, ( 1 : 43 back cover -momi, ~126 inside -needle, (1\/:30, -Nikko, (1):31 -noble, ( 1 ): 41 6 -red, ( 1): 17, 36 -Sachalin, ( 1(1).45 -Siberian, ). 44 (North Carolina and Tree Planting Program, Tennessee), (4): 52 9 Greece, ( 119 (3) : 44 Friends of the Urban Forest Green Island (Boston Harbor), (3) : 25 (San Francisco), (4): 36 Fujian Forestry College, (2): Greening of Boston : An Action Agenda The, 27,28,29 (3): 5, 17, excerpts Fujian province (China), 21-22 (2) : 26, 29 Grewia falcata, (2) : 6 Fukien province (China), Guangdong (China), (2): 13, (2): 26 \"'Full Foliage and Fine 18,19 Horticultural Planning, (3): 42-46; Memorial Hillside House (Wtl(iam- (2): Massachusetts), Hodgsonia macrocarpa, Hoffman, William, (2) : 17, Hog Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 19 Hokkaido (Ja an), (1): 45 \"Holm Lea\" 36 from, Massachusetts), (2): 35, (Brookline, -silver,( 1 ): 3 -Spanish, (1):39, inside front cover -Spanish blue ( 114 -subalpme, ( 1 ~: 34, back cover -Turkish, (1\/: 20 -Veitch's, (1):2s 46 -white, ( 123, mside front cover by Phyllis Andersen, (4):32-37 Fuzhou (China) (2J: 26 Gallop's Island (Boston Harbor), \/3J: 19, 21, 22, in Boston,\" Growth': An Overview of Street-Tree Planting Guangdong province 19 Guangxi province (China), (2): 19 Guangxi, University of, (2): (China), ~2): 19 Holmes, Dr. Francis, (3\/: 43 Homalium laoticum var. Homalomena gigantea,(2): 7 glabretum, (2): 6 firs, Douglas, the, (1): 5 Five Finger Mountains (China), (2): 13 Flora Fleutharrhane macrocarpa, 7 (2): of the State of New York, by John Torrey, mentioned, (4): 55 Florence (Italy), (2): 18 Foochow (China), (2): 26 Galvin, John, (3): 34, 36 Gang of Four, (2): 28 Garcinia lancilimba, (2): 6 Garcinia xishuangbannaensis, (2J: 6 Gardeners Dictionary, by Philip Miller, mentioned, (4) : 54 \"Gardenesque Style,\" (3): 36 23,29 Guangzhou (China), (2): 14, 17, 20, 23; liberation of, (2) : 21 Bingwen, (2): 14 Haas, William J., \"Transplanting Botany to Guo China: The CrossCultural Experience of Chen Huanyong,\" (2): 9-25 -occulta, (2): 4 Honan province (China), (2):34 Hong Kong, (2): 19, 20, 31 -Botanical Garden, 7 (2): 17 Hopei province (China), (2): 34 2J: George's Islan~,Boston22, Harbor), (3) : 19, 21, Gibson House (Boston), 21 2 Gilman, Arthur, (4): 23, 32 ginkgo, (4): 36 Garuga pierrei 7 Hainan (China Hainan Island 13 (China), (2): School, 8 (4): 26 28 (2): 19 4,6 -tetratepala,~2): (BosHorticultural Hall front cover 22 Hou Debang, Hovenia acer a var. horseradish, (3): 24 Horsfieldia kin ii, (2): 7 ton), (4): 25 Hosmer, Alfred W., photograph by, (4): inside Harrison, Joseph, (4): 53 Harvard College. Harvard Medicaf Forest Department (Fujian, (2\/: 27, 28, 29 \"Forestry in Fujuan Province, People's China), 22,23-25,31 (4) : Harvard University, (4) : 25-26 (2): Republic of China, 15, 20; (4): 28 Haussmann, Baron (2): 14, kiuk~angensis, (2): 7 Howard, Heman A., photo1 graph by, ( 11 65 -Richard,photographs by, (3): 12, 15 18,21 (Abies spp.) of the ArnoldArboretum,\" \/1\/: (: 2-48 Hu Xiansu, (2): 14, 15, 16, Jones, David L. Ency- (3):33 Lespedeza (genus), (2) : 34 Levering, Dale F., Jr., \"The -grandiflora, (4): 22 6 -henr i, (2 : 4, 18,19,22,23 Hu, H. H., (2): 14, 15, 31 -Shiu-ying, (2):30-31 Hua Luogeng, (2): 22 Hubei (2): 16 Hubei province (China), (2:13 Hull Massachusetts), (3J: (3): (China), Introduction to Ferns, Their Structure, clopa?dia of Ferns: An Biology, Economic Hull~Massachusetts), 20 Hunnewell Pinetum (Mas- sachusetts), (1): 22, 25, 36 42, 43 Hupeh( China), ( 125 Hu eh province (China), Hutchinson, John, (4): 42 Icones Plantarum Sini- ~2!. 34 carum, 2): 17, (3): Impatiens'genusJ,19 Imperial Chinese Gardens Institute of Botany 44 Customs Service, (2I: 13 Imperial (Beijing), (2):35 3 India, (2):3 3 Indo-Himalaya, (2):3 International Botanical \"Interview: Chinese reviewed, (4): 58-59 Josselyn, John, New England's Rarities Discovered...., mentioned, (4): 54 Voyages, mentioned, (4): 55 3 juniperus \/genus) (1):3 Kansu (Chma), (lf : 25 Kansu province (China), (2) :34 katsura, (4): 36 Kenmore Square (Boston), (4): 23, 24 Kexue (journal), (2): 15 Importance, Cultivation, and Propagation, Changing Flora of the Boston Harbor Islands,\" (3): 18-21, 23, 25 Li Li-weng (quoted), (2) : 33 Li Siguang, (2): 22 Li Yanhui, (2): 4 LiangXi, (2): 22 8 Lilium lancifolium, (3): 38 -liliiflora,141: -stellata,~4\/: -virginiana, 7 22 -macroph lja, (4): 22 18 -tripetala, (4\/: 22 -longiflorum, '3 33, linden, little-leaf, ~4): 35 1 Lingnan (China), (2): 31 Lingnan Science Journal, 8 38 magnolia, saucer, (3): front cover Maine, (1): 18 Malaya, (2): 3 1 Manchuna, (2): 31 -microgyna, (2): 6 -wangm, (2): 3, 6 Mao (4): 22 Mangifera sylvatica, (2): 7 Manghetia fordiana, (2): 4, ~2): 17, 18 Lingnan University, (2): 13, 16,17,18,19,20,30 Linnaeus, Carolus, (4): 54 Litchi chinensis, (2) : 7 ( Llthocarpus yiwuensis, (2):: Kiangsu province (China), 1 (Beijing), (2\/:31 idgej, (2): 18 Congress, Fifth (Cambr1\/ King, G. R photograph by, (4): inside back cover Knema cinerea, (2) : 7 Kopsia officinalis, (2): 7 Korea, ( 1): 30, 33 Kowloon (Hong Kong), (2): 19 Kuo, P. (2~: 31 dillenixfolia, (2): 6 -magnolifolia, (2): 7 ierrei var. szemaois, n Living Treasures: An 6 Litsea 7 t2) :7 Yisheng, (2): Zedong, (2): 22 maple, Norway, (4) : 34, 35 Marble, Edwin, (4) : 41, 42 -Hiram, (4): 41, 42 Marr, John C., photograph by, (4): 19 Marsdenia incisa, (2): 7 Mason, John, (4): 22 IMassachusetts Agricul10 tural Massachusetts Avenue Mao Tse-tung, (2):22 31 Mao Od yssey through China's Extraordinary Nature Reserves, by Tang Xiyang (reviewed), College, 2): ,_ - Botany and the Odyssey bySally Aldrich Adams, (2) : 19 (2): 30-31 Islands of Boston Harbor, Kwangtung (China), (2\/: 18, 1639-1932, Green Isles 19 of Dr. Shiu ymg Hu,\" J. Connelly ~men- W., (2): 14 Kwangsi, University of, (2) : 19; Institute of Botany, Kwangtung University, (2) ( : 20 (2) :39 locust, black, (4): 52-57, 53 -honey, (4): 35 \"Lohengrin\" (opera), (3):37 London (England),(2): 18 8 Long Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 20, 21, 22, 1 25,29,31 Long Island (New York), Massachusetts Horticultural Society, (2): 12; (4): Massachusetts Institute of (Boston), (4): 24 17,21 Technology, (2\/: 22 Massachusetts, ( 126 Mastixia caudatilimba, (2): 7 of romance, by Patrick tioned) EdgarAnderso(reprinted), (3): 28~1 Ixonanthescochinchinen7 sis, (2J: Jack, John G., (2J: 10, 12, 13, 14, 16 Jamaica Plain (Massachu- (3~ 29 \"Islands ot Tension,\" by Lagerstr~mia intermedia, 7 (2): Lagoon (Public Garden, Boston), (3): 3G, 37, 37, Landslides 44,45 Japan, ( 1 ~: 26, 31 26 setts) (4\/:29 ): Japanese archipelago,( 1 Jasper National Park (firm), photograph by, (3 : 2-3, 20 Langlee Island Harbor), (3): 25 Lantana (genus), (3): 44 3 Laos, (2): (4): 56 Loudon, J. C., (3): 36 Lovell's Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 19, 21, 22 Lushan Botanic Garden, (2) : 35 Lynn (Massachusetts), (4): 37-51,39 Lynn Harbor (MassachuLynn Woods (MassachuLynn Woods Reservation 1 setts), (4):37-51 Ma ~2): (2\/: 4, tenusdiversicymosa, -hooken, 6 7 Boston setts), (4): 39 -inflata, (2\/: 6 -pachycarpa, (2): 6 -pseudoracemosa, (2): 6 McClure, Floyd, (2): 17 McFarland, J. Horace, 1 Company, ( 11 Meacham, George T., (3) : -Plan, the, (3): 34-35, 36 Reserve (China), (2): 5 (China), (2): 5 Reserve (China), (21: 5 Reserve (China), (2): 5 Merrill, Elmer Drew, (2): 33, 34 Laportea urentissima, (2): 7 larch, European, (3): 24 3 (Canada), (1): back cover Larix(genus\/ (1): Jatropha cureas, (2): 4 -decidua, ~3\/: 24 \"Laura Dwight's MagnoJiangxi (China), (2): 14 has,\" by Judith Leet, (4): Jefferson, Thomas, \"Farm 17-25 Book,\" (4): 59-60 -\"Garden Book,\" (4): Lebanon, ( \/: 1 59-60 Lee, Henry, \/3 y 42 Johnson, Ethan W., photo- Leet, Judith, (3): 1, 33 \"Laura Dwight's graphs by, ( 1back Magnolias,\"(4\/: 17-25 cover, 7-10 8 and Richard Warren, Leningrad (USSR), (2): 18 \"A Guide to the Firs Lenz, Russell H., map by, Machilus (Massachusetts), map of, (4): 49 Lynnfield (Massachusetts), (4): 44 Ma Junwu, (2): 19 MacLean, Alex S., photographs by, (3): 2-3, 20 Menghai Men (2~: laReserve Men (2~: lun 5 Men (2~5 ang rufipes, (2): 7 15-16, 17, 19, 20, 21, 30 Mesua Mesua ~3): cover;~4): 18, 20,22,23 Magnolia delavavar. albivillosa, (2~ 6 -denudata, (3). 48; (4): 1 Magnolia Xsoulangiana, front ferrea, (2): 3 Metropolitan Park Commission (Massachusetts), (4): 47 Mexico, ( 123 nagassarium, (2): 7 66 Michaux, Andr6, 2014Francois, (4): 55 Michelia 7 4,7 7 Meyer, Frank N., 2): 37 53 ~4\/: hedyosperma, (2): Naumkeag (Massachusetts), (4) : 39 Needham (Massachusetts), 1 19, 20, 21 scape Preservation Michener, David C., \"The Introduction of Black Neighborhood Association 18 8 Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to Massa7 chusetts,\" (4) : 52-57 Middle Brewster Island (Boston Harbor), (3\/: 19 (4):23 of the Back Bay, (4): 17, 6 Olympic Peninsula (Wash7 (1): 17 Onoclea sensibilis, (3): 24 1 Orchidacea', (2): 31 Program, (4): 28, 38, 50 ington), Neolitsea menglaensis, (2):: ( \"Order of Preservation of Clean Air\" (Boston), (4): 21 1 Peking (China),;(2): 30 Pellacalyx yunnanensis, 6 (2): Penny Bridge (Lynn, Massachusetts), (4): 48 Penny Brook (Lynn, Massachusetts), 38, 40, 44, 46 22, 23, 25 (4~ Middlesex Fells (MassaMien-shan Mountains chusetts), (4): 47 Neponset River, (3): 18 New En land, ( 1 j: 18, 25, 29; (4~: 54 55, 56 New New England Conservancy of Music, (2): 12 Oregon, ( 117 34 39 Origin of Species, ~y Charles Darwin (China), (2\/: 34 Miller, Philip, Gardeners Dictionary, mentioned, (4': 54 Mindell, Doug, photographsby 16, inside back cover Miscanthus floridulus, (2) : Club, 12): England 11 Botanical (mentioned), (2): granulata, (2): 7 19 9 Oryza meyeriana var. -minuta, (2): 4, 7 Osmunda cinnamomea, (3):24 (3): 24 Ostodes katharin~, (2): 4 -kuangiii, (2): 6 \"Our Disappearing Opportunities,\" by Edward 6-9 Outer Brewster Island New-England's Prospect, (g3\/: by William Wood, mentioned, (4):38, 55 regalis, 26 -sinensis, (2): 26 Mitrephora wangii, (2) : 7 Momordica 4 (2) :4 NewEngland's Rarities Discovered..., by John Josselyn, mentioned, \/4J: 54 New York, (2): 18 Consortium, (4): 36 Robert Weeks (reprinted), (3): subangulata, 24 Museum of Fine Arts Museum o~Natural 1 Mongoha, (2) :31 Mont Royal Park (Montr6al) (4):29 Moon Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 20 Moscow, ( 1 \/: 45 Moswetusset Hummock (Quincy, Massachu8 setts), (3) : 18 Muddy River (Boston), (4): New York Botanical Garden, (2J: 19 New York City Street Tree (Boston Harbor), (3) : Ox Pasture 19 New York State School of Forestry,(2 : \/ 10 Newfoundlan~,9,1G., 18 Nicholson, ., Pine,\" (2) : 32-38 \"Nine Dragon Pine,\" (2): inside back cover 6 photograph by, (2!: 36 \"Pinus bungeana Zuccarini-A Ghostly Pa~et, (3): 45 7 by, -Robert, (3) : 37 palm, sago, (2): -mne, (2): 5 5 oyster plant, (3):24 Paul G., photograph chusetts), (Lynn, Massa40 (4): Phyllanthus emblica, (2): 4 Phyllostachys pubescens, \/2): 27 Picea (genus), (1):3, 4; bark of (1): 12; branchlets of, ( 1~: 12; buds of, ( 1): 12; cones of, ( 1 12; leaves of, ( 112 5 -sPP~~ (lI: -engelmannii, ( 134 -koyamai, leaf attachments of, ( 1 ): 7 Massachusetts), (4): 46 Philadelphia, (4): 54 Philippines Bureau of Science, (2): 16 7 Phcebe namu, (2): 27 puwensis, (2): 3-4 Penny Brook Glen (Lynn, polita, (1):39 pimpernel, scarlet, (3): 23, 24 pine, Chinese, (2): 26 - apanese seaside, (3): 29 (2): 32,33,34, Pan-Pacific Science Congress, Fourth (Java), -~acebark, back 35, inside 36 back cover; bark 3 (1):3 cover, of, (2): (Boston) (4):25 Nordmann, Alexander, (1): (: 38 8 (2): 18 Panax zingiberensis, (2): 7 Paramichelia baillonii, (2): 4 -Scotch -white-~oned (2):34 2): pines, Chinese, f 15 15 31 \"Pinus History (Boston), (4): 25 Myristica yunnanensis, (2): NanjingHi erNormal 14 School, Nanking, University of, \/2): 14, 15, 16; College of Forestry and Agriculture, Nanping (China), (2) : 27 John, (4): 34 National Arboretum,( 1 ): setts), (1):30 6 North End (Boston), (41: 36 3 North Korea,\/1): 37 7 Myristicaceae, (2): 8 North Shore (MassachuMystic River, (3) : 18 Nanjing (China), (2\/: 13, 14, setts), (4): 38 8 16,18 Norton, Charles Eliot, (4): North Carolina, \/1): 28 North Easton (Massachu- chinensis, (2): 6 Paris (France) (2): 18 8 Park Act of 1875 (Boston), Park Act of 1882 Parashorea ~2%: 26 Nyctocalos shanica, (2): Nyssa sinensis var. ob- 7 (2):16 Nash, 28 longifolia, (2): 7 7 -yunnanensis, (2\/: English, (3\/: 24 Ochrocarpusyunnanensis, 6 (2): Ohio State University, (2): oak, Park Commissioners, Board of (Boston), (4): (Massaby Robert C. chusetts), (4): 45, 46 Nicholson, (2): 32~8 Park Commission (Boston), Pinus (genus), (1): 3 -bungeana, 32, 33, Park Commission (Lynn, 34, 35, 35, 37, 38, inside back cover, back cover; Massachusetts), (4): 44, 48 bark of (2): 36; female (4) : 45 -Japanese,(2)~ ArborePinetum Arnold tuml, I): 7, bungeana ini-A Ghostly Pine,\" Zuccar- (4) : 26 ~2,: bract o~,of leafback cover; (2): section back cover; seed of, (2): back cover; stamen of, (2): back cover 29,33 Park Commissioners, Board of of, (2): 17 7 National Geographic c 48 Olmsted, Frederick Law, Parks and Recreation, 15, 16 (3): 20, inside front National People's Congress cover; (4): 24, 26-28, Department of (Boston), 29-31, 38, 45, 47-48 (China), First (2) : 21-22 41, 42; (4): 28, 36 National Southeastern -\"Reforestmg the Boston Pars Department (BosHarbor Islands: A 1 University, (2): 14, 15, ton) : (3): 7 16,17 Proposal 1887)\" pear 'Callery', (4): 35 National Sun Yatsen Ped~ock's Island (Boston (3J: 26-27 Olmsted Historic LandUniversity, (2) : 17, 18, Harbor), (3): 18, 19, 21, (Lynn, Massachusetts), (4): 46, 48, 49, 50; quoted, (4): -massoniana, (2): 26 Society, (2) : (3): (reprinted), 3 -sylvestris, (I): -tabulxformis (2):34 -thunbergii, (3~: 29, 30 7 Piper pubicatulum, (2): Pittosporopsis kerrii, 2): 6 plane tree London, 33 Plant Rea~Data Book for China (2): 4, 6 Plymouth (Massachusetts), (3): 18 (4S: 67 Podocarpus fleuryi \/2): 6 -imbricata, (2): ~ -nerrifolia, (2): 6 -wallichii, (2): 4, 6 Poikilospermum suaveolens, (2): 7 Polyalthia cheliensis (2): 3 Pometia tomentosa, Radcliffe College, (2): 30, 31 1 Radermachera microcolyx, Sargent,2,Charles (2~rague, ~1): 23, 31; S 9, 12, 36; (4): 26-28, 33, 54 1 Sauer, J. D., (3): 30, 31 Saugus (Massachusetts), 13, 14, 16, 20, 35; (3): 3 South China, (2):3 -Agricultural 1 University, (2):31 Rainsford Island (Boston (2) 7 : Institute of Botany, Pool, Stephen Decatur, drawings by, (4): 43, 44 poplar, Carolina, (3): 29 Post Office ~2): 7 Harbor), (3\/: 21, 25 8 Ranunculus (genus), (2~: 18 rattan, (2) : 4 Rauvolfia yunnanensis, (2): 4 South End (Boston), 35 (2) : 21 (4): 34, (4) : 39, 44 Saugus Iron Works, (4): 39 Sauropus coriaceus, (2): 6 Southwest Corridor Park Red Guards, (2): 27, 28 Square (Boston), (3): 14, 15 Potentilla tridentata, (3): 23 Pratt Institute, redbud, (4): 54 Redoutrs, Pierre-Joseph, (4): 23 Scarborough Pond (, (Franklin Park, Boston), 4) : 29 scarlet pimpernel, (3): 23, 24 Spectacle Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 21, 22 Spiritualists, (4): 41-43 spruce, tiger-tail, 1): 39 spruces, (Boston), \/3): 11-12 \"Reforesting the Boston Harbor Islands: A Schofield, Edmund A., (2) : 22 Primack,Mark, \"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces,\"(3): 10-17 -Richard B., \"Forestry in Fujuan Province, Proposal (1887),\" by Frederick Law Olmsted (reprinted), (3): 26-27 Rehder, Alfred, (1): 34, 37; 7 (2) : 9,17 Reisner, John, (2\/: 16 Bull and the Origins of the 'Concord' Grape,\" \" Reaped': Ephraim Wales Squaw Rock (Quincy, Mas6 4-16 \"'He Sowed. Others the, (lj: 5 Squantum (Quincy, Massa- chusetts), (3): 19 People's Republic of China, during the Cultural Revolution,\" (2): 26-29 privet, (3): 29 Report on the Trees and tShrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts, by George Barrel Emerson, (4) : Schwanboot, (3): 37 Science Society of China, 5 (2): 15 Sea of Okhotsk, ( I 45 G., estate of, --estate sachusettsJ, (3\/: 19 villosa, (2): 4 4 sterigma, (1l. 16 Stickney, Charles O., \/4\/: Stercuha Steward, Albert, \/2\/: 15, 42 sumac, sweet Sears, Sarah (3): (4~: 18,19 (Boston), Serrania de Ronda 48 Strachey, William, \/4): 54 Studies of the Essex Flora, by Cyrus M. Tracy, mentioned, (4): 43 swanboats, (3): 32, 37-38, 37,45 Proprietors of the Botanic Garden in Boston, (3): 33,46 Prospect Park (Brooklyn, New York), (4) : 30 Protium yunnanensis mentioned (4):55 4 4 resin (2): 7 Pseudotsuga (genus), ~1): 4; bark of,( 112; branchlets of, ( 1 ):12; buds of, 12; cones of, ( 112; leaves of,( 112 blisters, ~1): \"Restoring Boston's 'Emerald Isles,'\" (3): 4 Rhamnus (genus), (2): 34 Rhodora (journal), (2): 11, 18 8 Rist, Luigi, print by, (4): front cover 5 -spp., ( 1 ): (1 -Vespasian, 4) : 54 Robinia Robinia craze Robin, Jean, -menziesii, leaf scars of, Pseuduvaria indochinen- Pterospermum aceri fo- (1) 7 : sis, (2): 4 -mengluensis, \/2): 6 -yunnanensis, (2): 6 Pterygota alata, (2): 7 Public Garden (Boston), (3) : 2-3, 1G back cover, inside back cover, 36, 38, 39, 40, 41 ; (4): 23, 25 Public Garden Act Public Water Board 46 lium, ,2):7 7 Robinson, Professor B. L., (2) : 13 Rock, Joseph F. C., (2): 9 Rocky Mountains, ( 134 Rohmer, Emil \"Sax,\" (4): 8 18 52-57; (4): ( pseuc~oacacia, (4\/:: 53 (41:(4): 54 56 (1): inside front cover shadblows, (3): 47 (2): 3 33 Shanghai Shansi province (2): 34 Shantung province (China), 7 (2): 37 Sheep Island (Boston Harbor), (3): 19 Sheldon Travelling Fellowship (2): 12, 13 Shensi (ChmaJ, (1): 25 Shensi province (China), (Spain), staghorn, (3). 31 (Chma , ~Chma~, gum, (4) : 33 Symphony Hall (Boston), (4): 25 Syria, ( 1 ): 22 Szechuan(China), (1): 25 Szechuan province (China), (2):34 Tacca chantmen, (2j: 7 Tamarixgallica, (3): 23 Tang Xiyang, Livmg Treasures: An Odyssey (2) : 34 Sherfessee, Forsythe, (2): superba, \/2): Shima Sierra Nevada, ( 27 7 34 through China's Ex- (Spain\/, (1):39 (3~: 29 var. kamtschatica, (3\/: 29, 29 rose, Kamtchatca, (3) : 30 Round Marsh (Boston), (3): Rosa rugosa, 32 Ronda 123 Sikiang (Chma), ( 1): 25 Silva of North America, 2 The, 2 bracteata, (2): Reserves 39 traordmary Na ture (reviewed), (2): Silviant~us 1 6 6 4,6 Slade, James, (3): 34 Sladenia celastrifolia, (2): Sloanea cheliensis, (2) : 6 -tomentosa, (2): 7 18-19 -Dr. Harry, 4 (2): 34 Snell, George, (4): 23 \"'So Near the Taraktogenos merrillana, 4 (2): Taxus genus) bark of, (lj: ): of, ( 1 12; 12; buds of, \/1\/: 12; leaves cones of, (1): 12; of, \/ 1 ): 12 5 -sPP~~ I 1 ): -cuspidata leaf attach- branchfets (Boston), (3):34 38 Roxbury (Massachusetts), Roxbury Milldam Corporation, (3): 33 Royal Botanic Gardens, (3): 24 Rubus~aciniatus~3\/: 23 23 Rumex pallidus, Kew (2) : 19 Massachusetts), (4): 44, Pyrularia edulis, (2): 4 Pyrus (genus), (2): 34 Qian Songshu, (2): 11, 13, Qin Renchang, \/2): 13, 15, (Lynn, (4): 29, 30 (: Smith, Captain John, (3): Metropo- Tennessee, Termin4va m ynocarpa, 7 (2\/: 3 Tetramelacca;, (2): Tetrameles nudiflora, \/2): 7 mentsof11\/:7 ~128 7 18,22 Qlng dynasty (2): 10 54 Quer, Jos~, 17, 18, 22 Quercus ro ur, (3): 24 ~4~: Quisqualis caudata, (2): 7 lts'-Lynn Woods, a Sylvan Gem in an Urban Setting,\" by Rutland Park (Boston), (4): 34 Elizabeth Hope Salvia fragarioides, (2\/: 7 Cushm , (4): 37-511 Sand River Hospital 29 . sorbana, (Guangzhou, China), (2): Soulange-Bodin, Etienne, 23 (4): 23 \"The Arnold Arboretum: An Historic Park I'artnersh~ ,\" by Shc~la \"The Boston Harbor Islands\" (reprinted), 18-31 1 \"The Boston Public Connor, (4) : 26-28 (3): (3\/: 68 Garden, Showcase of the City\"by Mary M. B. Wake~ield, (3\/:32-47 of the \"The Changing Boston Harbor Islands,\" by Dale F. Levering, Jr., (3): 18-21, 23, 25 Flora China: The CrossCultural Experience of Chen Huanyong,\" by William J. Haas, (2): 9-25 Tree Planting (4\/:38 photograph by, (3): back Woodcoc~C55 Meacham & cover \"The Boston Public Garden, Showcase of the City,\" (3): 32-47 Walsura yunnanensis, (2\/: 7 Warren, Richard, and Ethan W. Johnson, \"A Guide to the Firs (Abies sppof the Arnold Arborctum,\"(1): 2-48 Woods Brook Woods Hole (firm), (3):34 (Lynn, Massachusetts) (4):44 The History of Dungeon \"The Introduction of Black Rock, by Nanette Snow Emerson (\"Ennessee\"), mentioned, (4): 42 Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia L.) to Massachusetts,\" by David C. Michener, (4I: 52-57 \"The Making Harbor,\" by Irving B. (3): Crosby 24 of Boston (reprinted~, of, (1\/: 12 -sPP~~ ( 1 \/: 5 -caroliniana leaf attachments of, ( 1~: 7 Turkey, ( 122 \"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces,\" by Mark Primack (3) : 10-17 \"Two Bunches of Grapes \" Day (China), (2): 29 Trigonobalanus doichangensis, (2): 7 Tsuga (genus) ( 14; bark of ( 112; branchlets of, (1~: 12; buds of, ( 1): 12; cones of, (1): 12, leaves World's End (Hingham, '4\/: 555 Massachusetts), (3): 27; [Woods Holll Washington (state), (1): 41 Washington, George, statue of (Boston), (3) ( : 43 Wuzhou (China), (2\/: 19 Xanthophyllum yunnanen6 sis, Xerospermum bonii, (2): 7 Ximen (Chma), (2): 26 Massachusetts), (3\/: 20 Wright, Elizur, (4\/: 45 Wuyi Mountain (China), (2) 26 29 (2): Webster, 20 Mrs. Edwin, (4): Xmhai Weeks, Edward, (3): 44 \"Our Disappearing XishuangbannaPrefecture (China), (2): 2-7; vulnerable and revoluuon, \/2\/: 10 Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan \" Province, China by Zou Shou-qing, (2): 2-7 Thomas Hanbury School, (2): 10 Thomas Jefferson's Farm and Garden Books, edited by Robert B. 59-60 \"The Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of by Luigi Rist (pnnt), (4): front cover Union Park (Boston), (4) : 34 Uppsala University, (2): 34 Utah,( 1 \/: 23 Veal, Vatica xishuangbannaen7 sis, (2\/:7 West West Opportunities\" (reprinted\/, (3): 6-9 China Union University, (2): 30 Roxbury (Massachusetts), (4): 30 Western Hills (China), (2): inside back cover endangered plants of, 6 (2): Yao, old, (2): 13 Yedo and Peking, by Robert Fortune Baron, reviewed, (4): Thompson, David, (3): 18 -Island (Boston Harbor), (3) :20 1 Tibet, (2): 31 (4\/: 36 Toona Veitch, John Gould, ( 1\/: 46 -& 9 Sons, (2): Vienna Thomas, (4) : 40,42 (Austria), (2): 3 5-16 3 (mentioned) (2): 33 temple (China), (2): 37 Wheeler, William Morton, 5 yews, the, ( 1 5 (2J: 13 Whitehill, Walter Muir, (4): Yu, T. T., (2): 31 Yen-fu-se 24 Yunnan Institute of 18 8 Vietnam, Tonawanda Street (Boston), 4 2: Virgil, (1~:3 vine, the Whitfordiodendron filipes, 7 \/2\/: Wilhamstown (Massachusetts), (4) : 20 Wilson, ErnestH., (1J:25, 30,31,33,37; (2): 9,34; (4) :35 \/: photographs by (1): inside back cover; (3):: ( 30 Wmmsimet (Massachusetts), (4): 39 Withers, William, (4): 53 wolf pits, (4): 40, 48 Tropical Botany, Academia Smica (China), (2)~ 5 Yunnan province (China), indica, (2): 7 zelkova, (4):33 Zhimmg Zhang, (2y 35 Zhong Xinxuan, (2): 11, 18 Zippelia begonixfolia, (2): 6 Zou 3 (2\/: Zanonia -microcarpa I2):7 ciliata, (2 : 4, 77 Torrey, John,New York, the F~ora of State of back cover mentioned, (4): 55 Tracy, Cyrus M. (4J: 41, 44 -coigneti~, (4): inside back cover Studies o~ the Essex -labrusca 'Concord', (4): Flora, mentioned, (4\/: 9 43 5-16,9 Tragopogon porrifolius, (3): -labrusca, (3): 24 24 Voyages, by John Josselyn, 5 mentioned, (4) : 55 Transcript (Lynn, Massa7 chusetts), (4) : 44-45, 46 Wagner, Richard, (3) : 37 Wakefield, Mary M. B., \"Transplanting Botany to V irginia, ( 128 4 Vitex (genus), (2): 34 Vitis (genus), (2): 34 -spp., (4) : 5-16 -armata 'Veitchii', (4): Wollaston Beach (Quincy, 55 9 Massachusetts), (3): 19 Wood, William, (4\/:38, 44, Shou-qing, Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Promnce, China,\" (2): 2-7 \"The New-England's Prospect, mentioned, Zuccarini, Joseph, (21: 33 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23505","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060bb6e.jpg","title":"1988-48-fall","volume":48,"issue_number":4,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Restoring Boston's 'Emerald Isles'","article_sequence":1,"start_page":4,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24944","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad1708928.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Restoring Boston's \"Emerald Isles\" Two special issues of Arnoldia on Boston's parks and open spaces tained by, the sea; her heart of hearts beats yet to the systole, beats yet to the diastole of the tide. In the late nineteenth century, after the Back Bay had been filled in, islands and peninsulas of another sort, anchored to the Common and Public Garden by way of the Commonwealth Avenue Mall, extended inland into swept the region. Attitudes toward parks and other kinds of open space have undergone Boston rides the sea! Like Venus, she was bom of seafoam and spindrift, of ebb and flow. Her existence, her very identity, she owes to the sea. Like Venice, Boston is as much sea as land; the sea still flows in her veins. Some newer parts of Boston-some change. There is optimism in the air. Individuals, citizens' groups, private organizations, and government agencies, in diverse and ina sea neighborhoods, even some parks, entire sections of the city-arose, quite literally, from out of the sea a mere century or so ago. Even now they are borne upon the salty underground waters that diffuse inland from the sea: much of the Public Garden and all of the Commonwealth Avenue Mall, for example, were built upon what once were tidal flats in the Back Bay. Dwellings and other structures in the filled areas, built on wooden pilings during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, are sustained to this day by the subterranean seawater, which keeps them from decaying, which keeps them, therefore, \"afloat.\" Where the seawater fails, checked perhaps by a massive modem building, the pilings rot, and older structures founder. Boston may have turned hersights inland or elsewhere at times, but she has never been able to cut herself off entirely from the sea: her soul still flows from, is still sus- far-flung neighborhoods, at their outer limits arching inexorably back toBoston's genious ways, have set about polishing the gems of the Emerald Necklace, the islands in Boston Harbor, and other jewels in Greater Boston's system of parks. A century after that superb system was created-a century during which Boston's parklands have endured long periods of neglect-events have come full circle. The harbor islands have been secured as parkland, and Boston's parure of emerald islands-terrestrial and marine alike-is at last complete. This little gray dowager by the sea is gray no more: she begins to glow in re- ward their source, the sea. The result was one of Frederick Law Olmsted's crowning achievements, Bostonfamous \"Emerald Necklace\" of parks and parkways. Boston's bay and harbor are, like the land, studded with islands and islets of an emerald hue, only these are actual islands surrounded by water, not urbanized land. Olmsted had hoped to make them part of the Emerald Necklace. They once supported lush deciduous forests, but the forests were long since cut off. Lately, however, many of the islands in Boston Harbor have become parklands, and their forests are be- splendent ornament. This and the Fall issue of Arnoldia chronicle a few of the many selfless efforts Bostonians have made over the salvage, to complete, and to rehabilitate some of their community's years to create, to most precious cultural as- ginning to return. Lately, too, Boston's landbound archipel- sets-its parks and other public spaces. As the articles parks-including the Emerald Necklace-has experienced a renaissance of sorts as a tide of prosperity has ago of that follow show, today's efforts build upon the devotion, hard work, selflessness, and genius of past generations. 5 An Overview of Boston's Park Boston's System park system is one of the oldest and most comprehensive in the country-an extraordinary resource for its citizens and visitors. Its 2,500 acres range from the famous and beautiful 1,000-acre Emerald Necklace, stretching through the city its woodlands and vistas, to 185 neighborhood parks, playgrounds, and play areas, nearly half of them under an acre in size, offering pockets of open space and recreational opportunities in every part of the city. The system includes cemeteries, golf courses, pools, monuments, fountains, statues, foot bridges, and street trees. common The history of Boston's park system has been varied. Although the Boston Common has been land since 1634, and the Public Garden was laid out in 1838 and deeded to the city in 1852, in 1875 Boston lagged far behind other American cities in the amount of land and attention it had paid to public parks. Only 115 acres had been designated as public open space. All this changed, however, during the last decades of the nineteenth century, which saw the birth and development of one of the country's great park systems. Public discussion about the need for urban parks began in the 1860s and, through public hearings, press debates, and political battles, culminated in the creation of the Boston Parks Commission in 1875. A year later the Commission published its first report; a public meeting, \"Parks for People,\" urged immediate adoption of the plan. The following year, the city set aside $900,000 to acquire and develop land, and in 1878 Frederick Law Olmsted was hired to plan a park system for Boston. Between 1878 and 1895, Olmsted designed, and the city eventually built, a city-wide parks and parkway system and five large neighborhood parks. His Emerald Necklace was designed primarily to create country parks and a continuous chain of green, but also to solve serious water pollution and health problems resulting from the flow of sewage out of the Stony Brook and Muddy River onto the tidal flats of the Charles River. The Emerald Necklace includes the Back Bay Fens, the Muddy River, Olmsted Park, Jamaica Pond, the Arnold Arboretum, and Franklin Park. As the Back Bay filling was completed, Commonwealth Avenue Mall became a link between the Emerald Necklace and the Public Garden and Common. The Emerald Necklace parks and the parkways linking them-the Fenway, the Riverway, the Jamaicaway, and the Arborway-were designed as one system. Today the parks are managed by the city, the parkways by the Metropolitan District Commission. An exception is the Arnold Arboretum, which is owned by the city but operated by Harvard University. Prior to construction of the Arboretum, the city bought the Arboretum land from Harvard in 1882 and leased it back to Harvard for a thousand years. Under this agreement the city accepted responsibility for building and maintaining the roads and for policing the grounds. From this point to the present, the Arnold Arboretum has functioned as a horticultural museum and as a park. Its splendid 265 acres of rolling lawns and walkways through carefully groomed trees, flowering shrubs, and rare plants make the Arboretum an especially well used and appreciated park, serving immediate neighborhoods and the entire metropolitan area. -Excerpted from The Greening of Boston: An Action Agenda Opportunities-Past, Present, Future Twenty-one years ago an article by Edward Weeks, editor of the Atlantic Monthly magazine, appeared in Amoldia. It dealt with the state of Greater Boston's parks in particular and environment in general. Addressing many of the issues-problems to be solved, opportunities to be seized-with which the articles in the Summer and Fall 1988 issues of Arnoldia deal, it provides a revealing context for evaluating the current state of affairs. Thus, it is reprinted on the following pages. There follows an article by Mark Primack, executive director of the Boston GreenSpace Alliance. Written expressly for this issue of Arnoldia, it responds to Weeks' article and presents a picture of the situation today. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Our Disappearing Opportunities","article_sequence":2,"start_page":6,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24942","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170816b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Weeks, Edward","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 JULY 28, 1967 OUR DISAPPEARING NUMBER 7 OPPORTUNITIES11 Ladies and Gentlemen : I welcome the opportunity of being the first speaker in this Parkland Conferand my theme which I shall keep coming back to is this: that the character and beauty which we strive to preserve in this city and Commonwealth too often have disappeared before we citizens ever knew that it was threatened. The American elm is a New England character. It used to shade the oldest house ; its ~S'Ine-gl^.SS 5:11:C~ette 1S o laudlL'aik :ia any ui.udvv~'; its iJidiaCIicS make a summer cloister of famous streets in Salem, or W illiamstown, and with the lilac bush it is the last guardian of the deserted farm. Rightly it is called the Patriot Tree, for under its boughs treaties were signed with the Indians, Washington took command of his Army; George Whitefield, the evangelist, preached to thousands on Boston Common; and under it came the rushing embrace of the home-comings after Appomattox. The sight of an old elm makes you feel younger and, for the moment, surer that good things last. A century ago in the Atlantic the \"Autocrat of the Breakfast Table,\" Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, sent out a call for someone to do the biography and the photographs of the oldest elms in New England, and in time the book appeared with superb plates by Henry Brooks, and the text by Lorin L. Dame. This big folio entitled Ty~ical Elms and Other Trees qf Massachusetts 2 is a rarity today. Every tree in it was more than a century and a half old, and what beauties they were: elm, oak, ash, tupelo, and the great chestnuts which Thoreau used to measure with two-and-a-half spreads of his arms. Chief among them was the elm, known as the Great Tree; it was planted in the Common about 1640, and it suffered from its first major cavity a hundred years later; a tree dentist in 1740 ence 1 An address presented at the Parkland Conference, sponsored by the Trustees of Reservations, in Boston, May 24, 1967. 2 Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. 1890. 7 cleaned out the rot, filled the cavity with \"clay, and other substances,\" and then bandaged it-yes, bandaged it-with canvas. The big beauty lived on until February 1876, for a total of 236 years, and when the winter gales finally destroyed it Bostonians rushed to the spot and took home slabs and cuttings for table-tops and chairs. The Dutch elm disease was not man made, nor was the blight which exterminated our chestnuts, but the fact that one of these splendid species is now extinct and the other dangerously threatened should make us more intent to preserve the good trees we have. But has it? Not that I can see. The elms at the southern extremity of the B oston Common are diseased and dying; they should be cut down and healthy ones planted in their place. In the Public Garden we have lost many of the rare trees planted there by Frederick Law Olmsted; the replacements are commonplace willows. On Commonwealth Avenue we shouldhave a second growth to preserve the magnificence of the Mall when the elms there go. Whose responsibility is it to care for the life of our trees? The beauty of our heritage and the skill with which we are planning for tomorrow make Boston one of the four most visually-exciting cities in the U.S., the other three being San Francisco, New York, and Washington. Let me signalize the things which have made this so, beginning with the Park Street Church, the most beautiful single building in the center of town, and the one which continually attracts the eye. Next, Saint-Gauden's monument in memory of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, unquestionably the finest of all ourcity monuments. The Boston Common, the most vital and historic city Parkin the nation, and across from it the Public Garden at this moment with its regiments of tulips and fruit trees in blossom in its prime. The Bulfinch State House, and close by the whole splendid monument of Beacon Hill. Then the North End, so different with a warmth and style all its own, as is well seen on North Square; it is the oldest part of our city to be in continual residence, and we must thank the Bostonians of Italian heritage for giving it the good restaurants, the friendliness, and safe streets, full of children, which are its character today. Go to the Arnold Arboretum when the azaleas and lilacs are ready; go some late afternoon to the Fenway for the vitality of the gardens and the vista of the Museum; and if you love trees as I do, seek out those two giant elms on Branch Street which must have been planted when the Mt. Vemon proprietors were building Federalist Boston, and which are, I believe, the two oldest elms in the city today. Finally, go at any time of night or day to the Charles River Basin, the most satisfying modem concept in our city and one that has not yet been destroyed by the automobile. High rise of glass and concrete can be built anywhere; it is these things I speak of which rank Boston with the three other cities I cited. And how do we compare? How are we keeping things up? Look at Park Street Church, for instance. Not long ago the ugly rumor reached me that the proprietors of the church were considering the possibility of an eight-floor office building erected so close to the church that it would cover the rear portion. This is one of those disappearing acts that could happen before any of us were the wiser, and what a shame it would be! Or consider the Shaw Monument directly facing the State House, the Monument which should have 8 such significance in our struggle for civil rights, the Monument which more tourists look at than any other in the city. For fourteen months it has remained in disgraceful condition, the figures streaked and defaced, the sword in Colonel Shaw's hand twisted and broken away by vandals. The same apes have tom the sword from Washington's monument in the Garden, and nobody gives a damn! I fail to understand why Boston takes such little pride in its best things-why it is not the responsibility of someone to restore our elegance. Our streets, whether in the Back Bay or on Beacon Hill, are so filthy with papers and beer cans thatI should be ashamed to compare them with the residential streets Mayor John Lindsay has cleaned up in New York. As for the pollution of our nearest water, you only have to smell the Charles to know how foully we compare with Washington in that respect. The beauty of Boston Harbor was once known from here to Shanghai. If that shambles can be restored by Mr. Pei and Edward Logue,3we shall be deeply in their debt. But what about the canopy overhead? By any measurement our air ranks Boston as one of the ten dirtiest cities in the nation. Isn't it a luxury to talk about preserving the beauty and character of the city when the air we breathe, the milk and water we drink, the land we love is as polluted as it is in this Commonwealth? The problem of pollution nation-wide is appalling, and the worst thing about it is that it is all man-made, made right here in the U.S. We are all to blame. The pollution from our automobile exhausts and factory chimneys, the industrial waste which fouls up our streams, the accumulated lethal acids which run off the land into our ponds and lakes, for these we have only ourselves to blame. It sometimes seems to me as if our scientists worked in hermetically sealed cells intent on one-half of an equation and never counting the cost. Having perfected pesticides which could be dusted on our crops and DDT sprays which might bring momentary protection to our trees, it seems never to have occurred to chemists that what they were pouring over the land and forest could not be dissolved in water and would grow more lethal in its poisoning as it passed through each living organism. One wonders if the sludge now accumulating in Lake Erie will grow to the point where even ice-breakers can no longer penetrate it. The best we can do about pollution locally is to join up into teams of vigilantes with two objectives in mind: to clean up and protect the neighborhood for which we are responsible, and to set aside in our own domain more of the open places and wet lands, more of the woods, and what the English call the \"green lungs\" which our grandchildren must have in the future. This was the original and driving purpose of the Trustees of Reservations; it is something that the community can do better than the state, and indeed, better than Washington, unless of course the project proves to be as large as the Cape Cod National Seashore Park. I think we should celebrate those communities which are taking the initiative. I think that in January the Governor ought to cite each community which has carried to completion a major project ' Respecuvely, Mr. I. M. Pei of I. M. Pei and Associates, Architects, and Mr. Edward J. Logue, Development Adminvstrator, Boston Redevelopment Authority. 9 in Conservation. High on any list as this moment would be the town of Dennis, which at a recent town meeting voted $625,000 with which to purchase 1700 acres adjoining the town; 1700 acres of beach, uplands, and salt marsh taken out of reach of hit-and-run contractors, to be enjoyed in perpetuity by the people. Where can you do better than that? I think the towns of Lincoln and Concord should be cited for their vigilance in zoning, for protection of their trees, and taking such pride in the health of their marshes and wet lands. I think we should cite Bedford for the long, patient work they have done in cleaning up their share of the Concord River. Credit should go to Framingham for its unique Garden-in-the-Woods, and for those who have built up the quarter of a million dollars which will fortify it for the future. And to Salem great credit for preserving the glory of Chestnut Street. Now coming back to Boston, wouldn't it be wonderful if the powers that be in the State House could be persuaded to invest in the depollution of just one famous Massachusetts river? It might be the Charles; it might be the Concord; it might be as ambitious an undertaking as the Merrimack. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was not afraid to clean up, to depollute miles and miles of the upper reaches of the Schuylkill. Why should we sit on our hands? A famous Canadian and a bold conservationist, Roderick Haig-Brown, has proposed that all existing pollution of air, land, or water should be taxed in proportion to the demand it makes upon the resource. \"All pollution,\" he says, \"is the use of public property for private profit. It can be most accurately measured at its source and it should be taxed.\" Well, why not? Too often the attitude of the authorities is how much pollution can we get by with short of causing a disaster; how much of the cost of industry or settlement can we shove forward to be paid by the next generation. But if we had a pollution tax that could be graduated so as to insure the maximum elimination over a period of years, what a God-send it would be. -EDWARD WEEKS, Editor Atlantic Monthly Press "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Twenty Years After: The Revival of Boston's Parks and Open Spaces","article_sequence":3,"start_page":10,"end_page":17,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24948","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14ea76f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Primack, Mark","article_content":"10 TWENTY YEARS AFTER: THE REVIVAL OF BOSTON'S PARKS AND OPEN SPACES Boston is in the midst of the greatest round of parkmaking and landscape restoration since the Emerald Necklace was created a century ago. After decades of neglect, bad planning and design, and a lack of capital and operating funds, both the Boston parks managed by the City of Boston and the regional parks managed by the Metropolitan District Commission are being revitalized, from Boston Common to the Blue Hills. Though we did not take many of the opportunities to create new parkland and conserve natural areas that Edward Weeks prayed for in these pages in 1967, fears about the rapid development of Boston in the last few years and the coming together of a strong open-space constituency are fmally creating movement. Major new public green spaces are coming on line, under construction, or in the final stages of planning; other emerald visions are in the air. Boston in the year 2000 will be greener and even more livable than it is today. We are emerging from an era when parks were seen as peripheral to the life of Boston; when park agencies were seen as patronage dumping grounds; when the grass went unmowed and the barrels unemptied; when fires, illegal dumping and land giveaways ravaged the forestreservations; and when there appeared to be no political constituency for our parklands. Today we are experiencing an extraordinary revival of attention to our parklands. This revival is the result of community initiative, strong leadership from groups iike Boston Urban Gardeners and the l3oston Natural Areas Fund, as well as from public officials, a growing number of public-private partnerships, and the realization that public parks are of great-if often unconscious-importance to urban people, residents and commuters, tourists and immigrants, young and old, rich and poor. In 1886, Charles Eliot, landscape architect, apprentice of Frederick Law Olmsted, and instigator of both the Trustees of Reservations (the oldest land trust in the world) and the Metropolitan Park system, wrote, \"For crowded populations to live in health and happiness, they must have space for air, for light, for exercise, for rest, and for the enjoyment of that peaceful beauty of nature which, because it is the opposite of the noisy ugliness of the city is so refreshing to the tired souls of townspeople.\" Now, a century later, some sixty-eight percent of the city's population lives in public or subsidized housing. Thirty-one percent of the city's children live at or below the poverty line. We have again come to the realization that for the many city residents who cannot afford a vacation home or a rental on Cape Cod or in the mountains of New Hampshire, the public parks are a primary resource for respite, relaxation, physical release, and contact with the natural world. As well, the environmental movement, which gained such force in the 1960s, has finally turned its attention to the quality of city living. This trend has been reinforced by such sports as jogging, bicycling, and gardening, and by an expanding circle of birders and students of nature. Even businesses have come to see that quality open space is an attraction for customers and workers. In sum, as the recent report, The Greening of Boston, declared, \"Parks and open spaces are fundamental to the 11 1 physical, social, and economic health of the city.\" All the pieces are falling into place to translate this renewed comprehension of the meaning of urban open spaces into a real renaissance of Boston's existing open spaces and a second great decade of parkmaking a century after the first. Governor Dukakis and his administration have developed programs to restore and enlarge the urban open space inventory-with passage of a $600 million open-space bond issue last December by the legislature, the funds should be available to implement these programs. Mayor Flynn has exerted strong leadership on the park issue, allocating over $75 million for capital improvement of existing parklands, doubling the budget for the Parks and Recreation Department and placing a high priority on effective management of the city's parks. The Boston Parks and the MDC commissioners are dynamic leaders with vision and political savvy. In neighborhoods across Boston, residents have become stewards of the public realm, cleaning and programming the parks and demanding that public agencies fulfill their responsibilities. At the Boston Redevelopment Authority, new open spaces are being negotiated from developers. The Mayor's Office of Capital Planning has completed the most comprehensive Open Space Plan in more than fifty years. After alapseof decades, the Massachusetts Audubon and Horticultural societies have once again become active in Boston. And in the last three years, over one hundred community, civic, and environmental groups and public agencies have come together in the Boston GreenSpace Alliance to speak with one voice for all of Boston's parks and open spaces, existing and potential. Though years of sustained public advocacy and support will be required, a brief review of the green-space projects, plans, and visions on our collective table shows that Boston can be known as the \"City of Parks\" in the year 2000. Belle Isle Marsh Reservation After years of citizen effort, this largest remaining saltmarsh in Boston was opened as an MDC reservation in 1986. With walking trails, boardwalk, viewing tower, and extensive educational programming, Belle Isle Marsh has become a key place for teaching city schoolchildren and adults about the ecology and value of saltmarshes. A favorite of birders, the Marsh is host to great blue herons, marsh hawks, and snowy owls. Southwest Corridor Park The greatest addition to Boston's park inventory since the Esplanade was created in the 1920s, this fifty-two-acre, linear parkland connect downtown Boston to the Arnold Arboretum and Franklin Park along the Orange Line transportation corridor. Completed this spring, the Southwest Corridor Park was planned and developed by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) with much community involvement. It is managed by the Metropolitan District Commission (MDC). A dual-circulation system invites and separates bikers and joggers from slower-moving strollers. Planted with an extensive variety of trees, shrubs, vines, and flowers, the park includes twenty children's play areas, 12 community gardens, and numerous ball courts. Boston Common Renewal Boston Common, oldest public greenspace in the United States, is being restored to the people after years of decline and deferred maintenance. In the last year, the Parks and Recreation Department has pruned every tree, laid new turf, installed knee-high fencing, and removed dead elms. To prevent View of Belle Isle Marsh in East Boston, with Boston in the background. Recently, one thousand acres of marsh in the Belle Isle area were granted special protection by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Photograph by Richard Howard. Courtesy of the Boston Foundation and the Boston GreenSpace Alliance. complete lighting system, made possible by a grant from the Denow illuminates the Common's walkways. Improved maintenance procedures have given the Common a new luster. More improvements are planned. a criminal activity on the Common, partment of Environmental Management, Restoration of Neighborhood Parks Work is well underway on the City's five-year plan to renew over one hundred neighborhood parks and playgrounds. Play and recreation equipment is being restored or replaced; new turf, benches, and sins installed; fencing and lighting repaired or replaced; and trees and shrubs pruned or planted. Over eighteen \"tot-lots,\" so important to young children in the neighborhoods, are being rehabilitated this year alone. 13 Restoration of the Emerald Necklace With $11.25 million in grants from the Department of Environmental Management's (DEM's) Olmsted Historic Landscape Preservation Program, the City is restoring five Olmsted-designed parks: Back Bay Fens, the Muddy River, Olmsted Park, Jamaica Pond, and Franklin Park. Long-term Master Plans are nearing completion for each park, and early-action moneys have already been spent on pruning and other desperately needed work. Among the proposed priorities for construction in these parks over the next year or two are: repair of historic bridges, steps, and park furniture; removal of invasive vegetation; re-creation of a dual-circulation with a bike path instead of a bridle trail; improved water quality and water edges; and extensive landscaping. There are hopes that the Arnold Arboretum will receive funding from a second round of grants and that the Sears department store parking lot will be returned to parkland. This program is a major step in restoring the Emerald Necklace to its rightful place as one of the foremost park designs in the world. Re-creation of Copley Square Work is underway to rebuild completely Copley Square, a keystone park that had been poorly designed and did not work. The Copley Square Centennial Committee, an alliance of corporate abutters, Back Bay activists, and park professionals operating in conjunction with the Boston Rede- An artist's drawing of the new Copley Square (now under construction), viewed from the comer of Boylston and Clarendon streets. The square will have a new granite fountain, expanses of grass opposite the Boston Public Library and near the new fountain, allees of London plane trees along Saint James Avenue and Boylston Street, brick paving, and seasonal flower beds. Trinity Church appears at the left of the drawing, the Copley Plaza Hotel in the left background, and the Boston Public Library at the top right. Construction is scheduled to be completed by the end of the year. Courtesy of the Copley Square Committee. 14 velopment Authority (BRA), has raised corporate, foundation, and public funds for this major initiative. Guided by an entirely new design commissioned by the Committee, Copley Square is being raised to street level, planted with many more trees, providing performance, concession, and fanner's s market spaces, and having its circulation improved. Top-quality materials are being used, and a maintenance endowment and management plan are under development. Work will be completed on construction by this fall and on landscaping by next spring. New Post Office Square Park Post Office Square, in the heart of the fmancial district, is about to receive a new park on the site of an old parking garage. Entirely financed by corporate abutters through the Friends of Post Office Square, the project calls for demolition of the garage and construction of another, underground garage decked over with a park. The design approach has been creative, calling for fountains, sculpture, much turf, extensive horticultural materials, intimate spaces, and even a small restaurant. The landscape architect for the project, the Halvorson Company, was chosen after a comprehensive competition. Work on this exciting new park, which probably will be the most intensely used park in the city, should begin by this coming October. A portion of the proceeds from the underground garage will be allotted to neighborhood parks. Harbor Access The BRA and Boston Environment Department are completing an extensive plan for public access to Boston's waterfront. Negotiating amenities from waterfront developers, Harborwalk will follow walkways and open-space nodes from South Boston, through the downtown waterfront, to Charlestown and East Boston. Plans are nearing completion for 3.3 miles of public walkways and park frontage in Charlestown alone. Dorchester Shores Plans are moving rapidly forward at the MDC to extend the chain of linear shorefront parklandwhich now runs from Castle Island to Carson Beach-along the entire Dorchester shorefront and up the Neponset River. Work should be completed within the year on two major links: Harborpoint, along the former Columbia Point Development, and Victory Road Park, the former Troy landfill beside the Boston Gas storage tanks. The old Neponset Drive-in Theater site and the adj acent dump have already been acquired, as have several other parcels and rights-of-way. The Department of Public Works has plans for a bikeway below the Southeast Expressway, linking Victory Road Park and Tenean Beach, and the MDC is negotiating an access with Boston Gas to extend the trail behind the storage tanks. Brook Farm The MDC is in the process of acquiring the 179-acre Brook Farm property in West Roxbury, site of the famous Transcendentalist utopian experiment of the 1840s. The site, which includes rich historic 15 5 Post Office Square, soon to be much enlarged. Foundation and the Boston GreenSpace Alliance. Photograph by Richard Howard. Courtesy of the Boston 16 and archaeological resources, abuts the Saw Mill Marsh and Charles River, with rolling hills, Boston puddingstone outcrops, and an old orchard with an abundance of birdlife. The property is slated to become a natural and cultural park. Boston Harbor Islands State Park Master Plan The Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management, in conjunction with the MDC, has recently completed a master plan for the B oston Harbor Isl ands that calls for preserv ation of the unique natural and historic character on most ofthe islands and for improved visitor services and public safety on more-intensively used islands. Fifteen million dollars have been allocated in the new State Open Space Bond issue to accomplish these improvements, as well as to increase access to the islands and rehabilitate components of the infrastructure. Funds will also be used to increase public access to Thompson Island, currently in private hands, and to begin development of Long Island as an addition to the island park. The Arlington Street Church, still a Boston landmark after more than a century, and the two John Hancock towers, are framed by trees in the Boston Public Garden. In the foreground is the \"Lagoon,\" on which the Garden's famous swanboats sail each summer. Photograph copyright @ 1988 by Doug Mindell. 17 7 Central Artery Increasingly, park advocates and public officials, including the MDC Commissioner and BRA Director, are discussing the open-space potential of the Central Artery once it is depressed and decked over. Ideas range from turning nearly the entire deck into open space, with a grand boulevard like the Commonwealth Avenue Mall, to having a mix of open space and new development that weaves separate neighborhoods back together. Neighborhood Visions If the grander visions of open space tend to the outskirts of to the the city and to the downtown, the real key environmental health of Boston lies in a vision of smaller neighborhood green spaces, for it is in the neighborhoods thatBoston'speople live and play. In neighborhoods around the city, people are concerned about the loss of open space and about the need for decent play spaces close to home. Several neighborhoods are actively participating in B RA neighborhood rezoning initiatives utilizing City's new Open Space Zoning. In the South End, neighborhood activists want to preserve community gardens at the same time as affordable housing is created; in Brighton, the focus is on the neighborhoods extensive institutional lands; in Dorchester and Mattapan, residents w ant new tot-lots. In a number of communities, residents want to preserve urban wilds, sites of natural significance, as conservation lands. Atpublic housing developments people want decent grounds and places for their children to play and grow. In Hyde Park, citizens want to add to the Stony Brook Reservation. As we pursue our big visions, we must acknowledge the needs and visions of these neighborhood people, for without their active support our dreams will fail or soon decay. In conclusion, to quote from The Greening of Boston report: the A century ago citizens and professionals began planning for Boston's future. They dreamed of a system of connected parks, the first such system in the country, and created the Emerald Necklace. They had as vision of forest reserves and public beaches, at the edge of the city and beyond, and created the Metropolitan Park system. They heard the need for recreation articulated in every neighborhood and responded by creating dozens of playgrounds. They had visions of the Charles River dammed and lined with recreational facilities; they created the Charles River Basin and the Esplanade. Though our dreams today reflect real community needs and the best of planrung tntentions, their full implementation is far from assured. Creation of grand new open spaces; revitalization of the Emerald Necklace, community parks, and Boston Common; preservation of community gardens and urban wilds; and the provision of new green links throughout the city and region: our visions will require sustained advocacy, political will, institutional mission, interagency cooperation, community support and involvement, and the participation from business, foundation, and non-profit sectors. Most of all, these visions will require bold leadership from our elected officialfrom agency heads,and professional staffs, and from the citizens of the region. The concerted effort of all is the only guarantee that we will have as proud a legacy to leave our children as the nineteenth century left to us. -MARK PRIMACK, Executive Director Boston GreenSpace Alliance "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Changing Flora of the Boston Harbor Islands","article_sequence":4,"start_page":18,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24946","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14ea326.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Levering Jr., Dale F.","article_content":"The Changing Flora of the Boston Harbor Islands Dale F. Levering, Jr. After more than three and one-half centuries of vicissitude, the deciduous forest that once covered the Boston Harbor islands may have begun to return Situated just to the north of the sandy, uplifted coastal plain of Cape Cod and just to the south of the rocky coastline of northern New England, the Boston Harbor islands constitute a unique maritime ecosystem. To the south of the Harbor, pines dominate the sandy, mineral-deficient soil where the land meets the sea; to the north, hemlock, white pine, spruce, and fir. Some twenty thousand years ago, when the Pleistocene ice sheet was at its maximum, the shoreline lay approximately thirty miles east of where it does now; when the glacier first began to recede, what are now the Boston Harbor islands were exposed as high spots on what was then the mainland. Alluvium from the Boston Basin deposited around the Boston Harbor islands by the Mystic, Charles, and Neponset rivers during this time created a mineral-rich substratum that plants would readily colonize after the glacier had melted away. In particular, the alluvium was colonized by species of the Eastern Deciduous Forest, a narrow, species-rich strip of forest stretching northeastward from the mountains of Kentucky and West Virginia, reaching the ocean along the Massachusetts shoreline between Ipswich and Plymouth. (It corresponds to Zone 5 of the Arnold Arboretum's cold-hardiness map and to Zone 6 of the United States Department of Agriculture's map). Once dominated by chestnuts and oaks, it has been devastated by chestnut blight and by the Europeans who settled in it, who have used it as a source of construction timber and firewood. With its complement of nut-consum- ing animals, the Eastern Deciduous Forestwhich was dominated by broad-leaved, round-topped deciduous trees (as opposed to needle-leaved, spire-topped evergreens)-was richer source of food for the colonists than the evergreen forests to the north and south. No doubt this was one reason the English settled northward, rather than southward, from Plymouth. The present-day vegetation of Moswetusset Hummock, a small island situated at the northern end of Wollaston Beach in Quincy, is perhaps the closest indication we will ever have of what the Boston Harbor islands' vegetation looked like at the time of English settlement. Remains of dead American chestnut trees (Castanea americana) can still be seen on Thompson's Island, and young oak forest is reestablishing itself on Peddock's Island. For the most part, however, the Boston Harbor islands have been cut over, and the rich, climax deciduous forest that clothed them when the English arrived on these shores early in the seventeenth century is now in the early stages of biotic succession from old fields to climax forest. a The Islands' In Early History 1585-thirty-five years before Plymouth was settled-David Thompson established a trading post on the Boston Harbor island that now bears his name. During summer of 1621 1 who had landed at PlyCaptain John Smith, mouth in 1620, sailed into Boston Harbor. In the ship's log he wrote of \"the groves of trees, the fields of corn, and the well proportioned 19 Indians\" standing on the shore. Captain Smith and the crew set foot on the mainland at what is now Squaw Rock in the Squantum section of Quincy. Although there has been speculation that the corn fields he mentions were in reality marsh grasses, fragmentary remains of corn have been found in archaeo- livestock pasture. By 1634 the English settlers had recognized the value of the Boston Harbor islands as strategic lookout points for protecting the development of Boston and had begun to construct fortifications on Castle Island. Between 1850 and 1865, George's Island was extensively Map of the Boston Harbor Islands in 1711. logical digs on Calf Island. Evidence of cleared areas suggesting gardens has also been documented. Once the settlers had cleared them of trees, the islands became valuable pasture land free of predators. Some of them-Sheep, Calf, and Hog islands-reflect their use as altered by the construction of Fort Warren. The world wars also significantly altered the island ecosystem. Massive fortifications were built on Peddock's, Gallop's, Lovell's, Great Brewster, Middle Brewster, and Outer Brewster islands. Until recent times, perhaps 20 much as any use, the construction of fortifications has led to the destruction of the islands' native plants and animals. As Boston grew into a prominent port and as urbanization spread, the islands' value became increasingly evident. (Sweetser's hisas Emerald Necklace, planned to extend his landscape through World's End in Hingham, into the Boston Harbor islands. Unfortu- nately, Olmsted's death brought to an end early realization of the special ecology of the Boston Harbor islands. Aerial view of the Boston Harbor islands, looking southeast toward Hull. Thompson Island is in the foreground, Spectacle Island at the left center margin. The bridge connects Moon Island (right center) with Long Island. The peninsula at the right rear is the northern part of the town of Hull. Copyright 1988 by Alex S. MacLean\/Landslides. tory of the Boston Harbor islands gives an early insight into their unique nature.) Frederick Law Olmsted, while creating the The Boston Harbor Islands State Park Because they were being used by the military, the Boston Harbors islands were largely off 21 limits to the general public for nearly two-thirds of the twentieth century. With the advent of nuclear weapons, however, islands lying only a few miles off a coast lost much of their strategic significance, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts began acquiring the islands in Boston Harbor; in 1974, the Boston Harbor Islands State Park was established. Public visitation has been encouraged since then, and public campgrounds have been established on Lovell's, Grape, Bumpkin, and Peddock's islands. Ferry service from Long Wharf, Boston, to George's Island makes it possible for people to take advantage of the free-of-charge water-taxi service provided by the Commonwealth from May until October to several of the Boston Harbor islands. Interpreta- Boston Harbor Islands State Park , ' We want to create the best harbor park system in the world because it has the potential to be just that. -Govemor Michael S. Dukakis, George's Island, 1986 The Boston Harbor islands are a remarkable resource, permitting recreational and educational opportunities rarely found in an urban setting. Though the Boston skyline is rarely out of view, the islands have a wild character, providing a resting spot for migrating birds and city residents alike. People can camp on the islands or visit for the day, experiencing the forces of the sea and the wilds. Easily accessible via inexpensive ferry boats from Long Wharf, connected to each other by a free water taxi, the islands are destinations for residents of every Boston neighborhood and the region, as well as tourists who venture out for picnics, school outings, and discovery. ', Thirty-one islands are presently owned by public agencies; seven are staffed during the summer months as State Park. The Boston Harbor park is jointly Map of the Boston Harbor islands. Christian Science Publishing Society. Copyright 1987 by The Metropolitan (MDC), which owns George's, Lovell's, and Peddock's islands; and by the District Commission managed by the tion of the islands' natural history and ecology is now provided by island managers, who are coordinated through the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management (DEM). Volunteer service in appreciation and interpretation of this unique state park has been provided by the Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands. The Islands' Plants The flora of the Boston Harbor islands reflects man's impact upon the landscape, and few undisturbed patches of native plants remain. The American Indians used to retreat to the Department of Environmental Management, which owns Grape, Bumpkin, Gallop's, Great i~ Brewster islands and many of the smaller islands. The City of Boston owns have yet three islands which be included in the park: Long, Spectacle, and Rainsford islands. Each island in the park has its own history and its own present and potential usesin sum, the islands are a unique to 22 resource of national-park qual- ity. The islands are drumlins (glacial hills) and rock outcroppings ranging in size from less than one acre to over two hundred acres. water-taxi hub and site of Fort Warren, a national Historic land- mark-is by far the most heavily visited island, with its picnic grounds, concession stand, and running water. In recent years an intensive educational program Seasonally occupied by Americans, who harvested an abundance of shellfish, the islands were used by Puritan colonists Native as wood lots and pasture lands. Over the years, the islands were used for quarantine and chronic disease hospitals, farmlands and dumping sites, though it is military uses which have left the most visible traces on the islands. Starting before the Revolution and increasing before the Civil War and during the Spanish-American War, the islands became the site of a series of massive fortifications, leaving us such notable artifacts as forts Warren, Andrews, Strong, and Standish. After World War II the islands were essentially abandoned by the military, but visionary citizens and legislators saw the possibilities for recreational, educational, and historic preservation activities. In 1958, the MDC acquired George's and Lovell's islands and began developing them as parks. In 1970 with the creation of the Boston Harbor Islands State Park, the Department of Natural Resources, now the Department of Environmental Management (DEM), also began acquiring and developing islands. Both agencies cleaned up their islands, repairing seawalls, building piers, cutting trails, and creating campsites; and both began providing staff during the summer months. Today the islands are visited by upwards of 200,000 people annually, and the has been developed on George's Island, providing programs to some 15,000 school children, including 2,000 Boston school children, and to over 15,000 summer visitors. In spite of the much-lauded improvements, the island has pressing needs for safety and visitor service im- provements and there is a growing desire to restore crumbling Fort Warren. sible by automobile, is the site of the Long Island Hospital and the remnants of Fort Strong. Summer work crews have begun to clean up the island and it figures prominently in the dreams of many Boston environmentalists and Harbor-lovers, though it is not in the park or open to the public yet. Spectacle Island, a former dump site, also remains outside the park and is closed to the public. Thompson Island, privately owned by the Thompson Island Educational Center, is undergoing a change in management, though its focus will continue to be on youth groups like the Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands, MDC and DEM continue to expand these unique resources. But many problems remain: balancing the preservation of natural and cultural re- Lovell's, Gallop's, Bumpkin, and Grape Islands are all quieter than George's Island and are primarily used by campers and others development. Working with seeking tranquility. Acces- sible by free water taxi, they have a primitive quality with no electricity or running water. Staff provide tours during the summer, focusing on the natural history of the islands and the surrounding harbor. Great Brewster Island, which is far out in the harbor and primarily accessible by private boats, is the wildest and quietest of the staffed islands, home to nesting birds and seasonal resort for lovers of solitude. Peddock's Island, the largest of the islands now in the park, has forty-five private cottages on it and twenty-eight buildings of Fort Andrews, in various stages of disrepair. Though open to the public, much of the park is not accessible because of safety problems and the presence of the private cottagers. Yet even in its current state, Peddock's is a fas- with the need to provide for increasing numbers of visitors ; the huge costs of developing g and maintaining island sites; bringing in fresh water and disposing of sewage and solid waste; and the need for interagency cooperation as well as cooperation with the City of Boston. Yet everyone agrees: the islands are beautiful and deserve continued development as natural, cultural, and recreational resources for the benefit of Bostonians, residents of the Commonwealth, and visitors. They hold vast educational and recreational potential for the young people of Boston and for us all. sources -Excetpted from 60,62. The Gzeemng of Boston An Action Agenda, pages season expanding. George's Island-ferry and is cinating place to explore. Long Island, the largest Harbor and the in the only one acces- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Boston Harbor Islands State Park","article_sequence":5,"start_page":21,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24939","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170bb28.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"21 limits to the general public for nearly two-thirds of the twentieth century. With the advent of nuclear weapons, however, islands lying only a few miles off a coast lost much of their strategic significance, and the Commonwealth of Massachusetts began acquiring the islands in Boston Harbor; in 1974, the Boston Harbor Islands State Park was established. Public visitation has been encouraged since then, and public campgrounds have been established on Lovell's, Grape, Bumpkin, and Peddock's islands. Ferry service from Long Wharf, Boston, to George's Island makes it possible for people to take advantage of the free-of-charge water-taxi service provided by the Commonwealth from May until October to several of the Boston Harbor islands. Interpreta- Boston Harbor Islands State Park , ' We want to create the best harbor park system in the world because it has the potential to be just that. -Govemor Michael S. Dukakis, George's Island, 1986 The Boston Harbor islands are a remarkable resource, permitting recreational and educational opportunities rarely found in an urban setting. Though the Boston skyline is rarely out of view, the islands have a wild character, providing a resting spot for migrating birds and city residents alike. People can camp on the islands or visit for the day, experiencing the forces of the sea and the wilds. Easily accessible via inexpensive ferry boats from Long Wharf, connected to each other by a free water taxi, the islands are destinations for residents of every Boston neighborhood and the region, as well as tourists who venture out for picnics, school outings, and discovery. ', Thirty-one islands are presently owned by public agencies; seven are staffed during the summer months as State Park. The Boston Harbor park is jointly Map of the Boston Harbor islands. Christian Science Publishing Society. Copyright 1987 by The Metropolitan (MDC), which owns George's, Lovell's, and Peddock's islands; and by the District Commission managed by the tion of the islands' natural history and ecology is now provided by island managers, who are coordinated through the Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management (DEM). Volunteer service in appreciation and interpretation of this unique state park has been provided by the Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands. The Islands' Plants The flora of the Boston Harbor islands reflects man's impact upon the landscape, and few undisturbed patches of native plants remain. The American Indians used to retreat to the Department of Environmental Management, which owns Grape, Bumpkin, Gallop's, Great i~ Brewster islands and many of the smaller islands. The City of Boston owns have yet three islands which be included in the park: Long, Spectacle, and Rainsford islands. Each island in the park has its own history and its own present and potential usesin sum, the islands are a unique to 22 resource of national-park qual- ity. The islands are drumlins (glacial hills) and rock outcroppings ranging in size from less than one acre to over two hundred acres. water-taxi hub and site of Fort Warren, a national Historic land- mark-is by far the most heavily visited island, with its picnic grounds, concession stand, and running water. In recent years an intensive educational program Seasonally occupied by Americans, who harvested an abundance of shellfish, the islands were used by Puritan colonists Native as wood lots and pasture lands. Over the years, the islands were used for quarantine and chronic disease hospitals, farmlands and dumping sites, though it is military uses which have left the most visible traces on the islands. Starting before the Revolution and increasing before the Civil War and during the Spanish-American War, the islands became the site of a series of massive fortifications, leaving us such notable artifacts as forts Warren, Andrews, Strong, and Standish. After World War II the islands were essentially abandoned by the military, but visionary citizens and legislators saw the possibilities for recreational, educational, and historic preservation activities. In 1958, the MDC acquired George's and Lovell's islands and began developing them as parks. In 1970 with the creation of the Boston Harbor Islands State Park, the Department of Natural Resources, now the Department of Environmental Management (DEM), also began acquiring and developing islands. Both agencies cleaned up their islands, repairing seawalls, building piers, cutting trails, and creating campsites; and both began providing staff during the summer months. Today the islands are visited by upwards of 200,000 people annually, and the has been developed on George's Island, providing programs to some 15,000 school children, including 2,000 Boston school children, and to over 15,000 summer visitors. In spite of the much-lauded improvements, the island has pressing needs for safety and visitor service im- provements and there is a growing desire to restore crumbling Fort Warren. sible by automobile, is the site of the Long Island Hospital and the remnants of Fort Strong. Summer work crews have begun to clean up the island and it figures prominently in the dreams of many Boston environmentalists and Harbor-lovers, though it is not in the park or open to the public yet. Spectacle Island, a former dump site, also remains outside the park and is closed to the public. Thompson Island, privately owned by the Thompson Island Educational Center, is undergoing a change in management, though its focus will continue to be on youth groups like the Friends of the Boston Harbor Islands, MDC and DEM continue to expand these unique resources. But many problems remain: balancing the preservation of natural and cultural re- Lovell's, Gallop's, Bumpkin, and Grape Islands are all quieter than George's Island and are primarily used by campers and others development. Working with seeking tranquility. Acces- sible by free water taxi, they have a primitive quality with no electricity or running water. Staff provide tours during the summer, focusing on the natural history of the islands and the surrounding harbor. Great Brewster Island, which is far out in the harbor and primarily accessible by private boats, is the wildest and quietest of the staffed islands, home to nesting birds and seasonal resort for lovers of solitude. Peddock's Island, the largest of the islands now in the park, has forty-five private cottages on it and twenty-eight buildings of Fort Andrews, in various stages of disrepair. Though open to the public, much of the park is not accessible because of safety problems and the presence of the private cottagers. Yet even in its current state, Peddock's is a fas- with the need to provide for increasing numbers of visitors ; the huge costs of developing g and maintaining island sites; bringing in fresh water and disposing of sewage and solid waste; and the need for interagency cooperation as well as cooperation with the City of Boston. Yet everyone agrees: the islands are beautiful and deserve continued development as natural, cultural, and recreational resources for the benefit of Bostonians, residents of the Commonwealth, and visitors. They hold vast educational and recreational potential for the young people of Boston and for us all. sources -Excetpted from 60,62. The Gzeemng of Boston An Action Agenda, pages season expanding. George's Island-ferry and is cinating place to explore. Long Island, the largest Harbor and the in the only one acces- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Making of Boston Harbor","article_sequence":6,"start_page":24,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24947","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad14ea36b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Crosby, Irving B.","article_content":"24 The Making of Boston Harbor Irving B. Crosby When the ice melted away from New England the land stood somewhat higher above the sea than it does now, and the sea was farther to the east. New rivers developed and eroded new valleys. Gradually the land sank and the sea came into the valleys, flooding them and forming long bays. Hills that were surrounded by the sea became islands, and ridges that projected our into the water-formed peninsulas. As there were many valleys, hills, and ridges along the New England coast, many bays, islands, and peninsulas were their present aspect. After the sea flooded a shallow valley the streams deposited mud and partly filled it, making a salt water marsh. There was much shallow water about Boston in which mud collected, and salt marshes are a frequent feature of our shores. A coast like ours with its numerous deep bays, islands, and peninsulas is made by the sinking under the sea or submergence of land topography. This is known as a shore line of submergence. If you look at the country about you anywhere near the coast in New England and imagine what would happen if the sea were to rise a hundred feet, you will see that the new shore line would greatly resemble the present shore line. It would have deep bays, long peninsulas, and numerous islands. The New England coast is a typical shore line of submergence, and is in strong contrast to the shore line produced by the raising of the land and the uplifting of the sea bottom to form new land. The bottom of the sea is fairly smooth and level and when it is uplifted to form land, a straight shore with long beaches and no deep bays is produced. The east coast of Florida is typical of this kind of shore. It is called a shore line of emergence, since it is caused by the emergence of the sea bottom to become new land. If you look at a map and see a very irregular shore you can be certain that it is a shore line of submergence and was the result of the sinking of the land under the sea. But if the map shows a straight shore with long beaches and few bays, then you know that it is a shore line of emergence, and that the ocean bottom has been lifted up out of the water. When you sail down Boston Harbor or cruise along the coast of Maine, it is interesting to know that you are sailing over a drowned land on which animals and Indians probably roamed at one time. We know that the Indians lived here before the sea rose to its present level. In digging for the [Boston] subway a fish weir was found far below the surface of [Boylston] street, eighteen feet below the level of the sea. This proves that men were living here several thousand years ago and that the shore was different then. The sea rose very slowly, so slowly that the Indians living here probably never knew that anything was happening. Some think that the land is still slowly sinking, about a foot a century, and that eventually Boston will be covered by the sea. Geologists are not agreed as to whether it is sinking or not, and it is very difficult to prove because the movement is so extremely slow. If the city were several thousands of years old we could tell by noticing whether any old buildings had sunk under the water. At Pozzuoli in Italy is an old temple which was sunk thirteen feet under the sea, and has been raised up again in the last few centuries. On the New England coast are tree stumps which have sunk under the water, but we do not know how long they have been there. Even if our land is sinking slowly there is no cause for alarm. It would be hundreds of years before we could notice any difference. Man is continually building up the land and, even if the sea is rising a foot a century, it will be a long time before there can be any serious trouble. We have now traced the development of the Boston region up through the formation of the harbor, but some finishing touches were still to be applied before the white man appeared. Our beautiful beaches, Nantasket, Revere and Nahant, did not exist, and the harbor was partly open to storm waves because the protecting peninsulas of Nantasket and Point Shirley had not yet been formed, making regular. our coast very ir- The sea came into the valleys of the Charles, Neponset, and Mystic rivers and the other streams about Boston, thus making Boston Harbor and the other bays that indent our coast. These flooded river valleys are called drowned valleys. All the deep bays of the New England coast have been formed in this way. Drowned valleys are especially well developed on the coast of Maine. Where the invading sea surrounded hills, islands were formed and the shape of the island depended on the shape of the hill. Drumlins have a regular outline and they produced islands of regular shape, but those formed from rock hills are usually very irregular and rugged. In this way the numerous islands of Boston Harbor were made. Most of them are drumlins and are quite different in appearance from the rugged rock islands of the coast of Maine. The other islands of the New England coast have a similar origin, since they were formed by the sinking of the land and the surrounding of the hills by the sea. Drumlin islands are characteristic of Boston Harbor and rock islands of the coast of Maine. formed. When a hill was connected with higher land by a ridge and the sea came in about it, a peninsula was made. In this way Boston Neck, Charlestown Neck, Dorchester Neck, and the numerous peninsulas of the New England coast were given -Excerpted from Boston through the Ages ~ The Geological Story of CrMter Boston, by Irving B. Crosby. Boston: Marshall Jones Company \/ 1928\/, pages 67 to 72. Greater Boston, byIrving B. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reforesting the Boston Harbor Islands: A Proposal (1887)","article_sequence":7,"start_page":26,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24943","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170856f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Olmsted, Frederick Law","article_content":"Reforesting the Boston Harbor Islands: A Proposal (1887) Frederick Law Olmsted A century ago, the great forests to landscape architect proposed replanting the islands' soften their bleakness and to check their deterioration One hundred years ago the Boston Harbor islands were largely unwooded. Frederick Law Olmsted, in a report to the Boston Park Commissioners, recommended their zeforestation. They are \"generally hard-featured, bare, bleak, and inhospitable,\" he wrote. \"Let any one, passing through the harbor, imagine them clothed with foliage of any kind, and it will be felt how much more agreeable its character would be if they were generally wooded.\" Today, the original Eastern Deciduous Forest has begun to reestablish itself. Between the wharves of Boston and the sea, outside of Boston Bay, there are seventy-five islands and islets, fifty notable projections of the mainland with bays between them, some of which are the mouths of streams, and a great many shoals and reefc which are exposed, or upon which the sea breaks, at low water. Between all these there are innumerable subchannels more or less navigable, according to the stage of the tide and the depth of any object to be floated through them. The aggregate area of the islands is a little more than 1,300 acres. Of this the city owns 439 acres; the United States, 241 acres; and, of the remainder, 500 acres have but five owners. The rise and fall of the tide varies from eight to sixteen feet, according to the age of the moon and the condition of the weather, and the tidal currents are liable to be strong and complicated. These circumstances not only make the harbor interesting because of what meets the eye of those passing through it or along its shores, but they give fleet, nimblytuming boats a more marked advantage than they would otherwise have, and make close calculations and tact in trimming and steering them of more obvious importance than they are in harbors with fewer elements of picturesque character. Add to this the further consideration that from the time of the first settlers the people in Boston have been much engaged in fishing ventures, not only on the deep sea, but of a class to be pursued with boats of light burden, and the fact will be accouited for that there has always been an unusual interest among them in modelling, building, rigging, and seamanship of small craft, both for commercial and for recreative use. The city govemment has recognized this interest, and, in an exceptionally systematic way, wisely fostered it by the institution of an annual regatta with prizes to winners from the public purse. Latterly, at the suggestion of your Department, it has begun the building of a promenade pier, providing a fair outlook on the harbor, and of a large basin especially as a mooring-place for pleasure-boats. With a possible ext ception in Venice, it is believed that the people of no other city in the world make as much or as good use of their harbor, otherwise than commercially, as those of Boston have long been accustomed to do, and that none take as much or as justifiable pride in the character of their small craft, and their dexterity in handling them.... In what, than the play of its large and lively fleet of fishing and pleasure craft, does the special attractiveness of the harbor consist? The special attractiveness of the harbor lies partly in the contrast of the intricate passages and vistas amo:ro these, with the unbroken expanse of the ocean upon which it opens, and partly in the varied forms of the bluffs, crags, bars, beaches, and fens that form its shores. What are the drawbacks to these attractive circumstances? Chief among them must be recognized the generally hard-featured, bare, bleak, and inhospitable aspect of the headlands and islands. Let anyone, passing through the harbor, imagine them clothed with foliage of any kind, and it will be felt how much more agreeable its character would be if they were generally wooded. Stumps, that still remain upon the mostly exposed, the rockiest, and bleakest of the islands show that they formerly were wooded. Once cleared, a second growth has been prevented by cropping and pasturing. The land being then much more open than before to frost and drying heat, rains, gales, and salt spray, it has ever since been losing soil and the soil remaining has been losing fertility. Hence the scenery of the harbor has then, it is to be asked, other 27 been and is every year being despoiled more and more of its original beauty; its artificial features are becoming more andmore disagreeably conspicuous relative to its natural features, and in these respects it is becoming less and less attractive. The question whether the waste thus in progress can be arrested, and whether what has been lost can be recovered, is, happily, one to be answered by reference to the result of means used elsewhere for a similar purpose. Having such trees to an end in view, the be planted will be of the same kinds with those formerly growing on the ground. That they may help another to overcome the difficulthey will, when planted, be small, pliant and adaptable, offering little for the wind to tussle with; they will be lowbranched, and will be set snugly together. A large proportion of all, intimately mingled with the others, will be of species the growth of which, like that of the little white birch of our rural roadsides, is rapid while young but not of long continuance. These, after a few years, will be overtopped and smothered by trees of slower and larger growth, greater constitutional vigor, and more lasting qualities. The former will have served as nurses to the latter while they are becoming established, and if timely thinning should be neglected, as it is so apt to be, they will gradually disappear by natural process before the permanent stock will be one by the Memorial Association. Reasons for confidence that, under a course of management judiciously adapted to the special difficulties of the situation, an undertaking of the kind that has been outlined would be successful, are found in experiences of which those of Mr. Joseph Story Fay, at Wood's Holl, supply an ex- ties of the situation ample. The outer part of the sea-beaten promontory of Wood's Holl, had probably been devastated in the same manner as the islands of Boston Harbor. Thirty years ago it was even more bare of trees, bleak and cheerless than they are. As the result of operations which have been carried on within that period by Mr. Fay, about two hundred acres of it is now covered with dense woods of wellgrown trees. The difficulties to be overcome lie chiefly in the bleakness and dryness of much of the land most desirable to be planted; somewhat, also, at certain points, to its exposure to salt spray. They are such that trees of the sorts more commonly seen in the lawns, parks, cemeteries, and roadsides of the landward suburbs of the city could not be wisely planted. The suggestion offered by the Memorial Association is that the original forest may be restored. Should this be attempted no results are to be expected that can be brought in comparison with those which are, unfortunately, associated in most minds with the term Mr. Fay, visiting Boston with the Comto see no reason islands last summer missioners, could fatally injured by crowding. Years nent must pass before the perma- landscape-gardening. The beauty to be gained through such an operation is not the beauty of growth can acquire a full-grown forest character, but almost at once the sapling plantations will give a pleasing softness and geniality to those elements of the scenery that contributive to its picturesque ruggedness. Three years after the planting is finished the harbor, as a whole, will have acquired a decidare not more good-natured, cheerful, inviting character. An impression is common that at most points of the harbor trees cannot be got to grow satisfactorily, and clusters, clumps, groups, or any artfully studied combmation of trees; much less is it that of trees admirable for their beauty singly. It is the beauty of large compositions as these may be affected, to one looking in any direction across the harbor, by broad masses of foliage palpitating over the rigid structure of the islands and headlands; lifting their skylines; giving them some additional, but not excessive, variety of tint, greater play of light and shade, and completely overcoming the present hardness of outline of their loamy parts, without destroying the ruggedness of their rocky parts. edly and instances are referred to in which doubt that by similar operations upon them equally satisfactory results would be secured. There is a large tract of barren land in a most exposed situation on the west coast of Lake Michigan which, a few years ago, was covered with drifting sand. Because it was supposed to be worthless, and that any attempt to improve it would be regarded as a \"Folly,\" Mr. Robert Douglass chose to take it as a place to demonstrate the practicability of establishing forests under such special difficulties as the situation presented. He has been entirely successful, the sand is fixed and sheltered, leaf mould is beginning to accumulate upon it, and the ground is becoming comparatively moist and they have failed or, at the best, have grown very slowly and with distorted forms. So far as productive.... -Excerpted from: Thirteenth Annual Report of the Board of Commissioners for the Year 1887. Boston: Department of Parks, City of Boston, 1888, pages 52 to 62. practicable to ascertain, the trees, it has been in these cases, have been ill-chosen and ill-planted, and the result has no bearing upon the proposition favored "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Islands of Tension","article_sequence":8,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24940","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170bb6d.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"Islands of Tension Edgar Anderson Recalling a visit he made to the Boston Harbor Islands one raw April day during the 1930s, a master observer realized some three decades later that, far from being the \"Green Isles of Romance\" people said they were, they were in fact \"islands of tension\" whose harshness challenged plants and people alike \"Islands of Tension,\" an essay written by Professor Edgar Anderson, was published in Landscape magazine in 1966 (Volume I5, Number 3, pages 7 and 8) and again in Landscape Papers (Berkeley, California : Turtle Island Foundation, 1976), a collection of articles by Anderson. A native of New York State, Edgar Anderson (1897-1969) grew up in Michigan, graduating from Michigan State College in 1918. He then came to Harvard University to work toward his master and doctor of science degrees, which he received in 1920 and 1922, respectively. From 1931 to 1935, he served as arborist on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum; thereafter, he was affiliated with the Missouri Botanical Garden and Washington University in Saint Louis, soon becoming the Engelmann Professor of Botany in the latter institution. While in Boston during the 1930s he helped found the Herb Society of America with-to use his phrase-\"a small group of Boston Back Bay dowagers,\" whom he called his \"herb ladies.\" In 1935 he became the t. Society's president. Known for his his sharp eye and unconventional ways, Anderson was a prolific author and a most unort::odox but effective te(TL lel. Much uf ~ii~ ~e~earch ueuit with the genetics and taxonomy of maize. Details of his long and productive career are given in the Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Volume 59, Number 3 (1972). \"Islands of Tension\" is reprinted with the kind permission of Landscape. If you are on the staff of a botanical garden or arboretum you never know when you answer the telephone what the call may lead to. With no warning a phone call one April afternoon began, \"Dr. Anderson, this is the War Department calling. Can you report at the government wharf in South Boston at eight o'clock tomorrow morning for the committee's official visit to the islands in Boston Harbor?\" Most of these islands were under the control of the War Department, the Coast Guard or the City of Boston and joint tours of inspection were made from time to time. Since erosion was becoming a serious problem, a committee had been set up to study it and to inspect tree plantings made some years before. As a staff member of the Arnold Arboretum I was one of the experts added to the group. Since I first saw these islands, fifteen years before, they had fascinated me. I'd ridden repeatedly on all the ferries or excursion boats which then plied across the harbor and climbed all those the best time for planning a visit to Boston Harbor. The snow may be gone but the air is raw. Lawns are just beginning to green up; promontories along which were its margin accessible to the public. When I became a member of the Harvard faculty I looked into the possibility of visiting such spots as Governor's Island, but gave up the idea when I learned that one needed the blessing of the War Department. The first week in April is not much is in flower but pussy willows. The next morning brought us all that Boston can hope for at that time of year. Though cool, with a steady breeze, it was cloudless all day, pleasantly warm wherever you could get in the sun and out of the wind. It was a mixed group of about thirty men who met at the wharf. A few of them were well informed about the islands. One of these, Patrick J. Connelly, president of the Dorchester Board of Trade, was an authority on the islands and their complex histo- nothing 29 ries. He had recently published an attractive pamphlet, Islands of Boston Harbor, 1639-1932, Green Isles of Romance. After winding in and out among the islands we landed on the largest, Long Island, to inin spect tree plantings about 1910. They had beginning to look promising at exposed oceanside locations in southern New England. Since then it has done spectacularJy well at Jones Beach, and its peculiar merits are widely known along the East Coast. Long Island had been a made kind of dumping been well cared for and the choice of trees had evidently been made without technical advice. They were comnot mon earnest and vigorous members by narrow paths along the low cliffsabove the beaches. This route gave us an almost continuous view of the foreshore. I was immediately struck by the great number of orange crates and unsightly rubbish in the zone of driftwood. Immediately above the more orange crates were occa- European species, easy to grow in nurseries but not the most promising things for bare little islands swept by cold winter winds and salt spray. Some trees had died. Those that remained were white sional low rosettes of an unusual rose, one of the [Arnold] Arboretum's Oriental introductions with which I was familiar, Rosa rugosa var. kamstchatica. It differs from the ordinary rugosas of our gardens by being generally smaller with a more spreading habit of growth. It had certainly not been planted there intentionally but was already of some importance English oaks, European birches, Scots pines, and Austrian pines, of which only the latter health. in the were in fair in lessening ero- sion Although farther out Atlantic, other trials on Gallop's Island looked more promising. As the most prominent island in the outer harbor it has been a quaran- gin Its the upper marof the fore shores.* on buoyant orange-red revolutionary doctor at tine station since pretimes. A fruits had put down roots where they had been cast up by the high waves of winter storms. A month later I saw more of them along the magnificent beaches the growing Rosa rugosa var. kamtschatica, which Edgar Anderson recognized on the Boston Harbor Islands. From Flora Sylvatica Koreana by Takenoshin Nakai. outer as arm on the Quarantine Hospital had been of Cape Cod, well as a single trying .--- out 1 likely be trees specimen of the ordinary bushy Rosa rugosa. and shrubs since about \"I 1 1yz\/ and some ot tnese doing well: Manash, Carolina poplar, privet, sorbaria, and Amur cork seemed churian tree. to I was disappointed that apparently nowhere in the harbor had the Japanese seaside pine, Pinus thunbergii, been given a trial. By the time of this harbor tour it was for the poor of Boston since 1885, and the plantings we inspected were near a cluster of hospitals, administrative buildings, and a fine new recreation center on a high bluff at its northern end. The schedule called for a tour of the whole island. Two of the officers led a half dozen of the ground From the technical literature I learn that the 'Anderson seems to suggest that the Arnold Arboretum introduced Rosa rugosa vu. kamtschauca into cultivation, but the Arboretum's records do not confirm this apparent claun. The first plants of that variety came into the Arboretum's collections in 1900, from Pans. By 1905, the species-Rosa rugosa-had escaped from culuvation in New England; by the time of Anderson's visit to the Boston Harbor islands (about 1932), it ranged from Nova Scotia to Cape Cod. 30 Kamtchatca rose was originally native to the same upper beach zone in the northern Orient. Now and then from an intensive flora of some New England island or estuary, I have learned that it is apparently still spreading along the northern coast of New England. These scattered bits of information have more significance now that the whole problem of evolution on beaches foreshores that had taken me to these islands, as our trip continued I became more and more impressed by the sociologically specialized environments of the human communities which shared these islands. The local and national needs the islands served fell in a few widely diverse categories. They regulated and effectively with city parkways. On Long Island we came upon beach with a protecting cliff above it, where some of the inmates had built themselves little \"clubhouses\" out of driftwood and other scraps. They varied from crude hovels to weathertight structures with chimneys and windows. What other reactions to the harbor's a peculiar ments environ- being rigorously comprehensively studied by my is would one find if he made a real study of the whole problem? There is a little to be gleaned from Mr. Connelly's eloquent compilation. Those living on these islands were under increasing and varied stringencies in the three hundred years covered by the booklet. The lighthouses, the quarantine stations, the military installations, the public parks, the in- and former student J. D. Sauer, jointly Professor of Botany and Professor of Geography at the University of Wisconsin. In his world-wide analysis of tropical beach vegetation he is demonstrating that life on beaches is so rigorous that precious few species of the world's flora can persist there. The few that can take it have little stitutions for unfor- competition so, in sea general, cies are on beaches many individuals of a few spe- spread over tunates, the garbage disposal plants, had not only taken increasing space, they operated through Furtherdifferent offices. It A one hundred-foot-tall specimen of Pmus thunbergm photographed m is bad enough to more, now that Sauer Japan by E. H. Wilson. Edgar Anderson \"was disappomted\" that this has pursued these have your fate in specres had not been planted on the Boston Harbor islands, where, he studies in both the the hands of a govthonght, itwould do well. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Old World and the ernment bureau; it is worse to have it decided by buNew, he is demonstrating for an protected maritime traffic. They served to isolate contagious disreaus which may be at odds with increasing number of beach eases and social misfits. Their each other and whose certainty plants that when they find their of public support varies with the way from one hemisphere to the potential for recreation had been other they fit into the same kinds realized only at Castle Island and times. of situations in their new home even there only when its ancient One of the changes I wonder as they left in the old. forts became obsolete (as well as about is the effect of mass-produced pleasure boats of all kinds. Though it was the general increasingly picturesque) and filled land connected the island On other shores I have witnessed problem of eroding sea cliffs and areas. wide 31 their increasing effects not only upon human existence along water-fronts but the chemical and biological changes they bring to the beaches and the very water itself, as well as to the plant and animal communities within and near it. Since World War II speed boats must have brought complex problems to Boston Harbor and its islands. The overall effect of such various and shifting pressures on human existence is even more violent than the stringencies reported for the plant communities of sea beaches by J. D. Sauer. The urgent and conflicting demands of national defense, protection and control of maritime been abandoned a squatter made his home in the ruins and his body was found there after his death. During King Philip's War (1675-1676) whole villages of captured Indians were confined on Deer Island and hundreds died there from starvation and exposure. The boys' reform school on Rainsford Island was abandoned after the boys cornered the Keeper down on the beach and stoned him to death. During the Civil War a whole group of Southern generals were confined in the military prison on these islands they may be restricted to even fewer. At the time of our visit, Governor's Is- George's Island. Formanyyears a hermit lived in a hut on the southern shore of Slate Island. Before modern hospitals were available, Bostonians ill with contagious diseases were buried in the little cemetery near the traffic, waste disposal, recrea- tional needs of a crowded city, isolation of contagious diseases and of social misfits are reflected in the human population of the islands. A few details are reported in Connelly's booklet: after the old fort on Governor's Island had Quarantine Hospital. Even the plant communities reflect the violence of these various tensions. Just as ordinary sea- beaches are limited to many individuals of a few species, so on land was covered by the most rampant thickets of poison ivy I have ever seen. The watchman's dog had died from repeated exposure to it. It seemed to be growing g in practically pure stands. On two islands where summer homes or hospitals had been abandoned there were thickets of Staghorn Sumac. These were not accompanied by other woody plants as in ordinary beachside communities, but were solid masses of sumac. Before our tour the islands of Boston Harbor had appealed to me, to use the phrase of Mr. Connelly's title, as \"Isles of Romance.\" Since that day I have increasingly come to think of them as islands of tension, tensions so violent and so various that their interactions might profitably be studied in some detail. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Boston Public Garden, Showcase of the City","article_sequence":9,"start_page":32,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24945","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170896d.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Wakefield, Mary M. B.","article_content":"The Boston Public Mary M. B. Wakefield Garden, Showcase of the City Since 1970 the Friends of the Public Garden has worked closely with Boston's Department of Parks and Recreation to rehabilitate a uniquely beautiful parcel of urban open space Every garden needs friends-in the case of a garden that is always open to the public, lots of friends-a cadre of knowledgeable, concerned people who understand its particular situation and character. For, once established, goon. A bevy of happy ducks follows, begging garden begins to develop its own unique identity-its \"Genius of Place,\" if you willand becomes the kind of garden visitors remember. Its qualities are subtle and fragile and well worth preserving. For a garden that a tors, the increasing numbers of visichallenge is to preserve its unique for the sake of future generations. qualities The Boston Public Garden has long since developed its true spirit, possessing Genius of Place to a remarkable degree. It has endured must serve ever for a bite of food as if nothing untoward had ever befallen this urban paradise. How can this be? How has the Garden been able to reach this point intact? Generations of dedicated friends-professionals, politicians, volunteers, visitors, and viewers, all of them appreciative, all of them on call to help it survive almost daily vicissitudes-generations of dedicated friends have guided it to this point. In a few words, I will recount for you the history of the Boston Public Garden. The Garden's Origins and Antecedents Unlike Boston Common, which the early settlers had established on existing dry land for the use of all the town's people, the Public Garden was created on made land that originally was part of Round Marsh. All but one section of the site (Fox Hill) was inundated at each tide. For untold centuries Round Marsh and the nearby flats had been favorite places of the Indians. Bostonians, too, enjoyed this proximity to the sea, and for many years huge clams and oysters were sold to the public in little covered booths on the Common. Fox Hill was fortified in times of danger, and from the shore nearby on April 19, 1775, the British troops rowed across the site of the Garden to Cambridge on their way to Lexington and vicissitudes yet is still the Public Garden. That it has survived at all is a tribute to its early planners, its official caretakers, and those generations of citizens who have been its champions since 1838. The Garden has had hair's-breadth escapes from complete obliteration by buildings and streets. Greenhouses, statues, and trees have come and gone. It has conformed to successive fashions in planting and has survived the onslaughts of vandals, blizzards, droughts, floods, and hurricanes; the sweep of winds down drafty, building-lined streets; and the disintegration of its perimeter fence. It has even survived invasion by an incline entrance to the first subway in the United States. Yet here is the Boston Public Garden in the morning sunshine, peaceful and welcoming to all, its swanboats floating languidly about the La- extraordinary Concord. to In 1794, a large part of the area was granted private citizens for six ropewalks, because 33 it would be a safer location for such a fireprone but essential industry than one near buildings. In 1821, the Boston and a great dam was built by Roxbury Milldam Corpora- tion. Extending from the corner of the present Charles and Beacon streets to the present Brookline, with a branch to what is now called Kenmore Square, its main purpose was to provide waterpower for the mills and factories separating Round Marsh from the Charles River. The result was that Round Marsh became a vast mudflat of decaying matter and refuse of all kinds. Even in this condition the value of the land for development was apparent. the city, the Proprietors appointed Trustees to act for them, though the Proprietors actually ran the Garden. Once a year the Proprietors met to hear the report of the Trustees. Although the filling in of the land was only partially complete, the Proprietors managed to lay out their garden along what is now Beacon Street (the level of the land was six feet below it). A fine, broad walk, bordered with ornamental trees, standard roses, shrubs, and herbaceous plants, led to the Charles Street entrance. Wherever the terrain allowed, there were beds of dahlias in excel- In 1824, the city purchased the ropewalks. Business and political leaders wanted the land to be filled and sold for houselots, but citizens' groups were opposed. To settle the matter, a citizens' meeting was held in July 1824; it appointed a committee to prepare a report. The report stated that for the sake of citizens' health it was public duty to keep the space open and clear of buildings, to allow for the free circulation of air from the west. It took the city years to complete the filling of the entire area. Fox Hill itself was used for fill. Even land from as far away as Needham was used. (Along Beacon Street, a modern contractor encountered an unexpected problem : the old fence had been built on, not one sea wall, but on three resting one upon another. At the Commonwealth Avenue entrance to the Garden solid ground lay about eighteen feet beneath the present path.) The City Council made other attempts to sell the Public Garden, in 1842, 1843, 1849, and 1850, but all of them were defeated. The On Proprietors Establish a Garden February 1, 1838, seventeen Bostonians headed by Horace Gray (son of William Gray, one of the former owners of the ropewalks) obtained a lease from the city and became the Proprietors of the Botanic Garden in Boston. Each Proprietor paid one hundred dollars a year. Soon after they were granted the land by of Boston showing the original extent of the Shawmut Peninsula (in black) superimposed upon the e city's current area. The increase is due to the filling in of tidal flats and similar peripheral areas. As the map shows, the Boston Public Garden was established on filled-in tidal flats, as was the city's entire Back Bay neighborhood. The Commonwealth Avenue Mall, which will be the subject of Judith Leet's article in the next issue of Arnoldia, appears at the middle of the map's left-hand margin. Drawn by Russell H. Lenz, this map is used through the courtesy of The Christian Science Publishing Society and Mr. Lenz. A map 34 lent varieties. They even imported a complete bed of prize tulips for fifteen hundred dollars. The Garden was popular with the public. Across the street from the Garden was an old circus building, which the Proprietors made into a conservatory filled with tropical plants and rare singing birds. All of the plants were botanically arranged and catalogued. Admission for nonsubscribers cost twelve and a half cents per person; ten admissions cost a dollar. A magnificent collection of over one thousand camellias was a great attraction. raised and sold flowers. He organized Fourth of July parades of children with bouquets of flowers, which became a popular Boston tradition. His writings kept the citizens accustomed to associating the area with flowers. Others worked, too. A small pond was created and a simple landscape treatment was maintained. The Proprietors imported an excellent English gardener to take charge, held periodic flower shows, and awarded generous prizes to the winners. The prize for the best display of roses on June 20, 1839, was twelve dollars, for example, that for the second best, seven dollars. One year, Joseph Breck supplied seeds and plants to the Garden for one hundred dollars. The noted landscape architect An~rPZ.y Jackson Downing even prepared a plan (which, unfortunately, is lost) of an enlarged garden and bordering arboretum. All this was accomplished despite great difficulties. The soil was poor, and there were occasional inroads of the tide, which did great damage to the plants. Hopes were high nonetheless, and for years the Proprietors' efforts were unflagging-despite a fire that burned the Conservatory to the ground and the lack of a greenhouse. The Years of Uncertainty and Transition The Proprietors continued to operate the Botanical Garden until 1847, when Horace Gray went into bankruptcy; Gray's friends felt they could no longer continue to carry on the Garden, but their achievements provided a wonderful beginning and inspiration for their successors. For the next twelve years the future of the Garden was uncertain. One of the former Trustees, the Reverend Charles Barnard, built a greenhouse in the Garden, where he Finally, the State settled the matter. On April 6, 1859, the Governor signed the Public Garden Act establishing, among other things, the boundary line between Boston and Roxbury, authorizing the filling up of the Back Bay, and prohibiting the erection of buildings (other than a city hall or buildings used for horticultural purposes) between Arlington and Charles streets. Until this time, private funds had sustained the Garden, while the City continued to fill in the land. Now, the press and the people wanted to have more of a Garden. The Committee on the Common and Public Squares was appointed by the Boston City Council to report on a plan for improving it. For this they held a blind contest, which was won by a young architect, George T. Mea- cham. The Meacham Plan Meacham's plan included space for a city hall, a greenhouse, children's playground, and geometrical flower beds, as well as statues, fountains, trees, shrubs, and grass. With its winding paths and irregular-shaped pond, it was said to resemble Birkenhead Park in England. It combined both formal and picturesque elements, but it was overcrowded with features. Under the superintendence of the City Engineer, James Slade, Meacham's plan was modified, eliminating most of the formal flowerbeds Meacham had proposed. City Forester John Galvin laid out flowerbeds and paths and brought in quantities of loam to grade, so that the Garden would not look too obviously manmade but a natural continuation of the slope of Beacon Hill. The greenhouse was built on Charles Street, but the 35 \"Arlington,\" the winning design for the Pubhc Garden, submitted by George T. Meacham Woodcock aJ Meacham. of the architectural firm of pond and pathway system were retained with comparatively few changes until recent years, and changes were made only to conform. One of the greatest perils facing a public garden or park is that interest in supporting it waxes and wanes according to the interest of political and municipal officials. In 1859, the special committee appointed by the Boston ters would not only be discreditable city, but positively injurious to our to our com- mercial prospenty, and in direct opposition to the majonty of our citizens.... The area of our city is too small to allow the laying out of large tracts of land for Public Parks, and it behooves us to improve the small portions that are left to us for such purposes. the Meacham Plan a description of the work in progress on Central Park, referred to Birkenhead and other European parks, and added: in its report on City Council included While other cities are expending fabulous amounts in the improvements of parks, squares, gardens, and promenades, what should we do? To be behind in these mat- Thoroughly interested, the city implemented the plan, filled in places that needed to be completed, excavated the pond, surrounded the Garden with a cast-iron fence, laid out acres of turf, and planted trees and shrubs. Gradually, the Garden took on a more established appearance. From the first, newly established trees were identified and labelled by Dr. Augustus 36 Addison Gould, a famous botanical authority who had done the same on Boston Common. Every effort has been made to carry on the custom of labelling on a regular basis, insofar as it has been possible to do so. The greenhouse called for in Meacham's plan was built along Charles Street instead of where he had indicated. For many years it supplied the Garden with plants, but when needs outgrew its capacity they were met by new greenhouses, first in Dorchester, then in Franklin Park. Not only were there regular greenhouses, but a high \"Dome House\" with curved roof designed expressly to house the palms and other tall tropical plants that graced the Garden each summer. During the first years, John Galvin (the City Forester) and his crew faced enormous difficulties on account of the kind and amount of fill that had been used. Portions would not drain properly while others would sink suddenly, and the gardeners would fill in the resulting hollows as well as they could. In those days, the staff of the Garden numbered over fifty men, all of whom were kept busy caring for the plantings in the new fashion, sometimes using exotic materials in pots and planters and scattered small beds. The hotter the colors the better. The public liked them, as did William Doogue, who succeeded Galvin in 1872 and maintained the plantings in the \"Gardenesque Style\" of J. C. Loudon of England. Others, such as Charles Sprague Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum-whom Doogue termed \"that Blockhead from Harvard\"-did not like them. However, Doogue ran the Garden with an efficient hand, and his plantings remained enormously popular. An early view of boaters on the Lagoon in the Boston Pubhc Garden. Courtesy of the Boston Globe. 37 days, vandalism was far less of a than it is today, and there was more problem labor to restore what damage was done, making it practical to have many attractive features that would be impossible today. The little peninsula with its tiny gazebo, which offered an intriguing view of the Garden from the middle of the Lagoon, had to be removed. It was too popular with the young, and its place was taken by a spectacular rock garden that rose high above the water, its stones almost completely hidden by drifts of flowering plants whose reflections multiplied in the waters of the Lagoon, a quaint and colorful landmark. Early pictures of the bridge over the Lagoon show containers of plants, and vines running along the railings, connecting the flowerbeds on either end of the bridge with ribbons of green. In those granted Robert boat builder from England, the first Paget, boat-for-hire concession on the Lagoon in the new Public Garden. The concession employed rowboats with professional oarsmen. By 1877, Paget had launched the first of his new \"Swanboats,\" which could carry four or eight passengers at a time. Designed after the Schwanboot in Wagner's \"Lohengrin\" and propelled on the bicycle principle, they were an instant success. Now even longer and a Enter The Swanboats In 1870 the City Fathers operated by Paget's grandson, they continue to this day, a symbol of Boston and the Public Garden. There was plenty of work for the Garden staff each spring, removing the boardwalks from all of the red-gravel paths, and each fall re-laying them. The swans of that day were ._ ~ _ _ - , ~ - ---~ A swanboat, 1952. Courtesy of the Boston Globe. 38 sent back to Franklin Park to winter and reap- peared each spring, again to follow the swanboats on their way. At that time, there were four hundred beds of tulips (containing over four hundred thousand bulbs) underplanted with English daisies and pansies and forget-me-nots. The roses followed in June, with twenty thousand to thirty thousand plants. Rhododendrons occupied small beds with Lilium longiflorum, followed by hydrangeas, tropical and subtropical plants, and holly beds with Lilium willows, fourteen crabs and catalpas, eleven horsechestnuts, and seven varnish trees, and specimens of Kentucky coffee tree, locust, beech, larch, tree-of-heaven, cherry, plum, peach, laburnum, oak, and ash. The ground was found to be too marshy for evergreens other than rhododendrons, so the other shrubs used were deciduous lilacs, quinces, mock oranges, viburnums, and so on. The Years of Decline The Public Garden Act of 1860 had stipulated that no buildings were to be erected in the Garden except for horticultural purposes, but no one dreamed that by 1897 the Garden would be host to an entrance of America's first subway. This incursion cost the Garden its privacy, for part of its fence was removed, and many of its oldest trees were destroyed. When the subway was moved out to Boylston Street in 1914, a strip of the Garden forty feet lancifolium in red, rose, or white, blooming until frost, and the garden, greenhouse, and storage areas were prepared for the next season's performance. Nor was the collection of trees neglected. Six hundred trees of thirty kinds were carefully tended. Among them were two hundred elms (American, English, and Dutch), nearly one hundred maples, fifty magnolias and Looking southwest across the Public Garden from Boston Common in 1869. The partially filled-m Back Bay, including Commonwealth Avenue, appears in the near background. Near the middle left of the photograph is the Arlington Street Church. Courtesy of the Boston Globe. 39 Lookingsouthwest across thePublicGarden from Boston Commonin 1975. The just completed John Hancock tower forms a dramatic backdrop for skaters on the Lagoon and dwarfs the historic Arlington Street Church, which can be seen just to the left of center. A light covering of snow contrasts with the dark pattern of the Garden's pathways. Commonwealth Avenue occupies the middle of the right edge of the photograph. Compare this view with that of 1869. Courtesy of the Boston Globe. 40': An 1870s view of the Public Garden. Courtesy of the Boston Globe. wide went with it, reducing the Garden from original twenty-four acres to twenty-two. When did the Garden begin to decline? The Great Depression of the 1930s changed many its city activities. World War Two and its successors changed the public's attitude toward parks and gardens. Keep-off-the-grass signs were little heeded; indeed, of what avail were they when art shows were held in tents in the Garden, and the public was supposed to walk on grass lawns to view the pictures? The gardeners were expected to produce new grass in the worn places with seed and no water, unless it was carried from distant locations. Evidence of the neglected maintenance of years began to be evident in iron fences so rusty they could be pulled apart with ease so that the young could walk through the new openings and across the flowerbeds. Games of Frisbee were played, with disastrous effect on the tulips. Trees died, but no one seemed able to do anything to stop it. The maintenance staff, which at the turn of the century had been fifty strong, had shrunk to twenty-five in 1940. By 1970, it was down to four. The wear and tear caused by hippies and others continued twenty-four hours a day. The bridge became known as a site for marijuana and other drugs. The Garden's irrigation system was out of order, seeding was not always funded, and the Tree Division was growing older and smaller. A helpful citizen-sponsored program allowed the planting of crabs, cherries, and maple trees, and many people responded, but the program's success resulted in trees being 41 The Public Garden, circa 1915. Courtesy of the Bostonian Society. scattered throughout the Garden with little concern for their ultimate sizes and positions. Even the magnificent pagoda tree, which spreads ninety feet, was obscured by young maples (there were twenty-eight Norway maples in all), and three young katsuras had invaded the Washington parterre. In short, the Boston Public Garden was rapidly becoming an overcrowded mixture of good intenplan for the Public Garden dated eight hundred twelve trees. By 1942, four hundred five of them had died, and thirty-five others were in poor condition. The reduced staff had such poor equipment it is remarkable that they were able to do as much as they did. For economy, paths were paved, the number of flowerbeds reduced. Palm trees tions ! A survey 1911 listed longer emerged for summers in the Garden (damage was feared). In addition, the bridge was unsafe, fountains broken and their figures stolen or falling into disrepair. It was these conditions, among others, that led to no the formation late in 1970 of the Friends of the Public Garden. The Friends of the Public Garden The purpose of the new nonprofit organization was, and still is, to preserve and enhance the Public Garden (subsequently, Boston Common was included) and to assure its continuance as a place of quiet recreation, free from exploitation and encroachment. The Friends have joined with the Parks and Recreation Department in horticultural planning and capital improvements, have 42 a fund for the special planting of and shrubs, and have served as an important link between the public and responsible city agencies. At first the Friends focused their efforts on assessing the situation and on determining what suggestions they could make toward its restoration and whether, and in what ways, the Friends could assist the Parks Department in accomplishing those goals. Among the Friends were people with many talents: architects, landscape architects, provided trees horticulturists, lawyers, financiers, writersall ready to help the Park Commissioner in any way they could. Laura Dwight, who had coordinated the planting of magnolias along Commonwealth Avenue, was the first head of the Friends organization. She agreed to serve in that capacity \"until the right man could be found\" to take on the job. It was not long before he was found: the able and dedicated Henry Lee. As chairman, Lee has guided the Friends' activities with skill and tact ever sinc;,. It would be difficult for anyone to imagine placed throughout the Garden, their plastic liners easily removed when full and transported in the Garden's own Cushman vehicle to the newly constructed storage yard by Charles Street, there to await removal by the big city trash trucks, which are too wide for the paths in the Garden. Representatives of the Friends joined those of other civic groups to attend hearings and oppose the plan for the nearby Park Plaza development, on the grounds that it would dangerously impair life in the Garden with sixty-mile-an-hour winds and shadows across the Garden at all seasons. Fortunately, the State rejected the environmental impact study for the project and required a more reasonable development. It is of vital importance to have a civic group such as the Friends always on the watch and prepared to defend the Garden from similar dangers. The Boston Park Rangers are now a permanent addition to the city staff. They help to guide and monitor visitors to the Garden and provide those who are imieresced with infoi- mation about the plants. discouraging prospect the Garden presented at that time and how each problem was tackled by the Friends and the Parks Department. Many solutions were found. The bridge over the Lagoon was made safe and restored, the fountains repaired and their basins renovated. New molds were made to duplicate the design of the perimeter fence, and it was recast, enclosing the Garden for the what a first time since 1897. The installation of the underground irrigation system and new lighting required protection of the roots of individual trees. For months, the Garden was torn up in all directions, and many were the complaints that the rolled-out sod had no time to be watered before visitors to the Garden were sitting and lying upon it, so glad were they to return! Daffodils buried for months under bricks and mortar reappeared the following spring better than ever. Fifty-five new benches were installed and new frames and trash barrels were The Committee on Horticultural Planning The Committee on Horticultural Planning for the Public Garden was formed in the late summer of 1971, other committees being formed as the need arose. The Horticultural Committee's duties were (and still are) to serve as an advisory body for the Commissioner of Parks and Recreation, reviewing proposed changes and projects within the Garden and making proposals of its own. Its membership includes representatives of the Parks and Recreation Department and members appointed by the Friends of the Public Garden. In its first report the Committee stated that \"the successful restoration and maintenance of the Public Garden requires as a first step certain basic improvements, including a perimeter fence, proper equipment, storfacilities, an adequate number of trained gardeners, an underground sprinkling sysnew age 43 tem, means of controlling circulation, preventing vandalism and providing safety during all the hours the Garden is open to the public\"-ambitions that have yet to be fully realized! In 1971, Professor Clifford S. Chater of the Waltham Field Station surveyed all of the Garden's trees and shrubs. As a result of his recommendations a comprehensive program of spraying, pruning, and guying was carried out. Trees with Dutch elm disease and those deemed highly hazardous were removed. The Committee surveyed the remaining trees and recommended the removal of others injured by years of neglect and traffic. A further survey was carried out by Professor Chater and Dr. Francis Holmes using infrared aerial photography. When interpreted by an expert, such films can tell more about the health of trees than on-the-ground inspection. The aerial survey showed that growing conditions in the Garden varied greatly, probably because of the fill that had been used there. Chater's report on the aerial survey stated, in part, that It is ... known that much of the fill contained muck and other kinds of organic matter which continually release carbon dioxide to the soil atmosphere in addition to the normal amount released by plant roots. Examination of the top soil reveals that it is extremely compacted, which in tum prevents the high concentration of carbon dioxide gas from escaping and also prevents the entrance of oxygen to the soil which the roots require. original The equestrian statue of George Washington in the Public Garden. It faces Commonwealth Avenue through the Garden's Arlington Street gate. Photograph copyright 1988 by Doug Mindell. tried on individual trees, many of which died. The most beautiful of the surviving elms are still receiving regular annual injections of fungicide. An unforeseen danger arose when the Boston City Council proposed giving up the Not all of the Committee's recommendations or of the expert advice could be imple- mented promptly; they were simply guidelines for what ought to be done when and if city funds or private financing was available to city greenhouses at Franklin Park. The summer flowers are a spectacular and major feature of the Public Garden: for over a century provide it. In the 1970s, some crises loomed large and immediate. There was the Dutch elm disease and the need to treat its victims. Several conflicting methods were recommended and people have visited the Garden expressly to see them, and the present display is so remarkable that people come from great distances. The skill and knowledge necessary to create such a display are found in few if any other public places. It requires having cli- 44 mate-controlled storage facilities and greenhouses available as needed, with experienced personnel to operate them, to produce not only herbaceous material but tropical and subtropical plants and summer and carpet bedding plants. They also plant the pansies and tulips in the Garden that exemplify One of the major programs of the HorticulPlanning Committee is the continuation of the Memorial Tree Planting Program initiated by its committee member Edward Weeks. The Committee chooses the variety of tree to be planted and selects the site for it. tural spring to Bostonians. At that time, members of the Horticultural Committee attended the hearing of the Budget Committee of the Boston City Coun- People tend to think that a horticultural committee's only job is to provide horticultural embellishment. That is the fun, of course, but first the committee must look to the design of the area. With this fact in mind, the Horticultural Planning Committee recommended that several paths be changed in the Public Garden and others eliminated to facilitate traffic circulation and ease of maintenance. Where turf was subject to constant traffic, as at the edges of the Lagoon near the swanboat landing and at the end where skaters change their skates, paving was more cil and explained it, and the greenhouses have continued to operate. Today, they are even more appreciated than they were before. Classes in horticulture have been given in them. New greenhouses, easier and more economical to run, are being built, and it is to be hoped that the picturesque Dome House will be reglazed and repaired some day. Recent view along the main walk of the Public Garden showing the bedding plants standards (Lantana) and the post-and-chain fence. Photograph by the author. (Impatiens and Browallia) and 45 A swanboat phes the waters of the Lagoon m this idyllic view of the Pubhc Garden. Photograph by Paul G. Paget. 46 practical than turf. The flagpole had for many years been lost in a sea of grass and trees; to pave its surrounding base and develop a path to it with seats off the main route seemed practical and pleasant for visitors and remiGarden had once had. Later, memorial seats were added around the flagpole itself. Four beds of roses, topiary yews (the present-day version of the potted plants of long ago, when people longed for evergreens), and the changes in the Garden's paths and beds are all attempts to adapt the present design to new conditions and to the multitudes of visitors without altering the Garden's character. Until fifty years ago, a third of the trees in the Public Garden were elms, as had been the case for many years. Among them were magnificent specimens that had been there well over a century and gave the Garden a special character. In planting today, the Horticultural Planning Committee tries to choose the best of the ornamental varieties of trees ihai are available so thai ihi, iraditivuS of the past will be continued and the image of a beautiful garden will be perpetuated while at the same time the service and information of a city botanic garden will be available to an interested public. niscent of little being taken care of as they appear, but they pose unexpected problems and expense. cessfully combines the concepts garden, park, and quiet retreat The Garden is remarkable in that it sucof botanic consistent paths the The Challenge for the Future When the Proprietors of the Boston Public Garden began their work one hundred fifty years ago, their hopes and dreams for an arboretum or botanic garden were impossible to attain, for the soil in the Garden was poor, there were occasional inundations by the sea, and the many varieties of plant material ex- with current use. Because it was originally conceived as a botanical collection, it is today a living demonstration of some of the varieties of trees and shrubs that will thrive in the heart of a city if only they are given suitable sites, care, protection, and all the space they will need to develop their ultimate sizes and mature characteristics. Generations of interested citizens have encouraged the planting of a broad variety of the best ornamental trees and shrubs available in their times, and the tradition has been carried on ever since. The image of a beautiful garden will be perpetuated while, at the same time, the service and information of a city botanic garden will be available to an interested public. Until fifty years ago a third of the Garden's trees were elms. Among them were magnifiCCnt Spi.i,iliiCil$ that gave C tiic Gard2ii a speciai character, but Dutch elm disease, poor maintenance, and overuse have eliminated many of them. The palette of plants available to the present generation is far more extensive than it has ever been. Species of trees and shrubs have been imported from China, Japan, Korea, and other countries, and there are many new cultivars. Today, every effort is made to choose plants that are not only ornamental but well adapted to the existing growing conditions in the Garden. Harmony, not ostentation, is the predominant goal being sought. Once the framework of trees is in place, companion shrubs, groundcovers, and perma- isting today were not even imagined. Nonetheless, the Proprietors made an inspiring beginning, and ever since it has been the task of succeeding generations to carry on their work according to the advances of their own times. The Garden still suffers from the effects of filled land in its soil characteristics, stability, and levels. These conditions are bulbs are planted wherever they are needed to add seasonal interest and color without materially increasing the need for maintenance. Wherever appropriate, special characteristics are developed in individual areas, among them the pinetum near Charles and Boylston streets, a group of deciduous nent 47 needle-leaved trees near Arlington Street, and of twenty-six hybrid shadblows (Amelanchier spp.) paralleling the Belgian elms. The Public Garden is a showcase for the City of Boston, providing beauty for the casual visitor and broader knowledge for others. The biggest challenge is to assure that the Garden never again suffers the type of decline it did before the Friends of the Public Garden was formed. But there are other challenges. A public garden is not static but alive and constantly in service, twenty-four hours a day. It is remarkable that this one has done so well for so long, but because it is now nearing its capacity, its protection and maintenance will have to be carefully coordinated with the type of use it will receive in the future. As more and more people visit the Garden, a balance must be struck between their activities and enjoyment, on the one hand, and the ability of the plants, which give the Garden a row special appeal, to withstand their impact, the other. Expert maintenance can only help to mitigate the damage, but not even that can cure it, and all the carefully chosen trees its on and shrubs in the present collection should be given every chance of reaching their full potentials. The time has come to decide on permanent ways to protect the Garden so that it will continue to be a green and flowering oasis in the heart of a big city. Mary M. B. Wakefield, known to everyone as Polly, is a former trustee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. She has worked with the Friends of the Public Garden since its inception and for twelve years served on the Visiting Committee of the Arnold Arboretum. The recipient of numerous horticultural awards, she views the Boston Public Garden as a \"showcase\" where people can learn about the pleasures and benefits of plants. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":10,"start_page":48,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24941","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad1708126.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"A Magnolia denudata on the Sears estate, Commonwealth Avenue, Boston. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. TO BE CONTINUED The Fall issue of Arnoldia will contain additional articles on parks and open space in the Boston area. Members' News Insert NE WS Nuiiiber 5 Sui-ni-ner '.. 1 THE ~ ! 1 ARBORETUM Volunteers in Children's Program Help Young Botanists Sprout Over the last five years, volunteers in the Arnold Arboretum's School Programs have found the old saying. \"One touch of nature makes the whole world kin.\" is a pretty good observation. The volunteers say it seemed especially true for this year's group of kids-nearly 3,000 of them-for the most part city dwellers, who participated in the Arboretum's nature adventures and discov- world under the hemlocks. The program is made possible, in part, by contributions from the Junior League of Boston and the Junior League Garden Club. Project chairwoman for the Junior League Garden Club is Ruth Wilson of Wellesley, who has worked as a volunteer in the Arboretum's School Program for three years. According to Diane Syverson, the Children's Program Coordinator, the Junior League funded for many years the Embankment Gardens, where inner-city kids learned about vegetable gardening. Now the Arboretum is the lucky recipient of the League's largesse. Mrs. Wilson ered a new green space. Third through sixth graders come with their classes to explore the Arboretum in one of says, \"The program helps city kinds to explore aspects of nature-a whole new world right at their door.\" Recently, Mrs. Wilson reflected that her grandmother was responsible for introducing her to gardening and nature. As a young girl, she had been asked to keep a notebook on wildflowers, pressing them between its pages as she found them and learned their names. When Mrs. Wilson is not helping young botanists to bloom at the Arboretum she is tending her own four field-study experiences. Even garden in Wellesley, learning scrappiness, indifference, and sleepiness are overcome in these magic explorations, and the kids return from their tours of the Arboretum absolutely glowing with the excitement of their new discoveries. Each field study-\"Seeds and Leaves,\" \"Hemlock Hill,\" \"Around the World with Trees,\" and \"Flowers\"-begins with a classroom-type period in the lecture hall. Then volunteers distribute hand lenses (inexpensive versions of those used by real botanists) and set out in small groups to discover that \"nature passes art\" in the Arboretum. CHILDREN'S PROGRAM Continued on page 2 Volunteers help kids to see how well a flower advertises its presence, to swoop down on \"helicopters\" and \"hitchhikers\" (some names for travelling seeds), to explore for the (Benj amin) Franklin tree, or to be astonished by the cathedral-like \"One touch of nature makes the whole world kia.\"-Shakespeare 2 CHILDREN'S PROGRAM Conttnuedfrom. page 1 about desert plants in Arizona, or watching her own grandchildren sprout. Even though she is a flower enthusiast, she enjoys teaching the autumn field-study experience. \"It's then,\" she says, \"the children learn about the changes autumn brings to plants and animals-how living things are interconnected.\" Learning about nature and why it is important are compelling components of the Children's Program, not only for its students but also for its volunteers, according to BarJane bara Balasa of Newton and Paquet-Whall of Dorchester. They have been with the Children's Program since its beginning. In 1981, Mrs. Balasa began work on a horticultural degree at Massachusetts Bay Community College, just after she had been introduced to the Arboretum by Eleanor Trowbridge, one of the Arboretum's long-term supporters. Because Mrs. Balasa believed a children's program could be a very necessary and vital experience for kids, she decided, in addition to starting up her own landscaping business, to find extra time to give to this program and to children. She has been volunteering every week since then. Although volunteers seem reluctant to say they have a favorite field study, after some urging she did confess that \"Around the World with Trees\" is a favorite. \"And then there's 'Hemlock Hill,'\" she said. \"That's a favorite also.\" Last summer, she took the responsibility for reworking the script of \"Around the World,\" which the volunteers use as a guide in teaching the indoor segment of this field study. At that time, Diane Syverson also laid out new nature-adventure trails on Bussey Hill. This fieldstudy experience introduces kids to plant hunting through their own explorations and to some of the fascinating personalities who have hunted plants for the Arboretum. \"There is a real need in the Boston Public Schools,\" Mrs. Balasa says, \"for a resource like the Arboretum. When the students are here, we show them that this is a living tree museum and a wonderful resource in the city. Just think about Hemlock Hill, for instance. It's a natural woods, and it's right in the city. It's wonderful to see how enraptured the kids are when they first discover it.\" Another \"old\" timer in the Children's Program (although she's a young mother with sons 51\/2 and 21\/2) is Jane PaquetWhall. She also has been a volunteer in the program since its inception. Mrs. Paquet-Whall grew up in Jamaica Plain and remembers the grand old man in her neighborhood who'd bring all the kids on the block to the Arboretum. He would fill up his old Model-T with as many children and loaves of bread as it would hold and drive over to feed the ducks on the Arboretum's ponds. Mrs. Paquet-Whall has been coming to the Arboretum every week \" about nature and show them a beautiful urban green space, but to teach a little history. She likes to tell students about the white pines and their history. \"I used to wonder why there weren't any tall pines here, as there are on the West Coast. I found out it's because of King George. Learning that he sent his scouts here to cut down the white pines for his navy, to be used as masts on his ships, seems to intrigue the kids, too,\" she says. Looking forward to a full-time career teaching science and nature, Mrs. Paquet-Whall has taken many of the adult courses offered by the Arboretum. Evidence not only of boundless curiosity but also of her ability to appreciate how children can be led to see the world of nature as wonder-working, is this short vignette: She explained that recently she has been learning sign language so that she will be able to sign to a deaf child. But she had been unhappy with all of the texts and manuals-until she found one that taught the sign for dreams. \"None of the others had the sign for dreams, and dreams are \" really important, aren't they?\" since. Not only is she a loyal and devoted volunteer in the Children's Program, but she works with the Park Partners for the City of Boston rejuvenating Dorchester Park, a 26-acre park designed by Olmsted. Until she and a group of her neighbors began the project that breathed new life into it, the park was unkempt and sunk under tons of trash. When youngsters come to the Arboretum, she believes it is not only a good time to teach them she said. While the Children's Program is teaching children about botany, its beautiful trees and green spaces are also widening the horizons of many city kids and providing them dreams. As she says, dreams are became Arboretum volunteer after she read an article in the Boston Globe about volunteer opportunities. Readers of Amoldia who would like to participate in the Children's Program as volunteers should call Diane Syveran \"really important.\" Mrs. Paquet-Whall son at (617)524-1718. This is the second in a series of three articles on volunteers in the Children's Program. Arboretum's 1988 Lilac Poster Is Abloom From more than 200 submitted artworks, a j ury chose \"Spring Lilacs by Lincoln artist Shirley Mossman Nisbet for reproduction on the 1988 Lilac Poster. Mrs. Nisbet, who has enjoyed tremendous success as an abstract artist, has only recently become interested in flowers as subjects for her work. \"Flowers began to emerge, unexpectedly, into my work.\" she said, \"during the summer and autumn of 1985 and 1986. I became fascinated by the brilliance and translucence of flowers and the Arboretum's Horticultural Training Program Attracts a World- Class Group During the summer the Arnold Arboretum offers students the opportunity to learn horticulture through hands-on training. The horticultural trainees work in a variety of jobs. either in grounds maintenance. greenhouse and nursery operations, or mapping and labelling of the plant collections. As part of the program, trainalso enroll in two courses. an eight-week intensive horticultural maintenance program and a six-week woody-plant ees identification laboratory. This year's trainees James Blauth Westford. MA Jodi Bottoms North Powder. OR are: Gerald Brown Boston. MA Hugh Chapin Cambridge. MA Brett Christianson-Haas Weston, MA Chris Dowling Chestnut Hill, MA Russell Forbes Balcownie, N.S.W.,Australia Stefan Helleckes Neuenrade, West Germany Brian Muchow Charlottesville. VA power of their growth out of the dark soil, and I started to try to express those contradictory qualities in my paintings.\" \"Spring Lilacs\" is more than a pretty picture of a lilac. As critic Joanna Shaw-Engle of Kensington, Maryland, wrote. \"Shirley Nisbet's flowers literally explode from the canvas and paper holding them.\" The 1988 Lilac Poster is vibrant-its lilacs made lively by striking color contrasts of purple, blue, and raspberry. Proceeds from the sale of the posters go to support the restoration of the Arboretum's famous Lilac Collection. The cost per poster is $23, which includes postage and handling. To order, please call The Shop at the Arboretum at (617)524-1718 or write to the Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. MasterCard, Visa, and American Express credit cards are accepted. K Paul Pfeifer Sulfur Springs. TX Bruce Rivers South Hadley, MA Catherine Rosenberg Cambridge, MA Morgan Schmidt Belmont, MA Stephanie Shapiro Chicago, IL Jaqueline Veal New Cumberland, WV 4 Park Rangers Professors Carroii E. Wood, Jr. (left), and Richard A. Howard Herbaria. Both were Begin Fifth Year of Service at Arboretum The Boston Park Rangers were formed in the nineteenth-century tradition of \"park keepers\" as conceived by Frederick Law Olmsted. the designer of the Boston Park System, and championed by Dr. Peter Ashton when he was director of the Arnold Arboretum. Along with some of Boston's downtown parks, the Arboretum was one of the original sites for the program. Much of the impetus to make the Arboretum one of the pilot sites came from the Arboretum Committee, a nonprofit organization of loyal neighbors. As part of their effort to increase the overall safety in the Arboretum, they helped raise money for the Ranger Pro- photographed recently at the Harvard University men re- tired from the faculty irt June but will continue working on theirfloras. Professor Howard is producing the Flora of the LesserAntilles, and Wood is surveying the seed-bearingplants of the southeastern United States, compiling the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. Photograph by Laura Webb. Got a Question? Arboretum's noon, but 40 come Plant Line Has the Answer When Barbara Emeneau, of Winchester, asked about volunteer opportunities at the Arboretum in 1981, she said, \"I really don'tknow what I can do for the percent of all calls and June! during May They also handle mail inquiries, which come from around the world. Often, the inquiries are fnr higtpriral infprmatinn and come from libraries and arboreta. The most interesting question lately came from the World Book Encyclopedia, which had recently discovered a piece of conflicting information. Someone in gram. The Program began with 20 rangers, four of whom were assigned to the Arboretum. With the Boston parks undergoing a broad renovation ($489 million has been committed for capital improvements). the Ranger Program has expanded to 40 rangers. Gene Survillo has been their executive director from the try. I'm pretty fair at pulling up ragweed, if that's useful to the staff.\" When you have a plantrelated question, you'll find out that Barbara Emeneau is good at much more than pulling up ArhnrPtmm hut T'm willinrt to ragweed! She and C. J. Patterson, of are the Arboretum's Answer-Women and Plant California was Norwell, swer to have been the first to introduce the dawn redwood claiming Program's inception. During the summer months, the Rangers not only keep the Arboretum safe but offer educational tours and classes. also available for guest lectures, slide presentations, and classroom programs. On-site program including They are birdwatching. orienteering, and guided public tours. For a schedule of activities or more information, call (61'~ 522-2639. those questions that come in by phone or mail-such as, \"What can I do about my hydrangea ?\" or \"Can I grow an apple treein Arizona?\" or \"I have a nice tree with red flowers. What is it?\" From 1 to 3 p.m. on Mondays and Tuesdays, Mrs. Emeneau and Mrs. Patterson give sage advice to green thumbs and green horns alike. Mrs. Patterson says, \"It used to be quiet in the winter, and we could catch up on some of our filing, but business has gotten brisk even when gardens are under snow cover.\" Now the two volunteers estimate they answer between 25 and 30 calls on a winter after\" Doctors par excellence. They an- (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) into cultivation in the West. With the assistance of Sheila Connor, horticultural librarian, assistant, the story of the dawn redwood's introduction by the Arnold Arboretum was xeroxed and sent off to World Book. Members who have plant-related questions may call the Plant Line at (617)524-1718 between 1 and 3 p.m. on Mondays and Tuesdays. The Answer-Women will also be available at the Annual Plant Bonus, Sale, and Auction on Sunday, September 18, from 9 a.m. to 4 p.m., at the Case Estates in Weston. and Jennifer Quigley, curatorial "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23504","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060bb28.jpg","title":"1988-48-summer","volume":48,"issue_number":3,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China","article_sequence":2,"start_page":3,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24937","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170b36b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Shou-qing, Zou","article_content":"The Vulnerable and Endangered Plants of Xishuangbanna Prefecture, Yunnan Province, China Zou Shou-qing tropical Efforts are now being taken to preserve endangered species in the rich flora of China's \"Kingdom of Plants and Animals\" Xishuangbanna Prefecture is a tropical area of China situated in southernmost Yunnan Province, on the border with Laos and Burma. Lying between 2100' and 2130' North Latitude and 9955' and 10115' East Longitude, the prefecture occupies 19,220 square kilometers of territory. It attracts Chinese and non-Chinese botanists alike and is known popularly as the \"Kingdom of Plants and Animals.\" The Langchan River passes through its middle. Xishuangbanna is very hilly, about 95 percent of its terrain being hills and low, undulating mountains that reach 500 to 1,500 meters in elevation. The highest peak is 2,400 meters in elevation. High mountains in the north, including the Wuliang and Ailao Mountains, block the cold air from the north and trap warm, humid air from the Indian Ocean, creating a hot, humid, windless tropical climate. The mean annual temperature is 18 C to 22 C, and, depending upon elevation and topography, 1,000 millimeters to 2,200 millimeters of precipitation fall annually; as a result, tropical forest and other tropical vegetation flourish on hillsides and in valleys. A great diversity of vegetation typesincluding tropical rain forest, seasonal rain forest, montane rain forest, and evergreen Cycas pectinata Griffith, a rare and vulnerable species. It is a spectacular ornamental plant, and its fruit and stem are used in medicine by the Dai minority of China. Photographs by the author. broadleaf forest-occurs in Xishuangbanna. Coniferous forest develops above 1,200 meters. In addition, Xishuangbanna lies at the transitional zone between the floras of Malaya, Indo-Himalaya, and South China and therefore boasts a great number of plant species. So far, about 4,000 species of vascular plants have been identified. This means that Xishuangbanna, an area occupying only 0.22 percent of China, supports about 12 percent of the species in China's flora. The species belong to 1,471 genera in 264 families and include 262 species of ferns in 94 genera and 47 families, 25 species of gymnosperms in 12 genera and 9 families, and 3,700 species of angiosperms in 1,365 genera and 208 families. The tropical features of Xishuangbanna's flora are quite distinct. Such tropical families as the Dipterocarpaceae, Myristicaceae, Tetramelaceae, Anonaceae, and Dilleniaceae, and such genera as Ficus, Artocarpus, Antiaris, Dysoxylum, and Aphanamixis are represented. About 60 percent of the species in Xishuangbanna's flora also occur in Vietnam, Laos, Burma, and India. During the past two centuries, many species from the Indochinese peninsula and other tropical regions have been successfully introduced into Xishuangbanna. Among them have been Cassia siamea, Mesua ferrea, Crinum asiaticum, Cananga odorata, and Bixa orellana. There are many Xishuangbanna's wangii, Polyalthia cheliensis, Phc~bepuwen- endemic species in flora, such as Manglietia 4 sis, and Horsfieldia tetratepala; a number of relict species, such as Cycas pectinata, Podocarpus wallichii, Magnolia henryi, and Sladenia celastrifolia; and many rare species, Manglietia fordiana, Michelia hedyosperma, Paramichelia baillonii, and Pseuduvaria indochinensis. According to data collected by Li Yanhui, 153 endemic species, as such katharinx, and Pyrularia edulis, for example, are important sources of food oil or industrial oil. Ten species-Calamus flagellum, Calamus palustris, Calamus nambariensis, etc.-yield rattan. Many specarpa, Ostodes cies are plants, or resin and gum them Elsholtzia blanda, Cinamong aromatic, tanning, 31 relict species, and 133 rare species grow in Xishuangbanna; of them, 110 are endangered or vulnerable (see the list on pages 6 and 7). mollifolium, Phyllanthus emblica, and Sterculia villosa. During the past 20 years, many forests in Xishuangbanna were ruined. More than namomum Twenty-eight wild types of cultivated plant species and their relatives occur in Xishuangbanna's flora, among them Oryza minuta, Camellia sinensis Coix var. 13,000 hectares of forest were cut each year as result of shifting cultivation, conversion to rubber plantations, and demands for timber and fuel by local people. Recently, the forest cover of Xishuangbanna has declined sharply, from about 60 percent to 33 percent. Many hillsides that once were covered with rain forests are now grassland of cogongrass and low shrub. Along with the destruction of tropical forests, obviously, many plant and animal species have been threatened. It is estimated that one species is lost for every 700 hectares of tropical forest ruined. If this is so, then more than 800 species of plant have been lost or are in danger of being lost. If remedial measures are not taken today, many species with valuable properties will be lost. This would be a big mistake, one that our descendents would be unlikely to forgive. The first volume of the Plant Red Data Book for China, recently issued by the Acadea assamica, lacryma-jobi, Citrus grandis, and Momordica subangulata. Some may prove to have significant value in genetic research and breeding. More than 1,000 species in Xishuangbanna's flora are economically important. About 500 of them are medicinal plants that are used locally or in traditional Chinese medicine; among these are Amomum villosum, Taraktogenos merrillana, Cissampelos paraira var. hirsuta, and Homalomena occulta. Rauvolfia yunnanensis has become an important source of reserpine, and Maytenus hookeri is alleged to have anti-cancer properties. More than 100 species of tree in Xishuangbanna's flora grow fast or produce high-quality timbers, the best example being Dalbergia fusca var. enneandra, which has purple-black heartwood. Its wood is very hard, heavy, and tough and so is used as a substitute for rosewood. The fast-growing species Anthocephalus chinensis is another example. It is the most productive timber tree in tropical tree plantations. Toona ciliata, Paramichelia baillonii, Gmelina arborea, Altingia excelsa, Chukrassia tabularia var. velutina, and Dysoxylum binecea?folium are all valuable hardwood timber trees that are used in industry and construction. Xishuangbanna's flora contains more than mia Sinica (the Chinese Academy of Science), lists 389 endangered species of Chinese plants. The Book gives their morphological features, distributions, and statuses and describes methods for their conservation. Fiftyfour of the species it lists are native to Ximore shuangbanna. The Chinese government devotes attention to nature conservation now than it once did. For example, 310 nature reserves, with a total area of 167,000 square kilometers, have been established throughout the oil-bearing species. Horsfieldia tetratepala, Jatropha cureas, Hodgsonia macro100 country, and the funding of nature-conservation programs has been increased. In Xishuangbanna Prefecture, some 600,000 hectares of tropical forest survive. To protect re- maining ecosystems and species, 200,000 hectares of land (about one tenth the prefecture's area) have been set aside as reserves, including the Mengyang, Mengla, Menglun, Menghai, and Dashujiao reserves, and a team of 150 forest guards has been organized. The guards patrol forests, prevent forest fires, stop hunting and timbering within nature reserves, and deal with criminal cases of vandalism. The Yunnan Institute of Tropical Botany, Academia Sinica-formerly the Botanical Garden of Xishuangbanna-is located in the prefecture. It is has become an active center Caryota urens Linnxus, the wine (or sago) palm, is an endangered species minority use the tasty starch in the middle of the trunk for food. in China. The Dai 6 for the study and conservation of tropical plants. More than 2,500 local and otherwise tropical plant species, including dozens of endangered species, have been introduced China or for that tains many rare, matter in the world, conendemic, and economically and cultivated there. ral Xishuangbanna is a treasure house of naturesources. Its flora, one of the richest in valuable species. A veritable treasury for our well-being, it has suffered seriously in the past. We must now work hard to prevent further losses to it. Vulnerable and endangered members of Xishuangbanna's flora (~); species listed as endangered in the (The symbols indicate that a species is vulnerable ( * ) or endangered Plant Red Data Book for China are printed in boldface type. Relict species * * * * * Alsophila spinulosa (Wallich ex Hooker) Tryon Cycas pectinata Griffith Anchangiopteris henryi Christ & Giesenhagen Cycas siamensis Miquel Podocarpus imbricata Blume ~Podocarpus wallichii Presl ~Podocarpus fleuryi Hickel Podocarpus nerrifolia Wight ~Cephalotaxus oliveri Masters * Magnolia henryi Dunn Sladenia celastrifolia Kurz Cenocentrum tonkinense Gagnepain ~Borthwickia trifoliata W. W. Smith Silvianthus bracteata Hooker fils * Pittosporopsis kerrii Craib * Cephalostigma hookeri C. B. Clarke Campanumcea parviflora \/Wallich) Bentham ~Zippelia begonixfolia Blume * * * * species Manglietia wangii Hu Manglietia microgyna Liou ~Magnolia delavayi Franchet var. albivillosa * * Endemic Liou ~Cyathocalyx yunnanensis Y. H. Li & P. T. Li ~Cyathostemrna yunnanensis Hu Desmos yunnanensis (Hu) P. T. Li * ~Coniothalamus chinensis Hu ~Cinnamomum austroyunnanensis H. W. Li * Cinnamomum mollifolium H. W. Li Litsea dilleni~folia P. Y. Bai 8z. P. H. Huang ~Neolitsea menglaensis Yang & P. H. Huang * Horsfieldia pandurifolia Hu i~Horsfieldia tetratepala C. Y. Wu * Myristica yunnanensis Y. H. Li ~Anemone filisecta Wu & Wang ~Capparis fohaiensis B. S. Sun ~Xanthophyllum yunnanensis C. Y. Wu * Heliciopsis lobata (Merrill) Slaum var. microcarpa C. Y. Wu & T. Z. Hsu Heliciopsis terminalis (Kurz) Sleumer Homalium laoticum Gagn. var. glabretum C. Y. Wu * Parashorea chinensis Wang Hsie ~Pellacalyx yunnanensis Hu ~Camellia taheishangensis F. S. Zhang ~Garcinia lancilimba C. Y. Wu ex Y. H. Li ~Garcinia xishuangbannaensis Y. H. Li ~Ochrocarpus yunnanensis H. L. Li ~Grewia falcata C. Y. Wu ~Sloanea cheliensis Hu ~Pterospermum yunnanensis Hsue e ~1'terospermum mengluensis Hsue * Ostodes kuangii Y. T. Chang * Sauropus coriaceus C. Y. Wu * Lithocarpus yiwuensis Huang & Y. T. Chang * Maytenus diversicymosa S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li * Maytenus pseudoracemosa S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li ~Maytenus inflata S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li ~Maytenus pachycarpa S. J. Pei & Y. H. Li 7 ~Protium yunnanensis (Hu) Kalkm. * Amoora calcicola C. Y. Wu & H. Li * Walsura yunnanensis C. Y. Wu '~Buchanania yunnanensis C. Y. Wu * Mastixia caudatilimba C. Y. Wu ~Nyssa sinensis Oliv. var. oblongifolia * Hibiscus austroyunnanensis C. Y. Wu & K. M. Feng * Erythroxylum kunthianum (Wallich) Kurz Ixonanthes cochinchinensis Pierre Fang 8t Soong Nyssa yunnanensis W. C. Yin ~Diospyzos atrotricha H. W. Li ~Marsdenia incisa P. T. Li & Y. H. Li * * ~Chxtocarpus castanocarpus Thwaites Dalbergia fusca Pierre Whitfordiodendron filipes (S. T. Dunn) S. T. Dunn ~Distilopsis yunnanensis (H. T. Chang) C. Y. Wu * Kopsia of ficinalis Tsiang & P. T. Li Radermachera Yin microcolyx C. Y. Wu & W. C. * Cyclobalanopsis rex (Hemsley) Schott Trigonobalanus doichangensis (A. Camus) ~Callicarpa yunnanensis W. Z. Fang Salvia fragarioides C. Y. Wu * * * Arisxma austroyunnanensis H. Li Achasma yunnanensis T. L. Wu 8t Senjen Rare * species Manglietia fordiana Oliver ~Michelia hedyosperma Law ~Mitrephora wangii Hu Litsea magnolifolia Yang & P. H. Huang * Formanek Celtis wightii Planchon * Antiaris toxicaria (Persoon) Leschenault Artocarpus lakocha Roxburgh Laportea urentissima Gagnepain Poikilospermum suaveolens (Blume) Merrill * Maytenus hookeri Loesener * Garuga pierrei Guillaumin Toona ciliata Roemer * * Toona Litsea pierrei Lecomte * var. szemaois Liou microcarpa (de Candolle) Harms Xerospermum bonii (Lecomte) Radlkofer Pometia tomentosa (Blume) Teysmann & Bin- Machilus rufipes H. W. Li ~Knema cinerea Warburg var. glauca Y. H. Li ~Horsfieldia kingii (Hooker fils) Warburg Fleutharrhane macrocarpa (Diels) Formanek ~Piper pubicatulum C. de Candolle ~Argemone mexicana Linnaeus ~Lagerstr~mia intermedia Koehne e '~Crypteronia paniculata Blume ~Cochlospezmum vitifolium Sprengel Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Gilg * nendijk ~Nyctocalos shanica MacGregor & W. W. Smith Gmelina arborea Roxburgh * Homalomena gigantea Engler * Tacca chantrieri Andr~ * Caryota urens Linnaeus Wild types of cultivated var. plants 8~ Oryza meyeriana (Zollinger Moritz) Baillon var. ~Zanonia indica Linnaeus Tetrameles nudiflora R. Brown Terminalia myriocarpa Heurck & Muller granulata Tataoka Oryza minuta J. Presl Camellia sinensis (Linnaeus) O. Kuntze assamica (Masters) Kitamura Litchi chinensis Sonnerat Citrus grandis Osbeck Argoviensis Anogeissus acuminata (Roxburgh ex de Can. dolle) Guillaumin var. Clarke lanceolata Wallich ex Mangifera sylvatica Roxburgh ~Cucumis hystrix Chakrav. Panax zingiberensis C. Y. Wu & Feng ex C. Chow Hovenia acerba Lindley var. kiukiangensis (Cheng & Hu) C. Y. Yu ~Quisqualis caudata Craib ~Combreturn olivxfozme Chao Carallia lancxfolia Roxburgh * Calophyllum polyanthum Wallich ex Choisy Mesua nagassarium (Burman fils) Kostermans ~Colona sinica Hu ~Sloanea tomentosa (Bentham) Rehder & Wilson ~Ptezygota alata (Roxburgh) R. Brown * Vatica xishuangbannaensis G. D. Tao 8t J. H. Zhang ~Pterospermum acerifolium Willdenow Bombax insignis Wallich * a research associate at the Yunnan Instiof Tropical Botany, Academia Sinica, was exchange visiting scholar at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University in 1986. He received a B. A. degree in forestry in 1965 from the Nanjing Institute of Forestry. Zou Shou-qing, tute 8 More about the front cover The illustration on the front cover of this issue of Amoldia is part of a painting done in China nearly a century and a half ago by a Chinese artist working for the American merchant, Warren Delano (1809-1898), of Boston. Given in 1930 to the Arnold Arboretum by Delano's son, Frederic Adrian Delano, the painting is one of more than six hundred that the elder Delano commissioned during his two decades or more of residence in China. It depicts a rare Chinese shrub, Aquilaria sinensis (Loureiro) Gilg. The first excerpt printed below describes the paintings and gives details about Delano's gift to the Arboretum. The collection is far from unique, however, as the second excerpt attests. Mr Frederic A. Delano has presented Library the serve as a most value memorial to his father Warren Delano, 1809-1898, with the purpose of making it \"of real to \" students.\" unique gift of to the recent years, to flower, some bearing both on the same plant. Occasionally two plants are figured on the fruit and same sheet. the Rose, Peony, Chrysanthemum, etc., but many of them are very rare. In his presentation letter Mr. Delano writes, \"My father, Warren Delano, was one of the early Boston merchants engaged in the China trade-and went there in 1835. He lived in China for more than 20 years, between 1835 and 1866, chiefly in Canton, Macao and Hong Kong connected with the house of Russell & Co. During his stay he endeavored to learn about the products of the country and in the 40's he collected and had drawn by Chinese artists over 500 paintings of the 200 or more fruits, flowers and vegetables.\" These paintings are replete with interest, botanical, artistic, and historical. They were apparently done by various artists with varying degrees of skill over a period of years. The paper on which they were painted is evidently of English manufacture, the earliest water-marks being \"I. Taylor 1794\" and \"E. & P. 1794\", and the latest \"Ruse & Turners 1832.\" Between these are various other dates, many of which bear the name of J. Whatman, and in 1828, \"J. Whatman, Turkey Mill\" with design resembling a coat-of-arms. The paintings are exquisitely drawn, in beautiful colors marvelously preserved, with details of as It consists of six hundred and eleven paintings of Chinese fruits, flowers and vegetables, natural size, beautifully executed by native artists on sheets 15\" x 19\". Some of them are well-known plants that have been introduced into this country -Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 11, Number 2 (April 1930), pages 131 and 132. such Camellia, The Hort[iculturalJ. Soc[ietyJ. of London is indebted to J[ohn] Reeves for a fine collection of coloured drawings of Chinese plants, executed in his own house under his superintendence by Chinese draughtsmen. Such drawings first brought us to a knowledge of the Chinese Prime rose..., Dendrobium nobile, many of the finest Camellias, Chrysanthemums, Azaleas, Moutans, and above all of the Glycine (Wistaria) chinensis, which plants were subsequently introduced into English gardens. In this way was formed that collection of authentic drawings of Chinese plants, by far the most extensive in Europe, which now forms part of the library of the Horticular Society. A similar collection is now in the British Museum. Mr. Carruthers, Report Bot. Dep. Brit. Mus. for 1877, states that 654 Chinese drawings of plants, executed under the superintendence of the late John Reeves, were presented by Miss Reeves (his daughter or perhaps grand daughter). -History of European Botanical China, by Emil Bretschneider, Volume 1, Discoveries in pages 25 7 and 258. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Transplanting Botany to China: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24938","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170b76f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Haas, William J.","article_content":"Transplanting Botany to China: The Cross-Cultural Experience of Chen Huanyong William j. Haas After studying at the Arnold Arboretum, a Chinese student returns to his homeland, becoming a leader in botanical work Chen Huanyong (Woon-Young Chun\/1 came to Boston in the autumn of 1915 to study at the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University's museum of living trees. The arboretum, located on a 265-acre site in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, about five miles from the center of Boston, was set up in 1872 with funding from the trust created by the legacy of New Bedford merchant James Arnold. A condition of the gift was that the university \"establish and support an Arboretum ... which shall contain as far as is practicable, all the trees ... either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air....\"Z Trees from Asia were heavily represented at the arboretum, and trees of Chinese origin thrived there. The new Chinese student flourished at the arboretum also. Freshly graduated from the New York State School of Forestry at Syracuse University, Chen had already spent five years in the United States since leaving his native Shanghai. Now he would spend four more years in the United States, doing graduate work among the trees at the arboretum. By the time Chen arrived in 1915, Charles Sprague Sargent (1841-1927), director of the arboretum from 1873 until his death, had established the Arnold Arboretum as a center for the study of Chinese trees. Sargent's in* ern were Asia and northeastern North America closely related. This significantly im- terest in East Asian species was inspired by Asa Gray's observation that the floras of east- the species of one region might well in the other. While Gray's work grow provided theoretical underpinning for Sargent's horticultural interest in East Asia, it was the flourishing of seeds sent to Sargent by Emil Bretschneider (1833-1901),aRussian physician in Beijing, which gave Sargent the practical demonstration that plants collected in China would be viable in America.3 Sargent began slowly to collect Chinese species; he acquired specimens through European institutions and through a trip of his own to China. In 1907 he hired Ernest H. Wilson (1876-1930) from the British horticultural firm Veitch & Sons, to collect for the arboretum in western China. These fabulous collections from western China made him and the arboretum world-famous. Later, Sargent obtained the services of the collector and ethnologist Joseph F. C. Rock (1884-1962).4 The arboretum's collections of plants from China increased rapidly.5 But it was not just acquisition of Chinese collections that made the arboretum an important center. The study of these collections, especially by Alfred Rehder (1863-1949), assistant at and later curator of the arboretum's herbarium, also contributed to knowledge of the flora of China. Just as Americans had to travel to European plied that 10 herbaria to study American plants, Chinese had to come to American and European institutions to study Chinese plants. Unless they used the research collections in Western herbaria, Chinese botanists would have had to begin work on the flora of their country from scratch. The arboretum had the strongest collections of Chinese trees in the world. Chen came to Harvard specifically to use that material, explaining that \"it would take me a lifetime of travel to study what I can find out here about Chinese trees in a few years.\"6 Education in the United States, 1909-1919 It was Marion Case of Weston, Massachusetts, who first alerted Chen to the importance of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1909, Case, daughter of a Providence, Rhode Island, merchant, used land she had inherited to start a small institution in Weston for experimentation in farming and education. Known as Hillcrest Gardens, it is now the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. Chen had come from Shanghai to the United States in 1909 and enrolled in courses in forestry and entomology at the Massachusetts Agricultural College in Amherst. In 1910, Case hired him as her summer assistant. For five summers between 1910 and 1919, Chen helped Case manage and teach the young boys employed at Hillcrest. The boys liked Chen because, in her view, the \"quiet courteous ways he had inherited from his Spanish mother appealed to them.\"7 Chen's success in the Hillcrest job may have been as much due to his father's influence as to his mother's. Chen's parents probably met while his father was in Cuba as a diplomatic representative of the Qing court. The couple had fourteen children; Chen, the thirteenth, was born in Hong Kong in 1890. Some time later, the family moved to Shanghai, where Chen's father taught English at the Thomas Hanbury School, a boys' school named after the British businessman who financed it. Chen's summer work at Hillcrest was similar to what his father did towards the end of his career.8 Arnold Arboretum botanists like John G. Jack (1896-1935), an assistant professor of dendrology (the study of trees) made Hillcrest a center for diffusing horticultural knowledge by giving lectures there during the summer. It was probably on these occasions that Jack developed a friendship with his future protege, Chen.9 The friendship must have been heightened by mutual interest in China's flora; Jack had gone to China in 1905 at his own expense to collect specimens for the Arnold Arboretum. 10 Chen's commitment to forestry as a career deepened after his first summer at Hillcrest. Chinese students with an ardent desire to strengthen their country often claimed that the subject they studied was the one most 1 crucial to China's future. In the January 1911 issue of the Chinese Students' Monthly, the organ of the Chinese Students' Alliance, Chen explained why \"Forestry in China\" was important. He vividly described the cancer of deforestation, a scourge which contributed to flood, famine, and unfavorable climate. China was once an Eden of luxuriant forests and crystal streams, but indiscriminate removal of trees had laid bare entire provinces. Fertile topsoil had been washed from hillsides and carried to the sea. Chen called for education as the antidote to \"the poison of popular ignorance.\" Schools should be established to train men for a forest service. Using the advantages of Western science, a government bureau cooperating with the people could succeed in reforestation. Chinese students should arouse national interest in a movement for reforestation.ll It was an exciting time for Chinese students everywhere. In October 1911, the Xinhai revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty; by 1912 there was a new Chinese republic. Chen's ambition in forestry required more specialized training. In 1912 he transferred from the Massachusetts Agricultural College to the New York State School of Forestry at Syracuse University. The school had excellent facilities, including a forestry summer camp in the Catskill Mountains, which Chen 11 I attended in 1914.12 While completing his undergraduate training at Syracuse, Chen became active in the Chinese Students' Alliance, which had chapters throughout the United States. Chen was a delegate to the alliance's ninth annual conference, held at Cornell University in Ithaca during the last week of August 1913. Delegates participated in vocational conferences, \"unbroken save by the murmur of low-dron- ing prayers and the tinkles of temple bells.\"14 In \"Bitter Strength\"-a translation of the word coolie out [kuli]-Chen used fiction to cry against Westerners' mistreatment of the athletics, literary events, entertainments, a banquet, a picnic, and elections; Chen was elected to the Chinese Students' Monthly's English Editorial Board. Delegates also demonstrated their concern with China's international relations. There was anxiety in China because the \"consortium,\" an international banking syndicate, was forcing loans on China and monopolizing its loan business. In 1910, the consortium was a four-power affair, Britain, France, Germany, and the United States; in 1912, six-power: Japan and Russia were added. At Ithaca, students' alliance delegates staged a mock parliament, a scaleddown version of the Chinese house of representatives in session. The main business was an impeachment hearing for the premier because he had concluded the \"Five Power loan.\"'3 Over the next year Chen revealed growing distress over the vagaries of cross-cultural experience and contact. He wrote two short stories on this theme for the Chinese Students' Monthly. The fictional \"East Is East and West Is West\" was most likely autobiographical. A young Shanghai man embarks on a voyage to study in the United States, leaving behind his fiancee, Miss Mei, \"beautiful, not in the striking beauty of the American girl, but in that serene and saintly loveliness so characteristic of the girls of the East.\" Attending a small New England college, the young man adopts Western styles and habits. He meets a Chinese woman, a graduate of Wellesley College more suited to his newly Americanized tastes. He marries her and does not return to China. Back in China, Miss Mei's faith and hope are crushed by the desertion. She goes to live in a nunnery, its silence \" Chinese. A rickshaw coolie in the British colony of Hong Kong spends a day striving to earn money for his family. By day's end, the weakened coolie has obtained just the amount he needs to bring home to his aged mother. A British infantryman demands to be taken to the barracks where he is late for his return. The coolie pleads exhaustion, but the half-drunk soldier tells him to \"run like the devil or have his head broken.\" On the way, the coolie's muscles fail and he drops the cart. Cursing, the infantryman's \"right hand shot out, and the dirk sank deeply into the helpless body.\" The coolie's corpse is disposed of in the waters off the bund.'s After graduating the forestry school at Syracuse in 1915, Chen enrolled at Harvard's Bussey Institution for Research in Applied Biology. Rather than become a forester, he was going to become a dendrologist. The Arnold Arboretum did not officially offer instruction, but students could arrange to take courses with John Jack and work at the arboretum by registering at the Bussey. That year, another Chinese student, Qian Songshu (S. S. Chien, 1883-1965), also registered at the Bussey to work with Jack. While studying at the arboretum, Qian published in the New England Botanical Club's journal, Rhodora. For this publication, Chen later celebrated him as \"the first Chinese botanist to describe new species of plants.\"'6 The following year, Chen and Qian were joined at the arboretum by yet another Chinese student, Zhong Xin- (H. H. Chung\/.\" John Jack was good at teaching, and all his students adored him. He went out of his way to help them, often paying their wages for work at the arboretum out of his own pocket or arranging Harvard loans for them. He arranged a loan for Chen at the beginning of 1916. xuan Chen was more adventurous than most of the dozen or so Chinese pursuing graduate 12 studies in various Harvard departments. Unlike his compatriots, who resided in graduate dormitories or near school, Chen lived first on St. Botolph Street and later on Gainsborough Street, in an \"artsy\" section of Boston's Back Bay-only a stone's throw from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Symphony Hall, and the New England Conservatory of Music.'8 During his third year in Boston, the Boston Globe interviewed the cosmopolitan Chen, the student who had come \"From China to Boston to Study Chinese Trees.\" Chen explained his work at the arboretum and put it in a larger context; Chinese had been coming to America to study for twenty-five years. At present there were 1,600 other Chinese studying in America, most intending their studies to be of direct benefit to China.19 During every semester of his four years at Harvard, Chen registered for John Jack's forestry courses. His studies went well and in the spring of his final year, 1919, he received one of Harvard's Sheldon Travelling Fellowships to collect plants in southern China. The day Chen graduated, Charles Sargent called Professor Tohn G. Tack (at left) and three of his Chinese students examining a black maple (Acer saccharum var. nigrum). The student on the right has been identified as Chen Huanyong. Taken in the Arnold Arboretum during the summer of 1917. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 13 the talented student into his office and gruffly advised him: \"Chen, your botanical career is just commencing.\" Sargent told him to go home and familiarize himself with plants in the field; unexplored Hainan Island would be best. The Sheldon Fellowship would cover the work for a year.2 Everything was set until the University bursar made an unusual demand: part of Chen's fellowship had to be turned over for immediate repayment of the Harvard loan that John Jack had arranged. Fortunately, the dean of the Bussey Institution, entomologist William Morton Wheeler, interceded on Chen's behalf. Wheeler was conducting his own world-wide taxonomic study of ants (this later included ants of China) and recognized the value of having Chen collect Chinese plants for the arboretum.2' Since Sargent wished to expand his program for acquiring Chinese specimens, he arranged to use Chinese students trained at the arboretum as collectors after they returned to China. Chen Huanyong was the first to return to China in this role. The plan was for Chen to leave for China in September, do fieldwork there for a year and then return to the States for a year to study and distribute the material he had collected. Sargent wanted Chen to devote all his energy to collecting woody plants and seeds, but Jack encouraged Chen to broaden his scope to include herbaceous plants and insects. The trip would be financed by Chen's fellowship, subscriptions for the collection of special material, and sale of specimens after Chen returned. John Jack touted the quality of the specimens Chen would make in an effort to get more financing. He asked Professor B. L. Robinson to purchase material from Chen's expedition for Harvard's Gray Herbarium.22 Located off the South China coast opposite the province of Guangdong, Hainan Island was tropical and rough. Westerners had already published memoirs of explorations there. The first to traverse the island was the Reverend Benjamin Henry, a Presbyterian missionary from western Pennsylvania who became tian founding president of Canton ChrisCollege in 1893. Later renamed Lingnan University, the College was modeled on the Presbyterian-founded Protestant Syrian College, now known as the American University of Beirut. Henry visited Hainan in the 1880s and paid special attention to the aborigines; he found some young aborigine women \"quite handsome in spite of the blue lines tattooed over their faces.\"23 With \"the foolhardiness of young manhood\" and a handbook for explorers, Chen went to Hainan alone. Malaria was a constant threat, and after nine months with the aborigines, he was stricken. His fever reached 105 degrees, his body was covered with sores caused by leeches and malnutrition, and his left hand swelled \"to the size and color of a boxing glove.\"He was carried out of central Hainan's Five Finger Mountains on a stretcher. Chen recuperated in Nanjing and packed his collections of plants, insects, and reptiles for shipment to Boston. Disaster struck. The shipment burned in a fire at the Shanghai warehouse of the China Merchants Steam- At least Chen still had the collections of Hainan material he retained in Nanjing. Some time later, a commissioner of the Chinese maritime customs offered Chen facilities for making collections in northwestern Hubei province. In ship Navigation Company. 1922, Chen, Qian Songshu, Qin Renchang (R. C. Ching), and \"old Yao,\" a retired collector who had assisted Augustine Henry, an Irish physician in the Imperial Chinese Customs Service, went to Hubei province and collected together. Chen and Qian's herbaceous specimens were sent to the Gray Herbarium ; Chen's woody specimens, to the Arnold Arboretum. Chen considered this to be \"partial atonement\" for his \"Hainan failure.\"Za The Nanjing Years, 1920-1927 Chen began his teaching career in Nanjing in 1920. During the first decades of twentiethcentury China two separate educational sys- 14 place, one run by Chinese, the by Christian missionaries. At the elementary and secondary level, Chinese and foreign schools were seldom concerned with each other, but at the college and university level, there was competition for faculty and funding. Competition was keenest in Beijing, Guangzhou, and Nanjing, cities having both tems were in especially biology. In 1922, this strength led the Science Society of China to establish its biological laboratory in Nanjing, staffed mainly with Southeastern University faculty. Southeastern botany professor Hu Xiansu (H. H. Hu, 1894-1968) became head of the laboratory's botany division. Unlike Chen, Hu Xiansu had returned to China for seven years between finishing his undergraduate degree at the University of California at Berkeley in 1916 and starting graduate training at Harvard in 1923. When Hu returned to China in 1916 he began teaching at the Nanjing Higher Normal School, the predecessor institution of Southeastern University. Chen felt that it was because of his influence that Hu decided to study at the Arnold Arboretum.'~ Hu's first direct contact with the arboretum was through correspondence with Charles Sargent. Sending specimens was a standard way of contacting eminent botanists. In 1920, Hu sent Sargent a collection of woody specimens from Jiangxi province in exchange for their identification.29 Just as Chen had done with the Hubei collections, he sent to the arboretum, Hu built up research collections at Southeastern by attaching Sargent's identifications to an identically numbered duplicate set he retained in Nanjing. Hu enrolled at the Bussey Institution from September 1923 to June 1925 and took four forestry courses with John Jack.~ In the same way he had helped Chen, Jack arranged a university loan for Hu. But Hu could not borrow as much money as Chen had because Chen's Harvard loan had not yet been repaid. An officer of the university criticized Jack for arranging Chen's loan, intimating that Jack had \"backed up a 'crook' for scholarships & other favors from the college.\" Jack told Chen that his carelessness \"handicaps & jeopardizes my work in the University on behalf of Chinese students. You have made it harder for them to get scholarships, loans, & c, especially upon my recommendation when your is remembered, as it is.\"3'Chastened by Jack's rebuke, Chen repaid half the loan case other run Chinese and Christian universities. Chen's first teaching position was at the University of Nanking, a Protestant mission school administered by American officers in Nanjing and American trustees in New York City. The University inculcated its students with Christianity through required attendance at religious classes and chapel. Chinese faculty were integrated into the Christian program by having to lead the weekly Bible study class. When it was Chen's turn to preach, he chose \"The Beauty of Forests and Poetry\" for his topic. He enchanted the school's teachers and students without saying a word about the Bible. Chen's sophisticated protest probably coincided with protests from Chinese students against requirements for religious education. In any case, after Chen took his turn, weekly scholarly talks replaced the Biblestudy class.25 Chen was discontented at the University of Nanking: \"I am Chinese; I don't like to work in a Christian school.\"26 Before long, he switched over to the recently established and Chinese-run National Southeastern University, also in Nanjing. Its president, Guo Bingwen (P. W. Kuo), the first Chinese to get a Ph.D. from Columbia University's Teachers College, recruited professors from the best of the \"returned students.\"2' Although Southeastern's finances were shaky, its superb faculty and Chinese administration made it appealing to the most capable Chinese. Chen was not the only Chinese to cross over from the University of Nanking to Southeastern. The loss of top-flight faculty caused the University of Nanking administration to have hard feelings, feelings that were exacerbated as competition for funding also developed. The sciences were strong at Southeastern, 15 immediately. After he returned to Southeastern in 1925, Hu received Jack's explanation of this matter. While Jack criticized Chen, he did not comment on Harvard officials' lumping of Chinese students together. Hu now understood that the university administration saw Chinese students at Harvard as a group. It sensitized him to the danger of negative Harvard attitudes towards Chinese based on stereotypes. Hu raised the money to repay the other half of Chen's loan, \"in anxiety of his [Chen's] error which may cast an ugly shadow upon the character of Chinese students at Harvard....\"32 Part of Chen's problem repaying the Harvard loan was the disarray in Southeastern's finances; payment of faculty salaries was often in arrears, sometimes as much as eight months. Despite financial problems, Chen was productive during his years in Nanjing. In 1922, he brought to press his manual, Chinese Economic Trees, a project he had started at the Arnold Arboretum. The same year he wrote up a comparison of Chinese and Japanese pines for Kexue [Science], the journal of the Science Society of China. Before long he began a study of the genera and species of the laurel family in China that would be published in the first volume of Contributions from the Biological Laboratory of the Science Society of China. By publishing the Contributions in English, Chinese biologists could address the international scientific community from the pages of a publication of one of their own institutions. Further, through exchange of the Contributions, the biological laboratory could build up its library with publications from institutions throughout the world. At the end of 1923, disaster struck. The science building housing the library and the natural history collections at Southeastern burned down. Southeastern's herbarium was lost; thousands of specimens painstakingly mounted on sheets of paper, labelled, and filed had gone up in smoke. What had seemingly just started had now to be started all Hu Xiansu (1894-1968), better known as H. H. Hu, a student of John Jack's from 1923 to 1925. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. over again. Chen's work could not but suffer. The University of Nanking mentioned the tragedy in criticisms of Southeastern botany. During the spring of 1924, Southeastern arranged to receive a set of the National Geographic Society collections made by Qin Renchang, a forestry student working his way through the University of Nanking as a teaching assistant at Southeastern University. University of Nanking botanist Albert Steward attempted to win the set for his herbarium by undermining confidence in Southeastern. His method was to write Elmer Drew Merrill 16 (1876-1956), the preeminent American exon Chinese plants. Steward knew that Merrill, through his connections in Washingpert ton, could influence where the would go. specimens Merrill had become a leading authority on the flora of China during his years as director of the Philippines Bureau of Science. His influence derived from promoting institutional ties, setting up herbaria-he did this for Lingnan University and the University of Nanking-and identifying Chinese specimens in prodigious quantities with phenomenal speed. He determined approximately 75,000 Chinese specimens from 1914 to 1929. In 1924, Merrill became dean of the University of California's College of Agriculture at Berkeley, a position that increased his influence.33 When Steward wrote to Merrill in 1924, there were more herbarium specimens of Chinese plants in Western institutions than in institutions in China. Steward explained that it was \"a source of regret as well as of inconvenience to botanists working in China that so many fine collections of Chinese plants have been taken completely out of the country.\" Steward used a progressive argument for a parochial purpose. It had already been decided that the National Geographic specimens would go to an herbarium in China, Southeastern's herbarium, but Steward whittled away at Southeastern. It was unsafe; their fire the past winter showed this. The plants that it had were not properly arranged. \"The men in charge of their work have not shown ability, serious interest, or a spirit of cooperation along this line.\" He singled out Chen. The University of Nanking had apparently contributed to the financing of Chen's 1922 expedition to Hubei. Steward claimed that Chen owed him specimens and was angry that Chen's \"god-father friend Professor Jack who was to have identified the Hainan collection\" received the woody plants Chen collected in Hubei. Steward felt that John Jack was the source of Arnold Arboretum pressure for Southeastern to be given the specimens.34 He got nowhere with his complaints. Merrill had his own relationship with Chen and was eager to work on Chen's Hainan materia1.35Nanking's bid for the set of National Geographic material failed. Botanical work at Southeastern picked up in 1925. Qin Renchang began full-time work at Southeastern after he graduated the University of Nanking, and Hu Xiansu returned from Harvard. Hu, like Chen, won Charles Sargent's confidence while he was at the Arnold Arboretum. A fund for botanical exploration in China was to be set up with Sargent and Marion Case as two of the trustees. Hu would oversee the work in Nanjing, Southeastern being the chief beneficiary. Hu naively mentioned this to John Reisner, dean of the University of Nanking's College of Forestry and Agriculture. Reisner lobbied Merrill for help to make Nanking the beneficiary instead. \"No one in China is more sympathetic with the aspirations of the Chinese than I am,\" Reisner explained as he denounced Hu Xiansu, \"a strong pro-China individual\" enthusiastic about botanical work. Unfortunately, Hu's \"enthusiasm has never been able to lead to practical organization of their [Southeastern's] herbarium work which would result in a usable file of herbarium material.\" Of course, Reisner brought up the Southeastern fire. He admitted that there were also collections at the science society's biological laboratory, collections under the control of Hu Xiansu, \"but they are in the same condition as botanical plants in Chinese institutions always are, unorganized and of no value to anybody in their present condition.\" Reisner asked Merrill to recommend cooperation with the University of Nanking to Sargent.36 Hu found out about Reisner's efforts to get Sargent's support and was outraged because Reisner \"always professes friendship and cooperation with us.... If this is Christian spirit, no wonder our young men now endeavor to spread a national-wide anti-Chris- tianity propaganda.\"3' After Hu's return to China in 1925, Hu and 17 Chen began a long and fruitful collaboration on their Icones Plantarum Sinicarum, illustrations and descriptions of Chinese plants. The first of five large-format volumes-the drawings were life-sized-came out in 1927. Chen and Hu dedicated it to Charles Sargent \"through whose deep interest in Chinese Botany the knowledge of our ligneous flora has been greatly advanced.\" That same year Chen took a year's leave from Southeastern to research the flora of South China. He had an appointment as professor at National Sun Yatsen University in Guangzhou, but he spent most of the winter and spring at the Hong Kong Botanical Garden studying Chinese plants with Qin Renchang. Instead of returning to Southeastern at the end of his leave, Chen stayed on at Sun Yatsen.38 Hu also left Nanjing; he was appointed head of botany at the new Fan Memorial Institute of notes. Until 1932, most of the Lingnan collections sent to Merrill for identification came Biology in Beijing. Institution 1927-1937 Building in South China, Developments at Sun Yatsen were rapid. The China Foundation, the organization which controlled the moneys from the United States' remission of China's Boxer War indemnities, decided to support Chen's work. In 1928, the foundation funded a new botany institute at Sun Yatsen with Chen as head. The following year the foundation secured Chen's salary by making him a China Foundation Science Professor. Chen launched an ambitious program of collecting in South China while building up the institute's library and herbarium through exchanges, especially with curator Alfred Rehder at the Arnold Arboretum and Elmer D. Merrill at the University of California. Merrill's primary interest was the flora of South China, and he and Chen established a close working relationship. Merrill respected Chen because of the high quality of his work, and complaints from Lingnan University did not change his feelings. Merrill took the measure of a botanist by the quality of his specimens and his field from Floyd McClure (1879-1970), a graduate of Ohio State University who came to Lingnan in 1919. The material McClure sent was often sterile (it had, no fruits or flowers), not accompanied by adequate notes and labels, and not ample enough for division; this was important in case Merrill needed to send a portion of a specimen to a specialist for determination. Merrill criticized McClure severely for the low quality of the study sets he was receiving. McClure blamed the illiterate coolies he had been sending into the field for the poor specimens collected. By contrast, Merrill was especially pleased with the specimens coming from Chen's institute. Chen attributed this to the fact that his \"assistants are college graduates, not coolie collectors, able to observe as well as collect.\"39 Although there was competition, relations between Protestant Lingnan University and Chinese Sun Yatsen University were not nearly so strained as those between Nanking and Southeastern. The tension between botanists of the two schools seemed due to Lingnan's sense of having proprietary rights in South China. Perhaps Lingnan's desire to control South China botanical exploration came from president James McClure Henry, son of Benjamin Henry, South China explorer and first Lingnan president. James Henry may have seen Chen as a newcomer to South China. Lingnan was certainly threatened by how fast Chen was taking hold of the South China work. The chairman of the biology department and editor of the university's Lingnan Science journal, William Hoffman, was put off by Chen's unwillingness to accept limitations. Chen was more assertive than the typical Chinese scholar, and Hoffman did not know how to deal with him. No one at Lingnan had been wronged by Chen, but Hoffman was suspicious, explaining to Merrill that Chen \"has pulled off a number of 'crooked' deals in his relationship with scientists and scientific institutions of which I am aware. \"' 18 According to Chen, the friction was due to unwillingness to fall in with Lingnan's plans. After Lingnan obtained a substantial grant from the China Foundation, an informal meeting among Chen, Hoffman, and a few of the other Lingnan people was called to discuss plans for cooperation. Hoffman made three proposals: that the two institutions exchange specimens, divide the territory, and his locations in the same of specimens, Chen replied, Exchange need not be contingent on Lingnan's getting a grant. Chen saw the other proposals as restrictions under the mask of cooperation. He explained his position in no uncertain terms: not same season. Fifth International Botanical Congress met in Cambridge, England. For the first time in the history of the meeting, there was a symposium on the flora of China, and for the first time there was attendance by Chinese botanists. The symposium brought together experts on China's flora from Leningrad, Copen- visit the hagen, Berlin, Vienna, Florence, Paris, London, Edinburgh, Aberdeen, New York, Nanjing, and Guangzhou. Chen participated as the representative of the Botanical Institute of Sun Yatsen University, the Science Society of China and the national government of China. In his address to the symposium, he reviewed the development of botany in China, dividing its history into three phases, \"the period of ancient Chinese research, the period of early European research, and the period of modern Chinese research.\" In the first period, from the first to the nineteenth centuries, botanical information was compiled and published in herbals, encyclopedias, and dictionaries; in the second period, beginning in the eighteenth century, European botanical explorers collected plants in China, enriching the herbaria of leading botanical institutions in the West-this was the material Chen was studying while in Europe; in the third period, Chinese themselves were \"undertaking a re-examination of the vegetation of their own country on a scientific basis.\" This last period began in 1916 when Qian Songshu published his species of Ranunculus in Rhodora. Chen summarized the publications of the other leading Chinese botanists, Zhong Xinxuan, Hu Xiansu, Qin Renchang and himself. Of the five, only Qin had not been trained at Harvard's Arnold Arboretum. Chen surveyed the leading botanical institutions in North, Central, and South China and described the growth of libraries and herbaria. Many in his audience already were familiar with the story. Through exchanges, they had obtained volumes of Chinese botanists' publications for their libraries and specimens with Chinese botanists' labels for their herbaria. Chen appealed for their continued cooperation in the build\" \"I came to Kwangtung [Guangdong] to study ... ... the flora of Kwangtung, and I intend to go any place, any time and as many times as necessary, so long as I find means to do so to accomplish two principal objects-to pub- lish a good flora of the province, and to gather and sow seeds of as many rare plants as possible in order to save them from certain extinction.\"4' During 1930 Chen reached out to the for- eign scientific community in China and around the world. Chen usually did not publish in the journals of foreign institutions in China, but in 1930 he published \"Forestry and the Conservation of Resources\" in the Lingnan Science journal. Chen was trying to increase awareness among foreigners of one of China's critical problems. Also in 1930, Chen's botany institute started publishing English-language journal. Formerly, Sun Yatsen University's publications had been in an Chinese and dealt with problems of only local interest; the new journal was intended for \"the scientific world as a whole.\" Chen and his colleagues accepted Merrill's advice to have a one-word title for ease of citation; they called the journal Sunyatsenia because the University was founded by Dr. Sun, \"the 'father' of our republic....\"42 Chen attended two international scientific congresses in 1930. At the Fourth Pan-Pacific Science Congress in Java, Chen gave a paper on the flora of Guangdong. In August, the 19 ing of reference collections in China.43 Before and after the conference there was time for study of the collections at Kew Gardens in London and discussions with Merrill. At the beginning of 1930, Merrill left the University of California to become director of the New York Botanical Garden. Merrill had money for exploration, and Chen proposed a botanical expedition to Hainan under the joint auspices of the New York Botanical Garden and his own institute.44 The idea developed into a series of expeditions carried out over the next few years. The European trip was a punctuation point in Chen's career. He was now working as an equal with his Western colleagues; he was part of the international botanical community. During the 1930s, work on the flora of South China steadily expanded under Chen's leadership. In 1934, the China Foundation upgraded Chen's science professorship to a research professorship so that Chen could coordinate botanical work in Guangdong and Guangxi provinces. The foundation and the Guangxi provincial government provided funds to organize the Research Institute of Botany at the University of Kwangsi (Guangxi), with Chen as head. The institute used the building of the former British consulate in Wuzhou. The situation at the University of edge of the flora of Hainan and Kwangtung [Guangdong].\" The 1930s were productive years for Chen, and he became accepted as the leading figure in South China botany by both Chinese and foreigners. He was held in affectionate regard, and his personal life was a major item of gossip among botanical workers at Sun Yatsen, Lingnan, and Kwangsi. In the mid-1930s Chen started collaborating with his niece, Chen Shuzhen, known as Faith, on Chinese trees of the storax family. Chen had already married the daughter of a wealthy Hong Kong family, but the marriage had not produced children. When Chen and Faith were seen romance of a became rife among South China botanical workers. After Chen's wife died, he remarried, but not Faith. He married his housemaid, who bore him two children, a boy and a girl.46 constantly working together, rumors Guangxi was congenial; president Ma Junwu was specially interested in biology-he had translated Darwin's Origin of Species into Chinese-and was sympathetic to Chen's research.s In 1935, Chen's work and the work of botanists throughout China benefited from The War Years, 1937-1945 Botany in China and Chen's career developed swiftly until the outbreak of war with Japan in 1937. The country was shocked when Japanese troops invaded the capital in Nanjing, looting and raping with fierce savagery. Chen worked at the botanical institute in Guangzhou until the city fell to the Japanese in October 1938. Chen later recounted to Merrill his escape to Hong Kong during the Japanese bombing: Bombs fell on the compounds of our Institute.... You suggested removal to Hong Kong in readiness for instant shipment of the herbarium and library to New York, for the duration, at your expense.... We moved somehow. Finally Canton [Guangzhou] was completely evacuated but I slipped alone into Shameen [Shamian].... The Japanese used Germans to search residences of Shameen for Chinese refugees. Merrill's change of position from Director of the New York Botanical Garden to Administrator of Botanical Collections at Harvard University. Now the leading Western expert on China's flora was united with the extensive collections of Chinese plants at the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium. That same year Chen and Hu Xiansu published volume four of their Icones Plantarum Sinicarum, dedicated to Merrill \"in recognition of his signal contribution to the knowl- They came to my hiding place at midnight but I tricked the Nazis. When my mission failed I made my way by foot to Hong Kong g disguised as a coolie. Chen and his coworkers resumed operations in the Kowloon section of the British colony 20 best they could. The China Foundation continued its support, but those funds were not sufficient. Chen's \"sister-in-law mortgaged her house to keep the Institute running.\" When Chen cabled Merrill for money, Merrill sent small amounts out of his own income.4' The Japanese captured Hong Kong on Christmas day, 1941. Japanese soldiers with fixed bayonets took possession of the institute's Kowloon premises. Chen again successfully obtained sanctuary for the institute's botanical work. He asked the director of education of the Japanese puppet government in Guangdong for permission to move the botanical collections of Sun Yatsen University back to Guangzhou. Chen got permission and an appointment as professor in the puppet government's Kwangtung University, which had taken over the Lingnan University campus. The institute moved back. After the Japanese defeat, the Chinese Nationalist government charged Chen with \"cultural collaboration\" with the enemy because of his willingness to deal with the puppet government. The popular fervor surrounding the war-criminal trials produced hysterical accusations. Chen had gone against the Chinese tradition of absolutely opposing the enemy; now his own enemies had an opportunity to attack him. An investigating committee of the Ministry of Education and representatives of a group of professors and staff of Sun Yatsen University claimed that Chen worked for the Japanese puppet government as director of the \"Bureau of International Propaganda.\" Chen got a lawyer, the same Sun Yatsen University law professor appointed to defend the Commander of Japanese forces in South China, and solicited letters from Merrill and other colleagues attesting to the value of his actions to save the herbarium. Since there was no Bureau of International Propaganda, and since Chen's actions regarding the institute's collections seemed justified, the charges as were In 1946, Merrill arranged funding for Chen quashed.~ . the United States to work at Harvard for a year or two. With the criminal charges dropped it now seemed possible, but the Sun Yatsen University chancellor requested Chen stay in China, and Chen had \"no alternative but to comply.\" Chen worked to get his two institutes moving again, but over the next year he became depressed. No one at the Guangzhou institute was adequately paid. There was dissatisfaction, hopelessness, and a loss of will. Chen felt time slipping by. Since the Japanese capitulation, the institute had made no progress. Chen told Merrill: \"I am only a few months this side of sixty with nothing much to look forward to aside from a lonely old age. I am utterly tired in body and spirit but goad myself on with feigned optimism.\" Chen felt the ambition for a final spurt of accomplishment. He asked the seemingly indefatigable Merrill: \"Out of your rich life and experience what would you think I must do to get out of this slough of despond?\"'9 Chen did not know that Merrill had spared his Chinese colleagues news of his own despondency. Merrill resigned the directorship of the Arnold Arboretum in June 1946 over a controversy about the use of the arboretum's endowment, an endowment that he was largely responsible for building up. Merrill stressed to contributors that their gifts would only be used for arboretum purposes and used the funds to augment the living collections of the arboretum as rapidly as possible. He was criticized for obtaining more material than the arboretum could digest. The Harvard administration promoted a plan that would use the arboretum's endowment for botany work in general at Harvard. Merrill fought the plan, maintaining that he was following the indenture of 1872 to establish and support an arboretum \"which shall contain as far as is practicable, all trees and shrubs 'whether indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air....\"' The new plan would wreck the great heritage of Charles Sargent. Merrill lost the battle with Harvard, and he lost his to come to 21 Professor courtesy Chen Huanyong, founder and first director of the South China Botanical Institute in Canton. Photograph of Professor F. H. Chen, director of the South China Botanical Institute of the Chinese Academy of Science (Academia Sinica) through Dr. Shiu-ying Hu. health as well.~ In June of 1949, Chen wrote to Merrill of his desperate attempts to save the institute in Guangxi as the South China situation became tense.5' It was the last time Merrill heard from Chen. The revolution under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party was successful. Science in China would be completely reorganized. Science in the People's Republic, 1949-1971 On 1 November 1949, the new Chinese Academy of Sciences was established and rapidly began absorbing scientific research institutes in the Beijing area. In late November, Hu Xiansu wrote to Merrill about the troubles and suspension of work at the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology while it was being transferred to the academy's control. Hu hoped the institute could return to normal operations when the new arrangements were finalized. Hu had not heard from Chen, but explained that \"Canton [Guangzhou] has been 'liberated,\"' and he trusted that Chen was \"doing well, as the present regime professes a high esteem to natural science and to scientists.\"Sz It was not until 1954, that Chen's institute at Sun Yatsen University was also placed under the auspices of the Academy of Sciences and given a new name, South China Institute of Botany.~ In September 1954, 1,200 delegates assembled in Beijing for the First National 22 People's Congress, the meeting which approved the constitution of the People's Republic of China. Chen and fellow botanists Qian Songshu and Qin Renchang were among the scientists who participated. On the afternoon of the fifteenth in Huai Ren Hall, Chairman Mao Zedong opened the conference, his remarks punctuated by the delegates thunderous applause. Along with general exhortations, Chairman Mao urged the people to \"do their best to learn from the advanced experience of the Soviet Union....\"54 During the sessions, many delegates made speeches. The participating scientists, almost all trained in the West, must have squirmed in their seats when chemist Hou Debang, vice chairman of the All-China Federation of Scientific Societies and renowned for his research on soda manufacture, gave his speech. Hou was a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Pratt Institute, and Columbia University. He prefaced his remarks by confessing. \"I am a person who has most deeply received American imperialist education, a person who received the severe poison of English and American capitalist education.\" During the anti-Japanese war, Hou supported Western science; after liberation he turned to Soviet science. Other scientists gave speeches: geologist Li Siguang, engineer Mao Yisheng, mathematician Hua Luogeng, and Forestry Liang Xi.ss At one session, biologists including Chen, Qian Songshu and Qin Renchang proposed that each province be required to designate a forest Minister of vegetation used in scientific research. The State Council approved their proposal.ss The same year as the National People's Congress, Chen published a paper on the characteristics of Soviet science as understood through its research on the bark of Eucommia (duzhong) .,17 The following year, 1955, Chen was made a member of the Chinese Academy of Sciences. As China increasingly turned towards the Soviet Union, ideas from Pavlov's psychology and physiology, Lepeshinskaia's cell biology, Michurin's ar- preserve to protect wild boriculture and Lysenko's genetics entered Chinese biology. A heated controversy developed between the supporters of Morganist (American) genetics and Lysenkoist (Soviet) genetics. Although Hu Xiansu's work did not bear on genetics, he involved himself in the debate as a matter of principle.~ Chen steered clear of this trouble. Through the 1950s and early 1960s, Chen kept publishing. Before liberation his work was mostly written in English; after liberation he wrote only in Chinese. This did not represent a total withdrawal from international botany; descriptions of new species and higher groups included the Latin descriptions required by international rules. Other colleagues also moved to the new pattern of language use. Hu Xiansu did not make the shift as rapidly as Chen, but by 1958 he also no longer wrote in anything but Chinese. This change was no doubt healthy for the development of Chinese botany, but the abrupt transition served to further isolate Chinese botanists and their colleagues in the West from each other. China's Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution began in 1966. In most areas, scientific work came to a halt. During the anti-Japanese war, there had been research activity. Now there was no research, no writing. Many scientists suffered deprivations and indignities. The few biologists permitted to read books considered themselves fortunate in the extreme. China, at war with herself, suppressed her scientists. Because Chen had exchanged botanical specimens and literature with foreign research institutions, he was accused of having illicit relations with foreign countries (litong waiguo) and of being a cultural traitor (wenhua hanjian). Severe persecution broke him in body and mind. By the end of 1970 he was eighty-one years old and severely ill. He would not live to see the end of the cultural revolution, nor would he live to see relations with the United States reestablished. The miseries of the Cultural Revolution reached their high point in 1971. Scientists under attack had the added anguish of seeing 23 their families suffer as well. Cultural Revolution politics followed Chen into Guangzhou's Sand River Hospital, where he lay terminally ill. At the beginning of January 1971, a certain professor came to extend his regards. It was reported that Chen said, \"I firmly trust the party; I firmly trust the party's policies; I firmly trust Chairman Mao's line.\" He died a few weeks later.59 Endnotes 1. \"Chen Huanyong\" is the equivalent in hanyu pinyin, the official romanization of the People's Republic of 5. This can be seen by following the annual reports for the arboretum's herbarium in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. 6. A. Chinese page 25. 7. Li J. Philpott, \"Comes From China to Boston to Study Trees,\" Boston Globe, 25 November 1917, Shugang, \"Mianhuai jiaohui, nuli pandeng\" [Recall the teaching, work hard to climb], Guangdongsheng g zhiwuxuehui huikan, Volume 2 (1985~, page 126; Marion Roby Case, The Second Summer at Hillcrest Farm (Weston, Massachusetts, 1911), page 6. China, for Woon-Young Chun, Woon-Yung Chun, or Chun, the various spellings Chen used for his name on publications or correspondence not in the Chinese language. A bibliography of Chen's scientific works can be compiled from Elmer Drew Merrill and Egbert H. Walker, A Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany (Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: Amold Arboretum, 1938), pages 79, 198, and 318; Egbert H. Walker, A t Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany Supplement 1, (Washington, D. C.: American Institute of BiologiW. Y. 8. Information on Chen's early years is sparse and unreliable. I have drawn mostly on a few lines in Chen Fenghuai et al., \"Jinian woguo jiechu zhiwuxuejia cal Sciences, 1960), pages 42, 48, and 49, and 226; Zhongguo zhiwuxue hui [Chinese Botanical Society], editor, Zhongguo zhiwuxue wenxian mulu [bibliography of Chinese botany] (Beijing: Kexue chubanshe, 1985), Volume 1, pages 68 and 69, 373; Volume 2, page 829. 2. Charles Chen Huanyong xiansheng\" [Commemorating China's outstanding botanist, Chen Huanyong\"], Guangdongsheng zhiwuxuehui huikan, Number 2 (1985), page 112. A. J. Philpott, \"Comes From China to Boston to Study Chinese Trees,\" mentions father Chen's job at the Hanbury School. For information on the Hanbury School, see N. Gist Gee, editor, The Educational Directory for China (no place: Educational Association of China, 1905), Appendix C, page 34; Zhongguo shehui kexueyuan jindaishi yanjiusuo fanyishi, Jindai laihua waiguo renming cidian [Dictionary of foreigners who came to China in the modem period] (Beijing: Zhongguo shehui kexue chubanshe, 1981), page 189. 9. Sheila Geary, \"The Sprague Sargent, \"The First Fifty Years of the Amold Arboretum,\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 3, Number 3 (January 1922), pages 127 and 129. a History of the Case Estates\" (unpublished manuscript, 1981), pages 3 and 4. 10. John G. Jack, \"The Arnold Arboretum: Some Personal Notes,\" Chronica Botanica, Volume 12, Numbers 4 to 6 (1948 and 1949), page 187. 11. Woon 3. For historical summary of the literature on the similarity between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America, see Li Hui-lin, Floristic Relationships Between Eastern Asia and Eastern North Young Chun [Chen Huanyong], \"Forestry in China,\" Chinese Students' Monthly, Volume 6, Number 3 (10 January 1911), pages 274 to 276. America (Philadelphia: American Philosophical Society, 1971), reprinted from Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, New Series, Volume 42 (1952), pages 372 and 373, and D. E. Boufford and S. A. Spongberg, \"Eastem Asia-Eastem North American Phytogeographical Relationships-A History from the Time of Linnaeus to 12. New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University, News Letter, 19 August 1914, page [5]. 13. Woon nese the Twentieth Yung Chun, \"The Ithaca Conference,\" ChiStudents' Monthly, Volume 9, Number 1 (10 November 1913), pages 59 to 63. For the consortium, see Roberta Allbert Dayer, Bankers and Diplomats in China 1917-1925 (London: Frank Cass and Company, Century,Anna7s of the Missouri Botanical Garden, Volume 70, Number 3 (1983), pages 423 to 439. For Gray's work in this area, see A. Hunter Dupree, Asa Gray (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1959), Chapter 13. A summary of Bretschneider's shipment of seeds to Sargent is contained in Bretschneider to Sargent 9\/25\/1893, Arnold Arboretum Archives, Harvard University. 4. See Stephanne B. 1981), page 25. Yung Chun, \"East Is East and West Is West,\" Monthly, Volume 9, Number 6 \" 14. Woon Chinese Students' \/10 April 1914), pages 491 to 493. 15. Woon Yung Chun, \"Bitter Strength,\" Chinese Students' Monthly, Volume 9, Number 8 ( 10 June 1914), pages 602 and 603. tematic 16. Sutton, Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1970), Chapters 8 to 10. Woon-young Chun, \"Recent developments in sysbotany in China,\" in: Fifth International Botanical Congress, Report of Proceedings (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1931),page 524; 24 Chien Sung-shu [Qian Songshu], \"Two Asiatic Allies of Ranunculus pensylvanicus,\" Rhodora, Volume 18, Number 213 (September 1916), pages 189 and 190. 17. For information Xinxuan's careers on pages 201 to 203 (1982). at Qian Songshu and Zhong Harvard, see their respective registration cards, UA V 161.272.5 and UA V 252.276, Harvard University Archives. For a biography of Qian, see Zou Anshou, \"Qian Songshu,\" in: Tan Jiazhuan 27. On Guo's recruitment activity, see Barry Keenan, The Dewey Experiment in China: Educational Reform and Political Power in the Early Republic (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1977), pages 56 and 57. For a biography of Guo, see Biographical Dictionary of Republican China, Volume 2, pages 276 and 277 (1968). 28. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 1\/25\/47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. For a short biography of Hu Xiansu, see Yu Dejun, \"Hu Xiansu,\" in: Tan Jiazhen, editor, Zhongguo xiandai shengwwruejia zhuan, pages 70 to 85. zhen, editor, Zhongguo xiandai shengwuxuejia [Biographies of modem Chinese biologists] (Changsha: Hunan kexue jishu chubanshe, 1986), pages 12 to 20. 18. For Chen's addresses, see his Bussey Institution Registration and Record Card, UA V 252.276, Harvard University Archives. 29. Hu Xiansu to C. S. Sargent 12\/17\/20, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 30. For information on Hu's enrollment, see his Bussey Institution Registration and Record Card UA V 19. A. J. Philpott, \"Comes From China to Boston to Study Chinese Trees,\" page 25. 20. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 1\/25\/47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Gray 252.276, Harvard University Archives. 31. Herbarium, Harvard University. 21. For Wheeler's action, see Bursar, Harvard University to John G. Jack 5\/23\/25, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Gray Herbarium, Harvard University. For Wheeler's publications on the ants of China, see the years 1921, 1923, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1931, and 1933 in the bibliography in: Mary Alice Evans and Howard Ensign Evans, William Morton Wheeler, Biologist (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, John Jack to Chen Huanyong 5\/30\/25, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard Univer- sity. 32. Hu Xiansu to John Jack 10\/2\/25, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 33. Elmer Drew Merrill, \"The Local Resident's Opportu\" nity for Productive Work in the Biological Sciences,\" Lingnan Science Journal, Volume 7(1929), page 293. See R. Schultes, \"Elmer Drew Merrill-An Appreciation,\" Taxon, Volume 6, Number 4 (May 1957), pages 89 to 101 for brief overview of Merrill's career. 34. Albert N. Steward to Elmer D. 35. Elmer D. Merrill to Chen 1970). 22. John Jack to B. L. Robinson, 7\/1\/19, Gray Herbarium Library, Harvard University. 23. Benjamin C. Henry, Ling-Nam or Interior Views of Southern China, Including Exploiations in the Hitherto Untraversed Island of Hainan (London: S. W. Partridge and Company, 1886), page 383. 24. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 1\/25\/47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Gray Merrill, 6\/21\/24, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley. Huanyong, 1\/15\/24, Herbarium, University of Califomia, Berkeley. 36. John H. Reisner to Elmer D. Merrill, 11\/2\/25, Herbarium, University of Califomia, Berkeley. Reisner also lobbied Comell Professor Harry H. Love; see Reisner and T. S. Kuo to Love, 10\/20\/25, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley. 37. Hu Xiansu to John Jack 9\/30\/26, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 38. Qin Renchang to Elmer D. Merrill, Herbarium, Harvard University. 25. Two Chinese Muslims quit the University of Nanking rather than submit to the religion requirements; see Jessie Gregory Lutz, China and the Christian Colleges, 1850-1950 (Ithaca: Comell University Press, 1971, page 92). Chen Fenghuai et al., \"Jinian woguo jiechu zhiwuxuejia Chen Huanyong xiansheng,\" tute page 114. 26. Interview with Chen Fenghuai, South China Instiof Botany, Guangzhou, Guangdong, 4\/5\/86. Professor Chen Fenghuai was Chen Huanyong's student at the University of Nanking. After Chen Huanyong switched to Southeastern University, Chen Fenghuai followed him there. For a short biography of Chen Fenghuai, see Zhongguo kexuejia cithan [Dictionary of Chinese scientists], Volume 1, 6\/29\/27, 11\/2\/27, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley. 39. Elmer D. Merrill to Floyd A. McClure, 1\/14\/29; McClure to Merrill, 1\/25\/29; Chen Huanyong to Merrill, 1\/22\/29, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley. 40. William E. Hoffman to Elmer D. Merrill, 3\/14\/29, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley. 41. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 7\/22\/29, Herbarium, University of Califomia, Berkeley. 25 42. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 11\/22\/29, Herbarium, University of California, Berkeley; P. F. Shen, \"Forward,\" Sunyatsenia, Volume 1, Number 1 (June 1930), no page number. Merrill had also influenced Academia Sinica's Metropolitan Museum of Natural History to adopt a one-word title for its contributions, Sinensia; see Chien Tien-ho [Qian Tianhe], \"Preface,\" Sinensia, Volume 1, Number 1 (August 1929), no page number. 43. Chun Woon-yung, \"Recent developments in systematic botany in China,\" in: Fifth International Botanical Congress, Report of Proceedings (Cambridge : Cambridge University Press, 1931pages 524 to 528. For a brief description of the Fifth Intemational Botanical Congress, see A.B. Rendle, \"A short history of the International Botanical Congresses,\" Chronica Botanica, Volume 1 \/1935[, pages 39 and 40. 44. Elmer D. Merrill to Chen 53. Zhongguo kexueyuan bangongting, editor, Zhongguo kexueyuan: jieshao [The Chinese Academy of Sciences: an introduction] (Beijing: Kexue Chubanshe, 1986), page 239. 54. For a description of the delegates attending, see Survey of China Mainland Press Number 884 (8 and 9 September 1954), pages 16 and 17; a translation of Chairman Mao's speech is in: Survey of China Mainland Press, Number 889 (16 September 1954), pages 1 and 2. 55. \"Hou Debang daibiao de fayan\" [Delegate Hou Debang's speech], Renmin ribao [People's Daily], 27 September 1984, page 4. For summaries of the remarks of Li, Mao, Hua and Liang, see Hsinhua News Agency, Daily News Release, Number 1746 (25 September 1954), pages 246, 247, 257, and 258. For biographies of Hou Debang and Hua Luogeng, see Biographical Dictionary of Republican China, Volume 2 (1968), pages 84 to 86,185 to 187; for Li Siguang and Liang Xi, see Donald W. Klein and Anne B. Clark, Biographic Dictionary of Chinese Communism 1921-1965, Volume 1 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1971), pages 522 to 524, 543 and 544. Huanyong, 12\/24\/30; Merrill, 1\/15\/31, Herbarium, University of Califomia, Berkeley. 45. For a brief description of the Institute, see W. Y. Chyne, Handbook of Cultural Institutions in China (Taipei: Ch'eng-wen Publishing Co., 1967), page 227. 46. Interview with Hu Shiu-ying [Hu Xiuying], Harvard University Herbaria, Harvard University, 8 March 1988. Dr. Hu, a botany student at Lingnan University during the 1930s, reports these \"facts\" of Chen's personal life as common knowledge among South Chen to 56. \"Chen Huanyong,\" Zhongguo ke~cuejia cidian, Volume 2 (1983), page 205. 57. Chen Huanyong, \"Cong duzhong de yanjiu lai renshi Sulian kexue de tedian\" [Study of the bark of Eucommia to understand characteristics of Soviet science\"], Kexue Tongbao, 1954, Number 8, page 22. 58. For Hu Xiansu's position, see the translation of some of his remarks at the 1956 genetics symposium at Qindao in: Laurence Schneider, editor, Lysenkoism in China: Proceedings of the 1956 Qingdao Genetics Symposium (Armonk, New York: M. E. Sharpe, Inc., 1986), pages 21 to 24; for a full transcript of the symposium, see Li Peishan et al., Bai jia zheng g ming fazhan kexue de bi you zhi lu: 1956 nian 8 yue Qingdao yichuanxue zuotanhui jishi [Let a hundred schools contend-the only way to develop science: a record of the August 1956 Qingdao Genetics Confer- China botanists. 47. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill 1\/25\/47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard Uni- versity. 48. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill 1\/15\/47, 3\/5\/ 47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 49. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 9\/29\/48, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 50. Elmer D. Merrill, \"Memorandum to Dr. P. C. Mangelsdorf,\" 5\/20\/46; Augusta S. Merrill to Richard A. Howard, 10\/29\/46, Archives, New York Bo- 59. Chen ence] (Beijing: Shangwu ymshuguan, 1985). Fenghuai et al., \"Jinian woguo jiechu zhiwuxuejia Chen Huanyong xiansheng,\" page 117. tanical Garden. Merrill mentions his resignation of the Arnold Arboretum directorship on 1 June 1946 in Elmer Drew Merrill to Dean Paul H. Buck, 2\/12\/47, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard University. 51. Chen Huanyong to Elmer D. Merrill, 6\/20\/49, Arnold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard William J. Haas is a graduate student in the Science Program, Harvard University. History of University. 52. Hu Xiansu to Elmer D. Merrill, 24\/11\/49, Amold Arboretum Chinese Correspondence, Harvard Uni- versity. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forestry in Fujuan Province, People's Republic of China, During the Cultural Revolution","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24935","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170af6d.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"Forestry in Fujian Province, People's Republic of China, during the Cultural Revolution Richard B. Primack Excesses of the Cultural Revolution undermined forestry education in China and greatly harmed her forests Fujian (Fukien) Province is situated on the coast of central China, opposite Taiwan. Until recently it was closed to foreigners, and even today special permission is needed to visit anything other than a few large coastal cities such as Fuzhou (Foochow) and Ximen (Amoy). In January 1986 I made a two-week trip to Fujian to visit my wife Margaret's relatives and to give lectures at the Fujian Forestry College. The visit provided an opportunity to evaluate the ecological status of a part of China rarely visited by foreign scientists. During the visit I learned about the devastation of Fujian's forests during the Cultural Revolution (1966-1976) and the government's response to rebuild the forests after 1976. nese nese fir (Cunninghamia lanceolata) and Chi- pine (Pinus massoniana Lamb), regenerwell. The Chinese pine may form almost pure stands, particularly on dry sites. The Chinese fir grows best in moist sites, often in association with other species. This ate very ecological disclimax of conifers has been used by foresters to maximize wood production either by manipulating the forest or by planting the seedlings. Margaret and I were met at the Fuzhou airport by her relatives, who are peasants in the rural Minqing District. As we drove through the hill country from the airport to their home district, a distance of roughly 120 kilometers, we did not see any mature forests. The hillsides were covered with grass, low shrubs, and ferns. Many hillsides were covered with plantations of small trees of pine and Chinese fir. Most of these trees looked to be less than ten years old. Arriving at the large valley of my in-laws' village, we could see grasses (mostly Miscanthus sinensis and Miscanthus floridulus\/, ferns (mostly Dicranopteris linearis), and shrubs covering all of the slopes for miles around. Yet from my perspective it seemed curious that, despite the abundance of grassland, there didn't seem to be any grazing animals on the extensive hill slopes, except for an occasional water buffalo. When I questioned my wife's relatives about the absence of trees and grazing animals, they told me that twenty years before the valley had been heavily forested. To say the least, I was dumfounded at this abundant change in Lying just north of the Tropics, Fujian en- joys a subtropical climate. Most rain comes in the spring, and frosts are light except in the mountains. The maj or fruit tree is the orange, lychees and longans being grown in southern and coastal areas. Most of the province is hilly, with some beautiful scenic areas, such as the famous Wuyi Mountain. Fujian is very old, the province having been established as a political division more than 20,000 years ago, and is famous for its many historical places, superb handicrafts of lacquerware, and the cultured and industrious nature of its citizens. The native forest (evergreen subtropical forest) has an extremely high diversity of woody species. Following disturbance by man, two fast-growing native conifers, Chi- 27 land use in a district that had been settled for thousands of years. The next week, we travelled for nine hours over the hill country to reach the Fujian Forestry College in Nanping, in the center of the Province. During this entire trip we saw no mature native forest or large trees-only extensive plantations of small coniferous trees and small stands of naturally regenerating pines. By the time we reached Nanping, I was full of questions about the absence of forests. Over the next week, the faculty of the Forestry College described to me how the Fujian forests and the Fujian College were damaged during the Cultural Revolution. Before the Cultural Revolution began, in 1966, there were 2,500,000 hectares of forest, out of a total of 12,000,000 hectares. About 40 percent of the forest was warm-temperate or subtropical forest. The forest had been managed for hundreds, possibly even thousands, of years for sustained yield. Permission to cut any tree, even for local use, had to come from Forest by the Red Guard, the youth movement of the Cultural Revolution. The department staff were told repeatedly that all true knowledge and power rested with the peasants and that the Forest Department officers were of the bourgeoisie. The Forest Department staff were urged to organize political groups to Department officers. The forests con- tained large, mature trees of chestnut (Castree tanopsis species), camphor momum (Cinnacamphor\/, Phc~be namu, and Shima superba. Many species in these forests are superb hardwoods prized for their use in furnature. Camphor wood was especially valued for boxes because it repelled insects. Large stands of bamboo forest (Phyllostachys pubescens) are located within the hardwood forest and were actively managed for bamboo products. The Cultural Revolution was a time of confusion and turmoil in China that lasted from 1966 until 1976 (Abelson, 1979). Its ostensible purpose was to eliminate capitalist and bourgeois attitudes from society and to return to the original ideals of the communist revolution. During the Cultural Revolution, leaders of all government departments came under criticism. The Forest Department was not exempt, even though its policies were of such clear benefit to the people. At public meetings the officers of the Forest Department were criticized and publicly humiliated formulate forestry ideas consistent with the aims of the Cultural Revolution. The result of this political activity was that by 1970 the officers of the Forest Department had lost all control of the management of the forests. Planting of trees continued on the regular schedule, but supervision of logging completely ceased. If the peasants wanted wood, then they were not stopped, since the Cultural Revolution taught that the peasants knew best. Unsupervised cutting of trees started as a trickle, but soon the people realized that the Forest Department was not going to interfere. The peasants' hunger for wood had been carefully controlled for centuries by the Forest Department. Without this control, the hunger for wood exploded into a six-year-long orgy of illegal logging. Throughout the province, carefully managed natural forests and mature plantations were cut down and used for furniture, construction, and fuel. The peasants scrambled to cut as much wood as possible because the wood was free, and everyone wanted as much as he could get. From 1970 until 1976,most of the timber trees were cut down in certain areas of Fujian Province. The trees remaining were either small or of poor form. While some of the forests were still present, their economic value was drastically reduced. The destruction of the forests was particularly severe in the southern part of Fujian Province, where there was less forest to begin with. The hillsides around the big towns had been completely forested with Chinese firs and pines in 1966, but by 1972 the hills were totally cleared of trees. This same destruction of forests was also occurring, to a greater or lesser degree, throughout China during this period. One of the major targets of the Cultural 28 Revolution was the Education Department. The Red Guards felt that this department was full of bourgeois teachers who were corrupting the youth. The Forestry College was under the supervision of the Education Department and was therefore heavily criticized. The beginning of the Cultural Revolution was a time of great uncertainty at the Forestry College. No one knew what the Cultural Revolution meant. Fighting broke out in the city of Nanping among the Red Guards and other groups within the Communist Party. In Nanping, as in the rest of China, the Red Guards gained control of the political structure and began to implement the policies of the Cultural Revolution. One of their first actions was to burn down a famous Buddhist temple, built in the ninth century, as well as churches and shrines. In the Forestry College, professors began to be criticized by forestry students belonging to the Red Guards. The professors were criticized for their supposed bourgeois attitudes and for teaching capitalist ideas that were a betrayal of the peasants. At no time during this period were specific policies of the Forestry College or the Forest Department criticized. During the first four years of the Cultural Revolution the criticism levelled against the professors increased in intensity and violence. At first, professors were being paraded in front of large public gatherings, publicly criticized, and even publicly slapped and beaten by the Red Guards. Their families were harassed in the same way. Professors began to fear for their lives. Confusion reigned at the College. Students were attending classes infrequently and were spending much of their time at political meetings. The city of Na~ping was similarly in chaos. The activities of the Red Guards in the Forestry College were led by about six individuals, who were responsible for most of the violence. The remaining hundreds of students went along with the policies of the Cultural Revolution, in part because they were duped and in part because they had no choice. Finally, in April 1970, the leaders of the Communist Party decided to disband the Forestry College. It was felt that the College worthless because it taught only bourgeois values. The entire faculty of the College was and their families were sent out to the countryside to work at the Forest Department nurseries, where they toiled alongside peasants producing tree seedlings for planting. During this period the faculty members had no idea of how long they would remain in the countryside or what their fates would be. The faculty members were treated well by the peasants with whom they worked, and the memories of these times are not entirely unpleasant. In August 1972, with no explanation or warning, the faculty members were recalled to Nanping to reconstitute the College. But any hopes that the College would return to normal were immediately dashed. The new student body of so-called workerpeasant-soldier students was selected by the Communist Party primarily on the basis of political qualifications. No entrance examinations were required of incoming students. While many students were well qualified, others had received no prior education at all. The curriculum was rewritten by the students to conform with the views of the Cultural Revolution. Political meetings and discussions were emphasized in the new curriculum. Attending class or taking examinations was considered irrelevant. College policies and decisions and student promotions were made by student political groups. The faculty was powerless and could only passively submit to forces totally beyond its control. To resist the student political groups would have meant public criticism, through physical intimidation had ceased by this time. Students \"graduated\" from the College on the basis of their political views, not their knowledge of forestry. In 1976, the Gang of Four was overthrown and the leaders of the Cultural Revolution arrested. At this point, Deng Xiao Ping, the future leader of China, returned to the government and took over the administration of science and education. The effects of these 29 political developments in Fujian Province were felt gradually. Over a two-year period the province returned to normal and the Forestry College's curriculum was reestablished. The leaders of the Forestry College and the Forestry Department regained control of their staffs. Students of the College again showed respect for their teachers. The Red Guard leaders in the Forestry College who had committed acts of violence were jailed for several years but never tried for their crimes. Those unqualified students who had not studied during their years at the College failed their examinations and were returned to their villages. Students who had \"graduated\" from 1972 to 1976 but who were unqualified were evaluated and reduced in rank. The Forest Department reasserted its control over forest management, with no resistance from the peasants. The peasants themselves welcomed the return to normality after the chaos of the Cultural Revolution. Besides, everyone could see how badly the forests had been damaged. Since 1976, the Forest Department has vigorously continued its policy of planting trees. Two million hectares of forests have been planted since 197G, giving a total projected forest area of 5,000,000 hectares. About 35 percent of this forest is native hardwoods, mostly thinned forest or scrubby, regenerating forest. Roughly 18 percent is bamboo forest. The remaining forest is composed of Chinese fir and pine, most of which is planted and small in size. There currently is a shortage of timber trees in the province, since almost none of the planted forests are mature. The most severe shortages are of the high-quality hardwoods used in furniture manufacture. The current burst of economic activity in China has aggravated the problem by increasing the demand for construction wood. New buildings are being built everywhere throughout the cities, towns, and villages of Fujian Province, and wood is needed. There are several bright notes in this sad story. At least 3,000,000 hectares of land have been planted with trees during the last twenty years. As these forests mature over the next thirty years, the timber situation will gradually improve. Plantation forests will be established on all hillslopes, and much of the forest will be of good size. The importance of forests to the people of China was reaffirmed recently by the People's Congress, which established a Tree Planting Day. On March 12 of every year, each individual, no matter where he lives, must travel to the mountains and plant a tree. However, the natural forests that were destroyed can never be regained. The Forest Department has recognized the importance of protecting the remaining stands of natural forest through a special classification: Protected State Forest Reserves. The largest of these is the 50,000-hectare reserve at scenic Wuyi Mountain. These Forest Reserves and the enormous plantings of young trees represent the continued hope of the Chinese people, despite the tragedy of the Cultural Revolution. This is a lesson for foresters, politicians, and the general public about the dangers of ignoring the realities of forest ecology. References 1979. China in transition. Science, Volume 203, Number 4,380), pages 505 to 508. Dickerman, M. B., D. P. Duncan, C. M. Gallegos, and F. B. Clark, 1981. Forestry today in China: Report of a month's tour by a team of American foresters. Journal of Forestry, Volume 79, Number 2, pages [i], 71 to 75. Hsiung, W.-Y., and F. D. Johnson, 1981. Forests and forestry in China. Journal of Forestry, Volume 79, Number 2, pages 76 to 79. Abelson, Philip H., Kellison, R. C., R. J. Dinus, L. Fins, K. K. Ching, S. L. Krugman, and J. A. Winienski, 1982. Forest tree improvement in the People's Republic of China. Journal of Forestry, Volume 80, Number 10, pages [i], 638 to 641. Richard B. Primack is on the faculty of Boston Univer- sity. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chinese Botany and the Odyssey of Dr. Shiu-ying Hu: Interview","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24934","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170af28.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Adams, Sally Aldrich","article_content":"INTERVIEW Chinese Botany and the In a Odyssey of Dr. Shiu-ying Hu brief retrospective interview, a Chinese botanist who remained in the United some highpoints of Chinese botany at Harvard over the past several decades States, recalls In the interview transcribed recent below, Sally Aldrich Adams captures some of the essence of Chinese botany as it was experienced by Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, a former member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Adams conducted this and several other interviews at Arnoldia's request so as to document the contributions that Arboretum botanists have made to the development of botany in China. In the years when the People's Republic of closed to outsiders and foreign scientists could not keep up their contacts with Chinese colleagues or pursue their studies inside the country, the Arnold Arboretum was fortunate in having on its staff a botanist, Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, who could maintain at least a thread of the former association. Dr. Hu had come in 1946 to study with Dr. E. D. Merrill for three years, and she stayed on to work for twenty-eight more, until her retirement. She still works in her office every China was they needed in their work, I sent it to them. That has made many people know that there \" is a Chinese botanist at Harvard.\" To go back to the beginning of Dr. Hu's story: Hu went to Lingnan in Canton (formerly Canton University Christian College) as a graduate student in botany, with an assistantship in the herbarium. Impressed that every sheet of specimens had been identified by \"E. D. Merrill,\" she In 1934 Shiu-ying day. When Chinese botanists did not dare write Americans, they could write to her; when they needed books but could not get American dollars to buy them, they turned to her. She provided, at her own expense, the literature they asked for and for several of them paid membership fees in international scientific associations so that they could receive publications. To Dr. Hu, this was a way she could serve China. \"In Peking, in Canton, in different cities, I did that for them. While there was no communication between American botanists and Chinese botanists, there was a slight communication between Chinese botanists and 1!\" Dr. Hu's English slips a little when she is excited, as she was when she related this to her visitor. \"Whenever they needed some literature-at that time we didn't have Xerox machines-I photographed them, or I microfilmed, or some I typed, so whatever material to said she wanted to study with this famous botanist and asked where he was. She was told that he was at Harvard and that Harvard \" \"didn't take girls.\" Just as Shiu-ying Hu got her master's degree, Japan started war with China, and her university moved to a safer area, the city of Chengtu, where West China Union University, also a missionary college, became host to several refugee colleges. There, in addition to teaching courses in botany, Miss Hu was elected president of the International Women's Club, a circumstance instrumental in getting her to America to study with Dr. Merrill. The vice president of the club was a Radcliffe graduate, and she sent Miss Hu's application to her own alma mater. When a fellowship offer came through, two other American friends provided money for Miss Hu's transportation. (Her salary from the university at the time was paid in rice, three bushels a month, a medium of exchange not readily 31 converted into tickets to America.)J Soon after Dr. Hu graduated from Radcliffe, a vacancy for a trained botanist who knew Chinese plants opened up at the Arnold Arboretum. \"At that time, racial and sexual discrimination was very heavy, so my salary was about the same as the janitor's,\" Dr. Hu said with a smile. \"Being a Chinese botanist, I had no business staying in America and not working for Chinese botany. But now in Harvard I was working for Chinese botany, so I felt all right.\" One of Dr. Hu's projects in the 1950s was financed by a grant from a group of Chinese businessmen who, unable to return to Communist China, wanted to do something for their homeland. Her proposal was for a flora of China, and as the first step she completed an index to the flora in card-catalog form. \"Many people come and use my file, and that's one of the Arboretum's working tools in research on Chinese plants,\" she said. The second step would have been to publish the index, but administrative and financial changes intervened, and only two plant families were published, the Composite and the Orchidaceae. \"That desire to work on the flora of China was never dead,\" Dr. Hu said, \"but I became old, and I said, 'If I can't finish the flora of this big area, I could work on the flora of a smaller \" charge of the tour]; they just won't listen to ,, me.\" area. To this end, she went to Hong Kong six times between 1968 and 1975 at the invitation of the Chinese university there, and Without official sanction, Dr. Hu sent the Beijing to a botanist friend with whom she had corresponded for years. The messenger was her nephew, who found the man in a traditional bathhouse and received only the message, \"Go back.\" Later that night a girl appeared at Dr. Hu's hotel room and told her to go to the Institute of Botany the next day. Skipping the tour program for the day, Dr. Hu went to the institute and found a party in her honor, as well as the gratifying chance to talk with her Chinese colleagues. Further gratification came the next day as her plane was leaving. T. T. Yu, Deputy Director of the Institute of Botany and a former student of H. H. Hu, came with two other botanists to say, \"Please bear our \" greetings to botanists elsewhere.\" In 1977, after Mao died, T. T. Yu asked Dr. Hu to go to China and work with young Chinese botanists. She went the following year lecturing and giving intensive courses in Beijing, Lingnan, Manchuria, and Shanghai. Dr. Hu made her last trip to China in 1984, when she was the keynote speaker at an international symposium in Hong Kong on Chinese medicinal-plant research and went on to Canton to give ten lectures. She was made an honorary professor at South China message that she was in Agricultural University in a ceremony attended by the governor of the province and other officials. A second honor came to her in her own province, Kiangsu, where she was made an advisor of the botanical institute. She then travelled to Tibet and Mongolia, \"...and I went to places that no other foreign botanists were allowed to go. So I have in my file material to write on the frontier of Chinese botany\"-both the physical frontier and the metaphorical one, she explained. Dr. Hu is at present writing articles on Chinese food plants and on Chinese medicinal plants introduced into America as ornamental plants and weeds. \"Seven hundred of them,\" she exclaimed. \"And I had such a big collected specimens while teaching two courses. While in Hong Kong in 1975, a tour was organized for faculty members to see science, education, and technology in the People's Republic of China. With great difficulty because of her American passport, Dr. Hu obtained the necessary permit to go. \"Mao Tse-tung was still alive. No Chinese botanist was allowed to see any foreign botanist.\" Dr. Hu told her story dramatically. \"But I want to see Chinese botanists. How can I do it? If only I can let them know I'm in Beijing, I know they will see me, because they asked me to do so much. I made many petitions [to the Chinese government agent in part!\" ~~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pinus bungeana Zuccarini- A Ghostly Pine","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24936","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170b326.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Pinus bungeana Zuccarini-A Ghostly Pine Robert G. Nicholson This attractive, white-barked pine from China, once a favorite of emperors, would be suitable for modern parks, cemeteries, campuses, golf courses, and lawn plantings sits in a garden with peach trees, and willows, without a single pine flowers, in sight, it is like sitting among children and women without any venerable man in the vicinity to whom one may look up. When one -Li Li-weng its chauvinism, Li's assertion does indicate the high regard the Chinese have for pines in the garden. It also hints at the symbolic system that existed in Li's time: plants sited in a garden were not chosen for form, texture, and flower alone, but also as symbols of abstract thought or representatives of human qualities. Pines portrayed hardiness, strength of character, virtue, or stalwart friendship in adverse times. These extraordinary trees had a stately poise, a silent wisdom attained only through longevity; their age often was embodied by their gnarled habits or stout trunks. Along with bamboo and the early-flowering apricot, pines formed a trio of plants known as \"the three friends of the cold season,\" as they lent respite to winter with their evergreen foliage or early flower- Despite and has come to be known in the West as the lacebark pine, Pinus bungeana. It was first described by Joseph Zuccarini (1797-1848) from specimens that Aleksandr von Bunge (1803-1890) had collected in the temple gardens of Beijing; he was the first Westerner to collect the species. The first live material brought to England was a plant that Robert Fortune (1812-1880) had courtyard plantings purchased near Shanghai. An Englishman, Fortune travelled to China four times between 1843 and 1861. His interest in China's flora enabled him to supply plants to the leading horticulturists in London. An engaging chronicler of the era, Fortune gives vivid accounts in his books of plant hunting in China during the Imperial Dynasty, a period when \"barbarians\" were severely limited in their movements and had to resort to subterfuge to slip into restricted areas. In his book Yedo and Peking (1863), Fortune offers an account of a group of lacebark pines seen in a cemetery just west of Beijing. \"Near these Royal tombstones,\" he wrote, I observed a species of Pine-tree, having a peculiar habit and most striking appearance. It had a thick trunk, which rose from the ground to the height of three orfour feet only. At this point, some eight or ten branches sprang out, not branching or bending in the usual way, but rising perpendicularly, as straight as a larch, to the height of 80 or 100 feet. The bark of the main stem and the secondary ing. particular has for centuries been a favorite species for temple gardens and One pine in Two lacebark pines (Pinus bungeana Zuccarini) near the royal tombstones in Beijing as illustrated in Robert Fortune's Yedo and Peking (1863). 34 of a milky-white color, peeling like that of Arbutus, and the leaves which were chiefly on the top of the tree, were of a lighter green than those of the common Pine. Altogether this tree had a very curious appearance, very symmetrical in form, and the different specimens, which evidently occupied the most honourable place were as like one another as they could possibly be. In all my wanderings in India, China or Japan, I had never seen a pine tree like this one. What could it be?-Was it new ?-And had I at last found something to reward me for my journey to the far north? I went up to a spot where two of these trees were standing, like sentinels, one on each side of a grave. They were both covered with cones and, therefore, were in a fit state for a critical examination of the species. But although unknown in Europe, the species is not new. It proved to be one already known under the name of Pinus bungeana. I had formerly met with it in a young state in the county near Shang hae, and had already introduced it into England, although, until now, I had not the slightest idea of its extraordinary appearance when full grown. I would therefore advise those who have young plants in their collection to look carefully after them as the species is doubtless perfectly hardy in our climate and at some future day, it will form a remarkable object in our landscape. One of the trunks, which I measured at three feet from the ground, was 12 feet in circumference. stems was He trees 25 meters tall growing at meters in elevation, anchored in mud 1,250 and sandstone shales. Wilson wrote that \"on old trees the bark on the trunk, on the main reported branches and exposed main roots, is milkwhite and exfoliates in flakes of irregular contour.\" Since Fortune's merous accounts ally descriptions Beijing, and always expressing amazement at the white, milky bark. Forsythe Sherfessee, a forestry advisor to the Chinese government in the 1920s, wrote, \"It is one of the most remarkable of all trees on account of the dazzling whiteness of its bark, a feature which renders it wholly and strikingly unique. In addition, its form is graceful and picturesque, and its foliage unusually deli\" cate.\" Accounts from the wild are much harder to find, testifying to the rarity of the plant. Few western botanists have seen the species in its scattered native range, the provinces of day, there have been nuof the pine in China, generof trees seen at temples in Hopei, Shansi, Shensi, Kansu, Szechuan, Hupeh, and Honan. E. H. Wilson found the plant in two districts in western Hupeh but considered it very rare. Joseph Hers, a Belgian who collected in northern China during the 1920s, noted the plant growing \"in rather large numbers in the district of Lushih (Honan), always at about 1500 meters altitude, clinging to the rocks and also south west of Taiyuanfu (Shansi) at the same altitude.\" He recorded that the wood is very brittle, and despite a fine grain and nice color, was used by the Chinese only e for coffins. Hers' account of the lacebark pine also told of a brisk trade in wild-collected seedlings of the \"white-boned pine\" between Shansi and Honan to other provinces. Two accounts detail the tree's growth in Shansi Province. In 1924, Dr. Harry Smith, a botanist from Uppsala University in Sweden, travelled through the southern and central areas of the province and reported that large areas had been clear-cut and eroded near the more settled areas. Even the cemeteries and temples did not seem to shelter the flora as in other regions of China. One very important exception existed. A temple in the western Mien-shan Mountains at Chieh-Hsiu, had preserved an entire forest of Pinus bungeana, numbering about 4,000 trees. The lacebark pine was the chief component of this exotic white forest, but Cupressus sp. and Pinus tabulxformis also grew in the dry, stony ground, as did an understory of Cotoneaster, Pyrus, Lespedeza, Vitex, Vitis, and Rhamnus. I can only imagine the images a nature photographer such as Eliot Porter or Ansel Adams might have produced from a forest of whiteskinned conifers bedecked with soft, fresh snow. In 1929, T. Tang, on an expedition from the National University of Peking also collected in central and southern Shansi. He recorded Pinus bungeana from a number of sites, estimating some trees to be over 100 feet (30 m) tall. In a somewhat ominous aside, 35 Taken in 1913 at the Imperial Gardens, Beijing, by j. G. Coolidge, this photograph includes a specimen of the lacebark pine (far right). From the Archives of the Arnold Arbroetum. Tang records reckless lumbering, with the lacebark pine being felled and sawed into planks. Contemporary descriptions of Pinus bungeana are somewhat scarce, and its present range would seem to be much less than what it once was, owing mainly to the need for fuel and lumber. Zhiming Zhang of the Beijing Botanical Garden and a former Mercer Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, wrote to me last summer, in response to my inquiries about the plant, that \"Pinus bungeana, generally speaking, is widespread in northern China. It appears,\" he continued, stood only three inches high. Seed that was hand delivered by a delegation of visiting Chinese botanists in 1979 (AA 79-566) germinated well, but its progeny now stands at only 27 inches high after nine years's growth in our nursery. Our plants on the grounds also seem small for their age in comparison to other species of pine. AA 1285-64-B, a plant almost 25 years old, is a four-stemmed specimen measuring only 10 feet high and 9 feet wide, although it has put on 4 feet of growth in the last three years. Our two oldest plants were grown from seed received from the Lushan Botanic Garden in China in 1949. AA 663-49-A is planted in full sun on a rock outcrop. Its nine stems show mottled bark, and it measures 15 feet high by 20 feet wide. Its three-stemmed sibling, AA 663-49-B, is perhaps better sited and measures 26 feet high by 30 feet wide. Clearly, it is not a species for those inclined everywhere as a primary urban tree, which can be temples, ancient graveyards, emperors' palaces, gardens and even streets. It ranges naturally about 1200-1850 meters above sea level found in from Shanxi to Henan Province.I saw a natural forest of it on the westem Henan boundary with Shanxi province at the time when I went there for plant collection in 1981. It grows not as well as that in the city. It grows slowly when it is young and faster after ten years or more. toward rapid gratification, but for gardeners who can derive pleasure in planting for future generations. experiences with the cultivation of bungeana at the Arnold Arboretum echo those of Mr. Zhang, as the plant grows very slowly from seed. Seed sent from China and sown in late March of 1986 (AA 1304-85) germinated heavily after a threemonth cold stratification, but two years later Our Pinus Although the lacebark pine has been in cultivation in the United States for over one hundred years, there are relatively few specimens of note, and it is mainly found on old estates and in botanic gardens. To my knowledge, the premier specimen is in Brookline, Massachusetts, at \"Holm Lea,\" the old estate of Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of 36 The mosaic bark of the lacebark pine (Pinus bungeana) Brookline, Massachusetts. Photographed by the author. at \"Holm Lea,\"the estate of Charles Sprague Sargent in 37 the Arnold Arboretum. It is over a century old, stands 65 feet high and 30 feet wide and presents an irregular-oval outline. Its texture is fine, and one can easily see the eleven strongly vertical main trunks. The thickest of these has a 5-foot circumference at breast height, while at ground level, where the trunks converge, the circumference measures 16 feet. Its bark is a spectacular collage of color, showing irregular splotches of lime green, buff brown, and yellow against a background of silvery gray. It gives the effect of a massive abstract mosaic sculpture. This vivid bark, however, presents a mystery : why aren't any of the trees in cultivation in the West showing white bark? I suspect it may be either a function of age, the bark turning white with old age (as our hair does), or the result of something in our soils or our weather that precludes the formation of the white bark and that causes the pines to retain a mosaic pattern throughout their lives. As J. M. Addis reported seeing young trees with white, flaking bark in a Beijing nursery, it looks as though the mystery will continue a bit longer. The Chinese have used Pinus bungeana for specimen planting in courtyards and have also lined avenues with it, letting its white boughs arch together. I suggest that it be considered for lawn plantings, public parks, cemeteries, golf courses, and corporate and college campuses. It has shown a wide range of tolerances, growing in poor alkaline soil and acid brown soils and tolerating temperatures over 100 F and below 0 F. Selective pruning during the early stages of a tree's life would help to show the trunk to best advantage and establish good form. This amazing tree, a witness to the burials of the Celestial Empire, is still a rarity outside China. Its odyssey from remote windswept mountains in China to royal courtyards, to the estates and botanical gardens of the West is an unrivalled journey. If it proves nothing else, it is that the appreciation of beauty knows no boundaries of time or space. men Plant collector Frank N. Meyer photographed this speciin ShantungProvince in 1907. He stated that \"The most noble specimen of a white-barked pine yet seen by me. Growing m the Yen-fu-tse temple [in Chu-fu]. Measures sixteen feet in circumference, six feet above the sixteen centuries, ground.I estimate its age at fifteen or though the Chinese say it is much older. For noble, serene impressiveness, I have not seen a tree yet, that can be compared with this white-barked pine. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. We are pleased to report a surplus of Pinus bungeana seedlings and are offering trios of two-and-one-half-yearold plants of AA 1304-85 for $25.00, payable in advance. Orders received by September 30, 1988, will be mailed in the fall, those afterwards in the spring. Send orders, with checks made payable to \"Arnold Arboretum,\" to: Robert G. Nicholson Pine Distribution Dana Greenhouses Arnold Arboretum Arborway Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795 38 References J. M. Addis. Pinus bungeana. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Volume 85, Part 2, pages 92 and 93 (February 1960). Emil Bretschneider. History of European Botanical Discoveries in China. Two volumes. Saint Petersburg: Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences, 1898 (Leipzig: Zentral-Antiquariat der Deutschen Demokratischen Republik, 1981).. [ Chow 1,167 pages. Hang-fan. The Pamiliar Trees of Hopei. Handbook Number 4. [Beijing:] Peking Natural History Bulletin, 1934. (Pinus bungeana: pages 30 to 32.) William B. Critchfield and Elbert L. Little, Jr. Geographical Distribution of the Pines of the World. Miscellaneous Publication 991. Washington, D. C.: Forest Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1966. 97 pages. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, Fourth Series, Volume 5 (1909). (Pinus bungeana: Plate 8240.) William Dallimore. The lace-bark pine of China (Pinus bungeana Zuccarini). Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Volume 59, Part 2, pages 249 and 250 (July 1934). P. H. Dorsett. Glimpses of the white-barked pine in Peiping and vicinity. Pages 38 and 39 in: International Dendrology Society Year Book 1975. London: Intemational Dendrology Society, 1976. 96 pages. Editorial Committee. A portfolio of conifers. American Horticultural Magazine, Volume 42, Number 1978. 216 pages. Hui-Lin Li. The lace-bark pine, Pinus bungeana. Morris Arboretum Bulletin, Volume 19, Number 1, pages 3 to 7 (March 1968). John H. Reisner. Progress of forestry in China. American Forestry, Volume 26, Number 322, pages 655 to 658 (November 1920). Charles Sprague Sargent, editor. Plant. Wilsonix, Part 4. Publications of the Arnold Arboretum Number 4. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1914-1916. 661 pages. (Pinus bungeana, pages 13 and 14.) Osvald Siren. Gardens of China. New York: The Ronald Press, 1949. 149 pages. Harry Smith. A preliminary report on botanical investigation in south and central Shansi. China Journal of Science and Arts, Volume 3, pages 449 to 454 and 503 to 509 (1926). Arthur de Carle Sowerby. The white-barked pine (Pinus bungeana Zucc.) in North China. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Volume 62, Part 10, pages 443 to 445 (October 1937). T. T'ang. Account of a botanical tour in Shansi. Bulletin of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Volume 2, pages 45 to 63 (1931).. [ C. L. Wu. The taxonomic revision and phytogeographical study of Chinese pines. Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica, Volume 5, pages 131 to 163 (1956). (October 1963). (Pinus 195.) Henry J. Elwes and Augustme Henry. The Trees of Grea t Britain and Ireland, Volume 5. Edinburgh: Privately printed, 1910. Pages 1001 to 1334. .[ (Pinus bungeana: pages 1050 and 1051.~ Aljos Farjon. Pines, Drawings and Descriptions of the Genus Pinus. Leiden: E. J. Brill\/Dr. W. Backhuys, 1984. 220 pages. Robert Fortune. Yedo and Peking: A Narrative of a Journey to the Capitals of Japan and China. London: J. Murray, 1863. 395 pages. Henry F. Hance. Pinus bungeana, Zucc. Journal of Botany, British and Foreign, Volume 11, Number 3, page 91 (March 1, 1873). 4, pages 188 to 206 bungeana: pages 193 to Robert G. Nicholson is a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. He writes often for Arnoldia and other horticultural publications. Joseph Hers. Notes on the conifers of North China. The China Journal of Science and Arts, Volume 4, Number 2, pages 76 to 83 (February 1926). Joseph Hers. Le culte des arbres en Chine. Bulletin de la Societe Dendrologique de France, Number 45, pages 104 to 109 (15 November 1922). Maggie Keswick. The Chinese Garden: History, Art e~J Architecture. London: Academy Editions, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":7,"start_page":39,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24933","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170ab6f.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Cahan, Marion D.","article_content":"BOOKS Living China's Treasures: An Odyssey through Reserves, by Extraordinary Nature more Tang Xiyang. Illustrated with color than 300 photographs. Foreword by S. Dillon Ripley. New York: Bantam Books, Inc.; Peking : New World Press. 208 pages. $29.95 ($34.95 in Canada). MARION D. CAHAN ing an unspoiled expanse of \"swan lakes\" in Xinjiang's Yurdus Basin, where herdsmen live in peaceful coexistence with swans, which they consider to be the bearers of good luck from heaven. In other vignettes elephants display \"community spirit,\" monrescue keys break open ropes with their teeth to trapped friends. Tang describes the last surviving band of Guizhou golden monkeys, animals that their scientific value is beyond calculation; the crested ibis; the rare reptile that may have prompted the myth of the dragon; the elusive panda. This compelling and fascinating book is the first-ever joint publishing venture between the American publisher, Bantam Books, and the People's Republic of China. A few photographs, unfortunately, are not sharp; this may be due to the difficulty of holding a camera for long periods while waiting to take a shot. Also, many of the photographs were taken from a great distance. Unfortunately, too, there is no index. Despite its shortcomings, this excellent book is well worth reading. so rare Tang Xiyang, a journalist who was banished, along with his family, to a \"reform-through- labor\" camp in the Chinese countryside during the Cultural Revolution, has written a delightful and informative book about his adventures in China's superb nature reserves. Tang's total concern, dedication, and unshakable resolve to protect all wildlife in spite of great physical hardship and danger are inspiring. In addition to recounting adventures of his own in more than three hundred of the reserves, he provides data on their environment, topography, and history, and on the present status of their floras and faunas. His writing, pleasantly fluid and absorbing, is complemented by gems of classic Chinese poetry and historical accounts. China's nature reserve system is undergoing a vigorous period of growth. In a recent three-year period, one hundred seventy new reserves were were established-nearly as many as Marion D. Cahan has been a volunteer member of Aznoldia's editorial staff for the past several years. An alumna of Radcliffe College, she has studied architecture in the Graduate School of Design, Harvard Univer- established in the previous thirty years. I found it particularly interesting to learn of the high protection that China now provides the plants and animals in the reserves. Severe penalties are imposed on those who trap or kill animals, for example. The \"human element\" of animals is conveyed in touching vignettes. There is a particularly lovely story about Tang's discover- sity. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23503","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060b76e.jpg","title":"1988-48-spring","volume":48,"issue_number":2,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Guide to the Firs (Abies spp.) of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24932","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170a76b.jpg","volume":48,"issue_number":1,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Warren, Richard; Johnson, Ethan W.","article_content":"A Guide to the Firs (Abies spp.) of the Arnold Arboretum Richard Warren Ethan W johnson Twenty-five of the thirty- to forty-odd species (and hybrid species) of the wide-ranging Northern Hemisphere genus Abies currently grow in the Arnold Arboretum Abies is the scientific name of the firs, or, as is more common in Britain, of the silver firs. Botanists took many years to agree upon it (Warren, 1982). Virgil (70-19 s.c.) applied the word \"abies\"to the wood employed for the ribs of the Trojan horse (Virgil, circa 19 s.c.). This may have led to the modern naming of the genus; certainly it influenced the naming, in 1883, of a species from northwestern Anatolia-Abies equi-trojani Aschers e~ Sint. The English word \"fir\" is of Scandinavian (Old Norse) origin and referred originally to pine, which in that part of the world is Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris L.). Many English still refer to their pines as ` firs.Their use of \"silver fir\" as the common name for members of the genus Abies is due to the whiteness of the undersides of the leaves in most species. The aims of this guide are, first, to highlight the morphologic characters of the genus Abies so that it may readily be distinguished from related genera and, second, to accentuate the characters that clearly separate the species of Abies from each other. The Genus Abies The genus Abies, as do the genera Pinus, Picea, and Larix, grows widely in the North Temperate Zone around the world, reaching from the Arctic Circle (Abies sibirica) to the Tropical Zone, at 15 degrees North latitude (Abies guatemalensis) in Central America. In general, it is not as hardy in Arctic climates as are members of the genus Picea, but Picea does less well than Abies in southern cliOpposite : Drawings made by Charles Edward Faxon of various macroscopic and microscopic structures of the grand fir (Abies grandis Lindley). From Charles Sprague Sargent's The Silva of North America. (See page 29.) like that of the Mediterranean area. There are some thirty to forty species in the genus Abies, depending on the author. Liu (1971),for example, lists forty-one species, sixteen varieties, and six hybrids. Abies competes for third place with Picea as the genus of conifers in the Northern Hemisphere containing the greatest number of species (Pinus contains about one hundred species and Juniperus about sixty). This guide is based on the species of Abies in the Arnold Arboretum-twenty-three species and two named hybrids, twenty-five in all (see the list mates on page 13). 4 Habit Pyramidal. With the notable exception of Abies nordmanniana, the branches do not droop. The leader is seen upright and rigid against the sky as in Picea (not nodding as in Tsuga). Erect. Narrow. below, are arranged all around the branchlet. Also, the nearer the situation of the branchlet to the crown, the greater the tendency to suppression of the V. Leaves Bark Smooth at first but stippled with horizontal rows of resin blisters appearing like lenticels. With age the lower bark in most species becomes rough. Departures from these generalizations form the basis for the identification of certain species. Buds Ovate or round (less pointed than in Picea). Resinous or not resinous. It is to be noted that the resinosity or nonresinosity of the buds is useful in distinguishing species but is of no use after they have broken open in the grow- Flattened, linear. Above: few or no stomata (exceptions showing stomata above, such as Abies concolor, Abies lasiocarpa, Abies rnagnifica, Abies pinsapo, and Abies procera give a first clue to identity), a groove usually being present. Below there are two longitudinal bands made up of several rows each of stomata varying in color from white to gray-green. The bands are framed by three longitudinal, slightly raised, green ribs, the midrib, and the sideribs. The tip of the leaf is rounded or pointed or notched. The attachment of the leaves to the branchlet is by a rounded end of the pedicel, which looks like a suction cup. ing season (May through July) until the new ones have formed. The resin may present to the eye either as semicrystallized white granules or as glairy, clear material. Both are sticky to the touch. Branchlets Surface generally even in contour but often fissured or undulate. Not roughened nor scaled. Hairy or not hairy according to species. When the leaves fall off the branchlet symmetrical, round leaf scars are left. These scars are different from those on the branches of Picea, which are at the tips of woody pegs, or projections from the branchlet surface called sterigmas. The leaf scars in Pseudotsuga (Douglas fir) are also rounded but are slightly raised from the branchlet surface. Resin Canals Resin canals are tubular channels in the leaf tissue lined with resin-secreting cells. Their position in the leaf relative to other structures seen in cross section is of use in distinguishing between species, as is true to some extent in all conifers. This is particularly so in the genus Abies, where the position is more constant and reliable than in other conifers. Firs have two resin canals. They are seen with a lens as two holes in the cut surface of a transected leaf from which drops of resin emerge (see the figure, page 10). The two cate- gories of position canal are edge touches the marginal, wherein the hypoderm, and me- dian, when it does not. Since the relative position of the canal within the leaf may vary between its base and its tip, make the section of the leaf near its middle. Use a very sharp instrument, such as a razor blade, and wipe away the emerging resin droplet, which may be so large as to obscure the position of the canal. A hand lens and a good light are needed. A dissecting microscope is a useful \"luxury.\" Foliage Leaves are in two ranks, each rank consisting of two or more rows in which the shorter leaves are above. They tend to be arranged in a pectinate fashion, with a \"V\" between the rows above and less of a V below. Prominent exceptions are Abies koreana, and Abies pinsapo, whose leaves, although more dense 5 Cones The barrel-shaped, cones upright megasporangiate of Abies occur, as they do in most conifers, in the uppermost branches of the tree. The young cones of most species are purple, but the color changes to brown later in the year. A few conspicuous exceptions have cones that are green when young-Abies nephrolepis forma chlorocarpa, Abies homolepis var. umbellata (Abies Xumbellata), andAbies veitchii var. olivacea, for example. Ovuliferous (seed-bearing) scales of Abies cones are woody, each bearing two winged seeds on its adaxial surface. They mature in one growing season and disintegrate on the tree. The scales detach in the fall, and the seeds are dispersed by the wind. The central spikelike element of the cone denuded of scales remains erect on the branchlet for up to a itself from the outset. The habit and the bark will then naturally be examined first. The following seventeen species, in addition to those listed on page 13, which grow in the Arnold Arboretum, are recorded as belonging to the genus Abies. Some have in the past been tried in the Arnold Arboretum and failed and therefore have not been included in this report. We make note of them here for completeness in overviewing the genus but have appended no descriptions. We will refer to them occasionally. Abies bracteata (D. Don) D. Don ex Poiteau Abies chensiensis Van Tieghem Abies ernestii (Rehder) Liu Abies delavayi Franchet Abies durangensis Martinez Abies guatemalensis Rehder Abies hickeli Flous & Gaussen Abies kawakamii (Hayata) Ito Abies mariesii M. T. Masters Abies mexicana Martinez Abies nebrodensis (Lojacono-Pojero) Mattei Abies numidica De Lannoy ex Carriere * Abies pardei Gaussen. Abies pindrow(Lambert) Royle Abies religiosa (von Humboldt, Bonpland & Kunth) Schlechtendal & Chamisso Abies squamata M. T. Masters Abies vejari Martinez year or more. The bracts of Abies cones are in certain species longer than the cone scales. The tips are then visible, and they are described as \"exserted.\" This is a helpful lead toward identity. All species of the genus Abies are monoecious. Pollination is by wind. Similar Genera and Distinguishing Characters Genera of evergreen trees that might be confused with are Picea spp. (the spruces), Tsuga (the hemlocks), Pseudotsuga spp. (the Douglas firs), and Taxus spp. (the yews). The spp. salient differences among them are tabulated on page 12. The first important step is examination of the branchlet for the character of the leaf scars. The next is the leaves themselves. The bud and the cone, when available, are extremely, if not definitively, important, but they are not as dependably available as the leaves. Study of the bark and habit should Having accomplished examination of these, then reexamination of the specimen in more detail (hairiness and color of branchlet, resin canals in leaves) is advisable. This order of examination can obviously be changed if one is in the presence of the tree come next. Having determined that an unknown is a member of the genus Abies one must establish which, if any, of the above species best fits the characters observed. Since keys are often difficult to follow, we have chosen to present the material in tabular form (pages 6 and 11).Smoothness of bark, resinosity of buds, ridges or grooves on the branchlet surface, hairiness of branchlet, stomata situated on the upper surface of the leaves in addition to the underside, whiteness of stomata, position of resin canals, and degree of exsertion of scale bracts of the cones are considered the most significant characters. *A plant designated \"A. pardei\" does grow in the Amold Arboretum, but an irregular taxonomic feature (glabrous branchlets) casts doubt on its identity and prompts us to omit it from the list. 6 1 Bark 1 ~ According to Important Characters Hairiness of branchlet Young bark is relatively smooth \"Smoothness\" does not rule out a (i.e., is not scaly or ridged). and the old bark roughened with flat or elevated plates or ridges. The following are exceptions : \"pigskin,\" pebbly character, Hairiness of branchlets is best looked for on the previous year's growth. A hand lens is helpful. A thorough examination is necessary to derive a concept of the trend. Scattered hairs are occasionally found in the grooves of General Abies concolor Abies magnifica Abies pinsapo Abies procera Partial Abies amabilis Abies Xborisii-regis those listed Old bark smooth Abies sachalinensis Abies veitchii New bark rough Abies holophylla Abies homolepis hairy. Conspicuously hairy as not Bud firs, as in spruces and pines, are resinous. The following five exceptions are useful only when the buds are unbroken: Abies alba Abies cephalonica Most buds in Abies alba Abies balsamea Abies Xborisii-regi's Abies concolor Abies fraseri Abies grandis Abies lasiocarpa Abies magnifica Abies nordmanniana Abies sachalinensis Abies sibirica Abies veitchii Abies xbommuelleriana Abies cephalonica Abies fraseri Abies lasiocarpa Abies sibirica The fourteen other species show no stomata on the upper surface. (occasionally) Stomata on underside of leaves gray or green (not Slightly hairy Abies amabilis Abies firma a Abies nephrolepis Abies koreana Abies procera Not hairy Abies Xbornmuelleriana white) Abies Xborisii-regis (occasionally resinous) Abies cilicica Abies holophylla gray-green Abies cilicica gray-green (occasionally resinous) (occasionally resinous) Abies concolor glaucous Abies firma gray-green Abies nordmanniana Ridges or grooves on surface of branchlet Branchlets conspicuously ridged and grooved (gentle undulations and shallow fissures not Abies cephalonica Abies cilicica Abies fargesii Abies holophylla Abies homolepis Abies pinsapo Abies recurvata Abies holophylla gray-green Abies lasiocarpa gray Abies pinsapo gray Abies recurvata green included): Abies firma Abies holophylla Abies homolepis Abies nephrolepis Abies pinsapo Abies sachalinensis Stomata on upper surface of leaves The leaves tant are the most imporvegetative element of a conifer for distinguishing the species from each other. The seventeen other species show white stomata on the lower surface. Leaves with stomata on their upper surface (when present here, stomata concentrate on the tip and in the dorsal groove): (continued on page 11) 7 View toward the south in the Arnold Arboretum's Pinetum (left). Abies concolor is in the foreground, Abies homolepis in the background. The small plant is Abies concolor `Candicans', which was damaged by vandals. A fine, 25-metertall, 60-year-old specimen of Abies concolor (right). All photographs on pages 7 through 10 were taken by Ethan W. Johnson. Leaf attachments of conifez~. Abies concolor: leaf bases resembling suction cups (a); Abies veitchii: leaf scars circular (b) ; Picea koyamai: pegs, or sterigmata (c); Pseudotsuga menziesii: leaf scars slightly raised, oval (d); Taxus cuspidata: oblique, easily peeling attachments (e); Tsuga caroliniana: petioles tiny, leaf scars raised (f). 8 Bark. Abies balsamea: resin blisters papery numerous on otherwise smooth bark (left); Abies holophylla: bark flaking off in strips (right). Grooving of branchlets. Abies homolepis: Branchlets grooved (left); Abies concolor: branchlets not grooved (right). 9 Hairiness of branchlets. Abies alba: hairs on branchlets visible to the naked eye (left); Abies concolor: hair on branchlets short, best observed with the aid of a magnifying glass (right). a b c d e f g Leaf attitudes and contours. Abies firma: leaves on lower (immature) branches with bifid tips (a); Abies procera: leaf bases curved in hockey-stick fashion (b); Abies recurvata: leaves pointing back, away from terminal (c); Abies pinsapo 'Glauca': leaves short, stiff, and stout (d); Abies lasiocarpa: leaves long, slender, and supple (e); Abies grandis: leaves spreading nearly at right angles to the branchlet (f); and Abies koreana: leaves that reach out on all sides of branchlet, no V\" (p~. 10 a b d Abies Abies Leaf markings and resin canals. Abies cephalonica: dorsal stomata often present in groove at tip of leaves (a); lasiocarpa: dorsal stomata usually above middle of leaves (b); Abies concolor: resin canals marginal (c); holophylla: resin canals median (d). Cones. Abies koreana: bract scales exserted is dripping from the cone. (leftJ; Abies concolor: bract cones hidden in cones (right). A silvery resin 11 1 (continued from page 6) Position of resin canals Species accompanied by an asterisk (*~ appear in both columns. Cones In Cone bracts cones are Abies, Marginal Abies alba Abies amabilis *Abies Xborisii-zegis Abies Xbornmuelleriana Abies cephalonica obtain than are conifers. The most conspicuous characteristic in differentiation of species is the exsertion of the bract scales, or their lack of exsertion. Other features, such as cone-scale shape, color, and size, and shape of cone, are less harder to those of other (occasionally submarginal) *Abies cilicica Abies concolor Abies grandis Abies nordmanniana Abies procera Abies recurvata Median Abies balsamea *Abies Xborisii-regis on important. Markedly exserted Abies alba Abies Xbozisii-regis Abies xbornmuelleriana Abies cephalonica Abies fargesii Abies firma Abies fraseri Abies procera Abies veitchii (occasionally slightly) Slightly exserted Abies nephrolepis Abies nordmanniana Abies sachalinensis Abies koreana (often hidden)I *Abies cilicica (occasionally fruiting branches) (occasionally on fruiting branches) Abies fargesii Abies firma (occasionally more than two resin Abies fraseri Abies holophylla Abies homolepis Abies koreana canals) Hidden Abies amabilis Abies balsamea Abies cilicica Abies concolor Abies grandis Abies holophylla Abies homolepis Abies lasiocarpa Abies magnifica Abies pinsapo Abies recurvata Abies sibirica Abies magnifica Abies nephrolepis Abies pinsapo Abies sachalinensis Abies sibirica Abies veitchii (occasionally submarginal) Abies lasiocarpa (occasionally submarginal) 12 I 1 . with ~ ~ n 1 ~ r of the Arnold Arboretum Page I Abies alba Miller ......... 16 Abies amabilis (Douglas) J. 1 1 ' 17 1 Abies balsamea (Linnus) Miller ......... 18 Abies Xborisii-regis 1 19 Abies I 1 I I~ 1 20 \/ Abies l I I 1 1 1 21 Abies cilicica 1 ~ 1 Carriere......... 22 Abies concolor 1 1 1 Engelmann ......... 23 Abies fargesii Franchet......... 25 1 Abies firma ' 1 1 &. Zuccarini ......... 26 Abies fraseri ~ ~ 1i Abies grandis 1 ' 29 I 1 30 Abies I I I 1 Abies I I I ' 1 1 &. Zuccarini ......... 31 1 Abies koreana E. H. Wilson......... 33 1 Abies I I I I (Hooker) Nuttall ......... 34 I Abies magnifica ' Murray......... 36 Abies n \/ \/ n \/ ~ 1 37 I Abies nordmanniana (Steven) 1. 38 I Abies pinsapo 1 1 39 I Abies I I Rehder......... 41 I Abies recurvata M. T. Masters ......... 43 Abies sachalinensis M. T. Masters ......... 44 I Abies sibirica ' 1 1 1 45 Abies veitchii 1 . 46 ' ' n ' ' n GLOSSARY OF ~ 1 47 1 1~ v 14 1 1.1' ~111. describing the genus Abies and those of its species that grow in the Arnold Arboretum, we list characters in the same sequence. Though we do not provide a key, we do provide summary tabulations that group by character the species that possess it (see pages 6, 11, and 12). Examine an unidenti fied specimen in the sequence suggested-that is, its habit first, then its bark, branchlet including bud, foliage, leaf, and, finally, cone. There may be some disagreement on definitions of the above terms because they overlap. Some categories, such as \"branchlet,\" \"foliage,\" and \"leaf,\" have been arbitrarily defined. \"Branchlet\" as used here includes both the new shoot and the adjacent growth of recent years. Except in late summer and fall, the previous year's growth usually is the most useful for determining color, hairiness, and texture of the surface. We deal with leaf scars under \"Branchlet\" rather than under \"Leaves,\" while the arrangement of leaves on the branchlets we treat under \"Foliage.\" Leaf color we usually discuss under \"Leaves,\" unless there was some particular advantage in describing the color imparted to the whole leaf, as in the blue Spanish fir, Abies pinsapo forma glauca, in which case we refer to it under \"Foliage.\" The descriptions are based on our personal inspection of living material, most of it from the Arnold Arboretum. References from the literature reinforce our observation. When we refer to trees growing in the Arnold Arboretum they are older, established plants. We include infraspecific taxa and cultivars if they grow at normal rates; slow-growing taxa and dwarfs we refer to only if they are the sole representatives of the species in the Arnold Arboretum or if they possess some special feature that is worthy of note. In Dimensions The dimensions of the species are based on cultivated trees unless we specifically state that we are dealing with a native habitat. Conifers in cultivation in the United States today usually are no more than one hundred fifty years old and thus do not indicate the size they eventually will achieve in their natural habitats. with resin canals that become, in plants where they are typically marginal, more median. Cone Be prepared to do without a cone for examination. With few exceptions the cones of Abies are borne in the crown of the tree and disintegrate there when mature. So climbing or using some other method of reaching the upper part of the tree is necessary unless one is Foliage The foliage available for examination usually is taken from the tree at a level between 1.5 and 3 meters from the ground. Foliage on the upper, better-lit, \"fruiting\" branches differs from that lower down on the tree. At the high levels the branchlets and leaves are thicker and stiffer, and the leaves, in addition, are shorter, more upswept, pointed, and curved fortunate enough to find a cone-bearing top branch knocked off by a strong wind or a heavy load of snow. The only other conifer genus whose cones behave in the same way is Cedrus, but in Cedrus some cones grow lower down the tree and therefore are more accessible from the ground. 15 Variations within Taxa In pursuing the identification of plants by morphologic characters one is dealing with unstable factors and must not expect a single individual in a taxonomic category to be exactly like another. George Russell Shaw, in his monograph The Genus Pinus (1914), quoted Schimper: There are species... and this is equally important for the systematist and the physiologist,... which so completely react to the changing requirements of moisture that ex- treme forms can appear to belong to dissimilar species. In the following treatment it has been nec- Abies xbornmuelleriana is listed as pectinate on the upper surfaces of the branchlets, but one of our trees does not show this. The undersides of the leaves of Abies nephrolepis are recorded as having no midrib, but one of our plants does show a thin one. The great importance of looking at all the characters in a given plant and being prepared to choose which ones are determining cannot be overemphasized. A certain amount of familiarity with the species is necessary in achieving an authoritative opinion. The tabulations are guides only, not infallible descriptions. But this is true also of keys. A Note on the Symbols and Terms Used \"~\" and are set essary to seem positive about the presence or absence of certain characters, knowing that a small proportion of the specimens do not conform. The character of hairiness versus hairlessness of the branchlet, for instance, may depend on whether a high magnification is used. The branchlets of Abies concolor generally appear glabrous to the naked eye or through a hand lens, but the dissecting microscope will show short hairs. The foliage of important characteristics for distinguishing a species from similar ones are The most signalled by the device boldface italic type. In gree to which a in many cases the decharacter expresses itself is rated as \"0,\"\"+,\"\" \"1+ ,\"2+,\"\"3+,\"or \"4+.\" The hardiness zones used to indicate the cold hardiness of species are those of the Arnold Arboretum, not those of the United States Department of Agriculture. 16 I Abies alba EUROPEAN SILVER 1 Abies alba grows widely in Europe, mostly in mountain areas, from 38 North latitude to 52 North latitude between 30 and 27 East longitude. In Britain, where, it is cultivated very widely and has been for centuries, it is almost regarded as native. It is the most common on the continent of Europe. Abies alba is hardy in Zones IV-VII in the eastern United States and in the Arnold Arboretum, which grows 9 specimens. All but 3 are less than 20 years old. One of the 3 oldest plants is a magnificent tree of approximately 25 m in height; its trunk is 66 cm in diameter. The record is not available, but it is known to have been growing there for at least 60 years. The next oldest is 50 years old and 16 m tall. No infraspecific relatives of Abies alba grow in the Arnold Arboretum. Habit Reaching 50 m in height Pyramidal when young Bark Above Foliage Leaves pointing forward 90-60 from branchlet Pectinate, with a wide V Above Shiny green No stomata (occasional exceptions) Shallow groove Gray, smooth, except in old trees, on which it is rough and fissured Bud Below No midrib ~Pectinate, pointing 80 from branchlet Leaves 2 cm x 2 mm Flattened, linear Sides parallel Tips round or slightly notched Not curved Margins entire Flexibility 2+ Below Stomata white Very small Round to Margins Not keeled Resin canals Cones 11 x 4 cm not revolute conical marginal ~Not resinous Branchlet Light tan to dark brown 2+ hairy, scattered Surface regular to slightly undulating Flexibility 2+ Bracts exserted Cylindrical 1+ tapered both ends Green-purple, turning brown Similar Species *Abies ~zorc~rr~a,~r~~ta,~a: leaves above point forward, eliminating the V and ccmce~.ling the branchlet surface -Abies balsamea : upper surfaces c~~ leaves less glossy; resin canals median; buds xesinous; resin blisters on ba~r~ ,~bi~s azx~nbz~~s: leaves arranged like those of Abies nordmanniana but more curved and often with scattered stomata on their upper surfaces Abies veitchii; leaves 4+ flexible with strikingly blue-white, chalky bands beneath , 17 Abies amabilis 1 .. J. ~ same k m 'RED ' Abies amabilis grows from southern Alaska to the Oregon-California border at medium elevations. It is very common on the Olympic Peninsula in Washington. One of its common names is \"lovely fir,\" a translation of the Latin amabilis. It lives up to the epithet, its spirelike crown distinguishing it from the slightly rounded tops of other firs of the Habit stature, such as Abies procera.Abies amabilis is hardy in Zones V-VII. The Arnold Arboretum contains only one mature specimen of Abies amabilis, the slow-growing cultivar 'Spreading Star', an attractive dwarf accessioned in 1971 and now 40 cm tall. Above Pyramidal, graceful, spirelike Growing to habitat Bark 80 m in its native White-gray Smooth, except at base, which on old trees is very rough Bud Small 4+ resinous Above Leaves pointing forward 40~0 from branchlet ~A rank of appressed, forward-growing leaves occupying center and covermg ~ V wide Foliage Shiny green Occasional patches of stomata at tip or rarely scattered sparsely in lines shallowly Grooved Below branchlet Stomata 3+~+, white Below Pectinate, leaves pointing Leaves forward 70-80 from branchlet Margins not revolute Not keeled Resin canals marginal Cones 10-15 x 5-6 cm Branchlet Dense, with short hairs Surface undulating Gray-brown Up to 3 cm x 2 mm Flattened, linear Sides parallel Margins entire 3+ Flexibility Barrel-shaped Purple, becoming brown Bracts (with rare exceptions) hidden Tip truncated, occasionally notched Curved slightly (1+) in flat and lateral dimensions Distinguishing Characters -Crushed foliage reputed to smell of tangerines A specimen of Abies with leaves like those of Abies veitchii but longer and more curved, and arranged like those of Abies nordmanniana, but appressed in the center of the V, and having few stomata above and marginal resin canals likely to be Abies amabilis Similar Species . Abies nordmanniana: leaves flexible, point forward covering the branchlet, but with median resin canals and no white patches of stomata near tips on upper surface; cones with exserted bracts Abies veitchii: leaves with similar very white lines of stomata below, flexible, and pointing forward above the branchlet, but with median resin canals 18 I Abies balsamea ' ~ ~ the ~1 warmer Abies balsamea is native to the northern United States and Canada, from Newfoundland to Alberta. It is fragrant with a balsam odor and is used for pulp and Christmas trees in the northeastern United States. The name \"balsam fir\" is applied to other firs in various localities: to Abies fraseri in the Appalachians, Abies lasiocarpa in the Southwest, and Abies concolor in the Sierra Nevada of California. All members of the genus Abies, in fact, possess varying amounts of resin (or trees native to coastal parts of New England do well in Zone V, however. One of the best specimens in southern New England, eastern a tree transplanted from southern Maine as a seedling, is approximately 12 m tall; it grows next to a small pond in north- Connecticut (Storrs). The Arboretum grows two specimens of Abies balsamea; accessioned about thirty years ago, they are 11 m and 12 m tall, respec- balsam). A cold-climate tree, Abies balsamea does not do well in the Boston area. It is hardy to Zone II, but Zone V is often too mild; some Habit tively. Its only infraspecific taxa in are the Arnold Arboretum's collections forms. slow-growing Branchlet 2+ ~Growing slowly, reaching no more than 20 m in 50 with fine hairs Above undulating ridges covered Above Dark green, not shiny No stomata conspicuously years Symmetrical, conical; crown spirelike, lasting into mature years In maturity, not as an Foliage Leaves pointing forward 80~5 from branchlet Pectinate, with a wide V ornamental distinguished Below Bark Grooved No midrib Below 2 white bands of stomata ~8 or fewer rows to each ~and Midrib 1+ prominent Not keeled Resin canals median Cones 5-8 cm Gray-green ~Smooth nentresin blisters Rougher in old age Pectinate, leaves pointing 45-90 forward Leaves 1.5-2 cm x Margins not revolute exceptfor promi- 1.5-2 mm Buds 4+ resinous Small, less than 6 mm Flattened in cross section Sides parallel Tip entire, occasionally with tiny notch Not curved a long Cylindrical Green-purple, turning brown ~Bract tips usually hidden Margins entire Flexibility 2+ ' Similar Species A,b~e~ ~lbr~: buds nonxesi~aus~ leaves shiny; xesin canais rnar~~na~ .A&~~s atn~t~xiZis: leaves shiny abcwe# ~ em long, flexible i.~b~~ ~'r~ser'i: shoots densely bair~r; 8-12 rows of stomata in each band on undersu~_ faces of leaves; tips of cone bracts exserted ~A?~i~s nordmannian~c: leaves prv~ect forward, covering the shoot; buds nonresinous; \" . resin canals marginal =Abies veitchii: leaves 4+ flexihle; of leaves . conspicuously chalky wbite stc~mata t~n undersurface 19 Abies A Xborisii-regis ~ 1 , BULGARIAN 1 hybrid of Abies cephalonica and Abies alba, Abies X borisii-regis, the Bulgarian (or King Boris) fir, grows in Bulgaria and Greece. It was described in the early 1920s and named for King Boris of Bulgaria, who was monarch at the time the plant was identified as a separate species. A previous name was Abies alba var. acutifolia, a useful point to remember because one of its outstanding characteristics is its pointed leaves. The hybridization may have taken place when Abies alba miHabit A handsome, crown grated southward in Europe as the cooling for the Ice Age began. Abies Xborisii-regis is hardy in Zones V-VII. In the Arnold Arboretum 3 magnificent 60-year-old specimens grow. Acquired as seeds from trees m growing wild tall and 60 they are ter. 16 to 20 cm in Greece, in diame- infraspecific relatives of Abies Xborisii-regis grow in the Arnold ArboreNo tum. branched, dark tree with glossy foliage and a broadly conic Bark densely Above Foliage Above Very dark ~ray Smooth; high on old trees Bud 4 mm Resinous Pectinate V very wide Leaves pointing forward 60 from branchlet Below Pectinate Leaves pointing 80-90 from ~Very shiny deep green, Groved prominently No midrib Below Stomata gray-green stomata except scarce at tip no occasionally branchlet Pink-brown, ovoid-conical Leaves 3-3.5 cm Not keeled Resin canals marginal but reported to be median on Margins subrevolute x 2.5 mm Branchlet Lightbrown hairy Surface1+ 3+ Flattened, linear, tapering at tip Sides parallel ~Tip long, pointed Curved 2+ in flat dimension fruiting branchlets Cones 8-12 x 3-4.5 cm Flexibility 2+ grooved Margins entire Flexibility 3+ from base to broad rounded tip Bracts markedly exserted Cylindrical, gradually tapering Similar Species -The long, pointed leaves suggest Abies holophylla, but in that plant the branchlets are not hairy, the resin canals in the leaves are in the median position, and the bud is only slightly resinous. The cone of Abies holophylla, furthermore, does not expose its bracts. The leaves of Abies holophylla are lighter green. A striking feature of the specimens in the Arnold Arboretum is the glossiness of the upper surface of their leaves. This is often matched by one of its parents, Abies alba, which plant differs, however, in having nonresinous buds and shorter, less pointed leaves. 20 ~ ~ Abies ~ ~ , , ~ 1 TURKISH 1 Named for Joseph Bornmuller (1862-1948), a German botanical explorer in Asia Minor, Abies Xbornmuelleriana is native to the north shore of Asia Minor, on the Black Sea. A hybrid between Abies cephalonica and Abies nordmanniana, it 1925. was described in Abies X bornmuelleriana is hardy in Zone V. The Arnold Arboretum has 2 specimens, the older of which is 27 years old and 6 m tall. Habit Broad Rounded conical Bark Above Not Foliage pectinate (occasional expointing forward 30 Above Shiny green Stomata scarce Gray, smooth, but pebbled like ceptions) Incomplete V Leaves Shallow groove No midrib Below Stomata in groove at tip pigskin rough Old bark Bud Resinous 2+ Branchlet Glabrous . , from branchlet Below Pectinate Undulating Greenish tan Leaves 2.5-3 cm x 2 mm Linear Sides bitapered Tip a rounded, entire point, not revolute Keeled by midrib Resin canals marginal Margins whitish gray Cones 12-15 x 4 cm oc- Bracts exserted Cylindric turret-shaped casionally emarginate Curved 2+ in the flat plane Margins entire Flexibility 1+ Distinguishing Characters Abies x bornmuelleriana: evenly placed between its two parents, sharing sorrie t~ualities of each (both have marginal resin canals and exserted cone bracts, although in Abies nordmanniana they are less conspicuous than in Abies cephalonicaJ, but Abies Xbornmuelleriana has the glabrous branchlets and resinous buds of Abies cephalonica (not seen in Cxili2s iiiui dlnanlllanQ Similar Species nordmanniana: leaves point forward above the branchlet but buds nonresinous Abies cephalonica: stomata on the upper surface but leaves more pointed and never Abies emarginate 21 Abies cephalonica l 1 \/ l GREEK FIR Abies cephalonica is native to Greece and other parts of the southern Balkans, where it grows in mountainous areas. Widely planted elsewhere in Europe, it is hardy from Zone V to the milder parts of Zone VII. Three mature specimens grow in the Arnold Arboretum. They are 103, 88, and 33 years old and measure 23 m, 22 m, and 13 m in height and 70-75 cm in diameter. Habit Conical with Abies cephalonica var. grxca differs from the type in having shorter, stiffer leaves crowded on the upper surface of the shoot. Its previous name was Abies cephalonica var. apollinis. The Arnold Arboretum grows 2 specimens, 1 accessioned in 1900 and 13 m tall, the other accessioned in 1943 and 9 m tall. Above dome-shaped crown Transverse branches, long and a Above Leaves pointing 70-90 from Foliage branchlet ~Leaves ~Shiny dark green, with a patch of stomata at the tip Groove present No midrib strong Bark green Bark Younger parts of the tree with Gray-brown, occasionally with a touch of pink for pigskin stippling Older parts fissured into 2 x 3cm Incompletely 60 fromthan leaves less dense below above the branc~let pointing Leaves 2-3 cm x 2 mm going around shoot to some extent, leaving the upper side without a V Below pectinate, but Below Stomata in two white rows Margins not revolute Midrib prominent, making a keel Resin canals Cones 10-23 x 5 beech-gray bark, smooth but plates marginal or submarginal, very small cm Bud Round, with domed tip Resinous 1+-2+ ~Bud-scale tips Flattened, linear with 2+ keel Sides parallel but tapered at both ends Cylindrical Tip sharply tapered, but with a point Bracts exserted flexed slightlyre- ~Tips pointed, entire on most but specunens Branchlet Light brown Shallow fluted grooves ~ Glabrous rounded and notched Curved 2+ in flat plane Margins entire Flexibility 1+-2+ occasionally Flexibility + 1+ Distinguishing Characters -Leaves dark green, stiff-pointed, often with small patches of white stomata at the tip of upper surface; bud scarcely resinous Abtes pinsapo: leaves stiff, pointed, but unlike those of Abies cephalonica dramatically stiff, distributed all around the shoot with no semblance of a V above or below, and with rows of stomata beside the midrib and below X bor~sii-regis: branchlets hairy; leaves shinier and shorter Abies Xbornmuelleriana: shingled arrangement of leaves on the upper surface like Abies nordmanniana Similar Species =Ables 22 Abies cilicica v ' ; i' Carriere: v1 Abies cilicica grows in Turkey, Syria, and Lebanon. (Cilicia is on the southern coast of Asia Minor directly west of Syria.\/ It has to some extent the same distribution as Cedrus libani. Hardy in Zone V, it is not common in cultivation, but the Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Massachusetts, has three specimens. One of them (of unknown age) is a patriarch 18 m in height and with a trunk 100 cm in diameter. Two 50-year-old specimens grow in the Arnold Arboretum's Pinetum area; they are 9.5 m and 14 m tall. Abies cilicica and Abies nordmanniana closely allied. Their geographic ranges touch southern Turkey (Abies cilicica) and northern Turkey (Abies nordmanniana). Abies cilicica has been termed \"a weak nordare manniana.\" No infraspecific relatives of Abies cilicica grow in the Arnold Arboretum. Habit Narrow columnar, with spirelike crown Above Bark Beech gray, with circumferentially Fissured old and scaly arranged on stippling Foliage Incomplete V Leaves curved forward at 30-60, loosely covering shoot Below Incompletely pectinate, pointing 45 forward ~ On all sides leaves Above Pea-green to dark green, shiny Scattered stomata groove at the very plants in dorsal tip in most trees Grooved No midrib Below Stomata gray-green low down Bud Chestnut brown Scale tips free Nonresinous Ovoid, with conical tip apart from each other, \"trying\"to~ point all around the branchlet Leaves 3.0+ cm x 2 mm Flattened, linear Sides parallel all the way except at base and tip standing Branchlets Light brown to yellow Grooved longitudinally in very shallow, wide grooves median) Midrib prominent 2+ Keeled 3+ Resin canals marginal (on cone-bearing branchlets the resin canals are reported to be Cones 14 x 4 cm Margins not revolute Tip rounded, with a tiny notch Curved 2+ in flat Hairy 2+ Flexibility 2+ Margins entire ~Flexibility 3+ plane Cylindrical, with noticeable taper toward tip, which is rounded Peduncle very short Bracts hidden Similar Species ~lb2es n~fdrnanniana: buds nonresin~pus; resin canals marginal; leaves on upper side of shoot cover it without a V, but much more densely arranged; cone br~~ exserted (not hidden as in Abies cilicicaJ; stomata on the lower surface of leaves far whiter than thp~ pf Abies ciTiciea 23 Abies concolor 1 1 . WHITE FIR Abies concolor's native range is a scattered one. On the Pacific coast it is principally in California, in the Sierra Nevada and the coastal range extending into Mexico. It also is found in the southern Rocky Mountain states: Utah, Colorado, Arizona, and New Mexico. The epithet \"concolor\" refers to the fact that both surfaces of the leaf show the same blue-gray color. Abies concolor is hardy in Zone IV VII, and it flourishes in the Arnold Arboretum. Along with Abies homolepis, it was one of the favorite conifers of Charles Sprague Sargent when he was Director. Of the total of 19 normally fast-growing specimens of Abies concolor (13 Abies concolor, 3 Abies concolor 'Violacea' [bright-blue foliage], 2 Abies concolor `Conica', and 1 Abies concolor'Candicans' [very light pale-blue foliage]\/, the Arboretum grows 10 that date from the Nineteenth Century, most of them over 20 m tall, with sturdy trunks of 50-70 cm in diameter at breast height. In the Arnold Arboretum Abies concolor seem to have been particularly vulnerable to hurricanes. The records show that of 64 specimens introduced since 1874, 41 are no longer with us; of those, 21 were uprooted in the hurricanes of 1938, 1954, and 1985. Habit Branchlet Above Conico-columnar, rounded, different trees favoring one or the other of these contours, not entirely depending on whether they grow crowded or in the open Crown rounded Yellow-green or olive-green Glabrous or scarcely hairy Surface regular, no grooves Above Light glaucous green ~Stomata so Foliage Leaves pointing forward 30-40 from branchlet though small, as to give a homogeneous glaucous color ~No midrib, but a suggestion a shallow groove Below Stomata as above but with numerousr of Old trees massive, growing to 60 m in their native habitat Handsome; one of the best for cultivation Bark Smooth whitish gray, with resin blisters, in young trees or on new branches of old trees Rough and fissured into 5 x 12cm plates on the lower boles of old trees Can be of corky texture, somewhat resembling Pseudolarix amabilis a + 1+ No V Below Gray-green Pointing 80 from branchlet Spreading, curving upward ~Leaves above and below Wide V midrib Felt as a keel Resin canals marginal Cones 5 x 12 cm, but many sizes Purple when young, brown widely spaced Leaves ~ 5-6 cm x 2 mm later Linear, flattened in crosssection curving sides and Ends rounded Bracts concealed Columnar, but with gradually a taper Sides Bud Broad Resinous 2+ Tips rounded, no notch Curving 3+ towards upper side Margins entire parallel Conico-globular 7 mm long Scale tips Flexibility 3+ appressed 24 ~il$~ls~ ~~~ts *The widely spa~ec~, glaucous leaves with their characteristic curve are distinctive ~tilar Species .~t~ies g~a~tdis: leaves ~s lang ~ those af ~lt~i~ ~anao~cr~, resin canals ~so marginah and .buds alsa resinous, but with n~ stomata on the upper surfac~s t~f its Ieav~s and the leaves not curved (Abies o~r~~o~or v~_ ?o~r~tla tends tc~ resemble Abies ,~r~u~f~ in these featuresj 25 Abies fargesii Franchet : v This slow-growing fir comes from China, where it grows at elevations of between 2,000 m and 3,900 m in the provinces of Hupeh, Szechuan, Sikiang, Shensi, and Kansu. It was discovered by the French missionary Pere Paul Guillaume Farges, probably about 1892, and introduced by Wilson and planted in 1911. It is hardy in the Arnold Arboretum 11 (Zone V), where there are 2 specimens. The taller is 10 m in height. Abies fargesii is rare in collections in the United States, but there is 1 specimen of it in the Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Massachusetts. No infraspecific relatives of Abies fargesii are recorded. Habit Subconical Branches upturning, short; reaching 35 m in its native habitat Thick Crowns of old trees flattened Bark Above Foliage Dark, shiny green Above Dark, shiny green V present Leaves pointing at angles those (80-90) from on the upper side becoming dramatically shorter (to 1 cm) right branchlet, youth Rough and scaly, even in let towards the end of branchlet Below Pointing 60-90 from branch- No stomata Shallow groove No Below Stomata gray-white Margins nearly revolute Not keeled Resin canals median midrib Buds Columnar Resinous 6 mm Cones Peduncle short S-8 cm x 3-4 cm Bracts markedly exserted and Leaves 1.5-2.5 cm x 2.5 mm Reddish Branchlet iyHomogeneous reddish Flattened, linear Sides bitapered (taper greater at base, almost club-shaped) Tip short, rounded with notch Not curved Margins entire Flexibility 2+ reflexed brown Glabrous Undulant grooves and ridges Similar Species In mid-southern China, Abies fargesii has several neighbors with overlapping habitats: Abies chensiensis (plus its varieties smithii, fabri, and georgii~, and Abies fargesii's own varieties faxoniana and sutchuensis. These all have bright red-brown branchlets, except for Abies chensiensis and Abies recurvata, on which they are yellow. Because of the rarity of these in cultivation in New England, they are merely listed, not discussed, here. Other than these, Abies fargesii has no competitors for identification. 26 1 Abies firma ' 1 1 v Zuccarini: MOMI FIR The range of Abies firma is the southern half of the Japanese archipelago. It is widespread there, growing at elevations of 50-1,600 m, between 30 and 39 North latitude. It thus also contains the habitat of Abies homolepis, which is discontinuous within it but at a higher elevation, and which it resembles somewhat. Abies firma reaches 50 m in height in its native range and has been called the most beautiful of the Japanese firs, but, as Charles very hardy in stress prevents it Massachusetts, environmental from assuming the beautiful proportions it demonstrates in Japan. The epithet \"firma\" means stout. Sargent wrote of trees in Japan with trunk diameters of 4 -6 feet (1.2-1.8 m). It is hardy in Zone VI in cultivation in the United States. The Arnold Arboretum has 1 mature specimen that is 50 years old and 18 m tall. No infraspecific relatives of Abies firma have been reported. Sprague Sargent pointed out, although it is Habit Branchlet Above Reaching 20 m in cultivation when mature Wide, with horizontal branches Pyramidal crown becomes broad and often irregular in old Brown-green to yellow-green Hairs in the fissures, the ridges + Flexibility 1+ Surface with shallow fissures as in Abies homolepis, but far Shiny green No stomata Shallow groove ~No midrib Below Stomata gray-green less conspicuous Foliage not on age Has been called the most beau- ~Margins revolute Not keeled Cones 10-12 x 4.5 tiful of the Japanese firs (Bean, 1976; Liu, 1971\/ Above Bark As in other species of the genus, young trees and recent gray a Pectinate, with a wide V Below cm Leaves pointing forward to a 75 angle with the branchlet old growth onthat trees having of is smooth but bark pebbly, pigskinlike texture Old bark on old trees rough with peeling scales rather than thick plates Bud Pectinate; angle with branchlet 60-80 Leaves 2-3 cm rounded Peduncle short Bracts Cylindrical but tapered from base to outer end, which is Green, turning brown markedly exserted x 2-3 mm Round, with a slightly conical tip 5x4mm Flattened, linear Sides bitapered ~Tip on young trees bifid, forming a notch with two sharp points on either side of it Curved 1+-2+ toward lower side and 1+ laterally Milk-chocolate brown, Bud scales scarcely resinous appressed Margins entire _ Flexibility + 1+ 27 Dist~nguiish~tg Character The characteristic notch at the outer end of the leaf set between two spiny tips is diagnostic, even if the tree is an older oneand may show this on a very limited number of leaves. If an example does not come forward and no leaf tip is notched, one must look for the very flattened, broad, bitapered leaves with revolute margins, nonwhite stomata below, and scarcely resinous buds. Similar Species Abies homolepis: fissures in the branchlets more distinct; leaf stomata whiter below Abies zecurvata: leaves mostly recurved and leaf stomata green beloyv; buds very resmous ; resin canals marginal Abies chensiensis (not diseussed here~: can have sharp-~ointed, notched leaves, but resin canals marginal and cone bracts hidden 28 Abies fraseri 1~ 1 1 v1 Abies fraseri has been called the more southerly version of Abies balsamea. Its range is the southern Appalachian Mountains, the mountainous areas of Virginia, North Carolina, and Tennessee. Although listed as hardy to Zone IV and being a mountain tree, it has not done well in the Arnold Arboretum. At present our 2 specimens, which were ac- quired as seedlings from the National Arboare 13 years old. No infraspecific relatives of Abies grow in the Arnold Arboretum. retum, fraseri Habit A small tree, reaching no higher than 25 m Conical in shapewhen young Like Abies balsamea, favored for Christmas trees Branches tending to ascend from the trunk at an angle of 45 Bark Dark gray, with resin blisters Becoming rough and fissured on old trees ~ Branchlet Above Stomata often in tip of the groove Groove shallow No midrib Yellow-gray to red-brown Hairs short, stiff, red, in confluent patches Surface undulating Flexibility 2+ Above Medium-wide V, often violated by aberrant leaves Leaves pointing forward 60-80 from branchlet Below Pectinate ** Leaves pointing forward 45 from branchlet Leaves 2cmxlmm Green, more matte a than shiny patch in the Below ~Stomata in two ranks of 8-12 rows each, whiter than in Abies balsamea Resin canals median Cones 4-6 x 2.5-3.5 Foliage cm Bud Small (2 x 3 mm) Reddish brown Scales seen as prominent through the invariable coat of resin Cylindrical, but tapered on both ends Sessile Green, turning brown ~Bracts markedly exserted Flattened, linear Sides parallel Tip rounded, with tiny notch Not curved Margins entire Flexibility 2+ ~;~:. Similar Species *Abies balsamea: also has resin blisters on bark of young trees Distinguishing Characters *Has more rows of stomata on the under surface of the leaves and thus shows underside than does Abies balsamea -Cones, if present, with bracts exserted a whiter 29 Abies grandis ~ 1 GRAND FIR Abies grandis is hardy in Zone IV and very commonly cultivated in Britain but rare in New England. The Arnold Arboretum has two specimens, one 86, the other 97 years of age, that were planted on Hemlock Hill, where there was good protection by the mature hemlocks at that time. They have grown Habit True to its name, the tallest of the true firs, growing to 100 m in its native habitat Popular in cultivation in climates where it is truly hardy, growing rapidly (up to 1 m a successfully to heights of 21 to diameters m and 22 m and of 90 cm and 92 cm, but now are hidden away from their neighbors. They are well worth a visit because of their unique pectinate foliage. No infraspecific relatives of Abies grandis grow in the Arnold Arboretum. Branchlet Olive green to bright red-brown Faint hairs Shallow longitudinal grooves Above Shiny, dark green Below No stomata Prominent groove No midrib Stomata gray-white subrevolute Not keeled Resin canals marginal Flexibility 3+ Above year) Branches pendulous at their bases, turning up at the end so that the tree in its prime is narrow columnar and the crown Foliage Leaves widely pectinate at 70~0 angle from branchlet Margins Cones spirelike Below \" ~As in \"Above\" Leaves 2-5 cm x 2 mm Bark Young bark (less than 50 years with a pebbled surface old) Old gray thickened, in broad, bark deep grooves with prominent plates in between Round, resinous Flattened, linear; proximal ends sharply twisted Sides parallel Tip rounded and notched Not curved 7-10 x 3-3.5 cm Submarine shaped Rounded at both ends brown Green, Bracts concealed turning Bud Margins entire 3+ Flexibility Very small (<S mm) Scale tips divergent Similar Species *Abies concolor var. lowiana: stomata on upper surface of leaves Distinguishing Characters 'The long, parallel-sided, pectinately arranged, separately spaced leaves making the branchlets flattened sprays, to an extent not seen in any other fir [except Abies concolor var. lowiana) 30 Abies holophylla 1 I ~ NEEDLE FIR plants from the Ames private collection in North Easton, Massachusetts, in 1923. They are, respectively, 20 m and 18 m tall and have boles 67 cm and 30 cm thick. The bark consists of slightly raised, thin, 2.0-2.5-cmas Introduced by Ernest H. Wilson in 1905, Abies holophylla comes from northeastern China and Korea, where it has a limited distribution along the border. It is hardy in Zones V and VI and may prove successful in colder and warmer areas as well. The Arnold Arboretum grows 6 plants, but none of the original Wilson introductions survive. The oldest are 2 specimens received square plates. No infraspecific relatives of Abies holo- phylla are recorded. Habit Reaches 40-50 m in its native habitat Branches short and ascending, crown broad and pyramidal A graceful, tall tree Bark ~Bark in thin plates on all plants, young and old '~The smooth, gray, homogeneous bark young firs not seen in Abies Branchlet fissured longitudinally; both and fissures shallow and broad, unlike those of Abies homolepis, which are Leaves Prominently sharply ridges narrow ridged and Length: 2.5-3.5 cm Width: 2 mm Flattened, linear Sides parallel drawn-out point, ~Tip no notch long Glabrous Milk-chocolate brown Above V wide Leaves pointing forward 80 from branchlet Below of most Foliage Above 0-1+curved in flat Margins entire Flexibility 2+ plane holophylla Bud 5 mm Matte green No stomata Groove very shallow No midrib Below ~Stomata gray-green Ovate-conic; light brown Scales tours Imperfectly pectinate, pointing forward 45 from branchlet ~Leaves on both sides standing apart from each other Resinosity varies but averages appressed, with easily visible Marginsnot revolute Not keeled Resin canals median Cone 8 x 10 cm con- slight (1+-0); in very occasional plants, 3+ Cylindrical, with rounded ends Peduncle short Bracts concealed Distinguishing Character -Youngest bark scaly on trees of any age Similar Species Abies borisii-regis: leaves often pointed, but darker green; branchlets hairier Firs with conspicuously pointed leaves (excluding Abies bracteata, which is extremely rare and has the widest [3 mm] and longest [up to 6 cm] leaves of the firs): leaves orderly, glossy green above and white below -Firs with leaves that stand apart from each other (e.g., Abies concolor, Abies grandis, and Abies cilicica): tips of leaves not pointed 31 Abies homolepis ' 1 11v i. 1 Abies homolepis grows in the southern half of Japan, between 33 and 37 North latitude at elevations of between 700 m and 2,200 m. Its range, which is discontinuous, overlaps that of Abies firma, which is more densely distributed. \"Homolepis\" means \"similar scales.\" It formerly was called Abies brachy- the Arboretum's Pinetum, having fulfilled interest, howSargent's predictions. ever, that of all 34 specimens of Abies homolepis and its relatives planted starting in 1880 none of the 16 that are no longer with us uprooted in hurricanes. For contrast with Abies concolor in this respect, see page 23. were It is of phylla (\"short leaves\"), in contrast to many other firs. It is hardy to Zone V. Charles Sprague Sargent, writing 70 years ago, re- marked on how well Abies homolepis and Abies concolor flourished here in their early years. They have continued to do so. TheArnoldArboretum's holdings ofAbies homolepis and its infraspecific relatives are 18 trees, several about 100 years old. (The total number of plants of this group of Abies homolepis growing in the Arnold Arboretum is: Abies homolepis, 9; Abies Xumbellata, 8 8; Abies homolepis forma tomomi, 1 ; or, 18 in all. Seven were acquired before 1900 and others soon thereafter [2 in 1902 and 4 in 1908]. ~ As with Abies concolor, the tallest are 20-25 m tall, and their boles are up to 100 cm in diameter. They are important features of Abies Xumbellata Abies xumbellata is a relative of Abies homolepis, recognized by Ernest Wilson under the name Abies homolepis var. umbellata. It differs in that its cone tips are umbilicated to more than those of the species. Most recent opinion considers it to be a hybrid between Abies homolepis and Abies firma, and its name has been changed to Abies xumbellata. Abies homolepis forma tomomi Abies homolepis forma tomomi has slightly shorter leaves and is less densely branched than the species. Habit A broad-growing tree with long branches and a dome-shaped crown, conspicuously broad in old age Bark Branchlet Yellow-brown Glabrous and 9'Longitudinally ridgedso with Leaves 2.5 cm x 2 mm fissured narrow Rough and scaly over the resin blisters, unlike most other firs, even on that the whole contour is grossly smooth 1+ fissures Flexibility Above + Curved 0-1 Above Dark green, not Flattened, linear Sides parallel to 1++ bitapered Tip rounded, sometimes entire but usually a small notch conspicuously shiny Scales small and thin cm young trees at in old trees coarse, with 3 first, x Foliage Conspicuous V Leaves pointing 80-90 from 10- scales branchlets Below No stomata Groove medium No midrib Buds Below Stomata Rounded, with a conical point 6 mm Resinous 2+ Scales appressed but prominent Incompletely pectinate, 60-90 from branchlet pointing + Midrib 1+ Not keeled Resin canals median Margins not revolute gray-white 32 Cones 8x3cm Purple when young, brown when mature Evenly bitapered (submarine-shaped) Sessile Bracts hidden ~~S~3l~t~~tig Characters ~~ sturdy, yellow, giabr~ bxan~let~ ~th the tig~t, deep ~a,sux~s ax~ neairly~ unique ~ina.i~a~c Species ~4.b~es ~o~~~.~~ll~: branchlets prominently ridged but not with narrow fissu~r~~F leaves A~~es firmat~~s o young leaves bi~c~; Even without tb~t~ bitape~red; furrows c~ branchlets not ~x~r~c~~ and deep long and pointed l~eau~ broad~ very flat, 33 1 Abies koreana E. Wilson : KOREAN FIR The range ofAbies koreana is southern Korea and the volcanic island of Cheju Do (Quelpart) up to elevations of 2,000 m. The type specimen is in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum in Cambridge, Massachusetts. It is hardy from Zone V to Zone VII. The Arnold Arboretum grows six specimens of Abies koreana, one of them an original specimen from the group introduced to the West by Ernest Wilson in 1917. It is 18 m Habit tall and has a trunk 70 cm in diameter. The prostrate forms, usually called Abies koreana 'Prostrate Beauty', follow the tendency of the types to set cones when young. They are popular in dwarf-conifer collections. Six specimens are growing in the Arnold Arboretum's collections of dwarf conifers, where there are also two plants of Abies koreana 'Aurea'. Branchlet Curved 1+ toward upper side slow-growing tree, rarely reaching more than 20 m in height Pyramidal when young Crown becoming broad with age A Light gray-green Lustrous Margins entire 1+-2+ Above Scattered hairs No undulations Flexibility Below or furrows Foliage dark and rather dense Bark Above and below ~Ixnves pointing all Foliage Matte dark green No stomata Shallow groove No midrib Gray very Bud Smooth when young, later rough, with deep grooves and plates Resinous 5 mm Round, with blunt, pyramidal tip Covered with resin that obscures the scales less dense below No V Pointing forward at angles from branchlet of 45 to almost 90 Viewed end-on, a circular rosette of green leaves offsetting the cluster of three resinous buds, with flashes of white to the under surface Leaves 1-1.5 cm x 2+ cm around, Stomata very white and broad Margins not revolute Not keeled Midrib narrow Resin canals median (occasion- ally submarginal) cm Cones S-7 x 2.5-2.8 Flattened, linear Sides no rounded ends Violet when young Bracts markedly exserted Cones Cylindrical; narrower at readily produced Tip curved, notch bitapered but wider at tip with notch or tiny ~Many young plants bear cones Similar Species Abies sachalinensis and Abies veitchii: leaves longer but conspicuously more flexible than those of Abies koreana -Abies sachalinensis: stomata on undersides of leaves dull white; bark smooth until an advanced age Abies veitchii: undersides of leaves very white but bark smooth and bract scales of the cones hidden or their tips barely visible *Abies nephrolepis: leaves also longer than those of Abies koreana, linear (not bitapered), with dull-white stomata below; bark smooth; more hairs on branchlet; cone scales kidney-shaped 34 Abies I lasiocarpa (Hooker) , SUBALPINE 1 With the exception of Abies balsamea, Abies lasiocarpa is the most widely distributed species of Abies in the United States. Hardy in Zones V-VI, it grows from southern Alaska to the Mexican border in the Rocky Mountains (35-63 North latitude), often in association with Picea engelmannii. In addition, it occurs in the mountains of Washington and Oregon. has been slow to average. Acquired in 1942, 1958, and 1966, they are 11, 3, and 2.5 m tall, respectively. Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica Abies lasiocarpa var. arizonica (Merriam) Lemmon is a common variety, as an more popular \"Lasiocarpa\" (meaning \"hairy fruit\") fers to the hirsuteness of of the carpa is cones. re- \"Sub- alpine,\" an adjective commonly applied to this species, is appropriate, since Abies lasioa mountain tree. Alfred Rehder stated that Abies lasiocarpa \"does not do well in the eastern states.\" It is hardy in the Arnold Arboretum, which contains three mature trees in addition to the variety arizonica. The growth of the three Habit ornamental than the species. It is distinguished from the species by its more intensely whitish blue leaves, which have emarginate tips, and by its corky bark (hence its common English name, cork-bark fir). I. There is one handsome specimen in the Arnold Arboretum. Dating from 1932, it is now 20 m tall; its trunk is 40 cm in diameter. In the Arboretum's dwarf-conifer collection there are three specimens of Abies lasiocarpa 'Compacta'. Branchlet to Above ~fAfatte Narrow, spirelike, with short, upcurved, dense branches Can grow 40 m but winds at timberline in its native habitat colored on some Grooved shallowly No fissures Silvery tan, almost fawn- plants ~Distal green2014gra~ tiny half withof bands of several two rows stomata discourage such statures Bark ened when young, with resin blisters Bark of older trees rougher, fissured Bark on some plants with rusty tinge Bud 5-6 mm Ovate Resinous Hairy 1 +-scattered, in grooves Above Smooth, gray, slightly rough- Foliage Gray Leaves ~Shallow groove No midrib Below Two bands of light-gray stomata Incomplete V or no V from branchlet Below pointing forward at 45 Margins not revolute Midrib prominent Resin canals median Cones 8-10 x 3.5 cm Incompletely pectinate, leaves forward 30~0 from branchlet pointing Leaves 2.5 cm x <2 Scales obscured by the resin Flattened, Sides parallel Tip round,with tiny notch Curved 1+toward upper surface mm linear r Bracts hidden Purple when young Cylindrical to submarineshaped Margins entire Flexibility 2+ 35 Distinguishing Characters One of the few members of the genus with full lines of stomata on the upper surface of leaves, the others being Abies concolor, Abies magnifica, Abies pinsapo, and Abies procera Similar Species Abies concolor: leaves much longer and more widely spaced spaced; resin canals marcross ginal -Abies magnifica: leaves quadrangular in before spreading from it section section and running parallel to the shoot cross -Abies pinsapo: leaves 4+ stiff, at right angles to the branchlet, very pointed -Abies procera: leaves like those of Abies magnifica but not quadrangular in 36 1 0 Abies magnifica A. Murray : RED FIR Abies magnifica grows in northern California and southern Oregon, its range being more southerly and at slightly higher elevations (35 40'-45 3' North latitude and 1,400-2,700 m) than that of Abies procera (41-48 30' North latitude and 900-2,000 m), which in some ways it resembles, particularly in the presence of stomata on the upper surface of its leaves and the arrangement of the leaves at their origins from the branchlets. It is reputed to be hardy in the warmer parts of Zone V but less frost hardy than Abies procera. The name \"red fir\" derives from the color of the bark. The translation of the Latin name to \"magnificent fir\" is more appropriate and is sometimes used. The Arnold Arboretum grows only 1 specimen-Abies magnifica `Nana'-which is 50 cm tall and not thriving, but no specimens of the species. We list it here chiefly for comparison with Abies procera, which also appears in the Arboretum only in its dwarf form. The Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, 7 Massachusetts, does possess a specimen 17 years old and 1.5 m tall. It is healthy but not fast-growing. Abies magnifica var. shastensis Even though the Arnold Arboretum does not possess a specimen of it, we list Abies magnifica var. shastensis Lemmon here because it is well known as a natural variety. It is distinguished from the type because the bract scales on its cones are exserted. This suggests that it is a hybrid between Abies magnifica and Abies procera. Habit A columnar tree with a spirelike head, one of the most known Can grow to 70 m in the wild (trees cultivated in Britain for over 100 years have reached about half that height) Trunks of mature trees often branchless for half their Branchlets Red-brown Above elegant Shallowly grooved longitudinally Hairy Above chlets Gray-green ~Stomata present in two full bands ~Nogr oove Foliage Small midrib Below heights Bark Smooth No V, leaves turning As in Gray-green at their at (but for resin blisters in youth) and very light gray Becoming deeply furrowed m and upward Below right angle parallelling branorigins, then outward Stomata in two gray-white ranks Keel present Resin canals marginal Cones 15-25 x 10-12 cm Sessile or nearly so Purple at first, brown when mature flattened Leaves 2-3 cm x \"Above,\" but spray more 2 bar bg~e~revealing Buds Brown reddish inner mm Bract scales hidden Nearly cylindrical, thick Ovoid, acute at tip Small, 4 mm Hard to see because terminal leaves crowd about them Resinous on the upper aspect Flattened, linear Sides parallel Tips rounded, without notch Not curved but angled as described Margins entire + 1+ Flexibility 37 Similar Species Abies procera (its in only \"look-alike\"): leaves with dorsal groove (appear diamond-shaped cone cross-section); bracts not hidden _ Abies nephrolepis ~ . FIR The native range of Abies nephrolepis is North Korea. Some have called it the easternAsiatic form of Abies sibirica. The specific epithet \"nephrolepis\" refers to its cone scales, which, when looked at individually, are kidney-shaped; this characteristic is not different enough to distinguish it from other members of the genus. Alfred Rehder and Ernest Wilson considered that its name should be Abies sibirica var. nephrolepis. The Arnold Arboretum has 3 specimens, all of them over 60 years of age. One, forma chlorocarpa Wilson (cones green when young), was introduced by Wilson in 1917 and is now a other beautiful tree 20 m in height. infraspecific forms are known. No Habit Columnar, broad, conical, short branches Crown conical, Above Foliage V; pointing forward 60 from branchlet Below Above Dull green No stomata Groove present No midrib irregular Bark Beech gray, becoming Pectinate; pointing forward 60 from branchlet Leaves 2cmx2mm Flattened, linear Below Stomata dull white pebbly Becomes shallowly fissured on old trees Margins not revolute Cones 5 x 2.5 Not keeledi midrib thin Resin canals median cm Bud Sides Conical, blunt Light reddish brown Resinous Scales under the resin Tip rounded, with notch Not curved Margins entire Flexibility 3+ parallel prominentin relief Cylindrico-ellipsoid brown Purple, Bracts exserted turning Branchlet Yellow-gray Shallowly ribbed or grooved Hairy 2+ Similar Species Abies sachalinensis and Abies sibirica (see the table -:<::..,.:.:;..::.:--::~~,;,a:~:..-:.:.-v:<~:..-r.::::..:....i ::-r:<:::.r:-<:,:.: on page 45) 38 I Abies nordmanniana (Steven) 1 . CAUCASIAN 1 The range of Abies nordmanniana lies just east of the eastern shore of the Black Sea. Introduced to the West (Britain) in 1836, it is a strong, beautiful addition to collections in the British Isles. Named after Alexander Nordmann ( 1803~6j, a Finnish botanist and one of its discoverers, Abies nordmanniana is hardy in Zones V-VII. ture, The Arnold Arboretum acquired two manarrow and tall specimens from a nursery in Holland in 1903. Twenty-six meters tall and with boles 55 and 64 cm in diameter, they are among the most impressive specimens in the Arboretum's Pinetum. The only infraspecific relative in the Arnold Arboretum is Abies nordmanniana 'Pendula', which grows at the same rate as the species but differs from it by the exaggerated pendulosity of its branches. Although 30 years old, it has lost its crown and is only 2 m tall. Habit Growing to 60 m in the Caucasus Mountains Conical, with a narrow, spirelike crown Main branches horizontal, lower branches sweeping downwards aspect Branchlet Olive, with a brownish tinge Surface shallowly grooved Leaves 2-3 cm x 2.5 mm Linear, curving 2+ in the flat (fissured) longitudinally No undulations or ridges Covered with moderately dense, short, stiff hairs Above ~Leaves plane Living up to its reputation of having an impressive, lordly Foliage Midrib 2+, thickened in a keel, as are the side ribs Sides parallel Tip rounded, notched Curving 2+ in the flat plane (a characteristic useful in cultivation), which makes it insensitive to late frosts Starting to grow late in spring all V, shingled, i.e., pointin forward angle of 35-45 from the shoot and covering it Below on most shoots no but at an Margins entire + 1+ Above Flexibility Glossy + 1+ No stomata Groove prominent Bark Smooth above to rough below Grayish when brownish when rough smooth; Imperfectly pectinate, making wide, irregular V a Leaves pointing forward 60 angle e at a Midrib prominent Below Bud Stomata white-gray Margins not revolute Keel on midrib Resin canals marginal Cones 5 x 14 cm ~Red-brown, conical-ovate, not resinous Cylindrical, tip pointed Bracts just exserted Similar Species =Abies albaa leaves also shiny, with notched tips, nonresinous buds, and hairy bran~~ lets, but arranged in a pectinate V above the branchlet -Abies amabilis : leaves above likewise cover the branchlet but are flexible 3~ and vccasionally have some stomata on the tip of the upper surface 39 I Abies pinsapo Boissier : SPANISH 1 The native range of Abies pinsapo is a localized one near Ronda in southern Spain, where it was discovered and described and whence it was introduced to cultivation early in the Zone VI into parts of Zone VIII. Infraspecific Relatives The most common horticultural variety is 'Glauca', one specimen of which is in the holdings of the Arnold Arboretum. It was accessioned 44 years ago and is a sturdy plant Eighteenth Century by Pierre Boissier (1810-85). Because its short, stiff, sharp leaves emerge at right angles, it has been called by some the \"hedgehog fir.\" It is not uncommon in cultivation and is hardy from Habit 7.5 m tall. Relatively short branches set in making for a columnar, or narrow, pyrami- pseudowhorls, dal tree Growing up to 30 m Bark ~Short leaves radiating around branchlet Above Leaves at right angle (90) branchlet Below Leaves at Foliage to Remaining remarkabl smooth the lower trunks of certain trees, but rough in most on Bud Small (3 mm) Resinous Scale visible in relief under the resin branchlet No V on either side but leaves less dense on underside Some leaves occasionally recurved Leaves 1-1.5 cm x 2 mm right angle (90) to Above Matte green Covered with tiny white stomata in two bands on either side of slightly elevated midrib Below Two bands of gray stomata Midrib definite but not Not keeled Resin canals median Cones 10-12 x 3~ conspicuous cm tips Branchlet Glabrous Surface rusty red Flattened, linear Sides parallel, bordering on bitapered ~Tip an obtuse horny point; not Subcylindrical, submarineshaped Sessile Bracts hidden notched Conspicuously grooved and fissured Curving 1+ toward underside Margins entire ~Flexibility 0 Distinguishing Characters Leaves short, stiff, at right angles to branchlet Similar Species Looks superficially like a spruce, particularly the tiger-tail spruce (Picea polita~, which has similarly stiff leaves *The roughness of the branchlet surfaces at the points where the leaves are attached resembles that seen in Picea polita If no sterigmas at the leaf attachments and if specimen belongs to the genus Abies, the only confusion would be with a hybrid of Abies pinsapo and Abies nordmanniana 40 (Abies Xinsignis), Abies cephalonica (Abies XvilmoriniiJ, or Abies numidica (Abies Xmarocana\/; though uncommon, these hybrids of Abies pinsapo must be suspected in specimens with stiff, short, prickly leaves that are not entirely characteristic of the species, Abies pinsapo, itself 41 Abies procera ~ ' 1 ' ~ 1 i 1 I One of the tallest trees of the West Coast slender), the noble fir grows on the western slope of the Cascade Mountains, from Washington to upper north(\"procera\" means tall, or ern California. Its range is continuous with that of Abies magnifica, which, although it overlaps with that ofAbies procera, is primarily south of the California-Oregon border. As noted under Abies magnifica, these two spe\" cies can be regarded as \"nonidentical twins.\" They share many characteristics. Abies procera was described by David Douglas in 1825 and introduced into Great Britain, where it has always flourished. Although none of the original introductions are still living, some survived until 1968. Specimens planted as long ago as 1840 were registered as still living in the early 1970s (Bean, 1976, Volume 1, page 65).The only examples of the species in the Arnold Arboretum are dwarfs, the well known beautiful cultivars 'Glauca' and'Glauca Prostrata', on which the characteristics of the typical foliage can be studied. In the United States Abies procera is just hardy to Zone V but not common. The Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Massachusetts, grows one specimen (under its earlier name, Abies nobilis). It is 4.5 m high, and the bole is 5 cm in diameter at breast height. Habit habitat Bole straight; can remain unbranched for over 40 m Branches relatively short, making for a narrow crown that is, however, rounded at its top Bark Reaching 80 m in its native Above Foliage center Incomplete V; most leaves in a but many singles wide V,in of it; all arising 70-90 from the pointing branchlet Below Pectinate with occasional strays; Smooth, reddish gray for many eventually becoming rough with soft plates years, 60~0 from the branchlet ~Leaves both above and mrn pointing forward below characteristically runniag forward parallel the branchlet for 2 fica to Bud Very small, about 3 mm (hard to see among the terminal before departing at the angle mentioned (seen more easily from the lower aspect of the branchlet); similar in this feature to Abies magni- Above Matte green ~Stomata in bands on both sides of shallow groove (in some cases a lens is needed to observe this) No midrib but upper surface can be convex and surmounted by the groove which can change to a midrib near the tip Below Stomata small, numerous, white Margins not revolute Midrib prominent Resin canals marginal slightly forward-growing leaves) Resinous Scale tips Cones 10-15x6-7 cm divergent Branchlet Reddish brown Leaves 2-3cmx2mm Hairy + 1+ Surface regular Suggestion of longitudinal grooves Linear, flattened Tip rounded, notched or not notched Curved 1-2+ toward lower surface Green when young, turning brown Bracts strongly exserted and reflexed Sub cylindrical (submarine- or blimplike) Margins entire Flexibility 1-2+ 42 #:. , Similar Species full bands on the upper surfaces of leaves but leaves long, flexible, widely spaced Abies lasiocarpa: stomata in full bands on the upper surfaces of leaves but leaves extend from the branchlet directly, with no appressing of the initial few millimeters; resm canals median; cone bract scales hidden Abies magnifica: stomata in full bands on the upper surfaces of leaves (resembles Abies pxz~~x~ more than any other species), but leaves have no groove on their upper surface and cones have hidden bracts (Note: Cone bracts of Abies magnifica var. shastensis exserted; if none available, one must rely on leaf characteristics) Abies pinsapo: stomata in full bands on the upper surfaces of leaves but lcaves rigid 4+, with no groove on upper side; tips horny; at right angles to branchlets -See also Abies lasiocarpa stomata in Abies concolor: 43 ~ Abies recurvata M. T. Masters: MIN 1 The English name of Abies recurvata derives from the Min River in central China (Szechuan), where the tree grows between 25 and 45 North latitude. Hardy in Zone V, it is uncommon in cultivation. Three plants grow in the Arnold Arboretum, all from the original introduction by Wilson in 1911. It has been a slow grower; the tallest of the Arboretum's trees is 9 m tall. The Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Mas- sachusetts, grows one plant. Abies recurvata is not recorded as cultivars or infraspecific forms. having Habit Reaches 40 habitat Branchlet m Above in its native Silvery yellow-gray Glabrous Surface undulate with shallow, wide grooves and ridges Above Shiny green, often Pyramidal, the crown becoming flattened with age Gray or red-brown Smooth in Bark Flexibility 1+ No stomata Shallow groove No midrib Below Stomata green pale youth, later becoming rough with 2- to 3cm-long plates flaking Foliage Stiff sturdy leaves point back- Margins revolute Not keeled Resin canals Cones 6x4cm + 1+ wards, often to 60 from branchlet Below Same marginal Bud d 5-7 mm or larger Light grayish brown with a roseate ~Many leaves nearly at a right angle, occasionally Chunky, conical, with rounded ends through which the outlines of the prominent bud scales be seen in relief can Covered with gray resin tinge slightly forward as \"Above\" 3 mm Purple until maturity, then brown Bracts hidden Leaves 2-3 cm x Flattened, linear Sides bitapered Tip pointed Flexibility 1-2+ Distinguishing Characters . Leaves recurved and green any other species of Abies beneath, making it difficult to confuse Abies recurvata with 44 B Abies sachalinensis M. T. Masters: SACHALIN 1 Abies sachalinensis (formerly called Abies veitchii var. sachalinensis ) is restricted to the Kurile and Sachalin Islands and to Hokkaido, the northern island of Japan. Its relationship to certain neighboring firs-Abies sibirica and Abies nephrolepis-has been noted. It is hardy from Zones II-VI. The Arnold Arboretum grows seven specimens, two of them at the Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts. Two of those growing at the Arnold Arboretum itself (in Jamaica Plain) are 105 and 93 years old and 17 and 18 m tall, respectively. One of our specimens is the variety mayriana, which came as seed in 1932 from Hokkaido. It is now 12 m tall. In addition to Abies sachalinensis var. mayriana Miyabe & Kudo, the only other recorded infraspecific relative is Abies sachalinensis var. nemorensis Mayr, which has smaller cones than the species and hidden bracts; tum. it does not grow in the Arnold Arbore- Habit Growing to 40 m Columnar Bark Dense foliage in the crown Above Foliage Incomplete V, leaves pointing Above Gray Pebbly, otherwise smooth, in older trees, but in even forward 30 Below Pectinate with occasional strays; leaves pointing forward 30; rather closely set Leaves 3-3.5 cm x Shiny green No stomata (occasionally in the groove at the tip) Groove well defined No midrib Below Dull white numerous a few them finally becoming scaly Stomata very small and in narrow bands 1.25-1.5 mm Bud Conical, with a domed tip Resinous 4+ Scales prominently bulging, but tips not spreading Conspicuously white Gray-brown Sides parallel the whole length of the leaf Tip blunt, with tiny notch + Curved 1+ Flattened, linear Margins not revolute Not keeled Resin canals median and con- spicuously large Cones 7x2cm Between Margins entire Branchlet Flexibility 3+ Hairy 3+ Furrowed gently longitudinally cal Coffee-colored Bracts exserted ellipsoid and cylindri- Similar Species *Abies nephrolepis and Abies sibixic~ (which have thin, ~exibl.e, regularly ar~ange~ leaves) are the species that most resemble Abies sachalinensis (see Abies sibirica for c~iscussic~~n~I 45 B I Abies sibirica ' 1 1 1 SIBERIAN 1 The range of Abies sibirica lies between 40 and 140 East longitude, from Moscow almost to the Sea of Okhotsk, the most extensive in the genus Abies. Because of its great resemblance to its neighboring species, Abies sachalinensis, a systematic descrip- tion of Abies sibirica will not be made below, but only its differences from Abies sachalinensis mentioned. It is hardy to Zone II. The Arnold Arboretum grows one specimen, now 40 years old, that is 12 m tall and 30 cm in diameter. Similar Species Abies saehalinensis: branchlets ribbed (not ribbed in Abies sibirica\/, stomata below dull white (white in Abies sibirica), cone bracts exserted (hidden or only slightly exserted in Abies sibirica\/. See the table, below. 1 1 Three Similar ~' 1 Abies Three members of the genus Abies, neighbors in eastern Asia, Abies nephrolepis, Abies sachalinensis, and Abies sibirica, are strikingly similar. All three have resinous buds; hairy branchlets; narrow, flexible, linear leaves with parallel sides; and large, median resin canals. The following table lists some features-unfortunately not always constant-that help to distinguish them. 46 Abies veitchii ~. i 11 A rather small fir whose native range extends from central Japan southwards in detached tum. Two Six specimens grow in the Arnold Arboreof them are historic. One dates Abies veitchii was introduced cultivation in the West by John Gould Veitch (1839-70), the illustrious English botanist and nurseryman. Veitch made two extensive collecting trips to the Far East, one in 1860 and one in 1864-66. He died in 1870 at the age of 31, leaving his name attached to hundreds of plants, and a legacy of plant collecting that has been carried on in his name for 100 years. It was under the Veitch firm that Ernest Wilson got his start. Abies veitchii is subalpine and seldom seen below 1,500 m. It is hardy in Zones populations, to from 1895, having been provided by the Veitch Nursery; it is 17 m tall and has a bole that is 47 cm thick. The other historic specimen is Abies veitchii var. olivacea (the epithet olivacea derives from the olive-green color of the cone when it is young). Introduced by Ernest H. Wilson in 1915, it is 12.3 m tall and has a trunk 40 cm in diameter. A scion of Wilson's tree was grafted onto an understock of Abies balsamea in 1959. Planted out in the Pinetum in 1969, it is thriving. These are the only infraspecific relatives of Abies veitchii. Above III-vi. Habit Branchlet Covered with short hairs Surface regular Unribbed Above Slender, with short, level branches when young Cylindrical, with a spirelike crown; in more a Gray-yellow Shiny green maturity, branches wide-spreading, forming broadly pyramidal tree Foliage V occasionally incomplete Leaves pointing forward 45 Bark No stomata Groove shallow No midrib Below ~Stomata chalky blue-white + Margins revolute 1+ Midrib and marginal green roughened in old age Gray, Smooth, becoming blisters with resin only slightly from branchlet Below bands thin Resin canals median to sub- Bud 4 mm Pectinate Leaves pointing forward 45 from branchlet Leaves 2-3cmx2mm marginal Cones 6x2cm Spherico-conical Red-brown Resinous Cylindrical Sessile Not curved Margins entire Flexibility 3-4+ Flattened, linear Sides parallel Tip truncated, notched Purple, turning dark brown Bracts slightly exserted ' Similar Species nephrolepis, Abies sachalinensis, and Abies sibirica: leaves also parallel-sided, flexible; resin canals median; branchlets hairy; and buds resinous, but the whiteness of the undersides of their leaves far less bright Abies delavayi group: undersides of leaves also white, but branchlets conspicuously red-brown and midrib and marginal green bands of leaves very prominent; leaves stiffer Abies 47 and resin canals marginal; undersides of leaves tending to be revolute -Abies koreana: undersides of leaves bright white, but leaves radially arranged and conspicuously shorter than those of Abies veitchii; cone bracts prominently exserted and reflexed Glossary of Terms Adaxial. Facing toward the axis. Diaecious. Having staminate and pistillate elements on separate plants. Emarginate. With a shallow notch at the apex (as of a leaf). Entire. Margin continuous, not broken by divisions, teeth, or serrations. Exserted. Projecting beyond an encircling part. Glabrous. Smooth; free of roughness or hairs. Hypoderm. In a leaf, the layer of thickwalled cells between the epiderm and the organ or Midrib, siderib. Narrow, green, longitudinal bands on the under surface of a leaf, framing the bands of stomata. If the midrib is raised, the leaf is \"keeled.\" Monaecious. Having staminate and pistillate elements on the same plant. Pectinate. An arrangement, usually of leaves, in which parts relate to each other comblike fashion. Most Abies leaves spread in two lateral ranks, creating a \"V\" between them that can vary from wide to incomplete or nearly absent. Resin canal or resin duct. An intercellular space lined with resin-secreting cells. Revolute. Rolled backward or downward, as the edge of a leaf. Sessile. Attached immediately at the base, with no intervening stalk or pedicel. Sterigama. A peg-shaped projection from the surface of a stem or of a branchlet to which a leaf is attached. Stoma (plural, stomata). The pore in a leaf, usually on its lower surface, appearing as a whitish or grayish dot, and arranged in in a mesophyll. Glairy. Having the appearance of white-ofegg. (Said of resin.) Infraspecific. Of taxonomic rank lower than a species. For convenience, the rank of cultivar is included here, although strictly it is inaccurate to do so. Keeled. Having an under surface longitudinally ridged like the bottom of a boat. Lenticel. Roughened area on a plant's surface that allows exchange of gasses between the atmosphere and the internal structure of the plant. Linear. Long and narrow. In the case of a conifer leaf, the term infers that the leaf's sides are parallel. rows. Umbilicate. navel. Depressed or indented like a 48 . Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. Eighth Edition, Volume 3. London : John Murray. 973 pages. Dallimore, W. S., and A. B. Jackson, 1966. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. Fourth Edition. London: Arnold. 729 pages. Flint, Harrison L., 1983. Landscape Plants for Eastern North America: Exclusive of Florida and the Immediate Gulf Coast. New York: Bean, W. J., 1976. Wiley. 677 pages. Krussmann, Gerd, 1985. Manual of Cultivated Conifers. Translated by Michael E. Epps. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press. 361 pages. Liu, T.-S., 1971. A Monograph of the Genus Abies. National Taiwan University Press. 609 pages. Mitchell, A. F. 1972. Conifers in the British Isles. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. 322 pages. 322 pages. Rehder, Alfred, 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. Second Edition. New York: Macmillan. 966 pages. Shaw, George Russell, 1914. The Genus Pinus. Cambridge, Massachusetts: The Riverside Press. 96 pages Virgil (Publius Vergilius Maro), circa 19 B.C. The ~Eneid. Book II. In: J. W. Mackail, translator, 1950, Virgil's Works. New York: Modem Library, 1950. Warren, Richard, 1982. \"Spruces in the Arnold Arboretum,\" Arnoldia, Volume 42, Number 3, (Summer), pages 102-129. M.D., is Honorary Curator of the Collection and an Associate of the Arnold Arboretum. He is Professor of Surgery Emeritus in the Harvard Medical School, where he had taught for twenty-seven years, retiring in 1973. Ethan W. Johnson is Curatorial Assistant in the Plant Records Department of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1980 he received his associate degree in forestry from Paul Smiths College and, in 1984, his bachelor's degree in environmental horticultute from the University of Connecticut. He came to the Arnold Arboretum in 1985. Richard Warren, Conifer "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23502","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060b728.jpg","title":"1988-48-winter","volume":48,"issue_number":1,"year":1988,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lost and Found: Elliottia racemosa","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24930","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170a36d.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":" Lost and Found: Elliottia Peter Del Tredici racemosa More common secrets to thought, the Georgia plume is slowly yielding its persistent biologists than once When a plant has a limited distribution in the wild, one is tempted to think either that it has some highly specific habitat requirement that is not often met or has traits that limit its ability to compete successfully with other plants. One can never predict, however, how a rare plant will respond to cultivation outside its native range. A case in point is Ginkgo biloba, a tree native to China that, although extinct in the wild, is ubiquitous in cultivation throughout the temperate regions of the world. In North America, the pink shell azalea, Rhododendron vaseyi, has a very limited range in the southern Appalachian Mountains yet is widely and successfully cultivated throughout the East Coast. At the opposite end of the spectrum is Elliottia racemosa, the Georgia plume, a small tree with a very limited range both in the wild and in cultivation. Its native habitat is in the sandhills of eastern and south-central Georgia. This unusual member of the Ericaceae can reach heights of up to thirtyfive feet (10.7 m) and have a trunk up to twelve inches (30 cm) wide. It is strikingly beautiful when in bloom, its pure-white racemes standing high above the bright-green foliage. The flowers are remarkably unericaceous in appearance, having four or five free Elliottia racemosa Muhlenberg ex Elliott, the Georgia plume:-A flowering branch (I); vertical section of a flower (2); a flower with its corolla and stamens rea moved (3); front, side, and rear views of stamen (4); and a cross-section of an ovary. From Garden and Forest, Volume 7 (1894), page 205. petals that are not fused to form a corolla tube, a trait that marks it as more \"primitive\" than other members of the family (Bohn et al., 1978). In its native Georgia, Elliottia blooms from the middle of June to the end of July. The plant comes into flower progressively later as farther north. of all its positive horticultural atspite tributes-its beautiful flowers, good fall color, and hardiness to minus ten Fahrenheit (-23 C)-Elliottia is very rare in cultivation. This neglect is all the more amazing when one considers that the plant was first discovered over two hundred years ago, in 1773, by William Bartram (Ewan, 1968) and was described by Gotthilf Muhlenberg in 1817, who named it in honor of Stephen Elliott. A cursory perusal of the literature quickly reveals the source of the problem: in the wild, Elliottia is very shy about forming fruit, so shy, in fact, that until 1903-one hundred thirty years after Bartram's discovery-no mature capsule had been found in nature or in cultivation, and then only an empty one. More amazing still is the fact that no ripe seeds were discovered until 1934, and even these seeds contained only \"imperfect emone moves In bryos\" (Wherry, 1936). On top of this difficulty with seed production, the plant is considered difficult to transplant, and early efforts to collect specimens from the wild generally failed, with the notable exception of \"three or four plants\" collected by Asa Gray near Augusta, Georgia, in 1875 and planted out on the grounds of the 4 P. J. Berckmans's Nursery outside that city (Sargent, 1902). For many years, these were the only known cultivated specimens of Elliottia. They were last reported alive, but in poor health, in 1923 (Trudell, 1926). This difficulty with transplanting is somewhat surprising, given the fact that in the wild the plant suckers freely from its roots, particu- larly in response to injury or disturbance, such as fire. The early propagations of Elliottia probably involved digging up just such young root sprouts. In the early 1900s botanists renewed the search for Elliottia, discovering several new colonies (Harper, 1903; Trudell, 1926, 1929). Their finds stimulated the interest of horticulturists, and cultivated plants were re- ported growing at Kew Gardens, England, in 1902 (sent there by Berckmans's Nursery) (Prain, 1912); at the Biltmore Forest in Asheville, North Carolina, in 1934 (Knight, 1938); and at the Henry Foundation in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, in 1936 (Henry, 1941).No doubt many other specimens have been and still are in cultivation, but these are among the oldest and historically most significant. Portrait of Stephen Elliott. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Ecology While early botanical authors considered EIliottia to be \"one of the rarest North American trees\" (Sargent, 1902), more modern research has shown this not to be the case. Since the 1950s, Dr. George Rogers of Georgia Southern College and Dr. John Bozeman of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources have discovered about thirty new locations where the plant grows. In all, Bozeman estimates, there are about seventy distinct sites for Elliottia, all in Georgia. Some stands are as small as twenty feet by twenty feet, while others cover many acres. Almost all of them are located along the Altamaha, Ocmulgee, and Canoochee rivers or their tributaries. The Big Hammock Natural Area in Tattnall County, containing nearly four hundred acres of Elliottia, is one of the best places to see the plant. Currently, Elliottia is considered too common to be granted \"rare and endangered\" status by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service, but the state of Georgia classified it \"endangered\" in 1977 and has protected it ever since. As far as seed production in the wild goes, Dr. Bozeman has found that the smaller the colony the less the likelihood that it will produce seed. The large colonies he is familiar with \"all produce seed on a regular basis.\" According to Bozeman, the root-suckering habit of Elliottia may partially explain the vagaries of seed production. He postulates that those populations that set viable seed (generally speaking, the large ones) consist of more than one genetically distinct clone, while populations that don't (the small ones) are monoclonal. This lack of genetic diversity inhibits outcrossing and therefore limits their seed 5 recessive lethal or sublethal genes of extensive inbreeding. as a result Seed Germination The first break in the propagation of Elliottia came in 1941, when Mary Henry, of the Henry Foundation, published the first illustration of ripe Elliottia fruit (a photograph of ripe fruit produced by a plant growing in her garden at Gladwyne, Pennsylvania). Accompanying the picture is the cryptic caption: \"It has been considered sterile to its own pollen but no other Elliottia was growing near this plant.\" Unfortunately, Henry does not mention fruit formation in the body of her article or whether she ever tried to germinate the seeds it contained. The first successful germination of Elliottia seed was reported by Alfred J. Fordham of the Arnold Arboretum (Fordham, 1969). He was able to raise five seedlings from wildcollected seeds sent to him in 1964. At the time, however, he could not determine the nature of their seed-dormancy mechanism. In another article, published in 1981, Fordham cleared up the problem. He reported that Elliottia seed required a chilling period in order to germinate and recommended three months's cold stratification in order to break their dormancy. Unfortunately, he did not publish data on the percentages of germinaElliottia racemosa. From Curtis's Botanical Magazine tion. (1912). production. Over time, these smaller, inbreeding populations would become homozygous for a wider variety of recessive traits, including self-incompatibility, than the larger, outcrossing populations. Another factor that probably affects Elliottia's ability to produce viable seed was discovered by Dr. Frank S. Santamour. Elliottia pollen, he reported in 1967, was only five to six percent viable when the flowers were opening. He postulated that this low viability may be due to the accumulation of Fordham also reported success in rooting the young shoots that sprouted from pieces of Elliottia roots removed from a large plant in March and planted in a warm greenhouse. This propagation technique takes advantage of the natural tendency of the plant to produce root suckers in the wild. In 1985, I undertook a series of germination tests to determine exactly how much chilling the seeds required. The seeds that I used in the tests were produced by the Arnold Arboretum's lone plant, #977-62, which Henry Hohman of Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Maryland, had donated to the Arboretum in 1962, when it was nine feet (2.75 6 m) tall. Because it was the Arboretum's only plant and was of questionable hardiness, it had been moved indoors each winter for nearly ten years before being planted out-ofdoors in 1972. Since then, the plant has grown well and is now a healthy, single-trunked specimen, still nine feet (2.75 m) tall and four feet ( 1.2 m) wide. While this plant has often produced seed capsules, seed collected from these capsules generally have failed to germinate. However, in 1985, an unusually heavy crop of fruit was produced, and these were harvested on 21 October for a series of germination tests. The test was set up with only the viable seeds-that is, seeds having large embryos. All seeds lacking embryos were discarded. From our one plant, we collected three hundred sixty viable seeds, dividing them into four lots of ninety seeds. On 28 October, we either sowed seeds directly in a greenhouse kept at a minimum temperature of sixty-five Fahrenheit (18.5 C) or placed them in small polyethylene bags containing moist stratification medium (fifty percent sand and fifty percent peat moss) and chilled them in a refrigerator at thirty-six Fahrenheit (2 C). At intervals, we removed the bags from the cold and sowed the seeds they contained in a warm Mature fruit capsules and viable seeds of Elliottia collected from the wild in Georgia on October 6, 1987, by Dr. George Rogers. The scale at the bottom of the figure is in millimeters. Photographed by Peter racemosa Del Tredici. that, while they don't absolutely require a chilling period to germinate, subjecting them to one month's stratification before sowing both accelerated the rate and increased the percentage of germination. It is not clear what the significance is of the fact that isolated specimens of Elliottia in cultivation have often been reported to set viable seed (Henry, 1941; Fordham, 1981). ). Obviously, one cannot simply say that low seed-set in the wild is entirely due to selfincompatibility. It is important to realize that both the Arboretum's plant, which set close to four hundred viable seeds in 1985, and the plant investigated by Frank Santamour in 1966, only 5.5 percent of whose pollen was viable, came from Henry Hohman of greenhouse (sixty-five Fahrenheit) (21 C), with the following results: Cold Lot Stratiftcation Days of 42 Germmation 56 Days to First Number of Seeds Percentage Germmated Germmauon 1 1 64 71 10 2 3 4 19 21 1 21 1 66 64 66 74 73 82 Nmety seeds per lot. Elliottia seeds require a moist chilling period of about one month to stimulate germination. This stands in contrast to the behavior of the seeds of most species of Rhododendron, which require light but not chilling for germination. In this regard, however, it should be noted that tests with the seeds of various Rhododendron species have shown Kingsville Nurseries in Maryland. While it is not known whether these two Hohman plants are sibling seedlings or identical vegetative propagations, they probably have very similar genetic backgrounds. Assuming this to be the case, it seems likely that climatic factors during bud set in the fall or floral development in the spring might inter- 7 Cultivation Given the fact that the proper treatment of Elliottia seeds is now known, one is tempted to say that the last impediment to its wider cultivation has been removed, but sadly this is not the case. Propagators throughout the East Coast have reported that, even when seed is available, many seedlings die from Phytophthora fungus infection (damp-off). Luckily, we did not experience such losses to damp-off with our seedlings at the Arnold Arboretum. This may be due to the fact that I at the time of their potting up in May 1986, collected several handfuls of soil from under the mother plant with pieces of Elliottia root included. I forced this soil through a screen and then mixed it with the sand and peat I moss mix used for potting the seedling into.l Losses have been minimal, and most plants are now about four to five inches tall. I did this based on the assumption that Elliottia was no different from many other members of the Ericaceae in being dependent on \"ericoid\" mycorrhizae for their proper growth and development. All of our container-grown plants show extensive mycorrhizal development, which is undoubtedly involved in the uptake of a wide variety of mineral nutrients-in particular phosphorus and nitrogen-from the sterile, sandy soils in which it naturally grows (Read, 1983). These seedlings are now being offered for sale to the readers of Arnoldia for $25 each. The plants are all between four and six inches tall and will be shipped in the spring of 1988. If possible, the plant should have another year or two in a container before planting out. Any site with at least fifty percent sun and well drained, sandy soil enriched with peat moss or leaf mould will do fine. Like other members of the Ericaceae, Elliottia must have acid soil. How To Order Elliottia racemosa flowering in the Arnold Arboretum. Photographed by Peter Del Tredici. with genetic factors to determine pollen viability. This would mean that in the year Santamour did his testing, pollen viability was low, while in 1985, when the Arboretum plant set copious seed, viability was considerably higher than that. Obviously, more studies of the matter are called for. act Seedlings Please do not prepay orders; send payment only after your seedling arrives. Direct your order to: 8 Elliottia Distribution Arnold Arboretum . Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795. Endnote 1. The idea to do this was stimulated by discussions with the late Edmund Mezitt of Weston Nurseries, in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, who told me that his secret to successful germination (and subsequent growth) of Rhododendron seed was to mix a handful of screened soil taken from under a wild-growing Rhododendron with the standard peat-sand seedgermination mix used in the greenhouse. Henry, 1903b. Elliottia racemosa again. Torreya, Volume 3, Number 7, page 106. M. G. 1941. Elliottia racemosa. National Horticultural Magazine, Volume 20, Number 3, pages 223 to 226. W. A. 1938. A rare American shrub. Bulletin Knight, of Popular Information of Mellinger, the Arnold Arboretum, Series 4, Volume 4, Number 2, pages 7 to 13. M. B. 1967. The lost Elliottia. The American Horticultural Magazine, Volume 46, Number 2, pages 94 to 95. Prain, D. 1912. Elliottia racemosa. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, Volume 138, Number 85, Plate 8413. Acknowledgments John Bozeman of the Georgia Department of Natural Resources for carefully reviewing the manuscript, and Mr. Robert McCartney of Woodlanders, Incorporated, Aiken, South Carolina, for his helpful obserI thank Dr. Read, vations. J. 1983. The biology of mycorrhiza in the Ericales. Canadian Journal of Botany, Volume 61, Number 3, pages 985 to 1004. Santamour, Frank S., Jr. 1967. Cytology and sterility in Elliottia racemosa. Morris Arboretum Bulletin, Volume 18, Number 3, pages 60 to D. 63. References Bohn, B. Elliott, A., S. W. Brim, R. J. Hebda, and P. F. Stevens. 1978. Generic limits in the tribe Cladothamneae (Ericaceae), and its position in the Rhododendroideae. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 59, Number 4, pages 311 to 341. S. 1971. A Sketch of the Botany of South Caro- Sargent, Charles Sprague, 1894. Elliottia racemosa. Garden and Forest, Volume 7, Number 326, page 206. 1902. The Silva of North America, Volume 14, pages 29 to 32. Sealey, J. R. 1938. Elliottia racemosa. New Flora and Silva, Volume 10, Number3, pages 154 to 164. Small, J. K. 1901. The rediscovery of Elliottia. Journal of the New York Botanical Garden, Volume 2, Number 7, pages 113 to 114. Trudell, H. W. 1925-1926. Rescuing Elliottia. Bartonia, Number 9, pages 11 to 15. 1927-1928. A new colony of Elliottia. Bartonia, Number 10, pages 24 to 27. Wherry, Edgar T. 1935. Discovery of Elliottia seed. Bartonia, Number 17, page 51. Wood, Carroll E., Jr. 1961. The genera of Ericaceae in the southeastem United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 42, Number 1, pages 10 to 80 (Elliottia, pages 20 to 23~. . lina and Georgia. Introduction by Joseph Ewan. New York: Hafner Publishing Company. [Reprint of the 1821 edition.] Ewan, Joseph. 1968. William Bartram: Botanical and Zoological Drawings, 1756-1788. Memoirs of the American Philosophical Society, Volume 74, pages 1 to180. Fordham, Alfred J. 1969. Elliottia pages 17 to 20. . . racemosa and its propagation. Arnoldia, Volume 29, Number 3, 1981. Elliottia-propagational data for four species. International Plant Propagators Society Proceedings, Volume 31, pages 436 to Harper, . 440. R. M. 1902. Notes on Elliottia racemosa. Plant World, Volume 5, Number 5, pages 87 to 90. 1903a. Two new stations for Elliottia. Plant World, Volume 6, Number 3, page 60. Peter Del Tredici is the Arnold Arboretum's Assistant Plant Propagator. He writes frequently for Amoldia and other horticultural and botanical publications. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24927","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160856b.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Schofield, Edmund A.","article_content":"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum Edmund A. Schofield Fleeing a broken marriage in middle age, a wealthy New York socialite came to Boston and created a wholly new life as botanist at the Arnold Arboretum Towards the end of the First World War there came to the Arnold Arboretum a thirty-sixyear-old woman whose life had just fallen to pieces. To be sure, she could command resources to cushion the fall that no ordinary person could-great wealth, family name, social prominence-but those resources had been powerless to prevent it. A native of Philadelphia, a graduate of Bryn Mawr College, and a member of New York's social elite (she was, for example, a cousin of Presidentto-be Franklin Delano Roosevelt), the woman had married a New York attorney in 1907, settling into a comfortable life on Long Island as wife, mother, andsocialite. But the Great War soon called her husband away to Washington, D. C., and in 1916 one of her two young sons died. At war's end, upon her husband's return, their marriage broke up. No doubt to escape the tempest their separation would cause in New York society, she fled to Boston, where she apparently had relatives (she was descended from the Adamses of nearby Braintree, for example, and from the Bradfords of Plymouth). In Boston she would create for herself an entirely new life: she would become, of all things, a botanist. Her training in this new and unfamiliar field started literally from scratch. Not long after arriving in Boston she approached Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, the founding Director of the Arnold Arboretum, about the possibility of working as a volunteer at the Arboretum-perhaps as a means of forgetting her marital troubles. She wanted to study landscape architecture, too. In any event, \"The Professor,\" as she came to call Sargent, set her to washing clay pots in the Arboretum's greenhouses, to test her resolve. Presently, at Sargent's urging, she began to study the plants on the grounds of the Arboretum and in its greenhouses under the tutelage of William H. Judd (1861-1949), who was the Arboretum's propagator. Early on, she took a particular interest in the lilac collection, just then under development. For the next four and a half decades, in one capacity or another, this dedicated, resourceful, and indefatigable woman was affiliated with the Arnold Arboretum. During those decades, which seem to have been happy ones, she became a respected botanist, making many collecting forays to the western United States and writing three scholarly works in her chosen field. Upon Sargent's death in 1927, perhaps out of gratitude for his and the Arboretum's crucial aid in rehabilitating her life, she and her brothers-one of them an internationally known architectcontributed generously to the Arboretum's endowment. Ultimately, she became a member of the Arboretum's Visiting Committee and a staunch champion of the Arboretum during the painful and divisive court battle of the 1950s and 1960s, the so-called \"Arnold Arbo- 10 return controversy.\" Her name was Susan Adams Delano McKelvey, nee Susan Magoun Delano. Until now, few details of her life have been known. Here, in brief, then, is her life's story, reconstructed from evidence scattered from California and Mexico to Boston, New York, and Philadelphia. preferred to be known) was born Susan Magoun Delano in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, on March 13, 1883, of \"pure New England ancestry-parsons, shipbuilders and shipowners, schoolmasters, bankers, and so forth\"-to use her brother William's phrase. She was the fifth child of Eugene Delano (a merchant and banker) and Susan Magoun Adams Delano. Her maternal grandfather, the Reverend William Adams (1807-1880; Yale, 1830), had been instrumental in founding Union Theological Seminary in New York and, from 1873 until his death, had served as its president. While Susan Delano was yet a child the family left Philadelphia for New York City, where she grew up. Entering Bryn Mawr College's Class of 1906 early in the new century, she majored in English and French. In her freshman and senior years she played on her class field hockey team. Taking not a single botany or biology course, she used instead the first-year geology course to fulfill her science requirement. In 1907 she graduated. On October 8, 1907, she married a young attorney, Charles Wylie McKelvey (18781957), and moved with him to an estate (\"ten acres on which there is a remodeled white frame colonial house, large farm group and two Her Early Years: 1883-1919 9 Susan Adams Delano (as she Susan Delano in 1898, at Photograph courtesy of Jon about the age of fifteen years. Katherine McKelvey. cottages\") a in Oyster Bay, Long Island, only few miles from Syosset, home of her brother, William Adams Delano (1874-1960), an architect. Her husband and her brothers William (who was affectionately known as \"Billy\") and Moreau (1877-1936; a banker) all were graduates of Yale (classes of 1900, 1895, and 1898, respectively); at Yale, all had been members of the Scroll and Key senior society, and it was no doubt through the society and her brother Moreau that she met her husband, Charles. After graduating from Yale, Billy studied at the Columbia University School of Architecture and then at the E,cole des Beaux-Arts in Paris, from which he received a diplome in 1902. Returning to New York, Billy and his friend Chester Holmes Aldrich (1871-1940) founded the architectural firm of Delano & Aldrich in 1903. In the same year he began teaching design at Columbia. Over the next several decades Billy Delano would establish a national and international reputation as an architect. He would design vast estates on Long Island, embassies in Paris and Washington, the Post Office in Washington, D. C., and 11 1 Sprague Sargent's annual funding appeals. Though the record is unclear on this point and an exact chronology probably irretrievable, it seems likely that there was some kind of connection between the Delanos and the Arboretum before Mrs. McKelvey retreated to Boston in 1919. Perhaps her brother William, being an architect and therefore interested in the use of plants for landscaping, had made the initial contact in the course of some routine business. In any event, once in Boston Susan Delano McKelvey was able to start rebuilding her shattered life with the indispensable help of Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. In Lilac Time: 1919-1928 Portrait Delano of William Adams Delano (1874-1960), Susan McKelvey's elder brother, by Dunbar Beck. Courtesy of the National Academy of Design. the Venice Art Gallery; in 1948, at the request of President Truman, he would design the second-story balcony in the south portico of the White House. From 1949 until 1952 would be consulting architect to the Commission on the Renovation of the Executive Mansion and from 1929 until 1946 a member of the National Capital Park and Planning Commission. In 1958, toward the end of his long and productive life, he would be able to declare in an interview with the New Yorker magazine that \"I've known every President of the United States from Teddy Roosevelt to the present day, except Har- Sargent had given her the initial nudge, McKelvey threw herself wholeheartedly into mastering the various aspects of botany, maintaining her zeal for the subject virtually until her death in 1964. She began her career in classic fashion by participating in a botanical \"expedition,\" an arduous, five-week collecting trip to Glacier National Park in August and September 1921. Years before (in the 1880s) Charles Sargent had recommended that the area and its \"appallingly grand\" scenery \"be set aside as a forest preserve.\" McKelvey was accompanied by her surviving son, thirteen-year-old Delano McKelvey (1908-1965);Professor John G. Jack (18961935) of the Arnold Arboretum; and a man she identified in her diary only as \"Mr. Dall.\" (Dall may have been a son of William Healy Dall [ 1845-1927], the paleontologist who had Once ding.\" Some time during the 1910s (the record is unclear on the exact date) the Delanos-Billy, Moreau, and Susan McKelvey-apparently became benefactors of the Arnold Arboretum, responding perhaps to one of Charles worked at the Smithsonian Institution and after whom the Dall's sheep was named. A native of Boston, the elder Dall had studied with Louis Agassiz at Harvard and had worked in the West and Alaska in his younger days. Less likely, \"Mr. Dall\" may have been Curtis B. Dall, a son-in-law-to-be of Franklin Delano Roosevelt, whose daughter he married in 1926.)In any event, \"Mr. Dall\" was the expedition's official photographer. Many of his photographs, \"taken for Mrs. Susan De- 12 lano McKelvey,\" are preserved in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Travelling by train from New York City, the party passed through Cleveland, northern Indiana, and Chicago; crossed the Mississippi ; and proceeded to Saint Paul, where they boarded the Great Northern Railroad for the last leg of the trip, passing through North Dakota and thence into Montana. All during the trip, Susan McKelvey took careful notes on the landscape and plants she saw from the train's window, notes that show she was progressing well in her study of botany. After three days of travel they were in Glacier National Park. Because little botanical work had been done in the gargantuan, million-acre Park since it was established in 1910, the expedition offered an opportunity for making original contributions to botany. Travelling first by bus and then afoot and on horseback, the party made well over four hundred collections of herbaceous and woody plants in the Park and from nearby parts of Montana. \"There is no time like the present\" to collect a plant, Professor Jack had admonished on this, her first-ever collecting trip. Jack introduced her to the rigors of packing and shipping live plants back to the Arnold Arboretum and-worse yet-of pressing and drying plant specimens. \"Specimens are placed in manila-labelled-...,\" she wrote McKelvey in her \"and then placed between blotdriers. These are strapped between the wooded slats and strapped tight. There is plenty of steam heat at Many Glacier which helps in the drying. Mr. J[ack]. suggests standing them sidewise so that the heat can have freer circulation. The driers are changed morning & evening which is quite a job!\" A few days later she confided, \"Rested in am. if it can be so called as I pressed & dried specimens. Can't possibly label everything now.\" In July of the next year McKelvey and Jack made a much briefer collecting trip, to the White Mountains of New Hampshire. Back in diary, Susan Delano McKelvey as a young woman. This photograph was taken in New York City before Mrs. McKelvey came to Boston. It is used through the courtesy ters on of Jon Katherine McKelvey. Boston, McKelvey worked up both collections and in March 1923, at Sargent's suggestion, shipped nearly two hundred specimens to Alice Eastwood (1859-1953) at the Califor- nia Academy of Sciences, initiating thereby a long and friendly association with the renowned California botanist. Early in her career plants Eastwood had spent three days collecting in the Rocky Mountains with Alfred Russel Wallace and in 1914 had collected for 13 the Arnold Arboretum in the Yukon. \"I often see your name on the Arnold Arboretum both specimens,\" McKelvey \"and wish I \" you are!\" were as wrote to Eastwood, good a collector as I hear a description of the genus and its sections and a taxonomic key, and had helped in many other ways. By the time The Lilac was Despite this early period of fieldwork, however, McKelvey's interest had begun to the Arboretum's developing lilac collection, again at the suggestion of Sargent. In the Arboretum's library, herbarium, and collection of living plants she found \"unusual advantages for study.\" It was in Syringa-the lilacs-that she would make her first significant contribution to botany, a monograph on the genus Syringa. Nonetheless, she would not forget the collecting techniques she had learned in the wilderness of Montana. They would come into play again before the decade focus on was out. published, McKelvey would be an authority. The Lilac was well received. The Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society called it a the genus Syringawhich will for many unique monograph years constitute a monument to the remarkable research and painstaking industry of an \"remarkable volume on a Over the next seven years she would visit lilac collections in the United States, Canada, England, and France, gathering information for her book. She would visit numerous plant nurseries and would examine preserved specimens in herbaria at Kew and Paris, as well as in the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, and would borrow specimens from Kew, the British Museum, Edinburgh, and Budapest. She would correspond with Renato Pampanini in Florence, Camillo K. Schneider, Cecil E. C. Fischer, and other specialists, as well as with growers in the United States, France, Germany, Switzerland, the Netherlands, and other countries. She would pore over herbals, the early botanical literature, monographs, botanies, floras, and the botanical and horticultural journals of ten countries, as well as the catalogs of well known nurseries in many of those same countries. In 1925 she would describe a new species of Syringa (Syringa rugulosa). ). The resulting book, The Lilac: A Mono- lady-botanist [sic].\" Horticulture, Scientific Monthly, Rhodora, Landscape Architecture, the New York Times and Herald Tribune, the Times of London, and many other publications-professional and lay alike-lavished praise on it. In gratitude for Sargent's unstinting support for the lilac project, McKelvey had dedicated The Lilac to, simply, \"The Professor.But Sargent would not know of it, for he had died on March 22, 1927, in his eightysixth year, whereupon Ernest Wilson had become \"Keeper\" of the Arnold Arboretum. With Sargent's death and the publication of her book, McKelvey would make an abrupt about-face:-she would turn her sights toward the plants of the American Southwest. American The Road to Freedom: 1928-1936 McKelvey in Boston and her brothers William and Moreau in New York contributed, generously but behind the scenes, to the Charles Sprague Sargent Memorial Fund, a successful nationwide campaign to raise one million dollars for the Arboretum's endowment in 1928. In that year she was appointed to Harvard's Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, a position she filled for decades. Then, beginning in October of that year, perhaps by way of a vacation, she made the first (and shortest) of eight trips she would make to the American Southwest over the next eight years. In August 1928 she had written to Alice graph, appeared in Ernest H. Macmillan. 1928, published by Wilson, \"Keeper\" of the Arnold Arboretum, had written a short section for it on the history and distribution of the lilac, and Alfred Rehder had supplied Eastwood, asking whether Eastwood would be interested in botanizing for a month in \" New Mexico and Arizona. \"I would get a car,\" 14 McKelvey offered, \"and pay for your expenses and back. If you could pay for your room and food you would not have any other expenses ; if you could not afford to do that then for the pleasure of having you along I should do that too.\" \"I am very anxious to study Junipers and Cypresses,\" McKelvey explained, \"but you could collect of course anything you wanted; I would like your help and advice on those two plants especially though.\" Eastwood replied in the affirmative. Travelling by train, again via Cleveland and Chicago, McKelvey arrived in Lamy, New Mexico, on October 11, where her faithful chauffeur-cum-bodyguard, Oscar Edward Hamilton (whom she called simply \"Hamilton\"), met her with the limousine he had driven to New Mexico from Boston. Big, broad-shouldered, slow-spoken, and perennially good-natured, Hamilton had been born in the Southwest, perhaps in Arizona or Oklahoma, and he apparently had never been to school. He spoke with a most pronounced drawl that must have contrasted dramatically with Susan McKelvey's clipped, northern speech. Half an hour after Hamilton appeared, Alice Eastwood arrived by train from California. The three of them proceeded to Santa Fe and spent the night there. Next day the botanizing party started for Las Vegas and from there drove to Pecos Canyon, Puye, Albuquerque, and other sites in New Mexico, collecting plants along the way. Hamilton and Eastwood took an immediate liking to one another. By November 11, when they arrived in Phoenix, Arizona, Susan McKelvey had made four hundred ten collections. That very evening she boarded a train for Boston, and Eastwood departed for California. Though she had not collected a single yucca, agave, or cactus on the trip, it was in these groups-especially yucca-that McKelvey would someday become an authority. Syringa was behind her now. The plants of the arid Southwest had just laid claim to her life: over the next two decades Yucca would be her principal preoccupation, the Southwest her out special province. McKelvey must have been very much taken by the Southwest, for in December 1928 she informed Eastwood that \"It looks though I might go out again, probably to southern Arizona and New Mexico, in January for a trip of about six weeks or two months. Miss Edlmann, who is the Englishwoman I spoke of and Miss Sturtevant's partner in the iris nursery, can go with me. She is much interested in plants.\" She tried to persuade Eastwood to join them: \"Wouldn't you consider it enough spring in those parts to join us. There would be lots of room in the car and you would find her very interested and a nice companion. Just the kind you would like.\" But to no avail. \"I wish you were joining usdo change your mind & telegraph,\"McKelvey now as implored Eastwood a month later. \"Hamilton is driving us again and I am sure will miss you. He surely will see his house.\" The Lilac was selling exceedingly well. In fact, McKelvey informed Eastwood in January that \"now they are after me about getting out an abridged form of my book for popular \" Most of the first edition is sold & of that there may have to be a reprint before long. As no reviews have come out yet everyone seems to think that is surprising-no one is more astonished than SDMcK!\" In 1929 McKelvey received the Centennial Gold Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the book, and the Schaffer Medal of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, the first time the medal had been awarded for a book. From the Garden Club of America she received the Emily Renwick Achievement Medal. She already had \"decided, under advice, on the subject of a new book-,\" she informed Eastwood, \"on the non-indigenous trees in the U. S. A. It means seeing the best old specimens & getting their history & photographs & will take the rest of my life.\" But when she returned to Boston after the second trip to the Southwest she reported to Eastwood that \"I am a cactus enthusiast use.... 15 s now-and an Agave one.\" By July, after a third trip to the Southwest, this time in the company of Eastwood, she was contemplating a book \"on the common trees of Arizona-including such things as Yucca, Agaves, Cacti, etc.,\" with Eastwood contributing a section on the herbaceous plants. \"I am much more interested in that subject,\" McKelvey confessed. The second trip had lasted for nearly two months (January 16-March 17, 1929). Again travelling by train, McKelvey and her companion, Violet F. Edlmann (died 1963), had arrived in Tucson on January 19, remaining in Arizona until March 16. (Miss Edlmann had \"left for East\" on February 24.) McKelvey made nearly five hundred collections in just under two months, among which were agave, yucca, and cactus specimens. Violet Frederika Edlmann, a well-to-do Englishwoman, lived in Wellesley Farms, Massachusetts, at the time. An associate of the pioneering iris hybridizer Grace Sturtevant( 18G5-1947) from 1926 until 1931, she Susan McKelvey, impaled by an aggressive specimen of f Agave palmeri near Fish Creek, Apache Trail, Arizona. retum was This photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arbotaken on February 18, 1929, by Violet F. Edlmann. participated program at in Sturtevant's iris-hybridizing Glen Road Iris Gardens in WellesFarms. In 1930 Edlmann accompanied ley Sturtevant on an iris-collecting trip to California. Then, abruptly, she returned to England, married Sir Mark Edlmann Collet, 2nd Bt., son of a sometime Governor of the Bank of England, and passed the rest of her life on the Isle of Man as Lady Collet. Though she maintained membership in the British Iris Society until her death in 1963, she appears to have lost interest in hybridizing irises. McKelvey was back in Arizona again by the end of April 1929 for her third foray to the Southwest. In Flagstaff she was met by Hamilton, who apparently had remained behind at his homestead in the Tucson Mountains. He had begun to collect plants on his own in McKelvey's absence, as well as to photograph them. For a few days they botanized in the vicinity of Flagstaff, the San Francisco Mountains, Prescott, and points between. On May 5, Alice Eastwood joined them at Apache Lodge, and next morning they took the road to Sunflower Mine in the Mazatzal Mountains. McKelvey's field notebook shows that her interest had indeed turned rapidly to cacti, yuccas, and agaves on this trip, though she did not neglect other plants. By the time she left Flagstaff on June 8, she had made more than three hundred collections. In July McKelvey, by now back in Boston, shipped two boxes of clothing to Eastwood, to replace garments Eastwood had lost in a fire that destroyed her house. \"Now I do not want you to give them all away to someone else ;\" McKelvey admonished, \"unless you do not like them. I chose them out with care and with you in mind.... You certainly write cheerfully-as you would-about the fire.\" This act of generosity seems to have been typical of McKelvey, for she took a sincere interest in Hamilton's welfare as well. She was sending him to school. \"So far all goes well about Hamilton,\" she notified Eastwood in July. I have started him with a fine teacher-perhaps when he got further along he could go to 16 6 labelled, with the photographs to accompany them, and sent off to [William] Trelease & [Nathaniel Lord] Britton.\" \"Hamilton seems to like Boston,\" she continued, and talks as though he was here for life. He has not started in on photography, developing etc., but has his hands full with the 3 Rs. He is only in 2d grade work his teacher says but she is much interested in him and he is making excellent progress. It is really touching to see how hard he works and how seriously he takes it all. Do drop him a line if you get a chance for he thinks you have forgotten him although I assure him to the contrary. That nice Mr. Rehder thanked him so pleasantly, at my suggestion, for the good collecting he had done. I asked Wilson to do so but he said \"not to spoil him\"! You can imagine how mad I felt. I never believe that anyone is Hamilton wld not be.... spoiled by encouragement-and am sure O. E. Hamilton, Susan McKelvey's chauffeur, beside a fif teen-foot-tall Opuntia versicolor in the Rincon Mountains of Arizona. Mrs. McKelvey took this photograph on March 19, 1930. From the Archives of the Arnold McKelvey's next journey to the Southwest (November 24, 1929-April 11, 1930) would be far more than a routine botanizing trip. Indeed, it would take her to Nevada, California, Arizona, and New Mexico and would Arboretum. yield another three hundred specimens, but a more important objective was the divorce she would obtain in Reno on March 3. Susan McKelvey had been separated, not divorced, from her husband, Charles, since she left New York in 1919. In 1927, their estate in Oyster Bay had been sold. Two years later Charles McKelvey would retire from his law practice and move to Vermont and from there to Sweden, where he would remarry in 1932 and-by all accounts- live out his remaining days in luxury, a member of the international high school. She says he is working hard but that his lack is abysmal. She is an older woman and seems to have great insight, and like all who get to know Hamilton she says he is a real gentleman and feels there must be good background somewhere. I believe that the first thing we know she will like him as much as you and I do. \"jet set.\" Susan In August, McKelvey wrote a long letter to Eastwood. \"You sound as though you had made lots of headway on your plants-having arrived at Compositae. All I have done is to get my specimens of Cacti & Agave sorted & McKelvey was acutely sensitive to the complications that her state of marital limbo caused. When a Macmillan trade representative innocently asked her to \"write something of yourself as an individual, how you became interested in writing the book, 17 7 where you have lived, your association with horticultural interests, etc.,\" for use in publicity about The Lilac, McKelvey flatly refused. \"I fully understand your feeling about the publicity,\" the Macmillan representative replied somewhat gingerly. For McKelvey the impasse must have been an especially onerous burden. On September 27, 1929, McKelvey had confided to Alice Eastwood that \"There have been lots of family things to keep me thinking and acting, too, and I am rather worn out. The long & short of it seems to be that I shall probably go to Reno-by November if possible, & be there 3 months. Every other state requires a long continuous residence before action can even be started and I am not a free enough agent to get away for a long time.\" On November 4 she wrote Eastwood that \"I am leaving for Reno on the 17`h with my brother [Moreau] and a lawyer [A. E. Foster]. It is still uncertain what can be done and will be until I get out there.... Hamilton takes the car out this week.\" McKelvey did not leave Boston until November 24. The next day, in Chicago, her brother and Mr. Foster joined her. The party reached Reno aboard the Overland Limited on November 27, and McKelvey set up residence in the Riverside Hotel. That same night the two men left. Hamilton had \"left Boston in [the] Lincoln\" on November 22, arriving in Reno on December 3. Three days later he and McKelvey departed for the Sierra Nevada and Lake Tahoe, collecting near Portola, California. They collected near Susanville, California, a few days later and over the next three months made many botanical forays in Nevada and California, interrupting them in late February and early March for the divorce pro... learned with much regret that the Charles Wylie McKelveys have reached a parting of the ways after almost two decades of marital bliss [sic]. That the breach has widened to such proportions a reconciliation is beyond the realm of possibility is admitted by those close to the McKelveys.\" In March, the New York papers announced the divorce\"granted on the ground of desertion.\" \"GETS \" RENO DIVORCE FROM C. W. M'KELVEY,\" the Times announced; \"Former Susan Delano Resumes Maiden Name....\" On February 9, McKelvey wrote to Alice Eastwood from Reno, inviting Eastwood to join her for some collecting in Arizona \"after I leave here.\" She reported that, while \" Hamilton is well[,] I am afraid his English is hopeless; at all events he does not appear to hear the difference and it often seems kinder to let him go along in happy ignorance than to keep correcting him. I do not see that there is much to be gained by so doing. It is rather pathetic for with a good education and his character and interests he might have gotten further. Still he seems to like the job he has and without flattering myself in any way it is certainly a better one than he has ever had. From Nevada McKelvey and Hamilton proceeded in the Lincoln to Tucson, via Kingman and Prescott. On March 14, Eastwood arrived from California for a few days of collecting near Tucson, departing on the twentythird \"to see Mr. Rock\" i. e., Joseph F. C. Rock (1884-1962), the plant explorer, who had just returned to the United States from two years of plant collecting in China. Rock had landed in San Francisco on the twentyfirst. McKelvey and Hamilton motored to Kingman again and from there~ollecting en route-headed east by way of Holbrook, Arizona (\"Commercial & Arizona Hotels!! Drunk men!!\"); Albuquerque; Amarillo, ceedings. Alas, McKelvey's divorce was not to be the private affair she must have fervently hoped it would be. In December a New York paper would report that \"Society, especially the old guard of the Washington sq. section, has Texas; Oklahoma City (\"Terrible roads!\"); Springfield, Missouri; Saint Louis (where 8 18 they visited the Missouri Botanical Garden); and Urbana, Illinois. In Urbana McKelvey called on Professor William Trelease ( 18571945), a professor of botany at the University of Illinois who had worked on the agaves and yuccas. From Urbana McKelvey went to Chicago and boarded a train for Boston. Eastwood visited Boston at some point during the fall of 193~at just about the time Ernest Wilson (who had succeeded Sargent as the Arboretum's director) was killed, along with his wife, in an automobile mishap on October 15. Early in December, McKelvey wrote Eastwood that \"I cannot remember whether the Wilson accident came before or after you were here. It was pretty sad business. The work has been apportioned & goes on well however. [I]t is always a little sad to see how well things go on in the world without any one individual however valuable.\" taking courses at the Gray the time. \"The lectures are interesting,\" she wrote in the same letter, \"& we are at the Liliaceae which comes near my heart.\" McKelvey had become very fond of the Southwest by now. The cold and snow of that New England December made her long for Arizona. But she would have had difficulty moving there. \"My brother [probably Moreau] seems awfully loath to have me think of living in the West,\" she confided to Eastwood. \"It rather takes the heart out of a possible purchase out there to have him feel that way about it.\" Despite the impossibility of moving to Arizona, however, McKelvey decided at about this time that she would write a book on the yuccas of the Southwest. She was beginning to receive recognition for her botanical work and in 1931 was apMcKelvey was Herbarium at Susan McKelveyand Hamilton pose before the vehicle that took them to several states in the Southwest in March, April, and May 1932. The trailer on the right holds specimens and equipment. They are shown here at the home of McKelvey's brother Moreau Delano in Orange, New Jezsey, which they msited en route to Boston on June I l. This photograph is used through the courtesy of Jon Katherine McKelvey. 19 9 pointed research assistant at the Arnold Arboretum, a humble post she would hold for many years. In 1932 Horticulture published on pine blister rust, and in Journal of the Arnold Arboretum published one on the taxonomic and cytological relationships of Yucca and Agave that she an article of hers 1932 the had written in collaboration with Professor Karl Sax. By 1934 her reputation was growing: John Hendley Barnhart of the New York Botanical Garden wrote to request personal data about her for his biographical card catalog of botanists, for example. Articles by McKelvey appeared in the National Horticultural journal and the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum in 1934 and 1935. By 1936, when an article of hers on the Arboretum was published in the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, she had become a staunch partisan of the institution that had helped her to rebuild her life. From 1928 to 1936 Susan McKelvey would make eight trips to the Southwest (Arizona, began most inauspiciously. On the evening of April 3, Hamilton, driving alone from Boston to New Mexico as usual, was held up and robbed by two bandits in El Reno, Oklahoma. Brandishing a machine gun, they forced him off the road and took his watch, seventy-five dollars in cash, and nine bags of luggage containing most of his and McKelvey's clothes. Fortunately, they spared the microscopes and other equipment. In December 1936 Moreau Delano died in Boston, leaving McKelvey free to devote full time to her book on the yuccas. She worked on it through most of 1937, and by mid-1938 8 Nevada, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, Texas, Oklahoma, and California). Five trips-those of April to June 1929, December 1929 to April 1930, April to June 1931, March to May 1932, and April to June 1934-had been for the sole purpose of studying Yucca and allied genera. Hamilton \"made a trip to secure important material\" in the summer of 1935, and in late November 1935 through March 1936 McKelvey and her brother Moreau, by now an invalid, spent the winter near Indio, California. \"I only got into the field when (rare) conditions made it possible,\" McKelvey recorded of this trip, however. During those years she collected thousands of specimens of Yucca, pressing them or preserving them in alcohol. The ever faithful Hamilton took thousands of high-quality photographs of the plants and landscapes of the Southwest (they are now in the Photography Archives of the Arnold Arboretum), as well as participating in the collecting and \" doing the necessary \"heavy work.\" The trips went smoothly for the most part, although one (that of April to June 1934) the first volume (Yuccas of the Southwestern United States Part One) came off the press under the Arboretum's imprint. She was glad, \"very glad,\" when Alice Eastwood-then in her eightieth year-gave it her stamp of approval. McKelvey launched immediately into Part Two, but its publication would be nine years in coming. \"I am indeed fortunate in having an interest,\" McKelvey commented to Eastwood, \"and have clung to that through thick & thin. So many of my friends seem lost without one.\" The Great Depression was in full sway at the time, and McKelvey's cousin Franklin was President. \"You evidently do not care much for the New Deal!\" she wrote Eastwood, \"& wld be in the midst of Sympathisers in this section of the country. I sometimes wonder whether conservatives are wrongwhether F. D. R. may not go down in history as a saver of democracy? In the midst of things perspective is impossible.\" A Second Book, a Second War: 1938-1945 Over the next few years of economic depression and war McKelvey continued her yucca project. At some point she transferred her activities from the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain to the Botanical Museum in Cambridge and through her contacts in the Southwest able to obtain some fine specimens of Indian corn for the Museum's director, Professor Paul C. Mangelsdorf. By the spring of was 20 Mr. Weeks Asks Himself to Tea When Edward Weeks, who for many years was editor of The Atlantic Monthly, was serving on the Board of Overseers of Harvard University, he encountered Susan Delano McKelvey during the painful and divisive episode called \"the Arnold Arboretum controversy.\" The following excerpt from his book Writers and Friends (Little, Brown, 1981) demonstrates the strength of McKelvey's commitment to the institution that had played such an important role m her life, as well as her commitment to its founder, Charles Sprague Sargent. The excerpt is printed here through the courtesy of Mr. Weeks. Each member of the Board is assigned port which the president on his reto \"oversee\" one or more departturn recommended to the Overseers, ments of the University and to file an saying that \"for once I find the bioloannual report on their condition. In gists in complete agreement.\" It addition he serves as chairman of a seemed to me that its main plea was Visiting Committee, composed of for a new buildmg in Cambridge, and eminent authorities, not necessanly with the others I voted for its adopwith Harvard affiliations, who survey tion. a department from the outside, and The Visiting Committee of the Arwho meet in Boston and Cambridge boretum was composed of twentyat least once a year to concert their two members, including Henry F. findings. My first and most difficult du Pont, Childs Frick, John Ames, assignment was the Arnold Arbore- Godfrey Cabot, Mrs. Grenville Clark, tum, an enclosure of trees and flower- Mrs. George Agassiz, Mrs. Frank ing shrubs in Jamaica Plain of which Crowninshield, Mrs. Delano Mcby deed of trust the University was Kelvey, some wealthy, each expert in the caretaker. If Harvard was found horticulture. I do not have a green negligent, the Arboretum would re- thumb, and whileI worship trees, I vert to the City of Boston. knew I was out of my depth at the Charles Sprague Sargent had been luncheon I arranged for the group at director of the Arboretum for fifty- the Harvard Club of Boston. ButI did four years, and it was he who made it not anticipate their united cold front. internationally known: the park grew The following week I called up Mrs. from 125 to 265 acres less manicured McKelvey and invited myself to tea. but not much less renowned than I knew she liked fly fishing, and after Kew Gardens; a modern herbarium a few words about Kennebago [the was built and a most valuable library area of northwestern Maine where of nearly 50,000 volumes and 22,000 McKelvey was spending her sumphotographs made it a center for re- mers] I took the plunge. search. On Sargent's death in 1927 a \"What went wrong at our lunchmemorial fund of a million dollars eon ? Why were you all so set against had been added to its endowment. me?\" I asked. Then came the Depression, two de\"There was nothmg personal,\" she structive hurricanes, and the short- replied. \"But you must have read the age of manpower throughout the war, Bailey-Mangelsdorf Report. Don't leaving an urgent need for restora- you realize what it threatens to do to tion. The time had come when it was the Arboretum? Many of us on the necessary to renovate some of the old Committee helped to raise the fund collections and to initiate new, in memory of Charles Sargent. Now, extensive plantings. apparently with the president's apI did not appreciate this nor did I ap- proval, we're told that Harvard propreciate the rivalry for funds between poses to break up Sargent's priceless the botanists in the Arboretum and library and to spend the money we the biologists in Cambridge. During gave, not to revive the Arboretum but [University president James Bryant] for a new building in Cambridge. It's Conant's absence two distinguished outrageous!\" biologists, Drs. Irving W. Bailey and As I questioned other members of Paul Mangelsdorf, had compiled a re- the Visiting Committee, I was con\" vinced that this was a tempest larger than a teapot.I warned my classmate, Keith Kane, who was a member of the Corporation and the president's assistant in public relations, that these people were really up in arms. Grenville Clark, also on the Corporation, at his wife's persuasion, had changed his vote; did I in my report to the Conant dubbed us \"two-vote men.\" But the attitude which prevailed was, in the words of one cynic on the Corporation, \"Why shouldn't we skm that fat cat?\" The Visiting Committee engaged two capable lawyers, Mike Farley and Robert C. Dodge, to resist the Report, and the conflict dragged on for years. The University finally compromised: Sargent's library was left intact and the memorial part of the Arboretum ~, endowment was not spent on bricks and mortar. I recall this episode not because I like to criticize my alma mater, to whom I owe so much. Had Conant not been distracted by the war his prudence might have restrained the biologists. At the time I speak of, the University had already divested itself of two \"outlying provinces\" for which there were no longer sufficient academic interest or funds-the Bussey Institute had been closed and the Gray Herbarium gone to seed. In today's pinching economy other endowed institutions will have to divest themselves of provinces they can no longer afford, and will do so, I hope, without infuriating donors whose intent deserves respect. The remainder of my term was so Overseers, and 'I more peaceful.... ' -Excetpted from Wnters and Friends, by Edward Weeks (Boston: Little, Brown and Company, 1981J, pages 140 and 141. Copynght 1981 by Edward Weeks. Used with the permission of Edward Weeks. 21 1943 her manuscript was ready for publica- unavailable at the Arboretum because of the war, and so she put the manuscript aside, saw to it that all loan specimens were returned to their owners, and waited for war's end. In any event, she was forced to vacate the space in the Botanical Museum by the Navy in mid-1943. \"At the moment I am working at home, on a quite different subject... ,\" she confided to Mangelsdorf in March 1944. \"I've no idea when, if ever, my yucca paper will be published-it was handed in last spring-and to tell you the truth (except that I like to complete something that is begun) I'm enjoying my present subject much more.\" She had begun work on her third and last book, a painstaking account of botanical exploration in that part of the United States lying west of the Mississippi River. \"Now I have begun on something else and am t_~riiled about it,\" she informed Alice Eastwood. \"In fact so interested that I wish I had begun years ago.\" Hamilton was a staff sergeant in the Army by this time, connected with a medical unit in France. \"He hope[s] to do X-ray work,\" McKelvey informed Eastwood, \"but whether he does that now or other things I do not know; he is not a person who can express himself in writing very well and his letters tell next to nothing. He did write last that the mud reminded him of a day in Arizona when the mud was so bad that it removed one of my \" shoes.\" was \" tion, but funding Crowning Achievement, Crowning Irony: 1945-1956 The enterprise on which McKelvey had embarked in 1944 would materialize in the publication in 1956 of her third and final book, the classic Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West 1790-1850. It would be a natural outgrowth of her years of work in the American Southwest on the genus Yucca. McKelvey was done with the massive (1,853page) manuscript by late 1951 or early 1952, at which time she submitted it to Harvard University Press for publication (the Arnold Arboretum was to underwrite its publication costs). The Press rejected it, however, and she sought help and advice from Professor Karl Sax, the Arboretum's director, and from Walter Muir Whitehill, librarian of the Boston Athenxum. Whitehill put her in touch with Frederick W. Anthoensen, owner of the Anthoensen Press in Portland, Maine, who agreed to publish the book. On Whitehill's recommendation she secured the services of Harvard Professor Erwin Raisz, a skilled cartographer who created exquisitely calligraphed maps to accompany her text. Eventually, Professor Richard A. Howard, Sax's successor as director of the Arnold Arboretum, assisted McKelvey during the final stages of publication and in publicizing the book. Though dated 1955 on its title page, the beautifully printed book actually was not issued until March 1956. It received excellent reviews. In Rhodora, Joseph Ewan of Tulane University, an authority on the history of botany, dubbed it \"this book-of-a-century.\"\"Only one book of its kind is expected in a century,\" he wrote elsewhere. For it and her other botanical and horticultural writings McKelvey received a gold medal from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and the Sara Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Award from the New York Botanical Garden. The years were years of controversy as well. It was during this period that the Arnold Arboretum controversy occurred. McKelvey, who owed much to Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum and who had been a member of Harvard's Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum since 1928, played a leading role in opposing the Bailey Plan (1945), which would divert Arboretum funds to uses that she considered to be inconsistent with the purposes for which the funds originally had been given. The facts of the controversy are far too complicated-indeed, far too controversial-to be rehearsed here; what is important in the present context, perhaps, are 22 McKelvey's reasons she did. In her she stated that own taking the position words, written in 1949, for Because of my long association with the Arnold Arboretum, because of my loyalty to and admiration for its purposes as they were expressed and executed by Professor Sargent, and because of my small part (on the Boston Committee) and the far larger part of my brother [Moreau] (on the New York Committee) in helping to raise the Sargent Memorial Fund, I am concerned to see that the interests of the Arboretum and the intent of the contributors to the Memorial Fundare protected in the contemplated move to Cambridge. Edward Weeks, former editor of TheAtlantic Monthly, was a member of the Arboretum's Visiting Committee when the controversy erupted. Recently, in his book Writers and Friends, he describes his involvement in the controversy. With his permission we on page 20 Mr. Weeks's account of a visit he paid to the home of the redoubtable but considered them to be more valuable in plant taxonomy than in economic botanyshe stipulated in her will (dated July 5, 1960) that all of her \"books, pamphlets, notes, records, photographs, and photographic films, and miscellaneous articles in the field of botany\" be given to the Arnold Arboretum upon her death. She did not forget Whitehill's Athenasum in her will, or Oscar Edward Hamilton-\"formerly in my employ, whose present address is Blairsden, California.\" In June of 1964, Professor Richard A. Howard, the Arboretum's director, received from Mrs. McKelvey a letter requesting her retirement from the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, on which she had served since 1928, and from her appointment as Research Associate, which she had held since 1931. McKelvey explained that she could no longer do the things she used to do and wanted to make way for someone more active in both of the roles she cherished. A month later, at the advanced age of eighty-one, she \" reprint Mrs. McKelvey. The Final Years: 1956-1964 With the publication of her third and last book in 1956, McKelvey, now seventy-three years of age, immediately began drafting her will. The first step was to make an inventory of her botanical legacy of books, letters, records, photographs, and preserved specimens, some of which were in her home, some of which were in the Botanical Museum in Cambridge. The Museum's director, Professor Paul C. Mangelsdorf, considered her collection of yuccas and related plants to be \"the most extensive collection of its kind ever made and [to be] quite valuable.\" Her first thought was to leave the materials to the Museum, but after consultation with various faculty and staff members of both the Botanical Museum and the Arnold Arboretumwho agreed that the materials indeed were valuable and urged that they remain together, at Phillips House in Boston. Few individuals have been affiliated with the Arnold Arboretum as long as Susan McKelvey was, and few have done as much for it, in so many ways, as she did. If she was its benefactor and champion, however, it was died her The Arnold Arboretum has much to anyone else-in so many ways-as it meant to Susan Adams Delano McKelvey, nee Susan Magoun Delano. In redeeming her life it became her life. godsend. never meant as A Bibliography of Susan Delano McKelvey Syringa rugulosa, a new species from western China. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 6, Number3 (July 1925), pages 153 and 154. A new hybrid lilac. Horticulture, Volume 5, Number 15 (August 1, 1927), page 302. The Lilac: A Monograph. New York: Macmillan Company, 1928. xvi + 581 pages. A white pine blister rust demonstraton. Horticulture, Volume 10, Number 18 (September 15, 1932), page 331. Taxonomic and cytological relationships of Yucca and Agave. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 14, Number 1 (January 1933), pages 76 23 Arctomecon (Written with Professor Karl Sax.)( californicum. National Horticultural Magazine, Volume 13, Number 4 (October to 81. 1934), pages 349 and 350. A verification of the occurrence of Yucca Whipplei m Arizona. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 15, Number 4 (Octoberl934), pages 350 to 352. Notes Yucca. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 16, Number 2 (April 1935), pages 268 to 271. The Arnold Arboretum. Harvard Alumni Bulletin, Volume 38, Number 15 (January 17, 1936), pages 464 to 472. Yuccas of the Southwestern United States. Part One. Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: Arnold Arboretum, 1938. 150 pages. Yuccas of the Southwestern United States. Part Two. Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: Arnold Arboretum, 1947. 192 pages. A new Agave from Arizona. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 30, Number3 (July 1949), pages 227 to 230. Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850. Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: Arnold Arboretum, 1955 [1956]. xl + 1144 on Massachusetts Historical Society. Articles in the New York Times and clippings from other, unidentified New York newspapers supplied some details, as did Richard A. Howard's reminiscence of Mrs. McKelvey in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum (Volume 46, Number 1 [January 1965J, pages 45~7~. An mterview with Alfred J. Fordham yielded valuable details about Mrs. McKelvey and O. E. Hamilton. The National Academy of Design kindly supphed a photographic print of Dunbar Beck's portrait of Wilham Adams Delano. Among the materials in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum that were used are McKelvey's field notebooks, photographs, photographic logs, correspondence, manuscripts, and maps. Her preserved plant specimens are in the Arboretum's herbarium. Acknowledgments Sheila Connor, Carin B. Dohlman, Alfred J. Fordham, Richard A. Howard, Jon Perry, and Stephen A. Spongberg of the Arnold Arboretum supplied much valuable mformation and advice. John M. Woolsey, Jr., Esq., of Boston provided both personal reminiscences of Mrs. McKelvey and biographical notices of William Adams Delano, Moreau Delano, and Charles Wylie McKelvey. Jon Katherine McKelvey of Nuevo Leon, Mexico, supplied four photographs and a personal reminiscence of Susan McKelvey. Bruce Bartholomew of the California Academy of Sciences photocopied-without complaintmore than two dozen letters from the correspondence of Alice Eastwood and granted permission to quote from them. Susan Fraser of the New York Botanical Garden, Catherine S. Craven of the Massachusetts Historical Society, Anita L. Karg of the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, and Teresa R. Taylor of Bryn Mawr College responded to mquiries about materials held by their institutions. Freek Vrugtman of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Hamilton, Ontario, forwarded copies of several items relating to Mrs. McKelvey in the Gardens's library. David Walsh Markstem of the National Academy of Design, New York, expedited a request for a copy of Dunbar Beck's portrait of William Adams Delano. Edward Weeks, on exceedingly short notice, willingly and graciously permitted use of material on Mrs. McKelvey from his book Writers and Friends. My sincere thanks to each and every one of them! pages. A discussion of the Pacific Railroad report as issued in the quarto edition. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 40, Number 1 (January 1959), pages 38 to 67. A Note on Sources Susan Delano McKelvey's life has been reconstructed from manuscript and published sources in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, the Harvard University Archives, the Suffolk County [Massachusetts] Courthouse, Bryn Mawr College, the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation of Camegie-Mellon University, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the New York Botanical Garden, the California Academy of Sciences, the New England Historic Genealogical Society, and the "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Kirk Boott and the Greening of Boston, 1783-1845","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24929","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170a328.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Emmet, Alan","article_content":"Kirk Boott and the Alan Emmet Greening of Boston, 1783-1845 Despite travail, despite tragedy, Kirk Boott and his family contributed much to the early years of horticulture and botany in the metropolis of New England A love for growing plants seemed to run in the Boott family. Kirk Boott (1755-1817), his fa- ther before him, and his several sons after him, had a passion for plants, expressed either through horticulture or botany. In their widely differing lives, lives which included important accomplishments as well as bleak tragedy, this was one linking strand. Members of the Boott family shared another bias. Even those whose earliest years were spent in Boston felt a strong cultural and familial bond with England, the land from which their parents had come. Indeed, two sons, when grown, moved permanently to England. In the middle of the Eighteenth Century, Francis Boott owned and operated a market garden in the town of Derby in the English Midlands. For about twenty-five years-the one whole of his adult life-he and his wife and their children worked together on this shared enterprise. Francis's sons worked with him on a couple of acres at the edge of town, where they raised vegetables and young hawthorn plants for hedges. One son, Kirk, recalled rising early to bunch radishes (three bunches for a penny) and bouncing along in the cabbage cart behind \"Old Jack,\" their horse.l They took the vegetables to be sold by Mrs. Boott and her daughters from a shop at the front of the family's house. The shop prospered and earned for the Bootts the respect of the denizens of Derby, even those \"far higher in station and fortune.\"2 Francis lived only to the age of forty-four. After he died in 1776, his five sons scattered to seek their fortunes elsewhere. Their widowed mother and two sisters remained in the narrow little house in Derby, dependent thereafter on the young men to send money home. One of Francis's sons found a position as gardener on an estate, where he had three men under him.3 The second son, Kirk, left home for London in 1783, when he was twentyseven. He found work as a porter in a warehouse but aimed higher. To improve his image and his chances, he went to a fashionable friseur for a powdered wig.4 To his sister he wrote, \"[F]rom small beginnings I shall rise to be a Merchant, and traverse the Ocean to distant shores, with the merchandise of Britain, and at last come [home] to Derby....\"5 Within five months of leaving home, Kirk had arranged for passage aboard the Rosamond to Boston. Kirk found people to back his venture. Friends paid for his trans-Atlantic passage and furnished him with goods so that he could open a shop when he arrived, gambling on his success to recoup their investments. The diverse shop merchandise that Kirk took with him included hats, nails, and barrels of garden seeds. When he landed in June 1783, Kirk Boott found Boston so green and beautiful that he lamented England's so recent loss of this country. His first letter home sounds like a 25 market gardener's son writing: Peas have been in a week or more and now sold at 4\/6 sterling per peck. I took a walk in the garden belonging to my Lodging House, and saw Kidney Beans one foot high and cucumbers more than that long. They are forwarder than with us. I have made some enquiry after gardening, but can get very undifferent accounts. The gardeners are slovens and idle.6 His initial optimism waned quickly. The American economy was in a shambles after the Revolutionary War, and Boott's business went very badly at first. His merchandise seemed all wrong. He wrote his sister that he rued the day he had forsaken the simple life of a market gardener in Derby. In time, how- cer The Boott house in Derby, England, with the greengroshop at the front. (The spots are in the original.) Courtesy of Bradley R. Parker. straightforward business ethic-to sell better goods at lower prices than his competitors~nabled him to become established. He repaid his debts, began sending money home, and was soon well on the way to success and prosperity. Boott soon threw away his powdered pig~ tail in order to become more American in appearance. American women, however, held little appeal for him. But no matter. He soon lost his heart to another newly arrived English emigree, Mary Love, whose father was captain of the ship that had brought Boott to Boston. They were married in 1785. Kirk Boott was an urban man. Although his youth had been spent working the soil, his boyhood home and his family's existence had centered on selling produce in the center of town. When he came to the United States, the town life of a merchant was Boott's goal. An early foray into the hinterland, as far as southern New Hampshire, persuaded him that rural New England was rocky, densely wooded, and far less beautiful than Old England. When he was financially able to build a fine house for his family, a site in town near his place of business was his obvious choice. During Kirk Boott's lifetime American cities began the increase in density and in area that so changed this country. Kirk's attachment to urban life was tempered by ambivalence. He apparently believed that regular escape from the city was necessary for one's physical and mental well-being. He bought himself a horse and rode a few miles into the country every morning before seven. Repeatedly, he expressed the regret that he had not explored \"the grand, bold, and picturesque scenery with which this country abounds,\" but somehow he was always too busy to travel, except in winter, when it was too cold, or in summer, when it was too hot.' In 1795, Kirk wrote his sister that \"Mr. Theodore Lyman, a worthy friend of ours, has lately bought a Farm. He seems to take much pleasure in it.\"8 Boott had collaborated with Lyman in such mercantile adventures as ever, his 26 a ship to the Pacific Northwest in \" of furs. The Lyman estate, \"The Vale,\" quest in Waltham, not far from Boston, was one of the first places in Boston to be laid out in the informal English landscape style, following the precepts of designer Humphry Repton. Theodore Lyman had greenhouses and a high brick wall to hasten the ripening of the sending them to Waltham. Boott turned down Lyman's offer, but after listening day and peaches espaliered against it. Kirk Boott, perambulating Lyman's acres, may have wondered briefly whether he, too, should establish his family in a country seat. When yellow fever struck Boston in 1798, all who could fled the city. The sparsely settled countryside was generally viewed as a healthier environment than the city. Lyman urged Boott to escape from the unwholesome city, even offering to provide a house for the family, and to send a team of oxen to bring night to the sound of hammer and saw at a nearby coffinmaker's shop, he closed his store and left Boston-by then nearly a ghost town-until the epidemic had waned. The Bootts rented quarters in outlying Watertown, Theodore Lyman generously supplying them with produce and cider.9 A Mansion and a Garden By 1802 Kirk Boott was at the height of his prosperity. Neither he nor anyone else foreAmerican business the trade embargo that would punish so severely a few years later. Confident of his continuing financial success, Kirk decided to build a townhouse for himself and his family. His wife worried about the expense, but Kirk thanked God that saw The rear of the Boott mansion, Bowdoin Square, Boston, showing the lean-to greenhouse, with hotbeds below it, and trellises for plants along the brick walls of the house. This engraving was made between 1840 and 1847 by an unknown artist. Courtesy of the Boston Athenxum. 27 to provide liberally for [his wants.\"lo family's] The half-acre site of Boott's brick house was a pasture in Boston's West End, an area which was just then beginning to be developed.ll Charles Bulfinch, Boston's leading architect, may have been the designer of Boott's three-story Federal mansion, with its tall, Palladian windows lighting the staircase.12 Kirk's oldest son, Wright, just home from school in England, described the new house in 1805 as \"larger than I expected, and as much handsomer. The doors on the first floor are all Mahogany and so highly polished as to make the furniture look ordinary.\"'3 Soon, according to Wright, his father was buying new mahogany furniture, Turkish carpets, and a stock of wine. Kirk Boott joined other fashionable Bostonians in having Gilbert Stuart paint his portrait. Boott and his family mingled socially with Boston's leading families. Gardiner Greene's nearby townhouse, set amidst elaborate terraced gardens, was one to which the Bootts were often invited. Mr. and Mrs. Boott reciprocated with a cotillion in their was he \"enabled table seeds from England, specifying such favorites as \"the best green, purple, and white Brocolli.\"'s His new greenhouse flourished during its first season. In December 1805, he wrote that he had \"Roses, Jassamines, Geraniums, and stocks in blow [bloom],\" and that bulbs sent to him by an English gardening friend were already \"shooting above the earth.\"1' Boott knew nonetheless that January shall be passed Jack Frost will give us trouble eno' to resist. If this bold intruder can be kept out, I promise myself ere much ... pleasure [in the greenhouse] during Feb'y, March, and April, at which time we have but little vegetation. I have taken great pains to keep Lettuce alive thro' the winter.... By April, sure enough, \"Winter yet bears sway,\" he wrote, but happily, my Greenhouse has flourished expectation, and what pleases me beyond my much, I have found my skill equal to the care of it. Lettuces in abundance I have preserved, and have had fine Sallads thro' the Winter. Yesterday I gathered about a Bushel and gave it to my own gleaming mansion. friends.18 Attached to Kirk Boott's new house was one feature that may have meant more to him than any other: a greenhouse. Having been raised as a gardener, one aspect of English life that Boott missed particularly was the long growing season. As he wrote in 1804, \"from the severity of the winter, no garden seeds could be put into the ground before April.\"14 Inside his own greenhouse, Boott could feel that he had defeated winter. Boott had had a garden almost ever since he first landed in Boston. Each year he raised all the vegetables his family could eat, and some for the neighbors. He once boasted that \"I have not had occasion to buy a cucumber or onion this year, and Mary has had a fine show of annual flowers, Balsam, China Asters, etc....\"'S He had his sister send him some gooseberry bushes, a fruit he missed. They were not a success. He also had her send vege- Lettuce was equal in importance to flowers in Kirk Boott's greenhouse; he knew his family's health depended on it. Boott kept a cow on his small lot of land, but every remaining square foot was used for his garden. His 1809 description reveals as much about the gardener as the garden: Our chief among pleasure is in our family, and flowering plants. Flora has decked our parlour windows for four months our past in the most gay and beautiful manner. She is now about transferring her beauties to the open garden. I have more than one hundred Rosetrees of the best kinds just bursting into bloom, from the moss down to the Scotch Mountain-the cluster Monthly red, the Cabbage province, pompon De Meaux, Burgundy, Blandford, Violet, White musk, etc., etc. From the first dawn of vegetation I have a 28 succession of flowers, the modest snowdrop, the golden Crocus, Daffodils, Narcissus, varieties such Hyacinths, Cowslips, Tulips etc. Those from Derby never blow but with the most pleasing association of ideas. The common weeds of my garden are the greenhouse Geraniums, Balsams, Coxcombs, Botany-Bay and yet a Xeranthemums, Mignonette, common observer would think there was hardly anything worth looking at. The Hawthorne-the White Hawthorne is now in full bloom. 19 etc. as the fragrant Scotch (Rosa spinosissima). The pompon rose 'de Meaux'-a small, pink cabbage rose painted by Redoute-was probably one of Boott's newest varieties, having made its first Eng- Boott had his oldest son write to gardening friends in Derby for more English flowers, London Pride and \"Bird's Eye\" [?],since \"there are none in the country hereabouts. Daisies are such a rarity that they are kept in greenhouses, as well as Cowslips.\"2 Even to their taste in wildflowers, the Bootts were an- glophiles. One son, Francis, reminisced years later on his father's devotion to gardening: He was often in his Garden and about his frames by four o'clock, and I love to believe that my fondness for plants was caught from him.... [His garden] had no ostentation about it, and the familiar \"weeds\" were his delight. His roses, stocks, Persian Iris, and Lily of the Valley were the pride of his Garden, as the Heath and Geraniums were of his greenhouse. His salads and cucumbers were the height of his pride as a vegetable ... grower....21 These accounts are all that is known of Kirk Boott's garden. But a hundred \"Rosetrees\" ! They must have occupied most of the garden, with spring bulbs and annuals tucked in around them. The annuals Boott grew had been introduced into America before or soon after the Revolution. All appear on the plant lists of such noted American gardeners as George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. They, too, grew lavateras, or tree mallows, and everlastings (xeranthemums and coxcombs), which hold their color when dried.22 As for Boott's roses, most were many- petalled centifolias and damasks, or small-flowered lish appearance at Kew Gardens in 1789. Boott's greenhouse skills are apparent from his successes: bulbs forced into midwinter bloom, and roses in December. The Palma-Christi he mentioned was the tropical castor-bean tree, Ricinus communis, grown for its foliage. Greenhouse geraniums-actually, pelargoniums-were imported from southern Africa after 1750. The greenhouse itself was a long lean-to, its roof only partially glazed. Heat was supplied by a wood fire, the smoke of which was conducted through a horizontal brick flue past the growing benches, to a chimney at the far end. Theodore Lyman's first greenhouse, one of the oldest survivors in this country and probably built not long before Boott's, can still be examined at The Vale in suburban Waltham, Massachusetts. Boott was doubtless inspired by Lyman's example. Gardiner Greene, a friend and neighbor of Boott's, had what may have been the first greenhouse in Boston. Kirk Boott had also seen glasshouses in England in his youth. While helping his brother find horticultural employment in 1783, Kirk has written that \"amongst professional gardeners no place is esteemed a good one without Hot House and Green House. \"23 The technology of horticulture was further advanced in England than in the United States, but by 1800 greenhouses were not uncommon appurtenances on the estates of prosperous New England gentlemen. Bernard M'Mahon published the first edition of The American Gardener's Calendar in 1806. He explained the differences in construction and in use between a greenhouse and a hothouse. The former has only enough artificial heat to \"keep off frost and dispel damps,\" while the latter has an inside stove and more glass.24 The flowers that Boott grew would suggest that his was actually a hot- 29 English schools in 1799. When he returned to 1805, Wright, the oldest, distressed his father by refusing to go to college. Kirk, Jr., and his next-younger brother, Francis, did attend Harvard, which their father considered the best place for them to receive an American education. Neither one was happy there. Francis graduated in 1810, but Kirk, Jr., left without a degree. All three brothers took a turn helping in the family store, but only Wright stayed on to become a partner. Wright Boott developed an enthusiasm for exploring New England and beyond. In 1806, when he was seventeen, he journeyed by carriage into New Hampshire and Vermont, jolting over log roads, through mud, rocks, snow, and unending forests. \"God deliver me Boston in from such a country,\" he wrote.26 But two years later he and a cousin set off on a longer trip, to Niagara Falls, Montreal, and Quebec. The earliest greenhouse at \"The Vale,\" Theodore Lyman's estate in Waltham, Massachusetts, probablydating from 1804. This photograph shows the firebox and the horizontal flue for heating. Kirk Boott's greenhouse Wright's travels developed a focus after his brother Francis returned to Boston in 1814. After four years of study in England, Francis had devoted himself to science, particularly botany. Back in Boston, he became interested in collecting New England plants. Dr. Jacob Bigelow, a young professor of medicine at Harvard, shared his interests. Botany and medicine were viewed as closely related sciences. Bigelow asked Francis Boott to help him prepare a comprehensive work on the flora of New England.2' To that end, Bigelow, Francis Boott, and three others explored and collected plants in the mountains of Massachusetts and New Hampshire in the summer of 1816. On the summit of Mount Washing- probably was quite similar. Courtesy of The Society for the Preservation of New England Antiqmties. house. Always a little homesick for England, loathing the long New England winters, Boott created his own artificial climate. Kirk Boott and his wife made their long- delayed American sightseeing trip in 1812. They were particularly enthralled by the scenery of the Hudson River valley. The fields of wild buttercups observed from the boat reminded Kirk of \"the dear and delightful meadows of England,\" the highest praise he could bestow.2s Kirk died in 1817. He left his survived him by forty years, four and five sons. ton, the men left their Their names have been names more in a bottle. permanently wife, who daughters, The Sons of Kirk Boott Kirk Boott and his wife set a family pattern when they enrolled their two oldest sons in tagged to certain topographic features of the mountain-Boott Spur and Bigelow's Lawn. Francis brought his brother Wright to Mount Washington the following month, and Wright himself returned on several botanical and birding expeditions. In 1829, Wright discovered an unknown alpine plant that was later named for him: Prenanthes boottii, rattlesnake root.28 30 Francis Boott returned to England in 1820, remaining there for the rest of his life. He studied medicine, earning his M.D. at Edinburgh in 1825, and practiced in London. In 1819, he was made a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London. Later, he served as Secretary of the Society, where his portrait now hangs. In 1858, he published the first of four parts of a major botanical work on sedges- the genus Carex-for which he is still known. Harvard honored Francis Boott in 1834 by offering him the Professorship of Natural History, but Boott felt he could not accept, since he knew only botany, and not other, related disciplines such as horticulture and zoology 29 Francis Boott gave his herbarium of White Mountain plants to Sir William Jackson Hooker, the Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. Hooker named a goldenrod after Francis Boott, whose name is attached to a sedge, and to an Asiatic water plant, Boottia cordata. Having introduced Wright to botanical exploration and study, Francis went on to inspire their younger brothers James and William to follow suit. William studied medicine in Paris and Dublin and gained a reputation as a botanist himself. After Francis died, William continued to work on sedges. Boott's shield fern, Dryopteris boottii, was named for William. Of the five brothers, only Kirk, Jr., had little active interest in plants. Instead, he devoted his life to another form of growth, that of the Industrial Revolution in America. As agent and treasurer of a newly formed textile corporation, Merrimack Manufacturing Company, he acted as organizer, overseer, and resident autocrat during the building of the mills, the canals, the housing, and the entire urban fabric of Lowell, Massachusetts, this country's first planned industrial city. The white-columned Greek Revival mansion he built there for himself and his family was surrounded by a garden of fruit and flowers. Wright, James, William, and Francis were elected to membership in the Boston Society Dr. Francis Boott of London, noted physician and botanist. Photograph courtesy of Bradley R. Parker. of Natural History soon after its founding in 1830. Members of the Society were all proud amateurs in the days before professionalism tarnished the amateur image. They were committed to the expansion of knowledge for its own sake. As the forerunner of Boston's Museum of Science, the Society undertook to educate not only its members, but the general public as we11.3o Wright Boott, and later his brother William, joined another important new organization for sharing and spreading knowledge, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, established in 1829. Both the Horticultural and the Natural History societies drew their members from the Boston intelligentsia and included many of the Bootts's neighbors, friends, and business associates. Within two years of its inception the Horticultural Society held annual shows at which members exhibited fruit, flowers, and 31 greenhouse plants. At the 1834 exhibit, in Faneuil Hall, along with Joseph Coolidge's pears and Judge Lowell's orange trees, were three tropical plants from the collection of J. Wright Boott, Esq.: Plumbago capensis, a blue-floweredleadwort from southern Africa ; Begonia discolor, a red-foliaged import from Asia with fragrant pink flowers; and, lastly, a white-flowered member of the Amaryllis Family, Pancratium, described at the time as being very beautiful.3' After the 1834 show, Wright withdrew from the Horticultural Society. He never exhibited his plants again. Someone must have offended him inadvertently. He had become a moody, difficult man of marked peculiarity 32 His sister-in-law, Mrs. Kirk Boott, Jr., was the only Boott to enter a subsequent Horticultural Society show. According to the Society's 1837 Transactions (page 42~, she submitted a \"curious Cucumber\" eight feet long. \"[I]ts form reminded many of a serpent.\" After his father died in 1817, Wright began a gradual retreat from business and society. Eventually he stopped going out altogether, and he spoke to almost no one. His troubles apparently began, as troubles often do, with money and a will. Wright was the executor of his father's will and was responsible for supporting his mother in the family mansion, hers for her life. He was also obligated to support his minor siblings, as well as the orphaned children of a cousin. Furthermore, all of Wright's brothers and sisters were entitled to equal shares of the residue of the estate ~ Unfortunately, even before division, the family fortune was not as large as Kirk's children had believed it to be. In a stagnant economy, the Bootts's grand lifestyle had drastically reduced the fortune from its peak at the century's start. Even by 1810, Kirk, Sr., had foreseen that \"my property will be but little for each when it comes to be divided.\"3a Wright's brothers joined him in their late father's import business for a few years, hoping in vain to make a go of it. By 1822, all but Wright had withdrawn. In 1826, Wright in- vested in an iron foundry started by two of his brothers-in-law. Before he pulled out of that disastrous enterprise, he had lost a good part of his own and his siblings's inheritance. They later reminded him of this with some frequency. From then on, despite efforts by Kirk to give him an important role in the Lowell textile industry, Wright never engaged in business again. He stayed at home with his mother, and worked with his plants. Even though Wright Boott had resigned from the Horticultural Society, his rare tropical plants and his success at coaxing them into bloom caused his name to recur often in the Society's annals. In 1837, for example, it was noted that Boott's West Indian Cactus triangularis had blossomed and that he had imported the novel Chorizema henchmanni, an Australian evergreen with bright red flowers.35 He became known for imported greenhouse plants, particularly orchids. His plants came from England. The Atlantic Ocean was not too wide for the Bootts, brought up as they were in the import business and having maintained close ties with their English relatives. Wright himself travelled to England before he became a recluse. His brothers, particularly Francis, knew the leading English botanists and plantsmen and could easily have sent or brought plants to Wright in Boston. At an 1874 meeting of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Marshall P. Wilder, a former president of the oganization and later its historian, reminisced about the \"exquisite manner in which the amaryllis was formerly cultivated by J. W. Boott who received from England bulbs of new and rare varieties worth two or three guineas each.\"36 Wilder also remembered Boott's as the only orchid collection in the country in the early 1830s. \"They were cultivated in an ordinary greenhouse, occasionally closing a door for temperature control, and grew without piling up bricks and charcoal about the stem.\" In his article on horticulture in Winsor's 1881 History of Boston, Wilder wrote that some of ... 32 f Wright's choicest plants hadbeen obtainedby his brother Francis from the Duke of Bedford.3' The Sixth Duke of Bedford, proprietor of Woburn Abbey and an avid naturalist and botanist, owned the Covent Garden Market, on which he built two unique rooftop conservatories in 1827 where plants were grown, shown, and sold in a stylish setting.38 Orchids became a refined passion for many gardeners as the Nineteenth Century progressed, and orchid hunters began stripping them from their native habitats to meet the demand. Appalling numbers of plants gathered in the wild succumbed to the treatment they received from unwitting gardeners who had no idea how to care for them. In 1790 there were only fifteen species at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, but by 1812 Loddiges's Nursery near London was propagating orchids for sale.39 The orchid craze came later to the United States. In 1818, Harvard's Botanic Garden listed only one orchid, Phaius grandi f olius, or Bletia tankervillea?, a terrestrial orchid. The plant explorer John Fothergill had first brought Phaius grandifolius to England from the Far East in 1778. This may have been Wright Boott's first orchid, according to accounts by Wilder and another Horticultural Society member, Edward S. Rand, Jr.'o The epiphytic orchids were more difficult to grow than the terrestrial, but Wright Boott apparently learned to give them the necessary light and air. His collection included Dendrobium orchids from Asia, Oncidium orchids from Central America, and, from Brazil, the Cattleya orchids, whose large blooms of corsage fame are actually of the color now known as orchid. Wright Boott's life ended in sadness and bitterness. His mother finally left the family home in 1836 to spend the remainder of her life in England with Francis and his family. Kirk, Jr., after years of trying to help Wright improve his own and the family fortunes, died suddenly in Lowell in 1837. James made a permanent move to England a year later. William, who had always been close to Wright and had helped him in the greenhouse, left after Wright threatened him and drove him from the house. On the other hand, one sister, Mary Boott Lyman, newly widowed and in straitened circumstances, moved into the family house in 1844, as she felt she was legally entitled to do. She lived there for an entire year, reportedly without ever sharing a meal with Wright, or indeed even speaking to him-all according to conditions outlined by Wright before she moved in. Two young nephews also lived in the house for a time-in idleness, according to their aunt, who wrote Francis that the young men rose at noon and lounged about for hours, con- tinually smoking cigars.41 The family, not surprisingly, became sharply divided. Those in England, including Mrs. Boott, could only feel sorry for Wright. Removed as they were, their image of him was blurred by fondness for the man he once Asa 1843 to his friend in Cambridge to direct the Harvard Botanic Garden, that he hoped Gray would call at the Boott family's Bowdoin Square mansion. Francis was sure had been. Francis wrote in Gray, newly arrived Wright would be pleased to show Gray his greenhouse and his plants.42 In fact, it is unlikely that Gray would have been cordially received. Most of those who had to deal with Wright became convinced that he was insane. The atmosphere of the Boott establishment must have been distinctly unsettling. One sister, Eliza Brooks, described an 1842 visit to Wright. She looked for him in the house and then in the garden, but \"the plants were so high I did not see him.\" Eventually she discovered him \"picking dead leaves off a plant.\" \" \"Your dahlias are very fine,\" she said. He, saying nothing, retreated amongst the dahlias while she walked along the gravel path. \"I could see Wright watching me through the high plants,\" she wrote.'~ In 1845, Wright shot himself. His suicide unleashed a long and tiresome battle, waged 33 public and in endless print, between his brother-in-law, Edward Brooks, and his executor, John Amory Lowell. Lowell reportedly blamed Brooks for hounding Wright to his death, to which rumor Brooks reacted by accusing Lowell of trying to influence Wright to change his will. Both men claimed their only interests were to clear their own good in Boott. The letters were collected by Dr. Francis Boott, who added his own notes and comments in 1846. Francis Boott's letters to Jacob Bigelow are in the Francis A. Countway Library of Medicine, Harvard Medical School, while his letters to Asa Gray are in the Library of the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University Herbaria, Cambridge. are at The records of the Boston Society of Natural History the Boston Museum of Science. and to see that justice was done in the of inheritance.44 After obtaining his mother's consent, Wright had sold the mansion just three months before he died.45 The bricks in one wall were incorporated into Revere House, a grand, new hotel soon erected on the site, but the Boott house, greenhouse, and garden vanished entirely. Under Wright's will, his precious plants were left to John Amory Lowell, a thirdgeneration Boston horticulturist, who tended his collection at the family estate in Roxbury. Lowell exhibited some of the plants at Horticultural Society shows. One year he entered a Dendrobium orchid, formerly Boott's, which was four feet high and three feet in diameter, covered with drooping racemes of fragrant yellow flowers. In 1853, Lowell sold his Oncidium orchids to the Misses Pratt of Watertown, but most of his orchids went to Edward S. Rand of Dedham, whose collection was said to be the finest in the country.46 In 1876 Rand's son still owned the huge Dendrobium which had belonged to Boott, as well as a Cattleya crispa, \"as large as a small washtub.\" When the Rand estate was sold, most of the best plants were given to Harvard. Asa Gray himself divided Wright's venerable Dendrobium and kept half for Harvard's Botanic Garden. Probably the scattered offspring of Boott's orchids are delighting their growers today. In the end, they were his legacy. names matter 1. Kirk Boott to his mother, 3 June and 4 July 1784, Letters of Kirk Boott, Sr., Massachusetts Historical Endnotes Twelve volumes of letters of Kirk Boott, Sr., are on microfilm at the Massachusetts Historical Society. Most of the letters were written by Kirk Boott, Sr., to his sister in Derby, England, but a number are by Wright Society (Microfilm Reel 1, Volume 3). 2. Note by Francis Boott, ibid., Reel 1, Volume 1, page 68. 3. John Boott to his mother, ibid., 5 July 1783, Reel 1, Volume 1. 4. Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, January 1783, ibid., Reel 1, Volume 1. 5. Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, February 1783, ibid., Reel 1, Volume 1. 6. Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 13 June 1783, ibid., Reel 1, Volume 2. 7. Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 13 June 1804, ibid., Reel 2, Volume 2. 8. Kirk Boot to Eliza Boott, ibid., 22 July 1795, Reel 1, Volume 6. 9. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 7 January 1799, Reel 1, Volume 6. 10. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 17 November 1802, Reel 2, Volume 1. 11. Suffolk County Deeds, Boston, Massachusetts, Volume 185, page 82, and Volume 208, page 90. 12. Bulfmch's Boston, 1787-1817, by Harold Kirker and James Kirker, New York: Oxford University Press, 1964, page 80. 13. Massachusetts Historical Society, J. W. Boott to Eliza Boott, 30 September 1805, Reel 2, Volume 2. 14. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 13 June 1804, Reel 2, 2. 15. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 30 October 1787, Reel 1, Volume 4. 16. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 22 July 1795, Reel 1, Volume 6. 17. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 16 December 1805, Reel 2, Volume 2. 18. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 15 April 1806, Reel 2, Volume 2. 19. Ibid., Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 10 June 1809, Reel 2, Volume 3. 20. Ibid., J. W. B. to Eliza Boott, 16 May 1807, Reel 2, Volume 3. 21. Ibid., note by Francis Boott, Reel 2, Volume 3, Page 102. 22. Thomas \/ef ferson's Flower Garden at Monticello, by Edwm M. Betts and Hazlehurst B. Perkins, Charlottesville, Virginia: University Press of Virginia, 1971, pages 54 to 58; The Mount Vernon Gardens, Volume 34 Robert B. Mount Vemon 24. Fisher, Mount Vemon, Virginia: The Ladies' Association, 1960, pages 16 to 43. 44. Correspondence 113. between Brooks and Lowell, page 23. Massachusetts Histoncal Society, Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, February 1783, Reel 1, Volume 1. 24. The American Gardener's Calendar, Seventh Edition, by Bernard M'Mahon, Philadelphia: A. M'Mahon, 1828, page 86. 25. Massachusetts Historical Society, Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 28 September 1812, Reel 2, Volume 5. 26. Ibid., J. W. B. to Eliza Boott, 16 April 1806, Reel 2, Volume 2. 27. Francis Boott to Jacob Bigelow, 25 June 1817; letters of Francis Boott, Countway Library, HarvardMedical Ibid.; An Answer to the Pamphlet of Mr. John A. Lowell, by Edward Brooks. Boston: Eastbum's Press, 1851. 45. 46. Suffolk County Deeds, Volume 544, page 78. Orchids, by Edward Sprague Rand, Jr. New York, 1876. Pages 131 to 136. Acknowledgment The Harvard University Archives provided helpful information about the early careers of Francis Boott and Kirk Boott, Jr. School. 28. Bibliography Edward Brooks. An Answer to the Pamphlet of Mr. John A. Lowell. Boston: Eastbum's press, 1851. A Correspondence between Edward Brooks and John A. Lowell. Boston: S. N. Dickinson, 1847. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Kew and orchidology. American Orchid Society Bulletm, Volume 28, pages 877 to 880 (December 1959). George E. Gifford, Jr. Sedges and a spur. Harvard Medical Alumni Bulletin, Volume 42 (Winter 1968), pages 23 to 26. Asa Sedges and a spur, by George E. Gifford, Jr. Harvard Medical Alumni Bulletin, Volume 42 (Winter 1968), (, pages 23 to 26. 29. Botanical necrology for the year 1863, by Asa Gray. The American Journal of Science and the Arts, Second Series, Volume 73, page 289 (May 1864). 30. See \"The Nineteenth-Century Amateur Tradition: \" The Case of the Boston Society of Natural History,\" 173 to 187 in Science and by Sally G. Kohlstedt, pages Its Public, edited by Gerald Holton and William A. Blanspied. Dordrecht, Holland: Reidel, 1976. 31. Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Transactions, 1834, page 23. 32. Wright's sister-in-law, Mrs. Kirk Boott, Jr., was the only Boott to enter a subsequent Horticultural Society show. According to the Society's 1837 Transactions (page 42), she submitted a \"curious Cucumber\" eight feet long. \"[I]ts form reminded many of a ser- Gray. Botanical necrology for the year 1863. The American Journal of Science and the Arts, Second Series, Volume 37 (May 1864), pages 288 to 292. John Hix. The Glass House. Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press, 1974. Harold Kirker and James Kirker. Bulfinch's Boston, 1787-1817. New York: Oxford University Press, 1964. Bernard M'Mahan. The American Gardener's Calendar, Seventh Edition. Philadelphia: A. M'Mahon, 33. A pent.\" Correspondence between Edward Brooks and John A. Lowell. Boston: S. N. Dickinson, 1847, pas- \" sim. 34. Massachusetts Historical Society, Kirk Boott to Eliza Boott, 1819, Reel 2, Volume 4. 35. Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Transactions, 1837-8, pages 23 and 27. 36. Ibid., 1874, Part 1, pages 25 and 34. 37. The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk County, Massachusetts. 1630-1880. Four volumes Boston: J. R. Osgood and Company, 1881-1883. Volume 4, page 612. 38. The Glass House, by John Hix. Cambridge, Massachusetts : M.I.T. Press, 1974. Pages 92 to 93. 39. Kew and orchidology, by Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. American Orchid Society Bulletin (December 1959~, Volume 28, pages 877 to 880. 40. Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Transactions, 1874, page 34. 41. Correspondence between Brooks and Lowell, page 115. 42. Francis Boott to Asa Gray, 1 May 1843. Francis Boott Bradley 1828. R. Parker. Kirk Boott: Master Spirit of Early Lowell. Lowell, Massachusetts, 1985. Edward Sprague Rand, Jr. Orchids. New York: Hurd and Houghton, 1876. Merle A. Reinikka. A History of the Orchid. Coral Cables, Florida: University of Miami Press, 1972. Justin Winsor. The Memorial History of Boston, including Suffolk County, Massachusetts. 16301880. Four volumes. Boston: J. R. Osgood and Company, 1881-1884. letters, Harvard University Herbaria. Alan Emmet writes often on landscape history and garden history. In 1980, Harvard University's Graduate School of Design published her book-length study of changes in the landscape of Cambridge, Massachusetts; more recently, several of her articles on garden history were published in Garden History, The Journal of Garden History, and other English journals. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 47","article_sequence":4,"start_page":35,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24928","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160896f.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 47 those m (Numbers m parentheses refer to issues, \"A boldface to illustrauons.J Diversity of Hollies,\" Polly Hill, ( 1 ): 2-13 McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum,\" Edmund A. Schofield, (4): 9-23 -fargesii, (2): 32, 33 -japonicum, (2): 31, 33 ringens, (2): 31, 32 forma pr~cox, (2): 32 forma sieboldii, (2): 32 -serratum, (2): 30, 31, 31 sikokianum, (2): front cover, 29 1 -thunbergii, (2): 31 ssp. pusillum, (2) : 30 var. quinatum, (2): 30 var. urashima, (2): 30 tziphyllum, (2): 29 ssp. stewardsonii, (2): 29- \"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano Abies homolepis, (2) : 14 mariesii, (2): 12 maximowiczii, (2): 14 sachahnensis, (2\/: 5 shikokianum, (2): 12 vietchii, (2): 12, 14 Acer alpzna, (2): 8 buergeranum, (2~: 4 -:,arpmifohum, (2): 12 japonicum, (2): 14 mono var. mayrii, (2): 7 montanum,\" (3): 8 Adams, Rev. William, (4): 10 1 Agassiz, Louis, (4) : 11 Aglaonema, (2): 27 Ajuda (Lisbon), (3): 32 Bamhart, John Hendley, (4): 19 Barstow,John, and Kate Gridley, book review by, (3): 39-40 Bartram,William, (4): 3 Bedford, Sixth Duke of, (4): 32 1 Begonia discolor, (4):31 7 Belem, Palace of (Lisbon), (3): 37 7 Tower of (Lisbon), (3) : 37 Berckmans' Nursery, P. J. (4): 4 1 Bermudas, A. (architect), (3): 31 Betula ermanii, (2) : 7 lenta, (2): 27 Bibliotheca Botamca (1751), (3): 3 Big Hammock Natural Area (Georgia), (4): 4 Bigelow, Jacob, (4): 29 Bigelow's Lawn, (4): 29 Biltmore Forest 4 30 Royal of, (3): 33 Garden of, original plan 7 Palace of (Lisbon), (3) : 37 -Botanical Garden (Lisbon), (3): back cover -quarter (Lisbon), (3): inside front cover, 32 Albuquerque (New Mexico) (4): 14 Aldrich, Chester Holmes \/4~: 10 Altamaha River (Georgia), (4): 4 Almeida Monteiro, Antonio de, and Jules Janick, \"The 'Tapada da Ajuda,' Portugal's First Botanical 8 Garden,\" (3): 30-38 Alstrcxmeria h~mantha, (3): 15 Alvarez de Faria, Manuel Godoy, (3): 19 Abies sachabnensis, (2\/: 7 American Gardener's Chronicle, (4): 28 7 Andrade Corvo, Joao de, (3): 37 Andre, Carl, (2~: 9 Anthoensen, Frederick W., (4): 21 Anthoensen Press, (4): 21 Anthurium, (2): 27 Apache Lodge (Arizona), (4): 15 Araceae, (2): 27 excelsa, (3): 36 Aris~ma, (2): 27, 29-32, 33 flowering of, (2): 29 candidissimum, (2): 30, 32 dracontium, (2~: 29, 30 Araucaria triphyllum, (2): 29 'Zebnnum', (2): 29 Arisarum, (2): 27 Arizona (4): 18 Ashevilfe (North Carolina), (4): 4 Artemisia norvegica, (2): 7 Arum, mousetail, (2): 32~3 Arum Family, (2): 27 Arum, (2) : 27, 33~4 -italicum, (2): 29, 33 var. italicum, (2): 33 ssp. neglectum, (2): 33 -maculatum, (2): 33 'Marmoratum', (2): 33 'Pictum', (2) : 33 Asarum, \/2): 32~3 -proboscideum, (2): 32 Asahi, Mount (Japan), (2): 5, 5 Asparagus plumosa, (3\/: 38 aster, New England, (2): 18 Aster novx-anglia?, (2): 18 Athyrium go;ringianum 'Pictum', (2): 30 Austrich, Ricardo R., photographs by, (3): 2, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29 \"El Real Jardin Botanico dc Madnd and the Glorious History of Botany in Spain,\" (3): 2-24 and J. Walter Bram, \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio,\" (3) : 25-29 1 Awa Odon, (2): 11 azalea, pink shell, (4): 3 Bailey Arboretum(Locust Valley, New York), (1): front cover Bailey Plan, (4): 21 Bamades, Miguel, (3): 9 ~eath of, 13): 9 ssp. \" (North Carolina), (4): birch, black, (2): 27 Bletia tankervillex, (4): 32 bloodroot, (2): 27 Bonpland, Aime, (3): 16 \"Books\" (column), (1): 26~2; (2): 36 ; (3): 39-40 Boott, Francis, (4): 25~4 1 J.Wright, Esq., (4) : 31 James, (4): 30 Mrs. Kirk, Jr., (4): 31 35- William, (4): 30 Boott Spur, (4): 29 Boottia cordata, (4) : 30 1 \"borrowed scenery,\" (2): 11 Boston (Massachusetts), (3): 7; (4): 24, 26 27, 28, 29 Boston Athenxum, (4): 21, 22 Boston Society of Natural History, (4) : 30 Botanic Garden (Harvard University), (4): 32, 33 Botanical Exploration of the TransMississippi West, by Susan Delano McKelvey \/1955), (3): 21; (Harvard University), (4) : 19 \"Botany: The State of the Art\" (column), \/1): 20-25 Boufford, David E., book review by, \/ 126-27 4 Bozeman, Dr. John, (4): Brain, J. Walter, photographs by, \/2): 23, 28 and Ricardo R. Austrich, 21 Botanical Museum (4): 36 \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Columbia University School of Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio,\" (3): 25-29 British Iris Society, (4) : 15 British Museum (Natural History), (4): 13 Britton, Nathaniel Lord, (4): 16 Brooks, Edward, (4): 33 Eliza, (4): 32 (: Brotero, Felix da Silva de Avellar, (3): 37 7 Architecture, (4): 10 Commission on the Renovation of 1 the Executive Mansion, (4): 11 Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, (4): 13, 22 coneflower, Tennessee purple, (2): Brugmansia sanguinea, (3): 15 Bryanthus gmelinii, (2): 5 Bryn Mawr College (4): 9, 10 Bulfinch, Charles, (4) : 27 cactus, pincushion, (2): 23 1 Cactus triangularis, (4\/: 31 Caladium, (2) : 27 California, (4): 17 California 12 Academy of Sciences, (4): Calla, (2) : 27 Canary Islands, (3): 13 Canoochee River (Georgia), (4): 4 1 \"captured landscape,\" (2): 11 \"Cardamindum ampliori,\" (3\/: 7, 9 Carex spp., (4): 30 castor bean, (4): 28 Castroviejo, Santiago, (3): 22 Cattleya spp., (4): 32 crispa, (4): 33 1 Cavanilles, Antonio Jose, (3): 19-21 Cervantes, Vicente, (3): 16 Carvalho e Mello, Sebastiao Jos6 de 1 (Marques de Pombal), (3~: 30, 31 Caryophillidae, (3): 27 7 Cascais (Portugal), (3): 37 Centennial Gold Medal (Massachusetts Horticultural Society), (4): 14 Cereus giganteus, (2): 22, 24 Chamxcyparis obtusa, (2): 14 Chapultepec (hill) (Mexico), (3): 16 Charles Sprague Sargent Memorial Fund, (4): 13, 21-22 Charles I (Carlos I) (King of Spain), 9 (3 ): Charles III 20,23 1 Coolidge, Joseph, (4): 31 Cornus florida, (2): 27 Corylus heterophylla, (2): 7 -sieboldiana, (3): 40 Cosmos, (3) : 19 spp., (3): 18 sulphureus, (3): 13 Couto, C. (architect), (3): 31 Covent Garden Marketplace, (4):32 Creech, Dr. John, (2): 31, 33 Crow Castle (Japan), (2): 13, 13 Cryptomeria japonica, (2) : 12 Cuba, (3) : 12 \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities,\" Susan Storer, (2): 16-19 Dion~a muscipula, \/2): 21 dogwood, (2): 27 Dombey, Joseph, (3) : 15 Don, David, (3): 21 Dracxna draco, (3) : 38 Dry Landscape, (2): 9 Dryopteris boottii, (4): 30 Earthquake of 1755 (Lisbon), (3): inside front cover Eastwood, Alice, (4): 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, back cover Echinacea tennesseensis, (2): 20, 23 ~,cole des Beaux-Arts (Paris), (4): 10 Edlmann, Violet F. (Lady Collet), (4): 14, 15 photograph by, (4): 15 Edo (Japan), (2): 3 Edo Period (Japan), (2): 9 \"Eight Views of Nippon,\" Robert G. Nicholson, (2): 2-15 Einset, John W., \"Botany: The State of the Art,\" (column), (1): 20-25 \"How Clock Guides 25 Development's Evolution,\" (1): 20- Cupressus macrocarpa, (2) : 15 Curtis, Will C., (2): 16 Cypripedium spp., (2): 22, 23 -calceolus, (2): 21, 22 Dahlia, (3): 19 spp., (3): 18 Daisetsuzan National Park (Japan), 5 (2): 4-6,5 1 Dall, Curtis B., (4): 11 1 -Mr., (4): 11 1 William Healy, (4): 11 damp-off disease, (4): 7 Datura sanguinea, (3) : 15 de Jussieu, Antoine, (3): 19 Joseph, (3): 15 Del Tredici, Peter, (3): 39 \"Lost and Found: Elliottia racemosa,(4): 2-8 Delano, Eugene, (4) : 10 Moreau, (4): 10,13, 17, 18, 19 Susan Adams, (4): 9 -Susan Magoun, (4): 9, 10 -Susan Magoun Adams, (4):10 -William Adams, (4): 10-11, 13 & Aldrich (architecture firm), (4) : 10 Dendrobium sp., (4): 33 spp., \"El Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid and the Glorious History of Botany in Spain,\" Ricardo R. Austrich, (3): 2-24 (Oklahoma), (4): 19 Elliott, Stephen, (4) : 3, 4 Elliottia racemosa, (2): 5; (4): El Reno cover, front 2, 2-8, 5 4-5 -a.ultivation of, (4): 7 -distribution of, (4): 3, 4 -ecology of, (4) : seeds of, (4) : 6 (Carlos III) (King of Spain), (3): 6, 10, 11, 12, 15 Charles IV (King of Spain), (3): 18 Chile, (3): 12, 13, 14, 15 1 Chorizema henchmanni, (4\/: 31 Cinchona sp., (3): 15 \"Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Cuttings,\" John E. Kuser,(1\/: 14-19 Collet, Lady, (4): 15 -Sir Mark, (4): 15 Colocasia esculenta, (2): 27 Colombia, (3): 16 Colorado, (4): 19 germination of, (4): 5-7 Emily Renwick Achievement Medal (Garden Club of America), (4): 14 Empetrum sp., (2): 14 nigrum, (2) : 7 var. japonicum, (2): 5, 14 Engstrand, Iris H. W., (3) : 18 Enkianthus perulatus, (2) : 4 Ensenada, Marques de la, (3) : 5 Escola Polit~cnica (Lisbon), (3): 38 escuelas bot6nicas, (3) : 11, 22, 28 Estoril (Portugal), (3): 37 1 Ewan, Joseph, (4):21 (4):32 25 en Derby (England), (4): 24, Demonstrandas Descripciones de las Plantas las Lecciones Publicas, by Antonio Jos~ Cavanilles, (3): 19 Desert Botanical Garden, photograph by, (2): 23 Dieffenbachia, (2): 27 Dilleniidae, (3): 27 Expedici6n Botanica al Reino de Nueva Espana, (3): 16 Fagus crenata, (2) : 12 1 Faneuil Hall (Boston), (4) : 31 Faxon, Charles Edward, drawing by, (3): inside back cover, 2 Ferdinand VI (King of Spain), (3): 4, 5 fem, Japanese, (2): 30 Ficus benjamina, (3): 38 elastica, (3): 36 -macrophylla, (3\/: 38 37 fir, Shikoku, (2): 12 Fischer, Cecil E. C., (4): 13 Flora Espanola, by Jose Quer y Martinez, (3): 4, 5, 6, 7, 7, 8, 9 Flora Iberica, (3): 22 Flora Mexicana, (3) : 18 Flora of Japan, by Jisaburo Ohwi, (2): 32,34 Flora Peruviana, et Chilensis, (3): 15 Flora Republic~ Popularis Sinicx, (2): 32 \"Flowering Trees and Shrubs: The Botanical Paintings of Esther Heins,\" by Judith Leet (reviewed), (339-40 Flowers for the King, by Arthur Robert Steele, mentioned, (3): 15 -quoted, (3): 4, 6 Fordham, Alfred J., (4): 5 Forrest, George, (2): 30 Foster, H. Lincoln, garden of, (2): front cover, 32, 34 Laura Louise, (2): 34 Fothergill, Dr. John (3) : 11-12; (4): 32 Fragaria chiloensis, (3): 8 Franco, Francisco, (3) : 22 French, Peggy, (2): 29 Fritillaria camtschatcensis, (2\/: 7 Fuchsia corymbiflora, (3): 15 magellanica var. macrostema, (3): 15 Fuji, (2): 15 Garden in the Woods (Framingham, Massachusetts), (2) : inside front cover, 16, 17, 22 Garden of Ajuda, (3): 34, 35 Gardenesque style, (2) : 10 Gathering the Desert, by Gary Paul Nabhan (reviewed), (2\/: 35~6 General Catalogue of All Plants in the Royal Botanical Garden of A~uda, by F~lix da Silva de 7 Avellar Brotero, (3): 37 Georgia plume, (4): front cover, 2, 27 8,5,7 -cultivation of, (4):7 ~cology of, (4) : 4-5 Geum pentapetalum, (2\/: 5 7 ginger, European, (2): 17 Gzngko biloba, (2) : 4; (4) : 3 Glacier National Park, (4): 11-12 Gladwyne (Pennsylvania), (4): 4 Clasnevm, (3): 36 ( Clattstem, Judy, book review by, (1\/:: 29~0 10, 11, 13, 16, 19, 22 Cray, Asa, (4): 4, 32 Cray Herbarium, (4) : 13 Great Northern Railroad, (4): 12 Green Swamp (North CarolinaSouth Carolina), (2): 21 Greene, Gardiner, (4): 27, 28 serrata, 9 ( 19 -verticillata, (1): 9 Indio, California, (4): 19 Instituto Superior de Agronomia (Lisbon), (3): 38 Gridley, Kate, and John Barstow, book review by, (3): 39-40 Grimaldi, Marques de, (3): 10 Hanke, Thaddaus, (3): 1, 19, 21 Halenia sp., (2): 14 Hamilton, Oscar Edward, (4): 14, 15, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22 \"Hardy Aroids in the Garden,\" Judy Glattstein, (2): 27-34 Harvard Alumni Bulletin, (4) : 19 Harvard University Press, (4): 21 Heins, Esther, (3): 39-40 Hemerocallis sp., (2): 12, 14 -middendorfii, (2): 6 Henry, Mary, (4): 4 Henry Foundation, (4): 4, 5 Hemandez, Francisco, (3) : 4, 14 Hemandez Expedition, (3): 4 Hexastylis spp., (2): 27 Hicks, Jennifer H., photograph by, (2): front cover Hill, Polly, \"A Diversity of Hollies,\" (1): 2-13 \" Instruccion sobre el Modo Mas Seguro y Econbmico de Transportar Plantas Vivas por Mar y Por Tierra 6 los Pafses Mas Distantes, (: by Casimiro Gomez Ortega, (3): 13-14 Intemational Association of Botanical Gardens, EuropeanMediterranean Division, (3): 38 invern6culo (Madrid Botamcal Garden), (3): 27, 28, 29 \"Isabellino\" style, (3): 22, 27 Iwasaki, Baron, (2): 4 1 Jack, John C., (4): 11 jack-in-the-pulpit, Japanese, (2): 17 Janick, Jules, and Antonio de Almeida Monteiro, \"The 'Tapada da Ajuda,' Portugal's First 8 Botanical Garden,\" (3): 30~8 Japanese Alps, (2): 14 Jardim Botanico da Ajuda, 0, (3): 3038, inside front cover, back cover Jardin Botanico de Migas Calientes, El, (3): 6, 8 Jardin Botanico del Soto de Migas Calientes, El (Madnd), (3): 5 Jeronimos, Monastery of (Lisbon), (3): 37 Jose I (King of Portugal), (3) : 31, 32 Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, (4): 18, 19 Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, (4): 13 Judd, William H., (4) : 9 kaiya-shiki, (2): 9 Kalopanax pictus, (2): 12 Kamakura Period (Japan), (2): 9 Kamo, Kyushu (Japan), (1): inside back cover Historia General y Natural de las Indias, by Gonzalo Femandez de Oviedo y Valdes, \/3): 4 Hohman, Henry, (4): 5, 6 1 Hokkaido (Japan), (2): 4, 5, 6, 30, 31 hollies, deciduous, (1): 9 6 common, ( 1 6 1 Honshu (Japan), (2): 12, 12, 14, 30, 31 Hooker, Sir William Jackson, (4): 30 Hope, John, (312 Horticulture, (4): 13, 17 Hosta sp., (2): 14 -rectifolia, (2): 6 \"How Development's Clock Guides Evolution,\" John Emset, (1): 20-25 Howard, Richard A., (4): 21, 22 Humboldt, Alexander von, (3): 16 Hydrangea sikokiana, (2): 12 Ilex 'Apollo',( 19 9 -'Lydia Morris', (1): 1 9 'Sparkleberry', ( 19 Ilex aquifolium, (1): 6 8 Ilex ciliospinosa, ( 1): cornuta 'Bufordii', ( 1 1, back cover Karesansui, (2): 9 Kew Gardens (England), (4): 4, 13, 28 Kikugetsu-tei, (2): 10 1 King, G. R., photograph by, (3): 21 Kingsville Nurseries, (4): 5, 6 Koller, Gary L., (2): 3 Koraku-en (Japan), (2): 12 Koraku Garden (Japan), (2): 12-13 Krebs, William, photograph by, (2): 22 \"Hardy Aroids in the Garden,\" (2): 27~4 photographs by, (2): 28, 31, 33, back cover Glen Road Iris Gardens, [4): 15 G6mez Ortega, Casimiro, (3): 6, 9, Ixvigata, (1): 10 -opaca, ( 1 2, 4 fruiting branch of, (1): (: front cover cover -pedunculosa, (1): inside back Kudo, Yushun, (2): 7 Kuser, John E., \"Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides,\" ( 1 ): 14-19 ): Kuser, John E., photographs by, ( 1 inside front cover, 15, 16, 17, 18 \" 38 Kyoto (Japan), (2): 3, 8, 9 1 Kyushu, (2): 31 lady's-slipper, yellow, (2): 21, 22 Lagerstrcemia indica, (3): 36 Lamy (New Mexico), (4): 14 Landscape Architecture, (4): 13 Las Vegas (New Mexico), (4): 14 1 leadwort, (4): 31 Lilac: A Monograph, The, (4): 13, 14, 16 6 Leet, Judith, Flowering Trees and Shrubs: The Botanical Paintings of Esther Heins (reviewed), (3): 3940 L'Heritier de Brunelle, Charles 32, 33 Magnolia ashei, (2): 7 -hypoleuca, (2): 7 macrophylla, (2): 7 -tripetala, (2\/: 7 vizginiana, (2\/: 4 Malaspina, Alejandro, (3): 18, 19 Malaspina Expedition, (3) : 13, 14, 18-19, 21 landfalls (map), (3): 20 Mangelsdorf, Paul C., (4): 19, 22 7 Manuelino style, (3) : 37 Many Glacier, (4) : 12 Maria Luisa of Parma (Queen of Spain), (3) : 19 Marion, North Carolina, (2\/: 14 Massachusetts Horticultural 1 Society, (4) : 21, 30, 31 Mattiazzi, Julio, (3\/: 31, 32 Mazatzal Mountains (Arizona), (4): 15 (Madrid Botanical Garden), (3): 27 Muromachi Period (Japan), (2): 9 Mutisia clematis, (3): front cover Bosfo, Jos~ Celestino Bruno, (3): 1, 14, 15, 16, 17 Nabhan, Gary Paul, Gathering the Desert (reviewed), (2): 35-36 1 Napoleon, invades Spain, (3): 21 Nara (Japan), (2) : 3 nasturtium, (3): 7 National Arboretum (Washington, 9 D.C.), (1): National Capital Park and Planning 1 Commission, (4): 11 National Horticultural Journal, (4):: ( Mutis y Murillo Gate 12 Leiden Botanic Garden, (2): Lilium superbum, (2): 17 lily, Turk's-cap, (2): 17 Louis, (3): 19 \"Native Plant Societies in the United States,\" (2): 25-26 Lima, Barbosa, drawing by, (3): 34 Lindera obtusiloba, (2) : 14 Link, Johann Heinrich Friedrich, Nee, Luis, (3): 18, 19 Charles Wylie, McKelvey, 7 17 (4): 10, 16, (4): 9\" quoted, (3): 36 borealis, (2): 7 Linn~us, (3): 3, 4, 6, 7, 9 bust of, (3): 29 Linnean Society of London, (4): 30 Lisbon, (3): inside front cover locust, black, (3) : 7 Loddiges's Nursery, (4): 32 Ldfling, Pehr, (3) : 6 Loiseleuria procumbens, (2): 7 London, (4): 24 Longland, David, (2): 1 Lord, Elizabeth M., photographs by, ( 123, 24 Losada, Duque de, (3): 10 Linnxa \"Lost and Found: Elliottia racemosa,Peter Del Tredici, (4): 2-8 Love, Mary, (4): 25 Lowell, John Amory, (4): 33 Lowell (Massachusetts), (4): 30, 32 Lyman, Mary Boott, (4): 32 Theodore, (4): 25-26, 28 -Delano, (4): 11 1 -Susan Adams Delano, 23 7 Nevada, (4): 17 New England Wild Flower Society, (2): inside front cover, 16, 22, 25 New Granada (Colombia), (3): 14, 15, 7 17 New Mexico, (4): 14, 19 New Spain (Mexico), (3) : 4, 14 New York Botanical Garden, (2):: ( McMahan, Linda R., \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Legal Pitfalls,\" (2): 20-24 photographs by, (2): 21, 24 Menzies, Archibald, (3): 21 Merrimack Manufacturing Company, (4): 30 Metasequoia glyptostroboides, (1): 15 back cover trunk cover of, (1): inside front Mexico, (3) :13 Mexico City, (3): 16 Mezitt, Edmund, (4): 8 Michener, David C., review by, (2\/: 35-36 Migas Calientes, (3): 5, 6, 9, 10 El Jardin Botanico de, plan of, (3) : 6 Minuart, Juan, (3) : 6 7 Garden, (4): 17 Miyabe, Kingo, (2): 4, inside back Lynch, John A., photograph by, (2): inside front cover, 1, 17, 18 Lysichiton, (2): 27 -americanum, (2): 28, back cover Missouri Botanical cover -camtschatcense, (2): 6 Madrid, Real Jardin Botnico de, (3) : 2-29, 2, 12, 23, 25-29 plans of, (3): 11, 25, 27 Madrid Botanical Garden, (3): 2-29, 2, 12, 23, 25-29 plans of, (3): 11, 25, 27 view of in summer, (3): 2 \"Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio, The,\" (3): 25-29 M'Mahon, Bernard, (4) : 28 Mocino, Jose Mariano, (316 explorations of in New Spain (map\/, (3): 18 Monastery of Jeronimos (Lisbon), (3): 7 37 Monstera, (2): 27 Monteiro, Antonio de Almeida, photographs by, (3): 35, 36, 37, back cover Monterey, California, (3\/: 1, 19 Moore, David, quoted, (3\/: 36 Muhlenberg, Gotthilf, (4): 3 Tribune, (4): 13 (4): 13 Nicholson, Robert G., (2): 1 \"Eight Views of Nippon,\" (2): 2-15 photographs by, (2): 1, 2, 48, 10-14 Nihei, Takeo, (2): 34 Nolia longifolia, (3): 37, 38 8 Nootka Sound, (3): 18 North Carolina Department of Agriculture, (2): 21 North Carolina Botanical Garden, (2): 21 oak, white, (2): 27 Ocmulgee River (Georgia), (4): 4 Okayama, Lord of, (2): 12, 13, 13 Oklahoma, (4): 19 1 Olmsted, Frederick Law, (3): 11 Omei, Mount (China), (3): 32, 33 Oncidium spp., (4) : 32 orchid, (4): 32, 33 lady's-slipper, (2): 23 Ortega, Jose, (3): 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Oxytropis rislnriensis, (2): 8 Oyster Bay, Long Island (New York), (4): 10,16 Pabell6n Villanueva (Madrid Botanical Garden), (3): 28, 29 Padua Botanic Garden, (3): 8 7 Palace of Ajuda (Lisbon), (3): 37 7 Palace of Belem (Lisbon), (3): 37 \" New York Herald New York Times, 39 Palma-Christi, (4): 28 Pampanini, Renato, (4) : 13 1 Pancratium, (4): 31 Paseo del Prado (Madrid), (3): 5, 6, 10,23 Patterson, C. J., review by, ( 1\/: 30-32 Pav6n y Jimenez, Jose Antonio, (3) : 15, 16, 19 Pecos Canyon (New Mexico), (4): 14 Puye (New Mexico), (4): 7 14 Quer y Martinez, Jos6, (3): 4, 5; 5, 6, death of, (3): 9 Quercus alba, (2): 27 Quinta de Don Lazaro (Lisbon), (3): 32 Royal Gate (Madrid Botanical Garden), (3): 23 Royal Scientific Expedition to New Spain, (3): 16 Ruiz and Pavon Expedition, (3): 13, 14, 15 Ruiz and Pavon Botanical 8 8-9,8 Raisz, Erwin, (4): 21 Rand, Edward S., Jr., (4): 32 Real (2): 20 peeblesianus var. peeblesianus Pediocactus spp., Expedition al Nuevo Reino de Granada, (3): 15 Real Jardin Botanico de M6xico, (3): 16 Pavilion(Madrid Garden), (3): 23 Ruiz L6pez, Hip6lito, (3): 15, 16, 19 Royan-ji Temple Garden (Japan), (2): Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, (4): 14 Perenyi, Eleanor, mentioned, (3): 3 Peni, (3): 7, 12, 13, 14, 15, 18 Phaius grandifolius, (4): 32 Phellodendzon amurense, (2\/: 7 Philip II (Felipe II) (King of Spain), 4 (3):4 Philodendron, (2): 27 Phlox divaricata, (2): 28 -stolonifera, (2\/: 28 Phyllodoce aleutica, (2): 5 Phytophthora, (4): 7 Picea, (2) : 7 -glehnii, (2\/: 7 jezoensis, (2): 5, 7 koyama, (2): 14 -maximowiczii, (2): 14 pine, Japanese stone, (2): 5, 7, 7 Pineda y Ramirez, Antonio, (3) : 19 Pinella, (2): 34 -ternata, (2): 34 tzipartita, (2\/: 34 Pinus ayacahuite, (2): 15 1 parviflora, (2\/: 11 pentaphylla, (2): 12 pumila, 5, 7, 7, 14, 14 'Dwarf Blue', (2): 8 -Sasa zone (2): 8 -thunbergiana, (2): 4, 10 Pittosporum tobira, (3): 36 -undulatum, (3\/:36 Plantx ~quinoctiales, by Alexander von Sabatini, Francisco, (3): saguaro, (2): 24 10 Real Jardin Botanico de ): Madrid, (3): 2-29, 2, 12, 23, 25-29 plans of, (3): 11, 25, 27 view of in summer, (3): 2 Real Jardin Bot~nico del Soto de Migas Calientes, (3): 5 Rebun Island (Japan), (2): 6-8 Redout6, Pierre Joseph, (4): 28 Saguaro National Monument (Arizona), (2): 24 Sakhalm Island (U.S.S.R.), (2): 6, 7 Salazar Bridge (Lisbon), (3): 37 7 redwood, coast, (3): 19, 21, inside back cover Salix sp., (2): 8 Salvador family (Barcelona), (3): 6 San Francisco Mountams (Arizona), (4): 15 Sanguinea canadensis, \/2): 27 Santa Cruz, California, (3): 21 Santamour, Dr. Frank S., (4) : 5, 7 1 Santos, F. (sculptor), (3): 31 Sapporo Botanical Garden (Japan), (2\/: 4-5, 6 Sara Gildersleeve Fife Memorial Rehder, Alfred, (4): 13, 16 photographs by, (1): 4, 10 7 Reno (Nevada), (4): 16, 17 Repton, Humphry, (2): 10; (4): 26 \"Research Report,\"(column), (1): (: 14-19 Rhododendron sp., (2): 12 spp., (4): 6 -aureum, (2): 5 camtschaticum, (2): 8 -;,hapmanii, (2): 20, 22 japonicum, (2): 14 -metternichii, (2): 14 vaseyi, (4): 3 rhododendron, Chapman's, (2): 20, 22 Award (New York Botanical Garden), (4): 21 Sargent, Charles Sprague, (4): 9, 11, 12, 13, 21 Sasa sp., (2): 7 -kurilensis, (2): 7 1 Sax, Karl, (4): 18-19, 21 Schaffer Memorial Medal (Pennsylvania Horticultural Society), (4): 14 Rhodora (joumal), (4): 13, 21 Ricinus communis, Schneider, Camillo K., (4): 13 Schofield, Edmund A., \"A Life Redeemed: Susan Delano McKelvey and the Arnold Arboretum,\" (4): 9-23 Schotia afra, (3) : 38 Humboldt and Aime Bonpland (1808), (3): 16, 17 Espaiia, (3): 18 1 Plumbago capensis, (4): 31 Pombal, Marques de, (3): inside front Plantas de Nueva cover, (4): 28 Rikugi-en (Tokyo), (2) : 3-4, 4 Rishiri Island (Japan), (2): 6-8, 6, 7 Ritsurin Garden (Japan), (2): 9-11, 10 Robinia pseudoacacia, (3): 7 7 Rock, Joseph F. C., (4): 17 Rogers, Dr. George, (4): 4 Roosevelt, Franklin Delano, (4): 9, 11, 19 Rosa spinosissima, (4): 28 Rosamond (ship), (4): 24 Scientific Monthly, (4) : 13 Sedum cauticolum, (2): 8 Sequoia sempervirens, (3): 19, 21, inside back cover Sesse and Mocino Expedition, (3): 16, 18 Sess6 y Lacasta, Martin de, (3): 16 1 shakkei, (2) 11 shield fem, Boott's, (4): 30 31, 37 monument to, (3): 30 Portola (California), (4): 17 Potrero de Atlampa (Mexico), (3): 16 Prado Art Museum, (3): 6, 10 Pratt, the Misses, (4): 33 Prenanthes boottii, (4): 29 Primula sieboldii, (2): 30 Prunus subhirtella 'Pendula', (3 ): 40 Puerta del Rey, La (Madrid Botanical Garden), (3): 12, 23, 25 Royal Botanic Garden (Edinburgh), (3): 12 -(Kew), (4): 30, 32 Royal Botanical Garden (Madrid), (3): 2-29, 2, 12, 23, 25-29 Shikoku Shiun, Mount (Japan), Shortia sp., (2): 14 1 (Japan), (2): 9, 10, 12, 30, 31 1 (2): 11 plans of, (3): 11, 25, 27 view of in summer, (3): (: 2 Royal Garden of Ajuda(Lisbon), plan of, (3): 33 soldanelloides, (2):14 7 Sierra Nevada, (4): 17 Silva Delgado, Leandro, (3): 22, 23 watercolor by, (3): 27 Silva of North America, The, (1): 3; 40 1 (3 ): Simancas, Archivo General de, (3): 9 Six Month Residence and Travels in (: Mexico, by W. Bullock (1824), (3): 16 6 Skimmia japonica var. repens, (2): 7 skunk cabbage, (2): 28 Smith, E. LaVeme, photograph by, \/2): 22 1 Smithsonian Institution, (4): 11 Botanical Garden, The,\" Antonio de Almeida Monteiro and Jules Janick, (3): 30,38 Tapada das Necessidades, (3): 32 taro, (2) : 27 1 Taxodium sempervirens, (3): 21 Technical University of Lisbon, (3): 38 Tejo, Rio (Portugal), (3): 31 1 vitis-idxa, (2): 7 Valdes, Gonzalo Femandez de Oviedo y, (3) 4 : \"Vale,\" \"The,\" (4): 26, 28, 29 Valencia, (3): 13 -University of, (3): 19 Vancouver Expedition, (3): 21 1 landfalls (map), (3): 20 Vandelli, Domingos (Domenico), (3): 31,37 smooth winterberry, ( 110 snow rice-cake plant, (2): 30 Sociedad de Historia Natural de Tenerife, (3): 13 Teune, Carla, (2) : 32, 33 Texas, (4): 19 \"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio,\" Ricardo R. Austrich and J. Walter Brain, (3): 25-29 Mexico, (3) : 18 Sophora japonica, (3): 38 Sorbus matsumarx, (2) : 5 Soto de Migas Calientes, El (Madrid), (3) :5, 7-8 Spanish Civil War, (3): 22 Spanish Scientists in the New World, by Iris H. W. Engstrand, 8 (3): 18 Steele, Arthur Robert, Flowers for the King, mentioned, (3): 15 ---duoted, (3): 4, 6 mentioned, (3): 22 \"Stone Field Sculpture,\" by Carl Andre, (2) : 9 Storer, Susan, \"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities,\" (2): 1619 9 Strelitzia reginx, (3) : 38 Thujopsis dolobrata, (2): 14 Ventura Rodriguez, (3): 7 1 Tokushima (Japan), (2): 11 Torreya nucifera, (2): 13 Toumefort, (3): 4, 6 Toumefortian nomenclature, (3): 7, Tizon, 8 7 Trelease, William, (4): 16, 17 Trillium, large-flowering, (2): inside front cover -showy, (2): inside front cover Trillium, (2): 27 -grandiflorum, (2): inside front cover Velez, Cristobal, (3): 6 Venus's-flytrap, (2): 21, 21 Viburnum tinus, (3) : 22 1 Waki (Japan), (2): 11 Wakkanai (Japan), (2): 6 Wall Ricardo, (3): 5 Wallace, Alfred Russel, (4): 12 Warren, Richard, book review by, ( 127-29 Washington, Mount (New Hampshire), (4): 29 Weeks, Edward, (4): 20, 22 Welwitsch, Friedrich Martin Josef, (3) : 37 White Mountains (New Hampshire), (4): 12 Whitehill, Walter Muir, (4): 21, 22 Wilder, Marshall P., (4): 31, 32 Wilson, Ernest H., (2): 5, 7, 14; (4): 13, 18 8 Stuart, Gilbert, (4): 27 Sturtevant, Grace, (4): 14, 15 5 Sunflower Mine (Arizona), (4): 15 Sunol, Jose, (3): 5, 7 Sung Period (China), (2): 9 Susanville (California), (4): 17 Symplocarpus, (2): 27 fcetidus, (2): 27, 28 Syosset (New York), (4): 10 Syringa, (4): 13 -rugulosa, (4): 13 7 Tagus River (Portugal), (3): 31, 37 Tahoe, Lake (California-Nevada), 7 (4): 17 1 Takamatsu (Japan), (2): 9, 10, 11 tapada, (3) : 32, 35 Tapada da Ajuda, (3) : 30-38, inside front cover, back cover Tripetaleia bracteata, (2) : 5 Tropxolum majus, (3) : 7, 9 Truman, President, (4): 10 Tsuga sp., (2): 11 -diversifolia, (2): 12, 14 -sieboldii, (2): 12 Tsujii, Tatsuichi, (2): 4-5 Tsunamasa, Ikeda, (2): 13, 13 Tsurugi, Mount, (2) : 11-12, 11 Tucson Mountains (Arizona), (4): 15 Twenty-first of April Bridge(Lisbon), (3): 37 Ulmus davidiana var. japonica, (2): 7 photograph by, (2): back cover inside Wilton, Connecticut, (2): 27, 29 Winterberry, smooth, ( 110 7 witch hazel, Chinese, (2): 17 Writers and Friends, by Edward Weeks, (4): 20, 22 ): Wyman, Donald, photograph by, ( 1 back cover Xanthosoma spp., (2): 27 United States Fish and Wildlife \"'Tapada da Ajuda,' Portugal's First Service, (2): 20, 21, 23; (4): Urashima, Taro, (2): 30 urashima-so, (2): 30 Utah, (4) : 19 Vaccinium sp., (2): 14 -spp., (2): 14 4 Yatsugadake, Mount, (2): 14, 14 yatsuhashi, (2): 13 yautia, (2): 27 1 Yoshino River (Japan), (2): 11 Yoshiyasu, Yanagisawa, (2): 4 Yucca, (4): 14, 19 Yuccas of the Southwestern United States, (4): 19 yuki-mochi-so, (2): 30 Yukon, (4): 12 Yunnan (China), (2): 30 CORRECTION on the Jardim Botanico da Ajuda (Arnoldia, volume 47, number 3, pages30-38), one of the authors's names was misspelled. The correct spelling is In the article Antonio de Almetda Monteiro. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":41,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24931","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad170a726.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"~~ fA\/ ~E ~~J~ Number 2 Fall 1987 FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM RAIN DIDN'T DAMPEN SALES OR SPIRITS AT ANNUAL SALE AND AUCTION Mrs. F. Stanton Deland and Mr. Melville Chapin, both members of the Visiting Committee Harvard University, havefront-row seats for the plant auction. (Photograph of the Arnold Arboretum of lunch from the harvest table. For the first time, the Arboretum Associates, the volunteers who have organized and hosted the spectacular rare-plant auction and silent auction for the past five years, offered for sale a selection of perennial seed. plants grown These were selected by the $25,000 on hard-to-find woody plants, houseplants, books, specialty items, and Even in torrents of rain, the annual plant sale and auction was a well staged show of more than 4.000 rare and unusual plants. Serious gardeners and staunch supporters in rain slickers and rubber boots were good to themselves and to the Arboretum, spending more than courtesy of Laurie Belisle.) well known British gardener crortulatum for $250. and author, Beth Chatto. Plant sales, gift shop, and Her perennials included membership grossed over Bupleunun falcatum, noted $16,500. The auction for its green coloring; Camgrossed $18,000. panula Lactiflora with splendid powder-blue, bellA SPECIAL THANKS TO THE shaped flowers; the Welsh ARBORETUM ASSOCIATES poppy, with single flowers of clear vivid lemon; and PlanEsther Ames, Mary Ashton, Caroline Blake, Jane tago rosularis. reminiscent of a green zinnia. Director Peter Ashton introduced the afternoon's auction. Managing Horticulturist Gary Koller and propagators John Alexander and Peter Del Tredici described and auctioned the rare and unusual plants. A Tsuga canadensis 'Minuta' Brown, Lizanne Chapin, Louise Cies, Diane Dalton, Arabella Dane, Sue Deland, Corliss Engle, Al Fordham, Karen Gallagher, Luisa Hunnewell, Ellen McFarland, Elise Sigal, Gerry Spillane, Ellen Stone, Mary Ann Streeter, Ann Taylor, Polly Wakefield, Kathleen Warren, Ruth West, Thelassa Hencken, Joan Poser, Lily from auctioned for $410, an Acer tn, f lorum for $340, and a dwarf Rhododendron muwas Rice, and Mary Wolcott. a We Couldn't Do It Without the Docents! Although the Arboretum is arranged for scientific study and research, it also serves as a horticultural and educational resource for the public. Docents, the well trained volunteer guides, are a large factor in the success of the public outreach. Last year, 48 docents provided guided tours for more than 100 groups, including XIV International sai, and retum offers a Docent Certification Program in the fall and spring. This is described in the course brochure. The Program's core curriculum includes courses on the Arboretum's history, trees, plant hunters, and maple collections. For new guides, the Arbo- Botanical Congress Three members of the Arboretum's faculty and staff delivered papers at the XIV International Botanical Congress, which was held in garden clu~s, college botany classes, visiting dignitaries, management. Certification requires two additional, elective courses. The fee for course curriculum is and a reduced \"docent\" August in Berlin, Germany. They were: Peter S. Ashton and P. HallPatterns of Species Richness in Mixed Tropical Forests the $25, fee groups from other museums, travel writers, seniorcitizen groups, and the general public. The docents introduce scheduled groups to the riches of the Arboretum through typical tours of the is available for all elective courses. Docents attend yearround monthly educational meetings and are encour- aged to take additional traincertification. To become part of this program vital to the Arboretum, contact Jeanne Christianson, Volunteer Coordinator, at (617) 5241718. R. B. Primack, Peter Ashton, and P. Hall- Maintenance of Rare Tree Species in the Dipterocarp Rain Forests of Borneo ing, which leads to advanced \"theme,\" tours. These tours, which include, among many others, an introduction to the Olmsted design and the conifer, dwarf-conifer, bon- grounds or special, or David C. Michener- Structure and Distribution of Secretory Cavities in Leucophyllum (Scrophulariaceae) N. K. B. Robson and Peter F. Stevens- Toward a Phylo- OUR SPECIAL THANKS TO LAST Doris Ahearn P'rancis Ahearn Jan Brink Dick Brooks At Bussewitz Chert Campbell Kate Cardamone Joe YEAR'S DOCENTS genetic Understanding the Peter Tom Coulson Alice Hosack Anne Marie Olson of Bonnetiaceae-Clusi- Carin Dohlman Anne Joseph Adele Kern Keith Kurman Jane Paquet-Whal C. J. Patterson aceae-Hypericaceae F. Stevens- Nature, Law, and Classification: The Genesis of the Botani- Margarita Drozdoff Barbara Emenenu Robert Franks Jim Gorman Ruth Gri,(j~in AI Haskell Kris Hewes Mary Jeart Langevin Susan Laws Kit Lee Richard Clark Joan Collier Chevarley Elizabeth Holmberg Chris McArdle Cornelia McMurtrie ~ncent O'Gorman Paultne Perkins Robert Reed Bob Siegel John Sullivan Ltz Thompson Anne Wallace Rich Warren cal Natural System, 17601860. Roberta Zinman \"IN A MASTER'S HANDS\": IKEBANA DELIGHTS BOSTONIANS and traditions, which began in May with the rededication of the newly renovated bonsai house, the Arnold Arboretum sponsored a special program in November on the Japanese horticultural art known as ikebana. On November 5, in cosponsorship with the Japan Society of Boston, the Arboretum brought Professor Kazuhiko Kudo from Tokyo to demonstrate the art of ikebana- \"living flowures Continuing its salute to Japan's horticultural treas- ers\"- the generic term for Japanese flower arranging. the Arboretum and flower markets beforehand, Professor Kudo demonstrated ikebana for two hours in the ballroom of Boston's Four Seasons Hotel as three hundred fifty delighted observers looked on. A graduate of the Peking Gathering plant materials at under his mother, the late Mrs. Keon Kudo. Grand Master Kudo has conducted workshops, demonstrations, and exhibits of ikebana in China, Australia, and South America; this was his first visit to the United States. He travelled to Boston by way of Los Angeles and was scheduled to present similar demonstrations in Chicago and Honolulu. The Ohara School was founded in the 1897 by UnMASTER KUDO, continued on page Kudo is a Grand Master of the Ohara School of Ikebana. He began his studies of ikebana thirty-five years ago sor Engineering School, Profes- 4 3 March Offers Botanical Tour of Southern Florida Join Dr. Richard A. Howard on a botanical tour of southern Florida, March 23 through March 29. The Arboretum Volunteer Coordinates Perennial Favorite When Al Haskell retired from 36 years with Procter & Gamble, he didn't reckon his volunteer association with the Arboretum would be a But he found tropical landscapes and gardens on this tour provide a pleasant contrast to the New England flora, and an introduction to both native and exotic plants. Participants will visit the Fairchild Tropical Garden, a scientific botanical garden whose palm and cycad colof note, the Foundation's research facilities, the Jennings Estate, with its interesting ornamentals, and the Subtropical Horticultural Research Station of the are the Arnold Arboretum and the New York Botanical Garden's two-day symposium at Harvard University took two months of moreBecause of his managerial acumen and artistry, however, the symposium came to full bloom successfully. Al's wife, LaVerna (\"L.V.\"), was already a volunteer at the Arboretum when he joined her here a year and a half ago upon his retirement. Avid amateur gardeners, they live in Cohasset, Massachusetts, where they raise herbs, vegetables, and small fruit to nourish their other hobbies- cooking and canning. After training in the Docent Program, Al has led special tours of the Arboretum's grounds. When asked about his favorite Arboretum site, he said, \"I think the oaks up on Bussey Hill are really something to see in the springtime. When the sun shines through the grove and the flowers are cascading down the branches, it's breathtaking.\" Early last summer, Jeanne Christianson, Volunteer Coordinator, and Nan Blake Sinton, Director of Public Programs, who oversaw the symposium, asked Al if he'd accept a new assignment- the coordination \" day-and-night assignment. coordinating than-full-time caretaking. lections Montgomery of the symposium on perennials and flowering shrubs on October 16-17. He would be responsible for all the details of transportation, housing, lecture facilities, seating, and feeding the speakers and 900 registrants. He went about his difficult assignment with equanimity, recognizing, he said, \"I needed to handle it all in a way so people would say everything went so well that it must have been a simple project.\" In fact, that is what speakers and participants did say, because the went so smoothly. \"The symposium symposium's production is an present been Through the courtesy of the owner, a visit has pong, where David Fairchild wrote The World Was My Garden. Group members will also tour Vizcaya, the estate of the late James Deering, with its ten acres of landscaped grounds, formal gardens, and pools, explore the Everglades National Park, and spend a day visiting a classic limestone sinkhole and hammock and a demonstration planting of tropical arranged to the Kam- elaborate undertaking,\" said Executive Director Lydia Kowalski. \"Having such a wonderful volunteer take charge was the vital ingredient in the success this program.\" \" of \"Landscaping with Perennials\" was the topic for the first day. Speakers included Marco Polo Stufano, Director of Horticulture at Wave Hill, The Bronx; J. Kenneth Burras, Superintendent of the University Botanic Garden, design author Jane Brown; Elsa Bakalar of the Hillside Gardener; and Kurt Bluemel, President of Kurt Bluemel, Inc. Oxford, England; garden- fruit-, nut-, and spice-pro- ducing plants. MARCH 23 TO MARCH 29, 1988 retum Association membership fee and airfare) $1,095 per person (plus Arbo- Leader: Richard A. How- ard, Professor of Dendrology, Harvard University. For reservations, call or write Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130, (617) 524-1718. 1 Education Registrar, Arnold of the Summer issue of News. We to both of these faithful Friendsfor our error! rectly identified as Barbara Epstein in the photograph on Page 1 CORRECTION Mrs. Melville Chapin was incor- apolo~ize Windsor Great Park; French gardening writer Anita Pereire; Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Propagator at the Arboretum; Carolyn Marsh Lindsay, of the American Horticultural Society, and Roy Klehm of Charles Klehm & Son Nursery. at ing Shrubs\" featured John Bond, Keeper of the Gardens The Saturday session on \"Landscaping with Flower- President 4 Borneo Trip Was a Botanical Tour de Force This summer, 22 Friends of both the Arboretum and the Museum of Comparative Zoology (MCZ) followed tour leaders Peter S. Ashton of the Arboretum, Milan G. Bull of the Connecticut Audubon Society, and John D. Constable of the MCZ on a two-week tour of Borneo, the third-largest island in the world and one of the last unspoiled places on Earth. The group's first important stop was Borneo's Mount Kinazones on balu, a treasure of fauna and flora. Kinabalu's slopes range from lowland jungle to montane oak, conifer forests, and dwarf rhododendron thickets. Willard Hunnewell, a rhododendron aficionado, said Borneo proved a botanical wonderland. \"But,\" he said, \"the highlight of the trip was Peter Ashton's talks on tropical forests.\" \"It was a fabulous trip,\" agreed another participant, Sally Cheffy. Cheffy, one of the group's determined hikers led by Mary Ashton, climbed to the top of Mount Kinabalu (14,455 feet). She found the changing vegetation intriguing as she hiked in the early morning hours to view a spectacular sunrise. Kinabalu is one of the richest floral areas in the world. From Mount Kinabalu, the tour went to the Sepilok Orangutan Sanctuary, whose objective is to reintroduce captured or orphaned orangutans into the wild; Gaya Island, with its 13 miles of graded nature trails and a large number of birds, including the megapode, white-bellied sea eagle, and pied hombill ; the Niah Caves, Borneo's archeological treasure; and Bako National Park. The coastline of this park has seven major vegetation types typical of Sarawak: mangrove forest, sandy-beach forest, sandstone-cliff vegetation, alluvial forest, peat-swamp forest, lowland dipterocarp forest, and kerangas (heath) forest. MASTER KUDO. continued Jrom page 2 Ohara. Its style is more shin subtle and sympathetic to nature than the \"twisted and tortured\" method of classical ikebana. There are two basic Ve~etation forms- Moribana, which employs flat, shallow containers, and Heiko, which uses tall, thin ones. Assisting Master Kudo were Mr. Masahiro Goto and Mr. Masatoshi Tomita. Propagator; and Ida Hay, Curatorial Associate, as well as Dr. Holly Bedell of the Harvard University Herbaria. Dr. Bedell lectured on the cellular make-up of a crosssection of a tree. \"It's something that's really dry in a textbook, but comes alive when you hear Holly describe it,\" Syverson said. After the Arboretum's intensive workshop, teachers participated in one-day mini-workshops at the other which included the Children's Museum, the New England Aquarium, the Stoneham Zoo, the Massachusetts Audubon Society, and the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard. The MITS program is sponsored by grants from the National Science Foundation and the U. S. Department of Education. During the year, the Arboretum offers Field Studies for third- through sixth-grade classes. These are Plants in Autumn: Seeds and Leaves; Hemtock HiLI; Around the World with Trees; and Flowers. The Field Studies were museums, Arboretum's Summer Workshop Propagates Science Knowledge Two years ago science-ori- ented,museums in Boston, including the Arnold Arboreence tum, formed the Museum Institute for Teaching Sci- at one museum for a series of workshops. At the Arboretum, Diane Syverson, Children's Pro- days gram Coordinator, led teach- (MITS). This designed grams to give elementary tium consorsummer pro- teachers skills, and projects that the teachers could duplicate for their pupils in the classroom. During three weeks in July this summer, 107 elementary teachers began the MITS program with a fourthe information, ers through many hands-on activities designed to reinforce the scientific-inquiry method. In one activity, teachers hammered chlorophyll out of leaves onto cloth. a lesson on photo- day orientation session at Museum of Science. Then, teachers were divided into groups of 15, and each group spent the next eight watched the grounds crew cut down a tree and used the tree in a lesson on how paper is made from trees. Arboretum guest speakers included Gary Koller, Managing Horticulturist; Peter Del Tredici, Assistant Plant following ; synthesis in another, they science-curriculum objectives, create an outdoor learning experience with the Arnold Arboretum as classroom, and integrate skills in reading, writing, mathematics, art, and poetry in an designed to meet specific interdisciplinary approach to teaching science. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23296","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14ebb25.jpg","title":"1987-47-4","volume":47,"issue_number":4,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"El Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid and the Glorious History of Botany in Spain","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24924","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad1608128.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":3,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Austrich, Ricardo R.","article_content":"El Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid and the Glorious History of Botany in Spain Ricardo R. Austrich The vicissitudes of Madrid's recently restored botanical garden reflect the repeated waxing and waning of the plant sciences in Spain over the past two centuries or more When I was in high school I worked as a volunteer at the Arnold Arboretum, developing there an early interest in arboreta and botanical gardens and in horticultural exotica. Little did I realize then that my interest would lead me as a college graduate into an historical study of Spanish gardens, a study that ultimately would take me to superb historical archives in some of Spain's most famous castles and palaces. My historical venture was launched by some inspiring words Eleanor Perenyi wrote about the garden dahlia in her book Green Thoughts. Unfortunately, as anyone who has attempted research knows, getting data or information is seldom as simple as it would seem at the outset of a project. There were times during my research in Spain that I would remember Linnaeus's words, expressed in Bibliotheca Botanica (1751), about the state of Spanish botany: [T]he Spanish flora had not revealed any [new] plants, such that in the most fertile regions of Spain there are plants which remain to be discovered. It is cause for grief that in the more cultivated places of Europe, such botanical barbarities exist in our time.1 the Madrid Botanic Garden in summer. Except where noted otherwise, the photographs accompanying this artzcle were taken by the author. A view Linnaus's acerbic, though at the time apt, observation soon would be out of date, however, because of the zeal with which late-Eighteenth Century Spain took to botany and natural history. The result of my research, reported here, is the story of Madrid's Royal Botanic GardenEl Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid-from its humble inception as a Court curiosity tended by an eager coterie of physicians and intellectuals ; through its later development into a thriving center of learning, plant exploration, international cooperation, and research; its subsequent decline during the Nineteenth Century and continuing decay during the better part of the Twentieth Century; and its recent restoration and reestablishment as an important Spanish institution of research and learning, a fitting symbol of post-Franco Spain. I emphasize here the early history of the Garden, a fifty-year period studded with exciting exploration for exotic plants in Spain's overseas colonies. Aside from the Garden's recent history, this is perhaps the richest period of Spanish botanical development. Christopher Columbus's discovery of Amersignificant economic and ag- The Historical Context of ica in 1492 had 4 ricultural consequences for Europe. Aside from its obvious consequences-the introduction and use of the potato, maize, and the tomato for food, for example-it had profound significance for botany and medicine. Its impact was not felt overnight, however: Europeans did not begin to develop the full scientific potential of America until well into the Eighteenth Century-more than two centuries after Columbus made his discovery. The discovery placed Spain in the vanguard of political and economic activity. It was Spain that bore the initial brunt of the marvels and riches flowing in from the New World. Aside from the economic and political spoils of America-the gold and the silverSpain encountered unimagined biotic riches. In America, the Spanish encountered two major advanced civilizations, the Inca and the Aztec, that had developed important medicinal and economic uses for the plants and animals of those vast, uncharted lands. There are two important time periods to consider in Spanish botanical history and its relation to America. The first was the Sixteenth Century, during the reign of Philip II (Felipe II; 1527-1598), one of Europe's most powerful and intellectual monarchs; the second was the Eighteenth Century Enlightenment and the Bourbon Monarchy. During the Sixteenth Century there were various influential Spanish chroniclers of the Americas, Gonzalo Fernandez de Oviedo y Valdes (1478-1557), with his Historia General y Natural de las Indias (Seville, 1535), being perhaps the most important. Another important person was Francisco Hernandez ( 1514-1587), Philip II's medical examiner, or protomEdico, who was sent to Nueva Espana (New Spain i. e., Mexico and other Spanish possessions in North America) to compile a natural history of the region. Arthur Robert Steele, in his book Flowers for the King, succinctly describes the significance of the Hernandez Expedition: \"As the first expedition of natural history ever sent out by a gov- ernment, the Hernandez venture is a landmark in the annals of botanical science.\"2 With the death of Philip II in 1598 and the advent of the Seventeenth Century, Spain entered a painfully sterile period for scientific inquiry. The Seventeenth Century was an era of decadance in Spain, during which Court intrigue and a series of ineffectual monarchs undermined Spain's scientific development. Further progress in botany had to await the the advancement of scientific thought men such as Tournefort and Linnxus. Eighteenth Century, a new royal dynasty, and by The Founding of Madrid's Botanic Garden Spain entered the world of botanic gardens rather late, if we are to judge by the botanic gardens in other countries-the one at Padua, founded in 1545, for example, or the one in Paris, founded in 1635. Nevertheless, the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid quickly became the symbol of what is called the Spanish Enlightenment. Under the tutelage of Ferdinand VI, a Bourbon and a direct descendant of Louis XIV of France, conditions existed for the establishment of Spain's first true botanic garden. An important person in the development of this royal institution was a physician by the name of Jose Quer y Martinez ( 16951764). Don Quer was a medical examiner for His Highness's armed forces, and like any doctor of that era he was keenly interested in the pharmacological applications of plants. Apparently, in addition to owning an extensive library on medicine, materia medica, and botany, he was an avid gardener. It was not long before the monarch took note of his subject's interest in plants. For, as Quer wrote in Flora Espanola, [W]hen His Highness was informed of what I possessed and cultivated at great cost and struggle, and if truth be known could be called the fruit of many travels to the woods and valleys of this kingdom to acquire not only the plants which grow [here] but also succulents and exotics, 5 Americans and Africans and others, did His Highness order the transfer of what was in my gar... 3 den.... It was most likely in response to Don Quer's zeal and the very real need of the royal that Ferdinand VI ordered the transfer of Quer's plants to a property, on the outskirts of Madrid near the Manzanares River, known as El Soto de Migas Calientes (literally, The Orchard of Hot Crumbs!).The result was El Jardin Botanico del Soto de Migas Calientes, the first botanic garden in Spain subsidized by the Crown. In a letter of June 4, 1754, Jose Ortega, the chief army pharmacist (died 1761),wrote to the Secretary of the Treasury, the Marques de la Ensenada ( 1702-?1781about the intense interest in Spanish plants that he had encountered while travelling through the capitals of Europe. Ortega commented on his and Quer's collection of over three thousand plants brought from the \"four corners of the earth,\" noting \"the necessity to place these plants in the Royal Garden and the need to engage in trade with foreign botanists in order to increase their number by the active exchange of Spanish plants with foreigners....\"4 Six days later, on June 10, 1754, another letter to the Marques de la Ensenada, this time from Jose Sunol, the King's physician, further emphasized Quer's efforts at developing a botanic garden, noting that pharmacies Jos~ Quer y Martfnez (1695-1763), whose collection of plants formed the nucleus of the botanical garden at Migas Cahentes, predecessor of the Royal Botanical Garden on the Paseo del Prado. From Flora Espanola, Volume 5 (1784). Courtesy of the Real \/ardfn Bot6mco de Madrid. Ortega and the aforementioned Quer, in service to His Majesty and for the common good and education, along with the honor of the nation, establish the Royal Garden, which only in Spain does not 5 exist, as in all the other courts of Europe....5 King's desires for the advancement of the Arts and Sciences, particularly those whose progress promises great benefits to the health of his subjects, [and it states that] the King permits the use of his orchard of Migas Calientes to the end that a Royal Garden of plants be developed so that in these kingdoms the important field of Botany be Finally, on October 17, 1755, official word of the establishment of El Real Jardin Botanico del Soto de Migas Calientes was given by Ricardo Wall (1694-1778),the King's chief minister. Wall's letter declares the developed.6 Wall went on to name the director and to set assistant director of the Garden, Sunol and its annual Ortega, respectively, and 6 The First Spanish Botanists Shortly after his acerbic comments about Spanish botany were published, Linnaeus received an invitation from Spain to send a botanical expert to that nation of \"botanical barbarities.\" Linnxus chose Pehr Lofling (1729-1756), one of his trusted pupils. In Flowers for the King, Arthur Steele writes that when Lofling arrived in Spain in October 1751, \"the newcomer was most agreeably surprised-perhaps openly astonished is more apt-to find a small coterie of botanists already at work. \"7 Steele describes five of the botanists Lofling encountered, including Jose Quer and Jose Ortega, along with Juan Minuart (1693-1768) and Cristobal Velez (died 1753). As we have already seen, Ortega and Quer were instrumental in founding the botanic garden at Migas Calientes four years later. After the Royal Decree of October 21, 1755, Quer became head professor in the A plan on of El Jardin Bot6nico de Migas Calientes (17551781), forerunner of the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid the Paseo del Prado. From the Archivo del Palacio fledgling institution, Minuart assistant professor. Lofling found a decidedly Tournefortian view of botany among his Spanish colleagues. This is understandable because, during the early Eighteenth Century the leading botanical talents in Spain, the Salvador family of Barcelona, had assisted Tournefort in his pursuit of Spanish plants and hence close adherents of the Frenchman's classification system. Quer, as head professor, was writing a Flora Espanola, but it was not completed until after his death. It was his defense of Spanish botany against Linnaeus's comment on \"botanical barbarities.\" Therefore, most of the first volume of the Flora was given over to a bitter diatribe against Linnaeus's accusations. The last two volumes of the Flora, written in 1784 were Real, Madrid. Courtesy of Monica Luengo. budget. Funding during the Garden's early period came from the College of King's Physicians, or Protomedicato. The funding arrangement changed in 1781, during the reign of Charles III, or Carlos III\/ 1759-1788\/, when the Garden was moved to its present location near the Prado Museum. These exchanges of letters between ministers and enlightened subjects-mostly physicians and pharmacists-show that by the middle of the Eighteenth Century Spain had developed an active interest in the natural sciences, particularly botany, and was prepared to bear the cost of developing them. by Jose Ortega's nephew Casimiro Gbmez Ortega (1740-1818), acknowledge the major shortcomings of Quer's work. In his defense of Spanish botany, Quer writes that one of the major accomplish- 7 ments of the Spanish was their acclimatiza- tion of countless important New World plants. Yet the Flora reveals that by 1755 the Spanish were actively cultivating only thirtyfive species of New World plants. Because he was a physician, Quer's interest in plants was limited almost exclusively to those that could be used in materia medica. Nevertheless, he does writein his Flora of other plants, such as Tropa?olum majus, the garden nasturtium (in defiance of Linnasus, Quer calls it Cardamindum ampliori-a Tournefortian determination). \"This plant,\" he writes, is grown in pots and containers in the gardens of Madrid. It came to Spain from Peru by the hands of our discoverers, where it grows in abundance in moist and swampy terrains.... [T]he plant is used to adorn balconies where, protected from the cold, it flowers all year.8 (Perhaps the most thought-provoking and personally meaningful comment I found in Quer's Flora was a reference to Robinia pseu- doacacia, the black locust, another New World exotic: \"[F]rom the wood of this tree, the majority of the buildings in Boston are built,\" it informed me.9 Reading this intriguing fact in the very heart of modern Madrid, I could not help but smile and wonder whether it had lain there in waiting for two and a half centuries, to be read with fascination by this The title page of Jos~ Quer's Flora Espanola (1762) Courtesy of the Real \/ardin Botanico de Madrid. latter-day Bostonian.) Meanwhile, Jose Ortega was busily trying to get the Royal Botanic Garden \"off the ground.\" On June 20, 1756, Jose Sunol, the Garden's acting director, sought funding from the College of King's Physicians for the expenses Ortega had incurred during the previous year's operation. One of Ortega's principal concerns was the faulty pipe supplying water to the Garden, a concern reflecting the Garden's location in an arid region. Also, Ortega requested funds to construct a greenyoung, house for the conservation of \"foreign plants.\" In his request, Ortega proposed that the greatest Spanish architect of that era, Ventura Rodriguez Tizbn (1717-1785), be commissioned for the task-proof of the Court's high regard for the Garden. In Ortega's letters to his superiors, he expresses many of the concerns about the dayto-day operation of his garden that modern staff members and managers feel for the orderly running of their institutions:-budget constraints, difficulties with contractors, maintenance of grounds, and public relations. In a letter of May 21, 1756, Ortega describes the transformation of El Soto de Migas 8 Three plates from JosE Quer's Flora Espanola. Left: \"Acer montanum\"; right: Fragaria chiloensis; opposite: \"Cardamindum ampliori\" (Tropaeolum majus). Because he resented Linnxus's indictment of Spanish botany, Quer insisted upon usmg Tournefortian nomenclature. Calientes into El Jardin Botanico de Migas Calientes. He describes the transplanting of the Orchard's fruit trees and vegetable gardens so as to make way for the parterres that would be needed for the formal botanic garden. In terms of overall design, the Garden offered no noteworthy innovations; looking much like a typical Seventeenth or Eighteenth Century non-English, rectangular, parterred botanic garden, it was reminiscent of the earliest botanical garden, that in Padua. Ortega writes that\" 12 large beds were formed with four parterres....\"'o Ortega also comments, in familiar horticultural terms, on the importance of adding the soil, \"which was malnourand [it] had been many years since this ished, beneficial procedure was performed.\" He uses similar terms to describe the benefits of loam. As in many Spanish gardens, one of the basic plant materials used was boxwood, in this instance to outline the twelve newly formed beds. The fruit trees were replaced \"with species appropriate to a botanic garden, particularly lindens, horsechestnuts, and elms.\"'1 In his closing remarks, Ortega makes a public-relations \"pitch\" to his Court superiors, writing that \"even though the garden is scarcely four months old ... there are numerous plants, many being the rarest of Europe, manure to 9 meters (one hundred miles) north-northwest of Madrid. From these documents we can trace the early development of the Garden. For example, the budget statement for 1761 reports that the following items were purchased: \" glass for the \"conservatory of exotic plants,\" \"two large tables and four benches for use in Botany lessons,\" and various other garden supplies. That same year Jose Ortega sought funding for plant-collecting trips to various regions of the Iberian Peninsula in order to increase the number of plants growing in the garden. By 1765 budget statements regularly Africa, Asia, and America.\" In another letter from the same period, Ortega continues in the same public-relations vein when he comments \"on the growing beauty of the garden, which is gaining the admiration of the populace, and the visiting foreigners.\" \" included costs for plant-collecting trips on the Peninsula. These activities at Migas Calientes show us that it was a working botanic garden in the modern sense of the term. Often, when looking at Spanish garden history, I have encountered reports of Sixteenth Century \"botanic gardens\" which turned out to have been no more than the gardens of zealous individuals that seldom outlived their founders. Quer died in 1764, and Miguel Barnades ( 1708-1771became the head professor at Migas Calientes. This was an important turn of events because, unfortunately, Quer had never forgiven Linnxus his reference to Spain's \"botanical barbarities.\" Happily for Spanish botany, Barnades overcame Quer's grudge against the Swede. He clearly understood the Linnxan system's advantages and began Spain's adoption of the Systema sexuale. Charles III (1759-1788) and the Spanish Enlightenment Much of the information about the earliest years of the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid ( 1755through 1781 ) I gleaned from the countless budget statements and other documents housed in an archive called \"Simancas.\" The \"Archivo General de Simancas\" was established in the early Sixteenth Century by Charles I (Carlos I) of Spain (who was also Charles V, or Karl V, of Germany) in the heart of northern Castile, one hundred sixty kilo- With Barnades's death in 1771, Arthur Steele tells us, \"a new man-a young one-was ready to step into the chair. He was Casimiro Gomez Ortega, and as Joseph Ortega's nephew he had been trained in the ways of botany from the first....\" Gomez Ortega would become the consummate administra- 10 Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid. Unstewardship the Garden developed during the late Eighteenth Century into a thriving center of botanical investigation, with far-flung projects of exploration, classification, and cultivation. Shortly after Gomez Ortega assumed his post at Migas Calientes, the Garden buzzed with activity. Seeds and plants, either purtor of the der his chased or collected in the provinces of Spain, arrived with great frequency. The botany classes continued, with money going to the printing of placards for use in botany lessons. The classes reflected the priority that education held during the Garden's first fifty years. When the Garden was established in 1755, its focus had seemed geared to developing a collection of exotics from all parts of the earth, but by the time Gomez Ortega became head professor the emphasis had changed, and education became a key role of the Garden. Given Spain's need for technically proficient botanists and naturalists able to understand and develop the vast natural resources of the colonies, it was a wise shift in emphasis. During this early period, in 1773, the Garden began to heat the greenhouse of exotic plants with coal. Thus, as early as 1773 the Spanish were able to raise tropical and subtropical plants in Madrid's temperate climate. Spanish botanists could now study, introduce, and acclimate a wide range of plants available from their vast colonial domains in the New World. They undertook the task with remarkable vigor and determination during the last quarter of the century. The Garden Moves to Mediaeval agglomeration of streets was to be superseded by grand boulevards. The placement of the Garden was an essential element of the plan. A site for the new Garden was selected on the Paseo del Prado (literally, the \"Walk by the Meadow,\" in reference to the numerous meadows and orchards), near the Retiro Royal Park. The Garden was to be placed next to the planned Museum of Natural History, where many objects brought back from the colonies were to be housed. The Natural History Museum would later become the Prado Art Museum. This complex of botanic garden and natural history museum situated along a prominent boulevard was a planning concept, developed by the Court of Charles III for Madrid, that resembles today's \"technological highways\" and \"research parks.\" In a revealing exchange of letters between two of the King's ministers, the Duque de Losada (who was Sumiller de Corps, or Lord Chamberlain) and the Marques de Grimaldi (Secretario de Estado, or Secretary of State), Losada writes, on September 12, 1778, about the plans for the new garden presented by Francisco Sabatini (1721-1797), another well known architect of the period who was responsible for several major projects in Madrid. Losada writes that in the formation of the MadridBotanic Garden at the site of the orchards of the old Prado, two concems were kept in mind, the first being to facilitate the teaching of botany while having close at hand the garden and the school the other being, the beautification of the public \"Paseo del Prado de Madrid\" with a plan where good taste and regularity [i.e., symmetry] are prevalent. 12 ... the Paseo del Prado (1778-1781) By 1775, plans were being developed to move the Garden from its remote location in the outskirts of Madrid at Migas Calientes to a more prominent site within the city. This was part of Bourbon King Charles III's urbanrenewal scheme for Madrid, whereby the The Duque de Losada's wish for symmetry and taste was eloquently served by Sabatini's plan. A central axis dividing two symmetrical parterred spaces was proposed; the parterres were divided into three ascending tiers, with the ascending levels highlighting the par- 11 1 Plan From Anales de la Sociedad showing the origmal layout of the Madrid Botanical Garden. Espanola de Historia Natural (1875). each The King's wish for \"regularity is amply fulfilled. terres at preceding level. The central axis terminated on the fa~ade of the long conservatories at the end of the site. Originally, Gomez Ortega had requested iron structures for the conservatories, but the King's wish for \"beauty and regularity\" on this prominent site dictated that stone masonry and pillars be used. The teaching of botany was ingeniously incorporated in the design by the designation of twenty-four beds in the parterres as \"escuelas botanicas\" (\"schools of botany\"), in which each of Linnxus's twenty-four classes of plants, based on stamen numbers, could be represented with plant materials from each class. The idea of arranging plants in a botanic garden according to their position in the Plant Kingdom was echoed a century later in Frederick Law Olmsted's plan for the Arnold Arboretum. In 1778, the Crown spent one million, two hundred thousand reales on the development of the new botanic garden. This figure illustrates the lengths to which Spain was willing to go in pursuing Charles III's favorite hobby, botany. In 1781, the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid was opened with much fanfare and high hopes. Casimiro G6mez Ortega pre- sented His Highness with an herbarium and dedicated the main entrance gate-for use only during Royal occasions-with an inscription in honor of Charles III. After the Garden moved to its present location in 1781, the number of plants coming in reached dizzying proportions. They came not only from the capitals of Europe but from Royal Expeditions to various parts of Central America and South America. In the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid there are countless lists of plants arriving from such people as Dr. 12 La Puerta del Rey-the Main, or Royal, Gate of the Madrid Botanical Garden. It is dedicated to \"Carolus 111. P. P. Botanices Instaurator Civium Saluti et Oblectamento. Anno MDCCLXXXI.\" Prom Anales de la Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural (1875). Fothergill of London, from botanic gardens in France and Italy, and from the colonies of Peru, Cuba, Mexico, and so on. Particularly noteworthy are requests for seeds from Chile and Peru by L'Heritier in 1782 and by John Gedds (Geddes?) and John Hope (1766-1844) of the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh.'3 Most likely word was circulating through Europe that Spain had sent several botanical expeditions to the New Paris in 13 Lists of seeds available through the Garden's seed exchange (January 1793). Note Cosmus (i.e., Cosmos) sulphureus near the middle of the list on the right. From the Archives of the Real Jardin Bot6nico de Madrid (Division I, Legajo 6, 4, 1) through the courtesy of its Director, Dr. Santiago Casuoviejo. World, the Ruiz and Pav6n Expedition to Peru and Chile in particular. Later, Gomez Ortega expanded the Garden's acquisition potential by developing a correspondence program whereby learned men would send seeds and plants to Madrid from outposts in the Spanish colonies and from the capitals of Europe. Under Gomez Ortega's administration (1771-1801),botanic gardens were established in the Spanish colonies, the most notable being that in Mexico. He oversaw the development in Spain of other botanical gardens, in milder regions better suited for the acclimatization of New World plants (in Valencia, for example), and on Tenerife in the Canary Islands. An important measure of Spain's desire to exploit the vast botanical potential of its New World colonies by acquiring, cultivating, and scientifically studying plant materials, and to a great extent the reason for the extensive shipments of plants made during the remaining part of the century, was the publication in 1779 of a treatise by Casimiro G6mez Ortega, Instruccion sobre el Modo Mas Seguro y Economico de Transportar Plantas Vivas por Mar y por Tierra d los Paises Mas Distantes (Instruction on the Safest and Most Economical Method of Transporting Live Plants by Sea and by Land to the Most Distant Countries\/.'\" The Instruccion was illustrated with figures of the construction of glass-covered wooden boxes for the transport overseas of living plants, and included practical ex- 14 cialdom in the colonies, but to all interested individuals in the colonies, mentioning in particular the clergy, who were in most instances at the frontline of unexplored territories and who were undoubtedly the bettereducated individuals in those regions. Spain's Expeditions to America (1777-1808) Perhaps the most significant and most widely studied endeavors undertaken by the Spanish on behalf of New World natural hisoccurred under Casimiro Gomez Ortetory ga's stewardship of the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid from 1771 to 1801. During the last quarter of the Eighteenth Century, Spain sponsored four major scientific expeditions of a decidedly botanical character to the colo- Crown nies. The first was the Ruiz and Pavon Expedition to the kingdoms of Peru and Chile( 17771788). Later (1783-1808), the Botanic Garden assisted the work of a priest and naturalist named Jose Celestino Bruno Mutis y Bosio (1732-1808) in his long-term study of the flora of New Granada, or Colombia. In addition, there was the Royal Scientific Expedition to New ul Diagrams of glass-covered wooden boxes, or cases, used to transport living plants. From Casimiro Gomez Orte- Spain (Mexico) (1787-1803), ga's Instruccion (1779). Archivos General de las Indias, Seville. amples of the acclimatization of foreign plants in Spain. These boxes antedate by more than fifty years the first documented use of Wardian cases by the British. (Gomez cite British and French accomin the transport of plants.) plishments In addition, the Instruccion is sprinkled whose plants had fascinated the Spanish since the time of Francisco Hernandez in the 1570s. The last of Spain's great expeditions was a global voyage of discovery, the Malas- pina Expedition (1789-1794). All of these amounts expeditions yielded large Ortega does with practical horticultural information on the propagation and viability of seeds, as well as on various methods of vegetative propagation. There is even an excerpt from a royal decree stressing the economic and ornamental importance of this plant material to Spain. The decree also mentions the need to distribute the Instruccion not only to Spanish offi- of data on the natural history of dominions. Perhaps the richest Spain's amassing of data occurred on behalf of botany, for the Spanish discovered many new species. Their observations and painstaking examinations of the diverse flora of these regions yielded vast quantities of descrip- tions, drawings, sketches, watercolors, and herbarium specimens, as well as numerous trial cultivations in Madrid and other, more climatically appropriate botanic gardens in Spain. ! 15 Sadly, however, the full potential of Spanish botany during the Eighteenth Century remained largely unfulfilled. The Nineteenth Century had some cruel hardships in store for Spain that would lead this scientific windfall to remain dormant and forgotten for nearly a century and a half after these exciting voyages of discovery took place. Not until relatively recently has the scientific potential of the Spanish Enlightenment come again to the attention of scholars. The Ruiz and Pavon Expedition (17771788). Perhaps the best documentedand most carefully studied Spanish expedition to the New World was the Ruiz and Pav6n Expedition to the kingdoms of Chile and Peru of 1777-1778. The landmark study of this important expedition is Arthur Steele's Flowers for the King. A remarkable book, it was one of the first and best attempts at careful, scholarly analysis of the Expedition, its participants, goals, and accomplishments. This arduous, eleven-year expedition to Chile and Peru was a cooperative effort between the governments of Spain and France. The French, who had pressured the Spanish for an expedition to these kingdoms in order to recover the long-lost manuscripts of Joseph de Jussieu (1704-1779), appointed Joseph Dombey (1742-1794), a well established botanist, to the Expedition. The Spanish provided most of the manpower that made the exploration possible. In addition to appointing draftsmen and painters to the Expedition, Gomez Ortega selected two bright, young botany graduate students from Madrid, Hipolito Ruiz Lopez (1754-1816) and Jose Antonio Pavon y Jimenez ( 1754-1840~. Both were twenty-three at the time of their departure in 1777 and both-Ruiz in particularwere to make the most significant contributions of the Expedition. Through the ceaseless efforts of Hipolito Ruiz, the Expedition contributed more to the early understanding of New World plants than any other Spanish expedition. In addi- tion to publishingFlora Peruviana, et Chilen- sis\/ 1798-1802~, a project that was never completed because of the disastrous turn of events in Spain at the beginning of Nineteenth Century, the Ruiz and Pav6n Expedi- probably yielded most in terms of the cultivation and acclimatization of New World plants in Spain-Alstrc~meria ha?mantha Ruiz & Pavon, Brugmansia sanguinea (Ruiz & Pavon) D. Don (Datura sanguinea Ruiz & Pavon), Fuchsia corymbiflora Ruiz & Pavon, Fuchsia magellanica var. macroPavon, etc. Jose Celestino Mutis in New Granada (1760-1808). The work of Jose Celestino stema Ruiz & tion also Mutis in the Kingdom of New Granada, or Colombia, amounted to a one-man expedition. Mutis was aided by a team of local draftsmen and painters, whom he had assembled for the arduous task of collecting, dissecting, and drawing more than five thousand black-and-white and color illustrations of that region's flora. The Mutis venture was testimony to a single-minded enthusiasm for botany. Mutis had set off for America in 1760, independent of government initiation, to study firsthand the natural history of the colonies while working as a physician to the Virey (Viceroy, or \"Governor\") of New Granada. He died in 1808, in New Granada. During his early years, Mutis had made various requests to the Court of Charles III for permission to devote his time fully to the study of the flora of New Granada, but his requests went unheeded; nevertheless, he entered into correspondence with Linnaeus, sending him various samples of plants, including quinine, or Cinchona sp. Not until 1782 did Mutis finally receive approval for his study, which was known as the Real Expedicion al Nuevo Reino de Granada (1783- 1808). Mutis's dedication and fervor were bound- less ; he compiled immense amounts of material, both herbarium specimens and illustra- 16 tions. Yet the results of his work had little impact on what was taking place in Madrid for, unlike Ruiz and Pavon, he had not been selected by G6mez Ortega, and thus his \"Expedition\" had no administrative support back in Madrid. This may explain why Mutis's results remained unpublished during his lifetime and why, after the many herbarspecimens and exquisite illustrations were deposited in Madrid in the 1830s, they remained largely unexamined for nearly a century. This may also explain why his study ium had little to offer in terms of the cultivation of New World plants in Spain. Perhaps the only real recognition Mutis received during his life was that offered in 1803 by Alexander von Humboldt (1769- 1859 ) during a visit to Mutis in Colombia. Apparently, Mutis, nearing the end of his life, gave von Humboldt many duplicates of his own specimens and illustrations. Von Humboldt freely accepted these valuable offerings and used much of the material in Plant~ ~Equinoctiales (Paris, 1808\/, his flora of Central and South America. Von Humboldt (and his coauthor, Aime Bonpland) dedicated the flora to Mutis.15 Martin Sesse's Expedition to New Spain (1787-1803). One of the last major Spanish botanical expeditions was the Royal Scientific Expedition to New Spain, as Mexico and the other Spanish territories in North America were called. This endeavor (called the \"Sesse and Mocino Expedition\" or, officially, La Expedici6n Botanica al Reino de Nueva Espana) began in 1787 and ended in 1803. It bore some resemblance to the Mutis venture in having been initiated by a naturalist and physician who was already living in the New World-Martin de Sesse y Lacasta (17511809). It differed from Mutis's in that Sesse developed direct ties with Casimiro Gomez Ortega, who got for Sesse both financial support and the necessary Royal Decree. Martin Sesse's objective was not only the botanical exploration of Mexico but the establishment there of a botanical garden. Also appointed as botanists on the Expedition were Vicente Cervantes (1755-1829) and Jose Mariano (1757-1820). Gomez Ortega's main objective in supporting Sesse was to acquire new plants and seeds for the Real Jardin Mocino Botanico de Madrid. This, perhaps, is where the Expedition was Mexico City in 1823. At middle left is the hill of Chapultepec, crowned by the unfinished Royal Palace, whose gardens were the site of the Real Jardin Botbnico de Mexi'co from 1791 until the Garden ceased to exist some time after 1824. The Potrero de Atlampa, at the far edge of the wet, marshy area between Chapultepec and the city itself (foreground), was the site of the Garden from its founding by Martfn Sesse in 1787 until the move to the Palace grounds. Its wetness made it unsuitable. From Chronica Botanica (1947), after W. Bullock, Six Month Residence and Travels in Mexico1824\/. [. 7 17 Portrait of Jose Celestino Bruno Mutis y Bosio (1732-1808) in Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland's flora of Central and South America, Plantx fEquinoctiales (1808), which was dedicated to Mutis for his single-minded devotion to botany. For twenty-two years (1760-1782) Mutis independently pursued his botanical studies in New Granada (Colombia), finally receming approval from the King in 1782. 18 Map of the explorations made in New Spain by Jose Mocino, 1790-1793 and 1795-1799. From Harold William Rickett, The Royal Botanical Expedition to New Spain 1788-1820, Chronica Botanica, Volume 11 (1947). successful. Its success is evident in the number of seeds and plants that were relarge corded as having entered the Botanic Garden while it was under way (1787-1804). Thanks to the Sesse Expedition, plants such as Cosmos spp. and Dahlia spp. arrived in Madrid, whence they were disseminated to the rest of most The Malaspina Expedition (1789-1794). The last major expedition undertaken by the Spanish Crown was the globe-girdling Malaspina Expedition of 1789-1794. Iris H. W. Engstrand's study, Spanish Scientists in the New World, skillfully chronicles the scope and breadth of the Expedition. Its namesake, Europe. The Sesse Expedition never published the results of its labors in a \"Flora Mexicana,\" again because of the disastrous disruption Spain experienced in the next century. Flora Mexicana and Plantas de Nueva Espana were not published until 1893 and 1894, respectively, by the Sociedad de Historia Natural de Mexico. Alejandro Malaspina (1754-1809), a renowned navigator, was commissioned by Charles IV to conduct a natural history expedition to most of the Spanish territories around the globe, from the Atlantic to Peru and the Pacific, up to the Pacific Northwest, Nootka Sound and across the Pacific to the Philippines. The botanists on this expedition were the France-born Luis Nee (fl. 1791 the to 19 Spaniard Antonio Pineda y Ramirez (17531792), and the Bohemian naturalist Thaddaus (or Tadeo) Hanke (1761-1817~, who discovered the redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) near Monterey, California, in 1791, during the Expedition.'6 This expedition, like the others, ended in desperation when the time came to publish the copious data it had gathered in its long, arduous travels. When it returned to Madrid in 1794, the Malaspina Expedition momentarily basked in praise, but Alejandro Malaspina then became involved in Court intrigue engineered by Charles IV's wife, Queen Maria Luisa of Parma, against the King's most influential advisor (and the Queen's lover), the reactionary Manuel Godoy Alvarez de Faria \/ 17G7-1851the so-called \"Prince of Peace.\" Malaspina was convicted of treason and banished.\" The Expedition was moderately successfully, however, with respect to botany and the cultivation of New World plants, thanks primarily to the efforts of Luis Nee and the up and coming Spanish botanist, Antonio Jose Cavanilles (1745-1804), back in Madrid. \" The Old Guard Steps Down By the beginning of the Nineteenth Century there were clear indications that Casimiro Gbmez Ortega was in his waning days of power and influence at the Royal Botanic Garden. He was about to be superseded by someone of remarkable botanical ability and productivity. The understanding of these events lies in the description and publication of two common garden plants, the dahlia and the cosmos. Dahlia and Cosmos have already been mentioned as genera that were introduced to Europe as the direct result of the Sesse and Mocino expedition to New Spain, which had been fostered by Gomez Ortega himself. Interestingly, however, the plants were described by Antonio Jose Cavanilles, perhaps the most prolific and first truly world-class botanist of Spanish origin. Antonio Jose Cavanilles was born in Valencia in 1745, where he studied at the University of Valencia, obtaining a degree in philosophy and theology. During a trip to Paris in 1770, he became interested in natural history. In 1781, at the age of thirty-six, he dedicated himself fully to botany. His rapid progress made many take note of the Spaniard, including Antoine de Jussieu (1748-1836). While in Paris, he began work on botanical monographs, the first being one on the Linn~an Class Monadelphia.l$ When he returned to Spain in 1790, he had become one of the most celebrated botanists of the age. The renown he had gained while in Paris was not easily overlooked by Gbmez Ortega and his fellow botanists, and soon professional jealousies erupted. A full-blown battle was to engulf all the Spanish botanists of the time. When the smoke finally cleared, G6mez Ortega and Ruiz and Pav6n were the losers. Cavanilles was appointed director of the Garden in 1801 and quickly upgraded all aspects of the institution, from its herbarium to its conservatories. Cavanilles and his assistants produced an important body of technically superior literature that was full of accurate descriptions and determinations of many New World plants. A publication that sheds much light on the significant botanical descriptions brought to bear by the industrious Cavanilles was Descripciones de las Plantas Demonstrandas en las Lecciones Publicas (Descriptions of the Plants Demonstrated in the Public Lessons [of Botany]\/. It reveals that over one hundred fifty plants of the New World were being cultivated in the Garden in Madrid, many of them described by Cavanilles in 1803. Sadly, this remarkable productivity and genius did not last long. 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Madrid Botanical Garden Today: A Brief Photographic Portfolio","article_sequence":2,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24925","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160816d.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":3,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Austrich, Ricardo R.; Brain, J. Walter","article_content":"21 A stand of the coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens (D. Don( Endlicher) at Santa, Cruz, California, photographed not far from the site where Thadddus Hanke discovered the redwood in1791 while he was a member of the Malaspina Expedition. In 1792, at Santa Cruz itself, Archibald Menzies, who was a member of England's rival Vancouver Expedition (1791-1795), collected the specimen from which David Don described the new species (as Taxodium sempervirens) in1824. The map on the opposite page shows the landfalls of both expeditions on what is now the Pacific Coast of the United States. The photograph, which is from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, was taken in 1908 by G. R. King. The map is taken from Susan Delano McKelvey's Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West (1955). The Nineteenth Century: End of an Era Short was the time the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid enjoyed the intellectual vigor of Antonio Jose Cavanilles. Cavanilles's death in 1804 signalled the beginning of the long, disastrous twilight the Garden would suffer through the rest of the Nineteenth Century and the better part of the Twentieth. With Napoleon's invasion of Spain in 1808, the last embers of the limelight in which Spanish botany had so recently basked were snuffed out. The Madrid Botanic Garden appears to have been adequately maintained and cared for throughout the Nineteenth Century, but the intellectual momentum of its first fifty years was lost. During the late Nineteenth Century, its formal, geometric, and rationalist Eighteenth Century plan gave way to the Romantic notions in fashion at the time. The 22 Romantic curvilinear \"Isabelino\" style took prominence throughout the site. Apparently, the era of rationalist vision had long since withered, and what remained was a painful sentimentality. During that time new greenhouses were built to house what remained of the exotic plants of days long gone, yet even this activity could not save the Garden from the tragic fate that awaited Spanish society in the Twentieth Century. closed to the public. Finally, on December 2, 1981, with the King of Spain presentthis time as a constitutional monarch-the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid was reopened to the public. was The Twentieth Century: Democratic Reawakening Initially, the Twentieth Century and the Industrial Revolution were times of great promise and creativity for Spain. By the 1930s, however, the political tensions that were being felt throughout Europe and that presaged the coming World War, erupted in Spain as a bloody civil war in 1936. With the advent of Francisco Franco in the late 1930s, Spain was headed, once again, for a period of creative sterility. The intellectual reawakening of the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid came gradually, beginning in the late 1950s with the publication of scholarly works dedicated to reevaluating the institution's early expeditions. Nevertheless, the evidence (including Arthur Steele's touching description of a director clutching a faded guest book) suggests that the Garden was in a sorry state of disrepair. 19 During the late 1960s, a new administration building was constructed where Spanish botanists could once again work in modern surround- ings. The Garden's physical restoration began in The Garden Today Today, thanks to the sensitive restoration plans by Leandro Silva Delgado, one of Spain's leading landscape designers, the Garden is slowly regaining its grace. The lower, rectangular parterres, or escuelas, are taking shape as the boxwood borders gradually fill in, forming a gentle green tapestry that appropriately reflects the geometry and order of Eighteenth Century rational idealism. The center of each parterre is accented by understated fountains that gently burble water, reminiscent of the Moorish garden tradition that antedates the European discovery of America. Meanwhile, on the upper level, facing the two hundred-year-old conservatory, Nineteenth Century Romanticism has been preserved in curvilinear beds outlined by Viburnum tinus. Lush trees and shrubs offer the visitor retreat, security, and mystery, so essential in a Spanish garden. Under the watchful eyes of its new director, Santiago Castroviejo, the Garden has begun publishing the Flora Iberica. At the same time the Garden is encouraging international cooperation with Latin America in the painstaking process of reevaluation and publication of the vast wealth of documentation and herbaria from the courageous Eighteenth Century expeditions of discovery. Endnotes 1. Jose Quer y 1974, sparked by an ill-conceived proposal to make it the site of a Goya Museum. Thankfully, the winds of democracy were stirring in Spain at the time. With Franco's death in 1975, the stage was set for a complete historical restoration of the Garden, one that would return it to its formal grace. For seven years during the restoration process the Garden Martinez, Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas, Que Se Crian en Espana. Madrid: Joaquin Ibarra, 1762-1764. Four volumes. Volume 1 (1762), page 363. 2. Arthur Robert Steele, Flowers for the King (Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press, 1964), page 23 From 1974 until 1981, while it was being restored, the Madrid Botanic Garden had to be closed to the public. Plans developed by Leandro Silva Delgado, one of Spain's leading landscape architects, guided the restoration project. Shown here is construction work being done in February 1981 on the Ruiz and Pavon Pavilion, just inside the Puerta del Rey, or Royal Gate. (The Gate and the Paseo del Prado are in the background.) Photograph courtesy of J. Walter Brain. Quer, Flora Espanola,Volume 1, page 60. Manuscript letter, in Section \"Secretaria y Superintendencia de Hacienda,\" Legajo 951, Archivo General de Simancas, Simancas, Spain. 5. Manuscript letter, ibid. 6. Manuscript letter, ibid. 7. Steele, Flowers for the King, page 31. 8. Manuscript letter, op. cit., Legajo 951. 9. Manuscript letter, ibid. 10. Steele, Flowers for the King, page 37. 3. 4. Manuscript letter in Section \"Carlos III,\" Legajo 3875, Archivo del Palacio Real, Madrid. 12. Manuscript, Division I, Legajo 3, 6, 7, Archivos, Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid. 11. 13. Ibid. 14. Madrid: Ibarra. Call Number 255\/24, Archivos GenIndias, Seville, Spain. 15. Frontispiece to Volume 1 of Alexander von Humboldt and Aime Bonpland, Voyage de Humboldt et Bonpland. Simieme Partie, Botanique. Plantes Equinoxiales.... 2 volumes. Paris: Schoell, 1808, 1809. eral de las 24 I am grateful to Santiago Diaz Piedralita for calling my attention to this fact. Iris H. W. Engstrand. Spanish Scientists in the New World: The Eighteenth-Century Expeditions. 16. Willis Linn Jepson, in his The Silva of California (Berkeley, 1910\/, says (page 138) that \"The Redwood was first collected near Monterey by Thaddeus Haenke of the Malaspina Expedition in 1791, who may be said to be its botanical discoverer. The second collector .. was Archibald Menzies of the Vancouver Expedition [which touched Monterey first in 1792].. No exact locahty has ever been given for the Menzies collection, but while examining Menzies' original specimen at the British Natural History Museum in London I [i.e., Jepson] turned over the sheet and discovered written on Seattle and London: University of Washington Press, 1981. xiv + 220 pages. Casimiro Gomez de Ortega. Continuacion de la Flora Espanola, o Historia de las Plantas, Que Se Crian en Espana. Two volumes. Madrid: Ibarra, 1784. xxxii + 538 + 667 pages + 34 plates. . the back 'Santa Instruccion sobre el Modo Mas Seguro y Economico de Transportar Plantas Vivas por Mar y por Tierra 6 los Pafses Mas Distantes. Madrid: Ibarra, 1779. 70 pages. Cruz, World Menzies.\"' 17. Iris H. W. Engstrand, Spanish Scientists in the New (Seattle, 1981), page 107. 18. Miguel Colmeiro, La Bot6nica y los Bot6nicos (Madrid, 1858), pages 173-174. 19. Steele, Flowers for the King, page vii. Select Jose Quer y Martinez. Flora Espanola, d Historia de las Plantas, Que Se Crian en Espana. Four vo- Ibarra, 1762-1764.402 pages + 11 plates; 303 pages + 33 plates; 436 pages + 79 plates; and 471 pages + 66 plates. Harold William lumes. Madrid: Bibliography An6n, Santiago Castroviejo, and Antonio Femndez Alba. Real Jardin Bot6nico de Madrid, Pabellon de Invernaculos (Noticias de una Restitucion Historica). Madrid: Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Cientificas, 1983. 118 pages. Rickett, translator and collator. The Botanical Expedition to New Spain 1788-1820 As Described in Documents in the Archivo General de la Nacidn [Mexico]. Chronica Botanica, Volume 11, Number 1, pages 1 to 86 (1947). Royal Carmen Leandro Silva Delgado. The restoration of the Royal Botanical Garden, Madrid. A Future for Our Past [Council of Europe, Strasbourg], Number 29, pages 6 and 7 ( 1986~. Marquesa de Casa Valdes. Jardines de Espana. Madrid: Aguilar, 1973. xix + 299 pages. Jose de Castro Annes and Femando Huici. Leandro Silva Delgado: En Torno a un Jardfn y a un Paisaje: Arthur Robert Steele. Flowers for the King: The Expedition of Ruiz and Pavon and the Flora of Peru. Durham: Duke University Press, 1964. xv + 378 pages. Antonio Acuarelas, Fotografias y Collages. Madrid: Galeria Ynguanzo, 1981. (Pamphlet.) Jose Cavanilles. Descripcion de las Plantas, Que A. J. Cavanilles Demostzo en las Lecciones Publicas del Ano 1801-(1802\/, Precedida de los Principios Elementales de la Bot6nica. Madrid: Imprenta Real, 1802. cxxxvi + 625 pages. Acknowledgment I thank the staff and director of the Real Jardin Botanico de Madrid for the gracious assistance they gave to me throughout the research phase of this project. Miguel Colmeiro y Penido. Bosquejo Histdrico Estadistico del \/ardin Bot6nico de Madrid. Anales de la Sociedad Espanola de Historia Natural, Volume 4. Madrid: T. Fortanet, 1875. iv + 105 pages + plates. 216 pages. . La Bot6nica y los Botbnicos de la Peninsula x+ Hispano-Lusitana. Madrid: Rivadeneyra, 1858. Ricardo R. Austrich Imes in Boston. He obtained his bachelor's degree in ornamental horticulture from Cornell Umversity in 1984. Then, receiving a Dreer Award Fellowship, he spent a year in Spain studying Eighteenth and Nineteenth Century archival materials dealing with the history of Spanish botany and horticulture. Currently, he is employed as a consultant by an architecture firm in the Boston area. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The 'Tapada da Ajuda,' Portugal's First Botanical Garden","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24926","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad1608526.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":3,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Monteiro, Antonio de Almuda; Janick, Jules","article_content":" Above: Fountain in front of the Pabellon Villanueva, which is used for public exhibitions, and an attached Eighteenth Century invemculo (conservatory, or greenhouse). Photograph by J. Walter Brain. Below: View of a parterre, or escuela botanica. Note the boxwood edging around the beds and the fountain. Photograph by Ricardo R. Austrich. Above: Close-up view of a fountain. Below: One of the Eighteenth Century invemaculos (greenhouses) at the Pabellon Villanueva. The bust on the pedestal in the fountain is of Linn~us. Both photographs were taken by Ricardo R. Austrich. The \"Tapada da Garden Ajuda,\" Portugal's First Botanical Antonio de Almuda Monteiro Tules janick The Jardim Botanico da Ajuda, a small, \"deeply Portuguese\" botanical garden in Lisbon, has had a distinguished history since it was established over two centuries ago, in the wake of the great earthquake of 1755 At 9:40 on the morning of Saturday, November 1, 1755, as the faithful attended church to commemorate All Saints's Day, a violent earthquake swept Portugal's picturesque capital, Lisbon. In six terrifying minutes thirty thousand people were either killed Marques de Pombal ( 1699-1782\/-as just the excuse he needed to impose his authority and to remold the country to the new economic and cultural concepts he had observed during his travels as ambassador to London and Vienna. Pombal personally directed the rebuilding with an iron hand, and a reborn Lisbon arose from the ashes. Long, straight avenues, flanked by new buildings all in the same style, replaced narrow Medi~val alleys. As a part of Lisbon's renewal, the omnipotent Pombal charged Domingos (Domenico) Vandelli (1735-1816), professor of botany in the University of Coimbra, with building a garden. The location was to be a choice piece of property just purchased by King Jose I (1714-1777), close to the new wooden palace in Ajuda, a suburb of Lisbon, where the royal family had camped out before a more appropriate home could be constructed. In 1768, Vandelli called on the Italian landscape architect, Julio Mattiazzi, from the famed botanical garden at Padua, to draw up plans for what was to become the first botanical garden in Portugal. But its placement, near the palace, suggests that behind the scientific aim was a royal wish that the garden serve for Court recreation and the education of the Crown Prince. instantly or fatally injured. Simultaneously, a strong tidal wave pushed the Tagus River(Rio Tejo) over its banks, inundating the lower quarter of the city. Lisbon was almost completely destroyed, and what remained was consumed by an enormous conflagration that burned for three days. The gorgeous palaces full of paintings and art objects acquired by merchants and nobles from the Orient and Europe were reduced to smoldering embers. The earthquake was to be the most significant event in Portuguese history since Vasco da Gama's discovery of the maritime route to India in 1500. The disaster was used by the formidable and controversial prime minister, Sebastiao Jose de Carvalho e Mello- Monument to the Marques de Pombal in the center of Lisbon. The Marques, escorting a lion, surveys the cW y he rebuilt after the disastrous earthquake of 1755. A. Bermudas and C. Couto, architects, and F. Santos, sculptor, designed the monument, which was completed in 1934. 32 General viewof theAjuda quarter of Lisbon, showing the wooden palace where King Jose I resided after the earthquake of November 1, I 755. On the bottom of the hill is `Quinta de Don Lazaro, \" one of the numerous gardens in Lisbon. From the Lisbon City Museum. The great European botanical gardens of Pisa, Padua, Leipzig, and Leiden had been established more than two centuries earlier. Portugal's late entry was due, not to any lack of interest in plants, native or exotic, among its people, but to the different way in which they appreciated plants: instead of the traditional gardens of France or Italy, the Portuguese preferred tapadas, or \"enclosures.\" These were relatively large, green areas, encircled by walls, situated near towns and used for recreation by the artistocracy. They existed mostly in the southern half of Portugal, where the climate is hotter and drier than it is in the northern half. Here it was possible to preserve native woodlands and to maintain exotic species in small gardens with irrigation. The tapadas were protected by walls from increasing pressure for agricultural land and firewood and became oases in a degraded landscape. In Lisbon, two of them, Tapada das Necessidades and Tapada da Ajuda, can still be visited today. As a result of urban sprawl, however, they are no longer on the outskirts but almost at the center of the city. Mattiazzi's Design for Ajuda Mattiazzi planned the Garden of Ajuda in the Italianate style. Situated on a hillside open to the south, it is designed in two levels facing the Tagus River in such a way that both the view and the placement make an sesthetic 33 The original plan of the Royal Garden of Ajuda. the two From the Archives of the Ministry of Public Works, Lisbon. landings, the collecplanted plots symmetrically sited in a stately design. Two buildings were built, one, in the upper part, for the botanical school and another, in the lower end, as a kind of natural history museum. Two wooden glasshouses, or orangeries, were constructed in the upper landing to accommodate a broad collection of living plants. They were replaced during the Nineteenth Century by four elegant cast-iron greenhouses in the Romantic style and are statement. In tions were in still the most important motif in the upper landing. One of the greenhouses, half embedded in the hillside to reduce heat loss and to increase the efficiency of the heating system, retains the royal insignia engraved on the glass of the entrance door. Inside the glass- houses are several small, beautiful marble pools used to increase humidity and to serve as reservoirs of water for irrigation. Aquatic plants in the open were not ignored and are found in six ponds formed from cut stone. One of them, the only example of late Portuguese baroque style in the Garden, is the architecture center of the lower landing. It has several water sprays and is decorated with statues of aquatic animals-seahorses, dolphins, snakes, and ducks-in a fantastic mix as counterpoint to the curvilineal form of the pond. The total design effect of the Garden is one of simplicity, in marked contrast to the splendor of the great French or Italian gardens. The glory of the Garden of Ajuda is achieved by the magnificent view facing south. The deco- 34 rative elements beautifully set off by the and the cloudless sky. bright and ponds in white cut Stairs, balustrades, stone, much in the Portuguese style, emerge are bloom the year round contrast Iberian sun shadows, summer from the green surfaces of the formal boxwood hedges. Different flowers with bright colors are displayed, so that one species is in pleasant refuge sunlight. Neoclassic elements predominate as in all the rebuilt parts of Lisbon and, despite the Italianate influence, the Garden is deeply Portuguese. There is no main axis with large a with dark from the hot An old drawing of the Garden of Ajuda, by Barbosa Lima. From Archivo Pittoresto, Volume 5 (1962). 35 open lanes, nor is the Garden appended to the front of an important building in the French style. Rather, it closes in on itself, with the exception of the broad opening to the river. The entrance, very important in some gardens, is merely a small gate on the east side. The wall enclosing the Garden maintains the tradition of the tapada. Plant collecting was a much appreciated hobby of an aristocracy that took great pride in plant rarities on their private grounds. The new garden in Ajuda would not be so important had it become just one more place to display specimens. But the manner of presentation, following the new Linnxan system of provement that distinguished it from the status quo. The Garden had areas specifically set aside for systematic arrangements based on the new taxonomy, and a small area for trials. It was also the first place in Portugal where new plants were presented, not as curiosities, but as possible new agricultural or medicinal crops. Magnet for Plants and for People The Garden of Ajuda was like a magnet for A plants and people. It attracted new plant collections from overseas and botanists and plant classification, was an important im- horticulturists, who came from throughout Europe to study firsthand specimens from Africa, Asia, and the New World. The Garden A mew of the Garden from the top of the main staucase. The formal boxwood hedges contain beds of roses, euphorbia, and conium. In the background, a suspension bridge over the Tagus River connects north and south Portugal. Photograph by Antonio de Almuda Monteiro. 36 A small greenhouse appended to a structure known as the \"Old Palace.\" Dating to the Nineteenth contains the orchid and bromeliad collection. Photograph by Antonio de Almuda Monteiro. Century, it now became a center of attraction in Portugal. In 1836, for example, one thousand ninety individuals signed the visitor's register! In 1798, a German voyager by the name of Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link ( 1767-1851 \/, coauthor of Flore Portugaise, wrote: This garden is charmingly situated. It offers a nice view over the river and the sea like the garden in Paris which dominates part of the town. It is not very large and the orangeries are small, but it has ponds and aquatic plants. It is kept very tidy and is very interesting for botanists to preserve their nice discoveries because everything received is planted and is left for nature to look after. It happens that many plants from Brazil and other parts are sent to the garden. Now I can find species growing here to be sent back to Brazil for commercial planting. In 1868, David Moore (1807-1879), Superintendent, or Curator, of Glasnevin, the Royal Society of Dublin's botanic garden, wrote: Part of the garden has the plants classified according to the Linnxan system but in the other part we had the pleasure of seeing written information saying that the \"Ordines Naturales Systematis Lindley\" were being followed. The best plants were those growing in the open air and among theem specially Araucaria excelsa, Ficus elastica, Lagerstr~mia indica, Pittosporum tobira and Pittosporum undulatum, about 20 feet high and perfectly covered with seeds. Unfortunately, the Portuguese ment govern- did not often recognize the scientific 37 expeditions sponsored by the Portuguese government, collecting an enormous number of insects and plants to initiate the study of the flora of that region. The Garden's Setting pond with waterlilies and Nolia longifolia in bloom. Photograph by Antonio de Almuda Monteiro. A value of the Garden, and support was marginal during most of the Nineteenth Century. Some of its directors-Felix da Silva de Avellar Brotero (1744-1828), Friedrich Martin Josef Welwitsch( 1806-1872\/, and Joao de Andrade Corvo \/1824-1890\/-often complained that they lacked the money necessary to maintain the Garden in good condition. Brotero, the most distinguished Portuguese botanist of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries, travelled extensively in France. He received a doctorate from Reims University. His important botanical writings include the General Catalogue of All Plants in the Royal Botanical Garden of Ajuda. Welwitsch was an Austrian botanist who worked in Ajuda for several years. Later he travelled along the southern coast of Africa on The Garden, 4.4 hectares in area, is situated in the heart of Ajuda, one of the traditional residential quarters, just above the Palace of Belem, which is now the official residence of the President of the Republic. Close to the Garden is the imposing but unfinished Palace of Ajuda, in Classical style. From the upper landing of the Garden the visitor has a beautiful vista framed by trees on two sides and by red roofs below. Far to the left the magnificent t suspension bridge (originally the Salazar Bridge, renamed the Twenty-fifth of April Bridge after the 1974 revolution) can be seen connecting the two banks of the Tagus. Following the river towards the seaside resorts of Estoril and Cascais is the Belem Tower. This old fortress, built during the Sixteenth Century in Manuelino style, stands on the riverbank as a symbol of the Portuguese discoveries. Not far from the tower is the enormous Monastery of Jeronimos. Its Manuelino exterior is made of white stone, cut like lace and decorated with naval motifs to celebrate the discovery of the maritime route to India. The round dome of the Memorial Church can be seen from the Garden. It was built by the Marques of Pombal to remind the populace of the unsuccessful assassination attempt of the King, an event exploited by Pombal to consolidate his power. A garden, surrounded by these stately monuments, cannot help but impress the visitor with the past glories of Portugal. The Garden of Ajuda Today During the Vandelli era, the Garden of Ajuda owned a large collection of plants, reportedly about five thousand species. Most came from incursions in Africa and Brazil, as a part of 38 national priority to bring new species to Portugal. They were kept not only for curiosity's sake, but for possible use as food and medicinal plants. The Portuguese and Spanish had key roles in the introduction of new crops to Europe, including maize, the tomato, the capsicum pepper, the orange, and the pineapple. Today, some five hundred taxa are represented in the Garden. Among the noteworthy trees that survived a violent cyclone in 1943 are the enormous Drac~na draco, Schotia afra, Ficus macrophylla, Ficus beniamina, Nolia longifolia (which is lovely in bloom), and the strange Sophora japonica with its natural bending branches. Strelitzia regina? and Asparagus the colleges of the Technical University of Lisbon. Its botanical importance decreased after new gardens connected with the Escola Politecnica (Polytechnic School) of Lisbon were created. Though no longer the famous botanical center it was a century and a half ago, the Garden nonetheless remains a monument, a calm and pleasant setting that the traveller is obliged to visit. It has a seed exchange and belongs to the International Association of Botanical Gardens, European-Mediterranean Division. Research and education in ornamental horticulture and botany continue. Botanists, horticulturists, and gardeners from all countries are cordially invited to visit. plumosa perform splendidly during winter without heating because of the mild maritime climate. Since 1918, the Garden of Ajuda has been associated with the Instituto Superior de Antonio de Almuda Monteiro is Director of the Jardim Botanico da Ajuda. Jules Jamck is Professor of Horticulture at Agronomia (College of Agriculture), one of Purdue University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":4,"start_page":39,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24923","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160bb6f.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":3,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Flowering Trees and Shrubs: The Botanical with a resolve to remain faithful to the sub- Paintings of Esther Heins, by Judith Leet. New York: Harry N. Abrams, Inc., 1987. 148 pages. $29.95. JOHN BARSTOW KATE GRIDLEY ject is indeed rare; artists seldom decline the chance to interpret reality. Flowering Trees and Shrubs is organized and written for the enthusiast, not the specialist. It follows the natural order of the seasons (a chapter for each month), not the taxonomic order. It is not a selection of the best or choicest plants for the temperate landscape, nor is it in any sense comprehensive. Its unifying thread is Esther Heins. For many the book will have this additional value: it is Anyone who has bothered to look closely at plants will marvel at Esther Heins's extraordinary paintings, and anyone who bothers to look closely at this book will marvel all the more. Familiarity with Flowering Trees and Shrubs-a collection of sixty-nine watercolor studies painted over thirteen years-breeds even greater admiration for Heins's skill, her keen powers of observation, and her remarkable fidelity to Nature's every color, texture, pattern, form, and blemish. Flowering Trees and Shrubs belongs to a rich tradition of botanical illustration, but Heins surpasses her predecessors and contemporaries because she scrupulously avoids stylizing her subject. The classic hand-colored \"florals\" of the last century tend to turn plants into clinical specimens: stems and leaves are unnaturally stiff and thick, as if preserved in solution. They served a scientific purpose, but they denied Nature's ephemeral aspect. Yet contemporary botanical illustrators and artists take their own liberties, accurately rendering every pistil, stamen, and petal, but bending a plant's character to their own aesthetic. The genius of Heins's work is that it takes all its cues from Nature and is still artful. The joining of such artistic ability guide to the flowering of the Arnold Arboretum, for nearly every twig and bough depicted a came from cuttings in its collection. A concise and lively essay by Judith Leet accompanies each full-page color plate. This is not an illustrated work in which artist and writer vie for center stage (Leet, a poet, is Heins's daughter), nor are the essays perfunctory, invented merely to fill space with type. Instead, Leet has unabashedly tailored her words to the plates, describing the significant botanical features of each plant not in abstract terms, but in reference to the work at hand. To this commentary Leet also brings fascinating and informative horticultural history and lore-when and where exotics were discovered by Western botanists, how and why they were brought to North America. Now and again she offers advice on how to use the plants in the garden, or refers to other plates, making useful associations between plants. She was ably assisted by the Arnold Arboretum's assistant plant propagator Peter Del Tredici, who was text consultant for the book. The result is nearly as noteworthy as 40 the paintings themselves, for the textunusual in books of the type~ontributes to our appreciation of Heins's work. An unexpected aid to understanding Heins's work is \"A Word from the Artist,\" tucked at the end of the book. Here Heins describes much of the inspiration for her work; her training \/\"I studied anatomy, perspective, color harmony, design, oil painting, drawing from the cast, drawing from the model, sculpture, crafts...\"); the materials she prefers; and her work habits (\"I can work with pencil under artificial light, but I work with colors only in natural light, preferably morning light.\"). She forthrightly disclaims scientific training: \"When someone said to me, 'You must know botany,'I replied, 'No, I measure, I count, I look.\"' And she reveals the naturalist's reverence for her subject: \"A tree has so many, many leaves yet no two of them II are alike. To me that is a wondrous thing.\" Equally wondrous is Heins's ability to depict the subtle differences between the big, dark-green leaves of the ubiquitous Norway maple, the barely discernible translucence of the shadblow's delicate foliage, or the gemlike quality of the porcelain berry's azure fruit. When Heins paints the showy red blossom of a tree peony she also makes us see the fineness of the plant's foliage, the tender woodiness of last year's growth, even the dusting of golden pollen on a scarlet petal. Heins is uncannily sensitive to plant morphology, though her portraits are of small cuttings, usually several leaves and flowers or the supple grace of the tree. Likewise the arching line of the Japanese hazelnut bough (Corylus sieboldiana), which is caught with its leaves in tight bud and its yellow-green catkins drooping. Heins's method is simple: she lets the cuttings set their own lines. \"I draw my pencil lightly against the branch to indicate the sweep of the branch, how it divides, where the stems attach....\" Is it fair to compare any book of reproductions to the original paintings? Some would argue no. But we think it's important to be aware that when colors do not ring true the fault lies with modern printing, not with the artist's eye or the time-tested pigments of her palette. We fault the publisher for not exacting the highest standards of color printing. While the job is generally pleasing, certain of Heins's most painterly effects (as in her portrait of the smoke tree's faded bloom or the ginkgo's fall foliage) are unacceptably diminished ; the color is anemic. Responsibility for the book's one real flaw, its design, lies squarely with the publisher. Here, it appears, a New York designer was set loose to try and bend the images and words to his will or that of a budget. It is a shame to see more than a decade of effort tainted in the final moments, but like street noises filtering into a concert hall before the lights go down, this distraction is quickly forgotten; Heins's paintings hold sway. \"I painted the first plate for this book thirteen years ago,\" Heins says. \"Each drawing takes me about a month to complete. Sometimes I do only one leaf in a day, but I am content. For as Ruskin said, 'He who paints one leaf paints the world.\"' Heins has given us a vivid glimpse of her world and of the plant world in this book. John Barstow is Articles Editor zine. Kate Gridley is an artist. berries. You can see in these sprigs and shoots the habit of the entire plant. The first plateof American pussy willow cuttings in three stages of catkin development-unmistakably says: vigorous, upright, twiggy shrub. The bough of the weeping cherry (Prunus subhirtella 'Pendula') falls across the page from upper left to lower right, and we can imagine of Horticulture maga- "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23295","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14eb76f.jpg","title":"1987-47-3","volume":47,"issue_number":3,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Eight Views of Nippon","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24920","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160b36d.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Eight Views of Nippon Robert G. Nicholson Visiting ancient gardens in Tokyo and mountaintops on Hokkaido and Honshu, temple gardens and national parks, and far-northern islets, a botanical pilgrim finds the whole of Japan to be one vast \"green Mecca\" To travel in as a country as botanically rich and horticulturally storied as Japan was a goal I had carried for years. Now, after my recent first visit to that green Mecca, I realize what an open-ended ambition it was, for I could never have found all of the native species I sought or visited all the gardens worth seeing during my three-week stay in Japan. Of all the world's countries, Great Britain and Japan have attained the greatest prominence in horticulture. Their peoples nurture a deep love of plants, and neither will tolerate an excuse not to garden. After all, one can always garden in a window box or single pot, as city dwellers of both countries often do. Great Britain presents the \"garden crawler\" with the dilemma of choice, for there are scores of first-rate botanic gardens, parks, and cottage gardens to decide among. A visitor to Japan faces a similar problem, but has a compounding problem as well: compared to Britain or even the eastern United States, Japan has a staggeringly diverse native flora, one that still contributes new and untried plants to horticulture, ranging from alpines to tropicals, a flora that makes Japan one of the greatest \"natural gardens\" on earth. In September of 1986,I had the good fortune of going to Japan, to collect plants for the Opposite: A yukimi lantern in the Rikugi-en Garden, Tokyo. All photographs accompanying this article were taken by the author. Arnold Arboretum. Although I undertook the trip primarily to collect woody plants, Gary Koller, the Arboretum's managing horticulturist, did draw up a list of targeted rare species for me before I left. During the course of the three weeks, I collected from eighteen sites, about half of them mountains in the range of six thousand to nine thousand feet (approximately 1,800 to ;3&#x E;: 2,750 m). I visited three of the four main islands of Japan and, between bursts of collecting, visited some of the fabled gardens created during the fifteen hundred years of Japanese landscaping. After landing at Tokyo's Narita Airport, I needed to spend a day or two in Tokyo adjusting to the ten-hour difference in time. Tokyo, formerly called Edo, is the present capital of Japan but was not a city of importance until 1863, when it became the new capital. It does have some fine gardens but none with the long and time-worn elegance of those in Nara, Japan's first capital, or of those in Kyoto, long the seat of Japanese culture. Even though my visit did not come at the best time for viewing gardens, a number of gardens were recommended to me. One in particular-Rikugi-en-stood out. I: Rikugi-en, the Garden of Poetry Rikugi-en is literally called the Garden of Poetry, Rikugi signifying the six classificapleted in tions of poetry in Japan and China. Com- 1702, the garden was designed by 4 Yanagisawa Yoshiyasu, a minister of the Shogun. It is a prime example of a circuit garden, with a main path following the contours of a large central lake, one that is dotted with islands of cloud-pruned black pine. From this main path a number of smaller paths wind into the patches of woods on the garden, often surprising with specimen plants or dappled views back to- edges of the ward the central waters. One outstanding specimen was a large, fifteen-foot (4.5-m) plant of Enkianthus perulatus, usually seen only as a shrub in the United States. The garden originated as a feudal estate, but in the 1870s it came to the hands of a member of the rising financial aristocracy, a Baron Iwasaki. He respectfully restored the garden to its original drawing and descriptions. In 1938 the Iwasaki clan do- nated this fine garden to the City of Tokyo. In addition to its outstanding plant material, such as huge specimens of Ginkgo biloba and Acer buergeranum, the garden features a number of quintessentially Japanese characters. Stone lanterns dot the garden, both the tall Taima-ji style and the more-squat, fourlegged Yukimi type. A bridge, made of large, ten-foot slabs of stone take one over a pool filled with vividly mottled koi and large painted turtles, both creatures well settled into their role as the park's beggars. What distinguishes the garden is its meticulous upkeep and its balanced interplay between the shadowy woods and the bright expanses of clipped lawn. These lawns are actually a recent feature in Japanese landscaping, having been borrowed from the West only in the last century or so. Upon the brightgreen lawns are positioned tightly pruned, mounded plants of the dark-green Japanese black pine, Pinus thunbergiana. From across the pond, these pines look like large stones, or even islands on a calm sea of green. II: Daisetsuzan National Park Given that I would be a month in Japan, I felt it best to start collecting in the North, where Cobblestone path in the Rikugi-en Garden, Tokyo. seeds would ripen early, and to work southward during my stay. The first collecting was to be on Hokkaido, the northernmost big island, in the Daisetsuzan National Park. Before collecting, I made a short, helpful visit to the Sapporo Botanical Garden, long an ally of the Arnold Arboretum. In Sapporo, I was shown a row of massive red oaks lining a city street. Beneath one of the oaks was a sign stating that the trees had been started from seed sent to Japan by the ArnoldArboretum in the late 1800s! Since it was the Garden's centennial year, I presented its director, Tatsuichi Tsujii, with gifts from the Arnold Arboretum-a Magnolia virginiana grown from native Massachusetts seed and a photograph of Kingo Miyabe, the Garden's first director, 5 which E. H. Wilson had taken during his stay in 1917. Dr. Tsujii had arranged for seed-collecting permits for me, and within a day I was on the flanks of Mount Asahi, at sixty-two hundred feet (2,290 m) Hokkaido's highest mountain. Mount Asahi has an excellent alpine zone that can be reached by cable car, so I began collecting in the alpine zone and walked my way down. At fifty-three hundred feet ( 1,620 m) was a series of small alpine ponds around fifty-nine hundred feet (1,800 m), the soils thereafter being affected by sulfurous steam from an active band of fumaroles. Looking back down from this height, I saw that the ponds looked like chips of mirror set into a clipped carpet of low, green plants, each species contributing its own unique texture. A mile-long trail connected the upper terminus of the cable car to the beckoning hotspring spas below. As if to further my appreciation of this custom, a drenching rainstorm took its cue, turning the path into a stream- which grew Geum pentapetalum, Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum, Bryanthus gmelinii, bed. Phyllodoce aleutica, and Rhododendron aureum. This last species is a prostrate dwarf with pale-yellow flowers. Prior attempts with the plant in Boston have proven unsuccessful. Perhaps the cooler summers in such places as Maine would mimic its native climate better than that of Boston. The larger shrubby species in this area were limited to Pinus pumila, the Japanese stone pine, and Sorbus matsumarae, a bushy mountain ash with vivid-red fall color. The flora on this mountain terminates at about Despite the rain, this trail offered some of the trip's best collecting as it connected alpine, subalpine, and boreal forest zones over its short distance. At about forty-nine hundred feet ( 1,500 m), I collected Tripetaleia bracteata, a close relative of the Georgia plume, Elliottia racemosa. It was growing at a much higher elevation than I expected. About halfway down Mount Asahi, in a forest of Abies sachalinensis and Picea jezoensis, the trail cut through a series of level areas that formed wet meadows. There Meadow on Mount Asahi, Daisetsuzan National Park. 6 I found a daylily, Hemerocallis middendorfii, a hosta, Hosta rectifolia, and masses of Lysichyton camtschatcense, a member of the Araceae with an affinity to skunk cabbage. With long, elliptic, two-foot (60-cm) leaves and an inflorescence consisting of a yellow spadix subtended by a pure-white spathe, this hardy plant would be a bold addition to marshy plantings or pondside gardens. I collected a large lot of seeds in the hope that some would germinate. III: Rishiri and betrays its volcanic origins by stunning profile, a sharply tacone that rises fifty-seven hundred feet pered (1,749 m) above sea level. (Imagine, if you will, a six thousand-foot island off the coast of Boston!) Access to the islands is gained by ferry from Wakkanai, an active fishing port. It is a beautiful, bracing ride, brimming with Japa- larger of the pair and its Rebun, Islands of Flowers Rishiri and Rebun are two islands that have long held a special fascination for plant lovers. They lie off the northwestern corner of Hokkaido and are only fifty miles (80 km) from Russia's Sakhalin Island. Rishiri is the tourists eager to visit the Islands of Flowers. The two islands are most noted for their high number of endemic species, particularly of woodland and alpine plants. Since it is a prime collecting area, permits are limited to few seed collectors, but I was able to arrange permission through the gracious efforts of the Sapporo Botanic Garden. To reach the summit from the port takes nese The alpine zone of Rishiri Island. 7 five to six hours of brisk walking. As with any rapid change in elevation, the floral diversity also changes quickly, and a good selection of material can be acquired in a day or two. In the lowest zone of the island is found a mixed forest of deciduous trees such as Acer mono var. mayrii, Corylus heterophylla, Ulmus davidiana var. japonica, and Phellodendron amurense intermingling with Picea glehnii and Picea jezoensis. Two of the better collections were Magnolia hypoleuca, a plant related to our native Magnolia macrophylla, Magnolia tripetala, and Magnolia ashei, along with Skimmia japonica var. repens, a low-growing shrub of the citrus family found growing in the dense shade of a Picea forest. As I continued upward, the terrain became steeper, and the woody flora became more stunted. After passing through a belt of Abies sachalinensis intermixed with Betula ermanii, the woody flora diminished in size and frequency. The upper third of the mountain is dominated by two species-Pinus pumila, the pine, and Sasa kurilensis, a thin-stalked bamboo that forms waist-high, massive, impenetrable pure stands. The pine is one of the Japanese plants which I found most interesting, as it is a natural dwarf, rarely growing more than seven feet (2.1 m) high. It tends to form densely branched, impenetrable stands and is generally the last conifer seen before reaching the alpine zone. Its range is from mid-Honshu northward and varies greatly in its attitudinal distribution. E. H. Wilson reported it from ten thousand, six hundred feet (3,250 m) on Honshu, but Yushun Kudo wrote that it occurred at sea level, growing in sand dunes on Russia's frigid Sakhalin Island. Here it grows on the sea beaches and their immediate vicinity in association with such plants as EmJapanese stone petrun nigrum, Vaccinium vitis-ida?a, Loise- leuria procumbens, Linnxa borealis, Artemisia norvegica, and Fritillaria camtschat-, censis. Wilson also reported that cones were ~ rarely found, and this was true. The cones evidently are carried away by squirrels and Pinus pumila (right) and Sasa sp. on Rishiri Island. Sasa sp. on Rishiri Island. 8 other rodents, as I saw numerous seedlings in clumps, indicating that the animals probably store the seeds. The foliage of Pinus pumila ranges from blue-green to grey-blue, and one cultivar, 'Dwarf Blue', is a fine dark blue. Because of the density of these attractive needles, the low spreading architecture, its hardiness (Zone 3),and its possible salt tolerance, Pinus pumila would seem to be an ideal plant for day. Climbing least eight hours, and there are many plants to consider along the way. As it turned out, I stayed too long at the top and had to travel the downward path through Rishiri's black silhouette forest by the light of a poet's moon. ent cannot a that Rishiri be done in time up and back down takes at IV: Ryoan-ji Temple Garden a foundation, seaside, or mass plantings. It is, unfortunately, rarely found in nursery catalogs because its seeds are scarce and because it is difficult to graft. Beyond the Pinus pumila-Sasa zone, Rishiri's craggy peak is home to a varied alpine flora. Sedum cauticolum, Rhododendron camtschaticum, Oxytropisrishiriensis, Achillea alpina, and a ground-hugging species of Salix I've yet to identify grow among the rocks in chunky, volcanic soil. By the time one reaches this zone it becomes appar- dozen landmarks-\"must sees\"usually are indelibly linked to a country, and failure to visit at least one of them is a traveller's sacrilege. A visit to one of these well worn stops is likely to produce mixed feelings: you feel part of a herd and often have a sense of dejd vu, having seen the attraction a hundred times in photographs. Ryoan-ji Temple in Kyoto is such a site. This famous garden, composed only of five groupings of fifteen stones set in a flat expanse of raked sand, has stretched the definition of \"garden\" for five centuries. Half The garden at Ryoan-ji Temple. 9 The garden dates from the Muromachi Period ( 1394-1572) and is the premier example of a particularly Japanese style of garden, the Karesansui, or Dry Landscape. Gardens of this style represent streams, lakes, shallows, and rivers by suggestion, using coarse sand, pebbles, and stone to define an imaginary body of water. The style had its beginnings in the Kamakura Period ( 1186-1335but usually as part of a greater garden scheme. It was not until the middle of the Muromachi Period that dry gardens stood as singular, separate entities, made to be viewed from one spot, usually a raised veranda, and with entry into the space restricted. Dry gardens were constructed as aids to meditation, as sources of inspiration for the monks of the Temple. Ryoan-ji probably was built late in the Fifteenth Century. Its designer is still a subject of scholarly debate, although the name of Soami, a painter and tea master, usually comes to the fore. It is often thought that the stark black-and-white paintings of the Sung Period in China, of which Japanese painters of the time were aware, may have inspired this minimalist trend in garden architecture. The garden is a part of a large temple complex set on the side of a verdant hill in northwestern Kyoto. As it is the main attraction, a steady flow of tourists is directed by signs through the temple grounds to the garden. Although some writers suggest that the garden is best viewed during early morning, when wet and misted, I found it equally satisfying in the bright, clear sun. Incredibly, and only in this retreat garden, a loudspeaker system was barking a quick taped explanation of Zen rectangular bed is so perfectly wrought impenetrable harmony results. It is probably one of the few gardens in the world that resists second guessing. The only plants that \"intrude\" into this garden design are the within the an moss that has established itself at the base of each grouping and the treetops that rise beyond the buff brown, tile-topped walls. Neither was part of the original design. If we define a garden as a place of plants, then Ryoan-ji barely qualifies. It seems to be the progenitor of the current concept of \"environmental sculpture\" or of sculpture gardens. For comparison, I would offer Carl Andre's \"Stone Field Sculpture\" in Hartford, Connecticut. Built in 1977, it consists of thirtysix ordered boulders on a triangular plot and was met with outrage when \"unveiled.\" It stands more as an abstraction, perhaps symbolizing islands on a sea, a floating world. Today's landscape architects who strive to expand the concept of garden should look to the five hundred-year-old Ryoan-ji before proclaiming too loudly their new \"minimalist concepts.\" V: Ritsurin Garden \" The port city of Takamatsu, situated on the large southern island of Shikoku, is the locale of Ritsurin, one of Japan's finest gardens. Composed of a network of strolling paths interwoven through a system of streams and ponds, Ritsurin is a prime example of the Kaiya-shiki type of circuit landscape gardening. It offers a constant unveiling of views both intimate and expansive. Ritsurin is a comparatively recent garden, having been constructed over a span of eighty years starting in the late Seventeenth Century, during Japan's Edo Period (1603-1867). The Edo Period was a time of relative prosper- tranquillity to tourists in Japanese. No better symbol of modern Japan could be found. The garden's design is inexplicably powerful and produced within me feelings of tranquillity and wonder. Its stones rest in five groups (five and two to the left half; three, two, and three to the right), but the placement ity and peace during which the feudal lords vied for honor among themselves through the quality of the grounds surrounding their castles. Ritsurin was such a place. It was 10 Ritsurin Garden, one of Japan's island of Shikoku. finest. Twohundredyears old, it is located in Takamatsu, a port city on the large southern started by Takatoshi Ikoma, the Lord of Sanuki, but eventually came to Yorishige Matsudaira, the first Lord of Takamatsu. His clan controlled the garden for the next two hundred twenty-eight years, until 1875, when it became a public park after the Emperor Meiji issued a proclamation encouraging such conversions. The object of the garden's design is not unlike the Gardenesque style championed in the late 1700s by the Englishman Humphrey Repton. Both seek to incorporate a variety of plant material-arborescent, shrub, and perennial-into a design embracing natural forms rather than constricting them into contrived geometrical patterns. It is a representation of nature, following the example of the local regional scenery but constructed with considerable poetic license. The viewer feels that he is walking through a dark woodland in some sections, while in others the vista presented imitates the view from a high hill or mountain. Water and views across water are major features of the garden, with six major ponds and numerous streams incorporated into the design. Sited between two ponds is Kikugetsu-tei, an expertly crafted teahouse that dates from the feudal period. Visitors are allowed to unshoe and take tea, and while sipping, it was a dilemma to choose between studying the beautiful craftsmanship of the building or the view of the rocks and ponds outside the slid- ing panels. The finest view of Ritsurin, and one of the best in any Japanese garden today, is from the top of a small, manmade hill in the southeastern comer of the garden. One looks over the tops of manicured black pines (Pinus thunbergii)across the breadth of Southern Pond. It 11 1 is bisected early on by a simple yet stately arched wooden bridge. The ends of this bridge attended by finely cloud-pruned pine, making it look as though it were rising from the mists. Looking beyond the bridge, one are sees a \"captured landscape.\" The designer consciously frames and incorporates a distant view into the design of the garden. This nullifies the feeling of garden boundaries and gives Ritsurin the feeling of an unbounded piece of heaven. VI: Mount Tsurugi From Takamatsu I continued eastward by rail to Tokushima, a city renowned in Japan for Awa Odori, a festival of crazy dances. Wanting to get into the interior mountains, I inquired about transportation. On the advice of the local tourist bureau, I boarded a train line which paralleled the Yoshino River, with instructions to disembark at Waki. Here a connecting bus into the mountains could be caught. Language barriers prevented my un- small island dotted with clusters of mound-pruned azalea: plants imitating stone formations. As the pond narrows, the eye is drawn farther, on to a formation of three rocks rising from the surface of the waters, looking like far-distant islands. The water's end is sited with a specimen tree of Pinus parviflora and the simple, minimal, refined teahouse. The gaze is finally drawn past the pond, past the teahouse, to the slopes of Mount Shiun, whose flanks come sharply down to the garden's edge. The pine-covered hill appears as a virtual curtain of boughs. It is a masterfully constructed composition, one that successfully draws the eye across the entire expanse of the garden, past its boundaries, up the side of the mountain to the sky above. This view of Ritsurin is a prime example of shakkei, \"borrowed scenery\" or derstanding that this bus would take me only half way, and that a surprised hitchhiker would be deposited in sparsely settled hill country. A few rides with local truck drivers took us over switchbacks that squirmed upward. One driver was a small fellow of five The view from Mount Tsurugi. The windswept tree probably is a species of Tsuga. 12 feet and one hundred pounds, but he sped his ten-ton truck forward with an infective confidence. The terrain was extremely steep and heavily forested with Cryptomeria japonica, which, when harvested, was transported down the sharp slopes on a cable system. During one layover between rides, I was happy to find Acer carpinifolium, an odd maple with an elliptic leaf like that of ironwood. I also found Hydrangea sikokiana, a shrub with highly incised leaves. One final ride took me to the village at the base of Mount Tsurugi, at sixty-four hundred feet (1,956 m) Shikoku's second-highest mountain. As it offers a three hundred sixtydegree view, it is a popular hiking spot and as is often the case in Japan, this popularity is confirmed by the presence of a convenient chair lift up a good portion of the mountain. My primary goal on this peak was Abies vietchii, the common fir of central Honshu, a species whose taxonomy is a bit muddled. It grows in the subalpine zone with such species as Tsuga diversifolia and Abies mariesii. On Shikoku, however, a short-needle variant occurs that some botanists regard as Abies shikokianum, the Shikoku fir. Regardless of its proper designation, it is one of the most southerly populations of fir in Japan and may be of use in our southern states, as well as The path in Koraku-en, the Lord of Okayama's stroll garden on Honshu Island. in New England. The mountain's chair lift, refuge of the tired and lazy, gives a subtle punishment to plant collectors. You are sped by plants, covered with seed, a mere two meters below your feet. Passed over were Hemerocallis, Rhododendron, and-to the side-massive trees of Kalopanax pictus. Once off the lift, I began walking upward through the narrow subalpine forest. Here were such plants as and Spirxa blumei var. pugracilis bescens. Bamboos growing there included Sasa ishizuchiensis and Sasa hirtella. As I neared the top of the mountain the trees became stunted and windblown, often assuming a flat-topped, leaning posture. Silvery white spires, the remains of long-dead trees, stood as monuments to a lost battle against cold and wind. The summit itself was a broad dome covered only by short bamboos and grasses. From here I could see the terrain I had crossedsharp ridge upon sharp ridge, looking like walls thrown up to hold the island's secrets from intruders. Beneath the trees grew Deutzia such trees as Fagus crenata, Tsuga VII : Koraku Garden sieboldii, Pinus pentaphylla, and the Shikoku fir. Its black-purple cones were easy to spot, and in a short while I had made a good collection of seeds. Departing the island of Shikoku, I ferried again to the main island, Honshu, for a last few days of collecting, but before returning to 13 of lawn or low plantings of rice. As with most Japanese gardens of this size, ponds and streams are a major design device, the ponds offering us long, open views, the streams allowing for a playful interplay of path and water. Though impressed by many of the longer views, I was more taken by certain features of the garden than by the overall design itself. A favorite was a simple eight-plank bridge (yatsuhashi) over a small marsh of irises. Each plank intersected the next at a different angle, so that, in crossing the zigzag, you were presented with eight fresh views of the surrounding garden. Simple, ingenious, and playful, it also created a linear interplay with the irises below-a flat, simple, abstract framing device contrasting with the fresh green, vertical leaves. The Crow Castle of Ikeda Tsunamasa, Lord of Okayama. Koraku-en Garden was constructed across the river from the castle, beginning in 1687. the woods I visited one final garden. Korakuen, in the city of Okayama, is said to be one of Japan's three best large gardens. Like Ritsurin, it dates from the feudal era, having been originally started by Ikeda Tsunamasa, the Lord of Okayama, in 1687. The garden was constructed across the river from his distinctive black castle, The Crow Castle, and was reached by footbridge. It was intended as a \"stroll garden,\" but incorporated into the lanterns, originally a functional fixof tea gardens, were used frequently in other style gardens as well, often simply for decoration. At Koraku-en, one oddly shaped lantern caught my attention. Rather than having a tall column with a square, light compartment, this lantern was a squat, hollow, stone circle set on two legs and topped with a hat-like triangular roof. Set onto lawn alongside a crystal, serpentine stream, I could only imagine the beautiful scene at night, with the light of the lantern gilding the water's ripples and its enigmatic outline aglow from a distance. One tree I was excited to see on the Stone ture garden's edge common was Torreya nucifera, an un- yew family. It is a lrage more pyramidal in habit than evergreen tree, yew but with the same overall texture. Its needles, though, unlike those of Taxus, have sharp, piercing tips. Some species of Torreya are native to Florida and California, but their seeds are rarely available. This specimen was well endowed with seeds, half a pound of which I gathered for propagation trials. conifer of the expansive design were many intimate beauty spots and pavilions for tea and composing poetry. The overall effect of the garden is one of sunny openness, with most large trees or dense plantings confined to the edges, while the central portions consist of large expanses 14 VIII: Mount Yatsugadake A final field day was spent in the Japanese Alps of central Honshu. I had come to one mountain complex in particular, Mount Yatsugadake, in order to collect seeds of two rare spruces, Picea maximowiczii and Picea koyami. Up to this point I had been disappointed by the general seed-set in Japan that fall, but on this mountain I was to find a multitude of plants with good seed-set. These two spruces are currently in the Arboretum's collection but date from a 1917 collection by E. H. Wilson. I had hoped to get some fresh seed to rejuvenate our holdings of these uncommon species. A well defined trail was crowded with Japanese hikers, all dressed in gear that reflected the seriousness with which they approached hiking. The lower reaches of the mountain yielded seeds of a number of interesting perennials and deciduous trees. I found a species of Hosta and a species of Halenia, as well as one of Hemerocallis. Many of the perennials will have to be grown on for identification, as most keys rely on floral characteristics. Acer japonicum and an azalea, Rhododendron japonicum, also appeared in this vegetation zone, along with Lindera obtusiloba, a spicebush with excellent fall color. I soon entered a coniferous belt dominated by the hemlock, Tsuga diversifolia, although a solitary plant of Thu;opsis dolobrata, a conifer endemic zone. to Japan, also grew in this It was a low-growing, spreading plant and confused me at first, as I thought I had found a heavily mutated plant of Chamxcyparis obtusa. Beneath the hemlocks grew plants of an evergreen rhododendron, Rhododendron metternichii, and a member of the Diapensiaceae, Shortia soldanelloides. The only other time I had seen Shortia was also in a hemlock grove, in Marion, North Carolina. The hemlocks on Mount Yatsugadake began to intermingle with Abies veitchii, and here I found the only spruce I would see that day. There were only half a dozen plants, all less than eight feet (2.5 m) in height and barren of cones. These I keyed out to be Picea maximowiczii. At one point, I was startled by a man with a basket and knife, a mushroom hunter. Like mushroom hunters everywhere, he was reluctant to let me know what he was doing, as I, too, might be stalking the same game. I continued up through the forest and broke Pinus pumila and Empetrum sp. on Mount Yatsuga- through the arborescent species onto a ridge of rocky pumice, where I found the shrubby Pinus pumila, along with crowberry (Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum) and a lowgrowingform of Vaccinium. On the downside of the ridge was a gorgeous mossy forest of firs, Abies vietchii and Abies homolepis, \"underplanted\" with Rhododendron metternichii and Vaccinium spp. dake. 15 5 ... And the Sight of Fuji Epilogue Many of the seeds I collected germinated very well, often excess of our needs. To help defray the costs of the collecting trip, we are offering a selection of perennial and woody-plant seedlings for sale to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Friends may obtain a price list by sending a stamped, addressed envelope to: Japanese Seedling Sale I collected seeds and cones and returned back up to the rocky ridge. From these mountains I had hoped to get a long view of Fuji, which in for the entire trip had been obscured by fog. Hokusai, the painter, had once done a series of woodblocks titled \"Views of Mount Fuji.\" My final mountain view of Japan, in the direction of Fuji, was one of thick fog swirling through groves of green firs and blue stone The Dana Greenhouse The Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795 _ pines. I left the mountain never having had my Fuji, yet I was not in the least disappointed. For a plant collector, I thought, it own view of probably would have been just another view. Robert G. Nicholson writes often forArnoldia and other horticultural publications. When not attending to his duties in the Dana Greenhouse or on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, he ranges the world in search of interesting plant materials. Corrections Through a lapse in proofreading, the binomials of two plants mentioned in Richard Warren's review of Native and Cultivated Conifers of Eastern North America: A Guide, by Edward A. Cope (Arnoldia, Volume 47, Number 1, Winter 1987, pages 27 to 29), were misspelled. The binomials, both of which appeared on page 27, are correctly spelledPinus ayacahuite and Cupressus macrocarpa, respectively. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities","article_sequence":2,"start_page":16,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24919","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160b328.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Storer, Susan","article_content":"Cultivating Native Plants: The Possibilities Susan Storer If used with due species promise for the well-being of their wild populations, native a wider choice of plants for the gardens of North America concern According to some recent surveys, gardening has become the national pastime of Americans. Hand in hand with the increasing popularity of gardening has come a growing interest in native plants. More and more people are visiting the Garden in the Woods-which is the botanical garden of the New England Wild Flower Society (NEWFS) in Framingham, Massachusetts-to enjoy and to learn about the native plants of North America, for example. Every day the Garden receives numerous requests for information about native plants. The general public wants to know how to select wildflowers for specific situations, how to cultivate them successfully, and where to buy seeds and plants-as well as what to do when wild populations of special plants are threatened by development projects. Why Cultivate Native Plants? At Garden in the Woods, growing native plants reflects the vision of its creator, Will C. Curtis. \"It is a wildflower sanctuary in which wild plants will be grown, their likes and dislikes discovered, and the knowledge gained eventually passed on in an effort so to From professionals come different types of inquiries--conservation commissioners seek information about wetland species and their communities in order to deal with the sticky issues of wetland protection and replication, nurserymen seek economical methods of propagation and cultivation in order to respond to the increased demand for native plants in curb the wholesale destruction of our most beautiful natives. This is to be my contribution to conservation.\" Promoting the conservation of native plants continues to be the main purpose of the Garden in the Woods. The conservation message at the Garden in the Woods begins with the presentation of a garden of great beauty. The beauty and tranquillity that visitors to the Garden encounter is a powerful way of gaining public interest and support for native plants. As a result, many visitors are inspired to include the native species in their own gardens. Perhaps they become interested in native species because of the great variety available for their gardens, or perhaps because of some deeper kind of interest in or connection with North American wildlings. the landscape trade, and wildlife biologists look for information on the behavior of native plants under cultivation, in order successfully to manage populations or rare and endangered species in the wild. All these requests for information give a clear signal that there is great interest in the native flora. Species in the Home Garden People are awakening to the potential for using native plants in the home garden. While the style of Garden in the Woods is naturalistic, native species can be used in any garden situation or landscape style, from naturalistic to very formal. In the garden, all plants have their strong and weak points regardless of Native 17 their origins-native or exotic, wild or cultivated. The notion that native species are somehow inferior to other garden plants, that they are ragged and weedy or fragile, is false. There are hundreds of garden-worthy native species that are versatile in cultivation and appropriate in a variety of settings. Native plants combine well with exotic and cultivated species. Visitors to the Garden in the Woods are thrilled to see Japanese jackin-the-pulpit, European ginger, and Chinese witch hazel growing alongside their North American cousins. Native species are also excellent companions, even for such familiar cultivated favorites as hosta, astilbe, and bleeding heart. The possibilities are endless. Cultivating Native Plants The basic culture of native plants is no different from that of any other plant. Some native species are very adaptable to a wide range of conditions, some are very specific in their requirements. In all cases, however, best results are achieved by choosing the right plant for the right place and by paying close attention to their soil, pH, moisture, and light requirements. The best rule of thumb is to plant wildflowers in sites where conditions closely match those of their natural habitats. Woodland species are probably the best known natives in cultivation. Trilliums, hepaticas, wild ginger, bloodroot, and maidenhair fern all grow together in rich wood'lands in the wild and also make a great combination, both culturally and aesthetically, for a shady garden site. Although not as well known as the woodland species, there are many sun-loving species from which to choose for sunny borders and meadow gardens. All native species, to reach their full potential under cultivation, must be provided the same care and attention as any other garden plants. As long as you are gardening with native plants and not just naturalizing or managing plants in a natural setting, all the Lilium superbum, the Turk's lily, a strong-growing native lily that fares best in full sun to light shade. Photographs by John A. Lynch. familiar tasks of fertilizing, mulching, pruning, watering, and weeding are necessary for success. Propagating Native Plants Closely associated with the cultivation of native species are the mysteries and intrigues of propagation. Home gardeners can participate in this activity without a large investment of materials and equipment. Propaga- tion by seed, cuttings, and division are the main methods used at the Garden in the Woods. Many natives are easily propagated by of these methods, either outdoors during the growing season or on a windowsill in the winter. For some species, propagation by seed is the easiest method, while for others, such as forms of certain species (albinos, doubles, compact varieties, etc.), vegetative one or more 18 tributing to their destruction in the wild. Fortunately, there is a way both to enjoy native species in the garden and to conserve them in the wild: to propagate them. Before buying native plants from a nursery, the buyer should ask the nursery how it acquired its plants and buy only propagated material. Propagated plants have much healthier root systems than nonpropagated plants and generally survive handling, with much better long-term results. Many botanical gardens, native- plant societies, and nurseries offer seed for sale to the home propagator. Through propagation, there is a great wealth to be gained in the garden and a great wealth to be preserved in the wild. Bibliography Wildflowers. Woodstock, Vermont: Countryman Press, 1984. Oliver E. Allen. Wildflower Gardening. Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1977 Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Gardening with Wild Flowers. Handbook No. 38. Brooklyn, New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1979. Hal Bruce. How To Grow Wildflowers and Wild Shrubs George Aster novae-angliae, the New England aster. A spectacular fall-blooming species with color forms ranging from pink to deep purple, it does best in sunny spots. Cultivation D. Aiken. Pioneering with propagation by cutting or division is a must because they usually do not come true from seed. While much work remains to be done to unravel mysteries, propagation techniques for many wild plants are well documented. Excellent resources are available to guide the home gardener in these techniques. Propagation is not only a fascinating and rewarding activity, but one that can provide a much wider variety of material than is readily available in the nursery trade. and Trees in Your Own Garden. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1976. John Mickel and Evelyn Fiore. The Home Gardener's Book of Ferns. San Francisco: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1984. William E. Brumback and David R. Longland. Garden in theWoods Cultivation Guide. Framingham, Massachusetts : New England Wild Flower Society, 1986. 61 pages. Available from the New England Wild Flower So- Acquiring Native Plants As the popularity of wildflowers has increased, so has the demand placed on the nursery industry to provide them. Since wildcollection is still the way in which many nurseries obtain their stock, by buying these plants for our own gardens, we may be con- ciety (NEWFS), Hemenway Road, Framingham, Massachusetts 01701, for $6.45, postpaid. Ortho Books. Landscaping with Wildflowers and Native Plants. San Francisco: Chevron Chemical Company, 1984. Edwin F. Steffek. The New Wildflowers and How To Grow Them. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1983. 19 Propagation Botanic Garden. Propagation. Handbook No. Brooklyn, New York: Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1982. Philip M. Browse. Plant Propagation. New York: Simon and Schuster, 1979. Will C. Curtis and William E. Brumback. Propagation of Wildflowers. Framingham, Massachusetts: New England Wild Flower Society, 1986.30 pages. General propagation notes; brief specific notes for 114 native plants; seed-collection dates for 93 wildflowers. Available by mail from the NEWFS for $5.45. Brooklyn 24. H. T. Hartman and D. E. Kester. Plant Propagation. Fourth Edition. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1983. National Council of State Garden Clubs, Directory of Resources on Wildflower Propagation. Saint Louis: Missouri Botanical Garden, 1981. Harry R. Philips. Growing and Propagating Wild Flowers. Chapel Hill, North Carolina, 1985. Sources of Native Plants New England Wild Flower Society. Nursery Sources: Native Plants and Wild Flowers. Framingham, Massachusetts: New England Wild Flower Society. sources of seeds and propagated plants of over200 populu wildflowersforZones 4, 5, and 6 ; Lists 58 nurseries that sell wildflower seeds or propagated plants for Zones 4, 5, and 6; and other nursenes throughout the country that propagate native plants. (The 1987 edition will be available from the NEWFS m the summer of 1987.) New England Wild Flower Society. Seed List. Framingham, Massachusetts: New England Wild Flower Society. Available in late January of each year, the Seed List is sent free to members of the NEWFS. Nonmembers may obtain copies by sending a stamped (39t), addressed long (No. 10) envelope for each copy to \"Seeds,\" c\/o NEWFS. Susan Storer is Horticulturist at the Garden in the Woods, Framingham, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivating Native Plants: The Legal Pitfalls","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24918","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160af6f.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"McMahan, Linda R.","article_content":"Cultivating Native Plants: The Legal Pitfalls Linda R. McMahan By knowing and observing plant-protection laws and determining the origins of native plants offered for sale, collectors can aid conservation efforts-and avoid the legal and ethical pitfalls of collecting as well If you purchase native plants you might break the law and, at the same time unknowingly contribute to the demise of wild plant populations, since collection from the wild is seldom adequately licensed or controlled. By following a few simple rules, however, you can avoid the legal and ethical pitfalls of buying (and collecting) native plants for use in a garden, for scientific research, or for horticultural display. In the United States, many laws protect species of plants or regulate activities that involve them. The laws range from strict prohibitions of the collection and sale of protected species to local regulations aimed at maintaining scenic beauty. It is important to know what these laws are. More than one hundred of the taxa are now protected by the Act, and others currently are proposed for protection. In practical terms this means that the interstate trade or collection of those taxa is prohibited on lands owned by the United States Government, unless one has a permit issued by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service or another appropriate agency, such as the Bureau of Land Management, the Park Service, or the Forest Service. Some of the species on endangered and threatened the Federal list are available Plant-Protection Laws in the United States In 1973, the United States Congress passed the Endangered Species Act, which for the first time granted Federal protection to plants under the terms of a major law. Congress directed the Smithsonian Institution to draw up a list of the endangered and threatened plants of the United States. The Smithsonian's list, which was published in book form (Ayensu and DeFilipps, 1978), included about three thousand plant taxa of the continental United States and Hawaii. This number, which represents one out of every ten native plant taxa, astounded the scientific community. through legitimate sources. Only propagated plants may be sold legally, and their sale must be licensed by the Fish and Wildlife Service. The Tennessee purple coneflower (Echinacea tennesseensis) is an example of a species grown from seed. (According to the Fish and Wildlife Service, only two nurseries were licensed to sell the species in 1985.)Species of Pediocactus, a genus of endangered diminutive cacti, are sometimes propagated by seeds, cuttings, or tissue culture. Chapman's rhododendron (Rhododendron chapmanii), endangered in the wild, is available as plants raised from seeds or cuttings. Other Federal laws protecting plants include more-general ones, such as those that prohibit commercial collecting on Park Service lands, and the requirements that permits be obtained for collecting on most other Federal lands. 21 laws, many states have laws conserving plant species. About half of the fifty states have passed endangered species laws that help to conserve plants (McMahan, 1980; McMahan, 1984), for example. There are as many types of provisions as there are states; they provide various degrees of protection, from outright prohibitions against collection and sale to the creation of licensing systems. Some states do not regulate collecting at all, but instead, focus on preserving the habitats of rare plants. Despite the efforts of some states to protect their rare plants, it remains a sad fact that most of the plants at risk of extinction in the United States are not yet protected by either Federal or state laws (see, for example, Manheim and Bean, 1984). Conservationconscious horticulturists and botanists will learn which native plants are rare and will proceed with extreme caution to purchase only propagated plants. Publications listing plants at risk of extinction can be obtained State Laws In addition to the Federal from the United States Fish and Wildlife Ser(e.g., United States Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980, 1981and from many stategovernment offices. vice The Threats of Trade in Wild Species Trade in wild plants can affect more-common species as well, among them the Venus's-flytrap (Diona?a muscipula), which is native to the Green Swamp of North Carolina and South Carolina. Although it has a restricted habitat, the Venus's-flytrap is locally abundant where conditions are favorable (Sutter, 1985\/. Its removal from the wild is monitored by the North Carolina Department of Agri- . culture, but several nurseries and botanical gardens propagate Venus's-flytrap from seeds or by plant divisions. Propagated specimens provide the buyer with a choice, making it unnecessary to remove Venus's-flytraps from wild populations. Another example, the yellow lady's-slipper \/Cypripedium calceolus), is commonly offered through mail-order garden catalogs in The Venus's flytrap by the author. (Dionaea muscipula) being propagated in flats at the North Carolina Botanical Garden. Photograph 22 the United States. Unless the company states that they are propagated, the plants are almost certainly of wild origin. One catalog refers to its stock as \"specially selected,\" perhaps in an effort to mislead the customer about the source of the plants. The Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts, the botanical garden of the New England Wild Flower Society, is propagating the yellow lady's-slipper on a limited basis, as are a few others. These sources offer propagated plants that are more likely to survive transplanting to the garden than are most wild-collected plants. At least the yellow lady's-slipper and some other wildflowers can sometimes survive transplanting from the wild. Others, such as many other species of Cypripedium, are not so lucky. They usually die after one or more years, leaving the gardener or horticulturist wondering what he or she did wrong. For those interested in learning sources of nursery-propagated native plants, the New England Wild Flower Society's small but infor- booklet, Nursery Source List: Wildflowers and Native Plants (New England Wild Flower Society, 1984), is very useful. It is important to realize that, with few exceptions, wild collection is not adequately controlled or licensed by either state or Federal agencies. One of a handful of states licensing the removal of wild plants is Arizona. Wildlife officials dubbed \"cactus cops\" give permits and tags for collecting wild saguaro (Cereus giganteus) and other large cacti used in outdoor landscaping. Collecting certain rare species is strictly prohibited unless it is done by the landowner. In this way, the state mative monitors the removal of wild cacti and can better assess the effect of collecting on the wild population. Whenever possible, state officials encourage collectors to remove plants from lands about to be developed rather than from wild lands. The Legal Requirements Knowing that what you purchase is both legal and not detrimental to wild populations can Chapman's rhododendron (Rhododendron chapmani~, popular horticultural species endangered in its wild habitat in Florida. Photographed by E. LaVerne Smith of the Office of Endangered Species, United States Fish and Wildlife Service. a The yellowlady's slipper (Cypripedium calceolus). This species sometimes survives transplantation but is also being offered on a small scale as propagated specimens. Photographed by William Krebs. 23 be difficult. It is perhaps safest to purchase only material that you know is of propagated origin. Here are a few simple rules to follow: D Learn about the laws that protect native mine that they originated as propagated plants. D Obtain information about the site from which the plants came if, for scientific reasons, you must purchase plants collected in the wild. The information may be valuable some plants. Write to a state to a conservation department in which the plants are native to find out about local laws. You are presumed to know what the laws are, in any case. D Follow all requirements of the state or Federal government, such as obtaining permits if you must use wild plants. Be aware that even the sale of propagated plants of day. D Do not, in general, buy wild plants unless their collection and sale are licensed and the wild population is monitored by a government agency. species is regulated so as protection of the wild resource. some to increase ~ Be particularly careful when you buy from mail-order catalogs. Many rare and wildcollected specimens of cacti and insectivorous plants are sold in this way, perhaps ille- Other Considerations In addition to being aware of the legal require- gally. ~ Be aware that most \"wildflowers\" offered for sale in the United States through mail-order catalogs were collected from the wild. These include bloodroot, ferns, and trilliums. D Never buy lady's-slipper orchids (Cypripedium spp.) unless you know that they were and pitfalls, you should: D Find out whether the native plants you buy are wild or propagated. The best way to do so is to ask the supplier. ~ Find out which species are rare, either in the state or nationally, and be particularly careful when you buy these species to determents artificially propagated. Echinacea tennesseensis, the Tennessee purple coneflower.This species is available legally from nurseries licensed by the United States Fish and Wildlife Service. A pincushion cactus, Pediocactus peeblesianus var. peeblesianus. Endangered pincushion cacti are popular among cactus collectors. Photograph by the Desert Botanical Garden. 24 References Ayensu, Edward S., and Robert A. DeFilipps, 1978. Endangered and Threatened Plants of the United States. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution and World Wildlife Fund. Manheim, Bruce S., and Michael J. Bean, 1984. Undermining the plant-protection effort. Garden (July-August): 2-5. McMahan, Linda R., 1980. Legal protection for rare plants. American University Law Review 29(3): 515-569. 1984. What is protection? Tennessee Conservationist 50 March-April): 5-7. New England Wild Flower Society, 1984. Nursery Source List: Wildflowers and Native Plants. Framingham, Massachusetts: New England Wild Flower ] Society [Hemenway Road, Framingham 01701].. Sutter, Robert, 1985. Venus flytrap threatened primarily habitat loss. TRAFFIC (U.S.A.) 6(2): 13. Umted States Fish and Wildlife Service, 1980. by A stand of saguaros (Cereus giganteus) in the Saguaro National Monument, near Tucson, Arizona. Saguaros often are used in outdoor landscaping. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants: Review of Plant Taxa for Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species. Federal Register 45(242): 82,480-82,569 (December 15). ). 1984. Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants, July 20, 1984. Washington, D. C.: Department of the Interior [18th and C Streets, NW, Washington 20240]. Linda R. McMahan is Senior Program Officer for Botany, Center for Plant Conservation, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. She received her doctorate in botany from The University of Texas at Austin in 1972 and her law degree from the American University in 1981. In addition to having taught for several years, she has worked for the United States Environmental Protection Agency, the United States Department of the Interior, and the World Wildlife Fund-U.S. before coming to the Center for Plant Conservation. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Native-Plant Societies in the United States","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24922","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160b76b.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"25 Native-Plant Societies in the United States Over half of the states in the Union now have societies devoted to collecting, and cultivating native species of plants preserving, Native-plant societies, relatively new phenomena, exist in most of the United States (thirty-three at last count). Dedicated to studying, preserving, and bringing into cultivation the plants of a state or region, they draw attention to the beauty and special virtues of wild plants raised under cultivation. In addition to the state societies, there are regional societies with the same or similar goals (the New England Wild Flower Society, for example). A list of the statewide, or \"statespecific,\" native-plant societies follows. Alabama Wildflower Society Attention: George Wood Route 2, Box 115 Northport 35476 Native Plant Committee Hawaii Botanical Society c\/o Department of Botany University of Hawaii Honolulu 96822 Alaska Native Plant Society Post Office Box 141613 Anchorage 99514 ' Idaho Native Plant Society 1 Post Office Box 9451 Boise 83707 Illinois Native Plant Society Department of Botany Southern Illinois University Carbondale 62901 Kansas Wildflower Society c\/o Mulvane Art Center Arizona Native Plant Society Post Office Box 41206 7 Tucson 85717 Arkansas Native Plant Society Attention: Don Peach Route 1, Box 282 Mena 71953 Washbum University California Native Plant Society 6 909 Twelfth Street #116 Sacramento 95614 Topeka 66621 Colorado Native Plant Post Office Box 200 Fort Collins 80522 Society Louisiana Native Plant Society Attention: Richard Johnson Route 1, Box 151 Saline 71070 Maryland Native Plant Society Florida Native Plant Society 1203 Orange Avenue Winter Park 32789 Attention: Scaffidi 14720 Claude Lane Silver Spring 20904 Georgia Botanical Society Attention: Marie Route 1 Tiger 30576 Michigan Botanical Mellinger Club Matthaei Botanical Gardens 1800 North Dixboro Road Ann Arbor 48105 26 Minnesota Native Plant Society 220 Biological Sciences Center University of Minnesota Saint Paul 55108 , Oregon Native Plant Society 393 Ful Vue Drive Eugene 97405 Mississippi Native Plant Society Attention: Travis Salley 202 North Andrews Avenue Cleveland 38732 Pennsylvania Native Plant Society 1806 Commonwealth Building 316 Fourth Avenue Pittsburgh 15222 Tennessee Native Plant Society Department of Botany University of Tennessee Knoxville 37916 Native Plant Society of Texas Post Office Box 23836 Denton 76204 Missouri Native Plant Society Post Office Box 6612 Jefferson City 65102-6612 Nevada Native Plant Post Office Box 8965 Reno 89507 New Society Jersey Native Plant Society Frelinghuysen Arboretum Post Office Box 1295R Morristown 07960 Native Plant Society of New Mexico 7 Post Office Box 5917 Santa Fe 87502 Utah Native Plant Society Sandy 1050 East Oakridge Circle 84070 Virginia Wildflower Preservation Society Post Office Box 844 Annandale 22003 North Carolina Wild Flower Preservation Society c\/o North Carolina Botanical Garden 457-A Totten Center Washington Native Plant Society Attention: Dr. Arthur R. Kruckenberg Department of Botany University of Washington Seattle 98195 West Virginia Native Plant University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Chapel Hill 27514 Society Ohio Native Plant Society Attention: Ann Malmquist 6 Louise Drive Chagrin Falls 44022 . _ c\/o Herbarium Brooks Hall West _ Virginia University Morgantown 26506 Post Office Box 1471 Cheyenne 82001 . Oklahoma Native Plant Society Attention: Dr. John Route 1, Box 157 Durant 74701 1 Wyoming Native Plant Society Taylor -E. A. S. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hardy Aroids in the Garden","article_sequence":5,"start_page":27,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24921","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160b726.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Glattstein, Judy","article_content":"Hardy Aroids in the Garden Judy Glattstein Though not showy plants and with only a modest following among plant lovers, the hardy aroids are interesting, display many virtues in cultivation, and attract \"a different class of gardeners\" The Arum Family, or Araceae, consists of about fifteen genera, most of them tropical but of wide distribution. Some of the tropical members of the family have long been under cultivation, especially in eastern Asia and the Pacific Islands. Taro (Colocasia esculenta) and several species of Xanthosoma (yautia), for example, are grown for their edible tubers as staple sources of starch. Other tropical species are handsome foliage plants used in the temperate zones for summer bedding (Ca- They therefore, unusual and have the appeal of novelty. Aroids contain a bitter substance, calcium oxalate, and are little bothered by pests. Slugs, mice, rabbits, and deer find them decidedly unpalatable. When aroids are used for food, the calcium oxalate first must be destroyed by heat. Gardenare, tion, especially in the United States. ladium) or as houseplants (Aglaonema, Dieffenbachia, Monstera, Philodendron). Others are used by florists as cut flowers (Anthurium, Calla~. I. Some members of the family are hardy, notably Aris~ma, Arisarum, Arum, Lysichiton, and Symplocarpus. The Araceae might seem a poor prospect for gardenworthy plants to those familiar only with the skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus fc~tidus) of New England's swamps. I have enjoyed cultivating representatives of several genera, some for their flowers, some for their foliage. Aroids have a modest following, appearing in an occasional article, mentioned briefly in gardening books. Visitors to my garden have admired them; they have several points of appeal. Many of the aroids I discuss in this article are rare should be careful to wash their hands after handling berries or a bruised tuber. Once, after cleaning Aris~ma seeds, I inadvertently touched my mouth. The resulting unpleasant tingling and numbness took several hours to wear off. ers in cultiva- in Wilton, Connecticut, is by mature white oaks (Quercus alba). Understory trees are dogwood (Cornus florida) and black birch (Betula lenta). The Araceae I raise are quite hardy in Wilton, which is situated in Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Zone 6 (-5 Fahrenheit to 5 Fahrenheit). In fact, the temperature once dipped to -8 Fahrenheit, and there were no losses. The soil in the garden is a good loam, which I keep mulched with leaves for a constant supply of humus; as in most of Connecticut, the pH is rather low (acid). Other plants I use in the garden include such American wildflowers as Trillium, Sanguinaria canadense (bloodroot), Hexastylis spp. (evergreen My garden shaded 28 gingers from the southeastern states), Phlox stolonifera, Phlox divaricata, and many kinds of ferns. Other shade-tolerant Northeast ash is are low in phosphorus, and pot- such as hostas, epimediums, and primroses, also do well under these condi- plants, tions. Since I have to obtain most of the aroids from abroad, I prefer to receive them in the autumn. They are completely dormant at this time, and the tubers travel well and arrive in excellent condition. If they are shipped in the spring, there is the risk that they will break dormancy while in transit. New growth can be damaged either by the confines of the shipping container, or by rot. As soon as the tubers are received they are planted directly in the garden. The area is spaded over, and extra compost is added if necessary. I fertilize with muriate of potash and superphosphate. Soils in the especially useful for tuberous plants. It is not safe to use bonemeal in my garden because it attracts skunks, which dig up the tubers looking for bones. They do not eat the tubers, but it is a nuisance to replant them. Nitrogen is applied in the spring, in the form of dried blood, cottonseed meal, or leather tankage. Fertilization after the first year is usu- ally in not required. The constant mulch of keep the plants growing condition. good An alternative way of obtaining these plants is to raise them from seed. I soak dried berries in a little tepid water for an hour or so, until the coat softens. Then, I rub the seeds gently between paper towels and separate the seed. Each berry has one to four seeds. I sow the seeds in a sterile mix of half potting soil and half seems to leaves The familiar skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) of New England's swamps. This and all other photographs accompanying this article were taken by the author. Lysichiton americanum in flower in the wild, Washington, D. C. 29 Jiffy-mix or Pro-mix@, with enough sharp sand for good drainage. (I sow them thinly enough that I won't have to prick them out for a year.) I cover the the seeds well, water them, and wait. Fresh seeds will germinate promptly under growth lights. Older seeds will germinate more slowly, and outdoor conditions slow the germination process somewhat. My biggest problem has been to keep the plants through their dormant stages. While the garden site may be quite damp, pot-grown plants rot with the greatest of ease. At the same time, small tubers dry out quickly. It is difficult to find the correct balance. Second-year plants can go into a prepared site in the garden and should begin flowering in their third or fourth year. I have used this method with several species of Arisxma and with Arum italicum. Aris~ma seeds do not need a period of stratification but will germinate during the autumn they ripen if they are sown indoors. Sown outdoors in the autumn they will, of course, germinate the following spring. The production of seeds is generous, one spadix of Arisxma sikokianum having from one to four seeds in a berry, for a total of five hundred eighty-seven seeds. Plants of Aris~ma sikokianum often begin to flower in their third year. Once established, the plants are most agreeable. I have dug one up in full bloom, potted it for a rockgarden show, and replanted it in the garden without any difficulty or damage to the plant. The flowering of Arisxma follows an unusual pattern. Immature corms, from either seeds or offsets, are asexual and have a single foliage leaf. As corms increase in size after their first year, they reach sexual maturity, producing two leaves and one scape. Smaller (lighter) corms are male, heavier corms are invariably female, the sexual state having pro- gressed from an asexual to a male and finally to a female state, remaining in the last state. Many plants-Ilex and Myrica, for example-have single-sexed plants either male or female and that for the life of the individual a condition called \"dioecious.\" The plant, transitional nature of the sexual state of Arisxma is referred to as \"paradioethat are remain so \" cious.\" Aris~rna In North America there are two species of Arisa?ma, Arisxma triphyllum, which has four subspecies, and Arisxma dracontium of the southeastern states. Aris~ma is triphyllum (Linnxus) Torrey found from the Gaspe Peninsula, southern Quebec and Ontario, Wisconsin and Minnesota south to eastern Texas and southern Florida, growing in moist, shady woodlands. There are four subspecific populations, with widespread hybrid swarms. Arisxma triphyllum ssp. triphyllum is the most widespread. Its height varies with growing conditions. I have seen specimens that were dwarf in the wild reach two feet in height in the garden with richer soil and ample water. Typically, it has one or two leaves, each bearing three leaflets, which are glaucous beneath. The spathe may vary in color from green to green-and-purple striped, to chocolate purple. The name 'Zebrinum' is often applied to cultivars whose spathes are purple to bronze and have whitish longitudinal stripes inside. An interesting variant has recently been discovered by Peggy French in Wilton, Connecticut. It has pronouncedly white-veined leaves and comes true from seed. The second subspecies, which I have seen in several gardens, is Arisxma triphyllum ssp. stewardsonii. This is a northern variant in which the spathe is 30 and strongly fluted with white ridges on the outside. It tends to appear later in the spring than the other subspecies and grows consistently in moist sites. Its leaves are never glaucous. The third subspecies is Arisa?ma triphyllum ssp. pusillum, which grows in the same habitat as Arisa?ma triphyllum ssp. stewardsonii, although farther south and at lower elevations. Its leaves, too, are never glaucous. There are no ridges on the spathe, and the coloring is nearly green solitary, three-parted, and a glossy mid-green; it appears after flowering, which occurs early in June. The spathe is very beautifully marked with pink and white stripes. Mature tubers make numerous offsets, which form a good-sized clump in a few years. site. The leaf is Aris~ma sikokianum Franchet and Savatier comes from Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu in Japan. Mature plants have two always completely green or completely purple, occasionally with thin, green stripes. The fourth var. subspecies, Arisa?ma tri- quinatum, has a very rephyllum stricted range in the deep South, growing in moist, shaded locations. It is smaller than the other subspecies, and its leaves are usually five-parted and glaucous beneath, although there may be fewer leaflets, and the the leaflets may not be glaucous. The spathe is green and bears no markings. Arisxma dracontium, the greenhas a solitary leaf with seven to dragon, nineteen segments. The spathe is more tightly furled than in the previous species and is green, without stripes. The long, slender spadix protrudes and hangs down from this. Plants can reach an overall height of three feet (0.9 m). In western China, Japan, and the Himalayas, there are at least one hundred species of Arisxma, forty-two in Japan alone. Some of them are among the most beautiful, exotic, interesting, and easily cultivated plants that could be grown in the garden. Arisxma candidissimum W. W. Smith is a Chinese species discovered and collected by George Forrest in Yunnan in 1914. It is found in pine forests, indicating a preference for acid soil. Under cultivation, it does not need a very moist five-parted leaves that often have attractive silver markings. Its Japanese name, yuki-mochi-so, means \"snow ricecake plant,\" in reference to the purewhite, clublike spadix. The spathe is a deep chocolate brown on the outside, green shading to white inside. It flowers in late April and early May. This is an extraordinarily beautiful plant. In the garden, I combine it with the Japanese Primula sieboldii, especially the deep-pink forms that contrast so nicely with the dark spathe of the Arisxma. One colony is growing with the Japanese painted fem, Athyrium goeringianum 'Picturn', whose silver fronds complement the markings on the Aris~mn leaf. Seeds are freely produced and germinate readily. Plants that produce seeds are more resisthreeto cold and go dormant later than The seeds are ripe before the berries turn red, which is fortunate because the growing season in Wilton is too short for the berries to redden. tant to non-seed-bearing plants. Arisa?ma thunbergii var. urashima (Hara) Ohashi and J. Murata is found in the wild on the islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, and Shikoku. The leaf is solitary, with eleven to fifteen pedately arranged leaflets of a dark, glossy green. It appears with the flowers. The Japanese name of the plant, urashima-so, refers to the odd-even amusing-flowers and is based on a folk tale. Taro Urashima was a young fisherman, and it is for him that 31 plant is named. The dark bronze-pur ple spathe of Aris~ma thunbergii var. urashima arches strongly over the spadix, narrowing abruptly to a tail-like tip. The spadix has a threadlike appendage as much as twenty inches (50 cm) long that trails on the ground like a fishing line. It flowers in mid-May in my garden. Seeds germinate freely. The tubers may make offsets. A colony of this variety is attractive, not only for the unusual flower the but for the attractive leaf. Arisa?ma s~ma one japonicum Blume and Ari- serratum Thunberg probably are species. A common and very polymorphic species, minor variin color and size have been ants accorded specific rank in the past. Dr. same and the Creech of the United States Department of Agriculture introduced it into the United States. The pseudostem may be up to two feet (0.6 m) tall and pale green or pale green with \"snakelike\" purple mottling. Plants with mottling are more attractive in the garden than those without it. It flowers in late April to early May. One of my correspondents, with true Oriental courtesy, has written, \"I sent yesterday a parcel with the plants. I think they are of less value in Japan but good plant for shady garden.\" Aris~ma ringens (Thunberg) Schott is noted in English literature as coming into growth as early as February or March. The colder winters in Connecticut must keep it dormant over a longer period, as I Arisaema sikokianum in the author's garden. This beautiful Japanese species is native to the islands of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. Arisaema thunbergii in the author's garden. Found wild on the islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, and Shikoku, it flowers in mid-May in the author's garden. 32 have not seen any growth as early as that. Its leaves are large, glossy green, and thick. Mature plants have two leaves, both of which have three leaflets. Each leaflet ends in a little, threadlike tail. The spathe of Aris~ma ringens differs from those of other members of the genus, having an inflated, curving upper part resembling a very large snail shell. The main part of the spathe is green in forma prxcox, dark purple in forma sieboldii. The spathe's margins are folded over like an auricle and are chocolate brown. The leaves are unaffected by a light frost but are damaged when temperatures drop below 28 Fahrenheit. The tubers of Arisa'ma ringens have grown larger than those of any other species of Arisa?ma I have raised, reaching three and one half inches (8.5 cm) in diameter. Offsets are formed to a moderate extent. Aris~ma fargesii, which is native to Mount Omei in China, is the least common species I grow. Carla Teune, curator of the Leiden Botanic Garden, sent me some seeds she had collected in China in 1980, among which were seeds of an unidentified species of Arisa?ma. (Since the spathe is an important character for identifying species of Arisa?ma, a fruiting plant cannot be identified with a taxonomic key.) The seeds germinated well, but some plants succumbed to the winter. Each winter I lost a few more tubers from rot. Finally, in the fall of 1983, I felt that the two remaining tubers were large enough to be put into a propagating-holding bed. May 1984 came and went, as did June, but there was no sign of either remaining tubers. The winter had been too cold for them, I thought, and I hadn't planted them deep enough. Or I should have protected them from the many mice, voles, and chipmunks that infest my garden. I doubted that the latter was true, for all parts of an Aris~ma are laced with crystals of oxalic acid, which renders them unpalatable, and I had never had a problem with such animals before. I was ready to admit my guilt. Then, in mid-July, two large buds appeared. They grew swiftly and continued to grow, until the single leaf of each plant was bigger than my outspread hand. The spathe and spadix appeared as rapidly. The spathe reminded me a little owl, with the tip falling forward for the beak and an opening on each side resembling the eyes. It was a fine plant, but anonymous! Ohwi's Flora is for Japan, and this was a plant from mainland China. When in doubt, find an authority, I told myself. I took some photographs and sent them off to H. Lincoln Foster, the doyen of American rock gardeners. He replied in early August: By studying my xerox of the pages of Flora Republicae Popularis Sinicae conceming the arisaemas, even though the text is Chinese, from the rather good drawings I feel confident that your plant is from the Section Franchetiana. This has 6 species, including candidissimum. Your species is, I think A. fargesii. A name! An identity! Though one plant had male flowers and the other female, there has not been any setting of seed. The foliage is very tender, being killed by the first light frost. Arisarum The genus Arisarum A. Targioni-Tozzetti contains three species, all of which are confined to the Mediterranean basin. One (Arisarum proboscideum) is, however, hardy in my garden. Arisarum proboscideum (Linnaeus\/ Savi is often called the mousetail er arum. Small- (more dwarf) than most species of Arisxma, it has a creeping rhizome and sends up a mass of small leaves. The spathe has a threadlike tip that protrudes from the leaves and looks rather like a 33 mouse's tail. Culture is similar to that members of Arisa?ma, which is to say, woodland conditions of soil high in organic matter, moist but not soggy, and shaded. Arum Arisaema japonicum in the author's garden, Dr. John Creech of the United States Department of Agriculture introduced this species to the United States. The genus Arum Linnxus consists of approximately twelve species, most of them native to the Mediterranean basin, two to the British Isles. All are tuberous. Their flowers are unisexual, but unlike that of Arisxma the spadix Arum bears both male and female flowers. Arum maculatum is the species commonly found in Great Britain. The large, green, arrow-shaped leaves emerge in the spring. Often the leaves are splashed with black or purple spots. Flowering occurs soon afterward. In autumn, clusters of brilliant orange-red berries appear and make a handsome display. Arum maculatum is valuable as a garden plant because it will grow and fruit in heavy shade. Arum italicum (as Arum italicum ssp. neglectum) is less commonly found in the British Isles. Arum italicum ssp. italicum, the form occurring in Europe, has green leaves with veins marked in creamy white; it is thus the more interIn addition, its begin their growth in the autumn, persist through the winter, and go dormant in midsummer. If an exceptionally bad season destroys the foliage over the winter, a secondary set will emerge in the spring. The spathe varies in color from creamy white to pale green. The berries esting garden plant. leaves of this species also give a handsome attrac- display Close-up of the flower of Arisaema fargesii in the author's garden. An uncommon species, it hails from Mount Omei in China. This plant was grown from seed collected in China by Carla Teune of the Leiden Botanic Garden. in autumn. Two especially tive leaf forms have been given cultivar names, 'Pictum' and 'Marmoratum'. Because of the autumn berries and winter foliage, this is a choice species for adding interest to the shady woodland 34 garden. The seeds ripen in autumn and germinate the following spring. Pinellia The genus Pinellia consists of perhaps half a dozen species native to China and Japan. The leaves appear with the flowers, which are monoecious. The leaves are simple or three- to seven-lobed. Pinellia ternata and Pinellia tripartita are the two species listed in Ohwi's Flora of Japan. Both are small plants four to eight inches (10 to 20 cm) tall. Their roots are tuberous; additional small tubers are produced at ground level. In both species, the leaves are green and threelobed. Owhi mentions Pinellia ternata as quite common in cultivated fields and roadsides. This, coupled with its habit of producing extra tubers at the soil surface might indicate a certain weediness. other gardeners will beinterested enough in these plants through this article to attempt to cultivate them, as well as other hardy species, and would be willing to share their information with me. gardener. Perhaps come Sources Alfred Evans. The Peat Garden and Its Plants. London: Dent, 1974. xi + 164 pages. Andrew Henderson. Dragon plants and mousetails. The Garden, Volume 106, Number 1, pages 13 to 17 (January 1981). (. Donald C. Huddleston. The North American species of Arisxma \/Araceae)-\"Jack-in-thePulpit.\" Aroideana, Volume 7, Number 1, pages 15 to 17 (1984). Will Ingwersen. Lords and ladies in the garden. Country Life, 1984). pages 1,654 to 1,655 (June 7, Tokujiro Maekawa. On the phenomena of sex transition in Aris~ma japonica Bl. joumal of the College of Agriculture, Hokkaido Imperial University, Volume 13, Number 3, (June Spathes occurs some are green or purplish. Flowering 1924). Brian Mathew. in summer. 1986 a friend sent me tubers of Pinellia cordata from Japan. While I have not yet found any references to this species (Hortus Third, for example, does not list Pinellia at all), I assume that Pinellia cordata has simple rather than lobed leaves. According to my In November the Dwarf Bulbs. London: Batsford, Royal Horticultural Society, 1973. for 240 pages. . friend, people generally raise it in pots in Japan, apparently to have easy access to the fragrant plants. Nowhere have I found reference to the pleasant aroma that this aroid has. I smelled it for the first time in Lincoln and Laura Louise Foster's garden during the summer of 1986, at the suggestion of my friend Takeo Nihei, who was visiting the United States at the time. Obviously, there is more to a plant than its botanical The Larger Bulbs. London: Batsford, in association with the Royal Horticultural Society, 1978. 156 pages. S. J. Mayo. A survey of cultivated species of Aris~ma. Plantsman, Volume 3, Number 4, pages 193 to 209 (March 1982). Nicholas Nickou. A unique jack-in-the-pulpit. Bulletin of the American Rock Garden Society, Volume 43, Number 3, page 138 (Summer 1985). Jisaburo Ohwi. Flora of Japan. Edited by Frederick G. Meyer and Egbert H. Walker. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1965 (reprinted 1984). ix + 1,067 pages. description. The hardy aroids are not splashy, showy flowering plants like roses or chrysanthemums. They have a different kind of flower, interesting to a different class of Glattstein is a landscape consultant who specializes in perennial-border design and the use of native plants in the landscape. An avid horticulturist, she chairs the Connecticut Chapter of the American Rock Garden Society and teaches at the New York Botanical Garden and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Judy "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":35,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24917","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160ab6b.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Michener, David C.","article_content":"35 BOOKS Gathering the Desert, by Gary Paul Nabhan. Illustrated by Paul Mirocha. Tucson: University of Arizona Press, 1985. ix + 209 pages. $19.95. During a full moon, go south of the border, between the Colorado River delta and the Pinacate lava fields. Stop your vehicle, take your shoes off, and walk. Walk toward the soft shape on the horizon, dunes like hips of women sleeping on their sides. Wander through the tracks of sidewinders, lizards, windswept bushes, and beetles. Look down at your toes. There it is, like another moon coming up through the sand: sandfood, reflecting back at you. DAVID C. MICHENER in Gathering the Desert is delightful and sly, sly a roguish way: , Juan Espinosa... posed there for a mo- ment, dwarfed by the tall rock walls of Canyon de Guadalupe, the stone image of the Virgin looking down upon him. \"Do you know why they call these fruits chichicoyotas?\" he asked in Spanish, a quizzical look on his face. \"No, why?,\" I replied, sensing that his answer might be one of numerous folk variants. The name chichicoyota is used for several species of wild gourds belonging to the genus Cucurbita.... \"Pues,\" he whispered, tipping his hat back, looking around to see if anyone else was within eye- or earshot.... Each of the book's twelve chapters considbut one plant and its anthropological setting. Nabhan's style, as evidenced in such chapter headings as \"Mescal Bancanora: Drinking away the Centuries\" and \"For the Birds: The Red-Hot Mother of Chiles,\" is to mix humor with observations on the cultural and natural history of the plant. In \"Mescal Bancanora\" one learns how Agave is fermented to produce an alcoholic beverage and then how overharvesting of the plants is endangering the nectar-feeding bats that pollinate them. \"For the Birds\" introduces Jesuit ers missionaries, mining claims, coevolutionary interactions of birds and chiles, and resistance to phytopathic viruses into a mix as spicy as any chile. Perhaps best of all is \"Tepary Beans and Human Beings at Agriculture's Arid Limits.'' Here, twin Thus is the reader introduced to the book's humorously titled final chapter, \"Good to the Bitter End: Wild Desert Gourds.\" Gathering the Desert is more than just an ethnobotanical study of twelve native Sonoran Desert plants; it is a piece of literature punctuated with scientific notes, social commentary, and folklore. Nabhan repeatedly evokes an indelible sense of place, be it physical or cultural. As only one example, he closes his essay-chapter \"Sandfood and Sand Papago : A Wild Kind of Mutualism\" with subtle yet pellucid imagery: themes of discovery and irony organize a botanical query into \"the value of being ephemeral.\" Can writing that is delightful, roguishly sly, and literary also be scientifically accurate? The basic answer is, \"Yes,\" an answer butressed by the twenty-two-page \"Bibliographic Essay\" that links the text to the realm of research literature. I have reservations \" 36 about \"coevolutionary scenarare implicitly presented as facts. They are valid scenarios so long as they are represented as such: I much some of the ios,\" however, which appreciate the tone of Nabhan's scenario for sandfood-\"a wild kind of mutualism.\" Plausible, and \"wild!\" In 1986, Gathering the Desert won the prestigious John Burroughs Medal, which is awarded to the outstanding piece of nature writing published during the preceding calendar year. Read Gathering the Desert and enjoy it-the illustrations, the text, and the images evoked. David C. Michener directs the Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections Verification Project. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23294","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14eb36e.jpg","title":"1987-47-2","volume":47,"issue_number":2,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Diversity of Hollies","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24913","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160a36f.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":1,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hill, Polly","article_content":"A Diversity of Hollies Polly Hill Decades of work on Martha's Vineyard have yielded valuable insights into the hardiness of hollies-and numerous new cultivars as well Hollies (Ilex spp.) have long been popular. During the festive Christmas season their bright berries and shiny, prickly leaves are enjoyed widely. But most people are unaware of the great-and increasing-diversity of hollies available for a variety of landscape situations. The beauty of hollies deserves more than passing admiration. In fact, when one becomes aware of their varied charms, holly collecting can become an addiction. Their flowers, mostly white, are small, inconspicuous, and sweetly scented in May, when most species come into flower. Their leaves have an unlimited variety. Some hollies have spiny, others have spineless, leaves, while still others have both spiny and spineless leaves. The leaves may be long and slender, short and fat, thin or leathery, round, elliptic, serrated or entire, quilted or smooth. Their fruits, borne only by female plants, may be red, orange, yellow, black, or greenish white to pinkish white. Many species of holly are beautiful for their branching, which can be layered, upright, pendant, or cribe grow at \"Barnard's Inn Farm,\" our summer home on Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, an island situated in the Atlantic Ocean, south of Cape Cod. A few of the hollies are native to the Vineyard and the adjacent coastal mainland, but others hail from Europe or Asia. Only those hardy in Zone 6 can adapt and mature, but my collection has grown in the last twenty-five years, until now there are upwards of one hundred thirty taxa. The soils on Martha's Vineyard are and sandy. The hollies endure gales and temperatures as low as -10 F in winter and dry soils in summer. Greatly in their favor are the humid sea air and the perfect soil drainage. llex opaca To strongly acid, nutritionally poor, dry, the average \"holly\" suggests Ilex native Easterner, the opaca Aiton, word a tree twiggy. The hollies I know and will desFlowering and Fruiting Branches, Flowers, and Fruits of Ilex opaca Aiton. Drawing by Charles E. Faxon. Onginally published in Charles Sprague Sar). gent's Silva of North America (Volume 1, 1891). from eastern Massachusetts to Florida and west to Missouri and Texas. It grows wild in Delaware and Maryland near our home. In the 1930s the Farmers Market in downtown Wilmington provided us with sprays for Christmas and a handmade wreath for our front door, clusters of live berries decorating the wreath. Now, in the 1980s, one can spot holly trees along the highway, but the large 4 females are gone, and only an occasional male will be left undisturbed; both the holly wreath and the Farmers Market are of the past-spent. At Barnard's Inn Farm, I have observed that hollies have strong healing powers when damaged. For example, a six- to ten-inch- (15- to 25-cm-) wide band of bark that had been eaten by baby mice from the trunk of a four- to five-inch- \/ 10to 13-cm-) diameter Ilex opaca tree recovered after I heaped damp oak leaves high around the base of the trunk, and kept them damp. Tiny points of new bark emerged here and there, until the whole was renewed. (To discourage a repetition, we built a barn owl nest in our big barn; mice, voles, and baby rabbits are now kept in check most satisfactorily.) Cultivars of Ilex opaca. All the wild plants I have seen on Martha's Vineyard have had very small berries. To ob- garden-worthy subjects, I brought any Fl or FZ seedlings that had self-sowed in my Delaware garden to the Barnard's tain Inn Farm nursery for trial. The first selection, made in 1960, was named 'Martha's Vineyard'. It has a formal growth habit, making a tight cone, is as glossy as a member of the species can be glossy, and has very large, bright-red fruit. It is hardy and fast-growing, with a strong central leader. Good reports of the clone's hardiness have reached me from farther north and farther inland. 'Barnard Luce' is named for a descendant of an early settler of Martha's Vineyard, Henry Luce, and the last one of the name to live (about a ccntury ago) at Barnard's Inn Farm. Like 'Martha's Vineyard', 'Barnard Luce' is a hardy, glossy \"opaca,\" in this case from Maryland. It is more open and informal in habit than 'Martha's Vineyard' and shows off its bright-red fruits on long peduncles, resulting in a highly visible display. My several trees come from cuttings taken from a tree I discovered on Maryland's Eastern Shore, near Barber. It was a female, especially selected for its high gloss. Ilex opaca 'Nelson West' is a narrow-leaf male selection whose cuttings were taken from a tree in shady woods the Fruit and Leaves of Ilex opaca Aiton, a Species Native to the East Coast of the United States. Photograph (taken in 1899 by Alfred Close-up of RehderJ from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Lisbon, New Jersey. It is registered, and, though found in 1961, the rooted cuttings have only grown to twelveor fifteen-foot (3.5- or 4.5-m) trees. This wild plant is lacy, dainty, and graceful in near New appearance. Narrow-leaf forms with airy habit are seldom seen in Ilex opaca. A new selection, 'Villanova', registered in 1984, has yellow berries. This tolerance to coastal conditions. A low meadow lies behind the beach, and there the old, gnarled trunks of the hollies rise vertically-branchless for about eight feet lucky find nurtured from a tiny volby my brother, Howard Butcher his home in Villanova, Pennsylvania. The shiny leaf is exceptionally broad, almost round. The berry is distinguished by its rich, deep-yellow color and its spherical shape. The plant is being was a unteer III, at (2.5 m)-then, making a right-angled bend, horizontally, away from the wind the tips of these branches few holly leaves to prove that they are alive and growing. The grove's origin is obscure, but it appears to be spontaneous. Elsewhere on the Vineyard, in a spot of woods sheltered from high winds, there is a wild tree forty feet (12.5 m) in height. and water. At one can find a Barnard's Inn Farm. only a few of the many other named cultivars in existence. Of those few, I rate highest 'Jersey Knight', tested at I raise a fruited splendid male; 'Xanthocarpa', a yellowtree from Longwood Gardens; and 'Miss Helen', a beautiful selection from llex aquifolium McClean's Nursery in Baltimore. I am raising about fifteen other cultivars-\"old timers\" and newly registered plantswhich I will evaluate once they have grown a while longer. Ilex opaca, after experiencing the series of hurricanes that assaulted the East Coast from the 1930s through the 1950s, was rated second in salt and wind tolerance; Pinus thunbergii, the Japanese black pine, was, not surprisingly, rated first. Now, thirty or more years later, Pinus thunbergii is out of favor for planting anywhere because the pine bark beetle has been killing it by the hundreds. (Fifty years used to be considered the pine's normal life span, depressingly brief for people who love and want to pass on trees to posterity.) Ilex opaca has thus become the first choice among broadleaved evergreens for permanent seaside Nowadays, Britain arrive on sprays of the common holly ~, of (Ilex aquifolium Linnaeus) plantings. An extraordinary grove of Ilex opagrowing only one hundred fifty yards (135 m) from the northern shore of Martha's Vineyard illustrates the species's ca the East Coast in boxes airmailed from the West Coast, where they are raised in the splendid nurseries of Washington and Oregon. The leaves may be variegated or all green; in either case the berries are red and than those of Ilex opaca. large-larger Zone 6 is too cold for many cultivars of Ilex aquifolium, but I planted the seeds from an English holly wreath from Brownell's Holly Farms in 1970 and now, fifteen years later, I have three mature trees flowering in an open field; with great luck, two are female and one male. It has taken nearly as long to bring to flower well rooted plants of 'Cottage Queen' and 'Robert Brown' growing in two-gallon containers. Since 1972 they have grown only to about four feet (1.2 m) in height but are at last flowering in a fully established site. A few highly rated, named cultivars of Ilex aquifolium are growing at Barnard's Inn Farm. 'Evangeline' is one of some fifty seedlings imported from 6 at the turn of the century to omawaterfront estate in Woods Hole, Massachusetts. My plant, grown from a 1962 cutting of the original tree and now twelve feet (3.7 m) tall and six feet (1.85 m) wide, grows in full sun, its lower branches, only, receiving moderate shelter from the wind. As a young plant it received some protection towards the northeast from a picket fence. 'Evangeline' produces spectacular fruits that turn first yellow, then orange, and finally a showy orange-red. Its exceptionally long and wide, tropical-looking leaves seem out of place in coastal New England. England ment a to me in 1972 T. Skinner when he was director of the United States National Arboretum. Dr. Skinner described it to me as a plant known for its superior coldhardiness. It now measures only forty was 'Balkans' Dr. given by the late Henry inches (1 m) by thirty inches (76 cm) after thirteen years of growth in an open field, but it seems firmly established. 'Tremough' is a clone that came from England about 1900. A plant of it came to me from the National Arboretum in a four-inch pot. Measuring two feet (0.6 m) by three feet (0.9 m), it is destined to reach eighteen feet (5.5 m) and to become broadly conical. The cultivar 'Ciliata Major', the gift of M. M. Brubaker of Pennsylvania, rooted and was planted out in a small pot in 1965. It is now a massive cone about fifteen feet (4.5 m) high and ten feet (3 m) across. The first flowers, which appeared in 1981, proved to be male. The healthy rich, glossy, and elegant habit is splendid all year round. 'Ciliata Major' is a con- spicuous landscape subject. I may be able to upgrade the other clones of Ilex aquifolium, which I have rated \"B\" and \"C\" at this point, when they become better adapted. flex crenata Of the sixteen evergreen species I now raising, Ilex crenata Thunberg, from Japan, is one of the most successful. The two coin-leaf selections of the nummularia group, 'Nakada' (male) and 'Mariesii' am (female), shrubs A Variant Form Common Holly are appealing, to suited intimate slow-growing plantings. Archives of Ilex aquifolium, Linnxus, the Britain. Photograph from the the Arnold Arboretum. of of 'Green Dragon' (male) and 'Dwarf Pago- (female), also of the nummularia group, are eye-catching and enchanting. da' 7 Tsuneshige Rokujo of Tokyo seeds of Ilex crenata 'Convexa', from whose progeny I selected and named the cultivar 'Muffin'. Planted in 1965, it was registered in 1977. 'Muffin' is a dwarf male plant that was first observed in flower in 1978. It has the same landscape niche as the dwarf 'Helleri', but it has proved to be hardier than 'Helleri' in my conditions, and it has a finer leaf and twiggier habit than 'Helleri'. A plant with pale-yellow berries and a spreading habit is Ilex crenata 'Watanabeanum'. 'Paludosa' is another low spreader from the National Arboretum. Both have small leaves and a twiggy habit, reaching greater width than height. The cultivar 'Piccolo' is a tight, round \"bun,\" charming by itself or in small clusters. It has been gratifying that mice, rabbits, and deer so far do not eat these low, easily accessible \"crenata\" cultivars. Of the many available larger forms, I have been attracted to 'Excelsa' and 'Compacta', among others, when their healthy vigor and easy culture recommend their use. The species Ilex mutchagara Makino could very easily be mistaken for Ilex crenata, but in my specimens the leaves are larger and the fruits both shinier and larger than those of Ilex crenata. An upright-growing plant, it is hardy and useful in the landscape. Dr. sent me that can grow to fifteen feet (4.5 m). This is Ilex pedunculosa Miquel, the longstalked holly from Japan. The growth pattern of its branches is more open and less twiggy than those of some other evergreen hollies. The different clones vary in hardiness, but given the right clone, Ilex pedunculosa is a tree for every small or large garden. I find it charming at all seasons. Like other hollies it can easily be pruned to make it fuller. Ilex rugosa llex pedunculosa pea hanging on a one(2.5- to 5- cm) thread, draped over a shining, unspined leaf two to three inches (5 to 8 cm) long. Then picture many of these on a graceful, upright tree a or species from Japan is Ilex Schmidt. It is seldom seen in rugosa gardens, but I have found it completely hardy at Barnard's Inn Farm. It is prostrate and does not grow fast, but the branches spread out widely, fountainlike, almost weeping. The veining of the wrinkled leaves is conspicuous. My shrub from Dr. Rokujo, planted in 1964, is now about five feet (1.5 m) wide. This female plant first flowered in 1971 after seven years and can now be covered with red berries-which are attractive against its flat-lying leaves-when I have provided a suitable pollinator. Since my male plants are too young to flower, I lay branches of my best male Ilex aquifolium on the female Ilex rugosa while they are both in bloom. My reward is an abundance of clustered red fruit on a flat, branching spray of Ilex rugosa leaves, which is designated Ilex xmeserveae S.-y. Hu, or the blue holly. Other \"meserveae\" hybrids are discussed farther along. Ilex Ilex cornuta Another Picture bright-red two-inch cornuta Lindley and Paxton has not 8 I on Martha's Vineyard. have a few plants and did raise some others for a short period, but the species is, regrettably, out of range in my area. proved hardy though bright red, smelly to compete other species. Ilex glabra are for few and too display with many too Ilex ciliospinosa The A small tree-form holly, Ilex ciliospinosa Loesener grows to twenty feet (6 m). It shining inkberry, Ilex glabra (Linnae- has rather dull, leathery leaves that are narrow and serrated. It is entirely hardy and grows more compact in full sun. If grown in shade, it becomes thin and ungainly, although it will respond to pruning. In my experience, the berries, us) Asa Gray, is the other evergreen holly native to Martha's Vineyard. It is widespread throughout the East Coast of the United States, growing naturally in moist developing best and fruiting heavily in sun. For the most part my soils are too dry, but there are some handsome plants to be seen in sunshine. The leaves of Ilex glabra are spineless, narrow, and two inches (5 cm) long. Since coming on the market, the dwarf form 'Compacta' has become a commonly used, dependable plant for public areas. It can be sheared to advantage, to make barrier hedges or thickets. There are nearly white-berried forms. Unsheared (by hand or by the wind), it can reach ten feet (3 m) and is slowly stoloniferous. Inkberry is a handsome and desirable native, adaptable and easy to maintain. more woods but Deciduous Species The more I have worked with hollies the more have come to appreciate the charming species, hybrids, and numerous cultivars that drop their leaves in winter. The protracted fall weather that last- I Fruit and Leaves of Ilex ciliospinosa Loesener, a compact, evergreen shrub or small tree that attains some twenty feet (6 m) in height. ed well into January of 1985 was the perfect climate for them. They made a brilliant, graceful, and natural-looking show in formal settings around public buildings, on sloping hillsides, and in island groupings along garden paths. The different shades of orange-reds and saturated 9 deep reds, when mixed, set each other off, adding sparkle to the whole. There are six deciduous species of holly in my garden. Birds love them. One autumn evening five robins so gorged themselves with the fermenting fruit of Ilex verticillata that their eyes seemed to bulge, and they could barely move. The same autumn, a nurseryman told me that his shrubs were so heavy with berries that he had to tie the fruiting branches together to prevent them from breaking. 'Sparkleberry', a cultivar developed at the National Arboretum and registered in 1972, typifies the group. It is a hybrid of Ilex serrata Thunberg and Ilex verticillata Linnxus (Asa Gray), 'Apollo' being the male of the same cross. Forced to restrict myself to a single pair of deciduous hollies, I would choose this pair. Ilex ambigua var. montana Ilex ambigua (Michaux) Torrey var. montana (Torrey and Gray), or Ilex montana, as it used to be called, is a slender tree with long, thin, pale-green leaves. Grow- ing on an exposed mountainside, it can The Deciduous Hollies Ilex appear dense and distinguished. My seed came from such a location. But in the shelter of my lowland garden the tree is thin and angular. Since I have only one blooming male and one immature seedling, I am loath to evaluate the species. This eastern holly, whose taxonomy is still unstable, may well have developed different habits as ways of adapting to the diverse environments in its range. verticillata, the serrata (top) and Ilex of Cultivars 'Sparkleberry' (female) and 'Apollo' (male). These two culuvars were developed at the National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. Photograph from the Archives of the Ar- Parents nold Arboretum. flex amelanchier Known in the South as the swamp holly, Ilex amelanchier M. A. Curtis is not very hardy in Martha's Vineyard's portion of Zone 6.1 have been particularly attracted to its long-peduncled, red velvet berries that are very beautiful for a wildling. My seeds came from the Henry Foundation in 1970. So far, my seven plants have not flowered in the shady spot I picked for them. They grow at the edge of woods, 10 where it is dry, and only with morning sun. Regrettably, I cannot offer them their preference of a swamp at Barnard's Inn Farm. Ilex decidua The species Ilex decidua Walter, commonly known as possum haw, is a fine holly now and has an increasingly promising future as more and more new cultivars are introduced. My first plant trials were from Alabama seed kindly supplied by Mr. Tom Dodd. Most of them germinated, but they had a long, downhill history of growth in summer and dieback in winter. Sadly, they were eliminated, but not until I had obtained hardier clones from Mr. Bon Hartline of Anna, Illinois. These Midwestern cultivars, which are conclude that it was a female; last year, it had an abundance of male flowers. This interesting plant is actually quite similar to Ilex verticillata and grows in the same habitats in which it does, though I have failed to find it growing wild on Martha's Vineyard. Ilex laevigata has had an evolutionary history similar to that of Ilex verticillata but, Dr. Shiu-ying Hu of the Arnold Arboretum assures me, does not hybridize with it. however, slowly maturing in our garden, are 'Council Fire', 'Pocahontas', 'Sundance', and 'Warren's Red'. I have seen their fruits as grown in Illinois, and one could want nothing finer. I found that they could be polli- nated by males of Ilex opaca, which bloom at the same time. The fruits of Ilex decidua last well into the winter, offering food to wildlife after most other holly berries have been taken. Ilex laevigata The smooth winterberry, as Ilex laevigata is native from (Pursh) with cret Asa Maine to called, Gray Georgia and is entirely hardy is me. I have never yet found the seof germinating its seeds, although I have tried various methods over many years. One plant was given to me by Mr. Hal Bruce of Delaware. The first year it produced a single berry, which made me the Smooth Winterberry. Photographed in 1902 by Alfred Rehder. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Fruiting Branch of Ilex laevigata (Pursh) Asa Gray, 11 1 Ilex serrata To my eye, the Japanese is a Ilex sure. serrata Thunberg, winterberry, special treaare The horizontal branches charac- teristic of its mature form. In a class with Acer palmatum when it comes to graceful growth habit, it may be even better known for the great abundance of rather small, red, clustered fruits, which last for many weeks in the garden. A grouping of three that grew spontaneously on the edge of our woods. They differ in details but not in quality or dependability. The name 'Bright Horizon' reflects the impact that our many stands of winterberry dotted along the gentle hills of Martha's Vineyard, seen against the sky, have on the viewer. The fruits of 'Earlibright' are lighter and more orange-red than those of 'Bright Horizon'. In addition to these cultivars, I raising cultivars of Ilex verticillata developed by others: 'After Glow', 'Autumn Glow', 'Harvest Red', 'Maryland Beauty', and 'Winter Red'. In addition, there are the cultivars 'Raritan Red', a male, and 'Red Sprite', a dwarf. Until they reach maturity I can only admire them all for the differing shades of red and orange of their fruits-their lavish gifts of autumn and winter display-and eagerly wait for am four females with a male makes a lovely island of sparkle in a semishaded corner. The bushes are five to six feet ( 1.5 to 2 m) tall and rather open, the better to display their natural form. or Ilex verticillata Black alder, as the native species Ilex verticillata (Linnxus\/ Asa Gray is called on Martha's Vineyard, or winterberry, is the easiest to cultivate and the most readily available deciduous species. It is stoloniferous in wet or dry soils, fast growing, tough, and showy. Perhaps the finest display of winterberry on the Vineyard grows on the verges of Mill Stream, in West Tisbury. A single clone has gradually spread by hundreds of stolons to make a solid dome a good twenty feet (6 m) in diameter. At the peak of its berry color, after the leaves have fallen in November, it rivals a bonfire for brilliance. By comparison with native New Jersey seedlings, the Vineyard strain of Ilex verticillata is a \"good doer.\" I have named five clones of it: 'Bright Horizon', 'Earlibright', and three others with local Indian names-'Quitsa' (a place-name); 'Tiasquam' (the name of the island's only river); and 'Quansoo' (the name of a swimming beach, our favorite), a male plant them to mature. There are yellow-berried forms, white-berried forms, and variegated-leaf forms of Ilex verticillata, in addition to these green-leaved forms with red fruits. The search for special wild forms of Ilex verticillata has barely begun, as has the breeding of new and better hybrids. The female clones were all selected from seedlings raised from the fruit of a single wild plant still growing in a nearby field. I collected the seeds in 1958, stratified them for a year by hanging them in a barn, in a plastic bag of damp sphagnum moss. They germinated in 1960, and in 1961 I spaced twenty of them out in my nursery. The first females to bloom were planted out in 1963. Since Ilex verticillata is a highly stoloniferous species, those that were planted too close together are indistinguishable from each other when they are not in fruit. They form a solid hedge that 12 care-free as any I know. Their only a leaf tier that blackens and shrivels the leaves on the tips of the branchlets. Fortunately, the leaf tier does not detract from the berry display after the leaves have fallen. is as Morris' pollinator. pest is Some Successful Hybrids named a Of the thirty or more name hybrids I am few that have testing, well to the conditions on adapted Martha's Vineyard. They have already survived two or three winters in the field. For I will elegance and superior quality I would name a group of five foliage from the cross of Ilex siblings resulting cornuta 'Burfordii #10' by Ilex latifolia Thunberg. Neither parent is hardy in Zone 6, but the foliage of the cross is so handsome that I am trying to keep my plants growing. Wind shelter is important. 'Amy Joel' and 'Mary Nell' are female came from Mr. of the late Dr. I believe there are two others. Dr. McDaniel made the cross in Mr. Tom Dodd's Nursery in Alabama. of clones. Another clone way Bon Hartline by Joseph McDaniel; 'Clusterberry' cross is a three-way of llex aquifolium by Ilex cornuta by Ilex leucoolada (Maximowicz) MakiA female from the National Arboreno. tum, it is still only two feet by three feet (0.6 m by 0.9 m). It is showing itself to be a first-rate cultivar. 'September Gem' (Ilex ciliospinosa X Ilex Xaquipernyi Gable ex W. Clarke) is another good female from the National Arboretum. 'Shin Nien' (Ilex opaca X Ilex cornuta) is a fine male registered by Dr. Joseph McDaniel of Urbana, Illinois. There is even a four-way hybrid, produced by Dr. Elwyn Orton of Rutgers University, called 'Rock Garden' (Ilex Xaquipernyi X [Ilex integra X Ilex pernyi]). It has the elegance of a tight dwarf, with stylish foliage, and is a top-quality ornamental. The blue hollies (hybrids of Ilex Xmeserveae\/ are achieving wide and deserved popularity. I lost the cultivar 'Blue Boy' to cold but have four others-'Blue Princess', 'Blue Girl', 'Blue Prince', and 'Blue Stallion'-all of them hardy, handsome, and desirable. Many variegated plants of differing genetic background have grown poorly in my conditions, but I do have two plants of 'Sunny Foster' (Ilex cassine Linnxus X Ilex opaca or Ilex cassine X Ilex Xattenuata Ashe). The more sun it gets the more gold there is in its leaves; the more shade, the more growth it makes. Ilex cassine is, of course, tender on Martha's Vineyard, but the hybrid is most attractive. I hope it survives and adapts. There is a three-way chance hybrid that I have registered as 'Pernella' (presumably [Ilex cornuta X Ilex pernyi] X Ilex aquifolium). The plant has large, spherical red berries, enormous vigor and health, with a strong central leader and a good rate of growth. J. Franklin Styer Nursery is propagating it. (Ilex cornuta 'Burfordii' X Ilex pernyi Franchet) was registered by the late Dr. Henry T. Skinner in 1961. An early success, it has led the field of hybridizers. There is a 'John Morris' 'Lydia Exploring the Great Diversity of Hollies Readers intrigued by the growing diversity within the genus Ilex may wish to join the Holly Society of America (304 North 13 Wind Road, Baltimore, Maryland 21204). Through the Society, its publications and conventions, they will learn much about Select Bibliography Holly, Yew, New York: 284 pages. W. Dallimore. hollies and will be able to join in the activities of its members. In Belgium, there is a new arboreDomein Bokrijk, where as large a tum, collection of hollies as possible is being amassed. There is another, in Korea, whose name, Chollipo, means holly. Its owner, Mr. Carl Ferris Miller, is already responsible for some choice introductions. and Box. London and John Lane, 1908. xiv + G. K. Eisenbeiss. . of introduced Ilex speinfraspecific ranks. Holly Society Joumal, Volume 2, Number 2, pages 1 to 7 (1984). Some holly ~Ilex) in cultivation. Arboricultural Journal, Volume 7, Number Bibliography cies and their 3, . pages 201 to 210 (1983). If one needed still newer hollies augment the diverse species now in cultivation, he could turn explorer. He might begin with eastern South America-Brazil-the center of distribution of Ilex, then proceed to the islands of Polynesia, to Taiwan, China, the Canary Islands, or even the wooded coastal zones of the eastern United States. In these places and many more there are hollies waiting to be found, propagated, named, distributed, and enjoyed. to and T. R. Dudley. International Checklist of Cultivated Ilex, Part 1. Ilex opaca. National Arboretum Contribution No. 3. Washington, D. C.: Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 1973. 85 pages. D. E. Hansell, T. R. Dudley, and G. K. Eisenbeiss, editors. Handbook of Hollies : A Special Issue on Ilex. American Horticultural Magazine, Volume 49, Number 4, pages 150 to 331 (1970). Hu. Letter of 2 November 1978 in: T. R. Dudley, A Martha's Vineyard mystery solved. Holly Society of America. Proceedings of the 55th Meeting, pages 26 to 27 (1978?). Page 27. H. Harold Hume. Hollies. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953. xi + 242 pages. Shiu-ying Polly Hill (Mrs. Julian W. Hill) resides in Delaware during the winter and on Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts, during the summer, where she maintains a renowned collection of hollies. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Clonal and Age Differences in the Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Cuttings","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24916","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160ab26.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":1,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Kuser, John E.","article_content":"RESEARCH REPORT Rooting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Cuttings John E. Kuser . Clonal and Age Differences in the As with many other tree species, the rooting of a softwood Metasequoia cutting depends upon the source and age of the cutting used There are large differences in rootability among the clones of many tree species; the differences are especially strong in older individuals. A further problem with rooting cuttings is their dependency on age. Young trees will often root readily, but the same trees may be almost impos- rootability of different clones and also to compare the rootability of lower-crown cuttings from (1) thirty-seven-year-old trees, (2) threeyear-old seedlings, and (3)three-year-old cutting-grown trees of the same clones as (1\/. Materials and Methods On June easy. I decided to compare sible they (Zobel and Talbert, 1984). to root when become older For the first few years after Metawas introduced to the West in 1948 seed was nonexistent, scarce, or sterile. Vegetative propagation was easy sequoia 24, 1982, I took ten cuttings by either softwood cuttings (Creech, 1948; Hasegawa, 1951) or hardwood cuttings (Enright, 1958; Connor, 1985). As the original trees became more mature they bore fertile seed more often (Hamilton, 1984) but appeared to require cross-pollination for good yields (Kuser, 1983). At the same time, vegetative propagation became more difficult (Hamilton, 1984). I became curious about rooting softwood cuttings, a supposedly easy task which I had sometimes found not so each from easily reached branches in the lower crowns of three large trees: (1)the tree at Prospect Hall on the campus of Princeton University (\"Prospect\"), (2) the Western world's largest Metasequoia at the Bailey Arboretum (\"Bailey tree, 1\"), and (3) a tall tree in the Bailey Arboretum, near the Feeks Road fence (\"Bailey 9\"). I wounded one side of the bases, dusted them with Hormodin 2, and stuck them in peat-vermiculite under mist (five seconds every thirty seconds) and light Saran shadecloth, in a greenhouse propagation room at Cook 15 New Brunswick, New Jersey. I repeated the experiment three times in 1983 (on June 1, June 23, and College, July 12) with ten cuttings of each clone on each date, following exactly the same procedure as in the year before. I added three more clones of thirty-seven-year-old trees in the New Broadmead grove at Princeton, 2,\"and \"Clark 3\"\/. In Jersey (\"Clark I,\" \"Clark I repeated the experiwith ten cuttings of each again, clone, from June 27-July 3. I omitted \"Clark 2\" and \"Clark 3,\" but added six new trees: a two-meter tree grown from a cutting of \"Prospect\" in 1982 (\"Prospect 1985 ment cutting\"),athree-meter 1981 seedling of \"Prospect\" (\"Prospect seedling\"), a threemeter 1981 seedling of \"Clark 1\" (\"Clark 1 seedling\"), a three-meter 1982 cutting of \"Bailey 9\" (\"Bailey 9 cutting\"),and a three-meter 1982 cutting of \"Bailey 9\" (\"Bailey 9 cutting\"). I followed the same procedure I had in 1982 and 1983. Noting top dieback among the cuttings within a week, I suspected that high temperatures on bright days in the propagation room were causing desiccation in spite of the mist. So I made a cooled propagation bed in another part of the greenhouse, using light Saran shade and mist (thirty seconds every seven and one-half The Metasequoia glyptostroboides Tree m the Bailey Arboretum from Which the \"Bailey 1\" Cutrings Were Taken. This and all other photographs accompanying this article were taken by the author. The Broadmead Grove in Princeton, New Jersey, Where the \"Clark 1,\" \"Clark 2,\" and \"Clark 3\" Clones Were Obtained from Thmty-seven-Year-Old Trees for Use in the Experiments Performed in 1983. 16 over a bed immediately adjaevaporator pads along the north wall. With exhaust fans running during daylight hours, I monitored temperatures twenty-five centimeters above this bed. On bright days when the propagation room reached 39 C, the cooled bed's maximum temperature was 28 C. On July 23 and 24, I replicated the June 27-July 3 series of cuttings and stuck them in the cooled bed. After observing that the second group of cuttings stayed fresh and healthy for a week, I moved the first group to the cooled bed on July 30. minutes) cent to Results On August 9, 1982, the following numbers of cuttings had rooted: \"Prospect,\" 3 of 20; \"Bailey 1,\" 10 of 10; \"Bailey 9,\" 8 of 10. In 1983, scarcely any cuttings rooted; there was much top dieback in spite of the mist, and by October 1, only 1 \"Bailey 9,\" 1 \"Clark 1,\" and 1 \"Clark 3\" (all stuck on different dates) had rooted. The difficulty appeared to be due to high temperatures caused by many bright days during June and July of that year. On October 1, 1985, I counted rooted cuttings of both the June 27-July The Lower Part ma of the Stem of a Ten-Month-Old Seedling of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Growing Two-Gallon Container. The Lower Part of the Stem of a Fifteen-Month-Old Rooted Cutting of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. See Table 1 (page 17) for the results of this and the other experiments described in this report. 17 Table 1. Rooting of Soffwood Cuttings Taken from Different Clones of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Number of cuttings that had rooted by 1 October 1985 out of a total of 10 cuttings originally stuck on the dates indicated. A Five-Year-Old Growmg on Seedling of the \"Clark 1\" Clone the Author's Lawn. The tree is about t. height. A twelve feet (3.7 m) in Five-Year-Old Rooted Cutting of \"Bailey Growing on the Author's Lawn. Like the \"Clark Seedling (left), it is about twelve feet (3.7 m) tall. 1\" 1\" R 18 8 3 group and the July 23-24 group (Table 1). Those of the second group had \/. retained all their foliage, appeared lush and vigorous, and most often had more roots. ling form. Rejuvenation may still occur after repeated cycles, or it may not. The difference in rootability of \"Prospect seedling\" and \"Clark 1 seedling\" compared to their respective parents. Unfortunately, I have no data on rootability of the parent trees when they were young; however, Mr. Jim Clark of Princeton and Mr. Dick Walters of Maplewood grew many trees of \"Prospect\" from softwood cuttings in the 1950s, and they say (personal communications) that their rooting success rates were fifty percent to seventy-five percent. Avoidance of high temperatures is important in rooting softwood cuttings of Metasequoia during summer. This may be not only a matter of preventing desiccation, but of greater photosynthetic efficiency at lower temperatures. In 1960, Konoe reported that at 20 C, Metasequoia grew faster than Taxodium, while at 30 C the reverse was true; and in my experiment last summer I noted that, while Metasequoia rooted better in the cooled bed than in the hot propagation room, the reverse was true of pitch pine (Pinus rigida) stump sprouts. In 1982, temperatures in the propagation room may have been cooler because of more cloudy days or more whitewash on the glass roof. Discussion The same clonal differences were evident in 1982 and 1985. The two large trees of \"Bailey 1\" and \"Bailey 9\" have not lost rootability, while \"Prospect\" is more difficult to root. There is no difference in rootability between mature trees of any clone tested and young cutting-grown trees of the same clones; apparently, no rejuvenation of these clones occurred in one cycle of rooted cuttings from mature trees and then taking cuttings of these. This conclusion agrees with my field observation that trees grown from cuttings of mature trees are much less branchy and have less taper than seedlings. One might expect that, if rejuvenation had occurred, the trees would grow with seed- References Connor, D. M. 1985. The Cutting Propagation of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. A- zusa, California: Monrovia Nursery Company. Creech, J. L. 1948. Ennght, Two Ten-Month-Old L. J. Seedlings (left) Month-Old Rooted Cuttings Greenhouse on November 7, 1986. and Two FifteenGrowing Outside the Propagation of Metasequoia by juvenile cuttings. Science 108 (2815) : 664-665. 1958. Response of Metasequoia cuttings to growth regulator treatments. Botanical Gazette 120(1): 53-54. 19 Hamilton, D. 1984. Metasequoia: Re-established in North America after a 13 million year absence. The Green Scene Hasegawa, . 13\/2~: 30~4. Propagation of Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng by cuttings. Japanese Forestry Society Journal 33(7\/: 239-243. Konoe, R. 1960. Preliminary study on the optimum temperature for the growth of Metasequoia and related genera. Journal of the Institute of Polytechnics, Osaka City University, Japan D-11: 101-108. Kuser, J. E. 1982. Metasequoia keeps on growing. Arnoldia 42(3): 130-138. 1983. Inbreeding depression in Metasequoia. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum G4(3~: 475-481. Zobel, B., andJ. Talbert. 1984. Applied Forest Tree Improvement. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 505 pages. K. 1951. John E. Kuser is associate professor of forestry, Cook College, Rutgers University. He has written several articles on Metasequoia, mcluding one in the Summer 1982 issue of Amoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botany: The State of the Art: How Development's Clock Guides Evolution","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24915","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160a76d.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":1,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART How Development's Clock Guides Evolution ' John W. Einset Shifts in the comparative rates at which organisms mature are one source of evolutionary change differentiate, grow, and Nearly lates over every school child is introduced at some time during his or her education to the hypothesis that ontogeny recapitu- phylogeny. This hypothesis, which the years has experienced periods up to humans. Thus, in the course of human evolution, fish gave rise to amphibians and they, in turn, to humans. In spite of the fact that \"ontogeny ing of enthusiastic acceptance as well as outright rejection in the scientific community, is usually traced to Professor Ernst Haeckel, a German biologist whose writings on the subject appeared from 1860 to 1880. Briefly stated, the hypothesis recapitulates phylogeny\" is, at best, an oversimplification of a complex process, the expression does focus attention on an important and indisputable fact about evolution-namely, that new species evolve as a consequence of modifications in existing structures. Or, to put it another way, one might say that a careful examination of an organism's ontogeny of ancestral reveals evidence events that have been developmental either elaborated upon or reduced during evolution. Haeckel, unfortunately, felt that his ideas could be extended to practically all aspects of everyday life, including politics, social relations, and modern even religion. Happily, who deal with evolutionary biologists Haeckel's concepts usually restrict their theories to questions about the origin of new plant and animal species. Probably the most extensive treat- (\"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.\") refers to the apparent sequence of stages that individuals proceed through as they develop and mature, beginning with embryonic stages resembling distant evolutionary ancestors, then stages similar to more recent ancestors, and so on and so on. In the most frequently cited example, early human embryos are said to resemble fish with gill slits, then amphibians with rudimentary tails, etc. According to the hypothesis, each stage in the development of an embryo (ontogeny) reflects an ancestor in the evolutionary sequence (phylogeny) lead- 21 ment of Haeckel and the biological implibe found a cations of his theories can in Ontogeny and Phylogeny, book by Stephen Jay Gould of Harvard University. Professor Gould, whose own research on uses a the evolution of snail species clock analogy to show how developmental alterations can account for evolution. To illustrate this, imagine that an organism's development is laid out in sequence, like the hours of a clock, such that \"0\" to \"I,\" for example, focusses in Burma, early embryonic developembryo formation, individual, and so on. According to Gould's representation, development is a semicircular clock-similar to a sundial-showing difcorresponds ment, \"1\" to to \"2\" to late \"2\" to \"3\" to the young ferent aspects of this sequence and composed of three scales: the first (outer) scale denoting size, the second (inner) scale shape, and the third scale time or age. To use the clock, one follows the progression of size and shape (form) in an individual's lifetime by watching the movement of hands across the different scales. Think of it as the model of existence or, alternatively, as the ancestral type! What happens to the clock during evolution? If one accepts Haeckel's interpretation (i.e., recapitulation), then evolution produces new species by adding structures onto the end on the ancestral sequence. In other words, \"ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny\" means that development repeats all the stages (shapes) of an individual's ancestors just as human embryos form rudimentary gill slits, then a tail and then some other seemingly outof-place structure during the course of their development. According to the clock analogy, recapitulation runs the \"shape\" hand faster than the \"size\" and \"age\" hands. Developmental \"Clocks\" Illustrating the Categories of Heterochronic Change Involved m Evolution. Each clock is set at the stage of reproductive maturity .e., flowetmg. In the Ancestral clock, \"size\" and \"shape\" proceed synchronously over time. Progenesis also involves synchrony, but in thts case reptoducuve matunty occuts ear&er during ontogeny. By contrast, both Neoteny and Recapitulation mvolve developmental changes m the relauonships among size, shape, and age. Neoteny, for example, involves a retardation of shape development relative to size and time. On the other hand, recapitulation consists of accelerated shape development. 22 ;1 Obviously, if one thinks of development in terms of a clock, additional ways of tinkering with the hands, other than recapitulation, ought to be feasible. Theoretically, for example, one could have the shape hand run slowly compared to age and size. Known as neoteny, the result would be an adult with juvenile features; evolutionary biologists use the term pxdomorphosis to refer to the retention of ancestral juvenile characteristics in adults of descendants. Hu- might be used effectively in controlling inpopulations. Recapitulation, neoteny, and progenesis are all examples of heterochrosect ny, a collective term that refers to any kind of evolutionary change in the timing of developmental events. Although most studies of it concentrate on animal exam- instance, are often considered be neotenic in several respects, including the shapes of our skulls, compared to ape-like ancestors. Among zoological scholars, the most famous example of neoteny is the axolotl, a salamander that retains, as an adult, the gills and undeveloped lungs typical of salamander larvae. Not surprisingly, this animal caused considerable difficulty for Professor Haeckel because, after all, axolotl's features hardly fit into a scheme of evolution based on recapitulation. Rather than adding on structures to the end of an ancestral sequence, it abbreviates development by eliminating the later stages of the sequence. If all three hands of the developmental clock (\"size,\" \"shape,\" and \"age\"\/ are retarded simultaneously, one obtains a precociously mature individual, small in stature and with juvenile characteristics. This condition, which is known as progenesis, is an alternative evolutionary mechanism that results in paedomorphosis. Several examples of progenetto mans, for ples, heterochrony is a general biological phenomenon that undoubtedly affects every group of organisms in the world, including plants. Take, for instance, the so-called closed (cleistogamous, CL) and open (chasmogamous, CH\/ flowers of violets (Viola spp.), Lamium amplexicaule and Collomia grandiflora studied by Lord of the Riverside. CL flowers normally appear early in the growing season, are reduced in size, and fail to open completely to shed pollen. An adaptation for self-pollination, cleistogamy probably evolved as a mechanism to guarantee fertilization, and subsequent seed set, at a time of year when insect pollinators are scarce. In terms of the developmental implications, the CL flowers reach reproductive maturity (pollen formation) faster than do CH flowers on the same plant, but they fail to complete petal and sepal development. Interestingly, the actual rate of petal and sepal development in CL and CH flowers appears to be identical, at least in Collomia. Thus, the change in petal and sepal growth that results in CL flowers involves an alteration in the duration, rather than in the rate, of organ development. In the language of heterochrony, a CL flower is considered to be a progenetic organ. M. Professor Elizabeth University of California at ic insect species are known, and, in fact, the hormonal basis of this phenomenon is an area of active scientific investigation. Researchers feel that so-called precocenes, hormones that cause early sexual According an to Armen Takhtajan, maturity in juvenile-appearing insects, expert on systematics at the Komorov Botanical Institute in Leningrad, neoteny also plays an important evolutionary role 23 in generating plant diversity. Alpine meadow races of Potentilla glandulosa, for example, appear \"juvenile\" at sexual maturity compared to races found at middle latitudes or on the coast. Takhtajan cites carpel evolution and the female gametophyte of angiosperms, as well as additional examples of neoteny in plant evolution. Professor Sherwin Carlquist of Pomona College feels that xylem in of evolution Erigeron species in the Family Asteraceae has (fleabane) involved paedomorphic events. Apparently, in the ancestral species, xylem vessels produced by seedlings were shorter than those laid down later in development. Several modern species of Erigeron, on the other hand, produce only shortened vessels, even at sexual maturity. Heterochrony can also be seen in the tissue-culture responses of woody species studied at the Arnold Arboretum. During the last three years we conducted an extensive, comparative investigation determine the to relationship between shoot-tip response in culture and system- atics. The results of that study show that responsiveness is sporadically distributed among taxa with species in Subclass Magnoliidae generally failing to grow and species in Subclass Asteridae as well as the orders Ericales, Fabales, and Rosales multiplying rapidly in culture. In attempting to understand the evolution of this physiological diversity, we theorize that differences between taxonomic groups can be explained on the basis of heterochrony by assuming that the ancestral ontogenetic sequence for shoot-tip maturation proceeded from responsive to nonresponsive stages. Among six species of Cornus, for example, three fail to respond as seedlings or adults, two re- Chasmogamous (top) and Both Cleistogamous (CL) Chasmogamous (CH) Flowers (bottom) of Collograndiflora. CH flowers are about one inch (2.5 cm) long at anthesis. Courtesy Elizabeth M. Lord. and mia 25 spond as seedlings only, and a single paedomorphic species (Cornus canadensis) responds both as a seedling and as an adult. As far as practical applications concerned, the significance of the Developmental clock is that it defines the kinds of new plants that are possible simply by heterochronic alterations in existing ontogenetic patterns. For example, if are Bibliography Gould. Ontogeny and Phylogeny. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 1977. Elizabeth M. Lord. Cleistogamy: A tool for the study of floral morphogenesis, function, and evolution. Botanical Review, 47:421~49 (1981\/.. ( Armen Takhtajan. Patterns of ontogenetic alterations in the evolution of higher plants. Phytomorphology, Volume 22: 164-171 (1972~. Stephen Jay Cornus canadensis is the result of neoteny in dogwoods, conceivably a similar process could generate horizontally growing flowering species in other groups, as well. To think of additional possibilities, John just imagine the manifold consequences that could ment's clock occur every time develop- W. Einset is associate professor of biology in Harvard University and director of the Arnold Arboretum's Laboratory of Comparative Physiology. starts to run a little different- ly. Tick, tock, tick, tock.... photographs Electron Microscope Views of Collomia Meristems Developing into CL (left) and CH (right) Flowers. Each pair of shows a different stage in flower maturation. From top to bottom: The first two photographs show the early appearance of petals (c, corolla) while in the middle pictures petals, anthers (a) and the developing pistil (g, gynoecium) are evident. Later stages in petal, anther, and pistil development are shown in the photographs at the bottom of the figure. Based on the fact that early floral ontogeny in CL and CH is virtually identical, the CL flower in Collomia is considered to be a progenetic organ. Courtesy of Elizabeth M. Lord. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24914","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad160a728.jpg","volume":47,"issue_number":1,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Barstow, John; Gridley, Kate","article_content":"BOOKS Illustrations of Pteridophytes of japan, Volume 4, edited by S. Kurata and T. Nakaike. Tokyo: University of Tokyo graphs provide habitat data, and the disare extremely helpful for determining hardiness, especially if one tribution maps considers that species that grow on Hokkaido or through the central backbone and northern portions of Honshu probably would grow in New England and in much of the Appalachian region, and that ferns from other parts of Japan probably would grow throughout the warmer parts of the eastern and southeastern United States. The line drawings (by several different artists) are valuable aids in identification. The major families covered in this volume (their names are given in Japanese only) are the Equisetaceae, Isoetaceae, Press, 1985. x + 850 pages + maps. Available in the United States Columbia University Press. $64.95. DAVID E. BOUFFORD from This volume represents the fourth in a regularly appearing series that began in 1979 and that eventually will treat the more than six hundred species of ferns and fern allies occurring in Japan proper, the Ryukyu Islands, and the Bonin Islands. As with volumes 1 through 3, Volume 4 treats one hundred taxa, providing for each a full-page habit-habitat photograph, a full-page line drawing of a frond or of fronds, frequently with detailed drawings of critically important parts (scales, Marattiaceae, Schizaeaceae, Pteri- daceae, Davalliaceae, Plagiogyriaceae, Cyatheaceae, Aspidiaceae, and Asplenibut not all genera in each of those families are treated. For example, Volume 4 covers most Japanese species of but others are covered in Dryopteris, volume 2; species of Pteris are also in Volumes 1 and 4. An unfortunate aspect of the work is the absence of synonymy. The book is of the highest-quality production, and the illustrations and phoaceae, are first rate. For anyone interested in the relationships of North American and eastern Asian ferns the illustrations alone are highly informative and useful. For the quality of production the book is reasonably priced, but if one thinks of buying the complete set one should consider the total cost of what may eventually be a seven-volume set. etc.), a full-page map showing I, distribution, and numerous citations of specimens on which the distribution is sori, based. The citations are extensive and take up the major portion of the book. Photographs of spores taken through a light microscope of every taxon treated in the text are covered in seven pages at the back of the book; three pages of documentation accompany these photo- tographs graphs. The book is entirely in Japanese except for plant names and the measurements for the line drawings. Despite this, English-language readers can obtain much useful information. For those interested in growing ferns, the photo- 27 Additional comments on this series can be found in the reviews of volumes 1, 2, and 3 published in the American Fern seventy species. In order not to be tedi- ously encyclopedic, a manual, or guide, on conifers, therefore, requires thorough to be discussed. Only then can the size be manageable and the treatment sufficiently thorough to interest horticulturists and taxonomists. The author has done this wisely, focussing on northeastern North America (Canada to southern Pennsylvania, and the Atlantic shore to Kansas). But even with such defined boundaries one cannot be strict. When he was in doubt about the hardiness of a plant, for instance, the author usually has included it. He lists, for example, Cunninghamia lanceolata, Pinus ayrcahiute, and Sequoiadendron gigantea, which do grow in the Boston area, but with considerable difficulty. He has not included the \"southern pines,\" other than those, such as Pinus echinata and Pinus virginiana, which are not exclusively \"southern.\" We miss the other southern species, of course, but that can't be helped; the dividing line has been drawn as judiciously as possible. One inconsistency does catch the eye, namely, the inclusion of a drawing of Cypressus macrocarpa, which is definitely not hardy in the northeastern United States-nor does the author contend that it is. The inclusion of the drawing is unne- Journal 1984). (Cranfill, 1982; Price, 1982, winnowing of the material References Cranfill, R. 1982. Illustrations of the Pteridophytes of Japan, Volume 1: A review. American Fern Journal, Volume 72, Number 1, page 11. Price, M. G. 1982. Illustrations of the Pteridophytes of Japan, Volume 2: A review. American Fem foumal, Volume 72, Number 2, page 48. . 1984. Illustrations of the Pteridophytes of Japan, Volume 3: A review. American Fem Journal, Volume 74, Number 1, page 6. of the David E. Boufford is Curatorial Taxonomist Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections. ~ Native and Cultivated Conifers of Northeastern North America: A Guide, by Ed- ward A. Cope. Ithaca, New York, and London: Cornell University Press, 1986. 231 pages. $39.95 RICHARD WARREN cessary. (cloth), $17.95 (paper). This book is wholly directed at the identification of conifers and at distinguishing them from each other. It gives no attention to cultivation, propagation, or the diseases that affect them. The order Coniferales contains sixty-four genera and some five hundred With the passage of time, the numbers of genera officially accepted in the Coniferales, as in other orders of plants, has inexorably increased. These have grown in the last twenty years from fifty-four (Dallimore and Jackson, 1966) to sixty-four (the present work). Eight have been added in the Podocarpaceae and two in the Cupressaceae. The author lists these in Appendix 2, a helpful tabulation of the genera currently recognized. 28 According Taxaceae present modern custom, the included in both Cope's treatment and Dallimore and to are Jackson (1966). ). Cope's tally of cultivars is comprehensive-2,669 in all. Many of his descriptions are telegraphic: \"growth conical, rapid,\" \"growth rounded, dense, branch tips feathery, some leaves needlelike,\" \"growth columnar to conical, twigs cord-like, clustered.\" Even though some have no description (nomina nuda), the checklist is useful, since even setting down the name by itself is a form of introduction to the reader, who may only be needing reassurance that the plant exists. The illustrations are an interesting and important part of the book. Their best feature is the fine line drawings of branchlets with their attached leaves, clear and simple, designed to show such things as hairiness and grooving of the branchlets, the shape, attachments to the branchlet and presence or absence of stomata on the leaves. They are set alongside the keys principally to demonstrate a decisive feature for establishing identification. This use of focussed drawings to draw attention to a taxonomic point and juxtaposed to the appropriate spot in the key should be used, in my opinion, more widely in books of this kind. The quality of the drawings is, on the whole, of high standard. A few, however, such as of leaf attachments on Taxus, are too congested to demonstrate the desired fea- The author confines himself to vegetative characteristics to establish identification, a praiseworthy attempt at simplification, but like most of us who have attempted to do this, he has frequently given in and mentioned cones. He understandably resorts, for instance, to noting the exsertion of the cone scale bracts in Abies fraseri to distinguish it from Abies balsamea. I also wish that he had added other features, such as position of the resin canals in the leaves of Abies. These can help in distinguishing the species of that genus. Furthermore, those who, unlike myself, are in full possession of their olfactory powers, will surely miss reference to odors of crushed foliage. The aromatic odor of members of the genus Thuja, for instance, is strikingly and pleasingly different from that of members of the genus Chamaecyparis, which is dull and somewhat foetid, particularly that of Chamaecyparis nootkatensis. In some places the presentation is slightly confusing. To derive a full description of a plant, one must study not only the separate treatment that appears after the key, but also that contained in the key itself. Pseudotsuga menziesii (the Douglas fir), for instance, appears on page 146, followed by a general description, including that of the characteristic cone, but to appreciate the importance in identification of the very characteristic winter bud, one must turn to page appears in the key to coniferous genera. The index, however, is very good, and everything can be found with assiduous turning of pages. pointed 21, where it clearly. Photographs of one of this species stands at the beginning of the treatment of each genus. These usually do show the habit, but the photographic reproductions are not clear enough in most instances to reveal details of foliage. tures Although outstanding manuals on conifers have appeared over recent decades in Europe and Britain, we have not seen one from the United States since Liberty Hyde Bailey's The Cultivated Coni- 29 fers was published in 1933. This excellent manual, like Bailey's the result of work done at Cornell University, is, therefore, doubly welcome. July 3, 1986, A its theme being \"The Rocky Mountains, Backbone of the Continent.\" book, Rocky Mountain Alpines, was prepared in advance of the Conference, Richard Warren, M.D.., is an Associate of the Arnold Arboretum and Honorary Curator of its Conifer Collection. Rocky national Alpines: The InterAlpines Conference 1986, edited by Jean Williams. Portland, Oregon: Mountain Timber Press, 1986. 300 pages. $35.00. JUDY GLATTSTEIN When wildflowers are mentioned, people tend to think first of the ephemerals of the spring woods-trilliums, violets, bloodroot-then, perhaps, of \"meadow gardening\" pursued as an alternative to keeping a lawn. Rock gardening, for some reason, they distinguish from wildflower gardening. But ever since Reginald Farrer of England began writing on the virtues and shortcomings of alpine plants in the early years of this century, interest in them has grown. In the decades since, plants have been brought into cultivation from the mountain ranges of Europe and Asia. In 1934, the American Rock Garden Society was formed. At long last, wildflowers from the mountains of America are taking their rightful place as desirable plants for rock, or alpine, gardens both in the United States and abroad. The Second Interim International Rock Garden Conference was held in Boulder Colorado, from June 28 through like the Conference the shared responsibility of the American Rock Garden Society, the Denver Botanic Garden, and the Rock Mountain Chapter of the American Rock Garden Society. Over forty authorities on various aspects of the Rockies contributed material about their specialties. Hardbound and three hundred pages long, this hefty (81\/2 by 11 inches) book is no pocket guide for slipping into your pack as you scramble about above ten thousand feet. It is too big and heavy for that. Rocky Mountain Alpines is definitely a book for the advanced amateur-rather than novice-in rock, or alpine, gardening. The Latin names of plants are used, as they should be, and familiarity with many of the plants is tacitly expected. Most chapters conclude with a list of references; there is also a bibliography of books and periodicals. The book is divided into three parts: \"The Roots of the Rockies,\" \"Wild Rock Gardens of the Rockies,\" and \"Rocky Mountain Plants in Cultivation.\" Black-and-white illustrations of plants and scenery and excellent four-page color sections scattered throughout the book enhance the text. \"The Roots of the Rockies\" covers the geology, climate, and early botanizing and rock gardening in the Rockies. Maps and charts give clear information on hardiness zones, solar radiation, and precipitation. \"Wild Rock Gardens of the Rockies\" is divided into five sections. Since it stretches some three thousand miles, from Canada into Mexico, there are regional differences in 30 the Rocky Mountain chain. The five sections deal with \"Northern Rockies: Glacier and Muskeg,\" \"Middle Rockies: and \"Southern Scree,\" Rockies: Peaks and Parklands,\" \"Colorado Plateau: Canyons and Color,\" and \"Western Drylands: Plains and Plateaus.\" Chapters within each section describe a particular area, \"walking\" the reader onto a trail and describing plants to be found along the way. A map of the area to be discussed precedes each chapter. For the rock gardener, Part Three of the United States; Great Britain; Ice- land ; Czechoslovakia; and Japan. This section, too, is uneven in quality. The information about climatic conditions and on providing proper growing conditions in the various countries or regions is helpful. Brief, one- or two-line items about individual plants are sometimes useful, often Sagebrush cryptic. (on Rocky Mountain plants in cultivation) is the most valuable part of the book. It, in turn, is divided into three sections. The first deals with Denver Botanic Gardens's experience with these plants in cultivation in the Rocky Mountains. It has six pages of valuable information on seed propagation. In my opinion, Denver Botanic Gardens have an excellent, world-- Rocky Mountain Alpines provides guide to areas worth visiting for the sake of their floras, whetting the reader's appetite. Its discussions of propagation and cultivation lend hope to the lowland gardener. Most importantly, it focusses attention at last on the fascinating flora of the Rocky Mountains. Growers of exhibition dahlias probably will find little of interest in the book. Rock gardeners will a love it. Judy Glattstein, a landscape consultant, who specializes in perennial-border design and the use of native plants in the landscape, chairs the Amencan Rock Garden Society's Connecticut Chapter. She is an instructor at class rock garden. The second section, \"In the Garden: Adapting to Microclimates,\" is probably the most uneven portion of the book. I find it to be more of an eclectic grouping of information on the cultivation of plants than a discussion about adapting to microclimates. It deals with cultivation under lights and in troughs (containers), commercial production, cultivation in a rare-plant nursery and in dry sand, cultivation on hummocks, and the overall design of private gardens. The information on culture is good and should be helpful to gardeners attempting to cultivate plants from the drylands of the West in more humid climates. The third section, \"Around the World: Adapting to Different Climates,\" has chapters on the cultivation of Rocky Mountain alpine plants in the Northeast, the Midwest, and the Northwest regions The New York Botanical Garden and at the Brooklyn Botanic Gardens. Azaleas, by Fred Galle. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1985. 438 pages. $65.00. C. J. PATTERSON There has been a need for a comprehensive book on azaleas for a long time, a situation aggravated by the avalanche of new information and registered cultivars over the last ten years. Dr. Fred C. Galle, retired director of Callaway Gardens in 31 Georgia, has undertaken such a to write just varieties, which allows one to find a book. His credentials for the task are impressive. Decades of devoted work at Callaway Gardens have given him direct experience with the horticultural side of evergreen azaleas, and a personal enthusiasm for our native deciduous azaleas (the subject of his doctoral dissertation) has schooled him as a botanist. He is a hybridizer and has introduced both his own azalea hybrids and selections, taken from the wild, of native species and natural hybrids. In addition, he is by nature a particular azalea, even in total ignorance of its origins or hybridizer. The book closes with very readable and clear chapters on pests and diseases, cultivation, hybridizers, azalea introductions, and lists of azaleas under several headings. Unfortunately, Azaleas is not without flaws. It is a very large volume, six hundred pages in a large format (including three hundred sixty-six color plates) and deals with a complex subject. No reasonable reader demands perfection in a book of such size and scope, but the editing of Azaleas (the publisher's responsibility) is worse than usual. Inaccuracies and misspellings dot the work like plums in a pudding, detracting from the whole. The index is inaccurate, and the photography is mediocre, with many dark, ill-defined, and blurred shots-not to mention one photograph that is upsidedown. Yet not only the editing could have been better. I can only say that any reader not already thoroughly familiar with the taxonomy of deciduous azaleas would have to come away frustrated, confused, and disappointed from the chapter on that subject. After explaining that the classification of deciduous azaleas is controversial and presenting a tantalizing \"tip of the iceberg,\" Dr. Galle proceeds to pick one system to use and blithely continues using it, failing to tell us why he chose it, or even to explain clearly how the systems differ from one another. In fact, he dismisses years of careful research on this difficult and important problem (including his own) by presenting an outline of other books that have published the research results. Even a casual reader is likely to want at least a summary of the research; the serious reader careful, meticulous, scholarly worker, with a writing style that flows very smoothly and is easy to read. To expand the scope of his book he has brought in assistance on the technical chapters on hybridizing and diseases. The book begins simply, with a discussion on the use of color. The heart of the book begins with a set of wonderful keys and a very brief treatment of azalea nomenclature and taxonomy. Deciduous and evergreen azaleas are discussed separately in a format that describes all the species in that section first and then deals with the hybrids of that section. Dr. Galle has divided the hybrids into groups according to hybridizer, parentage, and\/or place of origin, forming a series of lists. Each cultivar is described by hybridizer, parentage (where known), date of introduction and\/or registration, size, growth habit, and color. The lists make up the bulk-about three-fifths-of the text. The lists can be confusing because azalea varieties have frequently been segregated into new categories, where before the varieties had been combined in the public's mind. There is, fortunately, an index of all the named 32 in his understandof this section. There is the additional ing annoyance of having paid more than sixty dollars for a \"complete\" work on azaleas only to be referred to other books for the information one seeks. Add to this the long list of new evergreen azalea species about which only sketchy information is yet available and one is left with the suspicion that we will need yet another \"definitive work\" on azaleas in the not distant future. Despite its flaws, Azaleas is still the best and most complete (and certainly the most ambitious) reference work devoted solely to azaleas yet written. Every good horticultural library should own it, and I am sure that many private gardeners and gardens would benefit enormously from its enthusiastic treatment of this important group of plants. is genuinely hampered U. S POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U. S. C. 3685) 1. Title of publication: Amoldin. A. Publication Number. 0004-2633. 2. Date of filing: October 20, 1986. 3. Frequency of issue: Quarterly. A. Number of issues published annually: 4. Annual subscription price: $12 domestic, $15 foreign. 4. Complete mailing address of known office of C. J. Patterson is one of the mainstays of the Arnold Arboretum's Plant Information Hotline. A member of the American Rhododendron Society, she is an avid grower and collector of native deciduous species of azalea. The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain \/Boston), Suffolk Complete mailing address of general business office of the publisher: The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain (Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795. 6. Full names and complete addresses of publisher and editor: The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain \/Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130-2795, publisher; Edmund A. Schofield, The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain (Boston), MA 02130-2795, editor. 7. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain (Boston), MA 02130-2795. 8. Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders owning or holding 1 percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities: None. 9. For completion by nonprofit organizations authortzed to mail at special rates \/Secnon 411.3, DMM only): The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed during the preceding 12 months. 10. Extent and nature of circulation: A. Total number of copies. Average number of copies each issue duang the preceding 12 months: 4,750. Actual number of copies single issue published nearest to filing date: 5,000. B. Paid circulauon. 1. Sales through dealers and carners, street vendors, and counter sales. Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: None. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: None. 2. Mail subscription. Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 608. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 615. D. Free distnbution by mail, carner, or other means (sample, complimentary, and other free copies). Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,025. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to fthng date: 3,057. E. Total distribution. Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 3,633. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: 3,672. F. Copies not distributed. 1. Office use, left over, unaccounted for, spoiled after printing. Average number of copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: 1,117. Actual number of copies single issue published nearest to filing date: 1,328. 2. Retum from news agents. Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: None. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: None. G. Total. Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months: 4,750. Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to fuing date: 5,000. 11. I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete. Edmund A. Schofield, Editor. publication: County, MA 02130-2795. S. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23293","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14eaf6d.jpg","title":"1987-47-1","volume":47,"issue_number":1,"year":1987,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seven-Son Flower from Zhejiang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium jasminoides Airy Shaw","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24911","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25e8926.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":" Zhejiang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium jasminoides Airy Shaw Seven-Son Flower from Gary L. Koller This In fall, the Arnold Arboretum will begin distributing seedlings and rooted cuttings of a splendid new shrub from China 1916, Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum described a new genus of shrub in the pages of Plantae Wilsonianae, the hefty, three-volume \"enumeration of the dried plants collected by Mr. E. H. Wilson during his expeditions to western China in behalf of the Arnold Arboretum.\" Dubbed Heptacodium \"in allusion to the seven-flowered heads of the inflorescence\" (from the Greek e~za, seven, and xw8e~a, a poppyhead), the genus was assigned to the Caprifoliaceae, the family to which Lonicera (the honeysuckles) and Abelia belong. Translated, the plant's Chinese name means \"seven-son flower from Zhe- jiang.\" plant at Hsing-shan Hupeh (Hubei) province, China Number 2232). He made two col(Collection lections of it, one in July and the other in in western Wilson collected the October 1907, from cliffs at nine hundred (about three thousand feet) above sea where it was rare. In examining the level, herbarium specimens, Rehder found \"that only a single ripe fruit was available for examination,\" which probably explains why no living plants resulted from that expedition. Rehder named the plant Heptacodium meters miconioides because, he wrote, \"In its habit and general appearance this plant suggests a member of the family of Melastom[at]aceae and on account of the comparatively small flowers in terminal panicles it resembles particularly Miconia. Only close examination,\" he continued, \"showed that this interesting plant belongs to the Caprifoliaceae.\" It is interesting to note that Wilson collected Magnolia biondii near the same site, but at an elevation of six hundred meters (above two thousand feet). Magnolia biondii recently was introduced to North America through the efforts of the Arnold Arboretum. The next reference to the genus Heptacodium did not occur until thirty-three years later, in 1952, when Henry Kenneth Airy Shaw, a taxonomist at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, described \"A Second Species of the Genus Heptacodium Rehd. (Caprifoliaceae)\" in the Kew Bulletin. Airy Shaw states that for many years there have lain in the Kew Herbarium two sheets of an undetermined Chinese shrub with opposite trinerved leaves and a terminal thyrse of superficially jasmme-hke flowers....Havmg previously taken the Caprifohaceae (Honeysuckle Family), the writer recalled a rare shrub collected in Hupeh and described by Rehder....[R]eference to the isotype preserved at Kew showed that this was clearly the correct generic disposition of the mysterious specimen....The discovery is of some some interest in Opposne: A leaf of Heptacodmm ~asmmoides Airy Shaw sho~nnng the tnnerved venation. This and the other photographs that accompany this article were taken by the author m the Arnold Arboretum during the fall of 1985 Professor Zou Shou-qmg kmdly supplied the calhgrapby which says \"Zheyang seven-son flower.\" \" 4 interest, since the original species was noted Wilson as being very rare, and as far am aware has not been collected since. by as I Airy Shaw described the new species, naming it Heptacodium jasminoides. Since he had only dried herbarium specimens, no living material of the new species could be distributed. The 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition Heptacodium again disappeared from the view of plant scientists outside China. The first opportunity Western botanists had to observe it firsthand did not come until recently, when the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition provided seeds and the opportunity to introduce living plants to North America. The American contingent of the Expedition consisted of Stephen A. Spongberg of the Arnold Arboretum; Theodore R. Dudley of the United States National Arboretum; Bruce Bartholomew of the University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley; David E. Boufford, then at the Carnegie Museum in Pittsburgh (now with the Arnold Arboretum); and James Luteyn of the New York Botanical Garden. They collaborated with a team of Chinese scientists from various institutions in exploring the native wild flora. Their travels through China took them to Hangzhou Botanical Garden in Hangzhou, Zhejiang province, China ~30 15' north latitude, 120 16' east longitude, at 26.42 meters [about 83 feet] above sea level). Spongberg and Dudley report that while on a tour of the Garden on November 1, 1980, they were shown a plant of Heptacodium jasminoides. Multiple-stemmed and arching, it was growing in full sun. The staff of the Garden kindly accommodated the Americans's request for seeds. Dr. Dudley, who felt great excitement at seeing a living plant of Heptacodium, a genus he had read about while doing research on the Caprifoliaceae, recalls having avidly and voraciously plucked the fruits. The seeds came from a plant originally dug up in the Zhejiang Province Preserve, approximately five hundred miles south of Hangzhou. This is the type locality for Heptacodium jasminoides, and Dudley feels that the original seedlings are as authentic as botanists can hope to get at the present time. The seeds proved to be fresh and reliable, producing plants at both the Arnold Arboretum (AA 1549-80) and at the National Arboretum (NA 49226). The National Arboretum's records state that the seed parent was a tall, arching, multistemmed shrub about five meters (sixteen and a half feet) tall. Dudley reports that seedlings were quickly distributed to the Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Garden in Millbrook, New York. I was unable to find that any plants had been introduced to the University of California Botanical Garden at Berkeley. Thus, it appears that only the three East Coast gardens were responsible for the original introduction materials. On February 26, 1981, the Arnold Arboretum obtained a second lot of seeds (AA 40381) through the 1980 Index Seminum (Item 519), circulated by the Hangzhou Botanical Garden to botanical institutions throughout the world. It is quite likely that a number of other gardens received seeds of Heptacodium jasminoides through this distribution. As of January 1986, the Arnold Arboretum had six plants from the 1980 Expedition. They are growing out of doors in the nursery and range from two to three meters (about six to ten feet) in height. One plant from this seed lot appears to be a compact form, for, while it is the same age as the other plants, only seventy-five centimeters (about thirty inches) tall. It is, however, crowded into the middle of a row of tightly spaced seedlings and is therefore subject to intense competition. Perhaps, if given more space, its growth will accelerate to the typical rate. it is 5 A spray of Heptacodium ~asmmoides. The \"opposite easily seen in this photograph. tnnerved leaves\" and \"superficially tasmme-hke flowers\" are Barry R. Yinger, the Curator of Asian Plants at the National Arboretum, reports that the National Arboretum has eleven plants from the original collection, which recently were planted outdoors, in China Valley. In addition, they have one plant (NA 54102) that they acquired from Dr. James C. Raulston, Department of Horticultural Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh. Dr. Raulston obtained his original cuttings when he was on a field trip to the Arnold Arboretum in 1983. (This demonstrates just how fast plants can change hands, passing from one garden to another, once they arrive in North America!)At this point it seems that all plants in North America can be traced back to these two seed lots, which appear to have a common origin in a single parent plant at the Hangzhou Botanical Garden. Since the genetic diversity is there- fore so limited, it is important that we seek additional germplasm directly from wild sources in China. Our first order of business was to get the seeds to germinate. As with most seeds for which we have no recorded experience, we divided the seed lots into a number of treatment groups. Peter Del Tredici of the Arnold Arboretum's plant-propagation staff reports that the best germination resulted from exposing the seeds to five months of warm stratification at 65 degrees Fahrenheit in a moist medium consisting of equal parts of sand and peat moss, followed by three months of cold stratification at 36 degrees Fahrenheit. Five seeds in Lot 1549-80 and six in Lot 403-81 germinated after this treatment. Unfortunately, our records do not indicate how many seeds were sown in either lot; we therefore cannot give germination percent- 6 ages. Four additional seedlings resulted from alternative Hardiness treatments. Once we had obtained seedlings, we turned our attention to the question of cold hardi- Would the seedlings of Heptacodium at the Arnold Arboretum survive outdoors during the winter? We found that they grew rapidly and were large enough to be transplanted outdoors in regular rows within one or two seasons. They have survived three, perhaps four, winters out of doors. During their first winter out of doors, the plants resided in the shadehouse with winter shelter of white pine boughs. The original seedlings were then moved to a location in the nursery immediately adjacent to the weather station, where daily temperature records are kept. According to Robert G. Nicholson of the plant-propagation staff, ness. jasminoides they were exposed to a minimum winter temperature of minus 10 degrees Fahrenheit during January 1984. No special winter protection was given them. They are growing in open location in an exposure of full sun, in acid soil with excellent air and soil drainage. We have not observed any winter an and nine-tenths centimeters (one-half to three-quarters inch). The plants have produced multiple stems originating from ground level, and the growth thus far is erect and upright, with little side-growth development. Small branches are square or fourangled. The thickest stem on any of the plants is four and one-half centimeters (one and three-quarters inches) in diameter at approximately two and one-half centimeters (one inch) above the soil level. The stems produce thin bark that peels off in small, paperlike strips or sheets. During the winter, these plants stand out from their neighbors because of their light tan to brown bark. It is eye-catching and a relief from the darker browns and brown-black bark patterns typical of most plants in winter. Both the winter color and the shredding bark are reminiscent of Kolkwitzia, while the stem color is similar to that of Diervilla. While growth has been rapid, no mature plants of Heptacodium jasminoides yet exist in North America. Therefore, it remains to be seen what the ultimate height, spread, and form might be. According to the Chinese literature, the plant grows as a small tree, one any type of dieback due to clisoil conditions at our site. The Arnold Arboretum has already distributed plants to sites with much lower minimum winter temperatures so as to establish quickly the cold tolerance of this species. injury matic nor or reaching seven meters (twenty-three feet) in height. They state that it grows best in the shade of trees. During April 1985, I had the Growth Growth has been rapid and vigorous. After five growing seasons, our oldest plants stand from just under two to three meters (six to ten feet) tall. Plants growing at the same location in the nursery for at least three years have produced seasonal growth that averaged ninety centimeters (thirty-six inches). At the base of the new (1985) growth, the thickest stems had a girth of one and one-quarter to A close-up mew of the mflorescence 7 opportunity to visit the Hangzhou Botanical Garden and to observe firsthand a cutting rooted from the original specimen collected the type locality. The plant grew as part of mixed-woodland situation where, because of overcrowding, it stretched for light. As a result, it was thin and gaunt, stood approximately six meters (twenty feet) tall, and did look like a small tree. I questioned my Chinese guide about the plant and was told that it was rare in China and at one point was at a April. The leaves thought As a to exist no longer. In my travels, saw no which admittedly were limited, I other specimen of Heptacodium. young a light to medium handsome dark green as they mature. During autumn, after the leaves of most neighboring plants have fallen away, the leaves of Heptacodium still cling fast, remaining until middle to late November. On nursery plants exposed to full sun, the leaves fell away without any change in color, however, except perhaps for the slightest tinge of yellow. However, rooted cuttings that grew nearby in quart-sized plastic containers and provided with light shade did turn a splendid shade of muted purple. What caused this color? Was it moisture stress, emerge a green and become plant, Heptacodium seems to develop multiple branches from near soil level. With quite well some as a training, it should grow single-stemmed standard. urban and modern land- Indeed, tree it might make the perfect-sized small for cramped scape spaces. of Heptacodium jasminoides is of the plant's finest assets. The leaves, which measure eight to ten centimeters (three to four inches) long and about five to five and two-thirds centimeters (two to two and one-quarter inches) wide, are opposite. Their bases are rounded or heart-shaped and their tips pomted. Their margins are entire but somewhat wavy. Visually, the leaves are remarkable because of their deeply impressed, trinerved veins, which run parallel to the margins. They bear a superficial resemblance to the leaves of species in the tropical family, Melastomataceae. As with most plants, leaves on young, lush major stems are most vigorous, while those on older and secondary branches are much smaller. During the spring season of 1986, I kept a close watch for the appearance of the new-season foliage and found it to be among the earliest to appear, commencing its growth during approximately the third week in one Foliage The foliage lllustration of an mflorescence, a smgle flower, and a frmt of Heptacodmm ~asmmoides as rendered m Volume 4 of Iconographia Cormophytorum Simcorum (see the \"Bibhography and Iconography\"). 8 shade, cramped root space, or slightly greater warmth provided by nearby brick walls? It is evident that the plant possesses the potential for autumn color, and I am sure that, under the right environmental conditions the color might be a significant ornamental asset. Will the long retention of leaves ultimately be a hazard to the plant? The leaves might trap and hold early-season ice and snows, allowing a buildup of weight, causing structural damage to the plant's trunk and stems. Flowers and Fruits distinctive ornamental assets of Heptacodium jasminoides derive from its flowers and fruits. The flower buds form in June and increase in size ever so slowly, bursting forth in mid-August. Single flowers are quite small but are borne in a tiered, sixflowered whorl that is terminated by a flower, hence the name Heptacodium, in allusion to the seven-flowered thyrselike inflorescences. The flowers are pale, creamy white and in structure resemble those of Lonicera. They open slowly, in sequence from the bottoms to the tops of the inflorescences. In Massachusetts, the flowering period is quite long, lasting from mid-August until early October, when it is put to rest by the onset of chilling temperatures and frost. It appears that the The most late-season flowering specimens. In the vicinity of Boston, Massachusetts, flowering is heaviest from mid-August to late September. Occasional flowers appear until midOctober. How much longer would flowering last where the autumn is longer and milder? flowering period is triggered by photoperiod; Dr. James C. Raulston of North Carolina State University suggests that Heptacodium might be used as a flowering houseplant that could be retained and planted outdoors. When grown for the flowering pot-plant market, it could be kept small with growthcontrolling chemicals. Flowers are abundant on the plant, and they are borne on an annual basis. If the flowers were presented in May, they would hardly be worthy of a second look because they simply cannot compete with lilacs, azaleas, or spiraeas. Coming late in the season as they do, however, they become significant Anatomical details of the flowers and floral parts of both Heptacodmm jasminoides Airy Shaw (1-8) and Heptacodmm micomoides Rehder (9-12) as shown m Novosti Sistematiki Vysshikh Rastemi, Volume (1985J (see the \"Bibhography and Iconography\"). Heptacodium jasminoides 1, corolla, 2, a corolla laid open, 3, style and sugma, 4, a pollen gram, 5, bracts and bractlets, 6, calyx, 7, fruu, 8, calyx lobe rn the frurt Heptacodium m cross as seen secvon, 10, micomoides 9, diagram of the ovary calyx, 11, bracts and bractlets from above; 12, floral diagram 9 Perhaps it would last twice as long in Califomia or Georgia. The premier ornamental feature of Heptacodium jasminoides is its fruits, which are borne in clusters. What makes the fruits so valuable from an ornamental point of view is the fact that the calyces do not fall off when flowering is over, but persist and (more importantly) continue to grow. Individual fruits develop slowly from the flowers; light green at first, they ripen to the most glamorous rose to purple. A large cluster of fruits, each fruit with its \"accrescent persistent calyx,\" is more spectacular than the blossoms at the peak of flowering, especially when the cluster is held high and glows with backlighting from the sun. The rich purple color remains attractive for several weeks as the fruits continue to ripen. At full maturity, the fruits turn tan and slowly fall away. Heptacodium jasminoides in North Carolina letter of February 1, 1986, Dr. Raulston answered questions I had posed about his continued interest in Heptacodium. He has become enthusiastic about this plant, he replied, and has decided that it would be worth trying to increase its numbers and to get it into the nursery trade somehow. He described his experiences with Heptacodium in some detail. During the autumn of 1985, at the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden in Vancouver, he had seen for the first time a plant, about six feet (just under two meters) tall, in full flower. The attractive flowers were very fragrant. This past winter, an alltime low temperature of minus nine degrees Fahrenheit occurred at the North Carolina State University Arboretum. No injury was noted among the plants, so it was generally felt that the plants would be hardy indefinitely in this location. Plants at that locale also bloomed in late September to early In a October. The reddish calyces, which remained colorful long after the flowers were gone, were also impressive there. \"One of the plusses for commercial production,\" he writes, \"is the easy propagation.\" He continues: I find that softwood and semi-hardwood cut- be rooted easily and quickly under time of year that the plant has the appropriate wood available. Single node cuttings allow rapid build-up of material. I would gather that it is quite photoperiodicm the greenhouse under long day conditions I can keep it growing through the winter to allow continual cutting production. The flowers are likely produced under short day conditions-which makes me thmk that it could possibly have potential for a pot plant crop-multiple cuttings per pot, pmched, growth retardant-treated, flowered at any time of year-then could be planted out to the landscape for further growth. tings can mist at any Dr. Raulston has about thirty cuttings rooted in his bench now. They are in active growth, receiving exposure to light from 10:00 p.m. until 2:00 a.m. He informs me that he was trying to build up a supply of plants to give away in August, at the annual distribution to nurseries in North Carolina. In another letter, Dr. Raulston discloses that Mrs. Chin Chin Lee, a graduate student, intends to work on Heptacodium for her doctoral dissertation research project. This is an exciting development because it probably will be the first research conducted in the West on fresh material of the genus Heptacodium. F. Heptacodium jasminoides in Canada Upon learning that the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden in Vancouver is raising Heptacodium, I contacted that garden's staff for details. Charles Tubesing, plant propagator, informed me that the Garden had received three Heptacodium seedlings (Accession Number 23220-083-83) on Feb- 10 seedlings trace back to the National Arboretum's Accession Number 49226, the original seed introduction to North America. Peter Wharton, curator of the Garden's Asiatic plants, said that the three seedlings were planted out into the permanent collections two years ago; because their exact cultural requirements were unknown, they were placed in different areas. Each plant gets an exposure of full sun and grows in a sandy, stony soil derived from glacial till. One plant is in direct root competition with a nearby Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii~. The soil's pH is in the region of 5.0 to 6.0. Their response indicates that Heptacodium can endure considerable drought. All three plants survived; in fact, they have grown to a height of four to five feet (one and one-fifth to one and one-half meters) and first flowered in 1985. Wharton said they were flowering by early July. He noted, however, that there had been an abnormally hot spring and that he would expect flowering to begin a bit later with usual spring temperatures. Unfortunately, he did not have the opportunity to note when flowering had ceased. Wharton commented that the plants flowered profusely and produced a delightful scent. The bold foliage he thought would make the ideal background subject for a shrub border. ruary 9, 1983. The Heptacodium jasminoides. to We are now Propagation of Heptacodium jasminoides at the Arnold Arboretum: Germination we harvested seeds from the Arnold Arboretum's own plants of Experiments In early December 1985, about the seed attempting of the species. We had feared that the biology growing season m Boston would be too short for the seeds to mature, but Peter Del Tredici reports that as of mid-June 1986 seedlings had developed from the seeds we collected here. To achieve germination, we used the following procedure: Seeds collected from Accessions 1549-80 and 403-81 on December 17, 1985, were cleaned, divided into lots of two hundred, assigned Accession Number 1284-85, and sown in a warm greenhouse. One lot was sown in the greenhouse without any prior exposure to cold, one lot was exposed to one month of cold before being sown, and a third lot was exposed to cold for three months before being sown in the greenhouse. As of June 12, 1986, the results were those shown below in the tabulation. As the tabulation shows, one month of cold stratification sped up germination but reduced the amount of germination from 14 percent to 7 percent. The tabulation also shows that three months of chilling resulted in no germination at all, which suggests that cold stratification actually inhibits the germination of Heptacodium, a conclusion supported by the fact that seeds stored for five months in warm stratification germinated at a rate of 7 percent, while seeds given the same treatment, followed by a month of cold stratification, failed to germinate at all. This conclusion should be conisdered strictly provisional, however, because the germination of seeds imported directly from Hangzhou was not inhibited by a warm treatment followed by cold stratification. Since germina- learn more 11 1 are still in progress, these results have to be interpreted differently at a might later date. During the first week of April 1986, seven of the original seedlings were transplanted from the nursery at the Dana Greenhouse to a prominent and permanent location at Jamaica Plain, near the Centre Street gate. They had stood eight to twelve feet (about two and one-half to three and two-thirds meters) tall. Before they were transplanted, they were severely pruned and reduced to a height of four feet (about one and one-quarter meters) so as to ensure their survival after tion tests transplanting. cent to Four plants were placed adja- the gate in a sunny location, and three were placed across the gravel driveway in semishade, but within fifty feet (fifteen meters) of the first group. This seedling population should provide cross pollination, if in fact cross pollination is necessary, and will, we hope, result in abundant seed crops and a permanent seed colony for New England. As of June 2, 1986, all seven of the transplants had survived and had already produced lush new-season growth; some shoots had already reached lengths of twenty inches (fifty centimeters). At the same time, we lifted the compact plant and moved it to a new location in the Dana Greenhouse nursery, where it will be subjected to less competition from neighboring plants. Continuing careful observation will reveal whether this individual really is compact. A large cluster of Heptacodmm fruits, each mth its \"accrescent persistent calyx\" These clusters of nch purple frmts are the chief ornamental feature of Heptacodmm jasmmoides. The color lasts for several weeks as the frmts continue to npen Propagation by Softwood Cuttings The Arnold Arboretum has already produced several hundred plants from softwood cuttings. The cuttings were taken from both seedling lots during the summer of 1985. On July 8, one hundred twenty cuttings were taken from all eleven parent plants. The cuttings, which were four to six inches (ten to fifteen centimeters) long, were given a fivesecond dip in a solution of ten thousand parts A close-up mew ofa fruit cluster. The calyces cially obvious in this photograph. are espe- 12 per million ture indolebutyric acid (IBA) in a mixof fifty percent ethyl alcohol and fifty percent deionized water. The cuttings were then stuck in a mix of equal parts of sand and perlite and placed under intermittent mist (a two and one-half-second blast every two and one-half minutes). By October 1, ninetyseven of the one hundred twenty cuttings (eighty-one percent) had developed excellent root systems. One hundred more cuttings were taken on July 26 and given the same treatment as above. Of them, seventy-nine (seventy-nine percent) had developed roots by October 1. These rooted cuttings have been distributed to institutions and specialty collectors in Alabama, California, Delaware, Georgia, Illi- nois, Maryland, Massachusetts, Minnesota, Ohio, New York, North Carolina, South Carolina, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and Wisconsin. Robert G. Nicholson tells me that seeds have been supplied to nurseries in Canada, the Netherlands, and England, as as to the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. During 1985, five seedlings that had origiwell the United States National Arborgrowing at the Darthuizer nursery in Leersum, Holland. Allen C. Haskell of New Bedford, Massachusetts, recently reported that as of April 1, 1986, he began taking cuttings from his specimen weekly in an attempt to determine the best time to make new-season softwood cuttings from an outdoor plant. In a period of two and one-half months, he succeeded in producmg over two hundred rooted cuttings. Haskell found that the timing made little difference in terms of the quantity and quality of rooted cuttings. Cuttings were taken from exceptionally soft wood, treated with Hormex # 16, placed in a sweat-box, and left undisturbed until they had rooted. During this short time period, the rootings have been so successful that in some instances the roots penetrated the peat pots in which the nated at etum were The thm bark of Heptacodium, stnps or sheets. peelmg off m paperlike 13 planted. Haskell commented about the lush quality of the early especially new-season growth, which he considered surprisingly vigorous despite the poor root system of this specimen, which he had acquired in late September 1985. cuttings were large for small contemporary landscape species. Trained to a single stem or to a few main trunks, it will form a small, late-summertree flowering growing to approximately Heptacodium jasminoides: Newfound Home A Secure in Its rare Chinese plant has been brought to North America; within the short span of six years it has received preliminary testing, has been stock increased, has been distributed widely across North America (and to Europe), and has become the subject of a research project. I suspect that in a few more years Heptacodium jasminoides will be more abundant in North America than it is in its homeland, if it isn't so already. Once again the gardens and botanical research institutions of North America have proven themselves to be good custodians of species that are rare or threatened in their native lands. To date, Heptacodium jasminoides remains untested in residential and commercial landscapes. If it is considered a flowering shrub, I fear that many people will view it as too twenty feet (six meters). Its smallness, lateness of flowering, and fragrant blossoms guarantee it a niche at a time when few other small trees bloom. It makes the perfect candidate for planting at summer resorts, where it can contribute to the festiveness of a summertime retreat or sanctuary. The open base, which might be considered leggy, can be utilized as a space in which to mass shorter shade-tolerant shrubs, herbaceous perennials, and spring bulbs. Its tolerance of droughty soil might enable it to adapt to urban soils too poor for the growth of other species. Should Heptacodium turn out to be as tolerant of salinity as Lonicera, Diervilla, and Leycesteria, it will be the perfect subject for seacoast locations and along high-speed roadways where cars whip up mist laden with deicing salts in winter. The fact that Heptacodium propagates easily, grows rapidly, transplants with ease, and reestablishes vigorous growth within one growing season makes it a landscaping plant that will be valued highly by the nursery industry. Heptacodium jasminoides by the Arnold Arboretum This fall, the Arnold Arboretum will distribute rooted cuttmgs and seedlings of Heptacodium jasminoides. To speed its entry into private gardens, we will be pleased to supply Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and other readers of Arnoldia who live in the contermmous (\"Lower Forty-eight\") states of the United States with two plants for a cost of thirty dollars, prepaid, packaging and shipping included. Readers who wish to obtain plants of Heptacodium should direct their orders, along with full payment, to: Distribution of Distribution The Arnold Arboretum Heptacodium Jamaica Plain, MA 02130-2795. 14 Acknowledgments In addition to the individuals mentioned m this article, I acknowledge with thanks the assistance of Peter Del (for allowing me to cite the results of his gerexperiments), David E. Boufford, Robert McCartney, Zhang Zhih-mmg, John H. Alexander III, and the staff of the Hangzhou Botamcal Garden, who made possible the introduction of Heptacodmm ~asTredici mination plates. [Heptacodmm ~ason page 102.] Iconographia Cormophytorum Smcorum [Descnptions of Chmese Cormophytes]. Four volumes Beiyng: Chih wu yen chm so, Chung-kuo k'o hsueh yuan [Botamcal Research Institute, Chmese Academy of Sciences], 1972-1975. [In Chmese.] [Heptapages plus 59 pages of minoides is illustrated codmm ~asmmoides: Volume 4, page 306, Figure 6026.]] C. R. Metcalfe. Notes on the anatomy of Heptacodium. Kew Bulletm 1952, Number 2, pages 247-248. Alfred Rehder. Heptacodmm Rehder, n gen. Plantae Wilsomanae, Volume 2, Part 3, pages 617-619 minoides. Bibliography and Iconography H. K. A second species of the genus Heptacodmm Rehd (Capnfoliaceae). Kew Bulletm 1952, Number 2, pages 245-246. V. B. Golubkova. De genere Heptacodmm Rehd. e familia Capmfoliaceae Juss. notula [A note on the ( 1916). [Heptacodmm jasmmoides is described on pages 618 and 619.] F. Weberling. Zur systematischen Airy Shaw. genus Heptacodium Rehd., family Capnfohaceae Yu Novosti Sistematiki Vysshikh Rastenu [V. L. Komarova Botanical Institute, U.S.S.R Academy of Science], Volume 2, pages 230-236 (1965). [In Juss.] Stellung der Gattung Heptacodium Rehd. [On the systematic position of the genus Heptacodmm Rehd.]. Botamsche Jahrbucher, Volume 85, Number 2, pages 253-258 (1966). [In German.] De~un [Yu Te-tsun], chief compiler. The Botamcal Gardens of Chma. Beyng: Science Press, 1983. 319 pages. [Heptacodmm ~asmmoides (\"Zheyang Heptacodium\"): page 43.] Russian.]] Hiroshi Hara. A Remsion of Capnfohaceae of japan mth Reference to Alhed Plants m Other Districts and the Adoxaceae. Gmkgoana No 5 Tokyo: Academia Scientific Book, 1983. 336 Gary L. Koller is Supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections. He writes frequently for Amoldia. A Word about the Cover Artist and Her Work Amoldia is delighted to have for the cover of this issue a fine new painting of Heptacodmm ~asmmoides by the young botamst and botanical illustrator Amy Eisenberg, who has spent the past several years illustrating and familiarizing herself firsthand with plants m their natural habitats. A wilderness ranger and naturalist at Sequoia National Park for several years before coming to the Arnold Arboretum m 1985, she currently is workmg at Mount Yu National Park m central Taiwan as advisor to the Republic of Chma's Mmistry of the Interior. Ms. Eisenberg holds degrees m botany from Utah State and Humboldt State universities, and has done additional graduate study at Harvard University. Her illustrations of plants have appeared m such periodicals as the American Journal of Botany, BioScience, the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Madrono, and Mycologia. Three of her drawings were published m the Summer 1986 issue of Arnoldia. Heptacodium Notecard Available Through the artist's generosity, the Arnold Arboretum is pleased to offer for sale a notecard featuring a full-color reproduction of Amy Eisenberg's painting of Heptacodium 7asmmoides (see the cover of this issue of Arnoldia~. Measuring 5 by 7 mches, the cards (plus envelopes) are available for purchase at the Arnold Arboretum Shop m the Hunnewell Visitor Center for $1.00 each, or $8.50 per dozen. They are also available, prepaid, by mail. To order cards by mail, send a check for the full amount (which mcludes postage and handhng~, made out to \"The Arnold Arboretum,\" to: Arnold Arboretum Shop Hunnewell Visitor Center The Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plam, MA 02130-2795 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The 1984 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Yunnan, China","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24912","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25e896b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Boufford, David E.; Bartholomew, Bruce","article_content":"The 1984 Sino-American Botanical Yunnan, China David E. Boufford Bruce Bartholomew Expedition to expedition to China yielded sixteen hundred flowering plants and ferns from a botanically rich part of that vast country A recent The 1984 Sino-American Expedition to Yunnan province, the People's Republic of China, was only the second time that American and Chinese botanists were able to undertake extensive fieldwork together in China since Liberation in 1949. Botanical exchanges between the United States and China had begun in 1978, when a delegation of American botanists, including past Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Richard A. Howard, visited China to initiate discussions on how best to carry out cooperative projects between botamsts of the two countries (Thorhaug, 1978). The following year, 1979, saw a reciprocal visit to the United States by a delegation of Chinese botanists. The delegation visited botanical gardens, arboreta, and other research facihties throughout the country and, in a series of meetings with their American counterparts at the University of California in Berkeley at the end of their tour, decided that a joint field expedition in China would be an ideal means of (Bartholomew et al., 1983a). This group, which included both authors of this article, was accompanied in the field by Chinese botanists from the Institute of Botany, Beijmg; the Jiangsu Institute of Botany, Nanjing; the Wuhan Institute of Botany; and the Kunming Institute of Botany. One of the two regions visited by that expedition was especially significant because it included the valley in Lichuan Xian (county) where the dawn redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu & Cheng, grows (Bartholomew et al., 1983b). The Metasequoia valley had been the site of the last American collecting expedition in China before the country was closed to the West more than thirty-one years New York Botanical Garden previously. Seeing the largest assemblage of wild continuing botanical exchange. Joint Chinese and American Expedition: Metasequoia in the Wild The first joint expedition took place between 15 August and 15 November 1980 and involved botanists from the Arnold Arboretum; the University of California, Berkeley; the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh ; the U.S. National Arboretum; and the The First plants of the dawn redwood (about six thousand individuals in this valley) was truly exciting, but our group was disappointed to find that the ecological conditions in the area had changed drastically since the previous expeditions had visited there. The thickets reported by Chu and Cooper (1950), in which seedlings and young plants of Metasequoia were found, had been completely cleared from the base of each Metasequoia tree. Most of the other trees on the surrounding hillsides, seen in pictures taken by Gressitt in 1948 (Gressitt, 1953), had been cut for fuel or construction purposes. The existing trees are now surrounded by rice paddies and fields of corn instead of natural vegetation, and the 16 human population in the isolated valley has increased dramatically! Even though the remaining trees have been given full protection, once they die they are unlikely to be replaced naturally under present conditions; the wild populations of Metasequoia will slowly pass out of existence, even though the widespread cultivation of the dawn redwood will ensure the survival of the species. One interesting observation our group made during the visit to the Metasequoia region was that only the tree from which the type specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides were collected has a broad, somewhat buttressed base. All of the other trees in the Metasequoia valley, about one hundred kilometers from the \"type tree\" at Modaoqi (Modaochi), have smooth, straight trunks from ground level to the lowest branches. The oldest trees in cultivation in the United States are now large enough to show their mature growth habit, and all of them exhibit a swollen, slightly buttressed base. It seems very likely that the large number of seeds gathered in the late 1940s and widely distributed by E. D. Merrill, then Director of the Arnold Arboretum, were from the type tree and not from a tree in the main valley. Anyone fortunate enough to have trees derived from those first-distributed seeds should be aware of their probably direct descent from one of botany's most famous and historic existed before the settling of the valley about three hundred years ago, might return. Approximately four days were spent in the Metasequoia region, but getting there and back by boat, minibus, and jeep took about two weeks, and most of the fieldwork during the 1980 expedition was conducted m the Shennongjia Forest District, a mountainous region in northwestern Hubei province. This had been visited previously by Western botanists, notably by Augustine Henry and E. H. Wilson, but the interior of the area was so rugged and difficult to reach that they spent little time there. In the early 1970s the area Chinese government declared the region \"Forest a designation roughly equivalent to xian (county), and began constructing roads for the harvesting of timber. Roads now connect nearly all parts of the district, which allowed our group to reach District,\" a remote and once isolated areas. total, we spent six weeks in the Shennongjia Forest District. Our base camp in the village of Jiuhuping, at about fifteen hundred In plants. Despite the severe habitat destruction, members of the Expedition were able to find several plants in the dawn redwood valley that had not been reported previously by either Gressitt (1953) or Hu(1980). In a summary of our impressions and suggestions for conservation in the Metasequoia valley, the American and Chinese botanists were unanimous in recommending that several hillsides supporting remnants of the original forest be set aside and allowed to regenerate naturally. With time, something approaching the original vegetation, which supposedly meters, was in an area with a climate very similar to New England's, except that central China receives far more rain throughout the year. The stream along the road in front of our base camp would rise dramatically after several days of torrential rains, then, because of severe deforestation on many slopes, would fall abruptly as the rains were followed by several clear, sunny days. But even without going outside we could guess at the level of the river from the brightness of the electric lights. Nearly all villages in mountainous regions of China are now supplied with elec- Opposite : Ansaema franchetianum Engler (Araceae), a relatme of the ~ack-m-the-pulpit of North Amenca Pere Damd collected the type specimen of this species m \"Tibet onentahs\" (i.e., western Sichuan) The plant shown here was growmg at an elevation of 2,800 meters (9,200 feet) m Yangbi Xian (county), Yunnan provmce This and all other photographs accompanymg this article were taken by Damd E. Boufford, as was that on page 37 17 18 tricity through the widespread use of small hydroelectric plants. Each village has a small generatmg station fed with water channeled from the main bed of the river somewhere upstream to a pomt high above the plant. The water then plunges through a nearly vertical pipe (or pipes) to run the generator. When the river was high our lights would burn brightly, but as the level of the water in the streambed dropped, the lights would dim, and after several rainless days the electrical supply became somewhat uncertain. (beech), Quercus L. (oak), Betula L. (birch), Sorbus L. (mountain ash), Salix L. \/mllow\/, Populus L. (aspen), and Tilia L. (basswood). Associated with them, however, were a number of plants including Cercidiphyllum Sieb. & Zucc. (katsura), Euptelea Sieb. & Zucc., and Pterocarya Kunth (wing-nut), endemic to eastern Asia, and Tetracentron Noteworthy Plants of Central China The trees around the village belonged to such familiar genera as Acer L. (maple), Fagus L. Thomson, DavOliver, idia Baillon, Cyclocarya Iljinskaja (one of the wing-nuts, but with the wing completely circling the fruit), Sinowilsonia Hemsley, Sinofranchetia (Diels) Hemsley, and a number of others, mostly or completely restricted to China. Decaisnea Hooker & Many of these genera now known only from China are important in hypotheses Beymg's mam thoroughfare. 19 regarding evolution and past geographic distributions of plants, particularly of plants in the north-temperate regions. One particular plant, Saruma Oliver (its name being an anagram of Asarum L.),amember of the Aristolochiaceae, resembles our wild ginger in leaf shape and overall appearance, but it has an erect, leafy stem with a flower in each leaf axil. The flowers are unusual in that they bear both sepals and petals. In wild ginger, the stems are creeping and the flowers have only sepals (the petaloid structures sometimes produced in Asarum canadense L. are actually modified stamens\/. Saruma suggests the kind of plants one would guess to be the ancestor of Asarum. It is very unlikely, however, that Asarum arose directly from Saruma, but the similarities and differences in the two genera eastern United States growing in their natural environment. Plants that had seemed to be restricted to university campuses, botanical gardens, and arboreta were much more splendid when seen growing from a crevice in a sheer rock cliff, or intermixed with other trees to form a particular kind of vegetation. At times, when seeing such plants as Viburnum rhytidophyllum Hemsely, Buddleja davidil Franchet (butterfly-bush), Pachysandra terminalis Sieb. & Zucc. (pachysandra), or some of the rhododendrons, it was hard to understand why they had not become more widespread in parts of North Amenca, where the climate seemed so much like that of central China. In total, the Chinese and American bota- clearly provide tantalizing what the ancestor of Asarum have looked like. might Other noteworthy plants in central China include a number of herbaceous species that have their closest relatives in the Appalachian region of the eastern United States. One of these, Diphylleia smensis H. L. Li, has a scattered distribution in central China. Its closest relative, Diphylleia cymosa Michaux (umbrella leaf), is restricted in the United States to the narrow area along the North Carolina-Tennessee state line and a few localities in adjacent Georgia, South Carolina, and Virgma. The third species in the genus, Diphylleia grayi F. Schmidt, named for Harvard botanist Asa Gray, is restricted to Japan and the Soviet island of Sakhalin. It as clues to though they are widely separated geographically from each other than they are from Diphylleia grayi, the Chinese and American plants are is even interesting that, more similar to each other than either is to the Japanese plant. One particularly interesting aspect of the 1980 expedition was being able to see many of the commonly cultivated plants of the more Professor S. C. Sun, the Leader of the 1980 Smo-Amencan Botanical Expedition. 20 over twenty thousand sheets of herbarium specimens and about five hundred collections of living plants and seeds during the 1980 expedition. The opportunity to collect these specimens and to see the plants growing naturally made a strong impression on all of us. When examining nists collected herbarium specimens from China, we now can recall the kinds of situations under which the plants may have grown in the field, and can consider the various species that might have grown with it. The observations that are only available through fieldwork are most important in providing a clearer understanding of many aspects of biology, plant geography, taxonomy, and evolution that would otherwise either be speculative, or remain completely unknown. Pere lections to him at the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris. On returning to China in 1882, Delavay was stationed at a mission near the northeast corner of Erhai Lake, not far from Dali. Over the next ten years Delavay sent Franchet an enormous number of specimens, many of which were new to science. Plants such as Rhododendron arboreum W. W. Smith subsp. delavayi (Franchet) Chamberlain, Vaccinium delavayi Franchet, delavayi Franchet, Clethra delavayi Franchet, Viola delavayi Franchet, Thalictrum delavayi Franchet, to mention only a Paeonia The was Delavay and the Flora of Yunnan 1984 expedition to southwestern China in a completely different vegetational and floristic region. While the provinces of central China have a flora with strong affinities to those of Japan and parts of North America, the flora in Yunnan is more like that of the Himalayan region and of northern Thailand and Burma. The area where we conducted the greatest portion of our fieldwork in 1984 was in the Dali (Tali) region of Yunnan province. The first botanical collections in this area were made by French missionaries in the late 1800s, and since then the area has been noted for the richness of its flora. Pere Jean Marie Delavay, in particular, made most of the early collections in the Diencang Shan (Cang Shan [Tsang Shan] for short) mountain range west of the walled city of Dali. Pere Delavay first went to China in 1867 where, in addition to his missionary work, he was an avid botanical collector. On returning to France in 1881, Delavay met the French botanist Adrien Franchet, with whom he made an flower of Nomocharis pardanthina Franchet photographed at Ymglofeng, Yunnan provmce, at an elevauon of 3,200 (10,500 feet) m the Cang Shan mountam range. Blossoms of this member of the Lihaceae are rosy purple, freckled ~nnth cnmson. Alhed to Fntillama and Lihum, this commonly cultivated perenmal herb is native to western Yunnan, Tibet, and the Himalaya, A agreement to send all future col- where the mhabitants eat its bulbs hke omons Plants are about three feet tall. The species was first collected by Pere Delavay, m 1883, m the mountams near Dah. 21 commemorate this prodigious early collector. The flora around Dali is now quite well known, since the region has been visited by many Western and Chinese botanists over the past hundred years. It is interesting to note that some of the taxa named by Franchet have subsequently been shown to be synonymous with Himalayan plants described earlier by British botanists workmg m the western extension of the Sino-Himalayan floristic region. The Dali area was, however, the farthest west in Yunnan province that foreigners were allowed to visit in 1984, and it was for this mountain range that permission was granted for the second Sino-American Botanical Expedition. few, The flight took us across the extensive delta of the Pearl River and over some of the most impressive karst formations in the world, over in Guangxi (Kwangsi) province. Once Yunnan we could see the red earth so characteristic of central Yunnan. Kunming is in a large basin surrounded by hills, most of which had long since been denuded of their forests and eroded to bedrock. The city is at an elevation of about two thousand meters (a little over six thousand feet), and, at about twenty-five degrees north latitude, is located at roughly the same latitude as the southern tip of Florida, near Miami. After the intense heat and humidity of Hong Kong, the climate of Kunming, which is more like May in New England all year Kunming by Way of Hong Kong The 1984 trip began in Hong Kong, where the four American participants met before entering China. Bruce Bartholomew of the California Academy of Sciences, who had been in Hong Kong for several days after returning from several weeks of fieldwork in Bhutan, met the three of us (Dr. Dan H. Nicolson, Department of Botany, Smithsonian Institution; Dr. Paul L. Redfearn, To 'round, was perfect. airport in Kunming we were met by several old and new friends. Professor Zhang Ao-luo, who had visited the Arnold ArborAt the 1982 as Vice-Director of the Kunming Institute of Botany, was now the Director of etum in Southwest Missouri State University and Missouri Botanical Garden; and Dr. David E. Boufford, Arnold Arboretum) at the airport and took us to our hotel. At about six o'clock the next morning we all met in the hotel lobby for a brief before-breakfast excursion to the misty summit of Victoria Peak, which overlooks the city. The forests on this steepsided mountain are now preserved, and those of us who had never been to Hong Kong before were quite surprised at the extent and richness of the forest in this tiny, overpopulated British colony. Wereturned to the city for a Cantonese dimsum breakfast at about nine o'clock, then checked out of the hotel and went to the airport to wait for the flight to Kunming. the Kunming Branch of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, and had played a leading role in arranging for the 1984 expedition. Also at the airport were Professor Ymg Tsun-shen, who had spent one year as a Mercer Fellow at the Arboretum in 1981-1982 and who had also been a member of the 1980 expedition to Hubei; Professor Li Hsi-wen, who had visited the Arboretum for about four days in 1981; and Ms. Wang Siyu, who was a visitor the Arboretum from November 1984 to August 1985. All of these people have been instrumental in furthering cooperation between botanists in the United States and China. On the evening of our arrival we were hosted at a magmficent banquet by Professor Wang Xianpu, the Vice-Director of the Institute of Botany, Beijing, and Professor Zhou Jun, the Director of the Kunming Institute of Botany. Among some of the more exotic dishes were fried larval bees, freshwater shrimp and crabs from Kunming Lake, and whole, deep-fried frogs, which are now raised 22 in China but which had come originally from On to Xiaguan over the Burma Road Cuba. The banquet provided an opportunity for everyone to express his best wishes and to toast further cooperation between Chinese and American scientists. The next two days were spent sorting out the ton and a half of supplies that had been shipped from the United States, loading everything on a large truck and making general plans for how we would proceed in the field. This short period gave us an opportunity to meet some of the Chinese botanists with whom we would work for the next several weeks and to renew friendships with those who had been with us before. There was also time to inspect the new herbarium building at the Kunming Institute of Botany and to become familiar with the Institute's botanical garden. On the morning of June twelfth we were ready to go. The vehicles met us at the Kunming Hotel, where we were staying, and the caravan of two trucks and a minibus, loaded with collecting equipment and six weeks's supply of soft drinks, beer, preserved rice, Yunnan sausages, and other staheaded off toward the Western Hills at ples, the far edge of the city. There we reached the terminus of the Burma Road, the highway we were to follow, for the next ten hours and four hundred kilometers, to the city of Xiaguan, which was to be the site of our base camp for the next seven weeks. The day was bright and clear with only a few large, puffy, white clouds in the sky. Little did we know that this was to be the only completely eggs, The countryside near Xiaguan, Yunnan 23 sunny day out of thirty! The Americans were fascinated by the passing landscapes and spent most of their time looking out of the windows of the minibus. As we drove to the west we traversed progressively higher hills and low mountain ranges separating broad basins. Even after many hours along the Burma Road we were still impressed-and disturbed-by the complete absence of forests or even small plots of trees, but we knew that once we neared our destination, far from the city of Kunming, we would begin seeing more and more extensive forests and other types of natural vegetation. After all, we had read of the rich botanical treasures that had come from the region of Dali and had seen the specimens in herbaria. Nevertheless, it was more than a little upsetting to see one mountain range after another, completely stripped of trees, pass by in the distance. It was also upsetting to see that as we proceeded farther and farther from Kunming, the villages were not becoming smaller and smaller! We were later told by one official that the Dali Autonomous Region was home to about one and three-quarter million persons. Finding towns in China with names completely unknown in the West, but with found only three species of noncultivated vascular plants: one grass, a species of Arundinella Raddi (Gramineae); one herb, a Euphorbia L. (Euphorbiaceae\/; and one shrub, Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacquin (Sapmdaceae, or sometimes Dodonaeaceae). populations exceeding one million, or even two million, is not uncommon. A few hours after leaving Kunming, as we neared the city of Lufeng, we dropped down into a large basin with landforms reminisof the Painted Desert in Arizona and unlike anything we had seen in eastern very Asia. The basin was totally devoid of trees (except for the ever-present single row of cent introduced Eucalyptus trees planted along the road), and the dry, layered rock outcrops were completely barren and in sharp contrast to the irrigated depressions filled with rice that separated them..We were told that this region was noted for the \"dragon bones\" (dinosaur fossils) that had been found there. We later stopped in this desolate region on our return to Kunming six weeks later and Around noon we stopped for lunch in the city of Chuxiong, about halfway between Kunming and Dali. According to present custom in hotels throughout Chma, the Americans and Chinese were seated in separate dining rooms. The only times we could eat together were when we were hosting banquets for our colleagues, when they were giving a banquet for us, or when we were in the field under less formal conditions. After lunch we continued on our journey, but since it was still relatively early and we had only about five more hours of travelling to do, we decided to make a few brief stops along the way to stretch our legs and to look at the plants. The first stop was along a narrow ravine where all of the trees had been cut, and all that remained were some straggly shrubs of Gaultheria forrestii Diels, Camellia saluenensis Stapf ex Bean, Viburnum foetidum Wallich var. ceanothoides (C. H. Wright) Hand.-Maz., a few other shrubs, and some overgrazed herbaceous plants. Despite the disturbance we were glad to get an idea of the kinds of plants we would be seeing later. The next and last stop was at the top of a high pass in the last mountain range we had to cross before reaching the wide plain to the east of Dali and the Cang Shan mountain range. Again there were no trees, and this time there were even fewer shrubs. The few herbaceous plants other than grasses grew only next to the road, and the mountain slopes were completely grass covered. We later learned the reason for the absence of trees and shrubs. Since the valley floors are used strictly for agriculture, the people must drive their animals to these higher elevations to graze, and to provide more grazing land the slopes are periodically burned to remove 24 the woody growth. In some places the extensive burning has so altered the growing conditions and depleted the soil that only bracken (Pteridium aquilinum [L.] Kuhn var. wightianum [Aghard] Tryon) is able to grow. The view to the east was spectacular as the sun, now starting to drop in the west, highlighted the jagged peaks and narrow ravines of the mountains ringing the heavily populated basin below. About two hours after this stop we got our first glimpse of Erhai Lake and the cloud-covered Cang Shan mountain range, where we would finally be able to begin our fieldwork. Setting Up Lake Hotel Our Main Base in the Erhai ingredient for anyone conducting fieldwork in China, as has been said many times, is a good measure of patience. Our first day was spent organizing facilities for drying specimens in a large room at the Erhai Lake Hotel, our main base of operations. We asked to have built two large A necessary wooden boxes with open bottoms and tops in which we would put kerosene heaters to dry our plant specimens. The work was contracted out to a local carpenter who took full advantage of artistic license and the relaxing regulations on free enterprise by charging us the equivalent of two hundred American dollars for two rather crude boxes, built mostly of scrap boards, that did not quite conform to our specifications. Nevertheless, we were able to arrange strips of wood over the tops of the boxes in such a way that the plant presses could be arranged side by side and end to end over the heat sources. The construction of the boxes took the better part of a day, and we then spent the remainder of the afternoon visiting Erhai Park, at the south end of Erhai Lake. From the hills above the park we got our first glimpse of the walled city of Dali and its famous pagodas, far off in the distance, on the west side of the lake. The following day was spent at a meeting with officials from the Dali Autonomous Region and Yangbi Xian, and with several people from the scientific bureaus of Dali and Yangbi. Everyone was cordial and most generous in offering assistance, and we knew we could count on these people in the event of problems. In the Field at Last guan This Our dners and presses m the Erhai Lake Hotel, Xiawas to be our base camp for seven weeks after our arrival in for the field. Our first Xiaguan, trip was to be a five-day excursion into the mountain directly east of Yangbi. Yangbi is Finally, on the third day we set out 25 situated on the western Shan; although Dali and Xiaguan, opposite side of the mountain range, open to foreigners, side of the Cang on the are now Yangbi can be visited only with special permission. For this first trip we would be able to drive to our temporary base camp at twenty-eight hundred meters and then hike upward from there, but first we set out for the town of Yangbi, where we were to spend the night. For the first twenty to thirty kilometers out of Xiaguan the Burma Road descends as it follows the river draming Erhai Lake, the water of which eventually flows into the Mekong River just slightly to the northwest. This river cuts through the southern extension of the Cang Shan and has formed a spectacular gorge that is now marred by several hydroelectric stations and the complete pollution of the river by the effluent of a paper mill situated near the southern end of Erhai Lake. The collections made on that first day out were from fifteen hundred meters, the lowest elevation we were to reach on the entire trip, and some of the plants collected were never seen again during our stay in China. We stopped twice to collect before reaching Yangbi, where we had lunch and pressed the collections we had made that morning. During the pressing, one of our Chinese colleagues nearly severed a finger with his clippers while trimming a woody specimen to fit in the press. The rich flow of blood was stopped with an abundant wrapping of Johnson & Johnson Band-Aids, and, surprisingly, after a few days the wound had healed quite nicely. The only other medical problem on the trip occurred when another of our Chinese colleagues, He Si, remained in bed one morning complaming of intense pains m his stomach. This problem proved to be rather serious. Mr. He was taken back to the city of Xiaguan, where it was found that he was bleeding internally. He was then hospitalized for several days. After leaving the hospital he was restricted to a diet of mostly rice soup and mild vegetables for the next several weeks, and even this rather serious problem eventually passed. Once the mormng's collections had been decided to processed we walk down to the river at the edge of the city of Yangbi and to try climbing the slopes on the far side of the river, to see what vegetation remained. Our walk through the town revealed a construction boom taking place; lots of new buildings were going up, and many old buildings were getting facelifts. It was interesting to see that the old, ornately carved wooden fronts of the A Bai woman sellmg eels m Xiaguan buildings were meticulously being replaced 26 with with noon's exactly carved replicas. The aftercollecting was not particularly note- worthy since much of the natural vegetation had been removed years before we arrived, but we did manage to collect our first specimens Carriere and of the coniferous genus Keteleeria a small, creeping plant in the morning glory family (Convolvulaceae), Dichondra repens Forster, that has a close relative, Dichondra caroliniensis Michaux, in the southeastern United States. With the afternoon's collections safely between sheets of newspaper and bundled up to go back to the base in Xiaguan for drying, we took time to discuss the day's work, what had gone wrong, how procedures could be made more efficient, and what we would have to do to maximize our time in the field. Once discussions were out of the way we prepared for the following day's trip to high elevations and then turned in for the night. for the workers and a place to prepare our meals, which we ate outside when it was not raining too hard. From this camp we were able to go off in several directions, but all mostly upward, and it was near this first camp that we found some of the best-preserved forests of the entire trip. The fact that the forests occur in the watershed of the Collecting in the Cang Shan Our trip to high elevations was one of the easiest of the Expedition. A road had been built to about the twenty-eight-hundred-meter mark for the construction of a hydroelectric station, and we were able way. The to drive the entire valley in which Yangbi is situated is completely under cultivation. As we drove up the west side of the Cang Shan the wet terraces of paddy rice gave way to drier slopes and small orchards of various, but very little native vegetation. On the mountainsides above Yangbi are planted many trees of English walnuts (juglans regia L.\/, for which Yangbi is famous. It was not until we had nearly reached the hydroelectric facility that we began to see extensive areas of disturbed, but essentially native, vegetation. The storage buildings used in the construction of the power station served as our base for the next three days, and a small complex of three additional buildings provided housing corn with irregularly planted fruit trees, (Franchet) Ulbmch (Ranunculaglobe flower ongmally collected by William Purdom and mtroduced mto cultmanon m England by james Veitch e.J Sons around 1910. A common herb of the alpme meadows of northwestern Yunnan and the ad~ommg parts of Sichuan from 3,000 to over 4,200 meters (9,800 to over 13,800 feet), it does well m loamy, wet soil. The golden-yellow flowers are nearly flat and measure some 3 mches across. As this photograph, which was taken at 3,000 meters (about 9,800 feet) m the Cang range, shows, flowers tend to bloom m threes. caae), a Trollius yunnanensis 27 will probably result in their continued protection. Directly behind the camp at an elevation of about thirty-one hundred meters was a magnificent forest of Rhododendron sinogrande Balfour f. & W. W. Smith. These rhododendrons, reaching heights of about thirty meters and having trunks some fifty centimeters in diameter, bore thick, leathery leaves that were often sixty to seventy centimeters long and thirty centimeters wide. The trees looked more like magnolias than rhododendrons, and-in the very wet, cloudforest habitat on a plateau high above a spectacular, misty waterfall, with everything covered by mosses, liverworts, and epiphytic ferns-they looked particularly lush. We were too late to see this rhododendron in flower, but it is known to have large, white campanulate (bell-shaped) flowers, each with a bright purple spot in the center. Although much too tender to grow in the Boston area, this species does well in the cool coastal areas of northern California. Because of the moisture, this was one of the few places where the local people had been unable to burn the forests, even though immediately adjacent areas showed signs of recent fires. One of the disadvantages brought on by the abundant moisture was the prevalence of terrestrial leeches, which were by far the worst in this area. These leeches are abundant throughout the Old World Tropics and Subtropics and are one of the occupational hazards of fieldwork in this part of the world. They are usually found on the undersurfaces of leaves and readily attach themselves to passing animals that brush against them. The leeches release a powerful anticoagulant into a bite, causing blood to flow copiously. Even after the leeches have been removed or have drunk, their fill of blood, the wound continues to bleed, sometimes for several hours. Keeping pant legs tucked into the tops of boots and wearing special, tightly woven linen socks that reach up and tie hydroelectric plant around the below the knee help to leeches out, but a few always manage to find an opening somewhere. After three days of thoroughly collecting this site, we returned to our main base in Xiaguan to see how the specimens we had sent back each day had turned out. We were rather disappointed to find that the kerosene leg just keep most Osbeckia crinita Bentham ex C. B. Clarke (Melastomataceae), a small shrub found from the northwestern Himalaya to Chma It is rare m Hubei province but can places elsewhere m its range. height, Osbeckia cnmta has opposite leaves and reddish, four-angled branchlets. Culuvated m England as early as 1820, it is easilygrown m the greenhouse, where it forms a shrub about 2 feet m height Plants flower m autumn, producmg blossoms ~nnth four hlac-rose petals and yellow stamens. This plant was found at Chingbiqi, Yunnan, at 2,300 meters (7,600 feet) m elevation. Attaimng 2 to 7 be common m open grassy feet m 28 space heaters that we shipped from the United States were not operating as expected. The most serious problem was that we could not keep the flame properly adjusted, but what appeared to be much worse was the thick, black smoke that poured out of the tops of the heaters. This soot-filled smoke clogged the perforations in the corrugates and hindered the flow of warm, drying air. After reading the directions that came with the heaters and finding that they produced smoke at elevations greater than two thousand feet (we were at three times that elevation) and then pondering the problem for most of a day, we decided to try the small kerosene stoves that the Chinese used for cooking. The disadvantage of using these was that there was no protective cover over the open flame they produced, but they did give dependable, smokeless heat. With visions of accidentally burning down the building that housed our driers, we decided to give the kercook stoves a try. After some experimenting the flame was adjusted for adequate drying, and through the diligence of several technicians we avoided causing a major conosene flagration. A Series of Efficiently Organized Marches After the relative ease of travelling by minibus to nearly three thousand meters, the rest of the expedition was to prove more strenuous ; we would have to hike to our temporary base camps, work there for several days, and then hike back to the nearest road before of this city on the The marble market m Dah, Yunnan The Chmese word for marble, dah shi (the eastern slope of the Cang mountam range. stone of Dah), comes from the name 29 driving on to the next site. These efficiently organized marches included about twenty pack animals to haul our tents, sleeping bags, food, a dry change of clothing, cooking utensils and other supplies needed to support a group of ten botanists, a cook, the procurer of supplies, several officers from the local scientific bureau, two or three guides, and several assistants. Each trek of about twenty kilometers started from an elevation of about fifteen hundred meters and coursed upward over well-worn, but primitive trails to around twenty-seven hundred to twenty-nine hundred meters and usually took eight to ten hours of continuous hiking, with a short break for lunch. Except for some of our Chinese colleagues and the local people who supplied the pack animals and were accustomed to such hikes, most of us were exhausted by the time we reached the sites where we would make camp. A short rest often revived us enough for us to be able to pitch the tents and dig ditches around them to drain off the inevitable torrents of water that would fall. A hot meal consisting of several dishes (rice, several kinds of vegetables and meats, bean curd, and other standard Chinese staples) provided the energy we would need for the following day's collecting. When it was not raining, the short twilight between dinner and bedtime frequently afforded spectacular views of the surrounding mountains and valleys and the approaching and departing storm fronts. During the day at several of these camps we shared what little level ground there was The Cathohc Church at Dah 30 with small groups of four to eight young (five to twelve years old, rarely older) herders, who would drive their mixed assemblages of pigs, sheep, cattle, goats, and horses to these highelevation pastures each day to graze. At about six o'clock in the afternoon, each young herder would cry out at periodic intervals in his own distinctive, melodic voice for his charges to return. Without fail the cries would produce a rush of animals from every direction, heading toward the source of the sound. To maintain these important grazing lands, the local people periodically burn the vegetation to remove all woody growth. Each year the fires burn more deeply into existing forests, leaving less and less of the original diversity and resulting in more and more extensive bracken-filled pastures. (The cut bracken did come in handy, though, for use as a thick, springy ground cover under the species of Impatiens L., Rhododendon L., and Vaccinium L., including the Cang Shan endemic, Vaccinium delavayi, a small evergreen shrub about ten to twenty centimeters tall. Unfortunately, it was too early in the season to see most of the seventy or so species of Gentiana L. known from this moun- plants in the field as we collected them, but because of bad weather or insufficient time, we placed some in large plastic bags and took them back to the campsites for pressing. After dinner we sorted, numbered, and bundled the tain range. We pressed many of these tents.)\/ From several of these high-elevation camps able to explore upward into the alpine zone at around four thousand meters, and in other directions into rich, wet ravines filled with ferns, mosses, and other moiswe were ture-loving plants. Every day produced some botanical surprises: an extensive colony of the deep-purple-flowered lady's-slipper, Cypripedium tibeticum King ex Rolfe, at about thirty-five hundred meters; a bog at around twenty-four hundred meters with Burmannia disticha L. and Epilobium blinii H. Leveille, an exceedingly rare willow-herb collected only once in the previous thirtyfive years and known only from a few other collections; several spectacular and bizarre species of Arisaema Martius; the magnificent lily, Cardiocrinum giganteum (Wallich) an unusually common sundew, peltata W. W. Smith var. lunata (Buch.-Ham.) C. B. Clarke, on slopes under Rhododendron arboreum subsp. delavayi; many plants of Habenaria davidii Franchet in an overgrazed pasture; Osbeckia crinita Bentham ex C. B. Clarke; and many unusual Makino; Drosera A shepherd m Malutang, Yunnan, at an elevation of 2,800 meters (9,200 feet). 31 collections for shipment the next day by mule and then by truck back to Xiaguan for drying. To assist the regular staff member from the Institute of Botany in Kunming, who stayed in Xiaguan to care for the specimens, a technician from Xiaguan was hired to help with the processing of specimens being sent back. She proved to be remarkably capable and, despite the language barrier, was extremely quick to grasp techniques and to pitch in with whatever had to be done. On Sundays she delighted everyone by bringing her daughter to stay with her during the half day that she worked. Collecting on the Eastern and Northern Slopes With the western, and wetter, slope of the Cang Shan thoroughly collected along most of its length, our party shifted operations to the eastern slope. The eastern side of the range has been inhabited for several thousand years, no doubt because of the abundance of fish, freshwater shrimp, and golf-ball-sized snails in Erhai Lake and the numerous, fertile alluvial fans and the broad plain its base. The effects of this long history of human habitation are clearly seen in the nearly total A scene at 2,800 meters m Malutang, Yunnan. 32 absence of forests on the eastern slope of the Cang Shan and the total destruction of forests on more-accessible sites. The only forests remaining in the Cang Shan are small expanses of Abies delavayi Franchet forests that occur above thirty-two hundred meters. Some recent plantings of Pinus armandii Franchet and Pinus yunnanensis Franchet have been made at lower elevations, but many of these smaller trees are frequently cut by the local people for whatever needs arise, and the plantations appear to be rela- tively unproductive. important and famous as the walnuts for Yangbi on the western side of the Cang Shan, they do not compete with the considerable fame and importance held for the marble quarried on the eastern slopes. So famous is the marble from this region that the word for marble is dali shi in Chinese and dali seki in Japanese: dali for the famous walled city at the foot of the mountain and shi, or seki, the word for stone. The quarrying of marble and the crafting of the stone into various ornamental and functional items is a considerable industry in the area, and many buildings and other large structures are totally or partially made of marble. In many places the heavy rainfall in the Cang Shan has eroded the marble of the mountain into deep gorges. The top of the mountain is almost continuously in the clouds, except for periods in the winter and for briefer times at other seasons of the year, and the clouds generally bring a good supply of water from farther west that falls as rain or snow at the higher elevations. The rain, often torrential, has eroded away large boulders and carried them to the foot of the mountain, where they are now buried beneath tons of alluvial till on the plain adjacent to the lake. These huge boulders, some of marble and others of granite, are large enough to be of commercial value for building stones and are actively excavated from the outwash plains and chiseled into building blocks. As are This industry is so extensive at some sites that the ground appears as cratered as any place on the moon. Our final long collecting journey in the Cang Shan was at the northern end of the range. After having hiked in to several previous areas, we inquired about the possibility of renting additional pack animals for riding. We were told that this would be possible, and relatively inexpensive-about two and a half American dollars per day-and we were all looking forward to an effortless, all-day journey on horseback. When our \"horses\" arrived we discovered, first, that they too were mules, and second, that the \"saddles\" were the usual pack saddles with only a blanket thrown over them. Nevertheless, we climbed aboard and were delighted at this new, effortless means of mountain climbing. It took only a few hours, however, to discover how uncomfortable a wooden pack frame can be, and for several days afterwards we were instantly reminded of our \"horseback\" ride each time we tried to sit. This last site in the Cang Shan proved to be one of the most interesting, for it contained the greatest number of truly temperate elements that we saw on the entire trip. Whereas all of the other sites were vegetated with Himalayan, Thai, or Burmese elements, this area, primarily on north-facing slopes, supported such more typically central Chinese plants as Malus Miller, Sorbus L., Viburnum L., Clintonia Rafinesque, and Enkianthus Loureiro in an abundance that we had not seen before in this part of China. We could only guess that this flora represented an extension from the Lijiang Snow Range, which was just a short distance to our north. Kunming After several days of packing up supplies, readying specimens for transport, cleaning to The Return up the room we had used as a base camp, and 33 meeting with various officials to discuss the results of our trip, we began our journey back to Kunming. This time we decided to make it a two-day trip, with occasional stops for collecting on the way. The stops allowed us to add a few additional plants to our collections and to discover one small patch of relatively mature vegetation along the road that made for brief, but interesting, study. On our return to Kunming, as planned, we made several day trips out of the city to collect in various habitats. When our collecting options were finally exhausted, we divided the specimens into a Chinese set and an American set. As agreed beforehand, the first set of all collections was to remain in China and the second set was to go to the United States. The American participants further agreed that the first set of the American portion of the specimens should be deposited in the Arnold Arboretum Herbarium to supplement what is already one of the most extensive collections of Asian plants in the world. Once the specimens were divided, the American set was boxed for shipment, and the Chinese set was arranged in systematic order for identification. We had decided that identifying the collections in Kunming made the most sense; botanists at that institution have been actively working on a multivolume Flora of Yunnan and would have the expertise to help with any problems that might arise, and the herbarium would contain representatives of most, if not all, of the plants we had collected. After three weeks of herbarium work everything was identified to Our memorable mule meters, or caravan trek from Dah (1,900 meters, or 6,200 feet, m elevation) to Huadianba (elevanon 3,000 9,800 feet). 34 the best of our abilities, but a large number of sheets remained for examination by specialists at other institutions working on particular families for the multivolume Flora of China. These identifications were made after we left China and were forwarded to us by mail. The The Future: Botanical Research and the Need for Conservation Although we were not permitted to collect living plants or seeds on the 1984 expedition, we fully expect that this situation will change in the near future. Between the time of the first Sino-American botanical expedition, which took place in 1980, when Expedition's Results the California essentially no protection was given to nat- In the United States, all of the data associated with the specimens were entered into a com- puter to at in San Francisco. The data Academy of Sciences were brought up date periodically as new identifications arrived from China and as spellings and author citations were checked. The computer was then used to generate labels for all of the collections, probably the first time a computer has been used for this purpose for plants collected in China. The data are still available in the computer and can be manipulated in various ways to generate reports on the expedition and for various kinds of studies on the flora of China. In total, the expedition produced 1,653 collections of flowering plants and ferns, which, with duplicates, resulted in 19,015 herbarium specimens. The main sets of these specimens will be stored in the herbaria of the participating institutions, the Institute of Botany in Beijing, the Kunming Institute of Botany, the Arnold Arboretum, and the California Academy of Sciences, and duplicates will be sent to other major botanical research institutions throughout the world where studies of the Chinese flora are taking place. In addition to the vascular plants, we collected more than two thousand numbers of mosses. The first set of these will remain in China, but the second-most-complete set will be deposited in the herbarium of the Missouri Botanical Garden; duplicate specimens of the mosses will also be distributed to other botanical institutions throughout the world. ural areas or plants anywhere in China, and the second expedition in 1984, the Chinese government and the Chinese people have become greatly concerned about the environment and the protection of rare and endangered plants and animals. Many areas have now been set aside as preserves, and many others are regulated in various ways, sometimes without much study or consideration. Once these areas have been scientifically evaluated it is almost certain that new regulations will be formulated that will allow for scientific research and the judicious removal of living plants and seeds for study and for exchange with botanical institutions outside of China. Until a balance can be reached, which should happen within the next few years, we can only be patient and understanding of these restrictions. Chinese botanists are most sympathetic to this problem, which also directly affects them and their research efforts, and are doing all that they can to foster botanical research and cooperation between Chinese and American botanists. Their efforts have been extraordinary in many cases, and it has only been through their persistence and dedication that the joint expeditions and botanical exchanges have been, and will continue to be, so remarkably successful. Acknowledgments are grateful to the National Geographic Society for providing funding for both the 1980 and 1984 Smo-Amerrcan Botanical Expeditions and to the Chmese We 35 Tnptengium forrestu Loesener, a member of the Celastraceae, which George Forrest first collected m 1906, on the eastern flank of the Dah range, dunng one of his early tnps to Yunnan He mtroduced it mto culuvatton The species, which is a shrub 2 to 4 feet m height, is common m scrub and thickets at elevations of 1,500 to 3,000 meters (5,000 to 10,000 feet) Photographed at Ymglofeng, Yunnan provmce, m the Cang mountam range, at an elevaton of 2,400 meters (about 7,000 feet). Academy of Sciences and the Institutes of Botany m China for their support and financial assistance in Chma. Numerous individuals m the Umted States and Chma have contributed much time and effort towards the success of the United States-China botamcal interchanges, but those who deserve special recognition for their continuing efforts are Peter H Raven, Director of the Missouri Botamcal Garden, William Tai of the University of Mamtoba, Professors T. T. Yu, P. S. Tang, Y. C. Chien, X. P Wang, T. S Ymg, and S. Y Wang of the Institute of Botany, Beyng, Professor A. L. Zhang, Director of the Yunnan Branch of the Academy of Sciences of Chma, and Professors J. Zhou and X. W. Li of the Kunming Institute of Botany. We also thank our colleagues and assistants who made sure that our the field was productively and profitably spent and that our living accommodations were comfortable and pleasant. many time m 36 References Bartholomew, B., D. E. Boufford, A. L. Chang, Z. Cheng, T. R. Dudley, S. A. He, Y. X. Jm, Q. Y. Li, J. L. Luteyn, S. A. Spongberg, S. C. Sun, Y. C. Tang, J. X. Wan, and T. S. Ying. 1983a. The 1980 Smo-Amencan Botamcal Expedition to western Hubei province, People's Republic of China. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 64, Number 1, pages 1-103. Bartholomew, B., Chu, D. E. Boufford, and S. A. Spongberg. 1983b. Metasequoia glyptostroboides-Its present status m central Chma. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 64, Number 1, pages 105-128. K.-L., and W. S. Cooper. 1950. An ecological reconnaissance m the native home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Ecology, Volume 31, Number L. 1953. The California Academy-Lmgnan dawn-redwood expedruon. Proceedmgs of the Cahforma Academy of Sciences, Volume 28, Number 1, pages 25-58. Hu, S. Y. 1980. The Metasequoia flora and its phytogeographic significance. ~ournal of the Arnold Arboretum, Volume 61, Number 1, pages 41-94. Thorhaug, A., editor. 1978. Botany m Chma: Report of the Botamcal Society of Amenca Delegation to the People's Repubhc, May 2~~une 18, 1978. Umted States-Chma Relations Report No. 6. Stanford, Cahfomra: Center for Research in International Studies, Stanford University, 1978. 154 Gressitt, J. pages. 4, pages 260-278. David E. Boufford is Curatorial Taxonomist of the Arnold Arboretum's Living Collections. Along with the steady rise of science and increasmg development of industrial and agricultural production, mankind more and more assumes it is his right to conquer the earth and change its form or nature. In the process, intentionally or unintentionally, he has opposed the laws of the natural world, destroyed the dynamic equil1brium of many ecosystems, and often brought catastrophe upon himself and other creatures. Forest denudation, grassland degeneration, the constant spread of deserts, and the pollution of the atmosphere and water systems are now common phenomena in many areas of the world. From the ecological viewpoint, the establishment of protected areas in different natural zones or biogeographical regions will be of great advantage to society To mamtain typical natural ecosystems for advanced study and to provide a scientific base for rational utilization and restoration of nature are of overwhelming importance. China, as with many countries in the world, has high regard for this important cause. More and more people are giving attention to expanding and strengthening this work. Ttvo reports on current work m conservation follow. The first is an overview excerpted from an article (\"Nature Conservation in China: The Present Situation \") by Professor Wang Xianpu, of the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Beijing, that was originally published in Parks, Volume 5, Number 1, pages 1 to 10 (AprillMay 1980). (The above three paragraphs come from that article.) The second report (\"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun ~ How: Its Ecology and Its Protection\"), by Professor Wang and two of his associates, focusses on efforts to preserve a valuable but endangered species of tree native to China and Vietnam. It has not been published before. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Protected Natural Areas in China","article_sequence":3,"start_page":37,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24910","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25e856d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Xianpu, Wang","article_content":" Protected Natural Areas in China Wang Xianpu The protected natural needs of that vast and being established in China reflect the diverse populous country areas use is to carry on ecosystem studies of the relationship between the biological and environmental factors and among different ecosystems, and to study the role and significance of their existence in relation to industrial and agricultural production and people's livelihood, etc. Thus, it can provide basic information for environmental conservation and monitoring. 0 Buffer Area: A buffer area must be set up around the core area to prevent the destructive influences of human activity. The buffer area may be a semideveloped place composed of successional vegetation. Within this area we can undertake different experiments in the rational utilization and reformation of the vegetation according to practical needs. The work can include vegetation succession, multistory management of the community, and the breeding and feeding of animals. ~ Experimental Area: The protected natural area should also include a part that is exploited called \"the experimental area.\" Based upon the environmental features of the locality and people's needs, we can exploit local biological resources, cultivate special native products, and establish artificial ecosystems. Thus, the area will play a typical and expansive role in vegetational renewal and in the establishment of artificial ecosystems of the same natural landscape zone. Necessary service facilities should be set up in suitable places for the needs of research and tourism. Since nature conservation is a popular cause, people should be encouraged to carry out the work together. Managers of protected natural areas still China is a populous country. Most parts of eastern China have been cultivated for millennia, and the remaining primary vegetation is not extensive. It will be very difficult to achieve real protection of natural areas if we do not consider this situation and accommodate the needs of industrial and agricultural production necessary for people's livelihood. In China, the establishment of a farm or forest plantation can proceed according to a distinct regulation, but not that of a protected natural area. Either pure conservation is emphasized, or the area is actually \"under production\" (albeit in name only). As a result, both conservation and production suffer, and their original goals are not attained. Given conditions in China, the establishment of protected, natural areas should serve four primary functions: conservation, scientific research, production, and tourism. The areas should be bases for scientific research, production, and tourism, and such nature conservation as is undertaken should relate closely to the needs of production. Such protected natural areas thus will have full vitality and will include not only virgin regions, but also parts of developed regions. Different regions have different ways of being managed, but they may be subdivided into three related parts. ~ Core Area: The original vegetation of the natural landscape within a protected natural area is called the \"core area.\" It should include the typical representative location of the natural landscape zone or natural biogeographic province. It must be strictly protected to avoid inadvertent destruction. The main 39 must have links with related institutions of science, education, and production; invite their experts to serve as advisors and to work together when possible. The natural protected area must provide necessary and possible support, such as seeds, seedlings, and technical materials, for productive institutions, to make suitable contibution to industrial and agricultural production. Thus the protected natural area not only protects the original natural ecosystem, becoming a pool of the natural resources and a place of prevailing scientific knowledge and tourism, but also provides for rational utilization and reformation of the lands, and creates certain material wealth for society. Therefore, such an organization will certainly and easily get the support of the government and a welcome from the people. The workers themselves will be interested in their work and the cause of nature conservation will be advanced. Although we have done some work in nature conservation, as compared with other advanced countries our effort falls behind. Up to 1979 we had established only about fifty natural protected areas, occupying only 0.16 percent of the total area of our country. The distribution of natural protected areas also is not adequate. Most of them are concentrated in the forest regions of the eastern half of the country. In the areas of steppe, the desert of the western half, marshland and coastline, etc., adequate reserves have not yet been established. The management of existing protected natural areas needs to be improved. The contradiction between conservation and the needs of woodcutting, collecting medicinal herbs, and hunting has not yet been entirely solved. Destruction still occurs. Provisions for scientific research and investigation and tourism are, comparatively, in the primary stage. At present we are carrying on overall planning to strengthen the orgamzation, and are ready to establish some protected natural in the western part, and to increase the numbers of the protected natural areas in the eastern part of the country. The area of the increase will certainly not be too large, but the distribution must be treated as equally areas as possible. The Main Types of Protected Natural Areas in China The establishment of protected natural areas in one of the important ways natural resources can be preserved and safeguarded. These places are living natural museums and gene pools of biotic resources. They provide an excellent base for observing and studying the laws of nature, protecting and breeding rare or endangered plants and animals, introducing and acclimatizing valuable species, carrying out research on ecosystems, education, tourism, and so on. Different countries give different names to these places, such as national parks, national forests, protected areas, reserves, preserves, national biotic areas, managed resource areas, multiple-use management areas, and the like. Although these names have different specific meanings, depending on uses and limitations, their basic meaning is more or less similar. We consider that, as a whole, it is suitable to call these places \"protected natural areas.\" We recognize however, that they differ from each other and the protected element usually is not the same. We may divide the present protected natural areas of China (Table 1) into the following several types and introduce them briefly: D Areas for the Protection of the Whole Natural Landscape: In general, this protected natural area is large enough to include different ecosystems of the whole natural landscape in a given location, and it must have enough area to provide living environments for the protected animals. 40 0 Areas for the Protection of Special Types of Ecosystems: The total size of these protected areas is not large enough, certainly, but they do protect mainly certain types of ecosystems and some species of rare animals and plants. They may be used for scientific research and collecting seeds or conserving water and soil. Most of the protected natural areas in the eastern part of China, especially in the tropical and subtropical mountains, belong to this type. In the future many more of this kind of protected natural area should be established according to actual needs. ~ Areas for the Protection of Rare Species of Animals and Plants: The establishment of this kind of protected natural area is determined according to actual condition and needs. For example, the remaining 3,000 trees of Metasequoia glyptostroboides in Lichuan, Hubei province, are distributed of about 600 square kilometers. protected area is based on the distribution of the feature protected. There are many bird islands, snake islands, and related lakes and other water systems in different regions. ~ Areas for Tourism and Recreation: There are many regions of attractive scenery in China. Most of them are connected with famous historical monuments and temples, and still there are small patches of natural forest and, rarely, some old trees. Natural over an area The the regions of high mountains and plathe west and southwest. Of the eastern forest regions, from north to south, there are (1) \/ comferous forest, (2) the mixed coniferous and deciduous broadleaf forest, (3) the deciduous broadleaf forest, (4) the mixed deciduous and evegreen broadleaf forest, (5) the evergreen broadleaf forest, (6) the tropical monsoon forest and rainforest, and (7) the tropical vegetation coral islands. In the northern dry region, we distinguish, from east to west, the following regions: (8) the forest steppe, (9) the steppe, and (10) the desert steppe and desert. Of the highland region, we distinguish: (11)\/ the mountains of northwestern China, namely, the Chilienshan, the Tianshan, and the Aertaishan, (12) the mountains and plateaus of eastern Tibet, and (13) the Tibetan Plateau. There are particular types of forest, shrub, meadow, steppe, and desert in these (c) teaus in regions. Description of the Regions The thirteen vegetation regions of China are described in the following paragraphs. The comferous forest occupies the north of China. It embraces chiefly a long and narrow chain of gneiss and granite mountains forming the uplifted margin of the Mongolian plateau. The average elevation of the region is between 500 and 1,000 meters. Considerable area of forest is still preserved. Daxinganlin Nature Reserve was established in 1960 at the upper reaches of the Hanma and Nuomin rivers. With an area of some 480,000 hectares, it is the biggest protected natural area in China. At present the region is under exploitation, however, so the work of nature conservation must be extreme the scenery is attractive to tourists. Some Daxinganlin, areas have great value for scientific research. In general, organizations have been established to take the responsibility for management of these interesting places. But it is useful to put them into the category of protected natural area to strengthen their multiple use and management. Vegetation Regions The vegetation regions of China may be divided into three main groups, (a) the forest regions in the east, (b) the steppe and desert regions in the northwest and northeast, and strengthened. ~ The mixed coniferous and deciduous broadleaf forests are situated m the northeast comer of northeastern China. They include 41 the Changbaishan massif and a large portion of the Xiaoxingalm. This is the main forest region of China. Owing to the cutting of timber for a long time, the area of forest is being more and more reduced. The rational cutting and regeneration of the natural forest and silviculture of the artificial forest are the chief tasks of forestry management there. The matter of vegetation conservation cannot be delayed. ~ The deciduous broadleaf forest is pnncipally the broad area stretching from the southern portion of the Manchurian plain to the northern shore of the Huai River and the northern slopes of Qinling. The region was exploited early. The plain is almost entirely under cultivation. In Qmling the Taibaishan forest region is well protected. The Taibaishan Nature Reserve was established in 1965. It occupies 54,158 hectares and includes all vertical vegetation types. In addition, there are many famous scemc mountains in the region, contammg many celebrated places and historical rmns. They all must be brought under control as protected natural areas. The mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest, the transitional region between the deciduous and the evergreen broadleaf forests, belongs more to the subtropical category from the viewpoint of vegetation analysis, so we call it northern subtropics. It includes the southern portion of Shanxi lying between Qinhng and the Dahashan, large parts of Hubei province, and the Lower Yangtze Plain. The western part of the region is rugged, varying mostly from 800 to 2,000 meters in elevation, while the eastern part is an alluvial plain with hills rising from 100 to The hills and mountains are chiefly occupied by pine woodland, secondary bush, and grassland. It is very necessary to strengthen vegetation conservation. Several years ago protected natural areas were estabhshed on the southern slope of Qmgling in Foping, Shanxi province, and Shennongjia, Hubei province. The latter reserve is about 2,000 hectares in area and is occupied by subalpine coniferous forest, in which the golden monkey and the Chinese dove tree (Damdia mvolucrata) are compar- atively rare. ~ The evergreen broadleaf forest, which has a climate typical of the moist subtropics of eastern Asia, occupies a vast expanse m China. It may be divided into two subregions-the eastern and western. The former subregion is mainly influenced by the Pacific monsoon, and its climate is moist and warm, the dry and wet seasons not being distinct from each other. The latter is affected by the Indian monsoon; its dry and wet seasons are very marked. There are twenty-seven protected areas in this region, most of established in the mid- to late 1970s. Fifteen of the areas were set up to protect the evergreen broadleaf forest itself. Because of the need to establish a large gene pool, and the need for forests for the conservation of water supphes, it is very necessary to estabhsh many more natural protected areas. These wil be of great advantage to biological research applied to meeting the needs of industry and agriculture. D The tropical monsoon forest and ram forest lie in the northern margin of the Tropics (the \"Northern Tropics\"). They include the southern part of Kuangdong, Kuangxi, Yunnan, and the extreme southern corner of Tibet and the islands of Hainan and southern Taiwan. The task of nature protection is large and very urgent in this region. Five areas have been set up for the protection of tropical forests ; besides these, there are several smaller areas for special protection of rare animals on Hainan. It is also necessary to protect mangroves, which have been much damaged 200 meters. The plain has been almost entirely cultivated. The climax commumty on the yellow brown soil of the mountians is mixed deciduous and evergreen broadleaf forest. At higher elevations one finds subalpine comferous forest dominated by endemic Picea, and Ables, alpme bush, and alpine meadow. The vegetation of the limestone hills is deciduous broadleaf forest dominated by Ulmus, Celtis, Zelkova, etc. Owing to increased cutting of timber, the forested area is hmited. recently. experience ~ The coral islands of the South Chma Sea frequent typhoons and strong 42 winds. The typical vegetation consists of tropical shrubs growing on coral islands, such as Pisoma grandis, Guettarda speciosa, and Scaevola sencea. ~ The forest steppe is a transitional zone between the forest to the east and the steppe to the west. It may be divided into two subregions, the northeastern and the northwestern. Their common features are large patches of woodland alternating with grassland. The northwestern subregion has been exploited for thousands of years. The destruction of forest, problems of waterlogging and soil erosion are all extremely severe. Sand and silt in the lower reaches of the Yellow River originate in the loess plateau of the northwestern subregion. To regulate the Yellow River, it will be necessary to strengthen efforts to protect the loess plateau by planting grasses and forests to prevent waterlogging and soil erosion. one protected natural prothe region, in the wetland of Zhalong, near Qigihari city, Heilongjiang province, to protect the red-crowned crane and other water birds. Ziwuhng and Haunglongshan are suited for the establishment of protected natural areas. ~ The steppe occupies largely the Inner Mongolian plateau west of the Daxmganlin and north of the loess highlands. The chmax community is Stipa (a grass) steppe. Because of inadequate management, the grassland is being very severely denuded. It is urgently necessary to strengthen vegetation protection by rational utilization and restoration of the grassland. No protected natural areas have been established in this region, but six or seven years ago an experiment station for the study of steepe ecosystems was founded in Inner Mongolia and plans made to establish a protected natural area. ~ The desert steppe and desert include the western part of Mongolia, the northern part of Gansu, the Talimu and Zhungeer basins of Xmjiang, and Chaidamu basin of Qinghai. This region is mostly surrounded by high mountains that keep out the moist winds from the distant oceans. Glacial meltwater from the mountains irrigates many oases, where cotton, grapes, melons, and some vegetables grow very well. Because the soils are dry and saline, it is difficult to exploit virgin land. Recently, certain shrublands and woodlands have been severely damaged. There is an urgent need to strengthen the management of the species that have been damaged. 0 The mountams of northwestern China consist of three sections, (1) the Tianshan, (2)( the Qilianshan, and (3) the Aertaishan. (The suffix -shan means \"mountain range\" in Chinese.) The foothills of Tianshan are desert; higher up, the desert is gradually replaced by desert steppe, above which is the mountain steppe dominated by grasses (Stipa, Festuca, Koeleria, etc.). Qilianshan, situated at the northern limit of the East Tibetan Plateau, marks the boundary between Gansu and Qm- ghai provinces. Picea crassifolia occurs in pure stands on the northern slope of Qilianshan. Clear cutting of large areas of the Picea There is tected area only in results m the formation of bushland or aspen woodland. From lowland up to the mountains in Aertaishan, desert steppe, mountain steppe, subalpine comferous forest appear in succession. Occasionally, elfin wood and alpine tundra also occur. Protected areas are very urgently needed because these mountain forests are very slow to recover if they are destroyed. ~ The mountams and plateau of East Tibet Tibet, northwestern Sichuan, and northwestern Yunnan. The region is heavily wooded, ranking second only to northeastern China in this regard. The contrast between cutting of timber and protection of the forest is more and more marked. The establishment of protected natural areas cannot be delayed. 0 The Tibetan plateau is a lofty plateau rimmed by even loftier mountains-the Kunlun to the north, the great Himalaya range to the south. The average elevation of the whole region may be taken as from 4,700 to 5,300 meters. Under cold and dry climate, encompass the eastern part of winters are the temperature extremely severe; even in summer scarcely rises above the From southeast to freezmg point. there is a northwest, clear zonal distribution of vegetation, namely, high cold meadow dominated 43 by Kobresla, and cold steppe dominated by grow which Stipa purpurea, high cold desert composed of Ceratoides compacta and A7ama fruticulosa. In these communities different cushion plants are seldom seen in the northern steppe and desert of lower elevation. There is a great need to establish natural protected areas in this region. Table 1. Protected Natural Areas in China as of 1980 44 45 The flowers, leaves, and frmts of Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun eJ How. From Acta Courtesy of the Arnold Arboretum Library, Cambndge, Massachusetts. Phytotaxonomica Sinica (1956). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection","article_sequence":4,"start_page":47,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24906","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25ebb26.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Xianpu, Wang; Xiaobai, Jin; Chengyong, Sun","article_content":"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection Wang Xianpu jin Xiaobai Sun Chengyong The xianmu of southwestern China is a valuable timber-producing tree that now receives much-needed protection through newly established nature reserves and xianmu plantations The Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & m Chinese) is a member of the Tiliaceae. Endemic to the SinoVietnamese Border Floristic Province of the Indo-Malaysian Floristic Region, it is an tree How (\"xianmu\" tree species as Cinnamomum calCryptocarya maclurei, Castanopsis hainanensis, and Cyclobalanopsis glauca. tropical carea, economic species. In China, it in southwestern Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, extending westward to southwestern Yunnan Province, between 2205' and 241G' N latitude, and 10500' and 10806' E longtidude, in the southern Sub- important occurs Farther north, it no longer forms large forests but is scattered in certain localized areas with suitable habitat. The northernmost reported occurrence of xianmu is in latitude 2416' N (Hu et al., 1980; Li et al., 1956). and northern Tropical zones (Li and Wang, 1964; Li and Wang, 1965) (see the map on page 49). Xianmu grows well on hills of pure limestone, often on steep slopes, on bare rock or in shallow soil. By contrast, it does not occur in hilly areas where the substrate is derived from acidic rocks such as sandstone or shale, even where the slope is gentle and the soil deep. In the northern Tropical Zone, giant trees of this species often dominate the upper layer of seasonal rainforests at the feet of limestone mountians, below 700 meters in elevation (see the back cover of the Summer 1986 issue of Arnoldia~, where they usually are mixed with such tropical tree species as Garcinia tropical The Vulnerability of Xianmu The timber of xianmu is hard and heavy, with good mechanical characteristics, and is suitable-and much prized-for making tools, vehicles, ships, and furniture and for use in construction. Wild trees are suitable for making wheels. Because of excessive felling of trees, the area of seasonal rainforest is decreasing; environmental conditions in many areas of rainforest are deteriorating, making it difficult for xianmu to regenerate. In some places there are scattered adult trees of xianmu but very few young trees and seedlings beneath; in other places, young trees and seedlings are present but lack the protection of adult trees in the canopy. Thus, it is doubtful whether they will be able to grow to maturity. paucinervis, Drypetes perreticutata, Dry- petes confertiflora, lVluricoccum sinense, and Walsura robusta. In the southern Subtropical Zone or above 700 to 900 meters, xianmu still grows fairly well, mixed with such sub- It is safe to say that xianmu is in a very vulnerable situation. Appropriate measures urgently needed to protect the species and to promote its regeneration. Otherwise, it will soon become endangered and face are 48 extinction (Wang, 1980). Accordingly, four nature reserves have been established for its protection at the centers of its range in southwestern Guanxi. Meanwhile, a tree plantation has been established to produce xianmu timber for satisfying demand from various sectors of the economy (Liang et al.,1981 ; Wang, 1984; Wang, 1985a; Wang, 1985b). Ecology and Life History Because of xianmu's economic and ecological importance, knowledge of its ecological relationships and life history is important. Accordingly, the species's details about those aspects of biology are presented in the fol- lowing paragraphs. Ecological Relationships Burretiodendron hsienmu occurs where the annual mean temperature is 19.1 C to 22.0 C, the temperature of the coldest month (January) is 10.9 C to 13.9 C, and the temperature of the warmest month (July) is 25.1 C to 28.4 C. The absolute minimum temperature encountered during the year is minus 0.8 C to minus 1.9 C, the annual accumulated temperature being 6,269.2 C to 7,812 C. The annual precipitation is as high as 1,100 mm to 1,500 mm but is not evenly distributed; instead, 80 percent of it is concentrated in the period from April to September, more than 100 mm falling during each of those months, while during the dry season (November through March), less than 50 mm fall. Precipitation is scarcest in winter, accounting for only 5 percent to 7 percent of the annual precipitation. However, since the dry season is also the coldest period of the year, the relative humidity of the air is not less than 70 percent, amelioratmg the effects of drought. This fact explains how giant xianmu trees with breast-high diameters of from 1 meter to 3 meters can grow on bare limestone rock in shallow soil with their thick roots partly exposed and extending beyond the extent of their crowns. On mountamtops, where conditions are extremely dry, fewer xianmu trees occur, and they are invariably small. Xianmu planted in sites with poor drainage and shallow water table grow fast at first, but their roots grow upward and gradually rot, and the trees eventually die. Xianmu is a calciphilous plant, contammg little sulfur and manganese but abundant calcium and nitrogen (1.96 percent) in its leaves, which can be used to increase the fertility of soil. If the trees are to be planted in acid soil, the soil must be enriched with manure and supplied with lime beforehand. Otherwise, the trees will not grow normally. Xianmu trees have pyramidal crowns with branches extending regularly in layers. The leaves are so arranged as to form a mosaic and therefore can make maximum use of sunlight. The leaves that fall each year accumulate on the ground, forming a thick layer up to 15 cm thick. The soil consists of 5 percent to 10 percent orgamc matter, while the layer of decomposing leaves and twigs may contain as much as 23.02 percent organic matter. The buds and the young leaves of xianmu are protected by a gummy substance. The blades of adult leaves are thick and rigid, with developed xeromorphic structure, and are adapted to the relatively dry habitat, with its great fluctuation in available water over the course of a year. The seeds are not distributed by wind or animals to distant places. Natural seeding is mostly restricted to the ground under the crowns of parent trees and to trees a immediately surrounding and young erate trees areas. Seedlings less than six shade, but trees more years of age tolthan ten years of age do not grow well in shade. Thus, we can see that in forests, twenty- to twenty-fiveyear-old xianmu trees will not have reached the flowering stage, but solitary old trees are already mature. fifteen-year- Flowering and Fruiting The flowers of xianmu are open in March and April. Its fruits (capsules~ begin to ripen in early June, then spht open, and the seeds are shed in late June and early July. Seeds that fall to the ground either germinate rapidly or rot quickly, so seeds must be collected promptly, while still on the tree. Each year of fruit setting is followed by two or three off years, 49 Map of Guangxi current provmce, Chma, showmg the occurrence of Burretiodendron hsienmu. The hatchmg mdicates its natural range, the two dots an outlymg mld population, and the tree-hke symbols locahues where the species has been mtroduced mto cultmation. when many trees bear few if any fruits. Within ten days after the collection of fruits, as many as 95 percent of the seeds may be viable; after twenty to thirty days' storage, only 60 percent to 80 percent are viable. Most seeds are nonviable after two months of storage. If seeds must be stored, they should be air-dried in the shade before being stored in sand. Seeds so treated have a germination rate that is 60 percent greater than that of seeds stored without sand. If seeds are exposed to bright sunhght for one hour, their rate of germination drops 20 percent; if exposed for longer periods of time, to the pomt that the seeds become very dry, the rate drops more than 60 percent. One thousand fresh seeds weigh about 210 g; 4,600 to 5,000 seeds weigh 1 kg. Germination and Early Growth of Seedlings The seeds start to germinate four days after they have been sown and are fully germinated in eight days. It is advisable to construct shading shelters in the seed beds to shield the young seedlings from bright sunshine, although shade is not necessary if irrigation can be provided to keep the soil moist. The seedlings grow slowly during during the first 50 10 cm in height by the Their roots, however, grow much spring. faster. A seedling plant 6.0 cm to 6.5 cm in height, for example, may have a main root that is three to four times longer than the aboveground shoot is high, and that has fifty to seventy lateral roots 5 to 10 cm in length. This explains xianmu's ability to grow in the dry conditions of stone crevices. Trees one and one-half years old usually have attained a height of 70 cm and a basal diameter of 1 cm; they are ready for transplanting in afforestation sites. year, next reaching only When forty to fifty years old, 30 cm or more wild xianmu trees are in diameter at breast height and suitable for making wheels. For shipbuilding, fifty- to sixty-yearold trees should be used. Even at that age, however, the volume of timber is still increasing; thus, to obtain the greatest volume of timber per unit area and to produce large-diameter timber, clear-cutting should be done when trees are seventy to eighty years old. In artificial forests, or plantations, the trees grow faster and can be felled ten years sooner. Nomenclature and Orthography Burretiodendron hsienmu was published in 1956, by the well known plant taxonomists Professors Chun Woonyoung and How Foon-chew (Chun and How, 1956). Many years later, Professors Chang Hong Ta and Mian Ru Huai established a new genus, Excentrodendron Chang & Mian, to accommodate Burretiodendron hsienmu, which they regarded as distinct enough to require a separate genus (Chang and Mian, 1978). The resulting binomial, Excentrodendron hsienmu (Chun & How) Chang & Mian, has not been widely adopted so far, however. The specific epithet, hsienmu, is the tree's Chinese common name as it is Romanized according to the Wade-Giles system. According to the now widely accepted pmyin system of Romamzation, however, the Chinese name should be spelled xianmu. We chose to use the pinym rendering in this paper. Nonetheless, since the form hsienmu was used by Chun and How when they described the species, the specific epithet remains hsienmu. A Note on Growth Rate Young wild xianmu trees grow very slowly during their first five years, increasing in height only about 30 cm each year. During their second five years, their growth accelerates rapidly to two to four times what it was during their first five years. The rate of increase in height reaches a peak The first name between their tenth and fifteenth years, when their height increases more than 1 meter per year. After the peak period, until the thirtieth or fortieth year, no great reduction m growth rate occurs. The peak period for increase in the diameter of the xianmu's bole is usually between the twentieth and twenty-fifth years, when the increase in diameter at breast height may exceed 1 cm per annum. After that period, the increase remains relatively high until the trees are thirty-two to forty-five years old. In favorable microclimates, the volume of timber in a thirty-year-old tree is 0.4747 cubic meter, the increase continuing well beyond the fortieth year. From these figures we conclude that xianmu has a medium growth rate. ten years old, xianmu trees usually 5 to 7 cm in diameter at breast height and 5 to 6 meters tall. At this point the forest becomes too dense and a thinning operation may be carried out to remove are When References Chang Hong Ta and Mian Ru Huai. 1978. The taxonomy of Excentrodendroideae, Tiliaceae. Journal of Sun Yat-sen Umversity 53(3\/: 19-26. [In Chmese with English summary.] Chun Woon-young and How Foon-chew. 1956. Species novae arborum utihum Chinae memdionahs. Acta that do not have straight trunks or that obstruct the growth of other trees. By the thirtieth year, and every tenth year thereafter, selective felling is carried out to provide structural timber (Yang, 1958). trees Chmese with Phytotaxonomica Smca 5(1\/. English summary]. 1-18. [In 51 Hu Shunshi et aln. 1980. The tures phytocoenological feaof limestone seasonal rain forest in Guangxi. Journal of Northeastern Forestry College 4: 11-26. [In Chinese with English summary.] Li Shlying et all1. 1956. Plant communities m southwestern Long7mg and its adjacent areas. Senes in Phytoecology and Geobotany 8. [In Chmese.] Li Zhy and Wang Xianpu. 1964. Briefing the data for regionalization of tropics and subtropics in Guangxi from the law of vegetational geographical distribution. Senes m Phytoecology and GeoLiang 1-49. [In Chmese.] Chofen et aln 1981. A protected natural area of karst forest, Longgang, m the northern margm to the Tropics m Guangxi. Gmhaia 1~2\/: 1-6. [In reserve, Daxin County, Guangxi, from the signif- icance and role of managed protected area. Guihaia 4~4[: 351-354 [In Chinese with English summary.]] Wang Xianpu. 1985a. Characteristics and effective management of Longrul natural reserve area in Guangxi. World Environment 2: 16-18. [In Chinese.] Wang Xianpu. 1985b. On the management of Longfushan reserve m Longan County, Guangxi. Wild Ammals 3: 1-5. [In Chmese.] botany 3~1). Chinese.]] Yang Yuhua. 1958. Silviculture of Burretiodendron hsienmu. Forestry Sciences 2. 149-156. [In Chinese with English summary.] Wang Huen-pu (Wang Xianpu\/. 1980. Nature conservation m China: The present situation. Parks 5[ 1 \/: 1-10. [This paper is excerpted in this issue of Arnoldia, above.] Wang Xianpu. 1984. On the management of Longmei The authors are affiliated with the Institute of Botany of the Academia Sinica in Bering, Chma. Wang Xianpu is Professor and Deputy Director of the Institute, as well as Chairman of the Beyng Ecological Society of Chma. He specializes in synecology and the forest ecosystems of tropical and subtropical Chma. Jm Xiaobal is a plant research worker at the Institute's Beyng Botamcal Garden. Sun Chengyong is a plant research worker with the Institute's Department of Ecology. He specializes m systems analysis and in computer techmques. Correction The name Srebold was tion,\" by Bruce Bartholomew (Arnoldia, Volume 46, Number 1, Winter 1986, readers for the error. mistakenly used for Kaempfer in the article \"The Chinese Species of Camellia in Cultivapage 5). Amoldia apologizes to its "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Conservation of Plant Lore in the Amazon Basin","article_sequence":5,"start_page":52,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24907","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25ebb6b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"Conservation of Plant Lore in the Amazon Basin Richard Evans Schultes Salvaging irreplaceable knowledge about the properties of plants, gained the millennia by fast-disappearing Amazonian cultures, has become an urgent goal of modern-day ethnobotany engendered by Mother Earth over With all you potent herbs do I now intercede; and to your majesty make my appeal: ye were and given for a gift to all. On you she has conferred the healing g which makes whole, on you high excellence, so that to all mankind you may be time and again an aid most serviceable. -An ancient Roman prayer to all herbs The vertiginous growth in the world's population has put a serious strain on natural resources. The dwindling supply of nonrenewable resources has long been a concern of plant scientists and conservation-minded citizens, and now the severity of the situation has begun to attract the attention of the public and, fortunately, even of some governmental institutions. Man has only recently begun to take stock of the chemical and genetic potentialities offered by the Plant Kingdom. No botanist can with certainty tell how many species of plants there are in the world. Most estimates in textbooks cite about 280,000, but those of us who work in tropical floras-especially in poorly explored regions-believe that the extinction; two, the salvaging of the knowledge about plants and their properties held and three, the domestication of new crop plants or, in broader terms, the conservation of germ plasm of economically promising species. Tremendous strides have recently been made in many parts of the world towards protecting endangered species, though much remains to be done, particularly in the Tropics. Fragile ecosystems like that of the Amazon basin are especially susceptible to the extinction of species, primarily because of the large pecentage of highly localized endemics which, with the present rapid and uncontrolled destruction of huge areas, may easily be exterminated even before they are discovered and classified by botanists. This aspect of conservation may be the most important, for if the plants themselves disappear, what is there left for us to conserve? by fast-disappearing cultures; figure may surpass 500,000. We are currently faced with the incredible task of studying the many thousands of species, most of them still untested and unexamined, many of them not even as yet botanically identified. The Science of Conservation There several aspects of the interdiscipliscience known generally as conservanary tion. Three are, however, most urgently in need of wide and constructive attention: one, the protection of plant species in danger of are Ethnobotanical Conservation The second aspect of conservation, which we have come to term ethnobotanical conservation, is not yet so widely recognized. But from the point of view of humanity's increasing dependence on the Plant Kingdom, it deserves to be given priority, especially in 53 new health-related products. has this aspect of conservation Only recently been given serious attention. The World Wildlife Fund, for example, has organized an Ethnobotany Specialist Group centered in the Botanical Musuem at Harvard University, the purpose of which is to collect and conserve as much knowledge about the properties and uses of plants as possible from indigenous peoples. Ethnobotanical leaders from around the world are united in a program destined to help salvage this precious information. Many experts in sundry scientific fields believe that this effort represents a milestone in conservation activities. the search for an essentialhas been a deep and disliving cerning acquaintance with the plants around him. This acquaintance led inevitably to experimentation. From the experimentation, there gradually accrued a knowledge of properties, useful and harmful, of many plants. This knowledge, tested by time, has grown into an integral part of the various aboriginal cultures and has been passed on from generation to generation. Some of it is still with us today. It may not be here long, however. to Nature. An important-yes, part of his The Threat from Civilization's Relentless Advance Civilization is relentlessly advancing in many if not most regions still sacred to primitive societies. It has long been on the advance, but its pace is now accelerated as the result of extended commercial interests, increased missionary activities, widened tourism, and world wars. The feverish road-building in the Amazon basin serves as an example of how fast penetration is proceeding. With an estimated eighty thousand species of plants, or approximately 17 percent of the world's flora, the Amazon basin must be classified as one of the world's least-tapped emproia of vegetal wealth. Its rain forests have given civilization numerous major economic plants: the pineapple, tapioca, cacao, achiote, coca, timbo, curare, and other useful species. And they have likewise given us the rubber tree, which in only one hundred years has drastically altered life of rich and poor around the world. Yet the Amazon forest still holds many wild plants that could be of great benefit to mankind. There are many plants which, if we are to judge from their use in local, aboriginal societies, merit consideration for domestication: as sources of food, oils, gums, resins, dyes, and waxes. The bases of utility of these types of economic plants are, of course, immediately Conservation of Germ Plasm The third aspect-and a most sigmficant one-has been going on subconsciously for millennia, ever since the discovery of agriculture ten thousand years ago in the Old World, approximately seven thousand years ago in the New World, namely, the conservation of germ plasm. But it has now come into its own from a scientific point of view: germ-plasm collection must be considered an integral arm of the conservation of natural products. It is surprising how many of our major economic plants were discovered, domesticated, changed, and improved by primitive societies long before advanced civilizations inherited them and began slowly to apply modern, sophisticated techniques to bend them further to man's use. Of the twelve or thirteen major food plants of the worldrice, wheat, maize, the common bean, soy bean, peanut, white potato, sweet potato, tapioca, sugar cane, sugar beet, banana, and coconut-only one, the sugar beet, did not come to us from primitive societies; it was developed in a deliberate breeding and selection project instituted in France one hundred seventy years ago. Primitive man everywhere has lived close 54 obvious to any observer, but what of those species whose utility depends upon chemical compounds that are invisible to the observer? The number of species that hold promise as potential sources of still-unrecognized constituents of biological activity cannot even be forecast. We have an academic and a practical obligation to salvage some of the medicobotanical lore before it shall have been forever entombed with the cultures that gave it birth. From the practical point of view few activities can be more cogent than the search for new medicines from the Plant Kingdom. And on this practical obligation is directly founded all efforts in ethnobotanical conservation. During the last forty-five years, I have concentrated my own ethnobotanical studies on tropical American plants, especially those of Mexico, the northern Andes, and the northwestern part of the Amazon basin. During this period I spent fourteen years of uninterrupted residence among the Indians of the Colombian Amazon and adjacent Brazil. This region is still one of the least acculturated parts of the hylea and, although it represents only a very small sector of the Amazon basin (which, incidentally, is an area larger than the United States), our investigations indicate that there are probably few places in the world where native peoples use a greater percentage of their flora for bio- It has truly been said that the primitive medicine man may hold, in his knowledge of plants, the key to great new advances in modern medicine. As a Brazilian chemist has recently written: \"Since the Indians in the Amazon are often the only ones who know both the properties of the forest species and how they can best be utilized, their knowledge must be considered an essential component of all efforts to conserve and develop the Amazon.\" Mainly as a result of the superstitious excesses of medieval European herbal medicine, pharmaceutical science during the last part of the Nineteenth and early Twentieth centuries turned definitely antagonistic to plant medicines. Synthetic chemistry would solve any and all problems, it was believed. Beginning in the early 1930s, there began a series of extraordinary discoveries of new drugs-the so-called \"wonder drugs\"-that have revolutionized modern medical practices : curare (muscle relaxants from South American arrow poisons); penicillin and a host of other antibiotics (all from lower plants); cortisone (from the Mexican yam); resperine (from the Indian snake root); vincoleucoblastine (an anticancer agent, from the periwinkle); the alkaloids from Veratrum dynamic or biological activity-that medicines, poisons, or narcotics. is as (hypotensive agents); podophyllotoxin (a cytotoxic and antifungal resin from the May apple); strophanthine (a cardiotonic from an African arrow-poison plant); and others, all discovered and first isolated from plantsand usually from plants that play significant roles in primitive medicine. As a result of these marvellous discoveries, the pharmaceutical sciences have gradually turned back to the Plant Kingdom as an almost virgin field for new biologically active principles. the wealth of the as a nearly limitless chemical factory almost untouched by scientific study and yearning for conservation, until the properties of its species, discovered and utilized by those humans who have lived with it for millennia, can be subjected to the impartial scrutiny of the laboratory. to Nearly Everything points A Limitless Chemical Factory Amazon's green mantle Ethnopharmacological Research A few examples from my own ethnopharmacological research may suffice to indicate the perspicacity of the Indians of the north- 55 western Amazon basin and the basic reasons conservation of ethnobotanical inforwhy mation is so fraught with promise. From the of 278 alkaloids-and we must remember that alkaloids are only one of the many categories of biologically active secondary organic constituents in norhwestern part of the Amazon, we have field notes on more than two thousand species valued by aboriginal populations for their biodynamic activity. Almost all need investigation, for many species (and even genera and whole families) have never been examined by phytochemists, even superfi- plants. My field notes, for example, indicate that thirty-two species are used for purposes suggesting possible cardiac activity; seventyeight are involved in the preparation of arrow poisons; twenty-seven seem to be insecticidal; forty-two are used as fish poisons; three are cially. Recently, ten employed by the Indians as oral I counted the number of new alkaloids isolated from Amazonian species and reported in the literature during the last contraceptives; fifty-two are taken to expel intestinal parasites; six are said to be stimu- years. My very superficial and most cer- lants; eleven are valued as hallucinogens narcotics-and so the list goes on. or tainly far from complete count gave a total a Patinoa ichthyotoxica R. E Schult eJ Cuatr, bombacaceous tree the frmt pulp of which is used as a fish poison by the Tikuna Indians of the Colombian Amazonas Shown here are the tree's flowers and leaves (left) and its fruit (nght). Drawmgs by Irene Brady. 56 The Promise of Two Ethnobotany the botanical perof the Indians of the northwestern spicacity Amazon basin and my reasons for suggesting that conservation of ethnobotanical information is filled with promise. There is an Amazonian hallucinogenic drink variously called ayahuasca, caapi, or yaje, prepared from the bark of species of liana (Banisteriopsis caapi), which contain beta-carboline alkaloids that cause visions in blues, grays, and purples. It is employed in magico-religious ceremonies and as in medicine. To increase the intensity and duration of the intoxication, the natives sometimes add the leaves of another liana of the same family (Diplopteris cabrerana) or the leaves of a bush belonging to the coffee family (Psychotria viridis). It has been found that these leaves contain other types of psychoactive alkaloids known as tryptamines. Tryptamines are inactive when taken orally, unless they are protected by a chemical constituent known to inhibit monoamineoxidases. The beta-carbolines in the bark of the liana are monoamineoxidase inhibitors. How did our unlettered Indians ever find these two appropriate additives among the eight thousand species in their forests? A similar extraordinary phenomenon concerns the hallucinogenic snuff prepared from a resinous exudate from the bark of certain Amazon trees of the nutmeg family (Virola spp.). This powder, recent investigation has contains very high concentrations of tryptamines, which, of course, can be active in the form of snuff. But several examples illustrate built-in monoamineoxidase inhibitor that activates the abundant tyrptamines. Domestication As Conservation: Curare Finally, we might well consider two examples of domestication as a form of conservation ; one a possible new departure in domestication, the other one of the world's most important crop plants. It was a study of the preparation of curare, or arrow poison, that first took me to the northwestern Amazon, in 1941. The Indians of this region have the most complex formulas and use the greatest number of plants in preparing their curare. Each tribe and each medicine man has its own recipe. Each recipe calls for a different number of ingredients-from one to fifteen or more. An alkaloid-tubocurarine-isolated from certain forest lianas of the mood seed Family (especially Chondrodendron tomentosum) discovered, tribes-Witotos and Boras-do not use the caapi (Spruce ex Gnsb.J Morton, a hana whose bark is the basis of a sacred hallucmogemc dnnk used over a mde area of the Western and Southern Amazon by many tnbes m them magico-rehgious and medicmal ceremomes This and the two other photographs accompanymg this article were taken by the author. narcotic as a snuff but take it ceremonially in the form of pills. How could these tryptamines be active when taken orally without Bamstenopsis the addition of tor ? More a monoamineoxidase inhibitrace as a precise chemical examination dis- closed the presence in the exudate of amounts of beta-carbolines serving 57 has become extremely important in modern medicine as a muscle relaxant and for other uses. The synthetic alkaloid apparently does not have the same properties as that isolated from the bark of the lianas. A serious shortage of curare from the forests seems to be imminent. Pharmaceutical compames still must purchase for the extraction of tubocurarine the syrup prepared by Indians in Amazonian Ecuador and Peru. The liana is extremely slow-growing. Indians must fell it for its bark. Each year, they must go farther afield, and the liana is becoming scarce. Furthermore, rich deposits of oil are being developed in the region, and Indian labor for bark-collecting is harder to find each year. It would seem to be feasible to seek germ plasm of high-yielding lianas for cultivation under greenhouse conditions. The young sprouting shoots might repeatedly be harvested for extraction of the alkaloid and left to grow again, thus assuring a more or less continuous supply. Slavery, Then A The Para Rubber Tlree: Emancipation very recently domesticated plant with which I have worked intimately in the Amazon from 1942 to the present: the There is one heavy-crowned young Parb rubber tree (Hevea brasiliensis [Willd ex A. fuss.] Mull. Arg., center) on the banks of the Rio Loreto Yacu, Amazonas, Colombia. (Hevea brasiliensis), domesticated only one hundred years ago. No other plant has so drastically altered life around the world in so short a time. Before its domestication, most of the world's natural rubber came from wild trees in the Amazon basin, produced by Indians living in deplorably subhuman conditions in the malarial forests, far from their homes, under economic conditions approaching slavery or worse, with inadequate diets and no health services against tropical diseases, often sadistically tortured or killed as punishment for not bringing in sufficient latex-a nefarious industry that decimated or extermiPara rubber tree The flowers and leaves of the Para rubber tree, which yields almost all of the natural rubber used m the world. Photographed m Amazoman Colombia. 58 nated whole tribes of a wonderful race. I am reminded of the feelings of the anthropologist Koch-Grunberg, an early and earnest conservationist, who spent a long period in the northwestern part of the German Amazon basin and who returned to the field there after an absence of five years, during which time the Natives had been impressed into rubber tapping. His words in German are improvements have been brought about from the wild trees in only a century! The yield of rubber from the first plantations was 450 pounds per acre per year; some modern clones are yielding more than 3,500 pounds vast per acre per year. Plant Conservation and Human Salvation Domestication of the rubber tree yielded two forceful; they lose much of their power in my translation of them into English: Hardly five years have passed since I lived in the Caiary-Uaupes. Whoever goes there now will no longer find the idyllic region that I knew. The pestilential stench of a pseudo-cmilization is sweeping over these brown people, who have no rights. Like an all-destructive swarm of grasshoppers, the inhuman hordes of rubber collectors press on and on and force my friends farther and farther into the deathly rubber forests. Raw brutahty, mistreatment, murder are the order of the day. Their dwelling sites become deserted, their houses are reduced to ashes, and their gardens, depnved of caring hands, are taken over again by the jungle. Thus a vigorous race, a people with a magnificent spirit and friendly character, are annihilated, and human material capable of development is destroyed as the result of the brutality of these modern barbarians of culture. ... ... results, both of which are relevant to the practical aspects of conservation. It furnished a steady, ample, and inexpensive supply of rubber without which our modem world, especially its transportation systems, could not have come into being. It also saved from virtual annihilation whole tribes of Indians, for once the well run Asiatic plantations began to fulfill the world's need for rubber, the extraction of rubber from wild trees in the jungle, for all practical purposes, died out. Thus, the commercial cultivation of a wild tree saved a whole people, an unexpected result of that branch of conservation known as domestication. The Plant Kingdom remains an almost virgin field for the discovery of biologically active compounds waiting in silent hiding. Can we afford any longer to ignore the hunting ground that has provided, through folklore and serendipity, leads that the pharmaceutical industry has turned into products having annual sales in excess of three billion dollars in the American prescription market alone? We cannot imagine the uses that the future may have for the thousands of genera that the world's flora holds out to us. For the good of our descendants, for the progress of civilization, and perhaps even for the survival of humankind it behooves us-nay, it obliges us-to protect this nonrenewable gift of Nature and to conserve the knowledge of aboriginal people on how to use it, for the benefit of the entire race. ' 1876, the British succeeded in domesticating the rubber tree. Two thousand seeds In of seventy thousand collected germinated in greenhouses in Kew Gardens. Although the seeds were quite openly exported with the help of Brazilian officials, Brazil prohibited further exportation of rubber seeds. All the millions of acres of today's Asiatic plantations are populated with descendants of these few original trees. The seeds were collected from one small locality and represent only one strain-and not the best-of the rubber tree. Yet what 59 Note This article on is a May 21, 1984, modified version of the talk presented to the World Wildlife Fund's Internam tional Board of Trustees Washmgton, D.C. Suggested Reading B. Kreig. Green Medicme~ The Search for Plants That Heal. Chicago. Rand McNally and Company, 1964 462 pages. Norman Myers The Smkmg Ark A New Look at the Problem of Disappeanng Species Oxford: Pergamon Press, 1979. xm + 307 pages. Loren G. Polhamus. Rubber. Botany, Production, and Utihzation. Londow Leonard Hill [Books], Limited, New York Interscience Publishers, 1962. 449 pages Ghillean T. Prance and Thomas S. Elias, editors. Extmction is Forever: Threatened and Endangered Species of Plants in the Amencas and Their Sigmficance m Ecosystems lbday and m the Future. Proceedmgs of a Symposium (Bronx, New York, 1976). Bronx, New York: The New York Botamcal Garden, 1977. vi + 437 pages. Richard Evans Schultes. From witch doctor to modem medicine Searchmg the American Tropics for potentially new medicinal plants. Arnoldia 32(5): 198-219 ~1972\/ From ancient plants to modern medicine. Pages 172-187 in 1984 Yearbook'of Science and the Future. Chicago:' Encyclopaedia Bntanmca, 1983. The tree that changed the world in one century. Arnoldia 44(2) : 2-16 (1984). Learnmg the secrets of the forest. Focus [World Wildlife Fund-U.S. Washington, D.C.]: George H. Stout and Richard Evans Schultes. The importance of plant chemicals in human affams. Pages 381-399 m: Lawrence P. Miller, editor, Phytochemistry, Volume 3. New York. Van Nostrand Remhold Company, 1973. Three volumes. Hugh Synge and Harry Townsend, editors. Surmval or Extinction. Proceedmgs of a Conference (Kew, England, 1978). Kew, England: Bentham-Moxon Trust, Royal Botanical Gardens, 1979 ix + 250 pages. Margaret Wrlham A. R. Thomson, editor. Medicmes from the Earth A Gmde to Healmg Plants Revised edrtion. New York. Alfred van der Marck Editions, 1983. 179 pages. Richard Evans Schultes is Professor Emeritus of Biology and Director Emeritus of the Botamcal Museum at Harvard University. Born m Boston, he received his undergraduate and graduate degrees from Harvard University. Specializing m Latin American ethnobotany, he has been particularly interested m the narcotics and poisons used by primitive peoples. This is the fourth article Professor Schultes has written for Amoldia. . . 6\/5\/: 4 ~1984~. and Norman R. Farnsworth Ethnomedical, botamcal, and phytochemical aspects of natural hallucinogens. Botamcal Museum Leaflets [Harvard University] 28(2) 123-214 (1980\/. and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Origins of Hallucmogemc Use New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1974. 192 pages and Tony Swam. The Plant Kmgdom~ A virgm field for new biodynamic constituents. Pages 133-171 in: N. J. Fma, editor, The Recent Chemistry of Natural Products, Including Tobacco. Proceedmgs of the Second Philip Morris Science Symposmm (Richmond, Virginia, New York: Philip Morris, 1976. 176 pages. 1975). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Designing Plants with Rare Genes","article_sequence":6,"start_page":60,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24908","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25e816f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART Designing Plants with Rare Genes John W enhanced Einset crop By means of gene-transfer technology important plants may someday be ---- through the shrewd transfer of genes from rare and threatened mechanism, Agrobacterium can transfer, virtually any DNA mobilize, via its Ti plasmid (a tumor-inducing sequence ring of DNA) into cells in which the sequence becomes stably attached to the plant's own DNA, perpetuated, and expressed as new genetic material. The second gene-transfer method, known as electroporation, utilizes a mixture of plant protoplasts (cells that have had their cell walls removed by enzymatic digestion) plus purified DNA incubated in or species communal enterprise; it makes significant progress only when findings from diverse avenues of investigation are shared and consolidated. Nowhere is this more apparent than in modern biotechnology, the utilization of living systems (plant, animal, and microbial) for practical purposes. In fact, it can be said that the recent success of plant biotechnology has been built on a foundation of earlier progress in such varied areas of botany as anatomy, biochemistry, ecology, genetics, morphology, physiology, and systematics. In the future, plant conservation, with its emphasis on the preservation of rare and endangered species, will undoubtedly also have a significant impact. The most spectacular recent innovations in biotechnology involve improved technology for genetically modifying plants and producing individuals with new characteristics. Based on so-called \"gene-transfer methods,\" these novel techniques for plant Science is a undefined currently being different procedures. accomplished by The first procedure exploits a pathogenic bacterium known as Agrobacterium tumefaciens, which normally causes the crowngall disease, characteristic tumorous overgrowths on infected plants, to transfer desired genes (DNA) mto plant cells. By an as-yet genetic engineering are two strong electric field. This apparently opens channels in the membranes of protoplasts, enabling DNA to enter cells and to be mherited. Even though electroporation is a less efficient means of transferring genes than is crown gall, its advantage is that it avoids the complex biochemical manipulations required to produce inactivated Ti plasmids that are capable of transferring DNA but are inactive as producers of tumorous crown galls. In addition, electroporation is a more versatile technique than is crown gall, which apparently can be used only on dicotyledonous plants and a few conifers. Up to this time, the success of plant genetic engineering has consisted primarily of careful demonstrations of the gene-transfer principle with model experimental plants. a the presence of treatment 61 A salt-tolerant biotype of Lycopersicon cheesmann Riley (left foreground), a species of tomato endemic to the Islands of Ecuador. Of some fifty-five biotypes collected from the shorelme to the highest elevanons of the island, only this one was salt tolerant. Photograph by Charles M. Rick. Courtesy of the photographer Galapagos emphasis, therefore, has been placed on the kinds of genes that are being manipulated or, for that matter, on the plants that are being transformed. Tobacco plants, for instance, have been produced that are resistant to the medicinal antibiotic kanamycin, but this characteristic has no obvious agricultural value. Nonetheless, experiments such as these are significant in setting the stage for important advances in the future. Because of the progress that has already been made, it now appears theoretically possible that practically any characteristic of a plant could be transferred to any other plant, provided Less the characteristic can be defined at the gene level. Once the gene (or genes) involved is identified, it can be isolated and purified from the donor plant. Then, it can be incorporated by means of gene-transfer technology into the genetic makeup of a recipient cell. Finally, tissue-culture methods involving phytohormones can be used to regenerate plants with the new characteristic, starting from single, genetically modified cells. What kinds of characteristics will be exploited by plant biotechnology? Obviously, the possibilities are numerous, some in the near future and others in the long term. One 62 promising approach involves the development of herbicide-resistant plants. The Monsanto Company in the United States, for example, is attempting to produce soybean cultivars resistant to glyphosate (trade name, an Roundup), agriculturally important, non- selective herbicide. Significant, practical gains could be realized from this research project in the next ten years. Other bioengineering objectives, on the other hand, are farther in the future. Disease-resistant or cold-hardy plants probably won't be produced for another twenty-five years, and effective transfer of nitrogen-fixing abilities are at least fifty years away, even according to the most optimistic observers. At this very moment, several rare and endangered plants undoubtedly harbor genetic characteristics that would be of tremendous Oilseed Crops. Long-chain fatty acids from plants are used as lubricants in steel production and to make plastics for gear wheels and electrical insulation. Although these fatty acids currently are obtained from imported rapeseed (Brassica species) oil, researchers with the United States Department of Agriculture are actively pursuing work with other potential sources. One of these, Limnanthes alba (meadowfoam), is a rare and endangered species native to northern California. Research with this plant currently focusses on the development of suitable parent strains for seed production and on possible economic uses of the seed oil. Salt Tolerance. Lycopersicon cheesmanii is a rare species of tomato found only on the potential significance to biotechnology. Many of them probably have not even been discovered yet; some, in fact, may become extinct before their value is appreciated. Fortunately, at least a few valuable endangered plants are the subject of intense conservation efforts. Potential Economic Uses for Rare Plants The following paragraphs describe a few of the potentially valuable characteristics or chemical compounds that endangered species might someday contribute to human welfare through genetic-engineering tech- niques. Pharmaceuticals. It has been estimated that, on the average, for every one hundred twenty-five plants closely examined for valuable chemicals, one eventually will become an important source of prescription drugs. Since about two thousand plants are expected to become extinct in the United States alone Potentilla robbmsiana Oakes, the dwarf cinquefoil, an endangered species endemic to the White Mountains of NewHampshme. Known only from the Monroe Flats on Mount Washmgton, Potentilla robbmsiana is adapted to one of the harshest envmonments of North Amenca. Photograph by Bruce A. Some. by A.D. 2000, one pharmaceutically significant species will be lost every year for the fifteen years. Conservation measures, of course, could dramatically change this next serious possibility. 63 shores of the Galapagos Islands m the Pacific Sources Ocean. A variety of this endemic species thrives in a coastal habitat barely five yards from salty ocean water. At the University of Depicker, A., M. Van Montagu, and J. Schell. Plant cell California-Davis, researchers have been working for nearly ten years on Lycopersicon cheesmanii to evaluate its salt-tolerance characteristics at the biochemical level and to incorporate the genes involved into commercial tomato varieties. If this work is successful, not only will it improve the vigor of tomato plants in agriculture, it should extend the range of soils and irrigation practices that can be used to grow tomatoes, thus increasing growers's flexibility in producing one of the most important crops in the United States. Cold Hardiness. The dwarf cinquefoil, Potentilla robbinsiana, has been listed as a Federally endangered species for only the past five years. As a native inhabitant of the alpine regions of Mount Washington in New Hampshire, this endangered rare member of the rose family (Rosaceae) displays an extraordinary degree of cold tolerance, surviving, as it does, in one of the harshest environments of North America. Because of this, Potentilla robbinsiana could be of tremendous value as a source of genes for improving the cold hardiness of commercially valuable species of Rosaceae, such as strawberries, raspberries, and apples. These examples illustrate only a few of the plant characteristics that might be exploited in biotechnology. Science has only just begun to appreciate the treasures that exist on a global scale in the world's flora. If one keeps this important fact in mind and recognizes that technological advances depend on setting long-term goals as well as on using integrated approaches, it is easy to see how crucial plant conservation is to the future. As more is learned, the value of plants-even rare and endangered species-becomes more and more evident. by Agrobactenum plasmrds. Pages 143-176 m. Genetlc Engmeermg of Plants. An Agncultural Perspectme, edited by T. Kosuge, C P. Meredith, and A. Hollaender. New York. Plenum Press, 1983. 499 pages. Epstem, E. J., D. Norlyn, D. W. Rush, D. B. transformation R. W. Kmgsbury, Kelley, G. A. Cunmngham, and A. F. Wrona. Saline culture of crops: A genetic approach Science 210: 399~04 (1980). Farnsworth, N. R., and D. D. Soe~arto. Potential consequence of plant extinction in the Umted States on the current and future availability of prescription drugs. Economic Botany 39: 231-240 (1985). Princen, Rick, L. H. New oilseed crops on the horizon. EcoBotany 37' 478~192 (1983). C. M. The tomato. Scientific American 239: 76-87 nomic (August 1978). W. Einset directs the Arnold Arboretum's Laboratory of Comparative Physiology. He is Associate Professor of Biology in Harvard University. John "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books [Edmund A. Schofield]","article_sequence":7,"start_page":64,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24905","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eb76d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness, by Michael P. Cohen. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1984. xiii + 408 pages. $25.00 lumberjacks, John Muir was born at the edge of the North Sea, in far-off Dunbar, Scotland; some dozen years later, when Muir was the United States with his family (their original destination had been Canada), the Bunyan legend was being borne by word of mouth to the same virgin forests of the Old Northwest in which the Muirs had resolved to homestead. There, on the crest of the ever-westering frontier, the legend found a home among the loggers who, then in their heyday, were cutting off the great timberlands of Michigan, Wisconsin, and Minnesota. Come 1860 and restless, young John Muir would escape the grinding drudgery of his father's farm for brief matriculation in the University of Wisconsin. Foiled in this endeavor because the Civil War quickly depleted the University's supply of students, Muir set out for the wild forests of Canada on one of those long, epic walks that someday would ensconce him, cultural hero now, in the growing pantheon of his adopted country-a fit flesh-and-blood counterpoise to the phantasmagoric Paul Bunyan. In 1861, a year after Muir left the farm for good, there was born in his hometown of Portage, Wisconsin, Frederick Jackson Turner, historian-to-be of the American frontier. By that date, the frontier had surged far to the west, leaving Portage in its wake. In another three decades a report on the Census of 1890 would declare that the American frontier was no more, that it had disappeared altogether, evoking from Tixrner-who was by then a professor of American history at the University of Wisconsin-the novel proposition that, \"now [in 1893], four centuries from the discovery of America, at the end of a hundred (cloth). John Muir in His emigrating to Rediscovering Time and America: Ours, by Frederick Turner. New York: Viking Press, 1985. xii + 417 pages. $25.00 (cloth). Muir: Life and Legacy, edited by Sally M. Miller. [The Pacific Historian, Volume 29, Numbers 2 and 3 (Summer\/Fall 1985), pages John 1-166.] Stockton, California: The HoltAtherton Center for Western Studies, University of the Pacific, 1986. $11.00 (paper). The John Muir Papers 1858-1957, edited by Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten E. Lewis. Alexandria, Virginia: Chadwyck-Healey, Inc., 1986. 51 reels of microfilm, 53 cards of microfiche. $3,250.00. The Guide and Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers 1858-1957, edited by Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten Alexandria, Virginia: Chadwyck-Healey, Inc., 1986. 190 pages. $25.00 (paper). E. Lewis. John Muir: A Reading Bibliography, revised and enlarged edition, by William F. Kimes and Maymie B. Kimes. Limited edition of 700 copies. Fresno, California: Panorama West Books, 1986. 208 pages. $40.00 (cloth). In the latter 1830s, just as the preposterous legend of Paul Bunyan was being given birth in the lore of Canada's (some say Maine's) 65 years of life under the Constitution, the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period of American history.\" \"What the Mediterranean Sea was to the Greeks, breaking the bond of custom, offering new experiences, calling out new institutions and activities\"-Turner declared-\"that, and more, the ever retreating frontier has been to the United States directly, and to the nations of Europe more remotely\"-whereupon, off in San Francisco, John Muir and a circle of influential associates founded the Sierra Club as a means of salvaging what islands of wilderness had not been swept away by the westward rush of northern European man. Thenceforth Muir would be a powerful force in America, a force not even the Bunyan legend could neutralize when it later was appropriated and embellished by publicists for commercial timber interests. At about this time (1891),the first volume of Charles Sprague Sargent's classic Silva of North America was published by Houghton Mifflin; eleven years later, the fourteenth, and last, volume would be published. Shortly after the first volume appeared, Muir and Sargent began to correspond. They developed a close professional association that would endure until Muir's death, in 1914. Volume 11 of the Silva, published in 1897, Sargent dedicated to Muir, \"lover and interpreter of Nature who has best told the story of the Sierra forests.\" \"Few men whom I have known loved trees as deeply and intelligently as John Muir,\" Sargent wrote in a memorial to the lately deceased Muir which was published in the Sierra Club Bulletm in 1916. \"The love of trees was born in him, I am sure, and had continuously than Muir, and no one in writing about them has brought them so close to other lovers of nature. Muir and I travelled through many forests, and saw together all the trees of western North America, from Alaska to Arizona. We wandered together through the great forests which cover the southern Appalachian Mountains, and through the tropical forests of southern Russia and the Caucasus and those of eastern Siberia [see excerpts from Muir's scrawled record of this ~ourney, in the Spring 1986 issue of ArnoldiaJ, but in all these wanderings Muir's heart never strayed very far from the California Sierra. He loved the Sierra trees best, and in other lands his thoughts always returned to the great sequoia, the sugar pine, among all trees best loved by him; the incense cedar, the yellow pine, the Douglas spruce, and the other trees which make the forests of California the most wonderful coniferous forests of the world. With these he was always comparing all minor growths, and when he could not return to the Sierra his greatest happmess was in talking of them and in discussing the Sierra trees. As conservation leader, Muir was advisor the Federal Government's Forestry Commission, organized in 1896 to survey the nation's forest reserves. Although not an to official member, he was a close friend of the Commission's chairman-Charles Sprague Sargent-and he joined the Commission on an inspection tour of forests in the Northwest. Muir left the tour for a brief trip to abundant nourishment during his wanderings over the Sierra,\" Sargent continued, where for months at a time he lived among the largest and some of the most beautiful trees of the world. No one has studied the Sierra trees as living beings more deeply and Alaska with Henry Fairfield Osborn but rejoined the Commission in Oregon and continued with them into California and Arizona. Over the next two years he travelled with Sargent and William M. Canby in a wide-ranging study of forest resources in Canada and Alaska, in the South Atlantic states, in the Midwest, and in New England. Muir felt that Sargent was the only member of the Commission who \"knew and loved trees as I loved them.\" 66 John Muir and the Arnold Arboretum a period of forty years John Muir interacted with Boston, Harvard, and the Arnold Arboretum. Asa Gray visited Muir in Yosemite during the summer of 1872, for example, and spent much time with him collecting plants there and elsewhere in California, and later corresponded with him. It was probably on Gray's word that Muir was listed in the Torrey Botanical Club's directory of North American botanists in 1873. Muir sent seeds to Gray in Cambridge, some of which may have been among the very first accessions of the nascent Arnold Arboretum (via the Harvard Botanic Garden and the Bussey Institution), though by no means all of the species represented could have survived in Boston. Louis Agassiz was well aware of Muir's work on the glaciology of Yosemite and would have visited Muir there, en route home from Tierra del Fuego, had he For been unwell. (Muir, for his part, was too busy to travel to San Francisco to call on the ailing Agassiz.) Through Asa Gray, perhaps, Muir made contact with Charles Sprague Sargent, though Muir would not meet Sarnot gent in person until 1893. In 1896, Harvard bestowed an honorary degree on Muir (his first), possibly through the instigation of Sargent. Sargent, as has been said, dedicated the eleventh volume of his Silva of North America Muir, in 1897. Muir reciprocated in 1903 with a glowing review in the Atlantic Monthly of the just-completed Silva. Muir visited Sargent in Boston at least four times and travelled widely with him on three continents. In June 1898 he collected specimens for Sargent on Mt. Shasta and Mt. Scott. Many of to Muir's in a writings originally were published in an Boston-from article on Calypso bulbosa Boston newspaper as early as 1865 (his first) and short items in the Proceedings of the Boston Society of Natural History, to The Writings of John Mum (\"Manuscnpt Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Edition \"), photographed by Herbert Wendell Gleason. Photograph from the 67 entire books and (posthumously) his complete works, which were published by Houghton Mifflin. If for these reasons alone, readers of Arnoldia who live in the Boston area ought to become acquainted with Muir and his writings. The origms and history of the Arnold Arboretum, Charles Sprague Sargent's masterpiece, cannot be understood fully without taking into account the wider, concurrent developments that were occurring in the American forestry and conservation movements (of which John Muir was a primal force). The Arboretum's chroniclers have paid close attention to developments in the botany and horticulture of Sargent and Muir's day but have largely overlooked those in forestry and conservation, especially the broader social context out of which they grew. Perhaps this is so because Sargent was highborn and seems, therefore, to have operated outside or above pressure politics. Yet his successful campaign to make the Arboretum a part of the Boston park system was evidence that, on the local level at least, Sargent was a most savvy and effective lobbyist. Or perhaps this is so partly because John Muir's papers have been virtually locked up, unavailable to scholars until very recently, their invaluable account of events largely denied to the world since his death, or else very widely scattered. It is equally impossible to understand the history of forestry and conservation without taking account of Sargent's strategic influence on those movements, for Sargent was in the vanguard of the long campaign to set up the national forests and similar reserves. At one point, in fact, he singlehandedly redeemed the national forests in the face of fierce opposition from powerful special interests. When, in 1897, the newly inaugurated President, William McKinley, seemed about to capitulate to \"the protests of western politicians\" against the twenty-one million acres of national forest reserves outgoing President Grover Cleveland had just established, Sargent, in his own words, \"went to see him alone and had a private conversation with him. He told me that he was going to break up the reservations and I had a very plain talk with him and explained to him that the President of the Umted States could not afford to put himself in the position of helping western timber thieves. We had a rather stormy interview, but he finally gave up his project.\" This, to the President of the United States! Sargent closes his revelation with a confession and an injunction: \"I have never mentioned this to anybody before and the account of this interview is intended for you alone and not to be given out or in any way published.\" He many years after the was writing to in 1908, Robert Underwood Johnson, editor of the New York-based Century Magazine and the person most responsible for John Muir's advent as a writer of national standing. (Sargent made the same claim in another letter, now at Yale Univer- fact, sity, written in 1921.) Here we see, perhaps, Sargent applying at the national level, on behalf of the fledgling national forests, tactics he had used locally to nurture the fledgling Arnold Arboretum. In his letter to Johnson, Sargent revealed that his interest in forests and their preservation was due \"almost entirely\" to his having read George Perkins Marsh's Man and Nature in the mid-1870s. (The copy of Man and Nature that Sargent read is almost certainly the one now in the library of the Arnold Arboretum. Dated \"Dec. 1875,\" it is inscribed: \"Presented to my Arboreal friend C. S. Sargent Esq. by Francis Skinner.\"~ At the time, Sargent was still Director of the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, and the Arnold Arboretum could scarcely be said to have existed yet. Early in 1879, Sargent began corresponding with Marsh himself, who was Ambassador to Italy, having been appointed to that post by Abraham Lincoln in 1861. \"I have long been a student of Man and Nature,\" 68 Sargent wrote, \"and have derived great pleasure profit from your pages.\" From January 1879 until July 1882, the month Marsh died, they corresponded frequently. It is, perhaps, a matter of no small significance that John Muir's first published essay on forest conservation, \"God's First Temples: How Shall We Preserve Our Forests?,\" appeared in the Sacramento Record-Union on February 9, 1876. Michael P. Cohen, in his excellent new book on Muir (reviewed below), states that \"Muir's argument [in \"God's First Temples\"] was based almost entirely on the theories of George Perkins Marsh....\" Thus, both Charles Sprague Sargent and John Muir were strongly influenced by the same person (Marsh), at about the same time. For this reason and others, people interested in Sargent's life and career, in the history of the Arnold Arboretum, or in the genesis and development of conservation thought in the and United States will find a wealth of information in the flood of new items about Muir that have appeared in the last year or two. Both scholars and general readers should expect the flood to continue over the next many years as additional works based upon newly released primary materials, find their ways into presented at the conference, twelve are published in the volume. Together, the three titles give the general reader a firm grounding in the basic facts of Muir's life; an exploration of the significance, meaning, and consequences of Muir's long campaign on behalf of the American wilderness; and a survey of the more pressing unresolved issues of Muir scholarship. For several decades after Muir's death in no alternatives to the uncritical \"official,\" or \"authorized,\" biographies of him, The Life and Letters of John Muir ( 1923, 1924), by William Frederic Bade, and Son of the Wilderness (1945), by Linnie Marsh Wolfe. Though well executed, both were produced under the close scrutiny, if not outright supervision, of Muir's descendants. The two books did serve the important function of presenting the basic facts of Muir's life, however. Unfortunately, once Wolfe's Pulitzer Prize-winning book was in print Muir's papers were locked up by his family, and historians were denied access to them. Not until the early 1970s, when the family began opening up the papers to scholars, was it possible to enlarge the existing body of knowledge about Muir, or to evaluate and interpret the often heroic accomplishments of this important figure in American history. (Californians consider Muir the most important Californian ever to have lived.)( Stephen R. Fox, an independent scholar based in Boston, was the first contemporary writer able to attempt a retelling of Muir's life. His john Muir and His Legacy: The 1914, the public had two print. Three Works for General Readers Three of the new Muir items will be of special interest to general readers: Michael Cohen's The Pathless Way, Frederick Turner's Rediscovering America, and the Pacific Historian's John Muir: Life and Legacy. The first two items are book-length biographies; the last is a series of articles dealing with various aspects of Muir's life and is based on a conference held at the University of the Pacific in 1985 to mark completion of the John Muir Papers Microform Project, a five-year effort to gather, organize, and publish all of Muir's extant journals, correspondence, and holograph manuscripts. Of the twenty-five papers American Conservation Movement was published in 1981 by Little, Brown. Only with the appearance of the Cohen and Turner bio- graphies do we have nonderivative, booklength treatments of Muir's life, however, for, while devoted in large part to Muir's life, Fox's volume ranges beyond it, to other individuals and to broader issues. (At least one manuscript biography, long since completed, is currently in search of a suitable publisher.)\/ 69 Of the two biographers, Turner provides the more factual, or mundane, account; his effort is a much expanded and updated Linnie Marsh Wolfe type of biography. Michael Cohen writes for those already familiar with the principal facts of Muir's life; in a sense, he picks up where Turner leaves off. Alone, neither book would satisfy the nonspecialist reader, but together they complement each other nicely. John Mum: Life and Legacy shares characteristics of both books, delving into some important facets of Muir's long, active, and productive life and probing its meaning, puzzles, and paradoxes, but selectively. It does not even begin to exhaust the wealth of questions and issues raised in Cohen's book, however. One of the articles, \"John Muir and the Tall Trees of Australia,\" by P. J. Ryan, will attract the attention of readers with a special interest in plants. It is based on materials in the archives of the Kings Park and Botanic Gardens, West Perth; the Royal Botanical Gardens, South Yarra; and the Sydney Botanical Gardens, among others. Index also contains a useful chronology of Muir's life, as well as a biographical sketch. Eleven thousand items were selected for the microform edition: items in the Muir Family Papers at the Holt-Atherton Center for Western Studies at the University of the Pacific and in more than forty other repositories in the United States (including the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum). The edition is published on archivally permanent silver halide film stock. Virtually all of John Muir's surviving papers are included. Linnie Marsh Wolfe's and William Frederick Bade's painstakingly assembled papers also were selected for filming. The microfiche cards consist of thirty-three hundred nature and landscape photographs and illustrations in the Muir collection. Forty-six of the photographs are by Herbert W. Gleason. There are five series to the Papers: \"Correspondence and Related Documents, 1858-1914\" (seven thousand letters, both incoming and outgoing), \"Journals and Three Works for Specialists Fortunately, three specialized Muir items provide scholars with ample resources for attacking the issues Cohen and others raise, and far more besides. Chief and most impressive among them is The John Muir Papers 1858-1957, the fruit of the John Muir Microform Project. It consists of fifty-one reels of microfilm and fifty-three cards of microfiche. A related item, The Guide and Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers 1858-1957, catalogs the contents of the Papers. While necessarily subordinate to the microform edition, the Guide and Index is valuable in its own right, not the least because it allows poor scholars and others for whom the microform edition would be inaccessible, to obtain reels and cards through interlibrary-loan services. The Guide and Sketchbooks, 1867-1913\" (eighty-four joursketchbooks), \"Manuscripts and Works, 1856-1914\" (notebooks, and precursor works, unpublished published works, and miscellaneous notes), \"Pictorial Works, 1854-1914\" (the thirty-three hundred photographs, which were taken by nearly two hundred photographers, and other illustrations), and \"Related Papers, 1873-1943\" (the Bade, Wolfe, Muir Family, Sierra Club, and other papers). Among the many specific nals and Published items of interest in the Papers are Muir's journals of his travels with the U. S. Forestry Commission, of a botanical trip with Charles Sprague Sargent and William M. Canby, and of his world tour, during much of which he was accompanied by Sargent and Sargent's son, Andrew Robeson Sargent. Sketches of fossil plants by Muir are reproduced on the microfiche cards. The Guide and Index to the Papers contains some nineteen thousand index entries. Botanists scanning the Guide and Index 70 Gray, Liberty Hyde Bailey, George Engelmann, William M. Canby, John Torrey, and Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, for example, in addition to Charles Sprague Sargent. John Burroughs, Edward H. Harriman, Gifford Pinchot, Luther Burbank, David Starr Jordan, J. H. Mellichamp, and Henry Fairfield Osborn make appearances as well. Western botanists, especially, will recognize the names Vernon Bailey, Anstruther Davidson, William R. Dudley, Alice Eastwood, Edward Lee Greene, George Hansen, Albert Kellogg, John G. Lemmon, Sara Allen Lemmon, C. Hart Merriam, Charles C. Parry, and William Trelease. (All, except Davidson, are represented by letters from or to Muir, Davidson by several photographs.) Sargent's correspondence with Muir is among the most extensive: some one hundred twenty-two letters to Sargent from Muir and forty-three from Sargent to Muir. There are fourteen letters from Asa Gray to Muir and nine from Muir to Gray. The third item for specialists, as well as for general readers who find themselves developing a more than casual interest in Muir, is the revised edition of William and Maymie Kimes's landmark reading bibliography of Muir items. Originally published in 1977 in a limited edition of only three hundred copies, John Muir: A Reading Bibliography was sold by subscription for one hundred fifty dollars. The new edition of this definitive work, which is a third again as large as the original, has just been printed in a limited, but larger, edition of seven hundred copies and sells for only forty dollars. Containing six hundred seventy chronologically arranged and annotated entries, the Kimes bibliography is an indispensable tool for anyone hoping to do serious research on Muir. Until now it has been available primarily to those who were able to purchase the first edition or who are near one of the libraries that own copies of it. The Kimeses contributed to the John Muir Microform will find many familiar names-Asa Project and, fortunately, some one hundred sixteen of the entries in their bibliography are identified by number in the Index and Guide to the microform edition. With publication the John Muir Papers and republication of the Kimes bibliography the stage has been set for a surge of new insights into the life, career, and achievements of America's premier conservationist. Historians of the Arnold Arboretum and biographers of Charles Sprague Sargent have emphasized affinities with Europeans and European mstitutions-Joseph Hooker and Kew, for instance, or Ernest Wilson, Joseph Rock, Frank Meyer, and the St. Petersburg botanic garden-or else with the Far East. The Arboretum's activities in formalized, or academic, botany have justifiably received much attention too, as have its formidable in horticulture. Sargent's accomplishments Silva of North America is acclaimed as a classic. The Arboretum's as a status as an Olmsted park, gem in Boston's \"Emerald Necklace\" of parks, or as an academic institution has been noted time and again. The Arboretum is held up on the one hand as a worldclass institution, on the other almost as a strictly local one. Its place as a peculiarly American phenomenon is overlooked, ignored, played down, however, as is Sargent's seminal part in the unfolding of the American conservation movement. Perhaps the prolonged unavailability of the John Muir Papers has been partly responsible for the oversights. If so, then, in time, their publior as momentous for histoof the Arnold Arboretum and biographers of Charles Sprague Sargent as it will for students of John Muir and the Sierra Club. Both Sargent and Muir deserve recognition for their heroic intervention on behalf of America's wilderness and forests. They were worthy opponents of the absurd Bunyanesque notion that forests exist solely to be cut down.-E.A.S. cation could prove nans "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 46","article_sequence":8,"start_page":71,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24909","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25e8528.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 46 to Treasures of the Harvard 35-38 University Herbaria,\" Carolme Swartz, \/2~: J (Numbers m parentheses refer issues) \"Botany. The State of the Art\" (column), \/1\/~ 36-44, (2y 42-45, \/4~: Authors Bartholomew, Bruce, \/ 12-15; (4) : 15-36 60-63 \"Burretiodendron hsienmu Chun & How: Its Ecology and Its Protection,\" Wang Xianpu, Jm Boufford, David E., \/4y 15-36 Brumback, William E., (3) 33-35 Del Tredici, Peter, (2): 2-10 Emset, John W., (1)36-44; (2) : 42-45; (4) : 60-63 Falk, Donald A., (3). 2-18 Fordham, Alfred J., (2): 25-27 Greenhouse, Ruth, (3): 36-46 Hardt, Richard A., (2) : 27-34 Hicks, Jennifer L.,( 130-35 Hodgson, Wendy, (3): 36-46 Jm Xiaobai, (4). 46-51 Koller, Gary L, (4\/: 2-14 Michener, David C., (2): 46-47 Nabhan, Gary Paul, (3y 36-46 Nicholson, Robert G., (1). 20-29; (3) : 23-25 Xiaobai, and 46-51 Sun Chengyong, (4) : ' , Chmese New Year, Samurai Warriors, and the Arnold Arboretum,\" (1). 16-19 \"Charles Edward Faxon, delmeamt,\" (3\/~ 19-22 \"Collecting Rare Comfers m North Africa,\" Robert G. Nicholson, ( 1 \/: 20-29 \"Conservation of Plant Lore m the Amazon Bastn;' Richard Evans Schultes, (4). 52-59 \"Designing Plants with Rare Genes,\" John W. Emset, (4): 60-63 \"Camelhas, \"Endangered Plants at the Garden m the Woods Problems and Possibilities,\" William E. Brumback, Sargent, Charles Sprague, (3) : 28-31 Schultes, Richard Evans, (4) : 52-59 Sherwood, Mary P., (4) : 47-58 Sun Chengyong, (4)' 46-51 Swartz, Carohne J, (2\/~ 35-38 Thibodeau, Francis R., (3) : 2-18 Walter, Kerry S., (3): 63-64 Wang Xianpu, (4) : 38-45, 46-51 Warren, Richard, ( 145-47 Waters, Gregory J., (2) : 11-12 (3\/~ 33-35 \"Herbert Wendell Gleason, Photographer,\" (3): 59-60 \"Japanese Honeysuckle From 'One of the best' to Ruthless Pest,\" Richard A. Hardt, \/2~: 27-34 \"Ltstemng to Thirsty Plants,\" John W. Emset, (2) : 42-45 \"Nature Conservation in China' Two Reports;' (4\/: 37-51 \"New England Horticultural Titles \"A + AAH + AMES + ECON + FH + GH+NEBC='HUH'. Systematic Harvard,\" (2) : 39-41 Woody Plant Micropropagation,\" John W Emset, ( 1 \/ ~ 36-44 \"A Visit from John Muir,\" (3) : 61-62 Botany at \"A Practical Guide to Calendar,\" (1~ bmd-m, \/2\/ bmd-m, (3) : bmd-m, (4\/. bmd-m \"Notes and Quotes on the History and Origins of the Amur Chokecherry (Prunus maackm\/;' (2\/: 13-24 \"Plant Conservation: Part I,\" \/3y 2-64 \"Plant Conservation. Part II,\" \/4\/. 37-70 \"Professors Gray and Sargent Pursue \"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the Umted States and Mexico,\" Gary Paul Nabhan, Ruth Greenhouse, and 36-46 Wendy Hodgson, (3y \"Botamcal Gold: Shortia,\" \/3\/: 26-32 \"Propagating Prunus maackm;' Alfred J. Fordham, (2). 25-27 \"Protected Natural Areas m China,\" Wang Xianpu, (4) : 38-45 \"Prunus \"Books\" (column\/, (1\/: 45-47; (2) : 46-47; (3y 63-64, (41: 64-70 maackn, the Fnends's Plant Dividend for 1986,\" Gregory J. Waters, (2): 11-12 Exploring the 72 at Walden,\" Mary P. Sherwood, (3): 47-58 \"Report on Hurricane Gloria,\" Jenmfer L. Hicks ( 1 30-35 \"Saving the Rarest,\" Donald A. Falk and Francis R. Thibodeau, (3) : 2-18 \"Seven-Son Flower from Zheyang: Introducing the Versatile Ornamental Shrub Heptacodium ~osmmoides Airy Shaw,\" Gary L. Koller, (4) : 2-14 \"Renaissance Knzek, George 0., and Paul A. Opler, \"Butterflies East of the Great Plams~ An Illustrated Natural History,\" (2): 46-47 Krussmann, Gerd, \"Manual of Cultivated Comfers,\" \/ 145-47 E., and Ronald H. Lewis, Kirsten Limbaugh, editors, \/4\/: 64-70 Index to the John Muir Papers 1858-1957,\" \"The \"The Guide and the Microform Edition of \"The Chmese Species of Camellia in John Muir Papers E. Cultivation,\" Bruce Bartholomew, (1\/: 2-15 \"The Great Catalpa Craze,\" Peter Del Tredici, (2): 2-10 \"The 1984 Sino-Amencan Botamcal 1858-1957,\" (4). 64-70 Limbaugh, Ronald H., and Kirsten Lewis, editors, \"The Guide and Expedition to Yunnan, Chma,\" David E. Boufford and Bruce Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers,\" (4~: 64-70 \"The John Muir Papers 1858-1957,\" \/4~: 64-70 Bartholomew, (4): 15-36 \"The Story of Shortia,\" Charles Sprague Sargent, (31: 28-31 \"To the Arks with Rabbitbane: Plant Conservation at the Arnold Arboretum,\" Robert G. Nicholson, (3) : 23-25 Miller, Sally M., editor, \"John Muir: Life and Legacy,\" \/4\/~ 64-70 Opler, Paul A., and George A. Krizek, \"Butterflies East of the Great Plams~ An Illustrated Natural History,\" (2): 46-47 \"Rediscovering America John Muir m His Time and Ours,\" Frederick Turner, (4) : 64-70 Rossi, Nick, \"How to Attract Butterflies to Your Garden,\" \/2y 46-47 Books Reviewed Austin, Richard L., \"Wild Gardening: Strategies and Procedures Using Native Plantings,\" (3): 63-64 \"Butterflies East of the Great Plams: An Illustrated Natural History,\" Paul A. Opler and George O. Krizek, Tekulsky, Mathew \"The Butterfly Garden,\" \/2~: 46-47 \"The Butterfly Garden,\" Mathew Tekulsky, \/2~: 46-47 \"The Guide and Index to the Microform Edition of the John Muir Papers 1858-1957,\" Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten E. Lewis, \/2\/: 46-47 Cohen, Michael P., \"The Pathless Way: John Muir and American Wilderness,\" (4) : 64-70 Attract Butterflies to Your Garden,\" Nick Rossi, (2) : 46-47 \"John Muir' A Readmg Bibliography,\" William F. Kimes and Maymie B. Kimes, (4): 64-70 \"John Muir. Life and Legacy,\" Sally M. Miller, editor, (4): 64-70 Kimes, Maymie B., and William F. Kimes, \"John Muir: A Reading Bibliography, \" (4\/: 64-70 Kimes, William F., and Maymie B. Kimes, \"John Muir: A Reading Bibliography,\" (4): 64-70 \"How to editors, \/4\/: 64-70 \"The John Muir Papers 1858-1957,\" Ronald H. Limbaugh and Kirsten E. John Muir and Wilderness,\" Michael P. Cohen, (4) : 64-70 Turner, Frederick, \"Rediscovering America: John Muir in His Time and Ours;' \/4\/: 64-70 \"Wild Gardening: Strategies and Procedures Usmg Native Plantings,\" Richard L. Austin, (3) : 63-64 American Lewis, \/4\/: 64-70 \"The Pathless Way: "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23272","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160b36c.jpg","title":"1986-46-4","volume":46,"issue_number":4,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Saving the Rarest","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24903","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eb36f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Falk, Donald A.; Thibodeau, Francis R.","article_content":" Saving the Rarest Donald A. Falk Francis R. Thibodeau By cultivating endangered native plants nationwide network of botanical gardens and arboreta hopes to produce stock that can be used to reestablish endangered plants in the wild once their natural habitats have been rehabilitated a was Like many desert plants, Agave arizonica in serious decline during the 1960s. By the middle of the decade it had been reduced to two known localities with only a handful of plants. Despite attempts to protect the remaining individuals, the species-which tends to grow in populations of very low densities-continued to suffer from grazing and collecting and was apparently on the road to extinction. In 1968, staff members of the Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix, Arizona, took an interest in the species. Working primarily with bulbils and tissue cultures, they managed to establish a cultivated stand from which scores of plants have since been propagated for distribution and replanting in the wild. The Garden has also played a key role in pubhc education and has worked cooperatively with the national Fish and Wildlife Service to help locate and manage the remaining wild populations. Thirty-one clonal populations are now known from a one hundred-square-mile area. Agave arizonica was officially listed as a which should enhance its chances for recovery. A dramatic so intervention, perhaps, but not unusual as one might think, for in recent years botanical gardens and arboreta in the United States and abroad have become increasingly active in protecting and conserving native species of plants. Conservation is rapidly becoming a mission of many gardens and arboreta, alongside their traditional missions of display, research, and education. In coming decades, botanical gardens and arboreta should become vital for the conservation and understanding of the world's rarest plants. The Problem of Extinction The tragic extinction of species worldwide, which is primarily a consequence of widespread destruction of habitat in the Tropics, is now well recognized (Myers, 1979). Human-induced extinction of species is not hmited to the Tropics, however, but is happening in every nation on earth. In the United States alone at least three thousand species of higher plants are believed to be endangered or threatened with extinction, roughly fifteen percent of the nation's entire flora (Prance and Elias, 1977; Ayensu and DeFilipps, 1978). Agencies of the Federal Government charged with protecting these species-most notably the Office of Endan- protected endangered species in 1984, Opposite: Drawmg of Franklima alatamaha Marsh., the Franklm tree, by Charles Edward Faxon (1846-1918). Frankhnia is beheved to be exunct m the mld but is mdely cultivated m botamcal gardens and elsewhere Many dramngs by Faxon, both previously pubhshed and unpubhshed, appear m this issue of Amoldia. Most are from materials in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. - Frankhnia, or 4 gered Species vice-operate and in the Fish and Wildlife Seron country. severely limited budgets have the means to evaluate the status of the thousands of plant taxa that have been proposed under the terms of the Endangered Species Act (Anonymous, 1984a). Moreover, very few taxa-one hundred as of this writing-have survived the administrative procedure for officially listing a taxon as \"endangered\" under the provisions of the Act (Anonymous, 1984b), though they may have such status under state laws. In fact, however, plants do not receive the same degree of protection that animals do because the law regards them as part of the property on which they grow and hence may be privately owned. Thus, under the current formulation of the Act, the sale and interstate transport of endangered plants is restricted, but the destruction or taking of wild individuals from private land technically is not. The Act's primary effect is to prevent the use of Federal funds for projects that would destroy or alter the habitats of endangered taxa. In this context, when the presence of rare plants might hold up comnot simply do Meanwhile, extinction accelerates. Commercial, industrial, and agricultural \"development\" continues to destroy tens of thousands of acres yearly; much of this land is logged, mined, or converted for recreational uses, even though it technically remains \"protected\" under the jurisdiction of Federal or state agency, such as the Bureau of Land Management. Other sources of danger are more subtle but no less insidious. Elias (1977) estimates that twenty-two percent of the flora of the United States consists of naturalized species, many of which (Lythrum salicaria, the common purple loosea mercial-development projects, it is not unusual for wild populations of rare plants to be destroyed before anyone can protect their habitats permanently. Other Federal agencies (such as the Forest Service, Park Service, and Bureau of Land Management) cooperate with the Office of Endangered Species by law-but they, too, have competing demands for their budgets and for the land they control, especially since Congress is not uniformly friendly to the protection of endangered species when there is a conflict. Outside of the Federal Government, a single private conservation organization-The Nature Conservancy-has been almost solely responsible for the vast majority of naturalhabitat acquisition in the nation. The Conservancy has managed to protect more than two in over million acres of prime natural habitat three thousand locations across the Calochortus obispoensis Lemmon, the San Lms mana candidate for legal protection under the Endangered Species Act. Further information on mld populations of this species is needed before it can be officially hsted, however. This drawmg, by C. E. Faxon, is from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. posa, 5 strife, for example) compete with native plants and may hterally crowd them out of existence. Native species have suffered from such introduced diseases as Dutch elm disand chestnut blight, against which they have no resistance. In the face of such multifarious threats to species diversity, it is essential that every available resource be mobilized. In recent years, botanical gardens and arboreta have become important new members of the conservation community. Although their ease potential to intervene in species only begun to be realized, there are many hopeful signs that they will be increasingly active in the preservation of endangered plant species. enormous extinction has The Increasing Importance of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta Recently, Dr. Peter Ashton, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, noted that botamcal gardens and arboreta should view themselves as \"basic resources\" in conservation and research. He notes (Ashton, 1984) that botanic gardens have an opportumty, mdeed an obligation which is open to them alone, to bridge between the traditional concerns of systematic biology and the retummg needs of agriculture, forestry, conservation and medicine for the exploration and of biological diversity. Iris tenuis S. Wats., the Clackamas ms, drawn by C. E. Faxon. Native to northwestern Oregon, this species is no longer a candidate for hsung under the Endangered Species Act because it has \"proven to be more abundant or widespread than was previously beheved andlor [isJ not sub~ect to anyidenuflable threat.\"Taxa of this type are said by the Fish and Wildhfe Sezmce to be in \"Category 3C \" Others-Schultes(1983), Lucas (1984), and Synge and Townsend (1979), for examplehave similarly noted the potential importance of gardens for research on and conservation of endangered species. The roles gardens and arboreta can play are by and large extensions of their traditional areas of expertise in plant collecting, propagation, cultivation, and research. A sampling of activity in United States botanical gardens illustrates the diverse functions that gardens are already developing as they concentrate increasingly on work with endangered native plants. 6 Cultivating Rare and Endangered Plants Where botanical gardens truly excel is in the propagation and cultivation of plants. Gardens and arboreta in this country have had many decades of experience in propagating and cultivating rare and fastidious species. Although they traditionally have applied their skills primarily to horticultural varieties and exotics, many gardens and arboreta have begun turning their skills to the conservation of rare native taxa (Huckins, 1983). For instance, a recent survey of botanical and arboreta in the United States revealed that at least sixty-eight of them are gardens currently raising some regionally or nationally rare native taxa. It is an encouraging sign that these institutions are dispersed among all regions of the continental United States and Hawaii and that they include many of the newer, smaller gardens as well as the more established institutions. Yet de- spite these encouraging signs, fewer than one in ten of the taxa that are endangered in this country are m cultivation anywhere (Brumback, 1981). ~. There are a few bright spots Among the largest collections on the map. in the conti- Muhlenb. ex Elliott, the Georgia member of the Encaceae. A deciduous shrub that reaches twenty feet m height, this is the only species m the genus. It ~s natme to eastern Georgia and southern South Carolma The Fish and Wildhfe Sermce has placed Elliottia racemosa m Category 3C The drawing, which is by C E. Faxon, is from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. racemosa Elliottia plume, a nental United States is that of the North Carolina Botanical Garden in Chapel Hill, which maintains in cultivation thirty-eight protected taxa, including three Federally listed species and candidates for listing such as Shortia galacifolia. Another significant collection is that of the Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts, which currently has more than two hundred fifty specimens of plants representing eighteen regionally or nationally endangered taxa. The Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix, Arizona, cultivates thirty rare native taxa, seventeen of which are either listed or proposed for listing on the Federal Government's \"List of Endangered Plant Species.\" Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden in Claremont, California, conserves upwards of one hundred rare or threatened native plants, including major collections of Arctostaphylos (manzanita), Ceanothus, and Dudleya (liveforever). In Hawaii, the Waimea Arboretum currently cultivates over three hundred taxa that are rare or endemic to the Hawaiian Islands. Other gardens that cultivate threatened or endangered species include the State Arboretum of Utah in Salt Lake City; Bok Tower Gardens in Lake Wales, Florida; the Denver Botanic Gardens; the University of Nebraska Statewide Arboretum; and the San Antonio Botanical Center. 7 Numbers course; in are not the whole picture, of rare species as part of an overall accessions some cases, botanical gardens are actually growing the last living individuals of a species that has been extirpated from the wild. The Fairchild Tropical Garden in Miami maintains specimens of Goetzia elegans from Puerto Rico, a species that has been reduced to one plant in the wild. The policy that emphasizes native plants of the Northeast, particularly New England. The Garden's collection currently includes populations of Trollius laxus (spreading globeflower), Helonias bullata (swamp pink), Sabatia kennedyana (Plymouth gentian), and unusual species of Sarracenia The Garden also maintains species from other regions, such as Echinaseveral plant appears to be self-incompatible, so the plants at the Garden (which were propagated from root cuttings) may soon be the only remaining living individuals of the species. minifera, The Fairchild also cultivates Amyris balsaa plant once found in the subtropical hummocks of southern Florida. All of the wild United States populations have disappeared, though the species is still relatively common in Central America and South America. (pitcher plants). cea tennesseensis and Shortia (Tennessee coneflower) galacifolia (Oconee bells). Franklinia The best known example of the cultivation of a species no longer found in the wild is, of course, Frankhnia alatamaha. The species was observed by John and William Bartram along the Alatamaha River in Georgia in 1765 but never elsewhere. The last person to see the plant in the wild, Dr. Moses Marshall, revisited the site in 1790 and found Franklima to be locally plentiful over an area of two to three acres. It has not been seen in the wild since and is presumed to have been extirpated. It has found an alternative niche, however, as a cultivated ornamental and is now widely grown. All living specimens are descendants of the material collected in 1790 by Marshall (Barnhart, 1933; Harper and Leeds, 1937). Predictably, some of the most successful endangered species has been done by gardens that have given native plants high pnority in their accessions and collections policies. The staff of the Garden in the Woods in Massachusetts, for example, is work with able to Camassia cusickm S Wats., eastern a maintain the Garden's collection of Oregon and to Idaho. Drawmg by C. E. Faxon. species native to northIt is m Category 3C. 8 A diagram illustratmg the several categones of rare (and extmct) plants. Another excellent example of commitment to threatened native plants is the new Transition Zone Horticultural Institute in Flagstaff, Arizona, which operates The Arboretum at Flagstaff. The Institute's charter specifically commits the Arboretum to the cultivation and conservation of rare and endangered taxa from its region whenever possible. As a result, the Institute has been able to acquire a collection that includes several endangered species of Pediocactus, Cowania, and Sclerocactus. Waimea Arboretum and Botanical Garden in Hawaii has stated in its accessions policy that a \"primary role\" will be to cultivate endangered plant species and to distribute them widely. It is committed to working with national and international conservation efforts. Another important Hawaiian garden is the Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden, which has been chartered by the United States Congress to work toward the conservation of endangered plants. Other larger and more established institutions, such as the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, have recognized conservation as a priority and are beginning to integrate endangered species into their permanent collections. A particular application of the skill of gardens in cultivation is the transplanting of wild plants into a cultivated setting as part of an emergency \"plant-rescue\" program. The plant-rescue program at the North Carolina Botanical Garden has operated for over fifteen years and is among the oldest in the country, sending staff and volunteers to dozens of sites threatened with imminent destruction. The program is designed to preserve plants when all attempts to protect their habitats have failed. One recent series of expeditions managed to transplant over twenty-five hundred plants of Shortia galaci f olia from a site slated for recreational development-ironically, the construction of a hiking path-by a power company. An excursion to another, isolated Shortia site was also successful even though the team had to be ferried to the site by motorboat. Other collecting trips have yielded living material of Camassia scilloides, Trillium pusillum, 9 and Kalmia cuneata. Plants are transported either bare-rooted or m blocks of soil and are reestablished in the Garden. In every case, collectors obtained permission from the landowner to enter a site and to remove plants. Efforts to secure permanent protection for plants in their natural habitats continue. Rescue even operations are not always success- when arrangements seem secure. ful, For mstance, the Berry Botanic Garden was scheduled to collect seeds and plants from the largest remaining population of Lomatium bradshawii, which was situated in a city park in Eugene, Oregon. Unfortunately, the Parks Department's grounds crew was not informed of the arrangement and mowed the entire population before the fruits ripened. Species that are rare in the wild are not necessarily difficult to raise in cultivation. Many are rare simply because their poor compete restrict them to a narof habitat types in the wild. If the range necessary habitat is threatened, then the species is threatened. An example is Sabatia kennedyana (Plymouth gentian), which grows on the sandy margins of ponds on Cape Cod, Massachusetts. Given the proper conditions under cultivation and unimpeded by other species, the plant thrives. A recent transplant experiment in England revealed that, of a group of very rare plants, only a third were unusually difficult to raise, while another third were actually weedy (Cranston and Valentme, 1983)! to row abilities C. E. Faxon's dramng of Cypnpedium cahfomicum A. Gray, the Cahforma lady's-shpper Nauve to Cahfomia and Oregon, Cypnpedmm cahfomicum is also m Category 3C. fully two-thirds of the endangered species native to the United States belong to genera of proven horticultural merit. Among them Horticultural Value only reason endangered plants. Many of them are stunningly beautiful as well. While some endangered taxa are not especially attracnot Genetic conservation is the endangered lilies, larkspurs, orchids, rhododendrons, heathers, asters, columbines, violets, meadowbeauties, phloxes, daisies, sunflowers, and gentians, as well as oaks, hollies, birches, pines, cypresses, and are roses, for raising many cacti. tive, Dr. Linda R. McMahan of the Center for Plant Conservation (formerly of the World Wildlife Fund-U.S.) estimates that With a few notable exceptions, the color and form of native species in the garden tend to be subtle and understated rather than showy. One would not pit Hydrastis canadensis (goldenseal) against the latest gener- 10 ation of Holland's tulips, for instance. Consequently, in botanical gardens the most are the netic goal is \"to preserve a representative gesample of each endangered species in successful horticultural applications often those that integrate plantings of native species into their natural settings. At the Garden in the Woods, for example, natural- Oregon as insurance against extinction of the species in the wild.\" Collecting for the is done by Garden staff and volunand emphasizes species that are clearly endangered m the wild but that have not yet been accorded formal protection under the Endangered Species Act. Specimens are stored at minus 18 Celsius (0 Fahrenheit) in sealed glass vials in which the relative humidity is kept below five percent. Among the plants currently in storage are species of Lomatium, Arabis, Astragalus, Lewisia, and Lilium. Viability trials are conducted periodically to determine how long the seeds remain alive, and their rates of germination. Because many specimens may be kept easily, seed storage provides perhaps the simplest means for gardens to maintain ade- facility teers, plantings are maintained in a diversity habitats, including acid- and limestonewoodland, pine-barren, meadow, bog, and pond environments. Another example is the istic of United States National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., where over twenty nationally rare species are grown in Fern Valley, which is maintained as a natural woodland. Similarly, the Holden Arboretum in Mentor, Ohio, works with some thirty-six endan- gered plants in seventeen representative habitat plantings, including woodland, stream- or marsh-border, prairie, and wetmeadow plantings. The North Carolina Botanical Garden maintains collections in several habitat types typical of the southeastern mountains and coastal plain. The Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix integrates its rare-species plantings into a variety of Sonoran Desert habitat types, including a shallow alkaline plain and a rocky outcrop, where the plants are kept alongside other species associated with them in the wild. In these settings, native plants (including those that are endangered) can be best appreciated for their natural aesthetic virtues. Storage Besides raising plants in greenhouses and out-of-doors, botanical gardens can maintain living plant material in storage facilities, such as low-temperature seed banks. An ex. ample is the Rare and Endangered Seed Bank at the Berry Botanic Garden in Portland, Oregon. Initiated in rare Seed 1982, the Seed Bank cur- rently includes seeds of over one hundred and endangered species found in Oregon. Curator Julie Kierstead observes that Lonicera hirsuta Eat., the hairy honeysuckle, which ranges from Quebec to Pennsylvania and west to Nebraska. It is hsted as endangered m Massachusetts by the Massachusetts Division of Fishenes and Wildlife but does not appear on the Federal hst. Dramng by C. E. Faxon. 11 1 populations of plants, making it possible to preserve a greater cross-section of the genetic diversity of each species. The cost per species can be quite low also, especially if the garden is able to use an existing facility that has been made available for quate the purpose. The United States Department of Agriculture, which operates the largest seedstorage facilities in the United States, has begun to work on the conservation of seeds of endangered American plants. The Department's interest arises in part because many native species belong to genera with important food, fiber, oil, or horticultural species. But the Department's mandate is even broader than this, encompassing conservation work through the Forest Service and the Agricultural Research Service. The National Plant Germplasm System, which includes the National Seed Storage Laboratory in Fort Collins, Colorado, along with several other facilities nationwide, is now conducting trial storage of rare species through the Center for Plant Conservation. Readers interested in details about current seed-storage work should refer to the review article by Holden and Williams(1984). Research In its 1978 report, Conservation for instance, when there are only dozen individuals left in the wild. Dr. Thomas S. Elias of Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden observes (Elias, 1977) that \"the threatened and endangered species are one of the poorest-known assemblages of plants in the U.S. Little is known about their natural history, their reproductive mechanisms or their life cycles.\" As a response to this problem, he suggests that botanic gardens and arboreta can play a major role in the preservation of endangered species by assuming \"a leadership role in the study of the natural history and life cycle of such endangered plant groups as the cacti, orchids, cycads, some of the attractive wild flowers, and others.\" chemistry, a of Germ- plasm Resources, the National Research Council of the National Academy of Sciences concluded that one of the most important facets of a botanic garden's involvement with endangered plant species is the opportunity to perform significant research (Committee on Germplasm Resources, 1978). Many of the rarest and most unusual species in the United States are virtually unstudied beyond basic botanical description, because of the difficulty of working with populations in the wild. It is hardly possible to study thoroughly a species's bio- maximum L., the great laurel, or rosespecies hsted m Massachusetts as threatened. Like Lomcera hirsuta, it does not appear on the Federal hst. Drawing by C. E. Faxon. Rhododendron bay, a 12 Only recently has the role of experimental cultivation in relation to habitat conservation been recognized in the United States. Frequently, habitat managers have to base recovery and management plans on inadequate data about the species in their care. Consequently, the wild populations of a species may continue to populations and by the necessity to avoid damaging any of the wild individuals. Dr. Robert E. Cook, Director of Cornell Plantations at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York, explains (Cook, 1984): plans fall to place sufficient emcritical components of the natural history of all life stages of a species. Furthermore, because individuals of endangered species are rare and irreplaceable, experimental manipulations are seldom feasible, and recovery procedures cannot be tested. We believe that the preservation of enMany recovery on phasis decline, despite con- tinued efforts at preservation. Particularly in the case of very rare species, research is further hindered by the inaccessibility of the dangered plants depends upon an understandmg of the population biology of each species. By bringing plants cultivation, a garden large number of expendable individuals that can be subjected to types of experimental treatment never desirable-or even possible-in the wild. Garinto may then propagate a dens to can thus make a valuable contribution pro- species management, especially by viding data on environmental tolerances, growth requirements, physiology, and life histories. When coupled with field studies of population dynamics, pollinators, and associated species in the wild, for example, the data can begin to suggest the best line of management. Garden-based is at ex situ research increasingly being joined with fieldwork institutions such as Cornell and the Center for Conservation Biology at Stanford, to provide a solid scientific footing for conservation. Many gardens, of course, are already participating in research on the biology of en- dangered plants. tempting to In many cases, simply at- Monardella leucocephala A. Gray, the Merced monardella, which was native to Merced and Stamslaus counties m Cahforma but which now appears to be extmct m the mld. The Fish and Wildlife Service has placed Monardella leucocephala In Category 1, which means that enough information is available to justify giving it immediate protection under the Endangered Species Act This drawmg is by Adel Hagar of the Center for Plant Conservation and is used tmth her permission. cultivate a species will require research, since so few of the plants have ever been cultivated. The normal range of factors that can be manipulated-soil composition, moisture, pH, sunlight, fertilization, stratification, and so on-constitutes an important contribution to understanding the biology of the species. As William E. Brumback, propagator at the Garden in the Woods, observes (Brumback, 1983): 13 Propagation research can provide important msights into a species' behavior m the wild. For instance, what might account for a species' ease of propagation and cultivation m the controlled environment of a botamcal garden while the wild populations continue to decline? For each species, the answer lies in the long-term study of the species' biology, but propagation research can supply valuable mformation regarding the potential success of the species under \"ideal\" conditions m the wild. A notable example of such research is currently being conducted by Brian Parsons and Tom Yates at the Holden Arboretum on Trollius laxus (spreading globeflower) under the Ohio Department of Natural Resources (ODNR). Holden is investigating the cultural requirements of the species in the Arboretum. ODNR is using their recommendations to manage the remaining wild populations of Trollius in Ohio. Similarly, the Transition Zone Horticultural Institute in Flagstaff, Arizona, and Comell Plantations, among other gardens, are working under contract with the Fish and Wildlife Service to help develop more accurate and effective \"recovery plans\" for an increasing number of endangered species. contract to Oreonana purpurascens Shevock ~ Constance, the purple mountain parsley. Endemic to Tulare County, Califorma, this species is m Category 2-i.e., it is a candidate for protection under the terms of the Endangered Species Act, but more information about it mll be required before it can be proposed for hsung. This drawmg was done by Amy Eisenberg and is used mth her permission. Copynght 1981 by Amy Eisenberg. 14 Conservation of Habitat and Reintroduction: Closing the Circle long run success in the gardens will be a hollow victory if it does not enhance efforts to conserve species in their native habitats. Many of the instances cited in this article are the result of close cooperation among botanical gardens and agencies that manage natural habitats. Much of the cooperation naturally revolves around the gardens's ability to perform or assist in research. By learning more about plants in cultivation, habitat managers can make moreinformed choices about populations in the wild. In the One area where gardens have been particularly active is in the reconstruction of habitat types and the reconstruction of damaged habitats. An instance is the Prairie Restoration Project at the University of Wisconsin. The Project, directed by Dr. William Jordan, has included both scientific study and experimental re-creation of northern-prairie types. The University also publishes Restoration and Management Notes, a semiannual journal devoted to the reconstruction of damaged habitats. A recent instance of a garden's role involved the restoration of a population of Hudsonia tomentosa that had been nearly destroyed by off-road vehicles on land in Vermont owned by The Nature Conservancy. The Conservancy arranged for the propagation in a commercial greenhouse of cuttings taken from the site. The resulting material was rooted and then transplanted in the original location, thus helping to reestablish the population. Conclusion Plant extinction is a complex phenomenon, sharing the same kind of interaction between economic and biological processes that is characteristic of all critical environmental issues. The conservation of species cannot realistically be divorced from the national conservation strategy. It will require the full range of resources available to prevent species extinction from reaching massive proportions in this country. The stakes are too high for us to allow plants of unique biological character, potential economic utility, and rare beauty to be lost. Professor Richard Evans Schultes of the Harvard Botanical Museum recently noted that, \"A massive effort is urgently needed to ensure the survival of endangered species\" (Schultes, 1983). It is a hopeful sign that the considerable resources of botanical gardens and arboreta are being mobilized to this purpose. Trifolium bolanden A. Gray, Bolander's clover, a rare clover known only from a few scattered locahties from Yosemite National Park south to Sierra National Forest, California. Like Oreonana purpurascens, Tnfolium bolanden is m Category 2 Dramng by Amy Eisenberg. Copynght 1981 by Amy Eisenberg. artist. Used through the courtesy of the 15 ' References Anonymous. 1984a. Two Arizona plants listed dangered. Endangered Species Techmcal un, Volume as en- Bulle- 9, Number 6, page 8. Anonymous. 1984b. Seven plants m southern U.S. proposed for listing. Endangered Species Techmcal Bulletm, Volume 9, Number 12, pages 1, 6, 7 and 10. Peter S. 1984. Botamc gardens and experimental grounds. Pages 39-46 in: V. H. Heywood and D. M. Moore, editors, Current Concepts in Plant Taxonomy. London and Orlando, Florida: Academic Press. xv + 432 pages. Ayensu, Edward S., and Robert A. DeFilipps. 1978. Endangered and Threatened Plants of the Umted States. Washington, D.C.: Smithsoman Institution. xv + 403 pages. Barnhart, John Hendley. 1933. Frankhma alatamaha. Addisoma, Volume 18, Number 1, pages 13 and 14. Brumback, William E. 1981. Endangered Plant Species Programs for Botamc Gardens with Examples from North Amencan Insututions. Unpubhshed Master's thesis, Longwood Program m Ornamen- Ashton, tal vey Horticulture, University of Delaware. [A surcurrently being conducted by the Center for Plant Conservation has confirmed Brumback's findings. Initial data from the survey mdicate that fewer than ten percent of the endangered species m the Umted States currently are m cul- tivation.] Brumback, William E. 1983. Propagatmg endangered and pracace. Wild Flower Notes and News, Volume 1, Spring issue, page 4. Committee on Germplasm Resources. 1978. Conservation of Germplasm Resources An Imperative. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences. ix + 118 pages. Cook, Robert E. 1984. Endangered Plant Species: A Program for Presentation. Ithaca, New York: Comell Plantations, Comell University. 6 pages. Cranston, D. M., and D. H. Valentme. 1983. Transplant experiments on rare plant species from Upper plants: Theory Brodiaea msigms ( JepsJ Niehaus, the Kaweah brodiaea, which is native to Cahforma It is m the Fish and Wildhfe Sermce's Category 1. Drawmg by Amy Eisenberg. Copynght 1980 by Amy Eisenberg. Used through the courtesy of the artist Teesdale. Biological Conservation, Volume 26, Number 2, pages 175-191. Elias, Thomas S. 1977. An overview. Pages 13-16 m: Ghillean T. Prance and Thomas S. Elias, editors, Extinction Is Forever. Proceedings of a conference. Bronx, New York: New York Botanical Garden. vi + 437 pages. Harper, Francis, and Arthur N. Leeds. 1937. A supplementary chapter on Fzankhma alatamaha. Bartoma, Number 19, pages 1-13. ' 16 Holden, John H. W., and J. T. Williams, editors. 1984. Crop Genetic Resources: Conservation eJ Evaluation. xvi + Schultes, Richard Evans. London and Boston: Allen & Unwm. 296 pages. Huckms, Charles A., editor. 1983. Prel1mmary Directory of Lmng Plant Collections of North America. Swarthmore, Pennsylvama: American Associatron of Botamcal Gardens and Arboreta. vi + 73 pages. Lucas, Grenmlle. 1984. Plants: A kingdom at nsk. IUCN Bulletm, Volume 15, Numbers 1-3, pages 1, 10, and 11. Myers, Norman. 1979. The Smkmg Ark: A New Look at the Problem of Disappearmg Species. Oxford and New York: Pergamon Press. vm + 307 pages. Prance, Ghillean T., and Thomas S. Elias, editors. 1977. Extinction Is Forever. Proceedmgs of a conference. Bronx, New York: New York Botanical 437 pages. 1983. Botamcal Museums and Gardens and Their Role in Conservation of Germ Plasm. Occasional Paper 2. Kuala Lumpur: Institmt Penyelidikan Minyak Kelapa Sawit Malaysia [Palm Oil Institute of Malaysia]. n + 19 vi + Garden. pages. Synge, Hugh, and Harry Townsend, editors. 1979. mval or SurExtmcuon. Proceedmgs of a conference. Kew, England: Bentham-Moxon Trust, Royal Botanic Gardens. ix + 250 pages. Donald A. Falk and Francis R. Thibodeau, Director of Administration and Director of Science, respectively, of The Center for Plant Conservation, cofounded the Center m 1984. Regions established by the Center for Plant Conservation on the basis of the major biogeographic regions of the Umted States. Several cooperating arboreta and botanical gardens (eighteen m all) work with the Center, concentratmg on species native to them respective regions The cooperatmg institutions are the Arnold Arboretum (\"1\" on the map), Berry Botanic Garden (2), Bok Tower Gardens (3), Denver Botamc Gardens (4), Desert Botamcal Garden (5), Fairchild Tropical Garden (6), Garden in the Woods (7), Holden Arboretum (8), Missouri Botanical Garden (9), Nebraska Statemde Arboretum (10), New York Botanical Garden (11), North Carolma Botanical Garden (12), Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden (13), Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden (14), San Antomo Botanical Gardens (15), State Arboretum of Utah (16), The Arboretum at Flagstaff (17), and Waimea Arboretum and Botanical Garden (18). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Charles Edward Faxon, delineavit","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24898","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25ea76f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"17 The Center for Plant Conservation Donald A. Falk and Francis R. Thibodeau direct the Center for Plant Conservation, the first national organization devoted specifically to the conservation and study of endangered plants. Founded in 1984, the Center operates as a cooperative network consisting of eighteen leading botanical gardens and arboreta in the United States, as well as seedstorage facilities of the United States Department of Agriculture (see map on facing page). The institutions are committed to cultivating endangered species in their respective regions; some have been actively working with endangered species for years. In addition to the participating gardens, the Center is guided by a scientific Advisory Council consisting of eminent scientists and conservationists from the Smithsonian Institution, the Office of Endangered Species, the World Wildlife Fund (WWF), the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), and The Nature Conservancy. The Center's offices are located at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. The Center's primary objective is to acquire a comprehensive national collection of United States endangered plants in the selected regional gardens, arboreta, and storage facilities. Accessions are determined with an endangered-species data base, which allows threatened plants in the wild to be assessed and prioritized for collection. The species targeted for collection are both critically endangered in the wild and not currently in cultivation in a garden or arboretum. Over a period of years, the Center will establish a network of regional collections that will be carefully maintained and documented at each member institution. Over time, these collections should prove to be of great value to both the scientific and conservation communities. In addition, the Center holds research that enhances habitat management as an important goal, particularly in relation to the development of biological information to be used in recovery and management plans for species in their wild habitats. Finally, the Center is committed to broadening public awareness and support of biological conservation through exhibits and teaching in the member gardens. It hopes to serve as an example for international conservation through the development of a strong national program, and to cooperate with efforts such as those sponsored by IUCN and WWF. In order to guarantee the permanence of the National Collection, the Center has established a Permanent Preservation Fund, which will be used to ensure the ongoing curation in the participating gardens. The Fund offers an opportunity for adding a species to the Collection in the donor's name. For further information about the Permanent Preservation Fund and the work of the Center for Plant Conservation, please contact the Center's office at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130-2795, or at (617) 524-6988. Charles Edward Faxon, delineavit Many of the drawings in this issue of Amoldia (1845-1918), a selftaught artist who for thirty-six years worked at the Arnold Arboretum, running the Library and Herbarium and drawing plants for various botanical publications. From 1882 to 1902, for example, he prepared seven hundred forty-four plates for Charles Sprague Sargent's classic Silva of North America. The acclaim that was heaped on the Silva owed as much to Faxon's drawings as to Sargent's were done by C. E. Faxon mont they did that of the Green Mountams of Verand of all northern New Hampshire. Outside of New England Faxon traveled little and never crossed the continent. From 1879 to 1884 Faxon was an mstructor of botany in the Bussey Institution of Harvard College. He was a Fellow of the American text. When Faxon died in 1918, Sargent wrote the following words, which are excerpted from an article published in Rhodora, the journal of the New England Botanical Club: As child Charles Faxon taught himself to model the studies of landscape and of trees published by J. D. Harding, an English artist, in his Lessons on Trees and other books which in their time were influential in increasing the love of drawing. By the time he was fifteen years old Charles Faxon was able to make excellent copies in color of some of Audubon's birds, and during the summers made successful pencil and water color sketches of the scenery of northern a draw, using as his New England. What Faxon learned from schools was in the Jamaica Plam public schools and the Lawrence Scientific School at Cambridge, from which he was graduated as a civil engmeer in 1867. At Cambridge he was noted for skill in mechamcal drawing. Later he became deeply interested in English literature and taught himself to read nearly all the modem European languages. Faxon lived always in not care to Jamaica Plam and did travel except in western and northern New England where he spent a few weeks every spring and autumn, his last ~oumey to northern New Hampshire having been in the autumn before he died. Berkshire County, Massachusetts, was a favorite field of the Faxons and they knew its flora well, as The drawings of fems scattered through the text of this article were made by C. E. Faxon for D. C. Eaton's Fems of North America (1879-80). They are, m the order of their appearance, Pellaea atropurpurea (L.) Lmk, the purple chffbrake (of special concern m Massachusetts), Asplemum montanum Willd, the mountam spleenwort (threatened m Massachusetts), and Woodsia glabella R. Br., the smooth woodsia (endan- gered m Massachusetts). 20 shrubs of Cumberland County, Pennsylvania, that the Smithsonian Institution should publish a Silva of North America, and as early as 1849 Isaac Sprague began to make colored drawings of the flowers and fruits of trees under the direction of Asa Gray who was to prepare a North American Silva for the national Government. This plan was dropped at the end of a few years, but in 1882 I accepted Professor Baird's invitation to undertake the preparation of a Silva of North America to be published by the Smithsonian Institution, and I asked Charles Faxon to jom the Arboretum staff to take charge of the herbarium and library, and to make the drawings for the new Silva. He came to the Arboretum on May 12th of that year and remamed in was anxious Arts and Sciences, and in 1897 Harvard conferred on him an Honorary Master of Arts degree. During the 70's Professor D. C. Eaton was preparing an illustrated work on the Fems of North America and the Faxons, who were interested in Fems, had opportunities for collectmg northern material for him. This led to an invitation to Charles Faxon to make some of the colored drawings for Eaton's book. The first of these, that of Aspidmm Goldianum Hook., was published in June 1879, and is plate xl, of volume i. The remaining plates of this volume and all those of volume n. were drawn by Faxon. Professor Spencer F. Baird, one of whose earlier papers was a catalogue of the trees and Academy of 21 charge of the herbarium and library until his death, seeing them grow from msigmficance to considerable importance; and much of the value and success of the Arboretum is due to the admirable manner m which he managed his departments. Faxon began at once the drawings for The Silva, but at the end of a few months it was found that at the rate the Smithsoman Institution was willing to pay for the work it would take at least seventy-five years to complete it, and another arrangement was made for the publication of the book. Under the new arrangement Faxon made such good progress with the drawings that it was possible to begin publishing the first volume m 1891, and the last of his seven hundred and forty-four Silva plates appeared ~ust twentyone years after he began making the first drawmg. To illustrate some of the Guatemala plants described by John Donnell Smith, Faxon made thirty-four drawmgs which were published m The Botanical Gazette between 1888 and 1894. In this set of drawings are found some of the best examples of Faxon's work. In the ten volumes of Garden and Forest ~1888-1898\/ are published two hundred and eighty-five of Faxon's drawings. Among them are eight drawings of insects and their destructive work. Among the plants there is a large variety of subjects, including trees, shrubs, herbaceous plants and Ferns. Many previously undescribed species and one genus are found among these drawings. Among them, too, will be found the first illustrations of several plants which have now become common m gardens, and the only illustrations which have been published of many rare and interesting North American shrubs. Among these drawings are figures of thirteen North American species of Aster, Irises, Phloxes, Barberries, and a number of Japanese trees and shrubs. Seventeen of these illustrations of Japanese trees were reproduced m Sargent's Forest Flora of Japan. In the two volumes of Trees and Shrubs (1902-1913) two hundred of Faxon's drawings are published. They illustrate new or little Quercus macrocarpa Michx., the bur, or mossy-cup, oak, a species \"of special concern\" m Massachusetts. Top: Faxon's sketches from hvmg specimens. Bottom. Engraved pnnt. Both Arboretum. from the Archives of the Arnold 22 known ligneous plants, including two previously undescribed genera, Faxonanthus in honor of Edwin Faxon, and Grypocarpa, and one hundred and three previously undescribed species, principally from North America, Mexico, Central America, Chma and Japan. In 1905 six hundred and forty-two of Faxon's drawings were published m Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North Amenca, and in the last year of his life he was at work on some additional drawings for a new edition of this work. Between 1899 and 1913 thirteen of Faxon's drawings were published m Rhodora, and three of his drawings of Ferns will be found in the Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. During thirty-four years, from 1879 to 1913, mneteen hundred and twenty-five of Faxon's drawings were published. Lilium grayi S. Wats., the roan hly, by C. E. Faxon Onginal drawmg m the Archmes of the Arnold Arboretum. In his drawings Faxon umted accuracy with graceful composition and softness of outline. a sure hand and great and few botamcal draftsmen have rapidity, produced more. Certainly none of them have drawn the flowers, fruits and leaves of as many trees. Among the very few who in all time have excelled m the art of botanical draftsmanship Faxon's position is secure, and his name will live with those of the great masters of his art as long as plants are studied. He worked with C. E. Faxon's drawmg of Crataegus berbenfolia Torrey c~J Gray, a hawthorn from eastern Texas and western Lomsiana that is m the Fish and Wildlife Sermce's Category 2. The drawmg was pubhshed as Plate 179 in Sargent's Silva of North America -Excerpted from Rhodora, Volume 20, Number 235 (July 1918), pages 117-112. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"To the Arks with Rabbitbane: Plant Conservation at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24904","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eb728.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"To the Arks with Rabbitbane: Plant Conservation at the Arnold Arboretum Robert G. Nicholson New and old propagation data from the Arboretum's records are proving valuable in the Arboretum's recent work with rare and endangered native plants The Arnold Arboretum m Boston Is the great dendrological Noah's Ark m this country. It contams almost all the trees, American and foreign, which will grow In that region. -Trees Worth Knowmg, by Julia Ellen Rogers (1923), page xiv. In the fall of 1985, the Center for Plant Conservation (CPC) funded the first fieldwork done on its behalf by a staff member of the knew whether a specific treatment would be successful or unsuccessful. Conradina verticillata, the Rabbitbane Arnold Arboretum, asking me, the newly appointed curator, to examine populations of a number of species listed by the Federal Government as rare, endangered, or threatened. Even species in the lower categoriesthe potentially endangered species-were to mining their actual I visited status. Upland During the fall of 1985, receive attention because any additional data on populations is always helpful for deter- thirty sites in North Carolina, Tennessee, and Georgia for the Center. In some instances, I collected propagating the first step in the process of amassing genetically diverse, representative sampling of each species from a variety of populations. I also collected seeds from the general flora, preparing three hundred packets of them for exchanging with foreign botanical gardens, and testing them at the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses as well. I processed the seeds according to the Arboretum's standard procedures. Interestingly, since the Arboretum had tested most of the as a material I travelled to the Clear Fork River on the Cumberland Plateau to seek Conradina verticillata in its natural habitat and to assess the health of any population I might find. Conradina verticillata, the upland rabbitbane, is a low-growing woody shrublet that reaches only about nine inches in height. It forms spreading clumps, or colonies, since its branches can root when they touch the soil. Its lanceolate leaves are bright green; when crushed, they smell like rosemary. The intense fragrance released is responsible for one of the plant's local names-rabbitbane-smce rabbits dislike it. (Having seen the damage rabbits can do to our nurseries m winter, I am beginning to wonder whether an infusion of Conradina, sprayed in the fall, would make an effective barrier to nibbling.) It is a candidate for endangered status. Rabbitbane blooms in late May, its flowers species at one time or another, I already 24 ranging in color from white to rose purple. Two-lipped, and one-half inch wide and high, the flowers are borne prolifically on the stalks in axillary clusters. The blossoms are such that Conradina eventually may infiltrate its way into horticulture. A pleasing plant of fine texture, it is well suited for rock gardens, perennial borders, and even for use as a groundcover in full sun. It probably is hardy to 0 Fahrenheit, although it hasn't received extensive hardiness trials. Brought to the attention of the botanical world by Harry M. Jennison, a botanist at the University of Tennessee, as recently as 1933, Conradina is a genus of shrubs in the Lam(the mint family) (Jennison, 1933). It only four species, three of which range over the Gulf Coast region of Alabama and Florida. The fourth species, a rare endemic, is found much farther inland, in a few counties of Kentucky and Tennessee. numbers iaceae found along the river. These stands suffer from trampling by canoeists, however, since the gravel bars on which they grow make appealing spots for resting and camping. Rabbitbane Discovered After an afternoon's search along the trailless and tangled undergrowth of the Clear Fork River, I spotted a sand bar on the opposite shore. Remembering that Jennison had described it as growing on \"sandy banks,\" I decided to cross over. Hopping from rock to rock, I soon reached the other side and immediately found a small stand of rabbitbane. Half a dozen plants, growing in full sun, formed small, one-foot-wide clumps in the sandy gravel. Studying the immediate vicinity, I discovered that the plants would be under water during flood stages, since a line of flotsam clearly showed the river's high-water mark a full fifteen feet beyond the stand of rabbitbane. The records of the Arnold Arboretum indicate that rabbitbane is very easy to propagate. Cuttings taken in fall or spring rooted to the extent of 90 to 100 percent under mist or under polyethylene humidity chambers. Such cuttings transplant well and grow out strongly. It was a relief finally to encounter a plant with the proper respect for both modern propagating techniques and hardworking propagators. Rabbitbane's ease of propagation means two things: first, that propagating material can be collected in the wild without altering the composition of a stand of plants; second, that large numbers of propagules can be produced easily, making the plant's reintroduction into the wild an easy process, should the need to do so anse. At present, reintroduction of plants of rabbitbane to some sparse stands in Kentucky is being considered. The support of CPC, coupled with the Arnold Arboretum's prowess at propagating plants, could make it possible to do so. Jennison first found Conradina verticillata \"Relict colonies in sandy banks along the Clear Fork River, Fentress and Morgan counties,\" Tennessee. He realized the elusive nature of his discovery, for he reported that \"considerable exploring in this vicinity ... as well as in similar habitats in the region has failed to turn up other stations where this endemic grows.\" Alerted to its existence, other botanists began finding it, however. Paul Somers, the state botanist of Tennessee, tells me that some forty stands of it are now known; they vary in size from a few plants as massive clumps. In 1935, Professor E. Lucy Braun of the University of Cincinnati found the upland rabbitbane on the South Fork of the Cumberland River, in McCreary County, Kento tucky, some fifty miles downstream of Jennison's station. She warned that it might be eradicated by flooding caused by the newly constructed Wolf Creek Dam. Marc Evans, state botanist of Kentucky, tells me that Braun's original stands were indeed wiped out but that others have since been 25 Invaluable Data As the Arnold Julia Ellen Arboretum has become a kind of \"Noah's Ark\" for woody plants, as have other, similar institutions. While the metaphor may be somewhat far-fetched, it does hint at a key issue in plant conservation-namely, that only a few special people get early-enough warning of catastrophe in the making. Botanists and horticulturists at botanical gardens and arboreta are rapidly realizing that the knowledge they and their predecessors have accumulated over many decades can be directly applied to preserving the growing number of rare, threatened, and endangered species in the native flora of the United States. Already Exist Rogers noted, Reference Jenmson, H. M. 1933. A new species of Conradina from Tennessee. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Science Society 48: 268-269. Robert G. Nicholson is a widely travelled member of the Arnold Arboretum's grounds staff. He has written several articles for Amoldia and other horticultural publications. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Professors Gray and Sargent Pursue Shortia","article_sequence":4,"start_page":26,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24901","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eaf26.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Professors Gray and Sargent Pursue Shortia Almost from its inception the Arnold Arboretum has had a strong interest in and concern for plant conservation, whether of entire forests or of individual species. Charles Sprague Sargent, its first Director, was intimately involved in establishing the nation's.earliest policies on forest preservation, for example. A number of species in the Arboretum's Living Collections are rare, endangered, or even extinct in the wild, here or abroad. Buckleya distichophylla \/Nutt.) Torrey, the oldest documented cultivated plant in the Arboretum, is native to North Carolina, Tennessee, and Virginia. The Fish and Wildlife Service is now studying and accumulating data on the abundance and vulnerability of that species, to determine whether to list it formally as endangered or threatened; data the Service already has suggest that doing so would be \"appropriate.\" Another species, Neviusia alabamensis A. Gray, a native of Alabama, Arkansas, Mississippi, Missouri, and Tennessee, is also under study for possible listing. In 1876, the Arnold Arboretum acquired a cutting of this species from a plant in the Harvard Botanic Garden, in Cambridge (specimen 430 in the Arboretum's inventory); another cutting was established at \"Holm Lea,\" Sargent's estate in Brookline. Sargent sent a living plant of it to J. D. Hooker at Kew, in 1879. \"Neviusia is one of the rarest plants of the United States,\" Hooker wrote in Curtis's Botanical Magazine in 1885, \"being, in so far as hitherto known, confined to the State of Alabama, and there to some shaded cliffs near Tuscaloosa, where it was discovered by the Rev. R. D. Nevius, after whom [Asa] Gray named the genus.\" (As indicated above, the species has since been found in four other southern since its advent and earliest in the annals of botany where shrouded years in mystery. esting perhaps, Shortia, \"perhaps the most in North America\" interesting plant Shortia galacifolia Torrey & Gray, commonly called Oconee bells, little coltsfoot, or simply Shortia, is a rare plant that occurs states.)( Interesting as these two cases may be, the case of Shortia galacifolia is even more inter- Neviusia alabamensis A. Magazine for 1885. Gray. From Curtis's Botanical 27 C. E. Faxon's drawing of Shortia galacifolia, first published m Garden and Forest m 1888. It accompanied Sargent's account, \"The Story of Shorua.\" This is the ongmal drawmg, which is preserved m the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 28 in mountainous areas from Virginia to Georgia. A small evergreen, woody plant of up to eight inches in height, it is the sole species of Shortia native to North America; eight or ten other species occur in eastern Asia. Asa Gray pronounced it \"perhaps the most interesting plant in North America.\" In its most recent Review of Plant Taxa for sists of but half a dozen genera and only nine species, which are all, excepting the two species of Diapensia, confined to eastern North America and eastern Asia. The great interest of our Shortia, however, is found in the history of this plant during the Listing as Endangered or Threatened Species, the Fish and Wildlife Service assigns Shortia galacifolia to Category 2-\"taxa for which information now in possession of the Service indicates that proposing to list them as endangered or threatened species is possibly appropriate, but for which substantial data on biological vulnerability and threat(s) are not currently known or on file to support the immediate preparation of rules\" [!]. ]. Shortia has an intriguing history somewhat reminiscent of the histories of Franklinia and Bartram's ixia (Sphenostigma coelestinum). Andre Michaux collected a specimen of Shortia in the mountains of Carolina in 1787but did not describe it. Asa Gray came across Michaux's specimen while working in Paris in 1839; three years later he and John Torrey described it as a new genus, in the American journal of Science and Arts. For decades Gray and others assiduously sought additional specimens of Shortia galacifolia, but to absolutely no avail. Finally, the species was rediscovered in North Carolina, in 1877; in 1886, Charles Sprague Sargent and Frank Ellis Boynton, a North Carolina botanist, even were able to find the type locality. But let Professor Sargent himself tell the story: past century, and in the fact that among all the plants studied and described and classified by Asa Gray, this little herb most excited his mterest. American botanists never think of the man whom they all delight to look upon as their master and to remember as their friend without thinking, too, of this humble little plant, which properly occupied a conspicuous place upon the gift which a few years before his death they brought to him with words of affection and encouragement. Professor Gray was in Europe in 1839, and in examining the herbarium of the elder Michaux, preserved in the Museum at Paris, found an unnamed specimen of a plant, with the habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, of which only the leaves and a single fruit were preserved, and which had been collected, the label stated, in the \"Hautes montagnes de Carolinie.\" This specimen at once arrested his attention; and after his return, two years later, from his first botanical journey into the Carolina mountains, where he had The Story of Shortia. Our illustration upon page [27] represents one of the rarest and most interesting plants of North America. It is interesting from the peculiar structure of its delicate flowers, its botanical relationship, and the geographical distribution of the small family to which it belongs, which, as now [in 1888] defined, con- Dramng of the type specimen of Shorua galacifolia A. Gray m the Michaux Herbanum, Pans. 29 Buckleya distichophylla Torr. Top: C. E. Faxon's sketches from hvmg ongmals and proofs m the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. matenal. Bottom: The engraved print. From 30 searched in vain for Michaux's plant, he ventured to describe it, and to point out its probable affinities upon the strength of the scanty material in the Michaux herbarium, dedicating it to Dr. C. W. Short, the author of a years ago catalogue of the plants of Kentucky, and fifty an astute observer and capital col- plete its characters and remodel the family to which it belonged. There seemed to be nothing more left to say about Shortia. It was figured and described and discussed, and even introduced sparingly into cultivation, although its stay in gardens short one; while the enterprising disreaped a rich harvest dunng a year or two by selling plants (and, it is to be feared, by extermmating them) for herbarium specimens, at extravagant prices. Professor Gray, however, clung to the belief that Michaux's label could be depended upon, and that the real home of Shortia was in the high mountains. He regarded the station upon the Catawba as an outlying post, to which he suggested the plant might have been washed down, and still believed that it was to be found about the head-waters of the streams flowing eastward from the high Black Mountain range. This region was again carefully examined, but without result, and the search for Shortia was practically abandoned. There is still, however, another short chapter to relate in the history of this little plant. I visited, two years ago, m the autumn of 1886, the mountain region of North and South Carolina, which lies about the head-waters of the Keowee River, the great eastern fork of the Savannah, for the purpose of gaining, if possible, some insight mto the origin of Magnoha cordata, a species which was first described in Michaux's North American Flora, but had not been seen anywhere growing wild during the present century, although preserved and generally disseminated in gardens. Michaux left Augusta, Georgia, towards the end of November, 1788, for the purpose of securing a supply of roots of what he called at that time Magnolia cordata. This was not, as I was afterwards able to show, the Magnolia cordata of the Flora, founded long afterwards in Paris by Richard upon a specimen of M. acuminata, but the M. Fraseri, a species which had been discovered a few years earlier by the younger Bartram, the first botanist who explored the Carolina mountains. Michaux, m spite of a serious attack of fever, reached the head-waters of the Keowee on the 9th of December, and although weakened by was a lector of western plants, which he distributed with an unstinted hand among the principal herbaria of the United States and Europe. Nothing more was seen of Shortia for a long time, although no botanist ever visited the mountains of Carolina (and the number after 1866 was considerable), without carrying a special commission from Cambridge to bring back a specimen of Michaux's little plant, in which Dr. Gray's interest became stronger than ever when, in studying in 1858 a collection of Maximowicz's Japanese plants, he recognized in that botanist's Scizocodon umflorus another species of Shortia almost identical with the Carolina plant. The Japanese specimens, curiously enough, were in the same condition-that is, although the calyx and pistil of the flower were preserved, there was no trace of either corolla or stamens. These specimens, while they confirmed the validity of the genus, threw no light upon the Carolina plant, which botanists now hunted for more assiduously than ever. The keenest-eyed plant-hunters looked for it in vain year after year in all the region in which Michaux was supposed to have traveled; and the search was almost given up as hopeless, when in May, 1877, Shortia was found accidentally by a youth, G. M. Hyams, upon the banks of the Catawba River, near the town of Marion, in McDowell County, North Carolina, at a considerable distance from the high mountains to which Michaux's label assigned the plant. The new specimen fell into the hands of the young man's father, a professed herbalist. His knowledge of botany, however, was not great; and it was not until the following year that he discovered, with the aid of a correspondent, what a treasure he had. These new specimens made when the plant was in flower confirmed at once Professor Gray's original ideas of the proper relationship of his genus, and enabled him to com- coverer 31 sickness and hunger, and seriously impeded by the intense cold which he encountered m this elevated region, proceeded to explore the neighboring high mountains in search of a supply of young Magnolia trees for his Charleston nurseries. On the day of his arrival he noted in his journal that he had discovered what he called a \"Nouvel Arbuste a. f. denteles rampant sur la Montagne.\" I had taken before undertaking this journey to examine the manuscript diary kept by Michaux during his stay in America, preserved in the library of the American Philosophical Society; and I had noted the directions he had written down with much detail for finding his \"Arbuste\"-which evidently had interested him, as it is the only plant which he mentioned in the whole diary in this way-in the hope of identifying his plant, which, as this region had not been visited occasion again by any botanist, might prove something or at least imperfectly known. The idea that the plant might be Shortia was hardly entertained. It did not seem possible that Michaux, under any circumstances, could have mistaken Shortia for a shrub; and Dr. Gray, who had examined the diary either just before or immediately after his first journey to Carolina, if he noticed this entry at all, certamly never associated it in any way with the plant which he wanted to find more than all others. Had he done so he would have visited, or sent some of his correspondents to visit, the head-waters of the Savannah, a region which, for some reason, never attracted his attention, although it was by this route, following the old Indian trail from the coast to the Cherokee country, that all the early botanists penetrated to the mountains. It was possible, with the aid of the journal, to find, without much trouble, the spot where Michaux had camped in December, 1788, and to race his footsteps upon the different excursions which he made into the mountains from this camp. The two torrents which he described, as descending in a rough and tumultuous course from the high mountams to form the Keowee, are now known as the Toxoway and the Horse-pasture. The little fertile plain which Michaux found at the new, two streams still exists, as does the footpath, since trodden by the feet of many moonshiners, which led from the right bank of the river a hundred paces below the junction of the two streams into the mountain facing the north. It was by the side of this path that Michaux, just 100 years ago this month, discovered this \"Arbuste,\" with denticulate leaves, and here, ninety-eight years later, I found Shortia. The evidence seems conclusive that the two plants are one and the same, or, if it was not in this exact locality that Michaux gathered the specimen preserved in the Paris Museum, it was in this immediate neighborhood, where Shortia is now known through the subsequent explorations of Mr. F. H. Boynton, of Highlands, North Carolina, to be abundant. Mr. Faxon's drawing shows so clearly the habit and structure of Shortia, which, moreover, has been frequently described in purely technical journals of botany, that nothing further upon these subjects need be written now. Its nearest American allies are Galax aphylla, a beautiful evergreen herb, with tall, erect racemes of small pure white flowers, peculiar to the wooded slopes of the southern Alleghany Mountains, and the familiar Pixie (Pixidanthera barbata) of the New Jersey Pine barrens. There is in Japan one species of Shortia (S. uniflora), and possibly two, as there exists a rude portrait in an old work upon Japanese botany, m which what is evidently another species of Shortia, almost identical with the junction of these plant, is represented. In Japan, too, species of the nearly related Schizocodon, while in Thibet occurs Berneuxia, of the same family of Diapensiace~, of which the type is Diapensia, with two species, one widely distributed m boreal regions and the American are two other confined to the Himalayas. from Garden and -Excerpted and 507. Forest, Volume 1, Number 43 (December 19, 1888), pages 506 32 Sources General John J. Fay. Endangered and threatened plants: Review of plant taxa for listing as endangered or threatened species; notice 50 CFR Part 17. wildlife and of review. Federal Register 50(188) : 39526-39527 ). plus 57 pages (September 27, 1985). Buckleya William N. Carvell and W. Hardy Eshbaugh. A systematic study of the genus Buckleya (Santalaceae). Castanea 47(1): 17-37 (March 1982). Richard A. Howard. Buckleya-The oldest cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 37(3): 151-155 (May- June 1977). Neviusia J[oseph]. D[alton]. H[ooker]. Nevius[i]a alabamensis. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, Series 3, 41\/3\/: Plate 6806 (March 1, 1885). Richard A. Howard. In defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the plant called Neviusia. Amoldia 36(2): 57-65 (March-April 1976\/. Kenneth R. Robertson. The genera of Rosaceae in the southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 55(3\/: 344-401 (July 1974\/. [Neviusia: pages 345-349.] Shortia Frank Ellis Boynton. The home of Shortia. Garden and Forest 2(18): 214-215 (May 1, 1889). P. A. Davies. Type location of Shortia galacifoha. Castanea 21(3): 107-113 (September 1956). [Repnnted in Wild Flower 33(3): 24-31 (July 1957).] 's J[oseph]. D[alton]. H[ooker]. Shortia galacifoha. Curus's Botanical Magazine 115(8): Plate 7082 (October 1, 1889). Jenkms. Asa Gray and his quest for Shortia galacifolia. Arnoldia 2(3-4\/: 13-28 (April 10, 1942[. Alton E. Prince. Shortia galacifolia in its type locality. Rhodora 49(582): 159-161 (June 1947). Charles Sprague Sargent. The story of Shortia. Garden and Forest 1\/43\/: 506-507 (December 19, 1888). Charles F. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Endangered Plants at the Garden in the Woods: Problems and Possibilities","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24899","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eab28.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Brumback, William E.","article_content":"Endangered Plants at the Garden in the Woods: Problems and Possibilities William E. Brumback special difficulties of raising endangered nonwoody species in a botanic garden evoke information on how to preserve the same species in their The natural habitats As members of the recently formed Center for Plant Conservation (CPC), the Arnold Arboretum and the Garden in the Woods (the botanic garden of the New England Wild Flower Society) face similar challenges in their attempts to propagate and raise endangered plant species. It should be made clear from the beginning, however, that raising endangered plants in a botanic garden (\"ex situ conservation\") is not a substitue for protecting them in their natural habitats (\"in situ not endangered (overwhelmingly because of disturbance by man), gardens will be serving the cause of conservation. are The Problems and the Challenges But what are the problems both gardens will face in holding collections of endangered plants? The biggest problem will be to select and maintain in perpetuity the widest possible degree of genetic variability of each species. We will be attempting to preserve their genetic integrity for an indefinite period of time, so that the plants growing in our collections twenty, fifty, or a hundred years hence will be essentially the same genetically as the plants in the wild. In practice, this may not be totally possible to do. In the first place, any sample of seeds collected from the wild, even with the most judicious sampling, will not contain all of the genetic variability inherent in a species preservation\"). Botanic gardens must find themselves in the predicament zoos are in-holding collections of creatures that can no longer exist in the wild because their habitats are gone. Rather, botanic gardens should emphasize to their visitors that preserving its habitat is the single most important way to preserve a species, and that the role of a botanic garden is to complement, not to substitue for, preserving plants in the wild. Yet both gardens can play significant roles by conducting research on the reproductive biology and potential of endangered plants, as well as by creating valuable reserve collections that could be used for reintroduction should wildlife biologists ever deem it necessary to do so. However, I feel that our most important role is educating the public to the fact that plants are endangered. In the long run, it is the public who will determine our nation's policies with respect to endangered species; by informing their visitors about endangered plants and the reasons why they throughout its entire range. However, we should be able to capture a very high proportion of the variability since it has been shown (Primack, 1980) that even small populations of rare plants contain a great deal of genetic variability. It is after the seeds have been collected that the real problems arise. We must then germinate 100 percent of the seeds so that none of the genetic variability is lost; otherwise, we will select for those seedlings that can survive under our cultural conditions, which may be quite different from those in the wild. 34 Realizing that some loss is likely to occur, CPC has wisely arranged to have a large portion of the collected seeds stored in a seed bank under cold, dry conditions, which will maintain the viability of most seeds for long periods of time. present in the Garden in the Woods, were not as well documented as the new CPC material. The Tennessee Coneflower Siting the New Species Once the plants are grown to proper size, they will be placed in the collections. Exactly where they are placed will be a matter for some consideration. They should, of course, be planted where they will have the best chance of surviving and, if possible, where they will be available to visitors. However, there are other factors to consider. To reduce the chance of hybridization, endangered plants ideally should be located far from other species that might hybridize with them. Because there may be similar (or, in fact, identical) species already present in the garden's col- Surprisingly, some endangered species are proving easy to cultivate. Echinacea tennesseensis, the Tennessee coneflower, has proven very successful under cultivation. In the wild, it grows over limestone, in openings in the cedar glades of Tennessee, where the soil is too thin to support trees. In the wild, it is a low plant, but in rich soil at the Garden in the Woods it becomes much more robust. Other species may not be so easy to cultivate, particularly the native terrestrial orchids and plants that are semiparasitic or sapro- lection, hybridization may occur, meaning that seedlings growing near the endangered species could be very different from the parent plants. With woody species, the focus of the Arnold Arboretum's collections, it should be possible to collect any seedlings that persist so as to maintain the genetic integrity of the collection. With the herbaceous species that make up the bulk of the collection at the Garden in the Woods, the process of collecting seedlings will be similar, but much greater vigilance will be required of us because the seedlings will become mature plants quickly and may then be indistinguishable in morphology from their parents. One way around this problem would be to remove the flowers before seeds are set, but the seeds are a valuable source of research material, and we would like to avoid the laborious maintenance task of removing flowers. Another possiblity would be to maintain only material of a species from a single wild source. This might mean having to remove plants if the same species, already Echinacea tennesseensis (Beadle) Small, the Tennessee purple coneflower, a species that has been formally hsted as endangered by the Fish and Wildhfe Sermce, under the terms of the Endangered Species Act. It is endemic to Tennessee. Photograph by Robert K. Gardner of the North Carohna Botanical Garden. Courtesy of the Center for Plant Conservation. 35 phytic. Furthermore, because they would have to be maintained and continually repropagated for the Garden's collection, annual and biennial species probably can be conserved best in seed banks. approximately three weeks after sowing and resent any disturbance until they have attained a reasonable size. The plants need three to five growing seasons to mature, and may not bloom for several years more. This information could give valuable clues to a wildlife biologist who is following Helonias bullata. If a wild population declines, perhaps it is because water levels have been changed so that seedlings receive too little or too much moisture. Perhaps other disturbances make it difficult for seedlings to develop. Furthermore, because we know that plants need a relatively long period of time to mature, this information may hold implications for a population of only one or two blooming plants and a few some Information tion Applicable to In Situ Preserva- One aspect of the cultivation of endangered species in botanic gardens that is valuable to wildlife managers is the information gener- ated by the successful propagation and cula tivation of ment species. If we are able to raise an in the controlled environof a botanic garden, questions arise for the botanist monitoring the same species in decline in the wild. Is the decline of the species due solely to destruction of its habitat, or has the habitat been changed, allowing stronger competitors to get a foothold? Perhaps the pollination and dispersal mechanisms are not successful, or the conditions necessary for the establishment of seedlings are no longer present. It is very possible that we may raise more questions for biologists than we answer. But we can also provide valuable information on species biology. For instance, Helonias bullata, the swamp pink, is an attractive member of the lily family that grows in open, wet places, primarily in the eastern United States. In May, it sends up a flower spike that resembles a pink drumstick on a two-foot stalk. Plants grow slowly into large clumps. Plants of Helonias bullata at the Garden in the Woods set copious amounts of seeds. Research has taught us that germination drops off sharply if the seeds are allowed to dry out after they have been collected, although some of them may germinate as many as nine months after collection. It has also taught us that the seeds should not be covered with the germination medium after sowing and that the best germination was achieved by placing each flat of freshly sown seeds in a tray of water. Seedlings appear endangered plant seedlings. Thus, by working with an endangered plant in a botanic garden we can help biologists manage wild populations. Furthermore, we have developed the techniques to propagate a particular genotype for return to the wild should that be deemed advisable, and have built up a reserve collection in case of catastrophe. This year we will be collecting seeds for the CPC collection from various species throughout New England. We hope that the resulting new plants will become permanent additions to the Garden in the Woods and that we will be able to admire them and to learn more about endangered species in general. Reference Primack, Richard B. 1980. Phenotypic variation of rare and widespread species of Plantago. Rhodora 82(829): 87-95. William E. Brumback is Propagator at the New England Wild Flower Society's Garden m the Woods m Frammgham, Massachusetts. This is the second article he has written for Amoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the United States and Mexico","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24895","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24e896d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Nabhan, Gary Paul; Greenhouse, Ruth; Hodgson, Wendy","article_content":"At the Edge of Extinction: Useful Plants of the Border States of the United States and Mexico Gary Paul Nabhan Ruth Greenhouse Wendy Hodgson One in ten of five hundred wild relatives of New World crop plants are threatened or endangered in the border region of the United States and Mexico, yet little is being done to protect them Most people who care about and study plants could easily cite reasons why endangered endangered species (Myers, 1983; Farnsworth and Soejarto, 1985). Unfortunately, their arguments have very often been far-fetched appeals that do not match the actual economic potential of endangered species. One platitude offered by the mass media holds that a given endangered species may yield the hidden cure for cancer or other dread diseases. If we should lose that species, they argue, we may unwittingly lose a miracle drug it is \"programmed\" to produce. This argument assumes that (1)medical researchers seek a single panacea that could cure all kinds of cancer and (2), of the thousands of species already screened by pharmacologists and the hundreds of thousands of common species that remain, none are more likely than a species bordering on extinction is to yield the miracle drug. In short, the proponents of plant conservation have been vague and at times misleading in their responses to questions about the impor- plants should be protected, reasons having little or nothing to do with potential gains from the plants's products (ornamental flowers, gums, resins, and so on) or from their ecological functions (the prevention of soil erosion, fixation of atmospheric nitrogen, and provision of habitat for wildlife, for example.) Such considerations are far less important than the intrinsic right of a species to exist (Callicott, 1986); in fact, laws dealing with endangered species usually exclude the use of economic or aesthetic criteria for determining whether a rare or threatened plant deserves legal protection. Nevertheless, many lay people would like to know how currently endangered plants were used in the past and how they might be used in the future. Conservationists often hint at such uses when they argue that taxpayers ought to subsidize the protection of Opposite : Four agaves or more native to the Borderlands region of the Umted States and Mexico. They are among the eighty wild relatives of crop plants from the Borderlands region that already have been or may yet be officially listed for protection under the Endangered Species Act because they are considered to be rare, vulnerable, or actually threatened Agave parmflora Torr (top left) is m Category 2 (t e., is under study for possible listing), while both Agave mckelveyana Gentry (top nght) and Agave utahensis var kaibabensis (McKelv.) Breit (bottom left) are in Category 3C (t.e., are currently not sub~ect to threat) Agave cf havardtana Trel (bottom nght) has not been hsted by the Fish and Wildlife Service The photographs were taken in Anzona and Texas by Susan Delano McKelvey of the Arnold Arboretum dunng the 1920s and 1930s as follows -Agave parmflora Sierra Parayto, Arizona, 1930, Agave mckelveyana Sierra Ancha, Anzona, 1929 (the type locahty of the species), Agave utahensis var. kaibabensis Kmbab National Forest, Anzono, 1934 (the type locahty of the specres), and Agave cf. havardtana Miller's Ranch, near lampia Creek, jeff Dams County, Texas, 1931 Photographs from the .4zchmes of the Arnold Arboretum 38 of endangered plants to human beings. Fortunately, there are meaningful responses to such questions. Before their habitats came under attack, a number of endangered species provided American Indian peoples with food, fiber, medicine, or ceremonial materials; some still are important in Indian (or \"Native American\") cultures. Species (or other taxa) needed for healing and ceremony may continue to be available under the legal sanction of the Indian Freedom of Religion Act. Plant tance breeders are wild species, related but genes to now some using an additional set of endangered, others closely more abundant, as donors of species of crop plants in the same kovsky (1936). We also drew upon detailed botanical ethnographies of Native cultures of this desertic and mountainous region. Among the cultures described were those of the Apache (Gallagher, 1977), Cahuilla (Bean and Saubel, 1972), and Seri (Felger and Moser, 1985). The results, summarized in Table 1, indicate that over forty rare, threatened, or endangered species were historically used directly for food, clothing, medicine, or other purposes. These forty-odd species belong to twenty-seven genera, which are indicated by os in Table 1. A further one hundred twentyseven genera that contain species at risk (indicated by + s) were also used. Thus, one fifty-four genera of plants used by Native Americans in either prehistoric or hundred historic times contain species that now are at risk in the ten border states of the United States and Mexico. No fewer than one hundred fifteen genera were used directly as medicines or indirectly in ceremonies for healing, fertility, or protection. What is the significance of such numbers? They suggest that a staggering diversity of respective genera. While the improvement of crop plants through the use of \"wild\" genes usually proceeds slowly, by a series of small increments rather than in large steps, the improvements gained do increase the resistance of modern crops to pests, diseases, and and also enhance the nutritive value of the crops (Prescott-Allen and Prescott-Allen, 1983). The following discussion therefore offers examples of rare or threatened plants that (1)have a long history of use by people and\/or (2) are being considered by plant breeders as potential sources of genes for crop improvement. The discussion focusses on species that are native to the \"Borderlands\"-the border states of California, Arizona, New Mexico, and Texas in the United States and Baja California Norte, Sonora, Chihuahua, Nuevo Leon, Coahuila, and Tamaulipas in Mexico, which have a common history of land and plant use. stress plants now facing extinction belong to genera that played major roles in feeding and healing early Americans. Because few early ethnographic sources reliably identified plants to the level of species, it is difficult to be sure that particular species now threatened or endangered were routinely used in historic times. Because of this uncertainty, we have had to present and analyze data at the level of genus. Nonetheless, when we find that most species in a genus such as Arctostaphylos, Opuntia, or Rubus were used for food, we can confidently assume that the rare species in those genera were also comestible and probably were eaten whenever they were encountered. Did such use endanger these plants? Of the twenty-eight genera for which we know that particular species now at risk definitely were utilized, a few such as Agave, Echinocactus, Calochortus, Dudleya, and 'I~iteleiopsis, could Ethnobotanical Uses To determine whether any of the rare or endangered plants in the border states ever contributed to the well-being of the human inhabitants of those states, we consulted several compendia of ethnobotanical data, including Altschul (1973), Burlage (1968), Clarke (1977), Hodgson (1982), and Yan- 39 have suffered if they had been used intensively. Others, such as plants that bear beror achenes, probably were not dramatically affected by harvesting itself. On the contrary, in the overwhelming majority of cases, recent destruction or degradation of habitat has more severely threatened these plants than did localized overharvesting in ries, grains, historic times. In several instances Native Americans have protected or favored rare species in habitats that were modified by man. For example, Helianthus anomalus, a wild sunflower, is protected in Hopi Indian sand-dune fields, where its flowers are harvested for ceremonial purposes (Nabhan and Reichhardt, C. E. Faxon's treme drawing of Triteleiopsis palmen (S. Wats.J Hoover, the blue sand hly of Mexico and exsouthwestern Arizona. At one time this species Category1 but later was placed in Category 3C as more mformation became available. Though common m Ba~a Cahforma, it is not common m Arizona, where it receives protection under the terms of the Arizona Native Plant Law (because it is a member of the Liliaceae). Native peoples of the Borderlands area use it for food. First published, in Garden and Forest magazme, m 1889 (the year the species was descmbed), this drawmg is from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. was m Opuntia fulgida Engelm., the ~umpmg cholla, a cactus common m the Sonoran Desert and a potential crop plant for and lands. In coastal Sonora, Mexico, the Sen Indians harvest fruit from specific stands and mdividual plants of Opuntia fulgida that consistently bear fruit several times larger than usual. Fruit size appears to be genetically controlled. Drawing by C. E. Faxon. 40 Table 1 Native American Uses of Genera Borderlands o: +: Containing Plant Species At Risk in the U.S.\/Mexico Evidence exists that Native Amencans of the Borderlands have used one or more threatened or endangered species m the genus for the indicated purpose. Evidence exists that Native Amencans of the Borderlands have used one or more species in the genus for the indicated purpose, but none that they used any of the threatened or endangered species belongmg to the genus that occur there. 41 42 43 1983).In a recent excellent study by Housley (1975, and in press), Opuntia imbricata and the rare Opuntia whipplei var. viridiflora were shown to be highly associated with Pueblo Indian habitation sites in northern New Mexico. Similarly, Agave murpheyi in Arizona and Sonora is found almost exclusively around prehistoric ruins or contemporary O'odham Indian villages. Either by tolerating or directly propagating these spe- 44 cies, Native Americans have conserved the the wild plants's gene pools. Potential Uses as taxa on an unprecedented scale. Roughly five hundred wild species of plants in twenty-eight genera native to the border Genetic Resources long history of direct use for food and other purposes, many plants of the Borderlands are now considered to be useful indirectly, as potential genetic resources. Some genera that contain cropplant species also contain cross-compatible wild taxa that are capable of \"donating\" their genes through conventional breeding or new, biotechnological, methods. The wild taxa are said to be part of the same \"gene pool\" as the In addition to their crop-plant species. Geneticists are now using of the United States and Mexico are Not all of the five hundred will eventually be found able to exchange genes with crops by currently available techniques, but about 5 percent already have been artificially crossed with their closest domesticated kin. In some cases the results have already proven to have been worth the effort and cost. Sunflowers, strawberries, chile peppers, cotton, and cherries have already benefitted from controlled interbreeding with related species from the wilds of the Borderlands. Genes for disease states \"crop relatives\" (Nabhan, 1986). Richard Pentewa, a Hopi farmer, and Karen L. Reichhardt, a botanist with Native SeedslSEARCH, pose Helianthus anomalus Blake. This rare wild sunflower is protected in Hopi fields and is used ceremonially. by Gary Paul Nabhan ma field of Photograph 45 Table 2 Wild Relatives of Mexico Crop Plants At Risk in the Borderlands of the United States and resistance, pest deterrence, drought tolerance, salt exclusion, nutritive quality, and lists of threatened and endangered species. The habitats of these plants are being cold hardiness have been found in the relatives of other crops, among them beans, cassava, sisal, grains, potatoes, and blueberries. Though not obvious in grocery stores, wild genes nevertheless are there-within produce. More genes are sure to follow. The Southwest is, perhaps, the richest source of crop relatives in the United States. Northern Mexico, because of its vegetational history, is even richer. Yet more than eighty taxa of crop relatives in this binational region are at risk (Table 2) because of both their natural rarity and direct threats from human beings and their livestock. By conservative estimate, 10 to 15 percent of the wild congeners of crops in the border states of the two countries should eventually be put on official destroyed through conversion to agriculture and through the development of water resources by dams and the pumping of groundwater. Ironically, the agriculture bemg made possible through the destruction of habitat someday may need the traits for hardiness borne in genes of the wild plants it is displacing. It is disconcerting to realize that the habitats of the few threatened crop relatives found in parks and nature sanctuaries of the United States are not necessarily being managed so as to favor the threatened species. Many of these species are \"disturbanceadapted\" and, therefore, components of pioneer ecosystems. The suppression of fire, prevention of floods, and abandonment of 46 small-scale Native agriculture actually cause populations of these plants to wane. At present, few threatened crop relatives or ethnobotanical resource plants are cultivated by botanical gardens or seed banks. Fortunately, however, through the leadership shown by the Center for Plant Conservation, Native Seeds\/SEARCH, North American Fruit Explorers, and individual botanical gardens, efforts to cultivate them are now on the upswing (Office of Technology Assessment, 1986). The historic neglect of the most valuable of our threatened and endangered plants is being corrected. We hope that these potentially useful organisms-whether they reach the kitchen table or not-will be growing many generations from now. References Altschul, Bean, S. V. R. 1973. Drugs and Foods from LittleKnown Plants. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. 365 pages. L. J., and K. S. Saubel. 1972. Temalpakh~ Cahmlla W. 1982. Edible Native and Naturahzed of the Sonoran Desert North of Mexico. Unpublished Master of Science thesis, Arizona State University, Tempe. 502 pages. Housley, L. K. 1975. Opuntia imbmcata Distribution on Old Jemez Indian Habitation Sites. Unpublished Master of Science thesis, The Claremont Gradu- Hodgson, Plants ate School, Claremont, California. press. The human factor Housley, L. K. In (Cactaceae) m cholla distribution m northwestern New Mexico and southwestern Colorado. Journal of Ethnobiology. Myers, N. 1983. A Wealth of Wild Species: Storehouse for Human Welfare. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press. 272 pages. G. P. 1986. Threatened genetic resources of the U.S.\/Mexico borderlands: Wild relatives of crops, their uses and conservation. In P. Ganster, editor, Environmental Hazards and Bioresource Issues of the United StateslMexico Borderlands. Los Angeles: Latin American Center, University of California at Los Angeles. [In press.] Nabhan, G. P., and K. L. Reichhardt. 1983. Hopi protection of Hehanthus anomalus, a rare sunflower. Southwestern Naturahst 28\/2\/: 231-235. Office of Technology Assessment. 1986. Grassroots Conservation of Biological Dmersitym the Umted States. Background Paper 1. Washington, D.C.: Congress of the Umted States. vm + 67 pages. Prescott-Allen, R., and C. Prescott-Allen. 1983. Genes from the Wild: Using Wild Genetic Resources for Food and Raw Materials. London: Earthscan\/ International Institute for Environment and Development. 101 pages. Yanovsky, E. 1936. Food Plants of the North Amencan Indians. Miscellaneous Publication 237, Umted States Department of Agriculture. Washington, D. C.: Umted States Government Printing Office. 84 pages. Nabhan, Indian Knowledge and Usage of Plants. Morongo Indian Reservation, Bannmg, California: Malki Museum Press. 225 pages. Burlage, H. M. Reputed 1968. Index of Plants of Texas with Medicmal and Poisonous Properties. Austin, Texas: The author. 245 pages. Calhcott, J. B. 1986. On the intrinsic value of nonhuman species. Pages 138 to 165 in B. G. Norton, editor, The Preservation of Species: The Value of Bio- logical Dmersity. Prmceton, New Jersey: Prmceton University Clarke, Felger, of California. Berkeley: University of California Press. Press. 305 pages. C. B. 1977. Edible and Useful Plants 280 pages. R. S., and M. B. Moser. 1985. People of the Desert and Sea: Ethnobotany of the Seri Indians. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. 435 pages. Famsworth, N. R., and D. D. Soe~arto. 1985. Potential consequences of plant extinction in the Umted States on the current and future availability of prescmption drugs. Economic Botany 39(3): 231-240. Gallagher, M. V. 1977. Contemporary Ethnobotany among the Apache of the Clarkdale, Anzona, Area. Archaeological Report 14, Southwestern Region, Forest Service, Umted States Department of Agriculture. Albuquerque. 50 pages. The authors are affiliated with the Desert Botanical Garden in Phoenix, Arizona. Gary Paul Nabhan, the Garden's Assistant Director, cofounded Native Seeds\/ SEARCH. He has written two books and many articles on conservation and economic botany of the Southwest. His second book, Gathenng the Desert, has won the John Burroughs Medal for 1986. Ruth Greenhouse has been a Research Associate at the Garden smce 1980, where she specializes in educational programs on the ethnobotany of the Sonoran Desert. Wendy Hodgson, Staff Artist and Herbarium Curator at the Garden, is writing a book-length manuscript on food plants of the Sonoran Desert for the University of Arizona Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Renaissance at Walden","article_sequence":7,"start_page":47,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24902","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eaf6b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Sherwood, Mary P.","article_content":"Renaissance at Walden Mary P Sherwood Valiant efforts at revegetation are restoring some of the lost charm and serenity of this renowned literary and historic site The ongoing rehabihtation of Walden Pond has been a story of delay and frustration, progress and setback, caused by a superabundance of people, a near-total lack of money, and frequent misapplication of what little money there was. It has been a story, also, of copmg with a habitat too harsh for most plants to get established in on their own, as well as with severe restrictions on plants that would be appropriate for rehabilitating an historic natural site like Walden. In years long past-when people did not visit Walden in the huge numbers they now do (up to 17,000 on a single warm summer day)-the woods surrounding Walden had been able to grow spontaneously after having been cut for lumber or fuel during the last century. Even the site of a large, turn-ofthe-century amusement park at the western end of the pond grew up to woods after the park was abandoned. Now, however, people visit Walden in such overwhelming numbers, trampling vegetation and disturbing the soil on the banks of the pond, that neither pioneer species of plants nor tree seedlings the get established on their own, but must have protection. Under the present condican tions at Walden, sistent care and revegetation requires perprotection of plants that otherwise would succumb to the harsh environmental conditions or else be trampled by the throngs of visitors. The present urgent need for rehabilitation at Walden can be traced back three decades. The Great Assault In the on Walden Visitors stroll along the northern shore of Walden. in tographed by Courtesy of Albert W Bussemtz the photographer. PhoOctober 1975. summer of 1957, responding to a request by the local chapter of the American Red Cross, the commissioners of Middlesex County, Massachusetts, brought a bulldozer and power saws onto the Walden Pond Reservation to enlarge an existing small \"beach,\" or swimming area. About one hundred trees were cut on the steep slope just above the beach, and the slope itself was gouged out 48 with the bulldozer, which pushed some of the soil from the slope into the pond so as to enlarge the shallow-swimming area, and some of it to the southern, lower edge of the slope, in order to create a road for busses and ambulances. The Red Cross seems to have had something considerably more modest than this in mind when it communicated its request to the commissioners-namely, a truckload or two of sand to extend its swimclass beach. Learning of the drastic alterations at Walden, the Thoreau Society, an international association of students and admirers of author Henry D. Thoreau, who had lived close to the shore of Walden in the 1840s, obtained an injunction to halt use of the saws and the bulldozer and then took the county commissioners to court. Three years later, on May 3, 1960, the state supreme court ruled that no more trees were to be cut, that no road was to be developed, that the soil removed from the slope had to be returned to its original location, and that trees must be planted to replace those that had been cut. The entire damaged area was to be returned to the \"natural forest conditions of Emerson and Thoreau's day.\" (Descendants of Ralph Waldo Emerson had deeded Walden to the state of Massachusetts in 1922 with the stipulation that it be preserved as Emerson and Thoreau had known it. Middlesex County View of the top of the denuded slope, lookmg westward Nearly down and tons of humus and topsoil pushed mto the pond m a 1957, by Roland Wells Robbms. two hundred matter two of full-grown oaks and pines were cut days Photographed on August 11, 49 View toward the northeast along the western shore of Walden Pond, lookmg towards Thoreau's Cove, November 7, 1899. Photograph by Herbert Wendell Gleason. Courtesy of H. C. Conover and N. Mills. 50 assumed management of the new reservation.) The County claimed that it had no money to carry out the court-ordered repairs. For the next twenty-two years, the damaged slope remained barren and exposed. Gullies developed and grew deeper by the year. In the meantime, people began visiting the reservation in far greater numbers than they had previously, compounding the damage. Replanting the Damaged Slope In 1979, I asked the state of Massachusetts, which in 1975 had taken over management of the Reservation from the County, for permission to repair the great bare gash above the beach. The state granted permission and, early spring of 1980,I began replanting the damaged slope with the help of four young people. The slope, including the so-called \"ambulance road,\" faces due south and is therefore fully exposed to the sun on clear summer days. It also bears the brunt of the prevailing westerly wind, which swoops down the full length of the pond and funnels up the open slope. The lack of vegetative cover, such as trees and shrubs, which would shield the slope from the force of the wind, and which would provide shade, results in stressful conditions comparable to those of a desert. Planting in such an environment would require careful planning, a fussy technique, and persistence-even to the point of conin the View of the same section of the western shore of Walden Pond, showmg a footpath Photograph by Roland Wells Robbms. Courtesy of the photographer. as it appeared m the late 1940s. 51 The smmmmg beach at Walden. Photographed on May 30, 1903, by Herbert Wendell Gleason The smmmmg beach as it looked m 1948 This photaken on July 11, 1948, by Roland Wells Robbms, shows the beach from the south, while Gleason's view shows it from the west The slope m the background was denuded of trees and bulldozed m 1957 to enlarge the beach. tograph, W mn rne scmmmmg beach at toward the denuded Walden, lookmg north slope Photographed on August 11, 1957, by Roland Wells Robbms. 52 tinual replanting. When we started work on the slope, only a few weeds, such as a wild mustard, a few species of grass, and some silvery cmquefoil (Potentilla argentea), grew there. Some staghorn sumacs (Rhus typhina)( grew in one corner of the slope and, at the other end, a white pine (Pinus strobus) or both areas, a horticultural variety of juniper had been planted five years before and, near the white pines, a cultivar of arbor two. In vitae \/Thuja occidentalis). The task would be complicated further because, under the terms of the court order, I could plant only trees or shrubs that had made up the \"natural forest conditions of Emerson and Thoreau's day.\" This requirement limited the species I could use in replanting. I could, however, use annuals and weedy ground covers, whether native or alien, because they would die out once the trees formed a forest and cast too much shade for them. Adding significantly to the stresses that the plants would have to endure were the hundreds of thousands of people who were visiting the Reservation each year. Children on bicycles, horseback riders, visitors taking shortcuts from and to the nearby state highway, and sunbathers on blankets all prevented even weeds from gaining a toehold on the slope. The plants I used, therefore, would not impress the sophisticated horticulturist. I selected them for their ability to withstand harsh conditions and abuse, and for their historical appropriateness when possible. Nor were the techniques I used sophisticated. The first major \"technique,\" or goal, was to try to hold the soil in place with whatever species could grow in it. Trees and grasses proved best for this. The footpath along the north shore of Walden Pond. It leads from the smmmmg area to the site of Thoreau's hut (1845-1847). Photographed m 1948 by Roland Wells Robbms. Gladys B. Hosmer of the Thoreau Society and Almn G Whitney, a forester from New York State, surveymg g the same footpath m 1957 Photographed on August 10, 1957, by Roland Wells Robbms. Holding the Soil in Place Between the top of the damaged slope and a higher, undamaged slope that extends to the footpath m 1984, showing the contmued of the banks A boardwalk has been constructed m an effort to accommodate the thousands of visitors who use the path every week. Photographed on Apnl 19, 1984, by Roland Wells Robbms. The same erosion 53 highway (Route 126) there is a flat, shady wooded area. The forty- to fifty-yearold trees in this area (mostly red oaks, white pines, and a few hickories and white oaks) had not been cut in 1957. They provided shade and had helped create some woodland soil. Yet by 1980, this area had been so trampled by the ever-increasing crowds of visitors that the ground was completely bare of vegetation. There was not a single tree seedling in the woodland; no understory of young trees was coming along, and no ground-level plants existed at all. In this shaded area, I dug small, crude beds that I gradually filled with plants of native, shade-demanding species gleaned from other state mayflower (Maianthemum canadense\/, pipsissewa (Chimaphila umbellata), early low blueberry (Vaccinium angustifolium), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens\/, checkerberry (Gaultheria procumbens\/, and many white pine (Pinus strobus) and red oak (Quercus rubra) seedlings. I covered the beds lightly with leaves, placing sticks on the leaves to keep them from blowing away. I was delighted that, even before a fence could be put up, people walked around rather than through the small mounds of leaves and sticks, spanng the vulnerable new transplants. By the end of the third year, when I had moved some of these plants onto it, the flat area became green from one end to the other, and the young white pines and red oaks were thriving. parts of the 400-acre reservation-Canada on Timber cnbbjng installed farther along the footpath March 20, 1981, by Roland Wells Robbins. to arrest erosion of the northern bank of Walden Photographed 54 Replanting the bare, damaged slope immediately above the beach has proven to be entirely another matter. In 1980, under the supervision of Roland W. Robbins, the well known archaeologist, much of the original topsoil (which in 1957 had been moved to a turnaround on the \"ambulance road\") was put back on the slope with a bulldozer and backhoe. But the gullies had first been filled by the bulldozer with the gravel that originally had underlain the topsoil. Thus, more than two decades after the court ruling, the approximate original contours of the slope at Walden were back in place. Once the contours had been more or less my crew and I quickly planted rye grass (Lolium perenne) to prevent the loose soil from eroding. We then covered the newly seeded slope with a layer of hay, over which we spread branches, to hold the hay in place. The next night there was a light shower, and in five days the green of the new grass began to show through the hay. We then had to wait until the grass took hold before we could tuck in the sun-loving weeds that do best in such an environment. In front of the juniper cultivars and the Thuja we planted three- to four-foot-tall white pines. Though the junipers and the Thuja were horticultural varieties, I did not want to disturb them because their roots were deeply established, holding the soil in those spots; the pines eventually would shade them out, and the pines's roots would take over. Nor did we disturb a flowering crab at the east restored, perennial Restoring the contours of the slope dunng the spnng of 1980. Photograph by Roland Wells Robbms. 55 or a clump of flowering cheredge of the ambulance road, all of which had been planted as nursery stock m 1975. They, too, will eventually die out; for end of the slope ries at the month, and, though immediately up a bucket brigade to water them daily from the pond, sat at a a we unwatered nursery for full set the present, their roots serve to hold the soil. Harsh conditions and trampling were not the only problems with which I had to contend. Sometimes it proved impossible to obtain the healthy nursery stock I needed. At one point, for example, I ordered twentyfive five-foot-tall red oaks that I planned to set out in groups of five in the middle of the slope and along the ambulance road, in order to create patches of shade for the native woodland ground-cover plants I mtended to transplant there. What arrived were eight oaks, ten feet tall, which had only a few tufts of leaves remammg at their tops. They had all but three died the first winter-a recordcold and very windy winter. It was a merciless environment for them. The \"Ambulance Road\" ~ ~' ~ ~~~~ ~ in our attempt to plant the oaks as originally planned, we had to settle for using the same ground species on the ambulance road that we had used on the damaged slope. Again, we planted grass and then transplanted the same pioneer weeds we had used on the slope-red clover (Tri- Having failed folium pratense\/, common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex), silvery cinquefoil \/P. argentea), The restored slope with a layer of hay, which was spread to protect the ~ust-sown perennial rye grass (Lolium perenneJ. The green of the grass began to show through the hay mthm a matter of days. Photographed m June 1980 by Roland Wells Robbms. 56 creeping lady's sorrel (Oxalis corniculata), (Achillea millefolium), oxeye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), and pussytoes (Antennaria neglecta). We even gathered tough clumps of grass from the Reservation's parking lot and spot-planted them over both the upper and lower slopes. We then moved the transplanted oak and pine seedlings from the beds in the flat, wooded area out onto the slope, planting yarrow them among the grasses and the weeds. I realized that, though the slope was loose gravel, their roots would have difficulty reaching the deep water table, or even capillary water. The oaks, with their long taproots, would have a better chance than the shallow-rooted pines. We mulched all of the seedlings with oak leaves and pine needles, which we had stockpiled on the flat. To prevent the mulch from blowing away, we placed small stones on it. Later, when wood G. Lee, a naturahst mth Walden Pond State Reservation (left), and j. Walter Bram, president of the Fnends of Walden, prepare holes for young pitch pmes on the rehabihtated slope m May 1982. Photograph by Lois Clark and Roslyn McNish. Courtesy of the photographers Replantmg the slope. Deborah we added some to the mulch. The second season, a crew of Reservation workers chopped two dozen white pine trees out of the frozen ground at the far end of the Reservation. These were planted, their roots in balls of ice, in two staggered rows, up the sides of the ambulance road. Most have survived, though during their second growing season gypsy moth caterpillars almost denuded them. They since have recovered and will, in time, provide the shade we had hoped the nursery-grown red oaks would provide. During the first two years, we transplanted many oak and pine seedlings on the ambulance road and on the slope; during the second year we planted countless Quercus rubra acorns. On the beach side of the lower portion of the ambulance road was a cluster of staghom sumac. We carefully avoided stepping on sprouts from this cluster that had come up in the roadway. The gullied slopes from the ambulance road down to the beach proved very difficult to control because young people persisted in vaulting the fence and clambering up and down the slope. We did succeed in plantmg a few native junipers ( juniperus communis) on the slope, as well as the same weed species and clumps of grass we had put elsewhere. Some spots on these slopes required three plantings because of the damage people caused. One slope beyond the beach area was damaged again, all of the plants on it having slid to the bottom by the time the winter of 1984 set in, children having broken the fence down. Thus, repair of this area must be a continuous process for a while. On the slope across the ambulance road from the stand of sumac there is a colony of sweetfern (Comptonia peregrina), a plant that holds the soil in place very well. We hope it will spread, now that people are being kept out of the area, for at last they have accepted the temporary snow fence. Along much of the upper, eastern, edge of chips became available, 57 the damaged slope above the beach, there is a stand of gray dogwood \/Cornus racemosa) shrubs. When the backhoe was being used in 1980 to return the moved gravel to its original position, we had to move some of the shrubs because they were growing in the displaced gravel of the slope. We kept them in a temporary ditch, watering them well until we could gradually transplant them onto the ambulance road. Across the bottom of the damaged slope, just above the beach, we planted a row of gray birches (Betula populifolia) and, behind it, staggered red oaks, our intention being to link the existing woods at either end of the damaged slopes. The birches, favoring open, hot sun, will grow faster than the oaks and will provide shade for the oaks, which when young do not do well in open locations. Being short-lived, the birches will have died out by the time the oaks are ready to stand on their own. Progress and Setback: The Prospect of Success Over the last six years we have experienced many setbacks in our rehabilitation work at Walden. For example, a large wild grapevine, the riverbank grape (Vitis riparia~, had grown for many years at the foot of the ambulance road, near the bottom of the damaged slope. While we were working on the slope we kept the grape's runners carefully tucked out of harm's way. When the work there was completed, we spread the runners out onto the road, weighting their root-forming nodes against the soil with stones. By the fall of 1983, the grape was spreading over a wide area. The following year, this encouraging situation changed for the worse. The level of water in Walden Pond, which is a groundwater lake (it has no inlet or outlet), fluctuates in an approximately thirtyyear cycle. In 1984, the water was so high that it covered, to a level of two feet or more, the beach, the row of birches, and the oak seedlings in back of the birches. In response to the high water, the administration opened a path down the ambulance road, rather than asking visitors to to use another, existing path J Walter Bram transplants a young pitch graph by Lois Clark and Roslyn McNish pme. Photo- reach the site of Thoreau's cabin. Within a week, everything we had planted on the lower portion of the ambulance road had been ground to dust. Not a single young oak or pine was left standing. The wild-grape runners were crushed dead-proof that people must be kept off wooded slopes m the Reservation. Nature is simply too fragile to endure such pummelmg. Fortunately, now that the water has receded, permission has been given to close the path and to replant it in 1986. Vegetation now completely covers the oncegullied slope and the flat area above it. Every spring, groups such as Friends of Walden, Walden Forever Wild, and, on Arbor Day, scouts and school children, plant a few more trees on the slope. It will take years for the trees to reach maturity, but in time the 58 nearly thirty terrain that the County denuded of trees years ago will be covered with Acknowledgments Most of the illustrations that accompany this trees, restoring shade, to the beach area. Note coolness, and beauty Readers interested in further information about the situation at Walden Pond will find a useful overview and legal analysis in a recently completed study by David E. Rabmowitz, a student in the Harvard Law School. Entitled The Abuse of a Pubhc Trust: A Case History of Walden Pond, the 67-page typescript report is available for $10.00 (prepaid) from: Walden Forever Wild, Post Office Box 275, Concord, Massachusetts 01742-0002. article were made available through the kindness and generosity of several individuals: Heather C. Conover and Nick Mills (the photographs of Herbert Wendell Gleason), Roland Wells Robbins, Lois Clark, Roslyn McNish, and Albert W. Bussewitz (views of Walden Pond and its environs). Mary P. Sherwood founded the Thoreau Lyceum m Con- cord, Massachusetts, and Walden Forever Wild, an organization dedicated to rehabilitating and protecting the shore of Walden Pond For the past several years she has coordinated the revegetation of eroded and denuded areas around the pond. Walden's most cntical problem is overuse, which is manifested in the physical deterioration of all areas adjacent to the pond edge. Most evident is the erosion of the sandy soil and vegetative cover flanking the main pond path. This erosion is due largely to the behavior patterns of Walden's many visitors-random trampling of the shrubs and ground covers which stabilize and protect the soil in which they grow, random creation of footpaths, which results m loss of vegetation, and estabhshment of destructme stormwater drainage channels. Efforts to limit the number of visitors have had limited success, and use of the reservation remams at a high level-700,000 users counted in 1983 (this figure is based on cars parked m authorized parking areas and does not mclude illegally parked cars or walk-in users). The very noticeable erosion problem is the cause of a less easily percemed problem-the siltation of the pond and, ultimately, its eutrophication. Despite the pond's high water quahty and substantial depth, there is reason to be concerned over the increasing rate of material deposition mthm the pond. Bank erosion at Walden Pond is not a new problem. For more than two decades there has been concern largely over the integrity of the pond path, and more recently over the loss of plants and soil. Various treatments have been applied, begmmng with timber cribwalls, followed by rock embankments, and finally a small section of wood plank boardwalk. These treatments have solely addressed the issues related to path integrity-i.e., publlc safety-and to that end have served well. However, the most obvious deficiency of past efforts is the lack of concern for aesthetic quality. Their negatme impact upon the visual character of the pond enmronment is stnkmg even to the casual observer. The conglomeration of man-made elements, and the severe erosion problem combme to create a physical reality which is incongruous with the image of Walden the public has held since Thoreau's time. -From Walden Pond State Reservation Bank Restoration Pro7ect: Report on the Approach and Methodology, by Department of Stuart Weinreb. Boston: Massachusetts Environmental Management, 1985. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Herbert Wendell Gleason, Photographer","article_sequence":8,"start_page":59,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24900","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25eab6d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"Herbert Wendell Gleason, Photographer Herbert Wendell Gleason was forty-four years old and living m Minneapolis when poor health forced him to withdraw from the Congregational ministry in 1899. The next thirtyeight years of his long life he devoted to phoIn his introduction to Through the Year with Thoreau, Gleason felt obliged to put his affection for New England into proper perspective. \"Lest any should assume that the fondness for New England scenery here avowed is due to lack of acquaintance with other regions more famous for their grandeur,\" he wrote, \"it may be stated that during this same period the writer made two trips to Alaska, six to California and the Pacific Coast, three to the Grand Canyon of Arizona, seven to the Canadian Rockies, two to Yellowstone Park, and three to the Rocky Mountains of Colorado.\" His very active professional life included friendship with Luther Burbank, whom he photographed performing his plant-breeding work in California. The friendship with Burbank spurred Gleason's own botanical interests. Gleason knew John Muir well during the last seven years of Muir's life, \"camping and tramping with him in his beloved 'Range of Light' [the Sierra Nevada], visiting him in his California home, entertaining him on his occasional visits to Boston, traveling with him by rail, receiving his confidence with regard to some of his most cherished plans, and having many opportunities to catch something of the lofty inspiration which controlled his life.\" For several years in the 1920s and 1930s, he was the official photographer for the Arnold Arboretum; several dozen of his glass slides, some of them hand-colored, remain in the Arboretum's Photograph Archives. The largest assemblage of Gleason photographs, however (some six thousand in all), is owned by Heather Conover and Nicholas Mills of Cohasset, Massachusetts, to whom we are indebted for the Gleason photographs appearing in this issue of Arnoldia. In the past few years, the Conover-Mills collection tographing nature. Born in Malden, Massachusetts, on June 5, 1855, he had graduated from Williams College in 1877 and then had attended Union and Andover seminaries. Gleason began to photograph Walden Pond and the Thoreau country in the fall of 1899, and is best known for that work. About one hundred twenty of his photographs were used to illustrate the twenty-volume \"Walden\" edition of Thoreau's Writings, which Houghton Mifflin and Company published in 1906. Gleason's own photographic record of Thoreau's travels, Through the Year with Thoreau, was published in 1917. By 1920, he had assembled well over one thousand negatives of Thoreau country alone. But Gleason did not hmit himself to photographing Thoreau's haunts, or even sites in New England. Drawn strongly to.the wilderness, he travelled extensively and arduously, always carrying along with him his bulky camera equipment. A dedicated conservationist, he was appointed an Interior Department inspector by the first director of the National Park Service, Stephen Mather. Gleason's charge was to photograph and observe both the existing national parks and lands that had been proposed for nationalpark status. Over the years, he would make thirty separate trips to western North America, visiting Alaska, the Pacific Coast, the Grand Canyon, and the Rockies, from Canada to Colorado. Some of the photographs from these trips appeared in National Geographic and m John Muir's Travels in Alaska. Yet Gleason was always a New Englander at heart. 60 has been used to illustrate the new edition of Thoreau's works currently being issued by Princeton University Press (The Illustrated Walden, The Illustrated Maine Woods, and The Illustrated Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers, to date). Gleason's pho- tographs ness also have appeared Cape Cod (1971)and The lished in Thoreau's Western Wilder- of North America (1972), both pubby Barre Publishers, and in Thoreau Country (1975), published by Sierra Club Books. Photograph of Walden as it Pond taken by Herbert Wendell Gleason on Apml 28, 1906. The pond appears here essentially did when John Mum visited it m 1893 Used through the courtesy of Heather C Conover and Nick Mills. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Visit from John Muir","article_sequence":9,"start_page":61,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24896","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25ea326.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"A Visit from John Muir dale, and clad in the full summer dress of the region, trimmed with exqmsite taste. -The Toward the end of spring in 1893, the renowned conservationist and nature writer, John Muir (himself a horticulturist at the time), visited the Boston area, primarily to meet in person Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum. In a long letter to his wife at their ranch in California, Muir described visits he had just made to both Walden Pond in Concord and \"Holm Lea,\" Sargent's estate, in Brookline. Muir apparently did not visit the Arboretum during the trip but did pay a call on the ailing historian-horticulturist, Francis Parkman (author of The Oregon Trail), who lived nearby, in Jamaica Plain. Excerpts from his letter follow: After leavmg [Thoreau's and Emerson's graves at Life and Letters of John M~.ur, Volume 2, edited by W. F. Bade. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1924, pages 268-270. one to his twelve-yearold elder daughter, he said of Walden that \"Beautiful trees & flowers grow there & the water is clear, & all of the banks are shady In another letter, this & leafy.\" Muir figures prominently in Stephanne B. Sutton's biography of Sargent, Charles Sleepy Hollow Cemetery m Concord], we walked through the woods to Walden Pond. It is a beautiful lake about half a mile long, fairly embosomed like a bright dark eye m wooded hills of smooth morame gravel and sand, and with a nch undergrowth of huckleberry, willow, and young oak bushes, etc., and grass and flowers m rich variety. No wonder Thoreau lived here two years. I could have enjoyed living here two hundred years or two thousand.... We went back to Boston that night on a late train, though and they wanted to day keep us [m Con- Professor Sarhad a perfectly wonderful time for several days. This is the finest mansion and grounds I ever saw. The house is about two hundred feet long with immense verandas trimmed with huge flowers and vmes, standing m the midst of fifty acres of lawns, groves, wild woods of pme, hemlock, maple, beech, hickory, etc., and all kinds of underbrush and wild flowers and cultivated flowers-acres of rhododendrons twelve feet high m full bloom, and a pond covered with hlies, etc., all the ground waving, hill and cord], next went to we gent's grand place, where \/ohn Mum (1838-1914J Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 62 published by Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University Press in 1970, to commemorate the Arboretum's Muir may have contributed seeds towards then approaching centenary. For more than three decades, Muir and Sargent corresponded, collaborated, and travelled together on three continents in pursuit of their common interests and goals in horticulture, botany, and forest conservation. Asa Gray had introduced them to each other in the late 1870s, although they did not meet in person until 1893. Many delightful letters from their long correspondence (some of the 165 Muir-Sargent letters known to be extant) survive in the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain; other records in the Archives suggest that through Asa Gray the Arboretum's Living Collections as early 18 72, its very first year of existence; during the summer of that year Gray and Muir had spent many days collecting plants together in the Sierra Nevada and elsewhere in California. Muir visited Boston (and \"Holm Lea\") as again, in 1896 (to receive an honorary degree from Harvard), 1898, and 1903. In 1898, he visited both Horatio Hollis Hunnewell's arboretum in nearby Wellesley and the Arnold Arboretum. The visit of 1903 was the rendezvous for the start of an around-the-world trip Muir was to make with Sargent and Sargent's son, A. Robeson Sargent. The last issue of Arnoldia (Spring 1986) contains a brief account of one leg of that trip. A view declared of the grounds and mansion at \"Holm Lea.\" \"This is the finest Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. mansion and grounds I ever saw,\" Mum "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books Kerry S. Walter","article_sequence":10,"start_page":63,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24897","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad25ea36b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Gardening: Strategies and Procedures Using Native Plantings, by Richard L. Austin. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986. $12.95 Wild citations from community officials for growing \"noxious weeds,\" and governmental regulations something under the Endangered Species (paper); $19.85 (cloth). KERRY S WALTER Act. This last point should be expanded upon: not only is the Endangered Species Act to be concerned with (ignorance of the law is no excuse for breaking it), but there are many state laws protecting native plants that may or may not be on the Federal Government's list. Unfortunately, Austin neglects to mention state laws or to give the reader any idea of how to become informed of them. Following the introduction, the book is divided into four chapters and an appendix. Unfortunately, the first chapter, \"The WildGarden Systems,\" is weakened by what seems to be an attempt to use only easily understood words and concepts, to the point of creating oversimplified and nonstandard terminology. Thus, Austin partially defines and then continues to use such phrases as the \"individual system\" and the \"population system,\" which appear to refer to nothing other than autecology and synecology. This makes for awkward wording when he writes about an \"individual system\" dying because of prolonged cold temperatures, or about \"population systems\" dying out because of a drying of the environment due to prolonged high temperatures. The drying out is said to This is a beautiful book to look at, one filled with many spectacular images, most of which were taken by Derek Fell. In spite of its beauty, however, the book falls short of its potential to stimulate the reader to grow wild plants. Wild Gardening begins with a very brief synopsis of gardening practices, starting with ancient Egypt and Greece, continuing through the Roman Empire, Medieval monastic garRenaissance France, Eighteenth Century Persia, and into Twentieth Century municipal-park design. This whirlwind tour of some 3,500 years of gardening introduces the basic tenet of the book-that'formal gardens were a natural outgrowth of humankind's domination of nature, but that a different, and very natural, ethic is evident today, an \"alternative to formalism,\" a change the author ascribes in part to the energy crisis of the early 1970s. Having set the stage, the author proceeds to discuss the various positive and negative aspects of wild gardening. On the positive side, the author suggests that such gardening requires less of the gardener's time, because less control is exerted over the manmade environment, and it requires less money to implement and maintain. According to the author, the drawbacks to gardening with wild plants are: problems associated with establishing the plants, difficulties in obtaining dens, \"expand\" competition! Happily, the other chapters are more substantial and accurate. In the chapter entitled \"Wild-Garden Themes,\" Austin stresses the importance of planning a theme for any garden, whether it be a traditional formal garden or a wild garden. Wild gardens are classified into three groups: woodland gardens, meadow gardens, and water gardens, and discussions of the natural ingredients material, complaints by neighbors, possible 64 and the planting structure for each type follow. He then illustrates with a photograph and range map six forest zones of North America and eight grassland types. While a single photograph cannot do justice to any of these plant zones, the images are well chosen to convey the feeling one gets when visiting different parts of the country. In the unlikely event that a reader were trying to create a type of wild garden he had never seen in person, these photographs would provide him with a sense of the space and mood to strive for. This brings up a recurring complaint I have about the book-although the photographs are beautiful in the main, there is no indication of where they were taken, nor are many of the plants shown in them identified. It would be very useful to know exactly where to go to see some of these spectacular scenes. Incidentally, I find it hard to believe that some of the \"garden\" shots were not taken in the wild. The chapter on \"Organizing Your Garden\" discusses the traditional elements of landscape design-plant color, form, and texture. Useful ideas and photographs are presented that stress the importance of using these elements carefully. A great deal is made of selecting and utilizing functional massesthe trees, shrubs, and herbs used in varying compositions depending upon the type of wild garden being designed. \"Wild-Garden Amenities\" discusses how \"Where to Visit Wild Gardens,\" is an excellent idea, but two of the best known and finest wildflower gardens in the countrythe Garden in the Woods in Framingham, Massachusetts, and the North Carolina Botanical Garden m Chapel Hill-are left out. The list of native plant societies contains fewer than half of the societies that exist. And, the list of suppliers of wild-garden materials misses some important suppliers, especially those specializing in propagated, as opposed to collected, material. Wild Gardening concludes with a series of tables covering regional wildflower mixes and, finally, an \"Individual Wild-Flower Species List.\" It is encouraging to note that commonly attempted but nearly always ill-fated plants such as the lady's-slipper orchids (Cypripedium) are lackmg from these lists. But, other plants do show up on the list for unknown reasons-Achillea filipendula (from design gardens to attract wildlife, including birds, insects, mammals, and reptiles. Austin presents brief notes on which plants will likely attract which animals; these seem quite accurate, although the suggestion that poplar, ash, and elm will attract butterflies is debatable. This chapter finishes with discussions of the use of rocks, stones, and tree stumps in the wild garden. The Appendix is composed of several lists and should have been one of the highlights of the book. Unfortunately, the lists are often inaccurate or incomplete. The first list, to Minor), A. millefolmm (a Eurasian weed), Cheiranthus cheiri (from southern Europe), Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (a Eurasian weed), Dimorphotheca aurantiaca (from South Africa), Gypsophila elegans (from the Ukrame to Iran), Lobularia maritima (from southern Europe), Papaver rhoeas (naturalized from Eurasia), Thunbergia alata (from tropical Africa), etc. The book seems to suffer from an identity crisis-does it deal with native plants or with wildflower gardening ? The subtitle, Strategies and Procedures Using Native Plantings, indicates the former, but the plants in the lists suggest the Asia latter. This small book is beautiful contains many are to look at-it exceptional photographs printed well, and its design is elegant. In spite of its visual appeal, however, I found it lacking in substance. which Kerry S. Walter is The Center for Plant Conservation's Senior Program Officer for Data Systems and Botany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23271","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160af6a.jpg","title":"1986-46-3","volume":46,"issue_number":3,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Great Catalpa Craze","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24894","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24e8928.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":" The Great Catalpa Craze Peter Del Tredici Zealous promoters once made claims about the value of the hardy, or western, catalpa that far exceeded the tree's true economic potential, obscuring its real worth Horticulturists, who make it their business to pass judgments on plants, generally consider the catalpa tree a disaster. Although very beautiful, its large, heart-shaped leaves create a major litter problem when they fall. And during the growing season, their lovely, soft-green tints are generally masked by infestations of powdery mildew. The catalpa tree is among the last to leaf its out in the spring, and in the autumn foliage turns brown and shrivels in response to the first touch of frost. The catalpa is sparsely branched; consequently, for six months of the year it presents a very stark, almost gawky, appearance. Its long pods, which provide the reason for the plant's common name, the Indian bean tree, add a note of interest to the winter silhouette, but in the spring, when they fall, they provide the home owner with yet another reason to curse the tree. To top off this bleak situation, catalpa wood is quite brittle, and small branches regularly break off during storms. In short, the catalpa has too many black marks against it to win favor with modern horticulturists. Yet, this was not always the case. There was a time, in the late 1800s, when planting catalpa was the thing to do, and people up and down the East Coast, across the Great Plains, and as far as California were madly planting the tree everywhere. The movement to plant catalpa was a fad not dissimilar to the one of planting Paulownia in the middle Atlantic states today or Ailanthus in urban areas, from the early to mid-1800s. While the active planting of catalpa has by and large ceased, the tree has managed to increase its range on its own, as spontaneous seedlings sprout up along highway embankments, roadsides, and stream banks throughout the East Coast. In some towns, spontaneous catalpa is so well established that one is tempted to look upon it as part of the native vegetation. The Two Species Without a doubt the flowers are the primary ornamental feature of the catalpa. They are produced in early summer and rival those of the common horse-chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) in showiness, being quite large, pure white, and lightly speckled with purple and yellow spots arranged in parallel bands. Unfortunately, this bloom period lasts only about a week or so, depending on the weather. Opposite~ Leaf, shoot, fruits, seeds, and ovule of Catalpa speciosa From The Silva of North America, by Charles Sprague Sargent Drawmg by Charles E. Faxon. There are two distinct species involved in the parentage of these escaped catalpas. Both are native to the eastern United States and, while very similar, occupy nonoverlapping ranges in their wild state and have quite distinctive growth habits. The first, the southern catalpa, Catalpa bignonioides, occupied a rather limited range before the European settlement, growing along river banks from central Alabama and Mississippi to western Florida. Because of its showy flowers, catalpa was very quickly and widely planted throughout the south, so that even the early 4 botanists could not determine its original range with certainty. The second species, the western, or hardy, catalpa, Catalpa speciosa, is geographically separated from its southern cousin, growing in a small area encompassing southern Indiana, Illinois, Missouri, western Kentucky and Tennessee, and northeastern Arkansas. This disjunct population of catalpa was not recognized as distinct until 1853, when Dr. John A. Warder of Cincinnati, Ohio, first described it. While it is difficult if not impossible to distinguish the two species in the herbarium, they are fairly easy to separate in the field. For one thing, Catalpa speciosablooms in late May or early June in New England, a good two weeks before Catalpa bignonioides does. For another thing, Catalpa speciosa usually is a tall, narrow tree, upwards of 80 feet in height, with a straight trunk, while Catalpa bignonioides is considerably smaller, usually around 40 feet, with a contorted or low-branched trunk and a wide spreading crown. In areas where the two species are planted together, there is often an overlap in the end of the Catalpa speciosa bloom and the start of the Catalpa bignonioides bloom. This raises the distinct possibility of hybridization, which, if it occurred, would give rise to intermediate between the parents in and in time of bloom. It is quite possible that some of the spontaneous plants one sees along the roadsides are of hybrid origin, in contrast to the cultivated plants, which are usually identifiable as one species or the other. The question remains as to why and how these two species of catalpa came to be so widely planted that they became part of the spontaneous flora of the East. The answer eluded me for many years, until I consulted the fountainhead of information on trees, The Silva of North America, by Professor Charles Sprague Sargent. This many-volume work is special because it was produced at a trees stature botany, horticulture, and forestry separate specialties; it contains, therefore, everything that was known about trees through 1894. were not seen as time when Apostles for Catalpa According to Sargent, two men, E. E. Barney of Dayton, Ohio, and Robert Douglas of Waukegan, Illinois, became apostles for the western catalpa during the 1870s, the former writing and publishing a book about the virtures of Catalpa speciosa, while the latter was the principal contractor for the actual planting of catalpa on large tracts of prairie owned by various railroad companies. By his own reckoning, Douglas had planted over two and a half million seedlings throughout Kansas and Missouri in less than six years. Barney's pamphlet of 1878, Facts and Infor- Several fruits of Catalpa speciosa Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum 1 5 mation in Relation to the Catalpa Tree, An Experimental Planting offers a clear picture of the catalpa gospel of the day. A railroad man, Barney saw the catalpa as solving the specific problem of obtaining railroad ties for the construction of new lines across the treeless Great Plains. Barney felt that catalpa wood was the ideal solution to this problem because it was extremely resistant to decay. Catalpa was further suited to the task since it grew incredibly fast and was not particular about what type of soil it required. Barney predicted that seedlings planted in good soil would produce four to eight ties each after twenty-five to thirty years of growth. In addition, Barney advocated its use for poles, fence posts, and, because of its beautiful flowers, general civic beautification. He also stressed the fact that while there were two distinct varieties of catalpa, only the hardy, or western, variety grew fast enough and straight enough to have any economic potential. The southern variety, while it was equally beautiful in flower, was a much smaller, less straight tree that was useless for railroad ties or poles. In the second edition of his pamphlet, published in 1879, Barney included articles by both C.S. Sargent and J.A. Warder, which made it much more scientific than the earlier work. Barney did much more than attempt to convince people to plant the tree; he actually offered them seeds of Catalpa speciosa: \"I will send by mail, postage paid, to anyone wishing the seed, enough to plant one acre four feet each way (2500 seeds), and a copy of this pamphlet, upon receipt of fifty cents.\" There can be little doubt that this early, atcost distribution of seed played a key role in helping Catalpa speciosa to get established throughout the country. Catalpa seeds have no dormancy requirements; they germinate immediately upon sowing. No doubt this ease of cultivation also contributed to its successful establishment. Barney's pamphlet appeared, the most famous planting of western catalpa was undertaken by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, Charles Sprague Sargent's friend and relation. Hunnewell was A year after the second edition of first and foremost a businessman who served either as director or president of some thirtyfour different railroads between 1852 and 1901. He was also deeply interested m plants. In 1880, at the age of sixty-five, he managed to merge these two interests by commissioning Robert Douglas to plant four hundred acres of Catalpa speclosa and one hundred acres of Ailanthus altissima on a tract of prairie near Farlington, Kansas. The trees were planted on four-foot centers, which gave a density of two thousand per acre. The seedlings grew very rapidly at first, reaching an average height of twenty-two feet, three inches in diameter after only nine years. This growth rate was sufficient to have the experiment hailed as a success by all those who saw it (and some who didn't), and led to the planting of many more plantations by other railroad companies. Horauo Holhs Hunnewell (left) and Charles Sprague Sargent in Horticultural Hall, Boston Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. 6 Unfortunately, the growth rate of the trees plantation slowed down after the first nine years as considerably overcrowding became an inhibiting factor. in the Hunnewell last measured in 1898, of age, the average height eighteen years was only thirty feet and the average diameter slightly less than four inches. In other words, after showing an average height increase of 2.4 feet per year during the first nine years, the trees slumped to an average height increase of only 0.9 foot per year during the second nine years. In 1902, William L. Hall, superintendent of tree planting for the U.S. Department of Agriculture's Bureau of Forestry, estimated the average value of the Hunnewell plantation to be about $400 per acre. When the trees were finally cut in 1905, the actual gross profit was near $500 per acre. Hall calculated the expense of establishing and maintaining the plantation at about $115 per acre. Subtracting this figure from the $500 gross leaves a net profit of $385 per acre after trees were at When the species seems to have attained a momentum all its own. The fact that the plantations produced fence posts rather than railroad ties after twenty-five years was not, of course, fully appreciated when the seedlings were set out. A Practical Experiment Even before the harsh economic realities of planting catalpa were fully appreciated by people, Hunnewell's cousin, the indefatigable Charles Sprague Sargent, raised serious questions about the widespread assumption that catalpa timber made good railroad ties. In 1886, Sargent published the results of an experiment that had been set up eight years earlier to test the practicality and longevity of catalpa ties: The Boston and Providence ration Railway Corposuggestion, an began in 1878, at my experiment for the purpose of determining twenty-five years. Interestingly, almost trees were all of the harvested made into fence posts, while a few of the tallest and straightest trees were made into telephone poles. According in none to A. E. of the plantaOman, writing 1911, tion trees ever grew big enough to make railroad ties. On three other Kansas plantations that Oman looked at, totalling approximately one thousand acres, the story was repeated plenty of fence posts, a few poles, and no railroad ties. While fence posts were not exactly what had been envisioned when the catalpa plantations were set out, they did make a reasonable profit for their owners. Unfortunately, the twenty to twenty-five years that one had to wait for it was too long for most farmers (and businessmen) to wait. And so corn and wheat were planted instead of catalpa. Once the mitial publicity blitz for western catalpa was started by Barney, planting of the - the value of different woods for cross ties. Fifty-two ties were laid on the 12th and 13th of December, under the direction of Mr. George F. Folsom, master carpenter of the corporation, who has had, from the beginning, the entire charge of the experiment, in the mam outward track, at a pomt begmning 775 feet west of the Tremont Street crossing m Boston. The traffic at this point is very heavy, an average of sixty-five trains passing over this track daily. The following ties were laid :Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. Nos. 1 to 3, American Larch. 4 to 12, White Oak. 13 to 18, European Larch. 19 25 31 37 39 41 47 24, 30, to 36, to 38, to 40, to 46, to 52, to Western Catalpa. to Ailanthus. Black Spruce. Southern Hard Pme. White Elm. Hemlock. Canoe Birch. The E. catalpa ties were furnished by the late E. many was Barney, of Dayton, Ohio, who for years before his death zealously engaged 7 m tree, and the remarkable wood. making known the value of the catalpa durability of its whole mass of wood under the rail is reduced Upon completion of the experiment, Sargent found that western catalpa had failed to live up to its press releases: The behavior of the catalpa is one of the most mterestmg features in the experiment.... The catalpa is a soft, light wood, with a specific gravity of only 0.4165; and it has not shown its ability to resist the heavy and constant traffic of the Providence Railroad as well as white oak and other heavier and harder woods. The two catalpa ties taken from the track in October, 1885, that is, after four years and eight months' service, are perfectly sound except under the direct bearing of the rails. These had cut down mto the wood to the depth of five-eighths of an mch, while the nearly to pulp by the separation of the layers of annual growth and the breaking of the fibre. This dismtegration has penetrated so deeply that if the ties, otherwise perfectly sound, were turned over, the wood which would then come under the rail would not have sufficient thickness to hold the spikes. The pressure, however, to which these ties have been subjected has been unusually severe, and there is nothing m the behavior of these catalpa ties to show that they would not, m a road with lighter traffic, have stood for a number of years, and resisted as well and probably better than ties made from any other equally soft and less durable wood. Sargent concluded that white oak made the best ties of any of the species included in his experiment. He noted, however, that A view from beneath of the coarse branch structure of Catalpa speciosa. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici 8 The now two Catalpa speciosa trees received about fifty-five feet tall. as plants m 1886 from Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. Robert Douglas of Waukegan, Illmois. The trees are 9 chestnut, which unfortunately tested, was to be preferred because it allowed the spikes to be removed more easily than did white oak, when the time came to move or change the rails. American was not this clear statement of the facts have gone unheeded, as John P. Brown of Chicago, editor of Arbonculture, continued to advocate in his journal the planting of catalpa for railroad ties well into the 1900s. A very high percentage of the early numbers of Arboriculture were devoted exclusively to the \"wonders\" of hardy catalpa. Brown's efforts, like Barney's twenty years earlier, no doubt greatly stimulated the planting of the tree. Yet even seems to Legitmate Uses for Catalpa All of this is not to say that the widespread planting of Catalpa speciosa was a mistake to be regretted. To the contrary, the plant contributes sigmficantly to the beauty and diversity of the countryside, whether in flower or m leaf. Belongmg to a family of plants that is primarily tropical, the Bignonwceae, it adds an exotic appearance to eastern and midwestern roadsides. Two stately specimens of Catalpa speciosa at the Arnold Arboretum (2776-A and 2776-B) show just how spectacular the tree can be when grown as a specimen. They were received in 1886, exactly one hundred years ago, as plants from the \"Johnny Appleseed\" of hardy catalpa, Robert Douglas of Waukegan, Illinois. Towering above the lilac collection, they are both about fifty-five feet tall with very straight trunks thirty-two and thirty-five inches in diameter, respectively. Dripping with long pods agamst the wmter sky, they make a particularly dramatic impression. Nearby is a specimen of Catalpa bignonioides (12926-A) planted m 1891, that is forty-three feet tall, with a broad crown and a short trunk twenty mches in diameter. The hardy catalpa can be a superb land- plant in the proper location. It is not good shade or street tree because of all the litter it drops. But m a parkland situation, where the tree can develop as a specimen, its showy flowers, distinctive foliage, and unique growth habit can add considerable interest to the landscape. In addition, its tolerance of poor, sandy soils, as well as of soils that are periodically inundated with water, makes the tree ideal for planting in habitats that have been badly disturbed or where spring flooding is a problem. Catalpa also does well in cities. In downtown London, for example, Catalpa bignonioides is widely planted and seems to grow quite well. When I asked an English horticulturist why this was so, given that I hadn't seen it anywhere in the countryside, he replied that downtown London was the only place in England hot enough in summer for catalpa to grow. It's an odd twist of fate that a tree considered a weed by many in the United States should be a pampered prize in England. scape a Bibliography Barney, E. E. Facts and Information m Relation to the 'll~ee (Catalpa bignonioides) Its Value, and Importance of Its Extensive Cultivation m Groves. Dayton, Ohio: Privately printed, 1878 26 Catalpa pages Addmonal Facts and Information in Relation to the Catalpa Catalpa bignonioides) and Its Vanety? Speciosa. Dayton, Ohio Pnvately pnnted, 1879. 36 pages. Brown, John P The hardy American forest tree. Arboriculture, Volume 2, Number 1, pages 97-133 (January 1903). Robert. The new hardy catalpa. Woods and Forests, Volume 1, Number 40, page 566 (September 3, 1884\/. Elwes, Henry J., and Augusrine Henry The 'Ilees of Great Bntam c'~J Ireland. Seven volumes. Edmburgh. Privately printed, 1906-1913. 1,933 pages. Douglas, (Volume 6, pages 1483-1485.\/( Hall, William L., and Herman von Schrenk. The Hardy Catalpa. I The Hardy Catalpa m Commercial 10 Plantations. Bulletin 37, Bureau of Forestry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1902. 58 pages. Hunnewell, Hollis Horatio. Life, Letters, and Diary of Horauo Hollis Hunnewell. Three volumes. Boston: Oman, Privately printed, 1906. A. E. Hardy catalpa: A study of conditions m Kansas plantations. Proceedmgs of the Society of 6, Number 1, pages 42-52 Amencan Foresters, Volume -. \/ 1911 ~. Sargent, Charles Sprague. Some Additional Notes Upon ~ees and 'll~ee Planting m Massachusetts. Boston: Wnght & Potter, 1886. 21 pages. The Silva of North America. Fourteen volumes. Boston and New York: Houghton and Mifflin, 1891-1902. (Volume 6: Ebenaceae-Polygonaceae, pages 83-91.) Peter Del Tredici, assistant plant propagator for the Arnold Arboretum, wntes often on horticultural subjects for Arnoldia and Horticulture magazmes. Not long ago, Theophrastus published his book, St George and the Pygmies, a study of Tsuga canadensis `Mmuta'. A Word about the Cover Artist and Her Work Amoldia is privileged to have for the cover of this issue an elegant watercolor painting of Catalpa speciosa by the distinguished botamcal artist, Esther Hems of Marblehead, Massachusetts. Together with some sixty-seven other equally superb watercolors, this painting will be published during the spring of 1987 by Harry N. Abrams, Inc., of New York City under the title, Flowenng Tl~ees and Shrubs. Educated at the Massachusetts College of Art and the School of Vision, Salzburg, Austria, Esther Heins studied painting with Ernest L. Major and Oskar Kokoshka. Her work has been displayed m many exhibitions, mcluding three one-woman exhibitions. Paintings by her are part of the permanent collections of the Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, Pittsburgh; and the Boston Public Library. Previously, her work has been published by Horticulture, Arnoldia, JAMA (the ~oumal of the Amencan Medical Association\/, and the Hunt Institute, among others. Arnoldia is pleased agam to share Mrs. Hems's work with its readers. Corrections Because of an editor's error, the captions for Daphne odora 'Ringmaster' and D. odora 'Zmko Nishiki' Volume 45, Number 2, Spring 1985, page 14) were transposed. Amoldia regrets the error. (Amoldia, Through an oversight, Theodore R. Dudley's name was absent from the list of Amencan members of the 1980 Smo-Amencan Botanical Expedition given on page 13 of Arnoldia, Volume 45, Number 4, Fall 1985. Dr. Dudley, Research Botanist at the U. S. National Arboretum, who was especially mterested m Chinese species of Ilex and Viburnum during the Expedition, informs Amoldia that the painting printed on page 16 of that issue and attnbuted to \"an unknown artist\" was m fact done by Xm Ke-~mg of the Creation Group of the Bureau of Culture, En-shi Xian (\"County\"), Hubei provmce. Arnoldia thanks Dr. Dudley for havmg passed this mformanon along. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Prunus maackii, the Friends' Plant Dividend for 1986","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24893","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24e856f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Waters, Gregory J.","article_content":"Prunus maackii, the Friends's Plant Dividend for 1986 Gregory j. Waters Friends of the Arnold Arboretum receive the chokecherry as a benefit of membership All members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum will be receiving ready-to-plant seedlings of Prunus maackii in late April or early May, as this year's plant dividend. In mid-April, staff members and volunteers working in the Dana Greenhouses shipped the six- to twelve-inch seedlings by U.S. mail. Recipients who live farther north than Boston will be pleased to learn that the species is hardy to at least minus 35 degrees Fahrenheit. Unfortunately, Prunus maackii does not perform well south of Zone 6 owing to the stresses of summer heat. The common name, Amur chokecherry, refers to the species's native habitat along the Amur River in northeastern China (Manchuria) and southeastern Soviet Union. Prunus maackii is native to parts of Korea as well. The Flora of the U.S.S.R. states that Prunus maackii occurs in the \"[t]aiga, mixed forests, rare in conifer forests and even more rare in purely broad-leaved forests, often on mountain slopes, in illuminated sites, along streams, forest edges and clearings, and coarse rock taluses.\" Its history at the Arnold Arboretum goes back 108 years, to 1878, when the Arboretum was in its infancy. During the summer of that year, the Arboretum's first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, and Asa Gray were actively consulting with Frederick Law Olmsted on the preliminary plans for incorporating the Arboretum mto the City of Boston's park system. That year, plants of Prunus maackii arrived from the botanic exceptionally cold-hardy Amur garden in St. Petersburg (now called Leningrad). This was the first recorded introduction of the species into the United States. Prunus maackii was not introduced into Britain until 1910. Though the Amur chokecherry produces racemes of white flowers (see the back of this issue of Arnoldia) and pea-size dark-purple fruit, the main ornamental attraction is its bark. Golden brown and glossy, it peels off in thin strips when mature. Lit by afternoon sun or seen against a backdrop of snow, the beautiful bark of Prunus maackii is an unforgettable sight. Few Friends of the Arboretum can have missed the prominent pondside planting of the species adjacent to the new Bradley Rose small cover close-up ghmpse of the shmy bark of Prunus maackn, showing how it charactensucally peels away m thin sheets. Photograph by Hamson L. Flint. From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. A 12 Ttvo snow-covered specimens of Prunus maackn m the Arnold Arboretum the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Photograph by Albert W. Bussemtz. From Garden. These trees are descendants of seeds collected by the Russian botanist B. V. Skvortzov from a forest east of Harbin, Manchuria, on September 19, 1939. Skvortzov sent the seed to the United States Plant Introduction Station at Glenn Dale, Maryland, in January 1940, where they were assigned Plant Introduction Number 135617 and planted. In 1961, scion material from the Plant Introduction Station trees was sent to the Arnold Arboretum, where it was grafted onto Prunus serrulata rootstalk and given Accession Number 388-61. Vegetative cuttings from these grafted trees yielded the trees we have today. Because of their distinctive glossy bark, which can be viewed year round, they are among the most commentedupon trees in the Arboretum. The Arboretum's records indicate that Prunus maackii can be propagated by seeds, cuttings, and grafts. (See Alfred J. Fordham's detailed article on the propagation of Prunus maackii below.)Perhaps the easiest method of propagation for the general gardener would be to take semi-hardwood stem cuttings in mid-July and to treat them with an 0.8 percent indolebutyric acid dip or with an equally strong powder. Placed in a rooting medium of equal parts of sand and perlite, and kept in the humid atmosphere of a mist bench or enclosed m a plastic bag, the cuttings should have roots within ten to twelve weeks. Seedlings should be kept cool until they are planted outdoors, preferably in mid-May. They should be planted in sites with moderate to full sun, m well drained soil. Young trees should be staked for the first two or three years so that their shallow roots can become firmly established. Pruning and controlling insects and diseases should be easy with the Amur chokecherry. During the early years, structural pruning performed in late winter corrects the tree's naturally small branching angles and improves its overall shape. Proper care and maintenance keep insect and disease problems to a minimum. Gregory J. Waters has worked as a horticulturist m Holland, England, and Pennsylvama, and at the Arnold has been an mtern m both plant propagation and horticulture. Currently a graduate student m ornamental horticulture at Cornell University, he has previously wntten for Horticulture and Amencan Nurseryman, as well as for Amoldia Arboretum, where he "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes and Quotes on the History and Origins of the Amur Chokecherry (Prunus maackii)","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24891","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24e8126.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"Notes and Quotes on the History and Amur Chokecherry (Prunus maackii) Maackii, amurensis, ussuriensis-these and Origins of the specific epithets, them, appear m the scientific names of many specimens in the Living Collections of the certain other or variants of many yards away. A very happy and mstructive combination is obtained by the planting of P maackm, P. padus and the natme P. serotma in the same group, thus having the Arnold Arboretum. There is even a genus Maackia, the type species of which is Maackia amurensis. All are linked by a story that combines plant exploration with the international intrigue and politics of a century and a quarter ago, intrigue and politics that led to the discovery, and eventually to the cultivation, of Prunus maackm, the Amur chokecherry. How? Perhaps the comments made in Horticulture magazine in 1912 by the Midwestern horticulturist, E. O. Orpet, give us the best excuse to explore the issues surrounding the origins of Prunus maackii. Orpet wrote as follows: European, Russian, and Amencan Bird Cherries, no two of which flower together. When asked as to seeds, Mr Egan said it was as the birds carried them all off. There is compensation m this, however, for we noticed the young trees coming up spontaneously m the vicinity presumably from seed carned by birds. It would appear from other cultivated trees of P maackm, that it does not bloom for at least twelve years from seed; we find that this is so with specimens here in Lake Forest and in Lake Geneva, but after they do begin, it is a contmual May Day feast, and we doubt not that in the future, when better known, Prunus maackii will figure in the landscape to a marked degree. The writer is free to confess personally that not in ten years has any tree or shrub made as great an impression at first sight, hence the present very hard to get Prunus maackii Surprises come to all of us who have eyes to day when visiting Mr. William Constantme Egan at \"Egandale,\" his estate m Highland Park, Illinois, by invitation to see his \"Russian May Day\" trees m full bloom, it was a revelation indeed, and yet a puzzle to explam how it is that so good a thmg, with all the help Mr. Egan has given it m the way of publicity, see, and the other note. The first week m November last, Mr. Dunbar pointed out in Highland Park, Rochester, N. Y., Lomcera maackm in fruit, bearing as m profuse as we see it in L. mor- practically unknown m cultivacertainly unhsted m catalogues, and given only scant notice m Bailey's Cyclopedia. The trees with Mr. Egan are rapid m growth, with perfect pendulous habit for a specimen or lawn tree, and they are m full bloom with the shad-bush, which most of us regard as the harbmger of the flowering should be tion, The whole tree was covered with the spikes of bloom, these bemg as large as and much more abundant than our Prunus serotina, and the sweet fragrance can be noticed trees. rows, August. There are few shrubs fruiting in November, and this had a very distinct decorative value. We have young plants now raised from a few seeds gathered at that time, but this again is a plant we do not find in catalogues; m other words it can't be bought. It appears that there was once a Maackia amurensis, now reduced to Cladrastis. The three plants under note are from Mandschuna, and were described by Ruprecht. We are wondering who Maack was. Perhaps some one from the Arboretum can tell us. In this particular year when we are all talking about hardmess or otherwise of all outdoor thmgs, it is good to be able to report 14 15 so favorably on a seemingly new tree, originally distributed by Prof. J. L. Budd of Ames, Iowa, and said to be the hardiest farthest north of all Chemes with a very marked horticultural value as a decorative tree. foliage and young branches, while those of this plant are quite glabrous and show no trace of the glandular dots which cover the under surface of the leaves of that species. -Excerpted 25, 1912), A Case of from Horticulture, Volume 15, Number 21 (May page 755. Misplaced Enthusiasm? Messrs. Orpet and Egan, among others, would have been chagrined to read the following information in an article by Charles Sprague Sargent that was published in Garden and Forest in 1888. Discussmg a very-earlyflowering variety of Prunus padus (like Prunus maackii a bird cherry from Manchuria), Sargent reported that a specimen m the Arboretum's collections was While they might have failed to see the by then decades-old Garden and Forest article, Orpet and Egan no doubt did see a much later one-which may also have been written by Sargent-in the Bulletin of Popular Information (now called Arnoldia~, in 1917, though chances are they already knew the unhappy truth it revealed. In the later article, an anonymous author confesses, m describing a specimen of Prunus padus var. commutata in the Arboretum's collections, that The seed from which this plant was raised was sent from the Botamc Garden at Petro- raised from seed sent many years ago to the Arnold Arboretum from the St. Peters- grad [Leningrad] m 1878, mcorrectly as Prunus Maackm, under which name the young plants were distributed from the Arboretum, and as Prunus Maackii it is still cultivated and much esteemed nois m some burg [Leningrad] garden as Prunus Maackii, a Manchurian Bird Cherry, with pubescent Illi- gardens. Maackia amurensis var. buergen m the Arnold Arboretum. Left: habit, nght: close-up of leaves and an mflorescence. Maackia is one of the many plant taxa named after Richard K Maak. Photograph by Herbert W. Gleason From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Opposite. Drawing of the leaves and an mflorescence of Prunus maackm Nakai (Part 5, 1916). From Flora Sylvatica Koreana, by Takenoshm 16 The Arboretum's records on the seeds sent from Leningrad seem to be lost. In 1915, however, it did receive \"Seed\" of Prunus padus var. commutata from none other than E. O. Orpet of Lake Forest, Illinois. No doubt there had been an interesting exchange of letters between him and Sargent in the three years since his piece on \"Prunus maackii\" had appeared in Horticulture. The Arnold Arboretum did receive three authentic plants of Prunus maackii from Leningrad in 1878, however, one of which survived until 1946, when it had to be removed because it was in poor condition. Fortunately, the two taxa can easily be distinguished from each other. The following chart should help expose any specimens of Prunus padus var. commutata still masquerading as Prunus maackii: Richard Karlovich Maak The Great Soviet Encyclopaedia states that Richard Karlovich Maak was \"Born Aug. 23 in Arensburg, present-day Estonian SSR; died Nov. 13 (25), Kingissepp, 1886, in St. Petersburg.\" He was, the Encyclopaedla continues, a \"Russian naturalist and explorer of Siberia and the Far East.\" (In (Sept. 9), 1825, English translation, the Encyclopaedia renders the surname \"Maak,\" not \"Maack\" as most other sources do.)( \"In 1853, Maak took part in the expedition which first described the orography, geology, and population of the basin of the Viliui, Olekma, and Chona rivers\" the great work continues. \"He studied the valleys of the Amur (1855-56) and Ussun (1859) rivers.\" An account of Maak's work in the Amur valley, Puteshestvie na Amur, sovershennoe po ras- poriazheniiu Sibirskogo otdela Russkogo geograficheskogo obshcheskogo obshchestva v 1855 godu, was published m St. Petersburg in 1859. The title is usually given in English as Journey to Amur in 1855. Here, is an answer to at least in brief outline, query. E. O. Orpet's Emil Bretshneider, the Russian biographer, tells us more. Maak, he says, the St. Peterstook his degree of Candidate, m 1849, and m 1852 was appomted Professor of Natural Sciences at the Gymnasmm of Irkutsk. Subsequently he became Director of that Gymnasium, and from 1868 to 1879, he was Supenntendent of all schools m Eastern Siberia. He died at St. Petersburg, sciences at studied natural burg University, The leaves of Prunus maackm Photograph Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. from the 17 November 13, 1886. Maak described his first expedition down the Amur and back m a book entitled: IOURNEY an ON THE AMUR, IN 1855 (in Russian), published in 1859, accompamed with began to colonize the area again in the Nineteenth Century. Richard Maak, the botanist, was part of that second wave. Russians Enter Atlas containing maps, views and drawings of plants. The expedition left Irkutsk in April 1855, and proceeded by the ordmary way to Nerchmsk. Here, at the discharging of the Nercha into the Shilka, they found a great raft prepared for them, on which they embarked on the 5th of May. Albazin, May 26, stay till 31st.-On August 8, the expedition arrived at the post Marinsk, near the Kidzi Lake and remained there till August 14. Then back up the Amur River, reached Aigun October 11, spent a month there. On November 12, started on horse back, for the Amur was frozen, following the river valley. Ust Strelka, December 30, Irkutsk January Perry McDonough Collins Only a few months after Richard Maak explored the Amur River, an American, Perry McDonough Colhns, having travelled the length of Russia eastward from Moscow, drifted down the Amur on a barge provided by Siberian officials, the first American to Amur from its source to its mouth. A businessman and promoter, Collins had managed to get himself appointed the official \"American Commercial Agent to the Amoor River.\" Attracted by the potentialities he saw for American trade in the Amur region, he went there to see for himself, and on behalf of the United States government. Like other Americans of the time, Collins was afflicted with \"Russian fever.\" Eventually, the era of good feeling between the United States and Russia would be capped by the sale of \"Russian America\" (Alaska) to the United States in 1867. In an account of his travels, prepared for the United States Congress (A Voyage Down the Amoor, origmally published in 1857, and reprinted by the University of Wisconsin Press in 1962 under the title, Siberian Journey: Down the Amur to the Pacific, 1856-1857), Collins captured a moment of change in czarist Russia's eastward expansion and development of Siberia. Fresh from the developmg frontier of his own country, Collins saw Russian activities in the Amur region through approving eyes. \"Siberia is comparatively a free country,\" he wrote. There are no landed proprietors, no serfdom. The land belongs to the Crown, and is given to the settlements or villages m the country or to individuals in cities. Public sentiment and speech are quite free also; in fact, the rems of government seem to set lightly on her people. The people are hardy and robust, accustomed, like our own frontiersmen, to navigate the 16, 1856. As were on this river journey frequent stops made, sometimes for several days, Maak had a favourable opportumty for making botamcal and zoological collections. The plants gathered by him m the Amur valley, in 1855, were determmed and described by Maximowicz m his Pnmitiae Florae Amurensis. The Amur River The Amur River (Hei-lung Chiang in Chinese) is a river of eastern Asia that forms the 'present border between the Soviet Union and China (Manchuria, or Heilongjiang). Flowing generally southeastward, the Amur is nearly e 1,800 miles in length. (Counting the Shilka-Onon system, the Amur would be 2,700 miles in length.) It did not always form the frontier between the two countries, however. Before 1858, when China ceded all lands north of the Amur and east of the Ussuri rivers to Russia by the Treaty of Aigun, the Chinese claimed both of its banks. Russians had first reached the Amur area in the Seventeenth Century, but by the Treaty of Nerchinsk(1689) had yielded it to the Chinese. 18 and active life, have the rifle and as the mountains of furs and skins seen in the cities and market-towns a rough it use well, fully attest. terms any American Collins described the mighty Amur in could have understood: The river is truly a grand one, and since we passed the Zea, more and more resembling the Mississippi, and since we passed the Songahree, and now the Ousuree [Ussuri], in many places with its cut and crumbling shores, falhng-in timber, and the muddiness of its waters, and its huge sandbars, the resemblance has become almost perfect. From the Songahree the Amoor is certainly a more considerable river in breadth than the Mississippi below the mouth of the Ohio. The expanse of water, the numerous islands, and the many navigable chutes, some of them thirty miles in extent, must give it more breadth than the Mississippi. As for distance, above the Ousuree the river is divided into two parts, one-the right-usually navigated, into which falls the Ousuree, deep, and about the size of the Ohio; the other, broad and filled with islands, bars, and chutes, certainly as large as the Mississippi above Memphis, and looking very like it. Maackia was among the new taxa, as was the species Prunus maackii. It was the year after Maak's first expedition to \"Amur-land\" that China, in the city of Aigun, relinquished all claim to territory north of the Amur and east of the Ussuri. Two years later(1860), Russia established the town of Vladivostok at the southeasternmost extremity of its newly secured territory. Sargent & Son in Amur-land Forty-three years later, Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum-accompanied by his son, A. Robeson Sargent, and the naturalist-writer, John Muir of California-travelled to the Amur region in search of plants. They left the United States on May 29, 1903, on a sixmonth around-the-world tour, arriving in Russia on August 1st and the Amur region a dozen days later. The journey went well for the most part until the travellers arrived in Manchuria and Siberia. There, they had to spend days at a time on hot, crowded trains, unable even to change their clothes. The food Professor Charles Vevier, who edited the 1962 reprinting of Collins's book, summarized the political situation of the Amur region during the 1850s in the following clear terms: \"Economic opportunity in this unknown region was grasped in a Russian fist which now, ... abominable; at Harbin, Manchuria, Muir developed a severe case of food poisoning. These hardships, plus a profound difference was after some two hundred years of negotiation, had unclenched, spreading its fingers over the Amur region, the Ussuri River area east to the Pacific coast, Northern China, Sakhalin, and Japan.\" There was at least one benign result of Russia's thrust into eastern Asia, a flood of plant material new to botany and horticulture. Richard Maak alone discovered forty-two new taxa in the Amur and Ussuri river valleys on the two expeditions he made to the region during the 1850s, the first in 1855, the second in 1859. The genus of temperament between Muir and the elder Sargent that intensified during the trip, prompted Muir to strike out alone once the party had escaped Siberia and Manchuria. A newspaper interview with Robeson Sargent and private accounts of the trip by Muir follow. Prof. Sargent Garners Rare Specimens of Eastern Flora His Recent Expedition at to Russia, and to Through Siberia, Will Be of Vast Benefit Plant Collection Arnold Arboretum Prof. Sargent, of the Arnold Arboretum, has just retumed from a 6 mos.' tour of Russia and Siberia. 19 The journey was undertaken by Prof. Sargent for the purpose of securing an exhaustive collection of tree and plant specm this arduous task he was assisted by his son, A. R[obeson]. Sargent, the landscape architect. More than 8000 bulbs, seeds and roots were the result of the expedition, and while it will require many months for development to reveal the exact value of the collection, the professor is sure that many rare specimens of eastern flora have been gathered and the success of this mission is a question beyond cavil. imens, and The party left New York May 29, and entered the land of the czar Aug. 1. Several weeks were devoted to the Cnmea, where the younger Sargent was charmed with the landscape effects of the gardens attached to the imperial palace, pronouncing them surpassed only by the craft of the Italian landscape gardener. \"The most superb thing m nature that Russia had to offer,\" said he, voluptuous floral display of Mt Kasbek, of the Caucasus range, where 10,000 ft above the sea level the luxurious profusion of wild flowers was astoundmg. was a the spur Perry McDonough Collms's map of Amur River basin as it was when he made his tnp through the area m 1857 An Amencan, Collins floated down the 1,800-mile waterway on a barge a year or two after the Russian botamst Richard K. Maak made the same tnp on a raft, discovenng, among other plants, Prunus maackn. (Amur is spelled `Amoor\" on Collms's map. The Amur reminded Collins of the Mississippi, and its tnbutary the Ussun (\"Ousuree\" on Collms's map), of the Ohio. China, by the Treaty of Aigun (\"Igoon\" here), ceded all lands north of the Amur and east of the Ussun to Russia m 1858 (An \"X\" has been added to mdicate the location of Haerbm, Manchuna, from which B. V. Skvortzov sent seeds of Prunus maackn to the U.S. Plant Introduction Station m 1940Map courtesy of the Boston Athenaeum. 20 Every conceivable color was there to be found, and yet the blendmg was m such perfect harmony that It consdtuted a color scheme well worth cultrvaung m landscape gardemng, and one scarcely credW able to accident alone My one ambruon is to reproduce the effect m America We entered Siberia by way of the Chita branch of the railway and spent 28 mghts upon the tram, dunng 10 of which we did not remove our clothmg, ocvmg to the miserable sleepmg car accommodauons In Russia every traveler takes his bed clothmg cvW him, and through ignorance of this custom we found ourselves m a sorry phght Often wheze beddmg could not be hired, we were compelled to dnve the streets all mght I was impressed with the vast forests and broad steppes of Srbena. and as we sped over the Armor R R., the ongmal one of the country, we passed many trams filled with Russian convicts They were crowded into small box cars, hghted with tmy barred and grated windows At Harbm, rn Manchuna, we found the Russran government was secretly mobihzmg her troops, and everybody professed behef m the permanent occupancy of that country by the czar's mmions Harbm is a new town and tenanted by soldiers and Russian offic~als exclusively The most mteresung town m Manchuna is Kabavosk [r.e., Khabarovsk], a place of 5000 mhab~tants and delrghtfully situated at the ~unctuze of the Armor and Usan nvers We expected to return from here to Harbm, where the Eastern Chma R R commences, but while en route thrther a bndge went down with 40 passengers and we were compelled to retrace our steps Farmmg is quite pnmW ve m Srbena and agncultural implements are most crude Wooden plows are used and drawn by 12 yokes of oxen I was pleased to see, however, that Amencan implements of agnculture are begmnmg to be mtroduced mto the country The soil ~s fertile and with proper culuvat~on would supply the world with wheat Uehicles with 2 wheels are employed exclusively and the ox is ubiquitous as a draught beast Everybody smokes, the women usmg the cigand, though I am admsed that universal discontent prevails, the people present an air of silent sausfacuon h The edyces are mostly block houses cvW thatched roofs Lmmg is expensme, though rmlway fares are ndiculously cheap The better class of Russian women are the handsomest m the world, but the military offlcers do not present so fine an appearance as do those of the German and Austnan armies Aside from the novelty and pleasure which the tnp afforded, I feel that the benefit which will thereby accrue to the study of trees and plants is of mcalculable value -Boston Evening Record, December 29, 1903. arette John Muir's accounts consist of a letter to his wife, Louisa (\"Louie\"), which he wrote in Vladivostok, and hastily scribbled entries in his diary. These give a vivid and decidedly more candid picture of the unhappy conditions under which the party travelled than did the newspaper account. Both the letter and diary excerpts are presented below with only minor editing. Letter We had ample opportumty to study the people, for the Russian trader usually reaches the depot several days m advance of the departure of his tram and there he sleeps and eats m the depot, carrymg his food and beddmg cmth him They are all disgustedly dirty and wear shoes made of pelts and tcmsted tcnnne The beverage is mvanably tea, which is drunk with block bread The nauonal mtoxicant is voyaka, which is sold by the bottle, the law prohrbrUng its sale by the glass, and the purchaser gets glonously drunk thereon. It seems to be made of pure alcohol Vladivostok Aug. 19, 1903 Dear Louie After many short stops here & there we are at last on the Pacific having crossed the whole vast breadth of Asia, & now you don't seem so dreadfully far. We arrived yesterday morning very tired having slept in our clothes the last 8 mghts & the heat has been trying 80 to 90 in the cars. & miserable uneatable food at the stations most of the[m]. Here it is delightfully coolbut the food is very poor. I'm resting today while the Sargents are out botanizing. I suppose we will be here a few days longer. Then Sargent wants to [see] the Amour for a day or two, thence back to Harbin, thence to Muken & thence to Pekmg which will require 8 to 10 days more of rail riding of most wearisome sort, but with views of wonderful regions their rocks scenery flora people etc by way of compensation. I had made up my mind to leave the Sargents here 21 Japan Shanghai, etc as I long for the cool sea. But Sargent advises very strongly agamst my going off alone & raises all sorts of objections, difficulty of arrangmg money matters etc. promises not to stay but a day or two in Pekm or hot, dusty Mukden (suggestive name) So I suppose III go on with him as far as Pekin or Shanghai-where I hope to hear from you once more. The whole trip has been exceedmgly interesting far more so than anythmg I had read lead me to expect. And now dear wife & babes Heaven bless you. How glad Ill be to get home. Love to all. John Muir & go to streets for holes basins pits ridges & peaks made chiefly of mud. Harbin on its large flat rain again and dark. Left Harbm at 2.30 for Mukden. Ram at 2.45 in rich rolling treeless prame like country planted mostly to millet. Bar 700. Same prairie sunflrs millet, melons etc. Still dark, ramy, extremly rich soils gl[acial] mud silt reformed in slow water-few clumps of trees on horizon mud adobe houses thatch roofs mud corall walls, 4:30 some corn. Muir's diary is even more revealing than his letter. universal ram Bar 850 Dripping Chmamen herdmg cattle & horses here and there some with umbrellas. Nearly all cultivated or m pasture The country is flatter than 2 hrs ago. All looks like Illinois 6PM Diary Mr Sargent & Son have decided Aug 12 to give up the voyage down the Amour on acct of missing todays boat, tho another sails m 4 or 5 days. Would go on alone but ... 29 aug. Bar 650, cldy. The same prairie & crops. All Chmese horses poor & sore. Groves & smgle trees here & there Willow poplar tillia [Tiha] or elm mostly not a stone be seen Houses mud framework wood. The whole country beautiful m features of low swells & ravines with hills dotted with trees m dist. seems to have been cultivated every mch of it time immemorial No mldflrs in it only weeds by waysides & m pastures rose colored polygonum the showiest. Chmese here keep hogs wh they herd. The largest ever saw have enormous ears look like baby elephants. to can't separate.... Aug 19. Sargents out botamzmg while I read & work & rest. Would hke to leave for Japan etc but Sargent wishes to go with him to pomt on the Amour & thence to Mukden Pekm & Shanghai. 2 weeks more of miserable rail travel m very enfeebled condition but I suppose I'll get thro somehow & I will see more of Manchuria. Aug this 20. In house all We day resting. are running back to [Kungchuhng]. 3 bridges said to be washed out ahead.-gomg Aug 21. The sea air reviving. Hope to leave eve back all the way to Harbm. Dont know how long may have to wait in that filthy place. 9. PM for Kabarovsk.... Sargent 30 seems pleased. 6 A.M. In broad flat mostly cultivated. At Harbm 7 a.m. Bar[ometer] 600 rainy Harbm is situated on river. Flat & muddy streets. When dry fill in ruts & smkholes the story of sea of mud. Large Govermt bmldings-mtended for large town. like many others along the R.R. but Yankee enterprise sadly wantmg or adventurous builders of homes. The whole country seems a Government camp. Drive to so-called garden restaurant 5 ms of the most hornble Aug 28. Aug. Still damp and cloudy & running wearily back thru millet fields to Karbm will probably get there this P.M. arrived at 10 a.m Stay here until 3 P M when we again go back 200 ms or so mto first mtns to N of here to botanize. A day or so while wairing repairs on lme to Port Arthur None knows when they will be completed. Start at 3.40 PM ram hazy muggy weather. Bar 650 has stood so from when we turned 22 back. At 6 P.M Bar 800 Many on train going this way via Vladivostok to Pt. Arthur, wish we were but of course Sargent wont & he has me in his power Arive Aug. 31 at station m the mtns 1600 ft El at daybreak & in pouring rain, Crouch for a while back of brick wall then go to porch of restaurant where I lie on bench all day in terrible pain. indigestion after 3 mos of abommably cooked food. Start back to horrid Harbin at 4 or 5 P M. Arrive Sep 1, at 6 AM. After dreadful night of pam. I told S. that we wld probably be compelled to go via Vladivostok & Japan after all thus passing 5 times ovr part of road on acct of the broken bridges. He never seemed to think of me sick or well or of my studies only of his own. until he feared I might die on his hands and thus bother him-He was planning another botanical trip to some point on the Sungari, going by Stmr & leaving me alone at some hotel or lodging house. But fortunately learned the R R might not be opened for a Mo & that a stmr wld leave Vladivostock on the 3d or 4th. So back N we went again this Eve Sept 1. The Sargent-Muir Trip in Context Manchuria and Siberia, separated by the Amur and Ussuri rivers, increasingly became the scene of international rivalries between the time Maak and Collins, on the one hand, and the Sargents and Muir, on the other, travelled there. They also became the scene of intense botanical collecting. Frank N. Meyer, for instance, was in Siberia and Manchuria in late 1906 and early 1907. He was there again in late 1912 and early 1913. On both occasions he passed through Harbin and Mukden. During the first of those trips Meyer also travelled in northern Korea. On August 21, 1903, he collected a pyramidal wild cherry with bright-green foliage that Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum much later named Prunus x meyeri in his honor. (Two days after Meyer made the collection, he recorded a killing frost.) Meyer reported seeing \"Only two or three trees ... during the whole trip through northern Korea and only two had a few seeds.\" When he described Prunus x meyeri, Rehder had suggested that it might actually be a hybrid. \"Prunus Meyeri seems in all its characters intermediate between P. Maackii Rupr. and P. Maximowiczii Rupr.,\" he wrote in the journal of the Arnold Arboretum in 1920, \"and is probably a hybrid between these species, both of which grow in northern Korea and in the same regions, as specimens collected by Mr. [E. H.] Wilson on the Tumen-Yalu divide on two subsequent days show.\" In 1928, the Russian botanist B. V. Skvortzov reported two forms of Prunus maackii, Prunus maackii forma rotunda and Prunus maackii forma oblonga, from northern Manchuria, in the Lingnam Science Journal. In 1939, from a forest near Hsiaoling, Manchuria (a town on the Trans-Siberian Railroad through which the Sargents and John Muir must have passed several times in their wanderings), Skvortzov collected seeds of Prunus maackii, which he Sep 2. Still alive. Morphin & brandy to hold life. Sep 3 to stupify pain at old quarters in Vladivos7 AM. after most painful days of all my experience in this 0 Learn the steamer sails at 3 PM. today. Robeson [Sargent] loses his passport, & cant buy ticket or leave country. After big fuss went to Am consul & under his direction got out papers enabling him to leave-got off at 6 P.M. & now hope to get well. Ate a little supper & suffer no pain. arrived tock at to be free from pain. Arrive San Won [Wonsan] beautiful harbor on Korean coast leave at night ... Sep 4 glorious at From went to Japan and China. At Shanghai, Muir and the Sargents went their separate ways. Korea, the party to thence 23 the U. S. Department of Agriculture and from which came the scions that produced the trees now growing in the Arnold Arboretum. The Sargents and Muir travelled in Manchuria during a period of intense rivalry between Russia and Japan through which China was drawn to Russia (and Russia to China) in an alliance against Japan. As part of this process, Russia had begun to build the Trans-Siberian Railroad in 1891, to forge a link between Vladivostok and Russia proper; Russia was able to exact from China a concession that part of the line run through Manchuria in order to protect the Amur River frontier. The alliance between Russia and China was strengthened by Japan's victory over China in the Sino-Japanese War in 1895. Harbin (or Haerbin) owed its origin to the construction of the Manchurian section of the Trans-Siberian Railroad, the \"Chinese Eastern Railway,\" over which the Sargents and Muir travelled. Before 1896, Harbin had been a minor fishing village and market town; thereafter, it became the construction center for the Chinese Eastern Railway. Another railroad (on which the Sargents and Muir also travelled) was built southward from Harbin to connect it with the Russiandeveloped city of Port Arthur (Lushun) on the Liaotung Peninsula in southern Manchuria. Largely Russian-built, Harbin became a base for Russian military operations in Manchuria during the Russo-Japanese War of 1904-05, which broke out soon after the Sargents and Muir were in the area. After the Russian Revolution of 1917, Harbin became a haven for Russian refugees; for a time, it was the largest Russian city outside the Soviet Union. Most likely B. V. Skvortzov was one of those refugees. sent to Summer Monsoons and Prunus maackii The Sargent-Muir party chose a very poor time of year to travel in the Amur River region of Siberia and Manchuria, at least from John Muir's point of view. While they were there (mid-August through early September), the summer monsoon was at its height. On average, ten to sixty times more precipitation falls during the summer in the Amur region than during the winter. In the peak monsoon months of July, August, and 70 to 90 percent of a month's total may fall in only five or six days-up to 9.5 inches of it in a single day. A. A. Borisov, in Climates of the U. S. S. R., reports that, \"At Vladivostok 386 mm [ 15.3 inches] of precipitation, 65% of the annual total, fall from June to September, but only 28 mm (5%)fall in winter.\" Summer floods, some of them very destructive, are common. During the ripening and harvesting of grain crops, the excessive moisture affects the harvest adversely. Muir's \"universal rain\" seems an apt description. In the vicinity of Vladivostok, a coastal city, the summer monsoon usually lasts for four to four and one-half months, inland and northward for shorter periods of time. Contributing also to Muir's misery was the high humidity, which averages 88 percent during the summer. Winters, on the other hand, are sunny and dry in the Amur region; snow cover is thin and persists only in the northermost parts of the region. Autumns are warm and dry. The climate of Harbin, which is only forty or so miles northwest of Xiaoling (Hsiaoling), ), the town where B. V. Skvortzov collected the seeds he sent to the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1940, is similar to that of Winnipeg, Canada, as the following table shows: September, 24 While Harbin and Winnipeg receive similar amounts of precipitation (577.4 mm [about 23 inches] and 516.9 mm [about 20 inches] per year, respectively), the precipitation is more evenly distributed from month to month in Winnipeg than it is in Harbin. Winnipeg receives eight times more snow than does Harbin in an average winter (50 inches versus Orpet, E. O. Prunus Maackii. Horticulture, Volume 15, Number 21, page 755 (May 25, 1912). [Like Egan, Orpet seems to be referring to Prunus padus var. commutata.] Sergeev, L. I., and K. A. Sergeeva. Characteristics of the annual cycle and the frost resistance of woody 6.7 inches). Prunus maackii does best in moist, well soil-perhaps reflecting the soaking summer conditions of its native range. And, while very cold-hardy, it seems to be less frost resistant than Prunus padus, another early-blooming species. Also, it may not take to transplanting as well as some other spedrained cies of tree, at least under certain conditions. plants. Proceedings of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Botanical Sciences Secrion), Volume 119, Numbers 1-6, pages 98-100 (1958). [Prunus maackii, Prunus padus, and other trees and shrubs.]] Skvortzow, B. W. [Skvortzov, B. V.I. New plants from north Manchuna, Chma. Lmgnam Science Journal, Volume 6, Number 3, pages 205-228 (1928). [Prunus maackm, page 211.] Vanstone, D. E., and W. G. Ronald. Comparison of bare- Acknowledgment The text of the John Muir letter and of the quotations from John Muir's journal are published with the permission of the Muir-Hanna Trust, Holt-Atherton Center for Western Studies, University of the Pacific, Stockton, California. Copyright 1984 Muir-Hanna Trust. spade transplantmg of boulevard joumal of Arbonculture, Volume 7, Number 10, pages 271-274. [Prunus maackii and three other taxa of street trees.] Waters, Gregory J. The Amur chokecherry. Horticulture, Volume 61, Number 2, pages 14-16 (January 1983). root versus tree trees. Sources Borisov, A. A. Chmates of the U.S S R. Edited by Cyril A. Halstead. Translated by R. A. Ledward. Chicago : Aldme, 1985. Bretschneider, E. History of European Botanical Discovenes m China. London: Sampson Low, Mar- ston, 1898. Collins, Perry McDonough. Sibenan fourney Down the Amur to the Pacific, 1856-1857 A new edW on of A Voyage down the Amoor. Edited by Charles Vemer. Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1962. Egan, William C. Prunus maackn. Gardening, Volume 6, Number 137, page 259 (May 15, 1898). [Egan seems to be referring to Prunus padus var. commutata.] Lydolph, Paul E. Climates of the Soviet Union. In ~ World Survey of Chmatology, Volume 7. Amsterdam, Oxford, and New York. Elsevier Scientific, 1977. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagating Prunus maackii","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24892","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24e816b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Propagation of Prunus maackii Alfred j. Fordham The records of the Arnold Arboretum reveal that Prunus maackii is propagated by any one of four routine methods Prunus maackii easily be propagated readily by seeds, cuttings, grafting, or budding. The records of the Arnold Arboretum show that early in 1961 we received fifteen scions of that species from the United States Plant Introduction Service, Glenn Dale, Maryland. At the time of year they arrived, grafting would have been the most appropriate method of propagating them. Prunus avium, commonly known as mazzard cherry, was listed as being a suitable rootstock for grafting P. maackii but was not available. We were able to get seedlings of P serrulata (Oriental cherry), however; they proved to be excellent rootstocks. To preserve the scions until we needed them, we placed them is a sealed polyethylene bag and stored them at 40 degrees Fahrenheit in a refrigerator. When it is handled m this way, woody-plant propagating material remains viable for many months. It should be inspected occasionally, however, to make certain it is not too wet or too dry, for either condition can cause it to deteriorate. can uniform size. To accomplish grafting, the top of the seedling was removed, leaving about two inches of stem above the root system. Scions were about four inches long and contained three or four buds. The stock and scion were joined by a whip- and-tongue grafting technique, making certain the cambial layers of each had as much contact as possible. The two components were then bound with rubber budding strips, which held them together with relentless tension. Care after Grafting. When completed on March 29th, the grafts were placed in a medium of damp peatmoss on a greenhouse bench, making certain that the unions were well covered with peatmoss. Bottom heat of 70 degrees Fahrenheit was provided. This relatively high level of bottom heat leads to rapid callusing and growth. By May 26th all grafts had succeeded, and the plants were in excellent growth. They next were transferred to one-gallon cans and placed on a greenhouse bench where they could be forced, to provide cutting wood for further propagation. Whip-and-Tongue Grafting Rootstocks with Whole As the name implies, a whole rootstock is the entire root system of a seedling. In autumn, before the ground freezes, seedlings are dug and placed in a deep frame, refrigerator, or cold-storage unit that is cold enough to keep them dormant, yet warm enough to prevent them from freezmg, so that they will be available when they are needed. In preparation for grafting, roots of the rootstocks were washed and trimmed to a Propagation by Cuttings By June 22nd, the growth had developed to a stage where it was ready to provide softwood cuttings. Twenty-six cuttings were taken, treated with a root-inducing substance containing eight milligrams of indolebutyric acid m a gram of talc. The cuttings were then placed under intermittent mist. By July 14th, twenty-one of them had developed excellent root systems and were potted. In the Boston 26 cuttings taken during about the third week of June and placed under mist should root in high percentages. Hardwood cuttings do not root. area, softwood Propagating Prunus maackii by seed requires two stages, warm stratification and refrigeration. Warm stratification is provided by placing the container in a warm location, such as a windowsill, for four months. Full should be avoided as it could result in overheating. The container is then moved to a 40 degree Fahrenheit refrigerator for three months. Thus prepared, the seeds should gersun Propagation by Seeds The natural dispersal of cherry seeds is largely accomplished by birds. As fruits of Prunus maackii ripen, they soften, becoming shiny black and attractive to birds. Since birds have no teeth, they gulp their food; therefore, the hard-coated seeds pass unharmed throught their digestive systems and are scattered about the countryside in droppings. minate rapidly. July Prunus maackii fruits ripen around 1st and must be watched carefully and collected before birds can get to them. Nursery practice when dealing with Prunus maackii follows the chain of events as they occur in nature: the fruits are collected, their pulps removed, and the cleaned seeds then sown out-of-doors in prepared beds, where they are protected from rodents. The seeds of Prunus maackii, like those of many Temperate Zone woody plants, have dormancies-protective \"barriers\" that prevent them from germinating at times that would be unfavorable to the survival of the resulting seedlings. When the seeds are collected, cleaned, and sown without delay, seasonal changes overcome the barriers and germination occurs in spring. An alternative, and simple, method of overcoming dormancy is to provide artificial \"seasons.\" A polyethylene bag makes an ideal container for this purpose. The seeds Propagation by Budding Budding is an inexpensive way to propagate Prunus maackii, requiring neither the facilities nor skill, nor the meticulous aftercare, that grafting does. It is economical of propagating material, since only one bud is needed to produce a propagant. To prepare for budding, line seedlings out in spring, spacing them about four inches about twenty inches apart. for budding in the summer of They ready their second growing season, when buds are inserted. The buds remam inserted until the next spring, when, before growth commences, the stocks are cut off just above the buds. apart in rows are Alfred J Fordham was affiliated with the Arnold Arboretum for forty-eight years, retiring m 1977 as research horticulturist. A member of many professional societies, he has received numerous awards for his research on plant propagation. combined with a dampened medium of sand, peat moss, or such. The volume of the medium should not be more than three to four times that of the seeds. Keeping the bulk small is important, for at sowing time the entire content of the bag is sown. Twisting the top of the bag and binding it with a rubber band makes it vapor-proof for the full preare treatment period. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Honeysuckle: From \"One of the best\" to Ruthless Pest","article_sequence":5,"start_page":27,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24890","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ebb6d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Hardt, Richard A.","article_content":"Japanese Honeysuckle: Ruthless Pest Richard A. Hardt From \"One of the best\" to Slow to escape from cultivation when introduced, Japanese honeysuckle has become an aggressive and tenacious weed that should be used only with great caution Lonicera japonica-flowers white changing to yellow, dehclously fragrant, borne in great profusion m the summer and occasionally m autumn. Grand for trelhses and ground cover. of the best. -Biltmore Nursery One Catalog, Biltmore, North Carolina (1912), page Lonicera japonica native flora. ... 99. a pernicious and dangerous weed, often overwhelmmg and strangling the -Common Weeds of the Umted Agncultural Research Sermce, Agnculture (1971), page 358. States, by the U.S. Department of a [A] network hold. of tangled cords that covers the ground wherever this ruthless mvader gets foot -\"The ~apanese honeysuckle m the eastern United States,\" by E. F Andrews, Torreya, Volume 19, Number 3 (March 1919J, page 39 setts, Connecticut, southern New York, and Ohio. In the northern part of its range it is not the vigorous pest it is elsewhere because its early growth is killed by late spring frosts. Long Island and Cape Cod, where it is locally dominant, seem to be its northern limits as a pest. It is a serious pest as far west as Indiana and southern Illinois, however, becoming rarer westward and disappearing altogether m central Kansas. Japanese honeysuckle ranges southward to central Florida, being absent from the subtropical part of that state. born and raised in the southern Piedof Maryland, where Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Thunb.) is 'ubiquitous. At an early age I despised it for smothering my woodland clearings and have killed countless of its vines with a deterrmned hatred. Yet I have always been delighted by the smell of its flowers on summer evenings and the taste of its nectar licked off a I was mont pulled stamen. Introduced into the United States in 1806 as an ornamental, Lonicera japonica escaped from cultivation and eventually became naturalized throughout the eastern part of the country, where it is now an important component of the flora as far north as Massachu- is Lonicera The commonly planted (and escaped) plant japonica 'Halliana; Hall's honeysuckle. Introduced by George Hall to Par- 28 Nursery of Flushing, New York, in it differs from the species only in its more vigorous growth. In the eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany, Merritt Lyndon Fernald does not recognize it as a legitimate botanical variety. A common item in turnsons's early part of the century. After the Civil War, many farmers in the East abandoned their land. Abandoned fields, as they pass into the 1862, of-the-century nursery catalogs, Hall's honeysuckle is still very much available in the trade. Slow To Escape from Cultivation It is difficult to pinpoint when Lonicera from cultivation, but it apparently did so in the 1890s, becoming naturalized over most of its present range within thirty years. It may have escaped before 1890, however, but was uncommon and not recognized when encountered. Alvan Chapman did not list it in his Flora of the Southern United States (1884), nor did Asa Gray in the sixth edition of his Manual of Botany (1889). Nathaniel Lord Britton and Addison Brown gave the first evidence for its japonica began to escape shrub stages of ecological succession, are ideal habitat for Japanese honeysuckle. A combination of these factors, and others, may best explain the long delay between the date of the species's introduction and the first reports of its escape. A ban on honeysuckle at an early stage, coupled with a campaign to eradicate it, might have kept it within bounds, though there seems to be no precedent for success with this sort of effort. In any event, it is now too late to do anything about it. Japanese honeysuckle is a naturalized member of our flora. 1898, reporting Lonicera japonica freely escaped from southern New York and Pennsylvania to North Carolina and West Virginia in their Illustrated Flora of the e as escape, in Northern United States and Canada (1896-1898).By 1903, it was reported from Florida and, in 1918, from Texas. Why did it take more than eighty years for Japanese honeysuckle to escape? Birds disseminate its seeds. Perhaps it took them some time to recognize honeysuckle berries as a source of food. The birds may even have had to develop a taste for the berries. Even today, when the berries are widely and dependably available, birds eat them sparmgly. On the other hand, Japanese honeysuckle may have spread slowly because there was little suitable habitat for it until the latter part of the Nineteenth Century. Cultivated land is not suitable for honeysuckle, and most mesic sites were under the plow in the Flowers of Lomcera japonica. Bussewitz. Photograph by Albert W. 29 pernicious and dangerous weed\" Regardless of when it did, in fact, escape, Japanese honeysuckle quickly exhibited its darker side. By 1919, it had locally become a pest. E. F. Andrews, writing in the March 1919 issue of Torreya, reported that \"it is no uncommon thing to see acres upon acres buried under the rank growth of this aggressive invader.\" Government documents tell the same story: The Eradication of Wild Honeysuckle, by L. W. Kephart (1939); Honeysuckle Is a Serious Problem, by T. C. Nelson (1953); and the ominously titled, Honeysuckle or Treesl, by E. V. Brender and C. S. Hodges (1957). Ammosity towards Japanese honeysuckle apparently developed rapA \"most ... idly. The usually Manual of Botany it as a dry and objective Gray's (eighth edition\/, describes and dangerous weed, overand strangling the native flora whelming and most difficult to eradicate, extensively planted and encouraged by those who do not value the rapidly destroyed indigenous vegetation.... (Unfortunately natzd. from Asia). most pernicious Meanwhile, U. S. Department of Agriculpublications were recommending its use and suggesting planting methods. Nursery catalogs contained glowing accounts of it. But perhaps the most disturbing note came from Ernest H. Wilson's classic, Aristocrats of the Garden (page 67): ture Hall's semi-evergreen Japan (Lomcera japonica, comment.... var. Honeysuckle Halhana) needs no On the contrary, \"Japan Honeysuckle\" requires considerable comment, discussion, and consideration. Why is Japanese honeysuckle so vigorous and aggressive in the eastern United States? Let us consider these traits separately, definuig \"vigor\" as a high growth rate and \"aggression\" as domination of other plants by direct competition. (Honeysuckle's aggression is, of course, dependent upon its vigor. Only a vigorous plant can be aggressive. But other botanical characteristics besides vigor make Leaves of graph by Albert Lonicera japonica Aureo-reuculata' PhotoW. Bussemtz. honeysuckle troublesome.) Honeysuckle's growth rates are indeed high. One researcher has reported fifteen meters of growth on one plant in a single year. Such extensive vegetative growth is supported by an appropriately extensive root system. On an established Japanese honeysuckle plant, the roots may reach three meters across and one meter deep. Honeysuckle is semi-evergreen, losing its leaves only in cold winters. It produces new leaves very early in the spring. As a result, it 30 begin active photosynthesis before competing trees and shrubs. Also, evergreen leaves can take advantage of warm, sunny winter days. The entire plant can make as much as two months of growth before most deciduous plants begin to grow. In Maryland, honeysuckle usually leafs out by March 15th, while the predominantly oak forests can leafless until May. Another element of Japanese honeysuckle's aggression is its ability to reproduce rapidly by both vegetative and sexual means. The lateral branches that spread along the ground, root at the nodes in moist soil. Once this happens, the rooted branch is a new plant in a colony, able to survive if the original root crown is damaged or the branch cut. When a vigorous honeysuckle vine is cut, the root crown will respond with rapid resprouting. Lateral roots also can sprout, creating individuals independent of the original plant. are Honeysuckle seedlings must have open conditions to succeed. Its small seeds contain little stored food and seedlings must begin photosynthesis soon after germinating. Dense grasslands are poor habitats for honeysuckle, however, because the honeysuckle vine cannot climb the grass blades to reach the full sunlight. If the seeds were to be deposited in a mature forest or in a grassland, the new honeysuckle vine would not be able to complete with its neighbors. Honeysuckle occupies a special position landscapes not occupied by native twining habit is well suited for climbing shrubs and saplings, a different \"strategy\" from those of native vines. Grapes (Vitis spp.)climb by tendrils, which are effective for holdmg onto tree branches, while Virginia-creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) climbs by adhesive discs on tendrils, in eastern vines. Its Ecological Relationships The Japanese honeysuckle's fruit is a firm, black berry with few seeds. Birds disseminate the seeds, eating the berry and excreting the seeds. There is an ecologically self-reinforcing aspect to this manner of seed distribution : the bird ingests the berry and flies distance before excreting the seeds. Chances are that the bird will deposit the seeds in an environment similar to that in which it found the berry, increasing the probability that the resulting seedlings will succeed. The consumers of honeysuckle berriesbluebirds, purple finches, white-throated sparrows, juncoes, robins, bobwhite quailsare birds of brushy areas, thickets, and forest openings. Birds of forest openings usually fly directly from one opening to another. Thus, while roosting, a bird will deposit seeds at the base of a tree that, if all goes well for one seed, will be climbed by a new honeysuckle some vine. which allow it to climb tree trunks that would be too large to twine around. Poisonivy (Rhus radicans) climbs in the same manner as Virginia-creeper, but does so with modified aerial roots. These vines have climbing strategies well suited for forest environments: they are adapted for climbing the branches and trunks of mature trees. Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens) is more like honeysuckle in that it, too, climbs by twining, but it does so much more \"lazily\" than honeysuckle, making fewer circuits per length of stem than the honeysuckle. As a result, bittersweet cannot support as much weight and does not climb as high as honeysuckle does. Nor can it produce a dense, sunlight-blocking canopy above a sapling, since it does not hold tightly enough to support the weight. Honeysuckle can climb any object that is thin enough. It cannot twine around mature tree trunks, but it wraps itself around saplings with ease. It grows up and past a sapling, blocking the sunlight to its host. Deprived of light, the sapling dies, and the weight of the vine causes the dead stem to collapse, leaving 31 only a hummock of honeysuckle. Its twining is equally effective on shrubs. In mature forests, honeysuckle may twine upon other vines such as grape, Virginia-creeper, and posion-ivy, that have successfully climbed mature trees. Forest openings contain herbs, shrubs, and many of which are attractive to saplings, both man and wildlife. Vigorous growths of honeysuckle can smother them, replacing a diverse flora with a monotonous one. In the Piedmont of Maryland, flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), black cherry (Prunus sero- tina\/, tulip-poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), and brambles (Rubus spp.) are very common constituents of forest openings and edges and have much higher wildlife value than honeysuckle. All of the regions in which Japanese honeysuckle has become naturalized were once forested. Honeysuckle can block the return of forest to landscapes that originally were forested, producing what ecologists call a disclimax or disturbance climax. Plant succession can be \"frozen\" at the honeysuckle disclimax. Costs and Benefits In human terms, uncontrollable impact on its environment. It should be used only after careful and thorough consideration. In the South, foresters generally practice even-age management on pines ~i.e., cutting and restocking large, continuous blocks of forest at the same time), which opens an area to direct sunlight and reduces competition for moisture, allowing honeysuckle to take over and making effective restocking with trees impossible. If honeysuckle is not present, the trees may have a chance to become sufficiently established to shade the ground, making the site less attractive to honeysuckle. However, if honeysuckle is present in a forest stand when the trees are cut, the honeysuckle the return may grow rapidly, preventing Japanese honeysuckle has costs are both costs and benefits. The due to its vigor, aggressiveness, rapid dispersal, and tenacity. A pest in forest management because of its impact on forest regeneration, honeysuckle prevents both the natural and artificial regeneration of forest lands. Professionals tend to see only one side of the plant-either its virtues or its vices. Nurserymen and landscapers cultivate and plant it, foresters try to eradicate it. Landscaping professionals must understand the character and potential problems of this plant before using it. Planted in the right situation it does no harm, but very few situations are right. Under most conditions, honeysuckle will have a damaging and of the forest. Often, foresters will not cut certain forests for fear that honeysuckle will take over. While a luxuriant growth of honeysuckle in a woodland is visually unpleasant, a tended and pruned vine of honeysuckle clothing an arbor or fence can be very attractive. The sweetly fragant flowers open pure white and fade to a soft yellow. In full sun, with regular pruning, honeysuckle is far more floriferous than in the woodlands, where most honeysuckle vines are devoid of flowers. It is very easy to transplant and is a vigorous and carefree flowerer. This, of course, is one of the reasons it is such a pest outside of the garden. Honeysuckle can provide a dense mat of vines that will climb over banks and thus is useful for stabilizing roadbanks, controlling erosion, and revegetating terrain. Rooted cuttings grow readily and quickly produce a cover, completely arresting soil erosion. The same qualities that make it a pest under one set of circumstances make it a valued plant under another set of circumstances. Honeysuckle's value to wildlife must be carefully evaluated since it suppresses many of the plants that have the highest food value to wildlife. It holds its berries through the 32 winter, usually well above the ground, pro- viding a dependable food source during a critical period. Songbirds and gamebirds do eat small quantities of its berries. Deer eat its leaves. The tangled vines do provide superlative cover for birds, mice, and, particularly, cottontail rabbits. Honeysuckle has been suggested for use as a managed source of nutritious browse in the heavily manipulated southern pine plantations. Japanese honeysuckle can also strongly affect historic sites. One survey of historic sites around Washington, D. C., noted that honeysuckle had damaged wooden and masonry structures, forcing apart stonewalls and producing dry rot in wooden walls. More importantly, it may produce an uncontroll- thetically pleasing landscape. Instead of a thicket or young forest, it produces a tangle of amorphous vegetation. Forest openings and edges usually are characterized by a richness of plant elements and structures, but Japanese honeysuckle succeeds in creating a landscape of only one element. On balance the costs of Japanese honeysuckle outweigh the benefits. Other, less invasive plants can be used to control erosion and as ornamental vines. Of course, it would be impossible to make Japanese honeysuckle disappear; it is a permanent part of our flora. It can only be controlled. Controlling Honeysuckle measures are used routinely to control weeds: chemicals, mechanical cultivation, hand labor, fire, biological control, and competition. Chemicals have been developed to kill honeysuckle. They usually kill broad-leaf plants on contact without affecting conifers. In southern pine plantations, these chemicals may be the most effective control measure. Unfortunately, honeysuckle is also present in hardwood areas, in which the chemicals would also kill desired saplings and shrubs. Mechanical cultivation eliminates Japanese honeysuckle. As a result, the species is absent from cultivated cropland. In woods and thickets, mechanical cultivation is not possible because it kills the trees and shrubs you want. Hand labor would eliminate the honeysuckle without destroying the trees and shrubs, but its high cost makes this method completely impractical. Fire often is used to control weeds in southern pine plantations and can also be used to control honeysuckle m pine forests, though the vine is likely to resprout from the roots. A light fire does not kill the pine trees but does kill seedlings, shrubs, and most hardwood trees. Therefore, fire can be used before planting, to clear out honeysuckle and able, historically inappropritate landscape. The study found that along the Potomac Canal in Washmgton, D. C., honeysuckle was threatening \"visitors' understanding and appreciation of the site.\" A number of Design Considerations A luxuriant growth of Japanese honeysuckle is aesthetically objectionable for three reasons : it lacks discernible form, it creates no line, and it suppresses aesthetically pleasing be defined as the of an object. Japanese honeysuckle is loose and rangy, forming hummocks over strangled saplings and reaching in all directions. It is impossible to perceive limits to its mass; it is amorphous. Its growth creates no visual points, no visual line (for a line is a series of points). The most commonly perceived visual line of a plant lies along its stem, from the root collar to the leaves. A dense growth of honeysuckle hides its source, presenting a fa~ade of leaves or tangled vine stem. It can establish no \"rhythm\" without points, no pattern without lines. If a growth of honeysuckle were translated into sound, it would be noise. As noise vegetation. \"Form\" can three-dimensional mass disrupts music, honeysuckle disrupts an aes- 33 Lonicera japonica `Halhana' covenng a wall at Hener Castle, England Photograph by Donald Wyman From the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. a slight headstart. control-the deliberate use of a Biological disease or animal to control a weed-has been used successfully on several invasive exotics. In Australia, the prickly-pear cactus has been controlled by an introduced moth (Cactoblastis cactorum) that feeds on the give seedlings anything more than nibble its leaves occasionally. This freedom from diseases and insects is a major reason for honeysuckle's high vigor. Nonetheless, biological control represents the best potential for controlling Japanese honeysuckle and is deserving of do research. is a natural phefor light by trees Competition reduces the vigor of honeysuckle. When its cactus. St. a Johnswort (Hypericum perfor- Ecological competition atum), weed of rangelands in the western Umted States, has been controlled by two introduced beetles. Unfortunately, there appear to be no disease-producing organisms that have any serious effect on Japanese honeysuckle in the United States, nor are there any msects m the Umted States that nomenon. vigor is a sufficiently reduced, a it is no longer lion without teeth. Unfortuhuman activity usually leads to the nately, removal of trees, eliminating the competition for light. pest. It is 34 problem, ought it not to be illegal to plant Japanese honeysuckle? Indeed, it is highly inadvisable to plant the a Because it is such species near woodlands if it cannot be controlled, but in the garden, tended and pruned around an arbor, it does no harm. There is already so much wild honeysuckle that garden plants could not significantly affect the overall seed supply. Japanese honeysuckle has some virtues and many vices. When I was a child in the woods of Maryland, it was rope and string, perfume and ambrosia to me. Though I have spent many a day ripping it out of the earth with my bare hands, I have never wished that Japanese honeysuckle had never been. Richard A. Hardt is a student m the Graduate School of Design, Harvard University. Dunng the summer of 1985, he was a horticultural mtem with the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botanical Gold: Exploring the Treasures of the Harvard University Herbaria","article_sequence":6,"start_page":35,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24888","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eb76f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Swartz, Caroline J.","article_content":"Botanical Gold: Exploring the Treasures of the Harvard University Herbaria Caroline j. Swartz Faculty and staff of the combined Harvard herbaria invite Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and other special guests to an open house in May On Thursday, May 8, 1986, from 5:30 to 8:30 p.m., the combined Harvard University Her- offer a unique opportunity behind the scenes of one of the world's richest botanical resources. Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, Friends of the Farlow Herbarium, members of the New England Botanical Club, and members of the Harvard community are cordially invited to come and talk with Herbaria faculty and staff members about their research, botanical exploration, and particular areas of study. Guests will have a special opportunity to examine specimens of plants collected by botanists between the late 1700s and the present and to see records of historic plant expeditions that date from the opemng of the American West and the United States's first ventures into world exploration, to recent expeditions to all parts of the globe. This special evening will provide an opportumty to see why these rich collections are so important to researchers around the world in the identification, classification, and study of the evolution and distribution of plants. baria (HUH) will to visit The Combined Herbaria The HUH building houses the combined Arnold Arboretum-Gray herbaria and libraries, the Farlow Herbarium and Library of Cryptogamic Botany, the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium and Library, the Economic Botany Herbarium and Library, and the New England Botanical Club Herbarium and Library. Associated with these collec- rich archival materials documenting the work of past researchers and the history of the collections. With over 4.5 million specimens of plants, the Harvard Herbaria comprise the fifth-largest such collection in the world and the largest university-associated collection of its kind anywhere; their associated libraries contain 224,000 items, constituting one of the world's leading resources for systematic botany. Together, the specimens, books, and historical documents form the foundation of modern botanical research and hold a wealth of information about the whole history of botany. The accompanying article gives details on the various herbaria's and libranes's holdings. The rich accumulation of matenal, particularly the herbarium sheets of pressed and dried plant specimens, document a significant portion of the world's roughly 400,000 kinds of plants and fungi. These collections were begun in 1842 by Asa Gray, the first Fisher Professor of Natural History at Harvard University. In the mid- to late 1800s, Gray received specimens from many governmentand privately-sponsored expeditions to littleknown parts of the expanding West, and to many other parts of the world. He described and identified these plants, accumulating a large number of specimens, now of great scientific and historical interest. Gray's personal herbarium, containing over 200,000 plant specimens, and his collections of botamcal texts were bequeathed to Harvard; they form the basis of the herbaria's rich collections. tions are 36 Connected to the HUH building is the Farlow Reference Library and Herbarium of Cryptogamic Botany. William Gilson Farlow, a one-time assistant to Gray and first professor of cryptogamic botany (the study of lower plants) in North America, appointed in 1874, endowed his personal collections at his death in 1919. His collections contained mosses, fungi, lichens, and algae. The Arnold Arboretum, established in 1872 by its first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, supports a substantial herbarium in addition to its Living Collections. Sargent donated his personal plant collection and library to the Arboretum, but during his years as its director he made every effort to support field expeditions, pnmarily to eastern Asia, where such collectors as E. H. Wilson were strongly encouraged to collect herbarium specimens in addition to living plants and seeds. Sargent's training under Gray helped him to understand the great value an herbarium would have in the Arboretum's pursuit of botanical knowledge. To this day, botanists at the Harvard University Herbaria still travel to distant lands to carry out fieldwork and bnng back thousands of plants specimens and seeds for the herbaria and for the Living Collections of the Arboretum. It is through the integrated use of the herbanum, library, and Living Collections that botanical knowledge will continue to be advanced. Says Peter Stevens, Professor of Biology and Curator of the combined Arnold-Gray Herbaria, \"By studying all the species in one family, how they are classified, how they relate to one another, or, in some cases, do not relate to one another, one begms to understand that correct classification is the basis for all sound evolutionary ideas.\" Only in the herbarium can one study simultaneously all the species of a family, or of a genus. The Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium is the world's largest herbarium devoted to a single plant family. As with so many of the other collections of the HUH, the orchid herbarium owes its existence to the early efforts of a smgle person, in this case, Professor Oakes Ames. An Invitation To Attend then, and follow an \"explorer's On display will be records from the early days of botanical exploration in the American West and in other parts of the world; specimens prepared by Henry David Thoreau in his treks around New England; herbarium specimens collected by Ernest (\"Chinese\") Wilson and Joseph Rock in remote areas of China; early accounts and checks signed by Asa Gray; and material relating to more recent botanical expeditions to distant parts of the earth. Staff members will reveal how plant specimens are prepared, from the time they are collected m the field, through the mounting process, up to the time they are added to the collecCome visit us, map\" through the HUH buildmg. tion and made available for scientific research. Herbaria staff members, faculty, and graduate students will be on hand to describe the plants and documents on display and to convey through slide shows, photographs, and exhibits the kinds of research that are based on these collections. We encourage you to take advantage of this unique behind-thescenes opportumty to visit one of the world's richest botanical treasures and to learn about another aspect of botany at Harvard Univer- sity. Discover what plants are used for food and medicine in other parts of the world. Learn how plants make food, through demonstrations of photosynthesis. Explore the fascinating beauty and biological importance of fern spores through fantastic photographs taken with the scanmng electron microscope. Gather insights on the difficulties that explorers faced in the early American West, and on some of the difficulties they faced in dealing with a famous Harvard professor! 37 Hosts for the Evening The following are some of the staff members who will be present during the open house, of interest and expertise: D Raymond L. Angelo, Curator of the New England Botanical Club (NEBC) Herbarium: Thoreau's botanical contributions and the role of the NEBC Herbarium. and their areas ~ David E. Boufford, Curatorial Taxonomist : current botanical exploration m the People's Republic of China. D Michael A. Canoso, Manager of the Sys- ~ Peter S. Ashton, Professor and Director of the Arnold Arboretum: tropical forests of southeast Asia. 0 Jean R. Boise, Research the Loculoascomycetes. Collections, and Walter T. Kittredge, Curatorial Assistant: organization, function, and workings of a major research herbarium. 0 Zepur Elmayan and Edith Hollender, Preparators: mounting of herbarium specitematic mens. Bibliographer: D Leslie A. Ames Orchid world. Garay, Curator of the Oakes Herbarium, and Herman R. Sweet, Research Associate: orchids of the D Ida Hay, Curatorial Associate, and Emily D Allan J. Bornstein, Postdoctoral Herbarium Intern: the Piperaceae (pepper family). from the Herbanum of the Arnold Arboretum. The sheet on the left is a specimen of Cornus dogwood native to Japan and Korea, that on the nght a specimen of a related species, Cornus flonda, the flowenng dogwood of eastern North Amenca. Visitors at the Herbana open house on May 8th mll be able to discuss such interesting similanties between the eastern Asian and eastern North Amencan floras ~nnth faculty and staff, as well as other botanical topics. Photograph by Joseph Wnnn. Courtesy of The Harvard University Gazette. TWo herbanum sheets a kousa, 38 Wood, Curatorial Assistant: pressing and drying herbarium specimens in the field. ~ Richard A. Howard, Professor and former W. Director of the Arnold Arboretum: West To Attend Indian floras and bean. exploration in the Carib- Friends of the Arboretum will find free parking in the Andover lot, which is located behind the HUH building. They should enter from Oxford Street. (See the accompanying 0 Hsiu-Ying Hu, Botanist: food and medicinal plants of China. ~ Geraldine C. Kaye, Librarian: fungi and other cryptogams in the Farlow Herbarium. ~ David C. Michener, Research Taxonomist and Curatorial Administrator: the Wood Laboratory; sectioning wood for microscopic map.)\/ Complimentary hors d'oeuvres will be served. study. ~ Donald H. Pfister, Professor, Curator of the Farlow Library and Herbarium, and Director of the Harvard University Herbaria: Discomycetes, early mycological literature. 0 Bernice G. Schubert, Lecturer and Curator: Dioscorea (the yam) and Desmodium (beggar's ticks; legume family). ~ Elizabeth A. Shaw, Bibliographer and Research Taxonomist: botanical in the exploration early American West. ~ Otto T. Solbrig, Mangelsdorf Professor of Natural Science and past Director of the Gray Herbarium: photosynthesis. ~ Stephen A. Taxonomist: the of China. Spongberg, Horticultural early botanical exploration ~ Peter F. Stevens, Professor and Curator, and Barbara A. Callahan, Librarian: the development of systematic botany as displayed through botanical illustrations. ~ Rolla M. 'Ilyon, Jr., Professor and Curator, and Alice F. Tryon, Associate Curator: the world of ferns and fern spores, scanning electron micrographs. A. El Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Professor and Curator, and Ihsan AI-Shehbaz, Research Associate: the flora of the southeastern United States. Caroline J. Swartz is membership coordmator of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. A graduate of Connecticut College, she has a special interest in Chinese language and culture. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A + AAH + AMES + ICON + EH + GH + NEBC = \"HUH\": Systematic Botany at Harvard","article_sequence":7,"start_page":39,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24886","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eb326.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"A+AAH+AMES+ECON+FH+GH+NEBC= \"HUH\": Systematic Botany at Harvard Harvard's diverse herbaria and their associated libraries make up world's greatest centers for research in systematic botany The rich and diverse botanical collections housed in the Harvard University Herbaria building at 22 Divinity Avenue and in the adjacent Farlow Herbarium are worldrenowned. Botanists working at the cutting edge of plant systematics converge from around the world to consult specimens of vascular plants, mosses, liverworts, algae, fungi, and lichens maintained in Harvard's half-dozen specialized herbaria. Designated \"HUH\" among systematic botanists at Harvard, the combined Harvard University Herbaria consist of the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum (designated \"A\"), the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium (\"AMES\"), the Economic Herbarium of Oakes Ames (\"ECON\"), (, the Gray Herbarium (\"GH\"), the Farlow Herbarium of Cryptogamic Botany (\"FH\") (actually housed in an adjacent, connected building), the Gray Herbarium (\"GH\"), and the Herbarium of the New England Botamcal Club (\"NEBC\"~. The Libraries. one of the Comparable in depth and comprehensiveness to the collections of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Komarov Botanical Institute, Leningrad, the combined libraries of the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium, the Farlow Herbarium, the Economic Botany Herbarium, and the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium are particularly rich in early botanical literature. These collections greatly facilitate research in systematic and evolutionary botany. All have grown from the research collections of their founder-scientists. This fact is easily sensed when one uses a volume that was originally owned and annotated by Charles Sprague Sargent, Oakes Ames, William Gilson Farlow, or Asa Gray. The Arnold Arboretum's library now has 90,000 books and pamphlets and some 11,000 microforms, the Gray library over 62,000 books and pamphlets and an archive collection of many thousands of items. Together, the archives of the two institutions are basic source material critical to the study of the development of evolutionary philosophy and the plant sciences in North America. ~ The Arnold Arboretum Herbarium (A). The Arnold Arboretum Herbarium was established by Charles Sprague Sargent in 1879, when he resigned his directorship of the Harvard Botanic Garden in order to devote full time to the Arboretum. It contains important collections from all over the globe and complements the Gray Herbarium (see below), inasmuch as it is especially rich in materials from eastern Asia, particularly China, the Philippines, western Malesia, and Papuasia. The large and important contributions of E. H. Wilson, J. F. Rock, G. Forest, over Harvard University , Building The Herbaria (HUH) The Harvard University Herbaria building, completed in 1954, is located at the end of Divinity Avenue in Cambridge, in the center of the Harvard complex devoted to the natural sciences. It houses the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium, the herbarium and library of the Gray Herbarium (formerly maintained at the \"old Gray\" on the Botanic Garden site on Garden Street), part of the library and herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, and, since 1985, the Economic Botany Herbarium. The library and herbarium of the New England Botanical Club are also located in the building. 40 and the New Guinea collections of L. J. Brass are prominent among the Arboretum's 1,154,000 specimens housed in Cambridge. Its herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain ( \"AAH\"~ includes over 174,200 sheets and is the largest collection of its kind in the world. To supplement its herbarium collections, the Arboretum maintains an extensive vouchered wood collection of some 30,000 specimens and 45,000 prepared microscope slides of wood, pollen, seeds, etc., and an important fruit and seed collection. ~ The Orchid Herbarium of Oakes Ames (AMES). The Orchid Herbarium of Oakes Ames was founded in 1899 by Professor Oakes Ames, the Harvard Botanical Museum's second director. It is the largest herbarium in the world devoted to a single family. Originally a private institution, it was intended to be a working tool to facilitate the identification of orchid species and the preparation of orchid floras. In developing his herbarium, Ames emphasized from the very beginning the accumulation of scientific information in every conceivable manner, rather than solely the storing of dried specimens. Consequently, the collection of nearly 130,000 sheets is very rich not only in type specimens, but also in records and transcripts of holotypes from institutions located throughout the world. There are also a spint collection of 3,000 plants and flowers and 25,000 slides of dissected orchid flowers. Its specimens, drawings of floral details, color plates, paintings, and descriptions make AMES a umque and indispensable tool in taxonomy. In 1939, Ames formally presented his Orchid Herbarium, together with his orchid library, which now consists of 5,000 books and pamphlets, to the Botanical Museum. In 1957, all of the orchid specimens of the Gray Herbarium and of the Arnold Arboretum's herbarium were integrated with those of AMES for an indefinite duration. Housed in the Herbaria building, AMES some 10,000 type specimens or type collections of species. One of its unique holdings is a set of life-size drawings of types, together with drawings of floral details of types of orchids described by Rudolf Schlechter, which were prepared under his personal supervision. The actual type specimens from which these were made were destroyed in Berlin during World War II. AMES is exceptionally complete in material from the Philippines, Malesia, Mexico, Central America, South America, and China. ~ The Economic Herbarium (ECON). The Economic Herbarium of Oakes Ames, housed until recently in the Botanical Museum, consists of 45,000 specimens of economically important plants, especially from South America, and includes extensive collections of such genera as Zea (maize), Hevea (rubber), and Cinchona (quinine). O The Farlow Library and Herbarium (FH). The Farlow Reference Library and Herbarium of Cryptogamic Botany is housed in the former Divinity School Library, built in 1886; it is connected to the HUH building on the west and the Biological Laboratories on the east. Stemming from the extensive herbarium and library of William Gilson Farlow, who joined the Harvard faculty in 1874 and endowed the collections at his death in 1919, the herbarium now includes 1,125,000 accessions of bryophytes, fungi, lichens, and algae; the library has holdings of over 60,000 items. Included within the collections are the M. A. Curtis collection of fungi and William Starling Sullivant's herbarium of mosses, both of which Farlow brought to Harvard. The nearly quarter of a million specimens of types and authentic specimens m FH indicate the richness and importance of the collection for systematic and evolutionary studies. 0 The Gray Herbarium (GH). The collections of the Gray Herbarium date from 1842, when Asa Gray was appointed Director of the Harvard Botanic Garden and Fisher Pro- contains 41 preserved specimens of manne algae from the Farlow Herbanum On the left is Padrna pavonica, a brown alga m warm manne waters worldHnde On the nght is Heterosiphonia coccmea, a yellow-green, or yellowgolden, manne alga. These are only two of the one and a quarter milhon specimens of mosses, algae, fungi, and hchens m the Farlow's world-renowned collections. Courtesy Farlow Library and Herbanum. Two that hves fessor of Natural History. Although systematic botanical studies were initiated in 1807, when the Botanic Garden was established by W. D. Peck, the Herbarium was established by Asa Gray and grew steadily because of his research and that of his colleagues and successors. Today, the Gray Herbarium numbers 1,823,300 specimens. The collections of the early explorers are promment. Worldwide in scope, GH is especially rich in North American materials and mcludes early collections from western North America and Mexico and the types and collections of Gray, Sereno Watson, B. L. Robinson, and M. L. Fernald. ~ Herbarium of the New England Botanical Club (NEBC). The 250,000 specimens in the Herbarium of the New England Botanical Club were collected totally within New England by knowledgeable amateurs, Harvard professors, and others. Serving to document the flora of the region, its specimens are also a rich resource for research on rare and endangered species. In concentrating on such a small area, NEBC makes it possible to study genetic variability from one population of a species to another. The Botanical Museum in 1888 when the University named Professor George Lincoln Goodale its first director, the collections of the Botanical Museum dated from 1858, when Asa Gray began to assemble a collection of \"vegetable products, etc.\" that were augmented by plant materials of economic importance sent to him by his friend, William Jackson Hooker. The Economic Herbarium (ECON) is now housed in the HUH building (see above). The Botanical Museum's library has a notable collection of some 32,000 titles that has grown largely from the research collections of Oakes Ames and George Lincoln Goodale. Although officially founded "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botany, The State of the Art: Listening to Thirsty Plants","article_sequence":8,"start_page":42,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24889","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ebb28.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART Listening to Thirsty Plants John The W Einset ingenious application of acoustic devices enables botanists to study the water economy of woody plants Zimmermann, the late Charles Bullard Professor at Harvard University and Director of the Harvard Forest from 1970 to 1984, was a recognized expert on the water economy of plants, especially trees. Among his many contributions to science was the introduction of the term hydraulic architecture, a term that describes the way in which plants use their structures to regulate water flow. In fact, a major goal of Professor Zimmermann's research involved detailed descriptions of hydraulic architecture in plants, a task he approached with mgenuity, often using techniques he had developed himself. As so often happens in scientific research, one of the best ways of understanding a process is to study what happens when it is disrupted. For example, if one is interested in how water moves through a plant, one can ask what happens when water is no longer supplied. The immediate consequence, of course, is that the overall water content of the plant begins to decrease as a result of continued evaporation (transpiration) from leaves in the absence of a corresponding uptake of water by its roots. As further drying occurs, the pores (stomates) on leaves usually close, thus minimizing additional water loss. Then the stem begms to contract under the tension caused by the evaporation of Martin H. from within it. Eventually, dehydration of the stem results in cavitation within water individual vessels (water-conducting \"pipelines\") of the xylem as air bubbles replace water. At this stage, flow within the plant ceases because cavitated vessels can no longer transport water. Some plants, in fact, are damaged beyond recovery by cavitation since they are incapable of refilling air-plugged xylem even when water again becomes plentiful. Sabotage by Bubbles of Air According to a widely held theory, elaborated in large part by Martin Zimmermann, cavitation is initiated when a tiny bubble of air penetrates a water-containing xylem vessel from an adjacent, dry vessel element-a process known as air seeding. Negative hydrostatic pressure within the vessel then causes the bubble to expand quickly and fill the contents of the cell. While the air-seeding hypothesis has not been proven conclusively, it is generally considered to be the best current explanation for cavitation. At the very least, Zimmermann's theory focusses interest on this important phenomenon and stimulates research that could lead to new technology. If cavitation can be better understood, perhaps it can be avoided by breeding plants 43 Dr Marun H Zimmermann, the late Director of the Harvard Forest Regula Zimmermann Courtesy of the Harvard Forest m Petersham, Massachusetts. Photograph by effective mechanisms for preventing it. Or, improved procedures might be developed to reverse cavitation once it has occurred. If the crucial event that sparks cavitation actually is the appearance of an air bubble, the obvious strategy for stopping cavitation is to prevent air from moving between cells. In plants suffering a moderate degree of water stress, this normally is accomplished by the cellulosic cell walls between adjacent elewith more illustration of the principle involved can be obtained by trying to plunge a fresh tea bag directly mto hot water. The low permeability of the wet, cellulosic paper causes the tea bag initially to float on the surface of the water until air has diffused out of the bag. The same phenomenon is exploited in life-saving when a shirt or pillow case is used to improvise an emergency flotation device. In these cases, wet fabric impedes the diffusion of the entrapped air. ments. An 44 The relative permeability to air, of a plant cell wall or of any other wet barrier for that matter, can be calculated from physical laws based on the size of the pores it contains: the smaller the pore size, the greater the pressure difference required to push air through it. Given an average pore diameter of about 0.2 micrometer (approximately one ten millionth of an inch) in plant cell walls, the pressure differential necessary for air to move from one cell to another is about 10 to 1. In other words, one can expect air seeding to occur in trees as soon as vessel tensions reach values of minus 10 atmospheres and less. Acoustic Emission: The Sound of Cavitation Using microscopic techniques coupled with cinematography, Ann M. Lewis (a student at the Harvard Forest) has determined that the lapse of time from the first appearance of an air bubble in a vessel until the end of the cavitation event is less than 1\/124 second. The rapidity of this process probably accounts for one of the most important aspects of cavitation-namely, the production of a weak but detectable noise as vessel walls vibrate in response to the air bubble's explosive expansion. Studies of the \"acoustic emissions\" (AEs) cavitations have recently become an especially active area for scientific investigation. At the University of Toronto in Canada, for example, Professor Melvm Tyree has adapted the sensitive acoustic devices used in mechanical engineering to the study of AEs in white cedar ~Thuja occidentalis) and hemlock (Tsuga accompanying canadensis) detector trees. Tyree clamps a noise the stem of a tree and then monitors AEs as the tree becomes more and more dehydrated. Each signal the detector picks up is processed with the aid of a computer, which analyzes harmonic frequency, duration, and intensity. By doing this, Tyree can exclude interfering signals caused by onto A scanning electron microscope picture, highly magnified, of poplar (Populus grandidentataJ wood showing the three-dimensional structure of xylem tissue and individual vessels (the large columnar cells with conspicuous pores on their lateral walls) making up the wa ter- transporting system Courtesyof Spnnger-Uerlag. (i.e., noncavitation) noises. sophisticated instrumentation has already made it possible to prove that individual AEs correspond to single cavitations occurring in the wood of trees; thus, a small (4-mm-diameter, 10-mm-length) block of hemlock wood, for example, contains about one million tracheids (tracheids, rather than vessel elements, are the water-conducting cells of gymnosperms) and produces approximately that number of AEs upon complete dehydration. The technology also makes it possible to measure the potential of different extraneous This water-transporting systems cavitation. This can to recover from be accomplished by 45 AEs during the dehydration of a sample, then rewetting the sample to its maximum extent and determining the total number of AEs obtained during a second dehydration treatment. Presumably, the dif- monitoring wood and thus \"diffuse-porous\" trees such as maples. Practical Applications ference in AE totals is the number of cells that cavitated beyond recovery during the initial dehydration. Alternatively, AE technolgy can be used to determine the types of cells that are most prone to cavitation, inasmuch as the harmonic frequency of an AE is apparently related to a cell's dimensions. Evidence to date confirms Zimmermann's theory that large vessels, and thus \"ringporous\" trees such as oaks and elms, are more likely to cavitate than small vessels, Of course, the greatest value of listening to thirsty plants ultimately will be improved understanding of water flow and the mechanisms by which plants prevent damage associated with dehydration. When one considers that water utilization is one of the major factors determming plant growth and survival as well as plant distribution in the environment, it is easy to appreciate how even small advances in scientific knowledge about the water economy of plants can have profound practical consequences. ture Martin Zimmermann's book Xylem Strucand the Ascent of Sap was dedicated to the memory of Godfrey Lowell Cabot, who in 1937 established the Maria Moors Cabot Foundation for Botanical Research at Harvard University. In the dedication of the book, Professor Zimmermann describes his first meeting with Cabot in the mid-1950s, an occasion that he took advantage of to explain his latest scientific findings in great detail: When I had fimshed, he surprised me with the sudden question, \"How can you improve the growth of trees?\" This caught me completely unprepared, because I had never thought about practical applications. After what seemed to me a rather painful silence I ventured that it would be useful to learn more about how trees function and grow. He seemed to be quite satisfied with this answer. Little did I guess that trees would be holding me under their spell for so many years! M H Zimmermann's cavitation diagram of the stages mvolved m by air seeding Each panel indicates the status of an air-filled vessel or tracheid (outside) and an adjacent vessel or tracheid (inside) undergoing camtation A through C show the effect of progressively negatme xylem pressures m causing air movement through a small pore m the cell wall. In D, an am bubble has appeared within the water-containing cell, while E and F indicate the explosive expansion of this bubble that results m cavitation and, sigmficantly, m the acoustic emission. Courtesy of Spnnger- Verlag, John W. Emset, associate professor of biology in Harvard University, directs the Arnold Arboretum's Laboratory of Comparative Physiology. In May, he will teach \"Tissue-Culture Propagation Methods' An Introduction to a New Branch of Plant Science,\" a special class limited to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":9,"start_page":46,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24887","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eb36b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS The Butterfly Garden, by Mathew Tekulsky. Harvard and Boston, Massachusetts: The Harvard Common Press, 1985. vi + 144 pages. $8.95 (paper), $16.95 ~cloth~. How To Attract Butterflies to Your Garden, by Nick Rossi. Saddle River, New Jersey: The Butterfly Garden, undated. 16 pages. $14.95 (paper). [Part of the \"Home Garden Butterfly Kit,\"which includes also ten packets of seeds.]] ~ t ~~ butterfly garthat( 1 ) butterflies come from caterpillars, (2) most caterpillars are quite particular about what species of plants they will feed upon, and (3) female butterflies will seek out the nght species of plants on which to lay their eggs, ensuring thereby that the caterpillars will have food. Good butterfly gardens provide sacrificial food plants for the caterpillars as well as flowering plants for the adults. How To Attract Butterflies to Your Garden, by to The trick successful dening, it seems, is to realize Butterflies East of the Great Plains: An Illustrated Natural History, by Paul A. Opler and George O. Krizek. Baltimore and London: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1984. 294 pages; 324 color photographs. $49.50. DAVID C. MICHENER Nick Rossi, does issue. not address this central Instead, $14.95 gets you ten packets of seeds (an $8.90 value at my local hardware store) and a sixteen-page booklet that is long on enthusiasm for butterflies but short on information about plants and gardening. The three sections on attracting adult butterflies account for only thirty-three lines of text. I recommend that you buy your own seeds after spending $8.95 on Mathew Tekulsky's The Butterfly Garden. Here is a straightforward and well organized introductory book. It has already helped me understand what makes a garden \"work\" from the perspective of a butterfly. Tekulsky's fourth chapter, \"Getting Started,\" cuts to the core of the issue-the need to get the butterfly's entire life cycle to occur on fifteen years I have been striving to wooded city lot into a haven for butterflies, birds, and salamanders. Fifty dumptruck loads of wood chips, untold bags of leaves, numerous rotting logs, and a rerouting of the storm drains have delighted the salamanders, extirpated whatever remained of the rear lawn, and started the final phase of controlling the already successful \"butterfly meadow.\" I confess that I didn't know a thing about butterflies before starting; everything I learned I learned by making mistakes. But there is an easier way. If you are interested in butterfly gardening, preferably without making the kinds of mistakes I did and without needing fifty loads of wood chips, you might consider reading a book. There are three possibilities that I know of, and a fourth on its way. For over turn a in your garden. Subsequent chapters, larval food plants and nectar sources, and the various appendixes form the \"gardening\" core of the book. Here are lists of plants to use, notes on how to attract the fifty mostcommon species of butterfly in North America, nursery and seed sources of the plants, and the addresses of both butterflyfancier and gardening organizations. 47 Butterfly Garden is intended for by gardeners throughout continental North America, much of the region-specific Since The use information has to be extracted from the text and appendixes; but the information is there. I found the author's familiarity with Californian butterflies and plants helpful in illustrating several points, though the specifics always germane to butterfly gardening England. Chapters on butthe rearing of butterflies, and terfly biology, were not garden dictionary to find out about the plants. Butterflies East of the Great Plains is the only tome I know of that provides the essential information on the butterflies of a given area, listing their critical food and nectar plants. If I have any qualms about recommending this book to the reader, it is that the binding may not be up to the long-term use the book will receive. All three of the titles reviewed here will be available for inspection at the \"Sky Gardening\" symposium scheduled for May 31st. Among the attractions of the symposium will be an annotated list of the butterflies native to eastern Massachusetts and their larvae's food plants. The complete program for the symposium is given on page 48. David C. Michener, a research taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum, is responsible for the Living Collections in New conservation round the book out. If you are thinking about attracting butterflies to your garden, start with this book and then use your imagination. Compulsive butterfly gardeners (mea culpa)( will pay the small ransom needed to purchase Butterflies East of the Great Plains, whereas others may prefer to wine and dine their local librarians until the book is purchased. Butterflies East of the Great Plains is a stunning tour de force and is destined to be the classic reference for decades to come. Every species of butterfly known to occur or to stray into the eastern United States is presented. (Canada is excluded.) The text is accented by 324 color photographs of the butterflies in nature. For every butterfly species, the etymology of the Latin name, the geographic range (usually shown through exquisite maps), the habitat, the life history, and the adult and larval food plants are presented and discussed. The last subjects are a gold mine for butterfly gardeners. Enjoyable hours can be spent scanning the maps for your home area and then reading the text to find out what plants you will need to attract the flying lovelies. If the illustrations make you realize that you simply cannot live without pipe vine swallowtails gracing your yard, the text will inform you that you must have Aristolochia in the garden, while the range maps tell you whether the species lives in your area. If the plant material is sometimes unfamiliar to you (both Latin and common names are Verification Project. Before commg to the Arboretum he was a graduate student in botany at the Rancho Santa Ana Botamc Garden in Claremont, California. He has long been interested in gardemng for birds and butterflies. On May 31st, he will speak at \"Sky Gardening: A Symposmm on Butterflies, Birds, and the Horticultural Habitat.\" For details about the symposium, see the current issue of Arnoldia's \"New England Horticultural Calendar.\" provided), use any good From The Butterfly Garden. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23270","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160af27.jpg","title":"1986-46-2","volume":46,"issue_number":2,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Chinese Species of Camellia in Cultivation","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24885","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eaf6d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":" The Chinese Species of Camellia in Cultivation Bruce Bartholomew Though new camellias have been introduced to the West from China for 250 years, only a quarter of the known species are yet cultivated here Chma is the origin of many cultivated plants that now are grown throughout the world. Some of them, such as the peonies, chrysanthemum, wintersweet, and osmanthus, traditionally were grown in Chinese gardens. In most cases these Chinese garden plants started being brought into cultivation in the West in the Eighteenth Century, and the earliest introductions of live plants from China were mostly restricted to garden plants. Another and far-richer source of cultivated plants has been the indigenous flora of China, particularly of the mountains of southwestern China. These wild plants were brought mto cultivation from the late Nineteenth Century through to the present, after Western collectors and, more recently, Chinese collectors, started exploring the riches of the Chinese flora. The genus Camellia includes species in both of these categories; thus, the history of the introduction of Camellia species into Western gardens spans the period from the first half of the Eighteenth Century up to the present. Even with this long history, only about one in four of the currently recognized species is in cultivation in the West, or even in Chinese botanical gardens. Opposite~ Camellia euryoides as depicted m Loddiges's Botanical Cabinet m 1832 This small, white-flowered camelha was unknown m the mld for over a century after it was descnbed from cultmated matenal. Camellia is basically a Chinese genus, some nine out of ten of its species being endemic to China. Its main center of species diversity straddles the Tropic of Cancer across southern China. Diversity drops rapidly to the south and more gradually to the north. Although most of its species are continental, the genus extends to the islands of Japan, Taiwan, and Hainan, one species, Camellia lanceolata, reaching the Philippines and Indonesia. The genus as a whole has primarily a subtropical and warm-temperate distribution, and even the most northerly species have only a moderate degree of frost hardiness. As a result, camellias as garden plants are restricted to areas with relatively mild climates ; m areas with more severe climates, plants must be grown in greenhouses during the winter. As horticultural plants, the most important species are the more temperate ones in the genus, with C. japonica being by far the most prominent. In fact, if one mentions camellias, the image that comes to mind for most people is this species. Camellia japonica Camellia japonica was the first species to be brought into cultivation m the West, and although it was described on the basis of 4 material from Japan, probably all the early introductions during the late Eighteenth Century and early Nineteenth Century were from China. Linnaeus named the species in 1753 on the basis of the illustration and description in Engelbert Kaempfer's Amoenitatum Exoticarum Politico-Physico-Medicarum, published in 1712. Kaempfer's work was the result of a visit to Japan from 1690 to 1692, when he was employed as a doctor by the Dutch East-India Company. The earliest illustration of C. japonica in the West was by the English apothecary James Petiver, who published a description and illustration of this species in his Gazophylacii Naturae eJ Artis in 1701 based on a collection sent back to England from China by James Cunningham. Cunningham's collections were among the earliest specimens of Chinese plants available to Western botanists. Cunningham collected his specimens when he was a physician in the service of the English East-India Company, which had established a trading post, or factory, as they were then called, on Zhushan (Chushan) Island, opposite the city of Ningpo. Although the post lasted only a few years, Cunningham collected plants representing about 600 species, which he sent back as herbarium specimens to James Petiver and Leonard Plukenet. Among them were specimens of Camellia japonica and C. sinensis, as well as of C. fraterna, although the last specimen was not determined until the 1950s. The Petiver and Plukenet collections were later purchased by Sir Hans Sloane, and Sloane's collection became the foundation of the British Museum (Natural History). Neither Cunningham nor Kaempfer was responsible for bringing C. japonica into cultivation in the West, and although this species is a conspicuous element in the forests of southern Japan, the earliest introductions were all from Chinese gardens. The first plant for which we have any historical record was one grown by James Lord Petre at least as early as 1739. This plant was the model for the first color illustration of a Camellia in the West, which was used as a prop for an illustration of a Chmese pheasant published by George Edwards in 1745. The origin of Lord Petre's plant is not known, although it is obviously a cultivar of C. japonica and must have been brought back from China by one of the ship captains of the English East- India Company. Lord Petre died of smallpox at the age of 29 in 1742, but many of his plants were taken over by his gardener, Philip Miller, who was in charge of the Chelsea Physic Garden, and it is quite likely that his C. japonica was among them. During the second half of the Eighteenth Century, C. japonica was grown in England, but its popularity can be traced to the importation of several specific cultivars from China in the late Eighteenth Century. During this period the British were rapidly expanding their trade m southern China, and ship captains were encouraged by wealthy British horticulturists to bring back plants for their gardens. Two C. japonica cultivars, 'Alba Plena' and 'Variegata', are of particular note. They were brought back to England m 1792 by Captain Connor of the East-India Merchantman Carnatic, and were illustrated in Andrews's Botanical Repository in 1792. The great enthusiasm for growing C. japonica from the end of the Eighteenth Century through most of the Nineteenth Century can really be dated from the importation of these two cultivars. Over the next few decades there was a great flurry of interest in this species, as can be seen from the sumptuously illustrated books and hand-colored plates in periodicals of the early Nineteenth Century. Between 1792 and 1830, at least twenty-three cultivars of C. japonica had been introduced from Asia, most if not all of them from China. Subsequently, a great many new cultivars have been named from seedlings grown 5 in the West, as well as from later introductions from Asia. At present, there are several thousand named cultivars of C. 7apomca, with many more being named every year. Camellia sinensis The second species to be brought into cultivation in the West was C. sinensis. This species was known to be the source of tea that had been imported to England and Europe smce the Seventeenth Century. Live plants of C. sinensis may have been cultivated in England as early as 1740 by Captain Geoff, who was a director of the East-India Company and brought plants back as a gift for his wife. However, it appears that these plants died, and therefore that the first person to cultivate plants of this species in Europe successfully was Linnaeus. Linnaeus was familiar with the tea plant from the publications of Siebold, and it was on the basis of Siebold's published description of the tea plant, and the accompanying illustration, that Linnaeus named the genus Thea in 1735 and the species T sinensis in 1753. However, it is quite certam that when Linnaeus named this species he had not yet Two renditions of Camellia sasanqua from Curtis's Botamcal Magazine (1859 and 1940, respectively) The plant m the left-hand drawmg is called \"Camellia sasanqua var. anemomflora,\" the anemone-flowered vanety. 6 seen a living plant or even a dried specimen of it. Thea is no longer recognized as a separate genus, and the species T sinensis has been transferred to the genus Camellia. By the middle of the Eighteenth Century, tea was already an important import from Asia, and there was considerable interest in obtaining living plants of Thea sinensis. Although Sweden did not have as significant a role in the commerce with eastern Asia as did England, Portugal, or the Netherlands, there was still a Swedish East Asia Trading Company, and it was through the efforts of the Swedish captain Carolus Gustavus Eckerberg that Linnaeus was able to obtain live plants. The seeds were obtained in China and were planted in pots shortly after Eckerberg set sail for Europe. Live plants were presented to Linnaeus on October 3, 1763. Although C. sinensis is the only species of any major economic importance in the genus, it has never received much attention as a garden plant. Camellia sasanqua and C. oleifera The first two species of Camellia to be described were also the first two to be brought into cultivation, but this pattern did not always continue with subsequent species. The third species to be formally named according to the binomial system of Linnaeus was C. sasanqua. It was named by Thunberg, one of Linnaeus's students who made major collections in both Japan and South Africa. Although it is a Japanese species and thus beyond the scope of this article, C. sasanqua must be mentioned because it has been confused with several subsequently described and introduced Chinese species. C. sasanqua had been known by earlier travellers to Japan, as it was mentioned by Siebold, but unlike C. japonica and C. sinensis, this third species was not named by Linnaeus. C. sasanqua remained somewhat of an enigma up until the latter half of the Nineteenth Century. The illustration in Thunberg's 1784 Flora japonica is rather cursorily drawn, and although there is a specimen of it in Thunberg's herbarium, both botanists and horticulturists repeatedly confused C. sasanqua with other species from the mainland of Asia. It was not until after Japan had opened its doors to Western contact that live plants of C. sasanqua were grown in the West, in the second half of the 19th century. Japan was quite effective m insulating herself from contact with the West, except for limited trading contact through the port of Nagasaki. China was not as successful. The I Camellia oleifera (Edwards's Botanical Register, 1826). 7 Portuguese were the first major European traders to deal directly with Chma, and their tradmg port of Macau dated from 1557. In 1790, a Portuguese, Joannis de Loureiro, published a very important, although somewhat sketchy, account of the plants of southern China and of what is now Vietnam. Among the plants he described were four Camellia species. Most of these have turned out be variations of C. sinensis. Some of Loureiro's specimens were sent to Sweden and ended up in the British Museum, and others remained in Lisbon and have disappeared, except for those which were stolen by Napoleon's army and are now in the Natural History Museum Camellia mahflora (Curtis's Botamcal Magazine, 1819) in Paris. Unfortunately, C. drupifera is not among the specimens that are extant. Loureiro's description of this species is incomplete, and confusion over its identity has led various botanists to apply the name to what are m reality various other species. Because of this confusion and the lack of an extant Loureiro specimen, the name now used for what may well be Loureiro's C. drupifera is C. oleifera. The name Camellia oleifera was first used by Clarke Abel for a plant that he found when he accompanied Lord Amherst's embassy to the Chinese Court. Essentially all earlier botanical collections from China were from coastal areas, and it was fortunate that the Amherst embassy had a naturalist along during its trek across eastern China. Camellla oleifera is one of the most common species in China, largely because it is used as an oil corp, a fact implied by the specific epithet, which means \"oil-bearing.\" This species was first brought into cultivation m 1803, fourteen years before Abel described it. A double form of C. oleifera was sent back to England by William Kerr, who was a plant collector for Kew in Canton. The plant brought back to England as C. sasanqua was named 'Lady Banks's Camellia' and was listed in the second edition of Aiton's Hortus Kewensis. Smgle forms of this species were subsequently brought back to England and can be seen in early Nineteenth Century publications on camellias. Camellia maliflora The next Chinese camellia mtroduced to the West was C. maliflora, which is a doubleflowered Camellia brought back from China by Captain Richard Rawes for Thomas Carey Palmer. This Camellia was illustrated in 1819 in Curtis's Botamcal Magazme as C. sasanqua 'Palmer's Double', but in 1827 John Lindley recognized it as a distinct species and 8 named it C. maliflora. This species has small, double, pink flowers that measure only about 4 centimeters (1.5 inches) in diameter. The species has never been found in the wild, even as a simple-flowered form, and it is quite likely that it is in reality a hybrid species. Aside from C. japonica, probably the most important species to horticulture described during the 19th century was C. reticulata, although its horticultural potential was not fully realized until over a century later. The history of this species's introduction to the West is quite different from that of C. japonica, and the impact of C. reticulata on the cultivated camellias in the West is still at a rapid stage of development. One of the main virtues of this species is its large flowers, with the flowers of some cultivars such as Camellia reticulata (Edwards's Botamcal Register, 1827). 'Dali Cha' having a diameter of 22 centimeters (8.7 inches). Introduction of Camellia reticulata into Western Gardens Because of the rather interesting history associated with this species and my own involvement in the recent developments concerning introduction of cultivars from China, I would like to give a more detailed account of facts surrounding its introduction into Western gardens. Camellia reticulata was described by Lindley in 1827 on the basis of a cultivated plant intoduced to England in 1824 by J. D. Parks and given the English name 'Captain Rawes's Camellia', in honor of the ship's captain who brought what was apparently the same cultivar from China in 1820 for Thomas Carey Palmer. Lindley expressed concern that this camellia was sterile and questioned whether it deserved designation as a species, but the plant was obviously different from any previously known camellia. The reason for the sterility of this cultivar is that it is a triploid, although all later material of this species has been shown to be hexaploid. The exact origin of the \"Captain Rawes's Camellia\" is uncertain but it must have been obtained as a potted plant in either Macau or Guangzhou (Canton). A second cultivar of the same species was brought back from China by Robert Fortune, probably during his second expedition to China, between 1848 and 1851, when he was collecting plants in China for the nursery of Standish and Noble. This cultivar was named \"Flore Pleno\" by Lindley in 1857, but the cultivar name usually given to this camellia in England is \"Robert Fortune\". We now know this cultivar to be the one grown in Yunnan as'Songzilin; or \"pine cone scale.\" Throughout the Nineteenth Century, C. reticulata was known in the West only by 9 these two cultivars. It was not until the 1930s that Otto Stapf, an Austrian botanist at Kew, recognized some of the plants grown from seeds collected by the Scottish collector George Forrest as wild forms of C. reticulata. Forrest's collections were made near the town of Tongchong (formerly known as Tungyueh), near the Burmese border of Yunnan Province. Tongchong was the base of operations for Forrest during his various expeditions to China and also the customs station for commerce between Burma and China. In addition to collecting herbarium specimens, Forrest sent seeds back to Great Britain, where plants were grown by J. C. Williams of Caerhays Castle, Cornwall. In 1935 Robert Sealy, who took over Stapf's work on camellias when Stapf died in 1933, published the first illustration of the simple-flowered C. reticulata grown from Forrest's seeds. The next stage in the introduction of C. reticulata mto Western gardens can be traced to a 1938 article by the Chinese plant taxonomist, H. H. Hu, published m the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. Professor Hu presented a paper on the horticultural resources of China in which he mentioned that Kunming was a center of camellia cultivation and that some seventy cultivars of outstandmg value were grown there. Although Hu does not give the source of his information, it seems certain that his information was from a 1930 publication in Chinese by the scholar Fang Shu-mei. In Fang's pubhcation, Tiannan Chahua Xiaozhi, seventy camellia cultivar names are listed, although only a fraction of these names can be allocated to C. reticulata. It is surprising that none of the Western plant collectors who passed through Kunming from the late Nineteenth Century through the middle of the Twentieth Century mention these magnificent cultivated camellias. Cultivars of Camellia reticulata The first detailed information on the Kunming C. reticulata cultmars was m an article presented by T. T. Yu at the 1950 magnolias and camellias conference in England. Professor Yu had been working at the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology's botanical research station in Kunmmg during the late 1930s and early 1940s. One of his interests at the time was the cultivated camellias of Kunming. In the Kunming area many large trees of C. reticulata grow in the courtyards of temples such as those in Xishan and in Heilongtan. The latter of these is in fact right next to the research institute where Professor Yu was Camellia euryoides (Edwards's Botarucal Register, 1826). See page 12. 10 working. In addition, Professor Yu had available to him the extensive camellia collection made by Mr. Liu, a wealthy merchant and camellia fancier. Professor Yu was able to identify eighteen cultivars of C. reticulata and four cultivars of C. japonica being grown in the Kunming area, and it is about these cultivars that he reported in his 1950 article. The discrepancy between the seventy cultivars listed by Fang and the eighteen described by Yii can be attributed to the difference in approach of the two authors. Fang was not a botanist but a traditional Chinese scholar, and he based his list only in part on his own observations and drew liberally from the Chinese horticultural literature dating back to the Ming Dynasty. Most of these older names were cultivars of C. japonica and were not even from Yunnan. Professor Yu, on the other hand, was trained as a botanist and based his work on actual observations. After World War II, Professor Yu went to the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, where he worked on the eastern Himalayan species of Cotoneaster, and it was at the end of his stay at Edinburgh that he presented his paper on the Kunming camellias. He had also written a longer treatise on the subject that he hoped to get published in the West. When Professor Yu returned to China in 1950 the manuscript was in the possession of Robert O. Rubel of Mobile, Alabama, who operated a camellia nursery and who had been in correspondence with Mr. Liu in Kunming and, through this contact, with T. T. Yu. When Yu was in Edinburgh he sent his manuscript to Rubel, who planned to publish it. However, Yu returned to China in late 1950 before the publication was complete, and Rubel lost contact with him. In 1964 Frank Griffin published a photolithograph copy of the original typed manuscript, complete with handwritten corrections. It was with great pleasure that in 1980 I was able to present Professor Yu with a copy of this publication, which he did not have. In the late 1940s two American camellia growers, Walter Lammerts and Ralph Peer, independently tried to obtain plants of the Kunming C. reticulata cultivars. Through their efforts, what at the time were believed to be nineteen cultivars were obtained from Kunming. Several of these cultivars were subsequently lost, and some of the cultivars were mislabeled, so it appears that only fourteen cultivars were m fact successfully introduced to the West. These cultivars have been responsible for a great resurgence in interest in camellias and have been used extensively for hybridizing as well as being grown for their own memts. Following these initial introductions, contact with people in Chma was for the most part impossible, and for many years no further introductions took place. In the 1960s Colonel Tom Durrant of New Zealand systematically straightened out those cases where there was confusion over which cultivars had in fact been brought out of Chma in the 1940s. He was able to show that the true cultivars of 'Jiangjia Cha', 'Baozhu Cha', and 'Daguiye' were not being grown in the West. When New Zealand established diplomatic relations with China m the 1960s, Durrant was able to obtain several of the cultivars that had not been introduced in the late 1940s or that had been subsequently confused. During the 1960s, a Japanese camellia grower, Ikada, discovered that there were additional cultivars still in Yunnan, and he started to obtam those that he could. He also made available to the English-speaking world some of the information on Kunming reticulatas. Recent Work in China on C. reticulata In 1978 I had the great privilege to be a member of the Botanical Society of America's del111 egation to the People's Republic of China, along with Richard Howard of the Arnold Arboretum and eight other American botanists. We were very fortunate to be able to visit the Kunming Institute of Botany. Kunming had just been opened to foreigners, and we were among the first delegations to be able to include Kunming in their itmerary. I was particularly interested in finding out about the work on garden varieties of C. reticulata being done at the Kunming Institute of Botany. In 1958 T. T. Yii and Y. Z. Feng published a small book on the Kunming C. reticulata cultivars. This Chinese work basically contained much of the same information as the English publication that was written by Pro- Camellia kissi (Loddiges's Botamcal Cabmet, 1832J See page 13. fessor Yii before 1950 but not published until 1964. However, there were two additional cultivars, 'Jiangjia Cha' and 'Tongzimian', which were not known to Professor Yu m the 1940s. 'Tongzimian' is a particularly interesting cultivar. An old cultivar from the Dah area about 400 kilometers (250 miles) west of Kunming, it is the only cultivar with almost white flowers. After the Yu and Feng book was published, the work at the Kunming Institute of Botany concentrated in two directions. One was the selection of new cultivars from seedlings grown at the Kunming Institute of Botany, and the other was an mvestigation of the cultivars grown in the Dali area. The culmination of this work was an article by G. M. Feng and Z. M. Shi that was published in the shortlived journal Zhiwu Ymchong Xuhua likan (\"Plant Introduction and Domestication\"). This article was pubhshed at the beginning of the Cultural Revolution, and almost all the new cultivars mentioned by Feng and Shi no longer exist. However, the old cultivars survived and are still being grown. Since the Cultural Revolution, work has concentrated on selecting and naming new cultivars at the Kunming Institute of Botany and on surveying the wild C. reticulata plants growing in the Tengchong area. As mentioned above, m the area around Tengchong are to be found single-flowered plants of C. reticulata. Whether these plants can really be called wild or semicultivated is hard to say. The plants are not grown in orchards, but the seeds are harvested and the oil expressed and used as a cooking oil. Mature plants of C. reticulata reach 10 meters (33 feet) or more in height and are, in fact, small trees. In a few areas this species forms camellia forests. These camellias have been systematically surveyed and numbered, and superior forms have been given cultivar names. Among these cultivars are not only smgleflowered forms but some that are semidouble 12 and double. The culmination of this work is a book on the Camellia reticulata cultivars of Yunnan, which has been published both in a Chinese and Japanese edition. An English edition is in press. These editions are in reality different books, because the texts are somewhat different, as are the sets of illustrations. Unfortunately, the named cultivars in the Tengchong area exist only as the parent plants and have not yet been propagated. If local farmers decide to use any of these trees as firewood, which does happen, the cultivars involved will be lost forever. Camellia rosaeflora (Curtis's Botanical Magazine, 1858). See page 13. Since 1979, I have been attempting to obtain all of the Yunnan cultivars of C. reticulata and to distribute them to interested botanical gardens in the West. In cases where there is no question about the identity of the cultivar already growing in the United States there has been no need to obtain additional material from China, but if there has been any question concerning the correct identity, as there is with 'Baozhu Cha' and 'Daguiye', I have been able to obtain additional scions from Kunming even though the plants grown under these cultivar names are grown in the United States. I have obtained almost all of the old cultivars grown in Yunnan, as well as the new cultivars named at the Kunming Institute of Botany. However, I have obtained only one of the Tengchong cultivers, 'Xiaoyulan', which, as far as I have been able to ascertain, is the only cultivar of the more than thirty Tengchong cultivars that is currently being grown in Kunming. Since 1981 it has been impossible to obtain any additional camellia cultivars from Kunming because of regulations imposed by China. I do not know the reason for these restrictions, but they have essentially stopped all exchange in camellias. At present we have available 65 of the 105 cultivars currently recognized in China, which is four times the genetic diversity with which the growing of this species became established in the early 1950s. Other Species Camellia euryoides is another species that was first known as a cultivated plant. It was named by Lindley on the basis of a plant that flowered in March 1826 in Cheswick Garden, England. The plant had been the rootstock for a C. japonica brought back to England by John Potts, a plant collector for the Royal Horticultural Society in India and Chma in 1821 and 1822. This same species appeared 13 as a rootstock from plants brought back to England by Parks in 1824. For over a hundred years this small, white-flowered camellia was known m the West only from cultivated plants, but it has now been found in the wild, in Fujian, Guangdong, and Jiangxi provinces. The next species to be brought mto cultivation was C. kissii. This species is very widespread from Nepal all the way to southeastern China and Southeast Asia. It was described by Wallich in 1820, and live plants of it were obtained in 1823 by Samuel Brooks, who was a nurseryman particularly mterested in importing Chinese plants. Camellia rosaeflora is another species that was first described from a rootstock plant. The species was described by Hooker in 1858 on the basis of a plant that had long been grown at Kew as C. euryoides. Camellia rosaeflora was subsequently lost but rediscovered as a cultivated plant in Ceylon in A double-flowered vanety of Camellia rosaeflora Reproduced from Gardeners' Chromcle (1928) 1935. More recently, the species has been found as a wild-growing plant in Hubei, Jiangsu, Sichuan, and Zhejiang provinces, China. It is interesting to speculate on the ongin of the plants of C. euryoides and C. rosaeflora on which these two species were described. From the currently known wild distribution of these two species, it seems quite likely that C. euryoides was being used as rootstock for C. japonica in Guangzhou, whereas C. rosaeflora was being used as rootstock in Shanghai. Camellia rosaeflora was the last Chinese species of Camellia to be successfully introduced to the West during the Nineteenth Century, although the Japanese species C. sasanqua apparently was brought into cultivation in France by 1869 and m England ten years later. Additional Chinese species were described during the Nineteenth Century, including C. assimilis, C. caudata, C. edithae, C. fraterna, C. grijsii, C. hongkongensis and C. salicifolia. Except for C. hongkongensis, which was briefly grown at Kew, none of these species were introduced to the West before the present century. Twentieth Century Introductions Comparatively few camellias were introduced during the first half of the Twentieth Century. A notable species is C. cuspidata, collected by E. H. Wilson in 1900 when he was collecting for the nursery of Veitch and Sons. Plants grown from the Wilson seeds first flowered in 1912 and were reported and illustrated in the Gardeners' Chronicle. The most important introductions during the first third of the Twentieth Century were those by George Forrest. As mentioned above, Forrest collected in Yunnan between 1913 and 1931. During this period he was responsible for sending back seeds of C. reticulata, C. saluenensis, C. taliensis, and C. tsaii. Of these four species, the first two are the most 14 important as garden plants. The next period of Camellia introduction from China started in the late 1920s and 1930s and has continued with major interruptions to the present. The first two botanical gardens in China were the Sun Yat-sen Botanical Garden in Nanjing and the Lushan Botanical Garden on Mt. Lushan in Jiangxi province. In the 1930s, both C. fraterna and C. pitardii var. yunnanica were obtained from the Lushan Botanical Garden, and possibly a few other species now grown in the United States were sent out of China during this period. It appears that from the late 1930s to the late 1970s no camellias were introduced to Camellia cuspidata, a species mth a shrub habit, photographed m the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, by E. \/ Walhs. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. the West from the mainland of China except C. reticulata. However, there were two very interesting introductions from Hong Kong. In late 1955, Mr. C. P. Lau of the Hong Kong Herbarium found a single plant of a new and very spectacular Camellia in the New Territories of Hong Kong. This new species was named C. granthamiana the following year, in honor of Alexander Grantham, the Governor of Hong Kong at the time. This Camellia has a single white flower up to about 14 centimeters (5.5 inches) in diameter. This species has many characteristics that place it as one of the more primitive members of the genus. Camelha granthamiana has now been widely propagated both from seeds and cuttings. Another very interesting species from Hong Kong is C. crapnelliana, which was described from a single tree discovered in 1903 on the southern side of Mt. Parker on Hong Kong Island. The plant was collected only once, and that only for herbarium specimens. The species has large, glossy leaves, single white flowers, and smooth, brick-red bark. In 1965, Mr. Y. S. Lau of the Hong Kong Herbarium rediscovered what must be the same tree, but this tree has not yet flowered. In 1967, Father Joseph Ly found this species growing in dense woods in Mau Ping, New Territories, and a subsequent search found 58 trees bearing fruit and flowers, as well as several seedlings. This rediscovered species has now been extensively propagated in both Hong Kong and the West. Recent Introductions Since the normalization of relations between China and the United States quite a few Camellia species have been obtained from Chinese sources. The species that has received the most attention is C. chrysantha, which is a yellow-flowered species from Guangxi province. There has been a great deal of inter15 est in this species since it was described in 1965 by Professor H. H. Hu, in an article on fourteen new species and varieties belonging to Camellia and segregate genera. On January 23, 1980, I received five seeds of C. chrysantha at the University of California Botanical Garden, of which I was curator at the time. The seeds were sent to me by Professor Zhang Aoluo, who was then the director of the Kunming Botanical Garden. Professor Zhang had also sent five seeds to William L. Ackerman, of the U.S. National Arboretum, as well as five seeds each to people in Japan and Australia. These were the first seeds of this species sent out of China through regular channels, although some years earlier either seeds or scions had been obtained by camellia growers in Japan. The seeds sent by Zhang were collected in December 1979 by staff of the Kunming Botanical Garden at the Malu commune, Fengcheng county, in Guangxi, at an elevation of 300 meters (975 feet~. Both Ackerman and I were able to germinate four seeds, and the resulting eight plants have been extensively propagated and distributed to botanical gardens and camellia growers on both the east and west coasts of the United States and abroad. The main importance of yellow camellias, of which more than ten species have been described, is the hope by Camelha hybridizers to incorporate the genes for yellow flower color mto other cultivated camellias, resulting in a much wider range of colors than now available. One of the problems is that C. chrysantha is in a different subgenus, the subgenus Thea, from the majority of cultivated species and hybrids, which belong to the subgenus Camellia. Over the past few years I have been able to obtain seeds and scions of a number of other Chinese Camellia species from the Kunming Botanical Garden and other botamcal gardens in China. Of particular importance are C. chekiangoleosa, C. polyodonta, and C. semiserrata, all of which belong to section Camellia and will be spectacular garden plants with large red flowers. Other species that I have been able to obtain mclude C. cordifoha, C. forrestii, C. gigantocarpa, C. grijsii, C. octopetala, C. vietnamensis, C. yuhsienensis, and C. yunnanensis. Most of these species have been distributed to camellia growers and botanical gardens in the United States. At present, almost fifty of the more than two hundred described Camellia species are in cultivation m the West, but still more than three-quarters of the currently recognized species have yet to be grown as cultivated plants, even in China. I hope that many of these remaining species will be cultivated in China and that the exchange that began in the late 1970s will resume for the enjoyment of people in both China and the West. Bruce Bartholomew, collection manager for the Department of Botany, Cahforma Academy of Sciences, has made four tnps to Chma m the last decade."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Camellias, Chinese New Year, Samurai Warriors, and the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24882","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ea76b.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Bartholomew, Bruce","article_content":"Camellias, Chinese New Year, Samurai Warriors, and the Arnold Arboretum smce Charles Sprague Sargent visited Japan 1892, the Arnold Arboretum has had a deep interest m plants from the Far East, primarily Ever m America, although double-flowered varieties are because the flora of northeastern Asia is strikingly hke that of northeastern North America. Over the years, several members of the Arboretum's staff have written m passing on camelhas, even though camellias are not hardy m Jamaica Plam. Three excerpts from those writings follow. plant it does not appear to be particularly popular with the Japanese ; it is sometimes planted, however, m temple and city gardens, especially m Tokyo, where it is not an uncommon plant, and where beautiful old known; and as an ornamental specimens are to be seen. Tsubaki, by which name Camelha japonica is known m Japan, is more valued for the oil which is pressed from its seeds than for the beauty of its flowers. This oil, which the other species of Camellia also produce, is used by the women in dressmg their hair, and is an article of much commercial importance. The wood of Camellia is close-gramed, moderately hard, and light-colored, turning pmk with exposure; it is cut mto combs, although less valued for this purpose than boxwood, and is manufactured mto numerous small articles of domestic use. Sasan-kuwa, Camelha sasanqua, a small bushy tree of southern Japan and Chma, is perhaps more commonly encountered m Japanese gardens than the Tsubaki, and m the first week of November it was ~ust beginmng to open its delicate pink flowers m the gardens of Nikko, although the mght temperature was nearly down to the freezmg pomt. Charles Sprague Sargent on Camellia in Japan In tor 1892, Charles Sprague Sargent, first direc- of the Arnold Arboretum, collected plants for ten weeks in Japan. He wrote several articles on his travels for Garden and Forest, the magazine he had founded in 1888. Later, the accounts were combined and published m book form as Forest Flora of japan. Sargent discussed Camellla as follows: In southern Japan the Camelha is a common for- est-plant from the sea-level to an altitude of 2,500 feet, on the east coast growing as far north as latitude thirty-six, and nearly two degrees farther on the west coast. Here it is a dwarf bush only two or three feet high, although where the soil and chmate favor it, the Camelha becomes a tree thirty or forty feet tall, with a handsome straight trunk a foot m diameter, covered with smooth pale bark hardly distmguishable from that of the Beech. In its wild state the flower of the Camellia is red, and does not fully expand, the corolla retammg the shape of a cup until it falls. In Japan, certamly less attention has been paid to the improvement of the Camellia than in Europe and -Excerpted Notes on from Forest Flora of Japan: the Forest Flora of Japan, by Charles Sprague Sargent (Boston and New York Houghton, Mifflm, 1894), page 17. the Introduction of Camellias the West Ernest H. Wilson on to Opposite A Specimen of Camellia japonica Gromng in Ongata mllage, Honshu, Japan. Thirty-five feet tall and mth a trunk three feet in girth at its base, this specimen has attained true tree form. Photographed m Apnl 1914 by Ernest H Wilson. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. E. H. Wilson, who was affiliated with the Arnold Arboretum from 1906 until his death in 1930, made six collecting trips to the Orient between 1899 and 1919. He writes as follows on the introduction of camellias to the West: Known to the Japanese as Tsubakki, the Camellia was long ago chnstened the Japan Rose, a very 18 appropriate name. It attracted the attention of the earhest foreign visitors to Japan, and Kaempfer wrote about it and pictured it m his book published in 1712. Just when or by what means it was conveyed to Europe we do not know, but it is on record that it was cultivated m England before 1739 by Lord Petre. Very probably it went first from Japan carried by Dutch traders to Batavia, thence to Holland m the same manner as the Camphor-tree, Chrysanthemum, Azalea mdlca, and a number of other plants. Be that as it may, it was grown m many of the best gardens of Europe toward the close of the 18th Century. It is figured in that wonderful old publication, The Botamcal Magazine, in its second volume, plate 42~1788\/, and the flower pictured is exactly that of the wild species. It would appear, the was explanation is simple. In Japan the Tsubakki regarded with superstitious awe by the warSamurai class. The color of the flower is nor or red, and it has a bad habit of falling off at the neck almost as soon as its petals are expanded. The color suggested blood to the Samurai and the fallen flower a human head severed from the body, and so to those who lived by the sword the Tsubakki symbolized their probable fate by decapitation. One sees the plant m Japanese gardens today and one or two distinct varieties are grown, but the Japanese really favor another species ~C. sasanqua\/.... On the other hand, the Chmese appear to have no superstitious dread of this plant. It was cultivated m Chma's nurseries, temple grounds, and gardens of the wealthy. Evidently quite a number of varieties were grown m Chmese that up to that date little or no improvement in the Camelha had taken place. Considering what happened withm the next few years, this may at first seem strange, but therefore, gardens, for we find the old East India ships plymg between Canton and England carrying Camellia plants back to their friends and patrons. Through this means eleven well-marked varieties were m cultivation m England in 1812; by 1819 the number had so increased and the plant established itself so firmly m popular estimation that Samuel Curtis pubhshed a special monograph, elephant folio size, with eight pages of text, enumerating twenty-one varieties and illustrated by five beautifully colored plates, one of which is reproduced here. The artist, Miss Clara M. Pope, evidently possessed great ability, for her drawmgs are admirably done and the coloring is remarkably good. This monograph is interesting as bemg about the only one of this size devoted to a single genus of flowenng trees. As different varieties blossomed they were figured m the current magazines, which helped mcrease their popularity. Early m the 19th Century nurserymen began the raising of Camellias from seeds. Later the intercrossing of varieties was diligently and successfully carried out and many hundreds of sorts resulted. As the Victorian age approached its optimum the breeders of Camelhas lost sight of everything else but the regularity of the blossom and, moreover, kept the plants trimmed mto ovoid masses, which in the end brought about a revolution. The old-fashioned varieties of Camellia, like 'Alba Plena', 'Lady Hume's Blush', pnm, stiff, and sohd, not inappropriately typify the penod; indeed, this type of Camellia might well be its floral emblem. The single varieties with their cupped blossoms, their abundant yellow-anthered stamens, and the semi-double forms had passed out of fashion m favor of the severely double, regular shaped blossom types. Camellia japonica as depicted m Curtis's Botamcal Magazine m 1788. 19 One of the earhest introductions from China known as the Warratah or Anemone Flower, and very beautiful it was with its mass of stamens partially converted mto narrow petals. This was the forerunner of many similar varieties, and this was ket either as shapely shrubby bushes, beautifully cultivated in attractive flower pots, or as cut branches. Red and white forms are not often seen dunng the holiday season. The larger shrubs are expensive. This flower, as mentioned above, is extensively used as a floral offering to the temple gods when special requests for the New Year are presented. It may be mentioned also in passmg that this flower class together with the smgle-flowered forms commg back mto fashion. is -Excerpted ume from House e.J Garden, Vol57, Number 3 (March 1930). is never worn as an ornament in a lady's hair, for the Camellias and the Chinese New Year Chmese New Year falls on February 9th m 1986. The camellia, like many other plants, was traditionally used in China to decorate homes, shops, boats, etc., during the New Year celebration. Franklin P. Metcalf, a research associate, writing m the February 13, 1942, issue of Arnoldia, descmbed the use of camellias in Canton, China, nearly half a century ago. This year, New Englanders can view camellias in flower during February at the Lyman Estate in Waltham, Massachusetts, and at the Massachusetts Camellia Society's annual meeting m Jamaica Plain. For details, see the \"New England Horticultural Calendar\" published in this issue of Arnoldia. Metcalf wrote as follows in 1942: One of the most mterestmg customs m buds of the Camellia take a whole year to open. To the Chinese this would symbolize the fact that a woman would have to wait one whole year for a son-much too long a penodand so the Camellia is not used by women as a floral decoration. large -Excerpted from Arnoldia, Volume 2, Number 1 (February 13, 1942). Canton, that connected with the Chmese New Year, a variable date which may occur, according to the foreign calendar, some time during the month of January or February. On the Chinese New Year, every Chmese family in Canton feels the necessity of having m its home some flowers appropriate to the New Year season. All shops are likewise decorated. Every sampan, the home of the boat people, has its splash of color and so does the ~unk and flower boat. Without this symbol of life, and without the decorations of scarlet-red paper, the spirit of the New Year season seems Chma, is lacking. (Camelha ~apomca Lmnaeus [Thea (L.) Nois.]~, shan ch'a in Chmese, a shrub with beautiful dark green, shmmg fohage and usually delicate pmk flowers, is seen m the mar~apomca Camelha "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collecting Rare Conifers in North Africa","article_sequence":3,"start_page":20,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24883","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eab6f.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Collecting Rare Conifers in North Africa ' Robert G. Nicholson gathered on mountain peaks in Morocco may yield varieties more cold-hardy than those now in cultivation Conifer seeds As the cold came on, and as each more southern zone became fitted for the inhabitants of the north, these would take the places of the former inhabitants of the temperate regions. The latter, at the same time, would travel further and further southward, unless they were stopped by barners, m which case they would pensh. The mountams would become covered with snow and ice and them former Alpine inhabitants would descend to the plams. By the time that the cold had reached its maximum, we should have an arctic fauna and flora, covering the central parts of Europe, as far south as the Alps and Pyrenees, and even stretching mto Spam. -Charles Darwm The Origin of Species ' Had the master biologist, Charles Darwin, travelled in North Africa, he might have amended his discourse on glaciation to include those lands south of the Pyrenees and Spain. For in Morocco and Algeria a number of peaks are high enough to have harbored an alpine flora that was spreading from Europe during the periods of glaciation. And upon these mountains there live today relict populations of these refugees, remnants of the same migrating temperate and alpine floras that Darwin so eloquently described. Most people are surprised to learn that these relict populations mclude among their members such familiar moist-temperate genera as Acer, Lonicera, Paeonia, Rosa, Sorbus, and Viburnum. The order Comferae is also well represented: species of Abies, Cedrus, Juniperus, and Pinus are also found in the colder areas of Morocco In September 1982 I travelled to Morocco to collect seeds and specimens of its hardiest plants. The resulting seedlings I would test in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum. I collected on four peaks in the two major mountain ranges, the Atlas and the Rif. My collecting focussed on the native conifers, are poorly represented in botanical gardens. It was important that I collect the seeds from as high an elevation as possible to ensure that the resulting seedlings would be which of maximum hardiness. This meant extensive travelling and walking, since the isolated peaks stand far from the major cities and stretch high above the nearest villages. The first day's collecting was done in the Atlas Mountains, just south of Marrakech. Here, the massive Jebel Toubkal rises to 4,165 meters, making it the highest peak in northwestern Africa. It is a rocky, dry, and steep mountain that, despite its cold temperature regimen, had little to offer in the way of a temperate flora. Most woody species had tapered off by 2,300 meters, and the upper reaches of the peak offered just a few grasses, thistles, and fall-blooming crocus. Juniperus thurifera, the incense juniper, was plentiful in the foothills, as were two roses, Rosa sicula and Rosa canina. The latter grew among some boulders, was of fine habit, and possessed a large orange hip. Its seeds germinated readily at the Arboretum's Dana 21 Greenhouses and should provide some interesting hardiness testing m our nurseries. From the Atlas region I proceeded by train to the ancient capital of Fez, a major city just south of the Rif mountain chain. Because delegates to a Pan-Arabian Summit Conference had flooded the hotels, I had to move on immediately from this exotic and quintessential Moroccan city. softly bouncing in the incoming evening fog, and after the jarring bus ride their gentle beauty provided a soothing welcome. I did not know at the time that Ketama is a town noted for, and supported by, its illicit drug trade, being a distribution center for kif, a local cannabis product. Any Westerner is immediately assumed to be there \"for business,\" and convincing people otherwise\"Plants? ! \"-can be both bothersome and amusmg at times. An enterprising young Berber, Mouhammed Boudgara, rode up to me on a motorcycle before I was twelve steps off the bus. He gave me the standard greeting, \"Hel- The Atlas Cedar A five-hour bus ride along the switchbacks of the Rif Mountains brought me to the village of Ketama. It is beautifully situated in an extensive grove of Cedrus atlantica, the Atlas cedar. The boughs of these giants were lo my friend, you need a guide?\" Knowing how useful a motorcycle would be for getting into the mountains, I struck a deal with him for the next day's collectmg. Mouhammed was to be one of the lucky breaks that occur when plant-collecting in odd corners. He warned off the local toughs, helped find supplies, and eased passage through otherwise precarious The areas. day, after Mouhammed had proudly showed me his kiharvest, we left the village and sped off on motorcycles to the foothills of Mt. Tidiquin, some ten miles next Cedrus atlantica Morocco All on Mount are Tidiqum, near Ketama, photographs the author's. the back of a second motorcycle driven by Mouhammed's cousin, a young man who seemed intent on showing his skill at high-speed driving on dirt roads. At one point we paused to take in a good view of the nearing mountain. It was a gentle, tapered cone, rising to 2,455 meters, its flanks covered with the flat blue-green color of Cedrus atlantica. We parked our motorcycles at a farming village in the foothills and, after my guides had renewed old acquaintances, walked upward. The gentle incline seen from five miles off was in reality quite steep, and the forest now rose a hundred feet over our heads. It was a thm forest with little undergrowth, and the Cedrus was the only species of any size. Full-sized specimens grew up to 120 feet in height at these lower away. I was a passenger on 22 elevations. A crude dirt road allowed for some limited forestry. Cedrus atlantica has a long history of cultivation, having been introduced into cultivation by A. Seneclauze in 1839, while G. Manetti rendered the first description in 1844. It has long been a favorite ornamental in Europe, with about a dozen cultivars now being used. It has also found favor with French foresters, some extensive plantations of it having been established on the poorest soils of Dijon and Vaucluse. In the northeastern United States, Cedrus atlantica, like Cedrus deodara, could hardly be called ironclad hardy. Even the variety glauca, which seems to be the hardiest cultivar of the Atlas cedar, tends to brown some or even to drop most of its needles in the coldest winters. I had hoped, then, by collecting seed from an area of maximum hardiness, that a hardier race of Cedrus atlantica could be introduced to the Boston area. It is on Mt. Tidiquin that the Atlas cedar reaches the uppermost limit of its range and inhabits the craggy summit in a gnarled, stunted form evocative of the bristlecone pine in this country. At the summit, one side of the mountain presented a clear aspect, a rock field bare of topsoil and trees, with just a few ground-hugging plants nestled among the stones. The opposite side of the summit was a sheer cliff, a few struggling cedars locked into its side. The view from the peak gave one a stunning 360-degree panorama of the central Rif chain, a sinuous and involved series of mountains, very rugged and not unlike the mountains of central Idaho and northern California in its limited accessibil- myself collecting seeds and pressing specimens, while my guides had a kibreak in the shade of a small cedar. As the number of different specimens was small, a complete representation of the summit below. I busied flora was soon in hand. Like many moun- Morocco, this peak showed the effects of goat herding. Many of the plants had been chewed almost to the ground, and I suspect that some species had been erased tains in completely. On the trip down the mountainside, I plant of Digitalis purpurea var. mauretanica and took a good amount of seed. Rosa sicula appeared in the understory of the cedar forest, and I collected seeds from a found fine it, too. village, a Berber wedding was in full swing as we slipped back through the streets and alleys. A truckload of master musicians was blending the unique shrill of their olive-wood pipes with the rapid toomtoom of the skin drums, while the townspeople, dressed in their finest colors, followed these pipers through the village streets. After a quick look at the proceedings we pushed our motorcycles to the outskirts and were At the farm off. Next morning, after farewells an to my guides, ity. All of the Cedrus I saw in the uppermost 75 meters were barren of cones, so I assume that either the coning is erratic in the upper reaches or that the trees growing there were established from seeds blown up the mountain from the fertile plants immediately aged bus headed west. The ride's unfortunate highlight was a police roadblock and subsequent search. Searched, along with a half dozen others, I was luckily able to explain a bagful of plant material in rapid pigdin French. Another passenger, however, was found with a small chunk of kif. He was led away in handcuffs, while his wife could only sit silently by. The example having been set, we were allowed to pass, and an hour later I was let off on the roadside. Looking up into the foothills, I saw the starched white city of Chechaouen. Chechaouen has a distinctly Iberian cast to it, a maze of narrow cobbled streets winding between the bleached walls and tiled I boarded 23 roofs. The feature of the city that pins itself to my memory is the distinctive blue hue applied to all the shutters and doors. Chechaouen is a child's paradise, and young children are constantly scampering through its ian firs. Trabut named it Abies marocana. twisting streets. A Moroccan In subsequent years, the plant was taxonomically reduced to a variety of Abies pinsapo, the Spanish fir. Eventually, it was brought to European botanic gardens and made its way to this hemisphere in the 1950s However, m Variety of the Spanish Fir 1906, the botanical world was alerted to the existence in Africa of a second species of Abies. Only Abies numidica, discovered in Algeria in 1861, had previously been known. M. L. Trabut wrote of the later discovery by a Mr. Joly in \"the mountains of southern Te'tuan at Chechaouen\" of a new species intermediate between the Spanish and Alger- of the Arboretum des reason to doubt the pedigree of the trees in this country, since most of the few specimens that there are seem to be hybrids, a frequent problem with seed from cultivated plants. The Arnold Arboretum has such a tree in its collection; it puzzles anyone who takes a key to it. I felt, therefore, that a fresh introduction of seed of Abies pinsapo var. marocana would guarantee authenticity and facilitate distribution of as seed from trees Barres in France. But there is A mew m the mllage of Chechaouen 24 this rare tree. The mountains the fir inhabits rise to 2, I70 meters to the east of Chechaouen and are uninhabited save for a few goatherds. Once the fog that obscured the top of the mountain had lifted, I could see a band of dark green covering the uppermost level of the peak. I was excited at the prospect that it was a forest of the rare fir. The next morning I set out. The lower foothills were dry, olives, figs, and almonds being cultivated there. Following the paths made by woodcutters and goatherds was the only way to reach the upper reaches of the range, and after a few hours I was well above the city. At around 1,300 meters the first surprise of the day's collecting occurred when I found my first plants of the Moroccan peony, Paeonia coriacea, a perennial species reaching to two feet. A dried flower still on its stalk suggested a floral color of deep pink or rose. Its bright-scarlet seed pods, which hold seeds of a contrasting ebony, make it a species that is easy to spot. I collected about one pound of seed from various stands on the mountain, which I have processed at the Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. As I entered the colder zones of the mountain I could see ahead the unmistakable conical habit of the genus Abies. I also began to find additional temperate elements, such as Abies pmsapo var tazaotana, Tazaot. 25 Juniperus communis, the common field juniper of North America. At about 1,400 meters I reached the lower edge.of the fir population and could see the cones I had travelled so far to collect. The terrain here was steep and dry, with little or no topsoil. Large, exposed areas of loose, calcareous rock made the footing treacherous. I focussed my attention on my feet. As I scuttled upward through the forest I could see that it was largely a pure stand with speci- reaching over 30 meters in height. Some logged tree stumps had diameters of 150 centimeters. Other elements associated mens with a more temperate flora appeared, such as Viburnum tmus (laurustinus), Sorbus aria (the white beam), and Crataegus monogyna (a species of hawthorn). A maple, Acer opalus var. granatense, appeared as a low tree. Though of scraggly habit, it impressed me by its mere presence. Cedrus atlantica was the only other tree of size and, along with the firs, grew to the very top of Mt. Tisouka. I collected cones m the upper range. Although taken green in mid-September, they yielded hundreds of seedlings. It on a a is a mountain rare umquely fulfilling experience to rest peak and to survey below you species. It is a sensation that be unique to botanical collecting, might one that makes the trip down the mountain far easier than it might otherwise be. even forest of The Tazaotan Fir The following day I spent procuring pressing supplies (a task that is not as easy to do in Morocco as it is in Harvard Square) and pressing the specimens I had collected. On September 15, I travelled to the only site of the other fir known to Morocco, Abies pinsapo var. tazaotana. This fir was first brought to the attention of the botanical world by a Spanish forester, Santiago Sanchez Cozar. In 1946 he pre- sented a paper in which he enumerated the differences between this variety and its relatives to the south, A. pinsapo var. marocana, and east, A. numidica. It is a larger tree, reachmg to 50 meters and forming a dense forest on the top of the massif of Tazaot. Cozar's comparisons led him to believe that he had found a new species and, on the basis of morphological characteristics he named the plant Abies tazaotana. Little else has been written about the plant save for an article m 1954 by J. Pourtet and P. Turpin, m which the plant was reduced to a variety of Abies pmsapo. Tang Shm Liu concurs in the plant's varietal status in his recent monograph of the genus Abies, although his section on the Tazaotan fir contams a number of major errors. For example, the plate illustrating the fir seems to be of a branch of juvenile foliage; it gives a false impression of the shape of the needles and their placement upon the branch. The preceding plate, of Abies pmsapo var. marocana, is a much closer representation. Also, Tang's map of the variety's range places the population about 100 miles southeast of where it should be. The stand of fir grows far from major centers of population. In a land largely devoid of timber trees, this remoteness probably saved the firs from lumbering, and certam elimination, for thousands of years. The closest major town is Chechaouen. From Chechaouen one must take a bus to the junction with the road that cuts east to the Mediterranean. Transportation from the junction can be described as \"catch-as-catchcan.\" Trucks can be flagged down and a deal struck for a ride up into the sharply steep terrain. The mountains in this part of the Rif are very rugged, and only a few roads twist along the rocky flanks of the mountamsides. The people generally are farmers, growing mainly a mixture of maize, figs, and vegetables. They are, thankfully, only too happy to 26 It seems to be one of the moistest areas in Morocco, as the rivers there give directions. are for generating elecand the creation of reservoirs. tricity A turn from the main road brings one down to a river gorge, where the road ends at the hillside village of Talembote. Its one main street is lined with small stores and houses, and any thoughts of an anonymous entry are quickly abandoned, as any stranger to town is an instant celebrity. The townspeople were initially reserved, mainly because Westerners have a reputation of smuggling, and because of the presence of a nosey and bored garrison of government militia. Once the legitimacy of my purpose had been established, the townspeople arranged for a guide and donkey. After some friendly haggling in pidgin French, \"les cinquante dirhams et mon couteau ou le couteau et mon chaussures,\" an arrangement was made and a 10-kilometer ride up the mountam began. From the village the dirt road gradually wound to the fir forest through zones of various Mediterranean scrub. The genera I encountered were both familiar and new. At one elevation I collected seeds from Arbutus unedo, a small ericaceous tree whose range stretches as far north as Ireland and whose relative, Arbutus menziesii, the madrone, I had encountered in British Columbia as a 100-foot tree. A beautiful heather, Erica terminalis, grew 2 feet high next to a small spring. An odd shrub with indumented, whitish leaves confused me, as I had never seen even the genus before. I found it to be Cistus albidus, a rock rose. As we neared the higher part of the massif, a thick bank of fog began streaming in, billowing over the lower ridges like a slow-moving breaker. The fog would continue to plague us for the remainder of the day. We rounded a curve and crossed a slight depression; finally, I could see the edge of the fir forest. As we entered the forest we passed dependable enough a giant that had been struck down by lightning. My guide, warming by now to photography, insisted I pose against the weathered carcass. explained to my guide that I wanted collect cones from the uppermost region of the population, and we proceeded farther upwards into the forest as the fog continued to swirl around us. Before long we heard the dampened thud of axes working inward upon the trees. My guide felt it best that we skirt the unseen woodcutters (\"They are from a different village,\" he explained), and we continued quietly through the fog. At this point visibility was about 15 feet, which slightly hindered collecting; locating plants by touch I had to rarely proves productive. The mountain flattens out at 1, 700 meters, and my guide assured me that there was really no peak to speak of. The forest was primarily firs and, unlike Mt. Tisouka, there were no Cedrus specimens to be seen. We staked our donkey, and as my guide broke for lunch I busied myself climbing fir trees and cutting down the cones. These were about 10 inches long, quite large for a fir, and very green, which made me fear I had travelled all these miles for naught. I finished climbing and began gathering the cones. As I did so the woodcutters we had avoided previously emerged ghostlike through the fog, each carrying on his shoulder a 3-meter-long, handhewn beam. We exchanged a few mumbled greetings with them, and they merely continued trudging down the mountain to their village. When breaks in the fog occurred, we could see the full dimensions of the trees, which grew as high as 50 meters with a gradual taper. This large size makes the Tazaotan fir one of the largest firs of the Mediterranean region and, with the possible exception of Cedrus atlantica, the largest conifer in North Africa. Given the large size of this fir and its adaptability to lime soils, there may be a 27 niche for it in forestry, possibly on the lime coasts of England. There is a question as to whether the size difference between the two Moroccan firs might be the effect of local climate. The area of the Tazaotan fir has a more fertile humus soil and seemingly a higher level of moisture. Comparisons of the two plants over a period of time in botamc gardens will help to settle the question. In addition to the Abies, seeds of other woody species were collected at the top of Tazaot. These are now under propagation at the Dana Greenhouses and include Acer opa- lus granatense, Crataegus laciniata, arborea, Berbens hispamca, and a number of others. var. Lomcera Origins of Morocco's Alpine Flora While collecting in these Moroccan conifer forests, I had to remind myself continually that I was in Africa. How could such an atypical flora have come to rest here? What was The summit of Mount Tmouka 28 the genesis of these odd pockets of African conifers and how long had they existed? Upon my return to the Arnold Arboretum I sought answers for these questions. In the Origin of Species, Charles Darwin provided a partial answer: returned, the arctic forms would retreat northward, closely followed up m their retreat by the production of the more temperate regions. And as the snow melted from the bases of the mountains the arctic forms would seize on the cleared and thawed ground, always ascending, as the warmth increased and the snow still further disappeared, higher and higher, whilst their brethren were pursuing their northern journey. Hence when the warmth had fully returned, the same species which had lately lived together on the European and North American lowlands, would again be found in the arctic regions of the Old and New Worlds, and on many isolated mountain summits far distant from each other. As the warmth Darwin's remarks deal mainly with arctic plants and animals in Europe, but we can easily imagine the same process of regional climatic change at work farther south, in the Rif Mountains. The exodus of the Moroccan conifers to their present sites is a story that can be told only in terms of hypothesis. Fossils of Cedrus have been found in France (Miocene), Greece (Pliocene), and southeastern Russia (Oligocene), so we can see that a more northerly distribution existed prior to the glacial onslaught. The lowering temperatures in the Pleistocene drove the genus farther south to its present latitudes, and even farther. Cedrus is believed to have grown even in the Ahaggar Massif of the central Sahara during early Pleistocene times. Since the \"Ice Age\" its range has shrunk to a few scattered mountain peaks, one of them being Mt. Tidiquin. The hardiness of the Moroccan firs has never been fully determined. In the mountains where they grow, full-sized populations extend to the summits. At the lower elevations firs mingle with a warm-temperate element, but their upper limit has yet to be determined, as they simply run out of sites on which to grow. Smce another variety of Abies pinsapo, the variety glauca, has grown well for some 40 years in Boston, there is real hope that its two African relatives will prove hardy also. As with the Cedrus, the genesis of the Abies in their mountain havens can only be guessed at. The fossil record of firs in Europe extends back over 25 million years. For the genus worldwide, fossils have been found that date back 60 million years. Abies pinsapo has been found in the European fossil flora from the Pliocene epoch, some 13 million years ago. This long history makes Abies pinsapo, along with the European species A. cilicica and A. alba, the only firs known to predate the Pleistocene epoch and the four waves of glaciation that occurred within it. Abies pinsapo may, then, have become established in North Africa prior to the Pleistocene glaciations. It is more probable, though, that the temperate elements of the Moroccan flora arrived during the periods of glaciation, when the Mediterranean had receded and the gap between Europe and Africa was narrower or absent altogether. Glaciers are known to have existed at the time in the Sierra Nevada of southern Spain, the present home of Abies pinsapo. According to Burkhard Frenzel, during the third glacial period (the Saalian), \"groves of extremely cold resistant conifers\" were growing in the vicinity of Gibraltar. During the final glaciation (the Weichselian), the Atlas Mountains of Morocco are known to have harbored glaciers of some magnitude, while the Rif area is thought to have had permanent snowfields. Again according to Frenzel, the whole of the Iberian peninsula was covered with \"groves of extremely cold resistant comfers and deci\" 29 prevailing steppe during these final two glacial periods that North Africa probably experienced the greatest mflux of plant species from Europe, and the flora of the Rif probably paralleled that of Iberia, much as it does today. After the last glaciation, the region's climate began to warm up and dry out, driving the Abies to their present refuge, the highest peaks of the Rif Mountains in Morocco and the Atlas Mountains in Algeria. These isolated populations of obscure contrees duous within the was vegetation.\" It ifers illustrate just how far south the temperate flora of Europe was driven mto Africa and offer mute testimony to the fickle nature of climate. to report excellent germination of seeds of the two Moroccan firs. Seedlings of both have survived their first winters in Boston. Three-year-old seedlings of Abies pinsapo var. marocana and of A. pinsapo var. tazaotana are available for sale, with the proceeds going toward defraying the costs of seed collection. For $15.00 the pair you may experiment with your own small piece of Afnca. Write: Robert G. Nicholson The Dana Greenhouses The Arnold Arboretum . Epilogue I am happy Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. Robert G. Nicholson, a member of the Arboretum's 's grounds staff, travels mdely and often m search of mterestmg plant matenals. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Report on Hurricane Gloria","article_sequence":4,"start_page":30,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24884","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24eaf28.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hicks, Jennifer L.","article_content":"Report on Hurricane Gloria jenni f er L. Hicks A timely shift in course spared the Arboretum's Living Collections the brunt of a potentially destructive storm \"Great Hurricane\" of In the course of our work, we are continually reminded of the Arnold Arboretum's losses in hurricanes and other storms. Thus, the staff of the Arboretum faced Friday, September 27, 1985, with mounting anxiety: Hurricane Gloria was headed our way. The plant records abound with notations of damage and losses, and the photographic archives document trees felled by the hundred, massive limbs torn from more-firmly anchored trees, and plantings flooded by the heavy rains generally associated with hurricanes. The Living Collections themselves carry the mark of every major storm of the Twentieth Century: groves of native species planted by Charles Sprague Sargent as a framework for the collection have been thinned to scattered specimens, and few mature trees do not bear the scars of storm damage. By far the worst damage was caused by the September 1938, which destroyed nearly 1,500 trees in the Arboretum. As Gloria approached, the weather reports invited comparisons between the two. Both were spawned off Africa's west coast, and Gloria followed a route across the Atlantic almost identical to that of its predecessor. With wind velocities of 130 miles per hour off the Carolinas, Gloria threatened to be as destructive as the \"Great Hurncane\" had been. The grounds staff were mobilized to secure the buildings against the coming storm. Four men labored for over an hour to move the Lars Anderson Bonsai Collection to safety. An irreplaceable collection of 31 specimens with documented ages of up to 250 years and weights of up to 250 pounds, these were the only plants for which any precautions could be taken. (Quercus palustris) blown over by the 1938 and 1985 hurricanes, left and nght photographs, respec.uvely Photographs of damage that occurred m 1938 were taken by Donald Wyman and are m the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum, those of damage caused by Glona were taken by Peter Del Tyedici. Pm oaks 31 'llihp trees (Lmodendron tulipifera) blown down m 1938 (top) and 1985 Both mctims grew m the same grove, behmd the Hunnewell Visitor Center. I 33 A Shift in Course As Gloria continued up the coast, however, it took a more northwesterly course than the 193~8 hurricane had done and, travelling along the coastline rather than over open water, steadily diminished. It travelled up the Connecticut River valley some 50 miles of the course that would have brought the brunt of the storm through eastern Massachusetts, thus sparing the Boston area its full force. In the Boston area, Gloria's wind speed hardly reached hurricane force (74-75 m.p.h.). (. Sustained winds of between 50 and 60 m.p.h. were felt for about two hours, with a maximum speed of 76 m.p.h. recorded at 4:08 PM by the U.S. Weather Bureau. The Blue Hill Observatory recorded gusts of 103 m.p.h. By contrast, sustamed winds of over 60 m.p.h. were recorded for nearly four hours in 1938; the U.S. Weather Bureau recorded a maximum speed of 87 m.p.h., and the Blue Hill Observatory reported gusts m excess of 150 to the west Another contrast between the two storms was in the amount of rainfall associated with them. In 1938, the hurricane was preceded by four days of soaking rain, and the sodden ground provided no anchor against the wind. Gloria brought an official 0.28 inch at Boston's Logan Airport, although the weather station at the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses recorded 0.47 inch. Despite its shortcomings in the eyes of Boston's stormlovers, some 25 of whom gathered atop Peter's Hill during the peak of the storm, Gloria left its mark on the Arboretum. The staff who follow us will find record notations, archive photographs, and scarred trees to document the immediate loss of 45 trees and major damage to another 100 in the collection, and the loss of approximately 30 native trees from the Arboretum's natural Opposite: Albert W Bussemtz fallen tuhp trees (1985J. exammes one and 20 from the Case Estates woods. Gloria struck on a Friday afternoon, and although several staff members surveyed the grounds for damage after the storm had passed, it was not until Monday morning that a full evaluation could be made and the task of cleaning up could begin. As curatorial staff charted damage, the grounds staff were already at work clearing the road and path system. The entire grounds staff of nine was assigned to clean-up for a week, at the end of which time the roads and paths were clear and dangerous hanging limbs had been removed. The task will continue for some time, however. Fall planting had just begun when the hurricane struck, and although almost a third of the plants scheduled for addition to the Collections this fall could be set aside for spring planting, there were a thousand plants still to be added before the planting season drew to a close. Renovation work m the Bradley Rose Garden could not be delayed until spring. The two-man pruning crew, with additional help as available, will continue storm clean-up through the winter. Gary L. Koller, the Arboretum's Managing Horticulturist, estimates that the total cost of removal will be $40,000 or more, and that the value of plants lost is in excess of $100,000. areas Damage As to the Collections drawn up, the propadvised of those plants for damage reports were agation staff were which immediate action was necessary. Scion material was collected from fallen trees before desiccation could render the material unusable, and put in cold storage to await the proper time for grafting onto suitable understock. Roots were dug from beneath a severed Euptelea, in hopes that suckers will continue the lineage through another generation. When possible, damaged trees will be allowed to of the 34 stand until the proper time for scions or cuttings to be taken, as this will increase the chances of success. Fortunately, few of the casualties were not represented by specimens elsewhere in the Collections; the aesthetic damage to the Arboretum is significant, however. Major damage was done to the hickories (Carya spp.\/, oaks \/Quercus spp.\/, ), maples (Acer spp.), ashes (Fraxinus spp.) and poplars (Populus spp.), and significant damage to the magnolias (Magnolia spp.), willows (Salix spp.), and lindens (Tilia spp.). Among the es are: most distressing individual loss(Liriodendron tulipi- D Two tulip trees fera), aged 79 and 91 years, one reaching 85 feet in height, torn from the hillside behind the Hunnewell Visitor Center; D A silver maple (Acer saccharinum \/, aged 104 years, which was so badly damaged that it will be removed from its prominent location along Meadow Road, while another of the same accession rower crown, lot, taller but with a narstanding nearby, was relatively A beautiful specimen of white pme (Pmus strobus), near the top of Bussey Hill, damaged (photograph at nghtJ by Glona. Many people considered it the most picturesque tree m the enure Arboretum Already well estabhshed when the Arboretum was founded m 1872, the tree had surmved many natural disasters, mcludmg a stnke by hghtmng, before Glona broke Its beautiful overhangmg hmb, shown mtact m the left-hand photograph Because the hmb grew at a right angle to the trunk, extensive amounts of reaction wood had been deposited along its lower surface m response to the tremendous load it therefore had to carry. Both photographs were taken by Peter Del Tredici. 35 untouched; D A European larch (Larix decidua), aged 99 years, uprooted near the Walter Street Gate; D Three Japanese larches (Larix leptolepis), aged 65 years, two uprooted and one broken at 12 feet, on Peter's Hill; D Euptelea polyandra, aged 93 years, and the only remaining representative of seeds collected by C. S. Sargent in Japan, severed at its base; D The Arboretum's only plant of x Crataegosorbus miczurimi, an intergeneric hybrid of hawthorn and mountam ash, also severed at the base; ~ A Carolina hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana~, aged 99 years, snapped off at 12 feet, on Peter's Hill; 0 A particularly handsome pin oak (Quercus palustris\/, aged 46 years, uprooted from its prominent location at the mtersection of Valley Road and Conifer Path; and D A magnificent purple beech (Fagus sylvatica forma atropunicea), one of the trees which remain from the original plantings at the Bussey Estate, badly broken but still standing; although only about half of the crown remams, it is expected that the tree will not In addition, Donald Wyman's article on the selection of trees based on their performance in the hurricane of 1938, and the rehabilitation of trees injured by hurricanes, which was published in Arnoldia, Volume 14, Numbers 9-10, October 15, 1954, is still in print. Copies are available for $2.50. Address orders to: \"Hurricane,\" Publications, The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. Prepayment is required. ~enmfer L Hicks, curatorial assistant, mamtams the records of the Arboretum's Lmng Collections. have to be removed. Earlier Hurricanes With the exception of Hurricane Diane in 1955, whose major damage appears to have been flooding, every hurricane that has hit the Arnold Arboretum has been recorded m the Bulletm of Popular Information, or in Arnoldia, as follows: Bulletin of Popular Information, Series 4, Volume 6, Number 12, October 7, 1938 (the \"Great Hurricane\" of 1938); Arnoldia, Volume 14, Number 8, September 24, 1954 (Hurricanes Carol and Edna); and Arnoldia, Volume 20, Number 7, September 23, 1960 (Hurricane Donna). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botany, The State of the Art: A Practical Guide to Woody Plant Micropropagation","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24881","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ea726.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART A Practical Guide to Woody Plant Micropropagation John The W Einset spinoff from basic research on the physiology of plants, plant micropropagation is a simple, straightforward-and commercially profitabletechnique Although its commercial use as a method for multiplying plants is still fairly new, tissueculture propagation (micropropagation) has already had a significant impact on the way people think about and handle plants. The example of pyrethrum (Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium) is especially striking. During the last 15 years this plant has been exploited extensively as a source of chemicals, known as pyrethrins, that are used as \"natural\" insecticides. In fact, it is estimated that over 150 million pyrethrum flowers are harvested every day of the year in East Africa or Ecuador for the production of pyrethrin insecticides. Given the size of the industry (50 billion flowers per year), it is obvious why micropropagation is being used for pyrethrum. After all, the technology enables growers to obtain rapid, clonal mulitiplication of plants that produce exceptionally high concentrations of pyrethrins. With this capability, yearly increases in superior plants equivalent to one million-fold multiplication are obtained, and the total level of pyrethrin production is increased significantly. As a matter of fact, the pyrethrum example probably represents the single most important use of plant-tissue-culture technology in the world today. Micropropagation is also becoming very important for woody plants, although the scale of this enterprise is minor compared to the pyrethrum industry. At the present time micropropagation is utilized commonly for species in two families, the Rosaceae (roses, apples, raspberries, and strawberries) and the Ericaceae (rhododendrons, azaleas, and mountain laurels). While it is not yet clear that the technology will be feasible with all woody species, the prospects are very promising for several of them. Because of this, the most spectacular applications for micropropagation are undoubtedly still in the future. As a technique, micropropagation represents a direct, practical extension of scientific methodology devised over 30 years ago to study fundamental aspects of plant physiology, especially the role of phytohormones in growth and development. Essentially, micropropagation takes advantage of the control of plant development that can be exerted by phytohormone treatments. Thus, although tissue-culture media contain over 20 different chemical constituents, and in 37 spite of the fact that environmental factors such as light intensity and temperature need to be carefully monitored, the crucial variable in micropropagation is the phytohormone content of the medium. (An article on \"Chemicals That Regulate Plants,\" which appeared in the Spring 1985 issue of Arnoldia, discusses other practical uses of phyto- hormones.) The Three Methods of on Micropropagation the plant, micropropagation Depending involves one of three possible strategies: (1)\/ regeneration from callus, (2) somatic embryogenesis (embryo formation from vegetative cells), or (3) shoot multiplication. ~ Regeneration from callus was demonstrated first in the early 1950s by Professors F. K. Skoog and C. O. Miller, codiscoverers of the cytokinin class of phytohormones, both of whom were working at that time at the University of Wisconsin. These investigators showed that stem segments taken from tobacco plants will proliferate an unorganized mass of tissue, known as callus, when placed on a nutrient medium containing cytokinin and auxin. If the callus is then subdivided into smaller pieces and these are placed on fresh media, growth will continue. Significantly, the type of growth depends on the kinds and quantities of phytohormones added to the medium, especially the relative levels of cytokinin and auxin. Thus, high cytokinin-to-auxin concentrations result in shoot formation from callus, low ratios result m root formation, while intermediate ratios result in continued callus proliferation. Spectacular as this classic demonstration of plant developmental control is, there are surprismgly few plant species that respond in tissue cultures as tobacco does. Even though callus can be produced from practically any plant, the ability of these calluses to form shoots and roots in response to phytohormone treatments is rare. ~ By contrast, somatic embryogenesis has already been utilized for species in over 25 different families. Like regeneration from callus, somatic embryogenesis involves an initial stage of callus formation, in this case using a medium containing auxin as the only phytohormone. The callus is then recultured on a medium lacking phytohormone or on medium with cytokinin. Often, several suc- 1 Figure Steps m the Micropropagation of Woody Plants Woody-plant micropropagation mvolves a shootmuluphcation cycle usmg controlled cytokmm treatments and a senes of treatments to cause the rootmg of cuttings and the hardenmg of plantlets Figure 2. The Chemical Structures of Some Cytokinins. Chemically, naturally occurnng cytokmms are considered to be denvatmes of adenme, a basic bmldmg block of several important plant consutuents Thidiazuron, a synthetic cytokmm that has been shown to be effectme m micropropagation, is a phenylurea cytokmm. 38 cessive passages are required before true embryos are formed. The technique, therefore, depends in large part on the finesse of the tissue culturist, a skill demonstrated first by Professor F. C. Steward of Cornell University, who was able to obtain somatic embryos from carrot tissue cultures during the late in shoot can give rise to plants. Often multiplication, explants respond almost immediately to the high cytokinin concentration of the medium by proliferat- that ultimately ing new shoots. one In these cases, a Stage II shoot a multiplication has the potential of producing million shoots in year, starting from 1950s. O The third technique, shoot multiplica- almost be considered as the \"standard methodology\" as far as woody plant micropropagation is concerned. Exploited especially by Professor T. Murashige of the University of California at Riverside, who was involved in the early development of this technology for propagation, the method starts with a growing shoot tip and uses media with high cytokinin concentrations to promote growth and to overcome apical dominance. The result of this treatment is the production of a branched shoot system, which is subdivided. Individual shoots are then used for further shoot multiplication, or they are rooted. tion, can single growing tip. ~ Stage III involves all the manipulations required for establishment of tissue-culturederived plants in soil. If, for instance, shoot multiplication is used for Stage II, then Stage III technology consists of a rooting treatment that produces plantlets and then a gradual process of acclimation (hardening) of these plantlets to the lower humidity and increased light intensity of the greenhouse or outdoor environment. Depending on the tenderness of the plantlets obtained from tissue culture, hardening may last two to eight weeks. - The Medium Stages of Micropropagation According to Professor Murashige, all methods of plant micropropagation involve three basic types of manipulations, designated as Stage I, Stage II, and Stage III. LJ During Stage I, establishment of the aseptic culture, an \"explant\" (part of a stock plant) is cleaned, disinfected, and placed on a tissue-culture medium. The objective of Stage I is to obtain a living and growing plant The tissue free from microbial contamination. Surprising as it may seem, this goal is usually the most difficult thing to achieve in micro- surpnsingly large number of nutrients are by tissue cultures, at least in comparison to the requirements of whole plants. Thus, in addition to the expected inorganic (mineral) nutrients, media for tissue cultures need to contain sugar (e.g., sucrose, or cane sugar), at least two vitamins, and one or more phytohormones. Presumably, whole plants A needed generate all of these additional nutrients internally, although their production must be restricted to specific tissues. In fact, it is likely that localized vitamin and phytohormone synthesis is an important mechanism coordinating growth and function within plants. Usually, inorganic media called as a propagation. ~ Stage II, also known as the stage of pro- pagule multiplication, sometimes coincides with Stage I, especially when shoot multiplication is used. The aim of Stage II is the rapid increase in shoots or other structures nutrients are added to standard mixture of salts. The so\"Murashige and Skoog salts\" (\"MS salts\"), for example, contain about 15 different salts, carefully formulated into a mixture that furnishes all of the inorganic requirements of tissue cultures, e.g., nitrogen (N), 39 phosphorus (P), potassium (K), and sulfur (S). Even though the MS salts mixture was originally devised for tobacco tissue cultures, experience has shown that it is adequate for most other plants, at least during initial attempts at micropropagation. Sucrose and vitamms (thiamine, i-mositol, pyndoxine, and nicotinic acid) can be added ized water, we add pyridoxine and nicotinic acid to complete the basal medium. Most commercial nurseries, on the other hand, prefer to add every component, mcluding each of the MS salts, separately. As so often happens, the scale at which one is working determines the most economical method of operation. Of course, the key component of the medium is the phytohormone; specifically, when micropropagation mvolves shoot multiplication, the cytokinin. Although over 200 different cytokinins are available, they all seem to have similar effects on plants, so it is usually only necessary to test a few compounds to find an effective cytokinin. Almost separately or, alternatively, in preformulated mixes. At the Arnold Arboretum, we use a formulation called \"Murashige's Mmimal Organics Medium\" (actually a misnomer), which contams sucrose, the vitamins thiamine and i-mositol, and MS salts, all in the proper proportions. After dissolving this mixture in the appropriate volume of deion- Figure 3 The Tissue Culture Rooms at Nourse Farm are raspberry plants m Whateley, Massachusetts. Nearly 500,000 strawberry and produced annually by micropropagation at Nourse Farm 40 all plants, for example, respond well to a medium containing the basal components plus 1 milligram per liter (mg\/1) to 5 mg\/1 of the cytokinin N6-benzyladenine (abbreviat- I is ed BAP, BA, or, preferably, bzl6Ade). (One mg\/ equal to one part per million [ppm].) Likewise, N6-isopentenyladenine (2iP or i6Ade), kinetin, and thidiazuron are usually also effective as cytokinins, though bzl6Ade is generally the best choice. A curious exception to this rule involves ericaceous species such as rhododendrons, azaleas, and kiwifruits, which respond poorly, if at all, to bzl~Ade but exhibit extensive shoot proliferation with i6Ade. Obviously, there is something unique about the biochemistry of cyto- kinin in these plants. Once all nutrients have been incorporated into the medium, the mixture is supplemented with 1 percent agar and then heated to dissolve the agar, and then the medium is dispensed into the culturing container. Practically any type of container can be used, the only requirements being that it permit light to enter, provide for ventilation, and not be destroyed by the heat involved in sterilization. At the Arnold Arboretum, we use glass test tubes with plastic caps, but have used baby-food jars, canning jars, and even kitchen cooking pans. The agar provides an inert, jelly-like port that prevents the plant suptissues from Figure 4. Subdmdmg Clusters of Shoots and Planting Indmdual Shoots on Fresh Cytokmm-Contammg Medium under Stenle Conditions. This procedure is carned out after each cycle of shoot muluphcation 41 sinking to the bottom of the culture vessel and suffocating from lack of oxygen. To most tissue culturists, however, agar (several different brands are available) is one of the most troublesome aspects of micropropagation. As a way of illustrating some of the problems involved, consider that, first, it is necessary to dissolve the agar by heating so that it will Table 1. Chemical Constituents of a Standard Tissue-Culture Medium Used at the Arnold Arboretum for the Micropropagation of Several Woody Species by Shoot Multiplication Based largely on research conducted at the Umversity of Wisconsin m the early 1960s by F. Skoog, T Murashige, and E. M. Linsmaler-Bednar. be uniformly distributed throughout the medium. Next, this very hot, agar-containing medium needs to be dispensed into the culture vessels both accurately and quickly, before the agar solidifies. If all has gone well to this point, the culture vessels can now be sterilized (for 15 minutes at 120 C in an autoclave, or for 30 minutes in a pressure cooker) and, after cooling, used for tissue culture. Unfortunately, this usually is not the end of problems with agar because, after growth is completed and the plant tissues have been removed, it becomes necessary to redissolve the agar so that the used medium can be discarded-not by pouring it down the sink, however, as the agar will gel and plug the drain! Explants for Shoot Multiplication By far the best starting material for micropropagation is a growing stem tip from a vigorous, healthy plant. Although seedlings are usually better sources for tips than mature specimens, the disadvantage of using seedlings is that the characteristics of the resulting adult plants are unpredictable. On the other hand, when shoot explants are taken from mature plants, one can be fairly certain that the individuals produced by micropropagation will be identical (that is, \"clonal\") to the stock plant. Optimally, shoot tips are collected during the early flush of vegetative growth in spring rather than during summer, when growth has ceased, or during fall, when buds have entered their dormant period. The size of the explant depends on the objective of the micropropagation procedure. If the goal is to use micropropagation to obtain virus-free plants, for example, it is usually necessary to excise only the terminal millimeter of the growing pomt, to clean it, and then to plant ' this tissue onto the nutrient medium. Unfortunately, these manipulations require con- 42 siderable manual skill and, therefore, the of success when small explants are used is quite low. Because of this, if the goal is solely clonal multiplication, it is easier to begin with shoot tips that are 0.5 to 1 probability centimeter long. one can expect fivefold increase in shoot number every six weeks, a rate that theoretically would produce more than a million shoots, starting from a smgle tip, withm 12 months. cation. On the average, approximately a After they have been collected from the stock plant, the tips need to be disinfected thoroughly, to remove all traces of microbial contamination. At the Arnold Arboretum, we normally wash explants in detergent and then rinse them under tap water. Since these steps effectively clean the shoot tips of nearly all bacteria and fungal spores, the few remaining microorganisms can be killed simply by a soak in 1\/10-strength household bleach (the active ingredient being sodium hypochlorite) for 2 to 15 minutes. Tips from most plants can withstand a 10-minute bleach treatment, although some tissues are very tender and will brown and die under these conditions. For this reason, it is best to experiment with different times for the hypochlorite treatment when a new plant is being used for micropropagation. After they have been treated with hypochlorite, tips are transferred to sterile petri plates and a fresh cut is made at the base of each explant. The tips are then planted in nutrient medium with sterile forceps, and the cultures are incubated under light and temperature conditions that promote the optimal multiplication of shoots. We use artificial lighting recommended for houseplants and normal room temperature (75 F, or Rooting and Hardening Probably because they develop in the humid environment of the culture vessel and therefore have leaves that lack a protective cuticle, shoots produced through micropropagation are particularly sensitive to desiccation. It is essential, therefore, that they be maintained under moist conditions during Stage III. Several strategies have been used to accomplish this. In our laboratory, for instance, after dipping the bases of micropropagated shoots in a rooting powder, we transfer them to a humid plastic box containing moist vermiculite and a transparent cover. On the other hand, at Weston Nurseries in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, tissue-culture shoots of mountain laurels, rhododendrons, and azaleas are planted in the greenhouse, in beds of moist peat moss covered with polyethylene tents to maintain Nourse Farms in a humid environment. At Whately, Massachusetts, strawberry shoots are planted in a moist peat moss-soil mix, in a greenhouse equipped with a fogger-type humidifier. If the appropriate treatments are used, roots usually form on tissue-cultured cuttwo weeks. Once rooting occurred, the resulting plantlets begin to grow vigorously, and the gradual process of hardening them to lower humidities and higher light intensities can take place. With lilacs, for example, we incubate our covered, plastic boxes in the culture room for two weeks while roots are being initiated, and tings within about 24 C). has normally becomes apparent after weeks. Within about six weeks, it is usually necessary to subdivide the resulting shoot cluster and to use individual branches for further shoot multiplication on fresh medium or for plantlet production following a rooting treatment. Of course, the frequency of subculturing varies from species to species, as does the rate of multiplione to two Growth then we remove the we Two weeks later, the culture room to covers from the boxes. transfer the boxes from the greenhouse, where 43 under shade for four By this time, the micropropagated plantlets are hardened enough to be handled as any other plant would be. they are kept initially weeks and then in full sun. are common. For some purposes this desirable and, in fact, the variability that can be produced in tissue cultures is already being exploited commercially to obtain disease-resistant potato cultivars. plants is Often, plants produced by micropropagaare considerably more vigorous than conventionally propagated plants. This is hardly surprising in view of the optimal conditions of nutrient supply, moisture, and lighting under which they are grown. Genetically, micropropagated plants are identical to their stock plants, at least as long as shoot multiplication is used to produce them. If, however, the micropropagation method tion involves either regeneration from callus or somatic embryogenesis, then variant (mutant) Micropropagation For about $250, one can purchase practically all of the supplies needed to set up a micropropagation laboratory. This price includes enough Murashige's Minimal Organics Medium, vitamins, cytokinins, and agar for 2,500 cultures ($100), 500 sterile plastic petri dishes plus covers ($50), 250 culture tubes with plastic caps ($50), flasks and beakers for media preparation, and stainless-steel for- The Economics of Figure 5 The Rapid Mulriphcation of Raspberry Shoots by Micropropagation 44 scalpels, and blades. In addition to these items, one needs to be able to heat a medium (on a hot plate, for example) so that all of its components will be dissolved before it is dispensed to the culture tubes, and to sterilize a medium (with a pressure cooker, for example). Forceps and scalpels can be sterilized simply by dipping them in 95 percent alcohol and then burning the alcohol with a flame. A balance is also needed, unless one purchases chemicals already preweighed into lots. Of course, a transfer bench is required free from drafts, as is an artificially lighted incubation room equipped with racks for cultures. ceps, Commercial tissue-culture laboratories estimate that they spend approximately $0.50 for each plant they produce beyond Stage III of the micropropagation process. This estimate is calculated based on a minimum level of production (about 250,000 plants per year), at which several economies of scale become significant. In addition, the estimate fails to take into account expenses involved in developing refined technology for a new plant. Because of this, a newcomer to micropropagation will probably find that the costs per plant are much higher. Research in universities and private firms during the last few years has resulted in a rapidly expanding catalog of information about the precise conditions of Stages I, II, and III for over 200 different plant species. Unfortunately, this information is not always presented in a style that is comprehensible to the beginner. Even more serious is the tendency of some commercial laboratories to explain micropropagation in an almost mystical, surrealistic fashion when, in fact, the technology involves a principle (phytohormone control of development) that is both simple and straightforward. If you are genuinely interested in micropropagation, remember that patience, flexibility, and confidence in the scientific basis of the methodology are the most important requirements for success. _ W Emset, associate professor of biology m Harvard University, is a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. fohn Figure 6 A mg Shoots Micropropagator at Nourse Farm Subdmd- before 'Iransfernng Them to Soil m the Greenhouse (Shoots produced by tissue culture can either be used for further shoot multiplication, or they can be rooted J "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":45,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24880","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ea36d.jpg","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Manual of Cultivated Comfers, by Gerd Krussmann. Edited by Hans-Dieter Warda; translated by Michael E. Epp. Gilbert S. Daniels, technical editor. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1985. 361 pages, 160 plates, 225 figures. $65.00. RICHARD WARREN Gerd Krussmann, director of the botanical garden in Dortmund, Germany, died in 1980 having made many outstanding contributhe identification and classification of plants. His most prominent interest was the Comferae. His first book on the subject, small m size, Die Nadelgeholze, was published in 1955, second and third editions following in 1960 and 1979. After the first two met with great acclaim, Krussmann prepared a more exhaustive treatise in 1972, Handbuch der Nadelgeholze. The second edition tions to English. The translation is superb, but a slight clarification is m order: the English title, Manual of Cultivated Conifers, is etymologically accurate but might be misinterpreted as applying only to cultivated plants. This is not so. The book includes all conifers of whatever origin and is surely the most exhaustively complete modern work available on the subject. The German title, Handbuch der IVadelgeholze, carries no implication of restriction to cultivated plants. The book is certainly the most up-to-date of any possible competitors. The classification the author uses arranges the comfers into six families, the Taxaceae being in a different order, the Taxales. He mcludes in appeared m 1983. Its completion was interrupted by Dr. Krussmann's death, but Dr. Hans-Dieter Warda of the botanical garden at Hamburg completed the work. The English translation is by Michael Epp under the auspices of the Timber m addition the other gymnosperms, touching some depth on the Taxales and to a lesser extent on the Gnetales. The scope of coverage of the subject reaches from the fossil record to such recently described genera as Microbiota, Falcatifolium, Dacrycarpus, and Decussocarpus. Chrysolanx is mentioned as a modern synonym for Pseudolarix. The listing of infraspecific forms and culin Press. A modern German statement of interest outstandingly comprehensive. For example, the sum of the cultivars of Chativars is maecyparis lawsoniana is 241, 25 more than in the 1972 edition and 42 more than m Den Ouden and Boom's Manual of Cultivated Conifers, published in 1965. A helpful feature of the work are the hardiness-zone maps of Europe and Asia as well ushered m by Ludwig Beissner's (1853-1927) Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde in 1891. In the dedication to his 1955 volume, Krussmann gave Beissner full recogmtion of his pioneer work, and subsequent publications show him to be conscious of the tradition he is part of. The present volume is the most elegant in format and the first to be translated into was the conifers of North America, and the small-scale, but maps of the ranges of most of the genera and of the important species. The illustrations are profuse and well as clear, 47 selected, aimed primarily at instruction rather than decoration. They are drawings and en face and in all done in heavy black section, buds, lines and shadmgs, several in one display for comparison. They serve their purpose admirably, but one feels that a more delicate technique would have been more pleasing. The author has included many excellent blackand-white photographs, mostly of foliage and plant habits. The authors have used as aids in the identification of the plants not only keys, where the dichotomous descriptions are often guided by symbols rather than numbers, but tabular treatment of the contrast between characteristics of the species within a genus. This latter technique is helpful, for it is often less demanding on the reader's eye. There is a good section listing botanical terms and their meanings in English, French, Dutch, German, and Latin. This was not present m the 1972 edition. It is supplemented by a table focussing on terms used in the book itself, arranged m the order of the conventional handling of descriptions: habit, stem, leaves, flowers, cones, seeds, \"fruits.\" The authors have carried on the custom of listing important collections of conifers around the world, a very beneficial step for rounding out the reader's knowledge and a useful guide to travel or correspondence in the field of conifers. There is one inconvenience, not really a defect or major drawback. Readers of books in English are accustomed to a comprehensive index at the end of a work. Relying on the alphabetical arrangement of genera (which obtains in this book) involves more turning silhouettes of cross cones, leaves exhaustive index, even though space obviously is saved by the present method. Krussmann's Manual of Cultivated Conifers is a volume that anyone working with conifers, whether a beginning student or a mature expert, should have available for reference. We are grateful to have it now in English translation. an of pages than with Richard Warren, M.D, Arboretum, is an Associate of the Arnold 's honorary curator of the Arboretum's Comfer Collection Books reviewed m Arnoldia may be purchased from the e Gift Shop of the Arnold Arboretum. Please call (617) 524-1718 or write for details. Opposite. Cones of several species of Keteleena, a genus of tall, evergreen trees of Abtes-hke appearance from Chma and Taiwan In cultmation, the trees are often only shrubby m habit From Manual of Cultivated Conifers, by Gerd Krussmann. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23269","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160ab26.jpg","title":"1986-46-1","volume":46,"issue_number":1,"year":1986,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Case for Monkey-Mediated Evolution in Big-Bracted Dogwoods","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":9,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24878","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270896f.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Eyde, Richard H.","article_content":" RESEARCH REPORT ~ Monkey-Mediated Evolution in Big-Bracted Dogwoods The Case for Richard H. Eyde in warm monkeys are blind to red and live only American big-bracted dogwoods produce only simple fruits Because New World regions, -- ---- - - Say \"dogwood\" to anyone from eastern North America and the plant that comes to mind is Comus florida, called flowering dogwood because four petal-like bracts beneath each tight flower cluster make a cluster look like one big showy flower. Dogwoods with such blossoms are a minority. Most of the 50-plus species in the dogwood genus-Cornus in the wide Linnaean sense-bear broadly branching flower clusters in which bracts are rudimentary or lacking. Dwarf comels-C. canadensis and two similar species-have showy-bracted blossoms and tight clusters, but the bracts, like the plants themselves, are small. Besides C. florida, the subgroup with big-bracted clusters includes C. nuttallii of western North America and C. disciflora, a mountain tree of Mexico and Central America. (The bracts of C. disciflora are like those of C. florida and C. nuttallii only in the bud; they wither and fall off when buds turn into blossoms.) There are big-bracted dogwoods in Asia, too. Of the 19 species recin recent treatments (Poyarkova, 1950; Fang, 1953; Hu, 1980; Hu and Soong, 1981only C. kousa is widely known and grown in North America. Big-bracted dogwoods, American and Asian, a common evolutionary origin: their chemistry attests to that (Bate-Smith et al., 1975), as do serological experiments (Brunner and Fairbrothers, 1978) and cases of crossbreeding (Orton, 1969; Bean, 1970; Bond, 1984; Santamour and McArdle, 1985). The ease with which they hybridize weighs heavily against the taxonomic splitting of bigbracted dogwoods into two genera, Dendrobenthamia and Cynoxylon, a practice met with often enough to need condemning. Though most species of Comus have white, blue, or blue-black fruits, the fruits of showybracted species (dwarf cornels included) are red. Fruits of Old World members of the bigbracted subgroup differ from their New World counterparts, however, in that they are compound. [See the cover of this issue of Amoldia.Our flowering dogwood bears bunched fruits, the individuals parting readily from had the bunch: in C. kousa and other Asian members of the subgroup, flowers can be separated, but the separability is lost as flowers change to fruits. Ripe compound fruits look enough like fat strawberries that one species, C. capitata, is called strawberry dogwood, ognized 4 - The among the subgroups of Cornus. dogwood family but Cornus, and there only in the Old World members of one subgroup, students of dogwood evolution can tnfer with confidence that they are denved This diagram makes the comelian cherry subgroup (Cornus mas and allied species) more advanced than bractless dogwoods, yet swrtchmg these two branches of the diagram would not affect the denved status of compound fruits, and no matter which relative of Cornus is chosen as its nearest evolutionary neighbor, the conclusion remams that the change from simple fmtts to compound fruits occurred just once, as big-bracted dogwoods separated into today's Amencan and Asian forms evolutionary relationships compound fruits occur in no Because genus of the and the flesh of compound fruits is soft and sweet, unlike the tart or bitter flesh of dogwood fruits in general. [See the front-cover foldout.] When P. F. Maevskii (1881) examined fruits of Comus capitata microscopically, what he saw misled him. Seeing-he thought-free individuals, each set in a cup-like hollow, he concluded that adjoining fruits do not really unite, that they sink into an expanding fruit stalk as the complex ripens. Museum technician Stan Yankowski and I repeated Maevskii's work with a modern microtome-the anatomist's precise slicer-and a modem microscope, taking pains to look at all stages of growth, and we found true developmental fusion of the ovaries. (Dogwood ovaries are inferior; that is, petals, calyx lobes, and stamens are above the ovary, out of union's way.)\/ the stages can be seen at different levels in a half-ripe compound fruit. Stained serial sections through a fused region show normal epidermal cells, one layer for each of the adjoining ovaries, only at the fruit's surface. Within the fruit, the corresponding cells show signs of repeated division. They no longer have their typical rectangular outlines, and they interdigitate: cells from each epidermis penetrate the other. There are, in some places where epidermises once were, nests of the thick-walled, heavily staining cells called sclereids. As the cluster ripens to a sphere roughly half the diameter of a golf ball, tissues tear and cavities develop near the sclereids, hence the illusion of nonunion that Maevskii saw. Evolutionists from Darwin on have studied the selective pressures that make flowers Indeed, ; 5 diverse, but only recently have they taken of pressures working on the fruits of temperate regions (Thompson and Willson, 1979; Stiles, 1980, 1982, 1984; Stiles and White, 1982; Morden-Moore and Willson, 1982; Willson, 1983, Borowicz and Stephenson, in press). Thus, evolutionists have overlooked the fact that compound-fruited dogwoods pose the following problem: any reasonable diagram connecting Cornus to a neighboring group, and subgroups of Cornus to each other, shows that ancestral dogwoods had open flower clusters, that dogwoods with bunched flowers and ordinary fruits came later and gave rise to those with compound fruits. The change to bunched flowers likely had to do with pollinating insects, but the further change to compound fruits must have been dispersal-linked. What new means of dispersal would have made a compound fruit a betterment? And why are dogwoods with such fruits found only in the Old World? so Borowicz and note enough thermore, ness to cause an Stephenson, in press) but not evolutionary change. Fur- of a the beasts are color-blind: the redfruit means nothing to them. Robins and other migratory birds are the principal dispersers of the flowering dogwood (Baird, 1980). They also peck at fruits of kousa dogwoods introduced to gardens. By tearing up a compound fruit, they doubtless spread some of its seed-containing stones. (As in peaches, inner cell layers of the fruit wall turn into a \"stony\" housing for the seed. Most dogwoods have two seeds per stone, and a compound fruit has several stones.) But birds the size of robins, which are so well fitted to the bean-sized individual fruits of New World dogwoods, can hardly have provided pressure for the change to compound fruits. Grouse eat dogwood fruits, but tests with quails and pheasants indicate the gallinaceous gizzard does a dogwood stone more harm than good (Krefting and Roe, 1949). In Asia, hornbills and fruit pigeons spread largefruited plants efficiently, but the birds are tropical, and Asiatic dogwoods, like our own, are largely temperate. Mice, raccoons, and bears disperse some dogwood stones (Martin et al., 1951; Rogers and Applegate, 1983; Stamed microtome secuons of developmg Cornus sp frul ts. o magnified b The A somewhat oblique slice through the entire fruit of Cornus capitata, I1 times \/See the front cover foldout of this issue of Arnold~a \/ area marked with a rectangle in a, enlarged to about 70 times (Liquid-preserved specimen taken from a wild tree in Nepal ~D H Nicol son 2371~ c A section like that in b, but thinner and from a developing fmtt of Cornus kousa (Liquid-preserved specimen from a cultivated dogwood on the grounds of the Smithsonian Institution ) Groups of sclereids (arrows) have differentiated where ovaries have fused 6 That leaves monkeys. Monkeys disperse seeds and stones of fleshy fruits by spitting and by voiding (Hladik and Hladik, 1967, 1972; Lieberman et al., 1979). Macaques, the northernmost of monkeys, see color much as human beings do (De Valois and Jacobs, 1968); they eat Cornus fruits, both simple and compound (Uehara, 1977; Maruhashi, 1980), and they once ranged almost everywhere within the range of compound-fruited dogwoods. A critic could object that matching the ranges of macaques and dogwoods merely shows that both of them are creatures of the deciduous forest. Taking fossils into account, however, boosts the case for monkey-mediated evolution. Macaque remains are found in the Pliocene and Pleistocene of Asia as far north as Beijing and Korea and at sites in Europe dating back almost to latest Miocene, when macaques are thought to (Delson, 1980; Sohn, 1983, 1984a, 1984b). Lately, European specialists have also learned to spot the remains of dogwood subgroups that have disappeared from Europe. Some of the Miocene impressions once called \"persimmon calyxes\" are now thought to be the four bracts of Comus (Gregor, 1982), and fossil fruits, when they are well preserved, can be identified more accurately than that. Size, shape, surface features, and internal structure mark a fruit stone as belonging to the big-bracted subgroup. Then, if it is ovoid or ellipsoid, it must be from a solitary fruit like that of C. florida. Such stones occur in Oligocene and Miocene brown-coal deposits of the German Democratic Republic (Mai and Walther, 1978). ). If, however, a stone is asymmetrical, tapered to the base, and faceted, it is from a compound fruit. Only younger beds have yielded have emerged from Africa The natural ranges of macaques Fruit stones (hatchmg) and compound-frmted dogwoods (squares). like those of flowering dogwood (upper inset) occur as fossils in East Germany, stones from compound-fruited dogwoods occur at younger sites m Alsace and near the Dutch-German border Compound fruited dogwoods likely came to some sites-the Ryukyus, for example-with birds or people Five thousand years of tilling made the blank spot in the Yellow River bastn The macaque range is from Zhang et al ~1981~, Fooden (1982), and Wolfheim \/1983\/ The dogwood range is from the Herbanum of the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbanum, the U S National Herbanum, and all germane flonsnc works 7 such: mid-Pliocene locality near Cologne (Burgh, 1978, 1983), another in Alsace (Geissert and Gregor, 1981 and a later Pliocene locality at Tegelen in the Netherlands (Mai, 1976). The Tegelen beds have also yielded bones of a macaque (Schreuder, 1945; see Berggren and Van Couvering, 1979, for information on the age of the Tegelen beds). Big-bracted dogwoods formerly extended round the Northern Hemisphere, and all had ordinary fruits until monkeys came in contact with them about five million years ago. Selection for a better monkey meal meant better scattering of seeds; so compound fruits replaced the simple ones, but only in Eurasia. America retains the older kind because the New World monkeys, blind to red (Terborgh, 1983) and tied to warmer regions, never took up foraging on dogwoods. The behavioral side of this scenario is testable. China and Japan have monkeys, dogwoods of both kinds (our kind in cultivation), and primatologists to do the testing. a References Baird, J. m an eastern W. 1980. The selection and use 5f fruit by birds USA forest. Wilson Bulletin 92: 63-73. Bate-Smith, E. C., I. K. Ferguson, K. Hutson, S. R. Jensen, B. J. Nielsen, and T. Swam. 1975. Phytochemical interrelationships m the Comaceae. Biochemical Systemaucs and Ecology 3: 79-89. [This is an important work for recognizing natural subgroups within Cornus, but one conclusion is at odds with my reasoning on dogwood evolution. The authors say hedgingly that C. capitata, despite its compound fruits, seems chemically closest to ancestral Cornus. I read their data differently m a review I am writing of dogwoods and their allies.] Bean, W. J. 1970. l~ees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bnush Isles, 8th edition, Volume 1. London: John Murray. [Page 704 mentions the probable crossing of Cornus kousa with C. nuttalln.] Berggren, W. A., and J. A. Van Couvenng. 1979. Quaternary. In Treatise on Invertebrate Paleontology, Part A, 505-543. Boulder, Colorado, and Lawrence, Kansas: Geological Society of Amenca and University of Kansas Press. Bond, J. 1984. Some North American dogwoods at Windsor. The Garden 109: 154-155. Borowicz, V. A., and A. G. Stephenson. In press. Fruit composition and patterns of dispersal of two Cornus spp. Oecologia Brunner, F., and D. E. Fairbrothers. 1978. A comparative serological investigation within the Comales. Serological Museum Bulletin 53: 2-5. Burgh, J. van der. 1978. The Pliocene flora of Fortuna-Garsdorf I. Fruits and seeds of angiosperms. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 26: 173-211. [Stones that Burgh would recognize in 1983 as those of a compound-fruited dogwood are here called Carpohthus natans.] 1983. Allochthonous seed and fruit floras from the Pliocene of the lower Rhme basm. Review of Palaeobotany and Palynology 40: 33-90. Delson, E. 1980. Fossil macaques, phyletic relationships and a scenario of deployment. In The Macaques: Studies in Ecology, Behavior and Evolution, edited by D. G. Lindburg, 10-30. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. De Valois R. L., and G. H. Jacobs. 1968. Primate color vision. Science 162: 533-540. Fang, W.-P. 1953. Notes on Dendrobenthamia. Acta Phytotaxonomica Smica 2: 89-114; plates 11-16. [In Chinese with English summary.] Fooden, J. 1982. Ecogeographic segregation of macaque species. Pnmates 23: 574-579. . Acknowledgments For thoughts and information, I thank C. Badgley, B. Beehler, A. K. Behrensmeyer, V. A. Borowicz, E. Delson, E. S. Morton, A. F. Richard, M. Leighton, J. R. Oppenheimer, S. D. Ripley, B. B. Simpson, E. W. Stiles, J. N. Thompson, M. F. Willson, and, above all, R. W. Thorington. Dan Nicolson collected Cornus capitata for me years ago. D. E. Boufford, S. A. Spongberg, and S.-Y. Wang eased the way to publication. 8 Geissert, F., and H.-J. Gregor. 1981. Eme neue Elsassische gen, Phozan-Flora, die \"Saugbagger-Flora\" der Kiesgrube von Sessenheim (Bas-Rhin). Couner Forschungsmstitut Senckenberg 50: 59-71. [Dendrobenthamia tegehensis is listed on page 64.] Gregor, H -J. 1982. Die Jungtertiaren Floren Suddeutschlands ; Palaokarpologie, Phytostrarigraphie, Palaookologle, Palaokhmatologie. Stuttgart : F. Enke. [\"Persimmon sepals\" reidentified as dogwood bracts, pages 119-120.] Hladik, C. M., and A. Hladik. 1967. Observations sur le role des primates dans la dissemmation des vegetaux de la foret gabonaise. Biologia Gabomca 3: 43-58. , of the Abteilung B, Palaobotamk 2 ~1\/ [19G4]. One figures m this earlier work-a photo of a suasrve Cornu stone from Wiesa near Kamenz-rs perenough that I added the locality to my H. S. map.] Martm, A. C., can Zim, and A. L. Nelson. 1951. AmeneJ Plants. New York: McGraw-Hill. Wildlife Maruhashi T. 1980. Feeding behavior and diet of the Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata yakuy on Yakushima Island, Japan. Primates 21: 141-160. Morden-Moore, A. L., and M. F. Wrllson. 1982. On the fruit color m Prunus and Rubus occidentalis: Field expenments. Canadian fournal of Botany 60: 1154-1160. Orton, E. R., Jr. 1969. Hybndizmg woody ornamentals. International Plant Propagators' Society Combmed Proceedmgs 19: 371-375. Poyarkova, A. 1. 1950. Sektsiya Benthamia (Lindl.) nakai roda Cynoxylon Raf. i ee vidy. Botanicheskie ecological significance of serotma and 1972. Disponibilites alimentaires et domames vitaux des primates a Ceylan. Terre et Vie 26: 149-215 Hu, W. K. 1980. Materiae ad floram Cornacearum sinicarum. Sichuan Daxue Xuebao (Zman Kexue) [Journal of Sichuan Umversity, Natural Sciences] . (3): 155-174. [In Chinese.] and T. P. Soong. 1981. Cornaceae. In Flora , Sichuanica (Spermatophyta), edited by Fang W. P., Volume 1, 320-395, 468-475. Chengdu: Chengdu Institute of Biology. [In Chinese.] Krefting, L. W., and E. I. Roe. 1949. The role of some birds and mammals m seed germmation. Ecological Monographs 19: 269-286. Lieberman, D.,J B. Hall, and M. D. Swame. 1979. Seed dispersal by baboons in the Shai Hills, Ghana. Ecology 60: 65-75. Maevskii, P. F. 1881. 0 stroenm ploda Benthamia fragi1980 Instituta Komarova Akademm Nauk SSSR 12' 181-195. Rogers, L. L., and R. D. Applegate. 1983. Dispersal of imem Matenaly Gerbanya Botamcheskogo fruit seeds by black bears. \/oumal of Mammalogy 64: 310-311. Santamour, F. S., Jr., and A. J. McArdle. 1985. Cultivar checklists of the large-bracted dogwoods: Cornus flonda, C. kousa, and C. nuttalln. Journal of Arbonculture 11: 29-36. Schreuder, A. 1945. The Tegelen fauna, with a description of new remams of its rare components ~LepSus 7: tobos, Archidiskos mendionahs, Macaca, fera. Izvestiya Obshchestva Lyubitelei Estestvoznamya, strozzy. Sohn, Archives Neerlandaises de Zoologie Antropologii i Etnografil 37: 28-30. [Yale Umversity's library has this ranty. Benthamia is Comus capitata See the front-cover foldout of this issue of Amoldia.] Mai, D. H. 1976. Dendrobenthamia tegehensis nov. sp.-Em neues ostasiatisches Florenelement im Altquartar Europas. Abhandlungen des Staatlichen Museums fur Mineralogie und Geologle zu Dresden 25: 113-123. and H. Walther. 1978. Die Floren der Haselbacher Sene im Weisselster-Becken (Bezirk Leipzig, DDR). Abhandlungen des Staathchen Museums fragifera 153-204. P. 1983. Early Man at Thrubong Cave No. 9 near Ch'ongju, Korea Seoul Laboratory of Prehistory, Museum of Yonser University. [In Korean with . English summary.] 1984a Early man m Korea. East Asian Tertiaryl Quaternary Newsletter 1. 61-62. . 1984b. The palaeoenvironment of Middle and , Upper Pleistocene Korea. In The Evolution of the East Asian Envmonment, edited by R. O. Whyte, Volume 2, 877-893. Hong Kong: Centre of Asian Studies, University of Hong Kong. f ur Mmeralogie und Geologie zu Dresden,Volume 28. [The mid-Oligocene fossils include Cynoxylon (Cornus) caroln, stones like those of modem C. disciflora, C. flonda, and C. nuttalhi. Mai, the fruit specialist of the Mai-Walther partnership, also mentions a suggestive similarity of C. caroln to Miocene stones that he called simply Comus his \"Die Mastixioideen-Floren im Tertiar sp. der Oberlausitz,\" Palaontologische Abhandlunm Stiles, E. W. 1980. Patterns of fruit presentation and seed dispersal m bird-disseminated woody plants m ist -. -. , eastern deciduous forest. Amencan Natural11G: 670-688. 1982. Fruit flags: Two hypotheses. Amencan Naturahst 120: 500-509. 1984. Fruit for all seasons. Natural History 93 (8): 42-53. and D. W. White. 1982. Additional information on temperate bird-disseminated fruits: Response the 9 Herrera's comments. Amencan Naturahst 120: 823-827. Terborgh, J. 1983. Five New World Pnmates A Study m Comparatme Ecology Princeton. Prmceton Umversity Press. [Page 77 treats vision and fructivoto Nakao, and T. Umesao, pages 187-232. Tokyo: ry.] Thompson, J. N., and M. F. Willson, 1979. Evolution of temperate fruit\/bird interactions: Phenological strategies. Evolution 33: 973-982. Uehara, S. 1977. A biogeographic study of adaptation of Japanese monkeys with regard to food habits. In Keishitsu, Shmka Reichorm [Morphology, Evolution, and Primates], edited by Y. Kato, S. Chuokoron-sha. [In Japanese.] Willson, M. F. 1983. Plant Reproductive Ecology. New York: Wiley. Wolfheim, J. H. 1983. Pnmates of the World. Seattle: University of Washmgton Press. Zhang, Y. Z., S. Wang, and G. Q. Quan, 1981. On the geographical distribution of primates m Chma. Journal of Human Evolution 10: 215-226. Richard H. Eyde is curator m the Department of Botany, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Reminiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroides","article_sequence":2,"start_page":10,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24877","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270856b.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Hu, H. H.; Chi-ju, Cheng Hseuh","article_content":"Professor Hsueh Chi-7u, the botamst who collected the type Photographed m October 1984 by Peter S. Ashton. specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides m 1946. Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides H. H. Hu & Cheng Reminiscences of Chi-ju Hsueh After forty years a Chinese botanist has still-vivid memories of his eager and determined quest for specimens of the dawn redwood When the Arboretum's Director, Peter S. Ashton, visited the People's Republic of China during the fall of 1984, he met Professor Hsueh Chi-ju, of Southwestern Forestry College, Kunming City Yunnan province. As a young man, Professor Hsueh had collected the type specimens of the recently discovered dawn redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides H. H. Hu ~7 Cheng. Director Ashton invited him to write a first-hand account of his collecting trips, for publication in Amoldia. To commemorate the approaching forty-fifth anniversary of the discovery of living Metasequoia trees, we are pleased to present herewith Professor Hsueh's fascinating account of his adventures. years ago, I happened to see the speciof Metasequoia glyptostroboides that Mr. Wang Zhang had collected at Modaoqi [knife-grinding] village in Wanxian county, China. The next year, following the route Mr. Wang had taken, I made two trips there to collect perfect specimens and to conduct further investigations. Although I am old now, the two trips are still fresh in my mem- Forty men nospermae, since the opposite arrangement ory. I graduated from the Forestry Department of the former National Central University at Zhongjing (Chungking) in 1945 and then worked on the gymnosperms, studying for a master's degree under the guidance of Professor Cheng Wanjun. One day in 1945, Wang Zhang, who worked at the Central Forestry Experimental Institute, sent a cone-bearing specimen collected at Modaoqi to Professor Cheng for identification. Its vernacular name was shui-shan (water fir), and it was somewhat similar to Glyptostrobus pensilis (G. lineatus). After making a preliminary identification, Professor Cheng considered that it might belong to a new taxon of the Gym- of the leaves and cone scales differed from that of G. pensilis and other members of the Taxodiaceae. Since the specimen Mr. Wang collected had no male inflorescences and since the cones had been picked up from the ground, we didn't know how the cones grew on the branches. In addition, we had no information on whether it was deciduous or evergreen, on its flowering season, or on its ecological characteristics and distribution. Further research being necessary, Professor Cheng naturally advised me to collect some perfect specimens and to make an investigation. Since we had no funds and everybody was quite hard up, I could only go to the place on my own, carrying a few pieces of simple baggage and specimen-clips. I left Chungking city by streamboat and, after two days, arrived at Wanxian county, on the northern bank of the Changjiang (Yangtze) River. After crossing the river, I had to walk 120 kilometers [72 miles] to my destination. In 1946 I made two trips from Chungking to 12 Modaoqi, in both times February and May, respectively, single-handedly. The First Trip to Modaoqi I remember that on my first trip the boat was moored in Fengdu county for the first night. On a hill behind the county town was a temple regarded in the Old China as an inferno where the \"Lord of Hell\" reigned. Dead souls were supposed to go there to register. So I made use of this rare opportunity to take a solitary night walk in this weird and dreadful place-evidence that I was full of vigor and in my youth. At that time there was no highway from Wanxian county to Modaoqi village. My trip curiosity Topography of the rugged region of central Chma m which the author travelled, often by narrow mountain trails, m his search for Metasequoia trees, as photographed from a NASA satell1te m 1975 He collected the type specimens from a tree just outside Modaoqi. The irregular white areas are snow-covered mountam ranges The population of trees Professor Hsueh was lookmg for when his time ran out, and he had to return to Wanxian, is labelled \"Metasequoia Valley\" The approximate range of Metasequoia is the hatched area bounded by tnangles. very difficult, the trails threading through the mountains being less than one foot wide. The region was inhabited by the Tu minority and had been isolated from the outside world for ages. During the war of resistance against Japan, the Hubei provincial government moved to Enshi county in its neighborhood; thenceforward its intercourse with the outside world had somewhat increased. Since this region was located on the border between Sichuan and Hubei provinces, an area characterized by difficult and hazardous roads, murder and robbery occurred frequently. It was regarded as a forbidding place and was seldom visited by travellers. On my trip, I set out from Wanxian and stayed at Changtanjing for the night. My fellow travellers were several pedlars. While we chatted around a fire at night, the innkeeper came to give us a warning: \"If you go any farther you will travel along a narrow valley cut by the Modaoqi River. Travel will become more dangerous and threatened with robbery, which often occurs at dangerous turns of the river. Travellers from both directions are robbed by being jammed together, or 'rounded up.' Therefore, if you see no travellers coming your way for a long time, it is very likely that a robbery has occurred ahead, was 13 and you had better take care. Only a few days ago we witnessed such an incident in this vicinity.\" The innkeeper then gave a vivid and horrible description of a murder. The poor pedlars, my fellow travellers, were very frightened. They dared not go any farther and returned to Wanxian the next morning. As for me, I was bent on finding that colossal tree and collecting more specimens, so I resolutely continued my trip along the route marked out by Mr. Wang, without any fear or hesitation. Finally, at dusk on the third day, I reached my destination safely. I set out immediately to search for that colossal tree despite hunger, thirst, and fatigue, and without consid- ering where I would take my lodging. It was February 19th, and cold. The tree was located at the edge of the southern end of a small street. In the tmlight nothing was discernible except the withered and yellowed appearance of the whole tree. My excitement cooled. \"Am I to bring back just some dried branches?\" I asked myself. The tree was gigantic; no one could have climbed it. As I had no specific tools, I could only throw stones at it. When the branches fell from the tree, I found, to my great surprise, that there were many yellow male cones and some female cones on the leafless branches. I jumped with joy and excitement. lookmg downstream along the Changyang (Yangtze) River All of the expedruons to the Metabegan m this bustlmg port situated over 900 miles from the nver's mouth. Photograph by the Amencan members of the 1980 Smo-Amencan Botamcal Expedition (B. Bartholomew, D E. Boufford, J L Luteyn, and S A Spongberg). The city of Wanxian, sequoia region 14 . The weather being cold, many plants were not yet in flower. Since I was short of money, I returned to Chungking city three days later. 'Irip to Modaoqi The second trip was in May of the same year, its purpose being to collect the cone-bearing ascertaining the natural distribution of Metasequoia and the flora of the region. On my way to Modaoqi, specimens about half I a The Second fagot mixed with some Podocarpus nagi. The wood was said to have been cut from a nearby mountain. I took two twigs and pressed them as specimens. This indicated that P. nagi, another primeval gymnosperm, occurred in the vicintiy. This time I took measurement of the in addition to [about feet] high and 7 meters [about 23 feet] in girth, and still grew vigorously. Metasequoia 122 tree. It was 37 meters day's walk from my destination, peasant carrying a came across a bundle of To ascertain the distribution of Metasequoia I interviewed many local people, but The tree m Modaoqi from which the author collected the type specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. The shrme he mentions has been dismantled but is shown m the drawmg on page 1 of this issue of Arnoldia. Photograph by the American members of the 1980 SmoAmencan Botamcal ExpedW on. of them knew. The innkeeper did tell that a whole stretch of shui-shan trees might be found at Xiahoe, in Lichuan county, Hubei province, about 50 kilometers [30 miles] away. As I had almost exhausted my travelling allowance, and as communication was extremely inconvenient, I had to give up my attempt to extend my trip to that place. Nevertheless, the innkeeper had provided an important clue for a more thoroughgoing exploration later. All I could do was-taking the original spot as a center-to make a reconnaissance within the area I could cover in one day. In a few days I had collected more than one hundred specimens. Two things impressed me deeply. One was that I came across whole stretches of Geastrum sp. (an earthstar fungus) mixed with small stones of a similar shape, forming a peculiar landscape. The other thing that impressed me was an incident. Not even by the day before my departure had I given up on the possibility of making a reconnaissance. At four in the afternoon of the last day, I met a traveller coming from the southeast and asked him where the shui-shan tree could be found. He told me that it could be got near a small village about 5 kilometers [3 miles] from where we were. Upon hearing this I almost broke into a run, intending to return to the inn before dark so that I might leave for Wanxian the next day. After trotting for a while, I met another peasant and asked him how far it was to the village. (I can't be none me 15 sure now, but it may have been Nanpin vil- lage in Lichuan county.) \"Five kilometers,\" he replied. Mountain people sometimes differ considerably in their gauge of distance. I was wavering as to whether to go or not. If I should go, it was certain that I could not have returned to the inn before dark and that the innkeeper would worry. Then, too, I had already hired a man to carry the specimens for me; we had agreed on the next morning as the time for departure. I could not break my word! But finally I made up my mind to make another reconnaissance for shui-shan. It was getting dark when I arrived at the small village. The villagers in their isolation seldom met outsiders, especially \"intellectuals\" such as I was. My arrival aroused their curiosity. They surrounded me, making all sorts of inquiries. But I was anxious to see the Metasequoia trees. When I was told that there were no such trees, I was very disappointed. However, I did not give up hope, and asked the villagers to accompany me to make one last reconnaissance. There was, indeed, no Metasequoia. I did collect some specimens of Tsuga chinensis, however. I intended to return to the inn in spite of the dark night. However, the friendly villagers had already made arrangements for my food and lodging, and had warned me repeat- Male as cone (left) and female cones of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. The author made his tnps to secure male as well female cones so that the new species could be given a botamcal descmption. Photographs by LeRoy C. Johnson. 16 \"Metasequoia Valley,\" near Xiahoe, quoia trees. m Photograph by the Amencan 1980 Note the absence of natural vegetauon around the conspicuous Metasemembers of the 1980 Smo-Amemcan Botamcal Expedition is Dracvmg, by an unknown the oldest Metasequoia artist, tree a of 420-year-old Metasequoia tree m known \"Metasequoia Valley,\" Xiahoe commune. This 17 edly of the frequent robberies on the way, insisting on my leaving the next day, escorted by some local people. Yet I could hardly fall asleep, thinking that I could not cause them so much trouble or break my word to the hired carrier. And then I thought that in the depth of the night there would be no \"bandits,\" since there would be no travellers to rob. So, at two in the morning I awoke my roommates, explaining to them the reason for my prompt departure, and left the villagers a letter of acknowledgment. Since the door was locked, I could only jump over the wall so as not to disturb others. In the moonlight I passed through stretches of dark pines, returning to the inn before dawn. That very day I left for Wanxian. the geomantic nature of the place. Thus, it because of feudalistic superstition that the tree had survived. Its age is estimated at four hundred years. With the advent of well regulated highway communication, the poor village of the former days changed its aspect long ago. The Metasequoia tree, which had survived the ravages of time and is reputed to be a \"living fossil,\" has not only persisted, but is being disseminated. Now, Metasequoia trees are \"settled\" in many countries of the world. It is only natural that people, when admiring this species of primeval tree, should wonder about its original habitat and should wish to know how it was discovered. was Geomancy Spared the Type Tree Modaoqi was a very small village, to the southeast of which stood the Chiyue Mountains. Its altitude was 1,744 meters [about 5,755 feet]. At the time it was in Wanxian county, Sichuan province. It was so called because of its situation at the source of the river. As modao in Chinese means \"knifegrinding\" and suggests sinistemess, the name was changed to Moudao, which means \"truthseeking\" in Chinese. At present it is under the jurisdiction of Lichuan county, Hubei province. As the local sequoia were as a sort shrine beside quite a few traditions about the Metasequoia. As a result, the villagers considered its fruit-bearing condition to be an indication of the yield of crops, and the withering of its twigs or branches a forecast of someone's death. It was also rumored that, some time after the founding of the Kuomin Tang government, some foreign missionaries who were passing through the village were willing to buy the tree for a big sum of money. The villagers refused to sell, however, because of people looked upon the Metaof divine tree, they built a it. Among the villagers there one of the many specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides that Professor Hsueh collected dunng his first tnp to Modaoqi This specimen, called a syntype, is m the Herbanum of the Arnold Arboretum. Photograph by Damd E. Boufford See next page The pnze. 18i Metasequoia was discovered in 1941 at Modaoqi in Sichuan Province near the border with Hubei Province by T. Kan (Gan Duo), of the Department of Forestry of National Central University. Kan, however, did not collect or make specimens, and it was not until 1943 that C. Wang (Wang Zhang) of the Central Bureau of Forestry made the first collections of herbarium material. The tree was initially thought to be a form of Glyptostrobus lineatus (Poiret) Drude (syn.: G. pensilis (Staunton) Koch), but W. C. Cheng (Cheng Wanjun), of National Central University in Nanjing, realized that it represented a new genus. As a result, Cheng sent one of his assistants, C. J. Hsueh (Xue Jiru), to collect more herbarium material in February and May of 1946. In the fall of 1946, H. H. Hu (Hu Xiansu), then director of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Beijing, received material from W. C. Cheng. Hu recognized that the newly discovered tree belonged to the genus Metasequoia, described in 1941 from Pliocene fossils by the Japanese botanist Shigeru Miki. Miki determined that certain fossils, which for nearly 100 years had been variously assigned to either Sequoia or Taxodium actually represented a new genus, which he named Metasequoia. At the time, he did not realize that a living species of Metasequoia was still extant in south-central China. -Reprmted from an article by Bruce Bartholomew, David E. Boufford, and Stephen A. Spongberg m the Journal of the Amold Arboretum, vol. 64, no. 1 (1983). Used with permission. . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Les Quatre Vents,' a Far-Northern Garden","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24875","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270816d.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Cabot, Francis H.","article_content":"\"Les Quatre Vents;' a Far-Northern Garden Francis H. Cabot snows Seizing opportunities presented by cool, moist summers and deep winter has been the key to success in this northern outpost of Zone 4 of the plant-hardiness zones of North America shows Zone 4 sweeping east from Lake Superior to the northern-tier states of New York and New England, thence north through New Brunswick to Newfoundland. As one follows the St. Lawrence River northeast from Montreal, Zone 4 appears to peter out on the north shore of the river a few miles north of the windswept Citadel of Quebec City, which overlooks the river at a point where it suddenly changes into an ever-widening inland sea that ultimatelv seven hundred miles to the northeast, becomes the Atlantic Ocean. The view to the northeast from the heights of Quebec over the thirty-mile-long Ile d'Orleans shows the southern shore of the St. Lawrence receding into the distance as it veers slightly to the east. The view of the north shore, on the other hand, is limited by Cap Tourmente, a stark, eighteen hundred-foot-high headland that curves sharply down to the roiled gray-green salt water. At this point, just beyond the northern tip of lle d'Orleans, the granite mass of the Laurentian Mountains, clothed in the spruce and fir mantle of the boreal forest, meets the salt-water coastline for the first time. From here on, these two elements-boreal forest and salt water-are the norm until one reaches the tundra and permafrost of Labrador. They dominate the ecological and horticultural life of the region. In the following article, Francis H. Cabot, who has been gardening in a small, far-northern outpost of Hardiness Zone 4, shares the horticultural insights he has gained over the course of the past twenty years. A detailed map The departure of the greater snow geese in late May and their return in early October have special significance at La Malbaie, Charlevoix County, Quebec, for their migration flights bracket precisely La Malbaie's gardening season, which is seven or eight weeks shorter than those of zones 5 and 6. For six weeks each spring, the great flock stops to feed on the sedge Scirpus amencanus that grows along the brackish marshes of the St. Lawrence River to the south of Cap Tourmente. The flock, now estimated to number over 250,000, thanks to its protected status, makes only this one stop in its 2,500mile journey from the coasts of Delaware and North Carolina to its breeding grounds on Ellesmere and Baffin islands. The seven hundred-mile flight from the Middle Atlantic coast lasts two hundred hours. No one knows how long the second leg of the flight, from Cap Tourmente to Baffin Island, lasts. Virtually the last farming area of any size along the northern shore of the St. Lawrence, La Malbaie, thanks to the tempering effect of its fourteen-mile-wide stretch of the river, Overleaf: Part of the terraced vegetable garden at \"Les Quatre Vents.\" The beds were constructed from trees killed by the spruce budworm Potatoes growm the bed m the foreground. The bed m the center contams sweet peas, that at the left, red currants. All photographs are by the author 21 Astilbe, delphimums, Cimicifuga racemosa, and Achillea taygetea m the perenmal border. Allium chnstophm (center), Primula flonndae, P. alpicola var luna, Lilium martagon var album, and Meconopsis betomcrfolia m bloom m shade garden Bed No 3, mth asulbe and Aruncus dioicus m the bed m the background. 22 , a microclimate of Zone 4 in an area of some twenty-five square miles surrounded by a relatively thin band of Zone 3 that soon becomes Zone 2. In the best of years La Malbaie enjoys both the cool summer evenings and the fog and mists of a maritime climate (its portion of the St. Lawrence warms to 48 degrees Fahrenheit in late summer), as well as the deep early snows of the boreal forest. If the snows arrive before the ground freezes and last throughout the winter, the horticulturist can proudly display plants that usually thrive only in the Himalayas or in Scotland. In the worst of years, when the snows don't come until it is too late, or even when an atypical winter thaw destroys the snow cover, it is another story, and a humbler horticultural outlook prevails. Most years the results are in between and are horticulturally enjoys of the quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), which the French Canadians call les trembles, and several kinds of Amelanchier, whose burnished-orange ments autumn foliage comple- satisfying. Limitations The in northern zones is the limited choice one has of trees and shrubs, yet this limitation does simplify the landscaper's task. At La Malbaie the wisest course often has been to use native (or naturalized) species for the backbone of the landscape plan. On the whole, the native species are a useful and appealing lot. The conifers are represented by the spruces Picea abies, P. glauca, and P. nigra; the balsam fir (Abies balsamea~; the American larch (Larix laricina); and the pines Pinus strobus, P. resinosa, and P. banksiana. Thuja occidentalis thrives near the shores of the St. Gardening principal drawback to gardening to Northern Lawrence, growing to majestic proportions, and Juniperus communis var. depressa a abounds. There are a few shoreline specimens of juniperus horizontalis, and Taxus canadensis is prevalent in the forest. Sorbus americana, the mountain ash, is everywhere, enlivening the late-summer and autumn landscape with its abundant clumps of red berries. There are groves and hillsides the tints of the red and sugar maples. Acer spicatum, the ubiquitous mountain maple, needs to be constantly weeded out of woodland areas, and A. pensylvanicum (moosewood) to be encouraged. While Betula lutea (yellow birch) can be found in the forests, far and away the best of the native trees is Betula papyrifera, the paper birch. Invariably decorative at all stages of its life, the paper birch enchances its surroundings whether it is used as a lawn specimen, in the garden, or as an allee. I cannot decide whether its bark is more beautiful in early youth, when it has fawn-like spots; in adolescence, when it develops coral and peach tints; or in maturity, when it takes on a pristine whiteness. In this northern setting the paper birch seems to be whiter than it is farther south and is hard to improve upon in the landscape. Many non-native species love the North also. The Lombardy poplar (Populus nigra 'Italica') achieves impressive heights at La Malbaie, for example, as does the Carolina poplar (P. canadensis). The former's relatively short life span and pruning needs at maturity give one pause, however, but, used as an accent or as a specimen, there is nothing quite so effective or so appropriate for French Canada. The Carolina poplar is far less demanding, it would appear, and longer lived. Undistinguished in its early years, the Carolina poplar achieves dignity and grace with age and can be a useful part of the landscape. The Amur maple (Acer ginnala), the earliest maple to take on color in the autumn, is also useful. Hardy to Zone 2, it forms a graceful, medium-sized tree but requires pruning and thinning as it matures. It is worth the trouble, though, for its brilliant scarlet foliage in September. Along one of the farm roads we have planted an allee of Amur 23 maple that is becoming increasingly colorful the years pass. While a few of the hardier species of Malus can withstand the winter temperatures of Zone 4, the diversity of blossom color available in Zone 5 and points south is missing, as are the flowering cherries. Apple trees are close to their northern limits at La Malbaie. They grow very slowly there, but it is worth the wait for their crisp and flavorful fruit. 'Fameuse' is one of our favorite varieties. Plums do beautifully at La Malbaie and seem healthier and more productive there than they do in more-southern climes. Our crop of 'Mirabelle' and other small varieties of plum is abundant. The Zone 3 and Zone 4 climatic limitations on trees are felt equally severely among shrubs, but there are sufficient species of Rosa Syringa, Spiraea, Berberis, Viburnum, Philadelphus, Neillia, Lonicera, Caragana, Cornus, and the like to make do and to furnish the garden adequately. It is when one comes to herbaceous plants that one forgets about the lack of diversity in trees and shrubs and begins to chortle over the salubrious northern maritime climate. Aside from the Pacific Northwest, it has to be the best spot on the continent to raise perennials. While the Atlantic coast from Maine north shares a comparably cool and damp summer climate, it does not enjoy the heavy snow cover that is characteristic of the as A Botanical Ramble in the Boreal Forest English friend of mine, walking through the woodlands surroundmg the gardens at La Malbaie, was struck by the number of great botanists and plant hunters who were commemorated in the flora. Not only the great Linnaeus in the twinflower (Linnaea borealis) that carpets the woodlands, but John Goodyer in the three species of Goodyera that abound (Goodyera oblongifolia, G. repens, and G. tesselata~, Sir Joseph Banks in the stands of Pinus banksiana, and John Bartram in the serviceberry, Amelanchier barAn tramiana. Laurentians. The sensible gardener at some point stops his climatic limitations and sticks to what will do well for him in the habitats and microclimates that he is able to create. The joy of gardemng in a northern maritime garden is that it widens his horizons considerably. Of course, those plants that depend on heat units to live up to their promise will not fare so well. But then life is a series of compromises; the gardener will have to choose between the delights of harvesting sweet corn and raising exotic primulas. fightmg edible but not parThe best of the lot are ticularly interesting. the oval fruits of Amelanchier bartramiana, which are larger and more succulent than other varieties. It seems strange that this most garden-worthy species, which is found in the Laurentians and at the higher elevations of the Appalachians, is not more widely used in horticulture. The white flowers are the largest of the genus, comparable to those of Potentilla fruticosa and borne in a very similar fashion. The leaves, as they emerge in the spring, vary from bronze to pale green and turn to burnished orange in late September. Amelanchier bartramiana is a shrub rather than a small tree. It grows slowly, attaining a maximum height of five to six feet, and is compact and stoloniferous. The largest specimen I have seen was five feet in diameter and had a most sympathetic and slightly irregular outline such as one finds in specimens of ancient English box. Why, then, is it not proffered by the trade? The answer lies in the propagation records of the Arnold Arboretum, which show that every effort to propagate Amelanchier bartramiana from seed or cuttings over the years has failed. It can be mtroduced successfully into the garden by transplanting small, stoloniferous offshoots severed from the main root in early spring. Princeton Nur- The serviceberries are 24 Peomes, thahctrum, Amsonia tabemaemontana, and Aruncus dioicus hne the Goose Allee. The hedge is hawthorn. series has successfully grafted bud-wood of branches cut in the autumn to scions of Amelanchier canadensis, and it should be propagable from root cuttings, given its stoloniferous nature. [Alfred J. Fordham descnbes the technique for doing so in Arnoldia, volume 28, numbers 4 and 5 (May 17, 1968), pages 36 to 40]. I hope it will find its way into more widespread horticultural use. puffballs, and a wonderful nutty-flavored, bright-orange parasitic fungus, Hyphomyces lactifluorum. An experienced mycologist could probably identify scores of nuses, Gustatory Delights of the Boreal Forest A botanical ramble through the boreal forest in late as summer has many gustatory rewards well. One can nibble the tiny, delicious, and fragrant creeping snowberry (Chiogenes [or Gaultheria] hispidula\/, and the noisette (Corylus americana\/, the local hazelnut. One can bring home baskets of mushrooms: chanterelles, cepes, russulas, clavarias, copri- other edible varieties among the hundreds that proliferate in the woods. We are slowly expanding the repertoire, and cautiously, too, for there is little room for error. In July, August, and September our every spare moment is taken up with the harvesting and preserving of berries, from the delectable fraises des champs (so far superior to the fraises des bois of France), through all the garden varieties of strawberries, raspberries, gooseberries, and currants to the lowbush blueberries (Vaccinium angustifolium). Berries, in general, have a superlative flavor and spoil one for their counterparts down south. If one hikes to the higher elevations of the Laurentians one finds Rubus chamaemorus, 25 the exotic, buff-colored cloudberry, so prized by the Scandinavians, along with mountaintops of the brilliant, scarlet mountain cranberry (Vaccinium vitis-idaea var. minus\/, the lingonberry of Sweden and the Preisselbeeren of Germany. The French call them airelles rouges, and the local Indians call them ataca. Whatever they are called, they make the best of all tart preserves to accompany game, and their glossy, dark-green, prostrate mats are an exhilarating sight, particularly when they are interspersed with shrubby Cladonia lichens in the cracks of a lichen-covered rock-the perfect setting for the scarlet berries. Inedible or less-edible berries abound as well: the gray-blue of Vaccinium uliginosum var. alpinum, Empetrum nigrum, the black and dark-purple crowberry, and, of course, the bright-red bunchberry (Cornus canadensis\/, which sheets the ground in the right habitats. northern flank of the setting. To the south one looks down across the bay of La Malbaie to the villages on the far shore. We use Pinus sylvestris, P. cembra, and P. mugo extensively, and Tsuga canadensis (Canada hemlock) can be established in sheltered spots. Other conifers grow well, although we have not tried a wide variety of species, probably because the surrounding forests are of spruce and fir. It would be interesting to establish an experimental planting of conifers to determine which of them would grow. Unfortunately, nurseries in Quebec have a limited number of species from which to choose. Thuja is invaluable for hedging and shaping, as is the local Crataegus, C. foetida. The native species can easily be dug from the surrounding woodlands and incorporated into the landscape plan. There is ample material with which to create a framework and background that fits in well with the natural set- ting. Developing Malbaie a Cultivated Landscape at La Our garden and house were built over the past sixty years on a part of a seigniory granted in 1653 by Louis XIV to Jean Bourdon, Surveyor General of the Colony of New France. The lay of the land has dictated the development of the landscape from quite modest beginnings to a series of gardens that now cover approximately twenty acres. The cultivated landscape is still growing somewhat but is approaching its logical limits. The growth and development of the garden make interesting study, especially because no professional landscaping expertise has been brought to bear on the matter. In 1926, a house was built in a bare field and a small perennial garden created to the west, where the view leads over a meadow, across a stream-filled gully, to pastures, distant woodlands, and the muted cordillera of the Laurentians. A steep, wooded hillside that merges into sloping pastures marks the An entrance allee of Lombardy poplars planted in 1926 is now in its last stages of decay. What was once a dramatic feature of the landscape has become a spotty and decrepit line of hangers-on. Every year their remains are cut down and removed, and native paper birches planted between the that in time a new and more perallee will take the old one's place. A lilac hedge bordering the entrance allee of Lombardy poplars was installed to frame a sloping vegetable garden that runs down to a garden shed with breezeway and weathervane, and on to a small greenhouse. The eastern view is dominated by the St. Lawrence, whose southern shore, some fourteen miles away, forms the horizon, and where indistinct villages glint in the settmg sun. One's first hesitant efforts to create a garden are often obliterated as one learns more about garden design or about the shortcomings of a site, or if one takes to heart the counsel of those favored with architectural wisdom. This has been my experience. At La stumps so manent 26 Malbaie, aggressive winds sweeping down from the Laurentians (we have called the place \"Les Quatre Vents\") dictated the construction of tall wooden windscreens. An architect, in the process of adding a guest wing to the house, installed a terrace with reflection pool where the garden had been and decreed a \"tapis vert\"-a long, narrow carpet of lawn running from the terrace to the edge of the stream gully. The tapis vert was flanked by a sunken blue garden and a raised white garden inspired by Vita Sackville-West's writings, centered on an oval lily pool. A double hedge of hawthorn and barberry in due course replaced the windscreens on both sides of the tapis vert, and the western view now flowed gracefully from the house to the mountains, unfettered by any horticultural distractions, the shallow reflection pool enhancing the spectacular sunsets of that northern clime. It wasn't until some twelve years after I had inherited the house and garden in La Malbaie, when I had been increasingly exposed to the gardens of Britain and the myriad of landscaping devices and plant relationships they display, that the grounds' potential as a horticultural tour de force became apparent. It soon became clear to me that a number of gardens could be added to the basic framework, gardens that would make the whole more interesting, and result in a more diverse horticultural experience. There was space in which to expand, an unlimited supply of water from the stream, and a variety of different habitats for new plants. Over a period of ten years, I have filled the space and habitats one step at a time, without any particular forethought, but each step leading to the next. The gardens developed during this tenyear period supplement the good original landscape setting. Looking across the reflection pool and tapis vert, between the white and rose gardens and the frame of the hawthorn and barberry hedges, toward the mountains, one is not conscious of much change from the 1930s. It is only when one walks down the terrace steps towards the gardens that one realizes there are cross axes that lure one away from the tapis vert. A Tbur of the Garden The new developments in the garden are best explored in tour sequence. An entrance in the hawthorn hedge, to the right, or north, of the tapis vert, leads into a narrow perennial allee flanked by a matching hawthorn hedge that finally is getting tall enough to give the desired tunnel effect. The allee, known as Goose Allee because of frequent visitations by the denizens of the lake at its foot, runs parallel to the tapis vert and is about one hundred feet long. At its upper end is a seat from which the visitor can enjoy the many tall and spiky perennials planted to enhance the tunnel effect. The \"tunnel\" directs the eye to a conveniently centered paper birch, by the water's edge, which ends the vista. The visitor is still not conscious that a lake is there. The Goose Allee beds are terminated by clumps of Daphne mezereum underplanted with Primula abchasica, P. vulgaris ssp. sibthorpii, and Scilla sibirica, a felicitous combination of purple, mauve, and blue to start off the season. They are followed closely by Doronicum interplanted with Brunnera and, ultimately, a succession of Aconitum, Cimicifuga, Delphinium, Ligularia, Rudbeckia maxima, and Thalictium providing the tall accents amid Astrantia, Centaurea, Penstemon, Paeonia, and Trollius in variety, among others. A high Thuja tunnel leads off to the right and draws one across the Goose Allee, into a dark-green channel to an alcove adorned with a statue of one of the Four Seasons. The statue looks west through a rondel of Thuja, over a millstone converted to a sundial, then down to the lake and across to a somewhat 27 battered bust of Antonia, the half-sister of Augustus Caesar, arising from a clump of Clematis recta and other perennials on the far shore. In the background, at the edge of the fields, a Lombardy poplar (a kind of living obelisk), has been planted as an exclamation point. The Thuja rondel is set within a Thuja-and-hawthorn square, with Betula papyrifera and Acer ginnala planted in the spaces between the two. At this first glimpse of the lake, one's curiosity is aroused. Turning away from the vista through the rondel and continuing along the Thuja tunnel, the visitor suddenly emerges and finds himself crossing the middle of a string of six rectangular lily pools, with the water cascading and stepping down the gentle slope to the lake. The pools are flanked by Thuja planted in a quincunx pattern and by occasional matching clumps of three decorative rhubarbs. Looking to the right, the visitor looks up the watercourse to a dolphin at its head, the source of the water. Crossing over the watercourse, one emerges into a longer, broader vista, again flanked by Thuja in a quincunx pattern whose size increases as one descends the slope. The vista slopes from the garage court down through a rhubarb allee to the north end of the lake. A Chinese bridge (made of plywood) that crosses the stream entering the lake in the distance is the focus this time, and draws one to the lake's edge, which is packed with naturalized perennials situated so as not to obscure any vistas. As one skirts the shore, the ducks and geese keeping a wary distance, there are agreeable glimpses through branches and flowers of the bust of Antonia. The visitor now has two options. The energetic visitor will bear right and walk through a ten-acre stream garden planted to native trees and hardy shrubs. Since the stream garden is planted with young trees, and it requires some imagination to visualize what it will be like in the year 2000, most visitors are spared the hike and happily cross the stream over the Chinese bridge and meander around the lake, where they catch a good view back over the lake and up the tapis vert towards the house. The visitor then crosses the top of a high dam that separates the lake from the deep woodland ravine into which the stream falls. The banks of the dam have been planted with the white-flowered form of fireweed, Epilobmm angustifolium forma albiflorum. By avoiding the tapis vert after crossing the dam and bearing right, along the edge of the woods, the visitor enters a new world. The garden setting not only had fine views of the mountain and the river, but also had a handsome grove of young spruce when the site was first developed. My father could remember jumping over them as a boy around the turn of the century. Thirty years later, they were indeed a mossy fairyland. One of the natural tragedies of our part of French Canada has been the destruction, by the spruce budworm, of the spruce and balsam fir forests that constitute 90 percent of the conifer forest. It has been a nightmare to watch beloved, dark-green hills turn, first brown, then a ghostly gray. It has taken fifteen years to do the killing, and millions of acres have lost these two species. Our place was no exception, and since our spruce had been allowed to grow to climax-forest maturity, the loss is all the worse, for there is nothing but brambles and alder scrub left to cover the Cornus canadensis, Linnaea borealis, Pyrola, and other delights. Happily, regeneration has started with a vengeance, and the budworm cycle is terminating, but it will be twenty-five years before the countryside regains its former character. The spruce budworm wreaked its havoc on the grove of spruce near the garden. Slowly but surely the trees died. As they were knocked down by the wind and the light was let in, thickets of wild raspberries and elderberries ensued, and the grove became impenetrable. 28 The Shade Beds was at this point that three large shadegarden beds along the edge of the woodland It made out of what had been a mixture of weeds and scruffy lawn. The beds, which have been replanted and rearranged several times over, now contain a profusion of shadeloving plants that are at their best in early August, when the perennial gardens are \"taking a breather\" before the autumn show begins. Astilbes have been used to a great extent, large and small, and early and late bloomers. In one of the beds they have been intermixed with three species of Aruncus, four species of Cimici f uga, and the native red and white baneberries (Actaea rubra and A. pachypoda, respectively). In addition, lilies have been used liberally. The bed is divided roughly in half, and when everything works as it should one half is filled with white and pale-pink astilbes among which Actaea rubra and red lilies are thrusting their stalks, while the other half is the reverse, Astilbe 'Fanal' forming a background for Actaea were combination of Lilium martagon var. album and Meconopsis betonicifolia interspersed with the yellow form of Primula alpicola. But then two specimens of Acer spicatum that had provided adequate shade after the loss of an ancient spruce suddenly and mexplicably died, and the sunlight streamed in. In 1985, this bed was converted into a grass garden with varieties of Miscanthus, Molina, Panicum, Pennisetum, and other grasses, interspersed with mauve delphiniums. The Primula alpicola is still there, along with Trollius 'Alabaster', Astrantia carniolica var. rubra, Allium christophii, Primula florindae, and Primula sikkimensis. The meconopsis appear to be grateful that they were moved deeper into the woodland. The Woodland Garden The shade beds lead toward a grassy clearing at the end of the main perennial allee. The far side of the clearing is one of the entrances to the woodland garden and is the spot where the first experimental species of Primula and Soldanella were tried, with such success that moderation was soon thrown to the winds. For some reason, the spruce in this corner have withstood the ravages of the budworm. The earth consists of rich forest duff, rich enough to stick one's arm in to the elbow. The experimental plantings grew so rapidly that they could be divided twice, and sometimes three times, in the summer. In the spring the soldanellas bloomed profusely, something that doesn't happen at points south. Clearly, this wretched and impenetrable woodland held promise, and over a six-year period the dead trees were felled and the brambles and other trash cleaned out. It turned out that there was an underplanting of young Betula papyrifera, Amelanchier canadensis, Sorbus, and Acer spicatum. These were thinned out and transplanted so as to spread their valuable shade throughout the pachypoda, Campanula persicifolia 'Alba; and a white lily. In June and July the bed is a mass of green foliage and little else, but it is worth forgoing the succession of bloom and waiting for the moment of glory. A second bed consists of softer colors: the rose-pink astilbes interspersed pale-yellow lily, the buff tints of Lilium marhan, rose-pink Lilium martagon, the white form of Meconopsis betonicifolia, and the occasional blue spikes of Campanula persicifolia. This bed has been changed again and again, principally to take out lilies that, despite representations to the contrary, turned mauve a and with be orange, a color I have a difficult time with in the garden. The interplanting out to of the astilbes has also involved considerable thought, so that the succession and combination of color works to advantage. The third bed has undergone the most changes of all. In 1984, it was a successful 29 of the copse. To provide the essential a two-inch plastic pipe was laid from the stream to the edge of the woodland, with the result that there now are four artificial streams that moisten the woodland floor, and a series of twenty-five overhead sprinklers that are operated for an hour or two each evening. Not surprismgly, primulas love the habitat. We have been able over time to increase the number of species and the size of the plantings to where the little streams are now planted to great quantities of a given species and grouped by color variations where appropriate. For example, one stream is flanked with Primula sonchifolia and Primula rosea, mixed. Well over one hundred species are grown, including a number not often seen in eastern North America. Primula vialii flourishes, as does Primula nutans (now called Primula flaccida). Primula nutans is truly perennial and has the most captivating scent. Primula reidii var. williamsii, and Primula reinii from Japan, grow well along with Primula reptans, the smallest of the lot, which behaves like a ground cover, its large purple blossoms resting on its tiny, prostrate leaves. Primula sapphirina and Primula primulina also thrive, as do the petiolarids (with the exception of Primula aureata, which has yet to be wintered over successfully). Of course, the easy Auriculata, Candelabra, Efarinose, and Sikkimensis sections flourish, so much so that we have just barely been able to find places for the seedlings by diligently clearing new areas each summer. This work has proven exciting because of the nearby ravine, which is now cleared and being planted, and which affords an especially protected habitat-one reason the petiolarids and other plants collected in the Himalayas survive. The steep ravine slopes and deep snow cover are not unlike their habitats at home. What is good for Primula is good for Gentiana, Cardamine, Glaucidium, Rodgersia, and others of their ilk. rest Planting the Ravine The stream and ravine curve in an arc of about seventy degrees. While I was visiting the beautiful Himalayan Glen at Wakehurst Place, its director, Tony Schilling, remarked that he hoped someday to install a Nepalese bridge across the top of the glen so that visitors could look down at the rhododendrons and other Himalayan species. It wasn't long before that excellent idea manifested itself over the ravine at La Malbaie in the form of two rope bridges copied from a sketch in Roy Lancaster's Plant Hunting in Nepal. The bridges are suspended at about sixty feet over the streambed and are just over one hundred feet long. The ravine has been planted mostly with large-leaved species that will provide easily noticeable textural appeal for the nervous glances cast down upon them. The stream bed has been lined with Petasites japonicus var. gigantea, since there is room for it to romp and since it seems unlikely that it will climb up the steep banks. Large colonies of five different species of Rodgersia have been laid out on the lower slopes and ravine floor, and Bergenia cordifolia sweeps down diagonally from top to bottom. The cirque formed by the arc has been planted to Rhododendron yakusimanum exclusively. When the small plants mature, it should be a splendid sight if there is not too much shade. A Gunnera manicata has survived its first (and rather bad) winter under extensive wraps, and it promises to fill a hollow in the ravine floor between the two bridges with its dramatic foliage. Not that everything is perfect, of course. The hillside of Primula pulverulenta 'Bartley Strain' seedlings, planted so carefully last summer on a very steep slope, succumbed to the lack of snow cover, and to the ice and subsequent erosion in that unfortunate, windswept spot. But the hillside of Meconopsis betonicifolia intermingled with Pri- moisture, 30 mula alpicola var. luna x var. alba (which we have dubbed \"Ivory Tower,\" for want of a better name) is in fine shape, as are the plantings of Heracleum on a steep and sunny spot. (We grow some ten species of Meconopsis in one part or another of the woodland.)\/ The next step will be to embellish these ravine slopes with bulbs. One slope is yearning for a mass of Erythronium revolutum intermingled with Anemone blanda 'Atrocaerulea' to sweep over its brow. The other slope would prefer Corydalis ambigua \/or perhaps Corydalis cashmeriana or Corydalis solida var. transylvanica\/. Woodland gardening is heady stuff and, in this easy habitat, as good a way as any to spend the time. A plantsman's inspection of the woodland garden-or sous-bois, as it is called locallycan take longer than is necessary at this juncture, but one of the paths leads out of the woodland, past a gazebo where one of the rope bridges terminates, and to where all orange plants of whatever genus (Lilium, Primula, Trollius, Ligularia, and others) have been exiled. They bloom harmoniously, without competition, against the green background. (A similar corner is filled with everything magenta.) The path joins a carriage drive that skirts a snake fence with good views of the bay and the river until it comes to the vegetable garden. The Terraced and have elected to to convert the vegetable garden into a series of terraced beds, building one bed a year. After six years, the project is finished, and the vegetable garden, now mixed with annuals and perennials for cutting, has a new lease on life. Here again, there was no detailed plan when we started. The configuration of the beds was dictated by the degree to which the land fell away on a given slope. As a consequence, no two beds are the same, and each bed's shape conforms to the underlying contours. Some of the terraces within the beds are small and some quite large, but the whole provides an ample area in which to grow just about everything that could be grown. In time, as we figure out how best to use and combine the vegetables, annuals, and perennials within it, this garden should yield a lot of horticultural pleasure for all concerned. Terracing is probably the only logical solution to the problems of gardening on a great many spruce use some of them logs slope. There is nowhere left to walk but back towards the house through the lilac hedge enclosing the vegetable garden. There is a small meadow garden here, crisscrossed and formed into a series of more or less geometrically shaped panels by a series of paths. Every autumn a hefty contingent of bulbs is planted within it, and every summer new perennials and biennials are added to it in hopes they will take hold and establish colonies. It is a long but worthwhile process. A mosaic of Crocus chrysanthus in sweeps of blue, cream, and white appears in early May and expands as the years go by. They are followed by daffodils, which in turn are underplanted with Scilla, Muscari, Puschkinia, and Chionodoxa, each panel with its own combination of colors. There is a moment when pissenlits (dandelions) seem to be the only plant in evidence, but lupines soon assert themselves and put on a grand show m June and July, along with Oriental poppies, Achillea ptar- Vegetable Garden In its original state, the vegetable garden consisted of two long beds bracketing the path from the house down to the weathervane. The beds sloped both downwards and sideways and were not particularly satisfactory. The spruce trees killed by the spruce budworms came in very useful at this juncture, since one can salvage the value of the timber and clear the land of what promises to become an impenetrable barrier of fallen trees if one cuts within three years of the trees' death. Thus, we have had access to a 31 mica, Filipendula, Campanula, and Rudbeckia. The trick is to extend the flowering season until the meadow is cut in early September. Return of the Snow Geese could see the black tips of their wings, bisected the blue sky, framed for an instant in that incomparable setting. Later that afternoon the weather suddenly deteriorated and became threatening. I had been planting the last of the bulbs in the woodland garden when it began to snow quite heavily. In a matter of minutes snow covered the ground, and I could imagine what it was like to be a petiolarid primula on the flanks of a Himal. The storm was sufficiently intense to cut visibility way down. All I could see were swirling snowflakes. Again I heard snow geese, only this time there were thousands of them, and I rushed to the edge of the woodland to try and see them. The snow was so thick by this time that a tree twenty feet away was barely visible and I despaired of catching even a glimpse of them when, suddenly, from all sides, hundreds of geese descended out of the clouds-on the front lawn, in the woodland garden, on the tapis vert, and in the fields beyond, which were just becoming visible again. I wondered if this was what heaven was like. It ended as quickly as it had begun. The snow geese, appropriately wrapped in the swirling cloud of snow, and over their apparent disorientation, lifted off the ground (had they ever touched it?) and disappeared. What did it mean, I wondered. Did it mean it was time to stop gardening for that season, to reflect upon the mysteries of Nature and gather strength for the coming spring, when the snow geese would be heading north, and the gardening cycle would begin again? Was it a message confirming that we were fortunate in our earthly paradise, that we could do worse than to keep gardening in that northern woodland until our day was done? Perhaps the happiest time of the garden cycle in La Malbaie is early October-the horticultural evensong, when the season is over and our work done. The days are brisk, the nights cold, and the colors of the foliage exhilaratmg. The garden has been put to bed, the bulbs planted, and notes taken on what to move the next spring to improve a given planting. It is a time to cut trails, to build bridges, to make lakes, as well as a time to sketch plans and ideas for the future. One crystal-clear October morning in 1984, I had time to wander at length along the various trails and to explore rarely visited byways that had been cleared. Along one byway, down a gently sloping, moist gully, the forest had escaped any damage, and there were still many fine ancient specimens of red and white pine. Partridge, woodcock, and hare flushed from along the trail, the mosses and mushrooms glistened, and the whorls of Cornus canadensis were deep purple. As the trail came to a cul-de-sac and I was beginning to explore how it could be blazed on, the unmistakable sound of the snow geese calling in flight broke the stillness. I hurriedly struggled out of the thicket and back up the trail to a point where I could look up at the sky. There was only one opening, a small one, and it was framed by the autumn colors of the maples, Amelanchier, and paper birch. Disappointed that I couldn't see the geese through that small, baroque window of blue sky, I was nonetheless struck by its beauty, a perfection worthy of Tiepolo, an intensity and combination of colors, backlighted by the sun, that were breathtaking. I gazed at it for a while and was about to stop when five snow geese, m formation and flying so low I Cabot, of Cold Sprmg, New York, and La Malbaie, Quebec, describes himself as a horticultural Francis H. enthusiast. He is treasurer of the Amencan Rock Garden Society and past chairman of the board of managers of the New York Botamcal Garden. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Hardiness Zone Maps","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24876","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad2708526.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Wyman, Donald; Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps Donald Wyman Harrison L. Flint Existing hardiness-zone maps are valuable, but using them requires knowing how they differ one from the other, and how \"hardiness\" has been defined Plant hardiness-zone maps have been a valuable aid to those interested in predicting the adaptability of plants to specific climatic areas. Most are isotherm maps of geographical regions, based upon average annual minimum temperatures experienced at certain weather stations over some period of years. Many hardiness-zone maps are availablesome cover small areas such as individual states, while others encompass entire countries. Unfortunately, many do not agree in their numbering schemes-so zone numbers assigned to individual plant species cannot be used in referring to all of the existing maps. In most cases they can be related only to the map used in assigning them. The two most widely used in this country are the Arnold Arboretum hardiness map and the \"Plant Hardiness Zone Map\" prepared by the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Arnold Arboretum Hardiness differences in lowest ature. monthly mean temper- Maps The original map prepared at the Arnold Arboretum was published in the first edition (1927) of Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, by Alfred Rehder. In this map, the United States and southern Canada (except for southern Florida) were divided into eight zones characterized by 5-Fahrenheit-degree Reprmted, with slight modifications, from Amoldia, Vol. 27, No. 6, pages 53-56 (June 30, 1967). later, the prototype of the presArnold Arboretum hardiness map was prepared by Donald Wyman. It included the entire United States and was first published in his book Hedges, Screens and Windbreaks, in 1938. This map was based on average annual minimum temperatures for the years 1895 to 1935, as published in the Atlas of American Agriculture, USDA, in 1936. A modification appeared in the second edition of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, in 1940. In that book, the southernmost part of the United States was not included and much of Canada was added, in keeping with the manual's scope. The Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Zone Map in use since 1949 mcludes the entire United States (except for Alaska and Hawaii) and southern Canada. This was first published in Wyman's Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens, and republished in his books Trees for American Gardens (1951 and 1965), The Arnold Arboretum Garden Book (1954), Ground Cover Plants (1956), and The Saturday Morning Gardener (1962). The Arnold Arboretum map was revised in 1967 and again in 1971. The 1967 version was published in Arnoldia, while the 1971 version, which is the one published on the mside front cover of this issue of Amoldia, ent A few years appeared pedia. in Wyman's Gardening Encyclo- 33 The 1967 map differed from the previous only in that hardiness-zone lines were redrawn to conform to more recent weather data. The zone-numbering system was unchanged-so zone numbers applied to specific plants in Rehder's manual and other publications by the Arnold Arboretum staff could be used with the newer map just as well as with its predecessor. version ble. Unfortunately for the casual user, these inconsistencies are small enough to be overlooked, and in several instances, writers have the hardiness-zone desof Rehder to the USDA map. The ignations table shows the relationship between the two numbering systems. erroneously applied Local Hardiness-Zone Maps More-detailed plant-hardiness-zone maps have been prepared for certain states and locahties. The total area covered by such maps is still rather small. Fortunately some detailed maps use the same zone-numbering system as the larger, more general maps. A good example is a hardiness-zone map of the state of Vermont (Hopp and Lautzenheiser, 1966). This map uses the same zone-numbering system as the USDA map, but is based upon a larger number of weather stations in Ver- USDA Plant Hardiness-Zone Map This map (Figure 1) was issued in 1960 as Miscellaneous Publication No. 814 of the Agricultural Research Service, USDA. It contains uniform zones of 10 Fahrenheit degrees, and sub-zones of 5 Fahrenheit degrees. Since the Arnold Arboretum map uses zones of different ranges (5, 10, or 15 Fahrenheit degrees), discrepancies between the two are inevita- Figure 1. The U S. Department of Agnculture's plant hardmess zones m the contermmous Umted States and southern Canada. 34 mont, so zone lines have been drawn in more detail than in the larger map. As more areas are mapped in greater detail in this way, hardiness-zone maps will become increasingly useful. Canadian Plant Hardiness Map The Canadian Plant Hardiness Map, released by the Canada Department of Agriculture, covers all but the far-northern parts of Canada. This map represented a new approach in that it was an attempt to describe hardiness zones in terms of the whole complex of environmental factors that contribute to severity of climate, rather than in terms of a single factor such as average annual minimum temperature. To as great an extent as possible, actual observations of plant adaptability played a part in describing hardiness zones. Direct comparisons between this map and those prepared in the United States are not valid, because of the different criteria used in describing hardiness zones. in 1967 Relationship Between the Arnold Arboretum and USDA Hardiness-Zone Numbering Systems The Future It appears that the business of preparing hardiness-zone maps and assigning plants to their proper zones is still in the experimental stage. Hopefully, we may eventually see wide adoption of a single hardiness-zone map for the United States, for North America, or even for the northern hemisphere. If this is someday accomplished, the problem of assigning realistic zone numbers to specific plants will still remain. The ability to match plants with zones over wide regions will be the ultimate test of any map, and many more careful observations will have to be made before this can be done with most of our present trees and shrubs. Meanwhile, the existing maps will continue to be useful. But to use them most effectively we must recognize their differences and use published zone references only with the right map. Reference Hopp, R.J., and R.E. Lautzenheiser, 1966. Extreme Wmter Temperatures m Vermont. Umversity of Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 648, 19 pages. Donald Wyman was horticulturist for the Arnold Arboretum from 1936 to 1970, during which period he was editor of Amoldia. His Gardemng Encyclopedia is a standard reference for gardeners and horticulturists. Harnson L. Flint, a former staff member of the Arnold Arboretum, is professor of horticulture at Purdue Umversity. Among his best-known publications is Landscape Plants for Eastern North Amenca ~Wiley, 1983). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What Determines a Plant's Cold Hardiness?","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24879","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad24ea328.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART What Determines John W Einset a Plant's Cold Hardiness? from Cold-tolerance depends upon a plant's ability to keep cells and freezing, which severely dehydrates the cells water leaving its Banana plantations along Cape Cod, orange groves in the Berkshire Mountains, tropical landscaping in New England! Unlikely as these images seem, they are not entirely out of the realm of possibility, especially if more can be learned about the basic mechanisms that govem the tolerance of plants to cold. In fact, goals less spectacular than these, yet still highly significant, are achievable in the near future because both our understanding of plant physiology and our ability to manipulate plant cold hardiness have improved. Without question, resistance to low temperatures is a major factor determining the geographic distribution of plant species. Socalled chillmg-sensitive plants, such as the tropical banana and the semitropical avocado, can be severely injured or even killed by long-term exposure to temperatures (50 degrees Fahrenheit, for example) that are well above freezing. By contrast, chilling-resistant plants, such as garden peas and potatoes, survive brief periods of frost but are killed when freezing conditions continue for more than about four hours. Cold-hardy plants, on the other hand, tolerate extended periods of freezing, and laboratory tests indicate that cold hardmess in some of these plants per- mits them to survive at temperatures as low as minus 75 degrees Fahrenheit. What causes such wide variations in the sensitivity of plants to cold? As a consequence of natural selection, plants native to a particular hardiness zone are adapted to the extremes that occur in their environment. Remove them from that environment, and they may or may not survive. For example, banana plants kept at low, but temperature temperatures suffer an imbaltheir metabolism that kills their cells and causes brown necrotic streaks to appear on fruits. Or, hardier plants might be killed by frost that occurs during their normal period of vegetative growth. Several cultivars of rhododendrons and azaleas that are grown successfully in Georgia and the Carolinas, for instance, are killed by late frosts when nonfreezing, ance in they are transplanted to New England only because their tender vegetative buds initiate growth too early in spring. Other plants fail to survive because late-summer frosts kill vegetative shoots before they become acclimated to cold temperatures. During any given year, a species of tree or shrub adapted to the north-temperate environment alternates between periods of cold 36 hardiness and cold sensitivity. The term acclimation (hardening) refers to the transition from a sensitive to a hardy condition, while deacclimation (dehardening) designates the hardy-to-sensitive transition. Obviously, the seasonal timing of acclimation and deacclimation is of critical importance in determining a plant's cold hardiness. The magnitude and duration of the acclimated state are also crucial. In fact, the Arnold Arboretum's hardiness zones classify woody-plant species according to the magnitude of the cold tolerance they exhibit in their acclimated states. Zone 6 plants, for instance, can withstand minimum temperatures of plus 5 degrees Fahrenheit to minus 5 degrees Fahrenheit, while plants of zones 5, 4, 3, 2, and 1 exhibit progressively greater cold hardiness. Obviously, plants in all of these categories can tolerate some belowfreezing weather; it is the magnitude of their tolerance that differentiates them. When a plant, regardless of its hardiness classification, is injured by a killing frost, several harmful processes are involved. One of the earliest and most critical processes is the formation of ice crystals in the spaces between their cells. Freezing of the water in the intercellular spaces causes water in the adjacent living cells to move out of the cells into the intercellular spaces, where it, too, freezes. The amount of ice in the intercellular spaces increases rapidly as additional water moves out of the cells. Left unchecked, the loss of water from cells causes severe dehydration. In fact, the most widely held explanation of frost damage in plants is that death is caused directly by the advanced state of cellular dehydration that results when ice forms in tissues. According to this explanation when the concentation of water in cells falls below a critical \"threshold\" value, protein molecules in the cells' protoplasm begin to cross-link with each other, forming a stable but nonfunctional matrix. In this permanently altered state of protoplasm, metab- ohsm slows to a standstill and, since the cells die, the entire plant dies. Apparently, species of plants that survive temperatures lethal to other species do so by preventing the dehydration caused by ice formation. One way in which they accomplish this involves \"supercooling\"-the absence of ice formation even during periods of freezing temperatures. Another way is for ice to form in the intercellular spaces but for the loss of water from cells to be reduced. Often, this means of frost prevention involves osmotic alterations in the protoplasm of hardy plants. Halophytes (salt-tolerant plants), for example, usually are hardier than their non-salttolerant relatives because the higher osmotic concentration of their protoplasm effectively prevents water from leaving cells and contributing to extracellular ice crystals. Some other hardy plants generate high internal contents of organic solutes (dissolved compounds) during acclimation. Finally, certain plants are cold tolerant simply because they can recover from even the extreme dehydration that accompanies ice formation. Examples of such species are paper birch (Betula papyrifera\/, trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides\/, and several willows. In view of all these considerations, what practically can be done to prevent freezing injury in plants? An obvious strategy is to ensure that plants are well-watered before periods of potential frost. By keeping their tissues turgid, or swollen, one might be able to prevent the extreme cellular dehydration that usually kills frosted plants. A related treatment is to spray tender plants with whenever temperatures are below The rationale of this procedure is twofold. First, it maximizes the water content of living tissues and, second, the heat (known to physicists as the heat of fusion) given off when water on the surface of a plant freezes, counteracts the effect of freezing temperatures on water within the plant. In Massachusetts, for example, cranberry growwater freezing. 37 ers routinely use water sprinklers in their bogs during late-spring frosts to take advan- tage of the heat of fusion released when water freezes on the surface of cranberry plants. The heat released by 100 gallons of water when it freezes is approximately equivalent to the amount of heat produced by burning one gallon of fuel oil. Obviously, the sprinkler technology is an important frost-protection measure. Breeding programs to intro- duce hardiness genes into less hardy plants may also become extremely important in the next few years. Other ways of preventing frost injury in plants are still in the experimental stages and therefore are not yet of practical value. Some, fact, are quite controversial. Researchers the University of California, for example, are attempting to utilize genetically engineered strains of bacteria as frost-protection agents. They reason that some bacterial species called \"ice-nucleating bacteria,\" normally associated with plants, tend to sensitize plants to freezing injury, since individual bacteria act as \"nucleation centers\" for the formation of ice crystals. Other bacterial species, by contrast, are nonnucleating. Displace ice-nucleating bacteria on a plant with nonnucleating ones, it is argued, and the plant should be less prone to frost injury. Unfortunately, it is still too early to judge whether theory and practice are compatible in at m The paper birch ~Betula papynfera), m the Arnold Arboretum (left), and the tremblmg aspen (Populus tremuloides\/, the San Francisco Mountams, Anzona, are cold tolerant simply because they can recover from the extreme dehydrauon due to the formation of ice m their mtercellular spaces Many other species are cold tolerant because they prevent dehydration of their cells m the first place Photograph of Populus tremuloides by Susan D McKelvey Both photographs from the Archmes of the Arnold Arboretum. 38 only that, but several the wisdom of introducing experts question potentially harmful bacteria into the environment. They identify several important questions. Will the engineered bacteria cause undesirable plants, such as weeds, to become frost tolerant, too? Or, since the ice-nucleating bacteria normally present on plants may have beneficial but unrecognized effects on their host plants, might not their beneficial effects be abolished? Lastly, is it possible that nonnucleating bacteria could affect the weather, a prospect that could have profound case. in this Not of the public's concerns about nonnucleating bacteria as frost protectants will ultimately depend on the results of controlled experiments designed to identify possible adverse environmental effects of this practice. If none are found, then significant progress will have been made on one strategy for manipulating plant cold hardiness. As usual, improved scientific understanding of a phenomenon, such as cold hardiness, if it is properly applied, has the potential of improving horticultural technology. consequences? As is the case used to solve practical problems, whenever basic science is resolution John W. Einset, a staff member of the Arnold Arboretum, is associate professor of biology m Harvard University. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Letter to Readers","article_sequence":6,"start_page":39,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24873","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270bb6f.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"A Letter to Readers Amoldia has been published continuously by the Arnold Arboretum since 1911. Next year will mark the magazine's seventy-fifth anniversary. During Arnoldia's seven and one-half decades of existence, its format, frequency of publication, subject matter, and even purpose have changed dramaticallyfrom weekly or fortnightly newsletter published only during spring, summer, and fall, to monthly, then bimonthly, and finally quarterly magazine covering most aspects of horticulture and botany. During its early years the publication was called the Bulletin of Popular Information. The name was changed to Arnoldia in 1941. In 1986, Arnoldia's tradition of evolution will continue. Appropriate (but modest) changes will be made: minor adjustments in Rated at or very near the top as a membership benefit, Amoldia was held to be an important benefit by a margin of seventeen to one. A difficult and important challenge for Arnoldia in the coming year or two will be to expand its mix of subject matter without neglecting or abandoning any of the traditional subjects that have delighted readers over the years. To guide the staff members and volunteers who produce Amoldia in that critical task, a questionnaire will be sent to all readers, Friends and subscribers alike, early in 1986, in the hopes that they will share valuable insights and opinions with those of us who produce the magazine. The past twelve months have been a period of careful analysis and assessment of Amoldia's role vis-a-vis the University, the Arboretum, and the Friends. The verdict has been favorable in every respect. During the period of introspection, however, Arnoldia fell substantially behind in its publication schedule. The spring and summer issues have appeared only in the last month. With the present issue, Arnoldia's normal publication schedule resumes. Winter issues will again appear in January, spring issues in April, summer issues in July, and fall issues in October. During 1986, a variety of interesting articles and special issues will be published by Arnoldia-a special issue on the Arboretum's historic involvement in Chinese botany, as well as an issue on the vine, articles on camellias, enkianthus, plant collecting in format, improvements in quality, increases in content, broadening of scope and diversity, etc.-all without rises in production costs. In fact, with respect to cost, the goal will continue to be economy in every possible way. This goal of cost-cutting will be pursued in part through the aid of much-appreciated volunteer help from Friends of the Arboretum, and others. At the same time, a serious campaign will be launched to raise outside funding for special issues, as well as for general operating costs. Ten months ago, the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, who receive Arnoldia as a membership benefit, were polled on their attitudes toward the Arboretum, membership benefits, and so on. From Arnoldia's perspective, the response was especially gratifying. China and North Africa, propagation of Metasequoia, and the multifarious activities 40 of the Arboretum's staff members. In 1986 or 1987, we hope to have articles or special issues on the forests of the United States, Chinese food plants, plant conservation, and techniques for ameliorating the impacts of air pollutants on woody ornamentals and other cultivated plants. As always, we will be eager to consider manuscripts on horticultural or botanical subjects for publication. We are grateful for the patience and enthusiastic support readers have accorded Amoldia over the past twelve months and hope they will continue to express their support by responding to the questionnaire next year. U S POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S C 3685) 1 Title of publication Arnoldia A Publication Number 00042633. 2 Date of filing September 30, 1985 3. Frequency of issue' Quarterly. A Number of issues published annually 4 B Annual subscription pnce $12.00. 4 Complete mailing address of known office of publication The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plam(Boston~, Suffolk County, MA 02130 5 Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general bustness office of the publishers The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plam (Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130 6 Full names and complete mailing address of Pubhsher, Editor, and Managing Editor The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain ~Boston~, Suffolk County, MA 02130, Publisher, Edmund A Schofield, The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain ~Boston~, Suffolk County, MA 02130, Editor. 7. Owner: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, The Arborway, Jamaica Plam (Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130. 8 Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders ownmg or holding I percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other secunties President and Fellows of Harvard College, Cambndge, MA 02138 9 For completion by nonprofit organizations authonzed to mail at special rates (Section 411.3, DMM only) The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed dunng the preceding 12 months. 10 Extent and nature of circulation A Total number of copies Average number of copies each issue dunng the precedmg 12 months 4,375. Actual number of copies of single issue pubhshed nearest to filing date 4,500 B Paid circulation. 1 Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors, and counter sales Averagc number of copies each issue dunng precedmg 12 months' None Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date: None 2 Mail subscription Average number of copies each issue dunng preceding 12 months 603. Actual number of copies of smgle issue pubhshed nearest to filing date 601. C Total paid circulation. Average number of copies each issue dunng precedmg 12 months' 603. Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date 601. D Free distribution by mail, carner, or other means (sample, complimentary, and other free copres~ Average number of copies each issue during precedmg 12 months 3,015 Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date~ 3,023 E. Total distribution. Average number of copies each issue dunng precedmg 12 months 3,617 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date. 3,623 F Copies not distnbuted. 1 Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing Average number of copies each issue dunng preceding 12 months 797 Actual number of copies of single issue pubhshed nearest to filing date 821 2. Return from news agents. Average number of copies each issue dunng precedmg 12 months None Actual number of copies of single issue pubhshed nearest to filing date: None G Total Average number of copies each issue dunng preceding 12 months 4,375 Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date. 4,500 11. I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete Edmund A Schofield, Editor "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 45","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24874","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad2708128.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume 45 to issues, (Numbers m parentheses refer and those m boldface to illustrations ) -'Kimigayo', (2) : 13, 13 -'Koganebana', (2) : 13, 14 -'Shmofu Chmmen', (2). 14, 15 Aruncus species, (4) : 28 -structure of, (2): 29 -dioicus, (4): 21, 24 Acanthopanax szeboldzanus, (2\/: 25 Ashton, Peter S., photograph by, (4) 10 Acchmation, (4) 36 Acer gmnala, (4). 22-23, 27 Aspen, quakmg, \/4\/~ 22 -trembling, (4) : 36, 37 -pensylvanzcum, (4\/: 22 Asulbe,(4\/ 21 -spicatum, (4). 22, 28 Astilbe 'Fanal', \/4\/: 28 Achlllea ptarm1ca, (4\/~ 30-31 Astrantia species, (4): 26 -taygeta, (4): 21 -carmohco var. rubra, (4). 28 Acomtum species, (4) : 26 Aucuba ~apomca, (2\/: 17, 19 Actaea pachypoda, (4) : 28 -'Meigetsu', 12): 17 -rubra, 14): 28 Air pollutants, phytotoxic, ( 1 15-18 Auxm, (21: 28-33 -effects of, (2\/~ 30 Airelles rouges, (4) 25 Alexander, John H. III, photograph by, -structure of, (2) : 29 Azalea, roseshell, (3): 16 (1): 17 Balsam fir, (4): 22 Allzum chnstophzz, (4\/: 21, 28 Benthamia fragifera, (4): front-cover Amelanchier species, (4y 22 foldout, 8 -bartramzana, ~4\/. 23 Berbens species, \/4\/: 23 -canadensis, (2\/: 25, (4): 24, 28 Amsoma tabemaemontana, \/4\/: 24 -xmentorens~s, (2\/~ 26 Amur maple, (4) 22-23 -~uhanae, (2\/: 24 Andromeda polzfolza, (2\/ 19 -thunbergm, (2) 20, 26 Anemone blanda 'Atrocaerulea', (4). 30 Bergema cordifoha, (4)' 29 Angelo, Ray, book review by, (2). 36-38 Betula lutea, \/4\/: 22 -, \"Botanical Index to the Journal of -papynfera, (4\/ 22, 27, 28, 36, 37 Henry David Thoreau\" (reviewed), Bioregulators, (2) : 33 Birch, paper, (4) : 22, 36, 37 (3): 30-32 -, \"Thoreau as Botamst: An Appre- -yellow, (4): 22 ciation and a Cntique;' (3): 13-23 Blueberry, lowbush, \/4\/: 24 \"Books\" \/column\/, (1\/~ 28-31; (2) : 35-39, anti-ethylene compounds, (2): 32 \/3\/: 30-32 Apple'Fameuse; (4)' 23 \"Botamcal Index to the Journal of HenArceuthobmm puszllum, (3\/. 17 Ardzsza ~aponzca 'Amanogawa', (2\/: 8, 9 ry David Thoreau,\" Ray Angelo (reviewed), (3) : 30-32 =Bemyuki; (2) : 8, 9 \"Botany The State of the Art\" (col= Chmmen; (2\/~ 10-11, 10 umn), (2) : 28-34 -'Chiyoda; (2): 8, 10, 10 Brumback, William E., \"Raising the -'Hmode', (2) 10, 11 Climbmg Fem from Spores,\" (3) : 27-29 -'Hi-no-Tsukasa', (2). 11, 11 Brunnera species, (4): 26 -'Hokan Nishiki', (2y 11, 12 Bunchberry, ( 1inside front cover, -'Hoshiami; (2\/: 12, 13 -'Ito Fukunn', inside front cover, 12, 18-22, (4y 25 13 -seedlmg of, ( 119 Bussewitz, Albert W., book review by, on \"A Directory of Information Sources Forestry Management,\"( 111-14 Abscisic acid, (2) : 28, 31 (3): 30-32 -photograph by, \/ 125 Buxus species, Cabot, Francis a (2)' H., 19 \"'Les Quatre Vents,' \/4~. 19-31 -photographs by, (4~: 20, 21, 24, inside back cover Far-Northern Garden,\" Calycanthus flondus, \/2~: 26 Calypso bulbosa, (4) inside back cover Campanula species, (4) : 31 -persicifolia, \/4~: 28 =Alba', (4): 28 Canada hemlock, \/4~ 25 Caragana species, (4\/: 23 -arborescens, \/2\/: 19 Carex phyllocephala 'Sparkler', \/2\/~ 15 Carpohthus natans, (4): 7 \"Case for Monkey-Mediated Evolution m Big-Bracted Dogwoods,\" Richard H. Eyde, (4) : 2-9 Castille~a coccmea, \/3\/: 16 Centaurea species, (4\/~ 26 Chang, Young June, drawmgs by, (2) : 9-14 Chilling-resistant plants, (4): 35 Chilling-sensitive plants, (4): 35 Chiogenes hispidula, (4): 24 Ch~onodoxa species, (4). 30 Cimicifuga species, -racemosa, \/4\/: 21 \/4\/ 26, 28 7 Clematis recta, (4~ 27 Clethra almfoha, (2~: 20, 25 Cloudberry, (4~: 24-25 Coffin, Robert L , photograph by, (3). 29 Cold-hardy plants, \/4\/: 35 \"Collector's Notebook\" (column), ( 1 ~: 25-27 Comum maculatum, \/1~: 28 Comus species, 12): 25, \/4~ 23 -canadensis, ( 1\/: 19-22, inside front cover, 19, 20, 21, \/4\/ 3, 25, 27, back cover -relay buds of, ( 1 ~ ~ 20, 20, 21 -rhizomes of, \/ 1 19 -seeds of, germmauon of,(1)20 -capitata, (4): front-cover foldout, 3, 4 42 of, (4): 5 -disciflora, (4y 3 -flonda,( 1~: 19-22, 21; \/4\/: front cover, 6 3, -kousa, \/4\/: front cover, 3 -frmt of, (4): 7 -mas, \/4\/: 4 -nuttalln, \/4\/: 24, 26 2, 3 -racemosa, (2): 24, 26 -sencea, \/2~: 19, 25, 26 -subgroups of, evolutionary relationships of, \/4~: 4 Corydahs cashmenana, (4\/: 30 -sohda var. transylvamca, (4~: 30 Corylus amencana, (4): 24 Cotmus coggygna, \/2\/: 26 Cotoneaster species, (2~: 19, 20 Crataegus foetida, \/4~: 25 Creeping snowberry, (4): 24 Crocus chrysanthus, \/4\/: 30 Cynoxylon, \/4\/: 3 Cynsus scopanus, (2)' 19 Cytokmn, \/2~: 28-31, 33-34 -structure of, (2) : 29 2, 4-D \/2, 4-dichlorophenoayacetie acid), (2\/: 29 Daphne mezereum, \/4~. 26 -odora `Rmgmaster', \/2\/: 14, 15 -'Zmko Nishiki, \/2\/: 14, 15 Deacclimation, \/4~. 36 Defoliants, (2) : 31-32 Dehardemng, \/4y 36 Del Tredici, Peter, photographs by, ( 1~ \/ 18, 19, 20; (3): 31 -\"The Layered Look;' ( 119-22 -\"What's m a Leaf?\", (2) : 2-6 Delphmmm species, (4): 26 Dendrobenthamia, \/4\/. 3 DeSando, Cynthia, drawing by, (3) : 14 Dirr, Michael A., photograph by, \/2~: front cover racemosum -frmt Emset, John W., \"Chemicals That Reg- Hamamelis vmgimana, \/2): ulate Plants,\" \/2\/: 28-34 Hardening, (4)'36 -\"What Determmes a 24 Plant's Cold Hardmess?\", \/4y 35-38 Elaeagnus umbellata, (2~. 25 Enkianthus campanulatus, \/2~: 26 Epilobmm angustifolium forma albiflorum, \/4\/: 27 Erythromum revolutum, \/4~: 30 Ethephon, \/2\/: 32-33 Euonymus alatus, \/2~: 19, 24, 25 = Compactus', \/2~: 24 Fern, climbing, \/3~: 1, inside back cover -distmburion of m New England, \/3\/: 27, 28 -ferule pinnae of, (3): 29 -frond of, \/3\/: inside back -spore cover 29 \"Field Guide to Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms of North America,\" Charles Kmgsley Levy and Richard B. Pnmack (reviewed), \/ 1 ~ ~ 30 of, \/3~: Fihpendula species, (4). 31 Fir, balsam, 14): 22 Flmt, Harnson L., and Donald Wyman, \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" (4) : 32-34 Forest Cutting Practices Act chusetts), (1~: 10 Fothergilla gardenn, \/2~: 26 Frey, Susan R., et alm, \"Garden (Massa- Hazelnut,(4):24 Hemlock, Canada, \/4)~ 25 Heracleum specics, (4): 30 Hormoroot A, ( 1 23 Houttuyma cordata 'Cameleon', (2): 16 Hsueh Chi-~u, photograph of, (4) : 10 ='Remmiscences of Collecting the Type Specimens of Metasequoia glyptostroboides H. H. Hu & Cheng;' \/4): 11-18 Hutchmson, B. June, book review by, (2): 35-36 Hydrangea macrophylla, (2): 19-20 -quercifoha, \/2): 19, 26 Hypemcum perforatum, (2\/. 20 Hyphomyces lactifluorum, \/4\/. 24 Ice-nucleating bactena, \/4): 37-38 \"If You Decide to Cut,\" Ernest Gould, (1): 10 Ilex mtegra 'Green Shadow', \/2). 16 -verticillata, \/2\/: 25 Indolebutync acid, \/ 123 Johnson, LeRoy, photographs by, 14): 15 -Norman K., et alm, \"Garden Design History, Principles, Elements, Practice\" (reviewed), \/2). 35-36 ~umperus commums var. depressa, \/4): 22 Distylium 15, 16 'Akebono; \/2y -`Guppy; (2)' 15-16 Dogwood, \/4y 3 Doromcum species, (4~: 26 Douglas, William Lake, et aln, \"Garden Design: History, Principles, Elements, Practice\" (reviewed), (2): 35-36 \"Drawn from Nature: The Botanical Art of Joseph Prestele and His Sons,\" Charles van Ravenswaay (reviewed), 17 \/ 128-30 Dwarf mistletoe, (3\/ Design: -honzontahs, \/4): 22 History, Principles, Elements, Prac- Kalmia angustifoha, (2) 19 Kerna ~apomca, (2): 19 tice\" (reviewed), (2): 35-36 \"Garden Design. History, Principles, Koller, Gary L., photograph by, \/1): 26 Elements, Practice,\" William Lake Koten engei, (2): 7 Douglas et alm (reviewed), (2) : 35-36 Kousa, (4): front cover, 3 Labrador tea, (3). 17 Gaulthena hispidula, (4): 24 Gentiana species, \/4~: 29 Landry, Sarah B., drawmg by, (3): 1 Gibberelhc acid, (2)' 28-33 Lanner, Ronald M., \"Trees of the Great Basrn: A Natural History\" (reviewed), -effects of, (2) : 32, inside back cover -structure of, (2) 29 \/ 130-31 Glaucidmm species, (4) : 29 Larch, American, (4): 22 Gleason, Herbert Wendell, photograph Lanx lancma, (4) : 22 Ledum groenlandicum, \/3\/: 17 by, \/3~: 25 \"'Les Quatre Vents,' a Far-Northern Goodyera oblonglfoha, \/4~: 23 Garden,\" Francis H. Cabot, (4): 19-31 -repens, (4): 23 Leucothoe catesbaei, (2) : 19 -tesselata, \/4\/: 23 Grape 'Thompson Seedless; (2): inside -fontanesiana, (2\/: 19 back cover Levy, Charles Kmgsley, and Richard B. Pnmack, \"A Field Guide to Poisonous Gray, Asa, ( 128-29; (3): 14, 15, 17, 18 Gould, Ernest, \"Managmg a Small Plants and Mushrooms of North America\" (reviewed), ( 1 30-31 Woodlot,\" \/ 12-10 Gunnera mamcata, \/4\/: 29 Lewandowski, Rick, and Paul W. Meyer, \"The 'Okame' Cherry\" \/ 1 23-24 Halle, Francis, \/ 1~: 19, 20, 22 43 Ligulana species, (4) : 26 Lihum marhan, ~4\/: 28 -martagon, (4\/: 28 -var. album, (4) : 28 Lmdera benzom, ~2\/~ 20 Lmgonberry, (4): 25 Lmnaea boreahs, (4) : 23, 27 Lmodendron tuhpifera, ~2\/ 2-6 -'Fastigiatum; flower of, (2) : cover . front -flower of, ~2\/: front cover, 1 -leaves of, ~2\/ 1, 2, 5 development of, (2): 2, 6 -stipules of, development of, (2): 6 Little, Christopher, photograph by, (2). 35 Littlefield, Susan, ments, Practice\" et alll, \"Garden Design: History, Principles, Ele- \/remewed\/, ~2\/: 35-36 Lombardy poplar, (4): 25 Lomcera species, ~2\/: 19; (4): 23 Loucks, One L , photographs by,(1):16, 17 Lygodmm palmatum, ~3\/: 1, 16, 25 -distribution of in New England, \/3\/: 27, 28 -fertile pinnae -spore of, \/3\/: 29 of, ~3\/~ 39 Magnolia vmgmiana, Mahoma aqmfohum, Malus species, (4) : 23 (2): 26 (2) : 19 Ernest -'Fameuse', ~4\/: 23 \"Managing a Small Woodlot,\" Gould, (1\/: 2-9 Maple, Amur, ~4\/: 22-23 Matheny, R. Norman, photograph by, ~ 1front cover McKelvey, Susan D., photograph by, (4) : 37 Meconopsis species, (4) : 30 -betomcifolla, (4\/: 21, 28, 29 Metasequoia glyptostroboides, (4y 11-18, 14, 15, 1G Meyer, Paul W , and Rick Lewandowski, \"The 'Okame' Cherry,\"123-24 33-34 Micropropagation, (2): 30-31, Miscanthus species, Molma species, (4): 28 Mistletoe, dwarf, ~3\/: 17 (4). 28 Moosewood, 14): 22 Morris Arboretum, ( 1 23 Moss pink, ( 1 25-26 Mount Washington, New Hampshire, plant communities of, (3): 16, 22 ash, (4): 22 -cranberry, \/4\/. 25 Muscan, (4): 30 Mynca cenfera, \/2\/~ 19 -pensylvamca, \/2\/. 23, 25 Nasturtmm officmale, (31: 19 Neilha species, \/4\/. 23 Nunes, Dawn M., drawing by, (2): 2 \"'Okame' Cherry,\" Paul W. Meyer and Rick Lewandowski, \/ 123-24 Ophiopogon japonicus 'Torafu', (2). 16 Oryza satma, (3) : 3 Paeoma species, (4) : 26 Pamcum species, (4\/: 28 Paper birch, (4) : 22, 36, 37 Penmsetum species, (4): 28 Penstemon species, (4) : 26 \"Persimmon calyxes,\" (4). 6, 8 Petasites japonicus var. gigantea, (4\/. 29 Philadelphus species, (4\/~ 23 Phlox Alpha;(1\/: 27 -blue, ( 126 -creepmg, ( 1 26 -Miss Lmgard', ( 1 26, 27 -mountam, \/ 127 = Reme du Jour', ( 1 27 = Rosalmde; (1).27 -summer, \/ 1 \/: 26, 27 Phlox amoena, ( 11, 26, 27 -carolma, (1\/: 25, 26, 27 -dmancata, \/1\/: 26 -glabernma, (1\/: 25, 27 -maculata, \/1\/~ 27 -`Miss Lmgard', ( 1 26, 27 -ovata, ( 1 27 -pamculata, (1\/: 26, 27 -stolomfera, (1\/. 26 -subulata, ( 125 Phytoalexms, (2): 33 Phytohormones, chemical structures of, (2\/ 29 -horticultural applications of, (2): 29-33 -kmds of, (2): 28-29 Picea ables, (4). 22 -glauca, (4) : 22 -nigra, (4\/: 22 Pinus banksiana, (4): 22, 23 -cembra, (4\/: 25 -mugo, (4): 25 -parm flora 'Fubuki Nishiki', (2\/: 16-17 -'Janome; 12): 17 -'Ogon; \/2\/: 17 -resmosa, (4\/: 22 Mountam -strobus, 14): 22 -sylvestns, (4\/: 25 Pmxter-flower, (3\/ 16 Pissenht, (4). 30 \"Plant Hardmess Zone Map,\" Umted States Department of Agriculture, (4) : 32, 33, 33 \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" Donald Wyman and Harnson L Flmt, (4\/: 32-34 \"Plants That Ment Attention: Volume I-Trees,\" edited by Janet M. Poor (reviewed), (2): 36-38 Pogoma, whorled, (3): 19 Poor, Janet M., editor, \"Plants That Ment Attention. Volume I-Trees\" (reviewed), (2) : 36-38 Poplar, Carolina, (4) 22 -Lombardy, \/4\/. 22, 25 Populus canadensis, (4): 22 -nigra `Itahca', (4\/~ 22 -tremuloides, (4\/: 22, 36, 37 Prestele, Joseph, ( 128-29 Pnmack, Richard B., and Charles Kmgsley Levy, \"A Field Guide to Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms of North Amenca\" (reviewed), ( 1 30 Primula species, (4\/. 28, 29 -abchasica, \/4\/: 25 -alpicola, (4\/. 28 ' luna, (4): 21 alba, (4) : 29-30 -aureata, (4): 29 -flaccida, (4\/: 29 -flonndae, (4\/: 21, 28 -nutans, (4). 29 -pnmulma, (4): 29 -pulverulenta 'Bartley Stram; (4\/~ -reidn, (4). 29 -reptans, 14). 29 -var. x var. 29 (4): 29 -sapphirina, (4\/: 29 -sikkimensis, (4\/: 28 -sonchifolia, (4\/: 29 -maln, (4\/: 29 -vulgans ssp. sibthorpn, (4\/: 26 Prunus campanulata, \/1\/: 22 2014xmcam 'Okame, (1): 23-24 -mcisa, (1\/~ 23 Puschkmia species, (4): 30 Pyrola species, (4) 27 Quaking aspen, (4)' 22 \"Raising the Climbing Fern from Spores,\" William E. Brumback, (3): -rosea, 44 25-27 Sp1raea species, (4) : 27, 30 \"Recognizing and Treating Air Pollu- Spotted hemlock, ( 128 tion Damage to Familiar Cultivated Spruce budworm, (4): 27, 30 Plants: A Conference,\" ~1\/~ 15-18 Staples, George, book review 38-39 Research Report (occasional feature), Sulawesi, Indonesia, \/3\/: 2-12 ~4\/: 2-9 Rhododendron species, ~2\/: 19 Supercooling, \/4~: 36 Twinflower, (4): 23 Vaccimum angustifolium, ~2\/: 19, ~4): 24 by, \/2~: -uhgmosum -mns-idaea -bakem, \/2\/: 26 -'Janet Blarr; ~2\/: -nudiflorum, (2\/: 26 26 -prumfohum, (2\/: 26 -roseum, (3) : 16 -tissue (4): 23 of, (2~: 30 Taxus canadensis, (4~: 22 Thahctrum species, \/4\/: 26 Syrmga species, alpmum, ~4\/: 25 \/4\/: 25 van Ravenswaay, Charles, \"Drawn from Nature: The Botanical Art of Joseph Prestele and His Sons\" (reviewed), \/ 1 \/: var. var. mmus, culture 28-30 Van Valkenburgh, \"The Book of Edible Nuts,\" Fredenck Michael, et alm, Principles, Elements, Practice\" (reviewed), (2): \"Garden Design: History, 35-36 Rosengarten, Jr. (remewed~, \/2~: 38-39 -schhppenbachil, (2\/: 26 \"The Case for Monkey-Mediated Evo- Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, gardens at, -vasey, \/2\/: 26 lution in Big-Bracted Dogwoods,\" (2): 35 -yakusimanum, (4\/: 29 Viburnum species, \/2\/~ 19; ~4). 23 Rhodotypos scandens, ~2\/: 20, 24, back Richard H. Eyde, \/4\/: 2-9 \"The Golden Waterworks: Tora~a Ritu- -dentatum, ~2\/: 20 cover als of the Wet-Rice Landscape,\" -dilatatum, (2\/: 25 Rhus aromatica, \/2\/: 26 Charles Zerner, (3) : 2-12 -lantana, (2) : 25 -typhma, ~2\/: 19, 26 Rmker, Robert, photographs by, ~2\/: \"The Layered Look,\" Peter Del Tredici, -prumfolmm, ~2): 25 inside back cover, 1-14, 16 -sieboldm, (2\/: 24, 25 ( 119-22 \"The 'Okame' Cherry,\" Paul W. Meyer Volkman, T., photographs by, (3): 2, 5, Rodgersia species, (4): 29 1 and Rick Lewandowskr, \/ 123-24 Rosa mtida, (2) : 26 6, 11 Weaver, Richard E., Jr., photographs by, Thmam, ( 1 \/: 23 -mchuraiana, \/2\/: 26 Rose 'Fairy; \/2\/: 26 ~ 125, 26 Thoreau, Henry D., (3) : 13-26, 30-32 -, \"The Appeal of Phloxes,\" 1 \/: -Journal, (3\/: 13, 16, 18, 19 -'Seafoam', (21: 26 25-27 Rosengarten, Frederick Jr., \"The Book botamcal index to, (3): 30-32 of Edible Nuts\" (reviewed), (2): 38-39 iliustrauons from, (3): 15, 16, 18, Wemstem, Geraldme, photographs by, Rubus chamaemorus, ~4\/. 24-25 92): 20, 23, 24 21,22 Rudbeckia species, (4): 31 -\"Replacmg the Understory Plant-quoted, \/3\/: 15, 17, 19, 20, 22, 23 mgs of Central Park,\" ~2\/: 19-27 -maxima, \/4\/: 26 -portrait of, \/3\/: 14 Schultes, Richard Evans, book reviews -\"The Succession of Forest Trees,\" Wetlands Protection Act (Massachusetts), (1\/: 10 (3) : 21-22 by, \/ 130, 30-31 \"Thoreau as Botamst: An Appreciation \"What Determmes a Plant's Cold HarScilla species, ~4\/: 30 and a Critique;' Ray Angelo, \/3\/: dmess?'; John W. Emset, 14): 35-38 -sibmca, (4\/: 26 Whorled pogoma, ~3): 19 13-23 Scirpus amencanus, ~4\/: 19 8 Wise, Hope, photograph by,18 Thrift, \/ 126 Serviceberry, (4) : 23 Wyman, Donald, and Harnson L. Flint, Thu~a species, (4). 25, 26-27 Shm-shan, ~4\/: 11, 14 \"Plant Hardiness-Zone Maps,\" ~4): Smo-Amerrcan Botamcal Expedition, -occidentahs, \/4\/. 22 1980, Amencan members of, photo- Tora~a people, \/3\/. front cover, inside 32-34 Yellow birch, (4): 22 front cover, back cover graphs by, (4): 13, 14, 16 \"Trees of the Great Basm A Natural Zeatm, structure of, (2): 29 Skmner, D. Henry, ( 123 Slash Disposal Act (Massachusetts\/, ~ 1 \/: History,\" Ronald M. Lanner (reviewed), Zerner, Charles, photographs by, (3): front cover, 9, back cover 10 \/1\/~ 30-31 -\"The Golden Waterworks: Tora~a Smith, Olga A., drawing by,121 'Iiembles, les, \/4\/: 22 Rituals of the Wet-Rice Landscape,\" Snowberry, creeping, (4): 24 Trembling aspen, (4): 36, 37 Soldanella species, (4): 28 Trollms species, (4): 26 (3): 2-12 Sorbus species, ~4\/. 28 Zwinger, Ann Haymond, book review -Alabaster', (4) : 28 by,( 128-30 -amencana, \/4\/. 22 Tryon, Alice F., photograph by, (3) : South Sulawesi, Indonesia, \/3\/. front inside back cover cover, inside front cover, back cover Tsuga canadensis, \/4y 25 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23338","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260af28.jpg","title":"1985-45-4","volume":45,"issue_number":4,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Golden Waterworks: Toraja Rituals of the Wet-Rice Landscape","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24870","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270b36d.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Zerner, Charles","article_content":" Agricultural ceremonies stay the hand of entropy, transform mud into rice, and sustain an agrarian society in Southeast Asia The Golden Waterworks: Toraja Rituals of the Wet-Rice Charles Zerner Landscape or terraces, are more than environmental mscnptions with an ancient lineage. Rice currently supphes half the diet of the world's population, accounting for more than 11percent of the world's arable land. Before high-yielding nce varieties and commercially produced fertilizers were mtroduced m the 1960s, traditional techniques of water control and landscape management had provided Asian populations with food for more than 50 centunes, yielding between I and 1.5 tons of nce per hectare. The cultivation of nce is based upon a fit between the structure and adaptive capacities of the rice plant, and the manmade landscape. Although \"petal\" of Sulawesi, Indonesia's orchid-shaped island, the highland Toraja people have practiced the arts of wet-rice cultivation for centuries. For Toraja elders and ntual pnests, the mystery of tlns landscape is \"the our On the southwestern fields transformation of mud mto nce\" or how, in words, seeds become food-producmg plants. m For this Western was a observer, the central question how, society without wmtten script, or floppy disks, memories of this tape recorders, agranan and system were retamed conveyed generations of prehterate famlers. I was to discover one answer in Toraja agricultural ceremonies.-C. Z. ecological and to unmistakably elegant patterns of flowing water, monumental earthworks, and green plants of the wet-rice landscape are inscribed on the earth's surface throughout the Far East, from Japan and China to the Himalayas. Wet nce is The plants cannot grow in water-logged soils, rice, originally a swamp weed, prospers under such conditions. According to M. S. Swaminathan, Director General of the International Rice Research Institute m the Philippmes, rice most cultivated in India and Sri Lanka in South Asia, and on Southeast Asia's mainland, in Burma, Thailand, Kampuchea, Laos, Vietnam, and Malaysia. The anonymous calligraphy of wet-nce farmers is impressed upon the environment of the Philippmes and across portions of Indonesia's 3,000 islands, from Sumatra to Sulawesi. Scholars now believe that rice (Oryza satma was domesticated in Southeast Asia more than 7,000 years ago. The structures cluding irrigation In preparation for of the wet-rice systems and landscape, inwater-holding grow m flooded fields because it has \"an efficient passage from shoot to root,\" permitting the flow of essential oxygen. The genius of wet-nce cultures-the creation and maintenance of a nce-producmg landscapeis based on a web of cultural, social, and ecological relationships. Water from streams, spnngs, and rainfall is channeled to and through a network of interlinked fields. The environmental centerpiece of this system is the terrace: a field ringed by water-holding retaimng walls, or bunds, made of rock or earth. Rice terraces are holdmg ponds through which the flow of water can be regulated, batlnng growing plants m a broth of can rake is dragged across a field which has been turned with iron-tipped spades, To' Dama'. Photograph by T. Volkman. planting, nutnents. a The wet-rice landscape is not an environmental \"given,\" but a cultural construction which must 4 be conveyed from generation to generation of cultivators. Without both a memory-like \"vessel\" in which environmental understandings and values are stored, and a means of commumcatmg this knowledge, the structure of the wet-rice landscape would have been obliterated by the passage of time and the movements of water. Environmental \"information,\" like the landscapes it mforms, erodes without the mtegratmg structures of memory. Without memory, individuals, cultures, and cultured landscapes lose their forms, dissolving into an entropic runoff of priceless mformation. The Toraja Wet-Rice For many of the Landscape 330,000 Toraja people who inhabit the mountainous hinterlands of South Sulawesi (formerly Celebes), Indonesia's orchidshaped island, the arts of wet-rice cultivation are essential for daily life. Rice is cultivated in a score of varieties, mcluding red, white, purple, and black, m irrigated terraces that lace the Toraja landscape. Preparation of the land begins men turn over m September as clods of earth in fallow fields and terrace walls. In November, water from the repair mountain watershed is channeled into the majority of the terraces, and men break up the clods with their hands and feet; occasionally, to further prepare the soil, they use water buffalo to draw rakes across the bottom of water-filled terraces. At this time, seed is broadcast in nursery beds scattered throughout the landscape. In January, seedlings are transplanted from the nursery beds to fields where the rice grows until it is \"pregnant.\" When stalks of maturing rice bend with heavy fruits and the interior of each grain is hard rather than milky, it is time for harvest. Women and children from the surrounding region converge on the fields to begin the lively labor of severing rice from its stalk. Sheaves are piled in tawny stacks, sun-dried, and carried by men to villages on mountain slopes above the terraces. For centuries, the Toraja have practiced the arts of wet-rice cultivation. How have memories and images of landscape-making and watershed management been preserved? How has knowledge of rice cultivation been inscribed within the hearts and mmds of each succeeding generation of highland farmers? Simple observation by each generation plays a major role m perpetuatmg this landscape, of course, but observation alone cannot account for the conservation of the wet-rice environment. The social organization of labor, the timing of cultivation practices, and the regulation of the irrigation system require some means of storing, integrating, and periodically representing information about the landscape. Before the Dutch extended their control over South Sulawesi m 1906, the Toraja, like many other highland peoples of Southeast Asia, were a relatively isolated, preliterate people. Aluk to Dolo, or \"Customs of the Ancestors,\" the Toraja indigenous religion, mformed both ceremonial and everyday acts. Rice ritual or aluk pare, constituted a distmct sphere of ceremonial life. These affirmative ceremonies, associated with the rising sun and the growth of plants, were conducted by ntual specialists called to mmaa, \"The Wise Ones,\" andmdo' padang, \"Mothers of the Land,\" with a prodigious knowledge of myth, custom, and ceremomal speech. These masters of ceremonies maugurate crucial phases m the calendar of cultivation. Rituals of the Watershed September 1978, on the craggy slopes of Mount Sesean, towering 6,000 feet above a terraced landscape, five Toraja men make their way up a In mountain ridge. They leave behind their village, Stone Drum, its carved rice granaries and fallow fields, and walk through a cool forest of dense bamboo. They climb past the last remaining To Mmaa [Wise One] Tandi Datu broadcasts nce seed into a nursery bed, Mount Sesean. Photograph by T. Volkman. 5 6 Newly transplanted nce seedlings, Photograph by T. Volkman. Mount Sesean. houses and small vegetable gardens of onions, potatoes, and Arabica coffee trees, and emerge on a clear, forestless ridge where there are no signs of habitation or culrivation In this windswept region of streams and fast-movmg mists, they begin \"Going Up the Mountain,\" the first preplanting ntual of the cultivation cycle, by makmg offermgs. chant is called \"Caring for the Mountain,\" and this is the first of a series of rituals that emphasize the importance of the natural watershed and the irrigation system. These ceremonies mark and bless the places where rainwater collects, mists condense, and spnngs well up from the ground. According to Tandi Datu, these rites of the watershed are \"the foundation for rice planting.\" After the ceremony high on Mount Sesean, the Mothers of the Land make offerings at sites on lower slopes, at spnngs, waterfalls, and individual rice fields. There, spirits are invited to partake of sticky rice steamed m coconut milk and roasted in green bamboo containers. As water is channeled into the rice terraces below, it is honored in ceremonial poems as part of the Toraja \"family bamboo clump\": Tandi Datu, a Wise One, and four Mothers of the Land carry offerings of palm wine, glutinous rice, and a small, squealing pig. The Mothers of the Land are leaders of cultivation ceremonies on Mount Sesean. As one prepares offering plates of banana leaf, and another sacrifices the baby pig, Tandi Datu chants, inviting the spirits of rice and the land to descend, to partake of the offerings, and to bless the coming planting of rice. The 7 the requests of the spring the desires of the waterfall The wishes of cool pure water -To Mmaa Lumbaa of Buntu Tagarl Different Distinct are are village The complex of preplanting rites on Mount Sesean are called medatu. These ceremonies frame the landscape, marking places, or nodes of importance, in the natural and manmade environment. Following the ceremonies of the mountain, which honor places along the path of water to the rice fields, the second phase of medatu honors the journey of rice seed from the village granary to the nursery bed. At Stone Drum, the Mothers of the Land gather crucial implements of cultivation: iron-tipped spades. These implements are employed to form and maintain the productive landscape, shaping terraces from mountam slopes, constructing terrace walls, and crearing channels for the passage of water. A ritual practitioner lays the iron-tipped tools on a mat and sacrifices a baby chick in a ritual called \"Cleaning the Water Diversion Canal.\" As the Wise One daubs iron tools with chick's blood, explicit connections are made between manmade mstruments of cultivation, the water-procurement channels, and the prosperity of the wet-rice community. Like the borders of the mat of woven blue-green reeds on which the tools are set, this landscape ceremony focuses and frames the field of perception. Ritual compositions, like landscape paintings, create mimature fields: environmental fragments referring to larger landscapes of meaning and topography. oath that is and walled with stone,\" \"roofed with \"strong silver and walled with gold,\" to remember the spirits and perform their ntuals, \"a rule for life for mankind and all his creation.\" If the community of cultivators remembers the ritual performances, then \"all ancestors\" are awakened. In a state of heightened attention, the spirits, \"guardians of the three stalks of padi,\" ensure the fruitful cultivation of nce. This is the moral compact of the Toraja cultivator and the spirits of the landscape: Spirits whom I call andI mmte with kmdness an \"we will always worship you and you.\" He utters a \"firm promise,\" deeply respect I make a corral for water buffalo which you enter and surrender rising and falling. You will eat the nce we give to you with the side dishes And after you eat, you will chew kalosi and smh water m the mouth You will spit far with pleasure. You will accompany us m the workmg of the rice fields until we obtam the fruits And you will make them multiply and become 7 much during the mght and the day. We will always worship you and deeply respect you every time To bless this padi and make it fertile And the roots will never impede the growthl freedom And the leaves will grow as thick as scalhon leaves And the fruits will be visible m a big pile, even that! And all the nce fields will be nnged by heaps of padi that are even And we will always be strengthened with this food and fruits wherever we will go. And I will always promise with a firm promise the same as all these words The promise which is strong and walled with stone that will protect Roofed with silver and walled with gold And you, people we consider ancestors And Puang Matua, the forger-spirit who gives decree A rule for life to mankind and all his creations And will be made visible all kinds of forms Awakened all ancestors As guardians of the three stalks of padi. -To Minoa Tandi Datu of Stone Drum village, Mount Sesean a The Moral Compact of the Wet-Rice Cultivator day seed is to be broadcast, Tandi Datu calls the spirits to his household. His words, couplets of imagaic speech, express his hopes for full fields of rice, growing \"as thick as scallion leaves.\" Tandi Datu's prayer is more than a list of aspirations. It is an exchange: in return for \"food and fruits wherever we will go,\" and a harvest \"visible in a big pile,\" Tandi Datu tells the spirits On the 8 Later that morning Tandi Datu, like many other farmers on the slopes of Mount Sesean, carries new seed to the nursery bed. Stepping onto the muddy-red terrace wall, with deft movements of his right hand, he scatters handfuls of seed. As seed strikes the water, shattering its mirrorperfect surface, another cycle of growth has begun. For the next nine months, until harvest, the attentions of cultivators and ritual practitioners will be focused on the water-filled terraces. Across the terraces another plant, the water fern azolla, also grows, covering the fields with a green, moss-like cap. Although mtrogen constitutes about 80 percent of the earth's atmosphere, most plants cannot use it in its gaseous form. In wet-rice terraces, azolla, in symbiosis with the blue-green alga Anabaena azollae, produces a steady supply of nitrogen m a usable form, ammonium. When the nce fields are dramed after harvest, mtrogen from decomposing azolla is absorbed by terrace soils. The critical role of azolla has not gone unnoticed by the wet-nce farmers of Asia. In Vietnam, for example, a temple was erected m honor of azolla. Ritual verses suggest that the Toraja too knew of the importance of water fern in the wetrice Ceremonies of the Harvest Harvest ceremonies mark the journey from individual fields paths of rice in its to family hearths, focusing attention on its transformations and on the social orchestration of cultivation. In late June, the sounds of handmade windmills can be heard m the fields. Startled flocks of crows and other padi birds take flight at the sounds of school children walking home on rice-padi paths. When mature rice plants bend with the weight of full kernels, it is time for preharvest rituals. To Mmaa Lumbaa, the ritual practitioner, corner stands in the of his field and chants: God who laid out the nce fields lord who spread out the broad plain one God who delineated the offering places after the other m the rice fields lord who marked out the places on the where the fragrant grass is burnt ground landscape: to Hail thee wet-nce field, with duckweed as a sunfull of shade, Abundant be the spear-shaped It is more water blessings upon the sawah, plants. possible that the \"sunshade of duckweed,\" accurately translated as \"moss,\" represents the mantle of azolla growing upon the surface of each terrace. For the Toraja, as for many Asian peoples, the sunshade is a sign of respect, status, and power. High-ranking Toraja were, in former days, shielded and honored by ceremomal umbrellas made of palm leaves. Toraja \"big-men,\" or leaders, are likened in ritual verse to tall trees and immense umbrellas that protect a multitude of followers. The sun-shaded Toraja rice terrace of ritual verse is a noble presence in Toraja memory and landscape: it encapsulates ecological, cultural, and aesthetic wisdom within a smgle seed of multiple meanmgs. Lumbaa cuts a handful a new rice and returns to his village, where women conduct rituals at the places and for the processes of transformation which they alone control: for the mortar log (where rice is separated from the stalk); for the winnowing trays (where the grain is separated from the chaff); and at the hearth, center of the Toraja household and the site of a most fundamental transformation: becoming food. In a silent ceremony, Lumbaa's wife, like other women on the mountain that evening, grasps two ears of newly cut rice in her hand and touches the three hearthstones, the clay cooking pots, the coconut-shell water dipper, the large and small rice spoons, and plates. The two stalks of rice are given a name, \"The Ears of the Hearth,\" and are hung like Christmas stockings above the cooking place. Like the cursor of a computer screen, or the dotted line of an animated map that links points in a landscape itinerary, the actions of Lumbaa's wife illustrate certain ways in which ceremonies commumcate information: through gesture, and pointing. Her wordless, eloquent gesmime, tures emphasize and consecrate important places of the hearth. 9 Harvesters at Photograph by work m the early mommg, Mount Sesean. the author. baskets, Men carrymg bundles of padi on bamboo poles and Mount Sesean. Photograph by the author. m 10 The path of rice on the ritual map then moves the \"Meeting Place,\" the field where the major preharvest ceremony is conducted. This ritual clarifies, through the movements and exchanges of rice, the vital relations of reciprocity between cultivators, among villages in the region, and between the entire landscape-community, \"Those of One Ritual-Celebration,\" and the spirits of the land. At the preharvest ritual, women lade steaming heaps of new rice from their family fields into a single basket. The pooled rice of the commumty is spooned out on banana leaves, folded into conical packets, and fastened onto an altar. Palm wme, spirits for the spirits, as well as slices of pork, are also offered for spirits, ghosts, and ancestors. The altar stand and its gifts are a temporary architectural embodiment of an invisible to then given their share-out of rice. Like the inhalation of a single breath, the produce of single fields, separately cultivated, yet collectively harvested, is pooled in a basket brimming with the rice of many farmers. This first phase of the preharvest ritual is centripetal, forming a nucleus of persons and rice grains on the ritual field and in the ceremonial basket. Then, like breath released, rice yielded up is returned: a gracious movement of dispersal. Rice, symbol and substance of Toraja prosperity, flows outward from a ceremonial center to its original donors, the spirits, its guardians, the ritual practitioners, and its cultivators, the rice farmers. hierarchy. The Rice Dispersed, The Gift Returned Lumbaa calls forth the spirits from their dwelling places, from the skies, from the sprmgs, from the wells, and from the twelve layers of the earth \"beneath our feet,\" inviting them to partake of the new rice. Ritual verse suggests that spirits not only dwell within the landscape, but embody it: God below us, upon whom the houses are built lord upon whom the poles, cut to the correct size, are erected God who placed himself as the floor of the earth lord who is the under layer of it Before written texts compressed, codified, and preserved information about the techniques of agricultural production, before computer display screens and floppy disks presented a multitude of images and information, the landscape rituals of many preliterate peoples, including the Toraja, played a crucial role in the preservation of environmental information. These ring cycles of the seasons, timed to the sun and keyed to the constellations, encapsulated m dramatic forms, images and information about the environment. Agrarian ceremonies were indispensable for the perpetuation of the environment and the continuity of societies dependent, in large measure, on protein obtained from the wet-rice landscape. Toraja rice-related rituals frame the structure of the wet-rice landscape by marking and linking crucial nodes in the natural and social environment. They compose the frames of landscape memory and perception, signalling the importance of water sources, mstruments of cultivation, components of the irrigation system, and the social collectivities that make cultivation possible. Like the seeds whose cycles they inaugurate, celebrate, and close, these ceremomes convey a surplus of information concerning topography and timing, the mstruments and substances of cultivation. To mmaa, \"The Wise Ones,\" andmdo' padang, the \"Guardians of 100,000 Prohibitions,\" are the bearers of landscape ceremonies. These masters The land which has been planted, weeded, seeded, and harvested, is the body of the spirits. The gift of abundance is thus returned by the community, through offerings of the firstfruits of cultivation. After the spirits are symbolically served, ritual practitioners are given a real meal consisting of rice of many kinds: red, purple, and highly prized glutinous rice are piled mto the practitioners' goblet-shaped plates, in quantities befitting their roles as masters of ceremony. The community of participating households, the \"many people\" of one ntual celebration, are 11 I Harvested padi drying m the sun on a lichen-covered T. Volkman. boulder, Mount Sesean. Photograph by ritual of memory and ceremony held to insure the preservation of the wet-rice landscape by remembering ritual verses and the structure of agrarian ceremomes. They are indeed the Mothers of the Land, engendering through remembering. and moves men through commemorating (re- Memory and Commemoration Customs of the ancestors we perform They refuse be left behind Returning to be remembered -Ritual Song, Mount Sesean Toraja ceremonies of the landscape do not repto memory) shared images feeling about the wet-rice landscape, its community of spirits, plants, and persons, as well as irrigation channels and terraces. These cyclical ceremomes revivify Toraja understandmgs of the moral tissue of interconnections throughout the highlands environment. Toraja rituals of the wet-rice landscape stir the senses and appeal through many channels: sight, hearing, smell, and a sharply focused sense of ordered beauty. And, through a multiplicity of expressive forms: the spoken arts of oratory, the committing to common resent neutral information or environmental \"data.\" Nor are these rituals moving solely in that they are kinetic, occasionally frenetic. Toraja architecture, the silent arts of mime, gesture, and simple pomtmg, the lively commotion of dogs yappmg, smoke rising, and ritual speakers ceaselessly chantmg. If the nsmg column of smoke from offerings of animate arts of ritual 12 of the directionality of men and the spirits of the land, the movements of Toraja rice and its rituals through the landscape are the tracks of a particle of belief in the cloud chamber of an agrararomatic grass is a sign communication between ' ian landscape. is changing rapidly. Indonesian education and ideology, consumerism, and Western tounsm, among other mfluences, are affecting Toraja conceptions of the role, audience, and efficacy of religious ceremomes and their rela- Toraja society tionship to agrarian practices. Agrarian ceremonies and the beliefs that inform them will probably not exist two decades from now, at least know them. For now, Toraja and those of numerous other small-scale societies throughout the world, encapsulate and commumcate m symbolic form what post-industrial societies have been forced, belatedly, to acknowledge and specify in quantitative form-namely, that what is taken from the environment must be returned. Perhaps this moral, sensuously conceived model of sustaining ecological relationships, of lastmg reciprocity between people and land, is the gift of simpler, changing societies to those more powerful, a metaphor and model of fruitful environmental relations. In ntual verse, the Toraja exhort the desired contents of the entire world to flow toward their isolated mountam villages through the golden water-channels of their wet-rice landm the forms we landscape ntuals, scape : We make We build We make a a stone a water-channel for you bndge for you golden waterworks to come The bounty will arrive here Like the sea encircling the earth And there will be no brokenness. -To Mmaa Lumbaa of Buntu Tagan village Charles Zerner teaches botamcal drawmg at the Massachusetts College of Art. The recipient of a research fellowship from the Social Science Research Council, he currently is studymg the impact of tounsm on the landscape of South Sulawesi. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Thoreau as Botanist: An Appreciation and a Critique","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24871","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270b726.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Angelo, Ray","article_content":"Thoreau studied the science of botany and to better express himself to communicate with botanists- Thoreau An as Botanist: Ray Angelo Appreciation and a Critique Since he used no Thoreau was not the first to botamze m his hometown of Concord, Massachusetts. Two brothers, Drs. Edward and Charles Jarvis, of the generation before him collected many specimens m the town before Henry had graduated from Harvard m 1837. Thoreau certainly was not the last to botanize there. His writings have fueled an mterest m the flora of Concord that extends umnterrupted over a century and a half to the present day. Probably no other town m New England has had such long-standing and contmuous attention devoted to its plants. Adorned with rivers, lush meadows, ponds, bogs, and calcareous cliffs, the venerable settlement has rewarded botamsts with a floral variety unmatched, perhaps, by any other area in New England of comparable size ( 1,190 species and counting). The beginnings of Thoreau's exposure to the science of botany date back to his schooldays at the Concord Academy1828-33), where botany was one of the disciplines taught by Phineas Allen. Also at this time he attended lectures at the Concord Lyceum which mcluded botany among other topics. When Thoreau attended Harvard \/ 1833-37\/, botany was not offered as a course m itself but was mcluded under natural history taught by the noted entomologist Thaddeus W. Hams. About this time a boarder with the Thoreau family, Prudence Ward, shared with him her interest m botamcal studies. Thoreau later recollected in his Journal (December 4, 185G) that during this period be began to use Jacob Bigelow's Florula Bostonlensis, A Collection of Plants of Boston and its Vicinity (no doubt the second edition of 1824). Primarily, he was looking for popular names of plants and references to localities. system, the Latin names he learned some at this time were soon forgotten. Upon graduation from Harvard Thoreau did schoolteachmg m his native town. Natural history was one of the subjects he taught. He told his pupils that he knew the blossommg times of the local flowers well enough that he could determine what month it was by what was in flower. In 1842 he was asked to review for The Dial a senes of natural history reports commissioned by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. Included m the senes was the Rev. Chester Dewey's Report on the Herbaceous Plants of Massachusetts. The ostensible review, entitled \"Natural History of Massachusetts,\" does not include a single Latm plant name, perhaps intentionally. Thoreau's concern was that mere lists of plants (which Dewey's work essentially was) were an inadequate expression of the state's floral resources. At this time Thoreau's botanical knowledge was insufficiently scientific for him to comment in detail on the techmcal merits of the report had he wanted to. Moreover, he had not travelled widely enough in Massachusetts to judge its completeness. of Thoreau's Journal and correfrom the 1840s shows little stirring m spondence the direction of scientific botany. In a letter to his sister, Sophia, on May 22, 1843, from Staten Island he wntes, \"Tell Miss Ward I shall try to put my microscope to a good use, and if I find any new and pressible flower, will throw it into my common place book.\" Thoreau's first use of a Latin name for a plant appears to be in his Journal (volume 2, page 9, of the new Princeton University Press edition of his Journal) where he refers survives What 14 Portrait of Thoreau by Cynthia DeSando. to \"Mikania scandens,\" climbing hempweed, on September 12, 1842. This same passage in slightly modified form appears in Thoreau's A Week on the Concord and Mernmack Rmers, published in 1849 (page 44, Princeton edition). The first use by Thoreau of a scientific name for a native plant m his published work appears to occur in 1848. The name \"pinus mgra\" is found in the original version of the \"Ktaadn\" essay that appeared m the Umon Magazme of Literature and Art of that year. This was the name for black spruce ~Picea manana~ used m Bigelow's manual. In a later version of the text Thoreau changed the name to that used m Asa Gray's manual, namely, \"Abies mgra,\" and also inserted an additional Latin name, \"Vaccmum vitis-idaea.\" Thoreau's background in classical languages and his delight m etymology naturally attracted him to the Latin \/and Greek) names of science. Two events m the later 1840s played a major role in stimulatmg Thoreau's mterest in systematic natural history. The first was the arrival in 1846 of a \"true giant\" m the realm of science at the time-naturalist Louis Agassiz, who accepted \" at Harvard. As A. Hunter Duhas noted: \"Not only his attainments but pree his remarkable personality created a sensation among the local scientists.\" The very next year Thoreau's correspondence with Agassiz's assistant, James Elliot Cabot, included frequent use of scientific nomenclature to discuss the collection of animal specimens. The second event, which more directly crystallized Thoreau's botamcal inclinations, was the publication in 1848 of the first edition of Asa Gray's Manual of Botany The appearance of this work heralded the end of a long period during which New England botany had langmshed at a relatively rudimentary level. This manual for the identification of vascular plants, mosses, and liverworts of the northeastern United States was as dry as Dewey's report and Bigelow's manual, but it was far more comprehensive and accurate. Two years earlier George B. Emerson's A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally m the Forests of Massachusetts had appeared. This work, while much more limited m scope, devoted more attention to the occurrence and usefulness of each species than any previous manual, and its descriptions were more detailed. Both Gray's manual and Emerson's report made use of a natural system to arrange their species rather than the artificial system of Linnaeus adopted by Bigelow. The availability of these two volumes, which were unlike any that had come before m New England, could not help but encourage a more systematic study of plants by Thoreau. Thoreau's first work touching upon natural history after these events was A Week on the Concord and Mernmack Rivers, pubhshed in 1849. In this book Thoreau finally injects a measured dose of Latin nomenclature into his nature writing, particularly with respect to fishes. Agassiz is even mentioned. Thoreau's application of scientific names to plants, however, is sparinglimited to eight plants, all of them relatively common and easy to distinguish. In the 1906 (\"Walden\") edition of Thoreau's an appointment 15 name for a native plant from May 1850-\"Prunus deentry pressa\" (now Prunus susquehanae, sand cherry). From August 31 of this year onward, the use of scientific plant names becomes a regular feature of the spnng, summer, and autumn pages of the Journal. Thoreau recalled later (December 4, 1856, Journal) that this was about the time he returned to the study of plants with more method. The year 1850 is also that to which the earliest specimens m his organized herbarium be- Journal, the first occurs Latm come in an sadly scientific\" (July 13, 1852, letter to Sophia Thoreau). It is somewhat startling to realize what Thodid not the start of his program 1850-particularly with respect to woody plants. Thoreau, three years after his stay at Walden Pond, had never distmgmshed the first native tree to blossom in spring, silver maple (Acer sacreau know at m channum) (May 1, 1852, Journal~; that but one was unaware type of spruce, black spruce \/Picea manana), occurred in Concord (May 25, 1857, long. three years Thoreau undertook an intensive program to develop his mastery of Concord's flora. He read botanical works by Franr~ois Andre Michaux, Edward Tuckerman, John Loudon, Asa Gray, and Carolus Linnaeus. In his Journal he noted comparisons of the artificial Linnaean ordering of plants with natural systems, but always with the comment that neither addressed the poetical aspects of plants. When he sought the literature rather than the science of plants he was told to his dismay by naturalist and Harvard librarian, Thaddeus W. Harris, that he had already read all there was. His efforts m the field dunng these years produced complamts of too much observation: Over the next two or excess that my get no rest, but suffer from constant stram. When I have found myself ever looking down and confining my gaze to the flowers, I have thought it might be well to get mto the habit of observing the clouds as a corrective; but no~ that study would be ~ust as bad (September 13, 1852, Journalcould not distmgmsh poison ivy (Rhus radicans\/ from poison sumac (Rhus vermx) (May 25, 1851, Journaland did not know the common witherod \/Viburnum cassmoides) (September 11, 1851, JournalThoreau later recalled this state of ignorance: I remember gazing with interest at the swamps about those days and wondenng if I could ever attain to such famihanty with plants that I should I have the habit of attention to such senses ... know the species of every twig and leaf m them, that I should be acquainted with every plant (excepting grasses and cryptogamous ones), summer and winter, that I saw Though I knew most of the flowers, and there were not m any particular swamp more than half a dozen shrubs that I did not know, yet these made it seem like a maze to me, of a thousand strange species, and I even thought of commencing at one end and looking it faithfully and laboriously through till I knew it all. I httle thought that in a year or two I should have attamed to that knowledge without all that labor (December 4, 1856, ~ournal~ foumal) I feel that I am dissipated by so many observations. I have almost a shght, dry headache as the ... During the early 1850s Thoreau's passion for recording flowering dates and leafing of woody plants dawns. He described the great lengths he result of all this observing. (March 23, 1853, ~our. nal) In the wmter of to 1852, when there were no flowers observe, he undertook the study of lichens. Not surprisingly, the conflict between Thoreau the Artist and Thoreau the Naturalist began to The sketches accompanying this article are taken from the \"Walden\" edition of Thoreau's ~ournal. surface: \"What sort of science is that which ennches the understanding, but robs the imagination ?\" (December 25, 1851, Journal~; \"I have be- 16 times to ascertain the exact date a flower opened-\"runmng to different particular sides of the town and mto neighboring towns, often between twenty and thirty miles in a day\" (December 4, 1856, Journal\/. Understandably, he noted: \"One has as much as he can do to observe how flowers successively unfold\" (June 15, 1852, JournalHis fascination for flowermg dates never abated. It was always a victory to discover a new station for a plant with an earlier blossom time: went to at thought I knew the flowers so well, the beautiful purple azalea or pmncter-flower should be shown me by the hunter who found it\" (May 31, 1853, JournalPart of his argument used to persuade the hunter, Melvm, was that \"I was a botanist and ought to know.\" Thoreau's botanical interest in Concord natuinto his travels away from his native town. The accounts of his earliest significant trips-Ktaadn and the Mame Woods (1848), A Week (1849), and An Excursion to Canada ( 1853\/-contam for the most part references only to common plants with relatively httle use of Latin names. The same is essentially true for Walden (1854). A trip to Mt. Wachusett, Massachusetts, in October 1854 is represented m his Journal primarily by a list of common names of trees and shrubs seen there. This is a forerunner of more extensive lists, pnmanly m Latin, prepared for later excursions. For example, plants collected on a journey to Vermont and New rally overflowed lifetime to find out where to look for the earliest flower\" (Apnl 2, 1856, fournal). In his last years Thoreau orgamzed this and other phenological data spanning a decade mto elaborate monthly charts. These may represent the skeleton of a contemplated volume portraying a representative year in Concord. As Thoreau's botamcal acumen rapidly developed, he accepted the role of town botamst. It was important to him to know the location of plants rare in Concord. He made one of his most noteworthy finds while surveying in November a \"It will take you half September 1856 were carefully listed m the Journal. Similarly, notes m the Journal on his July 1855 trip to Cape Cod are littered with the Latin names for those flowers peculiar to Hampshire in 1851-the climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum\/, a peculiarly attractive fern that is regionally scarce. In May 1853 he discovered the showy painted cup (Castilleja coccmea\/ and marvelled \"how long some very conspicuous ones [flowers] may escape diligent walker, if you do not chance to visit their localities the right week or fortmght.\" most the month he related in the Journal an of extracting the locality of the fragrant roseshell azalea (Rhododendron roseum) or pmxter-flower from a local hunter. He saw allegorical significance in the fact \"that, when I same In the the coast. By contrast, his articles on Cape Cod that appeared m Putnam's Magazme that year contain only two scientific plant names. By 1857Thoreau had clearly progressed beyond the fledgling stage and was perhaps one of the more competent amateur botanists in Massachusetts. In this year he made one of the most detailed lists of plants recorded for one of his journeys-the Allegash tnp to Maine. This occurs m the Journal (not published in the 1906 \"Walden\" edition) and as an appendix to Maine Woods (1864). This list also notes species seen on his Chesuncook trip to Maine m September 1853. In July 1858 Thoreau made possibly his most significant contribution to New England botany. That month he ascended Mt. Washington, New and amusing account Hampshire-the highest peak in New Englandprepared the most detailed list of plants by zones not to that had ever been made for this site, one be surpassed until the twentieth century. The month before he had similarly listed plants 17 7 Hampshire; he botanical notes supplemented after a return visit in August 1860. The listing of plants by zones was probably inspired by Alexander von Humboldt's famous correlation of altitudinal plant zones with those of latitude. Thoreau's journey to Minnesota in 1861 was made at a time when his botamcal prowess was considerable but when his health was failing. His enthusiastic companion, Horace Mann, Jr., was a young naturalist whose promismg career in botany at Harvard was cut short by tuberculosis within the decade. Thoreau's notebooks for the journey are liberally sprinkled with scientific plant names-old friends and new. Included also were the customary lists of plants seen. This was to be essentially Thoreau's last botamcal foray. Although Thoreau demonstrated much botamcal curiosity on his excursions, it was always Concord's flora that was dearest to him: \"Many a weed here stands for more of life to me than the big trees of California would if I should go there\" on found Mt. Monadnock, New science: the this list with more locally rare parasite, dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobmm pusillum\/. ). Starting about 1858 Thoreau undertook the study of grasses and sedges in earnest. These are relatively unfamiliar even to most modem botamsts. Within two or three years he attained a substantial knowledge of those species that occur m Concord. His collections mclude nearly 100 species from the town (nearly half of those recorded in the town to date.) Other difficult plants groups such as lichens, mosses, and fungi resisted study owing to the absence of good regional manuals. Consequently, excepting lichens, his scientific references to these plant groups are mmmal. Even with lichens he never came close to acquiring expertise comparable to what he achieved with vascular plants. In a short article entitled \"Thoreau, the Lichemst\" lichenologist Reginald Heber Howe, Jr., commented that Thoreau's observations of lichens showed \"only a slight knowledge of species, and no techmcal grasp whatsoever.\" But Howe, who studied lichens m Concord about sixty years after Thoreau, noted that Thoreau knew the varied morphological types and appreciated their place m Nature. (See The Gmde to Nature, volume 5, pages 17-20, 1912.) Any collections he might have made of lichens, mosses, and fungi are not known to have survived. In his day there were relatively few regional botamsts for Thoreau to share his observations with. The most notable New England botamst, Asa Gray (1810-88), at Harvard, was apparently not very accessible and was known to be primarily a herbanum botamst rather than a field botamst. A. Hunter Dupree, Gray's biographer, states that neither Ralph Waldo Emerson nor Thoreau crossed Asa Gray's path and attnbutes this to the empiricist Gray's hostility towards Transcendentalism. Aside from Asa Gray, virtually all other botanists in New England at this time were amateurs. The most knowledgeable of these that Thoreau met was the Rev. John Lewis Russell (1808-73) of Salem, Massachusetts. Russell, a Unitarian minister, was for forty years professor groups (November 20, 1857, Journal). On February 4, 1858, Thoreau was astonished to find Labrador tea ~Ledum groenlandicum\/ in Concord. He had, however, anticipated the discovery a year and a half earlier: \"But why should not as wild plants as m Berkshire, as in Labrador? ... I shall never find in the wilds of Labrador any greater wildness than in some recess m Concord\" grow here (August 30, 1856, journal \/. same swamp that harbored the Labrador tea, Thoreau noticed some curious growth on the black spruce there. Here he missed the opportumty to describe a plant at that time unknown to In the 18 of botany and vegetable physiology at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. He was well acquainted with men who descnbed new plant species and for whom species were named. Russell was particularly mterested m mosses, liverworts, and lichens. Since Russell was a classmate of Ralph Waldo Emerson's brother, Charles, at Harvard, it is likely that Thoreau first learned of Russell through Emerson. Russell visited Emerson m September 1838, at which time Emerson noted in his Journal that he was \"A man m whose mind things stand m the order of cause & effect & not in the order of a shop or even of a cabmet.\" What may have been Thoreau's first meeting with Russell occurred m Concord in August 1854. Thoreau's appetite for authoritative botamcal identifications is evidenced by his notes for the three days he showed Russell around the town, which mcluded a visit to the climbing fern. Russell made a second visit on July 23, 1856, to see a small yellow pond lily (Nuphar sp.). Russell must have noted Thoreau's mcreasmg botamcal proficiency and certainly was made aware of his new mterest m grasses and sedges at the time of their last meetmg on September 21, 1858. moved in social circles too rarefied ever to permit personal aquamtance with Thoreau. Schoolmaster and botamst Emerson was president of the Boston Society of Natural History, of which Thoreau was elected a corresponding member in 1850 (for contributing an American goshawk). According to A. Hunter Dupree, Emerson was dean of the scientific commumty in Boston and responsible for Asa Gray's appomtment at Harvard in 1842. Though Thoreau made frequent visits to the collections and library of the Society, his interest there was primarily m fauna. Not being a regular member, he did not rub shoulders with members Gray, Bigelow, and Emerson. Consequently, Thoreau's meetings with Russell represent his closet contact with a botanist of professional caliber. Although Benjamin Marston Watson (1820-96) strictly speaking, a horticulturist, his friendship with Thoreau provided an important opporwas, That day Thoreau visited Russell at Cape Ann and the Essex Institute m Salem, Massachusetts. The day was divided between a morning with the Institute's collections and an afternoon m the field. Thoreau made the most of the opportumty to confirm identifications m difficult groups like willows \/Sahx~ and lichens. Other published botanists, such as Jacob Bigelow (1787-1879), professor of materia medica at Harvard, and George B. Emerson \/ 17971881), both m the Boston area, apparently tumty to share botanical notes. Watson established his Old Colony Nurseries m Plymouth, Massachusetts, in 1845. This estate became a favorite retreat for the Transcendentahstsof Concord. Thoreau m the same year (and only one month after setting up at Walden Pond) forwarded to Watson some fruit and seeds from some of Concord's uncommon trees and shrubs. The evident purpose was to assist Watson m his horticultural enterprise. Watson in turn sent Thoreau unusual specimens from his nursery, hired him to survey his farm, and muted him to lecture in Plymouth. Thoreau's Journal records regular visits to Watson m Plymouth where he could see living examples of plants foreign to New England. A mutual friend of Thoreau and Marston Watson was George P. Bradford (1807-90), a teacher, who for a time did some market gardening with Watson m Plymouth and had been part of the Brook Farm experiment. He had taught a class in botany at a school for girls in Plymouth in 1830. The references to Bradford in Thoreau's journal are brief, touching primarily on unusual botanical finds. There is the suggestion that Bradford shared a Transcendentahst mterest in botany 19 when Thoreau notes Edward Hoar's proposal that a leaf of the climbing fern be sent to Bradford \"to remind him that the sun still shone m Amenca\" (August 14, 1854, Journal). Oddly, there is but one inconsequential reference to Bradford m Thoreau's published correspondence. Bradford, Russell, and Austin Bacon of Natick are acknowledged in the preface to George B. Emerson's report on the trees and shrubs of Massachusetts. This preface approximates a directory of Massachusetts botamsts in 1846. Austin Bacon (1813-88) was a surveyor-naturalist. Thoreau paid a visit to him on August 24, 1857, and was shown a number of Natick's botamcal highlights. Thoreau's interest m Natick no doubt arose from his reading of Oliver N. Bacon's History of Natick, which mcluded a list of unusual plants to Concord after four years the Brook Farm experiment. If there was anyone as intimately familiar with Concord's wild flowers as Thoreau, it was Mmot Pratt. Apparently he was ~ust as mdependent, since Thoreau's references to him m the Journal suggest only limited communication between the two about the location of Concord's ramties. On three occasions Pratt gave Thoreau a botamcal tour of his neck of the woods-Punkatasset Hill and Estabrook Woods, some of the richest areas in the town botamcally (August 17, 1856; May 18, 1857; and June 7, 1857, Journal~. Pratt later engaged m a practice that has earned him a degree of notoriety among latter-day botamsts, namely, the establishment of alien plants m Concord. Thoreau rarely did the same, but his introduction of Nas- culturist, moved at (January 19, 1856, Journal~. Among Concordians there were only Edward S. Hoar, Mmot Pratt, and sister Sophia with whom Thoreau spoke about botany m any depth. Edward S. Hoar (1823-93), a retired lawyer, accompamed Thoreau on his trips to the White Mountams of New Hampshire and Mame's Allegash and Penobscot Rivers. He was also Thoreau's accomphce m the accidental burning of the Fairhaven Woods in Concord m 1844. Like Thoreau, Hoar collected plant specimens and pressed them. Indeed, Hoar's collections are much superior m quality, particularly with respect to the legibility and detail of his collection data. The majority of his specimens were collected from 1857 to 1860 and included many grasses and sedges. These were the years dunng which Thoreau undertook a study of the same difficult groups, but cunously the Journal offers no support for the idea that they studied together. The references to Hoar in the Journal do show that Hoar brought to Thoreau's attention various botamcal curiosities that he found. It is evident that for Thoreau's northern journeys Hoar was the compamon of choice because of his enthusiasm for natural history, particularly of the botamcal vanety. Mmot turtmm officmale is an example (Apml 26, 1859, journal \/. Judgmg from her herbarium, which is now at the Concord Free Public Library, Sophia Thoreau (1819- 76) had an interest in botany that was considerably less scientific than her brother's and more in the aesthetic vein. Many of her pressed plants consist of several species to a sheet, with an eye to attractive arrangement. There is rarely any information recorded as to their identity or location. Thoreau mentions three flowers m his sister's herbarium that he had not seen m Concord-whorled pogoma \/Isotma verticillata\/, painted trillium (Tnllmm undulatum\/, and perfoliate bellwort (Uvulana perfohata) (September 22, 1852, journal~. All are locally rare. Strangely, there is no evidence that Thoreau ever saw any of these withm the bounds of Concord (where Sophia found them). This suggets a bit of sibling mvalry. scarcity of botamsts m New EnThoreau's time undoubtedly arose from a gland virtual absence of illustrated manuals and popular field guides treatmg the flora of the region. These were to appear only later in the mneteenth century. Thoreau complained of this lack (compared to what the British had) indirectly: \"A few pages of cuts representing the different parts of The general m Pratt (1805-78), a farmer-horti- 20 with the botanical names attached, is worth volumes of explanation\" (February 17, 1852, JournalHe found the plant descriptions available unsatisfactory, and they were: \"I quarrel with most botamsts' description of different species, say of willows.... No stress is laid upon the peculianty of the species in question, and it requires a very careful examination and comparison to detect any difference m the description\" (May 25, 1853, Journal~; \"You cannot surely identify a plant from a scientific description until after long practice\" (April 26, 1857, Letter to B. B. plants, Wiley\/. Thoreau's library (as listed by Walter Harding 1957) reflects the relative dearth of botamcal references of the time. He owned almost all the volumes that would pertain to Concord's vascular flora and a number that were only marginally relevant. Harding's catalog includes the following botanical works: m could be found m the manuals of Bigelow and Gray. Torrey and Gray's work was the most thorough of the three but was unfimshed and covered too much geographical territory to be convement. If modem field guides and botamcal manuals had been available to Thoreau, his expertise would have developed much earlier and much more rapidly. It is surprising that he managed as well as he did. A well-identified herbarium is the ultimate all-season botanical reference work. Unfortunately, regional herbaria were also in their mfancy m Thoreau's time. It is understandable that Thoreau did not miss the opportumty to examme the meager plant collections at the Boston Society of Natural History rooms (June 19, 1856, journal\/ and the Essex Institute (September 21, 1858, Journal). The best collections, however, were in the custody of individuals and were pnvate. The Vegetable Kmgdom. or, Handbook of Plants and Fruits \/Chapm\/ Report on the Herbaceous Plants of Massachusetts (Dewey) and Report on the Quadrupeds of Massachusetts (Emmons) [both issued by the Massachusetts Zoological and Botanical Survey] A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally m the Forests of Massachusetts (Emerson) Culture of the Grasses (Flint) Manual of Botany, lst and 2nd editions (Gray\/ A Popular History of Bnrish Lichens (Lmdsay) Arboretum et Frutlcetum Bntanmcum (Loudon) Encyclopaedia of Plants ~Loudon) Enchindion botamcum; or, A Cnmpleate Herball (Lovell) Ferns of Great Bntam (Sowerby) A Popular History of Bntish Mosses \/Stark~ To this list should be added Florula Bostomensis (various Thoreau must Jacob Bigelow's editions\/, which have owned, judging from the fre- quent Journal references to it. Three well-known manuals that Thoreau consulted from time to time were Amos Eaton's A Manual of Botany for the Northern and Middle States (various editions), John Torrey's Flora of the Northern and Middle Sections of the United States( 1826\/, and Torrey and Gray's A Flora of North America (1838-43). None of these offered much more than Thoreau's own herbarium (numbering m the end more than 900 specimens) was no doubt one of the larger collections in eastern Massachusetts at the time. Thoreau himself realized this, commenting in a letter to Mary Brown (April 23, 1858): \"I should be glad to show you my Herbanum, which is very large.\" From a modem viewpoint the data he recorded for his collections are, on the whole, poor. Approximately one-half of the specimens note only the identity of the plant, omitting the most important bit of information-the locality. This detracts sigmficantly from the scientific value of the collection. In the difficult groups like grasses, sedges, and willows his data are generally much better than the remamder of the collection but frequently difficult to decipher (written small, m pencil, and hurriedly or carelessly). His habit of using his straw hat as a botany box to bnng home plants collected in the field tended to encourage the gathering of small, inadequate, or incomplete samples. Thoreau evidently started his organized herbarium (as opposed to casual collections placed in commonplace books or manuals) about 1850, judging from the earliest dated specimens. This 21 when he began to study method. Clearly Thoreau created his herbanum as an aid in sorting out the identities of plants he found m Concord and on his travels and not as a vehicle for preserving his memory among future botanists (a common purpose of private herbaria). The disposition of his herbarium following his death was that, at his request, about 100 grasses and sedges were given to his botamcal companion, Edward Hoar, and the remainder (some 800 specimens) were given to the Boston Society of Natural History. Thoreau's grasses and sedges m the possession of Hoar, along with most of Hoar's own collection, were eventually given to the New England Botanical Club by Hoar's daughter, Mrs. M. L. B. Bradford, in 1912. The Club's herbanum is currently housed at Harvard University. The Thoreau specimens have been carefully mounted on standard-sized herbanum sheets together with Thoreau's pencil-scribbled scraps of data and Hoar's transcnption of them. This is the most scientifically useful part of Thoreau's herbarium owing to the presence of collection data, the difficulty of the plant families involved, and the addition of annotations by later botamcal experts such as M. L. Fernald. The bulk of Thoreau's herbarium stayed with the Boston Society of Natural History until 1880, when it was given to the Concord Free Public Library. In 1959 the Library turned the collection was the same period botany with more Harvard University's Gray Herbarium, resides currently separate from their mam collection. Unlike Thoreau's grasses and sedges, this part of the collection appears for the most part to be m the condition m which he left it at his death. Because of its relative inaccessibility and lesser scientific value, it has received relatively little critical attention by later botamsts. The specimens are somewhat msecurely attached with pieces of tape to elephant folio-sized sheets of flimsy paper. Occasionally smaller sheets of paper are used. There is usually more than one specimen to a sheet, sometimes six or more, and frequently more than one species to a page. Typically, only the Latm name for the species is wntten m pencil near the specimen. Locality data such as \"Truro '55.\" \"Brattleboro,\" and \"Maine '57\" are sometimes noted in pencil beside particular specimens or scribbled on small scraps of paper slipped under the specimens. The sheets are numbered m pencil and arranged in systematic order according to Gray's Manual of Botany (second edition). The collection is divided into six parts, each kept m a large, worn cardboard portfolio. A listing of species was made by the Boston Society of Natural History m a separate notebook. In contrast to his sister's herbanum, Thoreau's collection is well orgamzed and the placement of specimens on the sheets is determined by practicality rather than aesthetics. In spite of some careless handling and neglect, the specimens at present are generally m good condition. There is surpnsmgly little evidence of msect damage. A few specimens retain enough of their ongmal bright tints that they appear to have been pressed withm the past year. The fragility of the collection will contmue to leave it vulnerable to madvertent mistreatment by those unfamiliar with the proper manner of handling pressed speciover to where it mens. Within his lifetime Thoreau published but one work concerned with the world of plants. This is his essay \"The Succession of Forest Trees,\" delivered as an address before the Middlesex Agricultural Society in Concord in September 1860 and 22 the following month in the New York Tnbune and m regional agricultural reports. It is properly regarded as a contribution to ecology rather than to botany, but is, perhaps, his most important scientific work (representing not so much ongmal ideas as an original development and formulation of ideas). Thoreau's essays \"Autumnal Tints\" and \"Wild Apples,\" derived from his Journal and presented as lectures, were revised during the last months of his life and published posthumously m the Atlantic Monthly m 1862. These essays are part of Thoreau's attempt to fill a void that he felt existed m the literature of botany. When he first began his study of plants in earnest he had sought published pressed Mt. to identify his most important botanical achievement-the first detailed description of the England's highest peak, Washington. Although the description was not published until well after his death, his observations provide a pomt of comparison that reveals changes m alpme vegetation at New England's most interesting botamcal site. Thoreau's extensive study of the plants of Convegetation zones on New out \"those works which contamed the more particular popular account, or biography, of particular flowers, for I trusted that each flower had had many lovers and faithful descnbers m past times\" (February 6, 1852, Journal). \"Autumnal Tmts\" and \"Wild Apples\" present an aesthetic appreciation of plants. While grounded m science, the essays are in fact examples of literature. Among the fragmentary manuscnpts left by Thoreau are what appear to be a series of essays he was working on with titles \"Wild Frmt,\"\"The Dispersion of Seeds,\" \"The Fall of the Leaf,\" and \"New England Native Fruits.\" From these manuscripts Leo Stoller has pieced together an essay entitled \"Hucklebernes,\" the style and content of which very much parallels \"Autumnal Tints\" and \"Wild Apples.\" A key phrase in the essay is \"The berries which I celebrate\" \/itahcs Thoreau's), indicating the spirit intended m these ... pieces. Thoreau's studies m botany did not result in significant contributions to the science of botany. Most New England botamsts would be hard pomt of comparison for notthe flora. It is important for this ing changes reason, rather than for resulting m particular botanical finds m Concord. His observations and collections in Concord represent, perhaps, the most complete survey of a New England town's flora up to that time. Thoreau m essence has provided later botamsts with a \"photograph\" of Concord's flora m the 1850s. None of Concord's other botamsts have matched the intensity of activity that engaged him dunng that decade. His plant identifications \/once he passed beyond the novice stage) were very competent, with doubts or errors occurnng only at those pomts where the professional botamsts themselves (and their manuals) were confused. Thoreau's mtimate famihamty with the location of unusual plants m Concord was equalled only by Minot Pratt. The breadth of Thoreau's botamcal knowledge (which included grasses, sedges, and lichens) has been approached only by Edward Hoar, and by the late Richard J. Eaton of the twentieth century. It was not Thoreau's aim to add to the body of botamcal knowledge of his time. Rather, his efforts arose from a desire to distinguish more clearly the textures with which Nature clothed his native town, and his New England, since he felt himself to be part of the same fabnc: \"I am interested m each contemporary plant m my vicimty, and have attamed to a certain acquamtance with the larger ones. They are cohabitants with me of this part of the planet, and they bear familiar names\" (June 5, 1857, Journal). Domesticated plants were of little or no interest to him: \"I I was never m the least mterested m plants m the house\" (December 4, 1856, ~ournal\/. His early attention to flowers was coincident with the gencord also serves as a m 23 source eral Transcendentalist view of Nature-as a of inspiration, a living lesson from which to extract a moral, an an invitation to experience rather than opportumty to systematic approach analyze. Later, his plants was undertaken to with philosophical discomfort and ensuing rationalization : \"Once I was part and parcel of Nature ; now I am observant of her\" (April 2, 1852, Journal); \"One studies the books of science merely to learn the language of naturahsts-to be able to commumcate with them\" (March 23, 1853, Journal). To the end he considered himself not a naturalist or botamst but a writer, first and foremost: \"Here I have been these forty years learning the language of these fields that I may the better express myself\" (November 20, 1857, Journal~. Yet, for a wmter to acquaint himself so completely and consciously with the flora of his native region was unprecedented, and inspires wonder as to what grand work of prose this insistent pursuit of botany was meant to nurture. Copynght 1984 by The Thoreau ' Quarterly Reprmted wmh permtsston Ray Angelo is curator of the New England of the vascular plant herbanum Botamcal Club. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Thoreau's Climbing Fern Rediscovered","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24872","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270b76b.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Angelo, Ray","article_content":"Some very ingenious sleuthing leads to a long-lost stand of Lygodium palmatum Thoreau's Climbing Fern Rediscovered Ray Angelo [In preparmg his botanical index to Thoreau's Journal ~remewed on pages 30 to 32~, Ray Angelo did a great deal of pamstakmg research, not all of it in herbarla and archives. Sometimes, map m hand and armed with histomcal data gleaned from many quarters, Angelo hunted down the sites of noteworthy plants Thoreau mentioned m his Journal. Followmg is his account of a successful search for the stand of chmbmg fern (Lygodium palmatum) that Thoreau discovered m Part of the Thoreau survey map that led the author to Concord, Massachusetts, is m 1851. count Society repnnted with permission Bulletin 149 (Fall 1979~.] Angelo's acfrom Thoreau the lost colony of climbing fern. The word \"Lygodium\" marks the colony Used with the permission of the Concord Free Pubhc Library. \"a pretty for some delicate Indian maiden.\" There are at least fourteen Journal entries from 1851 onwards referring to the climbing fern (also called \"lygodium\" or \"tree fern\" by Thoreau). He disclosed the location to a number of fnends. One of these would be Mmot Pratt (1805-1878). Some time m the 1850s, Pratt showed the rarity to Miss Annie Sawyer, who later gave the following account: name name \"climbing fern\" would have been While surveying the Ministerial Swamp m Conon November 24, 1851, upon a rare and unusual fern-the climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum~the only fern in New England that twmes like a vine. Thoreau wrote of it m his Journal on July 30, cord, Massachusetts, Henry Thoreau came 1853: It is a most twining like [a] beautiful slender and delicate fern, vine about the stem of the meadow-sweet, pamcled andromeda, goldenrods, etc., to the height of three feet or more, and difficult to detach from them .. Our most beautiful fern, and most suitable for wreaths or garlands. It is rare. Mr. Pratt had promised to take me to the only place m Concord where the climbing fern could be and, on August 14, 1854: 3 P.M.-To climbing fern with E[dward]. Hoar. It takes a good deal of care and patience to unwmd this fern without injuring it. Sometimes same frond is half leaf, half fruit. E[dward]. talked of sending one such leaf to G[eorge]. Bradford to remmd him that the sun still shone in America. found. I had given my word of honor that I would not tell, and in due season we were on the ground. In the midst of our enjoyment we heard a snapping of twigs, a brisk step, m the bordenng thicket, and m a second Mr. Thoreau's spare figure and amazed face confronted us. Mr. Pratt answered for my trustworthmess, and so won over Mr. Thoreau by representing what a deed of charity it was to en- lighten my ignorance... In 1857 Thoreau sent a spray of the fern to Miss Mary Brown of Vermont and remarked that the The climbing fem colony rediscovered in 1978 by the author. Photographed m 1901 by Herbert W. Gleason. Used with the permission of the Concord Free Pubhc Library. 25 26 Thoreau often visited the west part of Concord, where he first found the climbing fern. The writer saw him the day he found the rare plant while retuming home with his prize. I never saw such a pleased, happy look on his face as he had that day. He took off his hat, in the crown of which the fern was coiled up, and showed me the dainty, graceful glory of the swamp. ... Swamp that Thoreau prepared at the time he discovered the fern. At one spot on the map in tiny print is the word \"Lygodium.\" It is not near the bogs in the swamp. a Mary Fenn of Concord (who has had long- -Horace R. Hosmer, Concord 1893 Enterprise, April 22, In an 1863 article for the newspaper Commonwealth Pratt wrote: \"In a wild spot ... (long may it remam secluded), the graceful climbing fern, very rare, and the large purple orchis ... are found. Pressed specimens of the fern collected from Concord by Thoreau's sister Sophia, and by others were all certainly taken from the same colony that Henry discovered. Some time after 1920, knowledge of the exact location of the colony became lost. By the time Concord's foremost botanist, the late Richard J. Eaton, started inquiring about it, no one could tell him precisely where it was or had been. He searched the Ministerial Swamp repeatedly without success and concluded in his A Flora of Concord that the colony had probably been exterminated by the dumping of rubbish. Mr. Eaton apparently concentrated his search m the vicinity of two small bogs m the swamp. However, Thoreau did not associate the fern with the bogs, while both Mmot Pratt and Alfred W. Hosmer (1851-1903) mention the colony as occurring m \"woods.\" The label on a specimen of the fern collected on August 6, 1899, by Alfred Hosmer describes the habitat as \"dense, low, shady woods among thick bushes.\" In the Concord Free Public Library there is a photographic plate of the fern taken by the wellknown nature photographer Herbert W. Gleason. Unfortunately, it shows little of the background. Reference Librarian Marcia E. Moss, produced from the library archives a key piece of evidence--the survey sketch of the Ministerial \" \" the climbing fern) and I set out for the Ministerial Swamp on November 6, 1978, with a photocopy of Thoreau's 1851 survey map in hand, courtesy of the Library through Marcia Moss. We proceeded to a low thicket that seemed to correspond to the spot mdicated on the map. A careful search of the thicket proved unsuccessful. Reexamining the map carefully and noting its scale, I did some pacing that indicated the thicket was not the place to look. We decided to search a swath of woodland that was in better agreement with the survey map. We had not taken more than a few stndes when I noticed a peculiar growth five to ten yards ahead.... In the most ordinary of woodland settings the climbing fern sprawled over an area about three yards wide and five yards long. Being an evergreen fern, it could not have been displayed to better advantage than amidst the sere hues of late autumn. For more than half a century the delicate maiden had quietly waited, avoiding the gaze of all, until the arrival of two well-wishers bearing a remembrance from six score and seven Novembers past. standing interest m Ray Angelo is curator of the New England of the vascular plant herbanum Botamcal Club. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Raising the Climbing Fern from Spores","article_sequence":4,"start_page":27,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24869","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270b328.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Brumback, William E.","article_content":"This unusual plant should raised from spores not be transplanted from the wild but can easily be Raising the Chmbing Fern from Spores William E. Brumback The climbing fern (Lygodium palmatum~ occurs mainly along the Atlantic coastal plain in moist, acid soil, m thickets and open woods and along streambanks from Georgia to southern New Hampshire and north-central Vermont. Although the species may be abundant where it is found, populations are usually rare and localized. In each New England state in which the climbing fern occurs (all but Maine), it is on the state's rare and endangered list. In addition to being rare, the climbing fern is difficult to transplant; thus, it should not be collected from the wild except in cases where its destruction is imminent. Luckily, the climbing fern grows easily from spores. Although the fertile leaves appear as early as August and September, I usually wait until late November to collect the fertile leaves from our plants at the Garden in the Woods. The Garden's plants, rescued from Enfield, Massachusetts, before the town was inundated by Quabbm Reservoir, are thriving and spreading by spores in the moist, acid soil of the bog gardens. I raise the climbing fern from spores as follows. The spores are either sown under lights m the basement or in a cool, shaded greenhouse for slow germination later m the spring, or are stored dry in a plastic contamer m the refrigerator for sowing later. Fresh spores probably germinate best, but refrigerated spores have also produced excellent results. Sterility is an important factor when sowing the spores of any fern species. Using a clean contamer and a sterile commercial seed-growing medium helps to ensure sterility. Mix an equal part of sterilized peat moss with the medium to provide an acid soil, water the mixture thoroughly, and allow it to drain. Scrape the spores from a leaf onto a clean sheet of paper. It is difficult to avoid mixing pieces of the leaf m with the spores. Although leaf debris can provide a base for molds and other fungi, I have m many cases sown qmte a bit of the dried leaf along with the spores. Some contamination has always occurred, but I have been able to eliminate it easily with a light application of fungicide (Benelate). In any event, fold the sheet of paper mto a U and, while moving it in a circular motion, tap the spores very lightly and evenly over the surface of the soil. Soak the container m a water bath, with the water level about half the depth of the soil. When the soil is thoroughly moist, remove the container and allow it to drain. Put the container m a plastic bag and seal the bag with a rubber band. Place the enclosed container in a well-lit area at room temperature (\"grow-lights\" are very good for this purpose) or in a cool greenhouse, or on a window sill. Do not allow direct sunlight to stnke the bag because it will cause overheating. Ventilate the bag every day or two, bottomwatenng the contamer whenever the surface of the medium looks dry. Allow twelve weeks for the spores to gerrrunate, longer if the container is bemg kept m a cool place. The prothallia will first appear as a green tint on the soil surface, and the young ferns will have put up their first true leaves by July. At this time, carefully thm the ferns by puttmg them mto separate containers at a density of about one plant per square inch. Moisten, again by bottom-watermg, and put the containers mto plastic bags. (If the fems were not overcrowded in the first place, you may not have to thin them.) About one month after you have thinned the 28 climbmg fem (Lygodmm palmatum) in England (dots). The plant occurs in widely scattered stands throughout its range. Map reproduced from New England's Rare, Threatened, and Endangered Plants, by G. E. Crow (1982\/. New Colomes of the from the bags. Keep the containers in a cold frame or other protected area over the winter and plant them out in spring, after the danger of frost has fems, begin to acclimate them to lower humidity by ventilating the plastic bags a little longer each day. Finally, remove the containers completely passed. The climbing fem is difficult to establish even when it is planted in moist, acid soil in light shade. Although it will grow quite well in a prone 29 Fertile pinnae of the climbing fern, showmg the sori. Courtesy of Alice F. Tryon. Photograph by Robert L. Coffin. Scanning electronmicrograph of a spore of the climbing fem. The spore is about one-five hundredths of an inch in diameter. Courtesy of Alice F. Tryon. it should be given a low wall or shrub on which to clamber. If the climbing fern becomes established in your garden, you may want to share it with friends. A plant can be divided, but its rhizome, or rootstock, breaks easily. Furthermore, since most of the slender rhizome is hidden just below the surface of the soil, it often is difficult to determine just how large a piece you are digging. The size of a plant can be determined when the fiddleheads emerge in late spring. I usually divide plants in the fall, however, removing an eightinch-diameter ball of soil around each established plant so that there will be enough rhizome to emerge the following spring. The American Fern Society (care of Dr. James D. Caponetti, Department of Botany, University of Tennessee, Knoxville 37916-1100) conducts a spore exchange. A limited number of climbing fern plants are available for purchase at the New England Wild Flower Society's Garden in the position, for best effect Woods (Hemenway Road, Framingham, Massachusetts 01701\/. Members of the Society receive a yearly list of seeds and spores offered for sale. Wilham E. Brumback is propagator at Garden in the Woods, Frammgham, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24868","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270af6f.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Botamcal Index M. to the Journal of Henry Damd Thoreau, by Ray Angelo. Salt Lake City: Gibbs Smith, Inc.-Peregrlne Smith Books, 1984. 203 pages. $20.00. ALBERT W. BUSSEWITZ Even the most casual reader of Thoreau's fourteen-volume, two million-word Journal quickly reahzes that Thoreau was deeply mterested m plants, especially the plants of his native town of Concord, Massachusetts, and its environs. Through a lucky collaboration between two publishers and a New England botamst, we now have the Botamcal Index to to the Journal of Henry Damd Thoreau guide us massive Journal. The Thoreau small literary magazine published at the Umversity of Minnesota, and Peregnne Smith Books of Salt Lake City are the publishers; Ray Angelo, until recently a resident of Concord, is the botamst. Affiliated for the past several years with the New England Botamcal Club, Angelo already had two botamcal field guides and a number of botamcal articles to his credit, but the ma~or impetus behmd the Botamcal Index was, no doubt, his longstanding personal espousal of Thoreau's philosophy of life. Just riffling through the Botamcal Index's columns, which are tightly packed with common and scientific names, will dispel any hngenng doubts one might have had about the breadth of Thoreau's botamcal pursuits. No other aspect of through the Quarterly, a the thousands; Thoreau's for the \"villageous elm\" is reflected m over four hundred entries m the Index. In an era when regional herbana were uncommon, Thoreau's personal herbarium consisted of over nine hundred specimens, many of them fetched home from the fields m the crown of his straw hat! Angelo has prefaced his admirable Index with a meticulously researched essay on \"Thoreau as Botanist\" (reprinted in this issue of Amoldia He traces the origins of Thoreau's interest in plants, identifying the major events that shaped his growth m that developing field of science. Thoreau's credentials as a botamst are fully explored and evaluated. Angelo sketches the state of the art m Thoreau's time, discussing both the botamsts of the day and the paucity of published information on plants. Singled out are the botanists and plant manuals that most influenced Thoreau's development over the course of two decades or more, particularly of his growing mvolvement in identification and concern for collection data. Angelo also traces Thoreau's progress as a plant collector and assesses his contmbution to the botany of his day. Withal, the essay is a most valuable source of msight mto Thoreau's standmg as a botamst and mto the botanical aspects of the Journal itself. In orgamzing his Index, Angelo considered the needs and interests of both amateur and professional botamsts, as well as of the general reader, according appropriate deference to both common and scientific names. He carefully selected a modern common name and linked it with the modern binomial. (The eighth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany is the standard for the scientific names. As Angelo pomts out, this work, pubhshed m 1950, does not reflect recent taxonomic refinements yet remains a standard reference for the New England flora, and is the reference most run oaks alone mto deep fondness the natural world is more intimately associated with Thoreau's walks and observations than plants-wildflowers, grasses, trees, and shrubs. The Journal's references to pines, willows, and A pressed specimen of Long's wool-grass (Scmpus longn\/ from Thoreau's herbanum, now part of the herbanum of the New England Botamcal Club. Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. 31 32 heavily drawn upon by modern plant guides.) Thoreau used are obsolete, but Angelo has indexed them and assigned them to their proper scientific mches. When confronted with misidentifications or similar problems of nomenclature, Angelo simply took to the field to clanfy things, or referred directly to Thoreau's own collection or to the Harvard herbaria. All of the names are crossreferenced. To the Index is appended a very considerable body of notes(three hundred forty-one in all !)that enlighten the reader on a broad range of matters common names Many of the Albert W. Bussewitz, a naturahst and photographer, parucipates acuvely m the Arboretum's Volunteer Program. For many years he was on the staff of the Massachusetts Audubon Society. botanical-especially on identities, distnbutions, and unresolvable uncertamties. All of the notes linked to entries in the mam body of the work. The great abundance of the notes we owe to Angelo's penchant for exactitude-the hallmark of a botamst. Doubtless this Botamcal Index, with its ancillary information and useful insights, will serve all levels of the botamcally curious. All readers who would approach Thoreau from the viewpoint of his relationship to the plant world now have a guide of great clanty and detail. Yet an even greater virtue of the Index may be its ability to draw readers a bit closer to the heart and mind of a \"monotypic\" botamst and journal-keeper who \"frequently tramped eight or ten miles through the deepest snow to keep appomtment with a beech tree, or a yellow birch, or an old acquamtance among the pmes.\" The Index was published simultaneously in two formats, which differ only in their covers. One, the Index alone, was issued by the Thoreau Quarterly as its Volume 15, and is available from the Quarterly (Department of Philosophy, University of Minnesota, Mmneapolis 55455) for $20. The other, the Index plus a paperback repnntmg of Thoreau's fournal in fourteen volumes (the Index is the fifteenth volume), is available from Peregrine Smith Books (Post Office Box 667, Layton, Utah 84041) for $125. are "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23337","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260ab6e.jpg","title":"1985-45-3","volume":45,"issue_number":3,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What's in a Leaf?","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24867","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270ab6b.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"shape of the mature leaf of the tulip tree is the result of a process that began with the seed leaves, or cotyledons The What's in a Leaf? Peter Del Tredici The tulip tree, Lmodendron tuhpifera, is unusual among the trees growing in the forests of eastern North America m combining stately massiveness with delicate beauty. Its unbranched trunk, often as much as six feet in diameter, rises straight up out of the ground like a pillar and seems to hold up the sky above the forest in which it grows. I have never seen another tree, save the redwoods of California, that can evoke such an impression. These magnificent trees have managed to escape destruction by growing on the hard-to-reach slopes of mountam ravines throughout the eastern half of our continent. In the moist coves of the Great Smoky Mountains of Tennessee and North Carolina, they can reach 150 to 200 feet in good, straight lumber, and a bit bothersome to the homeowner, who wants a neat front yard. In contrast to the great size of the tulip tree is the delicateness of its flowers, which come out in May or June, depending on the latitude in which the tree grows. They are quite large as tree flowers go-about two inches long and equally wide when fully opened-and very beautiful. The petals are of an unusual light, bright green and have a conspicuous orange splash at their bases. The central core of the flower-the anthers and the gynoecium-is a clear yellow. Unfortunately, the height. absolutely straight, unbranched bole of tulip tree that makes it mstantly recognizable in the forest. Many other trees are equally straight when they are young, but few maintain such straightness into maturity the way It is the the Liriodendron does. The lower branches seldom get thick enough to produce forked trunks, even those of specimens growing in full sun. In the dense shade of the forest, the tree usually sloughs off its lateral branches before they get much more than an inch thick, and the columnar trunk extends far up into the crown. This habit of selfpruning, as it is called, makes the tulip tree particularly desirable to the forester, who wants petals and the leaves are so nearly the same color that you have to look closely to tell whether a tree is in bloom. Indeed, not until you actually have removed a flower from the background of leaves can you fully appreciate its beauty. The blossoms are famtly fragrant and, like those of other members of the magnolia family, are pollinated by flies, beetles, and bees. As if its trunk and flower weren't enough to recommend the tulip tree, its leaf is noteworthy for its graceful, elegant shape. While normally there is a high degree of variability in form from leaf to the next on the same tree, all leaves share a feature that makes them unmistakable-notched, rather than pointed, tips. So fixed in most people's minds is the idea that leaves should taper to a point, that many nineteenthcentury botanists described the Lmodendron leaf as having three lobes, with the tip of the middle lobe cut off. Even those botanists who correctly described the leaf as having four lobes noted that the leaf's apex was \"missing\" or \"chopped off.\" Evidently they had a preconceived notion about what a leaf should look like-some sort of archetype, from which modern forms are deone 1. Progressive variation m the shape of the tulip leaf, beginning with the simple, lance-shaped cotyledon (lower nght) and culminating m a miniature version of a mature, four-lobed leaf (upper left). A seedling (lower left) bears all five vanations Drawing by Figure tree Dawn M. Nunes. 4 rived-and tried to make Liriodendron fit the mold. A better way to view the shape of the Linodendron leaf is to follow its development in the germmatmg seedling. My own research in this regard suggests that the shape of the mature leaf is the result of a progressive, not a degenerative, process. The first structures the germinating tulip tree seedling produces are the seed leaves, or what one feels about the correctness or accuracy of Goethe's ideas, his conception of growth as a dynamic process that results in a great deal of variation in leaf and flower structure would not be denied by anyone who works with plants. Goethe viewed the progressive development of the leaves of seedlings as part of the very first expansion phase At each in plant development: cotyledons, which are simple, lance-shaped structures that taper to blunt points. After the cotyledons, the next leaf is much simpler than those that the mature tree will produce. Almost round in its shape, it has a shallow notch at its tip. On the third leaf, two lobes begin to take shape on either side of this notch; on the fourth leaf, two lower lobes make their debuts. In healthy greenhouse-grown plants the next leaf, the fifth, has fully developed lower lobes and is a miniature version of the mature leaf. In effect, the plant is performing a kind of developmental dance in its progressive movement from one leaf to the node the form of the [seedling] greater perfection; the midrib lengthens, and the side ribs, which arise from it, extend more or less towards the margin. The different relauons of the ribs to each other are the principal cause of the various shapes we observe m leaves which are notched, deeply mcised, or formed of many leaflets, looking like little branches The Date Palm is a striking mstance of the most simple form of leaf becoming gradually but deeply divided As the leaves succeed each other, the midrib lengthens, till at last it tears asunder the numerous compartments of the simple leaf, and an extremely compound, branch-like leaf is formed. successive leaf attams next \/. (Figure 1). There nothmg umque about Lmodendron in its progressive leaf development. Botanists have is recorded similar patterns in many other species. No one did it as early or as well as the great German poet-naturahst, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, however. In 1790, Goethe published a little book entitled Essay on the Metamorphosis of Plants, in which he describes the life of a plant from the seed stage to the seed-producing stage as a series of mternally regulated contractions and expansions. In his book, the leaf is considered the basic building block of the plant, and all other structures (except for the stem and the root, which he does not discuss) can be seen as modifications of the leaf. The key idea in The Metamorphosis is that plants are not static in their growth patterns but that, as they develop and grow, they change. Development, according to Goethe, is by its very nature dynamic, and the structures that a plant produces-the leaves and flowers-take on different forms depending upon whether they are produced during a phase of contraction or a phase of expansion. Regardless of While the date palm shows increasing dissection of its leaves with each new leaf produced, the seed]mg leaves of the tulip tree show a dramatic change in their shape from one to the next. This can be seen most clearly by laymg out the Liriodendron leaves in sequence. When I did this for the first time, I was remmded of Ernst Haeckel's famous nineteenth-century adage, \"Ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny.\" In plain English, this means that the embryonic development of an individual organism encapsulates, summarizes, or repeats the whole evolutionary history of the species. While Haeckel's cepted as biological fact, it conception can is not ac- help a person grasp the basic principles of growth and development. And so it is with the tulip tree. In arriving at the mature form of the leaf, the seedling must undergo a stepwise developmental process that may actually reflect the historical evolution of the leaf's shape. While this hypothesis is unprovable, it points out the dynamic nature of plant growth and evolution, much as Goethe's expansion-contraction theory does. The pattern of change in the development of 5 the Liriodendzon leaf does not stop at seedhng leaf number five, but continues throughout the life of the tree. As the plant matures, it produces larger and larger leaves. These reach their maximum size during the plant's juvemle stageroughly between five and ten years of age. During this period, the tree can, and does, produce perfectly shaped four-lobed leaves up to twelve inches long and ten inches wide (Figure 2). (Why some trees produce larger than normal leaves during their adolescence is not certain, but enough different species do so to suggest that these larger than normal juvenile leaves serve some function.) As the tree approaches sexual maturity in ten to twenty years, the leaf size shrinks to six inches by six inches. And in fully mature trees, the leaves are usually only about five inches by five inches. Cumously, these mature leaves often have one or two extra pairs of lobes at their bases (Figure 3). The developmg bud in Lmodendron is no less fascinating than the developmg leaf. The careful anatomical work of W. F. Millington and J. E. Gunckel, in 1950, showed that the intriguing stipules that grow together to form the outermost bud covering should be considered lobes of the leaf, or more precisely, as \"products of leaf base rather than of stem\" (Figure 4). We thus have the rather unusual situation (found also in the genus Magnoha\/ where the lower lobes of one leaf are modified during development to protect the next leaf m line. Interestingly, these leaf-protectmg stipules do not make their appearance until the second seedling node, those at the first node being little more than rudimentary flaps of tissue mcapable of surrounding anything. This fact suggests that the stipules, like the other lobes of the leaf, develop in a stepwise fashion. In addition to being of botamcal interest, Linodendron buds are aesthetically fascinating, particularly m the spring when they burst apart to reveal their contents. The great French naturahst, Francois Michaux, described this process better than anyone in his classic, The North Amencan Figure 2. A four-lobed tulip tree leaf. This figure (and Figure 3) from Proceedings of the US Nauonal Museum, Vol 13 (1890) Both figures courtesy of the Museum of it Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. an forms oval sack which contams the young produces it to the light only when it appears to have acquired sufficient force to endure the mfluences of the atmosphere. Withm this sack is found another, which, after the first leaf is put forth, swells, bursts, and gives birth to a second. On young and vigorous trees, five or six leaves successively in this manner from one sack Till the leaf has acquired half its growth, it retams the two lobes which composed its sack, and which are now called stipulae. issue leaf, and which Figure 3. The leaf of a fully mature tulip tree. Silva, published m 1818: On the Tulip Tree, the termmal bud of each shoot swells considerably before it gives birth to the leaf: 6 Figure 4 Development of leaf pnmordia and stipules of the tulip tree. From the research of W. F. Millington and James E Gunckel, reported in the Amencan Journal of Botany Used with permission The Linodendron bud is like a series of boxes within boxes-Russian dolls, if you will-that nest together perfectly. Unfolding one by one, the leaves seem to have no limit to their numbers. Although Michaux doesn't describe it, the buds usually stop producing leaves in June with the beautiful green, yellow, and orange flowers. The whole process is a bit like a symphony, slowly building up through a crescendo of larger and larger leaves to a floral fortissimo. After all of this, are we close to describing the leaf of the tulip tree? The answer depends on when one chooses to look at its leaves: seedhng leaves differ from adolescent leaves, which differ from the leaves on mature trees. The simplistic drawings found in most field guides do not do justice to the variation shown by an individual tree, let alone that shown by the species as a whole. While such variation may be difficult for the taxonomist to reckon with, it can be a source of delight and inspiration for the poet and the curious naturalist. Related Readings A. Arber. Goethe's botany. Chronica Botanica 10, No. 2, pages 67-124 (1946). J. W. von Goethe. Essay on the Metamorphosis of Plants. Translated by Emtly M. Cox. Journal of Botany 1, pages 327-345 and 360-74 (1863). T. Holm. Notes on the leaves of Linodendron. Proceedmgs of the U.S National Museum 13, pages 15-35 (1890). W. E. Millington and J. E. Gunckel. Structure and de- velopment of the vegetative shoot tip of Gmodendron tuhpifera L Amemcan Journal of Botany 37, No 4, pages 326=335 (1950\/. Peter Del Tredici is the Arboretum's assistant plant propagator and associate edrtor of Arnoldia. He has written many arucles for Arnoldia m the past several years. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens- II","article_sequence":2,"start_page":7,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24864","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270a728.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Yinger, Barry R.; Hahn, Carl R.","article_content":"Second in a series Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside ~ardens-II Barry R. Yinger Carl R. Hahn Koten Engei The Japanese employ a unique system of horticulture called koten engei, a term that resists easy translation but whose meaning is approximated by \"cultivation of classical plants.\" In this traditional style of horticulture: ~ The plants grown are groups of vanants of species that, in their original form, are of modest demeanor. Most of the species are native to Japan and have insignificant or scarcely showy flowers. ~ The variants are usually selections of mutated forms rather than hybrids. In most cases variations are of leaf shape and color rather than of floral characteristics. ~ The kinds and degrees of variation are carefully classified and named, and certain kinds of variation are judged more valuable than others. A weak constitution is usually a \"plus.\" ~ The plants are always grown in pots instead of in the garden. The pots are thin, porous raku ware, usually with rough surfaces, shiny blacl_ glazes, and simple, fanciful decorations. Certain styles are appropnate for certam cultivar groups. ~ Cultivars are assigned names that often allude to people, places, or events in classical Chinese or Japanese history. ~ The cultivars are evaluated and ranked by societies devoted exclusively to variants of single species. The rankings are published penodically on a chart called a melkan, which recalls in its format the classical ranking board \/banzuke~ of sumo wrestling. The societies stage public exhibitions of the plants. O Interest in the vanous species groups of cultivars is cyclical, being accompamed by recurrent waves of financial speculation in them. many species have been treated as for koten engei selection in Japan. Some subjects are not grown now, but others-such as cultivars of Rohdea japomca, Asarum, and Selagmella tamanscma-have enjoyed endunng, if cyclical, interest for nearly 300 years. Some of the plants that will be descnbed in our series are, or have been, part of the cult of koten engei and as such have, or have had, acceptable cultivar names. The first group of cultivars treated below-selections of Ardisia 7apomca-are part of the modern and classical koten engei tradition. Historically, The Series This article is part of Brookside Gardens's ongoing effort to reduce the considerable confusion in the nomenclature of cultivated plants from Japan. Our principal sources of information in this effort are the catalogs of nurseries that deal in a wide range of cultivated plants. We have also consulted the very few classic and modem Japanese texts that list and illustrate cultivated plants. Some of the names we publish may have to be changed as we find more sources of information. This long-term, serial effort should yield a reliable catalog of valid cultivar names for a wide range of Japanese cultivated plants. In the first installment of this series (published in Arnoldia, vol. 43, no. 4, pages 3-19, Fall 1983~, 8 described the special collections program in which the plants considered here are acquired, maintained, and evaluated at Brookside Gardens, Wheaton, Maryland, a publicly supported botanical and display garden of the Montgomery County, Maryland, park system. We also described in detail our approach to evaluating the acceptability of existing Japanese names as valid cultivar names, based on our interpretation of the rules and recommendations set forth in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. We wish to establish and preserve in the Western literature legitimate Japanese cultivar names tor the plants we are growing and to assign and register a suitable name where none exists that satisfies the Code Readers interested in the details of our procedure for judging existing names should consult the previous article. The inclusion of a plant name in this series does not imply that it is new either here or in Japan, or that we are its first or only mtroducer. We make no judgment about the garden value of the plants descnbed; we hope that such information will emerge from an evaluation program now in progress under the supervision of Brookside Gardens's curator, Philip Normandy. We will try to honor requests for more information about these cultivars and will be pleased to receive additional information as well. At present, time and money are not sufficient for the depth of research necessary to answer all questions that might be raised, but we will try to address questions as they arise. We intend to deposit specimens and documentation of published cultivars with the United States National Arboretum in Washington, D. C., as the plants continue to develop. Address correspondence to Carl R. Hahn, Maryland-National Capital Park and we in gave kind and invaluable assistance the manuscript, for which we sinpreparmg cerely thank them. Commission, The Cultivars The _ are of mature new growth in The leaves of some cultivars are early different at other seasons, particularly during the colder seasons, when pink and red tones appear. descriptions summer. Ardisia iaponica (ThunbI Bl. 'Amanogawa' [Milky Way galaxy] (Yinger Collection No. 805) Leaves of many shapes and patterns, puckered and often twisted, usually somewhat elongated or bearing large lobes of irregular sizes, 4 to 9 cm by 1 to 5.5 cm, with regularly or sparsely toothed margins. Those leaves without monstrous lobes, green with white or greenish-white central markmgs, those with lobes, light green with a white reticulate pattem and an irregular, darker-green border 1 to 2 mm wide, the lobes white A vigorous clone. Illustrated on page 97 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu ~1975\/. Ardisia japonica \/Thunb.) Bl. 'Beniyuki' [red snow] (Yinger Collection No. 810) Leaves elongated and irregular, narrowing very acutely at the base, about half of them slightly lobed, the rest prominently and almost regularly lobed (resembling the leaves of Quercus alba\/; 5 to 10 cm by 2 to 4 cm. The slightly lobed ones with mm m width that seldom invade the center of the leaf, the heavily lobed ones with broad, white margins up to 1.5 cm in width Leaf surfaces slightly puckered, with shghtly undulate margms. White areas becoming red m winter. A vigorous clone. Illustrated on page 97 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). very narrow, white margins 1 to 2 Planmng Commission, 8787 Georgia Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20907. Please note that the Arnold Arboretum cannot supply these plants or information about them. Mr. Young June Chang, Seoul National Umversity, Seoul, Korea; Mr. Philip Normandy, Brookside Gardens; and Mrs Gennie Potter, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Ardisia japomca \/Thunb.) Bl. 'Chiyoda' [a name] (Yinger Collection No. 806) place- Leaves very irregular m outhne, with no teeth on their margins, blades 5 to 11 cm by 1 to 3.5 cm, all bearing thin, white margins 1 to 2 mm in width that rarely invade the centers of the blades Most leaves almost flat, with mtervemal spaces sometimes raised or puckered. A vigorous clone. 9 Ardisia japonica 'Amanogawa' Rmker. Photographs by Robert Ardisia japonica 'Bemyuki' All drawings are by Young June Chang. The scale each case is one centimeter. in 10 Ardisia japonica 'Chiyoda' Ardisia japonica 'Hmode' Illustrated on page 98 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). Ardisia japomca \/Thunb.) Bl. 'Chmmen' [crepe paper] (Yinger Collection No. 801) I I Leaves long and narrow, 3 to 7 cm cm, their margins fumished with by 0.5 to 15 fine, regular teeth. All leaves light green with no variegation, with finely puckered surfaces, some leaves bearing as well a row of tubercles, or small, raised, crested growths, on each side of their center veins. A dwarf clone of slow growth Described on page 254 of Shum~ no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). Ardisia japonica (Thunb.~ B1. 'Hmode' [sunmse] (Ymger Collection No. 800) Leaves large, 6 to 10 cm by 2.5 to 3 5 cm, with regular marginal teeth and occasional small white lobes breaking the regular outlme, yellow-green, usually with large, irregular, paler-yellow-green areas in their centers, and usually flat with puck- ered mtervemal spaces. Vigorous and fastgrowing, but with short intemodes. Described and illustrated on page 169 of Koten Engei Shokubutsu \/ 1977) Ardisia japonica (Thunb.) Bl. 'Hi-no-Tsukasa' [official day] (Ymger Collection No. 812) Leaves elongated, 4 to 10 cm by 1.5 to 3.5 cm, all distorted and very acutely narrowed at their bases, some with a few marginal teeth, medium green, many with occasional white, irregular marginal lobes. Leaf surfaces nearly flat, sometimes undu- late, scarcely puckered A moderately vigorous clone Illustrated on page 97 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975) Ardisia japonica 'Hi-no-Tsukasa' Ardisia japonica ~Thunb.) [phoenix 816) crown brocade] (Ymger Collection B1. 'Hokan Nishiki' No. Leaves usually ovate, usually with blunt or rounded apexes and toothed or sparsely toothed margins, 4 to 7 cm by 2 to 2.5 cm (a very few irregularly lobed), green, with broad, irregular margins 1 to 10 mm wide often invading the leaves to or near their midribs Margins yellow-green, tinged pink Leaf surfaces nearly flat or slightly puckered, often undulate. A moderately vigorous clone Illustrated on page 97 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975~ 'Hi-no-Tsukasa' 12 2 Ardisia japonica 'Hoshiami' Ardisia ~apomca 'Hokan Nishiki' 'Hoshiami' 'Hokan Nishiki' 'Ito Fukumn' 13 Ardisia japonica (Thunb.) Bl. 'Hoshiami' [parched nettmg] (Yinger Collection No. 813) distorted, few more or less with toothed margms; 3 to 7 cm by 1 to 3 5 cm About 25 percent of the leaves entirely green, the rest bearing fine, white reticulate patterns or irregular streaks of white Most leaves cupped, puckered, or twisted A clone of slow to moderate growth and congested habit Illustrated on page 98 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). ovate; most Most leaves very Ardisla japonica (Thunb.~ B1. 'Ito Fulcunn' [thread border]\/Yinger Collection No. 811) Leaves ovate, mostly regular m outhne, 4 to 7 cm by 2.5 to 3 cm, most with regularly toothed margins. All leaves medium green with thm white margms 1 to 2 mm wide, only occasionally slightly invading farther into the centers of the leaves. Leaf surfaces nearly smooth and only slightly puckered. Of moderate to vigorous growth Illustrated on page 98 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). Ardisia japonica (Thunb.) B1.'Kimigayo' [Japan's national anthem] (Yinger Collection No. 799) All leaves distorted, of several shapes, most less ovate, about 3.5 to 6 cm by 1.5 to 3 cm. Leaf margins irregularly toothed, often with small lobes at various pomts along the margins. Leaves yellow-green, with darker-green central blotches; marginal lobes white All leaves puckered and twisted, some with promment, bubblehke swellmgs near their centers Somewhat dwarf and slow-growing Illustrated on page 98 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975) more or Ardisia ~apomca 'Kim~gayo' Ardlsla 7apomca (Thunb.) Bl. 'Koganebana' flower] (Yinger Collection No. 817) Leaves [gold regular m small, ovate outhne, 2 5 to to 4 elongate, regular or mcm by 1 to 2 cm, the margins with occasional teeth. Leaves medium green, usually with narrow or broad white margins 1 to 6 mm wide A few leaves almost entirely white. Leaf surfaces nearly flat or puckered A 'Kimigayo' dwarf clone of slow, dense growth Illustrated on page 97 and described on page 254 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu (1975). 14 4 Daphne odora 'Rmgmaster' Ardisia japonica 'Koganebana' Ardisia japonica 'Shmofu Chmimen' Daphne odora 'Zmko Nishiki' 15 5 Ardisia japonica No. \/Thunb.) Bl. `Shmofu Chmmen' [white variegated crepe paper] (Ymger Collection 804) Leaves of regular outline, elongated, with apexes, blades 3 to 5 by 1.5 to 2 cm; margms toothed. Some shoots and leaves all green or all white, the rest with sectoral white markings or flecks of white A few leaves equally Grown m Japan by Mr Yoshimichi Hirose, Iwakum City, Yamaguchi, Japan Described, but not named, on page 51 of the 1911 catalog of the Yokohama Nursery Company, Yokohama, Japan. acutely pointed Daphne odora Thunb. 'Zurko Nishiki' [fragrant Collecrion No. 279, No. 1794, brocade] (Yinger and No. 1920) Leaves green, not variegated. Flowers dark pink (Rhodamme purple or Fuchsia purple in the 1938 Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart) or white On young plants, flowers usually all of one color or the other, both colors appearing on the same plant as the plant matures All the flowers of an umbel usually of one color, but some umbels having both pmk and white flowers, and a few individual flowers showing sectoral ~chrmeral) pat- divided longitudinally mto green and white halves Most leaves flat and scarcely puckered, a few with undulate margins A rather dwarf selection Illustrated on page 96 and described on page 293 of Shumi no Koten Shokubutsu 1975\/. Koyama'Sparkler' [a new assigned by Barry R. Yinger~ (Ymger Collection No. 1403~ Carex phyllocephala T. cultivar name Leaves, which persist for at least two years, lime green to dark green, with 1- to 4-mm-wide white margins One to four longitudinal streaks of white often within the green portions of the leaves. Sheaths at the bases of the leafstalks purplish. A rare plant. (nursery), Nagoya, Japan, as fum tenyku-suge (variegated Carex phyl~. locephala). rare and attractive variant of a Sold by Ishiguro Momiu En Individual flowers large, 2 to 2.5 cm across, each with a tube 1 cm long. Corolla lobes obtuse or rounded at their tips. Flowers borne m large, rounded umbels of 15 to 25 flowers A very beautiful plant marketed under several names,mcludmg \"sakiwake\" and \"shibon,\" both of which are applied to two-colored flowers or inflorescences. Described and illustrated on page 33 of the Fall 1980 catalog of Kairyo En (nursery) Grown by Kairyo En, Angyo, Japan, and several other major terns nurseries. The following two plants are selections of Daphne odora, a Chinese shrub long popular as a garden plant in Japan. Many cultivars have been selected for pot culture as well, especially those with leaves variegated in various patterns, fasciated shoots, or twisted leaves. The classic works Somoku Kihm Kagami (1827) and Somoku Kmyoshu ( 1829) list twenty-one variants. The more-modern cultivars described below are notable for their floral display as well and seem not to be included among the cultivars listed in the classics. two Distyhum racemosum Sieb. & Zucc. [dawn] (Yinger Collection No. 269) Leaf blades 5 cm 'Akebono' to 10 by 2 to 5 cm, mostly about 7 cm, persisting two years. One-yearold leaves creamy white, all on new shoots, some below the apexes of the shoots speckled or veined green Two-year-old leaves dark green with no markings Stems of new shoots creamy white or sometimes dark pink, those of older shoots green. A vigorous plant with obliquely ascending branches. A very distinctive variegated clone, one by 3 to 3.5 of several listed sources. in modern and classical Japanese name Daphne odora Thunb. 'Ringmaster' [a new cultivar name assigned by Carl R. Hahn] (Ymger Collection No. 1894) Leaves green with 2- to 4-mm-wide margins of pale yellow. Flowers 2 cm across, with a tube 1 cm long, pure white, appearing relatively cream or ' Described under the page 11 of 'Akebono' [dawn] on (Fall 1978-Sprmg 1979) of the Asahi Shokobutsuen (nursery), Okazaki, tlichi Prefecture, Japan. 62 Catalog No. Distyhum new late. A very beautiful selection combining white flowers with clear margmal variegation to produce plants that are unusually striking in flower. racemosum Sieb. & Zucc. 'Guppy' [a cultivar name assigned by Barry R. Yinger] (Yinger Collection No. 274\/ Leaves green, not variegated, 3 to 5 cm by 1 to 2 cm, with short (5 to 15 mm) mternodes. Typically 16 6 variable m this clone A very showy variegated selection. A similar cultmar is hsted m the classic Somoku Kinyoshu, illustrated and described on page 73 of the explanation volume accompanying the facsimile reprmt (1977J However, that clone appears to have irregularly splashed leaves with no sign of the distinct marginal vanegation of 'Chameleon' Sold by several nurseries m Japan as \"fum dokudami\" [vamegated Houttuyma] (for example, Garden Wako [nursery], Takarazuka, Osaka-fu, Ja- pan). Ilex mtegra Thunb. 'Green Shadow' [a tivar name new cul- assigned by Barry Collection No. 718) R. Ymger] (Yinger Distylmm makes 4 cultivar racemosum 'Akebono' to 8 cm of a making gested growth. Similar page 42 to a new growth per year A dwarf dense, rounded shrub of con- clone descnbed and illustrated on of the explanation volume accompanymg the facslmile repnnt of the classic Somoku Kihm Kagami (1976) The clone hsted, which the text explams is probably not m existence now, is called \"koba hizon\" [small-leaf Drstyhum]. No Leaf blades 5 to 9 cm by 1.5 to 3 cm Leaves medium gray-green with irregular creamy-white margms 1 to 5 mm m width that sometimes invade nearly to the midvems Irregular patches of paler gray-green, m broken patterns, also occupying one-third to one-half of the green portions of the leaf blades. The creamy-white areas often suffused with pmk on new growth. A vigorous and stable clone. The classic, Somoku Kmyoshu (1829), hsts six cultmars of Hex mtegra with vanegated or contorted leaves. This selection seems to be different from those hsted there Grown by Kiraku En (nursery), Mito, Ibaraki, Japan, as \"fumz mochi-no-ki,\" [variegated Ilex m- measurements are gmen, but the plant pictured has leaves that seem to be proportionally wider than those of the clone we descnbe here Grown and sold by Garden Wako (nursery), ). tegral. Ophlopogon ~apomcus ~L. f.) Ker-Gawl. 'Torafu' [tiger vanegation] (Yinger Collection No. 1681) to 15 cm long, 3 mm wide, green, with four latitudinal bands of pale yellow fading to creamy white. Most bands 1 to 5 cm wide. Some leaves entirely green or, less often, entirely creamy white. Takarazuka, Osaka-fu, Japan. Leaves one to Houtwyma cordata Thunb. 'Chameleon' [a new cultivar name assigned by Barry R. Yinger] (Yinger Collection No. 714 and No. 824) Grown by Kairyo En ~nursery~, Angyo, Japan. & Zucc. 'Fubula Nishiki' Leaves dark green with variable broad margins that often invade the centers of the leaves in broad sectoral patterns. Margins creamy white or yellow, often tinged with pmk, in sunny locations brightred and strong-pink shades often dominate Green mtenors of the leaves usually streaked or splashed with gray-green, and a green reticulate pattern may appear on the lighter margins. Outlines of leaves less regular than those of the species, the margins often undulate Number of white, showy bracts subtending the inflorescence (normally four) Pmus parmflora Sieb. [snowstorm brocade] (Yinger Collection No. 1908) Needles 2 to 4 cm, mostly about 3 cm, long, not curved; green, those recently produced with a glaucous bloom Most needles banded with creamy white. Of these, the most common pattern a single band, 5 to 10 mm wide, on the upper half of needles. Band sometimes flecked with green so that there 17 7 seems to be a sucession of smaller bands Tips of needles often creamy white. Habit dense and somewhat congested, with about 4 to 9 cm of new growth each year. Most similar to P. parviflora `janome' (actually, two distinct clones) and 'Ogon' `\/anome' is distmgmshed by its strongly curved needles and green-tipped needles m both so-named selec- Kmtaro Somoku Kihin Kagami 3 vols. Japan, 1827 (Reprinted in facsimile, Tokyo' Seiserdo, 1976). (In Japanese). Koten Engel Shokubutsu Garden Life Edition. Tokyo: Seibundo Shmkosha, 1977 Krussmann, G. Handbuch der Laubgeholze, 2nd ed., rev. 3 vols Berhm Verlag Paul Parey, 1976-78. (In German). Mizuno, Tada-aki Somoku Kmyoshu 7 vols. Japan, tions at `Ogon'IS distmgmshed byts short, densely tufted needles, which are umformly yellow except the base Illustrated on the cover of the Fall 1977 catalog of Kairyo En (nursery), Angyo, Japan, and described on the inside cover. Sold by Kairyo En and other nurseries (Reprinted in facsimile, Tokyo: Seiseido, 1977) (In Japanese). Ohwi, Jisaburo. Flora of Japan Edited by Frederick G. Meyer and Egbert H. Walker. Washmgton, D C.: 1829 Shumi Cultivar the Update issue In the Fall 1983 name of Arnoldia, we assigned 'Sundance' to a cultivar of Aucuba ~apomca ~Yinger Collection No. 2G7~. We have since discovered a validly published name for this clone that is acceptable under the Code. Thus, we wish to nullify our name 'Sundance' in favor of the name 'Meigetsu' [the Japanese spring and autumn equmox], which is illustrated and described on page 9 of Catalog 62 (Fall 1978-Spnng 1979) of Asahi Shokubutsuen (nursery), Okazaki, Alchi Smrthsoman Institution, 1965. Edited by Kuyko no Koten Shokubutsu Kamisaki. Toylco~ Shufu no Yusha, 1975 The Royal Horticultural Society. Horticultural Colour Chart 2 vols London, 1938 and 1941 Tsukamoto, Yotaro, et al Explanation Volume To Accompany 197(~ Facsimlle Repnnt of Somoku Kihm Kagami Tokyo' Seiseido, 1976 (In -. Japanese). Explanation Volume To Accompany 1977 Facsimile Repnnt of Somoku Kmyoshu Tokyo: Seiserdo, 1977 (In Japanese) Valvams, William N \"Japanese five-needle pme,\" m Encyclopedla of Classical Bonsai Art, Vol. 2. Atlanta, Georgia Symmes Systems, 1976 Yolcoi, Masato, and Yoshimichi Hirose. Fmn Shokubutsu Tokyo: Seibundo Shinkosha, 1978. (In Japanese). Prefecture, Japan. General Bibliography Books and Penodicals Ethel Zoe Bailey, et al Hortus Third New York. Macmillan, 1976 Bean, W.J Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bntish Isles 4 vols London: John Murray, 1970, 1973, 1976, and 1980. den Ouden, P, and B. K. Boom. Manual of Cultivated Conifers The Hague, Netherlands~ Martinus Nyhoff, 1978. Hilher, H G Hilher's Manual of Trees and Shrubs Newton Abbot, England' David and Charles, 1972. International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants of the International Union of Biological Science International Code of Nomenclature for Culuvated Plants C D. Bmckell, Chairman, Editorial Committee Utrecht, Netherlands: Bohn, Scheltema, and Holkema, 1980. Bailey, Liberty Hyde, Catalogs (in Japanese unless otherwise noted) Asahl Shokubutsuen, Okazalm, Aichi Prefecture, Japan; Catalog No (~2, (fall 1978-sprmg 1979). Chugar Nursery Company Kanagawa Prefecture, Isehara-shi Catalog No 11 7 Fuy En, Osaka, Takarazuka. Fall 1973, spring 1978. Kairyo En, Saitama Prefecture, Kawagucht-sht, Oy Kamito. Spring 1966; fall 1970, spring 1972, fall 1972, spring 1973, fall 1973, spring 1974, fall 1974, fall 1975, spring 1977, fall 1977, spring 1978, fall 1978, fall 1979, fall 1980, spring 1981, spring 1982 Nagoya Engei, Nagoya, Naka-ku Catalog No 11 (fall Nihon 1978) Kaki, Saitama Prefecture, Kawaguchi-shi, Ishigami Fall 1973, spring 1974, fall 1979, spring 1980, spring 1981, fall 1981, spring 1982 Sakata Nursery Company, Yokohama, Mmami-ku, Nagada-cho. Spring 1978, fall 1978, spring 1979, spring 1981, fall 1981. Shibamichi Kanyro Company, Limited, Saitama Prefec- 18 ture, -. Kawaguchi-shi, Akayama catalog, 1976-77. Trees and Shrubs Commercial for Your Garden April 1979. (In English). Shunko En, Tokyo, spring 1979. Sosei Itabashi Spring 1972, fall 1972, En, Hyogo Prefecture, Takarazuka. Fall 1976, spring 1977, fall 1979. Ymger, Barry R Japanese Trees and Shrubs for Your Garden Saitama Prefecture, Kawaguchi-shi, Akayama. Shibamichi Kanyro Company, Limited, 1981 (In Enghsh) Yokohama Nursery Company, Yokohama, 1911-12. (In English~. Barry R Yinger is curator of the Asian Collections at the Umted States Iv'ational Arboretum Carl R Hahn is chief of horticulture of Maryland-Nanonal Capital Park and Planning Commission, Silver Spnng, Maryland "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Replacing the Understory Plantings of Central Park","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24865","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270a76d.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Weinstein, Geraldine","article_content":"Five years of experience yield the formula for success Replacing the Understory Plantings of Central Park Geraldine Weinstein A century after Central Park was created, few original understory of shrubs and trees remamed, despite a ma~or replanung that was done in the 1930s. Depleted financial resources, misguided attempts at landscape management, inadequate maintenance, and the imvestiges of its bold texture and deep color to the landscape, while Caragana arborescens, Cytisus scopanus, and other fine-textured plants provided a coun- terpomt. Fruits of the many species of Cotoneaster, color Lomcera, and Viburnum also the pact of millions of visitors were the major culprits. Recognizing the importance of shrubs and understory trees in the Park's design and ecology, the Central Park Conservancy and the New York City Department of Parks and Recreation began to replant the understory in the spring of 1980. Basing then approach on the Park's history, on growing conditions in the Park, and on the desires of parkgoers, the Park's managers and landscape architects have been focusing on the ability of specific understory plantings to accomplish aes- thetic and ecological objectives. They have found that the key steps in successfully reestablishing the understory are analysis of the site, the selection of plants, appropriate maintenance practices, and continual evaluation of each plant's performance. through landscape. In autumn, the diversity of color was heightened by the foliage of Rhus typhma, Euonymus alatus, and Hydrangea quercifoha and, in winter, by the twigs of Kerna japonica, Cornus sericea, and Vaccmmm angustifolmm. Through the widespread planting of roses, spireas, lilacs, azaleas, and rhododendrons, floral displays became part of the Park's landscape. But in choosing from a wide array of plant species, the Park's designers did not always give horticultural considerations the attention they deserved. First and foremost, Olmsted and Vaux used plants-especially shrub and understory species-to give specific aesthetic character to a site or to complement such existing features of the landscape as lakes, streams, and meadows. Although Olmsted and Vaux planned the underwove Construction of Central Park began in 1858, during an era of intense botamcal exploration. The idea of bringing plants from abroad greatly to Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert the Park's designers, since an expanded Vaux, choice of plants would make it easier for them to carry out them design intentions. Combining exotic and native species, they provided a multitude of contrasts in plant texture, color, and form, offering visitors to the Park a continual and fascinating change in scenery. Leucothoe fontanesiana (L. catesbaei~, Mahonia aquifolium, and a myriad of Rhododendron species brought appealed flawless eye, conditions at a site were favorable to the species they planted always there. Some of the species probably found the Park's environment as inhospitable in the nineteenth century as they would find it now. Of the plants listed on the 1873 survey of the Park, Aucuba japonica, Kalmia angustifoha, Andromeda pohfoha, and Mynca cenfera could not have found conditions particularly favorable. The 1873 survey indicates that the species planted in the Park came from a wide range of habitats. Shrubs familiar in garden settingsPotenulla spp., Buxus spp., Hydrangea macroa story with not 20 The Fifth Avenue border planting of Berbems thunbergn and Rhodotypos scandens Photographs by the author. phylla, seen in Cotoneaster spp., were Hypericum perfor- atum-were zom, shrubs more often their native habitats-Lindera benViburnum dentatum, Clethra almfoha, for used, as example. As much as diversity, scale characterized the shrub and understory plantings. For Olmsted and Vaux, understory planting had to be of considerable scale and depth, allowmg the eye to wander, umnterrupted, over large areas of the landscape, evoking a sense of space and dimension. A powerful contrast was to exist between the Park and the surrounding city, where cement and concrete loomed before one's eyes, continually cutting off views of what might lie beyond. Shrub plantings of considerable depth and length would add an- other dimension to its environment, as well as another texture to the Park's landscape. Installed throughout woodlands, at the edges of meadows, and on the banks of streams and ponds, extensive shrub and understory plantmgs created environments rich in botamcal and ecological diversity. Wildhfe found varied sources of food and excellent protective cover. Visitors to the Park saw before themselves the same degree of harmony and contrast among plants that characterizes natural landscapes. Design and Management Considerations The objectives of the current replantmg echo those of Olmsted and Vaux but have been expanded to meet additional management needs. 21 Growth habit, foliage texture, and times of flowering and fruiting are still part of the design and process. However, management issues pertaining to the Park's appearance as a well maintamed and thriving urban green space receive no less emphasis. As in early Park plant- plant-selection ings, shrubs and understory trees are currently provide soft, undulating edges to wooded areas of the Park. The understory created between canopy trees and the ground surface is particularly important at entrances and along the Park's used to perimeter, where Reiteratmg an visitors get their first impression of Central Park as a naturalistic landscape. important concept of Olmsted landscape architects at the Conserare planning large-scale plantings of shrubs vancy for selected sites along the edges of lawns. Throughout much of the Park, lawns are defined by pavement. The hard visual impact of asphalt paths is offset by lush and vigorous understory plantings, which also define the edges of meadows. Thus the lawns are set off and highhghted as more irregular and undulating spaces than before. In addition, naturalistic edges of shrubs and understory trees are being planted on the banks of lakes, ponds, and streams in the Park to halt siltation. This process begins with an assessment of the total watershed area to determine whether and, if they will, where understory plantings will minimize erosion of surrounding slopes and ad~acent areas. The process ends with an effective waterside planting that will stabilize the banks and shoreline. The waterside planting must have additional merit as a wildlife habitat, providing both food and cover. Soil erosion in Central Park adversely affects not only its bodies of water. Throughout the Park, the growth and establishment of plants, especially of trees and ground covers, are threatened by the continual loss of topsoil. Erosion undoubtedly became a problem m Central Park soon after the first half million cubic yards of topsoil were brought to the Park during its construcuon. Other factors related to the erosion problem have been with the Park since its beginning. At any and Vaux's, one of the following factors is involved: design, soil texture, environmental factors, and use of the Park. Understory planting in Central Park is intended to compensate for the erosion-prone soil, intense use of the Park, difficult-to-manage or -design areas, and harsh microclimate. Intensity of use in particular is a problem, as the feet of 14,000,000 visitors leave their imprints each year. The problem is most obvious in the dusty and constantly eroding cow paths that crisscross areas in the Park, and on steep slopes, where any major amount of foot traffic results in considerable loss of topsoil. Understory planting is used to manage the circulation patterns of visitors. Such \"barrier plantings\" protect easily eroded areas, newly restored landscapes, and lawn areas. The species of shrubs chosen are not necessarily thorny, but by their mass and visual impact they effectively deter foot traffic. In summary, design intentions and management concerns have resulted in specific planting objectives for the restored understory, namely, to control erosion, supply food and cover for wildlife, provide a naturalistic understory in the Park's woodlands, stabilize banks and shorelmes, lend spatial defimnon to landscape sites, and assure the integrity of Central Park as a naturalistic landscape, even at its entrances and on its given site, at least periphery. Site Considerations project, if the plant species chosen deal successfully with the existing use and environmental problems, then the design intent will be clearly conveyed; otherwise, it will crumble. After the site has been analyzed, plant material must be chosen with as much knowledge and information as are available to the horticultumst and the landscape architects. Strong emphasis is placed on the use of native species whenever possible, and on mtegrating broadleaf evergreens into the planting. Existing plant lists can mdicate which species are tolerant of shade, salt, or flooding, and which will help prevent eroIn any restoration 22 not take the many adverse environmental conditions of an urban site. Central Park is a built landscape. Even its soil, which must support plants, is built. The characteristics of urban soil differ sharply from those of natural soils. Structural and textural inconsistencies in the profile of an urban soil create barriers to the movement of air and water into the soil. In addition, compaction of the surface and subsurface layers of soil decreases the amount of air and water that are available to plants, a common problem in soils that are affected more by people and machmes than by natural processes Both periodic flooding and drought can occur within soil layers. The climate of Central Park, like the climates of other \"green islands\" in cities, is strongly modified by the areas around it. Winds tunnel between tall buildings, and heat radiates long into the evemng, having been trapped in masses of asphalt and concrete during the day. It is sigmficant, too, how the characteristics of urban soils and microclimates mtensify the effects of seasonal changes in temperature. Unlike actual islands, which are protected from climatic extremes by the water around them, urban \"islands\" have very few ameliorating influences. Temperatures m the soil and air are often extreme, especially in shallow and compacted soils. Perhaps the most important site consideration is the effect wrought by people. \"People-pressure diseases\" of urban trees also affect the understory. While most actual islands are inaccessible to large numbers of people, urban islands are created for people. In fact, the intense use of Central Park, despite the damage it does to vegetation, is the Park's greatest attribute. Central Park was created to attract the citizens of New York; it provides them with relief from the city's steel and sion. However, existing lists usually do into account lish a border planting at the edge of the Park. The planting was gradually extended, creating a forest edge along the Park's perimeter, adjacent to Fifth Avenue. two Park entrances. 72nd Street, a major thoroughfare in the Park, leads to the Mall, Sheep Meadow, and Bethesda Terrace-all of which are major focal points in Central Park. Immediately north of this entrance is the path leading down to the Conservatory Water, which is a model-sailboat pond in spring and summer and an attractive site for ice-skating in winter. While a proliferation of arclntectural styles and forms occupies the adjacent city streets, the forest edge just inside the Park is a coherent and free-flowing naturalistic landscape, reflectmg harmony along its entire length. From the Park wall, the forest edge slopes either down toward the Conservatory Water or up a short rise toward the 72nd Street entrance. Understory plants weave through and around canopy trees. Unhke the city streets, which are spatially defined by blocks, the border planting conveys the feeling of a contiguous forest. On sunny days, the lawn around the Conservatory Water is crowded with people. On weekdays, hundreds of people pass through the 72nd Street entrance, on weekends, thousands. During certain special events, hundreds of thousands of people pour into the Park. The spilling over of people from the entrance onto the border planting is a perenmal problem, one that affects both the design of the planting and the plants used at the site. The entrance at the other end of the border planting is much smaller in scale-~ust a gap in the Park wall, and a pathway leading in-and is far less used by visitors. There is a very popular playground just to the north, making large numbers of school children a normal part of the land- This planting lies between entrance One, the at concrete. The Border Planting The restoration along Fifth Avenue between 72nd and 76th Streets was the first attempt to reestab- climate, the Park's perimeter along Fifth Avenue is colder by far in winter than all other sites in the Park. The wind coming off the East River increases in force as it whips around and through row upon row of skyscrapers before scape. In terms of 23 Mynca pensylvamca growing Point. on a rocky ledge on The the Park with enormous impact. Because the perimeter planting faces east, parts of it receive more sunlight than other areas of the Park, particularly in winter. Unfortunately, the winter sun does more harm than good to plants because it can dry them out. The most striking visual features of the site are the many large and magnificent canopy trees and the extensive steep slope that characterizes the entire planting. In this part of the Park's perimeter the slope extends down from the base of the Park wall, becoming a potentially scenic and dramatic backdrop to the lawn areas below. striking people Although the trees were for the most part in good condition, the slope was, with few exceptions, bare of understory planting. It was also bare of leaf litter, since the leaves from the canopy swept off the slope by the wind and the lawn areas below. During heavy ramstorms the Park wall adds to the erosion problem : Rain pours down the side of the stone wall and shoots down the slope, leaving rills and gullies behind. As this site is adjacent to the Park wall, we were not surprised to find fill and heavy subsurface layers within the soil profile. To provide a supportive soil environment, truckloads of leaf mold were brought to the site. Where feasible, the leaf mold was rototilled into the soil. Where a Rototiller could not be used, the leaf mold was worked in with grub axes and shovels. To create a forest edge at the site, understory planting would have to stop erosion effectively. Shrubs and understory trees capable of doing this would be those species able to deal with the adverse effects of wind, heat, sun, and people, as trees are onto 24 Cornus racemosa, placed to to soften a a planting of The Point. Ber- bens ~uhanae used define path to well as with the limitations of deep shade and intense competition from the roots of the many existing mature trees. Over two thousand shrubs and understory trees, consisting of twenty-two species, were used at the site. Hamamehs vmgimana, Euonymus alatus, Rhodotypos scandens, and Viburnum siedboldm are the \"anchors\" of this landscape. They have proven themselves in other sites in the Park, and were used to give cohesiveness to the planting and to link this landscape to other sites in the Park. It was also hoped that they would uphold the planting and the design if any of the other plants chosen proved to be mistakes. Hamamehs mrgimana was the principal understory tree used. This species had already mdi- cated its tolerance of severe exposure, drought, and flooding at other sites in the Park. Its widespreading habit provides an effective contrast to the many verticals of the major-story trees. Placed at the top of the slope, it breaks the force of the wind and rain and provides a buffer for less adaptable plants on the site. Even from outside the Park, the graceful form and yellow flowers are a welcome contrast to the traffic congestion on the avenue. Although somewhat stiffer in habit, Euonymus alatus 'Compactus', with its dense and compact form, also protects the soil from the pounding of heavy rainfalls. When mass-planted, it provides an equally dense buffer against careless foot traffic. Its density deters visitors from ploughing through the planting. In the autumn, the broad spatial effect of its pink-rose foliage provides ad- 25 ditional depth and interest to the border planting. While both Viburnum dilatatum and Vlburnum lantana were used, Viburnum sleboldn has proved more successful. Its lustrous foliage is an especially welcome sight during the hottest part of the summer. It rarely indicates drought or heat stress, and it grows more vigorously than other species of Viburnum, with Vibumum pmmfolmm being the only exception. Rhodotypos scandens is another park favorite, much admired because it tolerates almost anything. With maintenance, it is a very vigorous grower. Its graceful, wide-spreading habit contrasts effectively with the more upright Euonymus alatus. At this particular plantmg site, it flowers for nearly four weeks. The black, beadlike berries are as attractive to wildlife as to proved totally unsuited for other species selected. Amelanchier canadensis is a favorite understory tree, but it has not fared well on this site. Heat, surface campaction, and frequent disturbance by people set it back substantially. In Central Park it is slow to establish, even when maintenance is provided, and its stems are easily broken. Along with Amelanchier canadensis, Clethra almfoha and Ilex verticillata found the site far too dry for their likmg. Even with irrigation and mulching, neither species thrived. Like Amelanchier, Clethra is particularly difficult to establish. While healthy examples of all three species can be found elsewhere in the Park, the fatality rate has been high, considering the numbers planted during the last two to three years (nearly one thousand Clethra plants). Clethra and Amelanchier are doing well at waterside plantings, even though the soil in which they were planted is not wet. The breezes from the water lower the temperature and provide a degree of air circulation missmg from the border planting, where the winter winds are not replaced by any cool summer breezes. In addition, at the waterside sites, both species suffer far less disturbance. Ilex vertic111ata was the great mistalce m the border planting. This species was totally out of its habitat, and there was no way we could recreate the habitat A planting of this species situated on a shaded slope leading down to an inlet is successful, however. Ilex verticillata is the perfect example of shrubs often recommended for wildlife plantings but that cannot benefit the wildlife in Central Park since they rarely survive in the Park's harsh environment. There have been other planting successes and failures throughout the Park that are worth reporting. Central Park was built on rocky, barren land; therefore, shallow soil is a common problem. Mynca pensylvamca and Elaeagnus umbellata seem to take this limitation in stride, thriving on rocky, fully exposed sites and yet tolerant of light shade. Both species contribute to the success of the wildlife planting at The Point, a rocky peninsula ~utting out into the 72nd Street lake. A people. Acanthopanax sieboldianus has proved very effective at stopping erosion because it deters foot traffic. It is easily established and is a very vigorous grower, so vigorous, in fact, that it often hinders the growth of less competitive plants growing nearby. Its very-fine-textured foliage lightens up an entire planting. It protects the soil because it virtually covers it with its moundhke and wide-spreading habit. At the base of the slope, in a wet area, we were successful with a bare-root planting of Cornus sencea. While we had often been unsuccessful planting Cornus species balled and burlapped, we incurred no losses with the planting at this site. As all of the above species flourish, they provide protection for rhododendrons and Kalmia latifoha. Though not widely used throughout the planting, the contrast between their bold, broadleaf foliage and the lighter texture of the deciduous material magmfies their impact. While it would be mce to use evergreens at the edge of a border planting, so that they could be seen from the street, it doesn't work that way. They are difficult to reestablish, are easily desiccated by the wind and sun, and are mtolerant of the heat, urban soils, and disturbances in general. While an environment suitable for rhododendrons, laurels, and azaleas could be provided, site conditions 26 planting of Rosa rugosa at the tip of the peninsula provides a thicket of cover for wildlife and a great deal of pleasure for birdwatchers and other naturalists. It is extremely vigorous and flowers as profusely as it would in a seaside environment. At the same site, Cornus racemosa has proved successful, tolerating the dryness and exposure of the rocky site far better than Cornus sencea. Two other species used at floral Vaux's display is in accord with Olmsted and philosophy: they wanted flowers in the be seen, not as individuals but amidst of lush foliage and vigorous growth. In 1983 and in the spring of 1984, we added additional species to Park plantmgs. Among them were Fothergilla gardemi, Enkianthus camto masses Park The Point, and which we panulatus, Calycanthus flondus, Rosa mtida, Rosa mchuraiana, Hydrangea quercifoha, Rhus aromatica, and Cotmus coggygna. We also added several species of native azalea: Rhododendron vasey, R. schhppenbachm, R. bakem, R. 'Janet Blair', R. prumfolmm, and R. nudiflorum. By 1986 or 1987, they will have shown their tolerance, or lack of it, of conditions in the Park. Some were hoping to use frequently in the Park, are Magnoha vmgimana and Rhus typhma. Unfortunately, they were never given a chance to survive or to fail: Magnoha vmgimana, with its attractive foliage and flowers, was repeatedly vandahzed; Rhus typhma provided sticks and fishing poles until the planting was depleted. Aroma arbutifoha and wildlife. While bosum are Vaccmium corymalso used at The Point and other sites not a is to attract vigorous grower, of these species are \"fragile,\" but we hope that if particular species are used with plants that already have proven their vigor, the new species will receive some protection while they are be- Vaccimum sites corymbosum by and dry periods and can Park users. The site has tolerant of exposed adapt to disturbance coming established. are not Aroma proved too dry for arbutifoha; nonetheless, we will try the We also realize that many species of plants that yet used in Central Park might be successon ful ten \"green islands\" within all urban While at some environ- species again where soil conditions are more favorable. We have had success with Berbens xmentorensis, the mentor barberry, which, when taken care of, is as adaptable as the more weedy Berbens thunbergm. While we have often used the mentor barberry to control circulation patterns, we are finding that the shrubhke 'Seafoam' and 'Fairy' roses are even more effective in controlling soil erosion by controlling foot traffic. Interplanted on a totally exposed slope in the Park, both the 'Seafoam' and 'Fairy' have grown in a rambling and rampant fashion, forming thick, impenetrable mounds that are covered with flowers for two to three months. The landscape looks far softer and more agreeable to the visitor than it does when barberry is used. The negative connotation of a barrier planting is eclipsed by the aesthetic pleasure the roses provide. The vigorous growth of the roses creates a microclimate where the soil surface is shaded, affording them a cool, moist root run, even in the exposed area. Insect damage has not been a noticeable problem. The five to of a species, we are more likely to use fifty to five hundred. The availability of particular plant species often limits their use. At specific sites where protection and maintenance are adequate, we plant bare-rooted material. Its use increases the range of species and actually eliminates a characteristic disadvantage of planting in urban soils, which is the problem of interface between the nursery soil of the root ball and the built soil of the urban greenspace. Species that are more \"opportumstic\" when they are planted with bare rather than balled and burlapped roots will brighten the future of urban park plantmgs. Two years after the imtial planting, the border planting at the Park's penmeter was achieving its design intent. Wood-chip mulching was still necessary, because leaves continued to be blown off the slope. However, this maintenance task was continually reduced as the understory planting grew and covered the exposed areas on the slope. While the forest now growing at the edge of Central Park does not block out the harsh urban ments. can use locations we 27 environment, it. it is the most effective antidote to Evaluation We have devised a method of evaluating The evaluation has two objectives: plants. are made determine percentage of deadwood (entered mid-July), and growth rate (entered mid-August). Weekly visits are made during the appropriate season to determine the degree and persistence of flowers and fruit, and the condition of leaves and winter months. Scheduled on-site visits to To relate plant specific site survival and growth to and environmental characteriswhether tics, and To determine species are particular plant purpose for which they were fulfilling the planted. twigs. Once all observations are computerized, we will be able to retneve information that will greatly influence our selection of plants. We will know what to expect when a certain species is planted in a specific environment for a welldefined purpose or design function. To avoid drawing premature conclusions, we have limited our evaluation to plantings that are at least two years old. We have orgamzed our data collection to measure the following four vanables : Reference Frederick Law Olmsted Association and Central Park Commumty Fund Central Park Plant List and Map Index of 187,3 New York The Frederick Law Olmsted Association and the Central Park The site adaptability of given species to existing characteristics (slope, fertility, drainage, soil depth and texture, exposure, reflected Community Fund, 1979. heat, competing vegetation, ground cover, public use), Biological condition (resistance to drought, resistance to flooding, pH, salt tolerance, transplantability, percentage of deadwood, growth rate~, Ornamental value (foliage condition each season, period and persistence of flowers and fruits, growth habit, freedom from serious msects and diseases), and Mamtenance responsibilmes and them frequency (irrigation, prunmg, mulching, fertilization, monitoring for pests and diseases, replacement). A great deal of basic information about the Acknowledgment The author thanks landscape architects Marianne Cramer and Judith Hemtz for invaluable historical background information. Geraldine Weinstein, director of horticulture for the City Department of Parks and Recreation, was director of horuculture for Central Park from 1980 to 1984 She has recently been awarded a prestigious Loeb Fellowship by the Graduate School of Design of Harvard University. New York collected before any informathe site is garnered from field specific visits. The following data are recorded: planting location and date; height and spread; when planted; native habitat; nursery source, kind of stock (bare root, balled and burlapped, or container) ; design function; and the plant's historic value to the Park. All data are entered during the plant tion materials is to BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART Chemicals That Plants Five Regulate John W. Einset key plant hormones have commercially valuable uses in horticulture, and there is promise of more to come Plants, like other living things, have complex internal mechanisms through which they coordinate their growth and respond effectively to changes in their surroundings. A fundamental concept of botany states that fluctuations in the amounts of a few key chemicals known as plant hormones, or \"phytohormones,\" regulate practically every aspect of plants' functioning. Since the discovery of the first phytohormone nearly fifty years ago, botanists have learned much Ethylene, structurally the simplest hormone found in any living thing, regulates fruit drop, flowering, fruit npemng, and the death ~senesence) of plant parts. After auxin, ethylene is the most important phytohormone in commercial practice. The phytohormone cytoktnin, on the other hand, currently is of limited practical use, even though tissue culture would be impossible without it. Because of its crucial role in tissue culture, cytokinin undoubtedly will assume increasing importance as advances are made in biotechnology. Cytokmin controls seed germination, plant architecture, the movement of gases between the interior of leaves and the atmosphere, fruit development, senescence, and fruit drop. Gibberellin (GA), of which over sixty different chemical variants are known, regulates seed germination, stem growth, flowering, and fruit development. Many so-called \"dwarf,\" or stunted, plants are actually defective in their abilities to produce GA. Abscisic acid (ABA), the last phytohormone to be discovered, is responsible for seed dormancy. It also regulates the growth of roots and the exchange of gases between leaves and the atmosphere. To date, there are no important practical applications for abscisic acid, although the prospects are good that it will become a valuable chemical for increasing the capacity of plants to withstand drought, since it mfluences the amount of water that plants lose from their leaves. In spite of all we know about phytohormones, an obvious question comes to mmd: \"Are there regulators, and the knowledge they have gained has been exploited successfully to develop practical uses for phytohormones horticulture. Without question, research on has already paid for itself. Moreover, scientists working on phytohormones believe that the prospects of finding new ways of manipulating plants with these chemicals are esin about these internal phytohormones pecially encouraging. The Five Kinds of Phytohormones phytohormones are Five distinct categones of recognized, each of which has characteristic molecular structures and physiological roles m plants: auxin, ethylene, cytokimn, gibberelhn, and abscisic acid. Auxin, the first phytohormone discovered, is probably the best understood of them all. The major form of auxin m plants is the chemical indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which has been implicated in a variety of phenomena, including plant \"architecture,\" the bending response to light, flower formation, leaf and fruit drop, and fruit maturation. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botany, The State of the Art: Chemicals That Regulate Plants","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24863","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad270a36f.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"BOTANY: THE STATE OF THE ART Chemicals That Plants Five Regulate John W. Einset key plant hormones have commercially valuable uses in horticulture, and there is promise of more to come Plants, like other living things, have complex internal mechanisms through which they coordinate their growth and respond effectively to changes in their surroundings. A fundamental concept of botany states that fluctuations in the amounts of a few key chemicals known as plant hormones, or \"phytohormones,\" regulate practically every aspect of plants' functioning. Since the discovery of the first phytohormone nearly fifty years ago, botanists have learned much Ethylene, structurally the simplest hormone found in any living thing, regulates fruit drop, flowering, fruit npemng, and the death ~senesence) of plant parts. After auxin, ethylene is the most important phytohormone in commercial practice. The phytohormone cytoktnin, on the other hand, currently is of limited practical use, even though tissue culture would be impossible without it. Because of its crucial role in tissue culture, cytokinin undoubtedly will assume increasing importance as advances are made in biotechnology. Cytokmin controls seed germination, plant architecture, the movement of gases between the interior of leaves and the atmosphere, fruit development, senescence, and fruit drop. Gibberellin (GA), of which over sixty different chemical variants are known, regulates seed germination, stem growth, flowering, and fruit development. Many so-called \"dwarf,\" or stunted, plants are actually defective in their abilities to produce GA. Abscisic acid (ABA), the last phytohormone to be discovered, is responsible for seed dormancy. It also regulates the growth of roots and the exchange of gases between leaves and the atmosphere. To date, there are no important practical applications for abscisic acid, although the prospects are good that it will become a valuable chemical for increasing the capacity of plants to withstand drought, since it mfluences the amount of water that plants lose from their leaves. In spite of all we know about phytohormones, an obvious question comes to mmd: \"Are there regulators, and the knowledge they have gained has been exploited successfully to develop practical uses for phytohormones horticulture. Without question, research on has already paid for itself. Moreover, scientists working on phytohormones believe that the prospects of finding new ways of manipulating plants with these chemicals are esin about these internal phytohormones pecially encouraging. The Five Kinds of Phytohormones phytohormones are Five distinct categones of recognized, each of which has characteristic molecular structures and physiological roles m plants: auxin, ethylene, cytokimn, gibberelhn, and abscisic acid. Auxin, the first phytohormone discovered, is probably the best understood of them all. The major form of auxin m plants is the chemical indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), which has been implicated in a variety of phenomena, including plant \"architecture,\" the bending response to light, flower formation, leaf and fruit drop, and fruit maturation. 29 Representative chemical structures of the five currently known classes of plant hormones Prospects for discovering additional kmds are considered to be especially good other kinds of phytohormones yet to be discovered ?\" The answer almost certainly is, \"Yes.\" After all, over fifty different hormones are known among animals; it stands to reason, then, that plants have more than just five different hormone systems. In fact, there is evidence that the actual number of phytohormones is at least twice as agricultural land, as well as to golf courses, public parks, and lawns. An important aspect of this technology is the selectivity of the herbicidal effect : at the levels of auxin applied, dicotyledonous plants (\"dicots\"), such as dandelions, are killed, but monocotyledonous plants (\"monocots\"), such as grasses, are left unharmed. While the use of phytohormones as herbicides might be considered a drastic measure because it involves excessive concentrations of auxin, most practical methods involve subtle alterations in the levels of hormones inside plants. An example is the regulat~on of seed germination with GA. When a dry seed of a grain such as corn, barley, or oats is soaked in water, the seed produces enzymes that break down the protein and starch that are stored in the seed mto their component \"building blocks,\" which nourish the young seedling during the early stages of its growth. Obviously, the coordination of protein and starch breakdown with embryo growth and seedling development is of crucial importance. This is where large. Horticultural Applications of Phytohormones By far the greatest commercial mones is as of phytohorherbicides. A practice begun in the 1930s, the use of excess doses of auxin as herbicidal treatments has become a multimillion-dollar mdustry. In the United States alone, over fifty million pounds of the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) are applied to millions of acres of use weed killers, that is, as 30 Cuttmgs of Synnga obtamed through tissue culture and stimulated to produce roots by applying auxm. Photograph by the author. stimulate the formation of roots cuttings. Nowadays, auxin in either liquid or powder formulations can be purchased at most garden-supply stores; it can be used at home to induce roots to grow on cuttings of most common horticultural plants. Essentially the same procedure is used by nurseries for propagating plants, especially when large numbers of identical individuals are needed. In the last fifteen years, tissue culture has become increasingly important as a tool for propagating plants.\/ See \"Biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum\" in the Summer 1984 issue of Arnold~a.Known as \"micropropagation,\" the usual method involves \"shoot multiplication\" in a nutrient medium, followed by the auxin-induced rooting of cuttings. After a shoot tip from a plant has been decontaminated, it is transferred to tissue-culture medium containing enough cytokimn to sustain growth and overcome apical dominance in elongating shoots. The result of this manipulation is the production of several, was to on ticulture a role. For example, one of the first associated with water uptake by the seed (\"imbibition\"\/ is the production of GA in the embryo. The GA produced diffuses from the embryo to a layer of cells immediately beneath the seed coat, where it activates the genes for enzymes that release stored reserve nutrients. In the production of malt, which is popular as an additive for milk and is used to make beer, barley or oat grains are allowed to germinate only to the stage at which most of the starch in them has been converted to soluble sugar. At this point, development of the seedling is stopped by a heat treatment, and the resulting malt is ground to a powder. Sometimes, the grain is treated with GA during the imbibition period. This practice stimulates the breakdown of starch and ensures umform malting. Several beers from Australia are produced from GA-treated barley. One of the earliest applications of auxin in hor- GA plays events 31 simultaneously growmg shoot axes starting from only one tip, that is, shoot multiphcation. Individual shoots are then used for further shoot mul- tiphcarion in the next tissue-culture passage, or they are used as cuttings and rooted with an auxin treatment Theoretically, it is feasible to produce over a million plants from a single shoot tip through tissue-culture technology in just one year. New Applications According to the major scientific hypothesis relating phytohormones to the architecture of plants, shoot growth is a result of interactions between auxin, cytolanm, and GA. Auxin produced by the growing tip inhibits lateral buds in the axils of leaves, a phenomenon known as apical dominance that, in extreme cases, results in an unbranched (or \"monopodial\") axis Cytokimn, on the other hand, counteracts auxin, so that shoot systems m which cytolamn is produced at a high rate consist of several, simultaneously growing brances, a situation called \"sympodial\" growth. Branching, or its absence, therefore, is a consequence of the auxm-cytokmm balance. By contrast, the length of mternodes (stem elongation) is regulated by GA. Theoretically, the architecture of cultivated plants could be mampulated by altering the levels of any one of the three critical phytohormones. practice of nipping buds on housefor example, effectively removes the plants, source of auxin responsible for apical dominance. The result of this treatment is sympodial growth due to the liberation of lateral buds that the auxm produced m the tips of the stems had prevented from developing. Liberation of the lateral buds causes a bush-like, branched architecture. Socalled growth retardants, many of which inhibit the production of GA, shorten the internodes of treated plants, resulting m dwarfed, compact architecture. Two examples of growth retardants are cyclocel and ancymidol. The use of growth retardants has mcreased substantially in the last few years. Because they mThe common hibit the elongation of stems, growth retardants reduce the need for expensive tree-trimming operations. As a matter of fact, several utility compames currently use growth retardants as a costsaving measure along streets with aboveground power lines. Growth retardants are also applied to a major variety of wheat in West Germany that has a tendency to lodge(blow over) in high winds. They are also used on lawns to decrease the need for periodic mowing. Sometimes, however, it becomes necessary to stimulate the growth of a lawn. Two days before the beginning of a national golf tournament, for example, the grounds crew mistakenly mowed an area designated for high grass (the \"rough\"). GA was put on the affected area, growth sped up, and the rough was restored just in time for the start of play. Leaf drop, or abscission, is regulated by the relative concentrations of auxin and ethylene in the abscission zone. Ethylene tends to stimulate the process, while auxin inhibits it. In certain mstances, cytokimn, GA, and ABA may also exert some control, although their effects vary widely according to the species of plant involved. Probably the most important commercial use of phytohormones for defoharion involves cotton production. In normal practice, plants are sprayed a few days before harvest with an abscission stimulator (for example, an ethylene-generatmg chemical) that causes the leaves to drop but does not affect the cotton bolls, which can be harvested with a mechamcal picker without harvesting leaves as well. Obviously, the savings that result from using phytohormones in cotton technology are substantial. Other practical uses of phytohormone defoliants have been controversial. During the late 1960s in Vietnam, for example, phytohormones were sprayed from U.S. military airplanes to cause the leaves of rain-forest plants to fall off. According to official pohcy, this was done as a temporary, tactical measure, but the repeated treatments killed most major species of trees in the rain forests. The long-range consequences of this practice, both in terms of human health and 32 the future of the Vietnamese ecosystem, are still being studied. For years, chemicals have been applied to pineapple plants to stimulate flowering and, thereby, to synchromze fruit development and maturation. The value of this technology is realized in more efficient harvesting of ripe pineapples. When the practice was begun in the 1930s, smoke from fires was utilized. Today, an counteract have ethylene's effect. Various methods already been devised for just this purpose, in ethylene-generatmg compound known as ethephon is sprayed on plants. Phytohormones also can be used to stimulate flowering in several other economically important plants. Fruit trees such as apple, pear, and peach are treated with chemicals to mcrease the number of flowers. During the commercial production of seeds for bienmals such as carrot, beet, and cabbage, GA is used to cause flowering in the first year. Similarly, GA can shorten the time it takes for comfers to form cones, speedmg up breeding programs with these plants. In some instances, it is advantageous to inhibit flowering An especially dramatic example of this involves sugarcane. Chemicals are routmely utilized to prevent sugarcane from flowering during the time it is accumulating sugar. It is estimated that yield increases averagmg 1.3 tons per acre are obtamed in Hawaii as a result of this practice. Inhibitors of flower formation also are used to overcome \"alternate bearing\" in tree crops, the alternation of heavy (\"on\" years) and low (\"off\" years) flowering, with corresponding effects of fruit production. In the extreme case of mandarin oranges, alternate bearing causes fluctuations in fruit yield ranging from forty to zero boxes per tree in successive years. GA is used in Spain and Australia to reduce flower formation during \"on\" years. Similarly, m the Umted States, apple flowers are thinned during \"on\" years with an auxin treatment. Phytohormones also affect cut flowers As soon as a flower is removed from a plant, the natural process of senescence speeds up, in large part through the agency of the phytohormone ethylene. Obviously, if flower senescence is to be delayed or prevented, the logical strategy is to some of them may have economic potential in the cut-flower trade. One way of extending the life of cut flowers is to refrigerate them, slowing down the metabolic reactions that result in senescence. A second method involves the treatment of flowers with anti-ethylene compounds Silver ion m the form of a silver mtrate solution, for example, inhibits the action of ethylene. Or, senescence can be retarded with inhibitors that block specific steps in the chemical pathway that leads to the production of fact, and ethylene by a plant. Phytohormones are used extensively to regulate fruits, from their earliest stages of development through harvest, and even during postharvest storage. In fact, the major commercial use of GA in the United States involves seedless table By treatmg young grape clusters with GA, one can reduce the number of berries per bunch, but obtam larger and juicier individual fruits. There is no question that the GA-treated product is superior to the untreated one. In this case, phytohormone technology can boast a true success story. (See the inside back cover ) \/ grapes. By contrast, phytohormone technology applied defimtely mferior product. routmely harvested in the Umted States before they are mature, often with mechanical picking devices. The green fruits are then treated with ethylene to simulate ripening. The rationale for using this technology is that savings m the cost of harvesting outweigh the extra value of vine-ripened tomatoes. Moreover, it is argued, added ethylene only accelerates a process-rrpenmg-that normally is under control. Unfortunately, this latter asethylene's sertion is a ridiculous oversimplification of what is involved. After all, who hasn't bought a \"red\" tomato that actually tasted \"green\"? Because of its role in abscission, ethylene can be used effectively when fruits are harvested mechanically. In commercial practice, plants are sprayed with ethephon or some other ethylenegeneratmg chemical a few days before harvest. to tomatoes yields a Nonetheless, tomatoes are 33 This zones treatment initiates formation of abscission that, in turn, loosen the fruits. Harvest then becomes a simple process of agitationeither shaking of the stem or a blast of air, followed by collection of the detached fruits. Ethylene-aided mechamcal harvesting is a common procedure for cherries, bluebernes, grapes, and oranges. Sometimes, fruit abscission needs vented. oranges For to be pre- example, when grapefrmts and reach maturity, they naturally drop from stimulate the production of phytoalexms. If this research succeeds, we might be able to improve a plant's response to disease through the use of chemicals. A second promising area involves so-called \"bioregulators,\" which are chemicals that stimulate plants to make valuable products. For example, ethephon is used commercially to mcrease the production of rubber by Hevea. Another group of bioregulators is now being evaluated for their effects on the production of terpenoids by to the tree as a result of abscission. To prevent this process and its associated economic losses, trees can be sprayed with auxin or with a mixture of auxin and GA when the fruits are quite young. The combination of the two plants. Of course, the greatest potential impact of phytohormones involves \"biotechnology,\" the concerted application of different scientific disciplines to plant genetics. While most accounts of biotechnology emphasize the contribution of DNA biochemistry, biotechnology would not be feasible without the use of phytohormones, especially of cytokinin, to produce whole plants with new characteristics starting from single, genetically altered cells. Even today, phytohormones play a crucial role when tissue culture is used for the rapid, clonal propagation of plants that have superior characteristics, and for the production of plants, such as strawberries, that are free of virus and fungal infections. Tissue culture, in spite of its performance, is still a relatively new technique. The common method for micropropagation takes advantage of the established role of cytokinin as a shootgrowth regulator and of the fact that shoot explants from many species can be grown on a medium consisting of basal nutrients plus cytokinin. During the last few years at the Arnold Arboretum, research has been conducted to demethod can be applied woody plants general. While this research is still under way, it has already made clear that microprogation would be feasible with several groups of woody plants that are not now being exploited. For example, nearly half of the thirty-five families studied to date respond to cytokinin treatments m tissue cultures even though current micropropagation work with woody plants focuses on only two families-the termine same in hormones accom- phshes purposes: auxin keeps mature fruits on the tree, GA keeps them fresh. Once a fruit has been harvested, senescence two proceeds rapidly. (Senescence also occurs when flowers are removed.) To prevent this, fruits are usually stored at low temperatures to slow down their metabolism, and they are kept in a controlled atmosphere. Often, the amount of carbon dioxide in the air is artificially mcreased in storage because carbon dioxide tends to counteract ethylene's stimulatory effect on senescence, through a mechamsm called \"competitive inhibition.\" Promising Areas for Applications Research Other strategies currently are being used to control plants with phytohormones, but the examples given here illustrate the major strategies in use. Much already has been accomplished, with considerable economic impact, but much more could be done if the appropriate technology were whether this to developed. is conceivable that a plant's defense systems for preventing diseases caused by viruses and microorgamsms could be accentuated with chemicals. One class of compounds responsible for disease resistance (phytoalexins) has already been identified, and research currently is under way on phytohormones For instance, it own 34 Rosaceae and the Encaceae. On the other hand, it is also apparent that this technology will not work for all woody species. Obviously, we do not fully understand shoot growth in several species. Before cytokinin was known, micropropagation of plants was not possible. Nonetheless, basic research on the internal control of shoot growth led not only to the discovery of cytokinin, but to a new and important practical use for phytohormones. Looking to the future, but reflectmg also on fifty years of successful work with chemicals that regulate plants, we can feel almost certain that similar successes will occur. As we learn about phytohormones and discover new kinds, our ability to regulate plants will also increase As so often happens, botany and horticulture will complement each other. W Emset, a staff member of the Arnold Arboretum, is associate professor of biology m Harvard Umversity His article on biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum appeared m the Summer 1984 issue of Ar- John noldia With the present arucle Professor Emset maugurates a new column for Arnoldia. Called \"Botany The State of the Art,\" the column will deal mth practical apphcauon of botamcal research to horticulture \" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24862","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260896b.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Garden Design: Hlstory, Principles, Elements, Practice, by William Lake Douglas, Susan R. Frey, Norman K. Johnson, Susan Littlefield, and Michael Van Valkenburgh. Derek Fell, principal photographer New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1984. 224 pages. $35.00. B. JUNE HUTCHINSON This multiple-author book on garden design is introduced by John Brookes, as well-known landscape designer and garden wnter from Britam. Brookes observes that we \"dream up a garden to escape the rigors of our soclety,\" and, whether or not escapism is the reason people garden, it seems true that gardeners are dreamers. When the earth is frozen and winter snows end the growing season, the serious gardener simply turns to his plant books and catalogs and dreams his visions of the greater glories of the next year. He reads, plans, The one gardens at Vaux-le-Vicomte, France, considered of the greatest achievements m the French landscape style It was designed by Andre le Ndtre m the seventeenth century. Photograph by Christopher Little. Used with the permission of Quarto Marketing, Ltd. and anticipates until he can dig in the soil again. Garden Design will enrich winter dreammg. A group of garden designers and wnters put this book together m cooperation with the Pubhcation Board of the American Society of Landscape Architects. Hundreds of color photographs, many of them the work of talented garden photographer Derek Fell, illustrate vanous garden styles (\"The Parterre,\" \"The Outdoor Room,\" \"The Country Cottage,\" \"The Oriental Style,\" and \"The Wild Garden\") and the varieties of built elements and embellishments that can be used to implement those styles (pamng, turf and ground covers, gates and windows, and so on). From its dust jacket to the final photographs, this book is a rich source of ideas. The first of Garden Design's six chapters is a concise review of garden history. It gives the novice an organized and clearly written overview but will not disappomt the more knowledgeable garden-history reader. The latter will appreciate the author's balanced assessment of landscape gardening. Proper emphasis is given to the enormous impact of nineteenth-century plant collecting on garden design. The author (William Lake Douglas) succeeds in conveymg to the reader the vitality and energy of the Victorian who tended his garden during the period when America's 36 newly emerged middle class was embracing the idea of conscious garden design. Appropnate attention is also given to Andrew Jackson Downing's important role in American landscape design. Downing's widely popular books were the first publications in this country to emphasize garden design based on aesthetic principles and the concept of unity of house and grounds. The essence of the three major chapters of the book (\"Discovering Your Style,\" \"A Sense of Place,\" and \"Elements of the Garden\"\/ is simply stated: determine what you want in your garden and adapt it to the space you own by using the appropriate design elements. This is, needless to say, not so easily accomphshed, and Garden Design will not take the place of professional help, nor will it guide the do-it-yourself gardener through the planmng and mstallation process. However, instructions of creative design ideas accompamed by mtelligent and precise captions can help the gardener take the first step toward understanding some general design principles and definmg his own personal tastes. This book offers that kind ot help in abundance. Chapter Five, a showcase for the work of fifteen garden designers from the United States and four other countries, is a combination of text and photographs. Both the reader and the designers whose work is dealt with might have been better served if the two pages allotted to each designer had been devoted exclusively to photographs of his work, along with carefully crafted captions telling the reader what the designer's intention was and how he achieved the effects he sought through his choice of design elements. As it is, the two pages are a mixture of biography, direct quotes, and the author's assessment of the designer's work. Photographs allow a reader to see, and judge, for himself. The last chapter, entitled \"Garden Wisdom,\" is said to be a \"necessary reference on all aspects of implementing the garden's plan,\" but it is much too short to be a useful reference. It does, however, impart some marvelous bits of advice that are essential to successful gardemng. Take the first sentence of the last chapter, for instance: \"The better part of garden wisdom has to do with patience. You simply cannot make a garden in a hurry \" Garden dreamers understand patience. They will also understand and appreciate the rich ideas in Garden Deslgn. B. june Hutchmson is a wnter and a landscape designer Her arucle on the umbrella pme was pubhshed m the Wmter 1983-84 issue of Arnoldia Plants that Merit Attention. Volume I-Trees, edited by Janet M. Poor. Portland, Oregon: Timber Press, 1984. 352 pages, 429 color plates. $44.95. RAY ANGELO Most illustrated tree manuals are guides to the identification of the trees that grow in a given geographic area. This handsome volume is different. It brings to the fore a number of neglected species, varieties, and hybrids of trees that would be worthy additions to parks and gardens, offering a generous selection of 143 taxa. Most of the taxa it treats originated in eastern Asia (60 taxa), North America (47 taxa), or the EuropeMediterranean area ( 17 taxa). This selection reflects the target area for the manual, which is North America. Their visual appeal, seasonal interest, and tolerance of one or more environmental stresses were the bases for including taxa that are not often seen in horticultural landscapes. This book will be a useful aid in selecting appropnate species and varieties of trees for given sites in yards, gardens, and parks. To consult it is to opt for novelty. The geographic location of a site will immediately eliminate a number of taxa from consideration. One appendix in this volume groups species and varieties according to their cold-hardiness. Only Lanx decidua is hardy in USDA Zone 2 (northern Quebec, northern Ontario, etc.), for example, while ten species are hardy in Zone 3 (northern Mmnesota, northern 37 Maine, etc).Additional appendixes list the species that do best with special soilmoisture conditionsmoist to wet, and, seacoast) or shade. Still other appendixes list the species that are more or less tolerant of environmental stress and those that are resistant to pests and diseases (although the reader must refer to the text to find out which stresses, pests, and disin sites eases). Once the limitations of a site have been dealt with, the subjective preferences of the reader will narrow the choice further. Appendixes listing species on the basis of flower color, fragrance, conspicious autumn foliage, and whether they are deciduous, coniferous, or broad-leaved evergreen will assist the reader who seeks a particular quality in the candidate tree. At this point the reader will want to consult body of the book, where entries are arranged alphabetically by scientific name. The color photographs are, perhaps, the most striking feature of the book, which as a whole is of a high quahty. Albert W. Bussewitz, whose photographic and interpretive work at the Arnold Arboretum is well-known, contnbuted many excellent photographs. Of particular note for their beauty are his close-ups of Asimma tnloba, the Damdia their landscape value. The text is divided into three categories for each entry: descmpnon, culture, and landscape value. The descriptive material is not intended to separate the included species from related species, which would be done routmely in a taxonomic work, but rather to highlight features of interest and to provide basic information about each taxon: its size, habit, leaf size, fall' color, flower color and size, fruit character and size, and bark aspect. An illustrated glossary in the Introduction defines botanical terms, most of which are used in the text. Terms relating to ovary position are not used in the flower descriptions, however, while other terms, such as \"rotate,\" \"globose,\" \"glaucescent,\" and \"stomata,\" are used in the text but not defined. The section on culture gives more details about soil, light, and moisture requirements and on disease and insect problems that are merely touched on in the appendixes. This section also provides notes on transplanting and propagation that may require elaboration from a nurseryman once a tree has been chosen. For example, the note on to transplanting Sapmm sebiferum is simply, \"Easy mvolucrata, Halesia monticola, and Sciadopitys verticillata Although m most mstances the three photographs provided for each taxon show its habit and distinctive attractions, the same feature is occasionally illustrated more than once ~for example, Gordoma lasianthus, Ilex spp., Oxydendrum arboreum, and Tabebula chrysotncha\/. For some taxa there is no close-up one could use to discern their distinguishing features (for example, Prunus 'Okame'). The photographs alone may be enough for making a final choice, but, if not, the text is available. Many botamsts, horticulturists, and nurserymen contributed to the text, among them A. Spongberg and Gary L. Koller of the Stephen Arnold Arboretum staff. Since this is not an identification manual, keys to species are not provided or appropriate. Compamsons with closely related species are almost entirely with reference when young.\" If at this point the reader is still weighmg evidence before making a decision, the landscapevalue paragraph might suffice to tip the balance. This portion of the entry certainly makes the most interesting reading. Noteworthy facts about the species (for example, Prunus subhmtella 'Autumnalis'='One of the earliest Oriental cherries to bloom\"), comparison with related species, and practical or historical notes (Michelia doltsopa='A valuable timber tree m the Himalayas\"; Roystonea regia-\"Named for General Roy Stone\") make up this section. As a last resort, one might have to examine a living specimen before making up one's mind. To this end, the entry for each species includes a list of the arboreta, botanical gardens, and notable parks and gardens where one could observe the species. Useful as such a list is, many readers will find it impractical to visit most of the worthy institutions listed. In particular, the list could 38 properly omit foreign arboreta and gardens, such as the Royal Botamc Gardens, Kew, Munchen Botanischer Garten, and Forest Parks-Ibaraki, Japan, which most botamsts, horticulturists, home economists, and producers of edible nuts. The thoroughly researched and well written text will make it an enjoyable acquisition for anyone eager to learn more about nuts-their botanical origins, historical uses, and current commercial production. This is not a \"how-to-do-it\" book on the home cultivation of edible nuts. Given the diverse readership the book will attract, this limitation seems sensible. While the biology of each of the twelve major and thirty lesser-known species is discussed in general terms, there are no specific horticultural instructions in the text. The bibliography includes the titles of agricultural bulletins and other sources of information on growing edible nuts. Interested readers will have to scan the entire bibhography to locate these titles; crossreferences from the text to the bibliography would have made this information easier to locate. North Americans could at not readily reach. Assuming that the reader has species of tree for the site, the where to last selected a next question is obtain it. This book addresses the issue across the continent (mcluding their addresses and, for most, their telephone numbers) that carry one or more of the included species. Making this list even more valuable is an appendix that lists the species and varieties included and the code letters of each nursery that carries the particular species or variety. Through this impressive volume, even someone who is not particularly seeking a tree to enhance a yard or a city park will become acquainted with a wide variety of trees that deserve more appreciation than they receive at present. This is the first volume of a series that will include shrubs and herbaceous plants. If the future volumes maintain the standard of quahty represented here, they should be well recemed. by listing nurseries But the book offers ing information. a wealth of other fascinat- Beginning with the accepted sci- Ray Angelo, curator of the New England Botamcal Club's vascular plant collections, is the author of Concord Area Trees (197(~J and Concord Area Shrubs (1978). a list of common names in eleeach of the twelve major nuts is discussed with respect to its historical use, botanical status, and current commercial production. Each discussion concludes with selected recipes. The minor nuts are treated in less detail, but afford an appreciation of the diversity of nut crops worldwide and stimulate one's curiosity to learn more about such exotic species as the pill and the entific name and ven languages, jojoba. The Book of Edible Nuts, by Frederick Rosengarten, Jr. New York: Walker and Company. 412 pages. $35.00. GEORGE STAPLES I have eagerly awaited Frederick Rosengarten's The Book of Edible Nuts, since I had often referred my students in economic botany to his excellent Book of Spices. The wait for Rosengarten's newest book has been worthwhile; like the earlier volume, The Book of Edible Nuts will become a standard reference for economic descriptions of the historical use of from different cultures and time periods fascinating ; the breadth of this treatment alone attests to the amount of research the author put into his work. This section interweaves medicinal, artistic, literary, and archaeological information into a highly readable narrative. The botamcal accounts are equally interesting, while the commercial-production figures are current and indicate the economic importance of nuts at the I found the nuts present time. I confess to having felt some misgivings as I read the recipes offered for the various nuts, however ; they presented a sterile umformity remims- 39 I consulted the and confirmed my susrecipe acknowledgments picions. No family heirlooms mentioned here: all the recipes were contributed by commercial nut-production and marketing organizations. The reader with gastronomic inclinations will miss the homey touch of Polly's Perfect Pecan Pie or the challenge of a new interpretation of Gong Bao Ji (Kung Pao Chicken). I felt that the recipes were the book's weakest point. The profusion of illustrations is a visual feast that compensates for the blandness of the recipes. Taken from diverse botamcal, historical, and artistic sources, the black-and-while photographs correlate closely with every aspect of the text. Inclusion of international postal stamps featuring nut motifs adds an unusual twist, and bnngs philatelists within the scope of the book's readership. The endpapers are the only colored photos m the book. The inclusion of more colored illustrations would doubtless have mcreased the cent a of home economics text. book's cost considerably. Two minor practical shortcomings bear passmg mention. Verbal descriptions of the historical place of origin and modern areas of cultivation for each species of nut presuppose that the reader is familiar with geography. Regretfully, many col- lege undergraduates today lack sufficient command of this subject to relate place names to a world map. For those who would use this volume as a reference in teaching economic botany, inclusion of distribution maps would have been a welcome addition. The adventuresome might also wish for a list of mail-order sources of the exotic and lesser-known nuts, so as to order some for consumption at home. Perhaps these small improvements will appear in future editions of The Book of Edible Nuts. Better still, Mr. Rosengarten might keep them in mind for his next book. Whatever his choice of subject, the new work will be worth waitmg for. George Staples is a graduate student m the Department of Orgamsmic and Evolutionary Biology of Harvard Umversity. Coming in Arnoldia From a watercolor by Alice Tangenm, Srmthsoman Institution The inflorescence and fruits of flowering dogwood (Cornus ~lorida L.), top, and of kousa (Cornus kousa Hance), bottom. In the fall 1985 issue of Arnoldia, Richard H. Eyde will explam why kousa has compound fruits and flowering dogwood does not. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23336","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260a76d.jpg","title":"1985-45-2","volume":45,"issue_number":2,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Managing a Small Woodlot","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24858","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260816f.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Gould, Ernest","article_content":"Managing a Small Woodlot Ernest Gould A professional forester urges woodlot owners to know and care for their land woodlot owner by accident because we making a property map for the town of Petersham, Massachusetts. As you might expect, there were problems. We had trouble locating a number of tracts, and one owner, who lived in Florida, wanted to sell out. He'd bought the lot a were I became cheap 15 years before, \"site unseen\" as they say. All he knew for sure was that the northeast corner was 19 feet south of a big boulder and that the tax bill called for 48 acres. The deed itself was coyly reticent about everything except that northeast corner and about who the abutting neighbors had been a century or so earher. In addition, I knew that two friends of mine hadn't been able to pin down the boundaries in their spare time over the previous year. All in all, it looked hke a real gamble as to where the land was, and how much of it there was, so we struck a bargam, and I started hunting. Nothing made much sense on the ground until I traced the deeds back to the old Stratton farm and could follow its breakup through inheritance and sale over the next hundred years. Then I knew where to look for comer and line markers of pipe or \"stake and stones\" and, because most of my land had once been fields, how to mterpret stone walls in the woods, bits and pieces of barbed wire sprouting out of trees, and old cutting boundaries. Working this out became a three-year, spare-time hobby that eventually required pinning down two mtervals on the longer straight lines. Each blaze, paint, and brush out a bit of the boundary so that there is no confusion. As Frost said, \"Good fences make good neighbors,\" and a well-marked boundary makes it hard for a logger to \"accidentally\" cut over the line. Most states award tnple stumpage, the value of a tree standing in the woods, for trees \"knowingly\" cut on the wrong land, so it saves grief to let people know just where your land begins. even at year I Mapping the Bounds This was the time to make a map of the place. With a pocket compass, a tape, and my nephew, it was easy to get the distance and direction of each boundary line and then plot it up. There is a good description of how to do this in the Boy Scout Handbook. I've found that a scale of about 400 feet to the mch is useful; it allows reasonable space to plot details, and most maps aren't too big to go on a standard piece of paper that fits into normal files. I make the original m pencil and, when I'm satisfied, fimsh it with black ink. I then have a master that's easily reproduced with a Xerox, and having cheap copies makes it possible for me to use the map freely for records of all kinds. In fact, such a map is the main place where I note all sorts of information that makes owning my woodlot fun. Once I knew exactly where it was and had an outline map of it, I wanted to know more about my land. In the course of chasing boundaries I had equally vague neighboring properties. After all that, you can bet I have well-pamted bounds with iron pipes set at each corner and 4 The bounds mapped and the permanent features paced. already found an overgrown road and a brook. Also, I had found that red maple swales bordered substantial segments of the stream and that these had apparently been clear-cut for fuel about 25 year before. The trees are now four to eight inches in diameter, are closely spaced, and run heavily to stump-sprout groups. In fact, a thinning for stove wood could now be made, and the residual would grow faster. The rest of the area had some nice red oak here and there, growing in mixture with other hardwoods or above an understory of hemlock. A few of the oaks were already 18 to 24 mches in diameter and readily salable. But I really needed to know more precisely what was there and where it was before decidmg what was best to do. two Pacing the Permanent Features When I had finished working on the boundary and the time came to look inside to see what this piece of real estate contamed, I learned to pace. Pacing is almost a lost art that anyone can learn because it simply takes practice but, like riding a bicycle, once you've acquired the skill it stays with you forever. Again, the Boy Scout Handbook was a handy reference and about the only one I knew that was readily available. So, with map in hand, a compass, and my natural stmde, I started to fill in the permanent features of my woodlot's topography. I began with my overgrown logging road and discovered that it was well worn and needed little work to clear up to a stone wall and then a bit 5 eroded and, with a little clearing and a load or two of gravel in wet spots, would be easy to revive. With this landmark in, it was logical next to map in the brook that paralleled much of the road. Doing the mam stream and pacmg the tributaries, I located all the permanent and intermittent streams that flowed over the lowest land contaimng all the wet spots that markedly influenced growth or gave trouble with roads. I also sketched m the drainage pattern on which the higher land was hung. With the valleys done, it was easy for me to locate the ridges and knolls and to note which were steep and which gentle. With a little cleanng and a load or two of gravel for the wet spots, a revived logging road makes the easiest trail into a woodlot Photograph courtesy of the New England Forestry Foundation. beyond, to one of the streamside swales of red maples. This part was probably a farm lane that old man Stratton had laid out to get to what one of the deeds calls the \"long mowing.\" In the early days wet swales were cleared and used to cut hay from the natural grasses that took over once the sprouts were killed off. The road continued on but gradually became more overgrown and diffuse, so that it looked hke a skid road used occasionally for logging. Judging from the old pines lying across it, which probably had blown down in the hurricane of 1938, this part of the road had been abandoned for over 40 years. Finally, even this trace disappeared some distance short of the back boundary. Primitive as it was, the old road was still the easiest trail into the lot; it seemed well enough laid out that it was stable and not Oaks tend to occupy the dry ndge tops. Shown here m flower is Quercus rubra, the red oak. Photograph by Albert W. Bussewitz. Mapping Tree Cover With the topography roughly filled in, I had also defined the main growing sites with moisture regimes different enough to be reflected in the growth of the trees. The wet swales were dominated by red maple, while, at the other extreme, the dry ridge tops were given over to oak. The slopes between had mixtures of hardwood with a pine here and there, while some of the gentlest slopes with diffuse, mtermittent streams had a lot of hemlock under the hardwoods. Now I could start to make some sense out of the forest cover and get a feel for where thmgs would grow. The woodlot began to take on natural form and orgamzation. Immature cones of the Amencan larch or tamarack, Lanx lamcma, a species that thnves m valley-bottom bogs. Photograph by Albert W. Bussewitz. The distinctive bark of the yellow birch, Betula alleghamensis, is an aid to its identification m wmter. Photograph by Barth Hamberg. Of course, I knew the local trees because of my traming, but many owners must start from scratch and learn to identify the different species. This is relatively easy: with a good field guide and a bit of practice one can quickly identify the main leaf shapes m the summer and the buds and twigs m the wmter. In addition, many trees have a distinctive bark form, color, or texture that is easily learned. In any case, learmng the trees is the first step toward understanding what you see in the forest because the trees \"integrate\" the natural growth capacity of each site, telling you something about the local microclimate and about conditions below ground. Although red maple, for instance, grows 7 everywhere as scattered individuals, it will totally dommate sites too wet for other trees. Yellow birch is more plentiful on moist sites and doesn't start m big openings exposed to the hot While white birch can't stand the wet, it can dominate sunny cut- and burned-over sites ~ust as well as the pioneer, short-hved gray birch and sun. trembhng aspen. White pine in central New England also grows almost everywhere, but forms pure stands in abandoned fields and pastures. Being the first step back toward forest in such places, it is succeeded by hardwoods on all but the driest sites, such as sand and gravel plains. At the other extreme, the wettest sites are the bogs The short-lived gray birch, Betula popuhfoha, shown here, and the quakmg aspen, Populus tremuloides, as well as the white bmch, B. papynfera, occupy sunny cutand bum,ed-over sites. Photograph from the Archives of the Arnold Aboretum. 8 that in central New England support sphagnum the ground and black spruce, tamarack, and the odd red maple overhead, with here and there a white pine on a sandy knoll. This complex of species seems able to withstand the short growing season in these valley-bottom bogs, but it grows very slowly and is probably most valuable for managing watershed and wildlife, especially birds. moss on Managing the Woodlot One of the popular myths about private landowners like me is that we butcher our woods and mistreat them more often than any other group of landowners. I doubt owners we do, however, because so like me in wanting to many take care of their woodlots. Also, year after year official estimates show them producing their fair share of the cut, fair in the sense that they own about half the land and cut about half the wood. In addition, their growth and harvest make about as high a percentage return on their inventory of standmg timber as do industry's, and much better than government's. This may simply mean that the woodlots contmue to produce m spite of neglect, or perhaps that \"management by accident\" is more effective than professionals beheve. In any case, trees grow without much attention for a I've met are host of other satisfactions that are generally not traded over the counter. Yesterday, when land was cheap and interest and taxes low, most folks didn't worry about getting the most out of their woodlands. Today, everything is dear and high carrying costs make owners more cautious and thoughtful, so there is a renewed interest in land management, especially in steps aimed at a balanced mix of those tangible and mtangible returns. But time and money are scarce. How should one ration them in managing a woodlot? Normal prudence suggests investing them first m the venture that gives the greatest return in cash or satisfaction, second in the next-best earner, and so on. The greatest satisfaction from owning a woodland comes from the initial purchase, because that entitles you and yours to any and all present and future benefits. The next-best return is from investments to safeguard the forest a - great many pnvate owners. But is this the best way to en~oy and profit from a woodlot, and to be a good neighbor? In most cases, no! Following a few simple rules will bnng you greater ownership satisfaction from the land and, at the same time, will benefit your descendants and the pubhc at large. In the past it was not uncommon to hold a woodlot, let nature take its course, and, every couple of generations when prices were high, \"lumber it off.\" And that still happens. But today owners have come to have a high regard for a wide array of values, including outdoor recreation, observing wildlife, hunting, relief from the work-a-day life, gams from rising land values, aesthetics, a source of fuelwood, and A road and trail net is essential for access woodlot. Photograph by Hope Wise. to all parts of a 9 good boundaries, paid, and the hke. access for fire control, taxes For most, the third-best payer is a road and trail net by which to get around and en~oy one's woods. Finally come investments m management that will improve forest production of goods and services of all kinds. Often, much of the road-net and management cost can be mternally financed from the proceeds of a sale when you have suitable timber. People who never really cared much for manare suddenly doing something very positive as they look to their land as a means of keeping the wood basket full. In fact, a common question these days is, \"Where can I buy a woodlot, and how many acres must I have to grow enough firewood for the house?\" agement Cutting the Timber If you want to accomphsh all this and get some roads and trails onto your property, it usually will be necessary to make some kmd of cutting. The time to do this is when you need the wood or when the market is brisk. Your problem may be how to find out about the state of the market. One thing you can do is to call the service forester in your county and ask him or her about it. Part of a forester's job is to advise private landowners, and because foresters are paid by the state you get such services free. Because there is no charge, don't expect too much attention as the competition for his or her services is understandably stiff. Or, you can buy the time of a consulting forester, but be sure to ask about fees before you start. If it turns out that you are going to make a sale of timber, then it is very important to get a trained person to look after your interests. The next most important thing is to have a written contract with the logger so that both of people don't know what should be covered by a contract, but you can call the extension forester at your state university, and he or she will send you some samples. Or you can get advice from your consulting forester. The rules (see \"If You Decide to Cut\" page 10) give an idea of some of the considerations that should be given attention in logging. They may give you a small satisfying relationship with start you will know what to expect. Most toward a more your woodlot. A forest econormst, Ernest Gould is assistant director of the Harvard Forest m Petersham, Massachusetts. IF YOU DECIDE TO CUT ' \"~-~ KNOW THE LAW. Most states have laws that govern the cutting of trees. Massachusetts has a Forest Cutting Practices Act, for example, which requires a landowner to file a notice of intent to cut, and a cutting plan before most timber sales. Everyone m the business of logging must get a commercial harvester's license from the state. There is also a Slash Disposal Act, which is administered by the state fire wardens. In addition, local conservation commissions in Massachusetts administer the Wetlands Protection Act, which, with the Forest Cutting Practices Act, covers logging in wetlands. Fmally, three special tax laws help landowners with local property taxes in Massachusetts: Chapter 61 reduces annual taxes on woodlands by 95 percent and imposes a severance tax on products cut under an Entitled One Man's Forest: Managing Your Woodlot for Pleasure ~J Profit, it was published in 1974 by the Stephen Greene Press (Brattleboro, VT 05301) and is still m print m paperback for $6.95. The New York Society of American Foresters has published a set of gmdeli.nes for the safe and efficient harvesting of woodlots. Entitled The Timber Harvest Guidelines, they are available free of charge from the Society (c\/o Richard Schwab, 200 New Maintenance Building, College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State University of New York, Syracuse 13210). are a number of landowners can get sound places where advice on managing a woodlot. In Massachusetts, each county has a service forester, whose services are free of charge. To get in touch with yours, consult the \"Directory\" beginning on page 11 of this issue of Arnoldia. The service forester, who can get federal cost-sharing assistance for you to undertake certain projects in your woodlot, is also the person to call if you want to locate a consultant or invest in tree management. In addition, there is an extension forester at most state land-grant universities (see the \"Directory\"). He (or she) is paid to use the resources of academia to help solve technical forestry problems and has a number of very helpful, free publications about forestry. You also can get free advice from the Cooperative Extension Service office, which usually is located in the county seat. The Cno ~' T f7t~ri ~Pr.TivyC di~t'r~~t office for your locality is also a source of techmcal help with water-, soil-, and SEEK ADVICE. There approved timber-management plan. Chapter G1A gives relief to farmland and associated woodlots on bona fide active farms. Chapter G1B grants some tax reduction for open land devoted to recreation. It is also possible to get reduced property, income, and inheritance taxes by granting a conservation easement open land on forest or other acceptable are to the town or some other conservation organization. There also some federal income-tax advantages for forest returns. READ UP. One of the best references I have found is the Manual for Owners and y iviultu~etSuj ~tiW ii cOre\"Si Lu\"i2dS, preparcd by Garry van Wart for the Trustees of Reservations (224 Adams Street, Milton, MA 0218G; telephone [617] 698-2066). This 113-page volume is available for $2.50 plus $ I.35 for postage and handling. It gives more than 200 useful documents, classified according to eight subjects of special interest to landowners, in its list of references. Rockwell R. Stephens has written an entertaining and informative book on the joys and woes of handling a woodlot. land-management problems. Private conservation organizations such as the Audubon Society, the Massachusetts Land League, and the Conservation Law Foundation are good sources of information for woodlot owners in Massachusetts. Similar organizations exist in virtually every state. - E.G. 11 1 WHERE TO GO FOR ADVICE A DIRECTORY OF INFORMATION SOURCES ON FORESTRY MANAGEMENT In the United States and state or Canada, federal, In Massachusetts (Area Codes 617 and 413) State Government Bureau of Forest Development has divided the five regions, each with its Regional Supervisor In addrrion to the Bureau's Main Office in Boston, there is an office in Lancaster provincial, and private agencies, as well as state universities, provide a wide variety of sound information on the management of small woodlands. In some cases the information is available at no charge, in others there is a fee. A brief directory to some of the key information sources follows. Addresses and, whenever possible, telephone numbers are indicated. NATIONAL Federal Government Forest Service Massachusetts, the state into Boston Office( l9th Floor, 100 Cambndge Street, Boston (617) 727-3163 (617~ 727-3184 02202) State Forester Chief Forester Lancaster Office Forester (Post Office Box 173, Forestry Regions Lancaster 01523) (617) 368-1780 (United States) Region I, Southeastern Massachusetts (Myles Standish State Forest, Box 66, South Carver 02366) Supervisor Department of Agriculture Post Office Box 2417 7 Washmgton, DC 20013 (202) 447-3957 (617) 866-2580 gional Headquarters, Supervisor Region II, Northeastern Massachusetts \/Carhsle Re817 Lowell Road, Carlisle 01741) 1) \/617~ Worcester ~617) 369 3351 Federal Government Forestry (Canada) Region III, Supervisor County (Box 155, Clinton 01510\/ 368-0126 Service Environment Canada Ottawa, Ontano K1A 1G5 (819) 994-1879 Petawawa National Forestry Institute Chalk River, Ontario KOJ 1J0 (613) 995-7010 Region IV, Connecticut Valley (Box 484, Amherst 01004) Supervisor Hamden County (Hampton Ponds Westfield 01085) Forester State Park, Route (413) 549-1461 202, Box 537A, \/413\/ 532-3985 REGIONAL Federal Government Region V, Berkshire County (Post Office Box 1433, 740 South Street, Pittsfield 01202) Supervisor (413) 442-8928 (United States) Northeastern Area Director U.S. Forest Service State and Pnvate Forestry 370 Reed Road Broomall, PA 19008 (215) 461-3125 State Bookstore a booklet containing all of the regulations of the Dtmston of Forests and Parks To order the booklet, request Document 304 CMR 1 00-5 00 and enclose a check for $4 05 ($3 00 plus $1 05 for postage) made out to \"Commonwealth of Massachusetts \" The bookstore's address is State Bookstore Room 116 The State Bookstore sells NEW ENGLAND State House Boston, MA 02133 Its telephone number is \/617~ 727-2834 (85 Newbury England MA 02116) retams consulting woodland managers who will (for a fee) draw up a management plan according to a woodland owner's wishes. Write the Foundation's Head Forester, or call (617) 437-1441. The New Forestry Foundation Street, Boston, Extension Service Extension Forester Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management 12 Holdsworth Hall University of Massachusetts Amherst 01003 (413) State 545-2665 University Chairman, Department of Forestry and Wildlife Management Holdsworth Hall University of Massachusetts Land Use Regulation Commission [for woodlands within unorganized towns and plantations] Department of Conservation Station 22 State House 289-2631 [Toll-free in Maine: 1-800-452-8711] Private Small Woodland Owners Association of Maine, Inc. RFD (413) 545-2665 1, Box 420A Pittsfield 04967 1 &,C3x# ; gia Pacific in Several paper companies (for example, Boise Cascade in Rumford, Georin Woodland, Internattonal Paper in Augusta, Robbins Lumber B i Searsmont, St Regis in Bucksport, Scott Paper Company in Fairfield, and S D Warren in Westbrook) offer woodland-management advice to private landowners In most cases there is no charge for this service, though some compames ask for first-refusal nghts on the timber The Other New England States Connecticut (Area Code 203) State Government State Forester State Office Building 165 Capitol Avenue Hartford 06106 566-5348 Extension Service Extension Forester 107 Nutting Hall University of Maine Orono 04469 581-2892 ` State University Director, School of Forest 206 Nutting Hall University of Mame 581-2844 Resources Private Connecticut Forest and Park 1010 Main Street Post Office Box 8537 East Hartford 06108-8537 289-3637 Association, Inc. Extension Service Extension Forester Box U-87 University of Connecticut Storrs 06268 New Hampshire (Area Code 603) State Government Director, Division of Forests and Lands Department of Resources and Economic Development Extension Forester Extension Center Brooklyn 06234 Post Office Box 856 105 Loudon Road Concord 03301 271-2214 Chairman, Department of 215 Forest Resources James Hall University of New Hampshire Durham 03824 862-1020 Maine (Area Code 207) State Government Maine Forest Service Station 22 State House Augusta 04333 289-2791 Private Society for the Preservation of Forests 54 Portsmouth Street Concord 03301 224-9945 New Hampshire 13 Extension Service Extension Forester 110 Pettee Hall Umversity of New 862-1029 State University Department of Forestry School of Natural Resources Room 313 Hampshire The Alken Center Forest Management Supervisor 111 Pettee Hall Umvers> ty of New Hampshire 862-1029 County University of 656-2620 Vermont OUTSIDE NEW ENGLAND Rhode Island (Area Code 401) State Government Division of Forest Environment Route 101 RFD 2, Box 851 North Scituate 02857 New York (Area Codes 315, 518, and 607) Chief, State Government Director, Division of Lands and Forests Department of Environmental Conservation Room 404 50 Wolf Road Albany 12233-0001 (518) 457-2475 Bureaus of the Division of Lands and Forests 50 Wolf Road, Albany 12233-0001). Forest Management Bureau Room 406 (518) 457-7370 ' 647-3367 Extension Service Director of Cooperative Extension University of Rhode Island 1 Kingston 02881 792-2474 Southern Rhode Island Service (all at Regional Offices (9:OOA.M. to2:00P.M., weekdaysJ~ 539-2004 272-1132 Providence area area Real Property Services Bureau Jamestown 423-1322 (518) State University Chairman, Department of Natural 201B Woodward Hall University of Rhode Island 792-2370 Resource Science Room 116 457-7670 Forest Protection and Fire Room 408 (518) 457-5740 Management Bureau Private Secretary, Vermont (Area Code 802) State Government Director of Forests Skyhigh Road, Tully 13159 (315) 696-8002 New York Forest Owners RD 2 Association, Inc. Extension Service Conservation Forest Resources and Land Use State Cooperative Extension Department of Natural Resources 122A Fernow Hall Comell University Ithaca 14853-0188 (607) 256-7703 Agency of Environmental State Office Building Montpeher 05602 828-3375 Extension Service Extension Forester Room 345 The Aiken Center University of Vermont Burhngton 05405-0088 656-3258 State University School of Forestry 107 Marshall Hall State University of New York 14 College Syracuse of Environmental Science and Forestry at 13210 Syracuse Umversity ' ELSEWHERE Contact the department of natural resources or enviyour state or provincial capital for the addresses and telephone numbers of your state's or provmce's foresters. In the United States, most extension ronment m , foresters are stationed at and affihated with state landgrant universities. An excellent guide to state, provincial, and federal agencies and private organizations m both countnes is the National Wildlife Federation's Conservanon Dmectory, which is issued in a new edition at the start of each year. The 1985 edition is available from the Federation (1412 16th Street NW, Washington, DC 20036) for $15.00 plus $1.55 for shipping When ordemng, request Order Number 79552. Many libraries subscribe to the Directory. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Recognizing and Treating Air Pollution Damage to Familiar Cultivated Plants: A Conference","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24859","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad2608528.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"RECOGNIZING AND TREATING AIR POLLUTION DAMAGE TO FAMILIAR CULTIVATED PLANTS: A CONFERENCE JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS FRIDAY, SEPTEMBER 6, AND SATURDAY, SEPTEMBER 7, 1985 Conference Phytotoxic Air Pollutants Will Unravel Technical Complexities Develop Practical Solutions for the Nonspecialist on and Cultivated plants suffer from pests of many kinds - ammal, fungal, and bactenal. In most cases a culprit tine experiments linked to effect relationships between pests and symptoms are well worked out, and there is consensus among the experts. Even the effects of extreme heat, extreme cold, drought, windiness, and similar nonbiological agents are scientifically well understood. But when it comes to damage to plants caused (or suspected of being caused) by air pollutants, knowledge is sparse and tenuous at best; more often than not, the experts disagree about causes and symptoms-if they state any opimon at all. Rehable knowledge comes only through slow and painstaking scientific experimentation. easily pinpomted through rousimple observation, and the damage it wreaks. The cause-andis or even or group of pollutants m individual varieties of plants. It is to foster this first, essential step among both professionals and advanced amateurs that Arnoldia magazine mll sponsor \"Recognizing and Treating Air Pollution Damage to Familiar Cultivated Plants: A Conference\" on September 6 and 7, 1985. The Conference will meet for two days in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Indoor sessions will be held both days in the Massachusetts State Laboratory Institute building adjacent to the Arboretum ; outdoor sessions will take place in the lar pollutant species and Arboretum itself. A 113-year-old botamcal garden devoted to the North Temperate Zone, the Arnold Arboretum is a separately the woody plants of careful experimentation and observation have begun to yield insights into the complex relationships and interactions among the air pollutants (ozone, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, and so forth) that harm cultivated plants. Symptoms manifested by particular species and varieties have begun to be identified. Armed with the new understanding that has resulted from the scientific work, horticulturists and other plant scientists often are now able to devise solutions to counteract the effects of pollution. Some plant scientists have opted to develop pollution-resistant strains, for example, while others implement measures for mitigating the effects of pollutants amending soils with materials that counteract some of the effects of the pollutants, or prescribing new cultivation techmques. But to select a resistant strain or prescribe mitigating measures, one first must know which pollutant or combination of pollutants is responsible for the damage in question; this, in turn, requires an abihty to identify the symptoms and damage characteristically caused by each particu- Fortunately, - endowed institution within Harvard Umversity and, at the same time, a component of the city of Boston's pubhc-park system. It is an international center for research and mstruction, presenting scientists and students with an exceptional opportumty to study the biology of trees and other woody plants. Its principal living collection of 6,192 taxa of\" trees and shrubs occupies a 265-acre site m the Jamaica Plam section of Boston. The ', best-documented collection of its kind m the world, it currently numbers m excess of 14,000 specimens. Records of the origin of each specimen and notations of observations by the staff increase the collection's value for research and education. Each plant is labelled with its name, accession number, and origin. Few locations m the world provide such a diverse array of plants. Participants in the Conference will examme some of the specimens m the living collections for identifiable air-pollution damage, under the guidance of the Conference's instructors. 16 A particularly extreme example ot air-pollution growing two blocks from the White House m damage to the leaves of a European linden Washington, D.C. Photograph by One L. Loucks. Format of the Conference The Conference will be conducted as both a typical course of mstruction and a participatory workshop, with the instructors serving as workshop leaders and the participants playing an active role m devising methods for ameliorating the effects of the pollutants. Instructors will present overviews of the current state of knowledge about phytotoxic air pollutants, concentrating on visible symptoms and the physiological mechamsms through which the pollutants affect individual species and varieties of plants, and will guide the participants in detailed on-site exammation of typical symptoms on trees and shrubs m the Arboretum's living collections. The participants, who will consist of botamsts, horticulturists, and other individuals knowledgeable m the plant sciences or immediately dependent for their livehhoods on plants, will join in on-the-spot discussions aimed at identifying practical measures for counteracting the observed effects. The emphasis will be placed on routine horticultural techmques whenever practicable, but innovative or unusual techmques will be sought whenever necessary. The Conference will be very strongly geared to the special needs of nursery owners and other plantspeople, although nonprofessionals will be welcomed, of course. Participants will be urged to photograph specimens identified by the instructors as displaying characteristic symptoms of air-pollution damage. (Ideally, it should be possible m some cases to extrapolate the results of research to plants related to those used in the research.) Through this process of interaction between instructors and participants, a file of authenticated photographs will be made available. The resultmg stockpile of photographs will serve as a source of illustrations for the Conference's proceedings, which will be pubhshed early in 1986 as a of Arnoldia. To be special seventy-fifth anniversary issue orgamzed as a practical and BOOKS NOW AVAILABLE AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM SHOP IN THE HUNNEWELL VISITOR CENTER Books on: Garden Design - LANDSCAPE PLANTS FOR EASTERN NORTH AMERICA Exclusive of Florida and the by Harrison L. Flint. $59.95 PLANTS THAT MERIT ATTENTION, Volume I. Prepared by the Horticultural Committee of the Garden Club of America. $44.95 RIGHT PLANT, RIGHT PLACE, by Nicola Ferguson. $14.95 Immediate Gulf Coast, Horticultural History DRAWN FROM NATURE: The Botanical Art of van Joseph Prestele and His Sons, by Charles Ravenswaay. $45.00 GARDEN, by William Robinson. $35.00 GARDENING, edited by Penelope Hobhouse. $20.00 THE ENGLISH FLOWER GERTRUDE JEKYLL ON Wild Plants FLOWERS OF THE WILD: Ontario and the Great Lakes Region, by Zile Zichmanis and VINES, by Donald W. Stokes. James Hodgins. $39.95 THE NATURAL HISTORY OF WILD SHRUBS AND $18.95 WHERE HAVE ALL THE WILDFLOWERS GONE?, by Robert H. Mohlenbrock. $15.95 and hundreds of others, including a selection of fine books for children and unusual gifts, such as Country Glass ware, John McLeod woodenware, Learning Materials Workshop toys, flower-arranging tools, and other hard-to-find items. ... Mail and telephone orders Visa accepted. accepted. Personal checks, American Express card, Mastercard, and Arnold Arboretum Shop (617) 524-1718 BACK ISSUES OF ARNOLDIA FOR LIBRARY AND CLASSROOM USE issues of Arnoldia are still available, some of the most often requested issues been reprinted. Copies of Volume 30, Number I (January 15, 1970), through Volume 42, having Number 4 (Fall 1982), are available for $2.25; copies of Volume 43, Number I (Winter 1982-83), ), up to and including the current number, are available for $3.50. Some complete volumes and individual numbers of Volumes I to 29 (1941-1969) are still in stock. Please write for details about their availability and prices. Librarians note: A cumulative index to Volumes 1 through 29 is available for $2.50. Some Issues of Special Interest Many back A Remsed A Gmde to by C E Kobuskt 21 pages 1955 $1 00. Weaver, Jr 39 pages 1972 $2 25 Centenmal Lectures The Potennal o( Arboreta and Botamcal Gardens, edited by [ S Wadletgh (Lectures presented m 1972 durmg the Arboretum's Centennral Celebration, brought together m one volume ) 242 pages 1973 $8 00 Glossary o\/ the More Common Botamcal and Horticultural Terms, m CW Trees the Boston Area, by RE Wtld Plants m Poisonous Plants, the CW by N M Page and R E Weaver, Jr 116 pages 1974 $3 00 by R A Howard, G P DeWolf, Jr, and G H Pride 56 pages 1974 ~reprmted 1978) $3 00 Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms, by A Fordham and L I Spraker E H W~lson, Photographer, by P [ Chvany 56 pages 1976 $3 00 Street Trees 89 pages 1977 $3 00. for Home and Municipal Landscapes, by G L Koller and M A Dm 165 pages 1979 (reprinted and bound as a handbook) $5 00 Urban Islands Trees and Shrubs for the Inner Clty, by C Kahn, A W Spim, E Flemer III, and G L Koller 56 pages 1984 $3 50 With the exception of airmail postage to foreign countnes, the prices shown include postage and handhng Foreign airmail postage will be quoted on request \" Please accompany personal orders by checks for the exact amount of the order, make checks payable to \"The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University Dealers and institutions may ask to be billed Trade discounts will be quoted on request Members of the Fnends of The Arnold Arboretum receive a 15 percent discount on all items listed ~Pnces for Fnends are given in parentheses ~ PROGRAM AND REGISTRATION FORM RECOGNIZING AND TREATING AIR POLLUTION DAMAGE TO FAMILIAR CULTIVATED PLANTS: A CONFERENCE September Sponsored Indianapolis, Indiana, and The Conference will meet at is 6 and 7, 1985 in association with the Holcomb Research Institute of the Suburban Experiment Station of the University of Massachusetts, Waltham Street, Jamaica Plain, which the State Laboratory Institute, corner of Arborway (Route 203) and South immediately adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum, and on the grounds of the Arboretum itself. Coffee and lunch will be served in the State Laboratory building on both days. Friday, September C~th Program Saturday, September 7th 9:00 a.m. Coffee 9:30 a.m.-4:00 p.m. Conference Lectures and Fieldwork 8:30 a.m. Coffee and Registration 9:00-4:00 p.m. Conference Lectures and Fieldwork Conference Instructors (partial list) H. Alexander III (Arnold Arboretum) Orie L. Loucks (Holcomb Research Institute) William J. Manning (University of Massachusetts, Amherst) William A. Feder (Suburban Experiment Station, Waltham) David F. Karnosky \/Michigan Technological University) John Fee: $90.00 for Members or subscribers; $130.00 all others (Fee includes lunch and coffee both days, special Arnoldia issue, and information packet.) Please note: Fee does not include overnight accommodations. We regret that the Arnold Arboretum is unable to assist participants with travel and lodgmg arrangements. Please consult your local travel agent. Individuals who join the Arboretum when registering for this Conference may receive the reduced Members' rate ($90.00). To do so, simply send a separate check for $25 along with your course registration form and fee. 17 7 Air-pollution injury to the leaves of a magnolia growing near the White House m Washington, D. C. Photograph by One L Loucks convenient field-identification in the interaction between air pollutand the biological agents of plant diseases, especially diseases of economic plants. Dr. Feder is also a plant pathologist; for many years he has led air-pollution research projects at the University of Massachusetts. Dr. One L. Loucks has supervised numerous major research projects on the ecology of forests in the Umted States and Canada. He will contnbute insights gained from three decades of mtensive work. The director of Holcomb Research Institute, an institution that speciahzes m environmental research, Dr. Loucks currently is studying the effects of air pollution on forest trees and crop plants in the Midwest, especially the Ohio River valley. specializes ants manual, the proceedings volume should emerge as a standard ready-reference on phytotoxic air pollutants. Each participant in the Conference will automat- ically receive publication. Instructors a copy of the special issue upon its Instructors for the Conference will include hor- ticultunsts, botamsts, and plant pathologists who specialized in research on the effects of air pollution on economically important species of plants, including familiar ornamentals and other cultivated plants. One of the mstructors, John H. Alexander III of the Arboretum staff, has participated in inter-institutional research projects on leaf-roll necrosis in lilacs, a disorder that is believed to be caused by ozone. Drs. William J. Manmng of the University of Massachusetts at have Amherst and William A. Feder of that University's Suburban Experiment Station in Walthamthe other principal participants m the projectwill also serve as Conference instructors. Both have worked on phytotoxic air pollutants for many years. A A lilac to seedling exposed Photograph by determine the role ozone plant pathologist, Dr Manning necrosis. expenments done causing leaf-roll John H. Alexander III. to ozone m plays in 18 8 Dr. David F. Karnosky of Michigan Technological University, a forest geneticist whose work deals with the variability in air-pollution tolerance of trees, currently is engaged m developing urban-hardy trees for use in heavily polluted areas. He was formerly on the staff of the Cary Arboretum of the New York Botamcal Garden. Additional instructors will be engaged m the near future. Forest Experiment vice, 1976. 1074 pages. eastern Station, Forest Ser- European Congress on the Influence of Air Pollution on Plants and Ammals, First, Wagemngen, 1968. Air Pollution. Wagemngen: Centre for Agncultural Publishing and Documentation, Jacobson, Jay S., and A. Air Pollution C. 1969. 415 pages. Hill, editors. Recognition of How to Register The fee for the Conference is $130 or-for members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, mdividual subscribers to Arnoldia, and members of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society-$90. Nonmembers and nonsubscnbers who lom or subscnbe when they register for the Conference will quality for the lower fee. The deadme for registration is June 14, 1985. A registration form accompanies this announcement. Please address inquiries to \"Conference, The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica In~ury to Vegetauon. A Pictomal Atlas. Informative Report No. 1. Pittsburgh: Air Pollution Control Association, 1970. 108 pages. Kender, W. J., and N. J. Shauhs. Vmeyard management practices mfluencmg oxidant injury in 'Concord' grapevines. journal of the Amencan Society of Horticultural Science, Vol. 101, No. 2, pages 129-132 (1976). Lacasse, Norman L., and M. Treshow, editors. Diagnosing Vegetation In~ury Caused by Air Polluuon. Ecological Research Senes EPA-450\/3-78-005. Research Tnangle Park, North Carohna: U S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1978. 299 S., and R. A. Blauel. Diagnosis of Am Pollutant and Natural Stress Symptoms on Forest Vegetation in Western Canada Information Report NOR-X-228. Edmonton, Alberta: Northern Forest Research Centre, Canadian Forestry Service, 1980. 84 pages. Musselman, R. C., and R. E. Melious. Sensitivity of grape cultivars to ambient ozone. HortScience, Vol. 19, No 5, pages 657-659 ( 1984\/. Oliver, F. W. On the effects of urban fog upon cultivated plants. fournal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Vol. 13, No. 1, pages 139-151 (1891)and Vol. 16, No. 1, pages 1-59 (1893). Ormond, D. P. Pollution in Horticulture. Fundamental Aspects of Pollution Control and Environmental Science 4. Amsterdam, Oxford, and New York: Elsevier Scientrflc Publishing Company, 1978. 260 pages. Plochmann, Richard. Air pollution and the dying forests of Europe. American Forests, Vol. 90, No. 6, pages 17-21, 56 (June 1984). Smith, G. C., and E. G. Brennan Response of honeylocust cultivars to air pollution stress in an urban envmonment. journal of Arbonculture, Vol. 10, No. 11, pages 289-293 (November 1984). Usher, Roland W., and Wayne T. Williams. Air pollution toxicity to Eastern White Pme m Indiana and Wisconsm. Plant Disease, Vol. 66, No. 3, pages 199-204 (March 1982). Malhotra, pages. S. Plan, MA 02130,\" or telephone (617) 524-1718. Selected Background Readings B~orkman, Erik. The effect of fertilization on sulphur dioxide damage to comfers m industnal and bmlt-up areas. Studia Forestaha Suecica No. 78. Stockholm: Royal College of Forestry, 1970. 48 pages. Davis, Donald S., and Raymond G. Wilhour. Susceptibihty of Woody Plants to Sulfur Dioxide and Photochemical Oxidants: A Literature Remew. Ecological Research Senes EPA-60013-76-102. Corvalhs, Oregon: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, 1976. 72 pages. Dochmger, Leon S., and Thomas A. Seliga, editors. Proceedings of the First Internauonal Symposium on Acid Precipitauon and the Forest Ecosystem, Columbus, Ohio, 1975. General Technical Report NE-23. Upper Darby, Pennsylvania: North- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Layered Look","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24860","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260856d.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"The Layered Look bunchberry yields startling insights into tree architecture Peter Del Tredici The humble forget a walk in the woods I once the Harvard Forest in Petersham, Massachusetts, with Francis Halle, the French botanist who pioneered the study of tree architecture. It was April 1975, and the forest floor was alive with wildflowers. Among them was Cornus canadensis, the bunchberry, which was just coming out. Dr. Halle took one look at the little plant and said that it was like a flowering dogwood (C. never I shall took at florida) lying on its side, growing horizontally through the litter rather than vertically. It was a fanciful statement, containing more poetry than botany, I thought, yet something about it rang true. After years of thinking about Dr. Halle's comonly the vaguest of terms, I recently had the opportumty to look into it more critically when a group of bunchberry seeds I had collected near Mount Katahdin in Mame germinated in the Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum (see the table, page 21). The httle seedlings grew amazingly fast and after just a single season's ment in during their first year. Clearly, C. canadensis lacks the strict apical control that most woody plants exhibit. In the most well-developed year-old bunchberry seedhngs, the tips of the rhizomes had turned up and formed new above-ground shoots, each with a characteristic whorl of leaves. At some variable pomt below this region of upturning, one or more new buds had formed in the axils of the rhizomes' bud scales; they were destmed to continue horizontal growth through the forest litter when they grow out the following spring. What at first glance might appear to be a population of separate bunchberry plants, then, usually turns out to be a single individual. While none of the bunchberry seedlings I grew reached flowering age, I found that mature out growth stems. were producing numerous as underground such underground stems are called, grew out either from the axils of the seed leaves the cotyledons or from the axils of the first few true leaves. Seedlings that did not produce rhizomes set large buds which grew out as rhizomes the following spring. The fact that these bunchberry seedlings produced rhizomes in their first season came as a surprise to me because it is exactly the reverse of the behavior exhibited by most tree seedlings, which build a strong vertical stem by preventing the buds lower down on the trunk from growing - These rhizomes, A Cornus canadensis seedling m its first on season, show- mg rhizomes growing from the aauls Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. the cotyledons. 20 Germination of Bunchberry Seeds* * wild *The germination of Cornus canadensis seed collected on the Penobscot River, near Mount Katahdin, Mame Seeds (100 per treatment) were sown on September 14, 1982. Seedlings were counted on December 13, 1983 The soak m concentrated sulfunc acid was recommended by C S. Schopmeyer in 1974. 1 at the Arboretum usually, but not always, flowered on the upturned tips of these rhizomes, while buds closer to the base of the rhizome grew out, producing new rhizomes that would turn upward and flower the next spring. The plant thus produces a branch system bmlt up by the activities of several different buds growing out in relays each of which contmues the line of growth in the honzontal direction after the previous bud turns up to produce a flower. Before one can answer the question of whether this growth habit of C. canadensis is just a horizontal version of that of C. flomda, as Dr. Halle initially suggested, one needs to have a clear conception of how the latter species grows. First, flowering dogwood has a \"layered\" look m the arrangement of its branches, which Hal Borland specimens cultivated - A Cornus canadensis seedling showing a well-developed cotyledonary grow out the following season Photograph by Peter Del Tredici. crown. The arrow pomts to a relay bud that will 21 after year, while the lateral branches are produced by growing horizontally in \"relays.\" These relays originate in buds below the shoots to produce flowers. the distinction between the behavior reality, of the termmal and the lateral shoots of flowering dogwood is not as clear-cut as I have described. In particular, the terminal shoot often seems to lose its vigor for no apparent reason and is replaced by one of the laterals. This usually occurs in the spring, when the young branches are beginning to meristems that turned In upward grow out. is The growth habit of the bunchberry, of course, entirely different from that of the flowering The earliest known illustration of Cornus canadensis, from the 1672 edition of New England's Ranties, discovered, with the followmg caption: This plant I take for a vanegated Herb Pans, True Love, or One Berry, or rather One Flower, which is milk white, and made up with four Leaves, with many black threads m the middle, upon every thread grows a Berry (when the Leaves of the Flower are fallen) as big as a white pease, of a light red colour when they are ripe, and clustenng together m a round form as big as a Pullets Egg, which at a distance shews but as one Berry, very pleasant m taste, and not unwholesome.... describes as \"horizontal limbs that reach skyward their tips and form a fine lace pattern.\" Among deciduous temperate zone trees, such layering is unusual. It occurs m the dogwood because the shoot that bmlds the central trunk is physiologically distinct from the shoots that build the lateral branches. The trunk is produced by the activity of a smgle menstem that grows vertically year at flonda winter silhouette. Drawing by Olga A. Smith, from Tree Flowers of Forest, Park, and Street, by Walter E. Rogers; courtesy of Dover Publications, Inc. Cornus 22 dogwood. Yet a curious similarity exists: the bunchberry plant resembles a lateral branch of flowering dogwood growing independent of a trunk. Dr. Halle later discussed this in his book, Tropical Trees and Forests, written with R. A. A. Oldeman and P. B. Tomlinson. In it, he states that the architecture of herbs is derived from that of trees by a process he calls \"fragmentation\": In Cornus canadensis the creeping, somewhat woody axis may be equated with one branch of a tree ancestor. The superficial similarity is enhanced by the development of foliage leaves in distinct rosettes along the honzontal axis in both forms. In such examples, if this interpretation is correct, there should be some elvdence of the orthotropic [vertical] trunk m the epicotyledonary any inhibitory hormones the termight be producing. Regardless of which is true, apical control is at the heart of the differences in growth habit between Cornus florida and Cornus canadensis. Clearly, Dr. Halle was right when he descnbed the bunchberry as a flowering dogwood without a trunk. insensitive minal bud to Sources Borland, H., and L. plants. edited mann Line. A Countryman's Woods New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1983. Chapagnat, P. 1976. Formation of the trunk m woody In Tropical Trees as Lmmg Systems, by P. B. Tomlinson and M H. ZimmerCambndge : Cambndge University Press, axis. Ferguson, up Dr. Halle's speculation solid observation of my own, I can now say that the only remnant of a trunk in C. canadensis is the vertical tip of the seedhng shoot, which reaches a height of no more than two or three centimeters before the basal rhizomes grow out and compete with it. The fact that the rhizomes take root as they grow through the soil not only ehminates the need for a central trunk to distribute nutrients, but also the need for any centralized control over their growth pat- Having followed some 1976. 1. K. The Comaceae m the Southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, with 47(2) : lOG-1G\/19GG\/. Halle, F., R. A. A. Oldeman, and P. B. Tomhnson. Tropical Trees and Forests. Berlin, Heidelberg, New York SPnnger-Verlag 1978. Josselyn, J. New England's Rarities 1672. Reprint. BosWilliam Veazie, 1865. L. \"Contribution a 1'etude architecturale de quelques hgneuses des regions temperees.\" Ph D. thesis, Academie de Montpellier, France, 1978. Rogers, W. E. Tree Flowers of Forest, Park and Street. Appleton, Wisconsm: W E. Rogers, 1935. Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. Seeds of Woody Plants m the Umted States Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washington, D.C : Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agnculture, 1974. ton. Ramaroson-Ramparany, tern. At this time, no one knows why bunchberry lacks apical control. There are two possibilities. The terminal bud may not produce the growthinhibiting hormones that would keep the rhizomes from growing, or the rhizomes may be Peter Del Tredici is assistant plant propagator at the Arnold Arboretum and associate editor of Arnoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The 'Okame' Cherry","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24861","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad2608926.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Meyer, Paul W.; Lewandowski, Rich","article_content":"The 'Okame' Cherry Paul W Meyer Rick Lewandowski This early-flowering hybrid is reliably hardy to Zone 5 Of the many cultivated vaneties of flowering cherry growing at the Morris Arboretum of the Umversity of Pennsylvama, the most popular with staff and visitors ahke is Prunus xmcam 'Okame'. Its bright fuchsine-pink flowers (Horticultural Colour Chart 627\/2) are among the earliest spnng blossoms attract attention. In as early as 13th, depending on the weather. Even before the blossoms open, the deep maroon flower buds are showy, while the red calyx and stamens persist for a week after the petals drop. Thus, spring open appear. They never fail to Philadelphia, the blossoms March 28th and as late as April to color lasts for up to three weeks. 'Okame' cherry has a small, upright crown matunng at 25 feet. Its small stature and fine leaf texture make it particularly adaptable to small gardens. In the autumn its foliage becomes bright shades of orange and yellow. 'Okame' was produced in England early this century by Captain Collingwood Ingram, a famed cherry collector and hybridizer. Ingram had been impressed with the deep rose flowers of Prunus campanulata but was frustrated by its lack of winter hardmess. Using P. campanulata as the pollen parent, he crossed it with P. incisa, a species noted for its profusion of flowers and cold hardiness. 'Okame' was selected as a superior seedling from this cross. In 1952, it received the Award of Garden Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society. Dr. Henry Skinner obtamed scion wood from Captain Ingram and brought it to the Morris Ar- boretum in 1946. Though distnbuted to other botamcal institutions, 'Okame' remains rare in the nursery trade. Conard Pyle Nursery and J. Frank Schmidt Nursery are large wholesale compames that have recently begun to produce it. In addition, Weston Nurseries in Hopkmton, Massachusetts, is growing 'Okame', and Wayside Gardens will offer it to mail-order customers begmnmg in the spnng of 1985. Research has shown that 'Okame' cherry roots easily from softwood cuttings and is well adapted to both field and contamer production. At the Morris Arboretum, six-inch cuttings are taken from mid- to late June. These are treated with Hormoroot A ( 1,000 parts per million of indolebutrync acid and Thiram), and 95 percent of the cuttings are well rooted within four weeks. Termmal cuttings yield plants with the best upnght form; lateral cuttings require pruning to form a strong leader. As a young plant, 'Okame' cherry grows rapidly and often begins flowering immediately. It is fully hardy in Philadelphia, and the expanding flower buds withstand late spring frosts. It thrives at the Arnold Arboretum, and a specimen observed m Cmcmnati for the past six years has been unaffected by the winters. Thus far, 'Okame' cherry has been reliably hardy to Zone 5. In 1981 'Okame' received the Prelimmary Commendation of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society and is now being evaluated for the J. Franklin Styer Award for Exceptional Garden Merit. 24 Sources Bean, W. 79, No. 3, cussed on J. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bnlsh Isles, pages 127-133 pages 130 and (1954\/. ('Okame' is dis131.) .) eighth edition. Four volumes. London: John Murray, 1976. (The 'Okame' cherry is described m Volume 3, page 376.) Fletcher, H. R. Award of Garden Merit-LXXXVII. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, Vol. Paul W. Meyer is Assistant Director of Horticulture and Rick Lewandowski Assistant Curator for Propagation, at the Morns Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collector's Notebook: The Appeal of Phloxes","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24857","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260bb6b.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"COLLECTOR'S NOTEBOOK 60 or so species are totally North American m distribution, save for a single Siberian species. The unattractive to many But most species are people. fortunately, quite variable in the wild, and the The Appeal of Phloxes Richard E. Weaver, jr. appeal of phloxes to gardeners is understandable, because they are both beautiful and serviceable plants. The species vary greatly m height and habit, some being dehcate annuals, some prostrate alpine subshrubs, others upright herbaceous perenmals five feet tall. And they grow under a variety of soil and hght conditions. In fact, there is a phlox for nearly every garden situation. The flowers of most eastern are what is often referred to as \"phloxpurple.\" This rosy-purple color is American species attractively colored forms have been selected and brought into cultivation. And breedmg by horticulturists and other plant scientists has further expanded the color range, so many species are now represented in cultivamost tion by Most grown white, pink, nearly red, and bluish variants. alpme phloxes are someto what difficult cultivate and are mostly by collectors and specialty gardeners. Others are very easy and therefore almost Phlox is one of America's notable contributions to horticulture. Its subulata, the ubiquitous in cultivation. Phlox \"moss pink\" or Phlox glabernma Photograph by Albert W. Bussewitz. A cluster ot Phlox carohna Photograph by the author. 26 An mflorescence of Phlox carolma. Photograph by the author. \"thrift\" of the Southeast, turns banks everywhere a mass of pink, purple, or white in the early ' spring. A perennial matter border, no how small or simple, would not be complete without several cultivars of the summer phlox (P. pamculata\/. And the blue phlox \/P. dmancata) and the creeping phlox (P. stolom f eraare standard components of the wildflower garden. But other, equally useful species are relatively rare in cultmation. I ' 'Miss Lmgard' Photograph by Gary L. Koller. would like to concentrate here on several primarily Southeastern species that I have come to know well since moving to North Carolina. Phlox amoena is one of our commonest roadside wildflowers during May, being so abundant in some areas that it appears to have been planted. It is 27 low plant with decumbent and upright, compact inflorescences of 3\/4-mch flowers. The flowers are normally a bright phlox-purple, but we have selected the following forms: a large-flowered white, a smallflowered white, a blush pink, a pale blue-lavender with a darker star in the center, and a deep rose with a purple eye. I find the normal wild plant very attractive, but for those who do not hke its color the abovementioned forms will soon be available. Phlox a stems easy to cultivate, thriving sunny, well-drained situation. It is a good plant for the amoena is ma or rockery, the front of the border, those odd, small spots m the garden where a plant of low statis needed. The remaining species are all closely related: they are similar to the summer phlox in many ways but bloom earher than it does and have narrower leaves that are highly resistant to the powdery mildew, which can so badly disfigure P pamculatn. The most distinctive of these species is P. ovata, the mountam phlox, native to rich forests and forest margms in the southern Apure palachian region. It is a stolomferous species, producing many sterile shoots and rela- tively few flowenng shoots; these latter seldom exceed 15 inches m height. To me it is among the most beautiful of the phloxes, with its large flowers, pinker than m most species, appearing in late May and early June. Because it is stolomferous and not a profuse bloomer, P. ovata is a plant for the wildflower garden rather than the perennial border. Phlox carohna andP. glaberare similar and often confused The former tends to be of taller stature, however-three feet tall versus two feet and often grows in shadier situations. Both have long blooming seasons, starting in late June and extendmg into August, and overlap the summer phlox for some of that penod. The flowers are typically phlox-purple, but those of P. carohna are extremely variable, and we have selected some beautiful bicolored forms. Unfortunately, we have not yet found a white-flowered form of either species, but we will contmue our search. Both species are excellent border plants, and P carohna is also good m the shady garden. Phlox maculata is one of the most outstanding species of Phlox from a horticultural viewpomt. It differs from the preceding three species m having purple-speckled stems and narrow, cylindrical mflorescences. The wild plant is quite gardenworthy, but it is certainly overshadowed by three spectacular cultivars. 'Miss Lmgard' is the finest of these, is, in fact, one of the very best of all border plants. Plants stand tall and stately (about 50 inches m our garden) and have not needed staking even with last summer's torrential rams. The flowers are pure white and borne m an mflorescence about a foot tall. The plants were in full bloom by early June and still blooming m early August; there was admittedly a hiatus of about two weeks in mid-July after the first, spent inflorescences were cut off. 'Reine du Jour' blooms when 'Miss Lmrima - gard' does, but grows only to about 30 inches tall. Its flowers are pure white with a purple eye. 'Rosahnde'rs the latest-blooming and tallest of the three cultivars. Our plants were in full bloom m late June, and they stood 55 inches tall. The flowers are on the pink side of phlox-purple and borne in magnificent 12- to 15inch inflorescences. I have seen reference to 'Alpha', a clearpink-flowered cultivar, but unfortunately have not yet been able to find a plant. It should be noted that there is some confusion as to the species to which the abovementioned cultivars belong. The authors of Hortus III consider at least 'Miss Lrngard' to be a cultivar of P. carolma. Some perhaps arose as interspecific hybrids. But with their speckled stems and cylindncaJ inflorescences, they are certainly more like P. maculata than any other species. In any event, they are first-rate garden plants, thriving in full sun or partial shade. Our expenence has shown that they are taller and more vigorous if grown in moist soil. They seldom if ever need staking the way cultivars of the summer phlox often do. All of the above species are available from dealers in wildflowers. Most of the cultivars of P. maculata ('Miss Lin- gard' most reliably) are occasionally listed by the standard perennial growers. Richard E. Weaver, Jr , the former horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum, now operates We-Du Nursenes m Marron, North Carolma. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24856","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260bb26.jpg","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS Mr. van Ravenswaay's biography of Prestele is from Nature: The Botamcal Art of Joseph Prestele and His Sons, by Charles van Ravenswaay. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1984. 357 pages, 95 colored plates. Drawn $45.00. ANN HAYMOND ZWINGER from Nature: The Botanical Art of Joseph Prestele and His Sons, is a magmficent publication from the Smithsonian Press. Large m format, with a scholarly introduction, and more than half of it dedicated to full-page color illustrations, the book epitomizes the interest in botanical illustration that has burgeoned m recent decades. When I first became mterested in drawing plants twenty years ago, the only available book with any histoncal information was Wilfrid Blunt's The Art of Botanical Illustration, first pubhshed m 1950 as one of the British \"New Naturahst\" series. Although fairly well Illustrated, the text was pedantic and scarcely deigned to mention any illustrators working in the Umted States. Mr. van Ravenswaay's book is informative as well as lovely to look at, and gives techmcal as well as historical information. The book's arrangement furthers the reader's enjoyment by having a brief comment, information on proveDrawn nance, well drawn and well researched. Prestele was born and grew up in Germany; at 16 he was already producing respectable work, although the coloring was heavy-handed and botanical details were glossed over or lacking. By the time he was 20, Prestele had been hired as staff artist for the Royal Botanical Garden in Munich. It was a productive and formative time, and his drawings took on an accuracy and perception that indicate solid training in botany. His illustrations of the common poisonous plants of Germany were known to Asa Gray. Of the four plates that Mr. van Ravenswaay has chosen from this rare book ~Die Wichtigsten Giftpflanzen Deutschlands), maculatum, spotted hemlock, is my favorite for the delicacy of its execution. Two stalks are portrayed m color; one shows the strucComum and, often, interesting sidelights placed op- posite each illustration. The appendixes make the book useful to the scholar, and its design, down to the endpapers, is both elegant and beautiful. Charles van Ravenswaay is well-qualified to write on botanical illustration, being the director ementus of the Henry Francis du Pont Winterthur Museum and Gardens; he discovered Prestele when he bought a portfolio of engravings of American trees, published by the Smithsonian m 1891. The quality of the work so attracted him that he set out to determine the illustrator. It was Joseph Prestele, one of the first in this country. maculatum, spotted hemlock, from the plate by Joseph Prestele in Die Wichtigsten Giftpflanzen Deutschlands (1843). The dehcate, uncolored leaf appears as a scarcely visible, ghostlike presence on the nghthand side of the plate. Comum 29 ture of the stem, the other the upper stem with mtricate flower and seed heads. One entire leaf is uncolored; the dreamlike precision of the unifies the two stalks, thus informs without cluttering. Although raised a Catholic, Prestele became mterested in a religious group called Inspirationahsts, who settled first in upper New left drawing York State m the 1840s and later established the Amana Colomes in Iowa. Mr. van Ravenswaay discusses at some length how this constmcrive communal life curtailed Prestele's artistic output. In 1844, a year after he moved to New York with the community, the elders allowed Prestele to begin work on wildflower illustrations. Since he and his son Gottlieb couldn't identify many of the new plants, Prestele wrote to the premier botamst of the United States, Asa Gray, to whom he had an introduction. His letter appeared on Gray's desk m January 1845, just when Gray needed an engraver. Gray not only welcomed Prestele but mtroduced him to John Torrey. Both botanists used Prestele's services as an \"engraver on stone,\" which involved using a techmque that is not true engraving but which allows meticulously fine renderings. Prestele was a capable and sensitive draftsman. In his work for Gray and Torrey, he often engraved from the drawings of Isaac Sprague, a protege of Gray's who worked directly from plants m the botamc garden at Harvard. This collaboration resulted in the illustrations for Gray's Chlons boreali-americana, pubhshed m 1846. Prestele engraved, printed, and hand-colored the prints. Working with distant printers often caused him grief; about the plate of Gmllardia amblyodon, Prestele wrote to Gray: \"In short, Dear Sir, I suffered a great deal on account of seemg that I was unable to do Things Well for you.\" This project was never completed, as the overenergetic Gray was off on a new tack, an ambitious undertakmg to pubhsh drawings of a single species of each genus of plants of the United States. Prestele did 100 plates (for which he charged $2.50 each) for the first volume of Genera a ten-volume volumes were ever printed. Gray's next great project, suggested by Professor Joseph Henry at the Smithsonian, had a similar fate. The Forest Trees of North Amenca, to be published by the Smithsonian, came to an \"embarrassing halt\" because it was too expensive and too ambitious; Gray and Henry evidently did not sufficiently understand the scope of the project. Prestele's work for Gray essentially terminated at that pomt, but he continued to work for Torrey, who was m charge of the botanical illustrations for the western surveys. Prestele did all of the engravings of plants for the Pacific Railroad Surveys, pubhshed between 1853 and 1856. He illustrated William H. Emory's Report on the Umted States and Mexican Boundary, as well as Charles Wilkes' United States Explormg Expedition florae amencae. Gray envisioned set, but only two 1844-1874. (An appendix gives a complete listing of the illustrations, although none of them are reproduced in this book.) By the late 1840s Prestele was also rendering \"nurserymen illustrations\" that conveyed the delights of various fruits. Between 1854 and 1860 he made between 2,000 and 3,000 plates for the Mount Hope Nursery m Rochester, New York. Some of these are stunning in the virtuosity of their colonng and rendenng of surface texture: the bloom on the 'Concord' grape, the sheen of 'White French Guigne' chemes and the pattern of their multiple stems, the blush on a ripe 'Late Crawford' peach, are monuments to the kmd of fruit we used to have. The blemish on a 'Red Astrachan' apple provides the precise balance for the dark seeds set m the white flesh of a cross section. In these the design is charming, the botanical knowledge definitive, the coloring masterful. As a means of describing plants to the public, this meticulous and time-consuming botamcal illustration was becoming outdated by the end of Prestele's life. Of the three sons who followed his profession, only Gottheb, who remamed m the Amana Colony, produced any volume of work. By the end of the nineteenth century color printing and, eventually, color photography were 30 developed, providing inexpenslve, mass-produced illustrations. But they also, in a sense, robbed our generation of the precisely noted and carefully rendered illustrations that illuminated the previous four centuries. Color photography can never focus on and render telling detail as effectively as a good drawing; nor can it include, in an aesthetically pleasing way, several morphological details on the same page. The monumental volumes on the flora of the United States, published by the New York Botanical Garden, illustrate this pomt: though extravagantly illustrated with photographs, even they resorted to drawings to show details. In all the kinds of botanical illustration, one thing has remained constant: the love of plants. The most enduring quahty is the illustrator's joy m the curve of leaf, the turn of petal, the celebration of growth. In almost any book of botanical illustrations one can find pleasure just in the looking. But that pleasure is multiplied considerably when the reproductions are elegantly presented on heavy coated paper, the colors true, and the text plants of this continent are either very old, extremely voluminous, highly technical, or oriented pnmarily towards the veterinarian's use. Pocket-sized, this book is easy to carry where one needs to know what plants to avoid. It is illustrated with simple line drawings for most of the species and excellent color photographs of the most frequently met species, and is wnttten in an orderly, straightforward style. The subject matter is orgamzed mto five parts dealing in turn with plants that cause dermatitis, hallucinogens, home and garden poisons, toxic wild plants, and poisonous mushrooms. The part on mushrooms is subdivided mto deadly or potentially deadly species and species that stimulate the parasympathetic nervous system. A simious Ravenswaay's book is a labor of love. Like birders, people who love plants have a deep and abiding devotion to their subject. This book belongs m the library of anyone who en~oys botanical illustration enhanced by lively scholarly commentary and competent documentation. Haymond Zwinger is a well-known author and who specializes in natural history subjects She is coauthor (with Beatnce E. Willard) of Land Above the Trees A Guide to Amencan Alpme Tundra. Ann artist engaging. Mr. van lar order of presentation is followed for each plant: a description; its distnbution and habitat; toxms and symptoms; first aid and medical treatment. Historical or ethnobotamcal information of general interest is frequently given. The mtroduction gives an overview of the scope of the problem of poisonous plants, as well as practical mstructions for counteracting the effects of plant toxins. This book has been written after careful and consideration of the latest literature, constant consultation with the Boston Poison Center, and personal experience. One of its prime recommendations is its orientation towards human beings. The authors, both professors at Boston University (one a zoologist, the other a botanist), have had wide experience in Afnca, New Zealand, Australia, Chile, Costa Rica, and Borneo. extensive A Field Guide to Poisonous Plants and Mushrooms of North Amenca, by Charles Kingsley B. Primack. Illustrated by L. L. Meszoly and M. H. Primack. Brattleboro, Vermont, and Lexington, Massachusetts: Stephen Greene Press, 1984. 178 pages. $9.95 \/soft cover). Levy and Richard of the Great Basm: A Natural History, by Ronald M. Lanner. Drawings by C. Rasmuss. Reno: University of Nevada Press, 1984. 217 pages. $19.50. Trees RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES Here is a definite, workable field guide Most works on to toxic plants of North America. poison- active field dendrologist of many years' experience, has travelled widely and written on trees of the Great Basin, the Amencan The author, an 31 the Rocky Mountains. This, his second book on the region, describes 47 native species-23 gymnosperms and 24 angiosperms -and exammes their place m local ecology, explonng the life histories of the trees and their relationships to animal life, including man, m the area. Growth habits and requirements, taxonomy, genetics, and, when pertinent, their economic importance are discussed m a leisurely, readable, almost conversational style that does not lower itself to the common denommator of newspaper or magazine popular appeal. The greatest single attraction of this book is its success in making available much information hitherto hidden m scientific or techmcal and difficult-to-obtain publications. Southwest, and Each species considered is beautifully and simply illustrated with a clear line drawing and a superb color photograph. Several pages of dermations of botanical terms make the volume even more valuable to the nontechnical tree-lover. A hst of 22 suggested readings is offered and a full index of common and scientific names is ap- pended. is a delightful and useful book for the of any scholar or amateur whose interests library lie in this part of the American West. This Richard Evans Schultes is Director of Harvard Umverstty's Botamcal Museum. His account of the impact that the Para rubber tree has had on mankmd appeared m the Spnng 1984 issue of Arnoldia "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23335","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260a36b.jpg","title":"1985-45-1","volume":45,"issue_number":1,"year":1985,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Urban Islands: Who Will Maintain Them?","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24855","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260b76d.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Kahn, Charlotte","article_content":"Urban Islands: Who Will Maintain Them? Charlotte Kahn . hve in zoos; dolphins can hve in aquanums; human bemgs can walk on the moon; trees can hve in urban islands. What is at issue is not techmcal feasibihty but extraordinary care. The question is this : in an era of diminishing will on the part of taxpayers to pay for improvements to the pubhc sector, can we justify creating highmamtenance streetscapes that have more in common with exhibits m a zoo than with l natural and self-sustaimng ecosystemsz so, how? And if On a clear summer day in June 1984, Robert McCoy, parks commissioner for the city of Boston, and William Geary, head of the state's Metropolitan District Commission, met to celebrate the opening of the newly renovated Franklin Park Zoo. Standing together during the ceremomes, they noted with pleasure a distant view of yews being installed by a contractor in the median strip of Blue Hill Avenue. Their pleasure turned to chagrin when they realized that no funds had been appropriated to either agency to maintain the new median strip, nor had either of them been informed of the installa- Camels can themselves the culmination of years of community pressure to refurbish a once flourishing commercial district: the plantings were meant to symbolize the city's commitment to sustained economic development and a brighter future for the neighborhood. Without an appropriation to one of the two agencies in question, or an organized effort to transfer stewardship responsibility to neighborhood residents or businesses, the two parks commissioners feared that the federally funded project would become instead another testament to the unmet needs of the commumty. Like hundreds of trees and shrubs before them, these plants were being placed in their \"urban island\" habitats with a final squirt of water and perhaps a prayer. Few city and state tree-planting contracts specify the first were (and most important) year's mamtenance although most contracts guarantee replacement in six months or a year in the case of death. The plants struggle through program, their first year, their sparse green leaves tion. The improvements A to the median strip was five-year-old cherry that has not grown smce it planted Photographs with this article by the author. barely acknowledging life, only to fail or become overgrown by weeds thereafter, beyond the reach of contract commitments. Statistically, the life of a large plant m a whether planter or pit small hole is relatively short. The average life expectancy for a shade tree planted m a small urban island is but a fraction of its potential life span. Ac- - 4 cording to Professor Clifford Chater of the University of Massachusetts' Shade Tree Laboratory in Waltham, such trees may live in their islands for \"twenty years at most, and it may be down to ten on a practical basis.\" \" detailing various tolerances and intolerances of plant species to a grim list of urban environmental woes: salt from streets and sidewalks, air pollution, compacted soil, Despite his own finding that 87 percent of the trees planted in Boston under contract within the past five years are alive, Professor Chater is not sanguine about the future prospects of these island inhabitants: \"Don't expect them to grow normally. What you've got is essentially potted plants. Their roots are restricted, and roots can't grow without air. They're going to grow slower and die sooner. The roots of potted trees freeze earlier and harder, whereas those of most other trees in the Northeast keep growing until December. They struggle along but they don't look like much.\" The huge old maples and oaks that we see in our mind's eye as we watch new street trees being installed were m all likelihood planted before cars or electricity were invented and before streets and sidewalks were paved with impermeable materials. Long past the early vulnerable years, their roots by now have had time to locate nourishment scores of feet from their stout trunks, to find pockets of water and air to sustain them. Plantings in urban islands, on the other \" hand, require extra attention: more more more design, in construction, water, watering, and more pruning because of winter dieback or more care whose roots cannot vandalism. A tree or shrub self-reliantly search for nutrients and water in a park, yard, expansive tree lawn, or generous 2 x 4 m tree pit is dependent for its survival on people. The source of the problem is not a lack of technical know-how. Studies of plants in the urban environment usually contain charts constrained roots, night lighting, drought, and flooding. Urban islands of the usual sort subject their inhabitants to most of these. No tree (except the ubiquitous ailanthus, which literally seems to have found its ecological niche in a crack m the pavement) is adapted to all of the adverse conditions of most American cities. Plants in artificial environments require artificial life-support systems. The people nominally responsible for their care m all likelihood work for a public agency usually a parks department already staggering under budget cuts in the wake of recent taxpayers' revolts and cuts in federal funds. It cannot realistically be expected to provide the care required. A newly transplanted tree requires about 40 liters of water per week during the growing season, preferably for two years. Alternatively, it needs a thorough soaking eight to ten times annually while in active growth. Even in a very wet year, nature will not provide enough water at regular intervals for a transplanted tree to thrive. No matter how well planted or mulched, plants in urban islands will eventually be sharing their space with vigorous weeds. No matter how well loved by their human neighbors, they will occasionally require an expert's attention to prune a broken limb, examine a trunk for signs of insect infestation, or repair damage from a collision with a bicycle, tricycle, or truck. Isolated trees and shrubs in urban islands, unlike those in parks or groves, often bear the marks of human aggression, frustration, or need. Plants already showing signs of - 5 often the first victims of vandalism. On the other hand, plantings that are well-maintained often escape injury, even in the most heavily trafficked parts of a town stress are or (which for years enabled the Boston Parks and Recreation Department to hire provisional maintenance workers), were cut back. In Boston the number of parks department employees, including CETA and other workers not in the civil service, has decreased from a high of 2,042 in 1977 to about 350 today. The budget is dwindling, down to $7 million from $9.3 million in 1980 (when then Parks Commissioner Alan Austin characterized his budget as \"grossly underfunded\"). Despite the cuts in the parks department's funds, the number of urban islands in its care is rising. By the early 1980s city. A good example of these extremes can be found on the Boston Common at Tremont Street. There rows of flowers in rectangular brick planters at sitting level grow in undisturbed splendor day after day as pedestrians pass by or rest at their edge. Next to them, single trees in well-maintained, wellmulched round planters provide a neat visual counterbalance. Several of the trees in the round planters, however, are less vigorous and not so well maintained, for some reason, as the others. Weeds have come up through the mulch and several branches have died. These are the planters that attract bottles, trash, and sometimes sleeping persons. And why not? While the flower planters are clearly someone's pride and joy, the auxiliary maintenance crews were gone. \"Bricks and mortar\" capital-improvement programs, on the other hand, were increasingly viewed as permanent investments in the urban fabric and continued to receive support. Although federal capitalimprovement funds continued to flow, maintenance funds did not. The environmental movement had set up expectations for human habitations: lace curtains came down; potted ferns and spider plants went up. A new generation of city dwellers began to expect plantings at the intersection of downtown streets. Landscape architects, urban designers, and federal administrators were weedy tree planters just as clearly are not. It is unusual to see violence perpetrated on a space that succeeds in being a cheerful, thoughtful, well-maintained amenity for the people of a city. In this sense maintenance is not merely necessary to satisfy the horticultural requirements of urban island plantings but is essential in order to protect them from attack. As a background to the question of maintenance, let us observe two recent trends: first, the environmental movement, which gained prominence on Earth Day 1970. As Richard Nixon's fledgling administration responded by setting up the Environmental Protection Agency, it also began to dismantle Lyndon Johnson's armaments for the war on poverty. Social programs, such as that created by the Comprehensive only too glad to oblige. Urban islands were seen as a permissible green frill on the bricks-and-mortar investment : they made the brutalist architecture look better; people liked them; and they Employment and Training Act (CETA) relatively inexpensive. Maintenance funds, however, were out of the question. That was a job for local government. Unfortunately for local government, a second societal trend paralyzed its ability to handle its new high-maintenance greenery. By the 1980s, taxpayers were enacting laws with names like Proposition 13 and Proposiwere 6 tion 2'\/z, designed to limit the power of state and local governments to raise revenues. Many middle-class families with children had moved to the suburbs, and older urbanites were experiencing the effects of mounting inflation. Faced with diminishing tax bases and a taxpayers' revolt, cities began to cut back, and parks departments' budgets (almost always among the first to go) were pools will be closed. No more water in park fountains or in the Public Garden pond. No more Chnstmas lights. Close all gymnasiums. Cut off all lighting of athletic fields. Closing of all city golf courses at Franklin Field and Hyde Park. Soccer, baseball, basketball, and other leagues sponsored by the Department will now have to find own coaches, referees, and equipment.\" \" slashed. After the passage of Proposition 2'\/z in Massachusetts, the Boston Parks and Recreation Department budget was cut 60 perreport published by the MassachuRecreation and Parks cent. In a setts Association, Bos- ton was cited as \"getting out of the recrea- Funds to maintain urban islands slid to the bottom of and finally off the charts. In Boston, they had never really been on the charts in the first place. In 1979, for instance, at a time when urban islands were already looking perilously more like graves than groves, Mayor Kevin White, m a preelection cityimprovement project, spent between tion aspect and tenance went concentrating just on main- of physical facilities.\" The report on to declare that \"bathhouses and An urban-island plantmg mamtamed by adjacent businesses. $300,000 and $400,000 on cement planters for downtown streets. He had them filled with cherry, linden, and honey-locust trees. Nine months after the election, most were 7 in decline for lack of maintenance. - According Michael Conners, chief horticultunst for the Boston Department of Parks and Recreation, all plants in the city 20 or 30 years ago were installed by or m careful coordination with the parks department. The locations of new plantings were based on a list of priority areas derived from requests from residents, and the parks department knew where the new plantmgs were. In Boston today, after almost a quarter century of one new initiative after another urban renewal projects undertaken in the 1960s and early 1970s, Federal Highway Administration street improvements in the 1970s and 1980s, neighborhood revitalization with Federal Commumty Development Block Grant funds m the 1980s - the parks department has already given up trying to to keep pace with new plans and plantings. Proposition 21\/2 was simply the last hole in an already leaking vessel. Nevertheless, Boston's Department of Parks and Recreation is held responsible for almost half of the publicly owned green space in the city, the newer parts of which tend to be high-maintenance playgrounds, islands, and plantings of street trees. According to a recent Boston Globe article, the total area is 2,500 acres, including 50 parks, 90 playgrounds (with 168 ballfields), two golf courses, 82 squares and malls, 16 historic cemeteries, three active cemeteries, 125,000 trees, seven recreation centers, and two in- departhorticulturists, however, only select plant materials for the replanting of city parks. All other planting for new parks, islands, or street trees is done by agencies ment's - door and two outdoor pools. The A well mamtamed public plantmg on Boston Common that seems to inhibit vandahsm. or individuals who are not going to be re- sponsible for the care of the plants over time. 8 Despite the complete inability of the parks department take on any new responsibilities without an increase in funds, more new plantmgs are turned over to the city to practical in terms of conception or execution. Not many landscape architects not very can see a project with a city department's \" every year. According to Valerie Bums, director of planning for the parks department: \"Boston has no capacity to support new landscaping in the city. Nevertheless, new parks, urban islands, and street trees continue to be passed on to the department for maintenance after completion of the construction contracts. When another agency is planning to build a new park or streetscape, they talk to our engineers but not to our horticulof the new plantings are \"beautiful in design and execution but very difficult to maintam. Many of the new areas are very heavily planted and some eye. Trees and shrubs simply shouldn't be planted without a mamtenance plan.\" \"Since Proposition 2Y2 we've only had two mspectors working on trees,\" says John Ruk, executive secretary of Boston's parks department. \"Counting all the street and park trees, that's two men for more than 125,000 trees. In terms of tree planting, we can only respond to 5-10 percent of the re- turists.\" Burns says that Poorly mamtained planters that have become receptacles for trash. quests. We subcontract out pruning and tree removal, and then only after we've had a complaint. It's impossible to fertilize- and water, forget it! We considered getting a water wagon once, but we realized that there was no way we'd have enough people to water the trees.\" Ruk remembers when the parks department had a budget that enabled the city to have a tree division with annual spring and fall plantings. Even then, he re- 9 calls a parks commissioner in the early 1970s saying, \"My God, the city's gomg bald!\"He estimates that m the forties, fifties, and sixties, perhaps three times as many trees were planted m the city annually as are planted today. He sees the city's older, larger trees dying, mostly from old age or disease. Unless the city mamtains its older plantings and replaces them as they die with young trees destined to have a better shot at their normal life expectancies than those now being planted in urban islands, Boston will mdeed be bald. Valene Burns and Boston's parks commissioner Robert McCoy are trying to affect the way that public-improvement projects are funded. Says Burns: \"I have never seen a project ever that had maintenance money attached to it. Some percentage of - The lindens m this picture, mstalled m an urban island m 1979, were dead m July 1984. the federal capital-improvement monies has to be allocated for maintenance.\" Money for mamtenance - or the lack of it is at the heart of the survival issue for urban planting projects and is especially critical for urban island designs, which by definition require extraordmary care. Like other elements of the public realm that our culture used to value and pay for, such as education and clean streets, city trees m islands or in parks now no longer seem affordable to a society that prides itself on being the richest nation on earth. Building the wealth of the public realm requires patience, commitment, stewardship. Trees and shrubs are planted in inappropriate places or without appropriate care and expected to produce benefits regardless: shade, flowers, cleaner air, and seasonal interest. All too often, they are destmed to be stunted, leafless, with trunks gashed or limbs broken. While we know full well that few urban islands will \" - 10 o produce their own version of a climax forest, we plant them nevertheless, taking advanthat federal or state or city capital-improvement program without taking into account the long-term needs of the tage of this or trees. is perhaps extreme. While most major cities incorporate many of their Boston's case outlying suburbs within their limits (and thus are able to raise adequate funds through their property taxes), Boston is a relatively poor city surrounded by wealthier neighbors that do not contribute to its operation. As a result, Boston property owners and residents must pay for the maintenance of areas trampled daily by tourists, commuters, and visiting businesspeople. Taxes on meals, hotel rooms, and other sales go directly to the state: only a portion returns to the city as local aid. To make matters worse, more than half of the property within Boston's city limits is owned by large nonprofit cultax-exempt tural, rehgious, and educational institutions. In 1984 it is estimated that Boston lacks $50 million required for already trimmed basic city services. San Francisco, a city of equivalent population and parkland acreage, spends - $55 per capita annually on its parks; Boston spends $12. Next year it may be less. Money, however, is only part of the solution. Even cities with adequate financial redo not necessarily allocate them to the maintenance of street planting. In Dallas, Texas, that city renowned for its oil and associated wealth, the same issues regarding maintenance recently arose. Trees for the Town, Inc., a nonprofit organization in Dallas, begins a pamphlet thus: sources A failed plantmg m downtown Boston. 11 I mamtams No mumcipal government that we know of what are known as \"street trees\" bound to increase. Just as government can (trees that grow m your parkway). In one sense these trees grow on mumcipal property. Traditionally, mumcipahties that maintam parks departments have their hands full mamtammg mumcipal parks. Most city governments feel that they would have to maintain a larger labor force and buy more equipment to service these trees and thus leave the ordinary mamtenance of the trees to the citizens. Many citizens still harbor the idea that their municipality mamtams the street trees. This is not true here or elsewhere. help people plant trees by providing profes- The solution arrived at by the founder of Dallas's Trees for the Town, Inc., Mary Robertson, is to organize neighborhoods block by block to hire arborists to maintain the plantings. \"In our block there were five hackberry trees and twenty-three smaller red oaks. The arborist that we have selected to do the job charged $140.00 each for the four hackberry trees and $15.00 each for the red oaks, a total of $900.00 for the entire block. There are 18 houses on our block so we decided the costs of the project should be borne at $50.00 a house.\" For this price the trees were pruned and generally cared for, disease and injuries were treated, and girding roots removed. While Trees for the Town, Inc., is residential and upscale, it is nevertheless a practical approach to maintaining urban-island plantings in upper-income or business districts. The state of California's Department of Forestry in 1979 produced a handbook entitled The Hip-Pocket Urban Tree Planter. It stated that \"the limited city budgets allocated for trees frequently must be spent largely to remove dead or damaged wood, which presents a public safety hazard. Very little money is left for routine maintenance or for tree planting. With cutbacks in government spending, this problem seems sional advice and a streamlined permit process, people can help government by shouldering greater responsibility for planting and caring for trees. Through citizen Tree Boards, people can even take on some of the administrative, regulatory, and planning functions needed for a fully viable urban forest.\" The handbook advocated forming a citizen's task force on trees, officially sanctioned by the city, to assess the city's tree-related problems and opportunities and work m partnership with government to solve them. This group, it states, \"could evolve into a permanent tree board, working on a volunteer basis withm government on behalf of trees.\" Finally, the handbook recommends that arrangements be made for long-term mamtenance. \"Only plant what you can care for. Make sure that each neighbor understands his or her responsibility.... If the city is to help with maintenance, be sure this is clearly understood and that long-term maintenance funds are available.\" Boston has had and still has its own version of this kind of program. In a project recently organized on Beacon Hill, one of the city's wealthiest neighborhoods, residents donate half of the funds needed to purchase the plants. The Beacon Hill Civic Association donates the other half, and the Boston Parks Department excavates and helps to plant the trees. Resident purchasers are then expected to care for their new greenery. In the South End of Boston, for more than a decade the largest urban-renewal district in the nation, potted trees and urban islands have been planted as part of a variety of federal, state, and city programs. At one point \" \" \" 2 12 in the ment early 1970s, the Boston RedevelopAuthority was encouraged to comon trees planted in porous materials. No cards immigrants to the accompany these recent ter municate with residents streets several side being planted with trees. A beautifully printed green and blue card was attached to doors up and down the block: \"Have you noticed the new trees in your neighborhood?\" it asked. \"These trees were planted by the Boston Redevelopment Authority as part of the public improvement program for your neighborhood. A tree provides oxygen, humidifies and circulates the air and most importantly, it humanizes and beautifies the city. However, there are some things you must do to keep it alive and well: \"1. Water the tree South End streets, despite the obvious \"betchance\" such communication would afford them. In an institutional context, it is as if each administration had begun its new term with a profound case of amnesia. Despite the advances of modern science, with regard to urban islands we seem to ha-ve forgotten more than we have learned. In 1910 the Boston Parks and Recreation Department's landscape architect Arthur A. Shurtleff wrote to the Metropolitan Improvement League concerning examination of Beacon Street, Boston, beArlington Street and Massachusetts Avenue, to consider the feasibility of plantmg street trees upon its borders and to secure actual bids for an regularly during the season. About 10 gallons a growing week is sufficient. Keep the base neat and weeded, and tween \"2. keep pets away. \"3. planting such trees carefully m adequate pits and mamtammg them for a period of two years after planting.... The attached specifications require the installation of irrigation pipes m each tree-pit and stipulate that the trees shall be properly watered by means of them dunng a penod of two years. At the end of this period it is assumed that the care of the trees would lapse mto the hands of authorities especially entrusted with the future mamtenance of these trees. To permit the trees at this period to shift for themselves or to be cared for by the individuals upon whose sidewalks they might be growmg would be to repeat the general history of Boston street-tree plantmg: while a few trees might thrive, the majonty would decline through ill-advised care or the want of the most ordinary attention. To entrust them to the city would be to condemn them to a demise almost as certain, unless the authorities were bound by agreement to provide care which m the past they have not afforded to the city street trees at large. The residents of Beacon Street should assure the success of the tree-planting project, and realize a proper businesslike return for the money invested m the trees by takmg perpetual care (or long-term carel of the trees through the same organization which carnes out the plantings. In no other way can hoped-for results be assured. Keep salt away in winter. \"These trees are yours to enjoy and for.\" Roger Erikson, landscape architect with the Boston Redevelopment Authority, credits this personal approach with the success of the trees planted 12 years ago. Also, Fred Smith, then a professor of landscape architecture at Harvard, insisted that the trees be surrounded by bricks in sand to permit the passage of water and air to the trees' care roots. A visit to a contemporary tree-planting project in the South End today, however, reveals that the bricks are being set in concrete, not sand, and that the trees are confined to 1-square-meter pits. It seems the Federal Highway Administration refuses to approve the use of bricks in sand in plantings, despite the obvious better health of 13 Such assured but conservative advice may seem unduly pessimistic and expensive to admirers of urban greenery. And yet it is probably true. John Ruk of today's Boston Parks and Recreation Department agrees that to maintain urban islands and street trees properly, \"I would have to have an army doing nothing but watering, weeding, fertilizing, and pruning.\" \" \"It's going to take that's all. You want trees, you've got money, to pay for them. You want parks, you've got to pay for them. But also, some money ought to be spent educating people, to make people more \" tree-conscious.\" Says Professor Chater, Unfortunately for Boston, which is cers tifiably broke, urban islands and perhaps even street trees may be a luxury. In a city facing high rates of unemployment among teenagers and young adults, it is not for lack of workers or need that its urban islands are not maintained by John Ruk's \"army,\" but lack of funds. A Youth Conservation Corps or summer work program is all that would be needed to repair, replace, and maintain Boston's green heritage and future wealth, but funds are not available. The only real solution to the problem is a change in funding priorities. Especially in where traffic is heavy, urban greenery must have a maintenance budget attached before it is planted. Federal and state officials must recognize that living amenities are not equivalent to bricks and mortar, and the public must begin to understand that you get what you pay for (unless you are prepared to volunteer to take up the slack, in which case you get what you work for). The public realm is our common wealth: we will never individually own and maintain what we could communally create and enjoy. Urban islands, like others aspects of the public realm, will be what we make them: symbols of our stewardship or proof of areas our indifference. a executme director of Boston Urban nonprofit orgamzation dedicated to improvmg the quahty of hfe m Boston's low-mcome neighborhoods. Charlotte Kahn is Gardeners, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Island and Median-Strip Planting","article_sequence":2,"start_page":14,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24853","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260b36f.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Flemer III, William","article_content":"Island and Median-Strip William Flemer III Planting A generation ago the use of plantings to di- vide highways or regulate the flow of traffic on roads was rare, confined to wealthy residential areas in such cities as Philadelphia, Richmond, and Boston, to cite a few wellknown examples. The parkways of Westchester County, New York, and Connecticut, as well as the Shirley Parkway along the Potomac River, were among the first divided roadways with planted strips between them. The plantings were meant to create restful driving conditions and to screen out headlight glare at night. After World War II, highway planting began on a nationwide scale when the huge network of the so-called national defense highway system was installed. Almost all of the superhighways had separated roadways for opposing lanes of traffic, and in all but the most congested urban areas the strips between the roadways were planted with trees and shrubs. Carefully kept accident-rate statistics for old-fashioned and divided-lane highways proved beyond a doubt that the benefits for median-strip planting far exceeded the costs of installation and maintenance. of island plantings has begun other sites. Among these are the spread parking areas surrounding modern suburban shopping centers. These expanses of pavement become unbearably hot in the summer months, and locked cars quickly reach oven temperatures during the daylight hours. use Now the to to more local planning boards therefore are requiring islands of trees to provide shade and add visual appeal to these otherwise unsightly spaces. Merchants, too, find that although the islands reduce parking space somewhat, they are more effective than painted lines on the pavement in keeping automobiles aligned. Thus, improved utilization of space compensates for the loss. In selecting trees and shrubs for islands or median strips, one must be aware of the special difficulties that such sites impose. Narrow median strips are especially difficult for trees and shrubs because of wind whip from speeding traffic. On highways especially, with cars and trucks speeding by at 60 miles per hour, the wind damage to foliage can be severe, both in the spring when the leaves are soft and tender and in the summer when weather is hot and dry. For this reason plants with tough, thick leaves are most successful. In the colder parts of the United States and Canada (zone 6 and below), road salting in winter presents additional difficulties. Speeding traffic can create a salt spray as concentrated as ocean spray. The salt settles on plants and soil, and prevailing winds deposit large concentrations on the downwind side of roadways. It is essential, therefore, that trees and shrubs chosen for these areas are salt tolerant. It is no coincidence that tree species that thrive at the seashore are also successful in island plantings. Thus sugar maple, which is one of the choice More and 15 5 species for residential surburban planting in poor choice for island or median-strip planting, while sycamore maple does well. Canada hemlock, which is also exceptionally susceptible to salt spray, should be avoided, while green ash and Japanese black pine (where it is wmter hardy) are sound choices. Indeed the sugar maple decline m New England, about which so much was written 20 years ago, has since been attributed to salt kill. Mamtenance crews tend to use salt with a lavish hand, a practice that ought to be vigorously curbed. Meanwhile, salt-sensitive species must be avoided m island plantmgs for cold its native range, is a areas. Salt injury to trees in island plantings in parking lots can be very serious even though traffic is too slow to create salt spray. Here salt is spread on the pavement, and often before the snow is melted the salt and snow mixture is scooped up by front-end loaders and disposed of \"out of the way\" on the islands, to the detriment of the vegetation planted on them. and shade tolerant when young. Climax species ultimately comprise the entire forest except on very exposed sites. The ecological conditions of island plantings on highways are extremely harsh for tree growth, and only pioneer species or species from dry, inhospitable climates can be expected to grow well. Island sites are exposed to full sun and wind, as well as the turbulence caused by vehicular traffic. They are also narrow, so that natural penetration of rain to the root zone is inhibited. It is essential therefore to plant only those species that are tolerant of dry soil. Among the many species of small maples, the Japanese maple (Acer palmatum Thunb.), which is strictly an understory tree in the woodlands of Japan, qmckly succumbs in island plantmgs. The Amur maple (Acer glnnala Maxim.), in contrast, thrives under conditions that are lethal to the Japanese tree. Not surprismgly, the Amur maple comes from the harsh climate of the Amur river valley of China, which is bitter cold in winter and hot and dry m summer. Our native eastern flowering dogwood Ecological Requirements The forested areas of the north temperate zone contain a wide variety of tree and shrub species. The greatest number occurs in areas where the old Tertiary forest was not extirpated during the last Ice Age, particularly the eastern United States, Japan, and parts of China. When cleared land is abandoned in naturally forested areas, a gradual process of forest regeneration begins. The first trees are \"pioneer\" species that can stand exposure to full sun and drymg winds. After these have colonized the open field and called climax species, which (Comus flonda L.) grows poorly and is subject to drought stress and severe borer infestations in island plantings, matured, they are slowly replaced by soare long-lived whereas the native species of hawthorns are excellent for such locations. The cornelian cherry (Cornus mas L.), which grows out to the edge of the steppes of Russia, is another tree of choice. Island plantings of shade trees are particularly exposed to wind damage. Although the Bradford callery pear (Pyrus calleryana Decne.) is otherwise suitable for islands, it is susceptible to breakage when it matures. It has been dropped by many state highway departments because of this but is still a favorite for sheltered locations in the downtown areas of cities. The tough-wooded 16 6 bur oak (Quercus macrocarpa Michx.) can serve as an alternative to Bradford pear. This tree comes from the Plams States, where violent thunderstorms routinely occur each summer. Trees and Shrubs Recommended for Island Planting The following is a list of trees and shrubs that have proved adaptable over a wide range of soils and climates in the East and Midwest. For the subtropical climate of Florida and the desert conditions of the Southwest, of course, entirely different lists are needed. Trees clones are much improved, however, and should rate high on the list of trees for difficult sites. The Norway maple will grow well in island plantings and in polluted conditions in cities, where the sugar maple and red maple will not thrive. It is one of the few species with attractive flowers, which are a clear chartreuse color and abundantly borne. The fall color is a fine yellow. Acer pseudoplatanus L. Height 1518 m~. Hardy to -30F. Sycamore maple. Although it is not a particularly distinguished tree, the sycamore maple ranks high wherever salt spray or deicing salts are a problem. After the hurricane in the summer of 1948, it was the only deciduous tree with green leaves (no browning whatsoever) along the coasts of Rhode Island and Massachusetts. Trees from seeds are often mediocre, but the best clones of the variety purpureum are vigorous and shapely, and the purple undersurface of the leaves is particularly attractive. The tree tolerates dry soil, pavement glare, and alkaline or saline soils. Celtis occidentalis L. Acer gmnala Maxim. Height 5-6 to -50F. Amur maple. m. Hardy This small tree has the unique characteristic of tolerance of extremes of heat, cold, and drought. It can be grown with several trunks or pruned to a single stem. The Amur maple's beauty lies in its leaves, scarlet in fall and a glossy dark green in summer. A similar species, Acer tatancum, merely turns yellow in fall and is much less cold hardy. The Amur maple is very tolerant of salts and alkaline soil and can substitute well for the Japanese maple (A. palmatum)\/ in the Midwest, where the latter is not winter hardy. Hardy to -50F. Height Hackberry. 12-15 m. Acer platanoides L. Height 15-18 m. Hardy to -30F. Norway maple. The common Norway maple has been much maligned in recent years because trees of seedling origin vary greatly, and many are distinctly inferior in growth habit, growth rate, and quality of foliage. The best grafted The hackberry is one of the last trees to disappear from the landscape as one journeys west across the prairies. It also grows in the thin soil on basalt and granite hills m New England. It is not surprising therefore that it endures the stressful environments of island plantings. Plants from seedlings are variable, and many are subject to unsightly twig and foliar diseases. Grafted clones are available, however, which are both shapely and disease free. Clones and seedling trees are very tolerant of dry, alkaline soil and exposure. 7 17 The hackberry tree (Celtis occidentahs ~. Photographs with this article from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Cornus mas L. Height 5-6 -30F. Cornelian cherry. m. Hardy to The toughest of the tree-sized dogwoods, the cornelian cherry grows wild on the bleak steppes of Russia. It is not as showy as the large-flowered species (Cornus flonda),but it becomes a haze of yellow in early April. The dark green leaves are thick and leathery and do not scorch in summer droughts. It is difficult to grow Cornus mas in tree form; it is best grown as a large clump. This tree is 18 8 ing spring. Unfortunately, no thornless clone of this species is available, but its thorns are much shorter and less than those of C. crus-galli. dangerous Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. Height 1518 m. Hardy to -40F. Green ash. While the white ash (Fraxinus americana L.)[ is preferable for its superior autumn color, it is not as suitable for stressful environments the green ash, which will tolerate drought, heat, cold, and saline and alkaline soils with impunity. Seedling trees are variable, and many female trees set large crops of seed and defoliate very early in the fall. As is as Cornelian cherry (Cornus mas). ). free of the borers Cornus flonda. or diseases that plague Crataegus crus-galh 6-8 m. Hardy to L. var. mermis. Height -30F. Thornless cockspur hawthorn. The our common toughest long, needle-sharp thorns, it constitutes a danger in areas where pedestrian traffic is cockspur hawthorn is one of small trees, but because of its present. The thornless form has the favorable qualities of the species without the dangers: tolerance of drought and exposure, fine glossy foliage, and long-lasting red fruits. with a broad latitudinal ash has a number of geographrange, green ical races. Trees grown from Florida seed are as hardy as orange trees in North Dakota, while trees from North Dakota provenance grow as well as balsam fir would in Florida! Several fine male clones are available, all from the North Central States, where green ash is an important shade tree. 'Marshall's Seedless' is unsmtable, however, because nurserymen have found that it has begun to seed overabundantly. common to trees Gleditsla triacanthos L. var. Height 15-18 honeylocust. m. Hardy to inermis Willd. -30F. Thornless Crataegus phaenopyrum (L.f.) Medic. Height 6-9 m. Hardy to -30F. Washington haw- thorn. One of the finest small-flowered trees for island planting. In the mini parks of downtown New York City, it thrives under the most adverse conditions. It is attractive, although not spectacular, in bloom. The glossy foliage turns red in the fall, and the brilliant red berries hang on until the follow- The selection and introduction of a number of thornless clones with shapely crowns have transformed the honeylocust from an unattractive weed tree mto an important street tree. The thornless honeylocust is rapid growing, easy to transplant, and tolerant of very difficult urban environments. Like green ash, it is among the trees that persist longest as one crosses the northern prairie states with their harsh extremes of 19 9 climate and alkaline soil. Such tolerance for adversity is an mdication of the honeylocust's suitability for island planting. It is particularly desirable for parking lots because its tiny leaflets blow away after dropping and do not have to be removed. Though cold hardy, it does not thrive in the very acid soils of parts of Maine and Nova Scotia. Malus baccata (L.) Borkh. Height 912 m. Hardy to -50F. Siberian crab apple. A native of one of the world's harshest climates, the Siberian crab apple is a first prevent interference with traffic. The thick, corky bark of mapassing ture trees is an attractive feature. The foliage, which is free of pests and diseases, turns a clear yellow in the fall. Staminate (male) trees are preferable for urban settings, tree is young to as pistillate (female) trees produce large x crops of fruits. Platanus 21-27m. tree. acerifolia (Ait.) Willd. Height -30F. London plane Hardy to for island flowering It survives drought and a wide plantmgs. range of soil conditions. The flowers are red to pink in bud and pale pink to pure white on opening. Bloom is heavy on alternate years. The tree is virtually immune to apple scab disease and mildew and resistant to fire blight. In fact, in the Pennsylvania crabapple trials, which have been conducted for many years, the only clones to receive recommendations have been Malus baccata seedlings or hybrids derived primarily from baccata. A very desirable feature of this species is its disease-free foliage, a trait that is shared by M. xatrosanguinea (F.L. Spath) C. K. Schneid. and M. flombunda Siebold ex Van Houtte. Crab-apple trees chosen for island planting where pedestrian traffic is present should be trees that bear tiny fruits or few fruits. trees choice among Phellodendron 12 m. amurense Rupr. Height 9tree. This vigorous hybrid is the city tree par excellence, a standard agamst which others must be judged. Tolerant of drought, poor soil, reflected heat, and atmospheric pollution, it is easy to transplant and grows rapidly. The original clone, now often called the \"Bloodgood strain\" is resistant to anthracnose leaf disease, which defoliates our native sycamores during wet springs. The London plane tree has gone through several cycles of popularity and disapproval. Many years ago a few nurserymen grew the trees from seed that produced great variation m habit of growth and disease resistance, and this may be one cause for the disapproval. Another may be the plane tree's vulnerability to canker stam disease, a serious condition spread by pruning tools or other mechanical means. The severity of the disease once led the city of Philadelphia to enact ordinances that prohibited planting the tree. Still, where a large tree is needed for island planting, it is a first choice. Hardy to -40F. Amur cork Having originated in the fierce climatic exof the Amur River valley, this small, spreading tree easily endures poor, dry soil, reflected heat, and atmospheric pollution. Its lower branches must be pruned when the tremes Pyrus calleryana Decne. Height 15 m. 12- Hardy to -30F. Callery pear. The cultivation of the vigorous, thornless 'Bradford' pear by the U.S. Department of 20 Agriculture Plant Introduction Station at Beltsville, Maryland, transformed an unknown, thorny scrub tree mto one of the most popular street trees. This tree has everything to recommend it: rapid growth, beautiful pure white flowers, and richly colored fall foliage. Like all pears, it grows well in compacted, poorly oxygenated soil. Brittle wood is its only weakness, and mature trees can literally collapse in a violent summer wind storm, as the parent tree did at Beltsville. The Pennsylvania highway department and others have removed it from their planting lists for that reason. However, for street or island plantings in more sheltered urban locations it is still an excellent choice. Several cultivars that are more wind firm and\/or more cold hardy than 'Bradford' are now available in the nursery trade. Sophora japonica L. Height 15-18 m. Hardy to -30F. Japanese pagoda tree. This unusual summer-flowering tree has been in the nursery trade since the 19th century but only recently has become a popular street tree. It is one of the most variable of all species; a single seedlot can produce both dwarf weepers and tall, full-headed trees. Now improved clones with first-rate shade tree form are readily available. This species tolerates compacted soils (including the \"brick yard\" soils of Washmgton, D.C.), high pH, salt, drought, and polluted air. It is a conspicuous bloomer in August and retains its dark green leaves later in the fall than other deciduous trees. Like honeylocust it will not grow in highly acidic soils, however. Syringa reticulata (Blume) Hara. Height 69 m. Hardy to -30F. Japanese tree lilac. Quercus macrocarpa Michx. Height 1824 m. Hardy to -50F. Bur oak. Many species of oaks make excellent shade under ordinary street conditions, but few thrive m constricted island plantmgs, especially where soil pH is high. Members of the black oak division of the family (pin, red, scarlet, willow, and black oaks) turn yellow trees tough, hardy small tree is covered with huge pamcles of white flowers in June, after the blooming season of most other flowering trees has passed. It withstands exposure and alkaline soils and is not troubled by mildew the leaves or stem borers as are other lilacs. The lower branches must be pruned when young so that they will not interfere with pedestrian traffic. Several clones are now available, including one from Canada. These have been selected for their superior foliage, growth habit, and larger blossoms. on This from chlorosis under these circumstances and gradually die out. The bur oak is unique in that it grows well in alkaline soils, stands drought, heat, and cold and is tolerant of deicing salts. It is not so easy to transplant as the pin oak but is comparable in this regard to red and scarlet oaks. It grows slowly but becomes a tough, long-lived tree. Its native range extends farther west than that of any of the other eastern oaks, which means that it is naturally adapted to ecological conditions similar to those of island plantings. Tilia cordata Mill. Height 15-20 m. Hardy to -30F. Small-leaved European linden. Lindens in general grow well under city conditions, and the best clones of this species are especially reliable. Like those of the pagoda tree (Sophora japomcapopulations of small-leaved lindens grown from seed are 21 extremely variable. Growth may be either rapid or slow; wood is sometimes weak; and leaves may be small and leathery or large and easily scorched. Grafted trees do not exhibit graft mcompatibility and reproduce exactly the very best forms. Easy to transplant, fairly rapid m growth, and tolerant of many soils and climatic conditions, they are excellent subjects for urban islands. The conspicuous, but their rich fragrance is a great rarity among shade trees. flowers are not Tiha Flowers of the Japanese tree x lilac (Synnga re- 12-15 m. euchlora C. Koch 'Redmond'. Height Hardy to -30F. 'Redmond' linto ticulata). ~. den. whether this tree is a Crimean or an American linden cultivar. It has the large leaves and resistance to spider-mite attacks characteristic of American lindens. A compact, upright tree that is native to Nebraska, it is mured to climatic extremes of heat, cold, and drought and thrives m urban locations. Much controversy exists as The small-leaved European linden (Tiha cordata). \/. hybrids. Height Hardy to -30F. Dutch elm. The Dutch elm disease, which was first identified in Holland, has destroyed a major portion of the splendid elm populations of Europe and North America during this cenx Ulmus 15-18 hollandica Mill. m. tury. In response to the crisis, the Dutch government selected and bred elms to produce forms that would be immune to the disease. Seven clones were distributed, some of which have demonstrated remarkable resistance to even the most virulent strains of the fungus. These have the upright, rectangular crowns of European elms rather than the wine-glass shape of American elms. Although vulnerable to elm-leaf beetle, they are exceptionally well adapted to urban 22 conditions and grow well in narrow planting pits and poorly oxygenated soil. street Zelkova 18 m. serrata (Thunb.) Mak. Height species was 15- They must be tolerant of poor soil, drought, and exposure to wind and heat. Salt spray is just as damaging to shrubs as to trees m island plantings, and it is not surprising that several of the species listed below are also first choices for seashore planting. In addition, shrubs, like trees, are vulnerable to the problem of vandalism. The New York City Public Housing Authority has found that it is best to avoid shrubs with conspicuous flowers except for extremely vigorous growers such as forsythia. All of the shrubs listed below are on the approved list for the authority and have withstood the severest tests of time in very unfavorable inner-city conditions. They are relatively free from diseases and insect pests and can truly be termed low-maintenance shrubs. Shrubs that grow to be too tall for their location can be safely cut down to the ground and will resprout and grow more densely than ever. On level sites a well-sharpened brush mower can be used at a great savings in labor costs. Cutting back is best done in November or December so that the cut surfaces can dry out and seal themselves before the sap begins to run m the spring. Also, cutting off at this time will result in the most these sites. Hardy to -20F. Japanese zelkova. Not many decades ago this rarely encountered outside arboreta and botanical gardens. Seedling trees are very variable, and most have irregular, zig-zag habits of growth and small yellowish foliage. The original introductions came from the warmer regions of Japan and were not too cold hardy. It was not until the Dutch elm disease destroyed the American elm and the search began for replacement species, that zelkova began to receive serious attention. Hardier clones with excellent shade-tree shapes are now available and are being widely used on city streets. Tolerant of pollution, drought, and heat, they have shown remarkable vigor in downtown locations in Washington, D.C., and Baltimore, Maryland. They are not as cold hardy as most important shade trees but otherwise are excellent choices for island planting. Any tree with such a wide native distribution as zelkova must have hardy races m the colder parts of its range, and a serious attempt to find them would increase the uses of this excellent tree. Although artifical innoculations of Zelkova serrata with the Dutch elm fungus have demonstrated that this species is vulnerable to the disease, this factor can be ignored because the insect vectors of the disease do not feed on this tree. vigorous regrowth. Acanthopanax sieboldianus Mak. Height 2-3 m. Hardy to -30F. Five-leaf aralia. dense, many-stemmed shrub is especially tolerant of poor, dry soil and atmospheric pollution. It is thorny and makes an excellent barrier planting. Other than its abundant disease-free foliage, it has no special beauty but is most useful for its vigor under adverse conditions. This Shrubs Shrubs for urban islands should share the same characteristics as trees chosen for 23 Berberis thunbergii DC. Height 2 m. Hardy to -20F. Japanese barberry. Japanese barberry plants were once sold by but, being thornless, it should not be planted where it can be trampled by pedestrians. Several forms that are lower and more spreading are grown in Japan, but unfortunately these are not available in this country. the millions for low-growing hedges, but their use has declined as formal clipped hedges have lost popularity m home gardens. It is still useful as a barrier and tall ground cover, however, and will grow well in conditions of poor soil and neglect. The numerous, small thorns are needle sharp, a real deterrent to trespassers without being dangerous. The brilliant shades of scarlet foliage in the fall and the persistent red berries are very attractive. The redleaf form is colorful throughout the growing season. Elaeagnus umbellata Thunb. Height 3-4 m. Hardy to -40F. Autumn olive. The foliage of this species is not so showy as the pale silvery leaves of the Russian olive (Elaeagnus angustifoha~.Yet is has the advantage of being better adapted to the Eastern States and other areas where summer humidity is normal. The extensive highway plantmgs of Russian olive m the East in the 1950s all have gradually succumbed to twig blight, while the disease-free autumn olive has become extensively naturalized in the same areas. Autumn olive is a superb tall shrub for roadway or seashore planting, withstanding salt, poor soil, and drought without setback. The silvery green foliage and pretty bronze-to-red fruits are decidedly ornamental. The U.S. Soil Conservation Service has introduced a strain grown from seed called 'Cardinal' with fruits that are a bnghter red. Chaenomeles lagenana Height quince. 1-2 m. (Loisel.) Koidz. Hardy to -30F. Flowering One of the most colorful early-flowering shrubs, the flowering quince resists vandalism because of its numerous prickly thorns. It is a popular substitute for the Kurume azaleas m cold areas where the latter are not winter hardy. There are numerous named clones with flowers ranging in color from pure white through various shades of pink and orange to deep crimson red. They vary m height and density, and the low, bushy forms are excellent for ground cover. Forsythia x intermedia Zab. Height 2 m. Hardy to -20F. Showy border forsythia. Wherever it is wmter hardy, this is one of the best shrubs for screening purposes. It is vigorous, pest free, tolerant of city conditions, and unaffected by deicing salts. Vandals do break off branches m the blooming season (April), but the plant quickly recovers from the injury. Three excellent new clones of the much hardier Forsythia ovata have been bred for Deutzia gracilis Siebold & Zucc. Height I m. Hardy to -30F. Slender deutzia. This low, twiggy shrub has greatly increased in popularity m recent years for the purpose of mass plantmgs. It is covered with pure white flowers m May and has abundant pest-free foliage. It is also useful as a hedge 24 the northern Plains States and Canada, where border forsythias will survive. shrub, spreading gradually by underground runners. Ligustrum obtusifolium Rehd. 2 var. m. (Koehne) Height Regel privet. This is the only hardy privet that is low growing, dense, and spreading, and exceptionally useful for mass planting. One of the toughest shrubs for city use, it is a mainstay for adverse sites. Almost 100 years of extensive planting in New York City and elsewhere have shown that it is one of the most reliable shrubs for city landscaping. Lomcera fragrantissima Lindl. & Paxt. Height 2 m. Hardy to -10F. Winter honey- regelianum Hardy to -40F. Potentilla fruticosa L. to -50F. Bush Height cinquefoil. 1 m. Hardy This hardy, drought-resistant shrub is smtable for mass planting in full sun but does not thrive in shade. It is not spectacular m bloom, but the pretty yellow flowers are borne over a long period during the summer. It is especially useful where summers are dry, with low humidity. Many cultivars are available, varying in flower color, habit of growth, and tolerance for adverse conditions. 'Katherine Dykes' is among the best for ground-cover use. Prunus maritima Marsh. 1-2 to -40F. Beach plum. m. suckle. Hardy This handsome semievergreen shrub is often listed as hardy to -20F, but it is better grown at minimum winter temperatures of -10F and above. It has leathery foliage and deliciously fragrant flowers, which open in March in the south and in April further north. It withstands poor soil and polluted air and is free of pests and diseases. Young plants are sparsely branched but fill out with age to form an impenetrable screen. Myrica pensylvanica Loisel. Height 2 m. This was once a rarely grown native shrub chosen by knowledgeable landscape architects for mass plantings m seashore gardens. It is now extensively used, not only for the traditional seaside uses, but also for roadway planting, because it is so tolerant of salt spray and poor, sterile soil. The white flowers are attractive m the spring, and the fall foliage is more colorful than that of many other plums. The dense branching habit renders it useful for barrier planting. Rosa rugosa Thunb. -50F. Rugosa rose. Hardy to -40F. Bayberry. Height 1 m. appropriate shrubs for the seashore, bayberry has proved to be One of the three most Hardy to equally indispensable for roadways. It grows wild in the poorest, most sterile soils and withstands salt spray, heat, drought, and polluted air. It is semievergreen in the southern part of its range, and the foliage is pleasantly aromatic. The gray-white berries of female plants last far into the winter. This is a dense Generally regarded as the most beautiful of all the wild rose species, this splendid shrub is unsurpassed for mass planting. It is a seashore plant in its native Japan and has become widely naturalized in this country on the East Coast. The red, pink, or white flowers are deliciously fragrant, and the 25 Arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum)\/ m flower. status, these plants are an exceptional group of shrubs for mass plantings in adverse locations. They are covered with fragrant pink flowers in June, and their glossy foliage turns scarlet in the fall. The red new stems and abundant red fruits are colorful throughout the wmter. Easily transplanted, they withstand drought, salt spray, and exposure and are free from pests and foliar diseases. handsome disease-free foliage turns orange and red in the fall. It thrives along the seashore and in adverse urban locations. Like other shrub roses, it benefits from being periodically pruned to ground level and grows best in full sun. Rugosa rose has the advantage of blooming throughout the summer, unlike most other wild roses. Rosa mrgimana Mill. -40F. Virginia rose. Height 1 m. Hardy to Symphoricarpos xchenaultii Rehd.'Hancock'. Height 45-60 cm. Hardy to -20F. 'Hancock' coralberry. This low, rapidly spreadmg shrub from Canada is an excellent ground cover in full This species, the shining rose \/Rosa nitida ~, and several other native species comprise a confusing group of very similar wild roses of doubtful identity. Whatever their taxonomic 26 partial sun. It has tiny, neat foliage and spreading branches that root wherever they touch the ground, forming a dense mat. Coralberry grows well m poor soil and is free or of pests and diseases. Viburnum dentatum L. Height 3-4 Hardy to -50F. Arrowwood. m. figure 1).Plantings often fail when the soil is graded to an even crown so that water runs off mstead of being absorbed. As noted earlier, the surface area for rainwater infiltration is very limited in island plantings, and because islands are surrounded by pavement, which carries off precipitation, the subsoil beneath is usually deficient in moisture. Thus, little capillary replenishment to the root zone can occur. Because islands are small and their soil is often poor, too much peat or humus is frequently added to the beds. Many old backfill specifications called for up to a third or a half of the mix to be well-rotted manure or other forms of humus. Trees initially grow vigorously in such high-humus soils, but when the surrounding soil is clay, they begin to slow down and stagnate in a couple of growmg seasons. Orgamc matter of any kind is gradually decomposed by soil bacteria and eventually disappears into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. As the volume of humus m the backfill disappears, the tree settles deeper in the soil and roots become situated too deeply for proper growth. Arborists and landscape architects are now re-exammmg the old specifications for soil amendment. Unless the soil on the site is entirely unsuitable a mixture of brickbats and rubble for example - they recommend adding fertilizer and enriching the existing soil with a minimum of humus, not more than 10 percent. Such minimal treatment avoids the interface problems that can occur when the backfill mix is very different in texture from the soil in which the planting pits were excavated. Since trees for island plantings have to be large enough in caliper to withstand vandalism, they are usually balled and burlapped rather than container-grown. These transplant with little difficulty and do not - This splendid shrub is one of another cluster of species whose identity is doubtful. Although it inhabits wet, lowland areas in the wild, it is also drought tolerant and withstands salt spray and exposure. The foliage and stems are immune to the stem cankers and leaf spots that disfigure other hardy viburnums. The berries are an mconspicuous blue-black color, but the yellow and red fall color of the foliage is first rate. Viburnum prunifolium L. Height 4-5 Hardy to -40F. Black haw. One of the tallest native m. viburnums, the black haw makes an excellent screening plant and can also be sheared to create a formal hedge. This is an upland species, inured to poor soil and drought. In autumn the smooth oval leaves mitially turn pmk, then red, and finally purple. The berries also change from green to pmk and finally blueblack in the fall. Island Tree Planting Island beds for tree plantmg should be raised well above the level of the surrounding pavement. The runoff from the impermeable pavement can so concentrate rain and snow melt in a sunken island that death from root rot can occur. Although raised above grade level, the surface of the island also should be somewhat dished to retain rainwater (see 27 Figure 1. Dished island surface crowned surface Figure 2. Planted high Planted too deep Figure 3. Improved method Edges of basin placed over edges of ball Traditional method 28 need high-humus backfills. If the existing soil is a heavy clay and requires lightemng for proper air penetration, coarse sand, calcined clay particles, or similar nonorganic materials should be used. Whenever trees are planted in newly worked or loosened soil, they should be set \"high\" in relation to the final grade level (see figure 2).The ideal system is to place the ball on an unbroken column or pedestal of undisturbed soil so that it cannot settle, though such extra care is impractical in all but a few planting situations. An alternative solution is high planting, 5 cm above grade for the top of a 60 cm ball, 8 cm for a 90 cm ball. It is far better to err on the side of too shallow rather than too deep planting. A famous example was the red oak avenue leading to the Rutgers University stadium in New Jersey. The land on the site was a very poor red-clay soil, so generous amounts of rotted manure were incorporated in the backfill. The trees all lived and grew well for the first two growing seasons, only to stagnate later on. Eventually all the trees were dug up again and reset with the tops of the balls above grade, and thereafter they grew beautifully. High planting is the best way to avoid these difficulties. Most plantmg specifications for shade trees recommend forming a shallow berm around the edge of the planting pit to faciliwatering. Experience in California, where water is scarce and expensive, has shown that the basin is much more effective if the edges are placed over the edge of the ball (see figure 3).Particularly m sandy locations, this assures that the ball itself is well watered during irrigation and that the moisture does not slip down the side of the pit. One detail that is often overlooked in istate ensure enough from the perimeter of the island so that the bumpers of cars will not debark the trunks or flatten the stems. The large automobiles of the 1960s are no longer common, small cars have substantial overhangs. In far too many island plantings, trees become will established initially but eventually succumb to repeated debarlang by careless drivers. but even enes, William Flemer III is the propnetor of Pnnceton NursPnnceton, New Jersey land planting, especially in parking lots, is to that trees and shrubs are planted far "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Design for Survival Anne","article_sequence":3,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24852","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260af6b.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Spirn, Whiston","article_content":"Design for Survival Anne Whiston Spirn \"urban island\" refers to a patch of and soil embedded m a matrix of plants pavement and buildmgs. Urban islands may be as small as a pit or pot for a single tree or as large as the center of a traffic rotary. They may be round or square, regular or irregular in shape, a compact patch or a linear strip. They may be part of a considered design or merely leftover space landscaped as an afterthought or colonized by weeds. Urban islands are ubiquitous in American cities. They are to be found along streets and highways, m parkmg lots and plazas. They are highly visible to all who move into and through the city every day, and thus have a major effect upon how the city is perceived. At their best they can enhance a place or even represent a neighborhood, as Bloomsbury's tree-filled squares characterize that district of London, for example, or as the Commonwealth Avenue Mall symbolizes Boston's Back Bay. Unfortunately, m most American cities urban islands are sorry affairs. The empty tree pits and planters that litter sidewalks and plazas, the weed-filled traffic islands and median strips, and the dead and dymg trees that lie along our streets are testaments to our failure to provide a viable habitat in these islands and, in a broader sense, are symbolic of our failure to sustam vital cities. If only urban islands were designed to enhance their surroundings and to thrive under the harsh conditions to which they are subjected, they The term could contribute realm. to a more vital urban public Urban Islands: Stressful Habitats City plants must contend with tremendous biological, physical, and chemical stresses: too much water or too little; temperatures too low or too high; polluted air, water, and soil; pests and diseases. All these urban stresses are exaggerated in islands. Many plants cannot survive at all; others survive in a dwarfed, distressed condition. But all urban islands are not equivalent in the stresses they pose; small pits and pots, for example, are far more hostile environments for most plants than larger strips or plots. Pits and Pots Most street trees eke out a marginal exis- tence, their roots cramped between building and street foundations, threaded among water, gas, electric, and telephone lines, and encased in soil as dense and infertile as concrete. Their trunks are gouged by car fenders, bicycle chains, and even the stakes installed to protect them. Their branches are broken by passing buses. Leaves and bark are baked in the reflected heat from pavement and walls or condemned to perpetual shade cast by adjacent buildings. Roots may be parched or drowned; in either case their ability to de- 30 31 liver essential nutrients to the tree is drastically reduced. The street trees that survive maintain a precarious balance between life and death. Incremental insult can spell the difference. Gusty winds on a street corner or at the base of a tall bmlding mcrease the loss of precious water by evaporation. Salts from deicing compounds and dog urine alter the osmotic pressure of water in the surrounding soil so that water is sucked out of the tree roots. Leaks from gas mains poison plant roots, while air fouled by automobile exhaust and industrial emissions and heavily laden with dust can poison and suffocate the leaves of sensitive species. It is more surprising that street trees and plants in urban islands survive at all than that their life span is so short. The demise of the average street tree is due to a daily struggle for survival in which the tree weakens progressively year by year and finally succumbs to a blight or a drought that a healthy tree could easily survive. Trees or shrubs m pots on a plaza may face even worse conditions than those in pits on the street. Many plazas are not built over soil but are actually roofs of basements or subways, and plaza trees are therefore often planted in pots, either sunken or raised. The depth of soil they are planted in is limited by the strength and size of the structure beneath the plaza. Rarely is sufficient soil provided to sustain large trees over a natural life span. A raised planter that is large enough for only a single tree is one of the worst environments for a plant, a fact at- tested to by the many empty concrete planters that line urban plazas. When the sides of a planter are exposed to air, the soil freezes and heats up rapidly, and tender roots are alternately burned and frozen in climates with pronounced seasonal changes. Plazas are also often located at the bases of tall bmldings, where gusty wmds dehydrate both tree and soil. The problems posed by such hostile environments are often compounded by the installation of plant species that are poorly adapted to such conditions. Transplant a forest tree, for example, to a city street or plaza, and it must contend with conditions different in every respect from those in which it evolved: individual trees spaced far apart, with bark and the underside of leaves exposed to sun and reflected heat; paved surface ; dense, infertile oxygen-deficient soil; and an uncertain water supply. Strips and Plots Strips of land along roads and highways, and plots large enough for several trees afford more hospitable conditions than isolated pits or pots. A small plaza m Philadelphia provides a dramatic demonstration of this point. Half of the plaza is at street level, with trees planted in tiny holes within impervious pavement. The other half contains a large, raised, concrete planter filled with many trees. Within a few years of mstallation, the trees planted in pavement were dead or dying, while trees planted at the same time in the open soil of the large planter were thriving. When planted in a group, trees protect one another from extremes of sun and wind. In addition, planters that are sufficiently large to accommodate many trees do not have the severe problems Illustration from Les Promenades de Pans showing the mfrastructure mstalled to support street trees m nineteenth century Pans. The pipes were for drainage, aeration, and mugation. 32 33 of temperature fluctuation and desiccation that plague smaller pots. Designing Urban Islands The stressful conditions of urban islands could be overcome or at least ameliorated by regular maintenance: irrigation, fertilization, mulching, and pruning. Unfortunately, unless owned or adopted by an individual or located m a highly symbolic public place, urban islands seldom receive the maintenance they are designed to require for survival. The combination of stressful conditions and lack of maintenance m these environments makes careful design imperative. In the absence of maintenance, the most effective way to enhance the survival of plants in urban islands, and to improve their appearance, is careful attention to the design of landscaping, to the way it is installed, and to the selection and arrangement of plants. The following are gmdehnes for the design of urban islands. the conditions of an urban island depart from a natural ecosystem, the more energy (maintenance) is required to sustain the plants. atively \"closed\" systems, requiring minimal input of energy in the form of irrigation, fertilization, reseeding and replanting, and plant removal. The following recommendations will increase the likelihood that an urban island will function in this manner: Provide as large an area as possible. The larger the urban island, the more likely that it will be able to function as a relatively closed system that can sustain normal plant growth. A 1-2 mz plantmg hole, for example, may support a mature tree of only 6-8 m m height (Kozel et al. 1978). Healthy, mature growth can be achieved m urban islands if trees are planted m clusters, rather than spaced out along the sidewalk in pits. The plantings m Bloomsbury and Russell Squares m London and m Louisburg Square m Boston are excellent examples of this strategy. The aesthetic effect of a single cluster of large trees may also be greater than a larger number of much smaller trees hmng the street. This strategy is especially well-suited to plazas built over basements, where planters must be used m order to provide sufficient soil depth for trees or shrubs. Pits for street trees can also be enlarged by replacing the stnp of sidewalk between the trees with stone dust or permeable pavement, thereby connectmg what would otherwise be tiny, isolated spaces. Pnnciple 1: The more Urban islands are miniecosystems. Ideally, they should be designed and managed as relThe deline of an urban island. Taken over 12 2 years, this series of photographs documents the fate of an award-winning landscape design whose impact relied on uniformity of plant species and arrangement, and which failed to take mto account different soil and dramage conditions. Widespread disregard of urban soils accounts for poor survival rates of urban street trees and landscaping. Photographs by James C. Patterson; courtesy National Capital Region, National Park Service. Provide as deep a soil as possible. A deep permeable, relatively homogeneous soil will provide a growing medium that promotes water dramage and storage and nutrient exchange. a ground surface that is permeable to and water. The air and water exchange permitted by a permeable ground surface is essential to healthy plant growth. Ideally, the surface of the island should be unpaved and planted with shrubs or ground cover that will shade the soil surface, protecting it from water loss and buffering it from extremes of heat and cold. If a paved surface is absolutely necessary, it should be composed of a permeable material like stone dust, pea gravel, or bncks set m sand. Mamtam air 34 Three types of urban island on Pennsylvania Avenue m Washington, D.C.: raised pot, sunken pot, and grassy strip. The two rows of street trees were the same size when planted four years earlier. Sidewalk trees are now noticeably smaller than those m open soil, despite an elaborate system constructed to support them. Photographs by James C. Patterson; courtesy National Capital Region, National Park Service. Permit natural soil fertilization to occur. If leaves are allowed to remam on the soil surface, they will decompose and form a natural mulch urban island: to create a habitat that approximates the natural habitat of a desired species or to select species whose native environments are similar to that of the urban island. an species selected. Approximate the natme habitat of the plant Many trees planted in the city and fertilizer. Principle 2 : The more closely the urbanisland habitat matches the natural habitat of the plants growmg within it, the less energy is required to sustain the plants. evolved m a forest environment: a humid, temperate climate where each tree is surrounded by other trees, protected from sun and wind. The surface of the forest's soil is soft and spongy, as a result of the long-term accumulation of decomposed leaves. Tiny rootlets pack the upper few mches of the soil, the major feeding zone of the forest tree. To enhance the survival rate of forest trees in urban islands, they should be planted in clumps m an open soil with a soft, permeable surface and adequate water. Having adapted to the environment in which they evolved, plants have different needs for water, air, light, and nutrients. Two approaches are open to the designer of Select plants whose native environment is similar to that of the urban island. It may not always be possible to amend the habitat to suit a forest tree, but not all trees are native to forests. Trees, shrubs, and other plants native to stressful envi- 35 ronments, such as floodplams, old fields, and seacoasts, may survive with far less care m urban islands than forest trees. The repeated floods that floodplam trees must contend with prevent the accumulation of leaf mold and topsoil and saturate the earth, rendenng it ~ust as deficient m oxygen as compacted urban soil. It is therefore not surpnsmg that floodplam trees like Allanthus altissima flourish m the city. Old field trees, such as sumac andFraxinus species, and seacoast species, such as Rosa rugosa, mll thmve m urban islands. Matchmg the urban island habitat with analogs in \"wilder\" settmgs will yield plants that are likely to survive with minimal care. not fared as well grassy as those planted on an adja- cent strip. A city can afford such expensive solutions only in a few streets. There are other, less expensive alternatives. The design of the pit, the composition of the soil, and the preparation of the soil surface are all important. Grade the bottom of tree pits to protect tree roots from water-logged soils. Although this can be accomplished m single-tree pits, the larger and deeper the hole the more efficiently and economically it can be dramed. Amend the existmg soil, rather than replace it. The contrast between compacted subsoil and new topsoil in a tree pit is a primary cause of the \"tea-cup\" effect, m which tree roots become flooded as a result of madequate water drainage. Amending the excavated urban soil with orgamc matter and a coarse material, such as cinders or expanded shale, reduces the contrast between the soil of the tree pit and the adjacent soil, enhancing dramage and root growth. Cover the soil surface with several mches of mulch. A thick mulch will retard weed growth, prevent water loss from evaporation, and reduce soil compaction. Where an orgamc mulch is not feasible, an morgamc material, such as porous stone dust, will provide a walking surface under trees and still permit the access of air and water to tree roots. e Principle 3 : Careful preparation of the planting area durmg mstallatlon will increase growth and surmval rates, improve the appearance of the plants, and minimize maintenance problems. \"Plant a one-dollar tree in a ten-dollar hole\" an old maxim whose validity has been proved again and again. On major streets, or those with symbolic value, many cities are now spending close to ten times the value of the tree on preparation of the pit and the pavement around it. An elaborate system was devised, for example, for street trees on Pennsylvania Avenue m Washington, D.C. Existing soil was excavated to a depth of 81 cm in a circle of 5 m in diameter around each tree, amended with compost, and reis placed. An irrigation ring 4 m in diameter was positioned under concrete sidewalks to promote irrigation, fertilization, and aeration. An underground drain connecting the away excess water, and a grate around the base of each tree helps to keep the soil from becoming compacted. The cost of the new pavement, soil, and drain around each tree exceeded $5,000 (Jewell 1981~.Despite this elaborate system, the trees have trees carries Pnnciple 4: No matter how carefully the foregoing principles are employed, mdividual plants in urban islands will vary in growth and survival rate. Designs that rely on uniformity either of plant form or arrangement are especially vulnerable to such irregular growth. The following strategies address this problem: Overplant an urban island, so that if some plants die enough will remain to achieve the desired effect. Overplantmg will also yield a greater aesthetic effect immediately after mstal- 36 lation. Nature will eventually cull the weakest port NE-22. Upper Darby, eastern Pennsylvama. North- plants. Design the plant arrangement so that the loss of certam plants will not undermme the overall effect. This does not mean that one should not plant a umform gnd of trees, for example, but a bosque may be converted to a grove if several trees succumb. Forest Experiment Station. Roberts, Bruce R 1976 \"The Physiology of Trees m and Near Human Settlements.\" In Trees and Forests for Human Settlements, John W. Andresen, ed Toronto: Center for Urban Forestry Studies Spirn, Anne Whiston. 1984 The Gramte Garden Urban Nature and Human Design New York: Basic Books Anne Whiston These are general principles. The design of a specific urban island will depend upon such considerations as the location, size, and shape of the island, the degree of maintenance it will receive, and the agent who will maintain it. A design appropriate for a planter in front of city hall, for example, may not be appropriate for all islands in the city that must be maintained at public expense. Urban islands are too important a resource for a community in terms of esthetics, image, and quality of life for their design to be left to chance. Spirn is associate professor of landscape architecture at the Harvard Graduate School of sign She is also a registered landscape architect De- Acknowledgments Portions of this article are taken from The Granite Garden: Urban Nature and Human Design (Basic Books, 1984), by the author. Bibliography Foster, Ruth S. 1977 \"Roots: Caring for City Trees.\" \" Technology Remew, 79 (July\/August): 29-34. Harris, Richard. 1983. Arbomculture. Care of Trees, Shrubs, and Vines in the Landscape Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. \" Jewell, Linda. 1981 \"Planting Trees m City Soils.\" Landscape Architecture, 71: 387-89. Kozel, P. C., M. J. Jansen, and G. P. Hettel. 1978. \"Which Trees Do Best m the Crty ~\" Ohio Report, 63 (January\/February): 6-9. Patterson, James. 1976. \"Soil Compaction and Its Effects upon Urban Vegetation.\" In Better Trees for Metropohtan Landscapes Symposmm Proceed- mgs, F. Santamour, H D. Gerhold, and S Little, eds. U.S. Forest Service General Technical Re- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New Choices for Urban Islands","article_sequence":4,"start_page":37,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24854","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260b728.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"New Choices for Urban Gary L. Koller Islands Urban islands are meant to be oases of natural greenery that contrast with and visually soften the hard surfaces of urban landscapes. One wonders if the plants we now utilize are tough enough to survive benign neglect, harsh environmental conditions, and vandalism. Some plants are, but one sees many urban islands in which the plants are dead or dying. A plant that would flourish in one location might fail miserably m another, and it would be incautious therefore to recommend a plant for all situations. In any planting it is most important to observe the conditions of the site and choose plants that most readily adapt to that habitat. It is my opinion that plants are often chosen because of ornamental criteria, such as showy flowers, brilliant autumn foliage colors, or evergreen foliage. What is ulti- mately more important is to select plants that are capable of thriving under existing site conditions. If the plant does nothing more than provide a green, leafy presence m the city, then it has performed well. The importance of flowers, fruit, and autumn color should be secondary, for what good is the most gorgeous flowering tree or shrub if it is barely surviving? I also believe that we should revive the use of tough plants with minor ornamental attributes that have been abandoned in favor of prettier plants that are often more exacting in their habitat re- William Flemer III has identified and discussed many tough plants m his article in this issue. These plants have proved themselves through repeated successful applications in urban sites, and they should continue to be used. At the same time we must continue to seek little-known new plants that adapt to island habitats. What is needed is the widest possible array of plants to select from, so that we have species fitting every specialized habitat. The plants listed below have been selected for toughness, longevity, and adaptability to a wide range of environments. All present the primary attribute of attractive foliage throughout the growing season. Most are little known and little used, and few are commercially available at present. All are hardy at the Arnold Arboretum and can be observed there. The list that follows is for nursery growers and landscape architects who wish to, dare to, and can afford to experiment with something different. Why not select one or two for evaluation and help extend knowledge about plants for urban is- lands ? Trees Asimina triloba Hardy to -10F. (L.) Dunal. Height 5-8 Pawpaw. m. quirements. Plantings on many large islands in cities are often visually monotonous because of regularly spaced specimen trees. Thickets or col- 38 39 onies would mcrease interest and create the effect of an urban woodland. The pawpaw is a native colomzmg tree that spreads outwardly via rootsuckers. Because shoots arise next to and in the middle of nearby plantings, the pawpaw is best used alone in a mass planting, with a simple ground cover such as Rhus aromatica Ait. Chamaecyparis pisifera \/Siebold & Zucc.) Endl. Height 12-21 m. Hardy to -30F. Sawara cypress. Chamaecypams pisifera is capable of re- 'Gro-Low', Symphoricarpos Rehd. x chenaultii 'Hancock', Arundinaria viridistriata (Siebold ex Andre) Mak., Aruncus dioicus Walt., orXanthorhiza simplicissima Marsh. The pawpaw has a round-topped shape, and good specimens bear branches directly to the ground. The leaves are 15-30 cm long, light to medium green, and visually distinctive because of their pendent or drooping character. Autumn foliage is an attractive amber yellow. The fruit, which is edible, resembles a short, fat banana. It ripens to a purplish brown color and possesses a distinctive flavor and texture. Although Asimma has few other habitat requirements, it prefers a soil that retains adequate moisture. It is somewhat difficult to transplant, and nursery-grown specimens dug for transplanting are slow to recover vigor and normal shoot elongation. markable growth under the most difficult conditions, surviving where many other plants fail. In many locations the common evergreens, such as white pine (Pinus strobus L.), Canada hemlock (Tsuga canadensis [L.] Carriere), Austrian pine (Pinus nigra Arnold), and Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergiana Franco\/, failing miserably. Their decline can be attributed to intolerance to drought, air pollution, environmental salts, construction damage, and are insects or diseases. Mature specimens of Chamaecyparis pisifera appear in many long-established inner-city landscapes. The trunks are tall and majestic, with a cinnamon brown to gray-brown bark. The trees have an openness of habit that permits a view through them, and their yellow-green foliage is attractive in the winter landscape. Frequently, mature plants possess a layered fullness of form that is absent in many pines, spruces, and firs. Sawara cypresses are best planted in groves. In one such planting at the Arnold Container-grown plants may respond more quickly. Once established, the plant is undemanding and long-lived. Pawpaw has many potential uses. It would look handsome running along a ridge or on both sides of a path. It would also be effective as a leafy camouflage for the concrete slabs that serve as Arboretum, mdividual plants are spaced 6-8m. apart. Today the outer branches touch, enclosing the space beneath the canopy. noise-reduction barriers along highways. The Sawara cypress [, \/Chamaecypans pisifera\/, foreground. Dwarf cultivars of Chamaecyparis pisifera have become more popular than the tree types, which are now infrequently grown in the nursery industry. Perhaps this is because the tree types were used mappropriately m the past. They were often planted beneath windows, next to doorways, and along driveways, where their qmck, full growth overwhelmed the space. As a result, they 40 ineptly pruned, creating an ugly effect. Chamaecyparis pisifera is a plant of robust, vigorous growth. It is extremely tolerant of dry, nutritionally poor soils, as well as the sandy soils of coastal areas. It must be were _ grown m full sun, as shade kills leaves and branches. Sawara cypress is exceptionally tolerant of winds and ocean spray. Longestablished plantings are present on the islands of Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The cultivars of Chamaecypans pisifera are numerous, and most are dwarf or compact evergreens. However, several significant tree forms are available, including 'Plumosa', which is dense and conical with ascending branches. Mature trees at the Arnold Arboretum planted in 1891 now stand 9-12 m tall. Winter foliage color is a browngreen, which some consider unattractive. This cultivar could be improved by the selection of mdividuals with shiny, dark green foliage that remains attractive yearround. 'Squarrosa' is one of the most distinctive evergreens for soft blue-grey foliage and rapid growth. Although the inner foliage turns brown and dies, it can be removed by fine pruning. This produces an attractive billowy effect, which is beautiful in combmation with the foliage color and texture. Cornus macrophylla Wallich. Height 811 m. Hardy to -10F. Big-leaf dogwood. horticultural promise is the big-leaf dogwood, which is native to China and Japan. Tom Dilatush, an observant nurseryman and plant collector from Robbmsville, New Jersey, tells me that he finds Cornus macrophylla to be more drought tolerant than other arborescent dogwood species. He also says that it transplants more easily and recovers more qmckly. Dunng early July large quantities of tiny are borne on flatterminal panicles and resemble those topped of red-osier dogwood (Cornus semcea L.j. By early August clusters of tiny light green fruit appear against the dark green leaves. As the fruit ripens in September, the pedicels turn an attractive rose pink, while the frmt ripens to a blue-black color. Birds quickly strip the ripe fruit, but the pedicels remain for another 3-4 weeks. Autumn foliage color is unremarkable. Big-leaf dogwood has a strong tendency to produce multiple trunks rising from near soil level, and in habit it resembles an overgrown shrubby dogwood. The mature tree has a rounded shape. One of the Arnold Arboretum's trees has grown from seed received in 1951 and today has a spread of 14 m, with four stems rising from just above the soil level to 9 m high. Another specimen thrives in rich, moist soil in full sun. It grew from cuttings in 1980 and was transplanted to the grounds in spring 1982. By August 1, 1984, the new season's growth averaged 30 cm, and the plant was approximately 3 m tall. creamy white flowers Our native dogwood \/Cornus florida L.) and the kousa dogwood (C. kousa Hance) continue to be planted on islands, with various degrees of success. Many fail because they have been planted too deeply. Drought stress, salt damage, reflected heat and sunlight, or mechanical damage to the stem or root system are other causes of failure. One relatively unknown dogwood with Corylus colurna L. Height 9-15 -20F. Turkish filbert. m. Hardy to or Turkish filbert is now rare in street island plantings, but I am certain that it will be 41 more widely used once it becomes better in known. Two factors offer promise for increased use. First, the filbert canopy is more open than that of most moderate-sized trees because of this tree's wide-angle branch formation. Second, when the filbert becomes established, it adapts to and conditions and superb condition until autumn, when they turn to yellow or pale gold. exposed sites. Foliage rs a rich, dark green throughout and fall. Pendent staminate catkins present in a reduced size throughout the winter but grow and enlarge to a length of 5 to 8 cm as the weather warms in spring. Late each summer a nutlike fruit appears, surrounded by a curiously fringed light green involucre. Although not showy, the fruit is summer are visually interesting. Squirrels quickly carry away ripening seeds, so no litter remains. The light brown filbert bark is distinctive, with small scales that flake off, revealing patches of pale orange-brown. I have observed long-established Turkish filberts at the Arnold Arboretum, Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, the Brooklyn Botanic Garden in New York, Temple University in Ambler, Pennsylvania, and Cornell University in Ithaca, New York. At all locations the trees displayed beauty of form, crisp foliage, and freedom from insect and disease pests. Corylus colurna offers the promise of a completely new tree to widen species diversity in islands and other difficult urban locations. At the Arnold Arboretum we have lifted several old plantings, divided off clumps, and reestablished colonies at new planting sites. The bare-rooted transplants in some cases were slow in becoming established but eventually developed a physical density and luxuriant appearance possessed by few other plants. Sweet shrub is singularly appropriate for creating mass plantings m either sun or shade. To maintain the richness of the foliage, the plants require shearing to soil level every five to six years. Flowers are purplish brown and not particularly eyecatching but have a delightful spicy fragrance. The fragrant character varies enormously among plants produced from seed. Some nurseries have selected and vegetatively reproduced forms with outstanding fragrance, while others continue to produce inferior lines. One would hope that nurseries would evaluate and then purge their line of propagation stock with poor fragrance. Colutea Hardy media Willd. Height 2 to - 10F. Bladder senna. x to 3 m. Shrubs Calycanthus flondus L. Height 2-3 m. Hardy to -15F. Sweet shrub. Outstanding foliage is this plant's chief asset. The leaves remain lush, dark green, and Bladder senna is overlooked as a mediumsized shrub capable of thriving in full sun on dry, gravely, infertile soils. In fact, it will colonize sites too inhospitable for many plants and is therefore the most appropriate choice for restoring the banks of fresh highway cuts. It is also useful in planting islands and semiwild urban parklands. Colutea x media is a hybrid of Colutea arborescens L. of southern Europe and C. orientalis Miller of Asia. At the Arnold Arboretum peak flowering occurs in mid-May, with scattered blossoms appearing through- 42 - the summer. Flowers are pea-shaped and usually butter yellow, but some have markings or tints of copper, pink, or reddish brown. Flowers are followed by large, thinwalled, inflated pods that may be lime green or richly tinted with pinks and bronze. The seed pods are highly ornamental from June through late July, when they begin to ripen and turn straw brown. The ornamental qualities of these inflated pods rival those of many flowering shrubs. Bladder senna is generally rounded in habit. The foliage is sparse and the branching is open - some might say rangy and unkempt. The shrub is least attractive in late summer, when the seed pods turn brown and the leaves lose their color. It looks best when grown in a low ground cover, such as Symphoricarpos x chenaultm 'Hancock' or out formed a dense, impenetrable barrier, which guided pedestrian traffic. The foliage was dark green and lush. Russell Myers, director of parks for the state of New Jersey, told me Aegopodium podagraria L. 'Variegatum'. Diervilla Hardy eysuckle. sess111folia Buckl. Height 1-2 to -20F. Southern bush hon- m. that he considers Diervilla one of the most reliable plants for mass and ground-cover plantings on the banks of highways. John Trexler, former horticulturist at the Frelinghuysen Arboretum, has noted that deer browse the foliage during late summer, a factor that must be considered in planting in rural situations. I often walk along the Marginal Way in York Harbor, Maine, where Diervilla lonicera Mill. grows on the dry rocky soils of the cliffs, exposed to the winds and the salt spray from the Atlantic Ocean. This species is less handsome m leaf thanD. sessilifoh a, and it is said to be slightly less vigorous in growth. However, its tenacity under harsh environmental conditions is indicative of the vitality of the genus. Diervilla can be cut to soil level each autumn, and snow and ice can be disposed of on the space occupied by the roots. Damage or harm to the plantmg itself is unlikely. Once well-established, the plants grow and thicken rapidly each spring. Flowers are borne on the wood of the new season and so are unaffected by the pruning. The flowers are yellow and appear in midsummer. Still later the purple-bronze foliage enhances the muted color spectrum of the autumn landscape. Diervilla is an ideal tall, woody ground cover, for it forms dense, multistemmed thickets and is easily propagated and transplanted. At the Frelinghuysen Arboretum in Morristown, New Jersey, the staff maintains two large colonies in stock beds to provide plants for use in Morris County parks. When plants are needed, staff members cut back the tops and remove root clumps from the bed. After removal, the digging holes are backfilled and the area fertilized. The colony then renews itself from the root pieces remaining in the soil. Within a season or two, the bed is ready for removal of another crop. When I last visited the Frelinghuysen Arboretum m 1983, the mature bed stood ap- Hamamells vmgimana L. Height 5-8 m. Hardy to -20F. Virginia witch hazel. During the months of October and November, the Virginia witch hazel blooms at the edges of woods and in clearings along streams ers are in Massachusetts. Some of the flowobscured by withered leaves, but tall, perhaps 18 to 24 m proximately and 8 to 9 m wide. The planting across, 1 to 2 m 43 overall the effect of the pale yellow to bright gold flowers is quite stunning. Accordmg to Geraldme Weinstein, director of horticulture for the New York Department of Parks and Recreation, the Virginia witch hazel transplants easily and even without maintenance generally survives heat and drought after transplanting. Few shrubs cling so vigorously to life during the period immediately after transplanting, and few resume normal shoot elongation as quickly. This shrub is one of the most successful in Central Park, despite a high level of environmental stress. At the Arnold Arboretum we have several witch hazels approaching their centenmal year, and during a midsummer inspection they looked robust enough to last another 100 years. One plant, which stands alone near the Centre Street gate, is approximately 5 m tall and 12 m across. It forms a dense wall and is graced by branches that brush the ground at the tips. In another location three plants spaced approximately 3 m apart give the appearance of a single plant with a spread of 17 m. In a third location the witch hazel grows in a natural-looking thicket with native dogwood and Carolina silverbell. On all Arboretum plants the oldest leaves are a dark green; younger leaves are light green; and the youngest are green tinged with shades of purple or bronze. Autumn color is an attractive clear yellow. Because of it stature, Virginia witch hazel is suitable only for islands over 8 m m diameter. tall and spreading 1-2 m across. It has a superb emerald green summer color plus a surface texture resultmg from pendent branch tips. Branches pile up on top of one another, and lower ones retam foliage only where they extend beyond the shading canopy. Plants grow well m full sun to moderate shade. In winter shade is necessary to prevent them from turning brown. Macrobiota thrives in acid or alkaline soils and grows best in well-drained sites. Better forms of this plant need to be developed for the winter landscape, and when seeds become available progeny testing ought to be performed. Once improvements are made, I am sure microbiota will become a substitute for junipers along the edges of islands. This plant is also suitable for interior planters m shopping malls; I am told that it has performed well in limited trials. Rhodotypos scandens (Thunb.) Mak. Height 1-2 m. Hardy to -20F. Jetbead. Jetbead is a compact and rugged plant that looks attrative for many years with a miniof maintenance. With its limited height and spread and dense crown, it forms an ideal background for taller and more leggy shrubs, such as beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabihs Graebn.) or lilac (Synnga vulgams L.).One occasionally sees jetbead used as a clipped hedge, but it is at its finest when allowed to grow naturally and relatively informally with a layered or textured foliage surface. Many small white flowers appear among the leaves during mid-May to early June. Later, shmy black fruits, resembling small peas, occur in groups of three or four. The summer foliage is light green, and its attractiveness is enhanced by a strongly mdented vein pattern and doubly serrate leaf margin. mum Microbiota decussata Komar. Height 3060 cm. Hardy to -25F. Microbiota. Microbiota, which has the appearance of a prostrate juniper, is a rapid grower. In three to four years it forms a dense mat 30-60 cm 44 Autumn color ranges from yellow-green to amber-yellow. I have been enchanted by the mellow color effect of a hedge in autumn at Cornell University. ates Jetbead resists insects and diseases, tolerdrought and salt spray, and thrives m both moderate shade and full sun. It also transplants easily and reestablishes itself quickly. Plantings in inner-city locations thrive many years after mstallation. Jetbead's ornamental characteristics could be improved by selection. I am unaware of any reproduced vegetatively and is therefore predictable in its mature habit. Because of its short stature, broad spread (1to 2 m across), and adaptability to either full sun or moderate shade, this plant is an ideal substratum or ground cover. Its yellowish flowers, which appear m early spring, are mconspicuous. Its autumn foliage color, in shades of reddish purple to yellow-orange, is a more ornamental feature of this plant. was more This is an low, dry ideal species for islands with shalsoils. existing selections and would welcome of any that are available. Most plantin the United States represent vegetaRhus chinensis. Mill. Height 5-6 m. Hardy to -10F. Chinese sumac. -- news ings tive propagations from limited parental materials. We need to make more introductions from the full range of this plant's native habitat. Desirable characteristics mclude more abundant and larger flowers and a more compact size when mature. I have requested that a fall 1984 National Arboretum expedition to Korea seek variants of Rhodotypos. Although it could benefit from selection, this is presently a more dependable and durable plant than many shrubs that are now more commonly employed in the landscape. Rhus aromatica Ait. 'Gro-Low'. 37 cm. Hardy to -30F. 'Gro-Low' Height fragrant sumac. Fragrant sumac has already established its tall woody ground cover along highways, where one can see it growing on embankments and along the bases of bridge abutments. When grown from seed, Rhus aromatica can be quite variable in height, density, vigor, and area of spread. 'Gro-Low' fragrant sumac is a selection that usefulness as a The landscapes of late August and early September are considerably enhanced by the rich golden yellow flowers of Koelreuteria pamculata 'September' and the creamy white flowers of Rhus chinensis, the two most showy flowering trees of this season. Chinese sumac produces large, open coneshaped terminal panicles 20- 25 cm tall. Flowers last 10-14 days and then give way to clusters of small bony fruit, which turn orange when mature. As flower and fruiting qualities vary significantly from seedling to seedling, breeders are attempting to develop improved selections. Dr. Elwin Orton, of Rutgers University, submitted one selection called 'September Beauty' to the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society to be tested and evaluated for the Styer Award. This award recognizes plants with exceptional ornamental characteristics. The dark green leaves of Chinese sumac are handsome all summer long. The prominent marginal tooth pattern and the winged leaf-rachis are also attractive. Autumn color can be bright orange or scarlet or rather drab, depending on weather conditions. 45 are chmensis as a commercial landscape plant the nursery industry's view of native sumacs as having little ornamental value and the public misconception that these plants are poisonous. Although many plants have greater ornamental value, few match the Chinese sumac for late season bloom and for toughness in those difficult environments we call urban islands. (Gamble) Nakai. Height 1-3m. Hardy to -10F. This bamboo, whose name has been the source of much confusion, was acquired by Chinese sumac (Rhus chmensis \/. Sinarundmaria murielae Chinese sumac is variable in growth and habit. With pruning, it can be mamtamed as a single-stemmed specimen tree. However, tends to sucker from the root system, and as a result it is best used in multiple-plant colomes or thickets on large islands. Cutting the whole colony to the soil level every fourth or fifth year just before new growth begins will keep the colony lush and vigorous and in prime flowering condition. At the Arnold Arboretum several Chinese sumacs grow m full sun and one in shade. The shaded specimen, which was received in 1952 and now stands 6 m tall, produces flowers but not so many as those in full sun. It also lacks significant autumn color. This it the Arnold Arboretum from the U. S. Department of Agriculture Plant Introduction Station m Glenn Dale, Maryland, in November 1960 (P.I. 262266). It rarely appeared outside botamcal gardens until recently, when the landscape architectural team of Wolfgang Oehme and James A. van Sweden recognized its undeveloped potential and promoted its use. When I arrived at the Arnold Arboretum, over eight years ago, a magnificent specimen grew in the shrub collection in Jamaica Plain, and another of equal merit grew in the perennial garden at the Case Estates m Wes- adaptability to nutritionally impoverished dry, sandy soils renders it an ideal plant for islands and parking areas at sumac's resorts, where its late-summer flowering would be especially appropriate. The plant does require well-drained soil, summer however. Factors that hamper development of Rhus ton, Massachusetts. Although these plants have since been removed as a source of propagating stock, I remember that they stood 2 m tall and spread in dense clumps (2-3 m across). They had a graceful arching habit and small and delicate foliage. Unfortunately, when the Arboretum's longestablished clumps were lifted as a source of divisions to increase the stock on hand, 98 percent of the young plants were lost. Richard A. Simon, manager of Bluemount Nurseries, Inc., of Monkton, Maryland, has reported similar difficulties m trying to in- 46 - this bamboo. Development of this plant on a commercial basis will be hampered until better methods of propagation are discovered. However, once it has become established it clumps up rapidly and again becomes tough and dependable. At present we have a superb colony of four plants that were grown from divisions and planted in June 1981. The plants were spaced 1 m apart in a square pattern. By August 1984 the combined clumps appeared as one plant, which stands 2 m tall and spreads 3 m across. The planting is extremely dense, with upright central stems and arching outer canes. The plants often remain green until January, but by spring the persistent foliage is bleached to a tan color. I am told that in Washington, D.C., the plants are more reliably evergreen, but they do best with wind protection and shade to shield them from late afternoon sun. New growth, which begms late, arises from basal culms and branches. Once established Sinarundinaria munelae is a plant of distinctive habit and reliability, with minimal mamtenance needs. crease fill in and unify a mixed shrub and tree border. It can also be used as an underplanting for a grove or group of trees. Landscape designers must exercise care in choosing companion plants, for Sorbaria will dominate smaller or slower-growing plants. Close inspection reveals luxurious, light green leaves, which are pinnately compound. Individual leaflets are marked by the on the leaf similar to those of European mounmargm, tain ash (Sorbus aucuparia L.).Under optimal conditions the foliage remains crisp and attractive throughout the summer. When the plant lacks water, however, the leaves lose their freshness by late summer and turn yellowish brown. Pruning and fertilizing the plants in spring, as well as supplemental watering, will help to prevent this. Terminal racemes of small creamy white flowers appear in late June to early July. The floral cluster can vary from short and slim to broad and bushy. The flowers resemble those of Astilbe but are much larger. Since flowers develop over several weeks, fruit and flowers are sometimes present together. The ripening fruit capsules are tan and brown and provide a discreet montage of color with the white flowers. Sorbaria sorbifolia roots readily from cuttings and as a result is generally propagated vegetatively. This factor, combined with the fact that the plant is so infrequently grown, has meant that no selections or horticulturally improved forms are available. A plant selector might seek larger flowers, fuller veins and bear bold serrations Sorbaria sorbifolia L. (A. Braun). Height 1-3 m. Hardy to -40F. Ural false spirea. On islands where a dense, multistemmed shrub is required, Sorbana would be the first choice. This plant can spread to a much greater width than its mature height, and the habit varies considerably, from a low contoured mound in dry locations to a taller more blocky shape on fertile or well-watered sites. The plant's stolomferous growth requires that one use it where it can be restrained by barriers such as walkways, walls, or curbs. Sorbaria is a superb selection where a natural look is called for, as it will racemes, or a more compressed flowering cycle in which all the floral clusters would appear at approximately the same time. sorbifoha). [. Flowers of Ural false spirea (Sorbana 47 48 Forms that remain compact would also be desirable. Sorbaria grandiflora is a smaller shrub than S. sorbi foha, with a mature height of 1 m or less and larger flowers. According to the Plant Science Data Center, for it mtertwmes with itself to form a continuous carpet. Used to unify a planting of Taxus or Euonymus alata, it would provide a more immediate finished look to the total plantmg. The flowers are pinkish, and the green leaves are tinged with shades of reddish orange and gold in spring and summer. In fall, foliage exhibits a rich mosaic of colors. the Arnold Arboretum has the only representatives of this species in the United States. Our plants were obtained as seed from Domaine des Barres, Nogent-surVernisson, Loiret, France, in April 1939. In late July they were 1 m tall, with full-bodied flowers. Sorbaria is tolerant of salt spray and occupies the same habitats as Rosa rugosa Thunb., dry, rocky slopes facing the sea. Because of its size and spread, it is not suitable for islands smaller than 4 m in diameter. It can be used to create a mound or design contour on sites where budget limitations preclude moving soil to mampulate the grade. Tripterygmm regelii T. Sprague & Takeda. -20F. Height 5-8 m. Hardy to Spiraea x bumalda 'Gold Flame'. Height m. Hardy to -30F. 'Gold Flame' spirea. Japanese and bumald spirea are compact, 1 hardy, long-lived, and troublefree. They also have the advantage of an early-tomidsummer flowering period. Spireas can be used en masse as a woody ground cover to unify plantmgs of larger shrubs such as rhododendron, forsythia, or winged are often the effect of a thicket but planted do not do so for many years. In the interim a mass planting of Spiraea x bumalda could be used to fill the empty spaces and unify the plantings. While they may ultimately become crowded out, spireas will cling to any and all niches that remain favorable for their growth. Spiraea x bumalda 'Gold Flame' is one of the best cultivars for mass plantings, euonymus. These taller shrubs to create scandent shrub that exhibtoughness of its relative, bittersweet (Celastrus scandens L.\/. When it stands alone, its branches grow upward to approximately 2 m and then arch outward. Their length and weight pull the stems downward so that the outer branches arch to the ground, creating a skmtlike effect. Next to another plant, a trellis, or a chamlink fence, Tripterygmm will twist about the support as a vine. It can be used to cover ugly fencing, for the vegetation will provide a leafy screen that can be managed by occasional shearing to control growth. One caution : Tnpterygmm should not be grown on supports near walkways, for branches that extend outward will interfere with pedestrian traffic. The variable growth habit of this plant presents some difficulty when Tripterygium is grown with other plantings, for it becomes entangled with and overgrows shrubs and small trees. It is most appropriate on islands with rocky outcroppings or landscape mounds that it could cascade over. It is also suitable for highway median strips and ideal as a means of masking the castconcrete units known as Jersey barriers, which are increasingly seen along highways. Dense terminal panicles of small creamy Tripterygmm its all the is a 49 and grew a large seedling population to establish a mass plantmg along Willow Path. Four-year-old seedlings bloomed freely. Mature plantings form a short thicket of stems that surround and face down neigh- boring plants. Flowering in yellow-root is rather insigmficant, for blossoms are tmy, brown-purple, and appear before the foliage m late April. Casual observers can walk past a colony in full bloom and not notice the flowers. The foliage stays green later in the season than that of most deciduous plants and rarely colors before November, at the same time as or slightly after the oaks. Arboretum plantmgs turn a bright amber yellow, and a mass planting makes a strong visual impact, mainly because the color appears when other yellows have long smce passed. Yellow-root is ideal massed around taller Tnpterygmm regelii. white flowers are this plant's chief ornamental quality and reach their peak m late June or early July. The flowers are followed by three-angled, conspicuously winged fruits, which to at light first are lime green and then ripen brown. shrubs, such as Calycanthus floridus L., Rhododendron vaseyi A. Gray, or R. calendulaceum Michx., Vaccmum corymbosum L., orPhiladelphus spp. In marginally swampy soils it combines with Magnoha mrginiana L., Clethra alnifolia L., and Ilex verticillata ~L.) A. Gray. Yellow-root must be mowed to the ground occasionally in order to mamtain density. Otherwise, it thrives with little care or attention and is therefore a first choice for Xanthorhiza simplicissima Marsh. Height 60-90 cm. Hardy to -30F. Yellow-root. urban islands. Although yellow-root lacks the refinement of many cultivated plants, it is ideal for naturalistic groupings. It is extremely flexible in its habitat requirements, growing in full sun or moderate shade and in wet or dry soils. At the Arnold Arboretum we collected seed from a planting at Garden m the Woods Herbaceous Perennials Arundinaria vmdistriata (Siebold ex Miq.) Mak. Height 1 m. Hardy to -15F. Golden stripe bamboo. This colorful bamboo has been growing at the Arnold Arboretum since the early 1900s and is noted for its exceptional hardiness, 50 Shrub yellow-root \/. \/Xanthorhiza simplicissima). in islands with granite or concrete curbs, as it may penetrate asphalt and colonize adjacent grass areas. Compamon plants must shrubs or trees that rise above the rampant vigor, and dense canopy. Its green- be striped golden foliage is attractive throughout the summer. The foliage is especially attractive when back lit by the evening sun, which tends to intensify the color and gives the plant a golden glow. The leaves shimmer in the breeze. The plant is at its best in full sun. It grows successfully in shade, but the leaves turn to muted shades of gold or green. Arundinana viridistriata is extremely mvasive and it must be contained. In my own garden it sends out underground stems that grow outward at the rate of 1 to 2 m each season. Perhaps this intrusive vigor is what is large needed on island plantings, and what better containment exists than a traffic or parking island? This bamboo should be grown only bamboo and have a competitive advantage because of size, as this plant will dominate low or slow-growing neighbors. The golden stripe bamboo is especially attractive when grown in front of a New England stone wall or when used in large masses. Successful plantings I have observed include a ground cover of Arundmaria crowned with the golden foliage of an individual or grove planting of Chamaecyparis obtusa (Siebold & Zucc.) Endl.'Crippsii', which provides contrast in color, texture, and mass as well as permanence in the winter landscape. Another possibility is individual plants or drifts of Miscanthus 51 sinensis 'Variegata' interplanted with a mass of the bamboo. The Miscanthus, with leaves striped white, exceeds the height of the bamboo by half a meter and provides a permanent Victorian bedding effect. Used alone, this bamboo will form a solid, dense stand capable of restraining all but the toughest woody weeds. Once the bamboo is subjected to a killing frost, the foliage turns a tan color. Early winter ice, sleet, and snow often cause it to break or lodge over and become untidy. When this occurs, it can be mowed to the ground, creating space for the disposal of snow without fear of injury to permanent plantmgs. This seasonal mowing would also help to retard or elimmate the encroachment of woody plant invaders. After transplanting, bare-root clumps require two to three years to resume normal growth, but this recovery time should be much shorter when container-grown nursery stock is used. In order to keep a landscape planting dense, it should be top dressed with a high mtrogen fertilizer at the beginmng of each growing season. branches, which can be used to soften the edges of islands. The ovate leaves over are very markings green, with broad silapproximately 1\/a to 1\/z of the leaf surface. These silver markings are useful in helping to brighten shaded situations. The foliage is tough and remains green and in fair condition in Boston until November or December. Pierre Bennerup of Sunny Border Nurseries in Kensington, Connecticut, grows yel- low archangel beneath a colony of mature maple trees, and the perennial is both full and successful. It will grow in full sun, and I Lamiastrum galeobdolan ~L.~ Ehrend. & Polatsch. 'Variegatum'. Height 30-46 cm. Hardy to -10F. Yellow archangel. Yellow archangel is a perennial that tolerates both dense shade and dry, impoverished soils. It blooms in early May on erect stems 46-60 cm tall. The flowers are small and bright yellow, typical of the mint family, and partially hidden by the leafy stems. After flowering, which generally lasts 2-3 weeks, trailing vmy stems emerge and root vigorously where leaf nodes touch the soil. The stems eventually form a solid mat of recently saw fully exposed plantings on Nantucket, Massachusetts. The leaves were yellowish, however, and lacked the crisp attractiveness I normally associate with the foliage of this plant. Perenmal companion plants that grow through a ground cover of Lamiastrum mclude common bleeding heart (Dicentra spectabilis [L.] Lem.), Solomon's seal (Polygonatum commutatum [Schult. f.]) A. Dietr., bugbane (Cimicifuga racemosa [L.] Nutt.) turtle head (Chelone lyomi Pursh.), [, common peony (Paeonia lactiflora Pall.), [, and gas plant ~Dictamnus albus L.~. [. The only special care yellow archangel requires is occasional pruning during summer to restram growth. If planted in or near natural woodlands, it tends to become invasive and may overgrow native vegetation. Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. Height 1-2 m. Hardy to -30F. Eulalia grass, Chinese silver grass. Decorative ornamental grasses are still rare in New England gardens. One lovely, hardy species is Miscanthus smensis, which is available in several useful and distinctive 52 cultivars that vary in habit, height, leaf texture, and foliage colors. During October this plant bears showy fan-shaped pamcles of gray to purplish flowers, and these mature to a tan color and remain throughout the wmter. Although not invasive, it can seed itself into adjacent areas. An example of an escaped planting can be seen in a stretch of the Pennsylvania Turnpike several miles west of the Valley Forge mterchange. Miscanthus sinensis can be used either as a specimen plant or in mass plantings or hedges. It provides the same substance and permanent effect as a shrub. When Miscanthus becomes dormant in winter, the foliage turns to colors of tan and beige, and this combined with the foliage texture provides an ornamental effect as trees and shrubs lose their leaves. Winter storms tend to cause the tall stems to break and with time give the plant a progressively more disheveled appearance. When this happens, it should be pruned to just above soil level. To thrive Miscanthus requires full sun, for in shade the stems are weak and often break. It adapts to many soils, however, from acid to alkaline and from quite dry to wet. Worthy cultivars include 'Gracillimus', 'Variegatus', and 'Zebrinus'. 'Gracillimus' has leaves 1 to 2 m tall that are shiny, dark green, upright, and extremely thin, with a texture unlike those of any other Miscanthus species or cultivar. This cultivar forms clumps easily. 'Variegatus' is I to 2 m tall. Its foliage is variegated with white to cream-colored stripes running the length of the leaves. In habit it is fountainlike, with the outer leaves drooping downward. 'Zebrinus' is 2 m tall. Its leaves are green with horizontal bars of yellow. This plant is virtually identical to 'Strictus' but much fuller ~ the base, and as a result the stems and habit are more upright. One cultivar formerly incorrectly identified as Miscanthus sacchariflorus (Maxim.\/ Hack. 'Gigantea' is now known as Miscanthus floridulus. It forms a massive clump and spreads by stolons, so its outward growth needs to be planned for or restrained. It is useful for accent or as a hedge or screen. Given a few years to establish itself, it has the capacity to form a dense solid wall for most of its full height, providing privacy that shrubs require many years to produce. All of the Miscanthus mentioned here are tough, hardy, and long-lived and require little maintenance. Cutting back once each year is sufficient. They are generally well behaved in the landscape and with a little foresight and planning will not overwhelm their neighbors. In York, Pennsylvania, and Baltimore, Maryland, I have seen Miscanthus used successfully in the parking lots of fast-food restaurants, where ease of maintenance is a high priority. The grass was mixed among trees and shrubs in narrow planting islands. A word of caution: care must be taken to avoid confusing Miscanthus with weeds early in the spring, when it is difficult to distinguish from invading grasses. at Petasites x hybrida. Mill. Height I Hardy to -25 F. Butterbur. m. Butterbur is a plant whose size and vigor often intimidate designers. It forms a massive colony with a bold tropical effect. Individual leaves are huge (60-90 cm wide) and architecturally distinctive because of the 53 light shade. It tolerates full dry soils, but without adequate moisture the leaves wilt during the heat of the day. Even with adequate moisture, the hottest summer days may cause foliage to wilt. Although invasive, this plant is easily contamed by an in-ground soil barner such as a and full sun sun to in Eulaha grass (Miscanthus ~lomdulus\/[ way the petiole joins the center of the undersurface of the leaf. Butterbur is m the daisy family, and the flowers are among the earliest to appear each spring. They occur in great numbers m rounded cones that rise only a few centimeters above the soil surface. A casual observer can mistake the greenish yellow flowers for early leaf growth. Petasites japonicus (Siebold & Zucc.) Maxim., a relative, is much more dramatic in flower, producing tall spikes of rose pink flowers later in the spring. Unfortunately, this species is not successful as a large-area ground cover, for mdividual stalks are widely scattered, and as a result the plant is not effective as a mass. At the Arnold Arboretum both types grow at different sites between Willow Path and Goldsmith Brook and are the subject of much attention and inquiry from visitors. Petasites x hybrida is rampant and spreads across even larger areas each season. Its growth is hastened by moist to wet soil curb. Butterbur can be seen in a number of Massachusetts landscapes, for it was once used as a logo by the landscape architect Fletcher Steele. One of the finest remaining examples of Steele's work is a public planting at Naumkeag in Stockbridge, Massachusetts. The most elegant planting combination I know is at the Arnold Arboretum, where a vast patch of Petasites surrounds a lovely specimen of dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides H. H. Hu & Cheng) with delicate fernlike foliage. Phalaris arundinacea. L. var. picta L. Height 1-2 m. Hardy to -30F. Ribbon grass. Ribbon grass is an exceptionally decorative plant, with multiple cream-colored stripes that run longitudinally against a background of green. Dense, stoloniferous, and vigorous, it will quickly invade neighboring plantings unless restrained by a barrier. It is most useful as a ground cover planted under complementary shrubs and trees. New growth on ribbon grass begins early spring, and the plant reaches mature height quickly. The leaves remain in prime in condition until midsummer. Thereafter, the heat and drought of New England summers cause the foliage to become yellowbrown, especially at the bases of the stems. Also, strong winds and heavy rains can break 54 the bulbs divide and increase, producing a multitude of smaller but more charmmg flowers scattered through a sea of striped grass. The leaves of both the narcissus and the tulips ripen off before I mow the grass m midsummer, so the bulbs are not disturbed. Vines Campsis radicans. (L.) Seem. ex Bur. Height 9-12 m. Hardy to -20F. Trumpet vine. Islands are often too small or narrow to allow trees and shrubs to grow successfully. For these confined spaces I propose a novel use of the trumpet vine. Upnght supports, such as slender concrete columns, wood posts, or light standards could be installed individually or in groups as supports. Trumpet vine can be planted at the base of each support, and using rootlike holdfasts to cling, it will grow upward. As the vine reaches the top of each support, it will produce branches that spread outward, resembling the crown of a small tree. Rigid horizontal arms installed at the top of each column will increase the spread. Also, loops of heavy architectural chain, ropes, or cable strung between supports can be used to create a garland effect. Trumpet vine flowers in July and August in colors of orange, scarlet, or yellow. The extra large orange-red flowers of Campsis xtagliabunna (Vis.) Rehd. 'Mme Galen' provide a spectacular complement. I have selected Campsis radicans over other vines because of its ease of culture even in difficult inner-city environments, quick recovery from transplanting or pruning, long life, and ability to recover from repeated attacks of vandalism. Gary L Koller is managmg horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum Ribbon grass (Phalaris arundmacea var. \/. picta the stems. At this point, the planting should be cut or mowed back to soil level, the area watered well, and a liquid fertilizer high in nitrogen applied. In three to four weeks the grass will recover, return to its normal height, and remain vigorous until frost kills the foliage. The habitat requirements of ribbon grass are easily met. The plant is best grown in full sun; it will tolerate light shade but will not reach its full potential there. The species grows wild at the Arnold Arboretum in wet or poorly drained soils. In my garden the variegated variety has grown for seven years in dry, sandy soil where it is baked by the summer sun and heat from an adjacent brick wall. Under the maintenance regimen discussed above, it remains lush and healthy. I have found Phalans to be a good companion for early spring bulbs such as narcissus and the large-flowered hybrid tulips. When first planted, the tulips exhibit the large blossoms illustrated m bulb catalogues, but over the years the flower size diminishes and "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":55,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24851","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260af26.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"Books ' As a result of this book's outstanding graphics, the amount of text is greatly re- ica, Landscape Plants for Eastern North AmerExclusive of Florida and the Immediate Gulf Coast. By Harnson L. Flint, with drawings by Jenny M. Lyverse. 1983. New York: John Wiley and Sons. 677 pp. $59.95. PETER DEL TREDICI duced in comparison to that of most similar works. Without reading a word, one can very quickly learn how a plant looks and what its growth requirements are. The text is devoted to describing, in nontechnical terms, the nature of the seasonal interest, any problems associated with the plant, and its maintenance requirements. The \"Varieties and Cultivars\" section under each entry generally contains a substantial amount of text. of the world authorities Imagme having on woody landscape plants for a next-door neighbor, someone you could turn to without hesitation for recommendations about what to plant and advice on how to care for it. Now reach for a copy of Harnson Fhnt's latest book, and you have that neighbor. This comprehensive work covers approximately 1500 species of landscape plants, not including cultivars and vameties. Each species is illustrated with two line drawings, one of the young plant (between 5 and 10 years old) and another of the mature specimen (20 to 80 years). These drawmgs portray the plants accurately and also are aesthetione Interestingly, Dr. Flint refrains from expressing his feelings about the plants. This is not a book to read for its engaging style; rather, it is a reference book to return to for solid information about how a particular plant will perform m a specific site. While the book contams much informaabout nonhardy plants of zones 8 and 9, it is particularly strong m the area of plant hardiness. This is to be expected, as Dr. Flint has had years of both practical and academic experience at the Arnold Arboretum, the Cooperative Extension Service of the Umversity of Vermont, and Purdue Umversity, where he is now professor of horticulture. tion cally pleasing. For scale, an object or person unobtrusively in the corner of each picture. The portraits of the plants at different stages of growth enable one to determme the best use of the plants m the landscape. A high-quality black and white photograph also accompames the descriptions of most species. Finally, a set of \"adaptability bars\" graphically describes each plant's requirements for sunlight, wind, soil moisappears My only criticism of the book's organizathat under the entries for the main species a \"Related Species\" section often creates strange bedfellows. Zanthoxylum species, for example, are listed under the Evodia entry. However, the thorough index makes it possible to locate such plants. In a 30-page section at the back of the book, tion is ture, and pH. A seasonal-interest \"clock\" describes those times of year when the plant plants are grouped according to some 23 categories such as size, fall color, flowering time, and salt tolerance. The addition of bibliography would have improved this book. a under discussion can make the garden landscape. a contribution to U S POSTAL SERVICE STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP, MANAGEMENT, AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U S C 3685) I Title of publication Arnoldia A Publication Number 0004-2633 2 Date ot hhng September 28, 1984 3 Frequency of issue Quarterly A Number of issues pub- lished annually 4 B Annual subscription price $12 00 4 Complete mailing address of known office of publication The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain ;Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130 5 Complete mailing address of the headquarters or general business offices of the publishers The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamatca Plam ~Bostonl, Suffolk County, MA 02130 6 Full names and complete mailing address of Publisher, Editor, and Managing Editor The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain (Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130, Publisher, Edmund A Schofield, The Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plam (Boston), Suffolk County, MA 02130, Editor 7 Owner The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, The Arborway, \/ama~ca Plam ~Boston~, Suffolk County, MA 02130 8 Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other secunty holders ownrng or holdmg I percent or more of total amount of bonds, mortgages, or other securities President and Fellows of Harvard College, Cambndge, MA02138 9 For completion by nonprofit organizations authonzed to mail at special rates (Section 4l I 3, DMM only) The purpose, function, and nonprofit status of this organization and the exempt status for Federal income tax purposes have not changed durmg the precedmg 12 months 10 Extent and nature of circulation A Total number of copies Average number of copies each issue during the precedmg 12 months 4,429 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 4,500 B Paid circulation 1 Sales through dealers and camers, street vendors, and counter sales Average number of copies each issue during precedmg 12 months None Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date None 2 Mail subscription Average number of coptes each issue dunng precedmg 12 months 594 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filmg date 592 C Total paid cuculation Average number of copies each issue during preceding 12 months 594 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 592 D Free distnbunon by mail, carner, or other means (sample, complimentary, and other free copies) Average number of copies each issue dunng precedmg 12 months 2,996 Actual number of copies of each issue dunng precedrrtg 12 months 3,026 E Total drstnbutton Average number of copies each issue during precedmg 12 months 3,590 Actual number of copies of single issue published nearest to filing date 3,618 F Copies not distributed t Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing Average number of copies each issue dunng precedtng 12 months 839 Actual number of copies of srngle issue published nearest to filing date 882 2 Returns from news agents Average number of copies each issue during precedmg 12 months None Actual number of copies of smgle issue published nearest to filing date None G Total Average number of copies each issue during precedmg 12 months 4,429 Actual number of copies of I single issue published nearest to filing date 4,500 I I certify that the statements made by me above are correct and complete Edmund A Schofield, Editor The following two issues of Arnoldia the Arnold Arboretum: Street Trees for Home and (1979), 164 pages. $5.00. are available from Mumcipal Landscapes pages $3.00. Wild Plants in the City (1974), 113 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23392","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ea328.jpg","title":"1984-44-4","volume":44,"issue_number":4,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Frank Meyer: Agricultural Explorer","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24849","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260ab28.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":3,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Cunningham, Isabel Shipley","article_content":"Frank Meyer, Isabel Shipley Cunningham Agricultural Explorer For 60 years the work of Frank N. Meyer has remained a neglected segment of America's 2,500 pages of his letters tell of his journeys and the plants he collected, and the USDA Inventory of Seeds and Plants Imported contains descriptions of his introductions. Until recently little was known about the first 25 years of Meyer's life, when he lived in Amsterdam and was called Frans Meijer. Dutch sources reveal that he was bom into a loving family in 1875. Frans was a quiet boy, who enjoyed taking long walks, reading about distant lands, and working in his family's small garden. By the time he had fimshed elementary school, he knew that wanted to be a world traveler who studied plants; however, his parents could not afford to give him further education. When he was 14 years old, he found work as a gardener's helper at the Amsterdam Botanical Garden. During the next eight years, Frans progressed to gardener and then head gardener in charge of the experimental garden. Hugo de Vries, director of the experimental garden, observed that Frans was intelligent, industrious, and dependable and trained him to be his assistant. He taught the boy French and English and allowed him to attend lectures on botany and plant propagation. In his leisure Frans studied languages, mathematics, and science and collected herbarium specimens of the plants of the Netherlands. When he was 20, de Vries arranged for him to study for six months at the University of Groningen. heritage. Now, as people are becoming concerned about feeding the world's growing population and about the loss of genetic diversity of crops, Meyer's accomplishments have a special relevance. Entering China in 1905, near the dawn of the single era when explorers could travel freely there, he became the first plant hunter to represent a government and to search primarily for economically useful plants rather than ornamentals. No one before him had spent 10 years crossing the mountains, deserts, farms, and forests of Asia in search of fruits, nuts, vegetables, grains, and fodder crops; no one has done so since. During four plant-hunting expeditions to China and Central Asia, Meyer enriched America's agricultural and horticultural resources, made important botanical discoveries, and improved the economy of his adopted country. As he fulfilled his promise to \"skim the earth in search of things good for man,\" no hardship or danger deterred him. He sent the United States Department of Agriculture hundreds of shipments of live cuttings and thousands of packages of seeds, which resulted in more than 2,500 plant introductions. Though he published little, the Isabel Cunningham's biography of Frank Meyer, entitled Frank Meyer: Plant Hunter .m Asia, was pubhshed in June of this year by Iowa State Umversity Press. he ' ,if' Though he continued to work at the Amsterdam Botanical Garden for two years thereafter, Frans felt faraway places beckon' ing until his desire to see the world became too strong to resist. For several months he wandered across Europe, using maps and a compass as guides. Once he almost lost his life in a blizzard when he crossed the Alps in an area where there were no roads. In 1900 he set out for England to earn money for his passage to America. A year later, in October 1901, he arrived in the United States. When Meyer reached Washington, he presented a letter of introduction from Hugo de and Meyer eagerly accepted. To train him for his work, Fairchild sent him on a 10-day trip to the New York Botanical Garden and the Arnold Arboretum. After examment ining Augustine Henry's herbarium specimens in New York, Meyer studied the tremendous collections at the Arnold Arboretum and received the advice of the director, Charles Sprague Sargent. Two days later he began his journey to China. The First Expedition Peking (Beijing) in Smith, a bacteriologist at the department of agriculture, and found work in the USDA greenhouses on the Mall. Vries to Dr. Erwin F. For a Soon after Meyer reached year he was content in new surround- ings. Then his desire to see what lay beyond the horizon led him to work as a gardener in southern California. There he continued to long for \"farther off and unseen places.\" After 18 months he left California to study the flora of Mexico. He walked 1,000 miles, discovering new fruits and flowers every day, and felt that he was learning more about plants than books could have taught him in \" 10 years. After returning to the United States in July 1904, Meyer found employment at the Missouri Botanical Garden, where he initiated the preparation of a list of seeds for exchange with botanical gardens in other countries. He planned to leave St. Louis as soon as he had saved enough money to explore the Andes; however, his destiny was to lead him in another direction. David Fairchild, head of the Foreign Plant Introduction Section of the USDA, for several years had been searching for an explorer to send to China. When he heard of Meyer's willingness to walk great distances and his passion for plants, Fairchild offered him this assign- September 1905, he hired a guide, cart, driver, and donkeys and set out into the mountains on a 10-day trip. A sweet, seedless persimmon four inches in diameter was his first major discovery. \"As soon as the leaves are off,\" he promised Fairchild, \"I'll go back to those trees and will try to send you a thousand scions.\" Sargent later predicted that this persimmon would add $100,000 to the American economy. In late autumn Meyer divided his collection of grape, apricot, and catalpa cuttings, pear, persimmon, and elm scions, and Ginkgo biloba andPinus bungeana (white-barked pine) seeds. Then he mailed bundles to the USDA and the Arnold Arboretum. He never trusted anyone else to pack his cuttings and scions, for only he could judge just how much water he must wring out of the dampened sphagnum moss before wrapping each package first in oiled paper and then in burlap, which he stitched at the seams. If the moss were too wet or too dry, the material would not survive the long journey to America. Meyer eagerly complied with the USDA policy of collecting ornamentals \"when encountered.\" In January, when ice a foot thick 5 formed on the canals, he returned to the Western Hills, where he had observed remof original vegetation around ancient temples. There he collected cuttings of a the Chinese pistachio (Pistacia chinensis),a horse chestnut (Aesculus chinensis\/, a catalpa (Catalpa bungei\/, and a cultivar of the Peking willow (Salix matsudana 'Umbraculifera'). None of these trees was new to botanists, but all were virtually unknown in America. In the mountains he also found a columnar juniper (juniperus chinensis `Columnaris'), wild peach trees (Prunus davidiana)for use as a rootstock, the famous nants a Peking pear (Pyrus pyrifolia var. culta\/, and a promising maple (Acer truncatum), semidouble rose (Rosa xanthma\"to be shared with Professor Sargent.\" Sargent later that this rose had been known to botanists only through Chinese paintings until Frank Meyer sent it to America. The letters Meyer wrote during his first six months in China reflect a kaleidoscope of impressions and emotions: the miserable nights spent on brick beds in filthy inns, where he battled bedbugs, centipedes, lice, and scorpions; his joy when he \"felt at peace with the whole creation\" as he collected seeds of crimson oaks and flaming maples in the Ming Tombs Valley; the shock of awawrote Frank Meyer collected the globular-headed willow (Sahx matsudana 'Umbracuhfera'), below, in the Western Hills, Pekmg (Beijmg~ China. kening one night in Mongolia to find an assassin's knife a few inches from his throat; 6, I his pleasure while watching his Chinese guide making his own herbarium collection; the frustration of lacking time to learn Mandarin and the many dialects of the Chinese language; and his pride in finding useful plants to send to his adopted country. He admired the Chinese people: \"China is going to come to the front, for the people are a solid kind of men and they possess many sterling virtues. In agriculture, they are experts.\" When authorities approved his plan to follow the Yalu and Tumer rivers to Siberia in search of hardy plants, he left Peking m late April for Newchwang (Yingkou) in Manchuria. There he mailed the USDA a collection containing the first oil-bearing soybean sent to the United States. He then set out through wild mountainous country with carts, mules, an intelligent guide, and a coolie \"of doubtful character.\" Though he had no equipment for pressing or drying herbarium material, he frequently paused to gather specimens as he traveled. North of Mukden (Shenyang) he found a droughtresistant alfalfa, white peonies blooming in ravines, and a wilt- and bright-resistant spinach that was to save the threate~ed American spinach-canning industry. When Meyer crossed to the Korean side of the Yalu at Antung (Dandong), he entered an unexplored region. For weeks he and his men \" weeks of the journey, they walked 20 to 35 miles every day. At last they reached Siberia. From Vladivostok Meyer shipped his collection of 220 kinds of seeds and cuttings, as well as herbarium specimens, and then continued his journey north. At Nikolsk (Ussuriysk, formerly Voroshilov) he arranged an exchange of seeds of hardy plants with a government forester; in the countryside nearby he collected seeds of the Amur maple (Acer ginnala),which bore an abundance of rosy-red fruits. He paused at Khabarowsk to mail his collection of pears, plums, nuts, wheat, barley, forage crops, and the Amur lilac (Syringa amurensis). He also arranged seed exchanges with the government agronomist and the head forester of the Imperial Domains there. At dusk he would watch the sun setting over the ice fields of the Amur, silhouetting the white birches against the dying purple of the western sky. One evening as he returned to his inn, three murderous ruffians attacked him, but he drew his bowie knife and defended himself so vigorously that they ran away. Meyer spent Christmas at Kwan Tientse (Changchun) with a missionary who agreed collect seeds for the USDA m exchange for seeds of hardy vegetables and flowers. After leaving his host, he traveled south in bitter cold but forgot the frigid air that froze his beard to his scarf as he watched the rising sun color the mountamtops rosy red. On January 21 he arrived at Mukden and prepared 20 large sacks of cereals and legumes for shipping to the USDA. Then a telegram ordering him to meet E. H. Wilson in Shanghai before February 10 abruptly canceled his plans to collect plants he had previously spotted in Manchuria. When Meyer reached Shanghai, he learned to followed narrow footpaths across mountain ranges and waded icy streams. He collected zoysia grass (Zoysia japonica) near the Yalu, and in the mountains a pyramidal cherry with bright green foliage, which Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum named Prunus meyeri. Farther north he and his party passed through primeval forests never before seen by Westerners. Though they lived on boiled oats during the last two 7 that Wilson had promised to send the USDA economically useful plants from the upper Yangtze and that he himself was expected to collect botamcal specimens for the Arnold Arboretum in the barren Wu Tai Shan. He made no attempt to appear content with the bargam Sargent and Fairchild had made. Letters from both explorers show that their imtial meeting was a disaster. Unaware that Meyer believed his own work had been undervalued, Fairchild also had chosen this time to convey Sargent's criticism of the USDA's failure to collect herbarium specimens \"of the botanical species of which you have sent us seeds.\" Earlier Sargent had insisted~that Meyer's work include the collection of herbarium material, but Fairchild had told Meyer that the department \"did not place that much importance on herbarium specimens.\" Meyer nevertheless had collected herbarium matenal on his journey north and had shipped two boxes of specimens from Vladivostok. The contents of these boxes were badly damaged m a typhoon. Frustrated by this loss, Meyer replied that Sargent's criticism \"is somewhat comical. It is just as if the department people were disappointed when Professor Sargent did not collect plants of economic interest on Frank Meyer and his collecting party at 4,000 feet near Ying Tau Ko, China. hisjourneys.\" In April Meyer mailed \" 14 packages to the 8 USDA and set out with his interpreter and guide for the Wu Tai Shan. \"There goes nothing above fresh air, a blue sky above one's head, and if some mountains or lakes can be added, then life is worth living. I love exploring better than anything else,\" he wrote Fairchild. After reaching the mounsnowstorm, he studied the sparse vegetation and took photographs of the barren landscape. He then traveled south to Taiyuan. There he found quantities of Rosa xanthina, which bloomed early and freely and withstood cold temperatures and long tains in a periods of drought. At this point his interpreter and guide refused to endure further hardships, forcing him to return to Peking. Sargent later complained that Meyer should have remained in the Wu Tai Shan until more vegetation appeared; Meyer replied that he could not have done so \"unless I was of a barnacle nature, which God help me, I never hope to become.\" The following February he returned to gather seeds, staying in a room so cold that ink froze on his pen. For five days he collected seeds of several spruces, a pine, and a larch that had not been recorded previously. He also found two willows, a lilac, a rose, rhubarb, hull-less oats, and a rare hull-less barley. A Chinese cart loaded with boxes of seeds, mostly wild peach stones and chestnuts, leaving Frank Meyer's hotel enroute to America. 9 After a trip to sultry Chekiang (Zhejiang) Province, where he collected edible, ornamental, and timber bamboo (including one now called Phyllostachys meyeri),Meyer traveled to Tsingtao (Qingtao) and began a journey across Shantung (Shandong) Proa rare dwarf and a previously unknown sorghum yellow-flowered catalpa. Later he collected the Shantung plum-cot, a single yellow rose (Rosa xanthina f. spontanea) that bloomed profusely m rocky soil, and epiphytic orchids that Fairchild forwarded to the Royal Botamc Gardens at Kew. As he and his guide searched for the celebrated pound peach of Shantung, soldiers warned them of robbers nearby. Meyer's party did encounter a band of outlaws the next day, but he held his pistol \"glistening in their eyes\" and saw the leader signal his men not to attack. The risks of the journey proved worthwhile near the village of Feicheng, where Meyer found the sweet and juicy peaches that sometimes weighed more than a pound. Jumperus chmensis and Pinus bungeana trees at least 1500 years old made this trip memorable. He also saw Chinese vince. In the Lau Shan he found he labored indoors, he yearned for \"the buming sun and the smell of the mountains.\" Sargent criticized him for covering too much territory, but he argued that he must travel widely in order to find plants that would make America \"wealthier and better.\" He firmly believed that \"any ordinary botanist\" could stay in one place and collect specimens of shrubs and trees; identifying grains and fruits that might benefit humamty seemed to him infinitely more challenging. To give his expedition \"a fitting end,\" Meyer planned a series of journeys. In November a trip north to Jehol (Chengde) yielded acorns of oaks that looked like chestnut trees (Quercus variabihs) and 73 bundles of fruits, nuts, forage crops, and hardy ornamentals. But he despaired as he watched farmers cutting down trees. \"I see with sad eyes the last vestiges of a once grand vegetation,\" he mourned. Late m January he worked in deep snow m the mountains beyond Peking, collecting the whitebarked pine, a rare pyramidal white poplar \" \" cabbages (Brassica pekmensis ~ weighmg up to 40 pounds each, hawthorns (Crataegus pmnati fidabred to produce fruit that made delicious preserves, a rare yellow-fruited hawthorn, and a dogwood loaded with dark green berries that the natives used source (Populus tomentosa), persimmons, apricots, yellow plums, a free-flowering pink rose (Rosa odorataand pods of a spiny locust \/Gleditsia heterophylla). Since this tree seemed to be in a state of mutation, he asked Fairchild to send sets of pods to Sargent and to de Vries. He also assembled a large quantity of scions of the dry-land elm (Ulmus a pumila),adwarf lemon (Citrus x meyen),a silver-blue juniper of dense habit (juniperus squamata 'Meyeri'~, and a dwarf lilac (Syringa meyeri). Published accounts state incorrectly that Meyer found this lilac (PI 23032) in the Wu Tai Shan. He bought as a of oil for lamps. After four months he returned to Peking. Meyer disliked the confining task of labeling, describing, and packing seeds and cuttings of the hundreds of plants he collected. To assist him in determining the correct Chinese names of the plants, he employed Chow-hai Ting, who continued to work with him during his later expeditions. While Synnga meyeri at Fengtai near Peking on March 31, 1908. He previously had collected Syringa mllosa (PI 22675) m the Wu Tai Shan. 10 After transportmg his collection to Shanghai in May 1908, Meyer supervised the packing of 20 tons of plant material, including 2 zelkovas, a Chinese holly, 18 lilacs, 4 viburnums, 2 spireas, a rhododendron, a daphne, 30 kmds of bamboo, and 4 lilies. Throughout the four-week voyage to America, he exposed his plants to sun and air whenever the weather was mild and cared for a pair of rare northern monkeys that he was bringing to the National Zoological Park. During a year in the United States, Meyer visited many agricultural experiment stations, forming a list of their needs to guide him on his coming expedition to Central Asia. Long before the discovery of germplasm, he wrote, \"In the future we will create unheard-of strains of fruits and shrubs and trees and flowermg plants. All we need . now is to build up collections so as to have the material at hand.\" He eagerly returned to Frank Meyer's caravan crossmg the Mussart Glacier m Chmese Turkestan (Ym~ang Autonomous Region). the Arnold Arboretum to study the extensive living collections and herbarium specimens there. When Sargent reprimanded him for his failure to collect a large number of the latter, Meyer responded that the USDA had sent him to Chma to collect plants of economic value; privately, he told Fairchild that he agreed with Sargent about the need for authentic material in herbariums. In response to Sargent's request for specimens of all the arboreal species that he might find in the future, he asked the USDA to authorize him to fulfill that request. Meyer spent most of the spring and summer of 1909 \"cooped up in that little office in hot and humid Washington.\" He sorted his hundreds of negatives and photographs and studied the 1,664 mventory cards that had accompamed his introductions. Of these, 1,297 had survived, and over 50 percent of the 497 varieties that he had sent as scions or plants were growing in America. He also completed his bulletin, Agricultural Exploration m the Fruit and Nut Orchards of Chma, before he received his appropriation and set out on a three-year journey to Central Asia. The Second Expedition begun his first trip to China without adequate preparation, Meyer prepared for his second by visiting European nurseries and botanical gardens. In England he spent a week studying the \"wonderfully rich\" herbarium at the Royal Botanic GarAware that he had den. \"If I had known that Kew is after all rather poor in northern Chmese material ... I most certainly would have collected more,\" he wrote Fairchild. \"It really hurts me now to find out how much more useful I could have been to mankind.\" He was im- 11 1 pressed by the Chinese plant introductions that E. H. Wilson \"kindly pointed out\" at Veitch and Sons and at Kew. As he studied collections at the Jardin des Plantes and Vilmorin Nurseries in France and \"other centers of accumulated knowledge\" in Belgium, Germany, and Russia, he arranged plant and seed exchanges for the USDA. When his itinerary took him to Antwerp, he acted as host to members of his family, whom he had been longing to see. \"We are a crowd of eight people,\" he wrote Fairchild. \"I am, of course, the most popular member, and they want me to talk for hours and hours about all my experiences.\" Four days together were not enough. He took his entire family with him for three additional days when he traveled to Brussels. Then he moved on to botanical gardens in Germany and Russia. After a series of frustrating delays in St. Petersburg (Leningrad), Meyer received the necessary permits and journeyed to the Crimea. On a rocky cliff there he found the common privet (Ligustrum vulgare), which proved to withstand cold winters and drought in the upper midwestern United States. In addition to roots and seeds, he mailed to the USDA olive cuttings; herbarium specimens, to be divided with the Arnold Arboretum; and algae and fungi, for the New York Botanical Garden. Then, accompanied by an assistant and an interpreter, he boarded a steamer and crossed the Black Sea. Meyer assembled a large collection and arranged several seed exchanges during four months m the Caucasus. An early shipment contained seeds of apples, cherries, almonds, and an evergreen hawthorn (Crataegus meyeri);several kinds of wheat; soil samples ; and herbarium specimens to be \"shared , liberally with Professor Sargent.\" From his base at Tiflis (Tbilisi), he explored not only Georgia but also Azerbaidzhan and Armenia, sending the USDA grapes, plums, apricots, new black barley, coffee made from soybeans, peony, and cuttings of the Paradise a apple (Malus pumila var. paradisiaca)from its native habitat. In late April he and his infoot for the northern the Despite mountains, Meyer collected alfalfa, clover, and herbarium specimens of other plants. When he reached Baku, he sent the USDA fruit, grain, legumes, and alfalfa, as well as fossils and ancient pottery for the Smithsonian Institution. On May 30, 1910, he crossed the Caspian Sea to Russian Turkeson terpreter left Tiflis Caucasus. snowstorms in ' tan. Vegetation in Russian Turkestan lacked variety, and the police there harassed Meyer contmually. Nevertheless, before venturing into the Hissar Mountains south of Samar- kand, he found the drought-resistant A crowded street on market day in Tching to 1914. Tchun, Shensi, September 12 Kashgar elm (Ulmus carpinifolia var. umbraculifera) for settlers in the arid southUnited States. No roads existed in the steep mountains and food was scarce; however, he collected the Siberian bush cherry (Prunus prostrata) and herbarium specimens of pistachio, almond, maple, and juniper. After stopping at cholera-infested Tashkent, where he hired a German inwestern terpreter of Russian, Meyer and his small party plodded across the desert through ankle-deep sand with 1,200 pounds of baggage. The north side ot a mountain densely grown with torests ot the Thian Shan spruce (Picea shrenckiananear Idm-Kul, Chmese Turkestan. When they reached Chinese Turkestan (Xinjiang Autonomous Region), Chow-hai Ting joined the party. From Kashgar (Kashi) they traveled to Yarkand (Shache) and continued south across \"dreary expanses of sand and grit,\" relieved occasionally by oases sheltered by Russian olive shrubs (Elaeagnus angustifolia).Near Khotan (Hotan) Meyer collected a drought-resistant ash (Fraxinus potamophila),which later proved to be use- 13 ful in Nevada, and two wheat cultivars (Triticum aestivum 'Ak-Mecca Boogdai' and T. aestivum 'Kizil Boogdai') that are still maintained in the USDA germplasm collection at Beltsville, on Maryland. Returning to Kashgar trails used only by natives, he and his men climbed barren mountains where food was scarce and then trudged across snow-covered deserts until they lost track of time. The tents of the fierce Kirghiz sometimes offered shelter from icy winds that froze their hot tea before they could drink it. On the mountainsides Meyer found a spruce species (Picea schrenkiana several kinds of hardy wheat, hull-less barley, and alfalfa and cut scions of fruit trees, elms, willows, and rare poplars. He returned exhausted to Kashgar on January 1, 1911, after an absence of two months. There he packed and mailed seeds of peaches, necI tarines, plums, and pomegranates; 11 varieties of sweet apricot kernels (Prunus armeniacapistachio nuts, and grains, as well as herbarium specimens of other plants. Meyer and his party then set out across the desert to Aksu (Aqsu), where Chow-hai Ting took the main road east to China and the others followed a rough trail north. In a valley in the towering Tian Shan, Meyer collected two types of wheat (Triticum aestmum 'Kara Boogdai' and T. turgidum that are stored in the USDA germplasm collection today. As his small party approached the Mussart Glacier, which formed a pass through the Tian Shan, they prepared for the awesome climb along shifting trails beside gaping chasms. They reached solid ground after six hours on moving ice and then scaled a steep ascent to 13,000 feet. Descending in deep snow at dusk, they camped in bitter cold. Though snow, rain, and hail fell during the next several days, Meyer \"grubbed out\" a of climbing asparagus and a rare alfalfa cut scions of ap(Medicago platycarpaand a ples, apricots, and willows. From Kuldja (Guldja or Ining) he mailed 52 packages of roots and cuttings, including a hawthorn for the Arnold Arboretum. North of Kuldja he had difficulty finding a guide because he and his party were entering a \"robber district.\" Though robbers \"prowling around\" disturbed their rest on four nights, they continued north across an alkaline plain where only artemisia and tamarisk grew. Finally they arrived at Chuguchak (Qoqek or roots \" Dacheng) in Mongolia. After pausing at Chuguchak, Meyer and his interpreter trekked through barren and monotonous country until they reached the Altai Mountains in Siberia. Siberian irises (Iris sibimcaglobe flowers (Trollius asiaticus and daphne (Daphne altaica) covered the slopes and perfumed the air. Among patches of snow in alpine meadows, Meyer noticed primroses, gentians, anemones, and dense masses of pansies, buttercups, and violets. Near Lake Markakol he and his companions were forced to balance on fir logs as they carried hundreds of pounds of baggage rushing mountain stream. Even on a limited diet of bread, wurst, and tea, he enjoyed climbing range after range of snowcapped mountains. Camping under a majesacross a swift and icy stream, he rejoiced because \"fear and wrong disappear in such surroundings.\" After descending at last to the lowlands, he and his interpreter reached Omsk on July 2, 1911, having walked about 1,000 miles from Kuldja. The journey along the border of Mongolia and Siberia had yielded extremely hardy apples, apricots, currants, and alfalfa, as well as two new pasture plants, Lathyrus pisiformis and tic pine near a Vicia megalotropis. 14 . Mail from three continents awaited Meyer at Omsk, but a letter from Augustine Henry pleased him most. Dr. Henry, a former British consular official in China, had sent many herbarium specimens to the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. His letter complimented Meyer on his bulletin about fruit and nut culture in China. A USDA request for 500 pounds of seeds of wild Medicago falcata anchored Meyer in Siberia until fall. After his German interpreter of Russian returned to Tashkent, he traveled to Tomsk and spent 10 days studying herbarium material and conferring with professors at the university there. He then searched the area around Semipalatinsk where the yellowflowered wild alfalfa grew in scattered locations. When he returned to Omsk, he mailed the USDA alfalfa, legumes, vetches, clovers, and two promising forage crops (Astragalus sp. and Hedysarum sp.as well as conifer cones, samples of wheat, and herbarium specimens of other plants for Sargent. Though he had intended to go on to China, news of the revolution there forced him to turn westward. As Meyer traveled along the Volga, he visited agricultural stations, nurseries, and universities, collecting seeds and scions of hardy fruits and 15 cultivars of the variable Medicago falcata. He also arranged exchanges of seeds and wheat samples. In a ravine near Saratov, he found a creeping vine ~Coronilla variafrom which propagators Frank Meyer at 23 years old. Photo courtesy of De Arde en haar Volken, Amsterdam, Holland. From the Library of Congress collections, Washington, D.C. developed Emerald crown vetch, a groundcover that now controls soils erosion on the banks of interstate highways. Though he had developed typhus malaria, he spent two days at Koslov (Michurinsk) with Gregori Mijurin, called the Luther Burbank of Russia, and mailed the USDA scions of some of the hardiest cherries, apricots, plums, and quinces in existence. He also arranged seed exchanges at the Kharkov Botanical Garden, the Moscow Agricultural Institute, and the St. Petersburg Bureau of Applied Botany. When his illness became severe, he stayed indoors long enough to complete a 38-page report on wild alfalfa and to pack wheat, barley, flax, herbarium material, and cones of a hybrid pine for Sargent. In March 1912, he left Russia and visited his family and Hugo de Vries in Holland before going to England. At Cambridge he conferred with Augustine Henry and conveyed an offer from Fairchild to Kingdon-Ward. He also studied rare ornamentals at Veitch and 15 Royal Botanic Gardens, where officials asked permission to publish some of his photographs. His assignments completed, he crossed the Atlantic on the Mauretania, passing through dense low fog just one day behind the Titanic. Confined to an office in Washington once more, Meyer wrote reports and identified his photographs. Though Fairchild often urged him to record his botanical observations, Meyer found formal composition uncongenial. He prepared to return to China after only six months m America. Before departing, he spent two weeks at the Arnold Arboretum, studying the herbarium collections, taking notes in the library, and conferring frequently with Sargent, Wilson, and Jackson Dawson, superintendent of plantings. They welcomed him cordially, and he enjoyed discussing plant exploration in the interior of China. Sargent suggested that he send all rare woody plants directly to the Arnold Arboretum; however, Meyer could promise only to label all rare arboreal plants be forwarded to the Arboretum. The relationship between Wilson and Meyer had changed since their first meeting. Wilson took time to show Meyer his own collection of Prunus and the newly introduced Chinese to Sons and the except Potanin who had worked in Kansu (Gansu) Province in China. In January he crossed Russia and Sibena by train, stoptor ping occasionally to visit potential USDA correspondents or to arrange seed collections and exchanges. Once m Peking he hired Chow-hai Tmg as his interpreter and Johannis de Leuw, \"a young Hollander,\" as his assistant. He soon pine (Pinus mailed seeds of Swiss stone cembra var. sibmica\/, Japanese ' larch (Larix leptolepis),Japanese fir ~Abies firma\/, Cryptomema japonica, Zelkova acummata, and the Hmoki cypress (Chamaecyparis obtusa).After a brief trip to Shantung and a severe attack of malarial fever, he packed and mailed seeds of fine local varieties of vegetables and scions of the seedless Chmese jujube (Zizyphus jujuba), \/, the English walnut (juglans regia\/, and the Chinese walnut (juglans cathayensis) for Sargent. Because the Office of Forest Pathology needed to know whether the chestnut blight (Endothia parasitlcathat was killing American chestnut trees was of foreign origin, the USDA asked Meyer to look for the fungus in China. Meyer searched the mountains beyond Peking and soon mailed specimens of the fungus to America; however, he observed healed wounds on the Chinese chestnut trees (Castanea mollissima) and reported that they appeared resistant to blight. After pathologists had grown cultures that proved the American chestnut blight had come from the Orient, they told Meyer that he had accomplished the most important work done m plant pathology in 10 years. Meyer was amused and wrote Fairchild, \"Haven't you any more such problems to solve in China? They do not involve so much trouble as, for instance, bamboo culture plants at Farquhar's Nursery. From Boston Meyer traveled to New York, where he visited botanists at the New York Botanical Garden and shared his knowledge of unexplored northern Korea with Roy Chapmen Andrews at the Museum of Natural History. Then he set out on a three-year expedition that would encircle the globe. The Third Expedition Meyer stopped briefly in England to consult William Purdom, the only Western collec- or jujube problems.\" 16 Meyer delayed his expedition to Kansu for months because bands of outlaws were terrorizing the inhabitants of the interior. While he waited for conditions to improve, he shipped the USDA grains, legumes, a dwarf cherry (Prunus humlhs), 150,000 stones of the promising bush cherry (Prunus tomentosa),20,000 persimmon (Diospyros kakiseeds, 1,500 pounds of Prunus davidiana stones, 250 pounds of chestnuts (Castanea molhssima), entomological and A field of Chmese cabbages near Huai-jau, m 1905. \/Brassica chmensis\/, ), and a wooden case several sets of 500 labeled hercontaining barium specimens. He also sent scions and cuttings including Viburnum farreri. Sargent later declared that such a handsome shrub had not been mtroduced into America for a long while. Meyer, de Leuw, and Ting finally left Peking by train in mid-December. At the end of the railroad they began a challenging journey across Shensi (Shaanxi) Province. In the rugged Ta hua Shan, where trails were too steep even for donkeys, Ting fell and sustained an injury. When they reached Sian (Xi'an), a doctor informed Ting that he could not con- pathological material, 17 7 ~ tinue the journey to Kansu. While he rested, Meyer spent several weeks in the countryside near Sian. There he found heavenly chestnuts that appeared unusually resistant to trum blight, and a slow-growing privet (Ligusqmhoui\/ bearing masses of black ber- bamboo (Nandina domestica\/, jasmine (Jasmmum nudi florumthe pagoda tree (Sophora japomcathe Chinese honey locust (Gleditsia sinensis), and the princess tree (Paulowma fortunei He collected nine named persimmons, four named jujubes, of watermelon plants \/Citrullus vulgams\/ northern Chma, \"where the duststorms blow so fiercely m spring and early summer that the plants would be blown to pieces if not shielded by wmdbreaks of reed stems.\" A row m \" ries. In the southern United States this handsome privet now produces pamcles of creamy white flowers and remams evergreen all winter. Meyer, de Leuw, and Ting left Sian on February 1 and crossed Shansi (Shanxi) and Honan (Henan) provinces, de- spite wind, sleet, and snow. Moving on to Shantung, Meyer collected scions. of pears, apples, peaches, haw, quinces, and jujubes; 12 tree peonies (Paeoma suffruticosa) and 5 herbaceous peonies (P. lactiflora) ;and root cuttings of Paulownia for- 18 tunei, Albizia chinensis, and Populus toThen he and his men boarded a train for Peking. Though he intended to explore Kansu, the difficulty of replacing Ting and the activities of a murderous band of outlaws called White Wolves delayed Meyer's departure. While he searched for an interpreter, he mailed the USDA 15 cases of seeds of the bush cherry, rooted rice plants, roasted soybeans, vegetables, and ornamentals. In desperation, he finally employed an interpreter who lacked experience in the field. Accompanied by de Leuw, Chi-man Tien (the interpreter), and a coolie, he left Peking with 30 bulky pieces of mentosa. idols in ancient temples. As they traveled, Meyer collected a large amount of herbarium material and dried it over charcoal fires. Though botanists then believed that Pinus bungeana grew only in Hupeh (Hubei) Province, Meyer found it in Shansi, Shensi, and Kansu as well. Approaching the Tibetan borderland, Chi-nian Tien and the coolie refused to continue the journey because they feared certain death at the hands of the Tibetans. When Meyer reached Siku (Zhugqu\/, he had spent three days trying to persuade Tien to abide by his contract. By coincidence, a British plant-hunting expedition led by Reginald Farrer and his assistant, William Purdom, happened to be in the remote town of Siku at this time. Farrer, who had been sending the Gardeners' Chronicle a series of articles describing his \"state of perfect isolation,\" heard of Meyer's arrival \"in a tempest of surprise, by no baggage. As they crossed the mountams of Honan and Shansi provinces, high temperatures and heavy rainfall spoiled their food and made drying specimens nearly impossible. Meyer nevertheless continued his journey with relays of pack animals, despite a band of outlaws nearby and several attacks of \"this accursed fever.\" East of Pingyang (Lmfen\/ he noticed a small green peach the size of a marble and recognized it as the original wild peach (Prunus davidiana var. potammi~. He found it repeatedly as he traversed Shansi, Shensi, Kansu, and the Tibetan borderland. Potanin had collected herbarium specimens of this peach m Kansu, but Meyer sent the USDA dried fruits, samples of the wood, scions, and 700 peach stones. Tired, dirty, and hungry, he and his men reached Sian on August 19, 1914, only to hear upsetting news of the outbreak of war in Europe. Despite official warnings that the roads ahead were unsafe, they continued their journey. Between Sian and southwestern Kansu (Gansu) Meyer and his party climbed steep and slippery mountain trails and shared shelters with their mules or slept among means wholly pleasurable.\" Farrer and Purdom called on Meyer and then left Siku for several days. While they were gone, Meyer experienced \"great difficulty with the interpreter and coolie. They left the inn and hid themselves.\" Farrer also described these events, although they took place m his absence : \"Words flew until the interpreter descended the stairs with more precipitation than he would have chosen, followed by the coolie.\" He then added that Meyer's conduct so antagonized the townspeople in Siku that his life was in danger there. Though Farrer avoided saying that Meyer shoved Tien, recent versions based on Farrer's account state that Meyer threw Tien and the coolie down a flight of stairs. When Meyer returned Farrer's visit, he explained that he had asked the magistrate to enforce Tien's contract. Since Farrer spoke Chinese, he accompanied Meyer to a hearing 19 \/ and helped to present his claims. \"Had it not been for our presence indeed,\" Farrer wrote, \"it is not easy to imagine how the American party could have extricated themselves from the present predicament.\" Farrer wrote that he assisted Mr. Meyer and \"[sent] him on his way rejoicing.\" Actually, Meyer did not go on his way. Farrer and Purdom left for winter quarters, but Meyer used Siku as a base for weeks. He first journeyed to the mountains south of Siku and across the Siku River two Tibet (Xizang). After he had found the bush almond (Prunus tangutica),Potanin's peach, and other fruits, he returned to Siku. Then he followed the Siku River west, collecting scions of fruit trees and a hazelnut (Corylus tibetica) at altitudes up to 10,000 feet. Returning to Siku once more, he dried his herbarium material and negotiated with muleteers for the journey north to Lanchow (Lanzhou). On November 19, 1914, Meyer and de into what was then \"A large bush of the Tangutian almond (Prunus tangutica \/ lodgmg m the cremces of a mighty rock. Such a situation proves the remarkable drouth-resistant qualities this almond seems to possess.\" \" Leuw began a challenging trip over snowcovered mountains without an interpreter or a guide. They crossed four mountain passes at elevations above 11,000 feet in a single day. Magnificent spruce trees 150 feet tall, splendid red-barked birches nearly 100 feet high, and groves of Smarundinama nitida (a type of bamboo) repaid Meyer for the hardships he endured. At Taochow (Lintan) American missionaries received him cordially and agreed to ship the USDA seeds of barley, oats, flax, and spring wheat in return for winter wheat, vegetable seeds, and flower seeds. He and de Leuw and their muleteers then climbed a cham of high mountains. Food was scarce and the White Wolves had left the few inns along their route in ruins. Nevertheless, Meyer enjoyed the rugged scenery and collected nuts, scions of fruit trees, herbarium specimens, and Daphne tangutica, \"a first-class decorative.\" When he and de Leuw reached Lanchow, they had walked a thousand miles from Sian. Able to relax at last, Meyer spent the night reading 120 letters that awaited him. During his stay in Lanchow, Meyer was disturbed by news of the war in Europe and by his failure to find an interpreter. Unsanitary conditions there also troubled him. All water used m the city came from the Yellow River (Huang He) in wooden buckets, and, _ 20 \"horrible to say, in these same buckets, all the waste water [was] carried to the river and thrown out.\"Despite these problems, Meyer set a record by successfully shipping live plant material from Lanchow to Washington. After a prolonged search, he abandoned hope of finding an interpreter to accompany him as he returned to Peking. He and de Leuw therefore prepared to make the difficult and dangerous journey alone. Early in January 1915, Meyer and de Leuw left Lanchow with two muleteers, three mules, and a cart containing rare herbarium specimens. Setting out at daybreak each morning, they climbed windswept mountains and endured dust storms and bitter cold. When they reached the Kansu border, they encountered soldiers who suspected Meyer and de Leuw of carrying contraband poppy seeds and forced them to stand against Floating rafts of bamboo poles, Cryptomena japomca and Cunninghamia lanceolata. wall in preparation for immediate execution. Fortunately the soldiers changed their minds and escorted the two men to a nearby town for consultation with a superior officer. After a customs inspector in the town examined their baggage, he released them. For several weeks they trekked through Shensi (Shaanxi) and into Honan (Henan), crossing deep ravines and climbing steep mountain trails, despite fierce dust storms, icy winds, sleet, and snow. They finally reached the railroad, having walked 40 miles in 15 hours that day. When they arrived at Peking, they heard further news of the war in Europe and of Japanese aggression in China. \"A dark cloud hangs over all humanity,\"Meyer wrote Fairchild. \"If only we are not at the threshold of another dark age.\" Despite his concern, he labeled and packed a collection that mcluded grains, alfalfas, soybeans, fruits, nuts, ornamental trees and shrubs, lichens and mosses, and cones for Sargent. Before leaving Peking for Chekiang (Zhejiang) Province, he tried to fill Fairchild's requests for seeds: 50 pounds of Prunus davidiana, a bushel of Pistacia chinensis, several bushels of Pinus bungeana, 75 pounds of Ulmus pumila, and a 1,000 pounds of Zizyphus jujuba. He also received a plea from the USDA: \"We have been carrying out your suggestion and sending Professor Sargent one-fourth to one-half of all the seeds you are sending. Couldn't we propagate first and then share?\" Meyer and de Leuw traveled south in May a 1915, stopping at Nanking (Nanjing~ a to ar- range shipment of seeds of the Chinese elm (Ulmus parmfoha) andAlbizia chinensis. They reached Hangchow (Hangzhou) during the rainy season, but Meyer forgot the sultry weather when he saw hickory nuts in the . 21 markets. Knowing that the hickory never had been reported in China, Meyer questioned missionaries and learned that the nuts probably came from Yuhang (Linping) in the Pan Shan, south of Hangchow. At Yuhang he found that he must travel west several days. At last he discovered groves of hickories (Carya cathayensis) in sheltered valleys in the mountains and also observed Ginkgo biloba growing semiwild. Sargent later wrote Meyer that finding the hickory was by far his most interesting accomplishment from a botanical point of view. After parting from de Leuw at Shanghai, Meyer went to Japan. There he found the chestnut blight unrecognized but well established. His assignments completed, he left Japan for the United States. At the USDA's plant introduction station, m Chico, California, Meyer inspected his thriving Tangsi cherries, jujubes, dwarf lemons, almonds from Turkestan, Chinese chestnuts, olives from Central Asia, and tung-tree seedlings. Best of all, he saw orchards of fruit trees growing on his Prunus davidiana stock in alkaline soil that had previously been considered useless, even for alfalfa. In contrast, the news of the loss of his shipment from China in a cyclone at Galveston was difficult to accept. He hoped that the rare herbarium specimens that he had collected in the interior of China might be salvaged, but all were lost. Once more Meyer devoted much of his time m America to paperwork. He also visited agricultural experiment stations, gave lectures, and wrote the article \"China, A Fruitful Field for Plant Exploration.\" In March he spent pleasant days with E. H. Wilson, Camillo Schneider, and Jackson Dawson at the Arnold Arboretum. Late in May he attended Wilson's lecture at the New York Botanical Garden before moving on to Boston. He stayed there three weeks, conferring frequently with Sargent and Wil- expedition. He also enjoyed discussing plant propagation with Jackson Dawson and visiting him and his family. Before returning to China, he visited son about his next experiment stations in western states. The Fourth In Expedition Oregon Meyer studied the fire blight (Bacillus amylovarus) that was destroying American pear orchards. F. C. Reimer of the Southern Oregon Experiment Station, who had tested all available varieties of pears, told him that only the wild pears he had sent from China (the Chinese sand pear, Pyrus ussumensis, and P. calleryana)resisted fire blight. He therefore planned to collect great quantities of wild pear seeds for use in developing a congenial immune stock for pears. '-` Three weeks after Meyer reached China, he and Chow-hai Ting set out to collect the Chinese sand pear in the Shingling Shan, northeast of Peking. Published accounts have confused this pear (Pyrus ussuriensis\/ with the Peking pear (Pyrus pynfolia var. culta),which Meyer collected in the same region 10 years earlier. Thereafter he sent to the USDA not only seeds and roots of the wild pear but also a spruce (Picea meyeri),the Manchurian walnut ~Juglans mandshurica), \/, 15 cases of stones of Prunus davidiana, several hundred pounds of dried ZIzyphus jujuba, 75 pounds of Juniperus chmensis berries, seeds of the huge Brassica pekinensis, hchens and fungi for the New York Bo- 22 tanical Garden, and acorns for Sargent. As he left for the Yangtze Valley, he admitted to Fairchild that he did not feel quite well, blaming \"this never-ending, horrible war\" for \"making me feel like a ship adrift.\" Meyer and Chow-hai Ting traveled up the \" Yangtze River (Chang Jiang) to Ichang (Yichang). \"I am now on Terra Sancta,\" he wrote Fairchild. \"Mr. Wilson and Dr. Henry had Ichang for headquarters for many years. I feel like a Christian in Palestine or a Mohammedan in Mecca.\" He soon began an extensive search for the Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana)and found the trees widely scattered on sterile slopes, sunny ledges, and in standing water in low areas. When he returned to Ichang, he was pleased to learn that the USDA had distributed 17,234 of his Ulmus pumila to settlers on the northern Hankow, without any competent assistance, Meyer shipped the USDA a 260-pound crate containing citrus specimens, nuts, early rice, late soybeans, soil for nematode analysis, cones for Sargent, and entomological and pathological specimens. After a 16-day journey through the mountains of Hupeh (Hubei), Meyer settled at Kingmen (Jingmen) where he had observed the greatest concentration of Pyrus calleryana. His frustration mounted as weeks passed, for the pears were ripening very slowly. He was forced to wait in order to extract the seeds and was unable to collect in the mountains north of Ichang as he had planned. By mid-October, he had accumulated 5,000 pounds of pears the size of marbles. Eventually he and his helpers cleaned and dried about 100 pounds of seeds. In addition, he harvested a large quantity of seeds of Pistacia chinensis and Eremochloa ophiuroides, afterward named centipede grass. His solitude ended when F. C. Reimer arrived to study the wild pears in their native habitat. Meyer shared with Reimer \"unre- plains. letter written during his stay in Ichang, Meyer said that America's entry into World War I caused him to feel so depressed that he could not eat or sleep. His doctor warned him that continued overwork, loneliness, and worry about the war, especially in the debilitating climate of the Yangtze Valley, could cause further attacks of \"nerIn a vous prostration.\" went to \" Meyer and Chow-hai Hankow (Hangou), where Ting Meyer looked forward to a visit from Liberty Hyde Bailey. \"At last I will again meet somebody who is my superior in knowledge of plants,\" he commented. When Bailey arrived, he and Meyer visited markets and gardens and enjoyed \"solid talks.\" In June Bailey returned to confer with Meyer for several more days. Meyer stayed in hot and humid Hankow throughout the summer, but Chow-hai Ting returned to the cooler climate of Peking in July. Before leaving A few weeks later servedly\" the information he had gleaned and showed him \"special trees that it tooks weeks to spot.\" They then spent five days exploring the Chikang Shan west of Ichang. After Reimer departed, Meyer began a 17-day trip north of the Yangtze that took him almost to the border of Szechwan (Sichuan) Province. Along the way he found Ginkgo biloba growing \"undoubtedly wild\" for the first time. He also collected the Ichang lemon (Citrus ichangensis)and the kiwifruit (Actinidia chinensis) before returning to Ichang by rowboat. Though civil war had spread to Hupeh, he nevertheless explored for another week south of the Yangtze. 23 When Meyer reached Ichang again, he was trapped there by government and revolutionary troops that were fighting in the surrounding countryside. He filled the winter days by helping Westerners with their horticultural problems, arranging his herbarium specimens, and serving with other foreign residents on a defense committee. Despite rifle fire a mile from the city and stories of looting and atrocities, he occasionally took long walks in the country. All commerce stopped and food became scarce. In March he wrote Fairchild that \"fighting occurs almost hourly and everyone feels depressed from this long-drawn state of suspension.\" \" Meyer's Death Meyer and his guide, Yao-feng Ting, slipped through the battle lines on May 2 and walked 80 miles past looted and burned villages. Though soldiers occasionally stopped them, Meyer was able to reach Kingmen and reclaim his baggage and collection. Then he walked 60 miles to the Yangtze, where he found a boat bound for Hankow. He planned to go to Shanghai to mail his collection and then to move to the cooler coast of Shantung to label and mail his herbarium material; however, he delayed leaving Hankow because he had contracted a severe digestive disturbance. On June 1, 1918, he and Yaofeng Ting boarded a steamer for Shanghai. The next day Meyer talked at length to a British passenger and felt well enough to have dinner for the first time smce his illness began. Just before midnight the cabin boy reported that he could not find Mr. Meyer. The captain ordered a search of the riverboat, but Frank Meyer was not on board. As soon as the American consul at Shanghai heard of Meyer's disappearance, he launched an mvestigation. Meyer's body was recovered from the Yangtze and brought to Shanghai for burial in the Bubbling Well Cemetery. Horticulture reported that Meyer fell overboard and was drowned, while the American Nurseryman called his death \"one of those mysteries of the white man in the Orient.\" Sargent commented in a letter to Wilson, who was in Korea. \"He may have committed suicide or some of the Chinamen may have thrown him overboard. This is certamly bad news, for he was getting to be a useful collector.\" People on three continents mourned the death of Meyer. The supervisor of parks m Shanghai wrote that he \"undoubtedly knew more about the economic vegetation of China than any other man.\" Liberty Hyde Bailey said, \"I shall never cease to regret his untimely end; and I am more than ever glad that I had the two opportunities to be with him last summer, not only because I liked him personally, but also because he gave me so very many points of view and so much interesting information about China.... He was worthy of anything we can do to perpetuate his memory.\" From the Chosen Hotel in Korea, Wilson wrote to Fairchild. \"I am much distressed over the sad end of Meyer and also deeply puzzled. By his untimely death plant exploration has lost one of the most energetic and enthusiastic servants it ever had.\" In a letter to Meyer's father, Fairchild said that the thousands of plants that Meyer had introduced had been increased to hundreds of thousands by propagation and had been scattered throughout America; however, he deeply regretted that Meyer's \"remarkable fund\" of knowledge had not been recorded and published. I 24 Meyer's Contribution Frank Meyer introduced plants that are still treasured because they are useful, beautiful, or new to botanical science. His efforts to find in remote regions \"the rudimentary and long-forgotten parent stock or as yet unused wild plant that might be adapted to man's profit\" furnished new germplasm for the development of improved varieties of fruits, nuts, grains, fodder crops, shrubs, and flowers. He opened the field of agricultural exploration in Asia. He also investigated methods of dry-land farming that the Chinese had perfected; developed the earliest USDA seed exchanges; established a group of USDA correspondents and 'Potaninii' and P. tangutica to the Western world. Ornamental plants that have Meyer's introductions as their source include all hardy yellow roses that grow in New England or the northern prairie states, greenhouse roses that had as grafting stock his Rosa odorata, lilies propagated from his scarlet Korean Lilium species, and ornamental trees bred from his hawthorn, bush almond, Feicheng peach, and Callery pear. An outstanding example is the 'Bradford' pear, which Dr. John L. Creech of the USDA developed and called a living memorial to Frank Meyer. Other cultivars fromPyrus calleryana are 'Aristo- crat', 'Chanticleer', 'Whitehouse', and'Capital'. The USDA still holds many of Meyer's trees and shrubs, including Acer buergeranum (USDA Plant Introduction No. missionary-collectors abroad; perfected techniques for shipping live material over great distances; and collected thousands of herbarium specimens. The National Arboretum in Washington holds a set of his documented specimens; other specimens are preserved at the Arnold Arboretum, the New York Botanical Garden, and elsewhere. Drought-resistant trees and ornamentals previously unknown to botanists are among Meyer's significant introductions. His Ulmus pumila thrives from Canada to Texas and breaks the searing winds on formerly treeless prairies, while his Pistacia chmensis is used for street plantings in the Southwest. His new trees and shrubs include Carya 19411),), Acer truncatum (PI 18578), Diospyros smensis (PI 23013\/, Malus halhana (PI 38231\/, Myrica rubra (PI 22905), ), Syringa meyeri (PI 23032), and Viburnum macrocephalum (PI 22978). The Glenn Dale Plant Introduction Station in Maryland maintains a 100-foot-long Ligustrum qmhoui hedge (PI 38807), while Juniperus chinensis 'Columnaris' (PI 18577) forms handsome hedges at Glenn Dale and at the National Arboretum. Rosa xanthma (PI 21620) apparently now grows only at the Arnold Arboretum. Among the fruits that Meyer collected, Prunus davidiana not only proved to be a good rootstock for peaches but also enabled orchardists to grow apricots and plums on dry, alkaline soil. In addition, it has been used to develop a leading rootstock that is resistant to nematodes. His Tangsi cherry cathayensis, Citrus x meyerl, Crataegus meyeri, Jumperus chmensis'Columnans', Juniperus squamata 'Meyen', Picea meyeri, Prunus x meyeri, and Synnga meyen. He was the first to send to America Ligustrum L. vulgare, and Viburnum farreri. No other plant hunter in modern times found Gmkgo biloba in the wild or sent liv- qmhom, (distributed as tinues to Prunus pseudocerasus) con- ing plant material of Prunus davidiana be a factor m breeding early cher- 25 ries. Persimmons grown commercially in America, despite their Japanese names, are a direct result of Meyer's work in China. His Prunus calleryana remains the rootstock most resistant to fire blight and pear decline. The Meyer lemon (Citrus x meyeri)is an important source of frozen lemon juice in Florida and is also grown commercially in Texas, South Africa, and New Zealand. The contributions made to American agriculture by Meyer's grains, fodder and forage crops, grasses, and vegetables were largely unrecorded. The USDA Small Grains Collection at Beltsville, Maryland, holds 10 of Meyer's wheats, while the National Seed Storage Laboratory at Fort Collins, Colorado, soybeans and two of his sorghums. centipede grass is used as a lawn in the Gulf States. Though his celerygrass cabbage, bean sprouts, alfalfa sprouts, and stores one of his His \"A large grove of Chmese pistachios (Pistacla chmensisplanted as a bunal ground to the neighbormg village. In the foreground are carefully planted beds of garlic.\" \" bean curd failed to interest his contemporaries, his Spinacia oleracea collected in Manchuria is m the breeding lines of most multidisease-resistant cultivars of spinach grown in the United States today. Meyer acknowledged the pioneering nature of his work when he wrote, \"We are only cutting out a few steps m the mountain of knowledge and others have to mount by our steps.\" Though he collected 42 varieties of soybeans and contributed careful studies of soybean products, especially as a protein substitute, this represented only a begmning. He laid the groundwork for future accomplishment when he found blightresistant chestnut trees m China and when he collected zoysia grass in Korea. Others went to Asia later to collect soybeans, chestnuts, zoysia, peaches, and pears, but Meyer first pinpointed their location and revealed their value. Meyer's introductions often entered the mainstream of American agriculture unrecognized when propagators used them as unrecorded breeding parents. Though it is impossible to identify each use of a specific introduction, what is significant is that all uses were made possible by his initiative and discrimination. \" - Conclusion Cox, who accompanied Farrer on his second expedition, wrote, \"It is unfortunate that much of Meyer's work has been forgotten in comparison to the more showy introductions of other collectors who specialized more in ornamentals than in economic plants .... To most gardeners he is not even a name, but he has done more toward helping the economic life of a country than most plant collectors and his name should be a household word among American farmers.\" Despite physical hardships and an increasE.H.M. \" 26 ing sense of isolation, Meyer pursued his goals courageously. fitting epitaph than the words Fairchild wrote soon He could have no more after his death: \"Meyer's field work is done. Whether his body rests near the great river of China or under some of the trees he loved and brought to this country matters little to him. He will know that throughout his adopted land there will always be his plants, hundreds of them, in fields, in the backyards and orchards of little cottages, on street corners, and in the arboreta of wealthy lovers of plants. And wherever they are, they will all be his.\" China remained fully open to foreign plant collectors for less than half a century, the Grand Age of plant exploration. Frank Meyer emerges from the shadows that have surrounded his life and work to take his rightful place beside E. H. Wilson, George Forrest, and Frank Kingdon-Ward, the giants of that memorable era. \" 1938 The World Was My Garden. New York- Charles Scnbner's Sons. \" 1920 \"An Agncultural Explorer m China.\" Asia, 21: 7-13 1919. \"A Hunter of Plants.\"National Geographic Magazme, 36: 57-77. Farrer, Reginald. 1917 On the Eaves of the World 2 volumes. London E. Arnold . 1915. \"Mr. Reginald Farrer's Explorations m Chma\"Gardeners' Chronicle, 3rd ser., 58: 1 1914. \"Mr. Reginald Farrer's Explorations in China.\" Gardeners' Chromcle, 3rd ser , 56 : 347. . Fairchild, David. Inventory of Seeds and Plants Imported by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction. 19081918. Volumes 12-57 Washington, D.C ' Bureau of Plant Industry, U S Department of Agriculture Meyer, Frank N. 1916 \"China, A Fruitful Field for Plant . Exploration.\" In Yearbook of Agnculture, 1915, 205-24. Washington, D C : U.S. Department of Agnculture 1916. \"Economic and Botanical Explorations in China.\" In Transactions of the Massachusetts . Horticultural Society, Part I, 125-30. d 1911. Agmcultural Exploration m the Frmt and Nut Orchards of China Bulletin 204. Washington, D.C : Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture Smith, Erwm F. 1918 \"Frank N. Meyer \" Science, 48: 335-36. References Archives Meyer, Frank N. Letters, Reports, Notes, and other Records. National Archives and Records Service Records ot the Bureau of Plant Industry, Division ot Plant Exploration. Record Group 54. Project Studies, Volumes 105-9, Boxes 3-I8. Sargent, C. S. Papers. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Wilson, E. H. Papers. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Pubhshed Matenal Cunmngham, Isabel S. 1984. Frank N Meyer Plant Hunter in Asia. Ames: Iowa State University Press. \" Derksen, Leo. 1957. \"De Onrust van Frank Meyer Panorama, 44(20): 4-6. Donald, W H. 1915 \"China as a Most Promismg Field for Plant Exploration.\" Far Eastern Review, 12~2~: 41-48. d 1970 Charles S Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum Cambndge, Massachusetts. Harvard University Press van Uildmks, Fredenke J. 1919 \"De Reiziger-Plant Kundige Frans N Meyer en Zr~n Werk.\" De Aarde en haar Volken, January\/February: 1-24; Sutton, Stephanne Barry. March\/Apnl~ 41-96; July\/August. 145-71. Wilson, Owen. 1909 \"The Travels of a Plant Hunter.\" World's Work, 18' 11,670-84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":27,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24847","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260a36b.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":3,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Einset, John W.","article_content":"Biotechnology at the Arnold Arboretum t john Einset Biology has made enormous progress during the last 30 years in understanding the chemical reactions that characterize living things. This burst of scientific discovery largely has resulted from two fundamental findings:(1) the identification of deoxynbonucleic acid (DNA) as the genetic material and (2) the elucidation of its detailed molecular structure. Because of these discoveries and the perfection of powerful chemical techniques for altering DNA molecules, biology has reached a stage at which it is now theoretically possible to manipulate the genetic makeup of organisms in specific ways. The term biotechnology is used to describe practical applications of this capability in medicine, agriculture, and forestry. Although most discussions of biotechnology focus on the essential role of DNA pertinent to the development of biotechnology for woody species. Tissue Culture Tissue culture involves the control of de- biochemistry, biotechnology actually requires input from virtually every field of biology. The full realization of the potential of plant biotechnology, for example, will undoubtedly depend on a multidisciplinary effort, combining knowledge from biochemistry, physiology, morphology, anatomy, genetics, ecology, and systematics. With the conversion of facilities at the Dana Greenhouses into scientific laborato- velopment in isolated parts of an organism placed under defined conditions of nutrient supply and physical environment. It was first employed as a basic research tool to identify chemicals that normally nourish and regulate development in plants. The ultimate objective of our research is to obtain a better understanding of plant hormones (phytohormones) and other factors that control plant growth generally. As far as propagation is concerned, tissue culture is a relatively new technique, having 5 been used extensively only during the last 15 years. To date, it is estimated that tissue300 - ries, the Arnold Arboretum has begun a new use of tissue culfurther knowledge of the physgain iology of woody plants. The program is also expected to provide valuable information program of research in the ture to culture methods have been devised for over plant species, although the technique is used commercially for only about 30 species. That is not to say that the impact of tissue culture has been minor. As a matter of fact, tissue culture is already an extremely valuable process for propagating plants with superior characteristics rapidly and for producing plants (via meristem-culturing) that are free of virus and fungal infections. Undoubtedly, these applications will continue to be important to agriculture and forestry in the future. Indeed, if the true potential of tissue culture in combination with DNA bio- F 28 chemistry can be realized, tissue culture may very well lead to revolutionary advances in applied plant biology. Our program of tissue-culture research in- volves comparative studies of woody species in about 35 different families that represent a considerable degree of the diversity in the The families, orders, and superorders of plants under study at the Arboretum to determme their suitability for propagation by tissue culture. plant kingdom. The table below summarizes the families, orders, and superorders under study. Experimentally, we will investigate several of the physiological characteristics of these woody plants in tissue cultures. In this manner, we will be able to assess each species for its suitability for tissue-culture propagation and to study the factors that regulate growth and development in plants generally. The Importance of Comparative Physiology roses, apples, and blackberries) and the Ericaceae (which includes the rhododendrons and mountain laurels). As a result, Understandably, most current efforts worldwide to propagate woody plants in tissue cultures have concentrated on econom- ically important plants, primarily in two families, the Rosaceae (which includes the only a limited number of systematic groupings have been studied. It is because of this 29 that we believe that the Arboretum can play a unique role in physiological research by conducting fundamental comparative studies on a broad range of woody species. This research will increase knowledge of growth regulation in plants and will also result in new technology for propagation, conservation, and improvement of these species. From the perspective of basic plant physiology, comparative studies are particularly important now. Although much is known about the metabolism and physiological effects of the five major classes of phytohormones, most of the research on these subjects is based on experiments with just a few types of plants. The obvious question is whether concepts based on a limited number of species can be extrapolated to all plants. For example, our understanding of the pects of plant life are the most slowly evolv- ing. Because growth regulation is central to plant development, one would expect that it would evolve slowly. One would also expect that it would distinguish large systematic groupings rather than individual species within a genus. In this sense, comparative physiology potentially could become a complement to systematics, especially in addressing questions of the relationships of families and orders to each other. The practical implications of comparative physiology, of course, are also significant. In a general sense these studies will define a framework of knowledge that relates propa- gation technology to systematic botany. Therefore, it will help to make propagation apical-dominance phenomenon (the tendency of a single shoot to inhibit the growth of others) is based on extensive research with beans, peas, and tobacco. Comparative studies m tissue cultures will determine whether the same controls are operating in other species. Another subject of interest is cellular proliferation and the factors in plants that regulate it. Studies on comparative physiology will also broaden the understanding of growth regulation and its evolution. It is already evident that plants vary in the ways they control their growth, and this variability can be documented and characterized through comparative physiology. This is an essential first step in understanding the evolution of by means of tissue culture a predictable rather than a hit-or-miss procedure. Beyond this, the research will lead directly to new technology as illustrated by the examples in this article. It could also result in the identification of germ-plasm resources within important plant groups that could be valuable to biotechnology. In the family Leguminosae, for example, if species that are particularly amenable can be identified, then the characteristics that render them amenable potentially could be transferred by plant breeding into soybeans or other important legumes. For agricultural technology, the implications of this research are far- reaching. growth regulation in plants. Professor G. L. Stebbins, an evolutionary biologist with the University of California, has pointed out that different characteristics in plants evolve at different rates and that characteristics associated with essential as- Botanical Interpretation of Growth and Development Knowledge of some botamcal terms and principles is necessary in order to understand tissue-culture propagation. The termmonopodial refers to the condi- 30 Lilacs (Syringa vulagaris x hyacinthiflora 'Excel') being propagated m four different tissue-culture mediums. The medium in the second test tube from the left contains a high concentration of cytokinin, a hormone that is found in all plants and stimulates the most vigorous growth. tion in which an a single growing tip produces growth resulting from different growing tips. Sympodial growth is exhibited by elms, in which the terminal shoot tips abort from branches at the end of each growing season. As a result, shoot growth during the subsequent year always begins from a lateral bud. The sympodial growth condition is also evident in many tropical tree species in which both main stems and branches from lateral buds grow simultaneously. Growth of lateral branches concurrent with growth of the main stem is also referred to as an example of weak apical dominance in contrast to strong apical dominance, a unbranched stem from year to year. Extreme examples of monopodial growth can be seen in several palms in which a single stem constitutes the entire above-ground part of the plant. The contrasting condition is sympodial growth, which involves stem 31 condition in which a growing shoot tip effectively inhibits growth of lateral buds in the axils of leaves below it. Physiologically, apical dominance is believed to involve two phytohormones: auxin, produced in the growing tip and transported to lateral buds, where it inhibits growth; and cytokmin, which stimulates shoot growth. According to the major scientific hypothesis on apical dominance, the relative levels of auxm and cytokinin in lateral buds determine whether the buds will or will not grow out. If auxin is in excess, the lateral buds will not grow, and a monopodial shoot will emerge. On the other hand, if cytokmm is predominant the lateral buds will grow, and a sympodial shoot will emerge. (An article by Michael Donoghue inArnoldia [JanuarylFebruary 1981, volume 41, number 1] contains further information on terminology.) retically would generate well over a million plants within nine months. At the Arboretum rapidly expanding shoots of Syringa vulgaris x hyacinthi flora 'Excel' are taken from the plants in spring and disinfested with detergent and bleach. When these shoot tips are transferred to a medium with the cytokinin thidiazuron, within six weeks monopodial shoots develop and inhibit lateral buds at three to five nodes. A surprising characteristic of Syringa, which is shared by other genera m the Oleaceae, such as Ligustrum and Forsythia, is that shoots in tissue culture exhibit strong apical dominance that cannot be overcome by cytokinin. Shoot multiplication with these plants therefore requires a different strategy. The procedure we devised is as follows: we cut each monopodial shoot into sections consisting of a node with two lateral buds and a piece of stem. We then culture indi-vidual sections on the cytokinin medium, where they each, in turn, produce a monopodial shoot that also can be separated into sections for the next tissue-culture passage. This procedure, when used repeatedly, can produce a million shoots from a single bud within one year. These can be treated with indole butyric acid and rooted in vermiculite. A third method of tissue-culture multiplication is used with an uncommon amaryllis (Hippeastrum striatum `Fulgidum'~. This plant (see photo on page 33), a native of the tropical rain forests of Brazil, exhibits several characteristics that make it an excellent house plant. It blooms at least twice a year, producing many umbels of showy orange flowers. (Most commercially available Hippeastrum cultivars produce only one umbel with four flowers.)Its evergreen foliage re- Multiplying Plants in Tissue Culture The most common procedure for multiply- ing woody plants in tissue culture is to add a high concentration of cytokinin to a complex nutrient medium. This environment stimulates shoot growth and overcomes apical dominance. The sympodial shoots that result are then subdivided into mdividual branches, and these are either recultured on the same medium, to increase the number of shoots, or treated with auxm to stimulate rooting. Rooted plants can then be transplanted to soil. If the objective is rapid, clonal propagation, each branch can be excised and subcultured on the same medium. For example, at a multiplication rate of five shoots produced from one every month, this procedure theo- 32 mains vigorous and healthy throughout the year. Tolerant of low light and low humid- scribed, by a systematic, comparative study of physiological expression in tissue culbelieve that over time this experimental approach will improve the understandmg of developmental regulation in plants generally and will also point the way for new methods m biotechnology. A second and equally important aspect of our research at the Arboretum is the direct analysis of the physiology and biochemistry of two phytohormones, cytokimn and ethylene, which are crucial to tissue-culture mampulations. By obtaimng a better understanding of these substances, we hope to gain further knowledge of comparative phystures. We ity, the plant requires little care. In using tissue culture to multiply this de- sirableHippeastrum clonally, we adapted methods that had been used successfully for Narcissus, a member of the same family as theHippeastrum, the Amaryllidaceae. We first cut the bulb of the plant into sections, each containing a piece of stem and the bases of at least two leaves. (A bulb is a compact shoot system with a short stem and several scalelike leaves.) Next each section is placed with its stem side down on a medium supplemented with powdered charcoal but lacking phytohormone. The charcoal apparently absorbs chemicals produced in response to the wound made in cutting the bulb. After about four weeks of incubation in the dark, each section forms a new bulblet in the axil of the two leaves. At this stage the bulblets are removed and cut longitudinally into two equal parts, each containing a piece of stem and at least two leaves. Within another four weeks each of these explants in turn will regenerate a new bulblet, which also can be cut in two and recultured as often as needed. Depending on the number of bulbs required, the tissue-culture method can be scaled up. We estimate, for example, that 1,000 Hippeastrum plants can be produced from a smgle bulb in six months. iology. At present rapid progress also is being made in several areas related to plant biotechnology. In the last few years, for example, two completely new methods for hybridizing plants have been discovered. The first of these involves protoplastfusion, a process in which cells from two different plants are treated with enzymes to dissolve their cell walls, and the protoplasts then are mixed together under special conditions that stimulate them to fuse and produce a hybrid cell. Once this has been accomplished, tissue-culture techniques are used to produce a whole plant from that cell. Protoplast fusion was first achieved with species of tobacco, but it has since been used with potato and tomato plants and two species in the Brassicaceae(cabbages). A second techmque for genetically altering plants is one of the most elegant procedures m DNA biochemistry, involving the injection of bacterial DNA mto plant cells. In the most sophisticated versions of this Goals and Prospects In all probability the variation among strategies of growth regulation m plants is a product of evolution just as any other plant characteristic is. Our rationale is that the mechanisms of growth regulation can be characterized, and their evolution can be de- technique, is a gene conferring resistance to a poison isolated from bacteria and introduced via a bacterium into protoplasts from 33 development become better understood. In our research on woody species from the Arboretum's collection, we are especially interested m identifying such species. Not only are these of interest from the point of view of comparative physiology, but they also may represent valuable genetic resources for the biotechnology of plants. With the advent of biotechnology, the consolidating work of the Arnold Arboretum in botany and horticulture will have a profound im- pact. \/ohn Emset is a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum and an associate professor of biology at Harvard University. The evergreen amarylhs (Hippeastrum stmatum 'Fulgidum') produces many flowers, m contrast to the usual four of most commercially available amaryllis cultivars. By means of tissue-culture techmques, 1,000 of these plants could be produced from a single bulb in only six months. Peter del Tredici photo cells of petuma, tobacco, and carrot plants. Tissue-culture techmques are then used to produce poison-resistant plants. The most desirable woody species for gemodification at this time are those that permit the regeneration of whole individuals from single hybrid cells. Although few species are amenable to this type of manipulation at present, it is expected that more will become so as the factors that regulate netic "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collector's Notebook: The Sweetleaf","article_sequence":3,"start_page":34,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24848","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260a76f.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":3,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"COLLECTOR'S NOTEBOOK The Sweetleaf Richard E. Weaver, jr. Many of our fine native shrubs seldom seen in American gardens, either because they are unfamihar to the gardening pubhc or because they are difficult to propagate or transplant. are wild plums. The berries are yellowish and unspectacular. Several varieties have been recognized by botanists. ~pamculata), its ent in a wide-rangmg pamcul ata\/,a mde-rangmg Asia- tic species, is used for such purposes m the Umted States, and Symplocos tmctona tmctoma occurs m var. then only rarely. The sapphireberry is a fine ornamental. With open clusters of white flowers appeanng after the leaves have Symplocos these plants. This interesting tmctoma is one of hummocks and at the edges of swamps on the coastal plam from Delaware to Texas. southeastern native is known by several common names: sweetleaf or horse sugar, because the sweet-tastmg leaves are attrac- Symplocos tmctona var. ashei is a plant of the Southern Appalachians from North Carolina to Georgia. It common on occurs in moist can partially expanded, and its beautiful blue bernes, it is very differappearance from the sweet- leaf. is most browsing mammals, and dye-bush, because the bark and leaves yield a yellow dye. The sweetleaf is a shrub or small tree, occasionally to 9 m tall; it usually forms loose colonies from root sprouts, much in the manner of Sassafras albidum. The handsome leaves, 13-15 cm long and 3-5cm wide, are thick and lustrous. They are clustered at the ends of the twigs and resemble those of Rhododendron carohmanum or the mountain laurel (Kalmia laufoha) except for the few, inconspicuous teeth along their margms. They often persist until November or December m the south. The delightfully fragrant, creamy white flowers are crowded into nearly stemless, very dense clusters, and they appear in April or May, before the leaves. A plant m flower somewhat resembles the various tive to dry ridges, but it also lowland forests. be distinguished from tmctona by its hairy twigs and earher deciduous leaves. It certamly should prove to be the most cold-hardy of the varieties. A third variety, S. tmctona var. pygmaea, a dwarf plant with small leaves and few flowers, occurs in sandy soil in a restricted area of southeastern Virginia. Symplocos is a rather large genus of trees and shrubs widely distributed m the warmer areas of Austraha, Asia, and the Americas. The sweetleaf is the only species native to the Umted States and is therefore the northernmost representative of the group m the New World. Several of the species are used on a small scale as dye plants, but few are cultivated for ornament. Only the sapphire-berry (Symplocos Ashei Very little information is available concerning methods of propagation of Symplocos species. Jack Alexander, propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, uses an alternative warm\/cold stratification for the seeds of S. pamculata, but germination is poor. He said that softwood cuttings of the sapphire berry, taken m early July, had rooted well by September, when they were transferred to pots. Surprisingly though, not a single plant grew out the followmg spring. Alexander had no data on the propagation of S. tmctona. Several years ago I tried to collect plants of the sweetleaf m Burke County, North Carolina, for the Arnold Arboretum. I found that the plants m the colomes I sampled were mostly suckers from very thick, sparsely branching roots, with very few fibrous roots attached. Plants that reproduce m this manner are 35 usually very difficult to transplant, and none of the ones I collected survived. Such plants usually can be propagated from pieces of their roots, however, and Symplocos tmctona is no exception. One- to two-mch pieces of root taken m December and January produced shoots within one month and roots within two months. Root growth has been slow, and the cuttings probably should not be disturbed until their second spring. I have not tried to germmate the seeds, as I have not been able to acquire any. They are seldom produced m the foothills of North Carohna. Smce the sweetleaf can now be propagated and transplanted easily, contamer plants should become available, and this mteresting shrub will make its debut m American gardens. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., the former horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum, now operates WE-DU Nurseries in Manon, North Carolina. \" Flowers of Symplocos tmctoma var. tmctoma. Robert L. Taylor photo. Reprinted by permission of the American Horticultural Society. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introducing Betula platyphylla 'Whitespire'","article_sequence":4,"start_page":36,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24850","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260ab6d.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":3,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Hasselkus, Edward","article_content":"Introducing Betula platyphylla 'Whitespire' ' Edward Hasselkus A narrow, pyramidal white-barked birch that is tolerant of high temperatures and tree in re- Nagano Prefecture in southern Japan sistant to the bronze birch borer was regis- tered and introduced last year by the author at the Umversity of Wisconsin-Madison. Betula platyphylla var. japonica 'Whitespire' has a wide range of adaptability, from USDA hardiness zones 5a through 7a and possibly farther. The parent tree has been uninjured following exposure to winter temperatures as low as -30F at Madison. Its seedlings have been undamaged by summer temperatures as high as 120F in Oklahoma, where other white-barked birches defoliated at these temperatures. Seedlings in commercial nurseries have thrived under a wide range of soil conditions. Poor drainage, however, caused stunting and the development of chlorotic foliage. The original 'Whitespire' birch is located in the Longenecker Horticultural Gardens of the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum. Now 27 years old, this tree measures 10 m in height and 4.5 m in spread and has a distinctive spirelike form. Finetextured in twig and foliage, the glossy leaves turn yellow in autumn. The chalky white bark is marked with black triangles at the bases of lateral branches and does not exfoliate. In October 1956, seed of Betula platyphylla var. japonica (plant introduction number 235128) was collected from a single by John L. Creech of the United States Plant Introduction Station (Creech 1957). The collection site was an open field above Shibuyu Onsen at 1,530 m m the Yatsugatake Mountains. Betula p. var. japonica occurs in two distinct distribution regions, a massive northern distribution that connects eventually with the Siberian distribution and a separate distribution in central Honshu. A distinct band where the tree does not occur exists between these two regions (personal communication from John L. Creech, March 7, 1983). Creech's seed came from the southernmost part of the Central Honshu distribution and may represent the only introduction of the tree to this country from the southern disjunct population. This may account for its tolerance of high temperatures and consequent borer resistance. Plants from Creech's seed were distributed by the U.S. Plant Introduction Station to the University of Wisconsin-Madison Arboretum and 33 other cooperators in the spring of 1957. In the spring of 1961, five trees were planted in a newly established birch collection on a droughty site m the arboretum. Three 27-year-old trees have remained free of the bronze birch borer, whereas plants of Betula pendula, populifoha, pubescens, and utilis and other Opposite: Betula platyphylla 'Whitespire'. 37 38 seed strains of B. platyphylla var. japonica have become infested with borers. The trees from Creech's seed are isolated on the site from other white-barked birches. The one with the most striking spirelike form has been named 'Whitespire'. Seed from this tree has been distributed annually to several nurseries around the country during the past eight years. Liners have been widely distributed as the \"University of Wisconsin strain\" of the Japanese white birch. No assurance exists that the seedling progeny is not hybrid; the relative isolation of the parent tree makes that possibility unlikely, however. Seven-year-old seedlings of 'Whitespire' birch have attained a height of 6 m and a spread of 2.7 m. They are extremely uniform, with well-developed white bark and the slender pyramidal form of the parent tree. Books Woody Landscape Plants: Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation, and Uses, by Michael A. Dirr. Third edition. Champaign, Illinois: Stipes. 826 pp. DONALD WYMAN Manual of Vegetative propagation of this birch from cuttings has been unsuccessful. However, propagation through microculture has just been accomphshed at a commercial micropropagation laboratory, providing the potential for clonal propagation of-Whitespire' by the nursery industry. Michael Dirr's Manual of Woody Landscape Plants, now in its third edition, is a truly excellent selection for the plantsman's library. It is clear that the author has studied the plants and has spent many hours with them, noting their characteristics and discovering the various methods of propagating them. He has visited collections in this country and Europe, made detailed notes about each species, researched what others have to say, and especially has recorded his own observations. The book describes 1,100 species, 300 of which are new to this edition, and over 1,500 cultivars. Mr. Dirr acknowledgcs the existence of hundreds of others too numerous to example, approximately 700 named species and cultivars of Malus exist, and may be growing somewhere in the treat. For Reference Creech, John L. 1957 Plant Explorations: Ornamentals in Southern Japan. ARS 34-1 Agricultural Research Service, USDA, in cooperation with Longwood Gardens of the Longwood Foundation, Inc. Washington: U.S. Government Prmring Office. United States, but it would take a lifetime to distinguish them. The author mentions those that he has seen and tells what he knows of them. Mr. Dirr wisely excludes most genera with large numbers of cultivars, such as Camellia and Syringa, which are unwieldy for a book like this, and instead lists other sources of information. He does list 40 cultivars of Potentilla fruticosa, however, an indication of his interest in these Edward R. Hasselkus is a professor of horuculture the Umversity of Wisconsm m Madison at plants. The list format of the text means that de- "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23391","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e896e.jpg","title":"1984-44-3","volume":44,"issue_number":3,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Tree That Changed the World in One Century","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24846","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8aad260a326.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"The Tree that Changed the World in One Century Richard Evans Schultes I you that on that 14th of June( 1875)( when Mr. Wickham arrived at Kew m a hansom can assure cab with his precious bags of seeds, not even the wildest imagmation could have contemplated its result.... - Sir W. T. Thiselton-Dyer Kew Bulletm (1912\/, p. 65 History is usually written in the context of of their product had been made anywhere in the Eastern Hemisphere. When Columbus arrived in the West Indies, he noted that the natives were playing a game in which rubber balls were employed, but the rubber for these balls came not from Hevea but from Castilla elastica, of the fig use political, social, or religious changes. Yet it might well be written from the point of view of the effects that plants have had on the development of mankind and civilization. It is safe to say that no smgle species of plant has, in the short space of 100 years, so utterly altered lifestyles around the globe as Hevea brasihensis, family. As early as 1755, King John of Portugal tried to foster a rubber industry in Belem do Para at the mouth of the Amazon River: rubber shoes were manufactured for export to Portugal, but the quality was so poor that the industry did not prosper. The process of vulcanization, which has made rubber the useful product that it is now, had not yet been discovered. After Goodyear discovered vulcanization in the 1830s, rubber became a product with ever-increasing uses in the industrializing nations, and demand for it increased at a vertiginous rate. The only source was the wild stands of Hevea - especially H. brasiliensis hidden away in the dark corners of the vast Amazon forests. The demand for rubber in Europe and the United States rapidly became so great that production from forest trees rose from 31 tons in 1827 to 2607 tons in 1856. This dramatic increase was accomplished by the virtual enslavement of whole tribes of Indians. Tapping the trees in the jungles for four or five months a year, away from their agricultural lands and sources of - member of the spurge source of 98 perfamily, which today cent of the world's natural rubber. Stop for a moment and try to imagine life without rubber! The introduction of this Amazonian tree from the wild and its domestication in the 19th century was the work of the British botamcal gardens, especially the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, and is unquestionably the most outstanding example of the value of such institutions in bettering life on earth. Rubber-yielding trees and vines grew in the Old World, yet, curiously, no significant a is the A group of rubber tappers bringing m therr daily harvest of latex from forest trees m the Amazoman region of Colombia. R. E. Schultes photo. 4 Natural distribution of Hevea andH. brasihensis. Hevea became known to the scientific nourishment, falling prey to tropical diseases and malnutrition, and often suffering from exposure, mistreatment, torture, or even assassination if they did not bring in community when in 1775 the French botanist J. B. C. F. Aublet described the genus from material collected in French Guiana. He not only described the genus and its first species, H. guianensis, but detailed the native method of exploiting it for rubber enough rubber, they were being exterminated by this forest industry, directed primarily by unscrupulous \"rubber-barons\" who resided in the cities of Manaos and Iquitos, usually in sumptuous luxury. The modern age of rubber had its beginnings in 1876, a \"rubber revolution\" that was the consequence of an incredible series of sometimes fortuitous events. and appended numerous ethnobotanical data on the use of the seeds by the natives as food. Twenty-six years later, German K. L. Willdenow, a botanist, described a second species, H. brasiliensis, from material collected at the mouth of the Amazon River. Subsequent botanical exploration of the Amazon Valley notably that carried out - 5 by the British botanist Richard Spruce continued to add new species which now varieties. to - the genus, 10 species and three comprises Not all of the species yield a latex capable of producing rubber: only H. guianensis, H. benthamiana, andH. brasihensis have sufficient caoutchouc to give a usable rubber ; and of these, H. brasiliensis supplies the best product. forest circuit, then return to his shack and begin the long process of coagulating the latex. Large balls of rubber were formed by pouring the latex little by little over a pole that was rotated in smoke rising from an inverted funnel. The death knell for this primitive industry was sounded when the era of scientifically When m 1823 a Scot, Charles Macintosh, discovered that rubber would dissolve in managed plantation practices began in 1876, the year that rubber seeds were first germinated successfully in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The domestication of the rubber tree served civilization in two ways. First, it provided an abundance of high quality rubber at low cost, without which many of our great advances in industry, medicine, domestic appliances, and transportation would have been impossible. Second, when plantations finally came into full production in the second decade of the 1900s, the forest industry was all but obliterated, with the result that thousands of native tappers were liberated from the intolerable and inhuman exploitation to which they had been subjected for nearly 100 years. And, undoubtedly, whole tribes e.g., the Witotos of the northwestern Amazon, a truly noble race of Indians were saved from virtual extinc- naphtha, it acquired many new uses, leading to the establishment of factories in England, France, and the United States. These factories failed, however, because the product still became sticky in the heat and brittle in the cold. This problem was overcome in 1839 when Bostonian, Charles Goodyear, discovered vulcanization, a process that greatly altered the physical properties of rubber and changed the history of the significance of this vegetal product and its effect on human life. It led immediately to new and hitherto unexpected applications and a host of new industries. It also sparked the \"rubber boom\" of the Amazon, then the only source of natural rubber: production from the South American forests rapidly increased. Exploitation of wild rubber is a difficult and frustratmg operation. The natives, living during the tapping season under such abominable conditions, produced a poor-quality product. The latex was frequently laden with bark, dirt, and stones and adulterated with other rubbers, since often the tappers were punished if they did not procure stipulated quotas. Furthermore, each individual had to labor from dawn or predawn until nearly noon to tap 100 or fewer trees in his a tion. Domestication of the rubber tree occurred at the time the British were seeking new crops for their tropical colonies. The introduction of the quinine-bark tree into India from the Andes had just been highly successful. Sir Clements Markham, who had directed the introduction of that tree, was convinced that the rubber tree could be developed as a plantation crop that would be a good substitute for the coffee crop, which a fungal disease had almost exterminated in Asia. He had Mr. James Collins prepare a summary of what was then known about 6 Parts of Hevea brasiliensis, the rubber tree. the Amazon, and he fully supported Markham's view concerning the future of Hevea cultivation. Several earlier attempts had been made to introduce Hevea seed from Brazil, in 1873 and 1875. None were successful. Hevea seed, its latex rich in sugars, quickly ferments in the heat of the tropics, and the embryo is killed. But success eventually came. rubber. Collins wrote: \"In 1870,I came to the conclusion that it was necessary to do for the caoutchouc-producing tree what had already been done with such happy results for the cinchona (quinine) tree.\" Sir Joseph Hooker, director of Kew Gardens, knew of Spruce's discoveries and studies of Hevea in 7 Seeds ofHevea brasiliensis. R. E. Schultes photo. An Englishman, Henry Wickham, who had spent many years living near the Amazon and Orinoco and who in 18 72 had published a book on his travels in tropical South America, had previously sent seeds of Hevea to Kew with no success. Fully realizing that earlier shipments had failed because of slow transport, Wickham resolved somehow to surmount this difficulty. Then a fortuitous event happened! In 1876 a steamboat from England had sailed up the Amazon laden with cargo; it found no return load. \"I determined,\"Wickham wrote, \"to plunge for it. I had no cash on hand. The seed was even then beginning to ripen. I knew that Capt. Murry must be in a fix, so I wrote chartering 8 9 the ship.\" Wickham sent out his Indians to collect the seed and pack it properly m wicker baskets. The ship raced downstream from Santarem, 400 miles up the Amazon, and called in at customs in Belem at the river's mouth. Customs officials, told of the delicacy of the plants \"for delivery to Her Britannic Majesty's own Royal Botanic Gar- dens of Kew,\" immediately, and with intelligence unusual among bureaucratic officials, dispatched the ship, which steamed off to England. All of the earlier shipments had been sent on sailing vessels. The few days saved by using a steamboat ensured successful germination in Kew's hothouses. Of the 70,000 seeds, 2800 germinated a rate of 4 percent, astonishingly high for Hevea, even in the field. Young trees from this introduction were sent to Ceylon, where several of the original trees still are living in botanical gardens. From Ceylon some went to Singapore and other parts of the empire in the tropics. The domestication of this tree, which has in one century so drastically changed life around the world, would not have been possible without a chain of botanical gardens and a far-sighted director at Kew like Hooker. In Brazil stories are rife concerning the British \"seed steal.\" At that time Brazilian law permitted the exportation of seeds, and collection and exportation were carried out openly. Many Brazilians are persuaded to believe that rubber seeds were \"stolen\" or \"smuggled\" out of the country, however, - Henry Nicholas Ridley examining one ot his early experiments in tapping systems of Hevea brasihensis, Malaysia. Photograph courtesy of Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. and fail to realize that Brazil's major agricultural industries are based on plants introduced from foreign countries: coffee (originally from Abyssinia), rice (from India), (from Southeast Asia), soybeans (from China), jute (from India), cacao (from Colombia and Ecuador). In fact, most of the world's principal plantation crops are produced in regions far from their original sugar The oldest tree of Hevea brasihensis in Malaysia, from one of nine seeds planted in 1877. Photograph courtesy of Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. homes. When the Brazilians realized that the British plantation efforts were to be successful, they prohibited further exportation of 10 rubber tree that now yield more than 3000 pounds, and, with a recently developed chemical treatment of the bark, some clones may almost double that amount. Trunk of Hevea brasihensis with hypertrophied growth due to former tapping mth machadmho (\"httle ax\") m the Amazon of Brazil. P. Alvim photo. rubber seeds, and that prohibition held until very recently. Consequently, the vast rubber plantation system of the Old World was based primarily on these original seeds, which were collected from a single locality and from a single (and not the most promising) ecotype of Hevea brasiliensis. It is believed that the 70,000 seeds came from 26 original trees. In view of this, the enormous improvement m the commercial rubber tree in the space of 100 years seems incredible. The earliest plantation set out in Ceylon yielded 400-450 pounds of dry rubber per acre per year; there are new clones of the Many names of major importance are connected with the historical accomplishment of domesticating a wild tree of the humid Amazon. These include Aublet, Spruce, Macintosh, Goodyear, and Wickham, mentioned earlier. But Wickham and two others Ridley and Cramer - were perhaps all-important in the creation of the great plantation industry that supplies the world with more than 98 percent of its natural rubbers. Wickham, who lived to a venerable old age, was rightfully knighted in the late 1920s for his part in the creation of the rubber industry. Henry N. Ridley was appomted director of the Botanic Gardens in Singapore in 1888. It was my unexpected good fortune in 1950 to spend several days chatting with Ridley in his 95th year. He lived near Kew Gardens and was overjoyed to review some of his hopes, his trials, his successes in the early history of rubber in the Far East with a young botanist who was studying the numerous species and their ecotypes in the wild in South America. It was during these personal exchanges that I reahzed that Ridley was in fact one of the major founders of our modern rubber plantation industry. When Ridley took up his position, he found only nine original trees and some 1000 young plants left from the original introductions to the Malay Straits in 1877. He immediately raised 8000 more plants from seed imported from Ceylon. These trees, from the original Wickham stock, became the mother trees of much of the rubber that eventually covered a large portion of Malaya. Next Ridley began his celebrated experi- v 11 1 channel, avoiding injury to the cambium, since in Hevea all of the latex-bearing vessels are external to the cambium. He began with the well-known herring-bone method and recommended infrequent tapping to allow the trees to rest. Eventually, he learned that more frequent tappings would and abandoned the herring-bone system and cut in slopes from right to left, since cuts in this direction were shown to give higher yields. Among numerous other discoveries, he experimentally showed the advantages of tapping done in the morning rather than the afternoon. Ridley's advances, perhaps more than any other, assured success of the Asiatic plantation mdustry. By 1897 all tapping in Asia was based on Ridley's scheme of reopening the wound. The sudden increase in world demand for rubber further stimulated research into efficient and higher-yielding tapping techniques, in all aspects of which Ridley took part. His experiments led eventually to the spiral system of tapping, which today is nearly universal in plantation pracnot tree harm the Pieter J. S. Cramer (left). The man is identity of the other unknown. The tree is one of the original Wickham trees in the Botanical Garden, Ceylon. Photograph courtesy of Dr. O. S. Pires, Rubber Research Institute of Srt Lanka, Agalwatta, Sm Lanka. tice. Ridley made another significant contribution to the rubber mdustry of the future in his campaign to establish rubber as a plantation crop. A series of events led him to this: a serious fall in the world price of tea, the tapping methods. At that time the Amazon were slashed according to a great variety of makeshift techniques, frequently to the detriment of the tree. The most prevalent method mvolved the use of the \"machadmho\" - a small ax used to make deep incisions in vertical lines up and down the trunk, causmg eventually enormous hypertrophied tumors, which later prevented efficient tapping. Ridley tried cuttmg off very thin layers of the bark with a sharp knife in a sloping ments on trees in devastating fungal disease of Coffea arabica, and poor results with cacao. Another factor was the increasing use of the automobile; automobile tires gradually became the greatest smgle consumer of the product. Ridley seized the opportunity, and soon planters were establishing rubber. Again it was my good fortune in 1950, when Dr. P. J. S. Cramer was retired in Utrecht, Holland, to spend three days chatting with oude Piet (\"old Pete\"), as the uni- 12 13 versity students affectionately called him. We reviewed the initial introduction of Hevea stock to the Dutch East Indies from the British Malay Straits material derived - from the original Wickham seeds and his early successful efforts to introduce from South America seeds of several other species of Hevea for eventual genetic studies. He told me about the difficulties he experienced in attempting to convince commercial developers that the planting of seeds (instead of using clonal material) was not the best way of establishing plantations of rubber trees. In these three days we experienced a remarkable camaraderie based on our very divergent experiences with Hevea, and I acquired an abiding understanding of the difficulties encountered by these pioneers: Ridley and - Cramer. When the Dutch had established a plantation crop from material originating in Penang, Malaysia, Cramer carried out the first variation analyses on Hevea brasiliensis. These early studies indicated that the species is extremely variable, especially with respect to yield of latex, an important commercial consideration. Through his analyses Cramer demonstrated the impossibility of predicting yield of rubber from plantations established on seed material, mainly because of cross pollination. He predicted that vegetative selection, cloning, and generative selection or breeding would lead to improvements in yield. All his predictions proved true. Cramer's studies led to the eventual vegetative reproduction of highyielding, clones, which today is basic to all Plaque commemorating Sir Henry Wickham's successful introduction of seeds of Hevea brasihensis from the Amazon m 1876. Photograph courtesy of the Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. Later, in 1918, Cramer patented a method rubber-plantation practice. Letter to the author from Henry N. 95th year. of marketing budwood from high-yield cloned trees, which ad infinitum would provide the basis of plantation material. He also invented the Testatex knife, patented in 1931. This knife has a vertical series of V-shaped blades, and when pressed into the stem or trunk of young nursery plants measured the length of the \"drip\" of the exuding latex, thereby indicating yield potential long Ridley m his before the trees matured at seven years. The famous Colombian author Jose Eustacio Rivera wrote one of the great novels of 14 A modem plantation of Hevea brasiliensis in Malaysia. Photograph courtesy of Rubber Research Institute of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. 15 s 16 6 life on the Amazon during the rubber boom. The title, La Voragine (The Vortex), refers to the belief that the jungle mysteriously swallows up the rubber tappers. One magnificent passage describes the almost fearful worship of the rubber tree in those days: \"I have been a rubber tapper. I am a rubber tapper. I have lived in the muddy swamps in the solitude of the forests with my crew of malaria-ridden men cutting the bark of the trees that have white blood like that of the gods.\" If we consider the changes for the good of mankind that \"white blood\" brought about when the rubber tree was finally Latin America on \" 1943. Trees and Test Tubes : The Story of Rubber New York: Henry Holt. Woodroffe, J. F., and H. H. Smith. 1915. The Rubber Industry of the Amazon and How Its Supremacy Can Be Maintained. London: John Bale, Sons, and Danilson. Wycherley, P. R. 1968. \"Introduction of Hevea to the Orient.\"The Planter (Kuala Lumpur), 44: 12737. Wilson, C. M. domesticated, perhaps we might agree that it was actually blood of the gods! Selected Readings 1945. \"Rubber Returns to Latin America.\" InNew Crops for the New World, edited by C. M. Wilson. New York: Macmillan. Barlow, C. 1978. The Natural Rubber Industry. Selangor, Malaysia: Oxford University Press. Collier, R. 1968. The Rmer that God Forgot. London: Bangham, W. N. Collins. Dijkman, M. J. m 1951. Hevea: Thirty Years of Research the Far East. Coral Gables, Florida: University . . of Miami Press. 1973. Rubber in Malaya 1876-1922: The Genesis of the Industry. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia: Oxford University Press. Hardenburg, W. E. 1912. The Putumayo: The Dev~l's Paradise. London: T. Fisher Unwm. Polhamus, L. G. 1962. Rubber: Botany, Production and UtW zation. New York: Interscience Pubhshers. Schultes, R. E. 1977a. \"Wild Hevea: An Untapped Source of Germ Plasm.\" Joumal of the Rubber Research Institute of Sm Lanka, 54: 227-57. 1977b. \"The Odyssey of the Cultivated Rubber Tree.\" Endeavour (New Series) 1 (314~: 133-38. 1970. \"The History of Taxonomic Studies m Drabble, J. H. Hevea.\"Regnum Vegetabile, 71: 229-93. Singleton-Gates, P., and M. Girodias. 1959. The Black Diames of Roger Casement. New York: Grove Press. Richard E. Schultes is jef frey professor of biology and d director of the Botanical Museum of Harvard Umver- sity. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24843","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070856f.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Shadow, Don O.","article_content":"In Praise of the American Smoke Tree Gary L. Koller and Don O. Shadow Have you ever wondered why one intro- duced species within a the nursery and landscape industry while a native American plant with notable traits remains obscure? An example of this occurs in the genus Cotinus. Cotinus coggygna Scop., the common smoke tree or smokebush, whose native range extends from South Europe to Central China, is frequently seen in residential landscapes here. It is sought after because of its many fine qualities : a long period of midsummer floral and fruit ornamentation, showy plumose fruit panicles (which create the smokelike effect that gives the plant its common name), vivid autumn foliage colors, ease of culture, and longevity (the oldest plants extant at the Arnold Arboretum are 108 years old and healthy). Our native American smoke tree, C. obovatus Raf., on the other hand, is rarely seen. It is often missing even in the horticultural literature. Older books on landscaping omit it completely. When it is included, it is described in almost disparaging terms: \"the fruiting panicles are not showy - it is useful only for autumn color where the smaller smoke tree will suffice, the American species can be omitted.\" Writers always attempt to compare the American species with its Asian relative. We have observed fruit panicles in the wild that are quite showy, though it is fair to say that those on the Arboretum's trees are not. We shall lay - genus flourishes in comparison aside here and give our native species the attention it deserves. Robert A. Vines, in his book Trees, Shrubs and Woody Vmes of the Southwest, states that Cotinus obovatus occurs on \"rocky limestone hills of Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas, Missouri, Alabama, Tennessee and Kentucky. Nowhere very abundant or widespread.\" Thomas S. Elias, in Trees of North America, says that it generally grows in limestone soils of dry, rocky slopes, in mountain canyons, or on high hills. It is found at elevations up to 1000 m. Because it inhabits locations with hot humid summers and relatively mild winters, many assume that it will not thrive under the soil and climatic conditions of northern landscapes. Yet we have found a planting as far north as the Landscape Arboretum at the University of Minnesota. Dr. Harold Pellett, on the staff there, told me that the arboretum had had success with seed of a cultivated plant from the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, in 1963. Today, one of the resultant seedlings, which grows in an exposed site, is nearly 5 m tall. It is stem hardy at temperatures above approximately -25F. The minimum temperature at which the roots are cold hardy has not yet been determined. Information on the original native locale of this plant is unavailable. A more cold-hardy genotype may yet be found. A second welcome feature of the Amer- 18 19 ican smoke tree is its adaptability to various soil conditions. In Tennessee it occurs on plants can show colors as vivid in themselves (as, for example Rosa nitidabut their thicker leaf blades rob them of the wonderful effect....\" Soil moisture and soil nutrition seem to affect autumn brilliance. One writer suggested that when grown on rich soil that is high in nutrients, the resultant lush, soft growth produces poor fall color. A. J. Anderson, in a 1945 issue of The Gardeners' Chromcle, said \"the most beautifully colored examples I have seen are growing on an exposed, dry bank of poverty stricken soil. A moist, rich medium should definitely be avoided as it always results in vigorous, sappy growth which is detrimental to autumn coloring.\" Fall weather also seems to affect color brilliance. At the Arnold Arboretum one plant varies from very colorful to dull depending on sunlight and temperatures in early October. In the wild, autumn color varies substantially from one plant to the next. Emerging spring leaves exhibit colors from soft bronze to purple, which are particularly attractive with backlighting, which exposes the sparse hairiness of the leaf surface. Summer color of fully expanded leaves is a dark green. The bark of the American smoke tree provides pattern and detail in the winter landscape. Bark plates have bases lifted slightly and pulled away from the stems, creating.a fish-scale-like effect. The scale pattern varies among individuals, and the plant could benefit from selection for this characteristic. Plants must reach approximately 20 years of age before the mature bark pattern develops. At this point the plant can be pruned to expose the bark to view. The bark can be an interesting focal point of a winter landscape. The tree can also be planted en masse to \" south-facing rock outcroppings of limestone, where the pH is 6.5 to 7.0. Very little soil is present on top of the rocks, so the roots must invade the cracks and crevices to anchor the plant and obtain moisture and nutrients. In the same area it also grows in sites with better soil, where it associates with juniperus virginiana, Rhus aromatica, Viburnum prunifohum, Cercis canadensis, and Quercus prinoides. At the Arnold Arboretum a 102-year-old specimen flourishes in highly acidic soil near the edge of a meadow. Peter Del Tredici, of the Arnold Arboretum staff, observed the plant thriving in alkaline clay soils in the Chicago area. Excess soil moisture, however, may detract from optimum autumn foliage coloration. The relatively low stature (8 to 12 m) of this tree makes it suitable for small or crowded landscape sites, where it can serve as an alternative to dogwood, crabapple, and hawthorn. The fall-foliage colors of this tree are stunning. At the Arnold Arboretum few plants match it in terms of brilliance and intensity. In full sun the colors are scarlet, orange-scarlet, and claret and in shade apricot, gold, and yellow. A. C. Downes acclaimed the plant for its fall colors in 1935 in The Gardeners' Chronicle: \"seen with the autumn sun shining through its translucent leaves, decked out in all shades of flaming orange and scarlet, it has been a sight not easily forgotten.... It is just the translucent quality of its foliage that causes the warm fiery glow that is its great charm. Other A 102-year-old Amencan smoke tree (Cotmus obovatus) at the Arnold Arboretum. Barth Hamberg photo. 20 21 create a mini-forest of textured stems. Arboretum to logs of the American smoke tree match jumperus virgmiana in durability and longevity and have been used as fence posts and walking sticks. When the tree is cut for logs or burned over by fire, the stump has the ability to resprout quickly, resulting in multistemmed specimens. As a result, most wild plants are multistemmed and not very straight. Color on freshly cut wood samples varies from bright yellow to pale orange. Cut Extract from the wood was source an Distribute American Smoke Tree to Friends Dunng spnng 1984 the Arnold Arboretum will distribute approacunately 3000 plants of Cotmus obovatus to Fnends of the Arnold Arboretum. The plants were specially grown for the Arboretum at Shadow Nursery, Inc., a wholesale grower m Wmchester, Tennessee, near the natural habitat of Cotmus obovatus. Don Shadow scouted the area for suitable plants from which to take cuttmgs and chose several for bnlhance of autumn fohage. Stock plants grew as wild mvaders beneath the electnc power lines, where they had been cut back to prevent their mterfermg with the wires. Don's staff fert~hzed these plants m situ and hoped that the power company would not spray the chosen ones with herbicides. It did not, and vigorous succulent growth ensued This verdant vegetation became the basis for our important of a natural dye, especially during the Civil War period. Flowers and fruit are borne in large terminal panicles. Attached to the upper end of each panicle are slender stalks clad in fine hair. These create the smokelike effect, which in the wild varies in color (from light brown to fleshy tones and pale purple), size, and density. The sexes occur usually on separate plants but occasionally on a single plant. In the horticultural literature the male plant is reported to be superior for \"smoke production.\" All of these factors suggest that selection could produce a more beautiful tree. Fruiting is said to be sparse in the wild. Seed is often difficult to find, as squirrels gather it before it ripens. The height of the plant varies considerably, though this may be attributable to environmental conditions. The largest plant documented is a national champion tree at the Deane Hill Country Club in Knoxville, Tennessee. The tree is 13 m high, with a crown spread of 10 m, and a trunk girth of 1.5 m. The oldest and largest plant at the Arnold Arboretum came from seed sent by Charles Mohr of Mobile, Alabama, in 1882. As of February 1984 this plant stands 9 m The common smoke tree (Cotinus plants. tall, with a crown spread of 8 m and 5 stems arising from ground level, of which the largest two are 45 cm in circumference. In poor soils and under harsh environmental conditions in the wild, the plant can be found in spreading thickets free of other species. Such varied growth habits allow great opportunity for the selection of individuals for specific purposes. Growing the American Smoke Tree Vegetative propagation is successful in early summer. Cuttings are taken just before the new season's growth begins to harden, and the soft fleshy tip of each cutting is pinched off. They are trimmed to 15 or 20 cm long and dipped quickly in I.B.A. in methanol or treated with Hormodin Number 3. They are then planted outdoors in ground beds covered with plastic tents and protected with 47 percent shade cloth. The 5 cuttings are misted for 15 seconds every 15 minutes. This watering regime is critical, for if mist is maintained too long cuttings rot coggygria). Pamela Bruns photo. 22 and quickly deteriorate. As soon as the cuttings begin to root, mist is reduced and then discontinued, and the plastic removed. The cuttings should be allowed to dry out between waterings. Rooting can take place in as little as 16 days but typically requires 4 to 6 weeks. When cuttings resume growth m early spring, successive crops can be taken for quick stock increase. By the end of the first growing season, the rooted cuttings are 0.6 m tall. By the end of the second year, after transplanting and pmk in color. Accordmg to Drummer, the hybrids seem to root more freely than C. obovatus. At the Arnold Arboretum we have rooted cuttings of one of Drummer's seedlings. The pruning, multiple-branched specimens can tall. If the plant is to be standard, all but the most vigorgrown ous branches must be removed. In autumn plants should be subjected to one or two light frosts and then covered before temperatures reach the low 20s. Water and moisture in winter storage need careful attention as the plants are vulnerable to rotting. Rooted cuttings, as well as larger plants, transplant easily. Both need to be tested for container growing. These trees hold great promise for use in raised and streetside planters, as they thrive in the most harsh environments in the wild. Seed propagation does not seem to be viable on a commercial scale, for the seed crop is usually unreliable. However, hobbyists and plant breeders should attempt crosses between Cotinus obovatus and C. coggygria in search of superior garden forms. Peter Drummer, a propagator at Hillier Nursery in England, has hybridized Cotinus coggygria 'Velvet Cloak' with C. obovatus. Drummer plans to show superior seedlings at the Royal Horticultural Society show in London, after which the best will be named. The characteristics making Drummer's plants distinct are flowering spikes far superior to those of C. obovatus. Some measure 30 cm high and 28 cm wide and are deep reach 1 to 1.5 m as a resultant plants exhibit a summer foliage color with a purplish cast and have exceptional vigor. Cuttings taken in May 1983 were 1.5 m tall by September and might have been taller if they had not been pinched at the top to harden stem tissue before winter set in. Drummer states that his seedlings made 1.5 to 1.8 m of growth during the 1983 season. Gardeners can look forward to the continuing development of this fine new line of garden plants. References J. 1980. Trees and Shrubs Hardy m the Bnush Isles 8th ed. London: John Murray. Correll, D S, and M. C Johnston 1970. Manual of the Vascular Plants of Texas Renner, Texas: Texas Research Foundation. Downes, A. C 1935. \"Rhus cotmoides.\" The GardenBean, W. ers' Chromcle, 98: 350. 1980. Trees of North Amemca. New York: Van Nostrand Remhold. Forest Trees of Texas 19G3. Bulletm 20 Texas Forest Elas, Thomas S., Service, College Station, Texas. Green, G. R. 1934. Trees of North Amenca, vol 11 Ann Arbor, Michigan: Edwards Brothers Harrar, E. S., and J. G Harrar. 1946. Guide to Southern Trees New York: McGraw-Hill Kom, B., Jr. 1982. \"Srx New National Champion Trees Found in Tennessee.\"Tennessee Nursery Digest, t, 4 \/5\/: 10. Sargent, C. S. 1905. Manual of the Trees of North America Boston: Houghton Mrfflm. Small, J. K 1933. Manual of the Southeastern Flora. New York: J. K. Small Vmes, Robert A. 1960. Trees, Shrubs and Woody Vmes of the Southwest Austm, Texas: University of Texas Press Wyman, D. 1971. Shrubs and Vmes for Amencan Gardens. New York: Macmillan. Gary L. Kolleris managmg horticultunst at the Arnold Arboretum. Don O. Shadow is the propnetor of Shadow Nursery, Inc., in Winchester, Tennessee. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Eastern Hop Hornbeam: Its Natural History and Landscape Potential","article_sequence":3,"start_page":23,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24845","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070896d.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Fehrenbach Jr., William E.","article_content":"The Eastern Hop Hornbeam: Its Natural History and Landscape Potential William E. Fehrenbach, jr. hop hornbeam, Ostrya virginiana(Mill.) K. Koch, is a tree with an ornamental value that has largely gone unrecognized. This ubiquitous native understory eastern tree is one The very short petioles. All are monoecious (bearing flowers of both sexes on the same tree). are borne in groups of two three at the tips of the previous year's twigs, and the fruits are bome in clusters of bladderlike sacs. All species exhibit rough, scaly bark. Three species are found in the United States and Canada. Of these, two are described in horticultural literature: Ostrya virginiana and0. knowltonii Coville. Unlike the widespread O. virginiana, O. knowltonii is a rare tree, with an extremely limited range at altitudes of 1500-2100 m in canyons of southwest Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and southern Utah. It differs from its relative in its lesser height, nearly always under 9 m. Its limbs are slender and crooked, forming a rounded crown. Its leaves are somewhat similar to those of O. virginiana, but they are smaller and more broadly ovate. Both its leaves and petioles tend to be somewhat more pubescent than those of O. virginiana, a characteristic that is typical of some desert species. The flowers and fruits are also smaller than those of the other species but similar in structure. Bark and twigs are similar. Elias (1980) mentions the Chisos hop hornbeam (Ostrya chisosensis\/, which he Staminate catkins or of the least-studied trees m North American forests: literature searches turn up very little reliable information on its cultural requirements or ecology. In this article I will more bring together the available horticul- tural information and point out areas where research is needed. Lack of publicity be the only reason that this tree has not may become more popular. Ostrya virgmiana is the most widespread species in its genus. It is hardy to USDA 4 and is found from Nova Scotia to Minnesota and south to eastern Texas and Florida. The genus name, Ostrya, is derived from the Greek word ostrua, designating a zone ' tree with very hard wood \/Vmes 1960). Many of its common names also refer to the hardness of its wood: ironwood, leverwood, hardhack, and hornbeam. Two other common names are deerwood and Indian cedar. The genus Ostryabelongs to the Betulaceae, or birch family. According to T. S. Elias (1980), it is a genus of only eight species, which are quite similar to each other. All are short deciduous trees or shrubs, with simple and alternate leaves and 24 desirable species in the farm woodlands of Ohio and Indiana. In many areas it dominates the understory so completely that the reproduction of the more valuable trees is often suppressed....\" The wood of this species is light brown, tinged with red or white. The specific gravity of Ostrya wood is 0.83 (Young 1933), ), which ranks it among the hardest of our native woods. Its use is limited to such items as tool handles, golf clubs, mallets, fence posts, miscellaneous woodenware, and fuelwood. It is reported to take a very fine fimsh and probably would be a very valuable wood if the tree were larger. The buds and catkins of the hop hornbeam are a preferred winter food of the ruffed \" grouse, especially in New York, Pennsyl- vania, and Wisconsin (Hamilton 1974), and the fruit is a secondary fall food. Other animals that feed on hop hornbeam are the Trunk of a mature eastern hop hornbeam vmgmiana) at the Arnold Arboretum (Ostrya describes as a shrub, rarely a tree, found in the same region as O. knowltomi. No other horticultural information is available on this obscure species. Historically, the eastern hop hombeam has been labeled a \"weed tree\" of no commercial value. Most management prescriptions for commercial forest land classify the hop hombeam as a competitor to more profitable species and recommend its removal. In fact, one of the few published research papers available on hop hornbeam (Diller and Marshall 1937) deals exclusively with techniques of cutting the tree to reduce chances of resprouting. The authors observed that \"hop hornbeam is one of the less bobwhite, rmg-necked pheasant, downy woodpecker, mockingbird, purple finch, red, gray, and fox squirrels, deer, and cottontail (DeGraaf and Whitman 1979; Hamilton 1974). Undoubtedly, the hop hombeam's greatest assets are its ornamental qualities. At one time it was recommended for use as a street tree. Restricted root space and the fact that many city trees are planted with bare roots may have been major factors in the hop hornbeam's poor performance in the few cities where it has been tried. Because of this adverse experience, many horticultural writers unjustly removed the species from their lists of recommended trees. In cities where the tree has been located and planted properly, its performance is reported to be excellent. Nurseries in Buffalo, New York, cannot grow enough of the trees to satisfy demand (personal communication 25 from R. Walkowiack, June 23, 1983).. ( The hop hornbeam is small in stature, usually attaining only 10.5 m. As such it is useful for smaller properties or locations with limited overhead space. The largest hop hornbeams are found in Arkansas and Texas, where some specimens reach 18 to 21 m high and have trunk diameters of 45-60 cm. In the Northeast 10.5 m is the average maximum height, and crown spread is usually equal to two-thirds of the height. Trunk diameters are seldom greater than 15 cm and rarely reach 30 cm. The habit of the hop hornbeam is graceful, with many horizontal or drooping branches. Few trees its size can match the hop hornbeam in fineness of texture, from the narrow shaggy strips of gray bark on its trunk to its slender reddish brown twigs. The shape of the tree is distinctly irregular, ranging from conical to oval to irregularly rounded. Understory trees are often irregularly shaped, because of the various directions of the hght penetrating the forest canopy. Its status as an understory tree also means that the hop hornbeam tolerates dense shade. It is not restricted to shady spots, however, and grows well in full sun. It is m full sun that the tree develops its most desirable rounded form. The leaves of the hop hornbeam are alternate, egg-shaped, and 7-12 cm long and 3.8-5cm wide. The margin of the leaf is serrate. The top surface of the leaf is glossy green in summer. The lower surface is pale green and somewhat hairy, especially along the veins and midrib. Various fall colors have been observed, from a poor yellow or yellowish brown to red and even purple. Some trees retain their leaves well into the winter, though leaf retention is not a very reliable or widespread trait within the species and may perhaps be the basis for developing a cultivar in the future. The most notable ornamental features of this tree are its fruits and flowers. The hop hornbeam gets its name, in part, from the similarity of its fruits to the true hop fruits \/Humulus sp.\/. The compound fruit is oblong. It is made up of a cluster of bladderlike sacs, each containing a single, ovoid, faintly striated nutlet about 6 mm long. Often, the smaller sacs at the bottom of the cluster are empty. The fruit clusters become conspicuous in July, when their color is an attractive pale green in contrast to the darker green of the leaves. The fruit ripens from late August to early October, and the sacs turn tan to hght brown. The sacs are covered with fine, stiff hairs that are irritating to the skin when handled. The hop hornbeam's flowers are not dramatic or showy but are interestmg nonetheless. The tree is monoecious and bears its flowers in catkins much the same way as other members of the birch family. The staminate catkins are from 2.5-5cm long and reddish brown. They begin to expand slightly m March and then more rapidly until fully open in April, when they pollinate the pistillate catkins emerging with the leaves from beneath the bud scales. The bark of the new shoots, twigs, branches, and trunk varies considerably and is quite attractive. The newest shoots are reddish green with minute brown lenticels. Larger twigs, and branches less than 5 cm m diameter, are smooth and purplish brown to red-brown in color. On these smooth stems the lenticels are tan to gray and lengthen horizontally, so that the young bark looks much like that of birch or cherry. Stems 6 cm and greater in diameter have the characteristic gray, narrow, striped bark that sets 26 hop hombeam apart from other native trees with rough bark. The hop hornbeam is a slow-growing tree, reaching, on average, 6 m in 20 years. Some speculate that this slow growth is responsible for the remarkable strength and toughness of the wood. The strong flexible twigs and excellent branching structure make the hop hombeam almost impervious to damage by ice, wind, or heavy snow. Popular opinion also maintains that the species is extremely pest resistant; however, this cannot be substantiated until the tree is studied further, especially in stressful situations. Growing the Hop Hornbeam Propagating the hop hornbeam is a chal- lenging task. The seeds exhibit a double dormancy that requires lengthy stratification in a moist medium in order to germi- The regimen most often recommended for stratification is to place seeds in moist sand or peat for 60 days at 20-30C and 140 days at 5C. An alternative regimen is 6'\/z months at 10-22C and 90 days at 5C (Schopmeyer 1974). Despite the low percentage of germination, propagation by seed seems to be the only practical method for nursery production. Grafting hop hornbeam on rootstock of the same species, or perhaps on rootstock of another species in the birch family, may be attempted in the future at the Holden Arboretum. If the attempt proves successful, cultivars chosen for improved fall color, leaf retention, or improved growth rate may be developed. Tissue culture may also be an avenue to explore if cultivars prove to be commercially promising. The soil and moisture requirements of the hop hornbeam are not rigid. In nature the nate. found in moist bottomland soils, near and rivers, and on dry, gravelly ridges, with oaks and hickories. It does not tolerate flooded or heavily compacted soils. Average garden soils will adequately support hop hornbeam, provided that drainage is good. Slightly acid soils are best but not crucial. In general, adding generous amounts of peat to average soils is the only site preparation that should be necessary when planting a hop hornbeam. Planting sites for this tree must allow adequate space for rooting and branching. Adequate space is essential for the development of a root system that will provide necessary moisture and nutrients. Lawns less than 3 m wide, or within 5 m of a wall or building, will not provide adequate rooting space. Protection from wind is not necessary except for staking the tree during the first year or two to provide support while new roots are being formed. Most people who know this tree agree that it is difficult to transplant successfully, estree is streams pecially if specimens are large. Wild trees tend to have exceptionally irregular root systems, which penetrate deeply in loose soil, so it is best to move them when they are young. Hop hornbeam should always be balled and burlapped when planted in order to improve its chances for establishment and preserve the mycorrhizal relationships the tree relies upon (Hamilton 1974). A new approach to container growing ap- parently improves establishment of hop hornbeam and other species with \"difficult\" root systems. This approach (called the System\") was developed by Dr. Harold Pellett1981and involves the use of bottomless containers arranged in trays of standing water. This prunes the strong taproot and produces a more fibrous, compact \"Minnesota 27 References Braun, E. L. 1961. The Woody Plants of Ohio. Columbus, Ohio: Ohio State University Press. d DeGraaf, R., and G. Whitman. 1979. Trees, Shrubs, and Vmes for Attractmg Bmds. Amherst: University s. of Massachusetts Press. Diller, O. D., and E Marshall. 1937. \"The Relation of Stump Height to the Sproutmg of Ostrya virgimana in Northern Indiana.\" \/ournal of Forestry, 35: 1116-19. Elias, T. S. 1980. The Complete Trees of North America. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Hamilton, T. S., Jr. 1974. Shrubs and Vmes for Northeastern Wildhfe. Forest Service General Techmcal Report, NE-9. Washmgton, D.C.: U.S. Government Prmtmg Office. Pellett, H. 1981. \"The Mmnesota System: A New Approach to Tree Production.\" Amemcan Nurseryman, 153 ( 10\/: 14,38,40,44. Schopmeyer, C. S. 1974. Seeds of theWoody Plants m the Umted States. Washmgton, D.C.: U.S. Government Prmtmg Office. Vmes, R. A. 1960. Trees, Shrubs and Woody Vmes of the Southwest. Austm, Texas' University of Texas Press. Young, L. J. 1933. \"The Growth of Ostrya vmgimana. Papers of Michigan Academy of Science, Arts and Letters, 19: 341-44. Eastern hop hornbeam ing in a \" (Ostrya vmgmiana ~ grow- sunny location. root system that is better able tree. to support the newly planted The Holden Arboretum is currently promoting the use of the hop hornbeam by providing both the grower and the buyer with reliable information about this littleused tree. It is currently in the process of locating seed sources and determining the best methods of germination. Next, soils, transplanting techniques, and plantmg sites will be tested and evaluated to determine optimum cultural practices for growing the tree. The staff hopes to stimulate public interest in this tree by increasing awareness of its utility, ease of maintenance, and understated charm. William E. Fehrenbach, ~r., is assistant supenntendent of the Holden Arboretum in Kirtland, Ohio. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collector's Notebook: New Choices for the Perennial Border","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24842","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070816b.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"COLLECTOR'S NOTEBOOK to introduce some of them to the gardening public. Here I would like to contmue in that tradition and introduce a group of native American plants that I think would make wonderful additions to the perenmal border. These are not just plants for the speciahst, or plants with an esoteric beauty only appreciated by a collector. Rather, they are all easily grown and beautiful enough to be appreciated by any gardener. And they are all serviceable plants rather than novelties. All should be hardy into USDA zone 5. Unlike annual ornamentals, which have been bred for an extended blooming season, most herbaceous perenmals produce flowers for only a few weeks. Therefore, those with attractive foliage in addition to their flowers are particularly desirable for use m the perennial border. One such group is the genus Baptisia, of the pea family(Leguminosae\/, (, with 30 or more species distributed in the eastern and central Umted States. False indigo, the common name of the genus, refers to the fact that many of the species yield a blue dye, similar but evidently mferior to that produced from the true indigo, Indigofera tmctona. One species of false indigo, the purpleflowered B. australis, is a standard component of the perennial border, but the others are virtually unknown to gardeners. The white-flowered B. alba, native to fields, roadsides, and woodland margins from Virginia to Florida, is particularly fine. Like B. austrahs, B. alba is a bushy, clump-forming plant. The grayish, finely textured foliage reaches a height of 45 to 60 cm. New Choices for the Perennial Border Richard E. Weaver, jr. The 3-cm-long flowers in a raceme up to 45 cm long rise dramatically above the foliage, and a plant in bloom stands 90 to 120 cm tall. The flowers appear in early June, a time when few other tall plants are blooming in the perenmal border. The plants are at their best m full sun but will tolerate light shade without stretching or floppmg. The wild sennas, Senna manlandica and S. hebecarpa (formerly known as Cassia mamlandica and C. hebecarpa\/, ), are members of a large, primarily tropical genus, which includes plants from delicate annuals to sizable trees. Readers who have visited the tropics may be familiar with the arborescent species with their showy, bright yellow flowers followed by long, cylindrical, black pods. However, the species considered here are herbaceous perenmals native to much of the eastern Umted States. They are similar in most respects, but S. hebecarpa is the more flonferous, and therefore the better ornamental. Senna a hebecarpa is really an excellent plant, better than many com- Imagine a perennial border without summer phlox (Phlox pamculata cvs.), Michaelmas daisies (Aster cvs.), gayfeathers (Liatns spp.), Oswego tea (Monarda cvs.), sundrops (Oenothera tetragona and O. fruticosa\/ or butterfly-weed (Asclepias tuberosa), and you will realize how greatly the flora of the eastern Umted States has contributed to horticulture. But then, take a walk through a low meadow in midsummer and count the number of spectacular plants that have not found their way into our gardens. Why have so many lovely plants been largely neglected in horticulture? Some admittedly are too vigorous or monly grown perenmals. At 1 m tall it is a substantial plant, almost shrubby in aspect. The pinnate foliage is attractive throughout the summer and turns a mvasive, or in their wild too coarse of habit, state and must await the selection of more gardenworthy forms. But more often they are simply unavailable. Nurserymen, and most gardeners, seem unaware of the potential our pleasing yellow in the fall. The 2 cm, bright yellow flowers, with thick brown anthers, are bome m clusters from the upper leaf axils August. The plants do well in full sun or light shade and once planted should be left undisturbed, because the long, thick roots make transplanting hard in native flora still offers. I have always been a collector of rare and unusual plants, and through my writing I have tried work. The sunflower family (Com- positae) has given us many of our prized herbaceous ornamentals, both annual and perenmal. In what is probably the largest of all families of flowering plants, it is that many beautiful species still await discovery not surprising unbranched, with narrow, erect mflorescences, I took it to be a late-blooming gayfeather (LiatrLS\/. The color of the flower heads by gardeners. Aster is a particularly neglected genus, although most gardeners are familiar with the Michaelmas daisies, which denved from a few of our naAster species. Most of the species are attractive and gardenworthy in their wild state. Aster sohdagmeus and A. concolor are two southeastern species: one begins the aster season and the other ends it, respecare - pale purplish disc florets and violet rays added to the deception (although the uppermost heads had not opened first as they do in the gayfeathers). In the garden this plant can be used much like the gayfeathers, though it is - tive nvely. Aster sohdagmeus and several closely related species are often called white-topped asters and based on several technical characteristics are sometimes segregated as the genus quite so stiff and formal as those plants are. It also blooms later than the commonly cultivated Liatns species. The small silky-hairy leaves make the plant attractive even when it is not in bloom. Like many asters, it is best if grown in full sun. This is just a small sampling of the many wonderful plants that await trial by gardeners. All of those discussed above are available from a few specialty nursnot Sencocarpus. Aster sohdagmeus particularly neat and attracplant. Several to many stems with narrow, 2-5cm long leaves arise in a clump about 38 cm tall. They are topped in July with a mynad of 1 cm flower heads. The is a tive eries, including Woodlanders, 1128 Colleton Avenue, Aiken, SC 29801, and my own, WE-DU Nurseries, Box 724, Route 5, Marion, NC 28752. Far North Gar- dens, 16785 Harnson Road, Lmonia, MI 48154, supplies seed for some. heads are unusual among Aster species, because the ray and disc florets are the same color and the number of rays is usually less than 10. This plant does not provide a great splash of color, but it is wonderful as a delicate accent near the front of the border. It should be grown in full sun. Aster concolor is very different from A. sohdagmeus. When I first saw it, while driving along a country road near my new home last September, I did not immedi- Baptisia austrahs ately recognize it as an aster. As the 60-90 cm stems are long and Richard E. Weaver, jr., is the former horticultural taxonomist of the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"More on Forsythia 'Meadowlark'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":30,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24844","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd0708928.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Herman, Dale E.; Evers, Norman P.","article_content":"More on Forsythia Dale E. Herman and Norman P. Evers 'Meadowlark' With extreme flower-bud hardiness, showy flowers, quality foliage, ease of propagation, adaptability, and vigor, Forsythia 'Meadowlark' promises to become a popular ornamental shrub for northern landscapes. Introduced last year by the agricultural experiment stations at North Dakota and South Dakota state universities, in collaboration with the Arnold Arboretum, the selection is hardy in the northern plains, where forsythias were previously unsuccessful. Flower buds have shown hardiness at temperatures of -35F, and the plant is therefore recommended throughout zone 3 of the USDA and Arnold Arboretum hardiness maps. size and quality they are superior to those of both parents, and their color is a deeper yel- low than that of Forsythia ovata. The shrub is vigorous, drought-tolerant, and rapid growing, reaching a height of 2 to 2.75 m. Its spreading form is dense and regular. The mature leaves are ivy green and maintain their color until late fall. A purplebronze cast is the first indication of fall color, though the leaves often change to golden yellow under favorable fall conditions. The foliage is luxuriant and virtually pest free throughout the growing season. This plant may partially replace several pest-ridden Cotoneaster and Lonicera (honeysuckle) species. It may also be used instead of certain large Caragana (pea shrub) The plant originated via the breeding work of Dr. Karl Sax and Haig Derman at the Arnold Arboretum. It resulted from a cross of Forsythia ovata (early forsythia) andF. europaea and Philadelphus (mock orange) species with inherently leggy growth habits. The selection is easily propagated from softwood cuttings in a 1 :(by volume) peatperlite medium, with 90 to 96 percent rooting common. It can also be propagated by semihardwood cuttings, by hardwood cuttings (with bottom heat), and, in limited (Albanian forsythia). Dr. Harrison Flint, while working at the Arnold Arboretum, observed a plant from this population in full bloom after the unusually cold 1966-67 winter, while a mass planting of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis' surrounding the new hybrid was nearly devoid of flowers. Flint propagated and distributed the plant, which was eventually tested by the authors in North and South Dakota. It has bloomed consistently in these states for 10 years. 'Meadowlark', which begins to bloom when only three years old, bears bright yellow flowers in profusion in early spring. In numbers, by layers. Forsythia 'Meadowlark' was officially registered in January 1984 by the Arnold Arboretum, which serves as the registration authority for the genus Forsythia. To date, 13 wholesale nurseries have initiated com- mercial propagation. Distribution to retail nurseries will begin in spring 1985. Propagation Materials Available Anyone interested in commercial propagation of this selection may send written requests for materials to: Dr. Dale E. Herman, Department of Horticulture and Forestry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105. Dormant, bare root liners will be available for shipment between March 10 and May 10, 1984. Hardwood cuttings can also be supplied. Potted liners will be supplied in June and July 1984 if prior arrangements are BOOKS How to Grow Tree Seedlings in Containers in Greenhouses, by Richard W. Tmus and Stephen E. McDonald. made for pickup. Softwood USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-60. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO 80526. 256 pp. JOHN H. ALEXANDER III cuttings can be supplied during June. appropriate subtitle for this book might be \"The Mass Production of Seedlings for Forestry.\" Not a book for the home gardener, it is a manual for the professional nurseryAn man or prospective nurseryman. Intending to give as much information as possible, a system of \"Confidence Levels\" is used to indicate assurance in some of the research. \"Level A: thought to be complete and accurate. Level B: believed to be valid, but is subject to further testing. Level C: based on observation ... offered in the view that some knowledge is better than none.\" The authors begin with the question, \"should you grow your own trees?\" and go on to discuss the alternatives, carefully guiding the reader through the steps necessary to determine the most appropriate size and location for a container nursery. The first 33 pages give advice for determining size and site. A market evaluation is \" Dale E. Herman is a professor of horticulture and forestry at North Dakota State University, Fargo. Norman P. Evers is an mstructor in horticulture and forestry at South Dakota State University, Brookmgs. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":31,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24841","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd0708126.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"Propagation Materials Available Anyone interested in commercial propagation of this selection may send written requests for materials to: Dr. Dale E. Herman, Department of Horticulture and Forestry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105. Dormant, bare root liners will be available for shipment between March 10 and May 10, 1984. Hardwood cuttings can also be supplied. Potted liners will be supplied in June and July 1984 if prior arrangements are BOOKS How to Grow Tree Seedlings in Containers in Greenhouses, by Richard W. Tmus and Stephen E. McDonald. made for pickup. Softwood USDA Forest Service General Technical Report RM-60. Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Fort Collins, CO 80526. 256 pp. JOHN H. ALEXANDER III cuttings can be supplied during June. appropriate subtitle for this book might be \"The Mass Production of Seedlings for Forestry.\" Not a book for the home gardener, it is a manual for the professional nurseryAn man or prospective nurseryman. Intending to give as much information as possible, a system of \"Confidence Levels\" is used to indicate assurance in some of the research. \"Level A: thought to be complete and accurate. Level B: believed to be valid, but is subject to further testing. Level C: based on observation ... offered in the view that some knowledge is better than none.\" The authors begin with the question, \"should you grow your own trees?\" and go on to discuss the alternatives, carefully guiding the reader through the steps necessary to determine the most appropriate size and location for a container nursery. The first 33 pages give advice for determining size and site. A market evaluation is \" Dale E. Herman is a professor of horticulture and forestry at North Dakota State University, Fargo. Norman P. Evers is an mstructor in horticulture and forestry at South Dakota State University, Brookmgs. 32 encouraged, and production costs are discussed, as are the availability and cost of fuels, water, and labor. Regarding the latter, the authors note that \"... one laborer for each 120,000 trees and at least one technical supervisor for each 3,000,000 trees may be used as a rule of thumb.\" The next three chapters describe the physical plant, including topics such as greenhouse heating, cooling, and humidity controls. These are followed by chapters on containers and media, temperature and humidity, and lighting. It is the combination of temperature control and lighting that affords the great advantage of greenhouse growing over the more traditional outdoorproduction methods. Lighting systems for photosynthesis and for the prevention of dormancy are described. Three standard methods of preventing dormancy are discussed. \"Photoperiod can be extended by continuous lighting 4 to 8 hours after sunset or before sunrise. Night break lighting employs 2- to 5-hour interruptions during the dark period. Cyclic lighting is brief mterruptions of light repeated every 5 to 30 minutes throughout the dark period. This may require lighting only 2% to 10% of the time.\" Responses vary with species and within the species when growing genotypes from climatically different areas. The longest chapter, \"Mineral Nutrition and pH Control,\" provides suggestions for monitoring and controlling the pH and the salt concentration in the growing medium. The authors provide a table of published works on the nutrition of forest trees, which lists research on over 40 species. They also list publications that contain color photographs of known nutrient deficiencies for 19 species. Much emphasis is given here to the preparation and modification of nutrient so\" \" lutions to maintain optimum growing conditions continuously. A chapter is devoted to formulating a growing schedule, and detailed growing schedules for 14 species are provided in an appendix. When container-growing methods are employed for large quantities of seedlings, seeds are sown in the same container that the finished seedling will occupy. In forestry practices, that seedling tree is then planted in its permanent site outdoors. Since germination is seldom 100 percent, the nurseryman must determine how many seeds to sow in the space where he wants only one finished plant. Costs of thinning and of transplanting must be weighed; thinning is always less expensive, but the cost and availability of seed must be considered. This decision should be based on a predetermined germination percentage and the probability of germination in a proportion of the container cells. Probability tables are provided in the appendix. Record-keeping and the efficiency gained through analysis are stressed throughout. Sample forms for maintaining records are included. Some of the technological hardware discussed here is no longer available, having been superseded by new products and tech- niques. In general, the information is well documented, readable, and frequently cross-referenced. Numerous charts, line drawings, and 45 black-and-white photographs amply illustrate it. An extensive bibliography is provided also. Although this book is primarily concerned with the growing of species important to forestry, it has much information that will be helpful to any production-oriented nurseryman. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23390","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e8928.jpg","title":"1984-44-2","volume":44,"issue_number":2,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Walnuts for the Northeast","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24839","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070bb28.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Goodell, Edward","article_content":"Walnuts for the Northeast Edward Goodell The walnut has been held in high esteem since ancient times. The Romans considered it preeminent among nuts and gave it the of walnut trees is poison to all plants within its compass....\" While it is true that walnut species (and some hickories) produce a toxic chemical identified as juglone (5-hydroxy-l, 4-napthoquinone) the actual phytotoxic effect varies considerably depending on \/ 1 ~ the different levels of tolerance among plants, (2) whether or not the roots of adjacent plants contact the walnut root, and (3) the amount of air present in the soil. Although the black walnut probably has the most notorious reputation for allelopathy (as destructive chemical interaction between plants is known), this phenomenon has been increasingly documented throughout the plant world, and it is worth noting that tall fescue grass (Festuca arundinacea Schreb.) exerts a similar deleterious effect on walnuts (Riet- name jovis glans (Jupiter's nut), from which the modem taxonomic name for the walnut genus, juglans, has been derived. Several species of walnuts are popular throughout the Western World today, both for their fine wood and flavorful nuts. Large commercial walnut industries exist in the Mediterranean region of Europe and on the west coast of the United States (primarily California, with 200,000 acres). Although walnuts are grown throughout much of this country, they have never been grown widely in the Northeast. Several types can be grown here, however, including the Persian walnut ( juglans regia L.), the black walnut (J. nigra L.\/, the butternut (f. cinerea L.~, and the Asian walnuts (J. ailanthifolia Carr, j. mandshurica Maxim., and j. cathayensis Dode), all of which have nutritiou6, flavorful nuts. We will explore in the following the merits of these types and their cultivation in the northeastern United States and adjoining areas of Canada. Any talk of walnuts must begin by addressing the toxic effect walnuts are said to exert on neighboring plants. Pliny the Elder, in the first century A.D., wrote, \"the shadow veld 1981\/.. ( Toxic juglone is oxidized from hydrojuglone, a nontoxic substance found in all parts of the walnut plant. Oxidation of hydrojuglone occurs in the presence of air and during contact between walnut roots and the roots of other plants that contain oxidizing compounds. Hydrojuglone is highly reactive, however, and in the continued presence of air quickly breaks down into harmless substances. Root-to-root contact is therefore the only means by which damage can occur unless plants are in soil that is poorly drained, and therefore poorly Black walnuts \/ Juglans nigra\/ ripening on the tree. Al Bussewitz photo. aerated. Tomatoes, apples, most ericaceous plants, 4 and many conifers are known to be adversely affected (MacDaniels 1976 and 1980). The effects of walnut toxicity are noticeable either as flagging, wilted leaves (in tomatoes) or regia is often called the English walnut, pre- sumably because it was introduced here by English colonists. However, it is not grown extensively in England. Most horticulturalists call it the Persian walnut in deference commonly as a long-term gradual stunting of the plant. On the other hand, many plants are not affected at all, including numerous grasses and vegetable crops, many legumes, some Rosa and Vitis species, and more to its origin. most native hardwoods. This immunity may result from either a root zone that does not coincide with that of the deep-rooting walnut or an actual tolerance to the toxic properties of juglone. According to current information we can be optimistic about the prospects of successfully growing a wide range of plants in association with walnuts. A general precaution is advised: locate susceptible plants with a long life span outside the eventual root zone of walnuts. This is urged especially in wet soils, where the toxic effect is more likely. However, during the initial period of growth walnuts can be grown near susceptible plants (as root spread is narrow and contact therefore avoided). For example, at an orchard spacing of 6 meters oncenter black walnut can be interplanted with vegetable crops, small fruit, and\/or even Christmas trees for at least 10 years. Persian Walnut The common commercial walnut is the Persian walnut, fuglans regia. This was the only walnut known to the Ancient Romans. juglans regia came to Rome from Persia via Greece, and Roman conquerors spread it throughout southern Europe to England. On the North American continent Juglans The Persian walnut is native to the area between the Carpathian Mountains in eastern Europe and the Himalayan Mountains in northern India, a swath across the Balkan Peninsula, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, and the adjoining areas of the USSR. A geographically disjunct population occurs in northern China (Icongraphia Cormophytorum Sinicorum 1972 and Meyer 1911). Wild plants are normally found in mixed broadleaf forests, along stream banks, in valleys, and on mountain slopes (Komarov 1936). In sheltered valleys, where it thrives, Juglans regia may grow 20-35 m high with a straight, upright trunk and a large, spreading crown. Normally the wood is purplish brown, hard, and satin-smooth and shiny when polished. The nuts of wild trees generally have thin shells and large kernels. Various subspecies have been proposed based on nut shape, growth habit, and geographic origin (Komarov 1936 and Rehder 1940). Persian walnuts have always been valued trees within their native and naturalized range. The timber is used in Europe for fine woodwork and veneer. Trees that are successful in the northeastern United States have come from colder regions of the species' range, Romania, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, Poland, USSR, and Germany, where they have traditionally been popular yard trees. Outstanding selections are currently being propagated and tested for commercial orchards in these countries (Shreve 1981 \/. Most selections of Persian walnuts cold 5 nated m the Poland. Carpathian walnuts, \/Juglans regia) above, origiCarpathian Mountams of southern hardy enough for North America derive from seed collected in the Carpathian Mountains of southern Poland. Reverend Paul Crath, a native of the Ukraine, worked as a Presbyterian missionary in that region between 1924 and 1936, after having been ordained a minister in Canada. Reverend Crath was keenly interested in the Juglans regia trees he found commonly growing in Poland, where minimum winter temperatures could reach -40F. He believed that some of these trees would succeed in cold areas of North America. Through arrangements with members of the Northern Nut Growers' Association and the Wisconsin Horticultural Society, he sent back several tons of seed (Devitt 1953). The resulting trees, often called Carpathian walnut trees and known for their cold hardiness, became widely established from British Columbia to Nova Scotia and are still being selected for their hardiness, nut qualities, and yields. Reverend Crath's introductions were not the first cold-hardy Persian walnuts brought to North America, however. Since the late 1700s German immigrants had been bringing hardy Juglans regia seed from their homeland to Pennsylvania and farther west. The descendants of these seedlings are on the average less tolerant of cold than the Carpathian walnuts, but several are among the most hardy and productive cultivars. Other promising introductions have been made from the Russian Ukraine, the Himalayan Mountains, and northern China. A great deal of potential still exists for collecting genetically superior seed from the 6 1 cold-temperate areas where the Persian walhas been grown since antiquity. In a 1936 letter Reverend Crath described the trees of the Carpathian region: nut (personal communication from L. H. Wilmoth, July 21, 1982). Regardless, the overlap in staminate and pistillate flowering times would rarely be enough to ensure a good crop. Several cultivars are We examined 79 walnut trees in and around Cosseev. The age of the trees varied from 15-100 years. Trees 30 years old and over were from 60 to 75 feet tall, and from I to 3 feet in diameter. Of the 79 trees, only 3 trees were damaged by the frost of 1929 (45 degrees below zero) (Rahmlov self-fruitfulness, but even notable for their these seem to 1962). Experience on this continent has shown that with good site conditions a cold-hardy Persian walnut tree will rapidly grow to the size and shape of a very large apple tree. The canopy is globe shaped and dense, the bark pale gray, and the roots deep. When fully dormant, some Persian walnuts may tolerate temperatures between 30F and 40F without damage (O'Rourke 1969). ). However, injury can occur at much higher temperatures ( -13F) if mild weather precedes a drop in temperature. Persian walnuts will grow on a variety of soils, but poor drainage invariably renders them more susceptible to winter injury. High vigor and good nut production require a fertile, nearly neutral soil and room for extensive root development. Persian walnuts are monoecious. The staminate catkins expand from lateral buds of the previous season's growth. The clusters of 1-3 (occasionally 4-5) pistillate flowers are borne at the tips of the current season's benefit significantly from cross-pollination with another cultivar. In the North the most common cause of crop damage among Persian walnuts is their tendency to produce leaves and flowers before the possibility of late frosts has passed. In Ontario, Persian walnuts are most successful within 20 km of the Great Lakes, where the cool spring climate delays vegetative growth. The gradual onset of winter there also ensures a more complete dormancy and less damage from cold. Under optimal growing conditions Persian walnut seedlings bear fruit within 4-8 years and grafted cultivars within 2-5 years. A few seedlings from a Russian source have been reported to flower in their second year (McDaniel 1978). Pistillate flowers are generally produced several years before staminate flowers. In their eighth growing season, productive cultivars may bear 0.03-0.06 m3 of nuts. Large trees may yield 0.2 m3 (Grimo 1979). Reverend Crath reported harvests of 45-115 kg from mature, native Carpathian trees. Persian walnuts bear crops annually, though weather conditions have a considerable effect on yields. Individual trees are known to continue bearing for more than 100 years. shoots. Pistillate flowers, and the nuts that subsequently develop from them, normally appear only on growth originating from the terminal buds. On some cultivars the lateral shoots also bear flowers, which increases their yield. It is unclear as to whether all Persian walnut trees are self-fertile or not unique among walnuts in that its nuts fall free from the husks at ripening time. This feature, combined with easily Juglans regia is cracked shells, places Persian walnuts among the more desirable of nuts. The kernels can usually be extracted in large or 7 whole pieces from the relatively thin-shelled nuts by hand. The kernels are high in protein (20 percent) and fat (60 percent) and account for 40-60 percent of the total nut weight. On the west coast of this country, Persian walnut trees are valued for their appearance and are grown in yards, parks, and along streets. In the cold areas of eastern Europe and northern China, they have long been valued for their nuts and timber also. Now, however, selections hardy in the northeastern United States offer nuts and timber of a quality similar to that of the European and A single Persian walnut tree will eventually occupy a space 15 m in diameter but can be planted at half that spacing to hasten orchard production. Seedlings may be grown to bearing age for evaluation on only 3-meter spacings. Seedlings of good parentage are Chinese types. Growing Persian Walnuts Many Persian walnut growers in the North are cultivating the seedlings of superior trees likely to yield one tree in ten \"exceptional enough to be made permanent\" (Society of Ontario Nut Growers). The hole to which the seedling is transplanted must be larger than the spread of the root system. A kilogram of bonemeal mixed into the planting soil (preferably one year in advance) is a requirement for healthy growth. Any injured roots must be trimmed off before planting, and the remaining roots carefully spread when the soil is sifted over them. It is best to place the root collar at, or slightly below, ground level. When the seedling is in place, the soil must be tamped down and watered thoroughly. A trunk guard, or a piece of woven wire coated with white latex paint, will protect against sunscald and rodents. The young tree will not be able to compete with weeds and will respond favorably to mulch as it grows. Persian walnuts must not be fertilized in the first year, and only in the early spring thereafter. These trees use large amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus: one recommendation is 0.2 kg of 20-10-10 granular fertilizer per 3 cm of trunk diameter until the trunk diameter reaches 15 cm. After that the ap- hope of finding improved types. Plants grow readily from seeds sown in the fall, or after a relatively short (6-8 weeks) artificial cold-moist treatment. They will also germinate satisfactorily after dry storage if they are first soaked for several days in clean water that is changed daily. Spring planting is best, about 4 cm deep with a light mulch. Cans or wire mesh placed over the seeds will protect them from rodents, crows, and pheasants. Planting sites for Persian walnuts must be chosen carefully. Adequate soil drainage is important, as moist soil delays the onset of winter dormancy, causing freeze damage (splitting) to the trunk. The soil must allow deep roots to penetrate 1.5 m, have an approximately neutral pH (pH 7) and be fertile enough to grow a good cover crop. Adding dolomitic lime or fertilizer, or planting a legume in the preceding year is recomin the plication rate is doubled, up to a maximum of 11-13 kg per tree with a 5-10-15 formulation. This tends to reduce vegetative growth and increase nut production. Pruning requirements are minimal. Many Persian walnuts independently exhibit the ideal conical or dome shape, requiring only the removal of branches that are dead, rub- mended to improve the soil. 8 bing, or malformed. A high, clear trunk can be maintained for lumber production. Persian walnuts grown in the Northeast Persian walnuts have much to recommend them. They are attractive landscape trees, potentially susceptible to several pests and diseases (Payne and Johnson 1979), including the husk fly, the coddling moth, the butternut curculio (insect larva), an anthracnose fungus, a bacterial blight, and a bunch disease (which causes numerous shoots to emerge in close proximity). Choosing disease-resistant plants, removing leaves from beneath the trees after leaf fall, and timing sprays carefully will provide successful control. Trees exhibiting a bunching patare crown. having pale bark and a dense, round Several cultivars are hardy at average minimum temperatures as low as -30F if soil and air drainage are adequate. Black Walnut The black walnut is a native American tree that grows wild throughout eastern North America except most of New York and New England. It is among the most valued cabinet-wood and veneer trees on this continent. A commercial cracking industry in the Midwest is supported by wild collected nuts. The nuts are valued for their flavorful kernels and their shells, which are used in the manufacture of a multitude of useful products. Soil conditions are a major influence on the growth of black walnuts. These trees do best on soils that have a neutral pH, are fertile, and have adequate water. They grow slowly on wet lands, shallow topsoils, and those that are acidic and infertile. Sapling black walnuts are intolerant of shade and are generally suited to sites where white ash ~Flaxinus americanagrows well (Fowells tern in the branches should be removed en- tirely, as should trees that sucker excessively from the lower trunk. The latter is an indication of either bunch disease, walnut blight, a genetic lack of hardiness, or wet soil. During the ripening period, squirrels poach nuts before they have fallen, but a smooth trunk collar (0.5 m high) will keep them out of the treetops as long as no access is provided by an adjoining tree or building. Even so, the nuts must be harvested freif squirrel populations are dense in quently the immediate area. Treatment after the harvest involves drying the walnuts in an airy location for about five days. During this period the kernel loses its milky texture, becoming crisp and sweet. Like most foods, walnuts sold commercially do not compare in taste to those grown at home. Storing walnuts is best accomplished either in-shell, using rodent-proof aerated containers in an unheated room, or by freezing the kernels alone. Nuts with well-sealed shells usually retain their kernel quality until the next harvest season. Frozen kernels will store for years with very little change in 1965). While truly wild black walnuts are un- quality. of the lower Hudson River Valley, they have often been planted as yard trees and sometimes have become naturalized. The black walnut tree is large and straight-trunked, with an open spreading crown. The pale green pinnately compound leaves cast a dappled shade. An identifying characteristic during the dormant season is the stout, upright branchlets. These resemcommon east 9 Black walnuts \/~uglans nigra)\/ ble the branches of white ash, but the walnut branch arrangement is alternate instead of opposite. Black walnuts normally have deep tap roots, which when established permit them to coexist with groundcovers and allow them to tolerate some degree of drought. These trees are also tolerant of fire and smog (Duke). Their growth rate is highly dependent on site and soil conditions and Nuts can be harvested until the lower section reaches prime veneer log size (55 cm). ). Trunk diameters of orchard-grown trees can be twice that of similarly aged trees grown in genetics; tree 1 m per year in height is possible. The ornamental value of the black walnut lies in its stately form and the dappled shade it affords. The leaves fall relatively early without spectacular coloration. The decaying husks leave an amber stain on hands, clothing, and concrete. Black walnut trees with an unbranched trunk at least 3 m high will produce both timber and nut crops. timber plantations, presumably because the superior care and the wider spacing of the trees in orchards are more favorable for girth increase. Careful pruning is required in the early years to produce a straight log free of large knots. The black walnut, the preferred commercial walnut, has a distinctive flavor, which is not diminished by cooking. The kernels contain approximately 20 percent protein, 15 5 and 60 percent fat, as percent carbohydrate, well as small amounts of mineral nutrients and vitamins A and B. Unfortunately, obtaining this nutritious nut meat can be a frustrating experience. In fact, removing the nut from its messy, stain- 10 ing husk and then extracting the kernel from its hard shell is hardly worth the effort with unselected black walnuts. This is not the case with several cultivars selected for their ease of cracking. Cracking qualities depend on shell thickness and the internal shell structure. The kernel cavities of most unselected black walnuts have many partitions and deep invaginations, whereas those of named cultivars usually have fewer, and kernels can be extracted in large pieces. Also, the nuts of most tion of desirable cultivars for New England. The most important characteristic for this region is a capacity to ripen nuts in growing of less than 180 days. Those that have generally received high ratings when grown in northern latitudes are listed on seasons page 16. Growing Black Walnuts Black walnut seeds and seedlings are widely available from commercial and state nurseries. In fact, enough are sold each year to establish about 2880 hectares of plantations cultivars are usually 25 percent kernel, 5 percent more than the average for unselected seedlings. Grafted cultivars may begin bearing nuts within two or three years, though substantial production must wait until trees are past 10 years of age. Crop yield is more closely correlated with crown size and trunk diameter than age. A vigorous tree is the best insurance of a plentiful nut crop. The biggest challenge in managing walnut trees for nut production is to maintain regular annual yields. Even the annual variation in yield is (Funk 1979). Seedling trees rarely equal cultivars in nut quality or productivity. A homeowner desirous of a single tree is better off purchasing a grafted cultivar. For larger plantings, seedlings are more cost-effective, and some may turn out to have improved characteristics for the Northeast. Seeds or irregular. Providing adequate sunlight, nutrition, and water and controlling pests minimizes yield variations but does not necessarily eliminate them. Black walnut cultivars have been selected seedlings should be obtained from parent trees with desirable traits: climatic adaptation, superior productivity and nut quality, and perhaps timber form. A large, well-filled nut produces a larger seedling. Cold stratification for 120 days results in the most prompt germination. Fall planting usually satisfies this cold requirement. Seeds sown in fall tend to germinate more quickly and in greater numbers than those sown in spring. The hulls need not be removed before planting the nuts. About 50 percent of unhulled seed will germinate. A higher germination rate can be achieved by hulling the nuts, placing them in a container of water, and discarding those that float. A well-filled nut will sink if the float test is given before appreciable drying has occurred (within 3 days of hulling). Black walnuts are planted in the same way primarily for ease of cracking and productivity. Very little information is available on their performance in New England, however. Although over 500 cultivar selections have been identified by the Northern Nut Growers' Association, most have not been widely propagated or tested. The performance reports that do exist vary considerably, depending on climatic, cultural, and site factors. Observations in New York, Michigan, and Ontario offer the best indica- 11 1 as Persian walnuts. The results of a study of various methods used to protect the nuts from squirrels favored placing fresh cow manure over sown seeds as an \"effective, to a lesser extent, nitrogen supply. Weeds should be controlled with mulch for at least two years (preferably three or four) after planting. Favorable soil conditions are crucial for healthy growth and nut production. The soil must be well drained. It should allow roots to penetrate at least 1.5 m. A near neutral pH should be maintained with dolomite applications. Trees bearing nuts have high nitro5 gen and phosphorus requirements. About 0.5 kg of 10-10-10 fertilizer per centimeter of trunk diameter is recommended for adequate nutrition. Another way of improving the soil's fertility is to interplant black walnuts with nitrogen-fixing plants. Russian olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), black locust (Robinia pseudoacaciaEuropean alder (AInus glutinosa), and hairy vetch (Vicia villosa) have all proved to enhance black walnut's growth rate, especially on less than ideal sites (Funk 1979 and Ponder 1981).. ( These fast-growing nitrogen-fixing species shelter the young walnuts from wind and reduce weed competition somewhat. Additionally, the walnut growth is forced upward, which reduces pruning requirements. The general pruning recommendation for black walnuts is to maintain a single dominant leader and evenly spaced lateral branches. The bottom section of trunk can be developed as a valuable veneer log by pruning the branches when they reach 3 cm in diameter. Pruning can be done up to half of the tree's total height without adversely affecting the growth rate. This method keeps the knots small and confined to the central core of the veneer log. Bey (1979) provides further information on pruning for timber production. Planting black walnuts in frost . biodegradeable repellent\" (Williams and Funk 1978). Due to the fact that they germinate in relatively low numbers, black walnuts should be seeded at approximately twice the desired density. Planting nuts 10 cm apart produces tall, straight seedlings that are easy to graft or transplant. It is advisable to plant several seeds wherever a tree is desired. Later (anytime within three growing seasons), all of the surviving seedlings must be removed except the one showing the best vigor and form. seeding is better than Black walnuts develop a deep transplanting. taproot quickly, which is often damaged in transplanting and is a setback for the entire tree. After three to four years, trees in a plantation tend to be about the same size regardless of whether they were grown from seed or transplanted (Funk In general, direct ^ 1979). A wide hole with room for the roots to spread is best. Many labor-saving planting methods have been devised for transplanting large amounts of black walnuts, but the primary consideration is to ensure that the roots are spiraling. The survival and growth of transplanted seedlings is directly related to their size. Only year-old seedlings with a stem diameter greater than 5 mm should be planted. It is important to provide favorable conditions for young black walnut trees. Trees that are vigorous when young are usually vigorous when older also. The most critical factors affecting growth rate are soil moisture, weed competition, wind exposure, and, 12 pockets increases the need for pruning, because the terminal buds are more likely to suffer freeze damage, resulting in many competing lateral shoots. To my knowledge black walnuts growing in eastern Massachusetts have not been seriously afflicted with diseases or insects. Husk-fly maggots frequently infest the husk early fall, turning it into a mass of black slime, but a study has shown no correlation between husk maggots and nutmeat quality (Gibson and Kearby 1976). However, some pests can affect nut production (Payne and Johnson 1979). Walnut curculios can damage tender growth and cause some nut loss. Removing infected nuts that drop prematurely is the best control. Anthracnose fungus infections of foliage and fruit cause nuts to fill poorly. Wet weather conditions mean more in about one week. The dry nuts are best if stored in a cool, airy location, and rodentproof containers are advisable. Cracking by hand is usually done with a hammer or screw vise. Pouring hot water over the nuts and allowing them to steep 24 hours helps to soften the shells, which prevents then from shattering when cracked. The wire cutters used by electricians can be employed to extract the kernels. Kernels frozen in plastic bags keep well. The Butternut The butternut, another native American tree, has a more northerly geographic distribution than its cousin the black walnut. The butternut range occupies much of New England and the St. Lawrence River infections. Anthracnose-resistant cultivars will retain healthy foliage longer and produce better crops. Fungicide sprays during spring provide successful control. Apparently, black walnuts can be infected with walnut bunch disease without showing the normal brooming symptoms. Instead, it appears as empty or dark and shriveled nuts. There are no reliable controls for this disease. Infected trees should be destroyed. The entire husk and enclosed nut fall during or shortly after leaf fall. The nuts that fall early are less likely to be well filled. Freshly fallen nuts are the best ones to collect. At this stage the hulls separate easily and the kernels have not had time to become stained and lose flavor. Rubber gloves (not vinyl) will protect hands from the corrosive, staining juices. The hull of a freshly harvested, well-filled black walnut will shuck off with one tap of a rubber mallet. The hulled nuts can then be washed, and dried either on newspaper or in a wire basket for severe Valley of Quebec, west to to southern Minnesota, and south southern Appalachia. than an occasional component of forest stands. Butternut occurs primarily on stream banks or valley slopes where the soil is moist but well drained. However, it is known to grow better than black walnut on dry, rocky soils, especially those of limestone origin (Fowells 1965). The butternut tree is short, averaging 13 m high. Thick branches generally begin low on the trunk and rise into a broad, open crown. Butternut bark is light brown or gray and becomes deeply ridged with old age. The compound leaves resemble those of black walnut but are quite hairy and sticky in comparison. The same rust-colored, sticky pubescence also covers leaf petioles and young branchlets in their first year's growth and is especially noticeable on the nut husks. Another identifying characteristic is the leaf scar. In black walnut it is notched Missouri and But rarely is it more 13 Butternuts ~Juglans cmerea)( traction and nut size. Cold storage is advisable, but nuts in shell reportedly keep a year without a downy fringe, whereas in butternut the leaf scar is not notched but does have a under cool, ventilated conditions (personal communication from Stephen or more downy fringe. Butternuts are Breyer, July 15, 1982). among the most hardy Jugyears from seed lans species, surviving -40F within their natural geographic range. In spring bright green staminate catkins droop from the basal portion of the previous season's growth. The 5-8 pistillate flowers are borne on spikes at the end of new growth. The single or clustered 5-7 cm egg-shaped nuts ripen in early fall. A thin adhering husk encloses the deeply ridged, thick shell. The kernels, which are sweet and oily, are generally regarded as the best among walnuts for flavor but are normally impossible to extract in large pieces. A few cultivars exist, selected primarily for their ease of kernel ex- production begins within six or seven (McDaniel 1979), but butternuts never seem to yield as well as black Nut walnuts. Six bushels of nuts in hull is an exceptionally high yield from a mature tree, and large annual variations in yield are to be expected. Butternuts may produce nuts for more than 70 years. Native Americans extracted oil from crushed butternuts by boiling them in water. In New England the flavorful kernels are still combined with maple sugar in candy. Like that of the sugar maple tree, the sap of butternut also makes a good syrup, but more boiling is required to thicken it. The husks 14 4 and inner bark yield a true dye. During the Civil War, the backwoods Confederate troops were sometimes dressed in homespun 'uniforms' of butternut-dyed cloth, and they became known as butternuts (Peattie 1966). Butternut wood accepts a high polish and is easily worked. It was once a favorite for carriage interiors, because of its combination of beauty and lightness, and is still valued. In Wisconsin, one of the major states supplying butternut lumber, it is second only to black walnut for its economic value. The wood is also rot resistant. Relative to other nut trees, butternuts are quite short-lived, beginning to decline in 75 years. This inherent trait is compounded by susceptibility to two fungal diseases: the butternut dieback (Melanconis juglandis~ and the butternut canker (Sirococcus clavigignenti juglandaceareum\/. These factors, along with pollution and elimination of habitat, threaten the butternut throughout much of its range. In the colder regions of northeastern North America, growing butternuts may be the only way to harvest high-quality nuts. Cultivars are available with nuts that can be cracked easily and flavorful kernels that can be removed in large pieces. These trees are fast growing with broad canopies offering dappled shade. The Asian Walnuts Three walnut species are native to east Asia: the Japanese walnut \/ J. ailanthi folia Carr), the Manchurian walnut \/J. mandshurica Maxim.), and the Chinese walnut (J. cathayensis Dode). These are closely related to the American butternut and are often included in the same subsection of Juglans. However, the modern authority on the wal- family, W. E. Manning (1978) places the Asian walnuts in a separate subsection on the basis of their differences in embryo development. In the field Asian walnuts can nut supposedly be distinguished from the butternut by their notched leaf scars, but the difference is not readily discernible. Asian walnuts bear nuts in hanging racemes that are usually much longer than butternut clusters. The Asian walnuts cross readily with other juglans species, and fertile hybrids may result, especially in crosses involving the butternut. Confusion exists about the correct scientific name for the Japanese walnut and its smooth-shelled variety called the heartnut (Rehder 1945). The name formerly accepted for the Japanese walnut, J. sieboldiana a can no longer be used because it (Maxim.), has already been given to a fossil plant. The current consensus, with which Manning concurs, is to name the Japanese walnut J. ailanthi folia Carr and the heartnut J. ailanthifolia var. cordiformis (Maxim.) Rehd. The Japanese walnut is a common forest tree of mountain regions in Japan (Sargent 1894), whereas the heartnut is a cultivated variety (Ohwi 1965). The two are identical in habit and foliage, differing only in nut characteristics. The Japanese walnut is rough and pitted like a butternut. The heartnut is smooth, heart-shaped, and valued for its ease of cracking and kernel extraction. Seedlings of both Japanese walnut and heartnut may produce either type of nut. The Manchurian walnut is native to northern China, Korea, and the Amur River region of Siberia. It may grow to 20 m tall, either in mixed forests (in valleys and floodplains) or isolated on the gravelly soils 15 beside mountain streams. Its growth habit and racemes of 6-17 nuts are similar to those of the other Asian walnuts. The nuts vary in shell structure, are round to elongate, 2.7-5.5 cm in length, and (like butternuts) have a sharply ridged to relatively smooth shell. The Manchurian walnut is extremely hardy, on a par with the butternut. It is cultivated in cold areas of the USSR, Europe, and the Canadian plains. No nutproducing selections have been made in this country. The Lithuanian magazine Musu Sodai in 1976 reported a selection hardy to -40F that blooms first on old wood and again in 2-3 weeks on new growth (personal communication from Victor Vircau on July Heartnut \/juglans ailanthifolia var. cordiformis)( 90 kg harvest from the cultivar called 'OK'. Five to 15 nuts occur in pendant racemes. A recently ripened soft husk may be twisted off by hand, leaving only a few fibers attached to the shell. Even if the nuts are not husked immediately, the kernels are less apt to be stained than are those of black walnuts. 19, 1982). close relative and perhaps only a geographic race of the Manchurian walnut. It grows in the highlands of central China and is considered less hardy. Mature plants at the Arnold Arboretum survive temperatures as low as -10F without noticeable damage. Because of its ease in cracking, the heartnut ( J. ailanthi folia var. cordiformis has received the most attention among the Asian walnuts. In its native Japan it is cultivated in orchards and marketed. Heartnut tre.es grow rapidly (to 6 m in eight years) and bear nuts at five years of age. They reportedly adapt to a wide range of soils, from sand to clay, and some will grow in zone 4 (avg. The Chinese walnut is a Heartnuts usually have well-sealed shells and good keeping qualities. They can gener- ally be split into two heart-shaped halves either by tapping the shells while holding the nuts on edge or by using a channel-lock tool. A certain degree of drying can enhance the cracking process. The kernels have a mild flavor similar to that of the butternut but not quite as highly regarded. The kernels are about 50 percent oil and 25-35 percent of the total nut weight. The heartnut and butternut apparently cross-pollinate readily, resulting in a fertile and remarkably vigorous hybrid known as the buartnut ~J. cinerea x j. ailanthifolia var. cordiformis).Several selections combine the hardiness and flavor of butternuts with the ease of cracking and potentially greater yields of heartnuts. Two different cultivars are needed for pollination and subsequent nut min. temp. -30F) (Metcalf 1980). However, heartnuts seem to be adapted to a maritime climate similar to Japan's, because they suffer damage from early fall freezes and late spring frosts. With the exception of certain cultivars, heartnuts are said to bear nuts freely but production. we In the Asian walnuts and their hybrids, rarely heavily. Gellatly (1966) reported a have nut-producing, ornamental shade trees 16 for the North. Several features give them an overall exotic appearance: long hanging cat- Persian Walnut kins ; large, compound, seemingly tropical foliage; and pendant strings of nuts. The stout branches and broad top provide a dappled shade. Asian walnuts thrive on a variety of soils. Most are hardy thoughout zone 5 and some in zone 4. The primary disease threat to these walnuts is the bunch disease. The following descriptions are drawn primarily from those of Ashworth (1969), ), Brooks and Olmo (1972), and Grimo (1979). ). With the exception of 'Hansen', which is highly acclaimed, little agreement exists as to how they should be ranked. 'Broadview' originated in British Columbia from seed brought there by a Russian immigrant from the Black Sea region. Opinions differ about its kernel flavor. The nuts, which are medium to large, ripen in September at about the same time as McIntosh Walnut Cultivars A considerable number of commercial nurseries supply walnut cultivars. Many of apples. In cracking quality they approximately equal those of 'Franquette', the standard commercial walnut cultivar in California. The nuts are 46 percent kernel and keep well in storage. 'Broadview' is considered of the most productive cultivars. The original tree withstood temperatures as low as -30F, but subsequent reports indicate marginal hardiness in zone 5. 'Hansen' is probably the most favored, cold-hardy Persian walnut cultivar. It was introduced in 1952 from northwestern Ohio. The original tree may be over 100 years old and presumably is of German origin. 'Hansen' has the ability to fruit on lateral as well as terminal shoots, resulting in early (2 years after grafting) and numerous nuts. The trees remain small and are resistant to disease and husk maggots. The nuts mature early and are relatively small but at 60 percent have one of the highest percentages of kernel. The round shells are thin and smooth. The kernal flavor is mild and sweet. 'Hansen' is another self-fertile cultivar. 'Holton' is a promising cross between 'Hansen' and 'Broadview'. Preliminary observations indicate that it combines the best qualities of both parents. Like 'Hansen' it is one them on a quite small, however, and managed part-time basis. As their stock may be are small or sold out, it is best to place orders one-half year or more before spring planting. Nurseries usually sell scionwood for do-ityourself propagation, and some offer custom propagation services. Walnuts are considered difficult to propagate vegetatively. The most common means is by grafting. Among the most successful methods are: a modified side-graft, 75-80 percent (Funk 79); a root cleft-graft, 75 percent (Groenwald 1981) ; and greenwood budding, 90 percent (Davie and Davie 1977). I have used the sprouted-seed grafting method described for chestnuts (Jaynes 1980) with fair results. A warm post-graft environment will enhance the success of all grafting methods. Heartnuts and Persian walnuts can be layered (Gellatly 1966 and personal communication from Stephen Breyer, July 5, 1982), and both rooted cuttings (Shreve 1975) and root cuttings of black walnut have proved successful ~Jaciw and Larsson 1980).. ( Purchasing walnut cultivars is the best route for most people. 17 7 a hardy and a precocious bearer of nicely shaped and flavored nuts, which resist dam- age from husk maggots. The 'Broadview' parentage is evident in the vigor of the tree and its relatively large nuts. 'McKinster' is a Crath seedling originating Columbus, Ohio, area. The nuts are large (48 percent kernel) and have a good flavor. This fairly productive cultivar, which self-pollinates, is well adapted to Ohio and favored in the lower peninsula of Michigan. 'Somers' is a Crath seedling from the same as 'Greenhaven'. 'Somers' consistently bears attractive high-quality nuts. The kernel usually constitutes more than 55 percent of the nut, and its oil content is more than 64 percent. The early ripening of 'Somers' (early to mid-September) often precedes husk-maggot damage. source form the Other cultivars that have received high rating for northern areas are 'Bums', 'Snyder', and 'Thomas'. Less-tested black walnuts with potential value for New England include: 'Beck', 'Sparks # 127', 'Sparks # 147', and 'Davidson'. The latter three have been selected in Iowa for their ability to flower on lateral as well as terminal shoots. (This characteristic leads to earlier and heavier yields.) Butternut Butternuts tend to be difficult to propagate and are not in high demand, so nurseries may not have stock on hand. A few of the better-known and available cultivars are: 'Ayers', 'Booth', 'Chamberlin', 'Craxezy', 'Creighton', 'Joy', 'Kinnyglen', 'Kenworthy', 'Love', 'Van Sickle', and 'Weschcke'. All of these are reported to be cold hardy in the North. Heartnut t \" ' Black Walnut Over 500 black walnut cultivars have been selected and named. The following are among those that have received high ratings when grown in northern locations. The descriptions are compiled from reports by Brooks and Olmo (1972), Funk (1979), MacDaniels (1974 and 1941),and Zanger (1969). 'Sparrow', from Illinois, has a very thin hull, which is easy to remove. It cracks well and has a high kernel content (29 percent) and very good flavor. Its anthracnoseresistant foliage is retained late into the fall. The nuts ripen fairly early and vary in size according to site conditions. 'Emma K', from Illinois, has a thin shell, a high kernel content, and excellent flavor. It bears nuts regularly in southern Ontario but may not fill all of them. It appears to be resistant to both anthracnose and aphids. Most heartnut cultivars were selected primarily before attention was diverted to the introduction of Carpathian walnuts. The following cultivars are most likely to be available. The descriptions follow Campbell ( 1981Gellatly (1966), and McDaniel (1979). ). 'Brock' is a relatively recent and promising cultivar from Pennsylvania. 'Etter', also from Pennsylvania, has excellent cracking qualities and is 33 percent kernel. It may be resistant to bunch disease. 'Etter' seedlings are often equal to or superior to their parent. 'Fodermaier' nuts are 37 percent kernel but rarely crack in whole pieces. Even so, it is a highly regarded heartnut. 'Fodermaier' seed- lings generally produce good quality nuts. 18 8 'Marvel' and 'Rival' are both progeny of 'Fodermaier'. Other heartnuts of value in- Gellatly, J. V. 1966. \"Heartnuts.\" 57th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Assoczauon: 103-111. K E , and W H. Kearby. 1976. \"Black Walnut Meat Quality in Relation to the Presence of Husk Fly Maggots in the Husks.\" 67th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Associatzon. 109-13. Gnmo, E. 1979.\"Carpathian (Persian) Walnuts.\" InNut Tree Culture in North Amerzca, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut. Northern Nut Growers' Assoczauon. Groenwald, M. R. 1981. \"Use of Walnut Cleft Graft to \" Produce Walnut Trees for Nebraska Plantings.\" 72nd Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers'Assoczatzom 62-67. Iconographza Cormophytorum Sinicorum 1972. Pek- clude 'Canoka', 'OK', 'Rhodes', 'Schubert', Gibson, and 'Wright'. Buartnut I was not able discover any nurseries that offer grafted buartnut trees. The following cultivars may be available as scions or by to propagation: 'Corsan', 'Dunoka', 'Fioka', 'Hancock', 'Leslie', 'Mitchell', and custom 'Wallich'. ing. In Chinese. Jaciw, P., and H. C Larsson. 1980. \"Vegetative Propa- References Ashworth, Fred L. 1969. \"Butternuts, Siebold (Japanese) Walnuts, and Their Hybrids.\" In Handbook of North Amencan Nut Trees, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers' Associauon. Bey, C. F. 1979. \"Prumng.\" In Nut Culture in North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes Hamden, Connecticut : Northern Nut Growers' Association. Brooks, R., and H. Olmo 1972. Register of New Fruit and Nut Vameues. 2nd edition. Berkeley: University of California Press. Campbell, R. D. 1981. \"Ten Years of Expenence with Nut Trees.\" 72nd Annual Report of the Northern NutGrowers'Associauon 152-54. Davie, B., and L. Davie. 1977. \"Budding Persians, Black Walnuts, Heartnuts, and Butternuts on Black Walnut Rootstocks.\" 68th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. 108-110. Devitt, L. K. 1953. \"Late Rev. Paul C. Crath.\" 44th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association. 80-84. Duke, J. A. \"\/uglans mgra L.\" Economic Botany Laboratory, U.S. Department of Agnculture, Beltsville, Maryland, n.d. Fowells, H. A. 1965. Silmcs of Forest Trees of the U.S. USDA Handbook 271. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. Funk, D. T. 1979. \"Black Walnuts for Nuts and Timber.\" In Nut Tree Culture in North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers' Association. ' gation of Black Walnut.\" 71 st Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Assoczatzon: 70-74. Jaynes, R. A. 1980. \"Chip Budding Sprouted Chestnut Seed.\" 7Ist Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Assoczauon Komarov, Vladimir L. 1936. Flora of the U.S.S.R. LeninBotamcal Institute of the Academy of Sciof the USSR (Available from National Techmcal Information Servzce, U.S. Department of Commerce, Springfield, VA 22151.\/ .( MacDamels, L. H. 1980. \"Further Observations on the Toxicity of Black Walnut on Tomatoes and Some Other Plants.\" 71 st Annual Report of the North- grad : ences . . Nut Growers' Assoczauow 112-26. 1976. \"Walnut Toxicity: An Unsolved Problem.\" 67th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Assoczauon. 114-22. 1974. \"Black Walnut Testing.\" 65th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Gzowers' Assoczatzon: 68-71. . 1941. \"Nut Growing in the Northeastern States.\"Arnoldia, 1: 45-64. MacDaniels, L. H., W. T. Johnson, and E. J. Braun. 1975. \"The Black Walnut Bunch Disease Syndrome.\" 66th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growezs'Assoczauon~ 71-87. McDamel, J. C. 1979. \"Other Walnuts, Includzr.g Buttemut, Heartnut, and Hybrids.\" InNut Tree Culture in North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers' Assoczatzon. 1978. \"Amateur.\" Nutshell, 32(2) 6-10. Manning, W. E. 1978. \"The Classification Within Juglandaceae.Annoys of the Missouri Botanical ern \" . 19 Garden, 65: 1058-87. 1980. \"A Three-Year Heartnut Study.\" 71st Annual Report of The Northern Nut Growers' Associatiom 50-52. Meyer, F. N. 1911. \"Agricultural Explorations m the Fruit and Nut Orchards of Chma. U. S. Department of Agnculture Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletm 204 Washington, D.C.: U.S. Depart- Metcalfe, R. E. \" Williams, Robert D., and David T. Funk. 1978. \"Cow Ma;aure Deters Rodents from Stealmg Seeded Black Walnut.\" 69th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association: 43--48. Zanger, T. G. 1969. \"Black Walnuts As Nut Trees.\" In Handbook of North Amencan Nut Trees, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Knoxville, Tennessee: Northern Nut Growers' Association. . of Agriculture. Ohwi, Jisaburo. 19G5. Flora of Japan. Edited by Fredenck G. Meyer and Egbert H. Walker. Washington, D.C.: Smithsoman Institution. O'Rourke, F. L. S. 1969. \"The Carpathian (Persian) Walnut.\" In Handbook of North Amencan Nut Trees, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Knoxville, Tennessee : Northern Nut Growers' Association. Payne, J. A., and W. T. Johnson. 1979. \"Plant Pests.\" In Nut Tree Culture m North Amemca, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern ment Nut Growers' Association. Peattie, Donald Culross. 1966. A Natural History of Trees. 2nd edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1981. \"Some Guidelines for Selecting Black Walnut Planting Sites.\" 72nd Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association: 11219. Rahmlow, H. J. 1962. \"Distribution of Carpathian Walnuts by the Wisconsin Horticultural Society.\" 55th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers'Association 125-28. Rehder, Alfred. 1945. \"Notes on Some Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, II.\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 26:472. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. New York: Macmillan. Rietveld, W. J. 1981. \"Significance of Allelopathy in Ponder, F. \" . Black Walnut Cultural Systems.\" 72nd Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association : 117-34. Sargent, Chailes Sprague. 1894. Forest Flora of Japan. Shreve, L. W. . Boston: Houghton Mifflin. 1981. \"Walnut and Almond Improvement Programs in Romania and Hungary.\" 72nd Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers' Association: 22-26. 1975. \"Black Walnut Propagation Techniques Used in the Tree Improvement Programs at Kansas State University.\" 66th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers'Association: 148-55. \" Society of Ontario Nut Growers. \"Persian Walnuts.\" Newsletter of the Society of Ontario Nut Growers. Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada: Society of Ontario Nut Growers, n.d. Edward Goodell is a frequent contributor to Amoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Humility","article_sequence":2,"start_page":20,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24837","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070b36b.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Propagating Leatherwood: A Lesson in Peter Del Tredici Humility It is often assumed that because I work in just like a cowhide, and would answer the purpose of one admirably. The color of the bark is a very pale brown. I was much interested in this shrub, since it was the Indian's rope. Frost said that the farmers of Vermont used it to tie up their the greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum, I should be able to solve any plant-propagation problem that comes along. With all that heat and light, the reasoning goes, you should be able to make dead sticks sprout. Unfortunately, technology is not always the most effective solution to the difficulties that arise with plants. This fact was brought home to me rather dramatically recently in attempting to determine the seed-germination requirements of Dirca palustris, the Atlantic leatherwood. This beautiful little shrub is native to the east coast of North America, from New Brunswick to Florida and east to the Mississippi. In the wild, Dirca tends to form dense thickets in the forest understory, growing best in moist areas that have a high limestone content. Henry David Thoreau tracked the plant down in its native haunts in fences with. - The great tensile strength of the bark of leatherwood has been noted by nearly all botanical writers before and after Thoreau who have discussed the plant. None, however, have presented quite so memorable a description as the late Edgar Anderson, former dendrologist of the Arnold Arboretum and long-time botanist at the Missouri Botanical Garden: - Brattleboro, Vermont, ... on September 8, 1856: for the first time I see growing indigenously the Dirca palustris, leather-wood, the largest on the low interval by the brook. I notice a bush there seven feet high. In this form it is somewhat hke a quince bush, though less spreading, its leaves are broad, hke entire sassafras leaves; now beginning to turn yellow. It has remarkably strong thick bark and soft white wood which bends like lead (Gray says it is brittle!),the different layers separating at the end. I cut a good-sized switch, which was smgularly tough and flexible, Delicate though the flowers may be, the species is well deserving of its popular name as anyone will find who attempts to gather the flowering twigs without a sharp knife. The branches are surprisingly limber and the bark is tough and strong. One can actually tie the twigs in bow knots. If one attempts to snap off a branch quickly, the wood itself may break and separate from the bark. It may even come away altogether, leaving the startled flower-gatherer with a perfectly bare twig in his hand and on the bush, dangling like an empty glove, the bark with its flowers and leaves still intact. Horticulturally, Dirca is noteworthy for other than its bark, not the least of which is that it produces bright yellow flowers in early April, when most other plants reasons are still dormant. Another point of interest 21 tendency to develop a single stem. This habit, which is unusual for a shrub, gives the plant the appearance of a miniature tree and makes it extremely useful in rock gardens and perennial beds. Despite leatherwood's preference for moist, shady sites in the wild, is its imprecise (Esson 1949), I undertook a seed germination project in 1979. At that time or under cultivation. Interestingly, when grown in the open the plant assumes a more compact habit of growth, and the foliage, which is light green in the shade, takes on a distinct yellowish sun it will tolerate full there were two Dirca plants at the Arboretum, both collected in New Hampshire in 1961. In early June the mature fruits were falling off. They were green at that point, with a slight tinge of yellow. The fruit is a berry with a fleshy outer seed coat and a hard, black inner coat surrounding a single large embryo. I followed my usual practice when pro- cast. cessing seeds preparatory to sowing them: I were Because propagation data on leatherwood either nonexistent (Schopmeyer 1974) The Atlantic leatherwood (Dirca palustns ~ produces bright yellow flowers in early April. put them in a plastic bag and set them on a headhouse bench until the fleshy part of the fruit softened enough so that it could be easily washed off. This \"fermentation\" clean- 22. ing, as it is called, usually takes about one week and works wonders with fleshy fruits like those of Malus, Comus, and Sorbus. While this technique is not generally recommended in the seed germination literature (Schopmeyer 1974), it has long been used successfully with many types of plants at the Arboretum. After a week I removed the rotting Dirca fruits from the bag and washed them clean with water. I then subjected the seeds to various tests: some I sowed immediately in the greenhouse, some I stratified (this involves packing the seeds in a moist medium and storing them in a refrigerator for three months), and some I treated with the plant hormone, gibberellic acid ~GA3\/. To my disappointment, none of these treatments produced a single plant. Trying again in 1980,I collected 1177 seedling was produced, but of the 77 uncleaned ones planted outdoors, 47 seedlings germinated the following spring a staggering 61 percent. Here I had brought to bear nearly 10 years of experience in botantical research, along with a barrage of hormones and climate-control devices, when success could be achieved only by doing nothing. Humility is what I learned from that exper- iment. In 1981collected another 600 fruits from Dirca to see if perhaps my experience in 1980 had been a fluke. This time I set up a surefire test. I divided the seeds into six lots: some I cleaned by hand, peeling the thin green skin off with my fingernail; some I seeds and designed an experiment that I thought would cover all possible types of seed-dormancy mechanisms. I put all the fruits in a plastic bag for fermentation cleaning, except for 77 that I pulled out at the last minute to use as a control. These I sowed in a flat, which was then planted outdoors to simulate the conditions the seeds would have been subjected to had they been allowed to fall from the plant. The remaining 1100 seeds were allowed to rot for several days, after which they were cleaned and then subjected to every possible seed-germination test I could think of: stratification in the refrigerator, as well as in the greenhouse, gibberellic-acid soaks, and scarification with a knife. Finally, I carefully excised over 400 embryos from their seed coats and gave them the same treatments. To my amazement, of the 1100 seeds so carefully cleaned and treated, not a single cleaned by the usual fermentation method a plastic bag; and some I left uncleaned. I then planted replicate lots outdoors under shade cloth and indoors in a greenhouse heated to a minimum of 45F in the winter time. The results are shown below. in Seedlmgs Treatment 100 seeds uncleaned 100 seeds uncleaned 100 seeds hand cleaned 100 seeds hand cleaned 100 seeds fermentation Location Produced 32 25 outside inside outside mside outside 54 9 cleaned 100 seeds fermentation 1 cleaned 0 mside outdoors did better than those treated in the same manner but sown indoors, and as a whole, the uncleaned seeds performed almost as well as the hand-cleaned seeds. Fermentation cleanIn all cases, the seeds sown 23 1894. \"The Earliest Flowering Shrubs.\" Garden and Forest, 7: 112-13. Nevlmg, L. I., Jr. 1962. \"The Thymelaeaceae in the Southeastern Umted States.\"\/ournal of the Arnold Arboretum, 43: 428-34. Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. 1974. Seeds of Woody Plants in the Umted States Agriculture Handbook No. 450. Washmgton, D.C.: United States Govern- Jack, J. G. ment Printing Office. Thoreau, Henry David. 1906. The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau. New York: Dover. Flowers ot Atlantic leatherwood (Dirca palustris)( More than ing was, of course, a disaster all around. anything else, this experiment demonstrates that some plants propagate themselves best when left to their own devices. With Dirca palustris, letting nature run its course is not only easy, but also very effective. I References Anderson, E. 1933. \"Leatherwood.\"Bulletin of Popular Information, 4th ser., 1: 25-27. Esson,J. G 1949. \"Leatherwood for Early Sprmg Bloom.\" ~ournal of the New York Botamc Garden, 50: 57-59. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"When Is a Pine Not a Pine?","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24840","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070bb6d.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hutchinson, B. June","article_content":" When Is Pine? a Pine Not a B. June Hutchinson Although it is commonly called the umbrella pine, the luxuriant Sciadopitys verticillata actually is not a pine. In fact, it possesses no immediate plant relatives, and its ancestry is more remote than that of most other conifers. The foliage is still another unusual aspect of this tree: it is comprised of two types of leaves. The dark green needles that grow in distinctive whorls at intervals along its branches are one type, and the small brown scales along the stems are another. E. H. Wilson (1876-1930) called the umbrella pine \"one of the most distinct of all conifcrs\" in appearance. Planted as a landscape specimen in the Northeast, it forms a dense pyramid and retains its lower branches well into maturity, unlike many of the conifers. Wilson wrote that he saw the umbrella pine growing in the forests of Japan (to which it is native) as a tall, narrowcrowned tree up to 30 m in height, but in this country it is slow growing and reaches 8 m at most after 50 years. This remarkable tree first became known to Europeans when the Swedish botanist Carl Peter Thunberg( 1743-1828\/ published a description of it in his Flora Japonica (1784), a work based on his observations during a 15-month stay in Japan from 1775 to 1776. However, new evergreen was Thunberg's mention of the largely overlooked by botanists since he described it as a species of the well-known genus Taxus. When German-born physician and botanist Philipp Franz von Siebold( 179Cr18GG~ saw the tree, he realized it was unique. The description of Sciadopitys verticillata in his Flora Japonica (1842) excited plant enthusiasts. Yet it was not until nearly 20 years later that umbrella pines were successfully propagated in En- gland by nurseryman John G. Veitch, who brought seeds from Japan in 1861. The following year the tree was grown for the first time in the United States at the Parsons Nursery in Flushing, New York. Although it is still not widely available in the United States, a few fine nurseries in New England sell the umbrella pine. Unfortunately, the long handling time in the nursery, due to slow growth, decrees a high price for these unusual plants. Dr. Sidney Waxman, of the University of Connecticut, has introduced several cultivars of the umbrella pine, which have been propagated from cuttings. His article in the International Plant Propagators' Society Umbrella pine (Sciadopitys verticillata\/ Proceedings (volume 28, p. 546-50) provides instruction on propagating by this method. The Arnold Arboretum has successfully propagated umbrella pines from seed. The seeds required three months to germinate regardless of pretreatment. Arboretum trees produce cones in alternate years. 26 27 As described by both C. S. Sargent and E. H. Wilson, the native habitat and plant formal country gardens, however. Umbrella pines are perfectly hardy in the Boston area and hold the dark green color of their thick, shiny needles through the coldest winters. Easy to grow and not susceptible to any serious diseases, they appreciate shelter from strong winds and some soil moisture. Planting sites should not be hot or dry but can be shaded. Facts about the umbrella pine companions of the umbrella pine can guide the use of the tree in the North American landscape. Wilson wrote that it usually occurs as a solitary tree or in small groves, scattered through dense forests of pine, fir, Hinoki cypress, hemlock, maple, magnolia, and katsura. Sargent reported finding it in association with native pines, particularly Japanese white pine (Pinus parviflora) and Japanese red pine (P. densiflora\/. In combination with the Japanese maple against an evergreen background, the umbrella pine is an exciting study in leaf contrasts and form for close-up viewing near a window or doorway. Another handsome grouping, which has textual appeal, occurs naturally in Japan: a small grove of umbrella pines in combination with hemlocks, accompanied by lower plantings of rhododendron and underplantings of Shortia. Mildly evocative of prehistoric landscapes and matched in boldness of foliage and evolutionary age, Sciadopitys and magnolia are effective landscape companions. With a Magnolia x soulangeana 'Brozzoni', for example, a small grove of three or more Sciadopitys is elegant, particularly if sited in front of other tall evergreens. These combinations can be used in several (Sciadopitys verticillata)\/ Landscape Height Spread Texture 7.5 to 9 meters 4 to 5 m Growth Rate Hardiness Medium Slow Zone 5 Pinaceae Family Native Range Native Habitat Japan Scattered through dense forests of mixed hard and soft woods. 1861 Introduced landscape applications, including border, edge, screening, and foundation plantings. The textural richness and symmetry of the umbrella pine are set off to good advantage in both formal gardens and the surroundings of contemporary houses. The form of this Japanese plant would not be suitable among the naturalistic groupings of plants in in- B. June Hutchinson isa consultant to the Arnold a arboretum, a wnter, and landscape designer. She is Distinctive needles of the umbrella pine (Sci- currently workmg on one of four volumes m the forthcorrnnggmdebook to theArnold Arboretum (supported m part by a grant from the National Endowment for the HumamuesJ, from which this article was ex- adopitys verticillata~( cerpted. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The River Birch","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24838","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070b76f.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Carlsmith, Anne","article_content":"The River Birch Anne Carlsmith Landscape designers are always looking for beautiful and adaptable low-maintenance Since the number of these trees currently available is low, however, the result is often another planting of honey locusts or maples. Yet alternatives do exist, and worthy candidates are often overlooked by the nursery trade. One such is the river birch, Betula nigra L. In comparison to the white-trunked members of the birch family (Betulaceae), the river birch has long been ignored, though it is a graceful tree, with a warm red bark that exfoliates to pink-white. It is also adaptable to both flood and drought and is more disease-resistant and heat tolerant than any other birch. When young the river birch (also known as the red birch) is delicate. If left unpruned, it becomes multitrunked in its first or second year, breaking at ground level into several splayed stems. It is twiggy, with many horizontal subbranches that recurve slightly. The youngest twigs are lustrous red and darken as they grow, eventually becoming marked by narrow lenticels. The bark then separates into thin flakes, which curl into strips and cling to the wood indefinitely. Bark color varies from tree to tree: the outer bark may be bright or subdued and the inner bark may be nearly white. trees. As the tree matures (40 years), the bark thickens, darkens, and becomes deeply fissured, beginning at the bases of the trunks. The larger branches acquire a rough and broken surface, while the smaller ones continue to exfoliate. The mature river birch has an open habit and fine foliage texture; the leaves (4-8 cm long) are deep green and very lustrous. Monoecius, Betula nigra forms three-clustered staminate catkins in the fall, which become conspicuous when they elongate to 8 cm in spring. The river birch lives up to its name in its willingness to thrive in damp soil or soil that may be inundated for weeks in the spring. This characteristic makes it a special asset to the landscape designer: all authorities agree that it is one of the finest trees for damp ground. In addition, it has the advantage of being drought-tolerant and therefore has potential as a street tree. Betula nigra owes its adaptability to the floodplain habitats of which it is characteristic. In the wild it grows along the banks of streams, on the edges of ponds, and in swamps, habitats that may be flooded in spring and dry in summer. It attains its largest size (27 m) in the damp bottomlands of the Gulf States and is most prevalent along the larger, slow-moving silt-laden rivers. It grows thickly along the Mississippi and its tributaries, holding the muddy banks Young river birch trees (Betula mgra)growing at the edge of Jamaica Pond in Boston, Massachusetts. against erosion. in the Bruce Applebaum photo. The river birch is the only birch growing South, and it has the widest distribu- 30 Leaves of the river birch (Betula mgra\/.Bruce Applebaum photo. tion of all the North American birches. Its natural range extends from New Hampshire south to Florida and west to Texas and Minnesota. Donald Wyman has noted that it does well even in California (Wyman 1977a). Native stands are sparse in zone 4, however, and trees there are both smaller in stature and less long-lived (Steele and Hodgdon 1975). In New England the average stature at 30 years is 15-18 m, whereas in the South it can be as high as 27 m. Bronze birch borer, the most destructive of birch pests, has virtually no effect on the river birch, and leaf miner, another birch pest, has very little. Atmospheric pollution apparently is harmless also: Henry Arnold lists the river birch among the trees that have sprung up spontaneously in Central Park and eventually replaced the installed plants (Arnold 1980). A low soil pH appears to be the only definite requirement of the river birch. Chlorosis occurs at pH levels higher than 6.5 (Dirr 1983). 'Heritage', the only river birch cultivar, was selected for both a light bark color and a prolonged period of exfoliation. Neither the species nor the cultivar is readily obtainable. Weston Nurseries in Hopkinton, Massachusetts, supply the species (and will supply the cultivar in spring 1984). Oliver Nurseries in Fairfield, Connecticut, and Mellinger's in North Lima, Ohio, supply the cultivar. 31 difficult to transplant, except when balled and burlapped and moved in very early spring. (Most reputable nurseries dig them only at that time.) Again the river birch is the exception. Gary Hightshoe describes it as \"easily transplanted [in] early spring or late autumn\" (Hightshoe 1978). The tree is quick to throw out adventitious roots when flooded and generally shows the rooting vigor of all fast-growing trees. Birches in general are \"bleeders,\" that is, they are slow to heal if pruned in spring, when sap flow is heaviest. Pruning in fall and early winter is preferable. Donald Wyman has observed a tendency in the river birch to form weak crotches, but a grove of mature trees in the Arboretum shows no evidence of it (Wyman 1977b). Planted from seed collected in 1877, these trees show the typical habit of the mature river birch in New England. Peeling bark of a young river birch. Peter Del Tredici photo. Growing the asset References Arnold, Henry F. 1980. Trees m Urban Design. New York. Van Nostrand, Remhold. Dirr, Michael A. 1983. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants: Their Idenufication, Ornamental Charactenstics, Culture, Propagation and Uses 3rd edition. Champaign, Ilhnois. Stipes. Hightshoe, Gary. 1978. Native Trees for Urban and Rural Amenca. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State Umversity Research Foundation. Pirone, P. P. 1941. Mamtenance of Shade and Ornamental Trees. New York: Oxford University Press. River Birch Ready germination from seed is another of the river birch, but the seeds must be collected early. This is the only Betula species that ripens its seeds in spring or early summer. Small and lightweight, they are dispersed by the wind and often carried long distances. Much of the seed falls near the tree, however, so collection is not difficult. Nurserymen report that seedlings grow so quickly from seed that propagation by rooted cuttings is unnecessary. A caliper of 8-10 cm has been noted at 15 years. 'Heritage', reproduced by cuttings, grows equally quickly. Many nurseries list all the birches as Steele, Fred L., and Albion R. Hodgdon. 1975. Trees and Shrubs of Northern New England. 3rd edition Concord, New Hampshire: Society for the Protection of New Hampshire Forests. Wyman, Donald. 1977a. Trees for Amencan Gardens. New York- Macmillan. . 1977b. Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia. Revised edition. New York: Macmillan. is a Anne Carlsmith scape Design at student in the Program in Land- Radchffe College. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collector's Notebook: Orchids for Everyone","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24836","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070b326.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"COLLECTOR'S NOTEBOOK Orchids for Everyone Richard E. Weaver, jr. Orchids hold a fascination for plant growers that few other plant groups can match. For the gardener their beauty and rarity, and the challenge of cultivating many species, make orchids par- ticularly desirable subjects. Growing hardy native orchids has become a somewhat controversial subject, however, because most of those offered commercially have been collected in the wild, and wild populations of many are species are becoming seriously depleted. Native orchids also difficult to propagate. Only a few species, notably the large yellow lady's-slipper (Cypripedium calceolus var. pubescens),increase reliably in cultivation. In addition, most native or- chids are nearly impossible to grow from seed with techniques Bletilla stnata presently available, and they have not yet responded to propagation by tissue culture, like many of the tropical epiphytic orchids. But those of us who want to grow orchids in our gardens now have an alternative. Several Asiatic them without having to worry about endangering the species in the wild. In addition, these species are more attractive than many of our native orchids; they are easy to cultivate; and they are hardy in most parts of the Umted States. I am referring particularly several of the Japanese species of Calanthe: C. nipponica, C. tricarinata, and C. discolor and its-varieties. Because the propagation of many hardy orchid species is difficult, gardeners are often reluctant to attempt it. But I urge them to try. Bletilla and Calanthe are good choices with species can easily be propa- gated both vegetatively and from seed, so we can obtain and grow Bletilla striata, often sold as the \"hardy Chinese orchid,\" and to which to start, because success is virtually assured. Before attempting to propagate these plants, it is important to understand some basic facts of orchid growth. Most orchids grow sympodially, that is, each shoot grows to maturity and then stops growing, whether it flowers or not. That shoot is then succeeded by a similar one, which develops from an axillary bud borne on the rhizome. Old shoots often live for several years, still capable of food production and storage but incapable of growth or flower production. In terrestrial orchids the rhizome is usu- backbulbs, but these have prefer to separate them by gently evolved as a safeguard, so that if twisting them apart. If a knife is the leading tip of the rhizome is used, it is important to inspect damaged, or if the season's aerial the backbulbs carefully for any shoot is destroyed (perhaps by a latent buds in order to avoid late frost), one of these latent damaging them. Again, the leadbuds will break dormancy and de- ing pseudobulb can be replanted in the garden. The backbulbs can velop into a shoot. Thus the will still be able to be planted in a propagation damaged plant grow. frame, but because the shoots These latent buds also enable they produce are delicate and us to propagate Bletilla and slow-growing I prefer to start Calanthe, as well as other orchids, by vegetative means. If we separate them, and the backbulb to which they are attached, from the leading shoot, each will develop into a separate plant. The them in a seed pan. I use a medium consisting of 2 parts peat moss, 1 part vermiculite, and I part perlite. The backbulbs should be situated so that their tops are just below the surface of the medium. Place the pans m a shaded spot in a greenhouse or outdoors, and keep the medium moist. The tender shoots are very attractive to slugs, so it is best to apply a commercial slug bait as soon as the shoots appear. Leave the plants in the pans under fluorescent lights or m filtered sunlight until the following spring and then plant them m their permanent place in the garden. Other orchids with corms or underground pseudobulbs should respond similarly to Bletilla and Calanthe. Experimentation should produce some interesting and valuable results. I hope that success with these will lead to experimentation with other species and that eventually methods will be found for propagating more of these wonderful ally underground. In many genera procedure is simple. For B. the shoots themselves consist of striata dig up the plant in the two distinct parts: an above- spring before the new shoots have ground part, which includes the foliage and produces the flowers and in temperate regions usually emerged, and carefully clean the pseudobulbs so that each one is clearly distinguishable. Be extra dies back at the end of each seacareful to avoid damaging the son ; and an enlarged underground leading buds in the process. Sever the rhizome between each part, attached to the rhizome, which serves as a food-storage or- pseudobulb with a sharp knife or gan. The underground part varies pruning shears. The pseudobulb in structure and appearance from with well-developed buds may be genus to genus, but in Bletilla replanted in the garden, and the and Calanthe it is a pseudobulb shoots should develop and flower similar to the aerial ones of normally. The backbulbs should epiphytic orchids (in Bletilla the be planted in a propagating frame, structure is . . often referred to as a corm).. ( The pseudobulbs of Bletilla and Calanthe live for several years, and if an established plant of either genus is dug up the structures appear as a string of beads, attached by the rhizome. The old pseudobulbs, referred to as backbulbs, function primarily to store food, but associated with each are latent buds often not visible to the unaided eye. Normally such latent buds would eventually decay along with the covered with about 5 cm of soil and mulched lightly. They must never be let dry out. The backbulbs should produce small shoots the first season, and the resulting plants should flower the second season. My expenence has been that backbulbs up to five years old should produce shoots if treated in the manner descnbed above. The procedure for Calanthe species is similar. The backbulbs of this genus are bome very closely together, however, and I plants. Richard E. Weaver, Jr, the former horticultural taxonomist at theArnold Arboretum, now operates WE-DUNursenes in Marion, North Carolina. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":6,"start_page":34,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24835","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070af6d.jpg","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS these plants can be found in the wild or in cultivation in New England and elsewhere when environmental conditions are similar to those of southern Ontario. Most, if not all, can be found well labeled and beautifully exhibited at the Garden in the Woods, Hemenway Road, Framingham, Massachusetts. Flowers of the Wild: Ontario and the Great Lakes Region by Zile Zichmanis and James Hodgins. Toronto: Oxford University Press. 272 pp. GARY L. KOLLER Flowers of the Wild: Ontario and the Great t Lakes Region, is likely to become the first book I reach for when I am looking for a reference guide to wildflowers. The text, which covers 127 plants, is terse and includes the same categories of information on each plant. The categories are: habitat, longevity, flower and fruit characteristics, ecological status, and cultivation. The accompanying pictures are well composed and sharp in image, and the color reproduction is superb. I have encountered few books on plants with better photography. Botanically accurate line drawings, which are carefully stylized to accent characteristics that aid in identifying the plant, supplement the photographs. The drawings also illustrate characteristics that may be unclear or not represented by even the best photograph. Each plant is represented on two pages, with text occupying approximately onequarter to one-half page and the line drawing a full page. My only complaint is with the name of the book, which might lead one to think that the plants treated will not be found outside Ontario and the Great Lakes Region. Most of Books with photographs and graphics of this quality are rare. I commend the authors on producing a book that organizes information on wildflowers in a convenient package, conveys the beauty of wild plants to the most uninformed reader, and pleases the most avid wildflower enthusiast. Plant Extinction: A Global Crisis by Harold Koopowitz and Hilary Kaye. Washington: Stone Wall Press. 239 pp. $16.95. MARK PLOTKIN Many important international conservation programs initially focused on preventing the extinction of large mammals like the tiger or the rhinoceros. This has proved to be a shrewd choice, as these animals appeal to the general public and generate a great deal of sympathy (and, therefore, dollars) to finance programs for their protection. The importance of these early efforts to elicit public support in industrialized nations for conservation programs in developing counthat tries should not be underestimated organizations were able to raise funds to - save foreign wildlife species, which many of the donors would never see outside a zoo or a television screen, was truly a noteworthy achievement. Nevertheless, the success of these projects 35 solved only a small part of the problem. As Grenville Lucas, of the Royal Botamc Gardens at Kew, has stated, \"the appeal of animals like the panda and the muriqui is universal, yet you cannot save the animals if you do not save the plants.\" A major problem then is \"saleability\" how does one interest the general public in plant conservation? What is undoubtedly one of the best methods is presented in a new book by Harold Koopowitz and Hilary Kaye entitled Plant Extinction: A Global Crisis. By showing how crucial a role plants play in our daily lives (for example, the use of the rosy - periwinkle [Catharanthus roseus] in treating cancer. the authors vividly illustrate that plant conservation is not an esoteric exercise but an urgent necessity. Plant Extinction contains intriguing information on both the ancient, current, and future uses of plants and the causes of the rapidly accelerating pace of species extinction. The authors have thoughtfully included data on the status of plant conservation in biomes throughout the world, the politics of conservation, and the essential role that the hobbyist can play. Although a more in-depth citation of references would have made this book more useful to the scientific community, Plant Extinction is both enjoyable and informative and will undoubtedly prove useful to the teacher, the hobbyist, and the general public. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23389","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e856e.jpg","title":"1984-44-1","volume":44,"issue_number":1,"year":1984,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens- I","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24831","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070a726.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":4,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Hahn, Carl R.; Yinger, Barry R.","article_content":"Cultivars of Japanese Plants at Brookside Gardens Barry R. Yinger and Carl R. Hahn Since 1977 Brookside Gardens, a publicly supported botanical garden within the some were ordered from commercial nurseries. Montgomery County, Maryland, park system, has maintained a special collections program to introduce into cultivation orna- Cultivar Names of Japanese Plants One of the persistent problems with the mental plants (primarily woody) not in general cultivation in this country. Plants that appear to be well-suited for the area are grown at the county's Pope Farm Nursery in sufficient quantity for planting in public areas, and others intended for wider cultivation are tested and evaluated in cooperation with nurseries and public gardens throughout the United States. Information on the plants is kept in the county's computer system, by means of a program designed under the guidance of Carl Hahn, chief of horticulture. The collections are maintained and evaluated under the supervision of the curator, Philip Normandy. To date more than 1000 different plants have been acquired, mainly from Japan but also from Korea, England, and Holland. The Japanese collection includes both wild and cultivated plants, and the English and Dutch contain mostly hard-to-find species and cultivars from specialty nurseries. Many of the plants were collected by the authors, and collections has been the accurate naming of Japanese cultivars. In our efforts to assign cultivar names that are in agreement with both the rules and recommendations of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 1980, we encountered several problems. The most obvious was language, as virtually all printed references to these plants are in Japanese. However, a more serious difficulty was trying to determine which Japanese names satisfied the Code and which, regardless of how commonly they are used, had to be set aside. In resolving these difficulties, we arrived at what we believe will serve as ground rules for assigning English names to Japanese plants being introduced into the United States. First, most Japanese cultivar names can be divided into two broad categories: metaphorical and literally descriptive. The first group is easy to deal with on our terms because the Torreya nucifera 'Gold Strike' correspond to Western \"fancy\" cultivar names. They are comwritten in Chinese characters (rather monly than Japanese phonetic symbols, known as names names or 4 kanaand do not incorporate the Japanese colloquial names of the plants. These names are usually allusions to ornamental features of the plants. For example: Akebono (\"dawn\"), Shishigashira (\"lion's mane\"\/, and Amanogawa (\"Milky Way\"\/. Such names are characteristic of plants that have been cultivated and selected for a long time, often centuries, particularly those included in what is known as koten engei, the cultivation of \"classical plants.\" Bearing these metaphorical names are such popular groups as Japanese maples, Japanese flowering cher- (\"weeping\") ego-no-ki (the Japanese name for Styrax japonicusrefers to a clone of Styrax ~aponicus with pendulous branches. We believe that such names are contrary to recommendations within article 31A of the Code (sections g and\/, which discourage both the use of names that refer to an attribute likely to become common in a group of related cultivars and the use of names that incorporate the common names of plants. Several of these names are used in Japan for more than one cultivar, causing confusion. For instance, several distinct variegated cultivars of Ginkgo biloba are marketed under the name fuiri icho. Many names of this type are also in Western literature as cultivar names, but we hope that they will be rejected in favor of names that are more precise and comply with the Code. Occasionally a name surfaces that cannot be slipped easily into either of the categories above. For instance, in several Japanese names for selected variants the fu from fuiri (\"variegated\") has been attached to other words to form combinations that are more precise than fuiri itself; thus arare (\"hail\") plus fu becomes ararefu, \"hail-spot\" variegation, and so on. These names can, we believe, be accepted as cultivar names, albeit occasionally with some reservations. The test must be whether a person familiar with both the language and the plants can say that the use of the name is not likely to cause confusion as other cultivars emerge. ries, Japanese apricots, Japanese pines, most azaleas, and many others. We believe these names ought to be preserved and used. In the second group the name usually consists of a descriptive prefix added to the Japanese colloquial name of the plant. Several prefixes appear again and again; the most common include the following: (describing plant habit) shidare, pendulous hime, diminutive, dwarf yatsubusa, congested, of slow growth (descnbmg leaf characteristics) fuin, variegated (shirofu, white-variegated; kiifu, yellow-variegated) murasaki, purple (describing flower and fruit characteristics) issai, flowenng or fruiting as a young plant yaezaki, double flowers shikizaki, everbloommg akabana and bembana, red, pink, scarlet, or orange flowers; shirobana, white flowers; kibana, yellow flowers) shmoml, white fruit (akami, red fruit) often written in Japanese phonetic symbols and usually prefix the name of the species; thus shidare Names such as these are Descriptions The following is a list of cultivars of Japanese plants with descriptions, which we believe will serve to distinguish each plant from the most similar existing cultivar of the same species. The reader should consult standard references (such as Jisaburo Ohwi's Flora of Japanfor complete descriptions of the species. Leaf measurements have been given only where they differ from those of the species. Most of the selections described here have variegated foliage, a reflection of the Japanese interest in variegation. Historically, far more selections of variegated plants have been produced in Japan than in any other country. Nearly every plant cultivated by the Japanese has been grown at some time in at least one variegated form, and some species, such as Ardisia ~aponica, are represented by scores of variegated cultivars. A complex system for the classification and enumeration of variegated leaf types has The leaves of this cultivar are dark green, with a distinct central splash of pale yellow. They are 14 to 18 cm long, 5 to 5.5 cm wide, deeply toothed on the margin, and often somewhat twisted. The leaf stalks are green or yellow and reddish at the base on new shoots. Young stems are clearly striped with green and yellow. This is the best and most stable of the cultivars with central variegation ; it has no extraneous spots or flecks of color to mar the effect. 'Sun Dance' is illustrated (p. 62) but not named or described in Fuiri Shokubutsu (Variegated Plants) by Masato Yokoi and Yoshimichi Hirose (1978).. ( Several specialty nurseries m Japan, including Garden Wako, in Yamamoto, supply this plant, which they call Nakafu Ao-ki, meaning \"central variegated Aucuba. In the Dutch publication Dendroflora (no. 15\/16, 1979), reference is made to a plant named Aucuba japonica 'Nabaku', de\" developed simultaneously. The Japanese interest in variegated plants remains strong today but does not approach what it was in the 18th and 19th centuries, when collecting these plants seems to have been almost a national preoccupation. The three-volume Somoku Kihin Kagami, published in 1827, described over 500 variegated selections, which had been chosen by a panel of 90 hobbyists and illustrated by famous artists. This was followed in 1829 by the five-volume Somoku Kinyoshu, which pictured over 1000 cultivars in the same format. These plants, as well as those selected for showy flowers were (and still are) grown in pots and admired individually rather than as part of a garden landscape. Most of these plants have been cultivated at Brookside Gardens for three years or more, and most have been observed in cultivation in Japan in several seasons as well. scribed as having a conspicuously large blotch in the middle of the leaf with small yellow dots here and there. We believe the epithet 'Nabaku' is a misspelling of \"Nakafu,\"aname that has been applied to several cultivars ofAucuba japonica with Aucuba japonica 'Sun Dance' Aucuba japonica Thunb. 'Sun Dance'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 267. 6 central leaf variegation. 'Sun Dance' seems to be distinct from the cultivar described in Dendroflora, however. Japanese name for this plant: Ogon Chosen Maki or \"golden Korean Podocarpus.\" This selection is sold under the Japanese common name by several nurseries, including Shibamichi Kanjiro, in Angyo. B1. 'Ebi Odori'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1417. This selection is like the species, except that the showy catkins are borne in profusion on small plants. It is an attractive and Carpinus japonica Cornus kousa Hance 'Gold Star'. Cultivar name assigned by the Sakata Nursery Company. Yinger Collection No. 660. On this plant the leaves are dark green, tough plant that can be grown indoors or on patio and has almost year-round interest. The cultivar name means \"dancing shrimp\" in Japanese, an allusion to the shrimplike catkins, which move in the breeze and persist after leaf fall. This selection reportedly a from seed. It is described and ilin the Nihon Kaki catalogue lustrated (spring 1981, p. 21as Issai Kana-shide, meaning \"early-blooming Carpinus.\"It is comes true with an irregular central blotch of deep butter-yellow covering one-third of the leaf area. On new growth the blotch is chartreuse. The form of the plant and flower characters are typical of the species. This vigorous cultivar is at its best in full sun and beautiful m all seasons. It was introduced by the Sakata Nursery Company, Yokohama, about 1977 and is illustrated and described in the company's spring 1978 catalogue produced and sold as a bonsai subject by many nurseries, including Nihon Kaki in Angyo. (p. 19). Wayside Gardens, Hodges, SC 29695, also lists and illustrates this cultivar in its 1983 ). catalogue (p. 3). Cephalotaxus harringtonia (Knight) K. Koch 'Korean Gold'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection Nos. 428 and 1424. This plant is identical to Hance'Snowboy'. Cultivar name assigned by the Sakata Nursery ComCornus kousa pany. C. harringtonia 'Fastigiata', except that new growth is yellow in spring, becomes chartreuse by midsummer, and green by winter. A selection of a Korean species cultivated in Japan, it has been confused with C. harringtonia 'Fastigiata Aurea' (listed by den Ouden and Boom) but can be distinguished by its new growth, which is entirely yellow, in contrast to that of C. h. 'Fastigiata Aurea', which is yellow only on the margins of the needles. The name has been derived from the Yinger Collection No. 661. The leaves of this selection are pale graygreen, with a regular white margin, 2 to 5 mm wide, which occasionally invades the center of the leaf. Splashes of yellow-green, or small areas of paler gray-green along the edge of areas of darker gray-green, occur infrequently. Axillary tufts of hair are absent on the leaf undersurfaces. The leaf apices are often reddish, as well as the leaf bases on new shoots and young twigs. Flowers and habit are typical of the species. This plant sunburns in late summer in our climate unless grown under high shade or on the north 7 Cornus kousa 'Gold Star' side of a building. It was introduced about 1977 by the Sakata Nursery Company of Yokohama and described and illustrated in its Kanjiro Company catalogue of April 1979 (p. 24), it is listed as D. iegata, a name crenata var. var- that is not legitimate. spring 1978 catalogue (p. 19). Deutzia crenata Sieb. & Zucc. 'Summer Snow'. New cultivar name assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 1378. This cultivar has medium yellow-green leaves, some with scattered markings of pure white and gray-green. It is supplied by a number of specialty nurseries, including Garden Wako, in Yamamoto, as Fuiri Utsugi (\"variegated Deutz~\"). In the Shibamichi Eriobotrya japonica \/Thunb.~ Lindl. 'Yukige'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1959. Often irregular in outline, the leaves of this plant are somewhat puckered and variously patterned in green, gray green, and pure white. The margin is usually white, with irregular blotches of white and gray invading the center of the leaf. This plant is propagated and sold by sev- 8 eral specialty nurseries, including the Shibamichi Kanjiro Company, Angyo, under the name Fuiri Bi wa (\"variegated Eriobotrya \"\/. 'Yukige' is Japanese for \"melting \" snow.\" ovate~, and 7 cm long and 3 cm wide. Occasionally they are elongated to 11 cm long and I cm wide. The margins are irregular, with blotches of white or gray white breaking up into small blotches and speckles or gradually darkening to green in the center of the leaf. This plant is vigorous and stable. It is listed in the Shibamichi Kanjiro Company catalogue of April 1979 (p. 28) as Fuiri Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz. (Rehd.) Rehd. 'Duet'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1452. This variegated cultivar is of recent origin, with leaves 5 cm long and 3 to 3.5 cm wide, medium green, and irregularly splashed and var. vegeta Mayumi (\"variegated Euonymus\"). 'Shiyomo' is Japanese for \"frosty night.\" \" Eurya japonica Thunb. 'Confetti'. New cultivar name streaked with creamy white. Young leaves have longitudinal streaks and splashes of pure white, with some small areas of yellow green; however, some leaves are entirely white. Young stems are often streaked with white. The plant is shrublike, with a spreading habit. It is grown by the Suzuki Nursery, assigned by Philip Normandy. 769. Yinger Collection No. Akayama, Angyo. Euonymus fortunei (Turcz.) Hand.-Mazz. var. (Miq.) Rehd. 'Harlequin'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1453. This is a new variegated cultivar with leaves 1.5 to 3 cm long and 1.5 to 2 cm wide, medium green, usually with a narrow margm of pure white and profuse speckles of pure white and light yellow-green. A few shoots are all white. Young stems are green or occasionally striped or banded with pure white. This plant is trailing and prostrate in habit. It has been grown by the Suzuki Nursery, Akayama, Angyo. radicans The leaves of this cultivar are 3 to 5 cm long and 1.5 to 2 cm wide. Many are green, while others are white, blotched white, pale yellow, or shell pink and distorted and irregular in outline. Several specialty nurseries, including Garden Wako, Yamamoto, supply this cultivar. Eurya ~aponica Thunb. 'Harmony'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 719. All leaves of this cultivar are somewhat distorted, usually narrow and elongated, 3 to 4 cm long and 0.5 to 1 cm wide. They are dark green with a pale pink or white irregular margin, which sometimes invades the center of the leaf in streaks or wedges. This is a dwarf and slow-growing plant. It is supplied by several nurseries, including the Shibamichi Kanjiro Company, Angyo. Euonymus sieboldiana Bl. 'Shimoyo'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. This selection has green leaves, times of some- Forsythia koreana Nakai 'Bandal'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1662. New leaves of this cultivar emerge green, and about half have a broad irregular margin irregular shape (though usually 9 Eurya ~apomca 'Harmony' leaves are not margined but have irregular sectoral wedges of all of these colors. 'Bandal' is distinct from 'Ilgwang', in the color of emerging leaves and in the ultimate creamy white color of variegated portions, but is sold in Japan under the same name: Fuiri of pale yellow, which soon becomes creamy white. The margined leaves are green in the center, with small irregular splashes of white and pale gray-green. Some leaves and shoots are entirely creamy white, and a few 10 Rengyo. It is grown by several nurseries, in\" Japanese cultivar name means \"plum of cluding the Shibamichi Kanjiro Company, Angyo. 'Bandal' is Korean for \"half moon.\" Like 'Ilgwang', it is most successful in a shaded position. Even greater care in propagation must be taken with this cultivar than with 'Ilgwang', as 'Bandal' tends to revert, and solid green plants can easily result. youth. Jasminum nudiflorum Lindl. 'Mystique'. New cultivar name, \" assigned by Carl R. Forsythia koreana Nakai 'Ilgwang'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1676. All leaves of this cultivar emerge yellow green in spring, ultimately becoming chartreuse ; many bear a central blotch of darker green. Average leaf size is 5 cm long and 2 cm wide. This is a selection of a Korean species cultivated in Japan. It is sold by several nurseries, including Kairyo En in Angyo, as Fuiri Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 1691. The leaves of this selection are trifoliolate, although sometimes reduced to one or two leaflets, and occasionally somewhat distorted. Leaf margins are pure white, the color sometimes invading the center of the leaf, where it may be accompanied by pale gray blotches. The green twigs often have thin white stripes along the ridges of the stem. The flowers are typical of the species. This is a stable and attractive plant sold by Garden Wako, in Yamamoto, as Fuiri Obai (\"variegated fasminum \"). Juniperus conferta Parl. 'Akebono'. Cultivar name assigned by Nihon Kaki. Yinger Collection No. 1925. New growth Rengyo (\"variegated Forsythia\"). is Korean for 'Ilgwang' \"sunlight.\" This plant requires light shade to avoid sunburn. Care must be exercised in propagating it in order to avoid confusion between it and 'Bandal'. Cuttings must be taken only from shoots showing a minimum of central produced at on this cultivar, which is the tips of branches, is creamy blotching. Ilex serrata Thunb. 'Koshobai'. Yinger Collection No. 1931. This cultivar bears leaves that are small 7 and long-pointed, about 3 cm long and 0.7 cm wide. In new growth they are purple at the tips. The flowers and fruit are tiny, about 2 mm wide, and very abundantly produced on this pistillate plant. The fruit is red and very persistent. The plant is slow-growing and twiggy and congested in habit. It is a popular choice in bonsai but also a fine dwarf garden shrub. It is listed in the fall 1979 catalogue of Nihon Kaki, Angyo (p. 29), with an illustration and description. The white with green flecks, becoming green in late summer. It is illustrated and described in the spring 1982 catalogue (p. 3) of the Nihon Kaki Nursery. 'Akebono' is Japanese for \"dawn.\" \" juniperus conferta Parl. 'Silver Mist'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 1954. This selection is similar to 'Blue Pacific'. It can be distinguished by its distinctly grayer tone and shorter needles, which give the plant a denser and tighter appearance. The leaves of 'Silver Mist' average about 1 cm long, while those of 'Blue Pacific' average Opposite: Ilex serrata 'Koshobai' 11 I 12 13 Neolitsea sericea 'Kanoko' blotches of gray green. Occasionally, shoots by many Japanese nursenes as Shiro Tosho (\"white juniperus con ferta\"~. It is illustrated and described in the fall 1979 catalogue (p. 18) of the Nihon Kaki Nursery. Laurus nobilis L. 1.5 cm. 'Silver Mist' is sold are also entirely yellow. The Kiraku En Nursery, in Mito, Ibaraki, supplies this plant. Neolitsea sericea (Bl.) Koidz.'Kanoko'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1892. The leaves of this selection are green, variegated with specks, blotches, and broad irregular longitudinal stripes and wedges of creamy white, accompamed by small blotches of yellow green. The leaves are sometimes slightly distorted. This is the most attractive and stable of several similar selections. It is propagated and sold by the 'Sunspot'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1890. Some of the leaves of this plant are entirely yellow, but most are green and generously mottled with pale yellow and small Opposite: Laurus nobilis 'Sunspot' 14 15 Kiraku En Nursery, Mito, Ibaraki. 'Kanoko' is Japanese for \"fawn.\" \" Osmanthus x fortunei Carr. 'Equinox'. Cultivar name assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Ymger Collection No. 1957. Green leaves are characteristic of this plant, although many have a creamy white variegation. A sectoral pattern is most common, with the leaves divided in half longitudinally, one section being green and the other white. Some leaves and shoots are entirely white, while others are entirely green. The variegation is chartreuse on young growth. The plant is sold by several nurseries, including Shibamichi Kanjiro Osmanthus heterophyllus 'Kembu' folding. Creamy white patterns predominate on young leaves, becoming less prominent the leaves age. Each leaf bears 7 to 9 spines of uniform size. This plant is illustrated and described in the spring 1980 catalogue (p. 34) of the Nihon Kaki Nursery. 'Goshiki' is Japanese for \"five colors.\" as \" Hliragi-mokuse1 (\"variegated Osmanthus x fortunei\"~. Company, Angyo, as Fuiri Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don) P. S. Green 'Akebono'. Yinger Collection No. 830. New growth, stems, and leaves of this cultivar are entirely light yellow, lighter than in 'Ogon', above. Leaves become green by summer, retaining an indistinct yellowgreen margin; second-year leaves are entirely green. Leaves bear 8 to 13 spmes, which are rarely recurved. This plant is Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don) P. S. Green 'Kembu'. New cultivar name, as- signed by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1644. The leaves of this cultivar are narrow, 4 to 5 cm long and I to 2 cm wide. Most are crescent shaped or of irregular outline, with 1 to 10 spines per leaf. Their color is medium-green, with an irregular off-white margin. The plant is sold by Suzuki Nursery, Akayama, Angyo. 'Kembu' means \"sword dance\" in Japanese. grown and propagated by Garden Wako, \" Yamamoto. 'Akebono' is Japanese for \"dawn.\" Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don) P. S. Green 'Goshiki'. Yinger Collection No. 699. The leaves of this cultivar are evenly covered with flecks and small blotches of creamy white, dark green, gray green, and yellow green and have a pink cast when un- Opposite : Osman th us x fortunei 'Equinox' Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don\/ P. S. Green'Ogon'. Yinger Collection No. 1450. New shoots (both stems and leaves) of this selection are uniformly bright yellow, gradually becoming chartreuse by midsummer and green by winter. Second-year leaves are a normal dark green. Each leaf bears 12 to 16 14 long are spines not of uniform length. These lobes, which are cut to the midrib and clustered so that each leaf resembles a tuft of small bamboo leaves. Leaf stalks are purple beneath. The veins are light green. This is an open plant of upright growth, with internodes varying in length from 3 mm to 6 cm and producing dense clusters of leaves at various points on the branches. It is sold by Suzuki Nursery, Akayama, Angyo. 'Sasaba' is Japanese for \"bamboo leaf.\" \" usually alternately upcurved and downcurved, with a strongly downcurved terminal spine reminiscent of Ilex cornuta. This clone is illustrated and described in the spring 1979 catalogue of the Sakata Nursery Company (p. 34). 'Ogon' means \"yellow gold\" in Japanese. Osmanthus heterophyllus (G. Don~ P. S. Green 'Sasaba'. Cultivar name assigned by Yoshimichi Hirose. Yinger Collection No. 715. The leaves of this very distinctive cultivar are dark green, with 8 to 13 spine-tipped Osmanthus heterophyllus 'Sasaba' Photinia glabra (Thunb.\/ Maxim.'Parfait' New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 1956. The dark green leaves of this plant have a 17 7 dark pink margin, with some marbling and sectoral variegation. These markings often fade to pale pink or white. This is a very stable selection. It is illustrated and described in the spring 1979 catalogue (p. 2) of the Sakata Nursery Company as Fuiri Kaname-mochi \/\"variegatedPhotinia\"\/. Pieris japonica (Thunb.) D. Don 'Whitewater'. New cultivar name, assigned by Barry R. Yinger. Yinger Collection No. 234. This is a plant with a spreading habit, with Piems 7aponica 'Whitewater' lax descending branches bearing ascending branchlets. Leaves are narrow, 6 to 7 cm long and I to 1.7 cm wide. Flowers and buds are pure white and abundantly produced in 11 cm long. New growth is green. This selection was collected as a wild seedling by Barry R. Yinger in January 1977, on a mountain slope below Hana-no-ego, panicles 8 to Yakushima, Japan, at an altitude of approximately 5000 feet. Stauntonia hexaphylla Decne. 'Cartwheel'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 1373. On this plant the youngest leaves on each shoot have irregular white blotches and prominent green veins running throughout, and a pink cast when unfolding. Some leaves are The flowers and foliage of this selection typical of the species. However, the branches are lax and pendulous, forming a large mounded shrub about 7 feet tall. The plant can easily be induced to form a small tree by staking a leading branch until the desired height is reached. It is sold by a number of nurseries, including Shibamichi Kanjiro Company, Angyo, as Shidare Ego-no-ki are ( (\"weeping Styrax\").. & Zucc. 'Pink Chimes'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 834. The leaves and flowers of this selection are typical of the species except that the flowers are pale pink, shading to darker pink at the base of the petals. Branches of young plants are lax and nearly pendulous, becoming less so as the plant ages. The plant is extremely floriferous even when young. It was introduced about 1976 by the Shibamichi Kanjiro Company, Angyo, as Benibana Ego-no-ki (\"pink-flowered Styrax\"\/, and it is illustrated and described in the fall 1979 catalogue (cover and page 1)of the Nihon Kaki Nursery as Benibana Issai Ego Styrax japonica Sieb. distorted or have a strongly undulate margin. Most become green with age. This plant is particularly showy in spring, when the new shoots contrast with the green leaves of the previous year. It is sold by Nakamura Nursery, Nagoya. Styrax japonica Sieb. & Zucc. 'Carillon'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 326. ( (\"early-flowering pink Styrax\").. 18 Torreya nucifera (L.) Sieb. & Zucc. 'Gold Strike'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 427. Most shoots on this cultivar are either bright yellow entirely or have both green and yellow needles scattered on the same shoot; some needles are striped green and yellow. The stems of young variegated shoots are yellow. The plant is not stable in coloration, but usually about half the shoots are variegated. It is grown and sold by Kiraku En Authors' Note: The authors will try to honor requests for more information about these plants and will be pleased to receive additional information as well. At present, time and money do not permit the depth of research that would answer all questions that might be raised, but we will try to address questions as they arise. It is our intention to deposit specimens and documentation of published cultivars with the United States National Arboretum in Washmgton, D.C., as the plants continue to develop. Correspondence should be sent to Carl R. Hahn, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission, 8787 Georgia Avenue, Silver Spring, MD 20907. (Please note that the Arnold Arboretum cannot supply these plants or information regarding them.)( The authors wish to express their sincere thanks to Dr. Frederick G. Meyer and Dr. Theodore Dudley, United States National Arboretum; Mr. Philip Normandy, Brookside Gardens; and Ms. Gennie Nursery, Mito, Ibaraki, as Fuiri Kaya ~\"var- iegated Torreya\"). Wisteria floribunda (Willd.) DC.'Mon Nishiki'. Yinger Collection No. 277. The emerging leaves of this selection are liberally speckled in creamy white and some yellow green, often having a slightly puckered surface and an undulate margin. Leaves produced later in the season are usually green and typical of the species. The purple flowers also are typical of the species and are produced with the new leaves. The plant is illustrated and described in the spring 1982 catalogue (p. 44) of the Kairyo En Nursery, Angyo. 'Mon Nishiki' is Japanese for \"brocade cloth.\" The plant is sold under the name 'Nishiki' (\"brocade\"), too. Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Mak. 'Green Veil'. New cultivar name, assigned by Carl R. Hahn. Yinger Collection No. 835. This cultivar is characteristic of the species, except that the branches are at first slightly ascending and then strongly pendu- Potter, Maryland-National Capital Park and Planning Commission, for their kind and invaluable assistance in prepanng the manu- script. References Books and Periodicals Bailey, Liberty Hyde, and Ethel Zoe Bailey tus 1976 Hor- Thzzd ~ A Conczse Dzcuonary of Plants Culuvated in the United States and Canada Revised and Expanded by the Staff of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Hortonum. New York: Macmillan. Bean, W.J 1970-1980. Trees and Shrubs Hardy In the Bnush Isles 4 vols London: John Murray. den Ouden, P., and B. K. Boom. 1978. Manual of Cultzvated Conzfers The Hague, Netherlands: Martmus Nr~hoff. Grootendorst, Herman J. 1979. \"Tentoonstelling Herfstweelde'78.\"Dendroflora, 15 and 16:50-56. (In Dutch\/. d Hrllier, H. G. 1972. Hillzer's Manual of Trees and Shrubs. Newton Abbot, England: David and lous, forming a gracefully weeping, narrow without staking. It is an old selection produced by several nurseries, including tree Shibamichi Kanjiro, Angyo, as Shidare Keaki ~\"weepingZelkova\"\/. Charles. International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants of the International Umon of Biological Science. 1980. lnternauonal Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants: 1980, C. D. Bnckell, Chairman, Editorial Committee. 19 Utrecht, Netherlands: Bohn, Scheltema and Holkema. Kmtaro. 1827. Somoku Kihin Kagami 3 vols. Repnnted m Facsimile m 1976 Tokyo: Seiseido (In Japanese~. Krussmann, G. 1976-78. Handbuch der Laubgeholze, 2nd ed., rev. 3 vols. Berlin: Verlag Paul Parey (In German). Lee, Tchang Bok 1979. Illustrated Flora of Korea Seoul, Korea: Hyang Mun Sa (In Korean)( Mizuno, Tada-aki 1829. Somoku Kmyoshu 7 vols. Re- Sosei En, Hyogo Prefecture, Takarazuka Fall 1976, spnng 1977, fall 1979 Wayside Gardens, Hodges, SC 29695. Spnng 1983. (In English). Yokohama Nursery Company, Yokohama, 21~5 Nakamura. 1911-12. (In English). Carl R. Hahn is chief of horuculture at MarylandNational Capital Park and Planmng Commission, Silver Sprmg, Maryland printed m facsimile m 1977. Tokyo: Seiseido (In Japanese) Ohm, Jisaburo. 19G5. Flora of \/apan Edited by Frederick G. Meyer and Egbert H. Walker. Washington, D.C.: Smithsoman Institution. Barry R. Ymger is curator of the Asian Collecuons at the Umted States National Arboretum Tsukamoto, Yotaro, et al. 1977. Explanauon Volume to Accompany 1977 Facsimile Reprmt of Somoku Kmyoshu Tokyo, Japan Seiseido (In Japanese\/. . 1976 Explanation Volume to Accompany 1976 Facsimile Repnnt of Somoku Kihin Kagami. Tokyo : Seiseido. (In Japanese). Yokoi, Masato, and Yoshimtchi Hirose. 1978. Fmn Shokubutsu. Tokyo: Seibundo Shmkosha. (In Japanese). Catalogues (in Japanese unless otherwise noted) Chugai Nursery Company, Kanagawa Prefecture, I Isehara-shi. Catalogue No 11 Fuy En, Osaka, Takarazuka. Fall 1973, spnng 1978 \/apanese Trees and Shrubs for Your Garden, by Barry R. Yinger. Catalogue prepared for the Shibamichi Kan~rro Company Limited, m 1981. (In English). Kairyo En, Saitama Prefecture, Kawaguchi-shi, Oji Kamito. Spnng 1966; fall 1970, spring 1972, fall 1972, 1973, fall 1973, spnng 1974, fall 1974, fall 1975, spring 1977, fall 1977, spring 1978, fall 1978, fall 1979, fall 1980, spnng 1981, spnng 1982. Nagoya Engei, Nagoya, Naka-ku. Catalogue No. 11 (fall 1978). Nihon Kaki, Saitama Prefecture, Kawaguchi-shi, Ishigami. Fall 1973, spnng 1974, fall 1979, spnng 1980, spring 1981,fall 1981, spnng 1982. Sakata Nursery Company, Yokohama, Mmami-ku, Nagada-cho Spnng 1978, fall 1978, spnng 1979, spnng spnng 1981, fall 1981. Shibamichi Kan~iro Company Limited, Saitama Prefecture, Kawaguchi-shi, Akayama. Commercial catalogue 1976-77. Trees and Shrubs for Your Garden April 1979. \/Latter m English). Shunko En, Tokyo, Itabashi. Spnng 1972, fall 1972, _ spnng 1979 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Of Birds and Bayberries: Seed Dispersal and Propagation of Three Myrica Species","article_sequence":2,"start_page":20,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24833","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070ab6f.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":4,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Of Birds and Bayberries : Alfred j. Fordham Seed Dispersal and Propagation of Three Myrica Species The genus Myrica comprises about 50 species (often ill-defined) distributed throughout the temperate and subtropical areas of both hemispheres. The Arnold Arboretum collection includes three species: M. pensylvanica, M. cerifera, andM. gale. Myrica pensylvanica Lois., the common tral United States and from Europe east to north- Asia. bayberry or candleberry, occurs naturally from Newfoundland to western New York and Maryland, chiefly in poor soil. It is suckering in habit and tends to form shrubby clumps, which at maturity can range from 2 to 8 feet in height. Frequently it is found on roadside cuts, railroad banks, gravel pits, and other locations where topsoil has been removed completely. In Boston its shiny green leaves remain on the branches until November. They are fragrant when crushed, a characteristic of all Myrica species. Myrica ceri fera L., the southern bayberry, wax myrtle, or southern wax myrtle, is an evergreen plant native from east Texas and Oklahoma to Florida and as far north as New Jersey. Although the plants in the Arboretum are low in stature, the species can attain heights of 30 to 40 feet. Myrica gale L., sweet gale, a deciduous shrub, occurs naturally in shallow waters and swamps from Alaska to Newfoundland, Nova Scotia, and the northeastern and cen- All three of these species have nitrogenfixing root nodules, which enable them to thrive m areas where many other plants could not survive. They are dioecious having staminate (male) and pistillate (female) flowers on different plants - like hollies and ashes. The fruits of Myrica pensylvanica and M. cerifera are small (2.5-3 mm and 3.5~.5 mm in diameter respectively) globose nuts with waxlike coatings. It is this waxlike material that provides the fragrance in bayberryscented candles and soap. It becomes bluish gray as it dries, making the thickly clustered fruits conspicuous in the landscape. The fruits ripen in late September and are eaten by birds. Since birds lack teeth and cannot chew, the hard-coated seeds pass undamaged through their digestive systems. Only the waxy coating is removed, and this is a prerequisite for germination. The seeds then remain on the ground throughout the winter, satisfying another requirement for germination, chilling, which activates the embryo. The fruits of Myrica gale are different from those of M. pensylvanica and M. cerifera. They are tightly packed around a cen- 21 tral axis to form short (8-10 mm) catkins that remain on the plant until spnng. Instead of the waxy coating of the other species, two winglike bracts dotted with yellow resin enclose the fruit of M. gale. The fleshy bracts aid in the dispersal of the seeds by flotation, keeping them afloat when they fall into the water. Birds are not known to eat the fruits of sweet gale. Propagation by Seed of Myrica cerifera pensylvanica artificially, one must create conditions resembling those of naand M. ture : To germinate the seeds Bayberry plants (Myrica pensylvamca) growing in poor soil at the intersection of Routes I and 128 in Dedham, Massachusetts. These plants undoubtedly grew from seeds carried in the diges- the waxy coating must be removed and the seeds placed in cold stratification at 40F for three months. I divided fruits of M. cerifera into four lots, each containing 100 seeds, and treated them as outlined below (the fruits were collected on September 27, and the accounting was done five months later): Lot 1: Seeds were sown with wax remaining. Six seedlings resulted. Lot 2: Seeds with wax remaining were placed in cold stratification at 40F of birds and dropped here. The trees m the background are red cedar (Jumperus vmgmana L.) and probably were spread by the tive tracts same means. 22 Fruit and foliage of the common bayberry (Myrica ~. pensylvamca for three months and then sown. Seventeen seedlings resulted. Lot 3: Seeds were sown with wax removed. Six seedlings resulted. Lot 4: Seeds with wax removed were placed in cold stratification for three months and then sown. General germination resulted. lier in some years than in others. I once saw an immense stand of M. pensylvanica on Cape Cod heavily laden with fruits in October, but by mid-November all had been eaten by birds. If the seeds are to be stored prior to treatment, the wax should not be removed, as it protects the seed from desiccation. - These results demonstrate the importance of both wax removal and cold stratification to obtain complete germination with these two species. Seed of Myrica gale requires only cold stratification - 3 months at 40F for general germination. Ripe fruits of Myrica can be collected easily by hand. At the Arnold Arboretum they are ready for collection in late summer. How long they remain on the plants varies from year to year, for the birds remove them ear- The first step in germinating the seeds of Myrica pensylvanica andM. cerifera is to remove the waxy coating. Rubbing between the palms of the hands, rubbing on a wire screen, or soaking in warm water will accomplish this. Next, the dewaxed seeds must be combined with a medium such as damp sand or damp peat moss and the mixture placed in a polyethylene plastic bag. The bag must be bound at the mouth with a rubber band to make it vapor proof. The amount of the medium need only be two or three times the volume of the seeds, for at 23 must sowing time the entire content of the bag be used, and excessive medium could lead to some seeds being embedded too deeply. The bag must then be placed in a 40F refrigerator for three months, after contents are sown. BOOKS The Pirion Pine: A Natural and Cultural which the When this procedure is followed, complete germination can be expected in about three weeks. History, by Ronald M. Lanner. With a Section ner. on Pine Nut Cookery by Harriette Lan- Reno, Nevada: University of Nevada Press. 208 pp. $13.50. Vegetative Propagation Myrica tends to be suckering in habit, and shoots with roots can be separated from around the bases of the parent plants. New plants also can be started from softwood cut- RICHARD WARREN From the Texas Panhandle almost to the Pacific Ocean, from Mexico to southern tings. References Rehder, Alfred. 1940 Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America Second edition New York: Macmillan 1971. \"Genera of Myricaceae \"Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 52: 305-18. Schopmeyer, C S., comp 1974 Seeds of Woody Plants m the Umted States Agricultural Handbook 450 Washington, D C : U.S. Department of Ag- Idaho, covering 70,000 square miles, grows the pinon-juniper woodland, so little known to us in the East. In this compact volume Professor Lanner tells us why this woodland is important. He opens our eyes to its prehis- tory, its history, and its future. Pines originally immigrated to North America from Asia. Some found temperate homes in our continent and in Europe. Others went southward to Mexico and split into many genetic variants, the forerunners of the present bewildering array of Mexican pines. From them a group of drought-hardy, soft-wooded pines, with one to five leaves in Ehas, ThomasS nculture. Ridley, H. N. 1930. The Dispersal of Plants Throughout the World. L Reeve: Ashford, England. fascicle and large, wingless edible nuts, evolved to comprise the present 11species of pinon pines recognized by the author. The uplift of the Sierra Nevada in the Pleiocene barred the moisture-laden Pacific winds from the interior of the continent they had formerly penetrated. This event brought a drought to the southwest of what was later to be the United States, and the redwoods there died, and the pinons, particularly Pinus monophylla, moved in. Lanner tells us of the birds, the animals, a \/. Alfred Fordham was formerly research horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum Conunued on page 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. H. Wilson, Yichang, and the Kiwifruit","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24832","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070a76b.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":4,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Ferguson, A. R.","article_content":"E. H. Wilson, Yichang, A. R. Ferguson and the Kiwifruit The fruits are rounded to oval 1'\/z-2 inches long, russet-colored and more or less hairy. The skin of the fruit is very thm and the flesh is green, sweet and pleasant to the palate and is excellent for dessert or for making a preserve. E. H. Wilson 1915 in New Zealand, and that area is increasing by 3000 to 4000 acres annually. It is estimated that there are now over 6000 acres of the fruit in California. Plantings are being made in many other parts of the world also: acres France, Italy, Spain, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Chile, Australia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. In So wrote E. H. Wilson of the fruit ofActinidia chinensis Planchon var. hispida C. F. Liang, the fruit known to the Chinese as the yang tao or mihoutao and now known to most of us as the Chinese gooseberry or kiwifruit. At the turn of the century, the kiwifruit was a wild plant in China, a very handsome climbing plant, ideal for pergolas, but only one of the many interesting new Chinese plants being brought into cultivation in Europe. By the 1950s it had become a useful fruiting plant grown in a few commercial orchards in New Zealand. The total plantings then occupied fewer than a hundred acres, and only small quantities of fruit were comparison to that of most other fruit history of the introduction of the kiwifruit is remarkably well-documented. By reading the accounts of the plant explorers, old gardening and horticultural journals, missionary records, and reports and files of government research stations, and by talking to older growers and nurserymen, we can trace almost every step in the domestication of the kiwifruit. We can follow it from its origin in China to its dispersal throughout the world and its development as an important crops, the horticultural crop. In the exported to the United Kingdom. early 1960s the first shipment of kiwifruit was sent to the United States. Orchardists in California began planting it soon after, when they discovered that the fruit produced in New Zealand was being sold in Los Angeles for remarkably high prices. By 1968 they had planted 15 acres. Today the kiwifruit has become a horticultural success story. At the beginning of 1983, kiwifruit orchards covered over 20,000 The Kiwifruit in China Accounts of the kiwifruit appear in many of the early Chinese texts. Indeed, it is sometimes suggested that the earliest references to it can be found in classics of over 2000 years ago. Identification of plants mentioned in such texts is notoriously difficult, however. Many of the descriptions are vague, the allusions poetic, and a single plant is some- 25 times referred to by the different names it had in different parts of China (worse, the same name is sometimes used for different European Discovery of the Kiwifruit The first known collector of kiwifruit plants was Pere Pierre Noel Le Cheron d'Incarville, a French Jesuit who spent 17 years at the Imperial Court in Beijing (Peking). He collected specimens (but no fruit) at Macao, soon after his arrival in China in late 1740. Incarville sent his specimens back to France but they remained there, ignored and undescribed, for over a century (Franchet 1882). The plant was formally described, and namedActinidia chinensis, in 1847 (Planchon 1847), based on specimens collected several years earlier by Robert Fortune, who had been sent to China by the Horticultural Society of London (Cox 1943). Fortune brought back dried specimens of kiwifruit plants). The first unequivocal descriptions of the kiwifruit date from the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907), and one poem indicates that cultivation of it may have begun about this time (Yan 1981). Cultivation cannot have been extensive, however, since most writers consistently describe the kiwifruit as being a wild plant, a plant of the mountains. At times the peasants would bring it to town to sell in the markets. A kiwifruit orchard near Auckland, New Zealand. Tree ferns ~Cyathea sp.) can be seen m the shelter belt at left. 26 27 foliage and flowers but made no mention of the fruit. He probably had not seen fruit, as he had had only a few chances of traveling any distance from the main ports. Towards the end of the 19th century, botanists and horticulturists in Europe and North America were becoming more aware of the variety and beauty of the Chinese flora and the fitness of many of the plants for temperate climates. This increased awareness was due in large part to the efforts of Augustine Henry, who spent 20 years in the service of the Chinese Maritime Customs. On his first tour of duty, from 1882 to 1889, Henry was stationed at Yichang (Ichang), a small port on the Yangtze River about a thousand miles inland and just downstream from the famed Yangtze Gorges. Yichang had only a small European population, and life in such an outpost could be very lonely and dreary. Henry took up an interest in botany. \"My collecting is my exercise, and it keeps me in health, bodily and mental; in these out-of-the-way posts, where stagnation is the rule\" (Henry 1896). He was particularly interested in the economic uses of plants in China and in the origins of cultivated plants. His writings refer to the kiwifruit several times: \"a climbing shrub which bears edible fruit about the size about the size of a big plum .... the fruit would be a great acquisition, I think\" (Henry 1903). Henry encouraged and aided expeditions to collect seed and explore the flora of western China. Wilson and the Introduction of the Kiwifruit to Europe Of the various collecting expeditions, E. H. Wilson's had the greatest success. On his first two trips to China, Wilson was in the employ of James Veitch & Sons, the famous London nursery firm. Veitch's had sent a series of travelers abroad to collect plants suitable for the nursery trade. From 1840 to 1905 they almost always had at least one collector overseas in the botanically unexplored parts of the world, and a remarkable range of plants had thus been introduced to Great Britain (Veitch 1906; Fuller and Langdon 1973). James Herbert Veitch, one of the younger members of the family, had collected in Japan in the early 1890s, and he was aware of the richness of the Chinese flora. He had been keen to go to China but had been refused permission by his uncle Henry James Veitch (Howard 1980). Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, then director of Kew, had been getting enthusiastic letters from Henry; he was undoubtedly an ally in emphasizing the advantages of an expedition to China (Nelson 1983). Another ally was C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum (Wilson 1913). In 1899 Thiselton-Dyer was asked by Veitch's to recommend a young man capable of undertaking a prolonged collecting journey in China. Thiselton-Dyer proposed E. H. Wilson (see Howard 1980). The object of Wilson's first trip for Veitch's was to obtain seeds, bulbs, and liv- of a plum\" (Henry 1887); \"a very large climbing shrub with white conspicuous flowers and fruit about the size of a plum, which can be made into a good jam with a guava-jelly kind of flavour. This fruit might be much (; improved by cultivation\" (Henry 1893); \"produces in the wild state excellent fruit Mature kiwifruit are harvested m New Zealand dunng May(early autumn). (Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.)( 28 ing plants of species almost certain to be hardy in Great Britain, species at that time known only by dried herbarium specimens. Plant collecting was often extraordinarily competitive, and claims to priority were considered very important. In a newspaper interview at the time (\"The Flora and Fauna of Ichang,\" 1902), Wilson therefore said only that his \"object has not been to collect any particular species of plants, but anything likely to be of interest or value to the botanical world.\" Later he admitted that he in fact had instructions to collect a very particular species of plant, Davidia involucrata. Wilson's first task was to visit Henry, who was then at Simao (Szemao), Yunnan, to obtain details about Davidia and information on the flora of western China in general (Wilson 1938). The journey to Simao to see Henry certainly was not an easy one: \"I E. H. Wilson with two Japanese friends, T. Miyoshi and H. Ushio. The photo was taken in Kagoshima, when Wilson visited Japan in 1917. crossed no less than eleven distinct ranges, the highest altitude being 8200 ft., and many exceeded 7000 ft. and were fearfully steep. In one place we ascended 1000 ft. in threequarters of an hour. The easiest way to climb such a mountain is to hang on to the mule's tail and let him drag you up\" (Wilson 1900). Simao was \"the most God-forsaken place imaginable\" but the trip was worth it: \"I found Dr. Henry a splendid fellow, full of knowledge of all kinds. A more genial man I have never met. He assisted me in every way he could, and whatever success attends our venture will be largely due to him\" (Wilson 1900). Henry \"freely imparted important information regarding the plants Wilson was in search of, and the ways and means of reaching them\" (Veitch 1906). Wilson profited by this advice and used much of Henry's field experience in making his early plant introductions. As B. D. Morley (1979) has pointed out, many of the plants first introduced by Wilson were those discovered by Henry during his period at Yichang. Although Henry did not discover the kiwifruit, it was he who sent the first fruits to Europe and recommended that the plant be cultivated. After leaving Henry, Wilson traveled to Shanghai and then up the Yangtze River to Yichang, where he established himself for the next two years (Wilson 1905).Yichang was by now a busy port. (The Yangtze Gorges made Yichang the upper limit for steamers on the river.) The Chinese population was about 35,000, and the European population had increased from the dozen of 29 Henry's early days in China to about 45. There was the staff of the Maritime Customs, the English consulate, the German consulate, and about 20 missionaries. The China Inland Mission, the Scottish Mission, the American Presbyterian Mission, the American Episcopalian Mission, the Scandinavian Mission, the Canadian Mission, and the Roman Catholic Mission were all resident or frequent passers through. Yichang was the starting point for travels into western China. Wilson made it his base for collecting trips into the mountains and for overwintering. In 1900 Wilson obtained seed of 671 different species of plants, herbarium specimens of 1764 species, and a great quantity of bulbs and roots of herbaceous plants. His collections during the following year were also impressive: seed of 305 species, herbarium specimens of 906 species, and 35 cases of bulbs, living roots, and rhizomes of herbaceous plants, all shipped to Britain (Veitch 19061. As the parcels of seed arrived from Chma, they were sorted and sent to the various Veitch nurseries. Here nothing was stinted in the attempt to get satisfactory germination (Harrow 1931).Often, of course, the seed of a species would fail to germinate, but many efforts were successful. In 1904 the kiwifruit appeared in the Veitch catalogue. \"It has recently been raised from seed gathered in the province of Hupeh, Central China, sent by Wilson, and has proved hardy and of very rapid growth, at our Coombe Wood Nursery .... [It produces] edible fruits the size of walnuts, and the flavour of ripe gooseberries. Apart from its flowering and fruiting qualities it is a remarkably handsome plant, and will be of great value as a pillar or pergola plant in the bemg inspected and graded m New Zealand.Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.)( open garden\" Kiwifruit (James Veitch & Sons Ltd. 1904). Like many of the other plants brought in from China, the kiwifruit initially aroused great interest. It received an Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1908. The first flowering of plants in England and France was noted at length in the horticultural journals of 1909. But Wilson was not satisfied with the plant's perfor- England: writing to C. S. Sargent complained, \"A. chinensis, introduced by Messrs. Veitch, has so far failed to do itself full justice; but, in the years to come, I bemance in he lieve it will be one of the finest ornamental climbers in cultivation .... A difficulty to 30 the classifier and a drawback from the cultivator's point of view is the fact of the flow- being polygamous [dioecius]\" ( Wilson 1909). That the flowers are dioecius (bearing staminate [male] and pistillate [female] flowers on different plants) was definitely a drawback, for all the plants introduced and sold by the Veitch nursery were staminate. Without pistillate plants, horticulturists could not produce the new and rare fruit Henry and Wilson had hoped for. It was not until 1912, eight years after the first plants were distributed, that the nursery was able to advertise that among the new plants recently introduced from western China through E. H. Wilson was \"Actinidia ers one Davidia plant was successfully raised at the arboretum at Les Barres, in France. A rooted cutting of this plant was sent to Kew in 1901 while Wilson was still in China. At that time plant introduction was very competitive, and for Wilson this was \"yet one little cup of bitterness to drain\" (Wilson 1938).Again, Farges had sent seed, in the case of Actinidia chinensis, to Vilmorin in 1898, and a plant had been raised in 1899 (Vilmorin and Bois 1904\/, several years before Wilson's own seed had arrived in Europe. No matter that Wilson was responsible for the introduction of every seedling plant but one of the kiwifruit: he could not claim the first plant. chinensis foemina. The female form .... in habit of growth ... is similar to the now well-known male form\" (James Veitch & Sons 1912). It seems, however, that by then horticulturists in Europe had lost interest in the kiwifruit. The long-awaited first production of fruit in England in 1911 appears to have gone almost unremarked. The dissolution of the Veitch firm, and then the Great War, came soon after. The kiwifruit in Britain has remained only an ornamental curiosity; certainly the plants brought in by Wilson and sold by the Veitchs did not give rise to any new horticultural industry. Making matters worse, it is now apparent that Wilson could not even claim credit for introducing the first kiwifruit to Europe, just as he could not claim credit for the first Davidia. In 1897 Maurice de Vilmorin had secured seed of Davidia from Pere Paul Guillaume Farges, a member of the Missions Etrangeres, stationed in northeast Sichuan. The following year, and two or three years before Wilson's collections reached England, The Kiwifruit in the United States beginning of this century, the main organization introducing new plants into the United States was the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The earliest recorded introductions of kiwifruit into the United States occurred in 1900 (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1905). ). The seed of the yang tao (the name used in the Yangtze Valley) first came from G. D. Brill, who had made an extended trip through China and visited Yichang. Some of the other seed he sent is listed as being \"presented by Mr. E. H. Wilson of Kew Gardens, through Mr. G. D. Brill.\" This seed failed to grow, however (Fairchild 1913). The next imports from China were more successful. In the autumn of 1903, the American consul-general at Hankou (Hankow), L. S. Wilcox, received a sample of kiwifruit sent downriver by a Mr. Goodhart of Yichang. At the 31 \"When the fruits are picked and left for a few days until soft they are very fine eating,\" Wilcox said. \"They have the flavour of the gooseberry, fig, and citron. They make delicious jam, pies, and sauce.\" Wilcox was so impressed that he decided to get a few plants to send to the U.S. Department of Agricul\" ture. Mr. Goodhart in agreed help. For a long time nothing happened. Finally, Wilcox wrote, \"a sent to A letter was Yichang who to box came [on March 19, 1904] weighing Harvested kiwifruit are removed from the orchard in large bins. (Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.) three or four hundred pounds, with the information that they had been secured at Chungking (1000 miles up river) from plants formerly obtained on the borders of Yunnan by Mr. Wilson, under whose advice they have been packed in moss and sand, warranted to keep for months. I felt I had a white elephant in my hands; the bill for them has not yet been presented\" (L. S. Wilcox, quoted by Fairchild 1913). Four vines survived the long journey from Hankou to Shanghai, Nagasaki, San Francisco, and, finally, the Plant Introduction garden at Chico, California. The vines grew well and flowered for the first time in 1907 (Fischer 1909). Over the next few years more than 1300 young plants propagated from the four vines were widely 32 distributed throughout the Pacific and Gulf States (Fairchild 1913). Unfortunately, all of these plants also proved to be staminate and were therefore valuable only as ornamentals. The potential value of the kiwifruit as a fruiting plant could not be assessed. Why all the plants initially introduced to the United States and England proved to be staminate is unknown. Early botanists noted that staminate kiwifruit plants are considerably more common in the wild than pistillate plants. Herbarium material of many Actinidia species is also mostly staminate: this may result from a predominance of staminate plants in the wild, or simply from the greater floriferousness and therefore more frequent collection of staminate plants. No experimental evidence exists for sex ratios either in the wild or from seed. Finally, in 1913, the bureau purchased plants from Veitch's that had been grown from cuttings of the female plant (sent by Wilson) that had produced fruit in England in 1911. Although some plants from seed sent earlier by Wilson later proved to be female, these plants from Veitch's were \"the first known female plants of this promising fruit-producing species to be introduced into the United States\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1915a). Two years later a photograph was published of a kiwifruit vine \"bearing a single .... fruit, the first to be produced in America. The vine [of unstated origin] was trained over the porch of a private house at Chico, California, and produced a number of fruits\" but unfortunately \"never reached maturity\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry believed the kiwifruit had considerable potential as a fruiting plant, as did David Fairchild, the agricultural explorer in charge of the Office of Plant Introduction. Fruit produced from vines growing in California was shipped to Washington and \"eaten by a number of people of discriminating taste, and the universal opinion appears to be that we have in this Chinese fruit a distinct new possibility for home gardens in Southern regions. What American horticulturists will do with it remains to be seen\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1918). As we now know, American horticulturists did very little. Just as it had m England, the kiwifruit remained no more than an ornamental curiosity in the United States. So little interest was taken in it that Wilson didn't even include it in a manuscript he was completing at the time of his death in 1930, \"Wilson's Plants in Cultivation.\" The manuscript has accounts of three different Actinidia species but not the kiwifruit, Actinidia chinensis, even though the kiwifruit is now considered perhaps the most important of all the commercial plants Wilson brought into cultivation. The Arrival of the Kiwifruit in New Zealand The introduction of the kiwifruit to Britain and the United States is surprisingly 1915b). clearly responsible, difor the introduction of rectly indirectly, the kiwifruit into the United States. Wilson Thus Wilson was or well documented, but it has little commercial significance. These introductions did not lead to the horticultural industry of today. Ironically, very little has been written on how the kiwifruit was introduced into New Zealand, even though all commercial kiwifruit orchards throughout the world are 33 based on scions or seeds that originated in New Zealand. is the great monotony of life in a small and The first known kiwifruit plants in New Zealand were grown near Wanganui, a town on the west coast of the North Island. Alexander Allison was a sheep-farmer there whose greatest interest was the growing of all sorts of plants and trees and, most particularly, new and novel fruiting plants (Allison 1930). One of the plants he succeeded in getting to grow and produce fruit was the kiwifruit. An acquaintance of Allison, named Frank Mason, wrote: \"I have a record in my diary dated July l Oth 1910 that I had tasted the fruit of this plant from a bush grown in his garden\" (Mason 1953). Although it is uncertain as to whether these were the first kiwifruit plants in New Zealand, it is clear that they were very important : all the cultivars of kiwifruit, and all the kiwifruit plantings in New Zealand, can be traced to Allison's plants in Wanganui. The most plausible story as to how Alexander Allison obtained his first seeds or plants takes us back to Wilson and Yichang. Most of the Europeans in Yichang lived outside the Chinese city in a suburb stretched along the bank of the Yangtze. Here were the buildings of the Imperial Maritime Customs, the consulates, and the various missions. A British gunboat often lay opposite at anchor in the stream. Life for the European population had its difficulties, as that remarkable traveler Mrs. Bishop (Isabella Bird) observed: \"Their amusements consist chiefly m tennis, shooting, and boating picnics to some of the picturesque ravines and rock temples off the main river, and to the Ichang Gorge. The British Consul ... and the Commissioner of Customs ... do their best to alleviate what, it must be confessed, isolated community .... amusements are apt to pall. The winter evenings are long and dull, and those of summer hot and mosquito-infested. People soon gauge the mental and social possibilities of newcomers, and know exactly what their neighbours think on every subject which can arise, ... and the arrival of a stranger and of the mail boat and the changes in the customs staff are the chief varieties in life\" (Bishop 1899). Wilson was one such stranger; his frequent comings and goings would inevitably have been one of the \"chief varieties in life.\" He would undoubtedly have been known personally to every European resident of Yichang. He has written that \"in 1900 I had the pleasure of introducing this fruit to the foreign residents of Ichang, with whom it found immediate favour, and is now known throughout the Yangtze Valley as the \" Ichang gooseberry\" (Wilson 1929). The Church of Scotland opened its mission at Yichang in 1878. In 1897the work of the mission was augmented by the arrival of three young female missionaries from New Zealand under the sponsorship of the Church of Scotland Women's Association for Foreign Missions (Hewat 1960). One of these missionaries was C. G. (Katie) Fraser, a teacher and evangelist, who was to remam at Yichang until the Revolution of 1911. Miss Fraser had sisters in New Zealand, one of whom, M. I. (Isabel) Fraser, was also a teacher and principal of Wanganui Girls' College. In 1903 Isabel Fraser was granted a leave of absence for eight months and she left Wanganui to join her sister in China. When she returned to New Zealand in February 1904, she brought with her some seeds 34 of the kiwifruit. A. M. Atkins, a niece of Alexander Allison, recalled: \"Many years ago, when I was at Wanganui Girls' College, the head mistress, Miss M. I. Fraser, went for a holiday to China and brought back some seeds of Chinese Gooseberry [kiwifruit]. These she gave to [Mrs. Atkins' father] Mr. Thomas Allison, who passed them on to his brother, Mr. Alexander Allison; he grew them...\" (Atkins 1948). (. Author's Note I am grateful to Dr. H. M. Mouat, formerly of Today, nearly 80 years later, it is not possible for us to confirm that the seed brought from China by Isabel Fraser and given to Alexander Allison did actually grow and produce the plants that were fruiting in 1910. Allison's plants may have come from elsewhere. It has been suggested that other introductions of kiwifruit to Wanganui took place at about the same time. Nevertheless, it seems plausible that the kiwifruit of today had its origin in those seeds from Yichang and that Katie Fraser was made aware of the kiwifruit by Wilson: Wilson is therefore due much of the credit even if indirectly for the kiwifruit to New Zealand. bringing It seems ironic that the sending of seed by a missionary to an amateur gardener should eventually lead to a new horticultural industry, when the efforts of the Veitch Nursery and the U.S. Department of Agriculture were so much less successful. After all, Veitch's was the greatest nursery of its day, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture had all the resources of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, with its plant explorers and its chain of plant introduction gardens. Perhaps it is largely luck that determines whether the introduction of a new plant is successful. - the Fruit Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand, for permission to cite the letter from Mr. Frank Mason, and to Dr. E. C. Nelson, National Botanic Garden, Dublin, Ireland, for permission to read his then unpublished manuscript on Augustine Henry. The excerpt of the letter by Dr. Henry is published with the permission of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. My thanks are due to Miss Bella Smith and the library staff at the Mt. Albert Research Centre, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Auckland, New Zealand, the Arnold Arboretum, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the Church of Scotland, the National Library of Scotland, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. References Alhson, A. 1930. Letter to California Avocado Associa- tion, Los Angeles. Avocado Yearbook 1930: 191-92. Atkms, A. M. 1948. \"Introduction of Chmese Gooseberry.\" The New Zealand Gardener, 795. 4: Bishop, J. F. (Isabella L. Bird). 1899. The Yangtze Valley and Beyond An Account of \/ourneys m Chma, Chieflym the Provmce of Szechuan and among the Man-tze of the Somo Termtory. London: John Murray. E. H. M. 1943. \"Robert Fortune.\" Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, 68: 161-71. Fairchild, D. 1913. \"Some Asiatic Acumdias.\" Umted States Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agncultural Engmeenng Cmcular 110: 7-12. Fischer, W. 1909. \"Actmudia chinensis. \" The Gardeners' Chromcle, 46 (3rd series): 77. Franchet, A. 1882. \"Les Plantes du Pere d'Incarville Cox, dans l'Herbier du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Pans.\" Bulletm de la Societe Botamque de France, 29: 2-13. Fuller, K. A. P., and J. M. Langdon. 1973. The House of Veitch. Yearbook, International Dendrology Society, 1972:63-69. 35 Harrow, G. 1931. \"Some Recollections of Coombe Wood \"The New Flora and Silva, 3' 177-81. 1. Henry, A. 1903 \"Some New Trees and Shrubs of Westem Chma.\" Flora and Sylvo. 1: 217-18. 1896 Letter to W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, September 5, 1896 Kew Archives. Director's Correspondence 151 (Chinese and Japanese letters, 1865-1900, Hancock-Y): 696. 1893 Notes on Economic Botany of Chma. . Introduction Government dunng the Penod from January 1 to March 31, 1913 No 34, p. 45. Washington, D.C.: -. --. -. Printing Office. 1915b. [Actinidia chmensis, first fruit produced m America.] Plant Imm~grants, Nos 111-12, facing p 916. An unnumbered plate. 1905. Seeds and Plants Imported dunng the Penod from September, 1900 to December, 1903. No. . Shanghai' Presbytenan Mission Press. 1887 \"Chinese Names of Plants \"\/ournal of the Chma Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 22: 233-83 E. G. K. 1960. Vision and Achievement 1796e 1956: A History of the Foreign Missions of the Churches Umted in the Church of Scotland. London: Thomas Nelson & Sons. Howard, R. A 1980 \"E. H. Wilson as a Botamst.\"Arnoldia, 40: 102-38, 154-93. James Veitch & Sons, Ltd 1912 New Hardy Plants from Western Chma (Introduced through Mr 66, p. 38. Washington, D.C : Government Printing Office Veitch, J. H. 1906. Hortus Venchm A History of the Rise and Progress of the Nursenes of Messrs London James James Veitch and Sons Hewat, Vilmonn, M Veitch & Sons Limited. L. de, and D. Bois 1904. Frut~cetum Vil- monmanum, Catalogus Pnmanus Catalogue WiIsonJ~Autumn 1912 Chelsea: James Veitch & Sons. . 1904 Novelties Offered by \/ames Veitch & Sons, Ltd, Royal Exotic Nursey, Chelsea: James Veitch & Sons. E H. Mason, F 1953. Letter to H. M. Mouat, January 21, 1, 1953. File FR 14\/6, Fruit Research Division, De- . partment of Scientific and Industnal Research, Auckland, New Zealand. Morley, B. D 1979 \"Augustine Henry His Botamcal Activities m China, 1882-1890.\" Glasra, 3. 21-81. Nelson, E. C. 1983. \"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chmese Flora. \" Amoldia, 43~ 1 \/: 21-38. 1980. \"An Irish Mandanm Augustine Henry (1857-1930) \" Taisce Journal, 4: 12-14. Planchon, J. E. 1847. \"Sur la Nouvelle Famille des Cochlospermees.\" London \/ournal of Botany, 6: 294-311. \"The Flora and Fauna of Ichang: An Enghsh Explorer Gives His Experiences.\" 1902. North-Chma Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette (weekly edition of the North-Chma Daily News\/, 68 \/ 1979\/; January 29, 1902. 192-3. Umted States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry 1918 \"Acumdia chmensis Plant Immigrants, No. 140, p. 1255. 1915a Inventory of the Seeds and Plants Imported by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant \" . des Arbustes Existant en 1904 dans la Collection de M Maunce Leveque de Vilmorin avec la Descnpuon d'Especes Nouvelles et d'Introducuon Recente Pans Libraire Agncole. Wilson, E. H. 1938. Anstocrats of the Garden. London: Williams and Norgate. . 1929 Chma, Mother of Gardens. Boston, Mass.: Stratford Company. First published m 1913 as A Naturahstm Western Chma 1915. \"The Best of the Hardy Climbmg Shrubs.\" The Garden Magazine, 22 \/2~: 31-35. . 1913. Plantae Wilsomanae Edited by C. S. Sargent. Publications of the Arnold Arboretum, 4, vol 1 ~ v-vm. 1909. \"Plant-Collecting m China.\" Part of a letter to C. S Sargent, Oct. 1, 1908. The Gardeners' . -. Chromcle, 45 \/3rd series). -. 1900 24-25. 1905. \"Leaves from my Chinese note-book: 1. Ichang \"The Gordeners' Chromcle. 37 \/3rd senes\/~ 337-38. \/ournal of the Kew Gmld 1900 24-25. (Repnnted m 1901 as \"Mr. E. H. Wilson m China \"The Gardeners' Chromcle, 29 (3rd series): 126-27.) Yan, J. 1981. \"Histoire d'Actimdio chinensis Planch. Conditions Actuelles de sa Production a 1'Etranger.\" Journal d'Agnculture Tradmonelle et de Botamque Apphquee, 28 : 281-90 et A R. ment Ferguson is a plant physiologist at the Departof Scientific and Industrial Research in New Zea- land. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24830","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070a36d.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":4,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":null,"article_content":"E. H. Wilson, Yichang, A. R. Ferguson and the Kiwifruit The fruits are rounded to oval 1'\/z-2 inches long, russet-colored and more or less hairy. The skin of the fruit is very thm and the flesh is green, sweet and pleasant to the palate and is excellent for dessert or for making a preserve. E. H. Wilson 1915 in New Zealand, and that area is increasing by 3000 to 4000 acres annually. It is estimated that there are now over 6000 acres of the fruit in California. Plantings are being made in many other parts of the world also: acres France, Italy, Spain, Israel, Japan, South Korea, Chile, Australia, Zimbabwe, and South Africa. In So wrote E. H. Wilson of the fruit ofActinidia chinensis Planchon var. hispida C. F. Liang, the fruit known to the Chinese as the yang tao or mihoutao and now known to most of us as the Chinese gooseberry or kiwifruit. At the turn of the century, the kiwifruit was a wild plant in China, a very handsome climbing plant, ideal for pergolas, but only one of the many interesting new Chinese plants being brought into cultivation in Europe. By the 1950s it had become a useful fruiting plant grown in a few commercial orchards in New Zealand. The total plantings then occupied fewer than a hundred acres, and only small quantities of fruit were comparison to that of most other fruit history of the introduction of the kiwifruit is remarkably well-documented. By reading the accounts of the plant explorers, old gardening and horticultural journals, missionary records, and reports and files of government research stations, and by talking to older growers and nurserymen, we can trace almost every step in the domestication of the kiwifruit. We can follow it from its origin in China to its dispersal throughout the world and its development as an important crops, the horticultural crop. In the exported to the United Kingdom. early 1960s the first shipment of kiwifruit was sent to the United States. Orchardists in California began planting it soon after, when they discovered that the fruit produced in New Zealand was being sold in Los Angeles for remarkably high prices. By 1968 they had planted 15 acres. Today the kiwifruit has become a horticultural success story. At the beginning of 1983, kiwifruit orchards covered over 20,000 The Kiwifruit in China Accounts of the kiwifruit appear in many of the early Chinese texts. Indeed, it is sometimes suggested that the earliest references to it can be found in classics of over 2000 years ago. Identification of plants mentioned in such texts is notoriously difficult, however. Many of the descriptions are vague, the allusions poetic, and a single plant is some- 25 times referred to by the different names it had in different parts of China (worse, the same name is sometimes used for different European Discovery of the Kiwifruit The first known collector of kiwifruit plants was Pere Pierre Noel Le Cheron d'Incarville, a French Jesuit who spent 17 years at the Imperial Court in Beijing (Peking). He collected specimens (but no fruit) at Macao, soon after his arrival in China in late 1740. Incarville sent his specimens back to France but they remained there, ignored and undescribed, for over a century (Franchet 1882). The plant was formally described, and namedActinidia chinensis, in 1847 (Planchon 1847), based on specimens collected several years earlier by Robert Fortune, who had been sent to China by the Horticultural Society of London (Cox 1943). Fortune brought back dried specimens of kiwifruit plants). The first unequivocal descriptions of the kiwifruit date from the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907), and one poem indicates that cultivation of it may have begun about this time (Yan 1981). Cultivation cannot have been extensive, however, since most writers consistently describe the kiwifruit as being a wild plant, a plant of the mountains. At times the peasants would bring it to town to sell in the markets. A kiwifruit orchard near Auckland, New Zealand. Tree ferns ~Cyathea sp.) can be seen m the shelter belt at left. 26 27 foliage and flowers but made no mention of the fruit. He probably had not seen fruit, as he had had only a few chances of traveling any distance from the main ports. Towards the end of the 19th century, botanists and horticulturists in Europe and North America were becoming more aware of the variety and beauty of the Chinese flora and the fitness of many of the plants for temperate climates. This increased awareness was due in large part to the efforts of Augustine Henry, who spent 20 years in the service of the Chinese Maritime Customs. On his first tour of duty, from 1882 to 1889, Henry was stationed at Yichang (Ichang), a small port on the Yangtze River about a thousand miles inland and just downstream from the famed Yangtze Gorges. Yichang had only a small European population, and life in such an outpost could be very lonely and dreary. Henry took up an interest in botany. \"My collecting is my exercise, and it keeps me in health, bodily and mental; in these out-of-the-way posts, where stagnation is the rule\" (Henry 1896). He was particularly interested in the economic uses of plants in China and in the origins of cultivated plants. His writings refer to the kiwifruit several times: \"a climbing shrub which bears edible fruit about the size about the size of a big plum .... the fruit would be a great acquisition, I think\" (Henry 1903). Henry encouraged and aided expeditions to collect seed and explore the flora of western China. Wilson and the Introduction of the Kiwifruit to Europe Of the various collecting expeditions, E. H. Wilson's had the greatest success. On his first two trips to China, Wilson was in the employ of James Veitch & Sons, the famous London nursery firm. Veitch's had sent a series of travelers abroad to collect plants suitable for the nursery trade. From 1840 to 1905 they almost always had at least one collector overseas in the botanically unexplored parts of the world, and a remarkable range of plants had thus been introduced to Great Britain (Veitch 1906; Fuller and Langdon 1973). James Herbert Veitch, one of the younger members of the family, had collected in Japan in the early 1890s, and he was aware of the richness of the Chinese flora. He had been keen to go to China but had been refused permission by his uncle Henry James Veitch (Howard 1980). Sir William Thiselton-Dyer, then director of Kew, had been getting enthusiastic letters from Henry; he was undoubtedly an ally in emphasizing the advantages of an expedition to China (Nelson 1983). Another ally was C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum (Wilson 1913). In 1899 Thiselton-Dyer was asked by Veitch's to recommend a young man capable of undertaking a prolonged collecting journey in China. Thiselton-Dyer proposed E. H. Wilson (see Howard 1980). The object of Wilson's first trip for Veitch's was to obtain seeds, bulbs, and liv- of a plum\" (Henry 1887); \"a very large climbing shrub with white conspicuous flowers and fruit about the size of a plum, which can be made into a good jam with a guava-jelly kind of flavour. This fruit might be much (; improved by cultivation\" (Henry 1893); \"produces in the wild state excellent fruit Mature kiwifruit are harvested m New Zealand dunng May(early autumn). (Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.)( 28 ing plants of species almost certain to be hardy in Great Britain, species at that time known only by dried herbarium specimens. Plant collecting was often extraordinarily competitive, and claims to priority were considered very important. In a newspaper interview at the time (\"The Flora and Fauna of Ichang,\" 1902), Wilson therefore said only that his \"object has not been to collect any particular species of plants, but anything likely to be of interest or value to the botanical world.\" Later he admitted that he in fact had instructions to collect a very particular species of plant, Davidia involucrata. Wilson's first task was to visit Henry, who was then at Simao (Szemao), Yunnan, to obtain details about Davidia and information on the flora of western China in general (Wilson 1938). The journey to Simao to see Henry certainly was not an easy one: \"I E. H. Wilson with two Japanese friends, T. Miyoshi and H. Ushio. The photo was taken in Kagoshima, when Wilson visited Japan in 1917. crossed no less than eleven distinct ranges, the highest altitude being 8200 ft., and many exceeded 7000 ft. and were fearfully steep. In one place we ascended 1000 ft. in threequarters of an hour. The easiest way to climb such a mountain is to hang on to the mule's tail and let him drag you up\" (Wilson 1900). Simao was \"the most God-forsaken place imaginable\" but the trip was worth it: \"I found Dr. Henry a splendid fellow, full of knowledge of all kinds. A more genial man I have never met. He assisted me in every way he could, and whatever success attends our venture will be largely due to him\" (Wilson 1900). Henry \"freely imparted important information regarding the plants Wilson was in search of, and the ways and means of reaching them\" (Veitch 1906). Wilson profited by this advice and used much of Henry's field experience in making his early plant introductions. As B. D. Morley (1979) has pointed out, many of the plants first introduced by Wilson were those discovered by Henry during his period at Yichang. Although Henry did not discover the kiwifruit, it was he who sent the first fruits to Europe and recommended that the plant be cultivated. After leaving Henry, Wilson traveled to Shanghai and then up the Yangtze River to Yichang, where he established himself for the next two years (Wilson 1905).Yichang was by now a busy port. (The Yangtze Gorges made Yichang the upper limit for steamers on the river.) The Chinese population was about 35,000, and the European population had increased from the dozen of 29 Henry's early days in China to about 45. There was the staff of the Maritime Customs, the English consulate, the German consulate, and about 20 missionaries. The China Inland Mission, the Scottish Mission, the American Presbyterian Mission, the American Episcopalian Mission, the Scandinavian Mission, the Canadian Mission, and the Roman Catholic Mission were all resident or frequent passers through. Yichang was the starting point for travels into western China. Wilson made it his base for collecting trips into the mountains and for overwintering. In 1900 Wilson obtained seed of 671 different species of plants, herbarium specimens of 1764 species, and a great quantity of bulbs and roots of herbaceous plants. His collections during the following year were also impressive: seed of 305 species, herbarium specimens of 906 species, and 35 cases of bulbs, living roots, and rhizomes of herbaceous plants, all shipped to Britain (Veitch 19061. As the parcels of seed arrived from Chma, they were sorted and sent to the various Veitch nurseries. Here nothing was stinted in the attempt to get satisfactory germination (Harrow 1931).Often, of course, the seed of a species would fail to germinate, but many efforts were successful. In 1904 the kiwifruit appeared in the Veitch catalogue. \"It has recently been raised from seed gathered in the province of Hupeh, Central China, sent by Wilson, and has proved hardy and of very rapid growth, at our Coombe Wood Nursery .... [It produces] edible fruits the size of walnuts, and the flavour of ripe gooseberries. Apart from its flowering and fruiting qualities it is a remarkably handsome plant, and will be of great value as a pillar or pergola plant in the bemg inspected and graded m New Zealand.Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.)( open garden\" Kiwifruit (James Veitch & Sons Ltd. 1904). Like many of the other plants brought in from China, the kiwifruit initially aroused great interest. It received an Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1908. The first flowering of plants in England and France was noted at length in the horticultural journals of 1909. But Wilson was not satisfied with the plant's perfor- England: writing to C. S. Sargent complained, \"A. chinensis, introduced by Messrs. Veitch, has so far failed to do itself full justice; but, in the years to come, I bemance in he lieve it will be one of the finest ornamental climbers in cultivation .... A difficulty to 30 the classifier and a drawback from the cultivator's point of view is the fact of the flow- being polygamous [dioecius]\" ( Wilson 1909). That the flowers are dioecius (bearing staminate [male] and pistillate [female] flowers on different plants) was definitely a drawback, for all the plants introduced and sold by the Veitch nursery were staminate. Without pistillate plants, horticulturists could not produce the new and rare fruit Henry and Wilson had hoped for. It was not until 1912, eight years after the first plants were distributed, that the nursery was able to advertise that among the new plants recently introduced from western China through E. H. Wilson was \"Actinidia ers one Davidia plant was successfully raised at the arboretum at Les Barres, in France. A rooted cutting of this plant was sent to Kew in 1901 while Wilson was still in China. At that time plant introduction was very competitive, and for Wilson this was \"yet one little cup of bitterness to drain\" (Wilson 1938).Again, Farges had sent seed, in the case of Actinidia chinensis, to Vilmorin in 1898, and a plant had been raised in 1899 (Vilmorin and Bois 1904\/, several years before Wilson's own seed had arrived in Europe. No matter that Wilson was responsible for the introduction of every seedling plant but one of the kiwifruit: he could not claim the first plant. chinensis foemina. The female form .... in habit of growth ... is similar to the now well-known male form\" (James Veitch & Sons 1912). It seems, however, that by then horticulturists in Europe had lost interest in the kiwifruit. The long-awaited first production of fruit in England in 1911 appears to have gone almost unremarked. The dissolution of the Veitch firm, and then the Great War, came soon after. The kiwifruit in Britain has remained only an ornamental curiosity; certainly the plants brought in by Wilson and sold by the Veitchs did not give rise to any new horticultural industry. Making matters worse, it is now apparent that Wilson could not even claim credit for introducing the first kiwifruit to Europe, just as he could not claim credit for the first Davidia. In 1897 Maurice de Vilmorin had secured seed of Davidia from Pere Paul Guillaume Farges, a member of the Missions Etrangeres, stationed in northeast Sichuan. The following year, and two or three years before Wilson's collections reached England, The Kiwifruit in the United States beginning of this century, the main organization introducing new plants into the United States was the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction in the Bureau of Plant Industry, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The earliest recorded introductions of kiwifruit into the United States occurred in 1900 (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1905). ). The seed of the yang tao (the name used in the Yangtze Valley) first came from G. D. Brill, who had made an extended trip through China and visited Yichang. Some of the other seed he sent is listed as being \"presented by Mr. E. H. Wilson of Kew Gardens, through Mr. G. D. Brill.\" This seed failed to grow, however (Fairchild 1913). The next imports from China were more successful. In the autumn of 1903, the American consul-general at Hankou (Hankow), L. S. Wilcox, received a sample of kiwifruit sent downriver by a Mr. Goodhart of Yichang. At the 31 \"When the fruits are picked and left for a few days until soft they are very fine eating,\" Wilcox said. \"They have the flavour of the gooseberry, fig, and citron. They make delicious jam, pies, and sauce.\" Wilcox was so impressed that he decided to get a few plants to send to the U.S. Department of Agricul\" ture. Mr. Goodhart in agreed help. For a long time nothing happened. Finally, Wilcox wrote, \"a sent to A letter was Yichang who to box came [on March 19, 1904] weighing Harvested kiwifruit are removed from the orchard in large bins. (Photo courtesy of the New Zealand Kiwifruit Authority.) three or four hundred pounds, with the information that they had been secured at Chungking (1000 miles up river) from plants formerly obtained on the borders of Yunnan by Mr. Wilson, under whose advice they have been packed in moss and sand, warranted to keep for months. I felt I had a white elephant in my hands; the bill for them has not yet been presented\" (L. S. Wilcox, quoted by Fairchild 1913). Four vines survived the long journey from Hankou to Shanghai, Nagasaki, San Francisco, and, finally, the Plant Introduction garden at Chico, California. The vines grew well and flowered for the first time in 1907 (Fischer 1909). Over the next few years more than 1300 young plants propagated from the four vines were widely 32 distributed throughout the Pacific and Gulf States (Fairchild 1913). Unfortunately, all of these plants also proved to be staminate and were therefore valuable only as ornamentals. The potential value of the kiwifruit as a fruiting plant could not be assessed. Why all the plants initially introduced to the United States and England proved to be staminate is unknown. Early botanists noted that staminate kiwifruit plants are considerably more common in the wild than pistillate plants. Herbarium material of many Actinidia species is also mostly staminate: this may result from a predominance of staminate plants in the wild, or simply from the greater floriferousness and therefore more frequent collection of staminate plants. No experimental evidence exists for sex ratios either in the wild or from seed. Finally, in 1913, the bureau purchased plants from Veitch's that had been grown from cuttings of the female plant (sent by Wilson) that had produced fruit in England in 1911. Although some plants from seed sent earlier by Wilson later proved to be female, these plants from Veitch's were \"the first known female plants of this promising fruit-producing species to be introduced into the United States\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1915a). Two years later a photograph was published of a kiwifruit vine \"bearing a single .... fruit, the first to be produced in America. The vine [of unstated origin] was trained over the porch of a private house at Chico, California, and produced a number of fruits\" but unfortunately \"never reached maturity\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry believed the kiwifruit had considerable potential as a fruiting plant, as did David Fairchild, the agricultural explorer in charge of the Office of Plant Introduction. Fruit produced from vines growing in California was shipped to Washington and \"eaten by a number of people of discriminating taste, and the universal opinion appears to be that we have in this Chinese fruit a distinct new possibility for home gardens in Southern regions. What American horticulturists will do with it remains to be seen\" (USDA Bureau of Plant Industry 1918). As we now know, American horticulturists did very little. Just as it had m England, the kiwifruit remained no more than an ornamental curiosity in the United States. So little interest was taken in it that Wilson didn't even include it in a manuscript he was completing at the time of his death in 1930, \"Wilson's Plants in Cultivation.\" The manuscript has accounts of three different Actinidia species but not the kiwifruit, Actinidia chinensis, even though the kiwifruit is now considered perhaps the most important of all the commercial plants Wilson brought into cultivation. The Arrival of the Kiwifruit in New Zealand The introduction of the kiwifruit to Britain and the United States is surprisingly 1915b). clearly responsible, difor the introduction of rectly indirectly, the kiwifruit into the United States. Wilson Thus Wilson was or well documented, but it has little commercial significance. These introductions did not lead to the horticultural industry of today. Ironically, very little has been written on how the kiwifruit was introduced into New Zealand, even though all commercial kiwifruit orchards throughout the world are 33 based on scions or seeds that originated in New Zealand. is the great monotony of life in a small and The first known kiwifruit plants in New Zealand were grown near Wanganui, a town on the west coast of the North Island. Alexander Allison was a sheep-farmer there whose greatest interest was the growing of all sorts of plants and trees and, most particularly, new and novel fruiting plants (Allison 1930). One of the plants he succeeded in getting to grow and produce fruit was the kiwifruit. An acquaintance of Allison, named Frank Mason, wrote: \"I have a record in my diary dated July l Oth 1910 that I had tasted the fruit of this plant from a bush grown in his garden\" (Mason 1953). Although it is uncertain as to whether these were the first kiwifruit plants in New Zealand, it is clear that they were very important : all the cultivars of kiwifruit, and all the kiwifruit plantings in New Zealand, can be traced to Allison's plants in Wanganui. The most plausible story as to how Alexander Allison obtained his first seeds or plants takes us back to Wilson and Yichang. Most of the Europeans in Yichang lived outside the Chinese city in a suburb stretched along the bank of the Yangtze. Here were the buildings of the Imperial Maritime Customs, the consulates, and the various missions. A British gunboat often lay opposite at anchor in the stream. Life for the European population had its difficulties, as that remarkable traveler Mrs. Bishop (Isabella Bird) observed: \"Their amusements consist chiefly m tennis, shooting, and boating picnics to some of the picturesque ravines and rock temples off the main river, and to the Ichang Gorge. The British Consul ... and the Commissioner of Customs ... do their best to alleviate what, it must be confessed, isolated community .... amusements are apt to pall. The winter evenings are long and dull, and those of summer hot and mosquito-infested. People soon gauge the mental and social possibilities of newcomers, and know exactly what their neighbours think on every subject which can arise, ... and the arrival of a stranger and of the mail boat and the changes in the customs staff are the chief varieties in life\" (Bishop 1899). Wilson was one such stranger; his frequent comings and goings would inevitably have been one of the \"chief varieties in life.\" He would undoubtedly have been known personally to every European resident of Yichang. He has written that \"in 1900 I had the pleasure of introducing this fruit to the foreign residents of Ichang, with whom it found immediate favour, and is now known throughout the Yangtze Valley as the \" Ichang gooseberry\" (Wilson 1929). The Church of Scotland opened its mission at Yichang in 1878. In 1897the work of the mission was augmented by the arrival of three young female missionaries from New Zealand under the sponsorship of the Church of Scotland Women's Association for Foreign Missions (Hewat 1960). One of these missionaries was C. G. (Katie) Fraser, a teacher and evangelist, who was to remam at Yichang until the Revolution of 1911. Miss Fraser had sisters in New Zealand, one of whom, M. I. (Isabel) Fraser, was also a teacher and principal of Wanganui Girls' College. In 1903 Isabel Fraser was granted a leave of absence for eight months and she left Wanganui to join her sister in China. When she returned to New Zealand in February 1904, she brought with her some seeds 34 of the kiwifruit. A. M. Atkins, a niece of Alexander Allison, recalled: \"Many years ago, when I was at Wanganui Girls' College, the head mistress, Miss M. I. Fraser, went for a holiday to China and brought back some seeds of Chinese Gooseberry [kiwifruit]. These she gave to [Mrs. Atkins' father] Mr. Thomas Allison, who passed them on to his brother, Mr. Alexander Allison; he grew them...\" (Atkins 1948). (. Author's Note I am grateful to Dr. H. M. Mouat, formerly of Today, nearly 80 years later, it is not possible for us to confirm that the seed brought from China by Isabel Fraser and given to Alexander Allison did actually grow and produce the plants that were fruiting in 1910. Allison's plants may have come from elsewhere. It has been suggested that other introductions of kiwifruit to Wanganui took place at about the same time. Nevertheless, it seems plausible that the kiwifruit of today had its origin in those seeds from Yichang and that Katie Fraser was made aware of the kiwifruit by Wilson: Wilson is therefore due much of the credit even if indirectly for the kiwifruit to New Zealand. bringing It seems ironic that the sending of seed by a missionary to an amateur gardener should eventually lead to a new horticultural industry, when the efforts of the Veitch Nursery and the U.S. Department of Agriculture were so much less successful. After all, Veitch's was the greatest nursery of its day, and the U.S. Department of Agriculture had all the resources of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, with its plant explorers and its chain of plant introduction gardens. Perhaps it is largely luck that determines whether the introduction of a new plant is successful. - the Fruit Research Division, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand, for permission to cite the letter from Mr. Frank Mason, and to Dr. E. C. Nelson, National Botanic Garden, Dublin, Ireland, for permission to read his then unpublished manuscript on Augustine Henry. The excerpt of the letter by Dr. Henry is published with the permission of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. My thanks are due to Miss Bella Smith and the library staff at the Mt. Albert Research Centre, Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, Auckland, New Zealand, the Arnold Arboretum, the Auckland Institute and Museum, the Church of Scotland, the National Library of Scotland, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. References Alhson, A. 1930. Letter to California Avocado Associa- tion, Los Angeles. Avocado Yearbook 1930: 191-92. Atkms, A. M. 1948. \"Introduction of Chmese Gooseberry.\" The New Zealand Gardener, 795. 4: Bishop, J. F. (Isabella L. Bird). 1899. The Yangtze Valley and Beyond An Account of \/ourneys m Chma, Chieflym the Provmce of Szechuan and among the Man-tze of the Somo Termtory. London: John Murray. E. H. M. 1943. \"Robert Fortune.\" Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, 68: 161-71. Fairchild, D. 1913. \"Some Asiatic Acumdias.\" Umted States Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agncultural Engmeenng Cmcular 110: 7-12. Fischer, W. 1909. \"Actmudia chinensis. \" The Gardeners' Chromcle, 46 (3rd series): 77. Franchet, A. 1882. \"Les Plantes du Pere d'Incarville Cox, dans l'Herbier du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle de Pans.\" Bulletm de la Societe Botamque de France, 29: 2-13. Fuller, K. A. P., and J. M. Langdon. 1973. The House of Veitch. Yearbook, International Dendrology Society, 1972:63-69. 35 Harrow, G. 1931. \"Some Recollections of Coombe Wood \"The New Flora and Silva, 3' 177-81. 1. Henry, A. 1903 \"Some New Trees and Shrubs of Westem Chma.\" Flora and Sylvo. 1: 217-18. 1896 Letter to W. T. Thiselton-Dyer, September 5, 1896 Kew Archives. Director's Correspondence 151 (Chinese and Japanese letters, 1865-1900, Hancock-Y): 696. 1893 Notes on Economic Botany of Chma. . Introduction Government dunng the Penod from January 1 to March 31, 1913 No 34, p. 45. Washington, D.C.: -. --. -. Printing Office. 1915b. [Actinidia chmensis, first fruit produced m America.] Plant Imm~grants, Nos 111-12, facing p 916. An unnumbered plate. 1905. Seeds and Plants Imported dunng the Penod from September, 1900 to December, 1903. No. . Shanghai' Presbytenan Mission Press. 1887 \"Chinese Names of Plants \"\/ournal of the Chma Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 22: 233-83 E. G. K. 1960. Vision and Achievement 1796e 1956: A History of the Foreign Missions of the Churches Umted in the Church of Scotland. London: Thomas Nelson & Sons. Howard, R. A 1980 \"E. H. Wilson as a Botamst.\"Arnoldia, 40: 102-38, 154-93. James Veitch & Sons, Ltd 1912 New Hardy Plants from Western Chma (Introduced through Mr 66, p. 38. Washington, D.C : Government Printing Office Veitch, J. H. 1906. Hortus Venchm A History of the Rise and Progress of the Nursenes of Messrs London James James Veitch and Sons Hewat, Vilmonn, M Veitch & Sons Limited. L. de, and D. Bois 1904. Frut~cetum Vil- monmanum, Catalogus Pnmanus Catalogue WiIsonJ~Autumn 1912 Chelsea: James Veitch & Sons. . 1904 Novelties Offered by \/ames Veitch & Sons, Ltd, Royal Exotic Nursey, Chelsea: James Veitch & Sons. E H. Mason, F 1953. Letter to H. M. Mouat, January 21, 1, 1953. File FR 14\/6, Fruit Research Division, De- . partment of Scientific and Industnal Research, Auckland, New Zealand. Morley, B. D 1979 \"Augustine Henry His Botamcal Activities m China, 1882-1890.\" Glasra, 3. 21-81. Nelson, E. C. 1983. \"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chmese Flora. \" Amoldia, 43~ 1 \/: 21-38. 1980. \"An Irish Mandanm Augustine Henry (1857-1930) \" Taisce Journal, 4: 12-14. Planchon, J. E. 1847. \"Sur la Nouvelle Famille des Cochlospermees.\" London \/ournal of Botany, 6: 294-311. \"The Flora and Fauna of Ichang: An Enghsh Explorer Gives His Experiences.\" 1902. North-Chma Herald and Supreme Court and Consular Gazette (weekly edition of the North-Chma Daily News\/, 68 \/ 1979\/; January 29, 1902. 192-3. Umted States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry 1918 \"Acumdia chmensis Plant Immigrants, No. 140, p. 1255. 1915a Inventory of the Seeds and Plants Imported by the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant \" . des Arbustes Existant en 1904 dans la Collection de M Maunce Leveque de Vilmorin avec la Descnpuon d'Especes Nouvelles et d'Introducuon Recente Pans Libraire Agncole. Wilson, E. H. 1938. Anstocrats of the Garden. London: Williams and Norgate. . 1929 Chma, Mother of Gardens. Boston, Mass.: Stratford Company. First published m 1913 as A Naturahstm Western Chma 1915. \"The Best of the Hardy Climbmg Shrubs.\" The Garden Magazine, 22 \/2~: 31-35. . 1913. Plantae Wilsomanae Edited by C. S. Sargent. Publications of the Arnold Arboretum, 4, vol 1 ~ v-vm. 1909. \"Plant-Collecting m China.\" Part of a letter to C. S Sargent, Oct. 1, 1908. The Gardeners' . -. Chromcle, 45 \/3rd series). -. 1900 24-25. 1905. \"Leaves from my Chinese note-book: 1. Ichang \"The Gordeners' Chromcle. 37 \/3rd senes\/~ 337-38. \/ournal of the Kew Gmld 1900 24-25. (Repnnted m 1901 as \"Mr. E. H. Wilson m China \"The Gardeners' Chromcle, 29 (3rd series): 126-27.) Yan, J. 1981. \"Histoire d'Actimdio chinensis Planch. Conditions Actuelles de sa Production a 1'Etranger.\" Journal d'Agnculture Tradmonelle et de Botamque Apphquee, 28 : 281-90 et A R. ment Ferguson is a plant physiologist at the Departof Scientific and Industrial Research in New Zea- land. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23372","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ea328.jpg","title":"1983-43-4","volume":43,"issue_number":4,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gardening with Species Roses","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24828","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060896f.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Shaw, Jonathan","article_content":"Gardening with Species Roses jonathan Shaw Each year as winter settles over New England the latest rose catalogues appear in my mailbox, featuring the newest and gaudiest hybrid teas and floribundas. Several of these grow in my own garden, but over the years I have replaced them with species roses and shrub roses. Species roses are the wild roses that grow naturally throughout most of the northern hemisphere, and shrub roses are for the most part primary hybrids or selections of species roses. Neither group is commonly grown in gardens but both should be, for in addition to bringing diversity and a refreshmg natural grace to a garden, they need much less spraying and maintenance than most cultivated roses. Spraying roses is a chore that I have gradually come to dislike, a dislike mixed of equal parts of laziness and a fear of casually used chemicals. Summer pruning is also not part of my work ethic, and with wild roses I can forget summer associate well with the other shrubs in my garden; they are easy to care for; and for sheer flower power they have few equals. The rose family (Rosaceae), of which the rose genus is only a part, contains many garden-worthy plants. These include bush and tree fruits apples, pears, and raspberas well as other woody plants, such as ries shadbush (Amelanchier) and flowering quinces \/Chaenomelesand herbaceous perennials, such as lady's mantle (Alchemilla)\/ and meadowsweet (Filipendula).. ( Depending on which authority is recognized, the number of rose species is between - 150 and 300. Like certain other genera, the genus Rosa poses a challenge to botanists. Many of the species are not distinct, because they hybridize easily both in the wild and in cultivation. Others have been so long associated with humans that their origins are no longer certain. This may explain why taxonomic problems abound and why the pruning. What have I lost in abandoning hybrid teas and floribundas? The roses I grow tend to be tall, five feet and up; most bloom only once; the color range, particularly in the reds, is limited; and most have single flowers. What have I gained? My species and shrub roses Rosa helenae var. flora plena Al Bussewitz photo monograph on roses (Rosarum Monographia or A Botanical History of Roses by John Lindley) is 163 years old. most recent The latest edition of Bean's Trees and Shrubs (1973-1980), prepared with the assistance of Graham Thomas, a horticultural authority on shrub roses, estimates the number of valid species at no more than 150 but lists only 82 primary entries. Alfred 4 Rehder in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs1940) lists 38 species. Wild roses are found only in the temperate zone of the northern hemisphere. None are found south of the equator. With few exceptions they bear single, five-petaled flowers, and the colors tend to be mauve, white, pink, or yellow, with just a few displaying flowers of brilliant red. There are no blues. Some are enormous, so-called climbing roses that can grow 20 feet in a year. Others are low shrubs, prostrate or up to a foot and a half high. Landscape Uses Species roses have far more potential landscape uses than hybrid tea roses or floribundas. Some are adapted to extremely harsh sites where few similar plants will grow. They are for the most part medium to tall shrubs and therefore can be placed in shrub borders or wherever a shrub will thrive. The suckering species will fill gaps between other shrubs, and the taller species will permit bulbs and smaller plants to thrive beneath their branches. The so-called climbing species can be trained into trees and draped over nearby shrubs or tip pruned to form shrubs. Species roses-are graceful, easily placed near other shrubs, and do not require a formal setting. In traditional rose gardens species roses can provide diversity, stature, and grace. A few species roses prefer wet sites; others require dry, almost arid positions; and some tolerate semishade. This adaptability has not been utilized extensively in gardens. The following are some of the landscape uses of Colonizers: Rosa pimpinellifolia, 3 to 5 feet high, will quickly spread to stabilize large areas or fill in spaces between other shrubs. Rosa rugosa will do the same but with larger canes and more \"rugged\" leaves. Rosa nitida is the lowest of the colonizers, a compact 18 inches. Hedges and Windbreaks: Rosa rugosa will perform this function, as will R. hugonis. There are others, but few so tough. Canopies and Archers: These are roses whose canopies spread widely but not densely and can be underplanted. Rosa moyesii is magnificent in this way, providing high shade for bulbs and low perennials beneath its own spectacle of brilliant geranium-red flowers and scarlet hips. Summer and Fall Foliage: Throughout the growing season the leaves of R. glauca Pourr. (R. rubri folia ) are a pale reddish purple, a flower arranger's delight, and R. alba and several others have foliage of a lovely graygreen color. In the fall the leaves of most species roses are inconspicuous, but R. nitida exhibits shades of deep purple-red, as do several other American roses. R. R. Flower Color and Size: For pure reds moyesii, for pure yellows R. primula or hugonis. The flowers of species roses are single and generally of medium size. For those who like their flowers small and abundant, there is no more graceful rose than R. elegantula 'Persetosa' (R. farreri ), known as the threepenny bit rose, which is covered in early June with single pale pink flowers, each no more than a half-inch in diameter. species roses. Groundcovers: Rosa wichuraiana is often used in this fashion, the trailing canes lying flat upon the ground. Fruit: Rose fruits, commonly known as hips, are among the greater assets of the species: one-inch red marbles on R. rugosa, two-inch orange-scarlet vases on R. moyesii, 5 (Eurosa or true roses). The first of these contains a single (or perhaps two) species. Although the flower is said to be striking, the plant is rarely found in botanical or private gardens because it is so lacking in vigor and so difficult to grow. The second subgenus, Hesperhodos, includes several species from the western United States. These, too, are rarely found in cultivation, primarily because their characteristics are unspectacular. The third subgenus, Platyrhodon, con- tains only one species, R. roxburghii. It is a Rosa elegantula 'Persetosa' Drawmgs by Emily Osman marvelous tall shrub, and for convenience it has been included below with other roses of similar stature. All remaining species roses are found in the subgenus Rosa, and because it contains 95 percent of the species roses, this subgenus has been further divided into 11~or perhaps 10) sections. Species and hybrid roses from eight of these sections appear in my selected list beginning on page 6. Species in the other three sections (Chinenses, Banksianae, and Bracteatae) were not included because they are not hardy in the Northeast. The eight sections are: and half-inch black, R. shining drops on pimpinellifolia. Fragrance: Flower fragrance is not strong species roses, because in roses the Laevigatae, shiny-leaved roses: contains only species, R. laevigata, with large, solitary flowers, shmy leaves, and a climbing growth one in most fragrance is emitted from the petals, and species roses rarely have more than five petals. Many species are especially outstanding for leaf fragrance, for example, R. eglanteria and R. primula. To pick flowers and leaves from these roses is to perfume one's hands and even the clippers. The scent is strong but not cloying. The genus Rosa is divided into four subgenera : Hulthemia, Hesperhodos (roses of the west), Platyrhodon (flat roses), and Rosa habit. Plants with long, flexuous stems; flowers, large, white; branches with scattered, hooked prickles; sepals erect, entire, persistent; leaves usually with 3 leaflets, deciduous; stipules nearly free; styles free. Synstylae, roses with united styles: contains most of the roses that are called climbers. This section is charactenzed by long canes and white flowers in clusters. Plants usually climbmg or trailing, with many-flowered inflorescences; branches with hooked prickles; outer sepals pinnate or entire, deciduous; leaves with 5-9 leaflets, evergreen or deciduous; styles united into a slender column. 6 Pimpinellifoliae, anise-leaved roses: a most useful group with many graceful species bearing yellow and white flowers on vigorous bushes. Medium to low shrubs with solitary flowers; branches with straight prickles and bristles; sepals entire, erect, persistent; leaves with 7-9 small leaflets, deciduous; styles free. Gymnocarpae, naked fruited roses: similar to the sectionPimpinelhfoliae, but in this section the apex of the flower axis (which contams the seeds) as well as the sepals drops when the fruit is ripe. Cassiorhodon, cinnamon roses: hardy plants beanng pink or red flowers and distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. Upright shrubs; mflorescences usually many-flowered; branches with straight, mfrastipular or scattered prickles; sepals entire, erect after flowering, persistent ; leaves with 5-11 leaflets, deciduous; styles free. Carolmae, Carolina roses: exclusively American roses that are noted for their adaptability and suckenng habit. Upright, often strongly stolomferous shrubs; inflorescences fewflowered ; branches with straight, paired prickles; sepals entire or few-lobed, spreading after flowering, soon deciduous; leaves with 7-9 leaflets, deciduous ; styles free. Caninae, dog roses: contains most of the roses of Europe, including many hybrids, both wild and cultivated. At one time this section was thought to contain hundreds of species. Plants with upright or arching stems; inflorescences manyflowered ; branches with numerous, stout, hooked prickles; outer sepals lobed, reflexed after flowering, deciduous (rarely erect and persistentleaves usually with 5-7 leaflets, deciduous; styles free. Gallicanae, French roses: contains only one species, R. galhca, and is recognized more as a horticultural than a botanical group, because of its numerous forms and cultivars and the long association of R. galhca with humanity. Upright shrubs, with few-flowered mflorescences; branches with hooked prickles mixed with bristles ; sepals often lobed, reflexed after flowering; leaves with 3-5 leaflets, deciduous; styles free. and adaptability of species roses and their primary hybrids. All but a few I have grown in my own garden or observed in private or public rose collections. Many of the species can be seen in the Arboretum, and others are currently being introduced. Species Roses Recommended for the Northeast R. blanda Ait. Eastern & Central North America. Introduced into cultivation in 1773. Section Cassiorhodon. Flowers 11\/2-2 inches, solitary or in clusters. Blooms in early June. This is a native American rose and for that reason alone deserves to be cultivated more often. It grows about five feet high and is almost entirely without thorns. Although it has been said to have no unusual garden merit, R. blanda alba, the pure white form, is lovely in early June, and for health and vigor it is unsurpassed. Like other native plants, it is hardy on the East Coast and disease resistant. R. ecae Aitch. Afghanistan\/Pakistan. Introduced in 1880. Section Pimpinellifoliae. Flowers 3\/a-1 inch, solitary. Blooms in early June. With the exception of R. foetida, this has the brightest yellow flowers of any species rose. It is not vigorous, but one of its hybrids, 'Golden Chersonese' (1967), has preserved R. ecae's color and dainty leaves while increasing its vigor. 'Golden Chersonese' is covered in late May with single bright yellow flowers. These bloom just above the delicate leaves, giving the whole bush an unusually dainty look. The species on the following list have been chosen to demonstrate the diversity 7 R. foetida J. Herrm. Austrian briar rose. Asia. Introduced before 1590. Section Pimpinellifoliae. Flowers 2-3 inches, usually solitary. Blooms in early June. Rosa ecae R. eglanteria L. (R. rubiginosa\/. Eglantine Europe. Cultivated prior to 1551. SecCaninae. Flowers 1'\/z-2 inches, solitary tion or in clusters. Blooms in mid-June. This is the sweetbriar or eglantine rose. The flowers are pale pink and abundant, and the shrub grows to six or eight feet high. Its greatest asset is its fragrant leaves, which release their fragrance when crushed. It grows wild in Great Britain, and references to its apple fragrance are common in English literrose. The flowers of this rose are a deep yellow. Unfortunately, in the eastern United States the plant is susceptible to blackspot, but fungicides, such as benomyl, may be an effective treatment. In its native Iran the dry climate no doubt protects it from fungi attacks. Hybrids: Because of its brilliant flowers, ` R. foetida has been hybridized frequently, and its genes have entered indirectly into , most modern roses. An older hybrid is x harisonii ['Harison's Yellow' ( 1830\/], an outstanding rose. It is vigorous, up to six feet high, and sometimes suckers slightly so that it renews itself by finding fresh soil. The flowers are semidouble and a bright yellow, a softer color than that of R. foetida. Its other parent is R. pimpinelli folia. R. foetida 'Bicolor' is an outstanding cultivar known as the Austrian copper briar. What a rose! The petals are a brilliant orange on the inside and an equally brilliant yellow on the outside. (An unusual form of this cultivar, with sectored petals, is shown on the front cover.) When in flower this rose is visible at several hundred feet. R. ature. Hybrids: Numerous hybrids of this rose exist. One of the best, which preserves the fragrant leaves, is 'Gold Bush' (1954), a wide, arching shrub with amber semidouble flowers. Disease-free leaves make 'Gold Bush' a special asset in the garden. gallica L. Red rose. Europe\/Asia. Cultivated prior to 1500. Section Gallicanae. Flowers 11\/2-2'\/z inches, solitary or in clusters. Blooms in mid-June. This rose has been cultivated for so long that it is difficult to know which is the species and which the hybrids. The only member of its section, it is a suckering shrub up to four feet high and has unusually large (up to 3i\/2 inches long) leaflets. Hybrids: The selections and hybrids of 8 shrub roses. This is a marvelous rose. In my garden I have three bushes two to three feet apart, forming a dense clump. R. glauca Pourr. (R. rubrifolia\/. Europe. In- troduced in 1814. Section Cassiorhodon. Flowers 1-11\/2 inches, in clusters. Blooms in early June. This rose is valued for its foliage, a faintly dusky maroon, resembling in early summer Rosa gallica R. ` gallica are extraordinarily numerous. In the mid-19th century one nurseryman listed 400 varieties. In my own garden I have grown many hybrids of R. gallica, two of which I have found to be especially successful : 'Tuscany Superb'(1848) and 'Scarlet Fire' (1952). The former is a vigorous and disease-free shrub about four to five feet high with large maroon-crimson double flowers, set off by a center of bright yellow stamens. It is a the color of a ripening plum. This unique foliage color enhances its value in the landscape. Reaching six or seven feet in height, the plant branches gracefully and the pink flowers with small white centers unobtrusively complement the foliage. Hybrids: Rosa glauca has one outstanding hybrid (with the species R. rugosa),'Carminetta' (1923), which shares R. glauca's rosy foliage. From R. rugosa it has inherited great vigor and larger flowers. It is a less delicate plant than R. glauca but unique nonetheless for its foliage. R. helenae Rehd. & Wils. Helen's rose. China. Introduced in 1907. Section Synstylae. Flowers 1-1'\/z inches, in manyflowered corymbs. Blooms in mid-June. Named by E. H. Wilson for his wife, and stunning plant. 'Scarlet Fire' is a modern hybrid of R. gallica, and although it does not resemble its parent it is one of the most outstanding shrub roses. The petals are pure scarlet and the center of each rose is yellow. The flowers bend in great wands along arching branches reaching 8 or 9 feet in height and spreading as much as 10 to 12 feet. The leaves are somewhat susceptible to blackspot, but because of the plant's height and vigor the upper leaves are not affected. (Blackspot usually begins on the lower leaves and branches of most roses and then ascends.)( This ability to \"outgrow\" fungus enemies is characteristic of several of the strongest introduced by the Arnold Arboretum, this handsome rose is difficult to obtain. Like those of other roses in section Synstylae, the flowers are white and rather small but compensate for their size by their abundance. The hips, which are an attractive red, are conspicuous in the fall. Like many shrub roses, this one is sometimes classified as a climber. Since no rose is a true climber (roses have no tendrils and do not twine), all this means is that R. helenae makes long annual growths and will grow beyond six or 9 eight feet high if not pruned at the tip. A particularly lovely variety of this rose, flora plena, grows in the rose collection of the Arnold Arboretum. R. probably the most popular species rose grown in the United States. hugonis Hemsl. Father Hugo's rose. China. Introduced in 1899. SectionPimpinellifoliae. Flowers 11\/z inches, solitary. Blooms in late May. This rose ought to be in every garden. It forms a graceful arching shrub six to eight feet high. The growth is dense and the foliage is delicate. The medium-yellow flowers appear in late May in the Northeast and in most years precede all other roses that I know. It is no wonder that this rose is obtainable from just about every nursery and is Rosa wilmottiae laevigata Michx. China. Cherokee rose. Introduced before 1780. Section Laevigatae. Flowers 21\/2-3 inches, solitary. Blooms in late May. Although native to southern China, R. laevigata has become naturalized in the southern United States and has an American name, the Cherokee rose. The flowers are large, white, and fragrant. This very beautiful rose is not fully hardy north of the Carolinas. Hybrids: For those who would like to capture the beauty of this rose in a hardier form, 'Silver Moon' (1910), a probable hybrid, would be the choice. The flowers are similar but larger, and the fragrance is very strong. The leaves are a dark, glossy green. The canes are long and thick, and 'Silver Moon' is best grown as a climber. Because of its oriR. , gin, it is hardy in New England only along the coast. R. moyesii Hemsl. & Wils. China. Introduced in 1894. Section Cassiorhodon. Flowers 11\/z-2 inches, solitary or in pairs. Blooms in early June. This is my personal favorite among wild roses, a huge shrub reaching 15 feet high after many years of growth. Its flowers are brilliant red, verging on geranium-scarlet in the selection 'Geranium' (1938).In the fall the arching branches are covered with unusual bottle- or vase-shaped hips that are bright red. Because this shrub forms a high canopy, bulbs and other shrubs can be planted underneath, making this rose ideal for the shrub border. Hybrids: There are relatively few hybrids 10 of R. moyesii. Most of these have been created in England, but one of the best is 'Eddie's Crimson' \/ 1956\/, hybridized by a West Coast nurseryman. It shares all of its parent's fine characteristics and, if anything, is slightly more vigorous. It has numerous hips that are somewhat less vase-shaped than those of R. moyesii itself. R. multiflora Thunb. Japan. Introduced before 1868. Section Synstylae. Flowers 1 inch or less, in many-flowered panicles. Blooms in mid-June. This is a beautiful Japanese shrub with tiny white flowers in large clusters. By fall the flowers have been replaced by equally small red hips, which are excellent in arrangements. This plant has been touted as a turnpike barrier. It spreads very easily, as birds carry its small seeds a considerable distance. It has been much used in hybridizing, particularly in the polyanthas and the floribundas. Because of its phenomenal vigor and adaptability, this species is an understock for most roses in this country. Multifloras may reach a height and width of 10 feet, and many have in my garden. Approximately one-quarter of all the multifloras that have seeded themselves in my garden are thornless, a nice Mendelian ratio. The thorny remainder are larger and may have trunks one foot thick at the base. When removing one of these roses, I found it necessary to use a chain saw! The thornless forms are best. They are adaptable to all soils and situations and have attractive hips. The hips are the most beautiful feature of this plant. Many hybrids of this rose have been created, but few duplicate its extraordinary vigor. R. nitida Willd. Eastern North America. Introduced in 1807. Section Carolinae. Flowers 1'\/2 inches, usually solitary. Blooms in early June. tumn This is a dwarf rose with attractive aufoliage color. Growing to approxi' Hips of (left to right) Rosa moyesii, R. roxburghii, and R. pimpinellifolia (R spmosissima) 11 1 mately two feet high in the best forms, this shrub extends rapidly underground, forming a low thicket that is covered with deep pink flowers early in the rose season. It is an outstanding native rose suitable for both dry and damp sites along driveways and highway islands and near houses. It is my belief that this rose will eventually become very common in the cultivated landscape. At present it is rarely seen but deserves to be sought out for its special qualities. R. plants. It grows best in full sun and is excellent in dry sites. A superbly adaptable rose, it should be planted wherever its special characteristics make it useful. All its varieties are outstanding; the one known as altaica, with cream yellow flowers, is especially handsome and grows up to six feet palustris Marsh. Eastern North America. Introduced in 1726. Section Carolinae. Flowers 1'\/2 inches, in corymbs or solitary. Blooms in mid-July. This rose is unique in that it grows in wet places, even in sunlit swamps. It also will grow in ordinary garden soil. The flowers are light pink and the leaves are light green and shiny. It grows up to six feet high in thickets and increases by suckers. Like many other high. Hybrids: R. pimpinellifolia has produced many outstanding offspring. Most bloom once only. One of the best is 'Golden Wings' (1956). This rose resembles a floribunda but has much greater vigor. Its medium-yellow flowers are large and single, covering the bush all summer long. It is somewhat susceptible to disease, and in my damp Cape Cod garden I find it necessary to spray it with a fungicide twice during the summer. Another very satisfactory hybrid is 'Stanwell Perpetual' (1838). All summer this produces medium-sized double pink blossoms on a fourR. to five-foot disease-resistant bush. plants, palustris is shamefully neglected by gardeners. Related species somenative times grown are R. carolina and R. virginiana. Like most roses, R. palustris needs full R. sun. pimpinellifolia L. (R. spinosissima). Scotch rose. Europe\/Asia. Cultivated prior to 1600. SectionPimpinellifoliae. Flowers 11\/2 inches, solitary. Blooms in late May or early primula Boulenger. Central Asia. Introduced in 1910. SectionPimpinellifoliae. Flowers 1-11\/2 inches, solitary. Blooms in late May. This is a lovely yellow rose, and it is the most fragrant-leaved of all roses. The scent permeates the air, particularly after rain. The leaves are small and delicate and disease resistant, making this a choice plant. June. A vigorously suckering type of which there were at one time many dozens of selections, the Scotch rose can be found in shades of pale pink, white, and pale yellow, although the latter may be the result of hybridization. This rose is usually three to five feet high and is thoroughly hardy and adaptable. Because it suckers so easily, it must be planted where it will not overwhelm smaller roxburghii Tratt. Chestnut rose. Japan\/ China. Introduced in 1880. Subgenus Platyrhodon. Flowers two inches, usually solitary. Blooms in early June. This Chinese rose is a special favorite of mine. Named the chestnut rose because its hips are covered with chestnutlike prickles, it forms a stout, round bush 8 feet high and 10 feet wide. One specimen in the collection R. 12 adapts to every soil, from clay to sand. The wild forms bear single flowers of white, or purple-red, while the hybrids broaden the color range and flower form without losing the vigor and adaptability of the parent. The canes are thick and covered with spiny thorns. Like those of many roses that sucker, the canes are almost consistent in diameter throughout their length. Rosa rugosa is unaffected by salt spray, and if the locations where it grows along the coast are an indication it can take some flooding from pink, Rosa roxburghii of the Arnold Arboretum has a trunk 10 inches in diameter: this is the variety hirtula. An attractive feature of R. roxburghii is the peeling bark. The leaflets are large for a rose and their very regular pinnate arrangement is particularly conspicuous. The flowers of R. roxburghii are single and pink. This rose commands respect if only for its impressive armor. Of the few hybrids of R. roxburghthe most well-formed and most beautiii, ful is 'Coryana'(1926). It produces large single pink flowers in great profusion, set Hybrids: saltwater as well. Hybrids: All the hybrids are good and because of R. rugosa's vigor are almost always recognizable. Most do not sucker with the freedom of their parent, and because they are heavyset seem more like stevedores than like the ballerinas among roses such as 'Golden Chersonese'. The hybrids are numerous, and it is difficult to suggest selections. Two hybrids I have grown are particularly outstanding : 'Blanc Double De Coubert' (1892) and 'Jens Munk' (1974). The former is a fragrant double white from the turn of the century which blooms repeatedly throughout the summer. The latter is a recent hybrid with excellent pink blooms on a dense, disease-resistant shrub. R. sericea f. pteracantha Franch. (R. omeiensisChina. Introduced in 1890. Section against attractive foliage. In one garden I visited, a jacket had been draped to dry on the strong branches of 'Coryana'. Pimpinelli foliae. Flowers R. rugosa Thunb. RussialJapanIChina. Introduced in 1845. Section Cassiorhodon. Flowers 21\/2-3 inches, solitary or in few-flowered clusters. Blooms between early June and mid-June. Naturalized all along the east coast of the United States on dunes to within a few feet of the high tide mark, this is a shrub rose without peer. It is extraordinarily hardy and 11\/2 inches, soliBlooms in late May. tary. Here is a wild rose whose most attractive feature is its thorns. A brilliant translucent red during the first year, they are poised along the branches like miniature deltawinged airplanes. The sight of this rose, with the sun shining through its thorns, is spectacular. During the second year the prickles darken to gray. The four petals, instead of 13 raiana have been created. These are ramblers, thick sprawling bushes three to five feet high that are even more vigorous than R. wichuraiana. The best known is Thoms of Rosa sencea f. pteracantha (R. omei- ensis\/ the usual five, rose. are a 'Dorothy Perkins'(1901),which is now found growing in the harshest and most unlikely locations because it roots from the tips of the canes and is therefore easily transplanted. It blooms once in early summer with small pink double flowers. Although it is often afflicted by mildew, its vigor is not significantly diminished by the disease. Some years ago 'Dorothy Perkins' sported a more compact shrub, 'The Fairy' (1932). This is a wonderful plant that needs no attention at all and has pale pink flowers similar to 'Dorothy Perkins'. R. willmottiae Hemsl. China. Introduced in 1904. Section Gymnocarpae. Flowers one inch, solitary. Blooms in early June. For balance of flower and leaf, there are unique feature of this Hybrids: hybrid that may be superior to its parent is 'Red Wing' (date of introduction unknown). This has been selected for its extraordinary thorns, a luminous red, and its vigor and resistance to disease. A R. wichuraiana Crep. Japan. Introduced in 1891. Section Synstylae. Flowers 1'\/z inches, in panicles. Blooms in mid-July. Rosa wichuraiana is the best of the prostrate roses. It is vigorous and adaptable and sends out long canes, which sprawl a few inches above the ground. Like those of other roses in the Synstylae section, its flowers are white with a lovely boss of yellow stamens in the center. Wichuraiana is widely available from nurseries and is often extolled as a groundcover. It should be realized, however, that it does not make a thick carpet of leaves and should be planted on a mulched site so that weeds do not come up between the canes. This shrub is also disease resistant. Hybrids: Numerous hybrids of R. wichu- few roses that equal this unaccountably neglected Chinese rose. Though long admired in England, it is rarely seen in the United States. The pale pink flowers have creamcolored stamens, and the foliage has a fernlike texture. The shrub grows to eight feet and is exceedingly graceful. I know of no source of this shrub in the United States at present. Discovered in western China near the Tibet border by E. H. Wilson, this rose merits widespread cultivation. Diseases, Insects, and Other Disagreeable Matters Conventional roses hybrid teas and floribundas are by necessity pampered - plants. Often ravaged by disease, especially blackspot, most require spraying every 10 days to 3 weeks. Cynthia Westcott, Ph.D., a 14 longtime admirer of roses who made her living as a counselor to suburban rose enthusiasts near New York City, wrote that \"possible enemies of the rose are legion. There are 500 insect pests and perhaps half as many bacteria, fungi, and various viruscaused diseases. Rodents are often a menace and pets occasionally.\" In her book, Anyone Can Grow Roses(1965), 65 pages out of a total of 199 were devoted to rose diseases and pests. Conventional roses usually are not longlived plants. Failure to spray these roses for a few months or failure to prune for a year produces scraggy and charmless plants. If they are without care for a longer period, they deteriorate to leafless stems, defoliated by blackspot. For the most part the species roses listed above are not severely affected by insects or diseases. Some are susceptible on occasion to blackspot or mildew but because of their vigor will outgrow or resist an attack. On the rare occasions when blackspot appears, I spray once or twice a summer with Benlate, a systemic fungicide. This is necessary for only a few specimens and even then is not necessary every summer. As for pets, the abundant thorns of most species discourage most of them. Planting and Pruning or , _ With few exceptions all roses require full almost full sun. In choice of site, this is the first requirement. Ample room for roots is necessary for strong-growing shrub roses. Although a suckering species such as R. nitida would do well between the sidewalk and the street, the larger species would find the location too cramped. With regard to soil, the species roses and their hybrids are far more adaptable than most hybrid teas and floribundas, but if the soil is poor some manure placed below the roots and separated from them by a layer of soil is useful. A large hole obviously is better than a small one. Throughout the world most commercial roses are grafted. In this country the understock is R. multiflora. Grafting is a commercial necessity, since it produces large plants in a short time and because it encourages growth in the many weak commercial roses that would die if they were dependent on their own roots. Although species roses obtained from nurseries are the result of grafts, they are capable of growing on their own roots. It is my practice when planting species roses and their hybrids to set the graft-point four inches below ground to encourage the rose to grow its own roots. This method leads in the long run to increased vigor, and if the plant should be damaged in the future it will send out new shoots from below ground. These new shoots will be part of the graft and not the understock. In the field of horticulture nothing is more controversial than the pruning of roses. Pruning species roses is not difficult, however, if one point is kept in mind: these are hardy shrubs and should be treated accordingly. This means that after a number of years the very oldest stems should be cut to the ground in early spring in the same way that one might renew a lilac or a mock orange. No further pruning is necessary except to cut off dead branches. Since species roses require many years to develop their flowering capacity, yearly pruning can be se- verely damaging. There are a few species roses that are climbers but can be grown as shrubs if desired. If the canes of these become too long, they can be pruned by cutting off the tips. 15 5 Author's Note: Other interesting hardy species roses, in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum, are: R. aciculans R. afzehana R. agresus R. amblyous R. amurensis R. koreana R longicuspis R luciae R. maly R. micrantha R. nmdula R. nutkana R. omissa R oxyodon R pendulma R. pisocarpa R. pomifera R prattm R. pruhomciana R. pteragoms R roopae R rubigmosa R. scharnkeana R schwmkeana R. sertata R. seugera R. setipoda R. smo-mlsonu R. spaldmgm R. spmuhfoha R. tomentosa R. tuscheuca R. waitziana R. webbiana R. wintoniensis R. woodsii R zalana Wyant Roses, Route 84, Johnny Cake Ridge, Mentor, OH 44060. Not all roses listed m this article are available from the above sources. For further sources consult the current edition of Combmed Rose List (roses in commerce and cultivation, rose registrations smce Modern Roses 8, and hard-to-find roses and where to find them), compiled and available from Beverly R. Dobson, 215 Ham- R. arkansana R. R. R R. R. R. R. R R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R. R R R R R. R. R. R R. R arvensis beggenana belgrandensis bella brunomi Road, Irvmgton, NY 10533. An English source, for which an importation permit is required (wnte Permit Unit, USDA, PPQ, Federal Bmldmg, Room 638, Hyattsville, MD 20782), is: Peter man Beales Roses, Intwood Nurseries, NR14 8EA England. Swardeston, Norwich \"' calocarpa camna For Further Reading carolma cenufoha cmnamomea clmophylla cornfoha corymbifera davunca ditnchopoda dumahs elasmacantha fedtschenkoana gmaldm hibermca highdownensis hornda huntn modora tundz~lhi kochiana Nursery Sources for Species and Shrub Roses High Country Rosamum, 80218 8 1717 Downing, Denver, CO JosephJ Kern Rose Nursery, Box 33, Mentor, OH 44060 Lowe's Own Root Nursery, 6 Sheffield Road, Nashua, NH 03062 Mike's Roses, 6807 Smithway Drive, Alexandna, VA 22307. Pickering Nurseries, 670 Kmgston Road, Pickenng, Ontario LI V 1 A6 Canada. Roses of Yesterday and Today, 802 Brown's Valley Road, Watsonville, CA 95076. The following are the recent major publications on species and shrub roses: Bean, W. J. 1973-80. 8th ed. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the Bntish Isles London: Murray. The fourth volume contams an updated listing of species roses as well as a section by Graham Thomas on the major hybnds. Edwards, G. 1975. Wild and Old Garden Roses New York: Hafner. Like most of the other publications in this list, this is British in origin, and therefore much of the information needs to be adjusted to American climatic conditions. Gault, S. M., and P. M. Synge. 1971. The Dictionary of Roses m Color. New York' Grosset and Dunlap. Outstandmg color photographs of many species and shrub roses as well as hybnd teas and flonbundas. Gibson, M. 1973. Shrub Roses for Every Garden. London : Collms. A most comprehensive and readable account of shrub roses. Kordes, W. 1964. Roses London: Studio Vista First published m Germany, this is a first-person account by the major breeder of shrub roses in the 20th century. Krussman, Gerd. 1981. The Complete Book of Roses Portland, Oregon: Timber Press Inadequate editmg and layout mar a remarkable book, which has an excellent section on species roses. The original German title, Rosen, Rosen, Rosen, better captures the spmt of the book. Shepherd, R. 1978. Repnnt. History of the Rose. New York: Coleman. This is the major American reference for those who wish to grow species roses and their hybnds. First published m 1954, it is not a history of the rose but rather a horticultural and botanical survey of the entire genus. 16 Thomas, G. S. 1956. The Old Shrub Roses. London: . Phoenix House. 1962. Shrub Roses of Today. London: Phoenix House. . 1965. Chmbmg Roses Old and New. London: Phoenix House Thomas is an authority on shrub roses and for accuracy and a graceful style has no equal. The three works above have been republished several times and contain the most comprehensive horticultural descriptions of species roses ever published. Jonathan Shaw, the former director of the New En- gland Wild flower Society, is now director of Bok Tower Gardens, m Lake Wales, Flonda. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Castanea mollissima: A Chinese Chestnut for the Northeast","article_sequence":2,"start_page":17,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24827","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060856b.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Goodell, Edward","article_content":"Castanea mollissima: A Chinese Chestnut for Edward Goodell the Northeast Will the chestnut's future equal its past? Since before recorded history, species in the chestnut genus Castanea have been prime sources of food and wood in vast areas of Asia, Europe, and North America. During the 20th century, however, the chestnut's contribution has been reduced drastically by disease and pestilence. In response to these setbacks, chestnut research has increased worldwide (Jaynes 1975). These efforts, combined with the great genetic variability within the chestnut genus, seem destined to reassert the chestnut's preeminence as a forest and orchard tree. Though commercial plantings are still a questionable enterprise in many areas, home production of chestnuts can be highly recommended for suitable sites (zones 5 and 6) in the northeastern United States. The chestnut genus, which has 12 (Camus mercially successful: C. mollissima Blume, the Chinese chestnut; C. crenata, the Japanese chestnut; C. sativa, the European chestnut; and C. dentata, the American chestnut. The Chinese chestnut is cultivated in its native China and Korea. Centuries of seed selection have improved its resistance to chestnut blight and its production of nuts, but its wood remains very lightweight and weak and therefore has no commercial value. Of the north temperate species, it is the most resistant to blight. The Japanese chestnut, which is also native to southern Korea, has been cultivated in Japan for at least 3000 years and perhaps as many as 7000. The planting of chestnuts in both Japan and Korea has increased in recent decades, yet total production has remained about the same because of increasing damage from a devastating new pest called the gall wasp. In addition to yielding great quantities of nuts (27,000 metric tons annually), the Japanese chestnut produces strong, durable wood that is used in fine woodwork, ships, and railroad ties. For centuries the European chestnut has been a staple food and export commodity in the rural, hilly areas of southern Europe. Production has been reduced 85 percent since the turn of the century, both because of a decline of agrarianism in the region and 1929) or 13 (Jaynes 1975) species, is in the family (Fagaceae) as oaks and beeches. The genus originally evolved in the Orient, spreading west to Europe and east to North America via the Alaskan land bridge. The chestnut blight fungus (Endothia parasitica\/ comes from Asia, and Castanea species of that region have evolved various degrees of resistance, whereas European and American species are highly susceptible. Four species of Castanea have been comsame 18 ( the combined effect of a root-rot disease and the chestnut blight. Even so, over 180,000 metric tons of European chestnuts are produced annually in France and Italy alone. More than 4500 metric tons are currently exported to the United States yearly. The nuts of the European chestnut are similar to those of the Japanese chestnut. Both are relatively starchy, and their sugars are less soluble than those of the other chestnut species. In this country the American chestnut was the most important deciduous forest tree at the turn of the century. It was valued highly for its versatile decay-resistant wood, and its nut crops provided food for humans and substantial forage for livestock and wildlife. Then came the chestnut blight in 1904. In that year chestnut trees in New York City were found dying of an unknown cause. Investigations revealed a fungal, bark-canker disease that impeded the flow of sap. Large trees often died within two years of the first infection. The chestnut blight, as the disease was called, spread outward from New York City at the rate of 20 miles per year. Eventually, it completely decimated Castanea mollissima nut emergmg from bur Al Bussewitz photo 19 the American chestnut as a commercial forest tree. This pestilence, which was probably introduced from the Orient on nursery stock around 1890, is one of the most devastating epidemics of a plant disease caused by a pathogen from a foreign country. Because the blight fungus does not live below the ground level, stumps of diseased trees continue sending up healthy sprouts that eventually become infected and die, but in succession these sprouts keep the tree's root system alive for many years. As a result, chestnut saplings are a common sight in native forests. A few mature trees remain, especially beyond the northwestern extent of the American chestnut's range, where the infectious fungus spores are not so prevalent. For instance, over 6000 mature trees have been found in northern Michigan complicated, however, because the differstrains of fungus existing in different geographic areas are often incapable of is ent transmitting the virus to one another. Natural spread and long-term control have not been observed in the United States. Again, with further research the viral method could provide practical control in the future (Elliston and Jaynes 1977). ~ Description The Chinese chestnut is a coarse-textured, medium-sized tree with a round top. The spreading main branches usually diverge in an irregular pattern near the ground. The growth rate of this species is considered moderate, but both rate and form vary among individual specimens. The glossy green foliage is handsome and disease resistant. Its color in autumn can be described as somewhere between the dull yellow of hickories and the bronze of beeches. The Chinese chestnut is distinguished from other species by pubescence (presence of hairs) on the undersurface of leaves and on the young branch tips. The winter twigs are buff colored, sometimes with a red tinge on the upper surface, unlike the dark brown to purplish brown of other chestnut species. The leaves of the American chestnut are narrower, with a distinctly toothed margin. The Japanese chestnut leaves are distinguished by a bristle-tipped margin and by small glands appearing as tiny, pale dots on the undersides of young leaves. Crosses between these species have produced hybrid plants with a full range of intermediate characteristics. The individual flowers are not impressive, but a Chinese chestnut tree in full bloom is (Buisch 1978). Oriental Castanea species have sufficient resistance to survive the disease. Although infected, the trees seldom die, even though entire limbs may die. For this reason Japanese and Chinese chestnuts have been imported to replace the American species, and breeders are now attempting to combine the blight resistance of the oriental species with the timber form of the American. Some hybrid seedlings among the thousands planted show promise. Richard Jaynes (1979), geneticist with the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, summarized the prospects: \"With time and substantial effort it should still be possible to develop clonal selections and even relatively true breeding lines of blight-resistant timber chestnuts for the eastern United States.\" In Italy and France control of the blight has been achieved with a virus that infects the blight fungus and renders it incapable of continued attack. Control with this method 20 ( striking. An abundance of long, light yellow catkins offsets the glossy foliage. In Boston flowering occurs in late June and early July. The plants are monecious (having staminate [male] and pistillate [female] flowers on the same plant). The catkins, which are erect relative to the twig, are borne near the terminal end of the current season's growth. The long (eight-inch) catkins are comprised mainly of strongly scented staminate flowers. One to three pistillate flowers are located at the base of the catkins closest to the terminal end of the shoot. The staminate flowers are frequently visited by bees and other insects, including small beetles, but these agents are not necessary for pollination (Jaynes 1975\/. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous, without scent, and have long ularly mature nuts, but a better crop and denser habit occur in full sunlight. Established trees withstand drought well. The site adaptability, handsome foliage, and the unusual flowering effect of this productive nut tree make it a highly desirable element in the landscape. Fruit The developing chestnuts are surrounded by a green, spiny involucre, commonly known as a bur. The spines are soft at first but become stiff and sharp as the nuts inside ripen. There are usually three nuts inside each bur, although one or two often fail to develop. When the nuts are ripe, the burs open and the nuts fall free. The size of nuts from unselected Chinese chestnut seedlings varies widely, but cultivated varieties have large, dark mahogany-colored nuts. The latter are similar in size to the commonly available European chestnut, about one inch in diameter, with 30 to 50 chestnuts comprising a pound. A dark brown leathery seedcoat about one millimeter thick forms the outer covering of the nut. Inside this, a papery thin fibrous brown pellicle(skin) adheres to the nut. The pellicle is more readily peeled from Chinese chestnuts than from European or Japanese chestnuts. Like that of other oriental chestnuts, the Chinese nutmeat has a rich yellow color. The nutmeat of American and European chestnuts is white. The edible portion of a fresh nut is 40 to 50 percent carbohydrate (mostly starch), 5 percent oil, 5 percent protein, and about 50 percent water. Chinese chestnuts are considered generally less sweet and flavorful than American chestnuts but much better tasting than European or Japanese chestnuts. styles. Chinese chestnuts adapt to a wide range of well-drained sites, doing best on lighttextured, acidic (pH 5.5) soils. They apparently are much more productive in warm soil than in cool, high humus bottomland soil. Vegetation characteristic of such sites is red oak, pine, sassafras, and bitternut hickory. It is commonly stated that Chinese chestnuts are hardy in zone 5, surviving at -20F. However, the buds near the terminal end of the shoot may be injured by temperatures slightly warmer than that if a rapid decrease occurs (personal communication from Alfred Szego). Since most of the flowers are produced on terminal buds, significant decreases in yield may result in zone 5. The Japanese chestnut is generally less hardy. However, many variations exist among individual plants. Frost pockets must be avoided because new growth in both species is susceptible to injury from late spring frosts. Partially shaded Chinese chestnut trees at the Arnold Arboretum reg- 21 Chestnut trees in full sun can bear crops annually, in contrast to many other nut trees, which do so only biennially. The flowers appear on the current season's growth well after the danger of frost has passed. At least two seedlings or cultivars must be planted within 100 to 200 feet of each other to ensure cross-pollination and optimal fruit set. Seedlings commonly bear fruit in four to seven years, while grafted trees often bear within two years. Mature trees may yield 35 to 55 pounds of nuts each year. In the United States commercial plantings of Chinese chestnut trees exist only in the southeastern states. However, observations at Vineland, Ontario, Canada suggest that commercial-size crops are possible in the northeastern United States (Society of Ontario Nut Growers). Seedling trees are widely available from commercial nurseries and state conservation agencies, but cultivars, which are not widely available, are far more valuable as nut producers. Several cultivars worthy of mention for the Northeast are described on page 26. Propagation The scarcity of Chinese chestnut cultivars results from the difficulty of propagating these plants vegetatively. Graft-union failures often occur after several years of vigorous growth. The suspected causes are a combination of factors, such as incompatibility between the stock and the scions, lack of stock hardiness, poor grafting technique, and blight fungus in the union. The greatest success is obtained by grafting a cultivar onto its own seedlings. To do this dormant scions must be collected in late winter. The scion and root stock diameters should be equal. The scions should be stored with a slightly damp paper towel in a sealed plastic bag at normal refrigerator temperatures. Grafting must be performed after all danger of late spring frosts is past. Because only a single bud occurs per node, no reserved buds are available to break dormancy. The root stock will have leaves at the time of grafting, but all growth within 15 inches below the graft area should be removed. Grafts are most successful when located at least a foot above ground level. Chestnuts respond well to bench grafting in a greenhouse. Root stocks must be dug as soon as possible in the spring, brought into the greenhouse, and grafted immediately. Successful grafts can grow 20 inches before being moved outdoors in early June. A simple splice or whip graft is most effective with scions that have the same diameter size as the root stock. When grafting established trees, it is best to splice-graft small stems. Grafts on main scaffold branches usually fail. Summer budding is not successful with chestnuts, but grafting in spring using dormant buds on a growing root stock is common in Europe. Growth from grafted buds is apparently more vigorous than that from grafted scions. Desiccation of the graft union may be prevented by any means except using an asphalt-based compound, to which chestnuts are sensitive. The entire union may be wrapped in a plastic bag that has been sprayed with white paint. This helps retain moisture and keeps the union warmer for optimal healing. Buds should be rubbed off the root stock at two-week intervals. After a month all materials except the budding rubber must be removed. Scion shoots should be growing at this time. Tying the new shoots to a support- 22 ( ing splint will protect them from wind damage. Steps in Propagating Chestnuts by the Chip-Bud Method. 1. Harvest nuts in fall and place m moist, cold storage (32F to 40F) for 90 days. 2. Place nuts in moist, warm \/70F to 75F\/ germinatmg medium. 3. When shoots emerge and leaves begm unfolding, remove sprouts from germinatmg medium and cut off leafy portion of shoot. 4. Cut shield-shaped chip from remammg g portion of shoot. 5. On plant to be grafted, cut chip of same size and shape around bud on basal two-thirds of previous year's growth. 6. Bind bud and shoot together m position of maximum cambial contact. 7. Place graft in contamer deep enough to accommodate tap root. 8. Place container m humidity case at 70F to 75F. 9. When graft umon has healed and bud is leafing out, begm to reduce heat gradually. 10. Plant outdoors m June. Drawmg by Michael Grassi Chip-budding sprouted chestnut seed is a recently developed propagation method with promise for both amateur and professional horticulturists (Jaynes 1980). Using this technique, I successfully grafted 29 plants out of a total of 48. It eases the grafting process somewhat and greatly reduces the amount of time required to produce from seed a grafted plant ready for transplanting (see diagram below). Despite improvements, vegetative propagation is still considered difficult, and justly so. In contrast, growing plants from seed is relatively simple. Consequently, virtually all of the chestnuts sold or grown in orchards in this country come from seedlings. Seed should be collected from parent trees that are known for blight resistance, heavy yields, high quality nuts, and good form. The 23 nuts dehydrate rapidly after releasing from the bur, losing their ability to germinate unless promptly sown or stored at high humidity between 32F and 40F. A good method is to mix freshly harvested nuts with an equal amount of peat moss. This mixture should be sealed in a sturdy plastic bag and stored in the crisper in a refrigerator until ready to plant. A few drops of water may be substituted for the peat moss. Condensation on the inside of the bag indicates an over damp condition. Nuts may germinate in storage but if carefully handled may be successfully grown. The tendency of chestnuts to sprout prematurely makes fall a good time to sow seeds. Even at near-freezing temperatures during late winter and early spring, the nut will germinate and establish its rudimentary root system. There are some pest problems with fall sowing, however. Weevil larvae in the nuts can enter the soil, pupate, and pose a threat to subsequent crops. Another pest is the squirrel. Regardless of the planting time, rodent protection must be provided until the seedlings are about a foot high. Otherwise, the kernel may be dug up and the entire plant killed or stunted. Covering the seeds with woven wire during storage and after the seedlings have germinated will also protect the plants against rodents. To sow seeds, place nuts on their sides about two inches below the surface of fertile, well-drained soil. A thick insulative mulch will protect the seeds from damage (chestnut seeds are damaged by temperatures below -24F), but the seeds' location must be carefully marked so the mulch can be pulled back in the spring. About 95 percent of sound chestnut seed can be expected to germinate. It is best to plant as early in spring as The culture of Chinese chestnuts is similar to that of peaches. Frost pockets must be avoided to protect the easily injured young foliage from late frosts. Light, slightly acidic soils are best, although heavier, calcareous soils are satisfactory if drainage is sufficient. Young chestnut trees are affected by drought conditions. This is unlikely to be a problem in the northeastern United States except during the first growing season. Dormant chestnut trees transplant successfully. It is important to spread the roots evenly and provide adequate water until they are established. Mulching (after the soil has warmed up) will reduce weeds, conserve soil moisture, and add organic matter to the soil. Spring is the best time for fertilizing, although fertilizing is not necessary in the first year. Since fertilizers may burn the bark, they must not be allowed to come in contact with it. Mature chestnut trees need approximately a 25-foot space between them. Seedling chestnuts can be planted much closer together until their fruiting characteristics can be evaluated, but the poor producers must then be eliminated. As little as a five- to eight-foot space is sufficient for the first two fruiting years (Jaynes 1979). Seeds can be sown closer, because sick and stunted plants can be eliminated each year as they approach fruiting age. Depending on the parent trees and the grower's standards, up to 10 percent of the offspring will be worth keeping. The pollen parent is equally important for pro- possible. ducing superior offspring. Pruning should be kept to a minimum. In young trees it delays the onset of bearing, and in older trees it can reduce yields. Pruning in early summer will help direct the tree's energy into fruit production rather than stimulate vegetative growth (Society of 24 Ontario Nut Growers 1980). However, open wounds are more susceptible to infection at this time than during the dormant season (Bey 1979). The best overall tree shape is conical with a central leader and horizontal scaffold branches. This shape serves two functions. First, it allows the most sunlight to reach the fruiting ends of the branches, and second, it provides the most shade to the trunk, which is susceptible to sunscald. Unshaded horizontal or drooping branches retain more carbohydrates and produce more fruit than do ascending branches. The Chinese chestnut's natural tendency for spreading branches may make a centralleader shape impossible to maintain without excessive pruning, however. Pests The blight is the most prevalent pest problem of chestnuts in the northeastern United States (Payne and Johnson 1979), but the oriental chestnuts have coevolved with the blight fungus and have developed resistance to it. The Chinese chestnut species is more resistant than the Japanese chestnut, but the resistance of individual plants varies within each species and with site conditions. Chinese chestnuts may become infected but usually heal quickly and are not severely affected. The chestnut weevil (Curculio sp.\/ can pose a serious problem. Immediate removal of fallen fruit from beneath trees prevents the weevil larvae from pupating in the soil and keeps the population at tolerable levels. Chestnuts must have adequate zinc, but this should not be a problem in the Northeast. A deficiency will show up as yellow, mottled leaves. High populations of gypsy moth larvae, and to a lesser extent Japanese beetles, can cause severe defoliation. Mites can build up to harmful levels if Sevin has been used to control leaf eaters. The southern and western regions of the United States have troublesome pests, and a couple of these oak wilt and blossom end rot have been reported as far northeast as Pennsylvania and New York. The symptoms of blight infection begin with the appearance of bark cankers on stems three or more years old. Cankers on young, smooth bark are orangy brown in contrast to the gray-green normal bark. Tan spore-containing processes extend from these during wet weather. The spores are washed away by rain or carried long distances by birds and insects. Cankers do not show up immediately on older thick bark but appear as abnormal splits and bulges in the bark as the infection advances. Removing the dead bark will usually reveal a fanshaped pattern of threadlike, fungal growth. Minimizing bark damage and treating wounds can help reduce infections. The blight rarely reaches more than a centimeter below the soil surface, and many soil organisms (tentatively identified as fungal Trichoclerma sp.) are believed to be antagonistic to the blight fungus. Some cankers have been successfully treated with soil compresses (Weidlich 1978). The treatment involves covering the canker with soil and wrapping it in plastic for several months during the growing season. The canker undergoes a complete remission and is sealed off with a healthy callus. Admittedly, this technique is labor intensive and suitable only for a small number of trees. The chestnut crop ripens in late September and October. Until then the spiny burs remain tightly closed around the nuts. - 25 At this stage gloves are an absolute necessity in handling the burs. As the nuts ripen, the nutshells change from white to brown, and the burs begin to split open, allowing the nuts to drop to the ground. The nuts must not be allowed to lie on the ground, because heat will cause the seeds inside to deteriorate rapidly, and squirrels and other wildlife will quickly carry the chestnuts away. The nuts can be collected without repeated visits to the tree if, when the first burs begin to open, as many as possible are harvested by shaking the limbs and gathering the burs from the ground. A hat, jacket, and gloves are needed to ward off the spiny burs as they fall. The burs should be stored in a cool, humid location, where they will continue to ripen and release their nuts within about a week. The nuts can then be easily separated from the bur chaff. mature Uses with a plastic bag stored in the crisper in a refrigerator, but no free moisture should be present. The nuts should be checked occasionally and molded ones discarded. Peeling the leathery seed coat of chestnuts is the first step in any preparation except roasting. The easiest way to do this is to make a slit across the scar side (opposite the point) and then bake the nuts in a preheated oven at 250F for 10 minutes. The seed coat will dehydrate and shrink, causing the nut to protrude through the opening. A gentle squeeze on the pointed end will pop the nuts free. Chestnuts may be eaten in many forms. Poultry stuffing is perhaps their most common use. The nuts may be stir fried, boiled and mashed like potatoes, and used raw or cooked in casseroles, salads, soups, and hot breakfast cereals. They may be cooked in syrup to create a glace dessert. Boiled chestnuts may be frozen for long-term storage. The traditional method of preparing chestnuts for eating is roasting in a skillet or oven. The resultant sweet snack has a grilled, tangy flavor. Chestnuts may also be eaten raw after drying the fresh nuts in a cool, airy place for a few days until they feel spongy. This slight drying increases the sugar content, producing a sweet, milky flavor. If they are allowed to, chestnuts will continue to dry until hard. At this stage their primary value is for grinding into flour, which can be used in baked goods, although it may be possible to rehydrate the nuts by steaming them for a half hour (Westwood Cultivars Except where noted, the following descriptions are adapted from Nut Tree CulNorth America (1979) by Richard Jaynes. 'Nanking' is the most widely distributed Chinese chestnut cultivar. It customarily bears heavy annual crops of large nuts, but these are not highly regarded for their flavor or storage qualities. 'Nanking' ripens nuts at the Arboretum in midOctober, about the time of the early autumn frosts. 'Eaton' is the selection with which to compare others in the Northeast. An attractive tree with large, waxy leaves, it averages 40 pounds of large nuts per year, and these mature two weeks earlier than those of ture in 1978). ). Cold storage at a high humidity level will keep the nuts fresh for at least eight weeks and often much longer, even until the next harvest. These conditions can be achieved 26 'Nanking' (Jaynes 1970). 'Eaton' probably has Chinese, Japanese, and American parentage, but it bears the closest resemblance to the Chinese species. 'Eaton' nuts compare favorably in taste with most American chestnuts. 'Orrin' grows slowly in a compact upright habit, yet it is a prolific producer of large, dark nuts. The tree is reportedly hardy to -34F (Campbell 1979). The nuts ripen a few days earlier than those of 'Nanking' and store better than most. The glossy, dark green foliage of 'Orrin' is relatively pest free, making this a productive ornamental tree for small spaces. The only disadvantage of 'Orrin' is that its upright branch crotches may be susceptible to breakage under load. In Douglass says that they, too, eventually will succumb unless sprayed with fungicides. 'Au Cropper', 'Au Homestead', and 'Au Leader' were all selected and recently released by the Auburn Experiment Station in Auburn, Alabama, but I have no data regarding their suitability for the Northeast. Chinese chestnuts are a valuable foodproducing tree for home landscapes in the Northeast and may someday be a commercial crop. With the natural variability of the Castanea genus, great genetic potential exists for producing trees with superior nuts, timber, and pest resistance. The realization of that potential is proceeding through the efforts of both professional geneticists and amateur growers. Fortunately, several superior cultivars and seeds are currently available. Author's Note: I would like to acknowledge the invaluable comments and support of the following persons, whose contributions immeasurably added to the depth and scope of this article: Stephen Breyer, Earl Douglass, Henry Hartman, Richard Jaynes, Elwyn Meader, and Alfred Szego. general, 'Orrin' seedlings are regarded as superior. 'Sleeping Giant', as the name implies, is a large tree. This cultivar is a seedling of a Chinese chestnut that was pollinated by a Japanese and American hybrid. Its leaves are large and very glossy, and the original tree, located in Connecticut, consistently yields large nuts that have a flavor comparable to that of 'Nanking'. 'Sleeping Giant' is reportedly difficult to graft, although I have had success using the chip-bud technique. 'Henry VIII', from New Jersey, is a seed- ling of 'Crane' x 'Orrin'. It produces topquality nuts and has dark, pest-resistant foliage. Its shape is pleasantly round. Earl Douglass, who lives east of Rochester, New York, has hybrid seeds and seedlings of oriental chestnut crossed with a native American chestnut. Some of these hybrids reportedly have timber form, are cold-hardy, and ripen nuts in September. They also have a relatively high resistance to blight compared to most American chestnuts, but an 27 Sources for Chestnut Seeds and Seedlings The following is a list of nurseries special- Buisch, W. Campbell, Camus, A. shell, 1978. Spreadmg the chestnut trees. Nut31 ~2\/:2-3. R. D. 1979. The merry nut growers. Nutnot izing in tree crops. Many are run as small part-time businesses. Orders should be placed well in advance, because supplies are often limited. Most have catalogues available upon request. Auburn Nursery, 1930 South AL 36830. shell, 32 \/4\/: paged. 1929. Les Chataigmers: Monographie des Genres Castanea et Castanopsis. Pans: Paul LeChevalier. Elliston, J., and R. Jaynes. 1977. Biological control of chestnut blight: A progress report. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Associauon, Hartmann, 68:84-90. H. 1972. An evaluation of chestnut varieties : Crane, Ornn, and a hybrid of the two. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association, 63:73-75. Jaynes, R. A. 1980. Chip budding sprouted chestnut seed. Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association, 71:53-55. 1979. \"Chestnuts.\" In Nut Tree Culture m North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes, Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers Association. College Street, Auburn, Campberry Farms, c\/o Mr R. D Campbell, R R 1, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontano, Canada LOS 1J0. Improved strains of nuts. Earl Douglass, Red Creek, NY 13143. Seeds and seedlings of Chinese and American chestnut hybrids. John H. Gordon, Jr., 1385 Campbell Boulevard, North Tonawanda, NY 14120. Seeds, seedlings, and root stocks. Grimo Nut Nursery, R R 3, Lakeshore Road, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada LOS IJO. Good selection of cultivars and seedlings. Custom propagation . available. International Tree Crops Institute, Appalacluan Regional Office, Route 1, Gravel Switch, KY 40328. Seedlings and cultivars. Jersey Chestnut Farm, 58 Van Duyne Avenue, Wayne, NJ 07470. Selected seedlings. Leslie Wilmoth Nursery, Route 2, Box 469, Elizabethtown, KY 42701. Seedlings and cultivars. Louis Gerardi Nursery, R R 1, O'Fallon, IL 62269. Seeds, seedlings, and cultivars. Nebraska Nut and Fruit Tree Seed Program, Nebraska Nut Growers Association, Box 4644, Lmcoln, NE 68504. Seed packets of native trees. Ray Guidi Nursery, 193 Curtis Avenue, Dalton, MA 01226. Seedlings. St. Lawrence Nursery, R D 2, Route 56A, Potsdam, NY 13676. Exceptionally hardy nuts. Robert G. Seip, R D 1, Box 683, Alburns, PA 18011. Cultivars and seedlings. Stark Brothers Nursery, Louisiana, MO 63353. Seedlings and cultivars. Talbott Nursery, R R 3, Box 212, Lmton, IN 47441. 1975. \"Chestnuts.\" InAdvances m Frmt Breedmg, edited by Jules Janick and James N. Moore. West Lafayette, Indiana: Purdue University Press. \" . 1970. \"The 'Eaton' Chestnut : A New Cultivar.\" Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association, 61:82-84. Payne, J. A., and W. T. Johnson. 1979. \"Plant Pests.\" In Nut Tree Culture in North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers Association. Society of Ontano Nut Growers. 1980. Chestnuts. Ontario Canada: Society of Ontano Nut Growers. Weidlich, W. H. 1978. A preliminary report on a method of biological control of the chestnut blight. Proceedings of the Amencan Chestnut Symposium in West Virginia, pp. 79-83. Westwood, M. N. 1978. Temperate Zone Pomology. San Francisco: Freeman. . Seedlings. References Bey, C. F. 1979. \"Pruning.\" In Nut Tree Culture in North America, edited by R. A. Jaynes. Hamden, Connecticut: Northern Nut Growers Associa- tion. Edward Goodell is the author of \"Two PromismgFrmt t Plants for Northem Landscapes,\" which appeared in the fall 1982 issue of Amoldia. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Acer saccharum ''Newton Sentry': Setting the Record Straight","article_sequence":3,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24825","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060816d.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Dathe, Michael","article_content":"A. saccharum 'Newton Sentry' (foreground) in the Maple collection at the Arnold Arboretum Acer saccharum Michael Dathe 'Newton Sentry': Setting the Record Straight It stands in slope just Newton overgrown shrub border on a to the left of the main entrance to an (Until 1900 the sugar maple was widely Cemetery. Scrub growth of Norway maples, buckthorn, and weeds grow around its base, and yews have closed in on three sides, leaving only a portion of the trunk visible. \"Not one person in ten thousand takes note of it or realizes that it is unique,\" Newton resident A. H. Fewkes wrote in 1924. In the years since, it has received little more recognition. The tree is the original of its type, a muof Acer saccharum, the common sugar maple, and has the narrowest canopy of any sugar maple known. F. L. Temple, the Cambridge, Massachusetts, nurseryman who introduced it into cultivation, described the tree as \"exhibiting towering shafts of foliage\" in startling contrast to the spreading branches of the common species. Temple's 1885-86 catalogue for Shady Hill Nurseries contains the following description: tant known as Acer saccharinum, which is now the correct name of the silver maple.)( Two years after introducing the Newton Cemetery tree into cultivation, Temple also introduced another upright maple, which he calledAcersaccharinum monumentale. Although the two trees are readily distinguishable, their names quickly became confused in horticultural literature, and that confusion still exists today. Bernard Harkness, a taxonomist for the city of Rochester, New York, attempted to clarify the issue in 1954 and proposed the names Acer saccharum 'Newton Sentry' for the Newton Cemetery tree and Acer saccharum 'Temple's Upright' for the other in an article in Baileya (volume 2, number 3, page 99). In that article Harkness correctly identified the two trees with regard to the central leader, but in listing their distinguishing characteristics attributed the stubby lateral branches of 'Newton Sentry' to 'Temple's Upright'. A drawing Acer saccharinum columnare remarkable form of the Sugar Maple, which grows in a compact, columnar shape.... The original tree of this sort is 30' high, and only 21h'm diameter at the top. The leaves are thick and leathery, and of a very dark color, which gives it a rich appearance. This tree ... will be the parent of a new type of lawn and landscape is a most This tree.... that accompanied the article perpetuated the confusion, for the artist had drawn the 'Newton Sentry' with a central leader and the 'Temple's Upright' without. The latter mistake was carried into Donald Wyman's Trees for American Gardens ( 1965~ and Hortus Third as well as numerous other publications. Arnoldia played its part in perpetuat- 30 ing the confusion in an article (volume 36, number 4, pages 168-69) by Richard E. Weaver, in which photographs of the two trees appeared with the names reversed. The key identifying features of the mature Sentry' are: Lack of a single central trunk above six feet from the ground Major and minor branches vertical Short, stubby lateral branchlets on secondary branches 'Newton The key identifying characteristics of the mature 'Temple's Upright' are: Strong central leader well into the crown Major and minor branches gradually as- cending Absence of short, stubby lateral branchlets (secondary branches similar to those of the typical sugar maple)( The original 'Newton Sentry' in Newton Cemetry is now 50 feet high with a 16-inch diameter and a 14-foot spread. As 'Newton Sentry' matures, it develops several major leaders. Branches coming off these leaders closely follow them upward, giving the tree its extremely columnar form. The lateral branches on the secondary branches are generally one to six inches long and often resemble the flowering spurs on fruit trees. Acer saccharum 1871, when he was a student at the school. was It 'Temple's Upright' has an elliptical silhouette, with a single main central trunk and major branches bowing out before gently curving upward. It is a superb graceful, branching landscape tree. No data exist on how or where Mr. Temple acquired his first cuttings or whether the parent tree is still standing. Fewkes observed the tree in its original location, on the grounds of the Claflin Grammar School in Newton, Massachusetts, in later (between 1875 and 1880) moved to Newton Cemetery when the school was being enlarged. By 1954 it had grown to 40 feet high, with a 12-inch diameter at approximately breast height. In 1885 the Arnold Arboretum received cuttings of the Newton Cemetery tree from Henry Ross, the cemetery's supervisor of grounds, and the resultant tree (number 2119), in the maple collection, is now 60 feet high, with a 16-inch diameter and a 17-foot spread. That tree for years was mislabeled because of the confusion with 'Temple's Upright' but now is labeled correctly. Two other trees propagated from number 2119 31 of the low branches needed for screening purposes. Its fall coloration is earlier but otherwise similar to that of the common sugar maple. This early defoliation can be used to lengthen the fall foliage season when used in tandem with later defoliating trees. 'Newton Sentry' also has potential as a street tree, having been used in a strip planting in the center of the town of Sheffield, Massachusetts, with good results. In my opinion the tree's best use in the designed landscape is as a focal point, where its distinctly different growth pattern would be most visible. A. saccharum 'Temple's Upnght' also grow in the Arboretum; one, in the Weld-Walter Tract, is 27 years old, 25 feet high, 4 inches in diameter, and 7 feet in spread; and the other, on Peter's Hill, is 50 years old, 20 feet high, 3 inches in diameter, and 4 feet in spread. The latter cannot be considered indicative of the growth rate of 'Newton Sentry' as it has resprouted from the base following destruction by vandals. For all Temple's hope for his new introduction, 'Newton Sentry' has never become a popular landscape plant. The usual design limitations of columnar trees and its own sticklike appearance in winter for the first 25 years are possible reasons for its lack of popularity. Another reason may be its lack Michael Dathe is a landscape designer and a resident of Newton, Massachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24829","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd070a328.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"NEWS New Hardy Forsythia for the Northern Plains The Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Agricultural Experiment Station, North Dakota State University, Fargo, and the Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Agricultural Experiment Station, South Dakota State University, Brookings, in collaboration with the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, recently announced the pending naming and release in 1985 of a new hybrid forsythia selection that is hardy in the northern plains, where for- this population in full bloom after the unusually cold 1966-67 winter, while a mass planting of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis' surrounding the new hybrid was nearly devoid of flowers. Similar performance has been noted in trials in the northern plains. The forsythia will be officially registered and named in early 1984, and first sale or general distribution to the public will begin in spring 1985. Dormant hardwood cuttings and one-year liners will be available to commercial propagators from January to April 1984. At that time written requests for materials can be sent to Dale E. Herman, Ph.D., Department of Horticulture and Forestry, North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND 58105. American Conifer A new, sythias were previously nonadapted. In the northern plains most commercially available forsythia species and cultivars flower reliably only on branches below the snowline. When flowers are produced above the snowline, their numbers are usually so sparse that the inherent floriferous qualities of forsythia species and cultivars are largely lost. The new forsythia is a shrub with superior flower-bud hardiness and showy spring flowers. Flower buds have shown hardiness at temperatures of -35F, and the plant is therefore recommended throughout zone Society 3 of both the USDA or Arnold Ar- boretum plant-hardiness maps. The selection merits trial farther north in zone 2b as well. The plant originated via the breeding work of Karl Sax, Ph.D., and cytologist Haig Derman at the Arnold Arboretum. It resulted from a cross of Forsythia ovata (early forsythia) and F. europaea (Albanian forsythia). Harrison Flint, Ph.D., while working at the Arnold Arboretum, observed a plant from nonprofit society has been created development, preservation, and propagation of conifers, education of the public, and clarification of conifer nomenclature, with an emphasis on conifers that are dwarf and unusual. A quarterly publication will be circulated, and an annual meeting of the general membership will be held. For membership information contact the secretary, Jean Iseli, 15241 SE Tickle Creek Road, Boring, OR 97009, or the president, Robert Fincham, 425 N 5th Street, Lehighton, PA 18235. for the Notice to Readers It has been reported to us by Joseph A. Witt, research professor at the Center for Urban Horticulture at the University of Washington, that the Clearwater River stand of Corn us nuttallii in northern Idaho, described by Robert Nicholson in the fall 1982 issue of Arnoldia, was badly infested with a Cornus anthracnose when Witt visited the site in 1980. BOOKS The New York Botanical Garden Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture, by Thomas H. Everett. New York and London: Garland Publishing. 10 vols. $525. RICHARD A. HOWARD The disease appears to be a new fungus taxon, and preliminary reports indicate that it is widespread throughout the range of Cornus nuttallii. It can be transmitted by both seedlings and seed, and it or a similar species of anthracnose may also infect C. florida and C. kousa. Anyone in receipt of seedlings or seed of the Clearwater stand should be aware of the disease potential and dispose of infested plants by burning. Presence of the disease is indicated by brown necrotic areas centering around leaf veins, and occasionally on the petioles, causing partial or complete defoliation. The first volume of this splendid work appeared in 1980, and the lOth and last in 1982. Three million words, 3596 numbered about 800 in pages, 10,000 photographs color 20,000 species, 3600 genera, and 2500 cross-referenced items comprise the work, for which the deserved superlatives have been used in other reviews. Each volume contains the same foreword by the late - John M. Fogg, Jr., a preface, acknowledgments, data on how to use the work, and a \"General Subjects\" heading. These are worthy of close examination, for the author's stated philosophy in compiling the book is closely followed throughout the volumes. All entries, from \"Aaron's Beard\" (Hypericum calycinum)to Zygopetalum (with six species and one hybrid described) are arranged alphabetically. Most entries deal with genera. Bigeneric hybrids and chimeras are treated as binomials; thus there are seven bi- or trigeneric named hybrids involving Brassavola, and Crataegomespilus is differentiated from Crataemespilus. For the plant families listed, data are included on their distribution, size, and characteristics, as well as a list of the genera included in this work, inviting further delving. A comparable list of species may accompany some generic treatments, e.g., Rhododendron, but one must also check "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24826","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd0608526.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":null,"article_content":"by Robert Nicholson in the fall 1982 issue of Arnoldia, was badly infested with a Cornus anthracnose when Witt visited the site in 1980. BOOKS The New York Botanical Garden Illustrated Encyclopedia of Horticulture, by Thomas H. Everett. New York and London: Garland Publishing. 10 vols. $525. RICHARD A. HOWARD The disease appears to be a new fungus taxon, and preliminary reports indicate that it is widespread throughout the range of Cornus nuttallii. It can be transmitted by both seedlings and seed, and it or a similar species of anthracnose may also infect C. florida and C. kousa. Anyone in receipt of seedlings or seed of the Clearwater stand should be aware of the disease potential and dispose of infested plants by burning. Presence of the disease is indicated by brown necrotic areas centering around leaf veins, and occasionally on the petioles, causing partial or complete defoliation. The first volume of this splendid work appeared in 1980, and the lOth and last in 1982. Three million words, 3596 numbered about 800 in pages, 10,000 photographs color 20,000 species, 3600 genera, and 2500 cross-referenced items comprise the work, for which the deserved superlatives have been used in other reviews. Each volume contains the same foreword by the late - John M. Fogg, Jr., a preface, acknowledgments, data on how to use the work, and a \"General Subjects\" heading. These are worthy of close examination, for the author's stated philosophy in compiling the book is closely followed throughout the volumes. All entries, from \"Aaron's Beard\" (Hypericum calycinum)to Zygopetalum (with six species and one hybrid described) are arranged alphabetically. Most entries deal with genera. Bigeneric hybrids and chimeras are treated as binomials; thus there are seven bi- or trigeneric named hybrids involving Brassavola, and Crataegomespilus is differentiated from Crataemespilus. For the plant families listed, data are included on their distribution, size, and characteristics, as well as a list of the genera included in this work, inviting further delving. A comparable list of species may accompany some generic treatments, e.g., Rhododendron, but one must also check 34 \"Azaleas,\" where two alphabetical lists and found for native and exotic species. The author indicates that \"vegetables, fruits, herbs and ornamentals,\" the common as well as some unusual ones, are treated. Thus, cabbage and cauliflower are discussed fully under their common names but are also mentioned, often with additional and different information, under Brassica. Cherry and peach have individual entries, with supplementary information under Prunus. Regrettably, such entries are not cross referenced. The \"General Subjects\" category, pages xvii to xx in each volume, is a list of words treatments are alphabetical (Rosaaccording to a horticultural classification (roses), or seemingly at random (Begonia, perhaps the largest entry in the work). The reader may have to search several times to determine if the species, hybrid, or cultivar sought is included. The practical information for each genus is found in subentries clearly marked \"Gardening and Landscape Uses,\" \"Cultivation,\"and \"Pests and Diseases.\" The first two are invariably excellent and the last often weak or inadequate (e.g., Dutch elm disease is not mentioned under any title words but only casually under Ulmus, with a frequently repeated suggestion to consult a local extension specialist). The individual entries are remarkably easy to read or to scan, as the writing is superior; and happily the book is truly an once or representing entries grouped as \"plant anatomy and terms used in plant descriptions;\" \"gardening terms and information;\" \"fer\" tilizers and other substances related to gardening;\"\"technical terms;\" \"types of gardening ;\" \"pests, diseases and other troubles ;\"and \"groupings of plants.\" These in essence represent a topical index or table of contents by subject. The cross references (of which there are 2,500), are exemplified by \"Boojam Tree is Idria columnaris\" (which see is implied) or \"Adhatoda. See Justicia.\" The entries for genera are both technical and practical. A guide to the pronunciation and derivation of the name is given, as well \" American encyclopedia. as common names, general characteristics, the number of species, the origin, geographic distribution, and often some history of uses. The species names may be accompanied by a few synonyms. The meaning of the species epithet may be found in a 15-page listing of \"plant names.\" The species considered in each generic treatment may be located by the bold italic printing of the accepted name. The arrangement, however, may be according to their botanical classification (in Quercus by subgenus, section, and subsection), How good is the coverage? Of multivolume works in English, L. H. Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (reprinted often without changes from 1928)( and Chittenden's RHS Dictionary ofGardening (with supplements) are still available. Bailey's is out of date for the plants considered and for the nomenclature, but the gardening instructions never age. The RHS dictionary may be more recent but is European in its emphasis on available plants and techniques. Both works have some aids to identification in the form of keys, which the encyclopedia lacks. Perhaps the more appropriate comparision of plants discussed should be with Hortus III, recognizing the necessary brevity of entries in a one-volume work. Compare two small families, the Gesneriaceae and the Primulaceae. For the former the encyclopedia treats 45 genera, 4 of which are not in Hortus III; for the latter, 35 Hortus III has 47 genera, 5 of which are not in the encyclopedia. For the Primulaceae the encyclopedia treats 14 genera (including Dionysia, a segregate of Primulawhile Hortus III has an equal number of genera but includes the Ardisiandra, which is not in the ency- rare plete treatment of the family, while the \"lumpers\" have not. As to the English nomenclature represented by \"cactuses,\" Everett states, \"Surprising perhaps to readers accustomed to the use of cacti as the plural of cactus, cactuses is the correct English form. There is nothing wrong with using the Latin cacti, but then neither is there with the use of croci as the plural of crocus, yet most people prefer crocuses.\" Thanks to the guidance of Dr. John Mickel of the New clopedia. Within the genus Primula the encyclopedia treats 51 species or hybridspecies, 40 percent of the number of entries encyclopedia does list two additional species that are not in Hortus III. Again, Primula is an example of a collectors' genus, and Hortus attempts to list all taxa (singular taxon, a useful botanical term for any unit of classification but not included in the encyclopedia) reported in cultivation. Comparing the treatment of larger families, the encyclopedia treats 77 genera of the Rosaceae, while Hortus III lists but 71. In the Leguminosae the encyclopedia considers 171 genera, 19 of which are not in Hortus III, while Hortus III lists 195 genera, 41 of which are not in the encyclopedia. However, all genera of both families represented in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are listed in both works, while the Fairchild Tropical Garden inventory contains 13 genera not in the encyclopedia and 6 not in Hortus III. Neither publication attempts to include the holdings of all the botanical gardens of the United States, but each does remarkably well. Mr. Everett states in the preface, \"The vexing matter of plant nomenclature inevitably presents itself when an encyclopedia of horticulture is contemplated.\" Fortunately, he chose to adopt the nomenclature of Hortus III, with the exception of the cactuses and the ferns. Unfortunately, in the Cactaceae he has chosen to follow Backeburg, a \"splitter\" who, however, did publish a comin Hortus III. The York Botanical Garden for the treatment of the ferns, the resulting nomenclature is more in accord with the modern classification of these plants than is the treatment in Hortus III. Everett also states, \"The decision usually not to differentiate between natural varieties and cultivars (horticultural varieties) in this Encyclopedia will be deplored by some,\" but then in the groups for which standards have been worked out, he does indeed use \"cv\" or the single quotation marks and the standard procedure of fancy names (mostly) in English. If there is a shortfall to this work, it may be that not enough terms are defined. For example, regarding the inflorescence Everett states, \"No satisfactory classification of the types of inflorescences has been devised by botanists, and by gardeners, terms describing them are usually loosely applied.... In this Encyclopedia very specialized terms for particular types of inflorescences are avoided and those commonly used by gardeners substituted, often with some flexibility of application.\" In the \"General Subject Listing\" of terms used in plant descriptions only, \"head,\" \"panicle,\"and \"catkin\" refer to the inflorescence type and are defined in the text, while \"raceme,\"\"spike,\" and \"umbel\" are used but not defined. The one or more free blank pages in the back of each volume 36 might well have been used for illustration and identification of leaf shapes or inflorestypes. The colored plates are of necessity not always closely associated with the related text and are not referenced. At the end of volume 10, perhaps to correct this oversight, there is an index of the colored illustrations of the 10 volumes. The calor work is superb. There are remarkably few errors of typography for a work of this magnitude; two pages of corrections have been issued for all 10 volumes and are available from the editor. The corrections will be made in subsequent printcence ings. This is the best volume or volumes of its kind ever compiled and published. The only problem with the work is a personal one: the work is addictive; I cannot stop browsing. We are all indebted to Thomas Everett for this illustrated encyclopedia of horticulture!t Richard A Howard, the former director of the Arnold Arboretum, is a professor of dendrology at Harvard University "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23371","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270896e.jpg","title":"1983-43-3","volume":43,"issue_number":3,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Biology of Aquatic Plants","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24824","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd0608128.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":2,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Tomlinson, P. B.","article_content":"The Biology of Aquatic Plants P. B. Tomlinson ' Gray in his study of the genus Potamogeton (the pondweeds) referred to Asa them as a \"set of vile little weeds.\" Although this largely was with reference to their taxonomic complexity, it might well have reflected common attitudes in the 19th century towards plants of wetlands. Aquatic plants, with few exceptions, would have appeared to have neither commercial nor aesthetic value, and a study of them, except by the most devoted specialist, certainly might have been something of a chore. The situation is much different today because of the increasing awareness of the mutual dependence among organisms and a greater appreciation for the role that plants play in maintaining and stabilizing living communities. Wetlands are now known to be centers of initiation for complex food chains, and they play a part in the natural regulation of water resources. The heightened appreciation among professional biologists and amateur naturalists for the biological diversity that wetlands exhibit and the examples they can provide of adaptive processes is matched by an increased appreciation for aquatic plants as horticultural subjects. This comes from the very features that earlier had led to their neglect: the naturalism they can lend to cultivated landscapes. Part of this attraction is the multiplicity of forms characteristic of aquatic plants. Some of this variation occurs within single species and is one of the features that make them difficult to categorize taxonomically. This structural plasticity often helps a species adapt to an aquatic environment. Because water levels fluctuate, the adaptive response of the plant often must change. Without seeking more academic clarification, one can accept the terms \"aquatic plant\" and \"wetland\" as describing, respectively, plants that have some association with an environment with superabundant water and the vegetation type itself. This habitat may range from open water to regions with a seasonally water-logged soil; the water may be still or flowing. In the more typical situation, aquatic plants may or grow in, on, under water, the form of the plant frequently being highly adjusted to each situation. Free-floating plants have only a limited root system; submerged plants often have slender or trailing leaves. Based on north temperate experience, \"aquatic plant\" implies herbaceous plants but should include woody plants like alders, willows, and sweet gale, even though these may show no conspicuous adaptation to the wetland environment. However, in the shrubby genus Decodon, for example, the stems spread over the surface of the water and are modified so that they will initially float without getting water-logged. Unfortunately, most manuals of aquatic plants exclude a consideration of woody species. This 4 restriction is particularly inappropriate in the tropics, where swamp forests of considerable diversity exist, with the trees developing modified root systems in order to adapt to water-logged soils. Mangroves, or tidal forests, represent the most specialized group of woody aquatic plants, which are adapted to regular tidal inundation and demonstrate remarkable strategies that allow them to grow in the sea. Such is the dominance of trees in these tidal forests that the latter contam virtually no herbaceous plants. Another extreme marine community is provided by the so-called \"seagrasses,\" that is, flowering plants that live in the sea and always remain submerged except at the lowest tides. The word seagrass is a misnomer. Although the plants are all monocotyledons they are not related to the true grasses (family Gramineae or Poaceae). Their closest relatives are, in fact, the pondweeds and water-plantains of freshwater communities. Seagrasses can form extensive marine meadows in both tropical and temperate regions, almost invariably in sedimentary deposits that the larger seaweeds do not colonize well. Zostera (eelgrass) is the most familiar example in the northeastern United States. as preneur's dream, since they produce, on a renewable basis, raw materials from seawater! In the familiar freshwater herbaceous plants the biologist sees clear examples of structural modifications that adapt the plants to the varying degrees of wetness of the habitat. Submerged plants have pliable linear or dissected leaves, which minimizes drag resistance to moving water currents. The tissues are light and air-filled so that the organs are both bouyant and permit a certain development of an internal atmosphere. Mechanisms also exist for appreciable internal mass movement of gases: \"internal winds\" that facilitate oxygenation of root systems via floating leaves have been observed in water-lilies. In the more specialized aquatics mechanical tissues are reduced, since their erect organs are largely supported by the bouyant medium. Consequently, they have surplus biomass for extension and this accounts for their relative profligacy. \"Water weeds\" seems an appropriate term for plants that can rapidly block canals and ponds and generally create a nuisance where free passage is desired. One must always, however, interpret the functional significance of structural modifications with care. Aquatic plants typically have reduced water-conducting tissue (xylem), presumably because they are able to absorb over the whole of their surface that is in contact with water. Conserving internal water and minimizing its loss is not a problem for them. This does not necessarily mean that the xylem is totally nonfunctional, even though the cells are thin-walled. There is some evidence for a transpiration stream, as in terrestrial plants, but functioning with the mimmal risk of internal collapse of the conducting pathway. Sometimes, therefore, the probable water-con- Seagrass communities are recognized primary producers and stabilizers, providfor a variety of marine-animal life. Their mg directly or indirectly nutrients and shelter ecological importance, however, was recognized only quite recently. The study of both mangrove and seagrass communities has excited much attention among scientists because these plants epitomize the ideal agricultural or forestry system: they are self-fertilizing, self-irrigating, and self-generating, since their constituent species have remarkable adaptations for establishment. They represent an entre- 5 duits are internal canals from which normal thick-walled xylem cells disappear early in development. Specialization of the reproductive organs varies in aquatic plants. Most specialized aquatics have water-dispersed seeds (or spores), efficient because the seed largely remains within the medium appropriate for establishment. In most aquatic flowering the specialized wall layers that in dry pollen retain the protein recognition component. This reference to the change from ancestral aerial pollination to derived submerged pollination is but one example of evolutionary modification in plants of aquatic environments. plants the flowers are developed aerially and show no specialization relevant to the habitat. The flowers of Utricularia (the bladderworts) contrast remarkably with the vegetative parts, for example. In some aquatics, however, pollination occurs at or below the water surface and the modification always involves simplification of parts. Consequently, ancestral forms are not easy to trace. However, pollination at the water surface is particularly efficient; since pollen moves in only two dimensions the \"target\" (stigma of another flower) is easier to find than in three-dimensional submerged pollination. To facilitate attachment of pollen to stigmas in a number of plants whose life cycle is completed entirely under water, the pollen grains are individually threadlike or filamentous, as in eelgrass, or adhere in long chains, as in turtle-grass \/Thalassia\/. A floral mechanism in which the pollen gets wet offers considerable physiological problems compared with the normal method of dispersal of dry pollen. The water-soluble protein material that accompanies the pollen in normal aerial pollination, and which is part of the cell-recognition system of the pollenstigma interaction, is dispersed and no longer effective in underwater pollination. We do not, in fact, know how this recognition system works in submerged flowers, although the cell surface of pollen that germinates m submerged stigmas usually lacks Studies of the biology of aquatic plants are because of the diversity of functional mechanisms that the plants display. A number of excellent summaries provide the necessary overview. The earliest compendia were produced by German authors, and the work of Schenck is noteworthy. The English botamst Agnes Arber provided the first treatise in English, and the book has become a classic, as much for the limpid style as for the scientific content. More recent summaries include a very comprehensive survey by Sculthorpe. Shirley Haslam has provided an ecological description of river plants. At the taxonomic level there are treatments ot aquatic and wetland plants of several areas of the United States, and I myself have dealt with the seagrasses m a volume that places them in their systematic context. The list lengthens as one contemplates the contemporary scene; the flow of scientific literature guarantees that bookshelves will be filled. In addition to these books I have listed below a few examples of more readable scientific papers that elaborate on some of the points I have dealt with. I think that if Asa Gray were around today he would have cause to change his opinion about \"waterweeds.\" They offer remarkable examples of evolutionary modification in relation to the demands of a diversity of habitats that may be subject to continual change. numerous 6 Representative Publications Plants BOOKS Arber, A. 1920. Water Plants~A on Water Study of Aquatic Angiosperms Cambmdge University Press, SPECIALIZED PAPERS Cook, C. D. K. 1982. Pollination mechamsms m the Hydrochantaceae. Pp. 1-15 in Studies on Aquatic Vascular Plants (J. J Symoens, S S. Hooper, and P. Compere, eds.). Royal Botanical Society of Belgium, Brussels. A fascinating account of the Cambridge, England. A classic account, marked by a lucid and distinctive expository style. It was repnnted m 1963 as a measure of its importance and still serves as a guide for the older hterature. Cook, C. D. K., B. J. Gut, E. M. Rix,J Schneller, and M. Leitz. 1974. Water Plants of the World. W. Junk. The Hague A manual for the identification of the genera of freshwater macrophytes. A comprehensive systematic overview of aquatic plants on a cosmopolitan basis. Correll, D. S., and H. B. Correll. 1975. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Southwestern Umted States \/2 vols.\/. Stanford University Press, Stanford A detailed systematic treatment of plants m this geographic area. Godfrey, R. K., and J. W. Wooten 1979. Aquatic and States diversity of pollination mechamsms that can occur m an aquatic family. Dacey, J. W. H. 1981. Pressunzed ventilation m the yellow waterlily. Ecology 62: 1137-47. An account of how differential pressures are generated and can create \"mternal winds\" that promote gas exchange m an aquatic plant. Ogden, E. C. 1974. Anatomical patterns of some aquatic vascular plants of New York. New York State Museum Scientific Service Bulletin 424. A detailed description of anatomical features, often important m identification. Pettitt, J., S. Ducker, and R. B. Knox. 1981. Submanne pollination. The sea grasses, flowering below the ocean surface, must shed and capture pollen m an underwater habitat. What are the differences between their system of reproduction and that of land-based plants? Scientific Amencan 244: 135-143. Wetland Plants of the Southeastern Umted Monocotyledons. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. A systematic treatment of a geographical area. c Haslam, S. M. 1978. Rmer Plants The Macrophytic Vegetation of Water Courses Cambridge Umversity Press, Cambridge, England. A description of plants m flowmg waters, largely with examples from English rivers Magee, D. W. 1981. Freshwater Wetlands ~ A Guide to Common Indicator Plants of the Northeast. University of Massachusetts Press, Amherst, Massachusetts. A popular illustrated account with identification keys and descriptions of plants and habitat. Mason, H. L. 1957 A Flora of the Marshes of Cahforma University of California Press, Berkeley, Califorma. Schenck, H A regional flora of wetland plants. 1886 Die Biologie der Wassergewachse. Max Cohen, Berhn. An early review (in German) that established basic structural features of aquatic plants. C. D. 1967. The Biology of Aquaric Vascular Plants. Edward Arnold, London. A comprehensme survey but now a little out of date. Tomhnson, P. B. 1982. Helobiae \/Ahsmatidae~. Vol. 7 in Anatomy of the Monocotyledons C. R. Metcalfe, ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford. A technical description on a systematic basis of the group that mcludes all the seagrasses and the more exclusively aquatic families of monocotyledons. Sculthorpe, P B Tomlmson is a professor of biology at Harvard University. He is currently workmg on a book about mangroves. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":7,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24823","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060bb6f.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":2,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Dalton, Patricia A.","article_content":"Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Arnold Arboretum Patricia A. Dalton and Alejandro Novelo R. Illustrations by Amy Storey In contrast to terrestrial plants, aquatic and wetland plants are not permanent in their habitats. Year after year we find that a species that may be abundant m one year disappears in another. Because of fluctuating water levels, artificial destruction, pollution, and modification of the surface soil, some species are unable to survive. Such disturbances also create new habitats that allow alien species to become naturalized. As a result, we receive only glimpses of the complex relationships between the plants and their environment. It is important, therefore, to document the flora of an area over time, so that changes brought about by human modifications and environmental factors may be measured. The aquatic and wetland plants in the Arboretum are unique in that their status has been assessed from time to time throughout the history of the institution. E. J. Palmer's Spontaneous Flora of the Arnold Arboretum, the first account of wild plants in the Arboretum, was written in 1930. Palmer, who was a botanist on the staff of the Arboretum, recorded the following species as growing m the meadow or in shallow water at that time: calamus (Acorus calamus\/, ), bur-reed (Sparganium eurycarpumSt. John's-wort (Hypericum majus), cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinahsgreat blue lobelia (Lobelia siphilitica), waterweed (Elodea canadensls\/, two pondweeds (Potamogeton foliosus and P. epihydrus~, and even a rare aquatic in the primrose family (Hottoma mflata). Today not one of these plants can be found. Yet Palmer observed that even then the number of native species was decreasing rapidly in proportion to that of encroaching cultivated trees and shrubs The term aquatic plant usually refers to plants having a life cycle that revolves around water, being either completely submerged, emergent, or floating. Many defimtions of this term exist, however, as these plants exhibit a wide range of morphological expression, and a clear distinction between wet and dry environments is often impossible to achieve. Furthermore, in many areas there are seasonal fluctuations of the water table; for example, plants growing in dry soils most of the year may be flooded during the rainy season, and habitats with standing water may dry out during the summer months. Wetlands are transitional areas between aquatic and terrestrial environments, where the water table is usually at or just below the surface or where the land is covered by shallow water. At the Arnold Arboretum the most familiar wetland type is what is termed wet meadow. Though the water table may 8 be slightly below the surface of the ground, the soil on these sites receives a continuous supply of moisture. The vegetation includes grasses, which are usually the dominant species, sedges, and other marsh plants such as smartweeds, arrow-heads, rushes, and cat-tails. Like most meadows, these areas would soon grow to trees and shrubs if they were not mowed annually in the fall. One of the most familiar features of aquatic vegetation is the zonation or sequence of life forms, which is typically repeated in lakes, ponds, canals, swamps, and slow-moving rivers that are not drastically disturbed by humans. An illustration of this zonation may be found on page 9. The emergent plants occupying the shoreline, or marginal zones, are first in this sequence and are called attached emergent hydrophytes. These plants are attached to the substrate with a portion of the stem arising from the water, for example, cat-tails (Typha), ins (Iris), and pickerelweed ~Pontederia\/. All the reproductive parts of the plant are above water. sitional zone is the attached floatingstemmed hydrophytes. These plants are attached to the substrate with the stems floating on the surface of the water, for example, false loosestrife (Ludwigia) and some grass genera. The leaves may be emerging or floating, and the reproductive organs are usually aerial. The last group is comprised of plants growing in the deeper waters offshore. This includes the free-floating hydrophytes and the free submerged hydrophytes. Freefloating hydrophytes are unattached to the substrate, and their vegetative and reproductive organs float on the surface of the water, for example, duckweed (Lemna),water- fern (Azolla),and water-hyacinth (Eichor- nia).Free submerged hydrophytes are plants unattached to the substrate, with the vegetative organs submerged and the reproductive organs ple emerging from the water. An examof this is the bladderwort (Utricularia). The next group in the sequence is those plants found growing between the shoreline and the deeper waters, the transitional zone. This group includes three life forms. The attached floating-leaved hydrophytes are first. These plants are attached to the substrate, with the leaves floating on the surface of the water, for example, water-lilies (Nymphaea) and water-chestnuts (Trapa).The reproductive organs may be floating or emerging. The attached submerged hydrophytes are second. These plants are attached to the substrate, and their vegetative parts are fully submerged, for example, pondweed (Potamogeton)and naiads (Najas\/. The reproductive parts may be submerged, floating, or emerging. The third life form in the tran- Life forms of aquatic plants. Left to right: Attached floatmg-stemmed hydrophyte (Lud- wigia~;free-floating hydrophyte (Lemna Ii free submerged hydrophyte \/Utncularia\/; attached submerged hydrophyte \/Potamageton\/; attached floating-leaved hydrophyte \/Nymphaea\/; and attached emergent hydrophytes (Typha and Iris). , 9 10 Broad-leaved Cat-tail: Typha latifolia Cat-tail Family: Typhaceae Cat-tail stands are a familiar sight throughNew England, especially along roadside ditches and other disturbed wetland areas. In fact, the presence of cat-tails is often an indication of disturbance, as this species is among the first to invade areas adversely affected by human activities. Cat-tails are tolerant of a wide range of soil and water conditions and spread rapidly, often as much as 17 7 feet per year. Whole colonies may be uprooted by water, wind, and animals, but loose parts are carried to other bodies of water and become firmly established. The species is found over most of temperate North America, Europe, and eastern Asia. At the Arboretum it can be seen in extensive stands in the meadow, along the margins of the three ponds, and on the banks of Bussey Brook. out lands that are too wet for other purposes. Although little is known of its pulping qualities, methods of using the stems and leaves of this plant are now being developed for paper-making. In the 18th and 19th centuries papermaking from cat-tails was a flourishing industry in New York. Today the soft fiber is used in making mats, chair seats, baskets, and other woven articles. Water-Plantain: Alisma subcordatum Water-Plantain Family: Alismataceae The genus Alisma, mataceae in the family Alis(water plantams), was once of rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant, this cat-tail grows up to 7 feet tall, with long, stout rhizomes submerged in the mud. The light green leaves, which are erect, flat, linear, and elongate, emerge from the water, with a sheath closely enveloping the lower part of the stem. The inflorescence is a dense, cyclindrical spike, which has two portions, the upper containing the staminate flowers and the lower the pistillate flowers. The staminate flowers are ephemeral, while the pistillate flowers are persistent, with the fruit forming a dark brown, showy spike with hairy fruits up to 7 inches long and 2 inches wide. These small single-seeded fruits are produced in great numbers, up to 20,000 to 70,000 per inflorescence. Typha is wind pollinated and produces powdery A great interest to botanists because it was thought to be among the most primitive monocotyledons (plants having a single seed leaf), perhaps derived from aquatic dicotyledons (plants having 2 seed leaves) best represented in the order Nymphaeales. However, evidence now shows that the Alismataceae are not primitive but highly specialized, with complex vegetative organization and floral development. Two species, Alisma triviale andAlisma subcordatum, are frequent on mudflats, in shallow waters of the ponds, and along Bussey Brook at the Arnold Arboretum. The genus Alisma is widely distributed throughout the United States. ic plant with Water-plantain is an emergent hydrophyta basal cluster of long-petioled leaves surrounding the flower stalk. The pollen. Cat-tail can be cultivated as a fiber crop on leaves exhibit a wide variety of patterns and may be slender to broadly ovate. In rare instances the leaves are reduced to ribbonlike structures. The inflorescence is a large panicle with whorled branches bearing many 11 I Common Cat-Tail (Typha latifoha~I z 12 Water-Plantam ~Ahsma subcordatum) 13 small perfect flowers. The 3 broadly ovate sepals are persistent and surround the 3 small pinkish petals. Six stamens and apgreen proximately 10 to 25 pistils are arranged in a ring on a flattened receptacle. The fruit of Alisma is an achene (dry, indehiscent, and one-seeded) with one or two grooves and a minute ascending beak. It has been stated that dormancy in the seeds is due to the mechanical restraint of the seed coat, which allows the seeds to lie in water for years without losing their viability. Water-plantain secretes nectar, which may attract such pollinators as flies and short-tongued bees. Unlike those of most plants, the anthers in all the flowers dehisce at about the same time, so pollen is available for only a short period of time. Brook. It blooms from July through September. This rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant reaches 3 feet tall, with its root submerged in the mud. Duck-potato is a perennial that overwinters by means of tubers. In late summer and early fall the stolons (elongate underground stems) begin to produce terminal tubers by an enlargement of the 2 or more short, thickened intemodes next to the apical bud. The tubers, now full of starch, are enclosed by scale leaves and are deeply embedded in the soil. Like many aquatic plants, the duckor arrow-head, exhibits many bewildering morphological variations within various habitats, which for the duck-potato may include pond margins, lakes, swamps, and sluggish streams. The emergent, long petioles produce leaves that are generally arrow-shaped but may also be linear to ovate in form. Accompanying the leaves is an inflorescence composed of whorls of flowers that are usually arranged with the upper whorls staminate and the lower pistillate. potato, Duck-Potato: Sagittaria latifolia Water-Plantain Family: Alismataceae the Lewis and Clark Expedition observed an Indian woman collecting duckpotato (Saglttaria latifolia) roots from a canoe near the mouth of the Columbia River. The woman would paddle out to where the water was breast high and use her toes to separate the tuber from the root. The tuber, about the size of a hen's egg, would then float to the top, and the woman would throw it into a basket in the canoe. Although duck-potato is no longer eaten by human beings, it is of considerable value to wildlife and has been planted as a source of both food and shelter for wildfowl. The species ranges from Nova Scotia and British Columbia southward to Mexico. At the Arnold Arboretum it is common m the meadow and along pond margins and Bussey A botanist on There may be as many as 10 or more whorls per inflorescence, and each flower is composed of 3 sepals and 3 showy white petals. The fruits beaked. are in a dense head and are 14 Duck-Potato (Sagittana latifoha) 15 s Arrow-Arum: Peltandra Arum Family: Araceae virginica Pickerelweed: Pontederia cordata Pickerelweed Family: Pontederiaceae Pontederia is a small genus of aquatic plants distributed throughout subtropical and temperate regions of North America. Pontederia cordata, pickerelweed, is restricted to the eastern provinces of Canada and the eastern to midwestern United States, with its greatest concentration along the Atlantic coastal plain and the Great Lakes Region. It grows in saltwater marshes along the coast and in fresh water inland. It is common in the ponds at the Arnold Arboretum and blooms from July to late September. This rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant has rhizomes that are short, thick, and prostrate in the mud. Reproduction occurs when rhizomes break and form new growths. The long-petioled leaves, up to 9 inches long and 5 inches wide, are quite variable in form but are parallel veined and usually heart-shaped. The showy inflorescence is a spike of deep purplish blue flowers, each having a yellow spot at the base of the upper perianth lobes. Pickerelweed is one of the few plants that exhibit three flower forms of the same species. The three forms are: plants with three medium stamens, three long stamens, and a short style; plants with three short stamens, three long stamens, and a medium style; plants with flowers having three short stamens, three medium stamens, and a long style. The three forms ensure crosspollination. Pollen transfer from a stamen to a pistil of equivalent length appears to be more productive of seeds than pollen transfer from a stamen to a pistil of unequal length. The fruits are small, winged with several longitudinal ridges, and very buoyant. Travel by water is thought to be this plant's main mode of long-distance dispersal. The starchy root from which arrow-arum (Peltandra virginica) grows by the Indians in Virginia, who called the plant tuckaho. The root, which is extremely acrid and poisonous, was steamed m a heated pit, covered over with earth, and left undisturbed for a day or two. This process broke down the crystals of calcium oxalate that make the plant poisonous. The dried roots were then ground up into meal. was once eaten Arrow-arum ranges from Florida to Texas, north throughout New England and into Canada. At the Arboretum it grows in shallow waters in the three ponds and along Bussey Brook. This rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant is produced from a stout, spongy rootstock. The leaves are quite variable in form but are usually arrow shaped with wavy margins. The leaves of arrow-arum may be easily confused with those of duck-potato (Sagittaria latifolia). However, the leaves of arrowarum have only 3 distmct nerves, while those in the duck-potato have more than 3. The inflorescence is similar in appearance to such familiar members of the arum family as skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) and wild calla (Calla palustris). The long, green spathe almost conceals the whitish clublike spadix, which is completely covered with many minute flowers. The basal portion of the spadix contains the pistillate or female flowers, while the upper portion contains the staminate or male flowers. Green berries are produced in the fall. This plant has an efficient way of planting its seeds. The stalk, covered by the leathery green spathe, curves and grows downward, driving the seeds into the soft mud. 16 6 Arrow-Arum ~Peltandra vmgmica) 17 7 Pickerelweed (Pontedena cordata)\/ 18 Common Blue Flag: Iris versicolor Iris Family: Iridaceae The common blue flag \/Iris versicolor) is a member of the family of plants aptly named after Iris, the Greek goddess of the rainbow. This beautiful blue-violet flower has 3 broad recurved sepals (the falls) boldly veined with green, white, and yellow, and 3 smaller erect, slender petals (the standards). This species is a gregarious one. Plants are rarely found as isolated individuals, and single colonies of up to several hundred have been observed. The range of the blue flag in North America coincides with the northern ), range of the white pine (Pinus strobus), Yellow Iris: Iris pseudacorus Iris Family: Iridaceae The lovely yellow iris is believed to be the source of the fleur-de-lis of the French heraldic shield, which dates from the 12th century. The Iris genus is found throughout the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere. It contains 300 species, of which 10 are aquatic. comprising New England, New York, Pennsylvania, northern Ontario, and northern Michigan. The plant prefers moist soils but also grows in standing water. The blue flag blooms from May through June at the Arboretum and is common in the meadow and along pond margins and Bussey Brook. This rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant has stems up to 3 feet long. The long, narrow leaves are pale green to grayish and sheathed at the base. In the absence of the flowers, the leaves of the blue flag can easily be confused with those of the cat-tail (Typha latifolia). The blue-flag leaves are straight and tightly folded, while those of the cat-tail are flat and slightly twisted at the top. The greenish fruit of the blue flag is 3 angled and up to 11\/z inches long and 1 inch wide. The seeds float readily and travel by water, spreading themselves along lake and river margins. The yellow iris was introduced to Canada from Eurasia and Africa and escaped from cultivation, spreading to freshwater wetlands to such an extent as to give the appearance of a native plant. It is also believed to have been cultivated in this country during Colonial times. The first record of an escapee dates from 1911 in Newfoundland. By 1915 the species was found in Nova Scotia, and it eventually became established in British Columbia, Quebec, Ontario, and Prince Edward Island. Yellow iris has become an aggressive weed in parts of the eastern United States from Massachusetts south to Virginia and west to Wisconsin. It is common in the meadow and along pond margins and Bussey Brook at the Arnold Arboretum and blooms from May to July. A rooted, emergent hydrophytic plant, the yellow iris grows to 3 feet tall, arising from long, creeping, stout rhizomes. The leaves often form clumps emerging from the water and are dark green, slender, up to 1 inch wide, and parallel veined. The flower stalk is erect, about as tall as the leaves, and produces 1 to 2 flowers at the apex in the axils of the small upper leaves. The 2 involucral bracts are shorter than the showy, bright yellow flowers, which are composed of 3 outer recurved sepals and 3 yellow inner petals, slender, to 4 inches long. The sepals have 19 Common Blue Flag (Ins versicolor) 20 I . Yellow Ins (Ins pseudacorus\/ 21 delicate brown lines or flecks at the base and on the claw. The fruit capsule is bright green and often lustrous. It is bluntly 3-angled and contains somewhat round corky seeds. flowers are trimorphous. The petals are bright magenta and crinkly. The number of stamens is usually twice the number of petals. The stamens vary in length and are arranged in two whorls. The fruit is a capsule. Fragrant Water-Lily: Nymphaea Swamp Loosestrife: Decodon verticillatus Loosestrife Family: odorata Water-Lily Family: Nymphaeaceae Lythraceae Growing in stagnant and muddy water, it bursts so sweet to the if to show us what purity and sweetness reside in and can be extracted from the slime and muck of earth. The genus Decodon is monotypic, that is, it includes only one species, Decodon verticillatus, swamp loosestrife. This species grows only in the United States, ranging from Louisiana to Florida and northwards to Minnesota and Maine. Fossil material has been found in Asia and Europe. At the Arboretum the swamp loosestrife grows in the pond near the lilacs and blooms from July to October. up so pure and fair to the eye and as scent, Henry David Thoreau journal of Henry Damd Thoreau Summer: From the The buds of the fragrant water-lily (Nym- phaea odorata) open in early morning, exposing the spectacular white, waxy flowers, which float on the surface of the water. Some flowers fold up their petals during the early afternoon, while others remain open. In addition to its other attractions, the fragrant water-lily has a long blooming season, from June through September. This species is native to southern Canada, the United States, Central America, and South America and is common in all three ponds at the Arboretum. This attached floating-leaved hydrophytic plant has a thick, fleshy rhizome that is submerged in the mud and may be long- or short-lived and creeping or branching. The floating, rounded leaves are up to 10 inches wide and are attached by long rubberlike petioles that vary in length according to the water depth. The blades are green and glossy above and purplish on the underside. The Swamp loosestrife, or water willow, as it called, has a unique way of reproducThe stems, which can reach 6 to 8 feet ing. is also weak and remain upright for only a short time before bending over. When the apex of the stem touches the surface of the water, swelling occurs, and aerenchyma (spongy tissue with large air spaces) develops, producing adventitious roots that anchor it. Thus, a new offshoot is established some distance from the mother plant. This rooted, emergent hydrophytic herb, or short-lived shrub, has four- to six-sided stems. The bark of the submerged parts is spongy and thick. The leaves are shortstalked, opposite or whorled, slender, and pointed at the tip. The upper leaves have clusters of 1 to 3 flowers in their axils. Like other members of the loosestrifefamily, the in height, are 22 . Swamp Loosestrife (Decodon vertlcillatus\/ 23 Fragrant Water-Lily (Nymphaea odorata) 24 solitary, sweet-smelling flowers, up to 6 inches wide, have 4 sepals followed by nu- spirally arranged petals passing gradually into stamens. The stamens can number from 36to 100 and the pistils up to 20. When the petals have withered, the flower stalk forms a spiral shape underwater and develops a green fleshy fruit in or near merous the substrate. The seeds emerge when the fruit decays and spread by floating. This species can form dense stands rapidly. variable in form. The lower, submerged leaves are sessile, alternate, and deeply divided into many threadlike segments, while the floating, glossy leaves, with inflated petioles and toothed, diamond-shaped blades, form a rosette at the end of each branch. The inconspicuous, solitary flowers are short stalked in the axils of the leaves and consist of 4 green sepals and 4 white petals. They bloom from July to late August. The fruit is brownish and nutlike. Water-Chestnut: Trapa natans Water-Chestnut Family: Trapaceae The water-chestnut (Trapa natans) has also been known as water caltrop because of the sharp points on its fruit. A caltrop was a small bronze or iron ball with projecting spikes that Roman soldiers in battle placed in the path of their foe to incapacitate the horses. Although the wounds from a waterchestnut are not incapacitating, they are Pepperwort: Marsilea quadrifolia Pepperwort Family: Marsileaceae A small group of ferns came into existence during the great rise of the flowering plants at the end of the Cretaceous period, 300 mil- painful. This rooted, floating-leaved aquatic plant is native to Europe. Introduced into the United States in 1884, it has become locally abundant in the eastern part of the country, so much so that it is now a nuisance, form- ing impenetrable mats that spread rapidly and hinder navigation, prevent fishing, and overcrowd more desirable plants (e.g., burreed (Sparganium eurycarpum~. State and federal laws prohibit the importation and transportation of this species. The waterchestnut used in Chinese cooking in this country is the edible corm of the sedge Eleocharis dulcis. The stem of the water-chestnut plant is rooted in the mud and has slender leaves lion years after the genesis of other major fern groups. These ferns adapted to a watery environment, and growth in water is still necessary for the completion of certain stages in their life cycle. Pepperwort, or water-clover (Marsilea quadrifolia), is a member of this unusual group. The genus Marsilea contains about 65 species growing throughout the warmer regions of the world. Marsilea quadrifolia was first introduced from Europe into this country via Bantan Lake in Connecticut in 1862. It has spread throughout New England and into the midwestern states and is common at the Arboretum. This species is a rooted, floating-leaved hydrophyte that increases in size with the level of the water. The slender, threadlike rhizomes creep slightly below the mud and give rise to a delicate, shamrock-shaped leaf that may float on the water surface or stand erect above the water. 25 Water-Chestnut \/Trapa natans) 26 Pepperwort (Marsilea quadmfolia) 27 Unlike most ferns, which generally produce their spores in clusters on the underside of the leaf or frond, the water-clover houses its spores in 1 or 2 hard, brown beanshaped structures known as sporocarps. These sporocarps are produced on a slender brownish stalk that rises near the base of the leaf stalk. Each sporocarp has many compartments, each containing numerous spores. When the spores are mature, the capsule bursts open vertically into halves, exposing the compartments, which are linked by a gelatinous ring. This ring floats on the water with the spore masses attached. Duckweed: Lemna minor Duckweed Family: Lemnaceae The green mantle of the stagnant pool Shakespeare King In 1936 a strange phenomenon occurred in the Sudbury and Charles Rivers in Massachusetts. \"Millions of Small Plants Cover Charles\" one newspaper headline read. \"Millions of tiny plants, resembling shamrocks in color and appearance turned the surface of the 5 miles of the Auburndale section of the Charles River bright green yesterday,\" the article reported. It was soon discovered that the same condition existed in the Sudbury, yet the two rivers had no connection whatever. The green phenomenon proved to be an explosion of the duckweed plant \/Lemna minor), one of the world's smallest flowering plants, and its causes have never been fully understood. It is believed today that a correlation exists between the spread of duckweed and the presence in the water of soluble nitrates from sewage. Soluble ni- the naturally acidic waters of Massachusetts nearly neutral, a condition that is favorable to duckweed. The genus Lemna is found throughout the world. Lemna minor is common in drainage ditches and in the meadow at the Arboretum. This plant is a free-floating aquatic herb consisting of a single body called a frond or thallus. This small, flat oval, rarely over'\/a inch long, is not differentiated into leaves or stem. It is often purplish beneath with a single root attached to each segment. The thallus reproduces asexually by buds forming groups of two or more plant bodies that often remain attached. The inflorescence is naked or enclosed in a membranous spathe; it is comprised of one pistillate flower, consisting solely of one pistil, and two staminate flowers, each consisting solely of one trates turn eastern stamen. William Lear Despite its unpleasant appearance, duckweed may have significant potential as a crop plant in the tropics and the subtropics, where its growth is profuse. Analyses show that its nutritive value in both human and animal diets exceeds that of most agricultural plants; it is high in protein a \" genus in the family, species that is eaten in northern Thailand. The Thais call it \"eggs of the water.\" and amino acids. Wolffia, same contains a Common Bladderwort: Utricularia vulgaris Bladderwort Family: Lentibulariaceae Common bladderwort (Utricularia vulgaris) is among the comparatively few species of carnivorous plants. Each tiny bladder on the 28 Duckweed (Lemna mmor\/ 29 underwater stem has an opening that functions as a trap door. The \"door\" is pressure sensitive and when touched opens in 11250th of a second. When the prey enters, the door closes, trapping it within. Even when it is too large to be contained inside the bladder, the prey is often held at the opening and ingested by the plant over time. The smallest traps can catch microscopic singlecelled protozoans and rotifers, while larger traps can catch fish fry, water fleas, and mosquito larvae. Small aquatic plants, such as duckweed (Lemna) and watermeal (Wol f fiaalso have been found in the bladders. Common bladderwort is distributed throughout the eastern and midwestern United States and north to southern Labrador and Alaska. Although it is common in New England, it was found at the Arboretum for the first time only last year, growing in shallow water in the smallest pond. This free, submerged hydrophytic plant lacks roots and grows freely and unattached in the water, usually just beneath the surface. The plant overwinters by forming small clusters of crowded modified leaves called turions. In cold regions, where the plant must lie dormant for several months and produce winter buds, it usually bears fewer flowers or none at all and produces fruit infrequently. The much dissected segments produce numerous bladders, and at the height of the summer as many as 100 can be seen on a single segment. The erect scape arising above the water supports as many as 20 yellow flowers that resemble small snapdragons. The broad, somewhat lobed lower lip is delicately striped in brown and orange and is shorter than the curved spur. The seeds are brown and lustrous. See page 2 for illustration. Skunk Arum Cabbage: Symplocarpus foetidus Family: Araceae Skunk cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) is of the plants in the Araceae family that produce enough heat to render themselves warmer than the surrounding air. An unusually high rate of respiration in these plants is responsible for the heat, which in the skunk cabbage is retained by the spongy tissue of the spathe. During the early stages of blooming, the clublike central spadix maintains a temperature of 36F to 63F higher than the surrounding air (Knutson 1979) for as long as two weeks. This period coincides with the maturation of pollen and egg cells, and the heat helps to attract such pollinators as bees. Although honeybees do not fly well if air temperature is below 65F, they are known to visit skunk cabbage at temperatures as low as 42F (Knutson 1979). The sweetish scent of the uninjured spathe may also attract bees. The offensive odor of the spathe when damaged is believed to attract insect one pollinators. The genus Symplocarpus has two widely disjunct areas of distribution: one in eastern North America, ranging from Quebec and Nova Scotia south through New England to Georgia and Tennessee and west to Minand Iowa; the other is in eastern Asia. Individual skunk cabbage plants are known to endure for a very long time, possibly even longer than the giant redwoods (Knutson 1979). The species is also present in Japan and on the eastern edge of the Asian nesota muddy ground, wet meadows, woods, and along stream banks, often in dense stands. It is not common at the Arboretum, but it can be found in moist, low-lying areas in the meadow along with cat-tails and irises. continent. It grows in swamps, 30 Skunk Cabbage (Symplocarpus foetidus) 31 This perennial herb produces many large, clustered basal leaves, which appear as the spathe matures. These leaves, which may be up to 4 feet in length, are ovate and conspicuously veined. The flower buds develop on the underground rootstocks. By winter, shoots several inches in length emerge, with one flower bud per shoot forming as lateral offshoots of the leaf bud. Occasionally, the flower buds are lacking and the leafy shoot appears alone. The inflorescence, which is unique to the arum family, consists of the cream-colored spadix subtended by the particularly in the Great Lakes Region, the St. Lawrence River Valley, and the Hudson River Valley. South of the Wisconsin glacial border, however, it is scatsome areas, tered. The first report of Lythrum salicaria in North America was in Pursh's Flora Americae Septentrionalis in 1814. Two eminent botanists, John Torrey and Asa Gray, were doubtful of the previous records, and Gray wrote in 1856 that its status as a native plant was fleshy green-purple or brown-spotted spathe. Many individual flowers cover the spadix, each comprising 4 perianth segments and 4 fleshy stamens opposite the segments. The seeds are embedded in the enlarged, spongy spadix. Purple Loosestrife: Lythrum salicaria Loosestrife Family: Lythraceae Purple loosestrife (Lythrum salicaria), one of the more recent additions to the list of nuisance plants, is native to the eastern hemisphere, Eurasia, North Africa, and Australia. Palmer, in The Spontaneous Flora of the Arnold Arboretum1930\/, described the plant as \"common in low meadows and about ponds and sometimes in drier waste ground.\" Today it forms massive, spectacular colonies in the meadow, around pond margins, and along Bussey Brook and is eliminating some of the native wetland \"not clear.\" It was not until 1890, when the sixth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany was published, that the species was treated as a plant naturalized from Europe and therefore a nonindigenous member of the North American flora. The first record of the plant in Massachusetts dates from 1844 in Cambridge. By 1900, purple loosestrifewas recorded in several localities throughout the state, and it is believed to have been introduced in the Merrimac River Valley through seed washed out of wool at a plant near Abbots Mill at Graniteville. The stem of this perennial grows to 5 feet, produces narrow, sessile leaves that are opposite to whorled and heart shaped at the base. The purplish red flowers are borne in a colorful spikelike panicle, up to 1 foot long, and bloom from June to late August. The perianth lobes vary in number from 4 to 6 with stamens either equal to or twice the number of the petals. species. Records show that by the late 19th and early 20th centuries this species had spread into the glaciated wetlands of North America and had become an aggressive weed in 32 Purple Loosestrife (Lythrum sahcama) 33 Drooping Sedge: Carex crinita Sedge Family: Cyperaceae Although the hairy-looking spike drooping from the top of the stem of the sedge is not usually recognized as such, it is in fact a cluster of flowers, and the sedges belong to a flowering plant family, the Cyperaceae. Sedges are further designated as monocots, because they produce a single seed-leaf upon germination. Other monocots include irises, The seeds are brownish and somewhat triangular in shape. Turk's-cap Lily: Lilium superbum Lily Family: Liliaceae Superbum, which means magnificent in Latin, is an appropriate name for the turk's cap, the tallest and most spectacular of our species also has more flowers than any other native lily. The flower droops gracefully from the tip of the petioles, revealing deep reddish orange petals and sepals splashed with many shades of purple and rust-colored anthers. The stems sometimes reach 9 feet tall. Lilium contains about 70 species widely distributed throughout the world, with their greatest concentration in warm temperate and subtropical regions. The turk's-cap grows in wet meadows and low grounds from New Brunswick to Minnesota and south to Florida, Tennessee, and Missouri and tends to exhibit a more colorful display in moist soil. It is common in the meadow at the Arboretum and blooms from June until August. This perennial herb has a stout, erect stem up to 9 feet tall. The principal leaves are arranged in whorls up to the inflorescence. The smooth, narrow blades are parallel veined and taper at the ends. The spectacular red-orange flowers are produced in an umbel or terminal raceme, with as many as 25 flowers nodding from long pedicels. The perianth segments are strongly recurved, with the curvature beginning below the middle of the segment. Newly opened flowers may not show much curvature, but they do so eventually, exposing the pale green native lilies. This lilies, orchids, and rushes. The drooping sedge (Carex crinita)is distributed throughout the eastern and southUnited States and is the most comwetland species at the Arboretum. It grows in large clumps in the meadow and along pond margins and Bussey Brook. Members of the sedge family are often mistaken for grasses (Gramineae). General differences between the two families are as follows: the sedges have solid stems, closed sheaths, and 3-ranked leaves, and the fruit has a seed that is not fused to the ovary wall. The grasses have hollow stems, open sheaths, 2-ranked leaves, and the fruit has a seed joined to the ovary wall. The drooping sedge is a tufted, grasslike perennial herb with branching, scaly rhizomes. The leaves arise from the base and are long and slender. In the Carex inflorescence the male flowers are borne separately from the female flowers. The terminal spike is staminate, while the subterminal spikes are pistillate, and all these are produced on long, drooping stalks that become progressively longer from top to bottom. The female flowers are enclosed in a saclike structure called the perigynium. The stigmas protrude through the opening at the top of the perigynium, and as many as 130 perigynia may comprise one flower spike in this species. eastern mon 34 Drooping Sedge (Carex cnmta) 35 Turk's-Cap Lily (Lilium superbum) 36 . \" Yellow Loosestrife (Lysimachia terrestns) 37 base and deep purple spots. The anthers are linear and the stigma is 3-lobed. The fruit is a capsule that splits along 3 lines when mature. Many plants known as lilies do not belong the genus Lilium and therefore are not true lilies. Lily of the valley belongs to Conto vallaria, day-lily to Hemerocallis, corn-lily to Clintonia, and trout-lily, better known as dog-tooth violet, to Erythronium. streaks above and somewhat whitish beneath. The inflorescence is a raceme, terminal on the main stem or sometimes in the axils of the branches. The star-shaped flowers, each with 5 basally united yellow petals and single maroon eye, are borne on threadlike pedicels. The filaments are united at the base, and the anthers are lavender-purple. The seeds are somewhat rounded with a shiny black surface. Yellow Loosestrife: Lysimachia terrestris Primrose Family: Primulaceae swamp candle often reproduces (Lysimachia terrestris), vegetatively by bulbels produced in such areas on the plant as the leaf axis or the inflorescence. Linnaeus took these bulbels to be a parasitic mistletoe species, which he placed in the mistletoe genus, Viscum. Some populations of this species are quite floriferous and include no bulbel-bearing plants; others include bulbel-bearing plants but no flowers; and still others include plants that exhibit both. In North America this plant grows from Newfoundland and Quebec southward to South Carolina and westward to Minnesota. At the Arboretum it is common in the meadow and along Bussey Brook, blooming from late June to August. The rhizomes produce erect, simple or branching stems up to 3 feet tall. The leaves on the lower stem are scalelike and smaller than the opposite, sessile narrow leaves produced further up the stem. The blades are punctate with dark purplish dots and short Soft Rush: juncus effusus Rush Family: Juncaceae Juncus is the largest genus in the family Juncaceae and includes about 225 species, most of which occur in wetland habitats. About 90 species are found within the United States and Canada, and perhaps no species of the genus is more familiar than is juncus effusus, the soft rush. This plant is widely distributed in temperate regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres. At the Arnold Arboretum it is common in the meadow and along pond and stream mar- The yellow loosestrife, or gins. This grasslike perennial has vigorous, scaly rhizomes and often forms large, bright green tussocks up to 4 feet tall. The soft, basal leaves are quill-like, with chestnutcolored leaf sheaths that are bladeless and bristle tipped. Associated with the inflorescence is a stiff involucral bract that is sharply pointed and appears to be a continuation of the stem. The inflorescence is an open panicle, consisting of 30 to 100 flowers borne singly on many uneven stalks. The perianth is not differentiated into sepals and petals but is in two series of three segments 38 Soft Rush ( Juncus effusus) 39 each. The outer whorl is keeled and the inner whorl flat. The seed capsule, light brown and smooth, is 3-sided and rounded at the apices. The seeds are small with darker white, pink, or purple, is provided by the cluster of stamens or pistils. (See inside front cover for illustration.) short-pointed extremities. For more than a century the soft rush has been a wetland crop in Taiwan, China, Korea, and Japan, where the dried stems are used for floor matting. Tall Meadow-Rue: Thalictrum polygamum Buttercup Family: Ranunculaceae Tall meadow-rue (Thalictrum polygamum) is one of the most easily located plants in the field, as its masses of soft, feathery white flowers rise above most other wetland plants. This perennial herb grows to 11 feet tall and can be found in wetlands, swamps, and low thickets from Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Nova Scotia, Georgia, and Tennessee. At the Arboretum it is common in the meadow and along Bussey Brook, ' blooming from June through September. The stems of tall meadow-rue are light green at first but become tinged with magenta later in the season. The leaves are pinnate, with 3 or more leaflets. The large, graceful, terminal panicles can be rounded or flat at the top. Some plants display pure white flowers while others produce purplish flowers. Meadow-rue includes perfect (containing both stamens and pistils) and uni- sexual (containing only stamens or only pistils) flowers on single plants. Botanists have termed this conditionpolygamous, and the species name polygamum refers to this. The achenes (small, dry, one-seeded fruits) are short-stalked. This species has no pet- als, so the color of the flower, which can be 40 A Species List of Aquatic and Wetland Plants Observed in the Arboretum Since 1930 Eleocharis ovata \/Roth~ R. 8, S p Eleochans palustns (L.) R. & S. p pm m Rynchospora capitellata (Mtchx.) Vahl - beak rush Scirpus atrocmctus Fern. m Scmpus atromrens Willd. dusky bulrush ms Scirpus cypennus (L.) Kunth-wool-grass m s Scirpus expansus Fern. p m s Scirpus polyphyllus Vahl m - Monocotyledons (Monocotyledoneae) Plants with all or some of the following characters: vascular bundles distinct and scattered in the intemodes ; cotyledon, or seed leaf, solitary, flowers with parts usually m 3s or multiples of 3; leaves parallel-veined; fibrous root system; plants usually herbaceous. Alismataceae - Water-Plantain Family Ahsma subcordatum Raf. water-plantain p m Ahsma trmale Pursh-water-plantam p m s Sagittaria latifolia Willd. duck-potato p m s - Gramineae - Grass Family Alopecurus gemculatus L. m Alopecurus pratensiL. meadow-foxtarl m - s s Araceae Arum Family Acorus calamus L. sweetflag p s Peltandra mrgm~ca (L.~ Schott & Endl. - Anthoxanthum odoratum L - sweet vernal grass m Calamagrosus canadensis (M~chx.l Nutt.-blue-~omt grass p m s Cmna arundmacea L. -wood reedgrass p m s Dactyhs glomerata L. orchard grass m - - - arrow-arum m p Glycena acutiflora Torr. p Glycena canadensis (Michx.) Trm. grass s -- 2014 rattlesnake- Symplocarpus foetidus \/L.) Nutt. - - skunk cabbage Callitrichaceae Water-Starwort Family Calhtmche heterophvlla Pursh - water-starwort p s Sedge Family s Carex annectens Bickn. yellow fox sedge p Cyperaceae - Glyceria grandis S. Wats. reed-meadow grass p m Glycena laxa Scnbn - northern manna-grass p m Glycena palhda (TorrI Tnn.-pale manna-grass p Glvceria stnata \/Lam ~ Hitchc. fowl-meadow grass - Carex blanda Dew. m Carex canescens L. m s Carex conoidea Schkuhr-silvery sedge m Carex cnmta Lam. - drooping sedge m s Carex debihs Michx. p m s Carex echmata Murr. m Carex hirta L. m Carex hystricma Muhl. - porcupine sedge m s Carexlanugmosa Michx. Carex lupulma Muhl. p - m sallow sedge m Carex lunda Wahlenb. Carex pallescens L.-pale sedge m s Carex pamcea L. m Carex scopana Schkukr m Carex stncta Lam. - tussock sedge m Carex stipata Muhl. - awl-fruited sedge m Carex tnbuloides Wahlenb. p m s Carex vulpmoidea Michx. m Cyperus stngosus L. straw-colored sedge p m Eleochans aciculans \/L.) R. & S.-least spike-rush Eleocharis calva Torr. p Eleochans gemculata (L.) R. & S. p - whitegrass p s Muhlenbergia schreben J. F Gmel-drop-seed grass m Phalams arundmacea L. reed-canary grass m s Phleum pratense L - timothy m Poa compressa L. Canada bluegrass m Poa palustris L. m s Poa pratensis L. Kentucky bluegrass m Sparuna pecunata Lmk- cord-grass s Indaceae Iris Family Ins pseudacorus L. yellow ms p m s Ins versicolor L. common blue flag p m s Sisynnchmm atlanucum Bickn. m Juncaceae- Rush Family juncus bufomus L - toad-rush m - s pms Leersia oryzoides (L.~ Sw. Leersia mrgmica Willd - s nce-cutgrass p m - - - - - - m juncus canadensis J. Gay m juncus d~chotomus Ell. m juncus effusus L. p m s juncus margmatus Rostk. m juncus tenms Willd. tufted rush m - Eleochans obtusa s pms (Willd.) Schultes - blunt spike-rush Lemnaceae - Duckweed Family Lemna minor L. duckweed p s - p pond m meadow s stream Liliaceae Lily Family Lihum canadense L. - Canada lily m Lihum philadelphicum L.-wood-hly m Lilium superbum L. turk's-cap lily m Uvulama sessihfoha L.-mld-oats s - 41 Orchidaceae - Orchid Family Habenana lacera (Michx.) Lodd. Habenana psycodes ~L.~ Spreng. orchis s ms s - ragged orchis m purple-fringed Eupatonum dubmm Willd. Joe-pye-weed p Eupatonum perfohatum L.-thoroughwort m - Sohdago canadensis L. Tanacetum vulgare L. - - Canadian goldenrod m tansy p m s s Spmanthes cernua (L.) Richard -nodding ladies-tresses Spiranthes gracihs (Bigel.) Beck - southern slender m ladies-tresses m Spiranthes tuberosa Raf. 2014little ladies-tresses Potamogetonaceae - Pondweed Family Potamogeton epihydrus Raf. - pondweed p Potamogeton fohosus Raf. - pondweed p Convolvulaceae - Convolvulus Family Convolvulus sepmm L.-hedge bmdweed m Cuscuta gronovm Willd. - common dodder m s Cuscuta pentagona Engelm. - s Spargamaceae Bur-Reed Family Spargamum eurycarpum Engelm. - bur-reed p - Cruciferae Mustard Family Barbarea vulgans R. Br. -yellow rocket m s Diplotaxis murahs \/L.) DC. - sand rocket p Ronppa nasturtium-aquaticum \/L.~ Bntten & Rendl. Typhaceae - Cat-tail Family Typha laufolia L. broad-leaved cat-tail p - (Nasturium officmale R. Br.) p s Ronppa palustns \/L.) Bess-marsh cress p - m m s Dicotyledons (Dicotyledoneae) Plants with all or some of the following characters: vascular bundles of stem usually m a ring (sometimes scattered m a few aquatics); cotyledons usually 2 or rarely 1 m a few aquatics; flowers with parts usually m multiples of 2, 5, or more; leaves pmnately or palmately vemed; roots usually fibrous; plants herbaceous or Euphorbiaceae - Spurge Family y Acalypha mrgmica L. three-seeded mercury m Gentianaceae - Gentian Family Gentiana cnmta Froel. -fnnged gentian m Hypericum boreale \/Bntt.) Bickn. p Hypencum canadense L. m Hypencum mo~us (Gray) Bntt. m Hypemcum mutilum L. slender St. John's-wort p - ' m s Labiatae - Mmt Family ms - Lycopus amencanus Muhl. - cut-leaved waterhorehound p woody. Asclepladaceae - Milkweed Family s Asclepias mcarnata L. swamp-milkweed p Balsaminaceae 2014 Touch-Me-Not Family Impatiens capensis Meerb. spotted touch-me-not - Lycopus umflorus Michx. water-horehound p Lycopus vmgmicus L. water-horehound s - m s Mentha arvensis L. - field mmt p m s Prunella vulgans L. selfheal m Scutellana latenflora L. mad-dog skullcap - - m s pms Lentibularlaceae - Bladderwort Family Utmculana vulgans L - common bladderwort p Lobehaceae - Lobelia Family Lobeho cardmahs L. cardmal flower p Lobeha siphihtica L - great blue lobeha - Boraginaceae 2014 Borage Family Myosotis scorpiordes L. forget-me-not s - Honeysuckle Family Samrucus canadensis L - elderberry m Chenopodiaceae Goosefoot Family Chenopodmm glaucum L. oak-leaved goosefoot m Compositae - Composite Family Capnfoliaceae - ms , Lythraceae Loosestnfe Family Decodon verticillatus (L.\/ Ell. - swamp loosestrife p Lythrum sahcana L. -purple loosestnfepm s - Asterlaems L -smooth aster m ms Malvaceae Mallow Family Malva moschata L. musk-mallow p - Asterlatemflorus \/L.~ Britt. England aster p m s Asterpumceus L - purple-stemmed aster m s tall white aster p Aster simplex Willd. - Aster novi-belgii L - New Aster mmmeus Lam. - small white aster m Bidens cernua L. stick-tight p m s Bidens connata Muhl - beggar-ticks p m s Bidens frondosa L. beggar-ticks p m s Bidens vulgata Greene - beggar-ticksp m s - s Nymphaeaceae - Water-Lily Family Nymphaea odorata Ait. fragrant water-lily p Onagraceae - Evemng-Pnmrose Family Epilobmm coloratum Biehler-purple-stemmed - willow-herb ms - Ludwigia palustns (L.) Ell. Oenothera bienms L. Oenothera perenms L. - water-purslane p evening pnmrose m - common - sundrops p m 42 Polygonaceae Buckwheat Family Polygonum omphibmm L. - water-smartweed p Polygonum anfollum L. halberd-leaved tearthumb - Smm suave Walt. - water-parsmp p m s Urticaceae - - pm Pilea pumila Family (L.) Gray - clearweed m m Nettle Polygonum aviculare L. - knotweed m Polygonum coccmeum Muhl. - swamp smartweed s pms Verbenaceae Vervain Family Verbena hastata L - blue vervain - Polygonum hydropiper L. - water-pepper p m s Polygonum hydropiperoides Michx. mild water- pepper p m Polygonum lapathifohum L. p Polygonum punctatum Ell. - water-smartweed m Polygonum sagittatum L. arrow-leaved tearthumb - Violaceae Violet Family Viola cucullata Ait. marsh blue violet m Viola lanceolata L. -lance-leaved violet p m s Viola pallens (Banks) brainerd-sweet white violet - - ms s Viola papilionacea Pursh- common blue violet m pm Rumex obtusi fohus - L. - bitter dock m Pontedenaceae Pickerelweed Family Pontedena cordata L. -pickerelweed p Pteridophytes (Pteriodophyta) Plants that are fernlike, rushlike, mosslike, or quillleaved and have no seeds or flowers but reproduce by spores. Pnmulaceae - Pnmrose Family mflata Ell. featherfoll p Lysimachia quadnfoha L. - whorled loosestrife m Lysimachia terrestns (L.) BSP. - yellow loosestrife m Hottoma - Ranunculaceae Buttercup Family Ranunculus acns L.-tall buttercup m Ranunculus repens L. creeping buttercup m s Thahctrum polygamum Muhl. - tall meadow-rue - Eqmsetaceae - Horsetail Family Eqmsetum arvense L. field horsetail p Equisetum fluviatile L. water horsetail p Eqmsetum sylvaticum L. m - ms Lycopodiaceae Club Moss Family Lycopodium complanatum L. trailing ground-pine - Rubus hispidus L. - Family dewberry m Rubiaceae Madder Family Gahum palustre L. - marsh bedstraw m Rosaceae - Rose ms s - Marsileaceae Pepperwort Family Marsilea quadmfoha L. pepperwort p - Gallum tmctomum L. - - marsh bedstraw m Saxifrage Family Penthorum sedoides L. ditch-stonecrop m Scrophulanaceae - Figwort Family Agahms paupercula (Gray) Pennell- small gerardia - Saxifragaceae Osmundaceae - Flowering Fern Family Osmunda cinnamomea L. cinnamon-fem s Osmunda claytomana L. mterrupted fern m Osmunda regahs L. royal fem ms - s Polypodiaceae - Fern Family sensitive fern p m s Onoclea sensibihs L. - ms s Dryoptens thelyptens (L.) Gray - marsh shield fem m Agahms tenmfoha \/Vahl.) Raf.-slendergerardia m s Chelone glabra L. turtlehead p m s Lmderma dubia \/L.~ Pennell - false pimpernel p m Mimulus nngens L. monkey-flower m s Veromca of~cmahs L.-common speedwell m Veromca scutellata L. marsh speedwell p Solanaceae- Nightshade Family Solanum dulcamara L. bittersweet nightshade s Trapaceae - Water-Chestnut Family - I Trapa natans L. - water-chestnut p - Umbelhferae - Parsley Family Cicuta bulbifera L. - water hemlock p s Cicuta maculata L. spotted cowbane p m s Hydrocotyle amencana L. water pennywort - - m 43 References Adams, P., and R. K. Godfrey. 1961. Observations cf the Sagittana subulata complex. Rhodora 63: 247266. Anderson, E. 1928. The problem of species m the northem blue-flags Ins versicolor L. Annals of the . Missouri Botanical Garden 15: 24-332. 1936.The species problem m Ins. Annals of the Missouri Botamcal Garden 23: 457-509 Blackwell, W. H., Jr., 1972. The combmarionPeltandza virginica (L.) Schott & Endlicher. Rhodora 74: 516-518. Bogm, C. 1955. Revision of the genus Sagittana (Alis- southeastern United States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 45: 235-250. Gupta, K. M. 1957. Some species of Marsilea with special reference to their epidermal and soral characters. Madrono 14: 113-127. Hendricks, A. J. 1957. A revision of the genus Alisma (Dill.) L. Amencan Midland Naturahst 52: 470493. Hicks, L. E. 1932. Flower production m the Lemnaceae. Ohio Journal of Science 32: 115-131. Hotchkiss, N., and H. L. Dozier. 1949. Taxonomy and distribution of North Amencan cat-tails. American Midland Natuzahst 41: 237-254. Knutson, R. M. 1979. Plants m heat. Natural History mataceae). Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden 9: 179-233. Cody, W.J. 1961. Ins pseudacorus tivation m L. escaped from culCanada. The Canadian Field Conrad, Naturahst 75: 139-142. M. S. 1905. The Water Lihes~ A Monograph of the Genus Nymphaea. Pubhcation of the Car- 88\/3\/: 42-47. Koehne, E. 1885. The Lythraceae of the United States. Botanical Gazette 10(5): 269-277. Lawrence, G. N. M. 1951. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. Macmillan, New York. Li, Hui-Lm. 1955. Classification and phylogeny of Nymphaceae and allied families. American Midland Naturahst 54: 33~1. R. M. 1973. Revision of the genusPontedena. Rhodora 75: 426-487. Mahabale, T. S. 1972. Water fems: Their origin and spread. Birbal Sahm, Institute of Palaeobotany Lucknow, Poona, India. Palmer, E.J. 1930. The spontaneous flora of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 11: 63-119. 1935. Supplement to the spontaneous flora of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 16: 81-97. Ad Hoc Panel of the Advisory Committee on Technology Innovation, Board on Science and Technology for International Development, Commission on International Relations. 1976. Making Aquatic Weeds Useful.~ Some Perspectmes for Developing Countries. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. Rossbach, G. B. 1939. Aquatic Utmculanas. Rhodora 41: 113-128. Saeger, A. 1929. The flowering of Lemnaceae. Bulletm of the Torrey Botanical Club. 56: 351-358. Schrenk, J. 1889. On the floating tissue of Nesaea verticillata (L.) MBK. Bulleun of the TorreyBotamcal Club 16: 315-23. Skitch, A. F. 1928. The capture of prey by the bladderwort : a review of the physiology of bladders. New Phytologist 27' 261-97. Slack, A. 1980. Cazmvozous Plants. Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, Cambndge, Massachusetts. negie Institution Waslvngton 4: 1-279 Cook, C. D. K., B. J. Gut, E. M. Rix, J. Schneller, and M. Seitz. 1974. Water Plants of the World. Dr. W. Junk b.v., Pubhshers, The Hague. Crocker, W. 1907. Germination of seeds of water plants. Lowden, Botanical Gazette 44: 375-380. Crocker, W., and W. E. Davis. 1914. Delayed germination in seed of Ahsma plantago. Botamcal Eaton, Gazette 58: 285-321. R. J. 1947. Lemna mmor as an aggressive weed m the Sudbury Rmer. Rhodora 49~ 165-171. Fassett, N. C. 1957. A Manual of Aquauc Plants. Umversity of Wisconsm Press, Madison, Wisconsm. Fassett, N. C., and B. Calhoun. 1952. Introgression between Typha lattfoha and Typha angusufoha. Evolution 6: 367-379. Fernald, M. L. 1970. Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th edition. D. Van Nostrand Company, New York. Fernald, M. L., and K. M Wiegand. 1910. The North Amencan variations of {uncus effusus. Rhodora 12: 81-93. 1905. The hybnd of Lysimachia terrestns and Lysimachia thyzsiflora. Rhodora 52: 199-201. Gleason, H. A. 1952. The New Bntton and Brown Illustrated Flora of the Umted States and Ad~acent Canada Lancaster Press, Lancaster, Pennsylvania. . . Godfrey, R. K., and J. W. Wooten. 1979. Aquatic and Wetland Plants of the Southeastern Umted States. The University of Georgia Press, Athens, Georgia. Graham, S. A. 1964. The genera of Lythraceae in the 44 Small, J. K. 1931. The water lilies of the Umted States. Journal of the New York Botamc Garden 32: 117-121. 1967. Experimental and Natural Hybrids m North Amencan Typha (Typhaceae). American Midland Naturalist 78: 257-87. Stason, M. 1926. The Marsileas of the western Umted States. Bulletm of the Torrey Botamcal Club 53: 473-78. Stuckey, R. L. 1980. Distributional history of Lythrum sahcana (purple loosestrife) in North America. Bartoma 47: 3-20. Tomlinson, P. B. 1982. Helobiae \/Alismatidae~. Vol. 7 in Anatomy of the Monocotyledons, C. R. Metcalfe, ed. Clarendon Press, Oxford. West, D., and D. F. Whigham. 1976. Seed germination of Smith, S. G. (Peltandra vmgmica L.). Bartoma 44: 44-49. Wood, C. E. 1959. The genera of the Nymphaeaceae and Ceratophyllaceae m the southeastern Umted States. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 40~ 94112. Wooten, J. W. 1973. Taxonomy of seven species of Sagittana from eastern North Amenca. Bartoma 25: 64-74. arrow-arum ~ Patncia A. Dalton is the author of Wildflowers of the Northeast m the Audubon Fairchild Garden (Audubon Center in GreenmchJ. She has been updatmg the records of the Immg collections at the Arnold Arboretum during the past two years. Ale~andro Novelo R. is a taxonomist speciahzmg m aquatic plants at the Umversidad Nacional Autonoma de Mexico in Mexico City. , Amy Storey is an artist and botamcalillustratorlmng in Victoria, Bmush Columbia. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23370","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd2708928.jpg","title":"1983-43-2","volume":43,"issue_number":2,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24822","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060b76b.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":1,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Hahn, Carl R.","article_content":"Winter Gardens Carl R. Hahn surprisingly large number of books have been written on the subject of winter gardens and plants of winter interest. Yet I have seen relatively few gardens in the United A States specifically designated as \"winter gardens.\" Although winter gardens may be of only marginal interest in frost-free areas though these plants have become popular for their late-season floral color, they also have very attractive bark, which enhances the winter landscape. Below is a list of trees and shrubs especially valuable for their winter interest. of the country and difficult to achieve where winters are long and severe, over much of the United States climatic conditions are such that many trees and shrubs of winter interest can be grown easily. A current trend that may eventually make winter gardens more common is an increasing interest among horticulturists in multiseasonal woody plants. Various holly hy- With very few exceptions these have considerable merit as landscape plants in other seasons as well. Some, designated by an asterisk (*),have not been found to be reliably hardy at the Arnold Arboretum in Boston, where the minimum winter temperature is - 10F to -5F. With the vagaries of winter weather, the blooming times of winter-flowering trees and shrubs can vary considerably from year to year. A case in brids and species, viburnums, and cultivars of such dogwoods as Comus florida and C. kousa are currently riding a crest of popularity, while peegee hydrangeas, deutzias, lilacs, and spireas are not as highly favored as they once were. Similarly, much attention is now being paid to plants that flower at seasons in which few other trees and shrubs are in bloom; for example, the Stewartia species and the new hybrid crape myrtles from the National Arboretum. Al- point is wintersweet * (Chimonanthus praecox~. In the area around Washington, D.C., several plants were New Year's Day, 1982, delightfully perfuming the air. Two days later in bloom on is the first of the witch hazels to blossom. The flowers usually appear in October or November. Opposite : Hamamehs vmginiana the flowers were dead, killed by extremely cold weather. In 1981 the flower buds were killed as they began to open, although in other years this shrub was in flower between Christmas and New Year's Day. In some years it does not begin to flower until February, and in others flowering occurs sporadically from December to March. Such is the fate of many winter-flowering plants in areas that can experience relatively mild and open winters one year and brutally cold ones the next. P.E. Genereux photo. Wintersweet does not have showy flowers 4 but is valued for its fragrance. The flowers measure % to 1 inch across and have waxy and translucent outer tepals (undifferentiated sepals and petals) of a yellow-green color. The inner tepals are smaller and purplish brown. The variety gran diflorus has somewhat larger flowers, up to 13\/4 inches in diameter, and deeper yellow tepals but is less strongly scented. Another variety, luteus, is similar except that the inner tepals are yellow rather than purplish. The witch hazels are among the most reliable winter-flowering plants in the midAtlantic region. The earliest to flower is Hamamelis virginiana, with yellow flowers appearing usually in October and November. Several cultivars of witch hazel have arisen over the years, both in the United States and Europe. Many have resulted from the chance hybridization between H. mollis and H. japonica, giving rise to a range of petal colors, including red, orange, gold, and pale yellow. Among the best of these is H. x intermedia 'Arnold Promise', developed from a plant grown from seed sown in 1928 at the Arnold Arboretum. 'Arnold Promise' has the qualities of heavy flower production, showiness, exceptional flower color and size, good autumn coloration, and attractive growth habit, which combine to make it a first-class shrub. It has deep, clear yellow flowers 11\/2 inches across. The inch-long ribbonlike petals unwind like watch springs on bright, warm days in late winter. While 'Arnold Promise' tends to flower in late February it is typically preceded by H. mollis, the Chinese witch hazel. This species has golden yellow flowers with petals that are open and flat, not crinkled like those of 'Arnold Promise'. One of the best of the red-flowered witch hazels is H. x intermedia 'Diane'. The plant has a neat and attractive habit and its large crimson-red flowers appear in February. Occasionally 'Diane' produces red and yellow flowers on the same stem. Unlike many of the other red-flowered cultivars, 'Diane' stands out well in winter landscapes. The witch-hazel cultivars with other than yellow flowers become \"lost\" against a background of deciduous or evergreen plants, but not 'Diane'. Its cheery red flowers glisten in the winter sun. Parrotia persica, a ` witch-hazel relative often mentioned as a winter-flowering plant, usually does not flower before April. It has rather insignificant flowers. Stachyurus praecox, a coarse-foliaged shrub that grows to 10 feet or more, is at its best in winter. It flowers usually in February in Washington, D.C., and in March farther north, and produces up to 20 cream-colored or pale yellow flowers together in racemes 2 to 3 inches long. Flowering often occurs in alternate years only. S. praecox is a distinctive plant for the winter garden. The autumn-flowering cherry (Prunus subhirtella var. autumnalis) is a tree that seems to be ready to bloom any time between October and April in the Washington area and September and November farther north provided nature supplies a few consecutive warm days. It produces semidouble white flowers and grows to a height of 30 feet. The cultivar 'Autumnalis Rosea' is similar but has semidouble pale pink flowers. In the Washington, D.C., area, Pieris japonica and its various cultivars frequently show flower-bud color starting in late February (late March and early April in the North). The diminutive evergreen shrub Sarcococca humilis can almost always be relied upon to scent the air at the same sea* >55 son, although its flowers are hidden below the foliage. The heaths, Erica herbacea \/E. carnea) and its numerous cultivars, offer exciting possibilities for the winter garden. They seem to grow best in sandy, peaty soil where summers are not too hot. Heaths are available in a number of flower colors and forms. Most are low growing, less than 1 foot in height, and can flower any time between October and April in the Washington area. In the North the flowering time is later (February or March). Their flowers are extremely cold-tolerant. Many trees and shrubs carry ornamental fruits from autumn well into winter or spring. Fruit color can range from red to orange, yellow, white, purple, or blue. Ornamental fruits can be a rich addition to the garden and provide a longer season of interest than ephemeral flowers. The rose family provides a number of winter-interest plants with ornamental fruits. Locally, the hawthorn Crataegus viridis 'Winter King' is an ideal winter plant, as each year it is heavily laden with shiny, bright red fruits that remain until spring. It is especially attractive when viewed against blue winter skies. From the Gulf Coast comes C. brachyacantha, a hawthorn with bright blue fruits covered with a waxy bloom. This plant is especially noteworthy in that intense shades of blue are very rare in fruits of hardy trees. C. x lavallei has very durable and attractive fruits of a pleasing orange-red color, persisting all winter. Cotoneasters, as a group, have conspicuous and lasting red fruits. There are many from which to choose, including both deciduous and evergreen forms. Most have fruits that make an effective display in au- The pear-shaped fruits of Rosa omeiensis are bright red and are borne on yellow stalks. Al Bussewitz photo. and early winter; however, C. microphyllus usually retains its fruits for a long period, from fall to spring. Many of the species roses have persistent red fruits, but the small red fruits of Rosa multiflora andR. virginiana are outstanding throughout the fall and winter. The omei tumn rose (R. omeiensis) is an attractive winter garden plant on account of its showy, large red prickles, which are translucent in the winter sun, and its red pear-shaped fruits borne on yellow stalks. The viburnums are well-known shrubs or small trees of multiseason interest. Most ornamental species have red or black fruits, which are at their best in late summer or fall. Viburnums with especially long-lasting fruit displays include the linden viburnum (V. dilatatum), which has bright red fruits, and its yellow-fruited form xanthocarpum. 6 rhamnoides) with orange fruits studding the branches much of the winter. Birds feed on the fruits of many trees and shrubs, lessening their effectiveness, but the fruits of sea buckthorn are very acidic and tend to be a food choice of last resort. White fruits are produced by a few shrubs such as Nandina domestica f. alba, the snowberry (Symphoricarpos albus\/, and Skimmia japonica f. leucocarpa. These are most effective in autumn and early winter. While the quality of winter flowers and fruits can vary considerably from year to year, plants selected for the color or form of their bark and stems are more reliable. One of our native hawthorns, Crataegus spathulata, the little-hip hawthorn, has small, bright red fruits and bark that exfoliates in irregular patches like that of Parrotia persica, revealing areas on the trunk and branches colored cinnamon-red, silver* * Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum Drawing by Emily Osman. V. dilatatum 'Erie', developed by the Na- tional Arboretum, is noteworthy for the quantity, quality, and longevity of its fruit display. Viburnum opulus, with red fruits, and its formxanthocarpum, with golden yellow fruits, remains handsome from late summer until March. Hippophae rhamnoides Drawing by Emily Osman. Perhaps no plants are more readily associated with winter than the hollies. Many, such as the American and English hollies, have evergreen foliage and red fruits throughout the fall and winter. Both the American and English species have given rise to yellow-fruited forms as well. Among the deciduous hollies, one newcomer, Ilex 'Sparkleberry' from the National Arboretum, merits considerable attention as a plant for the winter garden. Each year it produces a heavy crop of very bright red fruits, which seem almost to glow. So bright are the fruits that they stand out in the winter landscape from a distance of 50 yards or more. Other plants producing attractive fruits include the sea buckthorn (Hippophae 7 gray, tan, and green. The overall effect is that of a small open-crowned tree with reddish bark. Native from Virginia to Texas, C. spathulata is probably hardy in gardens where minimum winter temperatures do not drop below -5F. C. marshallii, the parsley hawthorn, also native to the southern United States, has bark that is very similar to that of C. spathulata and would make an equally attractive tree for the winter garden. Birches need no introduction as plants of special and enduring winter interest. Most species are native to the more northerly latitudes, where they are important components of both the natural landscape and gardens. In recent years considerable attention has been focused on several of the Asiatic Betula species. There is evidence that Asian birch species such as Betula albo-sinensis andB. platyphylla and their varieties may offer resistance to bronze birch borer, a serious and destructive pest of ornamental American and European birches, especially B. papyrifera and B. pendula. This insect is particularly troublesome in the Middle Atlantic States, where it is one of the principal factors limiting the successful culture of several white-barked birches. For winter gardens in areas where bronze birch borers are a problem, the use of resistant species might be a solution. B. platyphylla, from China and Korea, the Japanese white birch, B. platyphylla var. japonica, andB. platyphylla var. szechuanica, from Western China, offer considerable promise and are becoming increasingly available in American nurseries. B. platyphylla and its varieties occur naturally over a wide area in Asia, and bark coloration varies. However, for the most part these trees have attractive white or chalk- white bark of considerable ornamental merit. In the wild B. platyphylla may attain a height of 75 to 85 feet. The Hillier Arboretum, in Hampshire, England, grows a clone of B. jacquemontii with spectacular pure, shining white bark of unmatched beauty. Apparently this clone has not been given a cultivar name, nor has it been widely introduced into the United * States. B. jacquemontii is occasionally available from American nurseries, but the bark color is apt to depart from the dazzling white of the Hillier Arboretum clone to shades of ochre, brown, and pink and various combinations of these colors. B. jacquemontii is native to the Western Himalayas and is closely related to B. utilis. Another Asian birch for the winter garden, B. albo-sinensis, is highly prized in England, and its merits are slowly becoming recognized here. It was introduced by E. H. Wilson in 1901 from Western China, and he described the bark as \"bright orange to orangered, peeling off in very thin sheets, each successive sheet covered with white glaucous bloom.\" Several years later British horticulturist C. Coltiman-Rogers praised B. albosinensis, saying, \"Its orange peeling papery bark, shining like burnished copper, leaves behind it a creamy, glaucous bloom that puts one in mind of a similar effect obtained from that rare maple Acer griseum. The variety B. albo-sinensis var. septentrionalis, also a Wilson introduction, has bark suffused with orange, yellow, and gray. The species and its variety are reputed to be resistant to bronze birch borer. The paperbark maple (Acergriseum) rates as one of the premier small ornamental trees for any season but is especially attractive in winter. The outer bark curls and peels away in strips much like the canoe or paper birch \" 8 characterized by having smooth green bark with longitudinal streaks of white. Several species of maples give the \"snakebark\" effect. Among the most attractive are A. davidii, * A. grossii var. hersii, A. laxiflorum, * and A. pensylvanicum. All are small- to medium-sized trees, 30 to 50 feet in height. A. pensylvanicum 'Erythrocladum' is a particularly valuable tree for winter interest. Besides having jade-green bark with white stripes, the wood produced the previous spring turns a brilliant scarlet-pink beginning about the time of the first frost. One of the more famous trees for bark coloration is the coral-bark matum maple (A. pal- 'Senkaki' or'Sangokaku'\/. The branches are coral-red throughout the young winter. The best coloration is achieved where plants are situated in full sun and is especially attractive when there is snow on the ground. An excellent companion plant- ing is A. palmatum 'Aoyagi', a Japanese The British horticulturist C. Coltimar-Rogers descnbed the peeling bark of this birch ~Betula albosmensisas leaving behind \"a creamy, glaucous bloom.\" \" maple with bright green branches of a color matched by any other plant. Used together, the two cultivars can create a stunning effect in the garden. Some of the shrubby dogwoods are among the most attractive plants displaying variously colored stems in winter, but they are not reveal the cinnamon or fawn-colored bark beneath. The bark peels off not only on the trunk but on many of the smaller branches as well. A. griseum grows to about 45 feet and has trifolioate leaves. It is another E. H. Wilson introduction from Central China. The \"snakebark\" maples strike quite a different note in the winter garden and are to for the faint of heart. Cultivars of both Comus alba and C. sericea must be pruned hard (almost to the ground) early each spring to encourage strong, straight, and vigorous shoots. Otherwise they will grow large and cease to produce colorful stems. not The paper-bark maple ~Acergmseum~ is especially photo. attractive in winter. Richard E. Weaver, Jr 9 10 C. alba var. sibirica has bright crimsonred stems to about four feet. It is frequently used in combination with C. sericea var. flaviramea, which has bright yellow to ochre-green stems. Black-purple to purplebrown winter stem coloration can be seen in C. alba var. kesselringii. The white willow (Salix alba) has yielded a number of cultivars with red or yellow stem coloration. As with the C. alba and C. sericea cultivars mentioned previously, the most intense stem colors develop as a result of annual pruning. S. alba f. chermesina has bright red winter stems while S. alba var. vitellina has yellow or orange-yellow twigs. A native American willow, S. irrorata, though rarely seen in gardens, is a very desirable plant for the winter garden, since it has purple stems overlaid with a chalkwhite bloom. This shrub will grow to a height of 10 to 15 feet but is best pruned hard annually to encourage stem growth. A similar stem coloration, chalk-white over purple, can be found in some of the brambles. Several brambles have these stem colors, including Rubus bi florus* and R. thibetanus, but R. cockburnianus is perhaps the finest of the lot with its arching stems and fernlike foliage. Two cherries, Prunus maackii and P. serrula, are conspicuous plants for winter gardens. Indeed, they have little to offer except bark characteristics. The paperbark cherry (P. serrula) has polished mahogany-red bark, which exfoliates in strips. It is especially attractive when sited so that sunlight shines on the plant from behind the peeling and curling bark strips. The floral display is weak and the foliage is of no particular merit. The Manchurian cherry (P. maackii) has yellow * species. These species are valued for their stem coloration, purple overlaid with a white bloom. A Rubus regular strips. The color of the bark is unique and perhaps the most beautiful among hardy trees. Among pines grown for ornamental bark qualities the lacebark pine, Pinus bungeana, ranks very high. This tree typically has smooth bark, which exfoliates to reveal an irregular mosaic in green, white, purple, yellow, and brown. Native to China, this pine is often multistemmed. In Korea there are several lacebark pines said to be 600 or more years old. These trees are remarkable in that they have very white to gold-brown polished bark, peeling in ir- 11 1 bark, a characteristic not seen in Western gardens, and they tend to produce a single trunk. There are several other trees with bark that attracts attention during the winter months. The beeches, both European and American, with their smooth gray bark, and the American hornbean, or \"blue beech\" (Carpinus caroliniana),which has gray bark with musclelike undulations, can add much to the winter garden setting. Similarly, the flaking or dappled bark of Comus kousa, Parrotia persica, Cydonia sinensis, and the plane trees, or sycamores (Platanus species), make their contributions to the garden in ` every season. __ Plants having contorted or twisted branches are particularly noticeable in winter. Among the shrubs displaying this characteristic is the corkscrew filbert or \"Harry Lauder's walking stick\" (Corylus avellana var. contorta\/. This shrub, growing to a height of 12 feet or more, has oddly twisted and curled stems and branches, and the male catkins are present throughout the winter. In February the pendulous two-inch long catkins become yellow as they begin to shed pollen. During the growing season this plant is densely covered in coarse green foliage; thus winter is its best season. At least one California nursery is offering a contorted cultivar of hardy orange (Poncirus trifoliata 'Flying Dragon'). Its branches grow in a sinuous zigzag fashion and are a rich olive green in winter, while its bright orange, golf-ball-sized fruits are handsome in autumn and early winter. The corkscrew willow (Salix matsudana 'Tortuosa') has an ascending growth habit with prominent twisted and contoured The contorted branches of the corkscrew filbert, Harry Lauder's walking stick (Corylus avellana var. contorta), are most noticeable in winter. or branches, especially as a young plant. It can be impressive in a winter garden when viewed against the skyline, but as most willows, it tends to be short lived, possesses a formidable root system, and is subject to various insects and diseases. A case can be made for almost any evergreen plant as a candidate for winter interest. Numerous dwarf and full-sized conifers and their allies are especially attractive in winter. The various bluish color forms of Picea pungens, the gray and blue of Juniperus cultivars, the yellow-foliaged forms of Chamaecyparis, and the red bronze 12 of Cryptomeria japonica 'Elegans' are only a few of many that can be selected for winter form, texture, habit, and color. Yews and camellias can be useful; however, moderation is called for as masses of plants with dark green foliage can be oppressive. Bibliography Allen, O. E. and the Editors of Time-Life Books. 1979. Winter Gardens. Time-Life, Alexandna, Virginia. Bowles, E. A. 1915. My Garden in Autumn and Winter. T. C. and E. C. Jack, London. Damell, A. W. 1926. Wmter Blossoms From the Outdoor Garden. L. Reeve, London. Graff, M. M. 1966. Flowers in the Winter Garden. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y. Haes, E. C. M. 1965. Winter Colour in the Garden. Pearson, London. Jefferson-Brown, M. J. 1957. The Winter Garden. Faber and Faber, London. Lawrence, E. 1961. Gardens in Winter. Harper & Brothers, New York. Lay, C. D. 1924. A Garden Book for Autumn and Winter. Duffield, New York. Nicholson, R. A. 1973. Colour in Your Winter Garden with Flowers, Fruits and Fohage. Douglas, David and Charles, Vancouver. Osbom, A. Ed. 1947. Wmter-Flowermg Plants for Outdoor Borders. Ward, Lock, London. Schuler, S. 1972. The Wmter Garden. Macmillan, New York. 1966. The Winter Garden. Museum Press, London. Synge, P. M. 1974. Flowers and Colour in Winter. Michael Joseph, London. Thomas, G. S. 1967. Colour in the Winter Garden. Revised edition. Phoenix House, London. Ward, F. K. 1954. Berried Treasure: Shrubs for Autumn and Winter Colour in Your Garden. Ward, Lock, London. Whitehead, S. B. 1948. The Winter Garden. J. M. Dent, London. Wilson, H. van P. 1978. Winter Color for Your Wmter Yard and Garden. Scnbner's, New York. Smith, M. Carl R. Hahn is chief of horticulture at MarylandNational Capitol Park and Planning Commission, Silver Spring, Maryland. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Evergreens for the Retired Gardener's Garden","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24820","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060b36d.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":1,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Evergreens for the Retired Gardener's Garden Donald Wyman When one moves into retirement, one must make many adjustments in one's style of living. Having always been active, I never thought much about retirement, and in particular I never planned for the gardening aspect of it. Growing plants, especially woody plants, had been my vocation as well as my avocation, and I had been deeply involved in it. Managing one of the world's greatest arboretums meant that I had plenty of space and, more importantly, plenty of help to do the many things that had to be done. reduced were to a minimum, especially when we away. Finally, they had to have a long period of interest in the garden. The woody plants selected had to be appropriate as a background for other plants of seasonal interest and still keep the garden alive and green all winter. In fulfilling the latter requirement evergreens were the obvious choice. Donald Wyman, horticulturist emeritus of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, in his Suddenly, on entering retirement, I came face to face with two facts: space was very limited in the garden of the small suburban home we settled into, and I had to do the work myself. What grand plans I might dream up would be limited to only a few hundred square feet. And while I enjoyed the work of gardening, I knew I would not always be available to do it, as my wife and I planned to travel. Hence, the garden would often be left in the hands of well-meaning amateurs, no insurance that thriving plants will remain thriving! So there had to be a few general rules. First, to accommodate the small space, the woody plants selected had to be slow growing or even dwarf. Second, they had to be disease free and msect free, so that they would need little attention when we were away from home. Third, they had to be drought resistant, so that watering could be garden. Al Bussewitz photo. 14 Japanese Holly One of the evergreens I have admired for many years is the box-leaved Japanese holly (Ilex crenata f. convexa\/. This shrub, which is hardy to -5F, has a dense, bushy habit and lustrous deep green leaves similar to those of the boxwood. It can grow 10 feet tall but is easily sheared and can be used in hedges. It is very easy to care for and has no serious pest problems or diseases. In New England it should not be planted in areas vulnerable to severe winter winds. In the winter of 1958-59 it was destroyed over a wide area in the northern United States, but that was the first occurrence of such destruction in half a century. During some winters the two plants in front of our house (which has a southern exposure) exhibit a few burned leaves, but as soon as the dead branchlets are pruned off in the early spring, the plants quickly recover. This holly can also be pruned or sheared in other seasons. It is an asset in any garden year-round and is also attractive in flower arrangements. small and waxy white, similar to those of blueberry, and arranged in 3'\/z-inch drooping clusters along the arching stems on the underside of the branches. It grows well in semishade, where the foliage tends to remain evergreen much longer. The autumn color is a rich bronze. A cultivar named 'Nana', which originated in England some years ago, produced a plant that was 23 inches tall and 6 feet across at 30 years of age. I do not know whether 'Nana' is available commercially in America or not. Wayside Gardens of Hodges, South Carolina, lists a hybrid (L. axillaris x L. fontanesiana) named 'Scarletta', which it claims grows no taller than 20 inches. The young growth is very red. Cut branches of the drooping leucothoe are splendid in flower arrangements, and cutting the long arching branches rejuvenates the plant, tending to keep it lower in height and bushy. When the plants grow too tall and get ragged at the base, it is best to prune them in early spring to 6 inches above the ground, after which they will quickly return to fine form. are Drooping Leucothoe The drooping leucothoe (Leucothoe fontanesiana, formerly L. catesbaei),which is native to the southeastern United States (although hardy to -20F), is another excellent evergreen for the foundation planting. In the North it may drop some of its leaves in winter, but in the south it is truly evergreen. It may grow as much as 6 feet tall, but it can be restrained, and should be, with proper pruning. The glossy green leaves, which are about 7 inches long, are lance shaped and similar in size and shape to those of the mountain laurel. The young foliage in the spring is reddish, adding much to the ornamental character of the plant. The flowers Mountain Laurel The mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia)is a familiar native American shrub that bears beautiful flowers in late May and June when allowed to grow at will. It is hardy to -20F. When pruned to 4 feet tall, it does not bloom very much, but it maintains a dense mass of glossy evergreen leaves throughout the year. In pruning, it is imperative that a few leaves (and their buds) be left below the cut, even on second-year growth. This requires careful attention, as the leaves are clustered together at the ends of the twigs and can easily be cut off entirely. 15 If this plant is pruned every year, as it is in our restricted foundation planting, it makes a splendid evergreen shrub. When it grows too tall or too wide, it can lose its attractiveness, but pruning must wait until after flowering. Anyone interested in obtaining some of the dark pink to red flowering forms can do so at Weston Nurseries of Hopkinton, Massachusetts, which has been selecting and propagating these for years. However, we value the mountain laurel as a foliage plant only in our small garden, and as such it is outstanding every year. Japanese Andromeda The Japanese andromeda (Pieris japonica~ is another good choice for the retired gardener. It is a very popular plant, hardy to -10F, and has been grown extensively in the eastern United States as well as the Pacific Northwest. Its leaves, about 31\/2 inches long and narrow at both ends, are a lustrous green and bronze when they first appear in the spring. The slightly pendulous branches are graceful, and the plant can reach 9 feet in height, although in the North it is usually lower and with correct pruning can be kept within a limited area. The small flowers, which appear in mid-April, are waxy white and are borne in pendulous clusters 5 inches long. The flower buds are prominent from late summer to early spring, providing proof during the cold winter storms that spring is bound to come. Several interesting variants of Japanese andromeda have been found, a few of which are offered for sale by commercial growers. The cultivar 'Compacta' is lower growing than the species itself and its leaves are The Japanese andromeda (Pieris snow. japonica) in Al Bussewitz photo. smaller. 'Dorothy Wycoff' has pink flower buds and excellent purple-green winter foliage. 'Variegata' produces leaves with a white margin around the edge. 'Flamingo' has flowers that are true pink, while 'Whitecaps' and 'White Cascade' have flower clusters longer than those of the species. These and other cultivars are well worth looking for in nursery catalogues. Mountain Andromeda The native mountain andromeda (Pieris floridunda~, which reaches 6 feet in height, is 16 A false cypress species, Chamaecyparis obtusa andromeda can be grown in situations of full sun, whereas the Japanese seems to do better with some shade. Wilson Rhododendron 'Gracihs Nana', at the Arboretum. Richard E. Weaver, Jr. photo. slightly hardier (to -20F) than the Japanese andromeda and produces upright pyramidal clusters of small white flowers in mid-April. Sargent considered this one of the best of the broad-leaved evergreens, probably because it grows in either sunlight or shade and does not require acid soil. The leaves are a dull green, and the plant is dense and bushy. Unfortunately, this species has not produced pink flowering forms as yet, but an excellent dwarf flowering cultivar exists named'Millstream', which originated on Long Island over 10 years ago. I do not know whether it is available commercially yet or not. My plant is 11 years old, about a foot tall, and nearly 4 feet across. The mountain C. S. Although several low-growing evergreen rhododendrons exist, the one I like best is the Wilson rhododendron (Rhododendron x laetevirens, formerly R. x wilsonii and a cross betweenR. carolinianum andR. ferrugineumIt is hardy to -20F. It usually grows to about 4 feet tall and has dark green evergreen leaves about 31\/2 inches long. Its small purplish pink flowers appear in early June. It is not impressive in comparison to the taller types with their huge, ornate flower clusters, but it is pleasing as a dense, fairly low evergreen in a narrow shrub border. Erratum Please note that the order of the captions with the photographs on pages 16, 17, and 19 is incorrect. Pieris floribunda 'Milstream' is on page 16; Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Gracilis Nana' is on page 17; and Tsuga canadensis f. pendula is on page 19. 17 7 False Cypress The Chamaecyparis species, especially among the most variable of the small-leaved conifers. They are hardy to -30F. Several varieties exist and some are dwarf and slow growing. The nomenclature is very confusing and one cannot be certain of obtaining a desired dwarf variety merely by selecting a name in a nursery catalogue. It is far better to see the plant before purchase. Chaemaecyparis pisifera f. filifera, or the thread retinospora, is a tree type, and the cultivar C. pisifera 'Filifera Aurea' is much slower growing and sometimes dwarf, especially when propagated from the slowergrowing sideshoots. The foliage of this variety is yellowish, especially when grown in the full sun, but if left unpruned over a long period it can grow 8 feet tall in 30 years. C. pisifera `Filifera Nana' is another dense, rounded, flat-topped little bush that is slow in growth. Here again, pruning will help to keep the plants under 3 to 4 feet high and is necessary if they are used in foundation plantings. They will grow in sun or shade and when properly pruned will maintain rounded masses of evergreen foliage throughout the year. Another member of the Chamaecyparis clan is C. obtusa f. gracilis, Hinoki false cypress, a dense, slow-growing evergreen with dark green foliage that can grow 9 feet tall or taller if not properly restrained. Its flat foliage, somewhat similar to that of arborvitae, retains its dark green color all winter long, which is something that cannot be said of the native American arborvitae varieties. This slender shrub, introduced from Japan in 1862, is a longtime garden favorite, but occasionally it sends out wayward branches that Chamaecyparis pisifera, are must be pruned to keep the plant in proper form. Another variety of C. obtusa is 'Gracilis Nana', which normally grows about 6 feet tall and is readily available in nurseries. This, too, is an excellent foundation evergreen, dense and bushy. Unfortunately, it is sometimes labeled f. nana or f. compacta. The true 'Nana' at 90 years of age reaches only about 3 feet in height and is probably too slow growing to be of value in an everchanging foundation planting. Since the nomenclature of slow-growing plants like these is confusing, one must select carefully. All are excellent ornamentals and will keep small gardens green in winter. Sargent's weeping hemlock (Tsuga canadensis f. pendula) at the Arboretum. Richard E. Weaver, Jr. photo. 18 8 Junipers Several of the low-growing junipers are worth considering for small spaces. They are easily obtainable at almost any time of year because they are frequently grown in containers, but here again the nomenclature is often unclear. My favorites are Juniperus procumbens, which is hardy to -10F, and its cultivar 'Nana' and J. horizontalis 'Wiltonii' (hardy to -50F), ground covers that stay flat on the ground if allowed to elongate in a normal way. Although the Japanese garden juniper ~J. procumbens) was brought to Europe from horizontalis 'Wiltonii', with its long creeping branches and beautiful silvery green foliage. (Its imaginative cultivar names are 'Blue Rug' or'Wilton Carpet'.) It was found in 1914 on the island of Vinal Haven in Maine by J. C. van Heiningen of the Wilton Nurseries, South Wilton, Connecticut. It should be remembered, though, that to be effective, this plant must have space to display its graceful, trailing branches. Yews Japan in 1843, it was not grown in American gardens until the turn of the century. Termed both f. chinensis 'Procumbens' (Hortus III) and j. procumbens (den Ouden in Manual of Cultivated Conifers), it is a dwarf shrub, mounded in habit, with bluish green needles. Not over 2 feet tall, it is much slower growing than\/. horizontalis and its varieties. The old-fashioned favorite, J. horizontalis 'Plumosa', is a vigorous spreader and has become very popular for that purpose, but J. procumbens is the plant to use where space is limited. Even better in the small garden is a a gem of a plant called J. procumbens 'Nana', which compact mound of bluish green with short branches, one on top of foliage, another, creating a shelving effect. It has been noted that if the roots are cut from time to time, the plant will not expand in the usual manner of the species. The foliage of this dwarf Japanese garden juniper turns an interesting purplish color in winter. It was originally obtained from Japan by the D. Hill Nursery of Dundee, Illinois, about 1922. Where enough space is available, one of the best of the ground-covering junipers is J. forms The yews are among the more serviceable evergreens for winter display, and in the North the Japanese yews are tops. Many varieties are available and all are vigorous and easily grown, maintaining splendid dark green foliage throughout the year. Actually, the Japanese yew (Taxus cuspidata), which is hardy to -20F, is a tree that reaches 50 feet or more in height, but there are forms that are lower, one of the best for the small garden being T. cuspidata f. densa or cushion Japanese yew. One 50-year-old densa specimen growing in the Arnold Arboretum is 4 feet tall, yet 20 feet across. All the yews are easily pruned and withstand shearing easily; thus they are very appropriate for small spaces. This form is especially suited for the small garden because of its low, rounded habit of growth. The branchlets on the sides of the main stems are short and compact, giving an appearance of density. If one wants to reduce the amount of pruning to be done, the cushion Japanese yew is a good choice, because it will maintain its low-growing habit with minimum attention. If the densa is not available, one can maintain a Japanese yew at almost any height or shape with frequent pruning. We have one in 19 foundation planting. It requires pruning or shearing several times a year because it is not a slow-growing type, but we want to keep the plant as a dense pyramid of dark green foliage about 5 feet tall. If allowed to grow taller by missing one of those prunings, it must be drastically cut back the next time, which unfortunately results in an unattractive plant for several months. The dwarf Japanese yew (T. cuspidata f. nana) is a slow grower, becoming 10 feet tall and 20 feet across in 40 years of uninterrupted growth. However, even this plant eventually becomes too tall for the small garden and must be pruned to keep it within the proper scale. our Canada Hemlock For northern gardens probably the most serviceable of all the evergreens is the native Canada hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), which is hardy to -20F. The species is a standard tree reaching 150 feet or more in height. The Sargent's weeping hemlock (T. canadensis f. ~ Pieris floribunda 'Millstream', a dwarf flowering cultivar of the native mountain andromeda, at the Arboretum. Richard E. Weaver, Jr. photo. pendulais an especially interesting variant and is only one of many dwarf forms available from nurseries. It is low and flat on top with graceful pendulous side branches, an elegant specimen when allowed to grow unhindered. It may reach 15 feet or more in height and twice that in breadth, but it can be sheared or pruned heavily and still maintain a reasonably good shape at 4 feet in height. There are many varieties of the Canada hemlock, some lower than the Sargent's weeping hemlock, but we have found in our small garden that this one can be kept within our strict limits on height and breadth. Found in the Hudson Valley about 1870, it has been a longtime favorite of gardeners and graces many a garden with its beautiful drooping habit. Like that of other hemlocks, the foliage is always dark green, and if given the space to expand it always looks well. It almost seems a crime to reduce this plant to a growing space of 16 square feet, but if that is all the space available the ruthless pruning job must be done, and it is best done in the very early spring, certainly not during the summer months. It regrows quickly and if left in place (ours has been in nine years) soon reacquires a normal drooping habit. I have seen a 50-year-old hedge of Canada hemlock only 4 feet tall and 4 feet 20 thick making a fine dense planting and proving that the species can produce good growth with heavy pruning. Even though 6 to 10 inches of growth must be removed in the pruning operation, I think it is well to include this beautiful evergreen in a small planting. It should be pointed out that when grown this way it must be severely pruned in order to keep it in scale with the rest of the plant- ing. These are, in fact, good evergreens for any garden, and when given proper pruning at the right time, they can perform very well in the small garden. Some evergreens do not take kindly to winter, but in our experience these do. They will keep the garden alive through the long, dreary months of winter and provide excellent foliage contrast for the colorful flowers of spring and summer. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Augustine Henry and the Exploration of the Chinese Flora","article_sequence":3,"start_page":21,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24819","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060b328.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":1,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Nelson, E. Charles","article_content":"Augustine Henry and the E. Charles Nelson Exploration of the Chinese Flora The plant-collector's job is to uncover the hidden beauties of the world, so that others may share his joy .... Frank Kingdon Ward, From China to Hkamti - Long studies as rapidly as he could, obtained his medical qualifications, passed the Chinese Customs Service examinations, for which he had acquired a working knowledge of Chinese, and left for China in the autumn of 1881. Although he is generally believed to have been born in Ireland, Augustine Henry was born in Dundee, Scotland, on July 2, 1857. His father, Bernard, was a native of County Derry in the North of Ireland, and his mother was a local girl, Mary MacNamee. She met Bernard Henry while he was visiting his married sister, who lived in Dundee. After their marriage, and shortly after Augustine's birth, Bernard and Mary Henry returned to Ireland with their son and settled in Cookstown in County Tyrone. Bernard owned a grocery shop in the town and also bought and sold flax. Henry remained in the customs service until the end of 1900, during which time he made considerable collections of the native Chinese flora. Ernest Wilson is reported to have said that \"no one in any age has contributed more to the knowledge of Chinese plants than this scholarly Irishman,\" and in The portrait of Augustine Henry in this photograph hangs in the National Botanic Gardens in Dublin, Ireland. It was pamted by Celia Harrison. - Austin, as Augustine was called, went to Cookstown Academy. He was a brilliant scholar and eventually gained a place in the Queen's College, Galway, where he studied natural science and philosophy; he graduated in 1877 at the age of 20 with a firstclass degree. In the following year he obtained a Master of Arts degree at the Queen's College in Belfast. After that he spent a year in London studying medicine in one of the teaching hospitals. During a visit to Belfast about 1879 he met Sir Robert Hart, who recruited him for the Imperial Maritime Customs Service in China. Henry completed his E 22 tarum Sinicarum was 1929 the second fascicle of Icones Planpublished in Beijing March 1882 he was assigned to Yichang (\"Ichang\" in Henry's correspondence), a port the Yangtze River, about a thousand miles inland, near the borders of Hubei and Sichuan provinces. There he served as the assistant medical officer and also performed customs duties. For a while he spent his leisure time on shooting trips in the nearby countryside, but he was a poor shot and in 1884 he began to pursue less mobile creaon (Peking) with the following dedication: Augustine Henry through whose assiduous botanical exploration of Central and South-Westem China the knowledge of our flora has been greatly extended. Other botanists shared these opinions, although Arthur Grove commented that Henry \"was more concerned in botanical exploration than in horticultural exploitation, and thought more of getting a specimen safely to Kew than of getting the seeds which might enable the particular plant to be raised\" for cultivation in the British Isles. But that is an unfair comment. Henry was not oblivious to horticultural potential, but because he was occupied by his work at the customs office he could engage in the task of plant hunting and seed collecting only in his free time. Seed collecting was, and still is, a tures : In his plants. diary he recorded his first botanical excursion on November 25, 1884, when he crossed the river at Yichang and collected some plants near the village of Shiliujing. time-consuming task, requiring two visits to a habitat, one to collect the plant in flower for identification and a second to obtain ripe seeds. Henry's first letter to Kew accompanied seeds of the lacquer tree (Rhus verniciflua) and in the next few years he sent other seeds, including Camellia euryoides, Rosa banksiae, Buddleia davidii, and a linden (Tilia tuan).On leaving Yichang in March 1889 he brought with him bulbs of an orange-flowered lily, which he gave to Charles Ford, who forwarded some to Kew; this was the Henry lily (Lilium henryi 1, which is widely cultivated in gardens today (and has the advantage of being a lime-toler- 20, 1885, he wrote to the director of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, saying that a number of medicinal plants were cultivated around Yichang. He reported that \"there seem to be a fair number of interesting plants; and as this part of China is not very well known to botanists interesting specimens might be obtained.\" Henry confessed that he knew very little of botany, but he offered to collect specimens and send them to Kew \"if you think they would prove useful. About the same time he wrote to a Dr. Wales regarding botanical work. His letter \" On March was passed on to Henry Hance (1827-1886), ant species). who was one of the leading experts on the Chinese flora at that time as well as British vice-consul in Canton. Hance replied on April 1, 1881, suggesting some useful books and recommending that \"in order to work at so novel and comparatively unknown a flora in a tolerably satisfactory manner, a student Henry in China For the first few months of his time in China, Henry was stationed in Shanghai. In The Henry honeysuckle (Lonicera henryi). \/. Drawing by Michael Grassi. . 23 24 ~ -, ought to have a fairly good herbarium and a very considerable library, with all the important systematic monographs and memoirs on families & genera.\" He suggested to Henry that \"any person with a love of botany can do invaluable service even by collecting, whilst both leisure and want of pecuniary means may render it impossible for him to attempt to attack the study\" on a large scale. The value of that advice to Henry may be gauged by the fact that the letter in which it was written and a second one containing a recipe for an insect repellent to preserve herbarium specimens are the only letters that survive among Augustine Henry's papers from his first tour of duty in China. Not even the reply of Sir Joseph Hooker, director of Kew, survives from the voluminous correspondence that Henry conducted with botanists after 1885. Having been advised by Hance, and un- doubtedly encouraged by Hooker, Henry began to collect assiduously and thereby \"to open the treasure chest of the Chinese \" flora.\" Other botanists, amateur and professional, had collected at Yichang before, but because they were eclipsed by Augustine Henry, their work is little known and their collections do not seem to amount to much. Charles Maries (c. 1851-1902) was sent to China by James Veitch, the famous London nurseryman, in 1879. According to Veitch he lacked staying power and did not get on well straints. He had to be single minded and collect seeds and bulbs of plants that would be profitable for his employer. Maries did make some notable discoveries at Yichang, including the Chinese witch hazel (Hamamelis molliswhich was raised from his seed by Veitch but grew unrecognized in the London nursery for almost 20 years. Another person who collected at Yichang before Henry was Thomas Watters, by coincidence also Irish. The coincidence is more remarkable in that Watters was the brother of Augustine Henry's sweetheart, Harriet Watters. Harriet turned down Henry's proposal of marriage but corresponded with him for many years while he was in China. Thomas Watters was a scholar with a special interest in Chinese Buddhism, and he was a member of the British consular service in China from 1863 until 1894. In 1878 he was appointed acting consul in Yichang and during his free time collected herbarium specimens for Hance. Watters also responded to a request made by the authorities at Kew for materials on economic botany; at Yichang he discovered the service viburnum (Viburnum utile\/, which was used for making pipestems. His other notable find was the Chinese primrose (Primula sinensis). Watters sent some living plants to Charles Ford at the botanical garden in Hong Kong, but does not seem to have sent seeds or living plants to the British Isles. It is said that Watters and Henry met in China, but no documents describing such a meeting exist. with the Chinese, who resented his \"difficile\" nature and destroyed his collections. Thus Maries returned to England with very few plants. Unlike Henry, Maries was on a commercial expedition; he was not a leisured explorer without deadlines or con- Augustine Henry, therefore, was in virtually unexplored territory. It was an area of outstanding botanical riches, \"the Klondike of plant gold.\" Between November 1884 and February 1889 Henry discovered about 50U species new to Western scientists, about 25 25 new genera, and one plant, Trapella sinensis, that is now in a family by itself, the Trapellaceae. He made use of native collec- tors, whom he trained to bring dried speci- him, although they were not as productive as Henry wished. He combined mens to there was nothing in them suitable for you to plant. I must get you something soon.\" A few weeks later, as promised, Augustine Henry sent a \"box containing 3 kinds of orchids (I haven't seen the flowers) procured on ... trees at 7000 [feet]. If they arrive via- the collection of herbarium specimens with studies of ethnobotany and recorded the vernacular names and uses of plants, especially those used in Chinese folk medicines. Indeed, his interest in botany was aroused by the difficulties of reconciling European scientific names and the many vernacular names for Chinese medicinal plants. On June 20, 1891, during home leave, Henry married Caroline Orridge, the daughter of a London jeweler, and returned to China later that year. In November 1896, while stationed in southern China at Mengsi (\"Mengtze\" or \"Mengtse\" in Henry's letters), he wrote to Evelyn Gleeson, a friend from his student days in Galway, saying that he had received \"very enthusiastic letters from a Liverpool merchant,\" Arthur K. Bulley. Henry promised to send him seeds but commented to Evelyn Gleeson that the difficulty is in selecting. I like plants with beautiful foliage and neat little flowers. I don't care for colour much. I thmk chrysanthemums are positively ugly on account of their wretched leaves. The Rose is an exception: it is wonderfully beautiful in every way. As for Geraniums, I really can't understand any one liking them. Ferns of all kinds please me. They are simply marvellous here, especially the kinds that one gets in the virgin forests. Their vanety of form is ble and plantable, please take half of each kind and send the other half\"to Bulley. Henry said that the orchids should grow in England, advising Miss Gleeson not to \"throw them away: but try them, as they have astonishing vitality. Consult some one who knows: and give me suggestions if necessary re collecting & sending similar orchids.\" Henry sent additional batches of seeds to Kew. In one letter to Evelyn Gleeson on December 21, 1898, he wrote that he had sent William Thistleton-Dyer, Hooker's successor as director of Kew, \"a lot of seeds: and he gave them to the girl gardeners to grow: and these dears succeeded in raising 45 kinds (already) including 6 species of Begonia & some other beautiful plants as a new species of Rogersia, ... also Rhododendrons (3 or 4).\" These seedlings had perhaps a better chance of surviving than the orchids sent to Miss Gleeson, yet the number of plants said to have been introduced by Henry is generally considered to be small. While his introductions may be few, Augustine Henry's discovery of new species and his botanical work in poorly known \" areas was significant. W. Botting Hemsley astonishing. - sure Despite his reservations and his own pleain form, not color, Henry did collect seeds and also some epiphytic orchids. In January 1897 he wrote to Evelyn Gleeson saying that he had sent seeds to Bulley \"but estimated that while in China - at Yichang, on Hainan, in Taiwan, at Mengsi, and Simao Henry and his native helpers acquired over 15,800 collection numbers. As there were an average of 10 specimens in each there must have been a total of almost 160,000 herbarium specimens. Henry collected probably over 5000 species between 26 1884 and 1900. His contribution to Chinese plant specimens. He soon tried to pass on his enthusiasm to others. During his early years in China, Henry was learning and being guided. He returned to China in 1892 more confident and prepared to encourage others. In 1893 he published Notes on the Economic Botany of China, in the preface of which he wrote: Missionaries and others living in the interior are often m a position to make enquiries concerning the natural productions of China, the results of which would be of great service to science. I intend to publish a few notes, pomting out the directions in which such work might be done as regards articles derived from the vegetable kmgs dom ; for I thmk a vague idea that everything is known, prevents many people from taking an interest in natural history. Scarcely anything is known m regard to many points of economical interest. If any one wishes to help, he will confer a great favour on the writer by sending him specimens of dried plants, drugs, woods, dyes, etc. These specimens will be forwarded when necessary, to England, to have them dealt with by the authorities at Kew. botany may be measured crudely by noting the many species with the epithets augustinii orhenryi: Henrya augustinii, Rhododendron augustinii, Emmenopterys henryi, andLonicerahenryi. Carolinella henryi was named for his wife, Caroline. Henry's botanical contacts in China One of Augustine Henry's first contacts in China was Lord Kesteven (1851-1915),who visited Yichang in April 1886 and probably accompanied Henry on a trip upstream through the famous Yangtze gorge near the city. Kesteven went with Henry many years later on excursions to forests in France and sponsored his journey to the western United States in the early 1900s. He was one of the select group who received seeds from Augustine Henry during his first tour of duty, and it was through him that Henry introduced the sweetspire (Itea ilici foliainto cultivation in the British Isles. No doubt Henry's enthusiasm was stimulated by the letters he received from Kew telling him of the significance of his discoveries and enclosing numerous articles and papers containing descriptions of his plants. Unfortunately, none of these letters, written by William Thistleton-Dyer, Daniel Oliver, and William Hemsley, is extant, so it is not possible to judge accurately how much Henry was inspired by them. During his home leave in 1890, Henry certainly must have been encouraged by his visit to Kew, where he was greeted as a celebrity, the man who had in 1886 sent \"one of the most important plant collections ever received from the centre of China\" and who continued to astound botanists with every new parcel of Henry continued with instructions on the preparation of herbarium specimens, which were almost word for word what Henry Hance had told him nearly nine years earlier in the only letters he kept. Henry did not confine his interests to economic botany, however, nor did he attempt to restrict the people he helped and encouraged. In October 1892 he was assigned to Dakou on the island of Taiwan (Formosa); he had applied for the transfer in the hope that the climate would suit his wife, who was in failing health with tuberculosis. Caroline Orridge Henry died two years later in DenThe Henry lily (Lilium henry\/.. J Drawing by Cynthia DeSando. 27 28 ver, Colorado, where she had gone because of the illness. On Taiwan Henry gathered information for a flora of the island. In May 1893 he contacted Hosea Ballou Morse (1855-1934), a graduate of Harvard University and a commissioner in the customs service who was stationed at Tamsui. He reminded Morse that he had sent specimens of wild hempskin cloth and the plant from which it was manufactured to Shanghai the previous year; the plant had been identified as an Alpinia species. On May 15, 1893, Henry wrote that from letters received from Kew, asking for specimens in flower, it appears that it is a new species I should be much obhged if you would kindly cut off the flowers, put it m a bottle m spirits of wine, and send to me.... I am domg my best here to get at the products of the vegetable kingdom and have a native ... collecting for me in the ... A few days later Henry provided Morse with instructions about drying plants, noting that he generally obtained six specimens of each species. Later Henry advised him on employing native collectors. In August Morse promised to collect for Henry. Henry agreed to pay a native collector $ 8 a month and instructed that he should bring plants into Tamsui twice a month if possible. Morse's assistance was acknowledged by Augustine Henry in his published list of Taiwanese plants. The two men continued to correspond for many years, especially while Henry was in Mengsi. Henry arrived in Mengsi late in June 1896 and there met Pierre Bons D'Anty (18591916), who was the French consul in Simao mountams. people working for him; guidance of Mr. Schmuser, a lighthouse keeper, \"the savage chief Capting\" made a large collection in the south of In fact he had several (Ssemao or Szemao in Henry's correspondence), a city in southwestern China near the border with Vietnam (then French Indochina). Bons D'Anty was probably in Mengsi on business. They could not have had much contact, for the consul left Mengsi five days after their first meeting. These two men had much in common; they shared an interest in Chinese literature, and Henry re\" garded Pierre Bons D'Anty as \"very clever.\" Their brief contact was enough for Henry to persuade him to collect plants at Simao. Between August 1896 and November 1897, when Bons D'Anty left Simao, he corresponded with Henry and sent specimens. On August 22, 1896, Bons D'Anty sent to Henry specimens of plants \"found common or peculiar\" between Mengsi and Simao; each specimen was numbered, and Bons D'Anty asked Henry to refer to the \"same number when telling me the identification that you arrive at.\" It is evident from this that Henry had become more than a collector ; he was now a botanist capable of naming plants. Yet there were some species he could under the the island. On June 6, 1893, Augustine Henry replied to a letter from Hosea Morse in which Morse had mentioned the problems of customs officials with plants and plant products listed under Chmese names. Henry said that he could not tackle that for the present: One must remember that the framers of the tariff were ignorant of botany, textile fibres and such like ... such work as identifying drugs, fibres, dyes &c, can only be done very gradually and by accumulation of specimens of the plants and information got at first hand. It also requires an expert, one who knows Chinese and has an acquamtance with common vulgar names in Chinese, with Chinese books &c, else the ordinary observer will be taken in. r 29 not identify, and these were sent to London. Over the following year Henry and Bons D'Anty corresponded about conifers, tea, and Chinese vernacular names. In Longzhou in Guangxi province. On April 30, 1897, Henry informed William ThistletonDyer that he had received from Morse ... some 400 species. Some are quite interesting. He sent me Tournefortia sarmentosa, which is hitherto known only as an oceamc plant.... He also sends me Dolichandrone cauda-fehna, which I found on the Red River. Its pods are the most comic of fruits; long tall of some prehistoric ammal would be near it. June 1897 Pierre Bons D'Anty wrote that for nearly two months I have not been out of my office and I was busy till the middle of every mght. I hope you will excuse me. I thought of writing to you but I couldn't find a minute to do so.... I have some 250 or 300 specimens, some very cunous, collected during my trip in the Lipsing [?].Iam going to pack them all right and send them to you as soon as possible. He sent Henry was a photograph of a palm that in the Lipsing area; \"it is around every pagoda and the leaves are used to make paper with, or rather they are used as paper, being cut into long stripes very common seen [sic].\" As he could not make herbarium specimens of the huge leaves, Bons D'Anty ,, Earlier in the year he had written to Hosea Morse saying that Professor Charles Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum had written asking for seeds of \"mountain shrubs and trees. Perhaps you could co-operate if you get off at all to the mountains.\" Henry expressed his gratitude for Morse's assistance with the Taiwanese flora: \"I am very grateful to you for your collecting for me: and you can send at your convenience. I expect you will have quite a lot of novelties. Every place in China has some; and they often are the commonest plants of the locality.\" \" - thought the best way to convey the information was by photographing the plant. He remarked that the Chinese called the palm i Mien chou. In a subsequent letter Bons D'Anty showed that he had some botanical expertise himself, by saying that the palm was not a species of Chamaerops, Livistona, Arenga, or Borassus. Henry sent the photograph to Kew and the palm was identified as \"probably Trachycarpus sp.\" In all, Pierre Bons D'Anty sent Henry about 500 specibefore he left Simao. These were incorporated into Henry's collections and sent mens Henry and Bulley while in Mengsi that Augustine Henry began his correspondence with the Liverpool merchant Arthur K. Bulley (1861-1942). Bulley, the founder of Bees Nursery, was an insatiable horticulturist with a passion for introducing new plants into the British Isles. He had tried contacting missionaries in China to request seeds, a practice that was becoming common at that time among institutions and enthusiastic It was They gave Henry a good preliminary knowledge of the flora of that region, where to Kew. he was to be sent in 1898. While corresponding with Bons D'Anty in Simao, Henry remained in contact with Hosea Morse, who had been transferred to gardeners in Europe. However, Bulley was far from content with the seeds he received; his garden \"could quickly claim to possess the best international collection of dandelions to be seen anywhere.\" \" 30 Bulley first wrote to Henry in 1896 and requested seeds, which Henry sent. In a letter to Evelyn Gleeson written in June 1897, Henry said that \"I don't know [Bulley], but he wrote to me for seeds .... He is an enthusiast. I have a weakness for enthusiasts, cranks and the like.\" A fortnight later, he remarked in another letter to Miss Gleeson that \"Mr. Bulley seemed satisfied with the seeds I sent him and wrote me a letter full of flattery and appreciation.\" Unlike the missionaries, Henry seemed to be able to travel anywhere and collect worthwhile plants. On March 30, 1897, Henri Correvon of Geneva sent a letter in \" sell plants and I cant afford the expense without selling. Given prosperity I'll go myself some day.\" His nursery business did prosper, but Bulley never visited China. Instead he employed his own collectors or assisted in financing plant-collecting expeditions. In 1904 went to George Forrest ( 1873-1932) idiosyncratic English to Bulley seeking assistance : \"I allways wishes to hear that somebody would go [to Yunnan]. But Franchet says that only the Jesuits built at - those who take the protestant church Is your Madagascar by English missionaries alone, the awful Jesuits can go there. friend Henry the abbe Henry? - if so he will be able to get something as the people there is catholic. Franchet says even that they are very much against protestants. Our protestant missionaries are not far from Yunnan but Franchet says they cannot go there they would be killed!!! So that if you have a fnend there ask him for seeds of Primula and Paeomes etc. etc.\" China for the first time, as Bulley's collector. He returned in 1910, sponsored by another English gardener, J. C. Williams (1861-1939), and Arthur Bulley. In 1911, financed by Bulley, Frank Kingdon Ward (1885-1958) made his first plant-collecting trip; it was not remarkably productive and probably displeased Bulley. Although Ward made several other expeditions, Bulley did not commission them. In 1913 Bulley engaged Roland Cooper (1890-1962) to collect in Sikkim, but their contract was soon terminated. Like Forrest and Ward, Cooper made other collecting trips in the Far East, but none under Bulley's sponsorship. Henry and Ernest Wilson ' Early in 1898 Augustine Henry was transferred from Mengsi to Simao. The journey took 18 days by foot and mule. This customs post was the last new one to which Henry was assigned, and it was at Simao that one of the most significant events took place in his work of stimulating exploration of the Chinese flora. That event was the arrival of Ernest Wilson (1876-1930) in Simao with these instructions from the Veitch nursery: The object of the journey is to collect a quantity of seeds of a plant the name of which is known to us. This is the object do not dissipate time, energy or money on anything else. In furtherance of this you will first endeavor to visit Dr. Augustine Henry and obtain precise data as to the - Although Henry sent seeds to Bulley from Mengsi, the plants from this part of Yunnan were subtropical species and were unlikely to be hardy in England. In 1901 Bulley and Henry met in England following Henry's resignation from the Chinese Customs Service. Bulley was still keen'to get Chinese plants. In one undated letter to Henry he had stated that \"there are few things in the wide world I should enjoy more than sending out a collector. But at present [about 1897] it's impossible. I wont 31 habitat of this particular plant and information on the flora of central China in general. at Mengsi asking for seeds. Henry sent this reply on June 3, 1897: These cryptic orders were the longawaited result of Augustine Henry's efforts to have the seed of the beautiful dove tree (Davidia involucrata) collected and transported to England for cultivation. Those efforts began in 1888, when Henry set out with his Chinese coolies and Antwerp Pratt on a collecting trip that lasted three months and covered the area southwest of Yichang. On May 17 near the village of Mahuanggou Henry rode up a river valley and saw \"one of the strangest sights he saw in China ... a solitary tree of Davidia in full blow ... waving its innumerable ghost handkerchiefs.\" At the time he did not know the tree's name, so he collected herbarium specimens. In the following autumn he managed to send two of his trusted coolies to the tree, and they collected fruits, which he sent with the herbarium specimens to Kew. The fruits and dried specimens reached London in 1889 and were examined by Daniel Oliver. Oliver prepared drawings of the fruits, which were the first seen by Western scientists, but he omitted to have any seed sown. In April 1891 Oliver published a description and illustration of the fruits and commented that \"Davidia is a tree almost deserving a special mission to Western China with a view to its introduction to European gardens.\" That remark is so similar to comments made years later by Henry that it is hard not to conclude that he had suggested this to Oliver when he visited Kew during his home leave in 1890. However, for a few years Davidia was forgotten. Then, in April 1897, William With respect to seeds, I will do what I can, especially later on when I shall have less plant collectmg to do in our immediate neighbourhood. But it really is a difficult matter collecting seeds one arrives on the ground too early or too late. I tried e.g. to collect seeds of Gentiana serra and rhodantha common plants and failed to get a single seed. You may ask why not employ a native. Ah! you don't know the Yunnanese - my muleteer who collects plants is the only man I know who could or would do the work - and even he does only about [one-tenth] of what I could do if I had his time. The other Chmese and The aborigines are too lazy for seed collecting fact is that if one has nothing else to do, one might orgamze plans and people for carrying out such work, but it is difficult for me as I have a good deal to do. And yet I doubt if many of my specimens will be collected agam for 50 years: as I have put an amount of energy into parts of the botanizing. Theflowers of a certain Zanthoxyllum have cost me 3 visits to one spot and an expenditure of 6 hours time. Money is not what is wanted, but time, oceans of time. Nothing astonishes people at home so much as the fact, a real fact, that in countnes like China, you cannot do everything with money. Patience is more valuable. - .... Henry continued by discussing various other subjects, but before he posted the letter another one arrived from Thistleton-Dyer asking specially for seeds of a redbud tree (Cercis racemosa).Henry added to his letter: I never saw the tree but in one spot on the Hupeh-Szechwan frontier. It is useless of me to write to Ichang as I know no one there now: but I think you ought to make a strong effort to get the Consul there to send one of the coolies who ac- compamed me on my trip to the locality, & procure not only seeds of the Cercis, but also of Davidia .... Why Davidia is worth any amount of money. I only saw one tree of it, but doubtless Thistleton-Dyer wrote to Augustine Henry there are others in the district ... I assure you that if I could do anything by writmg myself to the Ichang Consul, I would do it; I know the ways of people m outposts. You will draw them, if you make the offer exciting. Davidia is wonderful. This letter marks the beginning of a new On May 21, before receiving this long reply, Thistleton-Dyer wrote to ask for more seeds, \"the majority of them being from Ichang plants.\" On receiving this letter, Henry considered sending the list to Yichang himself, but he decided that there was little hope of anything resulting. On July 19, 1897, he wrote a long, detailed letter to William Thistleton-Dyer in which he set out the following ideas: In period in Augustine Henry's life in which he recognized the vast potential of the Chinese flora for European horticulture, yet acknowledged his own inadequacy. It is clear that these letters also provided William Thistleton-Dyer with much food for thought, and for several months Henry got no further correspondence from Kew. During this period he was transferred to Simao. In 1898 he received a \"very extensive letter\" from Thistleton-Dyer and in his reply on June 8, 1898, Henry remarked that \"I hope you will try and get a young Cambridge or Oxford botanist to come to this part of the world, do some naturalist [sic] work, and collect seeds and live plants for cultivation.\" In none of Augustine Henry's subsequent letters to William Thistleton-Dyer was the matter discussed further. \" regard to seed collecting it is not a question of some one with the time on hand and the requisite intelligence and energy, and this is very difficult to find indeed. I would suggest, so great is the variety and beauty of the Chinese flora and so fit are the plants for European climate, that an effort ought to be made to send out a small expedition the funds e.g. being provided by a syndicate of say, a horticulturist, a private gentleman or two, &c. I estimate 1000 would cover the expenses for 2 years: and what I would recommend is that a man be selected, who has just finished his botamcal studies at Cambridge University. I mean don't send a collector but a gentleman, a student, and an enthusiast. Suppose e.g. you could ahght on a man like Willis of Ceylon was, just as he had finished his botanical course some years ago. The locality I would suggest is the mountain range separating Szechwan from Shensi or thereabouts the expedition starting from Ichang in April and covering two seasons. In conclusion, I can see now that there were hundreds of interestmg plants which I might have noticed earlier m my plant collecting, if I had had the experience or gemus or the teaching. If you ever again come across a budding collector like what I was when we began correspondence some years ago, please insist on him being more than a mere collector: and perhaps you will help to develop a naturalist. - money, but of finding Thistleton-Dyer proposed an expedition to Harry Veitch of Veitch's nurseries, the company that had previously sent Charles Maries to Yichang with so little success. - Veitch asked Thistleton-Dyer to recommend someone and in April 1899 Ernest Wilson set off for China. He traveled through the United States, where he visited the Arnold Arboretum in Boston and met Professor Sargent. He reached Hong Kong and then traveled to Hanoi, eventually reaching Laokoi. There were civil disturbances in the Mengsi area just before Wilson arrived in southern China and he was forced to remain at Laokoi. Eventually, after a long delay, he departed for Simao. Henry knew that Wilson was on his way; on September 19, 1899, he wrote to Thistleton-Dyer saying that \"Mr. Wilson after a long delay at Laokoi owing to the disturbance at Mengtse &c. is on his way here and has reached Talang: and will arrive in Ssemao on Sunday next. I will give him all the help possible.\" Ernest Wilson reached Simao as anticipated and for several weeks stayed with Henry. On October 9, in a letter to Evelyn Gleeson, Augustine Henry remarked that I have ... a guest of all the things in the world at Wilson, late a gardener at Kew, who has been sent out by Veitch's to collect plants or rather their seeds and bulbs in China. He has made his way here to consult with me on best way of procedure and concerning the interesting country around Ichang and he will stay here 2 or 3 weeks. He is a self-made man, knows botany thoroughly, is young and will get on. Szemao, a Mr. he found that Henry's lone dove tree had been cut down. However, as Henry had predicted, Wilson found other trees in the area and collected seeds for his employers. These eventually reached England, germinated, and produced many of the Davidia trees seen in the British Isles today. Wilson's success must have given Augustine Henry pleasure, for although he had sent the first fruits to Europe, none of the seeds had been sown, and the glory of raising the first seedling passed to Maurice de Vilmorin in Paris. Henry and Charles Sargent In 1892 Charles Sargent was visiting Japan, where he met James Herbert Veitch (1868-1907), nephew of Harry Veitch. On On the day Henry wrote to Kew, noting that Wilson had reached Simao safely. same He offered the opinion that Wilson would \"do, I think, as he seems very energetic, fond of his botany .... He is also even-tempered and level-headed, the main thing for traveling and working in China.\" Henry gave Wilson \"on a half-page of a notebook ... a sketch of a tract of country about the size of New York State\" on which he marked the his return to Boston, Sargent suggested to Harry Veitch that his nephew go to China to collect seeds for the Arnold Arboretum and the family nursery. James's uncle declined to send him and Sargent abandoned the idea of a Chinese collecting expedition until he place where he had found the single tree of Davidia involucrata in 1888. He also provided Wilson with useful information and hints. In October Henry was instructed to return to Mengsi to resume charge of the customs station there, so he and Wilson journeyed from Simao. At Mengsi they parted, but they remained close friends for the rest of their lives. Henry was pleased and relieved. To Evelyn Gleeson he confided that he \"would be glad if [Wilson] will continue to carry on the work in China which has been on my shoulders for some years. There is so much of interest and of novelty.\" Ernest Wilson traveled to Yichang and then to the hamlet of Mahuanggou, where began to correspond with Augustine Henry. Henry's first letter to Charles Sargent is dated May 31, 1894. Like Kew, the Arnold Arboretum wanted seeds, and Sargent had asked Henry to collect. Augustine Henry explained his position to Sargent in much the same way as he had earlier explained it to Thistleton-Dyer. But, like Thistleton-Dyer, Sargent was persistent, and Henry had to reiterate in a letter written in September 1897 that he found \"seed collecting almost out of the question, as my time is so limited which I can spend in the forests.\" Shortly after arriving in Simao, Henry remarked casually in an undated letter to Sargent that \"Yunnan is a splendid ground for the anthropologist, ethnologist, zoologist, 34 , geologist: and I should very much like to see we a trained expedition set out to explore who are on the spot are too busy with our ordinary duties to go in seriously for any such studies.\" By autumn 1898 Sargent was also pestering Henry to send seeds from Yichang, and Henry's response on Novem- In the final paragraph Henry wrote: forgotten that I am doing fairly good botanical work as I am situated, as my own private hobby. I have pondered over the matter a good deal: and much as I should like to go on such expedition, I must consider that I do not see accomplish such a wish. I am unavailable. My home leave is due at the end of 1900: andI am lookmg forward to spending 1901 and 1902 in Europe. I feel that by that time, i.e. end of 1900,I must have a change of climate and surroundmgs for the benefit of my health, both physan It must not be any way to ber 20 was the There same as that to Thistleton-Dyer: are American missionaries m Ichang and many other parts of China and you could get lists of them from the mission boards and appeal to them. A circular letter might attract one or two out of the hundreds. Perhaps you don't like the idea of begging in this way: but Mr Bulley of Liverpool (whom you know, I think) has been somewhat successful m this direction. ical and mental. It may seem absurd: but it is very difficult to bear up with the isolation, fnendlessness and monotony of a place such as this. In another letter dated July 21, Henry re- As Veitch and Wilson were negotiating about the quest for Davidia, Sargent wrote to Henry proposing an expedition to China with Henry as a member. He received the proposal early in May 1899 and replied that \"as the matter requires a considerable amount of thinking about, I intend to write to you fully by our next courier.\" As he promised, Henry replied in detail on May 9, again exactly as he had to Thistleton-Dyer. \"As I consider enthusiasm in botany the chief quality needed in the man selected, I reply to your question 'is there anyone I could recommend in China' in the negative. The man can be found in the U. S. or in England. Indeed it might be better to send 2 men.\" Clearly Sargent wanted Henry to be his envoy, for on the following day Henry wrote a confidential note to Sargent saying that he could not see any way of obtaining leave from the customs service to go on an expedition, and that, in any case, the troubled situation within China made such a request from him to his superiors inopportune. peated his remarks and told Sargent that he would require a considerable salary for such an expedition and thus his \"terms would be prohibitive ... I could scarcely be expected to resign from my position in the customs, unless I saw an opening equally good. I am less loath to refuse, because I know that remaining in the Customs I still do good service to botany.\" However, even that did not diminish Sargent's hope of enlisting him, and their discussions continued. It lasted many more months, probably due to delays in the mail service, and was still continuing when Wilson arrived in Simao. On November 14, 1899, after Wilson had left and Henry had returned to Mengsi, Henry wrote to Sargent: \"I thank you very much for the confidence you repose in me, and for the liberality of your offer, and feel flattered by the high esteem you have in my capacities. But I think it is best to decline definitely.\" His long letter continued with remarks about sending out a young collector. Sargent thought the person should speak Chinese, but Henry said that this was not necessary, 35 remarking that he was \"sure Mr. Wilson will do excellent work, in the way of collecting seeds, bulbs, etc.... he is really at little disadvantage on account of his ignorance of Chinese.\" Henry said that no interpreter was needed, that \"an ordinary 'boy' will do.\" In concluding his letter Henry provided Sargent with advice on choosing a collector, again commenting on Ernest Wilson's suitability. What is wanted is a man with common-sense, and especially good temper - of course I pre-suppose he is enthusiastic in botany and eager to travel. You ought not to have the slightest difficulty in findmg such a man. Of course, as in Mr. Wilson's case it would be a good thing if he could come and see me and learn a great many wrinkles in that way. If Mr. Wilson were not employed by Veitch's for seed collecting, I think he would do very well - as he gets on well with the Chinese and is very keen to do as much collecting as is possible. I trust you will succeed in finding such a man. In conclusion, I must again express to you my best thanks for the kindness and liberality of your offer: so much esteemed by me, as coming from you one of the most disting~.ushed of living botanists. tact This finally compelled Sargent to stop his pursuit of Augustine Henry, but it was not the last offer Henry was to decline. One year later Henry left China for the last time - he had lost \"the zest of youth\" and was \"tired of China, mentally dead tired of it.\" However, he was to retain great interest in its plants for the rest of his life, and he continued to encourage others to explore the vast of Foreign Seed and Plant Introductions. Fairchild visited southern China in March 1900, and according to his own account wrote to Henry for advice on collecting. Augustine Henry sent Fairchild his book on economic plants. Fairchild thought the book was \"splendid.\" At the end of his letter, Henry answered Fairchild's query as to how he could procure seeds and plants from the interior of China, by giving the following advice: \"Don't waste money on postagesend a man.\" David Fairchild acknowledged that \"this word of wisdom made a deep impression on me and had a great influence on my policy when I returned to the United States. Largely because of this advice I inaugurated an exploration of that vast country.\" In 1903 David Fairchild visited London and called on Augustine Henry, who was working on his Chinese collections at Kew. He proposed that Henry should return to China for the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but Henry declined. However, the two men discussed the economic potential of Chinese plants and Fairchild departed more determined than ever to send explorers to China. In May 1905, under Fairchild's direction, Frank Meyer( 1875-1915) went there for the first time. Although he concentrated on plants of economic value, he did introduce some ornamental species into North American gardens. Later, David Fairchild sent Joseph Rock (1884-1962), who made his name country. by introducing rhododendrons and conifers. Henry and David Fairchild Before Augustine Henry left China, he received a letter from David Fairchild ( 18691954), a botanist in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, who was in charge of the office Henry began to talk about the great horticultural potential of Chinese plants soon after he returned to Europe. At a dinner of the Horticultural Club on March 8, 1902, in London he was the guest of honor. Sir William Thistleton-Dyer proposed Dr. Henry's f 36 health in \"a capital speech which evoked considerable amusement by its quaint combination of dry official reserve and genial ap- preciation of Dr. Henry's labours.\"According to the Gardeners' Chronicle, Augustine Henry's speech was outstanding. He pointed that vast areas of China remained to be explored and yet stated that he had been the wrong person to undertake the task. He remarked that his education had not prepared him for botanical work, \"an extensive knowledge of ancient Greece ... being of no aid to him whatever.\" He hoped that an expedition under the auspices of the Royal Horticultural Society could be fitted out for China, where it would find not only plants of great ornamental value but also \"many sorts of vegetables unknown to use, many fruits, ... also unintroduced, and even forage-grasses,\" which he considered worthy of introduction. He noted that the climate of much of China was such that its native plants should be hardy in the British Isles and he cited \"numerous species there existing, Ribes, Rhododendrons, &c., which would excel anything yet introduced.\" out So you have captured me at last. Twelve months ago I would not have believed it possible for anyone to have persuaded me into revisiting China on any terms. Since it has come to pass be it said that there is no person or institution I would rather serve than yourself and the Arnold Arboretum - Kew alone excepted. Augustine Henry was in the United States when he learnt of Wilson's \"capture\" by Sargent. In fact Henry had been looking for a suitable position for Wilson and had found a possibility in Canada. He wrote to Wilson in November from Washington: \"I have just here from Boston ... I shall miss you: sorry. I agree with Sargent that this expedition is to be a great one. Success to you!\" His letter continued with recommendacome am on the cameras and photographic plates that Wilson should take to China and also mentioned Schimper's Plant Geography, which Henry noted \"will put you in way of describing floral regions and doing 'Plant Society' [i.e. ecology] work.\" He told tions Wilson, Sargent, and Henry Ernest Wilson returned to England in April 1902 with his collection of seeds and bulbs. So successful was his expedition that in January 1903, Harry Veitch again sent him to China. From this expedition Wilson returned in March 1906. In mid-April Charles Sargent was in England and met Wilson, whom he surprised by inviting him to return to China, this time for the Arnold Arboretum. After some negotiations Ernest Wilson agreed, and he wrote to Sargent: Wilson that he should take his own chemicals for developing plates and do his own developing: \"It saves time! and is necessary, else you will be carrying about spoiled and useless plates.\" Augustine Henry must have felt that the mantle of responsibility was now finally off his shoulders, and that a new generation of collectors and explorers was bound for China. In later years Henry was still consulted by these collectors. For example, Reginald Farrer (1880-1920), an English horticulturist who sponsored his own expedition to western China in 1913, was working with William Purdom (1880-1921)in April 1914 at Sining-Fu in Gansu province near the border with Xizang (Tibet). From there he wrote to Henry saying that they hoped to return to 37 Beijing by way of the Yangtze valley. wanted to Farrer \"see in situ and obtain ... Gentiana venosa and Primula nutantiflora.\" He asked Henry for full notes on where these species could be found. Henry replied, and Farrer later wrote from \"The Valley of Rocks and Wolves, Chinese Tibet\" thanking him for his \"most lucid and valuable directions.\" Arthur Bulley also continued to consult Henry; in 1926 he wanted to obtain a species of Lithospermum, which had been collected in Yunnan. However, Henry had never seen or collected the plant and could not help Bulley in his quest. \" Conclusion If [Augustine Henry] had done no more than make known the marvellous riches of China he would have achieved more than most men.... Happily so many plants bear his name that while trees and shrubs are cultivated his memory will remam m every garden and arboretum for long years to - come. J. W. Besant, Gardeners' Chromcle Augustine Henry found pleasure in botany, which he told Charles Sargent was his \"private hobby.\" It helped him to bear the monotonous daily toil of an officer in the Chinese Maritime Customs Service. His plant-hunting trips allowed him to forget the loneliness of life far from his home and friends. He confided to Evelyn Gleeson on August 29, 1896, that \"I positively enjoy myself in the wild luxury of beautiful air, in the beautiful loneliness of our mountains.\" In China he learned to appreciate the plants and above all the forests. \"A forest is the finest thing in the world: it is the expression of nature in the highest form: it is so full of beauty and of variety,\" he said in another \" letter to Evelyn Gleeson. On returning to England he decided to take up a career in forestry and went to study at the French School of Forestry at Nancy. However, he was soon invited by Henry J. Elwes (18461922) to work on a monograph on trees cultivated in Ireland and Great Britain. Henry left Nancy and set to work on the book; the first of its seven volumes appeared on November 14, 1906. Early in 1907 Augustine Henry was approached to become reader in forestry at the University of Cambridge. He accepted and remained there until January 1913, when he became the first professor of forestry in the Royal College of Science in Dublin. Henry did much to influence the future course of forestry in Ireland and also carried out taxonomic research. On St. Patrick's Day 1908 Henry married Alice Brunton, daughter of Sir Richard Brunton, a leading English physician. Henry died in Dublin on March 23, 1930. The Western world is indebted to Augustine Henry for the many fine plants he brought to the notice of botanists and horticulturists here. While Arthur Grove was correct in saying that many of Henry's discoveries would remain as herbarium specimens, it is also true that Henry encouraged others to go to China to collect the seeds and bulbs that he was unable to obtain. It is a remarkable fact that most of the collectors working in China at the beginning of this century were sent by persons who had corresponded with or met Henry. Ernest Wilson never forgot the help he received from Augustine Henry and paid many tributes to the \"scholarly Irishman\" who guided him. Of Augustine Henry's own introduction, the eponymous Lilium henryi, Wilson wrote: \"It is particularly fitting that such a notable addition to our gardens should bear the hon- 38 oured name of a pioneer who has done so much to acquaint a sceptical world of the rich floral wealth of interior China.\" From the Chinese flora's treasure chest, he displayed the jewels and allowed others, with his help and encouragement, to bring the gems to us. Without Augustine Henry we would be the poorer. E. Charles Nelson is taxonomist at the National Botanic Gardens, Dublm, Ireland Henry, A. 1896. \"A List of Plants from Formosa with some Prelimmary Remarks on the Geography, Nature of the Flora and Economic Botany of the Island.\" Transacuons of the Asiatic Society of Japan, 24: supplement. . 1893. Notes on the Economic Botany of Chma. Presbytenan Mission Press, Shanghai. Henry Mss., National Botamc Gardens, Dublin. Augustine Henry's dianes and letters. The Horticultural Club. 1902. Gardeners' Chromcle (3rdser.)31: 244. Kew Mss., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. (English Let- This paper was read at a meeting held in University College, Dublm, in November 1980, marking the 50th anmversary of Augustme Henry's death; the meetmg e was held under the auspices of the Insh section of the Society for the Bibhography of Natural History, the Society of Insh Foresters, and the Forestry Graduates . vol. 151, ff 705-709, 710-714, 715-717, 718, 725-730, 752, 753.) Letters to W. ThistletonDyer Morley, B. 1980. \"Augustme Henry.\" The Garden (Lonters Group. don) 105 \/7\/~ 285-289 . 1979. \"Augustme Henry: His Botamcal Activities m Chma, 1882-1890.\" Glasra 3: 21-81. Morse Mss., Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Letters of Augustine Henry and Hosea Morse. Nelson, E C 1980 \"An Insh Mandann, Augustine Henry ( 1857-1930\/.\" Taisce Journal 4\/2\/~ 12-14. Oliver, D. 1891. \"Davidia involucrata.Hooker's IconesPlantarum, t 19G1. Patton, E. R. Unpublished ms. \"Ulsterman and Chinese Acknowledgements My thanks are due to the libranans and archivists of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew; the Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Massachusetts; the National Library of Ireland, Dublin; and the Hunt Institute for Botamcal Documentation, Pittsburgh, for their assistance with this article and especially for making available copies of Augustine Henry's letters. Scholar, Explorer, Photographer, Botamst: Thomas Watters 1840-1901.\" Pim, S. 1966. The Wood and the Trees, a Biography of Augusune Henry. Macdonald, London. The best source of biographical information on Augustine Henry. Sargent Mss., Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Massachusetts. References J. 1908. \"Viburnum utile.\"Curus's Botamcal Magazine. t. 8174. Besant,J. W. 1931. \"The Late Professor Henry, V. M. H.\" Gardeners' Chromcle \/3rd ser.~ 87: 274-275. Bretschneider, E. 1898. History of European Botamcal Discovenes in China 2 vols. Sampson Low, Bean, W. Sutton, S. B. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Harvard University Press, Cambndge. Veitch,J H. 1906. Hortus Veitchm James Veitch. London. Wilson Mss., Arnold Arboretum, Boston, Massachusetts. -. London. Coats, A. 1969. The Quest for Plants, a History of the Horticultural Explorers Studio Vista, London. Fairchild, D. 1941. The World Was My Garden. Travels of a Plant Explorer. Scribner's. New York and London. \" 1921. \"An Agncultural Explorer m Chma.\" Asia, January: 7. Gleeson Mss., National Library of Ireland, Dublin. Letters of Augustine Henry and Evelyn Gleeson. Grove, A. 1930. \"Professor Augustine Henry.\" Gardeners' Chromcle (3rd ser.) 2257: 248-249. E H. 1925. The Lihes of Eastern Asia. Boston. Wilson, E. H. 1926. Amstocrats of the Garden. Boston. Wilson, Stratford, Stratford, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Native Plants: Another View","article_sequence":4,"start_page":39,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24821","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060b726.jpg","volume":43,"issue_number":1,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"Native Plants: Another View Harrison L. Flint Following the tradition of such great midnaturalists as Jens Jensen, Aldo Leopold, and May Theilgaard Watts, contemporary landscape planners have grown in awareness of native plants and their usefulness in designed landscapes. The movement toward landscaping with native plants now has spread widely and has not yet reached its full potential. Its ultimate expression may be found in re-creating natural associations of plants, a stepwise and time-consuming process now being carried out by only a handful of landscape planners. Such planners usually are sophisticated horticulturists who have elected to specialize in this particular area. Yet, while thoroughgoing landscape planners have developed close familiarity with a western of the area, yet native only farther south and west? Must redbud (Cercis canadensis) be excluded in southwestern Wisconsin, since it is an exotic species in that state, even though it grows naturally a dozen miles away in northwestern Illinois? In Indiana must another tree legume, American yellowwood (Cladrastis luteabe restricted in use to only those few counties where it is indigenous? Any question about species eligibility for use in re-creating or preserving a natural plant association finds its answer in the planner's knowledge of the association. Clearly, only certain plants \"belong.\" But in other areas of landscape planning, divisions between native and nonnative species blur and perhaps are best left blurred, allowing selection decisions to be made according to criteria relating to function. Exclusion of nonnative plants on principle is based upon several generalized claims, all of which hold at least a grain of truth. (1)Nonnative plants look out of place in - great range of plants, carefully selecting those most appropriate for the situation at hand, less-sophisticated members of their profession have eschewed all forms of vegetation that are not \"native.\" For some this position is taken with a sense of missionary zeal; for others it may simply offer convenience in requiring less knowledge of landon the basis of whether or not they are native, one must first determine which species are \"native.\" In New England, for instance, is it permissible to select black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), a common wild tree in much \" scape plants. To select landscape plants the landscape. If one's objective is to preserve a natural landscape, ample justification exists for removing nonnative species as weeds. The same is true in re-creating a \"natural\" landscape, but in other cases the question is not easily answered. Must a woodland gardener in New England be asked to plant no other species of wild ginger (Asarum ~ than so 40 41 the native A. canadense? Must sweetshrub (Calycanthus floridus\/, galax \/G. aphylla\/, ), box huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera), ), and yellowroot (Xanthorhiza simplicissima)\/ be left to their more southerly native haunts? And must the New England gardener be sure to omit lily of the valley (Convallaria majalis) and English ivy (Hedera helix), as European natives? Perhaps, but only as a matter of taste. (2) Plant species are better adapted to the region in which they are native than elsewhere, because this region has \"made\" them, through distinctive selection pressures. As logical as this view may seem at first, it has two flaws. First, it excludes the possibility of preadaptation. For example, the climate of northeastern Asia so closely parallels that of similar latitudes in northeastern North America that many Asian species have been preadapted to our climate long before they have seen it and turn out to be some of our most useful landscape plants. A second flaw is the tacit presumption that the soil and climate of a particular landscape site are similar to those of the natural region in which it is located. Landscape designers and contractors know that this is not true. Most landscape sites, especially urban ones, are exposed to soil and climatic stresses that seldom exist in wild areas nearby. Soils may be greatly modified by construction and subsequent restoration. Patterns of wind, solar radiation, and temperature fluctuation are modified in developed sites. Perhaps most important of all, patterns of rainfall, runoff, and absorption of water into the drastically altered. In short, developed sites are so greatly changed that they may differ much more from nearby natural than do certain natural areas on the other side of the earth. areas soil are (3) Nonnative plants are weedy, reproducing freely and invading areas where they are not wanted. This is a valid criticism of several nonnative species, such as buckthorns (Rhamnus sp.),certain Asian honeysuckles (Lonicera sp.),kudzu vine (Pueraria lobataand some species of Euonymus. But it is not a fair generalization. In fact, it seems a contradiction to generalize that nonnative species are not well adapted yet reproduce to the point of being a nuisance. Again, it is necessary to know which species, both native and exotic, are weedy and exclude them in situations in which they might get out of control. (4) Native plants are less susceptible to insect and disease problems than nonnatives and so need less maintenance. We as often hear the counterclaim: that nonnative plants separated from their ecosystems are, at least for a time, free of many of their natural enemies, and examples of native species with major problems are easily found. American elm (Ulmus americana ) has been decimated in many areas by Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis. The most promising sources of resistance to Dutch elm disease are Asian and European species and their hybrids. The majestic American chestnut \/Castanea den- American yellowwood (Cladrastis luteal. Drawings by Cynthia DeSando. tata), nearly wiped out by blight in its native habitat decades ago, is finding its closest replacement in the disease-resistant Chinese chestnut (C. mollissima) and its hybrids. Crabapples native to eastern North America (e.g., Malus angustifolia, M. coronaria, and M. ioensis)are susceptible to cedar-apple 42 Left: Purpleleaf wintercreeper (Euonymus fortunel 'Colorata'), a selected form of a native Chinese species, is useful as a groundcover in most of the eastern United States. It is shown here in an espahered form. Mary Rosenfeld photo. Opposite: Amur corktree (Phellodendron amurense), from Manchuria, is well adapted to comparable climates in northeastern North America. Al Bussewitz photo. Below: Amur chokecherry (Prunus maackii),from northeastern Asia, is well adapted to much of northeastern North America, providing bark interest equalled by only one native cherry, the pin cherry (P. pensylvanica). 43 1 44 enough problem to rule them landscape plants in most localities where red cedar \/juniperus virginiana\/,the rust, a serious out as plasm repositories, the first two now becoming operational on the West Coast. It is up to other institutions, including botanical gardens and arboreta, to develop stronger programs relating to preservation and development of germ plasm of value to landscape improvement. There are, of course, landscape situations where nonnative plants are clearly inappropriate and so to be avoided. This includes preservation, restoration, and re-creation of natural areas and plant associations. In many other situations the constraint of using only native plants, intended to produce a natural effect, itself becomes artifact. In such situations it is more sensible to return to the basics of plant selection, considering adaptability and intended function first, then maintenance requirements and seasonal interest. When a pool of plants having the desired requirements has been assembled, final selections can be made on the basis of individual taste. The search for a broad range of prospective landscape plants, and their thoughtful use, have made our landscapes increasingly functional and interesting. Continuing the search will enrich our lives in the process. Harnson Flmt is professor of horticulture at Purdue University in Lnfayette, Indiana. He is the author of two books that will be published this year. The Country Joumal Book of Trees and Shrubs, by W. W. Norton, and Landscape Plants for Eastern North its planned network of plant germ alternate host for the disease organism, is present. Asian crabapples are relatively free of this problem. In areas where red cedar does not grow wild, the disease can be largely controlled by substituting junipers of Asian origin for red cedar. Resistance to insect and disease problems is too important a consideration in selecting landscape plants to be left to generalization. It is better dealt with directly by selecting troublefree plants than indirectly by selecting only native or nonnative plants, in the expectation that they will tend to be more resistant to problems than their opposite numbers. (5) We need to make better use of the tremendous pool of genetic diversityinherent in native plant species, a pool that has been barely sampled thus far. Amen! And the same can be said for nonnative species. How often is our knowledge of an Asian species, for instance, limited to a few clones or at best a narrow slice of the germ plasm that exists in the natural range? Intrepid plant explorers, especially in the past 100 years, have introduced to us many new species from remote comers of the world. But we have failed to follow up on their discoveries by assembling larger samples of those species for evaluation, just as surely as we have neglected to observe fully the variation that exists in native species. As a result, our narrow knowledge of diversity in plant species confounds the issue of their nativeness. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is situation with regard to crop America, by John Wiley. taking an important step to improve this species through "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23369","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270856e.jpg","title":"1983-43-1","volume":43,"issue_number":1,"year":1983,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Two Promising Fruit Plants for Northern Landscapes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":103,"end_page":133,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24817","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060ab6b.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":4,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Goodell, Edward","article_content":"Two Promising Fruit Plants for Northern Landscapes by EDWARD GOODELL In recent years a trend toward \"edible landscaping\" has begun to as a natural extension of standard gardening. Two books on the subject have been published (Britz; Creasy), and in Massachusetts a bill creating the innovative Massachusetts Fruition Program was passed by the legislature in 1980. With a budget of $64,000 this program promotes the planting of food-producing trees, shrubs, and vines. Perhaps the most desirable characteristic in landscape plants is an ability to thrive in low-maintenance situations. This eliminates many commercial fruit species, however, as these usually have been highly selected for fruit production under the assumption that adequate care will be provided. Fortunately, there are many food-producing plants that, for various reasons, have never been developed. On the Arnold Arboretum grounds alone I found about 150 species, from Actinidia arguta to Zizyphus jujuba. The usual reason that such plants are not developed is that they have a deficiency in some characteristic, such as yield, keeping quality, or ease of propagation, that would limit their success as a commercial crop. On the other hand, their broader-based genetic makeup often allows them greater environmental adaptability, and they are therefore less needful of maintenance. I chose the two plants described here for the quality of their fruits and their adaptability in low-maintenance situations. Many other plants deserve equal attention, including the juneberry, flowering emerge quince, hazelnut, walnut, mulberry, elderberry, hickory, pine nut, grape, and various Prunus species. Three major climatic factors must be considered in growing woody food rence in the Northeast: minimum winter temperatures, occurof late spring and early fall freezes, and the relatively short, cool growing season. Carefully choosing a favorable planting site (e.g., with good air and soil drainage) will enhance a plant's performance in any given climate. Actinidia will grow reliably in northern New England and New York (USDA plant hardiness zone 4; see map on page 119). The persimmon is recommended only for zones 5 and 6 in the Northeast. plants Edward Goodell has been a student intern at the Arnold Arboretum for the past 21\/2 years. 104 The American Persimmon, Diospyros virginiana If the world's population were polled as to its favorite fruit, the choice would probably be the persimmon. This may be surprising to most Westerners, but it is understandable when one takes into account the fact that the Oriental persimmon (Diospyros kaki) is the primary fruit in the diet of more than a billion Chinese, Japanese, Taiwanese, and Koreans. This persimmon, known as the kaki in the Orient, is also gaining a deserved popularity in the warmer portions of this country (USDA zones 7-10) both as a handsome landscape plant and productive orchard tree. Its bright orange, apple-sized fruits are grown commercially in California and now regularly appear in United States markets. Approximately 1000 cultivars exist in the Orient and vary widely in shape, size, color, and flavor. Selected through centuries for their superior fruits, these cultivars originated from the astringent, seedy, small-fruited wild species that is now rarely seen in its native China (Spongberg 1977). Unfortunately, the Oriental kaki cannot be recommended for areas where winter temperatures dip below 0F. Thus, for a cold-hardy persimmon we must turn our attention to the native American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). Its large natural range extends as far north as southern Connecticut, west to Iowa, and south to Texas and Florida (Little). Under cultivation, American persimmons originating in the northern part of the range are quite hardy throughout USDA zone 5 (or -20F average minimum temperature). Even though some cultivars ofD. virginia~n_ have been selected during the past hundred years, the species remains relatively wild compared to the highly domesticated Oriental kaki. But the success story of its Oriental relative may be an indication of what is in store for this native American fruit tree. Throughout the persimmon's natural range, the fruits have been long valued as food. Hernando DeSoto's expedition to the Americas in the early 1500s reported persimmon pulp being dried by Native Americans. These \"loaves\" of dried persimmon kept from one year to another. Native Americans are also known to have added persimmon pulp to corn bread, and they even ground the seeds into a meal (Griffith and Griffith 1982). A beer made from fermented persimmons and honey locust pods was a common drink among southeastern tribes (Carr). DeSoto's chronicler considered them \"better than all the plummes of Spaine\" and noted that \"they make far better prunes of them.\" In commenting about the persimmons known to the Roanoke colony in 1585, Thomas Hariot wrote \"they are not good till they be rotten (but then) they be lushious sweet\" (Roush). It was Captain John Smith who first described the woeful surprise of eating an unripe persimmon. He noted, \"If it not be ripe, it will drawe a man's mouth awrie with much torment.\" The incredible astringency of the unripe fruit accounts in part for the fruit's lack of ... 105 widespread acceptance. But, as Captain Smith went on to say, \"when it is ripe, it is deliscious as an Apricock.\" Subsequent colonists agreed and used persimmons in making puddings and beer. The present inhabitants of the natural range of D. virginiana also enjoy wild fruits, and commercial sources of trees for home orchards are now available. Each year, during the last weekend in September, some 25,000 visitors join the town of Mitchell, Indiana, in celebrating the persimmon harvest with a feast of persimmon culinary delights. A 1978 market study conducted in Illinois evaluated the commercial potential of prepared persimmon products (Garrison). Although 85 percent of the participants were initially biased against persimmons, almost all responded favorably to the products' taste and expressed an interest in making persimmons a regular part of their diet. The astringency of unripe persimmons is mainly responsible for the persimmon's unpopularity. For the fruit to be at its best, it must ripen on the tree before the leaves fall. This has been a major limiting factor in the Northeast, because persimmons are adapted to areas with relatively longer and hotter growing seasons. However, a few cultivars that have proved themselves in the North are available now. A second limiting factor is that the ripe fruits are soft and do not ship or store well. New artificial ripening techniques may soon allow unripe, firm fruit to be mechanically harvested, shipped to distant markets, and stored for long periods. But shipping qualities are not a crucial factor for the home orchardist, and persimmons can be preserved easily in home freezers. Persimmons are also considered difficult to transplant. They do have special transplant requirements, but if a few guidelines are followed they can be successfully established in good vigor. The American persimmon has many attributes to recommend it. The ripe fruit has a rich flavor and high energy content. The texture of a ripe persimmon is somewhere between that of a baked apple and firm custard. The trees are productive over a wide range of soil types. They are long-lived, beautiful in fruit, and relatively unaffected by pests. D. virginiana is a variable species. Several recognized botanical forms exist (Spongberg 1977), and two races have different numbers of chromosomes (Baldwin and Culp). One race (a tetraploid with 60 chromosomes) is geographically centered in southern Appalachia. This race is probably the primitive D. virginiana, its current range approximating the species' northern limit during the Pleistocene glaciations. The second race (hexaploid with 90 chromosomes) is thought to represent a more recent evolutionary change. It predominates in areas north and west of the southern Appalachians. This race, which may deserve a separate subspecies rank, is more vigorous, cold hardy, and drought tolerant than the first. The two races are generally not capable of fertilizing each other. Most of the cultivars suited for the North have been selected from the second race because it also tends to have larger fruit that ripens earlier (McDaniel 1982). 106 D. kaki also has 90 chromosomes, and efforts have been made to obtain an interspecific hybrid. Russian botanists have reportedly bred several hybrids, but similar attempts in this country have failed to yield a verified hybrid (McDaniel 1982). Seeds produced from controlled cross-fertilizations between the two species usually do not germinate, or if they do, the resultant seedlings show characteristics of the maternal parent only. Future attempts using embryo culture techniques may yield successful hybrids that combine the size and sweetness of the Oriental kaki with the greater cold hardiness of the native American persimmon. Under natural conditions the persimmon grows best on alluvial bottomland and terraces, where it sometimes reaches approximately 100 feet and has a long slender trunk. It is also found on sandy welldrained soils, where it more commonly grows in a shrubby habit to 33 feet tall. The American persimmon is usually found in deciduous woodlands in association with maple, poplar, hickory, oak, sassafras, or dogwood. It is very tolerant of shade, germinating and persisting in the understory but fruiting only lightly. Persimmons can also utilize full light conditions, as shown by their ready colonization of abandoned fields, fence rows, and other disturbed areas such as roadsides. Stumps and fire-damaged trees usually sprout profusely, and roots commonly sucker, producing persimmon thickets. The freely growing persimmon has been both praised as a conservation plant and cursed as an agricultural weed (Fletcher). The dark persimmon bark is deeply fissured into square scales, in an alligator-skin pattern. Persimmon wood is close grained and heavy. The sapwood is light colored and the heartwood is dark brown like that of another member of the Diospyros genus, the tropical ebony. Persimmon heartwood is not suitable for lumber because it checks excessively during the drying process. However, the hard heartwood has been used for small wooden products, such as tool handles and golfclub heads, in which it has the attribute of polishing as it wears. Unfortunately, the heartwood develops so slowly that the persimmon has never become a commercially important timber tree. The persimmon is very adaptable to site and soil conditions. Under cultivation, it grows satisfactorily \"on very sandy soils, and on heavy clay loams, within a wide pH range\" (McDaniel 1971). After an initially rapid growth rate, persimmons generally settle down to a pace of about a foot per year. Open-grown trees rarely grow taller than 30 to 50 feet. They have a roughly pyramidal shape. Young trees have ascending branches and an oval outline, but with maturity the branching becomes more sinuous and horizontal or even slightly pendulous. A specimen planted in 1896 at the Arnold Arboretum is a splendid example of the picturesque zig-zag branching of mature trees. The deep green foliage often has an unusual slate-colored tint, which makes a persimmon tree stand out in the summer landscape. 107 Flowers of an Amencan perszmmon tree. Al Bnssewztz photo. 108I Flowers of A. kolomikta. AL Bussewitz photo. The individual leaves are oval and 4 to 6 inches long. They tend to droop from their stout petioles, giving the whole tree a languid quality. Fall coloration may be deep yellow mottled with green and red, but in northern areas leaves often fall without changing color dramatically. In winter the American persimmon may be readily distinguished by \"the characteristic bark pattern; lack of terminal buds on branchlets, as well as solitary (vascular) bundle scars centered in the leaf scars ...\" (Spongberg 1979). The leaves expand in May, and the flowers appear on the current season's growth when the leaves are about half-grown but do not open for several weeks. The flowers are often borne in practically every leaf axil. They are not readily noticed at a distance, however, because they are small and a faint green or cream color. The most apparent sign at flowering is the activity of bees visiting the nectariferous flowers. C. D. Eddy in 1927 described the honey as being of a \"very fine quality\" and noted that persimmons were rated as one of the more important nectar-producing plants in North and South Carolina. Wind pollination is also a possibility with the very light and powdery pollen. Persimmon fruits remain light green as they enlarge during the summer. With the arrival of fall, they finally turn amber to deep orange with a light bloom on the skin. Better selections are 1 to 2 inches in diameter, about the size of a small plum. The average fruit is 50 percent high-carbohydrate pulp, and the remainder is seeds and skin. Hard freezes will darken and wrinkle the fruit, but persimmons often hang on the tree through midwinter. Seedling persimmon plants begin flowering at four to eight years of age. The male plants are generally more precocious than the female (Campbell). A grafted cultivar will bear fruit within three years. A test planting of four-to-six-year-old cultivars yielded an average of 50 109 Deeply fissured photo. square scales of the bark of the Amencan persxmmon tree Al Bussewxtz pounds per tree (Claypool). Wild trees, estimated to be 10 to 15 years old, averaged 73-pound yields. Most persimmon trees can bear regular, heavy crops. However, if pollination is excessive, an extremely heavy crop can be set. This may result in limb breakage, inadequate ripening, and a light crop the next year. Maximum yields are reached when the trunk diameter approaches 1 foot (approximately 25 years). Uncrowded trees should remain productive for another 50 years. American persimmons planted well over 80 years ago in Urbana, Illinois, show no signs of declining yields (McDaniel 1982). The reproductive biology of D. virginiana is interesting in its complexity. Persimmons are mainly dioecious, with the urn-shaped staminate and carpellate flowers occurring on separate trees. The staminate flowers (on \"male\" trees) are about the size of a blueberry flower (3\/8 inch in diameter). The carpellate flowers (on \"female\" trees) are about twice as large, and the petals are more spreading. Carpellate flowers are borne singly, whereas staminate flowers are normally in short, stalked clusters of three. The flower pedicels are persistent, so the sex of a tree can be easily determined even during winter. Frequent exceptions to the dioecious conditions have been observed on cultivated plants. It was first noticed that some female plants would produce seedless, parthenocarpic fruit (without fertilization) when grown in isolation from pollen-bearing trees. Later, when some of these plants began to produce occasional seeded fruits, it was discovered that staminate flowers were occurring on weakly growing branches of normally female trees. Conversely, vigorously growing shoots of male trees will sometimes produce carpellate or perfect (bisexual) flowers. This variable reproductive expression has been best documented in the persimmon cultivar 'Early Golden' and its descendants. J. C. 110 McDaniel of the University of Illinois, an authority on the American persimmon, has ventured the following theory about these plants. \"The fact that 'Early Golden' sometimes (probably frequently on old trees) can be self-pollinating with the aid of insects and that several of its descendants can, too, leads to the speculation that it may have descended from a line of sometimes self-pollinated trees, going back no one knows how many years. It could have originated from a naturally inbred line, and the inbreeding may account for the high concentration of good qualities (size, earliness, good texture and flavor) found in 'Early Golden' and a fairly high percentage of its predominantly carpellate progeny. The inbreeding could result, as it does in other ordinarily cross-pollinated crops, in some reduction of fertility; this may partially account for the fact that 'Early Golden' and its kin seldom mature the full complement of 8 seeds per fruit that is found in ordinary seedling D. virginiana when adequately pollinated at flowering season. Breeders have just begun to do controlled inbreeding with the 'Early Golden' family to test these theories experimentally.\" Seedless fruit are smaller and their taste and texture may not be as as those of seeded fruit (McDaniel 1973). Both yield about the same amount of pulp, because the flesh of seedless fruit contains fibrous materials in place of the undeveloped seeds (McDaniel 1982). However, seedless fruit seem to ripen earlier, a valuable characteristic in the North. Where space is limited, the ability to bear crops without a pollinator is another asset. One male tree to 12 females is the general guideline for correct pollination. Grafting a male branch onto an otherwise female cultivar is a good space-saving technique. In the North early ripening is a crucial characteristic, as American persimmons are edible only when fully ripe. Unlike the Oriental kaki, which may be ripened artificially by one of several methods, the American persimmon must attain a soft, near ripe state before it will respond to methods of removing astringency. Most northern cultivars originated in the Midwest. They are all perfectly hardy in bud and wood throughout USDA zone 5 (-20F minimum winter temperatures). Yet when taken north to the Great Lakes and east to New England, many cultivars may fail to ripen properly in summers that are relatively short and cool compared to those of the midcontinent. Members of the Society of Ontario Nut Growers are actively breeding early-ripening varieties for the lakes region. Presumably these will be adapted to New England as well. The search is also on for male trees that will flower and pollinate the first female blooms of the season and thereby lengthen the persimmon's ripening time (Campbell). The recommended cultivars for the Northeast are described on page 118. good Persimmons The main obstacle faced by the prospective persimmon grower in the Northeast is obtaining good plant material, and grafted cultivars are in short supply. The seeds and seedling trees that are generally available from many mail-order nurseries are almost always of un- Growing 111 known sex. A few nurseries do offer suitable cultivars for northern climates (see page 129). Cultivar scionwood for grafting is also often available, and requests may be honored for seed from parent trees that are known to produce superior offspring. Perhaps the best means of obtaining a desired cultivar is to graft it oneself. Nut and fruit organizations are the best source of seed and scionwood of good selections (see page 129). Scionwood is also available at some nurseries, a few of which will do custom grafting upon request. Grafting or budding methods are similar to those used with apples. Both grafting and budding are done in spring or summer using a seedling rootstock that has proved to be winter hardy. Stems that did not bear fruit during the previous growing season are preferable as scions because those that have borne fruit are known to die during the following winter. Spring grafting and budding are best done when the buds begin to swell (late April in Boston, Massachusetts). Grafts may succeed as late as June if the scions are completely dormant, but early grafts with a longer growing season ahead of them are more likely to survive the first winter. A small plastic bag covering the scion and graft union works well to prevent desiccation. This may be removed gradually after the buds break and the leaves begin to unfold. All growth from the understock should be removed as soon as the union has clearly healed. Summer budding is also successful. August is the best time, but it may be done as late as four weeks previous to freezing weather. Budwood that is smaller in diameter than the rootstock allows for easier insertion cf a bud. After winter, stock plants should be girdled just above grafted buds that have survived. Tying the vigorous new growth of buds to the dead portion of the rootstock above the graft union will prevent wind damage. Otherwise, a stake should be provided for support. The easiest way to propagate persimmon plants is from seed. Of course, the sex of a seedling cannot be known until it flowers, which may take more than four years. Cultivars in the 'Early Golden' group have a reputation for producing better than average offspring. With so few cultivars selected specifically for northern regions, raising the seedlings of the better cultivars that are available may be the best way for most people to obtain a persimmon tree adapted to their needs. Seedlings can be planted in a group and all but the better fruited plants subsequently eliminated. It is advisable to collect seeds from ripe fruit. Excessive heat, cold, or drying can cause persimmon seeds to lose viability, but seeds have been known to germinate after six years of cold stratification (McDaniel 1970). Three months of cold stratification is needed for good germination. Sow persimmon seed in fall or early spring, about 1 inch deep with some additional light mulch on top to help retain moisture. Rodent predation has not been reported to be a problem. Seeds will germinate within a month in soil temperatures above 60F. The seedlings quickly develop a long taproot and are tolerant of adverse conditions (Fowells) but perform best with ample moisture and 112 no competition from weeds. Well-grown seedlings 1 foot mately season. high the first season can reach approxiand grow another 3 feet the second If persimmons are grown in a nursery, the time to transplant them permanent site is at the beginning of their third growing season. A couple of factors make American persimmons notoriously difficult to transplant. The young trees have deep taproots and long surface roots, which are fleshy and inevitably injured during digging. A prior root pruning will induce fibrous lateral rooting and enhance transplanting success. Also, persimmon roots do not regenerate until after the top is fully leafed out and the soil has warmed. Luxuriant new growth is often mistaken as a sign of a successfully established transplant. If supplemental watering is discontinued, the top may wilt, because the damaged roots cannot supply the transpiring leaves with adequate to a water. American persimmons can be successfully transplanted if a few precautions are observed. The most important is to warm the soil early to encourage rapid root regeneration. A black plastic mulch is a good way to do this, and it will also retain moisture and eliminate weed competition. The plastic may be applied before the planting date to speed the warming process. The best transplant hole is large and of good tilth. Pruning the top back 1\/s to 1\/z of its size will equalize damage done to the roots. Persimmon roots are normally dark throughout and should not be mistakenly pruned off as dead. Young persimmon trees s respond favorably to irrigation with warm water from a slow-flowing hose exposed to the sun. White latex paint or an opaque trunk guard will prevent sun scald on the trunk. To help the young transplant harden off for winter, remove the plastic mulch and stop watering in August. The two secrets of successful transplanting are: (1) maintain a warm, moist soil and (2) do not mistake lush new growth as a sign that care is no longer needed. Transplanted trees should not be fertilized during the first season, except for perhaps a cup of bone meal incorporated into the transplant hole. Satisfactory yields are possible without special treatment, as shown by the heavy yields of wild persimmons and the similar performance of some trees at the Arnold Arboretum. Even so, fertilization will probably increase yields, especially on poorer sites. For maximum production the following regime has been recommended by the Society of Ontario Nut Growers: (1) Apply 1 pound of 10-10-10 fertilizer for each inch of trunk diameter until fruiting age. (2) With the onset of heavy fruiting, switch to a 5-10-15 formulation. (3) Prevent fertilizers from contacting the trunk; that is, broadcast outward beneath the canopy. (4) Only fertilize during early spring. Heavy feeding during the growing season can shock a persimmon tree, causing it to drop its leaves. i I 113 American persimmons, which grow relatively slowly (12 inches per remain compact, have an interesting self-pruning characteristic. After two or three seasons of growth, some fruit-bearing shoots will dry up over the winter and release by abscission before the next growing season. This growth habit minimizes the need for supplemental pruning. The optimum tree form is a low-headed pyramid with widely spaced scaffold branches arranged in a spiral pattern around the central leader. Summer pruning will direct the tree's energy into fruit production rather than vegetative growth, keeping the tree small and productive. Spacing for mature trees on good soil needs to be about 35 feet. All accounts agree that the American persimmon is practically pest free in the North. Observation of the Arboretum's D. virginiana specimens during 1981 revealed no insect pests on leaves, flowers, or fruits. Some plants did seem to have a minor leaf-spot disease. In areas with short growing seasons, the below-optimum photosynthesis in diseased leaves could result in fruits that are less sweet. With autumn's approach persimmon fruits change color from light green to yellow and finally to a deep golden orange. A few soft fruits may be noticed on the ground. At this point the texture of persimmons still hanging changes from firm to increasing degrees of softness. At its softest the fruit will usually separate from the calyx, leaving it and the pedicel attached to the twig. This is a fully ripened fruit, and it should be delicious. A fruit that will separate from its calyx is very soft and must be handled carefully, however. Because of this, and since persimmons ripen gradually, it is often easier to make a few large harvests of fruits that are less than fully ripe. Hand picking is the gentlest harvest method, but shake harvesting is less tedious and causes little damage if it is done over a cushioned ground cover. The best containers for collecting fruit are shallow, to minimize crushing the soft, ripe fruits. The astringency of unripe persimmons is thought to be caused by the chemical compound leucodelphinidin (Griffith and Griffith). As a single molecule leucodelphinidin causes astringency, but polymeric chains of leucodelphinidin longer than four molecules lose their ability to react with the oral mucosa. Ethylene gas evolved during year) and natural ripening or supplied artificially removes astringency by catalyzing the polymerization of leucodelphinidin molecules. The use of ethylene gas is the only artificial ripening method that Eugene and Mary Griffith acknowledge in their book, Persimmons for Everyone. In their opinion the prevalent notion that freezing can remove astringency began because the natural ripening period and the frost season still firm and astringent can be fully 50 ppm ethylene gas for 24 hours and ripened by being subjected then allowed to sit for several days at room temperature. Creating such a high concentration of ethylene gas is not practical in the average household kitchen, however. are often coincide. American persimmons that to 114I American persimmon (D. virginiana) 115 it is unclear how ripe a persimThe Griffiths state emphatically that the fruits must begin to soften on the tree. Others report successful off-tree ripening of firm, green fruit when it is stored either at room temperature or in a refrigerator. As with the Oriental kaki, this characteristic probably varies from tree to tree. I have not attempted to ripen green fruit artificially. Storing the fruit in a plastic bag will enhance ripening by retaining natural ethylene gas at a higher concentration. Adding an apple or banana, preferably a ripe one, will further hasten the ripening process. Fruit softness is a measure of ripeness and may be checked without opening the bag. Tree-softened persimmons will ripen fully within a few days or a week, depending on the method used and their initial degree of ripeness. Ripe fruits keep for several weeks in a In more practical curing methods mon must be when it is picked. refrigerator. Orientals eat their persimmons fresh, dried, and frozen, but never cooked. Traditional American dishes such as persimmon pudding show that cooked preparations can be good, too. Even so, low temperatures and short cooking times are recommended to avoid adverse changes in texture and flavor. The Griffiths' book is a thorough exploration of the culinary delights of persimmon cookery, with over 250 recipes for soups, salads, breads, frozen desserts, puddings, pastries, beverages, and other delicacies. In preparing persimmons it is advisable to avoid ordinary carl:~n steel utensils, which will turn persimmon flesh unattractively dark. Stainless steel is best. Aluminum alone will not stain persimmons, but be wary of aluminum coatings on a steel base. If a utensil is going to darken the fruit, it will do so within five minutes of contact; otherwise it is safe to use. Pulping is usually the first step in persimmon preparations. A sieve with 3\/~F-inch openings will separate the pulp from the seeds and skin and yet is not so fine that pulping is difficult. Persimmons are ideally suited to preservation by freezing. The flesh remains in good condition and flavorful for years, even if thawed and refrozen. However, it is best to freeze the pulp in individual plastic bags of a convenient size for thawing one at a time. Whole fruits may be frozen and eaten like popsicles or pulped after thawing. Several persimmon recipes from the Griffiths' book are offered below. Either American or Oriental persimmons may be used. 116 I Persimmon 11\/z cups flour 1\/z teaspoon salt 3\/4 teaspoon double-acting Spice Pudding 1\/z cup sugar '\/z teaspoon soda 1 cup milk 1 egg baking powder '\/4 teaspoon cloves 1\/4 teaspoon nutmeg 1\/a teaspoon cinnamon 1\/z teaspoon vanilla 1\/4 teaspoon lemon extract 2 tablespoons butter, 4 cups persimmon pulp melted Sift dry ingredients together. Combine persimmon pulp, milk, egg, vanilla, lemon extract, and melted butter. Combine two mixtures, stirring well. Pour into greased baking dish. Preheat oven to 350 and bake 45 to 50 minutes. Serve hot or cold with whipped cream, or with a hard sauce. Persimmon Ice Cream 11\/2 quarts cream (30 to 40 percent milk fat) 1\/a pint milk 1 cup sugar 1 teaspoon soda 3 cups persimmon pulp Beat first four ingedients lightly, adding in above order. Thoroughly chill mixture (with persimmon pulp chilled separateiy). Partially freeze before addmg persimmon pulp, then complete freezing. Persimmon Leaves Tea Gather green persimmon leaves, wash them, and make tea by steeping them in boiling water. The tea has a pleasant flavor, suggestive of sassafras. Or spread the leaves on paper in a warm place until they are thoroughly dry. Pack them in lightly sealed jars and heat the jars with their contents in a very low temperature oven for about 30 minutes. Remove the jars from the oven and tighten the lids immediately. If the jars are airtight the leaves will be dry and sealed in a partial vacuum. If properly done the leaves will keep indefinitely. Dried persimmon leaves tea is considered better than that made from fresh ones. Persimmon leaves are high in vitamin C (ascorbic acid). 117 Persimmon 1\/3 cup shortening '\/s cup sugar Gingerbread 1 egg 3\/4 2\/s 3\/4 1\/2 cup sour milk, buttermilk cup dark molasses cup persimmon pulp or yogurt teaspoon soda 1 cup whole wheat flour '\/4 cup powdered milk '\/z cup wheat germ or wheat germ flour 3 teaspoons double-acting baking powder 1 teaspoon cinnamon 1 teaspoon ginger 112 teaspoon salt Cream the shortening and sugar. Add egg, sour milk, molasses and persimmon pulp. Stir well. Sift the remaining dry ingredients together and add them to the moist mixture with no more than 20 strokes. Oil a ring mold or 8-inch square loaf pan and dust with flour. Pour the batter into the pan and bake at 350 for about 45 minutes. Be careful not to overbake. Serve with whipped cream or sauce. Persimmon Beer Thomas Jefferson, the third president of the United States, enjoyed persimmon beer. Try it and judge for yourself ! 1 peck persimmons 1 pound bran 8 gallons water Combine persimmons, bran and about 1 gallon of warm water. Wash and mix them well. Place the mixture in a tub or barrel with a thin layer of clean straw on the bottom. Add the remainder of the water and set in a warm place to ferment. When the beer is ready for use, the persimmon pieces will rise to the top. Draw off the clear liquid and add molasses or brown sugar if additional sweetening is desired. Place brew in bottles, jugs, demijohns or a keg. Stopper tightly and store in a cool place. The beer is ready for use when cold, immediately after bottling, but if stored for two to three weeks in a cool, dark place it will improve in flavor. The beer is light, lively and pleasant tasting. 118I Persimmon Cultivars following cultivars are the most suited to the Northeast (USDA 5 and 6). (Unless otherwise noted, my descriptions are drawn from those of Gerardi, Slate, Brooks and Olmo, and McDaniel 1973 The zones and 1982.) 'Early Golden' is the standard for early ripening, nonastringent fruit. Originating near East St. Louis, it has been widely propagated since 1880 and is popular for its large, firm fruit with few seeds. It generally ripens in the first week of October in Ontario (Campbell), but during recent short, cool growing seasons it has failed to ripen properly (Society of Ontario Nut Growers). 'Early Golden' trees have a spreading branch habit and dense foliage. The young plants fruit precociously. With age they can occasionally self-pollinate by staminate flowers borne on weakly growing branches. 'Early Golden' is the matriarch of a family of selected cultivars that includes many of those best suited to northern regions. 'Garretson', introduced from Pennsylvania in 1920, is apparently a first- or second-generation offspring of 'Early Golden'. It has similar foliage and seed characteristics. From 1940 to 1966 it withstood winters at Geneva, New York, without injury. In the Geneva climate it is more productive than 'Early Golden' and matures its fruits more fully, beginning in early October. The fruits are orangy yellow with a red blush and heavy bloom. They are almost spherical and slightly smaller than those of 'Early Golden', about 13\/s inches in diameter. 'Garretson' fruit has very good flavor, few seeds, and tender skin. 'Garretson' bears in the second season after grafting and like 'Early Golden' produces staminate flowers and self-pollinates with age. Its yields are just about optimum, heavy but not overly so, which would delay ripening in northern areas. 'Garretson' was the choice cultivar at the Geneva Experiment Station in 1966. 'Meader' is the sole plant surviving from a 1947 `Garretson' seedlot grown near Rochester, New Hampshire. 'Meader' regularly survives -25F and matures 13\/4-inch seedless fruits in the cool New Hampshire summers. Experience with 'Meader' at Geneva has shown a tendency towards overbearing. Even so, the largest of the variably sized fruits surpassed in size the fruit of any other cultivar grown there. The dull yellow fruits, which are somewhat furrowed and have a heavy bloom, sometimes develop unattractive dark patches. The skin is relatively tough compared to that of other cultivars, but the flesh is tender and may have a slight but not objectionable astringency. On the whole, the fruit quality is good but not excellent. 'Meader' will produce seeded fruit when grown near a suitable pollinator. Since some fruits of the original plant, which is isolated, have been observed to have seeds in recent years, it can be assumed that it, too, produces some staminate flowers and self-pollinates. 'Killen', selected about 1915 in Delaware, is another probable offspring of 'Early Golden'. It is similar to the latter in texture and seed 119 US Department ofAgmcultuTe plant-hardiness zones in the United States and Canada shape and in the time required for ripening. The fruits, which are slightly larger than those of 'Early Golden', begin ripening a few days later and continue over a longer season. 'Killen' performs well in southern Connecticut and Geneva, New York. Like 'Early Golden' it is strong growing, precocious, and produces some staminate flowers with age. 'Killen' has a record of producing high quality offspring: 'John Rick' and 'Florence' are two of its progeny, as are the male cultivars 'George' and 'Mike'. 'John Rick' was selected by J. C. McDaniel in 1958 and is receiving widespread acclaim for its large, handsome fruits. The orangy yellow fruits are blushed red and are up to 2 inches in diameter. The skin and flesh are tender and flavorful. Its small, soft calyx, which does not puncture other fruits in storage, combined with its overall attractiveness, makes 'John Rick' a prime cultivar for fresh marketing. It ripens about the same time as 'Early Golden' or perhaps slightly afterwards. 120 five-year-old plant growing in St. Elmo, Illinois, yielded 42 pounds of fruit in 1977 (Wills). 'John Rick' has not shown an ability to produce staminate flowers like other members of the 'Early Golden' family. Seedlings of 'John Rick' are very vigorous and precocious but show moderate susceptibility to leaf diseases. If'John Rick' can be shown to ripen fruit dependably in New England, it will then be highly recommended for its fruit qualities. 'Florence' has smaller fruit than its sibling 'John Rick', but its small seeds give it a high flesh-to-seed ratio, and its delicate flavor is one of the better among northern cultivars. Staminate flowers have also been observed on 'Florence'. 'Wabash', another cultivar suitable for northern climates, is not a member of the 'Early Golden' family. It was selected from the wild in southern Illinois and has smaller fruits and redder flesh than any of the cultivars named thus far. The fruit is sweet, aromatic, and seedless where pollinators are absent. It ripens even earlier than the 'Early Golden' group, beginning in mid-August at Urbana, Illinois. The leaves of 'Wabash' color more than those of most American persimmon trees, making it an attractive yard tree. 'Morris Burton' was introduced by a farmer from Mitchell, Indiana, who noticed that his cows always ate its fruits first. Most people who have tasted it agree with the cows, rating 'Morris Burton' as the most delicious persimmon they have ever eaten. 'Morris Burton' fruit is relatively small and soft but is among the earliest to ripen. Another advantage of 'Morris Burton' is that the ripe fruit falls free of the A calyx. 'Juhl' and an older cultivar 'Hick' have shown some promise in trials at Geneva. The fruit color of both is clear yellow with a slight red blush and heavy bloom. The fruit of each is about 13\/8 inches in diameter, but 'Hick' is variable in size whereas 'Juhl' is uniform. 'Juhl' may have small dark spots on its skin. Both have tender skin and flesh without astringency. Neither plant overbears and the fruits of both ripen just before those of 'Garretson'. On the whole, the merits of each approach those of 'Garretson', with 'Juhl' perhaps slightly superior to 'Hick'. 'Richards', 'Evelyn', 'Utter', and 'Pieper' are mentioned in the Society of Ontario Nut Growers newsletter as selections with promise for areas with cool, short growing seasons. The latter three will produce seedless fruit when not pollinated. 'Pieper' ripens fruit in Geneva, and its foliage turns a beautiful yellow before falling, usually with the first heavy frost. In areas where wild persimmon trees are not abundant, a male tree is needed for pollination if the female cultivar does not have the parthenocarpic ability to set fruit without being pollinated. There are two male cultivars of merit. 'William' is a handsome plant that provides copious pollen over a long period. It is the probable parent of 'John Rick' and 'Florence', as well as 'George', another heavily pollinating male. ~ i2i Actinidia arguta: The Cold-Hardy Relative of the Kiwifruit Actinidia arguta is a vigorously growing fruiting vine native to northeast Asia. It is a cold-hardy relative of the kiwifruit (A. chinensis), which has enjoyed a meteoric rise to commercial success in the last two decades. Large plantings of kiwifruit in California and New Zealand now supply northern markets. Unlike the kiwifruit, A. arguta has rarely been cultivated except as an ornamental. Even though the fruits are sold regularly in northern Chinese markets, they are obtained solely from wild plants. The Chinese name for A. arguta is van zhou, the \"soft date\" or \"juicy date.\" In Korea it is known as the \"tara\" or \"wild fig.\" Elsewhere, Occidentals have named it the \"Siberian gooseberry,\" \"hardy kiwi,\" and \"bower Actinidia,\" the last to denote its climbing habit. A member of the Arboretum staff, Peter Del Tredici, has dubbed it the \"bowerberry,\" a name that appeals to me. A single name needs to be settled on. All of the approximately 35 species of the genus Actinidia are native to eastern Asia (Li). The center of their geographical distribution is southwestern China. Two species are tropical, but the others are found primarily in the hills and mountains of temperate areas. The fruits of all species reportedly are edible, but those of A. arguta, A. kolomikta, and especially A. chinensis are most often collected for human consumption. Five species, A. arguta, A. kolomikta, A. polygama, A. melandra, and A. purpurea, have been grown outdoors at the Arnold Arboretum and are apparently hardy to -5F. The first three are native to northeastern China (Manchuria), which has a climate similar to New England's. The kiwifruit cannot stand our winter temperatures without protection and requires a long ripening season. A. arguta is the only species I have observed fruiting in New England. The native habitats of A. arguta are in eastern Siberia, Manchuria, northern China, Korea, and Japan at altitudes from 330 to 6600 feet. Actinidia plants typically grow within the forest or at its edge. They are tall-growing vines (to 100 feet), often climbing into the forest canopy. The long arching shoots provide support by twining and by thrusting themselves upward on short divergent branches. The plants also grow as thickets in open areas, climbing over boulders and smothering small shrubs. A. arguta plants are very cold hardy. One explorer reported thick ice near the roots of a Manchurian specimen on June 10 (Woeikoff). As a speciesA. arguta is polygamodioecious, which means that the flowers of most individual plants are either functionally male (staminate) or female (carpellate). However, there are some plants with perfect flowers, while others may have unisexual flowers of both sexes on the same plant. Furthermore, some plants vary their sexual expression from year to year as maples do. The flower buds appear in May but remain tightly bound in their 122 A. arguta fruzts. Peter Del Tredlci photo. 123 to avoid damage from late frosts. They borne in small clusters from the leaf axils of the current season's growth. The blooms are strikingly beautiful but are largely hidden beneath the foliage and persist only a week. The individual flowers, about 3\/a of an inch in diameter, have black anthers surrounded by five waxy white petals. They have a fragrant scent resembling lily-of-thevalley, which attracts bees and other pollinating insects. Pollination may also occur by wind since the pollen is very light and dry. A. arguta is among several species in the genus that have been cultivated as ornamentals. The bright red petioles lend an exotic quality to the glossy green foliage, which is unusually resistant to disease and insects. The plants can thrive on a variety of soils, even under conditions of neglect. Because of these qualities the A. arguta vine can be recommended for its landscape value alone. Its only fault is its great vigor, which can be troublesome in small spaces. The fruits of A. arguta are luscious. Their flavor is similar to that of the kiwifruit, which has been described as combining a multiplicity of flavors as various as strawberry, cantaloupe, banana, fig, watermelon, gooseberry, and rhubarb. Actually, it has its own very distinctive flavor, ranging from tart, during early ripening, to sweet at full ripeness. I much prefer fresh A. arguta fruits to seedless table grapes because of their unique, sophisticated flavor. In texture A. arguta resembles a fig or very ripe peach. The tiny seeds, like those of figs, have a barely perceptible crunch when eaten. A. arguta fruits are usually oblong in shape (3\/4 by 11\/4 inches) and sometimes blocky with flattened sides. Somewhat bigger than large grapes, they weigh 5 to 10 grams. Unlike the kiwifruit, which has a pubescent skin that must be peeled, the smooth-skinned green fruit of A. arguta is eaten whole. Cross-sectional slices of the fruit reveal a glistening pattern of lime-green flesh surrounding a ring of chocolate-colored seeds embedded in a paler green core. The fruits have a variety of culinary uses. They have traditionally been collected from wild plants and eaten fresh or preserved by drying in the sun. Dried fruit are cooked in breads and pastries or reconstituted for pudding and stew. Underripe and acidic A. arguta fruit can be used in pickles and relishes. In vitamin C content it reportedly equals the kiwifruit: 250-380 mg per 100 grams, or ten times that of a lemon. The fruits have a mild laxative quality. The sliced fruit is visually appealing, a piquant addition to salads, especially fruit salads. It is also excellent in frozen preparations like slush coolers, frozen sherbet, and ice cream and can be preserved or used to make syrup. Fermented A. arguta fruits make a good wine with a particularly pleasant and interesting bouquet. (Wine made from kiwifruit is reported to be high quality, of a Sylvaner Riesling sepals until June, long enough are character.) Kiwifruit keeps for an extraordinarily long time (4 to 12 months), and preliminary experience with A. arguta suggests that it will, too. In one experiment firm-picked fruit has been ripened to perfection in 124 month when held at standard room conditions. Ripe fruit has been stored in a household refrigerator for six to eight weeks with little or no deterioration in quality. Firm-picked A. arguta fruit in cold storage can probably equal the kiwifruit in its ability to keep through the winter. The slightly flattened sides of A. arguta fruits should make them easy to pack and ship with minimal damage. Elwyn M. Meader, a breeder of many successful crop plants, has s grown fruitingA. arguta vines for more than 20 years, and he believes A. arguta has high potential as a commercial crop for northern climates. Meader lives in Rochester, New Hampshire, where temperature minimums frequently reach -25F, yet his vines bear fruit every year. They were given a test on Christmas Eve 1980, when temperatures rapidly dropped from 27F at night to -20F the next morning with high winds. Even this shock, which affected some apple cultivars in the region, had no adverse effect on the next season's A. arguta harvest. And there is no reason to believe that Meader's vines are unusually hardy. None of the couple of hundred seedlings he has grown in the past has shown evidence of winter injury. The report is the same about fruiting vines growing in a small area around Norfolk, Connecticut, known as the \"icebox of Connecticut\" because of its occasional -30F minimum winter temperatures. A. arguta plants grown in Lithuania have reportedly withstood -45F. It is possible that A. arguta could achieve commercial success like its relative the kiwifruit, particularly north of areas where table grapes can be grown reliably. Delectable taste, pest resistance, storage qualities, and absolute cold hardiness are impressive attributes of this undeveloped fruiting vine. Much research and development is still necessary for A. arguta to realize its commercial potential. For instance, its productivity has rarely been evaluated. A. D. Woeikoff, in his survey of Manchurian economic flora, states that few plants can equal its fruit-yield to foliage-area ratio. The horticultural staff at the Isabella Stewart Gardner Museum in Boston estimates at least 10 gallons of fruit is collected annually from two large vines in their courtyard. A more specific report from Lithuania calculates 110 pounds of fruit per vine. 1 Based on this figure, an acre of A. arguta could be expected to yield 11 tons of fruit. Regardless of the exact yields, it is safe to say that some A. arguta vines fruit profusely on an annual basis. Seedlings flower in five to seven years and cuttings in three to four years. Several vines that are at least 60 years old show no signs of declining yields. A. arguta and some relatives are available as seeds, seedlings, or rooted cuttings from a very few sources (see page 129). Evidence shows that many more male vines are produced from seeds than female or bisexual ones; perhaps as many as 5 to 10 males for each female. For optimum fruit set, a male plant for pollination is a good idea, though probably in an inverse proportion to what occurs naturally (1 male for 5 to 10 females). Ideally, bisexual selections will be made available with the ability to self-pollinate or at least cross-polone 125 A arguta flowers linate with another fruiting cultivar. These can then be vegetatively propagated and the need for devoting space to nonfruiting male vines eliminated. Propagation A. arguta was grown and distributed by several nurseries after it introduced into this country near the turn of the century. Many of the plants I have found date from these early introductions. Arboreta, public and private gardens, and the grounds of institutions are likely sites of fruiting plants. Fresh seeds germinate much better than ones that have been allowed to dry out. Each fruit contains as many as 200 seeds. Separating the seeds from the pulp is done as it is with tomatoes. The pulp is macerated and allowed to soak in water for several days. After it is agitated, only the pulp and nonviable seeds will float. These can be poured off and the seed remaining on the bottom saved. To ensure uniform germination, the seeds need a period of damp chilling and should be mixed with three times their volume of damp (not moist) peat moss. This mixture must then be sealed in a plastic bag and stored at normal refrigerator temperature for about three months. When it is ready for sowing, the entire stratification mixture may be spread in a flat of sterile media. A light covering of milled sphagnum moss over this will reduce damping-off disease, to which the emerging seedlings are susceptible. Approximately 60 percent to 85 percent of the seeds germinate within 40 to 50 days. Another satisfactory method of germinating the seeds is to store the whole fruit in a refrigerator for a month or longer. After this the fruit can be macerated and the entire pulp planted without separating the seeds. The pulp will decay, and within one or two months after planting the seedlings will begin to was emerge. 126I The seedlings rapidly develop an extensive root system and should be transplanted before they become visibly crowded. They respond well to fertilization and ample spacing, making rapid growth of one to several leaders 1 to 2 feet long. Slightly shaded nursery conditions are recommended, but containerized plants have been successfully grown on asphalt surfaces exposed to full sun and unimpeded winds. The thick waxy leaves seem to resist desiccation, but they can be windflailed when new and tender. Actinidia can also be propagated vegetatively like grapes, with a similar high rate of success. Leafy cuttings taken in July and placed under mist root well. No single rooting hormone can be recommended at this time, but alcohol dips have been observed to be injurious. About 50 percent of dormant cuttings taken in spring just before the buds break also root and establish when simply stuck in an outdoor nursery row of good tilth. Profuse callus formation can inhibit root formation in some cases. For this reason summer budding and dormant grafting of the fruit are preferred by some nurseries. But the grafting must be done well in advance of the spring sap flow, or excessive callus will interfere with the graft union's healing process. Sections of root will sprout readily. One- and two-year-old stems can be rooted from layers by pegging them beneath a moist, friable soil. One- to two-year-old plants may be transplanted to their permanent location. An eventual growing area of 13 by 13 feet is advisable for these vigorous climbers. Plants of unknown sex may be grown much closer together until their bearing qualities can be evaluated and the less desirable plants rogued out. Care must be taken to allow some pollen-bearmg plants to remain. These will preferably be within 35 feet of the fruit-bearing plants and will flower at the same time. The literature on kiwifruit culture stresses the importance of sturdy trellis supports, and this would also apply to A. arguta. Trellises suited for grapes are unsatisfactory under the weight of mature kiwifruit vines heavily laden with fruit. An overhead arbor casts a cool shade and allows for easy picking of the hanging fruit. Fruits harvested from the ground after dropping are usually in acceptable condition. Wherever a climbing vine is needed, these vigorous growers can rapidly fill the space. Pruning probably will enhance yields. The fruiting occurs on the basal portion of relatively short stems. These can be distinguished by their close internodes of less than 21\/4 inches as compared to the long, arching vegetative vines with internodes generally longer than 31\/4 inches. Without pruning, the vegetative vines overgrow and shade future fruiting vines. Their photosynthesis will be reduced, causing them to initiate fewer flower buds for the next year's crop. Early June is a good time to prune the long vegetative shoots to about eight leaf nodes from their base. This will direct the sun's energy into fruit production and formation of the next year's flowers. Only enough vegetative growth should be left to replace the old framework of the plant occasionally or expand its size. Winter pruning is useful to . 127 A. arguta remove vxnes at the Gardner Museum zn Boston. Peter Del Tredxcx photo damaged and tangled strongly growing shoots. vines and to reduce the length of A. arguta tolerates infertile soils and has no known insect or disproblems (Spangler and Ripparda). Like the kiwifruit, which also tolerates a wide range of soil types, A. arguta probably will not tolerate poorly drained soil. The Japanese beetle and golden nematode have been recognized as pests of the kiwifruit but neither seriously reduces plant vigor. I have observed no insect or disease damage on A. arguta. Even gypsy moth caterpillars do not feed on the foliage. Cats can pose an unusual problem for Actinidia growers, for they are attracted to the aroma of bruised leaves and roots of the plants. This is especially true of A. polygama, and to a lesser degree A. arguta. Cats may even dig up small transplants. Many of the chemical constituents of catnip leaves are also in A. polygama. In Narcotic Plants Entoben says the Chinese use the leaves of A. polygama, known as \"metatabi,\" to sedate large cats in zoos. The psychoactive constituents apparently affect humans as well. In China an infusion of table wine and A. polygama leaves is prescribed as a sedative. A. arguta is an excellent fruiting vine for residential and urban plantings. It is a vigorous ornamental, has no pest problems, tolerates neglect, and bears remarkably delectable fruit. It also has good potential as a commercial crop where the kiwifruit cannot be grown. Although high-quality plants are in short supply, a few sources do exist. IfActinidia vines are planted more widely, as they deserve to be, the selection of improved fruiting cultivars will follow. At present only a few experimenters in this country are cultivating Actinidia species for their fruit. Homeowners and landscape professionals can take part by planting seedlings or propagating existing plants known to fruit well. The effort will be rewarded for many years to come by both the lowmaintenance, ornamental foliage and the delicious fall harvests. ease 128 Foliage of A. arguta. Edward Goodell photo. 129 Edward Goodell would like to hear from anyone who knows the location of fruiting Actinidia vines. Please contact him at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130. Acknowledgments I wish to acknowledge the invaluable comments and support of the following reviewers, whose contributions immeasurably upgraded the information: Henry Hartman, Frederick McGourty, Daniel C. Milbocker, V. O. Virkau, and Gregory Williams. Finally, I dedicate this work to Elwyn M. Meader, whose numerous successful introductions of new food plants and generous sharing of information is an enduring inspiration for me. Resozirces Much of the information above derives from the work of the NorthNut Growers Association and the North American Fruit Explorers. Both of these organizations are dedicated to improving less developed food plants by distributing plant materials and evaluating their performance. Each has an open membership policy and publishes informative journals for anyone interested in taking part in its acern tivities. North American Fruit Explorers - membership organization dedicated to promoting the growing of all types of fruit- and nut-producing woody plants. Publishes Pomona quarterly. Membership information: Ray Walker, Box 711, St. Louis, MO 63188. Northern Nut Growers Association - organized in 1910 to promote minor fruit and nut culture in northern North America. Publishes a highly informative quarterly and report on the annual meeting. Dues $10.00, payable to: John English, Treasurer, R R 3, Bloomington, IN 61701. Massachusetts Fruition Program - innovative state program promoting fruit and nut tree growing; $64,000 has been appropriated for plant purchases. For information contact: Massachusetts Fruition Program, Department of Food and Agriculture, Government Center, Boston MA 02022. Telephone (617) 727-6632. Nurseries The following is a list of nurseries specializing in tree crops. Many small part-time businesses. Orders should be placed well in advance, because supplies are often limited. Most have catalogs available upon request. are run as 130 Alexander's Nurseries, Box 309, Middleboro, MA 02346. Seeds and rooted cuttings of selected Actinidia arguta vines. Beaverlodge Nursery, Box 127, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada TOH OCO. Very hardy (zone 2) fruit trees and shrubs, including improved cultivars of juneberry (Amelanchier sp.). Campberry Farms, c\/o Mr. R. D. Campbell, R R 1, Niagara-on-theLake, Ontario, Canada LOS 1JO. Improved strains of nuts and native fruits including persimmons. Dave Lawyer Nurseries, Route 2, Box 95, tinidia seeds and seedlings. Plains, MT 59859. Ac- Earl Douglass, Red Creek, NY 13143. Seeds and Chinese and American chestnut hybrids. seedlings of Farmer's Seed and Nursery, Fairbault, MN 55021. Cold-hardy fruiting selections of rose, juneberry, cranberry, viburnum, elderberry, table grapes, and Prunus species. John H. Gordon, Jr., 1385 Campbell Boulevard, North Tonawanda, NY 14120. Seeds, seedlings, and root stocks of chestnut, hazelnut, northern pecan, walnut, hickory, nut pine, persimmon, mulberry, and oak. Grimo Nut Nursery, R R 3, Lakeshore Road, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario, Canada LOS 1 J0. Good selection of walnut, hickory, nut pine, chestnut, northern pecan, hazelnut, mulberry, and edible-kerneled apricot cultivars and seedlings. Custom propagation available. Gurney's Seed and Nursery, Yankton, SD 57079. Chestnut and persimmon seedlings as well as a selection of other native and standard fruits and Hess nuts. Nurseries, Box 326, Route 553, Cedarville, NJ 08311. Primarnut ily landscape plants, also juneberry and pine seedlings. International Tree Crops Institute, Appalachian Regional Office, Route 1, Gravel Switch, KY 40328. Actinidia arguta seedlings and chestnut and persimmon seedlings and cultivars. Jersey Chestnut Farm, 58 Van Duyne Avenue, Wayne, NJ 07470. Selected chestnut seedlings and persimmon cultivars. nut Kelly Brothers Nurseries, Dansville, seedlings. NY 14437. Fruit cultivars and ~ i3i Leslie Wilmoth Nursery, Route 2, Box 469, Elizabethtown, KY 42701. High quality seedlings and cultivars of walnut, pecan, chestnut, hickory, hazelnut, and fruit trees. Custom propagation available. Louis Gerardi Nursery, R R 1, O'Fallon, IL 62269. Seeds, seedlings, and cultivars of a wide range of nut trees; also persimmon and mul- berry. Mellinger's, 2310 West South Range Wide variety of food-producing plants. Road, North Lima, OH 44452. Miller Nurseries, Canandaigua, NY 14424. wide selection of fruits. Seedling chestnuts and ers Nebraska Nut and Fruit Tree Seed Program, Nebraska Nut GrowAssociation, Box 4644, Lincoln, NE 68504. Seed packets of native nut and fruit trees. New York State Fruit Testing Cooperative Association, Geneva, NY 14456. New and antique cultivars of all commercial fruits, also elderberry and mulberry cultivars. Catalog available to members, annual dues $5.00. Ray Guidi Nursery, 193 Curtis Avenue, Dalton, MA 01226. Seed- lings of native and hybrid nut trees. Saginaw Valley Nut Nursery, c\/o Richard D. Goldner, M.D., 8252 Dixie Highway, Route 3, Birch Run, MI 48415. Good selection of cultivars and seedlings from the walnut family, adapted to cold winters and short growing seasons. Nursery, R D 2 Route 56A, Potsdam, Exceptionally hardy fruits and nuts. St. Lawrence NY 13676. Robert G. Seip, R D 1, Box 683, Alburtis, PA 18011. Hickory, walnut, hazelnut, chestnut, and persimmon cultivars and seedlings. Southmeadow Fruit Gardens, Grootendorst Nursery, Box SM, Lakeside, MI 49116. Extensive listing of choice antique fruit varieties. Archie Sparks, Beaver, IA 50031. High quality black walnut cul- tivars, seeds, and seedlings. simmon Stark Brothers Nursery, Louisiana, MO 63353. Chestnut and perseedlings and cultivars. Largest supplier of home orchard plants. Talbott Nursery, R R 3, Box 212, Linton, IN cultivars, and chestnut and walnut seedlings. 47441. Persimmon 132 References Anonymous, 1973. \"Persimmon.\" Morton Arboretum Quarterly, 9(1): 14-15. Bailey, L. H. 1898. Evolution of Our Natzve Fruzts. Macmillan, New York. Baldwin, J., and R. Culp. 1941. \"Polyploidy in Diospyros virginiana.\" American Journal of Botany, 28: 942. Britz, R. 1981. The Edible City Resource Manual. William Kaufman, Los Altos, California. Brooks, R., and H. Olmo. 1972. \"Register of New Fruit and Nut Varieties,\" 2nd edition. University of California Press, Berkeley. Campbell, D. 1980. \"Northern Persimmons.\" Nutshell, 33(2): 9-11; (3): 10-13. Carr, L. G. 1947. \"Native Dnnks in the Southeast and Their Values.\" Proceedings of Delaware County Institute of Science, 10(2): 29-43. Claypool, J. 1980. Unpublished data. Department of Agriculture, Southern Illinois University, St. Elmo, Illinois. Creasy, R. 1982. The Complete Book of Edible Landscaping. Sierra Club, San Francisco. Darrow, G. M. 1975. \"Minor Temperate Fruits.\" In Advances in Fruit Breeding, J. Janick and J. Moore, eds., pp. 269-284. Purdue University Press, N. Lafayette, Indiana. Eddy, C. O. 1927. \"The Place of Native Persimmon in Nature.\" Ohio Journal of Science, 27(4): 187-199. Emboden, W. 1979. Narcotic Plants. Macmillan, New York. Evans, M. 1981. \"Persimmons.\" Cuisine, November: 57-61, 104. Fairchild, D. 1913. \"Some Asiatic Actznidias.\" U.S. Department of Agrzculture Bureau of Plant Introductions Circular 110. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Fletcher, W. E. 1942. \"The Native Persimmon.\" Furneazs Bulletin 685. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Fowells, H. A., ed. 1965. Szlvics of the Forest Trees of the U.S. U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Washington D.C. Garrison, D. E. 1978. \"Feasibility of Establishing Commercial Persimmon Production in Illinois.\" M.S. Thesis. Department of Agricultural Industry, Southern Illinois University, St. Elmo, Illinois. Gerardi, L. 1956. \"American Persimmon Varieties and Their Desirability.\" 47th Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association: 132138. Griffith, Eugene, and Mary E. Griffith. 1982. Persimmons for Everyone, edited and augmented by J. C. McDaniel. North American Fruit Explorers, Box 13, Route 2, Arcola, MO 65603. Kurle, R. 1981. \"Growing Hardy Kiwi in the USA.\" Pomona, 14(1): 19. Li, H. L. 1952. \"Taxonomic Review of the Genus Actznidia.\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 33(1): 1-61. Little, E. L. 1971. Atlas of U.S. Trees, Map 123-E. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. MacDaniels, L. H. 1941. \"Nut Growing in the Northeastern United States.\" Arnoldia, 1(9-12): 21-64. McDaniel, J. C. 1970. \"Persimmon Notes: Longevity of Stratified Seed.\" 61st Annual Report of the Northern Nut Growers Association. McDaniel, J. C. 1971. \"American Persimmon, an Emerging Horticultural Crop.\" Fruzt Varzeties Journal, 1 : 16-18. McDaniel, J. C. 1972. \"Persimmon Breeding Notes.\" Pomona, 5 (3): 123-125. 133 McDaniel, J. C. 1973. \"Persimmon Cultivars for Northern Areas,\" Fruit Varzeties Journal, 28(4): 94-95. McDaniel, J. C. 1982. In E. Griffith and M. Griffith, Persimmons for Everyone, J. C. McDaniel, ed., pp. 111-122. North American Fruit Explorers, Box 13, Route 2, Arcola, MO 65603. Meyer, F. N. 1911. Agricultural Exploratzons of the Fruit and Nut Orchards of China. U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin 204. Milbocker, D. C. 1980. \"Kiwifruit.\" Amencan Horticulturist, 59(1): 21-37. Nobbs, K. J. 1981. \"The Kiwifruit Has Some Relatives and They Could Be As Good.\" Pomona, 14(1): 17-19. Roush, J. F. 1975. \"Persimmon.\" Pomona, 8 (1): 12-13. Seymour, F. C. 1969. The Flora of New England. C. E. Tuttle, Rutland, Vermont. Slate, ern G. L. 1966. \"Persimmon Varieties.\" 57th Annual Nut Growers Association : 136-139. Report of the North- Society of Ontario Nut Growers. Perszmmon. Society of Ontario Nut Growers, R. R. 1, Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontano, Canada LOS 1J0. Spangler, R. L., and J. Ripparda. 1977. Landscape Plants for the Central and Northeastern United States. Burgess, Minneapolis, Minnesota. Spongberg, S. 1977. \"Ebenaceae Hardy in Temperate North America.\" Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 58: 146-160. Spongberg, S. 1979. \"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes.\" Arnoldia, 39(5): 290-309. Sutton, S. 1970. \"Actinidia Chinensis, the Kiwi Fruit.\" Arnoldia 30(5): 180185. Virkau, V. D. 1976. \"Propagation of Actinidia arguta and Actinidia kolomzkta. \" Pomona, 9: 130-132. Williams, G. 1981. \"Tree Crops for Energy Production in Appalachia.\" Tree Crops for Energy Co-Production on Farms. National Technical Information Service, Washington, D.C. Wills, W. 1978. \"Selecting Persimmon Varieties.\" Nutshell, 32(1): 9. Woeikoff, A. D. 1941. What Can the Manchurian Flora Give to Gardens? Paul Kourenoff, distributor, 1043 Steiner Street, San Francisco, California. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Collecting in the West","article_sequence":2,"start_page":135,"end_page":152,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24815","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060a76d.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":4,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Nicholson, Robert G.","article_content":"Collecting in the West by ROBERT NICHOLSON During September 1981 I had the good fortune to spend several weeks plant- and seed-collecting expedition for the Arnold Arboretum. The trip brought me over 5000 miles of road and eight states in the American West, a terrain sculpted by wind and water and draped in a on a mantle of botanical wonders. The purpose of the trip, in addition to that of expanding the Arboretum's collections, was to obtain seeds of plants that may be either endangered or of special interest to the plant sciences or nursery trades. I also wanted to collect herbarium specimens for certification and exchange, as many of the species I was looking for are poorly represented in herbaria throughout the world. My trip began in the still air of libraries and herbaria, where I spent many hours combing herbarium sheets to gain a familiarity with the plants and sifting through the often cryptic locale data of former collectors. As my stack of notes grew, one element began to emerge and engage my fascination: the mysterious existence of plant disjuncas the name implies, involves a discontinuity within taxon's range. For example, the primary range of the Cascade azalea (Rhododendron albiflorum) is the Cascade Mountains, from British Columbia to Oregon, and scattered populations exist in the Rocky Mountains of Alberta, Canada, northern Idaho, and western a tions. A disjunction, Robert Nicholson has made several collecting trips Arboretum. for the Arnold 136I The barren northwest slope of Agasszz Peak at 11,600 feet Montana. However, an outlying population exists in central Colorado, about 500 miles from the others. A distribution pattern such as this can raise intriguing questions as to the taxon's origins and continued existence. E. C. Pielov, in his book Biogeography, created a classification scheme that groups disjunct populations according to their origins. According to his scheme the causes of a gap in the range of an organism are as follows: (1) Splitting of a once-continuous range because of: (a) Geomorphological changes, i.e., an uplift of mountains (b) Climatic changes (c) Evolutionary differentiation and migration (2) Establishment of new populations over long distances (jump dispersal) owing to: (a) Natural causes (b) Human agency Disjunctions, therefore, are islands of botanical life, populations of plants that exist far from the mainland of a species' range. These populations may differ from primary populations for example, they and so are of interest to may be hardy in a greater range of habitats collectors. They also challenge the botanist to determine the cause of the split from the main range. Was it the gradual uplift of the mountains or the slow drying within the new mountain's rain shadow? Was it the movement of birds in migration or the lethargic sculpting of the glaciers? - 137 P. anstata on the southern slope of Agassaz Peak at the same elevation The Rhododendrons of Slavonia The first disjunct population I encountered grew near Slavonia, an abandoned mining town in central Colorado, close to the Wyoming border. In the Routt National Forest, on the edge of the Zirkel Wilderness, grows the state's only native rhododendron species, the Cascade azalea (R. albiflorum). This species is better known as a component of the humid lowland forest as well as the subalpine areas of the Pacific Northwest. It favors high-altitude wetlands and tends to form low clumps around lakes and streams. It has an oblong deciduous leaf and in early summer bursts into creamy white blossoms about one inch in diameter. The species was first found in the Rocky Mountains of Canada by a Scotsman, Thomas Drummond, in the wilderness years of the early 1800s. Sir William Hooker rendered the first description in Flora Boreali-Americana in 1840 and called it \"a very beautiful and most distinct species which would be a great ornament to our gardens if it could be introduced.\" The latter qualifier proved prophetic, as horticulturists labored to grow it. A Dr. Graham of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, was the first to record its flowering nonsitu and wrote: \"This very distinct species was raised at the Botanic Garden from seed gathered by Mr. Drummond in British America in 1828. It does not grow freely and flowered rather sparingly in the open border for the first time in July 1837. It is to be regretted if it is found difficult of cultivation for Mr. Drummond stated it formed a very handsome shrub.\" 138 Colorado spruce (P. pungens) The Cascade azalea has also proved diffinLet to grow in eastern North America, probably because of the oppressive summer heat. I thought then that this odd Colorado population, growing so far out of range, might offer a genotypic variation that would be suitable for cultivation. One segment is centered near Slavonia and another, three miles to the northeast, near Gilpin Lake. I reached the area via a long dirt road and found no buildings or remnants of the former town. The area is now a favorite starting point for hunting trips into the Zirkel Wilderness, and on the day I arrived packs of hunters sporting state-of-the-art bows were methodically preparing for their foray into the wild. After I had prepared my own hunting gear - a few seed I crossed a stone and wire envelopes and some pruning shears bridge and headed up an east-facing slope. It was traversed by several streamlets and springs and supported a profuse growth of mosses. Only a few hundred feet from the bridge I found my first Cascade azalea, and I soon discovered that the plant grew in profusion throughout the area. To see such an unusual plant so common in situ was indeed a rare pleasure. A canopy of Colorado spruce (Picea pungens) and Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) dominated the slope but surrendered somewhat in the wetter areas. The transition zone between the forest and the open mossy area was the niche the rhododendron settled into, forming large mounded patches of yellow fall foliage. There, hidden in - 139 Douglas fir (P. menziesii) the cool tuck of a mountain in the wilderness, was a plant whose creamy white display in spring must stir the hearts of any who happen upon it. I searched hundreds of branches for seed but found all the capsules disappointingly green. Luckily, I was able to arrange for a shipment from Michael Calhoun, a local resident with a special interest in the azaleas. The background of these unique Coloradan populations is fascinating from both biogeographical and historical perspectives. The plants have had only sporadic contact with humans. I had been told at the Denver Botanical Garden that the first discoverer of the stand probably was George W. Kelly, an amateur botanist in Colorado. Now 86 and in the process of writing his 10th book, he generously answered my inquiries about the area in a warm letter. \"I am just an amateur botanist but spent many wonderful days in the Slavonia area years ago. This is a real island of botany, almost identical to the coast area many miles to the west.... My discovery was the first local recognition of the plant, previously all woody plants were just bushes. I was probably the first to make a herbarium collection. So far as I have heard, this group in the Slavonia area is the only one in the state.\" Without doubt George Kelly has done the most to make the botanical world aware of the stand, and it was his herbarium specimens that first directed me to the still-extant population. later 140I Rocky Mountain maple (A. glabrum) The earliest published reference to the population is an article that named the plant as a new species, Azaleastrum warrenii. Aven Nelson of the Rocky Mountain Herbarium received a single specimen dated July 14, 1911, from Edward R. Warren, a Colorado Springs naturalist. Warren wrote to Nelson, \"I found it at my camp on the lower slope of Mt. Zikel, at the head of navigation [for prairie schooners] on the 'Ute Pass Trail'. If I remember correctly, it was quite abundant. It was a low plant, perhaps not more than a foot high. I evidently did not collect much of it, for I have but a single twig left and am sending you half the flowers and leaves from it.\" Nelson split the plant (as A. warrenii) from R. albiflorum on the basis of the glandular, ciliolate leaves of the former, which otherwise were glabrous. Five years later, in 1918, J. Francis Macbride transferred the species to the genus Rhododendron. Because of the paucity of pressed material, little comparative analysis with R. albiflorum was done and R. warrenii remained obscure. In 1936 Louis O. Williams in Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden compared three collections from the Coloradan populations with specimens ofR. albiflorum from the Northwest. He believed that the two species were the same, and other botanists in the area concurred. The plant is now considered R. albiflorum. The few isolated populations of R. albiflorum east of the Cascades ... 141 Cliff fendler bush (F rupicola) Pacific trillmm (T. ovatum) probably originated by different means. Those in Alberta may be the result of jump dispersal following the Wisconsin glaciation. But the disjunct population in Colorado, which may have evaded glaciation, could have resulted either from jump dispersal or range splitting. Rhododendron seed is so small and light that it could easily have lodged itself in fur or feather. Wind is also a dispersal agent for small light seeds, and it is conceivable that seed from the Cascade populations could have been carried east in a powerful storm. Volcanoes are another possibility but a highly unlikely one. R. albiflorum is a component of the Cascade flora and inhabits the sides of both active and extinct volcanoes. The recent Mt. St. Helens eruption, which spread ash as far east as Colorado, raises the question as to whether the seeds could have been blown into the stratosphere and carried eastward. Whether the seed could survive the intense heat and poisonous gases of the blast is highly questionable, but it is an idea that gives botanists a big bang theory to call their own. Of course, it is possible that other populations will be found within the 500-mile disjunction, rendering it less dramatic. Since George Kelly has noted the presence of other West Coast disjuncts, such as Pacific trillium (Trillium ovatum) and Lewis mimulus (Mimt~lus lewisiznear Slavonia, it would follow that it is a refugium rather than the end point of a jump dispersal. We might 142 Banana yucca (Y baccata) 143 Engelmann spruce (P. engelmannii) Knowlton hornbeam (0. knowltonii) speculate that the Cascade azalea once had a wider range than it has now. Two events probably diminished the range. First, the Cascade and Sierra Nevada mountains uplifted, blocking Pacific rainstorms and creating dryer environments on their east sides. Second, the Wisconsin glaciation buried the more northerly populations under a sheet of ice. The few populations in Colorado survived probably because they were unaffected by glaciation and because the mountains on whose bases they grow held enough rainstorms to sustain them. After leaving Slavonia, I spent two days in the Mesa Verde National Park, clambering up and down the jagged canyons looking for the cliff fendler bush (Fendlera rupicola), the banana yucca (Yucca baccata), and the Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum). Next, in southwest Utah, I reached the summit of Abajo Peak, an 11,445-foot mountain capped by Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) and offering a number of interesting rockery plants on the exposed rock faces. To the north of that summit, near Moab, Utah, I searched in Negro Bill Canyon for the Knowlton hornbeam (Ostrya knowltonii). Although this is one of the rarest North American trees, it is not presently listed at any American botanical garden. It remains so as I failed to locate the species at this site. However, I was able to collect seed from two the monkey flower (Mimulus eastwoodii) intriguing cliff dwellers and the columbine Aquilegia pallens - growing in a cliff-face crack where enough moisture was seeping out to support their tenuous - existence. During the following days I visited Oak Creek Canyon, Arizona, a botanical treasurehouse that contains four distinct vegetation zones over its 20-mile length. 144 Arizona's Isle of Antiquity To the north of Oak Creek Canyon and overshadowing the city of Flagstaff, Arizona, rise the peaks of the San Francisco Mountains. Humphrey's Peak, the highest in the group, is Arizona's champion mountain and reaches 12,633 feet. Treeline ceases about 1000 feet below that and is chiefly represented by the low matted growth of the bristlecone pine (Pinus aristata). This population was the main reason for my visit there, as it is Arizona's only population of bristlecone pine and is 325 miles away from the nearest neighboring population. The species itself was first discovered by Charles Parry in the high mountains of Clear Creek, Colorado, and subsequently was described by George Engelmann in the American Journal of Science in 1862. Engelmann (1880) accurately described both the habitat and habit of the plants: \"In sheltered situations it forms a tree 40 to 50 feet high and 1 or 2 feet in diameter, but on the higher bleak mountains it is a stunted bush often exceedingly slow, as a stick of scarcely more than one inch in diameter brought back by Dr. Parry shows nearly fifty annual rings, some of them 1\/60 of a line, and none more than 1\/6 of a line wide.\" The species is most notable for its glacial growth but also for its thick bottlebrush growth of needles and for the white dandrufflike resin exudations that spot these needles. Until recently P. aristata growing in the White Mountains of California were regarded as the oldest living organisms on the planet. However, in 1970, on the basis ot needle characteristics, D. K. Bailey split the species into two. The Coloradan, New Mexican, and lone Arizonan populations were kept as P. aristata, while the more renowned Californian populations and those in Nevada and Utah became a new species, P. longaeva. Bailey's work was taxonomically sound and has generally gained acceptance, but it does complicate the biogeographic history of these plants gripping the lava rock of the San Francisco Mountains. The first collector to scour these mountains is believed to have been E. Palmer in 1869, but the earliest specimens taken of P. aristata were probably those of Bischoff, a member of the Wheeler expedition of 1871. Pilgrimages have been made by numerous botanists since to study both the rare Arizonan alpine flora and the vegetation in the zones below. C. Hart Merriam in 1887 was especially attentive to the acute differentiation of the region into vegetation zones that he distinguished on his climb up the mount: \"... it may be said that in ascending from the hot and arid desert of the Little Colorado to the cold and humid summit of the mountain, no less than seven zones are encountered, each of which may be characterized by the possession of forms of life not found in the others.\" Merriam (1898) noted that these zones surround the mountains as skewed concentric rings, each zone of plants terminating farther up the mountain on the warmer southwestern side than on the colder northeastern. In some cases this 145 Bxvstlecone pines (P anstata) at Mt. Evans, Colorado. Robert Nicholson photo. altitudinal difference range to the other. can be as much as 900 feet from one side of the Other significant work on the mountains was done by E. L. Little (1941), who compiled the most complete list of the alpine species (49 in all), and by Thomas Moore (1965), who hypothesized on the origins of the flora. My own ascent of Agassiz Peak began on the western side at the end of the access road. The Arizona Snow Bowl, a ski lodge, is situated at 9600 feet, so I could hike to the upper peaks on its cleared slopes. Despite the ease in walking, however, the trip still had its share of difficulties. As I passed the 10,000-foot level, a thunderstorm blew in from the west and seemed to stall against the peaks. The thunderclaps were both frequent and loud, and at that altitude one had the feeling of being within the storm rather than under it. After contemplating a run for the bottom, I instead opted to huddle next to a Douglas fir and attempt to keep panic at bay. The rains soon became heavier and, lacking rain gear, I had to improvise quickly with the plastic garbage bags I used for herbarium specimens. As I sat and looked up the forested incline, the storm released its final surprise, a barrage of dime-sized hailstones. The forest floor was alive with the white pebbles, which bounced frantically down the slope after their earthward plunge. The storm finally slid over the peaks and I pushed upward towards the timberline, the upward limit of normal-sized trees. Both Picea 146 I engelmannii and Pinus aristata reach timberline and extend upward to treeline, surviving as a stunted matted form known as krummholz. Here I took a number of specimens but no seeds, as these trees were barren. At that elevation on the mountain the skewed nature of the vegetation zones became amazingly apparent. Above the tree line on the west side, a short walk of a few hundred feet around the cone of the mountain to the southwest side put me directly back into the krummholz zone. The last 500 or so feet of Agassiz Peak is the alpine zone. Here and there on the coarse gray volcanic rock were a few ground-hugging plants. Little enumerated some 49 species on the peaks, but the longterm warming trend of the Southwest dooms many. I was able to collect seed from a number of interesting alpines, most notably Heuchera versicolor (Saxifragaceae), which should be a first-rate plant for rock gardens or for ground cover. The lack of oxygen at that altitude more than once tested my determination to collect. All movement seemed draining, and my lightweight Olympus camera felt like a cinderblock around my neck. Prior to Bailey's split of the species, the nearest populations of P. aristata had been those in the mountains of southwest Utah, some 150 miles north of the San Francisco Mountains. With the new differentiation the closest population shifted to the east, some 325 miles away in the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of New Mexico. How then did the species come to migrate to Arizona, and why is there such a large disjunction between the populations despite the existence of plausible sites for colonies? During the Wisconsin glaciation, the entire Southwest was subjected to a lowering of yearly average temperatures. As a result, vegetation zones existed at lower altitudes, and the alpine and subalpine floras undoubtedly grew over both a far greater and a more southerly range. With the glacier's retreat the climate warmed, and the coldloving species began a migration upward for survival. Those populations that ran out of altitude were like nonswimmers stranded on a rock in the incoming tide. There was simply no place left to move to and they perished. At the San Francisco Mountains, and nowhere else for 325 miles, the correct conditions existed for the continued survival of P. aristata. That such a large disjunction exists is puzzling, for between the Arizonan and New Mexican populations a number of peaks reach altitudes of over 11,000 feet. If we assume that these peaks were the bridge by which P. aristata spread from New Mexico, what can account for the species' absence now? Bailey suggests that the subalpine conifers on these peaks present too much competition for the pine, yet the same conifers are found in the San Francisco Mountains. It could be that an insect infestation or disease eliminated the bristlecone pine from these stations, but it is certainly a question that needs further investigation. 147 Pacific dogwood (C. nuttallii) flowers In the Valley of the Dogwoods I spent my last days of collecting in Central Idaho. After a long drive through the sparse plain of Southern Idaho on a dark night, I found another of my targeted disjuncts, the Pacific dogwood (Cornus nuttallii). The site is known to botanists and nurserymen throughout the northwestern states, and the disjunction is among the most remarkable in the United States. On the edge of the Clearwater National Wilderness is the small village of Lowell, Idaho. Here two rivers, the Lochsa and the Selway, merge to form a third, the Clearwater. These rivers have cut deeply through the land, and their escarpments are steep and well forested. Along their banks, and extending upwards onto the hillsides, grow several species notable as belonging to the northwestern coastal flora, a flora native to an area 300 miles west on the opposite side of the Casades. Indeed, the Lowell area is the only area east of the Cascades where C. nuttallii is known to exist. The Pacific dogwood was the primary reason for my visit to the area, but I also was successful in collecting seed of other species such as the giant arborvitae (Thuja plicata), the great silver fir (Abies grandis), the Pacific yew (Taxus brevifolia), and the red alder (Alnus rubra). Especially thrilling to me was the discovery of a stand of Oregon maple (Acermacrophyllum), one large matriarch and her few sapling offspring. The parent tree measured approximately 75 feet in height, and its twin trunks each measured 2 feet DBH. As I had never heard of 148 Western yew (T. brevifolia) the species being reported in Idaho, I at first thought I had a real find. Subsequent talks with Idaho botanists, including Frederic Johnson, revealed that the stand was known. Locals believe that the parent tree was either a planted specimen or an escape. A coring to determine the tree's age would surely help settle the question. I dug dozens of seedlings from around the tree and brought them back to the Arboretum in the hope that they would prove to be hardier here than their West Coast relatives. But most remarkable among the area's woody species is the Pacific dogwood (C. nuttallii). It has a large range, extending from British Columbia down into the Sierras of California. It is also one of the largest dogwoods, reaching 100 feet in prime locations. Its flowers, like those of most dogwoods, are inconspicuous, but the petallike bracts that surround them number between four and seven and are somewhat larger than those of its eastern relative, the flowering dogwood (C. florida). 149 Giant fir (A grandis) The species has an erratic flowering schedule, having been reported blooming in both spring and autumn. When I visited the Idaho population in late September, some flowers still remained on the trees, and a local resident told me that was their third flush of the year. The species itself was easy to find and could not be labeled uncommon. The stand begins about 9 miles west of Lowell and seems to grow best within a 4-mile radius of the town. The population stays within the narrow confines of the three river valleys and continues intermittently about 25 miles northeast along the Lochsa River and about 12 miles southeast along the Selway River. The population is interesting not only for its disjunct location but also for a bit of its early history, a near brush with the area's first itinerant botanists Meriwether Lewis and William Clark. In early September 1805 the party of Lewis and Clark traveled through the 150I Pacific dogwood (C. nuttallii) 151 Lolo Pass from Montana and continued their long trek to the mouth of the Columbia River. They proceeded down the Lochsa River watershed and cut north into the Bitterroot Mountains. At one point in their arduous trek, at Hungery Creek, they were within 5 miles of making the initial discovery of the species' most disjunct population. As it developed, Lewis and Clark were the first to discover C. nuttallii, but only west of the Cascades. The Idaho population remained nestled in the deep river valleys and passed unnoticed by the botanical world for another 85 years. J. B. Leiberg was the first to give it attention in print, in a U.S. Geological Survey forestry report in 1900. He was quick to perceive the unusualness of a C. nuttallii population in Idaho: \"That the species should occur in the basins of the Clearwater drainage is remarkable. Its home in this latitude is in the Cascades and so far as is known, it does not grow at any intermediate station.\" Since Leiberg's report, a number of other coastal disjuncts, such as red alder (A. rubra), and endemics, such as Phlox idahonis, have been documented in the region, singling it out as a refugium. The formation of this refuge has been thoroughly explained by Rexford Daubenmire. He postulates that the course of the disjunction is a sequence of events including the formation of the Rocky Mountains, the uplift of the Cascade Mountains, and the Wisconsin glaciation. Beginning in the Oligocene Epoch and continuing into the Miocene Epoch, the Rocky Mountains were formed and separated the continent into eastern and western regions. During the late Pliocene Epoch the Cascades were formed by a combination of volcanic process and uplifting, effectively splitting the C. nuttallii population into two. To the east of the new mountains, a rain shadow formed and dried up the lowlands between the Cascades and the Bitterroot Mountains, reducing the range of many species, including C. nuttallii. With the onset of the Wisconsin glaciation, the climate of eastern Washington and northern Idaho was altered by a lowering of temperatures, which drove the more tender species to lower altitudes and latitudes. The Clearwater River drainage area became an important refuge. It was the first area south of the glaciation with a warm, deep valley and an adequate moisture regimen. Here, it has been speculated, were driven the last intermountain populations of C. nuttallii, and it is here and only here that they survive today. The question now remains as to whether this population is a hardier race tempered by the elements through the ages or whether it is a race that was able to migrate to the warmest area. I collected 3 pounds of seed from a dozen sites within the population, and some 400 seedlings have been grown from this seed. These seedlings are now being tested at the Arnold Arboretum and a half-dozen East Coast nurseries. Weather data from the Fenn Ranger Station on the Selway River suggest that climatic extremes in the Clearwater drainage area are comparable to those in Boston, so with any luck a few more refugia for C. nuttallii may be created in East Coast gardens. 152 References Axelrod, D. I. 1940. \"Late Tertiary Floras of the Great Basin and Border Areas.\" Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, 67: 477-487. Bailey, D. K. 1970. \"Phytogeography and Taxonomy of Pinus subsection Balfourzanae.\" Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 57: 210-249. Coves, Elliott. 1893. History of the Expedition under the Command of Lewzs and Clark. Harper and Row, New York. Daubenmire, R. 1970. \"Floristic Plant Geography of Eastern Washington and Northern Idaho.\" Journal of Biogeography, 2(1): 1-18. Engelmann, George. 1880. \"Revision of the Genus Pinus and Description of Pznus elliottii.\" Transactions of the Academy of Science of St. Louis, 4: 161-189. . Graham, Dr. 1838. \"Description of Several New or Rare Plants Which Have Lately Flowered in the Neighborhood of Edinburgh, Chiefly in the Royal Botanic Garden.\" The Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal, 24: 422. Hooker, Sir William Jackson. 1839. \"Rhododendron albiflorum.\" Curtzs's Botanical Magazine, 65: t. 3670. 1840. Flora Boreali-Americana, vol. 2. Henry G. Bohn, London. 1910. \"Cornus nuttallzz.\" Curtis's Botanzcal Magazine, 136: t. 8311. Johnson, Frederic D. 1979. Escaped, Naturalized, and Long Residual Woody Plants of Idaho. University of Idaho, Moscow. Johnson, Frederic D., and Robert Steele. 1978. \"New Plant Records for Idaho from Pacific Coastal Refugia.\" Northwest Science, 52 (3): 205-211. Leiberg, J. B. 1900. \"Bitter Root Forest Preserve.\" Twentieth Annual Report of the U.S. Geological Survey, Part 5, Forest Reserves : 317-410. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Little, Elbert L., Jr. 1890. \"Alpine Flora of San Francisco Mountain, Anzona.\" a Results of Bzolngical Surnez, of the San Frarrrisrn Mnr~nram Regicrz and Desert of Little Colorado, Arzzona. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 1941. \"Alpine Flora of San Francisco Mountain, Arizona.\" Madrono, 6(3): 65-81. Macbride, J. Francis. 1918. \"Various American Spermatophytes, New or Transferred.\" Contributions of the Gray Herbarium, 56: 50. Merriam, C. Hart, and Leonard Stejneger. 1890. Results of a Biological Survey of the San Francisco Mountain Region and Desert of Little Colorado, Arizona. U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. Moore, Thomas C. 1965. \"Origin and Disjunction of the Alpine Tundra Flora on San Francisco Mountain, Arizona.\" Ecology, 46 (6): 860-864. Nelson, A. 1913. \"Contributions from the Rocky Mountain Herbarium.\" The . . Botanical Gazette, 56: 67. Pielov, E. C. 1979. Biogeography. Wiley, New York. Roper, Laren A. 1970. \"Synecology of Cornus nuttallzz in Northern Idaho.\" Master's thesis, University of Idaho, Moscow. Williams, Louis O. 1936. \"Field and Herbarium Studies, IV.\" Annals of the Missouri Botamcal Garden 23 (3): 447-456. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introducing Cedrus deodara 'Shalimar'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":153,"end_page":156,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24816","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060ab26.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":4,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Fall","authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Introducing Cedrus deodara 'Shalimar' by GARY L. KOLLER sped through the Japanese countryside, I was captivated by the meticulous order of the fields, with their small plots of vegetables set in rows of seemingly mathematical precision. Here and there, near a house or at the edge of a field, I caught glimpses of a conifer that was unfamiliar to me. The tree caught my eye because of its elegant and yet informal silhouette. Upon inquiring I found the plant to be the deodar cedar (Cedrus deodara), a tree native to the Himalayan Mountains. That was in 1969 and before I learned how plants \"migrated\" from their homelands to become rather common elements of alien territories. The memory of those trees remained with me even though I didn't see the species again until 1972, when I went to study horticulture at Longwood Gardens in Kennett Square, Pennsylvania. At Longwood a multistemmed specimen stood between the palm display greenhouse and the experimental greenhouses. That specimen was younger and smaller than those I remembered in Japan, but it retained the density of needles and branches and the gracefulness of the pendent branch tips. Soon after my arrival at Longwood I began to look into the background of the deodar. I discovered that the tree can grow much higher than its usual 60 to 80 feet; in its homeland some specimens are said to exceed 200 feet. As a species the deodar is marginally hardy in the Philadelphia area, flourishing during mild winters but suffering wind damage to needles and twigs, or succumbing entirely, during very severe winters. As my bus When I came to the Arnold Arboretum in 1976,I discovered that its collection contained specimens of two deodar forms that are more cold hardy than the tree at Longwood. Called 'Kingsville' and 'Kashmir' (Fordham 1969), they had been selected by the nursery trade and are commercially available. To call our specimens of these two cultivars Gary boretum. L. Koller IS supervisor of the lauing collections at the Arnold Ar- 154 ornamental would have been generous. Large sections of the limbs dead; the needles that remained exhibited marginal scorch; and new growth was sparse and lacked vigor. Both specimens were small, and I am sure their sorry state reflected a combination of stresses imposed by recent transplanting, poor siting, dry soils with no supplemental water during the reestablishment period or times of drought, and the plant's own vulnerability to severe winters. It is fair to say that the two more cold-hardy cultivated forms of deodar were barely surviving at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Passersby would never have taken a second glance at these were pitiful specimens. The Arboretum also had another deodar cedar, which had been selected from a seed batch as exhibiting greater tolerance to our climatic conditions. The seeds had been obtained in India by Mr. Henry Hosmer, a member of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum who traveled to India and Afghanistan during the autumn of 1964. According to our records Mr. Hosmer collected the seeds at Shalimar, India, and sent them back from Afghanistan in October 1964. As no town named Shalimar appears on maps of India, it is probable that Hosmer was referring to an old and highly respected garden of that name at Dal Lake. Srinagar, in the Kashmir region. While Cedrus deodara probably does not occur naturally at this location, it is quite likely to be among the planted collections. In due time seedlings were grown from the Shalimar seeds, and one individual not only survived but thrived. It grew rapidly and during spring 1973 was planted in our permanent collections on th~ bank immediately northeast of the Hunnewell Building. The tree is approximately 17 feet tall and 15 feet across. It has four trunks, and the largest is 31\/2 inches in circumference at breast height. The needles are lustrous, green, and free of any signs of damage or environmental stress, although they are somewhat sparse. The tree as a whole is thin, but it appears to be healthy. I attribute its lack of vigor to site conditions rather than to the plant itself. The successful growth of this individual enticed us to experiment with vegetative propagation to increase the selection. After repeated attempts we succeeded in rooting a quantity of cuttings and placed them in a row in our greenhouse nursery. Seven individuals of the same accession and age were planted in the west greenhouse nursery. In 1982, at ten years of age, they were approximately 9 feet tall. These plants were observed as a group and compared with Cedrus libani var. stenacoma and the deodar cedar cultivars 'Kingsville' and 'Kashmir', which were all grown in nearby sections of the nursery. Each spring our seedling and its vegetatively reproduced progeny looked better and exhibited less winter injury than the other plants. In observing the row of rooted cuttings from 1976 until 1982, we noted the following. In most winters there was little or no damage to needles and none to stems and twigs. During the winters of 1979-80 and 1980-81, which were colder and drier than normal (temperatures 155 reached -6 F), needle injury was minor, with the terminal ends of the needles turning brown. The plants recovered rapidly the following spring. During winter 1980-81 needles on the lower branches browned, probably as a result of sunlight and heat reflecting off the Also, the terminal leaders of several individuals deteriorated for distance of 1 to 3 feet. Al Fordham, the former chief plant propagator at the Arboretum, believes this to be due to deodar weevil, for he has observed this insect damaging the other specimens of Cedrus. Our continuing observations support the conclusion that while our cedar is not ironclad in its hardiness it appears to be hardier here in winter and summer than either 'Kingsville' or `Kashmir'. Our seedling is therefore worthy of additional testing, and to facilitate that we have decided to add a cultivar name to distinguish this genotype. The name we have chosen is 'Shalimar' to commemorate the place where it is believed to have originated. The next step in evaluating the tree's potential for popular use is to see whether it can be propagated with relative ease and efficiency, as plants that are very difficult to propagate are rarely successful commercially. The process of learning to propagate difficult and unusual species is one of the activities of the propagation staff at the Arnold Arboretum. We conducted numerous propagation tests on Cedrus deodara 'Shalimar' in which we managed to kill a large number of cuttings. However, a method of studied trial and error as to time of taking cuttings, hormone applications, soil medium, wounding, and humidity control gradually identified one means of achieving an 83 percent success rate. Our propagation staff recommends taking cuttings during January and selecting shoots from last season's growth. The cuttings are treated with a quick (5-second) dip of the base in 10,000 ppm IBA dissolved in 50 percent ethanol. Wounding or not wounding the base of the cuttings seems to make no difference in the position, amount, length, or quality of the roots. In all cases roots were initiated at the basal end of the cutting and tended to consist of a few long, coarse strands. The soil medium consisted of equal parts of sand snow. a Cedrus deodara Cuttings Available A limited number of Cedrus deodara rooted cuttings or scions for grafting are available. We will honor requests for them until April 1, 1983, for a fee of $15.00, for which recipients will be billed. The fee will help to offset the costs of testing, preparing, packaging, and mailing. Requests should indicate whether two rooted cuttings or 25 scions are desired. Please send requests to: Gary L. Koller, Supervisor of the Living Collections, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, MA 02130. 156 perlite, and the cuttings were given bottom heat of 75 F. The were placed in closed cases without mist. The ambient air temperature of the greenhouse was maintained at approximately 55 F. Rooting took place in 10 to 12 weeks. Root quality varied, but as long as any roots were evident the plants were potted. Cuttings are normally potted in early spring and put out a new flush of growth almost immediately. The tip of the new growth is weak and droops for some time, but as the plant grows it becomes erect and develops a strong central leader without the aid of staking. As we introduce Cedrus deodar 'Shalimar', we hope that it will eventually be included in that category of plants that catch the eye and be recognized for its dependability and beauty in northern landcuttings scapes. and Reference Fordham, Alfred J. 1969. \"The Deodar Cedar.\" Plants and Gardens, 25 (2) 33. Acknowledgments Drawing of Trillium ovatum, page from Mary E. Parsons, Wild Flowers editor; Dover, 1966. 141, reprinted, by permission, of California, Roxana E. Ferris, Drawings of Engelmann spruce (page 142), Colorado spruce (page 138), Douglas fir (page 139), Knowlton hornbeam (page 143), and Rocky Mountain maple (page 140) reprinted. by permission, from Robert A. Vines, Trees, Shrubs, and Woody Vines of the Southwest, University of Texas Press, 1960. Recipes on pages 116 and 117 reprinted, by permission, from Eugene and Mary E. Griffith, Persimmons for Everyone. Erratum In our last issue the shading on the map on page 103 was lost in reproduction. It was meant to indicate the contiguous distribution of the spruces of the world, which extends northward to the treeline across the North American and Eurasian land masses. an Opposite: Cedrus deodara zn Seattle, Washington, 1949. Donald Wyman photo. Back cover: Amencan persimmon tree (Diospyros virginiana). Edward Goodell photo. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23538","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260af28.jpg","title":"1982-42-4","volume":42,"issue_number":4,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Fall"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spruces in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":102,"end_page":129,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24812","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15e896b.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":3,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Warren, Richard","article_content":"102 Spruces in the Arnold Arboretum by RICHARD WARREN The members of the genus Picea (the spruces) grow exclusively in the North Temperate Zone and stretch around the world in the higher latitudes. In North America they grow above the Arctic Circle to latitude 70 north and extend south into Mexico. In favorable climates they reach heights of 70 meters. Among conifers this range is matched in extent only by the genera Pinus (pines) and Juniperus (junipers). Although relatively sensitive to air pollution and drought, spruces tolerate shade better than most other conifers. Some members of the genus have no peers in their ability to stand extreme cold. The Arboretum's mission to grow all woody plants hardy in our climate has been well fulfilled in the case of the spruces. The representatives of the 21 species now growing on the grounds demonstrate many interesting features. DESCRIPTION OF THE GENUS Picea belongs, under the gymnosperms, to the family Pinaceae, in which the plants are monoecious, with spirally arranged linear or needlelike leaves, two microsporangia on each microsporophyll, two ovules on each ovuliferous scale (to which the bract scale is not, or is only loosely, attached), and pollen grains with \"wings.\" The other members of the family are Abies (the firs), Cathaya (a recently de- Above~ ArnoldArboretum pinetum xn wxnter The two tallest trees are Norway spruces. Photograph by R Warren Below Range of spruces in the world Shading indicates contiguous distribution, and dots show scattered occurrences. Map drawn by L. Mes- zoly after Schmzdt-Vogt (1977) 104 scribed Chinese genus), Cedrus (the true cedars), Keteleeria (a Chinese genus resembling Abies), Larix (the larches), Pinus (the pines), Pseudolarix (the golden larch), Pseudotsuga (the Douglas firs), and Tsuga (the hemlocks). The family Pinaceae is divided into two groups according to the arrangement of the leaves on the branchlets. In one the leaves grow in clusters or pseudowhorls from short side-shoots. This group includes Larix, Pseudolarix, Cedrus, and Pinus. In the other, which contains Abies, Cathaya, Keteleeria, Picea, Pseudotsuga, and Tsuga, the leaves grow individually from the long shoots. The spruces can be distinguished from other members of the second group by several characteristics: Bark: Winter buds: platelike, often flaking; frequently fissured the lower stems of old trees. conical or ovoid (not round), with on or with- out resin. Shoots: fissured and ridged, with the ridges being interrupted by woody projections (sterigmas or pulvini) that bear the leaves. These pegs are the most distinct diagnostic feature that separates Picea from the other genera. The branchlets of the genus Tsuga also have sterigmas, but their flat leaves are markedly different from those of Picea. four sided (quadrangular in cross section) in most species, with white lines of stomata on all four sides. Leaves: Sterzgmas support the leaves on (Picea abies, left) but are absent on firs (Abies alba, right) Photograph by A. Coleman. Right, typical spruce bark, shown on Picea montigena. Photograph by R. Warren. spruces Above: 105 The leaves of Picea ordinarily stay on the shoots for seven to ten are removed from the tree the leaves fall off within a few weeks, a feature that hampers the preparation of herbarium specimens and that is familiar to all who have used spruces as Christmas trees. The members of the genus Tsuga also lose their leaves, since they, too, bear their leaves on woody pegs. The bright yellow or reddish color of the microsporangiate cones of many of the spruces makes a fine showing in the spring. The immature ovuliferous cones are often a handsome blue or purple. They stand erect at the end of the branches at the time of pollination, but turn downward on fertilization shortly thereafter and grow to maturity in the fall of the first year - unlike cones of Pinus, in which fertilization is delayed for a year after pollination in most species. The cones open and shed seeds while on the trees, then fall to the ground from weeks to years thereafter. Spruce cones are cylindrical and taper, depending on the species, to a more or less rounded or pointed tip. The cone scales are thin, like those of haploxylon (soft) pines, and are imbricated or appressed, and years, but when branches regularly arranged. The recognized number of species in the genus varies between 26 and 40, depending upon interpretation of specific and varietal limits. The Table lists 28 of the better-known species. It shows an interesting, Twenty-eight common species of spruce. A cone of Picea pungens, showzng papery and wrznkled cone scales with erose edges. Thzs dzstznguzshzng feature is also shown by P. engelmannii, P. jezoensis, and P. sitchensis. Photograph by R. Warren. with half of the species growing in Sargent, alluding to the recent exciting accomplishments of Ernest Wilson, stated that the Arnold Arboretum had received more spruce trees from western China during the preceding few years than had been known in the entire world 20 years uneven geographic distribution, eastern Asia. In 1916 Charles earlier. Using the above criteria, one can easily recognize and separate Picea from other genera of the Pinaceae. Distinguishing some of the species from each other, however, presents a problem. Helmut Schmidt-Vogt (1977, p. 12; author's translation) states: \"The high variability of the morphological characteristics [of the spruces] makes the distinction between species difficult. This is especially true in the East Asian area, which has a propensity to produce manifold forms. It is not possible to make an exact identification from the characteristics of single specimens in arboreta.\" Despite this statement, the following key is presented. It includes all of the species listed in the Table. Amplification of the descriptive material follows. ... KEY TO THE COMMONLY RECOGNIZED SPECIES OF SPRUCES 1. Leaves on more flat than quadrangular in cross section, with stomata lower surfaces only. 2. Branchlets remarkably pendulous. 3. Leaf-tips blunt......................... Picea brewerana. 3. Leaf-tips pointed........................ Picea spinulosa. 2. Branchlets not remarkably pendulous. 4. Cone scales papery and wrinkled, the edges erose. 5. Leaves often keeled.................. Picea jezoensis. 5. Leaves entirely flat.................. Picea sitchensis. 4. Cone scales not papery and wrinkled, the edges rounded. 6. Leaf-tips mucronulate................. Picea omorika. 6. Leaf-tips acute..................... Picea brachytyla. 107 1. Leaves on more quadrangular than flat in cross section, with stomata all four sides. 7. Branchlets remarkably pendulous......... Picea smithiana. 7. Branchlets not remarkably pendulous. 8. Cone scales papery and wrinkled, the edges erose. 9. Cones less than 6 cm long; branchlets slightly hairy... .................................... Picea engelmannii. 9. Cones more than 6 cm long; branchlets glabrous...... Picea pungens. 8. Cone scales not papery and wrinkled, the edges rounded. 10. Most leaves less than 1.5 cm long. 11. Young shoots glabrous or only slightly hairy. 12. Young shoots pale yellow or yellow-brown... ....................................... ................................ Picea glauca. 12. 11. Young shoots reddish ........................ brown.................. Picea maximowiczii. Young shoots consistently hairy. 13. Leaves of uniform length, shiny green, with rounded tips............... Picea orientalis. 13. Leaves of varying lengths on the same shoot, dull green, with truncate or acute tips. 14. Decurrent ridges on first- and second-year shoots rounded; cones falling after seeds have been shed.......... Picea rubens. 14. Decurrent ridges on first- and second-year shoots flat; cones remaining on branches long after seeds have been shed......... Picea mariana. 10. Most leaves more than 1.5 cm long. 15. Most cones more than 10 cm long, the scales rhombic with truncate, emarginate tips... Picea abies. 15. Cones 8 cm or less long, the scales not rhombic, with rounded tips. 16. Foliage bluish to gray-green. 17. Leaves rigid; young shoots red-brown or ......................... yellow. 18. Leaves curved. 19. Leaves very sharp............... ................. Picea asperata. 19. Leaves blunt..................... Picea montigena. 18. Leaves straight. 20. Edges of cone scales erose....... Picea pungens. 20. Edges of cone scales rounded. Picea chihuahuana. ............... ................. ............ 108 17. Leaves not 16. rigid; .......................... young shoots ashy-gray. Picea wilsonii. Foliage green. 21. Leaves at right angles to shoots, extremely rigid and sharp........... Picea torano. 21. Leaves at less than right angles to shoots, not extremely rigid and sharp. , , ~ ______________ 22. Outer bud scales elongated and acicular................... Picea glehnii. 22. Outer bud scales not elongated or acicular. 23. Stomatic lines on leaves con- ~1 .. spicuously whiter on one side than the other.... Picea alcoquiana. 23. Stomatic lines on leaves not conspicuously whiter on one side than the other. 24. Young shoots hairy. 25. Young shoots pale gray. Picea purpurea. 25. Young shoots red-brown. Picea obovata. 24. Young shoots glabrous. 26. Young shoots orangebrown................... Picea koyamai. 26. Young shoots pale yellow-brown............... Picea schrenkiana. ....... ......... ......... .... THE NAME Anyone perusing the writings of the early botanists or inspecting early herbarium specimens expects to find that there have been major nomenclatural changes in almost any genus. Nowhere is this more evident than in the spruces. In addition to Picea, the genus has been known at various times as Pinus, Peuce, and, most frequently, Abies. Before the 1890's, when standardization of botanical nomenclature on the basis of priority and accurate description began to be emphasized, the matter was hotly debated. In these debates the thread of consistency was most frequently maintained by the common vernacular names. In English the spruces (present genus Picea) were referred to as spruce firs, and the firs (present genus Abies) as silver firs. Linnaeus (1753) named the spruce fir Pinus abies and the silver fir Pinus picea despite the reverse use of the names by earlier writers. After Linnaeus confusion reigned. Some eminent botanists followed his names, and others the older ones. The protagonists in the debate often quoted the classics to support themselves. The faction support- 109 as the correct name for the spruce fir cited Pliny, who said that in his \"Abies\" the fruit hung downward. Therefore, they said, it could not be the silver fir. The Picea faction quoted Virgil, who wrote in the Aeneid that the ribs of the Trojan horse were made of Abies. This, they claimed, must refer to the silver fir, since that is the only single-needled conifer native to Troy, and no spruces grow there. Sargent (1899, p. 26) summed up the modern opinion: \"... in the United States and in Continental Europe the Spruces are almost habitually called Picea and the Firs Abies. According to the rules of botanical nomenclature this use is certainly correct without reference to the classical meaning of the two words, or to Linnaeus's use of Picea and Abies as specific names for his genus Pinus, because Picea is the oldest name under which the Spruce trees have been generically ing Abies distinguished.\" According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the English word \"spruce\" comes from the word \"Prussia.\" Picea abies is as prevalent there and in neighboring areas of northern Europe as it is in Norway, and was thus perhaps more accessible to English-speaking travelers of the early days. The other meaning of \"spruce\" - neat in personal appearance - has no relation to the tree, but apparently arises from the one-time elegant fashion of wearing jerkins of Spruce (Prussian) leather. THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM'S PLANTS \" Picea abies (L.) Karsten Norway spruce Introduced into North America from Europe late in the 18th century, this tree grows faster in the New England climate than our native spruces. It can reach a height of 40 meters. If it is in a freestanding situation, it keeps its lower branches well. Those of older trees often layer, put down their own roots, and form a palisade of new young plants that continue to grow around the parent tree after it has died. John Loudon (1838, p. 2295) called it \"the loftiest of European trees.\" He praised it as excellent for sheltering other plants and for protecting wildlife against the weather; a \"good nurse,\" the expression then was. Charles Sargent (1897, p. 482), however, showed little enthusiasm for the tree. He stated that, although it grows rapidly for 30 or 40 years, it then begins to fail at the top: \"vigorous Norway spruces more than 50 years old are uncommon in this country.\" He termed its popularity \"a misfortune,\" and this point of view has prevailed in the literature since. Admittedly, planting of Norway spruce may have been overdone, but many trees over 100 years of age are flourishing today. Its pyramidal, straight-growing habit and its swooping branches, adorned in most forms of the tree with pendulous branchlets (which have given rise to the German term \"Kammfichte,\" or comb spruce), are a pleasant sight in most northeastern towns. Its profuse elongated cones with distinctive rhomboid and slightly emar- Pxcea Abxes. Le,fi: Typical cone, showxng scales with truncate-emarginate txps. Photograph by R Warren. Above right. A mature plant xn the Hunnewell Pznetum, Wellesley, Massachusetts, with layered branches around it Arnold Arboretum photograph. Below rzght The same tree thxrty years later after the maxn stem has declined and been removed. The layered branches are represented by a rosette of xndependent plants. Photograph by R. Warren 111 ginate cone scales often take on a handsome purple color in the spring and later in the year form a carpet under the mature trees. Its mini- seed-bearing age is 30 to 50 years. Tradition and availability have led Britons and Europeans to favor this spruce for Christmas trees. In North America other needle evergreens have provided competition. To many people, the spruce's habit of dropping its needles after the tree has been cut is a disadvantage. Long ago, people used to crush the leaves and twigs of spruces to produce an essence for making spruce beer. This was combined with sugar, molasses, treacle or honey, and yeast, allowed to ferment, and then bottled. The resulting potation was consumed for pleasure and was also used as an antiscorbutic for long sea voyages. The taste was both aromatic and medicinal. American spruces can be used in the same way as Norway spruces for this purpose, for those so inclined. Because the wood of Picea abies is light, strong, and straight grained and takes a good finish, it is excellent for carpentry and construction. Its planks, as well as those of pine and fir, are referred to as \"deal\" (those of P. abies are known as \"white deal\"). At least 140 horticultural varieties of Picea abies have been identified. They are distinguished by varying habits of growth and, to some extent, by the shape, angle, and rigidity of the leaves. Most can still be recognized as P. abies, however, by the typical red-brown shoots, the dark green foliage, and the familiar slightly resinous buds. The Arboretum has 25 plants of typical Picea abies. Two are just 100 years old, and 28.2 and 29.7 meters tall; they form the showpieces of the pinetum as viewed from the southwest. They, together with the 29-meter Acer saccharinum on Meadow Road, are the tallest trees in the Arboretum. Eleven other P. abies of accession number 2306 are of unknown origin or age but are well-grown trees between 19.5 and 28.2 meters in height. Two forms, f. conica and f. cupressina, are represented by plants of 100 and 66 years, respectively, and measure 19.5 5 and 22.5 meters. Together with many other cultivars, these plants are important and distinguished constituents of the pinetum. mum Alcock's spruce This tree was discovered in 1861 by John Veitch while he was climbing Mt. Fuji in company with Rutherford Alcock, British Minister to Tokyo. In its native habitat it grows sparsely and at high elevations. It is a tree with delicate leaves that point strongly forward on the upper aspect of the shoots and are spreading and less forward pointing below. The stomatic lines are more prominent than in most other quadrangular-leaved spruces and are brighter on the lower surface of the leaves than on the upper, thus giving rise to the name Picea bicolor (Maxim.) Mayr, under which the species has recently been known. The cones are medium sized (5-10 cm), with the tips of the scales slightly wavy or serrulate. In the Arboretum trees the scale tips have a Picea alcoquiana (J. G. Veitch ex Lindley) Carriere > A Picea alzn the Arnold Arboretum. The tzps of the cone scales roll outward. Photograph by R. Warren. cone from a coquiana tree tendency to roll outward. This character reaches full expression in the variety reflexa, which is not included in the Arboretum's collection. Picea alcoquiana is not a rapid grower, and its main ornamental feature is its interesting two-toned leaves. It is rare in cultivation. Six plants grow in the pinetum, all of them over 60 years of age. Two were received from Veitch's Nursery in England and three from the Hunnewell Pinetum in Wellesley, Massachusetts. They are between 10.8 and 16.8 meters tall. Chinese spruce Picea asperata Masters Ernest Wilson brought the seed of Picea asperata back from China in 1911. Its role in that country has been compared with that of Picea abies in Europe: it covers a wide area, and its foliage varies in character to some extent depending on the climate. It is a stronger grower there than most other native Chinese spruces. Its glaucous, light gray-green foliage is striking when seen from a distance and has given rise to a Chinese vernacular name that means \"cloud spruce.\" The leaves are stiffer than those of Norway spruce; they spread all around the reddish shoot and sweep upward on the branchlets. Their tips are sharp. This feature, combined with the stiffness, makes the foliage very prickly and probably occasioned the tree's common name, dragon spruce. The winter bud is large and conical with a swollen base. Wilson recognized three varieties: var. heterolepis Rehder & Wilson) Cheng, with split cone scales; var. notabilis Rehder & Wilson, with narrow cone scales; and var. ponderosa Rehder & Wilson, with large cones. Picea aurantiaca Masters, introduced from western China in 1908, P. meyeri Rehder & Wilson, introduced from northern China in 1910, and P. retroflexa Masters, introduced from western China in 1911, are closely related species, showing slight differences in the color or hairiness of the branchlets and in the shape of the leaves or the cone scales. Picea asperata grows slowly here. This quality, its gray-green foliage, and its informal habit of growth have a charm or, at least, an - Left Picea asperata var. ponderosa growxng on the north side of Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum Photograph by R Warren Rzght P brewerana growrng tn Dublxn, Ireland, in 1952. Arnold Arboretum photograph. interest that should lead to its wider use as an ornamental. It is commonly found in botanic gardens and arboreta but is seldom offered commercially. Forty plants, including representatives of the above-mentioned varieties and related species except for Picea retroflexa, are growing at the Arnold Arboretum. The tallest is 13.5 meters. They are located in four areas: the pinetum, the south side of Bussey Hill near South Street, Peters' Hill, and the knoll west of the Hunnewell Building. Brewer's spruce The home of this spruce is the Siskiyou Mountains of southern Oregon and northern California. Probably discovered by Prof. William H. Brewer in 1863, it was first brought into cultivation on the West Coast, whence Sargent procured it for the Arnold Arboretum in the 1880's. Kew Gardens received a plant from him in 1897 that is still growing there; in December, 1981, it was 12.8 meters tall. It is the slowest growing of the spruces. In the 80 years of their cultivation, none is known to have reached 13 meters in height. Even in their native habitat, trees over 22 meters are rare. Picea brewerana is one of the three spruces (not including P. abies, in which the characteristic is not so extreme) that show outstanding pendulous branchlets. The other two are P. smithiana and P. spinulosa, from the Himalayan region, neither of which is hardy in Picea brewerana Watson our area. 114 sweep upward at the The dangling, hairy branchlets can be more than a meter long. The leaves arise all around the shoot, point forward, and curve away from it. They are up to 3.5 5 cm in length, flattened, and blunt tipped. Charles Sargent (1897, p. 482) said, \"a few small grafted plants in the Arnold Arboretum are probably the only representatives of this interesting tree in the eastern states.\" We have no record of the fate of these plants. Today, however, one plant obviously a tree of some age but only 2.5 meters tall - is growing in the Peters' Hill area. Its record is lost, and it was only recently that Dr. Richard Weaver recognized it as an example of Picea brewerana. The branchlets are pendulous, but the stunted habit prevents their proper display. The flattened leaves are, however, diagnostic. crown Normally the is pointed. The branches areas. top but point downward in the lower - Picea engelmannii (Parry) Engelmann Engelmann spruce and Colorado spruce Picea pungens Engelmann The similar appearance of these two handsome spruces, their overlapping habitats in the Rocky Mountains, and their almost simultaneous discovery make it appropriate to discuss them together. Charles Parry found them near Pike's Peak in 1862. Engelmann spruce covers a wider area than Colorado spruce, extending into Canada and to the Mexican border. It grows at a higher altitude. Both have blue foliage. In the case of Engelmann spruce, bluish foliage is relatively constant, whereas in Colorado spruce the leaves of different specimens vary from vivid blue to drab gray-green. The cones of both are light yellow, and the papery scales have erose tips. Differences do exist, however. Engelmann spruce, when compared to Colorado spruce, has a broader crown (viewed from a distance), smaller cones, and usually hairy (rather than glabrous) shoots. Its leaves are more flexible and less pointed, and the branches are less stiffly horizontal. Often, in fact, Engelmann spruce has been considered allied to Picea glauca. The Colorado spruce is a favorite in landscaping. (It is the State tree of Colorado). Its many cultivated varieties providing different shades of blue are seen throughout North America and Europe on large and small estates. Many agree that their planting has been overdone, and the trees have often been placed too close to houses. Their symmetrical horizontal branching and showy blue color make them vulnerable to vandalism during the Christmas season. Engelmann spruce is considered by many to be an equally handsome tree. It deserves more consideration in decorative planting than it now receives. Cultivars of Picea engelmannii are not common, whereas those of P. pungens are many and familiar. Above. Plants rn the Arnold Arboretum pinetum The trees mth narrow crowns are Picea pungens, and those mth broad crowns are P engelmannn Photograph by R. War- ren. Below left ShootsofPpungens (left) are P smooth, while those of engelmannii (rtght)x&# 3E; are hazry Photograph by A. Coleman. Below right Cones of P engelmannn (left) and P. pungens (rzght) Photograph by R Warren Left Picea glauca rn the Arnold Arboretum. Right Sixty-year-old plants of P glauca f. comca growzng zn the old dwarf conzfer area of the Arboretum Photographs by R War~en mannii, all The Arboretum's collection contains nine plants of Picea engelover 50 years of age. Four of these - among the finest trees in the pinetum - are over 100 years old and reach a height of 19 9 meters. Of the many specimens of P. pungens in the Arboretum, 14 are over 50 years old, and 5 over 100. The tallest is 22 meters. white spruce Picea P. rubens, the red spruce, and P. mariana, the black spruce, are the most abundant conifers of the northern part of North America. The southern boundary of the range of the white spruce extends from western Massachusetts to western Montana, the northern from latitude 60 N in Labrador to 70 N in the Mackenzie District of northwestern Canada. Its profile in the wild is broader than that of the spirelike black spruce, and the foliage is denser. The color, true to the common name, is lighter than that of the black spruce, and it can show either a bluish or a greenish cast. Its yellow-brown, glabrous branchlets distinguish P. glauca from the other two spruces, which are customarily reddish and hairy. The crushed foliage of Picea glauca exudes a musky odor that has caused woodsmen to name it the cat or skunk spruce. Its yellow cones are of a distinctive teardrop shape and are up to 7-8 cm in length; they do not appear until the plants are 25 years of age, and they fall at maturity. The black spruce's smaller cones appear at a younger age and remain on the tree for some years after shedding their seeds. From the lumberman's viewpoint, Picea glauca is the most important constituent of our great northern forests. Its long-fibered wood is excellent for paper pulp as well as for construction, but the species Picea glauca (Moench) Voss glauca, together with Picea glehnii growing on Peters' Hill. Photograph by R Warren compete in speed of growth with the West Coast spruces. Its unremarkable appearance, its odor, and perhaps its familiarity make it less popular ornamentally than the Norway spruce. The Arboretum grows four Picea glauca trees at the present time. The oldest of known age is 85 years; its height 14.4 meters. Another, of unknown age, is 15 meters tall. Picea glauca has given rise to a few cultivated varieties. A familiar one, forma conica Rehder, must be mentioned. In 1904 Alfred Rehder and John Jack, while awaiting a train that was behind schedule near Lake Laggan, Alberta, took a stroll and found some dwarf spruces resembling witches' brooms, which they sent back to the Arnold Arboretum. This was the origin in cultivation of the familiar slowgrowing, conical plant that has been a conspicuous addition to ornamental planting, particularly in rock gardens. It is sold in nurseries as dwarf Alberta spruce. As an ornamental it has few disadvantages, although if it suffers winter bum or some other disfiguring accident, a long-standing blemish afflicts its otherwise tidy appearance. In the old dwarf conifer area at the Arboretum, there are several plants that are 60 years of age. Although these are obviously now oversize for a rock garden, they are interesting and decorative items. About two dozen other varieties and cultivars of Picea glauca are recorded in the literature. cannot ~ Picea glehnii (Fr. Schmidt) Masters Sakhalin spruce This tree is native to Sakhalin Island in Russia and to the nearby Japanese island of Hokkaido. It was introduced to Britain in 1877 by Maries for the Veitch Nurseries in England. Its size in its native habitat is moderate, reaching to 30 meters. It is similar to the red spruce (Picea rubens). The scales of the bark are somewhat reddish, and the branchlets, buds, and cones are reddish brown. The branch- Pme a koy,unai. Left: One zng, Arnold Arboretum. of the group growing on the slope near the Hunnewell BuzldRight: Cones. Photographs by R. Warren. lets are hairy, particularly in the furrows. The outer scales of the buds have curious needlelike projections extending the length of the bud, a feature seen in three other spruces, P. mariana, P. omorika, and P. rubens. The leaves are slender, short, straight, and stiff; they are arranged in a pectinate fashion beneath the branchlets, pointing forward to cover the branchlets above. Although Picea glehnii is not well known by the general public, it is handsome and has an exotic attraction that has given it a place in many collections. The Arnold Arboretum has 12 specimens of Picea glehnii, all grown from seeds received in 1894 from the Government Forestry School at Tokyo. The trees stand in two groups: one of seven trees located in the pinetum, the other of five on Peters' Hill. The tallest have now reached 19 meters in height. Koyama's spruce koyamai Shirasawa Picea koyamai has a restricted distribution in central Japan. Mitsuo Koyama discovered it on Mt. Yatsuga-dake in 1909 and guided Picea Ernest Wilson to the area in 1914.1 Wilson sent the seeds to the Arnold Arboretum, which passed them on to other botanic gardens. It is a handsome spruce with dark foliage, bark with large rectangular plates, and sturdy, spreading branches that turn conspicuously up1 I am grateful to Dr. Tatemi Shimizu, of Shinsu University, Matsumoto, Japan (located near the area on Mt. Yatsuga-dake where Picea koyamai grows), who visited the Arnold Arboretum in 1980. He informed us that two separate stands grow there, one of which Wilson apparently did not know. In 1958 a typhoon flattened the stand from which our specimens come, leaving the other intact. New growth is taking place well, however, in the grove that Wilson visited. 119 ward at the ends. The shoots are pale orange, glabrous on the leading branches, and often hairy on the side branches. The buds are large, conical, and resinous. The leaves are stiff, pectinate below, lying forward and curved upward above. The cones are brown when mature, moderately tapered, and on some plants distinctly barrel shaped, with smooth, rounded scale edges. Similar trees, but with more delicate and straighter needles, have subsequently been found in Korea. There is considerable disagreement as to whether they are variants of Picea koyamai or belong to a separate species, P. koraiensis Nakai.2 Picea koyamai, and occasionally some of its allies, are seen in most pineta, but not in small collections. Its unique dark, sturdy appearance should recommend it for wider use. No cultivars are reported. The Arnold Arboretum's collection now contains 15 specimens of Picea koyamai, 11 dating from the introductions by Wilson in 1915, and four others from the early 1920's. The tallest is 17.4 meters. There are also three younger plants grown from seed received in 1960 from Minnesota. Because their leaves are narrower and straighter than those of other specimens, and because the plants came from near the Yalu River in North Korea, they are probably referable to P. koraiensis, if indeed this is a distinct species. Picea likiangensis (Franchet) Pritzel Likiang spruce and Picea purpurea Masters purple-cone spruce These two spruces go together here because many botanists consider the latter to be a variety of the former. Picea likiangensis grows in western China and Tibet. Discovered by Delavay in 1884, it was introduced to Veitch's Nursery by Wilson in 1904. Picea purpurea is from an area of western China somewhat north of the locality for the type he introduced in 1910. More than any other species of the genus, Picea likiangensis typifies the identity problems of the Chinese spruces. From crossbreeding trials Jonathan Wright (1955) considered it to be a group rather than a single species. To quote William Bean (1976, p. 188): \"even from a single seed collection P. likiangensis varies considerably in the colour and degree of hairiness of the shoots, colour of leaves, etc.\" Any description, therefore, must be couched in general terms. Its leaves are bicolored as in P. alcoquiana, and its shoots are usually light yellow or whitish gold, and hairy. The sterigmas lean forward, curving upward and back at the tips. The young cones are bright red. The scales of the mature cones are rhomboid, narrowed, and usually erose at the tips. 2 Reports have appeared on three varieties of Picea koraiensis: intercedens, pungsanensis, and tonaiensis. Some observers contend that all of these are transitional forms between P. koyamai and P. obovata, a relative of the Norway spruce that extends into northeastern Asia. 120 Picea purpurea, often termed P. likiangensis var. purpurea (Masters) Dall. & A. B. Jackson, differs from P. likiangensis only in having shorter leaves and brighter, more purple cones. In its living collections the Arboretum has only one specimen of 1965. It has lost its upper half and is 2 meters tall. Of the five specimens of P. purpurea, four are from seeds that Wilson brought here in 1911. The tallest is 13.5 meters. They are all growing in congested situations and have not achieved their potential as specimen trees. The fifth tree, received from H. H. Hunnewell in 1922, is growing in a less crowded section and is 11 meters tall. Picea likiangensis, dating from an presently ungainly, stunted plant Picea mariana (Miller) and Picea rubens Sargent Britton, Sterns, & Poggenburg black spruce red spruce These two plants are similar in appearance. The habitat of the black spruce approximates that of the white: Canada, from the Atlantic coast in the east but stopping short of the Pacific coast in the west, extending southward into the northern United States. The red spruce is limited to northern New York and New England, Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the St. Lawrence Valley, extending down the Alleghenies to North Carolina. Both species have reddish scaly bark and reach a maximum height of 24 meters. The black spruce ranges farther north than does the red and often grows in boggy places. When seen from a distance, its foliage is dark green, while that of the red spruce is faintly auburn. The leaves of both are short hardly more than 1.4 cm. On the black spruce they are straight and show bluewhite below, whereas on the red spruce they are lighter green, with the lateral ones incurved. The branchlets of both spruces are reddish brown and hairy. The ridges on them that lead to the sterigmas have flattened crests in the black spruce, and rounded crests in both the white and red spruces. On black spruce branchlets, particularly those on which newest growth has just been completed, these crests look like a long row of coffins. In the older shoots later growth in diameter tends to flatten out the rounded crests of the ridges. The outer scales of the buds in both these plants have needlelike tips similar to those of Picea glehnii and P. omorika. The cones of the two species are similar, but those of the black spruce are shorter, appear when the plants are younger, and conspicuously cling to the branches after they have shed their seeds. The profile of the black spruce is more spirelike and neatly symmetrical than that of the red, except in the far north, where climatic conditions reduce the black spruce to a shrubby habit and the red spruce does not grow. The wood of both Picea mariana and P. rubens, as well as that of P. glauca, is used for making paper pulp. In P. mariana the wood is - Above~ Picea manana (left) and P. rubens (rxght) xn the Arnold Arboretuxn. Photographs by R. Warren. Below : Branchlets of P. glauca, P. rubens, and P. mariana (after Gordon, 1952, with perrxxxssion).;E3x#& . 122 strong and useful for building. The slow growth of these trees, howno longer economical for this use. A few cultivars are known from each species. Those of Picea are more familmariana - 'Beissneri', 'Doumetii', and 'Ericoides' iar, having a compactness and a light, bicolored flecking to the leaves that are especially attractive. They are more desirable for ornamentals than the species itself. One 50-year-old plant of Picea mariana is growing as a freestanding specimen slightly separated from, and to the northeast of, the pinetum's spruce collection, not far from Bussey Brook. It was acquired in 1922 from Jasper Park, Alberta, Canada, via J. G. Jack. It is a fine, sturdy specimen 11.4 meters tall, but it does not show the shapely conical top characteristic of these trees in the wild. Three other young (1969) plants are growing at the Case Estates in Weston. The Arboretum's specimens of P. rubens consist of eight plants received in 1895 from Bar Harbor, Maine. They are healthy trees 11to 18 meters tall. ever, renders them - candelabra spruce montigena Masters Introduced in 1904 by Ernest Wilson for Veitch's Nursery, Picea montigena grows in its native habitat of western Szechuan, China, at altitudes of 3000-4000 meters to heights of about 30 meters. Most accounts of this species associate it with P. likiangensis an unhelpful comparison, considering the variability of the latter. Alan Mitchell (1972) stated that the specimens available to him are closer to P. asperata: the cones are alike; the leaves are similarly stiff, pectinate below, and upswept from the sides; and the buds are large and resinous. The bark, as in P. asperata and P. koyamai, flakes in large plates. The leaves are dark blue-green, not gray-green as in P. asperata, and the tips are not so sharp; the shoots are more hairy. It resembles P. - Picea asperata in habit. Maxwell Masters, remarking in 1906 on the plants just introduced into Britain, noted that the scales of the young cones turn downward, only to return to normal position before maturity. I have recently observed this phenomenon on plants in the Arnold Arboretum: it is striking at the time of pollination an exaggeration of the downward curving seen in the cone-scale tips of all spruces during this period. Eight specimens are growing in the Arboretum, all from seed brought by Wilson in 1911. The tallest has reached 12.3 meters after 70 years. They closely resemble Picea asperata, but they do not have the grayish cast to the foliage and the leaves are less prickly. - Picea obovata Ledebour Siberian spruce Picea obovata is commonly considered to be a close relative of P. abies that extends into Asia; many think that it is a variety of that species. Helmut Schmidt-Vogt, a recent authority, even denies it varietal status. The slower growth, the shorter, more slender leaves, the Picea montigena (left) and P. omorika R. Warren. (nght) in the Arnold Arboretum Photographs by paler and more hairy branchlets, the shorter cones, and the more rounded edges to the cone scales separate it from typical P. abies. Picea obovata is seldom seen in nurseries. No horticultural forms are recorded. In the Arboretum are three plants labeled Picea obovata, the oldest dating from 1904 and now 16.5 meters tall. In addition, there are two examples of P. obovata var. coerulea Tigerstedt and one of var. fennica (Regel) Henry (Finnish spruce). The latter plant was acquired in 1901 and is 20 meters tall, a vigorous and handsome specimen. In all these plants the foliage and cones show the differences mentioned that distinguish P. obovata from P. abies. Picea omorika not (Pancic) Purkyne Serbian spruce This tree, from a restricted area in southwestern Yugoslavia, was introduced into cultivation in western Europe until 1881. With its characteristic narrowly columnar habit, the pendulous branches turning upward at the tips, it is easily recognized at a distance. In its native habitat it reaches 30 meters in height, a dimension that the oldest specimens in cultivation in Britain have now attained after 90 years. The upper leaves of Picea omorika may lie forward along the shoot a broadly imbricated arrangement, curving gently upward at the ends, the lower ones spreading laterally. The leaves are flat, with the upper surface shiny, slightly convex transversely, and without stomata, and the lower surface with two white stomatic bands. The in Picea orientalis rn the Arnold Arboretum. Photograph by R. Warren. Right The short, regularly arranged leaves of equal length of P. orientalis (right) compared with the long, fiat leaves of P. omorika (left). Photograph by A. Coleman. Le,ft. leaf tip appears blunt, somewhat like that of Picea brewerana, but close inspection often reveals a tiny sharp mucro prickly to the touch. Picea omorika is hardy here and is tolerant of a variety of soils. Its buds break late in the season, thus rendering it less vulnerable than others to damage from late frosts. It has been recommended as a competitor to P. abies for forest plantings in Britain. It has become justifiably popular in our area as an ornamental and is available in nurseries. Cultivars of Picea omorika are few but interesting. The compact, globular growth of P. omoriha `Nana' is very different from the slender habit of the type plant, and its bicolored green and white leaves make it a popular ornamental. The Arnold Arboretum first received Picea omorika in 1881 as seed from Germany. The trees grown from these seeds no longer survive, but in 1887 they provided scions from which our present mature plants grew. There are now 16 trees, including five dating from that time. The tallest are 18 meters. Although not as tall as our P. abies of the same age, they compete well with them as specimen trees. Picea orientalis (L.) Link oriental spruce Scattered descriptions of this tree, whose native habitat is the Caucasus, date from as far back as 1717. It was probably introduced into cultivation in western Europe around 1840 and presumably came to America not long thereafter. In its native habitat it can reach heights of 60 meters, and in cultivation in Britain it has grown to over 30 meters. Alan Mitchell (1972, p. 25) has pointed out that \"crowns of older trees become very dense indeed, but around the apex remain open. Slender straight young shoots project, slightly ascending, from the Le,fl~ Rzgzd, szchlelzke leaves of Picea torano. Photograph by R Warren Right buds of P. torano (lower left, large and smooth), P. abies (above), and P. mariana (lower rzght, note needlelike tips to the bud scales) Photograph by A. Coleman general line of the crown in a distinctly spiky way\" - a useful thing to remember when viewing the tree from a distance. The leaves are among the shortest in any spruce, and the length varies little throughout the tree. They point forward in regular rows, giving an attractive, tidy appearance. They are glossy green and blunt tipped. The shoots are pale yellow and hairy, and the cones are 6-10 cm long, tapered, slightly curved, and gray-brown. The tips of the cone scales are rounded and entire. Picea orientalis is present in most botanical gardens and some nurseries. Its dense habit and textured foliage make it the favorite spruce of many conifer enthusiasts. Although it is not the hardiest spruce in our area, it should increase in popularity. Several cultivated forms of Picea orientalis exist. The dwarf ones, particularly 'Aurea', are beautiful additions to a rock garden. The Arboretum's eight specimens include five grown from seed acquired in 1873 from the St. Petersburg Botanical Garden, and one other collected in the wild in 1903 by Charles Sargent. These are magnificent trees reaching 21 meters in height. tigertail spruce Picea torano E. Koehne This Japanese native was introduced to the West (England) by J. G. Veitch in 1891. In Japan it grows to 90 meters or more. It is a pyramidal tree, dark green in color, and of dense habit. Its most outstanding characteristic is its curved, very rigid, sharp-pointed leaves, which make it stand out from all other spruces. This feature gives rise to the name tigertail, although presumably this refers not to the sharpness of the bristles on the tail but to the scratching one would get from grabbing it. The leaves and the surface of the branchlets are glossy smooth, a feature perhaps responsible for the other name by which it is known, Picea polita (Sieb. & Zucc.) Carr. (\"polita\" is Latin for \"polished\"). The sterigmas are extraordinarily thick and sturdy to match the leaves they bear. 126 Picea torano is not readily available in nurseries, a situation that I feel should be remedied. It is hardy. Its distinctive foliage and vigorous habit make it a source of curiosity and admiration wherever it is grown. Despite its large size in its native habitat, it is a slow grower in cultivation. Although some of the trees planted in England are 90 years old, the tallest ones are under 22 meters. This deliberate growth can be an advantage on a limited estate. The Arboretum's collection contains two specimens received in 1895 from Veitch's Nurseries. They have reached heights of 18 meters. Schrenk's spruce Picea schrenkiana Fischer & Meyer This spruce comes from Central Asia, crossing the border between the southern USSR and Sinkiang Province, China, where it grows at altitudes of 1400-3000 meters. It was discovered by A. G. Schrenk in 1840 and was introduced into cultivation in western Europe in 1878. Although it was first confused with Picea smithiana (Wallich) Boiss., West Himalayan spruce, and apparently still is in some herbaria, it is quite distinct from it. Picea smithiana, coming from considerably farther south, has longer leaves and cones and more pendulous branchlets. Picea schrenkiana has also been associated with P. obovata, a Siberian species that extends into the northern part of its range. As with other spruces, there are variations in the habit and foliage of Shrenck's spruce that have stimulated attempts to recognize more than one species. The only one that seems possibly valid at the present time is P. tianschanica Rupr. From a southerly range contiguous with that of P. schrenkiana, it is a smaller tree with hairy, terra cotta-colored branchlets. The buds are barrel shaped and of a cinnamon color, and the cones are almost twice as long as those of P. schrenkiana. Picea schrenkiana grows to 50-60 meters in its native habitat, but (at least in England) it has reached only one-third that height in cultivation. The bark is dark gray, and the buds are golden brown, 4.0 to 6.8 mm long, and nonresinous. The shoots, which may or may not be hairy, are cream colored. The green leaves point forward, covering the shoot above and scarcely parted below. They are quadrangular in cross section, 15-35 mm long, and with two to four lines of stomata on all four sides. The cones are 6-11 cm long, with the scales coffee brown, their edges rounded and wavy. This species is not known to be available in nurseries. Because of its resemblance to the Himalayan spruces (Picea smithiana and P. spinulosa), it might be considered for cultivation. No cultivated varieties of Picea schrenkiana are known. The Arboretum's only living specimen at present is a plant received from St. Petersburg, Russia, in 1903. Eleven meters tall, it is growing in a shaded situation in the pinetum and has lost the lower half of its foliage. No cones are available, but the vegetative characteristics of Picea wilsonii growing on Peters' Hill, Arnold Arboretum. Photograph by R. Warren. the tree conform mens. to its classic description and to our herbarium speciWilson's spruce Picea wilsonii Masters Another East Asian spruce, this tree was collected first by Henry in 1888 and was introduced by Wilson to Veitch's Nursery in England in 1901. It is widespread in the mountains of northwestern Szechuan and Hupeh, extending into Kansu and Shansi. It grows there to a height of 25 meters. It is a handsome, pyramidal tree with branches that tend to grow out to the same length at all levels of the tree, resulting in a broad crown. The most distinctive feature of the tree is the ashen-yellow color of the glabrous branchlets, not only on the new growth, but lasting for the next three or four years. The sterigmas are noticeably small to support the slender, dark green leaves, which point forward above the branchlets, laterally below, and show faint lines of stomata on all sides. The buds of Picea wilsonii are dark and shiny chestnut in color, producing a marked contrast with the pale branchlets. The nondistinctive cones are 4-6 cm long; the scales have rounded edges. Because of the gray color of its shoots, Picea wilsonii is relatively easy to distinguish from other East Asian spruces. For that reason, in addition to its pleasing habit of growth, it should be more widely known and seen. It is as yet rare in cultivation. The Arboretum's collection contains 17 trees, all accessioned between 1908 and 1912. The tallest is 15.3 meters. 128 COMMENT Of the 28 species of Picea listed in the Table, there are seven that the Arboretum does not grow as established trees. Most have been tried unsuccessfully and are continuing to be tested as material comes in from different areas of the world. Named hybrids to be found on the grounds are: Picea x hurstii De Hurst (P. engelmannii x P. pungens), Picea x mariorika Boom (P. mariana x omorika), and Picea x notha Rehder (P. glehnii x P. jezoensis var. hodoensis), as well as several formula hybrids. With rare exceptions this account has not dealt with the horticultural forms of the various species. Of the 283 of these listed in Den Ouden and Boom's Manual of Cultivated Conifers, our inventory includes 120, many of which are represented by several specimens. Forty-five (or more than one-third) of these are cultivars, varieties, or forms of Picea abies. The next most highly represented species is P. pungens with 23 subspecific taxa. Each is worth close attention and separate study. Acknowledgments I gratefully acknowledge the assistance of John Alexander, Patricia Dalton, Ida Hay, Jennifer Hicks, Gary Koller, Nancy LeMay, Elizabeth Schmidt, Peter del Tredici, and Richard Weaver, of the Arnold Arboretum staff, and Alan M. Gordon, of Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, Canada. References Bean, W. J. 1976. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. ed. 8. Vol. 3. 973 pp. London: John Murray. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. 1966. A Handbook of Coniferae and Gordon, ed. 4. 729 pp. London: Arnold. A. G. 1952. Spruce identification by twig characteristics. Chronicle 28: 45-47. Ginkgoaceae. Forestry 2. 1200 pp. Stockholm: Lars Salvius. Loudon, J. C. 1838. Arboretum et fruticetum Brztannicum. Vol. 4. Pp. 20312694. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and'Longmans. Masters, M. T. 1906. Chinese conifers. The Gardeners' Chronicle 39: 146, 147. Mitchell, A. F. 1972. Conifers in the British Isles. 322 pp. London: Her Majesty's Stationery Office. Ouden, P. den, and B. K. Boom. 1965. Manual of cultivated conifers. 526 pp. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff. Pliny the Elder [Caius Plinius Secundus]. 1st century A.D. Natural history. Book XVI, sect. xviii. (H. Rackham, translator. 1952. Cambridge, Massachusetts : Harvard Univ. Press.) Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species plantarum. Vols. 1, 129 1920. New species, varieties, and combinations from the herbarium and the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 1: 191-210. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. ed. 2. 996 pp. New York: MacMillan. Sargent, C. S. 1897. Notes on cultivated conifers. Garden and Forest 10: 480-482. 1899. Silva of North America. Vol. 12. 139 pp. Boston: Houghton, Mifflin Co. Schmidt-Vogt, H. 1977. Die Fichte. 647 pp. Hamburg and Berlin: Paul Parey. Virgil, P. V. M. ca. 19 B.C. The Aenezd. Book II. In : J. W. MacKail, translator. 1950. Virgil's works. New York: Modem Library. Wright, J. W. 1955. Species crossability in spruce in relation to distribution and taxonomy. Forest Science 1: 319-349. Wyman, D. 1943. A simple foliage key to the hemlocks and spruces. Arnoldza 3: 57-64. . . Rehder, A. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia Keeps on Growing","article_sequence":2,"start_page":130,"end_page":138,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24811","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15e8926.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":3,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Kuser, John E.","article_content":"130 -- --- - -- Metasequoia Keeps \" on Growing by JOHN KUSER' It has been 34 years since the Arnold Arboretum introduced the dawn redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides Hu & Cheng, into the Western world, and 14 years since Arnoldia published a list of 50 of the tallest specimens (Wyman, 1968). In September, 1981, I mailed a questionnaire to those responsible for the 50 specimens, and in addition I sent copies to 45 state universities, 45 state forestry commissions, 25 botanical gardens, and 24 institutions or individuals whose names were furnished by other respondents. The questionnaire requested data on size and age of specimens, site, elevation, mean January and July temperatures, mean annual precipitation, length of frost-free growing season, production of female and male cones or catkins, seedlings, attempts at hybridization, and incidence of disease or insect attack. In return, I received 80 questionnaire returns, 25 letters with more detailed information, and several good photographs. The news is that metasequoias have continued to grow rapidly, and that those resulting from the Arboretum's original introduction have become sexually mature. The tallest one in November, 1981, was a 104-footer2 growing near James Blair Hall at the College of William ' Department of Horticulture and Forestry, Cook College, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903. 2 Measured by Blume-Leiss rangefinder altimeter. Metasequoia glyptostroboides at (right, photograph by E. Gray).Ex&# 3 ;. the Arnold Arboretum rn summer (left) and wrnter and Mary, Williamsburg, Virginia (see Table). This tree was 67 feet high in 1967 (Wyman, 1970), and 92 feet when I measured it in January, 1976. It has grown an average of two feet a year since then, an impressive annual increment for a large tree. The geographic area in the United States where Metasequoia grows best lies along the boundary zone between two of the floristic provinces (the Eastern Deciduous Forest and the Coastal Plain) proposed by Gleason and Cronquist (1964). Along a belt from northern Alabama and Georgia to southern New England, many metasequoias have attained heights of 75 feet or more and circumferences of 10 feet. Climatically, this broad area is characterized by a growing season of 160 to 220 days, annual rainfall of 40 to 55 inches, and warm, humid summers with mean July temperatures ranging from 70 to 80F. Mean January temperatures vary from 23F at Northampton, Massachusetts, to 43F at Auburn, Alabama. West of the Appalachians, where temperature extremes are wider and dry spells more pronounced, Metasequoia has also thrived, but to a lesser degree. In the mild climate of the Pacific coast west of the Rocky Mountains, it has prospered on sites where moisture is available through the summer. Many have grown well in western and southern Europe along a belt from the British Isles to the Georgian S.S.R. An excellent account of its growth in Britain has been published (Mitchell, 1977). It is favored in the Ruhr district of Germany because of its resistance to air pollution (Petsch, 1978) and is one of the four main species involved in urban forestry in its native China (National Academy of Sciences, 1975). In site preference, Metasequoia seems to be living up to its Chinese name of \"shui-san\" (water fir). The big trees at Locust Valley, New York, and Auburn, Alabama, are both near ditches, and the Williamsburg, Virginia, trees grow on a stream terrace about 12 feet above water level and 75 feet back from the edge of the ravine. In New 132 Height, circumference, and crown spread of the 50 largest metasequoias 133 reported in the 1981\/82 survey.' Data are reported for only one tree per locahon I have used the ranktng system followed tn National Register of Big Trees\" Assouauon, 1982) one pomt for each foot of hetght, one pomt for each mch of one quarter pomt for each foot of crown spread t (American Forestry etrcumference, and Metasequoia Kuser roots fioatxng In a stream at Princeton, New Jersey Photograph by J. Jersey the Broadmead grove in Princeton extends along both sides of a brook in which mats of the trees' white roots can be seen pointing downstream in the current, and the Willowwood Arboretum tree is on a bottomland site near a stream. The tree at the University of California at Los Angeles grows next to a pool in an artificial recirculating stream. Until it was moved to the streamside site in 1960, this tree was one of the smaller ones in its grove; since then it has outgrown the others. Metasequoia resembles hemlock, however, in that although it grows best on moist sites, it requires good drainage. A flurry of anxiety followed the report of branch dieback and trunk cankers on several metasequoias at the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C. (Stipes et al., 1971). The disease was caused by the imperfect (Dothiorella) stage of Botryosphaeria dothidea (formerly known as B. ribis), the common apple white-rot fungus. A clone of Metasequoia resistant to the fungus was selected and propagated (Santamour, 1977). However, the disease seems not to have been of much general importance, since only one of 80 questionnaire respondents answered affirmatively to the question asking whether any diseases had been observed. The Dothiorella syndrome on Metasequoia remains confined to the metropolitan Washington area (Santamour, pers. comm.). A similar syndrome exists on Sequoia and Sequoiadendron planted outside their native ranges (Santamour, 1977), and in the latter it appears to be associated with humid and maritime cli- (Libby, 1981). Japanese beetles, stink respondents cited insect pests and an unidentified leaf-eater attacking their bugs, thrips, metasequoias. In China larvae of two species of moths cut seedlings and drag them into underground burrows, a bagworm (Cryptothelia minuscula) feeds on the leaves, and larvae of two longhorned beetles (Anoplophora chinensis and A. glabripennis) tunnel in the wood; another beetle (Holotrichia diomphalia) feeds on the leaves in its adult stage, while its grubs feed on the roots. The Chinese regard these pests as minor, however, and favor Metasequoia because in comparison to other trees it is little bothered by insect pests or fungus diseases (Liu et al., 1978). The fact that Metasequoia is related to Sequoia and Taxodium originally raised hopes that it would produce valuable, decay-resistant mates Three - - The fluted 1,\" York. Kuser. trunk of\"Bailey Locust Valley, New Photograph by J. lumber. It apparently does so in China, where trees felled but not used remain sound for many years, their wood gradually darkening with age. It is used there for exterior construction, footbridges, boatbuilding, furniture, agricultural tools, and paper pulp. Farmhouses built of its wood have remained in near-perfect condition, providing shelter for as many as seven generations of inhabitants (Liu et al., 1978). Extracts from its heartwood contain six different phenolic compounds (Enoki et al., 1977). However, the U. S. Forest Products Laboratory found wood from trees grown in the National Arboretum to have only two-thirds the hardness, crushing strength, and static bending strength of second-growth redwood (United States Department of Agriculture, 1967). This does not necessarily preclude commercial use of dawn redwood for some less strength-demanding applications such as siding, shakes, air-conditioning cooling-tower slats, and outdoor garden novelties. It is also possible that the wood tested by the Forest Products Laboratory lacked strength because the samples were taken from young, fast-growing trees. Weak wood has similarly been produced by young, fast-growing coast redwood (Sequoia sempervirens) trees in New Zealand. When wood from a 21-year-old plantation of that species was tested there, its air-dry density was only 19 pounds per cubic foot. Rate of growth averaged two rings per inch, and the main strength values were about one-sixth those of American-grown redwood, which has ten rings per inch (Weston, 1971). In the Soviet Union, comparison of Metasequoia wood with that of other softwoods grown in the U.S.S.R. indicated that mature wood should have physical and mechanical properties superior to those of Sequoiadendron and not inferior to those of Pinus sylvestris (Jaroslavcev and Visnjakova, 1965). Notwithstanding its failure thus far to equal its kin in strength, the newcomer is well on its way to becoming a popular amenity tree. Its fernlike, light green foliage, russet fall color, and fluted trunk make it Ovulate cone (left), microsporangiate strobalus, glyptostroboides. Photographs by J. Kuser. and branchlet (nght) of Metasequoia a handsome ornamental. In Maplewood, New Jersey, it has gained favor as a street tree; pruned up to standard height in the nursery, Maplewood's metasequoias have not developed the flaring bases characteristic of open-grown trees, and they have withstood severe root pruning with no apparent harm (Walter, pers. comm.). About 10,000 young cutting-grown metasequoias in containers are sold yearly and the number has been rising (Henkel, pers. comm.). During their first 20 years, some trees grown in the United States began to bear ovulate cones, but there were few or no microsporangiate strobili and hence hardly any fertile seed. Now most of the larger specimens bear three- to six-inch catkins of microsporangiate strobili like those of Taxodium. These appear in August and remain through the winter, giving trees with a heavy crop a tasseled look until pollen is shed in early spring. Seedlings have been raised from trees in Alabama, Virginia, Delaware, New Jersey, Massachusetts, and Rhode Island. Little is known, however, about whether inbreeding depression exists within the species. Tests are underway at Rutgers University to compare seed and seedling characteristics of isolated (presumably self-pollinating) trees and trees in mixed-clone groves where cross- pollination To our is nobody has succeeded in hybridizing Metasequoia with any related trees. Stebbins (1948) postulated that Sequoia, an unusual hexaploid in the otherwise diploid Taxodiaceae, is an autoalloploid derivative of a late Mesozoic or Tertiary hybrid likely. knowledge, Seeds (left) and Kuser. seedling (right) of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Photographs by J. between Metasequoia and some extinct taxodiad. This strengthened by Saylor's (Saylor comm.) karyotypic profile of Sequoia as having two sets of chromosomes resembling those of Metasequoia and one set unlike them. Crosses of Metasequoia x Sequoia (both ways) and Metasequoia x Sequoiadendron, however, have not succeeded (Krugman, pers. comm.; Chambers, pers. comm.). However, the possibilities are far from exhausted, and someone may yet resynthesize Sequoia or produce new and useful hybrids. This exotic species may still have limited appeal in the United States at this time, but its popularity as an amenity tree appears likely to keep on growing. With the world's escalating demands for wood products, this ancient but very much alive Asian relict may even find a place in the wood industry of the Western Hemisphere. and Simons, 1970; hypothesis is Saylor, pers. Acknowledgments I thank James Applegate, William Flemer, III, Clyde Hunt, and Elwin Orton for many helpful suggestions and for carefully reviewing this paper. I am especially grateful to William Sauro for the photograph of James Clark shown on the inside back cover. References American Forestry Association. 1982. National Forests 88(4): 18-48. register of big trees. American , Enoki, A., S. Takahama, and K. Kitao. 1977. The extractives of metasekoia, Metasequoza glyptostroboides Hu et Cheng. I. The isolation of metasequirin-A, athrotaxin, and agatharesinol from the heartwood. II. The isolation of hydroxyathrotaxin, metasequirin-B, and hydroxymetasequirin-A. Journal of the Japan Wood Research Society 23: 579-593. 138 I pp. New York: Columbia Univ. Press. Gleason, H. A., and A. Cronquist. 1964. The natural geography of plants. 420 Jaroslavcev, G. D., and T. N. Visnjakova. 1965. The wood of Metasequoia. Bjulleten Glavnogo Botanicheskogo Sada 59: 97-99. Libby, W. J. 1981. Some observations on Sequoiadendron and Calocedrus in Europe. California Forestry and Forest Products 49: 1-12. Liu, Y., T. Chou, and C. Hsu. 1978. Metasequoia. 144 pp. Hupeh Province, China: Hupeh People's Publishing House. Mitchell, A. 1977. Metasequoia in Britain and North America. The Garden 102: 27-29. National Academy of Sciences. 1975. Plant studies in the People's Republic of China: a trip report of the American Plant Studies Delegation. 205 pp. Washington, D. C.: National Academy of Sciences. Petsch, G. 1978. Beobachtungen uber das Verhalten von Baumbestanden und Baumgruppen in Immissionsgeschadigten Waldteilen des Ruhrgebietes, die als Erholungswald genugt werden. Schweitzerische Zeitschrift fur Forstwesen 129: 353-361. Santamour, F. S., Jr. 1977. The selection and breeding of pest-resistant landscape trees. Journal of Arboriculture 3: 146-152. Saylor, L. C., and H. A. Simons. 1970. Karyology of Sequoia sempervirens: karyotype and accessory chromosomes. Cytologia 35: 294-303. Stebbins, G. L., Jr. 1948. The chromosomes and relationships of Metasequoia and Sequoia. Science 108: 95-98. Stipes, R. J., F. S. Santamour, Jr., and R. C. Lambe. 1971. Dothiorella canker of dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides). Phytopathology 61: 913. United States Department of Agriculture. 1967. Evaluation of some samples of dawn-redwood. 2 pp. Unpublished memorandum. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin. Weston, G. C. 1971. The role of exotic genera other than Pinus in New Zealand forestry. Pp. 60-65 in New Zealand Forest Research Institute, Rotorua, New Zealand, Proceedings of Symposium No. 10 (1968). Wyman, D. 1968. Metasequoia after twenty years in cultivation. Arnoldia 28: 113-123. 1970. The complete metasequoia story. American Nurseryman 131(12): 12, 13, 28-36. -. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ultraviolet Patterns in Flowers, or Flowers as Viewed by Insects","article_sequence":3,"start_page":139,"end_page":146,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24813","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060a36f.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":3,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Primack, Richard B.","article_content":"139 Ultraviolet Patterns in Flowers, or Flowers as Viewed by Insects RICHARD B. PRIMACK! Insects see the world very differently than humans do. Their eyes are sensitive to energy from sunlight in frequencies somewhat different than ours are (Silberglied, 1979). We can see light in the energy spectrum from red through orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet, but we cannot normally detect short-wavelength ultraviolet light because our eyes have shielding pigments. Ultraviolet light is electromagnetic energy between 40 and 400 nanometers in wavelength. This so-called \"black light\" is commonly used to cause visible fluorescent patterns in \"psychedelic\" posters and other objects containing special pigments. The visual perception of insects generally overlaps with our own, except that insects cannot see red light and can see ultraviolet light. The ability of insects to communicate in ultraviolet light has been investigated by the late Robert Silberglied, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University. This discussion draws on his research. How do we know that insects can see ultraviolet light? In a simple experiment peformed in the late 19th century, Sir John Lubbock exposed an ant colony to different parts of the visual spectrum (a \"rainbow\") that had been separated by passing light through a prism. Ants ' Department of Biological Sciences, Boston University, Boston, Massachu- setts 02215. 140 carry their larvae and pupae away from any light Lubbock found that the ants did not leave the area exposed to red light but did leave the other lighted areas, as well as the area beyond the violet that appeared unlighted to a human observer. The presence of ultraviolet light in this apparently unlighted area was demonstrated using fluorescent pigments. This experiment revealed that ants cannot perceive red but can see the other colors including ultraviolet. Two indirect pieces of evidence also suggest that insects can see ultraviolet light. First, receptors sensitive to ultraviolet light have been found in the eyes of most insects that have been studied. Also, many insects and the flowers that they visit have ultraviolet patterns that are not apparent to the unaided human observer. By means of special photographic techniques, these patterns can be studied to give insights into the world as perceived by an insect. Such techniques generally involve placing a special filter that transmits only ultraviolet light over the lens of the camera. The resulting photographs often reveal hidden bars, spots, and stripes on the bodies and wings of such visually acute flying insects as butterflies and dragonflies. By producing conspicuous patterns in the ultraviolet spectrum, these insects presumably communicate among themselves but are still not conspicuous to birds, which hunt insects by means of the visual spec- will normally source. only. Biologists working with ultraviolet patterns in the flowers of temperate species have shown that the flowers of about 33 percent of all species strongly reflect ultraviolet light (Guldberg and Atsatt, 1975). This ultraviolet reflectance is most often found in large flowers but is trum related to whether the flowers show bilateral or radial symmetry. Yellow or violet flowers show a greater tendency to reflect ultraviolet light than do flowers of other visible colors. About seven percent of all flowers show floral patterns in ultraviolet light that are not evident in visible light. For example, in the black-eyed Susan (Rudbechia hirta) there is an ultraviolet-absorbing region caused by the presence of flavonols, a class of chemical pigments (Thompson et al., 1972). Flavonol-containing flowers are usually yellow in the visible spectrum, a tendency perhaps due to the fact that many flavonol pigments found in petals both absorb ultraviolet light and reflect yellow light. The petals of many flowers have spots or streaks of color in the visual spectrum. These markings are called \"nectar guides\" or \"honey guides\" by botanists and are considered to be important in aiding pollinating insects to orient themselves on the flowers for feeding and pollen transfer. They are frequently found at the base of the petals or around the nectaries. In many species the flowers appear to be uniformly colored in the visual spectrum but show dramatic patterns of nectar guides in ultraviolet light. For example, in the marsh marigold (Caltha palustris), which is visited in the spring by small bees, the flowers are uniformly bright yellow in the visual spectrum. When the flowers are viewed in ultraviolet light, however, the outer third of each not Above Caltha palustris. The flowers are uniformly yellow zn visible light (left), but the base of the petals and the stamens and pistils are dark in ultraviolet light (right) Below Geum macrophyllum The flowers are unzformly reflective in uzszble light (left), but have a dark spot at the base of each petal zn ultraviolet light (nght). Photographs by R Primack. petal is highly reflective of ultraviolet light while the inner portion of the petals and the stamens and carpels strongly absorb it. This creates a bull's-eye effect, which presumably aids the insect to land in the center of the flower. In the mountain avens (Geum macrophyllum), which is visited by flies, the flowers are uniformly yellow except for brown veins at the base of the petals. In ultraviolet light the outer two-thirds of each petal is highly reflective, while the inner third is absorbing. In the cinquefoil (Potentilla norvegica) the base of each petal has a strongly absorbing spot in ultraviolet light that is not present in visible light. These marks presumably help insects to locate the center of the flower, where nectar and pollen are produced. Also common is a floral pattern in which all or part of one petal absorbs more ultraviolet light than the others. For example, in two species of Rhododendron, R. luteum and R. calendulaceum, which are probably pollinated by butterflies, the petals are more or less uniformly colored, either yellow or orange. In ultraviolet light the Above Rhododendron calendulaceum The flowers (left), but the are unzformly colored in vzsxble light strongly absorbing in ultraviolet light (right). Below Rhododendron catawbiense The flowers have many small green spots on the upper petal In vssxble light (left), but thxs regson appears unzformly dark in ultraviolet lxght (right).. > Photographs by R. Primack. upper petal as in both species has a large light-absorbing region that with the rest of the corolla. These spots probably serve to highlight the location of individual flowers within the inflorescence. Also, in the upper petal of the pink-flowered R. obtusum, a large strongly absorbing region is clearly evident in ultraviolet light but is indistinct in visible light. In R. maximum, a species with large pink or white flowers, small, dark green pigment spots are present on the upper part of the corolla in visible light. In ultraviolet light, however, these individual spots are not evident, but a large, indistinct area of ultraviolet absorbance is present on the upper petal. The overall contrast in floral patterns is usually similar in visual and ultraviolet lights. However, in a few species these patterns are dramatically reversed. For example, the yarrow (Achillea millefolium) and Fothergilla major produce bright, white, terminal inflorescences, which appear almost uniformly dark in ultraviolet light. Another example is the inflorescence of the flowering dogwood, upper petal contrasts Achillea millefolium. The flowers are very bright zn avsvble light (left) but dark ultraviolet light (raght). Photographs by R. Primack m Cornus florida, which appears to be one large four-petaled flower but is really composed of four bracts surrounding many small flowers. In both this species and the Korean dogwood (Cornus kousa) the bracts appear white and the small central flowers are yellowish green in visible light. However, in ultraviolet light the pattern is reversed: the central flowers appear highly reflective and the large bracts dark. Many of the early-blooming ericaceous shrubs that have uniformly white flowers in the visual spectrum have more complicated patterns in the ultraviolet. In ultraviolet light the flowers of mountain an- dromeda (Pieris floribunda) are generally dark except for distinct spots at the base of the corolla and, to a lesser extent, the sepals. The stamens may strongly contrast with the rest of the flower in ultraviolet light, even when they are not very different in visible light. Stamens that are light colored and not contrasting in visible light may absorb ultraviolet light strongly, thereby contrasting with a reflecting corolla. This is true for Tatarian honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica). Such patterns may be important in plant species in which the pollen is an important food source for pollinators. The opposite effect is shown by the flowers of the toothwort (Dentaria diphylla), which have white petals and yellow stamens in visible light. In ultraviolet light, the flower is generally not reflective, but the anthers are highly reflective and can thus be readily located by such pollinators as small bees. In the stamens of Aesculus arguta, the filaments are white on the top and dark on the bottom in visible light, but uniformly dark in ultraviolet light. Many plant species produce hairs at various places in their flowers. Besides serving as useful taxonomic characters for botanists to distin- Lonicera tatarica. The flowers are unzfarmly light colored in uzszble light (left), but the anthers are dark in ultraviolet lzght (rzght). Photographs by R. Primack guish between species, these hairs are usually considered to be important both in preventing small, unwanted insects from entering the flowers to steal nectar and in regulating the temperature and the water loss of the flower. These hairs do not typically show large differences in color from the floral parts on which they occur. In ultraviolet light, however, they are often highly reflective, in contrast to the rest of the flower, in species such as Caragana arborescens, Aesculus arguta, and Rhododendron nudiflorum. Perhaps the hairs serve as beacons, helping the insect to orient on the flower. Methods of Ultraviolet There traviolet most are Photography several ways of examining flowers (or insects) in ullight. Using a modified camera is relatively inexpensive; this gives high-quality photographs and is probably the best option for people. Equipment The basic piece of equipment is a good-quality camera with a close(macro) lens and flash. The ultraviolet pictures shown here were taken with a Canon AE-1 with a 100-mm macro lens, and a Canon 199A Speedlite. Since glass absorbs ultraviolet light, close-up rings and lens filters probably should not be used. Not all flash attachments are suitable for this work since some do not put out sufficient ultraviolet light. In addition, some lenses may not transmit enough ultraviolet light. Testing a combination of equipment is the only way to determine its suitability for ultraviolet work. One specialized piece of equipment that must be obtained through a camera shop is a Kodak Wrattan 18A filter (about $30). This filter is up 145 two-inch square of glass that transmits only ultraviolet light. It should be glued onto a threaded ring (such as from a skylight filter or a close-up ring from which the glass has been removed), with black tape used to hold the filter onto the ring and to prevent light from passing between the lens and the ring. The filter can then be easily screwed on or off the front of the camera lens. Use Kodak Tri-X film, which should be shot at ASA 800 and pushed a during developing to ASA 800. Calibrating Your Camera The following is my simple calibration technique, a combination of practicality and the more theoretical approach of Silberglied (1976). Choose a subject that might have an ultraviolet pattern - a large yellow buttercup flower, a composite head like a dandelion, or a pierid butterfly. Lacking these, use any brightly colored, large, flat flower. Remove the ultraviolet filter from the camera. Using a tripod, compose the picture you want and focus on the subject. Fasten the ultraviolet filter over the lens. Place the flash as close to the subject as possible, using either a tilt flash or an extension cord. Set the shutter speed to the speed used with the flash (1\/60 second for most cameras). Now, shoot a sequence of pictures at a complete range of f-stops. When you have developed the film, you will see the best range of aperture sizes for all subsequent shots. For the Canon AE-1 the best apertures are f8 and f5.6. During the calibration procedure and subsequent sessions, you should keep a record of your pictures so that you can continue to refine your technique. For some cameras, the pictures particularly the close-ups may not be in perfect focus, since ultraviolet light has a slightly different focal distance than visible light. In addition, the depth of field is usually so small that even slight movements of the subject can put the picture out of focus. Consequently, the camera might have to be - focused somewhat forward or backward from the correct focus in the visual spectrum. Learning the appropriate focus for your camera comes with experience. My technique is to shoot several pictures at slightly differing focal distances. Shooting Pictures has been calibrated for ultraviolet photography, a straightforward process. It is a good idea to take several shots of each subject, since breezes can easily cause the flowers to come out of focus. Flowers must be perfectly dry for ultraviolet photography, otherwise droplets reflect the flash as points of camera Once the taking the pictures is light. Black-and-white pictures of the flower in the visible spectrum can be shot at the same time on the same roll of film by removing the filter from the lens. The pictures may need to be underexposed by about one or two f-stops, however, since the film will be developed at ASA 800 rather than ASA 400. For my own work, I carry two cameras. The first camera is loaded with Tri-X film and is used for the ultraviolet 146 - and black-and-white work. My second camera contains color slide a color record of the flower. The most common method of taking ultraviolet pictures of flowers using a powerful flash is effective for revealing the contrasts in ultraviolet reflection within a flower or inflorescence. However, it has the associated disadvantage of usually making the background appear dark. This is due to the rapid decrease in light intensity with increase in distance from the flash. Since flowers that absorb ultraviolet light do not contrast well with this dark background, the most interesting flowers in ultraviolet photographs are ones that are strongly reflective. Several natural backgrounds, including sand, sky, and hairy or otherwise reflective leaves, do reflect ultraviolet light, and many ultraviolet-absorbing flowers may be conspicuous against these backgrounds (Frohlich, 1976). Consequently, if it is desirable to show the natural background of the flowers, on sunny, windless days pictures can be taken without a flash using longer exposure times. Of course, this technique is more difficult. film, for obtaining - Video-Viewing camera . Another way to view ultraviolet flower patterns is to use a video that has a quartz or other lens capable of transmitting ultraviolet light (Eisner et al., 1969). If a Wrattan 18A filter is placed over the lens, the video camera receives only ultraviolet images, which can be viewed directly or displayed on a monitor. Despite the complexities described here, the basic techniques of photography are easily mastered. The challenge of obtaining well-composed and perfectly focused pictures under field conditions provides continuing enjoyment. Looking at the world of insects and flowers through special ultraviolet eyes opens a new aesthetic dimension to someone who enjoys natural beauty. ultraviolet References Eisner, T., R. E. Silberglied, D. Aneshansley, J. E. Carrell, and H. C. Howland. 1969. Ultraviolet video-viewing: the television camera as an insect eye. Science 166: 1172-1174. Frohlich, M. W. 1976. Appearance of vegetation in ultraviolet light: absorbing flowers, reflecting backgrounds. Science 194: 839-841. Guldberg, L. D., and P. R. Atsatt. 1975. Frequency of reflection and absorption of ultraviolet light in flowering plants. The American Midland Naturalist 93: 35-43. Silberglied, R. E. 1976. Visualization and recording of longwave ultraviolet reflection from natural objects. Functional Photography 11: 20-33. -. 1979. Communication in the ultraviolet. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics 10: 373-398. Thompson, W. R., J. Meinwald, D. Aneshansley, and T. Eisner. 1972. Flavonols: pigments responsible for ultraviolet absorption in nectar guide of flower. Science 177: 528-530. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What Do You Do for Your Tree after It Has Been Defoliated by Gypsy Moths","article_sequence":4,"start_page":147,"end_page":156,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24814","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd060a728.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":3,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Summer","authors":"Holmes, Francis W.","article_content":"147 What Do You Do for Your Tree after It Has Been Defoliated by Gypsy Moths? by FRANCIS W. HOLMES' ~ Defoliation by the gypsy moth is simply another source of stress to be added to any others a tree has undergone previously or may undergo later. Other causes of tree stress include prolonged drought, unsuitable soil (e.g., clay or sand), change in the water table or grade, disease of or injury to the root system, soil compaction, construction of a paved surface over the roots, improper (too deep) transplanting, earth fill, injury from salt or weedkiller, flooding of the soil with water or gas, and leaf damage due to prolonged exposure to warm, dry winds, infection with foliar disease organisms, chewing by other leaf-feeding insects, and sucking by mites and aphids. Since many aspects of civilization cause stress in trees, trees in ornamental, yard, park, and street environments are often under and thus in poorer health - than those in forests and greater stress woodlots. Trees of the same species and with similar outward appearances may be in quite different health conditions because of the unique combinations and degrees of these numerous stresses, and because of differences in where they are growing. Some can endure much more stress than others. Sometimes symptoms of this stress are very conspicuous. They include excessive seed set, early autumn coloration of the foliage, - ' Professor and Director of Shade Tree Laboratories, University of Massa- chusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003. The gypsy moth a female with wings spread (1) and wings folded (2); a male wxth wings spread (3) and wings folded (4), a pupa (5); caterpillars (6, 7); a cluster of eggs on bark (8), several eggs, enlarged (9), and a single egg, greatly enlarged (10). From E. H. Forbush and C. H. Fernald, The Gypsy Moth (Boston, 1896), Plate 1. Trees m Arlangton, Massachusetts, defohated by gypsy moth caterpillars Photograph taken July 9, 1891. From E. H. Forbush and C. H Fernald, The Gypsy Moth (Boston, 1896), Plate 10 150 in the spring. Other related symptoms include the presence of dead areas at the tips of evergreen needles, or \"scorch\" - dead areas at the outer margins and between the veins of broader leaves, leaving green only in stripes along the veins. Further stress leads to dieback of the top branches (called \"stag-heading\") and, eventually, to the death of the tree. Stress increases a tree's susceptibility to attack by certain weaker (secondary) diseases and pests, like the shoe-string rootrot disease, the Cytospora canker disease, the two-lined chestnut borer, and various bark beetles. Most of these agents, and the organisms they may bring with them (especially the blue-stain fungi, brought to conifers by the bark beetles Ips and Dendroctonus), can ultimately kill a tree. Tree deaths ascribed to a secondary organism may have been triggered by a primary stress such as the gypsy moth. When the gypsy moth defoliates a tree that is already under considerable stress from other causes, the tree may die relatively promptly. However, when the gypsy moth attacks an otherwise vigorous tree, the tree may or may not then be attacked by secondary organisms before it has a chance to recover its vigor during the following several growing seasons. Much depends upon whether the secondary pathogens or pests are in the vicinity at the right time. This uncertainty accounts for much of the variation in tree mortality that has confused some observers. One effect of defoliation is a substantial decrease in the amount of food reserves stored in the tree. These reserves ordinarily stored as starch in the roots of broad-leaved deciduous trees and to a certain extent in those of evergreen conifers as well - maintain the tree's life processes during winter dormancy and times of defoliation, when little or no food is produced. They also provide the energy and substance necessary when a new set of leaves is being put out, whether in early spring or at a less usual time. In conifers considerable additional food reserves are stored in the older foliage, so defoliation not only deprives a conifer of its current food source but also removes significant amounts of its food reserves. In addition, conifers rarely refoliate in response to a complete defoliation. A single defoliation often proves fatal for a conifer, while hardwoods frequently live on after a first or even a second defoliation. The fact that a hardwood tree clothes itself in a second set of foliage late in the growing season after gypsy moth defoliation ought not be a cause for rejoicing, however. Dr. Philip Wargo, of the U.S. Forest Service's Northeastern Forest Experiment Station in Hamden, Connecticut, has found data that confirm earlier suspicions: a tree commonly uses more of its food reserves to build a second set of leaves than it replaces through photosynthesis during the late summer and early fall. The following spring such trees have even smaller leaves, and because the twig growth pushed out in the previous late summer did not harden off, it has often been killed by the winter cold. It would have been far better if enough leaf surface no matter how ragged in early leaf fall (abscission), and fewer, smaller leaves - - Men inspecting the Dezter elm cn Malden, Massachusetts, for gypsy moth eggs After zntenszae efforts to clear this tree of eggs and caterpillars zn 1891 and 1892, it was free from them zn 1893. From E. H. Forbush and C. H. Fernald, The Gypsy Moth (Boston, 1896), Plate 36 152 appearance - had remained to prevent triggering the trees into put- ting forth the extra leaves. What should you do, then, with a tree that has been weakened by defoliation from the gypsy moth? Do nothing different than you would do to help a tree weakened by anything else. First, remove all present causes of stress. If the defoliation continued last year without any action on your part, that cause of stress is now gone - the gypsy moths left the tree last summer, when they had either completely removed the leaves from the tree or reached the end of their larval growth period and changed into adults. The stress, of course, continued after the insect-feeding injury had been completed. You then need to protect the tree from all stress for several years. The most obvious stress to prevent in 1982 is another defoliation by the gypsy moth. Even if the 1982 defoliation occurs in a smaller total area than that of 1981, the effects will be more severe - many of the trees will be weaker due to last year's defoliation. Trees that were defoliated last year should receive high priority for protection and should be treated like sick trees. You will need to decide which trees to treat for control of these caterpillars and which ones not to treat. You must also decide how important it is for the treated trees to survive - this will determine the material to use in the treatment. In the case of broad-leaved deciduous trees that were not defoliated last year, are not under any severe stress from other causes, and are not of any historical or personal significance, partial defoliation can be accepted - provided that enough leaves remain to prevent the tree from squandering its remaining food reserves in a second set of 1982 leaves. Even if these trees lose all their leaves and refoliate, chances are that they will survive one such defoliation. A description of the gypsy moth and its life history, together with a list of the insecticides both chemical and biological used against this insect and a discussion of other measures taken in its control, are 2 in the circular Gypsy Moth.2 The second step is feeding. Don't feed the tree immediately after defoliation! Feeding from approximately mid-June through September may force a flush of new growth that will be killed by the first frosts because it has not had time to go dormant and harden off. Fertilizer applications are ordinarily made to trees either in late fall or in spring after the ground thaws (i.e., from mid-October through - May). While compost and well-rotted manure are good fertilizers, commercial dry fertilizers are usually more readily obtainable and can be used under most circumstances. Those relatively high in nitrogen, such as are used for lawns, are considered best for most trees, although an ordinary garden fertilizer will do as a substitute. The important point is to use a complete mix that includes nitrogen, phosphorus, 2 All publications mentioned in this paper are available from Massachusetts County Extension offices or from the Shade Tree Laboratories. They have also been sent to every public and high school library in Massachusetts and to every municipal Tree Warden in the state. In~ectxon of fertxlxzer into the ground Photograph courtesy of Frost and Higgxns and potassium. With members of the rose family - for example, pear, crabapple, and mountain ash - avoid high-nitrogen fertilizers because they make the tree more susceptible to the fireblight disease. Water-soluble or liquid fertilizers generally come in higher concentrations and can be applied with an injector attached to the garden hose. The beneficial effects of liquid fertilizers (dark green foliage) appear sooner, but those of dry fertilizers last longer. To determine the amount of fertilizer to use, measure the diameter of the tree trunk four feet above the ground. Per diameter inch, use two to four pounds of fertilizer for trees with trunks six inches or more in diameter, and one to two pounds for smaller trees; for needle-type evergreens use the lower number of pounds. With water-soluble or liquid fertilizers follow the directions on the package. Application is made through one-inch (or slightly larger) holes punched or drilled in the soil over the root system. A crowbar or a hollow tube may be used to make the holes, which should be 12 to 18 inches deep and about two feet apart, arranged in concentric circles starting one foot or more from the trunk and extending out at least as far as the spread of the branches. With larger trees, start farther from the trunk to avoid wounding the large roots. Distribute the fertilizer equally among the holes, using a funnel (or a small can with the top edge bent to form a pouring spout) to prevent spilling fertilizer on the lawn and burning the grass. After you have put the fertilizer in, you may either fill the holes with topsoil or leave them open. Open holes will help air and water reach the roots; this effect is especially needed if the soil is hardened or packed down. Rain and soil moisture will distribute the fertilizer among the feeding roots. You can use water-soluble or liquid fertilizers by inserting the injector at regular intervals as stated above and applying the fertilizer by water pressure. This method is easier than using dry fertilizer, if you have the necessary equipment. The water used to carry the fertilizer apple, Apple trees in Swampscott, Massachusetts. The above photograph was taken August15, 1891, after the trees had been defoliated by gypsy moth caterpillars The photograph on the opposite page shows the same trees m July, 1892, after the moths had been cleared from the area by agents from the Board of Agraculture From E. H. Forbush and C. H. Fernald, The Gypsy Moth (Boston,1896), Plates 37 and 38. help distribute the fertilizer and make it readily available to the plant. How often you should fertilize a tree depends on the type of tree and how it responds to treatment. Generally it is safe to fertilize every two into the soil will or three years. Fertilizer should not be used at the time of transplanta ing ; instead, plantings should be made in taining plenty of organic matter. After the for two or good-quality topsoil con- has grown in this soil three years, it may be included in the program of fertilizer tree 156 ~ applications described above. Consult the publication entitled Fertilizing Trees and Shrubs for further details. The third step in helping a tree to regain vigor after defoliation by the gypsy moth is watering. Natural rainfall may be quite adequate, depending on the season. When it is not sufficient, a mere sprinkling is of no value: enough water must be placed in the soil surface to penetrate down to the roots in the upper foot of soil. If trees receive only a little water too often, they tend to develop their roots too near the soil surface. Such roots are more likely to be injured during a drought. If the foliage is sprinkled during the watering process, leaf diseases may develop and may further reduce the tree's vigor (a drawback to the frequent use of lawn sprinklers to water trees). On the other hand, a wet season can itself be a cause of since the roots may drown. Roots need oxygen, which filters down to them through the interstices between the soil particles, and they need to get rid of carbon dioxide, which diffuses up to the ambient air. You should therefore water about once a week, and only during dry periods. To be soaked to a depth of two feet, a fine sandy loam soil dry enough to cause plants to wilt requires one gallon of water per square foot of surface over the roots. The roots usually extend beyond the limits of branch spread and may pervade the entire lawn. (In areas with heavy clay or poor drainage, be careful not to drown the roots by unnecessary watering during weakening and stress, waterlogging the soil.) It is likely that no one has the patience to stand on the lawn with hose in hand long enough to put down as much as one gallon of water per square foot. This amount is equivalent to a layer of water more than one and a half inches deep over the entire area. The way to soak the soil, then, is to lay the hose on the ground, with the water running slowly enough not to run away over the surface of the soil. Two soaker hoses, joined with a siamese coupling, will provide for slower seepage and therefore less puddling. Move the hoses from time to time. Unfortunately, the time when trees need water most is also the time when such use of water may be locally banned because of shortages. In that case, the only way to provide artificial watering may be to haul or pump water from a pond or stream where you have water rights; this is practical only for small trees. Consult the publication entitled Watering Shade Trees for more information. Emphasis should be given to the fact that feeding and watering help to increase the vigor of a tree, but they do not protect it against future feeding by gypsy moth caterpillars. Defoliation, or spraying to protect from defoliation, during one season gives no protection for another year. So far as pest control is concerned, the 1982 season is \"a a new ball game\" - the tree is protected only to the extent that you take action this year to protect it. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23537","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260ab6e.jpg","title":"1982-42-3","volume":42,"issue_number":3,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Summer"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introduction","article_sequence":1,"start_page":46,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24807","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15ebb6b.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"Introduction This sn_ rine issue is dPrlinatPa to tl:a Amrri~~:~ Flm -mrct a2aeonr and to its preservation in the face of tolerant, and thrifty citizen Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis. The introductory piece reviews an illustrated article from the heydey of our subject in the last century. There are then three papers by specialists on aspects of the tree and its afflictions. Finally, twelve alternatives to the elm are evaluated. You will find our symposium controversial. It is meant to be! There is no instant and permanent cure to Dutch elm disease; nor is there another tree that combines the rapid growth, the graceful spreading limbs and broad open crown, and the extraordinary urban hardiness of the American elm. You will find some differences of opinion among the experts, too. Research continues and differences should, therefore, still be expected. We did not attempt to negotiate a false unanimity on your behalf. Nevertheless, our authors all agree with the view expressed in Gerald Lanier's Postscript: with dedication and care, this disease can be kept in check. - PETER S. ASHTON "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Typical Elms of Yesterday","article_sequence":2,"start_page":47,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24810","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15e856d.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Typical Elms of Yesterday The Dutch elm disease fungus, along with its dispersal agent, the European elm-bark beetle, arrived in NorthAmerica in 1930, hidden under the bark of a shipment of European elm burl-logs that had been imported into the United States for the manufacture of veneer. The disease killed American elms so quickly and spread so rapidly that people were at first afraid that the American elm was headed for extinction. Fortunately, this dire prediction has not materialized. The fact is that the species still thrives and reproduces as a wild tree in wet woods and along stream banks throughout eastern North America. As a landscape plant, however, the American elm is close to extinction. Grand old specimens that were once an integral part of the New England landscape are mostly gone now. What was once the graceful giant of every town common, 4-5 feet in diameter, has become a not-so-common tree, not much more than 2 feet wide. Tragically, the Dutch elm disease kills a tree just as it is coming into the prime of its life. Indeed, a fanciful statement from Henry Ward Beecher, from a book entitled Norwood, published in New York in 1867 by Fords, Howard, and Hulbert, prophetically describes the situation in which many towns now find themselves as a result of Dutch elm disease: \"New Haven without elms would be like Jupiter without a beard, or a lion shaved of his mane.\" Typical Elms and Other Trees of Massachusetts, by L. L. Dame and Henry Brooks, with an introduction by Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, was printed in 1890 and still serves as a fitting tribute to the greatness of the American elm. The principal purpose of this beautiful book was to document not only the histories of the great elms, but also their sizes and shapes. After considerable soul-searching, the authors of the book decided to include in each photograph \"two white wands, each five feet in length, put together in the form of a T,\" so that the dimensions of the trees could be accurately compared to one another. The device was the idea of Dr. Holmes, who was as insistent upon a fixed scale of measurement in 1890 as he had been in 1858, when he first presented the idea for the book in his column in Atlantic Monthly, \"The Autocrat of the Breakfast Table\": up the following work : SYLVA NOVANGLICA Photographs of New England Elms and Other Trees, taken upon the Same Scale of Magnitude. With LetterPress Descriptions, by a Distinguished Literary Gentle- I wish somebody would get man. Boston: F~ Co., 185 The Rugg Elm at Framxngham, Massachusetts. This unusual tree, showing what xs known as the oak-tree shape, xs 70 feet tall wxth a crown spread of 145 feet. Photo by E. A. Richardson. Typical Elms is notable not only as the fulfillment of Holmes' incr~irntinr~ hmt n)cn fnrha ~,~nl;t,~ nfho 1t~,.\"-~. 1L ,..u7 iLw .x....... i'...,y..,..r:......m w affection that the authors held for the trees they described. The data they present are unique and irreplaceable, given that the elms of today will never match those of yesterday. It is particularly interesting to note that even before the arrival of the Dutch elm disease, the American elm was not considered an exceptionally long-lived tree. According to Dame, the tree's great size was achieved more by virtue of its rapid growth than by its longevity. Here, then, is an excerpt from Typical Elms, portraying the American elm, at the height of its glory. - -- 1 ._.. PETER DEL TREDICI "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The American Elm","article_sequence":3,"start_page":49,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24809","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15e8528.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Dane, L. L.; Brooks, Henry","article_content":"THE AMERICAN ELM ULMUS AMERICANA, L. by L. L. DAME and HENRY BROOKS early settlers of New England inherited from their English ancesthe love of liberty and the love of home: for the maintenance of the one they planted the common school, and for the adornment of the other, the wayside tree. In front of the new house for the bride, the bridegroom placed the memorial elm. Bride and bridegroom have passed away, and generation after generation of their descendants; the old houses have mostly made way for less substantial but more showy successors, or else have been modernized out of existence; and the trees themselves of colonial date are fast disappearing. The reasons that led to the frequent choice of the elm as a shadetree are obvious: it is a comparatively rapid grower, is safely transplanted, requires little care, admits of the severest pruning, and combines in a remarkable degree, when old, size and beauty. No tree varies more in general aspect. A stroll among the elms in winter, when the foliage that partially concealed their vagaries has fallen, reveals the sturdy individualism of the species. The vase is the form most often assumed by the elm, when, standing in open ground, it is left free to follow its inclinations. The main trunk, reinforced in old trees by huge buttresses, and rising entire from ten to twenty-five feet, separates at length into several nearly equal branches. These rise, diverging but slightly, in straight lines or in broad curves, for thirty or forty feet farther, when they sweep outward, in wide and lofty arches with a pendent border of terminal twigs. The primary limbs, repeatedly subdividing, dissolve into a fine, leafy spray, forming a flat or slightly rounded head. The great elevaThe tors Reprinted from in Boston in 1890 Typical Elms and Other Trees of Massachusetts, published by Little, Brown, and Company. XVIII. THE BIG ELM, LANCASTER. 51 tion, the disposition of the principal limbs, and the extreme elegance of the summit make this form of elm, in the language of Michaux, \"the magnificent vegetable of the temperate zones.\" The Lancaster Elm and the Brooks Elm are fine examples of this type. The vase varies according to the height of ramification. In the weeping-willow form the main trunk seldom exceeds ten feet in height; the branches are more slender and diverge more rapidly, describing broader arches in proportion to the height of the tree; the border of long, flexible, pendulous twigs, swaying with the slightest breeze, comes down within reach of the browsing cows, or even sweeps the ground. In summer a great tree of this form resembles simply a large shrub; it is only when the obscuring leaves have fallen that the marvellous grace of the framework is revealed. The Clark Elm, Lexington is a perfect illustration. In the oak-tree type, ramification usually takes place within ten or fifteen feet of the ground; the long curves give way to straight lines and abrupt turns, the spray, even in old trees, sometimes retaining its pendulous character; the regular arches disappear, grace and symmetry being transmuted, as it were, in the alembic of Nature, into sturdiness and strength. This form is exemplified in the Pratt Elm, Concord and the Boston Elm. As a forest-tree, the elm runs up to a great height in a single stalk, or in two or three parallel limbs, terminating in a small but graceful head, with a border of slender, pendent spray. Trees of this character, spared now and then by the early settlers in the general clearing up of the forests, standing solitary with naked trunks suggest palms stranded from the shores of tropical seas. Under this head comes the a remarkable Pittsfield Elm, which fell in a gale some years ago, tree, which rose about a hundred feet before branching. These trees have been classified under the plume type; but this term is more felicitously restricted to those trees whose single stem or scarcely diverging limbs sweep out at a considerable height in long, one-sided curves, insensibly tapering to their tips, and clothed with very slender secondary branchlets and fine spray. These do not seem to be surmost - vivors of the open forest, as they are not uncommon throughout the State on land, especially on the borders of meadows. There are very few trees among them. All elms have a tendency to throw out small reversed branches at the point of ramification, giving rise to the appellation of feathered or fringed elms. The extent of the feathering varies from a few scattered branchlets to a net-work of short, leafy twigs, which transforms the sober trunks and sometimes the great limbs into shafts of living green. Feathering is found in all types of elms, but noticeably less in those with broad, spreading tops, as in the oak-tree type, while it is often a conspicuous feature of the true plume type. The cause is not well understood; but wherever there are few secondary branches, with their numerous subdivisions and consequent expanse of leafy surface, it seems to be more frequent and more extended, as if it were an effort large XII. THE BROOKS ELM, WEST MEDFORD. 53 of Nature ment. to maintain the equilibrium between root and leaf develop- These graceful appendages are often lopped from the wayside trees, in cheerful unconsciousness of their aesthetic value; less frequently because it is thought they retard the development of the top. Notwithstanding this amount of variation, no tree is more easily recognized, summer or winter; and there appear to be no forms distinctive enough for good varieties, the various types running into each other by imperceptible gradations. In fixing the approximate age of living trees, the first requisite is the determination of the rate of growth at different periods of existence. As the range of statistics given is narrow, and the number of cases small, the results reached, while not without value within certain limits, are presented simply as a contribution for future investigation. A comparison of over a hundred trees, ranging from ten to fifty years of age, shows an average annual increase in diameter of .48 of an inch. Of six trees in Medford forty-three years old, the smallest shows an average annual increase of .28, and the largest of .65. In elms that have attained a longer life and greater size than usual with the species, three periods of life may be roughly outlined. The first period covers about seventy-five years, during which the growth continues with scarcely abated vigor. The average annual increase ranges from .22 to .70 in young trees. The Hammond Elm, it will be noted, maintained to the age of eightythree an average of .60. The second period extends from seventy-five to one hundred and twenty-five years, during which there is a gradual decrease in the rate of growth, the annual increase ranging from .25 to .50. The third period covers all life beyond one hundred and twenty-five years. Within the first fifty years of this period, - often within the first twenty-five, the annual increase falls off very rapidly, so that it can be determined only by careful measurements taken at long intervals. Under this head come the Washington and Waverly Elms, with an increase respectively of .08 and.10. The age of trees cannot be absolutely settled by the application of an inexorable law of averages. Great size is of itself only prima facie evidence of great age. The ordinary conditions that govern tree-life must be taken into account. 1. Soil. Cold and clayey soils retard development, while the warm, deep loams of alluvial bottoms are especially favorable. The greater average increase of the Deerfield Elms is thus accounted for. Trees transplanted from the nursery or meadow can never do themselves justice in the made land of streets. 2. Proximzty to water. The neighborhood of ponds, streams, and meadows gives us the noblest examples of the elm. Their roots often run a hundred feet or more to water, tainting wells and choking drains - In, THE PRATT ELM, CONCORD XVII. FEATHERED ELM, LANCASTER 56 with compact fibrous masses. Concrete walks diminish the water supply, and dwarf, if they do not eventually kill, adjacent trees. 3. Proximity of other trees. Sunlight from all sides is essential to symmetrical development. Street elms are generally planted much too near each other, and the same fault is repeated, with less excuse, in private grounds. The slow growth of the Quincy Elms is largely due to the crowding of these trees within narrow limits. The Dexter Elm has undoubtedly exhausted the soil in its immediate vicinity, for most of its younger companions have attained, at their maturity, only a very moderate size, and already show signs of decadence. The elms of one hundred and fifty years, however youthful a front they put on, disclose somewhere within their vast periphery, in broken branch or incipient decay, an age past their prime. Their powers of resistance have reached the maximum, although the girth and spread slowly increase, almost to the last. Many of the noble elms mentioned by Emerson in 1846 have disappeared altogether. \"The broad, magnificent head\" of the elm near Breck's Garden, Lancaster, lies low; the great elm at Springfield, that enlisted in its praise the ready pens of skillful writers; the lofty elm on Pittsfield Common, - these, and others as great if not as well known, have vanished from among trees, and their place knows them not. Others are in ruinous condition, toppling to their fall. Among them is the old elm on Heard's Island, Wayland, the \"great Sheffield Elm,\" and the \"fine old tree still [1846] in perfect vigor which\" stood \"by the painted gate of the Botanic Garden,\" Cambridge, and which was cited as an example of the \"Etruscan vasP typP,\" forming a flat head, with pendent border. Others, though still grand and symmetrical, afford unmistakable indications of approaching decrepitude. Few, if any, of the trees mentioned in Emerson's book give the impression of undiminished vital force. There seems to be no reason, in the laws of tree-growth, why an elm may not live on indefinitely, stretching out its buttresses with an ever-mightier hold on earth, and expanding its summit in everwidening arches. Considered, however, in the light of evidence, it does not rank among long-lived trees. Two hundred years is a great age; few reach two hundred and fifty; while it may be doubted if any vestige, stump, or root is to be found of an elm born three hundred \" years ago. The day of destiny may be put off by minimizing the natural causes that tend towards dissolution. The exhaustion of the soil can be remedied by the restoration of the elements taken from it. When decay has already set in, the dead portions may be thoroughly removed, and the cavities filled with cement; extensive injuries have thus been treated successfully, and the cavities themselves obliterated. But the greatest peril of the tree lies in the operation of causes foreign to its own constitution. The wider the spread of its leafy sails, the more likely it is to go down before the sweep of winter's winds; and if, vn. THE CLARK ELM, LEXINGTON. XXIV I HE OLD ELM ON BOSTON COMMON happily, it escapes the resistless tornado, there is no escape from the terrible pull of gravity. The constantly increasing tendency of the great diverging limbs to split asunder mav be overcome for a while bv bolting them together with iron rods, or propping them up with pillars, like the Neustadt lime; but there comes a day in the steady roll of the seasons when increasing weight overcomes diminishing resistance, and the shapely arches lie prostrate. The sun of a winter morning shines down upon no spectacular display that rivals a big tree, its vast skeleton, down to the minutest twig, encased in glittering ice. This gorgeous effect is brought about at a ruinous expense. The ice-coat probably doubles the weight of the top; twigs are everywhere torn from their supports; limbs are broken off; the strain at the separation of the primary branches from the trunk - the point of greatest structural weakness - is prodigious. A serious injury once received, the elm breaks up with great rapidity. Fifty years hence most of the elms figured in this volume, it is likely, will have become like the wrecks and memorials of a stately past. The roadside elm will probably become less common in agricultural districts than at present, the farmer has suffered too much from its roots; but there will never be a dearth of noble trees. Thrifty predatory elms of seventy-five to a hundred years old, ranging from nine to fifteen feet in girth, are scattered in favorable situations over the State. These will, in their turn, put on the mien of sovereignty and receive the homage of men. - The trunk of the Wethersfield Elm, Wethersfield, Connectzcut In 1924, when this photo was taken, the tree was considered the largest elm In the United States, with a girth of 28 feet. Gaaen that the Dutch elm disease arrwed rn this country xn 1930, this tree was probably the last of the truly giant elms. Photo by E H Wzlson. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know","article_sequence":4,"start_page":60,"end_page":69,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24806","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15ebb26.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Newbanks, D. ; Roy, D. N.; Zimmermann, M. H.","article_content":"Dutch Elm Disease: What an Arborist Should Know1 by D. NEWBANKS,2 D. N. ROY,3 and M. H. ZIMMERMANN4 I. UNDERSTANDING THE TREE In order to control Dutch elm disease, one must be aware of a few essential facts concerning the anatomy and function of elm wood. It is amazing how ineffective the most strenuous efforts can be if these facts are ignored. First of all, elm is a ring-porous tree, like chestnut, oak, and ash (Fig. 1). This means that the bulk of the water is carried to the crown via the wide earlywood vessels of the xylem (wood) of the most recent growth ring (Huber, 1935). In other words, most of the water moves in a very thin layer of wood, immediately beneath the cambium. Wide and long vessels, like those of elm, are extremely efficient: those of a single growth appearing in this publication are for the purpose of information. Mention of a source does not constitute an endorsement or warranty of products available, nor does it signify approval of this product to the exclusion of other comparable products. 2 Cabot Research Fellow, Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts 01366. 3 Bullard Fellow of Harvard Umversity, 1980-81. Permanent address: Faculty of Forestry, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada M5S 1A1. 4 Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts 01366. ' Commercial sources providing specific 61 can supply the entire crown with all the required water. However, they are so vulnerable that they only remain functional during one growing season. The tree must therefore produce a new set of vessels every year, before the leaves unfold (Zimmermann and Brown, 1971). The second fact to remember is that water is usually pulled up into the tree. This means that when the water-conducting vessels of the wood are injured, xylem water does not leak out as it does, for example, from sugar maple stems in late winter. The opposite happens: air is sucked into the system, and air-blocked vessels cease to function. Normal physiological conditions of water conduction are such that even a minute injury -one not even visible under the microscope - can be sufficient to admit air and render the vessel useless (Zimmermann, 1978). The water-conducting system of ring-porous trees is extremely vulnerable. This becomes obvious when we compare, for example, an elm with a maple tree. The vessels of elm are some 4 times wider and 30 times longer than those of sugar maple. We know that the conductivity of capillaries is proportional to the fourth power of their diameter (Zimmermann, 1978). From this we can calculate that maple, when compared to elm, needs about seven thousand times more vessels to carry the same amount of water to the crown. If one vessel is accidentally lost, due to an insect bite for example, the damage is seven thousand times more serious in elm than in maple. Moreover, in ring-porous trees the function- ring ing vessels are located very near the surface and are in a vulnerable position. Spring is the most dangerous period. During the course of the summer, as the functioning vessels are gradually covered with latewood, vulnerability decreases. Young, vigorous trees are somewhat less likely to be damaged than old, slow-growing ones, because they produce more latewood. II. UNDERSTANDING THE DISEASE Dutch elm disease is caused by the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi. The disease is known to affect four of the seven North American elm species: American elm (Ulmus americana), rock elm (U. alata), red elm (U. rubra), and winged elm (U. serotina) (Campana & Stipes, 1981). The fungus comes in contact with the tree in two ways: it is either carried to the tree by insect vectors or is introduced into the tree via root grafts from diseased to healthy trees. The beginning and development of Dutch elm disease symptoms is dependent upon two major factors: the time of year in which infection occurs and the site where it occurs. For reasons described above, spring and early summer infections, as well as large branch and multiple site infections, are generally more threatening to individual trees than are late season and small twig infections (Sinclair and Campana, 1978). With this in mind, we can generalize and say that the first symptoms consist of the drooping, curling, and yellowing of leaves on one or more of the smaller branches. These symptoms spread more or less rapidly throughout the tree's crown, leading to the death of the tree. Disruption of the water flow from the roots to the Figure l. A transversely cut stem of a young, vzgorous Amerzcan elm (Ulmus amencana), showing two (and part ofaa thzrd) growth rxngs, the cambxum, and the bark. The bulk of the water movxng from roots to crown xs transported through the large earlywood vessels of the most recent growth rzng. The large vessels of prevzous rzngs do not functxon any more, xn fact, the photograph shows tyloses zn some of them. 63 crown of the tree is believed to be the primary tree. cause of symptom development and the death of the The elm bark beetles, both the lesser European (Scolytus multistriatus) and the American (Hylurgopinus rufipes), are the primary vectors of the Dutch elm disease fungus in North America. They carry the spores of the fungus from tree to tree, which accounts for the rapid spread of the disease throughout the countryside. The bark beetles are attracted by weakened and dying trees. They bore into the inner bark, where they breed and lay their eggs. The larvae hatch, feed, mature, and emerge from the tunnel galleries, carrying microscopic spores of the fungus that stick to their bodies. They may briefly feed on healthy elms, but then return to weakened trees to breed and complete their life cycle (Sinclair & Campana, 1978). Spring and early summer infections of American elms by the Dutch elm disease fungus are usually fatal to the tree. Death often occurs within the same growing season for smaller elms and within two growing seasons for larger trees. Occasionally a tree may die slowly, a branch at a time, over several years. The vulnerability of the large springwood vessels to injury is one of the primary reasons for the high susceptibility of the elms during the early season. The probability of vessel wounding by bark beetle feeding or by direct penetration of the fungus is greater during the spring because the ring of large springwood vessels is just beneath the bark. Transpiration pulls water into the crown of the tree. The water in the xylem vessels is therefore normally under tension. When vessels are wounded by a feeding beetle, air is immediately sucked in as water recedes to both vessel ends. The microscopic spores of the fungus, which have been introduced into the beetle feeding site, may be sucked into the wounded vessel and carried up and down to the ends of the vessel along with the inrushing air. In large branches many vessels are as long as 15 feet, some may be considerably longer. In smaller branches and twigs they may be only several inches in length (Zimmermann, unpublished). In either case, the fungus can be introduced into the tree far beyond the point where a beetle is feeding. Fungal spores germinate within the bark-beetle feeding tunnels, grow through the wood, and penetrate the vessels by dissolving the walls enzymatically. Such direct penetration may result in the vessel becoming air filled, as in the case of bark-beetle wounding, or the fungus may be able to enter the vessel without introducing air. In either case, once the fungus has established itself in the large springwood vessels, it is able to spread rapidly throughout the tree using the vessels as its pathways. During the later stages of infection, when the tree is weakened and dying, sticky spores are produced by the fungus inside the tunnels containing the newly hatching beetle larvae. The spores are carried on the bodies of the newly emerging beetles as they fly to new feeding sites on healthy elms. There are several theories as to what actually causes the interruption of water flow through the vessels. Introduction of air into the 64 as the fungus penetrates from the bark-beetle feeding sites and grows from vessel to vessel, has been suggested (Zimmermann and McDonough, 1978). Physical plugging of the vessels by the fungus and by gums produced by the fungus, as well as outgrowths of neighboring cells (tyloses), have all been shown to play a role (Dimond, 1970). Toxic substances produced by the fungus may also interfere with water movement in a more indirect way (Van Alfen and Turner, 1975). It is a complicated picture, and it is quite probable that all the above-mentioned factors are involved to varying degrees. Regardless of the relative importance of these factors, it remains that the large size of the springwood vessels and their vulnerable location just beneath the bark during the early growing season are two of the primary reasons for the susceptibility of American elms to Dutch elm disease. vessels, III. CONTROL OF THE DISEASE Successful Dutch elm disease control or management programs employ a combination of pruning, sanitation, insecticide spraying, and therapeutic injection as control measures. Such control programs have been quite successful in reducing the tree mortality due to disease. Pruning and sanitation Traditionally, control of Dutch elm disease has involved pruning and sanitation. Pruning simply involves the removal of diseased branches. One difficultv with this iG th:lt vrccalc ara c-a,-~- tn\"n ;.~ elm. When infection occurs by the mechanism explained above, air enters an injured vessel and water retreats in both directions. This can carry spores both up and down from the place of injury, and the fungus 1. - can be present considerable distances below a dead branch. It is therefore important that the pruned sections be long enough to eliminate the entire length of air-blocked vessels. As very few vessel-length measurements have been made so far with elm, the best guide is information from the Extension Service or the arborist's own experi- ence. Sanitation involves the removal of dead elm trees (i.e. cutting and burning) as early as possible so as to deny the bark beetles easy access to food and breeding ground. Pruning and sanitation can be quite effective, but it must be done promptly and consistently. 2. Chemical control a. Spraying The target of spraying is the adult bark beetle. Use of insecticidal spray in early spring has been a common practice. The most commonly used insecticide, until about 15 years ago, was DDT. This is banned now because of the strong environmental concern of the public. It has been replaced by a less effective but biodegradable product 65 called Methoxychlor. Another recently marketed insecticide in use is Dursban 4E (Dow Chemical Co.). These insecticides are effective only for a short period of time; repeated spraying may be necessary. Little information is available in the literature on how much insecticide is present on the tree after spraying. Recent work using insecticidal spray (Dursban 4E [0.5%]), applied with a mist blower and a hydraulic sprayer, has shown that coverage of the tree was not uniform. Insecticide concentration in some areas was well below the effective dose necessary to kill the beetles (Roy, unpublished). Specific insecticides should be tested independently. b. Injection The target of injection into the tree is usually the fungus. The ideal chemical to control Dutch elm disease should be highly toxic to the fungus but harmless to the tree; it should be water soluble to allow for systemic distribution within the tree and yet be environmentally safe. Numerous chemicals have been tested throughout the years with little success until recently. A major breakthrough was the discovery of the fungicidal activity of a class of synthetic organic compounds called carbamates. Benomyl (methyl 1-[butylcarbamoyl] benzimidazol-1-yl carbamate) (Delp and Klopping, 1968) and a chemically related compound, thiabendazole, 2-(4-thiazolyl) benzimidazole, have shown the greatest promise in the control of Dutch elm disease (Biehn and Dimond, 1971; Smalley, 1971, 1978). There are numerous difficulties associated with the chemical injection and distribution in trees. How some of these problems relate to chemical effectiveness and tree physiology will be discussed using the active fungitoxic compound of Benomyl, MBC, and its phosphate salt (MBCP), as an example. It should be kept in mind that MBCcontaining compounds have proven most promising, and that the problems discussed are common to a greater or lesser extent in all Dutch elm disease control chemicals. Benomyl reacts with water and is slowly converted to a more stable, water-soluble, and weakly basic compound called MBC (methyl benzimidazole-2-yl carbamate) (Clemons and Sisler, 1969). Insolubility of MBC in water (8-10 ppm at pH 5-6) was a problem because uptake and distribution in the xylem of the tree after injection is only possible if the substance is water soluble. This was achieved by the production of acid salts of MBC with inorganic acids (Kondo et al., 1973). Phosphate salts appeared to be particularly suitable, because they are both soluble in water and fungitoxic. Upon breakdpw~, phosphate acts as a nutrient for the tree. The phosphate salt is marketed under various names: MBCP, Lignasan P, Lignasan BLP (DuPont trade name), carbendazim phosphate (British Standards Institute), and others. They all have the same active ingredient and concentration (0.7% or 7000 ppm). The fungicide is stable, has a very low phytotoxicity, and is not toxic to the environment. 66 Fungicides may be injected into the trunk, the roots, or the root flare. The best distribution has been reported for root injection of dilute solutions under low pressure. Information on concentration, volume, tree diameter and the period of injection is available in the literature (e.g. Kondo, 1972). For larger trees, the root flare area should be injected in addition to roots for proper coverage. If the root system is not accessible, such as under urban conditions, then the tree might be injected in the root flare area only. Trunk injection is considered the least effective option. Injection and distribution of the fungicide is a very complex problem that has received some systematic attention (e.g. Day, 1980). First of all, xylem water is normally under tension. As soon as the xylem is injured, air is drawn into vessels, and if liquid is not applied quickly, the air pockets will prevent sufficient uptake. This problem can be overcome by applying positive pressure that decreases the size of the air pockets. But forcing fungicide into old, non-functioning vessels might be useless and wasteful. One method that has reasonable potential, but has only been used in the laboratory for fundamental research, is vacuum infiltration. Air can be removed from the wood with a vacuum pump (small, hand-operated pumps are inexpensive). Once the air pockets are removed from the functioning vessels, liquid is taken up by the xylem without applied outside pressure. The chemical nature of fungicides may pose problems with regard to distribution. For example, the structure of MBCP is such that it is strongly adsorbed to the vessel walls and thus becomes immobile. In contrast, acid dyes move easily into the entire crown. Acid dvP ini~r~ions are theretore not good indicators for the effectiveness an injection method; distribution of injected MBCP is often quite erratic when checked with chemical analysis of twig samples taken from the crown (Roy et al., 1980). Another important factor is the pH of the injected solution. For example, MBC is very active at low pH (very acid), but this is injurious to plant tissue. If the pH is raised (the solution made less acid), MBC precipitates out of solution. In addition, the pH is also slightly raised along the translocation path, and MBC may precipitate along the vessels. The problem of solubility may be solved by using a slight excess of phosphoric acid, but too much acid damages the wood. For these reasons, many compromises must be made to optimize injection procedures (Kondo, 1972). There have been justifiable concerns about injection wounds (Shigo, 1977). Drilling into the wood destroys some of the conducting tissue, in addition, the holes can serve as points of entry for other micro organisms. From this point of view, root injections are also best because roots are easily regenerated (Lyford, 1980). It has been reported that the effectiveness of chemical therapy is good for one growing season when it is done by root flare or trunk injection, and for almost two growing seasons if injection has been made into the roots. This is probably due to poor radial movement of MBCP. Once new vessels have formed in the stem, there is no MBCP of The branch structure of an Amertcan elm cn the Public Gardens, Boston, Massachusetts Photo by P Del Tredici. available to them. In the roots, however, vessels often function for a number of years and precipitated MBC can be very slowly dissolved a year or so later. For a reliable therapeutic program, injection should be done annually, once the tree has been injected. 3. Outlook To overcome the limitations associated with MBCP, a host of other fungicides have been marketed that are chemically related to Benomyl. Thiobendazole (Mertect, Arbotect, ME 116), Fuberidazole, Mecarbinzid, Thiophenate methyl, M2B21914 and NF 48 are being tested. In the belief that the insecticide will translocate to the crown area and protect the tree from insects, attempts were made to control beetles feeding on elms by systemic insecticide injection. Bidrin (Trade name of Shell Co.) was extensively field tested using trunk injectors but was found to be highly phytotoxic; in addition distribution was very poor. Recent reports indicate the same type of effect using well-known systemic and reportedly non-phytotoxic insecticides (Aldecarb, Diazinon, Dimethoate, Meta-Systox R, Phosphamidon) as well as mixtures of MBCP and these insecticides. When injected into the root system or the root flare of elms, these mixtures were found to be extremely phytotoxic (Roy et al., 1980). Certain chemicals can be used to control the movement and population of elm bark beetles. These include sex attractants, repellants, 68 confusants, and antifeedants (Strobel & Lanier, 1981). They are generally very expensive and depend to a large extent on climatic conditions such as wind direction and rainfall. At present, injection treatment of elms is quite expensive and only affordable in the case of high-value elms. It is possible to achieve reasonably good levels of protection using injection of therapeutic chemicals into the roots or root flare under diligently controlled conditions as a part of a comprehensive tree care program that includes sanitation, insecticidal spray, and fertilizer. Scientists may come up with a spray-on fungicide with the effectiveness of MBC. This would necessarily involve transport of the chemical through the phloem to ensure distribution. Spraying would eliminate the wounding problem. On the other hand, injection is relatively pollution free, whereas spraying might create environmental problems. Another recent development is the use of a fungitoxic bacterium (Stroble & Lanier, 1981). In conclusion, we can say that although much progress has been made, we are still far from being able to protect our precious elm trees effectively. It is hoped that the development of more suitable chemicals, and a better understanding of how the tree functions, will bring improvement in the future. Acknowledgments We thank Terry A. Tattar and Francis manuscript. IV. W. Holmes for reviewing the REFERENCE LIST W. L. & Dimond, A. E. 1971. Prophylactic action of Benomyl against Dutch elm disease. Plant Dis. Rep. 55: 179-182. Campana, R. J. & Stipes, R. J., eds. 1981. Compendium of elm diseases. Amer. Phytopathological Soc. Compendia Series. Clemons, G. P. & Sisler, H. D. 1969. Formation of a fungitoxic derivative from Benlate. Phytopathology 59: 705-706. Day, S. J. 1980. The influence of sapstream continuity and pressure on distribution of systemic chemicals m American elms (Ulmus americana L.). MS thesis, University of Maine at Orono. Delp, C. J. & Klopping, H. L. 1968. Performance attributes of a new fungicide and mite ovicide candidate. Plant Dis. Rep. 52: 95-99. Dimond, A. E. 1970. Biophysics and biochemistry of the vascular wilt syndrome. Ann. Rev. Phytopathol. 8: 301-322. Huber, B. 1935. Die physiologische Bedeutung der Ring- und Zerstreutporigkeit. (The physiological significance of diffuse and ringporousness). Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. 53: 711-719. (Photocopies of English translation available from: National Translations Center, 35 West 33rd St., Chicago, IL 60616). Kondo, E. S. 1972. A method for introducmg water soluble chemicals into mature elms. Can. For. Serv. Info. Rep. 0-x-171. Kondo, E. S., Roy, D. N. & Jorgensen, E. 1973. Salts of methyl-2-benzimidazole carbamate (MBC) and assessment of their potential m Dutch elm disease control. Can. J. For. Res. 3: 548-555. Biehn, 69 Lyford, W. H. 1980. Development of the root system of northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.). Harvard Forest Paper No. 21. Roy, D. N , Purdy, J. R. & Ayyamperumal, P. 1980. Distribution of methyl benzimidazole-2-yl carbamate phosphate in elm: effects of chemical properties and formulation variables. Can. J. For. Res. 10: 143-151. A. L. 1977. Discolored and decayed wood associated with injection wounds in elm. J. Arborzculture 3: 230. Sinclair, W. A. & Campana, R. J., eds. 1978. Dutch elm disease perspective Shigo, after 60 years. Northeast Regional Research Publ. Search Agricult. Vol. 8. No. 5. Smalley, E. B. 1971. Prevention of Dutch elm disease in large nursery elms by soil treatment with Benomyl. Phytopathology 61: 1351-1354. Smalley, E. B. 1978. Systemic chemical treatments of trees for protection and therapy. lu : Dutch elm disease, perspective after 60 years. W. A. Sinclair & Campana, R J., eds. Northeast Regional Research Publ. Search Agncult. Vol. 8, No. 5. Strobel, G. A. & Lanier, G. N. 1981. Dutch elm disease. Scientific American 245(2): 56-66. Van Alfen, N. K. & Turner, N. C. 1975. Influence of a Ceratocystzs toxin on water relations of elm (Ulmus americana). Plant Physzol. 55: 312-316. Zimmermann, M. H. 1978. Structural requirements for optimal water conduction in tree stems. Pp. 517-532 in: Tropical Trees as Living Systems. Tomlinson, P. B. & Zimmermann, M. H., eds., Cambridge Univ. Press. Zimmermann, M. H. & Brown, C. L. 1971 Trees: Structure and Function. New York-Heidelberg-Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Zimmermann, M H. & McDonough, J 1978. Dysfunction in the flow of food. Pp. 117-137 iw Plant Disease - An Advanced Treatise Vol. 3 New York: Academic Press. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Double Jeopardy for Elms: Dutch Elm Disease and Phloem Necrosis","article_sequence":5,"start_page":70,"end_page":77,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24804","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eb728.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Karnosky, David E.","article_content":"Double Jeopardy for Elms: Dutch Elm Disease and Phloem Necrosis by DAVID F. KARNOSKY' ~ American elm (Ulmus americana) populations across the United States are in double jeopardy. The Dutch elm disease, caused by the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi, continues to spread in North America and has developed more aggressive strains in recent years. Now, a second major disease is threatening elms. Called phloem necrosis, it is caused by mycoplasma-like organisms. Dutch Elm Disease Dutch elm disease is a vascular wilt disease transmitted primarily It was first found in northwestern Europe around 1918. The disease was identified, and the causal agent described, by Dutch scientists. Rather unfortunately for the Dutch, the common name for the disease came to be \"Dutch elm disease.\" Actually, the disease is thought to have originated in the Far East. By 1939 Dutch elm disease had spread rapidly across Europe, killing over 50% of the elms in Holland alone. The Dutch countryside was particularly vulnerable to the ravages of Dutch elm disease because the vast majority of elms planted in Holland belonged to one susceptible clone, Ulmus x hollandica 'Belgica'. by bark beetles. 1 New York Botanical Garden Cary Arboretum, Millbrook, New York 12545. A specimen American elm (Ulmus vasecrown amencana) tree, showing the characteristic of the specees. Photo by D F Karnosky shaped The first report of Dutch elm disease in North America came from Ohio about 1930. The causal fungus and its primary vector, the small European elm bark beetle (Scolytus rnultistriatus), had been carried to the United States on elm logs imported from Europe. The knots in its wood made it popular for making a burled veneer for furniture. Large ports and the railroads that transported the logs inland were the points of entry and routes of spread of the disease. After its rapid initial sweep across Europe, and apart from local \"flareups,\" Dutch elm disease came to be regarded there as an endemic disease of little importance. However, this tranquil situation came to an abrupt end in the late 1960's, when a new and more devastating Dutch elm disease epidemic began. The new epidemic appears to have originated in Britain and, as in the United States, can be traced to the importation of elm logs. This more aggressive and far more pathogenic strain of Ceratocystis ulrni, which developed via mutation in North America, was introduced into Europe on elm logs imported from Canada for boat building. This second Dutch elm disease epidemic is now widespread in Europe and threatens to be more serious than the original one of the 1930's, since there appears to be much less resistance among European elm species and selections to the aggressive strain of Dutch elm disease than there was to the non-aggressive strain that had devel- oped in Europe. During the approximately 50 years when Dutch elm disease has 72 been present in the United States, its range has steadily increased and it has devastated elm populations from coast to coast killing an estimated 50 to 100 million elms. Elm losses in metropolitan areas have been particularly severe (see Table 1) because the American elm's elegant vase-shaped had made it Table 1. a crown, favored urban some rapid growth rate, and urban-hardiness planting. Elm losses in cities of the United States. Greater Chicago area parkway elms. The Milwaukee figures include many non-diseased trees removed to begin reforestation efforts following the inevitable devastation by Dutch elm disease. 3 The number of elms remaining in St Paul has been dramaticallv reduced since 1977, because the disease has only recently reached epidemic proportions there. 4 Washington, D.C., lost about 7,000 elms due to Dutch elm disease but has replaced them with additional elms. 2 ' Phloem Necrosis Phloem necrosis, also commonly called \"elm yellows,\" is indigethe United States and was first reported over 30 years ago. It now occupies a range from New York to Nebraska and south to the Gulf Coast states. It seems unlikely that the disease will move farther north since the pathogen does not appear to be adapted to cold climates. Transmitted by leafhopper insects, phloem necrosis kills the tree's phloem cells; the rest of the tree usually dies within one year after symptoms appear, except in the case of resistant species such as Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) and Siberian elm (U. pumila). Epidemics of phloem necrosis can rapidly destroy elm populations. However, the disease often remains endemic for several years between flareups, as did Dutch elm disease in Europe before the 1960's. Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis sometimes infect the same elm populations, as occurred, for example, in several Illinois communities. In these situations, trees killed by phloem necrosis provide plentiful breeding sites for the bark beetles that transmit Dutch elm disease. nous to Drebuc I, of the upper c rown of an Amerzean elm (Ulmus ameneana), a symptom of the early stages of Dutch elm dasease. Right Advanced stages of Dutch elm disease on an Amertcan elm in Central Park. Photos by D. F. Karnosky. Left Symptoms The symptoms of Dutch elm disease and their sequence and rate of a number of tree, fungal, and environmental characteristics. However, the drooping or wilting of foliage (commonly referred to as flagging) in the upper crown on small twigs is the most common indicator of the presence of Dutch elm disease. Elms are usually infected between late spring and early summer. Brown streaks in the outermost xylem of twigs, exposed by a slanting cut or by peeling of the bark are good indicators of the presence of Dutch elm disease in branches showing flagging. Symptom progression through a given American elm tree may occur in one year or may take several years to occur. Phloem necrosis generally kills small fibrous roots before foliar symptoms develop. As the phloem is destroyed by the disease along the length of the tree, infected tissue first becomes flecked with brown and then turns uniformly brown. This discoloration is best seen beneath the bark of the lower trunk and root-flare areas. The first external symptoms of phloem necrosis usually develop in mid- to late summer and include yellowing, leaf droop, and premature leaf drop. In contrast to Dutch elm disease, where the disease begins in a small number of branches, nearly all branches on a tree with phloem necrosis show symptoms at once. The discolored phloem of phloem necrosis-infected American elms may also have a faint wintergreen odor, especially if small branches are warmed by cupping them in the palm of the hand for a few minutes. Elms resistant to phloem ne- development are variable depending on Table 2. Relative Dutch elm disease tance of elms. (DED) and phloem necrosis (PN) resis- ~ (--) very little resistance; (-) little resistance; (+) moderate resistance; (++) much resistance; (~) unknown. 2 While U cnrpmtfolza is generally thought to be not verv recisranr cnm~ ciones ot tW species (such as 'Christine Buisman') have shown moderate resistance. ' Ulmus glabra includes U. campestrzs. crosis (Table 2) sometimes develop witches' brooms (tufts of growth with short internodes) when infected but are not killed by the disease. Control While there are no guaranteed cures for either Dutch elm disease or phloem necrosis, there are control measures that have proven effective in slowing the spread of these diseases through elm populations. The most important control measure and the cornerstone of all successful programs is sanitation, including the prompt removal and disposal of dead and dying elms and the pruning of dead wood from healthy ones. Elimination of the dead wood decreases bark beetle breeding sites and prevents buildup of disease inoculum. Elm logs that are going to be used for some later purpose (e.g., for firewood) should be either debarked or sprayed with Lindane~to make them inimical to bark beetles. Besides spreading the Dutch elm disease fungus, elm bark beetles can become a nuisance for homeowners if they are allowed to develop 2 Reference to products does not imply product endorsement, necessarily the only ones available nor are these Dr David F Karnosky ican elm pollen Photo es shown attempting to h~brxdtze the Stbertan elm with Amer- by R Mxckler I recently received a call from a distraught homeowner whose house was being invaded by thousands of elm bark beetles; because of their small size, they had passed through his window screens, entered through his attic vents, and clogged his air conditioner. The cause of this localized problem was a large pile of elm logs and branches left with the bark on after the removal of a number of large American elm trees. Left uncontrolled, Dutch elm disease can destroy a city's elm population within 10 years. When phloem necrosis is also present, the time may be even shorter. However, sanitation programs can effectively reduce the rate of loss from Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis. For example, the city of Syracuse, New York, maintained elm losses at less than 2% per year from 1951 through 1964 by conducting strict sanitation for Dutch elm disease control. After the program was dropped in 1965, Dutch elm disease quickly reached epidemic proportions and the elm population in Syracuse was reduced from about 46,000 to less than 1,000 within 14 years. United States Forest Service researchers have established the fact that it is more economical in the long run to minimize elm losses with a sanitation program than to allow the disease to run its course. Spraying elms with Methoxychlor to reduce twig-crotch feeding by the small European elm bark beetle is a good supplemental control procedure. New York City has long maintained a Dutch elm disease control program based on sanitation plus Methoxychlor spraying. The effectiveness of this program ranks among the best in the nation. Some 33,000 elms still grow in New York City and the annual loss rate is less than 0.5~~~. Results from Evanston, Illinois, also confirm the large populations. 76 effectiveness of sanitation in combination with spraying for bark beetle control. The results are particularly impressive when compared to the devastation of other Illinois communities such as ChampaignUrbana (Table 1), where little or no control was attempted. Pheromone trapping to determine when bark beetle broods (especially the summer broods) appear is useful in determining when insecticide sprays should be applied. Pheromone trapping may eventually become a practical means of reducing bark beetle populations in areas of low population densities. Recently, the use of cacodylic acid to kill elms has also been suggested for reducing bark beetle populations, especially in \"non-control\" areas surrounding control areas. Cacodylic acid rapidly kills elms and renders them useless to bark beetles as the beetles' larval development cannot be completed in the dry conditions created below the bark of treated trees. When a small number of highly valuable elms are endangered by Dutch elm disease, a series of stop-gap measures may be attempted for control. These measures are all expensive, however, and should only be considered in special situations. Pruning as a therapeutic measure to remove Dutch elm disease from elm trees is possible if the disease is detected and treated early enough. Preferably, an infected branch should be pruned back a minimum of 10 to 15 feet from all sapwood showing fungal discoloration. Fungicide injections may also be used therapeutically, either alone or in combination with pruning. Again, only trees showing early stages of disease infection should be treated, and even then there is no assurance of success. Fungicide applications should not be used as preventive treatments because the wounds created by drilling the holes necessary for injection can be damaging. Recent reports that the bacterium Pseudomonas syringae have therapeutic antifungal activity have given hope for a biological control for Dutch elm disease. However, additional research is needed to determine the effectiveness of these bacteria. When elm trees are growing in close proximity to one another as they often are along streets, in parks, and in hedgerows, both Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis can be transmitted from tree to tree by root grafts. The frequency of root-graft transmission can be substantially reduced by either chemically killing (with Vapam) tree roots in a narrow zone or mechanically trenching between infected and healthy trees. Both methods are expensive, and neither can be effectively utilized in the narrow tree lawns commonly found along street sides where tree roots are found below cement or blacktop. Planting disease-resistant trees is an indirect method of controlling Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis. The effects of these two diseases on elms have emphasized the highly vulnerable nature of single species planting programs in cities. Further diversification of plant material is clearly indicated because Norway maples, honeylocusts, and London planetrees are currently being overplanted in many cities. Although the American elm and other elms native to the United States are very risky plantings because of their high susceptibility to both Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis (see Table 2), there are elms that have excellent disease resistance. They include the species Ulmus parvifolia, U. pumila, U. wallichiana, and the recent selections 'Sapporo Autumn Gold' and 'Urban' elm. Unfortunately, these trees do not have the vase-shaped crown of the American elm. Furthermore, U. wallichiana and U. pumila selections are needed with improved cold hardiness and better resistance to Nectria canker. Ulmus pumila trees are also weak wooded and suffer storm breakage. The task before the tree breeder is to develop hybrid elms with the disease resistance of the Asian elms and the ornamental characteristics and the urban hardiness of the American elm. Work has begun at several research stations to develop improved Asian elm selections and hybrids. A species that has excellent urban hardiness and that often has a very attractive exfoliating bark is Ulmus parvifolia. This species should be more commonly planted in the United States. Recently released Dutch clones such as 'Groenveld', 'Plantyn', 'Dodoens', and 'Lobel' are only moderately resistant to the aggressive strain of Dutch elm disease, while 'Commelin', an early Dutch selection, has no resistance to it. Thus, these elms should be used only sparingly in the United States. In conclusion, there are no simple solutions to the diseases affecting some of America's finest elms. The best hope lies in hybridization experiments that may produce a hardy, resistant hybrid elm with outstanding ornamental characteristics. In the meantime, planting selected alternatives and pursuing an integrated program of pest management and sanitation, are the disturbing facts of life for the elm in America. References Braun, E. J. & Sinclair, W. A. 1979. Phloem necrosis of elms: symptoms and histopathological observations in tolerant hosts. Phytopathology 69: 354-358. D. P. 1980 Dutch elm disease control: perforUSDA Forest Serv. Res. Pap. NE-457. Gibbs, J. N., Burdekin, D A., & Brasier, C. M. 1977 Dutch elm disease. Forestry Commission Forest Record (England) No. 155. Holmes, F. W. 1980. Bark beetles, Ceratocystis ulm2 and Dutch elm disease. Chap. 8 tw Vectors of Plant Pathogens. Harris, K., & Maramarosch, K., eds., New York: Academic Press. Kamosky, D. F. 1979. Dutch elm disease: a review of the history, environmental implications, control, and research needs. Environ. Cons. 6: 311322. Santamour, F. S., Jr. & Felix, R., eds. 1977. The current state of the art of Dutch elm disease control. National Arborist Assoc. Symp. No. 1. Schreiber, L. R. & Peacock, J. W. 1979. Dutch elm disease and its control. USDA Agr. Infor. Bull. No. 193 Sinclair, W. A. & Campana, R. J. 1978. Dutch elm disease perspectives after 60 years. New York State Agric. Exp. Station, Cornell University Sinclair, W. A., Braun, E. J., & Larsen, A. O. 1976. Update on phloem necrosis of elms. J. Arboric 2: 106-113. Cannon, W. N. Jr. & Worley, mance and costs. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dutch Elm Disease: A Postscript Gerald N. Lanier","article_sequence":6,"start_page":78,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24805","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eb76d.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":null,"article_content":"Dutch Elm Disease: A Postscript by GERALD I N. LANIERI Dutch elm disease (DED) is the preeminent shade-tree problem in North America and Europe. The enormous economic loss and the aesthetic desecration wrought by DED make it the most widely known of all plant diseases. Recent articles on this infamous malady include those by Newbanks et al. and Karnosky in this issue of Arnoldin. Together, these papers provide a rather complete picture; yet some important points remain unmade, and a few of the statements printed are, in my opinion, misconceptions. This postscript to the Ar~zolclin articles ventures a few amendments to the previous papers and presents my view of the state of the art of DED control. Differences of An Opinion on Specific DED Control Operations important problem confronting the DED-control practitioner is the apparent controversy among \"experts\" on the effectiveness of specific practices. Another is lack of knowledge of new developments. One perspective in consideration of DED control measures arises from the desire to protect or cure individual trees; another from the wish to minimize tree losses within a population. The owner of a magnificent elm will probably concentrate on prophylactic protection ' College of Environmental Science and Forestry, State Umversity of New York, Syracuse, New York 13210. Top' The European elm bark beetle IS about 3 mm (L m ) long, shxny, with a sharply up-sLopxng abdomen Its elytrae (wxng covers) are dark red-brown and the rest of the body as black Bottom The natxve elm bark beetle ss about 2~ mm (A xn.) long, rough, uniformly dark brown, and shaped lzke a Volkswagen \"Beetle \" 80 or must therapy for that particular tree. The city arborist, on the other hand, be concerned with limiting elm losses while keeping costs within an operating budget. Like the practices of public health and medicine, the personal and population approaches to DED control are compatible and often synergistic. However, the specific measures effectively attainment of one objective are not necessarily efficient for fruition of the other. Hence, some of the differences of opinion about which particular DED operations should be applied often originate from different perspectives. A second major source of controversy about specific DED control measures is that their effectiveness often must be gauged by the number of DED infections that do not occur. Rigorous proof of cause is elusive when many factors contribute to an effect. For example, it is possible to show quickly that a certain concentration of an insecticide kills a specific proportion of the elm-bark beetles exposed to it, yet several years of evaluation may be required to assess the contribution of operational spraying to DED control. A third reason for confusion about the value of various DED control practices is the inherent variation among many of the factors that influence the DED loss rate. These include regional climate, local weather, soil characteristics, and genetic variation within beetles, elms and fungus. Many of the elm strains bred by Dutch workers for resistance to the prevalent DED fungus quickly succumbed to a more virulent strain imported from North America via Britain (Brasier and employed for the Gibbs, 1973). R;r,oll,- ~-oriohilit~r _______~, in thA ___ ____ .______~_, CnP~ifl~ Pffarti~PnPCq nf _~___-__ nrartircc aricac _______ ____.._ __ ~_________ ___-___ from the different ways that they are applied. Effectiveness may be serendipitous for one application, while a similar approach may not yield the same benefits. For instance, DED rates rapidly declined when sticky traps baited with the aggregation pheromone of the European elm-bark beetle were positioned around isolated elm groves (Lanier, 1981), but a variation of this technique for city-wide application of mass trapping had no discernible impact on DED rates (Peacock et al., 1981). The techniques as actually used may vary from guidelines developed by researchers, as in the case of a major midAtlantic city which for several years has applied the insecticide methoxychlor by mistblower at the concentration recommended for hydraulic application (2% rather than 12.5%). In addition, most of the trees were treated later than is necessary to protect elms from twig feeding by the spring generation of elm-bark beetles. Earlier in this issue, Karnosky cogently reviews histories of DED and elm phloem necrosis and describes symptoms of both diseases. Newbanks et al. detail the infection process. Both articles deal with control tactics. Aside from a short description on the biologies of the two principal vectors, I will focus my specific comments on DED control strategies and tactics. 81 The Disease Vectors The two known vectors of DED in North America are the native elm-bark beetle, Hylurgopinus rufipes, and the European elm-bark beetle, Scolytus multistriatus. Both insects breed in the inner bark of weakened or moribund elms and transmit DED when adults of contaminated broods feed on the bark of healthy elms. European beetles overwinter as larvae in brood trees, while native beetles spend the winter predominantly in the adult stage, in the bark at root collars of healthy elms. Native beetles leave their overwintering niches in the early spring and walk up their host to feed on limbs. European beetles emerge about a month later (when the first leaves are fully expanded) and fly to moribund elms, where they breed, or to healthy elms, where they feed in twig crotches. In urban areas where the climate is milder, the more aggressive European immigrant has displaced the native species. The less winter-vulnerable native beetle is the only vector in the coldest regions where elms grow (much of Canada, northern plains states, Maine). In the intermediate areas such as New England, New York, and Minnesota, the relative abundance of the two beetles fluctuates with the severity of the preceding winter. Determination of the relative abundance of the two DED vectors is important because some operations used to control one species are useless against the other. Removal during the winter of recently dead elms may decimate the European beetle population but will have little impact on the overwintering native beetles. Although spraying with methoxychlor just prior to foliation may prevent twig feeding by the European beetle, much of the feeding by the native beetle will already have occurred. Conversely, chlorpyrifos sprayed on lower boles of healthy elms will have no impact on the European beetle. Finally, the aggregation pheromone of European beetles is not attractive to the native species. DED Basic Management Strategies and Tactics strategies for limiting losses to DED include the following: 1. Reduce 2. populations of disease vectors (i.e., elm-bark beetles); Apply measures for prophylactic protection of individual trees against feeding by elm-bark beetles or colonization by the DED fungus; population. 3. Cure infected trees; 4. Increase disease resistance of the tree Various tactics or practices can be employed under the above stratA DED management program may invoke more than one strategy and almost necessarily employs a combination of tactics. Karnosky and Newbanks et al. state that integrated programs are most effective. Enlightened integrated management should attempt to egies. Left Wood engraved by the European elm bark beetles shows the vertical mines bored by egg-layzng females. Right Bark mrned by natzae elm bark beetles shows the horzzontal mines made by the egg-laying females maximize the cost effectiveness of the entire program. Therefore, an evaluation to determine which tactics to employ must consider their cost of application and their collective contribution to the net result. These elements are contrasted with the expenses of removal and replacement, plus the aesthetic value of trees expected to be saved by each tactic. Because disease severity, tree values, operating costs, and available expertise differ widelv. DED management programs should also vary. DED Control Tactics Survey. One tactic not mentioned either by Karnosky or by Newbanks et al. is survey and inspection of the elm population. This operation is essential in order to maximize benefits of the more expensive tasks of sanitation, root-graft control and therapy. It is necessary for surveyors to be trained to recognize new infections. Frequency and intensity of inspections may vary with the level of control desired. If the control objective for a rather dense elm population is less than 1% annual loss, inspections must be made frequently and on foot. If the objective is 3-5% loss annually, two inspections during the growing season may be adequate. Binocular scanning of the elm population from aircraft or vantage points is very helpful in detecting new infections in the upper peripheral crowns of trees. A relatively small increase in funds spent for upgrading survey methods may yield high returns via improvements in the results of the entire program. Sanitation. Karnosky calls sanitation \"the cornerstone of all successful programs,\" yet Newbanks et al. say that \"it is only effective if done promptly and consistently.\" Removal ofany dead and dying elms before new beetle adults emerge from them will have some impact on DED rate. Prompt removal is important because infections in adja- 83 are caused by beetles attracted by elm wood being colwell as by the brood that emerges later. Prompt removal reduces the opportunity for the fungus to move to the roots, through which infection may occur via grafts to adjacent elms. Expenditures to remove elms after beetles have emerged and fungus has invaded the roots contribute nothing but a reduction in the hazard from falling limbs. Optimal DED control programs mandate elimination of all potential beetle-breeding material, including diseased wild elms in green spaces within and adjacent to the elm population being managed. Elimination could also be accomplished by the trap-tree technique or by felling and spraying. Prophylactic spraying. Since the ban on DDT, methoxychlor has generally been the insecticide used to protect twigs from feeding by the European elm-bark beetle. There is no doubt that this material prevents feeding and can reduce risk of infection (Barger, 1976). However, there is considerable disagreement about the usefulness of methoxychlor in general practice. Neely (1972) found no difference in the level of DED control when Illinois communities sprayed or did not spray with this insecticide. The statement by Newbanks et al. that \"these insecticides [including chlorpyrifos, used against the native beetle] are effective only for a short period of time\" is contrary to analysis of insecticidal activity by Cuthbert et al. (1973), and to our bioassays (Rabaglia, 1980) which show that the recommended 2% dormant hydraulic spray of methoxychlor completely inhibited twig feeding by the European beetle for at least 10 weeks after treatment. The apparent lack of effectiveness in reducing DED rates by prophylactic sprays probably results from one or more of the following: 1) coverage is inadequate; 2) beetle feeding has occurred before the spray was applied; 3) new shoots produced after spraying are not protected; 4) the principal vector in the area may be the native elm-bark beetle, for which methoxychlor is not very effective. The insecticide of choice against the native beetle is chlorpyrifos (Gardiner and Webb, 1980). An exemplary DED program in Sault Ste. Marie, Ontario, utilizes treatment of the lower boles of healthy elms with chlorpyrifos in fall or spring to virtually eliminate the adult beetles that attempt to overwinter in the root-collar region. Spraying whole trees will protect them from beetle feeding in the spring, but as is the case for methoxychlor, adequacy of coverage may be a problem. It is my opinion that prophylactic treatment of elm crowns at $25$100 per tree should be undertaken only after expenditures for alternative operations are considered. The much less costly operation of treating the lower boles against overwintering adult native beetles is likely to be economically justifiable because it is inexpensive, easily accomplished, and necessary only once every two years. If a spray program is undertaken, there should be some evaluation of both conformation to standards (including concentration and timing) and thoroughness of coverage. Municipal spray operations usually cost cent trees onized, as a Example of diseased Ameracan elm (Ulmus americana). tens to hundreds of thousands of dollars annually; it seems that at least 1''\/~ of the amount spent could be devoted to evaluation of the operation. Prenenting imfection through root grafts. Prompt detection and removal or therapy of diseased trees will usually preclude movement of the DED fungus through root grafts between adjacent elms. Preemptive trenching about once every five years should be considered for protection of valuable elm groves wherever conditions permit it. Trenching or chemical severance of roots around trees that have systemic DED is justifiable only after careful inspection of the diseased tree for DED-caused discoloration indicates that the fungus has not yet infected the root-collar region. Too often, disruption is done after the trees to be protected are infected. Pheromone-baited traps. Sticky traps baited with Multilure, a synthetic copy of the aggregation pheromone of the European elm-bark beetle, have recently been registered for aid in the control of DED. Traps placed on utility poles and trees other than elms capture large numbers of beetles and cause many others to exhaust themselves in fruitless flights to areas devoid of elms. Newbanks et al. are incorrect in implying that the method is expensive and subject to interference by weather. Traps may be positioned long before the first possible beetle flight. The pheromone bait remains attractive for at least 100 days, regardless of temperature, and the trap remains effective until it is covered with beetles (about 25,000) or debris. The cost of traps plus deployment and removal should be about $0.50 to $5.00 per tree per 85 year. In addition to eliminating beetles that might otherwise transmit healthy elms, pheromone-baited traps monitor beetle flight and relative population. Trapping beetles is no substitute for sanitation; in fact, the effectiveness of trapping appears to increase as the number of competing pheromone sources (elm wood being colonized) decreases (Lanier, 1981). Tree-trap Technique. Perhaps the greatest detriment to DED control has been an enormous supply of brood wood in green spaces where wild elms proliferate. In addition, removal of diseased trees from streets and yards has been delayed due to fiscal, mechanical, or political reasons. The trap-tree technique is an extremely powerful tool for coping with either situation. Hopelessly diseased trees and unwanted \"weed\" elms are injected with an herbicide, cacodylic acid. Treated trees are very attractive to both the native and the European elm-bark beetles; attraction of the latter can be enhanced by baiting the tree DED fungus to with Multilure. Attracted beetles colonize the tree, but the beetle brood substantially (average more than 90%) fails due to herbicideinduced desiccation of the bark (O'Callaghan et al., 1980). Treated trees do not have to be removed immediately, and no special provisions must be made for disposal of the wood. Trap trees in green spaces can be left standing to fill the ecological role of a naturally dying tree. Because it is inexpensive, effective and quick, the trap-tree technique is probably the most efficient means of gaining control in a DED outbreak or of managing an area that includes large numbers of elms in green spaces. Fungicide injections. Fungicides injected into elms can provide a high level of prophylactic protection; they can also arrest symptom development if distribution of the DED fungus within the tree is not advanced. Newbanks et al. reviewed the development and application of Benomyl derivatives and thiabendazole and cited the problem of Benomyl products being tightly held by the vessel walls and not easily moving within the tree, especially not into wood produced after the injection. Thus, the trees would have to be treated annually for continued protection. Very recent work (Stennes, 1980) confirmed the lack of perennial effect even for very high dosages of a Benomyl derivative (MBC-phosphate) but demonstrated that excellent protection could be maintained for three years by injecting thiabendazole (Arbotect) in the root collar at three times the registered therapeutic dosage. Registration of this dosage is apparently being undertaken by Merck & Co., producers of Arbotect. Injection of fungicides for prophylaxis is probably the best means of where incidence of DED is may make it a relatively inefficient way to spend DED control funds on a municipal level. On the other hand therapeutic treatments should usually be cost effective. A program employing frequent survey and proper technique for therapeutic pruning and injection should be able to cure 70''\/~ of the protecting very one or a few elms within areas high, but the expense of this practice 86 newly infected trees. Assuming costs of $200 per tree for therapy, and a total of $750 for tree removal and replacement, only 30% of the treated trees must be cured in order to realize a savings in direct program costs. Antibiosis. Regardless of the reliability of injections of chemical fungicides, prophylaxis by this means faces the prospect of substantial expense over the lifetime of a tree (which itself might be shortened by injection wounds). An exciting possibility for the attainment of long-term protection is the development of a strain of the bacterium Pseudomonas s~rirzgne that can maintain itself within the sapwood of elms while it produces antibiotics that kill the DED fungus (Strobel and Lanier, 1981). The concept has worked well enough in research tests for Chevron Chemical Company to undertake its commercial development. Replmztizxg. Karnosky reviewed the development of a number of DED-resistant elm varieties. Planting these is common practice in Europe, but except for Siberian (Ulnzus purrzzla) and Chinese elms (U. parviflora), DED-resistant stock is not commonly available in North American nurseries. Keeping in mind the generalization that diversity promotes stability, I believe that in areas largely devoid of wild elms, even DED-susceptible American elms can be prudently planted as scattered individuals to compose 5-10% of the tree population. Outlook The advent of new technologies has brightened the prospects for maintaining existing elm oonmlatinnc anrl raactahl;~h;\"~r elms ;\" .y., astated areas. Yet, there is no cure for the DED problem. Individual trees may be cured of the disease, but DED within an area must be managed. Management involves the enlightened application of a combination of practices that optimize the cost effectiveness of the entire program. Because uncontroverted data may not be available, because available information on cost and effect of various technologies is rarely mustered, and because efforts devoted to evaluation and management seldom match the magnitude of the problem, the majority of DED control programs are less effective than they could be and more costly than necessary. From a study considering only the cost of tree removal (not aesthetic value or replacement cost) Cannon and Worley (1976) concluded that good DED management was cheaper than poor management, which, in turn, was cheaper than no management. Removal costs have increased since this study, and development of cost-powerful tactics such as tree therapy, mass-trapping beetles, and trap-tree technique should increase the difference in relative costs. With the reiteration of the value of traditional DED tactics and the advent of new techniques, there is seldom economic justification for a community not to manage DED. 87 References Barger, J. H. 1976. Dutch elm disease and methoxychlcr. U.S. For Serv. Res. Pap. NE-353. Brasier, C. M. and Gibbs, J. N. 1973. Origin of the Dutch elm disease epidemic in Britain. Nature 242: 607-609. Cannon, W. N., Jr. and Worley, D. P. 1976. Dutch elm disease control: performance and costs. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-345. Cuthbert, R. A., Barger, J. H., Lincoln, A. C., and Reed, P. A 1973. Formulation and application of methoxychlor for elm bark beetle control. U.S. For. Serv. Res. Pap. NE-283 Gardiner, L. M., ed. 1977. An integrated Dutch elm disease control program for Sault Ste. Marie. Can. For. Serv. Report O-X-268. Gardiner, L M. and Webb, D. P. 1980. Tests of chlorpyrifos for control of the North American elm bark beetle (Hylurgopznus rufipes Eichh ). Can. For. Serv. Report 0-X-3111. Lanier, G. N. 1981. Pheromone baited traps and trap trees in the integrated management of bark beetles in urban areas. Pp. 115-131 zn Management of insect pests with semiochemicals. E. R. Mitchell, ed., New York: Plenum. Neely, D. 1972. Municipal control of Dutch elm disease in Illinois cities. Plant Dzs. Rep. 56' 460-462. O'Callaghan, D. P., Gallagher, E. M., and Lamer, G. N. 1980. Field evaluation of pheromone-baited trap trees to control elm bark beetles, vectors of Dutch elm disease. Env. Entomol. 9: 181-185. Peacock, J W., Cuthbert, R. A., and Lanier, G. N. 1981. Deployment of traps in a barrier strategy to reduce populations of European elm bark beetles and the incidence of Dutch elm disease. Pp. 155-174 In Management of rnsect pests with semzocheznicals. E. R. Mitchell, ed., New York: Plenum. Rabaglia, R. J. 1980. Twig-crotch feedmg by Scolytus multistrzatus (Coleoptera : Scolytidae) sampling for feedmg intensity and evaluation of carbaryl for prophylaxis M. S. Thesis, SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, New York. Stennes, M. A 1981 Thiabendazole hopophosphite and carbendazim phosphate as systemic fungicides for practical Dutch elm disease control. M. S. Thesis, Univ. Minnesota. Strobel, G. A. and Lanier, G. N 1981. Dutch elm disease. Set Amer. 245: 40-55. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees","article_sequence":7,"start_page":88,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24808","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15e816f.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring","authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Replacing the American Elm: Twelve Stately Trees by GARY KOLLER and RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The majesty of the American elm begins with its straight, simple, relatively slender bole rising 30 feet or more before diverging into major upswung branches; it climaxes in the great, full, arching canopy that reaches across wide lawns or streets, allowing one tree to touch its neighbor, thus forming a continuous ceiling. Two secondary characteristics enhance the vaulted, noble impression of mature trees. One is the visual effect of the tall, thin stems of trees planted in lines or groves; they seem to gain stature from each other. The other is due to the way the trunk branches with the secondary limbs first rising g upward and then in many cases drooping downward at the outer perimeter. Beneath the lower canopy, they enclose a spacious, inviting and often spiritually uplifting green. Adding to the aesthetic considerations of the American elm are its relatively rapid growth, longevity, structural strength, and adaptability to a wide range of environmental conditions, soil types and soil conditions. It is hardly surprising that the American elm was the premier street and lawn tree until 50 years ago. Despite the relatively recent advent of Dutch elm disease, one can still find magnificent specimens. However, in spite of the elm's desirable shape and stature, the tree These silver maples (Acer saccharinum) show the elmlike form and of this fine native Photograph by E. H Welson. stature tree has drawbacks as a landscape plant. The elm has no ornamental flower, fruit, or bark. The foliage is unremarkable in its form, texture, and color. Unfortunately, the leaves are sought as food by a multitude of insects. Many people seek a suitable tree that will duplicate the form and adaptability of Ulmus americana without its limitations. However, at present no single tree, including all the modern elm hybrids, has the positive architectural qualities and the environmental flexibility of this plant. Therefore, before we begin to look for substitutes, we should first consider if the elm is a lost cause as a plant for modern landscapes. The authors have discussed the status of Ulmus americana in relation to disease with several authories. It is our combined opinion that it would be unwise to cease planting American elms completely. However, prior to planting, we would recommend that the trees be planted singly rather than in masses or rows. The trees that survive tend to be lone or isolated specimens or those distant from sites of infection. Once a tree in a stand is infected, the disease spreads rapidly from tree to tree via root grafts, rather than above ground via insect vectors. Isolated trees can be sprayed to control the elm-bark beetle and the elm-leaf beetle. On large sites several elms could be planted, but they should be widely spaced so that at maturity there would be little likelihood of root grafting. In selecting a site one should survey neighboring properties to determine if and where other elms exist. New plantings should be carefully sited and are best situated in locations where their loss 90I would have minimal impact on the total landscape. People who plant elms should take into account the future maintenance that will be required to protect the tree. One must be prepared for the cost of removing trees that die prematurely, and must clearly balance the aesthetic and architectural value of the tree against the costs of maintenance. Those who fear the complete loss of the American elm as a species should take heart. It is still common as a wild plant because Dutch elm disease affects only the older specimens - specimens which have already produced multitudes of seeds annually before succumbing. Seedlings continue to sprout in great numbers in woodlands, at field edges, and in open city spaces. Therefore, whether we plant this tree or not, it will continue to invade our man-made landscapes and to flourish in natural ones. However, any future landscape use of Ulmus americana will be limited because of the tree's susceptibility to disease. At present, modern science has no easy, effective, or reliable cure for Dutch elm disease or phloem necrosis, the two major afflictions of the American elm. Therefore, we are suggesting the following tree species as alternate plantings to the American elm. None is a substitute, but all have at least some of the major aesthetic characteristics that have made the American elm noteworthy. Acer saccharinum Silver maple In many ways the silver maple comes closest in habit to the American elm among native trees. Typically, this species is characterized by a short, stout bole separating into several enormous, gradually ascending trunks. The result is a tall, somewhat narrow vase shape. Many individuals of the species will assume this shape naturally, without much remedial pruning. Silver maples are handsome, rapidly growing trees, often reaching a height in excess of 100 feet. The silver-backed foliage is attractive during the growing season and typically turns a beautiful clear butter-yellow in the fall. Visual as well as textural variation can be obtained by using the laciniate-leaf forms of this tree. Although the species was formerly widely planted as a shade tree, it has fallen into disfavor because of its supposedly brittle wood and its consequent susceptibility to injury in storms. Actually, in standard tests to determine the strength of wood, it compares favorably with the American elm. If judged from the specimens in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, it is not particularly susceptible to storm damage. In fact, the collection as a whole fared much better during a snowstorm on May 10, 1979 (when many trees were well leafed-out), than did most other large tree collections. Not a single large branch was lost in a collection of silver maples averaging 95 years of age, with one individual standing 110 feet tall. specimen of the Ohio buckeye (Aesculus glabra) rn the Arnold Arboretum If the lower branches had been rencoved, the crown would have been narrowly vase shaped Right Wzth its archzng branches and twtggy crown, the rtver birch (Betula mgra) gives an elmlike effect, but on a smaller scale Photographs by H Howard Left A fine Although relatively tolerant of city conditions, silver maples are not particularly good street trees because their shallow root systems wreak havoc with pavement. However, this tree remains a superb choice for parks, schools, or any landscape with sweeping, open spaces. Acer saccharum Sugar maple Both in the wild and in cultivation, the sugar maple is a variable In uncrowded situations it normally forms a relatively short bole, but the width, shape, and structure of the crown vary enormously. Many specimens develop a broad, rounded, regularly branched crown, while others have a crown that is narrower and oval in outline. Still others produce a dense crown of stiffly ascending branches. The first of these three types is the best to plant for an elmlike effect. Unlike the American elm, the sugar maple has ornamental characteristics in addition to its form. In fact, it is one of the most beautiful large, native American trees It is difficult to imagine what the autumn landscape would be like without it. The tree itself is moderately fast growing; in cultivation it seldom exceeds 80 feet in height. Although sugar maples are not particularly elmlike in form, in an avenue planting, if the lower branches have been carefully removed, they can give the same effect. Unfortunately, the trees cannot tolerate very dry soils or roadway salt so they cannot be recommended for planting along city streets, but they are excellent street trees in areas tree. 92 where the roads are not regularly salted in the winter. In fact, in rural upstate New York and Pennsylvania they fill the same role as the American elm in New England. Aesculus glabra Ohio buckeye Although it may grow taller in the wild, the Ohio buckeye seldom exceeds 50 feet in cultivation. The trees are distinctive in their form, with a moderately tall, thick bole, a slender, rounded crown, strongly down-curving branches, and thick twigs. If properly pruned, they will assume a vase shape, although a rather slender one. This is a better all-around tree than the related and much more familiar horsechestnut (Aesc ulus hippocastan Rni), except for its relatively inconspicuous greenish white to yellowish flowers. The foliage is less coarse, and in most years it turns a good orange in the fall. The leaves also expand very early in the spring, and they are less susceptible to the scorch that so disfigures horsechestnuts. Although reasonably tolerant of city conditions, it is probably better not to plant them along busy streets because the large nuts could pose a hazard to traffic or pedestrians. However, the walls of the fruit lack the formidable prickles of horsechestnuts, so they do not pose a hazard to bare feet. Betula nigra River birch As is the case with most birches, Betula nigra has a conical to pyramidal shape while young but develops a rounded crown with maturity. The bole is normally short, but the major branches arch gracefully upward, and the smaller branches and twigs at the end of the canopy tend to droop. The effect produced is vaselike, and this can be enhanced by removing the lower branches while the young. River birches tree is still are graceful, fast-growing trees with relatively strong wood. Once established, annual growth rate can range from 3 to 4 feet. They have a moderate life span, and 100-year-old specimens at the Arnold Arboretum are beginning to show signs of decline. With a maximum height of 70 feet in cultivation, they bridge the gap between medium- and large-size trees. This is rather different from other birches. Since it is widely distributed in flood plains and other lowland areas of the southern United States, it is tolerant of heat and oxygen-poor soils. The bark is pale creamy-brown on young trees, but it becomes dark and picturesquely scaly with age; the cultivar 'Heritage' has been selected for its attractive near-white bark color. The trees are seldom bothered by the bronze birch-borer. Although this tree will never assume the proportions of a mature Specimens of the black walnut (Juglans nigra) Above An Isolated specimen zn the now-defunct Harvard College Botanical Garden. Below The group planting at the Arnold Arboretum. Photographs by A Rehder and H Howard Left With its tall, strazght bole and masszve, spreadzng crown, the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera) zs one of the largest and most majestic of native American deciduous trees. Photograph by R Horsey Right An avenue of red oaks (Quercus rubra) at the Arnold Arboretum The clear trunks and the overlapping canopies give the same effect as would a group ofAmemcan elms zn a similar plantzng Photograph by E Gray. AmPri~an P_lm itc ch_ana anr-1 itc oranAfml t~n-icrcrc acceptable substitute for less grand n_r_mx-n__ V mab~ it --'~--\" __ o .___ landscapes. Fraxinus americana White ash The white ash is one of the largest and most majestic of native American deciduous trees, and specimens nearly 100 feet tall are not uncommon. A mature specimen typically has a massive bole and a broad, rounded crown supported by a few very large branches. The white ash is already extensively planted as a street tree for it has proved itself adaptable to urban conditions. One disadvantage is that it often seeds prolifically, becoming a nuisance. The species is dioecious, and several staminate (and therefore nonfruiting) clones are available. These include 'Autumn Purple', 'Autumn Applause', and 'Rose Hill'. Planting of these clones is recommended to avoid the abundant fruits and the numerous volunteer seedlings. This is one of the finest trees at the Arnold Aboretum for autumn foliage color. Beside being one of the first trees to turn in the fall, the color is a beautiful blend of yellows, gold, reds and purples. It has been described as resembling a bed of glowing embers. The green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) is a similar species and one equally tolerant of urban conditions. It tends to be smaller in 95 stature than the white ash, and its fall color is generally Several staminate clones of this species are also available. yellow. Gymnocladus dioica Kentucky coffee tree The open, picturesque crown of the Kentucky coffee tree casts a light dappled shade that is desirable in many garden settings. While this tree is substantially different in form from the American elm, it can be trained to create an unbranched stem rising 30 feet or more. The potentially tall trunk and the open, sparse canopy can be utilized in groups to create a lofty spatial enclosure reminiscent of the American elm. Gyrnnocladus dioica has bold, bipinnately compound leaves that are medium green in summer and pale yellow in autumn. Groups of this tree create a similar shade density to the honey locust. The only notable disadvantage is that the pistillate plants produce a broad, lima-bean-like pod. These are light green in summer but at maturity turn dark, chocolate brown. When they fall from the tree, they can create a litter problem. While growth rate can vary, the tree tends to be upright and rather slow growing. It may not be a good choice as a planting for an immediate effect, but for long-range planning for a future landscape, the Kentucky coffee tree deserves top consideration. Juglans nigra Black walnut With its tall, straight bole and open, umbrellalike crown, a mature black walnut often strongly resembles an American elm in its form. However, some individuals branch close to the ground, and in these, pruning off the lower branches is necessary if a tall, straight bole is desired. Black walnuts are magnificent, slow-growing trees, but they are best known for the edible nuts and beautiful lumber that they produce. They do have a number of drawbacks as ornamentals: the leaves appear late in the season and then fall off early before most other trees have assumed their autumnal coloration; the nuts, although pleasant to eat, have messy husks that stain sidewalks and roadways as they decay; and the trees develop a deep taproot, making them difficult to transplant. However, the allegation that their roots and litter are deleterious to the growth of other plants appears to be unfounded. With all of these drawbacks, many would ask \"why plant a black walnut?\" To these we would suggest a look at the group of these trees in the Arnold Arboretum, where they are planted as an informal grove. We have few trees more beautiful in form, and few groupings that show the beautiful form of a tree so well. 96 Liriodendron tulipifera Tulip tree, tulip poplar This species is one of the largest native American deciduous trees, and individuals well in excess of 100 feet tall, with diameters of 7 feet or more, still survive in our southern mountains. Young trees are quite uniform in their narrowly conical shape, and many individuals mature with a tall, somewhat narrow crown. Others, however, develop a tall, massive bole with a broad, rounded crown, and these are the ones that give more of the effect of an American elm. Near the Arboretum are several specimens, grown on small residential lawns, that can be described as grand elements of outdoor architecture. In many ways the tulip tree is the handsomest large tree native to the United States. The foliage is of excellent texture, and it is little bothered by insect pests. It turns bright yellow in the fall. The leaves are distinctively shaped and attractive. The beautiful orange and green flowers are unfortunately often borne too high to be fully appreciated. The tree is massive and substantial. It grows rapidly and soon forms a respectable specimen. The species is intolerant of compacted soils, limiting its use as a street tree, and it cannot be recommended for small planting pockets in sidewalks. However, it would succeed along parkways or in similar situations that provide ample root space. Like its relatives the magnolias, the tulip tree should be transplanted in the spring. Quercus rubra (Q. borealis) Red oak If left to grow -_ naturally, a red oak will seldom assume anything resembling shape of an American elm. However, if properly pruned it can give much the same effect in an avenue planting. In fact, it is one of the best large trees for avenue plantings in northern the vase a long-lived, moderately fast-growing tree, seldom height of 75 feet in cultivation. If grown as a specimen tree in uncrowded situations, it branches relatively low to the ground from a massive, straight but short bole. The crown is dense and broad, often spreading as wide as it is tall. At maturity such a tree is magnificent. Although different in shape, it is comparable in scale to the American elm. If grown under more crowded conditions, the bole will grow taller without any management, but to insure an elmlike effect, the lower branches will have to be removed on a planned schedule for at least the first 15 years of growth. Red oaks make excellent street trees. They are tolerant of poor, dry, compacted soils, salt and atmospheric pollution. The thick bark and strong wood are able to withstand the inevitable impact of vehicles. There is a particularly fine planting of this species along the Jamaicaway and the Arborway near the Arnold Arboretum. The black oak (Quercus velutina) is almost the equal of this species. climates. The red oak is a exceeding A specxmen of the pendent sxluer lxnden (T>lia pet~olaris) that ts exceptIOnally elmlike rn form. Photograph by R Horsey Tilia petiolaris Pendent silver linden Most lindens have a tendency to branch low to the ground, so careful pruning is necessary while the trees are young to produce a specimen with a tall, straight bole. This species has a broad crown with somewhat pendent branches, and a mature specimen is majestic but still graceful. An enormous, 75-foot-tall individual of this species, formerly at the edge of the Aesculus collection, was one of the most admired specimen trees in the Arnold Arboretum. Unfortunately, a serious, old cavity weakened the tree, and it was broken apart in a violent thunderstorm in 1981. Besides its form, the flowers and foliage of T. petiolaris are desirable ornamental characteristics. The blossoms are similar to others of this genus and are pleasantly fragrant. The foliage is outstanding, with leaves deep green above and covered with white hairs beneath. The slightest breeze causes them to rustle, producing a silvery effect. Unfortunately, the same white hairs collect dust and dirt, and the leaves may become somewhat unsightly on trees grown where there is a large amount of particulate matter in the air. Ulmus parvifolia Chinese elm This is one of the smallest trees of those recommended here - it seldom grows more than 50 feet tall in cultivation in the Northeast. It 98 an exceptionally neat and graceful tree with a somewhat slender bole and a rounded to vase-shaped crown of ascending branches. If a congener must replace the American elm, this is about the only one to consider. It will never assume the stature of its American relative, but it is highly resistant to Dutch elm disease. The foliage, glossy and with a fine texture, remains on the tree well into the fall, and at least in warmer climates some clones are semi-evergreen. The bark exfoliates in small patches, producing an ornamental pattern of grays, greens and browns. The species has been more widely planted in recent years, and it shows promising tolerance of urban conditions. Chinese elms have been planted along streets of Philadelphia's Society Hill area. Here they have exhibited exceptional tolerance of repeated and severe damage to their trunks from automobiles and snow-removal equip- is ment. Zelkova serrata Japanese zelkova The Japanese zelkova is one of the trees being actively promoted as substitute for the American elm. In fact, it was a rather rare tree in this country until Dutch elm disease became a serious problem. Although quite elmlike in basic form, it is not very elmlike in character. The bole is short and separates into numerous, rather small, stiffly ascending branches. In extreme cases, these branches are so numerLjjvulll. J uull.iuu~ Plullous as .......ly ~7.-.. m,......._--L7_ am OUS aS to um. m.u. W .ac.mum. ___ uYiullWu ulvW u1. ' lJtuiling, of course, can reduce the number of these branches. The Japanese zelkova seldom grows to more than 60 feet in the northern United States, so the scale of the tree does not approximate that of the American elm. And it is only moderately resistant to Dutch elm disease. Two cultivars have been selected and are becoming widely planted: 'Village Green', for its straight trunk; and 'Parkview', for a better vase shape than the type. Both are tolerant of city conditions and make excellent street trees. One disadvantage of this tree is its susceptibility to branch damage from ice and snow. New plantings along Commonwealth Avenue in Boston suffered significant structural damage during a recent earlywinter snowstorm. This was in part due to the fact that the leaves had not yet fallen and, therefore, accumulated snow until the flux strength of the woody tissue was exceeded. If you are familiar with the foregoing trees, you will know that all are different in stature than Ulmus americana. One characteristic that can make them more closely approximate the form of the American elm is a tall, straight, unbranched bole. Generally the trees discussed branch rather low to the ground, but where specialized maintenance can be supplied, the canopy can be \"pushed\" up. Several techniques can be used to promote or force a higher branching system. The first technique involves annual pruning. As the tree a The Chinese elm (Ulmus parvifolia) 2s one of the few species of zts genus that zs relatzuely resistant to the Dutch elm dzsease. Photograph by M Dzrr ing up\" pruning, grows, the lower limbs should be pruned off. As an example of \"limbwe cite a specimen of turkey oak (Quercus cerris). This tree, grown mz situ from an acorn, is 20 years of age and 35 feet tall. Each winter the owner of the tree removed the lower one quarter of its branches, pushing the bottom branch level ever higher. Today, the lowermost branch arises at 20 feet. While the owner wishes no additional branch clearage, the bottom branches could be pruned up to 25 feet with no damage to the tree. In pushing the branches up, two factors must be kept in mind. First, removal of the lower branches should be started when the tree is young, and continued annually thereafter, so the limbs do not become large in size, necessitating huge pruning cuts. Second, the side or secondary branches produce chemicals or food materials that contribute to increasing the diameter of the main trunk. If one forces the head of the tree up too rapidly, one creates the danger of a thin or weak stem. A thin stem may not adequately support the top growth, especially in the event of ice, snow, or wind storms. The second method involves close spacing at planting time. The crowding and shading will cause the trees to become more open in the center and to grow taller as they reach for light. Some pruning might be employed to remove branches central to the mass, as well as twigs in undesirable locations. The third means is to surround the tree with a rapid-growing but short-lived tall shrub, or small tree. For example, one could use a mass of Elaeagnus angustifolza or Salix caprea that would generate a 100 foliage quickly and provide a more immediate - but shortlandscape effect. The shading from these smaller plants will stretch the tree up to overtop the ground. Once the tree is stretched, the nurse planting can be either removed or allowed to decline and disappear as part of a natural cycle. Let us reiterate that no existing plant can duplicate the form of the American elm. However, the trees suggested above can achieve a similar effect in a variety of situations if planted and pruned properly. mass of term - Arnoldia, the Erratum - On page 248 of the November\/December, name of the donor for the arcto-tertiary read Mr. Philip Hofer. 1981, issue of garden should "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23536","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260ab28.jpg","title":"1982-42-2","volume":42,"issue_number":2,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Spring"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24802","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eaf6b.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":1,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw; Slive, Seymour; Davies, Alice","article_content":"Jacob van Ruisdael's Trees by PETER ASHTON, ALICE 1. DAVIES, and SEYMOUR SLIVE This article appears in conjunction with the exhibition Jacob Ruisdael (1628-1682) on view in the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, 18 January-I1 April 1982, and represents a collaborative venture between the Arnold Arboretum and the Fogg. Every one uJ naisduei~5 worizs, Jrurrt wYtie,it iite cietaiia iiiaairui,eci itere ituue been taken, may be examined at the exhibition by the interested reader. The catalogue numbers cited refer to the exhibition catalogue prepared by Seymour Slive. van Modern botanical illustration, in which plants are drawn from life with careful attention to those characteristics which distinguish their species, dates from 1530 when Otto Brunfels, physician to the city of Bern, published Herbarium Vivae Eicones. The art of illustrating plants almost certainly existed in classical times, though none of these illustrations survive. On Pliny the Elder's authority, the father of botanical illustration is considered to be Cratevas, physician to Mithridates VI, a king of Pontus in the last century before Christ, though illustrated herbals seem to have been common in the Greek world by that time. From the sixth Christian century onwards, Byzantine manuscripts exist in which plants are depicted in a naturalistic manner uncharacteristic of that artistic tradition, strongly suggesting Peter Ashton zs Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology and Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard Umversity. Dr. Alice I. Davies zs a Research Asslstant at the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University. Seymour Slive zs Gleason Professor of Fzzze Arts and Dzrector of the Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University. ~ _ Plate 1. The Xaxocotl, or sand frutt, from the Badianus herbal, 1552, Santa Cruz. It zs thought to represent a guava sour (Psidium guajava) Reprinted wtth The permission from Badianus Manuscript (Vatzcan Library), by Emzly Wolcott Emmaret, and published by the Johns Hopkzns Press, BaltImore originals were classical. What are clearly the same illustrarepeatedly copied and with time declined in quality and in realism, so that, by the fifteenth century, it would have been highly imprudent to have used a contemporary herbal for plant identification before ingestion! The illustrations by then were crude formalized caricatures of their classical antecedents. It is interesting that it was not Otto Brunfels himself who was responsible for the reawakening. He had initiated the Eicones from a strictly traditionalist viewpoint, with rather formalized, though elegant, illustrations of eastern Mediterranean plants from the classics which the townspeople of l~iern would be unlikely to have seen. Soon, however, one Hans Weiditz took over the project. He and his assistants had the brashness, the sheer lack of good education, to introduce the wild flowers of the Bernese Oberland into the manuscript, plants which Brunfels dismissed as herbae nudae - destitute weeds. But they were drawn from life, and with a grace and accuracy never seen before. The illustration of the Pasque Flower, for instance, was of such quality that it was used for the type description of Pulsatilla vulgaris by Linnaeus two centuries later. The great majority of individual plants illustrated up to that time were herbaceous. Only occasionally were trees represented, as in Serapion the Younger's Herbolio Volgare, which was compiled in Padua from an Arabic original during the last years of the fourteenth century. The technique used here is exemplified by the pine where a fine branch, with needles and cones, is superimposed on a grotesque tions were that the tennis racquet of a tree. Here the plant is not depicted to illustrate its habit, but merely as a plinth for the presentation of one branch. More often, a branch alone would be illustrated, often with a formalized rootstock to give a sense of completion. Such is the case in several illustrations of woody plants in another exotic production, the Badianus Herbal of 1552 (pl. 1). This herbal, which is in the Vatican Library, was prepared by two Aztecs in the College of Santa Cruz in New Spain, and is the earliest work on the flora of the New World, and the earliest American medical text besides. Jacob van Ruisdael (1628-1682) lived at the time when the florilegium, an anthology in the literal sense, was born. Until the seventeenth century, botanical illustration had been confined to herbals, which are treatises on medicinal plants. Now more comprehensive scrutiny was made of the entire plant world. The precise illustration of plants in botanical and horticultural compendia was greatly facilitated by the use of intaglio prints, as seen in Crispijn van de Passe II's Hortus Floridus, published in Arnhem in 1614. Abraham Munting's Waare Oeffening der Planten, published in Amsterdam in 1672, though noteworthy for the descriptions it contained, illustrates trees in the manner typical of the time with depictions of detached twigs, fruits and flowers. A rare example of the illustration of a whole tree is found in a natural history encyclopedia, Historiae Naturalis de Arboribus et Plantis, published in Frankfurt in 1662 by John Jonston, who also compiled volumes devoted to fish, reptiles, insects, and birds. Amid the usual depictions of separate tree parts, there is a single plate trca h,~t it ic _o rlalnr~tirp illz,ctr~tinn ehn~crirta a inhnl_n rl_a_orlv not taken from life, neither the entire tree nor its we shall see, Munting might have hastened the development of scientific tree illustration by several hundred years had he only consulted his fellow-citizen Jacob van Ruisdael. Parallel but not entirely separated from this tradition was the awakening of interest in the natural world displayed by Renaissance artists. Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) south of the Alps and Albrecht Durer (1471-1528) to the north both produced accurate drawings of herbaceous plants, done from life, that are legion today. Their studies anticipate Brunfels' Eicones by over a century. These artists must therefore be regarded as the true pioneers of botanical illustration. Trees crept into Renaissance paintings, first as individuals viewed through a window or in the distance behind an architectural setting, and later as components of more complete landscapes. Leonardo painted a variety of tree shapes but, apart from palms, few kinds are recognizable through depiction of diagnostic features of the whole plant. Even when details are manifest, Renaissance trees remain unidentifiable except in the most obvious cases. For example, Sandro Botticelli's (1446-1510) Primavera of c.1478 boasts a precocious Seville orange tree. simultaneously flowering and fruiting, and with its distinctive winged leaf-stalk indicated. A northern counterpart is found in the famous Ghent altarpiece, completed in 1432 by Jan van Eyck (c. 1390-1441), where the painstaking representation of leaves r.a~r parts. As 5 and fruits betray a lumpy tree to be an apricot. When the subject is Adam and Eve in the Garden of Paradise, the apple tree is obligatory, be it in the Prado picture by Titian ( 1477?-1576) or in one of the many essays engraved or painted by Diirer. But these tree depictions are but a partial advance on Serapion's, for only a part of each tree is included, again apparently to show off features of leaf and fruit; the form and branching habit, features of bark and trunk remain ignored. It is curious, incidentally, that the columnar Italian cypress, Cupressus sempervirens var. sempervirens, so universal a part of modern Italian landscape, rarely entered paintings at this time, though their distinctive shapes do appear, for instance, in the formal background of Leonardo's Arenzcnciation, in the Uffizi. This suggests that the tree was only widely introduced from the south relatively late, at the time when the great Baroque gardens were developed, and were still young g plants during the Renaissance. This is suggested also by the modest size of the cypresses found in Giusto Utens' late sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century paintings of Florentine gardens. Remarkably when Jacob van Ruisdael took up his brush in the mid-1640s as a seventeen- or eighteen-year-old with a keen and penetrating interest in the countryside surrounding his home in Haarlem, he became the first artist to depict a variety of trees which are unequivocally recognizable to the botanist on account of their overall habit. To be sure, ever since Durer executed the earliest known watercolor of a fir tree about 1495-97, now in the British Museum, the occasional artist, especially in the Netherlandish school, did produce the occasional identifiable tree. Of particular note, Hugo van der Goes (?-1482) of Ghent demonstrated great skill in the winter skeletons of trees in his celebrated Portinari altarpiece. Their fluted and fissured trunks, horizontal twigs with shoots of unequal and variable length, and a few persisting leaves, suggest that they are elms, though the trees have a rigid primitive quality. By May 1483 the famous triptych was sent from Bruges by its donor Tommaso Portinari to the Hospital of Santa Maria Nuova in Florence where it remained until it entered the collection of the Uffizi in 1900. Van der Goes' work was collected also by the Medicis and became influential among the contemporary Florentine school. In the decades preceding Ruisdael's activity, a gradual process had taken place in Netherlandish art, especially in prints, through which the tree emerged as an independent motif, eventually constituting the a single, monusubject of a finished work of art. The heroic tree found its supreme exmental tree standing in splendid isolation pression in the works of Jacob van Ruisdael. As the subject developed, the artists interested in it turned to natuie for direction with increasing frequency. Roelant Savery (c.1576-1639), for example, made a sketch in black chalk of a fir tree, now in the Darmstadt Museum, which has all the appearance of a botanically accurate \"on-th-spot\" notation; yet the deciduous trees in his etchings and paintings are so mannered that not a single feature decides the genus. The oak was a - 6 clear-cut favorite with the Dutch landscapists for the role of heroic tree. Jan van Goyen (1596-1656) made an oak tree the subject of the Hermitage painting dated 1634, and Hercules Segers (c.1590-c.1633) devoted one of his rare etchings to a country road dwarfed by large oaks (unique impression in the British Museum). In both cases one or two characters serve in the identification of the tree. Other features, like the romantic bend in the trunk of Van Goyen's oak, have little to do with the natural specimen. We suspect that the popularity of the oak rested in no small part on the fact that it is a \"characterful\" tree making it easier to describe than many others. Willows are even easier to recognize in seventeenth-century landscapes, but only by inference through their siting along waterways, and on account of their being pollarded (successively lopped, for firewood and poles, above the head height of browsing cattle). Our search of the works of the Dutch school has failed to unearth a single master before Ruisdael who depicted a variety of trees using a suite of independent characters that are botanically diagnostic. In this light Holland's greatest landscape painter can be truly regarded as the father of tree illustration. Our ability to recognize Ruisdael's trees is aided by the fact that his complete arboreal repertoire, with the notable exception of the Norway Spruce, was established during his formative years spent in the circumscribed landscape surrounding Haarlem in North Holland. Born in Haarlem between 1628 and 1629, Jacob lived there until about 1656 or 1657 when he made the short eighteen-kilometer move to Amsterdam where he remained until his death in 1682. Except for a ~VU111Cy LV C11C UVIUCI IC~IVII UCCWCC11 C11C C2tbLCIII iJrUVIIICCb VI the Netherlands and western Germany about 1650 (there is an inadequately supported theory that he travelled through northern France about 1676 to study for a medical degree at the University of Caen), Jacob's travels were close to home. His paintings and drawings document visits to Egmond aan Zee, the countryside near Naarden, Alkmaar, the ruins of a castle and abbey church at nearby Egmond aan den Hoef, and of course the Portuguese Jewish cemetery at Ouderkerk on the Amstel River; all are in North Holland. During his Wanderjahre in the early 1650s, the artist ventured as far as Bentheim in Westphaha, about 175 kilometers from Haarlem. Besides numerous versions of the castle at Bentheim (one is dated 1651, another 1653, see pl. 2), he painted from the province of Overijssel the town of Ootmarsum and various water mills and sluices in the Twente. On this same tour he most probably travelled south to the province of Utrecht where he made several sketches of the distant view of Rhenen. These were early times for plant introduction, and almost a century before the major epoch for the introduction of ornamental trees began. Ruisdael's limited arboreal repertoire in his early work reflects in a large measure the peculiarities, but in particular the poverty, of his native flora. Haarlem lies in sandy country immediately behind the mighty dune system which protects Holland from the fury of the North Plate 2. A detatl of Rutsdael's painting of Bentheim Castle (1653, Bext Collection, Blessxngton, Ireland. Cat. No. 14), showing the imaginary wayfartng tree blooming at the base of an imaginary castle mount. 8 Sea gales. This is poor agricultural land, and the trees of fertile and limestone country would be rare in the native vegetation. With its proximity to Amsterdam though, the Haarlem region became a center for the great hunting estates of the wealthy, and thus the oak forests that were the primeval cover to these thrifty soils were preserved, or periodically felled and abandoned after which the clearings would be invaded by beech. According to Karel van Mander (1548-1606), the Dutch mannerist painter and theorist, Haarlem also had a wood that had the character of a public park, or, in his words, was like a village fair. In his poem in praise of the town, composed in 1596, Van Mander tells us that south of Haarlem was its \"forest\" where young and old amused themselves, by sauntering and walking, picnicing and lying down in the green. He added: People, like clothing, sometimes must be aired. Around Haarlem there also would have been small farms, with orchards and hedgerows and derelict buildings around which elms, apples, elders, and hawthorns would have grown. Ruisdael describes the oak, beech, elm, elder, wayfaring tree, apple, hawthorn, and the inevitable willow. Missing are the poplars, linden, field maple, and hazel, but that is not surprising as these genera of fertile or limy land would have been rare or even absent around the Haarlem of his time. One might have expected to find in his works the ash, aspen, alders, sweet-chestnut, birch, hornbeam, and the English \"sycamore,\" Acer pseudoplatanus; also the small hedgerow trees including cherry and dogwood. The sycamore, a tree from south of the Alps which already had been introduced into England in the middle ages, is easy enough to distinguish with its smooth bark and its dense compact rounded crown with palmately lobed leaves. This crown and bark seem to have been the universal favorite of the contemporary French painter Claude Lorrain (16001682), who worked in Rome, though the leaves he placed on his trees more resemble those of the sweet-chestnut! The silver birch, Betula pendula, too, with its delicate foliage, pendant branches and black and silvery bark is unmistakable, as to a lesser extent is the aspen. The others, however, are more or less difficult to depict from their general habit, leaf size and disposition alone. It should be borne in mind that many of the trees in Ruisdael's paintings are unidentifiable, though rarely when serving as a major foreground subject. One tree appears in Ruisdael's paintings that we do not believe he ever actually saw.. This is the Norway Spruce, Picea abies (pl. 3), which is now a well-known exotic, and, since it had been introduced into England by the end of the sixteenth century, contemporary introduction to Dutch soil is a possibility. However, Ruisdael's spruces lack the detail of his other trees and we would not be able to distinguish them from other conifers were they not placed into landscapes we recognize as \"Nordic.\" Not until about 1660, four or five years after his move to Amsterdam, did Jacob begin painting northern landscapes replete with powerful cataracts, huge boulders and towering spruces. These motifs were not known from direct observation but Plate 3 Ruzsdael's Norway Spruce From Waterfall, with a Castle and a Cottage (detail). ). Fogg Art Museum, Harvard Unxuerszty, Cambrzdge, Massachusetts. Gxft of Mzss Helen Clay Frick. Cat. No. 34. Uncharactenstzcally, pendant lateral twigs of thzs species. van Ruxsdael failed to capture the dzstznctiue 10 Plate 4. The pmstme branching patterns of Rutsdael's trees, which are revealed in young plants before reiterattow (a) the oak, (b) the hawthorn, (c) the spruce, (d) the beech and the elm, and (e) the elder. 11 1 borrowed from the oeuvre of the Alkmaar artist Allart van Everdingen (1621-1675) who introduced and popularized northern landscape in the Netherlands. Everdingen had travelled to southern Norway and Sweden in 1644. He settled in Haarlem in 1645 and was active there until 1652 when he moved to Amsterdam. Ruisdael probably was familiar with Everdingen's Scandinavian landscapes as a young painter in Haarlem; but he did not adopt the subject himself until the vogue for it was well-established in the leading city of the United Provinces. Market considerations seem to have played a hand. In an inventory of 1669, all three of Ruisdael's waterfalls listed fetched considerably higher prices than his lone Haarlempje. The reader will be surprised to learn that the shapes of trees, which are determined by the way they grow and branch, has only been comprehensively and systematically described in the last two decades. Indeed, the botanical illustration of tree form, lacking a historical precedent in the herbal tradition, only began this century. We owe this to the French botanist Francis Halle and his Dutch colleague Roelof Oldeman. In collaboration with Barry Tomlinson here at Harvard, they have now set their classification of tree architecture in the broader context of growth and forest dynamics. These authors recognize 23 basic architectural models to which trees can be assigned, many of which are restricted to the tropics. We can identify Ruisdael's principal arboreal subjects to their genus because the artist depicted more than one independent character by which they can be diagnosed. Beyond the genus we cannot go, for the species too often differ in details of leaf, flower, or fruit that are not manifest at a distance. The oak is the outstanding example of Ruisdael's skill, for the tree itself provides such a wealth of characteristics. Among Ruisdael's trees, the oak, and the hawthorn are built on the same architectural model, though they differ considerably in detail (pl. 4). Its branches arise in whorls, like the spokes of a wheel, and steeply ascend from their origins on the perpendicular trunk. The branches in turn bear their twigs in the whorled manner of the trunk itself. The flowers and fruit are borne in axillary inflorescences and do not influence the were branching pattern. In practice, the basic architectural model of a tree is lost early in life through natural damage and repair, though the ascending twigs and leaf arrangement of the oak persist as evidence as we shall see. Old oaks become stag-headed, that is to say that whole branches die back without, at least in the short run, falling off, rotting and thereby anticipating the death of the whole tree. The northern European deciduous oaks Quercus petraea and Q. robur commonly live for three centuries, and the oldest known individuals are more than twice that age. They reach full height within a century. Once the crown has fully expanded, it will maintain itself for several centuries by successive dieback and replacement of whole branches, the trunk meanwhile continuing to expand and the tree thereby assuming an increasingly 12 are Plate 5. An oak twig. Dead parts black. venerable demeanor. The process of replacement, of dead twigs and branches, bv shoots from adventitious buds from beneath the bark, is part of the process collectively known to botanists as reiteration. Reiteration of whole branches is a characteristic of the oak and the elm alone among Ruisdael's trees. Both trees, but the oak in particular, support an extraordinarily large and diverse insect fauna. The capacity to reiterate may be regarded as an adaptation to withstand their onslaught as may also, in the oak, the ability to put on a second flush of leaves if the first is devoured by gypsy moths or other herbivores. In Europe the second flush is called the lammas, as it unfolds in early August about the time of the ancient harvest festival of that name. These are some of the reasons why oaks bear such gnarled boughs, and why the trunks of free-standing trees bear swellings from which suckers can arise. In point of fact, even young oak twigs have a tendency to reiterate, as can be seen in our diagram (pl. 5) of an oak twig viewed from below. None of these features escaped Ruisdael's notice. Foremost an artist, he recognized the pictorial potential inherent in two aspects of the oak's capacity for reiteration. One is the venerability with which the persisting dead branches endow the tree. Fond of pairing oak and beech, he also used the uniformly brown autumnal leaves of the beech (a tree with a lower capacity for reiteration) as a foil for the lively play of green and brown with specks of yellow and white in the foliage of the oak, a result in part of its hosting leaves in different stages of maturity. Taken from life, the diagram demonstrates a suite of further characters by which the oak is distinguished. The limbs are much Plate 6 (left) A detaxl from The Great Oak by Jacob Van Ruzsdael, 1652. Anonymous loan the City Museums and Art Gallery, Bxrmxngham Cat No. 16. Plate 7 (nght) The trunk of the ancient oak depicted on the back cover Photograph by P Ashton. to branched and, though the twigs are many, they extend rather little each season. Though the twigs at the branch extremities tend toward the horizontal, the others ascend sharply. The leaves are borne spirally towards the end of the shoot, and it is from their axils that the next season's whorl of twigs will arise. The leaves broaden towards their apices and bear, in European deciduous oaks, a pronounced wavy but not toothed margin. Though leaves on one shoot do not overlap one another, those on neighboring shoots do, so the leaves on a hranch create a wavy-margined silhouette not dissimilar to that of the individual leaf. Ruisdael captured this brilliantly. His mature technique was to paint enlarged oak leaf shapes. Each leaf is clearly shown in the Brunswick oak tree (cat. no. 17), datable to the early fifties, whereas generalized leaf clusters are noted in the Worcester College oak (cat. no. 18), painted a few years later. In both pictures, the crown of leaves is enhanced by shading and by the patchy introduction of autumn color. He demonstrated remarkable skill at describing the location of leaves in relation to the crown as a whole. They are perceived in a seemingly endless array of positions over and under the branches and twigs. Other Dutch landscapists usually failed on this very point, either brushing in branches that seem to hover unnaturally in front of the foliage, or suppressing the tree's structure as far as they dared. The most talented (Van Goyen, Jan Both, Hobbema), trying to elucidate the precise branching mode of the oak, artificially exposed the limbs by arranging the leaves in regular two-ranked fashion, but 14 4 Plate 8 A drawing, from lafe, of the twig of European beech. In life, this twig would have been horizontal. thisdevice falsely represents the leat arrangement. Jacob's more impressionistic solution is an honest compromise and achieves greater botanical accuracy. Finally, the oak has fissured bark. The fissures are rather narrow, with flat, narrow flaking intervening surfaces which, in the cool damp climate of northern Europe, accumulate moss and lichens (pls. 6,7). Again Ruisdael perceptively caught this subtle additional combination of characters. The habit of the European Beech, Fagus sylvatica, stands in stark contrast in almost every respect, even though it belongs to the same family as the oak. It shares its architecture with the elm. The sapling leader, starting erect and with spirally arranged leaves, early grows into a horizontal position when the leaves become distichous, that is to say in two ranks. Though this axis will straighten up to some extent as it matures, the trunk will be built, season by season, from successive axillary shoots each of which terminate growth with a horizontal apex in the same way. This cumbersome procedure is, surprisingly, the most widespread mode of growth among broad-leaved trees. It is remarkably versatile though. In the beech the tendency for the trunk to branch, and the absence of vertical twig endings, even in the top of the crown, are the only vestiges of the model in the mature tree. Because each successive axial shoot contributes the greater part of its length to the trunk, which straightens up as it expands, its mode of grow th is 15 5 Plate 9. Detazl of beech twzgs m Ruzsdael's painting of the Portuguese Jewish cemetery at Ouderkerk. The detazl has been rotated to faczlztate comparison with plate 8. Courtesy of the Detrozt Institute of Arts, Detroit, Mzchzgan (Gift of Juhus H. Haass m memory of hzs brother, Dr. Ernest W. Haass. Cat No. 20). obscured. The only architectural feature shared by beech and oak is the lateral position of the inflorescences. Beeches have a lower capacity for reiteration, and dead branches are brittle, falling early. Our diagram of the twig (pl. 8) indicates the pattern of branching, which is more regular than in the oak. The shoots are of two distinct types. Most apical, and some lateral, extend many centimeters a year, whereas the majority of lateral shoots extend less than two centimeters each season. This gives the impression that beech twigs branch less frequently than those of oak. What our diagram cannot clearly indicate is that the lateral branches of twigs are horizontal. In combination with the entire margins of the shiny, elliptic leaves, the greater annual extension of the terminal shoots relative to those of the oak, the decline in the size of the leaves towards the twig endings, and the tendency of the principal branches to bear horizontal or slightly ascending twigs on declining or recumbent limbs, the detailed structure of the crown is very different from that of the oak. Ruisdael emphasized the sweep that this combination of characters gives to the outermost branches of the beech, and frequently also, as in the tree overarching in the Detroit version of the Jewish Cemetery (pl. 9), by describing the individual leaves. In forest-grown beech, the horizontal banks of leaves tend to form a dense single carpet at the top of the crown. In the absence of reiteration from the trunk, they form tiers of discrete leafy platforms in soon 16 6 Plate 10. Detaxls of the beech (rxght) and oak trunks from the paxnting Sxmon Foundation, Pasadena, Calxfornxa. Cat. No. 38 on the front cover. The Norton 17 7 Plate 11. Mature Beech at Mark Ash, New Forest The tree on the left was coppaced in the seventeenth century. Photograph by P. Ashton. free-standing trees, and were thus depicted by the artist. The trunk itself is, of course, extraordinarily smooth, finely but distinctly hoopmarked and, in the relative absence of lichens and mosses, ashen (pl. 10). The character of the beech trunk is unmistakable in Ruisdael's paintings (pl. 11). The architecture of elm, its pendant branches, and the branching pattern of its twigs are similar to those of the beech though the architectural construction often remains more manifest in the arching trunks and branches of the mature tree. But it is not for these reasons alone that, as Jacob indicated in his drawing (pl. 12) of a specimen of this tree, the crown has an irregular untidy appearance. This untidiness is, in part, a result of the tendency for elm branches to die back and reiterate as in the oak. In contrast to those of beeches, elm leaves are also asymmetrical, hang, are curled up along the midrib or down at the ends, while it is the largest leaves that are concentrated at the twig endings (pl. 14). These together impart a different and ragged appearance to the crown. Elm trunks are fissured and often twisted (pl. 13). The surfaces between the fissures are wide and flake irregularly, as Ruisdael so deftly exploits in his painting (pl. 15) of a shattered elm, its identity confirmed by a few persisting leaves. The many small European trees of open places which belong to the Rosaceae, including the hawthorn, Crataegus monogylnia, the crab, Malus sylvestris, and cultivated apples and pears, share a distinctive habit. Their architecture, though resembling the oak, differs because the side branches are arched and turn towards the horizontal. Even Plate 12 (left). A drawing by Ruxsdael of an elm. Detaxl from Sun-dappled Trees at the Edge of a Stream. The Pxerpont Morgan Lxbrary, New York. Cat No. 66. Plate 13 (right). Trunk and branch of an old English elm, Ulmus procera, at Kings College, Cambrxdge. Photograph by P. Ashton. without pruning, the leader soon loses its dominance, often also growing over to a horizontal position. Successive side branches arise, often from the upper surface of existing members, and themselves arch over to give the whole crown its distinctive appearance. Like the beech and elm, but not the oak, twigs bear dimorphic shoots, some of which in hawthorns are modified as thorns. Ruisdael painted several such trees (an example is found in Pond in the Forest in the Fogg, not in the current exhibition). It is only from their habitat in this case that we can guess whether they are thorns or unpruned fruit trees, though pruned apple (pl. 16) is recognizable at once. Similarly, pollarded be presumed to be willows (pls. 17,18), although they could be poplars or even elms, all of which have been commonly pollarded since the middle ages. In a very few cases though, willows in full leaf also are illustrated (see cat. no. 10 and pl. 18; cat. no. 75). It is interesting that pollarded trees appear infrequently in the work of this painter in comparison with that of many of his contemporaries. They abound in the etchings, drawings and paintings datable to the first year of his activity; thereafter his interest apparently shifted to the more complex trees of the old forests. The habit of the Norway Spruce with its monopodial, that is perpendicular unbranched, trunk developed from a single annually extending leader; with its whorls of plagiotropic, that is horizontal or descending, branches which, unlike the trunk, bear distichous leaves trees may his Plate 14. An elm twig in leaf This the European smooth elm, Ulmus carpmifoha Photograph from the archmes of the Arnold Arboretum. as and branches; and its dark foliage is unmistakable from broad-leaved trees, even when painted at second hand (see pls. 3,5)! In addition to these trees, Ruisdael unmistakably depicted the shrub Sambucus niger, the elder (pl. 19). The botanist would identify this plant by its opposite pinnate leaves and by its broad flat inflorescences bearing dense masses of tiny tubular cream flowers (pl. 20). The habit too is characteristic. The trunk is built up by a relay of shoots much as in the beech and elm, but here each sappy shoot, standing erect, comes to arch over at its ends under the weight of its fruit, following which one or several new vertical shoots may sprout from the upper side. Unlike the beech and elm, therefore, it is the inflorescences which enforce sympodial growth through the sprouting of axillary buds. Ruisdael's elder shrubs are recognized by their disclike white inflorescences, by a general impression of their habit, and by the pains he took to set them against a dark background, offsetting their distinctively pale green, narrow leaflets. He could have, but did not, indicate the characteristic opposite branching and pinnate leaves. Nevertheless, there is no other native shrub in the Haarlem region with which his plants could be confused. Some of his \"elders,\" though, have narrower, more domed inflorescences than is usual for this species. Examples may be found in several paintings (see pls. 2,21). Our suspicion that these are not elders is further strengthened by their dark foliage, the clearly indicated broadly elliptic-ovate simple leaves, and their placement as small Plate 15. The blasted elm in Ruisdael's View of Egmond aan Zee (1648), xn the Currier Gallery of Art, Manchester, New Hampshxre Cat. No. 7. chyhc in nnan nlorPC Thorw _c r\"~1,. n, ~.rl,o. .~.`l~y~~ Fuy pean genus to which these plants could belong: Viburnum, in the same family as elder. Viburnum, like elder, is a glutton for good fertile ground, but keeps to old vegetation and is not associated with habitations. The architecture of Viburnum is complex, as Michael Donaghue explained in his recent article in this magazine, but Ruisdael's small bushy plants, which appear to have been lopped or browsed as is still customary, reveal nothing of their branching pattern. These plants clearly match the lime-loving V. lantana (pl. 22), the wayfaring tree. The wayfaring tree is very local in Holland. In Heukel's flora of 1911, it is recorded from some seven localities, one of which was Haarlem, another Santpoort a few kilometers to the north. The 1980 atlas to the Netherlands flora provides a map, and commentary by R. W. J. M. van der Ham who concludes that the only reliable records prior to 1950 are the two near Haarlem and three, hundreds of kilometers away, in the chalk hills in the extreme southeast of the country. The species has since then spread to several other localities down the coast (see pl. 23). By including this plant in his coastal scene of 1648 (pl. 21), where it is shown near the base of a dune where rich flushes of groundwater, arising from shell accumulations in the old beach sand, form limy patches, and in precisely the habitat at which it occurs at present, Ruisdael seems to have demonstrated exceptional mastery of his local flora. The great Linnaeus, who stayed as a young rjanca 21 Plate 16 An old apple tree, with the shoots following pruning in the prevtous sprmg clearly indicated Detaxl from Wmter Landscape mth a Wmdmxll, Foundation Custodia (Coll. F. Lugt), lnstxtut N~erlandaxs, Parxs Cat No. 53 at Hartecamp, estate of Georg Clifford, to compile the celebrated Hortus Cliffortianus, completed in 1737, included this species. However, he cited it from Alsace, England, France, Switzerland, Etruria, and Italy, but apparently was not aware that it grew within a few miles from where he wrote! Indeed, it was first recorded in the Netherlands only in 1861, and then at St. Pietersberg in the extreme southman east. We evaluate trator Jacob van Ruisdael's achievement as a botanical illus- fully cognizant that the trees executed by the eager youth differ both technically and thematically from those of the seasoned artist. His development as a painter of trees is, of course, part and parcel of his artistic development as a whole. If we were asked to designate the handful of years when he peaked as a scientific illustrator of trees, it would be from the end of the sixteen-forties into the mid-fifties. In his very first pictures, those of 1646 (see pl. 18), Jacob lavished particular care on trees and shrubs, recalling the almost microscopic attention to detail exhibited by Durer in his watercolors of herbaceous plants. The young artist applied his paint from a laden brush point in miniscule but distinct thick dabs. He gives the impression of each leaf accounted for in the foliage and builds up moss and lichen on bark with layers of paint so sculptural in quality that our tactile senses are aroused. Yet, he still was learning how to translate the forms he saw Plate 17 (left). An old pollarded willow, and behind :t an oak, on banks of a stream. From Landscape with a Cottage, 1646 1 Kunsthalle, Hamburg Cat No Plate 18 (below) A pollarded crach wellow, Salix fragihs, near Weston Zoyland, Sedgemoor, England, whech, as its name suggests, was settled by Dutch drainage engineers rn the era of Jacob van Ruesdael Photograph by P. Ashton the 23 in nature into paint on canvas - these first efforts are on a par with Van Goyen's best oaks, falling short of complete botanical accuracy. In the next few years, as Jacob mastered the various characters that identify trees, they assumed a more assertive role in his landscapes. Frederick Law Olmsted used to comment on the sedateness of west European woodlands. This quality is largely attributable to the persistence until modern times of venerable oaks in the landscape, particularly as isolated trees but also in ancient woods and forests. Grandeur is the outstanding quality of Ruisdael's trees. And the grandest of his trees, usually oaks, appear in the early sixteen-fifties. Botanically and enlarged to heroic proportions, they dominate the compositions. By the mid-fifties, we find these giants pushed back from the foreground into the middle distance where they create an impression of sedateness and help serve in the clarification of a more orderly space. Jacob's paint continued to be grainy and his colors relatively vivid. The skill he had acquired as botanical illustrator is well exemplified by his handling of the tree trunks in the forest scene at Worcester College, Oxford (cat. no. 18). Here, oak is placed next to beech. Where ravaged bark has peeled away, the paint is thin; light brown or brownish-orange is used to represent the tree core. Then a viscous paint, applied more broadly than in those first years, gives shape to the accurate bark. On the oak touches of white on dark brown suggest moss and lichen; on the beech a range of pigment from black to dark grey to light grey to white captures the ashen character of the tree. In the sixties Ruisdael continues to stress the heroic quality of massive trees but they no longer seal off the middle ground (see front cover). Their powerful forms are now combined with the effects of distant vistas. By the seventies their use as compositional accents grows more restrained. During the course of the following years the artist concentrates on panoramic views, seeking the ultimate degree of openness and height. Less interested in the confining space of deep forests, he paints marines, beach scenes, cityscapes and views of the open countryside. His paint grows thinner, his color less resonant. The mood of his landscapes shifts from heroic to idyllic. No longer is there a role for a mighty tree. Its strong vertical accent would have disrupted the subtly gradated spatial recession of his extensive vistas. The fate of the Norway Spruce is a case in point. By the early seventies firs virtually disappear from his paintings of waterfalls, their overt verticality was incompatible with the sought effect of great distance. What we have seen, in brief, is the artist shifting his tree motifs from into career. foreground to middle distance to background in the course of his And as obviously is expected, the descriptive care that went the early trees and shrubs which served as major foreground are subjects no longer is at work in the late years when they incidental elements observed from afar. Our but designation of the as a dael's career criteria. The years around 1650 as the apogee of Ruisscientific illustrator of trees is based on several most obvious is the accuracy with which he charac- Plate 19 (left) Thas elder sprouts from the Rums of Egmond Castle m Ruxsdael's early 1650's paantxug, now xn the collection of the Art Institute of Chxcago Cat. No 79 Plate 20 (right) Thas modern elder sprouts from the kxtchen garden wall at Clxaeden, the Astor's former Enghsh home. Photograph by P. Ashton. tari~ac hic ..., I tpr~e; hisw__.,~\" . at m_<_t:~:~c. A ~ewmd invoives the question ot `~~C~ ..~ <...~ _ habitat. Jacob's fondness for the wayfaring tree is manifest by its prominent position in the foreground of his most impressive painting of Bentheim castle, dated 1653 (see pl. 2). According to Hegi, the wayfaring tree has not been recorded in the Bentheim region. This raises an important point regarding Ruisdael's approach to landscape during his early maturity. At least from the early fifties onwards, total veracity is not an end for him. He continues to render the specifics ., with astonishing truth the habit of a tree, the outline of a church or town, the properties of clouds and water - but he begins to embellish the whole and, more important from our viewpoint, to ignore ecological propriety to suit the dictates of his own imagination. In the case of Bentheim, as Jakob Rosenberg demonstrated with a photograph of the site published in 1928 (see cat. no. 14, fig. 24), Ruisdael aggrandized his subject by placing the castle on a lofty mountain, whereas its true location is but a gentle hill. And now we discover the painter importing a lime loving shrub from the dunes near Haarlem to the DutchGerman border region to enliven his foreground. He took other liberties with trees. A striking example is Cleveland's landscape with a windmill of 1646 (see cat. no. 10, pl. 17), a scene Ruisdael sketched and painted again in the early fifties (cat. no. 10 and pl. 18), but with a willow replacing the oak. In an etching datable to the first half of the fifties (cat. no. 108), a powerful oak rises out of the stagnant water of a - 25 By the mid-sixties, beech joins oak in the water in some of his celebrated wooded scenes (cat. nos. 36,37). Neither tree thrives with water-logged roots. The romantic habitat was provided by Ruisdael. (Incidentally, these trees also depart from strict botanical accuracy by exhibiting Savery-like mannnerist contortions in their trunks and branches.) A similar process took place regarding the borrowed tree, the Norway Spruce. An important motif in the early Nordic scenes, it soon acquired a foreign partner, the half-timbered house of the Bentheim region (cat. no. 34). Oddly enough, Everdingen painted \"Nordic\" log cabins until he was enticed by Ruisdael's example to introduce Westphalian architecture into his own waterfalls. By the end of his career, Ruisdael took the Norway Spruce out of its mountainous setting and placed it in the park of a Dutch country house (cat. no. 54), but his tendency to depart from biological veracity prevents us from confirming whether he was representing a genuine introduction. One wonders, of course, why this painter, alone among his contemporaries, took so much trouble to make his trees identifiable. Was he motivated by interest in the tree solely for its own sake, or were the trees he painted charged for him with other levels of meaning. Long before Ruisdael's day, the studies of the Dutch humanists provided a ready vehicle for general awareness of the classical tradition. Interest in the ancient world in northern Europe reached its horticultural culmination in the first half of the eighteenth century in the allegorical landscapes contrived in English parks by William Kent (16851748), whose web of vistas and artfully juxtaposed scenes tested the visitor's knowledge of the ancients as if a participant in some gargantuan crossword puzzle. The trees which Ruisdael painted are very widespread in Europe and Russia, and have been associated with the Caucasian tribes since before they spread westwards. The tree most steeped in history, allegory and ritual is without doubt the oak. It was regarded by the R~mans as the first of all trees having sprouted from Rhoecus, one of the giants slain by Jupiter. Acorns are said to have once provided a staple, and are still a famine food. The oak is the tree of Zeus, and the myth that its stag-headed crown attracts lightning has persisted to the present day. The most celebrated of the sacred groves of classical Greece, at Dodona, was a mixed stand of oak and beech. The oak would have been the evergreen Mediterranean, Q. ilex, but its reputation would have been translated to the deciduous northern species without difficulty. Besides, oaks were already the leading tree in northern lore. They were favored by the druids, who worshipped in groves of oak and fed on acorns. Hollow knotted trees, in an ancient stand that once existed at Stove Heddinge, Zeeland, were known as the Elle-King's soldiers: By day they were indeed trees, but at night they marched off to fight for the elves. The beech, though less celebrated was nevertheless the vehicle, according to Lucian, through which the oracle was delivered at Dodona. In medieval times elders were regarded as guardian trees, and their natural tendency to estabswamp. most 26 lish near houses was encouraged. This custom may have originated from pre-Christian mythology. In German and Scandinavian tradition, the tree harbors a Hylde-moer, or Earth-mother: a wood spirit which avenges all harm done to the plant or its abode. In the Voiage and Travaile of Sir Richard Mandeville, however, it is claimed that Judas hung himself on an elder. A clearer component of seventeenth-century Dutch consciousness than the humanists' study of the classics is derived from the popular enjoyment of emblem literature. This practice encouraged the reading of moralistic and religious meanings into the simplest objects of everyday life. Recently, Michael Loren Perlmutter, a Fine Arts graduate student at the Fogg, searching for sixteenth- and early seventeenth-century emblems of trees that might have bearing on Ruisdael's trees, came up with a wealth of examples. He linked the tall Norway Spruce in the Fogg's Waterfall (pl. 3) to an emblem labeled \"Erectae ad Sydera Crescunt\" (\"They grow straight up to the stars\"), showing trees growing from a mountain top and, in propounding the ideal of steadfastness, metaphorically equating height to virtue. Exposed roots, like those of the great oak tree clinging fast to an eroded bank in the Brunswick painting (cat. no. 17), he associated with an emblem entitled \"Virtutis Radices Altae\" (Virtues of Deep Roots\"), in which the roots hold a tree firm against a storm, an analogy made with the strength of virtue resisting adversity. He pointed out the more obvious vanitas or momento mori connotations inherent in the dead or broken trees that abound in Ruisdael's landscapes, and he exam..cu u : ;,~t o: ~l.W~iam iueas concernmg allegorical contrasts of Life and Death, Good and Evil evoked by any pairing of dead and live trees. Besides the generalized tree iconography presented by Perlmutter, there exists a body of emblems that are specific to tree genus, which ought to be more to the point when dealing with an artist who has an unusual talent for accurate tree description. Of particular interest is Andrea Alcinati's Emblematum Liber, first published in 1531, and frequently reprinted. The edition published at Lyon in 1550 includes fourteen tree emblems in the customary form of motto, picture and Latin epigram. In it the oak, Quercus, is identified as a symbol of honor; the willow, Salix, as a symbol of infertility; and the fir tree, Abies, as signifying strength through resistance. With the exception of the oak, Ruisdael's trees are infrequent emblem subjects, more usual are trees with stronger biblical or classical identities, such as the palm, laurel, olive tree, cypress, and fig. Despite the demonstrable richness of tree imagery, we lack clear evidence that the artist himself ordinarily intended his trees as allegorical symbols of any kind. The two versions of the famous Jewish Cemetery (cat. nos. 20,21) provide an important exception. (Another Budapest Oak, see cat. no. 4.) Jacob's sketches of the actual gravesite in the Portuguese Jewish cemetery at Ouderkerk, now in the Teyler Museum (cat. nos. 76,77), show the tombs surrounded by unassertive shrubs and low trees of unspecified type. The may be the 27 tombs alone reappear in the Detroit and Dresden paintings; and they are set into quite a different milieu. Into both compositions the painter adds a small waterfall, a rainbow and a large ruin, and also a dead beech prominently displayed in the right foreground against a stand of living trees, a broken oak or oak stump near the rushing water, and unmistakable elder bushes as a backdrop for the central tomb. This suggests that these pictures were intended as moralizing allegories on the transience of all earthly things. And in the case of the elders, perhaps plant genus is significant. If not a specific reference to Judas, the elder has enjoyed a long history as a symbol of sorrow and death. We may hesitate to accept Ruisdael as a persistent painter of allegorical landscape. No such qualms disturb our acceptance of him as a pioneer naturalist, antedating Gilbert White by a century. At the onset of his career he displayed a perspicacious grasp of the close marriage between native trees and their chosen habitat. Oliver Rackham has described how the oak was the dominant tree in the primeval urwald, or wildwood, of northern Europe on freely draining soils; and how surviving giants often indicate where fragments have persisted. Some that remain in the great estates about Haarlem are thought to be examples. Beech is generally associated with oak in these old forests, but when abundant is indicative of past felling or natural disturbance. The elm, on the other hand, is very much a village tree; in nature confined to the fringes and gaps of the forest. Frequently pollarded in former times, its foliage provided fodder, its fibrous inner bark bast for matting, rope, baskets and, in ancient times, sandals. The hawthorn shares this habitat, while the elder, which is confined to fertile limy patches and may not have occurred in the wildwood of Haarlem, has a penchant for cracks in mortar, in walls and ruined buildings, and the middens of derelict farmyards. The wayfaring tree though, like the oak, is a plant of ancient vegetation, but of a very different and characteristic type as the painter noticed himself. Whatever the reason for Ruisdael's interest in trees, his early paintings are a valuable, unequivocal testimony of the flora in the Haarlem region of the seventeenth century, for his ancient oaks and beeches, his elms, wayfaring trees, and elders can only have been taken from life. For instance, Dr. van der Ham (personal comment and in the Atlas) believes that the wayfaring tree, which was first recorded in the Dutch coastal dunes in 1877, owes its origin there to relatively recent escape from gardens, in which it is frequently cultivated in Holland. The berries are avidly eaten by birds who disperse the seeds. Ruisdael's paintings provide evidence that the plant is more likely a native, and has existed there for centuries longer than previously realized. We have made several other discoveries from our interdisciplinary study of Ruisdael's trees. First, the \"stock\" of trees he learned to depict as a young artist in the 1640s served him for the rest of his career. The only later addition was a tree we believe he never saw, the Norway Spruce encountered in the Scandinavian landscape paintings of Allart 28 van I Everdingen. Second, by the early 1650s, as the creation of a wider increasingly important to him, he felt free to range of moods became take liberties with a tree's natural habitat. This enabled him to transport a coastal shrub to a hilly region and to soak the roots of a giant or oak in murky swamp water. Third, we are missing something. Where are all the drawings, the studies made out-of-doors of the trees growing around Haarlem? Were they deemed so unimportant that they went out with the daily trash? Ruisdael's rare etchings executed between 1646 and about 1655 (only thirteen are known) afford us a clearer impression of his linear vocabulary for tree forms than the few drawings we can cite. Finally, the ease with which the botanist can identify Ruisdael's trees has several uses. There have been frequent errors concerning the genus of Ruisdael's trees which stem from ignorance of botany rather than from ambiguity in the artist's description. His beeches sometimes are identified as birches, a tree, to our knowledge, he never painted. Beeches also are confused with oaks. The detail of the great landscape illustrated on the front cover of this issue is a case in point. Actively traded in this century under the title The Three Old Oaks, it recently was redubbed The Three Old Beeches. This still is off the mark, for represented in this huge landscape is but one beech and two oaks in an almost paradig- beech matic exhibition of the differences between the two trees. The botanist is able to identify the foreground trees in almost all of Ruisdael's paintings, and to learn to anticipate the characters by which the painter distinguished them. It should hP nf mnr~ than ~acmol interest to art historians that the instances in which the botanist is unable to identify the prominent trees in works attributed to Ruisdael's hand, like as not, involve attributions already considered dubious on purely stylistic grounds. We became increasingly uneasy, as we prepared this article, that we were making claims for our artist in excess of his real talent. Nevertheless, these claims center around one quality of his which is rare in an artist, and so extraordinarily difficult to attain, that he does in our view possess an artistic stature greater than his current reputation. During one brief period of his life, between 1647-1651, young and their landscape with such precision, such penetrating perception of the reality itself, that even the botanist today can see no distortion or schematic generalization, but a real tree as he perceives it. Yet Ruisdael, as we have seen, was no mere substitute for the photographer, for his method was to approximate on the basis of careful selection. He made conscious choices of the attributes he wished to use in order to encapsulate an arboreal character. His choices have proven right for all centuries, and are validated through the independent conclusions of the systematic botanist. In conclusion, the painter's perception of the color and form of familiar trees can lead us to new discoveries. For instance, our realization that Ruisdael carefully coupled multicolored oaks with uniformly brown beeches sent us outside to look afresh at the autumnal Ruisdael depicted trees Plate 21 (below). Aflowering tree at way- farzng the base dune, topped by an Dunes by the Sea (1648), one of Ruzsdael's earliest pazntzngs, now xrz a prxuate collectxon. Cat. No 8 Plate 22 (nght). A coppzced of a oak, from wayfarzng tree, chalk hill zn zu fruzt, on a Dorset, England P. Ashton. Photograph by Plate 23. Dzstrzbution map of the wayfaring tree in the Netherlands. The two coastal blocks represent Haarlem and Santpoort Asterzsks indicate the current natural range, blocks the confirmed natural range prior to 1950. Reproduced with permxssxon from The Atlas of the Nederlands Flora, Vol. I, published xn 1980 by Kosmos, Amsterdam. oak and beech. He had signaled for us an important phenomenon caused in part by the different capacities of the two trees for reiteration. Jacob van Ruisdael, who lived a full century before Linnaeus' Species Plantarum and therefore knew nothing of our modern descriptive system in botany, combined unprecedented truth to nature and pictorial genius to give us an insight which the botanist can still value. He forces us to look more carefully at what it is that gives each tree its distinction. Had botanists and artists worked more closely, the mysteries of tree architecture might have been unravelled two centuries earlier. He can even help casual visitors to a gallery be more discriminating when they next visit the nursery for a plant with which to embellish the view from their garden window. 31 Acknowledgments We thank Michael Loren Perlmutter for allowing us to consult a paper, in preparation, in which he identified the seventeenth-century sources of botanical illustrations cited by us, and which contributed the idea of the gradual emergence of the heroic tree as the subject of finished works of art; and Jan Muller and R. W. J. M. van der Ham, Leiden University, and D. Smit, Free University of Amsterdam for the information concerning Viburnum lantana in the Netherlands. Sources and Further Reading Blunt, W. and S. Raphael. 1979. The Illustrated Herbal. London: Thames and Hudson. Chittenden, F. J. (ed.). 1951. The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardenzng. Oxford~ Oxford University Press. Donaghue, M. 1981 Growth Patterns in Woody Plants with Examples from the genus Vzburnum. Arnoldza 41 (1): 21-23. Emmart, E. W. (trsl). 1940. The Badzanus Manuscrzpt: An Aztec Herbal of 1552. Baltimore: Johns Hopkms Press. Friedrich. P. 1970. Proto-Indo-European Trees. Chicago: Umversity of Chicago Press. Halle, F., Oldeman, R A. A., and P B. Tomlinson. 1978. Tropical Trees and Forests: An Architectural Azznlgszs. New York: Springer-Verlag Henkel, A., and A. Schone. 1967. Emblemata, Handbuch zur Sinnbzldhunst des XVI. uzzd XVII Jahrlzunderts. Stuttgart: J B. Metzlersche Heukels, H. 1910. De flora van Nederland. 3 vols. Leiden: Brill & Noordhoff. Jacobs, M. 1980. Revolutions in Plant Descriptzon. Landbaumhochshool Wageningen Miscellaneous Papers 19. pp 155-181. Linnaeus, C. 1738. Hortus Clzffortznnus. Amsterdam. Van Mander, K. 1596. Het beelt van Haerlem de stadt in J. D. Rutgers van der Loeff. 1911. Drie Lofdzchten op Haarlem. Haarlem: F. Bohn Nissen, C. 1951. Dze Botamsche Buchzllustratzon. Stuttgart: Heirsemann. Perlmutter, Michael L. Ruzsdael's Trees and Their Hzstorzcal Roots, Fine Arts seminar paper presented to Professor Seymour Slive, May 1981. Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Rackham, O. 1981. Trees and Woodland in the Britzsh Landscape. London: Dent. Rosenberg, J. 1928. Jacob van Ruzsdael. Berlin: Bruno Cassirer. Slive, Seymour. 1981-82. Jacob van Ruisdael. Exhibzaon catalogue, Mauritshuis, The Hague Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts, New York: Abbeville Press. Whitmore, T. C. 1962. Studies m Systematic Bark Morphology. New Phytologist 61: 191-207; 208-220. Wilks, J. H. 1971. Trees of the British Isles in Hzston~ and Legend. London: Muller Publishing. Wilson, B. F. 1966. Development of the shoot system ofAcer rubrum L. Harvard Forest Papers 14: 1-21. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Beech in Boston","article_sequence":2,"start_page":32,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24803","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eb36f.jpg","volume":42,"issue_number":1,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Winter","authors":"McMurtrie, Cornelia Hanna","article_content":"The Beech in Boston by CORNELIA HANNA MCMURTRIE European beech, Fagus sylvatica L. Fagaceae, is a majestic tree indigenous to the moist, densely shaded forests of England and Europe, which graced royal parks and grand estates. It is not surprising then that Fagus sylvatica, despite its beauty and widespread use in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries, was not found in America until the early 1800's. The early American settler depended on plants for food rather than ornamental value, as indicated by planting lists of early American nursery catalogues which offer primarily fruit trees, fruit-bearing shrubs and herbaceous material. It was not until the romantic, picturesque landscape movement and real estate development in 19th century America that the European beech appeared in The American nurseries. It is not entirely clear exactly when the European beech was introduced into America. The noted Swedish botanist and horticulturist, Peter Kalm, reports seeing Fagus sylvatica in the woods outside Philadelphia in 1748 (Kalm, 1972), and both Washington and Jefferson include it in their planting lists. This is undoubtedly the native American beech, Fagus sylvatica americana (F. sylvestris), now Cornelia Hanna McMurtrze, a student of landscape deszgn, is a trustee of the National Association for Olmsted Parks, and a member of the staff at the Arnold Arboretum. 1. The famous beech planted tn the 16th century at Newbattle, Scotland, shows the wide spreading form. On the left hand suie of the tree, the pendulous lowet branches have taken root, gtutng rise to a thicket of new stems. Reprinted from The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland by Henry Elwes and Augustine Henry. Edmburgh, 1906 Plate 8 Figure named Fagus grandiflora Ehrh. (Loudon, 1842). In his 1814 and 1824 editions of A Collection of Plants of Boston and its Environs, Jacob Bigelow mentions only Fagus ferruginea or the red beech. In 1859, however, Andrew Jackson Downing, the great 19th century horticulturist, describes \"the finest Copper Beech in America, fifty feet tall\" (Downing, p. 150), growing on the grounds of Thomas Ash, Esq., Throgs Neck, N.Y. It would seem then that the copper beech, Fagus sylvatica f. atropunicea must have been introduced earlier than 1820. According to Professor Charles S. Sargent, the European beech first appeared that year in an American nursery catalogue. Another source notes that the copper beech originated first in England in 1830 with George Loddgeis (Wyman, 1971). David Hosack, founder of the Elgin Botanic Garden in New York City, America's first botanic garden and the present site of Rockefeller Center, planted the magnificent weeping beech, Fagus sylvatica pendula at Hyde Park, New York in the early 1800's. The exact date is undetermined. The native range of Fagus sylvatica is from northern Europe to the western frontier of Russia, south to the Mediterranean and Crimea. It usually grows in pure stands as its dense shade and shallow root system suppress the growth of other species. In Europe it is found commonly on limestone soil but when planted will grow on almost any soil type. The history of F. sylvatica (Figure 1) is an interesting one. 34 Neolithic and preglacial deposits in England show remains of the beech. It was known to the Greeks and Romans. Sixteenth century British writers speak of the beech nuts being used to fatten deer and swine. It also offers food to wildlife, shade to cattle, and was an important timber tree and source of fuel. For centuries it has been recommended for shady walks, avenues and hedges. Literature abounds with references to the beech. Both Virgil and Pliny mention it. The Roman muses of Virgil he beneath the shade of \"beechen boughs.\" Pliny writes of a grove of beech trees consecrated to Diana. Crispus, a celebrated orator, considered one of these trees of such surpassing beauty that \"he not only delighted to repose beneath its shade but frequently poured wine on the roots, and used often to embrace it\" (Loudon, 1838, p. 1956). Robin Hood leads his merry men through beechen woods, and Germanic legends tell of the purple beech springing up from the blood of five brothers murdered in the forest. The beech is a trysting tree. Its smooth bark has recorded the names and poems of lovers from Roman times to the present: \"Or shall I rather the sad verse repeat which on the beech's bark I lately writ?\" (Virgil), \"Who shall grave on the rind of my smooth beeches some beloved name?\" (W.C. Bryant). Although Shakespeare does not mention specific tree species in any of his works, he must have had the beech in mind when Orlando says, \"These trees shall be my books and in their barks my thoughts I'll character ... Carve on every tree\" (As You Like It, Act III Scene 2). Keats' nightingale sings in \"some melodious plot of beechen green.\" From America Robert Frost describes the beech in his poem \"A Boudless Moment\": \"He halted in the wind, and what was that Far in the maples, pale, but not a ghost? A young beech clinging to its last year's leaves.\" .... \" Perhaps the most famous poetic reference (1805) \"The Beech Tree's Petition\": is Thomas Campbell's \"Oh, leave this barren spot to me! Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree! Though bud and flow'ret never grow My dark unwarming shade below; Nor summer bud perfume the dew, Of rosy blush, or yellow hue; Nor fruits of autumn, blossoms born, My green and glossy leaves adorn, Nor murmuring tribes from me derive Th' ambrosial amber of the hive; Yet leave this barren spot to me Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree! 2. A 1903 photo of beech woods at Slzndon Wood near Petworth, Sussex. One of the trees is 90 feet tall. Once acre of 60 trees aaeragzng 150 feet yields 9000 cubic feet of tzmber to the acre. Reprznted from The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland by Henry Elwes and Augustme Henry. Edmburgh, 1906. Plate 6. Figure Since youthful lovers in my shade Their vows of truth and rapture made, And on my trunks' surviving frame Carved many a long forgotten name ... As love's own altar, honour me: Spare, woodman, spare the beechen tree.\" Such quotations already give a good description of the form of the beech. Of all the forest trees, it is the most recognizable for its smooth, silvery-gray bark. In its native habitat, it is known for its wide spreading form (Figure 1) or as a smooth, tall column if growing closely together with other beeches in a forest grove (Figure 2). F. sylvatica was used as an avenue tree in Europe in the 17th and 18th centuries, but its tendency to branch down to the ground necessitating laborious pruning brought an end to this landscape use of beeches. The beech is attractive at every season. In the spring the new foliage of the beech is \"one of the most beautiful objects in nature in May - a tender, shimmering green of a shade not quite matched by any other tree\" (Bean, 1951, p. 5). In summer, the shade it provides also has no equal. The fall foliage of the many varieties of Fagus sylvatica turns brilliant hues of orange, red, purple and russet brown in comparison to that of 36 the American beech which turns a rusty-yellow color. There are other differences as well. The leaves of F. sylvatica are shorter and less coarsely toothed, ovate or elliptic-acute versus the ovate-oblong and acuminate leaves of F. grandifolia. The petiole of F. sylvatica is more pubescent and the buds are smaller. The trunk and the whole tree is shorter, and the color of the bark is slightly darker gray. It does not sucker like the American species, and the exposed roots of the mature F. sylvatica form great swellings at its base. The wood of the European beech is hard and brittle. It is prolific in varying forms, lasting for centuries, which include many purple varieties, and also cutleaved, columnar, weeping, round-leafed and twisted forms. The weeping form (F. pendula) has several magnificent examples in the New York area which are over 150 years old. Because of the richness of variety of Fagus sylvatica (Bean, 1976, in his monumental encyclopedia, lists 23 clones), I will limit my observations to the typical form of Fagus sylvatica and two of its most widely used color variants, the purple beech and the copper beech, both now classified as Fagus sylvatica f. atropunicea\"' (Rehder, 1949). The examples used are limited to Boston, Brookline and Cambridge. It is obvious that many other magnificent specimens exist in Boston and environs which could not be mentioned here. It would be difficult to describe the European beech's attributes for landscape use any better than J. C. Loudon, the well-known English horticulturist: V111Q111C11Ld1 L1CC lUI' die park and lawn, especially the mansion, the beech has many important advantages. Though its head is more compact and lumpish than that of the oak, the elm or the ash, yet its lower branches hang down to the ground in more pliant and graceful forms than those of any of these trees. The points of these branches turn up with a curve, which though not picturesque, has a character of its own, which will be found generally pleasing. The leaves are beautiful in every period of their existence; nothing can be finer than their transparent delicacy, when expanding, and for some weeks afterwards. In summer their smooth texture, and their deep, yet lively green, are highly gratifying to the eye; and the warmth of their umber tint, when they hang on the trees during the winter season, as contrasted with the deep and solemn green of pines and firs, has a rich, striking, and most agreeable effect in landscape\" (Arboretum Britannicum, 1838, ~~ti~ 0.11 near p. 1965). The European beech played an important role in the 19th century ' In the nursery trade the purple beech is often called variety purpurea and the copper beech variety cuprea. 37 brought the English landsuburbs, 'rural cemeteries' and city parks. The influence of 19th century American authors in their writings about the American wilderness, forests and agriculture, and about their travels landscape movement in America which scape into American abroad shaped an attitude toward nature and design of the land. Frederick Law Olmsted, Washington Irving and James Fenimore Cooper all recorded their trips abroad, including descriptions of English park scenery and the gigantic trees in the landscape. The 19th century American romantic view of nature as a work of art, growing out of the 18th century English view of the picturesque, classical and naturalistic landscape, called for the use of large trees with beauty, distinctive form, foliage and color. The smooth-barked beech with the soft and flowing lines of its branches set against a smooth, crisp lawn, embodied the picturesque and beautiful (or classical) attributes applied to the landscape by the 18th century landscape gardener, Humphrey Repton. Downing and his followers recommended the use of large ornamental, exotic shade trees for the American front yard. The copper beech was often used. Boston and its environs provides an excellent example of romantic landscape and picturesque parks. In fact, Robert Morris Copeland, the 19th century landscape gardener and town planner, and author of Cotmtry Lafe, who emphasized the design and maintenance of ornamental grounds, wrote a pamphlet about Boston entitled \"The Most Beautiful City in America.\" Downing, who through his writings and journals, had a great influence on the American landscape, was enormously impressed by Boston. \"The environs of Boston are more highly cultivated than most of any other city in North America. There are here whole rural neighborhoods of pretty cottages and villas, admirably cultivated ... The owner of a small cottage residence may have almost every kind of beauty and enjoyment in his grounds that the largest estate will afford so far as regards the interest of trees and plants\" (Downing, p. 37). Downing encouraged the planting of large forest trees, acknowledging that \"we Americans are proverbially impatient of delay, and having the feeling that it requires 'an age' for forest trees to 'grow up' (but) we can hardly conceive a more rational source of enjoyment than to be able to walk, in the decline of years beneath the shadow of umbrageous woods and groves, planted by our own hands, and whose growth has become almost identified with our own progress and existence\" (Downing, p. 39). The new suburban homes, according to H. W. Sargent in 1875, represented for Americans, a \"country-place\" as the ancestral estate had done in the past (Downing, p. 576). He recommends, in an appendix to Downing's Treatise, new trees for the villa gardens which are \"striking and distinct\" (Downing, p. 585), among them the purple and weeping beech. The expansion of Boston and subsequent development of subdivisions was greatly enhanced by connecting parkways and parklands. Frederick Law Olmsted, the great landscape architect and .... 38 was also a town-planner. He believed that development should be sensitive to topography and natural planning and provide \"a a tasteful and convenient disposition of shade trees\" (Reps, 1965, p. 344). To Olmsted, the informal and picturesque was greatly preferable to the rigid grid pattern of many cities across America. His design plans provided room for large trees and a park-like atmosphere in the city's midst. Several neighborhoods in Brookline were laid out by Olmsted in this manner. Downing was equally enthusiastic about Brookline: \"The whole of this neighborhood is a kind of landscape garden, and there is nothing in America ... so inexpressibly charming as the lanes which lead from one cottage, or villa, to another ... the open gates, with tempting vistas and glimpses under the pendent boughs, give it quite an Arcadian air of rural freedom and enjoyment. These lanes are clothed with a profusion of trees and wild shrubbery ... and curve and wind about, in a manner q,~ite bewildering to the stranger who attempts to tread them alone; and there are more hints here for the lover of the picturesque in lanes, than we ever saw assembled together in so small a compass\" (Downing, p. 40). Downing advocated the use of the beech in cities: \"its thick and impenetrable mass of foliage... and density makes it well suited to shut out unsightly buildings or other parkmarker, ... objects\" (Downing, p. 149). David Sears, a Brookline developer in the 1830s, and known for building the Sears Chapel which overlooks the Boston Park System, provided one of the finest and earliest examples of the use of Faaus sylvatica in America. Between Kent Street and Hawes Street in Brookline is Longwood Mall (or Square), listed now in the National Register of Historic Places, where 15 F. sylvatica and F. s. atropunicea were planted by Sears (Figure 3) between 1826 and 1838. Since then, 14 additional beeches have been planted. All of them are substantial trees with the original trees averaging heights of 70 feet. Figure 4 shows the magnitude of these impressive trees. For anyone who does not know this idyllic setting, it is worth a visit, not only to see some of the oldest Fagus sylvatica in America, but for a unique and pleasurable walk in a beautiful small park surrounded by lovely, historic houses (Figure 5). The trees are informally grouped creating spaces of varying sizes and allowing passage and viewing throughout the area. Considering the small size of the mall (35 x 300 yards), the variety of visual experiences is significant. C. S. Sargent served on the Brookline Park Commission while he director of the Arboretum and took a great interest in these trees. He describes them in a 1925 Horticulture article as \"probably the finest grove of the European Beech in the United States.\" Many other specimens of grand beeches grace the streets and front lawns of Brookline and Boston. Two outstanding examples of F. s. atropunicea (copper beech) stand on the lawn of the Elisha T. Loring house at 21 Mill Street in Dorchester. Figure 6 shows the immensity of one of the trees which measures over 6 feet in diameter and is approxwas 39 <:0 '\" M ,C U '~ '\" ;:! ...U ~N '\" U +, N ~ O) C C' -~ i~' U...~ O : N N ~ O U .t; o : ~ ~ Ot C~ '\" : U ' H aj Og 4' ~ 07 : U E `~ u ;> , Y ~' u CI1 N \"' ~ '\" 'S .a Ca ~ ~p <:I a~ '\" a ;O ..... '\" '\" '\" ... ~ ,-, t~ ~, <:I'\" a U o ~z o : N '\" <:I . ;> o ... '\" y ~~ w~ .;:'\" '\" \"'... ~N - <:I : x0\"\" o~ ~ \",\" : N ... . '\" '\" P.& ~' C'i N :.::; : . . \" \" '\" '\" N '\" ... 0 C7 N ... b0 U iof the larger specaof Fagus sylvatica on Longwood Mall xn 1987 Photograph by P. Del Tredxca. Figure 4. One mens imately 70 feet tall. The spread of the mass of roots at the base is over 81\/2 feet, and the branches which engulf the front yard and hang over _L....~ u1G V.liLllL. JLia.B.L Jtllt.0.V 1 V 1GGL. 111G1G Q1G JG V G1Q1 VL11G1 VGGG11GJ 111 L111J historic neighborhood which, according to residents, remains much the way it was almost 150 years ago. It is conceivable, since the house is placed in the middle of the lot, that the house was planned around the larger of the two beeches, which now flank the entrance walk. It is more likely, however, that the trees were planted shortly after the _~ nnC__~ mt_____ __ --- _t _W____L___t______ ~t_t_ house was built in 1845. The creation of 'rural cemeteries', forerunners of city parks, in American cities was a direct result of the picturesque landscape movement, the growing economy, and the rise of technology and of a middle class. They were one of those \"grand improvements in civilization\", according to Downing. Literary people and captains of industry were instrumental in their establishment. These cemeteries became sylvan retreats for the public, a more tranquil environment outside the city in which to take Sunday walks and drives, meet with friends and visit the graves of departed ones. The scale and opulence of the cemeteries were symbolic of the times. The emphasis on the planting of beautiful majestic trees assured a place to the noble beech. At Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge, consecrated in 1831 as the first rural cemetery in America, and a gathering place for literary figures of Boston, the large avenues are all named after large trees, and there are several great, old specimens of European beech. A particularly beautiful F. s. atropunicea which is over 100 years old and measures Figure 5 F sylvatica in relation to one of the houses buzlt durang the 19th century development of Longwood Mall. Photograph by P. Del Tredaca. 5 feet in diameter lends grandeur and stateliness to its environment. The weeping beech, F. s. pendula, is a particularly fitting choice for the setting. Forest Hills Cemetery in Boston, founded in 1848, echoes the same magnificence. As at Mt. Auburn, the grounds contain huge lofty European beeches which spread their protective branches over the gravestones below. Early in the 19th century, the public outcry for green open space within the city of Boston brought about the opening of the first public Botanic Garden in America in 1828. It was run by a group of private citizens until 1852 when the city offered a competition for a landscape plan which was won by George V. Meacham. The plan was executed and by 1880, 1500 trees had been planted in the Public Garden. Among them were four European beeches. The relationship of the garden suburbs to the adjoining parkland was part of Olmsted's master plan for the park system. An excellent example of this is Jamaica Park and the houses which bordered it. Because of the tree lined, connecting parkways and abutting parkland, it was difficult to tell where front lawns left off and parkland began. Ample space was provided for large trees. These provided a shelter and effective screen from the turmoil of city traffic. Although Olmsted was not against the use of some exotic trees in the Boston Park System, as mentioned elsewhere in this issue, his planting lists for the Boston Park System indicate only the American beech. On the Pine Bank, the former site of the Perkins Estate, overlooking Jamaica Pond, there are a few F. sylvatica, one of which was most likely planted by the Perkins family. John Pettigrew, the park superintendent of Boston, who took over the planting of the Boston Figure 6 (left). Fagus sylvatica atropumcea (copper beech) at 21 Mill Street, Dorchester, in the front yard of the 1845 Elisha T. Lorxng House. The author stands next to this tree to show Its Immense szze. Photograph by P. Del Tredicx. Figure 7 (below). A grove of European beeches bordenng Scarboro Pond at Franklzn Park, Boston. Photograph by C. McMurtrie. Park System from the Olmsted firm in 1897, appears to have included the European beech for Franklin Park, surely because it blended harmoniously with the native woodlands. A beautiful grove of F. sylvatica overlooks Scarboro Pond and provides the desired bordering effect (Figure 7). These trees were probably planted around 1900. On the southern edge of Country Park Meadow along Circuit Walk is another stand of beech. The silvery trunks and great branches spreading high above the rolling smooth meadow are a magnificent sight. Another famous Olmsted park, the Arnold Arboretum, boasts a superlative collection of Fagus sylvatica. The 20th century horticulturist, Donald Wyman, a staff member of the Arboretum for 33 years, wrote that F. sylvatica and its varieties should head the list of desirable shade trees. Curiously, E. H. Wilson does not mention the European beech collection in his book on the Arnold Arboretum, America's Greatest Garden, although we know he is an enthusiast of beeches from his other writings. The Arboretum's collection, on the slope near the South Street Gate, comprises 56 individuals including 20 varieties. One of the largest trees in the collection, F. s. atropunicea, is on the other side of the slope, on the former site of the Bussey Institute. Its origin is unknown but its huge size (70' x 70' and 5' in diameter), suggests that it is at least 100 years old. The oldest tree in the collection is the typical form F. sylvatica, grown from seed supplied by Meehan & Co. in 1875. The illustration on the inside back cover of this issue shows the elephantine, silvery smooth trunk with the typical spreading roots of a venerable tree. The role that the European beech played in the American landscape movement of the 19th century is captured well by Henry W. Sargent: \"One can hardly imagine, without having seen it, the sensation of entering a place through dark Yews, the dwarfer Weeping Hemlock, the Purple Oak, Purple Beech, the deep, red Atropurpurea Maples, and gradually driving into the sunlight effect of the Silver and Golden Retinisporas, Golden Yews (and) Golden Arborvitae..\" (1977, pp. 587-8). Acknowledgments I wish to thank the following people for their work on this project: Peter del Tredici who collaborated with me and took many photographs, Ida Hay, Helen Shea and Katherine Grant of the Arboretum staff, Ty Siegler, Brookline Planning Department, and Eleanor McPeck, Radcliffe Seminars. References H. 1900. Cyclopedia of Anxeracan hortzculture. Vol. II pp. 571-72. New York: The MacMillan Co. Bean, W. J. 1976. Trees and shrubs hardy zn the British Isles; 8th ed. Vol. 3. Bailey, L London: John Murray. Betts, E. 1944. Thomas Jefferson's farm book. Philadelphia: The Amencan Philosophical Society. Bigelow, J. 1814, 1824. A Collection of plants of Boston and Boston. zts environs, Dirr, M. A. 1977. Manual of woody landscape plants. Champaign, Ill. Stipes Publishing Co. Downing, A. J. 1977. A Treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardening. Reprint of the 1875 edition. Sakonnet, R.I. : Theophrastus. Elwes, H. J. and Henry A. 1906. The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. I. Edinburgh: privately printed. Emerson, G. B. 1887. A Report on the trees and shrubs of Massachusetts. Boston: Little, Brown & Co. Flagg, W. 1881. A Year among the trees. Boston: Estes & Lauriat. The Franklin Park Coalition. 1981. The Planting of Franklin Park. Boston: Franklin Park Coalition. Frederick, W. H., Jr. 1975. 100 Great garden plants. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. Gothein, M. L. 1931. History of garden art. New York: E. P. Dutton Co. Holt, K. 1979. \"Literary Landscapes,\" unpublished article. Kalm, P. 1972. Travels into North America. trans. J. R. Forster, Barre, MA: The Imprint Co. Leighton, A. 1976. Amerzcarc Gardens in the l8th Century. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Co. Loudon, J. C. 1838. Arboretum and Frutlcetum. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 1850. Encyclopedia of Gardening. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans. 1853. An Encyclopedia of the Trees and Shrubs of Great Britain. London: Longman, Orme, Brown, Green, and Longmans. Mehlman, E. 1979. Longwood Mall, unpublished article. Cambridge, MA. Rehder, A. 1936. On the history of the introduction of woody plants in North America. The National Horticultural Magazine. 15: 245-257. . 1949. Bibliography of cultivated trees and shrubs. Jamaica Plain, MA: -. -. Arnold Arboretum ot riarvara umversity. Report of the Park Commissioners. 1924. Brookline, MA. Reps, J. 1965. The Making of Urban America. Princeton: Princeton University Press. C. S. 1911. A Guide to the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge: Riverside Press. 1925. David Sears, Tree Planter. Horticulture, III; 8, pp. 164-65. Scott, F. J. 1870. The art of beautifying surburban home grounds. New York: Appleton & Co. Shakespeare, W. As You Like It. New Haven: Yale University Press. Sargent, -. Tucci, D. S. 1978. Buzlt zn Boston. Boston: N.Y. Graphic Society. Wilson, E. H. 1930. Aristocrats of the Trees. Boston: The Stratford Co. Wyman, D. 1971. Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia. New York: The MacMillan Co. Right: Trunk showmg the magnificent size of a of Fagus sylvatica at the Arnold Arboretum. Back cover: An anczent pedunculate oak, Quercus rober, an PInnock's Wood, New Forest, England, one of the few relics of the primeval Northwest European wildwood. Photograph by P. specimen Ashton. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23535","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260a76e.jpg","title":"1982-42-1","volume":42,"issue_number":1,"year":1982,"series":null,"season":"Winter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report Peter","article_sequence":1,"start_page":197,"end_page":254,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24800","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eab6d.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":6,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1981 On my arrival at Harvard two and one-half years ago, my first priority was to define future policy for the Arnold Arboretum, and in particular for the curation and development of its collections. I had come as a fervent advocate of the Arboretum as an institution. This advocacy was, and still is, based on certain convictions that I espouse as a biologist, and one belief in particular: that all biological endeavor must spring from a solid base of description in systematics. Systematic biology is the study of patterns of variation between organisms. It entails far more than naming and tabulation. Systematics above the level of the breeding population, and most other rigorous descriptive and analytical biology, requires comprehensive and well-curated collections and libraries, of which those of the Arnold Arboretum serve as a superb example. But I am also convinced that systematics is not an end in itself and therefore is most creative when pursued in the broad biological milieu provided by a university. Armed with these premises, I used my first annual report to a set out policy for our collections which seeks to reconcile what I consider to be their principal function, that is, research, with their role in education and public amenity. The present report should be read in the context, then, of this first statement. I did not attempt to explain why collections are essential for systematic and, indirectly, most other biological research, and this was just as well, for I would have grossly 197 198 underestimated the complexity of the issue, particularly in the context of Harvard. But it is this question which I wish to address in my report this year. The Arnold Arboretum is a museum facility that has, besides its staff, three major resources: the libraries, the herbaria, and the living collections. Their resources are particularly strong in materials from tropical Asia and the Far East; indeed, the Arnold Arboretum is the leading American institution for research into the botany of this area. Our collections are primarily (but by no means exclusively) dedicated to woody plants, and in particular to trees, while our living collections are exclusively North Temperate in origin. They thus complement those of the Gray Herbarium, the collections of which are primarily from the New World, the Farlow Herbarium of non-vascular plants, the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium, and the Herbarium of Economic Plants of the Botanical Museum. What value do museum collections of long-lived plants now have in addressing the salient research issues of our time? We are now questioning the value of object-based research in many fields. The implications are grave, for a museum collection cannot be maintained, accessible to the scholar, if it is merely locked away in an air-conditioned space. Facilities such as those possessed by the Arnold Arboretum take time to build, cannot easily be changed to accommodate new directions in science, and absorb significant funds for maintenance. Unlike, say, the equally or more expensive equipment required for molecular biology, they cannot be periodically written off and replaced. The collections of necessity require staff with a high level of scholarship who actively and continuously use them for research. Nowhere is this more essential than in living collections, which take up public space, need constant and expensive attention, and decline with surprising rapidity if they do not receive the constant care and interest of scholars. Research in the arts depends, it is being claimed, less and less on the original, and in that sense unique, works stored in the Fogg, and archeological research seldom now needs direct access to the stelae of the Peabody. In these cases photographic reproduction has made the collections available to researchers without need for access to the originals, while there has been a shift in interest from artifacts to the people who created them. However, biological museum specimens differ in important respects from cultural artifacts. They cannot be reproduced; only the originals are of value to research. They each represent a subjectively selected fragment, or a whole individual in the case of a living collection, usually of a unique genotype which was itself sampled from a population of living organisms. Nevertheless, biological specimens generally have no rarity value, although again, some of our plant collections are rapidly accruing it as the species they represent decline in the wild. Collections document biological variation and diversity 199 ultimately essential for all biological inquiry. They of living populations, as evidence for their distribution, and as material for the study of those aspects of the biology of an organism which are manifested in the collected specimen. They are the primary evidence for patterns of variation from which paths of evolution are deduced, and are hence ultimately the basis for all hypotheses in evolutionary biology. Research on fossil organisms adds a time dimension to evolutionary hypothesis, as well as disclosing organisms whose morphology must be reconciled with the morphology of extant organisms. This underlies the importance of Harvard's outstanding paleontological collections, and the need for continued research strength in this area. Although living collections cannot be a substitute for a natural population, they allow examples of plants which in nature may be growing on different continents to grow together. Living specimens are amenable to a wide range of experimental manipulation. Living plants have the important additional advantage that most can be vegetatively propagated in perpetuity, and their genotypes can hence be replicated for experiment as well as for conservation. Plants possess certain distinct advantages for research, and the history of plant science reflects these potentials, in part. Their sedentary nature facilitates long-term study of processes of adaptation and selection in relation to growth, development, and mortality, while their modular construction and relative ease of asexual propagation permit replication of a single genotype. However, their lack of organization compared with higher animals, and their absence of locomotory, nervous, or obvious sensory systems, impose restrictions and help to explain the traditional emphasis on classification in botany. Many plants are long lived, and this restricts their potential for genetic and other experimentation. This is notably so in woody plants. But are we to ignore them on that account? Systematics provides a framework, and thus the gateway, through which biologists can gain access to the diversity of the living world. The biological method will continue to be one of successive approximations. Systematic research cannot answer how biological processes take place, but through analysis of biological variation the systematist identifies patterns, and from them formulates hypotheses concerning these processes which then must be tested through experiment. For example, the central integrating concept in whole-organism biology remains the theory of evolution. The processes of mutation and natural selection take place at the level of the individual organism, but influence evolution through changes in gene frequency in populations in nature. Research in population biology requires long-term observation in secure sites, of which the Harvard Forest, and the Concord Field Station of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, provide excellent examples. It is at these and lower levels of organizational scale, therefore, that mechanistic research into the processes of and are hence serve as partial records 200 evolution will be concentrated. But which populations and which organisms will provide the to most appropriate information from which generalize? Genius and technological adeptness alone cannot make a great biologist. Experience, arising from prolonged and meticulous observation of the natural world, is equally essential. Systematics, though inherently synthetic and non-experimental above the species level, should not be regarded as less rigorous than experimental, and especially mechanistic, branches of biology. The approach in systematic biology does not differ from that of, say, the late Professor Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin's, in her astonishing systematic analyses of the variable stars. Though descriptive biology remains an essential precursor and adjunct to experimental branches of our science, the two approaches in certain respects require different philosophies and skills, and this has led to a mutually damaging lack of communicaeven respect, between their practitioners. In many areas, the reopening of paths of communication must await future technological innovation, since application of the mechanistic approach to biological research is restricted by the refractory nature of much biological material. Current advances in molecular and cell biology are confined to a small group of organisms which, due to a peculiar combination of characteristics, are most amenable to experimentation. But to what extent can our rapidly extending knowledge of Escherichia coli, Drosophila melanogaster, or even Homo sapiens be extrapolated to other organisms? There is no doubt that future research must be directed increasingly at developing the technology required to expand this dangerously slender base, and competently curated collections, particularly of living plants, will prove invaluable. It is also true that systematics, except that based on populationlevel analyses, has been in the doldrums. This has been largely because systematists have been disinclined to discuss the theoretical basis of their scientific approach, and have considered classification as much an art as science. Hence, systematics has tended to be ignored by the rest of science. However, over the last 30 years techniques for analyzing new sets of characters, or simply for looking at the plant in new ways, have been developed and have given systematists vast amounts of new information. Advances in mathematical techniques, aided by the electronic computer, are permitting objective analysis of patterns of immense complexity. Perhaps more importantly, the recent revival of interest in the theoretical grounds of systematic biology enables systematists to utilize this information in critical studies of evolutionary relationships and to explore anew the relationships between morphology (in the broad sense), classification, and evolution. Our institution, as a member of the community of museums and other institutions that comprise the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology of Harvard University, has an excellent oppor- tion, and 201 tunity to make the diversity of the plant kingdom available to the experimental scientist. This must be done through broad yet rigorous monographic systematic research. There are many groups of animals and plants, notably most arthropod orders, fungi, and flowering plants, particularly those of the tropics, still awaiting monographic study. These groups are literally inaccessible to scientific investigation until their systematics have been advanced. As an example which typifies the systematic research of our staff, Dr. Peter Stevens's current monographic research in the tropical tree family Clusiaceae, and notably the large and extraordinarily complex genera Calophyllmn and Mesua, is revealing contrasting and unexpected patterns of variation and diversity which permit him to formulate hypotheses concerning the evolution of trees in tropical forests. In a rather different way, Dr. Carroll Wood's monographic Generic Flo~~a of the Southeastern United States brings together a wealth of information on all aspects of the biology of a group of plants which includes many whose phytogeography indicates a former vegetational connection between that region and temperate eastern Asia. Thus, it provides the essential background for research into this interesting stage in the evolution of the North Temperate flora. There is, therefore, still a critical need to expand the descriptive and, especially, the systematic base of knowledge so that the most appropriate material for research into comparative and evolutionary plant biology can be identified. This requires rigorous scholarship and an aptitude for a particular kind of intellectual though not necessarinnovation. It is a paradox that systematics, which ily technical people think encumbered with history, old books, and Linnaeus, is more ahistorical than much research in physics and chemistry. One of the marks of greatness in a biologist is his ability to appreciate, and foster links between, his own research and research at other organizational levels. In biology, this is as true of organismic biology as of other levels, and good systematists have always taken pride in their abilities as synthesizers. Fortunately, the boundary between systematics and other biological disciplines is becoming intellectually less clearly demarcated. The gulf that arose between the observational and the experimental sciences, and research at organismic, cellular, and lower levels of biological organization, has been severely detrimental. The rise of ecology, as both an observational and an experimental discipline, has helped bridge the gap in some universities. In Harvard, bridges are being built through comparative functional morphology and anatomy, and through ecological - which are probably the most completely documented of their kind in existence, are a superb tool for research and instruction in the comparative biology of the whole plant. They provide the practical means to link systematics with comparative, descriptive, and experimental studies in morphology, anatomy, and physiology. Our living collections, 202 ~I ontogeny, with reproductive biology, embryology, cytology, and genetas well as physiological ecology. Nowhere is the need for an integrated approach more urgent than in biological research in the tropics. The great majority of organisms on earth are tropical. It has been calculated that, of the 240,000 species of flowering plants, 155,000, or some 65 percent, are tropical. Among woody plants, there are approximately 20 times more species in the tropics than in the rest of the world. Many whole families of plants are confined to the tropics, as are many manifestations of plant form. In the favorable climate of the aseasonal and humid tropics, plant species richness (and that of some animals, notably insects) reaches its zenith. In this exceptionally uniform environment the determinants of natural selection appear to be largely biotic and frequently are extremely intricate. Many of the leading problems in comparative and evolutionary biology must, therefore, be addressed in the tropical rain forests. However, present rates of tropical deforestation, which are estimated to be 200,000-250,000 km2 annually, suggest that within 50 years these forests will be reduced to modified fragments, no longer suitable for answering many of these questions. Nor is this dilemma merely academic: as much as half the world's flora may be extinguished during this time, during a period when increasing energy costs will necessitate dramatic changes in industry and agriculture, requiring new crops and more intensive use of renewable resources. Without expanded research in tropical botany, many species of potential economic value in agriculture and forestry, and others which may yield new chemicals for the pharmaceutical and other industries, will be lost before their importance is realized. The tree flora of the Far East is the richest on earth. The Arnold Arboretum, as repository for the most extensive herbarium collections and library for the study of the botany of tropical Asia in this country, must play a leading part in advancing this research while time remains. High priority must again be given by our institution, as custodian of the necessary resources, to monographic systematic research for, as mentioned, this will provide the critical base from which hypotheses can be formulated, and assure a stable nomenclature. There is, however, an immediate practical need for local floras, of which Dr. Richard Howard's current Flora of the Lesser Antilles serves as a fine example. Increased collection of plant specimens, particularly from our area of specialization in Asia, is essential for our future research and is a responsibility which, in view of our existing strengths, we owe to the biological community as a whole. Particular emphasis needs now to be placed on those several regions which remain little collected, yet where deforestation is now rapid; on novel collecting methods enabling preservation of anatomical, including embryological, material, and ideally, the creation of DNA or clone banks of species of particular interest; and on the total inventory of restricted areas of selected plant communities. ics, ,. '''' The zllustrarion above shows structural and bxologzcal details of Hedychium coronarium, a member of the gznger famzly (Zzngzberaceae) from southeastern Asia that IS widely cultivated and naturalzzed in the tropics Prepared by Margaret van Montfrans, who joined the stafJ\"thzs year as a botanzcal xllustrator, this zs one of the illustrations for the \"Generzc Flora of the Southeastern United States,\" a long-term project that znvolves some 190families and almost 1300 genera of seed-bearzng plants of nine Southeastern States The project xs currently supported by a three-year grant from the National Sczence Foundation with C. E. Wood, Jr., and N. G. Mzller as principal znvestxgators. 204 Trachyloma diversinerve by Robin S. Lefberg. a botanical xllmstrator from 1975 to 1978 This plate accompanies a monograph of Trachyloma finzshed during the year by Norton G Mxller in collaboration with the late Monte G Manuel of the Uraaersxty of Malaya Trachyloma diversmerve zs found xn eastern Australia, New Zealand and New Caledonza Especxally noteworthy are its clusters of filanzentous gemmae produced at the tips of branches (see b F~ c) moss Drawings of the at the Arnold Arboretum 205 The reader may wonder why no mention has been made of horticultural research, for which the Arnold Arboretum has a distinguished reputation. Several of those aspects of basic scientific research, for which our living collections can provide such valuable material, are also basic to horticulture: systematic and comparative morphology and anatomy provide the descriptive framework, and embryology, cytology, and genetics the groundwork, for propagation and plant breeding. Horticultural needs provide an additional reason for the broad research policy outlined here. In the past, our institution had on its staff botanists such as Alfred Rehder, and horticulturalists such as Donald Wyman, who prepared the encyclopedias of cultivated woody plants upon which we still rely. The need now, with so many plant species known, with nomenclature as well as taxonomic confusion in many major taxa, and with the almost limitless multiplication of cultivars, is once again for thorough monographic treatment of the major woody plant taxa in cultivation. In temperate Asia there still remains a need for exploration in the quest for new taxa and, more particularly, for hardier genotypes than are currently in cultivation. It is to these ends that the research of Dr. Stephen Spongberg and Dr. Richard Weaver is dedicated. At the same time, our living collections staff are encouraged, and indeed expected, to pursue research in propagation, in hardiness testing, and in assessment for horticultural display, thus continuing the traditions established by Jackson Dawson, Alfred Fordham, and others in the past. The results will continue to appear in the pages of our horticultural journal, Arnoldia. It is obvious that the endowment of the Arnold Arboretum is inadequate to support research in every aspect of whole plant biology or, indeed, in more than a few of the fields advocated in this report. Future appointments must take into consideration the need for continued strength in monographic systematic research, so that our collections may continue to be available to the wider scientific community. Future appointments must equally encourage as broad a use of our collections, and in particular our living collections, for research and instruction as they can sustain. Systematic research proceeds through gradual, consistent accumulation of experience gained by continued use of biological collections. The collections, in turn, require constant, meticulous curation by scholars of the highest caliber. It is for these reasons that the Arnold Arboretum must continue to maintain a strong representation of systematic botanists on its staff. Furthermore, our obligations to the international scientific community, in the development of our collections and in systematic research, will be dependent on the grant support which our tenured staff alone can command. Systematics requires, at one and the same time, a broad appreciation of the biology of the whole organism, meticulous care for detail, and an awareness of how to analyze the resulting data in a variety of - ` 206I ways useful to scientists with differing requirements. Our most intractable dilemma is the current dearth of plant systematists who have the breadth necessary to build from plant taxonomy to general biological theory. Contemporary attitudes in education have militated against this approach to biological endeavor, as one may observe in the remarkable naivete of some of our new graduate students. Harvard is now possibly alone in providing the necessary combination of breadth and detail required of good systematists and, I would argue, in any whole biologist, and this is reflected in the continued demand for our graduates by the nation's colleges and museums. Systematics cannot survive in isolation, but our future appointments policy can be a powerful integrating force. The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum make us particularly well-placed to foster the consolidation of whole plant science at Harvard, by ensuring that the collections are maintained and kept available to our scientific community as a whole, and through appointment of both descriptive and experimental scientists in fields which can benefit from the resources that our institution possesses. Our pending appointment in the field of root biology is being made in this spirit. It is to be hoped that our income will allow similar future appointments, though it is clear that they cannot be made to the detriment of our continued strength in systematics. Harvard must seize the opportunity to continue the distinctive tradition in biology that its institutions have made possible. Our new Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, made up almost entirely by staff of the affiliated institutions, can thus advance biological knowledge, and instruct students, through as comprehensive an approach as that provided by any university. In the realm of tree biology, future staff of the Arnold Arboretum should be contributing to all levels, from the broad systematic monograph to the experimental investigation of individual phenomena. _ ORGANIZATION Mr. Franklyn Stevens was appointed office manager in September, 1980. Mr. Stevens has been responsible for some major improvements in the organizational infrastructure and financial systems of the Arnold Arboretum. Upgrading of the telephone system in Jamaica Plain, and installation of postage machines in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain, are affording further cost and time savings. Steps are being taken to utilize automated billing, available through Harvard's Accounts Receivable Department, for subscriptions to our two journals. Renovation and reorganization of the interior of the Hunnewell Administration Building in Jamaica Plain, which was coordinated by Ms. Wendy Marks, the manager of public services, will receive mention in several parts of this report. A new energy-efficient heating The first phase of the Hunnewell But(dtng renovation meant teanny out floors and walls. The result will brmg new and improved publte facalttaes to the Arboretum, tncludrng a lecture room and for the first txme, publac rest rooms. 208 installed. The former herbarium space at the back of the converted into office space for the secretarial staff, the director, the manager of public services, and living collections staff; a reception room and booths for handling plant information inquiries were also provided. The first floor contents of the herbarium have been moved up to the fourth floor and air conditioned. The second floor materials remain in place, but the clerestory opening in the center of the floor has been cemented in, and a separate office provided for the herbarium preparators. The front of the building on the first floor is being converted to space for the public program. The former first-floor library has, therefore, been moved to the third floor at the back of the building, bringing it to the same level of, and allowing integration with, the rest of the library in the building. Both library and herbarium are now taken out of direct public access, thereby improving conditions for conservation and security. The daunting tasks of moving the library and herbarium were coordinated by Horticultural Research Archivist Sheila Geary and Staff Assistant Ida Hay, respectively. Miss Dorothea Talbot, secretary to the director, retired during the year; she was replaced by Ms. Susan Bryant. system was first floor was . RESEARCH AND INSTRUCTION Highlights of the year's research included the publication of Dr. Peter Stevens's monograph of the Old World species of the tropical, mainly Far Eastern tree genus Calophyllum in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. This is one of the few truly comprehensive contemporary studies of any of the very large and taxonomically complex tropical flowering plant genera that are of such interest to the evolutionary biologist. Dr. Stevens's treatment lays a secure groundwork that should stand the test of time. It describes in critical detail the patterns of variation from which hypotheses concerning speciation can be derived and tested, and at the same time it provides the forester with the tool by which he may identify the species in the field. In addition, the year witnessed an upsurge of interest in the living collections for research. The work that has been undertaken is remarkable for its diversity: systematic research has continued in Rosaceae, Theaceae, and Viburnum ; an important publication of Dr. Howard's anatomical research appeared; there have been mathematical studies of variation in leaf shape in Acer, and research on the branching patterns and tree architecture in Viburnum, Tsuga, and Asimina; cytogenetic studies proceeded in Hamamelidaceae and Platanaceae; the breeding system of Ulmus was investigated; there were attempts to induce cone formation and flowering in selected gymnosperms and angiosperms by application of growth hormones; Magnolia virginiana was found to possess an unusual pattern of embryo development and seed germination; and a comparative study of Alnus species that fix nitrogen in the roots has been initiated, with the eventual aim of assessing them as a source of cattle forage. The 209 imminent appointment of a professor in root biology, and the receipt of a gift towards the acquisition of equipment to set up a laboratory in chemosytematics in Jamaica Plain, will further strengthen research using the living collections. The resurgence of interest in the botany of China continued this past year. Dr. Stephen Spongberg accompanied four botanical colleagues on the first Sino-American expedition since the Chinese Revolution, and Dr. Shiu-ying Hu made an extensive lecture tour of China. Professor Peter Ashton concentrated on studying and annotating the collections of Dipterocarpaceae at two major Far Eastern herbaria. The combined holdings in the National Botanic Gardens and Forest Research Institute in Bogor, Indonesia, comprise more than 40,000 numbers. Dr. Ashton visited these institutions in June and July, 1980, and during the following winter continued with the work using materials sent on loan. Work on the Forest Research Institute collection is now completed. While in the Far East, Dr. Ashton attended the Second Round-Table Symposium on Dipterocarp Research in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, where he presented a paper and chaired a session. Thereafter he attended a symposium at Cambridge University, Biological Aspects of Rare Plant Conservation, where he also presented a paper. He lectured at Yale University at the School of Forestry and Environmental Studies and again at the Department of Biological Sciences. He also lectured to biology students at Lehman College, New York, and to horticulture students as part of the University of Delaware's Longwood Program. He served on a panel at a planning conference organized by the president of the New York Botanical Garden, and on another convened at Tufts University to discuss the conservation of genetic resources. A chapter on the forests of tropical Asia, for a book on the current status of tropical forests, was submitted. Dr. During the year, Paul Cox, who was advised by Dr. Otto Solbrig and Ashton, submitted his thesis, entitled \"Pollination and Unisexual- ity in Freycinetia.\" Mr. Steven Rogstad and Mr. Paul Rich are also advised by Dr. Ashton, the latter in collaboration with Dr. Thomas Givnish. Dr. Richard Primack continued his field work in East Malaysia, on a grant awarded Drs. Ashton and Stevens by the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. He is studying the wild breadfruits (Artocarpus) and tree figs (Ficus) of that region, which is the center of their species diversity. A field manual, for which illustrations are under preparation, has been otherwise completed, and Dr. Primack is now concentrating on growth and demographic studies of selected species. Professor Richard Howard continues his work towards the treatment of the Dicotyledoneae for the next volume of the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, for which some illustrations have also been prepared. With permission from the Linnean Society of London, which owns the manuscript, he has completed a transcription of Alexander Anderson's early nineteenth century accounts of the geography and history 210 of the island of St. Vincent, and of the history of its botanical garden, which is the oldest in the New World. In collaboration with other specialists, he is attempting to interpret the plant description in Anderson's manuscript \"Hortus.\" Dr. Howard also completed a paper on William Hamilton and his Prodromus Plantarzcm Indiae Occidentalis ; two papers on Opuntia (Cactaceae) in the Lesser Antilles; one on the stay in Boston of Olaf Swartz, a student of Linnaeus who conducted plant explorations in the Lesser Antilles; one on Solander's Florula Indiae Occidentalis; another relating to Louise O'Farrell's plant paintings from St. Croix; and also a manuscript, entitled \"Additional Notes on Coccoloba in Jamaica,\" to be included in a more extensive revisionary paper by Dr. George Proctor. Treatments of Icacinaceae and Polygonaceae are currently under way for the floras of Venezuela and of Nicaragua. Dr. Howard, who holds a National Science Foundation grant for his research towards a Flora of the Lesser Antilles, was awarded a grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust for work on the Anderson manuscripts. Dr. Howard received the Award of Merit for 1981 from the Montserrat, West Indies, National Trust. He attended the organizational meeting of Flora Neotropica in Quito, Ecuador, visited herbaria there and in Lima, and did some collecting; he serves on the Editorial Committee of the Flora. He chaired an ad hoc committee for the dean of the Graduate School, University of Michigan, for evaluation of the Matthaei Botanical Garden and attended a meeting of the Plant Collections Committee of the Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden during its board meeting in Boston. Dr. Howard identified collections of cultivated plants of the Scientific and Industrial Research Organization of Pakistan and the Agriculture Department of New Caledonia, as well as the holdings of Polygonaceae and Icacinaceae for the French Organization for Overseas Scientific and Technological Research (ORSTOM) at Cayenne. He lectured at the University of Connecticut and gave a botany seminar at Harvard, as well as a talk to the graduate students' Society for Expeditionary Biology. Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, who is retired, continued indefatigably in her studies of the botany of China. Between September, 1980, and February, 1981, she was in the Far East. After attending the Third International Ginseng Symposium in Seoul, Korea, where she presented an invited paper, she continued to Bangkok. There she presented papers on Chinese materia medica at the Fourth Asian Symposium on Medicinal Plants and Spices sponsored by the World Health Organization, and at a Thai-U.S. Cooperative Symposium on Underexploited Economic Plants. Thereafter she was in China, where she ran short courses in plant taxonomy at fourteen colleges and universities throughout the country and spoke at branches of the Botanical Society of China and at horticultural clubs. As an invited participant, she also attended a review meeting of the Executive Board of the Botanical Society in Canton. For over a quarter century, senior Chinese botanists have been unable to communicate with colleagues in other \/ Above Shm-yzng Hu lecturzng In the South China College ofAgnculture in January, 1981. Below: Dr Hu with Chinese 6otanzsts from aarxous organzzatzons xn the four northeastern provinces of China. Her serxes of lectures was organzzed by, and took place zn, the Chinese Institute of Forestry, Harbxn, Heilung~iang, from November 7 through November 12, 1980 The president of the Instztute, Professor C Y Yang, ts Chzna's leading specialist on Lauraceae He was a good freend of the late Professor E. D. Mernll, and visited the Arnold Arboretum when Merrxll was director. Dr In Steven sxx Spongberg participated weeks of field work zn the Shennong~za Forest Dzstrzct of western Hubei Province, in the Shennong,7za Mountains. Over 2,000 collectxons were processed comprzsing rn excess of 25,000 herbanum sheets. Pictured below are Chznese members of the expedztzon preparzng the speczmens. ' > J ; ~.._ B. ~'<l.~.1 ~si o F m ,.~' c 213 countries. They are anxious to hear of the current issues in science outside of China and to train younger colleagues for senior positions. Dr. Hu, now in her seventies, covered 14,000 miles within her native country, daily giving courses and holding discussions between 8:30 in the morning and 5:30 in the evening. This remarkable effort was clearly much appreciated and very much reflects the new spirit of cooperation which the Arnold Arboretum wishes to develop with its Chinese colleagues. Dr. Stephen Spongberg also concentrated this year on reestablishing both the Arboretum's cooperative program with Chinese botanists and its long-standing interest in the flora of China. These activities were facilitated through his participation as the Arnold Arboretum representative in the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition to Western Hubei (Hupeh) Province. The expedition took place between August 10 and November 16, 1980. Sponsored under the joint auspices of the Academia Sinica and the Botanical Society of America, the expedition involved three months of field work in the Shennongjia Forest District and the Metasequoia region of Lichuan Xian (Hsien) in western Hubei Province, as well as travel to botanical institutions and gardens throughout China. Financial assistance was provided by a grant from the National Geographic Society and by a special fund established by the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. While in China the American team was hosted by the Institute of Botany, Beijing (Peking), and the Wuhan Institute of Botany, Hubei, both of the Academia Sinica, and their field work was greatly assisted through the kindness of local provincial government officials. Professor Sun Siang-chung, director of the Wuhan Institute of Botany and chairman of the Department of Biology of Wuhan University, was the leader of the expedition, which was joined in the field by botanical colleagues from five botanical institutions elsewhere in China. The scientific results of the expedition, which are currently being prepared, will be published in a joint report in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Spongberg will serve as general editor. Together with Dr. David Boufford, of the Carnegie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, he has also had the primary responsibility for identifying the 2,085 herbarium collections gathered during the expedition. Dr. Boufford spent six weeks at the Arboretum during February and March to assist in this project. Altogether, these collections represent about 25,000 herbarium sheets, which were divided equally between the Chinese and American teams. While in western Hubei, Dr. Spongberg was also able to observe and make herbarium and seed collections, as well as dried leaf collections for chromatographic analysis, of several taxa of Sorbus. Opportunities to work in several Chinese herbaria also allowed him to continue his study of Sorbus, Hartia, Stewartia, and genera of the Magnoliaceae. In addition, Dr. Spongberg has begun sorting through W. P. Fang's Mt. Omei and Szechuan collections that have been stored in Merrill 214 boxes in Jamaica Plain for 30 years or more. These specimens are gradually being mounted. Dr. Spongberg still found time to continue his responsibilities as editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum and, with the valued collaboration of Dr. Howard, to add some 750 citations to the Rehder card index, the comprehensive bibliography for cultivated woody plants. Professor Peter Steven's monograph of Old World Calophyllum appeared in the Journal early this year. He has since made a start on Mesua, the second largest genus in the subfamily Calophylloideae of the important tropical family Clusiaceae. Initial studies are bringing to light a number of interesting characters from all parts of the plant, many of which have not been observed or have been ignored for a century, but the variation pattern promises to be yet more complex than in Calophyllum. Field work undoubtedly will be needed to further its comprehension. With students Mr. Paul Groff and Mr. Michael Donoghue, Dr. Stevens has been preparing a critique on the current uncritical use of morphological terminology, with a view to indicating its potential for misguiding observation and theory. Arising from his new course on the history of botanical systematics, Dr. Stevens is preparing a paper on the interrelationship between the sciences of crystallography and botanical systematics between 1740-1840. A more general study of the metaphors used to describe the relationship in natural systems in immediately pre-Darwinian times is also under way. Dr. Stevens completed a critical evaluation of the criteria used to determine whether characters are advanced or primitive, concluding that most are highly suspect and lead to circularity in argument. Dr. Stevens continues to supervise graduate students Ms. Elizabeth Taylor and, with Professor Richard Schultes, Mr. Jeffrey Hart; he also has become an advisor of Mr. Brent Mishler. He gave invited lectures at the University of Western Ontario, Guelph University, and Tufts University. Dr. Stevens has continued his active curation of the herbaria and has identified material received from Thailand, India, and the Pacific. Also, with assistance from graduate students, he named a number of unidentified plants from Central and South America. Professor Carroll Wood, in collaboration with Dr. Norton Miller, assembled a grant proposal for continuation of the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, in which they plan to work as coprincipal investigators. The National Science Foundation has made a substantial three-year grant for this monumental project which, if continuously funded, is expected to be completed within the next decade. The account of Amaranthaceae, by a former Arboretum assistant curator, Dr. Kenneth Robertson, will appear in the Journal in July, while a former student, Dr. Christopher Campbell, now of Rutgers University, is starting a treatment of the tribes of Gramineae in the Southeast. 215 Dr. Wood has received grants for each of his graduate students for field work, initially from the Atkins or Anderson funds of the University, and subsequently from the National Science Foundation Program for Doctoral Dissertation Research in Systematic Botany. Ms. Elizabeth Coombs, who was thereby enabled to visit the western states last year, traveled to the Gaspe Peninsula in Quebec, and again to the Sierra Nevada of California in late summer, 1980, in order to pursue her studies in the Poa sandbergii complex of bluegrasses. Mr. Brent Mishler, who is supervised by Drs. Miller, Wood, and Stevens, is enabled through one of these grants to pursue his systematic studies in the moss genus Tortula (Musci\/Pottiaceae) in the southwestern United States and, later, in Mexico. He has meanwhile prepared a treatment of the genus for the forthcoming moss flora of Mexico. Dr. Wood has taken part in a Genetics Training Grant awarded to the Department of Biology that has assisted in the field work of Ms. Coombs and Mr. Mishler, of Mr. Donoghue whose thesis is now near completion, and also that of Dr. Campbell, who received his degree last year and is now teaching at Rutgers University. With its help, Ms. Coombs and Mr. Donoghue attended a workshop on the theory and application of cladistic methodology at the University of California in March, 1981. Dr. Norton Miller, botanist, meanwhile continued his research on Pleistocene macrofossils. He analyzed a stratigraphic suite of fossil mosses from sediments of Upper South Branch Pond, Maine, as part of a collaborative effort on the vegetational history of north-central Maine with Dr. Ronald Davis and Mr. R. Scott Anderson of the University of Maine. He also identified an assemblage of moss and other plant macrofossils from late glacial sediments from a kettle hole near Brampton, Ontario. These materials were provided by Dr. Alan Morgan of the University of Waterloo. Samples containing an assemblage of mosses were sent for study by Dr. James King of the Illinois State Museum in Springfield. The fossils are from a late Wisconsonian interstadial deposit in Illinois. The floristic composition of the assemblage, which was discovered during excavation associated with the installation of a nuclear power plant, is similar to an assemblage studied a few years ago from the Gardena locality in Illinois and also presumably the same age, although a C-14 age determination is pending. Both assemblages indicate the existence of rich fens. One contains fossils of the moss Cinclidium latifolium, currently a species of the North American High Arctic and thus potentially an important paleoecological indicator. Work on Cinclidium has been pursued with Dr. Gert Mogensen of the Botanical Museum, University of Copenhagen, an authority on the genus. Study of plant fossils, mostly mosses, from a deposit of till deduced on stratigraphic grounds to be of early Illinoian age has been completed in collaboration with Mr. Stephen Jackson of Indiana University. During the first two weeks of April, Dr. Miller was joined by the late Dr. Monte Manuel of the University of Malaya. They finished the taxonomic part of a joint monograph of the Australasian-Oceanian 216I Trachyloma (Pterobryaceae). The scanning electron microscope extensively used for examination of calyptrae, peristomes, and spores. Plates illustrating most of the species and varieties have been assembled, and a manuscript is being assembled for publication. Two short floristic notes, \"Loeskypnum wiskesiae (Musci: Amblystegiaceae) in Alaska,\" prepared with Dr. Zennoske Iwatsuki of the Hattori Botanical Laboratory, Japan, and \"Grimmia anodon (Musci: moss was in North America north of Mexico,\" jointly with Dr. Robert Ireland of the National Museums of Canada, have been submitted for publication. Lastly, work has begun on a chapter treating Cenozoic Bryophyta for a new edition of the Manual of Bryology. This book, which will update the current manual by Dr. Frans Verdoorn (1932), is being organized by Dr. Rudolph Schuster of the University of Massachusetts. Dr. Miller gave invited lectures at the Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waterloo, Canada, and at the University of Alberta, Edmonton. He attended the Sixth Biennial Conference of the American Quaternary Association at the University of Maine, Orono, and the Annual Meeting of the American Bryological and Lichenological Society which was held at the Highlands Biological Station, North Carolina. Dr. Miller was elected to the Council of the Society and has been appointed to a two-year term as the associate editor of The Grimmiaceae) Bryologist. This year Dr. Bernice Schubert saw the publication of two papers which she had been working for some time: a treatment of Desmodium (Leguminosae) for the Flora of Panama and, with Dr. Hiroyoshi Ohashi and Dr. Roger Polhill, a paper on the whole tribe Desmodieae, which includes twenty-seven genera in three subtribes. She is currently attempting to clarify the Desmodium intortumD. uncinatum group of species, which are widespread in the New World tropics. The two species after which the group is named have recognized potential as agricultural forage crops. Botanical artist Ms. Margaret van Montfrans, who joined the Arnold Arboretum in February, 1981, is preparing illustrations for this study. Scanning electron microscope studies of the pollen of another difficult group, Desmodium subgenus Nephromeria, mainly vines, has begun. Dr. Schubert is also committed to preparing a treatment of Desmodium for the Revised Flora of Ceylon, and another treatment of the genus for a new project on the Leguminosae of Oaxaca, Mexico. Dioscorea, another long-standing interest of Dr. Schubert, is a large, diverse, and systematically very interesting genus still requiring much study. The organization of the Dioscorea material of Dr. Temple Clayton, alluded to in my last annual report, continued this year. A number of Dioscorea collections loaned for determination were identified. Dr. Schubert has agreed to prepare treatments of Dioscoreaceae for Dr. Wood's Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, for the Vascular Flora of the Southeastern United States being published by the University of North Carolina, and for two Mexican regional floras. on 217 In the large genus Begonia, Dr. Schubert has confined her attention to New World species. This year she has concentrated on Begonia extensa, for which complete material has recently become available for the first time. She will be preparing the treatment for the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States and hopes also to prepare a revision of the Colombian species, on which she has published previously (with Dr. Lyman Smith, in Contrib. Gray Herb. 164, 1946). She gave a talk on sections of the genus Begonia to the Buxton branch of the American Begonia Society. We have welcomed two long-term visitors to the herbarium this year. Dr. George Proctor of the Institute of Jamaica has been undertaking revisionary research on the flora of Jamaica with support from the Atkins Fund of Harvard University. Thus far, he has revised and an illustrated Flora of the Cayman Islands, and a paper, \"Additions to the Flora of Jamaica,\" intended to be a supplement to C. D. Adams's Flowering Plants of Jamaica (1972). Work is in progress on a volume dealing with the ferns of Jamaica of which there are over 600 taxa. Two short papers have been published and appear in the bibliography. Dr. Benjamin Stone of the University of Malaya, who spent from March to July, 1981, with us as a Mercer Fellow, pursued completed projects. He continued his monographic research into Panthe screw pines. He was able to complete a revision of Pandanus subgenus Ryhia and to accumulate materials for revision of several other subgenera and for the genus Freycinetia. He prepared regional treatments of Pandanus for Indochina and, in brief, for Sumatra. He also completed a revision of the difficult genus Glycosmis (Rutaceae, Aurantioideae) and prepared materials for other genera in its group. In all, Dr. Stone completed six manuscripts for publication, fully curated our Pandanaceae holdings, and partially curated two danaceae, our Asiatic Rutaceae. The numerous type collections in our herbarium proved of crucial value to his research, as did our comprehensive holdings of botanical literature pertinent to the botany of Asia and the Pacific. Among our living-collections staff, Mr. Peter Del Tredici completed and published a study of the embryo development and germination characteristics of Magnolia virginiana and continued his work on the growth and branching pattern of Tsuga canadensis and its cultivars. Dr. Richard Weaver, who was fully committed to curatorial and restoration work in the living collections this- year, provided taxonomic assistance to an undergraduate, Mr. William Buikema, who was pursuing palynological and cytological investigation of Corylopsis (Hamamelidaceae) with advice from Dr. Alice Tryon. I have summarized the range of research activities being undertaken through use of the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum in the introduction. Among these, several have received mention in previous reports. Mercer Fellow Dr. Amar Hans completed his study of Ulmus breeding systems in July, 1980, and returned to Lusaka. Dr. Hans, who is the senior forest geneticist at the Forest Research Insti- 2is ~I of the Government of Zambia, came to the Arnold Arboretum to gain experience in breeding work with hardwood trees prior to initiating fruit tree improvement in his own country. Dr. Alan Longman of the United Kingdom Natural Environment Research Council Institute of Terrestrial Ecology Station at Penicuick, Midlothian, Scotland, visited the Arboretum with his technician, Ms. Jan Dick, in the spring of 1981. With the collaboration of Mr. Del Tredici, branches of over twenty different recalcitrant-flowering tree species were either barkringed or injected with varying concentrations of gibberellic acid in an tute attempt to induce flowers or cones. The earliest results will not be known until 1982. Mr. Geoffrey Nolin, a student at Hampshire College, was awarded a grant by the Percy Selden Fund to spend a year at the Arboretum. Mr. Nolin has been pursuing a project on nitrogen fixation inAlnus under the supervision of Dr. John Torrey of the Harvard Forest. He is now extending this work to the collection, propagation, and evaluation of two genera, Alnus and Ceanothus. Both genera fix nitrogen in association with actinomycetes in their roots. Alnus foliage is known to be rich in protein and has potential as a forage for cattle. Research using the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum will be substantially strengthened thanks to a generous anonymous benefactor who has provided us with the means to equip a a chemosystematics laboratory in the greenhouse\/headhouse in Jamaica Plain. Initially it is intended that research will be conducted in collaboration with Drs. Gillian Cooper-Driver and Tony Swain of Boston University. It is also likely that our root biologist, once appointed, whose laboratory will be in the same building, will share some of the facilities. All professorial staff with graduate students under their supervision offered 300-level courses during the academic year. Dr. Stevens, with Professor William Fink, continued to run the Systematics and Biogeography Group, which had its fourth season. The discussion group, which provides an informal forum for systematics as a whole, meets fortnightly. The general standard of discussion this year was very high, and meetings were well attended. The Museum of Comparative Zoology funds the group jointly with the Arnold Arboretum. All professorial staff of the Arboretum also contributed to undergraduate instruction this year. Professor Ashton collaborated with Professors Thomas Givnish and Kenneth Sebens in Biology 250, \"Tropical Ecology,\" in the fall term. This course provides an introduction to the ecology of tropical communities, with particular emphasis on plant adaptations and their effect on species distributions and abundances. Following the course, a field trip was organized to Venezuela. Professor Ashton, with Professor Barry Tomlinson of Harvard Forest, taught for two weeks in Costa Rica in February as part of the Organization of Tropical Studies graduate course program. Professor Howard collaborated with Professor Tomlinson in the summer course in tropical botany, S-105, during June and July, 1981, 219 greenhouse, Geoff Nohn peft), worhmg on an rndependent research project with cutttngs of Alnus glunnosa His arm es to develop and standardize propagation procedures for the genus Alnus Below: Volunteers repotting young plants with the characteristic enthusiasm that makes them such a valuable asset to the Arboretum At the 220 Tropical Garden, Miami. Dr. Howard was guest lecpoisonous plants in Dr. Schultes's course, Biology 104, \"Plants and Human Affairs,\" in the spring term. Dr. Howard also supervised Biology 91r, undergraduate research, for Ms. Mia Touw, who compiled a special report entitled \"Asa Gray and the Wilkes Expedition Lobeliaceae\" and Biology 98r, undergraduate honors research, for the same student, in this case involving preparation of a thesis on Tibetan at the Fairchild on turer materia medica. In the fall Professor Stevens collaborated with Professor Fink in Biology 148, \"Systematic Biology.\" In the spring he offered a new course, Biology 164, \"History of Botanical Systematics.\" This course dealt with the development of systematics from pre-literate societies to the beginning of the twentieth century. The emphasis was on the comparison of practice and theory in systematics, with the aims both of being better able to understand the work of the early systematists, much of which is still being used, and also to appreciate the degree to which they were able to reach their avowed goals. It is important to understand this, since much current systematic practice was developed as long ago as the first part of the nineteenth century. Professor Wood, with Professors Tomlinson and Pfister, taught Biology 18, \"Diversity in the Plant Kingdom,\" in the fall as usual. Graduate students Ms. Elizabeth Taylor and Mr. Calvin Sperling acted as teaching fellows. Dr. Wood's Biology 103, \"The Taxonomy of SeedBearing Plants,\" was taught in the spring. The ratings of the latter remain as high as ever; student teaching fellow Mr. Michael in the professional training series of the Harvard-Danforth Center for Teaching and Learning. This session was devoted to lecturing in the sciences, in this instance biology. Dr. Wood made extensive use of materials collected and preserved from the living collections for teaching Biology 103 during the winter months. Field classes were conducted in the living collections for Biology 18 and Biology 103. The following universities and colleges, besides Harvard, currently use the living collections for instruction: Bentley College, Boston College, Boston University, Fisher Junior College, Northeastern University, Simmons College, Smith College, Springfield Technical Community College, State University of New York at Delhi, Stonehill College, Tufts University, University of Connecticut, University of Delaware, University of Maine, University of Massachusetts, University of New Hampshire, University of Vermont, Western Kentucky University, Wilkes Community College, and Worcester Polytechnic Institute. THE HERBARIA Donoghue received special commendation. In February Professor Wood was one of the panelists Dr. Peter Stevens supervises the combined herbaria of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum. Herbarium policy is formu- 221 lated and overseen by the Herbarium Committee, of which he is the chairman. Other members are the director (ex officio), Michael Canoso, and Drs. D. H. Pfister (Farlow Herbarium), O. T. Solbrig (ex officio, Gray Herbarium), R. M. Tryon (Gray Herbarium), and C. E. Wood, Jr.; Ida Hay and Walter Kittredge are observers. During the year Patricia Adakonis, curatorial assistant, resigned and was replaced by Howard Farkas, who works part-time. Walter Kittredge has been working two days a week helping to curate the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium under the National Science Foundation Curatorial Grant. This has released a further full curatorial assistantship, which was filled for a time by Julie Zickefoose, and now by Martha Tack. Philip Cantino joined us as a temporary phanerogamic botanist to work on the type project under the NSF Grant; he resigned on May 31. He was assisted by Sandra MacLaren, curatorial assistant, for part of this time. Although the compactors were installed last year, owing to technical problems it is only recently that an order for gaskets, to make them airtight, has gone in, and there are still modifications to be made on the locking devices. However, one bank of compactors was made insect proof after installation of gaskets, a locking device that exerts enough pressure and yet allows plenty of space in the aisles when open was installed, and individual compactor units were aligned. The Fagaceae and Ulmaceae were transferred to this bank, which seems to be working satisfactorily and to have space for future accession. Further shifting of specimens in association with the move has been carried out, and plans for the move finalized. Labels for the move are being made, and if experience with the Ulmaceae and Fagaceae is any guide, this should be carried out fairly smoothly. The total number of sheets in the Arnold Arboretum holdings at Cambridge at the end of the fiscal year was 1,112,633; 10,359 sheets were mounted, nine were added directly, and 41 removed. One hundred and eighty-six further sheets were repaired. At Jamaica Plain, the total number of sheets in the herbarium of cultivated plants stood at 168,893, with the addition of 845 specimens. Sixty sheets underwent repair. Six thousand and twenty-nine accessions were received at the two herbaria, 2,977 of which were by exchange, 1,985 as gifts, 35 by subsidy, and 1,082 in exchange for identifications. The chief sources this year were eastern Asia (1,954), United States and Canada (1,045), Australia (1,009), western Malesia (557), India (423), and Papuasia (351). Five hundred and seventy-three sheets were sent on exchange during the year, and 106 for identification; 2,015 were received on loan for study by staff, and 2,842 by students; a further 790 were received for visiting scientists; 6,145 were returned on behalf of staff, and 19,546 on behalf of students; 21,879 were forwarded in response to loan requests, and 20,230 returned. Curatorial staff annotated 1,800 further sheets in Anacardiaceae, a project started in the previous year following the revisions of Ding Hou; 425 Malesian Labiatae after Keng; 250 Olacaceae after 222 Sleumer; 100 Malesian Ulmaceae after Soepadmo; 175 Malesian Caesalpinia (Leguminosae) after Hattinck; 40 Guyanan Bonnetiaceae after Maguire; and 700 Malesian Araliaceae after Philipson ; 30 Australian Chloranthaceae were also annotated. Material was annotated in Rubiaceae and 13 new genera folders prepared follow- ing Ridsdale's recent publication; Meliosma (Sabiaceae) was rearranged following van Beusekom. Collections of Garrya made by G. V. Dahling were divided for distribution. The recently acquired Schaeffer collection of West Indian plants is being prepared for incorporation. Altogether, 34 new genera have been added to the collections. One hundred and three specimens were photographed, including 50 types which were sent on loan. Plain, the relocation of nearly half the herbarium of was the major undertaking of the year. This was supervised by Ida Hay, the curatorial assistant responsible for this herbarium. Although much was accomplished, there are still several tasks to be completed before the herbarium will be back to normal. In order to provide space for offices on the first floor, 86 cases, containing 70,000 specimens, were moved from the first to the fourth floor of the herbarium wing of the Hunnewell Building. To prepare for this move, work began in autumn, 1980, on the reorganization of materials stored on the fourth floor. The carpological collection occupied ten wooden cases and six tiers of library shelving. With the help of Volunteer Emily Roberson, a Harvard undergraduate, this collection was consolidated to occupy only five cases with room for future expansion. By mid-December, the fourth floor was cleared. In one week the grounds staff, with Superintendent Henry Goodell, Assistant Superintendent Patrick Willoughby, and Ida Hay, moved all 86 cases. Specimens were removed from the cases and lifted, half a case at a time, by means of the aerial bucket of the High Ranger truck. The cases were disassembled and moved by the same route. In this way, the order of specimens in the herbarium was maintained. The work of leveling, straightening, locking the cases back together, and replacing the doors was completed in early January. On the second floor, mounting supplies that were stored in the central area, formerly the clerestory, were inventoried and moved At Jamaica cultivated plants elsewhere on that floor and to the attic. A new, reinforced floor was built by a contractor and the railing around the area removed so that this space could be fully used. A large work counter was moved from the first floor and reassembled there. The Gray card index was also moved to the center of the second floor, and the Rehder index was relocated in the library corridor on the third floor. In order to accommodate the relocation of work space and offices of staff who use the herbarium on the second floor, and to use eight of the cases on the fourth floor to house the unmounted, boxed Yucca and Agave collections of S. D. McKelvey, the herbarium there had to be further shifted once the main move was complete. Canoso, Hay, and Roberson worked on this. The work space for herbarium preparators was moved I 223 from an alcove in the herbarium to the office adjacent to the herbarium on the second floor. The cooperation, care, and effort of the superintendent, his assistant, and the grounds staff were invaluable throughout the herbarium move. The processing of 600 Merrill cartons of unmounted material has begun. Some material collected by Fernandes has been identified, the Arboretum's set mounted, and duplicates separated for exchange. Other material by the same collector is also awaiting dispatch in the course of exchange. Checking of the large collection made by W. P. Fang has begun; identifications are being checked, labels typed, and specimens mounted. Our well-known Crataegus collection, which is housed in the Jamaica Plain herbarium, is being reorganized. Types have been removed to the end of the genus, and the whole genus is being alphabetized as a returned loan of almost 1,400 specimens is inserted. The collections program in the living collections was reinitiated this spring, with goals to obtain one flowering and one fruiting specimen of every accession for our use in verification and documentation, and to obtain duplicate material, when appropriate, to use for exchange. At the end of May, 1981, Volunteer Annette Logan, a forest biology student at Colorado State University, arrived to spend the summer on this project. Using a copy of the computer printout and a set of the most recently revised maps of the collections to monitor the work, she made 235 collections by June 25, 1981. Volunteers Thaisa Way and Emily Roberson have assisted on this project. The collection of herbarium specimens from plants in the living collection with documented Asiatic origin also continued in 1980-1981. Volunteers Susan Davis, Cora Warren, and Mary Wolcott made ten sets of 125 collections this year. The collection of our Crataegus accessions was continued by Hay, Warren, and Davis, who made 25 collections in fruit. In anticipation of removal and repropagation of much of the Corylus collection, specimens were made of all accessions in that genus. The herbarium welcomed 179 visitors this year, of which 137 were from the United States, and a further 17 from elsewhere in the New World, the balance being from the Old World. THE LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES After almost seven years as librarian of the Arnold Arboretum, Mrs. Lenore Dickinson retired on March 5, 1981. The current librarian, Ms. Barbara Callahan, joined us on March 1. The librarian is chairman of the Library Committee. The other members, besides the director (ex officio), are Dr. Alan Erickson (Harvard libraries; ex officio), Ms. Sheila Geary, Dr. Richard Howard, Dr. Elizabeth Shaw (Gray Herbarium), Dr. Otto Solbrig (Gray Herbarium, ex officio), and Dr. Stephen Spongberg. The library support staff consists of Ms. Sheila Geary, horticultural research archivist, responsible 224 for the library in Jamaica Plain, and Ms. Anne Thacher and Ms. Mary Thomas, library assistants. A third library assistant, Ms. Carol Rothstein, resigned March 20, 1981; her position will not be refilled. During the year our total holdings of volumes and pamphlets reached 87,967; 185 titles had been added by cataloguing, and 122 titles by binding; 30 volumes were deaccessioned, including 10 duplicate volumes through sale; 187 reprints were catalogued, and 42 microfilms added. We wish to acknowledge the following donors of volumes to our library: Mrs. Forrest Davison, Mr. G. K. Fenderson, Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, Dr. Richard Howard, Mr. Ray Millman, Mrs. William Moore, Dr. Franklyn Ott, Dr. Richard Schultes, Dr. Elizabeth Shaw, Dr. Peter Stevens, Dr. Herman Sweet, and Dr. Barry Tomlinson. Most of the Cambridge library had been shifted to the new space provided through the building extension in the previous year. The folio and monograph collections are still in the process of being reshelved. During the winter months the first phase of the projected library reorganization in Jamaica Plain was implemented. With assistance from Mr. Henry Goodell, Mr. Patrick Willoughby, and members of the grounds staff, Ms. Sheila Geary removed all library material, with exception of the staff reference section, from the first floor. The move included a complete rearrangement of the entire monograph section of the library. This rearrangement now places all library holdings on one floor in the Hunnewell Building, shelved in the correct classification sequence, and with ample room for expansion. In addition the photograph collection was moved from the second to the third floor, and the archive collection was assembled in one location to facilitate its eventual move to new office space on the third floor. The reorganization and relocation of the library, photograph, and archive collections will ensure more control and improved management and conservation, yet will allow better access to the collections. As a finding aid to the new arrangement, a revised guide to the library has been prepared. The second phase of the library move, now in the planning stages, involves the journal collection. Although housed with the rest of the collection on the third floor, over half of the journals occupy space that serves the dual purpose of both library stacks and staff offices. These journals will be moved to new stacking, already on hand, to be assembled across from the newly relocated monograph collection. The arrival of the new librarian coincided with the phasing out of the Monograph Cataloguing Support System. As a new processing center, to be called the Harvard College Libraries Faculty of Arts and Sciences Cataloguing and Support Services, is due to begin on July 1, 1981, Ms. Callahan and Ms. Geary provided temporary cataloguing in the interim period. The new system will provide central cataloguing and terminal services for all new titles, including original cataloguing. Call numbers will continue to be provided, for the present, based on our libraries' unique classification system. 225 rts Phellodendron amurense In summer and wanter at the Arnold Arboretum. Each burden to carry. Photographs by A. Bussewitz. season has 226I In Jamaica Plain, Ms. Sheila Geary has been fortunate in receiving help from volunteers. Each year their contribution is measured in hours spent filing, shelving, and sorting. The immeasurable contribution comes in the dedication, care, and interest they bring to the library. During the past year Muriel Bergdorf worked on the journal records, filed catalog cards, and accomplished a great deal on the long-term project that will integrate the index of our archival letter file with the indexes in the bound archival letterbooks. Jane Morss pre- pared material for binding, tracking down missing pieces. She organized the oversize book collection, annotated the cards, and labeled each book. Mrs. Cora Warren spent each morning on the photograph collection. Her extensive work included the organization of the lantern slide collection. Gathered from all recesses of the building, this collection of over 4,000 slides is now sorted and labeled by subject. In the photographic print collection two filing systems have been merged. Mrs. Warren's work now enables the user to locate all historical prints of a specific genus in the collection regardless of geographical location. This new system is being expanded also to include the current photograph collection. An inventory of the combined archives of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium has been started through the NSF grant. Ms. Lynn McWhood has been appointed to undertake this task directed by Dr. Shaw. PUBLICATIONS Our policy for publications is defined and monitored through a joint committee, with the Gray Herbarium, under the chairmanship of Dr. Bernice G. Schubert. The members are Ms. Elizabeth Schmidt, Dr. Peter Ashton (ex officio), Dr. Otto Solbrig (ex officio), Mr. Carl Lobig, Dr. Stephen Spongberg, Dr. Peter Stevens, Dr. Donald Pfister, Dr. Richard Weaver, and Dr. Carroll Wood. Mr. Carl Lobig assumed the position of publications officer for the Arnold Arboretum on September 1, 1980, taking over from Mr. Norton Batkin, who had resigned to pursue his Ph.D. in philosophy at Harvard University. At the time he assumed responsibilities, Arnoldia, the bi-monthly horticultural publication of the Arnold Arboretum, were was therefore directed to rectifying Arnoldia's schedule difficulties, while at the same time undertaking design and layout changes that will help to make Arnoldia a more marketable publication. Since September, 1980, six issues of Arnoldia have been published, including the first two numbers of Volume 41. Arnoldia will be up to date as of the January, 1982, issue, Volume 42, Number 1. Accelerating Arnoldia's production schedule necessitated a change of printers, a move long under consideration for financial reasons. Heffernan Press of Worcester, Massachusetts, has been chosen. Although still on a trial basis, Heffernan's work seems to be more than satisfactory and offers significant improvements. six months behind schedule. Most of his first nine months 227 As the primary benefit of membership to the Arnold Arboretum, and the Arboretum's major publications link to the general public, it is important to maintain and develop Arnoldia's standards while at the same time increasing its popular appeal so that it may become selfsupporting. In the initial stage this means improving its graphic appeal. A number of major steps have already been taken over the past year. They include special attention to photographic presentations; a new, more striking logo design combined with a move to a four-color cover which began with Volume 41, Number 1; a better-quality cover paper; and a more varied photographic treatment. These initial changes, combined with the return to a regular publishing schedule, have brought Arnoldia considerably greater attention and pave the way for future promotional efforts. This year we also began a program of distribution to horticultural bookstores on a trial basis. Further changes are under consideration. In attempting to bring a wider readership to Arnoldia, we have begun soliciting articles from within and outside the Arboretum on a diversity of subjects. This year saw the publication of Dr. Richard Howard's two-part historical profile of E. H. Wilson as a botanist (Vol. 40, Nos. 3 and 4) and a special issue devoted to Magnolia, timed to appear at the American Magnolia Society's annual convention held at the Arnold Arboretum in April. Arnoldia continues to provide a place for publishing horticultural research associated with the Arboretum: Mr. Peter Del Tredici's prolific contributions included research on Tsuga canadensis f. pendula and Magnolia virginiana, while graduate student Mr. Michael Donoghue contributed a study of growth patterns with examples from his research on the genus Viburnum. Meanwhile, plans are being developed for further thematic issues aimed at particular horticultural interest groups as potential subscribers. A major promotional mailing is planned for 1982. With Arnoldia coming back on schedule, Dr. Richard Weaver became associate editor and took over as technical advisor from Dr. Bernice Schubert beginning January, 1981. Mrs. Barbara Epstein continues to act as circulation manager. The editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum is Dr. Stephen Spongberg; Ms. Elizabeth Schmidt is managing editor. The Editorial Committee remains the same as last year. Four numbers of the Journal appeared during the year. Despite this, the Journal was one issue behind schedule at the end of the year. It is intended that all numbers of Volume 62 will appear during calendar year 1981. Volume 61, Nos. 2 and 3, were devoted entirely to Dr. Stevens's \"Revision of the Old World Species of Calophyllum\" and were issued simultaneously on December 19, 1980. These two issues, the largest in the history of the Journal, numbered 582 pages and included a special index. A total of 792 pages were devoted to the eight articles by ten authors published in the past fiscal year. Dr. Richard Howard, former staff member Ms. Kristin Clausen, and Dr. Peter Stevens were Arboretum staff who published in the Journal during this period, as 228 published the first installment of his monograph ofLyonia (Ericaceae), which was based on the thesis he prepared while a graduate student under Professor Carroll Wood's guidance. Three of the ten authors were associated with foreign institutions. Manuscripts are presently on hand for issues into Volume 63. Twenty-four manuscripts were received during the past fiscal year; of these three were rejected, two are currently being reviewed, and the remainder have been accepted for publication. A new cover design, which is embossed on off-white cover stock, utilizes the logo drawn by Mrs. Karen Stoutsenberger Ku, and the same design reduced in size is being used as the device on the reprint covers. It is intended that this logo be associated with the Journal for As a result, new cover designs will not have to be annual basis. prepared Special recognition should be given to Ms. Schmidt for her unflagging efforts to cope with the work load in the editorial office during Dr. Spongberg's absence in China and, after his return, in her efforts to put the Journal back on schedule. Mrs. Mary Ashton, Mr. Mellard Ashton, Ms. Margaret Campbell, Dr. William Curtis, and Dr. George Proctor are also thanked for assisting in the thankless job of reading many years to come. on an while Dr. Walter Judd galley proofs. Other areas of activity in the publications department were recently limited by the overriding needs of Arnoldia. Some progress is now being made. In conjunction with Ms. Eugenia Frey, Mrs. Barbara Epstein, Ms. Hope Wise, and the director, plans were made to integrate the publishing of the Arboretum into our overall development plan for public services, covering the next four years. This includes development and marketing of Arnoldia, production of new brochures and promotional pieces, and development of educational programs and displays. In order to supervise scientific accuracy, Dr. Bernice Schubert, representing the Publications Committee, has volunteered to review materials before publication. Our latest publishing venture, our plantSciences newsletter, is reported on in the section on public Jamaica Plain has been undertaken with the help of volunteers, subsequent to moving back stock from newly allocated library shelves to a publications storage area. A procedure for billing and tracking stock flow has been put into effect which will, in addition to keeping more accurate records, generate a mailing list of interested horticulturalists. Over 500 names and addresses have already been compiled. Negotiations are under way for a new mailing house, and plans are being made to computerize all our mailing lists for the first time. The photographic collections continued to receive careful attention from Volunteer Mrs. Cora Warren, while Volunteer Mrs. Dodie Loomis diligently supervised the curation of the slide collection. As our resources have become better known, requests for their use have increased, making comprehensive cataloguing and curation increas- programs. An inventory of publications in i 229 ingly urgent. This year we provided photographs on a fee-for-use basis to major publishing houses including Beacon Press and Houghton Mifflin, and to the magazines Horticulture and New England Outdoors. A proposal to provide over 1,000 photographs for a book on landscape architecture is currently under consideration. LIVING COLLECTIONS The Living Collections Committee consists of Plant Propagator John Alexander, Assistant Supervisor of the Living Collections James Burrows, Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds Henry Goodell, Records Coordinator Jennifer Hicks, Drs. Stephen Spongberg, Peter Stevens, and Richard Weaver, the director (ex officio), with Mr. Jonathan Shaw, director of the New England Wildflower Society, as outside member; the supervisor of the living collections, Mr. Gary Koller, is chairman. Substantial progress has been made in the curation of the collecJamaica Plain again this year, including major acquisition of new material, in the preparation of the accessions records prior to their entry into computer storage, and in general restoration and maintenance of the grounds. Plans are being made for more intensive utilization of the Case Estates. Detailed planning of accessions had been the responsibility of Dr. Weaver and Supervisor Koller. Due to the very dry summer and fall of 1980, the fall planting was kept at a minimum. Essentially the only planting done was a large number of rhododendrons sited near the South Street Gate. Eighty-two accessions of 77 taxa and cultivars, a total of 150 plants, were set out. The species material, a total of only nine plants, was planted at various locations on the grounds. By far the largest percentage of plants, consisting entirely of Rhododendron cultivar material, was planted at the base of Hemlock Hill near the South Street Gate. This area has been the Arboretum's traditional collection of evergreen Rhododendron and consists almost entirely of cultivars owing to the paucity of species that are hardy in our climate. By far the largest and most conspicuous component of the collection has been the series of R. catawbiense hybrids and cultivars known as \"ironclads.\" The collection, particularly that part nearest the road, has declined over the years and has not presented a particularly good appearance to the numerous visitors entering through the South 'Street Gate as well as general visitors coming to see the rhododendrons when they are in bloom. During this planting, gaps in the borders were filled with both deciduous and evergreen Rhododendron, with an attempt to select cultivars that would increase diversity and harmony in color, height, and flowering time; unsightly plants were relocated or moved; and a new series of beds was established across Bussey Brook along the southeast edge of Hemlock Hill. All planting areas were well prepared under the supervision of Mr. Patrick Willoughby and Mr. James Burrows. tions in 230I The spring, planting lasted from the beginning of April until the middle of June. Four hundred and ninety-four plants were set out, representing 172 accessions of 158 taxa and cultivars. Included were 85 plants of 30 different cultivars. In addition, 15 accessions of 14 taxa were moved from the shrub collection; most of these plants were divided before they were replanted in their new locations. Ten of these are cultivars of Paeonia suffruticosa, and 11 are cultivars of Rhododendron nakaharai developed by Mrs. Julian Hill of Martha's Vineyard, a recently retired member of our Visiting Committee. One hundred and thirty-one plants of 31 accessions of 27 taxa represented the first major planting resulting from the Spongberg-Weaver expedition of 1977 to Japan and Korea. The plantings were done according to the Bentham and Hooker sequence, and a number of new plantings begun last year were strengthened. The only new family replaced in taxonomic sequence is the Calycanthaceae. Several taxa of Calycanthus were planted in the Azalea Border and in the Liriodendron collection. Fifty-four plants of Cytisus as well as 13 plants of other shrubby legumes were planted among the Colutea and Caragana along the Arborway wall behind the Vine Trellis. This area will be the primary collection of shrubby legumes. For cultural and esthetic reasons these plants are unsuitable among the arborescent legumes. The Hydrangea collection was relocated from the shrub collection to the edge of the Acer collection along the Meadow Road. The Chinese Path area on Bussey Hill received a number of accessions. Several species of Chinese trees were added to the azalea and Enkianthus beds for shade. Several Chinese plants, which were first exhibited in the Flower Show, including Rhododendron schlippenbachii, Dicentra spectabilis, and Liriope spicata, were planted among the Stewartia collection. Also, several bamboo species and tree peonies were planted in the old Cytisus bed. The grass strip between the sidewalk and the roadway, in the vicinity of the Forest Hill gate, was formerly occupied by hedges of roses. We hope to replace these eventually, and an experimental planting of two polyantha rose cultivars was begun near the Forest Hills gate. The phased replacement of the shrub and vine collection was begun. Approximately 225 existing plants on the three-acre site were evaluated. Plants will be relocated, repropagated, and in a few cases disposed of. The first sections of the existing shrub garden were closed down by grassing in. With assistance from the New England Rose Society the rose collection was reviewed and names verified. Dr. Weaver then went through the collection to remove unnamed or overgrown accessions and separated those to be retained. Vines of various genera were planted on the Arborway and Adams-Nervine fences. Most of the Alnus planted along Willow Path last fall did not survive, primarily because they could not be dug properly because they were too close together in the nursery. The dead plants were replaced this spring. The torch azaleas (Rhododendron obtusum var. kaempferi) were killed back badly last winter. The planting beneath Dr Richard Weaver of the Arboretum's staffjourneyed to the U.S.S.R. in August, J980, to participate zn a plant hunting expedition. Above left Campanula lactiflora, a late-bloomzng, foot tall bellflower xn the Northern Caucasus Mountains of the U S S R Above right : A somewhat overenthuszastac Sovzet conservataon poster Loosely translated, the sagn reads \"More than 30,000 species of plants have become extinct at the hands of man Below: The mazn range of the Northern Caucasus with the two most important coniferous trees of the mpper slopes In the foreground Nordmann fir (Ables nordmanmana) on the left and orzental spruce (Picea onentahs) on the raght. Photographs by R Weaver. 3-4 \" 232 oaks, just before the ponds, was largely reworked this spring. Unsightly plants were pruned back and consolidated into tighter groups, and the poorest plants were removed entirely. Fifty plants were purchased and were used to reconstitute the original groups. The groupings were mulched with shredded leaves rather than the customary wood chips, to reinforce the naturalness of the plantings. Major pruning of the willow collection and associated plantings was undertaken, mainly by Pruner Mark Walkama. Eight large specimens, which had been repropagated, were removed. Review of the the Malus collection continued to determine which trees flower and fruit poorly as well as being susceptible to foliage and fruit diseases. After being evaluated, and in some instances repropagated, approximately specimens were removed. During the summer, 1980, there major removal of thin, weak, or declining plants in the Syringa collection. The Ulmus collection continues to be affected by Dutch elm 40 mature was a disease. It was necessary to remove 16 more mature trees which had died or were affected by the disease. While it is not often noticed, a great many poor and declining specimens have been removed from various collections. These plants had previously been repropagated or to September 20, 1980, Dr. Weaver participated in the fifth of a series of joint plant-collecting expeditions coordinated by the Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Garden and the Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R. The other American participants were Mr. Robert Hebb and Dr. Frederick Seaman, both of the New York Botanical Garden. The objective was to collect seeds or living plants, documented with herbarium specimens, from the wild for cultivation in the United States. They concentrated on the steppe flora of European Russia and the forest and alpine flora of the Northern Caucasus Mountains. Just over 300 collections were made. Germination of the seeds has been quite good. Due to the poor woody flora in the areas visited, only about 70 of the collections were of woody plants, but many of the herbaceous collections will be used in educational exhibits or offered to other institutions' for exchange. Dr. Stephen Spongberg's participation in a joint Sino-American expedition to Hubei Province, China, has been reported in the section on research. In addition to the herbarium collections, nearly 600 seed collections were obtained on the China expedition, all vouchered by herbarium specimens as well. In addition, 42 miscellaneous collections of seed were made during the course of travels in China once the expedition itself had been concluded. A share of all but a small percentage of these living collections has been received at the Arnold Arboretum and is currently being processed at the Dana Greenhouses. It seems likely that several new introductions to cultivation in the West are among these acquisitions. Altogether, 171 shipments consisting of 1,536 taxa were raised this year for propagation in response to requests from 21 countries. In addition, 336 taxa were propagated to prepare replacements for exist- replaced. From August 3 233 ing specimens in decline. Notable donations of plant materials, which have been used as understock, were received from Hess Nurseries, Cedarville, New Jersey; Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, New Jersey; Lawyer Nurseries, Plains, Montana; Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, Massachusetts; and White Flower Farm, Litchfield, Connecticut. Much progress has been made in the verification of the plant records and the mapping and labeling of the collections in the past year. Information and assistance provided by Mr. Burrows has made possible an intensive records update and relabeling of the plantings at the Case Estates. In Jamaica Plain volunteers and horticultural trainees have assisted in extensive field checking, the replacement of labels on more than 1,000 plants, and the preparation of labels for placement on an additional 700 plants during the summer of 1981. Mr. Charles Mackey of the grounds staff devoted the winter to the preparation of display labels for placement during the spring and summer. Horticultural Trainee Timothy Byrne, a student at the University of Massachusetts in Amherst, completed replacement labeling and remapping of the plantings surrounding the Hunnewell Building and a section of the Azalea Border on Meadow Road during the spring of 1981. Field checking has this year identified nearly 500 existing plants which had not previously been included in the plant records. New plantings and the relocation of existing plants have been recorded and mapped as completed. Because special effort has been taken to deal with areas in which mapping and labeling are known to be problematical, portions of many grounds maps have been field checked and updated. Six maps have been fully updated and will be redrawn; three maps have been updated but will not be redrawn due to scheduled redesign or collection development; six maps have been redrawn. Implementation of the plant records documentation and computerization project, funded by the National Sc","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1981-The Director's Report Peter"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report Peter","article_sequence":1,"start_page":197,"end_page":254,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24800","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eab6d.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":6,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"ience Foundation, began with the appointment of Ms. Patricia Dalton as research assistant for records documentation. Although she joined us in late April, she has already made significant progress in the verification of the records and their transcription into the format designed for computerization. Special mention should be made of the exhaustive library research in conifer nomenclature by Volunteer Richard Warren. His work is being coordinated with Ms. Dalton's and will prove valuable to her since nearly 1,000 of the taxa represented in our collections are conifers. It is Dr. Warren's ultimate aim to verify the entire conifer collection. In June he was joined by Volunteer Ann Carlsmith, who is making a comprehensive herbarium collection of the conifer holdings. An ONYX C8002 computer and a Visual Technology V-400 terminal have been purchased and will become operational during July, 1981. Although entry to the plant records will not begin immediately, the use designed for the living of the computer for 1981 nursery inventories, in the format collection records, will provide an opportunity 234 ~I in operation prior to beginning entry of full estimated 20,000 accessions now in permanent display positions at Jamaica Plain and the Case Estates. Satisfactory advances have been made in general maintenance and in the restoration of the path system. Improved planting techniques resulted in much higher survival rates in the reestablishment and vigorous growth of new plantings. Nevertheless, late-summer drought in 1980 severely weakened many plantings which were old and declining or, in some cases, new plantings which were not yet reestablished. An extremely cold winter followed, with prolonged sub-freezing conditions. In addition, the winter was somewhat dry and, with long periods of exceptionally cold temperatures, proved to be one of the worst in recent memory. These conditions combined to cause much dieback in many taxa, including Lindera praecox, Corylopsis spp., Idesia polycarpa, Deutzia spp., Weigela spp., Elaeagnus umbellatus, Sasa japonica, and Cytisus spp. Much additional fine pruning was therefore needed this spring, which was effectively undertaken by Head Pruner James Nickerson with Mr. Mark Walkama. A grass fire in Kent Field in late summer led to damage and loss of a number of plants at the edge of the conifer collection. The bittersweet, which had smothered the rock outcropping next to the conifer path for many years, was cleared and, we hope, eradicated. This has exposed the lovely rock ridge. While no plans exist at present for replanting, this represents a preparatory step for future development. Work on the Oak Path is proceeding according to schedule. The mown path is well-established, although it is still not satisfactorily delimited where it begins on Meadow Road. Several wild-flower masses were established in the summer of 1980. Two areas were planted with 1,000 each of Cimicifuga racemosa and Trillium grandiflorum. Tiarella cordifolia and the fern Thelypteris phegopteris were planted on the rather steep bank on the top side of the graded upper path. With the possible exception of Trillium, these appear to be well established and should rapidly form a ground cover. Major regrading was undertaken along Willow Path to improve its definition and upgrade the roadbed to accommodate service and maintenance vehicles. At the greenhouses the insulation reported last year proved highly effective, and the two remaining houses were covered. Mr. Alexander and his staff have processed 102 taxa to acquire propagation data. The inventory of lilacs (Syringa) for susceptibility to mildew and leaf-roll necrosis continues, as do hybridization experiments among resistant taxa. This program is an important adjunct to the planned restoration of our celebrated lilac collection. Mr. Robert Nicholson extended his studies of maples. He examined rooting responses of Manchurian maples and attempted induction of somatic mutation in Acer palmatum by colchicine injection. Mr. Nicholson also carried out experiments in hormonal injection of cuttings of recalcitrant conifer species in an attempt to induce rooting. to test its programming an records for Above: The entrance to the new Arcto-tertaary Path off of Valley Road near the beech collectzon Flowermg trees are dogwoods (Comus ftonda) on the left, and szluerbell (Halesia carohna) on the nght Below A meadow planting was begun along Oak Path z~z the sprzng of 1981. Here, the cover crop of buckwheat zs zn full bloom. Photographs by R. Weaver and S Geary. 236I At the Case Estates drought affected the fall, 1980, operations too, but 500 Syringa species and cultivars were transplanted to the 950 section of the nursery. These plants are to be used in the restoration of the lilac collection. Rows 1-40 and 120-160 were prepared and planted with 1,400 plants from the Saran houses. These represent replacement propagation and plants from the Spongberg-Weaver expedition to Japan and Korea. The established nurseries are now almost full. Consequently, a water main has been installed on the opposite side of Wellesley Street, entering the old pruning demonstration plot which is to be removed. This will provide an irrigation source for the whole of this section of the Estates. Initial steps have been taken to open a new nursery, sufficient for 2,640 plants, which will open in spring, 1982. A quarter of the area has been plowed and prepared, and a cash crop planted to offset the cost of the operation. The inventory of the permanent nursery was completed in 1980 and checked against records. Much has been lost, but much also remains. Detailed accession information, including living collections map locations of the same accession or the same taxon with its accession data where such exist, has been collected in order to determine which plants should be repropagated for return to the living collections. The process of repropagation will be delayed except in the case of declining specimens, owing to the current pressure on nursery space. The Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron Society commissioned a landscape architect, Mr. John Gwynne, to draw up a schematic plan of the proposed garden which they intend to install, with the collaboration of the Arnold Arboretum, in the woods at the Case Estates. In order to implement the design, Arboretum staff have continued tree thinning and cleaning; Mr. Burrows laid out the route of the primary path system. The first batch of rhododendrons presented by the society has arrived at the Case Estates for planting in final positions next spring. plot was surveyed in 1980. The trees were overcrowded, many were damaged or diseased, and few were labeled. Poor trees were removed and repropagated, some new trees were planted in the spring, and all were labeled. Further renovation also occurred in the ground-cover plots, and some new covers were added. This display is now in excellent condition and, once the new ground covers have The street-tree grown, should need minimum maintenance. Assistant Supervisor James Burrows and Horticultural Taxonomist Richard Weaver, with help from a group of volunteers, have made major changes in the old Low Maintenance Perennial Garden, which is to become the American Garden, an interpretive display of selected American native herbaceous species and the cultivars that have been derived from them. Beds were redesigned, and perennials propagated in the fall. Some of these were planted out in the spring, but the garden will not be completed for another year. A one-year, renewable agreement has been signed between the Arnold Arboretum and Land's Sake, Inc., of Weston, to use land in the Ground covers have long been a popular educational exhibit at the Case Estates. These plantings were improved by the removal of declining plantzngs, the addition of new plants for trxal, and general reorganization of those plants growing next to the stone wall along Alphabet Lane forty-acre field for sale vegetables and small fruit markets. The work is subcontracted to Land's Sake, Inc.; any losses or gains made will be the Arnold Arboretum's responsibility. This year, work was started on a trial basis. A quarter-acre each of raspberries and strawberries were planted, and one acre of squash. A further five acres were plowed and planted to a cover crop. Land's Sake, Inc., is a nonprofit corporation open to any Weston resident. It is dedicated to the education of farm and forest management practices and to aiding the small home gardener. For the Arboretum this represents an attempt to offset the increasing costs of running the Case Estates by generating revenue from unused land. This new venture initially attracted some adverse comment from our neighbors, but a public meeting was held, and our endeavor has subsequently received interest and support. Our staff, as usual, provided a variety of horticultural service to our colleagues and the public. During the year, 189 shipments of plant material, comprising 1,094 taxa, were distributed to cooperating institutions, nurseries, and individuals in 12 countries. We are particularly happy to have been able to assist Professor Bruce Tiffney of Yale University by providing unusual and interesting plant materials which will be used to reestablish the Marsh Botanical Garden. Mr. Nicholson mounted expeditions to localities throughout New England on his own initiative, to collect Acer saccharum from selected provenances for the Chinese Academy of Forestry, Peking. Three species of at the Case Estates to grow to local little known ornamental vine whzch clambs by aerzal rootlets. Seeds and culture instructions were distributed to nurserymen at the 1980 meeting of the Internatzonal Plant Propagators Society. Photograph by C. Lobig. Schizophragma hydrangeoides zs a Magnolia were given to members of the American Magnolia Society during their annual convention which was held at the Arnold Arboretum in April, 1981, and was organized by Drs. Howard and Spongberg and Mr. Koller. Seeds of Sorbus alnifolia and Schizophragma hydrangeoides were also distributed to members of the International Plant Propagators Society at their Eastern Region Convention held in Boston in December, 1980. Mr. Alexander and Mr. Koller moderated the New Plants session at the convention. Dr. Spongberg continued to serve as registrar for cultivar name registration, but from January 1, our responsibilities became limited to the 11 genera for which the Arboretum acts as International Registration Authority. Miscellaneous registrations are now being handled by the U.S. National Arboretum. Living collections staff members acted as consultants to several public and private properties, responded to numerous inquiries by letter and telephone, contributed to lectures and tours, and guided visiting colleagues about the living collections, including the Magnolia Society, the International Plant Propagators Society, and the National Association of Olmsted Parks. Dr. Ashton serves on the Board of Trustees of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and the Corporation of the Museum of Science; Mr. Koller serves on the Board of Trustees of the New England Wildflower Society, where he is chairman of the Garden in the Woods Committee, and on the Board of Directors of the Jamaica Hills Association, Jamaica Plain. Drs. Ashton, Howard, and Spongberg judged at the New England Flower 239 Show. Mr. Koller organized the judging panel for the 1981 Arnold Arboretum Award, presented at the show, which was won by Mr. Alan C. Haskell of New Bedford, for exceptional landscape use of the American native Pachistima canbyi. Mr. Koller also judged at the New England Camellia Show, the New England Flower and Garden Show, and the Philadelphia Spring Flower Show. Staff gave numerous talks to garden clubs and other private organizations during the year. No new living collections staff appointments were made during the year. Grounds staff member Mr. Ralph Benotti has been out of work, due to illness, since January. Several staff have attended courses: Mr. Henry Goodell and Mr. Maurice Sheehan participated in a course on insects and disease, and Mr. James Papargiris in a course on landscape design at Massachusetts Bay Community College; grounds staff member Mr. Bruce Munch was sent to Wakehurst Place, a substation of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, for four months to obtain experience in practical horticulture. Assistant Superintendent Patrick Willoughby has been awarded a one-year scholarship by the National Federation of Garden Clubs, Northeastern Region, to study horticulture at the University of Reading, England, in association with the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew. Mr. Tom Park, a longtime resident and superintendent of the Hillcrest Gardens and Case Estates, died in February. Tom will be remembered with affection by all our staff. Dr. Howard contributed an obituary in our summer, 1981, plantSciences newsletter. PUBLIC PROGRAMS Our public programs policy is formulated through the Public Relations and Education Committee. The manager for public services, Ms. Wendy Marks, is currently interim chairman. Members are Mrs. Barbara Epstein, Friends coordinator; Ms. Eugenia Frey, plant information and education coordinator; Mr. Gary Koller, supervisor of the living collections; Mr. Carl Lobig, publications officer; Ms. Kate Nixon, public relations officer; Ms. Cornelia McMurtrie, volunteers coordinator; Dr. Carroll Wood; the director (ex officio); and Mr. Timothy Anderson, former director of the Franklin Park Zoo, who acted as the outside member. Our programs are still at an early stage of expansion. In this light, the year's achievements are considerable. It is our policy that the public programs of the Arnold Arboretum should be entirely funded by the revenue they produce. As part of the reorganization of our budget and financial systems, cost centers were established for the public programs, and subordinate centers for each of the sections, including publication, education, membership, exhibits, volunteers, and public information. It is now feasible to compare costs against revenue for each section quarterly and thereby to identify promising sources of revenue as well as unnecessary drains on analyses of various operations became undertaken of our fledgling internal transportation system and the unit cost of growing plants in the greenhouses. The latter aided efficiency in other parts of our program. resources. In the process cost necessary. Analyses were Public Facilities The Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain has lacked such basic public facilities as toilets, an information and sales room, and meeting rooms. Our single exhibition and lecture room was clearly inadequate to meet all needs. An architectural firm, Douglas Okun & Associates, was therefore commissioned to convert the front wings of the Hunnewell Administration Building on the first floor to public use. Work started June 1, 1981. The renovation will provide a lecture room, a seminar room, an exhibition area, receptionist space, a kitchenette, a sales shop, work space for volunteers, a lift for the handicapped, and men's and women's rooms designed for handicapped access, as well as offices for the Friends coordinator, plant information coordinator, and public relations officer. This project has been made possible in part thanks to grants from the Charles B. Hayden Foundation, the William E. and Bertha E. Schrafft Charitable Trust, the Neal Rantoul Foundation Trust, the Edwin S. Webster Foundation, and the Cabot Family Charitable Trust. The five electric trams which were donated last year went into operation on July 7, 1980, when a Family Day was organized to give publicity. A tape was prepared for interpretive tours of the grounds. The trams were well received by the public; tours continued on weekends through the summer, and charter tours were organized on From left to nght Superzntendent Henry Goodell organizes the removal of the electnc trams which proved to be uneconomzcal, and too weak to climb hills at the Arboretum Thanks to a generous gaft, they wzll be replaced by a new gasolzne powered bus. Photographs by C Lobig trams were plagued with breakdowns, however. The electric motors proved insufficiently strong to pull full loads up our hills. Further, the trams carried too few passengers to be economical. Regrettably, four had to be sold, one being kept as a mobile sales booth. A generous donation from Mrs. Barry Bingham has enabled us to acquire a new, gasoline-driven vehicle that can carry 25 passengers in comfort. Much further thought has gone into future development of our public programs and services in the spirit of the policies defined in the previous two annual reports. A five-year program for all sections of our public services has been set up with a provisional time schedule to aid planning. Weekly meetings of the Public Relations and Education Committee have led to improved coordination. Integrated timeschedules were initiated in the current year and proved effective. On January 8, 1981, a meeting was convened of representatives from the city of Boston, the Metropolitan District Commission, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, the Harvard administration, and the Arboretum to discuss the need for improved public facilities in Jamaica Plain. Our aim is to attract more visitors, who are themselves a safeguard against serious vandalism, and to generate revenue for the improvement of security and maintenance. Following this meeting, Environmental Planning and Design of Pittsburgh was commissioned to undertake a feasibility study to assess whether such a development would be financially viable. The conclusions of this study, completed at the end of March, were positive. The study recommended that revenue could be developed from internal transportation, parking facilities, and a visitor reception center with an exhibition space, an interpretive garden to which there could be an admis- weekdays. The 242 sion I charge, a restaurant, and are now a sales area. Following further a meet- ings, preparations detailed economic and market analysis of the alternatives open to us, on the basis of which a master plan will be prepared. Negotiations meanwhile continue with the MBTA, the MDC, and the city of Boston for a new access to the Arboretum from the proposed new subway station, across MBTA and city land into our South Street tract. All parties have agreed in principle to this proposal, and the engineers for the Southwest Corridor Project are designing the station surroundings in a manner which will accommodate a turning circle and roadhead for our internal transportation system. It has also been agreed that there will be an exhibition space within the station for the Arboretum. Our horticulture staff are assisting in the landscaping of the station preto commission being made cinct. Horticultural Taxonomist Richard Weaver has been awarded a grant by the National Endowment of the Humanities for an interpre- tive guide to the Arnold Arboretum which will research our plant collection as a human endeavor. Horticultural Research Archivist Sheila Geary, Staff Assistant Ida Hay, and Volunteer June Hutchinson worked with Dr. Weaver in the preparation of the proposal. Meanwhile, part of Mrs. Bingham's gift is to be used to design and install interpretive signs at key points of the Arboretum. Public Relations Ms. Hope Wise, public relations officer, who joined us July 1, 1980, resigned at the end of April. Her place has been taken by Ms. Kate Nixon. During her brief stay, Ms. Wise was responsible for planning and implementing our first newsletter, plantSciences, which was published in October; a second issue appeared in the spring, and a third will do so in July. It is intended that three will appear annually, to complement the annual report which is published in December. The newsletter communicates news of Harvard botany in general; it has been well received by both Friends and the general public. Several other public relations projects were undertaken. A shuttle bus was organized to run from Harvard Square to the Arboretum on Sunday afternoons in May and proved extremely popular. With the collaboration of the propagation staff, a plant sale was held at the Case Estates in October following the annual plant distribution to Friends. It drew an unexpectedly large crowd and 41 new Friends. This is to become a regular event. Local community activities included a treeplanting ceremony on the grounds of the Little City Hall in Jamaica Plain, when three Japanese wingnut trees (Pterocarya rhoifolia), grown from seed collected by Drs. Spongberg and Weaver, were planted to commemorate Arbor Day; and a litter cleanup on Peters Hill in the Arboretum, which was undertaken by the Corporation for a Cleaner Commonwealth. 243 Wedding ceremonies have become increasingly popular in both Jamaica Plain and the Case Estates. The administration of requests for weddings and other receptions has been reorganized; they are providing a useful minor source of income. Publicity for the Arboretum and its programs was increased considerably during the year. A public service announcement was produced with Channel 7. Slides of plants in bloom were sent to WGBH Television (Channel 2) and appeared periodically. A Boston Globe series on plants in bloom at the Arboretum was revitalized. There was increased publicity for all events, classes, courses, and tours, which undoubtedly contributed to their success. The course brochures, the work of Plant Information and Education Coordinator Eugenia Frey, were particularly admired, as was a four-page supplement in the Gazette which highlighted the Arboretum's spring program. Internal communication has been much improved through inauguration of The Sheet, a news bulletin which provides staff in Weston, Cambridge, and Jamaica Plain with news of current activities. Public Education and Information Thanks in part to increased experience with the interests of our public, and in part to much-improved publicity, there was greatly increased participation in our course program, especially from the Cambridge community. The series in Weston was moved this year to the Harvard University Herbaria Building in Cambridge, and from weekday to weekend and evening programming. Owing to renovation work in the Hunnewell Building, spring programs in Jamaica Plain took place in the Dana Greenhouse classroom. Besides publicity from plantScTences, news releases, fliers, and the Harvard Untversity Gazette, the spring program brochure was designed in a poster format. This led to increased distribution, and extra runs of the poster were sold in the Harvard Coop. Attendance increased from averages of 25 last year to 60 at the end of this year. Twenty-four programs, of which 5 were cancelled owing to madequate registration, were organized for fall, 1980; thirty-three programs of which 8 were cancelled were organized for the spring, 1981. Total attendance jumped to 219 in the fall, and to 576 in the spring, representing increases over the previous year of 28 percent and 56 percent, respectively. Altogether, 17 staff from all sections of the Arboretum and the Department of Organismic and Evolutionary Biology, 10 graduate students, and 11 outside speakers contributed to the programs. The interest and enthusiasm shown by staff and students alike is very encouraging. This year pilot programs were run for elementary school children. The Park School and the Milton School, grades 4 and 5, participated. These sessions are beginning to give us information for curriculum and program development for future school programs. 244 I An improved educational program was offered to our summer horticultural trainees, with Tuesday lunchtime talks, Thursday afterwork walks, and weekend trips with staff. We received 72 applications this year, of which 19 were accepted from 10 states, including 10 from Massachusetts. Owing to building renovation only three exhibits were mounted this year in the Hunnewell Building. The first, \"The Herbarium,\" prepared by Ms. Ida Hay, ran between July and September and explained the purpose and methods of herbaria. Between September and November the work of a young watercolor painter, Ellen Tikkanen, was exhibited in a show entitled \"Arnold Arboretum Landscapes.\" \"Conifers,\" an exhibit assembled after considerable careful research by Volunteer Richard Warren, was on view from November to February. Our exhibit at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society Spring Flower Show was entitled \"Oriental Temple Garden.\" An enormous amount of staff time went into its preparation, and this was rewarded with a Gold Medal, the First Prize for the horticultural merit of the plants, and the prestigious Trustees Emeritus Award for an innovative exhibit which most exemplifies and expands the traditions of the show. A major effort was put into distributing 10,000 Arnold Arboretum pamphlets, yet only 200 were returned. Clearly, we must review the benefits of the considerable effort involved. Thanks to the excellent coordination of our volunteers coordinator, Ms. Cornelia McMurtrie, we were able to increase the number of guided tours of the Arboretum substantially in 1981, and they have become a significant source of revenue. Altogether, 65 guided tours, led by staff and 17 volunteer guides, took place at the Arboretum and the Case Estates in the spring, 1981. A week-long orientation and training session for new tour guides was held in April, 1981. The heaviest attendance of visitors on tours was during the week of May 18, following \"Lilac Sunday,\" with 10 scheduled and approximately 30 unscheduled tours. An exact count of groups visiting the Arboretum proved impossible, but a typical busy day, May 21, witnessed 8 unscheduled tour buses and walks in addition to the 5 scheduled guided tours. In a typical week in early June, 38 driving permits were issued to residents of 12 states, including Idaho, California, Texas, Georgia, and Kansas. Although the number of cars has been kept under control, an even greater effort should be made to reduce the number of cars driving within the Arboretum. The plant information service has been increased in efficiency by implementation of a one-hour daily \"hotline\" service. This has proved convenient for staff and users alike and will improve further with the completion of the new telephone system in Jamaica Plain. Ms. Frey, Ms. Hay, Mr. Koller, Mr. Alexander, and Dr. Weaver are the principal contributors. In the fall, 1980, Ms. Linda Bowman volunteered to provide the service, which proved very helpful. There were 1,086 recorded inquiries between July, 1980, and May, 1981, of which about 350 were poison calls, and a similar number addressed cultural ques- Above : Lilac Sunday was a beautiful, sunny day, and many azsztors turned out to enjoy the sights Below One of the trams was converted mto an vnformataon booth, manned by the staff on Lilac Sunday. Photographs by R. Weaver and C Lobig 246 tions. Many inquiries are of a specialized nature, and it has been found necessary to build up a reference book collection for rapid access to answers. The community gardens project continued to be plagued by vandalism, and the drought in 1980 proved a further detraction. In the spring, 1981, registrations for plots had dropped to half that of the previous year. It was decided that more people were needed to carry out all jobs required for adequate garden maintenance, though committees were established and workdays organized. Volunteers Ms. Cornelia McMurtrie became part-time volunteers coordinator trial basis in January, taking over responsibility for the program from Ms. Hope Wise. She proved extremely successful. New volunteers were attracted to the Arboretum by the offer of membership benefits and by expanded publicity. Contacts were also made with local volunteer organizations. The contribution of the volunteers to the activities of the Arboretum has been considerable. During the year 67 volunteers have donated their time, 42 of them on a regular basis, for an average of 120 volunteer hours a week. Since the 1981 training session, 13 new volunteers have joined the staff. Many projects would not have been accomplished without the help of our volunteers. Highlights of the year's achievements include the following: Over a six-week period 17 volunteers, 10 of them new, led 65 tours, generating $1,300 in revenue; volunteer landscape designers completed the research, map, and graphics for a guide to the Case Estates, and an extensive nursery index; a landscape architect has volunteered to help produce a slide show for use in community programs; one volunteer is organizing our large photograph collection. A team, which includes conifer and rhododendron authorities and a plant ecologist, is assisting in the verification of the living collections; on a one volunteer, working full-time, aided by a team of three others part-time, is making reference vouchers from the living collections which will be housed in our herbarium of cultivated plants; duplicates are being collected for exchange. Altogether, seven volunteers have collecting program. Supervisor Gary Koller has had the assistance of two volunteers in the assessment of our shrub collections; volunteers have assisted Mr. James Burrows in the renovation of the rock garden and the development of the American Garden at the Case Estates; one volunteer assisted in preparation of a grant proposal for curatorial assistance for the slide collection, another in the grant proposal for the guidebook to the Arboretum; bilingual volunteers have translated publicity material for the Arnold Arboretum into French and Spanish. Volunteers prepared the spring plantSciences mailing and collated 10,000 handouts for the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's New contributed to this 247 our England Spring Flower Show. Fifty volunteers took turns in manning exhibit for the ten-day show; volunteers staffed the Fall Plant Distribution and Sale at the Case Estates. The ranks of the greenhouse volunteers have expanded to 12, transplanting many thousands of seedlings for the 1982 plant mailing to Friends, compiling inventories, and processing seeds. In all, this is a remarkable contribution, deserving our deepest thanks. Special recognition must go to Mr. Al Bussewitz, who taught classes, has assisted almost every staff member in Jamaica Plain, and who also led innumerable tours, including one which was unique for the Newton Center for the Blind. Membership Our total membership at the end of the year was 2,366, representa net increase of 118. This is considerably less than we had planned, but plans for a membership drive were delayed until Arnoldia, which has been behind schedule, is up to date. Nevertheless, staff, with the help of volunteers, have been working hard to reach new sources through mailings. We are proud of the results from mailings to past deleted members: 6.8 percent of these former Friends were welcomed back. Since we know that mailings have been successful it is obvious that some computerized means must be utilized for membership acquisition in the future. With Arnoldia back on schedule a major campaign to increase membership will be undertaken in the coming year. The Friends' benefits have increased this year with the introduction of the Arboretum's new newsletter, plantSciences, which will enable Friends to keep in touch with current Arboretum activities and ac- ing complishments. In accordance with past policy, course and workshop participation offered to Friends at reduced rates. Special invitations were sent to Friends for openings of two of our exhibits, \"Arnold Arboretum Landscapes\" by Ellen Tikkanen, and \"Conifers\" by Dr. Richard Warwas ren. All Friends received invitations to Family Day, which was held on 7 at the Arboretum. Included in the invitation were tickets for a free tram tour of the Arboretum. The Friends' plant distribution was held on Sunday, September 28, at the Case Estates in Weston. Surplus plant material was distributed to over 200 attending members. Friends responded enthusiastically to the lecture series \"Oriental Connection.\" In conjunction with this a special offer was made to Friends who brought in new members. Both the sponsor Friend and the new Friend were given a choice of a gift plant of oriental origin, or free tickets to a lecture in this series. Spring walks for new members were held on both May 28 and May 30. New members were welcomed by the director, and seasoned July 248 volunteer guides Mrs. Cora Warren and Mr. AI Bussewitz gave tours. special In order to show patrons, a reception on was ing Lecture Hall appreciation to our sponsors, donors, and held in their honor in the Hunnewell BuildOctober 16. our GIFTS The Arnold Arboretum was fortunate to receive several gifts this year which will substantially aid our research as well as our public programs. Thanks to an anonymous donor, we have been enabled to equip one of the laboratories in the greenhouse\/headhouse with the basic facilities required for chemosystematic research, which is the study of patterns of variation in plants based on their chemical constitution. This is an area which can particularly benefit from our living collections, yet one which we have not previously been in a position to foster. into the genera Alnus and Ceanothus, with the ultimate aim of assessing their value as forage, has been made possible by a gift from the Percy Selden Fund. An arcto-tertiary garden is in the process of being installed below the Oak Path at the base of Bussey Hill. This planting, which will interpret the plant geographical connections between the eastern United States and East Asia, a continuing interest of Harvard botanists from the time of Asa Gray, is a gift of Mr. Paul Hofer in memory of Mrs. Frances Hofer, his wife. This represents the second endowment towards our goal of restoring and maintaining the original grass path system, with associated wild flower plantings, in the Arboretum. The Arnold Arboretum also received a generous gift from Mrs. Barry Bingham, Jr., to enhance our public programs. This will be used to acquire a bus, seating twenty-five passengers, and towards the installation of interpretive signs at the main entrances and at entrances to major collections on the grounds. Geoffrey Nolin's research Appendix: Published Writings of Arnold Arboreturn Staff and ciates, July 1, 1980 June 30, 1981 Alexander,J H., III. Asso- 1980. Appendix to the director's report: Weather station data for 1979. Arnoldia 40: 292-293. Ashton, P. S. 1980. The director's report. Arnoldia 40: 238-291. 1980. Underutilized Southeast Asian plants with promise for the Caribbean. In, Report of the Second Canbbean Meeting on Dt:hzation of Natural Products Port of Spain, Trinidad, 23-27 April 1979. Pp. 177. 179 . . 1980. The utilization of lowland tropical podsols. Ibid., pp. 181-182. 1980. Myrtaceae. In, A revised handbooh to the fiora of Ceylon, M. D. Dassanayake, ed., 2: 403-472. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 249 1981. The need for information regarding tree age and growth in tropical forests. In, Age and growth rate of tropical trees: New directions for research, F. H. Bormann and G. Berlyn, eds., Yale Uniuerszty School of Forestry and Environmental Studies Bulletin 94: 3-6. 1980. (With Furtado, J. I ). Inter-university collaboration in tropical forest ecology. In, Tropical ecology and development, J. I. Furtado, ed. In, Proc. V Int. Symp. Trop. Ecol. 16-21 April 1979, Kuala Lumpur. Pp. 1253-1255. Clausen, K. (See under Howard, R. A., and Hu, S.-Y.). Del Tredici, P. 1980. Sargent's weeping hemlock reconsidered. Arnoldia 40: 202-224. . Magnolia virginiana in Massachusetts. Ibid. 41: 36-49. 1981. 1980. (With Hu, S.-Y., and Rudenberg, L.). Studies on American ginsengs. Rhodora 82: 627-636. Donoghue, M. 1981. Growth patterns in woody plants with examples from the genus Viburnum. Arnoldia 41: 2-23. Epstein, B. O. 1981. Discovering Blakea gracilis. Arnoldia 41: 25-29. Fordham, A. J. 1980. Hydrangea anomala subspecies petiolaris and its propagation. International Plant Propagators Combined Proceedings. 30: . . . Hay, 410-414. 1. 1980. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: tii. Arnoldza 40: 194-199. S. Quercus x Sargen- personal plant introductions. Cuttings 40: 3-5. 1980. E. H. Wilson and the nodding lilac. Proc. Internat. Lilac Soc. 9: 13-15. 1980. E. H. Wilson as a botanist. Arnoldia 40~ 154-193. 1981 Wilson's magnolias. Magnolia 16: 3-26. 1980. 1980. External morphology, pp. 16-24; the stem-node-leaf continuum of the Dicotyledoneae, pp. 76-87; the petiole, pp. 88-96. In, Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, 2nd ed. Vol. 1, C. R. Metcalfe and L. Chalk. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 1981. Nomenclatural notes on the Lauraceae of the Lesser Antilles. Jour. Arnold Arb. 62: 45-61. 1980 (1981). (With Portecop, J., and de Montaignac, P.). The posteruptive vegetation of La Soufriere, Guadeloupe. Jour. Arnold Arb. 61: 749-764. 1980. 1980 (1981). (With Clausen, K. S ). The Soufriere plant of St. Vincent. Jozir. Arnold Arb. 61: 765-770. 1981. (With Howard, E. S.). Labels for wet tropical research. Biotropica 13: 77-78. Hu, S.-Y. 1980. An enumeratzon of Chmese materia medica. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. 1980. Biological and cytological foundation for better ginseng to more people. In, Proc. Third Int. Ginseng Symp. Seoul, Korea. 1980. (With But, P., and Kong, Y. C.). Vascular plants used in Chinese medicine. Fitoterapia 51: 245-264. 1980. (With Clausen, K. S.). Mapping the collecting localities of E. H. Wilson in China. Arnoldia 40: 139-145. 1980. (See under Del Tredici, P.). Koller, G. L. 1980. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Pseudolarix amabilis. Arnoldza 40: 224-234. 1981. Ironclad shrubs for urban landscapes. Plants and Gardens 37: 43-45. A. 1980. Your . . . . Howard, E. Howard, R. (See under Howard, R. A.). . . -. . . . . 250 Lenk, C. 1980. (With Miller, N. G., and Bradshaw, R. H. W.). Reconstructing forest history from pollen in soils buried by windthrows (abstr.). Abstr. 5th Internatl. Palynol. Conf. Cambridge, England. Miller, N. G. 1980. Quaternary fossil bryophytes in North America: catalog and -. -. -. annotated bibliography. Jour. Hattori Bot. Lab. 47: 1-34. 1980. Fossil mosses of North America and their significance. Pp. 9-13 3 in, The mosses of North America, R. J. Taylor and A. E. Leviton, eds. Pacific Div., American Association for the Advancement of Science. San Francisco. 1980. Mosses as paleoecological indicators of lateglacial terrestrial environments: some North American studies. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 107: 373-391. 1980. Bogs, bales, and BTU's: a primer on peat. Horticulture 59: 38-45. 1980. . (With Baker, D.). Ultrastructural evidence for the existence of actinorhizal symbioses in the late Pleistocene. Canad. Jour. Bot. 58: 1612-1620. 1980. (With Parks, C. R.). A study of the bitypic genus Liriodendron (Magnoliaceae) (abstr.). Abstr. Second Internatl. Cong. Sys. Evol. Biol. Vancouver, British Columbia. 1980. (See under Lenk, C.). Proctor, G. R. 1980. Supplemental notes on Lesser Antillean pteridophytes. Amer. Fern J. 70: 88-90. 1981. Taxonomic notes on Jamaican fems, III. Ibld. 71(2): 57-61. Schubert, B. G. 1981. Desmodium. In, Flora of Panama, Dwyer and collaborators. Family 83. Leguminosae. Annals Missouri Bot. Gard. 67: 622-662. 1981. (With Ohashi, H., and Polhill, R. M.). Tribe 9. Desmodieae (Benth.) Hutch. In, Advances in Legume Systematics, Polhill, R. M., and P. H. Raven, eds. 2: 292-300. Spongberg, S. A. 1980. Cultivar registration at the Arnold Arboretum-1979. AABGA Bull. 14: 197-200. 1981. Magnolia salzcifolza-an Arboretum introduction. Arnoldia 41: 50-59. 1981. (With Weaver, R. E., Jr.). Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum : Magnolia 'Silver Parasol'. Ibid. : 70-77. Stevens, P. F. 1980. The correct names for the three elements in the protologue of Calophyllum calaba L. Pp. 168-176 in, Botany and hzstory of Hortus Malabaricus, Manilal, K. S., ed., New Delhi: Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. 1980. Calophyllum. Pp. 9-15 in, Flore des Mascareignes, J. Bosser et al., eds., Mauritius, Sugar Research Institute. 1980. Evolutionary polarity of character states. Ann. Rev. Ecology Systematics 11: 333-358. -. 1980. A revision of the Old World species of Calophyllum (Guttiferae). jour. Arnold Arb. 61: 117-699. . 1980. (With Veldkamp, J. F.). Report on the Lae-Leiden Mt. Suckling Expedition of 1972. In, Botany Bulletin 10, Division of Botany, Office of Forests, Lae, Papua New Guinea. Weaver, R. E., Jr. 1980. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: The restoration of Oak Path. Arnoldia 40: 294-300. . 1981. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise'. Arzzoldza 41: 30-33. . 1981. Magnolia fraseri. Arnoldia 41: 60-69. 1981. (See under Spongberg, S. A.). . -. -. -. . . -. -. -. Average maximum temperature Average minimum temperature Precipitation Snowfall Warmest temperature Coldest temperature Date of last frost Date of first frost Growing season 60 39 31. 79\" 18.3\" 99 on July 21 -10 on December 26 April 18 October 14 179 days Weather Station Data for the First Six Months of 1981 Average maximum temperature Average minimum temperature Precipitation Snowfall during 56F 35F 17.32 inches 24.0 inches wmter 1980-1981 Continuous snow cover winter 1980-1981 Warmest temperature Coldest temperature Date of last frost m spring Continuous freezing temperature December 16, 1980February 1, 1981 93 on June 17 -7 on January 5 April 23 January 9-19, 1981 JOHN H. ALEXANDER III 252 Appendix: Status 1 of Staff Members of the Arnold Arboretum July, 1980-30 June, 1981 Date Hired Jan., 1981 Sept., 1980 March, 1981 Position Staff Assistant ' New Susan Bryant Mary Byrnes Barbara Callahan Secretary Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium Curatorial Assistant Patricia Dalton Katherine Grant Carl F. Lobig Margaret van Montfrans Kathleen Nixon Helen Shea Franklyn Stevens Benjamin Stone April, 1981 Feb., 1981 Sept., 1980 Jan., 1981 Jan., 1981 Dec., 1980 Oct., 1980 March-July, 1980 Secretary Publications Officer Botanical Illustrator Public Relations Officer Secretary Administrative Officer Mercer Fellow Mary Thomas Hope Wise August, 1980 Library Assistant July, 1980 Public Relations Officer Resigned Norton Batkm Kristin Clausen Date Marylinda Coyne Leonore Dickmson Aug., 1980 Aug , 1980 Nov., 1980 March, 1981 Dec., 1980 July, 1980 Sept., 1980 Nov., 1980 Aug., 1980 Dec., 1980 Feb., 1981 Position Publications Officer Research Assistant Secretary Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium Christian Fraza Lisa Frost Ann Johnson Library Assistant Margaret Quinn C.-Jeanne Stevens Dorothea Talbot Mia Touw Hope Wise Secretary Secretary Secretary Library Assistant Secretary Research Assistant Public Relations Officer March, 1981 Continuing Employees John H. Alexander, III Vincent T. Antonovich Peter S. Ashton Position Plant Propagator Grounds Staff Director, Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology Grounds Staff Assistant Supervisor of the Living Collections Manager of the Systematic Collections of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium Grounds Staff Assistant Plant Propagator Friends Coordinator Ralph J. Benotti James A. Burrows Michael A. Canoso _ _ - - - - ~~ 2014 Luis Colon Peter J. Del Tredici Barbara O. Epstein ~ 253 Robert E. Famiglietti Helen M. Fleming Grounds Staff Herbarium Preparator Plant Information Coordinator Assistant Librarian Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Staff Assistant Professor of Dendrology Superintendent of the Case Estates Curatorial Assistant~ Supervisor of the Living Collections Eugenia Frey Sheila C Geary Henry S Goodell Michael A. Gormley Dennis P. Harris Ida Hay Richard A. Howard Thomas M. Kinahan Walter T. Kittredge Gary L. Koller Nancy A. LeMay Secretary Grounds Staff Manager of Public Services Botanist Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Charles J. Mackey Wendy Marks Norton G. Miller Bruce G. Munch Robert G Nicholson James M Nickerson Timothy O'Leary James Papargiris Elizabeth B Schmidt Managing Editor, The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Senior Lecturer in Biology, Curator of the Arnold Arboretum Grounds Staff Herbarium Preparator Herbarium Secretary' Horticultural Taxonomist, Editor, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Associate Professor of Biology, Associate Curator ot the Arnold Arboretum and the ` Bernice G. Schubert Maurice C. Sheehan Anne M. Sholes Colleen Sliney Stephen A. Spongberg Peter F. Stevens Gray Herbarium, Supervisor of the Combined Mark A. Walkama Peter Ward Richard E. Weaver, Jr. J. Patrick Willoughby Herbaria Grounds Staff Grounds Staff Horticultural Taxonomist Assistant Superintendent of Buildings and Grounds Professor of Biology Curator of the Arnold Carroll E. Wood, Jr. _ Donald Wyman Arboretum Horticulturist Emeritus Joint appointment of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium. Appendix: Plants Celebrating their Centennial the Arnold Arboretum 1881-1981 Acer pensylvanicum Acer pensylvanicum Acer saccharinum Acer saccharinum Acer saccharinum Celtis laevigata var. smallii Chamaecypans obtusa var. Chamaecyparis obtusa var. Chamaecypans obtusa var. 12532-C 12533-C 12560-A 12560-B 12560-C 1165 13038-B 13038-C 13038-D 13045-A 13045-B 13055-B 1136-3-A Chamaecyparis pisifera Chamaecyparis pisifera Cladrastis lutea Elaeagnus multiflorus Elaeagnus multiflorus Fraxinus quadrangulata cv. cv. filifera filifera ` Fraxinus quadrangulata Fraxmus quadrangulata Gleditsia tnacanthos Hydrangea heteromalla var. 1136-3-B 14654-A 14654-B 14654-K 22514 518 1559-A 953-1 2230 15345 1562 1421-A 6628 17420-B 1680 1514-2 1714 glabrescens Larix occidentahs Lonicera japonica cv. halliana Parrotia persica Philadelphus x falconeri Picea abies Pinus parviflora Syringa emodi Thuja occidentahs cv. pumila a . Tsuga canadensis cv compacta Tsuga canadensis cv. pendula ZenobIa pulverulenta a ANNOUNCING A special event in conjunction with theArnoldia issue of A Spring 1982: \"Dutch Elm Disease: Symposium on Causes and Cures\" Presented by Martin Zimmermann, Director of the Harvard Forest and Dennis Newbanks, Plant Pathologist April 22, 6:30-7:00 p.m.: 7:00-8:00 p.m.: 8:00-9:00 p.m.: 1982 Meet the speakers and enjoy refreshments Lecture and discussion, Dr. Zimmermann Lecture and discussion, Dr. Newbanks at the Hunnewell Building of the Arnold Arboretum Fee: $10.00 (members), $12.00 (nonmembers) Payable at the door or by advance registration. Call 524-1718 for details and registration. ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1981-The Director's Report Peter"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23518","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070af28.jpg","title":"1981-41-6","volume":41,"issue_number":6,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Shrubs for Hillsides and Embankments","article_sequence":1,"start_page":168,"end_page":194,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24799","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15eab28.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":5,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"168 Shrubs for Hillsides and Embankments by GARY ~ KOLLER ~ - - - - an airplane window on the face of modern America will know that it is a compromise: a crazy quilt knitting together the need for vast, regular surfaces on which to travel and to build, and the desire to maintain the natural beauty of what was once the great wilderness. Grading the land for countless miles of mammoth airports or sprawling apartment complexes leaves scars that take the form of rocky embankments. These slopes are extensive and varied both in physical size and in the quality and depth of the soil. Rarely do we give a thought to the special problems created by these surfaces, but for the Anyone who has looked down from landscape architect, they are a constant concern. After the bulldozers and grading machines have created a slope, the matter of greatest concern is how these slopes will be stabilized, how soil erosion can be controlled, and how the finished bank surface will be maintained. Most often banks are planted with grass, herbaceous perennials such as crown vetch (Coronilla varia), or wild flower seed mixes. These plantings are largely unmaintained and through natural succession allowed to revert to a woodland condition. In key locations or areas of higher visibility and use, trees, or masses of shrubs are planted as part of a landscape development scheme. In most cases there is little or no care given to these plant- 169 ings. It becomes essential, therefore, to select species and varieties for their ability to adapt to varied climatic, and environmental conditions. Too often, the developer selects plants for their ornamental value rather than those that would best survive. At the same time, landscape architects and developers are largely restricted to those plants that are commercially available. Other factors which influence selection include the size and quantity of the plants needed and the price, which must be competitive with, if not lower than, other methods of covering the slopes. In selecting shrubs for bank plantings in North Temperate Zone locations, most landscape architects, nurserymen, and horticulturists limit themselves to the few old standbys such as: Cotoneaster spp., Forsythia spp., Juniperus spp., Myrica pensylvanica, Euonymus alata 'Compacta', Rosa rugosa, Rosa virginiana, or Rosa wichuraiaua. These plants are all excellent choices for large-scale landscape plantings, as long as they are suited to the environmental conditions that exist at each individual site. In approaching the problem of selecting shrubs for hillsides and embankments, I chose not to reiterate a list of those plants already known, used, and widely discussed in the horticultural literature. Instead, I trekked through the Arnold Arboretum. Here, I looked for plants with the following characteristics : a crown, or foliage canopy, dense enough to suppress weed competition; a stoloniferous or twiggy branching system arising from soil level; suitability to mass planting and ability to interface well with adjacent plants; and longevity as well as vigor of regrowth and aggressiveness. Strangely enough, most of these are characteristics of successful \"weeds.\" Ornamental traits, except crisp green foliage, not even considered. What follows is a compendium of the plants at the Arnold Arboretum which appear, from all indications, to have the desired qualities. I feel that they easily fit into the milieu of a bank or mass planting and should form dense, vigorous stands. However, without periodic maintenance, they cannot be expected to completely eliminate the encroachment of the area's natural vegetation. Many of the plants listed are poorly known, even in botanical gardens and are rare, or in some cases impossible to find in the current American nursery trade. I offer my observations with the hope that these plants will be brought to the attention of people interested in testing them, in actual long-term, steep bank situations. In the ensuing discussion, my observations are largely drawn from individual plants. Therefore, I expect the species and varieties to exhibit a variation in density, height, vigor and growth rate, as well as in their level of ornamental merit. Most of the plants would be enhanced by selecting individuals which have superior traits and then producing them vegetatively to maintain specific characteristics. What follows is my list of the deciduous shrubs that I would suggest to stabilize hillsides and embankments. were 170 Acanthopanax sieboldianus fiveleaf aralia Height: 6-10 feet Spread: 6-10 feet Environment: Sun to moderate shade Hardy to -25F. Native to Japan well known and much used as a landseen today and the reasons are not at all evident. While this plant could never be described as a showy ornamental, its superior traits include lustrous green, pest-free foliage; longevity despite neglect and abuse; and adaptability to shearing and shaping. Presently, when it is used, it is generally clipped as a hedge. However, it can be more beautifully used as a colony, when it is allowed to become an informal, impenetrable mass. It has the virtue of suckering freely from underground stems, and the attribute of bearing occasional spines at the base of a leaf or leaf cluster, thus discouraging pedestrian or large animal traffic. The fiveleaf aralia tolerates drought and poor soils, dust, smoke and the difficulties of an urban environment as well as any shrub. Its growth rate is moderate. Use of this plant is feasible as it is currently available in the nursery trade. When one wants a plant with fresh, attractive foliage throughout the summer, Acanthopanax sieboldianus is a first-rate choice. was once This ironclad shrub scape plant; however, it is seldom Aesculus parviflora buckeye bottlebrush Height: 10-12 feet Spread: 6-10 feet or more Environment: Sun to moderate shade Hardy to -25F. Native to Georgia and Ala- bama flowering period in early July, clear amber autumn foliage colors and a multi-layered canopy make this a distinct and desirable plant for ornamental landscaping. Bottlebrush buckeye is a large, spreading shrub, with a rounded canopy which grades from a central high point down to the soil level at the outer perimeter. A clump resembles a grove of young trees planted closely together, and when established, repeats the contours of the planting locale. Large cylindrical clusters of small, white flowers appear in early to mid-July and look similar to the brushes used to clean bottles. Flowering occurs even on young plants. Fruit is infrequent, but when found consists of a small rounded nut, enclosed in a dehiscent husk, the ripening of which is eagerly awaited by squirrels. Bottlebrush buckeye slowly creeps outward by stoloniferous stems. Growth, which is dense, eliminates the growth of most herbaceous plants and low shrubs, but occasionally a volunteer tree seedling will grow and overtop the mass. When desired these volunteers can be removed, or if the bottlebrush buckeye is used in a naturalistic setting, the trees can remain as companion plants, as the buckeye is shade tolerant. A 172 From my observations, this plant is slow to re-establish itself after transplanting, but my experience is based on bare-root divisions rather than on container or field-grown stock. I am told by nurserymen that it is slow to work up to a saleable landscape size. The apparent slowness of recovery and growth will restrict its use to those locations where some weeding maintenance can be provided to help the colony establish density. Once established, bottlebrush buckeye is attractive and essentially trouble-free. I have heard of plants which exhibit the marginal leaf scorch so common to Aesczilns; however, I have not seen this myself in the Boston area. Landscape architects should consider using this in combination with trees as an outstanding cover for the low mounds frequently used as a device to screen industrial, municipal and institutional buildings. It would also be useful as a flowering shrub for summer resort and recreational areas. Caragana frutex Russian pea shrub Height: 4-8 feet Spread: 6-10 feet Environment: Full sun Hardy to: -25F. Native from Turkestan Siberia to tough shrub, which is almost unknown outside of botanical gardens, has several qualities to indicate that it might be a superb bank plant. It is relatively low-growing dense and vigorous, allowing no weeds to penetrate the upper foliage canopy. It is very persistent, This requires little care to thrive, and it has tolerance for cold temperature rivaled by few other woody plants. Ornamental qualities are limited to abundant quantities of small, bright yellow flowers which appear in early May. Branches are thin and delicate and the habit is more erect than Caragana sinica. New season twig growth is four to eight inches long and the branches are unarmed. Our plant, AA 20870, is four feet tall and twelve feet across, and the mature foliage is a dense and healthy, bluish-green. The younger foliage is lighter, and yellowish along the edge, which is perhaps a nutritional deficiency, rather than typical leaf color. There is a small amount of twig dieback evident but not enough to cause alarm. The general appearance of the plant from a distance is one of a flat-topped mass, well faced with foliage right to the soil level. Nurserymen believe that this plant would be a good choice for mass plantings, but because of the small demand it is not presently a commercially viable crop, and therefore, difficult to procure. 174 Caragana sinica Chinese pea shrub Height: 5-6 feet Spread: 6-12 feet Environment: Full Hardy to -30F. ness sun (Northern range of hardistill needs to be de- termined) Native to Northern China It is unfortunate that as horticulturists we tend to emphasize too much a plant's ornamental qualities, ignoring its potential for adapting to difficult environmental niches. Caragana sinica, the Chinese pea shrub is a charming little plant which deserves more than the cursory review it has had in the past. Caragana sinica forms a tapering mound which is dense and faces itself beautifully to the soil level. The older foliage has a dull luster and a rich green color slightly tinged with blue, while the younger leaves are smaller in size and yellowish-green. The leaf radius terminates in a sharp point giving the plants a somewhat spiny character which is retained even after the leaves have fallen. The branches are thin and wispy and somewhat uneven in their height, with an informal appearance. The summer foliage is better than on Caragana frutex and the plant appears more robust, with no visible signs of dieback or dead twigs. Flowers, which appear in May, are presented individually among the foliage and are yellow with a slight reddish cast. The plant from which I drew my observations was collected in the wilds of Weichang, China in 1909, by W. Purdom. At 72 years of age, this plant is five feet tall and twelve feet across, forming a perfect tapering mound. While it is surrounded by a tall coarse grass, there is no evidence of the grass penetrating the upper leaf canopy of the plant, even at the outer edges. Clerodendrum trichotomum Height: 6-18 feet Spread: 6-12 feet Environment: Full harlequin glorybower light shade Hardiness: -5F. Native to sun to Japan and China At the Arnold Arboretum, this plant appears to have a dense robust habit. Perhaps this is due to the fact that it freezes back to the soil line almost every year encouraging more suckering from the root system. Our plants have coarse, dark green foliage, robust new growth from soil level and, due to the strongly stoloniferous habit, a dense bushiness directly to the ground. The plant bears small fragrant white flowers in late summer, followed by bright blue fruits the size of peas. The unique and intense blue fruit color is set off against the persistent calyx lobes which become more fleshy and crimson as the drupes ripen, making the plant visually striking when viewed from close by. I have seen Clerodendrum trichotomum in areas where it has naturalized itself into the edge of woodlands. There, with shade, it becomes more open and less likely to quell vigorous weedy com- petitors. In localities where this plant is not likely to die back each winter due to the cold, it would probably be best to cut the shrub back to the soil level annually or biennially in the spring to encourage the large, robust foliage which is common to sucker growth, producing a plant five to eight feet tall by summer's end. With this plant, management techniques will clearly be an important factor in maintaining a dense canopy. The harlequin glorybower is less likely to be a stellar success as a colony than others listed here, but I think it deserves a trial, for once established, it should colonize adjacent areas with its seed. 176 Deutzia gracilis slender deutzia Height: 3 feet Spread: 2-4 feet Environment: Full light shade Handy to -20F. Native to Japan sun to This \"low maintenance\" shrub is a superb choice for use in toreground plantings. In the home landscape it has generally been given a crew cut or misplaced behind taller or more robust plants, obscuring its outstanding characteristics. When grouped together and allowed to grow unclipped, this plant can be used to create a pattern or distinctly shaped area. It can also be used more informally. At maturity the plant has slender arching branches and forms a dense spreading mound. Due to its compact habit, it never gets out of bounds. Flowers, reliable in their annual May appearance, are borne in graceful terminal clusters. Along the northern edge of this plant's hardiness range, Deuzia gracilis may die back to the soil each year, but it will still form a robust mound of new stems by early summer. 177 Diervilla sessilifolia southern bush-honeysuckle Height: 3-5 feet tall Spread: 3-5 feet or more Environment: Full sun to moderate shade Hardy to -20F. Native from North Carolina to Georgia and Alabama Diervilla ous sessilifolia is a native American shrub with dense stolonifer- habit, modest size, adaptability to a wide range of light exposures and soil conditions, and a summer flowering period. Southern bushhoneysuckle will thrive under light conditions which range from sunny to those areas with moderate shade. In shade, the plant's habit will change moderately, becoming thinner and more open and bearing fewer flowers. The habit of the plant is mound-like, formed by loosely arching branches arising from the denser colony below. For new season growth, stem diameter is thin and the visual quality enhanced by branchlets of rich purple along the top or sunny side. In locations where the plant experiences physiological stress caused by drought or full sun, the summer foliage often takes on a purplish-red cast. During the autumn, the plant displays rich purple-bronze colors prior to defoliation. Small terminal flowers, clusters of which are pretty but not showy, appear in early to mid-July, on new season wood. Southern bush-honeysuckle would probably exhibit best growth and density if mowed to the ground annually or biennially. Diervilla sessilifolia is presently offered by several of the nation's large wholesale nurseries. 178 Indigofera kirilowii kirilow indigo Height: 2-3 feet Spread: 2-4 feet Hardy Environment: Full sun to -20F. Native to N. China and Korea delightful small shrub with erect stems and light green, pinnately compound foliage. Flowers which appear on new season growth in mid-June are a bright rose-pink, abundant, and persist for three to A four weeks. At the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, in Weston, Massachusetts, there is a planting which was cut to the ground one autumn. During the winter the stem stubble and the fibrous root system were sufficient to prevent or reduce soil erosion. The following spring, new growth developed and the plant returned to its original height all in one season. The plant flowered, but a bit later than normal. As a result of this experience, we believe that kirilow indigo might best be managed by mowing annually or biennially. This mowing would have the effect of thickening growth and invigorating the plants, as well as eliminating the encroachment of woody weeds. A legume, kirilow indigo has the advantage of being able to fix nitrogen on sites with poor or impoverished soils. Indigofera kirilowii is easily transplanted and should be an excellent subject for container growth in nurseries. In addition to being considered as a part of mass plantings, kirilow indigo should be viewed as a potential flowering shrub for low maintenance landscapes, or at resort areas where summer flowering plants are desired (see front cover). Kerria japonica Japanese kerria Height: 3-6 feet Spread: 3-6 feet Environment: Full sun to moderate shade Hardy to -20F. Native to C. and W. China Kerria japonica of Japanese kerria is used only rarely as a mass planting on difficult banks or to colonize difficult planting sites. With creativity it could be used far more effectively. Kerria forms a dense, rounded shrub with slender arching branches. The thin stems remain green year round. This makes them somewhat showy in the winter landscape, when most shrubs are dull tan or brown and lifeless in their appearance. Foliage is a bright green in summer and in autumn it turns pale yellow. The typical variety is useful for mass planting as it is dense and vigorously aggressive in colonizing a site. The floral color of the single flowered variety tends to be pale yellow. This color works well as an element in a naturalized planting scheme. However, they have a major disadvantage in that the flowers rapidly fade or bleach to white when the plant is grown in full sun. The full flush of flowers occurs in early May with the main flowering period lasting two to three weeks. However, scattered blossoms occur throughout the growing season. Useful varieties include: pleniflora with double orange-yellow flowers, and less vigorous than the type; and picta which has leaves bordered with white markings, and normally grows only 24-30 inches tall. Picta is the least vigorous of the lot, and has a strong tendency to produce green branches which need to be removed lest they overtake the variegated form. While Kerria is essentially maintenance-free, it does need occasional thinning and renewal pruning to keep the plant vigorous and the stems bright green and in peak display condition. The plant is listed as hardy to -20F, but our plants exhibited dieback with a low temperature of -6F during the winter of 1980-81, a year which was, however, both excessively drier and colder than many of the recent past. \/ 180 Neillia sinensis Chinese neillia Height: 5-6 feet Spread: 6-10 feet or more sun Environment: Full light shade Hardy to -10F if more lower to (perhaps widely tested) Native to Central China lt one were to pomt to a little-known plant at tne Arnoid Arboretum which has potential as a superior bank plant with fresh, attractive foliage all summer long, the first choice would be Neillia sinensis. This plant is little known and remains rare even in botanical gardens. Our plant was collected as seed from the wild in 1907 by E. H. Wilson at Hsing-sham Hsien, W. Hupeh, China. At 73 years of age, this plant is five to six feet tall and spreads sixteen feet across. Neillia forms a dense, billowy, irregular mound with gracefully arching stems that brush the ground. The foliage is dark green and remains vibrant, healthy, and most attractive throughout the entire growing season. The young stems and leaf petioles are rich maroon above and green beneath. New season growth on our long-established plant varies from eight to twenty-four inches. This plant is so densely branched and so strongly stoloniferous that few plants can compete successfully. Chinese neillia is a type of plant which could be well suited to mass plantings down the median strip of a super-highway. Here it could successfully recover from mowing or accidental burning. The height and density of the plant should make it particularly useful in this application. A well-established mass planting could substantially absorb the impact and reduce the speed of a misguided automobile. However, from an ornamental perspective, this plant has little to offer other than small, rose-pink cylindrical flowers. It is delicate and 181 attractive when in blossom but, the flowers are insignificant from a distance. Our experience with container trials indicates that Neillia adapts well to this growing technique. Chinese neillia is easy to propagate from divisions or stem cuttings, and grows rapidly and adapts quickly all attributes which give it the potential of to new growing locations becoming a popular item for wholesale nurseries (see back cover). - Prinsepia sinensis cherry prinsepia Height: 7-12 feet Spread: 10-15 feet Environment: Full sun Hardy to -25F (perhaps lower if more widely tested) Native to NW. China (Man- churia) large spreading shrub is among the first plants to leaf out each at the Arnold Arboretum, providing a green spot in the midst of a still lingering winter landscape. The plant has a robust appearance with small leaves that vary from dark green to more yellow green. While it does not seem to be stoloniferous, it's canopy and branching habit is extremely dense precluding the growth of most weeds. Branches which arise from the soil are stiffly upright until they reach about three feet in height, then they arch outward and sweep down towards the ground. Flowers and fruit are of little note; the autumn foliage color is a clear yellow. This season Rhus aromatica ~ Gro-Low' Height: 2'\/2 feet Spread: 4-6 feet Environment: Full sun to moderate shade sumac Hardy to -35F. Native from Kansas to Min, T\"\"I\"I - - . -\"1 11GDV4Q~ .7VtA411 W 1'muua and Louisiana It is unfortunate that we view the sumacs as weeds. As a group they possess an aggressiveness, tenacity, and longevity shared by few other plants. They do vary considerably in height, density, growth rate, and ornamental qualities and, therefore, some selection will be helpful to integrate the best forms into the nursery industry. Rhus aromatica, the fragrant sumac, forms a dense carpet which varies in its height and growth habit. One of the best forms presently available is a selection offered under the name of 'Gro-Low'. This plant was selected and introduced by Ralph Synnestvedt and Associates, Inc., 3602 Glenview Road, Glenview, Illinois 60025. The following description is excerpted from their 1978-79 catalog: \"Cutting grown selection. This plant spreads rapidly and stays low (30 in.); deep rooted, this plant is working well on highway banks.\" A planting of Rhus aromatica was established in the ground cover trials at the Case Estates during the summer of 1978. The rooted cuttings, which were one or perhaps two years old, took three growing seasons to fill in completely. Growth became full and dense at the base and somewhat lighter and wispy at the top. However, the surface remained regular and even. There has been no noticeable insect, disease, or drought injury. This planting has attracted considerable attention from visiting landscape architects. fragrant -- - - -\"L - \"\"'- - Rhus copallina sumac shining Height: 20-30 feet Spread: 20-30 feet Environment: Full sun to -10F. Native from Maine and Ontario to Minnesota, south to Florida and Texas Hardy Rhus copallina is one of the most handsome sumacs. The summer leaf is a lustrous dark green followed by brilliant red autumn colors. Flowers appear in dense terminal clusters in July or August and are greenish-yellow in appearance. Shining sumac, a stoloniferous plant, relatively compact in youth, but with age, becomes more open and spreading. The landscape uses of this plant could be enhanced by the selection of superior forms. Unfortunately, this fine native plant is, at present, rarely offered for sale. is Rosa acicularis prickly Height: 3-4 feet Spread: 6-10 feet Environment: rose Full sun to light shade Hardy to -30F or lower Native to northern North America and NE. Asia _ Several species of roses deserve recognition for their aggressive behavior rather than for their delicacy or floral effect. If vigor and aggressiveness are admirable traits in a plant, then Rosa acicularis should be a first prize winner. One of the notable accessions in the Arboretum's collections is AA 17134, received as seed collected in 1909 near Boulder, Colorado. At 72 years of age, this plant is fourand-a-half feet tall, spreads fifteen feet and remains full and dense. It would consume a greater space if not for the fact that it is occasionally grubbed out to reduce the size of the colony. Our plants form a mound with a somewhat irregular surface due to unevenness of branches. The mound tapers allowing the plant to be full and tight to the soil level. Summer foliage is a dull light green and the autumn foliage, a pale yellow. Rose pink flowers almost two inches across are borne singly and appear in great profusion for us in early June. Blossoms are followed by bright scarlet rose hips which are held on slender stalks. Rosa acicularis is an extremely variable plant. Some forms or races would undoubtedly be better as mass plantings on banks than other plants of the same species. While, as a flowering plant, this is not a superior rose, it certainly is superior to most of the roses presently offered for mass plantings. In order to achieve the best effect, selections need to be made which are dense, aggressive, and as floriferous as possible. Rosa davurica dahurian rose Height: 5-8 feet Spread: 7-10 feet Environment: Full Hardy to -20F sun (perhaps lower) Native to N. China and N. Korea rose is said to grow on the lower, sunny, stony parts of the mountains of Northern Korea, its native habitat. Our plant (AA 1177-1-A) was grown from a cutting in 1923, and at 58 years of age is five feet tall and spreads fifteen feet. This reflects severe pruning three years ago, as well as grubbing to control spread. Growth is dense, upright, and vigorous. Foliage is large and somewhat coarse. The dull blue-green foliage color is rich and vibrant, in its own way. The young, new season stems are a lime green and contrast with the foliage. Branches at the outer edge droop slightly allowing complete coverage to the soil level. Flowers are single, rose to rose-purple, and they are followed by globular hips which vary from reddish-yellow to red. This 186 Rosa x malyi maly Height: 2-3 feet Spread: 5-10 feet Environment: Full Hardy to -20F. sun rose (perhaps lower) Parents Hybrid origin: thought to be R. pendulina x R. spinosissima A low rose, maly rose is tallest in the and tapers down to approximately one foot along the edges. Leaves are small and blue-green, and, as of the mid-July inspection, exhibited a tiny amount ot powdery mildew. rlowers are solitary, single, and red. The hips are 3\/s inches across, dull red, and smooth. growing, densely stoloniferous center Rosa pendulina rose Height: 3-6 feet Spread: 6-10 feet or more drophip Environment: Full sun Hardy to -10F. Native to S. and C. Europe Rosa pendulina is more irregular in its habit than the other roses discussed. Our oldest plant was propagated from a cutting taken in 1905 and today is six feet tall and fourteen feet across forming a dense mound. Foliage is a dull, light green. Flowers are solitary, rose or rose-purple in color, and occur in early June. Fruit is oblong, nodding, bright red, and most attractive in the autumn landscape. 187 Rosa prirrcccla primrose rose Height: 5-8 feet Spread: 6-8 feet Environment: Full sun Hardy to -10F Native from Turkestan to N. China Of all the roses in the Arnold Arboretum's collection, this is among the best for delightful foliage. The leaves bear nine to fifteen tiny leaflets giving a fine texture. Leaves are light blue-green, highly lustrous and in the wind or with intense sunshine, the foliage appears to sparkle. The vigorous young branches, as well as the thorns, are a bright red-purple and contrast handsomely with the delicate foliage. This plant may not be as aggressive as the others included, but it certainly will hold its own against competition. Stems are thin, upright and dense. The greatest density is at the base with the upper area of the branches being less uniform in height and less dense. The overall effect of the plant is more square than mound-like, for the top is essentially flat. Flowers appear early in the flowering sequence of our rose collection and are at their peak in late May. Blossoms are single, one-anda-half inches across and pale yellow to yellowish-white; rose hips are small and turn red in the autumn. My description of the general character of this plant would include such terms as refined, sophisticated and desirable. 188 w - __..~._ cninnciecimn Rncir ~~._._..~_~.,..._.. var. altaica rose altai Scotch 2-4 feet 6-12 feet Environment: Full sun Hardy to -20F Native to the Altai Mountains of Siberia Height: Spread: Rosa spinosissima as a species tends to be a highly desirable shrub for colonizing banks. However, it has a wide natural distribution and, therefore, exhibits much variation in vigor, density, aggressiveness, and ornamental desirability. Rosa spinosissima var. altaica is recommended here because it is a more robust form. In late May or early June, it is freely loaded with large, lemon-white blossoms, followed by black hips during the autumn. Another desirable form is Rosa spinosissima var. h~tea which is also dense and vigorous, but in addition, bears primrose-yellow flowers and has beautiful dark green foliage. I am told by members of the New England Rose Society that this rose species responds to transplanting more rapidly if it is given water and provided with fertilizer during the first summer to help it become established. Once established, the Scotch rose can be expected to last indefinitely. 189 Securinega suffruticosa asiatic Height: 3-6 feet Spread: 3-6 feet Environment: Full Hardy to -10F Native to NE. Asia sun securinega This dense, bushy shrub bears thin, willowy branches, clad with green leaves. Flowers and fruit are relatively insignificant. Unlike most of the other shrubs, it does not appear to be stoloniferous, but rather it branches freely from the base. In order to keep it dense, it may need to be pruned to the ground every two to three seasons. This theory needs to be tested under field conditions. It is recommended here because of the vigor and attractive foliage it exhibits in our bright collection. Sorbaria sorbifolia Ural false spirea Height: 5-10 feet Spread: 6-10 feet Environment: Full sun to light shade Hardy to -50F. Native from N. Asia to Japan Mention the name Ural false spirea and most people either do not know of it, ur ciiscounc its use because of size. Unfortunately, peopie tend to see only its capacity to overwhelm a small garden. Instead, they might well look to its potential to solve difficult landscaping problems. For years, the Sorbaria species in the shrub collection at the Arboretum have presented a management problem. They were so prolific in their growth that they quickly outgrew their space and needed to be pruned back severely every year. As a result, they required annual maintenance and always appeared to be butchered rather than exhibiting their natural billowy shape. Here was a classic example of a good plant incorrectly sited. In reviewing the management of the shrubs at the Arboretum, we decided to tie together what was viewed as a problem shrub with a problem landscape maintenance area - the steep, grass covered slope adjacent to the State Biological Laboratory. Here, its unusually rampant growth can help reduce mowing, by covering as much of the bank as possible. These plants were transplanted during fall 1980 from the shrub collection, as divisions, from the existing mass. As of August 1981, the plants have recovered and while thin in density, appear to have suffered little loss of the individual divisions. The plants will flower even though they have been in their new location for less than one year. Sorbaria forms large shrubs with attractive light green, pinnately compound foliage. Autumn color is pale yellow and unremarkable. They blossom in July or August with large terminal clusters of creamy-white flowers, resembling large spirea sprays. The blossoms are most ornamental and delightful in their mid-summer presentation. Attributes include ease of propagation, rapid reestablishment in locations, freedom from pests, and aggressive colonization of poor soil types. They are amazingly salt tolerant. I've seen plants grow along the coast within sight of the ocean in both Maine and Rhode Island. They do appear to have a reduced size when grown in dry or extremely shaded locations. Sorbaria forms a shrub which might benefit from periodic pruning or mowing to encourage young vigorous stems, increased density, and more full-bodied flower clusters. The Sorbaria best known and most frequently grown is S. sorbifolia. However, I would recommend that people review the attributes of S. aitchisonii for the foliage of this plant possesses a darker green, more vibrant appearance and shines in the summer sun. new Spiraea albiflora Japanese white spirea 11\/2-3 feet 3-5 feet Environment: Full light shade Hardy to -20F. Native to Japan Height: Spread: sun to The Japanese white spirea forms a dense, low mass with large fleecy white flowers. Generally summer foliage is a dull green and not showy; however, a few leaves exhibit a purple-red tinge. The best long-term maintenance might be to cut the whole plant down occasionally in order to thicken the mass and keep it populated by young, robust growth. 192 Spiraea x arguta 'Grefsteini' Grefsteini garland spire a Height: 3 feet Spread: 3-5 feet Environment: Full sun to light shade Hardy lower) to -15F. (perhaps Hybrid origin Spiraea (AA 418-65) from the Old Farm Nurseries in Holland in 1965. I have never seen it listed elsewhere and Boskoop, wonder if it may not be synonymous with another cultivar. However, the plant as it exists for us can be described as follows. At sixteen years of age, from a rooted layer, it is three feet tall and spreads by stolons three to five feet. It blooms at the same time as Spiraea x arguta 'Compacta' but is vastly superior in flowers, form, and density. It is a first rate plant, densely packed with thin wiry stems which are upright, forming almost a level top or surface. The general habit effect is informal. The leaves are narrow and lance shaped, pale green with a yellow-gray cast, and have a delicate appearance and fine texture. Flowers are abundant and pure white and both larger and fuller than S. arguta 'Compacta'. This plant should make a delightful mass planting, low informal hedge, or specimen We received this plant. Old Farms Nursery describes it in the 1964-65 catalog as \"New, pure white, exceptionally large flowers.\" At the Arboretum, 'Grefsteini' is among the best of our Spiraea representatives. 193 Viburnum rafinesquianum arrowwood downy leaved Height: 6-8 feet Spread: 5-10 feet Environment: Full sun to light shade Hardy to -50F. Native to America eastern North native plants to establish naturalistic settings should find this viburnum useful from a number of perspectives. It has an informal billowy habit; is more cold hardy than Viburnum dilatatum and Viburnum dentatum; it forms persistent colonies Landscape architects who seek and is of the easiest culture. Flat clusters of creamy white flowers appear in late May or early June and, while small in size, are abundant in number. They are followed by small clusters of blue-black fruit which ripens in the autumn. Autumn foliage is a dull bronze-purple. While this viburnum may not be as spectacular in fruit or autumn color as VIburnum dilatatum, it appears to have a greater longevity. Our finest plant (AA 17974) which grows in full sun, was grown from seed in 1880. As of July 1981, it is six to eight feet tall and spreads in a narrow band between driveway and sidewalk for a distance of thirty feet. On the sun side, the plant is dense and full to the soil line, but it is a bit thinner on the side lightly shaded by a tree. The upper foliage surface is uneven giving an informal contour to the surface of the mass. After 101 years, this mass planting remains robust in both growth and appearance. Zenobia pulverulenta zenobia Height: 3-6 feet Spread: 3-6 feet Environment: Full sun to light shade Hardy to -10F. Native from SE. Virginia to NE. South Carolina Zenobia is a bit less robust than in most of the mcluded here because its native habitat it is a foregoing plants. It is plant which inhabits swampy soils. As a landscape plant, it could be used in mass where the soil is acid and drainage is imperfect or impeded. It also thrives in drier sites with soil rich in organic matter. At the Arboretum, there is a mass planting in the area of the juniper collection adjacent to the brook. These plants were acquired in 1930. One note in their history indicates that a grass fire burned them to the ground in 1965. Today, these plants are four feet tall, strongly stoloniferous, and while they exhibit some dead twigs, their general appearance is robust. Foliage is medium in texture and varies, from plant to plant, from light blue-green to medium green. The bluer leaved forms are most distinct in the landscape and more attractive in their visual quality. The zenobia plants blossom in June and bear large white bells clustered along the stem. While the mass planting is dense, there are small plants of Sambucus canadensls invading the colony. From observation, it appears to be more suited to low wet sites and gentle banks, rather than steep slopes with impoverished soils. People who consider zenobia to be marginally hardy should keep in mind that during 1981, one of our plants celebrates 100 years at the Arnold Arboretum. However, for optimum landscape effect, it is a plant best used in more southern or milder locations. Zenobia pzilaerulenta is a native plant which certainly deserves greater landscape use. low, "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23517","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070ab6e.jpg","title":"1981-41-5","volume":41,"issue_number":5,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Exotic Orchids in the Garden","article_sequence":1,"start_page":128,"end_page":149,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24796","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15ea326.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":4,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"128 Exotic Orchids in the Garden by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. \"Exotic orchid\" would to many people immediately evoke the image of a sumptuous lavender Cattleya or a multiflowered spray of brightly colored cymbidiums. But a great number of the more than 20,000 species of exotic orchids are much more modest than these in their coloring and proportions. In fact many cultivated greenhouse species have flowers which are best appreciated with the aid of a magnifying glass. And, while the great majority of orchid species require cultivation in a home or a greenhouse in our climate, an appreciable number are closely related to our own native bog and woodland species, and many of these are hardy out of doors. Growing orchids in the garden is to me one of the most rewarding of horticultural endeavors. While the number of hardy species is only a small percentage of the total number of known orchids, their diversity in form and size of plant and flower is still considerable. Most are plainly and simply beautiful. Some are of difficult culture, and every good gardener loves a challenge. Others are rare in cultivation and have not been tested for cold hardiness. All of these factors have contributed to the considerable mystique surrounding these plants. Anyone who has read Paul Keisling's (1981) recent article, on the cultivation of hardy orchids would be amazed at the variety of orchids he grows in eastern Massachusetts. His is a specialty garden, how- 129 plants require conditions that few gardeners would be able or willing to duplicate. The species reported on in this article, on the other hand, can be successfully cultivated by anyone with only a little more patience and effort than necessary for growing Trillium gra~zdiflorum. The purpose of this article is twofold: both to report on the successful cultivation of several species which generally have been presumed to be tender, and to stimulate interest in growing these truly exciting plants. Unfortunately very few of the species are readily available from commercial sources in this country so it is necessary to import them from abroad. Although importation requires obtaining a permit, this is a simple procedure, and I provide foreign nursery sources in the appendix to this article. Importation of all orchids is regulated by international agreement, but none of the species included here is rare or endangered in the wild, and the nurseries listed are prepared to provide certification to this effect. There are a number of precautions to be taken with newly imported orchid plants. First, I have been careful to recommend nurseries that are completely reliable; their plants will be well packed and they should arrive in excellent condition. However, orchids are extremely susceptible to fungal infection and rot. The plants should be carefully unpacked and immediately submerged in a solution of a commercial fungicide for several hours (follow recommendations on the package). Next the plants should be carefully washed in lukewarm water and planted in the garden as soon as possible. Orchid roots are generally delicate and brittle so extreme care should be taken throughout this procedure to avoid damaging them. It is best for the plants to arrive in the late autumn when they are completely dormant; if they are shipped in the spring, they will often break dormancy in transit, and this new growth is particularly susceptible to rot. Plants which arrive in the fall should be overwintered in a coldframe or planted directly in the garden with a heavy mulch. Never try to overwinter them in pots kept indoors. These precautions are not complicated or time consuming, and the results will certainly be worth the effort. One further word of caution. Seed germination requirements for hardy orchids are still, for the most part, poorly known. Therefore, plants offered for sale have been vegetatively propagated, or more likely collected from the wild. Since most of them increase slowly even in the wild, overcollecting has greatly reduced natural populations of several species. Even though none of the species described here is threatened in the wild, the cultivation of any hardy orchid should only be attempted by the serious and responsible gardener. ever, and many of his Bletilla Bletilla striata (Thunberg) Reichenbach f. (often incorrectly called B. hyacinthina) is a rather familiar plant to the American gardening public. In fact, it is sold as the \"hardy Chinese orchid\" by ; Left: Closeup of a flower of Bletilla striata, showxng its Cattleya-like form and the frzlled rxdges on the upper surface of its lxp. Below: Part of the clump of Bletilla striata growing agaznst the foundation of the southeast sxde of my house Photographs by R. Weaver. ~ i3i of the major domestic dealers in daffodils, tulips, gladioli, and other bulbs, mostly from stock grown in and imported from Holland. And unlike many of the other species described later, it is immediately recognizable as an orchid even by the non-gardener since its flowers are entirely reminiscent of the familiar lavender corsage cattleyas in miniature. It is probably the only hardy orchid vigorous enough to be planted in an herbaceous border, although I have not yet quite dared to try it there. The genus Bletilla includes a few rather similar species distributed widely in eastern Asia. Bletilla striata itself has long been cultivated most ornamental, but more important, its tuberlike used medicinally in that country, and these, when crushed into a paste, are valuable in the manufacture of porcelain. It was introduced into cultivation in Britain in 1803. As is the case with many plants which have been long cultivated, it's natural range is difficult to determine. But Bletilla striata still occurs as a wild plant in parts of Japan and China. The following description is made from plants in my garden. The shoots, which are of annual duration, arise from colorless, tuberlike pseudobulbs usually several inches below the surface of the soil. The canelike stems are from ten to fifteen inches tall, each bearing four to five leaves. The foliage is bold but refined, and remains in good condition for the duration of the growing season. The spreading leaves are prominently ribbed and average eighteen inches long by two-and-ahalf inches broad, but may reach to two feet long. The leaf tapers to a long, slender point, and the base forms a sheath around the stem. The inflorescence apparently arises from the apex of the stem and bears five to ten flowers which open in succession from the end of May to the end of June. The flowers are from one-and-a-half to two inches across and uniformly lavender or \"orchid\" colored, except for the forward half of the lip which is deep purple. The lower, inner surface of the lip is further ornamented with five white, frilled ridges. Several forms of the species are in cultivation, the best known being the one with pure white flowers (Bletilla striata forma gebina (Lindley) Ohwi, or as it is usually but incorrectly known, B. striata 'Alba'). Although I have never seen a fresh flower, this must be a most beautiful plant. It has a reputation for being less vigorous than the typical plant, and my experience bears this out. Recently Bowden (1980) named three clones ('Anne Axworthy', 'Mrs. Janet Fielding', and 'Mrs. Ruth Verity') of the normal colored form in a rather exhaustive article on the cultivation of the species. No descriptions were provided, although vague mention was made of differences in leaf width and \"subtle\"differences in the width and color of the floral segments. Basically these clones have proved to be good garden plants, and they were named to differentiate them from recently imported stock which may not be so reliable. Gardeners vary greatly in their experience with Bletilla striata, and a number of my colleagues insist that it is not reliably hardy in the in China as an pseudobulbs are 132 Boston area. There is undoubtedly considerable variation in hardiness in the stock offered for sale, but Bowden, cited above, has grown all of his named clones, unprotected, in his Simcoe, Ontario garden. I have grown my plants outdoors since 1975 and they were more vigorous than ever after this past winter, the worst in recent memory. Admittedly, they are growing against the foundation on the southeast side of a house - a rather protected location. I suspect that failure with this plant is due largely to the inferior condition of readily available stock rather than to lack of hardiness. Most imported material is dessicated to some degree by the time it reaches its destination, and dessication of the pseudobulbs is deleterious. In addition, plants obtained in the spring have often begun growth, and this new growth is highly susceptible to fungal rot. All imported material should be soaked for several hours in a fungicide solution as described in the introduction. A better alternative would be to obtain domestically grown plants, and the few sources of these are listed in the appendix to this article. My clump has done so well that I have been reluctant to disturb it, even though I am anxious to try the plant in an open garden. For the first several years after it became established the number of shoots doubled annually. The increase has been slower the last two years, and although there was nearly fifty flowering shoots this season, the clump would probably profit from division. The soil is unexceptional, being light and rather sterile, and the site receives the shade of a pear tree for most of the day. For the first several years the plants were mulched heavily with pine needles, but more recently a year-round, one to two inch cover of the same material has been used. I suspect this plant would succeed in most garden situations, except if the soil were constantly wet. I have found it to be one of the most satisfactory plants I grow - beautiful, whether in bloom or not, and completely maintenance free except for a biennial (more or less) application of manure water during active growth and an annual replenishment of the mulch. Calanthe The genus Calanthe includes perhaps 200 species widely distributed throughout eastern and southern Asia into India, the Himalayas, and Australia. Curiously, a single species is also native to the American tropics. The great majority are tropical or subtropical, and various species and hybrids have long been popular subjects for greenhouse cultivation. In fact the first of the increasing number of artificial orchid hybrids was the Englishman Dominy's cross of C. masuca Lindley and C. furcata Bateman in 1854. Calanthes are robust plants with plicate leaves two feet long or more. They are divided into two general groups, deciduous and evergreen, the former of which is more commonly encountered. The deciduous species, represented by Calanthe vestita Lindley and its hy- general habit of the hardy calanthes, illustrated here by Calanthe tricarinata. Photograph by The R. Weaver. brids, have well developed, conspicuous pseudobulbs; the flowering shoot arises separately from the base of the pseudobulb as the leaves begin to wither. The evergreen species, represented by C. masuca, have small pseudobulbs which are mostly obscured by the bases of the leaves; the flowering shoot arises from the apex of the pseudobulb, from the fascicle of developing or mature leaves. All of the hardy species belong to the second group. The name \"Calanthe\" is derived from Greek words meaning \"beautiful flower,\" and the species generally live up to their name. The flowers are variable in size, but seldom more than two inches broad. Generally, the sepals and petals are similar in shape, size and coloration, but sometimes the petals are somewhat narrower. The prominent lip is frequently of a contrasting color, three-lobed, and usually prolonged behind into a spur. Six or seven species of Calanthe are native to the temperate areas of Japan, and several of these also occur in China and Korea. These species were the subject of a short note by Jisaburo Ohwi (the author of the wonderful modern study, The Flora of Japan [1965]) which appeared in Baileya (1954). In spite of Ohwi's suggestion that several of these should be hardy in the United States, they are very rarely cultivated out of doors. In the fall of 1977 Dr. Stephen Spongberg and I travelled to Japan on a seed-collecting expedition for the Arnold Arboretum. On one of our first days in the field we explored the forests near Sapporo, in the 134 south of Hokkaido, the northernmost of Japan's major islands. This area, which is the meeting grounds for northern and southern elements in the Japanese flora, supports more species of trees than any other place in all of the North Temperature Zone in Japan. The forests are a plant hunter's dream. Trees include the castor aralia (Kalopanax septemlobus), katsura tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum), magnolias (Magnolia hypoleuca and M. kobus), an elm (Ulmus laciniata), a hornbeam (Carpinus japonica), and various maples (Acer spp.). From a first glance at the herbaceous cover we might have been in the Great Smoky Mountains of our own country with the ferns, Trillium, jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema), solomon's(Polygonatum), lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria), mandarin (Disporum), wild ginger (Asarum), etc. But on closer inspection we found several plants completely unrepresented in the American flora: Paris, an odd relative of Trillium; the blue Japanese \"poppy\" (Glaucidium palmatum), and several terrestrial orchids with broad, plicate leaves. I collected one of the orchids and brought it home. When it flowered the following spring, it turned out, to my delight, to be the most beautiful of Japan's hardy calanthes, Calanthe tricarinata. Calanthe tricarinata Lindley has an extensive and disjunct distribution from the Himalayas of Kashmir, Nepal and Sikkim, the western Chinese province of Yunnan, and again in Japan where it occurs virtually throughout the Archipelago. The Japanese plants have been considered to represent a separate species, C. torifera Schlechter by several authorities, primarily on the evergreen character of their leaves. The differences are very slight and the species are numerous seal considered synonymous here. The species was introduced into cultivation from Japan in 1897 by the important English firm of J. Veitch and Son. It has never been common in cultivation, and it was (and probably still is) cultivated primarily as a greenhouse plant. It is the parent, with Calanthe masuca, of at least one artificial hybrid, C. x harryana. Calanthe tricarinata is a very beautiful plant, certainly one of the finest orchids which can be cultivated outdoors in our climate. It is also among the hardiest of calanthes. I saw it cultivated near Asahikawa, in the center of Hokkaido, where the temperatures have fallen to -40F (-40C), although the cold is somewhat tempered there by a deep and reliable snow cover. The two to four conspicuously ribbed (plicate) leaves are bold and attractive, attaining a length of ten inches or more. Unfortunately they are not reliably evergreen here; by winter's end they are limp and tattered. In the wild the seven to fifteen flowers are borne on a scape which can be nearly twenty inches tall. My plant, in its third season in cultivation, produced ten flowers on a scape about fifteen inches tall. But even a single flower would be enough to make the plant worth growing. The flowers themselves are beautifully formed and colored. They are about an inch-and-a-half broad. The sepals and upper petals are nearly alike in shape and color, widely spreading, and colored a The delacate, almost spidery flowers of Calanthe discolor var bicolorf sieboldii. Photograph by R Weaver soft yellow-green. The sharply contrasting deep red lip is broad and somewhat scoop-shaped with three longitudinal scalloped ridges (tricarinata means with three ridges or keels) on its upper surface. The spur is barely visible. The flowers are produced with the new leaves in early to mid-May in my garden, about the same time that Trillium grandiflorum blooms. It has been vigorous in cultivation, although it has not increased after three seasons. I grow it in gravelly loam to which I have added a bit of peat moss. The site is on a gentle slope, insuring good drainage, shaded from the direct sun most of the day by the back of my garage. I feel that good drainage, especially during the winter, is one of the most important considerations for growing orchids outdoors (as well as indoors for that matter), as long as supplemental moisture can be supplied during periods of dry weather. Calanthe discolor Lindley, the most easily available of the remaining hardy species, is a variable and widespread plant native to all four of the major Japanese islands as well as Korea and possibly also China. The two to three prominently plicate leaves, as much as ten inches long and three inches broad, are semi-evergreen as in the previous species. In the wild, the ten or so flowers are borne on a stalk which may reach twenty inches tall. Individually they are about an inch across with narrow greenish to purplish brown segments except for the prominent white to rose-colored lip. Several natural color variations are perhaps more attractive than 136I variety discolor, the plant described above. Variety bicolor (Lindley) Makino (also known as C. striata R. Browne) has larger flowers with cinnamon-brown segments, while its forma sieboldii (Decaisne) Ohwi has uniformly clear yellow flowers. All of these intergrade in nature, producing an array of hybrids with pinkish, brownish, golden, and reportedly even red flowers. All bloom in the spring with the new growth. I have not been as successful with this species as with Calanthe tricarinata. I have had a plant of (supposedly) variety discolor outside for five winters. It appears perfectly hardy and it has increased but never flowered. It is planted close by the plant of C. tricarinata described above, which should suit it since the two species grow in similar habitats in the wild. Keisling (1981) reported success in growing Calanthe discolor var. discolor, C. discolor var. bicolor, and C. discolor var. bicolor f. sieboldii, as well as with C. japonica Blume. The last of these needs verification since the species is subtropical and is probably tender. However, at least two other Japanese calanthes should be hardy in New England. I have only recently acquired these, so their hardiness cannot be verified at this time, but short descriptions follow. Calanthe reflexa Maximowicz would be a valuable addition to our garden flora if it indeed proves hardy and amenable to cultivation since it is one of the few showy orchid species which blooms in the late summer or early fall. The plant is similar in size and aspect to those species described previously, but the flowers are slightly smaller and more delicate. The segments are pale purple in color with the lip slightly darker. The specific name \"reflexa\" refers to the fact that the sepals are curved backward or reflexed and held together behind the lip; the very narrow lateral petals are more spreading. The species is distributed through the southern three of the main Japanese islands as well as on the island of Cheju (Quelpaert) off the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula and in western China. Those plants from northern Honshu in Japan would probably be the best for cultivation in the northeastern United States. Calanthe nipponica Makino is one of the rarer of the Japanese species. Since it is restricted to Hokkaido and central and northern Honshu, it should also be among the hardiest species in the genus. It is rather more delicate in appearance than the other calanthes discussed here. The leaves are relatively narrow, seldom more than an inch-and-a-half broad. The inflorescence may be nearly two feet tall, and the five to twelve flowers are widely spaced. The flowers are. yellow, except for red markings on the lip, with narrow segments giving them a somewhat spidery appearance. They appear in the spring with the new growth. All of the Calanthe species described above should respond well if cultivated in a semi-shaded position with well drained but never dry soil. Paschall, in Britain, recommends (1972) the addition of bone meal before active growth has begun. None of the species should be The rnfiorescence of Cremastra variabilis. Lzke many orchids, the flowers of this species do not open completely. Photograph by R. Weaver. crowded in the garden since all produce numerous, fleshy, brittle roots which may become six or more inches long. These should be allowed to spread unhampered. In the climate of Boston at least C. discolor and C. tricarinata appear to be hardy without protection, although in more severe climates a mulch of pine needles would probably be advantageous. Cremastra Plants of the genus Cremastra are among the least well known of the hardy Asiatic orchids, even though most of the five or so species have relatively large showy flowers. The genus is restricted in its distribution to temperate and subtropical Asia, from Sakhalin to the Himalayas, but it has a relative in our native flora. One of the species is commonly classified in Aplectrum, whose sole member otherwise is the American A. hyemale, the puttyroot or Adam-and-Eve orchid. I have successfully grown Cremastra variabilis (Blume) Nakai for several years. This native of rich forests in Japan and Korea resembles the puttyroot in a number of characteristics: it grows from a colorless, fleshy, corm-like pseudobulb; the solitary plicate leaf is wintergreen and it disappears just before the flowers open to reappear in midsummer ; it is a sporadic bloomer, only a few plants in a colony producing flowers in a given season. But the differences between Cremastra variabilis and Aplectrum hyemale are much more significant hor- i3s ~I ticulturally than their similarities. The leaf of the Cremastra may be as long as fifteen inches, at least twice as long as that of the puttyroot. And the flowers are much finer. Appearing in early June, they are an inch to an inch-and-a-half long, with ten to twenty borne on a stalk about ten inches tall. The slender sepals and lateral petals are similar in shape, size, and coloration, and they spread only slightly. They are pale pink, dusted with fine purple dots near their tips. The lip is whitish, suffused with yellow. Most of my plants were collected near Sapporo, Japan, and they have been perfectly hardy without protection through three winters. Several have increased, but only one has flowered. They are grown with most of my other Asiatic orchids in a light, humusy, slightly acid soil in partial shade. Cymbidium Several years ago (Weaver, 1977), I reported on the successful outdoor cultivation of Cymbidium goeringii (Reichenbach f.) Reichenbach f., but additional information is now available and an update is in order. During the Arnold Arboretum's collecting trip to Japan later that same year I visited the city of Sendai, north of Tokyo on the east coast of the main island of Honshu. Although the latitude of Sendai is approximately 38N., the climate is mild and the forests are the warm-temperate, broadleaved evergreen types found over much of southern and western Japan. From Sendai we traveled to the mountains inland where the climate is considerably cooler and the broadleaved evergreen trees essentially disappear. On drier slopes, where the canopy of the forest is relatively open, I was delighted to find Cymbidium goeringii as an important component of the herbaceous ground cover, along with other such familiar plants as Epimedium grandiflorum and Lilium auratum. I collected two plants and was able to bring them home in good condition. Cymbidium goeringii is native to China and Korea as well as to Japan. In the latter country, Sendai is near the northern limit of its natural range, and plants collected there should be among the hardiest of their species. The plant on which I reported earlier was purchased, and its provenance is not known. It survived the winter of 1976-1977 outdoors in my garden, but it died during the more open winter that followed, even with a heavy mulch. One Sendai plant (the other was kept indoors as a safeguard) however survived the winter of 1977-1978 in good condition, as it has every one since with only a minimum of mulch. After this past severe winter I feel that I can safely add C. goeringii to our hardy garden flora. As cymbidiums go, Cymbidium goeringii (incorrect synonyms are C. virescens and C. virens) is not a spectacular plant, and it has never been popular in western horticulture, even as a greenhouse plant. In contrast, it has been for centuries part of the traditional horticulture of tE3x#& ; '\" Cymbidium goeringii has long bet'N used as a decoratme motif !7t Japan and China It is seen here on a piece of modern Japanese china. Photograph by R Weaver both China and Japan. It is valued for the rhythmical form of its graceful foliage and delicate flowers, and it is understandably a favorite subject of painters. But mostly it is revered for its fragrance, which has been called according to Li (1959) \"the scent of the kings.\" Natural variants, which include plants with variegated leaves, red flowers (reportedly), and a two-flowered scape are particularly sought after and occasionally are sold for the equivalent of thousands of dollars. Unlike most of its genus, Cymbidium goeringii grows terrestrially rather than epiphytically. The small, nearly buried pseudobulbs persist for several years and produce a mass of thick fleshy roots. The narrow, almost grasslike leaves vary from eight to twelve inches in length and are evergreen, although they may brown at the tips in severe winters. The solitary flower appears on a fleshy stalk from the base of the pseudobulbs in the spring. The two-inch flowers are basically green except for the lip which is white spotted variously with red. My plant has annually produced vigorous shoots and has doubled in size, but it has not flowered. Perhaps our winters are too severe for the flower buds, but perhaps I have not given it quite the proper conditions for blooming. I grow it under conditions similar to those in its natural a well-drained but not dry slope with humusy soil and habitat and I will partial shade but with annual springtime fertilization continue to be patient. I hope eventually to be rewarded with flowers, but merely being able to grow a cymbidium outside is sufficient reason for keeping it. \" - 140 Cypripedium The genus Cypripedium, the lady's-slippers, consist of about forty species almost continuously distributed across the North Temperate Zone, with one species, C. irapeanum Lexarza extending into the American tropics. Although the species vary greatly in their ease of culture, some, particularly the American varieties of C. calceolus Linnaeus, the yellow ladyslippers, are the most satisfactory orchids for the wildflower garden. The majority of Cypripedium species are native to Asia, from Japan to the Himalayas. Although many have been in cultivation at some time or another, most have been lost subsequently; the only one at all commonly cultivated at present is the widespread Eurasian C. macranthum Swartz. The wonderful Chinese species are still unavailable, but several of the five or so Japanese lady's-slippers can be imported nearly as cheaply as our native ones can be purchased domestically. All lady's-slippers are particularly susceptible to rot; soaking the plants in a fungicide immediately upon receipt is imperative, even if they are completely dormant. The two species discussed below are among the most distinctive in the genus, and both have reputations for being difficult to cultivate. I feel that this reputation is unfounded, as long as plants can be obtained in good condition in the first place. Cypripedium debile Reichenbach f. has no English common name. It is among the most diminuitive of lady's-slippers, and to the uninitiated eye might not be recognized as a member of this generally showy group of plants. It is a plant of mountain forests throughout Japan except for the mostly subtropical island of Kyushu and it has been collected a few times in the western Chinese province of Szechuan. The plants grow from slender creeping rhizomes by which they form small colonies in the wild. Except for that of a closely related but even rarer Himalayan species, the foliage is unique in the genus. There are always two leaves, borne opposite each other atop a stem which reportedly grows to six inches tall but which has never been taller than two inches in my plants. The leaves themselves are broadly ovate, from one to two inches across, completely hairless and lustrous. Three to five prominent veins run their length and converge at the tips. The flower stalk arises from between the leaves, but as the single buds mature, the stalk elongates and turns downward. When the flower opens in early to mid-June, it is borne upside down, below the leaves. In my plants it nearly touches the ground. The flower itself is delicately beautiful, even though it is difficult to admire because of its hidden position. The dorsal sepal, the synsepal (the united ventral sepals) and the lateral petals are nearly alike in size and shape, and they are all pale green with darker lines or blotches at their bases. The lip, about the size of a large pea, is pale pink with a ring of purple lines around the mouth. The whole flower is Above. A plant of Cypripedium debile showng the inverted position of the fully open flower. Below Closeup of the flower of Cypripedmm debile, held above the leaves for a better vaew. Photographs by R. Weaver The strzhzng flower of Cypnpedium ~aponicum. Note Its resemblance to the flower native pznk lady's-slzpper (C. acaule) Photograph by R. Weaver. of our little more than a half inch across. What it lacks in size it certainly makes up in lasting power. An individual flower may remain in good condition for nearly a month, longer than that of any other hardy orchid. My oldest plant has survived and flowered after three winters without protection except for a standard inch-thick mulch of pine needles. It is planted in deciduous shade in a light, humusy, slightly acid soil. The only special care I provide is to remove scrupulously any plant which might compete too closely with it. While most visitors to my garden pass Cypripedium debile without notice, few miss C. japonicum even when it is not in flower. The pair of fan-shaped, corrugated leaves are texturally incomparable in a New England garden and would alone make the plant well worth growing. With its wonderful flowers in addition, the Japanese lady'sslipper is surely one of the aristocrats among hardy plants. Cypripedium japonicum Thunberg is widely distributed in Japan, occurring on all of the major islands. It was also widespread in the upper Yangtze Valley in western China. A closely related species, C. formosanum Hayata, inhabits the island of Taiwan. I have not observed the plant in the wild, but it is apparently still quite common in forests and bamboo thickets at low elevations in Japan. According to Summerhayes (1938) it at least formerly occurred in countless thousands in certain districts of China, where its local name means \"Devil's Umbrella.\" Unlike most of our native lady's-slippers, which have a cluster of 143 thick roots spreading from grows from a japonicum in a a congested rhizome, Cypripedium slender, elongate rhizome with clusters of rather delicate roots from the nodes. The wonderful leaves are borne nearly opposite pair at the apex of a hairy, eight to fifteen inch stem. They open like two fans, densely crinkled at first, becoming six to ten inches broad and nearly flat at maturity but with numerous conspicuous veins radiating from the base toward their margin like spokes. The solitary flower appears in mid- to late May, arising on a slender stalk from between the leaves. The dorsal sepal and the lateral petals are rather alike in size and appearance - untwisted, slender-pointed and yellowish green with red spots at their bases. The egg-shaped lip is whitish marbled with pink; it is variously spotted with red, particularly at the base and within the orifice. The flower evokes widely differing responses from different observers. Many would call it serene or beautiful. Elick (1975) describes it as \"bloated and obscene.\" At any rate it is certainly striking and unusual. Though less refined, it is somewhat reminiscent of that of our native pink lady's-slipper (Cypripedium acaule Aiton) in size and configuration, with the orifice of its pendent lip directed outward and downward (in most other lady's-slippers the lip is more nearly horizontal with the orifice directed upward). Once Cypripedium japonicum is established, it appears to prosper in cultivation. I started with a small plant imported from England in 1974. It moved with me the following year, and it has increased ever since; there are four shoots this season. Unfortunately it seems to \" flower in alternate years. The present site is rather densely shaded at the base of an azalea under an apple tree with a light, humusy soil; a previous site, under hemlocks, proved to be too dry. It apparently does not resent root competition from other plants, either in the wild or in cultivation. Although I mulched it heavily the first few winters, it no longer receives special protection in my garden and appears to be perfectly hardy. - Epipactis Plants of the genus Epipactis, commonly known as helleborines, widely distributed across the Northern Hemisphere. They are confused taxonomically, and the number of species recognized varies considerably from author to author. Most of them are European, and one of these, E. helleborine (Linnaeus) Crantz, has become naturalized in the eastern United States. The only native American species is E. gigantea Douglas ex Hooker, known as chatterbox because of the mobile lower portion of its lip, a familiar orchid along streams in the western mountains. Only a few species of Epipactis are native to eastern Asia. One of these, a wide-ranging plant in Japan, Korea, and eastern China, has been considered a variety of our E. gigantea. It is really a quite are Although their color zs different, the shape of the flowers of Epipactis thunbergii zs remznzscent of those of E. helleborine, a European species which has become widely naturalIzed rn Photographed by the eastern United States. R Weaver. different E. plant and is now generally recognized as a separate species thunbergii A. Gray. I have found this species to be an easy and satisfactory plant. It blooms in early to mid-July, a time when orchid flowers are scarce in the garden. The creeping rhizome gives rise to tall, erect stems which bear prominently veined, lanceolate leaves with clasping bases at regular intervals. The inflorescence is terminal on the stem, and the ten to twenty flowers, each subtended by a leafy bract, open in succession. As they open, they bend in such a way as to make the inflorescence appear one-sided. The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch across and are somewhat variable in color. On my plant the sepals and lateral petals are bright golden yellow, beautifully setting off the lip with its bright rose-purple mid-lobe. Although the plants may be as tall as thirty inches in flower, they are not coarse. Epipactis thunbergii is a bog plant as are many of its relatives. Since the plants are so susceptible to rot, a general rule in growing orchids both indoors and in the garden is this: if in doubt, grow them on the dry side rather than on the wet side. Heeding this, I punched large holes in the plastic lining of my artificial bog, and my bog orchids started growing rather than rotting. Actually, Epipactis thunbergii would probably respond well if planted in a normal woodland type soil, as long as it is well watered. It also should have full sun for at least four hours a day. 145 Liparis Liparis is a moderate sized genus with representatives in the temperate and tropical zones of both hemispheres. The tropical species are diverse, and many grow epiphytically, but the temperate terrestrial species are mostly similar in general appearance. They have two equal, hairless, basal leaves with narrowed, sheathing bases from within which grows the slender-stalked, many-flowered inflorescence. They grow from pseudobulbs which are typically just below the surface of the soil. The temperate species are commonly known as twayblades, because of the two leaves. Two species of Liparis are native to the northeastern United States, and both of them have very similar Asiatic relatives. The lily-leaved twayblade (L. lilifolia L. C. Richard), is a widespread and familiar, but seldom abundant, native orchid in deciduous woodlands throughout most of the northern quarter of our country. Its oriental counterpart, from Japan, Korea, and Soviet Eastern Asia was long considered to represent the same species, but is now generally recognized as the distinct L. makinoana Schlechter. The oriental species has flowers nearly twice the size of those of L. lilifolia, but they look much alike otherwise and they have similar cultural requirements. Although its flowers are relatively large and attractively shaped, they are not brightly colored, and Liparis makinoana is not a conspicuous plant in the garden. Nevertheless it is probably the showiest of the hardy Liparis species and well worthy of cultivation. A vigorous specimen may stand a foot tall, with fifteen or more flowers loosely arranged on an erect inflorescence. The flat, translucent, purplish brown, conspicuously veined lip is by far the most conspicuous part of the flower, particularly since the lateral sepals and threadlike petals are nearly hidden behind it. It varies in length from a half- to threequarters of an inch, and nearly so in width. The flowers open in late May in my garden and continue until mid-June. Liparis makinoana is very rare in cultivation in the United States, but it is occasionally grown in the British Isles, primarily as a pot plant. My original plant was purchased, so I know nothing of its provenance. But plants from throughout its natural range should be hardy in much of the eastern United States. My plant has survived four winters outdoors without protection, and has increased nicely. Loesel's twayblade, or the fen orchid (Liparis loeselii (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard), is a plant of bogs and seepages of the northern United States. A similar species, but a woodland plant instead, L. kumokiri F. Maekawa, is widespread in Japan and Korea. It is similar in stature to L. makinoana, but the flowers are smaller, more densely arranged, solid yellow-green in color including the lip and they appear about two weeks later. The lip is also smaller in relation to the flower overall, and it is abruptly bent downward at about the middle. My plants were collected on the Japanese island of Hokkaido in the fall of 1977, and plant of Liparis makinoana, showrng the two basal leaves which give the genus of twayblade. The promment, aeaned Izp zs the most conspicuous part of the fiower. Rtght. The charming and dehcate fiowers of Lipans kumokiri. Photographs by R. Weaver. Left: its A common name perfectly hardy without protection in the garden. practically unknown in western gardens. Although Liparis species are generally not showy, plant and flower form is delicate and refined, and all of the hardy species are worthy of cultivation. At least four other Japanese species, L. nervosa (Thunberg) Lindley, L. auriculata Blume, L. krameri Franchet & Savatier, and L. japonica (Miquel) Maximowicz, should be hardy in the northeastern United States, and Keisling has reported success with the Taiwanese L. sasakii. The species I have tried are undemanding and vigorous in the garden; they appear to be among the easiest hardy orchids to cultivate. General wildflower garden conditions deciduous suit them well. shade, with a light but humusy, slightly acid soil They are extremely easy to transplant since the pseudobulbs are essentially rootless from October through May. Unfortunately their lack of roots, in addition to their shallowness in the soil, render the bare pseudobulbs extremely susceptible to frost-heaving in the winter as well as unearthing by squirrels or other rodents. Therefore they should be carefully protected with a good mulch as well as a small sheet of they The species is - appear to be - chicken wire. Spiranthes The genus monly known Spiranthes includes a number of native orchids comas lady's-tresses because the spirally twisted inflores- The spirally twisted tnfiorescences of Spiranthes sinensis The Lower flowers have already gone by and the capsules are beganmng to develop. Photograph by R Weaver. cences cernua bear resemblance to braided locks of hair. Of these Spiranthes (Linnaeus) L. C. Richard, the nodding lady's-tresses, is one of the commonest and most familiar orchids of the northeastern United States. Another species, Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames is one of the commonest terrestrial orchids of eastern Asia, ranging widely from Sakhalin to Malaysia and Australia. The hardy Spiranthes species generally are not showy plants, and S. sinensis is no exception. But it is distinctly charming and worthy of cultivation. The plants grow from a cluster of short, fleshy, tuberlike roots, and the narrow, wintergreen leaves are mostly clustered into a loose rosette at the base of the stem. These wither after flowering to reappear in the late summer. The habit is rather similar overall to that of the American S. lacera (Rafinesque) Rafinesque. The spikes are evident by mid-June and they are fully open by late in that month or in early July. They are from two to six inches long, densely many-flowered, on a stalk which may reach fifteen inches in height. The pale rose flowers, in contrast to the white ones of most American species, are about a quarter of an inch long, and close inspection is necessary before their exquisite form can be fully apIn the wild Spiranthes sinensis normally grows on grassy slopes, roadside banks, or other sunny places and at times could almost be called weedy. It appears to be extremely amenable to cultivation, preciated. 148 increasing nicely in a well drained position with sun most of the afternoon. Because of its delicate stature and cultural requirements it is one of the few orchids perfectly well suited for growing in a rock garden. Wherever it is grown it must be carefully sited to avoid its getting lost, because when not in bloom the plant is extremely inconspicuous. And because of its wide natural range, plants for cultivation in the northeastern United States should be carefully selected to ensure a hardy stock. Most Japanese and Korean material, however, should be reasonably hardy. This is only a small sampling of the exotic orchids which should be amenable to cultivation in the eastern United States. I will be trying more in the future. I hope that this article will stimulate readers to try several species themselves, and I would appreciate reports on any experience with these or other species, particularly as concerns their hardiness. References 1919. Calanthe tricarznata. Curtis's Botanical Magazzue 145: t. 8803. a hardy Asiatic orchid. American Bowden, W. M. 1980. Bletilla striata Orchid Soczety Bulletzn 49: 139-143. Elick, D. 1975. Plant portraits: Cypripedium japonicum. Quarterly Bulletin of the Alpine Garden Society 43: 63. Gorer, R. 1970. Plant portraits: Calanthe torifera Schlechter. Quarterly Bulletin of the Alpine Garden Society. 38: 190-191. Hooker, J. D. 1888. Calanthe striata. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 114: t. 7026. 1889. Epipactis gigantea. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 125: t. 7690. Hunt, P. F. 1964. Liparis mahznoana. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, New Series 175: t. 458. Keisling, P. 1981. Microclimates for hardy orchids. Bulletin of the American Roch Garden Society 39: 10-15. Li, H. L. 1959. The garden flowers of China. New York: The Ronald Press. Ohwi, J. 1954. Hardy Japanese species of Calanthe. Baileya 2: 37-40. 1965. Flora of Japan. Washington: Smithsonian Institution. Paschall, G. W. 1972. Plant portraits: Calanthe discolor Lindl. Quarterly Bulletin of the Alpine Garden Society 40: 294. Summerhayes, V. S. 1938. Cypripedium japonicum. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 161: t. 9520. 1943. Calanthe reflexa. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 164: t. 9648. 1963. Cymbidium goeringii. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, New Series 174: t. 413. Watson, W. 1980. Cypripedium debile. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 134: t. 8183. Weaver, R. E., Jr. 1977. Wildflowers from East and West. Arnoldia 37: 169197. Anonymous. - . . . . __ 149 Appendix Following is the address for obtaining a plant importation permit: Permit Unit USDA, APHIS, PPQ 6505 Belcrest Road Federal Building Hyattsville, Maryland 20782 Following are nursery sources for the plants treated in this article: Alpenglow Gardens 13328 King George Highway Surrey, British Columbia Avon Bulbs Bathford Bath BA1 8ED Great Britain Santa Barbara Orchid Estate 1250 Orchid Drive Santa Barbara, California 93111 Siskiyou Rare Plant Nursery 522 Franquette Street Medford, Oregon 97501 Tatsuo Niizuma Chow Cheng Orchids 194 Litoh Street Taichung, Taiwan 6-10, Yamate-2-chome Nakasuji, Takarazuka Hyogo 665, Japan Orchids, Ltd. 407 East Carson Avenue Carson, California 90745 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ginkgo in America","article_sequence":2,"start_page":150,"end_page":161,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24798","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15ea76f.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":4,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"150 The Ginkgo in America by PETER DEL TREDICI During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, private estates played a central role in the development of American horticulture. Wealthy landowners enthusiastically planted everything they could get a hold of in a spirit of experimentation. Most of these gardens are now either badly overgrown or totally destroyed. The few that remain are fully mature and give little indication of the reckless abandon with which they were originally planted. Wodenethe, Henry Winthrop Sargent's estate in Beacon, New York, is a good example of this horticultural experimentation. Between 1840 and 1882, Sargent planted hundreds of exotic species, many of which had never been grown in this country (Sargent, 1897b). When I visited Wodenethe in the spring of 1981, very little trace of Mr. Sargent's work could be found. The main building had been razed and a housing development built on the estate. But here and there a few relics of the glorious past remained. In all, I found about twenty trees that could be traced back to Sargent's day. A beautiful old ginkgo in particular caught my eye. I felt, somehow, that I had seen this tree before. And indeed, I had, in other nineteenth century estates I had visited, where old ginkgoes had similarly survived the twin test of time and neglect. No one appreciated the powers of endurance of Ginkgo biloba better than Professor C. S. Sargent, Henry Winthrop's cousin, who, writ- York. Figure 1. The ginkgo planted by Henry W. Sargent at his estate, Wodenethe. at Beacon, New Photograph by P. Del Tredeci. 152 ing about Wodenethe in 1897, made a prediction: \"A ginkgo just beginning to emerge from its juvenile form promises to become a long lived and large tree.\" Not only has Sargent's prophesy come true, as can be seen from Figure 1, but the ginkgo he planted on his own estate in Brookline, Massachusetts, has also grown into a large and beautiful tree. The survival power of the ginkgo is legendary in China, Japan and Korea, where there are many trees that are close to 1000 years old (Figure 2). One tree in Korea, reputed to be the largest in Asia, is said to be 1100 years old (Figure 3; Spongberg, 1978). It is remarkable enough for a wild tree to live this long, to say nothing of a cultivated tree. Whether the ginkgo still exists in the wild is a matter of controversy. E. H. Wilson always denied the existence of any wild ginkgoes (1916, 1919), but Li (1956) presents convincing evidence that wild trees were extant in eastern China as late as 1933. Whether these trees still exist is not known. The ginkgo is remarkable not only for its survival through historic time, but also for its persistence through geologic time. The order to which the tree belongs, the Ginkgoales, can be traced back to the Permian era, almost 250 million years ago (Tralau, 1968). This is sufficiently long ago to make the Ginhgoales the most ancient living order of the class Gymnospermae. The genus Ginkgo made its first appearance in the lower Jurassic period, 180 million years ago. According to Hans Tralau, the foremost authority on fossil ginkgoes, at least four different species of Ginkgo coexisted with the dinosaurs during the Lower Cretaceous. One of these, G. adiantoides, possessed leaves which are considered identical to those of G. biloba, the species that exists today. Showing the caution characteristic of a good scientist, Tralau concludes \"... that it might be reasonable to expect the direct predecessors of Tertiary and Recent Ginkgo in this part of the Lower Cretaceous population of Ginhgo.\" This direct link with ancient fossil plants gives the modern Ginkgo biloba a pedigree unmatched by any living tree, and is the basis of the oft repeated claim that the ginkgo has existed on earth longer than any other tree (Major, 1967). More than one researcher has suggested that part of the explanation for the ginkgo's longevity is due to the tree's near immunity to insect damage and fungal diseases (Major, 1967). While there may be no correlation between immunity to modern pests and immunity to Cretaceous pests, the fact that pathologists consider the ginkgo \"... less susceptible to disease, in general, than any tree grown in the United States\" (Hepting, 1971), suggests that disease resistance may partly explain the ginkgo's remarkable tenacity. Ginkgo biloba was introduced into Europe from Japan at the Botanic Garden in Utrect, Holland about 1730, where, according to Dallimore and Jackson, \"... a tree which may be one of the original introductions is still in very good condition (1964).\"The ginkgo did not officially reach North America until 1784. According to Andrew Figure2 The ginkgo at Zanpuhu7z Temple, Tokyo, Japan In 7914, the diameter of the tree 9 feet and 6 inches and zts height was 50 feet. The tree was approximately 700 years old. Arrow zndicates the stalactite-like burls, known as \"chichi\" (nipples) by the Japanese. These are leafless, posztzvely geotropic spur shoots that take root when they reach the ground and form new shoots (Fu~zz, 1895). Photograph by E. H. Wilson. was Figure 3. The gxnhgo on the temple ground at Yongmun-san, Korea The tree xs about 200 feet high and about IS feet In diameter It xs reputed to be 1100 years old. The utxlxty pole near the base of the tree offers some scale. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. Figure 4 (left). The male grnkgo tree in Woodlands Cemetery, Philadelphia planted in 1784 by William Hamzlton. Thxs tree, and the female shown In Figure 5, are the oldest ginkgoes xn the United States This xs the same tree illustrated by Wilson (1919) and Rehder (1936). Today the tree xs 68 feet tall and 30 inches xn dzameter. Figure 5 (nght). The female tree at Woodlands Cemetery, Phzladelpkxa, planted xn 1784 by William Hamilton. It IS 60 feet tall and 32 xnches In dzameter. The main axzs has suffered considerable damage. Photographs by C. Hxpple Jackson Downing, writing in 1841, the first trees in America were planted in Philadelphia by William Hamilton on his estate \"The Woodlands:\" Two of these original plants, a male and a female' still survive (Figures 4, 5). These trees, while not the most beautiful specimen ginkgoes, are the oldest plants in the country (Wilson, 1919; Rehder, 1936). Another ginkgo tree in John Bartram's garden in Philadelphia, thought to be the same age as Hamilton's trees (Wilson, 1919), is bigger than both of them and in better condition. Downing mentions another ginkgo, \"... standing on the north side of that fine public square, the Boston Common. It originally grew in the grounds of Gardiner Green, Esq., of Boston, but though of fine size, it was, about three years since, carefully removed to its present site, which proves its capability for bearing transplanting. Its measurement is forty feet in elevation and three in circumference.\" If the tree was that large three years after it was moved, it must have been nearly that large at the time of moving (Figure 6). Although this tree was standing in 1951 (Ley, 1951), it is no longer there. Unfortunately, I have not been able to learn why or when it was removed. 1 The terms male and female are commonly used in reference to ginkgoes and other plants. While this usage is widely accepted, it is, unfortunately, botanically incorrect. To be accurate, ginkgoes should be called either microsporangiate or ovulate. Figure 6 The ginkgo on the Boston Common, photographed rn 1919 by A. A. Greenlaw The tree was moved to the Common In 1838 when xt was 40 feet tall and one foot tn dzameter. In 1925 xt was 55 feet tall. On the site of the old Harvard Botanical Garden in Cambridge, Massachusetts (now graduate student housing), a beautiful female tree, dating back at least to the days of Asa Gray, still flourishes (Figure 7). As in the other gardens I visited, it is one of the few original trees left. Large ginkgoes, of comparable size, are scattered up and down the east coast between Washington and Boston. Philadelphia seems to be particularly rich in old ginkgoes (Moore, 1943). An isolated group of old ginkgoes once existed in Kentucky. Claxton (1940) maintains that these ginkgoes arrived at Washington, D.C. as seedlings from Japan and were subsequently sent to Kentucky by Henry Clay. As far as I have been able to determine at least two of Figure 7. A female ginkgo xn the old Harvard Botanical Garden, Cambrxdge, Mass. While xts exact age xs unknown, a photo from 1888 shows the tree to be almost as tall and to have the same branckxng pattern that xt does now. Today the tree xs 63 feet tall and 38 inches tn diameter. Note the buttressed base of the tree. Photograph by P Del Tredxcx a fertile male and female pair, still exist in Frankfort, on the grounds of the former Kentucky Military Institute.2 Both trees are in rather poor condition, with the larger one measuring 27 inches in diameter. The fact that the Institute was started in the 1850's suggests that the trees were probably planted around that time. Dr. John Stewart, whose family has owned the Institute since the time of its closing in the 1890's, repeated Claxton's story that the trees came from Henry Clay and added the note that they were the first ginkgoes to be planted in Kentucky. The historical significance of these trees does not stop here, however, for Ward, writing in 1885,3and Sargent, in 1890, both indicate that the female of this pair was the first ginkgo in the United States reported to bear seeds. In 1890, Mr. W. R. Smith, the curator of the U. S. Botanical Gardens in Washington (Falconer, 1890) had this to say about the tree: \"The female produces a large quantity of seed every year, and has been up to date our chief source of supply.\" Although none of these authors say when this \"fruiting\" first occurred, a minimum date can be established by the fact that the Arnold Arboretum received an accession of ginkgo seeds from the \"Military Institute, Kentucky\" on January 7, 1878. Unfortunately, these trees, The Institute is now the Stewart Home School. The statement by Ward that the first tree in the country to bear seeds was on \"... the grounds adjacent to the University of Kentucky at Frankfort ... \" is clearly in error, given that there never was a branch of the University of Kentucky in Frankfort. Undoubtedly he was referring to the Military Institute 3 2 tree. Figure 8 A young ginkgo tree show2ng the whorled, conxfer-lxhe branchxng habit. The angularaty of the young trees harmomzes well with the sharp, straight hnes of the cxty. Photograph by P Del Tredicx. none of the trees from this seed collection, if there survived. were any, have Stunning as mature specimen ginkgoes are, they contrast strikingly with young trees, which have an awkward appearance (Figure 8). C. S. Sargent, writing in 1897, summed up the contrast between young and old trees. \"Stiff and almost grotesque in its early years, with slender, remote, wide-spreading branches and sparse foliage, the Ginkgo does not assume its real character until it is more than a century old. There are few trees whose youth gives so little indication of future splendor; and so little picturesque is the Ginkgo in early life, and so badly does it blend with American surroundings that a great landscape gardener, knowing only young trees, declared that it could have no place in our landscape planting. If, on a bright November day, he had seen the great trees in Kamakura, or in the gardens of Asakura, in Tokyo, he would certainly have recognized the great possibilities of the Ginkgo for picturesque planting. In the United States the Ginkgo is perfectly hardy as far north as Massachusetts, and thrives as well in the south as it does in the north. There are not, however, any very large or fine specimens in this country, although the tree planted nearly a century ago in the gar- 159 den at Hyde Park, on the Hudson River, has begun to as- sume hope mature habit and shows that later generations may to see eastern America rival eastern Asia in its Ginkgo \" trees.\" Once again, C. S. Sargent has proved himself to be a great prophet. This Hyde Park tree, planted by Dr. David Hosack, the founder of the Elgin Botanic Garden4 is still standing, an inspiration to a new generation of tree planters and a tribute to the foresight of a past generation of experimenters. This is certainly the most beautiful ginkgo in North America, and also the largest I could locate (Figure 9). The lesson in all of this is, of course, that C. S. Sargent was right. The ginkgo does grow as well in North America as it does in Asia. When planted as a specimen, unshaded by other trees, it can be counted on to live at least a hundred years and probably two hundred. It is truly remarkable that the ginkgoes which were impressive when Downing and Sargent were writing are still alive today. In eastern North America, there is no other exotic tree except perhaps the European beech, that can endure as long as the ginkgo. To quote C. S. Sargent once again, \"... if a man wants to plant for posterity, for it must not be forgotten that it has taken from five hundred to one thousand years to build up the great ginkgoes of Japanese and Chinese temple gardens, he is reasonably safe in selecting this tree for his purpose.\" Indeed, William Hamilton and David Hosack will not soon be forgotten, thanks to the trees they left behind. - Acknowledgements Many people have cooperated with me in this study. In particular, Prof. Elso Barghoorn of Harvard University; Mrs. Barry Bingham of Louisville, Kentucky; Mr. R. Earl Hood of Woodlands Cemetery, Philadelphia; Mr. W. F. Hubbard of the National Park Service; and Mr. Paul Meyer of the Morris Arboretum, Philadelphia. Michael Koralewski of the Arnold Arboretum was kind enough to measure the ginkgoes in Woodlands Cemetery for me. Addendum: After this article was in page proofs, the author discovered the following quotation from 1877 by C.S. Sargent (Gardner's Monthly 19:358): \"One of the Salisburias, planted some twenty years ago in the grounds of the Kentucky Military Institute at Farmdale, Ky., and now thirty feet high, proves to be a female, and has fruited this year for the first time. I am not aware that this interesting tree has fruited before in the United States, while in Europe specimens known to be female are still very rare. Through the kindness of Prof. R.H. Wildberger, 4 This garden, once part of Columbia University School of Medicine in New York City, is considered to be the first \"actual\" Botanic Garden in the United States (Rehder, 1936). 160 Figure 9. Dr. Hosack's ginkgo at Hyde Park, New York, now part of the Roosevelt-Vanderbzlt National Hzstorzc Sites. Just below the lowest branch, the diameter of the tree xs 5 feet 5 znches. The tree zs about 85 feet tall. This xs the largest ginkgo that I was able to locate in North ATnerxca. Note the abrupt taper of the main axzs, suggestive of both Metasequoia and Pseudolanx. Photograph courtesy of the National Park Service. 161 specimens of the ripe fruit are before me. Its fleshy outer covering exhales an extremely disagreeable smell of rancid butter, but the kernel is excellent with the flavor of Filberts, although more delicate. In Japan the kernels have reputed digestive qualities, and are very generally served at dessert. The cultivation of the 'Ginjko' for its fruit is one of the possibilities of American Horticulture, and is, perhaps, worth consideration.\" References Claxton, T. B. 1940. Ginkgo biloba in Kentucky. Trees 3: 8. Dallimore, W. and Jackson, A. B. Revised by S. G. Harrison. 1966. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. London: Edward Arnold. Downing, A. J. 1841. A treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardening. New York: Wiley and Putnam. Elwes, H. J. and Henry, A. 1906. The trees of Great Britain & Ireland. Edinburgh: Privately printed. Falconer, W. 1890. The ginkgo tree. The Garden 38: 602. Fujii, K. 1885. On the nature and origin of so-called \"Chichi\" (nipple) of Ginkgo biloba, L. Bot. Mag. (Tokyo) 9: 444-450. Hepting, G. H. 1971. Diseases of forest and shade trees of the United States. U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Agr. Handbook 386. Ley, W. 1951. Dragons in amber. New York: Viking Press. Li, H.-L. 1956. A horticultural and botanical history of ginkgo. Bull. Morris Arb. 7: 3-12. Major, R. T. 1967. The ginkgo, the most ancient living tree. Science 157 (3794): 1270-1273. Moore, G. T. 1943. Where is the largest ginkgo tree in the United States? Mo. Bot. Gard. Bull. 31(5): 105-106. Rehder, A. 1936. On the history of the introduction of woody plants into North America. The National Horticultural Magazine 15: 245-257. Sargent, C. S. 1890. A fruiting ginkgo. Garden and Forest 3:549. (I). Garden and Forest Sargent, C. S. 1897 a. Notes on cultivated conifers - 10: 390-391. Sargent, C. S. 1897 b. Wodenethe. Garden and Forest 10: 449-450. Spongberg, S. A. 1978. Korean Adventure. Arnoldza 38 (4): 133-152. Tralau, H. 1968. Evolutionary trends 101. in the genus Gmkgo. Lethaia 1(1): 63- Ward, L. F. 1885. The ginkgo-tree. Science 5(124): 495-497. Wilson, E. H. 1919. The romance of our trees - II, The ginkgo. Gard. Mag. 30 (4): 144-148. Wilson, E. H. 1916. The conifers and taxads of Japan. Publ. of the Arnold Arb. No. 8. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Prunus x yedoensis 'Daybreak'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":162,"end_page":166,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24797","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd15ea36b.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":4,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Waters, Gregory J.","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Prunus x yedoensis 'Daybreak' There are many different varieties and cultivars of flowering cherry available for use in today's landscape plantings. One of the more spectacular but little used cherries is a cultivar of Prunus x yedoensis known as 'Daybreak'. The Japanese name 'Akebono' refers to two different cultivars one with single flowers, and the other with double ones. This article will concern the single-flowered cultivar and will use the name 'Daybreak'. Prunus 'Daybreak' is distinguished from other flowering cherries by abundant pink flowers that appear early in April, by its spreading habit, and by its glossy, lenticelled bark. As a cultivar of Prunus x yedoensis, 'Daybreak' shares in a fascinating history. In The Cherries of Japan (1916), the famous plant explorer E. H. Wilson stated that the oldest known specimens of Prunus x yedoensis were growing in the Imperial Botanic Garden at Koishikawa, Japan; at that time the trees were approximately 40 years old. It was from this group of trees that the Japanese botanist Matsumura (1901) had first named and described Prunus x yedoensis, now thought to be a hybrid between the double white-flowered P. speciosa and the single pink-flowered P. subhirtella 'Rosea'. The common name, Yoshino cherry, comes from the name of the Japanese region known for its wild cherries. In 1902 seeds were sent from Tokyo to the Arnold Arboretum, constituting the first known introduction of Prunus x yedoensis into the United States. Wilson commented that in 1916 there were over 50,000 Yoshino cherry trees growing in Tokyo alone. In the United States, perhaps the most famous collection of flowering cherry trees is trees area in Washington, D.C., where each spring a cherry blossom festival is held. These trees were a gift from the Mayor of Tokyo in 1912. Originally, there were 4,000 trees planted, 800 of which were Yoshino cherries. Today, many of them are dying of old age and less that 25 percent of the original trees remain standing. The 'Daybreak' cultivar of the Yoshino cherry originated in 1920 in the Tidal Basin from a tree in the collection of W. B. Clarke in San Jose, California. This tree, which had masses of flowers pinker than those of the species, was named and introduced into cultivation in 1925. The Arnold Arboretum has a single specimen of Prunus 'Daybreak' on its Jamaica Plain grounds; a plant was received from Mr. Clarke in 1949 and given the accession number 212-49. It can be found on the left side of the road leading to the top of Bussey Hill, where it appears to survive Boston's winters quite well. It is a wide-spreading tree with four main branches and has reached a height of 25 feet with an equivalent spread. A strong grower, it has many open spaces between its branches, giving it an \"airy\" silhouette. A graceful touch is added by the slightly pendulous nature of its outermost branchlets. Prunus 'Daybreak' is one of the earliest of the flowering cherries to bloom. In Jamaica Plain the peak bloom period occurs in early to mid-April and lasts for two weeks. The pleasingly almond-scented blossoms are usually borne on leafless branches in clusters of two to six. Each flower consists of five sepals, five or six petals, numerous stamens, and one pistil. The petals are half an inch in diameter, and each has a slight notch on its outer edge. The 'Daybreak' cultivar is best known for the color of the petals, light pink, with the outline of each petal tinged slightly darker. The calyx and upper side of the flower pedicel are rose colored. It is interesting to note that when the petals drop in late April, the appearance of the tree turns from light pink to dark rose due to the conspicuous calyces. The leaves of Prunus 'Daybreak' are ovate, four to five inches long, and two inches wide. The leaf margins are doubly serrate, with the very tips of the teeth pointing upward. The newly unfolded leaves are bright green, but by summer the upper surfaces are a leathery dark green and the lower surfaces light green. The leaf petioles are red above and green below; they have two or three characteristic reddish glands just below the base of the blade and are grooved from this point to the stem. In the fall the leaf color ranges from reddish bronze, to bright yellow, to bright red. New stem growth is red above and green below, with the tiny lenticels appearing as red dots widely spread around the entire stem. In one year's time the stems become glaucous chestnut-brown above and light tan below. After two years, the bark becomes glossy brownish red, with the prominent horizontal lenticels exposing the rustcolored inner bark. This mature bark provides for year-round interest; it is especially striking when seen against the white of the winter landscape. Because Prunus 'Daybreak' is a hybrid, and also because it depends on insects and weather for pollination, fruit-set is not entirely predictable. There was no fruit formed this past spring on the Arnold The are evzdent graceful, spreading habit and spectacular floral display of the 'Daybreak' cherry zn thls speczmen, located on Bussey Hill Arboretum specimen, but when fruit-set does occur it results in many small (1\/a' diameter) drupes that ripen to a black color in late summer. These fruits are visually attractive both to man and to the many birds that seem to like their bitter taste. Asexual propagation, by either budding or stem cuttings, is the best way to retain the desirable characteristics of this cultivar. Budding is best done in mid-summer and involves inserting several buds of Prunus x yedoensis 'Daybreak' into an appropriate rootstock such as P. avium. If stem cuttings are used, they should be taken from the spring softwood, dipped in a liquid hormone solution containing 8,000 ppm. IBA(indolebutyric acid) for five seconds, and then placed in a medium of equal parts peat and perlite. If the cuttings are kept in a high-humidity atmosphere (using mist or by enclosing them within a large plastic bag), rooting should occur within eight to ten weeks. As of September 1980, Prunus 'Daybreak' was commercially unavailable in North America. Interested individuals and nursery businesses wanting to try this cherry tree may be able to obtain budwood from the Arnold Arboretum during the month of July, 1982. Requests concerning availability and service charges should be sent to the Arnold Arboretum well in advance and rootstock of Prunus avium should be prepared for budding. In the cultivation of Prunus 'Daybreak' for home landscapes, there are very few problems that can not be solved. Care should be taken to select a suitable site where the soil is well drained, where the pH is in the range of 5.5 to 7.0, and where there is full sun for optimum flowering. During the spring of 1980, the specimen at the Arnold Arboretum sustained a moderate amount of leaf damage known as \"shot-holing.\" As the name implies, the disease causes the leaves to look as if they have had shot fired through them, and may be caused 166I either by insects or a fungus. When no insects were found in a careful examination of the Arnold Arboretum specimen, it was hypothesized that a fungus was the cause. In a home landscape this damage would be discovered quite early, and the tree could be sprayed; in a larger area, such as an arboretum, the damage might not be discovered quite as early, and it might not be feasible to spray a single tree. However, the extra effort perhaps necessary to keep the tree vigorous, well pruned, and pest-free is worthwhile in the long run. Prunus 'Daybreak' would be best used in landscaping as a specimen plant, in a location where the full splendor of the tree could be viewed from several different angles. The delightful pink floral dis- play, the graceful spreading habit, and the glossy, lenticelled bark give this cultivar a potential to be used a great deal more in today's landscape. Acknowledgments Special thanks go at the ect. to Arnold Arboretum, for his support and Gary Koller, supervisor of the living collections guidance with this projGREGORY J. WATERS References Chadbund, G. 1972. Flowering cherries. London: Collins Co. Ingram, C. 1948. Ornamental cherries. London: Country Life Limited. 1925. Notes on Japanese cherries. Jour. Royal Hort. Soc. 50: 73-99. 1929. Notes on Japanese cherries. Ibid. 54: 159-180. Jefferson, R. & A. Fusonie. 1977. The Japanese flowering cherry trees in Washington, D.C. National Arb. Contrib. 4: 66 pp. Matsumura, J. 1901. Prunus x yedoensis. Tokyo Bot. Mag XV: 100. Russell, P. 1934. The orzental flowering cherries. 72 pp. U.S.D.A. Circ. No. . . 313. Wilson, E. H. 1916. The cherries of Japan. Press. Wyman, D. 1964. Prunus boasts eryman. 119: 106. some 62 pp. Cambridge: University Nurs- of the best flowering plants. Am. Back ers cover Closeup of the flowers of Calanthe tricarinata, showxng the beautzful form oftheflow- and their uzews. promznently rzdged lips Photograph 6y M. Dirr. In different "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23516","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070ab28.jpg","title":"1981-41-4","volume":41,"issue_number":4,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Iconography of New World Hallucinogens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":80,"end_page":125,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24795","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14e896d.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":3,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"80 Iconography of New World Plant Hallucinogens by RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES knowledge of hallucinogenic plants of the Americas has grown during the past half century. Ethnobotanical understanding of species long known as hallucinogens has progressed to a remarkable degree. In addition, sundry new psychoactive plants have been botanically identified. Spectacular advances have likewise been made in the phytochemistry of numerous species. Perhaps, however, most encouraging of all has been the realization that constituents of these mind-altering plants may be of exceptional interest as potential medicines in modern psychiatry. During our botanical and chemical studies of the New World hallucinogenic plants, it has become increasingly clear that some of the species involved have been known in taxonomic circles for many years - long before their use as sacred elements in primitive societies of the Americas was reported. Ethnobotany, as an integral part of the plant sciences, is basically concerned first with correct identification of species. The earliest botanical descriptions, consequently, assume a vital importance in our understanding of hallucinogenic plants. It was for this reason that I recently published a paper entitled \"Hallucinogenic plants: their earliest botanical descriptions\", in which the citation of place of publicaOur apace many 81 description of 188 known or suspected hallucinogenic indicated. Oftentimes of equal or sometimes of even more importance for the correct identification of a plant is a good illustration. The first postLinnaean illustrations of the hallucinogenic plants which follow are certainly of historic value, and on occasion they have played a definitive role in the work of identification. These first pictorial representations also have an added significance: of the 28 hallucinogenic genera considered in this paper, a total of 12 or 43% can claim attention as members of the fraternity of horticultural plants. It is true that illustrations and sometimes excellent ones - saw publication in pre-Linnaean sources. Frequently, they may be associated with significant ethnobotanical information. It is not unusual for some of these earlier illustrations to play a critical role in the not uncomtaxonomic determination of an hallucinogenic plant monly a more decisive role than depictions published later in postLinnaean times. An appreciable number of the illustrations presented in this paper have appeared in rare publications of difficult procurement. When this fact is considered in connection with their importance to ethnobotanical research and the pertinency of several of the species to horticulture, the advisability of publishing such an iconography as this one would seem to be obvious. The New World is exceedingly rich in species of plants employed in primitive societies for their hallucinogenic or other psychoactive effects. They are found amongst the fungi and the angiosperms. Only a selected few are here considered - those of greatest importance from the point of view of use or of botanical rarity or historical significance. In this iconography, only species of the flowering plants are considered. It is interesting to note that the New World is much richer in species employed as hallucinogens than the Old World. There are probably 150 species (including fungi) so used in primitive societies in the Americas, and additions to the list are frequently being discovered as ethnobotanical field studies, especially in the tropical regions, tion of the first was plants - - progress. In any consideration of hallucinogenic plants it is essential to remember that primitive societies believe these psychoactive plants to be the \"medicines\" par excellence, and that their unusual activity which puts man in contact with the spirit world from which comes all death and illness, is due to a resident spirit or divinity. They are considered sacred medicines, not to be abused or taken merely for pleasure. The enumeration of the families follows the Engler-Prantl system. The genera are arranged alphabetically under the families. The photography in this article has been made possible by a grant from the National Science Foundation: DEB 75-20107. 82 MYRISTICACEAE Nutmeg Family Virola theiodora (Spr. ex Benth.) Warburg in Nova Acta Acad. Carol. 68(1897) 187. Leop. - Slender tree up to 75 feet tall. Bark with thick reddish resinous liquid. Branchlets red-brown, tomentellous. Leaves papyraceous to chartaceous, sparsely glandular-punctate, oblong to ovate, sinuate, 9-35 cm. long, 4-12 cm. wide. Staminate inflorescences manyflowered, 15 cm. long. Pistillate inflorescences shorter. Staminate flowers pungent, single or in clusters of up to 10. Fruit subglobose, 10-20 mm. long, 8-15 mm. in diameter. Distributed mainly in the western Amazon of Brazil and Colombia and adjacent parts of Peru and Venezuela in well drained forests. Of the several species of Virola V. calophylla Warb., V. calophylloidea Markgraf, V. elongata (Spr. ex Benth.) Warb. - employed in the northwest Amazon and the headwaters of the Orinoco, the most important appears to be V. theiodora. This tree and the potent snuff prepared from it have many names the best known being epena and nyakwana of amongst the Indians the Waikas of northernmost Brazil and adjacent Venezuela. The inner bark has an abundance of a resin-like liquid, colourless but rapidly turning a blood-red on exposure to the air. Preparation ot the snuff varies from tribe to tribe. The Waikas usually scrape the liquid from strips of the bark, gather it into an earthenware pot, boil it down to a syrup which is allowed to sun-dry; it is then crushed into a powder and sifted. Occasionally, the pulverized aromatic leaves of Justicia pectoralis Jacquin may be added, but the Virola-snuff alone is highly psychoactive and is frequently used with no admixture. Some Indians prepare the Virola-resin in the form of small pellets for ingestion, and one tribe merely licks the resin with no preparation. Although the first reference to this hallucinogenic snuff was published in 1923, definitive identification of its source and a description of its preparation were not made until 1954. The snuff prepared from Virola theiodora is rich in several tryptamines up to 11%; of this, 8% is 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine, hallucinogenically the most active. The first illustration of Virola theiodora was published in 1860. - ~ 83 :s 0 \"\" 0 CO 0 i5. a u~ d IZI w \",' :,\" ' x x ~ H '\" U ;; '\" IZI R C\"I) N O Fn \"8.N J~ a U . m ~ '\" t; .. ~ dD 7 .GN W 3 N ~s a a~ d QI ~ w ] m > 0 84 GOMORTEGACEAE Gomortega Family Gomortega Keule (Mol.) 1. M. Johnston in Contrib. Gray Herb., n. s., 3, no. 70 (1924) 92. Small, evergreen tree up to 30 feet or more in height. Leaves leathery, glossy, oblong-lanceolate, apically rounded, up to 11 cm. long, 5.5 cm. wide. Flowers small: sepals 7 to 10, spiralled; petals absent; fertile stamens 2 to 3; anthers 2-loculate, opening by valves. Fruit a 1to 3-celled ovoid drupe, 3.5 cm. long, 2 cm. wide, with a very hard nut. The Gomortegaceae is a family of one species, a large tree occurring in an area of only 100 square miles in Chile. Calling this tree heule or hualhual, the Mapuche Indians of Chile formerly used it as a narcotic: the intoxicating effects may have been hallucinogenic. The Spanish botanists Ruiz and Pavon wrote that the tree is so green and beautiful that it stands out at a great distance. They also remarked that the leaves, which, like the fruits, are rich in essential oils have an acid-astringent taste and that they are so resinous that they stick to the teeth when chewed. Excessive consumption of the fruits, according to these botanists, brings on headaches. Chemical investigation of this interesting and rare tree has not heen reported plant consisted of only The earliest illustration of this anomalous flowers and fruits and appeared in 1794. 85 ~ 0 *s U m a ;:s ~i :! '0 a n 0. ~ :! <:s N :i .: b '0 d a d N It: M 'O cj \"E ~ bD d F ~ 8 H t; ~ '\" .t H ~ O .~r W O h F ~, O P .G~1 N xo III~ i; ~~ e ~' 86 Safford Anadenanthera peregrina (L ) Spegazzim Illustrated as Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Bentham in m Journ Wash. Acad. Scx. 6, no. 15 (1916) 548 87 LEGUMINOSAE Pea Family peregrina (L.) Spegazzini in Anadenanthera Physis 6(1923) 313. Shrub or tree up to 60 feet tall. Bark thick, corky, grey to black, often armed with stout conical spines or cuneate projections. Leaves bipinnate, 12-30 cm. long; pinnae 10-30 or more, mostly 2-5 cm. long. Leaflets 25-80 pairs, linear, oblong or lanceolate, 2-8 mm. long. Inflorescence compactly globose-capitate with 35-50 very small flowers, 10-18 mm. in diameter. Flowers white: calyx 0.5-2.5 mm. long; corolla 2-3.5 mm. long; stamens 5-8 mm. long. Pods leathery, brownish, broadly linear or strap-shaped, 5-35 cm. long, contracted between seeds. Seeds 3-15, black, glossy, thin, flat, orbicular, 10-20 mm. in diameter. In open grasslands in northern South America and naturalized in the West Indies. Better known in the literature as Piptadenia peregrina (L.) Benth., this tree is the source of a potent hallucinogen. The seeds are toasted and pulverized and mixed with an alkaline ash to produce the snuff known in South America as yopo. It is employed especially by tribes in the basin of the Orinoco. The tree was apparently early introduced from South America to the West Indies, where the snuff was called cojoba. Its use in the Caribbean Islands died out, however, long ago. An early report of 1496 stated that the Tainos of Hispaniola communicated with the spirit world through this snuff which is \"so strong that those who take it lose consciousness.... arms and legs become loose and the head drops ... and ... they believe that they see the room turn upside down and men walking with their heads downwards.\" Several tryptamines and \/3-carbolines have been found in the seeds of Anadenanthera peregrina. The seeds of another species, Anadenanthera colubrina (Vell.) Brenan, are the source of an equally potent snuff used in southern South America, especially in Argentina where it is called cebil or huilca. The first illustration of Anadenanthera peregrina was a photograph of an herbarium specimen published in 1916, when cojoba and yopo were identified as snuffs from the same species. 88 The first and only illustration of Mimosa hostilis (Mart.) Bentham. Illustrated in R. E. Schultes and A. Hofmann, The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens, Ed. (1973) 96, fig. 23. 1 89 LEGUMINOSAE Pea Family Mimosa hostilis (Mart.) Bentham in Trans. Linn. Soc. 30 (1875) 415. A bushy treelet, sparsely spinose, with bipinnate leaves 3-4 cm. long, 4- to 6-jugate; pinnae 2.5-3 cm. long; leaflets 1-2 mm. long. Inflorescence loosely cylindrical, measuring 5.5-6 cm. in length. Flowers white, fragrant. Pods sessile or short-stipitate, 3 cm. long. Common in dry areas of eastern Brazil. From the roots of Mimosa hostilis, Indians of Minas Gerais, Bahia and Pernambuco in Brazil especially the Pankarurus - formerly prepared a potent drink known as vinho de jurema. It was taken in a ceremony, particularly prior to battles, to enhance bravery and experience frightening visions to test men's valor. The use of this psychoactive drug has apparently died out with acculturation or extinction of the numerous tribes of the region. An early report described the effects of this hallucinogen as follows: they would \"see glorious visions of the spirit land, with flowers and birds. They might catch a glimpse of the clashing rocks that destroy men's souls or the dead journeying to their goal or see the Thunderbird shooting lightning from a huge tuft on his head and producing claps of thunder by running about.\" The active principle in Mimosa hostilis has been shown to be - N, N-dimethyltryptamine. No illustration of Mimosa hostilis was published until 1973. Sophora secundiflora (Ort.) Lagasca (1854) 201. ex DeCandolle. Illustrated an Rev. Hort., ser. 4, 3 91 LEGUMINOSAE Pea Family Sophora secundiflora (Ort.) Lagasca ex DeCandolle, Cat. Hort. Monsp. (1813) 148. A shrub or small tree reaching a height of 40 feet. The evergreen leaves measure 10-15 cm. in length with 7 to 11 leathery, oblongelliptic leaflets 1.5-6 cm. long. The flowers, borne in one-sided racemes up to 10 cm. in length, are sweet-scented, violet-blue. The woody, grey-tomentose pods have 1 to 8 bright scarlet, ovoid seeds which measure about 1.5 cm. in length. Ranging from northern Mexico into Texas and New Mexico, along streams in thickets and small groves, usually in limestone areas; it is now widely planted in dry areas of the American Southwest as an ornamental. The beautiful seeds of Sophora secundiflora are known as red beans, mescal beans, coral beans or, in Mexico, frijolillos. They were, in the days before the peyote cactus was adopted as a sacred hallucinogen by Indians of the United States in the mid-1800's, the basis of a vision-seeking cult in the Southwest. These beans are highly toxic, containing the alkaloid cytisine which, in excess, can cause death by asphyxiation. When the safe peyote came north from Mexico as the base of another religious cult, the Indians ceased the narcotic use of the red beans. To this day, however, the priest or \"roadman\" of the peyote ceremony wears, as part of his ceremonial dress, a necklace of these seeds. An early Spanish explorer of the Texan coast, Cabeza de Vaca, mentioned the red beans as an article of trade amongst the natives in 1539. Recent well dated archaeological discoveries in northeastern Mexico and Texas have unearthed Sophora secundiflora seeds in abundance in several sites ranging between 7000 B.C. and 1000 A.D. Since the red beans are not usable as food, it is possible that they were employed as medicine or, more probably, as ceremonial intoxicants. This possibility is supported to some extent by the discovery of dried peyote in association with the beans in several of the sites. American Indians of today use the red bean widely as decorations on clothing and artifacts. It seems possible that these seeds, in addition to their beautiful red color, are employed so extensively as adornments because of the respect in which they are held as the result of their intoxicating properties: they are held in special awe as \"living, sentient beings, capable of reproducing and initiating action on their own.\" The earliest illustration of this beautiful legume was published in 1854 in an horticultural journal. \" 92 Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spr. ex Griseb.) Morton. Lemngrad 22, iv (1929) 192. Illustrated in Hammerman in Bull. Appl. Bot. 93 MALPIGHIACEAE Malpighia Family Banisteriopsis Caapi (Spr. ex Griseb.) Morton in Joum. Wash. Acad. Sci. 21 (1931) 485. Large liana. Bark light chocolate-coloured, smooth. Leaves chartaceous, broadly ovate-lanceolate, acuminate-cuspidate, entire, 8-18 cm. long, 3.5-8 cm. wide. Inflorescence axillary or terminal cymose panicles, 1.5-3 cm. long. Flowers 12-14 mm. in diameter; sepals lanceolate-ovate, densely villous, 2.5-3 mm. long, with or without 8 basal glands; petals pink, cochleate-suborbiculate or ovate, fimbriate, 5-7 mm. long, 4-5 mm. wide, with claw 1.5 mm. long. Samara nut 5 mm. long, dorsal wing semi-ovate, 2.5-3.5 cm. long, 1.2-1.4 cm. wide. Wild and frequently cultivated in western Amazon and cultivated in the Pacific Coastal regions of Colombia and Ecuador. An intoxicating drink variously known as ayahuasca, caapi and yaje is widely employed as a sacred hallucinogen by many indigenous groups in the western Amazon: Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru and Venezuela and by isolated tribes along the Pacific coast of Colombia and Ecuador. The bark is either boiled or made into a cold-water infusion. Occasionally other plants may be added to the drink, especially the leaves of another malpighiaceous vine, Diplopterys Cabrerana (Cuatr.) Gates, to intensify the effects. This hallucinogen permeates all phases of life of the Indians; it is thought to reach into prenatal life and operate in life after death. It is taken to diagnose and treat disease and to contact the spirit world in a great variety of magico-religious ceremonies. The Tukanos of Colombia interpret the intoxication as a return to the cosmic uterus during which the trance represents separation of the soul from the body and union with the divinities. The bark of Banisteriopsis Caapi has several a-carboline alkaloids which normally induce an intoxication marked by vomiting, dizziness, excitation or even agitation, eventual desire to sit apart to experience visual hallucinations of bright lightning-like flashes of light to well defined, sometimes frightening visions of spirits, ancestors and animals such as wild cats and boa constrictors. Although the species was described over a century ago, the first illustration, merely a drawing of the leaf, was published only in 1929. CACTACEAE Cactus Family Williamsii (Lem.) Coulter in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 3 (1894) 131. A small, unicephalous or polycephalous, spineless, dull bluish green cactus. Root napiform, 8-10 cm. long. Crown globular, topshaped or somewhat flattened, 2-8 cm. in diameter, with 7-13 broad, rounded, straight or spiralled, sometimes irregular and indistinct ribs with transverse furrows forming regular polyhedral tubercles; areoles round, flat, with tufts of matted woolly hairs. Flowers solitary, borne at centre of crown, usually pink, rotate-campanulate, 1.5-2.5 cm. across when open. Fruit club-shaped, reddish, 2 cm. long. In calcareous, rocky deserts from central Mexico north to southern Texas. The Aztecs and other Mexican Indians have long valued the crown of the peyote cactus - usually dried into so called \"peyote buttons\" as a sacred hallucinogen. Archaeological artifacts depicting peyote Lophophora - zn Lophophora Bot. Mag. Williamsii (Lem.) Coulter. Illustrated 73 (1847) t. 4296. as Echniocactus Williamsii Lemaire and actual specimens use. over 7000 years old attest to the great age of its One early Spanish chronicler wrote that, \"those who eat of it see visions either frightful or laughable\" and that \"it sustains them and to fight and not feel fear, nor hunger, nor thirst; they say that it protects them from all danger.\" Intense persecution notwithstanding, the ceremonial use of peyote persisted. Today, the Coras, Huichols, Tarahumares and other Mexican tribes hold it in great reverence, and it has spread north into the United States and Canada where more than 250,000 Indians in over 40 tribes belong to a peyote-centered cult organized as the Native American Church. Dried peyote-buttons are legally procured through the postal service for use in this religious context. Peyote intoxication is characterized by indescribably brilliant visual hallucinations in rich colours in kaleidoscopic movement. This effect is accompanied by auditory, tactile, gustatory and olfactory hallucinations, sensations of weightlessness, depersonalization, alter- gives them courage and ation of time perception, macropsia and other weird aberrations. Over 30 alkaloids or allied bases occur in peyote. The intense visual hallucinations are due to one: mescaline. The earliest illustration of Lophophora Williamsii a highly fanciful drawing - appeared in an horticultural publication in 1847. A year later, in 1848, an artistic and very accurate illustration was published in a book on cactus plants. Because of the near simultaneity of these illustrations, both are here published. - in L. Lophophora Williamsii (Lem.) Coulter. Illustrated as Echinocactus Williamsii Lemaire Pfeiffer and F. Otto Abffdung und beschreibung bluhenden Cacteen 2 (1848) t. 21. 96 The first zllustratzon of'I~ichocereus Pachanoi Britton et Rose. A habit photograph of the plant published in N. L. Britton and J. N. Rose, The Cactaceae 2 (1920) 135, fig. 196. CACTACEAE Cactus Family Trichocereus Pachanoi Britton et Rose, Cactaceae 2 (1920) 134. Plant 9-20 feet tall. Branches strict, with 6-8 ribs which are basally broad. Spines few, often absent. Flowers large, 19-23 cm. long, night-blooming, fragrant; outer perianth segments brown-red; inner 97 segments white; stamen filaments green. Axis of scales on flower-tube and fruit with long black hairs. Cultivated and wild in Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia in the high Andes. Known in Ecuador as aguacolla, in Peru as San Pedro, this cactus is the base of an hallucinogenic preparation called cimora. Cimora may contain other plant admixtures: Neoraimondia macrostibas (Schum.) Britton et Rose, Brugmansia spp.; Pedilanthus tithymaloides Poiteau, Isotoma longiflora Presl, etc. Cimora is used in an ancient, but recently discovered, ritual connected with magico-religious ceremonies. The modern ritual is heavily influenced by Christian elements. The active principle in Trichocereus Pachanoi is mescaline. The first illustration of Trichocereus Pachanoi is a habit photograph published at the time of the species description in 1920. 98 Heimia salicifolia (HBK.) Link Select. 2 (1822) t. 28. et Otto. Illustrated an J. H. F. Lanh and F. Otto, Enum. Pl. LYTHRACEAE Loosestrife Family Heimia salicifolia or (HBK.) Link et Otto, Enum Pl. Select. 2 (1822) 3. A shrub 2 to 6 feet tall with mostly opposite leaves (some in threes the uppermost alternate), linear-lanceolate or lanceolate, 2-9.5 cm. 99 long and yellow flowers solitary in the axils. Common along streams and in damp places in the highlands of Mexico and western Texas, El Salvador, Jamaica and northern South America. In Mexico, Heimia salicifolia is known as sinicuichi. The leaves, slightly wilted, are crushed in water, and the juice is allowed to ferment. The resulting drink is mildly inebriating, inducing a slight giddiness, a darkening of surroundings, shrinkage of the world around, a pleasant drowsiness and deafness or auditory hallucinations with distorted sounds coming apparently from great distances. Mexican natives ascribe supernatural virtues to sinicuichi, asserting that it helps them recall events of the past and on occasion even prenatal happenings. The first illustration of Heimia salicifolia was published in 1822 by the botanists Johann Heinrich Friedrich Link and Friedrich Otto together with the descriptions of the species. 100 j)I:wt'UB'1.1I~1.1 ftrrrrr ..r The earliest complete tllustration of Desfontainia spinosa Ruiz et Pavon. Drawing in Rutz and Pavon, Fl. Peruv. et Chxl. 2 (1799) t. 186. 101 DESFONTAINIACEAE Desfontainia Family et Desfontainia t. 181. An erect or spinosa Ruiz Pav6n, Fl. Peruv. et Chile 2 (1799) 47, semi-scandent evergreen shrub from about 2 to 12 feet in height. Leaves subcoriaceous to coriaceous, dark green, glossy, elliptic to obovate, coarsely sinuate, 1.5-8 cm. long. Flowers solitary or several together. Sepals greenish or brownish green, 5-10 mm. long, 2-4 mm. wide: corolla deep orange or red, yellow within, up to 3 cm. long or longer. Fruit a berry, yellowish, many-seeded, 12 mm. in diameter. Desfontainia spinosa is Andean in distribution. Known in Colombia and Ecuador as borrachero de pdramo and in Chile and southern Peru as taique, chapico, michai blanco and trautrau, it is valued as a narcotic by the Mapuche Indians of Chile and by the Kamsa and Ingano medicine men in the Sibundoy Valley of southern Colombia. A tea is made of the leaves when these practitioners \"want to dream\" or \"see visions and diagnose disease.\" The tea is so potent that it is said to be used infrequently, since it makes the medicine men \"go crazy.\" Nothing is as yet known of the chemical constitution of this interesting hallucinogen. The earliest illustration, published by Ruiz and Pav6n in 1794, consisted only of flowers. The first complete drawing of the plant appeared in a major work by these same two botanists in 1799. \" 102 Ipomoea violacea Linnaeus. Illustrated as Ipomoea tricolor Cavanilles, Icones 3 (1794) 208. t. 103 CONVOLVULACEAE Morning Glory Family Ipomoea violacea Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. (1753) 161. An annual vine with deeply cordate, ovate leaves 4-10 cm. long, 3-8 cm. wide. The cymose inflorescence has 3 to 4 flowers which are 5-7 cm. wide with a white tube and white, red, purple, violet-blue or blue corolla: limbs often white-spotted. The ovoid fruit measures 13 mm. in length and has jet black angularly ovate seeds 7 mm. long. Ranging through western and southern Mexico and Guatemala, the West Indies and tropical South America. The seeds of Ipomoea violacea - known also as I. rubrocaerulea Hooker and I. tricolor Cavanilles - are called badoh negro by the Zapotec Indians of Oaxaca, Mexico, who use them as a sacred hallucinogen. These seeds are employed in the same way as those of Turbina corymbosa and have the same, though stronger, effects. They contain the same kinds of ergoline alkaloids as does T. corymbosa but in much higher concentrations. It is thought that Ipomoea violacea represents the narcotic tlitliltzin of the ancient Aztecs. One of the early Spanish chroniclers, for example, spoke of three inebriating agents: \"ololiuqui, peyote and tlitliltzin.\" This species is the parent of many important horticultural varieties such as \"Heavenly Blue,\" \"Pearly Gates\" and \"Flying Saucers.\" This plant was first figured as Ipomoea tricolor in 1794. Turbina corymbosa (L.) Rafinesque. Illustrated m as Convolvulus caule repente foliis cordatis Plumier, Pl. Amer., Ed. Burm. (1756) t. 89, fig. 2. CONVOLVULACEAE Morning Glory Family Turbina corymbosa (L.) Rafinesque, Fl. Tellur. 4 (1838) 81. Large, woody, perennial vine with ovate-cordate leaves 5-9 cm. long, 2.5-6 cm. wide. Inflorescences congested axillary cymes, usually many-flowered. Flowers fragrant: corolla infundibuliform or hypercraterimorphous, 2-4 cm. long, nearly 3 cm. across when open, white or whitish with greenish stripes; stamens included; sepals enlarged and somewhat ligneous in fruit, about 1 cm. long. Fruit indehiscent, ellipsoidal, 1-seeded, 5-10 mm. long, 4-5 mm. broad, dark brown. Seed roundish, brown 4 mm. x 3-5 mm. with nearly circular scar. Known from tropical and subtropical America: Florida and the Gulf Coastal areas, the West Indies, Middle America and the northern half of South America; naturalized in various parts of the Old World. The Aztecs and other Indians of Mexico made extensive hallucinogenic use of the seeds of Turbina corymbosa in pre-Conquest days: they were called ololiuqui and the vine was known as coaxihuitl (\"snake plant\"). \"The natives communicate with the devil,\" wrote one Spanish chronicler, \"when they become intoxicated with ololiuqui, and they are deceived by the various hallucinations which they attribute to the deity which ... resides in the seeds.\" Today, numerous tribes in Oaxaca still employ the seeds in divinatory and healing rituals where, as one writer reported, one finds in almost every village \"these seeds still serving ... as an ever present help in time of trouble. Indians ingesting these seeds are quickly intoxicated. Visual hallucinations occur following a stage of dizziness and one of a general feeling of ease and well-being, lassitude and drowsiness. Lasting for several hours, the intoxication may end in a stupour. In 1960, the active chemical constituents of the seeds of Turbina corymbosa were shown to be several ergoline alkaloids or lysergic acid derivatives previously known in ergot, Claviceps purpurea (Fr.) Tulasne, a primitive fungal parasite of rye, long employed in European medicine and midwifery and the source of occasional outbursts of mass poisonings (\"St. Anthony's Fire\") when it was inadvertently milled into rye flour and eaten in Europe. \" as a Although ololiuqui was accurately figured in early Spanish writings morning glory, the use of convolvulaceous seeds as an intoxicant was not known nor was the plant definitively identified until the early 1940's. This morning glory is perhaps better known as Rivea corymbosa (L.) Hallier fil. It has also been called Ipomoea sidaefolia Choisy. The earliest post-Linnaean illustration of Turbina corymbosa appeared as Convolvulus caule repente, foliis cordatis in 1756. Salvia divinorum Epling et Jativa-M. Illustrated (1972) fig. 50 (Macmtllan Co., New York). tn W. A. Emboden, Jr. Narcotic Plants, Ed. I 107 LABIATAE Mint Family Salvia divinorum Epling et Jdtiva-M. in Bot. Mus. Leafl., Harvard Univ. 20(1962) 75. Perennial herb, 3 feet tall or taller. Leaves 12-15 cm. long, ovate, crenate-serrulate. Flowers slightly pubescent, in full panicles on branches 30-40 cm. long: calyx tube bluish, 15 mm. long with superior lip 1.5mm. long; sigmoid corolla 22 mm. long, with superior lip 6 mm. long, inferior lip shorter and incurved; stamens inserted near mouth of tube; style hirtellous, with posterior branch rather long, flat, anterior branch carinate. Known only in cultivation from black soil in forest ravines in northeastern Oaxaca, Mexico, at about 5,500 feet altitude. The Mazatecs of Oaxaca call this plant hierba de la Virgen or hierba de la Pastora and value it for use in divinatory rites when more potent hallucinogens - the sacred mushrooms and morning glories are not available. Many Mazatec families cultivate it in hidden plots far from home sites; the plant is vegetatively reproduced. Although the psychoactive properties of this Salvia have been experimentally verified, chemical studies have thus far failed to identify the responsible principle. The first illustration of Salvia divinorum was a watercolor published in 1972. - 108 The earliest illustration of in R. Sweet, Br. Fl. Gard., Brugmansia sanguinea (R. ser. 2, 3 (1835) t. 272. et P.) D. Don. Figured in colour 109 SOLANACEAE Nightshade Family Brugmansia sanguinea (R. (1835) 272. et P.) D. Don in Sweet, Brit. Fl. Gard. 3 A tree-like shrub up to 15 feet tall with clustered leaves (5 to 7 arising from the same location), narrowly oblong, lightly pubescent, entire or sinuate, mostly 7 to 8 cm. long. Flowers usually 17 to 23 cm. long: calyx one third as long as the corolla; corolla tubular, slightly flaring upwards, blood red or orange red, sometimes yellow, with conspicuous yellow veins. Fruit a top-shaped capsule about 9 cm. long. Native to the highland regions of the Andes from 9000 to 11000 feet. This beautiful horticultural species is employed as an hallucinogen in many areas of the Andes, where the natives hold it in high esteem as a sacred plant. It is especially valued by Ecuadorian Indians who believe that, during the intoxication which it induces, the soul leaves the body and wanders afar to visit ancestors. In Peru, this plant is called huacacachu or \"grave plant\", since the Indians believe that it will, through the intoxication, reveal treasure buried in graves or huacas. The pre-Columbian Chibchas of Colombia, where this species is known as tonga, gave a fermented maize drink to which seeds or leaves of Brugmansia sanguinea were added to wives and slaves of dead warriors or chieftains to induce a stupour before they were buried alive to accompany their husbands or masters into the after life. All parts of the plant are highly toxic, containing several alkaloids, especially scopolamine. Despite its early horticultural attraction, Brugmansia sanguinea was not by the Spanish botanists illustrated until 1835. It was described as Datura sanguinea Ruiz and Pavon in 1799. 110 The first illustration of Brunfelsia grandi8ora D. Don. Illustrated Harvard Univ. 23 (1973) 261, pl. xviii. xn Bot. Mus. Leafl., SOLANACEAE Nightshade Family Brunfelsia grandiflora D. Don in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. (April- October, 1829) 86. Shrub to small tree, 3-15 feet tall. Bark exfoliating in flakes, buffcoloured. Leaves broadly elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, 6-20 mm. long, 111 above, paler beneath. Calyx tubular to mm. long, persistent. Corolla hypocrateriform, slightly zygomorphic, tube 2 to 3 times longer than calyx, pale violet: limb undulate, 1.5-4 cm. across, rounded lobes 1.2 cm. long, violet to purple with white ring at throat, fading to white with age. Fruit capsular, ovoid to globose, 1.7-2.2 cm. in diameter. A variable species widely distributed in tropical South America in humid 2-8 cm. wide, dark green somewhat inflated, 5-10 forests. Although members of this genus have long been recognized as toxic and have found wide employment in folk medicine, only recently has real evidence of the use of several species as hallucinogens been found. Brunfelsia grandiflora and B. Chiricaspi Plowman are valued for their intoxicating properties in Amazonian Colombia, Ecuador and Peru - especially amongst the Kofans and Jivaros of Ecuador. The leaves and bark are utilized. The chemistry of Brunfelsia is poorly understood. Whether or not the intoxicating effects are due to an alkaloid or another type of constituent is not known. A nitrogen-free compound, scopoletin, has been reported, but this constituent is not known to be hallucinogenic. This genus, named for the first great German botanist Otto Brunfels who died in 1534, is a tropical American group of perhaps forty species, several of which are horticulturally important; probably the best known is the yellow-to-white flowered shrub called lady of the night. Although the concept Brunfelsia grandiflora 1829, no illustration appeared until 1973. was published in 112 Datura inoxia Miller. Illustrated as Datura meteloides De Candolle ex Dunal in Fl. des Serres, ser. 2, 2 (1857) t. 1266. 113 SOLANACEAE Nightshade Family Miller, Gard. Dict., Ed. 8 (1768) Datura no. 5. Plant up to 6 feet tall, usually smaller. Leaves ovate, entire to unequally dentate, flowers white, sometimes slightly violet: corolla funnel-shaped, 10-toothed, 15-18 cm. long; limb 10-15 cm. wide; calyx half as long as corolla with unequal lobes; anthers white, 2 cm. long; style 13-18 cm. long. Capsule globose to ovoid, nodding, 4-6.5 cm. in diameter, with slender spines. Seeds brown. Known widely by the Mexican name of toloache, this beautiful but highly toxic species has had a long history as a sacred hallucinogen in the American Southwest and Mexico. Many tribes still employ it in ceremonies. The Yumans, for example, value it to induce \"dreams\" for gaining occult powers to predict the future. The Zunis believe that it belongs to the rain priests who are the only ones allowed to collect it: they put the powdered root into the eyes to commune with the feathered kingdom and chew the root to intercede for rain. The Yokuts take the seeds only once in a lifetime except for boys studying witchcraft who must undergo an intoxication once a year. Many Indians are of the opinion that supernatural powers can be acquired through the effects of this plant. Datura inoxia In ancient Mexico toloatzin was often added as an intoxicant to fermented maize beer - a practice still common amongst the Tarahumaras who consider Datura inoxia to be an hallucinogen inhabited, unlike peyote, by a malevolent spirit. Datura inoxia has been more widely known as D. meteloides DeCandolle ex Dunal. There are several other species of Datura used in the American Southwest and Mexico. The effects of all of these species are similar and are due to tropane alkaloids, especially to scopolamine. In the eastern part of North America, Datura Stramonium L. was employed as a sacred intoxicant. The Algonquins prepared a powerfully hallucinogenic drink called wysoccan apparently from this species. Boys undergoing adolescent rites were kept intoxicated with wysoccan for long periods during which \"... they became stark, staring mad, twenty days\" with no The earliest post-Linnaean illustration of Datura inoxia lished as D. meteloides in 1857. in which raving condition they were kept eighteen or to \"... unlive their former lives\" and begin manhood memories of their boyhood. was pub- 114 Latua pubiflora (Griseb.) Baillon. Illustrated in A. zenfam. 4, iii B, (1891) 12 (L,M) -flower only. Engler and K. Prantl, Natiirl. Pflan- SOLANACEAE Nightshade Family Latua (1888) 334. Shrub or small tree, 9-30 feet tall. Bark thin, reddish to greyish brown, streaked with fissures. Branches spiny: spines in leaf axils, 2 cm. long. Leaves elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, acute, entire to serrate, 3.5-12 cm. long, 1.5~1 cm. wide. Calyx campanulate, persistent, 8-10 pubiflora (Griseb.) Baillon, Hist. Plantes 9 115 cm. long, green to purple; corolla larger than calyx, urceolate, 3.5-4 long, 1.5 cm. in diameter at middle, densely pilose, magenta to red-violet. Fruit fleshy, globose, 2 cm. in diameter, green to yellow. Growing in humid forests in central Chile between 1500 and 2000 feet mm. in altitude. Mapuche Indian medicine men in Chile formerly employed this highly toxic plant in folk medicine and malevolently as an hallucinoclosely guarded used. The gen. It caused delirium and permanent madness. The doses were a secret. The plant apparently was not ritualistically leaves contain high percentages of hyoscyamine and scopolamine. Although the concept Latua pubiflora was first published in 1854 as Lycioplesium pubiflorum Grisebach, it was not illustrated until 1891, when drawings of the flowers alone were published. The first drawing of Methysticodendron Amesianum R. Leafl., Harvard Unzv. 17 (1955) pl. 1. E. Schultes. Illustrated in Bot. Mus. 117 SOLANACEAE Nightshade Family Methysticodendron Amesianum R. E. Schultes in Bot. Mus. Leafl., Harvard Univ. 17 (1955) 2. Tree up to 25 feet tall. Leaves membranaceous, very narrowly ligulate, marginally subundulate, minutely pilose on both surfaces, 20-26 cm. long, 1.3-2 cm. wide. Flowers up to 28 cm. long, apically opening to a width of 10-13 cm., strongly fragrant at sundown: calyx spathaceous, green; corolla divided 3\/5 to 4\/5 its length, usually with five lobes, white, spathulate, long acuminate, circinate, 14-16 cm. long. Known only from the Valley of Sibundoy in southern Colombia at about 7,500 feet. The Kamsa and Inga Indians of Sibundoy in southern Colombia use numerous solanaceous plants as hallucinogens, the most potent of which is Methysticodendron Amesianum. A drink prepared from the leaves and flowers serves as a medicine and as a narcotic employed in the diagnosis of the cause of sickness and death, to find lost articles and in the practice of witchcraft in general. The strong effects of the plant are due to its high content of scopolamine. This plant is an enigma. Some doubt exists that it represents a genus distinct from Brugmansia. Reproduced vegetatively, it may be an extremely aberrant clone of a Brugmansia to which genus it is obviously closely akin. One investigator called it Datura candida (Pers.) Safford cv. Culebra Bristol; it has also been suggested that it represents a cultivar of Brugmansia aurea Lagerheim. It has further been intimated that it is a species of Brugmansia highly atrophied as a result of viral infection, but there is no proof of this possibility. Another explanation holds that it has resulted from the action of a single pleiotropic gene mutation and that it represents only a monstrosity of a species of Brugmansia. Until the problem finds a solution and it can be referred to a definite species of Brugmansia without any doubt, recognition as Methysticodendron would seem to be warranted. The first botanical illustrations of Methysticodendron Amesianum are drawings published together with the original description of the genus. At the same time, a photograph of the habit and one of the leaves and flowers gathered for the preparation of the intoxicating drink were published (Bot. Mus. Leafl., Harvard Univ. 17 (1955) plates iii (habit), iv (leaves and flowers). 118 Hist. (1763) The first drawzng of Justicia pectoralis Jacquin. Illustrated in N. J. Jacquin, Sel. Stirp. Am. t. 3. ~ 119 ACANTHACEAE Acanthus Family var. Justicia pectoralisJacquin stenophyllaLeonard in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. 31 (1958) 615. Herb up to 1 foot tall. Leaf blades narrowly lanceolate, 2-6 cm. long, 2-8 mm. wide. Inflorescence often dense, up to 10 cm. long but usually shorter. Flowers small: calyx 2 mm. long, 0.35 mm. wide, puberulous; corolla white or violet, sometimes purple-spotted, 7-8 mm. long. Capsules 8 mm. long. This variety of Justicia pectoralis is known only from eastern Colombia and adjacent parts of Amazonian Brazil, where it is frequently semi-cultivated. Justicia pectoralis var. stenophylla is cultivated by Indians of the northwest Amazon for use as an admixture to the snuff prepared from Virola theiodora: the aromatic leaves are dried and pulverized. It is known amongst the Waikas of Brazil as mashihari. It is probable that the widespread Justicia pectoralis, differing from var. stenophylla primarily in having larger and broader leaves, may be similarly employed. According to some reports, this and several other species are utilized alone in the elaboration of an hallucinogenic snuff. Tryptamines have been reported from several species of Justicia, but this report needs confirmation. The earliest illustration of Justicia pectoralis appeared in 1763. The earlxest drawxng of Psychotria viridis Ruiz Fl. Peruv. et Chxl. 2 (1799) t. 210, fig. b. et Pavon. Illustrated in Ruiz and Paa6n, 121 RUBIACEAE Madder Family Psychotria viridis Ruiz et Pavdn, Fl. Peruv. 2 (1799) 61, t. 210, fig. b. Shrub or small tree up to 14 feet tall. Stipules large, brownish, caducous. Leaves obovate or obovate-oblong, basally long-cuneate, 8-15 cm. long, 2.5-5 cm. wide. Inflorescence terminal, up to 10 cm. long. Flowers sessile in glomerules, very small (usually 4 mm. long), greenish white. Fruit small. Ranging throughout the Amazon basin north to Central America and Cuba. In several far-separated parts of the Amazon Valley, the leaves of Psychotria viridis are occasionally added to ayahuasca, the hallucinogenic drink made from Banisteriopsis Caapi. In Ecuador, the Kofan Indians add these leaves \"to lengthen and strengthen\" the visual hallucinations. In the Acre of Brazil, this additive is likewise used. The Kashinahua of eastern Peru and adjacent Brazil also add leaves of an unidentified species of Psychotria to the beverage. Psychotria viridis apparently is never employed alone as an hallucinogen. The leaves contain the psychoactive N,N-dimethyltryptamine, a compound which is believed to be inactive when taken orally unless it is accompanied by a monoamine oxidase inhibitor. The drink prepared from Banisteriopsis Caapi contains \/3-carboline alkaloids which act as monoamine oxidase inhibitors, so that the tryptamine, when employed as an additive, does alter the intoxicating effects. The earliest figure of Psychotria viridis was published with the description of the species in 1799. 122 Lobelia Tupa Linnaeus. Illustrated in Bot. Mag. 52 (1825) t. 2550. CAMPANULACEAE Bell Flower Family Tupa Linnaeus, Sp. PI., Ed. 2 (1763) 1318. Herb, sometimes basally woody, up to 6 feet tall. Leaves oblongovate or oblong-lanceolate, 13-20 cm. long, 3-6 cm. wide, slightly tomentose on both surfaces. Raceme up to 60 cm. long with many Lobelia 123 blood-red flowers arising from conspicuous bracts. Calyx green; corolla up to 3.5 cm. long, cleft at back its entire length, the segments apically united; filaments united into a tube, bearing bearded, coherent anthers. This polymorphic herb of the southern Andes of South America is widely recognized as a toxic species. It is known by its native name tupa and in Spanish as tabaco del diablo (\"devil's tobacco\"). The plant is esteemed in Chile as a narcotic and as a medicine. Peasants treat toothache with the juice, and the Mapuche Indians smoke the leaves for inebriation. Field research has not yet established the truly hallucinogenic nature of the intoxication, but the plant has definite psychoactive properties. The leaves contain the alkaloids lobeline, lobelanidine and norlobelanidine. Lobelia Tupa is one of the most spectacular species of the genus with its scarlet flowers and was early introduced to European horticulture. The earliest drawing of Lobelia ticultural publication. Tupa appeared in 1825 in an hor- 124 Tagetes lucida Cavanilles. Illustrated in Caaanxlles, Icones 3 (1795) t. 264. 125 COMPOSITAE Composite Family Tagetes lucida Cavanilles, Icones 3 (1795) 33, t. 264. A strongly sweet-scented perennial herb up to 11\/2 feet tall. Leaves opposite, ovate-lanceolate to oblong-lanceolate, serrulate, punctate with oil glands. Inflorescences 10-12 mm. in diameter, 2- to 3-rayed, yellow to orange. Akenes with a pappus of 2 or 3 short scales and 2 longer awn-like bristles. Tagetes lucida is native to Mexico, where it is very abundant in Nayarit and Jalisco. This relative of our common garden marigold was known to the Aztecs as yahutli and is now called yauhtli in Mexico. According to early Spanish reports, it was powdered and thrown into the faces of captives \"to dull their senses\" before sacrifices. Today, the Huichol Indians ceremonially smoke a mixture of Tagetes lucida and a preparation called ye-tumutsali - for inducNicotiana rustica L. ing visions. Smoking of this mixture is frequently associated with the use of peyote (Lophophora Williamsii (Lem.) Coulter) and the drinking of tesguino (fermented maize) or cai (a fermented cactus beverage). Taken with these other psychoactive preparations, ye-tumutsali is said to produce clearer hallucinations but less intense visions. Since this Tagetes is usually more abundant than the Nicotiana, it is frequently smoked alone for its effects. The genus Tagetes apparently lacks alkaloids. It does, however, possess essential oils, thiophene derivatives, saponines, tannins, cyanogenic glycosides and coumarine derivatives. The chemical constituent responsible for its psychoactivity has not yet been determined. The Spanish botanist Cavanilles published the earliest illustration of Tagetes lucida in 1795. - "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23515","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070a76e.jpg","title":"1981-41-3","volume":41,"issue_number":3,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolia virginiana in Massachusetts","article_sequence":1,"start_page":36,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24791","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14e8126.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":2,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Magnolia virginiana in Massachusetts by PETER DEL TREDICI History The sweet bay magnolia swamp in Gloucester, Massachusetts has been a botanical shrine since its discovery in 1806 Early New England naturalists and botanists of all types, from Henry David Thoreau to Asa Gray, made pilgrimages to the site of this northernmost colony of Magnolza virginiana L.* (fig. 1). The local residents of Gloucester were so impressed with a \"southern\" plant growing this far north that they changed the name of the Kettle Cove section of the town to Magnolia in the mid-1800s. It is probably no coincldence that this name change occurred at the same time the area was starting up its tourist trade. In addition to its isolation, the Gloucester Magnolia population was remarkable for having escaped notice until 1806 in an area that was settled in 1623. This fact has led at least one author to speculate that the colony was not wild but escaped from a cultivated plant (Anonymous, 1889). However, the overwhelming consensus of earlier botanists is that the population is, in fact, native. Whatever its origin, the swamp remains today the unique and mysterious place it has been for almost 200 years. Very little has been written about the magnolia swamp in recent years. The latest, and best, article about it was wntten by Dr George Kennedy, and appeared in 1916 in Rhodora, the ~ournal of the New * The next nearest population of M. U1rg1722a11Q is growing 150 miles to the south on the eastern shore of Long Island, New York (Little, 1971). 36 Figure 1 Thzs drawtng of Magnoha vzrgimana appeared zn 1849 zn Asa Gray's Genera Plantarum (p! 23), with the captzon a branch zn flower of the Northern vanety,from Gloucester, Massachusetts, of the natural szze \" \" 38 England Botanical Club. Dr. Kennedy summarized the history of the stand, and cleared up the confusion about who discovered it by publishing a letter he found, written by the Honorable Theophilus Parsons to the Reverend Manassah Cutler in 1806. The letter captures the tion of the moment of emo- discovery: Reverend and Dear Sir: In ndmg through the woods in Gloucester, that are between Kettle Cove and Fresh Water Cove I discovered a flower to me quite new and unexpected in our forests. This was last Tuesday week [July 22, 1806]. A shower approaching prevented my leaving the carriage for examination, but on my return, on Friday last, I collected several of the flowers, in different stages, with the branches and leaves, and on mspection it is unquestionably the Magnolia glauca Mr. Epes Sargent has traversed these woods for flowers and not having discovered it, supposes it could not have been there many years. It was unknown to the people of Gloucester and Manchester until I showed it to them. I think you have traversed the same woods herborizing. Did you discover it? If not, how long has it been there? It grows in a swamp on the western or left side of the road as you go from Manchester to Gloucester, and before you come to a large hill over which the road formerly passed. It is so near the road as to be visible even to the careless eye of the traveler. Supposmg the knowledge of this flower, growing so far north, might gratify you, I have made this hasty communication. Your humble servant, Theoph. Parsons The existence of the magnolia swamp was first announced to the in 1814 by Jacob Bigelow in the first edition of his famous Plants of Boston: general public The only species of this superb genus, that has been found native in our climate. It attains the height of a dozen feet, but is sometimes killed down to the roots by severe winters The bark is highly aromatic, and possesses medicinal properties. It grows plentifully in a sheltered swamp at Gloucester, Cape Ann, twenty five miles from Boston, which is perhaps its most northern boundary. - June, ... July. And on September 22, 1858, Henry David Thoreau visited the swamp and wrote about it in his Journal: Sept 22. A clear cold day, wind northwest Leave Salem for the Cape on foot ... We now kept the road to Gloucester, leaving the shore a mile or more to the right, Fzgure 2 tng sn An the old C. S Sargent estate Photograph by P Del Tredzct. unusualty old, taU, multz-stemmed spec:men of Magnoha vtr~Znana growtn Brookltne, Massachusetts The tree zs 10 meters tall 40 to see the magnolia swamp. This was perhaps mile and a half beyond Kettle Cove. After passing over a sort of height of land in the woods, we took a path to the left, which within a few rods became a corduroy road in the swamp. Within three or four rods on the west side of this, and perhaps ten or fifteen from the highroad, was the magnolia. It was two to seven or eight feet high, but distinguished by its large and still fresh green leaves, which had not begun to fall. I saw last year's shoots which had died down several feet, and probably this will be the fate of most which has grown this year. The swamp was an ordinary one, not so wet but we got about very well. The bushes of this swamp were not generally more than six feet high. There was another locality the other side of the road. wishing a about Clouds of doubt concerning the survival of the swamp started to gather in 1875, in A Report on the Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally In the Fo ests of Massachusetts by George B. Emerson. He noted \"scores\" of trees broken down in a single season by people who sold the flowers in Boston and Salem. By 1889, the situation had deteriorated to the point that J. G. Jack, the dendrologist at the Arnold Arboretum wrote: So eagerly have the flowers been sought for by collectors, and especially by those who wished to make money out of the sale of both plants and flowers, that there has been some apprehension that the day would soon come when the Magnolia could only be classed in New England floras as one of the indigenous plants of the past. ' good news also appeared in this article, for he goes on to hope is now entertained, however, that the owners of the woods where it occurs, appreciating its rarity and interest, will take care that its existence, in a wild state, may be perpetuated.\" And indeed it was, for in that same year, 1889, Mr. Samuel E. Sawyer, the owner of the swamp, set up a trust fund, to be administered by a board of trustees, to manage the land. He chose to call it \"Ravenswood Park\" some But say, \"The and instructed that it be left open for and made accessible to the general public. This great display of generosity, however, did not stem the tide of destruction. Dr. Kennedy in his Rhodora article quotes a letter from C. E. Faxon, the illustrator at the Arnold Arboretum, to a Mr. Walter Deane, which shows the condition of the swamp in the summer of 1913: April 17, 1916. Dear Mr. Deane: I have just found in Garden and Forest an interesting letter from Mr. Fuller giving a marginal note from Judge 41 Davis's copy of Bigelow's Plants of Boston ... When I first visited the swamp some 45 years ago there were plenty of good specimens all about, sometimes 15 feet tall or more. It was easy to find them, as the boys who sold the flowers on the Boston trains had made trails from one plant to another all over the swamp. When I visited the place with Dr Kennedy two years ago we found with the aid of the Tree Warden of the town, only two little plants a few feet high that had escaped the Magnoha hunters - such had been the destruction! Yours faithfully, C. E. Faxon More recently the story has developed a more cheerful turn. When I visited the swamp during the winter of 1981, I estimated there to be somewhere between 40 and 50 multi-stemmed clumps of Magnolza vtrginiana. Most of the stems were 2 to 4 meters tall, but there was one 6 meters high. Stem diameters ranged from 2 to 10 centimeters in thickness. About 1970, the trustees of Ravenswood Park thinned out some of the larger trees that were shading the magnolias that grew in the back part of the swamp. The effect of this selective thinning has so been a great increase in the vigor and fruitfulness of the plants much so that in the fall of 1980, I managed to collect 938 fertile seeds from about half a dozen plants. By no means was this the total seed production of the colony, only what I could collect without doing damage to the trees. In Jack's 1889 article, he listed the common plants of the swamp, and it is clear that it contained a great degree of diversity. When I visited the swamp in 1981, 1 had Jack's list with me so I was able to make some compansons As for the trees, not much has changed: hemlock (Tsuga canadensas), white pine (Pmus strobus) and red maple (Acer rubrum) still dominate the canopy. In the shrub layer, however, there are fewer kinds of plants now than there were in 1889. Presently, blueberries (Vaccmiu~n corymbosum), sweet pepperbush (Clethra alnifolaa), catbner (Smxlax rotundifolia) and tall Os~uundct ferns are most abundant. Interestingly, the shade-tolerant evergreen inkberry (Ilex glabra), common in the swamp today, was not mentioned by Jack. Conversely, Jack reported that the sun-loving cranberry (Vaccanxum macrocarpum) grew thickly in the swamp in 1889 but I couldn't find it anywhere. This absence of cranberry along with the decrease in the diversity of shrubs suggests that in 1889 the swamp was not as grown up with trees as it is presently. It also suggests that a penodic thmning of the canopy is the best way to maintain the swamp in a healthy condition. In the spring of 1982, the Arnold Arboretum, in conjunction with the trustees of Ravenswood Park, plans to replant part of the swamp with seedlings grown from seed collected at the park in 1980. We will - Figure 3 home zn An evergreen form of Magnolia vzrgimana growzng zn MzLton, Massachusetts The tree ss 9 meters taU The the front yard of a pnvate photograph was taken zn February. Photograph by P Del Tredzcz Ftgure 4 The Mslton magnola, photographed evergreen, canopy. The photograph was taken Treduw from below, showtng the then, sn February. Photograph by P but Del concentrate our efforts on those parts of the swamp where the magnolia is not now growing but probably was originally. Our hope is that some day the swamp will contain as much magnolia as it did when it was discovered. Preparatory to the planting, the Board of Trustees plan to do to some reach the val. thinning of the now dense canopy to allow more hght seedlings, thereby increasing the chances of their survi- Other forms of Magnolia virginiana In 1919, C. S. Sargent suggested that there may be two botanical varieties of Magnolia virginiana, a southern one, var. australis, and a northern one, var. virgzniana. The southern form is evergreen, larger and more pubescent than the northern form. Subsequent authors have either contested or supported the validity of such a separation and to those articles the interested reader is referred (Ashe, 1931; McDaniel, 1966 and 1967; Spongberg, 1976). Suffice it to say that the situation is very complex and confused and that many different forms of Magnolia virgmzana of uncertain origin can be found. In the vicinity of the Arnold Arboretum, for example, there are two very striking, and very different specimens The first one is 10 meters tall, multi-stemmed, deciduous and very mgorous. It is growing on the old C. S. Sargent estate, Holm Lea, in Brookline, Massachusetts (fig. 44 2), and is probably part of Sargent's original plantmg. The second specimen is a smaller, younger tree, with a single stem, growing in the front yard of a pnvate home in Milton, Massachusetts. The remarkable feature of this plant is its strongly upright habit and its evergreen foliage held through~the most severe winters (fig. 3, 4.) I have not yet determmed whether this plant corresponds to McDaniel's definition of variety australzs, but I plan to do so during the summer when blooms are produced. Regardless of its botamcal name, it is a fascinating tree, that suggests that a reliably evergreen magnolia for Massachusetts may not be just a fantasy. Unfortunately, nothing is known about the tree's history except that it was planted by the Blue View Nursenes of Canton, Massachusetts in the 1950s. The existence of these two different forms of Magnolia virginiana, along with the smaller native form, suggests that the enterprising plant breeder has good material to work with when selecting for a hardy, evergreen magnolia. It is also possible that by crossing the Gloucester form with some of the hardiest clones of Magnolia grandiflora, that evergreen hybnds hardier than Magnolza 'Freeman' may be possible (McDamel, 1966). Seed Germination On October 13, 1980, 938 sound seeds were collected from various plants of Magnolza uzrgznzana growing at Ravenswood Park. On this day, the fruit aggregates were just beginning to crack open, revealing the bright scarlet seeds inside (see back cover). In processmg the seeds, the first step was to clean them. This was done by allowing them to soften up in a plastic bag for a week, and then washing them in running water. Once the seeds were clean, I noticed that the hard bony layer on all of them was a creamy white (fig. 5). This is cunous since all illustrations I could find show this layer to be black (Sargent, 1890; Schopmeyer, 1974; Wood, 1974). However, Professor J. C. McDaniel of the University of Illinois has told me that he has seen plants with white or mottled bony layers. Once the fleshy layer was removed, the seeds were air dried overnight and placed in a moist stratification medium consisting of half peat moss and half sand. They were then put in a refrigerator kept at 2C. Every two weeks, one hundred seeds were removed and sown in medium grade vermiculite and placed in a greenhouse kept at constant 18C with supplementary light from 4 p.m. to midmght. The purpose of the expenment was to see exactly what the mimmum chilling requirement of M. vzrgzniana was, given that the standard recommended treatment is a rather broad recommendation of three to six months (Schopmeyer, 1974). The results of the experiment can be seen in Table 1. It should be noted that while unchilled seeds did give 12% germination, they did so only very slowly and irregularly in comparison to the chilled seeds. 5 Cleaned seeds of Magnoha vtrgtmana The black seeds on the left are from the tree at the C S Sargent estate (figure 2) The white seeds tn the mtddle are from the Gloucester populahon, and the mottled seeds on the right are from the evergreen Mt(ton tree (figure 3) Photograph by P Del Tred:et Figure Table 1 Germmation behavior of cleaned seeds of Magnolia vxrgxnxana. * Germination is defined surface as the emergence of the hypocotyl above the soil When the seeds of M. virginiana are shed (and indeed, in all magnolias that I have observed or read about), the embryo is minute, being less than 20% of the length of the seed itself. When the seeds are taken from stratification, regardless of whether it is for one month or four months, the embryo shows little or no change in size. However, immediately upon sowing, the embryo starts to grow, so that after 14 days the embryo is about 50% as long as the seed and after 30 days, the cotyledons are almost as long as the seed and the radicle has broken through the seed coat. After 40 days, the germination is usu- Figure 6 Seed germ:natzon sequence of Magnoha vm~ruana after 90 days of cold stratifzcatton (a) the day the seeds were sown, (b) 14 days after sowrng, (c) 32 days after sowrng, (d) 40 days after sowtng, gerrninatwn nearly complete I 47 ally complete (Fig. 6). In contrast, the unchilled seed showed no uniformity. After 112 days, some embryos were still at the same developmental stage as they were when they were shed from the plant while others were fully germinated. A germination process similar to that of Magnoha vzrgzniana, where there is a chilling requirement in order to allow the embryo to complete its development, has been reported for M. grandzflora (Evans, 1933), and M acumznata (Afanasiev, 1937), and my own observations have shown that it holds true for M. tripetala and M. macrophylla as well. It is also true for another member of the Magnoliaceae, the tulip tree (Lzrzodendron tulxpifera) (Wean and Guard, 1940). In effect, what is happening is that the underdeveloped embryo requires a chilling penod in order to remove the block that keeps it from developing. However, the embryo will not grow until it is moved to a warm environment. Thus, Magnoha seeds require a cold penod (of about two months) followed by a warm period (of about one month) before they will germinate. What looks hke an ordinary chilling requirement is, in reality, a special type of double dormancy As far as I can tell, this dormancy type has never been recognized by seed dormancy specialists (Crocker and Barton, 1953; Stokes, 1965; Villiers, 1972; Mayer and Po[lakoff-Mayber, 1975). The situation in Magnolia contrasts with other dicotyledons that shed ripe seeds with underdeveloped embryos. In the case of Panax ginseng (Grushvitskij, 1956), and Ilex opaca (Ives, 1923), the tiny embryo grows to full size in warm temperatures but then will not germinate unless it receives a chilling period of 2 to 3 months. A variation of this type of dormancy is shown by Vzburnum acerzfolxum (Giersbach, 1937) in which the radicle germinates during the warm penod, but the epicotyl requires a chilling in order to grow. In the case of Viburnum nudum, on the other hand, both the radicle and the epicotyl grow to maturity and germinate without requiring any chilling. Finally, in the case of the herbaceous cow parsnip, Heracleum sphondylium (Stokes, 1952), the underdeveloped embryo actually grows to full size during the chilling process and will even germinate in the refrigerator, somethmg Magnolia never does. Thus, within the category of dicots which shed their seeds with underdeveloped embryos (which I shall arbitrarily define as having embryos less than 25% ofthe length of the mature seed), we have four basic germination behamors: (1) plants which require only warm conditions; (2) plants which require a warm period and then a cold period; (3) plants which require only a cold period; and (4) plants which require a cold period followed by a warm period. It should be kept in mind, of course, that the lack of a precise definition of germination complicates this otherwise neat situation. Villiers (1972) sums up the basic problem that one faces m discussing seeds with immature embryos, by noting that: \"It is difficult to decide whether this embryo development is part of the final stage of seed development or the initial stage of the germination process.\" In spite 48 of this intrinsic difficulty, the type of dormancy shown by Magnolza and Lirzodendron is distinct enough from those types already recognized to merit a classification of its own. Acknowledgments The author wishes to thank Mr. AI Bussewitz for finding the quotation from Thoreau, Mr. Hyde Cox, the senior trustee of Ravenswood Park, for his historical perspective, and Dr. R. E. Weaver for his editorial comments and encouragement. References M W37. A physiological study of dormancy in seed of Magnolta acuminata. Comell Umv Agric. Exp Stn Mem 208 1-37 Anonymous. 1889 Garden and Forest 2: 612. Ashe, W W 1931 Notes on Magnoha and other woody plants Torreya 31 (2): 39 Bigelow, J 1814 Florula Bostontensts A collectton of plants of Boston and its enatrons Boston: Cummmgs & Hzlhard. Crocker, W, & Barton, L V 1953. Phystology of seeds. Waltham (Ma)~ Chromca Botanica Co. Emerson, G B 1875 A report on the trees and shrubs growtng naturally tn the forests of Massachusetts 2d ed Boston Lrttle, Brown, and Co. Evans, C R 1933. Germination behavior of Magnolia grand:fiora. Bot. Gaz. 94: 729-754 Giersbach, J 1937 Germination and seedling production of species of Vxburnum. Contr Boyce Thompson Inst. 9: 79-90 Gray, A. 1848. Genera Plantarum Vol 1 New York: G P Putnam Grushvttslu,l,I V 1956 Instructions for developing measures of accelerated germination of ginseng seeds (In Russ ) Bot Zhur. 41. 1021-1023. Ives, S A 1923 Maturation and gernunation of seeds ofllex opaca Bot. Gaz. 76: 60-77 Jack, J. G. 1889. Magnolia glauca in its most northern home. Garden and Forest 2 363-364. Kennedy, G. G 1916 Some histoncal data regarding the sweet bay and its station on Cape Ann Rhodora 18: 205-212 Little, E I Jr 1971 Atlas of Untted States trees, Vol 1 Conifers and Important Hardwoods Misc Publ 1146 U S D A Forest Service Mayer, A. M., & PolJakoff-Mayber, A. 1975 The germination of seeds 2d ed. New York Pergamon Press McDamel, J. C 1966 Variations in the sweet bay magnolias Morrts Arb. Bull. Afanasiev, . 17(1) 7-12 1967 Magnolia atrgxntana var australzs 'Henry Hicks', a new evergreen magnolia. Amer Hort Mag 46 230-235 Sargent, C. S 1890. Silva of North America. Vol. 1 Boston Houghton and Mifflin. 49 - North American Trees. Bot Gaz 67(3): 231-232. Schopmeyer, C S., ed 1974 Seeds of woody plants in the Unzted States. Agnculture Handbook No 450 U S.D A Forest Service 1919 Notes on Spongberg, S A 1976 Magnohaceae hardy in temperate North Amenca Jour. Arn Arb 57(3) 250-312 Stokes, P. 1952 A physiological study of embryo development in Heracleum sphondylium L. Ann. Bot N S 16 441-447, 572-576. 1965 Temperature and seed dormancy Encyl Plant Physxol 15(2): 746-803 Berlin Spnnger-Verlag. Thoreau, H D 1962 The Journal of Henry D. Thoreau Reprint of 1906 ed New York: Dover Publ T Kozlowski ed New York~ Acaderruc Press Wean, R. E & Guard, A. T. 1940. The viability and collection of seed of Lxrxodendron tul:pxfera L Jour. For. 38: 815-817. Wood, C E. Jr. 1974 A student's atlas offlowenng plants some dicotyledons of eastern North Amerzca New York~ Harper and Row Villiers, T A 1972 Seed dormancy In, Seed Biology Vol. 2, T "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolia salicifolia: An Arboretum Introduction","article_sequence":2,"start_page":50,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24793","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14e856f.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":2,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Magnolia salicifolia An Arboretum Introduction by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Through the years, species of Magnolza the Arnold Arboretum has introduced several into western gardens from eastern Asia, the region in which the genus attains its greatest diversity. The maJority of these introductions, however, has not proved hardy in the Boston area, and relatively few Asiatic species of Magnoha are included in the arboretum's living collections. We are particularly unfortunate that the several spectacularly ornamental species of section Yulania (including M. dawsonxana Rehder & Wilson, M. sargentxana Rehder & Wil- and M. sprengen Pampanini) have not withstood the New Enclimate. The likelihood that these and several other Asiatic species collected by E. H. Wilson would probably not prove hardy in Boston prompted C. S. Sargent, the arboretum's first director, to ship Wilson's collection of magnolias obtained in China to Leon Chenault in Orleans in the south of France with the request that they be propagated and distributed as widely as possible. Sargent's correspondence with Chenault (Sargent, 1913) states that of Wilson's Chinese magnolia collections at the arboretum, only one or two individuals of each remained, and that these involved too much labor since they were in pots that had to be placed in a pit for protection each winter. Far greater success, however, has been achieved in the culture of son, gland 50 Illustratim of Magnolia salicifolia from Curtis' Botamcal Magazine (139 (1913) t 8483). 52I Asiatic species of section Buergena at the Arnold Arboretum, and all of the species thus far tested have proved hardy in the Boston climate. The first plants of this Asiatic group to be received at the arboretum directly from Asia were raised from seed collected on the northern Japanese island of Hokkaido. These seeds were sent to Sargent in 1876 (four years after the establishment of the arboretum) by Professor William Smith Clark, a New Englander from the University of Massachusetts who was in Japan helping to establish the Hokkaido Agricultural College in Sapporo. Plants from Clark's seed were subsequently designated as Magnolia kobus Maxim. var. borealis (now included within var. kobus), which Sargent distinguished from typical M. kobus due to it northern origin and supposed more treelike habit. The original plant raised from Clark's seed was planted at Sargent's estate, Holm Lea, in Brookline, and plants for the arboretum were subsequently obtained from that tree. The first magnolia to be introduced directly by the Arnold Arboretum was collected by Sargent himself during his first trip to Japan in 1892. Together with his nephew, Philip Codman, and James Herbert Veitch, who Sargent and Codman had met on Hokkaido, Sargent made an ascent of Mt. Hakkoda on northern Honshu (the main Japanese Island) in early October of that year. While the trek to the summit of the mountian was specifically to see and collect seed of the then little known fir, Ables marzeszi Mast., the dominant forest tree at the summit, Sargent and Veitch returned with seed collections of Magnolia salzczfolia (Sieb. & Zucc.) Maxim. collected on the lower slopes of the mountain. Both Sargent and Veitch published accounts of their travels, and Veitch included in A Traveler's Notes a bnef account of their ascent of Mt. Hakkoda. He wrote that \"Within a few hundred feet of the top of the mountain we came to a collection of low straw huts in which we passed two nights. They were too low to stand in, and as they were without window or cknmney, we were only glad to remain at full length to avoid the fumes of the smoke of the large fire rendered necessary by the intense cold. Immediately above these huts lies the \" forest of Abies Marzeszz, a most handsome and striking fir... ' (Veitch, 1896, p. 130). Veitch failed to mention Magnolza salicifolia, probably because he was too impressed with the Japanese white bark magnolia, M. hypoleuca Sieb. & Zucc., which the climbers encountered as a large forest tree on the lower slopes of Mt. Hakkoda. Sargent (1894), by contrast, gave no personal recollections of the climb in his Forest Flora of Japan but limited his observations to the plants seen and collected on his Japanese trip. He also included an illustration [Plate 4] of a branchlet of M. salicifolia with a mature fruit aggregate that was drawn from the dried specimens he had collected on Mt. Hakkoda. He wrote (Sargent, 1894, pp. 10, 11) that \"On Mount Hakkoda Magnolia salzcifolia is a common plant between 2,000 and 3,000 feet above sea-level. As it appears there it is a slender tree fifteen or twenty Illustratzon of Magnolia salicifolia (pl 4) from Charles Sprague Sargent's Japan pubhshed by Houghton Mzjjlzn and Co, Boston, m 1894 Forest Flora of feet high .. Magnolia salicxfolxa is new to cultivation, and we were fortunate in obtainmg a good supply of seeds, by means of which it is to be hoped, this interesting tree will soon appear in gardens.\" Veitch's share of the seeds of Magxzolxa salxcxfolxa, which were handled by the Veitch family's famous Royal Exotic Nursery in Chelsea, England, failed to grow, but those brought back to the Arnold Arboretum by Sargent and Codman were successfully germinated. Sargent and Codman returned not only with the Mt. Hakkoda seed but also with seed from an isolated plant ofM. salxczfolza that was located a month later when they were collecting 200 miles further south in the hills below Mt. Ontake. The species is now known to have a wide distribution in Japan (Kurata, 1971, distribution map, p. 175), occurring on Honshu, Sknkoku, and Kyushu, where it grows at moderate elevations in beech and oak forests pnmarily in the Sea of Japan drainage. It appears that germination must have been sufficient for Sargent 54I share either seedlings or young plants with the Veitch firm, since the species was listed in their 1902 catalogue (Bean, 1973, p. 125). Treseder (1978, p. 125), however, states that Magnoha salzcifolza was probably not introduced into European gardens until 1906 when a plant was sent to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, by the Yokohama Nursery Company of Japan. Moreover, it is not evident from the arboretum's records if plants were grown at the Arnold Arboretum from both the Hakkoda and Ontake collections or only from the former. It is also not known if Sargent distributed his seedhngs widely in North America; unfortunately, none of the plants ofM. salzcifolza growing in our living collections today can be traced back directly to Sargent's introduction. When Sargent introduced Magnoha salzczfolia into cultivation, its flowers were apparently unknown to botarusts. The species had been described as early as 1846 by Siebold and Zuccanni, who placed it in the genus Buergerza, but m 1872 it was transferred to Magnolza by the Russian botanist, Maximowicz. Considering the fact that each spring the plants are covered with a profusion of flowers that almost obscure the slender, twiggy branches, it is difficult to think that the flowers of such a profusely flonferous species were unknown until after its introduction into cultivation. Like other species of sect. Buergetta, the flowers of Magnolia salicifolza appear before the plants have come into leaf, and the plants are usually covered by the white flowers (even at an early age) that emerge from the silvery- or yellowish-hairy terminal buds. These buds differ from the smaller, yellowish or blackish vegetative buds that are finely silky hairy or occasionally glabrous, and flowering occurs during the first warm days of spring, usually toward the end of April at the Arnold Arboretum. The flowers are often faintly fragrant, are held more-or-less horizontally at the ends of the branchlets on glaborus or slightly hairy flower stalks, and are often subtended by a small, expandmg leaf. The petal-like structures that give the flowers their beauty are botanically termed tepals and consist of two types There is an outer whorl of three (rarely more) very small tepals (up to 3.5 cm. long by 1 cm. wide), and by comparison to the inner tepals, each looks like a small sepal. The two (rarely three) inner whorls consist of six (rarely to twelve) petallike tepals that usually measure between 5 and 12 cm. in length and 2 and 4 cm. in width. Each of these petaloid tepals is broadly spatulate or straplike in outline and is snowy white except for the lower portion on the outer surface, which is sometimes greenish or flushed pink. The size (and probably the weight) of the individual tepals often cause them to droop, and the flowers to appear rather floppy and shapeless. If the center of the flower is examined numerous yellowish or whitish, often pinkish-tinged stamens will be seen immediately below the small, greenish, protruding gynoecium or female reproductive portion of the flower. As the flowers age, or if a late spring frost damages them, the tepals turn brownish and fall to the ground. If pollination to I 55 has been affected, the gynoecium, a spindle-like structure that consists of an aggregation of small carpels, remains on the brachlets and will gradually develop into a mature fruit aggregate as the growing season progresses. By late summer and fall it will have achieved a cylindrical shape and attain a length of up to 7.5 cm. Occasionally these aggregates of mature carpels, termed follicles, will be symmetrical, but usually (due to the unequal development of seeds m the individual follicles and the complete abortion of others) the aggregates become twisted or curved. Initially green, the aggregates become a dull pink or reddish as the individual follicles split open and the red seeds are exposed and pushed out and hang suspended from the follicle walls on thin threads. Long before the fruit aggregates mature but shortly after the flowers have browned and as the tepals drop to the ground, the leaves from the terminal and lateral vegetative buds begin to expand and the plants come into leaf. The leaves of Magnolia salicifolia are generally needed for the correct identification of the species since the flowers are very difficult to distinguish from those ofMagnolxa kobus, another Japanese species of section Buergeria. Each leaf is borne on a yellowish leaf stalk 12-20 mm. long, and the blades are usually lanceolate or oblong-lanceolate in outline, widest at or below the middle, and with acute to almost rounded apices, irregularly wavy margins, and tapering to almost rounded bases. In general appearance the leaves are suggestive of those several species of willow, and this similarity has given rise to the use of the common name, willow-leaf magnolia. When the leaves are crushed, or if the branchlets are snapped or bruised, they emit a pleasing lemony or anise-like odor that has given rise to another common name, anise magnolia. While the upper surfaces of the leaves are dull green and usually without any hairs, the pale green lower leaf surfaces are sometimes covered with a whitish bloom and are always very finely and inconspicuously hairy over the entire surface or at least adjacent to the yellowish-green midveins. A hand lens is often needed to detect these hairs. The combination of leaf shape and lower leaf surface pubescence is diagnostic for the species and allows for correct identification variable in habit, and they appear to be very tolerant of a wide range of soils and exposures. Sargent (1894, p. 10) noted that on Mt. Hakkoda this magnolia \"is a slender tree fifteen or twenty feet high, with stems three or four inches thick, covered with pale smooth bark, and sometimes solitary, or more commonly in clusters of three or four.\" Richard E. Weaver and I were fortunate to collect seeds of Magnolia salicifolia during our arboretum-sponsored collecting trip to Japan in 1977, and our seeds were collected from small multi-stemmed shrubs that grew to about eight feet in height in the densely shaded understory of the deciduous forest on the slopes of Mt. Kashi near Nikko. These plants were growing on relatively steep slopes and on the shoulder of the trail, and it is (Spongberg, 1976a, Christensen, 1980). Plants of Magnolza salzczfolza are quite The buds archtves and flowers of Magnolia sahcifoha Photographs from the Arnold Arboretum that the plants were in well drained soils. Sargent observed Mt. Hakkoda the plants grow \"in low wet situations, generally near streams,\" and he surmised that it is a moisture-loving plant. Kurata (1971, p. 18) wntes that \"This magnolia is not uncommon in the cool-temperate forests in Japan, especially on the Japan Sea side in Honshu, favoring rather dry sites along mountain-ridges.\" At the Arnold Arboretum we have been equally successful in growing Magnolza salzcifolza on the margin of the Leitneria Swamp along Meadow Road, as well as in the better drained soils of the gentle slope below the Arborway wall. In both of these locations our plants have formed rather slender, pryamidal, somewhat fastigiate single-trunked trees with dull silvery or brownish-gray bark, although other plants known in cultivation are large, multi-stemmed shrubs or rounded-crowned probable on that trees. The variability in plant habit as well as in the size, shape, and degree of glaucousness of the under surfaces of the leaves have been the basis on which several botanists and horticulturists have described variants ofMagxzolza salxczfolxa (see Millais, 1927; Johnstone, 1955; and Treseder, 1978). And, it is my opinion (Spongberg, 1976a) that this variability, coupled with variation in the number and size of the inner, petaloid-like tepals of the flowers (cf. Kurata, 1971, pl. 9), led to the mistaken recognition of seedlings ofM. salicifolia that arose in cultivation as hybrids. In two of the three mstances in which putative hybrids involving M. salzczfolza were described, it was suspected that other species of section Buergeria were the pollen parents. Thus Rehder (1939) described a hybrid between the anise magnolia and M. i stellata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Blackburn, the star magnolia (which is sometimes retained as a distinct species, M. stellata), gmmg the name M. x proctorzana to the hybrid group, while S.A. Pearce (1952) gave the collective name M. x hewenszs to presumed hybrids between M. salzczfolia and M kobus var. kobus. The third hybrid recognized that presumably involved M. salicifolia as the seed parent and M. x soulangzana as the pollen parent was named M. x slavznii by Bernard Harkness in 1954. However, this putative trihybrid was later (Harkness, 1961) reduced to the synonomy ofM. x proctorzana since its chromosome number, 2n 38, is the same as that of M. salzczfolxa and not what was to be expected if M. x soulan95, 114, had been the pollen parent. gzana, 2n While it is well known that magnolias hybridize freely in cultivation (see Spongberg, 1976a & 1976b, and Treseder, 1978), and a new magnolia cultivar is described and named elsewhere in this issue of Arnoldia that is considered to be a putative hybnd, the detection of chance magnolia hybrids should be based on a careful analysis that includes a review of the vanabihty of the suspected parental species in nature as well as in cultivation While the putative hybrids involving Magnolza salzcifolia mentioned above do not appear (based on the type specimens and\/or plants) to be hybnds but only variants of M. salzczfolza itself, more study is defimtely needed to fully resolve this problem. The most direct approach to these problems would involve a controlled hybridization program that would include documentation of the morphological characteristics of both parents and the hybrid offspring, should any result. As indicated above, two of the putative hybrids involving Magnolia salicifolia were suspected of involving other taxa of section Buergeria. All of the species of this Asiatic section are now thought to be in cultivation, and many fine ornamentals have been selected from this group and are available commercially. In addition to the willow-leaf magnolia, the species of section Buegeria include the well known M. kobus of Japan, which includes var. stellata, the star magnolia, and var. loebneri (Kache) Spongberg, an intraspecific hybrid that arose in cultivation between M. kobus var. kobus and M. kobus var. stellata. Another less well known but beautiful species of the section is M. cylindrzca Wilson, which was introduced from China by the late Mrs. J. Norman Henry of Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, in 1936. Even less well known, but perhaps the closest relative of M. salzczfoka is M. biondzi Pampanini, also of China, which was originally introduced by E.H. Wilson for the Arnold Arboretum in 1908. Wilson's seeds, however, apparently failed to germinate, and it was not until Dr. Ting Yu-chen of Boston University traveled to China in 1977 that viable seed of M. bzondii was re-introduced to the United States. A portion of Dr Ting's seed was kindly given to the Arnold Arboretum, and we are now growing plants from which quantities of grafted plants of M. bzondii will eventually be made available for distribution and testing both in the United States and abroad. var. = kobus = 58 Magnolia salicifolia when it was introduced by Sargent in is an imperfectly known species and we should caution that a true impression of that species will probably not be forthcoming fom Dr Tmg's introduction into western gardens. It should also be mentioned that two additional Chinese magnolias, M. amoena Cheng, and M zenzz Cheng, are other imperfectly known species that have tentatively been placed in section Yulan, but which may prove in the final analysis to be members of section Buergeria. The sectional placement of M. zeniz may soon be resolved, since the American members of the 1980 Sino-American Botanical Expedition Like 1892, M. biondzz Hubei Province were fortunate to be given seed of that species in October of 1980 when visiting in Nanking. A portion of these seeds are currently being processed at the arboretum's Dana Greenhouses, and it is gratifying to me that 88 years after the Arnold Arboretum introduced its first Asiatic magnolia another introduction has been received. A tradition established by Charles Sprague Sargent to Western is continued in the arboretum's second century, and it is heartnew magnolia introduction resulted from the cooperative efforts of five American botanical institutions and our Chinese being ening that this colleagues. References W J. 1973 Trees and shrubs hardy In the Bntxsh Isles ed. 8. (Sir George Taylor, ed.) Vol. 2. xvi + 784 pp. pls. 1 ~4 London: John Murray. Christensen, C. 1980 Magnolia kobus DC. og Magnolia salxcxfolxa (S & Z.) Maxim - to naertbeslaegtede Japanske Magnolxa-arter Dansk Dendrol. Arsskrxft 5(3) 42-57. Harkness, B 1954 A new Magnolia hybnd Natl. Hort Mag. 33: 118-120. 1961 Magnolia notes from Rochester Morrxs Arb. Bull. 12: 19 Johnstone, G H 1955. Asiatic Magnolxas xn cultxuatxon 160 pp frontisp 14 4 colored pls 20 unpaged figs 1 fold-out map. London: Roy. Hort. Soc. Kurata, S. 1971. Illustrated important forest trees of Japan. Vol 3. 259 pp Toyko. Chikyu Shuppan Co., Ltd. Millais, J. G. 1927. Magnolias. viii + 251 pp frontzsp. 33 pls. London: Long- Bean, -. man's A 1952. Magnoha kewensxs Gard. Chron. III 132: 154. [Photograph on p. 155] Rehder, A. 1939. New species, varieties and combmations from the collections Pearce, S. of the Arnold Arboretum. 1 Jour Arnold Arb 20: 409-431 C S 1894 Forest fiora of Japan, notes on the forest fiora ofJapan. 93 pp. 26 pls. Boston Houghton, Mzfflin & Co Chenault dated 3 July. Arnold Arboretum Arcluves. . 1913. Letter to L Spongberg, S. A 1976a. Magnoliaceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb 57 250-312. 1976b. Some old and new mterspecxfic Magnolia hybrids Arnoldza 36: 129-145. Treseder, N. G. 1978 Magnolias. xviii + 243 pp. pls 1-48. 2 maps London: Faber & Faber. Veitch, J H 1896. A traveler's notes. 219 pp pls 1 ~. map Chelsea: James Veitch & Sons. Sargent, Magnolia salicifolia in full-bloom at the Arnold Arboretum Photograph by G Koller "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolia fraseri","article_sequence":3,"start_page":60,"end_page":69,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24792","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14e816b.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":2,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Magnolia fraseri by RTCHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The umbrella magnolias (section Rhytidospermum of Magnolia), are comprised of 8-10 species, variously distributed in the southeastern United States (3-5 species, depending on the taxonomist), the mountains of Mexico (2 species) and eastern Asia from the Himalayas through China and Korea to Japan (3 species). The most conspicuous feature of this group are the large leaves clustered at the ends of the branches, simulating an umbrella and accounting for the common name. The species are not currently popular in American horticulture, perhaps because their bad habits are concentrated in Magnolia trzpetala, the most commonly cultivated species and the one to which the name \"umbrella magnolia\" is often exclusively applied in common usage. With its gaunt habit and undistinguished, ill-scented flowers, this species certainly pales as an ornamental when compared with other magnolias such as M. kobus and its varieties and the numerous cultivars of M. x soulangeana. In addition, the characteristic large leaves of the group make the plants somewhat difficult to site effectively in a landscape situation. In the American M. macrophylla, for instance, they reach enormous proportions as much as three feet long and a foot broad, the largest simple leaves of any native woody plant. On the other hand, these large leaves impart to the plants a decidedly unusual and exotic appearance, and several species have - 60 61 attractive, fragant flowers followed by large and conspicuous, reddish fruit aggregates. A few species combine these favorable characteristics with a refined growth habit, making them first class garden plants worthy of more frequent cultivation. Among these is Magnolia fraseri, known as the mountain, eared, or Fraser's magnolia, one of our lesser known, native ornamental trees. Magnoha fraseri was named for John Fraser, a Scot who made numerous trips to North America between 1783 and 1809 in search of plants which might prove to be useful ornamentals in the Bntish Isles. During his second trip, in 1785, he met Thomas Walter near Charleston, South Carolina, who was at work on a compilation of the plants of the Carolinas. When he returned to England, Fraser took Walter's manuscnpt with him and had it published in 1788. Many plants were described for the first time in Walter's Flora Carolxniana, including M. fraseri which he named in honor of his benefactor. Fraser may also have been responsible, in 1786, for introducing Magnoha fraseri into cultivation in England, as reported by W. T. Aiton in the second edition (1811) of Hortus Kewensis, a catalogue of the plants cultivated at the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. But, according to J. C. Loudon, this honor must be shared by William Bartram who reportedly also sent the plant to England in 1786. William Bartram was one of the most important as well as one of the most picturesque of early American naturalists and plant explorers. He was the son of the equally illustrious John Bartram, also a plant explorer but, in addition, the founder of a garden on the banks of the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia, which is generally recognized to be the first botamc garden in the United States. From 1773 until 1777 the younger Bartram travelled through the southeastern United States in search of unusual plants and animals for his patron, the insatiable English collector, Dr. John Fothergill. The account of his travels (Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West FLorzda, originally published by James and Johnson in London in 1792 but reprinted in facsimile by Beehive Press, Savannah, Georgia in 1973) is one of the classics of American natural history. The following excerpt, describing what is generally taken to be the discovery of Magnolza fraserz (then known as M. auriculata) in the mountains of western South Carolina, and still one of the best available descriptions of the plant, is a good example of the style which make the Travels such a delight to read (Bartram, 1792, pp. 337-8). This exalted peak I named mount Magnolia, from a new and beautiful species of that celebrated family of flowering trees, which here, at the cascades of Falling Creek, grows in a high degree of perfection: I had, indeed, noticed this cunous tree several times before, particularly on the high ridges betwixt Sinica and Keowe, and on ascending the first mountain after leaving Keowe, when I observed it in flower, but here it flourishes and commands our attention. This tree, or perhaps rather shrub, rises eighteen to 62I root or source, which lean a usually many stems from a little, or shghtly diverge from each other, in this respect imitating the Magnolia tripetala; the crooked wreathing branches arising and subdividing from the main stem without order or uniformity, their exthirty feet in height; there are upwards, producing a very large rosaceous, perfectly white, double or polypetalous flower, which is of a most fragrant scent; this fine flower fits in the center of a radius of very large leaves, which are of a singular figure, somewhat lanceolate, but broad towards their extremities, tremities turn terminating with an acuminated point, and backwards they attenuate and become very narrow towards their bases, terminating that way with two long, narrow ears or lappets, one on each side of the insertion of the petiole; the leaves have only short footstalks, fitting very near each other, form an expansive umbrella superbly crowned or crested with the fragrant flower, representing a white plume; the blossom is succeeded by a very large crimson cone or strobile, containing a great number of scarlet berries, which when ripe, spring from their cells and are for a time suspended by a white silky web or thread. The leaves of those trees which grow in a rich, light humid soil, when fully expanded and at maturity, are frequently above two feet in length and six or eight inches where broadest. The \"mountain magnolia,\" one of the common names sen, refers to the tree's natural habitat in the southern for M. fraAppalachian Mountains, extending from Virginia and West Virginia south to Georgia and Alabama. The forests covering these mountains, particularly those in Great Smoky Mountains National Park on the North Carolina-Tennessee border, are well known for the diversity and abundance of the spring-blooming plants they harbor. The annual excursions to the Smokies sponsored by the University of Tennessee are aptly called \"Wild-flower Pilgrimages,\" for to be in that region during late April and early May is an almost transcendental experience for the lover of our native woodland flora. The diversity of species and the abundance of bloom are concentrated in areas known locally as coves or hollows-sheltered areas in a gap between mountains, usually the valley of a crystal-clear and cascading stream. Here many of our hardwood tree species reach their best development and here, in reserves such as the Smokies, we are still able to glimpse the grandeur of what was once the most extensive and magnificent of temperate forests. The mountain magnolia is one of the trees typical of these cove forests, and it grows along with the cucumber magnolia (Magnolxa acumznata), the tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), the sweet buckeye (Aesculus octandra), and the silverbell (Halesia carolina). Although a relatively minor component of the cove forests, M. fra- A speczmen of Magnoha frasen zn 6loom zn the wzld of Ashe County, North Carolzna Untzke Jiowers of this species appear before the leaves have fulty expanded Photograph by R Weaver,Jr other umbrella magnoltas, the 64 seri is not easily overlooked. The trees normally have several trunks, the smooth bark almost obscured by growths of crustose lichens and leafy liverworts. But the early-unfolding purplish leaves, encircling the saucer-sized, fragrant flowers, stand boldly agamst the soft yellow-green canopy. Cove forests are found at elevations generally between 1000 and 3000 feet, but Magnolia fraseri occasionally grows also at higher elevations in strikingly different situations. In the windswept, cloud covered gaps between the high mountains of this region, which reach their peak in Mt Mitchell at 6684 ft., Magnolia fraserx can also be found. The American beech (Fagus grandxfolza) is the most common tree here (the places are known locally as \"beech gaps\"), but M. fraserz is occasionally found along with Aesculus octandra. Here the trees are stunted, gnarled and covered with lichens, very different in appearance from those of the same species at lower elevations. The leaves are smaller than in the coves below, and it blooms several weeks later Although the tree looks out of place here, it prospers and its leaves and flowers are surprisingly seldom marred by the effects of wind and cold. Like those of all its close relatives the leaves of Magnolza fraserz are large in size, usually 10 to 15 inches long and 6 inches or more broad But unlike both its American relation, M. tripetala, or its oriental relatives, the base of the leaf is drawn out into two rounded lobes, one on each side of the petiole. These lobes, technically \"auricles\" or less technically \"ears\" gave rise to the infrequently used common name \"eared magnolia,\" and to a now incorrect Latin name for the species, M. aunculata. Several foliar features combine to make Magnolza fraseri one of the best ornamentals among the umbrella magnolias. The leaves are less coarse than those of its relatives, particularly at flowering time. The first flowers appear while the leaves are still quite small so a tree in bloom is much showier than one of those species in which the flowers appear after the leaves have fully expanded. The unfoldmg leaves are colored a deep, reddish-purple. In most clones this color fades rapidly, while in others it persists well into the growing season. Unfortunately none of the latter appear to be in cultivation. Finally, M. fraseri has better autumnal foliage color than most magnolias. The leaves first turn yellow with the veins edged in golden brown. The brown color spreads to eventually cover the leaf; it varies in intensity almost to mahogany in some individuals but it is never dull and lifeless. The flowers of Magnoha fraserx are its primary adornment. They are pleasantly fragrant and saucer-shaped, with the tepals widespreading at maturity, and from 7 to 12 inches across. The nine tepals arranged in two series are normally a pale cream color, but Savage (1976) reports that during cool weather they become yellowish, approaching the color of lemons. In Great Smoky Mountains National Park, near the southern part of its natural range, flowering commences during the last week of April. In the Philadelphia area the trees are normally in full bloom during early May, and in the Boston The elegant form of nearly open flower of Magnoha frasen Photograph by R Weaver, Jr they bloom from mid- to late May into early June. Judging from herbarium records the blooming period lasts about two weeks in the Boston area. The flowers are followed by the cone-like fruit aggregates typical of magnolias. In Magnoliafrasen these are reddish and 3 to 4 inches long. They reportedly mature around the middle of August, considerably before those of most other Magnolza species. However, I collected mature fruits in the central mountains of North Carolina during the second week of September in 1979. Wild trees normally grow with several separate trunks although most cultivated specimens have only a single trunk which is often branched near the base. Height seldom exceeds 40 feet although the largest known wild specimen in Great Smoky Mountains National Park (measured in 1949) is 65 feet tall with a spread of 54 feet and a trunk circumference of 7 feet, 7 inches. The champion tree in the United States, however, is one cultivated in Philadelphia. In 1968 this tree was 65 feet tall with a spread of 50 feet and a trunk circumference of 8 feet, 4 inches The largest specimens cultivated in England are of similar proportions. In New England they are generally smaller, probably in response to the relatively unfavorable climate. A plant in the Sargent Road Trust, formerly Holm Lea, the estate of Charles S. Sargent in Brookline, Mass., is currently 33 feet tall. Its age is not certain, but it is probably a fully mature specimen dating from Sararea gent's time. The pyramid magnolia (Magnolza pyramidata) is closely related to M. fraseri and is probably only a vanety of that species. It is a plant of The smnoth bark or an unusual Sargent's former estate zn szngle-trunked specxmen of Magnolia frasen Brookdzne, Mass Photograph by P Del Tredici on Professor 67 the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from South Carolina to eastern Texas, and therefore its range does not overlap with that of typical M. fraseri. The major differences between the two are ones of size, M. pyramzdata being a shorter, shrubbier plant (although the champion specimen, from eastern Texas, is 60 feet tall) with shorter stamens and fruit aggregates than typical M. frasen. Judging from its natural range, the former plant is probably not as hardy as its mountain counterpart, but it is so rare in cultivation that this statement is merely a guess. It has survived to flowering size in Illinois and Indiana. Reports concermng the hardiness of Magnolia fraseri itself are confusing. Wyman (1965, p. 283) lists the species as being hardy in the Arnold Arboretum Zone 5, which includes Boston, but then describes it as being unreliable in the Boston area. On the other hand, Leach (1973) reports that it was not at all damaged during a severe freeze (-35F) in his Pennsylvama garden when most all of his other species of magnolia suffered to varying degrees. Few records are available for specimens cultivated m New England. The one on Professor Sargent's former estate, estimated to be 70 years old, has already been mentioned. One specimen, grown from seed from a New Jersey nursery, lived for 68 years in the Arnold Arboretum before it was \"disposed of\" in 1947; a plant grafted from it lived for 64 years. Both of these plants survived temperatures of -15F. Since magnolias are comparatively short-lived trees m general, our experience at the Arnold Arboretum would indicate that M. fraseri is quite reliably hardy here. At any rate the species occupies a considerable latitudinal as well as elevational range in the wild. Presumably individuals collected from Virginia or West Virginia would be the best ones for cultivation in New England. At present we have seedlings at the Arnold Arboretum collected from three stations in the North Carolina mountains, including one from the northern part of the state. These are being tested for hardiness here and they will shortly be available for testing elsewhere. Basic culture for Magnolia fraserz is similar to that for other magnolias. The plant thrives in a rich, moist, slightly acid soil, and it blooms well in partial shade. It should be planted in a somewhat protected location since the large leaves are sometimes damaged by wind and rain. There are no reports of serious diseases or insect pests, and I have never noticed insect damage to my plant or to wild ones. Growth rate is moderate, and my seven year old plant is now 10 ft. tall. It has not yet flowered, although Treseder (1978) reports that the species usually reaches blooming size in five to six years. To my knowledge there are no cultivars ofMagnolia fraseri. However, selections for richness and persistence of purple fohar color, as well as yellow floral pigment could result in plants exceptional in ornamental value and hybridization potential. We at the Arnold Arboretum would welcome any information on exceptional variants of this species. 68I presently rare in cultivation, and I know of only presently offer it for sale: Gardens of the Blue Ridge, Pineola, North Carolina 28662; and Little Lake Nursery, P O. Box 782, Willits, Cahfornia 95490. Although records at the Arnold Arboretum show that seeds germinate readily after three months of cold stratification, fresh seeds are not easily available. We have not tried to propagate it from cuttings, but all of our attempts at grafting it have failed. Gossler Farms Nursery in Springfield, Oregon, one of the foremost magnolia nurseries in the country, has also reported repeated failure with cuttmgs and grafts, although these problems can hopefully be overcome with further experimentation. Many of our fine native plants remain rare in cultivation in our own Magnolia fraseri is two nurseries that country for a vanety of reasons. overfamiharity with them as wild plants; lack of commercial availability; ignorance as to culture and propagation; or plain snobbishness. Many are far better appreciated abroad. It is hoped that this article will stimulate more interest in Magnolza fraserz, a truly fine native plant, not only among magnolia fanciers but also among the general gardening public. I References Alton, 69 W T 1811. Hortus Kewensxs, 2d ed., Vol 3 London: Rxchard Taylor & Co. Bartram, W 1792. Travels through North and South Carolxna, Georgza, East and West Flor:da Repnnted m facsxmxle, 1973. Savannah~ Beehive Press. Leach, D. 1973. The Winter of'63. Newsl. Amer. Magn Soc 9 (4): 3-4. Loudon, J C 1838 a John Fraser In, Arboretum et Frutxcetum Bntannicum, Vol. 1 pp 119-121 London A Spottiswoode. 1838b Magnolia aurzculata In, Arboretum et Frutxcetum Brztanmcum Vol I pp 276-277 Michaux, F A 1818 Magnolia aurzculata In, The North Amencan Silva, Vol 2, pp 21-24 Pans: C. D'Hautee Nucon, E. S & Weyland, H B 1979 The imperiled pyramid magnolia. Newsl. Amer Mag Soc 15(1) 13-15. Savage, P. J , Jr 1969 A praxser, I, of Frasen Newsl. Amer. Magn. Soc. 6(1): 6 1976. Sights and scents among the hardy unbrella trees Newsl Amer. Magn Soc. 12(1) 14-17 Spongberg, S A 1976. Magnoliaceae hardy m temperate North Amenca. Jour Arn Arb 57 250-312 Treseder, N. G. 1978. Magnolzas London. Faber & Faber p 57 Wyman, D. 1965. Trees for American Gardens. New York Macmxllan Co "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Magnolia 'Silver Parasol'","article_sequence":4,"start_page":70,"end_page":77,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24794","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14e8928.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":2,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.; Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"'Silver Parasol' A New Magnolia Cultivar by S. A. SPONGBERG & R. E. WEAVER area magnolias are generally thought of as small trees large, twiggy shrubs - early spring-flowenng plants that are well adapted for small gardens and urban settings Rarely, however, are magnolias thought of as large forest trees, yet several species of this diverse genus attain a large size, and in the regions where they are native these species often rate as some of the largest and tallest trees in the forests they inhabit. The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum include several magnolia specimens that would be considered by most any judge to constitute large trees. These, with one exception, are plants ofMaqnolia acuminata (L.) L., the North American cucumber-tree, and the or In the Boston two specimens that flank the walk to the arboretum's Administration Building are prominent examples. The exception, alluded to above, is a magnolia that grows adjacent to the Arborway wall above the bank of Goldsmith Brook to the nght of the main, Arborway gate to the arboretum. Since several large trees of M. acuminata grow nearby, the size of this specimen is often not immediately appreciated. For many years this plant, which is grown under Accession Number 1280-27-C, was considered to be a fine example of the Japanese white-bark magnolia, Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold & Zuccanni. In 70 Magnolia `Srtam Yura~or outstandmg ornamental ru tam winter The attnbutes pale pewter-colored bark Photograph by P Del Tredtct is oae of the tree's 721 hypoleuca is a prominent forest tree in mountainous regions in the southern Kurile Islands, the four main Japanese Islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu, and southward in the Ryukyu Islands. It attains its best development in the forests on Hokkaido where it grows to be 30 meters (ca. 100 feet) tall, and Charles Sprague Sargent gathered seeds of this species there in 1892. One of eastern Asia M plants of the white-bark magnolia that grew from the seed Sargent brought back to the arboretum was given Accession Number 15172 and planted in the magnolia collection to the east of the Admimstration Building. Unfortunately, this tree, the only specimen of M. hypoleuca that remained in the arboretum's collection that originated directly from Sargent's introduction, had to be destroyed when the service garages and parkmg lot were constructed adjacent to the Administration Building. One of the chief characteristics of Magnolza hypoleuca and other closely related species is the large size and arrangement of the leaves While the leaves are usually alternate and widely spaced on new shoots, those on older shoots are crowded into false whorls at the ends of the branchlets. When the leaves fall in autumn, large leaf scars are evident on the stout, bnttle branchlets, and Neal Treseder (1978, p 51) has remarked that \"The tree has an almost antediluvian appearance, with its prominently annular-scarred and lenticelled stems.\" Other magnolia species that share this unusual leaf arrangement have been grouped with Magnolza hypoleuca in Magnoha section Rytidospermum, and this group includes both Asian and American representatives. The most widespread Amencan species of section Rytzdospermum is the umbrella-tree or elkwood, M. tnpetala L , and the the first listed common name is an illusion to the arrangement of its leaves on the branchlets. The umbrella-tree is native to rich woodlands in eastern North America from southern Pennsylvania and West Virginia southward into Flonda and westward through Ohio and Kentucky to Arkansas and Missoun. Unlike Magnolia hypoleuca, the American umbrella-tree is usually a tree of small stature or more often a large shrub with numerous branches from the base of the plant. Those plants that do attain a tree habit may grow to a maximum height of about 12 meters (ca. 35 feet), and in their native woodlands they are usually understory trees The bark of the umbrella-tree is ash-gray, while that of M. hypoleuca is silvery-gray, and the flowers of M. trzpetala have an offensive odor while those of M. hypoleuca are pleasmgly fragrant. Other characters, including those of the fruit aggregates (7-10 cm. long in M. tripetala, 13.5-20 cm. long in M. hypoleuca), flowers, and leaves, separate plants of these two closely related species. Several years ago when one of us (Spongberg) was checking the identities of the magnolias in the arboretum's living and herbarium collections, the large tree growing under Accession Number 128027-C and passing as a specimen of Magnolza hypoleuca posed a dilemma, as it did not agree completely with descriptions and speci- A fine speciraen of Magnolia hypoleuca at the Arboretum of the Barnes Foundatzon Magnolia `Sxlver Parasol' xnherzted the treelxke habzt from thzs parent, but unfortunately not the glaucous leaves so conspicuous xn this R photograph Photograph by Weaver,Jr of M. hypoleuca. After a considerable number of comparisons made, however, it was concluded that the arboretum tree represents an interspecific hybrid between M. hypoleuca and M. tnpetala. In some of its characteristics (especially the flowers and leaves) the arboretum tree is more like the umbrella-tree, yet it had been grown from a seed collected from Sargent's introduction of M. hypoleuca (Accession Number 15172),and its large size, its beautiful silvery bark, and its large fruit aggregates suggest that species. Moreover, Sargent's M. hypoleuca once grew in close association with arboretum plants of M trzpetala, and the opportunity for hybridization was undoubtedly present since both species flower in late May and June after the leaves have fully expanded. The fact that these two closely related species could hybridize is not surprising since numerous other hybrid combinations are known involving both species, and a Magnolia hypoleuca x M. trzpetala hybrid has been recorded previously from Poland (Vasak, 1973). Magnolia tnpetala is known to have hybridized with other species of section Rytidospermum, including M. offzcznalis Rehder & Wilson var. biloba Rehder & Wilson, M. fraserz Walter, and M. macrophylla Michaux, while M. tripetala x M. sieboldli K. Koch, an intersectional hybrid, is represented in cultivation by the cultivar 'Charles Coates'. Another intersectional hybrid involving M. tripetala and M. vzrgznzana is mens were Folage and a mature fruit znhented by M `Szlver Parasol' From aggregate of Magnolia tnpetala, charactenstics of which are a watercolor by Esther Hznes known in cultivation under the collective name M. x thompsonzana C de Vos, and was the first magnolia hybrid combination known to arise in cultivation (see Spongberg, 1976) Magnolza hypoleuca has also hybridized with other species of section Rytzdospermum, including M. fraseri and M. macrophylla, and M. x wzesnerz is the collective epithet for mtersectional hybrids between M. hypoleuca and M. sxeboldzx. It is apparent that magnolia hybrids are to be expected when the various species of this ornamentally valuable genus are grown in close proximity in cultivation, and the Arnold Arboretum plant of Magnolza hypoleuca x M. trzpetala is, in our minds, such an outstanding plant that it is deserving of a cultivar name to distinguish it from other plants of the same parentage. In this regard it should be noted that a hybrid plant (perhaps a sister seedling) of reputedly the same parentage is growing at the Hunnewell Estate in nearby Wellesley, Massachusetts, and plants that may have been distributed by the Arnold Arboretum as M. hypoleuca may represent this hybrid. We should like to name the plant growing at the Arnold Arboretum and its conal progeny 'Silver Parasol' to draw attention to its silvery gray bark and the parasol-like arrangement of its large leaves. (Loudon) Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold & Zuccarini 'Silver Parasol' x M. tripetala L. The original tree as of 1 March 1981 is 49 feet (14.8 meters) tall with a spread of 45 feet (13.6 meters). The circumference of the single A vtew tnto the canopy of Mag- nolia `Sxlver Parasol' showtng the umbrella-hke arrangement of the leaves Photograph by S Spongberg The foliage and immature fruit aggregate of Magnolia `Sxlver Parasol' S compared with a Note thexr sme when human hand Photograph by Spongberg .- --- --.------ A fully open flower of Magnolia `Stlver Parasol'. A sweet fragrance compliments the 6eauhful fornt and pnsttne whtteness of these magn:fecent 6\/ossoms Photograph by H Howard trunk (at 4 feet) is 4 feet, 7 inches (1.4 meters). Its habit is pyramidal, with gently ascending branches, the lowermost originating 6 feet above the ground. The silvery-gray or pewterlike bark is unfissured, even on the oldest wood. It is quite smooth except for the scattered, quarter-inch, diamond-shaped remains of the lenticels. The leaf blades are elliptic-obovate (narrowly egg-shaped), broadest just above the middle, with an acute to short-acuminate (broadly pointed or abruptly pointed) tip, and a broadly cuneate or occasionally obtuse (broadly triangular) base. At maturity they vary from 12 to 16 inches (30-44 centimeters) in length and in width from 5 to 8 inches (13-21 centimeters), although occasional individuals may be considerably smaller. The undersides of the leaves are slightly grayish and densely short-villous when young; the hairs along the veins are denser, silky, and rather tightly appressed. However at maturity the leaves are glabrescent (nearly hairless). At the Arnold Arboretum the flowers appear from late May through early June, after the leaves have nearly matured. They are from 8 to 10 inches (20-25 centimeters) across and sweetly fragrant. There are normally 9 tepals, but 12 are occasionally present. The outer 3 tepals are reddish green, and they reflex as the flowers open. The inner 6 (or 9) are creamy-white; at maturity they are held horizontally and the flowers as a result are flat and saucer-shaped. The inner tepals are somewhat variable in shape. The outermost ones tend to be spathulate (tongue-shaped) and these mtergrade to ones with an elliptic (oval) blade which narrows gradually at the base to a distinct claw (stalk). 77 They vary in length from 4 to 5t\/z inches (11-14 centimeters), and they are about 11\/z inches (4-5 centimeters) broad. The stamens are bicolored, the short filaments crimson, and the much longer anther sacs whitish. The gynoecium (aggregate of carpels) is pinkish, and it retains this color as it matures into fruit The mature aggregate unfortunately does not assume the beautiful rose color typical of good forms of Magnolza trzpetala parent, but it is and color. 'Silver Parasol' most closely resembles its M. hypoleuca parent. The most conspicuous differences are in its more nearly elliptic leaves which are only slightly glaucous beneath and in its shorter fruit aggregates, all tendencies toward M trzpetala. However its tree-like habit and sweetly scented flowers distinguish it immediately from M. tripetala. The plant at the Hunnewell Estate, referred to earlier as a probable sister seedling of 'Silver Parasol' carries tendencies toward M. trzpetala even further in its more distinctly clawed inner tepals and its leaves glabrescent even when young. Before its true identity was known, scions of `Silver Parasol', were distributed by the Arnold Arboretum as Magnolza hypoleuca We would welcome reports on the status of these propagants if any survive, especially as to their hardiness and performance in diverse areas of our country. similar in size Magnolza References Spongberg, S A 1976 Some old and new interspecific Magnolia hybrids. Arnoldza 36 129-145 Treseder, N G 1978 Magnohas London Faber & Faber. Vasak, E. V. 1973 Magnolza hypoleuca in nature and in cultivation Newsl. Am Magnolia Soc. 9(1). 3-6. AppendIx: Herbarium specimens that document this new cultivar as well as the plant of the same reputed parentage growing at the Hunnewell Estate, Wellesley, are deposited m the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain (AAH). These include the following. Arnold Arboretum. S A Spongberg 75-31a (3 sheets) S A Spongberg s n. May 19, 1976 (5 sheets) S A Spongberg s n. May 26, 1976 (6 sheets) Hunnewell Estate, Wellesley S A. Spongberg s.n. June 2, 1976 (5 sheets) "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23514","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070a728.jpg","title":"1981-41-2","volume":41,"issue_number":2,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Growth Patterns in Woody Plants with Examples from the Genus Viburnum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24789","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ebb28.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":1,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Donoghue, Michael J.","article_content":"Growth Patterns in Woody Plants with Examples from the Genus Viburnum by MICHAEL DONOGHUE Scientific journals are full of information obtained at the current limits of human perception. Using instruments like the electron microscope, biologists examine the structure of very small objects while astronomers, using extraordinarily complicated technology, can tell us details about the structure of the universe. All of this may give the impression that scientists have already observed and understood everything that can be seen with the naked eye. In botany, at least, nothing could be further from the truth. As Peter Raven (1976) has made painfully clear, we know virtually nothing about most plants, especially those that grow in the tropics. There are still many things we can learn just by looking at plants closely (Tomlinson, 1964). One thing that botanists know surprisingly little about is why and how it is that woody plants (trees and shrubs) come in so many different shapes and sizes. We are all aware that elms, firs and oaks (Fig. 1), to choose only a few examples, have characteristic forms that differ radically from one another, but we seldom stop to consider what accounts for this. There are several kinds of explanations for these differences in form. One kind of explanation concerns the evolutionary causes of the differences. For example someone might \"explain\" that woody plants occupy a wide variety of habitats, that in 2 Figure 1. These three photographs by E. H. Wilson serve as a remxnder that trees come xn a wide variety of shapes and sxzes. The Amerxcan elm (upper left), fxr (upper right), and white oak (bottom) each has Its charactenstic shape, and these differ markedly from one another. These differences in shape are related to differences in growth pattern. 4 different habitats particular dispositions of the leaves confer a selective advantage, and that therefore, plants with a wide variety of sizes and shapes have evolved. Another kind of explanation concerns the actual mechanisms whereby plants attain their characteristic statures. Differences in form could be \"explained\" solely in terms of the differing physiologies of plants, that is, in terms of hormones and their effects throughout the life of the plant. This sort of explanation is certainly not incompatible with the first kind; they are simply two ways of looking at the same problem. In this article I want to focus attention on yet another level of explanation for plant form: growth patterns. Growth patterns of different kinds of plants vary and, at least on one level, this can account for the diversity of plant forms that we see. The study of growth patterns consists of the analysis of the number and position of a plant's meristems (\"growing points\") and the kinds of stems produced by them as the plant develops. New portions of stem (which bear the leaves) are added to a plant each year by the activity of its meristems which are present inside of the buds. Different kinds and amounts of new stem can be produced by such meristems. The study of growth patterns is the search for regularities in the construction of plants and the analysis of how such regularities are related to plant form. A few botanists (DuRietz, 1931; Raunkiaer, 1934) have categorized plants according to their form or physiognomy but very little is known about the range of growth patterns in plants. This is somewhat puzzling because plant construction is relatively easy to study and one might suppose that an understanding of growth patterns would precede studies of the comparative physiology of growth or of the evolution of plant form. The reasons are in part historical. First, botanists have concentrated their efforts primarily in temperate areas and therefore have failed to see the tremendous diversity of distinctive growth patterns that occur only in the tropics. Secondly, many plants, especially those from the tropics, are known from only a handful of herbarium specimens, which may retain little information about the way that the plants were growing. A third reason is that from very early on in the study of flowering plants, interest has focused on the organs of reproduction, especially the flowers. Linnaeus' admittedly artificial classification was based on floral characters, but even in more recent systems these organs seemed to best indicate the natural relationships among plants. Finally, it has never been clear just how information about plant construction once recorded would be useful. When we have considered in more detail what a study of growth patterns involves and the kinds of information it yields, then we can consider how such studies might be of interest to plant anatomists, physiologists, ecologists, taxonomists and horticulturalists. In 1970 Francis Halle, a French botanist, and Roelof Oldeman, a Dutchman, introduced the idea of analyzing the form of woody plants in terms of yearly growth in their book Essai sur L'Architecture et la 5 5 Dynamique de Croissance des Arbres Tropicaux (not available in English until 1975). More recently, Halle and Oldeman, along with P. B. Tomlinson of Harvard University have tried to provide a framework for the analysis of plant construction (1978). They categorized the different ways that plants grow, referring them to a number of \"architectural models.\" Their analysis concentrates on the growth of woody plants from the time of germination to the inception of sexual reproduction, at which point a plant can be assigned to its \"model.\" However, one need not have access to populations of seedlings and saplings to determine many things about how a plant is growing. In particular, if only mature plants are available, it is still possible to analyze the method of growth from year to year after the plants have entered their reproductive phase. An arboretum is one of the best places to begin a study of growth patterns, especially when the living collections are sufficiently diverse and if the plants have been left relatively undisturbed so that they can exhibit their characteristic methods of growth. A study of growth patterns requires only a willingness to look closely at (sometimes with the aid of a hand lens) and accurately record (by means of line drawings and\/or photographs) the growth of particular study plants throughout the year. But to do this requires a familiarity with the basic ways that plants are constructed and some understanding of what to look for. I have outlined below the sorts of features that should be examined in any study of growth patterns. I have not attempted to describe all of the ways that plants grow, but instead I've tried to introduce the basic morphological concepts that are needed in examining the growth of whole plants. For more detailed information about these concepts and for an analysis of the diversity of plant architecture, Halle, Oldeman, and Tomlinson (1978) should be consulted. In order to provide concrete examples of growth patterns I have included information on the growth of some viburnums. Viburnum is a genus of about 125 species of shrubs and trees, many of which are horticulturally important. Most of my examples concern just a few Viburnum species that are frequently cultivated and therefore readily available for study. The information that pertains solely to Viburnum is set off with smaller type. By reading the offset portion of the text, and referring to the illustrations, it should be possible to piece together the complete growth patterns for a few Viburnum species. These examples should make it easier to understand the study of growth patterns, while illustrating the extent to which growth pattern can vary within a group of closely related plants. THE ELEMENTS OF GROWTH PATTERN IN WOODY PLANTS Leaf Arrangement One of the first things to look at when examining a woody plant is the arrangement of the leaves on the stem, that is, its phyllotaxis. The point of attachment of a leaf is called a node and the area of stem 6 Figure 2. Leaf arrangements in side vxew. (a) alternate leaves (one leaf at each node); (b) opposite leaves (two leaves at each node); (c) whorled leaves (more than two leaves at each node). between points of leaf attachment is known as an internode (Fig. 2a). If there is only one leaf at each area of leaf attachment, the leaves are alternate (Fig. 2a). If there are two leaves at each node, then the leaves are opposite one another on the stem (Fig. 2b), and if more than two leaves are attached at the same point along the stem, we say the leaves are whorled (Fig. 2c). Another important aspect of phyllotaxis is the arrangement of the leaves around the stem when a branch is viewed end-on. In many plants with alternate leaves, the leaves are spirally arranged around the stem, each succeeding leaf being displaced around the stem by relatively constant angle (Fig. 3a; Stevens, 1974). In plants with opposite leaves the leaves are often decussate, that is, each pair of leaves is at right angles (rotated 90) to the pair above and below it (Fig. 3b). Some plants produce branches along which the leaves are arranged in just one plane (Fig. 3c). This so-called distichous arrangement can occur in plants with alternate or opposite leaves; it is most common on branches which are borne horizontally. The arrangement of the leaves can be determined even when they are absent, such as during the winter. This can be done because when a leaf falls off, or abscises, it leaves a characteristic scar on the twig; by examining the arrangement of leaf scars, the arrangement of the some leaves can be inferred. Latin when viburof the In the genus Viburnum the leaves are opposite or rarely (in some American species) in whorls of three. They are decussately arranged they are first initiated but in one species, V. plicatum (the \"double-file num\"), they become more or less distichous Fig. 9 due to a twisting intemodal areas as a young horizontal branch develops. Buds Buds are embryonic shoots which are commonly dormant for some period of time. In the Northeast (U.S.) they are often most evident and easy to observe in the winter when they appear as \"bumps\" along the 7 Figure 3. Leaf arrangements viewed end-on. (a) spxral arrangement (the numbers indicate the relatxve ages of the leaves, number 1 was expanded first andnumber6 was the most recent leaf to begin xts growth); (b) decussate arrangement of opposxte leaves; (c) dxstxchous arrangement, the leaves borne in one plane. twig. A bud is commonly located in the axil of the leaf (or its scar), that is, on the stem just above (distal to) the point of attachment of a leaf (Fig. 4a). Such buds are called axillary or lateral. A bud that terminates a portion of stem and that was not produced in the axil of a leaf is said to be terminal (Fig. 4b). Sometimes the bud at the tip of a stem will appear to be a terminal bud. However, what actually has happened is that the apex of the stem aborted (leaving a tiny \"branch\" or \"stem scar\") and the bud was produced in the axil of the last leaf of the season (Fig. 4c). These so-called pseudoterminal buds can be deceptive (as in the elms, for example), so twigs must be examined very carefully to determine the exact positions of the buds. Sometimes buds are produced in the axil of every leaf while in other buds may be produced only in the axils of certain leaves (e.g. the first two leaves below the shoot apex) and not in others. In some cases buds will be produced but will regularly abort in the axils of certain leaves, or buds may develop but not function (expand or produce a mature shoot) for many years. These so-called reserve buds may be released if the plant is damaged in some way. Some plants regularly produce more than one bud in the axil of each leaf. These so-called accessory buds can be on either side of the principal axillary bud (collateral bud), or above it (superposed bud), or both (Fig. 4d, e). When this occurs, it is very important to determine the fate of the different buds. Some of the buds may produce short shoots with flowers while others produce longer vegetative shoots, and still others may remain as reserve buds. Buds come in many shapes and sizes and are constructed in a variety of ways. In order to interpret the growth pattern of a plant it is important to understand not only the locations but also the structure of its buds. In our area many woody plants produce buds with a series of tiny leaf primordia on a shortened axis enclosed by one or a number of specialized bud scales. When these buds \"break\" in the spring, the scales simply fall off but their presence and position is marked on the cases 8 Figure 4. Buds. (a)axxllary or lateral buds are those produced an the axal ofa leaf,~ (b) a terminal bud flanked by two lateral buds; (c) a pseudo terminal bud; the uppermost lateral bud appears to be terminal but the apex aborted and died back, leaving a small \"branch\" Qr \"stem scar\", (d) colateral buds flank the principal axillary bud, (e) a superposed bud above the prxncepal axallary bud, (f) bud scale scars indicate the former presence of a bud, in this case, a terminal bud. twig by tiny bud scale scars (Fig. 4f). Such scars are very evident on large twigs of the horsechestnut. This is handy for determining growth pattern because a segment of a branch can be examined and the extent and nature of the growth of each season can in most cases be assessed readily by noting the positions of the bud scale scars. the plants produce so-called \"naked buds\" which lack specialized outer envelopes of the bud are simply small, often very hairy, leaf primordia that will expand into the first leaves of the next season. The growth pattern of plants with naked buds is not as easy to determine as it is for those with scaly buds; it is harder to accurately assess what growth occurred during each season since the position of buds is not marked by scale scars. However, other clues, such as color and hairyness differences between the growth of protective scales. Instead, the different seasons, can Some often be used to infer the extent of a season's growth. Figure 5. Thzs figure and Figure 6 illustrate the diversity of buds that occur zn the genus Viburnum. Viburnum molle (A) and its relatives (section Odontotinus) have two pairs of opposite and decussate bud scales that are imbncate. Viburnum lentago (B) and its relatives (section Lentago) have only one pair of bud scales. These come together along their margins (valvate arrangement). The large, pointed terminal bud encloses the primordia of next year's leaves, in,~lorescence, and branches. Two lateral buds are also visible. Viburnum plicatum (C) likewise has only one pazr of bud scales that are valvate. Pzctured here xs a single short shoot zn winter. Note that the bud on the left (which was closest to the center of the plant) is much larger than the bud on the nght. In the next season the larger one expands and repeats the growth of the previous season. In V. x rhytidophylloides (D) and its relatives (section Lantana) the buds are naked and the znflorescence is exposed during the winter. When It opens during the next season the two lateral buds wzll be expanding (see Figure 15). This plant zs evergreen in our area and a small portzon of a leaf blade is visible in the lower left hand corner. 10 In Viburnum buds are very diverse (Fig. 5; 6). Plants of most Viburnum species produce buds with two (or rarely more) pairs of opposite and decussate scales. In some the outer pair of scales are fused along the edges as in V. opulus and its relatives (Fig. 6a, b) but in most species they are imbricate (overlapping each other like shingles), free from each other, and fall off separately (Fig. 5a). Sometimes the inner pair of scales will expand somewhat as the shoot develops and will appear somewhat transitional to the fully expanded leaves (Fig. 15, left). Some viburnums produce buds with only one pair of scales (e.g., V. lentago and its relatives) that meet along their edges without overlapping (Fig. 5b). They will often expand somewhat as the bud breaks or very rarely will expand into leaves that remain on the twig through the entire season. Other viburnums bear naked buds such as V. lantana, V. lantanoides, and their relatives (Fig. 5d; 6 c,d) in which the outer envelope consists of two hairy young leaves, each with inrolled edges. Shoots The term shoot, in its broadest sense, refers to the stem and leaves of plant, that is, everything except the roots. In some instances, I use the term to refer to a single flush of growth (e.g., a years growth) and in other cases to the growth of more than one season (e.g., a system of a branches). Some plants produce only a single stem during their entire lifetime. This is true of many palms but some dicotyledonous flowering plants such as the papaya (Carica papaya) normally exhibit this kind of growth as weii. On the other hand, most woody plants branch, and are therefore made up of numerous shoots. Shoots can be classified in several ways; for example, by their orientation, relative size, and\/or function. Shoots that are more or less vertical in orientation (erect or upright) and upon which the leaves are often spirally or decussately arranged (radial symmetry around the stem) are called orthotropic. In contrast, shoots that are more or less horizontal (parallel to the ground) in orientation and upon which the leaves are often arranged distichously (in one plane - bilateral symmetry) are called plagiotropic. Some shoots seem from their initiation to be intermediate in orientation, others are orthotropic but bend over or sag as the shoot system elongates with age and therefore may appear to be plagiotropic. Others, known as mixed shoots, begin as orthotropic and then bend over and actually become plagiotropic shoots or vice versa. All of these phenomena present problems in classifying shoots by their orientation but nevertheless, in many groups of plants, it is very helpful to consider shoots in this way. Some plants are constructed entirely of orthotropic shoots, others produce plagiotropic shoots in addition to orthotropic shoots, and still others are made up entirely of mixed shoots. Plants of most Viburnum species are constructed of essentially equivalent orthotropic shoots, though these can vary in length and in whether they are Figure 6. More Viburnum buds. The highbush cranberries, Viburnum opulus (A and B) and its retatxves (section Opulus), have two pazrs of bud scales but the outer pair are fused along thexr margins so zt appears that there zs,7ust a single envelope. The Asxan V. furcatum (C and D) and its eastern North Amerxcan counterpart. V. lantanoides have naked buds. As in the section Lantana the well developed znfiorescences are exposed during the winter (C). reproductive (bear an inflorescence) in a particular year. A few Viburnum species (V. plicatum; V. lantanoides (the hobblebush, formerly V. alnifolium) and its Asian relative V. furcatum) produce an orthotropic trunk axis and plagiotropic lateral branches. The plagiotropic shoots result in plants with a very distinctive appearance, even from a distance. Egolf (1962) noted of V. plicatum that its \"superimposed tiered horizontal branches extended to 15 feet or more\" and that this results in \"a spectacular pyramid shaped shrub\" (Fig. 7). The growth of the plagiotropic shoots of V. plicatum differs from the growth of those ofV. lantanoides and V. furcatum as I will detail below under a discussion of shoot growth and branching. Figure 7. Photograph of Viburnum plicatum by E. H. Wilson illustrating the spreading form ofa mature, open grown plant of this species. The inflorescences, each one rimmed by large sterile flowers, are borne on shoots along both sides of the long plagiotropic shoots. The inflorescences turn upward and the distichously arranged leaves tend to droop. Plants may produce short, slow growing shoots that bear only a few crowded leaves each season. Flowers and hence fruits are often borne on these so-called \"spur\" or \"short shoots.\" The maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), the katsura tree (Cercidophyllum japonicum), and the apples (Pyrus) provide good examples of plants that regularly produce short shoots. Such shoots are usually borne laterally along a \"long shoot\" which has elongate internodes and a greater number of leaves per season. Sometimes a short shoot can be \"released\" and become a long shoot in subsequent seasons. Most viburnums do not produce short shoots though sometimes a vegetative branch will grow very slowly and this results in crowded nodes. However, a few viburnums regularly bear their inflorescences on short lateral shoots. In V. plicatum the inflorescences terminate short shoots produced by lateral buds at many nodes along both sides of each plagiotropic shoot (see Fig. 9). It is because of this characteristic arrangement that V. plicatum is called the \"double-file viburnum.\" A season's growth results in short shoots consisting of a pair of bud scale scars, a relatively short intemode, a pair of leaves, and a stalked, terminal inflorescence that turns upwards (Fig. 5c). These short shoots can continue to grow and bear flowers in subsequent seasons. This occurs because one of the lateral buds (usually the bud closest to the center of the plant) below the inflorescence expands and produces another short shoot constructed just like the first one (Figs. 9, 10). Viburnum farreri (often called Figure 8. Monopodial and sympodial growth. (A) monopodial growth (renewed growth from a terminal bud); the numbers refer to seasons of growth; (B) sympodial growth; successzve replacement of the main axis by a pseudotermznal lateral bud, (C) sympodial growth; replacement of the main axzs each season by two lateral buds. The latter is the most common mode of growth in Viburnum. V. In our area this is the first Viburnum flower in the spring and the flowers open while the plant is nearly leafless (Donoghue, 1980). Its inflorescences terminate very short, lateral segments of stem which bear two pairs of bud scales and usually a pair of leaves. fragrans) also produces short shoots. to one year to the next can occur in one of If a terminal bud is produced from which growth continues during the next season, the growth is said to be monopodial (Fig. 8a). If the shoot terminates in a flower or inflorescence, or if its apex aborts, or if it becomes a short shoot, then continued extension growth is possible only if one or more lateral buds grow out and replace the main axis. Successive replacement of the main axis by a lateral branch is called sympodial growth (Fig. 8 b,c). In some cases it may not be easy to tell whether growth is monopodial or sympodial. It is very important in this regard to determine if a bud at the tip of a branch is truly terminal or if the apex has aborted and it is a pseudoterminal lateral bud. It is also necessary to determine exactly where the flowers are produced. If a flower or inflorescence truly terminates a portion of stem (i.e., the apical meristem is completely converted into the production of flowers) then continued extension growth of the shoot is only possible if one or more lateral branches are produced. If the The growth of a shoot from two ways. Figure 9. The growth ofa plagiotropic shoots of Viburnum plicatum. In this and subsequent growth pattern dtagrams, the dotted portions represent the most recent flush of growth, the blank porttons represent the growth of the season previous to that, and the slashed areas show the qrowth of three seasons past. Right: looking down on a plagxntropxc branch, you should notice that its growth is monopodial, the buds are dtstxchously arranged, and that the short shoots (that bear the inflorescences) are produced along each side of the main axts. Left: a closer look at the structure and sympodial growth of the short shoots. flowers are borne laterally in the axils of leaves or on short shoots, then monopodial growth of the shoot is possible. All of the shoots of a plant need not grow in the same way. In fact, it is not uncommon for a central orthotropic trunk to exhibit monopodial growth while lateral orthotropic or plagiotropic shoots may grow sympodially. Sometimes a given axis will alternate between monopodial and sympodial growth. For instance, a shoot can grow monopodially for several years and then terminate in an inflorescence. The growth of the following season will by sympodial. Subsequent growth may be monopodial or sympodial depending on whether a terminal inflorescence is produced in a particular season. In Viburnum the inflorescences are always terminal though in the few discussed above they are borne on short lateral shoots. This means that once a particular shoot ends in an inflorescence there must be sympodial growth for the shoot to continue to extend. However, a given shoot can extend monopodially for many seasons before entering a reproductive phase. Viburnum plicatum and V. lantanoides produce both orthotropic and plagiotropic shoots. In both species the growth of the orthotropic trunk axis is cases Figure 10. The growth of Viburnum plicatum. Left: a terminal portxon of a plagiotropic shootfrom above. Thxs picture was taken in the early spring as the buds were breaking and the new shoots were emergxng. A new portton of plagxotropxc shoot will be produced by the expanding terminal bud at the top of the picture. The lateral buds are developing into short shoots, each with an expanding patr of leaves and a terminal inflorescence. Right: A close up picture ofa single short shoot that is entering its fourth season of growth. Each season the growth was terminated by an znfiorescence and subsequent growth was from one of the lateral buds. monopodial for many years but the plagiotropic shoots of the two species differ markedly in growth. In V. plicatum the plagiotropic shoots grow monopodially for many years and the inflorescences are borne on the short lateral branches which are, of necessity, sympodial in growth. The tip of the plagiotropic shoot turns upwards towards the end of each season and a long-stalked lateral bud is produced which will continue the growth of the plagiotropic shoot system in the next season. The short upturned axis will bear inflorescences in subsequent seasons (Fig. 11and Fig. 6 c,d.) The growth of V. opulus (the highbush cranberry or guelder rose, including the American V. trilobum) is very unusual inViburnum in that terminal buds are almost never produced and growth is, therefore, always sympodial. Long vegetative shoots are produced that do not end in inflorescences or in terminal buds. Instead, these shoots continue to grow well into the summer until eventually the apex of the shoot aborts and the twig dies back to the last pair of leaves that were produced. The uppermost pairs of lateral buds that were produced grow, during the next season, into shoots that terminate in inflorescences. These reproductive shoots generally die back at the end of the season and in the following year new long vegetative shoots arise from buds in the axils of the first pair of bud scales for each reproductive shoot. This method of growth is illustrated in Fig. 12 and Fig. 6 a,b. Figure 11. The growth of a plagiotropic shoot of Viburnum furcatum. Four seasons of growth are shown in this diagram. The growth is sympodial; the main axis turns upward at the end of each season and it is replaced by the growth oflateral bud, which nmvnmintvrc nc n ctqlkvil ctrmrtmrv lcvv FigmrP Rnl lnflnrPCrvnrvc nrv nrn~lmrvO nlnnn the plagiotropic shoot on the upturned portions, which can continue to grow for many seasons. The infiorescences are well developed and exposed during the winter (see Figure 6C). The Timing of Growth tropical plants seem to grow continuously. They exhibit no morphological evidence of dormancy in that their stems are not obviously segmented and their buds always seem to contain the same number and kinds of parts (e.g., primordial leaves). Some palms provide examples of plants that are \"ever-growing\" and produce leaves at Some a including all of the trees and shrubs in temperand boreal regions, exhibit rhythmic growth, that is, periods of dormancy alternate with periods of extension growth in plants with scaly buds. The morphological indication of rhythmic growth is a more or less pronounced segmentation of the mature shoot system. In plants with naked buds it can be difficult to assess the periodicity or growth but a series of shortened internodes or smaller leaves usually indicates a slowdown or cessation of growth. ate mant continuous rate. Most woody plants, Growth in Viburnum is always rhythmic. In our area viburnums are dorduring the fall and winter and there is a single episode of extension growth of Viburnum opulus. In this species and its relatxves terminal buds produced. Long vegetative shoots abort at the apex and dxe back to the first pair of lateral buds (see Figure 6A). These buds expand to produce ephemeral shoots that bear the inflorescences. New vegetative shoots are produced from buds at the bases of these reproductive shoots (see Figures 6B and 13). Figure 12. The are almost never Figure 13. The growth of Viburnum sargentii. Plants of this species grow like V. opulus plants. Here, new vegetative shoots are beginnxng to grow from buds at the bases of last years reproductive shoots, which have persisted as dead twigs. 18 growth beginning in the spring and continuing into the summer. Viburnums of mountainous regions in the tropics may undergo two or more episodes of extension growth during a particular growing season. Sometimes, in those viburnums with naked buds, growth may appear to be continuous because the stems are not obviously segmented. However, observations through the year show that they are dormant for long periods. Branches can be classified according to the timing of their development (Tomlinson and Gill, 1973; Tomlinson, 1978). If a branch develops from a bud which has been dormant for some period of time, then it is called a proleptic branch. Branches which develop without any evident period of dormancy of the lateral meristem are called sylleptic. Often there are morphological differences between proleptic and sylleptic branches. Shoots that develop after a period of dormancy commonly bear one or more basal scales (which result in scale scars on the mature branch) and a series of foliar appendages that are transitional between bud scales and normal leaves. In contrast, sylleptic shoots usually lack basal scales and transitional appendages. Instead, the first leaves of these shoots are essentially like the leaves produced later and they are separated from the point of branch insertion by a long internode which has been called a hypopodium. Occasionally, branch morphology can be very misleading about the timing of events. A branch can have developed after dormancy but exhibit the usual morphology of sylleptic branches. This is often true of plants with nakP~l hn~lc hPraycP there are no bud scale scars to mark the g;re of a dormant bud. In some of these cases the first leaves of a branch will be small or differ in shape from subsequent leaves, or the first internodes will be shorter, but this is not always true. It is important to realize that branch morphology can provide clues to the timing of branching but to be certain, plants have to be carefully observed throughout the year. Branching in most viburnums is strictly proleptic and usually this is clearly reflected in branch morphology. In those species with bud scales, bud scale scars make it very easy to tell when and where there was a period of dormancy. In some cases an inner pair of bud scales may be transitional in appearance to normal leaves but in most cases there is a sharp distinction and sudden change between bud scales and foliage leaves. In most of the viburnums with naked buds, branching follows a period of dormancy but the resulting shoots appear to be sylleptic on morphological grounds. Sylleptic branching occurs sporadically in many viburnums. It is not uncommon for very vigorous, rapidly growing shoots to produce lateral branches which do not undergo an evident dormancy. In some of the viburnums with naked buds, such as V. furcatum (Fig. 6D), conspicuous lateral portions of stem are regularly produced without any evident period of dormancy. These do not bear any expanded leaves during the season in which they are produced and are therefore probably best considered stalked buds rather than sylleptic branches. 19 The timing of branching relative to the timing of flowering is often of interest and should be noted in any study of growth patterns. Many woody plants of the temperate zone have all of the primordia of the organs (e.g., leaves and flowers) that will expand in the next season preformed inside their winter buds. These buds open in the spring, leaves and inflorescences are expanded, flowering occurs, and buds are formed in the new leaf axils during the summer. The timing of these events can be shifted. In some plants the inflorescence is not preformed~ in the bud, but rather, is formed as the shoot is growing during the spring and summer. In some cases these inflorescences will flower and fruit during the same season that they were produced but in other cases the newly formed inflorescences will overwinter in an exposed state and flower during the next spring. Clearly, other differences in the timing of these processes are possible. buds; branches In most viburnums the inflorescences are preformed and enclosed inside of are produced below inflorescences in the year after flowering occurs. This pattern characterizes Viburnum dentatum and its relatives (Fig. 14, left; 15, left). In contrast, in V. lantana and its relatives the inflorescences are formed during the season and over winter as well developed, exposed primordia (Fig. 5D). Then in the following spring the flowers open while at the same time proleptic branches are produced below the inflorescence (Fig. 14, right; 15, right). One final, very important consideration is the absolute length of time that a shoot grows in a particular way, because this largely accounts for size and shape in woody plants. For example, if an orthotropic shoot continues monopodial growth for many years, a tall plant with a trunk-like axis will result. If on the other hand, the period of monopodial growth is short and is followed by the production of lateral plagiotropic shoots then the overall stature of the plant will be very different. The number of possible combinations of different amounts of different kinds of growth of different shoots is almost unlimited. There are at least as many combinations as there are differently shaped plants. THE IMPORTANCE OF UNDERSTANDING GROWTH PATTERNS Analyzing patterns of growth requires very little in the way of equipment or technical expertise but can provide many valuable insights. Findings in the study of growth patterns will help in assessing the overall diversity of plant morphologies and thus will clarify morphological categories such as the kinds of shoots or the types of branching in plants. This, in turn, will be of interest to anatomists studying the structure of branching points (Wheat, 1980) and to physiologists investigating the flow of water and nutrients in plants (Zimmermann, 1978). Growth patterns tionary biologists can also be of interest to ecologists and evolusince certain kinds of growth may be limited to 20 Figure 14. Differences in the timing of inflorescence development and branch production are illustrated by the growth patterns of Viburnum dentatum and its relatives (left) and V. lantana and its relatives (right). particular habitats or certain stages in vegetational succession (Ashton, 1978; Oldeman, 1978). In addition, branching patterns, W11C11 1.V11C1dtCt1 wltl~ Vt11C1 lCd6l11CD JUi.l1 as lCd1 size 0.ilU j11d11C, vV111 help us to understand the ways that plants are adapted to different light regimes (Horn, 1971; Fisher & Honda, 1979a,b). Simply understanding how plants grow from year to year may make it possible to quickly age plants and determine the extent of vegetative and reproductive effort over a number of years. A good example of this use of growth patterns is provided by the studies of Sohn and Policansky (1977) on populations of the mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum). An understanding of growth patterns can be useful in agriculture and horticulture as well. It is especially important to know when and where on the plant flowers and hence fruits are produced. This knowledge along with an understanding of the physiology of growth may make it possible for plant breeders to significantly alter growth patterns so as to increase flower production and fruit yields. Landscape architects interested in plants of a certain form for particular settings should understand growth patterns and the extent to which they can vary and be altered. A clear understanding of growth pattern is required before pruning a plant to achieve a desired effect. Finally, studies of growth pattern, in providing a variety of characters, can be of value to systematists trying to understand the relation- ships among plants. As Halle, Oldeman and Tomlinson (1978) pointed out, \"clouds of leaves, flowers, fruits, trichomes, and other diagnostically useful characters do not hang somewhere in the air but form part of whole organisms.\" However, with only a few exceptions (Fagerlind, Figure 15. Viburnum rafinesquianum (left) is a relative of V. dentatum (see Figure 14). Notice that the new shoots are produced in the axtls of the first leaves below last years infiorescence. The buds open and the shoots expand rapidly. The inflorescences, which are still young, will open their fiowers wtthin a few weeks. Viburnum carlesii (right) is a relative of V. lantana (see Figure 14). Plants of these species have naked buds and they expand thexr lateral branches at the same txme that the xnfiorescence on the parent axis continues Its development and eventually flowers. 1943; Lems, 1962; Petit, 1964), taxonomists have made little use of growth characters. Perhaps this is because they often work primarily with herbarium specimens and have field experience with only a few of the species that they treat. But it should be noted that it is often possible to extend an analysis of growth patterns to species that have not been studied in the field. Once some familiarity with growth patterns has been obtained with living plants, it is possible to decipher a great deal about growth by looking at herbarium specimens alone, especially when ample material is available and in groups in which the leaves and flowers are not overly large. If plant collectors were to pay more attention to growth characters the value of herbarium specimens for these purposes could be greatly increased (Ridsdale, 1975). An understanding of the diversity of growth patterns in Viburnum is helping me to make sense of the relationships of the species to one another. Along with other kinds of evidence growth patterns provide valuable insights into the evolution of the genus. The elements of growth discussed above (and some that I have not discussed) can occur together in many different combinations and this results in a great diversity of growth patterns. An extensive terminology has been developed to try to encompass all of the ways that plants can grow. But nature is sufficiently complex that some situations cannot be accurately described with existing terms (Sattler, 1966). 22 our Forcing plant growth into rigidly defined categories would only distort perceptions of the many different ways that plants are constructed. For the present it is most important to carefully observe and accurately document the ways that plants actually grow. Acknowledgments I thank Eugenia Frey, Paul Groff, P. F. Stevens, P. B. Tomlinson and C. E. Wood, Jr., for many helpful discussions and for carefully reviewing this paper. I am especially grateful to Marion Carter and Tasha Wise for preparing illustrations, and to Paul Strother for technical assistance. Reference List Ashton, P. S. 1978. Crown characteristics of tropical trees. In, Tropical trees as living systems, Tomlinson, P. B., Zimmermann M. H., eds., pp. 591-615. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Donoghue, M. 1980. Flowering times in Viburnum. Arnoldia 40: 2-22. DuRietz, G. E. 1931. Life-forms of terrestrial flowering plants. Acta Suec. 3. D. R. 1962. Ornamental deciduous flowering viburnums. Amer. Hort. Mag. 41: 139-155. Fagerlind, F. 1943. Die Sprossfolge in der Gattung Randia and ihre Bedeutung fiir die Revision der Gattung. Ark. Bot. 30A: 1-57. Fisher, J. B., & Honda, H. 1979a. Branch geometry and effective leaf area: a study of Terminalia - branching pattern. 1. Theoretical trees. Amer. J. Bot. 66: 633-644. 1979b. Branch geometry and effective leaf area: a study ofTerminalia branching pattern. 2. Survey of real trees. Ibid. 66: 645-655. Halle, F., & Oldeman, R. A. A. 1970. Essai sur l'architecture et la dynamique de croissance des arbres tropicaux. Paris: Masson and Co. 1975. An essay on the architecture and dynamics of growth of tropical trees. Translated by Benjamin C. Stone. Kuala Lumpur: Penerbit Univ. Malaya Press. , & Tomlinson, P. B. 1978. Tropical trees and forests : an architectural analysis. Berlin: Springer-Verlag. Horn, H. S. 1971. The adaptive geometry of trees. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press. Lems, K. 1962. Adaptive radiation in the Ericaceae. I. Shoot development in the Andromedeae. Ecology 43: 524-528. Oldeman, R. A. A. 1978. Architecture and energy exchange of dicotyledonous trees in the forest. In, Tropical trees as living systems, Tomlinson, P. B. & Zimmermann, M. H. eds., pp. 535-560. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. Petit, E. 1964. Rubiaceae Africanae XIII: Le mode de ramification chez certaines Rubiacees et sa signification pour la systematique. Bull. Jard. Botan. Etat Bruxelles 34: 527-535. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Raven, P. H. 1976. The destruction of the tropics. Frontiers 40: 22-23. Ridsdale, C. E. 1975. Tree architecture in field and herbarium. Fl. Males. Bull. 28: 2371-2374. Phytogeogr. Egolf, . - . 23 Sattler, R. 1966. Towards a more adequate approach to comparative morphology. Phytomorphology 16: 417-429. Sohn, J. J. & Policansky, D. 1977. The costs of reproduction in the mayapple Podophyllum peltatum (Berberidaceae). Ecology 58: 1366-1374. Stevens, P. S. 1974. Patterns in nature. Boston: Atlantic Little-Brown. Tomlinson, P. B. 1964. \"The good eye.\" Carolina Tips 27: 13. 1978. Branching and axis differentiation in tropical trees. In, Tropical trees as living systems, Tomlinson, P. B. & Zimmermann, M. H., eds., pp. 187-207. New York: Cambridge Univ. Press. , & Gill, A. M. 1973. Growth habits of tropical trees: some guiding principles. In, Tropical forest ecosystems in Africa and SouthAmerica: A comparative review, Meggers, B. J., Ayensu, E. S. & Duckworth, W. D., eds., pp. 129-143. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. Wheat, D. 1980. Sylleptic branching in Myrsine floridana (Myrsinaceae). . Amer. J. Bot. 67: 490-499. Zimmermann, M. H. 1978. Hydraulic architecture of trees. Can. J. Bot. 56: 2286-2295. some diffuse-porous "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Discovering Blakea gracilis","article_sequence":2,"start_page":25,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24788","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eb76f.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":1,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Epstein, Barbara O.","article_content":"Discovering Blakea gracilis by BARBARA O. EPSTEIN Few things are more exciting to an amateur horticulturist than the discovery of a previously unfamiliar plant or species with outstanding aesthetic characteristics; particularly so when the plant turns out to be amenable to indoor cultivation. Such was the excitement I experienced when I first came upon Blakea gracilis early in 1978 during a 1 visit to a commercial greenhouse in Connecticut.' In the plethora of flowering specimens, one caught my eye to which I was unable to attach any sort of name. Striking in both form and flower, it was nearly four feet tall, with glossy, green foliage and single, white flowers of an almost palpable waxy texture. Evidence of what must have been a profusion of previous blossoms remained in the form of rusty red bracts. I purchased a small specimen that day and immediately began cultivating the mysterious plant in my con- servatory. Three years have passed and Blakea gracilis has proved to be a remarkable plant. A native of Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands, the genus Blakea was first described by Sir Patrick Browne in his book The Civil and Natural History of Jamaica (London, 1756). Browne named the plant for his patron, Martin Blake, a naturalist from Antigua who apparently supplied the funds for many of Browne's botanical expeditions. Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, however, ascribes the name to a certain Stephen Blake, author of Compleat Gardeners' Practices (London, 1664). Considering that Stephen Blake is not even remotely linked with subtropical flora it seems likely 1 Logee's Greenhouse, Danielson, Conn. 25 26 that it was Martin and not Stephen Blake whose name the genus bears. Blakea is a member of the primarily tropical plant family Melastomataceae. The only genus of this family in our native flora is Rhexia, the deer grasses, several herbaceous species of which grow in New England. Although many Melastomataceae are showy and ornamental, only a few species of Dissotis, Medinilla and Tibouchina are grown under glass in New England. In his Monograph of the Melastomataceae published in 1891, Cogniaux describes 31 species of Blakea. More recently, Dr. John Wurdack, curator of the U.S. National Herbarium of the Smithsonian Institution, and a recognized authority on the Melastomataceae, reports at least 100 described species. Many of the other species are ornamental and worthy of cultivation, but only B. gracilis and B. trinervia, with larger, three-veined leaves, and larger, rose-colored flowers, appear to be available. Several of the Central American species are spectacular with 4-5 inch broad, pink flowers and very bold foliage, but these grow too large for home cultivation. A literature search reveals that little has been written about Blakea gracilis since early in this century. In 1905 a specimen which flowered at Kew was described by S. A. Skan in the Botanical Magazine of 1906, accompanied by a line drawing. (Skan's description was later reprinted that same year in Gardeners' Chronicle with his name erroneously printed as \"Shaw\", an error perpetuated elsewhere.) Skan writes that B. gracilis was collected by Max Endres for the wellknown nursery of James Veitch & Sons at the turn of the century. At that time it had been found in several locations in Costa Rica, growing in forests at elevations of up to 5,570 feet. Kew purchased its plant from the French nursery of Messrs. Lemoine & Sons in 1904. In February of 1905 it flowered in a greenhouse at Kew and was the object of great excitement. Skan mentions its rapid and spreading habit of growth, noting that at only a foot high it was already nearly two and a half feet across. Dr. Richard Weaver of the Arnold arboretum staff recently collected and photographed B. gracilis in its native habitat in Costa Rica. It was found in the cool montane forests between 4000 and 5500 feet where rains and mists are frequent. Like other species of Blakea, B. gracilis is often epiphytic in the wild. It appeared to reach its best development growing on isolated trees on the slopes of the volcanoes around San Jose. Weaver reports one magnificent specimen which formed a skirt at least 30 feet wide around the lower canopy of a tree. Although nearly past bloom it was yet attractive because of its glossy leaves and reddish fruits, with their subtending bracts. In indoor cultivation, a height of 2 to 3 feet can be expected, making it a fairly compact small shrub. Much branched, slender and nearly glabrous, Blakea presents a very appealing habit of fullness. The leaves are elliptic in outline, shiny while young, and somewhat leathery. They vary from 21\/2\" to 4\" in length, and up to 13\/4\" in width. Prominent longitudinal veins characteristic of the Melastomataceae, are palmate and almost parallel (5 in B. gracilis). A large shrub of Blakea gracilis growing epaphytacally at Las Nubes, in the mountaans San Jose, Costa Raca, at an elevation of 4000 feet. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. near Photograph showing the ornamental features of Blakea gracilis: the conspicuous buds, a fiower at zts peak and the glossy leaves with obvious longttudinal nerves typical of the family Melastomataceae. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. waxy in texture, occur in great profusion and quite attractive. Mention is made in the Florn of Costa Rica (Standley, 1938) that both the flower buds and the ripe fruits of B. gracilis are edible. They are reported to be juicy with an agreeable, though tart flavor, although I have no first-hand experience to confirm this. The open flowers, about a half-dollar in size, are borne singly in the leaf axils and have six petals. Most descriptions mention a faint pink blotch at the base of each petal, which I have found to be almost imperceptible. Weaver reports flowers with a prominent pink stripe along the edge of each petal, in addition to the basal blotch, on plants observed in Costa Rica. Despite a description in the Gardeners' Chronicle (September, 1905) that \"the flower is beautifully scented, and in general appearance may be said to be like a glorified apple blossom,\" I have yet to detect even a hint of fragrance in three years of indoor cultivation. Twelve stamens with short filaments and large, yellow, oblong anthers joined at the margins form a semi-circle around the slender style. The anthers dehisce by minute pores at the apex. Bracts are three-nerved and are attractive in themselves after the flowers are spent. Weaver describes the fruit as reddish, approximately ~\/s\" in diameter (the size of a dime), with a slight central depression. Propagation is not difficult. It is recommended that stem cuttings with hardened growth be used for propagation in the summer. Cuttings collected recently by Dr. Weaver in Costa Rica were successfully Plump, white buds, are 29 propagated in the arboretum's greenhouses using Hormo-root B hormone powder. Stuck in a medium of sand and perlite and placed under a polyethylene tent, they rooted in just a few months with an excellent root system. However, even cuttings made from new growth and stuck in perlite without a hormone application under lights produced a good set of roots. The medium is best kept on the dry side to prevent the possibility of stem rot. Seeds collected in Costa Rica before the fruits were quite ripe germinated well in about 3 weeks without any pretreatment. The resultant seedlings are healthy but slow-growing and they will probably take at least two years to bloom. Culturally, I have found Blakea to require little care. Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture recommends an \"intermediate\" growing temperature (a night-time temperature of about 55F). A standard, well-drained soil with a bit of additional peat is adequate. Although it likes a fair amount of water in spring and summer when it is actively growing, it is generally tolerant of drought. Because of its habit of branching freely, it can become quite dense if not pinched regularly. I usually make pruning an occasion to distribute cuttings to friends who wish to begin plants of their own. Grown as a conservatory plant, my own Blakea receives good light, including at least three hours of direct sun daily. In summer, Blakea can be kept outdoors in a lath house or in dappled sun. Although it will continue to thrive in less light, heavy bloom cannot be expected. For this reason, I am more inclined to suggest Blakea as a plant for a conservatory-like environment rather than the living room, a circumstance not as uncommon as it once was. If there is a mystery that remains concerning B. gracilis it is why such an appealing and amenable plant is so little known and at least so until now, rarely cultivated. Acknowledgements The library of the mation. I am Arnold Arboretum was my main source of inforindebted to Mr. Byron Martin of Logee's Greenhouses of Danielson, Connecticut, for his information on propagation and cultivation ; thanks also to Dr. John Wurdack of the Smithsonian Institution and Lothian Lynas of the New York Botanical Garden Library for their assistance in researching the genus Blakea. References Anon. 1905. Kew notes. In, The Gardener's Chronicle, No. 9F8. p.229. Bailey, L. H. 1942. Standard cyclopedia of horticulture. 2nd Ed. Vol. New York: MacMillan Co. Blake, Stephen. 1664. Compleat 1. gardener's practlces. London: Thos. Pierrpont. Browne, Sir Patrick. 1756. The ciuzl and natural hzstory of Jamica. London: Osborne & Shipton Standley, P. C. 1938. The flora of Costa Rica. Field Museum of Natural History, vol. 18, part 3. Chicago: Field Museum Press. Skan, S. A. 1906. Blakea gracilis. In, Bot. Mag. 4th Ser. Tab. 8099. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise'","article_sequence":3,"start_page":30,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24790","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ebb6d.jpg","volume":41,"issue_number":1,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise' In botanic gardens and arboreta, plants of closely related species often grown in close proximity for display, educational, or research purposes. H j'brlu~2ati0 i bci'vJccil 'pCCleJ fC~UItS much more commonly in such situations than in the wild where the habitats of the same species may be separated by hundreds or even thousands of miles. Over the years many interesting and valuable ornamental plants have arisen in gardens through the unknowing intermediacy of the honey bee, making its daily rounds. Forsythia x intermedia, for instance, a hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima was first observed to be growing in the Gottingen Botanic Garden in Germany around 1885. Since then, the hybrid has been recreated many times, and has given rise to most of our common garden forsythias. In the same way, a number of plants have arisen at the Arnold Arboretum, included among them, one of the finest shrubs ever to originate on its are grounds. In 1928, William Judd, the propagator at the time, collected seeds from a plant of the Chinese witch hazel (Hamamelis mollis). Its parent plant, illustrious in itself, had been grown from seeds collected by E. H. Wilson in China in 1905. The resulting seedlings turned out to be not H. mollis but rather appeared to be hybrids. The pollen parent (analogous to the father plant) was eventually determined to have been a closely adjacent plant of H. japonica, the Japanese witch hazel. Alfred Rehder in 1944 named the hybrid H. x intermedia, because its character was intermediate between its parents. Seven plants grew from the original hybrid seeds collected by William Judd 30 Hamamelis x intermedia growing on the southwest side of the Arboretum administration building (see back cover). This plant (A.A. 23167) was given the cultivar name 'Arnold Promise' in recognition of its outstanding charactenstics. Four species of Hamamelis flowers, showing their relative merits. From left to ttght: Hamamelis vemalis; Hamamelis mollis; Hamamelis x intermedia; and Hamamelis Japonica. Intermedia is a hybrid between mollis and Japonica. in 1928. The colors of the flowers varied from reddish through coppery-orange to yellow. Most bloomed rather sparsely, and the flowers on others were partially obscured by persistent withered leaves, an unfortunate trait inherited from their Chinese parent. But one was spectacularly different with its profuse, slightly fragrant, clear yellow flowers. Its merit was eventually recognized and it was given the clonal name 'Arnold Promise'. In general, witch hazels are large shrubs and small trees with a scattered distribution in eastern North America and eastern Asia. Four species are usually recognized. Although they are rarely grown as ornamentals in this country, they are extremely valuable because of their unique blooming times. Our native common witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) blooms from early October through midDecember in good seasons. In some years the Ozark witch hazel (H. vernalis) overlaps slightly, but it normally commences to bloom in early January. The extremely fragrant blooms of the Chinese species follow closely near the end of January, and the Japanese species ends the season with its flowers in March. The bright but not spectacular, fragrant flowers of witch hazel would perhaps not be much appreciated if they appeared during the riot of May, but they are a treasure in the drab winter. Its four strap-shaped petals appear very delicate but they are unharmed by sub-freezing temperatures. They merely coil up like a spring on unusually cold days and recoil with more temperate weather. Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise' is the very best of the early-blooming 33 witch hazels, at least for New England gardeners. It is a far better plant than either of its parents, particularly in regard to its flowering. The flowers of H. mollis are individually more attractive and they are extremely fragrant. But they are seldom profusely borne in our climate and they are often damaged by severe cold. The flowers of H. japonica are larger, but they are rather dull-colored. The flowers of 'Arnold Promise' are unusual among witch hazels in that the spidery petal spread more or less downward rather than outward. They are consistently borne in great profusion, even after the coldest of recent winters, appearing from mid-February to early March depending on the season. The habit of the plant is also better than that of most witch hazels. The original plant, now 52 years old is a shapely, broadly vase-shaped shrub with numerous, gently ascending stems. It is presently about twenty feet tall and almost as broad. The autumn foliage is the color typical of many of its genus - clear, bright yellow - and the withered leaves never persist into the winter (see Arnoldia 39: 69-106). The ornamental merit of 'Arnold Promise' has only recently been recognized, and it is just beginning to be available in the nursery trade.\" The original plant is still tucked away in a corner of the Administration Building out of view from the passing public. However, its modest position, close at hand, keeps it always in mind of the staff of the Arboretum. They see in it, as Donald Wyman put it so well \"an old friend, known for its performance, counted on because it has been there a long time, and not considered unusual for these reasons.\" But the 'Arnold Promise' is special. Its promise is the promise of spring. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. * The author will gladly supply nursery sources upon request. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23513","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070a36e.jpg","title":"1981-41-1","volume":41,"issue_number":1,"year":1981,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":238,"end_page":293,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24786","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eb326.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":6,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1980 In the extended introductory to my first annual report I laid out the basis for a future policy, firmly anchored in the wise precedents set by our founders, which can reconcile to mutual advantage our responsibilities in university research and instruction, and in public education and amenity. This year we have been principally concerned with planning and organization and a start has been made in a search for the necessary financial support. Readers will consequently notice several changes, and in particular, newcomers to our staff. I have been torn between writing a short summary of the year's achievements - a course advocated by some of my colleagues and the rather detailed account which lies beyond you. I chose the latter in response to comments from some of our readers, and in the belief that many of you share a close personal interest in at least some aspects of our many endeavors. This year past marked major progress at both Cambridge and Jamaica Plain. The new extension to the Harvard University Herbaria Building was opened on May 23rd, 1980, at a ceremony attended by President Derek Bok, Dean Richard Leahy, Professor Farish Jenkins, chairman of the Biology Department, and the directors of the Arnold - Opposite: Afamiliar view through the front entrance to the Adminastration Building the Arnold Arboretum at Jamaica Plain. Photograph by S. Geary. of 238 THE Policy was defined and of the present Dr. Richa Sheila Geary, assistant lit Hicks, curatorial assistar plan for the restoration of commensurate feasibility study was corn three problems: the best n with their Olmsted's and Sargent's d the best means for their re~ B ity; and, briefly stated, w preted for the public (see sented to the Living Coll June 1980, the National S for the purpose involves acquir University Herbaria), devi computer storage, and ve~ and entering them into th~ for our living collections in of the American Horticult will continue, for the PSD( access to the records of otl access for others to ours; computer would prove too One hundred and eigh~ two years tem. This living accessions are recor records that must be contir located for monitoring an revised since 1969. They a consequently have sufferei sions that have followed 01 aration of a completely m scale, the boundaries of the established. A grant propo; involve complete remappir creation of a simplified col sale, as well as a new set of the end of the fiscal year. Under the direction of collections and chairman 1980 saw a marked furthe~ on the grounds. This was enthusiasm of the ground~ Goodell, and to an except~ ' ceeded a good group in th * 240 Arboretum and the Gray rooms for faculty and othe~ and expansion room for the has been alluded to in previ in the sections on the herba for reorganization of the ii Jamaica Plain, which, thou needs, lacks sufficient offic I I ganized for visitor reception itors to the Arnold Arboret~ area be provided for them; :i library collection, part of ~ have free access. The abser of constant and justified c public services one of whose oversee these alterations, v pected to begin in the comi The renewal of the Natic to the herbaria for an addit grant for curation of the liv They will further assist us tc standards of excellence for] accessibility to the scientific integrate the collections as a records system. I shall be reporting on the collections of the Arnold Art is an integral part of the Bost to an increased number of honoring the three hundre( Boston, but also due to the fa increasing costs of gasoline. ter serve our visitors and we be self-financing from the r manager of buildings and pu and oversee these developr i plementation. new assistant superviso Case Estates at Weston concentrated on renovating situated there, and on integi effectively with operations a tion for the new plant materi our A expeditions by our staff, as acquired during restoration c nization of year we our plan to nurseries wi ---define futur --- - coupled with careful cultural practices appear to have effected a 15% reduction in oil consumption, though this is a conservative estimate in view of the cold and open winter. The cold storage facility has been repainted. The exposed steel superstructure of the headhouse and administration building, which after only two years was again badly affected by rust, has been cleaned and recoated with a new rust and weather resistant paint. During the year the Southwest Corridor Project, which was discussed in my previous report, began reconstruction operations on the section of the line abutting our South Street tract. The line was removed and the embankment lowered from the Arboretum Road underpass northwards to the present Forest Hills Station. Gary Koller assisted John Frey, the landscape architect for the new station, in plant selection and worked with the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority architects in site planning for a projected land link between the new station and the arboretum through the South Street tract. Two further negotiations involving use of the tract are in process. The city's water department is searching for downstream sites in the Stony Brook drainage, where dams can be constructed for temporary impoundment of floodwater, to reduce the back-up of polluted water that occurs in the Back Bay Fens following heavy rain. Goldsmith Brook, which flows through the meadow between the Administration Building and the Arborway, and Bussey Brook, which flows from the arboretum through the South Street tract of the Arnold Arboretum, both drain into the Stony Brook. A dam has been suggested along the boundary between the South Street tract and adjacent city land, and this would lead to periodic short-term flooding of the wetlands that occupy the northern sector of the tract. Meanwhile, the Boston Police Department is considering building additional stables on the same city land. An alternative site for the stables, in and toward the southern end of our South Street tract could be advantageous as it would not, like the first, impede our projected access to the new Forest Hills station. It might encourage greater visitation of the arboretum by the mounted police as well. Following the approval of a new accessions policy by the Living Collections Committee, which is in line with our plan for eventual restoration of the Sargent and Olmsted plan, additions have been placed on the grounds following the sequence in the original Bentham and Hooker botanical classification, wherever conditions have allowed. Dr. Stephen Spongberg earlier listed 2500 potentially hardy woody plant taxa not currently represented in our collections. Our long-term objective will be to introduce these anew from the wild. We meanwhile aim to acquire propagants from genotypes already in cultivation, where possible of known provenance. Mr. Harold Hillier, whose nurseries in Hampshire, England, contain one of the most comprehensive collections of wild woody taxa in cultivation, and to which Arnold Arboretum collectors have contributed new material over li Improvements made at the Dana Greenhouse included the addition of axr-cap insulation to glazed walls, while axr-xnflated co-polymer film coaenng was installed over roof areas. The result was a 15% reduction xn fuel consumptxon. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. many years, has generously agreed to make available to us propagating material from his own arboretum. We take note of this example of the mutually beneficial collaboration that we continue to enjoy with the nursery trade. I will allude to others later in this report. and relocations of individual colSeveral major additions to lections have already been started. Dr. Richard Weaver, who is now proceeding with detailed plans for the restoration of individual collections, together with Mr. James Burrows personally laid out the position of each plant, oversaw and assisted with planting. Mr. Gary Koller, who has supervised all operations, has concentrated on reviewing, and, where necessary, organizing remedial action on collections in special need of horticultural attention or repropagation. During the summer and fall of 1979, a total of 465 plants was added to the living collections in Jamaica Plain. These plants were from 114 different accessions representing 86 botanical taxa and 14 cultivars; several taxa were planted in large masses. Examples are 18 plants of dwarf Rhododendron dauricum (1 wild accession), 18 plants of Elliottia paniculata (3 accessions), 13 plants of Kalmia latifolia (4 accessions), all at the base of Hemlock Hill; and 21 plants of Rhododendron chapmanii (2 accessions), behind the rockery. During the spring of 1980, a total of 523 plants was added to the living collections in Jamaica Plain. These plants were from 285 separate - - 246 accessions representing 251 botanical taxa and 5 cultivars. All of the cultivars were planted in the new beds below the dwarf conifer collection. In general, the shrubby plants were planted in well-prepared beds. These beds may not look natural at present, but the bed preparation greatly facilitated the planting and should increase the plants' chances of survival. It is intended that the beds will eventually take on the appearance of a mass planting. Approximately half of the existing Philadelphus collection was propagated in 1976 and the successful propagants, exclusive of cultivars, were planted this spring. A total of 85 individuals representing 34 accessions of 16 taxa were planted out. A few of the best remaining specimens will be maintained in their present location, the proper place in the Bentham and Hooker sequence, but so as not to clutter the area under the tree legumes, the bulk of the collection has been relocated along the path leading to the 383 South Street entrance. In order to connect the old and new collections, several groups were placed at the top of the lilac bank along Catalpa Path. All propagants of original Lemoine cultivars, as well as those of a few other cultivars cited in S. Y. Hu's monograph of the genus, were planted at the Case Estates. All plants of other cultivars were distributed. A collection of putatively hardy bamboos, mostly Phyllostachys species, was selected this winter from the United States Department of Agriculture Plant Introduction Station in Savannah, Georgia, where their extensive collection is being closed down. The plants were collected on a trip to Georgia sponsored jointly with the Boston Zoological Society and the New Alchemy Institute, Woods Hole, Massachusetts. A total of 33 individuals representing 19 accessions of 17 taxa was planted out this spring. A few of these, mostly the low-growing and reliably hardy species, were planted in the present bamboo collection behind the Aesculus collection. A few were planted in their proper position following the Bentham and Hooker sequence in the old dwarf conifer collection. The remainder, because of their doubtful cold hardiness, were planted in protected areas elsewhere on the grounds. Restoration of the following collections to their proper position in the Bentham and Hooker sequence was begun with the fall, 1979, and spring, 1980 plantings: Ranunculaceae, with species of Clematis on the parking lot fence; Guttiferae and Theaceae, with species of Hypericum and Stewartia in the azalea border; Berberidaceae, with species of Berberis just beyond the Liriodendron collection; Staphyleaceae, with species of Staphylea as understory shrubs in the Acer collection; Celastraceae, with species of Euonymus along the woods at the edge of the Aesculus collection; Vitaceae, with species of Vitis and Ampelopsis on the Arborway wall in the Acer collection; Hamamelidaceae and Araliaceae, with species of Corylopsis and Fothergilla, and Aralia and Acanthopanax around the middle pond; Rosaceae, with species of Spiraea, Holodiscus, Aronia, Photinia, Amelanchier, Neillia, Aruncus, Prunus and Pyrus around the first 247 pond, the area of the shrub collection, and the Forest Hills bank; Scrophulariaceae, with Paulownia along Catalpa Path (these are the first plants resulting from the Japan-Korea trip to be planted on the grounds); Verbenaceae, with Vitex, and Loganiaceae, with Buddleia along the walk through the tree legume collections; Saxifragaceae, with species of Deutzia and Ribes along the woods behind the tree legumes; Caprifoliaceae, with species of Viburnum, Lonicera, Weigela and Sambucus connecting the remnants of the collection on the tree legume slope with the present Viburnum collection by 1090 Centre Street, and the traditional Lonicera collection along Linden Path; and Ericaceae, with species of Kalmia, Rhododendron, Vaccinium and Elliottia along the base of Hemlock Hill and on the hill itself. The orchard-like planting scheme of the Malus and Crataegus collections are incongruous in our collections. During September, 1979, many Malus were diseased and partially defoliated; those that were found to be at least 70% defoliated and regarded in the literature to be disease susceptible were removed. In addition, 30 \"species\" of Crataegus and 22 species and varieties of Malus were planted in a different arrangement. The former were planted in small groves on Peter's Hill, with closely related \"species\" together. They were usually planted in close proximity to an existing tall tree to offset the low spreading effect of the individual Crataegus plants. The Malus were also planted on Peter's Hill but scattered along the edge of the wood& on top of the hill. y Dr. J. B. Phipps, of the University of Western Ontario, has offered to verify the identities of the Crataegus in our collection. We have started a herbarium collection program from our holdings for this purpose and members of the New England Rose Society, notably Mr. Malcolm Lowe, have kindly agreed to verify our holdings in the genus Rosa at Jamaica Plain and Weston. The collection has been in serious decline, but with their advice and assistance the level and quality of maintenance will be improved, and species accessions are being repropagated. The society had donated new plants for our collection, and we have provided propagating materials for their use. Dutch elm disease has affected 18 elms in the collection this last year. Twig samples were collected for pathological analysis; a consulting plant pathologist reviewed the trees and made recommendations. To conserve genotypes, cuttings have been taken from the most significant accessions and remain healthy. Pine needle blight (Diplodea pinea) has affected several plants in the conifer collection and appears to be spreading. As a result, we have initiated periodic applications of fungicidal sprays and fertilizer. The spread of the disease seems to have been retarded. The Corylus collection was reviewed taxonomically and plants of questionable identity were removed. The remaining plants are suffering from an unidentified fungal root infection and are to be repropagated for replacement. Areas of the arboretum that were neglected and had become over- 248 Improvements were begun in the Berberis and Viburnum border near Centre Street gate, the Centre Street beds, the Taxus border along Bussey Street and at the base of Hemlock Hill, and the dwarf conifer collection. Gary Koller put major effort into relabeling and repropagating the existing Populus collections, which are deteriorating, and spent several days reviewing, evaluating, and relabelling the Alnus collection. Among the more outstanding plants lost during the year were a large linden, Tilia petiolaris (4968), broken in a storm; an Acer saccharinum (1256A) which was removed after several years of decline; Corylus avellana cv. Contorta (4845), Pinus bungeana (1404-5) and Kalopanax pictus (12456) from unknown causes; Laburnum cv. Watereri (187-41-a) which had been hit earlier by a stolen car, was destroyed in a storm; and Sorbus alnifolia (3626-A) which had declined with fire blight. In view of the remarkable comprehensiveness of the records of our living collections, it has been regrettable that the history recorded in their growth rings has not been retained when plants have been removed. The Center for Wood Anatomy Research at the U.S.D.A. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wisconsin has agreed in the future to accept and store such samples for anatomical, dendochronological and other research. These will consist of 3 inch wide, 1 inch deep sections from bark to core, taken from the butt of the largest basal stem along a representative radius. I alluded last year to the report written by the Kew botanist W. J. Bean' following his visit to the Arnold Arboretum in 1909, when he noted that the native field flora was in those days allowed to grow and flower beneath the trees. In due course the trees shaded out much of this flora. During the 1930's labor shortages made it increasingly difficult to manage this rank vegetation, and after the neglect of the war years, a policy of more frequent mowing led to its replacement by the ubiquitous grasses that came from northern Europe with the early settlers. The arboretum's carefully planned path system, defined on gentle topography merely by close scything along the trails, thus disappeared. It is our intention to reintroduce natural herbaceous flora :n selected areas and simultaneously to regrade and redefine the original paths, thus encouraging more general use of the arboretum by the public. We believe that this may in turn ameliorate our security problem. The overall plan is included in a feasibility study completed in 1979. Thanks to the generosity of an anonymous benefactor, we have been enabled to proceed with restoration of Oak Path, and to begin to introduce an interpretative oak woodland wild garden along part of its length. Dr. Weaver describes his plan in an article that follows this report. The grounds crew has already begun regrading and contouring grown have been reviewed. 1 W. J. Bean, \"A visit to the Arnold Arboretum,\" Kew 261-269. Bulletin, 1910, no. 8, Restoration of the original path system is one important project requiring public support. Work on Oak Path has already begun, but restoration will of Willow Path, pictured here, require additxonaL funding. Photographs by R. Weaver, Jr. 250 the path. Several masses of plants, including a mass of Rhododendron chapmanii (21 plants) behind the Rockery and four masses of Cimicifuga racemosa have already been put in place. These latter masses are made up of twenty plants apiece, and they will all be added to as more plants become available. This restoration will serve as a prototype for the others we hope to implement if public support can be obtained. Acquisition of wild plants has begun for herbaceous plantings along several paths. Dalibarda repens and Dryopteris phegopteris are being propagated for use as ground covers on Hemlock Hill, where northern coniferous forest and a mountain summit wild garden are To see how plants would fare here, with respect to both the elements and vandals, two species of Vaccinium with two dwarf Betula species were planted on the rocky ledge at the very top of the hill. One plant has disappeared, but the remainder are doing well. Other plants, notably a mass of Rhododendron fortunei hybrids and also small shade-tolerant Acer species, were planted lower on the hill. Limited herbaceous plantings including masses of Cimifuga racemosa, Trillium grandiflorum, and patches of Tiarella cordifolia, Phlox stolonifera, and Omphalodes verna, have begun in the Leitneria Swamp at the end of Linden Path. Plants of the last three species were donated by Mrs. Sheila Magullion. Several short collecting expeditions by staff were made within North America during the year. Richard Weaver and James Nickerson, head pruner, visited North Carolina for two weeks in September, 1979, returning with 108 collections from wild sources. Besides woody plants, a number of herbs were also collected. During December, 1979, 34 taxa, of which 30 were of wild origin, were obtained by Gary Koller and Jack Alexander in southern Missouri following a meeting they attended at the Missouri Botanical Garden. Robert Nicholson, greenhouse technician, sustained his reputation as a plant hunter by completing four trips. Three were in Vermont in connection with his project on sugar maple. The fourth, to the mountains of California, aimed to collect genotypes of tender species from their limits of cold hardiness, yielding 35 collections from six localities; of greatest potential interest were Sequoiadendron giganteum, Leucotho~ davisiae, Arbutus menziesii and Lithocarpus densiflorus. The propagator, Jack Alexander, this year received 160 shipments for propagation, consisting of 839 taxa from 23 countries, including material collected by staff. Three hundred and sixteen taxa were propagated from our own accessions, to replace deteriorating specimens or to increase numbers pending collection from new wild prova envisaged. enances. Acquisition of materials for propagation, in general, has been carried on in the routine manner. However, almost without exception, no seeds were ordered from Indices Seminum unless they had been collected in the wild. A generous gift from Forest Farm in Williams, Oregon, has added wild collected plants of 18 species to our collec- of Magnolia virginiana, and cones of Tsuga canadensis and Sequoiadendron gigantea, drying przor to propagation at the Dana by Greenhouse. C. Lobig. Fruits Photograph to the western United States, and all collections. Two hundred shipments, comprising 783 taxa were distributed to cooperating institutions, nurseries, and individuals in 15 countries. A further 723 were propagated to fulfill special requests; excess material resulting from these was also distributed. Ms. Jennifer Hicks, curatorial assistant for mapping and labeling, accomplished much during the year. Her painstaking review of the living collections record system, and her planning for its rationalization, verification, and computerization have been referred to already. She was able to redraw four of the collection master maps and to complete rechecking of a further seven. Also, the existing master maps have been photoreduced to half scale and cleaned up for reproduction as new map books for use on the grounds. James A. Burrows was appointed assistant supervisor of the living collections, in charge of the Case Estates, on July 9th, 1979. He concentrated during his first year on reviewing and reorganizing the nurseries, which were in a state of relative neglect, and on integrating this program closely with the planting and propagation programs at Jamaica Plain. This is a vital preliminary to the anticipated future increase in accessions. The nurseries at the Case Estates comprise both temporary and permanent beds. The temporary ones containing plants that are grown until big enough to be planted out in the arboretum, received first priority. An inventory of the holdings was completed, followed by a review of records in order to identify plants that fail to comply with our current accessions policy. Plants that meet present criteria are to be moved to the arboretum as soon as possible, while the remainder will be distributed to the Friends and to other institutions. In future, the nursery area is to be planted on a rotation basis to improve operational efficiency and allow more easy control of soil fertility. Because of the current serious shortage of outside space for young plants in the saran house at Jamaica Plain, occasioned by the recent increase in accession rate, a saran house was re-established inside the old ericaceous nursery area at the Case Estates; here the plants will be are new tions. These plants are all native to our 252 wind by the tall enclosing coniferous hedge. This new which is already nearly full, has also facilitated integration of area, operations at the two nursery locations. Half of the plants will be ready for transplanting out into the temporary beds in spring 1981. Because of the increasing demand for nursery space, a new nursery area will be prepared in the coming year, replacing the now derelict pruning demonstration plot. The existing nursery beds are arranged by a number series as indicated on the map. Most of the plants formerly on the terraces (rows 1-40 and the 100's), have been transplanted to the arboretum during the year, leaving 80% of the area for planting up in spring 1981. The 300 rows next to the saran house contain mainly rhododendron cultivars. These have been checked for flower color and flowering time and will be transplanted by fall, 1980, leaving the area available for extension of the saran. The 400 rows contain evergreens; an inventory and planting list is currently being prepared prior to transplanting of material from 80% of the area in fall 1980. The 900 rows were replanted in the fall of 1979 with larger plants whose transfer from Jamaica Plain had been delayed; they should be ready to return to the arboretum in 1982. Finally, the 950 rows were totally renovated by soil improvement and fumigation; half the rows were planted out with material from Jamaica Plain in spring, 1980, and the rest will be filled in the fall. Harvesting of these is anticipated between 1984 and 1986. As stated in my last report, the permanent nurseries were set out as a collection, partially transferred from the arboretum itself, of taxa considered not to be of ornamental value. In line with our present accessions policy, a complete inventory is being made, and collections worthy of replanting in the arboretum identified. Major collections of Berberis, Philadelphus, and Rosa in particular were found. As an emergency measure more intensive maintenance of these nurseries has begun this summer, and plants in imminent danger repropagated. The complete propagation or transfer of the valuable accessions will take 5-6 years. Now that urgent renovations are in hand Mr. Burrows, in collaboration with Mr. Koller and the manager of buildings and public services, Ms. Wendy Marks, will critically review our operations at the Case Estates, to prepare a financially viable plan for their future use. The perennial garden, designed for Marian Case by John Wister, had fallen into disarray with many of its woody plants having outgrown the original design. With Mr. Wister's approval we plan to simplify the design, obviating the need for major and expensive changes in the plantings. This work should be completed by summer, 1981. The garden will then be an interpretive collection of native American perennial herbs with the more noteworthy cultivars that have been derived from them. Seeds of 75 plants, either native American species or cultivars of these, were received from the Park Seed Co.; most have been planted in the cold frames at the Case Estates. A total of 140 plants, mostly cultivars of native American species, was protected from Making room for new accesszons znvolved major transplanting of exzstzng nursery stock from the Case Estates in Weston to the living collecat Jamazca Plain. Tom Kznahan (above) and Dennis Harns (below) work at mouzng Crataegus and Ulmus from the grounds at Weston. Photographs by J. Burrows. tions 255 also purchased and planted in the Case Estates nurseries. We are pleased to have the collaboration of the Weston Garden Club in this project, which has volunteered to assist with its development and future maintenance. One noticeable improvement was made rather quickly. The tall, dry fieldstone wall, erected sixty years ago to support espaliered fruit trees was obscured by a vine trellis. This has now been removed. A site for the Rhododendron display garden which is being planned jointly with the Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron Society has been chosen in the woods behind the tall stone wall. Clearing was started during the winter, and some weed control undertaken early this summer. It is hoped that the chapter will begin planting shortly. Meanwhile the American Iris Society, which will hold its 1983 convention in Boston, has requested the use of part of the field in front of the stone wall for the temporary display of 4000 iris cultivars. At the end of 1980 the Arnold Arboretum will complete its term as cultivar registration authority for those genera of cultivated woody plants that lack authorities, under the auspices of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta; thereafter the U.S. National Arboretum will act on behalf of the Association. Dr. Stephen Spongberg has continued meanwhile to act as registrar for these, as well as those genera for which the Arboretum continues to serve as 2 International Registration Authority.2 The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum are increasingly being used for research. Taxonomist Dr. Stephen Spongberg has continued to use the collections for his own work. Bullard Fellow Dr. Amar Hans pursued studies on the pollination biology of Ulmus. Ph.D. candidate Michael Donoghue continues his fruitful research on Viburnum. His studies of growth problems in the living collections have furthered understanding of infrageneric relationships and have led to his being awarded the Cooley Prize by the American Society of Plant Taxonomists. Similarly, Paul Groff's senior thesis, completed during the year under Dr. Stevens' supervision, used our collections to throw light on generic limits in Ericaceae tribe Phyllodoceae. Graduate student Steven Rogstad is making studies of the growth and branching pattern ofAsimina, Annonaceae, preliminary to studies in the tropical annonaceous genus Polyalthia. Professor Solbrig's students continue to use space in our greenhouses for their bio-systematic research into Viola. Among several scientists from other institutions to use our collections, Dr. Lester Nichols, Plant Pathologist at Pennsylvania State University conducted his eighteenth annual disease survey of ourMalus collection; Dr. Frank Santamour, research geneticist at the National Arboretum, gathered specimens of various Acer species for chemical analysis; and Dr. Harold Pellett, University of Minnesota, 2 Those are Chaenomeles, Cornus, Fagus, Forsythia, Gleditsia, Lantana, Malus (ornamental varieties only), Philadelphus, Pieris, Ulmus and Weigela. 256 I conducted controlled tissue-hardiness tests utilizing specimens supplied by the arboretum. It will be recalled by readers of my last report that supervisory staff are being encouraged to develop their own research or to participate in the work of others, as far as time allows. Projects undertaken this year include the initiation of a program to breed mildew-free Syringa by Jack Alexander; a morphogenetic study of branching in Tsuga canadensis f. pendula by Peter del Tredici, and hybridization experiments in Hamamelidaceae and studies of sugar maple by Robert Nicholson. The Royal Horticultural Society this year honored the Arnold Arboretum by awarding it the Reginald Corey Memorial Cup for the Magnolia cultivar 'Merrill,' a hybrid that had been developed by former director Karl Sax and named in honor of his predecessor, E. D. Merrill. Members of the living collections staff have made extensive and appreciated contributions to our Friends and Public Service programs, propagating thousands of cuttings and seeds as gifts, giving lectures and tours for private groups. In addition to attending professional meetings, they prepared and erected our prize-winning exhibit at the spring flower show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and assisted numerous students, nurserymen, horticulturists, botanists, and landscape architects by telephone and by letter. Three staff members at Jamaica Plain left during the year. Eileen Twohig had worked as custodian of the Administration Building for 22 years. Of tireless energy and cast-iron reliability, Eileen brightened our lives with her good humor and her honest no-nonsense frankness. She retired in glory on May 31 st, 1980, following a rousing party in her honor. We will miss both her and her husband Joe who so frequently volunteered to help out when something special was in preparation. We welcome Ms. Kathy Newman as our new custodian. Constance Derderian, who has been honorary curator for our historic bonsai collection for many years retired for family reasons; we will be hard put to find a replacement with comparable skill and devotion. We are glad, though, that Connie is offering her popular course again in our fall 1980 program. Mildred Pelkus, who had been accounts clerk at Jamaica Plain for 14 years, retired at the end of December, 1979. Her place was taken by Anne Johnson, who had joined the staff in October. Horticultural secretary Jeanne Sattely, resigned in January after a short stay, and has been replaced by Margaret Quinn. The reappointment of James Burrows has already been reported. Patrick Willoughby filled the vacant post of assistant superintendent in March, and James Papargiris filled a vacancy on the grounds staff. A special tribute should be paid to the 14 summer horticultural trainees of 1980. Carefully selected from over 70 applicants, they came from nine states and most were college students in plant sciences. Five started early in the growing season, the others arriving as An exceptional group of summer horticultural trainees were selected from applicants from 9 states. Posing in the branches ofa cork tree (Phellodendron amurense) from left to right, standing -Imogene Villeneuve, Mike Eliot, I st. row, seated-Mark O'Connor, Beth Robertson, Debbie Cahill, Greg Waters; 2nd row, seated Kelly Kearns, Carol Hipple, Ed Bemis, Bob Turecek, Steve Winterfeldt, Michael Koralewskt, Laura Durr. Photograph by H. Wise. - usual at the beginning of June. Careful attention to supervision and organization, and a stimulating program of talks contributed to a high morale. They have done a superb job. THE HERBARIUM Dr. Norton G. Miller's appointment as supervisor of the Gray and Arnold Arboretum Herbaria and chairman of the Herbarium Committee, a position he held for the past five and one-half years, ended as the fiscal year closed. Associate Professor Peter F. Stevens will assume both responsibilities. Dr. Miller will continue on the staff as botanist, Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium. The following curatorial accomplishments were made during the past year: An identification list for R. Barneby's monograph of Dalea (Leguminosae) was compiled. This was used as a basis for annotations of 1000 sheets in the combined herbaria. T. C. Whitmore's revision of Macaranga (Kew Bull., 1980) was used as a source for annotations of 600 sheets of this genus in our collection. Using the identification list of Ding Hou (Flora Malesiana, 1980) 1200 sheets of western Malaysian Anacardiaceae were annotated. Part of our holdings of the same family from Papausia and the Philippines has also been annotated. The Merrill collection of rubbings and fragments (Anacardiaceae only) has been mounted, annotated, and inserted into the general and type collections. Numerous annotations of specimens 258 in the Amaranthaceae (especially cultivated species) were added. Annotations of 759 species of Neotropical Rubiaceae, tribe Psychotrieae were completed. Materials representing 40 genera new to the herbaria were added during the year. Type folders were replaced in families 92 to 125. Geographical tags for the four New World regions were added to folders of families 105 to 127. There has been no insertion in the herbarium in Cambridge since preparations for the herbarium move have already begun. The National Science Foundation this year awarded a further curatorial grant to the combined herbaria which will enable us to continue to curate families recently monographed, to search for unrecognized types, and otherwise to bring the collections to a condition of better annotation. In combination with the grant to be awarded for curation of the living collection records, the current grant provides for acquisition of a small computer in which the records of our type collection are to be stored. An inventory of the herbarium and storage at Jamaica Plain, preliminary to a proposed renovation of the Administration Building was made in autumn, 1979. Volunteers under the supervision of Ida H. Burch are working on a project to collect specimens of the arboretum living accessions that are of documented wild origin in eastern Asia. Ten sets are being collected, and the duplicates will be used for exchange ; collections number 214 so far. The group, headed by Cora Warren, includes Susan Davis, and Mary Wolcott, as well as staff member Kristin Clausen. By the end of the fiscal year there were 1,102,306 sheets in the arboretum's herbarium at Cambridge. During the year, 10,357 sheets were mounted, 75 added directly, 12 removed. In Jamaica Plain there were eventually 168,048 sheets in the herbarium of cultivated plants, 810 being added during the year. Thirty-one sheets were repaired in the two herbaria. Of the accessions, 4827 were received by exchange, 392 as gifts, 447 by subsidy, and 721 for identification by staff. This year the major provenance was South America (1250 sheets), followed by East Asia (981), India (963) and Western Malesia (657), Europe (626) and Papausia (603). Staff made 1187 collections. During the year, 147 sheets were sent on exchange, 30 orchid collections were placed on indefinite loan in the Oakes Ames Orchid Herbarium; 1187 specimens were received on loan for staff members of the combined herbaria, and a further 4676 for students; 7969 sheets, received on loan for staff members in previous years were returned, and 3112 likewise for students. The combined herbaria sent out 30,463 specimens for study at other institutions, and received back 14,647. The extension to the Harvard University Herbaria Building was completed during the year, although the air-conditioning continued to malfunction as it had done off and on through the two years during which alterations were being made. The paired compactor banks in each of the twelve new compactor rooms have been installed, and apart from the absence of gaskets, locking mechanisms, and a thor- 259 ough cleaning, they are ready to receive the mounted sheets. A major effort was made to finalize plans for the transfer of specimens to the new compactor space and rearrangement in cabinets in the original building. The basement curatorial area was completely reorganized and new metal cabinets from elsewhere in the building were put in place of the old tin-covered storage cases, which were in large part discarded. When the herbarium move is completed, there will at last be adequate storage foi specimens awaiting processing or insertion, although the mounting materials storage room was reduced to half its original size during construction alterations. Ultimately, it will be an accommodation for new storage space for our of large-volume mounting and packaging supplies. inventory A number of staff changes should be noted. Rita Silverman, herbarium secretary, left during the autumn and was replaced on a temporary, part-time basis by Anita Fahey who worked nearly to the end of the fiscal year; Colleen Sliney was hired on 18 June, 1980, as the herbarium secretary. Olga Peixoto, part-time mounter, resigned in the autumn just before the birth of a child; no replacement was sought. Laurie Feine Dudley was hired as a curatorial assistant to replace R. James Hickey, who resigned to undertake graduate studies in botany at the University of Connecticut. Sarah Mellen, curatorial assistant, resigned and was replaced by Patricia Adakonis. The present curatorial staff of the Combined Herbaria consists of M. A. Canoso, manager of systematic collections; Walter Kittredge, senior curatorial assistant; Laurie Feine-Dudley, curatorial assistant, Patricia Adakonis, curatorial assistant and Zepur Elmayan and Edith Hollender, mounters. Ida Hay Burch serves as curatorial assistant in the herbarium at Jamaica Plain; Anne Sholes and Helen Fleming are herbarium preparators there. necessary to make THE LIBRARIES AND ARCHIVES The total number of volumes and pamphlets at the end of the fiscal was 87,565: 172 added at Cambridge and 96 at Jamaica Plain by cataloguing, and 170 and 106 respectively by binding. In addition, 110 reprints were catalogued. Four hundred twenty journals are currently received at Cambridge, 223 at Jamaica Plain; 7 represent new subscriptions. Fifteen microfiches were added at Jamaica Plain; we now have 10,867 microfiches and 179 microfilm reels, acquired jointly with the Gray Herbarium; and 20,095 other non-book collections. Eighty-eight of the volumes added this year were gifts; we acknowledge with thanks the donation of books by Mr. A. I. Baranov, Mr. Norton Batkin, Mr. Charles Boewe, Mr. Paul A. Cox, Dr. Otto Degener, Dr. Peter S. Green, Mrs. John D. Houghton, Dr. Richard A. Howard, Dr. S. Y. Hu, the Korean Ginseng Research Institute, Dr. Elbert Little, Mr. C. R. Long, Dr. Michael Madison, Dr. Ernest Mayr, Dr. and Mrs. Norton G. Miller, Dr. J. K. Morton, Dr. Lily M. Perry, Dr. year 260 L. S. Plotnikova, Mr. Calvin Sperling, Dr. Stephen A. Spongberg, Dr. Peter F. Stevens, Mrs. Edward J. Thompson and Dr. Carroll E. Wood. The completion of the addition to the Herbaria Building in Cambridge has alleviated space problems in the library. Cambridge staff started reorganization of the library when the new space became available for occupancy in August, 1979. To create a more efficient work area for library staff, a wall between two of the three library offices was removed and the new space was reorganized to provide separate work space according to functions. Shelving for periodicals in various stages of preparation for the bindery was installed. Three tables were arranged to provide a large work surface for processing material for the stacks. The new work area for staff is proving to be an efficient and satisfactory arrangement. Storage space, however, remains a problem. The library privileges policy, which provides only limited access to the Harvard University Herbaria library for outside users and requires s payment of a user fee, has been in effect for 15 months. Whether the policy has had an effect on screening visitors is hard to measure because of the unusual circumstances of the past year. The three weeks during which the library was closed for construction and the ongoing addition to the herbarium for most of the academic year may have discouraged outsiders from visiting the library. Two hundred twenty visitors did register however - an increase of 43 over last year. Coordination with the herbarium office when visitors from other institutions register to work in the herbarium has also helped to monitor visitor use. A continuing project of removing pamphlet material from highly acidic covers and rebinding in cloth will ensure that the material will be in good condition for hundreds of years to come. William Prince's Short Treatise on Horticulture (1828) was in deteriorating condition and has now been disbound, the paper deacidified, resewn and rebound, preserving the original covers. The National Science Foundation's curatorial grant supported the rebinding and repair of Gilliam, Travels over the Table Lands and Cordilleras of Mexico (1846), and Browne, Civil and Natural History of Jamaica (1756). The University has received a third grant for microfilming rare or deteriorating library material under the Strengthening Research Libraries Program provided by Title II-C of the Higher Education Act. The Arnold Arboretum is continuing to submit titles for microfilming under this program. At Jamaica Plain, space has not been so much a problem as the arrangement of the collection in it. At present, the collection is divided between first and third floors of the Administration Building. Sheila Geary, assistant librarian there, made an inventory of existing shelf space and of files, documents and archival materials. From this she derived a projection of future library space needs, as part of a preliminary plan for the reorganization of the interior of the building that she assembled in collaboration with Ida Hay Burch, and Eugenia Frey, public information and education coordinator. . 261 Volunteers of the library over the past year made an important contribution to the operation. Approximately 110 hours were spent on various library tasks. Lou Segal and Al Thompson continued their work on treatment of leather bindings. Other work was performed by Amy Linssen, Gertrude Cronk and Helen Pino. Horticultural intern Ed Bemis also assisted in the library. With the help of volunteers Linda Bowman and Richard Warren, the contents and indices of C. S. Sargent's publication Garden and Forest have been photocopied and will be bound. The contents of this journal are valuable, as they reflect the state of botany and horticulture during the formative years of our institution. Much work was done on the important negative and slide collections at Jamaica Plain. Volunteers Barbara O'Connor, Marie Dempsey, and Mary Ashton, under the expert direction of Dodie Loomis, spent 214 hours on the curation and maintenance of our extensive slide collection. Sheila Geary reorganized the section of the collection that depicts general views of the arboretum, following the Bentham and Hooker botanical classification by which the living collections themselves are ordered. Special topics are now grouped by subject at the end of the sequence. In addition, Sheila Geary photographed and added approximately 250 slides of the living collections, aiming both to fill deficiencies and to record the restoration now beginning on the original path system. In this she had the cooperation of staff members Richard Weaver, Stephen Spongberg and Jennifer Hicks. One hundred slides of trees in the Arnold Arboretum were also provided by the Chanticleer Press, who took the photographs for the Audobon Society's new Field Guide, North American Trees, Eastern Region. Norton Batkin and Sheila Geary made a survey of the collection while gathering material for a grant proposal for their curation. They undertook an inventory and identified target problem areas, including deteriorating nitrate negatives in danger of becoming hazardous. Sheila Geary has begun to keep a numbered list of negatives in the collection that have broken glass plates. She has also reorganized the accession lists that document the collection. There are currently 15 separate lists, which indicate the photographers, the date, and the subject, and provide the only means of access to the collection. Several projects using the archives and photographic collections at Jamaica Plain were undertaken during the year. Sheila Geary undertook research into the early history and collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum, in preparation of our successful grant application to the National Science Foundation for curatorial support for the living collections records. This research was then extended with Ida Hay Burch, volunteer and Visiting Committee member B. June Hutchinson, and Norton Batkin to prepare a further grant application to the National Endowment for the Humanities for funds to prepare a guidebook to the living collections. This project will be discussed under publications. The portions of the guide for which we are seeking funding will draw 262 in preparation for this work Sheila Geary and June Hutchinson searched not only our own archives, but those of Harvard University Archives and at the Graduate School of Design, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the Northeastern Genealogical Society, the Massachusetts Historical Society and the federal records housed at Waltham, Massachusetts. We are grateful to these institutions for allowing us access to their records. They also spent over 70 hours this year at the offices of Olmsted Associates, examining the original planting plans of the arboretum; 164 complete and sectional maps were duplicated for our archives.They visited the National Archives on February 8 and 9th, 1980, to assess the written records associated with the plans, acquired by the Library of Congress several years ago. This year the Olmsted offices in Brookline became a National Historic Site, under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Service. Owing to the collaboration they have now established with the Park Service staff, special permission for their continued access to the material has been granted. A precursory article, entitled \"Jackson Thornton Dawson, Plantsman\" has been submitted to Arnoldia. This served as additional documentation for the guidebook grant proposal and as a test case to establish whether the research undertaken would, as envisaged, document the history of the arboretum in humanistic terms. A survey of funding sources for E. H. Wilson's plant exploration expeditions to China, including a list of donors, was prepared and added to our archives. As a consequence of all this work our own archives have expanded three linear feet. In her capacity as archivist at Jamaica Plain, Sheila Geary handled a variety of reference questions, including some from descendants of former staff members. Horticultural intern, Ed Bemis, was able to provide information on the Jesup Wood Collection to a correspondent in Portland, Oregon. The information, culled from various sources in the library, was gathered and added to the archival collection. Twelve queries drawing on the Arnold Arboretum's archival resources were filled or referred to the Gray Herbarium. One hundred and sixty copies of archival material were supplied. When the addition to the Herbaria Building was formally opened on May 23, the library mounted a small exhibit of staff publications. heavily on archival material; RESEARCH The official visit to the Arnold Arboretum by a party of botanists from the People's Republic of China in May, 1979, has been followed by a welcome and increasing collaboration in research. In August Professor Chin Yung Cheng, of Peking Medical College and a former student of Professor Reed Rollins of the Gray Herbarium, came to extend her work in the herbarium and library on Chinese Celastraceae. Professor Cheng, who remained until the end of November 263 the recipient of a Mercer Fellowship. We are anticipating additional and longer-term visitors within the next two years. Dr. Stephen Spongberg, who in June, 1979, had attended the meetings in California that terminated the visit of the Chinese party, in the coming fiscal year will represent the Arnold Arboretum, one of five American institutions which together will mount the first Sino-American field expedition since the 1950 Chinese revolution. The expedition is being sponsored by the Botanical Society of America; while in China it will be hosted by the government of the People's Republic. The director, with assistance from the Atkins Fund of Harvard University, visited Indonesia in June, 1980, where he completed his taxonomic revision of the Dipterocarpaceae of the Far East. Following this visit he attended the second Dipterocarp Round Table at the Forest Research Institute, Malaysia, where he presented a paper and chaired the final session. The publication of his semimonographic revision of the family for Flora Malesiana is imminent. A further paper on the new American Subfamily Pakaraimoideae was published, with Dr. Bassett Maguire of the New York Botanical Garden. While in Indonesia Dr. Ashton had discussions with the director and staff of the National Biological Institute, and an agreement for collaboration in research and training was drafted. With Dr. Stevens, Dr. Ashton has been awarded a grant by the U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, to supervise a postdoctoral appointee who will conduct research on wild bread-fruits and tree figs (Moraceae) for the Sarawak, East Malaysia, Forest Department over two years. Dr. Richard Primack, a former Harvard student and now an assistant professor at Boston University, was appointed in April, 1980; he left for Sarawak in early July. Dr. Primack is interested in future collaboration with the Arnold Arboretum in the research training of botanists from the Far Eastern tropics; this field research will therefore provide him with a useful opportunity to broaden his experience of this region. Dr. Ashton continued to serve on a committee of the National Academy of Sciences, chaired by Dr. Peter H. Raven, charged to establish research priorities in tropical biology. He convened and chaired a panel of Asian biologists in Thailand to select an Asian site for long-term ecosystem research, and coauthored the final report of the committee which was published in 1980. Dr. Ashton gave the Bames lecture at the Morris Arboretum of the University of Pennsylvania as well as invited lectures at Duke University, the University of Massachusetts at Amherst, the Universities of Western Ontario and of Guelph, and the Missouri Botanical Garden. He talked to the New England Botanical Club and the Society for Expeditionary Biology at Harvard. He presented a paper at a workshop on the aging and measurement of growth of tropical trees sponsored by the National Research Council and held at Harvard Forest. He also attended the annual convention of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta at Atlanta, Georgia. While in Indonesia, Dr. Ashton gave was 264 seminar at BIOTROP, the regional center for tropical biology of the Southeast Asian Ministries of Education Organization. First year graduate student Steven Rogstad is advised by Dr. Ashton; he is investigating the infrageneric classification of Polyalthia (Annonaceae), understorey trees in Old World tropical forests, with a view of pursuing field research on niche differentiation among closely allied species sharing the same physical habitat. With Dr. Otto T. Solbrig, Dr. Ashton advises Paul A. Cox, who is completing research on the reproductive biology of Freycinetia reineckii (Pandanaceae), a Samoan epiphytic vine; and, with Dr. Thomas Givnish, first year graduate student Paul Rich. Professor R. A. Howard has concentrated this year on his research into the flora of the West Indies. A grant from the National Science Foundation supports this study. The third volume of his Flora of the Lesser Antilles appeared in July. This volume treats the families of Monocotyledoneae; work is continuing on Dicotyledoneae. He is engaged also in two studies in historical botany: the transliteration, editing and eventual publication of an unpublished \"Hortus of the West Indies,\" written by Alexander Anderson in 1803 and on loan from the Linnean Society of London; and biographical and bibliographical research on William Hamilton, with an evaluation of his Prodromus Plantarum Indiae Occidentalis of 1825. Dr. Howard has prepared a checklist of the flora of Montserrat for the Montserrat National Trust, and is engaged in collaborative ecological studies on the changes in the vegetation following the 1977 eruption of the Soufriere of Guadeloupe with the staff of the Office of Forests. Dr. Howard studied in the libraries and herbaria at Kew, the British Museum, the Linnean Society, Royal Society and Royal Geographical Society in London in July and August, 1979. In February and March, 1980 he was in the West Indies, conducting field work in Jamaica, Puerto Rico, St. Thomas, Barbados, St. Vincent, and Montserrat. He was able to search church and government records in Barbados and St. Vincent for information on Anderson. He climbed the Soufriere of St. Vincent to photograph, collect and record data on the 1979 eruption. He collected in Montserrat in cooperation with the National Trust of that island; there he rediscovered the shrub Xylosma serrata, previously known only from the original nineteenth century collection. Dr. Howard also found time to complete a manuscript on E. H. Wilson as a botanist, discussed further under publications. As a member of its editorial board, he attended the meeting of the Organization Flora Neotropica held in January, 1980, where he gave a seminar ; that of the American Institute of Botanical Sciences at Stillwater, Oklahoma in August, 1979, also presenting a paper; and that of the A.A.B.G.A., of which he is a past president, in Atlanta, Georgia in April, 1980. At Atlanta he was the recipient of an Award of Merit from the A.A.B.G.A. He attended meetings, as scientific advisor, of the board of the Bloedel Reserve of the University of Washington Arboreta, and of the Dallas, Texas Arboretum Society where he lectured. a places. Among them, In addxtxon to research at the Arnold Arboretum staff members carried their work to distant Director Peter Ashton worked in Indonesta (upper left) on the Dtpterocarpaceae ; Dr. Bernxce Schubert (upper right) pursued research on Desmodieae at the National Herbanum in Mextco Ctty, and Dr. Rtchard Howard climbed the Soufnere of St. Vincent (bottom) recording the effects of tts 1979 eruption. 266 He also lectured at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, at Framingham State College, Massachusetts, and at the Winterthur, Delaware, Gardens Conference. Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, though retired, continues her research on Chinese medicinal plants. She attended the third annual symposium of the Society of Herbs at the University of California, Santa Cruz, in August, 1979, presenting a paper at the ginseng session; at this meeting she was honored with the Agnes Arber Distinguished Service Award. In September she participated at the first International Conference on Traditional Asian Medicine at Canberra, Australia, where she helped organize the International Association for the Study of Traditional Asian Medicine. She later visited New Zealand where she gave a seminar at Christchurch University, and Fiji. In May, 1980 she spoke on Chinese women in the practice and knowledge of herbal medicine at a celebration of the role of women in herbs at Cornell Plantations, and the dedication of a sculpture, \"The Yarb Woman,\" by Elfriede Abbe, in the Robinson York State Herb Garden at Cornell University. Dr. Hu received the Certificate of Honor of the Holly Society of America for her outstanding contributions to the greater appreciation and scientific knowledge of the genus Ilex. Dr. Norton G. Miller this year identified bryophytes (22 species) in an assemblage of fossil plants recovered from early or middle Illinoian sediments (ca. 100,000 years old) located in southern Illinois. The assemblage is comprised of calciphilous mosses of various upland and lowland habitats. The species are now largely restricted to north temperate and boreal latitudes, and thus their occurence in midlatitude North America represents a disjunction of considerable significance. The results of this study will be integrated with other kinds of data in an effort to define the paleoenvironments and paleoecology of the region. Few other data from this region and period of time are available. The project was undertaken in association with S. T. Jackson, a graduate student at Indiana University. An additional 300 pounds of sediment from the Columbia Bridge deposit (see previous report) has been processed for plant fossils, and many new additions to the flora were discovered. These have been identified in part by use of the scanning electron microscope and in part by other techniques. When the new material has been studied thoroughly it will be the basis of a paper in which the paleoecology of the site will be discussed in much more detail than was possible earlier. Information from specialists on the animal groups Ostracoda and Coleoptera, fossils of which are present in the sediments, will also be integrated. During April and May work on a revision of the taxonomy of the Australasian moss genus Trachyloma was resumed. In spite of some knotty problems, the solution of which is hampered by inadequate herbarium collections, progress has been made, and it is anticipated that the revision will be completed by the end of the summer. Dr. Miller has directed the research of three graduate students. Peter Alpert's thesis research, co-sponsored with Professor R. E. Cook, 267 has been pursued with the assistance of an NSF Doctoral Dissertation It concerns the general scarcity of bryophytes in arid environments, which he considers to be a function of a plant's inability to maintain a positive carbon balance under such conditions. Cecilia Lenk is investigating the post-glacial population dynamics of Fagus grandifolia at its northernmost distributional limit in northeastern North America by use of a combination of ecological and palynological techniques. Brent Mischler's dissertation research is a taxonomic study ofTortula (Musci: Pottiaceae) in North America and Mexico. With support of the Anderson Fund Brent has been in Canada and in part of the western United States locating and observing populations and gathering materials for study in Cambridge. Dr. Miller presented a paper at the AIBS meeting at Stillwater, and another at the Taxonomic Workshop of the International Association of Bryologists at the Geneva Botanic Gardens in late August, when he also chaired the session on Bryophyte floristics in the temperate Americas and in the polar regions. While in Switzerland he participated in an excursion of the Bryologisch-Lichenologische Arbeitsgemeinschaft fur Mitteleuropa to Grimsel in the central Swiss Alps. He also lectured at Wake Forest University and at Duke University, North Carolina, and to the New England Botanical Club. With D. T. Webb of Brown University, he organized the Northeastern North America Palynology Workshop, which was held at Harvard Forest in September, 1979. Dr. Bernice Schubert has been able to give full attention this year to her research in Leguminosae subtribe Desmodieae; a study is soon to be completed. A treatment of Desmodium for the Flora of Panama was completed and submitted for publication. This treated 24 species; the large number of recent collections necessitated extensive study. Critical studies on three difficult Central American species groups in the same genus are in progress. A larger scale revision of the species occurring in Oaxaca, Mexico will be Dr. Schubert's contribution to a collaborative effort, with colleagues in the National Herbarium at the Institute of Biology, University of Mexico, to a treatment of Leguminosae of Oaxaca. During the past year also, through the kindness of Professor Gerald B. Ownbey, University of Minnesota (Saint Paul), the Arnold Arboretum was the recipient of that portion of the botanical reliquiae of the late Dr. Temple Clayton pertaining to Dioscorea, and consisting of specimens, photographs, manuscripts, observations, and other materials. The process of evaluating this material and incorporating whatever possible into our collections has begun and should be completed by the end of the summer; any part of this gift added to our collections will subsequently be appropriately labeled. Since Dr. Clayton studied and photographed many types of Dioscorea, this material will be most useful in continuation of the current studies of the genus. A good many other interesting specimens, including species previously unrepresented in our collections have been curated and added. Some progress has nevertheless been made towards a revision of Dioscorea for Improvement Grant. 268 the Flora of Veracruz, in collaboration with colleagues in Instituto Nacional de Investigaciones sobre Recursos Bioticos (INIREB) at Xalapa. Dr. Schubert spent two weeks in Mexico during November, 1979, on this work. Dr. Schubert visited Mexico again between February 22 and April 12, 1980, when she was sponsored by the University of Mexico to run a course in botanical nomenclature and taxonomic techniques. This gave her the opportunity also to study recent collections of Desmodium at the University herbarium, and particularly those from Oaxaca. She served there on a degree committee, and also lectured to the Sociedad Botanica de Mexico and again, briefly, visited Xalapa. In September, 1979, Dr. Schubert attended the national convention of the American Begonia Society. Dr. Stephen Spongberg's research during the past year has continued to be centered around the theaceous genus Hartia but has expanded to include the simple-leaved species of Sorbus from eastern and southeastern Asia. The large number of unidentified specimens in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum have been tentatively identified and work toward a revision of the Asian species will be continued. In connection with his own work, and to facilitate the taxonomic studies of other arboretum staff members, Dr. Spongberg has regularly scanned all incoming periodicals in the combined libraries of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain. Bibliographic references have been made to all articles pertaining to woody plants of the northern and southern Temperate Zones for addition to the set of \"Rehder cards\" housed in Jamaica Plain. Over the past year, 1283 references have been added to the card file. At the end of the year Dr. Howard kindly volunteered to collaborate in this time-consuming but invaluable task. Work also progressed toward a new book on the poisonous plants of northeastern North America, a project that is a collaborative effort between Dr. Spongberg and Ida Hay Burch (See Publications below). During a visit to England in February, 1980, Spongberg was able to spend four days at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where he worked in the library and herbarium examining their holdings of Sorbus and also genera in the Theaceae and Magnoliaceae. He also visited the Westonbirt Arboretum where he examined living collections. Dr. Peter F. Stevens received promotion from assistant to associate professor during the year; at the end of the year he was appointed to supervise the Gray and Arnold Arboretum herbaria. Much of his time this year was spent in seeing his monograph of Calophyllurn through to publication in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum; this is now imminent. Preliminary work, which will ultimately lead to a monograph of Mesua, also in Guttiferae has begun. A manuscript on how to determine which character states are advanced and which primitive has been submitted and accepted for publication. Paul Groff completed his senior thesis, for which Dr. Stevens was 269 on aspects of the growth patterns of Ericaceae tribe Phyllodoceae. Additional data now being collected, and a survey Dr. Stevens is making of other characters, will culminate in an evaluation of phylogenetic relationships in the group. Groff's work has demonstrated the great benefit to be obtained from making observations of growth characters on living plants, many of which were growing in our collections. The characters Groff observed proved of systematic value at generic, infrageneric and infraspecific levels, of considerable intrinsic morphological interest, and of importance in providing a basis for the better understanding of the ecology of the plants. Dr. Stevens is extending his own observations on the morphology and dynamics of branching with particular reference to Sapotaceae and the Urticales. In both these groups there seem to be common patterns of lateral branch construction that are maintained despite their different methods of growth. As a result of this, each group can apparently be reorganized by certain inconspicuous but constant characters, their consistency seemingly consequent on developmental constraints. Elizabeth Taylor completed her first year as Dr. Stevens advisee; Stevens also continued, with Professor R. E. Schultes, to advise Jeff Hart on his research into some South American Labiatae. Dr. Richard Weaver, notwithstanding commitments to the planning and implementation of the restoration of the living collections as well as their curation, and to the compilation of a guidebook to the arboretum, has continued his taxonomic revision of Staphylea. A popular treatment has been submitted to Arnoldia, and a formal one will follow before the end of 1980. This spring Dr. Weaver, with Dr. Alice Tryon collaborated with and advised undergraduate William Baikama, who made chromosome counts in Hamamelidaceae growing in the living collections. Baikama verified previously reported numbers in several taxa and successfully made the first known count of Loropetalum chinense. The work is to be continued in fall 1980 before being written up. Professor Carroll E. Wood pursued no personal research during the year, but advised three graduate students, Christopher S. Campbell, Elizabeth Coombs, and Michael Donoghue, and a junior, Roger Cantu. Campbell completed his thesis, entitled \"Biosystematic Studies in the Andropogon virginicus Complex (Gramineae)\" in May, receiving his doctorate in June. He has been appointed to an assistant professorship advisor, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Donoghue received the George R. Cooley Award for the best paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists in Stillwater, Oklahoma, in August, 1979. His paper, \"Growth Patterns in Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae) and Their Taxonomic Significance,\" was based in large part on plants of the 60 species of Viburnum growing in the living collections of the arboretum. A second paper based on these living collections has been published this year in Arnoldia. He is continuing his studies in Viburnum, extending his observations on our living collections by two trips for field work in Jamaica, Central America and at 270 southern Mexico; these were supported by a Doctoral Dissertation Grant in Systematic Biology from the National Science Foundation. He expects to submit his thesis in 1981. Elizabeth Coombs started in Fall, 1979. She was awarded a grant by the National Science Foundation to support field research on the biosystematics of the Poa sandbergii complex, work that she initiated at the University of Idaho. Elizabeth Taylor accompanied her in May and June to the coast ranges of California, working from San Diego northwards, from where Coombs returned briefly to the University of Idaho to transfer her living collections to Cambridge; they were found to have received an application of volcanic ash from Mt. St. Helens. A detachment from the Harvard University Herbaria, aided by a supply of potables, helped in the planting of her collections in the experimental garden. On January 28th a reception was held in the Harvard University Herbaria Library, to celebrate the publication of Lily M. Perry's monumental and long-awaited treatise on the medicinal properties attributed to plants in East and South-East Asia. Miss Perry was on the staff of the arboretum between 1937 and 1979; this work is the product of a painstaking search for information on herbarium labels and in the literature. Karen Stoutsenberger, who was on the arboretum staff from November, 1970, to May, 1980, first as botanical illustrator for The Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, edited by Dr. Wood and more recently as botanical illustrator on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, married David Ku, of Atlanta, Georgia, on March 15. Many of Karen's accurate and beautiful illustrations have been published in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum and in A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants: Some Dicotyledons of Eastern North America. Her strong sense of design can be seen on the covers of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, 1972-1980. Brook Thompson-Mills, research assistant to Dr. Howard, resigned on August 24, 1979; her place was taken by Miss Kristin Clausen. Katherine Holland, secretary to the research staff resigned on August 22nd and was replaced by Lisa Frost. EDUCATION The contribution of our faculty to the advising of graduate students in the section on research. For readers unfamiliar with the Harvard University courses of instruction, the numbering system requires explanation. Biology courses fall into four sequences: 1-99, an introductory series for undergraduates; 100-119, at middle level and offered for both undergraduates and graduates; 200-299, which are primarily for graduate students but which undergraduates can attend, if sanctioned by their instructor, in their final years; and 300-399, graduate courses of reading and research. Professors Carroll E. Wood and Norton G. Miller, with Professors is reported 271 Donald Pfister and P. Barry Tomlinson gave Biology 18, \"Diversity in the Plant Kingdom\" in the fall; it was rated highly by the students. Professor Wood's Biology 103, \"The Taxonomy of Seed-bearing Plants,\" again received superb ratings in all categories; graduate student Michael Donahue earned high acclaim for his contributions as a teaching fellow in the spring of 1980. Professor Wood also gave Biology 313, \"Systematics of Vascular Plants\" to three graduate students, and supervised one junior in a Biology 90r research course. Besides his contribution to the highly rated Biology 18, Dr. Miller gave an undergraduate research course 91r, \"Readings in Bryology,\" and two Biology 305 courses: \"Topics in Systematics and Paleobotany\" ; and \"Topics in Paleoecology and Bryology.\" Professor Peter F. Stevens gave, with zoologist Professor William L. Fink, their course Biology 148, \"Systematic Biology,\" in the fall. Professor Stevens taught 300 level courses and Biology 90r (supervised undergraduate research), in both fall and spring semesters. He also supervised two students' reading on aspects of plant growth, a Biology 91r course, and gave an honors tutorial. In the summer of 1979 he taught Biology S 105 with Dr. J. B. Fisher, of the Fairchild Tropical Garden, Miami, a Harvard summer school course that is based at the Fairchild Garden; this course, as always, was attended by several Harvard students. Professor Richard A. Howard taught his course Biology 209, \"The Phylogeny of the Flowering Plants,\" in the fall semester. Dr. Howard also presented a guest lecture entitled \"Survival and Poisonous Plants,\" in Professor Richard E. Schultes' Biology 104, \"Plants and Human Affairs.\" With Professor Rolla M. Tryon of the Gray Herbarium, Professor Peter S. Ashton participated in Biology 147, \"Biogeography.\" In addition, Professor Ashton gave a research course (387, \"Tropical Botany\") in both semesters. Eugenia Frey, who joined the staff as plant information coordinator in July, 1979, has taken over responsibility for our public education program in preparation for expansion, which begin in the spring. Our staff has continued to make an important contribution to instruction, with Gary Koller contributing this year in 11offerings, Richard Weaver in 7, James Burrows and Peter Del Tredici 4 each, Jack Alexander 3, Margo Reynolds 2, and Ida Burch, Eugenia Frey, Sheila Geary, Bruce Munch, Barbara Epstein, James Nickerson, Robert Nicholson, and Jennifer Hicks one each. This year, in addition, graduate students Michael Donoghue, Elizabeth Coombs, Paul Cox, Laurie Dudley, and Christopher Campbell contributed, as did several outside speakers. Several courses, tours and workshops were offered in collaboration with other organizations in the Boston area; these included the New England Wildflower Society, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and Habitat. Our aims here are to demonstrate the cooperative spirit that exists between our organizations, to highlight the distinct role that 272 each of us plays, and to work together in fields where collaboration will manifestly be to our mutual benefit. In order to attract more good speakers for our growing program, and to operate on an equal footing with our collaborators, this spring speakers were for the first time offered honoraria. This necessitated an increase in the fee charged to participants. With assistance from Norton Batkin, an elegant, new, two-color course brochure was designed. In fall 1979, 7 courses and 3 workshops (single session courses) were offered; two courses were cancelled for lack of attendance. In the offered although 7 were similarly cancelled; also 6 workshops, 3 tours to other gardens. The Administration Building and the Dana Greenhouse area offered visitor information for an extended number of weekends, this spring, thanks to staff and volunteer help. In addition, a number of weekend programs were offered. Walks in the arboretum, with five bilingual walks, in Spanish and English, were given. A series entitled \"Open Spaces in Boston: A Record of Citizen Involvement,\" to which Bostonians prominent in environmental affairs contributed, was held on Sunday afternoons. The Wednesday luncheon series, at which staff speak on alternate weeks from October through April continued to be popular. The series \"Evenings with Friends\" was held again at the Red Schoolhouse at the Case Estates on Tuesday evenings in the fall, as was the spring program that traditionally has complemented it, entitled \"Meet the Staff.\" An average of 65 attended the Wednesday luncheon series, which are free. Registration for the remaining fall 1979 offerings was 171, but in the spring there were 370 registered, which we anticipate will be exceeded in fall 1980. Anne Johnson and Nancy LeMay provided much help in the administration and organization of the programs. Four exhibitions were mounted at Jamaica Plain. Volunteer Cora Warren's exhibit \"Spreading Roots,\" spanning the history of plant introductions and exchanges in North America, was shown during August-October, 1979, followed in by \"New England Gardens Open to the Public,\" a selection of photographs by Cymie R. Payne and from the Arnold Arboretum collection. During February-May an exhibit entitled \"Roots\" was shown, prepared by the Morris Arboretum for the University of Pennsylvania and presenting the growth, distribution, function and cultural needs of tree roots. Finally, \"The Tallgrass Prairie: An American Landscape,\" was loaned from the Smithsonian Institution Traveling Exhibition Service between May-July. The arboretum exhibit at the Massachusetts' Horticultural Society's Spring Flower Show is described in the section on spring there 18 courses were were November-January public service. senior Debbie Van Ryn, Eugenia Frey education program to complement the work schedules of the 1980 Summer Horticultural Trainees. A series of ten walks, twelve lunchtime lectures and three special events, two of which were trips, was organized. The active participation of many staff and volun- With the help of Harvard organized an 273 teers make this a valuable program and contributed to the excellent morale and performance of the trainees this season. PUBLICATIONS Our current publications policy was summarized in my last annual report. I there discussed our intention to increase the circulation of Arnoldia, and plans for the future publication of four books. Norton Batkin assumed the position of publications officer in August, 1979. In July, 1979, the third volume of Dr. Howard's Flora of the Lesser Antilles, which treats the Monocotyledons, appeared with family revisions by himself and several collaborators. Stephen Spongberg and Ida Hay Burch continued their work on a book on the poisonous plants of the northeastern United States. Thanks to a donation from Mr. Walter Hunnewell and the Gillette Company, plans to illustrate the book with fine photographs are proceeding. Mr. David C. Twichell is collaborating on the photographic work, which neared completion this year with the accumulation of contact prints of all but a few of the species to be included. The text will be based partly on study of references at the Countway Medical Library of Harvard University. The illustrations for a book on the China of Ernest Wilson, the great plant explorer who worked for the Arnold Arboretum between 19081930, have been prepared by photographer Peter Chvany. Research for the text has been completed by Richard Howard, and two preliminary articles are to appear in the May-June, and July-August, 1980, issues ofArnoldia. The publication of this book and of a collection of Esther Heins' watercolors of plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum, has been delayed by the absence of a source of funding. Grant proposals are to be prepared. The editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum is Dr. Stephen Spongberg; Elizabeth B. Schmidt, formerly assistant editor, has been appointed managing editor. During the past year the Editorial Committee was reorganized to include Dr. Ashton, and Dr. K. S. Bawa of the University of Massachusetts, Boston, as our outside member. The long association of the Journal with the Harvard University Printing Office, conveniently located in the Allston section of Boston, ended in 1979 with the publication of the October number of Volume 60. For reasons of economy, as well as the eventual phase-out of hot type composition at the Harvard University Printing Office, the Editorial Committee decided, after a considerable number of bids had been received, to give the contract to Edwards Brothers, Inc., of Ann Arbor, Michigan, for the production of Volume 61 (1980). While paper and cover stock remain the same, cold type composition is being utilized, 274 different type face. Slight changes have also been adopted the placement of copyright (where applicable) and biblioincluding graphic citation (journal title, volume number, pagination, and date) at the bottom of the title page of each article, and the initiation of each article on a right-hand page. These changes have facilitated printing and binding of offprints and have allowed the use of identical offprint covers (printed on Journal cover stock) for all offprints of a given volume. The January, 1980, number attests to the quality of Edwards Brothers' work; despite the distance between the editorial office and the printer, work has continued to run smoothly and at considerable requiring a economies realized, the Editorial Committee determined it necessary and reasonable to request authors to help defray production expenses. Beginning with manuscripts received and accepted for publication as of March, 1980, a page charge of $20 is to be levied. Acceptance of manuscripts for the Journal will continue to be based solely on appropriateness and scientific merit rather than on an author's ability to meet page costs. As a result of these changes, the subscription price of $25.00 per volume will be maintained for the time being. Our custom of providing authors with free reprints (50 for outside authors, 100 for those in-house) will be continued. Further, an updated set of instructions to authors will be published once annually in the Journal; the use of standardized bibliographic abbreviations may be introduced. Subscriptions, including library exchanges, currently number 706. The July, 1979, number of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, the first to be published during the fiscal year just ended, was appropriately dedicated to Bernice G. Schubert, who had recently completed fifteen years of devoted and tireless service as editor and chairman of the Editorial Committee. During the last fiscal year three numbers of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum have been published. The last number has been delayed intentionally and will be published simultaneously with the July, 1980, issue; both numbers will be exclusively devoted to P. F. Stevens' manuscript, \"A Revision of the Old World Species of Calophyllum (Guttiferae),\" and together will have more than 600 pages. Publication of this large manuscript is consistent with the emphasis on monographic taxonomic research at the arboretum; the Journal, with its wide and established circulation in Asia where Calophyllum has its center of diversity, is clearly the most appropriate medium of publication. To mark the publication of this monograph, a new cover design as well as new devices were drawn by Karen Stoutsenberger for Volume 61. These are based on the shoots and fruits, as well as on hairs which are of so much taxonomic importance in savings. Despite the Calophyllum. The three numbers of the Journal (Volume 60, numbers 3 and 4; Volume 61, number 1) published during fiscal year 1979-1980 include 334 pages devoted to seventeen articles by nineteen authors. S. Y. Hu The Arnold Arboretum can provtde extraordznary opportunzties for nature photographers. Volunteer Al Bussewttz, one of the finest photographers workzng on the arboretum grounds, captured these images of wildflowers growtng tn the liazng coUections. During the year the Arnold Arboretum played host to Mrs. Barbara Abbott, the sole direct descendant of plant explorer, E H. W:lson Mrs. Abbott (right) made a surprxse gift to the arboretum an unpublished manuscnpt by her illustnous forebear (left). and S. A. Sponberg were arboretum staff who published in the Journal during this period. Six of the nineteen authors are associated with foreign institutions (in Argentina, the Federal Republic of Germany, and New Zealand), while the remaining authors have affiliations with American institutions. The majority of articles report studies that have directly or indirectly utilized the herbarium and associated collections held by the Arnold Arboretum and other botanical institutions at Harvard University. Manuscripts are presently on hand for issues into Volume 62, which will appear in 1981. Seventeen manuscripts have been received during the past fiscal year; of these, two were withdrawn by the author, five were rejected, one is currently being reviewed, and the remainder accepted for publication. The delay in publication time has been, in part, caused by the publication of Stevens' large Calophyllum manuscript, and mention should be made of the unflagging efforts and skill of Elizabeth Schmidt, the managing editor, in handling it. Thanks are rendered to our many outside reviewers, and to the members of the Editorial Committee for the time spent in reviewing manuscripts and offering help and advice on technical matters during the past year. Particular thanks are also extended to Dr. Schubert, who was unfailing in her help and advice during the transition of editorship and who has continued in her willingness to help in any way possible. The following persons are also to be thanked for the tedious and often thankless job of reading galley proofs during the past year: Margaret Campbell, Marion Carter, Laura Durr, Emily Lott, Heather 277 Miller, Martha Smith, and particularly Sara Cook, who read galley proofs for both the April and July, 1980, numbers. There was much change in the editorial staff ofArnoldia during the fiscal year. Initially Dr. Weaver assumed editorial duties, but when Norton Batkin was appointed as publications officer he became managing editor of Arnoldia, with Weaver remaining editor. Barbara Epstein remained circulation manager. An editorial committee was formed; it now includes R. Weaver, chairman; P. Ashton, N. Batkin, J. Burrows, B. Epstein, R. Howard, and Roger Swain, who is scientific editor for Horticulture magazine as outside member. The principal responsibilities of the Editorial Committee are to review manuscripts before publication, to advise on policy matters, and to help solicit articles. During fiscal year 1979-1980 the last three issues of Volume 39 were published, with a total of 134 pages. Only the first issue of Volume 40 has been published to date, with a total of 48 pages. The average number of pages per issue is 48, a size we feel to be ideal. Number 2 (March-April), containing 3 articles, will appear in early August ; and issue 3 (May-June) in late August, containing 3 articles. In the past the great majority of articles were written by staff members. This year, of the 17 articles for the fiscal year 5 were contributions from outside our staff, and 1 was from a foreign author. \"Flowering Times in Viburnums\" by Michael Donoghue was the first article written by a graduate student to appear in Arnoldia in recent years while the \"Introduction of North American trees into China\" by C. K. Cheng represented the first article written by a foreign author. This broadening is consistent with our plan to serve a larger read- ership. There have been other significant innovations in Arnoldia but the regrettable lateness of the issues has counteracted any constructive changes. These include the use of an illustration on the back as well as the front cover (July-August, 1979); the use of a second color in cover photographs and the addition of a staff list on the inside front cover (September-October, 1979); and the initiation of a regular series featuring outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum, as well as a list of books received from publishers to be considered for review (March-April, 1980). Less tangible improvements include tightening up the format of the magazine, more careful editing, and improvement in the quality of the photographs. Sheila Geary, Ida Hay Burch, and June Hutchinson have undertaken extensive research in preparation for a first comprehensive guidebook to the Arnold Arboretum. It is intended that this be published in an innovative format. A core will describe the history, design and purpose of the arboretum and will be published in a loose-leaf form whilst additional chapters will address a range of subjects, from detailed guides to individual collections, accounts for the seasons and botanical texts for teachers taking classes in the arboretum, to descriptions of the ethno-botany of North American trees. These will be 278 sold separately and added to the core; they can also be added to as authors are found, and independently reprinted or revised as necessary. A grant proposal for partial outside funding has been prepared and submitted. As mentioned in the section on the living collections, a proposal has also been prepared to assist in funding a new map for our collect","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1980-The Director's Report"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":238,"end_page":293,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24786","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eb326.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":6,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"ions. Simplified and reduced onto one sheet, it will be printed and placed on public sale as an accessory to the guidebook. We this year reestablished links with Barbara Abbott, sole direct descendant of E. H. Wilson. Mrs. Abbott has been made an honorary Friend of the Arnold Arboretum. We were surprised and excited to receive the gift of a typescript by Wilson for a three volume popular work which he had planned to publish on his best known introductions. Incomplete and in need of extensive editing to bring it to contemporary audiences, it nonetheless has considerable potential and we hope, in due course, to have it prepared for publication. Harvard University Printing Office used the Arnold Arboretum as the theme for the photographs for this year's university calendar. Norton Batkin and Sheila Geary assisted in the selection of the photographs from our collection. A list of publications of staff and associates that appeared during the 1979-1980 fiscal year follows this report. PUBLIC SERVICE The Arnold Arboretum is situated within the city of Boston and forms part of the City Parks System. Frederick Law Olmsted conceived of the arboretum as the component within the \"emerald necklace\" which should have education as its most significant function. Public education remains an important function of the Arnold Arboretum. However, the majority of our visitors come primarily to relax: to jog, exercise the dog, walk with the children or lie in the cool shade of an old tree. The future of the Arnold Arboretum lies in the hands of its visitors, and especially those who reside in Boston. Without the participation of our neighbors, for instance, it will become increasingly difficult to maintain the collection and grounds in the healthy, tranquil and litter-free condition which we all desire. We are convinced that increasing visitation, and a close and active collaboration with our neighbors, can do much to limit the vandalism and litter problems that we presently suffer. We have therefore practical reasons as well as a moral responsibility to provide increased service to the community. For their part, members of the community contribute to our work by serving as volunteers, by joining our member organization, the and the importance of this Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, or - Frederick Law Olmsted and Charles Sprague Sargent 2ntended the Arnold Arboretum for a dual purpose: education and recreation. There is no doubt that the majority of visitors see the arboretum as an appealing setting for relaxation, for exercise, even for art. Photographs by C. Lobig, R. Weaver, and A. Bussewitz. An brought internal transportation graphs by N. Lemay. unexpected gxft of fiae electric trams from the St. Joe Minerals Corporation xn St. Louis to the Arnold Arboretum, years ahead of schedule. Photo- 281 cannot be overemphasized - by maintaining an active interest and behalf in the community. We have kept this in mind in building our staff and filling vacancies over the past year. Several changes in our staff should be noted. Ms. Margo Reynolds, public relations officer and chairman of our public relations committee, resigned at the end of April, 1980. Ms. Hope Wise has been appointed in her place, beginning in July. As reported last year, Ms. Eugenia Frey joined us as public information coordinator in July, 1979; her work in organizing the expansion of our public education program has been mentioned above. Norton Batkin, became the arboretum's first publications officer during the past year, and Wendy Marks filled the new position of manager of buildings and public services on June 1st. In addition she is currently acting as chairman of the public relations committee. It is intended that the manager of buildings and public services will negotiate funding sources and implement various special projects aimed at enhancing public facilities at the Arnold Arboretum. Owing to the unanticipated receipt of five electric trams donated by the St. Joe Minerals Corporation of New York, Ms. Marks has so far concentrated on establishing routing and a regular schedule for them, recording a tour, setting up and implementing a fee that will eventually insure their financial self-sufficiency, and planning the formal inauguration of the service. Each tram carries ten passengers; three, provided with trailers, can take up to sixteen. This past year, they ran on a weekend schedule through November 15th, with special tours for groups by appointment at other times. There have been technical difficulties, partially through our inexperience and partially owing to the hilly terrain of the arboretum. Under Eugenia Frey's leadership the arboretum staff currently conducts free tours for professional plant people and high school and college groups. Trained volunteers provide garden clubs and other amateur groups with tours on payment of a fee. The 60 tours at the arboretum this spring, a third of which were for schools, represent a threefold increase over the previous year. Five volunteer guides went through a training review program this spring which acquainted them with areas of the collections, the history of the arboretum and the work of the staff. Plans are underway to substantially improve the training of our guides so that we can confidently offer a thorough and speaking on our well-presented tour program. Ms. Frey has also been reviewing the plant information service that the Arnold Arboretum offers the public. She has instituted a record keeping system which documents the questions asked, the method of inquiry, the time taken to find an answer and the staff involved. At this stage, owing to incompleteness, the record probably indicates less than two-thirds of the total number of inquiries. During the fiscal year a total of 955 inquiries was recorded, mostly by telephone and during the spring and summer; of this 362 were concerned with cultural questions, 293 with the poisonous properties of plants, 82 requesting sources of particular plants, 61 for identification, 35 regarding propa- 282 gation and 6 on library references; the rest spanned a variety of areas. A plant information hot-line was established, from 1-2 p.m., Monday-Thursday. During that time Ms. Frey answers simple questions quickly, and calls back or writes to those people who need more obscure information. It appears to have been well received. With Ida Burch, she has established protocol and procedures for calls directed to us by the Massachusetts Poison Information Center. She has also sought legal advice concerning liability for inadvertent supply of mistaken information; the current procedure appears to be the correct one. Ms. Frey has had much continuing help in answering inquiries from Gary Koller, Richard Weaver, Ida Burch, the propagation staff and others. The Arnold Arboretum community gardens scheme made a degree of progress last year. During 1978-79 there were serious problems of vandalism, the shortage of water, and lack of coordination among the gardeners themselves. These remain concerns, although much has happened this year to help the project run more smoothly. A steering committee was set up to share work and decision making. Headed by Terry Buck, it met twice a month through the year at the Dana Greenhouses. Guidelines for the gardeners were set up, and the general organization of the group is improved. Two workdays were held during the spring and summer to clean up the garden in the South Street area, and an educational program was arranged with consultation from the Greenstock staff of the Suffolk County Extension Service. Two of the gardeners have set up and supervised a successful pilot children's garden. In March a well was dug; a hand pump is now on order. For its protection, 3 steel I-beams will be placed around the pump, and it will be enclosed in a locked metal barrel. Ninety-one plots have been assigned this year, and people from Jamaica Plain, Brookline, Cambridge, Roslindale, Milton, Boston, Roxbury, Dorchester, and Mattapan are participating. When people of many backgrounds and levels of experience are encouraged to garden together, results are varied: the best side of this is the wide range of produce raised and methods used. The Steering Committee evaluated the plots and reassigned those not gardened on June 1, 1980. They will attempt to advise beginning gardeners, but it has proven difficult to do so because of the different times that people go to the garden area. Vandalism will remain a problem because of the garden site's exposure and accessibility from all sides, and because unlike most other Boston urban gardens, ours is not the responsibility of a single neighborhood. As a result produce is destroyed, communication between gardeners is impeded, and group morale is dampened. To combat these difficulties, the Steering Committee recommended that gardeners do not plant vine-ripening produce, or construct fencing, both of which seem to invite vandalism. An arrangement for quick relay of telephone messages among gardeners has been established. On September 25, 1979, Margo Reynolds arranged a press breakfast in the Jamaica Plain Administration Building as part of an effort to appraise the various media of the arboretum's facilities, programs Director Peter Ashton talks wxth Deputy Mayor Kathenne Kane durxng Arbor Day ceremonies held in the Boston Pubhc Gardens, on Apnl 25, 1980. The Arnold Arboretum planted two korean mountain ash trees (Sorbus alnifolia) near the Charles Street fence. Photograph by M. Reynolds. Over the past year excess plant material was made available to community groups through Boston Urban Gardeners for plantings throughout the city. Jim Burrows works wlth volunteer Lynn Borman, removing Ilex specimens for dzstributzon. Photograph by C. Lobzg. 284 and other activities. Representatives of TV, newspapers, and local magazines listened to a talk by Gary Koller on fall foliage coloration, participated in a discussion during which information packets were distributed, and finally accompanied Gary on a tour of the arboretum. In January, 1980, the arboretum became a member of the Council of Museums of Boston once again after a lapse of several years. Comprised of museums in the greater Boston area, this group meets monthly to discuss items of general interest and to share ideas and suggestions. The arboretum helped to celebrate Arbor Day in a number of ways. On Friday, April 25, 1980, Director Peter Ashton and Margo Reynolds, along with Deputy Mayor Katherine Kane, City Environmental Coordinator Eugenie Beale and members of the Friends of the Public Garden, took part in a tree planting ceremony on the Boston Common that honored both Arbor Day and the city's 350 year anniversary. The arboretum contributed two fully grown Korean mountain ashes, Sorbus alnifolia, for the occasion; we thank Mrs. G. Kennard Wakefield for contributing the cost of transplantation. On April 26, 1980, Margo Reynolds attended a further celebration, at Jamaica Plain's Armenian Nursing Home, at which some conifers were donated for their garden; she prepared an article on tree planting for them, and other literature on tree culture was provided. Once again the arboretum participated in the Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. This year's exhibit was entitled, \"Landscaping with Foliage.\" It received the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Trustee's Trophy, the Creative Design Certificate and a gold medal. The second annual Arnold Arboretum Award, for excellence in the use of rare and unusual north temperate (hardy) woody plants in a complementary landscape setting, was presented at the Spring Flower Show to David A. Haskell and Peter R. Sadeck of New Bedford, Massachusetts for their exhibit entitled \"A Pleasure Garden.\" Our staff contributed in numerous ways to the programs of amateur horticultural groups, and to the horticultural profession throughout the year. Several classes of public instruction were oriented toward the interests of such groups. Worthy of note was a plant propagators workshop, organized by supervisor of the living collections, Gary Koller, and propagator, Jack Alexander, at which cuttings of over 60 taxa were made available to the professional plantsmen who participated. Two hundred packets of seed of the pink form of Cladrastis kentukea, from plants grown at the Perkins School in Watertown, Massachusetts were collected and distributed at the annual convention of the International Plant Propagator's Society. Arboretum staff lectured extensively in the community. Jack Alexander spoke to the New England Chapter of the American Rock Garden Society and the Brookine Garden Club; Peter Ashton was a keynote speaker at the annual convention of the American Rhododendron Society and spoke to the Chestnut Hill Garden Club, Brookline Emery Bag Club, and Weston Senior Citizens Association, and the \" 285 Friends of Boston Public Garden. Richard Howard spoke to the Garden Writers of America symposium at Callaway Gardens, Georgia, to the Horticultural Club of Boston, the Women's Education and Industrial Union, the Wayland Garden Club, the Women's City Club of Boston, the Weston Garden Club, and the Hillsborough County Conservation District; and Gary Koller to the Newport Garden Club, the summer employees of the Boston Zoological Society, the New York Nurserymen's Association, the Transportation Research Board, the Maine Nurserymen's Association, the New England Nurserymen's Association, the Massachusetts Arborist and Tree Warden's Association, the Conservation Commission's Agricultural Extension Service in Suffolk County, Massachusetts as well as the Massachusetts Landscape Contractors, the Garden Club Federation of Massachusetts, and the American Rock Garden Society (N.E. chapter), and at Blithewold Gardens and Arboretum. He also helped organize and conduct a day-long tour for the Cabbages and Kings Horticultural Group. Sheila Geary, assistant librarian at Jamaica Plain has prepared an annotated slide show that traces the early history and purpose of the Arnold Arboretum and then outlines our present policy and plans for restoration. Dr. Ashton gave talks based on this show at the Fogg Museum and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. The New England Bromeliad Society has held monthly meetings at the Dana Greenhouses. Peter Ashton participated in the WGBH, Boston public television Channel 2 auction; Gary Koller participated in the Sharon King television show and the Doug Debruin Show and was interviewed for First 4 (Channel 4) News. VOLUNTEERS Volunteers have helped in almost every phase of our work, and their work has been alluded to many times in this report. Among other achievements, a new system in our slide collection was set up and implemented completely by our volunteers. Volunteers have taught classes, set up exhibits, participated in our Wednesday lecture series and written articles forArnoldia. Further, we have depended upon the volunteers for help in staffing the flower show exhibit as well as the front reception desk during peak season. Many of our volunteers prefer outdoor occupations and have requested work on the grounds. These jobs include inventories in Jamaica Plain and Weston, collection of specimens for the herbaria, and assistance in mapping and labeling. Volunteers have also helped to reestablish the perennial garden and the ground cover plots in Weston. The greenhouse continues to be a big attraction for our volunteers. Some are employed in seed cleaning or potting. Others conduct the weekly guided tours there. Those who prefer to be indoors have provided valuable assistance in the library and with clerical work. We are especially grateful to one of our loyal volunteers who, along with many other duties keeps the entrance hall of the Administration Building attractive with beautiful seasonal arrangements, all properly labeled. Volunteers, donated once again, generously the Arnold Aressential help time to boretum, providmg in almost every area of operation. Wise and S. Photographs by Geary. H. 287 Most volunteers have expressed the opinion that while it gives them satisfaction to know that they are helpful, indeed indispensable to the arboretum, they also find that the experience has been person- ally rewarding. FRIENDS The Arnold Arboretum is fortunate in having a group of people, known as the Friends who subscribe, and in many cases donate, to our work, and who participate in our programs. In turn they receive unusual plants and other benefits from us. The Friends organization is coordinated by Barbara Epstein, with the able assistance of the public relations officer, Hope Wise. We have continued in our effort to attract new membership, which currently stands at 2200. As part of our policy to involve our neighbors more actively in our work and in the future developments at the arboretum, special emphasis is now being placed on attracting increased membership from our immediate neighborhood. The new drive is beginning to achieve success. This year we have, as before, offered course participation at special rates, preview receptions to our exhibitions, and our horticultural magazine, Arnoldia, to our Friends. On September 30th, 1979, we held our ever popular plant distribution at which special plants, generally unavailable from nurseries and in excess of our needs, were offered to Friends in the barn at the Case Estates. Members were able to select from an unusually wide assortment of over 700 rooted cuttings and seedlings, some of which represented progeny from plants collected during Dick Weaver and Steve Spongberg's 1978 expedition to Korea and Japan. Over 200 Friends attended, coming from every state in New England. The event also attracted a number of new members who received a gift publication along with their plants. In order to involve our newest Friends in our activities, we extended them an invitation to join some of our seasoned volunteers and the staff in manning our exhibit at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's Spring Flower Show. Each participant attended a talk on the history of the arboretum, its purpose and future plans, and seven staff members assisted in an orientation program to familiarize them with the material to be exhibited. This proved highly successful, and contributed to our success at the show; it will be repeated in the future. In April, Friends received their biennial plant dividend. This time Jack Alexander propagated 2000 rooted cuttings of Itea virginica, which were sent out by mail. This beautiful plant is a native, and it is the first time that a North American native plant has been distributed. The series, \"Evenings with Friends,\" was again presented in the schoolhouse at the Case Estates during the fall, with five Friends sharing their horticultural experience with other members. Friends also received special invitations to our Wednesday luncheon lecture series through fall and spring; this year the series began with Dr. Ashton's talk, \"Ceylon: Garden of Asia.\" Several Friends themselves contributed to the program. 288 GIFTS Readers may wonder how the Arnold Arboretum is able to embark major restoration of its living collections, and simultaneously to expand its public services in a time of severe inflation. The arboretum continues to derive income from the interest on the endowment that past benefactors have donated, and the gifts it receives from its Friends. A major effort is now being made to obtain increased foundation support for the scientific research of our staff, the renovation of buildings and for the curation of our unsurpassed collections. The Arnold Arboretum is fortunate in possessing a modest balance of unexpended funds from previous years; this has allowed us to expand our staff in public service, but this program can only be sustained if in a short time it becomes self-supporting. It is, however, unlikely that grants will be obtained for the much needed restoration and maintenance of the living collections. There is also continuing need for plant exploration, which can only partly be thus subsidized through foundation grants. It is for these purposes in particular that the Arnold Arboretum is dependent on the generosity of its Friends. The work of the arboretum is significantly enhanced by many of our Friends who choose to sponsor our work by contributing annually on a or sponsoring ($100-500) members, as pat($500-1000) or as donors (gifts of more than $1000). We are particularly grateful to those who, realizing that the real income of endowed institutions such as ours is seriously declining, have increased their contributions over the past year to help compensate. as sustaining ($35 p.a.) rons Last year the Arnold Arboretum was the recipient of a generous bequest. Mr. Charles Mead of Weston gave his homesite, of eleven acres together with a house, a garage and an apartment, with an endowment to maintain the property, to Harvard University for the use of the Arnold Arboretum. The house was built by Mr. Mead's father, Samuel W. Mead of the well known Boston architectural firm Cabot and Mead, who was responsible for the design, among many notable buildings, of the Boston Athenaeum, and of the first Weston High School and Wayland Public Library. On the property are some very old specimen trees originally obtained by Mr. Mead's parents from the Arnold Arboretum through the kindness of Jackson Dawson, our propagator from 1873 to 1916. Of historic interest is a collection of rhododendrons and broad-leaved evergreens begun by Mr. and Mrs. Samuel Mead and further developed by Charles Mead and his wife. These collections are being studied to develop an inventory. Additions to the collection will be made from the species and cultivars being grown at the Case Estates. We wish also to thank the anonymous benefactor who has given us the means to establish an oak woodland wild garden, to be developed along the Oak Path which passes along the southern slopes of Bussey Hill. This inaugurates our planned restoration of the original path systems described in the section on the living collections. Dick Weaver outlines his plan for this wild garden in an article following this report. together 289 Further restoration of the paths, and simultaneous development of the interpretive wild gardens that we would like to install along them, will be made possible by the future support of our Friends. Thanks to a gift from Mr. Walter Hunnewell, matched by the Gillette Company, Steve Spongberg and Ida Burch will be able to proceed with the publication of their fully illustrated guide to poisonous plants. The unexpected gift of five electric trams (three of which have trailers) by St. Joe Minerals Corporation of New York has allowed us to install an internal public transportation system, silent and pollutionfree, several years earlier than we had projected. These are described in the section on public service. We continue to receive valuable donations of plant material from nurseries; this year we have the pleasure of thanking the following companies for such gifts: Lawyer Nursery, Plains, Montana; Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, Massachusetts; Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, and John Vermuelen and Son, Neshanic Station, New Jersey; Herman Losely and Sons, Inc., Perry, Ohio; and Forest Farm Wil- liams, Oregon. PETER SHAW ASHTON 290 Appendix: Published Writings of the Staff and July 1, 1979 June 30, 1980 Associates Alexander, J. H. III. How the commercial propagator might best use the resources of an arboretum or botanical garden. Proceedings of the International Plant Propagators' Society, 28: 571-573. 1978. Grafting technique for the lilac grower. Lilacs 8(1): 5-8. 1979. Weather station data for 1978. Appendix to the Director's Report. Arnoldia 39(6): 368-369. 1979. Blueberries. American Horticulturist 59(3):22; 40-41. 1980. Alpert, P. Desiccation of desert mosses following a summer rainstorm. Bryologist 82: 65-71. 1979. Ashton, P. S. The generic concept adopted for recent revisions in Dipterocarpoideae. Mem. Mus. Nat. Hist. Nat., Paris, N.S., B. XXVI: 128-138. . . . 1979. . . Phylogenetic speculations in Dipterocarpaceae. Ibid. 145-149. 1979. Dipterocarpaceae in Dassanayake, in M. D. and F. R. Fosberg, eds., A revised handbook to the flora of Ceylon. pp. 364-423. Washington, . . . . D.C.: Smithsonian Institution. 1980. Rhododendron at the Arnold Arboretum. A Continuing Interest. The Rosebay IX(1): 1, 10, 17. 1980. (coauthor with other committee members). Research priorities in tropical biology. Ed., Peter H. Raven. pp. xii and 116. Washington, D.C.: National Academy of Sciences, 1980. Some geographic trends in morphological variation in the Asian tropics, and their possible significance. In Larsen, K. and L. B. Holm-Nielsen, Tropical Botany, pp. 35-48. New York: Academic Press. 1980. (with B. Maguire). Pakaraimaea dipterocarpacea II. Taxon 29(2\/3): 225-231. 1980. Cox, P. A. Use of indigenous plants as fish poisons in Samoa. Economic Botany 33(4): 397-399. 1979. Crown relationships in two Samoan palms. Principes 24: 110-117. 1980. Two Samoan technologies for breadfruit and banana preservation. Economic Botany 34(2): 181-185. 1980. . . -. . . . -. Del Tredici, P. Legumes aren't the only nitrogen-fixers. Horticulture 58 (3): 30-33. 1980. Sweet fern reproduction. Horticulture 58(3): 34-35. 1980. Donoghue, M. Flowering times in Viburnum. Arnoldia 40(1): 2-22. 1980. Geary, S. C. (with B. J. Hutchinson) Mr. Dawson, plantsman. Arnoldia 40~2): 51-75. 1980. Howard, R. A. Flora of the lesser antilles, Vol. 3: Monocotyledoneae. i-xl, 1-586, 122 figs. 1979. (certain families supplied by collaborators). Flora of the West Indies, in K. Larsen & L. B. Holm-Nielsen, eds. Tropical Botany. pp. 239-50. 1979. New York: Academic Press. The Soufriere tree of St. Vincent; some facts at last. Caribbean Conserv. News. 2(1): 8-11. 1980. Botany in China: Report of the Botanical Society of America delegation to the People's Republic: May 20-June 18, 1978 in A. Thorhaug, ed., U.S.-ChZna Relations Report. 166. pp. 11, 12, 15-19, 20-27, 51, 54, 77-78, 95-96, 110-111. 1979. Stanford: U.S.-China Relations Program, Stanford Univ. E. H. Wilson as a Botanist, I. Arnoldia 40(3): 102-138. 1980. 291 Hu, S. Y. The botany of yaupon (Ilex vomitoria), in, Black Drink -A native American tea. pp. 10-39. Athens: Univ. Georgia Press. 1980. The Metasequota flora and its phytogeographic significance. Jour. . . . Arnold Arb. 61: 41-94. 1980. . Eleutherococcus vs. Acanthopanax. Ibid. 61: 107-111. Impressions of a tour to China, II. Convergence 5: 33-48. 1979. Impressions of a tour to China, III. Convergence 6: 36-46 (in Chinese) 1980. Koller, G. L. Itea: Summer flowers & autumn color. Arnoldia 40(1): 23-29. 1980. (& J. D. Vertrees). The Three-Flowered Maple. Horticulture 57(10): 32. 1979. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Prunus cyclaminea. Arnoldia. 40(3): 51-75. 1980. Lenk, C., (with G. S. Brush & J. Smith). The natural forests of Maryland: an explanation of the vegetation map of Maryland. Ecol. Monogr. 50: 77-92 + map. 1980. Miller, N. G. Quaternary fossil bryophytes in North America: Catalog and annotated bibliography. Jour. Hattori Bot. Lab. 47: 1-34. 1979. Paleoecological comments on fossil mosses in a buried organic bed near Peoria, Tazewell County, Illinois, in: Illinois State Geol. Survey Guidebook 13 Champaign-Urbana: Illinois State Geol. Surv. 1979. Miller, N. G., (with R. M. Solberg). A floristic catalog of Battle Park, University of North Carolina Campus, Chapel Hill: I Bryophyta. Jour. Elisha Mttchell Sci. Soc. 94: 1-16. 1980. Mishler, B. D., (with M. P. Harthill, & D. M. Long). Preliminary list of Southern California mosses. Bryologist 82: 260-267. 1979. Perry, L. M., (with Judith Metzger). Medicinal plants of East and Southeast Asia: Attributed properties. Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press. pp. viii & 620. 1980. Reynolds, M. W. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia. 39(4): 286-288. 1979. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Ibid. 39(5): 327-328. 1979. Schubert, B. G. Desmodium, in J. T. & R. Kartesz, eds., A synonimized checklist of vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Vol. II. The Biota of North America. 217-219. 1980. Spongberg, S. A. Cercidiphyllaceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60: 367-376. 1979. Notes on Persimmons, kakis, date plums, and chapotes. Arnoldia 39: 290-309. 1979. The collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum: taxa of infraspecific rank, and cultivars. Ibid. 39: 370-376. 1979. Cultivar registration at the Arnold Arboretum - 1978. AABGA Bull. 13: 75-77. 1979. Weaver, R. E., Jr. The bladdernuts. Arnoldia 40(2): 76-93. 1980. Outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Amelanchier arborea. Ibid. 94-97. . . . . . . . . 292 Appendix: Staff Members of the Arnold Arboretum Who Left or Retired During the Fiscal Year Eileen 1979-1980 Twohig, Custodian Mildred Pelkus, Accounting Clerk Jeanne Sattley, Horticultural Secretary Rita Silverman, Herbarium Secretary Olga Peixoto, Mounter James Hickey, Curatorial Assistant Sarah Mellen, Curatorial Assistant Margo Reynolds, Public Relations Officer Albert MacNeil, Grounds Staff Appendix: Weather Station Data for 1979 The growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This period is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32F or lower. with * 293 Weather Station Data for the First Six Months of 1980 ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1980-The Director's Report"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: The Restoration of Oak Path","article_sequence":2,"start_page":294,"end_page":300,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24785","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eaf6d.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":6,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM . The Restoration of Oak Path A favorite walk of mine in the Arboretum is the Oak Path a point on the Meadow Road nearly opposite the Centre Street gate and joining the Azalea Path on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. This walk leads past some of the first oaks planted in the Arboretum. Beautiful views toward the west of the Juniper dell and the Hemlock grove are obtained from it and it passes by some of the finest Azalea groups. It is a cool and shaded place in the summer and in the autumn canopied by vivid autumnal foliage. I think, however, I like it best in the springtime when the oak leaves are unfolding in soft grays, pinks and varying shades of red. (Wilson, E. H. 1925. America's Greatest Garden, p. 67. Boston: Stratford Co.) leading from An intricate and extensive pathway system, offering both casual visitors and serious observers intimate access to the collections, was visualized by F. L. Olmsted in the original layout of the Arnold Arboretum. The concept was expanded upon and eventually carried out by Charles S. Sargent. The paths were unsurfaced and consisted primarily of broad, closely mown strips within a grassy ground cover that was otherwise mown but twice a year. A few of these pathways are still in general use; some have become access roads for our service vehicles. But most have been almost completely obliterated with time and with the practice of close mowing the ground cover. The original plantings beautifully complemented the varied terrain of the Arnold Arboretum, retaining the integrity of the major ecological habitat represented, which include deciduous and coniferous 294 A sectzon of Oak Path as it appeared in 1913. Photograph from the Arnold Arboretum archives. 296 forest, swamp forest, and meadow. We hope eventually, funds permitting, to restore the majority of the pathway system as part of our general restoration, and to define the paths as they were originally, by reverting to less frequent grass mowing along their borders than is of and currently practiced. Restoration of the pathways would encourage use provide access to some of the little-known parts of the arboretum, of which Hemlock Hill is a noteworthy example. It would also give us the opportunity to expand and restore the existing collections along the pathways and to institute complementary interpretive collections for the general public. Keeping in mind our accessions policy of ultimately having each taxon represented by three individuals, each of a different wild accession, planting according to the Bentham and Hooker sequence will continue to be followed as long as space permits. In some cases, due to space limitations, only one of these three individuals of a particular taxon would be planted in the sequence. In other cases, particularly when the main collection of the group is in an ecologically inapproprimay be used out of sequence to enhance ate site, up to two individuals interpretive plantings. Individual plants would be sited to avoid visual clutter and to reinforce the structural integrity of each habitat. That is, tree groups would be underplanted or at least grouped with related shrub groups of similar ecological requirements. These plantings would be complented by native trees and shrubs characteristic of the habitat with masses of a few appropriate herbaceous plants. The use of native species would reinforce the essential naturalness of the Arnold Arboretum as Sargent and Olmsted originally intended. Restoration of the Oak Path has already begun. This path was the first chosen to be restored, partly because of its exemplary character and partly because its restoration will not involve major grading or structural costs. Fortunately, good documentation of its original condition is available through photographs and such descriptions as Ernest Wilson's quoted above. The enclosed map shows a tentative plan for the development of the lower portion of Oak Path and adjacent areas. The path begins in the Juglans or walnut collection, near the intersection of Bussey Hill and Valley Roads. The \"grove\" of black walnuts (Juglans nigra) presently consists of six individuals. It will be partially restored with the addition of four individuals from throughout the natural range of the species. The grassy area beyond the walnuts will be allowed to grow up into a meadow, through which the path will be cut. Seeds of the following meadow wildflowers will be introduced: black-eyed susan (Rudbeckia hirta) ox-eye daisy (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) asters (Aster ssp.) goldenrods (Solidago ssp.) gayfeathers (Liatris ssp.) All necessary gradxng has been completed along Oak Path, and weed eradication is undenuay. A generous glft will enable us to plant herbaceous groundcover along tts borders. beebalm (Monarda fistulosa) penstemon (Penstemon digitalis) butterflyweed (Asclepias tuberosa) bluestar (Amsonia tabernaemontana) ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis) In the oak collection itself, the path will proceed through an interpretive planting simulating an oak woodland with the oaks as canopy trees. Although this area will remain the primary focus of the Quercus collection, additions must be made judiciously as the site support many more large trees without becoming cluttered. Further expansion of this important collection will be made on Peter's Hill. Understory trees are mostly absent now, but groups of flowering dogwoods (Cornus florida), redbuds (Cercis canadensis), and shadbushes (Amelanchier spp.) will be planted. The shrub layer will consist entirely of masses of American azalea species, extending the period of bloom of the large masses of flame azaleas (Rhododendron calendulaceum) already present, and beginning our general restoration of the Heath Family or Ericaceae in this area. Individuals will be selected from throughout the natural range of each species, insuring a maximum of genetic diversity; the area will eventually support our primary collection of American azaleas. Masses of selected species of native wildflowers typical of deciduous woodlands will complete the planting. As the path enters the oak collection, the herbaceous mascannot 298 ses will consist entirely of goatsbeard (Aruncus dioicus). Anyone who has seen this species as it is naturalized under oaks in Olmsted Park in Brookline can appreciate the effect we hope to create. Further along the path three layers of herbaceous ground cover will be used in each of the masses. Plants to be used include lily-of-the-valley (Convallaria majalis) and foamflower (Tiarella cordifolia), Solomon's seal (Polygonatum spp.) and false Solomon's seal (Smilacina racemosa), and bugbane or black cohosh (Cimicifuga racemosa). These can all compete with the grass, and all are shade tolerant, blooming at different times. Further along, masses of white trillium (Trillium grandiflorum), turk's cap lily (Lilium superbum), asters (Aster cordifolius), and other woodland herbs will be attempted. The lower portion of the path, from its beginning in the black walnuts will delimited simply by regular mowing of the grass. The surrounding grass will be allowed to grow naturally except for mowing each spring and fall. Shade will prevent it from growing so long as to look unkempt, but will allow it to grow long enough to make the mown path distinct. The grass was managed this way last year on an experimental basis with satisfactory results. The present openness of the oak collection, appreciable both from the Valley Road looking in, as well as from within the collection looking out, is one of its most appealing characteristics. We will maintain this character. The masses of azaleas under the oaks will be carefully planted to avoid clutter. The plant masses along the road will be situated so as to provide some visual barriers, but also to allow for sweeping vistas from under the oak stand, onto the azaleas on the upper slopes, rising to Bussey Hill. The proposed timetable for completion of the Oak Path is as follows: PHASE 1. Grading of the upper part of the path; removal of plants which are excess or in poor condition; mowing of the lower end of the path to establish its identity; establishment of a permanent mowed border. Projected completion: August, 1980. PHASE 2. Eradication of Rubus and other perennial weeds in the existing groups of azaleas both manually and by the judicious application of herbicides. Projected completion: immediately along the path - September, 1980; throughout the oak collection September, 1981. - PHASE 3. Establishment of two areas of meadow. Projected completion : initial plowing - June, 1981; soil preparation, final September, 1981. plowing, seeding - PHASE 4. Establishment of other herbaceous masses. Projected 300 June, 1981; bed completion: plant acquisition tion and planting September, 1982. - prepara- PHASE 5. Establishment of azalea masses gradually as the plants become available. Wild-collected plants in our living collections have been propagated and will be ready for planting in 1982. Other plants will be wild-collected in 1982 and will be ready in 1983. Plants grown from seed wildcollected in 1980 and 1981 will be ready in 1984 and 1985. Projected completion: June, 1985. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Back A view from Willow Path the meadow, after its annual mowing in October. Photograph by C. Lobig. cover: across "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23312","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060a326.jpg","title":"1980-40-6","volume":40,"issue_number":6,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sargent's Weeping Hemlock Reconsidered","article_sequence":1,"start_page":202,"end_page":223,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24784","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eaf28.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":5,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Del Tredici, Peter","article_content":"Sargent's Weeping Hemlock Reconsidered by PETER DEL TREDICI Sargent weeping hemlock (Tsuga canadensis f. pendula) is a inspires amazement and wonder in anyone who is fortunate enough to see it. Mature specimens can be twelve to sixteen feet high and twice as broad. The pendulous foliage cascades down to the ground giving the plant a fluidity that more upright trees lack. Not only is this variety of hemlock the most beautiful of the hundreds of known hemlock forms, but it also has the most colorful history, involving many of the horticultural giants of the late nineteenth century. Tradition has it that four weeping hemlocks were found near tree The that the town of Beacon, New York around 1860 and that from these all future generations of Sargent's hemlock were propagated. Then in 1939 Mr. A. B. Stout, writing in the Journal ofthe New York Botanical Garden (Vol. 40; 153-66) announced the discovery of a fifth weeping hemlock of the Sargent type growing in the wild about nine miles east of the town of Beacon. In the same article, Stout gives a thorough discussion of the pre-1939 history of weeping hemlocks and makes the first attempt to analyze their habit of growth. Since 1939, very little original work has been done on the weeping hemlock. This article is intended to bring the literature up to date. @ 1980 Peter Del Tredici. All rights reserved. 202 1. The first known illustration of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula, from The Garden, October 22, 1887. The high, narrow crown clearly suggests that staking played an important role in the development of this specimen. Figure DISCOVERY hemlock (Tsuga canadensis f. been shrouded in confusion, due partly to the pendula ) always lack of precise information regarding the date, location and appearance of the original wild seedlings, and partly to the numerous misstatements that seem to flow directly from one horticultural author to the next without ever being critically examined. The only way to resolve the confusion and conflicts that have arisen in the weeping hemlock literature is to go back to the original sources the writings of the people who were directly connected with the original seedlings when they were found - to see what they had to say. The first mention of weeping hemlocks was formerly thought to be in the October 9, 1875 edition of the British periodical The Garden. Unfortunately, this reference says nothing about the trees except that they existed in 1875. I have discovered another much more useful statement, also from 1875, that constitutes the first description of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula. It comes from Mr. Henry Winthrop Sargent (the person for whom the tree is named and who first introduced the plant into horticulture) in the supplement to the 1875 (Ninth) edition of A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, by A. J. Downing. The Appendix to the Ninth Edition is fourteen pages long and contains no less than five references to the weeping hemlock, the most important of which is on page 581: The history has of the Sargent weeping - 204 Abies canadensis pendula, or Sargenti, as sometimes called, a very interesting and distinct variety of Hemlock. It is as pendulous as a Weeping Cherry, perfectly hardy, and admirably adapted for small places, though as yet very rare, Messrs. Parsons, of Flushing, alone having plants for sale. It is a sport of our native Hemlock, found in the Fishkill Mountains. is The most important item in this reference pertains to the location of seedlings for it shows that as early as 1875 the exact location of the original plants was not precisely known. The term \"Fishkill Mountains\" covers a rather broad geographical area. According to P. H. Smith, on page 174 of his General History of Duchess County, published in 1877, \"the Fishkill Mountains, extending along the southern border [of Duchess County], are high, rocky and precipitous.\" In a map included in the book, the \"Fishkill Range Mts.\" are shown to follow the southern boundry of Duchess County from the east shore of the Hudson River to the Village of Hortontown. At this point, they turn away from the county line and move in a northeasterly direction up to the town of Dover Plains, where they end. They run a total distance of about thirty miles, and Mount Beacon, on the Hudson River, at 1685 feet, is their highest point. The broader geographical term \"Hudson Highlands\" includes the Fishkill Mountains, as well as mountains on the west bank of the Hudson, in Orange County. The second reference to the original seedlings comes twenty-two years later from H W. Sargent's cousin, Professor C. S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum, writing in Volume 10 of Garden and Forest: There in number of abnormal forms of Tsuga canadensis The most distinct of them was found about ago on the Fishkill Mountains, in New York, and was first cultivated and made known by Mr. H. W. Sargent. This plant, which is now usually called in gardens, Sargent's Hemlock, is a bush about three feet high with short pendant branches and branchlets, forming a remarkably dense, compact flat-topped mass of foliage. Several of these plants were originally found together and transplanted, and the largest of them which I have seen is on the Howland estate, in Matteawan, New York, and is now about twenty five feet across. This variety has been propagated by grafting the branches on the ordinary Hemlock, but in a few years, the grafted plants form an erect stem and lose the dense low habit which is the charm of the original seedare a gardens. forty years lings. [pp. 490-91] This statement is particularly important because it makes a distinction between the appearance of the original seedlings and the appearance of the subsequent grafted propagations. It is also impor- 205 puts the date of discovery of the seedlings at \"about\" (1897 minus 40 years). This figure should only be taken as a rough estimate, however, because one year later in Volume 12 of Silva of North America (1898) Professor Sargent states that the 1857 were found \"... about thirty years ago ...\" a figure that the discovery date at \"about\" 1868. The best one can do with puts these two conflicting statements is to say that the seedlings were found some time between 1857 and 1868.1 The next reference to the original seedlings comes twenty-three years later from Sargent's colleague at the Arnold Arboretum, E. H. Wilson. Writing in The Garden Magazine (September 1920), Wilson was the first person to credit General Joseph Howland with the discovery of the wild seedlings and the first to mention that one of them was growing at Professor Sargent's estate in Brookline, Massachu- tant because it seedlings setts. In 1923, Murray Homibrook in his book Dwarf and Slow-Growing Conifers, contributed what I would consider to be the last original reference to the Fishkill Bean seedling: [W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, 1914] separates these two varieties [the taller, upright pendula and the more compact Sargentii], but Profes- Sargent informs me that the nurseryman's stock has all been produced from grafts from the four original plants found near the summit of Fishkill Mountain (near Beacon City, on the Hudson River) by General Joseph Howland about 1870. The finder grew one in his own garden at Matteawan, N.Y., gave the second to Mr. Henry Winthrop Sargent, of Fishkill; 2 the third to Mr. H. H. Hunnewell, of Wellesley, Mass.; and the fourth to Professor C. S. Sargent of Brookline, Mass. The second and third are dead, but the first and fourth have made very fine specimens. Grafted plants in general cultivation vary considerably, some being dwarfer and more compact than others. The best form makes a very compact hemispherical mass of pendulous branches. [pp. 185-86] sor 1 In the 1898 Silva article, Sargent also says that the seedlings grow be \"two to three feet in height and twenty feet across.\" This is noteworthy, given the fact that in 1897 he said that the largest seedling was twenty-five feet across This discrepancy, coupled with the discrepancy in dates, suggests that the \"Silva\" passage, while copyrighted 1898, was actually written before the 1897 article. -' A source of constant confusion in the literature on Sargent's weeping hemlock has to do with the use of the word Fishkill. H. W. Sargent lived in Fishkill-on-Hudson. General Howland lived in Matteawan. These two towns were side by side. In 1913, they merged to become the present town of Beacon. The present town of Fishkill is about 5 miles north of Beacon and has nothing to do with the original seedlings. to 206 This statement of Homibrook's was paraphrased in an article that appeared in the February 23, 1924 issue of The Garden. Mysteriously, the article is usually considered anonymous, but, in fact, it is clearly signed by E. H. Wilson. The fact that Sargent was alive when these two statements, by close associates appeared, makes it likely that they are reliable. However, the fact that they also contain the same obvious error (the phrase, \"... near the summit of Fishkill Mountain ...\") must make one wary of the possibility of other misstatements, especially when one considers that Homibrook was giving a second-hand report forty-eight years after H. W. Sargent initially announced the discovery of the plants. The Fishkill Seedlings In 1980 The Howland Hemlock, at Beacon, New York, is in good health and looks much as it did in 1939. The normal hemlock that was shading it in 1939, is still there and has completely killed one side of it. Since 1939, the tree has put on about 2 feet in height and about 1 foot in breadth. Figure 2 shows the tree, and in Table 1, I have put together all available data on its growth. The H. W. Sargent and Hunnewell Hemlocks are still as dead as they were when Homibrook announced it in 1923. It is interesting to note that this first mention of their death is also the first and only mention of their existence. C. S. Sargent makes no mention of a Tsuga canadensis f. pendula in his article about H. W. Sargent's estate, Wodenethe, written for Garden and Forest (1897a). This is a noteworthy omission since he says specifically that: Of the hundreds or perhaps thousands of conifers planted by Mr. Sargent during the years of his greatest activity, when he ransacked every nursery in Europe for species and abnormal forms, those which we have mentioned are now the only ones which are conspicuous for their size and healthy condition. [p. 449] As for the Hunnewell tree, H. H. Hunnewell himself makes no specific mention of a Tsuga canadensis f. pendula in any of his various writings about his Pinetum at Wellesley (Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, 1906). However, a \"Sargenti\" is shown on a map, drawn in 1895, that is included in Vol. 3. This same tree is still standing in 1980, an impressive, multi-stemmed specimen about sixteen feet tall. (fig. 3) While it is possible that this tree might be one of the original seddlings, there are no references to support this contention, and Homibrook's 1923 statement clearly says that it is not. For lack of evidence to the contrary, then, it must be assumed that both the H. W. Sargent and the Hunnewell seedlings died prior to 1900. The C. S. Sargent Hemlock, at Brookline, Massachusetts, has put on only 6 inches of height growth since 1939 but nearly 6 feet of Figure 2. The Howland Hemlock at Beacon, New York. The tree is about high and 361\/2 feet across at its widest point. The trunk system is stemmed. Photograph by A. Kelley. horizontal 13 feet multi- growth. The tree is quite healthy and promises to live on indefinitely. In 1962, Alfred J. Fordham gave this plant the cultivar name 'Brookline'. Table 1 gives a history of its growth, and figure 4 shows the tree as it appeared in 1900, figure 5 shows the tree as it appears in 1980, and figure 6 shows the remarkable trunk system of this tree, illustrating, from the underside, the total horizontality of the tree. The 'Horton' Stout announced the discovery of a very old, hemlock growing about nine miles from Beacon, New York, which he chose to call the 'Horton'. As far as I know, this first mention of the tree is also the only mention of it. When Mr. Augustus Kelley of Little Compton, Rhode Island, told me that the 'Horton' hemlock was still alive and well in 1980, I resolved immediately to go and see it for myself. It turned out to be a beautiful specimen of a tree, perched on a hillside overlooking what is now known as the Taconic State Parkway to the west and the village of Hortontown to the east. This location puts the 'Horton' squarely in the center of the \"Fishkill Range Mountains\" as described by Smith in 1877. The 'Horton' is completely healthy and is located on the property of Mr. Joob Veldhuis (fig. 7). Currently, Mr. Veldhuis is using the tree as a kind of storage shed, a use to which it is admirably, if ignobly, suited. The pendent branches totally conceal no less than half a cord of wood, a hundred-gallon oil tank, a ladder, a In his 1939 article, wild-growing, weeping Figure 3. The trunk of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula, growing at the Hunnewell Pinetum, Wellesley, Mass. The tree is most likely not one of the original seedlmgs. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. wheelbarrow, numerous packages of shingles and innumerable other artifacts of country life. The tree stands 18 feet, 3 inches tall, and describes a circle on the ground 31 feet across (all measurements were taken from the downhill side of the trunk). The trunk is 241\/2 inches in diameter at a height of 41\/2 feet. The lowest branch is at 5 feet and the main branches, which make up the framework of the tree, start about 8 feet up the trunk. In this upper framework, there is considerable self-grafting, where branches have touched one another. In 1939, Stout described the trunk as quite angular, and not fully erect. Forty years of stem thickening has eliminated much of that angularity (fig. 8). Except for the increase in the size of the tree, it seems to be identical to the way it was when Stout discovered it. In Table 1,I have summarized the changes the tree has undergone. Having seen the 'Horton', I was not satisfied with vague speculation about its age or origin, so with the help of Mr. Jack Karnig, chief forester at the Harvard Black Rock Forest at Cornwall, New York, I took a small core sample from the lowest branch of the tree (at 5 feet). While this core could not give me the total age of the tree, it gave me the age of the tree when it was 5 feet tall. Counting the annual rings under a 25x power dissecting microscope revealed that the branch at 5 feet was 119 years old. The rings were extremely small showing an average width of 0.5mm. By subtracting 119 years from 1979, I came up with 1860 as the date at which the Horton was at least 5 feet tall. Given that the Fishkill seedlings could have been Figure 4. The C. S. Sargent Hemlock at Brookline, Mass. as it appeared in 1900. Photo by A. Rehder from the Archives of the Arnold Arboretum. Using the length of the needles for scale (currently the tree has needles that average 1.5 cm in length), the tree measured about 31\/2 feet by 9 feet. found any time between 1857 and 1868, the date of 1860 becomes significant because it makes it likely that the 'Horton' is a wild tree and not an early propagation of the Fishkill plants. As to just how old the 'Horton' might be is hard to say. A core sample taken from a branch at 6 feet showed 115 rings, meaning that it took four years for the tree to grow one foot. Working backwards, this meant it would have taken the 'Horton' twenty years to grow 5 feet, putting the total age of the tree at 139 years. The age of the tree may be calculated in a different way, using Stout's finding that seedlings of pendula increased in height a bit less than 2 inches per year over a period of 23 years. Using this figure, it would have taken the 'Horton' about 30 years to reach 5 feet, putting the age of the tree at 149 years. Regardless of whether one accepts either of these projected figures, the known age of the tree at 5 feet is sufficient to make the 'Horton' at least as old, if not older, than the Fishkill seedlings. The fact that the 'Horton' is growing \"on the Fishkill Mountains\" makes it possible that it might be the parent of the Fishkill seedlings found by General Howland. This seems a rather unlikely relationship, however, given their closeness in age. More likely is the suggestion that the 'Horton' is a sibling of the Fishkill seedlings, a fifth seedling, that was either not discovered or was too big to move. It is also possible that there was a time when there were many more weeping hemlocks in the area, but only the 'Horton' and the Fishkill seedlings survived. 210 Regardless of which hypothesis one prefers, the close geographical proximity of the 'Horton' and the Fishkill seedlings makes it likely that they are somehow related to one another. When I visited the 'Horton' in February of 1980, the tree was covered with cones which were full of sound seed. I collected as many of these as I could, along with numerous cuttings. These seeds and cuttings are now being grown at the Arnold Arboretum for further study. It will be particularly interesting to see if the cuttings grow up to have the same erect single stem that the 'Horton' does, and if the seedlings will be weepers, as they are in the case of other specimens of pendula that have produced cones (Jenkins, 1935; Stout, 1939). NORMAL HEMLOCK vs. \"WEEPING\" Normal Hemlock Growth Tsuga canadensis f. pendula is a mutant form of Tsuga canadensis. In order to understand the nature of the pendula mutation, it is crucial first to understand the nature of the normal hemlock tree. Fowells, in Silvics of Trees of North America (1965) summarizes the pertinent literature on the growth and development of hemlock, and Mergen, writing in the journal, Forest Science (1958), gives an excellent and very precise description of the growth of the terminal shoot of hemlock. I shall make further reference to Mergen's article below. At the beginning of the growing season, the shoot tips of all branches droop down, giving the tree a graceful, feathery appearance (figure 9). As the season progresses, these drooping shoot tips slowly turn upward to become nearly erect, giving the tree an ascending rather than a drooping appearance. In New England, the terminal shoot tips of all the branches are usually horizontal or subhorizontal in July. By November, the terminals erect themselves to a nearly vertical position (figure 10). In the words of Mergen: The straightening process was effected mostly by a bending close to the base of the current year's growth which caused the leader to turn upwards. This bending was accompanied by a stiffening of the cells. As the growing season progressed, this point of stiffening progressed up to the stem. [p. 102] Associated with the erection of the leader, according to Mergen, is the formation of compression wood along the underside of the terminal. Compression wood is of general occurrence in conifers, and is readily visible to the unaided eye by virtue of its deep red color. With hemlocks, the only tool needed to see compression wood is a razor blade, which is used to make smooth cross sections of the twigs. pines and other straight growing conifers, small amounts of compression wood always occur on the lower side of lateral branches In The C. S. Sargent Hemlock at Brookline, Mass., as it appeared in 1980. Figure 5 (above): The tree is 7j\/2 feet tall and 321\/z feet wide. The children shown in the picture were playing under the tree, which they called \"The Fort.\" Figure 6 (below): A view of the trunk system. The large, ribbon-shaped branch on the left is 14 inches by 5 inches in cross section. Photographs by P. Del Tredici. Figure 7. feet 3 inches The Horton Hemlock, at Hortontown, New York. The tree measures 18 in height and 31 feet across. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. 213 and are considered to be responsible for maintaining the branches in their horizontal position against the pull of gravity. Compression wood is found more sparingly in erect parts of the tree. It is most conspicuously formed when he leader in an erect growing conifer is destroyed and a lateral branch must change direction to replace it (Sinnott, 1952; Westing, 1965). In this instance, large amounts of additional compression wood are formed along the underside of the branch, forcing it upward. In most conifers, compression wood functions to maintain the laterals at a specific angle. Should a tree need to change the angle at which a branch is carried, e.g., to compensate for damage, this is accomplished by increasing the amount of compression wood. In hemlock, the use of extensive amounts of compression wood to change branch angles (rather than just maintain them) is not limited to extraordinary circumstances as it is in other conifers. Instead, it is part of the normal ontogeny of the plant, functioning to erect the leader on a yearly cycle. The growth of the hemlock tree can be summarized as follows. In the spring, as the buds break, new growth comes out plagiotropically (this is the botanical term for the horizontal position). After these terminal shoots have been growing for a month or two, second order branches start to grow out several inches below the shoot tip in the axils of newly formed needles (figure 11 ).~ The fact that the terminal shoot is in a horizontal position when these lateral branches grow out results in a greater measure of equality between the terminal and its laterals than would be the case if the terminal were vertical (Mergen, 1958). While in the plagiotropic state, there is no absolute terminal shoot, rather there is a complex of shoots, all produced during the same season, any of which has the potential to become the new leader. In late fall and early winter, this whole shoot complex is erected to an orthotropic (vertical) position. At this point, the terminal shoot reasserts its dominance and suppresses the subtending laterals. In young, vigorous hemlocks, raised in a nursery, the stem is usually a monopodium built up by the activity of a single terminal meristem that each year erects itself into the orthotropic position upon completion of its active growth. Only when there is some damage to the terminal shoot itself is a lateral shifted into the terminal position. In forest-grown hemlocks, this basic pattern is somewhat modified. Growth is less vigorous, and the secondary erection of the leader may take more than one year to complete. In addition, laterals become dominant not only when the terminal is damaged, but also when ~; The habit of developing lateral branches without a period of dormancy is called syllepsis. The buds from which sylleptic branches grow are characterized by a lack of bud scales which over-wintered buds always possess. Figure 8. The trunk and branches of the Horton Hemlock. At 41\/2 diameter is 241\/2 mches. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. feet, the trunk the terminal loses its vigor for no apparent reason. In wild trees at the Harvard Forest, in Petersham, Massachusetts, dominance shifted from a weak, undamaged terminal to a subtending lateral on an average of ~me every four years (Hibbs, ly8U). This habit of growth has important implications for the hemlock tree, which can be described best by one word - flexibility. Mergen puts it this way: hemlock If, during the growing period, the terminal growing point of trees is damaged by an insect, or by mechanical means, hardly any amount of growth is lost, but a new growing point is formed immediately without leaving a noticeable bend in the leader. If the entire leader is cut off toward the latter part of the summer, one of the side branches, which is closest to the leader, assumes dominance at once and leaves little trace of damage. As a matter of fact, it is very difficult at times to select the terminal leader during the growing season, and there appears to be a flexible, or a loose, pattern of apical dominance during the early part of the growing period. [p. 107] In contrast, the native white pine (Pinus strobus) has a rigid system of apical control. One look at its crown, ravaged white pine weevil and blister rust fungus, is enough to make clear what a great advantage the \"flexible\" system of apical dominance can be. Indeed, the well known ability of hemlock to withstand prolonged periods of sup- Figure 9. Estate at A specimen tree of Tsuga canadensis growing at the H. H. Hunnewell Wellesley, Mass. The tree is Sl feet tall. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. Figure 10. Graphic presentation of the course in two normal hemlocks. Reprinted with of the straightening of the leaders permission from Forest Science 4(2):103. pression by hardwoods and pines (Fowells, 1965) flexibility of its growth pattern (Hibbs, 1980). \"Weeping\" or is partly due to the Pendula Growth A. B. Stout, as other authors before him, recognized two distinct forms of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula: (1 )The shrub form, characterized by a low spreading habit and numerous stems arising near ground level, which have more of a horizontal orientation than vertical ; and (2) the standard form, characterized by a single stem with a nearly vertical orientation. In general, plants of the standard type are more umbrella-like in their appearance and more pendulous than plants of the shrub type. Unfortunately, for those who like neat categories, there exist many specimens of pendula that conform neither to the shrub nor the standard type. They are intermediate between the two in terms of the angle at which their stems grow and their degree of pendulousness. In studying pendula-type hemlocks, it is important to recognize that there is a continuum of forms and not just two extremes. In the remainder of this section, I will address myself to those features of growth that are common to all specimens of pendula, saving until last the discussion of stem formation and orientation. Tsuga canadensis f. pendula differs from the normal hemlock tree in one overwhelmingly important respect it lacks the ability to erect a leader after the initial horizontal stage of growth is completed. - 217 in is a plagiotropic plant in which growth occurs horizontal rather than a vertical direction. At least, this is so in theory. In reality, absolute plagiotropy is never achieved. The main branches always tend to grow at a small upward angle and the trees slowly increase in height. In the normal tree, the erection of the leader is the basic organizing principle. In pendula, this organizing principle is lacking. In pendula, the lack of the ability to throw up a leader is the primary mutation from which the other features follow as a natural consequence. The plagiotropic terminals remain plagiotropic only for as long as they can resist the pull of gravity. Once they start to become pendulous, one of the laterals behind the terminal grows out during the following season, to continue growth in the plagiotropic direction. Sometimes, the lateral may overtop its own terminal and sometimes it will grow out at an angle unrelated to the terminal. In the process of overtopping the terminal, the lateral erects itself partially. Unlike the situation in the normal hemlock, however, this secondary erection never involves more than the very base of the shoot (two or three inches at the most). Without the benefit of secondary erection, the shoot tip itself succumbs to the pull of gravity and becomes pendulous, giving the plants their characteristic weeping appearance. It is interesting to compare these pendulous hemlocks with prostrate hemlocks (such as Tsuga canadensis 'Cole') which fail to erect any portion of their stem and consequently increase extremely slowly in height. Once a terminal is overtopped, the main axis of growth is shifted away from it to the overtopping lateral, resulting in a stem that grows up at an angle slightly greater than the horizontal. Unlike the vertical stem of the normal tree, which is built up by utilizing the entire terminal shoot, the plagiotropic stem of pendula is built up by utilizing only the proximal portion of the terminal. Sometimes these plagiotropic stems go off in a fairly straight line in one direction and sometimes they grow back upon themselves and form a circle by self-grafting. It is nearly impossible to generalize about the growth of these stems, other than to say that they can grow in any direction and at any angle. Stout found considerable variation in the height of pendula seedlings after 23 years of growth. Among the five plants he grew, the smallest one was three feet tall, the largest about four feet. Such variation suggests that there are genetic differences in the amount of tissue that different individuals erect in the process of overtopping. Interestingly, all of the seedlings were multi-stemmed. In hand sections of terminals of pendula, using a razor blade, I usually found small amounts of red-colored compression wood along the underside of the branches, but never as much as can be found in the normal hemlock tree. In general, the actively growing shoot tips of pendula show differing amounts of resistance to gravity as well as differing amounts of compression wood, but there seems to be no Pendula, therefore, a 218 between them. The vertically flattened, ribbon-shaped many older specimens of pendula (fig. 6) are a sign of eccentric radial growth, indicative of the presence of large amounts of compression wood. This extra thickening is an engineering necessity that allows the branch (which is essentially a cantilever) to carry the load that develops as a result of having to grow plagiotropically. As a final consequence of the lack of ability to erect a leader, there is no heirarchy among the branches and hence no regulation of tree form from above. All buds are free to grow out without relation to any of the other branches. If pendula is allowed to grow freely, it will always describe a perfect circle of vegetation on the ground. This symmetry is not just a random occurrence, it is a reflection of the total equality and equivalence of all the plagiotropic branches. In summary, pendula is plagiotropic at all stages of its life. The normal hemlock tree, on the other hand, is plagiotropic only during the period of its active growth. During the winter, it becomes orthotropic. Thus, within the same species, we have two totally opposite growth forms. Such extreme intraspecific variation is not common in relationship stem seen in trees (Halle, 1978).4 Stem formation. The continuum of forms that exist from the multistemmed shrub forms to the single-stemmed standard forms has caused some horticulturists to speculate that there are at least two forms of pendula. Whether or not these forms merit separate varietal rank is dependent upon whether or not it can be established that there are genetic differences between the two types. In order to answer this question, it is necessary first to go back to the original literature on the subject. The earliest reference concerning propagation of pendula is from the Parsons and Son's catalogue of 1879 (Jenkins, 1933a): Abies canadensis lock, the hemand delicately beautiful evergreen known. When the leader is trained to a stake, it can be carried to any reasonable height, each tier of branches drooping gracefully to the ground, like an evergreen fountain. It was first sent out from Flushing, having been received from H. W. Sargent, of Fishkill-on-Hudson. pendula sargenti, Sargent's weeping most graceful In the normal hemlock tree, the trunk is an orthotropic monopodium, all the continuously arranged lateral branches. Growth is rhythmic, as indicated by the presence of bud scales. Flowering does not interfere with this monopodial growth in so far as the male flowers are borne laterally, and the female flowers, while borne terminally, are found only on lateral branches. According to the system described by Halle, et al. (1978), Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. would seem to belong to either Rauh's or Attim's Model. However, the fact that the terminal goes through a plagiotropic stage argues against either classification. As far as I can tell, the hemlock does not fit any of their models precisely. as are 4 11. The upright, dormant terminal shoot complex of a normal hemlock, photographed izz April, 1980. The white arrow indicates the starting point of the 1979 season's growth and thP black arrow indicates its end point (the total growth is 38 cm.). Note the abundant sylleptic branches. Photograph by P. Del Tredici. Figure plainly stated by the people who supplied all of the propagations original plants that they were staked to achieve a greater pendulous effect. In a statement dating from 1887 (The Garden 32: 363), Samuel Parsons is quoted as saying that attempts were made to graft pendula \"upon high stocks\" but he also says that he considers the results unsatisfactory. He illustrates this article with what is considered to be the first picture of a weeping hemlock (fig. 1). This early propagation clearly shows the standard form. The fact that the crown is high yet narrow suggests that staking was involved in producing this tree. Beissner, writing with Jager, in \"Die Ziergeholze der Garten und Parkanlagen\" (1884), echoes these statements of Parsons in his description of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula: Tsuga canadensis (Carr.) pendula, mit hangenden So here it is of the - Aesten, durch Aufbinden der Spitze als Stamm zu erziehen uber Felsen oder Abhange als Busch frei hangend. [p. 445] Tsuga canadensis (Carr.) pendula, with hanging (drooping) branches, may be trained as a stem by tying up the leader, or may be grown as a shrub hanging over slopes or rocks. - This statement is particulary important in that it comes from the man 220 who is the author of the name Tsuga canadensis f. pendula (Rehder, 1949). erect trunk in A second factor that may contribute to the development of a single pendula was suggested by C. S. Sargent in (1897b): This variety (pendula) has been propagated by grafting the branches on the ordinary Hemlock, but in a few years the grafted plants form an erect stem and lose the dense low habit which is the charm of the original seedlings. [p. 491] ] of interest first, because it states that none of the original seedlings were of the standard form and second, because it suggests that the understock may be influencing the growth of the scion by making it more vigorous. A wealth of information exists which clearly shows the effects of various types of rootstocks on apple and pear tree stature and on their branching angle. It seems plausible that there should be some sort of similar root stock effect in hemlock. Given that there exist many grafted plants which do not have the standard form, it is unlikely that it is the sole cause of vertical stem formation, but that there should be some effect cannot be denied. In talking to nursery people who work with pendula, grafting is always accompanied by staking because the weight of the weeping foliage would break the graft union without a stake (see Jenkins, 1939). The combination of grafting and staking offer a plausible explanation of the standard form, especially when taken in conjunction with Sargent's hypothesis that the understock makes the scion more vigorous. It is a well known fact among hemlock enthusiasts that a staked weeper (such as a Tsuga canadensis 'Cole') grows much faster and taller than one simply allowed to grow without interference. Why this is so, from a physiological point of view, is not clear but it shows that the artificial imposition of a leader upon a normally leaderless plant completely changes the whole habit and rate of growth of the plant. Artificially creating a leader in pendula eliminates one of the traits that defines it, namely, the total equality of all the branches. Mergen (1958) has shown that staking the drooping terminal in a normal hemlock changes the angle at which subtending laterals are carried, making them more like laterals and less like the potential terminals they would be if unstaked. Given the fact that staking alters the terminal-lateral relationship in the normal tree, one does not have to think very hard about the implications of staking a This statement is pendula. It is possible that environmental stem part in vertical development. factors, such As I see it, as trees show shade, also play a a greater tendency to slough off lower branches under shaded conditions than they do under conditions of full sun. By eliminating the lower branches, the tree is automatically favoring height growth over horizontal growth. It is a case of stem formation by default. Human 221 activities, such also cause as piling trash under the all-concealing a tree, would the premature loss of horizontal branches, and also favor cause single-stem development. The mechanism that would the stem of weeping hemlock to become vertical is not known exactly. It appears likely, however, that the large amount of compression wood that is found on the lower surface of the horizontal branches, which allows them to bear heavy loads, can have the added effect of actually pushing them into a that is more upright than the one they had when they were position formed. This process would be analogous to the way in which the upper portion of the trunk of a leaning hemlock can be brought back to the vertical position by compression wood formation (Westing, 1965, p. 449) or to the way in which lateral branches are shifted to a more vertical position following decapitation of the leader (Munch, 1938). The fact that pendula is a leaderless plant makes the analogy with a leaning or decapitated tree, both leaderless plants, particularly appropriate. The only real difference between the shrub and the standard forms of pendula is the formation of a single erect stem. Other than this, their growth habits are identical. All available evidence indicates that a combination of horticultural and\/or environmental forces are responsible for erect-stemmed specimens of pendula. Nevertheless, the fact that there is a small amount of secondary stem erection involved in laterals over-topping terminals, leaves room for the possibility that some of the standard forms may indeed be able to erect larger portions of their stems than shrub forms, and that they are able to combine these segments into a fully erect main stem. Experiments are now being conducted at the Arnold Arboretum in which cuttings of standard trees have been rooted to see if they develop the standard form without any horticultural treatment. I hope they will provide an answer to the question of the genetic basis of vertical stem formation in Sargent's weeping hemlock. Acknowledgements Many people have been helpful in preparing this article. Foremost among them is Mr. Augustus Kelley, who first interested me in weeping hemlocks. Thanks also go to Mr. Spencer Bamett, historian of the city of Beacon, N.Y., Mr. Jack Kamig of the Harvard Black Rock Forest, Cornwall-on-Hudson, N.Y., Mr. Spencer Klaw, Mr. Ed Mezitt of Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, Mass. and to Professor M. H. Zimmermann of the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Mass. Finally thanks go to members of the Arnold Arboretum staff and to my wife, Susan, for suffering through my obsession with hemlocks. 222 Table 1. A summation of the growth of certain individuals of adensis f. pendula, from 1860 to the present. Tsuga can- (a) (b) (c) (d) (e) A plant grafted in Nursery in 1880; 1881 from a grafted plant received from Parson's Estimate based upon Estimate based upon ring counts from a limb cored in 1980 (see text); ring counts from a limb removed in 1980; branch around 1970. Jenkins, 1939; The tree lost a major 223 Reference List . Anonymous 1875. The weeping hemlock spruce. The Garden 8:310. Downing, A. J. 1875. A treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardening. With a supplement by H. W. Sargent. Reprint 1977. Little Compton, Rhode Island: Theophrastus Books. Fordham, A. J. 1962. Four fathers of the Sargent hemlock. American Nurseryman 116 (12): 9, 89-90. Fowells, H. A. 1965. Silvics of forest trees of the United States. USDA Forest Service, Agriculture Handbook 271. Halle, F. 1978. Architectural variation at the specific level in tropical trees. In Tropical trees as living systems, eds P. B. Tomlinson & M. H. Zimmerman, pp. 209-221. Cambridge Univ. Press. 1978. Tropical trees and -, Oldeman, R. A. A., & Tomlinson, P. B. forests. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Hibbs, D. 1980. Leader growth and the architecture of three North American hemlocks. Canadian Jour. Bot. : in press. Hornibrook, M. 1923. Dwarf and slow-growing conifers. London: CountryLife, Ltd. Hunnewell, H. H. 1906. Life, letters and diary. 3 vols., Boston: Private edition. Jager, H., & Beissner, L. 1884. Die Ziegeholze der garten und parkanlagen. Weimar: Bernard Friedrich Voigt. Jenkins, C. F. 1933a. Sargent's weeping hemlock. The Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin No. 4. 1933b. Sargent's weeping hemlock again. The Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin No. 5. 1935. Sargent's weeping hemlock from seed. The Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin No. 11. 1939. Sargent's weeping hemlock once again. The Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin No. 25. Mergen, F 1958. Distribution of reaction wood in eastern hemlock as a function of its terminal growth. Forest Science 4: ( 2 ) : 98-109. Munch, E. 1938. Untersuchungen uber die harmonie in der baumgestalt. Jahrb. Wiss. Bot. 86 : 581-673. Rehder, A. 1949. Bibliography of cultivated trees and shrubs. The Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. Sargent, C. S. 1892. The Pinetum at Wellesley. Garden and Forest 5 :385386. 1894. The Pinetum at Wellesley. Garden and Forest 7:451-452. 1897a. Wodenethe. Garden and Forest 10:449-450. 1897b. Notes on cultivated conifers, No. 11. Garden and Forest 10: 490-491 1898. Silva of North America. Vol. 12, lst ed. Boston: Houghton and Mifflin. Sinnott, E. W. 1952. Reaction wood and the regulation of tree form. American Journal of Botany 39:69-78. Smith, P. H. 1877. General history of Duchess county from 1609 to 1876 Pawling, New York: P. H. Smith. Stout, A. B. 1939. Weeping or pendulous hemlocks. Jour. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 40:153-166. W. G. 1887. Weeping hemlock spruce. The Garden 32:363. Westing, A. H. 1965. Formation and function of compression wood in gymnosperms. Bot. Reviews 31:381-480. Wilson, E. H. 1920. The romance of our trees, no. 12: The pigmies and dwarfs. The Garden Magazine 32 ( 1 ) : 36-40. Wilson, E. H. 1924. Plants new or noteworthy. The Gardener's Chronicle -. -. -. . . . -. 3rd series,75:107. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Pseudolarix amabilis","article_sequence":2,"start_page":224,"end_page":235,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24783","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14eab6f.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":5,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Pseudolarix amabilis often surprised to learn that a few conifers, rather than - being evergreen, lose their foliage in the winter. In fact, I am told -- that when the larch trees (Larix sp.) on theHarvard campus begin their autumn leaf drop there is a flurry of concerned telephone calls inquiring after the health of the trees and what can be done to stop the defoliation. While the deciduous species of Larix, Metasequoia and Taxodium are known to many, few people know or grow the rare Chinese tree known as golden larch (Pseudolarix amabilis). This common name describes the fall foliage color of bright golden-yellow which begins with the first crisp frost and ends when the last needle is carried away by the autumn winds. It is difficult to describe the autumn color adequately for while the golden shade is rich in itself the color saturation is intensified on clear days when the sun, as a result of its low arc in the autumn sky, produces mellow light conditions. It is because of its suffused autumn colors that the Chinese call it either Kin-ye-sung \"golden-leaved pine\" or chin-lo-sung, \"golden deciduous pine.\" Our grove of six golden larch trees growing along either side of Bussey Brook near the Walter Street gate is worthy of attention, not only in fall. In spring, the warm days stimulate new growth. Emerging leaves are a soft yellowish-green and the small, yellow, male cones are produced in dense clusters at the ends of short, spurlike branches. During the summer, leaf color is a pale emerald green which gradually gives way to golden autumn hues. Color change in the needles . People are 224 A superb group of one young and five mature specimens of Pseudolarix grows along either side of Bussey Brook near the Walter Street gate to the Arboretum. Having trees of different genotype and provenance allows adequate pollination by wind and results in an abundant seed crop every other year. Photograph by G. Koller. 226 tip and progresses inward briefly giving the effect eye surrounded by gold. green During alternate years its large crop of female cones is extremely ornamental as the individual cones have thick cone scales which are arranged in such a manner as to resemble artichokes. In the immature state they are a pale green and as they ripen, in mid-October, they become a light tan. As the cones dry the scales loosen from the central axis so that the whole structure falls apart. Two seeds adhere to each cone scale and as the cones shatter the seeds are dispersed by the wind. In the winter the tree presents an elegant silhouette for the trunk is straight and tapers gradually to the tip. The branches are widely spaced, thin in diameter and basically spread from the tree in a horizontal or slightly upthrust angle. Mature lower branches are clear of growth near the trunk with smaller branches and foliage presenting themselves on the outer one-third to one-half of the branch. The outermost branch tips are horizontal or slightly upturned. The upper crown is densely branched, with more upright branches, so that old trees have a flattened top which gently blends with a graceful curve into the more sparsely spaced side branches. During the summer the foliage density is thin and as a result directly beneath the tree one can find spots of sun shining on the lawn. Grass grows directly up to the trunk and there is no evidence in any of our plants of surface or shallow rooting. Spacing to create landscape effect is often critical to the visual and spatial quality of a mature grove. ~m giove of trees is planted on 30-35 foot centers which allows the plants adequate space to develop a full canopy without crowding, while enabling the outer branches of individual trees to touch, providing, in effect, a continuous ceiling. Beneath mature trees with their open canopy one could establish perennial plantings of ground covers, herbaceous plants or taller woody species such as azaleas, Leucothoe, Skimmia or low growing hollies. Landscape architects who seek plants with an open airy crown at maturity should consider using the golden larch. Bark on the trunk and major stems of mature specimens is distinctive as it is broken into a series of irregular plates separated by deep ridges with color varying from gray brown to reddish brown. Young stems and branches are smooth and gray brown. I have observed a great variation in growth rates for this plant. While some twenty year old plants are little more than 6-8 feet tall and have a sickly yellow green summer color, others grow robustly, and at the same age are 18-25 feet tall with emerald green foliage. Of those plants which were languishing most were growing on soil with a high lime content or on limestone seams of rock. Notes in the English literature appear to confirm that they are lime intolerant. However, this needs to be more substantially documented by controlled growth experiments. begins of a at the outer The leaves are arranged in whorled pattern at the end of a short spurlike branch. Below: Cones are abundant every other year and are generally grouped or clustered along the upper surface of the branch. Cones ripen in the autumn of their first year. Photographs by G. Koller. Right: a Cones which resemble artichokes in appearance change from light green to tan they ripen in mid-October. At full maturity the cone becomes deciduous and the whole structure shatters, scattering cone scales, with two adherent seeds, in the wind. Photographs by G. Koller. as Ai the Arnold Arboretum we have access to plants of different ages from which to derive observations on growth rates. In mid-February 1980 seeds were germinated at the Dana Greenhouses. Individual seedlings were transplanted from a crowded seed pan into individual 3 inch pots and by 1 October averaged 4-7 inches tall. Eighteen-yearold plants, well established in our permanent plantings, exhibit 16-22 inches of new growth on terminal and lateral branches. An examination of several mature trees 90-120 years old produced evidence of 4-8 inches of new season growth. Growth observations of several seedling batches presently at the Arboretum is deceiving as one batch was partially eaten by rabbits and in another progressive transplanting and crowding resulted in an exaggerated lack of vigor. In order to document sources, age, and growth rate I took the following measurements from plants existing in our permanent collections on 1 October, 1980: 1. Accession Number 3656: acquired as plants of an undetermined size from Veitch and Sons Nursery in Chelsea, England in May, 1891 Plant A - approximately 40 feet tall, 42 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 2 feet. New season growth was 4-8 inches long. Plant B - approximately 45 feet tall, 42 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 2 feet. New season growth was 4-6 inches long. 229 2. Accession Number 16779: acquired as seed from H. H. Hunnewell, Wellesley, Massachusetts on January 29th, 1896. Plant A - approximately 40 feet tall, 45 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 1 foot 9 inches. New season growth was 4-6 inches long. Plant B - approximately 42 feet tall by 55 feet wide with a d.b.h of 2 feet 4 inches. New season growth was 4-6 inches long. 3. Accession number 10764: acquired as a plant of undetermined size from W. H. Hunnewell, Wellesley, Mass. on April 22, 1921. Plant A - Has a notation that this plant was 30 feet tall in 1946. It is now 40 feet, tall, 42 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 1 foot 6 inches. New season growth is 4-8 inches long. 4. Accession number 404-48: grown from seeds collected from 16779 during the autumn of 1947. Plant A - approximately 20 feet tall, 18 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 5 inches. New season growth was 4-6 inches long. Plant B - 25 feet tall, 28 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 101\/z inches. New season growth was 4-6 inches long. Plant C - Not measured since it is alive but displays little vigor, greatly reduced growth and sickly yellow- green summer foliage. Accession number 534-61: grown from seeds of an unspecified aboretum tree, sown in February 1961. Plant A - 18 feet tall, 16 feet wide with a d.b.h. of 21\/z inches on the larger of two stems. Average new growth is 16 to 22 inches long. These growth rates are compared to a venerable old specimen which presently grows on the lawn along the driveway across from the main house at the Hunnewell Estate in Wellesley, Massachusetts. This tree is undoubtedly the parent of our trees acquired from H. H. Hunnewell in 1896. On our behalf, Walter Hunnewell traced the origin of the plant and the records indicated that it was acquired as a seedling in a 4 inch pot from Veitch Nursery in 1866. In tracing the history of this tree we believe it was first mentioned in notes prepared by H. H. Hunnewell for the March 1867 issue of the American Journal of Horticulture when he says he has small plants. The next reference to this plant is recorded in Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell (1906. Vol. 3, pp. 127-8) with a 1905 notation as follows: Pseudolarix kaempferi, 35 feet tall with a trunk 4 feet in circumference and a spread of branches of 37 feet. This tree has produced seeds for many years and many seedlings have been raised from it.\" The tree has been measured annually since 1921 and Mr. Walter Hunnewell reports that in 1921 it had a circumference of 5 feet 6 inches and in 1979 after 58 years this had increased to 7 feet 11 inches. In October, 1980, this tree estimated to be 115 years old is 5. At 115 years, this specimen of Pseudolarix, at the Hunnewell Estate in Wellesley, Massachusetts, is one of the original and oldest of its species in North America. As of October, 1980 it was approximatetly 55 feet tall with a spread of 50 feet. It's circumference as of 1979 was 7 feet, 11 in. Photograph by G. Koller. 231 approximately 55 feet tall with branches spreading 50 feet. The lowest branch which sweeps the ground is 31\/2 feet above the soil level and it spreads outward 36 feet from the trunk. This bottom branch has a diameter of 10 inches at the point where it is inserted into the trunk. Most of the branches on the driveway side of the tree were lost due to ice storm damage in 1921. As of October 1st the cones are beginning to ripen but the cone scales are still firmly attached. A quick visual examination indicates that despite a few damaged branches the tree remains sound and healthy. In examining all of the trees reported on, I checked for signs of insects or disease. Leaves were, for the most part, intact with little to no bite or chew marks. However, the foliage of one specimen exhibited tiny, circular, randomly spaced, yellowish spots which were evident only on close examination. This may indicate a fungus infection or perhaps damage by an atmospheric pollutant. The hardiness potential of Pseudolarix in both its northern and southern ranges seems to be inexactly defined. It is being grown at the Strybing Arboretum in San Francisco as listed in their 1979 guide to plants. Northern limits may not have been fully explored for it is fully hardy at the University of Illinois in Champaign-Urbana where winter temperatures drop to -20 F. Dr. Lyle Littlefield, at the University of Maine, at Orono, where average minimum winter temperatures average -20 to -25 F. reports that seedlings 6-8 inches tall survived only to the snow line. He felt that young seedlings lacked the ability to harden off properly and perhaps older and larger plants would have been more successful. At the Landscape Arboretum of the University of Minnesota, Dr. Harold Pellett has done laboratory controlled hardiness testing and has determined the lowest survival temperature of stem tissue to be -45 C. Perhaps this indicates that under cultivation, the tree has not yet found its way to the most northern limits of hardiness. The fact that this tree still remains rare and little grown in North America may be due to the paucity of published information in horticultural books and periodicals. Perhaps a more important reason is that most trees reported in cultivation seem to have a low or erratic history of seed production. I believe that this is due to a lack of cross pollination, since many old specimens are grown as lone representatives of the genus in any geographical area. At the Arnold Arboretum the grove of Pseudolarix distinctly alternates in cone productivity year by year, but on good years we get an abundance of viable seeds. From our 1979 seed collection we distributed thousands of seeds and seedlings to nurserymen in addition to the autumn 1979 plant distribution to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Optimum germination of seeds takes place after 30-60 days of cold stratification at 40 F. Although we have attempted propagation by cuttings our experiments have never been successful. Should any readers have success with 232 cuttings we would appreciate to produced positive results. information about the techniques used The literature indicates that there are several distinct selections being grown. However, a survey of the computer file of the Plant Science Data Center in Mt. Vernon, Virginia, failed to reveal any institution in North America which grows any cultivars or plants which vary from the type. In reviewing the literature, I wonder how many of those plants described separately actually exist today. In the Manual of Cultivated Conifers by den Ouden and Boom (1978, pp. 366-68) the cultivar 'Annseleyana' is described as dwarf and bushy, but in 1964 the type plant at Castlewellan in County Down, Ireland was described as over 100 years old and 30 meters tall. The cultivar 'Dawsonii' described as a dwarf conical shrub was raised from seed of a normal sized tree in the Hunnewell Pinetun by J. Dawson of the Arnold Arboretum in 1895. This tree no longer survives nor do we have any progeny. Perhaps it exists elsewhere. The cultivar 'Nana' is described as a artificial dwarf and from this I take it to mean that it's dwarfness was maintained by techniques similar to Bonsai. From indication of the early literature describing this tree it has long been popular as a dwarfed pot plant in China. We have plants in our collection raised from seeds collected from 'Nana' and today they are normal sized trees. In terms of growing environment the tree grows best with an exposure of full sun but it seems to be tolerant of light shading. In the wild, seedlings normally develop in the shade of neighboring trees rathcr than with am exposure of full sun. As to soil conditions it seems to prefer a well drained, lime free soil. Landscape use of this tree certainly could be more extensive. It not only makes a superb specimen tree but it is even more spectacular as a grove planting. Several people have expressed a dislike for this tree in the home landscape because it becomes too large, yet the same people plant maples, elms and lindens which grow as large or larger. It seems to me that those who would like a tree under which they can build a garden, should eagerly explore the use of this conifer. Golden larch should also be tested for its adaptability to urban growing conditions since its deciduous nature might reduce its susceptibility to salt and chemical pollutants. The fact that the needles are tiny and that the cones shatter into many segments would diminish their nuisance potential in regard to litter. And finally, the open airy canopy of a mature specimen would allow light to penetrate nearby windows while providing some shade for adjacent structures. The correct scientific name of this plant has been a subject of dispute since it was first described. Most references list it as Pseudolarix kaempferi, while our taxonomsits feel that it is more correctly called Pseudolarix amabilis, and so I have called it throughout this article. See references by Tjaden, Hara, & Brummitt, and Nicholson cited in the reference list. A. A. 3656-B, acquired May, 1921 from Veitch & Sons Nursery in Chelsea, England. Current d.b.h. is 2 feet and height is 45 feet. Note the plated bark, widely spaced branching pattern, and the angle at which branches are inserted into the trunk. Photograph by C. Lobig. 234 If at this point I have aroused your interest in growing this golden larch you will need a source of plants or seeds. Landscaped sized plants are available from Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, Massachusetts 01748; one year seedlings from Groundnut Hill Nursery, Inc., Logging Road, Cape Neddick, Maine, 03903; and seeds are available from F. W. Schumacher Co., South Sandwich, Massachusetts 02563. GARY L. KOLLER Reference List Anonymous 1919. Pseudolarix amabilis. Bulletin of Popular Information of the Arnold Arboretum. (new series) vol. 5. Anonymous. 1922. The Gardener's Chronicle (3d ser.) 72:321. Bean, W. J. 1908. Pseudolarix fortunei. Curtis's Botanical Magazine (4th ser.) vol. 4, Tab. 8176. Bean, W. J. 1976. Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles. 8th ed. 3d vol. London: John Murray. Bowles, E. A. 1918. Cones of Pseudolarix kaempferi. The Garden. 82:405. Chittenden, F. J., ed. 1932. Conifers in Cultivation. London: Royal Horticultural Society. Chun, W. Y. 1923. Chinese Economic Trees. Shanghai: Commercial Press. Dallimore & Jackson 1966. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. 2d ed., rev. London: Edward Arnold. den Ouden, P., & Boom, B. K. 1978. Manual of Cultivated Conifers. The Hague: ' _ Dirr, M. A. Martin Nijhoff. 1977. Manual of Woody Landscape Plants. Cl:ampagne,Ill. : Taxon 29:315-317. Stipes Publishing. Hara, H., Brummitt, R. K. 1980. The Problem of Pseudolarix Kaempferi: Type method or circumscription method? Hunnewell, H. H. 1906. Life, Letters and Diary of Horatio Hollis Hunnewell. 3d vol. Boston: Private edition. Kent, A. H. 1900. Veitch's Manual of the Coniferae. London: James Veitch & Sons, Ltd. Nicolson, D. H. 1980. Point of view on Pseudolarix. Taxon 29:318. Syme, G. 1877. The Golden Larch of China. The Garden 12:497. Tjaden, W. L. 1980. The Chinese Golden Larch. Taxon. 29:314, 315. Webber, A. D. 1918. Coniferous Trees. London: Constable & Co. Wilson, E. H. 1916. Plantae Wilsonianae. 2d vol. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23311","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15e896f.jpg","title":"1980-40-5","volume":40,"issue_number":5,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. H. Wilson as a Botanist (Part II)","article_sequence":1,"start_page":154,"end_page":193,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24781","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ea726.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":4,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"E. H. Wilson by RICHARD A. as a Botanist* * HOWARD Wilson after 1911 Although Wilson referred to a \"written agreement with Harvard until April 1, 1911,\" \"a tacit understanding that I remain with them until all the collections are distributed,\" and \"the offer from Harvard of a permanent post\" (Wilson, letter, November 12, 1910), none of these can be confirmed in the available records. Sutton (1970, p. 249) stated that \"Sargent felt conscience-bound to provide for him professionally when he limped back from China.\" Wilson did need further medical treatment both in England and in Boston, and the abrupt return required much physical and psychological adjustment. \"The Wilson family tried to adapt to the United States while living in a modest apartment in Jamaica Plain near the Arboretum. Wilson could not make up his mind about the United States [and never did become a citizen]; Ellen Wilson, for her part, liked neither America nor Americans. Wilson soon became accustomed to the new environment and began to enjoy the benefits of his reputation\" (Sutton, 1970, p. 250). He was in popular demand as a speaker with his \"stereopticon illustrations,\" and Sargent, recognizing the value of the publicity for the Arnold Arboretum, encouraged him to ~ * Continued from Volume 40, p. 138. 154 Ernest Arnold Henry Wilson standing on the steps of the Administration Building of the Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. 156 write popular articles and to give lectures. Wilson did contribute to the study of his collections, but it is obvious that Alfred Rehder dominated the work, handling nomenclatural problems and especially the German literature with greater interest and facility than did Wilson. Wilson wrote numerous popular articles based on his explorations of China and also calling upon his experiences at Kew and subsequently at the Arnold Arboretum. The Bulletin of Popular Information issued by the Arboretum beginning in May, 1911, contained unsigned articles until Sargent's death in 1927. The information in many of the notes is probably attributable to Wilson, and the phrases are often repeated in Wilson's later, signed articles. Former staff members recall that Wilson dictated to a secretary as he rode or walked around the grounds, and such material was published in the Bulletin. Both Wilson and Sargent had field knowledge of Japan, its flora, and the plants under cultivation there. In 1914 an arduous field trip was still out of the question, but Wilson did accept Sargent's plan for a special trip to Japan to study the plants under cultivation. Sargent had less difficulty soliciting funds for this trip because of Wilson's reputation, and Wilson was permitted to take his wife and daughter along. Wilson's field books reveal trips primarily along railroad routes, and they are dominated by entries from various botanical gardens and by records of cultivated plants. Two of his publications for the Arnold Arboretum, The Cherries of Japan (1916) and The Conifers and Taxads of Japan (1916), resulted from his observations on this trip. When World War I broke out, Sargent was in England. He cut short his planned trip and returned to Boston, where he wrote to Wilson, suggesting that he abandon the original plans for traveling to adjacent islands and return home soon. Wilson arrived in Boston in April, 1915. Sutton (1970, pp. 256, 257) reported Wilson's frustration, resentment, and bitterness over his isolation and his inability to enlist or serve in the war effort in a useful way: Wilson's judgment. ran deep and frustration blurred his Before the war Rehder and Wilson had been close friends. Now, although the professional dialogue continued amiably, Wilson under pressure from his wife discontinued their social relations.... Rehder, a scholarly, gentle person, was apolitical, and it was some time before either he or Mrs. Rehder understood why the Wilsons mistrusted them. patriotism - - Rehder may have been \"apolitical,\" but he was strongly pro-German throughout his career. Sargent clearly had a personnel problem: \"Sargent became conscious of Wilson's irritability and restlessness, and these influenced his decision to send Wilson on a new collecting expedition even though the fighting was still in progress\" (Sutton, 157 1970, p. 257). In January, 1917, Wilson left again for Asia and the Bonin Islands before spending six months in Korea in 1917. In 1918 he collected in Formosa for four months and then returned to Korea via Japan. He returned to Formosa in the late fall of 1918. Apparently his leg no longer bothered him, for the schedule he kept was arduous. He collected over 3,000 numbers in remote places and exposed over 600 photographic plates, primarily on the flora of Japan. It was during this trip that he assembled from nursery sources the collection of Kurume azaleas that become known as the \"Wilson Fifty.\" Those plants not hardy in the Boston area were kept by Sargent at Holm Lea and by the Ames family in North Easton. They were forced for exhibition at the spring flower shows of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and other organizations; during nearly fifty years of exhibitions, they won prizes on each occasion. Wilson's exact title at the Arboretum during this period is not recorded, although in one article he refers to himself as \"Dendrologist, Arnold Arboretum.\" In 1916 he received an honorary Master of Arts degree from Harvard, and in 1919 he was appointed Assistant Director of the Arnold Arboretum, without limit of time. In this capacity he made one more trip to the Pacific area. This lasted from July of 1920 until September of 1922, during which time Wilson visited Australia, New Zealand, Tasmania, India, Ceylon, Kenya, Rhodesia, and South Africa. He took few photographs on these trips in fact, he had commercial photographs sent back to the Arboretum. He sought specific conifers for study, but his collection numbers for this period are incomplete, overlapping, and confused, and many specimens are without numbers. No introductions of seeds or living plants were made, as far as can be determined. The trip has often been described as a \"public relations effort\" to permit Wilson to be introduced to the staff of various tropical botanical gardens. A series of reports from each area visited was published in the Garden Magazine (1923-24) under the title of \"Travel Tales of a Plant Collector,\" and the subject matter became chapters in his two-volume work Plant - Hunting (1927a). Sargent died in 1927. The University filled the gap by appointing Professor Oakes Ames as Supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum and chairman of a standing committee on the University's botanical collections. The title of Director of the Arboretum was abandoned, and Wilson was given the new title \"Keeper of the Arboretum.\" Only after Wilson's death was the title of \"Director\" re-established for the Arnold Arboretum. Wilson died October 15, 1930, in an automobile accident near Worcester, Massachusetts, while returning from a trip to Montreal. The accident was blamed in part on the weakness of his leg so badly injured in China. - Above: Oo-ryong-too, on Dagelet Island, off the northeastern coast of Korea (June 1, 1917). Below: The Bonin island of Hah-jima, from Naga-hama with Muko-jima on the horizon. Wilson collected in this area on April 27, 1917. Photographs by E. H. Wilson. 159 Wilson's Collecting Localities in Asia, 1914-1919 February. Japan. Tokyo (3).= March. Kagoshima; Shitogo, Yakushima. Kinishima (9), Kagoshima (17); Nagasaki (18); Tokyo Japan: (20) Undated: Kai, Kamo, Kusakabe, Muji; Sakurajima, Sano; Shigotomi, Togo, Yoshino. April. Japan: Tokyo (15), Kyoto (26), Tokyo (30). Undated. Hachioji; Gotemba; Hakoue, Hatogaya, Joshino, Kasuga-yama, Koganei, Kyoto, Meguro; Miyanoshita, Nara; Ongata; Totsuka-mura. May. Japan: Kamakura (11); Fuji (14), Nikko Mts. (23), Chuzenji (31). Undated: Enoshima, Kasukae, Kanazawa, Sanjohara; Subashiri, 1914 Undated: Tatebayashi, Urami Falls. June. Japan: Chuzenji (5), Tokyo (6); Mitsumina, Mt. Chichibu (9); Mt. Ontake (15), Mt. Fuji (20); mountains nearYumoto (28). Undated : Kofu, Nantai-san; Rokugome, Yoshida. July. Japan: Nikko, Matsushima (2), Matsushima to Noboribetsu (6), Hakkeda and Yama to Tokyo (10), Asama (18); Adzuma (22); Morioka to Hakodate (22), Osisna (27); Yezo Fuji (30); Kutchan to Sapporo (31). Undated. Furo-zan, Lake Onuma, Mt. Moiwa, Mt. Teine; Wadamura. August. Japan: Sapporo to Otaru ( 1 ), Otaru to Saghalien (2), Saghalien (9). Otaru to Sapporo (10), Kushiro (15), Abashiri (17), Rubeshibe (20), Oketo (25), Sapporo (26); Hakodate (30). Undated: Bihoro, Kamizaima, Kushino, Odomari; Sakaihama, Yachigashira. September. Japan: Hakodate to Karinzawa (2), Tokyo (6), Lake Suwa (17), Yatsugadake (22), Tokyo (24), Mt. Hazachine (30). Undated : Ashitoriya; Lake Towada, Nakabusa-onsen. October. Japan: Aomari (3); Hakkoda (5), Lake Towada (8), Odate (9); trip to Chokai-san (9), Adzuma Mts. (11). Yumoto (20), Lake Chuzenji (29); Tokyo (30), Nagoga (31). Undated: Jimba, Konseitoge, Kurosawa, Nikko, Onsenga-take; Mt. Ontake, Sanjo-hara. November. Japan: Mt. Ontake (5); Gotemba (6); Mt. Fuji (9); Tokyo coolee ( 10 ) , Kobe (16); Shikoku and return to Kobe ( 23 ), Osaka ( 25 ) ; Miyajima (29), Kobe (30). Undated: Higashi-kawa; Lake Yamanaka; Nagoya, Nishinogawa; Shigaro-yama; Sugi. December. Japan: Kaga-san (3), Nara (7), Kyoto (10); Tokyo 11, 24 ) ; Yokohama (29), Tokyo (31). 1915 Yokohama (2). January. Japan: Arrival in San Francisco (22), Boston (29). 1917 Started trip to Asia. January. February. Liukiu Islands. March. Liukiu Islands. Oshima: Atami, Idzu; Naze. Okinawa: Genku Mt., Naha. Karama group: Aharen Island, Aka Island. Unplaced: Kanaguru; Katema; Yaeyama Island; Yakuji Island; Yonebara. April. Japan: Boshu Peninsula (10). Undated: Hojo; Michizaki; Sakai. Bonin Islands. Haha-jima (23); Muko-jima (28). Undated: Okumura, Sekimonzan. = The day ( s ) of the month, where after the locality. known, are indicated in parentheses 160 Bonin Islands: Ani-jima (3); Chichijima (3); Hachijo-jima (6). Korea: Ajiore Station, Yamagutachi ken (17); Seoul, prov. Keiki (21 ); Nam-san prov. Keiki (23), Ka-zan, near Suigen, prov. Keiki (24); Hoko, prov. Kesho (29), Dagelet Island (30). Undated: Sango. June. Korea: Dagelet Island (1-5); Taiyudo, prov. N. Heian (15-30). Undated: Dodo; Pukchin, prov. Heian; Takkori, prov. Heian; Maban, prov. N. Heian. July. Korea: Koryo, near Keijo, prov. Keiki (6); Keijyo (13); Shinguiban on Yalu River, prov. N. Heian (15). Manchuria: Darien (19); Port Arthur (20); Murden (22). Korea: Shingishu, Mt. Hakuba, prov. N. Heian (24). Undated: Chiao-lan. May. August. Korea: Sempo, prov. S. Kankyo (1); Chemulopo, prov. Keiki (7); Fu-nei (14); Sha-yunei, prov. N. Kankyo (15); Mogan, prov. N. Kankyo (16); Jyosohyo, prov. N. Kankyo (17); Enshamen, prov. N. Kankyo (18); Yujyo (19); Sohyo (20); Engan (23); Setsurei (Snow Mt.), prov. N. Kankyo (25); Tumen-Yalu, prov. N. Kankyo (29-31). Undated: Kankyo Ho; Hokudo. September. Korea: Tumen-Yalu, prov. N. Kankyo (1, 2); Keizanchu (412) ; Chochiin to Shinkari, prov. S. Kankyo ( 14 ) ; Laoling (17), Eiko (18-23). Undated: Kanin; Koshukoyu; Nanchatongu; Rynsan, Shanshui, Sinkabachin, Shinyu, Shobo; Yeiko River. October. Korea: Gensan to Onseri, prov. S. Kankyo (5); Kongo-san, prov. Kogen (8-16). Undated: Bambutsusu; Fukendo; Jizo; Kyurynan; Miroku-ho, Reifun san. November. Korea: Quelpaert Island (2-6); Chiri-san, prov. S. Keisho (1317). Undated: Hallai-san; Keijyo, prov. Keiki, Saishu, Seikiho. December. Korea: Tanjyo-gan, prov. N. Chusei (9). Undated: Baiho-men; Baiho-rei. 1918 8 January. Japan. Formosa (22). February. Formosa: Takao, prov. Tainan (20); Bamshoruo (21); Anping 23); Kagi, prov. Kagi (24). Undated: Arisan; Funkiko, Hso-gei-han; Keitao; Shakorio. March. Formosa: Mt. Noko, prov. Nanto (2); Horisha (9); Lake Candideus (10); Taihoku, prov. Taihoku (17-27); Chosokei (30); Urai (30). Undated: Housha; Jukirin; Keelung; Koken; Mt. Kiraishiu; Mt. Taihei; Musha, Naiwsheizan; Nama; Parisha; Sekitei, Shirin; Sokei; Sozan; Tahken; Tentana. April. Formosa: Chosokei, prov. Taihoku (1). Undated: Keelung; Zuihu. May. Japan: Nishi-kirihima (4); Osaka (8); Yamamoto, Ikedo (8); Hakomo, Gotemba (11). Undated: Nishi-kirishima; Yokkaichi. June. Japan: Fuji-san (12); Subushiri (12); Onada (17). Korea: Keijyo, prov. Keiki (22); Kongo-san, prov. Kogen (30). July. Korea: Diamond Mts., prov. Kogen (2); Miroku-ho, prov. Kogen (6); NW. Korea, prov. N. Heian (28-31); Ping-yang, prov. S. Heian (29). Undated: Chinnampo, Choanji; Heiko; Hichecanbo Peak; Hyokunji; Kishi; Kokai; Makaen-an; Mt. Miraku; Mochuri; Shinchindo. August. Korea: NW Korea, prov. N. Heian (1-8); Keiki-on, prov. Keiki (20); Unsan distr., prov. N. Heian (29-31 ). Undated: Kanghura Island; Keijyo; Pukchin. 161 September. Korea: Unsan distr., prov. N. Heian (1-5); Kongo-san, Kogen (11-17). Undated: return to Japan and to Formosa. Rinkiho; Rinnai. prov. October. Formosa: Sekitei, prov. Taihoku (10), Sozan (11); Arisan, prov. Kagi ( 16-31 ). Undated: Funkiku, Keitao; Mt. Morrison; Mungetsu; November. Formosa: Ketao, prov. Nanto (1), Boryo to Kuraru, prov. Koshun (14), Pinan (17-20); Karenko, prov. Karenko (22-26). Undated : Gukutsu, Nanwo; Shin-chow; Tsihan-roku. December. Formosa: Horisha, Lake Candideus (3-7); Island of Tanshima, Japan Sea (23). 1919 January. Japan: Tokyo (29). February. Japan. Undated: Goto; Yamashiro. March. Arrival in Boston (17). Wilson's Itinerary for 1920-1922 1920 trip England. July. August. England, Scotland. September. Australia. via Started October. Australia: Perth (21). November. Australia: Albany (6); Goolgardia to Widgremooltha December. Australia. Undated: Adelaide, Narara, Sydney. 1921 (22). January. Australia: Mossvale (4). Arrival in New Zealand (27). February. New Zealand. March. New Zealand. Tasmania: Hobart (17). April. Tasmania. Australia: Melbourne (22). May. Australia. June. Australia. July. Departure for Singapore, Penang, Rangoon. India: Calcutta (19). August. \"India\" (Pakistan): Rawalpindi (14); Srinagar, Kashmir (15); Delhi (23). Undated: DehraDun. September. India. Darjeeling (19), Shillong (24). Undated: Coonoor. October. India: Calcutta to Madras ( 1 ). Ceylon: arrival (6). Undated: Colombo; Manaar; Peradeniya, Ragalla. November. India. Bombay(4). Kenya: undated. 1922 January. Kenya. February. South Africa. April. Departure from Cape Town (7). May. Arrival in London (31 ). 162 June. England: Dawyck (9); London (19). July. France: Paris (5); Les Barres (17). England: Wisley (21), Hillier Nursery (28); Cambridge (28). August. England: Kew (11); departure from Liverpool (15). Wilson in the Field Wilson left little information about his method of operation in the field. What can be gathered from occasional comments in his writings and diaries does not give a complete picture of what was needed to live and travel as he did during the eleven years from 1900 through 1910. In Plant Hunting (1927a, Vol. 1, p. xxv) he stated the necessary qualifications: Like any other qualifications on vocation, plant hunting calls for certain the part of those who essay the task. First and foremost it is a work of youth, for it takes a heavy toll of strength and endurance, patience and enthusiasm. A sound constitution and an eminently sane mind are fundamental requisites. An optimistic temperament and abundance of tact are essential in dealing with the difficulties and delays incident upon travel and the idiosyncracies of native peoples. The more knowledge the hunter has of plants already in cultivation, of gardening, and of botany, the greater the chance of success. Some business acumen, ability to mingle freely and pleasantly with all sorts and conditions of men are added qualifications of no mean order. But above all else tact and a sound physique are needed in the rough and tumble of plant hunting. In his first published article, in The Field, The Country Gentleman's Newspaper (CVI: 109. 1905), Wilson recommended western China for the sportsman: \"Leaving aside the cost of outfit, which should be procured in England or America, 500 would amply cover a sportsman's expenses for one year in the country. This sum would include first class fare from London to Shanghai and return. The journey could even be done for 400 if strict economy were enforced; on the other hand many pounds could easily be expended.\" Wilson's first major report of his travels was entitled A Naturalist in Western China, with Vasculum, Camera, and Gun, Being Some Account of Eleven Years' Travel, Exploration, and Observation in the More Remote Parts ofthe Flowery Kingdom (1913). The vasculum, adopted from his early training in Europe, is a metal case carried over the shoulder and opened by a cover hinged on the long side. Plant specimens are carried in it all day without being crushed; in the evening they are sorted and dried in plant presses. Wilson's photographic equipment will be mentioned later. The gun, according to available photographs, apparently was never more powerful than a double-barreled shotgun, \"12 bore\" as he described it. It was used 163 The type tree of Ormosia hosiei Hemsley & Wilson, near Chengtu Caty, November ll, 1908. The species was named in honor of Alexander Hosie, of the Counsular Service, who aided Wilson in shipping his collections. A sedan chair of the type Wllson used is in the lower left corner. Photograph by E. H. Wilson. acquiring birds \"for the pot\" or, on one trip, for skins and pelts. Zappey, who accompanied Wilson in 1908-9, carried a rifle suitable for downing larger animals. Wilson's party commonly had soldiers along, and there is some indication that their guns were used for hunting. One chapter in A Naturalist in Western China is devoted to the subject \"Methods of Travel: Roads and Accommodation.\" On page 22 of Volume 1, he stated, \"In the regions with which we deal there is nothing in the nature of wheeled vehicular traffic save only the rude wheel-barrow in use on the Chengtu plain. There are no mule caravans and scarcely a riding pony is to be found. For overland travel there is the native sedan-chair and one's own legs; for river travel the native boat.\" The sedan-chair is mentioned frequently: \"I travelled mostly on foot but had with me a light sedan chair made of rattan and my Boy or principal servant was similarly favored. A sedan chair is an outward and visible sign of respectability without which no traveller is properly equipped. In those days it was of far more importance than a passport, for it inspired confidence and insured the respect of the people. Whether one rode in it or walked was immaterial; the important thing was its presence\" (Wilson, for 164 1927a, Vol. 2, p. 148). Wilson was riding in his sedan chair in 1910 when the landslide occurred and he suffered a compound fracture of his leg. He fortunately left the chair before it was carried over the cliff. Wilson once wrote (1913, Vol. 1, p. 198) that although he slept in a hut of spruce boughs, \"my boy preferred to pass the night in his chair.\" Four coolies of Wilson's entourage were engaged to carry the botanist and his \"Boy\" in the sedan chairs. \"One should have with him an outfit comprising bed, bedding, victuals, cooking paraphernalia and insect powder\" (Wilson, 1929, p. 19). On several trips Wilson made his headquarters at Ichang and purchased a boat to be used as a residence. On the second Veitch expedition he had a boat named \"Ellena\" after his wife; on the two trips for the Arnold Arboretum, the boat was named \"The Harvard.\" Ichang was a fairly busy commercial port, with customs officials and missionaries in residence. The two small rooms that made up the accommodations on the boat were confining, especially when plants were being worked up or stored. He found warehouses to store his collections, and he enjoyed the hospitality of many of the residents who spoke English. His indebtedness for their friendship is indicated by the number of species dedicated in compliment to them. \"While travelling overland in China it is not possible to use tents and one has perforce to make use of such accommodations as the country affords. The Chinese do not understand tents, and it is unwise to try innovations in a land where people are unduly inquisitive\" (Wilson, 1929, p. 19). The local accommodations, invariably called \"hostels\" by Wilson, were occasionally \"fair\" or \"pleasant,\" but more often than not unpleasant, dirty, \"ridden with hungry tormenting fleas,\" leaky, muddy, smelly, noisy, and sometimes \"undescribable.\" At Wang-tung-tsao \"we found lodgings for the night.... The inn is beautifully situated in a grove of bamboo and cypress, but is poor and abominably stinking. Really, it is a pity that such a vile house should defile such a charming spot\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 81). At Lao-tang-fane the single room had \"a long row of 'bunks' built along one side, with benches for the accommodation of loads on the other.... Skins of serow and budorcas served as mattress on the bunks or settees\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 132). At Shihcu'uan Hsien he was \"glad to escape from the malodorous, vermin infested inn\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 120). At Hsin-chia-pa the inns were unacceptable to Wilson, and a high-handed solution was described: \"We happened on a decent farmhouse, which we commandeered. The owner being away, his wife was at first sorely afraid, but in a couple of hours her confidence was gained and all was well.... We parted excellent friends with our hostess at Hsin-chia-pa, a trifling present and 400 cash (5 pence) made her extremely happy; her thanks were both genuine and profuse\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 89). Wilson's \"bed\" and \"bedding\" are never explained. Presumably, a folding camp cot was used, for he referred to his bed having been The hostel of San-Chia-Tsze, altitude 12,500 feet, one mile below the summit of Hsnek-Shan Pass. Wilson makes a rare appearance in the extreme right of this photograph taken August 23, 1910. brought night. In in late by a to cover native beds coolie. He carried \"oil sheets,\" which were used or to protect Wilson from the leaking roofs at ', ' spite on out\" of his comment on tents, Wilson occasion. At Tatien-lu, apparently did \"camp We selected a convenient spot nearby on which to pitch a tent for ourselves. Whilst I acted as family doctor my companion and the two men in good health attempted to fix up the tent outside.... Meanwhile rain, hail and sleet descended in torrents. After a half-hour's struggle, the rain and wind conquered, and the task of rigging the tent outside had to be abandoned. There being no possible place to sleep inside, free from rain, the only thing left was to fix the tent inside the house, the floor of which, owing to the absence of part of the roof, being already a quagmire. At length it was put up somehow, our beds were arranged beneath it, and oil-sheets placed over the top, as the thin cloth did not pretend was to be waterproof.... (Wilson, 1906, p. 100. ) large; one of his photographs showed 24 people. He generally depended on local inns or hostels to supply meals and accommodations, and he rarely wrote of food or food supWilson's party often 166 plies. The expeditions from a base such as Ichang, Tatien-lu, or Sungpan were generally of two or three weeks' duration. One 1904 expedition to Sungpan took 52 days. On a trip to Shenei in 1907, the party ran out of supplies and had to double back. At Yu-yu-tien \"travellers furnish their own food supplies, since nothing is obtainable at the hostel except, perhaps, some green vegetables in minute quantities\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 178). Wilson employed a cook, but I have not encountered in his notebooks any description of either his meals or his tastes in food. Farrington (in Wilson, 1931, p. 26) commented, \"He told once of his difficulties in getting accustomed to Chinese food, especially certain chickens which have black bones. He had a fondness for birds' nest pudding, and he said that eggs which had been kept for two years in Chinese fashion were none too bad.\" He wrote of the taste of pheasant and of ships' biscuits and tea for breakfast. Of all the locales Wilson visited, he appears to have been enthusiastic about only one. Of Sungpan he wrote (1913, Vol. 1, p. 144), Did Fates ordain that I should live in Western China I could ask for nothing better than to be domiciled in Sungpan. Though the altitude is considerable the climate is perfect, mild at all times, with, as a general rule, clear skies in Tibetan-blue. During the summer one can always sleep under a blanket, in winter a fire and extra clothing are all that is necessary. Excellent beef, mutton, milk and butter are always obtainable at very cheap rates. The wheaten flour makes a very fair bread, and in season there is a variety of game. Good vegetables are produced such as Irish potatoes, peas, cabbages, turnips, and carrots, and such fruits as peaches, pears, plums, apricots, apples, and wild raspberries. Nowhere else in interior China can an Occidental fare better than in Sungpan Ting. James Veitch asked Wilson in an early letter if he wore Chinese clothes. Photographs of him in the field always show him in western dress: occasionally he is shown with a field-type jacket, otherwise in a seemingly heavy suit including a vest. He wore a hat, leather puttees fixed with leather straps, and heavy shoes; he once referred to the fruits of Heteropogon as capable of penetrating the tongue of a \"shooting boot.\" Veitch wrote that field glasses were being sent to him in 1900. Wilson recorded the distances he traveled and indicated that 20 miles was an average day's trip. In his field books he recorded distances in lis, a Chinese unit of measure equal to one third of a mile. He carried a pedometer (among his mementos, still set for a 35-inch stride). He had two compasses, as well as an altimeter made by Negretti and Zambra that he referred to as an \"aneroid\" when he gave altitudes 167 at various 36F, suggesting that he had axes or saws, locations. Once Wilson cited a thermometer reading of a thermometer. Presumably he had for he reported felling large trees to obtain cones and slabs of bark from larger trees. In letters to Veitch and to Sargent, he often reported on his health. An illness of 22 days in 1907 he attributed to a bout of malaria. On another occasion he suffered from \"ague, brought on by a chill.\" He also wrote, \"The magistrate sent me word that he was suffering from pains in the stomach and vomiting, and would be grateful for some medicine to relieve his suffering. I sent him some Epsom-salts and an opiate.... A traveller gets many such requests for medicine, and I have generally found quinine, Epsom-salts and opium pills most useful cures, for which the people were always grateful\" (Wilson, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 192). He also noted that he \"acted as family doctor\" to his men who suffered frostbite and snow blindness on a trip from Tatien-lu (1906, p. 101). Although he published notes on Chinese medicinal plants, he made only one personal reference: \"The dried rhizome of Coptis chinensis is an all-round medicine and particularly valued as a stomachic.... Personally I can testify that it makes an excellent and appetizing bitters\" (Wilson, 1929, p. 319). Wilson appears to have kept a great many notebooks in the field. His diaries are available for parts of all of his trips except the first one for Veitch. They are not complete and rarely fill an entire notebook, suggesting that he frequently started a new book for a new trip. The entries in his diaries are in pencil, while most of his plant records are in ink; his writing is difficult to read. He kept a separate record book for seed collections for Veitch, but for the Arnold Arboretum seeds, specimens, and photographic records are frequently combined in one ledger. Wilson also referred in letters to his \"book of records of photographs,\" but this has not been found. A few of his separate books of financial records are available. On most trips accounts were not kept in detail, but on some occasions he was explicit as to items for his \"Boy,\" coolees' wages, expenses for his collectors, and one record of a Christmas gift. Wilson's task was to collect seeds and botanical specimens. Nothing is known of his equipment for these purposes while he was employed by Veitch. At times Wilson collected in a vasculum, transferring the specimens to a press to be dried. On June 28, 1907, he wrote to Sargent, \"I worked with nine presses and a thousand driers and I can assure you changing specimens every night meant work.\" Earlier (1906, p. 27) he had written, \"My collections grew apace and it took all hands three hours changing papers.\" No photographs have been located showing how Wilson dried specimens. He used wireframe presses that he made himself, or had made in China. The end frames were secured with chains and tightened by readjustment to a hook on the opposite frame. Wilson used thin blotters without ventilators ; the paper containing the specimens must have been acquired removing 168 in Shanghai. On February 15, 1919, Sargent wrote to Wilson that Purdom \"is not taking any paper for drying specimens with him as you didn't and as I understand there is no difficullty in getting such material in China.\" Dr. Shiu-ying Hu told me that, as a student in the Natural History Museum in West China Union University, Chengto, Szechuan, she used the press frames, blotters, and drying paper Wilson had left behind. Dr. Hu recalled that the type of paper Wilson used was not then available in that region of China, and she felt that he must have brought it with him. When Wilson's specimens were dry, the packages were wrapped in oiled paper for storage and shipment. Wilson also preserved fleshy fruits in \"Chinese spirits\" and returned some of this material to the United States. There is no indication where he obtained the bottles or spirits, or how this material was sealed. One often gets the impression that Wilson was a loner and did not have company beyond members of his staff. Although he did not speak or read Chinese, as far as can be determined, he said that an interpreter was not necessary if there was a good \"boy or principal servant.\" On each of his trips, he acquired a dog for company, and although the breed cannot be determined from the photographs available, one was referred to as a \"spaniel.\" None of the dogs was identified by a name. Wilson (1913, Vol. 1, p. 249) referred to the need to carry them across narrow bridges or up ladders when ascending Mt. Wa. Wilson had field companions who can be identified only by the dedication of new species to them: Dr. William Kirk, \"a keen lover of nature and the collector's companion on many rambles\" (Meliosma kirkii); Rev. J. Moyes, of Tatien-lu, \"companionship on one long and interesting journey in Eastern Tibet\" (Rosa moyesii); Mr. W. C. Haines-Watson, \"my friend and travelling companion\" (Rhododendron watsonii); Mr. G. Houlston, \"my companion on many a delightful ramble in the Ichang neighborhood\" (Rhododendron houlstonii); and of course W. R. Zappey, the zoologist who was associated with Wilson during his 1907-09 trip (Prunus zappeyana). No specimens are recorded as joint collections, and none of his Chinese collectors are acknowledged on the field labels. Wilson's publications rarely revealed his feelings concerning his nomadic life. Veitch had warned him that he would be lonely and that he must keep up his spirits by hard work. Of a trip to the Chento Pass (14,500 feet) on June 19, 1904, Wilson did write ( 1906, p. 101), \"We crossed the Chen-to Pass in a blizzard of snow and sleet. I shall never forget that day. It was the hardest, roughest and most exhausting one I experienced during the while of my five years wandering China.... As I look back on that day I marvel that we were not all frozen to death. As it was, several of the party were badly frost-bitten and 11 suffered from snow blindness. It was many weeks ere we fully recovered from the effect of the passage.\" The vegetation at 2,000 feet altitude on Quelpaert Island, Korea, showing Quercus glauca and Q. glandulifera. Dr. N. Nakai, who accompanied Wilson, is seated on the boulders in the foreground. Photograph taken November 2, 1917, by E. H. Wilson. 170I Sargent's letters to Wilson were less frequent than Veitch's had been but usually concerned matters more related to the expeditions. For example, \"I suppose by this time you are in the field and I hope that you are enjoying yourself. Write when opportunity offers, although do not let writing interfere with the real work unless you have something it is necessary to say\" (Sargent, letter, April 18, 1907). Wilson did inform Sargent of each trip when it was planned and again when it was completed. His trips of 1908 were to new and difficult country. He reported the trip to Mt. Omei and Mt. Wa as having been profitable, \"but owing largely to bad weather, desperately hard and never want to hear of, much less see that region again\" (Wilson, letter, October 11, 1908). In a letter written on September 3, 1910, only days before the accident that broke his leg, Wilson wrote, \"I am certainly getting very tired of the wandering life and long for the end to come. I seem never to have done anything else than wander, wander - through China.\" uncomfortable. I Wilson as a wrote to WilI have not sent as I feel sure you will do better in Hong Kong; have a quick look around and buy one - preferably an American. I also do not think you should use plates films are much handier and give most excellent results and the roll can be changed in broad daylight. I have used such and find that though not the best for highest art photographs for all general purposes they are suitable.\" On July 9, 1901, he wrote again: \"I am sorry to hear about your camera, you are indeed unlucky. I was more fortunate and only had my Kodak go wrong once.\" Gardeners' Chronicle (37: 337, 382, 383. 1905) published several photographs to go with Wilson's article \"Leaves from My Chinese Note-book,\" which reported on his 1903 trip. Similar to prints from Wilson's later trips, these photographs are marked \"Gardchron\" and \"W. J. Welch, Sc.\" but are not credited to Wilson. If they were taken by Wilson, they would be the film negatives taken on the first of the Veitch expeditions. Wilson later (1913, Vol. 1, p. 129) wrote, \"My first journey over this highway was, as mentioned before, in 1904. At that time I had no camera. Sargent, however, wanted a good photographic record of the plants that Wilson saw and introduced, as well as of the countryside and the vegetation. In a special issue of Arnoldia commemorating the 100th anniversary of Wilson's birth, Peter J. Chvany (1976) reproduced many of Wilson's photographs and related how even Miss Willmott encouraged Wilson to acquire a camera and take pictures. Wilson had a Sanderson whole-plate field camera, with bellows and a stout wooden support tripod custom made, and he carried it in three heavy boxes. On the trips for the Arnold Arboretum, he also took along a roll-film camera on which he took some personal pictures. Sargent wrote to Wilson, \"I hope you won't forget the photoan In early Photographer letter (December 11, 1899) James Veitch son, \"The camera - The hamlet of Ping-ling-shih in western Szechuan, 3,150 feet altitude. with Mount Wa-wu in the background. Photograph by E. H. Wilson. September 8, 1908. 172 graph business which seems to me important, as we ought to get from this expedition all possible information about the Chinese flora\" (Sargent, letter, October 11, 1906). On April 21, 1907, Wilson wrote Sargent, \"I took fifty Kodak photos of different subjects and these have been forwarded to England to be dealt with by Ingalls\"; on August 13 Sargent replied, \"I did see some of the proofs of your photographs. These seemed to me to be promising although, as you have already heard, some change in exposure will have to be made.\" By the middle of 1908, Wilson had mastered the camera. He wrote, Photography formed an important part of the journey just completed. With the large camera I took twenty dozen plates. I have had two dozen of these developed and the results were most gratifying. Whilst the bulk of the photos are of trees and other floral subjects, a fair sprinkling showing scenery are included, enough to give an idea of the general appearance and configuration of the country. The Kodak continues unsatisfactory. A consignment of films ordered from England to be sent via parcel post have got lost somewhere. As the few remaining old films are apuseless I shall have to leave the Kodak behind on future trips. However the larger camera is working well and I have heaps of plates and the need for the Kodak is small. (Wilson, letter, August 27, 1908.) parently Chvany (1976) describes well the effort Wilson made in the field despite the uncertainty of the results. As Wilson (1913, Vol. 1, p. 197) stated, \"Photography in the forest is no mere pastime. It took over an hour on three occasions clearing away brushwood and branches so as to admit of a clear view of the trunk of the subject. I secured a dozen photographs, which entailed a hard day's work.\" In February Wilson reported, On the last trip I secured 11 dozen photos with the big camera, practically all of them showing winter aspect. Today with the full plate camera I have taken 57 dozen plates. I hope to manage three dozen more and thus complete 6 gross. As I wrote you before, from experiments made from time to time there is good reason to believe, failing accidents, that these photos will turn out well. The trick before me now is to get them home safely. (Wilson, letter, February 2, 1909.) . While Wilson from Ichang, was preparing to leave China, he wrote Sargent I have this day shipped to E. J. Wallis of Kew, three cases each containing 20 dozen undeveloped plates. These 60 doz. photos represent the work of two seasons with the 173 camera. A correct record of every plate has been kept and I anticipate no difficulty in correctly naming every photo. Trees largely predominate but scenery and objects of interest generally have not been forgotten. I have instructed Wallis not to commence developing until I arrive home, which will be soon after the arrival of the cases. If these plates reach Wallis in the condition they should, and all is as I anticipate, I think you will appreciate the unique collection of photos which in themselves should form not the least important result of the expedition. I have worked pretty hard at this photography business, and if anything goes wrong with these plates I vow I will never attempt to handle another camera. So soon as I know how the plates are turning out in Wallis' hands I will write you for instruction. (Wilson, letter, March 8, 1909.) large Wilson worked with Wallis and saw to it that the plates were deIn June, 1909, he sent prints to Sargent, even the subjects had not yet reached England. His enthusiasm grew as more were developed, and apparently Sargent, too, was pleased. Wilson wrote in July, veloped individually. though his records of Acting on the suggestion contained in [your letter] of July 13th, I yesterday called on the Director of Kew with very happy results. I took along a couple of dozen photos and made known your wishes. Colonel Prain said, \"Certainly Kew would like a set, but what would the price be?\" This I answered was a matter for arrangements between your good selves, but I presumed it would be about the ordinary market rate. On looking through the photos the director was highly complimentary in his remarks and told me to inform you \"that Kew would be glad to acquire a set at any cost.\" ... From the enthusiastic remarks of Col. Prain and Dr. Stapf it seems probable that the more important continental herbaria would purchase sets of these photographs. Personally I think it reasonable to suppose that the different herbariums receiving sets of our dried plants will be glad of the opportunity to acquire a set of photographs which will so materially increase the value of the herbarium specithemselves.... The whole of the photos are now developed and nearly all are \"spotted\" and numbered with \"running numbers\" in sequence. In all there are exactly sixty dozen (720) negatives. Of these 80r'~ are purely botanical, practically all trees with a few shrubs, herbs or forest-scenes. Of the remaining 20<< about half are birds and mammals and should be of much value to Mr. Thayer and others with similar inmens 174 are general, i.e., scenes, architecand bronzes, and a few figures illustrating porcelain phallic worship. With the exception of about half a dozen of personal interest only, there is not a photo but what some scientific institution or another should be glad of. (Wilson, terests. The other half ture, letter, July 2, 1909.) In looking at Wilson's photographs of a \"bag of pheasants after day's shoot\" (in Chvany, 1976, p. 81), or of more than fifty ducks hung on a bamboo boat, or of a large number of dead animals, one must keep in mind that these were taken when Zappey was along collecting for the Museum of Comparative Zoology. The day's hunt was probably not for the pot but for science. Zappey brought back 3135 birds, skins of 370 mammals, and specimens of various reptiles a since have been distributed to many museums as for scientific study. Wilson appears to have kept the specimens photographic record of the collections. Several chapters and many plates in A Naturalist in Western China are devoted to the zoological collections. By November of 1909, the first of Wilson's excellent photographs had been used in a publication. W. J. Bean, in writing \"Garden Notes on New Trees and Shrubs\" (Kew Bull. 1909: 351-357. 1909), reproduced two photos with the acknowledgment, \"By kind permission of Prof. Sargent, Arnold Arboretum, photographs of Tapiscia [sinensis Oliv.] and Tetracentron [sinensis Oliv.] taken by Wilson in China are reproduced on the accompanying plates.\" Although Wallis made additional prints from the glass plates, we have no idea how the final sets were prepared. An announcement on the inside back cover of Plantae Wilsonianae (Sargent, 1913, Vol. 1, part 3) offered 850 photographs 8.5\" X 6.5\" for $425, or $.50 each. His confidence renewed by the success of his photographic efforts, Wilson offered to expose the remaining plates on plants at Kew and at Coombe Wood. Wilson also took many striking photographs during his 1914 trip to Japan, and a smaller number on his later trips to the Liukiu Islands, Australia, and Africa, but apparently none in India or Ceylon. and fishes, which Wilson's Publications not encourage Wilson to submit notes for publicahis field work; in fact, he warned him against the pracHowever, Veitch bragged in print about the expedition and the plants being introduced and often quoted Wilson's comments and observations. Wilson's first writing appears as an abstract from a letter to Veitch (Gard. Chron. 34: 50, 1903). He then had travel articles in the Gardeners' Chronicle for 1905; these extended a full year. Off the topic of plants, he wrote \"Western China: A Field for the Sportsman,\" which appeared in The Field, The Country Gentleman's James Veitch did tion tice. during A massive Ginkgo biloba, 50 feet x 30 feet, growing in the garden of the Zanpukuji Temple Azabu, Tokyo. The tree is extinct in the wild, but has been preserved in temple gardens such as this. Photograph by E. H. Wilson, 1914. Newspaper, describing and recommending the ideal hunting localities and the game that could be procured as trophies. A set of the dried specimens collected by Wilson on the trips for Veitch was presented to Kew. W. B. Hemsley and Wilson (1906, p. 147) noted, \"It was hoped that eventually the whole collection would be systematically dealt with. Before, however, this undertaking could be complete, Mr. Wilson had to take up duties that rendered it impossible for him at present to continue his share of the work.\" This was the project that later became Plantae Wilsonianae under an article on \"Some New Chinese Plants\" in 1906 and one entitled \"Chinese Rhododendron: Determinations and Descriptions of New Species\" in 1910. In the latter the authors stated (p. 101 ), \"Towards the end of 1906 and just previous to his departure on a third mission to China, Mr. E. H. Wilson devoted a considerable amount of time to the determination of the magnificent dried collections of Rhododendrons made on his two previous journeys, while Mr. W. B. Hemsley afforded him as much assistance as it was possible to give in unofficial hours.\" In these works Wilson supplied the field observations, while the Latin descriptions were initialed by Hemsley. Wilson then made two trips for Sargent and in 1911, hampered Sargent's editorship. With Hemsley, Wilson published 176 his injured leg, turned to writing both horticultural notes and botanical descriptions. Sutton (1970, p. 249) commented, by Sargent encouraged him to return and work over his herbarium with a view to publishing an account of his collections. Wilson as a collector was one thing, as a taxonomist he turned out to be quite another. For him the intellectual adventure of painstaking research with dried specimens and books could neither replace nor equal the thrill of finding living plants in the open field. Moreover it had been a long time since he had done any serious work in classification. The project evolved into a six-year task, resulting in the volumes called Plantae Wilsonianae, a treatment of the ligneous species Wilson collected in China. Sargent acted as editor, and other people, Alfred Rehder in particular, collaborated in the effort. Even a casual glance through Plantae Wilsonianae reveals that Rehder did a great share of the work, and that Wilson's contribution was correspondingly small. Rehder wrote 44 articles to Wilson's twelve and they did 47 more together. Evidently Wilson was quite willing to let Rehder assume the burden of preparing the nomenclature. It was during these same six years that Wilson continued his contributions to the Gardeners' Chronicle, began to submit articles to Horticulture and to Garden Magazine, and published The Vegetation of Western China (1912), the two volumes of A Naturalist in Western China (1913), and Aristocrats of the Garden (1917). In addition, he wrote many articles on such topics as the cherries of Japan, the conifers and taxads of Japan, and the history and botanical relationships of the modem rose. Wilson's horticulture articles number at least 263 and are grouped in Rehder's (1930) account of Wilson's life (for example, \"30 shorter articles contributed to vol. xix-xxxii, 1914-1921\"). Many of these have been indexed for the Torrey Card Index, but others should be sought if a biography of Wilson is ever - attempted. Many of Wilson's books are collections of articles and essays published in slightly different form elsewhere. His observations combined his knowledge of the plants in the field with the experiences of Veitch and Sons and the Arnold Arboretum in propagating and growing the plants. His scientific writings covered many facets as well. The early interest of Maxwell T. Masters, who had contributed treatments of the gymnosperms for Forbes and Hemsley's enumeration of Chinese plants in Wilson's collections, may have increased his attention to this special group of woody plants. Sargent was particularly interested in the conifers and gave special instructions to Wilson to collect specimens, extra cones, and seeds. Wilson's first trip for the Arnold Arboretum was to accumulate such material. Wilson wrote 177 Sargent of his success and failure regarding the conifers in 1906: \"If Mr. G. R. Shaw ever intends to deal with the Chinese pines he had better finish off the Mexican ones within the next two years. Since he has studied this genus so closely I should be grateful if he would give me some hints as to what are the important points to note. At present I observe the general appearance of the tree and the nature of the cones, leaves, buds and bark. Are there other points of specific value that should be noted?\" (Wilson, letter, April 19, 1907). The notes that Shaw sent, as mentioned in a letter to Sargent, are not available (Wilson, letter, July 21, 1907). Shaw included some information on the pines of China in his monograph The Genus Pinus, published in 1914. Subsequently, Wilson wrote The Conifers and Taxads ofJapan (1916). In the paper \"Taxads and Conifers of Yunnan,\" Wilson (1926, p. 37) commented, \"During the years 192223 Mr. J. F. Rock collecting in Yunnan under the auspices of the National Geographic Society made a large collection of Taxads and Conifers he met with. A set of these was presented to the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. Naming this collection has afforded an opportunity to identify other material in this herbarium collected in Yunnan and enables me to present a review of the Taxaceae and Pinaceae of the whole province.\" In 1928 Wilson did the same for the groups in Rock's collection from northwestern China and northeastern Tibet. In fact, Wilson made special studies of Jicniperus procera in Kenya, and Podocarpus and Widdringtonia in South Africa, and later on gymnosperms of New Caledonia. Wilson was asked by Sargent to collect particular gymnosperm material for two American specialists, J. M. Coulter and E. C. Jeffrey, and he supplied seeds, specimens, and wood. It is of interest to note that Wilson learned of root nodules on the conifers in New Zealand. He stated in Plant Hunting (1927a, Vol. 1, p. 231 ), \"My attention was directed to the presence of tubercles on the roots of Taxads and Conifers by Capt. L. MacIntosh Ellis, the director of forests. Later I found that their presence was known to others but the significance does not appear to have been grasped by anyone but the director of forests and no investigation of this phenomenon had been attempted.\" Wilson said the tubercles were analogous to those on the roots of leguminous plants, and he thought that they might be the controlling factors in the rate of growth of taxads and conifers in New Zealand, and in the success or failure of these plants when placed in ordinary garden soil. Wilson's extensive observations have been overlooked in recent publications on mycoto trophy in plants. Early in his career Wilson wrote a few short papers on economic plants, and he devoted special chapters to the subject in his books on China. The extensive collection of photographs taken in Japan of the damage done to the vegetation by adjacent fumaroles and volcanic vents suggested that he might have had articles on the subject 178I on fluviatile shrubs; these He wrote on forestry and of the vegetation of eastern Asia to that of eastern North America - especially after he found a new plant, Symphoricarpos sinensis, the first representative of that American genus in Asia. Wilson wrote floristic descriptions of areas he visited in China, and these were incorporated in many of his books. The Bonin Islands were largely unknown to the Western world when he visited them, and Wilson's 1919 account, \"The Bonin Islands and Their Ligneous Vegetation,\" is still regarded as an excellent treatment. He wrote of the Island of Formosa (1922, 1930) and of its flora and authored a phytogeographic sketch of the ligneous flora of Korea (1920); both accounts have been reproduced for special studies by governmental departments during the last two decades. During his visit to Korea in 1917, Wilson was apparently asked to give a lecture on the vegetation to the local branch of the Royal Asiatic Society. The lecture was published in the transactions of the Society ( 1918 ) and also led to one of the first listings of common and scientific names (in the three parts of \"Arboretum Coreense,\" prepared by Mark N. Trollope, Bishop in Korea). Trollope (in Wilson, 1918, appendix) wrote, in mind. Likewise, he kept extensive notes were never incorporated in his writings. forestry practices and on the relationships As I listened to Professor Wilson's lecture, it seemed to me that some such step as is here taken was necessary to bring home to us who live in Chosen the interesting facts which he had to teach us.... The course I took was the simple one of collecting twigs and branches of all the common trees and shrubs I came across, affixing to them labels with the vernacular names given to them by Choseans and then asking Professor Wilson to identify them and supply their proper botanical equivalents.... In an obituary of E. H. Wilson published in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum in 1930, Alfred Rehder supplied a bibliography of Wilson's writings. Two articles related to ragweed or hay fever plant especially in the Gaspe Peninsula were listed as \"not yet published.\" No further reference has been found to them, and no manuscripts are known. The following articles were unknown at the time or were omitted in error: Wanderings in China. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 28: 656-662. 1906. Chinese rhubarb. Chemist F7 Druggist 69: 371, 373. 1906. Some new Chinese plants (with W. B. Hemsley). Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 5 : 147-163. 1907. A new Chinese rhododendron (with W. B. Hemsley). Ibid. 1907: 244-246. 1907. T'Ang-shen (Codonopsis tangshen Oliv. ). Kew Bull. 1907: 9. 1905. 179 1908. The Chinese flora. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 33 : 395-400. 1910. Plant collecting in the heart of China. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1910: 13-24. 1911. Potentilla veitchii Wilson. Gard. Chron. III. 50: 102. 1912. My fourth expedition to China. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1912: 159-169. 1916. Flowers and gardens of Japan. Ibid. 1916: 17-24. 1919. Citizens of Tokyo - save your cherry trees. Sakura 1 ( 2 ) : 4-6. 1931. If I were to make a garden. iv + 295 pp. Stratford Co., Boston. The final item was edited from Wilson's manuscript after his death in 1930 and was published with a foreword by Richardson Wright, a tribute appraising Wilson's work by Edward I. Farrington, and \"Vale In memoriam,\" by Edward Loomis Davenport Seymour. - Wilson's Dedications Wilson's first book, A Naturalist in Western China, he dedicated to his wife. The revised version, China, Mother ofGardens, he dedicated \"to my alma mater, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.\" Aristocrats of the Garden he inscribed, \"To Garden Clubs, the most potent forces in garden-making in America, with homage and respect\"; and Plant Hunting, \"To those of every race and creed who have labored in distant lands to make our gardens beautiful.\" Five new genera were based on Wilson collections. Hemsley named one Sinowilsonia. Hemsley and Wilson created the genus Hosiea, by implication named for Alexander Hosie of H. B. M. Consular Service; Hosie was also commemorated in Ormosia hosiei with the notation \"to whom we are indebted for much information respecting Chinese economic products.\" Rehder and Wilson named Sargentodoxa for Charles S. Sargent, and Fortunearia for Robert Fortune, a collector of Chinese plants between 1843 and 1861. The majority of the new species collected by Wilson were described and named by Hemsley and Wilson, or by Rehder and Wilson publishing either jointly or individually. The sponsors of Wilson's expeditions are well recognized in the large number of plants named for Veitch and Sons (e.g., Mahonia veitchiorum), Miss Willmott (Lilium willmottiae), Sara Choate Sears (\"artist, lover and successful cultivator of flowers\"; Rhododendron searsiae), Mary Shreve Ames (\"a generous friend of the Arnold Arboretum and of its Chinese explorations\"; Rhododendron amesiae), the Thayer family, of Lancaster, Massachusetts (\"prominent in horticulture and generous in its support of the explorations in China undertaken by the Arnold Arboretum\"; Rhododendron thayerianum), General Stephen Minot Weld (\"former president of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and a generous supporter of Wilson's expeditions to China\"; Rhododendron weldianum), the Hunnewell family (\"for two generations of 180I the Massachusetts family have devoted themselves to the cultivation of these plants in their gardens at Wellesley ...\" ;Rhododendron hunnewellianum), and many others. Mrs. Charles S. Sargent was commemorated with Lilium sargentiae, while Rhododendron wilsonae, \"one of the most beautiful and distinct of Chinese Rhododendrons\" he \"named in compliment to my wife.\" Rosa murielae was \"named for my daughter Muriel.\" His field companions were not forgotten (Dr. William Kirk Meliosma kirkii ; Rev. J. Moyes of Tatien-lu Rosa naoyesii; W. C. Haines-Watson - Rhododendron watsonii; G. Houlston - Rhododendron houlstonii), nor were his aides in other lands (Mr. J. C. Williams, of Caerhays Castle, Cornwall, \"the first amateur to appreciate the horticultural value of Rhododendrons of western China; in his garden the best collection of these new introductions is now to be found\" Rhododendron williamsianum ; Mrs. W. J. Tutcher, of Hong \"to whose husband I am indebted for assistance and kind hosKong, pitality during my several visits to the island\" Rhododendron tutcherae; W. B. Hemsley, who helped to identify much of Wilson's early material Rhododendron hemsleyanum; and Mr. H. Spooner, \"who very largely assisted in making up my collections into sets for disposal to different herbaria\" Rhododendron spooneri). A singular dedication was made to Mr. Y. C. Wong, of Ichang, \"a cultured Chinese gentleman, who rendered me signal services during the whole of my stay in China\" (Rhododendron wongii). Missionaries who helped Wilson were commemorated: Rev. Henry Openshaw, of Szechuan (Rhododendron openshawianum); Mrs. Shelton, wife of Dr. Shelton, missionary at Tachien-lu (Rhododendron sheltonae); and Rev. B. Ririe, of Kiating (Rhododendron ririei). Rhododendron wiltonii was \"named in compliment to Mr. E. C. Wilton of H.B.M.'s Chinese Consular Service, in 1900 Acting Consul at Ichang, as a mark of appreciation of numerous kind offices during that troublesome year.\" The most heartfelt dedications must be Rhododendron davidsonianum and Photinia davidsoniae, for Dr. and Mrs. W. Henry Davidson, \"in grateful recognition of the important services which he rendered to me after my serious accident in the early autumn of 1910.\" Camillo Schneider named Berberis mouillacana \"at the request of Mr. Wilson ... for Dr. Mouillac, a distinguished French Army Surgeon, at one time in charge of the Ecole de Medicine & R.C. Hospital, Chengtu, in appreciation of valued services rendered to him during the autumn of 1910\" (Sargent, 1913, Vol. 1, p. 371). - Wilson's Specimens The instructions Wilson received from the Veitch firm for the 18991902 and the 1903-05 trips have not been located. Veitch at first did not put emphasis on the preparation of voucher specimens, and he certainly did not encourage collection of the general flora. However Wilson's specimens proved to be of high quality, and Veitch displayed on The Numbers 181 them with pride at an exhibition in London (Veitch, 1903a). At the Arnold Arboretum, there are no field books of Wilson's first expedition and only a diary account in two small notebooks of the second trip. Apparently Wilson sent in his letters lists of seeds, plants, or cuttings dispatched to the Veitch firm; when the lists were received, a record was entered into a ledger. Wilson dispatched herbarium specimens to the Veitch firm at different times, and these were also recorded although in a separate listing. Two copies of these records from the Veitch firm are in the library of the Arnold Arboretum. The numerical lists of herbarium specimens occasionally have cross references to the seed lists (e.g., \"seeds\") or to specific numbers (e.g., 517) in the seed lists. Although the lists are in numerical order, there are no dates given and the field localities are not in a logical sequence. The books suggest that the Veitch firm placed no importance on dates or exact areas of collection. As has been pointed out, many of the plants described from specimens grown from Wilson's seeds have only general localities such as \"China,\" 'Western China,\" or \"Szechuan,\" without number or date. When preparing herbarium specimens in the field, Wilson jotted some brief notes on small slips of paper, one or rarely two inches square, sometimes giving a date and\/or place. These have been attached to some of the mounted herbarium specimens distributed by the Veitch firm. Similar slips (but not always with comparable data), in Wilson's handwriting, are on sheets in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium acquired in exchange from the Department of Parks and Forestry in Hong Kong. It appears that Wilson was not consistent in his notations. For his trips for the Arnold Arboretum, Wilson received instructions from Sargent. As indicated in the letter of December 28, 1906, reproduced earlier in this paper, Sargent asked Wilson \"to undertake to dry six sets of all woody plants, ... to make specimens of any plant of which you gather seeds, or of herbaceous plants which appear to you to be new or to present special interest either from a scientific or horticultural point of view.\" For the numbering system, however, Sargent's instructions were not clear: - I think you agree with me that it is important to devise some system of numbering specimens and seeds by which the seeds can be correctly and quickly referred to the numbers of the herbarium specimens. Probably the plan we have discussed of giving each genus temporarily, at least, a separate series of numbers will prove effective. If this is done, I should suppose it would be possible to give the herbarium specimen and the seed the same number, and later when the sets are made up for distribution the plants can have a new series of numbers independent of the seed numbers which would be for our convenience only.... It Left: Herbarium specimen of Actinidia chinensis, the kiwi fruit collected by E. H. Wilson in 1901. A comparable specimen was in the display prepared by the Veitch firm for the Royal Horticultural Society Show. Right: A specimen of Actinidia chinensis collected by Wilson in 1907 for the Arnold Arboretum. is desirable to vided the tree photograph as many trees as possible, prophotographs can be named. Some system of numbering referring to the herbarium specimens would be therefore needed for the photograph in case of trees which you do not know (Sargent, op. cit.). his numbering sequence anew for the Arnold and three ledgers preserved in the Arnold Arboretum library are important in assembling data on Wilson collections. One record book, AA #39526, is a numerical list (1-1474), representing the 1907-09 trip; on the flyleaf it bears in Wilson's own hand, \"E. H. Wilson, % British Consul, Ichang, China.\" Identifications are given in Wilson's hand and are incomplete (generally to family or genus, rarely to species). No dates are given although localities are commonly grouped. There are references to some herbs collected for Miss Willmott and to other plants collected for the \"Agric. Dept.,\" Messrs. Farquhar, and Veitch, with a few for \"prof. Sarg.\" The sequence of the plants entered in this ledger suggests that at first general collecting was done, with the specimens numbered and pressed in random order. At about number 1000 Wilson seems to have changed his system. Collections after this point apparently were grouped by genera before numbers were assigned (thus, for example, numbers 1400 to 1435 are mostly species of Salix from nonadjacent areas). Why this change in system took place is not revealed in any of Wilson began Arboretum, ....~_.__.-.----~- The label prepared for the specimens collected by Wilson for the Veitch firm. Very little information was given on the label and additional data is often in Wilson's field books. A contained comparable label for specimens collected for the Arnold Arboretum in 1907, a greater amount of information. Wilson's mulated time, or Sargent's letters. Possible answers are that Wilson accuspecimens from several trips and numbered them at one perhaps that his collectors arrived from different areas and or their collections were sorted to genus, numbered, and entered in the records. The second portion of this ledger contains numbers 4000 to 4464, representing the 1910 trip, and duplicates the published Field Notes (Wilson, 1911). There are frequent notations in these entries that plants are being sent, and the numbers do not represent herbarium specimens. A second ledger in the Arnold Arboretum library (AA #39525) has the primary entries in Wilson's hand but does not seem to have been carried in the field. The numbers run from 1 to 3817. Entries 184 1 to 1474 are as in AA #39526; however, the descriptive details often numbers above 1475 are generally grouped by family or genus. The listing is annotated in a variety of hands, with the complete scientific name, the authority, and an occasional reference to the place of publication. This ledger does not contain the numbers between 3817 and 4000; the second portion also repeats the names published in Field Notes, vary in order and amount. The numbers 4000 to 4462, but with identifications entered for the majority. There is an initial column designated as \"no. of sets,\" with numbers 1 to 11 apparently indicating the number of duplicates. Where no number appears in this column, the collection may have been a unicate or, since the material is often not completely identified, propagating material sent to the Arnold Arboretum. Throughout this ledger there are some scattered references to photographs. The 1910 trip represented by the second half of the ledger ended abruptly for Wilson when his leg was broken and he was incapacitated for twelve weeks. He did record in a letter that his men continued to work in his absence, and there are collections numbered from 4463 to 4744, mostly all identified, and grouped by genus or family but from a variety of locations. A third ledger in the Arnold Arboretum library (AA #39611) is entitled \"Numerical lists of seeds [Nos. 1 to 1474, 4000 to 4462] collected on his Arnold Arboretum expeditions to eastern Asia 19071908, 1910, which were planted in the arboretum nurseries.\" Although the numerical sequence is complete, not all numbers have entries. Wilson's seeds were sent to Sargent at irregular intervals and were distributed by Sargent, probably by number and with incomplete identification, before the associated herbarium specimens were shipped to Boston at the end of Wilson's expedition. Wilson's seeds, when grown at the Arboretum and planted out as living specimens, may also carry new serial accession numbers; the field numbers and accession numbers are cross-referenced in the Arnold Arboretum. Today plants grown from seed and sent to Kew or Edinburgh (and possibly to other places) often carry only the Wilson seed number and may lack details as to origin. It would be possible, but not at all an easy task, to associate Wilson's seed numbers with herbarium vouchers, work out the details of location, and obtain the original field data for the plants that he introduced. Other columns in this ledger indicate that the seeds or seedlings were plants in several different locations at the Arboretum: greenhouse and frames, Dawson nursery, Curtis nursery, overlook nursery, Peter's Hill nursery, the shrub collection, and the Arboretum collection. For the 1910 collection an additional column is designated \"Prof. Sargent,\" and the entries include herbaceous plants that apparently were grown only at Holm Lea. During the trips to China for Veitch and for the Arnold Arboretum, Wilson attempted to collect the same plant in flower and in fruit. In Above: The isotype specimen of Rhus wilsoni Hemsley. Wilson's original field \"ticket\" is 2 inches square. The printed labels of the Veitch firm did not give specific locations and rarely had suffzctent space for an annotation. Below. The printed tags with stnngs that Wilson attached directly to the specimens collected on later expeditions for the Arnold Arboretum. A date stamp and a numbering stamp appear to have been carried in the field. The small rectangular tag was attached by Wilson to a specimen collected in Kenya in 1921. 186I Plant Hunting (1927, Vol. 1, p. xxvi) he noted, \"The plant hunter having found his plant must abide the proper season for securing ripe seeds, roots or small plants, or failing these, wood for cuttings scions. His quest may be found in blossom in spring or summer when it must be marked down for another visit in the autumn. Often several visits are necessary before the actual season of harvest is determined.\" Wilson indicated in his letters that often a specific plant might be marked, and that either he or a collector returned to the plant and presumably collected herbarium specimens in fruit, as well as the seeds and fruits. Thus, many of Wilson's herbarium collections bearing a single number will reveal on data slips dates of May and September or July and October of the same or even different years. If the collector returned to the marked plant, the flowers and fruits may represent the same plant. However, the frequency with which Wilson's collection numbers have subsequently been superscripted (e.g., \"a,\" \"b,\" \"c\"), or have been cited \"in part\" or \"fruit only\" in Plantae Wilsonianae and other publications, indicates either that the collector did not locate the original tree, or that if he did, he did not confine his collecting to one plant, and a mixed collection has resulted. Furthermore, there is evidence that some of Wilson's numbers cited \"in part\" and those with superscripts are deliberately mixed numbers collected from widely separated locations. For example, in the case of Acer Henryi Pax, \"No. 424, in part\" has been given to specimens taken in \"Fang Hsien,\" \"Changyang Hsien,\" \"Patung Hsien,\" \"north and south of Ichang,\" and \"Hsing-shan Hsien\" (Sargent, 1911, Vol. 1, p. 97). These collecting localities in western Hupeh cover an area of roughly 120 square kilometers. The reason for this unorthodox assignment of numbers is unclear. The seed or propagating material sent back to the Veitch firm was grown, and the plants were often exhibited. Such living material is the basis for the botanical descriptions of many species cited as \"Wilson,\" without number, date, or locality. A few names that we have been able to check in the Kew herbarium were not represented by any specimens attributed to either Veitch or Wilson. During his first two trips, Wilson sent dried collections to Veitch at intervals. Wilson wanted the identifications reported to him, but James Veitch often wrote that he had not yet had time to work over the material. Eventually Herman Spooner of the Veitch firm may have been given the task of identifying the collections. A letter that Spooner sent to Wilson commented on the fact that he could not associate the living specimens at the Coombe Wood nursery with the names placed on the herbarium sheets. Wilson dedicated Rhododendron spooneri to Mr. H. Spooner, \"who very largely assisted in making up my collections into sets for disposal to different herbaria.\" Hemsley and Wilson (1906, p. 147) reported, \"The first set of this collection [1899-1902 and 1903-05 trips] was very generously presented to the Herbarium at Kew by Messrs Veitch.\" Earlier, however, or 187 M. T. Masters tion (1903, p. 267) had written, \"The following enumera- the names of the Coniferae collected in various parts of southwestern and central China by Mr. E. H. Wilson, on behalf of Messrs James Veitch and Sons. Seeds of most of the species were gathered, and the seedling plants are in cultivation in Messrs Veitch's nurseries. Mr. Wilson's specimens are excellent....\" Concerning Picia ajanensis Fischer, Masters (1903, p. 269) commented, \"Mr. Wilson collected numerous cones of this species so that the hesitation expressed as to the identity of the specimens collected by Dr. Henry and Abbe David need no longer be felt.\" Five of Wilson's seed collections, when grown to flowering condition, were illustrated in Curtis's Botanical Magazine for 1903. In the same year Henry (p. 100) stated, \"I only had the opportunity of seeing part of Mr. Wilson's dried specimens - the lot collected by him in his first year at Ichang.\" Between 1906 and 1908 a large number of species were described by the Kew staff and others in the series \"Decades Kewensis, Plantarum novarum in Herbario Horti Regii Conservatarum,\" which appeared regularly in the Kew Bulletin. Some of Wilson's earliest gatherings at Laokai, which he made while he was en route to see Henry, were spores of ferns. There is no conclusive evidence that herbarium spcimens were gathered; however, when plants developed from the spores, these were sent to H. Christ in Switzerland for identification. This association with Christ was continued during Wilson's trips for the Arnold Arboretum. Following his trips for Sargent, Wilson was employed to work over the collections. Sets of specimens were selected and mounted, and labels were prepared. Wilson wrote in detail of the materials assembled on his third trip. The collections of 1907 had been in storage in Ichang, and those of 1908 were added to them. Wilson hired a boat in addition to \"The Harvard\" for the descent of the river to the coast and divided his collections between them. He wrote, comprises \" I have this day shipped home the herbarium material collected during the two seasons the expedition has been in China. It is contained in twelve cases measuring 81\/2 tones [sic]. I have no accurate idea of the numbers of specimens but I think it must be the largest as it certainly is the finest and most complete collection I have got together. It probably contains some two thousand five hundred species in some twenty thousand sheets. With rare exceptions each species is replete with flowers and fruits, the specimens of barks of practically every tree have been preserved and I think you will find this collection of barks of interest and value. Collecting these barks has increased the work considerably but I believe it to have been time well spent. In the cases of all plants with \"fleshy\" fruits and also with many having capsular fruits, a small packet of seed bearing the seed number is attached to its proper specimen. By 188 this means after the material is properly sorted you will be able to name every plant you have growing from the seeds sent without waiting for these plants to flower. [Sargent had written Wilson that not all seeds had been planted. Some seeds were retained for a second try or an emergency situation, or to enable later determination.] With the exception of Pinus and Larix we have had ill luck in regard to seeds of conifers, but the herbarium material of this group and more especially of Pinus itself you will find exceptionally good and complete. In many cases I have been able to secure a hundred cones in addition to those on the specimens themselves. This per your letter of general One instructions. of every species bears a rough field ticket giving the necessary information not derivable from the specimen itself. More than this pressure of work has rendered impossible. The sorting, labelling and making into \"sets\" of this herbarium will be a big and I fear difficult task. It would be well not to have the cases unpacked until you have men ready to start on the task of making up the sets. The conifers should be carefully set aside in the general sorting and dealt with either first or last. The packages of cones should be set aside and on no account must one of these packages be opened until the conifers have been arranged in \"sets.\" The clue to the ticket in and\/or on the packages of cones is to be found on the label of the corresponding specimens themselves. If by any chance the cones should get mixed I fear no earthly power can set them straight. I much regret that want of time prevented the arranging of this herbarium material in such a manner that it could be as easily dealt with by anyone as by the person who specimen collected it. (Wilson, letter, March 6, 1909.) Later, Wilson wrote \"Cases J.E.T. No. 14 contain two small boxes each marked Arnold Arboretum. These small boxes contain succulent fruits or various plants and certain coniferous material all preserved in Chinese spirit. Mr. Thayer will hand these over to you after taking possession of his own material enclosed in the same larger case\" (Wilson, letter, March 26, 1909). When the sets of specimens were made, several collections of the same number were mounted and retained by the Arnold Arboretum. Thus, flowering, fruiting, or sterile specimens, juvenile foliage, aberrant growth forms, bark, or wood may all represent the same plant under one number, although the dates may be different. Some of the labels were written completely by Wilson, and each label carries slightly different details as though it had been written for the particular mounted - An herbarium specimen of Taiwania, collected by Wilson in Formosa, represents an adventitious shoot from an exposed root. Wilson also gathered specimens of cones, vegetative but sterile branches, pieces of the bark, and wood fom this tree. The label contarns data entered on three different occasions. 190 before him. In other cases, another person wrote the basic the same data on each, and Wilson added only the determination. We retain no record in the Arboretum files indicating where sets were sent. It has been our experience, however, that other institutions did not receive multiple specimens of a single number and may, in fact, have only the flowering or the fruiting collection. Where these represent a mixed collection, the annotation or identification may be in error. To the present, not all of Wilson's plants have been identified, and material is found in the \"indet\" covers at the family or genus level without complete determinations. No complete numerical list is available for his collections. It must also be kept in mind that Wilson employed a number of Chinese who collected for him; Wilson may have assigned his number to their material. It appears to be these collections that most frequently lack data on location, date, or characteristics. The fact that Wilson appeared to be in widely separated places on the same date may be due to his unacknowledged \"collectors.\" An itinerary of his field travel can not be compiled from the serial collecting numbers, and it is dangerous to draw conclusions on possible associations of plants with adjacent numbers as being components of one floristic zone. Moreover, in the early field notes derived from the Veitch records, Wilson noted that he obtained some seeds and specimens from Henry on their initial meeting. These now bear Wilson numbers. Later, on leaving China in 1909, Wilson wrote to Sargent that he had acquired herbarium specimens from Fokien from S. T. Dunn (Superintendent, Botany and Forestry Department, Hong Kong, 1903-1910), and later a collection was made by a Chinese collector \"and is unfortunately without labels. However we must consider ourselves fortunate in getting them at all\" (Wilson, letter, April 12, 1909). The Dunn specimens are not known to me, but several \"Ningpo\" collections have been encountered a few with Wilson's name and a few credited to MacGregor. Wilson traveled to Japan between December 24, 1913, and February 29, 1915, and obtained living material, seeds, and herbarium specimens. These as well as photographs are recorded in two field books (AA #39527, #39528), with numbers starting at 6001 and ending with 7888. The Wilson serial numbers between 4744 and 6000 apparently were not used. For this trip and the following one Wilson used round or square tags printed or stamped with his name and number and attached to the specimen with a string. A trip to Japan, the Liukiu and Bonin islands, Korea, and Formosa occupied Wilson in 1919, and his collections are represented by field books (AA numbers #39529, #39530, #39531, #39532, and #39533). Collections are numbered consecutively; again, however, they may be grouped by genus and thus can not be used to determine a chronological itinerary. Serial numbers 9634 to 9736 were inadvertently used twice for collections from Korea and Formosa. specimen label, repeating - 191 In 1920 Wilson began a trip that included Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, India, Ceylon, and East, Central, and South Africa. Only a few of Wilson's notebooks and diaries are available for these trips, and they are without serial accession numbers. One field book for Australia is in part a diary and itinerary and in part a numerical list of collections numbered from 1 to 507. A second book for this trip has lists numbered from 520 to 717 and a separate signature of small sheets with numbers from 700 to 799, indicating a repetition of numbers 700 to 717 within Wilson's Australian collections. Wilson did collect some specimens in Tasmania and New Zealand, but all of these are without collectors' numbers in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. There is no evidence that Wilson collected specimens in India or Ceylon, although a partial diary account of that trip has been preserved. While in East and Central Africa, Wilson recorded his search for Juniperus procera in Plant Hunting (1927a). Various herbarium specimens from Kenya have been located, several bearing numbers 21 and 138 and others without numbers, suggesting that Wilson had still another numerical series for this trip. For South Africa, two lists of identifications have been preserved; these were made by Marloth of Wilson's South African plants and include numbers between 80 and 430 with many gaps. Wilson may well have had a different series of numbers for each country he visited. In the third volume of Plantae Wilsonianae (Sargent, 1917, pp. 463-511), Rehder and Wilson published a list of \"Numbers and names of specimens collected during the two Arnold Arboretum expeditions.\" A footnote indicates \"this is a complete enumeration of all the numbers referring to woody plants; numbers omitted refer to herbaceous plants. For the numbers and names of Ferns see H. Christ, Filices Wilsonianae [in Bot. Gaz. 51: 345-359. 19111.\" Under \"other collections cited,\" Rehder and Wilson gave numerical lists of identifications for Wilson's Arnold Arboretum expedition to Japan, numbers 6029 to 7868; his Veitch expeditions to China, numbers 1 to 5186; and his Veitch expedition, seed numbers 98 to 1930. In the text Rehder and Wilson referred to the Arnold Arboretum collections as \"Wilson No. ,\" \"Wilson Veitch Expedition No. ,\" or \"Veitch Exped. Seed (or \"Seed No. \"). Wilson's collection or plants as cited in the literature of 19031910 are those of the Veitch expeditions, although that may or may not be indicated. In the literature after Wilson's 1907-09 trip for the Arnold Arboretum, it is often impossible to tell which set of Wilson's numbers was used without consulting the herbarium in which the specimen may be deposited. Rehder and Wilson and the other contributors to Plantae Wilsonianae may have designated \"type\" or \"co-type\" for new species. The holotype designation was not then in use, and three, four, or more sheets in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium may be marked as \"type\" in either Wilson's or Rehder's hand. In a modem treatment of any # \" 192 plants, the designation of a single specirequired. In a few cases the situation is further a living plant associated with the original collection is involved. In the case of Salix rehderiana Schneider, the \"type\" is designated as the pistillate plant, collected April 24, 1912, and grown from cuttings of Wilson 1403. A sterile specimen of 1403 collected in November, 1908, is indicated as a \"co-type\"; a staminate specimen of the same number collected April 13, 1910, is also marked \"co-type.\" In the future it seems desirable to use a parenthetical designation after a Wilson collection for example, Wilson 123 (Veitch Exped. ), Wilson 123 (Veitch seed), Wilson 123 (AA expedition), Wilson 123 (E. Africa), Wilson 123 (Australia), or possibly other, similar comspecies on based Wilson's is lectotype complicated when men as a - binations. Wilson's Field Numbers in Summary 1-1310. Seeds collected for Veitch, 1899-1901. China. 1-2800. Specimens collected for Veitch, 1899-1901. China. 1400-1910. Seeds collected for Veitch, 1903-1905. China. 3000-5420. Specimens collected for Veitch, 1903-1905. China. 1-3817. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1907-1909. China. 4000-4744. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1910. China. 6001-7888. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1914-1915. Japan. 8000-8415. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1917. Liukiu Is- lands. 8416-9736. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1917. Bonin Islands and Korea. 9634-11268. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1918. Formosa, Japan, and Korea. 1-507, 520-717, 700-799. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1920. Australia. 21-138. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1921. Kenya. 80-430. Collections for the Arnold Arboretum, 1921-1922. South Africa. Acknowledgments The Veitch letters and many of the Wilson manuscripts mentioned presented to the Arnold Arboretum by the late Dr. and Mrs. George Slate (Murial Primrose Wilson Slate). Recently, their daughter, Mrs. John R. Abbott (nee Barbara Slate), has generously donated to the Arnold Arboretum copies of Wilson's articles, clippings, manuscripts, and mementos that have been useful in compiling this article. To all of these members of E. H. Wilson's family I am grateful. I am especially endebted to Kristin Clausen for her help in the herbarium and library searches required to clarify Wilson's itinerary, and for the maps of his collecting localities. were 193 Bibliography Barron, L. 1913. \"Chinese\" Wilson - plant hunter. The World's Work. November. Pp. 41-52. Doubleday, Page & Co., Garden City, New York. Chvany, . P. 1976. E. H. Wilson, photographer. Arnoldia 36: 181-236. W. 1972. E. H. Wilson's first trip to China. Arnoldia 32: 102114. Hemsley, W. B. 1903. On the germination of Davidia. Jour. Linn. Soc. 35: 556-569. & E. H. Wilson. 1906. Some new Chinese plants. Bull. Misc. Inf. Kew 1906. 147-163. 1910. Chinese rhododendron: determinations and descriptions of Ibid. 1910: 101-120. new species. Henry, A. 1903. Chinese maples. Gard. Chron. 33: 100. Masters, M. T. 1903. Chinese conifers collected by E. H. Wilson. Jour. Bot. London 41: 267-270. Plimpton, P. 1979. Oakes Ames, jottings of a Harvard botanist. 411 pp. Harvard Bot. Mus., Cambridge, Massachusetts. Behder, A. 1930. Ernest Henry Wilson. Jour. Arnold Arb. 11: 181-192. Sargent, C. S., ed. 1911-1917. Plantae Wilsonianae. Publ. Arnold Arb. No. 4. Vol. 1, 611 pp.; Vol. 2, 661 pp.; Vol. 3, 666 pp. Sutton, S. B. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. xvii + 382 pp. Veitch, J. H. 1903a. Recently introduced trees, shrubs etc. from central China. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 28: 57-70. 1903b. Hardy ornamental vines. Ibid.: 389-397. Wilson, E. H. 1903. Diary, 2 handwritten volumes. 1905. Leaves from my Chinese note-book. Card. Chron. 37: 337. 1906. Leaves from my Chinese note-book. Ibid. 39 : 100. . 1911. Field notes relating to plants collected on the Arnold Arboretum second expedition to western China. 24 pp. Thomas Nelson & Gardener, -. . . Sons, London. -. -. -. -. -. -. . -. -. . . 1913. A naturalist in western China. Vol. 1, xxxvii + 251 pp.; Vol. 2, xi + 229 pp. Doubleday, Page & Co., New York. 1912. My fourth expedition to China. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1912: 159-169. 1918. The vegetation of Korea. Trans. Korea Branch Roy. Asiatic Soc. Gr. Br. 1918: 1-6; Appendix (Arboretum Coreense. M. N. Trollope, ed. 3 pp.). 1919. The Bonin Islands and their ligneous vegetation. Jour. Arnold Arb. 1: 97-115. 1920. A phytogeographical sketch of the ligneous flora of Korea. Ibid.: 32-43. 1922. A phytogeographical sketch of the ligneous flora of Formosa. Ibid. 2 : 25-41. 1926a. Aristocrats of the garden. xxv + 312 pp. Stratford Co., Boston. 1926b. The taxads and conifers of Yunnan. Jour. Arnold Arb. 7: 37-68. 1927a. Plant hunting. Vol. 1, xxix + 248 pp., Vol. 2, Ix + 276 pp. Stratford Co., Boston. 1927b. Charles Sprague Sargent. Harvard Grad. Mag. 35: 614. 1929. China, Mother of gardens. x + 408 pp. Stratford Co., Boston. . . 1930. The island of Formosa and its flora. New Fl. Silva 2 : 92-103. 1931. If I were to make a garden. xvi -~ 295 pp. Stratford Co., Boston. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Quercus x Sargentii","article_sequence":2,"start_page":194,"end_page":199,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24782","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ea76b.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":4,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hay, Ida","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Quercus X sargentii On the eastern slope of Bussey Hill, between the ash collection and the site of Benjamin Bussey's mansion, are three of the finest specimens of European beech in the Arnold Arboretum collections. Right in their midst is an equally stately tree, Quercus X sargentii, the Sargent oak. Its most striking feature is its growth habit: it has a short, straight trunk and heavy, oddly curved branches forming a broad crown that sweeps to the ground. Five feet from the ground, the dark, thick trunk is nearly eleven feet in circumference; toward the base it narrows, giving it a hominoid aspect. Its deep bark fissures are contorted by many large, swollen scars of branches long since lost. Fifty-four feet tall and with a 60-foot spread, it brings to mind fairytale illustrations of haunted or animate trees. This plant of Quercus X sargentii is one of three still living in the Arnold Arboretum; only a few others are known. The Sargent oak is a hybrid between Q. prinus L. (also known as Q. montana Willd. ), the chestnut oak, and Q. robur L., the English oak. Both are members of subgenus Lepidobalanus, the white oak group. The chestnut oak, one of 27 oaks native to eastern North America, has a limited distribution. Its typical habitat is on dry, rocky slopes and ridges, where it succeeds better than other oaks. Trees of this species were formerly valued for the high tannin content of their bark. The English oak is one of the two oaks native to Great Britain, where it has long been used and valued. Its natural range extends through most of 194 Quercus X Sargentii is a hybrid combining the vigor of the American chestnut oak mth the grand habit of the English oak. It was first discovered at Holm Lea, Charles S. Sargent's estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. Photograph by C. Lobig. 196 to North Africa and western Asia. Introduced to North Ameribefore 1575, it has occasionally spread to roadsides and edges of woods near where it has been planted. When compared to species oaks, which are abundant in the deciduous forests of eastern North America, hybrids are rare, although studies indicate widespread genetic compatibility among the species within each of the two subgenera. When hybrids do occur, they are often fertile. Ecological isolation keeps the genetically compatible oaks from crossing more frequently. When spontaneous hybrids are found, they are usually in marginal, intermediate, or disturbed habitats. Although deliberate crosses between oak species have seldom been made, approximately 50 hybrids from the United States have been described and named. Their hybridity must usually be inferred from the intermediate characteristics of foliage and fruit and from the presence and relative abundance of the supposed parent species in the vicinity. Many hybrid oaks have been brought into cultivation in botanical gardens and arboreta, but they are hardly ever grown outside of such collections. Although the hybrid originated before 1830, Quercus X sargentii was not formally described and named until 1915, when Alfred Rehder published an account of it in the German periodical Mitteilungen der Deutschen Dendrologischen Gessellschaft. Rehder distinguished Q. X sargentii by its vigorous growth and by its foliage and fruit that show some of the characteristics of each of the parent species. The leaves of the hybrid have auriculate bases like those of Q. robur, but have margins with five to eight pairs of deeply crenate teeth rather than the three to five pairs of lobes of Q. robur or the ten to fifteen pairs of shallow teeth of Q. prinus. Leaf color and size are intermediate between those of the parent species. The acorn stalk of the hybrid is less than three cm. in length; in the chestnut oak it is similar, while in the English oak it can be as long as eight cm. The dark-colored bark and branching habit of the Sargent oak resemble those of the English oak, while its vigor at the Arnold Arboretum is indicative of its chestnut oak parentage. Our featured tree is one of five plants accessioned under number 5883. All were grown from seeds collected on October 6, 1877, from a tree at Holm Lea, Charles Sprague Sargent's estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. The parent tree at Holm Lea was planted by Thomas Lee, who lived and gardened on a 20-acre parcel that was later purchased by Charles Sprague Sargent's father, Ignatius. In 1844, in the second edition of his Treatise on the Theory and Practise of Landscape Gardening, Andrew Jackson Downing described Lee as a man \"enthusiastically fond of botany, and gardening,\" who had an outstanding collection of rhododendrons, kalmias, other shrubs, and trees. Downing noted a 40-foot English oak near Lee's entrance gate that had been planted only 14 years before his visit there. The Sargents acquired this tree when they obtained Lee's land. During the Europe ca The handsome, dark green foliage of the Sargent oak displays shape, size, and texture intermediate between its parent species. The relatively short acorn stalk is one indication of its chestnut oak parentage, while the auriculate leaf bases are a feature of the Enghsh oak. Photograph by C. Lobig. years when he managed Holm Lea, Charles noticed that the tree was especially robust and that its foliage differed from that of other English oaks. After Sargent became director, seeds from this tree, as well as from many others on his estate, were planted at the Arnold Arboretum. As the trees matured, they retained their intermediate characteristics, prompting Alfred Rehder to name them Quercus X sargentii. During a recent visit to the site in Brookline, the parent tree was located. It is 93 feet tall, with a crown-spread of 94 feet and a trunk circumference of 14.5 feet. At over 150 years of age, it is showing signs of decline. Near it are two other large, declining trees that may also be Sargent oaks, although their fruit has not yet been examined to determine this. We do not know where Thomas Lee obtained his plants but can guess that they grew from acorns of an English oak that was planted near a native stand of chestnut oak. There is one specimen of Quercus X sargentii in the collections of the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois. It is a grafted plant, started in 1947 from vegetative progeny of an Arnold Arboretum tree. Ray Schulenberg, Curator of Plant Collections, at the Morton Arboretum, reports that their tree has a 32-inch trunk circumference and is 25 feet in height, with a 24-foot crown diameter. At one-third the age of our trees, their tree is now nearly one-half the size. As far as we know, the tree at the Morton Arboretum is the only other Sargent oak in cultivation. 198 Our featured tree is the most picturesque of the Sargent oaks still living at the Arboretum. Its history reminds us of the influences of Charles Sprague Sargent and of nineteenth-century landscape gardening style on the Arnold Arboretum's development. Its hybrid origin tells us something about the biology of trees. Although it is located near the beeches and thus invites comparison with them, the Sargent oak certainly holds its own as an outstanding and charming tree. IDA HAY References Hardin, J. W. 1975. Hybridization and introgression in Quercus alba. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56:336-363. Krussman, G. 1962. Handbuch der Laubgeholze. Hamburg: Paul Parley. Palmer, E. J. 1948. Hybrid oaks of North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 29:1-48. Rehder, A. 1916. Neue oder kritische geholze. Mitt. Deutschen Dend. Ges. 1915 (24):213-228. (Q. sargentii p. 215) Trelease, W. 1924. The American oaks. Merrc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. Volume 10. One of the pleasing qualities of the its deeply fissured bark. Photograph Sargent oak is the by C. Lobig. way the branch scars contort "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books Received","article_sequence":3,"start_page":200,"end_page":200,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24780","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ea36d.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":4,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS RECEIVED Alexopoulos, C. J., & Mims, C. W. 1979. Introductory Mycology. 2d ed. John Wiley and Sons, New York. xviii + 632 pp. Cloth, $24.95. Ammons, Neil. 1975. Shrubs of West Virginia. Seneca Books, Grantsville, W. Va. xiii + 127 pp. Cloth, $6.95. Core, Earl. 1975. The Wondrous Year. Seneca Books, Grantsville, W. Va. ix + 208 pp. Cloth, $8.50. Hill, Lewis. 1977. Fruits and Berries for the Home Garden. 1980. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont. xiii + 239 pp. Paper, $6.95. Hudson, Charles M., Ed. 1979. Black Drinks A Native American Tea. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. 139 pp. Cloth, $11.00. McConnell, Dennis. 1978. The Indoor Gardener's Companion. Van Nostrand, Reinhold, New York. 255 pp. Cloth, $16.95. Peterson, Russell. 1980. The Pine Tree Book. E. P. Dutton, New York. 138 pp. Cloth, $14.95, Paper, $7.95. Snyder, Leon. 1980. Trees and Shrubs for Northern American Gardens. University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis, Minnesota. 410 pp. Cloth, $17.95. Squibb, Robert. 1980. The Gardener's Calendar for South Carolina, Georgia and North Carolina. University of Georgia Press, Athens, Ga. xvi + 188 pp. Cloth, $9.95. Wiggins, Ira. 1980. Flora of Baja California. Stanford University Press, Stanford, Calif. viii + 1025 pp. Cloth, $65.00. Above right: Tsuga canadensis f. pendula, Sargent's weeping hemlock, growing xn Fairmount Park, Philadelphia, PennsyLvanxa. Photograph by A. Rehder, July 19, 1898. Below right: Thirty-year-old specimen of Tsuga canadensis f. pendula, observed in Germantown, Pennsylvania. Photograph by A. B. Stout, May 20, 1938. cover: E. H. Wilson's favorite introduction, Lilium regale, flowering in the Farquhar nursery in Roslindale, Massachusetts, (1920). Back 200 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23310","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15e856c.jpg","title":"1980-40-4","volume":40,"issue_number":4,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. H. Wilson as a Botanist (Part I)","article_sequence":1,"start_page":102,"end_page":138,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24777","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170856b.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":3,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"E. H. Wilson as a Botanist by RICHARD A. HOWARD Wilson wished to go down in memory as \"Chinese it has been (Barron, 1913). His reputation today is certainly that of one of the most successful individuals to introduce horticulturally valuable plants from China to western gardens. Over 1,000 different plants were gathered by Wilson and introduced in England and America as seeds, bulbs, cuttings, or plants; these have since become established in the horticultural trade and in private or botanical gardens. Wilson initially followed the collecting routes of several distinguished predecessors but then went on into new and unexplored territory, finding plants in flower, marking the specimens or the locality, and returning in the proper season for material that could be shipped to his western sponsors. Wilson made two collecting trips to China for the Veitch nurseries of England and two trips for the Arnold Arboretum. These were followed by a slightly less arduous Ernest Henry Wilson,\" and so Richard A. Howard is Professor of Dendrology of the Arnold Arboretum staff. In 1978 he represented the Arnold Arboretum in the delegation of the Botanical Society of America that visited the People's Republic of China. After a reciprocal visit by a delegation of Chinese botanists, plans were made for the current Sino-American expedition on which Dr. Stephen Spongberg represents the Arnold Arboretum. Hopefully, this group or a future one can revisit some of the areas in which E. H. Wilson collected. 102 Davidia involucrata, the dove tree, was the object of Wilson's first trip to China. Wilson gathered 14,875 seeds of trees at Kuan Pao and sent them to the Veitch nursery. Wilson later wrote proudly of his \"introductxon of every seedling plant but one of this remarkable tree.\" 104 trip to Japan for cherries and azaleas already in cultivation, and a later trip to Formosa, the Liukiu Islands, the Bonin Islands, and Korea for conifers and general vegetation. Finally, Wilson made a special trip to Australia, New Zealand, India, Ceylon, and Africa to establish contacts for the Arnold Arboretum with gardens and botanists and to examine tropical gymnosperms. Following these adventures, Wilson served as Assistant Director of the Arnold Arboretum (1919-1927), and after the death of Charles Sprague Sargent, he was appointed Keeper of the Arnold Arboretum, a post he held until his tragic death in an automobile accident in 1930 (Plimpton, 1979, pp. 84-87). Wilson's outstanding ability as a lecturer was equaled by his talent for writing about his trips and the plants he saw and introduced into cultivation. Less well known are Wilson's contributions as a botanist. For the Veitch firm, Wilson collected herbarium specimens to document his gatherings of seeds. On his later trips for the Arnold Arboretum, under specific directions from Sargent he made general collections of the flora in the areas he visited in sufficient quantity to be distributed widely to other herbaria. Many of his collections have not fully been studied or identified to this day. When he had the opportunity to work over his herbarium specimens, Wilson contributed to the literature, at first with other authors and later under his signature alone. His scientific writings include floristic studies, papers on forestry and economic botany, and special treatments of such groups as rhododendrons, roses, hydrangeas, cherries, and especially the gymnosperms. Nevertheless, he is best known for his horticultural observations in several hundred articles and a dozen books. We do not know if Wilson intended to write an autobiography. His last manuscript, \"Wilson's Plants in Cultivation,\" is unpublished but is being considered for publication together with an updating of the nomenclature and with recent observations of the plants Wilson mentioned. The collection of Wilson's diaries and field books at the Arnold Arboretum is not complete, and not all the correspondence that probably exists has been assembled. Yet his life and his efforts seem worthy of a biographer. The following tribute comments on Wilson as a field botanist and adds to the published record some data on his itinerary, his collections, and his publications. - How It All Began: Wilson's First Trip (1899-1902) It has often been written that a member of the Veitch firm saw Augustine Henry's specimen of Davidia, the dove tree, and sought a collector to contact Henry for its specific location and to return fruits to England for cultivation. Wilson himself (1905, p. 337) wrote that 105 \"In time it chanced that the attention of Messrs. Veitch,l of Chelsea, became drawn to the mass of material Henry had collected. The result of this was that they applied to the Director of Kew to nominate a likely collector. I was the fortunate individual selected.\" On reading this article, James Herbert Veitch promptly wrote to Wilson: You are, however, wrong on one little point, but I do not wish it publicly contradicted. It was not Henry's specimens which drew our attention to China. When I was in Japan in '91, '92, & '93 I was quite aware there was a very rich field, and so was Sargent, with whom I was with [sicsome time in Japan. In fact, I wrote home here to my ChiefHarry James Veitchl to know whether I might not go (and I have the letters now) but my Chief very promptly sat on it, I did not go, and the matter dropped. For years I had been pressing the matter, and though Henry's work gave a fillip to my wishes, the expedition was long determined on in my own mind, before Henry appeared on the scene. (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 6, 1905.) In fact, Charles Maries had collected in China for the Veitch firm early as 1879; he had discovered Psilopeganum sinense and had introduced the now well-known Primula obconica. James Herbert Veitch was on a collecting trip in Japan when Charles Sargent and as 1 In a recent article entitled \"The House of Veitch\" (Int. Dendrol. Soc. Yearb. 1972: 63-69. 1973), K. A. P. Fuller and J. M. Langdon stated that \"the name of Veitch has held a very honoured place in the annals of horticulture over the past 150 years,\" and they published an abridged family tree showing the members of the family actively engaged in running the Veitch nurseries. The firm was started by John Veitch (1752-1839), who was aided by his son, James (1792-1863). James had three sons in the business, with James Veitch, Jr. (1815-1869) of the Chelsea branch being important to this story. James Veitch, Jr., also had three sons in the business, two of which are referred to in this article. John Gould Veitch (18391870), who collected in Japan and the Far East, and Harry James Veitch (1840-1924), who hired Wilson and wrote the letters that are quoted in this article. John Gould Veitch's son, James Herbert Veitch (1869-1907) - the nephew of Harry James Veitch - met Sargent in Japan. Thus, Harry James Veitch was the great-grandson of the founder, and his nephew James Herbert Veitch the great-great-grandson. Harry James Veitch's letters to Wilson are usually on stationary with the printed address of Chelsea. Some of the letters are written personally by Harry James Veitch, while others are wntten by a secretary and signed with a short greeting by Harry James Veitch, but usually signed \"James Veitch.\" Punctuation is commonly lacking in these letters and has been supplied as seemed appropriate to the meaning of the letter. Wilson's plants were handled at the greenhouses in Chelsea and later planted out at the Coombe Wood Nurseries or the branch nursery at Langley. 106 party arrived, having crossed Asia and therefore part of China on the Trans-Siberian Railroad. Apparently, an expedition in China was as did Sargent. discussed, and young Veitch wrote to his uncle Veitch replied to Sargent: Harry James - My nephew told me of his having been so fortunate as to fall in with you there and I am much obliged to you for your kindly expressions about him.... I trust he is now in Australia. His first consignment of seeds arrived last week and we are now looking forward anxiously to get further supplies.... As regards that portion of your letter which refers to his going to Central China after completing his present tour, he had also written to me previously on the subject and I have always been adverse to his undertaking such a journey; not because I should not like him to go but solely out of consideration as to what is best for him in connection with the business here.... I do not say that my nephew can never go to Central China because he could manage this I dare say in the course of a year or two without difficulty in the same way as you from time to time take extended tours.... I need not say that no one would hail with more delight than I should the introduction of some sterling hardy novelties and I should feel an especial pride were our firm to be the first to get them. It is not therefore from any desire to throw cold water on your proposals that I cannot fall in with them at once, but only because I am desirous of doing the best I can for all, in the circumstances in which we find ourselves and I have written to you fully and quite candidly, that you may see I have given the matter serious consideration. You will I know treat all I say in strict confi- dence. Reverting to your Japanese tour and the collections of seeds you have made, you will I feel sure excuse my asking you not to distribute anything which my nephew and you may believe to be new until we have had an opportunity of doing Sargent so. (H. J. Veitch, letter, January 10, 1893.) did send seeds from his gatherings in Japan to Harry James Veitch and received another letter on the subject. I trust my letter of Jan. 10 last with references nephew's . to my future movements has reached you safely. I regret that he has again bothered you in the matter. It is a great pity that he is so impetuous. He seems quite to forget that there is another side to the question besides his travelling about.... I shall write to him very plainly about his troubling you and also his being so dissatisfied. (H. J. Veitch, letter, January 23, 1893.) 107 So Wilson was selected to make the trip and was well briefed by the Veitch firm as to his goals and methods. Regrettably, a written version of his instructions has not been located. Harry James Veitch later referred to Wilson's examination with him of Augustine Henry's specimens at Kew and of his suggestion that Wilson visit Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum en route. On March 30, 1899, just before Wilson's departure for America from Liverpool, James Gould Veitch wrote to Wilson: a copy of a letter my brother has received Enclosed is this morning from Professor Sargent of Harvard University. Read the letter carefully and ask any questions on any point therein, that may appeal to you. You will see that the professor suggests your going to the North first, and next year to the South. Your instructions are of course to go to the South this year and then to the North and in spite of what the professor says, we think this plan preferable, and would prefer your following it.... The professor is a very dogmatic and strong man but you must not let yourself be too impressed by what he says about collecting dried specimens. On this point however, we all know you will be careful, and understand what we ... want.... P.S. Kindly acknowledge receipt of this. (J. G. Veitch, letter, March 30, 1899.) Three contrasting statements have been written of Wilson's original visit to the Arnold Arboretum. Sutton (1970, p. 210) stated, \"He had only five days in Boston and spent most of his time with Sargent at the Arboretum and at Holm Lea, where he was supposed to learn what he could about packing and shipping seeds for long trips from the Orient.\" Wilson (1926, p. 276) wrote, \"My stay in Boston was limited to five days and nearly the whole time was devoted to looking over the Arnold Arboretum collections and I departed enriched in knowledge and with much sound advice on matters relating to the collecting and packaging of seeds from Prof. Sargent and from the late Mr. Jackson Dawson.\" Wilson also wrote, in another account (1927b, p. 614), \"My first meeting with Sargent took place in the shadow of the large pig-nut hickory on Bussey road in the Arboretum [Sunday] April 23, 1899, when I was en route to China. After formal greetings he pulled out his watch and said, 'I am busy now, but at 10 o'clock next Thursday I shall be glad to see you. Good morning.' I voted him autocrat of the autocrats, but when our next interview took place I found him the kindliest of the autocrats.\" Wilson crossed America by train and sailed from San Francisco, arriving in Hong Kong on June 3, 1899. Setting out to find Henry 108 in southwestern China, Wilson sailed south to Haiphong in Indochina and traveled up the Red River to Laokai on the Chinese border, where he was delayed by officials because of reports of trouble in Yunnan. Sutton (1970, p. 212) stated, \"During his eight weeks in Laokai he tried to busy himself with the vegetation, but it was jungle and no practical interest to him.\" Quite to the contrary, Wilson busied himself collecting. The first seed lots ( 1-67, plus scattered other numbers) went to Veitch and were from Laokai. Also from this location were the herbarium specimens 2765-2798, including the new species Sterculia scandens described from Wilson specimens by W. B. Hemsley as from Tonkin, and Sonerila laeta described by Otto Stapf as from China. Ultimately, Wilson was allowed to enter China, met Henry in Szemao, and traveled with him to Mengtsze. In Mengtsze Wilson obtained propagating material of Jasminum primulinum (J. mesnyi), which he sent to Veitch. This was ultimately exhibited and, as Wilson noted in his field book, was awarded \"my first F.C.C. ~First Class Certificate].\" Armed with the information Henry could supply him on the location of the dove tree (a handdrawn, generalized map), Wilson returned to Hong Kong for Christmas and made arrangements for his passage from Shanghai up the Yangtze. He arrived in Ichang on February 24, 1900, to begin his real collecting in China. Wilson later (1926, p. 286) wrote, \"Ichang, where I arrived on Feb. 24, 1900, was to be my headquarters for two years so I made plans accordingly. I purchased a native boat of good size in which to live and to serve as a base of supplies, and engaged some countrymen to assist me in collecting. The all-important arrangements completed, a series of short prospecting trips up country from Ichang were undertaken for the purpose of getting some acquaintance with the flora and for testing and training my men.\" Wilson told in detail of his quest for Davidia in Aristocrats of the Garden (1917). When he reached the location given him by Henry, he found that the tree had been cut down and the wood used in the construction of a house. It was not until late May, 1900, that he found his first plant of Davidia in flower in the mountains south of Ichang; during the summer he was able to locate a total of eleven trees. Fortunately, they fruited well - his collection number 930, although undated in his field notes, is indicated to be from Kuan Pao, Fa Wan Ma Huang Po, with 14,875 seeds gathered. The records of the Veitch nurseries do not show this seed number, although Wilson stated that in the late spring of 1902 some 13,000 plants were raised at the Coombe Wood nursery. The germination pattern of the seeds of Davidia, now known as double dormancy, was seen at the time to be so unusual that W. B. Hemsley read a paper on the subject before the Linnean Society; this was later published (Hemsley, 1903). Wilson concluded his story of Davidia with the comment Above: The west end of the city of Ichang in March, 1908, with native boats lined up in tiers. This was the point of departure for most of Wilson's major expedztzons. Below: \"The Harvard,\" Wilson's houseboat, at Kiating in western Szechuan, December 13, 1908. The boat captain and Wilson's assistant are on the roof; plant presses are lined up behind them. Photographs by E. H. Wilson. 110 and sixteen years I have thought it of interest desirable to place on record the facts concerning the vicissitudes and difficulties which beset my path in the introduction of every seedling plant but one of this remarkable tree.\" Little has been written by Wilson or others of the details of his first trip, and no diaries have been located. However, Wilson saved all his letters from members of the Veitch firm, and these are revealing of Wilson's personal and business relationships with Harry James Veitch. Harry James Veitch took a paternal interest in Wilson, and his letters repeatedly contained homilies on Wilson's personal welfare. In his early letters Veitch warned Wilson of the loneliness he would feel and assured him that his friends and employers were thinking failure and of him. \"Keep up your courage and never lose heart disappointments in the very nature of things you must have - but always come up smiling and never allow yourself to believe things are bad - rely on it they could always be worse\" (H. J. Veitch, letter, December 11, 1899). \"I am very glad to hear you are keeping well, take care of yourself and avoid whiskey (though I do not imagine you are fool enough to be weak in that point)\" (H. J. Veitch, letter, February 26, 1901). After Wilson had some unexplained accident, Veitch wrote, \"I beg you will take all reasonable precaution though never forgetting that 'nothing venture' means 'nothing have' whether it be in China or in the back street in Chelsea\" (H. J. Veitch, (p. 295), \"After for history's sake - - - - letter, July 9, 1901 ). Of Wilson's goals Veitch wrote, \"It is especially the trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants of the mountain ranges around Ichang and those we saw together in the herbarium, Kew we are anxious to get hold of\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, January 8, 1900), and \"The real object of your three year trip lies before you i.e. to obtain during the next two summers and autumns plants, but more especially seeds of the flora in the mountain ranges around Ichang, keeping especially in view those you and I know from the Kew specimens are likely to be especially fine and of commercial value\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 16, 1900). Veitch asked Wilson, \"Are you dressing as a Chinaman - I think it better but on this point the opinions of Henry and Ford are worth more than mine\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 16, 1900), and later, \"Do you dress as a Chinaman? You have not mentioned it Personally I believe in it but by now you will know more about such matters than I do\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, July 11, 1900). No letters are available to indicate how Wilson answered, if he did, and no photographs of this first trip show Wilson in costume. In photographs of his later trips, Wilson appears in a field jacket or a full suit with a western style hat, leather puttees with straps, and heavy shoes. - A general view of the countryside to the south of Ichang, altitude feet, January zz, igog. Below: \"Did fates ordain that I should lwe in Western China, could ask for nothing better that to be domiciled in Sungpan,\" 1 Wilson wrote of this walled city in northwestern Szechuan. A view north from the east gate, September 25, rgro. Photographs by E. H. Wilson. Above: r,ooo 112 News of the Boxer rebellion in the summer of 1900 must already have reached England, and Wilson evidently had written that he expected to encounter limitations to his activities, when James Harry Veitch wrote, \"I do not know if this will ever reach you - as from what you say in your letter of the 23rd it is more than likely you will have had to leave Ichang even before the date on which I write. It is most unfortunate that it is one of those things for which we cannot in any shape or form blame ourselves and if you have to come away I know it will be through no fault of yours. I fear, from the tone of your letter that the situation is serious and hope you will at no time run any unnecessary risk\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, October 9, - 1900). Wilson had been instructed to collect one or two specimens of each from which he obtained seeds. He occasionally enclosed a leaf or a flower in a letter, asking for an identification or an opinion. As the following extracts indicate, Veitch procrastinated: \"If possible get dried specimens of anything of which you get seeds just a specimen or two of each it will help us to identify. This I probably mentioned before and it should not be lost sight of\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, January 8, 1900). \"Send dried specimens - (as you have done) - where you can\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 16, 1900). \"Three large bundles of dried specimens have arrived and I am waiting for a quiet afternoon to carefully go through them and shall particularly look out for the numbers you refer to in your letter of June 29\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, September 5, 1900). \"I see in your letter you draw attention particularly to several plants of which you have sent dried specimens I will see particular attention is paid to these (J. H. Veitch, letter, April 19, 1901). \"One case of dried specimens arrived.... As to whether I shall personally be able to go through the dried specimens I do not know - I shall certainly try anyway I shall see all the leading things\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, March 28, 1901). \"You have sent a fine lot of dried specimens but I do not know when I shall get time to look through them\" (J. H. plant - - - - - Veitch, letter, April 19, 1901 ). On July 10, 1901, Herman Spooner himself as a wrote to Wilson, introducing member of the Veitch organization. \"During some spare time at Chelsea I commenced to look through your specimens, I have gone through some 15 to 20 bundles they are in excellent condition, with the exception of some of the evergreens and conifers, the leaves of which in many cases have fallen you were probably unable to poison them before drying. I was surprised at the number of species of Rubus, Acer and Rosaceous plants that there are, also at the brilliant colour of the Kerrias and Rhododendrons, one of the latter was of a distinct blue colour, if it is so in a fresh state it ought to be worth something.\" Shortly thereafter, Harry James Veitch wrote his man in the field, \"I have also received a bundle of dried specimens, which so far I have not had time to look through, but - 113 hope shortly. I notice you have difficulty with your I forspecimens - I used to dip mine in some solutions got exactly what - which immediately destroyed life and the leaves kept on fairly well\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, August 21, 1901). Finally, \"Iam now having all that great bundle of dried specimens you sent looked through. Hitherto I have had no one who could spare the time to do it. They seem in excellent order and I congratulate you on the success\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, September 12, 1901). No lists of plants appear in Veitch's letters, carefully saved by Wilson, and there were no identifications in the field books kept by the Veitch firm as Wilson's material arrived. Apparently Wilson did not receive much direct help while in the field. Wilson received a request for help from J. C. Willis, then Director of the botanical garden at Perideniya, Ceylon. He sent the letter to Veitch, apparently asking for instructions, and Veitch replied to to be able to Conifer - Willis: Our collector in China has sent us your letter dated 21st. September in which you ask him to get seeds for you. It is of course clear to us you are unaware this man is in our employ, and is not permitted to gather anything for anyone but ourselves. You can quite understand the great expense of a journey of this description and the impossibility of our man serving more than one master, though we hope we need hardly say how glad we should be to oblige you, if it were at all possible. Should we be successful in raising plants of the genera you name to Wilson, we shall of course be glad, to give you specimens. We trust you will understand no discourtesy is meant, and with the assurances of our best service always.... (J. H. Veitch, letter, January 23, 1901.) Willis replied to Veitch and Sons, \"I must apologize for having asked him to collect for me, but I was under the impressions that he was a resident, who collected for anyone that asked. If you can spare any plants of Eucommia or Trapella, I should be glad to receive them and exchange, and if we can be of service as a halfway house for anything that will not survive the whole journey from China please let me know\" (Willis, letter, February 19, 1901). Wilson made a special journey in 1907 to collect Eucommia and attempted to obtain several bushels of the fruit as a potential source of the rubberlike latex. Wilson regretted in later years that he was unable to find the Trapella, although this rare plant had been collected by Henry near Ichang and subsequently by Frank Meyer. On August 21, 1901, Veitch wrote, \"I enclose a letter from a Dr. Oliver, a botanist whom I should like to oblige - do what you can for him.\" Although 114 Oliver's letter is not available, he may have been asking about on which he had published earlier. Wilson's enthusiasm was at times misdirected. He wrote to Veitch that he had found Ginkgo in the wild. Veitch replied, \"I was very interested in what you said in your report about Conifers and also you said you saw Gingko biloba wild. Very few men have seen that I was under the impression its actual habitat, although of course guessed at, was not actually known. Are you sure the trees you saw were not planted it may be 100-200 years ago in these thickly countries it is difficult to know what has reached any spot populated by the hand of man or what reached there by the agency of nature\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, July 9, 1901). Wilson did not comment further, as far as can be determined. Veitch's supervision or control of Wilson's activities was also evident in a letter of February 26, 1901: Trapella, - - . Now another little point I notice in the last issue of the Gardeners' Chronicle which I now send you [February 23, 1901, p. 127], certain remarks of yours are published. We do not permit our employees as a rule, to write for the public press, as you can imagine if they did it would very soon take up too much of their time. I do not however wish to apply any of our ordinary rules to yourself, but would suggest until we meet, it would be better to leave this point in abeyance. This was a matter we did not discuss when you entered our service, and I think it may also be taken for granted any spasmodic articles may lessen the value of any possible publications undertaken in the future in a more complete form. - with the Veitch firm, Wilson apparently for his expenses on a semiannual basis. Forgetting this, Veitch wrote in strong language asking for an account of Wilson's expenditures \"every few months. It is more regular and business like\" (J. H. Veitch, letter , February 16, 1900). Wilson promptly accounted for his expenses, but related his original instructions and his pique. Veitch humbly replied in appreciation and asked that \"the matter shall be as though it had not been\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, May 17, 1900). However, Veitch did not lack concern for costs. He usually mentioned several letters in advance that a payment would be sent on a certain date and frequently requested that Wilson keep costs down. \"Do not forget that you are very keen and an enthusiast and that enthusiasts are apt in their great keenness to sometimes lose sight of the financial side of questions\" (J. R. Veitch, letter, February 26, 1901). \"Do not forget efficiency usually means economy, but that does not mean save a penny when a shilling could be earned by spending it\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, July 9, 1901). On April 19, 1901, James Veitch essentially presented an ultimatum: \"When In the original agreement was to account - 115 you receive these funds the trip will have cost over 2,000 and I do not wish to spend more money.... If you feel that this amount will not enable you to stay til the middle of January 1903 and yet pay your expenses home, then you must do the best you can, and come away earlier.\" Wilson brought his expedition to a close during the winter of 1902, intent on stopping in Paris to consult the herbarium. Veitch's letter of December 31, 1901, was directed to Wilson in Paris and stated: \"I was yesterday at the Botanical building of the Natural History Museum [in Paris] and arranged for you to be expected.... Do not stay longer than necessary though you should take a day to see Paris he get a guide from the Hotel or you will see very little will perhaps want to take you around at night which you can decline.\" Wilson returned to England in April, 1902. On his return, the Veitch firm presented him with a gold watch engraved inside the - cover: E. H. Wilson from James H. Veitch 1899-1902 Well done! ' On June 7, 1902, Wilson married Ellen Ganderton. By the next January he was en route to China again to find Meconopsis integri- folia. Wilson's Second Trip for Veitch (1903-1906) Wilson left England in January, 1903, on his second expendition for the Veitch firm, and arrived in Shanghai on March 22. He found some of his former staff still available and quickly organized his expedition to find Meconopsis integrifolia, which grew at elevations higher than 11,000 feet. Two notebooks from this expedition are available, one a diary and the other a series of field notes on the plants Wilson saw. Clearly, he had worked over the specimens collected on his previous trip since he now referred to the plants by name, indicating those most recently taxonomically described. The details of his trip up the Yangtze River and into the mountains are published in Wilson's accounts of his expedition, and a series, \"Leaves from my Chinese Notebook,\" ran for over a year in The Gardeners' Chronicle. He again purchased a boat, which he noted \"is named and registered at the Customs the 'Ellena' after my wife. May it bring me luck in proportion as my dear one has\" (Wilson, April 12, 1903). On June 7, 1903, he noted \"the first anniversary of my wedding, what changes a year brings forth\" (Wilson, 1903). (Wilson's marriage certificate is dated June 8, 1902.) Wilson's search for the yellow-flowered Meconopsis was arduous but successful, and he wrote (1906, p. 101): Above: Snow on the Ya-chia Range, and alpine meadows with dwarf junipers and rhododendrons. In this ig,ooo-foot pass near Tachien-lu, Wilson experienced hazardous weather. Below: The city of Tachien-lu (8,400 feet altitude), July 27, igo8. A village in this location had been demolished by a landslide a century earlier. Photographs by E. H. Wilson. 117 At 11,000 feet I came across the first plant of Meconopsis integrifolia.... I am not going to attempt to record the feelings which possessed me on first beholding the object of my quest to these wild regions. Messrs. Veitch despatched me on this second, and very costly, journey to the Tibetan border for the sole purpose of discovering and introducing this, the most gorgeous alpine plant extant. I had travelled some attaining was a 13,000 miles in 51\/2 months and to be successful in the first part of my mission in such a short time sufficient reward for all the difficulties and hardships Wilson: experienced en route. A year and a half later, Herman Spooner wrote to You will, I am sure, share our disappointment when you hear that Meconopsis integrifolia was first flowered by Messrs Bee and Co. alias Mr. Bully of Chester. We were astonished when we read the announcement in the Gardeners' Chronicle, as we thought we were the only people who possessed it. Fortunately, Mr. James ~Veitch] visited Langley the day after the notice appeared in the Gardeners' Chronicle and discovered two small flowers on the plants there. He immediately wired to the Chronicle stating the fact and thus saved the situation. The following week from our material and Miss Smith's drawing the Gardeners' Chronicle published a very good figure, with some descriptive matter extracted from your letters, so I think we have fairly taken the wind out of Messrs' Bee's sails. (Spooner, letter, October 4, 1904. ) on Wilson's letters from Veitch are very similar the first trip. On behavior Veitch wrote: - to those he received You have a great chance and if you can manage to get hold of herbaceous seed as or of course any seed whatever you did on your last trip you will do well position or work you ultimately undertake.... Take care of yourself and work - work is the only thing whether in England or China. (J. H. Veitch, letter, April 1, 1903.) - You have had a great chance - and have done well - and up your spirits and do equally well this time you will all your life be very glad of what you did in your youth you have but one youth - and I doubt you ever have another such chance.... Work - and always work it is the only thing believe me - that man who through his whole life does nothing but work - at the end of it whether his work is what has usually the least to regret Keep - - - - 118 yours is now - or some far less interesting. (J. , H. Veitch, . letter, October 5, 1903). Both Veitch and Spooner wrote to Wilson of the success of the herbaceous seeds Wilson sent. They flowered quickly and provided good sales. However, Veitch confided: I am really more fond of trees than any other plants but you must not tell or whisper it for a business man ought not to have any likes and dislikes and of course the great British Public does not buy trees it has not the knowledge to select or the courage to wait for the results and but still hence trees are \"just trees\" with no possibilities after all they seem to be the finest type of plant. (J. H. Veitch, letter, October 5, 1903.) - - Veitch was aware of the competition for new plants. \"I see Vilmorin must have got quite a lot of plants and there is no doubt we are only just in time as far as can be judged missionaries must have sent him seed for many years now - though I doubt if he has any quantities\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, January 5, 1904). When Wilson's plants were described, many were attributed to cultivated specimens from Veitch and Sons, with the original locality given only as \"China.\" Veitch wrote: \"I was annoyed at a paragraph the Journal of Horticulture recently printed about you - the editor said it came from a 'friend at Kew' - do be careful once home it is quite different but please 'till then say but little\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, January 27, 1901). Veitch had written previously on the subject of - publications: You will see in the Gardeners' Chronicle dated July 25 your note about the boat service and the rapids which you found so difficult. I shall send no botanical or plant information as I want to leave that for you on your return. Do not fritter away your information by writing scrappy information to injudicious friends, who, with the best of intentions in the world, send it on to the papers and thus forestall you. (J. H. Veitch, letter, July 24, 1903.) - I hope for your sake you are making notes for the G.C. on your return - I shall have no objections to your doing this for your own sake and as a matter of business though as to unexplored parts or information as to unvisited districts and any ideas you may have thereon, I think these should be at my disposal. What is past and what you have learned in your two journeys you can dispose of after you return. (J. H. Veitch, letter, November - 18, 1903. ) 119 you will have a good summer and autumn - I you will do all you can - and I want you to make notes of what further district you think worth visiting in case I ever send you. (J. H. Veitch, letfor me alone ter, April 6, 1904.) I hope am sure - Nevertheless, Veitch was aware of the novelties being introduced by Wilson, and subsequently of the value of the herbarium specimens. He noted: \"Papers on new plants are to appear by Nicholson and myself.... Nicholson is to read his paper on April 7 and we are it will to fill a centre table in the Hall with all your specimens make a most interesting show.\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 16, 1903.) Regarding the herbarium specimens, Veitch wrote Wilson: \"We have some lovely photographs of your dried specimens for the July issue of the Journal of the R.H.S. a copy of which I will send you\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, February 16, 1903). \"Last week we exhibited all your specimens at Drill Hall they created considerable interest and an immense amount of jealously. The ordinary person with Geraniums and Roses to exhibit, could not for the life of him see why the valuable space should be given up to dried specimens\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, April 4, 1903). An article by James H. Veitch entitled \"Recently Introduced Trees, Shrubs, etc., from Central China\" appeared in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. Fortyseven illustrations indicate the quality of the herbarium specimens Wilson had prepared, and the list suggests that 357 specimens were exhibited. A sheet from the Veitch firm now in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum is illustrated here; it indicates the quality and the beauty of Wilson's early collections. Wilson's specimens apparently had been dispatched to and were being studied by the herbarium staff at Kew. Herman Spooner wrote to Wilson: - Professor specimens, to name as Sargent has named your maples from the dried and I was out at Coombe Wood yesterday trying the living plants. I found it a rather difficult job ' the young seedling plants are naturally more vigorous growers than the trees from which your specimens were taken and in consequence somewhat out of character. Sargent made three new species and a number of new varieties ; one of the species is named Wilsonii (No. 303) but apparently it is not in cultivation at Coombe. In the next part of \"Trees and Shrubs\" Sargent proposes dealing with the Chinese maples and hopes to figure ten new species or species which have not been previously described (Spooner, letter, June 23, 1894). It was, in fact, Alfred Rehder who named the in \"Trees and Shrubs.\" species as described 120 Veitch again expressed his opinion on costs and expenses in many letters received by Wilson during his second expedition. \"I am quite satisfied but try hard not to have to ask me for more money if it can be avoided\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, November 18, 1903). \"Twelve months after you get this I hope you will be with us as soon as you have the result of the autumn of 1904 come right home - I know I can trust you not to leave till you have these but stay not a moment longer\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, December 2, 1903). However, two months earlier Veitch had written: \"Today I wire you 100 and the January check will be for 300 - try and NOT exceed what we agreed on after this\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, October 5, 1903). Shortly thereafter, Veitch asker a favor: \"Instead of sending you 300 on Jan. 1 I will send 350, i.e., 50 from myself.... Buy me a me a few good pieces of lacquer, porcelain or bronze not much silk something quaint but good - not much - but good\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, November 18, 1903). Later he wrote: \"I have no doubt I shall like the bronze etc., you have got for me, though of course buying for the taste of another is always a little difficult\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, March 15, 1904). The year was a difficult one for Wilson. \"Food was scarce in Szechuan in 1904, and so labor was hard to get and harder to keep. Worst of all was the difficulty of feeding a group of 15 to 20 men for several days in the wilderness, wondering whether the next village would have enough food to sell and sufficient shelter\" (Sutton, 1970, p. 221). On one trip Wilson ran out of supplies and had to retrace his tracks. The trips scheduled were arduous, and Wilson missed his wife and wondered about their future. No personal letters are available to provide their expressions on the subject. Veitch, however, wrote in relation to future employment: - - - - - I met Watson accidentally yesterday and do not think from what the director has said to me you need fear about a post in 1905 we shall see you through. (J. H. Veitch, letter, - November 18, 1903. ) You were very wise to write to Sir William [ThistletonDyer], and I know he much appreciated your letter and sent it to Lord Landsdowne to read - next autumn I should write him again if I were you - it is always well to keep in touch with such gentlemen - everybody likes a little attention especially those beyond their first youth and in the so-called high places of the world anyway Sir William has been very good to you and the firm. (J. H. Veitch, letter, December 2, 1903.) - - ' ' _ I have written Kew to look out for something for you there certainly will be. In fact, they say there may be a vacancy this summer in a colonial garden which may be suitable and I would like you at Coombe anyway for a - 121 time though of course, if anything good came should take it. (J. H. Veitch, letter, March 15, - along, you 1904.) Sutton (1970, p. 221) commented: \"Early in 1905 Wilson was ready to go home, having abundantly fulfilled the demands of his employers. He had shipped back 2000 numbers of seeds and plants and 5000 numbers of herbarium specimens, many of which eventually proved to be new species.\" The figures given, however, represent the total for both expeditions, for the second produced only 510 num- bers of seed lots and 2,400 numbers of herbarium specimens. When Wilson returned to England in March, he received a letter from Veitch: \"I have bought for you a pin a flower of Meconopsis integrifolia the five great petals of gold the numerous stamens forty-one diamonds - and I think it really looks like a Meconopsis and not a single Paeony or single Rose, which in jewelry it might easily have done - I hope you will like it\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, March 18, 1905). In January, 1906, Wilson accepted an appointment as a botanical assistant at the Imperial Institute in London, where he worked on collections from Hong Kong. - Wilson's Third Expedition (1906-1909) the First for the Arnold Arboretum - \"To all appearance, he [Wilson] was a man prepared to settle down to botanical research and retire forever from the field\" (Sutton, 1970, p. 230). Charles Sprague Sargent, however, had been seeking a man to collect in China for the Arnold Arboretum, and after several failures with other candidates, he approached Wilson. Wilson was hesitant and wrote: many difficulties in the way, difficulties which well-nigh insuperable, but which you cannot be expected to appreciate in the way I do. Putting sentiment aside, I have to throw up a Government appointment which, if at present modest, has possibilities. Secondly, I have to leave behind my wife and child, and these have to be provided for. Thirdly, there is the possibility of the pitcher going too often to the well. There are other things of might which have to be considered, and the possibilities of obtaining suitable employment on my return do not appear to me to be brighter in the future than in the past. (Wilson, letter, October 3, 1906.) are are There Sargent some had been questionable making alone for ered, and you are likely worth persuasive in earlier letters, but he also made statements about Wilson's career: \"The trip is the seeds of fine conifers you have discovto remain practically unknown unless you revisit China.... If you had been in China for two years more your 122 service would be very valuable to the Arboretum either from a cultural point of view or from working up your Chinese material\" (Sargent, letter, July 16, 1906). Wilson was certainly aware of the financial success Veitch and Sons were enjoying from his introductions, as well as of the scientific contributions made by his herbarium specimens. Therefore he could easily assume that he had made his mark. Nevertheless, in a letter dated September 14, 1906, he accepted Sargent's proposal, and he arrived in Boston shortly before Christmas. On December 27, 1906, a formal contract was signed by E. H. Wilson and \"President, Fellows of Harvard College by Charles S. Sargent.\" The first paragraph read, Wilson agrees to go to China at once and for two full winter and summer seasons, or until about Dec. 1, 1908, to collect there for the College botanical specimens, seeds, information about plants, photographs, etc. All of the same including photographic plates or films, obtained by Wilson are to belong to the College immediately on coming into Wilson's possession, and are to be sent to the College by Wilson as often as practicable. Wilson agrees that during the period above mentioned he will devote all his time and his best energy and skill to the purposes above stated and will engage in no other occupation. A salary was agreed upon with semiannual payments, and in case of his death before the term was completed, payment would be made for the current full year. An additional clause covered the period after the contract ended from December 1, 1908, until April 1, 1909. The following day (December 28, 1906) Sargent wrote a detailed letter of his expectations, which shows both Wilson's task ahead and Sargent's botanical wisdom. It is reproduced in full: Wilson: I shall try in these notes to set down some of the subjects that we have been discussing in regard to your journey to China. The object of this journey is to increase the knowledge of the woody plants of the Empire and to introduce into cultivation as many of them as is practicable. It is therefore desirable to cover as much territory as possible rather than to attempt to gather large quantities of specimens or seeds of any particular plant, and although we have generally decided on the territory that you will visit, it is desirable as far as it is practicable for you to do so to cover new regions not previously visited by you. For herbarium specimens we have decided that it would be well to undertake to dry six sets of all woody plants, and in order to show the distribution of species it is further de- My dear Mr. 123 dry specimens of the same species when this distinctly different regions. In the case of species appear variable it is desirable to make a number of specimens showing as far as possible the extent of such variasirable occurs to in tion. It is intended, of course, in such cases that these should be made only or chiefly for the Arboretum and need not be included in your other supplementary specimens sets. With regard to herbaceous plants it is desirable to specimens of any plant of which you gather seeds, herbaceous sent make or of which appear to you to be new or to preinterest either from a scientific or horticultural special point of view. It is desirable to collect ferns for Dr. Christ to supplement your collections that have already been studied by him. All orchids should be collected for Mr. Ames, and where these present no difficulty in drying it would be a good plan to make a dozen specimens of each for purposes plants of exchange. As far as practicable seeds of all woody plants should be collected with the exception, of course, of such very common things as Ailanthus glandulosa, Kerria, Rhodotypos, and other species known to you to be in common cultivation. If it is possible to obtain so many, it would be a good plan to have enough seeds to raise four or five hundred plants of all species likely to prove hardy in our northern states. This, however, would not apply to oaks, chestnuts and walnuts, as these seeds require packing in earth and it would be too laborious and expensive to send them in large quantities. Three or four dozen sound acorns, chestnuts or walnuts would probably be all that we could expect to get. Magnolia and Euonymus seeds also travel badly and they probably should be sent either in earth or damp moss. In regard to seeds of plants like broad-leaved evergreens (with the exception of Rhododendrons) that cannot be expected to thrive in our climate, a much smaller number of seeds will be sufficient, my idea being to raise these plants here and then distribute them to gardens in southern Europe In the most temperate parts of Great Britain. seeds it must be borne in mind that the position of the individual from which the seeds are gathered has a great influence on the hardiness of the offspring and that it is therefore important, in cases of species of wide distribution, to gather the seeds from the individuals growing as far north as possible or at the highest altitudes. This I consider a matter of utmost importance. I believe or collecting 124 more satisfactory to send seeds by mail unless find that you have so many to send packed in earth that you it would be more economical to send a case by freight. Seeds should be gathered of all Irises and Peonies, unless it is better to send roots of these by mail. It is also desirable to gather seeds of any showy bulbous plants other than Lilies, and of alpine and other herbaceous plants of real horticultural interest provided they have not already been introduced into cultivation, with the understanding, of course, that the introduction of herbaceous plants is secondary to the introduction of woody plants. In case seeds cannot be obtained, grafts or cuttings should be sent instead. It will probably be necessary to send the grafts of Elms as it is not easy to obtain the seed. We can manage the grafts of nearly all the deciduous-leaved trees and shrubs that you are likely to meet with but not evergreens. I do not think it would be worth while to undertake to send a large number of grafts of each species, and probably three dozen of each would be sufficient. Cuttings of all Poplars and Willows should be sent. Of Lily bulbs packed separately but sent with the Farquhar's bulbs, I should like to have one hundred and fifty of each of the Chinese Lilies for some of the subscribers here. If I hear from Miss Willmott that she also wants Lily bulbs, they had best be sent to her direct. I shall write you later on this subject. Notes. It was desirable that the herbarium specimens should be accompanied by descriptive notes covering the points that are not shown by the specimens themselves. For example, the date when the specimen was gathered, the locality and altitude; in the case of trees, the average height, trunk diameter, habit, etc.; color of the flowers and fruit, the color of the anthers of Crataegus, economic uses of the plant if any, general character of the bark, value of the wood if this is used commercially, etc.; in the case of shrubs, their size, habit, etc. It may be well to state that our definition here of a tree is a plant that grows up with a single stem from the ground without regard to its size or height, and that of a shrub a plant that grows up with two or more stems from the ground without regard to its height, so that a shrub may be often much larger than a tree. I think you agree with me that it is important to devise some system of numbering specimens and seeds by which the seeds can be correctly and quickly referred to the numbers of the herbarium specimens. Probably the plan we have discussed of giving each genus temporarily, at least, a separate series of numbers will prove effective. If this is it will prove 125 done, I should suppose it would be possible to give the herbarium specimen and the seed the same number, and later when the sets are made up for distribution the plants can have a new series of numbers independent of the seed numbers which would be for our convenience only. It is desirable to photograph as many trees as possible, provided the tree photograph can be named. Some system of numbering referring to the herbarium specimens would therefore be needed for the photographs in the case of trees which you do not know. Photographs of flowers like Magnolias, Rhododendrons, etc., made life size if possible, are of very great value, and so are the photographs of the fruiting branches of Picea, Tsuga and Abies. Photographs on a large scale of the bark of trees are extremely valuable and should be made showing the character of the country inhabited by different trees. It would be well, too, if time permits, to take views of villages and other striking and interesting objects as the world knows little of the appearance of central and western China. Conifers. I shall be glad to have you collect all conifers with both flowers and fruit if it is practicable for you to do so. We should also be glad to get the seeds of all of them, and in the case of genera like Pinus, Picea, Thuya and Larix to obtain at least one hundred cones detached from the branches gathered from different trees in order to show as far as possible any variations. In the case of Cunninghamia which, raised from seed gathered near the coast, is not hardy in this climate, seed from higher elevations in the interior should be sent. Of course what I have said about the importance of gathering seed from northern and elevated stations applies with equal or greater force to conifers. I should be glad to get for our museum specimens of walnuts that you may meet with in the markets, as well as the fruits of other trees like chestnuts, etc., sold in Chinese markets. It would also be interesting if you could gather information about the trees and shrubs cultivated by the Chinese in their gardens or for economic purposes. The value of such notes would be increased if you could supply specimens of such plants. I understand that it is not possible to longer ~sic] find Azaleas cultivated in the Shanghai gardens. If there is a chance of doing so, however, it might be interesting to see them and perhaps secure plants of anything that may seem desirable to you. Shanghai, too, is the place of Populus tomentosa, of which we are desirous to obtain flowers. Bamboo. If it is feasible to do so, it might be well to try the experiment of sending small pieces of rooted plants by 126 ~~ mail, of any of the small-growing mountain Bamboos that in this climate. Books. I should be glad to have you brary books on Chinese botany. Yours very truly, might prove hardy pick up for our li- C. S. Sargent Sargent financed the third Wilson expedition by soliciting gifts from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, one of $7,000, fourteen each of $1,000, and numerous other smaller donations. Three donors from England contributed, but significantly no gift was received from the Veitch firm. Sargent apparently approached the firm, and Harry Veitch replied: \"Thank you also very much for what you told me about Wilson's trip to China for you. I felt sure always that you would take care that anything he sent you, provided we already had received the same from him, should not interfere with our stock. I appreciate fully your kindness in offering to tell Wilson to collect anything for us of which we are in special need\" (J. H. Veitch, letter, July 1, 1907). Specifically, Wilson was to secure orchids for Oakes Ames; ferns for Hermann Christ of Switzerland; and lily bulbs for the Farquhar nurseries of Boston and for Miss Ellen Willmott of England, as well as some to be used as gifts for the supporters of the trip. Field cooperation on this trip was planned with representatives of the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the Museum of Comparative Zoology of Harvard. The trip was far different in its goals and cooperative efforts from the business adventures undertaken for the Veitch firm. In the cooperative efforts planned with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Wilson was to obtain seeds and propagating material of economically important plants for David Fairchild, while the Department's Frank Meyer was to gather herbarium specimens and cones of conifers especially for Wilson and Sargent in the Wu t'ai Mountains, where he was to make a spring trip for flowering specimens and a fall trip for the seeds. Wilson arrived in Shanghai in February of 1907 and briefed Meyer on procedures. As he described these instructions in a letter to Sargent, they were a remarkable copy of those he had received himself. Meyer was to collect six sets of specimens of everything in this unknown flora, giving preference to ligneous plants, ferns, and ... terrestrial orchids (Wilson, letter, February 16, 1907). From Sargent's point of view, Meyer failed miserably in his mission, while Fairchild made repeated direct requests to Wilson. The situation caused Sargent to comment: \"It was never understood that you were to do a great deal for the Department, and certainly it was not contemplated that while you were in the field you were to be bothered by answering their inquiries.... I should judge that you have already done more for the Department than the Department is likely to do for the Arboretum\" (Sargent, letter, December 5, 1907). 127 Before Wilson had left Boston he knew he was to have the adWalter and often the company of ministrative responsibility for who went sent by the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zappey, Zoology to acquire bird skins and animal pelts. In a publication describing the results of the expendition, Samuel Henshaw later wrote: - The collections described in the following pages were made in the Chinese provinces of Hupeh and Szechwan during the years 1907 and 1908. With hardly an exception they represent the work of Mr. Walter R. Zappey while he was attached to the expedition sent out by the Arnold Arboretum under the direction of Mr. E. H. Wilson, the wellknown botanical collector.... Mr. John E. Thayer, recognizing the need of zoological work in lower China, secured the consent of Prof. C. S. Sargent, the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, for a trained collector to accompany Mr. Wilson, and most generously provided the necessary financial support.... The results of Mr. Thayer's liberality and Mr. Zappey's zeal would have been very much less, however, had they not been supplemented by the tact and administrative ability of Mr. Wilson.... Mr. Wilson's earlier work in China was of distinct advantage for the success of the Arboretum Expedition. It had shown that he possessed the trustworthiness characteristic of his race, and the natural and ever present suspiciousness of the natives towards aliens engaged in a line of work the object of which is not wholly clear, was happily avoided from the beginning. It should be recognized that all of Mr. Wilson's time and energy were required for his botanical work and that every additional task he assumed, even though willingly and successfully, was nevertheless a burden. (Henshaw, 1912.) Wilson had to keep separate accounts for the \"John E. Thayer expedition\" for Harvard. He handled baggage and repacked packages arranged for support personnel, took finally packed and shipped all the zoological specimens, notifying Sargent of their departure. In succeeding months Wilson repeatedly asked if they had arrived and inquired why he had not heard from Thayer. Finally Sargent wrote: \"If Mr. Thayer has not written to you about Zappey's consignment, he is most enthusiastic over Zappey's work and perfectly delighted with Zappey's results, and especially the way in which his collections were packed. Apparently they have reached Boston in perfect condition and appear to contain many new specimens\" (Sargent, letter, December, 1908). Although they traveled separately a great deal of the time, Zappey was Wilson's charge from February, 1907, until Zappey's departure from China in March, 1909. Wilson was less successful with some of the shipments of bulbs too large or too heavy. He care of customs formalities, and Walter Zappey (right), his assistant, and his dog, with a bag of seven Reeve's pheasants shot at Chang-yang Hsien in January igog. WxLson made all of the arrangements for Zappey to collect for the Harvard Museum of Comparative Zoology on the \"John E. Thayer Expedition.\" Photograph by E. H. Wilson. Farquhar nurseries. Although he had collected, packed, and shipped bulbs on the Veitch expeditions, literally thousands of bulbs, each carefully wrapped in mud, rotted en route on this trip. Wilson was deeply chagrined at the failure of the first shipment and vowed to replace the consignment. With other seeds and plants Wilson was highly successful. Jackson Dawson, propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, was kept busy handling the significant introductions of Wilson's third trip. Sargent kept much of the herbaceous material to the for his own estate or shared it with botanists at Kew or with the Veitch firm. Wilson held in storage the herbarium collections he made in 1907, gathered more in 1908, and shipped all at once in 1909. His collecting localities during this period are included in a separate listing later in this paper. During the summer of 1908, while Wilson was still in China, Sargent made a trip to Europe to discuss with Harry Veitch the prospects for a new expedition. Veitch thought candidates would be more numerous in Europe. After a refusal from George Forrest, they chose William Purdom, once of the Veitch firm and then at Kew. After a 129 quick briefing Purdom was sent preparing to depart. Apparently Wilson, for he wrote to to China Purdom's to meet Wilson, who was appointment was news to Sargent: You may be quite sure that anything I can do for Mr. Veitch and yourself in the way of helping your new man will be done. My last attempt in such matters [ i.e., in the case of Mr. Meyer was not altogether a success, but nothing daunted I am willing to try again since you wish it. It is well, professor, you did not tempt me with the offer to remain another season, for in spite of what I said in '06, I fear I should have succumbed to such an offer providing the political outlook in China seemed favorable. This would have completely broken up my wife, and for her sake, therefore, I am very glad the temptation did not come my way. But I am human and I confess to a slight feeling of chagrin at being passed over so completely in favour of another and without a word of warning. It can be interpreted to reflect unfavourably on the work I have accomplished during the past two years. I merely mention this: I do not say I think it thus intended. I am no longer a \"cheap\" man and I can quite understand that Mr. Veitch would hesitate to pay the salary you yourself did not think exorbitant. It is probably foolish of me to expose myself thus, but perfect frankness has characterized our association thus far and I think you know me too well to attribute this to a churlish or jealous spirit. With kind regards and best wishes for the success of your new venture. (Wilson, letter, March 9, 1909.) packed his materials in Ichang, shipped them from ShangApril 25, 1909, was in Peking to return via Siberia. He stopped in Moscow and St. Petersburg (Leningrad) to examine herbarium specimens, particularly those of gymnosperms. In the greenhouse nurseries in St. Petersburg, he discovered seedlings grown from his Chinese collection of 1907, seeds of which Sargent had sent to Russia. In the herbarium of the botanical garden in Berlin, Wilson wished to study the collections of von Rosthorne and to acquire duplihai, and on Wilson for the Arnold Arboretum. However, he learned that these collections were only on loan, and that the staff of the Berlin herbarium had first choice of duplicates or fragments, so no material would be available. This may explain a critical statement he wrote cates to Sargent: In Berlin I saw the most flagrant examples of species mongering that have ever come under my notice.... At this moment I will content myself with one example. You will remember that Diels described a new Liquidambar from 130 Rosthorne's collection. Having been practically all over Rosthorne's ground and failed to discover anything answering the description, I had grown skeptical and determined to see the type when in Berlin. I did. The species is founded on two leaves only and these leaves are those of a palmately veined species of Acer. Can anyone defend the founding of a new species on two leaves alone? Greed and greed alone is responsible. (Wilson, letter, May 22, 1909.) Liquidambar rosthornii Diels, which was not considered in Plantae Wilsonianae by Rehder and Wilson in spite of Wilson's observations, and which was placed in the synonymy of Acer sinense Pax by Handel-Mazetti in 1933. After a stop in Paris, Wilson reached London on May 17. He met with Ellen Willmott and visited Coombe Wood to see the plants grown from his earlier collections. Since his photographic plates had been sent to London, he worked with Wallis at Kew in the development of the plates and the identification of the pictures. His herbarium collections, however, went directly to Boston, where Sargent apparently realized the task ahead in organizing and identifying the material. Although Wilson's contract had expired, Sargent offered him temporary employment to work up the material \"after a short vacation.\" \"When this work on the herbarium is done, possibly some arrangement for other work connected with the Arboretum can be found or perhaps you will care to undertake another journey\" (Sargent, letter, May 24, 1909). Wilson was not pleased with the salary offered and \"when he asked Sargent for a higher salary to cover his herbarium work Sargent replied that any increases would only generate ill feelings among Arboretum staff members who worked for less. Dissatisfied though he was, Wilson had no better alternatives, so in September he packed his wife and daughter and sailed for the United States to settle down in the herbarium for a while\" (Sutton, 1970, p. 245). This was Sargent's Wilson's Fourth Expedition (1910-1911) of the third expedition was the collection of seeds material of conifers, the season proved disastrous. As Wilson observed, first Meyer let them down and then: \"I am sorely afraid the fates intend to treat me severely this year in the matter of conifers\" (Wilson, letter, October 11, 1908). In Boston Wilson arranged his herbarium specimens and apparently found himself illprepared to do much of the taxonomic and nomenclatural work Sargent had in mind for the publication Plantae Wilsonianae. In the original prospectus the work was to be in six parts comprising three volumes. As completed, it proved to be nine parts in three volumes totaling 1931 pages. The work was dominated by Alfred Rehder. Little is known of the conversations and arrangements that led to Although goal and propagating a 131 Ernest Henry Wilson with his wife (Ellen Ganderton) and daughter (Muriel Primrose) photographed during a mszt to Japan. 132 in expedition. Wilson and his family had arrived in Boston September, 1909, and Wilson departed for China in March, 1910. The objective was to try again for seeds of gymnosperms. Taking the train across Europe to Moscow and from there to Peking, Wilson arrived in Ichang on June 1, 1910. Again he was able to assemble \"as much of his old men as he required\" and left from Chengtu on June the fourth 4. Wilson said: My object was to enter Szechuan by way of northwestern Hupeh and then strike due west to Chengtu, the capital of the province. Much of this proposed route was absolute terra-incognita, and no one had before attempted this journey in its entirety. The distance is about seven hundred miles, but in rough mountainous country mere mileage is no criterion. In all it took about eight weeks of steady travel to cover the distance. (Wilson, 1912, p. 160). From Chengtu Wilson made a round trip to Sungpan. He collected a few herbarium specimens, reported his \"camera was very busy,\" and arranged for the gathering of fruits of Eucommia. Three day's travel outside of Chengtu, Wilson's party was caught in an avalanche of sliding rock. Although Wilson escaped from his sedan chair, which was carried over the precipice, he was hit on the leg and suffered a compound fracture. He wrote to Sargent of the accident: \"Fortunately as far as the expedition is concerned my plans have been so laid that whilst handicapping us, the accident cannot involve the expedition in entire failure\" (Wilson, letter, September 10, 1910). He added the personal postscript: \"P.S. My wife of course knows nothing of the accident, nor will she for several weeks to come, for I shall not write her about it until I am on a fair way to recovery. Please take every precaution to prevent the news from getting into the hands of the press or its friends at yours [sic ~ or across the water\" (Wilson, op. cit. ). He received medical care from Dr. and Mrs. W. Henry Davidson of the Friends' Mission in Chengtu, and from a Dr. Mouillac, the French army surgeon in charge of the Ecole de Medecine and the Roman Catholic Hospital in Chengtu. Because of the delay caused by the long passage from the scene of the accident, Wilson's leg became infected and nearly had to be amputated. Twelve weeks elapsed before he could hobble about on crutches with a shortened and painful limb. Sargent expressed his sympathy in a letter of October 25, 1910, and Wilson wrote in reply: While in bed I knew my men would do what they could, although hardly as much as if I was around. An abundant seed season and possibly a grain of sympathy have worked in our favor with most gratifying results. In mere quantity the amount of seed despatched is equal to any former sea- Above : Dr. and Mrs. Davidson and their house in the Friends Mission compound, Chengtu, where Wilson recuperated from his broken leg. Photograph taken December 20, zgro. Below: Wilson wrote the caption \"My Chinese collectors, all faithful and true\" for this photograph. The group, assembled in Ichang on February r5, rgm, had continued to collect while Wilson was recovering from has accident. Photographs by E. H. Wilson. 134 son. On counting, I find more. been despatched by tain amount four hundred packages have Ichang I expect to find a cerpost. (Wilson, letter, December 4, 1910.) some At While incapacitated, Wilson received a letter offering him the post of Assistant Superintendent (under Tutcher) of the Botanic Garden at Hong Kong. He replied: Had the offer presented itself at the time of old Ford's retirement, I should have accepted it joyously. But seven years alter the aspect of affairs. In the first place I am bound by written agreement to remain with Harvard until April 1 next and to return there. There is also a more or less tacit understanding that I remain with them until all the collections are distributed. I have also the offer from Harvard of a permanent post of rather better value than the Hong Kong post, though it is doubtful if I shall accept even this. I have an almost overwhelming desire to settle down at Kew and take up certain work having direct connection with that which I have done in China. (Wilson, letter, November 16, 1910.) Documentation for his contract and offer of a permanent post have been located in the Harvard Archives. Wilson collected only 462 numbers during this trip, but specimens dated after his accident, from locations far from Chengtu, indicate that his team worked during his recuperation. Wilson's last letter was written in Ichang on February 16, 1911, and he arrived back in Boston in March, 1911, almost a year to the day after his departure. His subsequent medical treatment and his mental and physical adjustment to work in an herbarium are not well documented. not Wilson's Collecting Localities The following chronology of Wilson's travels in China is based on dated herbarium specimens and photographs, and on the entries available from his diaries and field books. Specific dates, when known, follow the month in parentheses (when Wilson appears to have been in two widely separated places on the same date, one collection was probably made by one of his collectors). The spellings of place names are those used by Wilson.' The smaller localities, in italics, are not mapped (in the paper following this by Clausen and Hu). Where possible, additional information about the localities is given. The following list of Chinese terms and their English equivalents should be helpful in interpreting the localities. was not yet a standard system for romanization of that Wilson had to create his own spellings of localities too small to be on any map. He was not consistent, but I feel that it is important to use his spellings for each particular collection. 1 Because there it is Chinese, likely 135 FIRST VEITCH EXPEDITION, 1899-1902 1899 April (23). Arrived in Boston. June (3). Hong Kong. August. Yunnan: Laokai. September. Yunnan: Mengtsze, December (25). Hong Kong. Szemao. 1900 February (24). Western Hupeh: Ichang. March. Western Hupeh: Ichang; Nanto. April. Western Hupeh: Ichang, Nanto, Patung; Chang-yang Hsien. May. Western Hupeh: Chang-yang, Chienshi Hsien; Ichang; Nanto. Western Szechuan: Ching ting Shan. June. Western Hupeh: Chien-sz Hsien; Pao-kang Hsien; Patung. Szechuan: Wa-shan Mountain. July. Western Hupeh: Chienshz. August. Eastern Szechuan: Wulan. October. Western Hupeh: Chang-yang Hsien; Ichang. December. Western Hupeh: Ichang. 1901 March. Kui (possibly Kui-chou in Eastern Szechuan). April. Western Hupeh: Chang-yang Hsien; Pao-kang; Patung. May. Western Hupeh: Patung Hsien. June. Eastern Szechuan: Kui-chou. Western Szechuan: Chang-yang; Fang Hsien; Pao-kang Hsien. July. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, Pao-kang; Patung. August. Western Hupeh: Pao-kang Hszen. September. Western Hupeh: Chang-yang Hsien. Undated (1900-1901) April. Returned to England. 136 SECOND VEITCH EXPEDITION, 1903-1905 1903 Hong Kong; Shanghai. April (25). Western Hupeh: Ichang. May. Szechuan: Chungking, Fu-chau; Kiating-fu; Mu-tung; Shih Kai Tu. June. Western Szechuan: Kiating-Fu (June 19); Tachien-lu; Wa-shan. July. Western Szechuan: Fulin ; Kiating; Mt. Omei; Tachien-lu; Tung Valley; Wa-shan, Yin-Kou. August-September. Western Szechuan: Kiating (August 10-September 23). October. Western Szechuan: Kiating; Mt. Omei. November. Western Szechuan: Kiating. December. Western Hupeh: Ichang. March (22). 1904 March (15). Western Hupeh: Ichang. April (24). Western Hupeh: Ichang. Western Szechuan: Sui Fu. May. Western Szechuan: Kiating; Mt. Omei; Tachien-lu; Ta-hsiang-ling; Tung Valley, Wa-shan. June. Western Szechuan: Mt. Omei; Mupin; Tachien-lu. July. Western Szechuan: Kiating; Mt. Omei, Tachien-lu; Tung Valley. August. Western Szechuan: Kiating; Sungpan. September. Western Szechuan: Chengtu; Min Valley; Sungpan. October. Western Szechuan: Mupin, Tachien-lu. November. Western Szechuan: Kiating. December. Western Szechuan: Kiating (December 8); Chung-king (December 14). 1905 March. Returned to England. OF JOHN FIRST ARNOLD ARBORETUM EXPEDITION, 1907-1909 E. THAYER EXPEDITION TO CHINA FOR THE MUSEUM COMPARATIVE ZOOLOGY, 1907-1909 1907 Arrived in Shanghai (February 2); Ichang (February 26) March. Western Hupeh: Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang. April. Western Hupeh: Chang yang Hsien; Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang; Patung Hsien. May. Western Hupeh: Changlo- Hsien; Fang Hsien; Hsing-shan Hsien; February. Ichang. June. Western Hupeh: Changyang Hsien; Fang Hsien; Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang, Patung Hsien; Ta-wan (\"big turn\"). Kiangsi: Kuling. July. Kiangsi: Kuling. Western Hupeh: Chang-lo Hsien ; Hsing-shan Hsien; Ta-wan. August. Kiangsi: Kui-Kiang, Kuling. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang. September. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien; Hsing-shan Hsien. October. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang. November. Western Hupeh: Changyang Hsien; Fang Hsien; Ichang; Pa-tung Hsien. December. Western Hupeh: Changyang Hsien; Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang. 1908 January. Western Hupeh: Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang; February. Western Hupeh; Ichang. Shasi. 137 March. Western Hupeh: Ichang; Ichang Gorge; Patung City. Szechuan: Hsin-lung Rapids, Yangtze River (may be near Kui-Fu); Kui-Fu City; Te-t'an (village); Windbox Gorge, Wushan Gorge; Yiin Yang City. April. May. Feng-tu Hsien; Sui-Fu; Wan Hsien (city). Chengtu, Chengtu Plain, Chien-wei Hsien; Ching-chi Hsien, Chiu-Ting Shan; Hanchou; Hsin-Hsin Hsien; Kiating Fu, Mao-chou, Mao-chou Plain, Mien-chu Hsien; Min Valley; Shih-Fang Hsien; Tachien-lu, Ta Hsing-ling (range of mountains, possibly near Tachien-lu); Wa-ssu; Wei-chow (possibly Mei-chou); Western Szechuan: Western Szechuan: Wen Chuan Hsien. June. Western Szechuan: Chengtu; Hsao-chin Ho (probably Hsiao-chin Ho), Hsin Wen ping; Hsuan Kou; Kuan chai (between Monkong Ting and Pan-lan-shan Pass), Kuan-Hsien; Mongong Ting, Mupin (region northwest of Tachien-lu), Niu-tou-shan (mountain east of Pan-lanshan) ; Pan-lan-shan (mountain pass), Pi Hsien, Romi Chango, Tachien-lu (Kang-ting); Ta-Chin Ho (upper Tung River); Tsung-lu possibly Tungolo, west of Tachcien-lu); Wohji (village; also the name of a region north of Mongkong Ting). July. Western Szechuan: Cheto-shan (mountain range west of Tachienlu) ; Mupin; Tachien-lu; Ta-p'ao-shan (Pan-lan-shan); Tung River Valley; Wa-shan (mountain); Wassu Kou (probably a ravine near Wa-ssu), West Romichango. August. Western Szechuan: Chengtu City; Chengtu Fu; Ching Chi Hsien; Fei-yiieh-lzng; Hua-ling-ping ; Kiung-chou; Kuan Hsien; Leng Che (village), Luting-Chiao; Nitou (possibly Nui-tou shan near Pan-lan- shan), Shuangliu; Tartar City, Chengtu (inner city of Chengtu); Wa-shan (mountain); Ya-chou Fu (Ya an); Yung-yang Hsien. September. Western Szechuan: Ching Chi Hsien; Hungya Hsien (harnlet south of Ya-chou Fu); Kiating Fu, Malie (near Wa-shan); Mt. WaWu ; Omei Hsien; Tatien Chleh (hamlet); Tung River Valley; Washan (mountain). October. Western Szechuan: Chengtu Plain ; Chiu Ting shan, Mien-chu Hsien; Hsin-Hsin Hsien, Kiating; Mupin; Tachien-lu; Tung River Valley; Ya-chi Fu (probably Ya-chou Fu). November. Western Szechuan: Chengtu City, Chiu-Ting shan, Tu Men; Kiating Fu, Min River Valley ; Mupin; Pan-lan-shan; Tachien-lu; Tung River Valley, Wa-shan (mountain), Wassu. December. Western Szechuan: Chiang Ching Hsien; Kiating Fu; Lu-chou; Min River, Na-Chi Hsien (probably Nan-chi); Sui Fu; Yachou Fu; Ya River. 1909 January. Szechuan: Chungking; Shih-pao-chai; Wan Hsien; Wushan Gorge; Yunyang. Hupeh: A-tung Hsien (probably Pa-tung Hsien); Hsing-shan Hsien; Ichang; Ichang Gorge; Nan t'o ; Mitsang Gorge; Chin Tan Village ; Patung Hsien; Putze (hamlet); Shan-Yuh-Tung Glen (near Ichang, among the Yangtze gorges). February. Western Hupeh: Changyang Hsien; Ichang. March. Han-Kow, Ichang Fu; Shanghai; Western April. Hong Kong; left China at the end of April. 138 1 SECOND ARNOLD ARBORETUM EXPEDITION, 1910-1911 1910 To China via Trans-Siberian Railway. Western Hupeh: Ichang. May. Western Hupeh: Ichang; Sun-yu-tung Glen. June. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien, Hsiang-Tan; Hsing-shan April. Hsien; Sha- Ichang, Kuo-Hu-ping ; Lumeng Ho, Patung Hsien; Sha-kao-che ; kou-pieu (hamlet); Sun-yu-tung Glen; Yangtsze gorges (near Ichang). Eastern Szechuan; Tan-chia-Teng (village); Taning Hsien. July. Eastern Szechuan: Kai Hsien; Shato-tzu (market town); Wan-totsao ; Wen-tang-ching; Yiinyang Hsien. North-central Szechuan: Chint'ang Hsien; Chung-chiang Hsien; Hwai-pai-lu (small market village); Nan-ching Kuan; Pa-chou; Paoning Fu ; Tai-lu-che (market village); Tung-chuan Fu ; TungHsiang Hsien; Yenting Hsien, Yi-lung Hsien. August. Chengtu; Han-chou; Kuan-Hsien; Kung-ching ch'ang, Lungan Fu; Mao-chou; Mienchu Hsien; Min River Valley ; Slzi-chuan Hsien; Sin-tu Hsien (Hsin-tu Hsien); Sungpan ; Sungpan Ting (Sungpan), Tachien-lu. September. Western Szechuan: Kiating; Kuan Hsien; Mao-chou; Pinglong-shih (near Mount Wa-wu); Sungpan; Sungpan Ting (Wilson's accident); Tachien-lu; Wen-ch'uan Hsien; Yen-Meng. Western Hupeh: Fang Hsien. 1911 1 Western Szechuan: Chengtu Fu. Western Szechuan: An Hsien; November. Western Szechuan: Wa-ssu. December. Western Szechuan: Chengtu, Mt. Omei. February. March. Arrived in Boston. - Hupeh: Ichang, Hankow; Kin-ling (port); Hankow; Kuikiang; Shanghai. (To be continued in Arnoldia, July\/Aug., 1980) Western Shasi. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mapping the Collecting Localities of E. H. Wilson in China","article_sequence":2,"start_page":139,"end_page":145,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24778","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170896f.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":3,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Clausen, Kristen; Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"Mapping the Collecting Localities of E. H. Wilson in China by KRISTIN S. CLAUSEN and SHIU-YING Hu Henry Wilson traveled in China on four separate trips be1899 and 1911 to collect seeds, propagating material, and specimens of the rich temperate flora of Hupeh and Szechuan. His first two trips were made while he was in the employ of the English nursery firm of James Veitch and Sons. He then was sent on two collecting trips by the Arnold Arboretum. The sources of information used to ascertain Wilson's collecting localities are as follows: photographs taken during the two Arnold Arboretum trips to China by Wilson, and his field notebooks, trip journals, and numerical lists of specimens and seeds. When Wilson traveled in China, he was working in virtually unmapped territory and had to rely on the rudimentary maps of missionaries and Western merchants. Because there was not yet a standard system for romanization of Chinese, it is likely that he had to create his own Ernest tween _ Kristin Clausen has been working with Dr. Richard Howard this year as a research assistant in botany for the Arnold Arboretum. She has a B.S. in botany from the University of Wisconsin and plans to be a graduate student this fall in the Department of Ecology and Evolution, State University of New York at Stony Brook. Shiu-ying Hu, botanist, has worked for the Arnold Arboretum for 27 years, specializing in the flora of China. She has worked as an associate professor at West China Union University, Chengtu, Szechuan (E. H. Wilson's headquarters in China) and has traveled through most of the area shown on these maps. 139 Map 1. China and neighboring countries. Provinces where Wilson collected plants are shaded. Note the western border of Szechuan during Wilson's time (broken line) and the course of the Yangtze River (dotted line). Boxed area tndicates area included in Map 2. 2. The major rivers of Hupeh and Szechuan. Collecting localities in Yunfrom the first Wilson expedition to China for Veitch and Sons and two localities in Kiangst provmce at the eastern border of Hupeh. Boxed areas indicate Maps 3 and 5, and 4 and 6. Map nan 141 place names of hamlets and villages any map. This is corroborated by inconsistencies in Wilson's spellings throughout his notes, lists, and books from the spellings China too small to be on in order to record the China, the Post Office system of transliteration of British and American involvement with was used in mapping. In 1942 it began to be replaced by the Wade-Giles system. In order to prepare the maps for this paper, it was necessary to change Wilson's spellings to those of the Wade-Giles system in order to tap into this geographic literature. More recently, the People's Republic of China has adopted the Pinyin system of transliteration. This system is now being used by The New York Times and The National Geo- trips. During the early period graphic Society. We are using Wilson's spellings on the maps because we feel that these will be the most helpful to researchers trying to identify localities for his specimens. In addition, we have prepared a list that gives the Wade-Giles and Pinyan equivalents for each of these spellings. In order to ease the problem of using maps with different systems of transliteration, the latitude and longitude of each locality are given. In Wilson's time, China was divided into three levels of administrative units: provinces, districts, and \"hsien\" (townships). Since then, there have been many changes, two of which have directly affected the mapping of Wilson's localities: changes in names of major cities, and the extension of the western boundary of Szechuan. An example of the first case is the major Tibetan border trading city of Tachien-lu, which Wilson used as a base on his collecting trips. Today it is known as K'ang-ting. Such changes are indicated in our list by parentheses around the current name in the Wade-Giles and Pinyin columns. In some cases where both names are still in current usage, both are retained. Szechuan's western boundary during Wilson's trips is indicated by the line on Map 1. The territory to the west was called Eastern Tibet by Western explorers of the period and includes towns now well within the heart of Szechuan. A hsien may refer to a township as well as to the township seat. We have taken all Wilson hsien designations to refer to townships. However, because of the small scale of our maps we have designated only the seat. A given \"hsien\" locality should be interpreted as \"in the vicinity of' the town of the same name on the maps. We have included those localities at the \"hsien\" level or above. Many villages and hamlets that are listed as collecting localities are simply not to be found on maps of the scale accessible to most researchers. In the few cases where we have included these smaller localities, our source was the map at the end of Wilson's book, China Mother ofGardens. Acknowledgments We would like to thank Laurie B. Feine and Dr. Bernice Schubert for their critical review of the manuscript. Map 3. Arnold Arboretum expedition to China, 1906-1909: collecting localities in western Hupeh and eastern Szechuan. Map 4. Arnold Arboretum in western Szechuan. expedition to China, 1906-1909: collecting localities 143 Map 5. Arnold Arboretum expedition to China, 1910-1911: collecting localities in western Hupeh and eastern Szechuan. Map 6. Arnold Arboretum in western Szechuan. expedition to China, 1910-1911: collecting localities 145 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Prunus cyclamina","article_sequence":3,"start_page":146,"end_page":151,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24779","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd14ea328.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":3,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM .. Prunus cyclamina In the Boston area winter's long grip eases with the onset of longer and warmer days in early April. Spring bursts forth with colorful flowers from such bulbous plants as winter aconites and snow drops, to be followed some weeks later by an abundance of color from flowering trees. One of the first trees to put forth blossoms is the rare and little-known cyclamen cherry (Prunus cyclamina). Early season visitors to the Arboretum cannot miss the spectacle of our large cyclamen cherry even though it is tucked away in a little-visited corner behind the hickory trees near the Centre Street Gate. Complemented by the soft yellow of the corylopsis flowers nearby, the cyclamen cherry stands out among its neighbors that, still leafless, retain the brown and gray hues of the winter landscape. In response to moderating climatic conditions, Prunus cyclamina quickly takes on a rose-pink blush as the flower buds swell. Flowers of this cherry open a short time ahead of those of P. sargentii in early to mid-April, and they still remain when the petals of the Sargent cherry (P. sargentii) are only speckles of pink in the greening to 6 cm. wide, of the softest pink, are borne on a stalk At full anthesis the sepals are strongly reflexed. The five long. individual petals are narrowly ovate in shape with a deep cleft or notch at the tip. According to notes on this species by Collingwood Ingram (1948), one of Europe's foremost authorities on the genus Prunus, floral color varies in richness and intensity from seedling to grass. Blossoms 3 1 cm. 146 Flower color of the genetic variation, from plant each petal. cyclamen cherry varies from pale to rose pink, dependent on to plant. Note the deep cleft on the outer tip of This a specimen of Prunus cyclamina (AA 11262-2), with a height of 30 feet and spread of 40 feet, becomes a floral focal point because of its early-season performance and abundance of bloom. being even more richly colored than P. sartree begins flowering at an early age and flowers freely and dependably thereafter. Our plants at the Arnold Arboretum flower heavily each year, and I have not observed the blossoms to be harmed by frost. However, high wind or heavy rain quickly causes the flowers to shatter, thus ruining the display. As the petals mature and fall away, the young leaves emerge glossy and bronze-red, blending visually with the dull reddish purple of the persistent floral cup and combining to extend a muted but attractive color show for a week or more. As the foliage expands, it quickly changes to the dark green tone of summer. Autumn color is unspectacular and cannot match the rich orange to purple hues of P. seedling, with some forms gentii. He also stated that the sargentii. After flowering, the small cherries develop quickly and eventually attain the size and shape of a pea. They ripen to a dull purple-red in late June or early July. The tasty fruits are very attractive to birds, but because they are small, with meager pulp, they have little value for human consumption. Native to Hupeh, Szechuan, and Sikang provinces of the People's Republic of China, this plant seems to have been discovered in 1889- 149 90 by A. E. Pratt, who collected it near Tachienlu, Sikang Province, in China, but his specimens were long misidentified. \"Prunus cyclamina was first described by Koehne in 1912 from material which E. H. Wilson had collected under his no. 9 on his first expedition for the Arnold Arboretum in 1907. Wilson found the species near Changyang Hsien, Hupeh growing in woodland at altitudes of 3300-4300 ft. and it was introduced into cultivation by means of seeds he collected\" (Sealy, 1959). Two mature specimens of Prunus cyclamina exist at the Arnold Arboretum. One (AA 706-31-B) is located between the pond and the Forest Hills Gate. It was propagated from seed in 1931, and at 49 years of age is it 25 feet tall with a spread of 30 feet. Three large stems and three smaller ones arise from a point about one foot above soil level. The tree displays several large pruning wounds - evidence that it has lost large branches in the past. The second plant (AA 11262-2), propagated from seed collected from an earlier accession at the Arboretum, grows among the collections of Carya, Ilex crenata, and Buxus near the Centre Street wall. At 51 years of age, it is 30 feet tall with a spread of 40 feet. Branching begins at four feet above the ground, with seven major branches spreading outward and upward from this point. Average new-season growth is 10-14 inches long, with some branches showing vigorous growth of 24 inches. This second specimen is the plant featured in this article. The tree develops heavy branches that arise with strong crotch angles, and the branches are spaced far enough apart to give a bold visual character to the tree. The branching habit of Prunus cyclamina is a bit more open and slightly more wide-spreading than that of P. sargentii. The branches are clad in bark that is a dull dark purple-brown on the older stems; the smoothness of the bark is interrupted by rough, horizontal bands and short lenticels. Bark on young branches is a dull reddish brown with short lenticels. Although the cyclamen cherry has been cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum for approximately 72 years, it is virtually unknown in North America. This author believes that the species may possess the same degree of toughness exhibited by Prunus sargentii and P. X yedoensis, for despite the fact that our cherry collection has declined due to nematodes, viruses, and black knot, these plants appear to be healthy, vigorous, and extremely floriferous. Cyclamen cherry blooms at the same time as and can be used to create landscape scenes with - Corylopsis species, Rhododendron `PJM', Forsythia X intermedia cultivars, Cornus mas, C. officinalis, Viburnum farreri, V. X bodnantense, Magnolia stellata, and bulbous plants including Scilla sibirica and Adonis amurensis. The plants can be propagated by sowing the seeds after three months of cold stratification at 40F to insure optimum germination. - 150 has been accomplished successfully using Prunus avium as rootstock and making the graft as close to the soil level as possible. Cuttings have been rooted at the Arnold Arboretum. Although specific details are incomplete, we do have the following data compiled by Steve Silberstein, a horticultural trainee during the summer of 1978. He took 50 cuttings on June 17, 1978, divided them into five treatment groups of ten cuttings each, and placed them in equal parts of perlite and sand, under mist. On August 8, 1978, prior to Steve's departure, the cuttings were lifted and inspected. At that time he found that the control cuttings, as well as hose treated with five-second quick dips in a solution of 5,000 and 10,000 ppm. of I.B.A. (indolbutyric acid) in 50% ethanol alcohol, had formed heavy callus tissue but had no roots evident. Quick dips in a solution of 5,000 and 10,000 ppm. of N.A.A. (naphthalene acetic acid) in 50% ethanol alcohol resulted in a high mortality of the cuttings. Vegetative propagation of this species needs continued testing and review. Hardiness ranges for the species have not been adequately explored due to limited availability and trial. It is fully hardy to -10F (-20C) and perhaps lower, but it needs further testing to determine the limits of its cold hardiness and heat tolerance. A check of the Master Inventory ofBotanical Taxa published in microfiche form by the Plant Science Data Center lists only two other institutions that are growing this plant. They are the Morton Arboretum in Lisle, Illinois, and the U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C. At present we know of no commercial sources in North America. In order to promote testing, the Arnold Arboretum is willing to supply dormant scion wood to interested nurseries and individuals. Scion wood in quantities of 10 scions per request will be available in January and February, 1981.1 Before receiving this material, you should have rootstocks of Prunus avium on hand and forced for grafting by early January, 1981. Grafting a GARY L. KOLLER Bibliography C. 1948. Ornamental cherries. 259 pp. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Krussmann, G. 1960. Handbuch der Laubgeholze, Vol. 2. 608 pp. Paul Parey, Berlin. Sealy, J. R. 1959. Prunus cyclamina. Curtis's Bot. Mag. 172: t. 338. Wilson, E. H. 1911. Plantae Wilsonianae. Vol. 1. x + 611 pp. The University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Ingram, 1 fray A charge of $16.00 per package of 10 scions will be made to the costs of handling and postage. help de- A stout :nen trunk, strong branch angles, and vigor of growth indicate that the cyclacherry may be robust enough to be useful xn urban landscapes. Note the bands of lenticels that encircle the trunk and stems. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23308","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15e8128.jpg","title":"1980-40-3","volume":40,"issue_number":3,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mr. Dawson, Plantsman Sheila Connor Geary & and B. June Hutchinson","article_sequence":1,"start_page":51,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24774","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd1708128.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":2,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hutchinson, B. June; Geary, Shiela Connor","article_content":"Mr. Dawson, Plantsman by SHEILA CONNOR GEARY and B. JUNE HUTCHINSON ~ There is a special magic experienced in growing plants, and Jackson Thornton Dawson not only was attuned to the magic, he was a master of it. William Trelease, who later became the first director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, met Jackson Dawson in 1884 and described him as \"capable almost of resurrecting a dead stick and certainly of coaxing into vigorous growth a twig found in the pocket of a shooting jacket weeks after this had been laid aside\" (Trelease, 1929). Dawson started work at the Arnold Arboretum in 1873 as Charles Sprague Sargent's first staff member, and his career as propagator and superintendent spanned forty-three exciting years in the Arboretum's development. During these years he raised and distributed throughout the world 450,718 plants and 47,993 packets of seed and received in return from 174,200 plants and 27,729 packets of seed. of the Arboretum's current labors. collectors, arboreta, and botanic gardens Approximately 15-20% living collections are the result of his Sheila Connor Geary, Assistant Librarian, has been at the Arnold Arboretum smce 1970. She is a graduate of the Massachusetts College of Art. Having lived at 1090 Centre Street, Dawson's Arboretum home, she has long been interested in both Jackson Thornton Dawson and his family. B. June Hutchinson, a long-standing Friend of the Arnold Arboretum and an active volunteer since 1970, has been researching with Sheila Connor Geary the early history of the Arboretum. 51 52I Jackson Dawson was born in East Riding in Yorkshire, England, October 5, 1841, and lived there for five years. After his father's death, Jackson and his mother, Elizabeth Thornton Dawson (18211870), came to New York City. Their voyage to America was a perilous one, lasting sixty-five stormy days. The seas were so turbulent on that their small vessel, The Garrick Trask, was driven almost to the Gulf of Mexico. Memories of that journey stayed with Jackson, and a later opportunity to ride the Staten Island Ferry caused the small boy to plead with his mother not to take him on a boat again! Elizabeth (Betsy) Dawson settled with her son on Cherry Street near the Brooklyn Bridge and earned a living by sewing elaborate tape measures for the fashionable tailors of New York. In 1849 a cholera epidemic broke out in New York City. In later years Jackson Dawson would describe the death carts which were driven through the city streets each day and the eerie call from the drivers to \"bring out your dead\". Fortunately the Dawsons survived the epidemic, but the horror of the experience was undoubtedly a factor in Betsy Dawson's decision to move to Massachusetts. Betsy and Jackson went to live with her brother, George J. Thornton. He, his wife Elizabeth, and their three children lived in Andover, where George had a nursery and greenhouse. It was here at the age of eight that Jackson first began to work with plants. He stood on a soap box to reach the workbench and put in cuttings. He was a willing worker and apparently loved plants from a very early age. One family story relates how he hoarded his money and instead of spending it on a toy, purchased a basic text for botany students of the period, Mrs. Lincoln's Botany (Phelps, 1831 or 1833). Jackson remained in Andover until he was a young man, attending school in the winter and working in his uncle's business in the spring and fall. When he was fifteen or sixteen years old, he was appenticed to C. M. Hovey and Company, a noted nursery in Cambridgeport, Massachusetts.*Jackson was diligent, and family records depict a young man who spent long hours working and learning. He was a talented flower-arranger and was soon in charge of the bouquet department at the Hovey nursery. In the evenings he attended a business college, French's Commercial and Nautical Institute, located at 94 Tremont Street in downtown Boston. Established in 1848, the institute became known as French's Business College (1848-1901) and was one of the oldest commercial schools in the United States. Family records also are clear as regards Dawson's personality. A picture of him as a youth reveals an exceedingly handsome face with merry eyes and dark hair. He was well-known for his endless fund of stories and jokes, which he told with great skill and wit. Dawson was fond of relating an early incident that reveals his storytelling ability. One evening, as Dawson and his friends waited for * See \"A Taste for Horticulture\", Arnoldia 40(1):30-48. Betty Blossom Johnson, in son, a biographical sketch of her grandfather, Jackson Dawrecalled that he was a patient, loving man who always had time for the children of the family. \"He was never too busy or too preoccupied that he wouldn't tell us some fascinating story about a little shrub or a big tree, or perhaps the cuttings or grafts he was at work on. And how he could tell a story! Weaving together the details of a plant's journey from some far corner of China or other distant locale to its present spot. His memory was prodigious and I believe he knew intimately every fact about every plant of the many thousands he had raised. He was so modest, tt wasn't until decades later, I was to learn what an important part he, himself, had played in raising these plants\" (Blossom, 1957). Dawson's grandalso described his bushy mustache and twinkling eyes. Both are evident in this photograph of Dawson taken when he was thirty years old and working at the Bussey Institution. Photographer unknown. daughter 54 the doors at the business school to open, he entertained his companions with an Irish joke. William Warren, an actor performing at the nearby Boston Museum, stopped to listen. When Dawson finished telling the story, Warren asked him, \"Are you Irish, my son?\" Mischievously, Dawson answered him with a sentence in Irish dialect, but hastened to add, \"No, thank heavens, I'm not.\" Warren offered to help Dawson with a stage career, but the young plantsman had already chosen his life's work. Warren was indeed a capable judge of Dawson's talents. One of the most popular 19th century comedians, he appeared on the stage in Boston for approximately fifty years and was a member of the stock company at the Boston Museum on Tremont Street, where at that time curiosities as well as paintings were exhibited and theatrical performances presented. Jackson Dawson's first public recognition in the plant world came in 1861 when he was twenty years old. Scotch heather labeled as \"growing wild within twenty miles of Boston\" was displayed that year in a July exhibition at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. A card accompanying the exhibit identified the exhibitor as \"a young gardener of Cambridge.\" Since heather had never been found growing wild on the American continent, the exhibit aroused considerable excitement, and the judges sent a letter to the exhibitor, requesting him to identify the location of the plant. No reply was forthcoming, with the result that the judges declared the incident a hoax. Later, Dawson came forward and explained to the judges that his employer originally had forbidden him to speak. On August 5 he led them to the farm of Charles H. Thwing in Tewksbury, Massachusetts, where heather was indeed growing. The Society awarded Dawson their gold medal and gave him a prize of ten dollars in gold. Since heather in fact is native only to parts of Europe, that growing in Farmer Thwing's land did appear there by accident; later accounts suggest that the heather may have grown from seed which had fallen from packing crates discarded near the site. Charles Mason Hovey suggested the heather may have been mixed in a shipment of pear trees that his nursery supplied to a farmer whose land was upstream from the site of the find. However, at the time everyone believed that Dawson's find was a native plant. Even the eminent Asa Gray, upon reviewing the facts, supported Dawson. Dawson continued to work at the Hovey Nursery and to attend business school until August 1862, when he joined Company G of the Massachusetts 19th Volunteers to fight in the Civil War. He was shot in the battle of Fredericksburg on December 11, 1862. According to a family account, a hole in his jacket over his heart led his companions to believe him dead until they realized that Jackson was still breathing. The Confederate sharpshooter had aimed well, but the bullet had been stopped by the Bible that his mother had given him when they parted. He had instead fallen from I a 55 second bullet and spent the next six months in a hospital in Washington, D.C., recuperating from a leg wound. While recovering, Jackson was not idle. He served as a hospital orderly and helped with the floral decorations for a fund-raising fair sponsored by the Sanitary Commission. Established on June 9, 1861, and functioning until 1866, the Sanitary Commission provided medical care and supplies for the Union Army and was the forerunner of the American Red Cross. Frederick Law Olmsted, America's first landscape architect and the designer of the Arnold Arboretum, was Executive Secretary of the Sanitary Commission and played a major role in the effective functioning of this organization during the Civil War. Jackson's ready wit won many friends for him during his army days, and family accounts suggest he also earned a reputation for being an excellent cook, frequently preparing meals for Company G. Jackson became an American citizen while he was in the Army and cast his first vote in a battlefield ballot box in the Presidential election of 1864. He did not forget his love of plants during the trying war years and collected and sent home to New England packets of seeds and rare plants from the southern states through which he travelled. It is likely that his two former employers, Thornton Brothers and Hovey Company, received his collections. At the end of his enlistment in 1864, Jackson returned to Boston and worked for a time for his old employer, the Hovey nursery. In December 1866 Jackson married Mary (Minnie) McKenna in Andover, Massachusetts. Specific information about the life of Mary McKenna Dawson is meagre. She was born on Saint Patrick's Day, March 17, 1842, in New York City. Her family may have originated in County Kildare, Ireland, as this was the home of her younger brother, Terrance. By early 1868 Mary and Jackson were living in the gardener's cottage of the John Dove Estate in Andover where Jackson was working as gardener. Later photographs of the estate show greenhouses and suggest that the grounds were elaborate. Two sons were born in the gardener's cottage, William Francis on February 10, 1868, and George Walter on March 16, 1870. In 1869, the first year of President Charles W. Eliot's administration at Harvard University, the Bussey Institution was organized. On March 8, 1871, Francis Parkman, historian and horticulturist, was appointed to the original faculty of the Bussey Institution as Professor of Horticulture. This was the first such position established at any American college or university and came thirty-six years after Benjamin Bussey created, in his will, trusts that would establish a School of Agriculture and Horticulture at Harvard. Parkman resigned his position at the Bussey Institution at the end of the academic year due to failing health, but he did see the first enrollment of students in September 1871 and oversaw the planning and construction of the greenhouses, one of the first ranges construct- The greenhouses and headhouse of the Bussey Institution. Jackson and Minnie Dawson and their seven children lived in the apartment over the headhouse from 187I to 1886. Although Jackson Dawson was employed by the Bussey Institution only from 1871 to 1873, he continued to work at the Bussey greenhouses until the Arboretum constructed its own facility in 1886. During the time he worked in the Bussey greenhouses Dawson grew some plant material for Leopold and Rudolph Blaschka, the artists responsible for the Ware Collection of Glass Flowers at Harvard's Botanical Museum. ed by Lord and Burnham. Equally important, in September or early October 1871, he hired Jackson Thornton Dawson as Head Gardener.* The Dawsons moved to Jamaica Plain and occupied an apartment over the headhouse of the greenhouses at the Bussey Institution. This was a living arrangement which however satisfactory to the occupants at the time, caused some concern in the minds of their grandchildren, who upon being told that \"grandfather lived over the greenhouse,\" imagined a very precarious situation! A third son, Charles Jackson, was born promptly upon the Dawsons' arrival in Jamaica Plain on October 14, 1871. Over the fifteen years which Jackson and Minnie lived at the Bussey Institution, five additional children were born, James Frederick on January 13, 1873, Bessie Minnie on November 20, 1875 (Bessie lived only a brief time), Minnie * For an interesting hypothesis concerning Parkman's influence on the selection of a Director for the Arnold Arboretum, see Walter Muir Whitehill, \"Francis Parkman as Horticulturist\", Arnoldia 33(3) : 169-183. 57 Motley on March 26, 1878, Laura Blanchard on January 29, 1881, and on March 24, 1886. The Dawsons often named their children after relatives, but they also included names of family friends. Minnie Motley was named for her mother and the Motleys who were descendants of Benjamin Bussey and lived at Woodland Hill, the original Bussey Estate. Laura Blanchard was named after a prominent family in the area. Henry Sargent probably was named after Charles Sprague Sargent's cousin, Henry Winthrop Sargent. The year following Dawson's arrival at the Bussey Institution, Charles Sprague Sargent was appointed Director of the Harvard Botanic Garden, a newly created position that included the administration of the Bussey Institution as Professor of Horticulture. In addition, on November 24, 1873, Sargent received his third and ultimate charge as Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Sargent held all three positions concurrently for several years; he was Director of the Garden until 1879 and a professor at the Bussey until 1877. Thirty-two years old when he assumed these responsibilities, Sargent was known for his determination, rather than for his scholastic ability ; he had yet to publish a single scientific paper. But Sargent neither allowed an opportunity to pass nor overlooked the merits of any situation, and one of his first official acts as Director of the Arboretum was to hire Jackson Thornton Dawson. Although now officially an Arboretum employee, Dawson continued to work in the greenhouse of the Bussey Institution since the Arboretum did not have a propagation facility and, in fact, existed only as an official document and 120 acres of the Bussey Estate. By 1874 Sargent estimated that Dawson had propagated \"several thousand trees and shrubs\" (Sargent, 1874). Mindful of the Arboretum's charge \"to grow every tree and shrub capable of withstanding the climate of Massachusetts\" and wishing to complement the plants raised from seed sent from all over the world, Sargent turned to the native woody flora of New England to expand the Arboretum's collections. Dawson described his role in this undertaking in an article in a Boston newspaper many years later: \"In one year I collected 50,000 native shrubs to plant in the Arboretum. I also collected all the laurels and the yews\" (Dawson, ca. 1911). As the Arboretum's first plant collector (Sargent made a collecting trip to California and Nevada in 1878), Dawson centered his collections around eastern Massachusetts. A horse and wagon would be rented, and he would set out for Lynn or Swampscott, Taunton or Plymouth. His records indicate that the North Shore was the location for many of his collections ; his trips surely included a visit with his relatives in the area. The Arnold Arboretum archives contain Dawson's early handwritten accession books. The earliest entry for plants collected by Dawson and still growing at the Arboretum is for several Ilex verticillata which he collected in 1872 in Reading, Massachusetts. These Henry Sargent 58 plants are growing in the deciduous holly beds behind the Aesculus collection. Dawson's workload increased as Sargent began to explore and combine his various administrative responsibilities. In 1875 he described his progress in combining activities at the Bussey greenhouses in two separate reports, one as Director of the Arnold Arboretum and one as Director of the Botanic Garden. In the report on the Arboretum he notes that \"the Green-houses of the Bussey Institution having been placed at my disposal for uses of the Arboretum, they have been devoted to the raising of forest and ornamental trees and shrubs for future plantations ... and 165 species have been added to the collection. Probably over 100,000 ligneous plants have been raised during the nine [preceeding] months\" (Sargent, 1875b). And in the report on the Botanic Garden he notes that \"the department of propagation of the Botanic Garden has been transferred to the Arboretum with excellent results in every way, materials for the botanical classes [held] during the winter, which were formerly raised at the Garden, are now either raised at the Bussey Institution or purchased\" (Sargent, 1875a). When Dawson was not engaged in propagating, raising, or collecting plants, he had the nursery areas to manage and the planting to supervise. Although Sargent always described the nursery plants as being in \"excellent\" and \"flourishing\" condition, it was evident that overcrowding had become a serious problem by 1876, and under Dawson's supervision the nurseries were expanded on a yearly basis. Dawson collected another 2,500 specimens of New England plants during 1877, and as a partial solution to the problem of overcrowding, the policy was adopted that year to \"select six of the best specimens of each species, and plant them in the nurseries\" (Sargent, 1878). This policy freed excess plant material for the vigorous program of plant distribution accompanying the Arboretum's acquisition drive. To Dawson fell the responsibility of collecting and preparing the plants and packets of seed to be sent to arboreta, botanic gardens, nurseries, and individuals. It was through this interaction that his reputation as a skilled propagator and plantsman began to grow. Frederick Law Olmsted had been working on a design for both a road system and an arrangement of plantings for the Arboretum since 1878, and when in December 1882 the negotiations between Harvard University and the City of Boston were finally concluded, the actual work of implementing his design began. Until construction of the road system was initiated in 1883, no permanent plantings, except for border plantations, had been attempted, but now material grown in the nurseries could be moved into the perBy 1885 Sargent was able to report that \"Trees and shrubs to the number of 2,574 have been moved from the different nurseries into permanent boundary and other plantations\" (Sar- plant manent collections. gent, 1886). Road construction in the Arboretum began in 1883, and the plant families in the permanent systematic collection were sited as the road work progressed. Top: This photograph, taken in October 1890, shows the area around Lily and Bussey Hill Ponds. Bottom: Construction of the roadway at the Walter Street entrance, October 1899. Photographs by the Boston Park Commission. 60I Sargent intended that native plant material be used along the roadways. By 1886 one third of the road system had been completed, and Dawson was able that year to collect and plant in permanent positions along the completed portions \"62,000 shrubs from the woods in different parts of New England\" (Sargent, 1887). Sargent's only interest in the Bussey Institution was in its facilities and staff. His relationship with the Bussey could not have been improved by hiring Charles Edward Faxon in 1882 as his second Arboretum staff member. Faxon, like Dawson, was originally on the Bussey staff, having been an instructor at the Bussey since 1879. Now that the Arboretum was beginning to develop rapidly, the tension between the two institutions must have escalated even further. Although Dawson continued to carry on his work at the Bussey greenhouses long after Sargent's Arboretum office was moved to the nearby Sargent family estate, a description of a new greenhouse for the Arboretum appeared in Sargent's annual report of 1886. At the time Sargent characteristically referred to the new arrangement as an improvement. A dwelling house, with an acre of ground adjoining the Centre Street entrance, has been taken on a long lease from the Trustees of the Adams Nervine Asylum. A small propagation house, better adapted to the reduced requirements of the Arboretum than the larger houses of the Bussey Institution which have been occupied for this purpose during several years, has been built at this point. The rest of the leased land will be used as a frame yard and nursery: the dwelling house will be occupied by the superintendent of the Arboretum (Sargent, 1887). Jackson and Minnie Dawson moved in the summer of 1886 to the house at 1090 Centre Street, their home for the remainder of their lives. Plants soon were crowded into every available niche of the new greenhouse, which measured only 50 by 20 feet. \"This workshop this tiny greenhouse,\" wrote Ernest Henry Wilson, \"is the cradle of the Arnold Arboretum, and Jackson Dawson is, and has been from the commencement, not only nurse but foster-father also\" (Wilson, 1916a). Dawson's knowledge of plants was uncanny. Often working with material that would be brought into cultivation for the first time through his efforts, his successes were legendary. Charles Sargent doubted there could be any problem in propagation that Dawson could not overcome and considered no one superior to him in ability. In 1882 Dr. Emil Bretschneider, physician to the Russian Legation at Peking, sent to the Arboretum its first wild-collected seed of Asiatic plants. Bretschneider had also sent in 1879, 1880, and 1881 similar collections of north China plants to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, and the Imperial Botanic 1090 Centre Street, the Dawsons' home and the site of the Arboretum's first greenhouse and nursery area, was leased from the Trustees of the Adams Nervine Asylum by the Arboretum in 1886. The property has a long history of ownership. A deed dated January 4, 1769, describes the original farm as \"situated on both sides of the road leading from the Jamaica Plain Meeting House, so called, to Dedham\". Later deeds recording divisions of the property are dated 1806, 1872, and 1877. In 1882 Annie May Glover conveyed her parcel, now containing 1090 Centre Street, to the Adams Nervine Asylum. Top: This photograph of 1090 Centre Street was taken by Jackson Dawson's son, William, around 1900 and shows on the doorstep one in the succession of brown collies that were Jackson's constant companions. Bottom: This photograph, taken in 1900 or earlier, shows the view from the second floor of the house looking toward the Bussey Institution. Photographer unhnown. An undated group photograph taken by William Dawson in the greenhouse at 1090 Centre Street. The envelope for the glass plate negative lists the members of the group, from left to right, as \"Father, Wm. Dawkins, Charlie, Martin Daly, Harry and Gus Gilman.\" From archival records at the Arboretum, Martin Daly can be identified as Dawson's asststant. Gus Gilman, the man in uniform, was the member of the Boston Police Force permanently assigned to patrol the Arboretum. Dawson's grandchildren, Charles William Dawson and Frances Dawson White, recall that Patrolman Gilman was stationed at the Arboretum for many years and rigorously enforced the Parh Department's rules, particularly the one that forbids the picking of flowers. Charlie is Charles Jackson Dawson, who by the time this picture was taken may have already established the family nursery business, Eastern Nurseries. Harry is Henry Sargent Dawson, the youngest of the Dawson children, who later took over the management of Eastern Nurseries. William Dawhins cannot be identified. St. Petersburg (Leningrad). The three institutions were successful in germinating most of the seeds received, but in England and France all attempts with the oaks failed. Dawson was able to propagate almost all of the seed including Quercus dentata and Quercus variabilis. On October 15, 1882, Bretschneider wrote to Sargent, \"I am glad to hear that the acorns I sent you last autumn have germinated, and I accept your kind proposal to forward a few specimens of the young plants to Europe. I have several times sent . acorns to Paris and London. They have never germinated\" (Bretschneider, 1882). How pleased Sargent must have been to supply this material! The Bretschneider collection represented 91 different genera ; Dawson was able to propagate all but 6, and 18 of the original Bretschneider plants (or propagants from the plants), including the two oaks, are still growing at the Arnold Arboretum. Dawson delighted in his profession; he loved plants, and he loved to share his knowledge with the hundreds of plantsmen who came from all over the world to visit with him in his greenhouse or to Gardens, ~J I 63 - walk with him through the Arboretum. Ernest Henry Wilson and Jackson Dawson were both colleagues and friends. The one letter in the Arnold Arboretum archives written by Dawson is to Wilson in China. Wilson first met Dawson on a Sunday afternoon, April 8, 1899, seven years before he began his plant collecting for the Arboretum. \"My first knock at the door of his home was answered by his hearty 'come right in.' the few days I spent in the Arnold Arboretum in Jackson Dawson's company were more than ordinarily profitable to me. He, in that generous way of his, showed me all over the establishment and I was astonished and bewildered at what I saw, more especially at the size of the shrubs and trees raised from seeds, cuttings or grafts by the skilled craftsman who was my guide\" (Sargent, et. al., 1916). It would be impossible to reconstruct fully the conversations between Dawson and his visitors during their walks, but Wilson once described Dawson commenting on the different plants in the collections: ... \"This came plant came from -, this was raised from seeds which from Dakota or from the White Mountains, that from seeds collected by Bretschneider in China or by Sargent in Japan; this is a grafted plant, and that is from a cutting received from - in ...(Wilson, 1916a). - Dawson shared his knowledge of plants in other ways, and anycalculated to further genuine interest in horticulture was sure to find ready support from him. He became a member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1872 and was actively interested in its work throughout his life, serving as a member of several committees and publishing papers in the Society's publications. By 1885 he was no longer \"a young gardener of Cambridge\", but an established plantsman able to speak with authority on the art of plant propagation. On March 7 of that year he lectured on the \"Propagation of Trees and Shrubs from Seed\". The lecture was published in the Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for the Year 1885 and was considered so valuable a paper that it was reprinted 39 years later in the Year Book of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society (Benson, 1929). In 1894 Dawson spoke at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on budding and grafting; according to Albert Benson, \"after the lecture many of his hearers gathered about him ... the scene was a master with his disciples\" (Benson, 1929). Dawson lectured again in 1909 on \"The Different Methods of Propagation of Plants\". Dawson was one of the original 120 members of the Gardeners' and Florists' Club of Boston and was elected president of the club in 1893, six years after its founding. The object of the club, described in typical Victorian terms, was \"to unite the individual interests in horticulture, that they may better lift up and carry forward all that tends to advance the interests of its members\" (The Gardeners' and thing This lovely photograph is another example of William Dawson's work. His comment on the negative envelope describes the photograph as \"the first picture of the original Dawson rose\". Jackson Dawson described his rose in 1911 in the magazine Country It grew about nine feet Life in America: \"I obtained the Dawson rose in 1883 high, spread fifteen or twenty feet, and was covered with thousands of flowers in the early part of June\" (Dawson, 1911 ). ... 65 Florists' Club of Boston, 1893). Dawson was also, for a number of years, a member of the Society of American Florists and served on the executive committee of the Society from 1895 through 1897. On September 6, 1911, the Horticultural Club of Boston held its first meeting. Jackson Dawson was one of the original 20 charter members. In a printed program for the 300th meeting of the Club on May 9, 1951, these early members were described as \"the horticultural giants of their day ... those whose names are written in capital letters in the annals of horticulture\" (Bromfield, 1951 ). In the early 1900's there was some controversy among committee members at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society concerning the awarding of cultivation prizes. The problem had troubled the prize committee before. Who was to be given the prize, the estate owner or the gardener? The decision was made to publish the names of both in the Society's Transactions. In 1909 George Robert White, a Boston philanthropist and an influential member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, gave the Society $2,500, the interest from which each year was to be used to award a gold medal \"to the man or woman, commercial firm or institution that has done the most during the year to advance the interest in Horticulture in its broadest sense\" (Benson, 1929). In 1910, the first year the medal was awarded, it went by unanimous vote to Charles Sprague Sargent, estate owner, scientist, and Director of the Arnold Arboretum. The following year it was awarded to Jackson Thornton Dawson, gardener, plantsman, and Propagator of the Arnold Arboretum. In addition to his work as a plant propagator, Dawson's hobby or avocation (he called it his by-play) was rose hybridization. He played an important part in the production of a new race of roses of American character, the ramblers, and between 1894 and 1909 won nine silver medals for his roses from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Dawson described how he the era. began to work with a roses in the June of entitled the Rose Lovers Number. Charles Sprague Sargent was the consulting editor, and the two lead articles were written by Sargent and Dawson. The cover illustration was a watercolor of the Sargent rose, painted by George W. Dawson, Jackson's second son. Jackson Dawson noted that he \"began hybridizing roses in the early eighties ... with the white-flowered variety of [Rosa] multiflora. I made my first cross with multiflora and General Jacqueminot [a famous old hybrid rose introduced in 1852, dark crimson in color] Of course I hoped to get double or semi-double roses, and I also wished to retain the hardiness and climbing habit of multiflora. At first I failed, but at last a break was made and all sorts of forms were secured. As usual, most of them were worthless\" (Dawson, 1911). At a meeting of the Horticultural Club of Boston on February 4, 1914, Dawson revealed that it took three years 15, 1911, issue of Country Life in America, The issue was popular periodical ... 66 get the first color break. Dawson worked primarily with three roses introduced to America late in the 19th century, Rosa multiflora from Japan, Rosa rugosa from Japan, Korea, and eastern Siberia, and Rosa wichuraiana, another Japanese species. His first to species success was a tall hardy climber with bright rose-pink blooms appropriately named 'Dawson'. Other Dawson hybrids included 'Minnie Dawson', 'Daybreak', 'Amoldiana', 'W. C. Egan', 'Crimson Rambler', 'Farquhar', 'Sargent', and 'Lady Duncan'. Jackson Dawson frequently named his roses, as he had his children, after friends. Both Francis Parkman and Charles Sprague Sargent were rose fanciers and surely influenced Dawson. As early as 1874, entries in Parkman's garden diaries record conversations with Dawson about the proper method for handling rose cuttings and successful watering techniques. According to Walter Muir Whitehill, Parkman \"is said to have had at one time over a thousand varieties\" of roses in his garden near Jamaica Pond which, due to his arthritis, he often tended from a wheelchair ( Whitehill, 1973). \"One of my dreams\" is how Sargent described his ambition to have an extensive collection of hybrid roses at the Arboretum. In a letter to J. H. McFarland, editor of The American Rose Annual, Sargent even suggested that some wealthy person might come forward and aid in establishing such a collection and thus \"perpetuate his name in the world of horticulture for at least a thousand years\" (McFarland, 1917). Jackson and Minnie Dawson's children must have been a source of great pride to them. The wide range of talents and interests in their children's lives attest to a sensitive upbringing and to the influence of a father dedicated to propagating and hybridizing plants, an influence reinforced by uncles who were nurserymen and florists. Surrounded by plants at the Dove Estate, the Bussey Institution, and the Arboretum, it was natural the Dawson children would develop interests and choose careers that included plants and the landscape, careers not only in horticulture and the nursery trade, but in botany, landscape architecture, photography, and painting. The oldest child, William, spent the summer of 1880 employed as an office boy by the Arboretum. He worked under the direction of John Robinson, who was in charge of the herbarium at Dwight House, a cottage on the grounds of Holm Lea, the Sargent family estate in Brookline. Dwight House held the herbarium, library, and Director's office until 1892, when Horatio Hollis Hunnewell donated funds for the construction of a building on the Arboretum grounds. Although William Dawson eventually chose engineering as a profession, a choice that branded him by the family as somewhat of a renegade, he had as an avocation the study of photography. His subject matter was often nature, particularly landscapes. Through the generosity of his family, the Arboretum has some of William's glass plate negatives. Several of his photographs appear in this article. George, the Dawson's second child, attended the Massachusetts Minnie, Harry (locks unshorn), and Laura Dawson photographed in the greenhouse by their oldest brother William about 1891. The greenhouse was small, and pictures were taken just inside the door with the subjects posed against the first bench. As adults, these three Dawson children each managed Eastern Nurseries. Normal Art School, now the Massachusetts College of Art, and graduated in 1893. He continued his studies at the Pennsylvania Academy of Fine Arts and became an Instructor in Instrumental Drawing at the University of Pennsylvania in the fall of 1893. By 1911 he was Professor of Freehand Drawing and Watercolor, and in 1921 the University awarded him an honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts. Well known as a painter in watercolor of gardens, landscapes, and flowers, his knowledge of plants eventually led to his designing gardens and teaching landscape design. Charles, the third son, attended classes at the Bussey Institution and worked there as a gardener in 1895. In 1901 he incorporated Eastern Nurseries, using 1090 Centre Street, the family home, as a business address. Originally some of the land at Centre Street was used as a nursery, but soon after the business became established, the plants were grown in Holliston, Massachusetts. On the cover of the nursery's first catalog, published in 1901, M. M. Dawson was listed as manager. Minnie Dawson remained manager of the business Two of George Walter Dawson's paintings done while he was still a student at the Massachusetts Normal Art School. Both were painted in the Arboretum. The house in the top picture probably is 383 South Street. George was one of the founders of the Philadelphia Watercolor Club and was its president for twenty-five years. He designed gardens in Pennsylvania and Massachusetts. Charles Jackson Dawson and Frances Dawson White generously allowed us to photograph the original paintings. of the Dawson family taken on Labor Day weekend, 1901. First row, left to right: Jackson Thornton Dawson (1841-1916); Mary Elizabeth Dawson (on Jackson's Lap), the daughter of William Francis and Julia Hoffman Dawson; Mary McKenna (Mznnze) Dawson (1842-1902). Second row, left to right: Minnie Motley Dawson (1878-1922); Julia Hoffman Dawson, the wife of William Francis Dawson (1871-1954); Henry Sargent (Harry) Dawson (1886-1938); William Francis Dawson (1868-1939); Laura Blanchard Dawson (1881-1930). Third row, left to right: James Frederick (Fred) Dawson (1873-1941); Charles Jackson (Charlie) Dawson (1871-1902); George Walter (Walt) Dawson (18701938). Not included is Bessie Minnie Dawson, who died soon after her birth in 1875. Photograph by W. Dawson. A portrait for many years. In the beginning she was assisted at times by Laura Dawson. Eventually, Henry Dawson and his wife Pauline joined them. Although Charles died in 1902, the nursery remained in the family until 1974. George designed a display garden adjacent to the nursery and lived there during the summer months, and Laura moved to a house at the nursery after the death of her father. James, the fourth son, became a landscape architect. He studied landscape architecture at the Bussey Institution, receiving his degree with the Harvard class of 1896, and joined the office of Olmsted, Olmsted, and Eliot. He became an associate of the firm in 1906 and a full partner in 1922. After James's death, Frederick Law Olmsted, Jr., noted that \"the design of public parks and park systems enlisted much of [James's] effort and even more of his enthusiasm\" (Olmsted, 1941). James is credited as principal designer of a great many projects of Olmsted, Olmsted, and Eliot, and the park systems he worked on included the Seattle and Spokane Park Systems in Washington, the Essex and Union County Parks in New Jersey, the Louis... 70I ville Parks in Kentucky, and Fort Tyron Park in New York. Among many other projects, he also designed the arboretum at the University of Washington in Seattle. Both Minnie and Laura Dawson attended Girls' Latin School. Laura went on to Radcliffe College and immediately after graduating in 1903, became a resident instructor at Lowthrope, a school of landscape architecture for women. The school, located in Groton, Massachusetts, had been founded in 1901 by Mrs. Edward Gilchrist Low.*Laura considered teaching her most important accomplishment. She described Lowthrope as having \"grown ... from a trembling vision with one student, to a substantial professional school of first rank\" (Dawson, 1928). This opinion was shared by Charles W. Eliot, who wrote in 1916 that \"Lowthrope is the best place I know for training women to be landscape architects\" (Cogswell, [undated]). In 1946 Lowthrope, along with some of its faculty, students, and equipment, was taken over by the Rhode Island School of died in 1902, leaving Jackson with only Minnie and When Laura's sister, Minnie, married Harold Hill a landscape architect who worked for a time with James Blossom, Dawson at Olmsted, Olmsted, and Eliot and taught at the Lowthrope School, Laura assumed more responsibility for both the family business and the care of her father. Although only Laura and Jackson lived at 1090 Centre Street, it was the site of many family gatherings. The Arboretum archives contain an account of a Dawson Christmas written by William Judd, then newly employed by the Arnold Arboretum. The year was 1913, when Jackson was 72 and the Dawson children all long past childhood. However, the Christmas gathering was perhaps particularly festive since it also was an occasion to greet a new family member, Hazel Lease, James's new wife. Judd's diary describes the scene: Laura at home. my first Christmas away from England & it felt strange, but still I found I possessed some certainly good friends which certainly took the feeling away a good deal. Mr. Dawson was good enough to ask me to spend the day with him, which I gladly accepted. We enjoyed a capital New England Xmas dinner partaken of by about twenty persons at four o'clock. Several of his children & also Mr. & Mrs. Wilson were there. There was lots of good things to eat & drink, including turkey, \"grape fruit,\" & champagne. The table looked very cheerful lit with candles, & the large logs blazing brightly on the open door fireplace, gave came Design. Mary Dawson Then - * Mrs. Low is described in a Lowthrope pamphlet as \"the great granddaughter of the founder of the Bussey Institute\" (Cogswell, [undated] ). Presumably she was a descendent of Benjamin Bussey. 71 wonderful appearance of Xmas. Almost all the candles extinguished when the plum pudding was fired & everybody was happy. After dinner several more friends turned up & we spent a very enjoyable evening with music, etc. & moreover there were presents for everybody & the old gentleman gave me a nicely illustrated book on the \"Wildflowers of N. America\" by Mathews (Judd, 1912it a were 1915). According to custom, the newest member of the family was served the plum pudding first, and in order to insure good luck \"the pudding must be aflame when she received it\" (White, 1980). Francis White, Jackson's oldest grandchild, remembers her grandfather was quite liberal in his pouring to accomplish this feat. The next major passage in William Judd's diary about Mr. Dawson was written almost three years later. Today Aug. 5. 1916 Mr. Dawson was buried having died on Thursday Aug. 3. about 3 o'clock in the afternoon. His illness has lasted since last April, & he has done no work since that time. There was a large number of people at his funeral service today at St. Johns Episcopal Church, Jamaica Plain, at 12.30 pm. after which the body was buried at Andover. Mass. at Christ Church. In his death the world loses a very skillful & celebrated gardener & one who will be hardly replaced (Judd, 1915-1921). On Wednesday, August 9, 1916, Prof. William Judd wrote in his diary: was to came to see me & gave me to understand I succeed Mr. Dawson as propagator of the trees & shrubs for the Arnold Arboretum.... If I ever become so skillful a propagator as Mr. Dawson I shall feel more than satisfied with myself (Judd, 1915-1921). Sargent After Jackson Dawson's death the Horticultural Club of Boston a committee to plan a suitable memorial. The committee wanted the memorial to reach beyond the limits of the Club and published a subscription announcement that described their intentions and enlisted the support of \"all who appreciated the man and his great work\" (Roland, [undated]). The committee noted that it hoped to receive \"small sums, particularly... since his friends are everywhere throughout this country and ... everyone of them will want to contribute something\" (Wilson, 1920). The Club raised three thousand dollars and placed the amount with the Trustees of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The interest was \"to be used for prizes, lectures and medals, or, as the trustees may direct\" ( [Roland], 1924). In 1927 the Society established the Jackson Dawson Memorial Medal, awarded by vote of the Trustees \"for skill in the science appointed 72 and practice of hybridization (Benson, 1929). and propagation of hardy woody plants\" The tributes written in 1916 in memory of Jackson Dawson are filled with the fulsome praise that characterized the memorials of the period. He was described as \"The Walt Whitman of Horticulture\" ([Horticulture], 1916) and \"One of the world's greatest gardeners\" (Boston Globe, 1916). However, the theme that occured most often was that Jackson Dawson was a man loved and respected for his personality as well as his ability, a man who left a living legacy of beautiful things to all. Charles Sprague Sargent wrote in his annual report of 1917 a memorial to Dawson's work. \"Dawson brought to the Arboretum industry, intelligence, imagination and entire devotion, and much of its success is due to his labors\" (Sargent, 1918). References of the City of Lawrence. 1857. J. H. Bums, Lawrence, Massachusetts. Bailey, S. L. 1880. Historical sketches of Andover. Houghton, Mifflin & Co., Boston. Benson, A. E. 1929. History of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston. Blossom, B. 1957. My most unforgettable character. Manuscript, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. Boston American. Friday, August 4, 1916. Dawson, head of Arboretum, dies suddenly. Boston. Boston Evening Transcript. Friday, August 4, 1916. A Bostonian's legacy. Boston. Boston Globe. Friday, August 4, 1916. Famous gardener dead. Boston. Boston Herald. Friday, August 4, 1916. Supt. Dawson of Arboretum dies suddenly. Boston. Plant wizard Dawson honored. [ca. 1911.] Newspaper clipping, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. Bretschneider, E. October 15, 1882. Letter to C. S. Sargent, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. Bromfield, L. 1951. Horticultural Club of Boston. Program of 300th meeting, Parker House, May 9, 1951. Library, The Arnold ArboreA directory tum. Cogswell, for A. L. women. [n. d.] Lowthrope: a school of landscape architecture Groton, Massachusetts. Dawson, J. T. 1874-1916. Plant accession record books. Bound record books, 4 volumes, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. -. -. 1885. The propagation of trees and shrubs from seed. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1885(1): 145-166. [Also Yearbook Mass. Hort. Soc. 1924:46-65.] 1890. Shrubs that are perfectly hardy. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1889 ( 1 ) : 71-88. -. 1891. The Arnold Arboretum. Ibid. 1889(2):261-265. a most genial, straightforward temperament. His was a nature irrepressibly and perennially kindly. To his intimates he extended a strength and depth of friendship of profound intensity, and it begat like friendship in return, To know him was to love him, and to love him dearly. He was a good citizen, a most desirable neighbor, a priceless friend and the dearest father; a sturdy, upstanding, whole-souled man, every inch of him\" (Mische [President of the American Association of Park Superintendents], 1916). Photographer unknown. \"Jackson Dawson had 74 -. 1895-1899. Account books for labor payroll. Bound account books, 2 volumes, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. -. -. 1896. 115-136. 1909. Budding and grafting. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1895( 1 ) : Ibid. The different methods of propagation culture. of plants. 1909 ( 1 ) : 131-149. -. 1911. America's contribution to rose Country Life Amer. for women. 20(4):22-23. Dawson, L. B. -. 1910. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1928. Horticulture as a profession Trans. 1910( 1 ) : 67-78. 25th anniversary report; Class of Letter to R. A. 1903. Radcliffe College, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Eldridge, A. G. April 4, 1956. Arnold Arboretum. Howard, Archives, The Gardeners' and Florists' Club of Boston. 1893. Constitution, by-laws, and list of officers and members of the Gardeners' and Florists' Club of Boston. Boston. [Horticulture]. 1916. A master spirit gone. Horticulture (Boston) 24(7): 200. Hovey, C. M. 1861. Is the heath 419-421. a native plant? Mag. Hort. Bot. 27(9): Judd, W. H. 1881-1946. The days of my life; an autobiography, or memories of an interesting life. Diary, 7 volumes, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. King, M. 1883. King's hand-book of Boston, 5th ed. M. King, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Koyl, G. S. 1938. Dr. George Walter Dawson. The Club Woman's Jour- nal 3(6):8-9. Lawrence directory 1883, The. McFarland, J. -. H. 1917. Annual 2: 114. 1883. Sampson, Davenport, Boston. In memoriam: Jackson Dawson. Amer. Rose 1917. Roses in the Arnold Arboretum. Ibid. 2:84-89. Mische, E. T. 1916. In memoriam - Jackson Thornton Dawson. Gard. Chron. Amer. 20 ( 8 ) : 355, 366. Mollord, J., compiler. 1978. Greater Lawrence: a bibliography. Merrimack Valley Textile Museum, North Andover, Massachusetts. Montreal Star. Tuesday, August 8, 1916. Jackson Dawson, plant wizard, has passed away. Montreal, Canada. Olmsted, F. L. [Jr.][1941.] James Frederick Dawson: January 13, 1874April 23, 1941. Manuscript, Archives, Frederick Law Olmsted National Historic Site, Brookline, Massachusetts. Parkman, F. 1886. The book of roses. J. E. Tilton & Co., Boston. Partridge, A. L. May 12, 1932. Letter to H. H. Wellwood, Esq., Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. [Title search.] ] Phelps, A. H. L. 1831. Familiar lectures on botany, 2nd. ed. H. & F. J. Huntington, Hartford. 1833. Botany for beginners. F. J. Huntington, Hartford. Rehder, A. 1936. On the history of the introduction of woody plants -. into North America. E. M. Tucker, trans. Natl. Hort. 280. [Also Arnoldia 6(4-5): 13-23.] 1 Mag. 15(4) :245- 75 Robinson, B. L. 1930. Botany, 1869-1929, in S. E. Morison, ed., The de- velopment dent Eliot, of Harvard University since the 1869-1929, pp. 338-377. Massachusetts. Harvard inauguration of PresiUniversity Press, Cambridge, Roland, T. [n.d.] Jackson Dawson Memorial.Pamphlet, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. [Roland, T.] 1924. Memorial Soc. 1924:45. Sargent, C. S. 1874. to Jackson Dawson. Yearbook Mass. Hort. Report of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, presented to the President and Fellows of Harvard University. Bull. Bussey lnst. 1 ( 13 ) : 293-294. . -. . -. -. -. . -. 1875a. Botanic Garden, in Annual reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1874-75, pp. 87-88. 1875b. Report of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, presented to the President and Fellows of Harvard University. Bull. Bussey Inst. 1(25):455-456. 1878. Botanic Garden and Arboretum, in Annual reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1877-78, pp. 124-128. 1886. The Arnold Arboretum, in Annual reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1885-86, pp. 147-152. 1887. The Arnold Arboretum, in Annual reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1886-87, pp. 122-124. 1911. Roses in the United States - their limitations and their possibilities. Country Life Amer. 20(4): 19-21. 1917. The Arnold Arboretum, in Annual reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College, 1916-17, pp. 207-209. 1923. The first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. J. Arnold Arbor. 3(3):127-171. -, E. H. Wilson, W. A. Manda, T. A. Havemeyer, P. O'Mara, & E. T. Mische. 1916. Jackson Dawson - in memoriam. Horticulture (Boston) 24(7):201-202. Sunday Herald, The. Sunday, January 8, medal of honor. Boston. 1911. Winner of horticultural Trelease, W. 1929. Biographical memoir of Charles Sprague Sargent. Biogr. Mem. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 12(9):247-270. Wilson, E. H. 1916a. Jackson T. Dawson: his work and his workshop. Horticulture (Boston) 23(2):40-41. -. 1916b. Some new roses introduced by the Arnold Arboretum dur- ing the past decade. -. Amer. Rose Annual 1:37~1. 1920. A memorial to Jackson Thornton Dawson. Manuscript, LiThe Arnold Arboretum. White, F. D. 1925. Jackson Thornton Dawson: highlights. Manuscript, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. March 21, 1980. Taped interview, Archives, The -, & C. W. Dawson. Arnold Arboretum. Whitehill, W. M. 1973. Francis Parkman as horticulturist. Arnoldia brary, 33 ( 3 ) : 169-185. Young, W. C. 1975. Famous actors and R. R. Bowker, New York. actresses on the American stage. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Bladdernuts","article_sequence":2,"start_page":76,"end_page":93,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24776","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd1708526.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":2,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Bladdernuts by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The month of May is the peak of bloom for woody plants in New England. The majority of azaleas, lilacs, magnolias, crabapples, and other favorite and familiar trees and shrubs bloom during the month, and they provide such a spectacular display that many other fine but less showy ornamental plants are often overlooked. A good example of these neglected ornamentals are the bladdernuts, the genus Staphylea. The seven to ten species are shrubs or small trees with white to pink, often fragrant flowers borne in drooping to pendent panicles in mid-May. The flowers of all the species are distinctly charming, but unlike those of crabapples or magnolias, must be viewed close at hand to be appreciated. The flowers are followed by curious papery, bladderlike fruits with very hard, nutlike seeds, which are ornamental through the summer and the fall, somewhat compensating for the lack of good autumn foliage color. All the species are woodland plants so they grow and flower well in full deciduous shade. They will succeed in any good, well-drained soil; they have no major insect pests; and the truly hardy species require minimal maintenance, looking their best with very occasional removal of the oldest stems. Admittedly, some of the species will reRichard E. Weaver, Jr. is editor of Arnoldia and a horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum. One of his primary duties at present is the restoration of the plantings of the Arboretum to the spirit of the original SargentOlmsted plan. His profiles of various plant groups have appeared regularly in Arnoldia for the past ten years. 76 The hybrid Staphylea x coulombieri usually bears both two-celled capsules as in S. pinnata and three-celled capsules as in S. colchica. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. 77 A young plant of Staphylea pinnata while immature as fruits, as even the flowers. Photograph by in the Arnold Arboretum. The conspicuous in this photograph, are nearly as ornamental R. E. Weaver, Jr. main curiosities, cultivated in arboreta or botanic gardens for their botanical interest. But several are first-rate ornamentals and deserve to be cultivated more widely. Unfortunately, none of the species are readily available commercially at present. It is hoped this article will stimulate some interest among nurserymen, encouraging them at least to test the potential of these plants as ornamentals. Staphylea is the type genus of the small family Staphyleaceae. The largest genus, Turpinia, is widely distributed through both the Old and New World tropics. Another genus, Euscaphis, with its single species E. japonica distributed in Japan, Korea, and China, is occasionally cultivated, but is not quite hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Staphylea itself has a classic Arcto-Tertiary distribution. Plants with such a distribution pattern were once more or less continuously distributed across the entire North Temperate Zone. With time their ranges became restricted to several discrete and widely separated areas within that vast expanse: southeastern United States, A flowering branch of Staphylea pinnata, showing the pendent inflorescence and the roundish, pearl-like flowers typical of this species. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. western United or States, eastern temperate Asia, the Himalaya Mountains, the Caucasus Mountains, and central Europe. At present one two species of Staphylea are native in each of these areas. The species of Staphylea are weakly to strongly stoloniferous shrubs with numerous arching, sparsely branched stems. In the wild they tend to be loose and unkempt, but in cultivation form attractive, vase-shaped shrubs. A few species occasionally grow to be small trees. The leaves are deciduous and opposite, as in the hardy members of the closely related maple family, and compound with finely serrate leaflets. The leaves of most species are trifoliolate, with three leaflets, but two species have pinnately compound leaves with five to seven leaflets at least on the non-flowering shoots. The flowers appear mostly with the leaves in more or less erect but usually drooping to pendent racemes or panicles. The flowers are perfect with five sepals, barely fused at their bases and often nearly as long as the five free, white to pink petals; five stamens; and a two- to three-parted pistil Leaves of the various Staphylea species. (a) S. trifolia ; ( b ) S. bolanderi; (c) S. holocarpa; (d) S. bumalda; (e) S. colchica; (f) S. pinnata. Drawings by J. Hicks. 81 with as many separate styles. The base of the superior ovary is surrounded by a fleshy, nectar-secreting disklike gland. The common name of the genus is derived from the unique fruits, which are actually papery, inflated, bladder-like, two- to three-celled capsules, with a few large, nutlike seeds with lustrous and extremely hard seed coats in each cell at maturity. The fruits develop rapidly after the flowers fade, and they persist into the fall or early winter, providing ornament for a long period of time. Key A. to the Identification of the Cultivated Species of Staphylea Leaves with 3 leaflets. B. Terminal leaflets and panicles usually sessile (stalkless); fruits 5. S. bumalda. 2-parted, flattened. B. Terminal leaflets and panicles on long slender stalks; fruits 3parted, inflated. C. Panicles appearing before the leaves from lateral buds on year4. S. holocarpa. old wood; fruits unlobed at apex. C. Panicles appearing with the leaves on short, lateral, leafy branchlets; fruits 3-lobed at apex. D. Leaflets typically nearly round in outline; stamens con2. S. bolanderi. spicuously projecting beyond the petals. D. Leaflets typically oval in outline; stamens more or less enclosed by the petals. E. Plants usually shrubby; flowers less than 1\/2 inch long; fruits less than 11\/2 inches long at maturity. 1. S. trifolia. E. Plants usually treelike; flowers about 1\/2 inch long; fruits usually more than 2 inches long at maturity. 3. S. emodii. A. Leaves with 5-7 leaflets or with only 3 leaflets on the flowering shoots. F. Panicles horizontal to slightly drooping; flowers with the fragrance of orange blossoms; sepals widely spreading, exposing the petals, which form a \"tube\" around the stamens; fruits more or less pearshaped, longer than broad, becoming brittle and shedding their seeds while still attached to the plants. G. Flowers pure white; leaves on flowering branchlets with 3 6. S. colchica. leaflets; fruits usually 3-parted. G. Flowers white, but the sepals tinged purple at their tips; leaves on flowering branchlets with 3-5 leaflets; fruits usually 27. S. X coulombieri. parted. F. Panicles pendent, hanging vertically; flowers with a faint spicy fragrance; sepals spreading only at their tips, more or less enclosing the petals; fruits more or less globular, about as long as broad, remaining soft and pliable and falling from the plants with the seeds still enclosed......... 8. S. pinnata. ........ .... Staphylea trifolia Linnaeus Our native bladdernut, Staphylea trifolia, is widely distributed in eastern North America from southern Canada to the northern Gulf states and eastward from the Mississippi Valley, but it has always been one of our lesser known native shrubs. There does not appear 1. 82I it, nor have references been located the American Indians. Finding it in the wild by documenting has always been exciting for me, perhaps because it often is an indicator of rich forests with an interesting and varied flora. It usually grows as an understory shrub, often forming dense colonies as a result of root suckering, but it occasionally grows to be treelike. The largest known individual, growing near Utica, Michigan, is thirty-six feet tall with a trunk circumference of nineteen inches. In cultivation it forms a graceful, vase-shaped shrub with numerous arching stems up to twelve to fifteen feet tall. Like the majority of Staphylea species, S. trifolia has trifoliolate leaves. The three typically oval leaflets taper abruptly to a slender point, and their margins are finely and regularly serrate. They may be as much as four inches long when mature, and they are thinly covered on their undersides with fine hairs. The terminal leaflet is borne on a long, slender stalk, but the lateral leaflets are often nearly sessile (stalkless). The odorless flowers are borne in drooping panicles one to three inches long at the tips of short lateral branches and appear in mid-May at the Arnold Arboretum. The individual flowers are less than a half inch long. The white petals barely project beyond the sepals, and the effect is basically greenish. Also, since the flowers appear with the developing leaves and are partially obscured by them, S. trifolia is one of the least showy of the species in bloom. However, the three-parted, inflated fruits are borne profusely, and they persist on the plants well into the winter, longer than do those of most of the other species. In 1918 a second eastern American species, Staphylea brighamii, was described from plants first noticed in a garden in Toledo,Ohio, but grown from locally collected stock. These plants differed from typical S. trifolia in a few technical characters, but also in having pink to maroon tinted fruits borne in profusion. Most taxonomists now agree that these differences are not of enough significance to consider S. brighamii a distinct species. However, selection of similar plants or of plants with particularly large flowers could produce better garden plants than those presently in cultivation. A number of plant species native to the eastern United States including sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), witch hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), etc., have disjunct populations in the mountains of Mexico, separated from the main body of the species by 500 miles or more. These Mexican populations often differ from the eastern United States populations in a variety of characteristics and in many instances have been classified by some taxonomists as distinct varieties or even distinct species. Staphylea pringlei from the Sierra Madre of northern Mexico closely resembles S. trifolia except that its fruits are nearly round in outline rather than oval, its seeds larger, and its panicles of flowers usually longer and broader. These differences appear to be significant, but to be any folklore associated with its use A flowering branch of Staphylea trifolia. Although this species is normally quite floriferous, it is not showy because its flowers are mostly greenish and obscured by the leaves. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. to consider the Mexican plants a variety of S. attempted to grow the Mexican plants at the Arnold Arboretum, but considering the hardiness of Pinus ayacahuite (the Mexican white pine) from the same area (see Arnoldia 39 ( 4 ) : 278-285 ) , they might succeed here. probably only enough trifolia. We have never 2. or The Sierra western Staphylea bolanderi A. Gray bladdernut, Staphylea bolanderi, is an uncommon shrub small tree to twenty feet tall that occurs sporadically along the slope of California's Sierra Nevada at elevations between 2000 and 4000 feet. It is closely related to S. trifolia and is quite similar to that species in most respects. However, the leaflets of S. bolanderi are generally almost round rather than oval, and the stamens project conspicuously beyond the petals rather than being essentially enclosed by them. Like S. trifolia, S. bolanderi is rare in cultivation. We have tried the western species a number of times at 84 I the Arnold Arboretum, but it has never survived for more than a few years even though Rehder lists it as being marginally hardy in Zone 5. In general, most other plants that grow within its native range are not hardy in New England. 3. Staphylea emodii Wallich emodii is distributed in the Himalayas of Pakistan, and India at elevations between 7,000 and 10,000 feet. AlNepal, though it was introduced into cultivation about 1890, it has never been commonly planted. It is very similar to S. trifolia, but it is larger in all respects: leaflets, flowers, fruits, and growth habit. Its common name in India means \"snake stick.\" Several features may have given rise to the name: the bark is reported to be mottled, resembling a snake's skin; the straight branches are used for walking sticks and possibly for physically repelling snakes encountered in the field; and the odor of the cut branches reputedly is offensive to snakes, a single branch being sufficient, it is claimed, to keep a home free from them. Rehder lists Staphylea emodii as being hardy to Zone 7. It has never survived out-of-doors at the Arnold Arboretum and to my knowledge is not cultivated in this country. Staphylea 4. Staphylea holocarpa Hemsley China is the home of several Staphylea species, the best known being S. holocarpa. This species was discovered by Augustine Henry in 1886, but it was not introduced into cultivation until E. H. Wilson sent seed to the Arnold Arboretum from western Hupeh in 1908. Wilson noted that it was very common on the margins of woods and thickets in western Hupeh and eastern Szechwan and that it was normally a large shrub, but occasionally grew to be a tree thirty feet tall with smooth gray bark. In unpublished notes he wrote that the plants are extremely floriferous and the flowers sweetly fragrant. The abundant nectar is much appreciated by sunbirds, the brilliantly colored Old World counterparts of hummingbirds. In the same notes Wilson commented that this species is one of the finest small trees he introduced from China. Yet the plant is extremely rare in cultivation in the United States. Wilson recorded that the original plants at the Arnold Arboretum took several years to adjust to the New England climate and were slow to flower. The first flowering occurred in 1926 when the plants were seventeen years old. Few plants persisted for any length of time. The last remaining plant (actually a propagant from one of the original plants) was killed to the ground during the winter of 1933-1934. It recovered and was eventually moved when the Staphylea collection was consolidated in its present location across Conifer Path from the old dwarf conifers. The plant since has died, but our records do not say when or how. Therefore, except for some recentlygerminated seedlings from various sources, we no longer have S. Curtis's Botanical Magazine ( 151 ( 1925 ) : t. 9074 ). Floral details are shown in the inset drawings in the lower right. Inset 9 (upper left) shows the distinctive capsule of the species with its unlobed apex. Permission to reproduce this illustration granted by Curtis's Botanical Magazine and the Bentham-Moxon Trust. Staphylea holocarpa from 86 in our living collections. Fortunately, the seeds collected Wilson in 1908 were widely distributed, and several plants grown by from those seeds are still alive in the British Isles. Wilson noted that in 1929 the finest specimen was the one at Caerhays Castle in Cornwall, England, and that it was twenty-one feet tall at that time. According to our latest reports, the tree is still alive and magnificent and when last measured in 1966, was twenty-nine feet tall. We hope to procure propagating material from this plant as well as from other of the many original Wilson plants still growing at Caerhays Castle. I have never seen a living specimen of Staphylea holocarpa, but illustrations and herbarium specimens show it to be indeed beautiful. Vegetatively, it is similar to S. trifolia, but its leaflets tend to be narrower. However, unlike all other members of the genus, the drooping panicles appear before the leaves from lateral buds on yearold growth. Since they are not obscured by the leaves, the flowers are shown to better advantage than are those of the other species. The panicles are from two to four inches long, and they are produced profusely. The individual flowers are about a half inch long and vary in color from white to pink. Wilson and Alfred Rehder described the pink-flowered plants as the variety rosea, but as Wilson later admitted in unpublished notes that the color variation is continuous from pure white through shades of pink, the recognition of a distinct pink-flowered variety is unwarranted. The fruits of Staphylea holocarpa are unusual in that the tips of the three segments are united rather than free and spreading as in the other species. This character is not completely constant, but there are too few herbarium specimens available to assess the significance of this variation from a taxonomic standpoint. Several other species, superficially similar to Staphylea holocarpa, have been described from China. However, as far as I know, they have never been in cultivation so they will not be treated here. holocarpa 5. Staphylea bumalda de Candolle Staphylea bumalda is the most distinctive of the trifoliolate species and in fact has been classified as the sole member of a separate genus Bumalda. It differs from all the other species of Staphylea in having a fruit which is flattened rather than inflated. In addition, the base of the terminal leaflet is drawn out into a long tapering point which ends where the lateral leaflets are attached. In all the other species the terminal leaflet is borne on a distinct stalk. The inflorescence of S. bumalda is also sessile (stalkless) with the lower-most branches originating in the axils of the subtending pair of leaves. Native throughout Japan and into Korea and eastern China, Staphylea bumalda is a rather weedy plant in the wild. It is most common in thickets, cut-over forests, and other disturbed areas. As a cultivated plant, it is similar to the other species in habit, but is not completely hardy here at the Arnold Arboretum. Our plants experi- A flowering branch of Staphylea bumalda. This species is unusual in that the flower stalks are white, as is evident in this photograph. Bottom: The capsules of S. bumalda, shown here from two different angles, are flattened rather than inflated as in the other members of the genus. Photographs by R. E. Top : even Weaver, Jr. An inflorescence of Staphylea colchica. The relatively large flowers, with a fragreminiscent of orange blossoms, help make this species one of the most attractive of the bladdernuts when in bloom. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. rance The large, pear-shaped capsules of Staphylea colchica, with their long, slender tips are distinctive and conspicuous. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. considerable dieback during most winters; as a result, they are bit unkempt in the spring and require a good bit of annual pruning. The leaflets are seldom more than three inches long, and the foliage as a result is delicately textured. The individual flowers are slightly fragrant, pure white (including the sepals), and rather small, but they are borne in broad, more or less horizontal panicles while the leaves are not very well developed. Therefore a plant in good bloom is reasonably showy. However, the fruits are small and probably the least attractive in the genus. ence a 6. Staphylea colchica Steven Staphylea colchica has a limited distribution in forests at elevations to 4000 feet in the Caucasus Mountains of the southeastern U.S.S.R. and adjacent Iran. It is certainly among the most ornamental of the species although it occasionally suffers some winter dieback at the Arnold Arboretum. The 3\/4 inch long flowers are the largest 90I in the genus, and they have a fragrance strongly reminiscent of orange blossoms. At a glance, they also resemble the flowers of citrus in appearance: the white, widely spreading sepals (= petals in citrus) expose the erect white petals (= stamens in citrus). In S. colchica the column of petals surrounds the stamens. The flowers are borne in broadly pyramidal, horizontal to slightly drooping panicles, two to four inches long and about as broad. The leaves on the flowering branchlets generally have only three leaflets, while those on the other branches have five. The mature leaflets are up to six inches long so the foliage is somewhat coarse in texture. The large, two to three inch long capsules are conspicuous during the summer and fall. Most of the species of Staphylea have essentially no economic importance except as garden ornamentals. But the flower buds of S. colchica are fermented and eaten where the plant is native, and the oil extracted from the seeds, reportedly with the taste of pistachio nuts, is used as a purgative. 7. Staphylea X coulombieri Andre From within a year after it was first described, the supposed hybrid between Staphylea colchica and S. pinnata has been the subject of much confusion. The hybrid was originally named S. X coulombieri by Andre in 1897 from a cultivated plant of unknown origin grown by a Mr. Coulombier in Vitry, France. A year later, a hybrid of supposedly the same parentage was described as \"Staphylea elegans\" by Zabel from a plant in a nursery in Flottbeck, Germany. Zabel was aware of the existence of the previously described hybrid, but he had not seen a specimen when he named \"S. elegans\". To add to the confusion, he later treated Andre's S. X coulombieri as a variety of S. colchica (retaining his \"S. elegans\" for the hybrid) and described \"S. elegans var. Hessei\", which is almost surely not a hybrid at all. So both the nomenclature and the identity of these plants are in a state of confusion. The whole situation needs further study, and the suggestions below are tentative. The name Staphylea X coulombieri Andre is the correct name for all hybrids between S. colchica and S. pinnata. Study of plants in our living collections and herbarium specimens, including those from Zabel's herbarium, have led me to the following conclusions: the plants which have generally been known as \"S. elegans Zabel\" and \"S. colchica var. coulombieri (Andre) Zabel\" are referrable to S. X coulombieri Andre; \"S. elegans var. Hessei Zabel\" is referrable to S. colchica; and the status of \"S. colchica var. Kochiana Medvyedev\" is uncertain. Staphylea X coulombieri is distinctly intermediate between its parents ; the characters that distinguish the plants are outlined in the key (page 81). It has the orange-blossom fragrance, capsules, and flower form of S. colchica and the purple-tipped sepals of S. pinnata. Staphylea x coulombieri, the hybrid between S. colchica and S. pinnata, most resembles the former species in floral characteristics. The purple-tinged sepals, most obvious in the buds, distinguish the hybrid from S. colchica. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. The inflorescences are intermediate between the loose, broadly pyramidal, more or less horizontal ones of S. colchica and the dense, slender, pendent ones of S. pinnata. Flower size is also intermediate. The leaves on the flowering branchlets have either three or five leaflets. To me, S. X coulombieii is not as attractive as S. colchica. Staphylea pinnata Linnaeus Staphylea pinnata is a plant of low elevation woodlands throughout much of central and southern Europe into Asia Minor, and it has 8. been naturalized in the British Isles. It has been in cultivation since the end of the sixteenth century, but it is now rarely seen in gardens. Yet it is an attractive plant in flower and fruit. The flowers have a faint, but distinct, spicy fragrance, and their purple-tipped sepals add a touch of color. The panicles are dense and tight and hang as if suspended by threads from the branches. The capsules are nearly always two-parted, and they are tinged with pink at maturity. long The roundish fruits of Staphylea pinnata fall without shedding their seeds. The holes near the tips, visible in this photograph, are far too small to allow the seeds to be released. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. 93 Unlike those of the other species, the capsules of S. pinnata do not become brittle and papery when ripe, but remain soft and pliable. They fall with the leaves without shedding their seeds; the seeds are not released until the capsules eventually decay. About the size of an average pea, the seeds are the largest in the genus. They have been used as rosary beads by Roman Catholics in countries where the plant is native. implied by the specific epithet pinnata, the leaves of this species pinnately compound. It is the only Staphylea species in which the leaves on all the branches are consistently composed of five to seven leaflets. The plant is at the limit of its hardiness range at the As are Arnold Arboretum and suffers mild dieback in severe winters. Yet we have in our collections a fine old specimen twelve feet tall with a spread of eight feet. Propagation The bladdernuts are all easily propagated by division, preferably spring. The propagation files of the Arnold Arboretum show that the seeds germinate readily if subjected to warm stratification for five months, followed by cold stratification at 40F for three months. Cuttings rooted most successfully when taken in late July, treated with 0.8% IBA, and placed under mist. in the References 4I Andre, E. 1887. Staphylea X coulombieri. Rev. Hort. 59:462-463. Macbride, J. F. 1918. A new species of bladdemut. Rhodora 20:127-129. Poyarkova, A. 1. 1949. Staphyleaceae, in B. K. Shishkin, ed., Flora of the U.S.S.R. [English trans.] 14:441-443. Rehder, A., & E. H. Wilson. 1914. Staphylea, in C. S. Sargent, ed., Plantae Wilsonianae 2(4) : 185-187. Publ. Arnold Arbor., No. 4. The University Press, Cambridge. C. S. 1889. New or little known plants. Staphylea bolanderi. Gard. & Forest 2:544. Spongberg, S. A. 1971. The Staphyleaceae in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 52:196-203. Wilson, E. H. [n. d.] Wilson's plants in cultivation. Unpublished manuscript, Archives, The Arnold Arboretum. Zabel, H. 1888. Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Staphylea. Gartenflora 37:498-504. 1897. Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis der Gattung Staphylea. Mitt. Deutsch. Dendrol. Ges. 6: 77-79. Sargent, . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Outstanding Plants of the Arnold Arboretum: Amelanchier arborea","article_sequence":3,"start_page":94,"end_page":97,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24775","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170816d.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":2,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"OUTSTANDING PLANTS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Amelanchier arborea This note is the first in a series featuring outstanding plants of the Arnold Arboretum, plants outstanding either for their rarity in cultivation or as specimens of singular beauty. We encourage our readers to visit the Arnold Arboretum to see and enjoy the plants featured. The tree chosen to be the first in our series of outstanding plants appropriate for several reasons: it is an exceptional specimen of its species; it is growing in a conspicuous location; it is one of the first showy trees to bloom in the Arnold Arboretum in the spring; and it is a personal favorite. The tree is the large specimen of Amelanchier arborea on the north side of Bussey Brook at the edge of the juniper collection. At thirty-six feet tall with a spread of thirty-eight feet and a trunk circumference of seventy-two inches, it is small in comparison with the seventy-six foot tall national champion in Standish, Michigan. But it is still a magnificent specimen. Growing in the open without competition from other trees, it has developed its full and graceful form. Because our records for the tree have been lost, its age and origin are unknown. But it was probably a spontaneous seedling as were many of the Amelanchier arborea now in the natural woodlands of the Arnold Arboretum. Judging from the size of other of our specimens of known age, it is at least a hundred years old. It may be part of the original vegetation on the property before the Arboretum was established. Plants of the genus Amelanchier are known by a variety of comis 94 95 A flowering branch of Amelanchier arborea. The individual flowers resemble those of the closely related crabapples, but those of the shadbushes are smaller, with narrower petals. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. including shadbush, shadblow, juneberry, and serviceThe species A. arborea is usually referred to as \"downy\" berry. because of the dense silvery-white hairs on the undersides of the expanding leaves. Most Amelanchier species are shrubby, but this one and A. laevis are distinctly treelike. (Although closely related, A. laevis and A. arborea are easily distinguished. The flowers of A. laevis appear at the same time as its coppery-red leaves whereas the flowers of A. arborea appear before its silvery-white leaves. A. laevis is in full bloom usually a week later than A. arborea. ) All Amelanchier species are ornamental even when not in flower because of their small, red to purple, apple-like fruits in June, their brilliant orange autumn foliage, and their silvery gray bark with darker fissures. The flowers are often of short duration, particularly if the weather is hot or rainy, but this past spring our featured tree was in bloom from 15 April until 25 April. Early next spring, when you are winter weary, come to the Arnold Arboretum just as it is coming to life. Few trees are flowering then to compete with the shadbushes. Pick a sunny morning, when our featured tree is seen to its best advantage, a mound of purest white against the blue sky, the green of the conifers, and the silver trunks of the beech grove behind. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. mon names The conspicuous reticulate (or criss-cross) pattern of dark furrows in the basically smooth, silvery bark is an attribute which Right: makes shadbushes ornamental at all seasons of the year. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. Below: Our featured Amelanchier arborea photographed on April 30, 1950. The large oaks, which since have died, make it appear much smaller than it really is. Photographer unknown. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Books Received","article_sequence":4,"start_page":98,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24773","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170bb6f.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":2,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"BOOKS RECEIVED In February of this year we wrote to a selected list of publishers requesting that they send to Amoldia newly published books on horticulture, forestry, botany, ecology, gardening, and closely related topics. As a service to our readers, the titles and publication information of the books sent to us will be published in a \"Books Received\" list. In the past Arnoldia has published reviews, often very brief, of individual titles. In the future we plan to publish lengthier, authoritative reviews that are topical and discuss not only recently published books, but established references and favorites. Two such reviews are now being prepared and will appear this year, one on field guides to wildflowers and the other on medicinal plant books. The staff of the Arnold Arboretum together with occasional outside reviewers should be able to provide useful and expert advice about a wide range of the current and past literature that may be of interest to readers of Amoldia. But the large number of books published yearly make it impossible to review every title sent to us by publishers. The \"Books Received\" list serves some of the purposes of our earlier, shorter reviews while allowing us to implement our new review policy. It provides an overview of new titles; it assures publishers that books they send at least will be mentioned; and it enables us to give closer consideration to books as we receive them to decide which we might wish to review. Bicknell, Andrew. 1980. Dr. Greenfingers' Rx for healthy, vigorous houseplants. Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 159pp. Cloth, $12.95. Chapman, Arthur G., & Robert D. Wray. Second edition, 1979. Christmas trees for pleasure and profit. Rutgers University Press, New Brunswick, New Jersey. viii + 212pp. Cloth, $10.95. Clegg, Peter, & Derry Watkins. 1978. The complete greenhouse book. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont. vii + 280pp. Second printing, 1979. Paper, $9.95. Coxon, Margaret E., co-ordinator. 1978. Gardening as therapy. Technical Bulletin No. 5, The Botanical Garden, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. iv + 32pp. Paper, $4.25. Coxon, Margaret E., & David Tarrant. 1979. Gardening as therapy. Technical Bulletin No. 6, The Botanical Garden, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. iv + 30pp. Paper, $4.25. Eaton, Jerome A., & Carroll C. Calkins. 1979. How to garden. Alfred A. Knopf, New York. [viii] + 180pp. Cloth, $12.50. Edinger, Philip, ed. Publishing Co., Faust, Joan Lee. 1980. Menlo How to grow roses. A Sunset Book. Lane Park, California. 96pp. Paper, $3.95. 1980. The New York Times book of annuals and perennials. Times Books, Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., New York. [xiii] + 274pp. Cloth, $12.50. 98 Galet, Pierre. 1979. A practical ampelography. Translated and adapted by Lucie T. Morton. Comstock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 248pp. Cloth, $28.50. Gilbertie, Sal, & Larry Sheehan. 1978. Herb gardening at its best. Atheneum\/SMI, New York. vii + 245pp. Paper, $6.95. House, Maria Newberry, & Susan Munro. 1979. Plantae occidentalis: 200 years of botanical art in British Columbia. Technical Bulletin No. 11, The Botanical Garden, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. xv + 116pp. Paper, $8.95. Johnson, Warren T., & Howard H. Lyon. 1976. Insects that feed on trees and shrubs. Comstock Publishing Associates, Cornell University Press, Ithaca, New York. 464pp. Cloth, $38.50. Kenyon, Stewart. 1979. Hydroponics for the home gardener. Van Nostrand Reinhold Ltd., Toronto. xii + 146pp. Paper, $6.95. Longman, David. 1979. The instant guide to successful house plants. Times Books, Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., New York. 196pp. Cloth, $15.95. Macqueen, Sheila. 1980. Complete flower arranging. Times Books, Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co., Inc., New York. 248pp. Cloth. Malins, Peter, & M. M. Graff. 1979. Peter Malins' rose book. Dodd, Mead & Company, New York. x + 258pp. Cloth, $12.50. Mary [Mary Hilliard Jackson]. 1980. How does your garden grow? Clarkson N. Potter, Inc., New York. [55]pp. Cloth, $4.95. McNeil, Don. 1979. The birdhouse book. Pacific Search Press, Seattle, Washington. [lll]pp. Paper, $8.95. Myers, Norman. 1980. Conversion of tropical moist forests. National Academy of Sciences, Washington, D.C. ix + 205pp. Paper, $12.50. Perkins, Harold O. 1964. Espaliers and vines for the home gardener. The Iowa State University Press, Ames, Iowa. Second printing, 1979. xvi + 200pp. Cloth, $9.95. Rahn, James J. 1979. Making the weather work for you. Garden Way Publishing, Charlotte, Vermont. xii + 204pp. Paper, $7.95. Shaw, Richard J., & Danny On. 1979. Plants of Waterton-Glacier National Parks. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, Montana. 160pp. Paper. Slack, Adrian. 1980. Carnivorous plants. The MIT Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts. 240pp. Cloth, $19.95. Spurr, Joy. 1978. Wild shrubs. Pacific Search Press, Seattle, Washington. 95pp. Paper, $8.95. Still, Steven. 1980. Herbaceous ornamental plants. Stipes Publishing Company, Champaign, Illinois. x + 224pp. Paper, $13.80. Sutton, Ann and Myron. 1979. Wildlife of the forests. Harry N. Abrams, Inc., New York. 231pp. Cloth, $16.95. Taylor, Sally L. 1979. Garden guide to woody plants. Bulletin No. 24, The Connecticut Arboretum, Connecticut College, New London, Connecticut. f101]pp. Paper, $2.50. Van Lear, Denise, ed. 1980. Decorating with indoor plants. A Sunset Book. Lane Publishing Co., Menlo Park, California. 80pp. Paper, ' ' ' $3.95. 99 100 Wade, L. Keith. 1979. Phenology of cultivated rhododendrons in the lower mainland of British Columbia. Technical Bulletin No. 10, The Botanical Garden, The University of British Columbia, Vancouver. vii + 225pp. Paper, $8.25. Wild, Peter. 1979. Pioneer conservationists of western America. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula, Montana. [xxvi] + 246pp. Cloth, $12.95. Williams, Brian, & Jack Kramer. 1980. Orchids for everyone. Herbert Michelman Books, Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. 208pp. Cloth, $15.95. Woodward, Carol H., & Harold William Rickett. 1979. Common wild flowers of the northeastern United States. New York Botanical Garden's Field Guide. Barron's, Woodbury, New York. xii + 318pp. Paper, . $12.95. Compiled by Jane Morss A photograph of E. H. Wiltaken in China around 1899, during Wllson's first collecting trip for the Veitch Nursery. Photograph by Teh Kee, Ichang. Back \"Father and [R. R. Rose] cover: taken in the Greenhouse.\" Undated photograph by W. Dawson. Right: son "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23307","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15ebb27.jpg","title":"1980-40-2","volume":40,"issue_number":2,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Flowering Times in Viburnum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":2,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24771","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170b726.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":1,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Donoghue, Michael J.","article_content":"Flowering Times In Viburnum by MICHAEL DONOGHUE plants of different species flower at different times during the year is well known to everyone. But for many plants we have very little reliable data concerning flowering times, and even when we do have this information, we often know very little about what triggers flowering and what physiological changes are involved, let alone the evolutionary explanations for such timing differences. Botanists are approaching these questions in a number of different ways. One approach is to record, over a number of years, the flowering times of all the plants in a given community (such as a tropical rain forest in Malaya (Medway, 1972) or a forest understory in New England (Lyon, 1922)) and to try to make sense of any patterns which emerge. Other botanists study variation in flowering periods within a single species and try to explain this in physiological, ecological, and evolutionary terms (Goodwin, 1941; Olmstead, 1944; Ray & Alexander, 1966). Another approach is to study flowering times in some broader taxonomic context, for example, by comparing the flowering times of the species within a genus. This approach has rarely been pursued very rigorously, although sometimes lists of flowering times are produced for seed manuals (e.g., Gill & Pogge, 1974) or in studies of wildlife food plants (e.g., Rollins, 1974). Plant sysThat Michael Donoghue is a graduate student in biology at Harvard University. He is writing his doctoral dissertation on the systematics of the genus Viburnum, especially the Mexican and Central American species. 2 A photograph of Viburnum rafinesquianum taken in May 1903 by Alfred Rehder, who devoted considerable time to the study of viburnums, especially the Asian members of the genus. Though the size of Viburnum inflorescences varies considerably, most of them are constructed very much like those shown here. The photograph also shows the simple, opposite leaves characteristic of the genus. 3 4 tematists have long made a habit of noting the flowering periods of the plants they study, but unfortunately this information is rarely very precise. For example, we often read in monographs or in field guides that species A flowers in mid-spring, while its relative, species B, flowers in mid- to late spring. Because these records are for species throughout their geographical ranges, this information may obscure important differences in flowering times, particularly where two species happen to grow together, i.e., where they are sympatric. An arboretum is an ideal place to begin a comparative study of the flowering times of woody plants, especially for those genera which are taxonomically well represented in the living collections. A comparative survey of flowering phenology conducted in one spot is certainly of interest to those who wish to plan their gardens and grounds so that plants are always in flower or who wish to have flowers of a similar kind over as long a period as possible. In addition, this kind of survey, when properly interpreted, can provide important insights into the biology of the plants concerned. On the basis of such studies alone we cannot hope to answer fully why related plant species differ in flowering times, but we may uncover patterns which suggest possible answers and discover problems which deserve further study. The Arnold Arboretum has a long history of keeping records of flowering times. Professor J. G. Jack kept detailed records of blooming dates in the Boston area between 1887 and 1893. Later, Donald Wyman, horticulturist of the Arboretum for many years, listed the order of bloom of a wide variety of trees and shrubs in the Arboretum (1939a). These early lists were subsequently revised and expanded for various genera, among them Viburnum. Wyman (1937, 1945, 1959) placed 47 Viburnum taxa into flowering categories such as mid-May, late May, and early June. While his records are sufficient for most horticultural purposes, they are not very precise and in a few cases (e.g., V. prunifolium) seem to be inaccurate. Although he listed the order of bloom, he indicated nothing about the length of the flowering period or any overlap in flowering times. During 1978 and 1979 I conducted a study of the different ways Viburnum plants grow from year to year once they become of flowering age. This required regularly visiting the Arnold Arboretum, especially during the spring and summer. In conjunction with this study I kept a record of the dates when plants of many Viburnum species were in flower. These observations reveal what seems to be a consistent order in which different species begin and end their flowering periods. But before discussing flowering times, we should first consider the structure of Viburnum flowers and inflorescences. Flowers and Inflorescences Viburnum is a genus of about 135 species. It is widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere and extends into the Southern Hemisphere in the Andes of South America and in Malesia. Viburnums are especially large plant of Viburnum dentatum at the Arnold Arboretum. The dense, rounded shape is typical of old viburnums grown in the open. Note the very large number of inflorescences on this one plant. WzLLiam H. Judd, standing next to the plant, was propagator at the Arnold Arboretum from 1916 to 1946. For many years he kept records of the onset of flowering in a variety of early blooming plants, including V. farreri. Photograph by R. W. Curtis, June An 1922. Asia, while eastern North America and the mountains of Mexico and Central America are also areas of high diversity. The genus is generally divided into nine sections. Alfred Rehder, who worked for many years at the Arnold Arboretum, is responsible for this subgeneric classification of Viburnum (1908, 1940). The sections differ principally in fruit and leaf characters but also in growth pattern. Egolf (1956) carried out an extensive program of controlled hybridizations in Viburnum and found that species within sections are commonly interfertile and produce viable seed, while crosses between species belonging to different sections yield very little seed. The flowers of most Viburnum species are borne in rather complex inflorescences which are properly described as umbel-like, compound corymbs (Figure 1: a). These are often flat-topped and resemble the compound umbels of the Umbelliferae (the carrot family). In most species the inflorescence has a stalk, but some taxa produce sessile most abundant and diverse in eastern Figure 1. Viburnum. (a-d) Inflorescence types: (a) stalked umbel-like inflorescence with all its branches originating at one level; (b) stalkless umbel-like inflorescence; (c) paniculate inflorescence with its branches originating at different levels; (d) inflorescence with sterile marginal flowers. (e-g) Flower types: (e) close-up of a sterile marginal flower; (f) a tubular flower with its corolla tube much longer than its corolla lobes; (g) the inside of a tubular flower showing the attachment of the stamens to the corolla tube, the inferior ovary, and the short style. (h-l) Development of a flower from young bud through fruit: (h) very young flower bud; (i) older flower bud just prior to opening; (j) an open flower with a short corolla tube showing the five stamens which alternate with the five corolla lobes; (k) a flower from which the corolla and its attached stamens have fallen, leaving the sepals and the style; (1) the fruit (ripened ovary), which contains one seed. Left: A picture of Viburnum furcatum taken in the winter. In this and some other species the vegetative buds and the well developed inflorescence \"buds\", such as the one shown, are not enclosed by bud scales. Plants with these socalled naked buds tend to flower earlier in the spring than those with bud scales. Right. Most viburnums have flowers very much like those of Viburnum prunifolium shown here. The five minute sepals are not visible in this picture, but note the five fused petals, the five stamens which alternate with the petals and shed their pollen inwardly, and the small style in the center of the flower. The flower buds also shown here would probably have opened within a day (see Figure l:i,j). Photographs by M. Donoghue. (stalk-less) inflorescences (in this study, V. furcatum, V. lentago, prunifolium, and V. rufidulum (Figure 1:b)). Some Asian species produce paniculate inflorescences with opposite branches (in this study, V. farreri and V. sieboldii (Figure l :c)). The inflorescence is always terminal on a portion of stem, but it is sometimes borne on a short lateral shoot (in this study, V. plicatum) or sometimes on a shoot which dies back at \"the end of the season (in this study, V. opulus and V. sargentii). In some species the inflorescences overwinter in an exposed state as well-developed \"buds\" (photograph above). These are the taxa with naked buds (in this study, V. X burkwoodii, V. carlesii, V. furcatum, V. lantana, and V. X rhytidophylloides). In most species the next year's leaves and inflorescences overwinter enclosed by bud scales. In V. cassinoides, V. lentago, V. plicatum, V. prunifolium, and V. rufidulum one pair of bud scales is generally produced, while in the remaining species considered in this study, there are two (or rarely more) pairs of scales. V. 8 different numbers of flowers per 500. The number of inflorescences per plant depends largely on the size of the plant, but there are often hundreds. This makes the flowering of viburnums quite spectacular and in part accounts for their horticultural importance. The fertile flowers of nearly all viburnums are strikingly uniform in morphology, although they may differ slightly in size and hairiness. They are usually small (between 4 and 10 mm. across) and by themselves not very conspicuous. There are five persistent, small, green calyx lobes at the summit of the ovary. The corolla consists of five fused petals, i.e., it is sympetalous, and is white or cream-colored or rarely slightly pink. In most species the corolla tube is shallow (about 2 to 3 mm.) and the flowers are saucer-shaped or bell-shaped (Figure l:j). In a few Asian species (in this study, Viburnum carlesii and V. farreri) the corolla is elongate and tubular and can be up to 15 mm. long. The five stamens are attached generally near the base of the corolla tube and are alternate with its lobes. The anthers are borne on slender filaments which usually project out of the throat of the corolla (Figure l:j), but in those species with tubular corollas the anthers are borne within the tube near its opening (Figure 1:g). The anthers split open longitudinally and release the yellow-colored pollen. The pistil is constructed of three carpels, but only one large seed is developed in each fruit (see Wilkinson, 1948, for details of ovary construction and development). The ovary is inferior or nearly so, and the cone-shaped style is very short (usually about 1-1.5 mm. long (Figure l :k)). The stigma, which is white in color in most species, but red in some, is usually slightly tri-lobed and fairly broad. When it is receptive to pollen it appears somewhat shiny. It seems that in most viburnums the pollen begins to be shed before the stigma is receptive, i.e., they are slightly protandrous, but this has never been experimentally confirmed. In a few species (in this study, Viburnum furcatum, V. opulus, V. plicatum, and V. sargentii) sterile flowers are produced around the periphery of the inflorescence (Figure 1 : d and photograph opposite). The corollas of these flowers are quite large and showy (to about 30 mm. across (Figure 1 :e)). Occasionally one finds remnants of stamens and a style in the center of the flattened corolla. These showy marginal flowers are presumed to function in attracting insect pollinators, thereby increasing the number or the quality of the fruits that are produced, but this has never been tested. Cultivars of several species produce inflorescences with only sterile flowers. These so-called \"snowball\" forms occur in V. opulus, V. plicatum, V. macrocephalum, and V. cordifolium (Egolf, 1962). Most viburnums seem to be pollinated effectively by a variety of insects. I have noted bees and wasps (Hymenoptera), flies (Diptera), butterflies and moths (Lepidoptera), and beetles (Coleoptera) visiting viburnums and presumably effecting at least some pollination. Plants of different species produce 15 to inflorescence, from about over Top: Large sterile flowers surround the numerous small, perfect flowers in these inflorescences of Viburnum sargentii. This condition occurs in five other Viburnum species in four different sections of the genus and may have evolved independently several times. Bottom: All of the flowers are enlarged and sterile in the inflorescences of the form of Viburnum plicatum shown here and known as the Japanese snowball. Snowball forms occur in three other species. Such plants cannot produce fruits and seeds and therefore must be propagated by cuttings. Photographs by M. Donoghue. 10 In addition Gould (1966) reported that ruby-throated hummingbirds occasionally visit the flowers of Viburnum lantanoides (the hobblebush, formerly known as V. alnifolium). The species with short corolla tubes often have a musky odor and probably are pollinated mostly by small bees and by flies. Species with long corolla tubes tend to have a strong, sweet odor, especially towards sundown, and may be visited most commonly by Lepidoptera, perhaps nocturnal moths. Viburnums produce very little nectar and only for a short time. Bees seem attracted to Viburnum flowers principally as a source of pollen. Flowering Times varies considerably among Viburnum spethat grow in tropical latitudes flower nearly species continuously throughout the year and one can often find mature flowers and fruits at the same time on the same plant. Viburnum sambucinum in Malesia (Kem, 1951) and V. hartwegii in Mexico and Central America are examples. On the other hand, in some tropical species flowering is limited to a given season, although plants of this sort may go through two or more flowering flushes during this period. In the New World tropics many such species flower during the summer months, which is the wet season in most areas, but others flower during the drier winter months (e.g., V. blandum and V. venustum in Central America). Most viburnums of temperate regions have very restricted and well-defined flowering periods, mostly during the spring and early summer. Flowering in these species is highly synchronized on single plants, as well as between plants of the same species. Generally only one period of flowering (and consequently of fruiting) occurs per year. Plants of Viburnum species from the Temperate Zone flower for approximately seven to twelve days. Inflorescences near the top of the plant often come into flower slightly before inflorescences lower on the plant, but generally there is a period during which flowers are open in nearly all the inflorescences at once. All the flowers in an inflorescence open usually within two to four days of each other. Because of the large number of flowers that open during this short period, the exact sequence of flower opening is very difficult to determine ; however, sterile marginal flowers, if present, open usually one to four days before any of the perfect flowers. Each flower begins its development in the spring as a compact green bud (Figure 1:h). As the bud expands, the corolla begins to turn white and becomes inflated (Figure 1:i). The flower opens (Figure 1: j ) and then remains open until the corolla withers and falls off, usually within four or five days. The flowers do not close at night nor in bad weather as in some other plants. When the corolla falls, only the calyx lobes and the tiny style are left at the top of the The timing of flowering cies. Some of the 1 11 TABLE 1: WEATHER STATION DATA RECORDED AT THE DANA GREENHOUSES ovary large (Figure 1:k), which if fertilization has occurred, and mature into a fruit (Figure 1:1). begins to en- Methods and Results Viburnums from Asia, Europe, and North America are well represented in the Arnold Arboretum. Some 40 species and numerous varieties and cultivars, representing seven of the nine sections of the genus, are currently in cultivation in the living collections. The Arboretum thus provides a good spot to begin to investigate flowering behavior in Temperate Zone viburnums. The present study reports on 21 Viburnum taxa, including representatives of each of the seven sections present (Appendix). The plants I followed grow in or near the main Viburnum collection, which is located near the Centre Street entrance behind the Dana Greenhouses. All the plants are thus exposed to nearly the same temperature regime and receive the same amounts of sunlight and precipitation, although, to be sure, there A summary of climatological are some micro-climatic differences. data for the spring and early summer of 1978 and 1979, as recorded at the Dana Greenhouses, is presented in Table I. The Viburnum collection was visited somewhat irregularly at intervals of about seven to twelve days throughout the spring and summer. On each visit I recorded the condition with respect to flowering for each plant and checked usually two or more plants of each taxon. The results are shown in Tables II and III. Since the observations were not continuous, some inferences about when a species began and ended its flowering period were necessary. If a plant were in bud on one visit, in full flower the next visit, and past flower on a third visit, it obviously began to flower between visits one and two and ended flowering between visits two and three, but the exact timing is not known. In tabulating flowering times I have made the assumption that plants flowered over ten consecutive days unless the observations actually indicated a longer time. Thus I marked the time 12 of full flowering and then marked five days on both sides of this. For some taxa an assumed flowering period of ten days was actually too long. If ten days were assumed in these cases, plants would have to have developed from the early bud stage to full flower in one or two days, while this development usually would take from three to five days. These special cases are indicated in Table III by an asterisk. The tables of flowering times illustrate some interesting points. First, a glance at Table II shows that viburnums flower over a two- to three-month period, depending on the weather during a particular year. The first species begins flowering around mid-April and the last species ends by July. During this period different species flower at different times. The overall sequence of flowering in viburnums is almost identical in 1978 and 1979. Differences between these years are most notable among the species that flower earliest. For example, Viburnum f arreri began flowering much earlier and its flowering period was longer in 1979 than in 1978. Mr. W. H. Judd, a former propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, kept records of the onset of flowering in a number of early flowering plants (Wyman, 1939b). He recorded considerable variation for V. farreri (then called V. fragrans ) from January 14, 1932, through April 20, 1939. This variation clearly relates to differences in the weather, which is especially unpredictable during the early spring. As shown in Table I, the winter was milder and it was warmer earlier in the spring of 1979 than in 1978, and this appears to account for shifts in the onset of flowering. Flowering times of the early-flowering species were advanced by about a week in 1979, but species that flower later began flowering at about the same time in 1978 and 1979. While the exact dates of flowering fluctuate from year to year, the times that species flower relative to one another appear to fluctuate very little. Thus, presumably, the dates of flowering would change with locality, for example, between the southern and the northern United States, but the relative sequence of flowering probably would not change with locality very much. A species constancy resulting in a predictable sequence of flowering is clearly of interest to horticulturists. The er Biological Importance of Flowering Times The observation that plants of a particular Viburnum species flowduring nearly the same period every year suggests that there is a genetic basis for the timing of flowering, although a range of expressions is possible owing to environmental differences from year to year or in different localities. There also seem to be genetic differences within what are recognized as species, as illustrated by V. dentatum, within which var. pubescens and var. scabrellum tend to flower a week later than var. dentatum. Other evidence of variation within a taxon is provided by V. X burkwoodii, which had an extended flowering period in 1978 and a somewhat extended period in 1979. As Egolf (1962) points out, there are cultivars of V. X burk- 13 TABLE II: Viburnum FLOWERING TIMES 14 TABLE III: Viburnum FLOWERING TIMES BY SECTION 15 and 'Anne Russell') that differ markedly and conanother in flowering times. sistently One question raised by these observations is how the differences in flowering times are mediated. In the viburnums considered here the initiation of inflorescences and flowers begins during the summer and continues through the early autumn. The inflorescences overwinter either as tiny primordia within a bud or in a relatively welldeveloped form in those species that have naked buds. The environmental cues that initiate flower production and those that trigger continued inflorescence and flower growth during the next spring are not known, but presumably a combination of factors is involved (for a discussion of the physiology of flowering see Bidwell, 1974). Temperature and available moisture seem to be the most important cues in early-flowering species. Consecutive warm days in the early spring are enough to swell the flower buds of Viburnum farreri and those species with naked buds. Unfortunately, this early growth often dies back when the weather turns cold again, and consequently flowering may be very spotty. As Egolf (1962) notes, \"almost invariably the V. fragrans [V. farreri] flower clusters will be damaged by a freeze and the early blooms obliterated.\" It is possible that some day-length (or more accurately, dark-length) requirement may be involved in initiating spring growth in those species that flower later in the season. Whatever the cues, different Viburnum species clearly respond differently to them. Why should this be so? To answer this question it is helpful to consider flowering times in a taxonomic context. In Table III, I have arranged the taxa according to the taxonomic sections of the genus to which they belong. There are several interesting patterns which emerge when this is done. As pointed out earlier, the sections differ in the number of bud scales produced and in the pattern of growth. Species with naked buds (sections LANTANA and PSEUDOTINUS ) are invariably among the early flowering viburnums, while, with the conspicuous exception of V. farreri, all species with two pairs of bud scales flower during the latter half of the flowering season. Plants with naked buds begin their inflorescence development earlier and overwinter their inflorescences in a more fully developed state than plants with one or two pairs of bud scales. As a consequence they require less time to mature their flowers during the following season. In our area some species occasionally have a second period of flowering in the late summer or in the fall. Not surprisingly, these species are mostly those with naked buds, but the Asian V. erosum (section ODONTOTINUS), with two pairs of bud scales, seems to flower regularly again in the fall. McAtee, in his treatment of the North American viburnums (1956), has recorded many instances of sporadic fall flowering. The exceptional Viburnum farreri develops an inflorescence within a bud with two pairs of bud scales. The inflorescence is produced on a very small, often leafless, stem. The development of the bud is not woodii ('Fulbrook' from one Left: In this species of Viburnum, V. farreri, the flowers have tubular corollas with five spreading lobes. The stamens are not visible here because they are contained within the tube. This species and several others bear their flowers in paniculate rather than umbel-like inflorescences. Photograph by A. Bussewitz. Right: A photograph of Viburnum farreri taken by Oakes Ames on April 16, 1931. Plants of this species are the first viburnums to bloom in our area. The inflorescences are well developed in winter buds and expand rapidly following a warm spell in the early spring. The flowers open well before the leaves expand. much arrested, and it may even begin to swell and open during the fall or during warm spells in the winter. When spring comes, the inflorescences are quite well developed, and the flowers mature while the plant is essentially leafless (photograph above). Although there is a marked correlation between growth pattern and flowering time, it is obvious that considerable variation is possible even within the constraints of a single pattern of growth (e.g., sections LENTAGO, ODONTOTINUS, and THYRSOMA), so other explanations for flowering time differences are needed. One possible explanation is that flowering time differences originated while different Viburnum populations were growing in different regions, i.e., while they were allopatric. Allopatric divergence in flowering times could result from natural selection or from what is known as genetic drift. Natural selection occurs when organisms with a particular heritable trait leave more offspring than organisms that lack the trait. This 17 larger percentage of organisms with the favored succeeding generations. For example, imagine that a populaa particular Viburnum species is subjected to a new environment. Further suppose that there is some genetically determined variation in flowering time in this population. If in the new environment those plants that flowered somewhat earlier produced more offspring, then in succeeding generations we would notice that more of the plants in the population would flower earlier. Over a period of time, the result would be a shift in the flowering period in this popuprocess results in trait in tion of a lation. Genetic drift is the process whereby certain genes, and hence traits, are fixed in small populations due to chance alone. This could result in a shift in flowering time if, for example, all the plants that flower late in a particular population die, leaving only early flowering individuals. If a shift in flowering time (either due to natural selection or genetic drift) were to occur in one of two populations growing in different areas and if at some later time the geographic ranges of these populations were to overlap, we would observe a flowering time difference between them. This difference might even prevent members of one population from interbreeding with members of the other population, i.e., they would be reproductively isolated. A second explanation for the origin of flowering time differences is that divergence may have been the result of two (or more) similar species growing together in the same area. This could occur in several ways. Suppose that plants of two very closely related species happen to be growing together. Under these circumstances hybridization between plants of the different species might occur. If the hybrids were inviable or in some way less fit than either of the parental species, then any plants that did not hybridize would produce more viable seed and leave more offspring than those plants that did hybridize. As a result of this natural selection, any mechanism that would limit hybridization would become more common in succeeding generations. Hybridization would be limited, or impossible, if plants of the different species were to flower at different times. Therefore, given that there was genetically determined variation in flowering times in these populations, selection could result in a divergence in flowering times. It is not necessary that two species be able to hybridize for there to be selection for a divergence in flowering times. Imagine two species that grow in the same area and have very similar flowers pollinated by the same kind of insect. If there were a limited number of pollinators in this environment and if plants of the two species flowered simultaneously, the plants would compete for the services of the pollinators. On the other hand, if the flowering times of the two species did not overlap, they could both more effectively utilize the pollinators and (all other things being equal) would set more 18 fruit and produce greater numbers of offspring. In this way natural selection might result in divergence in flowering times to minimize the competition for pollinators (see Robertson, 1924; Levin & Anderson, 1970; Mosquin, 1971; Heinrich, 1975; Frankie, 1975; and Stiles, 1978, for the development of this fascinating idea). In the last two examples divergence was the result of two similar species growing together in the same area. As we have seen, under these circumstances natural selection could result in divergence (1) to prevent the production of hybrids and\/or (2) to reduce competition between individuals of different species for some limited resource, such as pollinators. These phenomena are known as character displacement, a name which refers to the character differences between species which result when their geographic ranges overlap (see Grant, 1972, and Levin, 1978, for reviews of the history of this concept). It is very difficult to show that character displacement has occurred, and very few (if any) unequivocal cases have been documented. The problem is that all other possible explanations for divergence (for example, allopatric divergence) must be ruled out, and this is usually very difficult to do. In general, if we find that two species differ in flowering times or in some other way in the region where they are sympatric, but that they are the same in this regard where they do not grow together, then we can entertain the possibility that character displacement has occurred. Now we can ask which of these explanations account for the flowering time differences we find in Viburnum. To answer this question we have to consider those instances where two or more Viburnum species grow together. Usually when different viburnums grow in the same region, they have different ecological preferences and so rarely grow side by side. But it is not too difficult to find several species growing close enough together that hybridization between them could occur. Often the viburnums involved are members of different sections of the genus and often they flower at different times. An example of this pattern in New England is provided by V. lantanoides (section PSEUDOTINUS, flowering in mid-May), V. cassinoides (section LENTAGO, flowering in late May), and V. acerifolium (section ODONTOTINUS, flowering in mid-June). In this case and in others like it, it is very difficult to decide upon the cause of the flowering time differences. Timing differences may have resulted from divergence at some period when the species did not grow together or from character displacement to minimize competition for the same pollinators. As noted earlier, Egolf (1956) has shown that hybridizations between species in different sections are usually unsuccessful. Therefore, if the flowering time differences are the result of character displacement to limit hybridization, then it must have occurred in the distant past, before these species were genetically reproductively isolated, i.e., at a time when they could hybridize. Sometimes species that belong to the same section can be found The honey bee shown here is collecting pollen from the flowers of a plant of Viburnum farreri at the Arnold Arboretum. She packs moistened pollen xnto the pollen baskets on her hind legs for transport. Because of the length of the corolla tube in V. farreri, honey bees rarely reach the stigmas and are not effective pollinators. In the wild this and other species of Viburnum wlth tubular corollas may be visited by a wade variety of insects, but probably are mostly pollinated by moths and butterflies. Photograph by M. Donoghue. 20 growing close together. In such cases there generally are flowering time differences which effectively prevent hybridization between the species. In some of these cases differences in flowering times could have arisen by character displacement, perhaps to minimize the production of inferior hybrid plants. Possible examples of this are provided by species of the section LENTAGO. Viburnum lentago grows mostly in northern parts of eastern North America, while V. rufidulum grows mostly in the southeastern United States. The ranges of these species overlap a little in the central eastern United States. Viburnum prunifolium ranges through the central eastern states and frequently overlaps the ranges of both V. lentago and V. rufidulum. As indicated in Table III, in both 1978 and 1979 Viburnum prunifolium flowered about a week before V. lentago and V. rufidulum. By the time the latter were in full flower V. prunifolium was completely past flowering. These species were recently studied by Rader (1976), who noted that \"the flowering time of V. prunifolium was observed to be approximately two weeks earlier than V. rufzdulum.\" She also noted that V. lentago flowered somewhat before V. rufidulum, an observation which my study does not corroborate. It is possible to obtain hybrids between these species, and a few populations are known in which natural hybridization between species appears to be occurring (Brumbaugh & Guard, 1956; Rader, 1976). Rader even suggested that hybridization between Viburnum lentago and V. rufidulum may have given rise to V. prunifolium. But she also recognized that the \"difference in flowering time poses a barrier to crossing, thereby reducing the incidence of successful hybrid populations.\" A fuller understanding of the cause(s) of these flowering time differences will require accurate observations of flowering times in the field, under natural conditions, throughout the ranges of these species. But the observations reported here provide the necessary groundwork upon which further studies can build. The timing of flowering is affected by a variety of factors including the climate, plant architecture, pollinator availability, and the presence (or absence) of related or similar plants in the same environment. Sorting out the ultimate causes of flowering time differences is a very difficult task. Comparative studies of flowering times, both in the Arboretum and in the field, can help us to begin to understand the reasons for the differences in flowering times that are everywhere so apparent to us. Acknowledgements I thank Marion Carter, Norton Batkin, Elizabeth Taylor, Peter Stevens, Carroll Wood, Jr., and Richard Weaver, Jr., ful discussion and advice. I am especially grateful to Paul his assistance in recording flowering times in 1979 and Stoutsenberger for drawing Figure 1. and Drs. for helpGroff for to Karen 21 Appendix Viburnum Taxa Included in this V. betulifolium Batalin V. X burkwoodii Burkwood X V. utile Hemsley) Study ofFlowering V. V. Times (V.catlesii Hemsley var. V. cassinoides Linnaeus V. dentatum Linnaeus dentatum V. dcMtatMTK lentago opulus Linnaeus V. plicatum Miquel V. prunifolium Linnaeus V. rafinesquianum Schultes Linnaeus V. recognitum Fernald (V. rhytidophyllum Hemsley X Linnaeus) pubescens pMbesce?ts Aiton Alton __ , .,,,,., Suringar V. X rhytidophylloides ~ . V. lantana V. V. dentatum var. scabrellum Torrey & Gray V. dilatatum Thunberg rufidulum Rafinesque V. farreri Stearn V. V. sargentii Koehne V. setigerum Hance V. sieboldii furcatum Blume Miquel Viburnum Sections Included in this LANTANA Study of Flowering OPULUs DeCandolle PSEUDOPULUS Times Spach LENTAGO DeCandolle ODONTOTINUS Rehder THYRSOMA Dippel PSEUDOTINUS Clarke (Rafinesque) Rehder Voucher specimens will be deposited in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum (Jamaica Plain). References Bidwell, R. G. S. 1974. Plant physiology. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., New York. & A. T. Guard. 1956. A study of evidences of introgression among Viburnum lentago, V. prunifolium, and V. rufidulum based on leaf characteristics. Abstract in Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 66.300. Egolf, D. R. 1956. Cytological and interspecific hybridization studies in the genus Viburnum. Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, Cornell University. . 1962. Ornamental deciduous flowering viburnums. Amer. Hort. Brumbaugh, J. H., Mag. 41 : 139-155. Frankie, G. W. 1975. Tropical forest phenology and pollinator plant coevolution, in L. E. Gilbert & P. H. Raven, eds., Coevolution of animals plants. University of Texas Press. Gill, J. D., & F. L. Pogge. 1974. Viburnum L., and in Seeds of woody plants in the United States, pp. 844-850. U. S. D. A. Agr. Handb. No. 450. Goodwin, R. H. 1941. The selective effect of climate on the flowering behavior of Solidago sempervirens L. Proc. Rochester Acad. Sci. 8 :2227. 22 Grant, P. R. 1972. Convergent and divergent character displacement. J. Linn. Soc., Biol. 4:39-68. Gould, W. P. 1966. The ecology of Viburnum alnifolium Marsh. Unpubl. Ph.D. thesis, State University of New York, College of Forestry at Syracuse University. Heinrich, B. 1975. Bee flowers: a hypothesis on flower variety and blooming times. Evolution 29: 325-334. Kem, J. H. 1951. The genus Viburnum (Caprifoliaceae) in Malaysia. Reinwardtia 1: 107-170. Levin, D. A. 1978. The origin of isolating mechanisms in flowering plants. , 1970. Competition for pollinators between simultaneously flowering species. Amer. Naturalist 104:455-467. Lyon, C. J. 1922. A phaenological study in New England. Torreya 22 :19- Evol. Biol. 11: 185-317. & W. W. Anderson. 28. McAtee, W. L. 1956. A review of the neartic Viburnum. Privately printed, Chapel Hill, North Carolina. Medway, L. 1972. Phenology of a tropical rain forest in Malaya. J. Linn. Soc., Biol. 4: 117-146. Mosquin, T. 1971. Competition for pollinators as a stimulus for the evolution of flowering time. Oikos 22:398-402. Olmsted, C. E. 1944. Growth and development in range grasses. IV. Photoperiodic responses in twelve geographic strains of side-oats grama. Bot. Gaz. 106:46-74. Rader, L. L. 1976. A biosystematic study of Viburnum prunifolium and Viburnum rufidulum (Caprifoliaceae). Unpubl. Ms. thesis, University of Tennessee, Knoxville. P. M., & W. E. Alexander. 1966. Photoperiodic adaptations to latitude Ray, in Xanthium strumarium L. Amer. J. Bot. 53.806-816. Rehder, A. 1908. The viburnums of eastern Asia, in C. S. Sargent, ed., Trees and shrubs, pp. 105-116. Houghton Mifflin and Company, Boston. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs, 2nd ed. The Macmillan Company, New York. Robertson, C. 1924. Phenology of entomophilous flowers. Ecology 5 :393407. Rollins, J. A. 1974. Viburnums, in J. D. Gill & W. M. Healy, eds., Shrubs and vines for north-eastem wildlife, pp. 140-146. U. S. D. A. Forest Service General Technical Report NE-9. -. Stiles, F. G. 1978. Temporal organization of flowering among the hummingbird food plants of a tropical wet forest. Biotropica 10: 194-210. Wilkinson, A. M. 1948. Floral anatomy and morphology of some species of the genus Viburnum of the 465. 79. -. Caprifoliaceae. Amer. J. Bot. 35 :455- Wyman, D. 1937. Viburnums. Bull. Popular Inform. Arnold Arbor. 5 : 73- . . -. 1939a. The order of bloom of trees and shrubs at the Arnold Arboretum. Ibid. 7 : 53-64. 1939b. This hesitant spring. Ibid. 7: 13-16. 1945. Viburnums for the northern United States. Arnoldia 5:5763. 1959. Viburnums. Ibid. 19:47-56. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Itea: Summer Flowers and Autumn Color","article_sequence":2,"start_page":23,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24772","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170b76b.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":1,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Itea: Summer Flowers and Autumn Color by GARY L. KOLLER The native shrub Itea virginica is adaptable to wet and poorly drained as well as drier soils and has a summer flowering period, richly colored autumn foliage, and showy pearl-like seed capsules. Despite its cultural and landscape assets, this plant is grown by few nurserymen and is virtually unknown to the American gardening public. This strange and alluring plant is grown under common names including tassel-white, Virginia-willow, and Virginia sweetspire. The generic name Itea is the Greek word for willow and refers to the resemblance of the shrub's foliage to willow. The specific epithet virginica refers to the state of Virginia. Botanically the plant is the subject of some disagreement. Some taxonomists place it within the saxifrage family and others place it with the genus Choristylis in the segregate family, Iteaceae. Itea virginica inhabits swamps, land around lakes, and borders of wooded streams. Its natural range spreads from the coastal plain of New Jersey southward to Florida, west to Louisiana and to East Texas, and again northward up the Mississippi valley into Illinois, Missouri, and Oklahoma. The species is native only to North America. Virginia sweetspire grows six to ten feet tall and spreads an equal Gary L. Koller is Supervisor of the Living Collections at the Arnold Arboretum. His article about Itea should be of particular interest to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, who this year are receiving Itea virginica as a plant dividend. 23 24 greater distance by means of underground stems. A great cluster of thin stems arise from the center of the plant. Twigs are wine-red on the sunny side of the plant and greenish on the shady side and on older branches. The deciduous leaves are simple, alternate, broadly elliptic to oblong, two to four inches long, and finely toothed. Summer color is a dull green. The plant has two major attributes as an ornamental shrub, its flowering time and its foliage. At the Arnold Arboretum Itea virginica flowers in early July, a time when few trees and shrubs are in bloom and when much of the landscape is a monotonous green. The individual flowers are perfect and five-parted, pure white to pinkish white, and slightly fragrant. Flowers are grouped in nodding terminal racemes or axilliary panicles, two to five inches long. The flowers are charming rather than spectacular: the plant needs to be placed in the landscape where it will be conspicuous when it flowers. According to a brief note in the March 7, 1908, issue of The Gardeners' Chronicle, Itea virginica \"is particularly attractive to butterflies, especially the showy members of the genus Vanessa.\" The flowers gradually fade and mature into racemes of tan-brown, two-celled capsules. These capsules are extremely ornamental when viewed against the richly colored autumn foliage. The fruits survive after the leaves have fallen and persist into winter. The individual, small seeds are smooth, a lustrous dark brown, and ellipsoid. Dried clusters of seed capsules are eagerly sought out by flower arrangers. Leaves are the second major landscape attribute of the Virginia sweetspire. In autumn the foliage changes from dull green to rich shades of reddish purple. As the change occurs, the colors blend from orange to vivid reddish purple. The foliage remains colorful for several weeks and so can be viewed both in the full glowing sun and on dull misty days, which enhance leaf color. Itea virginica is easy to grow. It prefers a moist to wet soil rich in organic matter, but it does not tolerate standing, stagnant water. It will tolerate the drier, more infertile soils that occur in most home landscapes. The acidity of the soil seems to have little effect on the success and vigor of growth but ideally should be pH 5.0 to 7.0. Exposure to light can vary from full sun to partial shade. However, in a site with full sun there should be adequate soil moisture or supplemental irrigation during periods of drought. Also, while the plant tolerates considerable shade, it will not flower as freely under shady conditions nor will it take on rich autumn tints. Shade will also cause the plant to stretch and become leggy. Arboretum staff members Richard Weaver and Robert Nicholson have reported that Virginia sweetspire in the wild tends to be lanky and spindly. Maintenance pruning might be employed to keep the plant tight and compact. This can be accomplished by removing annually a portion of the old heavy stems directly at the soil line. This encourages new and vigorous growth. or The pendent racemes of Itea virginica appear in mid-summer. As shown here, the buds closest to the branch open first, and over a period of time the whole cluster comes into bloom. The individual flowers mature into tan-brown capsules. Even after the autumn leaves have fallen, the clusters of capsules remain attractive. Photograph by R. E. Weaver, Jr. 26 Itea virginica serves well as a specimen plant. It can be grouped massed on banks where its heavy growth and stoloniferous habit help to hold and stabilize the soil. This plant may be a solution to the landscape problem of a shady site with poorly drained soil. The Arnold Arboretum propagation staff has found that cuttings will root easily any time of year. Best results were obtained by dipping cuttings for five seconds in a solution of 8,000 ppm. of I.B.A. (indolbutyric acid) in 50% ethanol, inserting the cuttings in a medium of equal parts of peat and perlite, covering them with plastic, and misting. This plant should be a good classroom subject for beginners in propagation since rooting success is almost certain. The recommended method for home or classroom propagation is to take cuttings four to six inches long, dip the base of the cuttings in a rooting hormone, and place the cuttings in the peat and perlite mix, enclosing the pot and cuttings within a large plastic bag. This propagation unit can be placed in a brightly lit but not sunny window - a north window is ideal. Itea virginica also can be propagated by division and seeds. We are growing an exciting exotic relative of Itea virginica, the Japanese Itea japonica. In 1955 Dr. John Creech, now Director of the National Arboretum, made his first plant collecting expedition to Japan for the United States Department of Agriculture. During this trip he visited the Hot Springs Utilization Station, Beppu, Kyushu, Japan, and collected six plants of an unnamed compact form of Itea japonica. These were assigned the USDA plant introduction number 226131, propagated, and distributed to a number of testing locations, including the Arnold Arboretum. Our plants, accessioned under the Arnold Arboretum number 144-74, were received in 1974. Today they are approximately two and one-half to three feet tall and are vigorous, stoloniferous plants. At our request, Dr. Creech inspected the plants growing at the National Arboretum as of December 1979. He reports that they are growing well under a high canopy of trees. They are three to four feet tall and form a dense, broad, spreading mass with loose arching branches, reminiscent of Leucothoe. The young leaves are wine-red and persist into late autumn. The branches are greenish in color, probably due to the semi-shady conditions, and thin. When I first arrived at the Arnold Arboretum, this compact form of Itea was a delightful discovery for me. Observations over subsequent summers confirmed that our plants bear their small white flowers in late June and early July. Our three-plant grouping is at the top of a stone wall in the dwarf plant garden below the Dana Greenhouses. It is growing in dry acid soil in full sun. The foliage is dark green in summer and wine-red to reddish purple for several weeks in the autumn. This group of plants suffered minor stem damage during the winter of 1978-79, but otherwise would appear to be hardy to our low of -6F that season. or 27 During the fall of 1976, the Arboretum distributed cuttings of our compact Itea japonica to Mr. James Cross of Environmentals, a nursery at Cutchogue, on Long Island, New York. He reports that he growing this plant in containers and that it quickly grows to a full and handsome plant which he feels will have commercial appeal. Some who know both Itea virginica and the compact form of Itea japonica feel that the Japanese plant is a better garden plant because of its size and vigor. Since the compact Japanese Itea does have a potential in the market, I believe it should receive a cultivar name to identify and distinguish the genotype. Therefore, with Dr. Creech's permission I propose Itea japonica 'Beppu' as the name for all plants originating from the National Arboretum's original introduction P.I. 226131. Its distinguishing characteristic is compactness, as compared with the normal species, which grows six to ten feet tall. Itea japonica 'Beppu' should have wide appeal. It can be grown as a specimen plant. More importantly, landscape architects can use it in poorly drained soils, massed under trees, or grouped to stabilize banks and slopes. Itea japonica 'Beppu' is also useful for facing down borders and hedges of taller-growing material. It could also serve alone as a low but wide-spreading hedging material. These two sweetspires are examples of many fine plants growing in arboreta across North America that are virtually unobtainable from commercial nurseries. The Arnold Arboretum has filled this void for many years by publicizing such plants in Arnoldia and by distributing little known plants to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, to gardeners, and to the nursery trade. Therefore, we are pleased to announce that during April 1980 Friends of the Arnold Arboretum will be mailed a rooted cutting of Itea virginica for testing. This is our first biennial plant dividend featuring a native American plant. After the danger of frost has passed, these cuttings should be planted outdoors in a location protected against errant feet or misguided lawnmowers. During the fall of 1980, the plants should be well mulched with pine needles, hardwood bark, or wood chips and perhaps given protection from rodents. All of the cuttings we are distributing were propagated from a plant collected by Mrs. Mary G. Henry, founder of the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. Mrs. Henry discovered the plant growing near Sharpsburg, Georgia, in November 1954 and selected it for its superior fall color and persistent autumn leaves. We are indebted to Ms. Josephine Henry of the Henry Foundation for sharing with us the original supply of stock cuttings to begin this distribution project. People who are not members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum or who are members and wish to obtain additional plants of Itea virginica will find them available by mail order from Wayside Gardens, Hodges, South Carolina 29695 or Woodlanders, 1128 Colleton Avenue, Aiken, South Carolina 29001. is Departing from the usual high quality of illustrations in Curtis's Botanical Magazine, this illustration of Itea virginica (SO(1823): t. 2409) is inaccurate 2n showing upright racemes and misleading in showing a trilobed leaf, an uncommon occurrence. Probably taken from a pressed herbarium specimen, this picture fails to depict the complete gracefulness and charm of the flowering plant. 29 References Arnold, R. E. 1946. Trees and shrubs: Itea virginica. Gard. Chron. 120 (February 9):63-64. Bean, W. J. 1973. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, 8th rev. ed. John Murray Ltd. in collaboration with The Royal Horticultural Society, London. Britton, N. A., & A. B. Brown. 1913. An illustrated flora of the northern United States, Canada, and the British possessions, 2nd ed. rev. & enl. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Brown, C. A. 1945. Louisiana trees and shrubs. Louisiana Forestry Commission Bulletin No. 1, Baton Rouge. Brown, R. G., & M. L. Brown. 1972. Woody plants of Maryland. Distributed by The Student Supply Store, University of Maryland, College Park. 1897. Flora of the southern United States. Cambridge Massachusetts. D. S., & M. C. Johnston. 1970. Manual of the vascular plants of Correll, Texas. Texas Research Foundation, Renner, Texas. Darby, J. 1860. Botany of the southern states. A. S. Bames & H. L. Burr, New York. Green, W. F., & H. L. Blomquist. 1953. Flowers of the South - native and exotic. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Hottes, A. C. 1952. The book of shrubs, 6th ed. A. T. de le Mare Co., Inc., New York. Itea virginica. 1919. Gard. Chron. 65(August 2):62. Long, R. W., & O. Lakela. 1971. A flora of tropical Florida. University of Miami Press, Coral Gables. Ohwi, J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Plant notes: Itea virginica. 1908. Gard. Chron. 43(March 7).148. Radford, A. E., H. E. Ahles, & C. R. Bell. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill. Sims, J. 1823. Itea virginica. Virginian itea. Bot. Mag. 50: t. 2409. Small, J. K. 1913. Flora of the southeastern United States, 2nd ed. Published by the author, New York. Stone, W. 1973. The plants of southern New Jersey. Quaterman Publications, Inc., Boston. Vines, R. A. 1960. Trees, shrubs and woody vines of the Southwest. University of Texas Press, Austin. Witt, J. A. 1963. New or unusual plants in the arboretum. 13. Itea japonica Oliver. The University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin Chapman, A. W. Botanical Supply Company, Cambridge, 26 ( 3 ) : 78-79, 93. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Taste for Horticulture [Charles Mason Hovey]","article_sequence":3,"start_page":31,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24770","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170b36d.jpg","volume":40,"issue_number":1,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hutchinson, B. June","article_content":"A Taste for Horticulture by B. JUNE HUTCHINSON 1; 1 The three decades from 1830-1860 showed greater progress in horticulture in America than in all the time before. U. P. Hedrick, A History of Horticulture in America to 1860 a young man with a passionate devotion to horticulture opened a nursery in Cambridge, Massachusetts, with his older brother. The young man's name was Charles Mason Hovey and his accomplishments in horticulture and his zeal in publishing the accomplishments of others made a singularly important contribution to the thirty In 1832 years of progress in horticulture from 1830 to 1860. Indeed, Thomas Meehan, editorializing in The Gardeners' Monthly and Horticulturist in 1886, claimed that \"horticulture on this continent is probably more indebted to [Charles Mason Hoveythan to any living man\" (Meehan, 1886), a claim possibly as true now as it was in Thomas Meehan's day. Views of Cambridge painted in 1809, portraying widely spaced houses around the Cambridge Common and distant views of farmMrs. B. June Hutchinson is a long-standing Friend of the Arnold Arboretum and an active volunteer since 1970. She presently is a student of landscape design in the Radcliffe Seminars Program and is worhing as a residential landscape designer. In addition, she and Sheila Geary, Assistant Librarian, are researching a book on the collaboration of Charles Sprague Sargent and Frederich Law Olmsted in the creation of the Arnold Arboretum. 31 32 land (Emmet, 1978), show that Cambridge was still a rural village in 1810 when Charles Mason Hovey was born in his father's house on Brookline Street. The household already was a busy place for his mother, Sarah Stone Hovey, since Charles had five older siblings ranging from fifteen to three years of age (Daniel Hovey Association, 1913). A younger brother was born in 1813. Charles's father, Phineas Brown Hovey, conducted a grocery store on the western comer of Main and Brookline Streets, and bought, rented, and sold property elsewhere in Cambridge (Cambridge Historical Commission, Folder: The Hovey Tavern, Cambridgeport). He and Sarah owned pew twenty in the Cambridgeport Meeting House on Columbia Street and probably took Charles and his siblings there on Sundays. Not a great deal is known about Charles's early years. He was sent to Cambridge Academy and graduated in 1824, when he was fourteen. There is no record that he had any further formal education. He apparently became interested in plants at a very early age, and the large areas of natural woods in Cambridge and the marshlands along the Charles River must have been a delight to him. A splendid watercolor executed between 1822 and 1828 is evidence that he sketched and painted very early. The watercolor shows Hovey Tavern1 and the block of Massachusetts Avenue in Cambridge where the tavern stood; it remains the best pictorial documentation of that particular area of Cambridge (Cambridge Historical Commission, Folder: The Hovey Tavern, Cambridgeport). According to one account, Charles began \"when but fifteen years of age ... gardening for pleasure [in] his father's ample garden\" and at sixteen had gathered together a \"goodly collection of Hyacinths, Tulips, Ranunculuses, and other bulbs and plants, and with borrowed tools built a small greenhouse\" (Robinson, 1881). Charles had a strawberry collection at nineteen which he later said contained \"all the fine sorts which were to be obtained\" (Hovey, 1852), and two years later he was keeping vastly detailed sheets on pears, complete with sketches and information about their form, size, skin, color, flavor, core, and so on (Hovey, Notes on Apples, Peaches, etc.). His scholarly approach to horticulture is evident in an undated notebook in which he recorded, in a neat pen, the classifications of stem types, including the comment, \"Linnaeus enumerates seven kinds of trunks, stems, or stalks of vegetables. These are necessary to be known for botanical distinctions though some are more important than others\" (Hovey, Notes on Apples, Peaches, etc.). Charles's enthusiasm for plants motivated him not only to read and study, but to visit other horticulturists. Four years after the event, Charles described a visit he made in the fall of 1831, when he was twenty-one years old, to Landreth's old and respected Philadelphia nursery (Hovey, 1835). 1 ably The inn was run from 1803 Charles's uncle. or 1804 until 1808 by Josiah Hovey, prob- The watercolor above, painted between 1822 and 1828 by Charles Mason Hovey, shows the Hovey Tavern and a portion of Massachusetts Avenue in Cambridgeport. To the right of the Hovey Tavern, across Douglass Street, is the store of N. Child, and the building beyond with hay scales in front is the soap factory of E. Davis. The large three-story building beside the soap factory was a two-family home occupied by Nathaniel Livermore, a soap manufacturer, and his son, John. Another of Nathaniel's sons, Isaac, married Eunice Hovey, Charles Mason Hovey's sister. All the buildings seen above were constructed soon after 1801. The tavern stood until June 12, 1828, when it burned. None of the other buildings exist today. Charles Mason Hovey's watercolor is in the collection of Nina Fletcher Little and is reproduced here by courtesy of the owner. He may have made this visit to gather information (and plants) for the running of a nursery since the Hovey brothers opened their small nursery the following spring. Charles was twenty-two and his older brother, Phineas,2 twentynine when they began their nursery in 1832 on one acre of land in Cambridgeport. Charles already was seriously engaged in hybridiz2 Phineas Brown Hovey, Jr., the oldest son of Phineas and Sarah Hovey, is listed as a horticulturist in the vital records of Cambridge and in the accounts of his death on May 3, 1885. Little is recorded of his personal life, and his outspoken, energetic younger brother clearly overshadowed him in the world of horticulture. Phineas married Mary L. Cook in 1828. He joined the Massachusetts Horticultural Society the year it was founded and remained an active member, serving on several committees. Charles Breck, speaking of Phineas at his death, said he had known him for forty years and found him an \"honorable, upright gentleman with a noble kind heart\" (Breck, 1885). The American Gardener's Magazine, founded and edited by Charles Mason Hovey and his brother Phineas B. Hovey, was the first successful periodical in this country devoted to horticulture. Two years after the periodical was initiated, its name was changed to The Magazine of Horticulture and Charles Mason Hovey became the sole editor. The Magazine of Horticulture was discontinued in 1868. 35 ing strawberries, and that summer he prepared the plants from which he ultimately selected the seed for his famous 'Hovey's Seedling' (Hovey, 1852). In 1833Charles became a member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. In 1834 Charles and Phineas opened Hovey and Company, a seed and agricultural warehouse at 79 and 81 Comhill Street,4 Boston, which they ran in conjunction with their Cambridge nursery. It must have been an exciting and auspicious location for a new seed business : the meeting hall of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society was on the second floor of 81 Cornhill Street, immediately above the store. ~ The winter of the store's founding was exceptionally severe in the Boston area, record cold and snow making life and travel difficult. Looking forward to spring, Charles and Phineas advertised a large selection of seeds, bulbs, dahlias, grape vines, and fruits, and an extensive list of books connected with gardening and botany. The seed store was not Charles and Phineas's only new venture that winter. On January 1, 1835, the two brothers published Volume I, Number I, of The American Gardener's Magazine, the first periodical in the United States devoted to horticulture.The magazine was to be published monthly with forty pages an issue (the first issue and the second issue were slightly shorter and slightly longer, respectively) at the price of 25 cents per copy or $3.00 per year. As Thomas Meehan later noted (Meehan, 1886), the name, design, and layout of the Hovey magazine were taken from The Gardener's Magazine, an English journal edited by J. C. Loudon. The title chosen by Charles and Phineas undoubtedly acknowledges their desire to emulate Loudon's magazine in more than appearance. ~ At first both Why Charles did not join in 1829, when the Society was founded, can be guessed. The fact that he then was only nineteen years old may be a partial explanation. Among the sixteen men who tramped at midday through five and six feet of snow in the streets of Boston to institute a horticultural society for Massachusetts were such prominent local figonly Kenrick and J. A. S. Dearborn, the nurserymen William and the famous Salem pomologist Robert Manning, figures in whose company a young man still living at home and as yet to make a mark on the world might well have felt out of place! ures as 3 John Lowell, General H. Winship, 4 Cornhill Street was the name earlier had been Market Street. given in late 1833 or early 1834 to what The Massachusetts Horticultural Society met at 81 Cornhill Street from 1834 to late 1837, when it outgrew the space and moved to 25 Tremont Street. e February 6 When The American Gardener's Magazine began, there existed a handful of agricultural periodicals in America, which occasionally published articles on horticultural subjects. 7 The full title of the Hoveys' magazine was The American Gardener's Magazine, and Register of Useful Discoveries and Improvements in Horticulture and Rural Affairs. The full title of J. C. Loudon's magazine was The Gardener's Magazine, and Register of Rural & Domestic Improve- 36 Charles and Phineas Gardener's was were listed as \"conductors\" of The American Magazine. With the third volume, the name of the journal changed to The Magazine of Horticulture, and its title page car- ried only C. M. Hovey's name as editor. The list of contributors to the new journal read like a \"who's who of gardening\". It represented all levels of horticulture from the professional gardeners and nurserymen to the knowledgeable amateur horticulturists and wealthy gentlemen farmers. Meehan wrote in 1886 that Charles Hovey \"was fortunate in drawing about him an admirable line of correspondents who went into the support of the magazine with zeal and intelligence remarkable for the time ... - names such as would make at once the fortune of any horticultural publication\" (Meehan, 1886). How did a young man from Cambridgeport \"draw about him\" such an eminent group of contributors ? The records do not say, but it is possible to speculate with some confidence. We know, for example, that Charles had traveled about the country at an early age and visited men in the plant world. He might have impressed them with his knowledge and enthusiasm; he certainly won friends among them. By the time The American Gardener's Magazine began, he was gaining a reputation as a professional nurseryman and hybridizer, and this surely gave him entree to other professionals. Finally, Phineas's circle of friends at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society clearly supported the new journal. Sixteen of the thirty-two contributors to The American Gardener's Magazine its first year were members or out-of-state corresponding members of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Four of the men who contributed the first year were among the sixteen who had trudged through the snow to the founding meeting of the Society. A. J. Downing, the most famous name in landscape gardening in his day, a writer, nurseryman, and editor, contributed often to the new periodical. In 1837 The American Gardener's Magazine began with his \"Notices on the State and Progress of Horticulture in the United States,\" an annual feature Charles Hovey took over the next year and continued to write, under similar titles, until 1868, the last year of the magazine. John Lewis Russell, Professor of Botany and Vegetable Physiology to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and Robert Manning, a foremost pomologist of the time, both were frequent contributors. Articles were received from Grant Thorburn of ment. Charles and Phineas did not mention Loudon in their \"Introduction\" to the first issue of The American Gardener's Magazine, but later in the issue they printed reviews of four articles in the May 1834 and July 1834 issues of The Gardener's Magazine. L. H. Bailey also notes that The American Gardener's Magazine \"was modeled after Loudon's 'Gardener's Magazine,' although its spirit was es- sentially American\" (Bailey, 1935). Loudon's magazine, according to Geoffrey Taylor, was \"the first Gardening magazine in England\" (Taylor, 1952). 37 New York, the first seedsman of any consequence in America; William R. Prince, proprietor of one of the oldest and most extensive nurseries in the country at Flushing, New York; J. A. and William Kenrick, sons of the pioneer New England nurseryman John Kenrick; R. Buist, owner of an \"exotic\" nursery in Philadelphia; and M. Floy, Jr., owner of a New York nursery famous for its camellias. Practical, first-hand information was furnished by D. Haggerston, the first superintendent of Mount Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge and later the gardener to J. P. Cushing at Belmont Place, Watertown; J. W. Russell, gardener to J. Lemist, Roxbury, and superintendent at Mount Auburn after D. Haggerston; Peter McKenzie, Henry Pratt's gardener at the estate of Lemon Hill in Philadelphia; and Robert Murray, gardener at the Waltham residence of Theodore Lyman, Jr. Among the affluent amateurs who supported the new magazine was John Lowell, a lawyer and political writer who after having amassed a fortune, retired to the Roxbury estate of Broomley Vale, \"one of the oldest, finest places in Boston\" (Dictionary of American Biography, 1930), intending to grow fruits and to farm scientifically. His greenhouse was the first in the area built on scientific principles. A founder of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, he was sixtysix years old in 1835, but sent notes to the Hovey magazine before his death in 1840. Another local figure equally important in horticulture in 1835 was Marshall P. Wilder of Hawthorne Grove, Dorchester, a successful merchant and holder of several public offices. Marshal Wilder was an impressive fruit grower, specializing in pears, had an extensive camellia collection, and wielded considerable influence on horticulture in both the United States and England. He contributed a series of nine articles on camellias during the first ten years of the Hovey magazine. General Henry A. S. Dearborn, one of the founders and the first President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, communicated a number of letters from the naturalist Dr. Augustus Mitchell, and other notes of his own. In later issues of The Magazine of Horticulture, Henry Winthrop Sargent, Charles Sprague Sargent's distant cousin, contributed letters from travels in England, and articles on the wintering of evergreens at Wodenethe, his estate on the Hudson River. The high caliber of articles in The American Gardener's Magazine and The Magazine of Horticulture certainly was an important element in the magazine's success. Another was Charles Hovey's diligence as editor. Charles kept abreast of horticulture; he read and reviewed new horticultural publications for his readers and occasionally offered a synoptic look at English and French journals. His contributions on topics such as plant hybridization were written from a vast store of personal knowledge. Thomas Meehan attributed Hovey's success as an editor to \"the love of labor that he united with his intelligence\" (Meehan, 1886). L. H. Bailey points up what is possibly the magazine's most valuable contribution: \"It is a record of the bud- CONSERVATORY OR <AStF.LLIA HOUSE OF MESSRS F30VEY Jc t,0. The size and elegance of the greenhouse shown above, called the Camellia House, and the further facilities provided by three additional greenhouses attest to the prominence of the Hovey Nursery. The Camellia House lay at the end of a broad avenue one hundred and sixty feet from the street. C. H. B. Breck, a nurseryman, wrote in 1861 that he \"visited the beautiful lawn in front of the greenhouses, around which are grouped specimens of rare shrubs and ornamental shade trees, of which [Hovey] has a magnificent collection, consisting of everything that is worth cultivating\" (Breck, 1861 ). The Camellia House was nine feet high to the eaves and sixteen feet high in the center with a central walkway three and one-half feet wide. The finest varieties of climbing roses twined up columns on either side of the central walk and were a wtdely acclaimed feature of the greenhouse which contained the Hoveys' renowned collection of camellias. of New World horticulture\" (Bailey, 1935). Indeed, the touched on almost every development in and affecting the horticultural world from 1835 until 1868, when it was discontinued. For example, the rise of landscape design in America can be traced from its merest mumuring - a William Sheridan respectfully informing the public in the March 1836 issue that he is available to lay out gardens, and a Mr. E. Sayers, lately employed by Dr. Hosack of New York, now in Boston, offering in the August 1837 issue to lay out gardens and pleasure grounds. In August 1837 C. M. Hovey reported a resolution in the House of Commons in England \"that in all enclosure bills, a provision should be made for leaving an open space sufficient for the purposes of exercise and recreation\" and editorialized his hope for a Congressional \"act or resolve ... authorizing the selectmen of towns or the corporations of cities to reserve open spaces for the exercise of the people.\" In an editorial in the January 1863 issue he laments that \"cultivators have been called ding stage magazine 39 from the garden to the battlefield, and the spade has been changed for the sword. Many energetic amateurs and nurserymen ... have fallen in the cruel warfare which imperils our national existence.\" At the close of the magazine in 1868, the editor, then fifty-eight years old, surveyed with satisfaction his successes during thirty-four years of publishing. He added that \"with an enthusiasm unabated, and a zeal as earnest as ever, in everything connected with horticulture, we shall not retire from a field which has afforded us so much pleasure, but continue to labor.\" With increased fame, the Hovey Nursery expanded. In 1840 Charles and Phineas purchased 40 acres of woodland on Cambridge Street in Cambridgeport. According to a later description, the land was cleared and \"cut up into squares and avenued with Pears and other trees, and extensive glass houses were erected\" (Robinson, 1881). By 1848 four greenhouses were in use. R. B. Leuchars, author of the first book published in America on greenhouses, A Practical Treatise on the Construction, Heating and Ventilation of HotHouses, reported in February 1850 in The Magazine of Horticulture that the Hoveys \"have just erected and completed one of the largest span-roofed houses in the country, being ninety-six feet long and thirty feet wide, chiefly for the growth of specimen plants, for which purpose it is well designed\" (Leuchars, 1850). Leuchars was impressed by more than the greenhouse: \"We hear a great deal about the specimen grounds, of nursery men, and ... I have traveled some considerable distance to see them, both in this country and in England, but have found their existence only in catalogues and advertisements. I confess, therefore, I was not prepared for the coupd'oeil which was here presented to me\" (Leuchars, 1850). The specimen grounds had approximately two thousand dwarf fruit trees. The conservatory of the Hovey Nursery, called the Camellia House, was widely known not only for its beautiful construction \"in the Grecian style\" (Leuchars, 1850) and for its size it was eighty-four feet long and twenty-two feet wide but for the breath-taking Hovey camellia collection, set off by the best varieties of climbing roses twining up the inside columns (Hovey, 1854). The breadth of the nursery stock was staggering. There were nearly sixty thousand pear trees, and thousands of one-, two-, and three-year-old trees of each other fruit (Londoniensis, 1850). The nursery had a collection of twenty thousand geraniums, and the \"best collection in the country of Japan lilies ~Lilium speciosum~\" (Hovey, 1848). In 1844 Charles visited England, Scotland, France, and Belgium, and brought back many ornamental trees and shrubs which he thought might be hardy in New England. He had imported plants from England and Europe for many years. The Hovey Nursery undoubtedly trained many young plantsmen. A notable instance is Jackson Thornton Dawson, who apprenticed himself at the nursery around 1856 and quickly earned the charge of the bouquet department. Eighteen years later this talented - Charles Mason Hovey began experimenting with the hybridization of strawberries in the summer of 1832. English varieties of strawberry were not vigorous enough to withstand the severe New England winters. With this in mind and convinced that he must look to his own garden for hardy varieties, Hovey began to raise plants from seed. Writing in 1837, he recorded that he considered five properties when he selected seedlings: hardiness and productiveness of the plants, and flavor, size, and color of the fruits. He added, \"The chance of raising a very superior fruit may be considered as one to five hundred\" (Hovey, 1837). In 1838 Hovey produced the famous 'Hovey's Seedling'. 'Hovey's Seedling' was the first good American strawberry and was widely grown until the close of the 19th century. The lithograph above is from The Fruits of America (1852). Above: William Sharp, a pioneer in color lithography, produced the one hundred and ten colored lithographs which appeared in The Fruits of America. This portrait of the artist is the frontispiece to the second volume of The Fruits of America (1856). An advertisement for 'Hovey's Seedling' which zine of Horticulture in January 1842. Right: was printed in The Maga- young tum. man would become the first propagator of the Arnold Arbore- Drawing on the great energy mentioned by many who knew him, Charles found time to continue his work in plant hybridization while attending to the responsibilities of the expanding nursery, the seed house, the traveling, reading, writing, and editing required for the journal, and the increasingly active role he was playing in the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. His early interest in strawberries led in 1838 to the introduction of 'Hovey's Seedling'. This berry was for many years the market and table strawberry. It won the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's annual premium for strawberries at least twelve times between 1838 and 1854.8 Charles's publication of his 8 According ciety, Charles Mason Hovey eight of the Massachusetts Horticultural Soawarded the premium for strawberries times between 1838 and 1850. In 1850 the Transactions began listto the Transactions was 42 breeding techniques in the July 1837 issue of The Magazine of Horticulture, together with the financial success of the seedling, undoubtedly encouraged other fruit breeders in this country. Charles introduced many pears, among them 'Dana's Hovey'. In 1855 he raised from seed the Hovey cherry. Charles Mason Hovey eventually became as one of America's foremost authorities on fruit varieties. A of over 100 letters in the archives of the Massachusetts Hortipacket cultural Society attests to his reputation. Written largely in the years 1846 to 1853 and from Michigan, Pennsylvania, New York, all the New England states, and Canada, many of these letters sought help with some aspect of fruit culture. From 1852 to 1856 Charles Mason Hovey published the 24 numbers of the first two volumes of Fruits of America. Every number was handsomely printed, with four plates in color of fruit, stem, and leaves, an outline section of each fruit, and a drawing of each tree, the last made from a sketch by Charles Hovey. Only three numbers of the third volume were published. Charles was interested in hybridizing trees and ornamental plants other than fruits. In 1860 he introduced Thuja occidentalis var. hoveyi, which he raised from seed. He did much to advance the culture of the camellia. He had begun hybridizing this plant in 1835, when he was 25 years old, and his cultivars 'C. H. Hovey', 'C. M. Hovey', and 'Mrs. Anne Marie Hovey' were important contributions (Hume, 1951); he won awards for all three, including a gold medal in 1854 from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for 'C. M. Hovey' and a prestigious certificate in 1879 from the Royal Horticultural Society of London for the lovely white and blush pink 'Mrs. Anne Marie Hovey', named for his wife. Hovey also introduced cultivars of Indian azalea ('America' and 'Suzette'), speciosum lily ('Melpomene', 'Terpsichore', 'Thalia', 'Polyhymnia', and 'Clio'), geranium ('Cambridge Pet', 'Dolly Dutton', 'Commodore Nutt'), and the orchid cactus (Epiphyllum ) 'C. M. Hovey'. In 1881 W. Robinson remarked of Charles Mason Hovey that \"During his whole career the hybridisation of plants has been with him a favourite work\" (Robinson, 1881). Precise facts concerning Charles Mason Hovey's family life are scanty. In addition to launching his journal in 1835 and his other responsibilities, he somehow found time to call on Ann Maria Chaponil (sometimes spelled \"Chapouil\") of Cambridge, and on December 25, 1835, they were married. An entry in his horticultural note- known ing the variety for won which the premium was awarded. The 'Hovey Seedling' the premium in 1850, 1852, 1853, and 1854. Some of the other persons who won the premium for strawberries between 1838 and 1850 may have won it for a 'Hovey Seedling'. W. Robinson claimed that the Hovey Seedling won the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's premium twenty consecutive years (Robinson, 1881), and Thomas Meehan claimed that it won thirty consecutive years (Meehan, 1886). The portrait of Charles Mason Hovey reproduced above was printed as the frontispiece to Volume 28 ( 1886 ) of The Gardeners' Monthly and Horticulturist. The engraving is based on a portrait of Hovey painted by Alonzo Hartwell of Boston in 1865, when Hovey was President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The original painting is in the possession of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. book for that date indicates that Charles tended to business before the ceremony and records his finding the \"epacris in full bloom\" (most likely Epacris grandiflora, its rosy red and white blossoms especially appropriate for the Christmas season) and \"camellia fimbriata in flower\" (Hovey, Horticultural Memoranda). The subsequent gap in his horticultural notes suggests that he found his bride absorbing; the next entry is dated Monday, March 7. Possibly the Hoveys enjoyed an extended wedding trip, but business went on as usual, and no hint of such a trip appears in his writing. Who Ann Maria was remains an intriguing question. The first volume of the Vital Records ofCambridge lists one Antoine Chaponil, bom in Mayseac, France, on April 12, 1767. This likely was Ann Maria's father. The Vital Records of Cambridge also records Ann Maria's marriage to Charles, and the marriages of a Caroline and a Louise Chaponil, who probably were Ann Maria's sisters. A Lucy Chaponil Charpoil was buried on March 31, 1841, but whether or In 1863 the Massachusetts Horticultural Society purchased the Montgomery House estate on Tremont Street as the location for a new hall. The hall, designed by Gridley J. F. Bryant and built with Concord white granite, was constructed largely through the efforts and fund raising of Charles Mason Hovey, President of the Society from 1863 to 1866. The new building was dedicated on September 16th, 1865, and was the headquarters of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society until 1900. The above photograph of the Horticultural Hall is reproduced from History of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 1829-1878. (Manning, 1880). 45 she was Ann Maria's mother, possibly remarried, could not be established. By 1843 Charles Mason and Ann Maria Hovey were living in Cambridge at 381 Broadway on the comer of Maple Street. The handsome colonial revival house was ornamented with an appropriate swag of flowers carved over the entrance. Although the house still stands on Broadway in Cambridge, it has been greatly altered over the years, and only the yet remaining ornamentation and detail hint at its former beauty. The location on Broadway and Maple Streets was convenient for Charles, since the nursery was nearby on Cambridge Street. Charles spent the remainder of his life in this house, and, indeed, the records tell us that he died there. The Vital Records of Cambridge lists two children born to Ann Maria and Charles Mason, Susan in 1846 and Eulalie in 1857. Only two other references to Charles Mason Hovey's family were found. Writing in The Gardeners' Monthly and Horticulturist in December 1886, Thomas Meehan remarked that \"During the past six or eight years, [Hovey] has suffered by the loss of wife, three daughters, daughter-in-law and four grandchildren; but the love of fruit and flower culture still affords him consolation\" (Meehan, 1886). In 1892 Meehan reported that the Hovey \"family have donated a large part of the library of their late father to the Horticultural Society of Massachusetts\" (Meehan, 1892). Charles Mason Hovey's work in horticulture apparently rewarded him handsomely. According to a credit report, by the mid-1860's he was \"rich and growing richer all the time\" (R. G. Dun and Company, Credit Ledgers), and in 1868 it is noted that he owned considerable real estate and was \"doing a good business\" (R. G. Dun and Company, Credit Ledgers). Charles was very active in the Massachusetts Horticultural Society until his death. He served on virtually every committee and was President from 1863 to 1866. The records tell us that during his term of office membership increased from 500 to 1,000 and $30,000 was raised. Largely as a result of his efforts, a building was erected on Tremont Street and dedicated in 1865. This building housed the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and its annual exhibitions from 1865 until 1900, after which year the Society moved to its present quarters on Massachusetts Avenue. Perhaps of greatest importance were the displays of constantly improved fruits and flowers which Hovey and Company exhibited at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Without question, these displays contributed enormously to a more sophisticated public taste for horticulture. Charles Mason Hovey died in the evening on Thursday, September 1, 1887, of \"an affection of the heart, inducing dropsical trouble\" (Cambridge Chronicle, September 3, 1887). The Cambridge Chronicle stated that \"although he was never a candidate for any local office, few names are more familiar to our citizens than his\" (Cambridge not 46 The Cambridge Press also printed and declared that he \"was widely known not only in this country but in Europe\" (The Cambridge Press, September 3, 1887). The funeral was held at his home at 2 : 30 p.m. on Sunday, September 4, 1887 (The Cambridge Press, September 3, 1887). Charles Mason Hovey was buried at Mount Auburn Cemetery, in Lot 4205 at the comer of Mound and Spruce. Phineas had been buried at the Mount Auburn Cemetery in 1885 in Lot 4554, Gerardia Path. The Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for 1887 record a memorial to C. M. Hovey. Describing Hovey as a man of \"ceaseless activity, untiring energy, keen observation, retentive memory, boundless enthusiasm,\" and noting Hovey's contributions as a hybridizer, an editor, and an author, the memorial states that \"it may be doubted whether any other man in this country has done so much to stimulate a love of horticulture in all its branches\" (Transactions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 1887). Among those who drafted the memorial notice was Robert Manning, son of the Salem pomologist who had been a frequent contributor to Chronicle, September 3, 1887). his obituary Hovey's magazine. Horticulturist, hybridizer, nurseryman, writer, editor, and artist, Charles Mason Hovey is a singularly important figure in the history of American horticulture. Acknowledged and praised as such by his contemporaries, he has been all but forgotten by twentieth century historians, a fate undeserved by a man whose life has been characterized as \"one continuous service ... to horticulture\" (Benson, 1929). Gardening is a pursuit to which we have ever been zealously y devoted, and in which we have ever felt a deep interest. We hope our humble efforts, in our new avocation, will not be unavailing, in disse7ninating a taste for Horticulture ... ... Charles Mason Hovey, Introduction, The American Gardener's Magazine, Volume 1, Number 1, 1835 for this paper came from many people, and materials from numerous institutions were used. The staff at both the Cambridge Public Library and the Massachusetts Historical Society were friendly and helpful. Charles Sullivan of the Cambridge Historical Commission made available fascinating archival material, as did Heather Miller of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Eleanor McPeck, instructor in the Radcliffe Seminars, Radcliffe College, gave encouragement and advice, and Sheila Geary always was able to come up with one more source from the splendid library of Acknowledgements Assistance and suggestions 47 the Arnold Arboretum. The photograph of the watercolor of the Tavern was graciously provided by Nina Fletcher Little, who owns the original. Charles Mason Hovey is an intriguing figure, and many questions about him remain unanswered. Any additional information would be welcome and may be forwarded to the author through Arnoldia. Hovey References Austin, R. T., & S. S. Austin. Diary, 1835-1885. Manuscript, Boston Athenaeum. Bailey, L. H. 1942. Hovey, Charles Mason. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture, 2nd ed. 2:1580-1581. The Macmillan Company, New York. Benson, A. E. 1929. History of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston. Breck, C. H. B. 1861. Visit to Hovey's nurseries. Mag. Hort. Bot. 27(8): 379-381. 1886. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1885(2): 231-232. , et. al. Chronicle. September 3, 1887. Charles Mason Hovey. CamCambridge bridge. Cambridge Historical Commission. 1971. Cambridgeport. M.I.T. Press, Cambridge. Folder: The Hovey House, 381 Broadway. Folder: The Hovey Tavern, Cambridgeport. Map Collection. Cambridge Press, The. September 3, 1887. Another of our old citizens gone. Cambridge. Chitwood, O. P., & F. L. Owsley. 1951. A short history of the American people, vol. 1. D. VanNostrand and Company, Inc., New York. Copeland, R. M. 1859. Country life. J. P. Jewett Company, Boston Daniel Hovey Association. 1913. The Hovey book. Press of L. R. Hovey, . . . Haverhill. Darrow, G. M. 1966. The strawberry: history, breeding, and physiology. Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York. Dictionary of American biography. 1930. Scribners and Sons, New York. Downing, A. J. 1841. Treatise on the theory and practice of landscape gardening. Wiley and Putnam, New York. Dun, R. G., and Company. 1841, etc. Credit Ledgers, Massachusetts, Suffolk County. Archives, Baker Library, Harvard University. Emmet, A., et al. 1978. Cambridge, Massachusetts: the changing of a landscape. Harvard University Printing Office, Boston. Forbes, A., & J. W. Greene. 1851. The rich men of Massachusetts. W. V. Spencer, Boston. Graustein, J. E. 1967. Thomas Nuttall, naturalist. Harvard University Press, Cambridge. Hedrick, U. P. 1925. The small fruits of America. S. B. Lyon Company, Albany. -. 1950. A history of horticulture versity Press, New York. in America to 1860. Oxford Uni- 48 Hovey, Charles Mason, and Company. Letters and communications, 18381856. Manuscript, Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Hovey, C. M., & P. B. Hovey, eds. 1835, 1836. The American Gardener's Magazine. Hovey, C. M. Notes on apples, peaches, plums, grapes, and pears, two parts. Manuscript, Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 1835. Notices of some of the gardens and nurseries in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia; taken from memoranda made in the month of March last. Amer. Gard. Mag. 1 ( 6 ) : 201-206. Horticultural memoranda for 1835, 1836(?), 1837, 1838. Manuscript, Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 1837-1868. The Magazine of Horticulture. , ed. 1837. Some remarks upon the production of new varieties of strawberries, from seeds. Mag. Hort. Bot. 3( 7 ) : 241-246. 1848. Nursery of Messrs. Hovey & Co. Mag. Hort. Bot. 14(8): 372-373. 1852, 1856. The fruits of America. Hovey and Co., Boston. 1853. Descriptions and engravings of select varieties of cherries. Mag. Hort. Bot. 19(9):405-408. Hume, H. H. 1951. Camellias: kinds and culture. The Macmillan Company, New York. Leuchars, R. B. 1850. Notes on gardens and gardening in the neighborhood of Boston. Mag. Hort. Bot. 16 ( 2 ) : 49-60. Londoniensis. 1850. Notes and recollections of a visit to the nurseries of Messrs. Hovey & Co., Cambridge. Ibid. 16(10):442-447. Manning, R., ed. 1880. History of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. 1829-1878. Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Boston. Meehan, T. 1886. Editorial notes: Charles M. Hovey. Gard. Monthly & Hort. 28 ( 336 ) . 375-377. 1892. Charles M. Hovey. Meehans' Monthly 2: 78. New England historical and geneological register. 1861. Drake, Boston. Robinson, W. 1881. Charles M. Hovey. Garden (London) 20(504):70-71. Sketch of the life and services of Marshall P. Wilder. 1871. Alfred Mudge and Company, Boston. Slade, D. D. 1895. The evolution of horticulture in New England. Knickerbocker Press, New York. Strong, W. C., et al. 1888. Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1887(2):257-259. Taylor, G. 1952. The victorian flower garden. Skeffington, London. Wilder, M. P. 1881. The horticulture of Boston and vicinity. Tolman and White, Boston. -. -. . -. . . -. Back press cover: Threadleaf false cyN. Batkin. (Chamaecyparis pisifera f. filifera). Photograph by Corrections: The photographs on pages 345, 363, and 364 of the last issue of Arnoldia (November\/December 1979) were taken by E. Gray. On page 366 of the last issue, the second title in the list of published writings of A. J. Fordham should be: Pieris floribunda and its propagation. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23306","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15eb726.jpg","title":"1980-40-1","volume":40,"issue_number":1,"year":1980,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":330,"end_page":369,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24767","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170ab6b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":6,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1979 The year past was an interregnum between two directorships. Dr. Richard A. Howard retired from administrative duties June 30, 1978, after twenty-four eventful years. Dr. Peter S. Ashton's arrival from the United Kingdom was delayed until December 28, 1978, by immigration formalities. In the interim, Drs. Bernice G. Schubert and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. acted as directors at Cambridge and Jamaica Plain, respectively. The Case Estates were without a supervisor the entire year, following the resignation of Kenneth Shaw in the previous fiscal year; James A. Burrows was appointed to replace him, starting in July 1979. The second half of the fiscal year was a period of policy reassessment and definition. The new director, in a message to the readers of Arnoldia (March\/April 1979, pp. 67-70), emphasized the need to harmonize, and, where possible, integrate the apparently disparate functions and facilities of the Arboretum, with its several commitments to the University and to the City, to research, education, and amenity, and to its facilities at Cambridge, Jamaica Plain, and Weston. The Arboretum has been and always will be in the first instance a University museum: a collection of living and preserved woody plant species which, with its libraries and in combination with the other University herbaria, provides Harvard with the outstanding facilities of their kind in the world for research and education. Only if it maintains its preeminence in research and education can the Arnold Arboretum continue to develop its complementary function 330 as a unique public amenity and an authoritative source for information on the culture of woody plants. It is vital that our collections, in both the plantings and the herbaria, be actively used for research and instruction by Harvard faculty and students, preferably in combination. The association of a museum and a university provides each with strengths and opportunities greater than either alone could muster. This is obvious to those of us with experience in independent herbaria and botanic gardens. Interaction with faculty outside the Arboretum, and the participation of students can foster the vigorous and innovative climate required for research of the highest standards. At the same time, the unrivaled diversity of plant form available in our collections offers research and educational possibilities that no other university can match. Our future policy will be built on two independent convictions: first, that as part of the Institute of Plant Sciences, the Arboretum must pursue every opportunity to participate in and facilitate the work of the Department of Biology; and second, that research by faculty and students using the collections alone assures their continued curation and their future usefulness to the scientific com- munity at large. Styles, both aesthetic and scientific, change during the life of a tree. To establish a reputation for excellence, an arboretum must maintain a consistent planting policy. Charles S. Sargent was well aware of this need: In such a [tree] museum, every thing should be subservient to the collections, and the ease with which these can be reached and studied; and none of those considerations of mere landscape effect, which properly govern the laying out of ordinary public parks, should be allowed to interfere with these essential requirements of a scientific garden, however desirable such effects undoubtedly are. The possibility of making a plan which should place every plant in the best position attainable for it, preserving at the same time for the whole collection, as nearly as practicable, the fixed sequence of arrangement, which alone makes large collections valuable for comparative study and possible to manage, was, then, the first thing'to be considered. In connection with this, but subservient to it, it was necessary to devise a system of roads and walks which should make easily accessible to a large number of visitors every plant in the collection, and which, without interfering with the scientific necessities of arrangement, should open up and develop, as far as possible, the remarkable natural beauties of the ground.1 ... 1 C. S. Sargent, \"The Arnold Arboretum\", Annual Reports of the President and Treasurer of Harvard College. 1877-78. 331 332I there is evidence that every aspect of the grounds has been the subject of careful study.... While the scientific side of the establishment necessarily dominates all others, the natural beauties of the site have not only been preserved but greatly enhanced.2 ... foregoing and other writings, it is clear that Sargent's establish a comprehensive collection of woody plants, arranged, for scientific and educational purposes, according to the natural classification of Bentham and Hooker and set in the landscape in such a way that it would become a public amenity of beauty. To insure the latter, Sargent collaborated with Frederick Law Olmsted in designing the paths and plantings. It also is clear that Sargent intended the principal and permanent plantings to be collected from the wild, and that their provenance and other details were to be recorded fully, and herbarium vouchers collected from the parent trees. Following Sargent's death, the standing collection was maintained, but there is no mention in reports of any policy for further accessions, or deaccessions, until after the second World War. By then the collection had been severely damaged by the storms and hurricanes of the thirties, and the shrub collections were overgrown through From the was aim to neglect. In 1946, Dr. Karl Sax, then the director, asked Beatrix Farrand to make recommendations for restoring the collections. A landscape architect by training, her plan could not have been executed without the experienced presence of the Arboretum's horticulturist, Dr. Donald Wyman. Beatrix Farrand was well aware of Sargent's original policies. Her policy statement in Arnoldia (November 1, 1946, pp. 45-48) shows that she had a different problem to face owing to the senescent condition of some plantings, and to overcrowding. She felt that it was appropriate to chart a new direction: Among many questions to be considered is whether the comparatively small acreage of the Arboretum can wisely accommodate all the species and varieties of woody plants of the temperate regions. If the acreage is thought too small for this full collection, a further decision should be made whether to limit the Arboretum collections or to provide a space for planting the material of comparatively limited interest which would overcrowd the present available area. ing Old friends of the Arboretum may feel aggrieved in seesome of the plantations altered, but they will be less distressed when they realize that these very alterations are absolutely essential. They are undertaken in order to re- 2 W. J. Bean, \"A Visit to the Arnold Arboretum\", Kew Bulletin, 1910, no. 8, pp. 261-69. 333 store the design to essentials in the plant groups and also to display to advantage the best and most ornamental of the plants now growing within the Arboretum. In the second quotation, \"best\" and \"most ornamental\" clearly are be synonyms. How can a plant be assessed as \"best\" for science or education? Dr. Wyman executed the above policy with panache and considerable skill over the following fifteen years. His own report in Arnoldia (March 21, 1947, pp. 1-8) testifies to this: meant to Since Professor Sargent's death, however, plants have continued to be sent to the Arboretum, new plants and some sent for \"trial\" to the extent of approximately 600 a year. Since the area (265 acres) has not been enlarged, and trial growing space had to be given for new and untried plants, the general plantings became more and more crowded, with the result that individual specimens received less care. A combination of circumstances since the war has resulted in an increased emphasis on the horticultural activities of the Arboretum. Certain varieties which have not proved themselves to be among the best of their group for ornamental purposes may be removed from the general collections at Jamaica Plain and grown on the Case Estates in Weston. Here such varieties, important for scientific reasons, would be lined out in rows and cultivated by machine at comparatively little expense. At Jamaica Plain, then, one would be able to see the most important plants and the best ornamental varieties in certain groups normally having a large number of varieties. In other words, as Mrs. Farrand has very rightly pointed out, it is impossible to continue to grow all the woody plants that are hardy in this climate on the 265 acres, especially if certain wooded areas and other important landscape features are to be maintained, as they should. This winter, for instance, we were able to remove over 900 plants of 25 genera without eliminating any species or variety of importance. ... According to recent calculations, it is possible to grow at Jamaica Plain up to three plants of every species of woody plant hardy in the West Roxbury area. The problem of overcrowding becomes acute when cultivars are introduced as a policy, for their numbers are potentially limitless. It is a reflection of past priorities that some of the plants transferred to permanent nursery rows at Weston were original Wilson introductions, that maintenance was very low, and that subsequently many plants there died. 334 Another of Sargent's policies is relevant in this context. He recognized the need for a dichotomy between the permanent \"backbone\" of the collection, consisting of trees and the shorter-lived shrub collections, and the experimental or ornamental material which could be regarded as more temporary and amenable to change. The postwar policy did not continue this distinction, and in several cases permanent plantings were removed for purely aesthetic reasons. Sargent's accessions policy is precisely what a plant scientist at the present day, would advocate, perhaps more urgently, owing to the impending extinction of so many species in the wild, especially in East Asia. Cultivars, especially when grown in juxtaposition with their parents when known, have limited educational but usually no scientific or horticultural research interest. Postwar accessions policy has, therefore, been at the expense of the scientific value of the Arboretum. Seth Kelsey, a horticulturist who advised on accessions policies for FREDERICK LAW OLMSTED'S PLANS Between 1879 and 1886 Frederick Law Olmsted produced approximately eighteen to twenty studies or plans, described by him as \"distribution studies\", concerning the arrangement of plant families within the Arboretum. These plans depict the design process by which Olmsted located plant families in the succession accorded them by the Bentham and Hooker classification system along his projected layout of roads and paths. The distribution of plant families and the layout of the roads and paths were interdependent and incorporated a keen awareness of the natural topography of the Arboretum. The plan at right (No. 24, August 29, 1885), one of the last in the series, shows the roads as they appear today, with the exception of the summit of Bussey Hill (area 14, 15) and the beginning spur of a road that was to ascend Hemlock Hill (area 18, 19). Until 1895 the City of Boston retained the summit of Bussey Hill as a reservation, including the area often referred to as the \"overlook\". This prevented extensive planting until later in the Arboretum's development. The road to the summit of Hemlock Hill, although planned in detail, was never undertaken; a path follows closely the original road design. Olmsted's earlier studies show the roads bisecting each plant family. This proved impractical because the design required an excessively long, winding road system. Succeeding studies show the road shortened, with the plant families staggered one after another on each side of the road. The Park Department began work on the roads in 1883 and finished in 1892. Each segment of the road system was named. Valley Road (1884), which extended from the Center Street (Route 1 ) Gate to the South Street Gate, was the first road completed, and the earliest plantings of the permanent arrangement of plant families were laid out along its borders. This meant siting families which are listed by Bentham and Hooker two thirds of the way through their natural sequence. The families planted were: Platanaceae, the plane trees; Juglandaceae, the hickories, walnuts, and wingnuts; and the Fagaceae, the oaks, beeches, and chestnuts. One example of how spatial requirements were ascertained for individual genera can be noted with the wingnuts, Pterocarya; with only two known species at the time, the genus was allotted a small area. The need for a multitude of distribution studies can be appreciated when the number and diversity of plant material which had to be included are considered. Right: A section of Oak Path in 1913. The path system was designed to allow more intimate visitor access to the collections than was possible on the roadways. All the paths were mowed, as shown here. Oak Path leads through the largest and one of the oldest of the original plantings. Here Sargent's \"groups\" or groves of trees of a single species were most highly developed. Photograph by T. E. Marr & Son. Bottom left: The upper part of Oak Path in 1903, with a large specimen of white oak (Quercus alba) in the middle background. Photograph by T. E. Marr. Bottom right: Oak Path today, with the same white oak shown at left. The path and its surroundings have been greatly altered since the days of Sargent and Olmsted. The oaks have been thinned and only remnants of Sargent's \"groups\" are evident. The trees have been underplanted with masses of azaleas, primartly color variations of our native flame azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum). The lower part of the path, from its entrance on Valley Road in the Walnut Collection, has been obscured. The grass will be allowed to grow in this area and meadow wildflowers will be planted. The path will be merely mowed here and in the lower part of the Oak Collection to a point where the path begins to be bordered by azaleas; from this point the path will be surfaced with a natural material. The regrading has already begun, as can be seen in this photograph. Photograph by S. Geary. Top: I 337 the Horticultural Subcommittee of the Visiting Committee in 1970, argued in his report that: open be to improve the landscape appearance ofthe collections for increased public enjoyment and education, and perhaps the time has come for a complete restudy of the Arboretum from the landscape and display point of view. to the Since ... the Arboretum is public as such, a a park as well, and continuing objective should He recommended active program of breeding and selection to decultivars of (a) greater ornamental value, (b) increased hardiness, (c) greater resistance to insects and disease, (d) greater tolerance to urban conditions, including but not limited to factors of pollution. By intensive and skillful field work many decades of labor can be saved and much more immediate results can be achieved for the benefit of the public and the renown of the Arboretum. Several years of intensive summer field work on city streets followed by limited propagation and testing at Weston of the superior clones uncovered, would yield relatively quick and very important results. The Arboretum has the required room and facilities, and probably the staff to carry out such a program. ... an velop A comprehensive collection of species acquired from the wild, precisely the sort of collection Sargent envisioned, would provide an unparalleled base for the kind of research Seth Kelsey recommended. Kelsey did not state how continued accessions of cultivars, often of unclear parentage, into the permanent collections would benefit such a program. He did recommend, in a special report to the director, dated May 1, 1965, the planting of additional species, but went on to recommend nurseries from which stock could be bought. Nursery stock, generally of unknown provenance and parentage, is of limited potential for research. Seth Kelsey's recommendations illustrate a difference of views that has arisen between plant scientists and amenity horticulturists. The Arnold Arboretum, as part of Harvard University and alone among institutions of its kind, has the capability and, we would say, its primary function to support research, and thereby to promote those educational opportunities that arise from research, of the highest level of scientific excellence. We mean fundamental research, descriptive or experimental, aimed at increasing our understanding of the diversity of plant form and function; for example, research on the hormonal physiology of woody plant roots, on tree breeding systems, in population genetics, or in systematics. Such research can be instrumental as well in advancing horticultural science by extend- 338I our knowledge of plant diversity, breeding, and propagation. Plant breeding programs, on the other hand, usually rely on established knowledge and techniques and do not require the full-time assistance of theoretical scientists. I am not suggesting, I wish to emphasize, that Arboretum staff should not pursue horticultural research. Rather, the living collections will always need curatorial staff, and staff members with curatorial functions should be expected to pursue research into plant breeding and other horticultural fields, as they have done so well in the past. Our academic staff members (faculty) will wish, rightly, to concentrate their efforts in fundamental scientific research. Both groups should work in close collaboration. Thus our horticultural endeavors will profit directly from the work of our faculty. We are of the opinion that a clash of interests between horticulturists and plant biologists is as unnecessary as it is undesirable, and believe that it has arisen, in part, through lack of adequate communication. It should be recalled that from the beginning Sargent faced the problem of serving the needs of science, education, and amenity, and solved it. His employment of Olmsted as his landscape architect led to the creation of a unique, public, work of art, now the only remaining working arboretum designed by that landscaping genius, and the one on which he lavished the most time. Olmsted's planting design emphasized the landscape as a whole, not the display of individual specimens. Consequently, his design has been obscured by the very horticultural plantings meant to enhance the Arboretum's beauty! As I have explained, we cannot do better for science, for horticulture, for conservation, or for amenity, than to revert to Sargent's accessions policy. We have room in Jamaica Plain for all the hardy woody plant species; we can and should retain in Jamaica Plain, on a less permanent basis, selected cultivars of outstanding historical or display value when they enhance the landscape as a whole. This allows us to develop a discrete, yet interrelated, policy for the Case Estates; there alone is the room we will need for horticultural and botanical experiments, and there, too, a more extensive collection of outstanding cultivars can be grown for assessment and ing display. Three policy decisions have already been made in this spirit. With the objective of achieving a completely documented collection in Jamaica Plain of woody plant species hardy in that area, a decision has been made to seek grants for a complete restoration of the living collections there over a period of five years. This would involve verifying the identification of the plants, checking their labels and the records that need to be computerized, and preparing a new map, which also will be used as the basis for a guidebook. The restoration will enable us to define precisely, and for the first time, the gaps that need to be filled, and, hence, our future accessions policy. Concurrently, we intend to restore Olmsted and Sargent's planting plan for Top: The Bussey Hill Overlook in 1904, nine years after it ceased to be a reservatxon of the City of Boston, but before development by the Arboretum. The vista toward the Blue Hills to the south has always been one of the finest in the Arboretum. Storms have taken their toll of the sentinel group of white pines in the photograph, and only one remains. Photograph by T. E. Marr. Bottom: The Bussey Htll Overlook as it appears from the recently renovated sitting area at the top of the hill. Although much of the original field still remains, it has been encroached upon by various plantings, notably the Cytisus and Cotoneaster beds at the right of the photograph and the so-called Chinese Walk, which more or less encircles the field. Azalea Walk, constructed along the western edge of the field shortly after the Arboretum gained control of Bussey Hill, has been largely obscured by these same plantings. Due to a need for planting space, the field will not be enlarged to its former proportions, but the present beds will be consolidated by relocation of the Cytisus and Cotoneaster Collections. Azalea Walk will be restored as the primary collection of Asiatic azaleas. The Chinese Walk will be expanded primarily under the trees on the eastern side of the field. Photograph by S. Geary. 340 that part of the Arboretum designed by them, and to produce for the remaining parts in Jamaica Plain a long-term plan for including, in a manner convenient for scientific and educational purposes and in the spirit of the Olmsted-Sargent plan, the many species discovered in the last hundred years. Secondly, we plan to integrate more closely than at present the work of the propagation and nursery facilities at Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates, and to develop scientific research based on the living collections. At the same time we wish to encourage more horticultural research by our curatorial staff. A first step has been the approval of a new professorial appointment in the root biology of woody plants, to be based at the greenhouse facilities. This appointment was included in the 1979-80 budget, and the person appointed, it is hoped, may also fill the role of deputy director. Thirdly, we intend to complete our collections by acquiring plants from the wild, both through exchange and through expeditions organized by ourselves or by others. Our North American holdings are far from adequate. I shall be reporting on two staff collecting trips which made a start toward correcting this situation. The herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, through the policies for the living collections described above, once again will be an integral part of a facility for the study of woody plants that probably is unsurpassed anywhere. It is timely that the Harvard University Herbaria Building is being expanded to provide fifty per cent more space for our collections, and additional office and laboratory space for staff. This extension is currently scheduled for completion in early 1980. The National Science Foundation Curatorial Grant for the combined herbaria presupposes a reinvigoration of botanical research based on their collections. The herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, in combination with the library, provides the foremost facility in the Americas for the study of the botany of the Far East, both temperate and tropical, and plants from this region are particularly well represented in our living collections. Of special significance to us, therefore, was a visit to Harvard in May 1979 by a delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China, the first delegation of botanists to visit the United States since the revolution. I shall be reporting subsequent events which give us grounds for hope that collaboration in research will be renewed. Similarly, at a symposium in Malaysia the director discussed future collaboration in research and training with colleagues in that region. The Arnold Arboretum is perhaps the foremost amenity that Harvard offers to the Boston public. We can provide this service as a natural extension of our university function: our extensive and wellmaintained collection of woody plants, located on an attractive site of rolling land, and laid out and provided with a system of roads by Frederick Law Olmsted, will be valued increasingly as a quiet and Above: A view taken in June 1908 of the lower section of Bussey Brook Valley with the mountain laurels (Kalmia latifolia) in full bloom. For many years the grass in the Arnold Arboretum was not mowed regularly, and native wildflowers, such as the Black-eyed-Susans seen here, provided a display spectacular enough to prompt the following comment from W. J. Bean of the Royal Botantc Gardens, Kew. Another beautiful feature of the Arboretum, and one which makes a special appeal to the foreigner, is the native undergrowth. In place of the lawns and grass which cover so much of the ground in English gardens and parks, there is here a very interesting ground-covering conslsting of native plants, amongst which are varxous species of Vacclnium, Aster, Rubus, golden rod and Asclepias, Baptisia tinctoria, sweet fern and the poison xvy. (Bean, W. J. 1910. A visit to the Arnold Arboretum. Kew Bull. Misc. Infor. 1910: 261-269.) Photograph by T. E. Marr. Bussey Brook Valley today. Only a narrow strip of native vegetation on each side of Left: A view of the brook is allowed to grow. The remainder of the meadow is mowed regularly and has become turf. As part of the projected restoration of the Arnold Arboretum, the grass and wildflowers will again be allowed to grow in the lower part of Bussey Brook Valley and in a few other selected areas. The spontaneous flora will be supplemented by other native species of meadow plants to increase the diversity for educational purposes. Photograph by S. Geary. 342 tranquil refuge as travel becomes more expensive. The Southwest Corridor Project, involving the construction of a new subway beneath a corridor of parkland from central Boston to Forest Hills, brings a further responsibility to the Boston public, but also an opportunity to expand our public services. I shall be reporting on the initial steps have taken to seize this opportunity. The various functions of the Arboretum depend on a high level of upkeep and control of vandalism. Both are improving, thanks to steps which have been taken in recent years. Essential to future policy will be a staff structure that can implement it. In a series of meetings in February and March 1979 a new staff organization was devised. Its aim is to establish clear lines of responsibility, to increase the extent to which responsibility is shared, to increase communications between the various parts of the Arboretum, to facilitate future planning, notably through identification of gaps in staff, and to integrate our work more clearly and advantageously with that of the other institutions associated with the Department of Biology. The work of the Arboretum has been divided into five functions, with five committees to define policy. Three of these committees, the Herbarium Committee, the Library Committee, and the new Publications Committee are constituted jointly with other Harvard herbaria. The two other committees are the Living Collections Committee, and the Public Relations and Education Committee. The director is an ex-officio member of every committee, as will be the deputy director when appointed. Other scientific staff members may be appointed to committees, but in any case have the right to attend any committee meetings and thereby are encouraged to participate in policy making. The senior member of the executive staff concerned with each of the five functions chairs the appropriate committee and is responsible for the implementation of its decisions; other executive staff members under his or her direction serve on the committee. Each committee should also include one invited member from outside the Arboretum. The final resolution of the fate of the Adams-Nervine property, mentioned in previous reports, awaited the new director on his arrival. Reassessment of the cost of acquisition and restoration of some of the buildings indicated that this would be an investment of doubtful value. Fortunately, the property has been acquired by a development company which intends to convert the existing buildings into condominiums without significantly altering their external appearwe ance. Williams, superintendent of the Arboretum, Jamaica since 1945, retired at the end of the fiscal year. Serving under four of the Arboretum's five directors, Robert Williams established Plain, a Robert G. high standard of maintenance of the living collections successor strong and just administration of the grounds staff, and thrifty and careful through exploitation of the available facilities. His is Henry 343 Stanton Goodell, who this year received his commendation from Harvard for twenty-five years of meritorious service. THE LIVING COLLECTIONS The Living Collections Committee, under the chairmanship of Gary Koller, the supervisor of the living collections, addressed itself to the accessions and deaccessions policy. The that Sargent's original policy remains appropriate for the purposes of the Arboretum, preliminary investigations of this policy led to the rediscovery, at the offices of Olmsted Associates in Brookline, Massachusetts, of Olmsted's original plans for the main eastern section of the Arboretum. No copy of these plans existed in our archives. The plans showed that Olmsted and Sargent's planting and layout have survived to a remarkable extent. The Living Collections Committee resolved, therefore, to restore the OlmstedSargent plan, both as a work of art and, to the extent feasible, as a scientific collection; to incorporate the shrub collections with the original plan; and to develop the Peters' Hill and South Street tracts in the spirit of Olmsted's plan, accommodating the many exotic species discovered since his time. This project will take years to accomplish. As mentioned earlier, it will involve reorganization of the record system, verification of plant identifications, and remapping. Grant proposals for the restoration will be submitted in the coming fiscal year. For the present, the Living Collections Committee has clarified accessions and deaccessions policy, and thus provided the basis for closer integration of our propagation and nursery facilities at Jamaica Plain and at Weston in preparation for the arrival of a new supervisor at the Case Estates. Of great moment to the Arboretum is the news that the Southwest Corridor Project is to go ahead and is given a high priority by the Governor. Arboretum staff members have been attending community meetings, and the director and the supervisor of the living collections have had discussions with the project director and the director of forests and parks at the Department of Environmental Management. The Forest Hills Station is to be moved further to the north, and therefore closer to the Arboretum. We expect that our main visitor flow in the future will be to and from this station. Therefore, we need to develop, in cooperation with the Southwest Corridor authorities, an integrated plan for a new access route into the Arboretum, possibly by way of the South Street tract. A visitor center at the new entrance is being considered. We have agreed to collaborate in providing an exhibit and planting at the new station, and to advise on plantings throughout the Corridor. Two Mercer Fellows were appointed during the year. Mohammed Jadidi, from Ariamehr Botanical Garden, Tehran, Iran, received training in arboretum operations under Dr. Richard E. Weaver's supercommittee a long-term having agreed definition of 344 vision during the period July 1 to November 15, 1978. Dr. Michael Dirr, from the University of Illinois, Champaign-Urbana spent the entire year at the Arboretum, during which time he prepared three articles for Arnoldia, one of which, \"Street Trees for Home and Municipal Landscapes\", coauthored with Gary Koller, has been reprinted as a handbook. He gave two lectures within Harvard, and numerous others in Boston and elsewhere. Two collecting expeditions within North America were mounted by Arboretum staff members during their vacations. Robert Nicholson made a carefully planned visit to British Columbia in the fall of 1978, bringing back 124 collections representing 110 taxa from thirteen locations in the wild. A special effort was made to collect seed from the points of maximum hardiness of species ranges. Dr. Weaver visited the Southeast in April 1979 and collected forty-seven young plants, of which all but two have survived. Altogether 178 shipments of plants and propagation material representing 976 taxa were received during the year from twenty-seven countries. Notable among these were nine shipments from the People's Republic of China representing 138 taxa. Two hundred fifty-five taxa were propagated to provide replacements for defective specimens in the Arboretum. In addition 158 taxa were propagated in response to requests and in anticipation of our distribution program. Some 4,000 plants of 117 taxa from Dr. Stephen Spongberg and Dr. Richard E. Weaver's 1978 Japan\/Korea expedition were distributed to eighty-five institutions in six countries. Further, 210 shipments, comprising 1,123 taxa, were distributed to cooperating institutions, nurseries, and individuals in eighteen countries. Magnolia sieboldii var. sieboldii seedlings were sent to fifty-five members of the American Magnolia Society. Hovenia dulcis seed was distributed to eighty-nine individuals and institutions. Cuttings of over fifty taxa were made available to nurserymen at a professional propagators' workshop conducted by Gary Koller and John Alexander. Over 800 seedlings and rooted cuttings of sixty taxa were distributed at the Case Estates to more than 180 members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, New Jersey, and Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, Massachusetts, made notable donations of plant material. Many of these taxa were used as understock. Donna Lynch, mapper and labeler, resigned in September 1978, and her work was discontinued until March 1979, when Jennifer Hicks assumed this position. Meanwhile, Charles Mackey checked collections over a large portion of the Arboretum for missing labels. Scientific and display labels have been prepared as needed. As these are put out, the maps of the Arboretum collections are updated. A new map of the dwarf conifer area was completed in April 1979. The weather during this fiscal year has been unexceptional, apart Each autumn at the Case Estates in Weston the Arboretum holds a plant distribution for members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Members must come in person to select their plants on that day. For many the biggest difficulty in making their selection is the large number of different and unusual plants offered. 346 I from the very low snowfall, 23 inches in comparison with 80 inches the previous year. The Arboretum has been in better condition this year than some years past, with grass well cut, and with considerably less litter. This has been due largely to the efficient deployment of the grounds staff by the assistant superintendent, Henry Goodell. As mentioned earlier, at the end of the current fiscal year he was promoted to superintendent on Robert Williams's retirement. Also, in part, the better condition of the grounds is thanks to a new joint initiative with our neighbors and Friends, twenty of whom joined us for a spring cleanup in April, a very successful venture that we hope to repeat twice yearly in the future. Although a fire in the spring of 1979 burned about a third of the turf on Peters' Hill, and we have been involuntary hosts for numerous teenage beer parties, vandalism in general has declined, thanks to greater police surveillance. The mounted police also have visited the Arboretum more frequently than heretofore. The director visited Police Station Thirteen early in the year for discussions with Captain Caselli, and attended a meeting, convened by the local community, to discuss vandalism in the Arboretum. These meetings, and the maintenance of close contact with the police and Police Commissioner Jordan's office, appear to have had a marked positive effect. A new barrier was installed at the Peters' Hill gate on Bussey Street, and has reduced the entry of stolen cars. James Burrows, who resigned as assistant propagator in February to take up a post in Korea, returned, and has been appointed assistant supervisor of the living collections, assigned to the Case Estates, beginning in July. An agreement with the Massachusetts Rhododendron Society, signed in February, for a display bed at the Case Estates, represents a start to our policy of establishing collections in Weston of outstanding horticultural cultivars. In addition to the personnel changes mentioned, grounds staff member Alphonse MacNeil retired, Angllo Navarro resigned, and one grounds staff member was dismissed. Mark Walkama was appointed a pruner in Jamaica Plain, and Bruce Munch joined the grounds staff at the Case Estates. Peter Del Tredici was appointed assistant propagator, and Jeanne Sattely replaced Jennifer Hicks as horticultural sec- retary. horticultural trainees were employed in 1979, fourteen local residents. Improvements to the collections included consolidation of several beds in the deciduous Rhododendron (Azalea) border; restoration of the hedge collection, including construction of a walk to the dwarf conifer collection; major removal of surplus and overgrown stock in the old conifer garden, the Taxus collection, the collections abutting the South Street gate, the Ilex bed, and the Fagus collection; repair of drains underlying the Carpinus and Aesculus collections; and major pruning of the Ulmus collection, in which five cultivars of U. ameri- Twenty-one of whom were 347 cana have become infected by Dutch elm disease. Dr. Weaver, horticultural taxonomist, checked the identity of the Cytisus, Maackia, Corylus, and, with the assistance of volunteer Dr. Richard Warren, the Abies, Pinus, and Larix collections. Dr. Weaver is currently checking the greenhouse and nursery holdings, and marking seedlings in the greenhouses for habit and hardiness before they are transported to the saran house. One hundred forty-five plants, representing seventy-three taxa, were added to the permanent collections this year. Thirteen of these taxa were new to the Arboretum, five were cultivars, and seventeen were collected from wild stock. Twelve plants were replacements. Major repairs were made to the chain link fence on behalf of the City, following damage caused by the blizzard of 1978. Leaks in the heating system of the Administration Building were detected and repaired, and the roof deck of the Dana Greenhouses was reconditioned. Dr. Spongberg continues to serve as chairman of the Registration Committee of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta (AABGA), and has recently been co-opted onto a subcommittee of the Botanical Society of America charged to develop collaboration with the People's Republic of China. Gary Koller, supervisor of the living collections, helped to organize the North Atlantic Regional Meeting of the AABGA in February 1979 at Old Sturbridge Village, and attended the National Meeting of the American Holly Society, and the Massachusetts Horticultural Congress. He lectured at fifteen professional and amateur horticultural Also, he was judge for amateur horticulture for the New meetings. England Spring Garden and Flower Show. He is on the Boards of Trustees of the New England Wildflower Society and the Jamaica Hills Association, the Living Plant Collections and Membership Committees of the AABGA, and the Garden Committees of the Garden In The Woods, Trustees of Reservations, and Old Sturbridge Village. John Alexander, propagator, gave a lecture at the International Plant Propagator Eastern Region Convention in Toronto in December 1978; he ran a workshop at the June meeting of the International Lilac Society, of which he has been elected a director; and he was an examiner at Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania for the AABGA North American Certificate in Gardening. Also, he is co-chairman of the Plant Production Subcommittee of the Massachusetts Chapter of the American Rhododendron Society. Together with Gary Koller, he conducted a workshop at the spring 1979 meeting of the American Rock Garden Society. He and Gary Koller also conducted an all-day propagation workshop for plant professionals, attended by twenty-two people from five states, in July 1978. ' THE HERBARIUM Dr. Norton G. Miller, associate professor and associate curator, 348 continued as Carolyn Hesterberg resigned by Rita Silverman. chairman of the Herbarium Committee. During the year, as herbarium secretary, and was replaced The herbaria and libraries of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium are particularly strong in materials for the study of North American plants, and the floras of the temperate and tropical Far East. The library and herbarium of the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain is especially rich in materials for the study of cultivated plants. The research interests of our staff reflect these strengths, and depend heavily on thorough and continued curation of the herbaria. During the year, Elmer Drew Merrill's collections of type fragments, which he obtained from European herbaria, and which constitute a valuable taxonomic tool, were curated, and now are ready to be mounted, annotated, and inserted. These latter tasks have already been completed for Symplocaceae, Myrtaceae, Myrsinaceae, Ficus, Ericaceae, and Elaeocarpaceae. The Arboretum file of photographic negatives of type and other authentic specimens has now been fully integrated with that of the Gray Herbarium. This involved indexing 5,060 negatives or negative strips. Folders for type specimens were replaced and added in 29 families, and New World geographic tags were provided for 105 families. Our holdings of Osmoxylon, Boerlagiodendron, Old World Balanophoraceae and Bignoniaceae, Elaeocarpaceae, Ficus, and twelve other, small taxa have been annotated and reorganized according to recentlv published treatments. Between one-third and one-half of the collections were in need of annotation, including some 1,000 sheets of Ficus and 1,289 of Elaeocarpaceae. The total number of sheets in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium at Cambridge at the end of the fiscal year was 1,091,886; 12,575 sheets were mounted and incorporated, 86 were removed, and 9 previously mounted specimens were added directly. In the cultivated plant herbarium in Jamaica Plain there are 167,238 sheets, of which 2,263 were additions this year. One hundred eight sheets in the two herbaria were repaired. Of the 7,557 accessions in the two collections, 4,375 were received by exchange, 101 by special exchange, 2,217 by gift, 604 by subsidy, and 260 for identification. The principal provenances were Western Malesia (2,264), Papuasia (1,401), East Asia (756), Australia (595), and the West Indies (572). The total number of specimens sent on exchange was 527. During the year, 65 loans, totaling 4,946 specimens, were received for study by staff members; and 25 loans, totaling 2,081 specimens, were received for study by students; while 261 loans, totaling 30,934 specimens, were sent out. For the first time, the combined herbaria hired work-study students to assist in curation; both were Harvard students who had taken Biology 18, Diversity in the Plant Kingdom. The construction of the addition to the Harvard University Herbaria Building is running behind schedule, but should be completed 349 year. It will have twelve herbarium rooms with banks each, eleven of the rooms to house the Arnold compactor Arboretum and Gray Herbarium collections, and one to house the Orchid Herbarium of Oakes Ames. Fortunately, it was possible, by financial readjustment, to acquire all twenty-four compactors required, notwithstanding forewarnings to the contrary in the last annual report. One demonstration compactor has been installed for inspection; certain operational defects have been identified, and are being corrected. Specimens stored in the basement work area are being temporarily relocated to other parts of the building so that good cabinets from elsewhere in the building can replace the tin-covered wood cabinets previously in the basement. About 100 photographs were taken with the M.P.-4 camera of specimens being added to the combined herbaria or to the herbarium at the Botanical Museum. The camera also received considerable use by individual staff members and by students. Photographs of our specimens, mostly types in ten genera, were sent on request to botanists throughout the world. The herbaria received 203 professional visitors during the fiscal during two the coming year. The Seventh Annual Meeting of the Association of Systematics Collections was held at the Harvard Museums at the end of April 1979, Dr. Norton A. Miller and Dr. Carroll E. Wood were on the organizational committee, and the director presented the opening address. THE LIBRARIES The Library Committee is chaired by Lenore Dickinson, librarian. At the close of the fiscal year, the total number of books and pamphlets in the libraries in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain was 87,027; 727 were additions, 470 by cataloguing and 257 by binding. Of the additions, 137 were gifts. In January 1978 the University Library Systems Office began its Monograph Cataloguing Support System (MCSS), under which individual libraries in the University Library System request searches of the Ohio College Library Center (OCLC) data base. Every book coming into the Arboretum and herbaria libraries is searched on the OCLC data base unless the libraries already have cataloguing for the piece. The percentage of titles found on the data base has been between sixty and seventy per cent of the searches submitted; the libraries receive full catalogue card sets from OCLC for books found on their data base. The use of MCSS has meant that cataloguing has become current with receipts. Some 200 titles remaining in the backlog were given temporary cataloguing, and are being searched for the second time on the OCLC data base. Titles not found in this second search will be searched in the National Union Catalogue; when necessary, 350 they will be given original cataloguing. As in the past, works in nonWestern languages are catalogued for the libraries by the HarvardYenching Library, and works in Slavic languages are catalogued by the staff of the Slavic Department of the Harvard College Library. The exchange program maintained by the Slavic Department is the source for the Arboretum and herbaria libraries of many titles in botany, forestry, and related fields. A shelf-reading project was begun in the herbaria libraries to account for the books which appeared to be missing. During a twomonth period, the shelf reading showed that most of the missing books were in fact misshelved; others were mislabeled, or were labeled differently on the shelf card and on the main catalogue card. These discrepancies are being corrected. The results of shelf reading in our libraries closely parallel the results of a study at Widener Library of the Harvard College Library of a sample of \"missing\" books. In Jamaica Plain, main cards are being duplicated to create a shelf list for books added to the collection before 1975. When the card duplicating is completed, shelf reading will begin. The book collection on the third floor in Jamaica Plain has been surveyed, and books requiring leather preservation have been treated by a team of volunteers. Books which need repair or rebinding have been recorded, and have been or will be sent to the bindery. NSF Curatorial Grant supported rebinding or preparation of boxes for three titles in the Arnold Arboretum library. Charles Long, director of the library and plant information services of the New York Botanical Garden arranged for $250 from the Taxonomic Literature II Project to be paid to the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium for the repair or rebinding of books photocopied by the Taxonomic Literature II Team. Under the Strengthening Research Libraries Program provided by Title II-C of the Higher Education Act of 1965, the University has received a second grant for microfilming rare or deteriorating library material. Under this project a master negative is stored under climatecontrolled conditions by the Photoduplication Department in Lamont Library of the Harvard College Library, and is used to produce copy or film on demand. The owning library receives a positive film for use or for lending, thus assuring access to the material while preserving the original for future use. An alphabetical list of plants which were growing in the botanical garden of the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, at Soledad, north of Cienfuegos, Cuba, is now being microfilmed. The Charles Sprague Sargent correspondence file has been nominated for microfilming. Four quarterly accessions lists were prepared during the past fiscal year. A one-page handout was prepared to assist users in finding journals in the Cambridge and Jamaica Plain libraries. Two hundred thirty-one requests for loans or photocopies were received and filled; fifty-one requests were sent out. 351 The Arnold Arboretum and herbaria libraries are intended for research, and never have been generally accessible to students other than Harvard graduate students in botany. In meetings between the Library Committee and the directors of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium, a library privileges policy for the herbaria libraries was devised which would limit access to members of the Harvard community and legitimate visitors. One hundred seventy-seven visitors registered to use the library in the Herbaria Building. A method is being devised to register persons who use the library in Jamaica Plain; our Friends will continue to have privilege of access. The Herbaria Building extension will provide the herbaria libraries additional stack space on the second floor. One wall in the library staff work area will be removed to create a single, large space, allowing periodical check-in, bindery preparation, and processing for the shelves to be carried on in a logical sequence, and producing a more efficient work flow and a saving of time for each function. Upon the occasion of the visit of a delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China, the library mounted an exhibit illustrating the scientific links between the Arnold Arboretum and China. The botanical history of Gleditsia sinensis, a species introduced into cultivation in the United States by the Arnold Arboretum, was followed briefly through the literature, and displayed in publications and herbarium specimens. A description in Kiu huang pen ts'ao, with a woodcut dating from the fourteenth century, was kindly lent by the Harvard-Yenching Library. Publications of Arnold Arboretum staff members were displayed, as well as publications by Chinese botanists who had worked or studied in the Arnold Arboretum or in one of the other botanical institutions of Harvard University. The exhibit continued through the meetings of the Visiting Committee. In March 1979 Sheila Geary, assistant librarian at Jamaica Plain, completed a 208 page report on an in-person survey during May 1977 of 300 casual visitors to the living collections in Jamaica Plain, and a mail survey in May 1978 of the membership of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. A summary of the survey of casual visitors was given in the 1976-77 director's report (Arnoldia, November\/December 1977, p. 254). For the second survey 1,865 questionnaires were mailed, and 792 or 42% were returned. The results of the Friends survey have been incorporated not only in the planning of future Friends activities, but have been suggestive for our efforts to improve our publications, our education program, and our public relations. Sheila Geary and volunteer June Hutchinson researched for the Living Collections Committee the original plans of the Arnold Arboretum at Olmsted Associates, and the planting policies of Charles Sprague Sargent and subsequent directors. Some of the results of the latter research appear in the opening statement of this report. The librarian attended the Annual Meeting of the Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries, held at the Landscape 352 Arboretum in Minnesota. Until May 30, 1979, she was a member of the Subcommittee on Bibliographic Standards of the Harvard Uni- versity a Union Catalogue Planning Committee. Jeanne Stevens, bindery assistant in the herbaria libraries, attended two-day workshop conducted by Doris Freitag, book conservator in the Harvard University Library. Volunteers continued to assist projects in the Arnold Arboretum libraries. Albert Thompson and Lou Segel carried out the leatherpreservation treatments. Barbara O'Connor assisted in the Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries's survey of holdings of nursery catalogues. Volunteers Gertrude Cronk and Janet Thompson organized the nursery catalogue collection. Marjorie Lewis, summer horticultural trainee, assisted in the library at Jamaica Plain. Mark Belson, inter-library loan assistant, resigned in January 1979, and Jill Skarstad, library assistant, resigned as of June 30, 1979. ' RESEARCH The Far East possesses an exceptionally rich flora, and one of interest to the botanist, evolutionist, and horticulturist. As the institution with the preeminent facilities in the Americas for study of the flora of the Far East, we have great opportunities and a special responsibility to pursue research in and train students from that region. We hope our renewed contacts with botanists in the People's Republic of China will augment our research opportunities in temperate Asia; they could prove invaluable to Dr. Steven Spongberg's research into the temperate Asian woody flora, necessary for his critical revision of Rehder's Manual ofCultivated Trees and Shrubs. The forests of the Far Eastern tropics are currently the principal suppliers of hardwoods to the United States, and indeed to the industrial world as a whole, and as a consequence are expected to be reduced to small fragments within fifteen years. The director and Dr. Peter Stevens are planning a program of collaboration with colleagues in the Asian tropics with whom they have worked individually in the past. This collaboration promises excellent future opportunities for our students. The director worked toward completion of a taxonomic monograph of the major tree family Dipterocarpaceae. With Dr. Bassett Maguire, Senior Scientist of the New York Botanical Garden, he prepared a further paper on the newly discovered South American dipterocarp subfamily Pakaraimoideae. Also, he continued preparation of papers for publication on the stand structure of the famed double coconut palm of the Seychelles, on the biogeography of Ceylon, and on the ecology of bat pollination. He presented papers at the International Symposium on Tropical Botany at Aarhus University, Denmark, in special During May 1979 a delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China visited botanical facilities across the United States. The Arnold Arboretum was fortunate enough to help host the delegation while they were at Harvard, and they visited our Jamaica Plain facility on the afternoon of May 8. Top: Peter Shaw Ashton greeting Wu Cheng-yi (center), Director of the Kunming Botany Institute, and Yu Te-tsun (far right), Deputy Director of the Botany Institute, Academia Sinica. Bottom left: Richard A. Howard and Lily M. Perry (back to camera) at lunch with Yin Hung-chang, Director of the Shanghai Plant Physiology Institute. Bottom right: Gary L. Koller with Tang Pei-sung, Director of the Botany Institute, Academia Sinica and leader of the visiting delegation. Photographs by P. Chvany. Members of the delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China on a tour of the grounds and greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. Top left: Yu Te-tsun (left) and Wu Cheng-yi studying Euptelea polyandra along the Chinese Walk. Top right: John H. Alexander showing the delegation the seedlings which resulted from the Arboretum's collecting trip to Japan and Korea in 1978. Bottom: A group photograph on the front steps of the Administration Building. Clockwise from lower right: Shiu-ying Hu, recently retired Arnold Arboretum botanist; Hsu Jen, Research Scientist, Botany Institute, Academia Sinica; Wu Cheng-yi; Yu Te-tsun; Sheng Chengkui, Director and Research Scientist, Kiangsu Botanical Garden, Academia Sinica; Li Hsin-hsueh, Research Associate, Nanking Institute of Geology and Paleontology; Peter Shaw Ashton; Su Feng-lin, Department Head, Foreign Affairs Bureau, Academia Sinica. Photographs by P. Chvany. 355 and at the Eighth World Forestry Conference at Jakarta, Indonesia, in October 1978; he lectured at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, and at the University of Toronto; and during June August 1978, and July 1979 he curated the dipterocarp collection at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. He continued to serve on a National Academy of Sciences committee charged to establish research priorities in tropical biology, which met during the year at St. Louis and at Xalapa, Mexico. He also served on the National Academy of Sciences\/Commonwealth Science Foundation consultative panel on crop diversification in the West Indies, which met at Port of Spain, Trinidad, in April 1979. In the coming year he and Dr. Otto T. Solbrig will supervise Paul C. Cox, a graduate student who has been studying the pollination ecology and other aspects of the climbing pandan Freycinetia reyneckii in Samoa. Dr. Richard A. Howard was on sabbatical leave for the year, during which time he held a Guggenheim Fellowship. From August 6 through 24, 1978, he studied at the Copenhagen, Aarhus, Stockholm, and Geneva herbaria, and contributed a paper at the Aarhus Symposium. From October through February, and again from May 9 to early June, 1979, he was based at the New York Botanical Garden. Between March 1 and May 2 he conducted field work in the West Indies; in Martinique and Guadeloupe he succeeded in his searches for plants described or reported by the early botanists Plumier, Hahn, and Duss, and not recently re-collected. He helped establish plots on the Soufriere of Guadeloupe to study seral succession following the 1966-67 eruption, consulted with the Guadeloupe Department of Forestry, and collaborated in further studies of seral succession on Pico del Oeste, Puerto Rico. From the middle of June until August 1, he was in England, studying in the herbaria and libraries at Kew, at the British Museum of Natural History, and at the Linnean Society. Dr. Howard lectured on his visit to the People's Republic of China three times in October 1978, in Weston for the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, at the Harvard University Herbaria Building, and at the University of Washington; once in December, at the New York Botanical Garden; and once in April, at the University of the West Indies in Montserrat. He presented a lecture on the West Indies in Dr. Thomas Givnish's course, Biology 250, Tropical Ecology, and gave other lectures in New York and Montserrat. Dr. Shiu-ying Hu, although retired, has continued her research on the flora of China, and her studies of medicinal plants. She receives numerous requests for advice about and identification of Chinese materia medica, and consequently has submitted for publication in Hong Kong a checklist of 2,196 drugs, each with its classical name, transliteration, botanical identification, English equivalents, and uses. Her special interest is ginseng and other medicinal Araliaceae, and she contributed a paper at the Second International Ginseng Symposium in Korea in September 1978. 356 Dr. Norton G. Miller published a paper on Pleistocene plant fossils from a deposit in northern Vermont (]ournal of the Arnold Arboretum, April 1979, pp. 167-218), and has completed most of the research for another paper on mosses recovered from the same fossil bed. In addition, root nodules containing the remains of a nitrogenfixing actinomycete were found in the fossil plant assemblage described in the paper last cited. Early in June, Dr. Miller and Dwight Baker, a Harvard graduate student, made a trip to the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec, to collect living root nodule specimens of Dryas, Shepherdia, and Elaeagnus. These and the fossil nodules are now being studied by scanning electron microscopy. The fossils appear to provide the first direct evidence of the presence of nitrogen-fixing plants in early Late-Glacial settings. With financial help from the Harvard Graduate Society, Dr. Miller completed a catalogue of the fossil record of Quaternary bryophytes in North America. The catalogue is now in press. He also completed a manuscript on \"Fossil Mosses as Paleoecological Indicators of Late-Glacial Terrestrial Environments\", and gave a lecture at Pennsylvania State University and at Cornell University on \"Disjunct Populations in the Gulf of St. Lawrence Area: A Paleobotanical Perspective\". Dr. Miller attended the Fifth Biennial Meeting of the American Quaternary Association in Edmonton in g September. He serves on the editorial boards of four journals. During the year he directed the research of three graduate students, Peter Alpert, Cecilia Lenk, and Brent Mishler. Dr. Bernice G. Schubert was acting director at Cambridge for the first half of the fiscal year. In March 1979 she retired as editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum to concentrate on her research on the genera Desmodium and its allies, and on Begonia and Dioscorea in the Americas. This past year she devoted research to the Leguminosae subtribe Desmodieae, especially Desmodium, and participated in a working group on legume systematics at and above the generic level at Kew in August 1978. She also continued her work on a monograph of the genus Dioscorea, which is very numerous from Mexico southward. Some Dioscorea species contain chemicals of pharmaceutical significance, such as the precursors of cortisone and the precursors of the sex hormones. In spite of this, there is no recent monograph or easily usable account to aid chemists and pharmacologists in identification. Dr. Stephen A. Spongberg's research continued to center on the taxonomy and relationships of genera of woody plants, particularly those in eastern North America and eastern Asia. It is from these genera that the large majority of our native and exotic woody ornamentals have been selected, and it is these genera that are so well represented in the Arnold Arboretum's living collections and in the herbaria. The taxonomic work on these genera will result, over the course of the years, in a series of treatments that can be brought together as a basis for a new manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. 357 While the will new manual may be slowed by monographic and revisionary Sorbus, it studies, particularly of large and complex genera such as profit greatly, since the large and complex genera are the least satisfactory in Rehder's Manual. It will be recalled that Rehder's Manual was itself largely a condensation of his monographic and revisionary studies. During the past year, Dr. Spongberg and Ida H. Burch, staff assistant, published a treatment of the Lardizabalaceae ( Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum, April 1979, pp. 302-15), and Dr. Spongberg prepared for publication a treatment of the Cercidiphyllaceae ( Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, July 1979, pp. 367-76). Drs. Spongberg and Stevens also collaborated in preliminary observations of Cercidiphyllaceae that may elucidate the growth patterns and architecture of this isolated and ancient family. Subsequent to Dr. Spongberg's 1972 revision of the genus Stewartia, new information concerning hybridization has suggested that numerous Stewartia plants in cultivation in western gardens are of hybrid origin. To supplement morphological studies and to resolve the status of putative hybrids more completely, an experimental hybridization program was undertaken in the Arboretum living collection during the summer of 1978, and was scheduled to continue during 1979. Last summer, apparently viable seed was obtained from four interspecific crosses and their reciprocals ; cytological materials are also being processed for both the parental species and the putative hybrids. Dr. Spongberg has continued a taxonomic review of members of Hartia, a genus indigenous to southeastern Asia, and doubtfully distinct from Stewartia There are only limited collections of Hartia in Western herbaria; while a loan has been received from Academia Sinica in Peking, many of the types as well as additional collections are housed in other herbaria throughout China. In recent discussions, botanists from the People's Republic of China have assured Dr. Spongberg that loans of specimens now can be arranged. Dr Spongberg is also gathering materials of the genus Sorbus preliminary to taxonomic review of this poorly understood and difficult genus of the Rosaceae. Initial emphasis will be on the simple-leaved species that comprise sections ARIA and MICROMELES, but as work progresses, the survey will include the compoundleaved species, a group that has received much more attention, particularly in Europe, but never on a world-wide or monographic basis. The Arboretum has an excellent collection of Sorbus, and Dr. Spongberg hopes to supplement his morphological analysis with information gained from plants growing under cultivation. The information also may be used to assess generic boundaries within subfamily Maloideae. Subject to several interpretations in the past, the definition of genera within Maloideae remains to be analyzed critically. Dr. Peter F. Stevens completed the final draft of his monograph of the large, taxonomically difficult, but important pantropical tree genus Calophyllum, whose 178 species are concentrated in the Far 358I His field and herbarium research involved several novel approaches, including the use of seedling branching and leaf arrangement to discriminate between critical species. He is beginning a survey of the seed structure of Indo-Malesian members of the tribe Vaccinieae (the blueberries, family Ericaceae), including a comparison with other taxa in the tribe, and is collaborating with Dr. B. A. Bohm, Vancouver, on a survey of leaf phenolics in tropical Vaccinieae, and a comparison of the variation found in leaf phenolics with variation in morphological and anatomical characters. Dr. Stevens and Paul Groff, a Harvard undergraduate, are surveying the generic limits of the tribe Phyllodoceae of the family Ericaceae; the survey involves a study of growth patterns and anatomy, and comparison with the variation in morphological and other characters in the tribe. Drs. Stevens and Richard E. Schultes are supervising graduate student Jeffrey Hart's research on Lepechinia and other South American Labiatae. Dr. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., has continued his research on Staphylea and cultivated Hamamelidaceae. He also has been occupied with the verification of plant identifications, and the planning of the living collections accessions policy. During the first half of the year, he was acting director at Jamaica Plain. Dr. Carroll E. Wood supervised the preparation of illustrations of monocotyledons for a new edition of his book A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants. The first edition contained 120 illustrations of dicotyledons ; for the second edition, Dr. Wood is adding sixty-four pages on monocotyledons, an additional glossary, and other material. Walter Judd, a graduate student working under Dr. Wood's supervision, received the Ph.D. from Harvard in November for his monumental and exhaustive thesis, A Monograph of Lyonia (Ericaceae); he was appointed assistant professor in botany at the University of Florida in September, and in the spring of 1979 he was placed in charge of the vascular plants in the university herbarium. Dr. Wood continues to supervise Christopher Campbell's biosystematic researches on the Andropogon virginicus complex in the Southeast, and Michael Donoghue's studies of Central American Viburnum. East. ' EDUCATION Graduate student projects have been reported under Research. This year Dr. Stevens taught a graduate course, Biology 352, on his specialization, Systematics of Tropical Plants. Also, he was responsible for the systematic part of Biology S-105, Plants of the Tropics, which he taught with Dr. Jack Fisher in June and July 1978, and with Dr. P. Barry Tomlinson in June and July 1979; and for the botanical part of Biology 148, Principles of Systematics, which he taught with Dr. William L. Fink. Dr. Wood had exceptionally high ratings in the student evaluations 359 of his introductory taxonomy course, Biology 103, The Taxonomy of Seed-bearing Plants, and of his part of the collaborative course, Biology 18, Diversity in the Plant Kingdom. The rating for Biology 103 was the highest of any course in the biology department, which received the highest rating of any department in the University. Dr. Wood gave his graduate research course, Biology 313, Systematics of Vascular Plants, in both semesters. Dr. Miller also had exceptionally high ratings in his part of Biology 18. He gave a seminar both semesters for graduate students, Biology 305, Topics in Bryology and Paleobotany. Drs. Spongberg and Weaver's experimental University Extension Course, Biology E-146c, Botanical and Horticultural Practices at Arboreta, reported in the last Director's Report, was completed by twelve summer horticultural trainees at Jamaica Plain in 1978. In a final discussion, the participants concluded that the benefits did not outweigh the considerable effort involved in the course, and it has been decided not to continue the course in the future. Our public education program is on the threshold of accelerated expansion. As part of a policy to augment public programs, we have created the new position of plant information coordinator, with responsibility for answering inquiries, organizing exhibitions, and broadening our education program. Eugenia Frey was appointed to begin this position in July 1979. Course offerings in 1978-79 were increased from a standard ten or twelve of a few years ago to thirtytwo for the year. Although we continue to offer many of the courses popular in the past, such as courses on pruning and plant identification, there has been increasing demand for scientifically oriented courses. On a trial basis, we offered courses on Basic Tree Biology, and Mosses and Liverworts. Both had full registration. Gary Koller contributed to seven courses during the year; Dr. Weaver, five; Margo Reynolds, three; John Alexander and James Burrows, two each; Dr. Miller and Robert Williams, one each; and Ida Burch, one, with the assistance of Helen Fleming and Anne Sholes. Class registrations for the year numbered 508, an increase of 89 over last year. Staff members contributed to a monthly series of lunchtime lectures in Jamaica Plain during the winter, and at Meet the Staff Evenings in Weston during the spring. Dr. Miller organized the botany seminars, which met in the Herbaria Building every Thursday during the academic year. Owing to a shortage in staff, the Arnold Arboretum was unable to exhibit this year at the New England Spring Flower Show. However, the Arboretum presented a new award, known as the Arnold Arboretum Award, for excellence in the use of unusual north temperate hardy woody plants in a complementary landscape setting. The first award was given to the Wellesley Garden Club for an exhibit featuring members of the heath family, the Ericaceae. This year the Arboretum was staffed on May 20 for the Lilac Sunday 360 The lilacs were somewhat early, and attendance was both this and the previous weekend. Open house at the Case Estates took place on Mother's Day, May 13; drizzle kept all but the most hardy visitors away. Tours were organized for twenty groups of plant scientists and nurserymen during the past year, and some 150 individuals made professional visits. The Arboretum staff answered 290 technical requests or inquiries concerning the living collections and herbarium by letter, and at least double this number by telephone. A survey undertaken between April and December 1978 revealed that some 200 poisonous plant inquiries were received by telephone at the Arboretum during that period. open house. high on PUBLICATIONS The Arboretum publishes two periodicals: the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, a quarterly journal for original work in systematics and other aspects of whole plant biology; and Arnoldia, a bimonthly journal providing authoritative articles in plain English for readers with a serious interest in the cultivation of woody plants. The Arboretum also publishes books, and various brochures, maps, and postcards for public sale. We are convinced there is a considerably larger market for our publications than the one they presently serve, and that our publications as a whole could be made self-supporting, a goal that will become vital as inflation increases. Therefore, our publications program also has undergone major changes this year. Under the chairmanship of Dr. Schubert, the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium, and the Farlow Herbarium have formed a joint Publications Committee to define policy for their various journals and to insure maintenance of the highest standards in all their publications. Also, an Editorial Committee has been constituted for Arnoldia, and will include the editor, the managing editor, the public relations coordinator, and a horticulturist from outside the University. A new position has been created for a publications officer, who will be responsible for executing all future publications at Jamaica Plain, and who will be managing editor of Arnoldia. Norton Batkin was appointed to begin this position in August 1979. Dr. Schubert this year completed fifteen years as editor, and, latterly, chairman of the Editorial Board, of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. During this period she sacrificed much of her research time to dedicate herself to maintaining the highest standards in the Journal, thus continuing the tradition of excellence set by her predecessor, Dr. Wood. Dr. Schubert stamped her personality on the Journal through vigorous attention to style and detail. We owe her a great debt. Dr. Spongberg assumed editorship in early 1979. Elizabeth Schmidt continues as assistant editor. During the fiscal year, 361 twenty-five papers from thirty-three authors have been published, comprising 554 pages. The editorship of Arnoldia also changed during the year. Jeanne Wadleigh, who had managed Arnoldia's affairs almost singlehandedly for seven years on a part-time basis, resigned in the spring. To her, too, we owe special gratitude. Working under difficult and sometimes frustrating circumstances, she nevertheless improved Arnoldia style, and increased its circulation. Dr. Weaver has taken her place as editor. The six numbers of Arnoldia during this fiscal year comprised 361 pages, and contained eleven articles, all by staff, and nineteen book reviews, of which seven were contributed by volunteers, and one by a student intern. Four books are in various stages of preparation at the Arboretum. very in The third volume of Dr. Howard's monumental Flora ofthe Lesser Antilles, and the first written largely by himself, was published in July 1979. Its 586 pages treat the thirty-five monocotyledonous families occurring in the Lesser Antilles. Dr. Howard is also collaborating with photographer and film director Peter Chvany on a book on Ernest Wilson's life and his work in China, richly illustrated with Wilson's photographs. Dr. Weaver and Esther Heins, a Friend of the Arboretum, began preparing for publication some of Esther Heins's eighty superb watercolors of plants growing in the Arboretum. Ida Burch and Dr. Spongberg are working with Dr. Frederick H. Lovejoy, Jr., the director of the Massachusetts Poison Control Center, on a book on the poisonous plants of the northeastern United States. The Arboretum already has produced a highly successful film and devoted an issue of Arnoldia to the potential hazard of the small group of plants toxic to man. However, a need still exists for a well-illustrated guide to the identification of these plants, and it is to this end that Ida Burch and Dr. Spongberg have begun to work on the new book. In April 1979 Dr. Spongberg and Ida Burch attended a symposium at the New York Botanical Garden on \"Poisonous Plants in Urban and Suburban Environments\". ~ PUBLIC RELATIONS We serve the public as an amenity, through Arnoldia and other publications, through our course programs and exhibits, and through our public information program, including answering emergency requests for poisonous plant identifications. The sections on Education and on Publications have included reports on the courses and on Arnoldia while the number of requests by letter and telephone, including poisonous plant inquiries, to which we have responded have been mentioned under Living Collections. In the spring of 1979 a Public Relations and Education Committee, under the chairmanship of Margo Reynolds, was formed. This was the first step in a plan to increase the services provided by the Arboretum to the Friends of the Arnold 362 Arboretum and to the public at large, particularly the citizens of Boston. Our Volunteer Program enables the public to share our work. Over the years we have come to rely on our volunteers to such an extent that it would be difficult at Jamaica Plain and at Weston to function without them. From them we receive wise counsel, and dedicated and faithful support, and their presence adds vitality and enthusiasm to our working atmosphere. We suspect that our volunteers also enjoy working with us. We plan to encourage more volunteers to join us, especially from our neighboring communities, where such individuals may act as spokesmen for the Arboretum. This year we were privileged to have thirty-six volunteers, of whom six joined since March in response to a new search system. Volunteers taught classes, curated the slide collection, assisted in clerical work and several mailings, gave tours, worked in the greenhouse, compiled nursery inventories, prepared exhibits, helped with a survey of nursery catalog holdings, staffed the entrance desk, collected specimens from the living collections, and helped research our early history. Four new exhibits were featured in the Arboretum's lecture hall during the year. From July through September a fine photographic exhibit of flower close-ups by David Stone was on display. A major exhibit entitled \"Spreading Roots\" and offering a comprehensive look at the history of plant introductions in North America was mounted in October, prepared by volunteer Cora Warren with the assistance of Ida Burch. Following an opening on October 8 for Friends and their guests, the exhibit continued until the New Year. On January 7, over 250 people, the largest attendance we had ever received at an opening, viewed an exhibit, entitled \"Caribbean Flora\", of watercolors of subtropical and tropical flowers by the late Edith Farrington Johnson. On April 1, 350 people attended the opening of Harry White's remarkable \"Fleurage\", an exhibit of his delicate and highly decorative petal montages. The total number of registrations for our various classes, lectures, and exhibitions was 1,712, representing a considerable increase over the 763 of the previous year. Six traveling exhibits were completed during the year. Four were sent to libraries in the greater Boston area. As part of our public relations program, we are intensifying a campaign to strengthen ties with our neighboring communities. In the final negotiations over the fate of the Adams-Nervine property, we adopted a common stance with the Jamaica Hills Association, on which staff member Gary Koller now serves. We hope to maintain and strengthen our ties with the Jamaica Hills and other neighborhood associations by sharing our future plans with them. In this endeavor, Friend and Visiting Committee member Leo McCarthy has continued to give valuable advice and help. Citizens of Roslindale organized a meeting, to which we were invited, of representatives of Over 250 Friends of the Arboretum and invited guests gathered on Sunday, January 7th, 1979, for the opening of the \"Caribbean Flora\" exhibit in the Arboretum's lecture hall. Some thirty-four watercolors of tropical and sub-tropical plants by the late Edith Farrington Johnson comprised the exhibit. Opening day guests were treated to a festive tropical atmosphere created by staff and volunteers, with Hawaiian and Caribbean music playing in the background and an exotic smorgasbord of tropical delicacies including tamarind juice, curried mangoes, papaya mousse, and other unusual foods. On May 17th, 1979, a reception was held in Jamaica Plain for sponsors, patrons, and donors of the Arnold Arboretum to thank them for their generous support of our actxvxtxes. Following an informal reception in the lecture hall featuring May wine and hors d'oeuvres, Dr. Ashton delivered a brief address outlining his hopes for the future of the Arboretum and invited the group's suggestions and continued participation. A special feature of the evening was a bus tour of the Arboretum to visit the new walh below the dwarf conifers, the refurbished Bussey Hill summit, and the greenhouses, where the Friends were able to see the seedlings obtained during the Arboretum's 1978 collecting trip to Japan and Korea. Those in attendance were given several of these small, choice plants as gifts. 365 their community, the local police, and the police commissioner to discuss the problem of security and of teenage drinking in the Peters' Hill section of the Arboretum. The director, the superintendent of buildings and grounds, Robert Williams, and staff member and Jamaica Plain resident, Ida Burch, attended. The meeting proved both lively and productive, leading to further contacts which we intend to develop. In the spring of 1978 the Arboretum offered the Boston Urban Gardeners the use of land on the South Street tract for a community vegetable garden. We agreed to disc the land in the spring and fall, to sow a winter cover crop, to provide lime and compost when available, and technical assistance and use of the Arboretum Library at Jamaica Plain. During the first trial, the gardens were plagued by water problems, vandalism, and inadequate organization by the gardeners. However, the gardeners refused to be beaten, and although the problems have not been overcome completely, an overwhelming number of the pioneers voted to try again this summer, with a new volunteer coordinator providing a much smoother, more efficient organization. The group is now installing a Savonius pump and water storage facility. FRIENDS Margo Reynolds, with the assistance of Barbara Epstein, coordinated an effort to attract new Friends, coupled with an ongoing series of lectures and special events for the current membership. Three of the exhibits in the Jamaica Plain lecture hall last year opened with special Friends previews. Attendance by Friends and their guests increased with each exhibit opening and culminated in a record 350 people at \"Fleurage\". On October 5 a special lecture, arranged by the Arnold Arboretum, and jointly sponsored with the Fogg Museum and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, was presented for the Friends of the three institutions. Nearly 350 people assembled at the Fogg Museum to hear Paul Miles, horticulturist for England's National Trust, speak about the reconstruction and renovation of some of England's historic gardens. Members of the Friends organization shared their experiences with others in the popular Evenings with Friends series. Six programs were presented, including a double showing of Dr. Howard's program on his trip to China. PETER SHAW ASHTON < 366 Appendix: Published Writings of the Staff and Associates July 1, 1978 - June 30, 1979 - Alexander, J. A. III (with G. L. Koller). The raisin tree-its use, hardiness and size. Arnoldia 39(1): 7-15. 1979. (with M. A. Dirr). The Allegheny Pachysandra. JMd.: 16-21. 1979. Ashton, P. S. Crown characteristics of tropical trees, in P. B. Tomlinson and M. H. Zimmermann, eds., Tropical trees as living systems, pp. 591-615. Cambridge University Press. 1978. Flora Malesiana precursores: Dipterocarpaceae. Gard. Bull. Singapore XXXI: 5-48. 1978. Vegetation and soil association in tropical forests. Mal. Nat. Jour. 30(2): 225-228. 1978. (with M. J. Hopkins, L. J. Webb, W. T. Williams, and J. Palmer). The natural forest: plant biology, regeneration and tree growth, in Tropical forest ecosystems. UNESCO Natural Resources Research XIV: 180-215. 1978. A message from the new director. Arnoldia 39(2): 67-70. 1979. Burch, I. H. (with S. A. Spongberg). Lardizabalaceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60(2): 302-315. 1979. Burrows, J. A. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Weather station data for 1977. Arnoldia 38(6): 216-217. 1978. Dirr, M. A. First impressions of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 38(4): 173-179. 1978. -(with J. H. Alexander III ). The Allegheny Pachysandra. Arnoldia 39(1): 16-21. 1979. (with G. L. Koller). Street trees for home and municipal landscapes. Arnoldia 39(3): 73-237. 1979. Fordham, A. J. Propagation of Kalmia latifolia by cuttings, in Proceedings of the international plant propagators society, pp. 479-484. 1977. . Pyrus floribunda and its propagation. Ibid., pp. 495-497. 1977. Kalmia latifolia selections and their propagation. The Rosebay 7(2): 1,7,9. 1978. Kalmia latifolia selections and their propagation. Quart. Bull. Am. Rhododendron Soc. 33(1): 30-33. 1979. Howard, R. A. Foreword, in D. R. Egolf and A. O. Andrick, The Lagerstroemia handbook\/checklist. AABGA. 1978. The director's report: The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1978. Arnoldia 38(6): 185-214. 1978. Botanical impressions of the People's Republic of China. Ibid.: 218-237. 1978. A request for additional examples of botanical hoaxes. Taxon 27(4): 364. 1978. The reprint edition of Duss, Flore phanerogamique des Antilles Fran~aises. Ibid.: 440. 1978. David Sturrock ( 1893-1978 ) - mentor and friend. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60(1): 1-7 (with frontispiece). 1979. (with B. Bartholomew and T. S. Elias). Phytotaxonomy in the People's Republic of China. Brittonia 31 ( 1 ) : 1-25. 1979. Tzu pai tien kui - Begonia fimbristipula. Begonian 46: 70-73. 1979. . -. - . - . -. -. -. -. -. -. - -. 367 -. The genus Smilax L. in the Lesser Antilles. Taxon 1979. 28( 1 ) : 55-58. -. Nomenclatural notes on the Araceae of the Lesser Antilles. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60(2): 272-289. 1979. . Nomenclatural notes Ibid. : 290-301. 1979. on some Lesser Antillean Monocotyledoneae. (with B. Bartholomew and T. People's Republic Elias). The botanical gardens of the of China. AABGA Bull. 13(2): 33-34. 1979. Hu, S. Y. A contribution to our knowledge of tu-chung - Eucommia ulmoides. Am. Jour. Chinese Med. 7: 5-37. 1979. . Ailanthus. Arnoldia . 39(2): 29-50. 1979. ecology, phytogeography and ethnobotany of ginseng, in Proceedings of the second international ginseng symposium, pp. 149The 175. 1979. . Koller, G. L., ed. (with D. Wyman). Ground covers and vines. Plants & Gardens 34(2). 1978. Ground covers for most regions, in Ground covers and vines. Ibid.: 12-19. 1978. New trees for urban landscapes. Arnoldia 38(5): 157-172. 1978. (with J. H. Alexander III ). The raisin tree - its use, hardiness and size. Arnoldia 39(1): 7-15. 1979. . (with M. A. Dirr). Street trees for home and municipal landscapes. Arnoldia 39(3): 73-237. 1979. Miller, N. G. (with R. R. Ireland). Timmia austriaca Hedw. (Musci: Timmiaceae) in North America. Bryologist 81: 577-581. 1978. (with G. G. Thompson). Boreal and western North American plants in the Late Pleistocene of Vermont. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60(2): 167218. -. 1979. Plant fossils from Columbia Bridge tell of ancient, tree-less Cobs. The Coos County Democrat (Lancaster, N.H.), January 17, 1979: 2. 47. 1979. (with H. Miller). Mark ye the bryophytes. Horticulture 59(1): 40- Reynolds, M. W. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: The gift of time. Arnoldia 39 ( 1 ) : 22-25. 1979. Schubert, B. G. Desmodium, in J. Rzedowski and G. C. de Rzedowski, eds., Flora fanerogamica del Valle de Mexico, pp. 314-321. 1979. States. Spongberg, . S. A. The genera of Crassulaceae in the southeastern United Jour. Arnold Arb. 59(3): 197-248. 1978. Korean adventure. Arnoldia 38(4): 133-153. 1978. . Cultivar registration at the Arnold Arboretum - 1977. Bull. 12: 65-67. 1978. AABGA value to the maintenance and use of living colIbid.: 142-144. 1978. (with I. H. Burch). Lardizabalaceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 60(2): 302-315. 1979. . Registration - its lections. Stevens, . P. F. Ericaceae, in P. H. 89-197. 1978. Davis, ed., Flora of Turkey, vol. 6, pp. A new species of Rhododendron (Ericaceae) from New Guinea. Adansonia, ser. 2. 18: 55-57. 1978. 368 (with B. A. Bohm, S. W. Brim, and R. J. Hebda). Generic limits in the Cladothamneae (Ericaceae), and its position in the Rhododendroideae. Jour. Arnold Arb. 59(4): 311-341. 1978. Wadleigh, J. S. No","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1979-The Director's Report"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":330,"end_page":369,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24767","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170ab6b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":6,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"tes from the Arnold Arboretum: New directions for Richard A. Howard. Arnoldia 38(4): 154-155. 1978. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: A new director is appointed. Arnoldia 38(5): 180-181. 1978. (pseud. J. Kilborn). Forcing bulbs: an art of gentle persuasion. Horticulture 56(10): f43-45]. 1978. Weaver, R. E., Jr. The ornamental birches. Arnoldia 38(4): 117-131. 1978. The hellebores. Arnoldia 39 ( 1 ) : 1-5. 1979. In praise of epimediums. Arnoldia 39 ( 2 ) : 51-66. 1979. - -. - . . Appendix: Weather Station Data For 1978 Average maximum temperature Average minimum temperature Precipitation Snowfall Warmest temperature Coldest temperature Date of last frost in spring Date of first frost in autumn Growing season* 60F 38F 40.01\" 80\" 99F on July 24 -1F on February 4 and 5 May 1 October 9 161 days * The growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This period is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32F or lower. 369 Weather Station Data for the First Six Months off 1979 Average maximum temperature Average minimum temperature Precipitation Snowfall during winter 78-79 Continuous snowcover Warmest temperature Coldest temperature Date of last frost in spring Continuous freezing temperature 54F 35F 28.03\" 23+\" February 8-21, 1979 I 96F on May 11 -6F on February 14 and April 21 February 6-20, 1979 15 5 JOHN H. ALEXANDER III Appendix: Staff Members of the Arnold Arboretum Who Leftor Retired During the Fiscal Year 1978-79. Michael A. Dirr, Mercer Fellow Carolyn S. Hesterberg, Herbarium Secretary* M. Katherine Holland, Secretary Mohammad Nabi Donna A. Bruce E. Jadidi, Mercer Fellow Lynch, Curatorial Assistant McCutcheon, Grounds Staff MacNeil, Grounds Staff Angus Angllo Navarro, Grounds Staff Laura F. Sahagian, Secretary Thompson-Mills, Research Assistant Wadleigh, Editor, Arnoldia Williams, Superintendent of Buildings Jill S. Karstad, Library Assistant M. Brooke Jeanne S. Robert G. * and Grounds Joint appointment by the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1979-The Director's Report"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: The Collections Policy of the Arnold Arboretum- Taxa of Infraspecific Rank and Cultivars","article_sequence":2,"start_page":370,"end_page":376,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24766","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170ab26.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":6,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Collections Policy of the Arnold Arboretum: Taxa of Infraspecific Rank, and Cultivars. following is based on a discussion memorandum submitted to the Living Collections Committee by Stephen A. Spongberg. The proposals made in that memorandum were accepted by the committee at their meeting on November 7, 1979, and are now part of the collections policy of the The Arnold Arboretum. Ed. collections of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard Uninational and international resource to both the botanversity ical and horticultural scientific communities. According to the original indenture of the Arboretum, all plants hardy in the vicinity of West Roxbury, Massachusetts, were to be collected and grown on the Arboretum grounds. This collections policy was almost immediately restricted, with some exceptions, to woody plants. As modified, the policy has continued and has recently been reasserted. The Arnold Arboretum has as its goal to cultivate all those woody plant species that are hardy and able to withstand the climate of the Boston Basin. Three individuals of each species are grown, and an attempt is made to grow individuals originating from different points within the geographical range of the species to insure genetic and phenetic diversity. Plants of documented wild origin are highly preferred over those of nursery or garden origin. While the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are not complete by these standards, work continues towards the acquisition and maintenance of an allinclusive collection so far as that is possible. The living are a 370 One of the major questions the above policy raises concerns the collections policies for taxa of infraspecific rank and for that class of plants known as cultivars. Specifically, should the collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum be restricted to the species level, or should the policy extend to include taxa at all infraspecific levels and to cultivars as well? The following discussion attempts to elucidate the problems involved and to state clearly the policies recently integrated with the overall collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum. Many species of woody plants have been studied in detail by taxonomists, either during the course of monographic or revisionary work or during more general floristic studies. In numerous instances, particularly those involving wide-ranging species, the patterns of morphological variation, as well as variations in other characters, have suggested biologically valid subunits of the species. These subunits have been proposed as infraspecific taxa and accorded names at the ranks of subspecies, variety (Latin, varietas ) , and form or a combination thereof, depending upon the philosof the taxonomist. It is probably safe to assert that species of ophy ornamental and economic importance, and species with a long history of cultivation, have been subject more frequently to taxonomic review, and in consequence there are sometimes several taxonomic treatments from which to choose. It also should be noted that taxonomic treatments at the infraspecific level are subject to change or modification as additional data become available; while the same is true at the species level, in practice fewer changes involving taxonomic evidence result. Since taxa of infraspecific rank often may be rejected by future taxonomists, is it valid to include living representatives of these taxa in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum? What reasons would justify the considerable expenditures required to collect and maintain living representatives of infraspecific taxa in our collections ? The primary reasons in support of the inclusion of these taxa are outlined below. 1. There is an historical precedent. Many of the plants in our collections represent infraspecific taxa, and Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, included them in practice if not in name. Examples in the living collections are Magnolia acuminata (L.) L. var. subcordata (Spach) Dandy and Tsuga canadensis (L.) Carr. f. pendula Beissner, Sargent's weeping hemlock. 2. If the typical infraspecific taxon is not hardy in the Arnold Arboretum, but another infraspecific taxon of the same species is hardy, then the species must be represented by a subspecies, variety, or form. Examples are Davidia involucrata Baillon var. vilmoriniana (Dode) Wangerin and Cedrus libani A. Rich. subsp. stenocoma (Schwarz) Davis. 3. Infraspecific taxa other than the typical one(s) often exhibit (Latin, forma), - 371 372 a range of variation within the species that is of considerable taxonomic and evolutionary significance or interest. When grown together, representatives of these taxa illustrate the genetic and phenetic diversity of the species. Examples are Kalmia latifolia L. and its formae latifolia, fuscata (Rehder) Rehder, polypetala (Nichols.) Rehder, and rubra Sweet ex K. Koch; and Hydrangea arborescens L. and its subspecies arborescens, radiata (Walter) McClintock, and discolor (Seringe) McClintock. 4. Infraspecific taxa are often restricted to limited geographic ranges in nature and may, as a result, be more vulnerable to extinction. Since the Arnold Arboretum collections serve as a living gene bank, inclusion of rare, endangered taxa is highly desirable. Hudsonia ericoides L. subsp. montana (Nuttall) Nickerson & J. Skog, known from only one area of Burke County, North Carolina, is an excellent example. 5. Variants that have been accorded infraspecific rank are often difficult to locate in nature if their ranges are limited, and their inclusion in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum provides scientists and others more ready access. Sorbus sambucifolia (Cham. & Schltdl.) Roem. var. pseudogracilis C. K. Schneider, endemic to alpine regions in northern Honshu and Hokkaido, is an excellent example. 6. By collecting and growing in one location the infraspecific taxa of a species, comparisons among the taxa are facilitated, and environmentally induced characters can be assessed. 7. Living representatives of infraspecific taxa, particularly authentic material, aid greatly in the accurate identification of incoming material, either living or dried. The Lonicera, Philadelphus, and Chaenomeles collections in the Arnold Arboretum are particularly rich in infraspecific taxa and represent materials that have been studied in detail by Arboretum taxonomists. 8. Variants based primarily on habit are difficult to assess and study on the basis of herbarium specimens, and living representatives are essential to critical taxonomic studies. Numerous examples could be cited from the genera of conifers in our collections. 9. Variants are sometimes of greater economic and\/or horticultural importance than the typical infraspecific taxon, and representatives of these taxa, when grown together, often provide living examples of concepts difficult to convey to students of botany and horticulture. In particular, representatives of these taxa are extremely helpful in illustrating the taxonomic concepts of subspecies, variety, and form, and the criteria employed in their definitions. Cornus kousa Hance var. chinensis Osborn illustrates this use. The possibility that in the future some infraspecific taxa may be rejected provides what might seem a strong argument against a policy of including infraspecific taxa in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Alternatively, if infraspecific taxa were included, it 373 might yet be argued that if a particular variety is no longer accepted by the most recent monographer, the plants now growing in our collections should be deaccessioned or at least relabeled with the currently accepted name. There are several reasons, we believe, why these arguments should not be reflected in our collections policy. In the herbarium, when a new taxonomic treatment is published, specimens may be annotated with the names adopted in the revisionary study, and changes in rank and interpretation noted. The specimens may also be rearranged to reflect the new system of classification. But in every instance, the annotation labels are applied to the sheets so as not to obscure previous annotations and the names and ranks under which the sheets had been filed, and as a result, the specimens could, if one wanted, be restored to their former arrangement. In any case, future workers are able to see at a glance the determinations of earlier workers. The same system, slightly modified, should be applied to our living collections, particularly with regard to taxa of infraspecific rank. Any taxonomist undertaking revisionary or monographic studies must attempt to account for all the names published in his group, and in many instances those published at infraspecific rank prove most difficult to trace in the literature, and specimens are also often few and inadequate. To be able to study living plants of these erstwhile taxa greatly facilitates such research and would be one of the primary benefits of our living collections. Based on the above arguments, the collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum now includes the amended phrase, \"all those woody plant species and their infraspecific taxa hardy in the vicinity of West Roxbury, Massachusetts,\" and our goal for infraspecific taxa, as for species, is to grow three individuals of each taxon in Jamaica Plain or Weston. Considering space and the current number of acquisitions in our collections, this goal is realistic. In those instances where infraspecific taxa are extremely rare, threatened with extinction, or of great ornamental or scientific value, the number of individuals might be increased. Once the term \"cultivar\" (coined in the 1950's from the two words \"cultivated\" and \"variety\") was adopted in the first edition of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, many horticulturists added to the confusion of what a cultivar is through their wholesale and often uncritical transfer of taxa of botanical rank (e.g., subspecies, varieties, in the botanical sense of varietas, and, particularly, forms) to cultivar status. In these transfers they simply adopted the Latin-form botanical epithet as a cultivar name and in print either set the name off in single quotes or preceded the name with the abbreviation \"cv\". These transfers are totally without basis since the category of cultivar is without rank within the botanical hierarchy of classification and in particular is not to be equated with any infraspecific botanical rank. Whether or not taxa that have 374 received such treatment are considered valid infraspecific taxa worthy of recognition from a taxonomic standpoint in our living collections, their names will henceforth be treated not as cultivar names but as botanical names, as was the intention of their authors. In particular, the same policies will be applied to these taxa in our living collections as are applied to infraspecific taxa in general. In the International Code the term \"cultivar\" has a wide conceptual definition and a potentially wide range of application. However, when dealing with woody plants, the term is almost always applied to a clone developed from a particular individual plant (one genotype) selected for a specific character or a specific combination of characters. The origin of the parent plant, whether wild or cultivated, is not of immediate importance nor is its botanical classification since cultivar names (fancy or vernacular) are not intended to reflect botanical classification. Nonetheless, the majority of cultivars are selected from individuals of a species, and in many instances from individuals of an infraspecific taxon. Others are selected from progeny of interspecific or infraspecific hybridizations and as a consequence represent hybrid combinations that may be of considerable botanical interest. In practice, the primary difference between a woody plant cultivar and plants that comprise a botanical taxon lies in the fact that the former is selected by man and is named without regard to the botanical classification of the plant concerned. Species and infraspecific taxa, on the other hand, are investigated and named within the framework of systematic botanical classification. Moreover, botanical taxa are meant to reflect the results of the process of evolution and are conceptual entities since they apply to numerous genotypes, rather than a particular genotype. Cultivars can be identified and given botanical names, and many cultivars may represent infraspecific taxa not otherwise represented in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. In other instances a series of cultivars may represent the range of variation within a species. Many cultivars are plants of horticultural importance. However, particularly in genera of high ornamental appeal, new cultivars are continually being introduced, and old clones are usually not maintained when their favor in horticultural circles is eclipsed. A major drawback to the inclusion of cultivars in a living collection intended to serve scientific purposes is the fact that most cultivars are of undocumented origin, and little information can be obtained concerning them in the literature or from cultivar registration authorities. On the basis of the above considerations, the collections policy of the Arnold Arboretum now includes the following guidelines for inclusion of cultivars in the living collections. 1. Cultivars with Latin-form names are to be reestablished in our collections and in our records as botanical taxa unless it can be shown that the Latin-form name was intended by its author to represent a cultivar (clonal) name. kobus var. loebneri 'Merrill', a hybrid between M. kobus var. kobus and M. kobus var. stellata developed at the Arnold Arboretum. It was named in 1952 by Dr. Karl Sax, director at the time, in honor of Dr. Elmer Merrill, former director. An outstanding ornamental plant combining the best characteristics of its parents, Magnolia 'Merrill' recently won for the Arnold Arboretum the Reginald Cory Memorial Cup from the Royal Horticultural Society. Photograph by G. L. Koller. Magnolia 376 2. Except under special circumstances, no cultivar is to be grown without first obtaining and recording adequate documentation of its origin and other available information, including published references. 3. The botanical identity of those cultivars grown is to be determined wherever possible. 4. Cultivars are to be grown for a specific purpose. Examples include named hybrids of botanical interest, e.g., Magnolia 'Freeman', a hybrid between M. virginiana L. and M. grandiflora L., or unusual individuals that exhibit one end of the range of variation in one or more characters of the species, e.g., Hydrangea quercifolia Bartram 'Snowflake'. 5. Cultivars of outstanding ornamental interest may be included in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum only if their origins can be documented, and the clones are destined to remain unparalleled by other cultivars for a considerable period of time. Most of the cultivars that would fall into this group could be justified under 4, above. Space permitting, two individuals will be grown of each cultivar that does not simultaneously fill other needs. This procedure will guard against the loss of the clone in our collections. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Right: Volunteer Leslie Oliver cleaning seeds at the Dana Greenhouses. Photograph by E. Gray. Back cover: Part of the Larch Collection (Larix) at the Arnold Arbo~ ~ ~~ retum after a snowfall. Photo- graph by P. Bruns. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23285","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170bb25.jpg","title":"1979-39-6","volume":39,"issue_number":6,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":290,"end_page":309,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24764","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170a728.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":5,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Notes on Persimmons, Kakis, Date Plums, and Chapotes by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG The genus Diospyros is not at present an important genus of ornamental woody plants in North America, and while native persimmons once were valuable fruits in the eastern United States, the fruits produced by Diospyros species no longer are important food items in the American home. In the countries of eastern Asia at least two species of Diospyros are among the most common trees encountered in dooryard gardens and orchards, where they are cultivated for their edible fruits as well as for other uses and for their ornamental beauty. J. J. Rein, a German traveler and author, wrote in 1889 that Diospyros kaki Linnaeus f. was \"undeniably the most widely distributed, most important, and most beautiful fruit-tree in Japan, Corea, and Northern China.\" And in Japan, where D. kaki is second in importance as an orchard crop only to citrus fruit, the kaki often is referred to as the national fruit (Childers, 1972). The rarity with which species of Diospyros are found in cultivation in cool-temperate North America is partially due to the fact that most are native to regions of tropical and subtropical climate and are not hardy in areas of temperate climate. A member of the Ebenaceae or Ebony Family, the genus contains upwards of 400 species that occur Stephen A. Spongberg is a horticultural taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum. He participated in the Arboretum's collecting trip to Japan and Korea in the fall of 1977, an experience which intensifted his interest in persimmons. 290 Typical fruits of the kaki or oriental persimmon grown in dooryard gardens in Korea. Two types are shown, one with longitudinal furrows, the second completely smooth and unfurrowed. Photograph by S. A. Spongberg. 291 Figure 1. (a-h) Diospyros virginiana: (a) carpellate flower showing leafy calyx lobes, recurved corolla lobes, and staminodia over ovary, from above, x 3; (b) longitudinal section of carpellate flower, x 3; (c) two staminodia, x 6; (d) staminate flower, x 3; (e) longitudinal section of staminate flower showing the stamens and non-functional gynoecium, x 4; (f) functional stamens from staminate flower, x 6; (g) habit of fruiting branchlet of carpellate plant, x 3\/8; (h) seeds, x 1. (i, j) D. kaki: (i) habit of fruiting branchlet of carpellate plant, x 3\/8; (j) fruit of the cultivar 'Tamopan', x 3\/8. Material of Diospyros kaki was kindly supplied by the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. 293 in both the Old and New Worlds with the greatest concentrations of species occurring in Madagascar (over 100 species), in Malaysia, and in Africa. The relatively few species native to regions of temperate climate come primarily from eastern Asia, but two species, D. virginiana and D. texana are indigenous to the United States. A second reason even the hardy exotic and native species are rarely cultivated undoubtedly is related to a general lack of knowledge concerning when and how the fruits can be eaten, stored for future use, and prepared. While I always begin to look for persimmons in local markets and on Arnold Arboretum trees as the fall advances, many persons' experiences with these fruits understandably end when they first bite into a hard, astringent, and puckery persimmon. Such disappointments no doubt have contributed to a lack of demand for persimmons in American markets. Despite the fancy prices asked for oriental persimmons or kakis in local vegetable stands and supermarkets, I am hopeful this article will stimulate enough interest to encourage readers to buy and enjoy a persimmon or two and to experiment with different ways of serving, and perhaps, preserving them. If native or American persimmons grow nearby, they can be gathered at little or no cost. I also am hopeful that both the oriental and American species will be more widely planted both for their fruits and as biologically interesting ornamentals. To this end, a list is appended of the few nurseries known to me that supply persimmon plants and seeds. Characteristics of Hardy Exotic and Native Persimmons The genus Diospyros, the name derived from the Greek Dios, of Zeus or of Jove, and pyros, grain, in allusion to the sweet fruits fit for the gods, consists of trees and shrubs, and while some are evergreen plants, all of the species considered below are deciduous. The wood of the majority of species is very hard with a watery sap, and the heart wood is often blackish. The heart wood of several of the tropical species, especially that of D. ebenum Koenig ex Retzius, is the source of ebony, a hard, black wood often used for piano keys and for other inlaid cabinetry work and undoubtedly the most widely-known product of this otherwise little-known genus. The bark varies from smooth and exfoliating in the chapote to deeply furrowed and checkered in the American persimmon. The simple, ovate or oblong to elliptic, glossy, dark green leaves are alternately arranged along the branchlets on short petioles, and the pinnately veined blades have entire, rarely ciliate, margins. The flowers, which are produced along the branchlets, usually of the current year's growth, in the axils of the leaves, are generally of two types that are arranged differently. The staminate or male flowers (Figure 1: d, e) are produced in shortly stalked cymose clusters of three or four flowers together, while the carpellate or female flowers (Figure 1: a, b) are generally solitary. The staminate flowers, which measure 6-14 mm. long are borne on short pedicels 294 that are surmounted by a small, usually four-lobed, greenish calyx, while the four whitish petals form a four-lobed, four-ribbed urceolate corolla that is much the size and shape of the corolla of a blueberry (Vaccinium) flower. Eight to twelve or sometimes sixteen lanceolate stamens (Figure 1: f) are attached to the inner wall of the corolla in one or two whorls, while an ovary is either absent altogether or poorly developed and functionless (Figure 1: e). The carpellate flowers also are produced on short pedicels that terminate in a four-lobed, green calyx, but the calyx lobes are much larger than in the staminate flowers, and leaflike, folded curiously downward along the median line. These lobes alternate with the four recurved lobes of the whitish to yellowish, more or less urceolate corolla and form a small flower whose shape is intriguing, especially when viewed from above (Figure 1: a). Inside the corolla, the globose, centrally located ovary is terminated by four or five styles (Figure 1: b), while curving over the surface of the ovary of most species are eight, silver-hairy, functionless stamens termed staminodia (Figure 1: c). Like tomatoes, which they often resemble in size, shape, and coloration, the fruits developed from the carpellate flowers are technically berries (Figure 1: g, i, j). The seeds (Figure 1: h) are usually oblong in outline, and flattened, with tan to reddish-brown seed coats. Not all persimmons contain seeds, a phenomenon discussed below. The size and shape of persimmon fruits vary enormously, as does their color, which usually ranges from green through yellow to reddishorange, brownish, blackish, or purplish when the fruits are ripe and edible. The sexuality of persimmon trees and the production of persimmon fruits is poorly understood and in need of further detailed study. From what is known, persimmons are a biologically intriguing example of a variable and complex reproductive system. In general, the staminate and carpellate flowers are restricted to different individual plants, and the species is classified as dioecious (i.e., two households, male and female individuals separated). However, in some instances, flowers of both sexes occur on a single individual plant, a few branchlets of an otherwise carpellate tree bearing staminate flowers, or vice versa. Under these circumstances the species is said to be monoecious (i.e., one household, separate male and female flowers on the same plant). Yet another added complexity in Diospyros is that some plants consistently produce flowers of both sexes, but others change from year to year, producing flowers of both sexes in one year, but not in another. In still other, rarer instances, a few perfect flowers, that is, flowers that contain both functional male and female parts, may occur on staminate or carpellate plants or on plants producing both carpellate and staminate flowers. Flowering occurs in late spring and early summer, usually during late May and June in the Arnold Arboretum, and swarms of small honey bees have been noted to work the flowers during this period. Fruiting branchlet of a carpellate tree of Diospyros lotus from Kwei Hsien, Shensi Province, China, where the local name, Ruan tze, signifies \"round persimmon\". Photograph by F. N. Meyer, September 10, 1914. Due to their small size, their nodding position in the leaf axils, and also because of their greenish and whitish to yellowish color, flowers of Diospyros are often unnoticed, and it may be only the activity of large numbers of insects visiting the flowers for pollen or nectar or both that draws attention to the fact the trees are in flower. Initially green, hard, and with their high tannin content, extremely astringent, the fruits and their subtending calyces increase in size as the season progresses and gradually assume their mature color and texture. Depending on the cultivar, the fruits may ripen any time between July and December or even February, and, contrary to some reports, frost apparently is not necessary to reduce astringency or to hasten ripening. As a matter of fact, some cultivars of the oriental persimmon or kaki are sweet and edible when still green and hard, looking like, and with the texture of, green apples. Ripe persimmons may either contain seeds, or, surprisingly, be totally free of seeds. Fruits containing seeds probably result from the normal sexual process whereby the egg cells contained in the ovules of the ovary of a carpellate flower are fertilized, and seeds and fruit develop. Seedless persimmons, on the other hand, develop without fertilization. The development of fruit without fertilization and hence without seeds is known as parthenocarpy. What factors are necessary to trigger parthenocarpic development in persimmons is not known to me and constitutes another aspect of the variable and complex reproductive mechanisms of the genus. Moreover, circumstantial 296 evidence involving a presumably totally carpellate tree of Diospyros virginiana in the Arnold Arboretum that regularly produces seedfilled fruits, yet is a considerable distance from the nearest staminate tree, suggests the possibility that some seeded fruits also may be produced without pollination and fertilization. The latter type of asexual seed production, termed apomixis, is known in some plant families, but has not been documented in Diospyros or the Ebenaceae. It might explain some of the variability of some species of Diospyros, including the kaki, and help in interpreting taxonomic complexities of the genus. species of Diospyros known to me to be cultivated in cooltemperate regions of eastern North America are discussed individually The below, and the characters of their flowers, fruits, and habit, and their vegetative characteristics have been utilized to construct the following key for their identification. Key A. Species of Diospyros in Cultivation usually trees, rarely shrubs; leaf blades membranaceous to subcoriaceous, (1.4-)4-16(-20) cm. long, distinctly petiolate; flowers appearing after the leaves; anther sacs dehiscent by long, longitudinal slits; carpellate flowers with staminodia; fruits reddish through orange to yellow or yellowish-brown, sometimes green or purplish, rarely black. B. Branchlets ~ slender, glabrous or with grayish pubescence; staminate flowers 6-10 mm. long at anthesis; pedicels of carpellate flowers 2-7 mm. long, the corolla 5-12 mm. long; fruits to 4 cm. in diameter (very rarely larger). C. Petioles (0.5-)1.8-3.2(-4.7) cm. long; staminate flowers 810 mm. long at anthesis; corolla of carpellate flowers ca. 12 mm. long, the four or five lobes 7-8 mm. long; mature berries reddish-orange to pinkish-yellow, rarely purplish or black, to 4 cm. (or rarely to 7.5 cm. ) in diameter; seeds 11-17 mm. long. Plants C. 1. D. virginiana. 0.7-1.2(-2.0) cm. long; staminate flowers 6-7 mm. long at anthesis; corolla of carpellate flowers ca. 5 mm. long, the four or five lobes 2-3 mm. long; mature berries yellowishbrown to bluish-black, to 2 cm. in diameter; seeds 8-12 mm. . to the Petioles long. B. 2. D. lotus. Branchlets ~ stout, variously fulvous-pubescent; staminate flowers 11-14 mm. long at anthesis; pedicels of carpellate flowers 832 mm. long, the corolla ca. 15 mm. long; fruits to 7.5 cm. in diameter.. 3. D. kaki. A. Plants often shrubs, sometimes small trees; leaf blades coriaceous, (1.4-)2.4~1.8 cm. long, subsessile; flowers appearing with the expanding leaves in spring; anther sacs dehiscent by short, apical slits; car4. D. texana. pellate flowers lacking staminodia; fruits black. Diospyros virginiana Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 1057. 1753. The American persimmon, common persimmon, simmon, or possum wood is native to a wide area of the eastern United States, from southern New England and Long Island south to southern Florida, and westward into eastern Iowa, Kansas, Oklahoma, and eastern 1. The fruits of the American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) are an important item in the diets of many small mammals, including flying squirrels as shown here in a plate from Mark Catesby's The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (vol. 2, pl. 76, 1754). The thick, \"alligator-skin\" bark of the American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana) is a good identification characteristic for the species as well as a noteworthy ornamental attribute. Photograph by R. E. Weaver. Texas. Infrequent in southern New England, it reaches the northernmost limit of its natural distribution at Lighthouse Point in New Haven, Connecticut, but it is hardy further north and can be cultivated successfully throughout Rehder's Zone 4 (USDA Zones 5a and 5b). Common south of New England both east and west of the Allegheny Mountains, Diospyros virginiana is particularly plentiful in the southeastern states where it often invades fallow fields and forms dense thickets along roadsides, spreading by means of black, fleshy, stoloniferous roots. The trees usually grow in sandy, welldrained soils, but also occur in rich, wet soils of bottomland forests. An extremely variable species over its wide range, known, for example, to have chromosome numbers of both 2n = 60 and 90, the American persimmon occasionally develops a shrublike habit, but generally is a small tree to 10 or 15 meters, rarely to 35 meters, often with spreading and pendulous branches. The bark, hard and of a brownish or blackish color, is irregularly and deeply fissured into small, blocklike plates, and resembles that of the flowering dogwood, Cornus florida L. Recognition of the species in winter is made easier by the characteristic bark pattern; the lack of terminal buds on the branchlets as well as the solitary bundle scars centered in the leaf scars are other useful identifying characters when the trees are leafless. Variation in plant habit, in the pubescence of the branchlets and leaves, in leaf size and shape, and in fruit size, shape, and color has provided characters on which several varieties and forms of 299 Most of these taxa are of lothe western and southern edges of the species range. A summary of these taxa is not given here, but has been presented elsewhere (Spongberg, 1977, pp. 154, 155). The fruits of the American persimmon vary in size from that of a small cherry to that of a large plum (Sargent, 1894, p. 10, footnote) about 4 cm. in diameter, and in color from orangish to pinkish-yellow, often with a grayish bloom when ripe, to dark purple or bluishblack in f. atra Sargent. The fruits are an important food to many forms of wildlife, and opossums, racoons, and squirrels often strip the trees of any fruits remaining on the branchlets during the winter months. The fruits also were important food items to the Indians of eastern North America as well as to the first European settlers and explorers. Easily grown from seed, American persimmons were sent back to England and established in English gardens some time before 1629 (Sargent, 1894). The Spanish explorer Don Fernando de Soto learned of the food value of the persimmon from the Indians of Florida in 1539 and probably was the first European to write about the fruit. In the next century, Captain John Smith, among others, took an interest in the putchamins of the Indians and likened them to medlars (Mespilus germanica L.), noting that \"if it not be ripe it will drawe a mans mouth awrie with much torment; but when it is ripe, it is as delicious as an Apricock\" (quoted in Bailey, 1898, p. 172). The name putchamin, L. H. Bailey suggests, probably is a phonetic rendering of the Indian name for the plant. Hedrick states that \"of the several plants used by the Indians, two, the persimmon and sassafras, were of importance to the [colonists] of Maryland and Virginia\" (1950, p. 115). European settlers in the southern states prepared a persimmon or simmon beer and used the fermented juice to distill an apparently very good brandy. In Pennsylvania, Isaac Bartram (1772) wrote a treatise on the preparation of persimmon wine. Persimmons also were eaten when ripe, or prepared in puddings, breads, or as preserves, while dried persimmons were stored and eaten as we eat figs and dates. The wood of the common persimmon has been valued for its hardness and density and has been used locally for innumerable items; it once was preferred for shuttles over any other American wood. During the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, considerable interest centered on the American persimmon as a potential orchard crop, and numerous cultivars, selected for fruit color, taste, size, and early maturation, were selected from wild populations and named. Lists and descriptions of many of these cultivars are included in the publications of Bailey (1925), Fletcher (1928, 1935), Troop and Hadley (1896), and Watts (1899). While interest in cultivars of Diospyros virginiana has continued to the present day, primarily in the Midwest (see the references by McDaniel, and Brooks & Olmo, Diospyros virginiana have been based. calized occurrence on 300I to my knowledge American persimmons never have been successfully on a commercial scale. Undoubtedly, this in large part is due to the fact that the American appetite for persimmons is limited, and the California-produced oriental persimmons satisfy the 1972), grown current market demand. Nonetheless, local native and occasional cultivated trees help to satisfy those of us who enjoy our native per- simmon. Over and above its colorful small fruits, American persimmon is an attractive ornamental due to its graceful shape, its lustrous green leaves that turn scarlet in the fall, its adaptability to various soil types, and its general resistance to insect pests and diseases. Of considerable value to wildlife, American persimmon also has been suggested for planting in erosion control programs (Van Dersal, 1939). Diospyros lotus Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 2: 1057. 1753. The date plum, Diospyros lotus, is very similar to the American per2. simmon in its morphology and may be the closest living relative of native species. The two can be distinguished by the characters contrasted in the key above, but in all likelihood the date plum will be seen growing in North America only in botanical gardens and arboreta ; no nurseries have been located that offer plants of the date plum, although at least one nursery offers seed. In the Old World, D. lotus is very widely distributed as a native, naturalized, or cultivated plant from southern Europe, the Caucasus, and Asia Minor eastward through the northwestern Himalayan region, and into China, Korea, and Japan. Cultivated since ancient times, the natural occurrence and original distribution of D. lotus no longer are possible to ascertain. In England and other areas of northern Europe, the date plum has been cultivated as an ornamental since the sixteenth century (Carder, 1975). In North America, the date plum is hardy at least as far north as the Boston area. It probably was introduced into North America when seeds were received at the Arnold Arboretum in 1884 from the Imperial Botanical Garden at St. Petersburg. our A small tree, usually with a rounded crown, that with age may attain 30 meters in height, Diospyros lotus is valued in Asia for its small, yellowish-brown to bluish-black fruits, which have a taste similar to dates and often are dried for winter consumption. The Chinese name for the species, Ghae tsao, signifies black date (Meyer, 1911). The fruits attain a diameter of about 2 cm., and those I have examined or eaten always have been almost completely filled with brown, oblong, and flattened seeds. Meyer ( 1911 ) reported a seedless type from China. The date plum is especially valued in eastern Asia as an understock onto which scions of the oriental persimmon are grafted. Diospyros lotus grows, either as a rocky, protected ravines, along native or naturalized mountain streams, and on plant, in rocky An old tree of Diospyros lotus approximately 26 meters in height growing at the foot of Fei-Yiieh-ling, Ching Chi Hsien, western Szechwan Province, China. Photograph by E. H. Wilson, August 3, 1908. 302 slopes. In Japan I saw a fruiting and healthy-appearing tree growing from a crevice in a rock outcrop on the Pacific Ocean beach at Matsushima. The date plum may prove of value as a small ornamental tree in coastal areas where salt spray limits the effective use of other ornamental species. 3. Diospyros kaki Linnaeus f., Suppl. Pl. 439. 1781. The kaki, Chinese persimmon, Japanese persimmon, or oriental per- simmon, with fruits sometimes the size of large tomatoes, is the persimmon that occasionally appears in American markets and abounds in markets in Japan, Korea, and China during the late summer and fall and into winter. Like the date plum, kakis have been cultivated for such an extended period of time that the natural species range has become totally obliterated. Grubov (1967), a Russian botanist, has suggested that the wild progenitor of the cultivated forms was native to northern China, while Rehder and Wilson (1916) state that Diospyros kahi var. sylvestris Makino, the reputed wild form of the kaki, with smaller, yellow, and often hairy fruits, is \"abundant in the mountains of central and western China up to 4,000 feet altitude, where it forms a large tree 50 or 60 feet tall.\" Due to the tremendous morphological variation exhibited by Diospyros kaki, botanists have questioned whether the cultivated forms might be of hybrid origin with two or more species in their genetic background (Hume, 1914). Other botanists have speculated that D. kaki might best be divided into more than one species (see, for example, Sargent, 1894, p. 4, footnote). In a recent article F. S. P. Ng (1978) suggests that domesticated kakis arose from D. roxburghii Carriere, a taxon of subtropical Asia that taxonomists often have included within D. kaki. Like D. kaki var. sylvestris, D. roxburghii differs from kakis primarily in its hairy fruits, and Ng asserts that it is possible \"D. kaki [2n 90, a hexaploidl arose directly from D. roxburghii [2rc= 30, a diploid] through polyploidy, cultivation, and selection for smooth-skinned fruits.\" = That selection for differing fruit types has occurred is evidenced by the upwards of a thousand cultivars or forms of the kaki that are cultivated in Asia and maintained by ring-budding or grafting, primarily on date plum rootstock. Ranging in size from about 2 cm. in diameter, the size of a small plum, to about 8 cm. in diameter with a weight of over a pound, kakis can be astringent or sweet, seedless or seeded, and conical, round, flattened, or almost cubical in shape, and some cultivars have longitudinal or horizontal ridges or furrows. The 'Tamopan' or grindstone persimmon (Figure 1: j) is one of the bizarre forms, with an equatorial to near basal furrow, while the more regular, oblong-conical fruits of 'Hachiya' with rounded apices terminating in small, black, stylar scars, are probably the most common kaki in American produce markets. Above: mons Cords of peeled persim(Diospyros kaki) hung to dry in the village of Siku, Kansu Province, China, where the local name, Fang sze tze, signifies \"square persimmon\". Photograph F. 1914. by N. Meyer, November 16, Sliced oriental persimmons (Diospyros kaki) drying on a wooden platform on a rooftop in the garden of Mr. Kim Chung-sok in Kwangya~tg, Cholla-namdo Province, South Korea. Photograph by S. A. Spongberg, October 12, 1977. As noted previously, the astringency of persimmons is a variable character caused by tannins that, depending upon the cultivar, may or may not be present when the fruits are green and hard. Some forms never lose their astringency, even when soft. The tanninbearing cells are scattered in strands throughout the flesh of the fruit, and the tannin is associated with a mucilage-like carbohydrate that coagulates and \"absorbs\" the tannin during ripening. Oxidation of the absorbed tannin causes the tannin-filled cells to turn red in some cultivars; the strands of cells are then easily distinguished (Condit, 1919). Kaki fruits are also very high in vitamin C and sugar content (glucose ca. 18%), the latter a variable character, like astringency, but have relatively low percentages of protein and fat (Condit, 1919). In Japan, hard, astringent persimmons were sometimes placed in used sake casks or tubs to ripen, and according to Rein (1889, p. 88) these \"tub persimmons\", which absorbed the flavor and perfume of the sake, were considered a delicacy. However, the Japanese apparently often ate the hard, unripened fruit, a fact that prompted Charles Sargent to observe that the kaki was \"consumed in immense Diospyros kaki. Top: Six small dried persimmons with the crystallized sugar from which small cakes are made locally. Obtained in Ssu shui, Honan Province, China, where the local name, Hui sze pmg, is translated \"boil-proof dried persimmon\", referring to the fact that the fruit retains its shape even when boiled a long time. Bottom: One of the largest dried persimmons of China, most of the fruits measuring 10 to 11 inches in circumference. Formerly, fruits of this type were given as a tribute to the Imperial Court at Pekzng and sold at more than twice the amount paid for other varieties. The Chinese name, Ching sze ping, means \"green dried persimmon\". Photographs and notes by F. N. Meyer, April 21, lgl4. quantities by the Japanese, who eat it, as they do all their fruits, before it is ripe, and while it has the texture and consistency of a pavingstone\" (1894a, p. 50). Unlike Americans, who regard the kaki as a fresh fruit to be eaten when ripe or rarely frozen for later use, the peoples of eastern Asia for centuries have dried the fruits for storage and use during the winter and early spring months. The persimmons, either whole or sliced, and occasionally skinned, are dried in the sun until their flesh attains the consistency of a dried fig. I have seen sliced persimmons drying on wooden platforms on rooftops in Korea, while a photograph taken by Frank N. Meyer, Agricultural Explorer in China for the U.S. Department of Agriculture early in this century, shows the fruits strung on stout cords and suspended from a simple scaffold to dry in the sun and wind. As they dry, or during a curing process after drying, sugar crystalizes on the surfaces of the fruits that are high in glucose content. By the time they are ready for storage or shipment, the flesh has turned blackish, and the sugar coating the surface is similar in texture to confectioner's or powdered sugar (S. Y. Hu, personal communication, and Meyer, 1915). Depending on the cultivar, the surface of the dessicated fruit may be evenly coated with sugar, or the sugar may appear in irregular scablike patches. Dried fruits, which become flattened if suspended on a cord while drying or which may be flattened mechanically after drying, are known as pressed persim- 305 mons; these are packed in boxes in Japan, while in China they often are stored on the cords. Dried kakis are eaten out of hand or stewed much the same way we stew dried apicots and prunes. In China they are a particular favorite during the New Year celebration in February. Once the spring rains begin and atmospheric humidity increases, the surface sugar liquifies, and the dried fruits no longer are considered edible (S. Y. Hu, personal communication). Meyer's photographs also document another form in which the white, crystallized sugar is prepared for future use. In certain areas of China, the sugar is scraped from the surfaces of the dried kakis and compacted into thin, round cakes or loaves, while sugar of the highest quality is pressed into molds to produce ornamented tablets. The Chinese characters on the surface of the tablets photographed by Meyer (see page 306) signify \"double happiness\": couples engaged to be married often present these tablets to friends from whom they have received wedding gifts. The tablets of sugar also are served as one of the eight comestibles offered with tea during the first course of traditional Chinese banquets (S. Y. Hu, personal communication). The kaki is grown in Asia for more than its edible fruits. Numerous medicinal properties have been attributed to different parts of the plants. The green unripe fruits of what in China is known as the oil persimmon, Diospyros kaki var. sylvestris, the reputed wild form of the domesticated kakis, are used to make a varnish oil that renders hats and umbrellas waterproof (Wilson, 1913, p. 73). In Japan, Shibu, a highly astringent, milky, light or dark gray fluid rich in tannin, is prepared from unripe kakis and date plums during the summer and is used to toughen paper, wood, and fishnets. It also is required in one stage of the complicated process of making fine Japanese lacquer work and in the preparation of sake and certain dyes. Rein (1889, p. 265) notes that in Japan the kaki is a favorite subject for bonsai. Sir Joseph Banks, botanist on Captain James Cook's first voyage around the world, is credited with the introduction of Diospyros kaki into Europe, while the first trees of the kaki in North America probably were grown from seeds obtained in Japan by Commodore Perry in 1856. Likened by some to an apple or pear tree in size and shape, but with larger, lustrous green leaves that turn scarlet in the fall, when it is particularly handsome with its brilliant fruits, the kaki was considered by Sargent to be the most beautiful of any fruit tree of cold temperate climates. Knowing that the kaki is hardy in Peking, Sargent (1894a) speculated that it would be hardy in New England \"if plants of a northern race can be obtained.\" Unfortunately, kakis, even some grown from seed obtained near Peking, never have survived in the Arnold Arboretum for longer than a few growing seasons. Young trees are growing on Martha's Vineyard, and beautiful old trees (one the 'Tamopan') growing at the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research attest to their hardiness in the Philadelphia area. Above: dried A basketful of pressed persimmons (Diospyros kaki) offered for sale in a market in Peking. Photograph by F. N. Meyer, March 22, 1913. Right: Square mon tablets of persimobtained from the dried fruits of a variety with the Chinese name, Pen sze sse. The Chinese characters signify \"double happiness\". Photograph by F. sugar N. Meyer, Peking, April 19, 1914. to fairly recent statistics (U.S.D.A., 1975), cultivation of kakis for the American market is totally confined to California, where on the average only 1,910 tons (compared with 20,000 tons for dates and 112,000 tons for plums) were harvested annually between 1970 and 1974. We hope that seeds collected from persimmons in a very cold district of Korea during the Arnold Arboretum collecting trip in 1977 will provide at least one reliably hardy strain for New England. According 4. Diospyros texana Scheele, Linnaea 22:145. 1849. Unlike the carpellate flowers of the American persimmon, the date plum, and the kaki, carpellate flowers of the chapote, black persimmon, or Mexican persimmon lack sterile stamens or staminodia. Moreover, the flowers appear on the branchlets of the previous year's growth, and the anthers of the staminate flowers open by short, apical slits, while those of the other species dehisce by longitudinal slits that continue down the entire length of the anther. These dif- 307 ferences help to distinguish Diospyros texana from the other species of the genus and were considered by John K. Small of enough significance to merit placing D. texana in a separate, monotypic genus, Brayodendron. However, most botanists have continued to regard the chapote as a unique species of Diospyros. The chapote further differs from the other species discussed in this article in its shrubby, often many-stemmed habit, although it may develop into a single-stemmed, twiggy tree that occasionally reaches 25 meters in height. The bark of the chapote also is distinctive; it is smooth, light reddish-gray or reddish-brown, and the outer layers exfoliate in irregular sheets, exposing the smooth, gray, inner bark. In appearance, it is reminiscent of the mottled bark of the crapemyrtle (Lagerstroemia indica L.) and is one of the characters that recommend the chapote as an ornamental plant. Native to the United States, the chapote is distributed in central and western Texas and ranges southward into the Mexican states of Coahuila, Nuevo Leon, and Tamaulipas. Over its range it grows in rich moist soils of bottomlands as well as on dry rocky mesas and in isolated canyons. The small, hairy, black fruits mature to 2.5 cm. in diameter. When mature, they are sweet but rather insipid. They leave an \"indelible black stain upon everything with which [they] come in contact\" (Standley, 1924, p. 1127) and have been used by Mexicans of the Rio Grande Valley to dye sheepskins. Sargent (1894, p. 12) notes that this species should prove valuable as a cultivated ornamental for its attractive, lustrous foliage, the interesting black fruits of the carpellate plants, and its mottled bark. It is recorded as cultivated in Virginia and in Pennsylvania, and although it has not yet proven hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, it may be hardy as far north as southern New England. Trials of Diospyros texana grown from seed collected on the northern edge of its range in Texas may provide plants hardy in Boston; seed would be gratefully received by the Arnold Arboretum staff for this purpose. Eating Persimmons The kakis I have found to be available in Boston markets should be before eating; at this stage the fruit is soft to the touch over its entire surface, the skin is slightly loose and feels as if it could be slipped off the flesh, and the green calyx can be pulled off with relative ease. Likewise, my experience with American persimmons is that they should be equally as soft when eaten. Since all the American persimmons I have gathered have been filled with seeds, I have seeded them and used the pulp in persimmon pudding, served with heavy cream or ice cream. I mostly enjoy eating kakis out of hand, but the flesh can also be used in recipes for pudding, ice cream, and bread; I have always wanted to experiment with a kaki chutney. While the kakis in markets usually are hard, they will ripen with fully ripe 308 too _eager to bite into one or It has been suggested that putting an apple will hasten ripening. Repersimmons in a are not found in many standard cookbooks. cipes using persimmons The Joy of Cooking (Rombauer & Becker, 1964) includes recipes for ice cream, an exceptionally good pudding, and Japanese persimmon salad, and Stocking Up (Stoner, 1973) offers notes on freezing persimmon pulp for future use. The U.S.D.A. Farmers' Bulletin 685 (Fletcher, 1928, 1935) contains the widest variety of recipes for persimmon pulp, including recipes for bread, crumpets, griddlecakes, persimmon-peanut muffins, persimmon cake, pudding, ice cream and sherbet, persimmon taffy and fudge, and persimmon whip. Fletcher notes that \"since heat makes the astringency ... more apparent, it is always well to add one-half teaspoon of baking soda to each cupfull of persimmon pulp in all recipes where the fruit is subjected to heat\" (1928, p. 22). The soda is not necessary if the fruits are comroom time at temperature. But don't be be you may never tempted again. plastic bag with pletely ripe. References Bailey, L. H. -. 1898. Sketch of the evolution of our native fruits. The Macmillan Company, New York. 1925. Persimmon. Std. Cycl. Hort., ed. 2. 3:2556-2560. The Macmillan Company, New York. Bartram, I. 1772. A memoir on the distillation of persimmons. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 1 :231-234. Brooks, R. M., & H. P. Olmo. 1972. Register of new fruit and nut varieties, ed. 2. University of California Press, Berkeley. Carder, V. A. 1975. Diospytos lotus. CurtIs's Botanical Magazine, vol. 180, pp 165-168, t. 696. Childers, N. F. 1972. Modern fruit science: orchard and small fruit culture, ed. 4. Horticultural Publications, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, New Jersey. Condit, I. J. 1919. The kaki or oriental persimmon. Calif. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 316, pp. 231-266. Fletcher, W. F. 1928, 1935. The native persimmon. U.S.D.A. Farmers' Bull. No. 685, rev. ed.; 2nd rev. ed. Grubov, V. 1. 1967. Ebenaceae, in B. K. Shiskin & E. Bobrov, eds., Fl. U.S.S.R. [English ed.] 18:349-355. The Israel Program for Scientific Translations, Jerusalem. history of horticulture in America to 1860. Oxford New York. Hume, H. H. 1914. A kaki classification. Jour. Heredity 5:400-406. McDaniel, J. C. 1969. Selfing and hybridizing persimmons. Ann. Rep. N. Nut Growers Assoc. 60: 102-104. . 1971. Persimmons. Horticulture 49 ( 9 ) : 32, 33, 51. 1973. American persimmon, an emerging horticultural crop. Fruit Var. Jour. 27:16-18. 1973a. Persimmon cultivars for northern areas. Ibid.:94-96. 1974. Breeding better American persimmons (Diospyros virginiana L.). Ann. Rep. N. Nut Growers Assoc 65: 58-61. Meyer, F. N. 1911. Agricultural explorations in the fruit and nut orchards of China. Bur. Pl. Ind., U.S.D.A. Bull. No. 204. 1916. China, a fruitful field for plant exploration. Yearbook U.S.D.A. 1915:205-224, pls. 29-36. Hedrick, U. P. 1950. A University Press, . . . . 309 1978. Diospyros roxburghii and the origin of Diospyros kaki. Malaysian For. 41:43-50. Rehder, A., & E. H. Wilson. 1916. Ebenaceae, in C. S. Sargent, ed., Plantae Wilsonianae 2:587-592. Publ. Arnold Arb., No. 4. The University Press, Cambridge. Rein, J. J. 1889. The industries of Japan. A. C. Armstrong and Son, New Ng, F. S. P. York. Rombauer, I. S., & M. R. Becker. 1964. Joy of cooking. The Bobbs-Merrill Company, Inc., Indianapolis. Sargent, C S. 1894. Diospyros. Silva N. Am. 6:1-12, pls. 252-254. . 1894a. Forest flora of Japan; notes on the forest flora Houghton, Mifflin and Co., Boston. Spongberg, S. A. 1977. Ebenaceae hardy in temperate North of Japan. America. - Jour. Arnold Arb. 58: 146-160. Standley, P. C. 1924. Trees and shrubs of Mexico (Passifloraceae Scrophulariaceae). Contr. U.S. Natl. Herb. 23:849-1312. Stoner, C., ed. 1973. Stocking up. The Rodale Press, Emmaus, Pennsylvania. [Prepared by the staff of Organic Gardening and Farming.] Troop, J., & O. M. Hadley. 1896. The American persimmon. Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 60. 7:43-51, pls. 9-14. U.S.D.A. 1975. Fruits and tree nuts: blooming, harvesting, and marketing dates. Crops Reporting Board, U.S.D.A. Agr. Handb. No. 186. Van Dersal, W. R. 1939. Native woody plants of the United States, their erosion-control and wildlife values. Watts, R. L. 1899. Persimmons. Bull. Univ. Tenn. Agr. Exp. Sta. 223. U.S.D.A. Miscel. Publ. No. 303. 11: 193- Wilson, E. H. 1913. A naturalist Co., Ltd., London. in Western China, vol. 2. Methuen & _ Appendix: Nursery Sources for Diospyros The following nurseries are known to me to have offered Diospyros virginiana plants in recent catalogues. Only one, Mellinger's Nursery, has offered both D. virginiana and D. kaki. Before ordering from any of the nurseries, written inquiry should be made to determine selling practices and availability. Boyd Nursery Company, Inc., P.O. Box 71, McMinnville, Tennessee 37110 Brimfield Gardens Nursery, Rocky Hill, Connecticut 06067 Greenbrier Farms, Inc., 201 Hickory Road, West, Chesapeake, 23322 Virginia Hess' Nurseries, Inc., P.O. Box 326, Route 553, Cedarville, New Jersey 08311 The Home Nursery, C. S. Illinois 61449 Ingels & Sons, P.O. Box 148, Route 17, Lafayette, Mellinger's Nursery, The 2310 West South Range, North Lima, Ohio 44452 following nursery offers seed of Diospyros kaki, D. lotus, and D. virginiana : F. W. Schumacher Co., Sandwich, Massachusetts 02563 These lists undoubtedly omit many nurseries that offer no means persimmon plants or seeds; their exclusion is by intentional. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spreading Roots","article_sequence":2,"start_page":311,"end_page":326,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24765","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170a76d.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":5,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Warren, Cora L.","article_content":"Spreading Roots by CORA L. WARREN When the Pilgrims landed in America in 1620, though the coast was \"stem and rock-bound,\" and the immediate vicinity \"full of woods and thickets\" (Bradford, 1897), the Northeast was by no means covered by forest. As Betty F. Thomson points out, almost without exception the earliest explorers and settlers commented on the treeless areas they saw, from the Saco Valley south as far as and beyond the Hudson, and up into the river valleys of New York State. Verrazano, travelling from Narragansett Bay in 1564, reported \"open plains twenty-five or thirty leagues in extent, entirely free from trees or other hindrances.\" In what are now our Southern states the same open plains existed. These great tracts had been cleared by the Indians for their farming, and the underbrush in the forests was set on fire every spring to improve the growth of grass necessary to game animals. Edward Hyams observes that had the Pilgrims made their landfall further north, in Maine, they would have found cultivated orchards of apples and pears, planted a good ten years before their arrival by the Baron de Saint-Castine and his French colony. Indeed, the French in Canada initiated the flow of plants eastward. Many Cora L. Warren is an active volunteer at the Arnold Arboretum. She has been instrumental in putting on several popular exhibits, including her most recent, \"Spreading Roots\". Mrs. Warren is an avid gardener, both in Massachusetts and Ireland. 311 312 of the plants the English settlers found in New England already were growing in the Jardin du Roi in Paris. Myth and fancy have long been a part of our image of our fore- fathers. Research into the horticultural practices of the time and attention to the revelations in contemporary accounts help to dissipate some of the untruths. Picture, if you will, what might be regarded a typical early New England scene. A log cabin stands in a clearing, its doorway framed on one side by a lilac bush, and on the other by a forsythia. Near the house is a pond, over which a weeping willow droops. A pasture stretches beyond, bright with dandelions, daisies, and red clover. A house mouse sits by the cellar door, hoping for a handout and keeping a wary lookout for the red fox skulking in the wood. This nostalgic picture is false in every particular. The scene described could not have been found in its entirety before the nineteenth century. cabins did not exist in the first English colonies. They first built by the Swedish in Delaware between 1637 and 1665. Most of the houses built in Boston by the first English settlers were made from boards cut from the black locust tree (Robinia pseudoacacia) Log were (Miller, 1763). As for the plants mentioned, the common lilac (Syringa vulgaris) the earliest plant to reach this country from Europe, but it is not native. Introduced to Europe by way of Turkey during the reign of Queen Elizabeth, its date of entry into America is in some dispute. Lilac is mentioned growing in New Amsterdam in 1655. It was a much loved shrub, one of the very few imported plants that was not thought to have medicinal value. In the next century, covered wagons carried lilacs to the Far West. Forsythia (Forsythia suspensa) was a much later introduction. Originally from China, it was introduced from Japan into Holland in 1833 by Verkerk Pistorius. It reached England in 1844. American horticulturists learned of it in 1846 from British journals and were quick to import it. Peter Collinson, the Quaker botanist, recorded the arrival of the weeping willow (Salix babylonica) in England in 1740: \"Mr. Vernon, Turkey merchant at Aleppo, transplanted the Weeping Willow from the River Euphrates and brought it with him to England. It was planted at his seat at Twickenham Park where I saw it growing in 1748. This is the original of all the Willows in England.\" According to a possibly apocryphal, but pleasant story, Alexander Pope, the \"Wicked Wasp of Twickenham\", planted a willow from a green withe on a package of figs sent from Smyrna by his friend Lady Suffolk. The tree flourished, and the story has it that a young British officer carried a twig to America, where it was planted in Abingdon, Virginia, and gave rise to most of the weeping willows in the United States. was 313 The field strewn with familiar wild flowers certainly had wild flowthey could not have been the ones listed. Dandelions are not native, but escapes from cottage gardens, where they were grown for \"sallets\". Daisies (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum) also were garden escapes. Red clover (Trifolium pratense) came by ship with the cattle, as did Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), chicory (Cichorium intybus), most weedy buttercups (Ranunculus), orange hawkweed (Hieracium aurantiacum), and a host of others. John Josselyn recorded in 1672 \"some forty kinds of weeds sprung up since the English planted and kept cattle in New England.\" The expectant house mouse also came with the cattle. The red fox, although indigenous to the Far West, was brought to the eastern seaboard by English gentry for hunting. Contrary to a widely held image of the native American Indians as painted savages, tomahawks raised high, the Indians met by the Pilgrims were as often curious, even helpful, as hostile. The first Thanksgiving feast was shared by Pilgrims and Indians. Many of the Indians in the North had gardens of a kind, where they grew maize, beans, pumpkins, squash, tobacco, and a few flowers, including roses and sunflowers. They knew how to force seeds into germination by sowing them in a compost of powdered, rotten wood placed in flat boxes of bark, which were hung in the smoke of the cooking fire. They also were aware that it was important to grow plants in isolation to obtain a pure strain. Corn, when planted by hand according to the Indian method, requires neither draft animals nor farm equipment: \"Their manner of planting is this, they make a hole in the earth with a sticke, and into it they put foure graines of corn and two of beanes their women and children do continually keepe it with weeding\" (Thomas Harriott, \"A briefe and true report of the new found land of Virginia\", 1590). William Bradford relates how the Puritan settlers were taught how to plant corn by Squanto, an Indian who had been to England and could speak English. \"Also he tould them excepte they gott fish & set with it (in these old grounds) it would come to nothing\" (Bradford, 1897). It has been claimed that the Puritans might well have starved without the native knowledge of planting corn by hand (Hedrick, 1950). Indeed, what seed had been brought from England failed the first year: \"Some English seed they sew, as wheat & pease, but it came not to good, eather by the badness of the seed, or lateness of the season, or both, or some other defecte\" (Bradford, 1897). Pumpkin or pompion (Cucurbita pepo) was another plant among the Indians' principal crops which the English settlers immediately adopted. From \"The Forefather's Ballad\", handed down from early days in the Plymouth Colony, comes a plaintive cry: ers, but ... We have Pompion at morning and Pompion at noon, If it were not for Pompion we should be undone. palo verdes (Parkinsonia aculeata) from Linnaeus's Hortus Cliffortianus (pl. 13, 1737). These shrubs or small trees of the legume family are native to Mexico and southern Arizona, but they are widely cultivated throughout the desert regions of the southwestern United States and have become naturalized in many areas. The genus was named by Linnaeus in honor of John Parkinson, one of the foremost English herbalists. One of the 315 For all the were not as knowledge gained proficient farmers from the Indians, the as one might suppose. original settlers According to the anonymous author of American Husbandry (1775), the \"embattled farmers\" were \"the greatest slovens in Christendom.\" Once a field had been cleared and exhausted, it was far easier to clear more land than to go through the arduous process of renewing the soil. The destruction by English farmers of the primeval forests continued in far greater measure what the Indians had begun. The truth of the matter is that to the early settlers there seemed to be an unlimited supply of land; at least so they acted. George Washington described the problem further in a despairing letter to Arthur Young: the aim of the farmers in this country, if they can be called farmers, is, not to make the most they can from the land, which is, or has been cheap, but the most of the labour, which is dear; the consequence of which has been, much ground has been scratched over and none cultivated or improved as it ought to have been; whereas a farmer in England, where land is dear, and labour cheap, finds it his interest to improve and cultivate highly, that he may reap large crops from a small quantity of ground. ... The German farmers in Pennsylvania, more frugal and efficient by far than the English, were an exception. In the South the land was even more acutely decimated by the \"one crop\" system. Tobacco, cotton, and indigo plantations exhausted the soil. It was not only farming that changed the virgin territories. The settlers built their ships from white oak (Quercus alba), and their fences and furniture from the eastern red cedar (Juniperus zirginiana). They made their torches from the pitch in pines, their brooms and wheels from pignut (Carya glabra), the black powder for their muskets from the pussy willow (Salix discolor), and beer from the sweet birch (Betula lenta). Many species suffered for their utility. Flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) was badly decimated in New England because of the excellence of its wood for spindles. By 1750 the Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) had become extremely scarce; the whiteness of its wood made it attractive for flooring, and whole logs often were used in house building. The great stands of white pine (Pinus strobus), some containing trees 150 feet high, were the worst to suffer. England needed masts for her navy, and paid as much as one hundred pounds apiece for the taller trees. Indeed, the quarrel between England and her American colony over the ownership of the great white pine forests acerbated an already tenuous relationship. The English marked the trees suitable for masts with a blaze known as the King's Broad Arrow, reserving the trees for the Crown, and severely punished those pioneers who ignored the hated sign. The pioneers retaliated by dressing 316 as 'i night. were exempt from the restriction, and cut down the The revolutionaries clad in Indian garb who threw the tea into Boston Harbor thus had a precedent of many years standing. The importance of the disputes over the white pine is memorialized in the revolutionary flag of Massachusetts, which depicts a single white pine. An interesting aspect of the early settlers' use of plants is the role played by plants in the slowly emerging discipline of medicine. The Puritan housewife, living in a totally religious culture, still held to the medieval belief that God had created all plants for the use of mankind. Thomas Hooker (1586-1647), minister of Hartford and one of New England's most powerful preachers, elucidated this doctrine in \"The Application of Redemption\" (1659): \"For al outward things are for the body, the body for the soul, the soul is nextly for God.\" Herbals were indispensable to the pioneer household. The best were those by John Gerard and John Parkinson. Gerard, Warden of the Company of Barber-Surgeons in London, published his herbal in 1597; it was corrected and amplified in 1633 by Thomas Johnson. Gerard had a wide acquaintance among plant collectors. Parkinson, botanist and apothecary, published Paradisi in sole, paradisus terrestris in 1629. (The title, literally, \"terrestrial paradise of the park in the sun\", is a pun on the author's name (Henrey, 1975).) The first known copy of Parkinson's herbal in New England was in the library of Leonard Hoar, President of Harvard College. After Hoar's death, this copy was given to Increase Mather, and his son Cotton Mather. Closely following the precepts of these herbals, the housewife grew in her garden plot such plants as comfrey (Symphytum officinale) for bruises and broken bones, false hellebore (Veratrum viride) for Indians, who trees at scurvy, borage (Borago officinalis) \"Borage always brings courage,\" as Parkinson translated Pliny and a host of other dubious remedies. However, a new concept in the curing of disease was beginning to be explored. The Doctrine of Signatures no longer was in high repute, and it was believed that there might be a universal panacea for all mortal ills. Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) was believed by both the Indians and the newly arrived settlers to be this universal remedy. It was one of the first exports sent by Captain John Smith from the Jamestown Colony. In 1602 the price of sassafras in England was 336 pounds sterling the ton. Merchants of Bristol, England, sent two ships across the Atlantic in 1603 for the sole purpose of gathering sassafras, finally finding it near Long Island Sound. Thomas Jefferson regarded it as a purely ornamental plant, so presumably by his time belief in its curative powers had been abandoned. Despite what might seem in some aspects a bleak picture of ignorance, cupidity, and bad land management, the discovery and colonization of America resulted in an exchange of flora between nations which benefited mankind both horticulturally and aesthetically. - Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) and \"The Tyrant\" (actually the eastern kingbird, Tyrannus tyrannus), from Mark Catesby's The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands (vol. 1, pl. 55, 1754). Many of Catesby's plates include both flowers and fruits on the same branch, which at least in the case of the sassafras is unlikely to occur in nature. As shown in the legend, Catesby compared sassafras to the cornelian cherry (Cornus mas), a plant which it superficially resembles in flower. 318I considers that the voyage from England to America and late as 1702, when the first Atlantic mail service was inaugurated, took anywhere from 90 to 116 days, it is astounding how many plants were imported and exported. Only about six American plants were in cultivation in England before 1600. By 1700 there were 150, and in the next century hundreds more. Science universally was regarded as having no concern with political squabbles, so the constant wars of the first two hundred years had little effect on the movements and affairs of botanists, except for the additional risk of loss of material at sea. Because of the depletion of English forests, trees were the original exports. Northern white cedar (Thuja occidentalis) was the first tree sent to Europe from America; according to Alfred Rehder, it is probable that it first was sent to France in 1536. It reached England sometime between 1536 and 1596. The only pine growing in England at this period was the Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris). By 1743 the pitch pine (P. rigida ) , and the scrub pine ( P. virginiana ) , and other conifers such as the balsam fir (Abies balsamea), the Atlantic white cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides), the eastern red cedar (Juniperus virginiana), and the eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) had all crossed When one back, even as to England. As early as 1670 the English introduced Mediterranean fruits into the southern states. Oranges, lemons, apricots, limes, and pomegranates were grown at the Charles Town Colony. Some fruits from Europe had reached America before the English. Peaches were introduced by the Spaniards into Florida. The Indians became so fond of the fruit that by the time of the first English settlements, peach trees were found growing in Indian villages as far north as they would grow, and west to the present states of Arkansas and Texas. Peach brandy was one of the first drinks made by the colonists. Many of the trees we now take for granted as our own are not native. The \"Tree of Heaven\" (Ailanthus altissima), the white poplar (Populus alba), the European weeping birch (Betula pendula), the horse chestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum), and the Norway maple (Acer platanoides ) all were sent from England in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries. The peanut (Arachis hypogea) which originally was carried from South America to the Old World tropics by Portuguese sailors, was brought to Virginia on the slave ships from Africa. Other ethnic groups increased our horticultural stock. Homesick Scots introduced ling (Calluna vulgaris). The Netherlanders brought a wide range of flowers, including numerous sorts of roses, crown imperials (Fritillaria imperialis), lilies (Lilium candidum), peonies, and, of course, tulips. Besides the importations by the various ethnic groups, and the unnamed settlers and housewives, there were individuals who earned a place in history by their contributions to the exchange of plants. The 319 John Tradescants, father and son, can be regarded England's plant explorers. John the Elder, who died in 1638, had travelled to Russia, Algeria, and Holland as gardener to Charles I. John the Younger, sent to Virginia by his father in 1637, also made two later journeys, bringing home a wide variety of material. The American columbine (Aquilegia canadensis), the cardinal flower (Lobelia cardinalis), beebalm (Monarda fistulosa), sundial lupine (Lupinus perennis), the New England aster (Aster novae-angliae), red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea), and a spiderwort, which Linnaeus named two first Tradescantia virginiana in the elder Tradescant's honor, were all growing in the Tradescant garden by 1656. The younger Tradescant also introduced to England the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera), the American plane tree (Platanus occidentalis), and the red maple (Acer rubrum ). Linnaeus (Carl von Linne, 1707-1778), the Swedish botanist, was the first to devise a usable and uniform system of binomial nomenclature, as well as a readily accessible system of classification. His system brought order out of a chaos that had obtained since the days of Dioscorides, and was of immeasurable value to collectors like Mark Catesby, and John Bartram, both of whom were among his correspondents. Linnaeus also named many plants. Several early American plant explorers, and their European correspondents and patrons, are memorialized in his generic names: for example, Banisteria, Collinsonia, Fothergilla, Kalmia, and Tradescantia. Henry Compton, Bishop of London, Head of the Church for the American Colonies, was an early patron of plant exploration in North America. He grew over a thousand species of tropical plants and about half as many hardy trees and shrubs in his famous garden and greenhouse at Fulham Palace, and he sent John Banister (1654-1692) to America. Banister compiled a catalogue of American plants and was the first to send back to England the sweet bay (Magnolia virginiana), the swamp azalea (Rhododendron viscosum), and the Virginia bluebell (Mertensia virginica). He died young and tragically, during a trip to the lower Roanoke River in Virginia, when another man on the trip mistook him for a wild animal and shot him (Ewan & Ewan, 1970). Indeed, it is surprising that as many botanists survived as did, so the times. From 1702 to 1783 the English, and fretheir American colonies, were engaged in Queen Anne's War, the War of Jenkins's Ear, King George's War, the French and Indian War, and, finally, the War for American Independence. Totally undaunted by these disturbances, the collectors went about their business with a dedication and fervor at which we can only marvel. Mark Catesby (1682-1749), an English botanist, made two long trips to America and the Bahamas, and after twenty years of work, published, in 1747, The Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. Peter Collinson wrote to Linnaeus, \"Catesby's noble parlous quently were to England, the common catalpa is still considered in that country to be among the finest of summer-blooming trees. In the plate above, from Catesby's Natural History (vol. 1, pl. 49, 1754), the catalpa is a backdrop for \"The Bastard Baltimore\" (the orchard oriole, Icterus spurius); the accompanying description was the first published account of the plant. One of Mark Catesby's notable plant introductions (Catalpa bignonioides) 1 321 work is finished.\" Noble it is indeed, the first natural history of this country, magnificently illustrated in large part by Catesby, who taught himself engraving to accomplish it. He was as avid a collector as the other early plant explorers, sending his seeds back in gourds, and was responsible for introducing to Britain the American beauty berry (Callicarpa americana), the common catalpa (Catalpa bignonioides), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), and the Virginia stewartia (Stewartia malachodendron). Peter Collinson (1694-1768), a London Quaker merchant, was another moving force in the exchange of plants between America and Europe. He corresponded with Georg Stellar, a German plant collector in Russia, and with Pierre d'Incarville, a French botanist exploring in China, but is most famous for his long correspondence with John Custis, father-in-law of Martha Custis Washington, and his thirty-five year friendship, by letter, with John Bartram. He sent Custis double Dutch tulips, Guernsey lilies (Nerine sarniensis), carnations, and auriculas among many other plants. In return, Custis sent him such native shrubs as bayberries (Myrica pensylvanica), mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and yaupon (Ilex vomitoria). One of the many letters Collinson sent to Custis introduced \"a downright plain countryman.\" This was John Bartram (1699-1777), a Philadelphia Quaker and widely travelled farmer, who taught himself Latin and botany, and through Collinson's efforts in his behalf, was made botanist to King George III in 1765. An even more impressive tribute came from Linnaeus, who said that Bartram was \"the greatest natural botanist in the world\". Bartram harvested the first American rhubarb, and flowered the first horsechestnut (Aesculus hippocastanum) in his garden on the banks of the Schuylkill River, the first botanic garden in America, and one of the first to become commercial. He introduced more than two hundred plants to England during the years he and Collinson conducted their \"settled trade and business\". Goat's-rue (Tephrosia virginiana), wild monkshood (Aconitum uncinatum), the common shootingstar (Dodecatheon meadia), wild sweet william (Phlox maczdata), and poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans ) were but a few of his offerings, the last mercifully a failure in England. On his last expedition, when over seventy years old, he discovered with his son William a stand of franklinia (Franklinia alatamaha) in Georgia. Fifteen years later William returned to the spot and gathered seeds. The Bartrams called the tree \"Franklinia\" after \"the illustrious Dr. Benjamin Franklin.\" It has not again been found in the wild since the early nineteenth century. William Bartram ( 1739-1823 ) did not have the tremendous staying power of his father and drifted from job to job with no success. An excellent draughtsman, he finally was paid by Dr. John Fothergill to collect plants in Florida, and made a long journey through the southern states. The journey is described in his curiously illustrated book Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and Mountain laurel (Kalmia latifolia) from The North American Sylva ( vol. 2, pl. 68, 1818 ) of F. Andrew Michaux, who traveled with his father Andr~ through the southeastern United States. A widespread shrub of our Eastern forests, Kalmia latifolia is the most familiar member of a small genus of American shrubs named by Linnaeus in honor of one of his students, Peter Kalm, who explored eastern North America on behalf of the Swedish government in 1748. 323 West Florida, published in Philadelphia in 1791, fourteen years after William completed his travels. The book supplied imagery to Coleridge, Wordsworth, and Chateaubriand. To the Indians, Bartram was known as Puc Puggy, the Flower Hunter. Other countries than England produced dedicated collectors. Pedr (Peter) Kalm (1715-1779) was Finnish. A pupil of Linnaeus, who maintained that \"all Lapland could be rendered fertile by the introduction of appropriate American plants,\" Kalm's travels through America were as much a commercial as a botanical expedition. He visited Bartram in Philadelphia, admiring his encyclopedic knowledge, as did everyone who knew him. Kalm collected in Canada as well as the Delaware River region, returning to Sweden in 1751 with a harvest of new material, to the delight of Linnaeus, who rose from a sick bed to welcome him. The French botanist Andre Michaux (1746-1803) visited England in 1779, bringing home many of the foreign plants in cultivation there. Marie Antoinette sent Michaux to Asia with Xavier Rousseau (cousin of the philosopher), and Michaux sent home from Aleppo his first collection, including Michauxia campanuloides, a flower greatly admired by the Victorians, but now not often seen in cultivation. Continuing on his own through Syria and Persia, Michaux brought back among other treasures, Rosa persica. In 1784, together with his fifteen year old son and the Scotsman John Fraser, Michaux explored and collected in Georgia and South Carolina. He also made many expeditions on his own, from Florida to Hudson's Bay and as far west as the Mississippi. He started a nursery at Ten Mile Station, north of Charleston, and from seed brought by sailing ships trading with China, he introduced to America the maidenhair tree (Ginkgo biloba), the crape-myrtle (Lagerstroemia indica), the silktree (Albizzia julibrissin), and many other important additions to our cultivated flora. He brought or sent back to France an immense collection of 60,000 living plants and ninety consignments of seeds. These dedicated explorers and collectors were supported by a wide spectrum of patrons. Benjamin Franklin was a staunch friend and supporter of Bartram and Collinson. In Collinson's account book one finds the Dukes of Norfolk, Richmond, Bedford, and Argyle, and the Lords Petre, Bute, Leicester, and Marlborough; nurserymen, lady gardeners, and Virginia plantation owners also contributed for plant collecting. Even the Prince of Wales twice begged and paid for boxes of plants. The burgeoning interest in plants transcended the still rigid class system, and a man with a new or curious plant was welcome at any door. Having begun with an impossible picture, we can end our brief history by describing two actual eighteenth century gardens. George Washington and Thomas Jefferson were eager collectors and cultivators. Mt. Vernon and Monticello, both brilliantly laid out, both replete with fine trees, shrubs, and flowers from both sides of the Atlantic, 324I represent the epitome of what could be done with what had been discovered in the plant world. Mt. Vernon, designed with meticulous care by Washington, was so ambitious, so demanding with its large variety of material, that it is no wonder his papers contain a great number of questions and directions concerning every sort of shrub and tree. Throughout the French and Indian War, the Revolution, and his terms as President, he wrote a steady stream of detailed instructions to a succession of overseers, ordered plants from various nurseries, Bartram's among them, and asked for advice and stock from gardening friends. His plantation was the delight of visitors, and his loving care and incessant planning is reflected even today in the excellent restoration of his property. It was from Mt. Vernon in 1797 that he wrote a Mr. J. Anderson: \"I am once more seated under my own vine and fig tree ... and hope to g spend the remainder of my days ... in peaceful retirement; making political pursuits yield to the more rational amusement of cultivating the earth.\" Thomas Jefferson, among his myriad other talents, was an accomplished naturalist and botanist. He began planting at Monticello in 1766, keeping a garden book in which he entered every plant he used, noting its progress, and, in the case of vegetables every one of when it came up, and when which he grew, with all its varieties it was eaten. While at the French Court from 1784 to 1789, he sent home hundreds of seeds and roots. In England he made a study of the great gardens and from his notes incorporated many of their features at Monticello. His plantings were informal and eclectic, and included figs, acacias, pomegranates, almonds, olives, and nectarines, as well as the more familiar nut and fruit trees: walnuts, peaches, filberts, cherries, apples, plums, and pears. Monticello also is now restored to much of its former splendor. Our difficult beginnings culminate here triumphantly. We forever should be grateful for those men who established such strong roots across the Atlantic and whose roots, today, still are spreading. - References Anderson, A. W. 1966. How York. we got our flowers. Dover Publishers, New Berrall, J. S. 1966. The garden. The Viking Press, New York. Boorstin, D. J. 1958. The Americans: The colonial experience. Vintage Books, Random House, New York. Bradford, W. 1897. In Harvey Wish, ed., Of Plymouth plantation. 1962. Capricorn Books, New York. Coats, A. 1969. The plant hunters. McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. P. 1970. Flowers in history. The Viking Press, New York. Dillingham, W. H. 1851. A tribute to the memory of Peter Collinson. Coats, Ewan, J., & N. Ewan. 1970. John Banister and his natural history of ginia. University of Illinois Press, Urbana. Philadelphia. Vir- The franklinia or Franklin tree (Franklinia alatamaha) taken from The North American Sylva (vol. 2, pl. 59, 1818) of F. Andrew Michaux. After its original description, the franklinia was often considered to be a species of Gordonia, along with the loblolly bay (G. lasianthus) of our southern states. However, the unique structure of its capsule has prompted most modern taxonomists to classify it in a genus by itself. 326 Favretti, R. F., & G. P. DeWolf. 1972. Colonial gardens. Barre Publishers, Barre, Massachusetts. Henrey, B. 1975. British botanical and horticultural literature before 1800. Oxford University Press, London. Hooker, Sir W. J. 1857. Forsythia suspensa. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. 83, t. 4995. E. 1971. A history of gardens and gardening. Praeger Publishers, New York. Lees, C. B. [1970]. Gardens, plants and man. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Leighton, A. 1970. Early American gardens. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. -. 1976. American gardens in the eighteenth century. Houghton Mifflin Company, Boston. Miller, P. 1763. Robinia, in The abridgement of the gardener's dictionary, ed. 5. London. Rehder, A. 1946. On the history of the introduction of woody plants into North America. E. M. Tucker, trans. Arnoldia 6(4-5): 13-23. Thomson, B. F. 1977. The changing face of New England. Houghton Hyams, Wright, Mifflin Company, Boston. L. B. 1971. Life in colonial America. Putnam's Sons, New York. Capricorn Books, G. P. \"Great soft-shelled tortoise\" from William Bartram's Travels South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida (1791 ). through North and "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":327,"end_page":328,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24763","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd170a36f.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":5,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM \"I am a plantsman!\" With these four words, more apt than any of could have imagined initially, Michael Albert Dirr bounded into Jamaica Plain in July, 1978, and into the hearts of all who would be associated with him during his twelve month appointment as a Mercer Fellow. The Arnold Arboretum will never be the same. Mike squeezed more into his year than many of us manage in a lifetime. He taught classes, he lectured, he patiently answered plant questions by phone and by letter, he led tours, he captained our lunchtime football team, he wrote articles. And that was only a small part of his typical day. What he liked most to do was look at plants. What he liked secondmost to do was talk about plants to any and all who would listen. Students in his classes came great distances and in inclement weather to walk the Arboretum grounds with him. His colleagues at the Arboretum and elsewhere were like elixir to him. Nothing stimulated him more than talking plants. Like all great teachers, though, he never pretended to know it all. \"I have so much to learn!\" he'd moan. He was generous in his praise of others and in acknowledging their assistance. He was one of the best press agents the Arnold Arboretum ever had. He spoke constantly of it at meetings he attended and on his travels to nurseries and universities. Superlatives were a large part of his vocabulary; \"outstanding\" and \"fantastic\" were two of his favorites, and he used them liberally when describing the Arboretum. \"We're so fortunate,\" he'd say. \"Imagine, being among the few seus - lected to work at 'America's Greatest Garden'!\" Indeed, those of us who had been here awhile and had tended perhaps to forget, suddenly saw the Arboretum with fresh new vision. Like Mike, we began to appreciate the wealth we had all around us. Mike Dirr was beloved by everyone. He was always exactly what he appeared to be: a warm and generous man, a kind man, a very giving man. He loved people, and people responded to his attention and to his enormous sensitivity with an unparalled enthusiasm of their own. Mike left in his wake a New England landscape littered with friends. Hyperbole? Yes. But Mike Dirr seems bigger than life sometimes. We miss Mike Dirr and his family. But as sure as the buds swell and burst in the early spring, and new leaves unfold, and robins fly north again, we know that Mike will return. Boundless enthusiasm, an abiding love of plants and people (with plants, perhaps, holding the slightest edge!) and a heart big enough to enfold the world: this is how we tend to remember Mike Dirr. MARCO WITTLAND REYNOLDS Right: Frorrc Crispijn vande Pas the Younger, Hortus floridus (1614). Back cover: Photograph by Mary Rosenfeld. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23284","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170b76f.jpg","title":"1979-39-5","volume":39,"issue_number":5,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Landscaping with Herbs","article_sequence":1,"start_page":239,"end_page":269,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24760","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160856d.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":4,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Morss, Elisabeth W.","article_content":"Landscaping with Herbs by ELISABETH W. MORSS from a remote past to the the group of plants which, in special ways, became indispensable to man's well-being and then were associated with symbol and tradition. Never a static gathering, they have long flourished in gardens and have been overlooked as material for landscaping. My personal thought about landscaping vs. garden is that garden tends to concentrate upon specific location while landscaping is a response to area. One may have landscaping with or without garden but not necessarily the reverse. So often a garden absorbs something from its setting that gives at least a sense of landscaping. It may be proximity to a house, the importance of a tree, the suggestion of more to follow implicit in a gate. Many gardens are held closely to their plans; landscaping usually has to acknowledge maturing trees and shrubs and neighborhood development. In landscaping, just as in gardens, herbs can achieve a marvelous Herbs have always travelled with people, present. Around the world, they are Mrs. Morss is a longtime Friend of the Arnold Arboretum and in fact this solicited as a result of a lecture which she presented in a recent \"Evenings with Friends\" series. Her experience with herbs is extensive. She has lectured widely and she has grown herbs for more than thirty years. She has served on the National Executive Board of The Herb Society of America. Mrs. Morss is the author of Herbs of a Rhyming Gardener. Herb growers also might be interested in Mrs. Morss's low-maintenance methods of winter covering and mouse control, published in her article \"Of Mice and Mulch\", The Herb Grower Magazine, Vol. XXIII, No. 3, 1970 (Falls Village, Connecticut). article was 239 I informality or take on the tautness of disciplined line. At one extreme, they blend with natural features and at another, enter into the sophistication of modern architecture. Because they originated in widely differing habitats, there are varieties adaptable to almost any situation. Formality with herbs recalls measured patterns in edgings and knots and cleverly arranged paths and beds. Informality has a visual effect that is pleasantly relaxed, as in the restoration of a colonial American housewife's luxuriant tangle of herbs and cherished plants, or an English cottage garden. For several hundred years cottage gardens have been the small home-gardens of England's towns and villages. They were mainly long-continuing gardens, slow to change in plant and style. They produced a surprising quantity of flowers, herbs, vegetables and fruits, and a visitor to England still looks forward to seeing them as part of the scenery. Their comparative naturalness inspired 19th century garden design and impressions of color and season. Landscaping with herbs borrows from the formal and the informal, with its own freedom and constraints. Herbs are as available for use in landscaping as they are in a garden, and one should note a few cautions before designing and planting with them. Allergenic, poisonous and powerfully medicinal herbs must be located safely beyond touch and taste. Pesticides should be non-toxic to humans, pets, bees and birds. Conformance to Latin names is necessary for herbal uses and for botanical accuracy. The owner and landscape architect share a responsibility to avoid herbs whose spread might prove detrimental to a locality and agriculture. Also, because they can be put to use, some herbs may need the visual compensation of other plants to fill in and mask when they are recovering from harvest or left to go to seed. This is a slight, but possibly required, factor in planning their succession of interest. Examples: Lamb's Ears. For best foliage, one should sacrifice the flowers. There is, however, a non-flowering variety, `Silver Carpet'. The silvery leaves are so deeply velvety that Lamb's Ears is a most appealing herb, formally and informally. Planted in sun, it picks up the color of lichens from more distant shade, and it is at home in sunny, naturalized areas, old-fashioned garden, edgings and blocks, with rocks, and in the landscaping for a skyscraper. Angelica. Angelica offers an illustration of a landscaping dilemma with herbs. In its first year, Angelica is prettily leafy and an herb for middle ground. The second year, it sends up lanky flower-stalks and briefly accenting flower-heads and is for backgrounds. If it is allowed to self-sow, to grow naturally in place year after year, it looks dreadful. The best handling of Angelica is either to cut it back at some stage in its second year and compensate with plants of intermediate height, or to allot it space where its deterioration does not matter and one can dig up seedlings at will for transplanting. When combining herbs and other landscaping plant-material it may help to think in \"threes\" and anticipate a design's unfolding: 240 241 the dominating, the supporting and the ambassador to the next. Each unit should be a single variety but may have several individual plants and clumps. The accent or contrast dominates; it draws immediate attention. The supporting is sympathetic. One relies upon it to set off the dominating and compensate where there is a gap or declining growth. The ambassador to the next is the connecting link between its \"three\" and the nearby grouping that is strongest visually. It is by no means a rule to think in \"threes\", simply an aid to visualizing, and one may not want \"threes\" at all, as when planting beside a rock, a tree or a garden accessory. Examples: Peony. Dominating in flowers, it might play a supporting role or be an ambassador as a foliage plant. Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia), thyme and Germander (Teucrium chamaedrys ) could be \"threes\" in several designs: Germander in a clipped edging with Lavender on one side and on the other a path with creeping thymes among flagstones; Germander in a knot pattern with low thymes for filling and Lavender for accent in the knot or the background; Germander, Lavender and the tallest thymes growing informally together. Where may herbs serve in landscaping? They belong wherever ground covers and foreground planting are wanted to enhance and bring unity. They also belong where vistas widen and setting be- comes scenery. Add herbs to transition zones of light, soil and scene. Let unusual foliage, height and mass establish distance and perspective and beckon to eye and mind. Evoke a smile with fragrance in the air and flowering for hummingbirds and butterflies. Improve the appearance of a garage or grading with herbs and at the same time create interest. Enliven the routine quality of year-round foundation evergreens and flowering shrubs with herbs that attain summer-shrub stature. With low-growing herbs, soften an edging too brightly flowered, a dividing-line too sharply encountered. The taller herbs that grow quickly enable temporary summer landscaping by form as well as foliage, and at moderate cost. Many of these herbs die, or die back to the ground, in winter and might be practical for areas which later receive winter snow-slides and plowed snow. If a house lot has room for only one tree, a drift of ground cover herbs and earliest spring bulbs under it seems magical. Rock gardens are an ideal environment and setting for many herbs, in particular, the delicate wildflowers of herbal use. One must distinguish between a rockery, which is a pile of rocks and soil, and a rock garden, which is a designed and carefully constructed habitat conditioned by rocks. For landscaping, both local rock and rock that is imported will not look natural or in place unless they bear some relation to the geology and rock-weathering around them. Herbs are more \"contemporary\" than may be supposed, combining well with landscaping concepts for modern buildings, abstract der natur. The German text of Das der A woodcut of plants from Das natur is translated from a thirteenth century Latin compilation written by a student of Albertus Magnus (Bishop of Ratisbon, 1193-1280). The woodcuts on page 238 and above appear in the reverse order in Das puch der natur, which discusses man, animals and plants in an order which descends through creation according to the medieval Christian conception of a natural hierarchy. puch puch 243 sculpture and today's trend toward plantings in sand, stone chips, pebbles and organic mulches that reflect an Asiatic influence. To heighten natural features, there are herbs for landscaping beside water and every sort of path, and up and down slopes, terracings and rock faces. Herbs are supreme for merging space that is maintained with natural windbreaks and meadow and woodland boundaries and can be the native plants to remind the viewer of locality and season. In certain cases their history also may make them appropriate. They retain distinction, and their foliage can achieve a painterly joy. It even is possible to landscape totally with an herbal criterion; there are trees and shrubs which have herbal usage. Container growing is suited to a number of herbs, whether in the tub or planter that accents or the opening in pavement or masonry wall that is, in a sense, container-growing. The newest structural containers are designed for planting at various levels within a limited space, perhaps for children, the elderly and the handicapped. Containers answer questions of special plant requirements and are a convenience in replacing plants past peak and holding over nonhardy perennial herbs for the winter. As with most plants, a selection of herbs is often narrowed by environment, plant to plant compatibility, cost and maintenance. How one starts to design and select matters less than making a realistic advance appraisal of the site and of the care that one could provide. Before deciding upon plants, try to see them growing locally, in the wild or as escapes and under cultivation. Be alert for satisfying and successful combinations. Jot down effects in nature that might be translated, perhaps on a far smaller scale. Where is it that plants really grow, and why do ferns seem cooling on a hot day and autumn leaves more vivid in front of conifers? Stay true in design and planting to the landscaping's basic intent. With herbal use stressed, there are temptations among the ornamentals and garden hybrids within a genus, as among the salvias and artemisias. One can so easily include too much. Example: Rose. Queen of flowers and fragrance, the rose is honorably herbal. There are, of course, roses for formal, informal, naturalized and wild areas. Those associated with herb gardens are the old roses with heady fragrance. All the same, herbs are ongoing, and in landscaping I think it reasonable to substitute a suitable modern rose for a rose whose flowering is brief and whose form and foliage fall short of design purpose. Foliage, above everything else, keys herbs for landscaping. Almost any texture, color, outline and scale one could wish can be found in herbs and almost any degree of airiness and stability. Foliage is happiest when pertinent to its surroundings: purple herb foliage to repeat tree or shrub foliage color, the ferny Sweet Cicely where a fem might grow, or nicely placed gray foliage contrasting with autumn's crimson and gold. Green herbs skillfully handled can 244 weave carpet or tapestry. Those of non-green and variegated foliage landscaping, simply in opportunities and combinations that carry out a contemporary mood and idea. Paler greens highlight the deeper greens, perceptibly but without marked contrast. Texture and leaf outline, like color, contrast and accent, increase and diminish and emphasize. It is possible to emphasize the worst in design, but a repeated foliage characteristic sensitively planned is a delight for cohesion and continuity. To foliage one assigns most of the visual impact of herbs in landscaping and much of the design's progression. Form and foliage interplay. At a distance, form is often one's first visual clue to a plant's identification and thus, indirectly, to the general ecology of the setting and how well a chosen plant fits in. Since herb flowering frequently lacks significance, form and foliage are major components of a focal point with herbs. The more dramatic these are, the more restrained their placing and repetition should be. Otherwise, they overwhelm. Physically, form and foliage may seem to determine the reliability of plant combinations in the competition for air and sun, but it is the root systems in close contact that have the final word. Example: Lady's Mantle. Lady's Mantle is a plant unto itself, refusing to mingle casually. One could design with it for foliage, color and flower, but visualizing with it for form is also apt. As a modest accent, it might rest a leaf upon a step and be admired from above for its patterning and fairy tale sparkle of dew; under favorable conditions it has been massed effectively. Singly or not, it stands on its own in all respects. Santolina. Ideal for their foliage color, the santolinas may seem artificial. Their value for form is their being shrub-like accents (Santolina neapolitana) and their acceptance of clipping (S. chamaecyparissus, S. virens). Flowering is attractive when it begins but spoils the quality of the foliage for weeks afterward. Color is not merely for contrast. In flower, which may not last, and foliage, it widens or shortens distance, heightens or suppresses a curve, compensates in leaf for spent bloom. It upholds design across and beyond and emphasizes dimension. Where there strength is autumn change, there is design change. Color stimulates; it is restful; it balances; and it is a visual bridge. Examples: Butterfly Weed. Exceptionally rich orange flowers are vibrant with blue in the landscape: blue flowers and water and sky. After the blossoms the vertical seedpods are sufficiently interesting to transfer attention to themselves. Thymes. No color in herbs is more engaging than an expanse of Creeping Thyme in flower. Famed in rock gardens, along paths, among steps and flagstones and for garden seats, all hardy thymes offer dainty yet sturdy landscaping material, although they do not forgive a hostile environment. Try a spilling of thyme, starting at the are not new in 245 IRIS. A woodcut from the Latin Herbarius. Vinciciae, Magistrum Leonardum & Guilielmum de Papia Soctos, 1491. The Latin Herbarius is a fifteenth century compilation of classical and Arabian authors based on a manuscript of about 1350. The earliest edition of this work was printed by Peter Schdffer at Mainz in 1484. top with a golden thyme and darkening down in Caraway Thyme. Fill a knot pattern or an opening left in paving with low thymes of different foliage color and texture. The tallest thymes are delightful small bushes. Golden Feverfew. In a border or in \"threes\", Golden Feverfew's chartreuse-green foliage has design merit, with or without flowers. It leads the eye to ground level where an underplanting is desired, given enough growing-space and sun. The leaves stay presentable over a are in some measure expected where there are herbs, and one could do more to plant fragrant and flavorful herbs at enjoying height. In landscaping with herbs, foliage color may supersede flowers, and flowering, flower fragrance. One might prefer to design, for instance, with the sage leaf rather than the flower, and plant hardy lavender for blossoming, with fragrance a bonus. Some herbs are already common because they are popular garden flowers. An herb that is, or resembles, a wild plant, like Beebalm and Borage, seems natural although cultivated. Unfamiliar color, as in White Borage flowers, is noteworthy but not automatically With herbs in landscaping, one should be wary of an accent. fragmenting visual impact with dots and dabs of vivid color. Farcarrying white seems larger in area and affects perspective. Examples: Scented Geraniums (Pelargoniums). Such favorites for container and border, wall and terrace, herb gardens and gardens for the blind, might venture further into landscaping, despite their nonhardiness. Theirs is a natural beauty with much variety in form and foliage, scent and flavor. Their unassuming flowers invariably long period. Flowering and fragrance 246 please. They may need protection from acquisitive visitors. Hardy Lavenders. The grayed tones of some lavenders are valuable for foliage color. Flower interest varies. Lavender is an herb which should be planted in clumps and drifts and low hedges, especially when it has flowers to make a fine display. Few herbs center more pleasure in fragrance. The twisting branches of a gnarled old specimen are picturesque for designing with form. Rosemaries. Herbs without peer in landscaping wherever they are hardy, they have to be grown as temporary plants in cold climates. Tall-growing and bushy rosemaries are wonderful against rock, wall and screen fence and in big containers. Prostrate rosemaries star in window boxes and hanging baskets and wherever they can sprawl gracefully across or down. The entire plant has fragrance and attracts. Herbs for flavor migrate to the kitchen doorway if not conveniently available elsewhere, but when landscaping, scatter them. The fun of nibbling a spicy leaf while one strolls and weeds is an herb benefit. Examples: Mints. Some mints are eye-catching in form and foliage ; almost all have universal appeal because of pleasant flavor memories. Flowers may be attractive, as in Spearmint, or inconspicuous. Link together groupings of openly-spaced, medium height herbs with the random stitchery of Pineapple Mint. Plant velvety Applemint for informal height. Where there is no foot traffic, Corsican Mint might carpet small areas. Controlled by soil barriers and in partial shade, perhaps near a pool or fountain, circles of mint set into white pebbles would cool and entice. For naturalizing on somewhat moist banks by brook and pond, mints are ever among the first plant choices. Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens). The close-up is welcome where so much in landscaping focuses on distance. Wintergreen is an herb which has some applicability to natural or naturalized landscaping, and it has leaves to savor. One might reserve it for a partly shaded sitting place. That it is evergreen is an asset; that its flavor refreshes is happy coincidence. Wild Marjoram. Wild Marjoram could enhance a flower garden. In landscaping, its dense, tough rooting establishes it against competition, but it needs sun. Above soft leaves, numerous tiny pink flowers go to seed with continued appeal and an occasional late blossom. Wild Marjoram develops into a drift or ground cover of middle height or a generous patch within a diversified planting. The Golden Marjoram is frequently grown in English gardens. \"Weedy\" herbs seem odd to include, but a weed to one person remains a useful herb and plant for another. The weedy herbs might well serve in natural boundary zones, shrubby windbreaks and harsh environments where it is imperative to start things growing. However, avoid the herbs with bad habits: the seriously rampant, like Goutweed; the invasive, like Pokeweed. ~ 247 Examples: Tansy. Admittedly, Tansy is coarse-growing and coarsearomatic. But Tansy has a rough charm and, expertly grown, creates a thick, informally attractive summer hedge. It seems designed for a meadow fence, on the side away from the field, and to be among wild plants near the sea. Comfrey and Elecampane. Their scale provides a massive foliage accent. In spite of their leaf size, both have flower interest, with honors going to the pink-flowered Comfrey. Goldenrod. Goldenrod turned princess in Europe where it was hybridized for gardens. Dwarf to giant, the goldenrods look well in sunny landscaping if controllable and are not now regarded as a major cause of hayfever. Goldenrod is a seasonally important beeplant and unforgettable when visited by a migration of monarch but- ly terflies. Joe-Pye-weed. Nondescript during spring and early worth summer, it is planting for its smoky pinkish-purple flowers which appear July-September. It blooms with goldenrod but is less willing to live in dry conditions. It is for background and natural areas and can be invasive in damp ground. It is not too difficult to control in a maintained landscaping. Maintenance is only partly a combination of design and what one is willing to invest in cost and effort. If a plant likes the environment it is asked to live in and live with, it grows. Therefore, plant and placing have to agree from the roots up for easiest care and maximum effect if one is to keep any plants in a design. Most herbs like an average, slightly acid soil, some sun, a helpful circulation of air, good year-round drainage, adequate moisture and normal garden care. The safest fertilizers are compost and minerals generally present in bonemeal and seaweed or fish fertilizers. Weak growth is often traced to over-fertilizing, too much water or poor light. If an herb should do well and doesn't, move it or change its companions. Shield and mulch against excessive sun, and perhaps inmulch or soil for a cooler root-run. Raise a bed soil for better drainage. To retain moisture, dig in humus suited to the herb's soil preference. Before planting, check the soil for grubs and cutworms, and also install any soil barriers against unwanted spreading. Cutting off dead flowers will prevent rampant self-sowing. To thwart self-layering, prop the lower stems so that they cannot touch ground by installing a wire hoop under them or letting the rim of a soil barrier extend a few inches above the soil. Try to group plants that share special soil and maintenance needs or must have winter covering. Enough cannot be said about forethought and simplifying design to lower cost and upkeep and allow for eventual plant and landscaping maturity. Once landscaping has been seen, a door opens to one's return. Towards it reach the final herbs, with a last fragrance. After bringing herbs into the house and the garden, landscaping with herbs is corporate and stones in lighten 248I a logical next step. It seems reasonable to forecast that the landscaping of the future will stress economical plant material and maintenance in shrinking space, while contributing to the home and table. Surely herbs will be there for usefulness and beauty, and the older herbs will grow beside herbs now unknown to us. Perhaps we are kindlier because herbs were often in kindly human hands over the miles and centuries. Herbs still travel with people; in landscaping, the \"ambassadors\" to nature, and in our lives, the \"supporting\". ALLIUM. From the Latin Herbarius. The Latin Herbarius is ar- ranged alphabetically, not by any features or characters of the plants it describes. Some Herbs for New England which plants are \"herbs\" and how far to go with varieties is somewhat open to question. An accumulation of lore and tradition parallels usefulness. Flowers bring numerous plants into the category of herbs as bee-plants. Some excuse is found for including an ornamental plant if historically it was grown with herbs in a garden motif. Lists from old herbals and manuscripts persist, and a new group, the wild plants for food, flavor and emergency survival, needs definition. Then there are the plants with centuries of use in household and barn, and for crafts and commerce and religious purposes. As one delves into plant uses, herbal eligibility is never-ending! With maintenance in mind, I have tried to gather from many sources herbs which contribute visually in a landscape, realizing that someone else's list might be very different. Hardiness further north than Zone 5 is not noted; tenderness is mentioned where sources mention it or it has been experienced. Common sense is needed and so is reasonable expectation, but dare to try a half-hardy herb and a for landscaping. thought Deciding 249 Key A B C C H - Annual Biennial Container Container y Po - In some way poisonous Q - Acquire the original plant growing possible growing best cones n s or clones S - Grow in full sun Named hybrids available Sh - Grow inpartial Sh Grow e shade in partialshade N - Native P - Perennial Sh - Grow in shade T - Tender, not hardy 1 2 - - 3 - VI - Visual impact I - For foreground II - For middle ground III For background 4 Start seed indoors Sow seed in spring Increase from cuttings 5 Sow seed in autumn, or 6 Increase by division self-sowing 7 Increase from root cuttings Repeat spring-summer Increase by layering 8 sowings - Yarrow. (Compositae) H,P,Q,S,2,6. Suitable for drier locations and poorer soils. Remove spent Achillea. flowers for best bloom. A. argentea. I, to 6 inches. VI : carpet; silver foliage. A. decolorans. II, to 2 feet. VI : clump; white flowers, toothed green leaves. Better soil, adequate moisture. A. millefolium. Common Yarrow. II, 1-11\/ feet. VI: clump; weedy but \"the most herbal\". Accepts poor soils. A. tomentosa. Woolly Yarrow. I, to 4 inches. VI: carpet; silver woolly foliage, yellow flowers. Aconitum napellus. Not recommended. Monkshood. (Ranunculaceae) and should be avoided. Dangerously poisonous (Labiatae) Agastache foeniculum. Anise Hyssop. P,S or Sh,1,2,6 (spring). III, to 4 feet. VI: flowers, openly branching form. Fragrant. Late summer violet-pink flowers attractive with perennials. Plant in groups, age soil. can be naturalized if controlled. Self-sows readily. Aver- Ajuga. Bugle, Bugleweed. H,P,Q,Sh,6 (thinnings). I, and foliage, foliage taller plants. A. genevensis. Runnerless. A. reptans. Has runners. inches. VI: variety in the season long. Ground cover; to 8 (Labiatae) spring flower color underplanting for Alchemilla. (Rosaceae) Lady's Mantle. P,Sh,2,6. Adequate moisture; avoid very hot conditions. A. vulgaris. II-III, to 1?!~ feet. VI: the whole plant; sprays of tiny yellow to yellow-green flowers in June above soft-green fanshaped leaves (var. mollis has the best flowers). For accent or contrast, in groups Remove flower stalk to the ground after blooming. A. alpina. I, to 6 inches. Carries the pleated leaf motif to the of the rock garden. or massed. foreground (Liliaceae) to Allium. Onion. or C,H,S,1,2,6. Many decorative vegetable garden choices. Average good 250 IMPORTANT: keep all of these from grazed areas, where they may affect the quality of dairy products. A. porrum. Leek. B. III, to 4 feet. VI: dense round umbels of pinkish flowers in summer; the second year, seed while green; buds look hooded. For accent, in groups. Best in richer soil. A. tuberosum. Garlic Chives. P. I-II, to 11h feet. VI: white flowers in summer, flattened leaves. Use in clumps with perennials, or almost soil. badly anywhere. (Labiatae) Aloysia triphylla. Lemon Verbena. C,P,S,T,5. VI: foliage color. Fragrant. Frequently grown as an annual, though it grows to full shrub size. Seldom flowers out-of-doors in the North. Althaea. Mallow. (Malvaceae) A. officinalis. Marsh Mallow. P,S,1,5,6. III, to 6 feet. VI: pink summer flowers, soft green foliage; summer shrub stature. A good coastal plant. For naturalizing and as foreground accent group to a vista. A. rosea. Hollyhock. B,S,1,4. III, to 6 feet or more. VI : height and flowers. Use by house walls, garden walls, and fences; and in old-fashioned settings. Raise new plants yearly. Average garden soils, but will tolerate poor soils. Amaranthus hybridus var. hypochondriacus. Prince's Feather. A,l. III, to 6 feet. VI: summer flowering and when well placed. Good in poor soils. (Amaranthaceae) height. Weedy, but treat as an effective Angelica archangelica. Angelica. B,Sh or possibly Sh,2,4. III, to 5 feet (for II, (Umbelliferae) annual). VI: foas the second year, its flowering and the seeds pear. Do not overcrowd or allow to dry out. liage ; briefly they first ap- Anthemis tinctoria. in C,H,P,Q,S,4,6. II-III, garden settings Golden Marguerite. 3 feet. VI: summer flowers. Needs than in natural ones. Poor sandy soils. to (Compositae) more attention Antirrhinum majus. Snapdragon. (Scrophulariaceae) H,P but may be grown as A,T,4. II, 1-2 feet. VI: flowers, effectively massed for color. For garden settings, borders, and where the color is set off to its best advantage. Arctostaphytos uva-ursi. Bearberry. (Ericaceae) N,P,Q,6,8. I, to 3 inches. VI: the whole plant, year-long. Where it does well, a fine ground cover. Also a mat for rock\/wild garden, and useful for naturalizing and rocky slopes. Acid, light, or sandy soils; salt tolerant. Arisaema triphytlum. Jack-in-the-pulpit. N,P,Po,Q,Sh or Sh,2. I-II-III, to 2?!> feet. (Araceae) VI: the whole plant, through the summer; brilliant red fruits in autumn. For naturalizing in rich moist woods, openings in shrubbery, and for the wild garden, in groups. Armeria maritima. Sea Pink, Thrift. (Plumbaginaceae) H,P,Q,S,2,6. I, 3-6 inches. VI: the whole plant; pink or white flowers; tufts and carpet. A substitute for mat-forming pinks where these would not do well. For rock gardens, informal edgings, seashore settings as appropriate. Needs good drainage, sandy soil. Artemisia. (Compositae) and extremely invasive. A. abrotanum. Southernwood. P,Q,S or Sh,5,8. III, to 4 feet. VI: summer shrub stature; finely divided gray-green foliage. Aromatic. Good soil and Many are weedy drainage. 251 A. arborescens. P,Q,T,5,8. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: worth effort for its silken gray foliage. Very tender, and only for full spring to midsummer. A. lactiflora. White Mugwort. P,Q,S,6. III, to 5 feet. VI: white-cream flowers; green foliage a good background to perennials. Spaced in groups, it is effective in garden and natural settings. Needs adequate moisture, mulch, and good garden soil to bloom well; in poor soil it is weedy. A. ludoviciana var. albula. Silver King. P,Q,S,6. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: drift of silvery fine-leaved foliage; flowers inconspicuous. Try with hybrid goldenrods, achilleas, and near foreground shrubs with good fall color. Requires soil barrier; may need supporting to stay upright. A. pontica. Roman Wormwood. P,Q,S,6. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: lacy graygreen foliage. Ground cover. Some browning in prolonged humid heat makes it undesirable for foregrounds. In mats in garden\/shrub settings. A. schmidtiana 'Silver Mound'. P,Q,S,6. I-II, to 1 foot. VI: silvery graygreen, feathery mound early in the season. For edgings, borders and accents in garden\/rock garden settings. Soil should not be too rich. Cut back part way and water to renew in midsummer. A. stellerana. Beach Wormwood. N,P,Q,S,6. II, to 2 feet. VI: gray foliage. Only for seashore garden or natural areas. ASARUM. From the Latin Herbarius. The plants included in the Latin Herbarius are plants native to or cultivated in Germany. Asarum. Wild Ginger. (Aristolochiaceae) to P,Q,Sh or Sh,2,6,7. I-II, 10 inches. VI: A. canadense. Wild Ginger. N. cover, clumps, less formal settings, naturalized areas. A. eUTopaeum. European Wild Ginger. Glossy green foliage. Clump or ground cover; more formal settings. A good accent clump to a rock or ledge background, or by steps and garden structures. foliage. Carpet or ground Asclepias tuberosa. Pleurisy Root, Butterfly Weed. (Asclepiadaceae) P,Q,S,2,7. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: in groups, the whole plant, season-long; especially showy orange summer flowers. Effective in many settings; try it with Perovskia and with gray foliage\/blue flowers. Light, poor soils. Asperula odorata. Sweet Woodruff. (Rubiaceae) P,Q,Sh or Sh,6,8. I, to 8 inches. VI: the whole plant, with starry white flowers in May. As a ground cover, an underplanting to tall shrubs or naturalized in woodlands, it is a favorite. Adequate moisture but good year- 252 drainage, and humusy soil. It will not have the best green color if planted in sunny locations. Install soil barrier to 2 inches above soil surface to prevent its creeping into other plants. Baptisia australis. Wild Indigo, False Indigo N,P,Q,S or Sh,l,2. II-III, to 4 feet. VI: the whole plant, season round (Leguminosae) long; es- pecially the blue-purple flowers in early summer. For the garden or the wild garden, or naturalized in open areas or on slopes. Has been used as a hedge. Average to good soil, adequate moisture. Borago officinalis. Borage. (Boraginaceae) A,S or Sh,l,2. II-III, to 21!> feet. VI: the whole plant; nodding, pink into blue, starry flowers with black anthers cone-like in the center; hairy green leaves and stems. In full sun may be smaller than in light shade. Excellent for temporary plantings at levels permitting full view of the flowers. There is also a white-flowered Borage. 8. Calluna vulgaris. H,P,Q,S,5 (tip), Best in drifts in a Heather, Ling. (Ericaceae) II, shrubby. VI: the whole plant, especially in flower. sun on slopes where it will have adequate moisture. Also good specimen plant. Form and flowers vary. Choice of named clones prolongs the blooming period. Good for seashore gardens and landscaping. Caltha palustris Marsh Marigold. (Ranunculaceae) P,Q,S,6. I, to 1 foot. VI: the whole plant; shiny yellow flowers and green leaves in early spring. For bog gardens and naturalizing in swamps and in shallow water of small streams. Disappears in summer. Wild Senna, Midland Senna. (Leguminosae) N,P,S or Sh,l,6. III, to 5 feet. VI: of value for midsummer yellow flowers and fall yellow foliage. For sandy or gravelly soils, roadsides and windbreak thickets. Control roots and seeds. Will \"landscape\" areas difficult to naturalize, but may itself become difficult. Celastrus scandens. Bittersweet. (Celastraceae) N. Vigorous woody vine requiring male and female plants to produce its well known yellow and orange-red berries. Should be avoided; it can become complete disaster. May I quote my father? \"Your mother wanted a little bittersweet for flower arranging. Now what do we do?\" Cassia marilandica. Centranthus ruber. Red Valerian, Jupiter's Beard. (Valerianaceae) VI: carmine flowers in summer. Not the medicinal Valerian. Here, probably best in garden settings and borders. To control spreading, grow in poor dry soils. Use some lime. P,S or Sh,l,6. II-III, to 3 feet. Cerinthe major. A or green suggesting coolness; the yellow and brownish flowers recall an old-fashioned chintz. Modest, yet leaf color calls attention to it. Best in limited numbers of groups with annuals and perennials in a foreground to shrubbery. Average soil, adequate moisture. a B,Sh,l,2. II, Wax Flower, Honeywort. to 1 foot. VI: the foliage is (Boraginaceae) Cheiranthus cheiri. Wallflower, Gillyflower. B (treat as A), 1. I-II, to 11\/2 feet. VI: fragrant flowers in of warm - (Cruciferae) a wide choice colors yellows, reds, bronzes. Worth some effort for special settings and late spring pleasure. Well-drained soil with some lime, adequate moisture, cool climate. It cannot survive a real heat wave. Chelone glabra. White Turtlehead. (Scrophulariaceae) N,P,Sh,1,2,6. III, to 3 feet. VI: a single specimen grows to a clump; white to pinkish flowers; foliage for dark green contrast. For the wild garden, or for naturalizing on the banks of streams and ponds. Will accept drier soil if shielded from the hot sun. Woodcut from the German Herbarius. Mainz [Peter Schoffer], 1485. The German Herbarius was printed in Mainz a year after the first printing of the Latin Herbarius. It is not a translation of the Latin Herbarius, but largely an independent compilation. Agnes Arber maintains that the woodcuts of the German Herbarius remained the highest achievement of botanical illustration until Brunfels's Herbarum vivae eicones (see page 269). BORAGO. 254 Chenopodium botrys. Jerusalem Oak. A,S,1,2. I-II, to 2 feet. VI: of value in groups (Chenopodiaceae) for arching sprays of densely packed, tiny greenish flowers; seeds prolong the effect. The whole plant is aromatic. Leaves, which resemble those of oak, are slightly bronzed. Good in sandy or gravelly soil. Chrysanthemum parthenium 'Aureum'. Golden Feverfew. C,P,S or (Compositae) feet. VI: chartreuse-green decorative foliage, chamomile-like white flower heads with yellow centers. Space or bring together. For garden settings, borders or the foreground partly under tall shrubs in sun. Remove flowers for best foliage. Foliage survives first frost. Sh,1,2. I-II, to 2 Cimicifuga racemosa. Black Cohosh, Snakeroot, Bugbane. (Ranunculaceae) N,P,Sh or Sh,6. III, to 8 feet. VI: flowers, white in long racemes high above pleasing green foliage in summer. For garden settings, naturalizing. Needs a cool, moist, humus-rich soil. Cleome spinosa. the wild garden, Spiderflower. (Capparaceae) A,H,S,T,1. III, settings, path, or rather a feet. VI: white to pink flowers. Usually for garden but it can be an accent by itself beside a gate or a corner of a as a plant with others in beds or borders. To me it always seems stranger, but it has long been popular. It has been used successto 3 fully in rooftop gardening. Convallaria majalis. Lily-of-the-valley. (Liliaceae) H,P,Po,Q,Sh or Sh,6. I, to 8 inches. VI: the whole plant. Flowers cherished and fragrant, white (some variants pinkish). One of best underplantings to trees and shrubs. Shady ground cover, but may be invasive. Best in light soils with humus. Remove fruits where children might taste them. Delphinium grandiflorum. Larkspur. P,Po,S or Sh,1,6. III, to 4 feet. VI: blue flowers (Ranunculaceae) in summer, finely cut fo- liage. There is a white form. Dianthus. Pink. (Caryophyllaceae) Just about any fragrant dianthus variety is accepted in herb gardens, especially the perennial, mat-forming pinks. Two of long tradition are: D. barbatus. Sweet William. B,H,l. I-II. Average garden conditions. D. plumarius. Cottage or Grass Pink. H,P,Q,1,4,5. II, to 18 inches. Average garden soil. For both, good drainage, not too hot sun, some lime. Dicentra spectabilis. Bleeding Heart, Lyre Flower. (Fumariaceae) P,Q,Sh,7 (early summer). I-II, to 2 feet. VI: the whole plant for grace and color, especially the arching stalk of pink \"hearts\". Well known in garden settings, there are places for it in transition zones to shade. It Bloom is a white- yields interest to other plants quickly when through blooming. May-June, and it can be charming with wildflowers. There is flowered form. Moist deep soil but good drainage. Digitalis. Foxglove. (Scrophulariaceae) Po,Sh,1,2,4. II-III, to 3-4 feet. VI: the flowers, especially in named hybrids. Many settings. Keep from grazed areas if used in naturalizing. For groups and drifts. Adequate moisture. D. purpurea. B. Pink, purple, or white flowers, often spotted within. D. lutea. B or P. Soft yellow flowers. Dipsacus sylvestris. Teasel, Brushes and Combs. (Dipsacaceae) B,S,1. III (second year), to 5 feet. VI: in groups; weedy and prickly but of value for textural contrast, and for seed heads before the seed ripens. Leaves \"cup\" water around stem. Tolerates poor soil. Sow some seed yearly, selecting for largest seed heads. Should not be permitted to escape. 255 (Compositae) Echinops ritro. Small Globe Thistle, Steel Globe Thistle. H,P,Q,S,1. III, to 3 feet or more. VI: the whole plant thistly; blue, spiky, round flower heads, before and in full bloom, leaves green above, silvery below. Adequate moisture but good drainage. Remove spent flowers to prolong bloom. May deteriorate in late summer. Background for the perennial border, but fore- or middle ground for such plants as gray Artemisias, Tansy, Goldenrod, Elecampane, Comfrey. Clumps. Echium vulgare. Viper's Bugloss. (Boraginaceae) B,S. II, to 2?feet. VI: the whole plant. The bristly hairs may cause a skin rash, and it is weedy. But it has some value for dry soils and sumflowers which open form. mer pink and become blue. There is a white-flowered (Onagraceae) Epilobium angustifolium. Fireweed, Willow Herb. N,P,Q,S,1,2. III, to 5 feet or more. VI: showy rose-colored flowers (also a white form). Controlled naturalizing, in clearings, fire-desolated areas. Can become invasive, crowding out native wildflowers. Can be transplanted from the wild. N.B.: The Willow Herb of swampy ground, E. hirsutum, is similar and toxic, and should also be planted with caution. The two species must not be confused. (Berberidaceae) Epimedium. Bishop's Hat, Barrenwort. P,Q,S or Sh,6. I, to 1 foot. VI: dense foliage, spring flowers. Foreground mat in garden setting or the wild garden, and a fine ground cover under er tall shrubs and trees. Adequate moisture. Will tolerate more soil. E. X rubrum. Red margin to yellowish unfolding leaves. E. grandiflorum. H. Bronze fall color. sun in a rich- St~ Eryngium. Eryngo. (Umbelliferae) P,Q,S,6,7. VI: the whole plant, for accent; spiky. For dry, poor soil. E. amethystinum. Amethyst Eryngo. To 1 foot. E. maritimum. Sea Holly. Light blue flowers, to 1 foot. Eupatorium purpureum. Sweet Joe-Pye-weed. (Compositae) N,P,S or Sh,1,2,6 (spring only). III, to about 6 feet. VI: smoky-pink flowers in late summer-early fall; somewhat weedy. Fragrant. Of value for its ~ unusual color and season background plant A,N,Po,l,2. II, to 2 with of bloom. Wild garden or naturalized. Possible perennials. Adequate moisture, open areas. Euphorbia marginata. Snow-on-the-mountain. (Euphorbiaceae) feet. VI: bracts and leaves with white margins. Early to late summer flowering gives it a long season. A plant for showy groups and contrast, chiefly in garden settings. It is somewhat invasive. In spite of its white markings, it is \"supporting\". It lacks the character of a dom- inating plant. Filipendula vulgaris. Dropwort. (Rosaceae) P,Q,S,6. I-II, to 2 feet. VI: fern-like foliage stays low and attractive; creamy-white flowers on long but not fully erect stems. Spent flower stalk should be cut to the ground. With perennials, in rock or wild gardens. The double-flowered form is somewhat smaller. Best in light, dry soils. Foeniculum vulgare Common Fennel. (Umbelliferae) P (treated as A), S,T,1,2. III, 4~ feet. VI: fine-textured foliage; umbels of small, yellow, late summer flowers. Whole plant is anise-scented. For backgrounds and contrast. There are other varieties of fennel usually only for vegetable gardens. var. dulce. Fragaria. Strawberry. P,Sh,1,2,6. I, to 8-12 inches. VI: the whole plant, (Rosaceae) season long. For na- 256 in carpets; or for garden settings in borders or edgings. Acid soil. F. vesca. European Strawberry. Not reliably hardy, but it self-sows. F. virginiana. Native wild strawberry of rougher pastures, drier soils. For all open areas. Gaultheria procumbens. Wintergreen, Checkerberry. (Ericaceae) N,P,Q,Sh,6. I, to 6 inches. VI: the whole plant, evergreen, but may brown in winter, green to bronzy leaves; dainty whitish flowers and red berries. Can soften the edge of an unset-flagged area in transition to shrubbery or natural wooded areas, and can be a charming mat for a wild garden or limited naturalizing. Acid, open woods; humusy light soil; adequate mois- turalizing ture. Hedera helix. English Ivy. C,H,P,Po,Q,Sh,5,8. VI: clinging vine. Container-grown, to resemble topiary. For ground cover. May need some annuus. (Araliaceae) it can be trained winter protection. Helianthus Sunflower. (Compositae) feet or more. VI: yellow ray flowers, dark purplishbrown disc flowers in late summer. Weedy and coarse, but cheering. For groups with large-scale plants in natural or naturalized areas, or along meadow fences in sun. A,N,S,1. III, to 6 (Ranunculaceae) niger. Christmas Rose. P,Po,Q,Sh,2,6. I, to 1 foot. VI: leathery, evergreen foliage; pinkish and whitish flowers in early spring. This is a plant to have where it can be an accent in bloom but not so prominent the rest of the year. For the wild garden, with shrubs, and for naturalizing. And for pilgrimage. There are Helleborus other hellebores. This one is always desirable. Needs deep humus-rich lime, adequate moisture, but good drainage; year round mulch but especially in winter. Where conditions are unsuited, make a permasoil, some nent raised bed to or provide to proper soil and soil depth. Hemerocallis. (Liliaceac) 1? ~3 feet. VI: a long flowering season by careful selection. Hemerocallis fulva is the orange daylily that spreads and H,P,Q,S Daylily. Sh,6. II-III, has become naturalized. Various daylilies have had herbal uses here as well as in Japan and China. For garden; massive edging to a path or drive; by door and gate, rock and wall; slopes and transitions in natural and cultivated areas. Some foliage browning after flowering. Needs good soil for best bloom and appearance. Hesperis mstronalis. Dame's Rocket, Sweet Rocket. (Cruciferae) H,P (or B?), Sh,l. III, to 3-4 feet. VI: summer flowers in white, mauve or purple on second year plants. There is a double-flowered form. For garden settings and some naturalizing as in transition to shrubbery. Needs good soil. Plantain Lily. (Liliaceae) or Sh (less bloom), 6. 11-111, to 2 feet. VI: the whole plant, for foliage accents. Hosta albo-marginata has had herbal usage. As clumps or groups in garden settings, with shrubs, as accent by pool or bird bath, along ledge or wall. Try with Solomon Seal. Important in limited landscaping and in transition zones of light and shade. Good soil, adequate moisture. Hosts. H,P,Q,Sh Humulus lupulus 'Aureus'. Golden Hops. (Cannabaceac) Sh,5 (or by suckers). III. VI: vine, fast annual growth; hairy golden foliage (which may cause mild, brief skin irritation). Twines P,Q,S or readily. Color brings light and contrast or accent and establishes distance. 257 Good on fences. Dies back in winter. St.-John's-wort. Deep average soil. Hypericum. (Hypericaceae) The herbal H. perforatum is already an omnipresent weed, and it should not be spread into new areas, but kept for the record under garden control. (Labiatae) Hyssopus of~cinaLis. Hyssop. P,S,1,4,5,6. I-II, to 11~> feet. VI: flowers, shrubby form. A fine plant in garden settings and where color is needed in foregrounds to shrubs; in groups and double-planted for low age. H. officinalis. Blue flowers. H. officinalis 'Alba'. White flowers. H. officinalis 'Rubra'. Pink flowers. Iberis amara. summer hedging. Average soil, drain- A,l. I, ering Im~atiexs Candytuft, Rocket. about 1 foot. VI: white flowers. Sow in if used as edging or foreground mat. to (Cruciferae) place. Shear after flow- baLsamina. Garden Balsam. (Balsaminaceae) are in shades of undesirable A,C,H,1,2,4 I-1I, to 21\/2 feet. VI : foliage a cool green; flowers profuse, cheerful and summer-long; fruits amuse children. Effective when massed, especially in borders, edgings, and window boxes. Flowers of yellow, white, colors. bright pink, and red. Remove seedlings Iris. Iris, Flag. (Iridaceae) Tall Iris: P,Q,S,6. 11-III, to 3 feet. VI: foliage; flowers in season. Average garden soil. I. X germanica. Bearded blue. I. X germanica var. florentina. White or blue. I. pallida. Bearded pale blue. I. pseudacorus. Yellow Flag. Yellow flowers. For wet soils. N.B. Do not confuse the Irises with Sweet Flag (Acorus calamus), which has an edible rhizome. La~nium. Dead-nettle, Archangel. (Labiatae) H,Sh,P,l,6. I-II. VI: ground cover. Remove flowers for best foliage. Can spread. Limited interest for foreground or mat. L. galeobdolon 'Variegatum' (Lamiastrum). Yellow, golden, to 11\/2 feet. L. maculatum 'Album'. Silver spotted, to 8 inches; lavender flowers. Lsvanduls. Lavender. (Labiatae) There are many varieties, most not hardy. All are for sun, adequate moisture, good drainage. Two hardy lavenders: L. angustifolia 'Hidcote'. Spreading. L. angustifolia 'Munstead'. Dwarf, upright. C,P,Q,S(4),5. II-III. VI: purple flowers, gray foliage. Drifts and clumps, low hedging. Many settings where fragrance would please. Two non-hardy varieties: L. dentata. P,Q. To 21\/> feet. VI: green leaf. Sparser but longer flowering. Garden settings. L. multifida. B,Q. To 2 feet. VI: foliage rather than flower. Rock garden. Levisticum of~ciuale. Lovage. (Umbelliferae) feet. VI: worth some experiments and possibly treatment as an annual; spring foliage like a light bluish-green celery deteriorates with flowering. Needs good soil, adequate moisture. Use fresh seed for best germination. P,Q,S or Sh,2,6. III, to about 6 258 I Gayfeather. (Compositae) Liatris. N,P,S,1,6 (spring). III, to 4 feet. VI: purple or white flowers which open from top down on long erect spikes from midsummer into autumn. Suited garden settings, the wild garden and naturalizing, but not in quantities that overwhelm. Will tolerate poor soil. L. scariosa. Tall Gayfeather. Needs adequate moisture and grows in damp open places. L. spicata. Spike Gayfeather. Light soil. The white form can take more moisture and heavier soil. L. squarrosa. To 2 feet. Not so showy. to Lilium. Lily. II-III. VI: flowers and their (Liliaceae) H,P,Q. sation may be needed after the growing season. General culture: most lilies require sun, excellent drainage but adequate moisture, and a deep, neutral or slightly acid topsoil that is rich in humus. Avoid a fertilizer high in nitrogen and protect from mice and disease-carrying insects. Keep foliage dry when watering. Plant most bulbs 4\"-5\" deep, making sure that roots and bulbs are healthy and undamaged and the soil properly prepared. Where virus disease and Botrytis blight are serious, remove and bum severely infected plants and do not plant again until reasonably safe conditions are established. Hybridizing has given lilies more resistance along with new beauty and importance and a wide choice in form and color. Fragrance still can be a delight. Some of the lilies with herbal uses are: L. auratum. Goldband Lily. Late summer, 3-6 feet. L. canadense. Canada Lily. Moist ground, July, 2-6 feet. Color varies. Suitable for wild and naturalized areas. L. candidum. Madonna Lily. Late June, 31\/~ feet. This is the lily of long herbal use and tradition, important in art and religious symbolism. It has travelled far and has been centuries in cultivation. New strains may lessen its unfortunate susceptibility to virus disease and Botrytis, and propagating by seed may reduce the spread of virus infection. Plant 1\" deep. L. martagon. Martagon Lily. Mid-June, 2~1 feet. Another historic lily. L. monadelphum. Caucasian Lily. Early June, 4 feet. New bulbs may show no signs of growing until their second year. L. superbum. Turkscap Lily. July-August, moist ground and acid soil, 610 feet. Suitable for wild and naturalized areas. height above ground. Visual compenflowering when stem and foliage are left to complete Limonium carolinianum. (Plumbaginaceae) Sea Lavender, Marsh Rosemary, Statice. N,P,Q,S,1. II, 2-3 feet. VI: wiry branching stems of profuse, tiny, palelavender flowers above leathery basal leaves. Will tolerate marsh edge and drier soils inland. For naturalizing, rock or wild gardens, seaside areas. Linum perenne. Perennial Flax. (Linaceae) or white flowers and delicate appearance. There should be a sufficient number of plants to see them as one approaches them, remembering that individual flowers do not last long and will not open unless there is some sunshine. For garden settings and rock gardens. Good drainage, light winter mulch. P,S,1,6 (spring). 1-H, to 11\/ feet. VI: plentiful blue Lobelia. Lobelia. (Lobeliaceae) N,P,S or Sh,1,2,6. L. cardinalis. Cardinal Flower. 11-111, 2~1 feet. VI: scarlet flowers. May be short-lived. Wet soils, stream and pond banks. Erect form combines well with mints where mints lead into moist sites. White form rare. LILIUM. A woodcut from De historia stirpium, Leonhard Fuchs. Basle, Isingrin, 1542. Leonhard Fuchs was one of the four \"German Fathers of Botany\", along with the herbalists Otto Brunfels, Jerome Bock and Valerius Cordus. Fuchs's woodcuts were an achievement even beyond Hans Weiditz's illustrations for Brunfels's Herbarum vivae eicones (see page 269), which already marked a considerable departure from the schematic illustrations of the Latin Herbarius. Fuchs's accounts of approximately four hundred native German and one hundred foreign plants are arranged alphabetically. 260 L. siphilitica. Blue Cardinal Flower, Great Blue Lobelia. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: blue flowers. In garden soil with perennials. Groups for effect. There is a white-flowered form also. Will tolerate some wetness and light shade. Lonicera (Caprifoliaceae) periclymenum. Honeysuckle. H,P,Q,S,5,6. VI: climbing vine; strongly scented creamy-white flowers from pinkish buds. For fences and garden structures, possibly over rocks. (Leguminosae) Lupinus perennis. Sundial Lupine, Wild Lupine. P,Po,S or Sh,2 (fresh seeds). VI: pale lavender-blue spring flowers, divided light-green foliage. for naturalizing or acid soil. L. chalcedonica. Not as showy as modern hybrids but more appropriate for the wild garden. Slopes, edges of open woods, poor Lychnis. Campion, Catchfly. (Caryophyllaceae) Maltese Cross. P,S,1. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: stiff upright growth, scarlet flowers. With perennials in borders, and possibly some naturalizing. Accenting groups. Summer. Good drainage. L. coronaria. Rose Campion, Mullein Pink. B or P (treat as A), S,1,2. IIIII, to 3 feet. VI: woolly gray foliage. Flowers in summer. Use as above, but will seem more \"natural\" than Maltese Cross. Good drainage. (Primulaceae) Lysimachia punctata. Yellow Loosestrife. P,Sh,l,6. II, to 2 feet or more. VI: mat or carpet of attractive, erect, yellow, early summer flowers. Has a place in a garden setting or naturalized area. Install soil barrier; needs control. Average to moist garden soil. (Papaveraceae) Macleaya cordata. Bocconia, Plume Poppy. P,Q,S,1,6. III, to 8 feet. VI: vigorous growth, panicles of creamy flowers in midsummer. Backgrounds, possible summer screening. Install soil barrier. Marrubium vulgare. It White Horehound. (Labiatae) P,Q,S or Sh,2. I-II, to 21\/2 feet. VI: crinkled, textured, downy, gray-green leaves; downy lighter stems; outward branching form, more or less up- right. use in can be foreground to erect taller green plants, naturalizing. Average soil. Not always hardy. and has possible Melissa oflicinalis. Lemon Balm. (Labiatae) to 2 feet. VI: the well-established clump is sizeable; light yellow-green foliage. Cut back to just below last flowers in midsummer and keep watered to renew foliage. Can be treated as annual. Self-sows freely. Where mint might be; some naturalizing. Not too acid soil. Common name is from taste and use of leaves. P,S or Sh,1,2,6. II-III, Mentha. Mint. (Labiatae) Many and confusing. Try to obtain a division of a mint that pleases. For variety in foliage, form, and flavor: M. 'Bowles', M. X gentilis (golden form), M. pulegium (T), M. X rotundifolia, M. spicata. The taller, spreading mints: full sun and adequate moisture for flavor. Soil barrier advisable in garden settings. To thicken old plantings, cut through both ways with a sharp knife when first growth appears in spring. A quite different mint for special locations: M. requienii. Corsican Mint. P,Q,T,(2),4,6. I. VI: in mats, very small and pungent. Treat as an annual. For foregrounds, rock gardens. Not for foot traffic. Self-sowing unreliable. Mitchella repens. Partridge Berry. (Rubiaceae) P,Q,S or Sh,2,5,6. I, to 2 inches. VI: whole plant, year-long. Creeping ground cover for woods, wild garden, under small shrubs. Grown in sun in humusy soil with bark mulch, it will be very dense, almost leathery, and 261 yellow-green. wreaths. Monarda. M. Acid soil. Root the cuttings in Christmas bowls and living Wild Bergamot, Horse Mint. (Labiatae) didyma. Beebalm, Oswego Tea. III, to 3 feet. VI: summer flowers. For in borders, wild garden, naturalizing. Garden popular (H). May need concealed support halfway. Some moisture, good soil, and air cir- clumps culation. M. fistulosa. Wild Bergamot. III, to 3 feet. VI: lavender flowers. In drier sunny sites. For naturalizing, the wild garden. Both attract hummingbirds. Myrrhis odorata. P,Sh,2,6. II-III, Sweet Cicely, Giant Chervil. (Umbelliferae) feet. VI: long-lasting ferny foliage; spreading umbels of white flowers in early summer, followed by interesting seeds. If not saving seed, remove flower stalk to ground after bloom. Whole plant has anise fragrance. For garden settings; by walls, naturalizing in humusy, moist soils or an alternative to larger ferns in clumps. Also, a decorative foreground, for planting with shrubs having colored foliage, or as a backSweet Cicely ground for Vinca in permanent landscaping. Allow space becomes a substantial clump. Adequate moisture. to 3 - Nepeta. Catmint. N. X faasenii. Persian Catmint. P,Q,S,V,1,2. I-1I, green to (Labiatae) 11\/ feet. VI: gray- foliage, remove lavender-blue flowers. bloom, cover. spent flowers. For For best foliage and continuing garden settings, borders, drifts, or ground Summer. Plants in groups. Try a \"three\" of Perovskia, Artemisia 'Silver Mound', and N. X faasenii. N. grandiflora. Caucasian Nepeta. Plant in groups. Accepts some clipping. Mauve flowers. Borders of perennials. N. hederacea (Glechoma hederacea). Gill-over-the-ground, Ground Ivy. P,Q,S or Sh,2. VI: a weed but decorative, and of some value for its low creeping cover. It enters garden and landscaping here and there. Summer. Poor soil helps to control. '\" Nigella damascena. Love-in-a-mist, Fennelflower. A,H,S,1,2. I-II, to 2 feet. VI: airy form, delightful summer - puffed-up - but a seed short pods. season. Mixed shades in flower color Garden settings and borders, and to fill in (Ranunculaceae) flowers, and pinks, blues, white or be \"supporting\". Nymphaea odorata. Fragrant Water Lily. N,P,Q,6. VI: lily pads and fragrant white to (Nymphaeaceae) to in pale pink flowers. Quiet water about 2 feet deep. Weight down roots when planting. For pools, plant tubs and sink in place. Summer flowering. Invasive. Oenothera biennis. Evening Primrose. (Onagraceae) B,S,1,2. III, to 4 feet. VI: weedy by day; plant a group where early evening flowers can be watched as they open in summer. Flowers have four broad, yellow petals. Select seed for largest flowers. Origanum. Marjoram. (Labiatae) O. majorana. Sweet Marjoram, Knotted Marjoram. C,P (treat as A), Q,4. H, to 11\/ feet. VI: soft gray-green foliage, small white flowers \"boxed\" by green bracts. Late summer. Shrubby and fragrant. A gentle plant to be supporting for a \"three\". Garden settings. Average soil. Not hardy. O. vulgare. Wild Marjoram or Pot Marjoram. P,Q,S,2,6. II-III, to about 2 feet. VI: whole plant; especially the pink flowers, and, when going to seed, the red-tinged bracts. Dense mat, clumps, patches; garden settings PAEONIA. A copperplate engraving from Hortus floridus, Crispijn vande Pas the Younger. Arnheim, J. Janson, 1614. Crispijn vande Pas's Hortus floridus closes the great period of illustrated herbals. With the scientific advances m botany during the seventeenth century the herbal gives way to medical pharmacopeia and botanical floras. Crispijn vande Pas divides the first half of his book into four parts for the seasons of the year, the peony shown here beginning the second part, summer. 263 and beyond. Good drainage. Try Pot Marjoram in landscaping with lowspreading evergreens such as juniper. O. 'Aureum'. Golden Marjoram. VI: foliage. May not be reliably hardy. Popular in English gardens. Paeonia. H,P,Q,S scale. or Peony. Sh,6. 11-III. VI: flowers, but foliage holds its (Paeoniaceae) own. Large in Garden settings. P. lactiflora. Chinese Peony. To 31\/ feet. P. ofj\"zcinalis. To 3 feet. P. suffruticosa. Tree Peony. To 4 feet or Panax more. quinquefolius. American Ginseng. (Araliaceae) N,P,Sh,1.2. 11, to 1? ~ feet. VI: whole plant, especially foliage, for carpet. Some value in shady gardens. For naturalizing. Rich woods, acid soil, adequate N,P,Q,S moisture. ~ Parthenocissus quinquefolia. Woodbine, Virginia Creeper. (Vitaceae) or Sh,l,8. VI: all seasons, especially fall berries and red foliage. Clinging, woody, rambling vine. Garden settings, or for naturalizing if controlled. Attractive foliage season-long. Pelargonium. Scented Geranium. (Geraniaceae) C,C,H,P,Q,S,T,5. VI: form, foliage; flowers less important. Fragrant (may mimic other scents). Average garden soil. Ten herbal choices, the basic ten of Susan W. Handy, past President and Medal of Honor, The Herb Society of America: . To 20 inches: P. X citrosum 'Prince of Orange'. Orange scent. P. X fragrans. Nutmeg scent. P. graveolens 'Minor'. Little-leaf Rose Geranium. P. X nervosum. Lime scent. P. tomentosum. Small-leaved Peppermint Geranium. To 40 inches: P. crispum 'Prince Rupert'. Finger Bowl Geranium, ..`~, ' Peppermint scent. (also P. P. P. P. well. probably from its use variegated form). denticulatum 'Dr. Livingston'. Skeleton-leaf Rose Geranium. graveolens. Large-leaved Rose Geranium. quercifolium 'Pinnatifidum'. Sharp-toothed Oak-leaf Geranium. tomentosum 'Clorinda'. Large-leaved Peppermint Geranium. Flowers a Perilla frutescens 'Crispa'. Purple Perilla. to about 2 feet. (Labiatae) A,C,S,1,2 (self-sows freely). II-III, VI: wonderful, dark purple-red, crinkly foliage, green-tinged by season's end; pink, half-hidden flowers. More enduring than 'Dark Opal' Basil, more \"natural\" in local settings. In groups for accent or contrast. Aromatic, insect-resistant. Perovskia abrotanoides. Perovskia. (Labiatae) P,Q,S,5,6. III, to 4 feet. VI: whole plant; semi-shrub with silvery stems, light gray-green foliage; long-lasting lavender-blue flowers in July-August. Fragrant. Always leave several buds when cutting back in fall, and allow time to start new growth in spring. Its roots spread, making a sizeable but also controllable clump. Excellent for garden settings and in sunny foreground to shrubbery. By steps and terrace. For the latter, plant at same point on levels above and below for \"flow\" of bloom. Average soil, mulch. Perovskia atriplicifolia is similar but leaves are not so pretty. Petroselinum crispum. Parsley. B (best treated as A), C,H,1. I-II, to (Umbelliferae) over 1 foot. VI: foliage the first year. 264 Can be allowed to self-sow the second year. Planted closely in good soil, it is worth experiments in blocks and groups, rather than just as edging. In containers for itself, or as contrast to other plants. (Phytolaccaceae) Phytolacca americana. Poke, Virginia Poke, Native Pokeweed. N,P,Po. I-III, to about 4 feet. VI: coarse, weedy, erect; purple fall fruit. Invasive, can be toxic especially when older; I wonder why it is listed for gardens. One to avoid. (Campanulaceae) Platycodon grandiflorus. Balloon Flower. P,Q,4. II-III, to about 21\/z feet. VI: the whole plant; glaucous stems and foliage, interesting buds and fresh seed pods, blue summer flowers. Borders, garden settings, in groups. May need staking. Well-drained soil. (Berberidaceae) Podophyllum peltatum. May Apple. P,Po,Q,Sh,2,6. II, to li\/z feet. VI: the whole plant. For shady gardens or patches and as ground cover. plant at height for seeing Open woods, humusy soil, adequate moisture. naturalizing, in flowers is wanted, If a glimpse of fruits and these on terrace or slope. Polemonium caeruleum. Jacob's Ladder, Greek Valerian. (Polemoniaceae) P,Sh,1,6. II, to about 2 feet. (For I also, as a possible contrast.) VI: blue spring and early summer flowers, foliage. In garden settings and soils. (Liliaceae) Polygonatum biflorum. Solomon's Seal. N,P,Q,Sh,2,6 (in spring). 1,11,111, to 2 feet. VI: the whole plant, especially the woods, thickets, slopes. Where everyone would like it; foliage on arching stems; pendent spring flowers. a Shady gardens, graceful plant are excellent for wild garden and naturalizing. Slightly acid soil. There other herbal types. This is a good one for a start. Pulmonaria. Lungwort. P. (Boraginaceae) angustifolia. P,Q,Sh,6. I, to 6 inches or more. VI: very early spring flowers, dark pink into bright blue above and with plain green foliage. For foregrounds, borders, garden or wild garden, drifts and blocks, ground cover, edging. Blue Grape Hyacinth is pretty with it in spring. Adequate moisture, especially in hot dry spells. P. of~'zcinalis and P. saccharata. Bethlehem Sage. (H). 1,11,111, to 11\/2 feet. VI: spotted foliage, whitish on green. Later spring flowering. Clumps, in garden settings, wild or rock gardens. Can be an accent (early season when at peak), is always a contrast. Needs shielding from sun and watering at first sign of drying out, or foliage browns. (Labiatae) Pyenanthemum pilosum. Mountain Mint. P,Sh,1,6. III, to 4 feet. VI: foliage. For naturalizing and wild gardens, but also for borders and places where its clump of foliage adds to landscaping. Some interest in its late summer flowers has brought it among garden flowers. Reseda odorata. Mignonette. A,H,S,1. I-II, to (Resedaceae) 11\/Z feet. VI: the whole plant, especially the flowers. in form and flower color. Add some Fragrant and soil is acid. \"supporting\", lime if the Rheum rhaponticum. Rhubarb. (Polygonaceae) H,P,Po,Q,S,6. III. VI: weedy but of value where its massive foliage and form are wanted in design. Leaves (not leaf stalk) poisonous. Not the usual medicinal rhubarb, but herbally used as well as being a popular food. Try 'Valentine' for cleanly-separating rosy leaf stalks. Rich soil. ) 265 Rose. (Rosaceae) H,P,Q,S,5 (seeds, experimentally). VI: flowers, especially pink or red, and form. All are fragrant. The older roses are of greatest interest for history Rosa. and use. Many newer roses are descended from them. The following are best planted in good soil; they need space and bloom once in midsummer unless otherwise noted: R. centifolia. Cabbage Rose. To 6'. Very large, round pink flowers with hollow centers. The Moss Rose so popular in Victorian times is R. centifolia 'Muscosa'. R. damascena. Damask Rose. To 6'. The rose famous in attar of roses. Similar to R. gallica, its flowers are slightly later and smaller. The York and Lancaster Rose is R. damascena 'Versicolor'. R. eglanteria. Sweet Brier, Eglantine. To 8' or more. Single, earlier pink flowers, arching form; foliage also scented; colorful hips. For fences and windbreak hedging. R. gallica. French Rose. To 4'. Much loved is R. gallica 'Versicolor' Rosa Mundi. R. rubrifolia. Redleaf Rose. To 6'. Longer in bloom; small single pink flowers in clusters, decorative hips. Foliage and stems offer color contrast. One should also mention the Rugosa Roses, increasingly sold for public and private landscaping, hedges and plantings by the sea. Many have good fruits for preserves and syrups and some value for fall foliage color. My favorites are: 'Frau Dagmar Hastrup', to 4'-5', silken, single pale pink flowers; and 'Schneezwerg', to 5'-6', semi-double white flowers all season. graveolens. Common Rue, Herb of Grace. (Rutaceae) H,P,Po,Q,S,1,4,6. II-III, to 3 feet. VI: summer shrub stature, decorative Ruta glaucous foliage, yellowish summer flowers. Never in foreground in public places because the foliage can cause a painful skin rash. May die back in winter. Chiefly for garden settings, singly or in small groups. Spectacular with Thymus praecox 'Coccineus', Crimson Thyme, in flower. There are variants for bluer foliage, also a white-variegated one. Good drainage. Salvia. Sage. (Labiatae) A large genus herbally, and one to assess for herbal vs. merely ornamental uses. In general, the variegated seem non-hardy. S. argentea. Silver Sage. B. Very woolly and silky. First year, low and decorative. Weedy when it flowers. S. azurea. P. Popular garden perennial, light blue flowers. S. farinacea. H,P (A where not hardy). Grayish foliage, blue flowers, in gardens. S. lyrata. Lyre-leaved Sage. N. Wild garden or naturalizing. S. clevelandii. Cleveland Sage. N,T. Shrubby, very aromatic. S. officinalis. Garden Sage. All forms. Sub-shrub, excellent for many settings and with perennials. S. rutilans. Pineapple Sage. T. Red-flowered, large, bushy. S. sclarea. Clary. B. Self-sows. For its flowers and bracts. N.B.: \"Jerusalem Sage\" is Phlomis fruticosa. Sanguinaria canadensis. Bloodroot. (Papaveraceae) N,P,Po,Q,Sh,6 (only after leaves disappear in fall). VI: early white flowers and light-green lobed leaves. There are single and double-flowered forms. The double-flowered bloodroot is exquisite; the single will self-sow. Bark mulch in sunnier locations in garden settings. Wild or rock gardens; naturalizing in woods. Cool humusy soil. Santolina. Lavender Cotton. (Compositae) C,P,Q,S,5,8. VI: foliage. Remove flowers for best foliage. Replace as needed 266 when old. Edgings, garden settings, S. accent, contrast, patterns. to 2 feet. Good drainage. S. chamaecyparissus, chamaecyparissus 'Nana'. I-II, Accept clipping. Compact gray-white foliage. S. neapolitana. II-III. Feathery gray-green foliage, S. virens. I-II. Small summer summer shrub stature. shrub stature, 1-2 feet. Green foliage. Not reliably hardy. Saponaria o~cinalis. Bouncing Bet, Soapwort. (Caryophyllaceae) P,Q,1,2,6. 11, to 2? ~ feet. VI: erect clumps, pretty light-pink flowers. On the fringes of \"weed\", but where it can be controlled, for some garden settings, wild garden, or naturalizing. Satureja montana. Winter Savory. (Labiatae) P,Q,S,8. I-II, to 1 foot. VI: whole plant, somewhat woody; graceful semierect form, neat green foliage; flowers small, profuse, white to pinkish in mid- to late-summer. Foreground in border, perhaps middle ground in rock garden. Accepts trimming but not formal herb season-long. Light winter covering helps. \"Ambassador\" to and from thymes. Sedum. clipping. An appealing Average soil, drainage. Stonecrop. (Crassulaceae) H,P,Q,S,6. Garden settings, rock garden. Good drainage. Herbal species: Tall: S. orpine. H. To 18 inches. Low: S. telephium. Flowers coppery, rusty. S. acre. Gold Moss. To 2 inches. Yellow flowers. S. anglicum. English Sedum. To 2 inches. White flowers, evergreen. S. sexangulare. Hexagon Stonecrop. To 3 inches. Yellow flowers, green. ever- Sempervivum tectorum. Houseleek, Hen-and-chickens. (Crassulaceae) P,S,1,6 (C in sink or dish gardens). I, to 4 inches. VI: low closely packed rosettes of fleshy leaves, pinkish-red flowers on thick stems. Familiar yet exotic. Rock gardens, crevices, stony foregrounds. Senecio cineraria (Cineraria maritima). Dusty Miller. (Compositae) H,P,S,1,4. I-II-III. VI: white, very downy foliage. For garden settings, but as an accent anywhere. For Beach misia stellerana. Dusty Miller or Wormwood see Arte- Silybum marianum. Blessed Milk Thistle. (Compositae) A,S,1. III, to 4 feet. VI: glossy, spiny-toothed leaves spotted with white; rose-purple flower heads. Thistle-like, tall-growing. Accent and contrast. Average N,P,S,6. soil. Solidago. Goldenrod. (Compositae) wild and naturally hybridized varieties of differing height and form can be found. A number of wild goldenrods have had Indian herbal uses. Some are still used as dye herbs. Very invasive; their growing should be well controlled. (H). S. odorata. To 4 feet. Plumed. The anise-scented Sweet Goldenrod of the Shakers. Many Stachys. Betony. (Labiatae) S. grandiflora, S. macrantha. Big Betony. P,Q,Sh,1,2. II-III, to 2~\/z feet. VI: the whole plant; wrinkled, heart-shaped, green foliage; reddish-purple flowers. In garden settings but also in the wild garden and for transitions from drier soils to moister soil naturalizing, as with mints. Average soil, drainage. SEMPERVIVUM (as SEDUM). A copperplate engraving from The Compleat Herbal, a translation by ]ohn Martyn of Institutiones Rei Herbariae, Joseph Pitton de Tournefort. London, R. Bonwicke, Tim. Goodwin, et al., 1719. Tournefort's plates, with their morphological detail drawings surrounding views of the whole plant, reflect the transition to scientifically oriented treatises that takes place during the seventeenth century. 268 S. olympica. Lamb's Ears, God's Carpet, Woolly Betony. P,Q,S,1,6. I, low if not allowed to flower, or to 12 inches. VI: few plants are more delightfully velvety; foliage silky gray-green. Foreground, garden settings and rock garden, edging, ground cover in special places. Magenta-pink flowers should be removed for best foliage. 'Silver Carpet' does not flower. Bark mulch for first plants; good drainage. Symphytum o~cinale. Comfrey, Knitbone. P,Q,Sh,1,4,6. III, to 3 feet. VI: foliage, for scale and (Boraginaceae) mass; whitish to pretty but secondary in effect. Dig out old clumps. Tanacetum vulgare var. crispum. Tansy. (Compositae) P,Po,Q,S,2,6. III, to 3 feet. VI: natural settings; late-summer yellow flow- purple ering. for flowers are Use only if invasiveness can culinary use, but has other uses. be controlled. Now considered toxic Poor soils. T. huronense. Woolly and weedier. Teucrium. Germander. (Labiatae) T. canadense. Wild Germander, Wood Sage. N,P,Q,Sh,1,5,6. I-II, 8 inches to 3 feet. VI: pink flowers, narrow to broad leaves. Seen planted in blocks as ground cover, but possibly best naturalized. T. chamaedrys. P,Q,S,5,8 (early spring, self-layering of plant's lowest growth). I, to 10 inches. VI: glossy rich green leaves, woody upright growth, magenta-pink flowers on erect stems above leaves. Light winter covering. Border groups, edgings, patterns. Accepts clipping. For plant strength, do not clip after August lst. Remove flowers for best foliage. Average soil, mulch. T. fruticans. C,P,Q,T,5. VI: summer shrub, branching; flat gray-blue flowers, gray-green foliage. Clipped for ornamental hedging. Thymus. Thyme. P,Q,S. Every thyme (Labiatae) is one to try, and a bee-plant if nothing else. Form, foliage, and flower differ. Propagate by cutting, division, or layering, because seed may not come true. Light winter cover in the garden, light soil, good year-round drainage. Three outstanding culinary thymes: T. X citriodorus. Lemon Thyme. T. herba-barona. Caraway Thyme. T. vulgaris. Common or Culinary Thyme. There are French and English variants; the French has a finer leaf. For the garden, Lemon and Common Thyme offer variegated silver and golden forms and\/or silver-leaf margin forms. In general the silver thymes are not hardy. For the garden, start with T. praecox subsp. arcticus, or T. serpyllum, Mother-of-thyme, which has many variants. For texture, T. pseudolanuginosus, gray, woolly, flat-creeping, or T. thracicus, to 4 inches, creeping, with woolly stems. A thyme \"belongs\" with a sundial. There is a place for thymes in many garden and landscaping designs: pavings, stepping stones, banks, blocks, seats, edges of paths, fillings of patterns, and so on. Learn what each offers and its limitations. Many are not hardy. Tiarella cordifolia. Foam Flower. (Saxif ragaceae) N,P,Q,Sh,1,2,6. II, to 1 foot. VI: in spring, foamy white flowers prove its name. Dense broad green leaves make fine ground cover or carpet for shady garden trees. Rich or or wild garden, or naturalized in woods and humusy soil, moderately acid to neutral. under deciduous Trollius europaeus. H,P,S above Sh,2,6. I-II, cut Globeflower. to 2 feet. VI : rounded (Ranunculaceae) deeply foliage. flowers An accent in flower, from late yellow on spring erect stems to early 269 summer. Adequate moisture, even somewhat moist areas; average soil. (Tropaeolaceae) Tropaeolum. Nasturtium. A,C,S,1. VI: the whole plant; variety in flowers. Informal settings, garden and beyond. Changes of level. Summer. Tolerant if soil is neutral. T. majus. To 6 feet. Climbing, supported or allowed to trail. T. minus. Dwarf, bushy. light and Verbascum thapsus. Mullein, Herbe de St. Fiacre. (Scrophulariaceae) B,S,1,2. III, to 3 feet or more. VI: first year, low, very woolly, felt-like graygreen leaves, second year, yellow flowers atop a tall, sturdy leaf stem. Of value for naturalizing or for rather difficult natural areas. The hybrid garden varieties overshadow the Common Mullein, but it has its own ap- peal. Vinca. Somewhat weedy. Dry soils. (Apocynaceae) Periwinkle, Sorcerer's Violet. C,H,P,Q,Sh,6. I. VI: fine ground cover with blue or white flowers. With shrubs and in blocks and strips, as well as ground cover carpet. Versatile and spreading. (Vitaceae) uses. V. major. Larger. V. minor. Smaller. Vitis. Grape Vine. H,Q,5, air-layering. One of the few good vines with herbal varieties are cultivated. V. labrusca. Wild or Fox Yucca Many Grape. Invasive. feet. VI: whole plant, for accent and a hint of faraway places once visited. In landscape and oldfashioned garden. Deep-rooting. Handsome creamy summer flowers. Tolerates poor or sandy soils. to 8 filamentosa. Adam's Needle. H,P,S,1,6. III, foliage to 3 feet, flower stalk (Liliaceae) A woodcut from Herbarum vivae eicones, Otto Brunfels. Strasbourg, Johann Schott, 1530. ARBUSTA VARIA. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introduction of North American Trees into","article_sequence":2,"start_page":271,"end_page":277,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24759","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd1608528.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":4,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sheng, China C. K.","article_content":"Introduction of North American Trees into China A brief summary by C. K. SHENG , . . _, '( their own agricultural, silvicultural and horticultural the Chinese people have made a great effort to introduce economic and garden plants from foreign countries since very remote times. Plant introduction not only has enriched Chinese plant resources and bettered livelihood and social economy, but it also is a beautiful chapter in the history of the mutual exchange of friendship and civilization between the peoples of China and of other countries. In spite of the fact that China is one of the centers of diversity of cultivated plants, the uneven distribution and geographic isolation of plants in the world has compelled the Chinese people to explore for and introduce plants they wanted from abroad. The vast territory, the complicated climatic and edaphic conditions, and the diversity of agricultural practices in China afford a great possibility for plant introduction and acclimatization. For a thousand years, but especially after the founding of the People's Republic, the Chinese people have greatly benefited from their efforts in the collection of useful plants not indigenous to their country. After the discovery of the New World, North American plants, esIn developing enterprises, Professor Sheng was a member of a delegation of botanists from the People's Republic of China which visited the Arnold Arboretum in early May of 1979. We are honored to present this article of his to the readers of Arnoldia. Present address: Botanic Garden of Nanking, Institute of Botany, Kiangsu, People's Republic of China. ~~l the United States of America, became new settlers in China via different channels, and in no lesser way Chinese plants became immigrants to the New World through enthusiastic American 272I pecially those from hunters. plant To summarize the whole story of the introduction of American plants into China would be a rather tedious task, and even the present discussion of the introduction of woody plants can by no means be given in great detail. The introduction of North American trees into China has a history of about one hundred years. By the end of the last century sporadic introduction was carried on here and there by some Chinese nurseries and garden amateurs, as well as by American citizens and diplomats in China. Robinia pseudoacacia, Carya illinoiensis, Juglans nigra, Taxodium distichum, T. ascendens, Ulmus americana, and Catalpa speciosa were the forerunners. During the thirties of this century conditions improved for plant introduction, although only two botanic gardens were then established : those at Nanking and Lushan. North American conifers as Pinus elliottii, P. taeda, P. palustris, P. echinata, P. rigida, Cupressus arizonica, and Thuja occidentalis, and broad-leaved trees such as Platanus occidentalis, Liriodendron tulipifera, and Magnolia grandiflora were the newcomers which adorned the Chinese land- such subtropical provinces in interest in introducing Chinese trees was greatly promoted on the American continent. It is worth mentioning Professors R. W. Chaney and E. D. Merrill, as a result of whose extreme interest in Chinese plants the first package of seeds of Metasequoia was sent from Nanking in December 1947, arriving at the Arnold Arboretum on January 5, 1948. After the founding of the People's Republic, the introduction of North American trees into China was put on the right trail for the first time. More botanic gardens were established in the various provinces and districts, and these acted as trial grounds for tree introduction. Among the fifteen exotic coniferous trees on the official introduction list, the following thirteen are North American species: eastern China. scape and campus in the coastal cities of the Meanwhile, Cupressus P. taeda arizonica Pseudotaxus menziesii P. menziesii var. var. glauca Pinus elliottii viridis Taxodium ascendens T. distichum P. caribaea P. strobus P. serotina P. Sequoia sempervirens Sequoiadendron giganteum palustris ! 273 Growth of CONIFERS some North American trees in China Pinus : About twenty species of North American pines have been introduced. They may be grouped into three categories according to their degree of adaptability after introduction. 1. River Promising species, extensively planted in the Yangtze and Pearl Valleys Pinus elliottii, P. taeda, P. palustris, P. caribaea, P. - serotina, 2. etc. ing 3. Growth normal, but not yet to the stage for commercial plantPinus echinata, P. ponderosa, P. strobus, P. rigida, etc. - Species with uncertain possibilities phylla, P. jeffreyi, etc. Pinus banksiana, P. leio- Among Pinus species, P. elliottii and P. taeda have been fast growing in the district of Nanking. They both produce new shoots three to four times during the growing season. Their straight boles and almost complete immunity to the infection of Dendrolimus punctatum and Matsucoccos matsumurae, which threatened the growth of P. massoniana, have made them valuable timber trees. The resin yield of the adult tree of P. taeda in Kwangsi is 50% higher than that of P. massoniana. But sporogenesis and the development of the young cone of P. elliottii are handicapped by low spring temperatures in the district of Nanking, while the fertility of the hardier P. taeda reaches 60-70%. TABLE 1. GROWTH OF AMERICAN SPECIES OF Pi1t2lS. 274 Taxodium: It has been forty to fifty years since Taxodium species introduced to Nanking and Wuhan. Their characteristically fast growth and their ability to withstand strong wind and waterlogged soil attracted the appreciation of the people and they soon became familiar trees in eastern and southern China. were TABLE 2. GROWTH OF AMERICAN SPECIES OF Taxodium TABLE 3. GROWTH OF AMERICAN SPECIES Sabina ( ANn Cupressus ) Juniperus OF Cupressaceae: Four genera [Thuja, Cupressus, Chamaecyparis, and Sabina ( Juniperus )and fifteen species of North American Cupressaceae have been introduced into China. Among them Thuja occidentalis and Chamaecyparis lawsoniana have always suffered from the hot dry summer in Nanking, and they prefer the mild summer climate at Lushan Botanic Garden (1100-1200 m.). Sabina ( Juni- I 275 perus ) virginiana, Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii and C. arizonica are three other species which were introduced into Nanking. Two ecotypes and various forms of Sabina ( Juniperus ) virginiana were found among the introduced population and the growth rate of the selected individuals exceeded that of both Biota (Thuja) orientalis and Sabina ( Juniperus ) chinensis. Cupressus lusitanica var. benthamii grows faster than local C. funebris and it has even surpassed exotic pines, but the cold spring in Nanking prevents it from fruiting. among Taxodiaceae are Sequoia sempervirens and Sequoiadendron giganteum, both of which were bestowed upon the Botanic Garden of Hangchow by former President Nixon as a token of friendship between the Chinese and American peoples. Chinese silviculturists are busy attempting to establish a redwood forest along coastal regions in Chekiang province. Other conifers besides those mentioned above include: The newcomers Cupressus goveniana C. macrocarpa C. macnabiana Pinus banksiana P. glabra Pinus leiophylla P. monticola P. muricata P. virginiana Pseudotsuga menziesii BROAD-LEAVED TREES Only about thirty genera and fifty species of North American broad-leaved trees have been introduced into China. Two members of the family Leguminosae - Robinia pseudoacacia and Amorpha are the most popular ones among them. The former fruticosa made its earliest appearance at Tsingtao more than seventy years ago and since then it has been widely planted in the cities and the countryside at regions between Lat. 23-46 N and Long. 86-124 E. Liriodendron tulipifera was introduced to Nanking in 1936, and 40-year-old trees are now 20 m. high with a DBH of 60 cm. Artificial pollination or mass planting has been necessary since the abundant flowers of a solitary tree rarely yield fertile seeds. Hybridization between the Chinese and American species was carried out by the late Professor P. T. Yeh of the College of Technology of Forest Products, Nanking, in 1963 and 1965. The average increments in height and diameter of the Fl hybrid trees were 42.3% and 13.7% respectively, and the date of abscission of the leaves came later than that of either of the parents. The Pecan (Carya illinoiensis) was introduced into China about seventy-five years ago with Nanking as the center of introduction. Trees 55-years-old had an average height of 20 m. with a DBH of 85.4 cm. The mature trees were all raised from chance seedlings. Five fruit types were identified, but the productivity was low and unstable, 60 kg. being the highest yield per fruiting tree, with an average of only a few kilograms. The introduction of better clones and - 276 the nut improvement production. of horticultural practices will be necessary for good Magnolia grandiflora and Platanus occidentalis are two attractive garden trees introduced to the Yangtze Delta some fifty years ago. The lustrous evergreen leaves and magnificent white flowers of the former often win the admiration of the public. Other examples of the introduced broad-leaved species include: a Acer negundo Diospyros virginian Fraxinus americana A. saccharum F. pennsylvanica var. lanceolata A. saccharinum F. rotundifolia fertilis Calycanthus Gleditsia triacanthos Campis radicans Catalpa X hybrida Gymnocladus dioicus C. speciosa Hypericum densiflorum Cercis canadensis Juglans nigra Cornus amomum Liquidambar styraciflua C. sericea Populus canadensis C. pubescens Ulmus americana Discussion adaptibility of the trees introduced from North America proved superior in eastern China to that exhibited by trees originating in the Mediterranean region and central Asia. From a phytogeographic point of view there is a close but temporally remote relationship between the floras of North America and eastern China. This has been verified by successful plant introduction between the corresponding geographic regions of China and the United States, and it affords further possibilities for the mutual exchange of woody 1. The has plants. 2. Whenever successful introduction is anticipated, one should locate introduced species in regions with ecological conditions more or less similar to those in their native environments. The sensitivity of southern pines and other coniferous trees from North America to changing growing conditions should never be overlooked. Selection for clones of suitable provenance is desirable whenever possible. 3. Selection of desirable variants from populations of different provenances should be carried out at a suitable time. Hybridization between Chinese and North American tree species could eventually give promising results (e.g., Liriodendron chinense X L. tulipifera, Carya illinoensis X C. cathayensis, Taxodium ascendens X Cunni~zghamia lanceolata, Cupressus arizonica X Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus taeda X P. yunnanensis, etc.). 4. We are looking ahead to promote and exchange of trees and other plants between to learn from our American colleagues. strengthen our two the mutual countries and The Dawn Redwood, Metasequoia glyptostroboides, is one of the most notable plants introduced from China in the last 30 years, and the Arnold Arboretum is responsible for having distributed it widely throughout the world. Native to only a small area in China and with no close relatives, it is perhaps the most uniquely Chinese of plants. Besides being an outstanding ornamental, it has an interesting history in that it was described from fossil remains before living plants were known to exist. The first living material was collected in 1944 by Tsang Wang, a Chinese forester. The specimen above, planted across Meadow Road from the Administration Building, is one of the most shapely and conspicuous in the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Mexican White Pine","article_sequence":3,"start_page":278,"end_page":285,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24762","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160896b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":4,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Smith, Jeanne","article_content":"The Mexican White Pine by JEANNE SMITH The Arnold Arboretum has more than 40 species of pine growing on its grounds from throughout the geographic range of the genus. The Mexican White Pine, Pinus ayacahuite, is particularly intriguing because it is the Arboretum's southernmost representative of the genus as well as being one of the very few Mexican plants hardy here. The 24-year-old specimen, propagated from seed from the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew, England, is located in the conifer collection in Kent Field. Not only does it demonstrate the remarkable quality of being hardy in the Boston area, but it exhibits outstanding ornamental features as well. Branched to the ground, it is densely pyramidal, with slightly ascending branches in relatively regular whorls. The needles, arranged in groups of five, are about five inches long, glaucous-green and pendent. The tree has been compared to the Himalayan Pine, P. grifrathii, because of its drooping foliage, but exhibits a somewhat denser habit. It rivals our native Eastern White Pine, P. strobus, with the handsome bluish cast of its stouter, longer needles. Although an outstanding representative of the soft pines (subgenus Haploxylon), Pinus ayacahuite is virtually unknown to the American gardening public, found in only a small number of arbore- Jeanne Smith was a horticultural trainee at the Arnold Arboretum during the summer of 1978. This article is adapted from her report on a project which was part of her summer program. Present address: R.D.3, Box 19B4, Elizabethtown, PA 17022. 278 A branch from a Pinus ayacahuite at the Masonic Homes Arboretum in Elizabethtown, Pennsylvania. Taken during the summer, this photograph shows both the previous year's mature cones and cones that will reach maturity in the fall. plants or seeds from nurseries and seed due to two factors. One is the uncertainty of the plant's hardiness outside of its native geographic range. The other is that P. ayacahuite is one of a number of pine species that have shown considerable variability, resulting in a confusing taxonomic and nomenclatural history. A discussion of the complexity of pine genetics and the diversity of environmental conditions existing within the native range of the species in Mexico will help to clarify the situation. All pines possess the same number of chromosomes, 2n 24, and the chromosomes themselves are relatively uniform morphologically. The conventional definition of a species cannot always be easily applied to the pines because genetic barriers to crossing are often absent ; even well-defined species cross to produce fertile hybrids. As a result of interspecific hybridization, complexes or clines with intermediate forms can often be found where two or more species overlap ta, and rarely available as companies. This scarcity is = geographically. Pinus ayacahuite appears to be the southern representative of a north-to-south pine complex or cline of apparently intergrading species. The cline begins with P. flexilis James, in the mountains of western North America from southern British Columbia and Alberta southward to New Mexico. Its range overlaps that of P. strobiformis Engelmann, which ranges from southern Colorado to San Luis Potosi in Mexico. The cline ends with P. ayacahuite Ehrenberg, which 279 280 reaches from Jalisco and Hidalgo in central Mexico southeastward to El Salvador and Honduras. Pinus ayacahuite was first described in 1838 by Ehrenberg. In 1909 G. R. Shaw described two new varieties of P. ayacahuite distinct from the typical southern variety: P. ayacahuite var. veitchii, found in the central states of Mexico, and P. ayacahuite var. brachyptera, from the northern states. Since 1909 the nomenclature associated with the northern variety has resulted in a confusion of synonyms : P. ayacahuite var. brachyptera, P. strobiformis, P. flexilis var. reflexa, and P. reflexa. However, most authorities now consider this plant to be a distinct species, P. strobiformis. Recent work by Andresen and Steinhoff clearly distinguishes Pinus strobiformis and P. flexilis and establishes the range of variation in critical characters, but further study is needed to determine the relationship between P. strobiformis and P. ayacahuite. As a result of this situation, an evaluation of the horticultural merits of plants labelled P. ayacahuite can be made only after one determines whether the plant is the true species, one from a range of intermediates between two species, or a hybrid of two species formerly dissociated geographically but brought together in cultivation. As a geographic area, Mexico possesses a remarkably diverse range of environmental conditions: climates ranging from tropical to cold temperate, rainfalls from deficiency to abundance, and altitudes from sea level to snow-covered volcanic peaks over 4000 meters high. These factors may contribute to and explain the range of hardiness of Pinus ayacahuite specimens grown in American arboreta. For example, seed originally collected at sites with severe climatic conditions may yield plants exhibiting hardiness associated with such a climate. According to literature sources, P. ayacahuite grows high in mountain ravines with a warm- to cold-temperate climate in the southern Mexican states of Hidalgo, Puebla, Tlaxcala, and Vera Cruz, and southward to Guatemala. A questionnaire was sent to U.S. arboreta indicating holdings of Pinus ayacahuite to obtain additional information on the hardiness, culture, and ornamental qualities of the species. Microfiche records from the Plant Sciences Data Center revealed specimens in nine arboreta. Of these, only five had specimens whose identity had been verified by a taxonomist: the Arnold Arboretum, Strybing Arboretum, University of Minnesota Arboretum, Westtown School Arboretum, and the Institute of Forest Genetics. Positive identification of the specimens at the other arboreta is difficult because their trees mostly have not yet produced cones. Arboreta that have plants labelled but not conclusively identified as P. ayacahuite include Barnard's Inn Farm, Longwood Gardens, the University of Washington Arboretum, and the Masonic Homes Arboretum. Table 1 shows a list of arboreta, the source of their specimens, the year and form in which acquired, the identification number of the 281 'U ~N ~ Q V c a ,:s S n~N A W ,? a a w M a z M w U W L~ M C7 z x M a W x H z c N W W 0 W ri W a va c I 282 'N x c u Q) a ZZ) a CO 3 9 'N F1 w a a w 9 a A W z c x w CO z w U CL M W M w O z 0 H I P~1 U M W A ~ E~ W a oa A mature cone of the Pinus ruler is in inches. ayacahuite at the Masonic Homes Arboretum. The winter temperature. Only two arboreta the Institute of Forest Genetics and the University of Washington Arboretum - have specimens propagated from seed originating in Mexico. It seems unfortunate that propagation and distribution of this species have been primarily by seed collected in arboreta rather than from wild-collected material given the possibility of distributing interspecific hybrids rather than the true species. Branches and cones from trees in the Arnold Arboretum, the Masonic Homes Arboretum, and Barnard's Inn Farm were studied to verify the authenticity of the specimens. The results of the examination appear in Table 2. From a review of needle and cone morphology, the trees at the Arnold Arboretum and the Masonic Homes Arboretum appear to correspond with the literature describing the typical species and with pine taxonomist G. R. Shaw's specimens of Pinus ayacahuite in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium. This opinion is based on a comparison of needle size, color, serration and stomatic bands; cone shape, color and dimensions; and seed nut and wing dimensions and color. The sample from Barnard's Inn Farm agrees in needle characteristics. But it differs in the color and the sparse pubescence on its branchlets and more noticeably in the small size of its cone and seed and in its lack of reflexed cone scales. This specimen perhaps is a hybrid, judging from the intermediate trend of various characteristics and the fact that it presumably was grown from seed from an isolated arboretum specimen among numbers of other pine species. The author is aware of only one commercial seed source in the United States for Pinus ayacahuite. The seedsman is Frank T. Sesock, 6045 Foley Lane, Central Point, Oregon 97502. The seed he offers is custom collected from selected trees in Mexico and must be ordered in advance of the collection season. The Arnold Arboretum has recently received seed of P. ayacahuite var. veitchii from a private source in Mexico and if proven hardy, the plants will be distributed to interested nurserymen and arboreta. The seeds germinate readily without stratification within 21-28 days of sowing. Asexual propaga- arboretum, and its minimum - 42-year-old Pinus ayacahuite at the Masonic Homes Arboretum. Pinus grows old with noteworthy dignity and beauty. It can be highly recommended for the large yard or as an informal hedge and can be used in public and industrial parks, on college campuses and for highway plantings. The ayacahuite alternative if seed is unavailable. Hopefully, nurserymen the ornamental qualities of the species will begin to propagate by grafting, using scion wood from trees of proven hardiness and beauty. As noted above, propagation from seed from cultivated sources may result in hybrid plants. To insure optimum growth, trees should be planted in well-drained tion is an recognizing 285 sandy silt to clay loam, pH 5.5-7.0, and located where they will receive full sun the major part of the day. In severe climates damage has been reported due to ice, wind, and heavy snow, but in general trees in the Northeast have suffered no more damage than Pinus strobus. Pinus ayacahuite is susceptible to white pine blister rust, but no actual case was reported by respondents to the questionnaire. In its native habitat it matures to heights of 60 to 100 feet. Forty- to fifty-year-old trees observed in the Northeast have not exceeded 55 feet, and these tend to have multiple upswept side branches producing a broad, dense, rounded crown. I would like to thank Gary Koller and Richard Weaver for their assistance with this project. In addition, I would like to acknowledge and thank those individuals at the botanic gardens and arboreta mentioned in this paper who took the time and interest to respond to my questionnaire. Their comments contributed greatly to the success of this endeavor. References Andresen, J. W. & R. J. Steinhoff. 1971. Taxonomy of Pinus flexilis and P. strobiformis. Phytologia 22: 57-70. Bailey, L. H., ed. 1923. The cultivated evergreens. 434 pp. The Macmillan Co., New York. Bloom, A. 1972. Conifers for your garden. 146 pp. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York. Critchfield, W. B. & E. Little, Jr. 1965. Geographic distribution of the pines of the world. 99 pp. USDA For. Serv. Misc. Publ. 991. Dallimore, W. & A. B. Jackson. 1966. A handbook of Coniferae and , Gingkoaceae, ed. 4, rev. S. G. Harrison. 729 pp. Edward Arnold Ltd., London. Elwes, H. J. & A. Henry. 1910. Pinus ayacahuite, in Trees of Great Britain and Ireland, Vol. 5, pp. 1017-1022. Published privately. Kent, A. H. 1900. Veitch's manual of the Coniferae. 562 pp. H. M. Pollett & Co. Ltd., London. Martinez, M. 1948. Los pinos mexicanos, ed. 2. 361 pp. Ediciones Botas, Mexico. Menzies, A. 1969. Pinus ayacahuite and its varieties. Jour. Cal. Hort. Soc. 22: 113-114, 118. Mirov, N. T. 1967. The genus Pinus. 602 pp. Ronald Press Co., New York. Ouden, P. den & B. K. Boom. 1965. Manual of cultivated conifers hardy in the cold- and warm-temperate zone. 526 pp. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague. Shaw, G. R. 1909. The pines of Mexico. 29 pp., 22 pl. Publ. Arnold Arb. $~ 1. J. R. Ruiter & Co., Boston. 1914. The genus Pinus. 95 pp., 39 pl. Publ. Arnold Arb. #5. Riverside Press, Cambridge. Steinhoff, R. J. & J. W. Andresen. 1971. Geographic variation in Pinus flexilis and P. strobiformis and its bearing on their taxonomic status. Silvae Genetica 20: 159-167. Webster, A. D. 1896. Hardy coniferous trees. 196 pp. Hutchinson & Co., London. Zobel, B. & F. Cech. 1957. Pines from Nuevo Leon, Mexico. Madrono 14: 133-144. . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":286,"end_page":288,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24761","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd1608926.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":4,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Bob Williams is not an ordinary man. This I have long suspected. Others, too, have not been unaware. and to a person they asked me Ask anyone who knows him. I did to write just one thing: that he is an exceptional man. Describe him to me, I asked. Tell me in one adjective how you would characterize this man who spent an unprecedented thirty-four years as Superintendent of the Arnold Arboretum, his career here ending with his retirement in June. A single adjective was not sufficient for many people. It was too limiting. Invariably they added a qualifying adverb: most. - \"He was the most indispensable person Arnold Arboretum.\" was no one more at the , \"There humble.\" ever \"Bob Williams? Most dependable person I've worked with.\" \" \"You can look forever, but I guarantee you won't find anyone more honest, more helpful or more diligent.\" so Bob Williams was all of those things, of course, but he was really much more. I like best the description of one perceptive staff member who likened him to the bees he has tended so assiduously on the Administration Building roof. On reflection, such an analogy 286 287 288 seems not at all inappropriate. - Activity is the hallmark of every hive, and Bob Williams's days were full ones. He was industrious, certainly, and like and nights a worker bee he rarely had a day off. Responsible for both security and maintenance, he was on 24-hour call, and numerous were the phone calls that would come in the quiet hours of the night or early dawn, summoning him from sleep. Because one man cared and because one man was always there, an entire staff could leave without a care at day's end, knowing that the Arnold Arboretum was secure. Bees are great travelers, too, making anywhere from 40,000 to 80,000 trips to many times that number of flowers in order to produce just one pound of honey. A single bee would have to travel a distance equal to twice around the globe to produce that pound. How like that independent bee was Bob WilliamsThe odometer on his Chevrolet would certainly tell the tale, for this man was everywhere. Large parts of every day were spent on Arboretum roadways checking new plantings, supervising the installation of a new pipe, or extinguishing a brush fire. Nothing that happened on those 265 acres escaped his attention. Many were the tasks that Bob Williams performed but few were the ones he talked about, for he was not a man to call attention to himself. When he saw something in need of repair or attention, he simply did it. He made no fuss and he told no one. No problem was insurmountable. Oh, he might complain a little and mumble to himself about how in the world someone could be fool enough to jam the slide projector or get the venetian blinds tangled up in the window shades always just moments before a lecture. But the knitted brows and the set of the mouth were really the most deceptive of fa~ades. He always walked away shaking his he always head. It was part of his image. But more importantly returned within moments, a piece of string, a pair of pliers, a ladder in hand. If the conventional approach wasn't feasible or if the tool to solve the problem didn't exist, he fashioned something workable from scraps of what he had. That was Yankee ingenuity! It was something Bob Williams knew all about. There is something that those who worked with him know all about as well; that what Bob Williams was and what he did will not soon be forgotten. His selfless dedication and his tireless commitment are standards by which we might all measure ourselves. Bob Williams can take great pride in his accomplishments. He is, after all, no ordinary man. MARGO W. REYNOLDS - - W, Right: THYMUS. \"'!i)!f, Bach cover: VITIS. From De historia stirpium, Leonhard Fuchs. See page 259. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23283","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170b36e.jpg","title":"1979-39-4","volume":39,"issue_number":4,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Street Trees for Home and Municipal Landscapes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":73,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24756","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160bb26.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"Street Trees for Hrnne and Municipal Landscapes by GARY L. KOLLER and MICHAEL A. DIRR cities and most towns have one element in common: the seemendless ribbon of highways that cut through the countryside like great scars, often reflecting a reckless insensitivity to the natural landscape. It is in cities, however, where they make their greatest visual and physical impact. Streets lie flush with sidewalks and these, in turn, give way to great buildings. Grass and other vegetation is little in evidence. Beyond, in suburbia, the scene is less stark as the ribbon winds through residential areas with their ubiquitous 50- by 50-foot lots; but still the sidewalks, driveways and roadways are the dominant features of a society on the move. Into this landscape, the eyesores of service stations, fast-food establishments and mushrooming shopping centers must be included. Neon signs and billboards compete for the consumer's attention, manufacturing plants spew black and acrid smoke across the skies, and dumps, junkyards and salvage shops display the detritus of a \"throwaway\" society. Interspersed, of course, are majestic churches, historical structures with delicate and handsome details, and buildings both modest and monumental that are architectural treasures. All of these disparate features blend in a confusing montage with little to separate, frame, or soften the overall impact and bring it into human scale and human terms. Plants have a great deal to contribute to the city landscape, but often have been overlooked because urban space is at a premium and their maintenance is an additional expense that most businesses and city agencies do not choose to assume. Because of budget limitations, the landscaping of a building is often the first item to be sacrificed when money runs out. As a result, many spaces that would be enhanced by greenery are paved instead. Nonetheless, we notice those city areas where plants have been used effectively and have seen people stop to admire or pause to enjoy the attractive visual environment in which they have suddenly found themselves. Street trees, more than shrubs, have the greatest capacity to make a visual impact, and require the least amount of horizontal ground space. They develop into green walls or buffers that soften the lines and angles of manmade structures; create canopies under which people can walk; cast shade to reduce reflected heat and light; and trap airborne dust particles. filtering the air we breathe. Equally important, they stand as silent Worldwide, ingly 73 74I sentinels, providing us with a direct link to the green world we have so often sacrificed in our attempt to \"progress.\" The term 'street tree' can be interpreted in several ways. Most commonly it refers to those trees planted in a narrow tree lawn (illustrated) running between street and sidewalk and evident in urban, suburban and some rural locations. It also includes those trees planted in islands within parking lots or between roadways, in small spaces cut out of the sidewalk, plants in above-ground streetside containers and trees planted along expressways and superhighways. Street trees reside in situations that vary from high impact areas such as midtown Manhattan, to placid hamlets in Vermont where a street tree is essentially in open countryside. While each of these uses and locations presents different landscape design opportunities, each imposes trials and tribulations that affect the health, well-being and life span of trees. Consider the stresses to which the average urban and suburban street trees are subjected. In the confined growing space, soil is not only limited, but is often dry, rocky, infertile and compacted. In summer, desiccating winds, reflected heat, and sunlight increase transpiration, resulting in wilting and scorched leaves. Drainage water and pollution (specifically, ozone and sulfur dioxide) often disrupt metabolic activities. In this situation, Bradford pear is successfully used as a suburban street tree. Note the wide planting area between the street and sidewalk: such space seldom occurs along urban streets. 75 Winter hazards include cold, drying winds intensified by the tunnel effect caused by buildings. Salt spray from deicing operations bathes stems, buds and the leaves of evergreens, while salt-laden water drenches the soil around the roots. Along with the pressures of the physical environment, the plant must survive neglect, vandalism, trenching and building operations, vehicular damage, and the public's widespread insensitivity to the tree as a living organism. Because of these limiting factors, the ideal street tree remains undiscovered. No one plant is perfect, and the same plant may not be ideal under two different situations; further, each plant is asked to serve a multitude of different landscape purposes. In view of the vicissitudes that street trees must withstand, what would constitute the ideal street tree? It should be a vigorous grower, yet one that does not create a maintenance problem because of rapid growth and weak wood. Annual care such as pruning, spraying and leaf removal should not be needed. A desirable feature is the capacity to grow in a limited volume of dry, sterile, rocky soil. The tree should tolerate drought, drying winds, and intense reflected sunlight without becoming brown or scorched. Dust, smoke, soot and noxious fumes should have little or no effect. Tolerance to the winter hazards of salt spray, salt-laden drainage water, and oil and gasoline is necessary, as is the ability to recover quickly from mechanical injuries caused by vandalism and snow removal equipment. The plant should be resistant to damage from ice and windstorms. Leaves of our ideal tree should appear as soon as the danger of frost has passed and, thereafter, maintain a healthy green color. They should remain on the tree until late in autumn, then drop very quickly. Leaves should be small and not need collecting Our ideal tree should have attractive flowers that are not messy, showy fruit that presents no maintenance problems, good autumn color, and interesting winter structure. It also should have the desired size, shape and texture to fill our design needs. Such a plant should re-establish itself quickly upon transplanting. Its roots should not lift sidewalks or clog utility pipes, and the plant should not be adversely affected by extended illumination. Above all, it should be resistant to insects and diseases and have a long life span. How is a tree selected for a growing site? First, the user landscape architect, street tree commissioner or homeowner - should evaluate the site. What are the major environmental constraints that will influence the optimum growth of the tree? Are they shade, limited soil volume, severe cold or perhaps major applications of winter deicing salts? Difficult conditions imposed upon a tree bordering a street in Boston, Massachusetts are usually more complex and intense than those the same tree would face on a street in rural New England. In effect, it should be easier to grow a wider array of plants along rural streets than along city streets; however, few sites are without major limitations. Next, what are the physical limitations or design needs? An example might be utility wires running above the planting site. For this situation, - 76 Trees planted within paved areas suffer from limited volumes ot infertzle, compacted, and droughty soil. They usually are too close to the curb and are sub~ect to injunes from cars being parked. 77 This tree care honeylocust, which is in need of pruning from dieback, provided by many municipalittes. attests to the inadequate 78I may want to select a tree that has an ultimate size less than the height of the electric lines to eliminate the expensive periodic pruning needed to keep the tree growth from interfering with the wires. Also, trees in the public domain are more often butchered than skillfully pruned when their growth conflicts with the public utilities. If there is adequate money, equipment and trained personnel to provide high-level maintenance, one might select a large tree and utilize corrective pruning to enable the tree to grow through and above the height of the wires. Other physical considerations are tree branching that is high enough to allow unobstructed vision or vehicular traffic, tree size that will fill but not overwhelm the scale and proportion of the landscape space, and size and growth form to fulfill a specific design requirement. Selecting a tree for flowers, fruit or autumn color should have low priority and not even be considered until cultural and physical restrictions have been met. If one selects a beautiful flowering tree that languishes because of site difficulties, it will not be satisfactory as an ornamental or one as a street tree. A word needs to be said about maintenance, for most municipalities select trees on the basis of minimum upkeep. Generally, municipal budgets allow money only for tree installation and little is appropriated for routine care such as corrective pruning, watering during drought, fertilization, or spraying for plant pests. Most urban street trees receive little consideration until a broken limb damages an automobile or severs utility wires, or until a tree dies and needs to be removed. Consequently, the trees installed by municipalities need to be thoroughly tested and evaluated for performance under different environmental conditions. Homeowners have an advantage in that they often can afford to provide the extra maintenance a more ornamental tree might demand. The following information is intended to provide readers with an accurate assessment of the plants described. By stressing both a plant's assets and limitations we hope to provide data that, when coupled with details about planting sites, will allow one to select the plant that will be best for an individual location. Since no tree will be perfect, it is important to seek the species, variety, or cultivar offering the greatest adaptability and conformance to landscape architectural needs, while posing the fewest maintenance problems. To assist users in finding plants most appropriate for their sites, quickreference lists have been provided beginning on page 223. Trees are arranged alphabetically according to cultural adaptability and major landscape attributes such as flower, fruit or autumn color. The authors invite comments from interested readers who may have additional information relative to a particular plant's performance under street or urban conditions. This information will be collated and added to our reference file on street trees. I 79 0 m x a !a. ro 4, m o~ .N ~ ~ 8 . 0 OJ ~C#& Z$;x3 : ! \"'i5. m -S d 0 U 'S N H U C ~ ci E O R~ E C3 s Iz: _C \"'i5. H F I \" 80 CLARIF1CATION OF CONTENTS Nomenclature: In general, plant names used in this Hortus Third, L. H. Bailey Hortorium, Macmillan New York, 1976. to publication conform Publishing Co., Inc., Hardiness Zones : The zones of hardiness listed here are based on the Arnold Arboretum Zone Map which attempts to define the cold tolerance of north temperate woody plants. While we indicate northern limits, most plants will grow over a broad southern range. Average Annual Minimum Temperature Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -50F or lower -50 to -35F -35 to -20F -20 to -10F -10 to -5F -5 to 5F 5 to 10F 10 to 20F 20 to 30F 30 to 40F Plant Size : An attempt has been made it Many authors have listed size as heights do not accurately reflect conditions. list average landscape sizes. wild plants. These applies the size that may occur under landscape to to native or The harsh effect of this Boston street. asphalt and concrete buxldtmgs IS softened bg the trees that frame 81 Basal sucherinq is a problem on several tree species, as this ltnden illustrates. 82 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have assisted in the preparation of this manuscript and the authors appreciate their comments, suggestions and creative criticism. Major contributors of information, time, or interest include William Flemer III, Edward S. Gray, Nancy A. LeMay, Jeanne E. Sattely, Stephen A. Spongberg, Richard E. Weaver, Jr., and Carroll E. Wood, Jr. Special thanks goes to Jeanne S. Wadleigh, Editor of Arnoldia, for her persistence in the task and her patience with the authors. In addition, we would like to acknowledge the value of numerous articles, books and letters containing comments, observations and personal experiences. This vast reservoir of information enabled these authors to draw upon and, we hope, expand what is known about street trees. Ailanthus altissima is among the most stress-tolerant trees. The broken branch this specimen should be pruned flush with the trunk to effect good wound healing. on "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Introduction","article_sequence":2,"start_page":73,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24753","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160b36f.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"Street Trees for Hrnne and Municipal Landscapes by GARY L. KOLLER and MICHAEL A. DIRR cities and most towns have one element in common: the seemendless ribbon of highways that cut through the countryside like great scars, often reflecting a reckless insensitivity to the natural landscape. It is in cities, however, where they make their greatest visual and physical impact. Streets lie flush with sidewalks and these, in turn, give way to great buildings. Grass and other vegetation is little in evidence. Beyond, in suburbia, the scene is less stark as the ribbon winds through residential areas with their ubiquitous 50- by 50-foot lots; but still the sidewalks, driveways and roadways are the dominant features of a society on the move. Into this landscape, the eyesores of service stations, fast-food establishments and mushrooming shopping centers must be included. Neon signs and billboards compete for the consumer's attention, manufacturing plants spew black and acrid smoke across the skies, and dumps, junkyards and salvage shops display the detritus of a \"throwaway\" society. Interspersed, of course, are majestic churches, historical structures with delicate and handsome details, and buildings both modest and monumental that are architectural treasures. All of these disparate features blend in a confusing montage with little to separate, frame, or soften the overall impact and bring it into human scale and human terms. Plants have a great deal to contribute to the city landscape, but often have been overlooked because urban space is at a premium and their maintenance is an additional expense that most businesses and city agencies do not choose to assume. Because of budget limitations, the landscaping of a building is often the first item to be sacrificed when money runs out. As a result, many spaces that would be enhanced by greenery are paved instead. Nonetheless, we notice those city areas where plants have been used effectively and have seen people stop to admire or pause to enjoy the attractive visual environment in which they have suddenly found themselves. Street trees, more than shrubs, have the greatest capacity to make a visual impact, and require the least amount of horizontal ground space. They develop into green walls or buffers that soften the lines and angles of manmade structures; create canopies under which people can walk; cast shade to reduce reflected heat and light; and trap airborne dust particles. filtering the air we breathe. Equally important, they stand as silent Worldwide, ingly 73 74I sentinels, providing us with a direct link to the green world we have so often sacrificed in our attempt to \"progress.\" The term 'street tree' can be interpreted in several ways. Most commonly it refers to those trees planted in a narrow tree lawn (illustrated) running between street and sidewalk and evident in urban, suburban and some rural locations. It also includes those trees planted in islands within parking lots or between roadways, in small spaces cut out of the sidewalk, plants in above-ground streetside containers and trees planted along expressways and superhighways. Street trees reside in situations that vary from high impact areas such as midtown Manhattan, to placid hamlets in Vermont where a street tree is essentially in open countryside. While each of these uses and locations presents different landscape design opportunities, each imposes trials and tribulations that affect the health, well-being and life span of trees. Consider the stresses to which the average urban and suburban street trees are subjected. In the confined growing space, soil is not only limited, but is often dry, rocky, infertile and compacted. In summer, desiccating winds, reflected heat, and sunlight increase transpiration, resulting in wilting and scorched leaves. Drainage water and pollution (specifically, ozone and sulfur dioxide) often disrupt metabolic activities. In this situation, Bradford pear is successfully used as a suburban street tree. Note the wide planting area between the street and sidewalk: such space seldom occurs along urban streets. 75 Winter hazards include cold, drying winds intensified by the tunnel effect caused by buildings. Salt spray from deicing operations bathes stems, buds and the leaves of evergreens, while salt-laden water drenches the soil around the roots. Along with the pressures of the physical environment, the plant must survive neglect, vandalism, trenching and building operations, vehicular damage, and the public's widespread insensitivity to the tree as a living organism. Because of these limiting factors, the ideal street tree remains undiscovered. No one plant is perfect, and the same plant may not be ideal under two different situations; further, each plant is asked to serve a multitude of different landscape purposes. In view of the vicissitudes that street trees must withstand, what would constitute the ideal street tree? It should be a vigorous grower, yet one that does not create a maintenance problem because of rapid growth and weak wood. Annual care such as pruning, spraying and leaf removal should not be needed. A desirable feature is the capacity to grow in a limited volume of dry, sterile, rocky soil. The tree should tolerate drought, drying winds, and intense reflected sunlight without becoming brown or scorched. Dust, smoke, soot and noxious fumes should have little or no effect. Tolerance to the winter hazards of salt spray, salt-laden drainage water, and oil and gasoline is necessary, as is the ability to recover quickly from mechanical injuries caused by vandalism and snow removal equipment. The plant should be resistant to damage from ice and windstorms. Leaves of our ideal tree should appear as soon as the danger of frost has passed and, thereafter, maintain a healthy green color. They should remain on the tree until late in autumn, then drop very quickly. Leaves should be small and not need collecting Our ideal tree should have attractive flowers that are not messy, showy fruit that presents no maintenance problems, good autumn color, and interesting winter structure. It also should have the desired size, shape and texture to fill our design needs. Such a plant should re-establish itself quickly upon transplanting. Its roots should not lift sidewalks or clog utility pipes, and the plant should not be adversely affected by extended illumination. Above all, it should be resistant to insects and diseases and have a long life span. How is a tree selected for a growing site? First, the user landscape architect, street tree commissioner or homeowner - should evaluate the site. What are the major environmental constraints that will influence the optimum growth of the tree? Are they shade, limited soil volume, severe cold or perhaps major applications of winter deicing salts? Difficult conditions imposed upon a tree bordering a street in Boston, Massachusetts are usually more complex and intense than those the same tree would face on a street in rural New England. In effect, it should be easier to grow a wider array of plants along rural streets than along city streets; however, few sites are without major limitations. Next, what are the physical limitations or design needs? An example might be utility wires running above the planting site. For this situation, - 76 Trees planted within paved areas suffer from limited volumes ot infertzle, compacted, and droughty soil. They usually are too close to the curb and are sub~ect to injunes from cars being parked. 77 This tree care honeylocust, which is in need of pruning from dieback, provided by many municipalittes. attests to the inadequate 78I may want to select a tree that has an ultimate size less than the height of the electric lines to eliminate the expensive periodic pruning needed to keep the tree growth from interfering with the wires. Also, trees in the public domain are more often butchered than skillfully pruned when their growth conflicts with the public utilities. If there is adequate money, equipment and trained personnel to provide high-level maintenance, one might select a large tree and utilize corrective pruning to enable the tree to grow through and above the height of the wires. Other physical considerations are tree branching that is high enough to allow unobstructed vision or vehicular traffic, tree size that will fill but not overwhelm the scale and proportion of the landscape space, and size and growth form to fulfill a specific design requirement. Selecting a tree for flowers, fruit or autumn color should have low priority and not even be considered until cultural and physical restrictions have been met. If one selects a beautiful flowering tree that languishes because of site difficulties, it will not be satisfactory as an ornamental or one as a street tree. A word needs to be said about maintenance, for most municipalities select trees on the basis of minimum upkeep. Generally, municipal budgets allow money only for tree installation and little is appropriated for routine care such as corrective pruning, watering during drought, fertilization, or spraying for plant pests. Most urban street trees receive little consideration until a broken limb damages an automobile or severs utility wires, or until a tree dies and needs to be removed. Consequently, the trees installed by municipalities need to be thoroughly tested and evaluated for performance under different environmental conditions. Homeowners have an advantage in that they often can afford to provide the extra maintenance a more ornamental tree might demand. The following information is intended to provide readers with an accurate assessment of the plants described. By stressing both a plant's assets and limitations we hope to provide data that, when coupled with details about planting sites, will allow one to select the plant that will be best for an individual location. Since no tree will be perfect, it is important to seek the species, variety, or cultivar offering the greatest adaptability and conformance to landscape architectural needs, while posing the fewest maintenance problems. To assist users in finding plants most appropriate for their sites, quickreference lists have been provided beginning on page 223. Trees are arranged alphabetically according to cultural adaptability and major landscape attributes such as flower, fruit or autumn color. The authors invite comments from interested readers who may have additional information relative to a particular plant's performance under street or urban conditions. This information will be collated and added to our reference file on street trees. I 79 0 m x a !a. ro 4, m o~ .N ~ ~ 8 . 0 OJ ~C#& Z$;x3 : ! \"'i5. m -S d 0 U 'S N H U C ~ ci E O R~ E C3 s Iz: _C \"'i5. H F I \" 80 CLARIF1CATION OF CONTENTS Nomenclature: In general, plant names used in this Hortus Third, L. H. Bailey Hortorium, Macmillan New York, 1976. to publication conform Publishing Co., Inc., Hardiness Zones : The zones of hardiness listed here are based on the Arnold Arboretum Zone Map which attempts to define the cold tolerance of north temperate woody plants. While we indicate northern limits, most plants will grow over a broad southern range. Average Annual Minimum Temperature Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 -50F or lower -50 to -35F -35 to -20F -20 to -10F -10 to -5F -5 to 5F 5 to 10F 10 to 20F 20 to 30F 30 to 40F Plant Size : An attempt has been made it Many authors have listed size as heights do not accurately reflect conditions. list average landscape sizes. wild plants. These applies the size that may occur under landscape to to native or The harsh effect of this Boston street. asphalt and concrete buxldtmgs IS softened bg the trees that frame 81 Basal sucherinq is a problem on several tree species, as this ltnden illustrates. 82 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS Many people have assisted in the preparation of this manuscript and the authors appreciate their comments, suggestions and creative criticism. Major contributors of information, time, or interest include William Flemer III, Edward S. Gray, Nancy A. LeMay, Jeanne E. Sattely, Stephen A. Spongberg, Richard E. Weaver, Jr., and Carroll E. Wood, Jr. Special thanks goes to Jeanne S. Wadleigh, Editor of Arnoldia, for her persistence in the task and her patience with the authors. In addition, we would like to acknowledge the value of numerous articles, books and letters containing comments, observations and personal experiences. This vast reservoir of information enabled these authors to draw upon and, we hope, expand what is known about street trees. Ailanthus altissima is among the most stress-tolerant trees. The broken branch this specimen should be pruned flush with the trunk to effect good wound healing. on "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Best Street Trees","article_sequence":3,"start_page":83,"end_page":138,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24757","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160bb6b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"I THE BEST STREET TREES 83 Considering all factors affecting street trees, it takes a strong, adaptable plant to endure today's environmental stresses and survive in reasonably good condition. The following trees have proven durable and functional in appearance, structural strength, pest resistance, adaptability to inhospitable soils, and resistance to storm and mechanical damage. They also require minimal pruning to keep them visually and structurally sound. Barring unforeseen circumstances, they can be expected to live thirty to forty years or more. Most important, they are commercially available in landscape size and generally at reasonable prices. Although these trees represent our choice of the \"best,\" they are not infallible. A plant that performs admirably in one area of the country may not duplicate that effort in another region. Honeylocust has suffered in recent years in the Midwest from canker, webworm, gall, and mites, while in New England these problems do not appear prevalent. The selection of trees for city planting should, therefore, be based on a thorough knowledge of all factors which contribute to their successful establishment. :. ________ ., C.i Effective use of Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford' for screening a parking lot. 84I Acer buergeranum HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 20-35 feet 15-25 feet oval-rounded to rounded ZONE: 5, perhaps best in 6 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light shade; well-drained soil; withstands drought and heat 85 A small tree with lustrous, dark green foliage that turns yellow and red in fall, Acer buergeranum exhibits good pest and drought tolerance. The bark is a handsome orange-brown and develops a scaly, platy characteristic. Trident maple would make a good street tree but has not been tried to any degree. Since it is variable from seed, superior selections might be made; however, lack of availability may limit its use. Acer campestre Hedge Maple HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT: 25-30 feet 25-35 feet (50 feet) rounded, dense, usually 4 low-branched ZONE: full sun to light ENVIRONMENT. shade; well-drained soil; pH adaptable ; tolerates drought and heat 86 I Acer campestre is a good tree for dry, high pH soils, and it is beginning to appear in street and urban plantings. Its dark green, pest resistant foliage may turn a good yellow in fall and remains on the tree later than on any other maple with the exception of A. platanoides. The tree tends to be low-branched, and proper pruning is necessary to form a single-stemmed plant. West Coast nurserymen will be introducing selections for better form. Evaluations at the Ohio Shade Tree Plots have indicated that A. campestre is more tolerant of environmental pollution and differing soil conditions than had been previously recognized. Acer platanoides Norway Maple HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 40-70 feet 40-60 feet rounded, dense 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light shade; well-drained acid or alkaline soil; more tolerant of dry soils than many maples Acer platanoides has long been one of the most common shade and street trees, but it is gradually losing favor because of its disease susceptibility. Its dark green foliage turns golden-yellow in fall when it and A. campestre are the last maples to drop their leaves. The showy yellow-green flowers appear before the leaves in May. Norway maple is extremely dense-headed and shallow-rooted, making grass culture under its canopy virtually impossible; it is, however, very tolerant of pruning. Verticillium wilt causes sporadic dieback of branches and will kill entire trees. This disease is becoming more severe throughout the East 87 been selected and the following may prove and Midwest. Many cultivars have oval habit; `Columuse: 'Cleveland'- upright street superior to the species for 'Emerald Queen' - ascending branches, uprightnare' - narrowly upright; to green in purplish-red spring foliage changing oval outline; `Schwedleri' in shape. heat-resistant, upright-oval early summer; 'Summer Shade' - Left: Acer Below: platanoides 'Erectum' Flowers of A. platanoides , 88 Acer pseudoplatanus HEIGHT. 40-60 feet SPREAD: 30-50 feet HABIT: upright-spreading branches form an oval to rounded outline that is not consistently uniform ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT. full sun to light shade; well-drained, dry to moist soil; tolerates saline conditions; pH adaptable 89 Sycamore maple is not a particularly valuable ornamental but is superlative where saline conditions exist. It withstands salt spray and because of this attribute has been widely planted in Holland and on Cape Cod. Summer foliage is a deep green, and the bark is an unusual grayish- to orange-brown, flaking off in small rectangular scales. There are several cultivars, including 'Erectum', an upright form, and 'Purpureum' in which the underside of the leaf is purplecolored. Ornamental interest of this tree is not superior to red or sugar maple, and its use should be reserved for areas where deicing or ocean salts present a cultural problem. Acer rubrum Red Maple HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT. 50-80 feet 40-60 feet ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: pyramidal in youth developing ascending branches that result in an irregular ovoid or rounded crown shade; wet to transplanting full sun to acid soils; is recommended dry, light spring 90 Left. Acer rubrum A. rubrum bark 'Columnare'; right: The medium green summer foliage of this tree may turn brilliant red to yellow Its flowers appear in April before the leaves, and vary from red to yellow; some individual plants are showy in flower as well as in fruit. Silverygray bark adds winter interest. Rapid growth and ease of culture make this a superior tree, but in many areas its use is approaching a monoculture. Its limitations include a shallow root system, weak structure, and a tendency to produce numerous unwanted seedlings. Presently there is a major problem of graft incompatibility on many cultivar selections, but this should be solved soon since propagation by cuttings is becoming more common. Many worthwhile cultivars have been chosen for red fall coloration; they include 'Autumn Flame', 'October Glory', 'Red Sunset', and 'Schlesingeri'. Selections for upright habit include 'Armstrong', 'Bowhall', and 'Columnare'. 'Red Sunset' has proved to be the hardiest of those chosen for red fall coloration. in autumn. 91 Aesculus X carnea 'Briotii' Ruby Red Horsechestnut HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 30-40 feet 30-40 feet rounded, dense, low- branched ZONE. 3 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; welldrained, acid to neutral soil Ruby-red Its flowers in May and its dense habit make this horsechestnut a fine tree. lustrous, dark green foliage is resistant to leaf blotch, which is so troublesome on Aesculus hippocastanunz, and it consistently outperforms that species in confined growing areas. Widely used in England for avenues and parks, it probably a is unsurpassed for street very slow grower. use by any other tree in its genus, but it is 92I Ailanthus altissima Tree of Heaven HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT: 40-60 feet 25-40 feet coarse, with thick upright-spreading, open; clubby branchlets full sun ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: to light shade; well-drained, dry soil; pollution tolerant; pH adaptable; exhibits aerial salt tolerance 93 Tree of heaven is one of the toughest trees for urban areas, though often belittled because of its weedy tendencies. The dark green summer foliage has a tropical appearance. The yellow-green flowers open in June or July and staminate (male) flowers have a mildly unpleasant odor. Pistillate (female) plants produce fruits that occur in large clusters varying from green to bright red and can be very ornamental. Selection of good colored fruit forms needs to be made. The plant suckers and seeds to form large colonies. Because of weak structure, it is subject to damage from ice and wind storms. It is ideal as a quick-colonizing species for difficult sites, and tolerates heat and atmospheric pollutants better than most trees. It would make a good container plant on a temporary basis. Amelanchier arborea Downy Serviceberry, Shadbush HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 15-25 feet (40 feet) 15-25 feet large shrub or small tree, usually forming a rounded crown; quite variable in habit ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light or shade; well-drained, moist, acid slightly alkaline soil 94 Left: Amelanchier arborea burk, top nght \/iomers of A. arborea; below : A. canadensis 95 This is a fine species, one that has not been used to any degree for street or urban plantings. The medium green summer foliage changes to rich yellow, apricot, and red in fall. Short-lived, white, fleecy flowers develop with the leaves in April. The purplish-black fruits (June) are attractive and edible. Smooth gray bark marked with slight vertical fissures adds winter interest. The species has been successfully utilized in suburban areas where the tree lawns were spacious and pollutants were minimal. It suffers from leaf rust, mildew, fire blight, borers and several other pests that may limit its acclimation to heavily stressed areas. This species can be trained as a single-stemmed tree but most nurseries grow it as a multistemmed shrub. It transplants readily and offers a highly ornamental alternative to Malus, Prunus and Crataegus. Amelanchier laevis, Allegheny serviceberry, is similar in size and ornamental characteristics but differs in the color of the expanding leaves (bronze to purple compared to the gray of A. arborea), and the less pubescent (hairy) inflorescence. Another species, A. canadensis, shadblow serviceberry, is often confused with A. arborea in the nursery trades. It is a multistemmed shrub that matures at a height of 12-20 feet. The flowers are smaller and are borne in tighter, smaller racemes. Carpinus betulus European Hornbeam, Ironwood HEIGHT. SPREAD: 40-60 feet 30-60 feet and wider HABIT: often pyramidal-oval in youth, at maturity ranging from ovalrounded to broad-spreading; extremely variable in habit ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun, although a modicum of shade is acceptable; moist, well-drained soil; tolerates acidity and alkalinity as well as drought; shows good pollution tolerance 96 Le\/t ( arpmv betulus `Globosa'; right: C. b. `Coli~mnnns', below: C. b. 'Fastigiata' 97 This and species and the cultivars are superlative ornamentals, well-adapted to street city use The dark green foliage may turn yellow in fall. The sinewy, fluted, gray bark provides winter interest. The species is extremely variable in habit, which may limit its value for street purposes. It can, however, be used in parks and other open areas. Several cultivars have been successful along streets and in containers 'Columnaris' is a densely-branched and foliaged, spirelike, slow-growing form that usually maintains a central leader. 'Fastigiata' is the most common cultivar in cultivation and with age develops a vase shape, with distinct fan-ribbed branches. It may grow 30-40 (50) feet tall and 20-30 feet wide. It does not develop a central leader and the foliage is more uniformly distributed along the branches than on 'Columnaris' or 'Globosa'. 'Globosa' becomes rounded to globose in outline with no central trunk. All cultivars make good container plants, screens, or groups. Carpinus betulus and the cultivars are superior to the North American native, C. caroliniana, because of greater pollution tolerance Celtis occidentalis Hackberry ---_.__._~~ HEIGHT SPREAD. HABIT: 40-60 feet 40-60 feet ZONE: 2 ENVIRONMENT upright, open, irregular shade; wet or full sun to light dry soils; pH adaptable; wind-stable 98 I is a \"tough\" tree in the sense that it is extremely adaptable. It windswept, dry conditions of the prairie but also occurs as a flood plain species. Its summer foliage is a light, often sickly green, while limited yellow coloration may occur in fall. The fruits are dark purple, brown or black, and have a date-like taste; robins supposedly relish them. The gray bark develops corky warts or ridges. A witches-broom condition (branches becoming fasciated and appearing broom-like) occurs on many specimens and is unsightly, nipple gall is a problem on leaves. Although a member of the Ulmaceae, Hackberry withstands the Celtis occidentalis is immune to Dutch elm disease. A weed tree that is often found in many out-of-the-way areas, it transplants readily and tolerates polluted conditions. Selections need to be made for improved ornamental characteristics. 'Prairie Pride' has lustrous, dark green foliage and freedom from witches-broom. 'Magnifica' is a hybrid clone with very vigorous growth and freedom from witches-broom. Cornus kousa Japanese Dogwood HEIGHT. 15-20 feet (perhaps 25-30) SPREAD 15-20 feet HABIT large shrub or small, lowbranched tree, often developmg a broad crown with horizontal branches 5 ZONE ENVIRONMENT more full sun or partial shade; well-drained, moist, acid soil; drought, heat and cold tolerant than C. flonda 99 Based on the inadequate performance of Cornus florida after the winters of 1976-'77 and '77-'78, this species probably is a better choice. It is structurally stronger and more flower-bud-hardy than C. florida and, therefore, better adapted to northern areas. The lustrous, dark green foliage of C. kousa develops a rich reddish-purple fall color that persists until the leaves fall. In June the flower clusters with their four conspicuous, pointed, white bracts are borne above the leaves The raspberry-colored and shaped fruits mature in August. Bark on old trunks develops a patchy, quilt-hke mosaic. Leaf scorch may limit use in extremely dry situations and, therefore, Japanese dogwood should not be used in areas with limited soil volumes. Little is known of its tolerance to polluted conditions. It requires pruning in the nursery to produce a single-stemmed tree. The variety chinensis 'Milky Way' is more floriferous than the species; bracts on 'Summer Stars' hold up to six weeks after the normal flowering period, the fruits are abundant, and the foliage turns maroon in fall. 100 Cornus mas HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT. large 15-20 feet 15-20 feet shrub rounded outline ZONE: or 4 small tree of ENVIRONMENT: full sun to hght shade; well-drained, moist or dry soil; pH adaptable 101 is one of the most adaptable dogwood species and one that performs well in dry, high pH soils. Its lustrous, dark green, pest free summer foliage holds late and does not develop the reddish-purple common to many dogwood species. Small, abundant yellow flowers appear before the leaves in March or April and may last three weeks. The cherry-like, red fruits mature in July-August, and are borne under the foliage. They are relished by birds and can be used in preserves. The bark may develop a slight scaly character, presenting a mottle of gray, brown, and orangish-brown. Cornus mas can be used in containers and, if pruned, will make a very suitable small street tree. It probably is the most pollution-tolerant and soil-adaptable dogwood for city conditions. 'Flava' has large yellow fruits that are sweeter than those of the red type. Cornelian-cherry Cornus of~cin~,lis Japanese Dogwood HEIGHT. 15-20 feet SPREAD. 15-20 feet HABIT. large shrub rounded outline ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: or full sun or to light small tree of shade; well-drained, moist dry soil; pH adaptable Because of its similarity to Cornus mas, this is an overlooked species although it flowers a week earlier and its fruits ripen about a month later. Japanese dogwood has axillary tufts of brownish hairs on the underside of the leaf, and its bark exfohates more than does the bark of C. mas. It is definitely a worthwhile alternative 102 Crataegus crus-galli Cockspur Hawthorn HEIGHT: 20-30 feet 20-35 feet SPREAD: HABIT. broadly rounded, lowbranched tree with wide-spreading horizontal branches and numerous 1- to 3-inch-long thorns ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; adaptable to varied soils; may contract chlorosis in high pH soils 103 From the Atlantic seaboard to the far reaches of the Midwest, this species tends to outperform most hawthoms. The lustrous, dark green foliage turns wine-red in fall and the white, malodorous flowers (June) are followed by deep red, semipersistent fruits in September and October. The principal objections to street tree use are its low-branched, wide-spreading crown and the 1- to 3-inchlong lethal thoms. The variety inermis possesses the fine ornamental traits of the species but has no thorns. Cedar hawthorn rusts can affect leaves, stems, and fruits, especially in rainy seasons. Leaf miner also can be troublesome. Crataegus crus-galli is a good choice for barriers and screens, since it forms an impenetrable thicket. Tolerance of dry, infertile, compacted soils, the soot and grime of cities, and a long life span place it at the forefront of the hawthorns for the urban landscape. Crataegus phaenopyrum Washington Hawthorn HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT. 20-30 feet 15-25 feet broad-oval to rounded, densely branched and armed with prominent thorns ZONE 4 ENVIRONMENT to of full sun; heavy clay sandy, well-drained soils; tolerant urban pollution; pH adaptable 104 i This species proves to be a superior ornamental wherever it is grown and may be number one among the hawthorns for its landscape attributes and cultural adaptability. The best known hawthorn, it is the one most often specified by landscape designers. In the nursery trade, it is often grown in two forms: a multistemmed large shrub, and a single-stemmed small tree. The lustrous green foliage frequently becomes reddish-purple in fall The last hawthorn to bloom, it bears fragrant, white flowers in June, these are followed by small, bright red fruits in September-October which may persist through winter. The leaves hold extremely late (often into November) and may mask the fruit display. Washington hawthorn is subject to cedar hawthorn rusts which may affect leaves, stems and fruits Woolly aphids and lace-bug can be troublesome. Crataegus phaenopyrum has been used extensively for streets, parks, and aboveground containers. It can be pruned into an effective hedge or barrier. Thorns on this and other hawthorns hamper transplanting and maintenance operations The selection of a thornless form would be beneficial. Crataegus viridis 'Winter King' Winter King Hawthorn 105 HEIGHT: SPREAD. 20-30 feet 20-30 feet ZONE 4 ENVIRONMENT. HABIT. vase-shaped a rounded crown; branching habit branches form very uniform to full sun; heavy clay well-drained soil; pH adaptable the best new hawthorn for urban plantings, this cultivar has abundant clusters of white flowers in May, followed by 3\/s-inch-diameter red fruits that persist through winter. The lustrous, medium green foliage does not color well in fall. The young stems are an attractive bloomy (waxy), grayish-green, and older trunks develop an exfoliating bark. This plant appears resistant to the rust disease, but in extended wet periods will contract the disease on foliage, fruits and stems. It makes a splendid street, lawn, park or golf course tree and is beautiful in mass plantings. It is produced by budding and, therefore, trees are quite uniform, which is not true for Crataegus crus-galli and C. phaenopyrum, which are seed-grown. Probably 106 Fraxinus americana White Ash HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT. to weakly pyramidal upright-oval; becomes round-topped 50-65 feet 50-65 feet in youth, ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist to dry soils; pH adaptable and open with age 107 adaptable native, eastern North American trees, in landscape plantings. The compound, dark green summer foliage develops rich maroon and yellow colors in fall, the outer leaves becoming maroon with a gradation to yellow toward the trunk. Some trees, however, become a uniform reddish-purple. The bark is gray-black, deeply ridged and furrowed with a diamond-like pattern. Assets include rapid growth and ease of transplanting, while limitations include borers, canker, scale, and, in recent years, a type of dieback termed \"ash-decline.\" 'Autumn Purple', 'Rose Hill', and 'Autumn Applause' are seedless forms (staminate) that have deep reddish-purple fall color and are superior to the species for consistency of coloration. The species is dioecious (sexes separate) and selection of male types is desirable to avoid the prolific seeds. one White ash is ~ the most yet often is overlooked for use Fraxinus pennsylvanica Green Ash HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 50-60 feet 30-40 feet ZONE. 3 ENVIRONMENT t pollution-tolerant full sun; wet or dry air softly pyramidal in youth, developing an upright-spreading habit at maturity, usually with 3 to 5 large, main branches soils; pH adaptable; heat and coarse 108I This species has been overused as a street tree due to its exceptional tolerance of alkaline soils and city conditions. Pistillate trees produce abundant fruits at a young age, and the seedlings may present weed problems. The foliage varies from dull to lustrous green, and fall color may be a good yellow. Fraxinus pennsylvanica is susceptible to storm damage, insects (borers), and canker. 'Marshall's Seedless' is a staminate clone with lustrous, dark green foliage and good yellow fall color; it also appears to be more vigorous and has fewer insect problems than the species. 'Summit' is a staminate selection of pyramidal outline which forms a more uniform crown compared to 'Marshall's Seedless' and also develops excellent yellow fall colors. Green ash is a popular tree in the plains states, (Kansas, Nebraska, Dakotas) for it tolerates drought, heat, cold, high pH soils, and wind. One of the most city-tolerant trees, it should be considered where growing conditions are difficult. Ginkgo biloba Ginkgo HEIGHT: 50-70 feet SPREAD: 30-70 feet HABIT: pyramidal to irregular broad-rounded at maturity to 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT. full sun, dry soils; tolerant of air moist or pollution; pH adaptable 109 Left. Fruits of Ginkgo biloba; above G. b. 'Fastigzata' an excellent city tree, but seed-grown plants suffer from lack of uniformity and it is impossible to determine if they are staminate (male) or ovulate (female) until they bear \"fruit\" (technically, naked seeds). Seed-bearing trees are undesirable because the \"fruits\" upon decomposition have the odor of rancid butter and also present a hazard to pedestrians because of the slippery, fleshy outer layer of the seed coat. Growth is slow. Young trees are rather gaunt and considerable time (fifteen to twenty-five years) is required before a full, dense crown is developed. The bright green foliage usually turns butter-yellow in fall. Staminate cultivars include 'Autumn Gold', 'Lakeview', 'Mayfield', and 'Santa Cruz'. 'Sentry' is a fastigiate staminate clone that is effective in restricted growing areas. Ginkgo is remarkably insect and disease resistant and this fact, coupled with pollution tolerances, makes it a valuable tree for urban situations. This is 110I Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis -- Thornless Honeylocust HEIGHT 30-70 feet SPREAD 40-60 feet HABIT spreading crown of rounded to broad-rounded outline; open, airy texture 4 ZONE. full sun, tolerates ENVIRONMENT drought and saline conditions; pH adaptable At the present time, this plant is the most popular tree for streets, parks, malls, residences and containers, in part, because the light, airy composition of its canopy allows grass to be maintained up to the base of the trunk. Tolerant of extremely moist to dry soils, as well as saline conditions, Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis is probably the best landscape tree where aerial salts are present. Its bright to medium green foliage may turn golden-yellow in fall. On fruiting specimens, the long, flat, brownish seed pods tend to be messy. Insects and diseases have become increasingly prevalent as this tree assumes monoculture status. Although a good tree, its use should be tempered with the knowledge that mimosa webworm, pod gall, locust plant bug, mites, and canker may prove troublesome. Cold winters in recent years, however, have decreased mimosa webworm populations. Many cultivars are available, and it is virtually impossible for even experienced nurserymen to distinguish among them. One exception is 'Sunburst', which has golden-yellow color on new leaves Of the green forms, 'Skyline' and 'Shademaster' are among the best, both being essentially fruitless. Thornless honeylocust is an easy tree to transplant in large sizes and is well adapted to container culture. The cold winters of the last seasons have resulted in much dieback, and individual cultivars need to be evaluated for cold hardiness. 111 Gymnocladus dioica Kentucky Coffeetree HEIGHT. 50-70 feet SPREAD: 30-50 feet HABIT: vertically ascending branches form a narrow, obovate crown; bare-limbed and picturesque looking in winter ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: drought and full sun; tolerates city conditions; pH adaptable Selected specimens of this native species rival any plant offered by the nursery trades. The Kentucky coffeetree has been overlooked for landscape use. The bluish-green, pinnately compound foliage may turn a good yellow in fall, and the grayish-brown to dark brown bark develops tortuous and recurved plates and is quite handsome in the winter landscape. Pistillate trees, however, bear abundant quantities of large, leathery seed pods that drop sporadically through the seasons and may constitute a litter problem. The species could be considered where a light foliage canopy is desired, and appears to be more air pollution tolerant and soil adaptable than is generally recognized. It is a fine tree for parks and other large areas. Its street tree use might be limited by size, coarseness, and variability of seed-grown material. Selected forms can be propagated from root cuttings. 112 Koelreuteria paniculata Goldenraintree HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: outline 30-40 feet 30-40 feet of tree ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT. full sun; withstands regular, rounded drought, heat, wind, alkalinity; spring transplanting is recommended 113 Goldenraintree is a superlative plant for lawns, parks, campuses, and possibly streets, where it has not been used to any degree. Its emerging foliage is bronze or purple-tinged; at maturity it is a rich green. The yellow flowers (July-August) are borne in wide, 12- to 15-inch-long panicles; the papery capsules that develop soon after go through a green to yellow to brown color transition. Koelreuteria is extremely tolerant of dry, alkaline soils and seems to withstand atmospheric heat and air pollutants. Cold limits its use in the North, for when temperatures drop below -20 to -25 F, injury may ensue. Although this tree has previously as weak-wooded, the authors have not observed breakage. is an upright form that may be 25 feet high and only 4-6 feet wide and does not flower well. 'September' extends the flowering season into late August and September but is not as hardy as the species. been described 'Fastigiata' 114 Liquidambar styraciflua American Sweetgum HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT. at 60-75 feet 60-75 feet in pyramidal maturity youth, rounded ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT. full wet, acid soil; spring recommended sun; moist to transplanting is Widely used throughout the Midwest, West and South for street tree plantings, sweetgum's use in the North is limited by hardiness. Trees should be springplanted, since many young, fall-transplanted specimens were killed during the winters of 1976-'77 and '77-'78. The lustrous, dark green foliage changes to yellow, red, and purple in fall. Spherical, 1- to 11\/2-inch-diameter fruits create litter through fall and winter. Chlorosis will develop in high pH soils The tree is extremely tolerant of wet soils and throughout the South it is almost weedlike on wet, swampy sites Sweetgum needs considerable root space and is not wellsuited to restricted growing areas. 'Moraine' has lustrous, dark green foliage followed by red-purple fall tones and was not injured at Wooster, Ohio, after the severe winters of 1976-'77 and '77-'78. The leaves on 'Variegata' develop yellow mottled patterns with no two leaves exactly similar. Sweetgum is a fast growing tree and will make a fine lawn, park, or street tree if proper cultural conditions are provided. Lack of cold hardiness is a significant problem and temperatures in the range of -10 to -15F will induce some stem damage. Seeds should be collected from the northernmost reaches of the native range to insure a measure of cold hardiness. 115 Magnolia kobus var. loebneri 'Merrill' Merrill Magnolia HEIGHT SPREAD. HABIT: outline 20-35 feet 20-30 feet tight, upright, pyramidal 4 ZONE. full sun; tolerates ENVIRONMENT. infertile but well-drained soils; pH ~ adaptable; transplant in spring \/ il In April, the Merrill magnolia is covered with fragrant, white, multipetaled flowers Autumn foliage is yellowish-brown and not outstanding. It is tolerant of drought and difficult urban growing conditions. Plants flower well when young and the floral display is a welcome relief after a long winter season. This cultivar is similar to Magnolia kobus var. stellata, star magnolia, in floral characteristics but has larger flowers with fewer petals and is faster and taller growing. With proper pruning, it could be trained into a tree form which would make it suitable for streets. Adequate moisture throughout the early years of establishment is necessary since magnolias tend to be fleshy-rooted and do not have an abundance of absorbing roots or root hairs. Magnolia X soulangiana Saucer Magnolia 117 HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT: often 20-25 feet 20-25 feet rounded and spreading; low-branched and multiple- ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT. full sun; adapts to difficult growing conditions and air stemmed ; requires considerable pruning for maintenance of a single leader pollution; requires prefers acid soil good drainage; Left: Magnolia x soulangiana 'Brozzonax', right: bark of M. x soulangiana This plant is a hybrid between Magnolia heptapeta (M. denudata), from which the large, cup-shaped flowers are derived, and M. quinquepeta (M. liliflora), to which the rose to purple flower color is attributable. The bark is an attractive, smooth gray. Widespread urban use has shown this to be an adaptable, structurally sound, long-lived and pest free tree. Disadvantages include the flower color, which tends toward a muddy purple in some cultivars, the wide-spreading habit, and the litter problem from fallen flowers. M. X soulangiana is probably best used in planting spaces where it can be allowed to branch with minimal pruning. When required, pruning should be done immediately after flowering. Floral variation is considerable among cultivars, and there is much nomenclatural confusion in the trade. For this reason, trees should be selected when in flower and then transplanted in spring. Superior cultivars include 'Alba Superba', an early, fragrant white, 'Alexandrina', with white on the inside of the petals and lavender-pink outside; 'Brozzonii', a late flowerer with tepals of white with a pink flush; 'Lennei', large, relatively tight-clustered, reddish-purple flowers and a more spreading, sprawling, low-growing habit, 'Lombardy Rose', with long, narrow pink flowers in late May, and 'Verbanica', featuring lavenderpink flowers, again in late May. 118 Malus Flowering Crabapple Any treatment of crabapples is soon outdated, for new ones are introduced annually and adequate evaluation is not possible until ten to twenty years later. Crabapples usually are small trees with showy white, pink, rose, or purplish-red flowers. Their fruits vary in color from green to yellow to red, and in size from 1\/4-inch to 2 inches in diameter. Crabapples seldom color well in fall although Malus florentina, M. hupehensis and M. tschonoskii can be effective The trees are easy to transplant and are adaptable to light loamy soils as well as clayey situations. They prefer a slightly acid soil but seem to be able to grow over a wide pH range (pH 4.5 to 6.5). They do suffer from serious diseases, however, the most devastating of which is apple scab, Venturia inaequalis. This disease in wet seasons results in severe defoliation. Other diseases include cedar apple rust, which is prevalent on native crabapples, and fireblight. Certain species and cultivars exhibit resistance to these diseases. Crabapples have been used in parks, malls, containers and along streets. One of the primary concerns along streets is the fruit which can prove hazardous to traffic because of its slick flesh; not only are the decomposing fruits unsightly, but they attract wasps which may sting passing pedestrians. Crabapples tend to be low-branched and wide-spreading, characteristics that may interfere with traffic movement. The major maintenance problem is the necessity for periodic removal of suckers and watersprouts. The following crabapples represent some of the better types that might be used for various urban landscape purposes. Our selection is based on composite considerations of growth habit, flower, fruit, foliage and disease resistance. Malus X atrosanguinea Carmine Crabapple A low-branching, wide-spreading type, this forms a dense mound of lustrous, dark green foliage. The rose-pink flowers open in May. The dark red, 1\/3-inchdiameter fruit is seldom produced in quantity and consequently is not a maintenance problem. It is very resistant to apple scab. Ultimate tree height is 1520 feet with a comparable spread. Malus baccata 'Columnaris' Columnar Siberian Crabapple This is one of the few distinctly upright-growing crabapples offering good disease resistance. Flowers are white and fruits are yellow with a red blush. The authors have not observed heavy flowering on this cultivar, which will grow 20-30 feet (to 50 feet) high and 6-10 feet wide. Malus 'Coralburst' A small, dainty, compact crabapple that is ideal for use in containers, it forms a symmetrical, rounded crown and bears double rose-pink flowers. The foliage is dark green and slightly susceptible to apple scab; fruits are sparse. 119 Malus 'Donald Wyman' This is one of the best crabapples the authors have observed. The foliage is lustrous, dark green, and highly resistant to disease. The annual white flowers are followed by 3\/s-inch-diameter, cherry-red fruits that persist throughout most winters. The tree grows 20-25 feet high and 25-30 feet wide. It is easily rooted from cuttings. Malus floribunda Japanese Flowering Crabapple This often has been called the standard by which other crabapples are judged. The dark green foliage is slightly susceptible to scab and mildew. The species is rated moderately susceptible to fire blight. The deep pink to red buds open to single white flowers. The 3\/a-inch-diameter yellow and red fruits are not as ornamental as are the fruits of 'Donald Wyman'. The habit is variable but the finest trees assume a low-branched (almost mushroom-like), wide-spreading canopy. The height ranges between 15-25 feet. Malus hupehensis Tea Crabapple This is one of the most distinctive crabapples because of its vase-shaped growth habit and long arching branches The lustrous, dark green foliage is scab free but fire blight can be severe. The pink buds open to white. The 3\/sinch-diameter greenish-yellow to reddish fruit is not showy. The flowering pattern is alternate. Size varies from 20-25 feet in height and 20-25 feet in width. Malus 'Red Jade' This is a graceful weeping form with lustrous, dark green foliage. The foliage is listed as being moderately susceptible to scab and powdery mildew but the authors have not observed significant foliar problems. The tree grows 15-20 feet high. It is a superlative choice for containers where the branches can hang over the sides. The flowers are white and the 1\/z-inch-diameter fruits are glossy red. 'Red Jade' tends to bear in alternate years. Malus sargentii Sargent Crabapple crabapple bears white flowers and 1\/4-inchdiameter dark red fruits. The deep green foliage is essentially disease free and may turn rich yellow-brown in fall. The ultimate height ranges between 8 and 10 feet and spread may double the height. A splendid choice for containers or mass plantings, this is an annual-flowering type. Low-growing, broad-spreading, this Malus 'Snowcloud' Upright-oval-shaped, this cultivar is well suited for street use. The foliage is lustrous green and disease free. The flowers are white and, interestingly, the plant sets no fruit. Ultimate height will range between 15 and 25 feet with spread about one-half the height. Malus 'Snowdrift' Snowdrift is often described as one of the best crabapples for street tree use. The foliage is lustrous dark green and slightly susceptible to scab. It has been listed as fire blight susceptible. The 1-inch-diameter white flowers are effective and the small orange-red fruit is not messy. The habit is oval to oval-rounded with ultimate height approaching 20 feet. Malus tschonoskii Tschonoskii Crabapple Malus tschonoskii is one of the larger crabapples and may grow 30-40 feet tall. The medium green foliage turns bronze and orange-red in fall, it is slightly susceptible to scab. The single white-pink flowers and the sparse russet-green fruits are not effective. The new foliage is silver-gray and is beautiful. Habit of the plant is upright-oval. Fruzt of Malus sargentii 120 Aboae~ Malus sp.; below: M. hupehensis 121 Above bark and blossoms of Malus floribunda; below. M. micromalus 122 Platanus X acerifolia London Plane Tree HEIGHT SPREAD. HABIT. 70-100 feet 60-80 feet ing open pyramidal in youth, becomand wide-spreading with ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; adaptable to urban conditions and soil extremes; pH adaptable; drought tolerant ...a~,...,, The species has been used as a street tree in many cities and has literally overgrown its boundaries. As a tree for parks, open spaces, golf courses or other large areas, it deserves consideration. The medium green foliage is not particularly outstanding in summer or fall. The creamy-olive bark adds winter interest. Abiotic (non-biological) stresses are known to induce greater biological stresses (diseases and insects) and this may be part of the reason for the increased number of diseases and insects reported on London plane trees in recent years. Assets include strong structure, rapid growth and dependability in difficult urban locations. Liabilities include litter from large leaves and exfoliating bark, and the massive size of mature specimens. Pests and diseases include lace-wing fly and variable resistance to Anthracnose. 'Bloodgood' is supposedly a superior clone that tolerates heat, drought, soil compaction, and severe pruning, while being a rapid grower. It has been reported as being extremely susceptible to ozone. Recent reports after the winter of 1976-'77 and '77-'78 have noted extensive winter damage in the form of stem dieback and trunk splitting. Platanus X acerifolia has proven itself to be a fine choice for container plantings. 123 Prunus sargentii Sargent Cherry 124 HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 30-40 feet 20-40 feet upright, in youth, rounded with age shaped ascending, becoming vase- ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist, welldrained, acid soil more in general, are not tolerant of extreme stress and, therefore, are not suitable for streets or urban conditions. This is probably the best ornamental cherry, with its dark green foliage that changes to yellow, brown and reddishpurple in the fall. The single, pink, short-lived flowers are produced in axillary clusters in April-May before the foliage develops. The rich, polished, reddishbrown bark provides seasonal interest. Overall, Prunus sargentii is a good tree that is probably best utilized where poor soils and stresses are minimal. 'Columnaris' is an upright form with a thin \"beer-glass\" shape; it has the same ornamental assets as the species. Cherries, Prunus sargentii 'Columnaris' 125 Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford' Bradford Pear 30-50 feet HEIGHT. 20-35 feet SPREAD. HABIT. pyramidal to rounded pyramidal- 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: full sun; adaptable to varied soils, extremely pH, and pollutants This very popular cultivar has been overused for street and city plantings because of its uniform habit and urban adaptability. The lustrous, dark green leaves hold late and may color reddish-purple in the fall, 'Bradford' was still in fall color when Boston had its first snow on November 21, 1978. The malodorous, white flowers appear before the leaves in late April and early May and are followed by small russet-colored fruits which are never a maintenance problem. Graft compatibility problems are becoming increasingly evident and twentyyear-old trees may show decline. Cultivars should be budded on Pyrus calleryana seedlings since those budded on P. communis soon decline. Some nurserymen 126 have had success rooting cuttings and this approach alleviates the incompatibility problems Older specimens in the parking lot at the National Arboretum are splitting at multiple-stemmed crotches. 'Aristocrat', 'Chancellor' (upright form), 'Chanticleer', 'Select', and 'White House' (upright form) offer good ornamental characteristics. Pyrus fauriei HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT. 20 feet 20 feet or more dense, broad pyramidal to rounded ZONE. 5 full sun; adaptable ENVIRONMENT: to varied soils; shows great potential for urban situations This plant is often listed in the nursery trade as Pyrus calleryana 'Fauriei'. The white flowers are similar to those of 'Bradford' and open in late April to early May. The lustrous, dark green leaves turn orange, scarlet and reddish-purple in fall. The plant develops a symmetrical, dense crown at an early age. Plants tried in Ohio cities have performed well in 4- by 4-foot sidewalk cuts. P. fauriei appears to be as city tolerant as 'Bradford' and would make a good street tree for that reason. 127 Quercus palustris Pin Oak HEIGHT: 50-70 feet SPREAD 25-40 feet HABIT strongly pyramidal, usually with a central leader; the lower branches pendulous, the middle horizontal, and the upper upright 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: to moist or of alkaline ditions full sun; adaptable dry situations, intolerant soils; tolerant of city con- The most popular oak in the East and Midwest for street and lawn plantings, pm oak is transplanted more readily than most oaks. Its lustrous, dark green foliage turns russet-red to red in fall and often holds through winter on young plants. The species is tolerant of wet soils and, in the wild, is found on wet clay flats where water may stand for several weeks. It seems equally at home in sandy or clayey soils. A superior performer in urban situations, Quercus palustris has been used liberally as a street tree in many cities. In general, it makes a good street tree, although its pendulous lower branches may obstruct walks and roadways and must be removed on a regular basis. The cultivars 'Crownright' and 'Sovereign' have lower branches that do not droop but are borne at a 90 to 45 angle to the main leader. These cultivars are prone to graft mcompatibility problems. 128I Quercus phellos Willow Oak 129 HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. young, age 40-60 feet 30-40 feet (and larger) when with distinctly pyramidal becoming oval-rounded ZONE: 5 full sun; moist, acid, ENVIRONMENT: well-drained soils, transplant in spring most graceful and refined of the oaks and certainly the in many parts of the temperate South. This is the pin oak of the southern states. It is seen in street tree plantings, residential landscapes, and parks. The small, narrow, linear leaves provide a willowy texture that most people would not associate with the genus Quercus; leaf color ranges from rich green in summer to yellow and russet-red in fall. The tree is relatively fast Quercus phellos is the most popular year over a ten- to twenty-year period. The The small acorns are relished by birds and animals and do not create a litter problem. Density and twigginess make this tree a maintenance nightmare for arborists, however. In the wild, Q. phellos is found on poorly drained, loamy or clayey soils but performs best in acid, moist, well-drained situations. It transplants readily in spring but is not hardy where temperatures drop below -10 to -15F. Only trees from the northern limit of its native range should be planted in Zone 5. growing and may average two feet species is quite disease resistant. a Quercus robur 'Fastigiata' Upright English Oak 130 I ZONE: 4 full sun, moist, wellENVIRONMENT: drained soil; more adaptable to drought and high pH than many oaks; wind tolerant HEIGHT: 50-60 (80) feet SPREAD: 15-20 feet HABIT: distinctly upright branching and dense; one of the handsomest columnar trees The species is a splendid ornamental with wide-spreading branches and dark green foliage, but is seldom used in the United States for landscaping. However, 'Fastigiata' is a popular upright-growing cultivar that has found wide acceptance for streets, malls, containers and restricted growing areas. The dark green foliage holds late (November) and does not develop good fall coloration. The leaves often are attacked by lace-wing fly and may contract mildew in wet weather. Considerable variation in habit and mildew susceptibility occurs because the plants are often grown from seed. Nurserymen have indicated that upright habit is present in 80 to 90 percent of the seed-grown progeny. Among fastigiate trees, this is one of the most pest free and long-lived. Quercus petraea 'Columnaris' is similar to Q. robur 'Fastigiata' in growth habit but differs by being more resistent to mildew and lace-wing fly. Both are excellent landscape plants with Q. robur 'Fastigiata' being the more common in the American landscape trade. ` Quercus rubra Red Oak HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT. age 60-75 feet 40-60 feet rounded in youth and old 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT. full sun; prefers a sandy loam soil that is well-drained and acid; withstands pollution; not tolerant of extremely wet or high pH soils 131 as Q. borealis) is used widely for streets, and residential properties. It transplants readily, thus facilitating its extensive use The lustrous, dark green leaves may turn rich brown, russet-red, or red in the fall. Both Q. rubra and Q. palustris are structurally strong, longlived trees. Their acorns may prove to be a litter problem, although squirrels generally destroy them even before they are mature. Scale may constitute a serious pest. Both species are native trees that are always in vogue with landscape planners and seldom fail if given proper soil. Extensive street plantings of red oak have survived and flourished despite repeated abuse from pedestrians, cars, salts and air pollutants. Quercus rubra (often incorrectly listed parks Sophora japonica Japanese Pagoda-tree or Scholar-tree HEIGHT: SPREAD HABIT usually 50-75 feet 50-75 feet densely rounded in youth, rounded to broadly rounded ZONE ~ 4 ENVIRONMENT full sun; once estab- lished, tolerates heat and drought, pH adaptable at maturity 132 I Although an excellent tree, Sophora japonica may be too large for most street plantings and better suited as a park or large area specimen. The rich green foliage holds late into fall. Creamy-yellow fragrant flowers cover the plant in August. The fruits are a bright yellow-green and offer late summer and fall colors. The tree tends to be messy, dropping leaves, flowers, fruits, and twigs throughout much of the year. 'Regent' was selected for its more uniform habit, faster growth, straighter habit, and ability to flower at a young age. Tilia cordata Littleleaf Linden HEIGHT: 50-70 feet SPREAD. 25-50 feet HABIT: pyramidal in youth, pyramidal-oval to oval-rounded at maturity 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun; a good city tree since it withstands compacted soils, drought, heat, and air pollutants; pH adaptable 133 This species and its numerous cultivars rank at the top of the street tree list, as evidenced by their wide use throughout the East and Midwest. In some cities, the use of this species has almost assumed monoculture status. Since it performs well under stress, it has been pushed to the forefront of street trees. The dark green (often lustrous) foliage seldom colors well in fall. In the Arnold Arboretum's linden collection only two species, Tilia petiolaris and T. tomentosa, developed good yellow autumn color. The fragrant, yellowish-white flowers produced in abundance during June are very attractive to bees, this could prove troublesome in parks and on streets where people are present. Structurally the trees are quite sturdy and their relatively compact habit allows use where lateral space is limited. Japanese beetles may disfigure the foliage, while aphids secrete honeydew upon which sooty mold, a fungus, grows and proliferates, making the trees unsightly. Basal suckers are troublesome and may have to be removed. 'Greenspire', 'Chancellor', 'Rancho', and 'June Bride' are among the better cultivars. Tilia X euchlora 'Redmond' Redmond Linden HEIGHT SPREAD. HABIT. 30-50 feet 30-40 feet 4 ZONE ENVIRONMENT. similar to T. cordata densely pyramidal 134 I This is extremely vigorous cultivar of hybrid origin that in sixteen years 15 feet in height and 10-inch trunk diameter at the Horticultural Research Center of the University of Minnesota; trees on the University of Illinois campus exhibited a similar vigor. The large, dark green leaves form a solid canopy. Creamy-yellow flowers appear in June. The tree may suffer from the same problems as Tilia cordata, but it tends to grow faster and has similar ornamental characteristics. It makes a splendid street, park, campus, or residential tree. The tree is slightly coarser than T. cordata or T. X euchlora. an averaged , Tilia tomentosa Silver Linden 135 HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT 50-60 feet 25-45 feet ZONE: 4 see T. cordata; may ENVIRONMENT: not be suitable for heavily polluted areas pyramidal in youth, mainthe most upright branching pattern of the linden species taining This species and Tilia petiolaris are the most majestic and ornamental members of the genus. The upper leaf surface is a lustrous, dark green, while the lower surface is covered with a silvery mat of woven hairs that make the leaves especially ornamental when buffeted by wind. The creamy-yellow fragrant flowers are the last to open among those of cultivated lindens. The bark of T. tomentosa is often a smooth gray in youth. Tilia petiolaris is similar, except that the branches take on a slightly pendulous aspect. Both developed good yellow fall color at the Arnold Arboretum in 1978. Both are beautiful trees and their use is certainly warranted. 'Fastigiata' is more narrow in shape than the species, and 'Princeton' is a fine oval form. Seedlings vary enormously and most have very poor forms. 136 I Chinese Elm Ulmus parvifolia HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: trees 30-50 feet 30-50 feet ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; tolerant of gracefully rounded; some assume a vase-shaped outline heat, compaction, and drought; pH adaptable 137 When elms are being considered, this might well be the species to utilize. The small, lustrous, dark green leaves hold late into fall. The bark on old trunks develops a beautiful mottled combination of green, orange, and brown, while the trunks become fluted with age. The wood is much stronger than that of Siberian is prone to breakage in ice storms. Ulmus parvifolia shows a high degree of resistance to Dutch elm disease and consequently has been used from Massachusetts to California and Minnesota to Georgia with success. Finer textured than most elms, it should not be confused with U. pumila, Siberian elm, which is an inferior and basically worthless landscape species. Ulmus parvifolia shows good tolerance to parking lot environments, infertile soils, drought and wind. In California and areas of the deep South, the cultivars 'Sempervirens', 'Drake', and 'True Green' are semi-evergreen to evergreen. elm, which Zelkova serrata Japanese Zelkova HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. tree 50-60 feet 50-60 feet low-branched, vase-shaped ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; drought and wind tolerant; pH adaptable 138 Often touted as an American elm replacement, which it certainly is not, Zelkova never develops the tall trunk and the pendulous outer branches that give such majestic form to the American elm. The dark green summer foliage changes to yellow, brown, or wine-red in fall and the bark on older trunks develops an exfoliating nature. Seed-grown trees often develop crooked trunks and require considerable staking and pruning. Susceptibility to Japanese beetles may be a problem, and the species is only moderately resistant to Dutch elm disease. Rapidly becoming a popular tree, it is being utilized for street and city plantings, especially in the Northeast. 'Village Green' appears to be a superior cultivar that develops a straight trunk. The dark green foliage turns a rusty-red in the fall, and the tree is supposedly much hardier than the type. It is performing well in the Arnold Arboretum and has grown 2-3 feet in a single season. 'Parkview' was selected for its good vase shape. Neither cultivar has proven hardy at the University of Wisconsin Arboretum, Madison, Wisconsin (-25F). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Secondary List","article_sequence":4,"start_page":139,"end_page":167,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24755","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160b76d.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"139 SECONDARY LIST Several well-known and commonly used plants appear in this category, and it is because of widespread use that we are aware of one or more major problems that detract from the value of a specific tree. These include difficulties in transplanting, intolerance of moisture stress, weak structure, susceptibility to major diseases or insect pests, and the need for occasional pruning to produce a satisfactory canopy. A problem associated with a particular tree often results from culture, placement, or long-term maintenance. If the limitation is known in advance, the plant can be utilized in a landscape situation where the problem will be minimal if, in fact, it develops at all. Acer ginnala Amur Maple HEIGHT: 15-20 feet SPREAD: 15-20 feet HABIT: large shrub rounded outline or small tree of ZONE: 2 full ENVIRONMENT: shade; well-drained sun to light soil soil, dry tolerant; pH adaptable 140 This species is one of the finest small, shrubby maples but it is extremely variable in ornamental traits. The summer foliage may range from dull green to lustrous dark green, while fall color varies from yellow to red. On some trees the fruits become red in summer. Amur maple can be used in containers; it withstands heavy pruning and makes a reasonable hedge. If a single-stemmed tree is desired, considerable pruning is necessary. Irregular growth habit precludes uniform street tree plantings, but for difficult cold sites this is a worthwhile choice. A recent research report from Ohio indicated that the species is quite susceptible to Verticillium wilt. Acer griseum Paperbark, Cherrybark Maple HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 20-40 feet 10-40 feet upright-oval to rounded 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT. full sun to light shade; best growth in well-drained, acid soils, but does well in clay situations 141 Acer griseum is a small tree with rich brown exfoliating bark and leaves that become russet-red to red in fall. Propagation difficulties, slow growth, and lack of commercial availability limit its widescale use. The colorful bark may prove attractive to vandals in urban situations. Paperbark maple is best as a small, specimen lawn tree. It is slow growing and somewhat variable when seedgrown. Structurally, it is one of the strongest medium-sized maples and does not suffer from ice and snow damage. Acer maximowiczianum (A. nikoense) Nikko Maple 142 HEIGHT. 20-30 feet SPREAD. 20-30 feet HABIT. vase-shaped, low branching ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light round-headed, shade; loamy, moist, slightly acid soil This is one of the best small maples, yet is seldom used in American landscapes. The rich green foliage turns a fine red in fall. Smooth gray bark adds winter interest. Nikko maple could be used in planters and under utility wires. It has no serious insect or disease problems. Acer saccharum Sugar Maple Acer saccharum 'Newton Sentry' 143 HEIGHT: 60-75 feet SPREAD. 40-75 feet HABIT: upright-oval quite dense-headed to rounded, ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT full well-drained, acid soil sun; moist, ranks at the forefront of shade trees but is not a good choice for urban landscapes. The dark green foliage changes to brilliant yellow, orange and red. The species is susceptible to Verticillium wilt, salt, air pollutants, drought and compaction Unfortunately, it is still being utilized in high-stress situations. 'Green Mountain' is a dark green, leathery-leaved selection that is quite heat tolerant and performs better than the species in dry, restricted grow- Sugar maple streets or ing areas. Acer tataricum Tatarian Maple HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT tree or 15-20 feet (25 feet) similar to height small, rounded, low-branched large, bushy shrub ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT full sun; adapts to a wide range of soil conditions; pH adaptable 144I Very similar to Acer ginnala and often confused with it, this species is extremely variable, since it is grown from seed. Some trees have light green foliage; others, lustrous, almost leathery, dark green leaves. Autumn color varies from yellow to orange-red. The fruits turn a good red during July or August, and the gray bark is soils is clearance relatively smooth. A. tataricum needs special pruning to head-up for along streets and it is weak-wooded. Adaptability to dry, compacted its principal asset, suggesting that it would adapt to container culture. Cedrela sinensis Chinese Toon Tree 145 HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT: 50-70 feet 30-50 feet upright and spreading, extremely irregular in habit, varying from multiple- to single-stemmed ZONE. 5 full sun; wellENVIRONMENT: drained soil; pH adaptable successfully as a street tree in Paris, France, and Philadelphia has seventy-year-old plantings. The species' habit is extremely variable and pruning would be necessary to produce single-stemmed, straight-trunked trees. The large, pinnately compound leaves turn rich yellow in autumn, and the shaggy, orange-brown bark is interesting in winter. Cedrela is a fast grower but may be slow to recover after transplanting. Plants may develop suckers that would have to be removed. The foliage has an onion-like odor when crushed, and can be eaten during spring. one Cedrela has long been used street in 146 Celtis laevigata Sugarberry, Sugar Hackberry ~,--,~'* HEIGHT: 60-80 feet SPREAD. 60-80 feet HABIT: rounded to broad-rounded with spreading, often pendulous branches ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT. full sun; moist or dry soils; pH adaptable Bark of Celtis occidentalis laevigata grafted on C. lawn and street tree in the southern states, Celtis laevigata is resistant both the nipple galls and witches-brooms that are so troublesome on C. occidentalis. The leaves are lustrous green, and the bark has fewer corky protuberances, in some situations being almost smooth. In comparison with specimens of C. jessoensis and C. occidentalis at the Arnold Arboretum, C. laevigata does not appear to be vigorous. Selections must be made before this tree can be recommended for street and city use in northern areas. It is tolerant of polluted conditions and is more graceful than C. occidentalzs in outline. A popular to 147 Cercidiphyllum japonicum Katsura Tree HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT: 40-60 feet variable ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: to full sun to partial pyramidal wide-spreading, significantly variable shade; responds best to rich, moist, well-drained, slightly acid soils 148 A most beautiful tree, this species unfortunately is susceptible to drought and somewhat slow to establish after transplanting. It needs consistent moisture throughout the growing season. Staminate trees are said to be more upright than pistillate ones, but this is not universally true. The bluish-green leaves turn yellow to apricot in fall and it is then that the leaves give off a sweet spicy aroma. The brown bark develops a slightly shaggy character. Cercidiphyllum is not a good tree for compacted, droughty soil, but where parkways are sufficiently wide it deserves consideration. Older mature specimens may split at low level crotches in ice and snow storms. This species is insect and disease free, and, where space permits, it makes a splendid avenue tree. A planting flanks either side of a long drive at Regis College, Weston, MA, and rivals any street lined with American elms for grace and beauty. Cladrastis lutea American Yellowwood HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: outline 30-50 feet 35-45 feet rounded, rather handsome ZONE: 5, perhaps 4 ENVIRONMENT: full wellsun; drained soil but best growth is attained in moist soils; pH adaptable This native American species, when properly grown, is among the handsomest of all trees. The new foliage emerging yellowish-green changes to a darker green at maturity and the fall color may be a golden-yellow. The creamy-white, fragrant flowers are borne in 8- to 14-inch-long pendulous, wisteria-like panicles 149 in May\/June. Flowering tends to be cyclic with excellent flowering occurring every third year. The smooth gray bark resembles that of beech (Fagus). American yellowwood develops bad crotches and is subject to ice and physical damage. Due to excessive sap flow, it must be pruned in summer. The species shows fair drought tolerance and is able to fix atmospheric nitrogen; both features permit survival in poor soils It should be reserved for parks and other areas where adequate space is available. Crataegus laevigata `Paulii' (formerly C. Paul's Scarlet Hawthorn oxyacantha 'Paulii') ZONE 4 ENVIRONMENT. HEIGHT. 15-20 feet 12-20 feet SPREAD. HABIT: low-branched, round-topped tree with nunimal thorn development full sun; clay and sandy soils; pH adaptable This is the most popular of the English hawthorn cultivars and probably the most insect and disease susceptible. Leaf spot may cause severe defoliation by June or July. The rose-red, double flowers are quite handsome in May but otherwise the plant has little to offer Crataegus crus-galli, C. phaenopyrum, C. punctata 'Ohio Pioneer', and C. viridis 'Winter King' are all superior to 'Paulii'. 150I Crataegus X lavallei . Lavalle Hawthorn HEIGHT SPREAD: HABIT: 20-25 feet 15-20 feet oval-headed 5 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: similar C. phaenopyrum to that of At one time considered recent years. The a promising hawthorn, this hybrid has lost favor in lustrous, dark green foliage usually does not color well in fall. White flowers in May are followed by 3\/4-inch-long brick-red fruits that are often sparse and tend to be hidden by the foliage which holds late. The plants tend to show irregular shapes and may not blend well in street tree plantings. The stems are waxy green and essentially thornless. Lavalle hawthorn is rather coarse in both summer and winter and, in comparison with Crataegus crus-galli, C. phaenopyrum, or C. viridis 'Winter King', is a poor choice. 151 Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian-olive HEIGHT: 15-20 feet (30 feet) 15-20 feet SPREAD: HABIT: large shrub or small tree of rounded outline; often open and airy 2 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: full sun; saline tolerant ; dry or moist soils; tolerates heat; pH adaptable species has been overplanted and in recent years has lost favor among landscape planners. It is one of the few deciduous woody plants that offers silvery-gray foliage. The habit is extremely variable, ranging from a sprawling shrub to a 30- to 40-foot tree. The yellowish-white, fragrant flowers develop in May. Verticillium wilt and canker problems limit its use and it has been removed from the acceptable tree list in many cities. Extremely tolerant of cold, dry, infertile, and saline conditions, it does well in containers. Salinity This studies have shown that Russian-olive is about as tolerant of salt as Rosa rugosa which forms the front line of defense along the coast of Cape Cod. 152 I Maclura pomifera Osage-orange HEIGHT: 20-40 feet SPREAD. 20-40 feet HABIT: develops a short, low trunk and low, irregular, rounded crown of stiff, spiny, interlacing branches ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT full sun; thrives on adversity, pH adaptable An adaptable native tree that needs to be tried under city conditions, Osageorange has shiny, bright green foliage that often turns a clear yellow in fall. The fruits on pistillate (female) trees are objectionable, and can serve as misguided missiles for both children and adults. Additional thomless staminate trees need to be selected; those that have been chosen deserve further testing. The tree seems to be tolerant of adverse conditions, and it may well rival Ailanthus altissima in quality of \"street and city toughness.\" Maclura is one of the best trees for infertile, clayey, and droughty soils and is tolerant of severe pruning. In the Midwest and Plains states, the species is used for fencerows and windbreaks. It would make a good container plant. 153 Magnolia acuminata Cucumber Magnolia HEIGHT: 50-80 feet SPREAD: 50-80 feet HABIT: pyramidal in youth, becoming rounded to wide-spreading at maturity ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; prefers deep, moist soil; pH adaptable; spring transplant 154 it is I magnolia large is a magnificent sight when fully matured, unfortunately, and not well adapted to the rigors of urban conditions. The dark green leaves turn ash-brown in fall. Green to yellow-green flowers develop after the foliage in May and are lost among the leaves. The rose-red, elongated, cucumber-like fruits mature in September. In winter the ash-brown bark develops a slight scaly character and is quite attractive. The fleshy nature of the root system precludes ease of transplanting and establishment. Under stress the species often develops water sprouts that ruin its appearance. It also may exhibit leaf burn in dry, compacted soils. This is a splendid tree for parks and large areas where root space is not restricted. Cucumber Magnolia heptapeta (M. Yulan Magnolia denudata) HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 20-35 feet 15-25 feet pyramidal ing more in youth, becomrounded with age ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; welldrained, acid soil; spring transplant 155 This species has abundant, large, pure white, cup-shaped flowers in April and in autumn. These characteristics, along with its strong structure, ease of culture, and smooth gray bark combine to make it a first choice among magnolias. Yulan magnolia is represented in the Boston area by several large specimens growing along Commonwealth Avenue near the Public Garden. Its disadvantage is that the flowers appear early and are often browned by freezing temperatures. In addition, it seems to be a species almost totally neglected in the nursery trade for, compared to Magnolia X soulangiana and M. stellata, it is difficult to propagate from cuttings. As with all magnolias, spring transplanting with a ball of earth is recommended because of the fleshy honey-brown foliage root system. Morus alba Common Mulberry 156 HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: branched 30-50 feet 30-50 feet rounded, dense, usually lowwith a ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: sun; withstands drought, urban and seaside condi- thick canopy tions ; pH adaptable The \"alley-cat\" nature of this species makes it a perfect tree for city conditions. Its principal assets include adaptability, fast growth, and pest-free foliage; liabilities are the weediness, the fruit, and the tremendous variation in seedgrown plants. Witches-broom may be a problem on certain plants. This species tends to be late leafing. 'Kingan' and 'Stribling' are fruitless, fast-growing clones with glossy summer foliage but may be less hardy than the species. 'Stribling' develops outstanding yellow fall color. The species is a good choice for compacted, dry soils where few plants will grow. Fruit is edible and birds find it irresistible a fact that leads to wide dispersal of weed seedlings. - Nyssa sylvatica Sour Gum, Black Tupelo 157 HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT. 40-60 feet 20-40 feet pyramidal in youth, becoming pyramidal-rounded at maturity ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; prefers acid, moist soils but is found in swamps and upland well-drained soils in the wild Sour gum is one of the most beautiful native trees, but is limited in commerce. It is difficult to transplant, and this has restricted its wholesale use. The lustrous, dark green foliage is transformed into almost fluorescent yellow, red, and purple fall tones, making it a superior tree for fall color. It is reasonably pest free, however, scale and fall webworm have been reported The species shows good tolerance to aerial salts. Container-grown plants may prove to be easiest to transplant. The habit of many specimens is reminiscent of that of pin oak (Quercus palustris). Sour gum makes an excellent lawn or park tree and is a good choice for wet areas. In Michigan it has been used in parking lot islands with success. Phellodendron amurense Amur Corktree HEIGHT: 30-40 feet SPREAD: 30-40 feet HABIT: usually broad-spreading, with a short trunk and an open, rounded crown of large horizontal to ascending branches 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: full sun; adaptable to extremes of soil and pH; tolerates air pollutants: extremely tolerant of city conditions of this, Amur corkage. The pest-free, soon after coloring. autumn. The black fruits are borne in grape-like clusters on pistillate trees and will stain sidewalks upon abscissing. The bark is attractive to vandals and the low-slung branches make it a popular climbing tree. The plant is slow to recover after transplanting. It is best used in parks or other large, open areas. graceful tree in youth and often shunned because develops picturesque branches and corky bark with dark green foliage becomes clear yellow in fall and drops This is one of the first trees to completely defoliate in the Not a tree Prunus serrulata 'Kwanzan' Kwanzan Cherry 159 HEIGHT: 20-25 feet 20-25 feet SPREAD: HABIT: usually grafted on a standard and forms a vase-shaped tree ZONE: 5 full sun; adaptable ENVIRONMENT: but prefers moist, well-drained soil; spring transplant This cultivar is one of the more popular and hardy forms of Prunus serrulata. The new foliage is bronze and changes to lustrous, dark green. Fall foliage may be a good bronze. The deep pink, 21\/2-inch-diameter, double flowers develop with the expanding leaves in May. Like most cherries, it is not long-lived and would not be a good choice for poor soils and heavily polluted areas. It has been used as a boulevard tree along suburban streets and as a park tree. The authors have observed trees that were not grafted and these appeared much more aesthetically pleasing. They formed low-branched, multistemmed, wide-spreading crowns and the gray-brown, prominently lenticelled bark added winter interest. Cherries should always be used in low-stress situations. Quercus acutissima Sawtooth Oak HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. 35-45 feet variable pyramidal in youth becom- ZONE: 6(5) full sun; ENVIRONMENT. well-drained soil moist, acid, ing more oval-rounded with age 160 A slow-growing oak with relatively dense habit and lustrous green foliage that holds late, this species has apparent freedom from insects and diseases. Its hardiness is suspect, and damage has occurred when temperatures reach -20F. Chlorosis may appear on plants grown in high pH soils. Nonetheless, it is a worthwhile alternative to Quercus palustris and Q. rubra. The fall color is poor and the brown leaves persist through winter. It is easy to transplant. The authors have seen vigorous specimens from Boston, Massachusetts to Athens, Georgia, and west to Illinois. Quercus imbricaria Shingle Oak 161 HEIGHT. 40-60 feet SPREAD. 40-60 feet HABIT. pyramidal with age; rounded with drooping lower lateral branches ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: drained soil full sun; moist, well- Symmetrical in form, this species has simple, unlobed, dark green summer foliage and brown to russet autumn color. Transplanting is easier than with most oaks, the growth is slow and the leaves persist into winter. The tree tolerates pruning, and it even has been used as a hedge The leaves often hold late into spring and provide some winter interest. Leaf spot can be troublesome in wet weather. It makes a good park or large area tree and has been used along suburban streets in several Midwestern cities. Quercus nigra HEIGHT: SPREAD: 50-80 feet Water Oak ZONE. 6 ENVIRONMENT: are variable, usually less than full sun; moist sites height HABIT preferred pyramidal to round- topped land popular species in the Southern states where it occurs naturally in the bottomalong streams, Quercus nigra has been extensively used for landscaping since it transplants readily. The lustrous, dark green foliage holds quite late, and green leaves have persisted even into December on trees in Cincinnati, Ohio. Its native range extends from southern New Jersey to southeastern Missouri, A and to Florida and Texas. It should not be grown far north of this because of its lack of hardiness. Robinia pseudoacacia Black Locust 162 HEIGHT: 30-50 feet 20-35 feet SPREAD: HABIT: ranges from an upright tree with a strong trunk and a narrow, oblong crown to a suckering, colonizing shrub ZONE: 4 (3) ENVIRONMENT: full sun; will grow in any soil except those that are permanently wet; pH adaptable; tolerates salinity Although tolerant of many stresses, black locust tends to be weedy and extremely susceptible to borer and mimosa webworms, which can riddle entire plantings. It has bluish-green foliage and white, fragrant, pendulous flowers in May and June. A prolific seeder, even two- to three-year-old trees often produce abundant fruit crops. Robinza pseudoacacia will tolerate the most infertile soils, as well as the heaviest clays. It has been used extensively in the Midwest and East to stabilize cuts and fills along freeways. It has the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen. A good plant for strip mines, poor soils, and saline conditions, it is one of the more predominant trees on Cape Cod because of its tolerance to aerial salt spray. Black locust is best used in multiple-plant clusters rather than as a specimen tree. 163 Sassafras albidum Sassafras HEIGHT 20-50 feet 20-35 feet SPREAD HABIT: pyramidal to irregular and tree-like in its best form; often suckering and forming extensive clumps 4 ZONE. full sun; moist to ENVIRONMENT: dry, acid, well-drained soils; very adaptable species Sassafras is a pioneer species that invades abandoned fields and road cuts. Three leaf shapes can occur on each plant: ovate, mitten-shaped, and threelobed. In autumn, the coloration is yellow, orange or scarlet. The yellow flowers that appear before the leaves give rise to bluish fruits borne on scarlet pedicels. The rich brown mature bark is thick and deeply ridged and, along with the bright green winter twigs, is ornamental in the winter landscape. Sassafras is tolerant of poor, dry soil. The stems, leaves, and roots are aromatic when crushed. Limitations to the use of Sassafras include infestations of Japanese beetles, transplant difficulties, and intolerance of compaction and high pH soils. Successful transplanting of plants moved from the wild averages only 10 percent Selections for good habit need to be made and these must be propagated vegetatively. Container growing, at least in small sizes, offers an alternative method of facilitating successful transplanting. 164 Sorbus alnifolia Korean Mountain-ash HEIGHT: 30-50 feet SPREAD: 20-40 feet HABIT. pyramidal in youth, ranging from pyramidal-oval to rounded at ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full drained, moist soils, varied soil conditions; sun; well- adaptable to pH adaptable maturity 165 The handsomest of the mountain-ashes, Sorbus alnifolia does not resemble a typical species in its leaf characteristics. Rich green, summer foliage turns golden-yellow in fall. White flowers (May) are followed by loose clusters of red fruits which persist into winter. Smooth, gray, beech-like bark adds seasonal interest to this four-season ornamental that never fails to satisfy. Fire blight is a problem but this species exhibits better borer resistance than does S. aucuparia. It tends to branch low and would have to be headed-up for street tree use. Korean mountain-ash tends to be alternate in flowering and fruiting. Landscape planners should be recommending this species over the inferior S. aucuparia. Syringa reticulata (S. amurensis var. Japanese Tree Lilac japonica) 20-30 feet 15-25 feet HABIT: large shrub or small tree developing an oval to rounded crown HEIGHT. SPREAD. ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT. full sun, moist, welldrained soil; pH adaptable 166I has been overlooked for general landscape use, but from the standadaptability and pest resistance is superior to other lilacs. The dark green foliage does not contract mildew, which is common to Syringa vulgaris and S. X persica, and the tree is quite resistant to borers. The reddish-brown to brown bark is prominently marked with horizontal lenticels that give it a \"cherry-like\" effect. The white, fragrant (privet-like) flowers are borne in large panicles during June. This species has been used in suburban areas. Seed-grown trees show considerable variation in habit. The species is easily propagated from summer This species of point softwood cuttings. Taxodium distichum Common Baldcypress 167 50-70 feet 20-30 feet deciduous conifer of slender, HABIT pyramidal habit when young, becoming more open and wide-spreading at HEIGHT. SPREAD: 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT. m well-drained, full sun; grows best moist, acid situ- ations maturity A valuable tree for wet, swampy areas, yet also adaptable to dry situations, common baldcypress has been used successfully in Illinois and Maryland as a street tree. The rich green summer foliage becomes russet or soft reddishbrown in fall, the orange- to reddish-brown bark is handsome during the winter months. This species' adaptability to wet and dry soils promotes its use in areas where other trees would fail. Chlorosis is troublesome in soils of high pH, and a gall-forming insect often creates unsightly growths on the tips of branches. In some locations, the tree also is affected by a tip borer. Ulmus carpinifolia 'Christine Buisman' Christine Buisman Elm HEIGHT. 50-60 feet SPREAD. 20-35 feet HABIT broadly pyramidal, what irregular some- 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: full sun; sandy to clay soil; tolerant of heat, drought, compacted soil, and cold; pH adaptable This plant has no outstanding ornamental characteristics, however it continues to be offered because it is quite resistant to Dutch elm disease. The dark green foliage does not color well in fall. This cultivar grows rapidly, transplants easily, and is tolerant of both atmospheric pollution and extremely difficult growing situations. The major disadvantage is susceptibility to Japanese beetles. The plant has a place but only where more ornamental species will not thrive. Two Ulm~is X hollandica cultivars with a similar appearance to it also display Dutch elm disease resistance. they include 'Commelin', rapid-growing and small-leaved, and 'Groenveldt', medium-growing and upright. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Trial List","article_sequence":5,"start_page":168,"end_page":204,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24758","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160816f.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"168 TRIAL LIST A handful of trees have proven outstanding under street conditions, and this has contributed to their extensive use to the exclusion of many others that, if tested, might prove equally functional. The major reason for trying new trees is to expand the genetic composition represented along our city and suburban streets and, over the long term, to build greater population stability to resist devastation through insect, disease, or abiotic factors. If those towns and cities where every street was planted with American elm (Ulmus americana) had practiced diversification, the ruination of the landscape would not have been so devastating. Many municipalities now have tree ordinances that specify that a single species, including all cultivars, may not constitute more than 10 percent of the total tree population. Unfortunately, most landscape planners work from a favorite list and do not make use of the wide diversity available. The trees on the trial list that follows have proven to be good performers in the Arnold Arboretum or in other gardens across North America. For the most part, they all have been maintained under reasonable growing conditions and not under the stresses encountered along urban streets. Only long-term trial under a variety of growing conditions will provide adequate data relative to their performance on city streets. A major problem will be finding adequate sources of supply, for many of these trees are currently represented only in arboreta or botanical gardens. A few of these species are available commercially in limited quantities and small sizes, but most will need to be custom propagated and grown on before planting. As a result, an innovative spirit among nurserymen and landscape planners is needed. The Arnold Arboretum, and perhaps other public gardens, will supply cuttings, scions or seeds to any nurseryman, arborist, or street tree commission who wishes to test these trees but cannot locate a commercial source. To obtain test material from the Arnold Arboretum write: Street Tree Trials The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard The Arborway Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 University 169 Acer cappadocicum Coliseum Maple HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. 40-60 feet 20-30 feet upright-oval 5 ZONE: full sun to light ENVIRONMENT: shade; well-drained soil; pH adaptable This maple has proven itself as a street tree in several cities in the Pacific Northwest. Summer foliage is dark green changing to yellow in the autumn. The cultivar 'Rubrum' is unusual because the young leaves emerge red before turning green. This maple is pest free, and easy to transplant. The canopy is light-headed and the root system sufficiently deep so that solid grass cover can be maintained easily. 170 Acer velutinum HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT. 70-90 feet 50-70 feet rounded ZONE. Persian 6 (5?) Maple ENVIRONMENT: drained soil full sun; well- Persian maple has proven itself to be tough and adaptable as an avenue tree in Victory Park, Tbilisi, U.S.S.R. Its leaves resemble those of Acer pseudoplatanus, sycamore maple, for they are large, thick, and dark green in the summer landscape, with little or no autumn color. Yellowish-green flowers in upright panicles are ornamental. This maple is a rapid grower, easy to transplant and appears to be free of insect and disease pests. It is recommended here in an attempt to broaden the genetic diversity of the genus Acer in North America. Availability will limit use. Alnus cordata Italian Alder HEIGHT SPREAD 30-50 feet 20-30 feet HABIT: softly and old age pyramidal in youth 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; thrives in poor, dry soil but prefers moist (wet) situations; tolerates acid or alkaline soils, withstands compaction ZONE: 171 Alnus cordata is undoubtedly one of the handsomest of the alders. Its glistening medium to dark green leaves persist into fall and do not appear as coarse as the leaves of A. glutinosa. The rich, dark brown, cone-shaped fruits are the largest of those on species in cultivation. This is a splendid lawn tree that would make a fine urban tree as well, though it has not been tried to any degree. Italian alder grows rapidly and, along with A. glutinosa, is quite tolerant of high pH soils. The use of A. glutinosa along interstate highways has prompted the authors to suggest A. cordata as an alternative because of its superior ornamental characteristics. ~' Alnus glutinosa European Alder HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: develop regular proportions ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: 40-60 feet 20-40 feet weak pyramidal outline; may ovoid or oblong head of ir- full sun or or light shade; wet or dry, acid soil; extremely adaptable alkaline Alnus glutinosa 'Fastigiata' 172 One of the best trees for extremes of soil and climate, the common alder currently is used by highway departments along interstate highways and freeways. It will survive sites with standing water, where it will seed naturally and develop thickets; but it makes its best growth in well-drained, evenly moist soils. Its adaptability to dry soils is an asset. Lustrous, dark green foliage holds late into fall. Alnus glutinosa may suffer from leaf miner, tent caterpillar and stem cankers, and the wood is somewhat weak. This species and A. cordata are able to fix atmospheric nitrogen which allows them to survive in low-fertility soils. The former is worth considering for areas where few other trees will grow. 'Pyramidalis' ('Fastigiata') is an upright form that resembles Lombardy poplar in outline but is slower growing. This species is useful only where more ornamental trees may not thrive. Betula nigra , River Birch 173 HEIGHT: 40-70 feet SPREAD: 40-60 feet HABIT: gracefully pyramidal to ovalheaded in youth; often rounded at maturity ZONE: 4 full sun; acid, moist ENVIRONMENT: soil; will develop iron chlorosis in high pH soils; transplant in spring American birch, Betula nigra ranges from Minnesota to Kansas. In the Arnold Arboretum, it is one of the tallest birches. It consistently outperforms the white-barked species in warmer climates. The medium green, summer foliage is lustrous, but fall color is a poor yellow-green. Leaves tend to spot in wet weather. The bark exfoliates in papery sheets, exposing the inner bark which can exhibit color combinations of gray-, cinnamon- and reddish-brown. River birch is resistant to the bronze birch borer and is quite tolerant of wet soils, for it occurs in the wild along stream banks and swampy bottomlands that are periodically flooded. Tests conducted at the shade tree plots of the Ohio State University in Wooster, Ohio, indicate that this tree grows 2-3 feet per season. River birch is probably a better choice for urban situations than white-barked species but is still subject to having its bark stripped by vandals. The most to widely distributed Florida, and Massachusetts Carpinus tschonoskii ~~ Yeddo Hornbeam 174I HEIGHT: 30-40 feet 25-35 feet SPREAD. HABIT: upright pyramidal, rounded with age 5? ZONE: ENVIRONMENT. drained soil full sun; well- becoming Yeddo hornbeam is recommended in order to widen the array of useful plants in the genus Carpinus. It features medium green, summer foliage turning yellowish-brown in the autumn. The tree is a slow grower but once established is durable and dependable. Transplanting may present some difficulties for it is slow to re-establish itself. This plant appears to be pest free, structurally strong, and culturally adaptable. Catalpa ovata Chinese Catalpa C atalpa HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. 25-35 feet 15-25 feet speciosa pyramidal to spreadmg 5 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun; well-drained soil; pH adaptable 175 FTUits of C speciosa The common and western catalpa (Catalpa bignonioides and C. speciosa) found their way into highway landscapes earlier this century but have fallen into disfavor because of their large, coarse foliage and litter from flowers, leaves, and fruits. Despite these drawbacks, they remain adaptable ornamental trees. C. ovata is similar to C. bignonioides except that it is smaller in stature and has smaller leaves, flowers, and fruits. During June, erect pyramidal panicles of yellowish-white flowers adorn the tree They are followed by slender, 8-12 (-18 )-inch-long greenish capsules. Chinese catalpa is extremely easy to grow from seed, one year seedlings are known to have flowered and fruited. Availability will limit use. Celtis jessoensis Jesso Hackberry 176 I 30-50 feet 20~0 feet ZONE: 5 full sun; wellENVIRONMENT: drained soil; like most hackberries, well-adapted to extremes of climate and soil HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: upright spreading; branches high Common hackberry (Celtis occidentalis) is a tough, durable and adaptable for difficult urban landscapes, but its use has been discouraged because of unattractive witches-brooms and leaf galls. From our observations and on the basis of limited trials, C. jessoensis appears to be free of both problems. The semilustrous, rich green leaves are free of the nipple gall and mottling that are prevalent on C. occidentalis. In addition, it develops strong crotch angles, an upright branching habit, and smooth gray bark. It appears to have the characteristics of a good street tree. Summer foliage is rich green changing to pale yellow in the autumn. Availability will limit use. This Asiatic species is the most ornamental of the hackberries in the Arnold Arboretum's collections. Recent laboratory hardiness determinations at the University of Minnesota have shown it to be cold-hardy to at least -16F. plant Chionanthus retusus Chinese Fringetree HEIGHT: 15-25 SPREAD: 15-25 HABIT: small large shrub of feet feet low-branched tree rounded outline or ZONE: 6 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist, welldrained, acid soil 177 Most gardeners are familiar with Chionanthus virginicus, our native fringetree, but know nothing of the Chinese species. The Arnold Arboretum has several accessions and some are shrubby and weak-growing, while the most notable is a small tree with singularly beautiful branch structure, bark, and flowers. The dark green foliage does not develop good fall color. The snow-white flowers are produced in terminal panicles during late May and June. Flowering is heavy in alternate years. Dark blue fruits develop only on pistillate plants. Little is known about pollution tolerance but the species certainly deserves testing in this regard. Slow growth may limit use but C. retusus merits a place in special landscape plantings. It is more easily rooted from softwood cuttings than its American relative, and superior forms could be perpetuated. Cornus alternifolia Pagoda Dogwood ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: light shade; moist to dry, acid soil; excessive heat may cause decline 15-25 feet HEIGHT: SPREAD: variable, but often wider than high HABIT: low-branched small tree or large shrub with horizontal branch- ing pattern 178 This is a beautiful native species that appears almost weedlike in the Smoky Mountains. The authors have observed it growing in dense shade in moist, alluvial soils. The medium to dark green summer foliage is followed by soft reddish-purple fall color which, unfortunately, is not consistent. The leaves are arranged in an alternative fashion, differentiating the species from most dogwoods. White flowers are borne above the foliage in May\/June and yield purplish-black fruits on rose-red stalks in July\/August. It is much more dependable than Cornus florida for flowers. Winter stem color is a lustrous brown to purple, and large trunks develop an interesting, interlacing, ridged-and-furrowed pattern of soft gray. As the plant matures, the branches become horizontally disposed. The species is susceptible to twig canker which may limit landscape use, but vigorous plants are not as susceptible. When used in aboveground containers, C. alternifolia makes a superlative plant. It has much to offer, as do C. controversa and C. macrophylla, but needs some shade for best growth. Use where space permits the low, spreading, branching habit. Cornus controversa Giant Dogwood HEIGHT. SPREAD HABIT 20-40 feet 15-30 feet pyramidal, and topped becoming flathorizontally branched ZONE 5 ENVIRONMENT. full sun shade; well-drained soil to light 179 On this species, tiers of horizontal branches bear an abundance of creamywhite flowers in terminal clusters during May. In autumn the plant has black fruit and foliage colors of bronze to red. Branchlets are gray with longitudinal fissures. Cornus controversa needs to be evaluated for resistance to drought stress and to salts found along highways. It is susceptible to twig canker, but vigorous specimens exhibit good resistance. In vegetative and reproductive characteristics, this species is similar to C. alternifolia. Laboratory cold-hardiness tests indicated stem hardiness to at least -38F, which means C. controversa could be grown at least another zone north of the range described by Rehder in Manual of Cultzvated Trees and Shrubs. Cornus HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT macrophylla 20-40 feet 15-30 feet Largeleaf Dogwood ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to or light pyramidal to rounded shade; well-drained, acid soil alkaline Summer flowering trees are often neglected in favor of spectacular spring performers. This deciduous tree bears large flat clusters of creamy-white flowers in July, followed by blue-black fruits. The birds quickly consume the fruit but the stalks turn rose-pink and are ornamental for two to three weeks in autumn. Leaves hold late into the fall and were still green in mid-November, 1978. This species can be easily rooted from cuttings. In laboratory tests, the stems proved hardy to -22F. 180 Corylus colurna Turkish Filbert or Hazel HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 40-50 feet 20-30 feet pyramidal with very uniform branch structure ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; thrives in hot summers and cold winters; withstands drought; pH adaptable 181 Corylus colurna strikes fear into the hearts of landscape architects, nurserymen, and teachers of plant materials because most have never heard of it. The authors cannot remember ever seeing a disheveled specimen, but admittedly all specimens they have seen were housed in arboreta, botanic gardens, campuses or cemeteries. The dark green summer foliage holds late and may turn a yellow-green in fall. The gray-brown bark develops a scaly characteristic, and as the scales fall, a rich orange-brown inner bark is exposed. Branches are widely spaced, arise from U-shaped angles, and appear to have great structural strength. The fruits are quite large and create some litter, though squirrels are fond of the nuts and effectively remove many of them. Although not enough is known of its urban tolerance, C. colurna should be more widely tried in cities, possibly as a containerized tree. It reportedly is doing well in the Minneapolis, Minnesota area where winter lows may reach -30F. The mention of Crataegus laevigata 'Superba' (also listed HEIGHT: SPREAD HABIT. as Crimson Cloud Hawthorn ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT. C. d. 'Crimson Cloud') full sun; tolerant of 15-20 feet 10-15 feet pyramidal to rounded sandy or clayey soils; pH adaptable Reports coming into the Arnold Arboretum are mixed about this plant. Some consider it valuable, while others report minimal success. Its landscape attributes include single bright red flowers with a white star-shaped center (May) and persistent red fruits. Its limitations include susceptibility to fire blight, cedar hawthorn rust and lace-bug, however, it is resistant to the leaf spot that is so troublesome on C. laevigata 'Paulii'. Crataegus punctata 'Ohio Pioneer' Ohio Pioneer Dotted Hawthorn HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT 20-30 feet 20-30 feet 4 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT to well-drained full sun; heavy clay rounded; densely foliaged soil; pH adaptable This is a new cultivar that may prove outstanding with time. The authors have seen the parent tree and were impressed with the abundant white flowers (May) and the clean foliage. The fruits are red and quite large, and the stems exhibit a silver-gray color. Fire blight has not appeared to be a problem and the plant seems resistant to rust. The cultivar is essentially thornless, which will permit use in high traffic areas. Like most hawthorns, it is well adapted to dry, compacted soils and would make a good street or container plant. 182 Eucommia ulmoides Hardy Rubber Tree HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. 40-60 feet 50-70 feet rounded to spreading, usually densely ZONE 5 ENVIRONMENT. branched full sun; moist or dry soils; pH adaptable Successful street plantings in Cleveland, Ohio, and Indianapolis, Indiana, demonstrate that this tree warrants greater trial. Eucommia performs well in a variety of climates and soils, shows good heat, drought and cold tolerance, and has no serious insect or disease pests. The lustrous, dark green foliage holds late. Variable in habit when seed-grown, it is often wide-spreading and low-branched. Trees must be headed-up for street tree use. The species is worth trying in difficult, compacted sites, and probably is best suited for parks or spacious areas because of its wide crown. 183 Fraxinus excelsior 'Hessei' Hesse European Ash HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 50-60 feet 30-50 feet 5 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: in full sun; moist to upright-oval youth, at dry soils; pH adaptable maturity rounded This is an unusual ash, for the leaf is simple rather than pinnately compound. Leaves are leathery, lustrous, dark green and do not develop fall color. The tree is fast growing and forms a uniform head in a short time. Like all European ash cultivars, it may prove susceptible to borer damage but to date has proven quite resistant. At the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum (-30F), Fraxinus excelsior and the cultivars 'Kimberly Blue', 'Hessei', and 'Aurea' have not proven hardy. Interest in new ash cultivars is always high because the genus shows good resistance to pollutants and poor soil conditions. Fraxinus HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT: nigra 2 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: Black Ash full sun; 30-50 feet 30-40 feet small to medium-sized, sparsely branched tree of pyramidal to rounded outline dry or wet soil; pH adaptable. 184I Black ash is not well known for street tree use but may have possibilities because of its adaptability to wet, boggy conditions. The dark green summer foliage does not color well in fall. The bark tends toward a flaky or corky characteristic. Occurring naturally in low, swampy ground from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Virginia and Arkansas, the species has performed well in the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum. The male cultivar, 'Fallgold', which originated at the Canadian Agricultural Research Station, Morden, Manitoba, has disease-free foliage that develops golden fall coloration. Fraxinus nigra offers genetic diversity in areas where green ash (F. pennsylvanica) is the dominant street tree species. Fraxinus ornus Flowering Ash HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT. 30-40 feet 20-30 feet compact; upright-oval coarse to ZONE. 6 ENVIRONMENT drained soils full sun; moist, well- rounded, rather stiff and 185 Seldom seen in American landscapes but long popular in European gardens, this species has showy, fragrant, creamy-white flowers borne in 5- to 6-inch panicles in May. The leaves are dark green and offer no fall color. Based on observations throughout the East and Midwest, the species lacks vigor although a West Coast nursery is now promoting it. Its hardiness is suspect and temperatures lower than -10 F may induce injury. Borers, scale and canker may limit the tree's landscape effectiveness, especially where urban stresses exist. Fraxinus quadrangulata Blue Ash 186 HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT. trees are 40-70 feet 20-40 feet and more upright-spreading, oval-rounded selected 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun; tolerates both wet and dry, acid or alkaline soil This species is one of the ashes most tolerant of dry soils, although it does well in moister conditions. The branches are four-angled and winged. The lustrous green summer foliage turns a pale yellow in autumn. The bark is different from that of most ashes since it develops a scaly appearance, rather than the typical ridged and furrowed diamond patterns. The species has proved be difficult to propagate and is considerably slower growing than either Fraxinus americana or F. pennsylvanica. It is hardy in Minnesota (-30F) and deserves further trial. more to , Halesia carolina Carolina Silverbell 187 HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT: 30-40 feet 25-35 feet (70 feet) tree ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT. full sun or light low-branched with a shade; acid, moist, well-drained soil, but comparatively narrow crown; sometimes multiple-stemmed and rounded fairly adaptable from many aspects: attractive foliage and and interesting four-winged fruits. Its one drawback is that it is not uniform in habit and for this reason it has been shunned in street and city plantings. Although somewhat slow to establish after transplanting, it is easily rooted from softwood cuttings and maintenance of specific characteristics is relatively simple. Halesia exhibits excellent disease and insect resistance. Chlorosis may develop in extremely high pH or compacted soils. Carolina silverbell is best suited to growing in large areas and could be used to advantage in city parks or along large parkways. It has been reported that the species is susceptible to wind-throw, especially after heavy rains which loosen the soil. Halesia carolina is a superior tree bark; white, bell-shaped flowers in May; 188I Kalopanax pictus Castor-aralia HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 40-60 feet 40-60 feet upright-oval assumes a youth; with massive, heavy age -r~~s~~ obovate in rounded outline branches in old to ZONE : 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist soil; pH adaptable deep, rich 189 Kalopanax pictus is a large, coarse tree with a tropical appearance. The large, dark green leaves turn yellow (reddish-purple) in the fall. Terminal clusters of small whitish flowers that open in July\/August are followed by purple-black fruits in September\/October. The blackish bark is deeply ridged and furrowed, and the young stems are covered with prominent spines that persist on older branches. For this reason, castor-aralia may be a worthwhile alternative in high vandalism areas. The species has proved hardy to -33F in laboratory tests. Metasequoia glyptostroboides Dawn Redwood HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 60-70 feet (100 15-25 feet feet) ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; dry to pyramidal moist, well-drained soil; pH adaptable 190 This species was introduced into cultivation through the diligent efforts of the Arnold Arboretum. The feathery, green summer foliage gives way to colors ranging from salmon- to gold-bronze. The autumn color effect with back lighting is superb. Metasequoia grows rapidly; there are reports of 2-4 feet in a single year under favorable conditions. Growth habit is very symmetrical, with a strong central leader. With age, the trunk develops a handsome buttressed or fluted effect at the base. The plant is deciduous, which often causes confusion among those who cannot understand why their \"needled evergreen\" is losing its foliage. In the Washington, D.C. area, stem canker was first reported and now canker infection has been noted on many established trees around the country. A colony of large trees, in small planting islands, has been used at the World of Chocolate exhibit in Hershey, Penn., where it gives a sense of age to plantings that are only a few years old. Metasequoia is ideal for park and street plantings where a quick screen is needed. In New Jersey, it has been successfully used as a street tree when the lower branches were removed. The fastest growth is made in warm climates and Zone 6 conditions south should prove most favorable. Morus rubra Red Mulberry HEIGHT. SPREAD HABIT. 40-70 feet 40-50 feet 5 ZONE ENVIRONMENT. more full sun, prefers a upright, open and ex- rich, moist soil; pH adaptable irregular than M tremely variable alba although ~ 191 A native mulberry that has not been tried for landscape use, this has leaves, fruit, and an ultimate plant size that are larger than are those of Morus alba. Male forms should be selected, for the fruit on pistillate plants may create a litter problem. Birds relish the fruit, which may ultimately contribute to weed seedling problems. M. rubra is worthy of trial along freeways and in urban parks that are subject to high visitor impact. Ostrya virginiana American Hophornbeam HEIGHT: SPREAD. HABIT. 25-40 feet 25-40 feet ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to heavy very pyramidal in in old age graceful small tree; youth, usually rounded shade, cool, moist, well-drained, acid soil The authors believe this tree has been overlooked for street and city plantings. It has succeeded in suburban areas but no adequate documentation is available concerning its tolerance to heavily polluted conditions. The dark green foliage is pest free and may turn yellow in the fall. The grayish-brown bark develops a slight shaggy character and is quite handsome in winter. In the wild the species is often found on gravelly, rocky, rather dry soils. Ostrya virginiana is somewhat slow to re-establish after transplanting but if handled in small sizes and moved in spring, it should succeed admirably. The species has been used successfully as a street tree in New Jersey. Since plants are all seed-grown, variation in habit must be expected. 192 Pistacia chinensis Chinese Pistache Pistacia chinensis HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: photographed near Tung River, China, in 1908 by E. H. Wilson. 40-60 feet 30-50 feet upright to irregular ZONE: 6 wellENVIRONMENT: full sun; drained, acid or alkaline soil; drought tolerant This is a deciduous tree noted for its glossy, pinnately compound foliage that turns rich shades of orange to reddish-purple in autumn. Terminal clusters of red fruit give ornament to pistillate trees. The light, airy foliage canopy allows the passage of filtered light as does Gleditsia triacanthos, and the tree underplants well because of the deep root system. It is an ideal plant for courtyards and mass plantings. Young trees require staking and corrective pruning to establish good form and branch structure. Chinese pistache is a strong-wooded tree with excellent disease and insect resistance. The hardiness range of the species has never been fully explored. 193 Populus tremula `Erecta' Upright European Aspen HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 30-50 feet 8-10 feet columnar; similar to Lom- ZONE: 2 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; to different soil types adaptable bardy poplar This cultivar is a narrow, fastigiate clone which was found in the forests of Sweden. Its foliage and habit are somewhat similar to that of Populus nigra 'Italica', Lombardy poplar. While not as fast growing, 'Erecta' is resistant to the canker that afflicts the Lombardy poplar. In wet seasons, however, 'Erecta' may contract a leaf disease that partially defoliates the tree. It is adaptable to cold climates and is performing admirably in Minnesota (-30F). It is perfect for narrow spaces and for creating visual barriers. This European aspen propagates easily from root cuttings. 194 Prunus cyclamina HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 15-25 feet 15-25 feet spreading, low-branched, eventually broad rounded in outline 4 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT. drained soil full sun; well- rare Chinese cherry species continues to thrive at the Arnold Arboretum when others have declined because of virus or nematodes. It is a deciduous tree that bears single, delicate pink flowers in early to mid-April. The flower color is highlighted by the bronze color of the new foliage. Rain and wind cause the flowers to shatter quickly. The plant is structurally strong and appears to have a vigor and durability similar to Prunus sargentii or P. X yedoensis. Laboratory tests have shown it to be hardy to -33F. This even Prunus 'Okame' HEIGHT: 15-20 feet SPREAD. 10-15 feet HABIT: pyramidal in oval when mature 5 ZONE. ENVIRONMENT: drained soil Okame Cherry full sun; well- youth; upright- 195 This deciduous tree flowers in early April, bearing single pink flowers. Observations at the Morris Arboretum indicate that flowers are preceded by dark maroon buds and after the petals drop, the red calyx (flower base) and stamens persist for another week. The flowering effect is remarkably durable, generally lasting two to three weeks. The small, finely-textured leaves turn bronze in autumn. Because of its compact size, this tree is perfect for areas with restricted head space, such as under low utility wires. It is useful as a specimen, massed, or grown in staggered rows to create a hedgelike effect. Prunuspadus HEIGHT. SPREAD. HABIT: dense 30-40 feet 30-40 feet European Birdcherry ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: full well-drained soil; pH sun; average, rounded, low-branched, adaptable Cherries are not long-lived trees but this species tends to show good vigor and adaptability. It is one of the first trees to leaf out and the handsome white flowers appear in April and May. It suffers, however, from typical cherry maladies and black knot disease limits its widescale use. For groups or masses along interstate highways it might have merit. 196 Pterocarya f raxinif olia Caucasian Wingnut HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: tends to 30-60 feet 30-60 feet rounded to branch low wide-spreading; ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist, welldrained soil; pH adaptable 197 in Seattle, Washington, and widely in It becomes large with a massive stem and a wide-spreading crown. The leaves are dark green, pinnately compound, and show no propensity to develop good fall color. The winged fruits are borne in pendent clusters 12-20 inches long. The fruit structures are ornamental but pose a litter problem in autumn. The wood tends to be brittle with occasional breakage from storms. The tree should be grown where it has space to develop its full canopy. Additional species that deserve trial include Pterocarya rhoifolia, P. stenoptera and P. X rehderana. Absolute hardiness is suspect, and laboratory tests with P. X rehderana have shown it to be hardy to -11F. These authors have observed large trees in the Vineland Agricultural Experiment Station, Ontario, Canada and Cave Hill Cemetery, Louisville, Kentucky. This tree has been used successfully Vienna, Austria, as a street tree. Quercus cerris HEIGHT: 50-80 feet SPREAD. 40-70 feet HABIT: pyramidal in ed with age Turkey Oak youth; roundZONE. 6 ENVIRONMENT. full sun; welldrained soil; pH adaptable This is one of the most rapid-growing oaks, with young, established trees sometimes averaging 2-3 feet of growth in a year. Summer foliage is dark green and the autumn foliage is brown. On young trees the leaves may be retained into early spring, this causes problems in thin-stemmed specimens, for the ice and snow loads from winter storms may cause the trees to bend and break. The species is somewhat difficult to transplant. \" ~I Quercus shumardii Shumard Oak 198 HEIGHT: 50-70 feet SPREAD: 50-70 feet HABIT: large tree reminiscent of pin oak (Q. palustris) but does not have the drooping branches ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; to adaptable to pH adaptable wet than widely dry soil; more pin oak This species is often confused with red, scarlet and pin oaks and appears to have potential for street and city use. The lustrous, dark green leaves turn red in fall. It is found in the wild on a wide range of sites, varying from stream banks and bottomlands to dry uplands and ridges. It is apparently more difficult to transplant than pin and red oaks. Trees for northern areas should be grown from seed collected at the northern edge of the range. A tree in the Secrest Arboretum, Wooster, Ohio, grew 50 feet in twenty-five years. Rhus chinensis Chinese Sumac HEIGHT: 15-18 feet SPREAD. variable HABIT. loose, suckering shrub or can be grown as a small, round- 5 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun; to poor soil conditions adaptable headed, flat-topped This tree is not well known in this country because of the native and more Rhus glabra and R. typhina. The habit is extremely variable, ranging from a large colonizing shrub to a small tree. The rich green foliage changes to yellow, orange and red in fall. Showy terminal panicles of yellowish-white flowers open in August and September and are followed by orange-red drupes. The species is useful for banks, cuts and fills, and other poor soil areas, and is difficult to kill once established. Root cuttings are the preferred method of species popular propagation. 199 Sorbus esserteauiana Chinese Mountain-ash HEIGHT. SPREAD HABIT. 20-30 feet 15-20 feet upright-oval ZONE. 5 (4~) ENVIRONMENT. full sun; well-drained soil, pH adaptable At the Arnold Arboretum, this is one of the best trees for autumn color with foliage in brilliant shades of yellow, orange, red, and bronze. It is a deciduous plant with large terminal clusters of small, creamy-white flowers in May. The orange to scarlet fruit is ornamental in late September and October, but is quickly eaten by birds. This species may be susceptible to borers and to fire blight. It probably will be most successful from an ornamental and cultural standpoint when grown in colder regions of the country. 200 Symplocos paniculata Sapphireberry HEIGHT. SPREAD: HABIT. 15-20 feet 10-20 feet large, multistemmed shrub; upright-arching branches; almost honeysuckle-like in outline ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT full sun; well-drained, acid to neutral soil 201 This most unusual fruiting shrub is one that is not well-represented in American landscapes. The rich green foliage is insect and disease free. The creamywhite, fragrant flowers open in May and are followed by sapphire-blue fruits in September. Unfortunately, the fruits are often consumed by birds. Flowering and fruiting tend to be heaviest in alternate years. The authors have seen tree forms that might be suitable for wide parkways. Usually the plant is multistemmed and could be utilized best along freeways for mass effect or in large planting islands. Sapphireberry also might be a good shrub for above-ground containers. The species is long-lived, structurally sound and requires minimal maintenance to keep it in presentable condition. Of' Tilia japonica Japanese Linden 202 HEIGHT. SPREAD HABIT 50-60 feet 20-30 feet distinctly pyramidal with billowy foliage masses; resembles T. cordata in outline 5 ZONE: ENVIRONMENT: full sun; moist, well-drained soils; pH adaptable This is a rare linden, with dark green foliage and abundant creamy-yellow flowers in July. It is texturally different from Tilia cordata and more graceful in outline. Its use would add species diversity. Laboratory tests have shown the plant to be stem hardy to -49F. Tilia mongolica HEIGHT. 30-45 feet SPREAD: 25-55 feet HABIT. not the typical pyramidal outline of most Tilia species; tends to be loose, floppy, and irregular; some branches show a slight pendulous Mongolian Linden ZONE. 4 ENVIRONMENT: see T. cordata tendency Another rare linden, Tilia mongolica is not as handsome as T. japonica or T. cordata. The lustrous, dark green foliage is deeply incised and appears grapelike. The winter stem color is often listed as red, but on the Arnold Arboretum tree is reddish-brown. The yellowish-white flowers open in July. This linden is more prone to storm damage than most others. It does not develop a uniform head without considerable pruning, but it may prove to be useful in containers where other lindens would be too large. 203 Zelkova carpinifolia Elm Zelkova 40-70 feet HEIGHT 20-50 feet SPREAD. conical to oval-rounded; HABIT. variable when grown from seed, branching tends to be strongly ZONE. 6 ENVIRONMENT full sun; drained soil; pH adaptable well- upright 204 Longevity, structural strength, and distinctive exfoliating bark make this a highly desirable tree. It is a slow grower, and nurserymen state that it takes too long to reach saleable size to be productive from the commercial viewpoint. For those willing to wait for a good thing, this tree is exceptionally longlived : two hundred- to three hundred-year-old specimens are common in Europe. Young trees have smooth gray bark; on older specimens it is exfoliating, revealing colors of tan, green and pale orange against a background of gray. Elm zelkova is extremely variable in shape when grown from seed, therefore grafted selections are preferable. One specimen that is 60-80 feet high and 15-18 feet wide grows along the reflecting basin at the foot of the Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. In the winter landscape this one specimen stands out from all neighboring trees because of its distinct habit and bark. The species is susceptible to Dutch elm disease. Zelkova sinica Chinese Zelkova HEIGHT: SPREAD ~ HABIT. 30-50 feet 20-40 feet rounded to somewhat vaseshaped ; not unlike Z. serrata in outline, often multiple-stemmed ZONE. 6 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light shade, well-drained soil; pH adaptable This slow-growing tree remains in scale with small landscape spaces for years. When young, it has smooth, gray bark which, with age, exfoliates in patches, revealing colors of gray, beige, and pale green. The tree is often multistemmed with strongly ascending branches; with proper pruning it can be headed up into a street tree. The foliage assumes tints of golden-brown in autumn. Its hardiness is suspect below -5 to -10F. Two-year-old stock was severely injured in Illinois, and trees in the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, have struggled; at the Arnold Arboretum, mature trees have developed frost cracks on the trunk. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Evergreen Screening Plants","article_sequence":6,"start_page":205,"end_page":221,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24751","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160af26.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"~ 2os EVERGREEN SCREENING PLANTS Evergreens are needed to block, frame, and direct views. They also provide visual interest and relief where the predominate vegetation is deciduous Needled and broadleaved evergreens are more prone to damage from aerial salts, atmospheric pollutants, and desiccating winds because the foliage is retained throughout the seasons. Once the foliage is damaged, the injured portions remain visible for long periods. In general, evergreens are not used for street trees in the classical sense because they block vision and cast shadows which slow down the melting of ice and snow. They are often used, however, in groups or masses at considerable distances from the highway's edge. The plants that follow have been included because they exhibit the greatest adaptability to adverse environmental conditions. White pine, Pinus strobus, and Canadian hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, are not included because of their sensitivity to salts and atmospheric pollutants. Cedrus atlantica Atlas Cedar 206 HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT. lar and 50-70 feet 40-60 feet 6 ZONE: full sun, appears to ENVIRONMENT: be more tolerant of aerial salts than most pyramidal in youth; irreguspreadmg with age evergreens; pH adaptable Atlas cedar tends to be strongly pyramidal for the first fifteen to twenty-five years, after which time it begins to spread and becomes more open. Needles vary from green (on the type) to silvery-blue on the cultivar 'Glauca'. Cedrus atlantica is reported to be difficult to transplant. The authors have seen young plantings in parking lots and in narrow spaces along major roadways where the plants show no signs of stress. Observations at Kew Gardens in England indicate that this species is more tolerant of drought and atmospheric pollution than C. deodora or C. libani. Disadvantages include stiff, coarse texture compared to other species, lack of shade tolerance, needle dieback in cold winters, and infestations of Diplodia tip blight in humid areas. A useful cultivar for restricted growing areas is 'Fastigiata'. C. deodara, Deodar cedar, is more graceful than C. atlantica and also is easier to transplant. Additionally, two cultivars, 'Kashmir' and 'Kingsville', are supposedly hardy to -25F, however, these clones have not proven hardy to -5 to -10F in Midwestern tests. The Arnold Arboretum has a hardy selection called 'Shalimar' that is far superior to either cultivar. Chamaecyparis pisifera Sawara False-cypress HEIGHT SPREAD HABIT: 20-50 feet 10-20 feet pyramidal full sun; ZONE 5 ENVIRONMENT. moist to dry, well-drained soil; pH adaptable 207 exhibits great variation in form, foliage color, texture, and While most cultivars are somewhat slow in growth, they are longlived and dependable. Young plants tend to be dense and clad with branches directly to the ground. Older specimens are often bare toward the base, and the upper canopy becomes thin and layered in appearance. Trunks are usually straight and tall, and walking through a mature grove would be a delightful experience. Chamaecyparis pisifera exhibts tolerance to aerial salts but is intolerant of shading. Older specimens of some cultivars have thinned out or exhibit browned interior leaves due to self-shading. Some cultivars have an unattractive yellow-green winter foliage color. The most useful cultivars for highway screening include `Plumosa' - conical with bright green, feathery foliage, and 'Squarrosa' pyramidal with soft blue-gray foliage. This species suffers from a lack of creative landscape use. Sawara false-cypress growth rate. - Chamaecyparis thyoides Atlantic White Cedar HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT. dal 20-50 feet 10-15 feet columnar to narrow-pyrami- ZONE. 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light shade; moist to wet soils that are rich in organic matter 208I This neglected and under-utilized American conifer is a good choice for poorly drained areas. Individual plants are full and dense, with a narrow, upright form. In nature, the plant is most commonly found in dense colonies in swampy soils. Atlantic white cedar is free from insects and diseases. The wood is extremely durable and structurally strong. Large isolated specimens are subject to wind-throw in severe storms. The species adapts to use as a tall, informal hedge or screen plant and perhaps is best used in low-stress situations. Ilex ciliospinosa HEIGHT SPREAD HABIT. 12-15 feet 4-6 feet ZONE 5 ENVIRONMENT full sun to moderate narrowly upright shade, prefers a moist, well-drained soil. pH adaptable Due to cold hardiness, this holly is one of the more successful evergreen species in the Arnold Arboretum. Its narrow, almost columnar habit makes it useful in restricted growing areas The foliage is a dull yellow-green Pistillate plants bear clusters of bright red, pea-sized fruits that ripen in early September and remain into December. Fruiting tends to occur in alternate years. During the winter of 1977-'78 (low of -5F), plants were defoliated but recovered. Without periodic pruning, the plants become leggy and unattractive As with other hollies, both staminate and pistillate plants are required for fruit production. 209 Ilex opaca American Holly HEIGHT: 40-70 feet SPREAD: 20-40 feet HABIT: densely pyramidal with branches to the ground ZONE: 6 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to partial shade; moist, well-drained, acid soil; shows good air spray tolerance pollution and salt This species is seldom considered for street or city use but may deserve a place. The foliage varies from dark green to yellow-green, and the fruit, from yellow to red. American holly tends to be low-branched, which would visually obstruct traffic. Slow growth also may limit use. Fruit size and persistence depend on the cultivar, as does leaf color. Although Ilex opaca does display great resistance to aerial salts, leaf miner and berry midge are two serious problems. From the coast of New England southward, however, the species is vigorous, adaptable and dependable. Laboratory hardiness tests have indicated that young stems are hardy only to -13F. Numerous cultivars have been selected and a list of the more hardy types should be compiled. 210 Ilex pedunculosa Longstalk Holly HEIGHT: 15-20 feet SPREAD: 10-15 feet HABIT: large evergreen shrub or low branched tree of dense pyramidaloval to pyramidal-rounded outline 5 ZONE: full sun or partial ENVIRONMENT: shade; best growth is achieved in acid, moist, well-drained soils; appears more tolerant of drought and wind than many hollies This is little known compared to American holly (Ilex opaca) but cerdeserves wider use. Its lustrous, dark green leaves are shaped like those of Kalmia latifolia, mountain laurel. The l\/4-inch-diameter red fruits are borne on 2-inch-long stalks in September, and are consumed rather quickly by the birds. This species would make an excellent screen and perhaps has possibilities as a container plant. At the Arnold Arboretum, large established plants have been infected by twig dieback (Phytophthora) which, in severe cases, caused loss of the plants. The species is easily rooted from cuttings taken through summer and fall. A staminate plant is necessary for pollination. species tainly Juniperus chinensis --------~--- ~ 2m Chinese Juniper HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 20-30 feet 10-20 feet ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: in outline full sun; dry to in- usually pyramidal fertile, sandy soils; pH adaptable 212 This excellent evergreen is especially tolerant of aerial salt spray, heat, drought and urban conditions, under which it remains persistent and long-lived. Shade intolerance and occasional infestations of bag worms and red spider are disadvantages. Superior forms include 'Columnaris', which grows 15-20 feet tall and 6-8 feet wide, forming a superb tall hedge; and 'Keteleeri', which grows 25-30 feet tall and 6-10 feet wide. Other types like 'Pfitzeriana', 'Hetzii', var. sargentii, and 'Old Gold' can be used for bank and large area plantings. The authors have observed effective plantings of Pfitzer juniper that covered entire slopes, suppressed weed growth, and resisted salt spray. Juniperus virginiana Eastern Red Cedar HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 30-50 feet 10-20 feet variable, from columnar to to upright-oval pyramidal pyramidal to broad- ZONE: 3 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; poor, gravelly soils; tolerant of heat, drought and cold; resistant to saline conditions ; excellent for calcareous (high pH ) soils 213 Eastern red cedar is one of the commonest and most adaptable pioneer evergreens, for it quickly invades abandoned fields and highway cuts. Foliage is generally a medium green but varies to gray-green. Plants bear quantities of blue-gray, fleshy, berrylike cones that are ornamental. The bark of old plants is reddish-brown in shredding strips. The plant's greatest merits are durability, long life, and cultural adaptability. It tends to be a slow grower and displays significant variability in growth habit, foliage color, and coning characteristics when grown from seed. Selections include `Burkii' - blue-green summer foliage becoming purplish in winter, pyramidal form to 10-15 feet tall; 'Canaertii' dense foliage of a rich green color, abundant bluish cones contrasting well with the foliage, rust-prone, upright to 20-30 feet; 'Glauca'- silver-blue foliage, dark green cones, narrowly upright to 20 feet; 'Grey Owl' - spreading type with blue-green foliage, grows 4-6 feet high; 'Silver Spreader' - similar to above (both of these spreading types are effective and might be used where the soils are dry and calcareous); 'Hillii'- blue-green summer foliage becoming purplish in winter, slow grower, dense and columnar, to 15 feet tall; 'Nova'- narrow, upright with a mature height of 10-12 feet. - Picea omorika Serbian Spruce 214 ] ZONE. 4 full ENVIRONMENT: sun; prefers moist, well-drained soil; tolerates air pollution; pH adaptable and a good choice for calcareous soils HEIGHT: 50-60 feet (80 feet) SPREAD. 15-20 feet or less HABIT. evergreen with a remarkably slender trunk and short ascending or drooping branches forming a narrow pyramidal outline Picea omorika is little known and used as a landscape plant in North America but it has proved to thrive better than any other landscape spruce in London, England. A graceful, spirelike outline, lustrous, dark green leaves and retention of lower branches in old age make this a first choice among spruces. It should be tested in malls, parks or along freeways where environmental pollutants might limit the successful culture of other spruce. Serbian spruce is a first choice among evergreen screening plants for areas where horizontal growing space must be restricted. Picea orientalis Oriental Spruce HEIGHT : 50-60 feet SPREAD. 10-20 feet HABIT. a dense, compact pyramid in youth which becomes more graceful with age and maintains a full complement of branches to the ground .?;ONE: 5, possibly 4 ]ENVIRONMENT: full sun; requires for moist, well-drained soil best growth; pH adaptable; foliage may burn in exposed locations especially where temperature drops below -20F 215 The short, 1\/4- to 1\/2-inch-long, lustrous, dark green needles are densely set along the branches on the Oriental spruce. The species makes a good screen or can be used in groups or masses. For park and large area use it is a valuable alternative to pines. Among the spruces, this ranks second to Picea omorika in terms of aesthetic qualities. Picea pungens var. glauca Colorado Blue Spruce HEIGHT: 30-60 feet SPREAD: 10-20 feet a narrow to broad symmetHABIT: rical pyramid with stiff, horizontal branches to the ground ZONE: 2 full sun; one of the ENVIRONMENT: better spruces for dry soils; tolerates city conditions; pH adaptable 216I has wide appeal because of the bluish-green to blue cast of the it is a stiff and formal plant and difficult to blend into the landscape. It displays good tolerance to aerial salts, in part because the wax deposits on the surface of the needles prevent accumulation of the sodium and chloride ions. Cultivars 'Hoopsii', 'Moerheimii', and 'Thompsonii', are among the best for intense silver-blue to blue needle color. Colorado blue spruce is a first choice among landscape conifers for cold northern locations. This plant needles, but Pinus nigra Austrian Pine HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 50-60 feet 20-40 feet densely pyramidal in youth, becoming umbelliform with maturity ZONE: 4 ENVIRONMENT: sun; tolerates heat, drought and atmospheric pollution as well as salinity; pH adaptable 217 This is one of the most common landscape pines in areas where Pinus strobus does not perform well. Needles are dark green and lustrous. The bark on selected trees develops broad, flat ridges with interesting grays and brown. As a background plant along freeways, in parks, and on residential properties where polluted conditions prevail, it is perhaps the best pine. It has suffered from Diplodia tip blight, however, which may disfigure or kill susceptible mature trees. Recent research has shown that twenty-year-old trees were scarcely infected, while thirty-year-old trees were heavily infected. Pinus sylvestris Scotch Pine HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 30-60 feet 30-40 feet irregularly pyramidal in youth, becoming open, wide-spreading and flat or round-topped (almost umbrella-shaped) at maturity ZONE: 2 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; will grow in poor, dry sites; prone to wind desiccation and often turns yellowgreen in winter; pH adaptable 218I Another popular landscape pine, this species is, however, extremely variable in needle color (blue- to yellow-green) and in habit. The orange, scaly bark is attractive on old trees. Pinus sylvestris is too irregular for street tree use but looks well in groupings, groves, or masses along interstate highways. It shows moderate tolerance to deicing salts but probably should be recommended only for temporary purposes since it is not long-lived under high stress situations. It, too, is susceptible to Diplodia tip blight. Pinus thunbergiana Japanese Black Pine HEIGHT: 20-40 feet SPREAD. variable HABIT: irregular in age; often sprawling ZONE: 6 ENVIRONMENT: youth and old to heavy or full sun; adaptable sandy soils; extremely salt tolerant I 219 Probably pine, this is a good choice where deicing salts or ocean spray present a cultural problem. The severely cold winters of 1976-'77 and '77-'78, however, induced severe needle browning and killed many Japanese black pines in the Midwest. The lustrous, dark green needles are similar to those of Pinus nigra. P. thunbergiana tolerates sandy, infertile soils as well as any pine. The irregular habit limits street use, but for groupings, massed and shelter plantings, the species has merit. the most salt-tolerant Sciadopitys verticillata Japanese Umbrella-pine HEIGHT: 20-40 feet SPREAD: 10-20 feet HABIT. stiffly pyramidal and formal in youth; irregular and more graceful with age ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to light shade; moist, well-drained soil; tolerant of exposure to wind and air-borne salt spray 220 Umbrella-pine is recommended here because it is proving to be extremely durable under difficult growing conditions. The authors have seen one hundredyear-old plants growing on the island of Martha's Vineyard, Massachusetts. The plants, within a block of the ocean, are growing in infertile, dry, sandy soil. Although exposed to the full onslaught of winter gales, they appear to be both structurally sound and vigorous. Several factors limiting use are high purchase cost, slow growth, and the stiff, formal appearance of young plants. Bark on old plants is cinnamon-brown and shredding. The foliage is lustrous, dark green and very exotic in appearance. This plant is an excellent choice for parks and wide, planting islands, and perhaps for above-ground containers. It is more vigorous in the northeastern and northwestern United States because of cooler summer temperatures there. Thuja occidentalis American Arborvitae ' HEIGHT: 20-40 feet SPREAD: 10-15 feet HABIT: densely foliaged; broad pyramid, with short narrow to ascending ZONE: 2 ENVIRONMENT: full sun; prefers moist, well-drained soil; adaptable to wet and dry soils; pH adaptable branches with flat, to the ground that end spreading, horizontal sprays 221 This species and its numerous cultivars have been widely employed for residential landscaping. The medium green foliage often turns a yellow-brown in winter. The tree makes a functional screen or privacy barrier and could be used effectively in containers. It is easily pruned and can be maintained at any height. Limitations include structural damage from ice and snow, which detracts from landscape uniformity. Two selected cultivars, 'Techny' and 'Nigra', maintain dark green foliage through the winter but are slower growing than the species. 'Hetz Wintergreen' is narrowly upright with a strong central leader; its foliage is a glossy dark green throughout the year. Thuja plicata Western Arborvitae HEIGHT: SPREAD: HABIT: 50-70 feet 15-25 feet narrow, ZONE: 5 ENVIRONMENT: full sun to partial with a buttressed base; very dense and full with a complement of branches to the pyramidal shade; moist, well-drained, fertile soils; moist atmosphere; pH adaptable ground This beautiful conifer is superior to Thuja occidentalis, especially in the quality of its winter foliage color which is a uniform dark green in summer as well. It makes a superlative screen, hedge, or group. It is probably less tolerant of polluted conditions and poor soils than T. occidentalis. The light brown to cinnamon-red shredding bark is attractive. Apparently there are different races of this species in cultivation, for some show a lack of cold hardiness. 'Atrovirens' is reliable in Zone 5 and the Arnold Arboretum accessions exhibit good cold tolerance. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pertinent Characteristics of Street Trees- Tabular Lists","article_sequence":7,"start_page":222,"end_page":232,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24754","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160b728.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"222 PERTINENT CHARACTERISTICS OF STREET TREES following charts are included to assist readers in the selection of plants for specific characteristics. Obviously, the placement of plants within the categories is somewhat arbitrary, for each tree is a unique living organism affected by genetics, climate, soil, environment, and man. The size groups in general reflect the growth of the species under landscape conditions. The letter following the name of each deciduous tree refers to the group in which the tree is included. P S T = = The major Primary List Secondary List Trial List t = For the readers' convenience, the page number for each is listed in the right-hand column. plant description _._~-~-~---- _- -. Acer platanoides 'Globosum' is an effective, small, round-headed tree. 223 I CC aj CI) CI) ;4 1.4 F-4 ;4 0 CI) ~~ 0 4-1 0 4.) -o 44 U0 Q ~ 0) r4*A 224 I ce ce cu cu f- ~ O C~ o cu s O AM .u,.., O = cu 225 i tI} s Q ;.c ... ~ Hw rA vo M C~ 0 \"\"00 0) ~o . ::s 0 A 226I i ~ Q,) ~ ... Q,) H~ rA 40 0a I 0 \"'00 .~ M ~o u u Q,) 227 1 CI) 4~ 4t E F CI)~ w H O u u O \"t:t M A 0 V-) I 228I o ~:E H S = 0 o i ~ o *~< ~~ ~w ~o A~ 229 I ~ ~~ ~~ ri) ce 0 S ::s <u 0 0 ~~ \"0 IJ4 . V.4 w u <M o ..... 0 Q~ 230 ~ fI.) rA W ~~ C,) ~ I 0 ~ s~ 0 0 \"'0 ;L4 . V.4 2 C,) :I ~ C,) Q~ u o~ ) 231 fI.! .... ~ ia Oi)fI.! .... bp C! ~-* 5~ 0 Q,) ~w ~ Q,)U ~o i.~r M ~. 0 w ~w ~0 ~ u cn ~o M j5 ia 4-1 0 to s~\",~A (t 4~ 'r ~Q.c w 0i)!3 ~E td 232I i-i ' ~ ~~ ~ ~ ba 4~ ...c ~ bA O c0 Cl)1I\"B w N\"I E0 ti 0 O u~ ~~ ~ d0 ;. m Im ;4 V4 > gL4 s s~ ~0 bA ~s ~ M~ ~ ~ ~d "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bibliography","article_sequence":8,"start_page":233,"end_page":234,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24750","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160ab6d.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"233 REFERENCE SOURCES FOR WOODY LANDSCAPE PLANTS Books Bean, W. J., TREES AND SHRUBS HARDY IN THE BRITISH ISLES. 8th ed. London: John Murray, Ltd., 1970. Brown, H. P., TREES OF NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES - NATIVE AND NATURALIZED. Boston, Massachusetts: The Christopher Publishing Co., 1938. DenOuden, P., and B. K. Boom. MANUAL OF CULTIVATED CONIFERS. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1965. Dirr, M. A., MANUAL OF WOODY LANDSCAPE PLANTS. Champaign, Illinois: Stipes Publishing Co., 1977. Frederick, W. H., Jr., 100 GREAT GARDEN PLANTS. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1975. Green, G. R., TREES OF NORTH AMERICA. Vol. 1 and 2. Ann Arbor, Michigan : Edwards Brothers, Inc., 1934. Grimm, W. C., THE BOOK OF TREES. Harrisburg, Pennsylvania: The Stackpole Co., 1965. Hillier, H. G., HILLIER'S MANUAL OF TREES AND SHRUBS. New York: A. S. Bames & Co., 1973. Hottes, A. C., THE BOOK OF TREES. New York: The A. T. De La Mare Co., Inc., 1942. Krussman, G. HANDBUCH DER LAUBGEH6LZE. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1960. Li, H. L., THE ORIGIN AND CULTIVATION OF SHADE AND ORNAMENTAL TREES. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1963. NATIVE TREES OF CANADA (Bulletin No. 61), Department of Forestry, Canadian Department of Resources and Development (Toronto). Ottawa: Edmond Cloutier, 1950. Peattie, D. C., A NATURAL HISTORY OF TREES. Boston, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin Co., 1966. Phillips, R., TREES OF NORTH AMERICA AND EUROPE. New York: Random House, 1978. Rehder, A., MANUAL OF CULTIVATED TREES AND SHRUBS. 2nd ed. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1967. Robinson, F. B., USEFUL TREES AND SHRUBS. Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1960. Santamour, F. W., Jr., H. D. Gerhold, S. Little (eds.). BETTER TREES FOR METROPOLITAN LANDSCAPES. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, 1976. SILVICS OF FOREST TREES OF THE UNITED STATES (Agricultural Handbook No. 271). Washington, D.C.: United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service, 1965. Symonds, G. W. D., THE TREE IDENTIFICATION BOOK. New York: M. Barrows & Co., 1958. Viertel, A. T., TREES, SHRUBS AND VINES. Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1970. Whitcomb, C. E., KNOW IT AND GROW IT: A Guide to the Identification and Use of Landscape Plants in the Southern States. 2nd ed. Tulsa, Oklahoma : Oil Capitol Printing, 1976. Wyman, D., TREES FOR AMERICAN GARDENS. rev. ed. New York: The Macmillan Co., 1965. 234 Publications of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 1000 Washington Avenue, Brooklyn, New York 11225: HANDBOOK ON FLOWERING TREES THE HUNDRED FINEST TREES AND SHRUBS FOR TEMPERATE CLIMATES TREE AND SHRUB FORMS - THEIR LANDSCAPE USE NURSERY SOURCE GUIDE (where to buy 1200 trees and shrubs) Journals for Reference AMERICAN NURSERYMAN . Chicago, Illinois: American Nurseryman Pub- lishing Company. ARNOLDIA. Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts: The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. JOURNAL OF ARBORICULTURE. Urbana, Illinois: International Society of Arboriculture. Articles of Special Interest from the JOURNAL OF ARBORICULTURE Black, M. E., \"Tree Vandalism: Some Solutions.\" May 1978, 4(5): 114-116. Foster, R. S. and J. Blaine, \"Urban Tree Survival: Trees in the Sidewalk.\" January 1978, 4(1): 14-17. Heisler, G. M., \"Trees Modify Metropolitan Climate and Noise.\" November 1977, 3(11): 201-207. Holmes, F. W., \"Shade Trees - The Friends of the Poor and of the CityDweller.\" September 1977, 3(4): 176-177. Morse, S.C., \"Trees in the Town Environment.\" January 1978, 4(1): 1-6. Patterson, J. C., \"Soil Compaction - Effects on Urban Vegetation.\" September 1977, 3(9): 161-167. Roberts, B. R., \"The Response of Urban Trees to Abiotic Stress.\" April 1977, 3(4): 75-78. Now What's Going to Wargo, P. M., \"Insects Have Defoliated My Tree Happen?\" August 1978, 4(8): 169-175. Williams, D. J., \"Handling Plants in Landscape Containers.\" August 1978, - 4(8): 184-186. Photo Credits: Illustrations for this handbook were supplied by J. Alexander, M. Dirr, E. Gray, P. Green, H. Howard, G. Koller, R. Weaver, and D. Wyman. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index","article_sequence":9,"start_page":235,"end_page":237,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24752","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160af6b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"235 INDEX TO PLANTS DESCRIBED ( Scientific names Acer - are in italics ) buergeranum, 84 - campestre, 85 - Fringetree, 176 1 Juniper, 211 - cappadocicum, 169 ginnala, 139 griseum, 140 maximowiczianum, 141 - Mountain-ash, 199 Pistache, 192 - Sumac, 198 - - Toon Tree, 144 - nikoense, 141 - Zelkova, 204 88 - - platanoides, 86 pseudoplatanus, rubrum, 89 saccharum, 142 tataricum, 143 velutinum, 170 - - - - Aesculus X carnea 'Briotii', 91 Ailanthus altissima, 92 Alnus cordata, 170 glutinosa, 171 Amelanchier arborea, 93 American Arborvitae, 220 - - Holly, 1 Hophornbeam, 191 Sweetgum, 114 Maple, 139 209 Chionanthus retusus, 176 Christine Buisman Elm, 167 Cladrastis lutea, 148 Cockspur Hawthorn, 102 Coliseum Maple, 169 Colorado Blue Spruce, 215 Columnar Siberian Crabapple, 118 Common Baldcypress, 166 - Mulberry, 155 Cornelian-cherry, 100 Cornus alternifolia, 177 controversa, 178 housa, 98 macrophylla, 179 - mas, 100 Yellowwood, 148 Amur Corktree, 157 - Atlantic White Cedar, 207 Atlas Cedar, 205 Austrian Pine, 216 Betula nigra, 172 Black Ash, 183 officinalis, 101 Corylus colurna, 180 Crataegus crus-galli, 102 laevigata 'Crimson Cloud', - `Paulii', 149 - 181 - `Superba', 181 - Locust, 161 - Tupelo, 156 Blue Ash, 185 Bradford Pear, 125 Carmine Crabapple, 118 Carolina Silverbell, 186 Carpinus betulus, 95 tschonoskii, 173 Castor-aralia, 188 Catalpa ovata, 174 Caucasian Wingnut, 196 Cedrela sinensis, 144 Cedrus atlantica, 205 Celtis jessoensis, 175 laevigata, 146 occidentalis, 97 - - - lavallei, 150 oxyacantha 'Paulii', 149 phaenopyrum ,103 punctata 'Ohio Pioneer', 181 X Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 147 Chamaecyparis pisifera, 206 thyoides, 207 Cherrybark Maple, 140 Chinese Catalpa, 174 - viridis 'Winter King', 104 Crimson Cloud Hawthorn, 181 Cucumber Magnolia, 153 Dawn Redwood, 189 Downy Serviceberry, 93 Eastern Red Cedar, 212 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 151 Elm Zelkova, 203 Eucommia ulmoides, 182 European Alder, 171 Birdcherry, 195 Hornbeam, 95 Flowering Ash, 184 8 - Crabapple, 118 Fraxinus americana, 106 - excelsior 'Hessei', 183 nigra, 183 - - - - ornus, 184 - - Elm, 136 - pennsylvanica, 107 quadrangulata, 185 236I Giant Dogwood, Ginkgo, 108 Ginkgo biloba, 110 178 - - 9 'Snowdrift', 119 9 tschonoskii, 119 108 var. Merrill Magnolia, 115 Gleditsia triacanthos inermis, Goldenraintree, 112 Green Ash, 107 Gymnocladus dioica, 111 Metasequoia glyptostroboides, 189 Mongolian Linden, 202 Morus alba, 155 rubra, 190 - Nikko Maple, 141 Hackberry, 97 Halesia carolina, 186 Hardy Rubber Tree, 182 Hedge Maple, 85 Hesse European Ash, 183 Ilex ciliospinosa, 208 - Norway Maple, 86 Nyssa sylvatica, 156 Ohio Pioneer Dotted Hawthorn, 181 Okame Cherry, 194 Oriental Spruce, 214 Osage-orange, 152 opaca, 209 Ostrya virginiana, 191 210 - pedunculosa, Ironwood, 95 Italian Alder, 170 Japanese Black Pine, 218 Pagoda Dogwood, Paperbark Maple, 177 140 - Dogwood, 101 Flowering Crabapple, - 118 Linden, 201 131 - Tree Lilac, 165 9 Umbrella-pine, 219 - Zelkova, 137 Jesso Hackberry, 175 1 Juniperus chinensis, 211 virginiana, 212 Kalopanax pictus, 188 Katsura Tree, 147 l Kentucky Coffeetree, 111 Koelreuteria paniculata, 112 Korean Mountain-ash, 164 Kwanzan Cherry, 158 Largeleaf Dogwood, 179 Lavalle Hawthorn, 150 Liquidambar styraciflua, 114 Littleleaf Linden, 132 London Plane Tree, 122 Longstalk Holly, 210 Maclura pomifera, 152 Magnolia acuminata, 153 denudata, 154 heptapeta, 154 kobus var. loebneri 'Merrill', 115 X soulangiana, 116 Malus, 118 X atrosanguinea, 118 baccata 'Columnaris', 118 8 `Coralburst', 118 -'Donald Wyman', 118 8 floribunda, 118 hupehensis, 119 - 'Red Jade', 119 sargentii, 119 9 'Snowcloud', 119 - Pagoda-tree, - - Paul's Scarlet Hawthorn, 149 Persian Maple, 170 Phellodendron amurense, 157 Picea omorika, 213 orientalis, 214 5 pungens var. glauca, 215 Pinus nigra, 216 7 sylvestris, 217 thunbergiana, 218 Pin Oak, 127 Pistacia chinensis, 192 Platanus X acerifolia, 122 Populus tremula 'Erecta', 193 Prunus cyclamina, 194 -'Okame', 194 padus, 195 sargentii, 123 serrulata 'Kwanzan', 158 Pterocarya fraxinifolia, 196 Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford', 125 fauriei, 126 Quercus acutissima, 159 cerris, 197 imbricaria, 160 nigra, 161 palustris, 127 - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - phellos, 128 robur 'Fastigiata', rubra, 130 shumardii, 197 129 - - - - Red - - Maple, 89 Mulberry, 190 Oak, 130 - - - - Redmond Linden, 133 Rhus chinensis, 198 River Birch, 172 Robinia pseudoacacia, 161 Ruby Red Horsechestnut, 91 - Russian-olive, 151 - Sapphireberry, 200 237 Sargent Cherry, 123 9 Crabapple, 119 - Thornless - Sassafras, 163 Sassafras albidum, 163 6 Saucer Magnolia, 116 Sawara False-cypress, 206 Sawtooth Oak, 159 Scholar-tree, 131 Sciadopitys verticillata, 219 Scotch Pine, 217 7 Serbian Spruce, 213 Honeylocust, Thuja occidentalis, 220 plicata, 221 - 110 Shadbush, 93 Shingle Oak, 160 Shumard Oak, 197 Silver Linden, 134 Sophora japonica, 131 Sorbus alnifolia, 164 esserteauiana, 199 Sour Gum, 156 Sugarberry, 146 Sugar Hackberry, 146 Maple, 142 Sycamore Maple, 88 - Symplocos paniculata, 200 Syringa reticulata, 165 amurensis var. japonica, 165 Tatarian Maple, 143 Taxodium distichum, 166 Tea Crabapple, 119 - Tilia cordata, 132 X euchlora 'Redmond', 133 japonica, 201 mongolica, 202 tomentosa, 134 Tree of Heaven, 92 Trident Maple, 84 Tschonoski Crabapple, 119 Turkey Oak, 197 Turkish Filbert, 180 Ulmus carpinifolia 'Christine Buisman', 167 parvifolia, 136 Upright English Oak, 129 - European Aspen, 193 Washington Hawthorn, 103 Water Oak, 161 Western Arborvitae, 221 White Ash, 106 Willow Oak, 128 Winter King Hawthorn, 104 Yeddo Hornbeam, 173 Yulan Magnolia, 154 Zelkova carpinifolia, 203 - serrata, 137 sinica, 204 - - "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23282","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170af6d.jpg","title":"1979-39-3","volume":39,"issue_number":3,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ailanthus","article_sequence":1,"start_page":29,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24746","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160a326.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":2,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"Ailanthus by SHIU YING Hu Ailanthus is called tree of heaven by some people. In its homeland, China, it is known as Ch'un Shu, pronounced almost like \"train\" and \"sure\" in English. Of all the trees introduced from China into American gardens, ailanthus is the most widely naturalized. The specimens in the Harvard University Herbaria indicate that the species Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle runs wild from Massachusetts in the East to Oregon in the West, and from Toronto, Canada in North America to Tucuman, Argentina (and Buenos Aires, by reference) in South America. In neglected areas of large cities such as Boston, ailanthus grows as trees close to buildings, as hedges, or as bushy aggregates along railroad tracks, highway embankments, walls at the ends of bridges and overpasses, or in cracks of sidewalks and along boundary fences between properties (Figs. 1-2). Around some dwellings the trees are so close to the windows that they prevent light and sunshine from penetrating the rooms, or they send roots to invade the sewers or damage the foundations. Once ailanthus is established, it becomes very difficult to eradicate, for it can sprout from the stumps and on any portion of a root (Fig. 3, left); moreover, a female tree produces a large amount of winged fruits that spread and germinate in the gardens near, or even far away from, the mother plant. For these reasons, ailanthus has been maligned as a weedy tree by city dwellers. Lately, however, it has attracted the interest of environmentalists, and many of them have asked me questions about the tree both by telephone and in letters. This article contains a summary of the answers to some of the queries. It includes general characteristics of the species Ailanthus altissima, a history of its introduction from North China to Europe and thence to America, a review of its early uses in America, my observation of ailanthus in China and its position in Chinese culture, and finally comments on the future of ailanthus as a tree of economic importance in the United States of America. This article is prepared for the information of the general public; specific material on taxonomy is not included. Phytogeographically the range of the genus Ailanthus is primarily Southeastern Asia and the Pacific Islands. Ailanthus altissima is the only species that can grow in the temperate or cold temperate regions. 29 30 In the transliteration of the Chinese names, the spelling is adopted from the Wade System of romanization as it appeared in Mathew's Chinese-English Dictionary, Harvard University, 1950 edition. I should like to take this opportunity to express my appreciation to Dr. Lily M. Perry for sharing with me the information in her manuscript on medicinal plants of Asia, to Mr. Walter T. Kittredge for assistance with the illustrations, and to Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh for many helpful suggestions. Distinguishing Characters of Ailanthus In order to have wise use of ailanthus, man must know the plant and be ready to pull the self-sown seedlings and the root sprouts as early as possible. Most people do not use a magnifying lens; without such aid, ailanthus may be recognized by its deciduous habit, smooth light ochraceous-gray trunk, stout branches, and reddish-brown, twoto four-year-old twigs with large heart-shaped leaf scars, each having many bundle scars along the margin and a roundish bud at the sinus. The leaf-bearing twigs are green with very short straight hairs. The leaves of ailanthus are odd-pinnately compound (Figs. 3-7), 20 to 60 cm. long, each with four to thirty-five leaflets. The petioles are terete, enlarged at the base and often tinged red above. The leaflets are ovate-lanceolate, rounded at the base, and each has two to four glandular teeth near the base. The leaves of root sprouts are yellowish-green when first emerging from the soil, and vary in size and number of divisions from unifoliolate to trifoliolate, pentafoliolate, or pinnately compound (Fig. 3, left). The leaves of a seedling are trifoliolate, crowded above the two rounded epigeal cotyledons (Fig. 3, right). The flowers of ailanthus are small, yellowish-green, arranged in at the ends of new shoots, and they are sexually differentiated. A mature flower bud is roundish and small, about the size of a grain of green foxtail grass seed. The buds are borne on slender pedicels crowded in fascicles arranged on the secondary or teritiary axes, or even on finer divisions of the large panicle (Fig. 4). Normally, a male plant produces three or four times more flowers than a female plant. Naturally the male panicles are much larger than the female ones (Figs. 5-6). During the flowering season, the male flowers are more conspicuous than the female ones, and they emit an odor that attracts numerous insects. A flower of ailanthus has a very tiny cupular and lobed calyx, a corolla with five distinct petals that are hairy on the inside, and an annular and lobed gland. A male flower has spreading functional stamens, each with a globular fertile anther and a glandular cushion-like green disc. A female flower has ten (or rarely five by abortion) sterile stamens (staminodes), each with a heart-shaped abortive anther; a green glandular disc; and a pistil with five coherent carpels, a slender style, and a star- large panicles 31 Fig. 1. Some self-sown ailanthus back of an apartment house on Commonwealth Avenue between Boston and Brookline, Massachusetts. A solitary tree growing in a limited space of a poorly lighted recess is twice as tall as those growing along the wall with more space and better light. The tall tree (left) has a bole 15 m. high and 45 cm. in diameter at breast height. 32 like stigma. Soon after flowering, the carpels develop into five (or, due to abortion sometimes four, three, or even one) separate winged fruits (samaras, Figs. 4 and 6). These samaras mature greenishyellow or reddish-brown, depending on the varieties. They persist on the branchlets even in winter. During the fruiting season, a female tree is more conspicuous in the landscape than is a male one. Due to the power of root-sprouting in ailanthus, one may find all the plants in an area producing male flowers, while those in another area all bear female flowers and fruit. The male plants of ailanthus do not bear fruit. I have not observed any female plants bearing flowers with fertile anthers. The condition described in most manuals as \"polygamous\" does not seem to exist in ailanthus. The general characters given above are for normal plants. Abnormal growth conditions may alter some of the characters. First, repeated cuttings promote vegetative growth and inhibit flowering in ailanthus. Second, abnormal condition of the flowering of ailanthus may occur. This fact is substantiated by a collection of J. C. Nelson (2361 ) from Oregon. Evidently the specimens were gathered from a dying stump of a female plant. The sprouts are small and impoverished. The leaves have three to five leaflets only, and some of the terminal leaflets are lobed, rather than being divided to the base to form individual leaflets (Fig. 7). The flowers are in solitary fascicles or in small simple cymes in the axils of upper leaves. The abortive stamens are reduced in number, being five only, instead of the normal ten staminodes. The Introduction of Ailanthus to Europe Ailanthus seed was first carried from Peking to Paris in a transcontinental trip via Siberia in the 1740's. The seed was collected and shipped from Peking by Pierre d'Incarville, a Jesuit priest who joined the China Mission in 1740 at the age of thirty-four. Incarville went to China not only as a mature person, but also as a very learned man who had received a botanical education from Bernard de Jussieu, Superintendent of the Jardin Royal des Plantes, Paris. According to E. Bretschneider, he was a Corresponding Member of the Academy of Science in Paris. He entered China via Macao, and traveled from South China to Peking in North China where he settled and died in 1756. From 1743 onward, Incarville sent herbarium specimens and seeds to Jussieu. Ailanthus altissima and Sophora japonica are two of his introductions that have become well known in the American landscape. It must be remembered that in the middle eighteenth century, the botanical-minded individuals in Europe were interested in obtaining plants of economic importance in eastern Asia for introduction to their colonies of comparable climate in the Americas. In Incarville's trip from Macao to Peking, he had the opportunity to see the agricultural practices, and to learn about the plants of economic importance 33 from the subtropical region to the temperate region of China. When he was in the Lower Yangtze Region, he observed the Chinese varnish tree (Rhus verniciflua), apparently from a distance. After settling in Peking, he began to study the plants, collect specimens and seeds, and ship them to Paris. On seeing the ailanthus in Peking, he assumed it to be the varnish tree of the Yangtze Region, and sent the seed of ailanthus to Paris with a note about the lacquer tree. Although Incarville was not the first person who mistook ailanthus for a lacquer tree, his note became the source of confusion in the botanical literature in Europe for several decades. Before Incarville arrived in China, many Chinese scholars had recorded the difficulty in distinguishing the lacquer tree from ailanthus; for, as seen from a distance, the light ochraceous-gray trunks and the pinnately compound leaves of the two species are very similar. At the end of the sixteenth century, in Pen-ts'ao kang-mu Li recorded an ancient rhyme saying, \"Ailanthus, planted or wild; And lacquer tree look alike.\" On receiving the seed of ailanthus sent by Incarville, Bernard de Jussieu planted a portion of it in Paris, and sent some to England. Philip Miller, Superintendent of the Physic Garden at Chelsea, and Philip C. Webb, a man with a curious exotic garden in Busbridge, near London, both received some of the seed in 1751. According to W. J. Bean (Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles 1: 197. 1950), Peter Collinson also received some seed in the same year. This lot of seed was viable and produced young healthy trees well adapted for outdoor living in the climate of Paris and London. The seedlings grew beautifully under different names. In Paris they were recorded as Rhus succedanea L., or grand vernis du Japon ; in Chelsea they were called Toxicodendron altissima Miller; and in Busbridge they were known as Rhus Sinense foliis alatis. Botanical literature of the middle 1750's recorded the dispute on the identity of their new introduction between Philip Miller and John Ellis, Superintendent of the garden of Philip Webb. These records have led to serious nomenclatural problems of Ailanthus altissima (Miller) Swingle. On account of the rapid growth and the beautiful foliage of ailanthus, its popularity soared in Europe, and it soon became one of the most commonly planted and highly esteemed trees in European cities. In 1782, Friedrich Ehrhart visited Holland and saw a goodsized tree in Utrecht, and he named it Rhus cacodendron in a report. In 1785, R. L. Desfontaines became Professor of Botany at the Jardin Royal des Plantes in Paris. Three years later, he observed the samara of the tree called Rhus succedanea L. in that garden, and he realized that it was not a sumac. In an article entitled \"Memoire sur un nouveau genre d'arbre, Ailanthus glandulosa,\" he published an illustrated description for the species (Fig. 4). He derived the generic epithet from a Moluccan name, ailanto, used by the island people of the Pacific for an evergreen species (Ailanthus integrifolia Lamk.) of the tropic forest. To these people, ailanto means \"a tree of heaven.\" Desfontaines' name for ailanthus has been accepted widely, and it 34I 35 appears in European botanical literature as late as 1957. However, by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, this epithet has to be disqualified as a valid scientific name for ailanthus because it is a later homonym at the species level. In 1916, Walter T. Swingle, of the United States Department of Plant Industry, studied the history of ailanthus in Europe. He transferred to Ailanthus an earlier specific epithet given by Philip Miller and made a new combination to supply the correct scientific name for our common ailanthus, A. altissima (Miller) Swingle. Alfred Rehder in the Bibliography oCultivated Trees and Shrubs listed fourteen synonyms for the species. Readers who are interested in this subject are advised to refer to both Swingle's and Rehder's work. Genetically ailanthus is a polyploid (2~z = 80). Genetic segregation occurred in cultivation, and in Europe horticultural varieties were recognized in the 1890's. Leopold Dippel in 1892 described three varieties: A. altissima a. rubra, A. altissima b. pendulifolia, and A. altissima c. aucubaefolia. Rehder in 1949 treated the first two taxa as forms. Ailanthus in America to America via England. William Hamilton of Philthe first person who introduced ailanthus to his garden adelphia in 1784. The rapid and luxuriant growth of the plant and its power to thrive in unfavorable situations of poor soil and little care attracted the early settlers. In the 1820's the demand for small trees was handled by Prince and Parsons Nurseries of Flushing, Long Island, New York. Ailanthus was gradually planted in industrial centers such as New York City, Brooklyn, Baltimore, and Boston because of its ability to tolerate the dirt and smoke of cities. In the 1840's ailanthus was a common stock in the nurseries of eastern United States of America. The specimens of Harvard University Herbaria and those of the New England Botanical Club bespeak the status of naturalization of ailanthus in the New World. As early as 1888, Curtiss reported that ailanthus ran wild in Virginia and the neighboring states. Freeman in 1955 reported that in Polk County of North Carolina, ailanthus was widespread, forming thickets, and had become a pest in some places. Anderson in 1961 reported that in Missouri, ailanthus was the prevailing tree from Kings Highway to the Mississippi River. During a recent trip to New York, I observed that numerous patches of ailanthus trees 3 to 7 m. tall occurred on the embankments of the expressway between Boston and New York, especially in the sections within ten to fifteen miles of these two cities. The frequency of the occurrence becomes greater as one nears the cities. Ailanthus came was Elements of Ailanthus in America: More than one species of Ailanthus has been introduced into America. Alfred Rehder in the Fig. 2. Ailanthus growing as weedy trees in the Allston section of Boston. a. A thicket-like stand of male ailanthus on a dump adjacent to a railroad at the junction of the Massachusetts Turnpike and Western Avenue, with tenaments in the background; b. Ailanthus growing along a fence on Western Avenue where it passes over the Massachusetts Turnpike. The trees that have been cut repeatedly appear bushy. 36 second edition of the Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America included two species and three horticultural varieties of Ailanthus. The species are A. altissima, which is recognized by its smooth twigs and smaller fruits measuring 3 to 4 cm. in length; and A. vilmoriniana, which is distinguished by its prickly twigs and larger fruits measuring 5 to 5.5 cm. in length. The common ailanthus in cities and the naturalized trees all belong to A. altissima. In the Boston area this species has two forms; namely, A. altissima f. altissima with greenish-yellow fruits, and A. altissima f. erythrocarpa with reddish-yellow fruits. Objections to Planting Ailanthus : In American horticultural literature, one may find several objections to using ailanthus for ornamental purposes. First, from the aesthetic point of view, some people dislike the massive clusters of shaggy fruits that remain on the leafless twigs in winter. Moreover, the self-sown plants often grow in unwanted places, and they are frequently harmful to neighboring objects such as living plants or constructions. Second, to some people ailanthus is a generator of unpleasant odors because the leaves produce a foul smell when crushed. For this reason, the tree of heaven has been called the \"stink tree.\" During the flowering season, the male trees emit an odor that is disagreeable to some people; near the flowers, it is barely detectable. Third, there are charges that ailanthus is poisonous, and it is blamed for catarrhal troubles. Two cases of ailanthus poisoning were reported in Garden and Forest. The first case was reported by C. V. Tice in 1888. It concerned ailanthus fever contracted by a man in Boonsboro, Maryland, who suffered from sore throat, nausea, and inability to sleep at night for three weeks. The second case, reported by A. H. Curtiss, referred to a contact poison. A man cut down an ailanthus tree by trimming off the branches first; by night, his hands and face began to swell and his eyes were swollen shut. He suffered severely for several days. As no other cases were known, the editor of the journal commented that these criticisms of ailanthus were unfair. The man might have cut a poison sumac and misidentified it as an ailanthus, for without fruits as a guide, it would be difficult for a lay person to distinguish the two species. At first ailanthus was planted in for ornamental purposes. Later it was used in some states for afforestation. Charles Sargent, the founder and first director of the Arnold Arboretum, was an advocate of this latter use. In the first issue of Garden and Forest he explained the merits of ailanthus, saying, \"... for hardiness and rapidity of growth, for the power to adapt to the dirt and smoke, the dust and drought of cities, for the ability to thrive in the poorest soil, for beauty and for usefulness, this tree is one of the most useful which can be grown in this climate ...\" (Gard. & For. 1888: 380). Regarding the economic value of ailanthus, he pointed out that the species is a good source of Afj\"-orestation with Ailantlzus: America exclusively 37 Fig. 3. Young ailanthus. Left: Sprouts from a rootlet 2 mm. in diameter. This rootlet is 5 m. away from the trunk of the mother plant. It emerges from a root extending from the base of the trunk to an island between the sidewalk and the street, sending branches upward to 2 cm. near the surface of the ground, and then produces three sprouts on a section 2 cm. long. The oldest sprout is nearer to the mother plant; the second one appears to have originated from a spot opposite the oldest sprout. The one on the right is the youngest. Apparently, soon after the sprouts could carry on the function of photosynthesis with their immature leaves, food material was stored in the cortex of that portion of the root between the three sprouts. Here the root is twice as thick as the sections before and after the emergence of sprouts. Photo: W. T. Kittredge. firewood that has comparable heat-producing properties to those of white oak, black walnut, or birch. It bums steadily and slowly, giving a clear bright flame, leaving a good bed of coals, and finishing with a small amount of ash. For furniture, Sargent noted that the wood is \"heavy, strong, it neither shrinks nor warps in seasoning ... as material for cabinetmakers it has few superiors among woods grown in the temperate region....\" Charles Koffer in 1895 reported that ailanthus was recommended almost without qualification for afforestation in Kansas. However, the species has proved to be unable to withstand the prolonged dry seasons on the high land in the Middle West. He also stated that ailanthus is profitable for the supply of fuel obtained when the trees are cut to the ground every few years, \"... but in close plantation 38 it can hardly be grown as a timber-tree.... The species is too tender for northern Nebraska and the Dakotas....\" (Gard. & For. 8 : 122- 123). In 1926 Illick and Brouse reported on the experiments of afforestation with ailanthus in Pennsylvania. They observed that as a forest tree, ailanthus is a fast grower, a persistent sprouter, and an aggressive competitor with the native species. The one-year-old seedling grows 1 to 2 meters tall; strong shoots sprout not only from the stumps, but also from any portion of the root; and the large amount of seed produced annually by mature trees and blown to the neighboring woods germinates. The progeny is difficult to eradicate. In this respect it is worthwhile to mention a report made in 1959 by Fran~ois Mergen, of the School of Forestry, Yale University. Mergen found that an aqueous extract of ailanthus leaves contains a principle that is toxic to thirty-five species of gymnosperms including twenty-one pines, six spruces, five firs, a larch, a Douglas fir, and an arbor-vitae. Of the eleven species of native broad-leaved trees subjected to the experiment, only the white ash (Fraxinus americanus L.) was not affected adversely. Mergen suggested that a toxic leachate from the cuticular excretion of ailanthus leaves washed off by rain, produces a depressing effect on the growth of the neighboring plants. Regarding the economic value of the product, Illick and Brouse reported that the fast-growing young ailanthus produces inferior wood that is brittle, non-durable, and easily split. The wood of old trees is comparable to that of ash or chestnut; it is moderately heavy, rather durable, difficult to split, and has a beautiful lustre. The sapwood is white-yellow, and the heartwood is grayish-orange. It does not shrink or warp in drying, and can be used for cabinet work, musical instruments, woodware, and charcoal. These authors further explored the possibility of making pulpwood of ailanthus and reported the findings of the Forest Products Laboratory of the USDA in Madison, Wisconsin. According to this report, the wood is well adapted for pulp, superior to the woods then used extensively in the United States for the purpose. The paper prepared from ailanthus pulpwood is good for books, lithography, and other purposes that require softness and opacity. It was noted that the wood of ailanthus must be harvested before the trees are thirty years old. As the plants grow to full size, they begin to deteriorate. The brittle branches break in strong winds and heavy snow, leaving deformed crowns. Moreover, a heart rot starts, and the trunk gradually becomes hollow. Then the tree falls in a storm. Ailanthus in China Ailanthus has a different appearance in its homeland, China. As far as I know, there ailanthus appears neither bushy nor weedy. It rarely occurs within the city limits, but grows in villages or in the suburbs as isolated trees with straight, tall boles and rather flat 39 One may wonder why it is that the same species of tree differently in the two countries, China and the United States. The answer is an ethnobotanical one. The shape of a tree depends largely upon the man around it. In American cities where the self-sown plants of ailanthus are cut to the ground periodically by the workmen of the park department, they become bushy because of their ability to sprout from the stumps. In the neglected areas, the root sprouts of the established trees and their seeds develop into pure stands of thicket-like aggregations, partially because of the toxic leachate from the leaves that prevents the growth of other species. In China the situation is different. China is a densely populated country. As I have observed, fifty years ago nearly 90 percent of the population cooked with plant material, which included wood, straw, leaves of deciduous trees in North China, and dry manure of cattle in the nomadic areas. Under such conditions, children as well as adults gathered whatever combustible material they could obtain for fuel. No trees had a chance to grow unless they were wanted and protected by the owners. The wanted trees grown under protection were given proper care. Their lower branches were pruned at the proper time and the boles thus became straight until they were 15 or more meters tall. The unwanted self-sown young trees were exterminated by fuel gatherers. It is true that in comparison with the wood of a mature ailanthus tree, the heat-producing power of young trees and root sprouts is poor, yet they can provide a fuel better than leaves and straw. crowns. behaves so The Cultural Aspect of Ailanthus in China: In China the history of Ailanthus is as old as the written language of the country. In L~rlz-ya, the first encyclopedia on the natural history and cultural objects in China, ailanthus appeared as the second name in a list of trees. Apparently the name used by the prehistorical ethnic groups existed in sound long before the development of writing. During the formative period of the written language of China, four ideograms with slightly varied pronunciations were created for ailanthus and recorded in the literature written before 100 B.C. In a Materia Medica compiled by imperial order in 656 A.D. (T'ang Dynasty) an ideogram consisting of the mu (wood) radical on the left and a ch'un (spring) sound on the right appeared in a pair with the ~rhya ideogram. Since then, in Chinese botanical literature these two ideograms have been applied to ailanthus either together, or individually with one being listed as the synonym of the other. In the two most widely used botanical references, the authors did not agree in their choice of the ideograms. In 1937, Professor Chen in the Illustrated Manual of Chinese Trees and Shrubs chose the older ~rh-ya ideogram for the genus Ailanthus. In the more recent work, Iconograp)zia Cormoplzytorum Sinicorum (2 : 561. 1970), published by the Science Press in Peking, the T'ang ideogram is chosen with a modifier. In this work Ailanthus altissima is called ch'ou ch'un 40 Fig. 4 (left). The first illustratlOn of ailanthus with flowers and fruits (from Desfontaines, 1788.) Photo: W. T. Kittredge. Fig. 5 (right). A specxmen of ailanthus with a male panicle (E. E. Stanford 1488, Calxfornxa, May 16, 1930, Gray Herbarium.) Photo. W. T. Kittredge. (stinking ch'un). The vernacular name in the Lower Yellow River Region for ailanthus is ch'un-shu (spring tree), a heritage the people received verbally from their ancestors since time immemorial. There is an ethnobotanical reason why the prehistorical people of the Lower Yellow River Region called ailanthus the \"spring tree\" (ch'un-shu). It was not because they could detect the first sign of spring by the revival of life activities in ailanthus; it was an expression of release from severe cold and starvation. They observed that among all the deciduous trees of the area, ailanthus had the longest winter dormancy. They noticed that in the spring it remained leafless while the cottony seeds of willows were flying in the air, the coinlike samaras of the elms began to fall to the ground, and the food supply dwindled. To the people suffering from cold and starvation in semihibernation, the enlarged buds of ailanthus were an assurance of the return of the warm weather and a sign of hope for the approach of the next harvest season. Seeing the unfolding buds, the early people of North China exclaimed, \"Oh, Spring is finally here!\" That the rural people of North China link the enlarged buds of ailanthus with starvation is manifested in a nursery rhyme, \"ch'unshu mao tsuan, o-ti ch'ung-jen fan po yen\" \"As the buds of ailanthus appear, the helpless white eyes of the starving people turn clear.\" In Chinese botanical and pharmaceutical literature, ch'un is the basis of the common names of two trees. In addition to ch'un-shu for - unfolding 41 ailanthus, species that resembles ailanthus in the pinnately compound leaves and in the delayed resumption of life activities in the spring. This species is Toona sinensis (A. Juss. ) Roemer (better known in the United States as Cedrela sinensis A. Juss. ). In North China, ailanthus grows spontaneously while cedrela is cultivated for its aromatic edible young shoots, used primarily as a spice. When the odors of the two species are compared, cedrela is called hsiang-ch'un (fragrant spring tree) and ailanthus is known as ch'un-shu in the villages, and ch'ou ch'un (stinking spring tree) in cities. In Li's Pen-ts'ao kang-mu and in some other Chinese Materia Medica published after this work, hsiang-ch'un and ch'un are discussed together, for both the leaves and the bark of the species are used in traditional Chinese medicine. Practitioners in China distinguish the products of the two species by smell and color. Accordingly, the products of hsiang ch'un smell pleasant and the bark appears dark brown with a reddish tint. In the market this bark is called Hung-ch'un-p'i (bark of red ch'un). The products of ailanthus smell foul, and the bark appears ochraceous-gray. The market product of ailanthus is called ch'un-po-p'i (white bark of ch'un). In the literature of the Chinese people, ailanthus is expressed in two extreme metaphors: a mature tree refers to father, and a stump sprout indicates a spoiled youth. In writing letters between friends, ch'un ( ailanthus ) and hsuan ( daylily ) represent parents. When one expresses best wishes to a friend's father and mother in a letter, one writes ch'un-hsiian ping-mou, which may be translated literally as wishing that both your ailanthus and daylily are strong and happy. Ailanthus is chosen to represent the father for its magisterial posture as expressed by the straight, tall bole in a mature tree; daylily is used to refer to the mother because of the comforting and strengthening effect of mother love comparable to the function of Hemerocallis as a medicine, which \"... benefits the mind and strengthens the will power, gives happiness, reduces worry ...\" (Am. Hort. Mag. 47(2): 53. 1968). When a disappointed father scolds a spoiled son, or a critical teacher writes about an irresponsible youth, he uses ch'un-ts'ai, which means literally \"the good-for-nothing ailanthus stump sprout.\" Ailanthus stump sprout is used as a metaphor for a youth who is not bound to obligations. This is due to the writings of Chuang-tsu, a Taoist philosopher and writer of 300 B.C. who described a large tree with a crooked, enlarged base that produced wood unsuitable for the rulers and compasses of carpentry. Ancient scholars after him interpreted this to refer to ailanthus, and used it as a metaphor for delinquent youths who follow no rules and customs. They believed that a youth with such a beginning in life, like stump sprouts of ailanthus, will not develop into a useful mature person. it is also used for another The Economic Aspects of Ailanthus in China : Ailanthus is grown in China for its wood, leaves, and the bark from root and stem. 1. The Use of Ailanthus Wood: The Lower Yellow River Region 42I has been a cradle of Chinese civilization and the seat of ancient Chinese history. There is hardly any natural vegetation left in this area, and few species of wood-producing trees. The common species are Ailanthus altissima, Melia azedarach, Morus alba, Populus cathayana, P. tomentosa, Pyrus betulaefolia, Salix babylonica, Sophora japonica, Ulmus pumila, and U. parvifolia. Among these species, Ailanthus altissima and Sophora japonica are the best producers of useful wood for all purposes. The rural people have a saying that the quality of the wood of an old ailanthus tree is comparable to that of Sophora japonica. In regard to the character of ailanthus wood, Y. Chen in the Silviculture oChinese Trees ( 1933 ) reported that the wood is yellowish-white, lustrous, moderately hard, difficult to split, and has good flexibility. It is best fitted for the manufacture of steamers. (A steamer is a useful kitchen utensil essential for all types of Chinese cooking. The northern people depend upon it for steaming bread; and the southern people, for rice and various pastries. The sizes of steamers vary from 10 to 150 cm. in diameter, and the height has similar variations.) According to Y. Chen, Changhsin District (Long. 11957' E, Lat. 31 N) in Chekiang Province of East China is famous for the production of steamer board from cultivated ailanthus. 2. The Use of Ailanthus Root for Mental Illness: This is one of the oldest recipes, first recorded in a Materia Medica published in 731 A D. In those days, a psychologically unbalanced person was thought to be possessed by the demon. For a mentally dissociated person, gather a handful of fresh root. Cut the material into small pieces, and put it into 2 litres of urine gathered from young boys. Add 100 centilitres of tou-shih (material prepared from black soybean ; cooked, fermented, salted, and treated with several herbal medicines; used as a health food and a spice, available in Chinese groceries in large American cities). Let the mixture stand overnight. Then press the liquid out, and bring it to a boil. Divide the liquid into three to five portions, and serve the patient one portion each day. 3. The Use of Ailanthus Leaves: In Chinese literature, reports were available on the use of ailanthus leaves for the silk industry in Shantung Province, and for medicine since the T'ang Dynasty. For the production of Shantung or pongee silk, Y. Chen in 1933 gave this data. In Shantung Peninsula, particularly in Yen-tai ailanthus (also known as Cheefoo, Long. 12125' E, Lat. 3730' is cultivated for feeding the worms of a special kind of moth (Attacus cynthia Drury) for the production of \"Shantung silk.\" This insect produces a kind of small ellipsoid cocoon pointed at both ends. The silk obtained from the unwound cocoons is coarse and durable. It does not take dye, and the fabric in natural color is commercially known as Shantung silk or pongee silk. The moth is big, grayish, with deeper color near the base of the wings, and with a crescent transparent spot and some reddish patches in the center of each wing. Professor C. E. Wood, Jr., of the Arnold Arboretum, has in- N), 43 Fig. 6 (left). A specimen of ailanthus showing a female panicle with a portion of young fruits added (A. H. Curtis), Virginta, June 1871, Gray Herbarium. Photo: W. T. Kittredge. Fig. 7 (right). An abnormal condition of flowering in ailanthus, showing two sprouts from an impoverished stump with small fascicles or simple cymes of female flowers (J. C. Nelson 2361, Oregon, July 1918, Gray Herbarium). Photo: W. T. Kittredge. formed me that, like ailanthus, the Shantung silk moth has been introduced into the United States and is naturalized in America. Ailanthus leaf is also a Chinese herbal medicine. Li in Pen-ts'ao kang-mu summarized the history of its use and reported the properties accredited to the material. According to a Materia Medica compiled in T'ang Dynasty (ca. 684 A.D.), the leaves are slightly poisonous. When taken internally, they affect the nervous system, making a person sleepy and incoherent, with slow breath and weak pulse. For external uses, they are boiled in water to make a wash to cure skin ailments, especially boils, itches, and abcesses. Li recorded a very interesting recipe for baldness. The tender young leaves of ailanthus, catalpa, and peach are pounded together. The juice squeezed off the crushed material is smeared over the bald area to stimulate hair growth. 4. The Use of Ailanthus Bark in Medicine: The dried bark of Ailanthus altissima is an officinal drug called ch'un-po-p'i (white bark of ch'un) (Fig. 8). The market product in drug stores consists of the barks of the root and the stem. In the new Chinese Materia Medica (Chung Yao Chih 3: 459-463. 1960), there is an illustrated account of the botanical description, centers of production, preparation, identification of the market product, medicinal properties, 44I chemical constituents, and pharmaceutical uses. Readers are advised to consult this reference for details. An abstract of the preparation of the drug, the appearance of the market product, and the chemical constituents is given here. The tree is felled in spring or autumn when the bark has the highest amount of stored material. The bark is stripped, and the outer rouah portion of each piece is scraped. It is then dried in the sun for the market. In retail drug shops, the dried bark is softened by briefly soaking it in water, then it is drained and covered in a basket to let the moisture permeate the interior. The softened pieces are sliced. The slices are dried and kept in a container for filling prescriptions. In traditional Chinese medicine, roasted ch'un-po-p'i may be called for. Such material is prepared by heating bran in a pan until it begins to smoke. The sliced or shredded bark is added to the hot bran and turned thoroughly. The mixture is taken off the pan and the bran sieved off; then it is cooled and kept for use. In the market, the root bark appears like a piece of tile, flat or incurved, sometimes rolled into tubes, yellowish-brown, and tough. The sizes of the pieces are 3 to 10 cm. long, 1 to 5 cm. wide, 5 to 10 mm. thick; they are rough on the outside, smoother on the inside which is marked with punctiform or linear short elevations; the taste is bitter. The bark of the stem appears grayish ochraceous, irregular, and thicker than the root bark. The pieces are 1.5 to 2 cm. thick, and other characteristics are similar to those of the root bark (Fig. 8). Practitioners of traditional Chinese medicine credit ailanthus bark with cooling and astringent properties, and regard it as beneficial for eliminating the physiological condition termed \"damp-heat.\" It is prescribed primarily for dysentery, intestinal hemorrhage, menorrhagia, and spermatorrhea. The amount used in each prescription is relatively small, varying from 4.5 to 10 g. Patients without the symptoms of damp-heat, and those with stoppage in the excretory systems must not take ailanthus bark. Li in Pen-ts'ao kang-mu recorded eighteen recipes with ailanthus bark for medicinal purposes. A few samples are selected and translated here. In the translation, the conversion of the ancient measurements of volume and weight was made with use of A New EnglishChinese Dictionary published in 1975 by the Joint Publishing Company in Hong Kong. For a mother who suffers from prolapse of the rectum after childbirth, put a handful of roasted bark of the branches of ailanthus in five litres of water and add five scallions with roots and a pinch of Szechuan pepper (Zanthoxylon simulans). Boil the mixture down to three-fifths of the original volume. Pour the liquid into a pan through a sieve and use it while hot to wash the troubled area. The liquid is good for five washes. It can be heated after it turns cold. The patient should lie down and rest after each wash. I 45 Fig. 8. Commercial products of ailanthus purchased from a drug store. The outer surface of the stem bark (top); root bark (lower left); inner surface of stem barh (lower right). From Chung Yueh Chih photo 159, copied by W. T. Kittredge. Almost 80% of the recipes Li recorded are for intestinal ailments. For a child suffering from diarrhea, pound ailanthus bark into fine powder, and mix with the soft portion (mesocarp) of the fruit of jujube (Zizyphus jujuba; a health food, available in Chinese groceries in America). Make balls of the size of a hazelnut, and expose them to the sun. Crush down the balls and mix the material thoroughly. Roll it into balls and expose them to the sun as before. Repeat the procedure three times. Feed the child seven pieces on an empty stomach. The diarrhea will be cured before he finishes seven doses. For an adult who suffers from intermittent dysentery caused by Entamoeba histolytica, pulverize equal amounts by weight of ailanthus bark and the seed of myrobalan (Terminala chebula) with thirty cloves (Syzygium aromaticum). Make pea-sized pills with vinegar; take fifty pills each time with rice water. For intestinal hemorrhage that lasts for months, use 6 g. of ailanthus bark and a cup of water. Boil the material until seventenths of the liquid is left in the container. Add one-fourth of a cup of gin and drink the mixture warm. If the patient is very weak, boil 46 the bark with 6 g. of ginseng and take the liquid mixed with gin in a similar manner. The researches of phytochemists and pharmacologists in Asia and Europe have thrown some light on the scientific justification of the medicinal uses of the bark of ailanthus. An alphabetical list of chemical constituents isolated from ailanthus is given here: ailanthin, calcium oxalate crystals, ceryl alcohol, fatty acid, glyceryl trioinvert sugar, isoquercetin, mucilage, oleoresins, quassin, saponin, stearic acid, sterols, tannin. 5. The Use of Ailanthus Fruit in Medicine: The samaras of ailanthus are called Feng yen ts'ao (herbal phoenix eye) in the Chinese drug business. It is used as a hemostatic, for blood in the feces and urine, and for spermatorrhea. Recent clinical experiments proved its efficacy in the cure of trichomoniasis, a vaginal infection caused by Trichomonas vaginalis. leate, Future of Ailanthus The jigsaw pieces of information extracted from accumulated literature reveal the role of ailanthus in Asia, Europe, and America and provide us with some guidelines to evaluate it with respect to the welfare of mankind in the future. In America, ailanthus has been grown for nearly two hundred years; first with enthusiastic praise, and then in undue neglect. Under such abnormal conditions, ailanthus has failed to offer the American people its best qualities. At one time, ailanthus was planted widely, sometimes in areas where it did not have the capacity to thrive. It failed in the afforestation of the plateaus and the high plains of the Great Plains region in the United States. By neglect it spread without check and became weedy in cities of the less dry areas of America. In 1961, Edgar Anderson used the phrase \"Ailanthus... a blessing and a curse.\" It is true that through wise use ailanthus can be a blessing to the people, and by neglect it can be a curse. If American people want to have the benefit of ailanthus, they must be aware of its merits and shortcomings. Disciplined, ailanthus should be allowed to grow for it has much to contribute to the American people in our jet age. Ailanthus for Air Renewal: Ailanthus is a tree with large compound leaves. The divided leaf blades provide the largest possible surface area for effective photosynthesis with oxygen as a by-product released into the atmosphere. American people need trees for the renewal of the air more than ever before, for the per-minute consumption of oxygen by cars and airplanes is hundreds to thousands of times more than such consumption by people. At a time when man has learned that trees are the most effective green plants for air renewal, wise use of ailanthus must be promoted. I 47 Ailanthus as an Energy Supply: In an age when mankind everywhere is becoming increasingly concerned over the shortage of energy, people should take a fresh look at ailanthus. Its luxuriant, feathered foliage provides an effective agent for capturing the radiant energy . of the sun and transforming it into chemical energy in the form of cellulose and other organic compounds. Its capacity for fast growth furnishes adequate space for storing this energy. The young plants grow unusually fast in height, and the older ones increase noticeably in girth. A thirty-year-old tree has a bole 10-15 meters high and a girth of 30-35 cm. in diameter at breast height; thus, the trunk and large branches are excellent organs for the storage of the chemical energy. They provide good sources of charcoal and firewood for supplementary house heating. Ailanthus should be considered equally with birch, white oak, and other species offering comparable heat- producing properties. Ailanthus for Clothing and Food: The people of Shantung have demonstrated that ailanthus can be a source for the silk industry. Although the area of production of Shantung silk or pongee and the number of people involved in the industry are relatively limited, the product has a worldwide reputation. Before World War II, Shantung silk was available in large cities in Asia, America, and Europe. In Boston, members of the older generation praise it as a material for clothes and curtains. Fifty or sixty years ago, soybeans, like Shantung silk, were well-known products of China. Now, soybeans have become important products in the American economy and are exported from the United States. Many American soybean products are unfamiliar to the Chinese people. In the case of the soybean, the application of scientific principles in agriculture and the development of technology in America made the difference. Some investigators may find reward in research into the potentials of ailanthus as a source of silk for clothing and other domestic uses. In 1944, Ronald Melville of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, published an article on ailanthus as a source of honey. The owner of a Kensington apiary, A. Chesnikov, sent him a sample of honey for examination. It appeared pale greenish-brown and had a peculiar flavor that tasted like a mild floral bouquet with an aftertaste of \"cats.\" On analysis, Melville found that the pollen constituents were 44% ailanthus, 26% chestnut, and 6% each of Ligustrum and Tilia. After the honey stood for a few months, the unfavorable taste disappeared, perhaps due to oxidative change, and the honey had a \"delicious rich muscatel flavor.\" In 1945, C. Elton reported that on July 14, 1944, he observed thousands of hive-bees (Apis mellifica) visiting the male flowers of ailanthus at dawn. He saw no flies on the tree, \"commonly associated with fly-pollinated flowers.\" Ailanthus can be a source of nature food, but the product must be kept for some time to let the flavor mature. 48 Ailanthus and Industrial Potentials : The Forest Products Laboratories of the United States Department of Agriculture have records on the physical properties of ailanthus wood pulp for the paper industry. The wood of mature ailanthus trees is of proven quality for cabinet work, musical instruments, and other types of wooden ware. Presently there is a need of breaking through the habit of using only certain woods, and the creation of market demand for the products made of ailanthus wood. Like ailanthus, paulownia was introduced into eastern America for ornamental purposes. Its popularity vanished gradually and meanwhile it also became naturalized in eastern North America. Ten years after the publication of my monograph of paulownia, I heard from an Argentinian forester, Hector R. Mangieri, who had the vision of using paulownias for afforestation in that country. He put scientific principles into practice and prepared furniture and other articles for exhibition in the VII International Forestry Congress which took place in Argentina. Now, South American countries supply paulownia wood to Japan. In the United States, as in the case of paulownia, there are not enough large mature trees to supply any demand for ailanthus wood. In order to meet any future need of the wood, present planting of ailanthus is urgent. Ailanthus for Medicine: An increasing impact of traditional Chimedicine and pharmacy has been felt in the American medical profession and the pharmacological community. In the past few years, the Chinese Acupuncture Association, the American Center for Chinese Medicine, and the Institute for Advanced Research in Asian Science and Medicine (IARASM) have been organized in New York City and in Washington, D.C. In a recent letter from the Director of IARASM, I learned that the Institute is interested especially in information regarding Chinese medicine used as antihypertensive, antipsychotic, antihemorrhagic, antihyperglycemic, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory agents. In traditional Chinese medicine, we have seen that ailanthus roots and leaves are used as antipsychotic agents, and in the treatment of dysentery and intestinal bleeding; ailanthus bark and fruits are used for antihemorrhagic, antibacterial, antiparasitic, and anti-inflammatory purposes. Unlike ginseng and many other adaptogenic Chinese herbal medicines which are used for keeping the body healthy and fit to fight the attack of disease germs, ailanthus leaves, roots, fruits, and bark are used for curative purposes. In comparison with other agents, the advantage of ailanthus is that the supplies can be obtained readily in large quantity and at reasonable price. There seems to be an open field for investigation in this area. nese Conclusion In the struggle for survival with natural forces, the ancient people in the homeland of ailanthus have used it to meet their essential 49 needs for the construction of their primitive shelters and simple furniture, for a source of energy in cooking and heating, for the conservation of their mental health, and in the treatment of their physical ailments, particularly as a cure for various types of dysentery and intestinal hemorrhage. The species was first introduced to Paris under the assumption that it was the varnish tree. For almost thirty-five years, ailanthus was cultivated in Europe as a species of Rhus. There it was praised for its beautiful foliage and hardiness, and was used as a street tree. Ailanthus was introduced from England to Philadelphia in 1784, and its popularity soared in the nineteenth century in America where it was widely planted for landscape purposes, especially in the industrialized cities in eastern United States. It was praised for its \"power to adapt to the dirt and smoke, the dust and drought of cities.\" Now ailanthus is naturalized widely in the United States, and by neglect, it has become a weedy tree in cities, and even a pest in some areas. Many of our other street trees are weedy. The maples, horsechestnuts, elms, and ashes are the most obvious. We need trees in our landscape, and cannot abandon them merely because they scatter fruits or seeds that germinate freely in unwanted places such as our gardens and yards. At a time when man plants trees not only for ornamental purposes, but also for clean healthy air, for the transformation of the radiant energy of the sun into chemical energy stored in plants, for industrial raw material, and for natural drugs without harmful side effects, ailanthus deserves a new look; obviously, it has the potential to be effective in all these areas. Future investigations in ailanthus must be established on the foundation of past experiences and accumulated knowledge of the species. May the readers find the necessary foundation in this article, and more help in the bibliography listed below. Literature Cited Anderson, -. E. The tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima. I. A blessing and a Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 49(7). 105-107. 1961. Anonymous. Chung yao chih. Vol. 3. 677 pp. 422 figs. 222 pls. Peking. 1960. [Ailanthus altissima, 459. pl. 159.1 l;rh-ya. [Literary expositor.] ed. Kuo P'u (ca. 276-324 A.D.). ca. 300 B.C. (In Chinese.) [Ailanthus, sect. 14, article 2.] Bean, W. J. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. ed. 7. Vol. 1. xviii + 703 pp. 40 pls London. 1950. [Ailanthus, 196-198.] Bretschneider, E. History of European botanical discoveries in China. xvi + 1167 pp. London. 1898. [Incarville, 46.1 Brizicky, G. K. The genera of Simaroubaceae and Burseraceae in the Southeastern United States. Journ. Am. Arb. 43: 173-186. 1962. curse. [Ailanthus, 179-180.1 Chen, Y. Silviculture of Chinese 1933. (In Chinese.) trees. 20 + 656 + 4 + 6 pp. Nanking. 50 Illustrated manual of Chinese trees and shrubs. 2 + 2 + 6 + 14 + XLIV + 106 + 13 + 1189 pp. 1086 figs. 4 + 64 + 67 + 6 + 18 + 13 + 16 + 60 pp. (appendix). Nanking. 1937. [Ailanthus, 590-591.] Curtiss, A. H. Ailanthus. Gard. & For. 1888: 239. 1888. Desfontaines, R. L. Memoire sur un nouveau genre d'arbre, Ailanthus glandulosa. Mem. Math. Phys. Paris 1786: 265-271. 1788. Dippel, L. Handbuch der Laubholzkunde. Vol. 2. 592 pp. Berlin. 1892. -. [Ailanthus, 364; varieties, 365.] Duke, J. A. On tropical tree seedlings. I. Seeds, seedlings, systems and systematics. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 125-161. 1969. Ehrhart, F. Meine Reise nach der Grafschaft Bentheim, und von da nach Holland, nebst der Retour nach Herrenhausen. Hannov. Mag. 21: 225-226. 1783. [Reprinted in Ehrhart, Beitr. zur Naturkunde 2: 111. 1788.] ] Ellis, J. A letter from Mr. John Ellis ... London, Carteret to Philip Webb the tree that yields the common varnish in China and Japan.... Philos. Trans. 49: 866-876. 1757. [Rhus Sinense foliis alatis, 870, referred to Ailanthus; first illustration of Ailanthus in western literature (leaf only), pl. 25, fig. 5.] Elton, C. Honey from ailanthus. Nature (London) 155: 81. 1945. Fernald, M. L. Manual of botany. ed. 8. lxiv + 1632 pp. New York. attempting to ascertain 1970. [Ailanthus, 953.] on the flora of Polk County, North Carolina. Cas1955. [Ailanthus, 59.] Hu, S. Y. A monograph of the genus Paulownia. Quart. Journ. Taiwan Mus. 12: 1-54. 1959. An early history of daylily. Am. Hort. Mag. 47(2): 51-85. 1968. Illick, J. S., & E. F. Brouse. The ailanthus tree in Pennsylvania. Penn. Dept. For. Wat. Bull. 38: 1-29. 1926. Keffer, C. A. Trees of minor importance for western planting. Gard. & For. 8: 122-123. 1895. Kuo, P. ~rh-ya chu shu. [A commentary on Erh-ya.] Sung ed. Sect. 14. 276-324 A.D.(?). (In Chinese.) Li, S. C. Pen-ts'ao kang-mu. Vol. 35, wood 2, article 7. Commercial Press ed. Hong Kong. 1596. (In Chinese.) [Ailanthus, 10-13.] Mathews, R. H. Chinese-English dictionary. Rev. Am. ed. xxiv + 1226 pp. Cambridge, Mass. 1950. Melville, R. Ailanthus, source of peculiar London honey. Nature (London) 154: 640. 1944. Mergen, F. A toxic principle in the leaves of Ailanthus. Bot. Gaz. 121: 32-36. 1959. Miller, P. The gardener's dictionary. ed. 8. Rhus [alph. ord.]. London. 1768. Nooteboom, H. P. Simaroubaceae, in Fl. Males. I, 6(2): 219. 1962. tanea 20: Freeman, O. M. Notes 37-57. -. trees and shrubs. ed. 2. xxx + 996 pp. 1940. [Ailanthus altissima, 531.] Bibliography of cultivated trees and shrubs. xl + 825 pp. Jamaica Plain, Mass. 1949. [Ailanthus, 385-386.] Sargent, C. S. The ailanthus. Gard. & For. 1888: 385-386. 1888. Sears, F. C. Some Utah shade-trees. Gard. & For. 10: 356-357. 1897. Swingle, W. T. The early European history and the botanical name of the tree of heaven, Ailanthus altissima. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 6: 490-498. 1916. Tice, C. W. Correspondence. Gard. & For. 1888: 179-180. 1888. Voigt, G. K., & F. Mergen. Seasonal variation in toxicity of ailanthus leaves to pine seedlings. Bot. Gaz. 123(4): 262-265. 1962. [Ailanthus, 219.1] Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated New York. -. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Praise of Epimediums","article_sequence":2,"start_page":51,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24748","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160a76f.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":2,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"In Praise of Epimediums by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The genus Epimedium consists of approximately twenty-five species of herbaceous perennials distributed primarily in China and Japan, but with a few in Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. It is a member of the Barberry family, and its closest relative is Vancouveria, with three species on the West Coast of the United States. Their decorative foliage and odd but beautiful, softly colored flowers in the spring make the various species exceptionally fine plants for use as ground covers and as accent plants in the shady garden. The common name \"Barrenwort,\" because decoctions of the roots of a plant confused with E. alpinum supposedly prevented conception in women, is seldom used in this country. I do not particularly care for it anyway, so I will call these plants by their Latin name. Relatively few species are widely cultivated in the United States, and the nomenclature of these is badly confused, making it difficult to know what one will receive when ordering from most nurseries. One purpose of this article is to clarify the nomenclature and to provide a means for identifying the various species, hybrids and clones in cultivation. The nomenclature used, with a few exceptions, is based on Dr. William Stearn's monograph of the genus ( Journal of the Linnaean Society, Botany, Volume 51, pages 409-534, 1938); the observations are based on herbarium specimens and living plants in my garden. After the introductory material on culture and identification, the species that have been cultivated in this country are treated first, followed by a section on their hybrids. In each section, closely related species are grouped together for purposes of com- parison. Epimediums are adaptable plants in the garden, flourishing and flowering well in shade or sun. A good soil, rich in humus, is desirable. Their use in the garden depends on the species. Although often described as being good ground covers, only those few species that spread by elongate rhizomes are suitable for this purpose. The others do not spread sufficiently rapidly and are best grown as isolated clumps. Propagation is easily effected by division at most any time the ground is not frozen. I prefer to divide my plants before they flower in the spring or else in early summer after the foliage has fully matured. The resulting plants establish and flower more quickly than if they had been divided in the fall. 51 52 Dr. Steam noted the scarcity of mature fruits on the cultivated and attributed this to the possibility that the plants are basically self-sterile and that most species and hybrids are represented in cultivation by single clones. In self-sterile plants, two clones are necessary for pollination to be effective and for seeds to be formed. In my garden, where many species and hybrids grow in close proximity, seed set is generally good. I have experimented with seed germination without success so far, and I suspect that the seeds must be collected as soon as ripe and immediately given a cold specimens stratification. prepared a key to the various the characters used in the key need some are of rather curious construction, and the parts must be understood for positive identification of many species. All flower parts are in series of four. Starting at their attachment to the pedicel or flower stalk (the apparently uppermost parts since the flowers nod or droop) the outer sepals are small and inconspicuous- and often fall off soon after the flowers open. The next ring, the inner sepals, are the most conspicuous parts of the flowers of most species. They would pass as petals to the casual observer, and they vary in color from pure white to reddish, purple, coppery and yellow. Next come the petals, and these vary greatly from species to species. In a few they are flat and resemble the inner sepals, but in most species they are modified into nectar-producing spurs or \"horns,\" and these may be small and inconspicuous or they may be very showy, projecting far beyond the tips of the sepals. The entire petal may be spur-like, or the inner portion may be flattened, the bases of all four then forming a cup around the stamens. Figure 1 illustrates several representative flowers with the parts labeled. The foliage of most species, at least in a climate like that of New England, is deciduous or semi-evergreen. In the latter case the leaves persist through the winter, but by spring they are brown and battered. A few species have truly evergreen foliage. The leaves are always compound. In some species, they are divided into three leaflets, a condition termed ternate. In others, each segment is again divided into three, resulting in a biternate condition. The leaves are mostly basal, arising directly from the crown of the plant. A well defined group of species bears in addition a single leaf on the flowering stem. Several hybrids are variable in that they sometimes have a leaf on the flowering stem, while other flowering stems, or scapes, on the same plant are naked. The leaflets are basically heart-shaped or somewhat triangular in outline, but the side pair in each group of three is lopsided or unequal at the base. They usually bear slender, often spiny-tipped teeth along their margins. Figure 2 illustrates the characters of the leaves. All species spread by underground rhizomes. In most species the rhizomes are short and the plants are then densely clump-forming. identification, To assist in I have species and their hybrids. But first, explanation. The flowers I 53 Figure 1. Flowers of Epimedium with the parts labeled. A, E. diphyllum, adapted from Curtis's Botamcal Magazine, vol. 62, plate 3448, 1835; B, E. X rubrum, bach view; C, E. X rubrum, front view, adapted from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. 93, plate 5671, 1867; D, E. pinnatum, adapted from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. 75, plate 4456, 1849; E, E. grandiflorum, adapted from Morrison & Decaisne, Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Paris, vol. 2, plate 13, 1834. Figure 2. Characters of the leaves of Epimedium. A, a ternate leaf, showing the three leaflets with spiny-toothed margins; B, a biternate leaf; C, the leaf of E. diphyllum showing the characteristic two leaflets without teeth on their margins; D, a plant with basal well as a single the flowering stem; E, a plant with only basal leaves and a leaves as leaf on naked (leafless) flowering stem. Both figures prepared by Sheila Geary. 54 A few have elongated rhizomes, and these spread to form a mat. The latter group are the most satisfactory ones for use as ground covers. KEY TO THE CULTIVATED SPECIES AND HYBRIDS OF EPIMEDIUM 1. Spurs of petals absent, or present with only two leaflets. 2. Petals always spurless 2. in some flowers and not others; leaves , 1. E. diphylluna E. X youngianum Petals with spurs present in some flowers Spurs always present; leaves with three or more leaflets. 3. Spurs of the petals nearly as long as, to much longer than, the sepals; bases of the petals forming a cup-like structure around the stamens. 4. 4. usually leafless; plants spreading by long rhiE. X versicolor forming mats Flowering stem with at least one leaf; plants densely clumpforming. 5. Spurs of the petals reaching to the tips of the inner sepals. 6. Inner sepals red; leaflets with numerous spiny teeth on Flowering zomes stem and margins - 6. 5. Inner on sepals white; leaflets with margins . -.- 3. \" E. koreanum Flowers white to rose-colored or purple. 8. Flowers pure white; leaves evergreen E. sempervirens 8. Flowers colored, the spurs sometimes white but the inner sepals always at least tinged with rose or purple; E. grandiflorum leaves deciduous Spurs of the petals inconspicuous (at least much shorter than the inner sepals) or absent; bases of the petals not forming a cup-like structure around the stamens. 9. Flowering stem leafless. 10. Inner sepals coppery-orange in color E. X warleyense 10. Inner sepals bright yellow. 11. Leaves with 3 leaflets with distinctly spiny margins; spur of petal projecting away from sepal E. perralderianum 11. Leaves with 5-9 leaflets (rarely 3); leaflets nearly spineless or with inconspicuous, scarcely projecting spines; spur of petal lying flat against sepal E. pinnatum 9. Flowering stem with at least one leaf. E. X warleyense 12. Inner sepals coppery-orange in color 12. Inner sepals red, purple, pink or white. 13. Sepals and petals similar in appearance and equally conspicuous, the petals sometimes spurless; mature leaflets less than an inch broad E. X youngianum 13. Sepals and petals very different in appearance, the sepals by far the more conspicuous, the petals always reduced to small spurs; mature leaflets more than an inch broad. 7. .. Spurs of the petals projecting tips of the inner sepals. 7. Flowers creamy yellow E. X rubrum few scattered teeth E. X youngianum conspicuously beyond the a Epimedium diphyllum. Photo: R. Weaver. I 14. 14. _ 55 Basal leaves with 3 leaflets; flowers tiny, scarceE. sagittatum ly 1\/4 inch across Basal leaves with more than 3 leaflets, flowers larger. 15. Plants tightly clump-forming; leaves nearly evergreen; inner sepals pale rose or E. pubigerum nearly white 15. Plants spreading by long rhizomes, forming mats, leaves deciduous; inner sepals dark red . E. alpinu~n Epimedium diphyllum A a ground low, dainty and slow-spreading species, this would never do as cover. Rather, it requires careful placement in the garden to avoid being lost. The uniformly white flowers differ from those of other species in that the petals are rather like the inner sepals in appearance, and they are completely spurless. They are small and delicate, and they are somewhat hidden by the foliage which is almost completely developed by flowering time in late May. The foliage itself is low, seldom more than 6 inches tall, and the leaves are made up of only two, small, scarcely toothed leaflets. Originally introduced from its native Japan by Philippe Franz von Siebold, this species has never been as popular as Epimedium X youngianum, its hybrid with E. grandiflorum. Yet it is well worth a place in the garden, and I find it one of the loveliest of the species. Epimedium grandiflorum 'Rose Queen'. Photo: R. Weaver. Epimedium grandiflorum native is one of the most spectacular in cultivation. It has given rise to a series Epimedium species of hybrids, which perhaps have overshadowed it in popularity, but the straight species and its various color forms are still worthy of a place in any garden. The most conspicuous parts of the flowers are the spurs of the petals which, in most forms, are nearly twice as long as the inner sepals. The flowers therefore have a spidery ap- This widespread Japanese of pearance, and they are often as much as an inch and a half broad. The inflorescences rise well above the leaves, to 8-10 inches or occasionally more, so the flowers are seen to their best advantage. Most clones flower at about the same time from early to mid-May. The leaves are well developed at flowering time and they remain neat throughout the flowering season. The spiny-toothed leaflets are seldom more than an inch broad so the foliage is more delicate in texture than it is in species like E. pinnatum. Since it starts to wither soon after the first frost and is usually completely gone by spring, the foliage need not be clipped in the fall. Although perfectly hardy and excellent performers in the garden, plants of this species do not spread sufficiently vigorously to be useful as ground covers. How- I ever, because of their beautiful 57 foliage and extremely unusual flowers, indispensable as accent plants or even as fillers in the shady border or the wild garden. they are Several clones are common in cultivation, and all are often sold clones or varieties of \"E. ~nacrant)zum.\" The wild plant has a relatively loose inflorescence and the flowers are bi-colored. The spurs are white, but the inner sepals as well as the blades of the petals are tinged with purple. The flowers are reportedly fragrant, but I have never been able to detect a scent in any Epimedium. Like the typical plant described above, the clone 'Violaceum' was introduced into European gardens by von Siebold in the 1830's. This clone is distinctive in that its flowers are uniformly pale violet, and the spurs of the petals are only slightly longer than the inner sepals. This clone is rare in cultivation now, and I have never seen a plant. The clone 'Rose Queen' is certainly among the showiest of epimediums. The large flowers are uniformly carmine-rose in color, except for the tips of the spurs which fade to white, and they are close together in the inflorescence. The color is unique to the genus and is very rare in the spring garden. A pale yellow form, fiavescems, has been described, but I have never seen a plant or an herbarium specimen (see E. koreanum). as Epimedium sempervirens This extremely fine plant is unfortunately still rare in cultivation in this country, and I know of no nursery here that currently offers it for sale. I received a plant of this species from its native Japan several years ago, and my personal experience is based on this rather small sample. Epimedium sempervirens is closely related to E. grandiflorum, and the flowers of the two species are similar in size and shape. However, my plant has pure white flowers, fitting Dr. Steam's description of the species, while the flowers of E. grandiflorum always have some color at least in the inner sepals. This species is one of the very few that is truly evergreen in this climate, a feature that further distinguishes it from Epimedium grandiflorum. The leaves retain their fresh texture, while turning an attractive bronzy-green, during the winter. Epimedium koreanum species or merely synonymous with the mysterious Epimedium grandiflorum forma flavescens is open to question. Besides its yellow color, it reportedly differs from E. grandia Whether this is distinct florum in the larger size of the flowers and leaflets. I have a plant that I am calling E. koreanum for the present. I received it from a Japanese friend, and the species reportedly occurs in Japan as a wild plant. Its flowers are long-spurred and they are uniformly pale Epimedium sempervirens. Photo. R. Weaver. It looks very different from E. grandiflorum in the garden. The flowers are fewer per inflorescence and the leaflets are conspicuously larger. The latter are also much hairier on their undersurface. However, the status of E. koreanum as a species, and the true identity of my plant, will have to wait until more Korean material is available. yellow. Epimedium alpinum Described by Lindley (Botanical Register, volume 22, t. 43, 1849) \"the little dingy Epimedium alpinum, known only in the gardens of Botanists ...\",this species is seldom cultivated today and I have never encountered it in this country. It is a native of southeastern Europe, but it has become widely naturalized further north. Often standing 18 inches tall, with leaflets as much as 5 inches long, this is certainly not so delicate as many others of its genus. But I think that the quotation above is probably a bit unfair. Although I have never seen a living plant, the flowers look attractive enough from specimens. They are about 1\/2 inch across, the inner sepals dark red, and the spurs bright yellow. Unfortunately, they are somewhat as 59 obscured by the foliage. Since E. alpinum reportedly spreads vigorously by long rhizomes, it should be a good ground cover. Plants sold in this country as Epimedium alpinum invariably prove to be E. X rubrum, its hybrid with E. grandiflorum. The two plants are similar in many respects, but the hybrid is a clump-former. It is horticulturally superior in its large flowers that are not obscured by the foliage. Technically the two are easily distinguishable. In E. alpinum the petals do not have a blade and therefore the stamens protrude conspicuously. The spurs are shorter than the inner sepals. In E. X rubrum the petals have a distinct blade, and the bases of all four form a cup to enclose the stamens. The spurs are pale cream rather than bright yellow, and they reach to the tips of the inner sepals. Epimedium pubigerum Although closely related to and sometimes confused with Epimedium alpinum, this native of the Balkan Peninsula is a much better garden plant. It is a clump-former, it is lower in stature, and its evergreen foliage is more refined. Its flowers stand well above the foliage, and even though they are small, they are profusely borne, and they are fascinating upon close inspection with their purplespotted sepals and tiny spurs. This species appears to be rarely cultivated, even in Europe, and although I have seen herbarium specimens made from plants cultivated in this country, I have never seen a living plant, nor have I ever found it offered for sale. Epimedium sagittatum species was originally described from a specimen originating Japan, where it has been cultivated for centuries as a medicinal plant. It is a native of China, and at present it is the only one of the many wonderful species from that country that appears to be in cultivation in the West. According to Dr. Steam, the Chinese also have cultivated the plant as an aphrodisiac for both people and animals, in contrast to the European use of Epimedium alpinum. The flowers of this species are the smallest of any of the cultivated epimediums. being barely 1\/4 inch across. They are also rather dullcolored, but they are abundantly produced in a tall, branched inflorescence. The foliage, however, is exceptional. It is the only species that I would term truly evergreen in my garden. The large, bold leaflets are of firm texture, and they bear on their margins numerous and conspicuous, spiny teeth; individual leaflets may be as much as 6 inches long. This clump-forming species is rare in This in cultivation, and I know of for sale. It has not been flower after two years. no vigorous American nurseryman who offers it in my garden, and it has yet to 60 I Epimedium pinnatum 61 Native to the Transcaucasian region of Georgia (U.S.S.R.) and adjacent Iran, this is one of the best epimediums for use as a ground cover. It spreads vigorously by elongate rhizomes, forming a dense mat of attractive foliage about a foot tall. The foliage is almost evergreen, but by spring it is usually badly battered and tangled and it should be clipped to the ground before the new growth appears. The flowers appear with the foliage in early May on scapes that may be as much as 18 inches tall. This is one of the few species in which the flowering stem is leafless or naked. About 3\/4 inch across, and up to twenty-five per inflorescence, the flowers are attractive and conspicuous. The inner sepals are large and bright yellow, and the minute spurred petals are brown. The subspecies colchicum is the one usually encountered in cultivation. It differs from the typical plant in its longer spurred petals and its almost spineless leaflets. Epimedium pinnatum is not as good a garden plant as E. X versicolor, its hybrid with E. grandiflorum. The two are often confused in the trade; their differences cussed later in the description of the hybrid. are dis- Epimedium perralderianum This species, native to the Atlas Mountains of Algeria, is one of the few African plants hardy in New England gardens. It is closely related and very similar to Epimedium pinnatum, and the two are nearly equivalent horticulturally. This species is slightly more desirable because its leaves are attractively marked with red while young. Technically the two species are distinguishable in that the leaflets of E. perralderianum are invariably three per leaf rather than five, and they are distinctly spiny-margined. In addition, the spurs of its petals project away from the inner sepals rather than lying flat against them as in E. pinnatum. Epimedium X youngianum The name Epimedium X youngianum is used for a series of clones thought to be hybrids between E. diphyllum and E. grandiflorum. The original plants were brought from Japan to Europe by von Siebold in the 1830's. Several clones are fairly common in American horticulture. Epimedium X youngianum 'Niveum' (often listed as \"E. niveum,\" \"E. grandiflorum var. niveum,\" or \"E. macranthum var. niveum\") is a delightful plant, seldom more than 8 inches tall in flower. It is similar to E. diphyllum, differing technically in that its leaves are usually composed of more than two leaflets, and that the flowers, even on the same plant, often have both spurred and spurless Illustrations of Epimedium species. Clockwise from top left, E. pinnatum, from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, volume 75, plate 4456, 1849; E. perralderianum, from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, volume 106, plate 6509, 1880; E. pubigerum, from Hooker's Icones Plantarum, volume 32, plate 3116, 1927; E. rubrum, from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, volume 93, plate 5671, 1867. Epimedium X youngianum. Photo: R. Weaver. petals. The spurs themselves vary in length and often are no more than bumps. Horticulturally it is superior to E. diphyllum in that its larger flowers are held more nearly above the leaves and it has increased vigor. It usually ends the Epimedium season with a few sporadic flowers in June. The other familiar clone, Epimedium X youngianum 'Roseum', is similar to the preceding except that the sepals and petals of its flowers are tinged with purple. Although the color is not bright, it is distinctive and attractive. It appears in the nursery trade under a variety of names, most commonly \"E. lilacinum,\" \"E. macranthum var. lilacinum\" or \"E. diphyllum var. roseum.\" Plants of this clone bloom slightly earlier than do those of 'Niveum'. Both of the above clones resemble Epimedium diphyllum much more closely than their other parent, E. grandiflorum. However, I have seen a plant that appeared to be of this same parentage, but the pure white flowers closely resembled those of E. grandiflorum except that the spurs reached only to the tips of the inner sepals. Unfortunately the grower did not know the name nor the source of 63 the plant, and I have not found reference to anything resembling it. Further observation will be necessary before it can be identified with certainty and perhaps given a name. The clones of Epimedium X youngianum are very satisfactory garden plants. Their fine-textured foliage, low stature, and delicate flowers set them apart from others of their genus, and they require careful placement to prevent them from becoming lost. Epimedium X versicolor To me these are the best epimediums for general garden purposes. The flowers are brightly colored, they appear with the developing foliage, and they continue to stand above it. The foliage itself is attractive through the growing season. The young leaflets are delicately marked with red, and as they mature they turn a good green and they are not coarse. The plants spread vigorously, but not invasively, by medium-long rhizomes so they make a good ground cover 10-12 inches tall that is dense enough to discourage weeds. The one drawback is that the foliage is neither evergreen nor deciduous ; rather it persists through the winter in a bedraggled state and remains intact enough to obscure the developing flowers in the spring. Therefore it is best clipped to the ground at the onset of winter. The name Epimedium X versicolor denotes a series of hybrids between the Japanese E. grandiflorum and the Caucasian E. pinnatum. They are obviously of garden origin, but the specifics as to the time and place are unknown. They are closest to E. pinnatum, but their foliage is not nearly so coarse. Their flowers are similar to those of that species at a glance, but the petals with their conspicuous spurs standing away from the sepals, as well as their well developed blades enclosing the stamens, easily identify the hybrid upon closer in- , spection. Several clones are in cultivation. By far the commonest is Epiversicolor 'Sulphureum' (often listed as \"E. sulphureum\" or \"E. pinnatum var. sulphureum\"). If I could grow only one epimedium it would be this one. The flowers, ten to twenty nodding delicately above the foliage, with their pale yellow sepals and butteryellow spurred petals, are the epitome of graceful beauty. They appear at the same time as those of the biennial forget-me-nots and the grape hyacinths, and a planting of the three is one of my favorite medium X springtime pictures. The clone 'Versicolor' is similar to the above except that the sepals \"old rose\" color and the petals are pale yellow. Since I know of only one nursery in the United States that lists this clone, and I only have had my plant for a single season, I will reserve comment. The clones 'Neo-sulphureum', with shorter spurs, and 'Cupreum', with coppery-red sepals, unfortunately are unknown to me. are an 64 Epimedium X rubrum - All of the epimediums have their unique charm, but this one has enough attributes to make it draw comment from even the beginning gardener. It is surely the most floriferous of all, and a well established clump in full bloom in early May is a stunning sight. If not crowded, the countless inflorescences form a complete halo around the center of spring-green foliage; this in itself, a picture with each delicate leaflet edged and veined with red. This is perhaps the most commonly cultivated of the epimediums, and it is a fine plant. It is without doubt a hybrid between the Japanese E. grandiflorum and the European E. alpinum. It obviously arose in some European garden, but its origin is unrecorded. It entered the gardening literature around 1844. In many ways it closely resembles its E. alpinum parent, and it is almost invariably sold and described as E. alpinum var. rubrum. It is a rather tall epimedium, the inflorescence often reaching a foot or more. The numerous flowers are about 3~4 inch across. The sepals are a soft rose-red, the dominant color from above; to appreciate their complete beauty, one must separate a flower. The cream-colored spurs, lying close against the sepals, form a perfect cross accented in the center with the bright yellow anthers peeking through the cup formed by the bases of the blades of the petals. 65 Left: Epimedium X Above: E. X warleyense. versicolor `Sulphureum' Photos: R. Weaver. 66 This plant is usually sold as a ground cover, and it could be serviceable as such in a small area. The foot-tall foliage, though deciduous, is unusually delicate and attractive. But the plant is a clump-former, and to be effective as a ground cover, the clumps should not be more than 10-12 inches apart initially. If used in this way, the flowers will not be profuse. Epimedium X warleyense only commonly cultivated hybrid Epimedium that does grandiflorum in its ancestry. Rather, it is thought to be a hybrid between E. alpinum and E. pinnatum, but its actual origin is unknown. It is a striking plant, and one that always causes comThis is the not have E. ment in my garden. The flowers are borne on 8-12-inch stalks in late April or early May, before the leaves are well developed. They resemble those of E. pinnatum closely, but they are slightly smaller, the sepals are coppery-orange and the spurs are bright yellow. Although a strongly rhizomatous plant, it cannot be recommended as a ground cover because the foliage is a bit coarse and appears from the ground too irregularly, making the cover sparse and uneven. However it is a fine plant for the wild garden, sending up its beautiful flowers here and there, but not becoming dense enough to choke out more delicate wildflowers. In conclusion, I would like to make a few remarks about what we can expect in the future in the way of new epimediums. Many wonderful species are native to China, ranging from Epimedium acuminatum and its allies with large, long-spurred flowers, to E. fargesii with its cloud of tiny blossoms, each one with the sepals reflexed suggesting a Cyclamen. We can only hope that some of these will eventually reach Western gardens. A few Japanese species are still unknown in the West, but these differ only slightly from commonly cultivated plants. Epimedium trifoliatobinatum differs from E. grandiflorum primarily in its foliage, but E. setosum might be better than its close relative, E. diphyllum, because of its branched inflorescence with more flowers. However, the Japanese have selected particularly good forms of E. grandiflorum that are gradually making their way to this country. Finally, no exciting new hybrid has appeared in more than a century. With so many species now in cultivation, the possibilities are fantastic. I would suspect that it is possible to cross Epimedium with Vancouveria and perhaps even Caulophyllum, adding a whole new dimension. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: A Message from the New Director","article_sequence":3,"start_page":67,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24749","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160ab28.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":2,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ashton, Peter Shaw","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM A Message from the New Director My family and I shared your frustration at the unexpected threemonth delay in our arrival, due to immigration clearance. After all the waiting we were truly overwhelmed by the warmth of the welcome we received. We appreciate and return these greetings and look forward to sharing the years ahead with all of you. I am stimulated and encouraged already by the spirit of enthusiastic and amicable collaboration with which we are setting about the tasks to be accomplished. Fortunately, our future course will be built on the firm foundation laid by my predecessor, Dr. Richard Alden Howard, who devoted nearly twenty-five years of his life to our institution and guided it skillfully through challenging times; what future success we may have will, in part, be thanks to him. Charles Sprague Sargent and his successors have established an international reputation for our Arboretum, and it is our intention to see that it gains still further prestige. The Arnold Arboretum remains a unique facility: it is in effect a museum and perhaps comprises the most extensive living collection of woody plants in North America. This great collection gains further distinction from having been planned as a landscape garden which forms an integral part of the planned park system of a major city. However, it does not serve merely as a plant collection of high horticultural merit and a fine public amenity; it has an international reputation as a university institution for research and education. I believe our future success must lie largely in harmonizing those apparently disparate functions. To this end, I shall need, and wish particularly to request, the advice and help of all our friends who read this journal. I cannot pretend to have your experience, and I therefore shall depend on it for insuring the continuity of policy that is so essential to the well-being of a great collection of living trees. Although we shall need, and I intend, to innovate, we also must work together to avoid hasty and counterproductive change. I intend to succor a spirit of partnership, a friendly collaboration between pure and applied scientists and members of the public, in shaping the future of our Arboretum. It is in this spirit that I present the 67 68 in the following ideas, which I have been developing since my appointment, hope of eliciting your comments. There are several arboreta of comparable size and reputation to the Arnold, but none, as far as I am aware, possesses the very considerable advantage of being a university institution. We have, perhaps, thought of the herbarium as our principal center of research, but we must not underrate the research potential offered by the living collections and Dana Greenhouses at Jamaica Plain, and the collections at Case Estates. Opportunities exist here for basic research to bridge the traditional divisions between biology, horticulture and forestry. As an example, our staff members are doing valuable work already in the difficult field of woody plant propagation; nevertheless, many of the scientific ground rules, of adventitious root initiation or tissue culture for instance, have yet to be defined. The Arboretum should seize the opportunity to become a leader in such research, with the aim of providing the foundations upon which horticulturists and foresters can build. Our herbaria will maintain, and with the new building extension can expand further, their preeminence in systematics, but the Arboretum should play a greater part as well: chemistry, for instance, is aiding increasingly in taxonomy and phylogenetics. Electrophoretic analysis of enzyme systems is useful in the study of population genetics and evolution. Research into the chemical reasons why many herbivorous insects are so specific in their food sources is increasing our understanding of natural selection in forest ecosystems. Such research requires easy access to living material for development of the often intricate techniques required; the Arboretum can provide this material. The living collections offer a host of other opportunities for both research and instruction in reproductive biology, phenology, anatomy and morphology, tree architecture, leaf and canopy structure, and environmental physiology, the results of which can have important implications in horticulture and forestry. In summary, the Arboretum should act not only as a natural extension to the herbarium for the taxonomist, but give scientists the opportunity to return time and time again to the living material as knowledge and technology expand and our perception of the major problems in science changes. This is particularly valuable for those species, of which we have many, that have been brought from remote and inaccessible forests, or from the many regions of the world that are now deforested. The Case Estates can provide excellent and convenient facilities for experimental culture. There would appear to be plenty of opportunity for expansion of demand, and I would welcome use by Boston area universities other than Harvard. The Arnold Arboretum was established, as we all know, to grow \"all the trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or West Roxbury.\" exotic, which can be raised in the open air at ... 69 natural extension, we are particularly well placed to contribute study of the rich woodland flora of New England. It is my that this may be sustained and expanded through our longhope standing links with the New England Botanical Club. Club members, as well as schools and the public at large, can play a major part in the exploration and recording of the woodland flora. Such work is vital, not only as a record for the future, but as a base for future As a to the and Rock were to show us, our climate and flora have much in common with that of parts of East Asia. This allowed the Arboretum to play a commanding role in the botanical exploration of that region, and through its expeditions hundreds of new species were brought into cultivation in North America and Europe. Our staff members are exploring this region once again. Although there are certainly further species to be discovered and introduced, I believe an equally important role for us is in research and instruction in aspects of dendrology common to regions that share our climate. It is heartening news that soon we may welcome again graduate students from China for this will enable us to reestablish old and cherished links. Currently, I serve on a National Academy of Sciences committee that is under the chairmanship of Dr. Peter Raven, present chairman of our Visiting Committee, and is charged to establish research priorities in tropical biology. Forests, extraordinarily rich in species, are being felled for timber and for agriculture so rapidly that they are expected to be reduced to fragments by the end of the century. This scale of destruction is unprecedented anywhere, but that it should happen to vegetation of such outstanding biological interest is a catastrophe in itself, laying aside the narrower implications for our own species. The Arnold Arboretum, notably under Director Elmer Drew Merrill, long ago extended its Asian interests to include the tropics of the Far East. As a consequence we have at Cambridge the best Far Eastern herbarium in the United States. We are, therefore, the natural center for Far Eastern botanical research in this country. As you may know, my own research has been pursued in that region. I am sure that renewed interest by the Arboretum will be welcomed by my colleagues in Asia. Their research goals will inevitably be more local and immediate than ours, concentrating, for example, in floristic research for preparation of foresters' manuals of timber trees, and in the improvement of silvicultural techniques. We are qualified to collaborate in both these fields. Manuals on tree identification must be based on a stable nomenclature, which our taxonomists can provide through monographic research; partnership in field work will facilitate deeper biological understanding and enable our staff, and hopefully students, to pursue specific topics of rain forest research. Further, perhaps the most serious impediment to the management of Far Eastern rain forests as a continuing source as planning Again, in our rapidly changing environment. Sargent and his colleagues Wilson 70 of hardwoods is the absence of successful practical techniques for propagating and transplanting young stock of their leading timber family, Dipterocarpaceae, which provides us with Philippine mahogany. Basic research into tree propagation could thereby contribute to the rehabilitation of this resource. I do not believe that the expanded use of the living collections for research is in conflict with their role in the general service of the community - as an amenity and as an integral part of Frederick Olmsted's scheme of green ways and parks that contribute so much to Boston's character. I shall be seeking means to enhance this amenity value: ways will be found to improve further the appearance of the Arboretum, and thus to give cause to the public at large for increasing pride in it. I hope in particular to encourage greater participation in field classes and also in collaborative volunteer projects with schools, especially those that serve neighboring districts. We can thereby seek to establish bonds of interest and sympathy among the young that will last and be passed on. I believe that a new impetus, a new reaching out to our neighbors, will by itself reduce the vandalism that has plagued the Arboretum for so long. Our problems of security are common to all urban parks; but it must be admitted that currently they detract seriously from the amenity value of the Arboretum and preclude condu~t of scientific research on the living collections. I recognize, therefore, that improvement of security is the first task ahead of me, for much that I have spoken of cannot be realized without it. You will feel that I should not be so ambitious! Why not? Your views and alternative suggestions will be appreciated; the omens are good, and we should seize the chances while they are available. I hope that I have conveyed to you something of the excitement I feel for this great institution; together we can bring some of these hopes to reality. PETER SHAW ASHTON "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":71,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24747","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd160a36b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":2,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Wildflowers Leonard E. illustrated. For this of the Southeastern United States. Wilbur H. Duncan and Foote. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press. 296 pages, $12.00. volume, the southeastern United States is defined to include Delaware, Maryland, West Virginia, Kentucky, Arkansas and Louisiana south and east. Plates, usually of four very high quality colored illustrament is Monocotyledoneae at the end. Descriptions are brief and non-technical, and casual comments on ecology, distribution and uses are given. Scientific and common names are combined in one index. Introductory material explains in a glossary and by illustrations the botanical terms used in the text. There are no keys. This is a most attractive book of handy size that will please those persons using it for recognition of the common wild flowers of the south- tions, oppose pages of descriptions of the plants considered. The arrangeby family groups and these are in the Englerian system with the eastern states. RICHARD A. HOWARD Heathers in Colour. Brian and Valerie Proudley. London: Blandford Press. 192 pages, numerous color illustrations. $5.95. This small but comprehensive book is another of the excellent Blandford Colour Series. Every aspect of growing heathers is covered, from possible uses through cultivation instructions and suggested color groupings to propagation methods. The sixty-four pages of color photographs of both individual plants and established gardens are exceptionally fine and should prove extremely useful to any gardener wishing to invest in these lovely shrubs. The last third of the volume lists ericas, callunas and daboecias and their many cultivars, giving detailed descriptions of color, time of flowering and cultural requirements. This is a splendid reference book for English gardeners, but of only limited value to their American counterparts, as many of the varieties listed would not be hardy here, and there is no indication in the text as to which plants might withstand the vagaries of our climate. CORA WARREN Starting from Scratch: A Guide to Indoor Gardening. John Whitman. New York: Quadrangle. The New York Times Book Company. 211 pages, occasional line drawings. $8.95. The author is a freelance writer and this volume is written to be a moneymaker in the current market of romanticists who want to be horticulturally creative. Fundamentally, it instructs the novice how to sprout and grow on exotic garbage seeds from mangoes, papayas, pineapples, as well as more mundane herbs, while giving very useful loquats information about propagation adapted to several levels of proficiency. Unfortunately, most of the would-be grower's exertions will be a waste. Should he succeed (doubtful) in developing a single sugar cane indoors, he will have merely a rather withered, ungainly 3-foot grass plant. The deplorable tendency of amateurs to sprout avocados and produce - ... \"conversation-pieces\" is, couraged. This volume in the reviewer's estimation, on a capitalizes heavily the avocado-growing trend to be disim- 71 72 I Who has seen the finest home-grown avocado that was not outclassed by any ficus? However, if you still would grow your very own kiwi vine, this is the book to tell you how! ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE pulse. Woody Vines of the Southeastern United States. Wilbur H. Duncan. Athens, Ga.: University of Georgia Press. 76 pages, illustrated. Paperback $2.50. This work was originally published in Sida, and was reprinted in paperback when the supply of reprints was exhausted. The area covered is comparable to that of Wildflowers of the Southeastern United States. A key to the genera of vines is followed with keys to species in larger genera, line drawings of the plants, and distribution maps. The personal observations on many of the taxa add significance to the booklet's use for identification. RICHARD A. HOWARD The Treasury of Houseplants. Rob Herwig and Margo Schubert. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 368 pages, color illustrations. $12.95. Originally written for the European market and now published in this country, this guide commences with an interesting and comprehensible exposition of how plants grow. Basic propagation methods are well described and illustrated by line drawings, and there is a useful taxonomic section. The authors also deal with the siting of plants from the viewpoints of their health and aesthetics in house or office; there even is a unique discussion of heirloom plants. The fine basic material is followed by descriptions of more than 1,000 houseplants of all categories, arranged alphabetically by botanical name. History, habitat, culture and propagation are covered; if there are special problems, these are remarked. Numerous excellent photographs augment the text, accurately depicting plant habit as well as coloring. Total format, paper, typography, color reproduction, and quality of the text all contribute to making this guide an outstanding value for the novice while giving no offense to the most learned taxonomist. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Echeverias. L. Carruthers and R. Ginns. New York: Arco Publishing Company, Inc. 110 pages, illustrated. $7.95. The authors have been collecting and growing Echeverias for twenty years and in this non-botanical book they describe more than one hundred species and hybrids that they are currently growing in their own collections in England. The major portion of the book is given to the descriptive lists, along with numerous black and white line drawings and twentyfour pages of beautiful color plates. There also are chapters on their culture, which is simple, problems, which are few, and a short but fascinating history of the establishment and introduction of the genus into cultivation. This is an excellent book for the beginning or advanced collector and should help to revive some interest in this once popular genus. SHELIA MAGULLION "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23281","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170ab6c.jpg","title":"1979-39-2","volume":39,"issue_number":2,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hellebores","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":5,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24744","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25e8928.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Hellebores by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Helleborus is a genus of the Crowfoot Family (Ranunculaceae) including about twenty species native to southern Europe and western Asia. Several species, particularly H. orientalis, the Lenten Rose, have been cultivated as medicinal plants since classical times, and they are still important plants in modem gardens because of their beautiful, often oddly colored flowers which appear in winter or early spring, and their bold, handsome foliage. Like many members of the Crowfoot Family, the showy parts of the flowers of the hellebores are sepals rather than petals. These are generally five in number, and they vary in color from green or white through pink to deep red-purple. The petals are reduced to a ring of nectaries which are mostly obscured by the very numerous and conspicuous bright yellow stamens. The flowers often remain fresh and functional for nearly a month, but they remain on the plants for a much longer period, the sepals persisting and gradually turning green or purplish as the fruit matures. Perhaps a dozen species and their various hybrids are cultivated in Europe, but only the following are generally available from American nurseries. Helleborus niger. Christmas Rose the best known and most frequently cultivated and it is, in my opinion, one of the finest herbaspecies present, ceous plants of any sort that can be grown in New England. As the common name implies, the flowers are similar at a glance to those of a single rose, but unfortunately they are not fragrant. In England or their native southern Europe, the plants may bloom soon after Christmas. But in my garden the flowers have not appeared before early March, even though the buds, large and plump and perfectly formed, may be found just at ground level at the very onset of winter. When they do appear, the 2-3-inch flowers, pure white or with a tinge of pink, rising on short stalks above the magnificent, leathery, almost palmlike foliage, seem almost unreal in a world barely past the dead of winter. Several varieties and cultivars are available in the trade. Those with particularly large flowers include var. altifolius and 'Potters Wheel'. The var. macranthus, often listed as a separate species, has This is certainly at 1 2 gray-green inches tall. foliage and the flowering stems are seldom more than 8 Although I can never quite bring myself to cut one, the flowers of the Christmas Rose reportedly last very well when they are brought into the home, at least if the stalk is slit at the base. Outdoors they can usually take the worst March has to offer, but the often recommended practice of protecting them with a basket will, at least, prevent them from being hidden for even a few days by that inevitable snowstorm. Helleborus orientalis. Lenten Rose The Lenten Rose is native to Greece and Asia Minor, but it and its hybrids appear to be quite hardy in the Boston area. It is more likely to live up to its common name than the Christmas Rose, and normally blooms here with the early daffodils in April or early May. It is similar in aspect to Helleborus niger, but the leaves are larger (often a foot or more across), glossier, with finer and more numerous regularly spaced teeth. In addition, the flowering stalks are frequent- Left: Helleborus corsicus (as H. lividus), from Botanical Register, vol. 24, plate 54, 1838. Right: Helleborus orientalis, from Botanical Register, vol. 28, plate 34, 1842. 3 Helleborus niger var. macranthus, a Christmas Rose. Photo: R. Weaver. branched and bear conspicuous leaflike bracts. The flowers are creamy to brownish in the wild plant, but this is rarely seen in cultivation now. Most plants presently passing as Lenten Roses are actually hybrids with H. orientalis as one of the parents. Flowers range in color from apple green through pink to maroon. The so-called Millet Hybrids bear flowers that are frequently streaked reddish inside, suggesting the presence of the Caucasian H. guttatus in their ancestry. ly Although they are fine garden plants with beautifully colored flowers, the Lenten Roses are not so refined as the Christmas Rose and must be sited carefully. They are rather large and informal, and they look best planted among evergreen shrubs. The large leaves, while remaining evergreen, are generally flattened to the ground with the first snowfall, and even a single-crowned plant may then be almost a yard across. 4 Helleborus foetidus, showing the habit des plantes, vol. 1, 1867. of the plant, from H. Baillon, Histoire Helleborus corsicus (H. lividus subsp. corsicus) This and the following species differ from the first two in that the flowers are borne at the tips of leafy stems rather than arising directly from the crown on naked scapes. Well-grown plants must be impressive and attractive, with their 12-15-inch stems bearing trifoliate, sharply toothed and heavily veined leaves and crowned with a branched cluster of ten to twenty green flowers. But I have not satisfactory in my garden. Being a native of Corit is not surprising that this species is a bit tender. I have had sica, a plant survive the past two winters, but spring has found the stems weak and flattened and the flower buds mostly blasted. In areas without heavy winter snowfall, this is no doubt a very fine plant. Even here it might be satisfactory if it were protected with an overfound H. corsicus turned basket. Helleborus foetidus. it ranges into western EuI have not it should be one of the hardiest of the hellebores. It is rare in rope cultivation in this country, and at present I know of only one source Lamb Nurseries in Spokane, Washington, which is, in addition, the only nursery that lists all the other three species discussed here. Helleborus foetidus is similar in aspect to the preceding species but the leaves are more finely divided and the green flowers are often rimmed with purple. As the Latin name implies, the flowers have an unpleasant odor; they appear in April and May. I suspect that H. f oetidus also needs protection from the weight of the snow in winter. Hellebores will not prosper unless they are planted in a good, deep soil that never dries out. Deciduous shade, or the shade of a house at midday is ideal. A few applications of a water soluble fertilizer during active growth in the spring are beneficial, and for best results the soil should be near neutral or slightly alkaline. These plants have a reputation for being difficult to transplant, some accounts stating that they will not flower for several years after being moved. If reasonable care is taken, and the long, thick roots are not seriously damaged, this reputation is unfounded. And of course, young plants move better than do mature ones. However, hellebores are highly susceptible to crown rot, so if they are to travel through the mail I would recommend ordering in the spring from a small specialty nursery. Plants from such an establishment will probably be young and either pot-grown or freshly dug. Most hellebores are long lived and slow in increasing, so they seldom need division except for propagation purposes. Division can be done most anytime with proper care, and this is recommended over seed propagation because the seeds are often slow to germinate and the resulting plants usually take at least four or five years to flower. Although all parts of these plants are probably poisonous, they should not be a problem in the home garden because there is little about them that would attract children. - Stinking Hellebore grown this plant, but since "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Raisin Tree- Its Use, Hardiness and Size","article_sequence":2,"start_page":7,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24745","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25e896d.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.; Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"The Raisin Tree - Its Use, Hardiness and Size by GARY L. KOLLER and JOHN H. ALEXANDER III Interest in unusual plants that produce edible parts seems to be on the increase. One such plant, almost totally unrecognized in Western literature, is the raisin tree ( Hovenia dulcis) which in Chinese is known as Chih-chu. This Rhamnaceous plant derives its common English name from the enlarged and irregular flowers stalks that have been sold as fruits in the Peoples Republic of China since preConfucian times. These stalks are small and inconspicuous but they rapidly increase in size as the fruit matures. With maturation, and after frost, the pedicle color changes to russet and the interior of the stalk is filled with a yellowish pear-flavored pulp. Individually, the stalks are small, but abundant production compensates to produce bulk and this results in a crop that requires labor-intensive harvest techniques. The enlarged pedicle is unusual in that it is not part of the fruit structure but is entirely distinct and subtends the pendent terminal fruits. The ripe fruits are small, dry, rounded, three-celled capsules about the size of a pea. Each contains three flat, shiny black to orange-brown seeds. In China these seeds are sold under the name of Chih-chu-tzu. From what these authors have been able to ascertain from the literature and through discussion with Dr. S. L. Hu, a Chinese botanist, the ripe pedicles are collected from the wild by small school children instead of being cultivated in orchards as a crop. If cultivars have been selected in the Orient, they are unknown to us. Perhaps commercial interest could be enhanced by the selection of plants with larger pedicles, higher sugar content, greater productivity or more reliable annual fruit production. G. A. Stuart in Chinese Materia Medica says: \"Both the fruits and the fleshy peduncles are considered to be antifebrile, laxative, diuretic and quieting to the stomach. Remarkable antivinous properties also are attributed to them. It is said that after the ingestion of large quantities of alcohol the use of this drug will prevent any intoxication or poisonous action. The bark of the tree is used in diseases of the rectum.\" K. C. Chang in Food in Chinese Culture states that hovenia is sometimes styled 'tree honey' in Chinese for the sweet extract of the seeds, bough and young leaves is a common substitute for bee honey. 7 This with 53-year-old raisin tree (A.A. 19571 ) is the Arnold Arboretum's a height of 35 feet and a spread of 22 feet. Photo: E. Gray. best specimen H. F. Chow in The Familiar Trees of Hopei indicates that this is valuable commercial species. In addition to food and medicinal use, its wood is hard and heavy, and is used for manufacturing furniture, a etc. As a wild population, this plant finds its native home in China, Korea and Japan, where it occurs in the warmer portions of these countries. In Japan it occurs on the Okushiri Island of Hokkaido as well as on the islands of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu. In China it is found in provinces of Hopei, Honan, Shantung, Chekiang, Hupeh, Hunan, Szechuan, Yunnan, Kweichow, Kwangtung and Fukien. Through cultivation the plant was introduced very early into India. vol. Left above: Flower of Hovenia dulcis, from The Botanical Magazine of Tokyo, 53, no. 635, 1939. Below: Hovenia dulcis, from The American Garden, vol. 12, 1891. 10 The Chinese literature lists Hovenia dulcis as growing to 30 feet with an equal spread. It is said to occur in shady glens in moist situations where it forms extensive thickets, and occasionally in the mountains as a secondary plant that occurs at altitudes ranging from 500 to 4,000 feet. While this species was introduced into cultivation in the west in 1820, it remains little known even in many botanical collections. At the Arnold Arboretum two large trees are alive and thriving as of December 1978. The best specimen (A.A. 19571) was obtained as seed on December 24, 1924 from the Botanic Garden in Washington, D.C. When planted out in 1931, the tree was placed in an exposure of full sun on a southeast facing slope which is one of our warmest microclimates. In December 1978 at fifty-three years of age, this tree is approximately 35 feet tall with a spread of 22 feet. A single trunk divides at approximately 12 inches above the soil line into two major stems. The largest branch has a D.B.H. of 1 foot 1 inch, and the lesser a D.B.H. of 11 1\/2 inches. The tree has a rounded head, strong u-shaped crotches, deep roots and no visible sign of dieback or breakage from ice and snow. Average stem growth was 12 inches for current year's wood. The 1978 growing season produced an abundant crop of seeds. The second plant (A.A. 87-33) was collected on January 18, 1933 by W. H. Judd as seed from the Botanic Garden in Washington, D.C. It is interesting to note that the two surviving trees at the Arnold Arboretum both originated from the same seed source. This tree was permanently planted in 1937 near the first plant described, but instead of having an exposure of full sun, the plant is shaded and stretches for light. At forty-five years of age, this tree is approximately 30 feet tall but its spread has been greatly distorted by competition from neighboring plants. The D.B.H. of the single stem is 10 1\/2 inches. No fruiting is evident for the 1978 season. The earliest accessions of this plant at the Arnold Arboretum were in 1880 when seeds were received from the Agricultural College in Sapporo, Japan, and a plant was sent from S. B. Parsons and Sons, a nursery in Flushing, New York. None of these plants survives but the early records do not indicate the reason for failure. Three specimens exist in December 1978 at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. One is a towering giant (M459) with a height of 78 feet and spread of 68 feet. This tree has an interesting history as related by Joseph Adams of the Arboretum staff. When he started work at the Morris in February 1933, the tree was already a large specimen of at least 30 feet in height, but the records lacked a source or age for the plant. The winter of 1933-34 was devastating with gusting winds and a record of -17F. The tree froze back to within a few feet of the ground. However, it recovered by sending out vigorous shoots from the main trunk and in 1942 after eight growing seasons, attained a height of 31 feet and a spread 11 Leaves and fruit of Hovenia dulcis. Left: from Peking Natural History Bulletin, 1934. Right: from Botanical Magazine, vol. 50, 1824. of 35 feet. So its present height of 78 feet was achieved with the backing of a strong, well-established root system, in only forty-five years. This tree has two trunks that divide from a single stem at approximately 1 foot above the soil line. The east trunk has a D.B.H. of 2 feet 4 inches and the west trunk a D.B.H. of 2 feet. Mr. Adams only can remember the tree fruiting twice, with the last time being approximately 1975. As with many living things, this tree was struck by tragedy. Approximately a year and a half ago, lightning hit the plant causing major bark fissures, thinning of the canopy and loss of vigor. Despite this, the tree survived the stresses of an unusually cold winter in the 1977-78 season. This is perhaps the largest specimen existing in North America and larger than any mentioned in the literature reviewed by these authors. The Morris Arboretum also has two lesser specimens. One (5266-A) is 40 feet tall with a spread of 34 feet. It produced an abundant crop of seeds in 1978. The other (57-226) came to the Morris as a B & B specimen from the Taylor Arboretum in 1957. Today this plant is 45 feet tall, spreads 30 feet and rises as a single stem with a D.B.H. of 11 inches to the height of 8 or 10 feet before branching. Documentation of cold hardiness has been limited, but Allen Cook, 12 The bark of hovenia is light gray with occasional exfoliated layers colors of warm, reddish-brown. Photo: E. Gray. revealing horticulturist at the Dawes Arboretum in Newark, Ohio offers the folobservations: Seeds were received from Highland Park in Rochester, New York in 1967. They were stratified at 40F for forty days and two known plants resulted. After attaining some size in a nursery area, the plants were put into permanent locations in June of 1975. The sites selected were protected from winds, with a north lowing 13 or northwest exposure and good drainage. The winter of 1975-76 with temperatures to -10F; both of the newly transplanted plants froze to the ground. However, in spring 1976, both sprouted from the root system and by the end of the growing season Nature provided a one was 3 feet tall and the other 5 feet tall. tougher test the following winter with low temperatures of -23F, and both trees died. While one could never describe hovenia as outstanding from an ornamental perspective, it does have several notable features. The broadly ovate leaves are a glossy dark green and remain remarkably free of insects and disease. At the Arnold Arboretum during the summer of 1978 the largest plant produced many flowered, terminal cymes of pale creamy-white flowers in mid- to late July, followed by fruit clusters that ripened in October. Gray bark with narrow but deep fissures in the vertical plane gives a series of rectangular plates which occasionally exfoliate and reveal delightful contrasting colors of reddish-brown. Viewed from some distance, the smaller branches are not straight as an arrow, but undulate in long waves giving the branch structure a visually fuller appearance. From the observations of these authors, the tree appears to grow best in full sun and it seems to be pH adaptable and thrive in a wide range of soil types. Propagation experiments were performed in 1963 at the Arnold Arboretum to determine the best method of germinating the seeds. Five lots of two hundred seeds were treated. Lot 1 was sown with no pretreatment. Seeds of lot 2 were cold stratified for three months at 40F before sowing. Lot 3 was stratified at fluctuating greenhouse temperatures of from 45F-80F for three months, followed by three months of cold stratification. Seeds of lot 4 were scarified in concentrated sulfuric acid for one hour prior to sowing; lot 5 received the one hour of acid treatment plus three months of cold stratification. The two lots of acid treated seeds gave the best results with germination percentages of slightly better than 40 percent while the highest percentage from lots 1-3 was the 3 percent achieved by lot 1. These results indicate that germination is inhibited by a hard, impermeable seed coat, and imbibition of water and germination cannot occur until the seed coat becomes permeable. This would occur in the soil over a long period of time while the seed coats were slowly degraded by natural forces. Scarification by acid treatment or by mechanical means such as filing or sandpapering hastens seed coat degradation and permeability, thereby allowing germination. Later experiments at the Arnold Arboretum with acid scarification of hovenia seeds have been performed with acid treatment of 1 1\/2, 2 and 2 1\/2 hours. General germination occurred at both the 2 and 2 1\/2 hour treatments with the 2 1\/2 hour treatment appearing slightly better. was severe 14 Hovenia dulcis growing in Yunyang Hsien, Eastern Szechuan, China, at an altitude of 3,000 feet. The tree is 70 feet tall with a circumference of 6 feet. Photographed by E. H. Wilson on July 3, 1910. 15 this article, the authors found several references that cuttings of ripe wood could be rooted, but no literature to stating substantiate this could be found. The Arnold Arboretum records show that cuttings were taken in March 14, 1929 and that at least one of the cuttings rooted, for it was planted out on the grounds in 1933. Experiments to determine the best method of asexual propagation are now underway at the Dana Greenhouses. In order to promote further testing of this plant, we have gathered a large quantity of seeds from our older plant. These seeds will be available to members only on a first-come-first-served basis until May, 1979. In requesting seeds, please enclose a self-addressed, stamped envelope and address the request to: In researching Hovenia Seeds The Arnold Arboretum The Arborway Jamaica Plain, MA 02130 Because the available literature on this plant is sparse, it would be interesting to hear from others who have grown or observed the raisin tree. Additional firsthand comments will help us document the use, cold hardiness and ultimate size of Hovenia dulcis. Bibliography Anonymous. 1942. Hovenia dulcis. The Gardeners Chronicle 112(2913):220 > 150 * Botanical Magazine. 1823. 50: 2360. Hovenia dulcis. Sweet Hovenia Botanical Register. 1820. 6: 501. Hovenia acerba Chan, K.C. 1977. Food in Chinese Culture. Yale University Press, New Haven, Conn. Chow, H.F. 1934. The Familiar Trees of Hopei. Peking Natural History Bulletin Chun, W.Y. 1921. Chinese Economic Trees. Commercial Press, Ltd., China. Comber, J. 1942. Hovenia dulcis. The Gardeners Chronicle 112(2915): Shanghai, 173 C.C. 1891. The Economic Plants of Japan. The American Garden 12: 78 Kimura, Y. 1939. Species and Varieties of Hovenia. Botanical Magazine of Tokyo 53 (635): 471 Lee, S.C. 1935. Forest Botany of China. Commercial Press, Ltd., Shanghai, China. Ohwi, J. 1965. Flora of Japan. Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. Skinner, H.T. 1942. The Raisin Tree. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 4(2): 14 Stuart, G.A. 1911. Chinese Materia Medica. American Presbyterian Mission Press, Shanghai, China. Wang, Chi-Wu. 1961. The Forests of China. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Wilson, E.H. 1914. Plantae Wilsonianae. The University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Georgeson, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Allegheny Pachysandra","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24743","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25e856f.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dirr, Michael A.; Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"The by Allegheny Pachysandra MICHAEL A. DIRR and JOHN H. ALEXANDER III be the rule with groundcovers for the same taxa and few attempts have been made to educate the it alternative selections. Euonymus fortunei Hedera helix, Pachysandra terminalis and Vinca minor are 'Colorata', the dominant offerings and comprise probably 50 to 60 percent of the total groundcover used in the East and Midwest. None of these groundcovers is without problems and in recent years Pachysandra terminalis, Japanese pachysandra, has been afflicted with Volutella pachysandrae, a fungal pathogen, that causes cankers and stem dieback. A severe infestation can literally devastate an established planting. Controls are available, but often by the time the homeowner recognizes that a problem exists, it is too late for effective treatment. The monoculture of trees (Ex: American elm) should have taught us something; however, the same type of mistake is being repeated with groundcovers. Repetition are seems to used repeatedly public or offer Above: Pachysandra terminalis. nodes are so closely spaced that Although leaf arrangement a is alternate, the rosette-like condition results. Below: Pachysandra terminalis. The specific epithet, terminalis, is derived from the position of the inflorescence. Photos: M. Dirr. 17 An American sandra, is one of the most handsome species, Pachysandra procumbens, Allegheny pachyplants for groundcover use, yet , is seldom seen in gardens or in commerce. This fact has been lamented by other authorities (4, 6, 7, 8) and the species suffers a fate common to other quality plants: entrapment in the confines of an arboretum or botanic garden. Several reasons for the lack of visibility include limited publicity compared to its Japanese cousin, and the purported difficulty of propagation. Division (4, 8) offers a suitable means but is excessively slow for commercial purposes. The plant was discovered by Andre Michaux in the 1790's and was described in his Flora Boreali-Americana (3). Its range was listed as the western Allegheny mountains; hence the derivation of the common name. Braun (2) noted that the species is found in Kentucky, Tennessee, northern Alabama, Mississippi and northern Florida. The species also occurs in North and South Carolina. Wherry (8) studied native stands from Somerset, Kentucky, south to the Gulf of Mexico. He noted that the plant abounded on rocky slopes, being most at home in woods, but persisted even where trees had been cut and land pastured. The underlying rock was limestone and the soil reaction was circumneutral (around pH 7). According to Wherry, most plants were situated on slopes along streams. The species is hardy far north of its range and is successfully cultured at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois as well as at ChampainUrbana, Illinois, where temperatures may reach -20 to -25F. A planting has been maintained since 1962 at the University of Minnesota Landscape Arboretum where winter lows reach -30F; however, snow cover is usually constant and affords protection. The Arnold Arboretum has plantings that have not been disturbed since June, 1943. One measures 3 by 4.5 feet and another, 3 by 7 feet. The former is on the east side of the Administration Building while the latter is on the north side and hemmed in by the parking lot and building so it can spread in only two directions. There is no evidence of any disease or insect problems in the plantings. The species' extreme shade tolerance is evidenced by the excellent performance in these locations. Under landscape conditions, a moist, well-drained, organic, slightly acid soil would probably prove optimum. Any plant that increases by rhizomes or underground rootstocks benefits from a loose, friable soil because there is less physical impediment to the expanding structures. Summer foliage ranges from a grayish- to bluish-green with a slight mottle and does not possess the luster of Japanese pachysandra. The leaves assume a bronze color in the late fall and by winter's termination range from greenish-brown to brown. The foliage is not truly evergreen and may vary from deciduous to semi-evergreen. The broad, outer, dull bluish-green leaves of Pachysandra procumbens often develop a mottled appearance. Photo: M. Dirr. 19 Leaf retention depends on siting and geographic location. The species forms a handsome carpet that varies from 6 to 10 inches in height. If the foliage deteriorates over winter, abundant new shoots will have developed to form a solid cover by May or June. The leaves are much wider than the Japanese species and display more prominent (coarser) serrations. Although alternate in arrangement, the leaves appear whorled because the nodes are so closely spaced. They range in size from 2 to 3 1\/2 inches long and almost as wide. The flowers are especially attractive and develop in March and April on 2- to 4-inch-long spikes that emanate from the base of the stem. A single stem may have up to three spikes, but one is more common. The position of the flower provides another means of separating the two species, for on Japanese pachysandra the inflorescence is at the top of the stem in the middle of the pseudo-whorl of leaves. The flowers of P. procumbens are a purplish- or pinkish-white (stamens may be pink in color) and possess a pleasing fragrance. Wherry termed the odor rancid and musky, but based on personal observation this is not the case. The flowers are unisexual and apetalous with male and female on the same inflorescence. A few female flowers are confined to the base of the inflorescence while the conspicuous and abundant stamens occur at the top. Both species have naked (not hidden by bud scales) inflorescences, which are formed the summer and fall prior to flowering. Unfortunately, if the Allegheny pachysandra is killed to the ground, the flowers will be lost. Even though they are basal, they elongate and partially rise above the foliage which is often flattened by winter weather. The early flowering date couples the species with Acer rubrum and together they could be considered \"harbingers of spring.\" Fruits are not showy and apparently seldom develop in cultivation. Examination of herbarium specimens of material collected from the wild showed that the fruit is a three-valved capsule that contains small lustrous, dark brown seeds. The fruit is not ornamental on either species, but perhaps controlled crosses might be made between the two thus resulting in interesting hybrid progeny. The Cornell Plantation (1) reported that Allegheny pachysandra was unfamiliar to many visitors and stimulated more questions than any other plant in their groundcover collections. They further noted that the species was not evergreen in Ithaca, New York, but perfectly hardy, and that twelve-year-old plantings showed no disease or dieback problems. Propagation difficulties may have limited commercial offerings in the past, but this is no longer a problem. Cuttings of vigorous semihardened growth taken in June have rooted readily (1). In experiments at the Arnold Arboretum, cuttings collected in September rooted no less than 80 percent in eight weeks when placed in sand and perlite under mist. Ten treatments were employed and even the controls rooted, but indolebutyric acid (IBA) and naphthaleneacetic 20 Pachysandra procumbens. to The basal flowering and range in number inflorescences are formed the summer prior from one to three per stem. Photo: M. Dirr. acid tems. (NAA) when applied as dips (pure percent ethanol) resulted in 100 percent rooting and large chemical dissolved in 50 root sys- Allegheny pachysandra is an aesthetically functional alternative to the more common groundcovers. Ask your local nurseryman or garden center operator for help in locating plants. The following firms may serve as an alternative if there are no local sources: The Wild Garden Box 487 Bothell, Washington 98011 Brookside Nursery, Inc. Darien, Connecticut Weston Nurseries Hopkinton, MA 21 Literature Cited 1. Anonymous. 1978. Our native pachysandra. The Cornell Plantation Bulletin 34 (1): 10-11 2. Braun, E. Lucy. 1937. Some relationships of the flora of the cumberland plateau and cumberland mountains of Kentucky. Rhodora 39: 193-208 3. Michaux, Andre. 1803. Flora Boreali-Americana. Typis caroli crapelet, Parisiis et Argentorati. p. 177-178, 340 pp. 4. Preston, F. G. 1923. Correspondence. Pachysandra procumbens. The Garden 87: 1189 5. Radford, Albert E., Harry E. Ahles, and C. Ritchie Bell. 1968. Manual ofthe Vascular Flora ofthe Carolinas. The University of North Carolina Press, Chapel Hill, N.C. 1183 pp. 6. Webster, Charles D. 1978. President's potpourri: the pachysandra. Garden 6: 5-6 7. Wherry, E. T. 1946. Pachysandra procumbens. Bull. American Rock Garden Society 4:11 8. -. 1955. Neglected native plants. National Horticulture Magazine 34: 211-212 Mature leaf of Pachysandra terminalis showing wedge-shaped leaf base and prominent terminal serrations. Photo: M. Dirr. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: The Gift of Time","article_sequence":4,"start_page":22,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24742","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25e816b.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Gift of Time by MARGO W. REYNOLDS Selflessness is a quality rarely encountered anymore in today's \"me first\" society. Fortunately for the Arnold Arboretum, however, and for similar institutions, there still are people who think that helping others is a reward in itself, one that brings gratification to both the giver and the receiver. The generous men and women who comprise the volunteer program at the Arnold Arboretum are just such people and it gives me great pleasure in this issue to salute and applaud them. The Arnold Arboretum's volunteer program was launched in 1971 in anticipation of our Centennial celebration. Volunteers were particularly active at this time in preparation for the event, and continued to be invaluable during the Centennial as tour guides, organizers, and in numerous other capacities. Currently, there are about thirty volunteers, twenty-two of whom are regular in their participation; others come in for special projects, or as they are needed. The ranks will be increased in February when another training program is scheduled to begin. Now that these good people have been part of our lives for nearly eight years, it is hard to imagine the Arboretum without them; it simply would not be the same. We are a small staff and we are, every one of us, stretched to our limits much of the time. Somehow, with everyone putting in a little extra, we manage to accomplish the possible ; the essential tasks that must be done to keep an arboretum running. It is often only with the help of our volunteers, however, that we are able to do the impossible; those extras that we could not do ourselves, the extras that make a difference. But for our volunteers, the exhibition gallery would stand empty much of the year, for none among the staff have the months required research, document, locate photographs for, and assemble such comprehensive exhibits as \"Spreading Roots,\" \"Flora From Shakespeare\" and others. The public would never have the opportunity to visit the greenhouses to learn about the workings of a propagation facility because there would be no one with the time to give tours, patiently explaining the set-up, the equipment, the plants and the various horticulto tural practices in 22 use. gates would be closed, of necessity, to any and all groups detours of our 265 acres in Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates in Weston. It would be unthinkable, of course, to stop encouraging people to visit this spot of inordinate beauty from which there is so much to learn, but the staff cannot possibly handle all the school groups, garden clubs and others who request individual atOur siring guided tention. We certainly would have to discontinue the distribution of plant dividends to Friends. The time involved in wrapping, packing, addressing, stamping, sorting, and mailing thousands of small plants every year is prodigious. We could do what other organizations have but the cost of a done, I suppose, and contract the mailing out would rise considerably. membership We would have to severely curtail our distribution of seeds to other arboreta and botanical gardens. Who would do all the collecting (much of it in the extreme humidity of summer or in the biting cold of winter), not to mention the meticulous cleaning, sorting and preparation required before a seed even leaves our hands? Friends who enjoy the book reviews in Arnoldia, and who consult them when purchasing items for their personal libraries, would have to make do with fewer in each issue. Reading and reviewing books is something most of us have time to do only after the daily paperwork is completed, and that free time is limited. Magazines, newspapers and libraries requesting slides of the Arboretum or of specific plants would have to write their articles or plan their displays without the added visual impact that a picture provides. Who would do the mounting, cleaning, sorting, labelling, filing and organizing that are necessary to keep a slide collection functioning and useful? Clerical work would fall behind, nursery inventories might never get done, the cone collection would still be in disarray, collecting would slow down, mapping and labelling would fall behind, periodicals would remain unshelved, the leatherbound books would deteriorate if not cleaned, there no longer would be a continuous floral display in the entrance hall to greet visitors, there would be fewer educational courses and tours, there would be no one to translate foreign texts ... things would be, oh, so very different. The above are only the tangibles, however; they represent but a fraction of what the word \"volunteer\" means at the Arnold Arboretum. Nearly as important are the intangibles; those special little touches that add a personal element to each volunteer\/staff relationship. Did you know, for instance, that the retired physician who works so industriously in our conifer collection is also the reserve center on our lunchtime football team? Make no mistake about it the game's more fun when Dr. Richard Warren is in it. And you can't convince the staff that Christmas is on December 25. Our Christmas arrives on the eagerly awaited day that volunteer Catherine Hull - A group of Arnold Arboretum volunteers poses beneath a hardy silk tree at the Case Estates following a luncheon meeting there last September. Back Row (left to right) Albert Thompson, Gertrude Cronk, Barbara O'Connor, Janet Thompson, Richard Dwight, June Hutchinson, Robert Siegel, Nathaniel Whittier, Leslie Oliver, Louis Segel. Front Row (left to right) Cora Warren, Doris Loomis, Marie Dempsey, Loretta Wilson, Sheila Magullion, Elinore Trowbridge, Sylvia Grey. brings lighten her famous, transitory, homemade marshmallow fudge. An by Lou Segel always means a joke. It never fails to the moment and oftentimes its after-effects linger to brighten the whole day. We use all of the many talents of our volunteers. The retired English professor who works several mornings every week cleaning seeds and preparing nursery inventory at the greenhouse recently delighted a large audience at one of our Wednesday luncheon lectures with a marvelous reading of Robert Frost's poetry. Yet another volunteer, a retired surgeon, recounted in a fascinating slide presentation his trip to Japan with the Boston Symphony Orchestra. Our appearance youngest volunteer, won a a fifteen-year-old high school student, recently award from the National Rose Society for his work with those plants. A young blind volunteer is teaching us all that lack of sight is not a limitation when there is the desire and the perseverance to work with plants. We are immeasurably enriched by our volunteers our friends. The staff may be the timber of the Arboretum house, but the volunteers are certainly the nails that hold us together, for they give us that most selfless gift of all - the gift of time. prestigious - 25 Carpinus betulus. Photo: M. Dirr. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":26,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24741","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25e8126.jpg","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS of Neil Treseder's long awaited book. Published in collaboration with the Royal Horticultural Society, this volume is destined to become a sought-after classic and collector's item for both present and future horticulturists and botanists. Based on extensive research into both the botanical and horticultural literature, the main body of Treseder's text presents detailed descriptions of all the north temperate zone species of the horticulturally important and botanically intriguing genus Magnolia. Coupled with a chapter entitled 'Revised Survey of the genus Magnolia together with Manglietia and Michelia' contributed by the late James Edgar Dandy (formerly of the British Museum (Natural History) and world authority on the Magnoliaceae), Treseder's book is the closest approach to a monograph of Magnolia that has appeared in print. The descriptions of the species and their cultivars, as well as those of the numerous interspecific hybrids of garden origin (to which a section of forty-six pages is devoted) are supplemented by important discussions of the cultural and historical aspects of each taxon, as well as problems relating to their classification, taxonomy, nomenclature, and distribution and original discovery in nature. These descriptions and discussions are greatly enhanced due to Treseder's firsthand knowledge and observations of magnolias in cultivation. The fourth generation to head the world famous Treseder Nursery, Ltd., Truro, Cornwall, England, Neil Treseder grew up in what might easily be termed \"Magnolia Country.\" Close at hand are the world famous collections of magnolias in Cornish gardens, particularly those at Caerhays Castle and at Trewithen, the home of the late Col. George Johnstone, whose Asiatic Magnolias in Cultivation (Royal Horticultural Society, 1955) has since its publication been the standard reference for species of Asiatic origin and can be considered the precursor of Treseder's book. These famous Cornish gardens contain many of the original introductions of Wilson and Forrest, among others, and are the gardens in which several of the more spectacular garden hybrids have arisen. Moreover, Treseder has traveled widely to observe magnolias, including at least one trip to North American gardens, and has corresponded with numerous members of the American Magnolia Society, of which he is a member. On the practical side, Neil Treseder brings years of experience as a practicing nurseryman to bear in the section entitled 'How to Grow Magnolias.' This practical guide covers topics including propagation, pests and diseases, planting, and cold hardiness, while another section outlines the techniques used in Magnolias. Neil G. Treseder. London and Boston: Faber and Faber. xviii + 243 pages + 48 plates. $59.95. It is a great pleasure to bring to the attention of readers of Arnoldia the publication hybridization. Throughout, the volume is well illustrated with line drawings by Marjorie Blarney, while thirty-nine color photographs and nine color reproductions of her original paintings are reproduced on eight special, unnumbered pages. The typography and layout are both pleasing to the eye, and the binding is solid yet flexible enough to allow for easy opening and reading. And this book does invite reading. The text is in an easy, personable, albeit British, style and is sure to delight both old and new magnoliaphiles those whose interest is primarily horticultural as well as those whose interests lie in the taxonomy of the genus and the controversy surrounding specific boundaries, particularly in the Oyama and Buergeria sections of - the genus. 26 27 Neil Treseder is to be congratulated on a beautiful book well produced and an information-filled, accurate text. My only concern is that the two maps which follow at the end of the book and purport to illustrate magnolia distribution in Asia and North America, respectively, are misleading inasmuch as the boundary lines of natural distribution have not been superimposed over the maps. Despite this one minor oversight, everyone interested in woody plants will want to own this book. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG The Miracle Houseplants: The Gesneriad Family. Virginie F. and George A. Elbert. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. 242 pages, illustrated with black and white and color photographs. Hardcover $9.95; softbound $6.95. The Elberts, already known for their previous volumes and magazine articles on various aspects of indoor growing and for their involvement with the light gardening movement, have with this volume undertaken their first detailed study of a single plant family. It is not surprising that they should have chosen the Gesneriaceae for this effort, since the popularity of this group (which includes such important houseplants as the African violet, gloxinia, and streptocarpus) has been growing at almost epidemic speed and the last volume covering the family, published in 1967, has long been out-of-print. With such popularity, the number of species and cultivars introduced since 1967 has rendered the earlier volume quite incomplete, even if it were available. It is surprising, however, that the authors should have chosen this time to compile a study of the Gesneriads, since recent introductions and hybridizing efforts have led to considerable taxonomic revision, and a shifting about between genera which will, in all probability, continue for some time. The Elberts, in their somewhat grudging acknowledgement of these changes in nomenclature, and their caustic comments regarding the importance to the taxonomist of seeing his name in print, give this reviewer the distinct feeling that the answer may be quite simple: Whether Gesneriad nomenclature is, or will remain, current was not a priority; they knew the book would sell. And sell it will! The Gesneriads have a loyal following that has been waiting for years for an up-to-date reference, and the book is designed to appeal to the collector of assorted houseplants as well. It is into this second category, in fact, that the Elberts themselves fall, although their collection has at one time or another contained an impressive percentage of the Gesneriads that are available in the United States. Their personal observations, to which they give free rein, may differ from those of the Gesneriad hobbyist, but will probably match those of the grower of a mixed collection; unless the Gesneriad in question will out-perform a non-Gesneriad, it is not worth the bother. Although the major portion of the book (167 of the 224 pages of text) is devoted to an alphabetical survey of the genera, the Elberts have included brief but informative sections that cover the taxonomic characteristics differentiating the Gesneriads, their culture and propagation, a glossary of terms, and lists of suppliers of plants, seed and supplies. It is unfortunate that the addresses of the two national societies devoted to the Gesneriaceae are not included, since it is inevitable that readers of this book will be hungry for more information. The Elberts' conversational style of writing makes this book a pleasure to read, despite one's occasional anger at the intrusion of their prejudices. As an introduction to the Gesneriaceae, this book will certainly interest many indoor gardeners and inspire them to experiment with some of the less common genera. The photographs alone should start a run on the specialist greenhouses. For the more advanced hobbyist, although the book leaves much to be desired, it will be a much-used reference. JENNIFER HICKS 28 Garden Conifers in Colour. Brian and Valerie Proudly. Poole, Dorset, UK: Blandford Press. 216 pages, illustrated. $5.95. In the last seven years, at least four important books on identification and cultivation of conifers have appeared in Britain: Conifers in the British Isles, A Descriptive Handbook by A. F. Mitchell of the Forestry Service, Conifers for Your Garden by Adrian Bloom, Ornamental Conifers by Charles R. Harrison, and, now most recently, the present volume by Brian and Valerie Proudly. Mitchell's book contains practical descriptions by a foremost expert and unique information on the identification, location and welfare of major specimens in the British Isles. It is for the taxonomist and connoisseur, not the horticulturist. The Bloom and Harrison volumes both provide lists and colored photographs of the plants most suitable for horticultural purposes, and give valuable information on planting methods, nurturing, diseases, and landscaping principles. Bloom's is selective; Har- rison's, comprehensive. The Proudlys' volume is also primarily for the gardener. It contains colored photographs of selected samples only, and thus preserves comprehensiveness in a limited space. The authors have divided it roughly into thirds. The first section consists of definitions and landscaping and horticultural information. The second comprises 214 color photographs, and the third, brief descriptions of approximately 600 plants. The list was prepared by consulting \"Nurserymen's catalogues from twenty-seven firms in ten different countries where conifers are grown.\" Although the authors offer their many invaluable horticultural hints against the background of British growing conditions, this should not prevent American interpretations and applications. It is a surprisingly comprehensive book for one that fits in the coat pocket. Britain has provided the conifer enthusiast with yet another volume essential to his or her extending bookshelf. RICHARD WARREN A specimen of Fagus Photo: M. Dirr. sylvatica 'Tortuosa' in winter garb at the Arnold Arboretum. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23280","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170a76a.jpg","title":"1979-39-1","volume":39,"issue_number":1,"year":1979,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":185,"end_page":215,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24738","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eb76f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1978 J, ~ In retrospect the fiscal year just ended was momentous in many ways. Two members of the staff, Dr. Stephen Spongberg and Dr. Richard Weaver, Jr., completed one and one-half months of field work in Japan and Korea, collecting seeds and plants for addition to the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Their trip represents the first field expedition for horticultural purposes in temperate Asia since the last trip of E. H. Wilson in 1917-1919. Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu, retired, made a personal trip to the People's Republic of China, and Dr. Richard Howard was a member of the official delegation of the Botanical Society of America visiting selected botanical gardens and botanical, horticultural, and forestry institutions in eight cities of the People's Republic during a twenty-eightday period. Although only a few seed lots were collected from the wild during Dr. Howard's trip, an official exchange of seeds and herbarium specimens was implemented. The possibility of expeditions and the exchange of personnel seems realistic in the near future; the exchange of specimens and literature and, certainly, freer communication appear to be immediate. Within the living collections, phase one of the boundary improvements was implemented with reconstruction of gates and sidewalks in the Forest Hills-Arborway area. Unfortunately, the Adams-Nervine property could not be obtained for expansion of the collections. Two major snowstorms set weather records for the Boston area, with the total snowfall in Boston in January recorded as 35.9 inches, and in February, 27 inches. In Cambridge, the Harvard Corporation approved the plans for an addition to the Harvard University Herbaria building, and the building plans were placed for bidding at the end of June, with construction to begin in August. Finally, as an end to one administration and the beginning of another, Dr. Howard requested relief from the administrative duties of director which he has had since February 1, 1954. The Dean and the President accepted this request effective June 30, and the Corporation approved the appointment of Dr. Peter Ashton, University of Aberdeen, Scotland, effective July 1, as the fifth director of the Arnold Arboretum with a concurrent appointment as Arnold Professor of Botany. After a sabbatical year as a Guggenheim Fellow, Dr. Howard 185 186 will be Professor of Dendrology on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum and within the University. Dr. Bernice Schubert was appointed acting director for Cambridge and Dr. Weaver, acting director for Jamaica Plain and Weston for the three-month period, July 1 through September 30, 1978. Staff June 30 marked the retirement of Mr. George H. Pride from the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Pride joined the staff in July 1967 as Associate Horticulturist, with responsibility for the programs in education, the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, and much of the publicity and film development. He represented the Arboretum well in community activity, especially in the Roxbury-Dorchester programs, and was honored by them at a special dinner. He also received a citation from United States Senator Edward Brooke and a gold medal from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for his contributions to inner-city horticultural programs. The staff expressed its appreciation to George Pride in a retirement party, as did the participants in the highly successful lecture series which he conducted for many years at the Case Estates in Weston. Mr. Alfred Fordham, who retired as propagator last year, received an Honorary Life Membership in the International Plant Propagators' Society at a meeting in Columbus, Ohio. He is only the fourth distinguished horticulturist to be so honored. Dr. Howard was doubly honored when he received the Liberty Hyde Bailey Medal from the American Horticultural Society at the annual meeting in Pasadena, California, and later, in Boston, when he was presented the George Robert White Medal by the trustees of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for his work in horticulture and botany. Dr. Howard has received a Guggenheim Fellowship for the period June 15, 1978, through June 14, 1979. Resignations were received during the year from Mr. Kenneth Shaw in horticulture, and Ms. Susan Farwell and Ms. Sandra McLeod in the library. Dr. Burdette Wagenknecht, while on sabbatical leave from William Jewell College in Liberty, Missouri, was appointed a Mercer Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum for the spring semester. Horticulture Inherent in the title Arnold Arboretum is the development, maintenance, and use of a collection of woody plants. In fact, the indenture establishing the Arnold Arboretum called for the acquisition of all the trees, shrubs, and herbaceous plants hardy in the vicinity of West Roxbury. The national and international reputation of the Arnold Arboretum is due largely to this excellent collection of woody plants, their accessibility to scientists as well as to the general public, and the publications of the staff derived from the study of these plants. The Arboretum staff over the years has not only acquired 187 Peter Raven, chairman of the Arnold Arboretum Visiting Committee, toasts the Howards at party in their honor. To his left is Bernice Schubert, who helped plan the affair held in the Harvard Faculty Club on June 30. Photos: P. Chvany. Associates fete George Pride on the occasion of his retirement. Photo: P. Chvany. 188 and grown plants but has shared these material resources in an uninterrupted program. Most of the plants, in fact nearly all those noted for their colorful flowering characteristics, were acquired from eastern Asia at the beginning of this century in a series of expeditions by Ernest H. Wilson, Charles S. Sargent, Joseph Rock, and John G. Jack for the Arboretum staff. The propagation staff kept excellent records of the treatments used to attempt germination of newly acquired seeds, and the horticultural staff maintained records on their growth, performance, and survival. It is these records that serve as background information on the treatment of new introductions, or the need to seek more hardy plants from northern sources or to share marginally hardy plants with other gardens in more suitable locations. During September and October Drs. Spongberg and Weaver traveled in Japan and Korea, collecting seeds and plant material for propagation. They assembled and returned expediently by air mail 504 collections representing 326 taxa and sixty-eight families of flowering plants; the majority of the collections represented potential additions to the living inventory. The speed of transport, one week by air on the average, contrasted with the slow boat passage employed by the early collectors. Fresh seed requiring no stratification could be germinated immediately, while other seed could be cleaned or properly stored in Boston, eliminating much of the arduous effort previously expended in the field. Germination has been excellent except for the maples, and some seedlings have already been distributed. A notice of thirty-two taxa to be distributed was published in the Newsletter of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, and resulted in requests from thirty-three institutions for 226 plants. Seedlings in shorter supply were made available to a 189 select group of fifteen institutions. A large number of taxa will be retained at the Arnold Arboretum for mass plantings in our nurseries for evaluation of form, variation and hardiness. The director and staff are grateful to colleagues in Japan and Korea for the assistance afforded Drs. Weaver and Spongberg, and in particular for the help of Mr. Carl Ferris Miller of Korea and Dr. Katsuhiko Kondo and Professor Kankichi Sohma of Japan. In anticipation of Dr. Howard's trip to China, the staff prepared units of seeds of twelve taxa for distribution to appropriate botanical gardens in the People's Republic. In addition, leaves of various cultivars of Streptocarpus introduced by the Arnold Arboretum, and plants of Cyrilla racemiflora were given to the botanical garden at Kamchow (Canton) for internal distribution. From Nanking Botanical Garden Dr. Howard was able to obtain a few seeds of Sinocalycanthus sinensis, not known in the United States, and to present in return seeds of Calycanthus floridus from the United States. A few additional seeds were collected from wild plants near Kunming. Earlier during the year Dr. Y. C. Ting of Boston College had obtained seeds of Magnolia biondii from China. The Arboretum staff was asked to handle these, and the plants developed will be distributed at a later date. The living collections in Jamaica Plain are subject to continuous, systematic or casual examination by the staff responsible for maintenance, records, and labels, or for the nomenclature of the plants. New additions, or deletions or name changes, are recorded in Arboretum files and reported to the Plant Sciences Data Center of the American Horticultural Society. A new printout of the plants living in our collections is in preparation, and will incorporate additional information on sources. Maps of the plantings are revised on a regular basis, and additional color-coded or display labels are provided systematically. The collections of the Arnold Arboretum remain the best named and labeled cumulation known to the staff. Special attention this year was given to the identifications of the Carpinus and Betula species, and to an evaluation of the Syringa (lilac) taxa. Many unnamed, spontaneous seedlings were evaluated and marked for further study, or removed as undesirable plants. A list of taxa represented by single plants has been prepared, and these plants are being propagated in order to have additional specimens in the collection and for distribution to other gardens. Many of the plants within the Arboretum inventory seem particularly desirable for horticultural use, but for a variety of reasons are not available to the public from commercial sources. The techniques of propagating such plants are being studied, and small plants will be made available in the future. The New England area escaped the ravages of hurricanes during the fall season and damaging ice storms during the winter. However, new records for snowfall were experienced when 22 inches of snow fell on Jamaica Plain and Weston on January 28, and 29 inches on February 6 and 7. Windblown drifts piled the snow deep, and an emergency situation was declared by the governor of Massachusetts more Seeds collected during the expedition to Japan and Korea are examined by Stephen Spongberg (left), Richard Weaver, and Jack Alexander in the Dana Greenhouses. Photo: P. Chvany. Bussey Hill summit planting completed In 1974. Photo P. Chvany. after the second storm. Staff members were not permitted to travel work, and a special commendation is due Mr. Robert G. Williams, superintendent of buildings and grounds, and Mr. Thomas Kinahan, superintendent of the Case Estates, for the attention and care they gave to the facilities of the Arnold Arboretum. Several of the crew were able to walk to work, and their efforts in digging out the greenhouse area and the administration building for oil delivery prevented a serious situation from developing when oil supplies ran critically low. The clear skies that followed the storm were accompanied by strong winds that caused burning and desiccation of the tops of plants above the snow line. Many broadleaved evergreens were seriously damaged, and flowering of others in the spring was restricted to the lower branches. Rodent damage under the snow was particularly severe. The grounds at Jamaica Plain and Weston were inaccessible for many weeks after the storm as our own equipment could not handle the deep snow. The staff took the occasion to do inside work with the refurbishment of the administration building display areas, library, and locker room for the grounds staff. A combination internal fire alarm and emergency alarm system also was installed in the administration building. A previous report mentioned the effort to acquire the land adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum known as the Adams-Nervine property. Restrictions on the use of the buildings in their designation of historical significance led to the withdrawal of an offer presented to their trustees. Subsequently the property was sold to a consortium of commercial developers who are proposing a change in zoning to permit the construction of high-rise apartments. The proposal to create a boardwalk over a storm sewer through the meadow in front to of the administration building, also reported previously, was by the Harvard Corporation. It was determined that the conduit had been installed by the Arnold Arboretum; therefore, city approval, which had been sought, was not necessary. Before the contracts could be prepared, however, a second proposal to the city was approved to permit the Arnold Arboretum, through its own funds, to reconstruct deteriorating sidewalks and gates. Although these are stated in the lease to be the responsibility of the City of Boston, their poor condition was not only unsightly but hazardous. During the spring two contracts were completed to renovate the large driving gates and the pedestrian gates along the Arborway, and to remove and replace two 1,000-foot units of sidewalk from the Forest Hills gate to the lilac collection on one side and the ponds on the other. Renovations provided better entrances for handicapped persons, and improved the appearance of the areas. For many years the Arboretum has hired students for work on the grounds in Jamaica Plain and in Weston during the summer months. For some students this was graded work as part of the work-study requirements of their own educational programs. Others had requested certification or academic credit. During the spring and summer of 1977 a Horticultural Trainee Program was organized on a trial basis, permitting the students to enroll in the Harvard Extension Division, pay tuition, and receive a formal training with four hours of academic credit. The course Biology E-146C, Botanical and Horticultural Practices at Arboreta, was developed and supervised by Drs. Spongberg and Weaver, with the participation of many other members of the staff. Regular class meetings were scheduled as lectures, tours of the Arboretum collections, and tours of other plant approved . j j \" 192I collections in the New England area. Each student chose a special research project and, in addition to taking an examination, presented an oral and written report on the project. Thus, thirty-two hours per week were devoted to regular assigned work on the grounds, and eight hours to instruction and research. Special noontime lectures and weekend field trips were optional opportunities. Eleven students from seven colleges and universities participated for credit; four students were not eligible for college credit, being high school students. Several research projects were deemed worthy of publication, and one on Cornus dunbarii was published in Arnoldia. On the basis of staff experience with the 1977 program, that of 1978 was revised and restricted to students working in Jamaica Plain. The transportation requirements of students employed in Weston proved excessive. The entire program will be reevaluated at the end of the summer of 1978. In order to give students additional attention and to judge work habits, Mr. Henry Goodell, assistant superintendent of buildings and grounds, assumed full responsibility for ground crews and student work assignments, freeing some time for the other responsibilities of the superintendent, Mr. Williams. A new staff position for a pruner was advertised and filled. During the spring of 1978, a three-quarter-acre section of the South Street tract was made available on a trial basis for community gardening projects. The area was plowed in the fall, top dressed with leaf mold, and disc harrowed in the spring. A local committee of interested persons was established to assume full responsibility for the garden area. They will attempt to have the city, through the Boston Urban Garden Program (BUG), install a water supply. At the end of the spring over seventy-five garden plots had been assigned and seemed to be productive. Young gardeners inspect bean crop in South Street community gardening plot. Photo: E. Gray. The horticultural staff in Jamaica Plain, with the help of volpossible, handles all visitors to the grounds, answers questions in person and by telephone and letter, supplies identifications of plant specimens, and conducts guided tours for professional visitors and interested groups. To ease one aspect of this work, an answering device, delivering a recorded message on a twenty-fourhour basis, has been installed on the primary telephone line. In future telephone directories this will be designated as a recorded message. Ms. Nancy LeMay prepares the recording weekly, supplying informaunteers where Community gardens at beginning of season. Photo: M. Reynolds. 194I tion on hours, directions, exhibitions, lectures and classes, and the plants in flower. Specific requests are referred to a second line, and frequently callers have commended the message in a second call. The service has reduced the number of office-hour calls for general information, and has provided coverage outside of regular hours and on weekends. To determine the nature of specific calls, a record form to be filled out following each call has been in use this spring. The compilation of the data has indicated the nature of specific plant queries: e.g., outbreaks of disease, potentially poisonous plants, and elaboration of news items of botanical or horticultural interest. In the previous annual report, reference was made to a questionnaire that was distributed to the visitors on the grounds. The information obtained was often specific as to conditions on the grounds or the goals and needs of the visitors, and has prompted some changes and improvements in the facilities. A new questionnaire, distributed by mail to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, produced a good percentage of returns, with references to services, facilities, publications, and programs. We can respond with changes that will increase the support of the Arboretum, improve our contributions, and provide programs to meet the needs of the public. The often-stated request for a guidebook to the living collections has spurred staff efforts to produce such a publication within the next year. No count of the visitors to the Arnold Arboretum is possible. The pedestrian gates to the grounds are open twenty-four hours a day, and visitors desired and undesired are present from daybreak to late night hours. Professional visitors are many, who come to use the herbarium or consult the living collections and the staff. Special tours during the year were arranged for such professional groups as the annual convention of the American Nurseryman's Association, the Garden Writers' Association, and the Massachusetts Horticultural Congress. Groups of students with a capable instructor, or requiring a staff or volunteer guide, represented twenty-one colleges, high schools, and technical or vocational schools, and came to the Arboretum to study the general collections or for some specific reason, e.g., a visit to the herbarium, library, or greenhouses. Tours were arranged for garden clubs, plant societies, and alumni or special study groups from city educational programs. A special gift for the purchase of a voice projector has eased the tour leaders' task. During the fiscal year 225 shipments of plant materials, comprising 1,004 taxa, were distributed to cooperating institutions and nurseries, or supplied following specific requests for study material from individuals in thirteen countries. In addition, approximately two thousand rooted plants of Salix melanostachys, the Black Pussy Willow, were mailed to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. The Arnold Arboretum also contributed seeds to the distribution program of the American Horticultural Society. A total of 197 shipments, consisting of 1,293 taxa, were received from twenty-seven countries as gifts or 195 or in response to requests from the staff for plant material for research programs. Following an examination of our living collections, 263 taxa were propagated to prepare replacements for specimens that appeared to be failing, or that suffered severe winter damage. Another 141 items were propagated for distribution programs or for staff research programs. The greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum are primarily for research. While the grounds and collections around the greenhouses are open to the public during regular hours, the glass areas are open for general visitors one afternoon a week, with information and surveillance supplied by volunteers. Sections of the greenhouses are available for research associated with thesis preparation of students working with staff members. Such diverse plants as Brunfelsia, Lyonia, Portlandia, and Viburnum currently are maintained for study; propagations of tropical species not hardy in the Boston area will be distributed at a later date to more appropriately located gardens. Staff members maintain plants in the greenhouses in work associated with research projects on the Gentianaceae and Gesneriaceae, and on the floras of southeastern United States and the Caribbean Lesser Antilles. The greenhouse staff is largely responsible for the acquisition and preparation of plant materials to be used in educational programs and exhibits. The Arnold Arboretum exhibit at the Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society was entitled \"Up Against the Wall,\" and involved urban space of walls and small garden plots treated in four different ways. The walls supported vines, espaliers, or hanging plants, while the garden areas were developed for vegetables, herbs, pot plants, and living space. The plant materials for this exhibit were prepared by the greenhouse distributions, staff. The Arboretum staff was represented at many meetings of professional societies during the year, usually presenting contributed papers or taking part in symposia. Included were the annual as well as regional meetings of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, the International Plant Propagators' Association meeting and meetings of the American Horticultural Society, the Hemerocallis Society, and the Massachusetts Horticultural Congress. Staff members served as judges at the Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and took part in the programs of the Roxbury-Dorchester Beautification Committee, the Massachusetts science fairs, and the Worcester County Horticultural Society Daylily Show. Mr. Gary Koller was elected to the board of directors of the Jamaica Hills Association, the neighbors of the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, and was elected a trustee of the New England Wildflower Society. He also organized and chaired the Plant Collections Committee of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. The Arnold Arboretum has collaborated for many years with societies and individuals in the registration of new cultivars, primarily of woody Dr. Spongberg serves officially as the chairman of the Nomenclature and Registration committees of the AABGA, and those of the American Horticultural Society. In such capacity he is also a member of the International Commission on Nomenclature and Registration of the International Society for Horticultural Science. Case Estates The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, Massachusetts, are located thirteen miles from the principal living collections in Jamaica Plain. The 110 acres of the Case Estates are open to the public, are used for classes and research, and serve primarily as nursery areas for developing plants and as a holding area for plants that cannot be accommodated easily in Jamaica Plain. We were very much pleased when the Case Estates were awarded a gold medal by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society with the citation: \"A long overdue award to a valuable teaching and testing resource, including natural areas specializing in herbaceous and woody materials of yearround interest.\" In addition to the annual spring open house, the grounds were included in a tour of the prizewinning gardens, and the number of visitors seems to increase as the area becomes better known. One of the showy portions of the Case Estates plantings in recent years has been the result of the breeding work of Mr. Pride with Hemerocallis, the daylily. Two of his selections received Junior Citations as seedlings during the year. His work with tetraploids has had national recognition, and several of his selections recently introduced have been featured in horticultural publications during the 196I plants. year. Herbarium The herbarium collection of the Arnold Arboretum is divided, with an herbarium of plants under cultivation housed in the administration building in Jamaica Plain, and noncultivated specimens, representing the native floras of the world, located in Cambridge. The herbarium in Jamaica Plain is housed adequately in metal cases, and has room for expansion. Currently it includes the majority of the specimens of Crataegus assembled in support of the work of Charles Sargent and Ernest Palmer, and the collection of Yucca gathered for the studies of Susan McKelvey. Specimens are first filed systematically and secondarily in geographic arrangements; thus during the past year a collection of cultivated plants from Kenya and from New Caledonia could be identified readily from the plants assembled in the herbarium, even though the taxa were not represented among the holdings from the two countries. A collection sent in exchange by Longwood Gardens proved rich in herbaceous material cultivated in Pennsylvania, and was added to the cultivated herbarium. An attempt was made to represent in the herbarium all taxa included in Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, and as new cultivars are registered and herbarium specimens supplied, these, too, are added Peter Stevens (left) and Norton Miller examine specimens in Arboretum's herbarium collection in Cambridge. Photo. M. Reynolds. 197 to the herbarium of cultivated plants. Specimens added during the year numbered 1,707, bringing the total number of sheets to 163,268. The herbarium collection in Cambridge is housed with that of the Gray Herbarium, and represents one of the most significant collections in the United States. As of June 30, 1978, the total number of accessioned herbarium sheets in the combined herbaria is 2,860,070, of which 1,780,682 are the property of the Gray Herbarium, and 1,079,388 belong to the Arnold Arboretum. Crowded cases and inadequate housing have been mentioned in many previous reports, and \"temporary\" housing in cardboard boxes has increased annually to the present total of 2,677 Merrill cartons so employed. Within the last two years some steps have been taken to improve conditions to help resolve curatorial, educational, and research problems created by the limited space in the Harvard University Herbaria building. Preliminary approval by the University permitted the employment of architects to consider the problems and propose solutions. In last year's report it was indicated that the Corporation had approved an addition to the front of the herbaria building, and preliminary plans were used as a basis of cost estimates and a quest for funding for the construction and for the establishment of an endowment to cover future maintenance and operations. The search for less than successful, but after further consideration of the Corporation approved the construction of the building needs, with funds available. The future operational charges are to be handled in annual budgets unless, or until, additional money becomes available. funds our was 198 The addition to the building will represent 19,950 square feet gross space, and 14,450 square feet of programmed space in a basement and four floors compatible with and freely connected to the present building. The present building has 41,500 gross square feet. Our new professorial suite will be designated, but remain unfinished. Office-laboratory units numbering twelve will be included in the addition. The library area will gain 1,360 square feet in the present building, with renovations increasing the reading room space, and developing an archival area and a workroom. The herbarium will lose space in the present building, but will gain 5,200 square feet in the addition. The use of a compactor storage system of movable cases will provide ultimately the equivalent of approximately 1,176 new cases. The Crataegus and Yucca collections housed in Jamaica Plain will be moved to Cambridge. All material currently held in cardboard boxes will be accommodated in steel units. Although space will be available for twenty-four compactor units, available funds may limit the initial installation to sixteen units or fewer, the equivalent of 784 cases. Additional compactors will be purchased when funds are obtained. A large lecture room of 1,152 square feet and a smaller conference room will be created on the ground floor. The present basement seminar room will be renovated as a second laboratory, replacing one lost in the development of the professorial suite. A cold room, a growth chamber area, an instrument room, and a chemical room will be built. A small lift will aid the access of handicapped persons to the lecture and rest rooms. Construction documents were distributed in June for bids returnable July 13, 1978, with construction to be completed for occupancy by December 9, 1979. Much staff time has been spent in committee meetings planning the details of the herbarium addition. The use of compactors for storage often requires explanation to those who have not seen these mobile units. The compactor saves floor space by utilizing custombuilt units of herbarium file cabinets on tracks that permit units to be moved together for sealed storage or separated for access to the specimens. Although such units are commonly used for storage in libraries, and by various companies for records, their use in herbaria is less well known. The earliest units were in use fifteen years ago in Geneva, Switzerland, and they have been adopted recently for herbarium use by the Missouri Botanical Garden and the California Academy of Sciences. The compactors proposed for the herbarium addition will not be motorized, but will be operated by hand levers. The units are to be housed in small rooms that can be fumigated individually to overcome problems of insect infestation and leakage of year 8,335 specimens were received for the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum: 5,623 in exchange programs; 412 as gifts; 460 purchased by support of expeditions; 1,522 collected by the staff; and 318 accessioned from material sent for identification. The largest numbers came from the United States and Canada, Australia, Papua fumigants. During the 199 New Guinea, India-Pakistan, South America, and the West Indies. Specimens mounted totaled 11,459, representing another slight inroad on the backlog of accumulated specimens. The activity of the herbarium may be judged by a number of items. Professional visitors, as recorded in a visitors' book, numbered 123 people using the herbarium, and represented sixty-four institutions and twelve countries. Many visitors stayed for more than a single day. A total of 263 loans were made in response to requests, 161 domestic and 102 international, representing 14,261 and 12,469 specimens respectively, or a total of 26,730. Loans of 1,099 specimens were received by staff members, and 1,795 returned. Loans for students represented 1,166 specimens, with 2,196 specimens being returned as students finished their work. The total number of specimens from the combined herbaria remaining on loan at the end of the fiscal year numbered 104,670, 60% to domestic institutions, and 40% international. The crowded conditions in the organized herbarium necessitated the removal to dead storage of specimens unidentified at the genus level, to permit fully identified material to be inserted. Since this practice is clearly undesirable, individual staff members attempted, when time permitted, to supply identifications at least to the generic level. Dr. Peter Stevens devoted considerable time and identified the great majority of the Western Malesian material, and in a series of meetings with graduate students and staff in informal sessions once a fortnight began identification of undetermined material from South America. Shifting and splitting over-full folders continued to occupy a substantial amount of curatorial time. Specimens from the geographic area we recognize as \"India\" have been put in new genus covers, replacing an inferior quality paper cover used initially. Work continued on integrating photographic negatives, formerly housed in Jamaica Plain, with the larger negative file in the combined herbaria. A total of four thousand negatives of types or authentic specimens have been catalogued and curated, with about one thousand remaining to be done. New photographic negatives added to the file numbered ninety-three, representing twenty-nine specimens on loan to staff members, and the remainder taken of material requested by botanists in other institutions. During the administration of Dr. E. D. Merrill, and before the days of convenient photographic methods, rubbings were made of herbarium specimens in many European herbaria, and fragments of the specimens were obtained. A substantial number of these are types, and those from Berlin may be especially important because the original specimens may have been destroyed. A collection of four thousand additional rubbings and fragments were found in storage, and curating work on them is under way. Labels are prepared for the rubbing and\/or fragment, and the material is placed in acid-free envelopes or packets for appropriate insertion in the herbarium. 200 Much of the herbarium curatorial work is possible through a grant from the National Science Foundation which supports work in several herbaria as well as in the libraries of the Gray Herbarium, Botanical Museum, Arnold Arboretum, and Farlow Herbarium. A sum for the acquisition of compactors for the building addition is included in this recently approved grant renewal. The combined herbaria received as a gift forty-six volumes of approximately 4,600 specimens as exsiccatae assembled by a firm of agricultural merchants in France in the late 1800s. These volumes of historical interest in identifying cultivated and economic plants of the period will not be accessioned, but will be considered as library volumes and deposited in Jamaica Plain for appropriate use. The projects of individual staff members are various, and completed publications are listed in the staff bibliography. The work in progress ranges from studies of fossil to modern floras, and involves many geographic areas. Dr. Hu, although retired, is preparing a flora of Hong Kong and the New Territories. This work is supported by one grant from the Chinese University of Hong Kong and another to the Chinese University from the Division of Scientific Research and Higher Education of UNESCO. Dr. Hu's research also involves medicinal plants used by the Chinese people, with special interest in ginseng. In July 1977 she participated in conferences held in Lugano, Switzerland, and Munich, Germany, on the uses of ginseng. In April 1978 she flew to Hong Kong for a consultation meeting on medicinal plant research in southeast Asia, sponsored jointly by UNESCO, the Institute for Advanced Research in Asian Science and Medicine of New York, and the Chinese University of Hong Kong. Following the presentation of her paper on Botanical Resources of Medicinal Plant Research in Southeast Asia, Dr. Hu accepted an invitation from Academia Sinica in Peking, People's Republic of China, and spent five weeks at botanical institutions in Peking, Suchow, Nanking, Shanghai, Lushan, and Canton, presenting lectures to many groups. Dr. Hu also has been appointed to the editorial board of the American Journal of Chinese Medicine. Dr. Howard continued his work on the Flora of the Lesser Antilles, and in two field trips visited fourteen islands for field studies and collection of plants poorly represented in herbaria, such as aquatic flowering plants, Araceae, Agavaceae, and Cactaceae. While on the island of St. Kitts he spoke on the local flora to students at the Behavioral Science Foundation, conducted several field trips, and helped identify plants apparently used as food by the local populations of monkeys. Under Dr. Howard's direction, Ms. Annette Aiello completed her doctoral dissertation on \"The Genus Portlandia (Rubiaceae)\" and received her degree in March. Dr. Norton Miller continued cooperative studies with Professor Gary G. Thompson of Salem State College on the late-glacial plant fossils from a site in northern Vermont-New Hampshire. This rich and contains fossils of numerous kinds of vascular and has revealed some novel phytogeographic data. Dr. mosses, Monte Manuel visited the herbaria for several days to work with Dr. Miller in their revision of the moss genus Trachyloma. Mr. Peter Albert, under the direction of Dr. Miller, is investigating the ecological significance of poikilohydry and desiccation tolerance in desert mosses. His work has been supported by grants from the Atkins and Fernald funds, and by the Farlow Herbarium. Miss Cecilia Lenk is conducting field studies on the Gaspe Peninsula, Quebec. She is investigating the pattern of late- and postglacial vegetation development, and factors responsible for the present ranges of several ecologically important tree species that reach their distributional limits near the Gulf of St. Lawrence. Dr. Lily M. Perry, officially retired but very active in daily work in the herbarium, finished her manuscript on \"Medicinal Plants of East and Southeast Asia: attributed properties and uses.\" Ms. Brooke Thompson-Mills assisted Dr. Perry in seeing the manuscript retyped in photo-ready copy. The work has been accepted by the M.I.T. Press for publication and distribution. Dr. Schubert is writing treatments of the genus Desmodium for the Flora of Ceylon, which is being prepared at the United States National Herbarium; for the Flora of Panama, being prepared at the Missouri Botanical Garden; and for a revision of the genus for all of Africa. She will present material on the Desmodieae (LeguminosaePapilionoideae) at the International Legume Conference to be held in Kew, England, subsequently to be issued as part of the Proceedings of the Conference. Several weeks were spent in consultation with Dr. Rogers McVaugh in a joint effort on the genera Desmodium and Dioscorea (Dioscoreaceae) for his Flora of Nueva Galicia, Mexico. Dr. Spongberg continues his work toward a manual of cultivated trees and shrubs with a series of family treatments being published separately. Ms. Robin Lefberg has prepared many of the illustrations for this new manual under Dr. Spongberg's direction. Grants from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust and the Charles E. Merrill Trust have aided the production of illustrations. Dr. Spongberg's treatment of the Crassulaceae for the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States is in press. Dr. Peter Stevens is nearing the completion of his large monograph of the genus Calophyllum (Guttiferae), and continues his general studies of the flora of Papua New Guinea. Dr. Carroll Wood, in spite of a heavy teaching schedule, edited manuscript for the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, which is published as available in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. The success of the publication of plates, initially prepared for the Generic Flora, as A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants, called for an expanded new edition covering more genera and families. Dr. Wood supervised the artistic work of Ms. Karen S. Velmure in the prepara- deposit I plants 201 \" 202 tion of thirty plates of plants heretofore poorly or inadequately illustrated. Three students have been preparing doctoral dissertations under his direction. Mr. Walter Judd completed his thesis, properly entitled \"A Monograph of Lyonia (Ericaceae),\" and has accepted a position as assistant professor in the Department of Biology at the University of Florida. Mr. Christopher Campbell has under way a biosystematic study of the Andropogon virginicus complex in southeastern United States. A National Science Foundation student thesis grant to Dr. Wood has supported two seasons of field work, and Mr. Campbell presented his findings to the present at the meetings of the Botanical Society of America. Mr. Michael Donoghue is working on the genus Viburnum in Central America, where a concentration of species in Chiapas, Mexico, and in Guatemala required field study. Grants from the Atkins and Anderson funds have supported this field work. Library The approved plans for the addition to the Harvard University Herbaria building do include changes in the library, and the staff was involved in discussions with the building committee throughout the year. The reading area of the library will be increased by approximately 312 square feet. A new workroom, measuring about 504 square feet, will be available for supporting staff. To the rear of the library, and separated by a wire grille, is a section of the herbarium. This area will be added to the stack area of the library and represents a gain of 920 square feet. The herbarium will be moved into the new addition. A passageway from the rear elevator to the new addition will be a wide corridor with eighty linear feet available for lockable files and cabinets to be used for the storage of archival material. The photocopy machine currently on the first floor will be moved to a position outside the library reading room for greater convenience of the principal users. An item for retrospective cataloguing, included in the National Science Foundation curatorial grant which ended during the fiscal year, was not renewed, and cataloguing activity in the library has been reduced significantly. The lack of a second trained cataloguer on the staff of the combined libraries of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium is handicapping the routing to the shelves of new acquisitions and the treatment of uncatalogued materials. This process can be eased with (1) additional personnel; (2) the adoption of the Library of Congress classification, using such printed cards or those of CIP (cataloguing in publication); or (3) shelving new acquisitions in the Library of Congress system and recataloguing the remainder of the collection as time and funding permit. The conversion from the present in-house system of classification, developed and maintained for over one hundred years, would be a major effort, and would re- Jamaica Plain visitors are given a guided ond from right). Photo: P. Chvany. tour by volunteer Cora Warren (sec- 203 quire funding by special grants sought collaboration with closely for the purpose, as well as associated botanical libraries in the com- munity. A new federal copyright law went into effect January 1, 1978, and requires good records of materials photocopied for research, class use, or interlibrary loan requests. The staff has been instructed on the provisions of this law, and its effects on library practices will be assessed at the end of the year. During the year the librarian attended the annual meeting of the Council on Botanical and Horticultural Libraries, held in Denver, Colorado. Library assistants have attended workshops on MCSS and CONSER procedures. The libraries were aided in collection maintenance by the current curatorial grant, and 133 volumes were treated by deacidification of paper, rebinding, and repair of volumes. Two volunteers continued work in Jamaica Plain on refurbishing leather-bound volumes. To keep staff, students, and faculty informed of new accessions, title pages and content pages for books received each week have been photocopied and displayed in the reading room, with the designation \"Received This Week.\" With the addition of 471 volumes and pamphlets, the Arnold Arboretum Library contained 86,300 items at the end of the fiscal year. The use of the library in Cambridge, where records are kept of books shelved each day, increased by 5% during the year. No such records are kept in Jamaica Plain, and in neither library is a record kept of the volumes reshelved by the scientific staff after their use. Requests for interlibrary loans or photocopies decreased during the year, but the actual number of requests filled was more than double that of the previous year. In part this is associated with the special work and service involved in assisting the visitors preparing Taxonomic Literature II and Bibliographia Huntiana. 204 Volunteers Some institutions call them aides, helpers, guides, or docents, but with appreciation we recognize as volunteers the willing people who donate their time, effort, and talents to the activities of the Arnold Arboretum. The use of volunteer help has continued to grow in the number of people participating, in the scope of their services, and in the total number of hours they have contributed. Nearly every activity of the Arnold Arboretum staff receives and benefits from their versatile assistance, and only through their efforts is the Arboretum staff able to conduct the programs scheduled. Some like to be out-of-doors and help with inventories of nurseries, mapping, or labeling of plants on the grounds, or the collection of seeds. Some like to talk and serve as guides for tours of the grounds, supervise visitors to the greenhouses, or teach special courses for the Friends. Some are artistic and supply educational displays, aid in special classes, or help in the preparation of flower show displays. We value the help received in the herbarium, the library, the greenhouses, and the grounds; on special projects, and on routine duties; in preparing book reviews, or in the contribution of articles for Arnoldia based on individual research initiative. One volunteer during the year visited a famous European botanical garden with a letter of introduction from the Arnold Arboretum and the request for permission to prepare herbarium specimens from plants on the grounds. The request was granted with the provision that a second set of specimens be prepared for the local herbarium. Institutions on both sides of the Atlantic gained from the efforts of this volunteer. The volunteers are indeed an asset to the Arboretum, and have our sincere thanks for their help. Education The educational contributions of the Arboretum staff are both formal and informal. Staff members with academic appointments have offered formal courses in the University in the Department of Biology (Biology 18, 103, 148), the Harvard Summer School (Biology Christmas holiday decorations class. Photo: M. Reynolds. S-105), and the Harvard Extension Division (Biology E-146C). Many have students in graduate and undergraduate research courses or supervise advanced degree programs. Some serve on departmental committees as undergraduate advisors, or, at the graduate level, on thesis development or for qualifying examinations. Staff members have participated in courses offered primarily by other biologists as guest lecturers on topics of their specialty in the Department of Biology and the Graduate School of Design's Department of Landscape Architecture. Seminar series, both formal and informal, are many within the University, and members of the Arboretum staff have organized the series or offered lectures. Less formal courses, lecture series, individual lectures, and demonstrations have been offered in Jamaica Plain and Weston. Through a cooperative agreement, the staff accepted three students as \"interns\" for special training in horticulture, with the students receiving academic credit through their own colleges. Two of these students undertook projects that will lead to publications, and required use of the herbarium, library, and living collctions. A series of noon-hour lectures were offered biweekly in Jamaica Plain, and an invitation was extended to residents of Jamaica Plain through a listing in the local paper. When one notice was included in a calendar of events in a Boston paper, the audience filled the auditorium in the administration building. When Harvard University began a cable TV series within the University, the Arboretum staff was asked to participate on a regular basis, and did so with live and taped segments involving the living collections and the greenhouses. Staff members appeared as guests on TV programs of three stations, and on two radio talk shows where questions were answered on the air. A questionnaire was sent to eastern regional libraries regarding Volunteers A. Kathleen Daly (left), Nathaniel Whittier, and Janet Thompson pack seedlings of Salix melanostachys for mail distribution to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. In background are Louis Segal (left) and Albert Thompson. Photo: M. Reynolds. 206 their use of traveling exhibits. The response was more than favorable, and staff, with the aid of volunteers, prepared portable exhibit matrial to be displayed in cases or used as wall exhibits, which are now being seen in suburban libraries. Four exhibits were staged in the lecture room of the administration building. The exhibit on the plants mentioned in the writings of William Shakespeare was opened with a festive reception and a lecture by volunteer Mrs. Richard Warren, who was responsible for organizing the exhibit. Volunteers Mrs. Warren and Mrs. Frank Magullion cooperated in a holiday exhibit of dried and preserved plant materials. Water colors of botanical subjects by the late Edith Farrington Johnston were loaned to the Arboretum for an exhibit of native and tropical wild flowers. The fourth exhibit, during the spring flowering season, was assembled by staff members and described the nature and use of the herbarium. The Arboretum had an exhibit of Plants for Holiday Use at the winter show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; and in the spring show, a demonstration of wall and garden landscaping techniques. Both shows were staffed with the aid of volunteers to answer specific questions and to encourage support of the Arnold Arboretum through membership in our Friends organization. Open house was held in Jamaica Plain and in Weston during the spring season, and many tours were conducted. A special workshop in the cataloguing of Kodachrome slides was held in the administration building, a bonsai workshop in the greenhouses, and a daylily workshop in Weston, to mention only a few of the special events. An educational film entitled \"Plant Propagation: From Seed to Tissue Culture,\" was completed by Mr. Peter Chvany for the Arnold Arboretum. We are indebted to the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, and to special Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, for the grant and gifts that supported the production of this film. The film was accepted by Macmillan Films, Inc., for duplication and distribution, for which the Arnold Arboretum will receive royalties. The film has been entered in competitions, and in the first entry won the Golden Eagle Award from the Council on International Nontheatrical Events. The second film of the three produced by Mr. Chvany, \"Poisonous Plants,\" won the bronze Chris Award in the Medical Service Category at the Columbus, Ohio, film festival. The original film on the Arnold Arboretum, produced for the Centennial Celebration in 1972, continues to draw approval from audiences as an explanation of the role of an arboretum. The film was shown twelve times during Dr. Howard's visit to the People's Republic of China, where the audiences were particularly interested in the specimens of native Chinese plants, such as Cornus kousa, Davidia involucrata, Kolkwitzia amabilis, and Metasequoia glyptostroboides, shown under cultivation. The herbarium storage and the mounting techniques were new to the Chinese audience, and the use of maps and labels was the subject of comments. 207 E. H. Wilson, when collecting for the Arnold Arboretum in China, took many photographs of plants, people, and places. An issue of Arnoldia, written in 1976 by Mr. Chvany, was a consideration of Wilson as a photographer, and had reproductions of a few of Wilson's photographs made from the glass negatives in the files of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1978 the Philadelphia Museum of Art was given permission to include several photographs in an exhibit entitled \"Photography of China from 1850.\" The exhibit was also written up and the photographs were reproduced in the New York Times Magazine. Interest still remains in using the Wilson photographs in a general historical account of his travels or in a book on China. Many of the photographs of individual plants are of lasting interest, since they represent plants from which Wilson collected seed, or the type tree when the plants proved new to science. Copies of these photographs remain of scientific value, and sources of funds for another reproduction and distribution are being investigated. Travel and Exploration Arboretum staff members gain professionally in representing the institution at science and professional society meetings, both in the United States and abroad. Meetings provide an opportunity to visit a different area, to present papers, share experiences and gain information, take photographs for teaching or for use in publications, study collections, or collect specimens for personal research or for the Arnold Arboretum herbaria. Staff members may travel to fill requests for lectures to horticultural groups or university audiences. A period of distant travel may be part of a regular course, or the course itself may be conducted in a distant location. Special field work may be necessary for the development of research programs or for the benefit of the Arnold Arboretum collections. Travel by the staff is supported to a modest degree, through two special endowment travel funds, from the general unrestricted Arboretum budget, or from special grants for the purpose. Staff travel during the year, outside of Massachusetts, impressive in toto, met these characterizations. Mr. John Alexander participated in a seminar on the storage of woody plants at the International Plant Propagators' Society meetings in Columbus, Ohio, and attended the annual meeting of the Lilac Society at the Tyler Arboretum in Media, Pennsylvania. Mrs. Ida Burch attended the annual meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Mrs. Lenore Dickinson took part in the Denver, Colorado, meeting of the Council of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries. Dr. Howard attended the annual meeting of the American Horticultural Society in Pasadena, California. He completed two field trips collecting plants for his Flora of the Lesser Antilles. The islands of Puerto Rico, St. Thomas, St. Croix, St. Martin, Saba, St. Eustatius, 208 St. Kitts, Antigua, Barbuda, Guadeloupe, Les Saintes, La Desirade and Martinique were visited briefly in a search for specimens of cacti, aroids, agaves, and gingers, poorly represented in herbaria. In May Dr. Howard traveled to Hongkong en route to a twenty-eight-day tour of botanical institutions in eight cities in the People's Republic of China. Dr. Hu presented a paper at a special meeting in Switzerland on the medicinal uses of ginseng, and later at another in Hongkong before visiting the People's Republic of China on an invitation from Academia Sinica. Mr. Koller took part in horticultural meetings at the Morris Arboretum and the Swarthmore Horticultural Foundation in Pennsylvania, and attended the annual meeting of the AABGA in Hamilton, Ontario. Ms. Donna Lynch also attended the annual AABGA meeting. Dr. Miller conducted field work in northern Vermont; attended the AIBS meetings in East Lansing, Michigan, and the Botanical Society of America meetings in Blacksburg, Virginia. After each he participated in field forays associated with the meetings. He contributed a paper at the AAAS meetings, Pacific Division, held in Seattle, Washington, and stopped in San Francisco and St. Louis on the return trip for a study of the use of compactors in herbaria. Mr. Pride participated in the annual meetings of the Hemerocallis Society in New Haven, Connecticut, and of the Gesneriad Society in New York. Miss Margo Reynolds and Mr. Shaw attended the regional meeting of the AABGA held at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Dr. Spongberg, along with Dr. Weaver, collected for the Arnold Arboretum in Japan and Korea in the fall. He later participated in the AABGA meetings in Hamilton, Ontario. Dr. Stevens taught a course in Tropical Botany at the Fairchild Tropical Gardens in Miami in the summer of 1977, and again in 1978. Dr. Weaver collected with Dr. Spongberg in Japan and Korea, and later reported on their trip at the regional meeting of the AABGA at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Dr. Wood also taught in the summer school tropical botany course in Miami in 1977, and had the opportunity of preserving materials needed for his work on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. Gifts and Grants The Arnold Arboretum derives its operational income primarily from the interest on invested gifts or bequests of past years. The income may be unrestricted and for general purposes, or restricted for specific uses or projects. We are fortunate to have the gifts from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, which are solicited by annual request for additional support. Occasional gifts are for specific purposes, but most are unrestricted and for immediate use. Memorial gifts are gratefully received and acknowledged. Gifts of materials 209 or specimens are welcomed. Staff members also apply for grants in support of their own research or travel. Gift income is difficult to budget accurately, but amounts in excess of budget provision are held in special accounts to be used in subsequent years. Two donors who wish to be anonymous gave gifts for capitalization during the year for the care of the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. A grant from The Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust, still in effect, supplies artistic aid to the research of Dr. Spongberg. A similar grant from the Charles E. Merrill Trust has been used to prepare for publication the manuscript of Dr. Perry, and for work on the manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Dr. Howard received a grant from the American Philosophical Society for support of field work completed during the year in the Lesser Antilles. Dr. Miller received a grant from the Milton Fund of Harvard University for investigations of fossil deposits in the upper Connecticut River valley. Dr. Schubert received a grant from the Tozier Fund for the purchase of projectors for the herbaria. plants, books, Publications regular publications of the Arnold Arboretum are the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, issued quarterly, and Arnoldia, issued six times a year. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum is edited and managed by Ms. Elizabeth Schmidt under the direction of Dr. Schubert, who serves with Drs. Spongberg, Stevens and Wood on the editorial committee. These and other staff members assist in the review of manuscripts. The four issues of the Journal published during the year comprised 468 pages, with twenty-two articles by twenty-six authors. A new cover illustration for the 1978 volume, representing leguminous fruits growing in the Arnold Arboretum, was prepared by Ms. Velmure, and takes note of the International Legume Conference being held at Kew during the summer. The price of the Journal was raised to $25 per volume without noticeable effect on the regular distribution list of 715 copies. Kraus Reprint Company in New York, which handles orders for back numbers, has indicated that volumes 1-55 (through 1974) are available in original or reprint copies. Subsequent volumes are not complete but will be reprinted in the future. The six annual issues of Arnoldia are edited by Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh with assistance from Miss Reynolds. Numbers issued during the year comprised 251 pages, with a total of twenty-three articles by twenty-five authors. The book reviews were written by ten members of the staff and volunteers. The special issue of Arnoldia on Poisonous Plants is nearly depleted. A small interim reprinting is planned pending a review and revision of the contents. The reprint which sold for $1.00 has proved to be useful as a home reference, and the multiple copies that were purchased by several organizations for distribution have exhausted the supply. RICHARD A. HOWARD The two 210I Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff and Associates July 1, 1977 - June 30, 1978 Alexander, J. A. III. Evergreen azaleas Rosebay 7(1): 1, 8. 1978. -. at the Arnold Arboretum. new. The The uncommon lilacs - something old, something Arnoldia in the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 38(3): 102-113. 1978. Burrows, J. A. Weather station data for 1976. Arnoldia 37(6): 278-279. 1977. Fordham, A. J. (with R. Warren). The fire pines. Arnoldia 38(1): 1-11. 1978. Howard, R. A. (with R. A. Brown). Concerning the registration and data processing of cultivated plants. Bull. Main Bot. Gard. Moscow 100: 29-34. 1976. In Russian. Balloon flowers, bladdemuts and rattleboxes. Arnoldia 37(5): 217229. 1977. Arnold Arboretum introductions: the second fifty years (continued ) - 1923-1972. Arnoldia 38 ( 1 ) : 12-25. 1978. Current work on the flora of Cuba - a commentary. Taxon 26 ( 4 ) : 417-423. 1977. The director's report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1977. Arnoldia 37(6): 253-277, 280-282. 1977. Icacinaceae in B. Maguire, The botany of the Guayana highland Part X, Mem. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 29. 62-68. 1978. Hu, S. Y. The genera of Orchidaceae in Hongkong. i-xv, 1-160. Chinese Univ. Press, Hongkong. Kehne, C. L. The case of the Dunbar dogwood: a neglected hybrid. Arnoldia 38(2): 50-54. 1978. a view from the plant's perspective. Koller, G. L. Transplanting stress Arnoldia 37 ( 5 ) : 230-241. 1977. Landscaping the collectibles. Bull. A.A.B.G.A. 11: 97-100. 1977. Ground covers as shady aristocrats. Amer. Horticulturist 57: 3031, 37. 1978. . Pieris phillyreifolia. The Plant Propagator 23(4): 11. 1977. ]uglans nigra 'Laciniata'. Amer. Nurseryman 146(2): 64. 1978. . Pieris floribunda 'Millstream' adds interest to the landscape. Amer. Nurseryman 147(2): 11. 1978. (with R. A. Brown). Collecting plants - why bother? Bull. A.A.B. G.A. 12: 52-58. 1978. Lynch, D. A. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Labelling. Arnoldia 38(2): 55-59. 1978. Magullion, S. A guide by plant family to foliage preservation. Amoldia 37(6): 289-304. 1977. Miller, N. G. Ecological and distributional studies of high arctic bryophytes. Yearb. Amer. Phil. Soc. 1977: 203, 204. 1977. Pride, G. H. Today's daylilies. Arnoldia 37(4): 198-209. 1977. Daylilies for everyone. Amer. Horticulturist 55(2): 2, 3, 40. 1978. Reynolds, M. W. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: \"Flowers - art or science?\" Amoldia 37(4): 210, 211. 1977. -. -. -. 38(3): 65-81. 1978. Burch, I. H. Summer bloom -. -. - . . . -. \" Photo: E. Gray. 211 . . . . Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Horticultural trainees program. Arnoldia 37(5): 248-250. 1977. Notes from the Arnold Arnold Arboretum: Alfred J. Fordham portrait of a plant propagator. Arnoldia 37(6): 283, 284. 1977. Shaw, K. Girdling roots. Arnoldia 37(5): 242-247. 1977. Plant protection. Arnoldia 38(2): 37-49. 1978 Spongberg, S. A. Magnolia officinalis: some questions. Newsletter, Amer. Mag. Soc. 14(1): 3-7. 1978. (with R. E. Weaver, Jr.). Notes from the Arnold Arboretum collecting expedition to Japan and Korea. Arnoldia 38(1): 28-31. 1978. Stevens, P. F. Additional notes on Dimorphanthera (Ericaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 58(4): 437-444. 1977. Generic limits in the Xeroteae (Liliaceae sensu lato). Jour. Arnold Arb. 59(2). 129-155. 1978. Meliaceae - Chisocheton in J. S. Womersley (ed.) Handbooks of the flora of Papua New Guinea, Vol. 1, pp. 135-174. 1978. Melbourne University Press. Wadleigh, J. S. (pseud. J. Kilborn). A moveable feast. Horticulture 56(3): 60-63. 1978. Warren, C. L. Preserving woody plant material for winter arrangements. Arnoldia 37(6): 285-288 1977. Warren, R. (with A. J. Fordham). The fire pines. Arnoldia 38(1): 1-11. 1978. Weaver, R. E., Jr. Wildflowers from East and West. Arnoldia 37(4): 169197. 1977. Unusual and mysterious: the black pussy willow. Arnoldia 38(1): 26, 27. 1978. (with S. A. Spongberg). Notes from the Arnold Arboretum collecting expedition to Japan and Korea. Arnoldia 38(1): 28-31. 1978. Japanese Journal. Arnoldia 38(3): 82-101. 1978. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Austrobaileya. Arnoldia 38 ( 3 ) : 114, 115. 1978. - . -. . . Left to right front row: J. Hicks, J. Skarstad, J. Stevens, R. Lefberg, E. Schmidt, B. Thompson-Mills, L. Dickinson, K. Velmure, L. Sahagian, C. Hesterberg, D. Talbot, L. Perry, B. Schubert, M. Reynolds, N. LeMay, B. Epstein, A. Sholes, M. Pelkus. Row 2: R. Howard, W. Kittredge, M. Canoso, C. Wood, J. Alexander, R. Weaver, S. Geary, D. Lynch, I. Burch, J. Wadleigh, E. S. Spongberg, D. Harris, R. Williams. Twohig, L. Colon, R. Famiglietti, Row 3: M. Sheehan, V. Antonovich, M. Gormley, P. Ward, A. MacNeil, J. Burrows, H. Goodell, G. Koller, B. McCutcheon, J. Nickerson, R. Nicholson, T. Kinahan, R. Benotti, M. Belson, T. O'Leary, A. Navarro. Absent: H. Fleming, P. Stevens, N. Miller. Photo: P. Chvany. 214 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum 1977-1978 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Dendrology and Director Donald Botany, Professor of Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus John Herbert Alexander III, A. of Sci., Plant Propagator Ida Hay Burch, B.A., Staff Assistant James Alvah Burrows, B.S., Assistant Plant Propagator * Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collections Constance Tortorici Derderian, A.B., Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Lenore Mikalauskas Dickinson, M.S., Librarian * Sheila Connor Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian Arturo G6mez-Pompa, Dr. Sc., Honorary Research Associate * Henry Stanton Goodell, Assistant Superintendent Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Walter Tobey Kittredge, B.S., Senior Curatorial Assistant * Gary Lee Koller, M.S., Supervisor of the Living Collections Donna Anne Lynch, Curatorial Assistant Norton George Miller, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Associate Professor * of Biology George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist (Retired June 30, 1978) Wittland Reynolds, B.A., Staff Assistant Elizabeth Belding Schmidt, M.A., Assistant Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Senior Lecturer on Biology Kenneth Dwight Shaw, B.S., Assistant Supervisor of the Living Collections Margo Horticultural Taxonomist Peter Francis Stevens, Ph.D., Assistant Curator and Assistant Professor of Biology Karen Stoutsenberger Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne Stockbarger Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Amoldia Richard Edwin Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Horticultural Taxonomist Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology * (Resigned June 30, 1978) Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium Arboretum service area and Dana Greenhouses. Photos: E. Gray. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Weather Station Data for 1977","article_sequence":2,"start_page":216,"end_page":217,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24737","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eb36b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Burrows, James A.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM WEATHER STATION DATA FOR 1977 * Temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit ` Precipitation measured in inches 61.1 F Average maximum temperature 40.0 F Average minimum temperature 53.13\" Precipitation 47.4\" 103 F on August 22 -1 F on January 18, 19 and 30 Coldest temperature 0 Date of last frost in spring May 10 Date of first frost in autumn October 25 168 days *Growing season * Growing season the growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 F or lower. Warmest temperature - Snowfall WEATHER STATION DATA FOR FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1978 216 ! 217 Average maximum temperature Average minimum temperature Precipitation Snowfall during winter, 77-, 78 Continuous snowcover Warmest temperature Coldest temperature Date of last frost in spring *Continuous temperature below 60 F * 53.29 F 31.69 F 23.0\" 81\" \" January 2-March 28, 1978 92 F on May 21 and 31 4 F on January 21 1 May November 18, 1977 to March 22, 1978 During the period the temperature never reached above 60 F; the average temperature was 34.6 F. This unusual uninterrupted cold spell was the major reason for the extensive damage to broadleaved evergreens and borderline-hardy trees and shrubs. + THE BLIZZARD OF 1978 February 7th and 8th. 27\" of new snow on top of 10\" of existing snow. Snow drifts of 4-8' were recorded. JAMES A. BURROWS Photo: M. Reynolds. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botanical Impressions of the People's Republic of China","article_sequence":3,"start_page":218,"end_page":237,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24736","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eb326.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Botanical Impressions of the People's Republic of China by RICHARD A. HOWARD In May and June 1978 I had the opportunity of visiting the People's Republic of China as one of ten delegates representing the Botanical Society of America. Members of the delegation had been selected from applications, and had various interests and specialties: physioology, agriculture, marine biology, paleobotany, morphology, genetics, and systematics. Bruce Bartholomew of the University of California Botanical Garden, Thomas Elias of the Cary Arboretum, and I represented botanical gardens and arboreta. We had twenty-eight tightly scheduled days visiting botanical institutes, universities, forestry institutes, academies, botanical gardens, communes, public parks, temples and pagodas, and the usual tourist attractions. We received general impressions of land use, agriculture, and forestry, as we traveled by car, train, or plane. The group was split occasionally to accommodate special interests of the delegation, or to allow individuals to present lectures. We had a few opportunities to examine native vegetation. As a group we visited the karst formations, called the Stone Forest, outside of Kunming, and even collected a few seeds and specimens in that location. Two days were spent by the botanical garden people at Seven Star Lake and on Ting Hu Mountain, northwest of Canton, where additional specimens, fruits, seeds, and living plants could be gathered from wild sources. Fundamentally, however, purposes were to see, learn, communicate, and reestablish scientific contacts with our colleagues in China. Our group entered the People's Republic from Hong Kong, and visited in succession Canton, Kunming (the first delegation permitted in this area), Shanghai, Hangchow, Soochow, Nanking, Wuhan, and Peking, before returning to Canton and exiting again via Hong Kong. Throughout the trip we were the guests of the Academy of Sciences. Our arrival had been anticipated everywhere, and we were graciously welcomed and our every need met, from personal laundry to cold drinks. Our biographies and bibliographies had been submitted beforehand, so that our colleagues knew our interests and publications, and even our faces. Regrettably, we were not equally well prepared, for our itinerary was given to us on our arrival. Representatives of the China Travel Service met our party at the border, and in Canton three members of the staff of the Botanical Institute in Peking greeted us and remained with us throughout the trip. One our 218 Staff of Institute of Botany, Shanghai, greeting our delegation. Staff of South China Botanxcal Garden (Canton). Delegation of Botanical So- ciety of America and staff of Institute of Botany, Peking. Orientation meeting in Shanghai. 220 served as official translator, but fortunately two members of our party who are Chinese by birth aided immeasurably in conversations, in translations of our lectures, and in a myriad of ways, answering questions for the majority of our party unable to read, speak, or understand the several dialects encountered. Equally fortunate for us was the ability of many of the senior Chinese botanists to recall the English they had learned as students in the United States, or earlier in China. Today English is the second language in the People's Republic. Instruction in the language is obligatory for service personnel everywhere, and there are many hours of English lessons on the radio each week. There were interesting formalities to our trip and our meetings. The official translator communicated the itinerary and daily plans to the designated leader of our party, who then relayed the information to us. We traveled mostly by Chinese-manufactured automobiles in a convoy to our destination. The lineup of five to eight cars in front of the airport, railroad station, or hotel, was impressive, and drew an attentive audience for we were conspicuous in our appearance, dress, and size. Except in Peking the convoy never stopped for a traffic light, and was given priority at every crossing. It is slightly disconcerting to drive in the wrong lane of traffic, but apparently the myriads of trucks are accustomed to being waved over to the side so that official cars can pass by the congested traffic. The combination of green and yellow traffic lights is the signal that a delegation is coming through. When we arrived at our destination, the local staff had assembled on the doorstep for official and formal greetings; never did we wait for them. We were escorted to a meeting room where, after a formal, welcoming speech by our host, each of us was introduced with the presentation of our business cards; English on one side and Chinese characters on the other. The local staff also were introduced. An endless supply of tea was served everywhere throughout our trip. Tea leaves were in tall, covered, cylindrical cups, and at our arrival boiling water was poured initially and continually replenished. We had the local tea (Camellia sinensis) unsweetened, with the sole variation of a brewed, hot, sweetened tea made from the leaves of Begonia fimbristipulata at Ting Hu Shan Arboretum, and later enjoyed this latter beverage in tall glasses as a most unusual iced \"tea.\" Cigarettes were always present and offered. Our host then described the institution and its work, and conducted a tour for the entire party or arranged for its division. We learned that questions asked in the group meeting often wasted time, and yet individual questions during the tour meant that not all information was commonly shared. Formality prevailed initially in each meeting, with the statements given in Chinese and translated, or questions asked in English translated for a reply into Chinese, and the answer again translated. Commonly, as the subsequent tour progressed, all conversation was conducted in English with our knowledgeable colleagues. 221 In each city visited we were guests at a formal banquet sponsored by the local organization, or by the governmental division of the Academy of Sciences. We in turn gave two banquets, although our obligation was for only a final banquet in Peking. For a banquet the host group assembles first, and at an appropriate time receives the guests. Introductions and an exchange of cards, always with tea available, take place in a separate room or section of the banquet area for some moments of conversation before the meal. Wet towels, hot or cold, are passed before adjournment to the dining tables. Place cards designated our seating arrangements, and eventually each of us learned to recognize his or her name in Chinese characters. The host examined the menu, printed in Chinese, nodded his approval, and passed the menu around the table. Fortunately all members of our delegation had mastered the use of chopsticks and spurned the fork that was available if needed. The banquet consisted of many courses, each comprising a few to several dishes. When you can use chopsticks to handle at one time several boiled peanuts, sugared walnuts, or lima beans served in tomato sauce, you enjoy a certain feeling of competence. Protocol requires that you help serve your dining companions. This often results in a confusion of chopsticks reaching dishes in the center of the table, until you suddenly notice that your more adept companions have piled your plate embarrassingly high with food. The soup course could appear anytime during the sequence. A sweet, cold, fruit soup was most enjoyable. Rice was available in large pots at regular meals for self-service, but it was the penultimate course served at a banquet just in case you were not satiated. A course in economic botany could be taught from the menus we enjoyed. A variety of meats, chicken, eggs, pork, beef, eels, crayfish, sea cucumbers, were accompanied by unusual vegetables (Amaranthus, Bambusa, Zizania, Lotus, Typha, algae and fungi), fruits (loquats, litchis, pomegranates, citrus), and seeds (Ginkgo, Lotus). At each place were three glasses: in size, liqueur, wine, and tumbler. Beer and orange soda were regular offerings for the tumbler. A sweet red wine was always delicious, but the liqueur glass held an alcoholic beverage, called mao t'ai, a truly formidable potion. Early in the course of the meal the host made a speech, which was duly translated, and then he proposed a toast ending with \"kan-pi (gambay)\" \"bottoms up.\" One participated in the toast with the beverage the host had selected, and drank the glass dry. We came to dread the mao t'ai selection. Our leader then responded with a speech, usually working in a quotation from Chairman Mao, which was translated, and he also proposed a toast. As the meal progressed, toasts were frequent: to the group, to the table, to individuals; and even to the Ivy League, the Big Ten, and the Pacific Coast Conference. Meals always ended abruptly with little lingering for conversation. Our hotels were the best tourist hotels in the big cities, but the - 222I lasting impressions are of the small hotel at Seven Star Lake and the most charming Kwantung Guest House. Each member of our party was prepared to deliver one to three lectures. I had taken with me a copy of the Centennial film of the Arnold Arboretum, which showed not only scenes on the grounds and views of selected trees, but also the methods of operation of the library and the herbarium, and the care of the living collections in equipment, mapping, labeling, and record keeping. In addition I had Kodachrome slides constituting a survey of other botanical gardens in the United States, and a technical talk on the vascular patterns of the stem, node, and petiole of Dicotyledons. The Arnold Arboretum was known throughout China, and at every introductory ceremony our host made reference to his pleasure that a representative of the Arnold Arboretum was present. I believe I spoke more times than any other member of the delegation, for the groups chose to see the Arboretum film. Projection equipment for the movie was excellent, although I generally had the sound turned off after the first few minutes and commented, for translation, on the plants and procedures shown. Screens for showing the film were not always adequate, and projection equipment for slides was generally poor. The audience reaction to the Arboretum film was surprising at first, and pleasing in anticipation later on. The film features spectacular flowering specimens of Cornus kousa var. chinensis (the Chinese dogwood), Davidia involucrata (the dove tree), Kolkwitzia amabilis (the beauty bush), and Metasequoia glyptostroboides (the dawn redwood). Although these plants were Arboretum introductions from China, the plants, with the exception of Metasequoia, were not seen in cultivation, and were unknown to the majority of the audiences. The audience reaction often drowned out the translation. This was true also with sequences in the herbarium depicting our filing system using colored genus covers for countries; the technique of mounting using a spray of adhesive; the free distribution of maps of the Arboretum collections given to visitors; the mapping system of collections; and the mechanical equipment, especially pruners using cherry-picker lifts on trucks. The anatomical lecture on stem structure that I was prepared to offer was never requested for a group. In fact, the only plant anatomists encountered were in Peking at the Botanical Institute, where these individuals requested a seminar discussion with me concerning the techniques I used and the results. There were formalities to the lectures as well. The talk was scheduled, and when the host arrived with the speaker the audience was fully assembled and applauded our entrance. Senior botanists were in the front rows. Introductions were brief and in Chinese. Tea was present for the speaker and the senior botanists, and often during the talk the speaker was given a hot or cold towel. I found early an introduction that amused the audience by referring to the fact that the Chinese children were amazed by my height, 6'5\". I was often called 223 \"two-meter man.\" I noted for the audience, with appropriate pantomime, that height was an advantage for a field botanist who could reach very high, but a disadvantage since one had to stoop in the bush to avoid hitting his head. I could also note that I might be the tallest taxonomist in the United States, but that I had a student who was 10 cm. taller than I was. The ice breakers helped capture the audience early. At the end of the talk there was applause, but rarely any questions. The audience remained seated until the speaker and host had left the lecture hall. Audiences ranged from sixty to three hundred, and the rooms used were always filled. The audience had been invited, and only a selected number from each department or institution was permitted to attend. In several cases the Arboretum film was borrowed to be shown again to an audience not able to attend my presentation. Slide presentations were translated sentence by sentence, and had to be given slowly. Generally a member of the institute would translate, but we were grateful for the help of two members of our party, Dr. Jane Shen-Miller and Dr. William Tai, for their frequent help. They delivered their own talks in Chinese. We also were given lectures by local botanists, occasionally in Chinese translated for us; or the speaker would speak in Chinese and then, himself, translate into English. A few senior botanists offered lectures in English, and we were most pleased to hear lectures by junior staff members in Peking read to us from manuscripts in English. Their effort required to do this was apparent and deeply appreciated. On two occasions we were shown 35 mm. films with commercial, theater-type projectors. One film, on a tropical research station near the Thailand border, and another on the Lu Shan Botanical Garden, were of special interest. Our trip was possible following a major change in policy by the Chinese government last March. The statement, \"We want to learn from you,\" was made at every institution, and at each we were asked to \"criticize\" their work. The policy of criticism within institutions was rampant during the Cultural Revolution, and apparently internal discussion sessions are still held weekly. Critiques can be addressed at the top administration or at fellow workers. We were told that salary increases also were awarded by the group after discussion, and it was still evident that no one wanted to be particularly conspicuous in dress or in research. We asked questions about the operations we saw, and these could be why, as well as what or how. So many institutions were using tissue culture techniques and studying anther culture that we could ask why. Why are so many papers published without statement of authorship but instead presented as the effort of a research team or group? We could point out how difficult such papers are to cite in a bibliography, or indicate that the lack of authors' names precluded any contact with the person or persons actually doing the work. We saw photo-offset reproductions of current by them \"the giant,\" or the Pottery tubs for aquatic plants, Hangchow Botanical Garden. Herringbone pattern of chain link fence for vines, Nanking. Concrete slabs used to separate plantings of bamboo, Peking. Medicinal Wuhan. plant collection, 225 in several libraries. Although we knew that China does not to international copyright conventions, we questioned why, then, such copies were not in every library but only in a few. Some Chinese journals offer abstracts or summaries in a foreign language but many do not. Why? Some descriptions of new plant species may have a Latin description as required by the rules of botanical nomenclature, but then have details of collector and location only in Chinese characters. Why? These comments were denied at several locations, but could easily be demonstrated as facts. In good humor our Chinese colleagues suggested that our requests could be granted, but then asked if we could publish with our papers an abstract or summary in Chinese. The discussion sessions were most successful in small groups or on an individual basis. Occasionally this was difficult due to the lack of sufficient translators. The three of us representing botanical gardens were asked to meet on several evenings with interested Chinese botanists numbering from twelve to twenty. It was on these occasions that questions that might have been asked following our talks were presented and discussed. The sessions were pleasant, and journals subscribe felt they were mutually profitable. Members of our party had brought with them gifts of seeds and plants, books, reprints, slides, and scientific specimens and artifacts representative of our institutions or section of the country. I took along packets of United States postage stamps, mostly botanical in nature, and found collectors interested in the gift. In Soochow some members of our party visited a small school and discovered on the wall a collection of postage stamps from various countries. Our caravan of cars made a special stop to give a set of postage stamps to the teacher to add to the display. Reprints of scientific papers of our group were presented formally to the director of each institute we visited. Another packet of materials on the Arnold Arboretum, along with some extra special seeds, went to the directors of botanical gardens. Our Chinese colleagues were most generous with their publications, so that by the end of the trip we were carrying heavy loads of books. Fortunately my luggage was counted and not weighed for the return trip. Most of the volumes were new to the library of the Arnold Arboretum, and some of the gifts represented books not previously available for export. Bookstores in China are numerous, and well stocked with botanical or horticultural items. Here we learned that a red sign stamped on the back indicated the book could not be sold to foreign nationals. However, the stores often had foreign publications on China, some very old and rare copies which could be bought and treasured. Reprint editions of foreign publications were cheaper than the originals still available outside of China. All of Darwin's books, for example, were available in Chinese translations and made interesting items for collection. In each city our guides made certain we were taken to the Friendship Stores, restricted we Garden shelter and lahe in Shanghai Botanic Garden. Vandal-proof labels as concrete blocks, Shanghai. taxa and Study collection of Camellia hybrids, Kunming. Manual mist propagation unit, Wuhan. 227 to foreigners and foreign currency. Some were opened for us, and others were open at night. The largest store was that in Peking, which also had the highest prices and the largest number of customers. We could and did visit local stores, and were permitted to purchase such items as food and cloth for which ration coupons were required of the Chinese. In several small shops all customers were asked to leave the store when we entered. Our treatment was indeed special. Although made at to our schedule and our request and Kunming was plane. Since Chinese airlines do not serve meals en route, the lands at mealtime and the passengers and crew enter the terplane minal for a meal. The delay awaiting a repair part on this occasion was handled by our guides' acquiring rooms for us at a nearby hotel where we \"rested.\" We were to travel from Wuhan to Peking by train, but in the only schedule failure our hosts were unable to get train reservations for us. We flew instead, but a thunderstorm over Peking required a landing at Chengchow where we waited for clearing. This did not happen, so after a long wait at the airport we were fed fried eggs, especially prepared at 11:00 P.M., and then taken to a hotel for an unexpected overnight stay Photographs are not permitted from the plane or at airports, but each stop allowed us to see and photograph different plants used in landscape plantings. We visited the Malu Commune outside Shanghai and enjoyed it immensely. A large painted sign awaited us which read in Chinese, \"Welcome to the delegation of the Botanical Society of America.\" in the itinerary were fixed, some changes were by necessity. Our flight from Canton delayed by the failure of the air conditioning system some After the usual tea and the recitation of statistics on the operation, we visited several parts of the commune. We saw a new machine for planting rice; culture of mushrooms in bottles; hatchery for eggs; flocks of ducks; and herds of pigs, cows, buffalo, and other animals. In a basket factory we saw the production of baskets and mats from bamboo by carefully organized teams of workers. Wheat was being harvested by hand, and black mustard was being winnowed. We toured small factories producing \"Ac'cent\" and soy sauce. We were shown a \"typical\" apartment. However, we declined the invitation to visit the factories making soccer balls, or the shops repairing tractors, in favor of more botanically associated plantings and operations. Our wishes were granted. At the end of our trip, on our return to Canton, the director of the Botanical Institute suggested that the botanists from botanical gardens might be more interested in seeing Seven Star Lake and Ting Hu Mountain 110 km. away, an overnight trip, rather than a university and a botanical institute. This gracious invitation produced a high point of the trip, scenic as well as botanical. Arising early in the morning, two of us climbed one of the karst limestone hills, and discovered at the top a handsome shrub loaded with slightly inflated 228I pink capsules. None of the Chinese botanists could identify the plant, which was a member of the Sapindaceae. Although no ripe seeds were available, I took photographs and collected several herbarium specimens which were later identified in Boston as Koelreuteria the type species of a monotypic genus. This name had been minor, changed, in an article in the April 1977 issue of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, to a new genus, Sinoradlkofera minor (Hemsley) Meyer. Little was known of the distribution or ecology of the plant, and Seven Star Lake was a new locality. The plant is not in cultivation in the United States, and a request has been made for viable seeds. Throughout China we were impressed with the tree-planting programs in effect. These showed contrast between the wonderful shaded streets of the cities and the obvious delayed action of many of the afforestation programs. Since our visit ranged from the subtropical latitude of Cuba in Canton and Kunming to the latitude of Boston in Peking, the trees used were different in each area. In the south the denuded hills had been planted in species of Pinus, Eucalyptus, and Acacia. The current state of health and the shape of the plantings were not encouraging. Along the railroad tracks we saw extensive plantings of Metasequoia, Salix, Populus, Cryptomeria, and Robinia species, which as young plantations were cultivated or interplanted with vegetable crops, and obviously received more attention than did the forest plantings. We were told that over fifty million trees of the dawn redwood had been propagated from cuttings or grown from seed taken from the native plants which are now protected as a national treasure. Specimens of Metasequoia were planted not more than 4 feet apart, and the lower branches pruned to the trunk. We were told of plans to thin the plantations as they developed. The street tree plantings were dominated by Platanus orientalis, the sycamore, pruned so that the lower branches were about 3 m. above the ground and topped to force branching. Pruning is done mostly by handsaw from bamboo ladders, and on a regular schedule so that the general impression is of neat, well-cared-for trees. An excellent handbook in Chinese, Beautification of Cities and Environmental Protection, was published in 1977 by the Kiangsu Institute of Botany for general use in China. In Canton the dominant street trees were Aleurites fordii, Melaleuca quinquenervia, Sterculia nobilis ; in Kunming, Grevillea robusta, Sterculia and Eucalyptus species, mostly E. camaldulensis; in Shanghai, Ailanthus altissima, Cinnamomum camphor, Firmiana simplex, Platanus orientalis, Pterocarya stenoptera, Salix babylonica, Sapium sebiferum, and Ulmus parvifolia and U. pumila; in Peking, Platanus, several species of Acer and hybrids of Populus, and handsome avenues of Cedrus deodara. The greatest variety of street trees was seen in Soochow where the following were recorded: Bischofia trifoliata, Celtis sinensis, Cinnamomum camphor, Firmiana simplex, Lagerstroemia indica, species Platanus orientalis tree in as street Shanghai. Recently transpLanted Salix and Populus, heavily pruned, in Peking. Truck street trees spraying insecticide in Peking. on in Forbidden Sophora japonica var. pendula City, Peking. 230 of Ligustrum, Photinia serrulata, Pistacia chinensis, Pterocarya stenoptera, Salix babylonica and S. matsudana, and Sapium sebiferum. roadsides trees were often planted in several rows, different species. Areas between the trees were used as nursery beds or for the mass culture of seedlings. Trees were selected that would offer a spread and withstand heavy pruning. Trunks were commonly painted white with a mixture of lime and sulfur for insect control. We saw willows with trunk diameters of 15-25 cm., truncated at about 3 m. before transplanting, and each seemed to be developing a crown of branches. In Peking, Populus saplings, obviously close grown in nursery beds, had been pruned of branches and were planted as 7-8 m. poles. Especially in Peking we were aware of the tank trucks that traveled along the streets spraying the street trees, and the pedestrians, or carefully watering the bases of the newly Along country a each of planted trees. Our first introduction to the Chinese use of plants in pots occurred at the hotel in Canton, and we were to learn later of an almost countrywide use of the technique. Fully an acre of land in the front of the hotel was a nursery, with all plants grown in pots or special containers. At the entrance, in the lobby, in the dining room, on floors, on room dividers, or on tables, were plants in pots, usually in flower and all in excellent condition for they were replaced frequently. Many of the plants were carefully grown annuals such as Impatiens, Petunia, Tagetes, or Zinnia, or trimmed shrubs of Bougainvillea spectabilis, Clerodendrum trichotomum, or Lantana camara. However, the palm Trachycarpus fortunei and flowering specimens of Magnolia grandiflora or cultivars of Camellia and Gardenia were also seen in larger pots. Some unexpected taxa as pot-grown subjects included Chloranthus sp., Aglaea odorata, and Homalocladium platycladium. Travel on Chinese trains was an unexpected pleasure. The trains were always on schedule and immaculate in condition, with curtains on the windows and antimacassars on the seat backs of the first-class coaches. One woman wet-mopped the floor, commanding in accented English, \"Life your feet.\" A small table extended from the clean window between the seats to hold the teacups, for which we were charged the equivalent of two cents for a cup of tea many times refilled. This table also held a potted plant. In our car were plants of Buxus harlandii, Cineraria sp., Crassula arborea, Homalocladium platycladium, Ophiopogon sp., and Setcreasea purpurea. In our briefing prior to a visit to the Lung-hua Botanical Garden outside Shanghai, we were told they had twenty thousand potted plants in the collection. These proved to be \"bonsai\" of tremendous variety, and displayed in a most attractive manner. The moon gate is well known as an entrance form or gateway in Chinese architecture, but we saw the use of vista controls by many shapes of openings in walls or restrictions through the use of frames of bamboo or wood. \"Bonsai\" in Chinese are called p'en-ching, literally meaning potted 231 application there are single plants to group plantings. old and large plants of Pinus parvifolia, Pinus tabulaeformis, Very or Punica granata had been collected in the wild or from temple grounds. Some had been grown in pots for centuries. Delicate younger plants were trained in the western standards for bonsai and wired to grow to the effect desired. P'en-ching plants seem to be classified for the effect achieved single, erect, tiny trees; leaning or reclining plants; twin plants equal in size; mother and son, with one plant larger than the other; ascending branch style; over-thewater, with one or more horizontal branches; cascade style with branches descending below the pot; or forest scenes. Stems were often large and grotesque (Ulmus parvifolia). Roots could be displayed or hidden, and plants with prop roots or adventitious aerial roots were also used. Acorus, O.xalis, and Hydrocotyle were used in the pot. The pots themselves were glazed or unglazed, decorated with carvings or inscriptions, or plain in color and the shape of a stone formation. P'en-ching plants could be at the base of the rock or on it. One or several plants or kinds of plants could be employed. Natural rock formations from the karst areas were used as sink gardens, the natural reticulum of stalagmite accretions accented by single or several plants. Miniature p'en-ching were in the collections, displayed singly or in lacquered framework. Even picture frames with p'en-ching were used as wall hangings. Lung-hua had the most outstanding, memorable collection of those we saw in China. The botanic gardens of China suffered severely during the Cultural Revolution or from effects now blamed on the Gang of Four. For a period all were administered through the Academy of Sciences in Peking, but now each has independence although it may be related to a botanical institute or a university. The disruption of the Cultural Revolution involved the staff and the programs of the organization as well as the collections. For over a decade the staff were required to do practical work with the \"people.\" They were assigned work outside and away from the garden for a period every year. At times people from the country, without training, were assigned to work in the garden. The garden was to be practical in its programs, and emphasis was removed from the maintenance of general collections to the development of economic plant collections, particularly those of medicinal value. Trees were cut down, plants pulled up and destroyed; greenhouses and laboratories were vandalized and indoor teaching collections obliterated. In the past few years there has been a partial recovery. We saw impressive botanical gardens in Canton, Nanking, and Hangchow. We learned of plans for the redevelopment of the botanic garden in Peking, and the establishment of others. In general, with the three exceptions noted, the maintenance of the gardens is poor, the collections poorly grown and poorly labeled, and the labor inefficient and ineffective. The older administrators, however, are aware of the impression and seem determined to develop again the gardens they once had. Their wish to \"learn from others\" scenery. In - Pot culture ot ornamental plants at hotel in Canton. Pot plants in space dividers in airport terminal, Shanghai. bengalensis as p'en ching ( bonsai ) in Lung-hua collection, Shanghai. Ficus P'en ching of Ulmus parvifolia, Shanghai. Commune team planting rice seedlings near Kunming. even Private enterprise garden plots, between trees, Canton. on Unsuccessful forest plantings terraced hill near Kunming. Private gardens, on trellises and in roadside ditch near Canton. 234 was expressed for themselves and for their younger staff members. We heard many times of their desire, after \"normalization\" of relations with the United States, to travel themselves, and to have their younger colleagues visit American botanical gardens for periods of training and study. There is no retirement age for botanists in the Chinese botanic garden, and it will be through the influence of these older staff members that the gardens will benefit from the foreign exposure and training of the junior staff. We can only wish them long life and cooperation in their desires. With the exception of the Hangchow Botanic Garden, those we visited were a considerable distance from our hotels and the center of town. We were assured there was public transportation for visitors, but it was often stated that \"our garden is not a public park.\" Our visits were arranged, and previous delegations had not been able to visit the gardens we visited. Sections of some gardens were locked, and it was obvious that some sections were cleaned or labels recently placed in anticipation of our visit. We also visited many public parks and plantings in cities or around temples. We visited the Humble Administrator's Garden in Soochow on Children's Day, June 1, when school was out and over fifty thousand children were expected. This proved to be a classic example of overuse and population pressure on a garden area resulting in compacted soil, broken edges to lakes, trees polished from climbers' bodies, and litter from ices sold by vendors. By contrast, the river front park in Shanghai was immaculate and well groomed, and the Emperor's Garden in the Forbidden City in Peking a place to be long remembered. It was possible for members of our party to visit several herbaria and to learn of the floristic and monographic work in progress. A Flora of China is being prepared by cooperation of individuals and institutes throughout China, to be completed by 1985. We asked for and were given lists of people working on specific families, and were presented copies of parts of the Flora that had been published. Large families are divided into parts, and in some cases only a few genera may be written up by a single worker, with the final compilation edited by a team in a different location. With few exceptions, herbaria seem adequately housed as to space with room for expansion. The vast majority of specimens were in wooden cases. Several systems of arrangement were used, and rarely did we see collections from outside of China. Mercuric bichloride is used to dip specimens newly received, and paradichlorobenzene moth flakes are used in the cases. The specimens generally lacked extensive field data, and were mounted on a low quality of paper. Recent annotations were infrequent. Each institution had a considerable backlog of material to be mounted, and we were told in several places that specimens were still in \"storage\" after having been removed during the Cultural Revolution. In one library this description applied to a room in which the books were literally thrown in the comer. Mounting techniques were antiquated, as specimens were affixed with paper strips inserted 235 in slots in the sheet and glued on the back or hand sewn. Occasionally two or more herbarium sheets were sewn together for texture rigidity. Bamboo specimens in one herbarium were mounted on folded sheets, double the normal size when opened. Type and authentic specimens were sometimes separated in special cases, or kept in special folders, but in other institutions we saw type specimens displayed in wall cases fully open to insects, desiccation, and light. Very little optical equipment was seen in our visits to several herbaria. We did not see the literature for taxonomic work comparable to what one finds in the office of a staff member of an American herbarium. Several institutions had prints of authentic specimens obtained years ago from Kew, the Arnold Arboretum, and the Gray Herbarium. Microfiche of important herbaria, available to western botanists, were not seen, and seemed to be unknown in several institutions. We were told staff members could borrow specimens from other institutions in China or could travel to consult other herbaria. Copies of needed descriptions could be obtained as \"xerox type\" reproductions from Peking. Borrowing specimens from outside of China was not a regular practice. In several lectures, movies, and slide shows, we learned of past expeditions to remote places in China. Whether a regular practice or only a demonstration for the picture, we did note that several small pieces of different plants would be placed in a single sheet in a field press. We were told that duplicate specimens were distributed within China, and that specimens were available on exchange to otherWhen I asked of their interests for exchanges with the Arnold Arboretum, the reply generally was that plants of China were wanted. Fortunately we still have old collections that might be so used. Staff members of the Arnold Arboretum before the second World War had borrowed herbarium specimens from various Chinese institutions. These could not be returned when work was finished or in the postwar years. The material has been carefully stored for nearly thirty years, and our desire to return these loans was mentioned during our trip. Some of the institutions from which the specimens were borrowed were church-related colleges, and no longer in existence. Our colleagues in the Academy of Sciences suggested that all specimens be returned to Peking, where the decision would be made as to where to house the specimens. The first shipment has been sent. Our visit to the People's Republic of China was too intensive. As a visitor cannot possibly understand or fully appreciate the Arnold Arboretum in the course of a visit of one or two hours, neither could we absorb all aspects of the Chinese institutions and gardens in the brief time allowed. Nevertheless, our impressions are many and favorable, and will be long lasting. We did meet our goal of communicating with colleagues, and meeting the senior botanists whose work we knew and appreciated, as well as their younger associates. We understand their trials of the past decades and know of their facilities. Even in the few weeks since our return there has been 236 I correspondence expressing the mutual pleasure derived from our visit. Our promises have been fulfilled carefully, and our subsequent requests have been granted. Expeditions comparable to those of Wiland Rock for the Arnold Arboretum may still be several years away. Not all of China is open to foreign travelers. The field botanist may not expect tourist-quality hotels, but transportation and interpreters are available in short supply. Nevertheless, the future is hopeful. We will welcome the return delegation of Chinese botanists in 1979, and hope that our hospitality can be as satisfying to them as son theirs was to us. CHRONOLOGY 5\/17\/78 9 5\/19 5\/20 5\/21 San Francisco to OF TRAVEL OF THE DELEGATION Hong Kong Hong Kong: Botanizing on Victoria Honk Kong to Canton by trains A M. P.M. Peak Canton: Botanical Garden of the Institute of Botany Visit to Methane Gas Plant waste using human 5\/22 5\/23 5\/24 5\/25 5\/26 5\/27 Kunming by plane with lunch stop at Nanning (provincial capital of Kwangsi) Kunming: A.M. Botanical Institute and Botanical Garden P.M. Lectures by delegates Kunming: A.M. Field trip to Stone Forest Evening Selected films Kunming: A.M. Field trip to Western Hills P.M. Flight to Shanghai Shanghai: A M. Institute of Plant Physiology Visit to People's Commune of Malu P M. Evening Performance of acrobats Shanghai: A.M. Group divided: some to Lung-hua Botanical Garden; P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. some to Institute of Bio- chemistry, some to lecture Academy of Agricultural Sciences Visit to Industrial Exhibition Yu Gardens, old Shanghai and waterfront 5\/28 5\/29 Shanghai: Shanghai: parks Yutan University Lectures to Botanical Society of Shanghai; visit to Museum, departure by train to Hangchow 5\/30 Hangchow: Hangchow: Soochow: A.M. P.M. A.M. 5\/31 1 6\/01 P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. 6\/02 Soochow: Visit to Botanic Garden Return to Botanic Garden, lectures; some of group to the University Boat tour of West Lake and parks including Tiger Cave Visit to temples; train to Soochow Embroidery Institute; Humble Administrator's Garden West and East Gardens, temples Morning trip by train to Nanking Botanical Institute and Botanical Garden 237 6\/03 Nanking: Nanking: Nanking: A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. Nanking University Nanking Technological estry Institute of For- 6\/04 6\/05 Lectures to Botanical Society of Kiangsu Visit to Yangtze River Bridge, Sun Yat Sen tomb, Lingko Park Pagoda Botanical Institute Nanking University, Institute of Plant Physiology Evening 6\/06 6\/07 Seminar discussion at Institute of For- estry Nanking: Wuhan: 6\/08 6\/09 0 6\/10 1 6\/11 Wuhan: Wuhan: Peking: Peking: Peking: 6\/12 3 6\/13 Peking: Peking: Peking: Peking: Canton: 6\/14 5 6\/15 6\/16 7 6\/17 Trip to Wuhan by plane Visit to Wuhan Bridge and to temples Botanical Institute and Botanical Garden Wuhan University Evening Performance of acrobats A.M. Lectures at the Botanical Institute P.M. Academy of Agricultural Sciences Evening Performance of Chinese opera A.M. Boat trip on East Lake P.M. Flight to Peking delayed by storms; overnight in Chengchow A.M Arrived from Chengchow P.M. Visit to Imperial Palace A.M. Visit to Great Wall P.M. Visit to Ming Tombs A.M. Visit to Botanic Garden P.M. Visit to Hsiang Shan (Fragrant Hills) satellite botanic garden and temples A.M. Botanical Institute P.M. Lectures by staff of Botanical Institute A.M. Lectures by staff of Botanical Institute P.M. Trip to Pei hai Park, discussions at Botanical Institute A.M. Lectures at National Science Museum and tour of Museum P.M. Peking University A M. Flight to Canton P.M. Trip to Seven Star Lake and karst vegetation A.M. Ting Hu Shan Arboretum and mountain A.M. P.M. A.M. P.M. vegetation 8 6\/18 9 6\/19 6\/20 Canton. Hong Kong. Return flight P.M. Return to Canton A.M. Train to Hong Kong A.M. Flight to Los Angeles and San Francisco to Boston (All photographs in this article are by the author.) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":238,"end_page":239,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24734","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eaf28.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Park Maker: A Life of Frederick Law Olmsted. Elizabeth Stevenson New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 484 pages, illustrated. $17.95. In the past ten years, there has been a steady revival of interest in Frederick Law Olmsted, the designer of the Arnold Arboretum and the country's first professional landscape architect. To name only a few of the most prominent titles, recent books include: Julius Gy. Fabos, Gordon T. Milde and V. Michael Weinmayr, Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., Founder of Landscape Architecture in America, University of Massachusetts Press, 1968 (primarily a pictorial survey); Albert Fein, Frederzck Law Olmsted and the American Environmental Tradition, Braziller, 1972, Laura Wood Roper, FLO: A Biography of Frederick Law Olmsted, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1973, and, most recently, the first volume of a long-awaited series: Charles Capen McLaughlin and Charles E. Beveridge, eds., The Papers of Frederick Law Olmsted: Volume I, The Formative Years, 1822-1852, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1977. A reader may well ask where to begin. Prof. Fein's book is probably the best overview of Olmsted's life and work, but like others in the Braziller series on Planning and Cities, its text is brief. On the other hand, Roper's book is a monumental achievement, the result of thirty years' research, but its length and level of detail may discourage a reader new to the sub- ject. Elizabeth Stevenson, the author of several other biographies, including the Bancroft Award-winning Henry Adams, has written a book that is both scholarly and \"popular\" in the best sense of the word. Her main interest is in the man rather than his works. Most of Olmsted's design projects, including the Boston park system, are treated rather impressionistically. Similarly, the involved social and historical background of Olmsted's life is drawn in broad strokes. But Olmsted the man emerges as a complicated, courageous and sympathetic human being. As is well known, Olmsted did not begin his landscape career until 1858, when he was thirty-six and, with Calvert Vaux, won the competition for Central Park. He had been a frail and dreamy boy with a sketchy education. As a young man, he first went to sea and then was subsidized by a patient father in a series of farming ventures. By the time he became involved in Central Park, however, he had written four books (one on England and three on the antebellum South) and had a modest national reputation. Later in life Olmsted asked himself \"how such a loitering, self-indulsort of man as I was ... could, at middle age, have turned into such a hard worker and doer as I have been ever since?\" The answer becomes apparent in Stevenson's first chapters. All the experiences of Olmsted's early life - boyhood wanderings through the Connecticut woods, perusals of Price on The Picturesque and Gilpin on Forest Scenery in the Hartford Public Library, informal study of civil engineering in Andover, Massachusetts and sporadic attendance at Yale, as well as his far from brilliant career as a scientific farmer - were synthesized in his later profession. Perhaps better than any Olmsted scholar thus far, Stevenson understands the two sides of Olmsted's nature. Later in the letter quoted above, Olmsted said: \"I have been selling being for doing.\" Stevenson responds: \"He thought that he had warped the dreamer away from his dreams in order to work in the world. Yet ... the dreamer and the doer had gent, dilletante ... 238 239 together to make certain formed spaces open to the sky in which other persons might find freedom to be.\" Olmsted's mature years were filled with this kind of \"doing.\" Central Park completely absorbed him for four years, yet, at the start of the Civil War, he interrupted his landscape work to direct the United States Sanitary Commission (the predecessor of the American Red Cross). From 1863-5, he ran the Mariposa Mining Estates in California. He then returned to New York and collaborative work with Vaux on Central and Prospect parks. Throughout an increasingly busy career in landscape architecture, he wrote a stream of articles and professional reports and maintained a prolific correspondence. He also pioneered the nation's first conservation efforts at Yosemite and Niagara Falls. Stevenson is most successful in her treatment of Olmsted's early life and of his last years. (The first third or so of Park Maker could well be read in conjunction with Volume I of the Olmsted Papers. ) She gives particular attention to the projects in which Olmsted had the heaviest emotional investment: Central Park, his first born, and Biltmore in Asheville, North Carolina, one of his final achievements. Biltmore was a project almost without parallel in the history of landscape architecture. In 1888, George W. Vanderbilt asked Olmsted for advice on treating the grounds of his new winter estate. For the main dwelling, the fashionable architect Richard Morris Hunt was designing an only slightly reduced version of the chateau of Blois. Vanderbilt steadily (and somewhat stealthily) acquired large parcels of land until his estate totalled 120,000 acres. His original aim had been to establish a park, but Olmsted persuaded him that the best use of the land was as a scientifically planned forest and arboretum. The first aim was magnificently achieved, although the arboretum project floundered and finally failed. Olmsted's involvement with Biltmore lasted until the end of his working life. Expertly managed by Gifford Pinchot and later by Carl Alwin Schenck, Biltmore Forest eventually became a national preserve. Throughout his life, Olmsted struggled to have his landscape principles understood and his work recognized, not as a handicraft, but as a \"liberal profession.\" Acclaim came to him toward the end. In one day, he received honorary degrees from both Harvard and Yale. Characteristically, he accepted the awards, not for his own sake, but because they dignified his profession. One of Olmsted's chief concerns at Biltmore had been to arrange the plantings so that there would be a clear view of a distant mountain peak. Aptly enough, the name of the mountain was \"Pisgah,\" after the ridge from which Moses viewed the Promised Land. worked CYNTHIA ZAITZEVSKY Compost Gardening. W. E. Shewell-Cooper. 119 pages. $8.95. New York: Hafner Press. This volume describes the methods and obvious success of organic gardening and its principles as applied in England. The author is indeed a missionary for the method and the book is enjoyable reading. Varieties and materials described, however, are not usually available in eastern North America. Illustrated in black and white and in soft-tone color. RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Special Day for Friends","article_sequence":5,"start_page":240,"end_page":241,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24735","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eaf6d.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"A SPECIAL DAY FOR FRIENDS On October 15 the Case Estates parking lot began to fill early as Friends of the Arnold Arboretum arrived for the 1978 plant distribution. On the agenda this sunny, crisp autumn day were plant clinics, tours of the grounds, refreshments and socializing with staff and other Friends, in addition to such choice plant give-aways as Ilex pedunculosa, Itea japonica and Neillia thyrsiflora. Photographer Ed Gray was on hand to record the pleasant activity, and here are some of his impressions. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23351","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260896e.jpg","title":"1978-38-6","volume":38,"issue_number":6,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New Trees for Urban Landscapes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":157,"end_page":172,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24732","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25ea76b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":5,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"New Trees for Urban Landscapes by GARY L. KOLLER Across North America, nurserymen, landscape architects and horticulturists recommend specific tree species for urban use. Usually the trees are selected because of tolerance to infertile and compacted soils, drought, reflected heat, atmospheric pollutants, salts, and adaptability to limited maintenance. Because plants are sought that thrive under the widest range of adverse conditions, the potential list of acceptable trees is restricted to perhaps fifty or sixty known and used species, varieties and cultivars. Of this total, perhaps fifteen or twenty are used commonly in a specific location because of availability, ease of transplanting, growth rate and cost. The urban trees most commonly planted in North Temperate areas include the following: Acer platanoides, Acer rubrum, Acer saccharum, Cornus florida, Crataegus phaenopyrum, Crataegus crusgalli, Fraxinus americana, Fraxinus pensylvanica, Ginkgo biloba, Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis, Liquidambar styraciflua, Malus sp. (Crabapples), Platanus occidentalis, Prunus sargentii, Pyrus calleryana, Quercus palustris, Quercus rubra, Sophora japonica, Tilia cordata and Zelkova serrata. These species are successful and popular, but there also has been an explosion of cultivars of each. This has resulted in the fact that more and more streets and parks are being planted to a wider array of fewer species of plants. This monoculture of trees can cause disastrous effects if they are attacked by insects and disease. Environmental stresses such as high water table, air pollution, abnormally low winter temperatures or highway de-icing salts also influence the health and well-being of the plants. An example is the American Elm (Ulmus americana). Plants across North America have been ravaged by Dutch Elm disease regardless of variation in form, foliage and growth rates, and attempts to locate disease resistant cultivars have been ineffective. Species diversity in any living community adds long term stability to the total complex of organisms. Because of the few species presently utilized, coupled with the abundance of cultivars, urban foresters often recommend that no city or town plant more than 10% of the total tree population to a single species, including cultivars. Cultivars of a species might show variation in growth rate, form, flowers or autumn coloration, but possess essentially identical resistance, or lack of resistance, to environmental and cultural pressures. 157 158I This author believes that the cultivar approach to street tree selection has been overworked and has deprived our urban landscapes of the full richness of species diversity. The Arnold Arboretum traditionally has encouraged the introduction and testing of new plant species such as the following four trees, which have had limited but successful use under urban growing conditions. Cedrela sinensis ' Chinese Cedar (Toona sinensis) Zone 4? Height: Meliaceae 50-70 ft. Family: Spread: 40-50 ft. Nativity: China it is features that contribute rapid growing; thrives in a wide diversity of soils; is tolerant of high applications of road salts; and has an open canopy that allows the passage of filtered light. It produces a clear yellow autumn color and the bark has distinctive plates that loosen to become shaggy strips. Most interesting is the fact that the leaves and young shoots can be eaten. In sunny open situations the tree's habit is upright and spreading, reaching heights of 60-70 feet and spreading 30-50 feet, a shape adapted to specimen use. When the tree is crowded or shaded, however, it tends to stretch upward producing a long thin bole with a spreading tuft of foliage at the top. This habit allows the tree to be used in groves where it develops visually exciting stem clusters. Cedrela is undemanding from a cultural standpoint. Soil pH can be acid or alkaline; it requires a well drained soil and prefers full sun. Because of its limited cultivation in North America, little to no data has been collected on damage from insects and diseases. Hardiness has been observed to -25F. During the winter of 1976-77, a large multi-stemmed plant at the Rowe Arboretum in Cincinnati, Ohio, survived with no dieback, according to Michael Dirr of the University of Illinois, Urbana. Fall is the Cedrela's season of ornamental beauty, for the cool nights and shortening days trigger the change from light green summer foliage color to clear pale yellow which contrasts beautifully with the tan-brown color of the shaggy bark. Seed pods high in the canopy open and fall to the ground, and their resemblance to tiny flowers makes them useful additions to projects using dried plant material for Christmas decorations. From a landscape perspective this plant possesses several features that may detract from its use. It seeds vigorously, sends up root suckers, and has a useful landscape life of only sixty to eighty years before it begins senescence. People who are not inclined to grow it for ornamental reasons may want to test Cedrela as a food source. The leaves and young shoots Chinese Cedar possesses several landscape to the success of an urban tree species: 159 Left: The edible foliage of Cedrela turns a clear yellow in autumn. Right: Shaggy bark is ornamental on mature specimens. Photos: G. Koller. ~ are very tasty, possessing a distinct flavor somewhat similar to that of onions. According to Dr. S. Y. Hu of the Arnold Arboretum, Cedrela is a delicacy in China. Shoots and leaves are picked as they emerge in spring and before the shoots expand more than 4-6 inches. Omelets are made using the following recipe: chop and brown onions; as the onions turn color, add minced shoots and leaves of Cedrela. Toss lightly, slowly stir in beaten eggs, add salt and pepper to adjust seasoning and cook to desired consistency. Dr. Hu states that the plant is eaten more frequently in northern China where temperatures are cooler, for in Szechuan and southern areas the young shoots have a bitter flavor. In mid- to late summer, old leaves are boiled in water and the liquid is used in baths for the relief of heat rash. 160 Cedrela sinensis growing in a dooryard garden and cropped for edible foliage. Plant photographed by Dr. Richard A. Howard in May 1978, near Peking, People's Republic of China. During a recent trip to the People's Republic of China, Dr. Richard A. Howard noted that Cedrela (Toona) is often interplanted in peach orchards where it is kept low and compact by continuous cropping for the edible foliage. In other areas, trees growing beside houses appeared as topiary sculptures for they are frequently climbed for the judicious removal of young stems and leaves. The wood is reddish-brown, fine-grained and used in China as a substitute for mahogany. It is one of the best of the Chinese woods for furniture and wood details in building interiors. Cedrela sinensis lining Vernon Road, Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa. Photograph taken October 1976. Plants estimated to be approximately 80 years old. Photo: G. Koller. 161 Propagation experiments conducted at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia have proven that this tree is easily reproduced vegetatively. Best results were obtained by taking hardwood cuttings 6-8 inches long from juvenile or young trees in January or February. The cuttings were inserted in a soil mix of equal parts peat, perlite and sand and placed under mist or in a closed case. Bottom heat was maintained at 80F. Cuttings rooted and began growth in eight to ten weeks and produced a plant 24-30 inches tall by the end of the first growing season. According to Arnold Arboretum propagation records, seeds need no pretreatment prior to germination. However, a note indicated that seedlings are highly prone to damping off, so appropriate precautions such as a sterile soil, fungicidal soil drench and good air circulation around the seedlings may be helpful. We have been unable to locate a commercial source for this tree in North America. However, specimens exist at the following public gardens which may share propagating material with interested nursery-people. Arnold Arboretum; Morris Arboretum; Skylands Botanic Park, Ringwood, N.J.; Morton Arboretum; National Arboretum; University of Washington Arboretum; Planting Fields Arboretum; Dawes Arboretum. 162 Eucommia ulmoides Zone 5 Height Eucommiaceae 40-50 ft. Family: Hardy Rubber Tree Spread: 40-50 ft. Nativity: C. China The lustrous dark green foliage of this tree is distinct and dramatic enough to set it apart from neighboring trees. The leaves are toothed and deeply veined, and resemble those of the American Elm. Its clean foliage is an asset to municipal arborists for where it has been used it has needed no spray applications to control insects and disease; in fact, no foliage problems have been reported. Plant habit is variable and ranges from horizontal and widespreading branches to more ascending branching producing a rounded form. Ralph Shugurt, horticulturist at American Garden Cole, says that young seedlings produce straight stems but tend to be bushy and require corrective pruning for a good branch structure. Eucommia is the only North Temperate tree that contains latex. During World War II, latex supplies from the South Pacific were restricted because of armed conflict. At this time, Eucommia was evaluated to determine its potential for use in creating a domestic rubber supply. The quantity and quality were low and extraction methods difficult, however, and these factors combined to eliminate its use as an economic crop; as a result the tree was almost forgotten. At some point, street tree plantings were started in Cleveland, Ohio, and Indianapolis, Indiana, and as these trees reach maturity they are proving to be adaptable and desirable, attracting the attention of local landscape architects. 163 Eucommia is hnown medicinally as Tu-chung. Here a Chinese man transports bark to marhet where it will be brewed into tea, valued for centuries as a tonic medicine. Photographed in Yunyang Hsien, Eastern Szechuan, China, in July 1910 by E. H. Wilson. Limited street tree trials indicate that the trees are tolerant of acid and alkaline soils and require only good drainage. Preferred exposure is full sun as growth rate and plant form are inferior under shaded conditions. They seem to possess a high tolerance to air pollution, which is perhaps due to a thick cuticle and a slick, glossy leaf surface from which dust and dirt easily slide. Tolerance of reflected heat and light, drought and restricted root space seem to be high. The plant is interesting medicinally, for it has had a long history of use in Chinese herbal medicine and is known as Tu-chung in this context. The bark of Eucommia is roasted and used to prepare a tea that lowers blood pressure. In 1976, researchers at the University of Wisconsin analyzed the extract and isolated and synthesized the major anti-hypertension principle. During 1977, the People's Republic of China banned all export of the bark because of its extensive use and limited supply; as a result, bark is extremely expensive and hard to obtain in Chinese-American stores. Left: Eucommia is valued for its glossy, dark green foliage which is remarkably free of insects and disease. Photo: G. Koller. Right: Eucommia contains latex, and in this photograph the bark has been arranged to display the elastic fibers. Fruits are shown above. Photographed in Ichang, China, in 1911 bu E. H. Wilson. 164 This male plant of Eucommia has 4 feet. Photographed near a height of 30 feet and a circumference of Patung Hsien, China, in January 1909 by E. H. Wilson. Young trees are said to flower and fruit at the age of seven years. Insignificant flowers emerge in spring before or with the appearance of leaves. Separate plants are male or female and the female trees bear light green winged fruits 11\/z inches long. The fruits contain is extracted for various industrial uses. is easily accomplished by use of seeds, which can Propagation be collected in the autumn and planted directly into seedbeds outdoors with no treatment of the seed coat. Seeds to be started indoors require sixty to ninety days of stratification at 40F prior to planting. Germination is rapid and the majority of the seedlings will be 12-18 inches tall at the end of the first growing season, with a few reaching 24-30 inches tall. Ralph Shugart reports that seedlings vary in vigor, leaf size and leaf color. Chinese literature indicates that hardwood cuttings can be taken from one-year branchlets during early spring, before the leaves unfold. We have not yet attempted to test this propagation method at the 27% oil, and in China this oil Arnold Arboretum. Commercial sources seem to be nonexistent in New England. The plant is available wholesale from American Garden Cole, Circleville, Ohio. 165 Pistacia chinensis Zone 5 Height': 40-60 ft. Family: Anacardiaceae Chinese Pistache Spread : 30-50 ft. Nativity: China Pistacia chinensis has achieved popularity as a street tree in southern California, but it is virtually unknown in eastern and midwestern gardens. One might ask why this tree is so little known and grown. I believe it is because the plant's hardiness potential has never been fully evaluated and because there has been so little in the way of publicity promoting this tree species. This author has observed large plants growing at the Glen Dale Plant Introduction Station near Washington, D.C., at the Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia, and at the O. E. White Research Arboretum in Boyce, Virginia. At each location, the plant seemed not only to be surviving, but thriving. In attempting to evaluate cold hardiness potential, I contacted Dr. William Ackerman of the National Arboretum. He related that scions were received at the Plant Introduction Station in Glen Dale, Maryland, from trees at the Plant Introduction Center in Chico, California. Grafting took place in 1959 and two plants are being grown today. At the end of the 1977 growing season, or eighteen years from grafting, plant A had a D.B.H. of 8 inches, a height of 20 feet and a spread of 16 feet. Plant B had a D.B.H. of 6 inches, a height of 15 feet and a spread of 18 feet. They also have fifteen plants grown from seed in 1962. In 1977, at the end of the fifteenth season, the plants averaged a D.B.H. of 4 inches, were an average of 14 feet tall and had an average spread of 10 feet. Dr. Ackerman further states that the lowest temperature to which the plants have been subjected since they have been grown outdoors in Maryland has been -10F, with no apparent dieback or structural damage from ice and snow. Paul Meyer, Curator at the Morris Arboretum, states that their plant had no damage when winter temperatures dropped to -15F during the winter of 1976-77. Their plant was received as a B&B plant in 1961 and at the time of the coldest weather it was well established in its growing location and sheltered by a hill from sweeping winds. Michael Dirr has observed one plant fifteen to twenty years old growing in a home landscape in Champaign-Urbana, Illinois. The plant is 15 feet tall and is protected from the sweeping west winds by a house. While the plant hasn't grown well, it has survived temperatures of -20F during the winter of 1976-77. During the spring of 1977, the Arnold Arboretum received twenty test seedlings, 6 inches tall, from Monrovia Nursery Co. in California. These plants were left out-of-doors for the 1977-78 winter in an unprotected saran house. Minimum temperature for the winter was -1 F and there was a deep and constant snow cover from early 166 Pistacia chinensis is valued for its brilliant red to G. Koller. purple autumn foliage. Photo: January through mid-March. In spring 1978, the seedlings were transplanted to a larger growing area and in late July fifteen plants survive. We are not sure whether the five plants that died off did so because of lack of hardiness or because of transplant difficulties. These successes are by no means fair or reliable indicators of hardiness, but they do illustrate that the plant may be hardier than generally assumed and cultivation is worth attempting in areas with winter temperatures as low as -15F. Unfortunately, plants now grown in North America seem to represent limited genetic diversity because most have originated from the same source. To extend the plant's useful landscape range, we need to secure seedling populations grown from northern, high elevation locations in the People's Republic of China or northern areas of Korea. ~. Pistacia chinensis at the ascent of Fei-Yilel-ling, near Tung River, China. Tree has a height of 80 feet, a stem circumference of 10 feet, and is growing at an altitude of 6500 feet. Photographed in August 1908 by E. H. Wilson. 167 168 compound leaves of Pistacia are an ornamental reddish-purple they emerge, turning to a light green at maturity. Autumn color ranges from yellow-orange through reddish-purple and color varies among seedlings; individual seedlings differ from season to season. Dr. Skimina of Monrovia Nursery Co. reports that in southern California trees are not colorful but in cooler areas the autumn foliage ranges from orange to red. Dr. S. Y. Hu recalls that during her childhood in the People's Republic of China an annual event was a trip to Senyatsen Tomb National Park near Nanking to see the brilliant autumn display provided by Chinese Pistache. In this species, sexes are separated into male and female trees. Flowers are insignificant, but, according to Dr. Ackerman, fruiting clusters are extremely ornamental, frequently with a mixture of blue-green (fertilized) and bright red or sometimes white (unfertilized - with empty seed capsules) fruits in the same or adjacent fruit clusters. Growth seems to be more rapid in male plants. All people questioned stated that this tree is free of insects and disease, easy to transplant and tolerant of urban conditions, adapting to acid or alkaline soils. One notable attribute is adaptability to drought conditions, perhaps due to its tap root which provides strong anchorage as well as the ability to reach deeper water sources. Pistacia chinensis requires good soil drainage and exposure to full sun to encourage optimum growth and best form. The pinnately compound foliage creates an open canopy allowing the passage of filtered light. Correspondents observe that small groves of the plant are often more effective visually than are single specimen plants. Growers state that the plant is somewhat floppy in youth and requires staking and corrective pruning in order to develop good structure and a high canopy. General concensus from the nurserymen and landscape architects who know and grow this plant is that Pistacia chinensis deserves more widespread use. While this plant has potential modem applications, ancient and traditional uses are many. According to the Illustrated Manual of Chinese Trees and Shrubs by Chen Yung, the wood is light yellow, fine-grained, and in China is used for furniture, farm implements, stakes and carving. Monks in the mountains of Chekiang and Hupeh pick and dry the tender young shoots for later use as a tea. The fruits are gathered by farmers and pressed to remove the oil which is used in cooking and to fuel lamps. Pistacia chinensis is easily propagated by seeds. Prior to planting, the pulp should be removed and the seed should be soaked in water for sixteen hours. No information was discovered regarding vegetative propagation of this species. Plants are available wholesale from Monrovia Nursery Co., in Azusa, California. The as Trunh of the largest specimen of Pistacia chinensis E. H. Wilson observed in China. 169 170 ~ Sorbus alnifolia Zone 5 (4?) Rosaceae Height: 30-60 ft. Korean Mountain Ash Spread: 25-50 ft. Family: Korean Mountain Ash combines Nativity: China, Korea, Japan abundant flowers and fruit produc- tion, golden to orange-bronze autumn color and attractive smooth gray bark, giving it a multiseason landscape value and making it perfect choice for the home as well as the urban setting. Flat-topped terminal clusters of single white flowers 3\/4-inch across appear in early May; young trees show alternate-year flowering and fruiting characteristics. Highly ornamental small, pea-sized fruits ripen in September and vary in color from bright reddish-pink to reddish-purple, color being dependent on seedling variation. As the fruit ripens, the leaves change from dark green to a stunning blend of oranges and browns. The autumn foliage provides a colorful stage to highlight the outer fruit clusters; the inner clusters are hidden. Autumn color is most effective after the leaves have fallen away and the small reddish-pink fruits stand alone. Due to the abundance of fruits and the bright coloration, they provide a glow or aura to the tree in the waning autumn sunlight. Growth rates are moderate in young trees and slow as the tree reaches maturity. Habit varies depending on training during young stages. The plant can be grown single-stemmed by encouraging the fruit for Sorbus alnifolia combines golden to orange foliage and bright red to purple a stunning autumn display. Photo: G. Koller. 171 Smooth gray bark is G. Koller. a year-round landscape asset for Sorbus alnifolia. Photo: at the 8- to 10-foot level. Where space is available, the tree can be grown multistemmed from directly above the soil level and will develop into a huge rounded mass 40-50 feet tall. During the winter the rounded silhouette is enhanced by the tracery of the smooth silver-gray stems and larger branches. The branches are strongly upswung giving rise to narrow crotch angles which one would assume to be structurally weak. However, this author's observations fail to reveal a propensity to damage from ice loads and strong winds. Sorbus alnifolia adapts to an acid or alkaline soil pH and is not particular as to soil type as long as drainage is adequate. Fibrous branching roots contribute to ease of transplanting and rapid reestablishment. branching to begin Sorbus alnifolia can be grown multistemmed or headed up to create stemmed street tree. Mature habit is rounded. Photo: G. Koller. a single Preferred exposure is full sun. While this species thrives in a wide climatic range along the East Coast and Midwest, it seems to perform best in cooler areas from the ornamental perspective of autumn foliage and fruit color. Damage from insects and disease are minimal, although this author has seen mild cases of leaf spotting and the susceptible to fire blight. Mountain-ash (Sorbus aucuparia), a related species, has been widely used as a street tree in some northern areas. However, success has been greatly reduced because it is prone, especially under stress, to attack from stem borers which cause the tree to decline and die at an early age. Sorbus alnifolia, on the other hand, seems to resist borers, giving this species the attribute of longer survival potential under urban conditions. Korean Mountain Ash is easily grown from seed which is collected in the autumn, cleaned of fleshy pulp and placed in outdoor seedbeds for germination the following spring. Indoors, a cold stratification at 40F for sixty days ensures optimum germination. During spring 1979, this plant will be available in the Boston area from Seltzer's Garden City, Inc., in Newton, and from Weston Nurseries in Hopkinton; it is available wholesale from Princeton Nurseries in Princeton, New Jersey. Seeds may be obtained from Koryodang International Flower Service, Central C.P.O. Box 1718, Seoul, Korea. In this article I have proposed four trees that are old-timers in American botanical gardens and may prove to be tough, adaptable materials for urban landscapes. What is needed now is a group of progressive nurserymen, street tree commissioners, landscape architects and individual homeowners who will install test plantings for long-term evaluations under a variety of growing conditions. Only in this way will we adequately determine the cultural and environmental adaptability of these new trees for urban landscapes. tree is said to be "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"First Impressions of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":173,"end_page":179,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24731","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25ea726.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":5,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dirr, Michael A.","article_content":"First by Impressions of the Arnold Arboretum MICHAEL DIRR impressions are often the most critical and permanent in one's assessment of a person, place or plant. Presently I am on sabbatical leave at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University and have literFirst ally fallen in love with the institution. If one is interested in studying, photographing and enjoying hardy woody plants, then the Arnold Arboretum is the place to visit. Nowhere else (and I have visited a plethora of plant collections) are the species and cultivar diversity so rich, the records so profuse and creditable, the library so voluminous, the propagation so detailed, and the people so enthusiastic. The Arnold Arboretum is truly America's greatest garden. I have come to appreciate it as a treasure trove of woody plants unrivaled on the North American continent and perhaps the world. Traditions ooze from every nook and cranny of the Administration Building and one feels that somewhere in the shadows (and there are many) lurk the spirits of Charles S. Sargent, the indomitable first director; Ernest H. Wilson, the great plant explorer; and Alfred Rehder, whose literary contributions are the standards by which other botanical and horticultural offerings are gauged. The historical aspects of the Arboretum are well documented through the writings of Sargent, Wilson, Wyman and Sutton. The institution is steeped in tradition and there is a type of magic in the name Arnold Arboretum. Among botanists, horticulturists and gardeners, the Arboretum is a household word and this cannot be said of any other institution. The Arboretum's staff has made numerous literary contributions to botany and horticulture. I think of classic work, Manual ofthe Trees ofNorth America, with Sargent's the excellent drawings by C. E. Faxon. Rehder's Manual ofCultivated Trees and Shrubs is considered the bible for woody plant identification. Presently Stephen A. Spongberg is revising Rehder's Manual and incorporating his own unique ideas and style which will result in a better publication than the original. Wilson's prosaic descriptions of the Arnold Arboretum's collections in the Aristocrat series make for relaxing reading. Wyman's books, Trees for American Gardens, The Gardening Encyclopedia, and others provide tremendous visibility for the Arnold and actually have opened the living collections to the gardeners of the world. His books were the most popular texts for woody plant material courses through the 1950's and 1960's. 173 174 Willingly, The two or otherwise, Wyman influenced several decades of hor- ticultural students. Arnoldia and the Journal ofthe Arnold Arbovehicles for the dissemination of popular and scientific information, respectively. Arnoldia can be appreciated by the lay gardener as well as the scientist. Articles may range in scope from wreathmaking and the Director's report to excellent treatises on specific plants. Specific issues may treat poisonous plants or, as in the case of Robert Hebb's \"Low Maintenance Perennials,\" consume several issues and assume book status. Arnoldia articles are written for enjoyable and informative reading. One does not have to read through a glossary to make sense of the various offerings. My University of Illinois students are introduced to Arnoldia and many become subscribers. Arnoldia is a great literary bargain in the vast sea of horticultural literature. The Journal is much more scientific and represents a scholarly (refereed) vehicle for taxonomic research. I have browsed and read many arboretum and botanical garden publications and for quality and quantity of information none compares with Arnoldia or the Journal. The Arboretum library offers an excellent selection of periodicals and books. References that are not available in the University of Illinois library (fourth largest in United States) have found their way into the Arboretum stacks. The library also houses unusual items, such as John Wister's Swarthmore Plant Notes. These volumes are laden with Dr. Wister's evaluations of the plant collections at Swarthmore College and represent a tremendous compilation of horticultural information. The Arnold has maintained good records through the years. Painstaking record keeping might seem like an obvious necessity for every arboretum, but in reality seldom occurs. The Arnold's collection is of documented, authentic origin which is a tremendous attribute for serious researchers. Propagation is one of my research, as well as avocational, interests and these records have proved invaluable. The Arnold's herbarium contains one of the most complete collections of cultivated plants in the world. Most people cannot appreciate the herbarium aspect of an arboretum, but it is as important as the library, the living collections, and the records. My principal reason for coming to the Arnold on sabbatical was to work with the living collections. It is here that I derive the greatest satisfaction. I am a plantsman and would as soon study plants as eat. Some days I find myself lunching at 3:00 p.m. simply because I became so engrossed in the collections. I have asked myself repeatedly that if this sort of thing is occurring when green is the dominant color, what will happen in fall and spring? Allow me to share some thoughts and opinions related to specific members of the living collections. When I walk through the maple collection I wonder why Acer griseum, paperbark maple, Acer mandshuricum, Mandchurian maple, Acer triflorum, three-flower maple, periodicals, retum, are 175 The mature bark of Acer triflorum is ash-brown, Photo: D. Wyman. loose, and vertically fissured. 176 and Acer mono, painted maple, do not play a more prominent role in modem landscapes. Our gardens are poorer because of their paucity. Their small stature, fall coloration, bark, insect and disease resistance are unrivaled. Unfortunately, propagation difficulties limit wholesale distribution. The maples are a diverse group and the range of aesthetic attributes places them at the forefront of all landscape plants. The Phellodendron amurense, Amur corktree, along Meadow Road is one of my favorites. Although old age and physical abuse are contributing to decline, it remains one of the most picturesque of all Arboretum offerings. The low-slung, corky-textured branches curve skyward and terminate in flat tiers of foliage. In this same area the Tilia, lindens, almost overwhelm one in late June and July with their enticing fragrance. Tilia X euchlora, Crimean linden, Tilia japonica, Japanese linden, Tilia petiolaris, pendent silver linden, and Tilia tomentosa, silver linden, are my favorites. The Aesculus, buckeyes and horsechestnuts, meld with the lindens and provide a fine show during May. A valuable exception is Aesculus parviflora, bottlebrush buckeye, which produces white, cylindrical, bottlebrush-shaped inflorescences in July. This is one of the very finest native shrubby landscape plants for sun or shade, yet is uncommon in American gardens. favorite haunt and I attempt to walk through portion every day. The Vitex, chaste trees, and Potentilla, cinquefoils, offer late season color. Buddleia, butterfly-bush, could not have been more appropriately named and a rose called 'Arnold' flowers out of synchronization. The rose hips of glistening orange and red attract my camera. I do not always know where to turn next for there never seems to be sufficient time for everything. Clethra alnifolia, summersweet clethra, white and pink, spice the garden. The bees treat them provincially and often I am buzzed as I attempt The shrub collection is a a to secure a close-up. The forsythia and lilacs are resting and appear nondescript during the summer and autumn months but will become the stars of Bussey Hill Road next April and May. Further on the Halesia, silverbells, rank among my favorites with their pendulous, white, bell-shaped flowers. They are four-season ornamentals and deserve wider useage. In the same area (Center Street beds), one finds the Styrax, snowbells, more handsome specimens of which I have not seen. At the end of a grassy path between the Ilex, holly, and Corylopsis, winterhazel, resides a spectacular Parrotia persica, Persian parrotia. Parrotia is a member of the witch-hazel family with pest-resistant foliage, quilt-work bark, and a uniqueness that defies description. E. H. Wilson would have certainly called this an 'Aristocrat'. The conifers, hornbeams, beeches, and birches are worth more than a casual look. Crabapples, hawthorns, and mountain-ashes appear endless. The Chinese walk, before the summit of Bussey Hill, is laden with outstanding plants. The stewartias, whether in flower, fall color, or bark are spectacular. There is an impressive specimen Chionanthus retusus in flower has been likened to H. Howard. a fleecy dome of snow. Photo: Winter outline of Tilia tomentosa smooth gray branches. emphasizes the uniform growth habit and The graceful, flowing outline of Aesculus parviflora makes it an ideal choice for shrub borders and underplantings. The adaptability to full sun or heavy shade permits its use in many landscape situations. of Chionanthus retusus, Chinese fringetree, which in flower has been likened to a fleecy dome of snow. The oldest paperbark maple in this country is nestled among the stewartias. The infamous Davidia involucrata, dove tree, for which E. H. Wilson endured much pain and suffering, resides in this most exclusive of neighborhoods. If I seem enthusiastic it is not without reason, for the Arnold possesses a great collection of woody plants. The institution is not immune to problems, however. The Administration Building is showing its age and needs refurbishing; the city has encroached and encircled the Arboretum making it more vulnerable to the invasion of man; and many of the plants are old and require considerable maintenance to keep them in presentable condition. Tradition tends to dictate the Arboretum's practices and programs where innovation and change would prove most beneficial. I envision a computerization of records so that information storage and retrieval could be easily facilitated. Photographic equipment could be updated and perhaps an artist\/photographer added to the staff. Plant breeding might be initiated and propagation research could be expanded to include tissue culture. Although woody plants have proven rather difficult to propagate by this method, what better place to advance the frontiers than at the Arnold Arboretum? The Arnold is the best at what it does and can be even greater. Its publications rank among the best in botanical and horticultural literature. It has contributed much to American gardens. Perhaps more has been given than will ever be received or properly recognized. It is America's Greatest Garden. Michael Dirr is Associate Professor of Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana. Currently on sabbatical, he is a Mercer Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum. The beautiful flowers of Stewartia are evident in from a paucity of color. Photo: P. Bruns. July when most gardens suffer "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: New Director Is Appointed [Peter S. Ashton]","article_sequence":3,"start_page":180,"end_page":181,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24733","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25eab6f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":5,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM New Director Is Appointed Ashton, formerly Senior Lecturer in Botany at Aberdeen Scotland, became the fifth Director of the Arnold ArboUniversity, retum on July 1. He succeeds Richard Alden Howard, who resigned from the post to devote full time to research on subtropical plants. An expert in plant classification and the flora of the Asian Tropics, Peter Ashton was bom in 1934 in Boscombe, England. He attended Peter Shaw Stowe School in Buckinghamshire and received his M.A. and Ph.D. in botany from Cambridge University. Between 1957 and 1962, Ashton spent three years in Brunei (northwest Borneo) and two years in Cambridge, England, serving as Forest Botanist to the Government of Brunei. From 1962 to 1965 he was Forest Botanist to the Government of Sarawak (northern Borneo), and in 1965 became United Nations Consultant in Forest Botany to the Special Fund Development Project in southern Cambodia. In 1966 he began teaching at Aberdeen University as a Lecturer in Botany; since 1972 he has held the post as Senior Lecturer. Ashton, whose research and teaching interests include tropical biology, trees, and ecology, has conducted botanical research in Ceylon with the Smithsonian Institution, and in Malaya for the Royal Society of London and the International Biological Programme. A Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh and of the Linnaean Society of London, he is the author of several books and numerous papers on the taxonomy of dipterocarp trees and the ecology of far eastern rain degrees forests. Peter Ashton, his wife, Mary, and three children (Peter Mark, Mellard John, and Rachel Mary) will make their new home at the Arboretum's Case Estates in Weston. 180 ~ 181 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":182,"end_page":184,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24730","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25ea36d.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":5,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Quest of Flowers: The Plant Explorations of Frank Ludlow and George Sherriff. Harold R. Fletcher. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. xxix and 387 pages (includes botanical index and general index). Illustrated. 10. Frank Ludlow, naturalist and educator, and George Sherriff, professional soldier, met in Kashgar in the winter of 1929. Finding that they shared an interest in the flora and fauna of the eastern Himalayas, they planned a series of expeditions to systematically cover the Himalayas of Bhutan and Tibet. Between the years 1933 and 1949, they produced numerous botanical discoveries, introducing to England countless plants that had been overlooked by earlier explorers of the same territory, primarily within the genera Rhododendron and Primula. Their extensive and detailed notes on each collection were of great importance in the taxonomic classification of the Himalayan flora. This volume, compiled largely from the diaries and correspondence of Ludlow and Sherriff, will give the reader a vivid image of the land, the people, and the plants of the eastern Himalayas, as well as a feeling for the two explorers as individuals. In all cases of plant collections, the specimen's collection number is noted, increasing the book's value to the botanist. As is generally the case with accounts of such expeditions, the book abounds with descriptions of exotic locales and excellent photographs of the terrain and of individual plants. The photographs have all been reproduced in muted tones and with their comers cropped diagonally to give the impression of old prints in a scrapbook. To some this might seem too \"cutesy,\" but I found it pleasant. One annoyance, however, was the type style used. The \"t\" consistently appears to be wearing an accent aigu, and the Italic style includes characters (notably the \"d\" and \"h\") that are considerably more decorative than readable. This reviewer found it quite impossible to read for any length of time without eyestrain very irritating when the subject matter A - was so engrossing. JENNIFER HICKS F. Morton. Springfield, Ill.: Charles C. Thomas. 431 pages, illustrated. $49.50. The word pharmacognosy means the study of drugs and other economic products obtained from natural sources. The formidability of the term prevented the author from using it in the title, but that is what the book is about. She has written for two groups: (1) the pharmacologic students who need a reference source in a field that has become relatively neglected in the curriculum, and (2) the consuming public. The latter group is particualrly important because recent years have seen the laity acquire an unprecedented thirst for knowledge of things medical and a strong interest in the consumption of natural products, both food and Major Medicinal Plants. Julia drugs. equipped to enter the discussion alluded to by the distinguished who wrote the forewords, as to how far the curriculum of schools of pharmacy should continue this movement away from natural products and towards synthetic drugs and their clinical uses. But I can vouch for the great interest the volume holds for the consumer group. The major medicinal plants are arranged according to their twentyeight families and are listed with scientific and common names and synonyms. Dr. Morton has set up each chapter under parallel headings so that the sources, preparation, constituents (active principles), medicinal uses and toxicities are not omitted in any. One can find without difficulty am I not professors 182 183 that reserpine is the most active ingredient of Rauvolfia serpentina, or Serpent-wood of the Dogbane family, Apocyanaceae, and that it is native to Southern Asia where it was used for snake bite and nervousness for 4,000 years before its modern recognition for the treatment of high blood pressure. The methods of cultivation of the plant and the extraction of reserpine are outlined in detail, as are its toxic effects if the doses are too large. All the other products are treated in the same manner. Some of them are familiar, such as castor oil (Ricinus communis); some not, such as cade oil (Juniperus oxycedrus) for dermatitis. Some are an essential part of our therapeutic armamentarium; for example, digitalis for heart disease (Digitalis purpurea or foxlove). Others are not, such as marshmallow (Althaea officinalis) used as a demulcent and emollient (incidentally, no longer an ingredient of the confection). The orderly arrangement is carried into two appendixes. The first is a list of plants that, although still listed in the Pharmacopoeia and used in patent medicines, have fallen into clinical disuse. Examples are Salicin from Salix, the original source of aspirin, which is now made synthetically, and witch hazel from Hamamelis. The second appendix is a list of plants that are used only as vehicles, lubricants, and flowers. Examples are the alga, Furcellaria fastigiata, or Danish agar used for suspensions and foams, and Smilax aristolochiaefolia, or Mexican sarsaparilla, a familiar flavoring agent. Since most medicinal plants are toxic in overdose, the book is also of those dealing with the effects of poisonous plants on man and animals. The illustrations are good, the index useful, and the author has placed a list of six hundred references at the end as a guiding hand for those who wish to proceed further. In sum, it is a scholarly work on a subject with a wide interest. RICHARD WARREN, M.D. concern to Ehret: Flower Painter Extraordinary. Gerta Calmann. Boston, MA: Little Brown (a New York Graphic Society Book). 160 pages with 95 plates in color and black and white. $32.50. George Dionysius Ehret (1695-1769) rose from obscure beginnings as a gardener in Heidelberg to become one of the most significant botanical and horticultural illustrators through his efforts for the authors of his lifetime Sir Hans Sloans, Philip Miller, C. J. Trew, Joseph Banks, and Carl Linnaeus, among others. Mrs. Calmann has written of Ehret's life and associations, citing from correspondence and published works in such a way as to bring the man back among us. Ehret's likes and dislikes, his attention to dissections and botanical detail, his search for patrons and a steady income, his intrigue with new plant material, his preference for living material in contrast to dried specimens, and his prolific lifetime production are well described. She estimates that more than 3,000 of his drawings are extant, and she was able to visit the outstanding collections of his work preserved in England, France, Germany, and the United States. The drawings selected for reproduction are representative of the development of Ehret's style, and each item is documented so as to present location. The incorporation by Ehret of details and dissections, of insects, butterflies, and snails, and his use of descriptive legends and dedications are well shown. The text contains many references to notes supporting each chapter. Useful indices are given to plants and to persons. Most teachers, and taxonomists in particular, will value the color reproduction of Ehret's \"Tabella\" of Linnaeus' Sexual System of Plant Classification, which has been available, generally, only in smaller size and in black and white. Those interested in the history of botany and horticulture will find many useful anecdotes and references. This is a book to read with pleasure, to leaf through to enjoy the pictures, or to use for the immense reference value contained. RICHARD A. HOWARD - 184I Die Holzer Mitteleuropas, Dietger Grosser. Springer-Verlag: Berlin, Germany. 208 pages, illustrated, packet charts. U.S. $43.20. Unhappily, the high price (201f a page) and the text in German will dissuade many from purchasing this excellent small volume. The first section of the book is descriptive and explanatory for general wood anatomy. Diagrams, light photographs, S.E.M. photographs, and charts are used effectively in presenting concisely what is generally verbose and elaborate in anatomy texts. The second section describes and illustrates the wood of common genera of central Europe. Seven genera of conifers and fifty-one genera, representing thirty-two families, of woody Dicotyledoneae are treated, often with several species of the important genera. Text material describes the general appearance of the plant, its use or distribution; the macroscopic characteristics of the wood and the microscopic characteristics, in distinctive paragraphs. Usually four illustrations form a facing plate, with 25x and 75x magnifications of the cross section, and the radial section usually twice the magnification of the tangential, so that the appropriate characters are well known. The inclusion of such genera as Ilex, Buxus, Hedera, Philadelphus, and Daphne indicates the unusual coverage offered. The volume would be extremely useful in a plant anatomy class that uses campus plants for study. Two drawbacks should also be mentioned. Several of the plates are foldouts; these buckle with a few uses and must be trimmed. While all the text is on glossy paper, the low quality of the paper of the packet and of the three folded tables is regrettable. One of these, a tabular summary of all taxa included in the text, with vessel element, fibers, rays, and parenchyma, will not stand the long use it is apt to receive. RICHARD A. HOWARD Gentians. Mary Bartlett. Blandford Press: Poole, Dorset, U.K., 160 pages, illustrated. 3.25. Basically this is a fine addition to the list of excellent books on Gentians for the gardener. The first half is devoted to discussions of various aspects of the history and cultivation of this wonderful group of plants, and the last half is made up mostly of individual accounts of about fifty of the commonly cultivated species, giving descriptions and cultural tips. Although the book was written for British gardeners, the cultural information generally is valid for us in the United States except that a number of the species included are tender or otherwise culturally unsuited to the climate here in the Northeast. I can find little fault with the correctness of the information included, and it is well presented. The treatment of taxonomically difficult species complexes, such as Gentiana acaulis and G. verna, and their relatives, is handled sensibly. The chapter on hybrids is the most complete account of this subject presently available, and the sections on South American -' , and New Guinean Gentians are unique in the horticultural literature. The only serious flaw is the treatment of Gentianella. Most authors ignore the very obvious and taxonomically valid distinctions between this genus and Gentiana, so I must give Ms. Bartlett credit for trying. But her chapter on Gentianella includes only the \"Fringed Gentians\" which some authorities include in another genus, Gentianopsis. The chapter on annuals correctly assigns most species to Gentianella, except for G. bulgarica. Finally, the New Zealand and South American species are included under Gentiana while they are obviously Gentianellas. The book is well illustrated with generally good color photographs and clear line drawings. Some of the drawings are unfortunately redrawn from previously published works without acknowledgement, one which I recognize being The Gentians of Canada, Alaska, and Greenland, by J. M. Gillett. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. ` ~ ' . ~ ` , Pueraria lobata. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23350","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd2608928.jpg","title":"1978-38-5","volume":38,"issue_number":5,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ornamental Birches","article_sequence":1,"start_page":117,"end_page":131,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24729","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd25ea328.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":4,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Ornamental Birches by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The genus Betula, the birches, includes perhaps forty to fifty species restricted to the cooler regions of the northern hemisphere. The species vary greatly in their habit, from low alpine shrubs to tall forest trees. The latter species are those most commonly cultivated as ornamentals, and they will be the subject of this article. Here in New England, birches are familiar native trees. While four species are common, the Canoe Birch, Betula papyrifera, with its striking white bark, is the most conspicuous one in the landscape. This species and its closest Eurasian relatives are also the most common in the urban and suburban landscape because of the unique and striking color of their bark. Unfortunately these species Other species are susceptible to several devastating insect pests. of equal ornamental value are available to replace them but are practically unknown to gardeners. One purpose of this article is to give exposure to some of these alternative trees. The collection of birches here at the Arnold Arboretum has deteriorated for one reason or another over the years. Many of Ernest Wilson's Asiatic introductions did not prove reliably hardy and have long since disappeared. And the location of the collection itself a dry, gravelly hillside is not ideal for plants that prefer a cool, moist soil. As a result, many of the trees lack a certain vigor, rendering them susceptible to the ravages of the Bronze Birch Borer. Yet, the collection contains about forty-five species, varieties, hybrids and cultivars, and some exceptionally fine specimen plants. Most of the personal observations recorded in this article were based on the Arnold Arboretum's collection and I wish to thank Mr. Kenneth Shaw, Assistant Supervisor of the Living Collections, for his tutoring on the insect pests and their control, as well as Mr. Henry Goodell, Assistant Superintendent, and Mr. James Nickerson, Arboretum pruner, for measuring the trees. The classification of the genus is somewhat confused, and many of the species are difficult to distinguish without the use of technical characters. All, however, have simple, alternate leaves with toothed edges, shape varying from triangular to elliptic at least in the arborescent species, which usually color yellow in the fall. The bark is marked with conspicuous horizontal lines breathing pores or lenticels and these are persistent even on the old trunks of most species. The flowers are unisexual, borne in separate \"male\" and - 117 118 Leaves and fruiting catkins of representative Betula species. Clockwise from top right, Betula pendula, B. pendula 'Gracilis', B. albo-sinensis, B. populifolia, B. lenta, B. alleganiensis, B. ermanii, B. schmidtii, B. papyrifera. Photograph: R. Weaver. \"female\" catkins on the same tree. The males of most species are formed in the fall, but they elongate and open, exposing the copious wind-borne pollen as the leaves are unfolding in the spring. The females are formed in the spring; after they are pollinated they expand and become quite stout As is obvious when they mature and fall apart in the late summer, they are composed of numerous threepronged scales each with three seeds, the latter actually tiny flattened nutlets with a thin, membranous wing on each side that allows them to be dispersed by the wind. NOTES ON GENERAL CULTURE Birches are fast growing, and many are short-lived. Although there are several exceptions, most do best in a cool, relatively moist situation. At least the white-barked species are weak-wooded, and their twiggy crowns collect and hold ice and snow. Therefore they are subject to damage from winter storms. Because of these characteristics, few birches would be recommended as street trees. For 119 home plantings, they are probably most useful when placed in groves with other trees, although a few are most effective when planted as specimens. Care should be taken to prevent the outer bark of the white-barked species from being stripped or marred since the injured area will always remain black. INSECT PESTS Birches are susceptible to attack from several insects, but the two discussed below are generally serious. only Birch Leaf Miner (Fenusa pusilla). This small black sawfly is native to the Old World. Entomologists first reported it in Connecticut in 1925, but it has spread rapidly and is now common throughout New England and the Mid-Atlantic states. The adults overwinter in the soil in the pupal stage. They emerge and lay their first batch of eggs directly on the birch leaves sometime during May, with later batches in July and August. If the leaves are young and tender enough, white, maggot-like larvae, upon hatching, burrow into the leaf tissue and eat their way through it. The infested areas first Leaf miner damage in Betula populifolia. Above, early damage, the eggs just hatching on right; below, full extent of damage. Photograph: R. Weaver. 120 finally brown. The effects are at least unsightly, repeated, severe attacks cause the trees to decline and make them susceptible to other pests, particularly the Bronze Birch Borer. In general only the species in the Betula papyrifera pendula populifolia alliance are highly susceptible to the leaf miner, although other species may show some damage from the spring brood. The later broods, incidentally, are seldom serious since only leaves on sucker shoots are generally tender enough to be damaged. The leaf miner can be kept under control by spraying with Malathion early in May, with two subsequent sprayings at ten-day intervals. To control the second brood, the trees should be sprayed around the first and tenth of July. appear papery and but - Bronze Birch Borer (Agrilus anxius). This is a native beetle widely distributed in the northern United States and southern Canada. Although it occurs in natural stands of birches, it is usually only dev- astating to those trees planted as ornamentals. Again, the whitebarked species related to Betula papyrifera and B. pendula are most susceptible. Adult beetles emerge and are active for a long period during the They lay their eggs in cracks in the bark, particularly in new wounds. Upon hatching the white, grub-like larvae tunnel into the cambium which they feed upon one to two years, and in the process make long, winding channels between the bark and the wood. If a limb is girdled, it of course dies. The first obvious signs of damage are sparse and chlorotic foliage, particularly high in the crown of the tree. By this time, unfortunately, there is little to do except to remove the infested branches if possible and preferably burn them. Like many other insect pests, the Bronze Birch Borer is only seriously damaging to the trees that already have been weakened by disease, other insects, or unfavorable growing conditions. Healthy trees can usually recover from attack, with no outward damage except for lumpy areas on the bark where the borers were active. The susceptible white-bark birches are plants of northern latitudes and high elevations areas with cool, moist summers and a good snow cover in the winter. The warmer and drier the site in which they are grown as ornamentals, the less vigorous in general they will be. For this reason these trees are not satisfactory in the southern United States. In other areas, regular watering and annual fertilization will help maintain vigor, as will a heavy mulch to retain moisture during the growing season and to protect the roots in the absence of a snow cover during the winter. Spraying the trunk and major branches with Lindane, where this is permissible, will give some measure of control as well. A recommended schedule would be to apply the spray late in May, with two subsequent applications at two-week intervals. summer. - 121 PROPAGATION Fresh seeds from birch species germinate readily without pretreatment ; older seeds germinate more uniformly if stratified for three months at 40F. However, because most species hybridize readily, seed is a satisfactory means of propagation only if it is collected from wild sources or isolated cultivated specimens. Unfortunately many birches root poorly from cuttings, although here at the Arnold Arboretum we have succeeded with softwood cuttings of the hybrid Betula X jackii, B. davurica, and B. maximowicziana. Best results were obtained with 1 % IBA or a mixture of .8% IBA and 15% Thiram. Most species are propagated commercially by grafting, basically any species serving well as understock for any other. SELECTED SPECIES discussed below are grouped according to their natural relationships closely related species have more or less the same horticultural attributes. The species since Birches With White Bark Betula tion \" papyrifera most This is the Canoe, Paper, or White Birch widespread of the American birches, its distribu- stretching almost across the continent in the north. It is basically a plant of the cool north woods, and it grows almost to the Arctic treeline in eastern Canada. Although its wood is not as valuable as that of the Sweet or the Yellow Birch, various parts of the tree were good use by the Indians and the early European settlers and explorers. Now it is widely grown as an ornamental, its white bark comparing favorably with that of the European White Birch, although neither its crown nor its foliage is as graceful as in its European relative. Over its wide geographic range the Canoe Birch is extremely variable, and its bark is not always white. The types that range through New England and around the Great Lakes make the put to best ornamentals. At least in the Northeast, this species reputedly suffers less from the Bronze Birch Borer than other commonly grown white-barked species. However, many of the specimens at the Arnold Arboretum have shown slight to heavy borer infestations, and recently several have been removed. Our finest specimen is growing in the yard at 163 Walter Street on Peter's Hill. We do not have any records for this plant; it is somewhat atypical for the species and perhaps represents a hybrid with the Canoe Birch as one parent. To me it is one of the most beautiful trees in the Arnold Arboretum. It is 60 feet tall with a spread of 68 feet the largest birch in our collections. It is completely free from borers. We hope to propagate the tree and further test it for borer resistance. - 122I Betula pendula 'Youngii'. Photograph: B. D. Wyman. Betula pendula (formerly B. alba or verrucosa) European White or Silver Birch This native of northern Europe, with its glistening white bark and gracefully drooping branchlets, is one of the most striking and beautiful of hardy shade trees. It is unfortunately among the shortestlived, weakest-wooded, and most susceptible to leaf miner and borer of all the birches. With proper care it can be a satisfactory plant, and the elegance of a mature specimen, particularly of one of the selected clones, is certainly worth a lot of trouble. The following clones, many of which are considerably more attractive than the species, are available in the American nursery trade. `Fastigiata' Columnar European Birch. An upright form, densely - branched from the base, this can be a beautiful twigs impart a feathery appearance to the plant, tree. particularly Betula The slender in the pendula 'Tristis' 123 winter. Unfortunately it is extremely prone to damage from snow and ice. Even if the branches do not snap, those that are bent seldom return to their former upright position, and the trees eventually come to look a bit monstrous. The winter of 1976-1977 was a particularly bad one for the specimens of this clone in the Arnold Arboretum's collection, and nearly all of them were ruined. Often referred to in nursery commonly grown of several clones with finely cut leaves and long, wispy, pendulous branches. It is perhaps the most graceful of the European White Birches, but it is unfortunately prone to the problems common to the rest. `Gracilis' - Cutleaf European Birch catalogues as 'Laciniata', this is the most 'Tristis'- Slender European Birch. This is similar to 'Gracilis' in its long, drooping branches, but the leaves are not finely cut, and the crown is usually very slender and graceful. 'Youngii'. This clone is characterized by small size, stiffly drooping branches, and rather irregular growth without a central leader. It is best grafted onto a high standard. 124 Betula populifolia Gray Birch This small tree is common throughout southern Canada and the adjacent United States south to Ohio and Virginia. It is a somewhat weedy tree, one of the first to appear in pastures, along roadsides, or other disturbed areas. Unlike our other native arborescent birches, it would never be a component of a mature forest. Like most weedy trees, the Gray Birch is quick-growing and shortlived, and it grows well on poor, dry soil. Its ornamental uses are not quite comparable to those of other white-barked birches but it does have its place in the cultivated landscape. The bark is slightly grayish with conspicuous dark lenticels and rather numerous black areas all in all not nearly so distinguished as the bark of the Canoe Birch or the European White Birch. And even under the best conditions, the trees develop a slender twiggy crown - graceful but a bit skimpy. Because of this habit of growth, however, they are excellent for planting in clumps. The species is poorly represented in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, but one twenty-sevenyear-old specimen is 32 feet tall, with a spread of 16 feet. The Gray Birch is susceptible to the Bronze Birch Borer and highly susceptible to the Birch Leaf Miner, so much so that the foliage of unsprayed trees is often quite brown and unsightly by midsummer. Its twiggy crown collects snow and ice to a greater extent than that of most other deciduous trees, and it is common in New England to see large patches of these trees bent nearly to the ground after a winter storm. They are amazingly pliable, however, and healthy trees will usually return to their more or less upright stature. - Birches With Whitish to Reddish Bark Betula ermanii This species, in its finer forms, is probably the best white-barked birch theoretically resistant to the Bronze Birch Borer. It is common throughout much of temperate eastern Asia, often at high elevations. In Japan at least, it ascends to the treeline. The plants from high elevations are shrubby in nature, and probably would remain so in cultivation. Those from lower elevations are graceful trees, often with several trunks. The color of the bark varies greatly, from silvery gray-brown to white, so for ornamental purposes seed-grown material should be avoided in favor of clonally propagated plants. The oldest specimen presently among the Arnold Arboretum's collections has many desirable ornamental qualities. At twenty-five years it is 25 feet tall with a spread of 28 feet. Its trunk divides into three near the ground. The bark is lustrous white with a creamy to pinkish tinge, and long, narrow, pale-colored lenticels. It is mostly tight on the trunk, looking almost stretched, although there are areas where it shreds off in thin strips. Very few large, black areas are evident. The tree is completely free from the borer. 125 Winter aspect of various birch species. Left, part of the birch collection at the Arnold Arboretum showing Betula ermanii in the center, B. populifolia just to its left, and several specimens of B. papyrifera; right, a specimen of B. pendula 'Fastigiata' showing the bent branches caused by snow and ice. Photographs: R. Weaver. Although the Arnold Arboretum introduced this species into cultivation in the United States in 1881, it is still rare in this country and it has never been pushed as a nursery item. Perhaps its main drawback is that the white color of the bark does not develop as early as in some other species, but its resistance to the ravages of the Bronze Birch Borer should be ample compensation. Betula albo-sinensis Chinese Paper Birch This native of western China was introduced by Wilson when he was collecting for Veitch, but it is rare in cultivation at present. I have never seen a truly good specimen, but from descriptions this must be a beautiful tree. Typically, the peeling, orange-brown bark is reminiscent of that of the celebrated Paperbark Maple (Acer griseum), although it does vary in color to orange-gray or nearly white. The two specimens at the Arnold Arboretum are very different in appearance. They are about the same age (twenty-five years), but 126 127 low, sparse and generally undistinguished although the bark attractive yellowish-white peeling to reveal an orange-brown layer. The other has a tall slender crown, 39 feet tall by 29 feet wide, and is a lovely tree. The bark is basically a lustrous white, peeling to buffy orange-brown. This species is not closely related to the Canoe or European White Birch, and should be borer-resistant. However, the finest of our two specimens has recently shown serious one is is an borer damage. Birches With Dark Bark Sweet, Black, or Cherry Birch This species is an important component of rich deciduous forests in the eastern mountains from southern Maine to northern Georgia. It is a favorite and familiar native tree, and the three common names have almost equal popular usage. \"Cherry\" Birch refers to the general resemblance of this tree to various species of cherries, particularly with regard to the foliage and the mahogany to almost black bark with conspicuous lenticels; \"Black\" Birch recalls the color of the bark on mature trunks; and \"Sweet\" Birch is probably the commonest name among rural children, who delight in chewing the bark of the twigs for its sweet wintergreen taste. To me it is a great mystery why this tree is not more commonly cultivated, because as a shade tree it is certainly as ornamental as most lindens or ashes or many maples. The male catkins, though not spectacular, are attractive in the spring, the smooth, lustrous bark of the branches is always ornamental, and the golden autumn coloration is magnificent. Add the aromatic and tasty twigs, the sturdy wood that holds up well in storms, and the lack of messy fruits, and all characteristics combine to make a very fine tree. Although forest specimens are often tall and slender, grown in the open this species usually forms a broad, rather low arching crown. As a point of reference, a year-old specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is 47 feet tall with a spread of 61 feet. A very close relative, Betula grossa, the Japanese Cherry Birch, is rare even in botanical gardens. It was introduced into cultivation by Professor Sargent in 1892, and an original plant from this introduction still survives in our collections. It is only 30 feet tall with a spread of 38 feet. It is almost equivalent horticulturally to B. lenta that it is slower growing with a much lower ultimate height. except Betula lenta _ Yellow Birch Similar and closely related to the Sweet Birch, this species is common in mixed hardwood-coniferous forests of the Northeast, the Great Lakes states, and the Appalachians, occupying higher elevations the further south it ranges. It is one of the most important timber trees of the eastern forests, and the wood is a favorite for furniture and cabinetry. Bark of various birches. B. ermanii; B. davurica. Betula alleghaniensis (formerly B. lutea) Clockwise from top left, Betula lenta; Photographs: R. Weaver. B. populifolia; 128 The bark is a lustrous yellow-gray, peeling and curling in thin strips. On mature trunks it is darker and thicker, with a tendency in some individuals at least to become furrowed. Horticulturally this species is nearly equivalent to the Sweet Birch. Its bark, however, is paler and shreddy, and the twigs have at most a very slight wintergreen taste. At the Arnold Arboretum we have a fine grove of six seventy-eight-year-old trees. The largest is 55 feet tall with a spread of 47 feet. Betula schmidtii. Native to Japan, Korea, and Manchuria, but rare in the wild at least in the first two areas, this exceptionally fine plant unfortunately will never be able to compete in popularity with its spectacular whitebarked relatives. Yet, hopefully it will be able to rise above the complete obscurity with which it is saddled at present because it is one of the most graceful of medium-sized trees. The finest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum, representing the original introduction of the species into the United States in 1896, is planted near the top of Bussey Hill. It is 40 feet tall with a spread of 36 feet, the thirteen gracefully arching trunks forming a broad, almost hemispherical crown. The bark is steely-gray, but cracking and peeling off in stiff plates to reveal an almost black layer embossed with peculiar, circular, resinous lines. The bark is particularly striking when wet. Sharing a characteristic of its close relative, our native Sweet Birch (Betula lenta), the foliage turns a brilliant golden yellow in the fall. It is one of the best of our trees for this particular foliage color. Dr. Stephen Spongberg, my colleague here at the Arnold Arboretum, and I observed this species in its native habitat in the mountains of north central Korea. It was a rare component of a beautiful, rich, nearly virgin forest. One specimen was about the finest wild tree we saw in Korea. Betula nigra River Birch the color of its autumn foliage is a bit dull in comparison of its relatives, this is the most striking of the dark-barked birches in many respects. The bark is unique. On young trunks and branches it is pale brown, exfoliating in thin flakes. On mature trunks it is very dark, and the flakes are large, thick, and irregular. The effect looking into the leafless crown is one of winter's finer the almost but not quite unkempt bark of the trunks pictures into the paler and softer bark of the branches and, finally, passing the very numerous fine twigs forming a delicate tracery against the sky. The irregularly rounded, somewhat drooping crown, and the fine, gray-backed foliage are distinguished in the summertime as well. The Arnold Arboretum's collection features a fine group of these trees on either side of the main road just before the drive up Bussey Hill. The trees are one hundred years old and the largest is 56 feet tall with a spread of 57 feet and a DBH of 3 feet. Although to most - 129 Birch trunks. Left, the main trunk of Betula albo-sinensis, showing the whitish exfoliating bark; right, looking from the main trunk into the crown of B. nigra. Photographs: R. Weaver. In the wild a tree of lowlands, flood plains and streamsides, this into eastern Texas, further south than any other native birch. It grows best in moist soils, but it will succeed in drier species ranges situations as evidenced described above. Betula davurica by the fine trees at the Arnold Arboretum This native of Manchuria, northern China, Korea and Japan is somewhat reminiscent of our native River Birch, particularly when young, but in our climate does not grow nearly so tall. The oldest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum (sixty-eight years old) is 35 feet tall with a spread of 40 feet. The bark of this particular tree is exceptionally handsome; on the main trunk a patchwork of ashy gray flakes in thick spongy masses interspersed with buffy brown areas of lower relief. The bark on the branches looks like a thick mat of corn flakes, varying in color from a lustrous pearly buff to cinnamon. The habit of the tree is unexceptional, the crown being low and irregularly rounded. It is, however, decidedly ornamental in the winter, and it does better on poor dry soils than most other birches. It is resistant to the Bronze Birch Borer. Winter aspect. Above, Betula davurica: below B. schmidtii, bark and the multiple trunks. Photograph: R. Weaver. showing the dark 131 Other Birches Monarch Birch This rather atypical birch looks like a cross between a linden and an aspen. With its large, yellowish-green heart-shaped leaves, and its female catkins borne in clusters rather than singly, it is one of the most distinctive and easily recognizable of the arborescent birches. Yet most of the trees grown under this name in the United States have turned out to be something very different. This became apparent during a study by Drs. Santamour and Meyer of the United States National Arboretum, prompted by widespread publicity touting the Monarch Birch as a white-barked species resistant to the Bronze Birch Borer. This species is probably resistant to the borer, but it does not have white bark. The birches that received the publicity are not Betula maximowicziana, although they may be hybrids with this species as one of the parents. The Monarch Birch was introduced into cultivation from its native Japan by Charles Sprague Sargent in 1892, but at present there are no mature specimens in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. The species was observed several times during our expedition to Japan and Korea in the fall of 1977. The color of the bark is variable in the wild, but it is usually a lustrous orange-gray. One particularly good group cultivated at the Tokyo University Forest in Hokkaido, near the town of Yamabe, did have bark that approached white, and trees such as these may have considerable potential in a breeding program to develop a truly white-barked, borer-resistant birch. Betula maximowicziana References Bean, W.J. 1970. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, ed. 8. Sir George Taylor, ed. Betula, vol. 1, pp. 414-434. John Murray Ltd. London. Hylander, N. 1957. On cut-leaved and small-leaved forms of Scandinavian birches. Svensk Botanisk Tidskrift 51: 417-436. Johnson, W.T. and H.H. Lyon. shrubs. Comstock 1976. Insects that feed on trees and Publishing Assoc., Ithaca and London. Peattie, D.C. 1966. A natural history of trees of eastern and central North America. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Pirone, P.P. 1970. Diseases and pests of ornamental plants, ed. 4. Ronald Press, Co., New York. Wyman, D. 1965. New York. Trees for American gardens, ed. 2. Macmillan Co., "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Korean Adventure","article_sequence":2,"start_page":133,"end_page":153,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24727","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24e856b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":4,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Korean Adventure by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Author's Note: This article chronicles some of the Korean portion of the Arnold Arboretum's collecting trip to Japan and Korea in the fall of 1977. The goals of this trip have been outlined in Arnoldia 38: 28-31. 1978, while Richard Weaver's Japanese Journal appeared in Arnoldia 38: 82-101. 1978, and described many of the events and plants encountered in Japan. As in that article, space here allows for the description of only the most memorable days and events. A detailed itinerary, however, with a list of the plants collected appears at the conclusion of this article. I should like to express my deep thanks to Dick Weaver and my wife, Happy, for help in remembering all the details of our trip during the preparation of this article, and my warmest and deepest thanks are extended to Carl Ferris Miller, whose most generous help and hospitality made our trip in Korea possible. On the afternoon of September 30, after having spent the morning excursion to the island of Miyajima in the Inland Sea (where we explored the beautiful temple there, famous for its offshore tori or gate), Dick Weaver, my wife, Happy, and I tried to express our deep thanks to my old graduate school friend, Katsuhiko Kondo, for his generosity and overwhelming hospitality during our travels in Japan. Back in Hiroshima, we left Katsu on the platform and boarded a Shinkan-sen or bullet train destined for the city of Fukuoka on Kyushu, the southernmost of the four major Japanese islands, where we were to spend our last night in Japan. Our trip from Hiroshima was comfortable and pleasant as we felt well accustomed to the extraordinarily efficient Japanese train service, and as darkness fell, we saw extensive plantations of tea from the train windows and were aware that we were traveling into an even more tropical climate and vegetation than we had left in Hiroshima. Early on the morning of October 1 we taxied to the Fukuoka International Airport for our China Airlines flight to Seoul and the beginning of our Korean adventure. While we were not anxious to leave Japan, feeling as we did that we had only begun to sample its extremely rich flora, we were nonetheless expectant and excited to be headed for the Asiatic mainland. We also were particularly anxious to be able to make comparisons between the Japanese and Korean floras and to learn more of the plants of the Korean peninsula. We arrived in Seoul in the middle of the afternoon after an easy but crowded flight, and as our plane made its descent on its approach to Seoul, I was immediately surprised by the dry and dusty aspect of the landscape, a decided change from the verdant green on an 133 134I countryside we had left in Kyushu. After a long, hot wait in line, we finally cleared through customs and were able to pass into the terminal waiting room where we immediately spotted and were spotted by our host in Korea, Carl Ferris Miller. Through our mutual friends, Admiral and Mrs. Harry Hull, we and humid standing had briefly met Carl at the Arnold Arboretum almost a year before. On that visit Carl's great enthusiasm for, and knowledge of plants, particularly woody plants, had been obvious, and he had described his plans for the arboretum he is developing in Korea while convincing us that the native Korean flora, which includes many species of horticultural value, has been largely ignored by western botanists and horticulturists. Unlike the flora of Japan, which has been under scrutiny and investigation by western as well as Japanese botanists since the time of Linnaeus, the first collections of Korean plants were made as late as 1854 when Admiral B. A. Schlippenbach of the German ship \"Pallada\" sent a party ashore to collect specimens during his survey of the eastern coast of Korea. One of their discoveries was the beautiful pink-flowered azalea, Rhododendron schlippenbachii, named to honor the Admiral by the botanist Maximowicz. Our decision to include Korea on our itinerary was largely due to Carl's convincing arguments, our desire to see Carl's Chollipo Arboretum, and the fact that the climate of Korea is more similar to that 135 of New England than is that of Japan. With hot summers and very cold winters, plants growing in Korea are adapted to a continental climate, and we were anxious to collect seeds of species hardy in Korea for trial at the Arnold Arboretum. After spending a relaxing hour or two at Carl's Seoul townhouse discussing plans for the upcoming two weeks, sipping iced tea, and then quickly rearranging our luggage, we left Seoul with Carl and Chin-su, one of Carl's adopted Korean sons and also an avid plantsman. In Carl's version of a Ford Pinto station wagon, we drove south and then, after exiting from the Seoul-Pasan Expressway, proceeded in a westerly direction. Our destination was Chollipo, as the crow flies about seventy miles southwest of the capitol city, and during the trip we were delighted to be talking plants and to be observing the Korean countryside at eye-level. Unfortunately, the sun had set by the time we were far into our journey, and most of the countryside was driven through unobserved. However, the trip was not without memorable incidents, partially due to the fact that the station wagon was loaded with luggage and supplies for Chollipo. We made a quick stop in a small town for last minute supplies and were delighted to see a small farmers' band playing homemade instruments and parading down the road in the twilight to celebrate the completion of the harvest. Before reaching the last turnoff for Chollipo, the car was hitting bottom along the rutted road, and on taking the last turnoff, the underside of the vehicle took a horrendous beating that culminated in the loss of the muffler as we drove onto the beach of the Yellow Sea (it was low tide) and up the steep drive to the main house at Chollipo Arboretum. After a late dinner, we headed by flashlight to our beds in different guest houses, not knowing what view would meet our eyes in the morning. The following morning, lying on tatami (Japanese bed mats placed on the floor), Happy and I opened our eyes and were stunned momentarily by the magnificent sweep of the Yellow Sea in front of and below us. Our guest house was perched above the beach with a breathtaking view of the coast and an offshore island, which we learned later was a part of the Arboretum property and accessible by foot at low tide. The tides in this area are notable in and of themselves as the second highest in the world and second only to those in the Bay of Fundy between New Brunswick and Nova Scotia, where the tides sometimes rise between 40 and 50 feet. At Chollipo on the Yellow Sea, 30-foot tides occur, and the beaches of white sand make swimming a delight. The Arboretum property comprises about three hundred acres along the coast of the Yellow Sea and includes the low-lying mountains that curve inland at this point to form a small basin with the fishing village of Chollipo (located adjacent to the Arboretum pro- The main house at Chollipo Arboretum, one of traditional Korean construction. Photograph courtesy of C. F. Miller. design and 136I perty) the beach itself. Because of the varied topography, exand soil types, the site is ideally suited to development as an posures, arboretum, and its location near the Yellow Sea has the added advantages of the moderating influences of the sea in extending the growing season as well as providing occasional fogs and mists and tempering the extremes of day- and night-time temperatures. After breakfast, we spent the morning walking around the nursery areas, which are located adjacent to the main and guest houses at Chollipo, and we were overwhelmed by the vast numbers of plants as well as the diversity of the collection (in excess of four thousand species) that Carl has brought together within the last seven years. I can only liken the experience to walking around the Hillier Garden and Arboretum in Hampshire, England, and it is obvious the Chollipo Arboretum will soon be among the foremost Temperate Zone arboreta in the world. We made numerous collections of seed, our first in Korea, from the plants in the nurseries and growing in permanent plantings. I was particularly interested in studying Carl's collection of Magnolias, which includes upwards of sixty taxa, and we were fascinated by the diversity of the Ilex collection that includes upwards of three hundred taxa. Species of both of these genera hold a special fascination for Carl, and his collections are certainly the most comprehensive I have seen. At every turn Dick, Happy, and I were aware on The rugged coast of the Yellow Sea at Chollipo Arboretum. Note the compound leaves of Platycarya strobilacea in the foreground. Photograph courtesy of C. F. Miller. of our ignorance and at the same time we were delighted to be seeing either completely new plants or others we had only known by reputation. Carl estimates that the climate at Chollipo is comparable to that of Zone 8 (USDA map), and he is attempting to grow all species from both the northern and southern hemispheres that might prove hardy at Chollipo. After lunch and a swim in the Yellow Sea, we continued our survey of the plant collections in the Arboretum nurseries, and late in the afternoon we walked down to the sandy beach adjacent to the fishing village of Chollipo, where Carl was anxious to show us and have us collect seed from an extensive population of Vitex rotundifolius. Unlike other species of Vitex, which are either trees or upright shrubs, this species is prostrate and creeping, and at the collection site served as a sand binder on the low dunes. On October 3, another clear, beautiful day, we continued our investigations of the plantings at Chollipo, and spent the better part of the afternoon exploring the native vegetation both on Carl's offshore island and along the coast north of Chollipo at Uihang-ni. The Yellow Sea, terraced rice paddies, and pine forests at Chollipo. Photograph courtesy of C. F. Miller. The cone-like infructescence of Platycarya strobilacea Chollipo Arboretum. Photograph. S. A. Spongberg. on n plant growing in the Pine forests cover the low-lying mountains along the coast and the dominant species are Pinus densiflora, a species common everywhere in Korea, P. thunbergii, and in the Chollipo area the hybrid between the two species, P. densithunbergii. Another common conifer in the Chollipo area is Juniperus rigida, while common deciduous species in the scrub along the coast and in the forested areas include Platycarya strobilacea, an unusual monotypic genus of the Juglandaceae, Kalopanax pictus, Zanthoxylum piperitum and Z. schinifolium, Elaeagnus umbellata and E. macrophylla, Vaccinium oldhamii, Sorbus alnifolia, Euodia Daniellii, Carpinus koreana, Rhododendron mucronulatum everywhere in pine forests, and Quercus dentata, Q. mirabilis, and Q. acutissima. Two lindens, Tilia mandshurica and T. amurensis, are common, while the unusual Grewia biloba, also a member of the Tiliaceae, is a frequently encountered shrub. At Pang-jik-kol, Carl took us to see one of the few known native occurrences of Koelreuteria paniculata in Korea, and we were amazed to find this species, which we tend to think of as a tree from 30 to 60 feet in height, growing in sandy soil as a shrubby plant only approaching 12 feet in height. Needless to say, we are hopeful that habit of these plants is genetic and not made a collection of seed and can visualize the horticultural and landscape use of a dwarf, shrubby golden rain tree. Carl also took us to collect seed from another plant, Viburnum bitchiuense, that was growing in an unexpected habitat. We found a large population of this low-growing shrub growing in almost pure sand, where, like the Vitex, it was serving as a sand binder on the low dunes behind the beach of the Yellow Sea. We spent the better part of the next day, October 4, back in the nurseries at Chollipo Arboretum, and by mid-aftemoon, after lunch and a refreshing swim, had packed and were ready for our return trip to Seoul. Before leaving the topic of our stay at Chollipo, however, note should be made of the wonderful hospitality there and of the superb meals, a blend of western and Korean cuisines, and largely dependent upon the fresh fruits and vegetables grown on the arboretum property. Ajumoni (the Korean term applied to housekeeper and\/or cook) was responsible for these delightful meals, and special mention must be made of the featured botanical hors d'oeuvres. These included roasted ginkgo nuts, pine nuts, Tagetes leaves tempura-fried, two species of seaweeds (one prepared rather like Doritos or potato chips, the other with sesame seeds), and popcorn. Other specialities included kimchi, the famous Korean hot relish, and a wonderful pie made from the fruits of Elaeagnus umbellata that were collected from shrubs growing in the arboretum. We departed from Chollipo by mid-afternoon leaving vast areas of the arboretum unexplored, but we were able to make several stops to collect en route to Seoul. We were delighted to find a magnificent old specimen of Gleditsia japonica var. koreaiensis, and stopping in the town of Taean, not far distant from Chollipo, we made what to me was one of the most exciting discoveries of the trip. While Carl took us to an old garden to see an exceptionally fine specimen of an unexpected North American native, Taxodium distichum, we spotted a large magnolia nearby. At first glance, we assumed that this tree was a fine, old specimen of the Japanese white-bark magnolia, Magnolia hypoleuca, a species that is not an uncommon cultivated tree in Korea. On examining the tree more closely, however, we were astounded to notice that many of the large leaves were deeply lobed at the apex, a characteristic of the Chinese species, M. of~'ccinalis. This latter species is exceedingly rare in cultivation in North America and is represented primarily by its variety, M. officinalis var. biloba. While the taxonomic status of M. officinalis and its relationship with M. hypoleuca remain unclear, we were able to collect numerous seeds from the Taean tree with the use of a ladder loaned to us by the kind but rather mystified owner of the garden. The fact that this Chinese species was growing in Korea is a reminder of the long history of Chinese influence in Korea. Taean, located near the Yellow Sea, was once the Korean terminus of a trade the shrubby 139 environmentally induced, as we 140 route to China across the Yellow Sea, and we speculated that it may have been over this old sea trading route that seed or perhaps plants of Magnolia of~ZCinalis were introduced into Korean gardens. Chinese influence was evident again the next day in Seoul when Mr. Nam, Carl's driver, took us to the campus of a private school for girls to see the finest specimen of the lace-bark pine, Pinus bungeana, that I have ever seen. Like M. of~'zcinalis, P. bungeana is native to China, but despite that fact, the beauty, large size, and great age of the tree we saw growing in Seoul had merited its designation as a living national monument in Korea. During the afternoon of our day in Seoul on October 5 we were able to visit the Forest Research Institute of the Korean Institute of Science and Technology where we met briefly with the director and then spent a couple of hours with Mr. Cho, a staff member, in the arboretum he has established on the grounds surrounding the administration building. Mr. Cho was most hospitable and allowed us to make numerous valuable collections, including a large collection of the seeds of Firmiana simplex. This tree proves perfectly hardy in the Institute's arboretum where winter temperatures fall to -5F. and the snow cover is light as the winters are generally very dry. Before leaving the Institute, Carl had arranged for us to meet Mr. Cho on the evening of October 7 at the village of Changchon, where we would join him on a collecting expedition in that vicinity on October 8. 141 day, October 6, we left Seoul and traveled on the Seoul-Kangnung Expressway to the eastern seacoast of the Korean peninsula, stopping once en route to do some roadside collecting. The weather, unfortunately, began to deteriorate rapidly, and to our disappointment we drove through the mountainous terrain in dense fog and rain. We finally arrived at our destination after dark and luckily found rooms in the Sorak-san Hotel, within the limits of the beautiful and mountainous Sorak-san National Park. After getting settled in our western-style rooms, we made a brief excursion into the market and shop area outside our hotel where we were fascinated by the snake and curio shops, many of which were festooned with dried octopus and squid that hung down from the shop doors and walls like curtains. Soon, however, despite the fine drizzle, we were collecting seeds of Acer triflorum by flashlight. The next morning the rain had let up slightly, our spirits were high, and we followed the well-worn path along a rain-swelled mountain stream to a temple on the mountainside; in the rich forests above was a famous area where the mountain stream courses through an extensive cataract. The temple, like others subsequently visited in Korea, was a beautiful old structure, and unlike the temple buildings we had seen in Japan, was wonderfully ornamented and decorated with painted murals. Moreover, the ridge poles of the roof, which extended to form broad eaves, had been painted in intricate patterns in wonderfully bright, primary colors. Among the seeds we collected along the trail were those of Sapium japonicum, a member of the Euphorbia family with magnolia-like On the next leaves, which turn crimson in fall, that is not included in Rehder's Manual, and Hovenia dulcis, the unusual raisin tree, of the RhamnaWe also were able to locate a few seeds in last year's pods old specimen of Paulownia koreana that had apparently not flowered during 1977. Despite that fact, the year-old seeds have proven viable and at the time of this writing seedlings are growing in the Arnold Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. As we left Sorak-san it was still raining, but we made several stops, one to collect fruits of Diospyros lotus, and another at Naksan Temple, which is located directly on the coast above the Eastern Sea (or Sea of Japan), where we collected fruits of Tilia megaphylla, another species not listed by Rheder. We retraced our route for a considerable distance, again in rain, and then in pitch darkness headed north to Changchon and our rendezvous with Mr. Cho. After driving over poor roads that had been soaked by rain through sparsely settled, mountainous country, we finally arrived at the village and to our delight found Mr. Cho and several of his colleagues waiting for our arrival. They escorted us to our inn, our first experience with a traditional Korean inn, where we soon had our evening meal and fell into discussion with Mr. Cho over plans for the morning. ceae. on an The leaf-like, dehisced carpels and seeds of Firmiana simplex. Photograph: S. A. Spongberg. 142I three rooms at the inn, each small and square with rice paper doors that faced out onto an open courtyard and the communal washing place. The rooms are entered off an elevated platform or deck, and one leaves one's shoes on the ground below. Most of the inns are rectangular or L-shaped, only of one storey, and a chimney is located at one end of the building. The area beneath the building is essentially a crawl space in which a fire is built at the end opposite the chimney. The floors are like adobe, and heat from the fire beneath them warms those of the rooms above. A very strong mulberry paper made from local trees covers the floors; the paper is very smooth with a polished surface somewhat like We occupied sliding linoleum. Due to the heavy rains, our schedule was left tentative and it wasn't until late that evening that Happy and I returned to our room to find that several layers of brightly decorated quilts had been spread on our warm floor. We slept soundly with only minor disturbances caused by an occasional rat running on the roof. The next morning we woke to fog and were astounded to see our surroundings in daylight. The small village with its one muddy thoroughfare was undergoing complete renovation of all its buildings simultaneously. Our plans for the day were finalized with Mr. Cho and a modified climb of Kyebang-san was decided upon due to the uncertain weather. We started our climb several miles from the village and it was necessary for Mr. Nam to relay us in shifts to the jump-off point. Our party had increased in size because Mr. Cho had hired several village boys to accompany us as his collectors. As we left the farmyard, amidst mats spread with drying chili peppers, corn, and thinly sliced squash and the avidly curious stares of several children, the sun began to shine and the day, after all, became one of the most beautiful we had in Korea. We walked through fields where giant radishes (upwards to 3 feet in length with a diameter of a loaf of bread) had been harvested. We passed by fields of millet and stood to the side of the trail as women laden with firewood of large logs and branches in chiega on their backs came down the mountainside. One side of the valley had been totally denuded of its forest and Mr. Cho's mission that day was to collect seed for use in reforestation programs across Korea. The forest on the opposite side of the valley, through which we climbed, was exceedingly rich in species composition and was very reminiscent of a well developed deciduous forest of mountainous eastern North America. We were to make numerous collections as we climbed the easy trail, and in a thicket along a small stream we located one plant of Magnolia sieboldii with fruit aggregates, the follicles of which had dehisced to disclose numerous bright red seeds. While we had seen this species at Sorak-san, none was found there with fruits, and we had almost despaired of bringing home to Boston reliably hardy 143 strains of this wonderful plant. Later, we were to collect a large number of seed of this species from plants in cultivation, but seeing the plant in its native habitat and securing its seeds there was a highlight for me. Several species of maples grew in this beautiful forest, and one, Acer pseudosieboldianum, gave us our first encounter with spectacular fall color. Its leaves had turned to a brilliant crimson where the plants were growing in exposed areas along the edges of the forest, while plants of the same species growing in the forest had turned a warm golden-yellow. Another maple, A. mandshuricum, one of the trifoliate maples, had not yet assumed its fall color, but its fruits, high up in the crowns of the trees, were abundant. Dick was able to climb high into one of these trees and shook the keys to the ground where Carl, Happy, and I gathered them into envelopes. Huge specimens of Kalopanax pictus grew in close association with the maples, and the young boys were dispatched by Mr. Cho to collect their fruits. In a couple of instances the boys failed in their attempts to shimmy up the tall trees. It was amusing to watch and listen as one boy, high up in his tree, obviously urged and then heckled his cohort who was unsuccessful in getting far off the ground on his tree due to the great girth of the trunk and the lack of foot- and hand-holds. As we continued our climb, the dappled sunlight played on the beautiful white bark of Betula ermanii, and we were astounded to find huge specimens of Juglands mandshurica and another birch, B. schmidtii. One specimen of the latter with its peeling, shingle-like, dark gray bark, was perhaps the most magnificent tree we had seen, and I estimated its height at about 60 feet. Our goal the following day was to visit the temple grounds at Yongmun-san, specifically to see the giant Ginkgo biloba tree that grows on the mountainside just below the temple. While the forest trees at Kyebang-san that we had seen on the previous day had been impressive in their size, the Yongmun-san ginkgo dwarfed them by comparison and is probably the largest individual tree any of us had seen previously. The interpretive sign near the tree was in both Korean and English, and according to the information given, this ginkgo, towering to a height of 200 feet, is thought to be the oldest living ginkgo in all of Asia. Unfortunately, the data given did not include the diameter (dbh) of the tree, but we estimated that this would exceed 15 feet. While we scurried from one vantage point to another in an attempt to photograph the tree in its entirety, we were somewhat less than completely successful, yet the accompanying photograph taken from above in the precincts of the temple, gives some idea of the enormous size of this ancient tree. After leaving the temple we made several interesting collections along the trail to the small village at the base of the mountain, and along the main street of the village we were able to supplement our collections through purchases in the market there. This market 144 The base of the giant 200-foot, 1100-year-old Ginkgo at Yongmun-san Temple, Kyonggi-do Province, Korea. Photograph: S. A. Spongberg. Women in the market at Yongmun-san. Note the slabs of dishpan in the foreground. Photograph: S. A. Spongberg. acorn curd in the 145 me of the open air markets in villages in Mexico, and the of plant materials offered for sale, many collected from diversity the wild, made for a colorful botanical shopping spree. Among the plant materials for sale in the market were cones of Pinus koraiensis (for the edible pine nuts), the small red drupe-like fruits of Elaeagnus umbellata, Vitis coignetiae with its bunches of small, berries, the sweet green berries of Actinidia arguta, and the small, oblong red drupes of Zizyphus jujuba, the jujube, which tasted much like apples. Spread out on mats to dry in the sun were quantities of acorns of Quercus aliena and close at hand were water-filled dishpans in which slabs of acorn curd, prepared from the acorns, were floating. Other mats were spread with chilies and thinly sliced squash, while the small, grayish-brown seeds of Perilla fruticosa were piled on others. A member of the mint family, Perilla is grown for its seeds that are an important source of oil that is used in cooking and for water-proofing paper. Other, more commonplace vegetables and fruits included chestnuts, several varieties of corn, tomatoes, and pumpkins, while crates of apples and apple-shaped yellow pears were displayed along with the tempting, orange fruits of Diospyros kaki, the oriental persimmon. Carl also showed us the roots of Platycodon grandiflorum, the balloon flower, which are commonly prepared and eaten in soy sauce; there were numerous other roots with Korean names that Carl was unable to translate into Latin ones. reminded purplish-black 146 I was particularly anxious to buy several persimmons or kakis, both to eat and to obtain seeds for trial at the Arnold Arboretum. Carl persuaded me that we would have better chances of obtaining hardy strains if we purchased fruits from local farmers, inasmuch as the market fruits may not have been grown locally. He had no problem in convincing me not to buy persimmons, but he was unsuccessful in tempting the three of us to try the delicacies of the several snake shops in the market area. These establishments were clearly recognizable by the cages with live specimens of both venomous and non-venomous snakes, and earlier, on the trail to the temple, we had seen a father and son collecting snakes for the local shopkeepers. After a customer selects the snake of his choice, the proprietor kills, cleans, and prepares a hot snake stew for consumption on the premises, a culinary treat apparently very popular with Korean tourists. We disappointed Carl as we preferred to satisfy our appetites with jujubes and other vegetable produce. En route from Yongmun-san to Seoul we did stop and buy persimmons of two varieties that were growing in a farmhouse dooryard. One variety was large-fruited, deep rich orange in color with four longitudinal grooves that divided the fruits into quadrants, while the second produced smaller, less attractive, ungrooved fruits of a pale orange color. As luck would have it, the larger more beautiful kakis contained no seeds, but several seeds were found in the less attractive fruits. If we were successful in obtaining a hardy strain we will, unfortunately, have to be content with the less attractive, smaller-fruited form. After spending a day in Seoul exploring the business and market districts and shopping for souvenirs, we left on the morning of October 11 on our last collecting foray. On this trip we headed south on the Seoul-Suncheon Expressway, and after a brief stop for collecting at the Forest Research Station at Chonju, we continued southward where our objective was Sonam Temple, located about six miles northwest of the town of Sunchon on the mountain Chogye-san at about three hundred meters above sea level. Once again, we arrived at our destination in darkness and we were forced to stop as the road came to a seemingly abrupt dead end on the forested slope of the mountain. While Carl assured us that there had been an inn there on his last visit to the area four or five years previously, we saw no signs of life. Carl, however, set off on foot, flashlight in hand, while Happy, Dick, Mr. Nam, and I waited by the car. When Carl reappeared he had two young boys with him from the hidden inn, and he greeted us with the news that the Ajumoni was preparing our evening meal. After dinner, which was served in Carl's room, we headed to our rooms and bed, and once again fell asleep not knowing what view would meet our eyes in the morning. At three o'clock, however, we were awakened by the sounds of drums and cymbals and we realized that our inn was, indeed, on temple grounds. Carl Ferris Miller and the author at Yangpyong Myon. Photograph: R. E. purchasing persimmons from Weaver, Jr. a Korean family Early the next morning Happy and I had a quiet, pre-breakfast walk around the then seemingly deserted temple. Large, leafless persimmon trees laden with fruits were silhouetted against the blue of the early morning sky, and we discovered on an adjacent hillside numerous ancient burial urns. After breakfast we explored the forest around the temple and located beautiful specimens of the native Korean Stewartia that grow in this region, but unfortunately, we were unable to locate capsules with seed. We did make several additional collections in the area, and during the afternoon, after lunch at the inn, we visited other areas in the vicinity, including the Seoul National University Forest at Kwangyang. We also made a stop at the private garden of a Mr. Kim, an old friend of Carl's, to see his exceptionally fine persimmon trees. Mr. Kim kindly showed us through his garden and then gave us enough ripened persimmons so that even I could satisfy my appetite for these delicious fruits. Included among these kakis was a variety unlike any I had ever seen or heard of, inasmuch as it is sweet and non-astringent when still apple-hard. 148 Burial urns graph : S. A. on the forested slope of the mountain Spongberg. at Sonam Temple. Photo- 149 day, after spending a second night at the inn, we relucstarted back in the direction of Seoul, stopping at another tantly locality in search of Stewartia seeds. Although our search for capsules of Stewartia was again unsuccessful, we were able to go over the five hundred mark for total collections during our travels in Japan and Korea. We made these last collections with the realization that our Korean adventure was fast coming to a close, and on the long drive back to Seoul our conversation turned to plans for the future and our itinerary for our hoped-for next trip to Korea. On the morning of October 14, Dick left Seoul on an early flight to return home via the Philippines, while Happy and I ran an errand to the post office to mail off our last collections to the Arboretum and bought a bouquet as a parting gift for Ajumoni. Later in the day after attempting unsuccessfully to express our deep thanks, we left Carl and Ajumoni, and Mr. Nam drove us to the airport for our flight home via Honolulu and San Francisco. While the tangible results of our travels in Korea can be seen in the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses, and hopefully will be obvious in the Arboretum's living collections in the years to come, for Happy, Dick and me, one of the the opportunity to greatest rewards of our trip was intangible meet and learn to know and love an astounding and generous man, Carl Ferris Miller. The next - Itinerary in Korea with Plants Collected 1 October - at Each Locality Sosan- Departed Japan and arrived Seoul. Met Carl Ferris Miller. Departed Seoul and traveled to Chollipo Arboretum, Sowon-Myon, gun, Province of Chungchong-Namdo. 2 October - Studied and made collections at Carl Ferris Miller's Chollipo Arboretum. *Alnus maximowiczii *Berberis poiretii *Clerodendron ugandense *Cornus walteri *Cotoneaster wilsonii *Desmodium racemosum *Magnolia kobus *Platycarya strobilacea *Quercus dentata *Indigofera potaninii *Lindera glauca Walked on *Raphiolepis ovata *Ribes fasciculatum *Salvia guaranitica *Sollya fusiformis var. chinense *Viburnum setigerum beach around the village of Chollipo. near Vitex rotundifolius 3 October - Collected in secondary woodlands at Namdo Province. Uihang-ni, Chollipo, Chungchong pilosum Euonymus sp. Lespedeza sp. Platycarya strobilacea Quercus variabilis Smilax china Smilax sp. Cultivated material. Symplocos chinense var. Viburnum bitchiuense Viburnum koreanum Vitis sp. Zanthoxylum piperttum Zanthoxylum schinifolium * 150 Collected in secondary scrub near the Yellow Sea at Pang-jik-kol. Grezoxn biloba Koelreuteria paniculata Rhanxxtus ),orniensis Walked at low tide to Carl's Island. 4 October - Made additional collections at Chollipo Arboretum. ''Indigofera pseudotinctoria ' Pyrus cnlleryann var. fauriae ' Setnria-like Grass return to Carpinus corennn 'Hemiptelea davidii ' ' Ilex serrata var. sieboldii to '`Indigofera cylrndricn Departed from Chollipo collections. Seoul, making stops en route for Dooryard garden Visited old near Sowon, Chungchong-Namdo Province. var. Gleditsia japonica horniensis of Taean, garden in town \"Acanthopanax sp. *Magnolia off'ccinalis Seoul. Chungchong-Namdo Province. 5 October - Day in Residence of Carl Ferris Miller. \"Diospyros hahi Visited campus of Pinus bungeana. private girls' school to see remarkable specimen of Visited Forest Research Institute. *Abelia coreana '`Acer bnrbinerae ~tAlnus japonica ' Berberts amurensis var. ~'Ligustrum foliosum Ligustntm znsularis ^ Lzgustrum salicinum ~ Ltndera glnztca ' guelpnrtezzsis 'Betula chxnexxsis `Boehmerin spicata ~ Photinza korenna Campylotropis macrocarpa \"Corylopszs coreana var. coreann ' \"Pterocarya stenoptera Pterostyrax corymbosa Rhamnella franguloides *Ribes fnsciculatum var. jnponicztm '=Rosa koreana '`Diplomorpha trichoto~zza \"Disporum sessile 'Euodia o\/fZCinalis ^ Exochordn serratifolia '`Lespedeza cunentn 6 October - ~Sapzuzn japonicum *Ulrrtus parvifolia var. coreana '' Zazxthoxylum to Sorak-san collections. corennum Departed Roadside Seoul near and en traveled route for National Park, Kangwon-do Province of Province, stopping Myonon, along Seoul-Kangnung Expressway, m. Kangwon-do, elevation 500-600 Aristolochia sp. Rhamnus davurica Spiraea sp. Sorak-san National Park, Acer Symplocos chixxensis Tripterygium regelxi ViLurnzczzz sargentii near var. pilosa hotel, elevation ca. 100 m. triflorum Cultivated material. 151 7 October - Collected along trail from Sorak-san Hotel to 100-300 m. Acer Acer mono temple and cataract, elevation pseudosieboLdinnum Clerodendron trichotomum Malus baccata Paulownia koreana Rhus chinensis Diospyros lotus Hovenia dulcis Lindera obtusiloba Sapium japomcum Securinega sui~rx~ticosa Staphylea bumalda Sorak-san National Park and drove to collection stops en route. Roadside below Sorak-san Hotel. Departed village of Changchon with Diospyros lotus Naksan Temple on the eastern Sea, Kangwong-do *Tilia megaphylla Dooryard garden, city of Kangnung. \"CedreLa sinensis 8 October - Collected at Province of Province. Kyebang-san Kangwon-do, at Undugol Pass between Sogsa and Changchon, with Mr. Cho and colleagues, elevation 700-1000 Acanthopanax sessiliflorus Acer barbinerve Acer mandshuricum Acer tegmentosum Magnolia sieboldii Nexllia sinensis Philadelphus sp. Rhamnus yoshmoi Rosa davunca Tilia amurensis Alangium platanifolium Euonymus oxyphylla Lonicera sp. Maackia amurensis Left Kyebang-san and drove to for collections. Between Weigela sp. Hongcheon for the night, stopping en route Undugol Pass and Sogsa, roadside scrub. Lonicera subsessilis Berberis amurensis Private garden, town of Hongsong, Kangwon-do Province. *Betula davurica 9 October - Traveled to the temple at Yongmun-san, Province of giant ginkgo and to collect along trail. Kyonggi-do, to view Acer pseudosieboldianum Albizia julibrissin Carpinus cordata Hydrangea macrophylla Quercus aliena Rhamnus davurica Smilax sieboldianus Styrax obassia Weigela sp. Zelkova serrata trail-head. var. Carpinus laxiflora Clematis apiifolia Clematis maximowiczxnna Deutzia glabrata inermis Explored market area below temple *Zizyphus jujuba Stopped at private garden below temple ^ MagnoLia sieboldii * Cultivated material. area. 152 Returned to Seoul stopping at Yangpyong Myon, Kyonggi-do, collecting in private dooryard gardens. * Diospyros kaki 10 October 11 October - Ibin Iri, Province of *Magnolia sieboldii business and market districts and Day in Seoul exploring buying souvenirs. - Departed Seoul for Sonam Temple in southern Korea, stopping en route at the Forest Research Station at Chonju, Province of Cholla-Pukto. Acer buergerianum '~ Alnus firma *Diplomorpha trichotoma -~`Grewia biloba Arrived at Sonam 'Lindera glauca ^ Magnolia kobus ^`Syringa dzlatata ^~Zizyphus jujuba var. jujuba Temple for the night. 12 October - Explored forest surroundmg Sonam Temple, on the mountain Chogye-san, ca. 10 km. NW of Sunchon, Cholla-Namdo Province, elevation ca. 300 m. Boehmeria spicata Carpmus laxiflora Celtis aurantzaca Celtzs koraiensis Lindera glauca Rhododendron mucronulatum Rhus sylvestris Viburnum cf. erosum Viburnum cf. koreanum Spent afternoon collecting in the Province of Cholla-Namdo. Visited Seoul National ~`Abelia mosanensis vicinity of Kwangyang and Sunchon, University Forest, Kwangyang. *Euscaphis japonica *Photircia glabra ~`Rhus succedanea ~`Apkaxtanthe aspera 'Chionanthus retusus Visited private garden of Mr. Kim in *Diospyros kakz Visited old Kwangyang. *Gardenia jasminoides private garden, aspera Sunchon. '~Aphananthe Visited ' Cephalotaxus koreana Forestry & Agricultural Technical School, Sunchon. ^ Ulmus parvzflora f. lanceolata *Quercus phillyreoides Returned to inn at Sonam Temple for second night. 13 October - Collected at Mudung-san, mountainous Province of Cholla-Namdo. Cudrania tricuspidata Euscaphis japonica Ilex macropoda f. pseudomacropoda Meliosma myriantha Miscanthus sinensis Returned to Seoul. area near the city of Kwangju, Platycarya strobilacea Rhamnella franguloides Viburnum cf. wrightii Vitis thunbergii 14 October - Departed from Seoul for return to Boston. * Cultivated material. 153 Hydrangea anomala subsp. petiolaris. Photograph: G. Wadleigh. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: New Directions for Richard A. Howard","article_sequence":3,"start_page":154,"end_page":155,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24728","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24e896f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":4,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM New Directions for Richard A. Howard On June 30 Richard Alden Howard stepped aside from administrative duties as the fourth Director of the Arnold Arboretum to devote more of his time to research, writing, and teaching as Professor of Dendrology at Harvard University. During the nearly twenty-five years of his stewardship, drastic social and economic change has taken place in the United States. For the Arnold Arboretum it has been a momentous time; a period of physical and philosophical growth during which the institution expanded its role in the public domain, strengthened its scientific programs, and developed new activities in its Jamaica Plain, Weston and Cambridge locations. Howard's administration began with the implementation of the transfer of a portion of the Arboretum staff and research materials to the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambridge. Later the Dana Greenhouse complex was built, becoming a horticultural feature of the grounds in Jamaica Plain; a service area for equipment also was constructed and the Administration Building renovated. Major changes in the collections on Bussey Hill improved the appearance of this area, and the Case Estates of the Arboretum in Weston were opened to the public and developed as a teaching and display site, while continuing to function as a nursery and holding area for living plants of the collections. In 1972 botanists and horticulturists throughout the world joined in the observance of the Arboretum's centennial which focused on the basic and applied research and contributions of the staff. Simultaneously, a volunteer training program was launched, and the role of the Arboretum in the community began to grow in scope and significance. Of particular note is the collaboration with medical experts at the Boston Poison Information Center who refer calls relating to potentially poisonous plants to Arboretum staff on a twentyfour-hour basis. This vital service has been implemented by an educational film on the subject, as well as a widely distributed handbook ; both part of an expanding multi-media public information effort. Scientific achievements during the past quarter-century have included the initiation of a generic flora of the Southeastern United States, a revision of a manual of cultivated trees and shrubs, and Howard's own study of the vegetation of the Caribbean area, which is being published in parts as a flora of the Lesser Antilles. Now that his administrative responsibilities have been lifted, Richard Howard will have scant leisure to contemplate past accomplish154 Photograp)m ments. For the next year he will sence, aided by a Guggenheim P. Chvany enjoy his first sabbatical leave of abFellowship to complete manuscript for the remaining volumes of his flora. Ahead is the completion of another project of long development: the studies of the nodal-petiole vascular patterns of families of the Dicotyledoneae. He also plans further studies leading to the typification of the West Indian plants described by Jacquin and by Plumier, studies basic to the characterization of plants of the Caribbean area. In his post as director during an era of increasing world complexity, Howard has had to wear many hats and serve many constituencies, trying to balance progress with fiscal responsibility and respond to pressures from within the Arboretum and without. Indefatigable and articulate, he has represented it at home and abroad, a facet of his responsibilities he has found particularly rewarding \"because of the high regard in which the Arnold Arboretum is held.\" Reflecting on the institution to which he has devoted nearly all of his professional career, Richard Alden Howard sees reasons for additional satisfaction past and future: \"I have been fortunate to be able to build on the strong foundations created by my predecessors and to do this with the support of an excellent staff. To them I owe a great debt gratefully acknowledged. I hope that in my new role I can continue to contribute to the work and reputation of the Arnold Arboretum in equally dedicated support of the leadership of the new director.\" Richard Howard's colleagues and friends around the world wish him well in his new directions. - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":156,"end_page":156,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24726","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24e8526.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":4,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS What Can I Grow in the Shade? Suzanne Warner Pierot. New York, N.Y.: Liverright. 221 pages, illustrated. $9.95.. The garden with more than half to full shade qualifies as a shade garden in this book. The major portion of the text is devoted to a description of, and growing information for, approximately one hundred and seventy plants and shrubs (trees are omitted). The remainder of the book includes a short section on general shade gardening techniques together with an index and five informative appendices. Especially useful in the last are the lists of shade-loving plants by region, the sources for shade plants, and the names and addresses of specialized plant societies. While no claims are made by the author for the completeness of her list, it should be noted that some fine plants are missing. Surely Cornus mas, C. kousa, Deutzia, Enhiantlzus, Prunus laurocerasus, and possibly Franhlinaa could be grown in a shade garden where azaleas are flowering successfully. Some Lilium and Sedum, Cornus canadensis, and Phlox divaricata, among others, will bloom happily where hyacinths and hemerocallis thrive. The gardener who is building his library and his gardening expertise may find this book a useful investment, however, for the initiated shade gardener, What Can I Grow in the Shade? will not offer anything new. B. JUNE HUTCHINSON Wildly Successful Plants. Lawrence J. Crockett. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc. 268 pages, illustrated. $12.95. Books on weeds have become popular of late, perhaps due to an upsurge of interest in urban ecology and in eating \"nature foods.\" This is a good book, but hardly of the calibre of some of the older, standard works on the subject. The identification guide is basically a summary of the diagnostic features of the plants included, organized more or less in the form of a key. It seems to me a bit cumbersome and overly technical, although the glossary certainly helps to overcome this latter objection. Each plant is illustrated by a somewhat stylized line drawing that is obviously meant to be more interesting than diagnostic, although most of them are good enough to allow for identification of the plant depicted. The whimsical figure of a human included with each of the habit sketches is a clever means of indicating scale. The text is both interesting and useful. Included are items of folklore and often the derivation of the Latin and common names. Potentially useful are the tips for eradicating each of the plants, although I suspect that most of the people who would buy this book would not be interested in this aspect of weeds. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Edible and Useful Plants of California. Charlotte Bringle Clarke. Berkeley, Calif.: University of California Press. 280 pages, illustrated. $5.95 paperback. This volume aims to acquaint the average person with the many uses of plants found in California. The author describes both present and past uses, and also gives recipes that utilize many of the plants listed; each, \"not just edible, but palatable.\" The plants discussed are arranged by ecological communities, making this an excellent pocket guide for campers, backpackers, and scavengers. Although a glossary is provided, the novice will find the plant descriptions a little too technical. There are some very good color plates, but the line drawings are not readily adapted to plant identification. On the whole, the book is very informative, and a good collection of plant lore and plant utilization. Highly recommended. ALLAN NASH 156 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23349","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260856e.jpg","title":"1978-38-4","volume":38,"issue_number":4,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Uncommon Lilacs- Something Old, Something New","article_sequence":1,"start_page":65,"end_page":81,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24725","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24e816d.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Alexander III, John H.","article_content":"The Uncommon Lilacs - Something Old, Something New by JOHN H. ALEXANDER III The lilac is a favorite flower in New England where it is the state flower of New Hampshire. Its popularity also extends across the northern half of the United States and into the southern half of Canada. At the Arnold Arboretum, undoubtedly more visitors come to view the lilacs than to visit any other single collection. We have a special fondness for this plant which is as foreign to our shores as our forefathers were. No species of lilac is native to the New World; Syringa vulgaris, the common lilac, is indigenous to the mountains of Europe within the countries of Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Roumania and Yugoslavia. But botanists did not discover it growing wild until 1828 when it was found in western Roumania. Cultivated for centuries in Turkey, it was brought from there to Vienna by 1563 and was common in Paris by the turn of the century. French, Dutch, and German nurserymen began selecting superior seedlings and by the early 1800's offered named clones for sale. An example is the cultivar 'Lucie Baltet' which originated in France before 1888 and is still considered to be one of the best pinkflowered varieties. So many cultivars originated in French nurseries, and in particular at the nursery of Victor Lemoine, that all selections of Syringa vulgaris have commonly been known as French Hybrid Lilacs. It is these French Hybrid Lilacs that we particularly love. How many of us can walk by a lilac bush in bloom and not bend close for a draught of perfume, the mind conjuring up memories of springs past? With the advent of the smaller home, this plant, so deeply rooted in tradition, has been put aside for the contractor's Taxus. Not only the lilac's size, but the inferior quality of late summer foliage and the profuse suckering tendencies of some cultivars have discouraged many people from growing them. But now lilacs other than the common Syringa vulgaris and its cultivars are being discovered by gardeners. Many of these uncommon lilacs are smaller, some even small enough to be tubbed for the patio, and most sucker little if at all. They also are more resistant to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. Leaf roll-necrosis is typified by the interveinal and marginal chlorosis or yellowing of the leaf, and in severe cases by the inward curling 65 66 A product of our urban be caused by a combination of air pollutants. (6) Since different pollutants are found in varying quantities in different environments, conclusive evidence of resistance is not available. My statements of implied resistance to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis are based on observations at Rochester, New York (5) and on observations by the staff and volunteers of the Arnold Arboretum. With few exceptions the lilacs mentioned here may be seen in the collection of the Arnold Arboretum. Most are available in the nursery trade. The best source list is available from the International Lilac Society, an organization of amateur and professional lilac enthusiasts. Requests for information on publications and membership should be addressed to Mr. Walter W. Oakes, Secretary, International Lilac Society, P.O. Box 315, Rumford, Me. 04276. of the leaf so that the margins actually touch. to environment, the disorder is believed Syringa X chinensis S. X chinensis is a garden hybrid that originated in the Botanic Garden at Rouen, France, about 1777. Its parents are generally believed to be S. laciniata and S. vulgaris. A beautiful shrubby plant, it can reach a height of 15 feet but is more likely to be 8 to 10 feet tall. Its flowers are lilac-colored and somewhat smaller than those of the common lilac, with which it blooms. An attractive advantage is that it produces clusters of flowers not only at the terminals, but from lateral buds down the stems, often forming an inflorescence 2 or more feet long. Syringa X chinensis suckers only enough to be considered multistemmed and is certainly not a nuisance. The foliage is similar to that of the common lilac, but smaller and appears to be resistant to leaf roll-necrosis, although it is susceptible to mildew. Appearing in late summer, mildew does no serious damage to the plant and might well be tolerated in exchange for the great spring beauty and profuse flowering habits of this hybrid. Syringa X chinensis has proved itself to be hardy in Zone II. (3) Two forms also are available: alba, white, and sangeana, lilac-red. Syringa X diversifolia S. X diversifolia is another garden hybrid. Open pollinated seed collected in the Arnold Arboretum in 1929 from a plant of S. pinnatifolia gave rise to hybrid seedlings. Alfred Rehder later determined these to be a cross with S. oblata var. giraldii, which was growing nearby. The pale lilac to white blossoms are fragrant and attractive, appearing shortly before those of S. vulgaris and its cultivars. Usually Plates reprinted from Curtis's Botanical Magazine are, clockwise from top left : Syringa josikaea (Vol. 13, 1833); S. julianae (Vol. 8, fourth series, 1912); S. oblata (Vol. 127, third series, 1901); S. amurensis (Vol. 53, third series, 1897). 67 68 about 6 feet high and almost as broad, S. X diversifolia has a rather open habit. It is not very popular, but this past fall I was captivated by a cultivar that we received in 1949 from the now-defunct Upton Nursery Co. of Detroit, Michigan. Called 'Noveau', its deliciously fragrant, light pink flowers rebloom in early fall when its often pinnately cut foliage is an attractive burgundy and green. Preliminary observations have found it to be only slightly marred by leaf rollnecrosis and free of mildew, although all seedlings of this cross are not mildew resistant. Since all selections of S. X diversifolia do not rebloom to the extent 'Noveau' did last autumn, it is possible that the characteristic is not consistent; but an autumn-flowering lilac with burgundy fall foliage would be unusual and highly desirable. Syringa X hyacinthiflora Syringa josikaea - see S. oblata The purple flowers of this Hungarian native open ten days to two weeks after those of the common lilac. S. josikaea is a very hardy plant, even to Zone II. (3) It grows to 12 feet, and has an upright, open habit. The attractive leaves, unlike those of the common lilac, are elliptic, glabrous above, and closely resemble those of the genus Prunus. They are resistant to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. Not a beautiful plant, the Hungarian Lilac has proved itself as a good parent in hybridization. Some very fine late flowering lilac cultivars have Syringa josikaea in their background. Of the several listed here, all were introduced by the University of New Hampshire, are resistant to mildew and apparently to leaf roll-necrosis. 'Agnes Smith' single, white 'James Macfarlane' single, pink (a true pink) 'Nellie Bean' - single, purple - , Syringa julianae This multi-stemmed but non-suckering shrub is usually a 6- to 8foot mound of slender branches. Hardy to at least Zone V, it blooms with the common lilac. Unlike S. vulgaris, its pale-lilac panicles appear from lateral as well as terminal buds, making the flower clusters appear much larger. The small leaves are not troubled by mildew, but have exhibited slight leaf roll-necrosis. The cultivar 'Hers Variety' has gracefully arching branches that are more weeping than those of any other lilac. This cultivar, when grafted on a 5- or 6-foot standard, makes an absolutely stunning patio plant. Syringa laciniata. Photo: H. Howard. 69 Syringa laciniata known as S. persica var. laciniata, the Cutleaf Lilac is considered to be a true species, and S. X persica a hybrid. The leaves of S. laciniata are deeply lobed and present a dainty, feathery appearance; they also are resistant to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. This Chinese native is hardy to Zone V and forms a graceful many-stemmed, non-suckering 6-foot mound of a shrub. Pale lilac flowers are produced in season with S. vulgaris. Because they break from lateral and terminal buds, the small clusters of flowers often cover 18 or more inches of the branch tips. The unique foliage, attractive flowers and graceful habit make this lilac a favorite of all who know it. Formerly now Syringa meyeri was unknown to the western world until 1908 when F. N. of the U.S.D.A. found it being cultivated in China. Purplelilac flowers grace this handsome lilac that blooms in season with S. vulgaris, but unfortunately lacks its fragrance. The foliage is small, less than 2 inches long, and is not troubled by mildew or leaf rollnecrosis. A multi-stemmed, compact shrub not usually more than 6 feet tall and as broad, it is hardy to Zone II. (3) Specimens at the Morden Arboretum, Morden, Manitoba, are given a hardiness rating of 9 and 9.5 on a scale of 10. S. meyeri Meyer 70 I The correct name of a cultivar of S. meyeri known in the nursery trade as S. palibiniana, and \"Dwarf Korean Lilac,\" (but in reality from China) has been the subject of much confusion. Consternation regarding the correct name of this cultivar prompted me to write Peter S. Green, Keeper of the Herbarium, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. Mr. Green, a former Arnold Arboretum staff member, is probably the world's foremost authority on the taxonomy of the genus Syringa. His reply follows: palibiniana in a strictly taxonomic sense is a synonym of S. patula, and the popular dwarf lilac bearing this name, which is in widespread cultivation, is a misidentification. I believe it to be a cultivar of S. meyeri and intend to call it cv. 'Palibin'. S. More compact than the type, 'Palibin' can, with a little pruning, be maintained at 3 feet in height. A more formal approach would be to graft it high on a standard. Potted up, this lilac might well be used as a patio plant. It is so hardy that, in the vicinity of Boston, one might get by with only a minimum of winter protection. Bags of leaves or a mound of wood chips protecting the root ball probably would be sufficient. If your climate is colder, or if your patio is a raised wooden deck where the root ball would be exposed to cold air from underneath, it would be safer to plunge the pot in the vegetable garden or other convenient spot for the winter. Syringa microphylla microphylla is a most handsome small shrub; its height is usu6 feet and it may grow to be twice as wide. The ovate, mildewally resistant leaves are usually less than 2 inches long, giving the plant its common name, the Littleleaf Lilac. Unfortunately, the leaves are somewhat susceptible to leaf roll-necrosis. The flowers of the species are a light pink or pale lilac color. They open at the same time as the common lilac and frequently rebloom in August or September. This second bloom is somewhat sparse and not really significant in the landscape, but in late summer it is most enjoyable to have a vase full of these fragrant lilac blossoms gracing the dinner table. The deep pink flowers of the cultivar 'Superba' are even more effective, but its foliage seems more likely to display leaf roll-necrosis than the species. S. microphylla has proved itself hardy in Zone III and survives in Zone II. (3) Syringa oblata S. oblata S. closely resembles the common lilac, but blooms ten var. days gir- to two weeks before it, usually about May 10 in Boston. It is best var. known by the varieties S. oblata dilatata and S. oblata Syringa microphylla. aldii. Neither one of these is exceedingly beautiful in and of itself, but each, when crossed with S. vulgaris, has proved to be an excellent parent. This cross has given us the hybrid race S. X hyacinthiflora, which has greatly extended the flowering season. Syringa X hyacinthiflora S. X hyacinthiflora includes hybrids - between S. vulgaris and two S. oblata var. dilatata and S. oblata var. girvarieties of S. oblata aldii. A number of cultivars of this group are available. Closely resembling S. vulgaris in appearance and fragrance, they flower a week or ten days earlier. They are very hardy, many of them having been bred at Dropmore Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada, where winter temperatures of - 50F are not uncommon. The Syringa oblata var. giraldii hybrids are often rather tall and leggy and benefit by frequent, ruthless pruning. Hybrids of S. oblata var. dilatata tend to be very broad shrubs, and are apparently less susceptible to leaf roll-necrosis. Although both S. oblata var. dilatata and S. oblata var. giraldii hybrids show resistance to mildew, those of the former are usually more resistant. Some favorite cultivars are: (D) indicates S. oblata var. dilatata parentage (G) indicates S. oblata var. giraldii parentage 72 'Alice Eastwood' (G) double, magenta 'Anabel' (D) double, pink 'Assessippi' (D) single, lilac 'Doctor Chadwick' (D) single, mauve 'Esther Staley' (G) single, magenta - nice compact habit. 'Jewel' double, pink 'Necker' (G) 'Pocahontas' single, pink (D) single, pink - Syringa palibiniana Syringa patula see S. meyeri patula, formerly known as S. velutina, is a tall shrub with an upright habit and pale lilac flowers. Hardy to Zone II, (3) this Korean native has foliage that is resistant to both mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. Although the species is not generally considered to be a horticulturally desirable shrub, it has given rise to an exceedingly beauti- S. ful cultivar, 'Miss Kim'. Professor E. M. Meader of the University of New Hampshire collected seed of S. patula in the Poukhan Mountains of Korea in 1947. (8) One seedling, later named 'Miss Kim', became a slow-growing compact shrub with fragrant pale lilac flowers in spring and handsome burgundy-red foliage in the fall. The individual flowers, although somewhat small, are abundantly produced and appear at the same time as the later cultivars of the common lilac. ` Syringa pekinensis Forty-foot trees of S. pekinensis have been reported in China where this species is native, but on this continent it is usually a small tree, seldom reaching 25 feet. It is hardy at least to Zone III and what is probably the oldest specimen in the New World is maintained in Canada by the Ottawa Research Station. Their 76-year-old plant was grown from seed obtained from the Arnold Arboretum in 1902. The tree now approaches 25 feet in height and has a canopy of about 30 feet. The two main stems are 12 and 15 inches in diameter respectively and the bark is attractive and slightly exfoliating. (2) The degree to which the bark exfoliates varies greatly between specimens. Some trees at the Arnold Arbortum show little or no exfoliation, while others display masses of orangey-brown bark strips from all but the oldest branches. The two plants with the most attractive bark, numbers 21634 and 21635-B, were both collected as Syringa patula'Miss Kim'. Photo: H. Corrow, courtesy of University of New Hampshire. 73 seed by Joseph Rock in 1926. Number 21634 is quite a bit broader and has a larger trunk than the latter; both approach 25 feet and may be taller. Their habit is reminiscent of that of an apple tree and they might be recommended for use anywhere a small low branching tree would be appropriate. In the vicinity of Boston this lilac flowers about June 15. The creamy white flowers have a privet-like fragrance and closely resemble those of the other tree lilac, S. reticulata, with which it blooms. The foliage of this species is attractive and resistant to mildew. Some specimens are reported to have leaf roll-necrosis, while others appear to be resistant. The exfoliating bark of this species offers year-round interest and makes the bare winter branches attractive. Because seedlings have varying bark characteristics and varying degrees of resistance to leaf roll-necrosis, only selected plants should be propagated and those, asexually. The cultivar 'Pendula' is available, but unfortunately is not very pendant. 74 Exfoliating bark of Syringa pekinensis. Photo : J. Alexander. Syringa X persica S. X persica is a handsome, many-stemmed shrub about 6 feet in as much or more in width. Never found in the wild, it is a hybrid that perhaps originated in the gardens of Persia, where it was cultivated for centuries. S. laciniata, which was formerly known as S. persica var. laciniata, is now considered to be one of the parents. The many small clusters of lilac flowers originate from both terminal and lateral buds forming a huge inflorescence that may extend 18 or more inches from the branch tip. These flowers are produced so abundantly that they weigh down the branches into graceful arches. The Persian Lilac blooms about the same time as the common lilac, but lacks the pleasant fragrance of the latter. S. X persica is hardy to Zone II (3) and has shown good resistance to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. The foliage and flowers are both small, but the number of flowers and the graceful appearance of this shrub make it easy to see why it is as valuable to today's gardens as it was to those of long ago. height and apparently Syringa potanini. Photo: H. Howard. 75 Syringa potanini First discovered in 1885 in Kansu, China, by the Russian explorer shrub approaching 10 feet in and as wide as it is tall. A non-suckering, multi-stemmed height plant, it has small, densely pubescent leaves that are resistant to mildew but not to leaf roll-necrosis. When the common lilac is in bloom, the Potanin Lilac abounds with fragrant pink flowers held in open erect panicles, and like S. microphylla, S. potanini produces a second, less abundant flush of flowers in late summer. Hardy to Zone V, this species has long been one of my favorites; it does best with plenty of space and clean air. Potanin, Syringa potanini is a large Syringa X prestoniae In 1920, Isabella Preston of the Dominion of Canada, Central Ex- perimental Farm, Ottawa, crossed the species S. villosa and S. reflexa, giving us the hybrid race S. X prestoniae. The result of this cross was the combination of some of the best qualities of both parents, greatly increasing the number of late lilacs. Many people are prejudiced against the late lilacs because, in their opinion, late lilacs neither look nor smell like what a lilac should. The heavily veined leaves are elliptic and the flowers, if fragrant, hint at a scent of privet. I have found however, that there is a secret to liking these lilacs, and that is not to look at them as lilacs, but as pretty shrubs in their own right. -~ 76 The Preston lilacs bloom about ten days to two weeks after the lilac. Hardy to Zone II, they are non-suckering shrubs that often reach 8 to 10 feet in height. The not-very-fragrant flowers of most cultivars are usually pinkish-lilac colored. Some cultivars, like 'Fountain', have gracefully arching branches similar to S. reflexa; others are much more upright, like S. villosa; an example would be 'Isabella'. The foliage of most is large and coarse, not very attractive, but usually resistant to mildew and leaf roll-necrosis. Since Miss Preston's time, others have duplicated this cross and of the following recommended cultivars, those marked with an * are the result of the work of others. 'Fountain' single, pink *'Hiawatha' (Skinner) single, pink 'Isabella' single, lilac *'Miss Canada' (Cumming) single, pink common Syringa reflexa S. reflexa has been most valuable to us as a parent of the hybrid S. X prestoniae. It is a graceful, broad shrub that can reach 12 feet in height. When in bloom, the panicles of pink flowers arch and hang down like those of wisteria. It is this pendant characteristic that gives the species its common name, the Nodding Lilac. Hardy to Zone III and resistant to both mildew and leaf roll-necrosis, a good specimen of S. reflexa can be a beautiful plant. It is apparently a highly variable species; some authors have extolled its virtues while others downgrade it. Plants of S. reflexa growing in the Arnold Arboretum are not very thrifty, but Mr. W. W. Oakes of the International Lilac Society has informed me that his plant does well, although the blossoms only last a day or two. He recommends S. X swegiflexa, a hybrid between S. sweginzowii and S. reflexa, for the same habit, but improved flowering qualities. race . \" Syringa reticulata S. ' reticulata, to the Japanese Tree Lilac, was formerly known need as S. a amurensis var. japonica. Sometimes reaching 30 feet, it makes handsome small tree, but when young it may occasionally some pruning keep it single-stemmed. Japan. In 1876 the Arnold Arboretum received seeds of this species from A beautiful specimen (AA #1111) from this original introduction is alive today in the Arboretum's collection. It is growing close to the road near the Forsythia collection. Large clusters of privet-scented flowers cover this tree in June, as it is one of the latest of the lilacs to bloom. Hardy in Zone II, (3) this species has foliage that is resistant to mildew and leaf roll- Syringa villosa. 77 Syringa reticulata. Photo : J. Alexander. 78 necrosis. When the flowers and foliage are gone, the attractive cherrylike bark is visible, making this tree visually pleasing throughout the year. The variety mandshurica blooms shorter and less treelike. slightly before the type, and is Syringa villosa S. villosa is a large, upright shrub, as much as 12 feet by 12 feet. pink flowers are held in upright panicles that open ten days to two weeks after S. vulgaris and give it the common name of Late Lilac. The large leaves are not troubled by mildew or leaf roll-necrosis. Not a very beautiful or popular shrub, its chief attribute is that it is hardy to Zone II, and most suitable, therefore, for use in windbreaks on the Northern Plains. But even for that purposse, S. josikaea might be a more attractive choice. Its Syringa reflexa. From Curtis's Botanical Magazine. Vol. 16, fourth series,1920. 80 Syringa prestoniae. Photo: D. Wyman. 81 Bibliography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Hortorium. 1976. Hortus Third. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York. pp. 1090-1091. Cole, T. J. 1978. Personal correspondence. (Ornamentals Section, Ottawa Research Station, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada). Cumming, W. A. and Vitens, A. Woody Ornamentals in the Morden Arboretum, Agriculture Canada, Research Station, Morden, Manitoba. Contribution No. M-205. Egolf, D. R. and Andrick, A. O. 1977. Lilac Plant Source List. The Pipeline, Int. Lilac Soc. 31 pp. Fenicchia, R. A. 1977. Susceptibility of Lilacs to Leaf Curl Necrosis and Powdery Mildew. The Plant Propagator 23 (3): 7-12. Hibben, C. R. and Walker, J. T. 1966. A Leaf Roll-Necrosis Complex of Lilacs in an Urban Environment. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 89: 636642. McKelvey, S. D. 1928. The Lilac - A Monograph. Macmillan Co., New York. 581 pp. Meader, E. M. 1976. The 'Miss Kim' Lilac. The Pipeline 2 (3) Int. Lilac Soc. Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. Macmillan Co., New York. pp. 777-783. Rogers, O. M. 1976. Tentative International Register of Cultivar Names in the Genus Syringa. Research Report No. 49, Univ. of New Hampshire. 81 pp. Wyman, D. 1948. Syringa Prestoniae. Amoldia 8 (7): 29-36. The Arboretum Lilacs in their Order of Bloom. Ar, 1955. noldia 15 (4): 17-23. , Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York. pp. 1081-1087. Zucker, I. 1966. Flowering Shrubs. D. Van Nostrand Co., New York. ~ pp. 307-313. Bailey , ! (0' . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Journal","article_sequence":2,"start_page":83,"end_page":101,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24722","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eb76b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Japanese Journal by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. ' The aim of the Arnold Arboretum's collecting trip to Japan and Korea in the fall of 1977 has already been explained briefly in the JanuaryFebruary issue of Arnoldia. The present article will describe in more detail our experiences in Japan; another in the next issue of Arnoldia will cover the Korean portion of the trip. Space allows for the description of only the most memorable days, but a detailed itinerary with a list of the plants collected each day appears at the end of the article. Steve Spongberg and I left Logan International Airport 10 : 00 a.m. on September 1, and after changing planes in Chicago, headed for Tokyo. Our route took us across Canada's Prairie Provinces, the southern Yukon Territory, and Alaska's Coast Ranges to Anchorage. The views of the ice-clad peaks and glacier-filled valleys were spectacular and we had an enticing glimpse of Mt. McKinley on the horizon. After a frustrating hour at the Anchorage airport, we took off on the long last leg of our trip, arriving at our hotel approximately 15 hours after leaving Boston. The next morning was spent in the Ginza, the main shopping district, where everything was fascinating, particularly the flower and produce shops. The former featured many standard items, but we found several surprises: One of the most common potted plants was a dwarf form of Gentiana scabra, a native Japanese gentian. Other gentians, particularly G. triflora var. japonica, a bottle-type, were sold as cut flowers. I could hardly believe my eyes when I first saw bunches of Eustoma grandiflorum in the shops. This plant is an annual member of the Gentian Family native to the southern United States, but practically unheard of as an ornamental in our country; yet the Japanese had even selected white- and double-flowered forms. Ironically their name for it meant \"Chinese Bluebell.\" We had been told about the produce shops before we left the United States, but it was still quite an experience to see their selection of magnificent fruits which had been carefully nurtured throughout their development, and were sold as absolutely unblemished specimens, individually wrapped, at exorbitant prices. We found Tokyo in general to be as expensive as expected. For its size it is remarkably clean, and the drivers are unbelievably well-behaved. I cannot remember hearing a horn honk in Tokyo, a marked contrast to any large Latin-American city. 83 84 Dr. Katsuhiko Kondo, or Katsu for short, a friend of Steve's from graduate student days at the University of North Carolina, met us in the afternoon. Katsu, now on the staff of Hiroshima University, was to accompany us for most of our trip. We took him to a fine restaurant that featured the best beef I have ever eaten (at prices I would rather forget) and he then took off alone by train to Sapporo on Hokkaido where we would meet again a day hence. On September 5 Steve and I flew to Sapporo, the capital city of Hokkaido Prefecture which encompasses the whole of the northernmost of Japan's four main islands. As we ascended from Tokyo we had a glimpse of Mt. Fuji above the clouds and smog, and travelling north we tried to spot the places where we would be collecting in a week or so. Katsu was waiting in Sapporo to show us to our hotel, the Washington. It was a fine hotel, but our double room was considerably smaller than any single I had stayed in before. With barely enough room to move about, we looked ahead with apprehension to cleaning seeds in such cramped quarters. We also had our first of many encounters with the last word in the Japanese idea of westernstyle bathrooms - tiny and completely moulded from a solid sheet of plastic. After lunch we walked to the Botanic Garden of Hokkaido University, where we had an appointment with the Director, Dr. Tadao Ui. As we approached the Administration Building, we remarked on its New England Colonial architecture, recalling that the University and the Botanic Garden had been set up under the direction of a Professor Clark from what is now the University of Massachusetts at Amherst. Dr. Ui and his secretary were most cordial, and they explained the itinerary they had set up for us, starting immediately with a visit to the Hokkaido branch of the Government Forest Experiment Station on the outskirts of the city. Our host there was Mr. Jun-ichiro Samejima, a vigorous and enthusiastic young man, an expert on Trillium who had studied at Vanderbilt University. After considerable effort we explained to him that we were very anxious to do some collecting in the wild. In the badly cut over forests near the station we had our first good look at a plant that we came to dislike intensely Sasa hurilensis a 3- to 4-foot bamboo that has become rampant with the widespread clearing of the forests on Hokkaido, choking out everything in its path. Here it was doubly annoying to wade through since it was covered with a fine dust from the erupting Mt. Usu about 40 miles away. But we were finally able to do some good collecting, and Steve was particularly excited by finding both of Hokkaido's magnolias, M. kobus and M. hypoleuca, with nearly mature fruit. We returned to Sapporo for a dinner engagement with Dr. Ui and some of his staff. The meal was one that I shall never forget a traditional multi-course banquet with a great variety of food, much of which we ate with less than gusto. But at least we were able to eat with chopsticks, since we had practiced at home. - - - 85 The Administration Building of the Botanic Garden of Hokkaido University in Sapporo. The architecture shows the influence of Dr. William S. Clark, a New Englander who helped develop the garden. (All photos are by author.) day we toured the plantings of the Hokkaido Forest Tree Station and made a few half-hearted collections. We really wanted to collect in the natural forests which we could see only a short distance away. We were told at first that the Nopporo Natural Forest was a reserve, and that collecting was forbidden. We persisted, and finally, under the friendly supervision of Mr. Norio Murano, we were allowed into the forest. Although it had been somewhat a cut over, this was the sort of place we had been dreaming of rich forest dominated by trees of such familiar genera as Acer, Ulmus, Quercus, Magnolia, Styrax, and Carpinus. Here we found one of the main objectives of our trip, Skimmia japonica, growing near the northern limit of its range. The herbaceous vegetation was fantastic, and I could imagine what the place must look like in the springtime. We found orchids of several genera, many ferns, trilliums and their strange relative Paris, Jack-in-the-pulpit, baneberries, etc. I really love such plants and I could hardly contain myself. The next Breeding - 86 a tour of the adjacent, ultra-modern muHokkaido's centennial, we set out across the commemorating city for Mt. Moiwa, a low peak where Charles Sargent had collected nearly a century before. We ascended the mountain by cable car and had a close look at the forest canopy below with the whitish flower clusters of Aralia elata and the huge leaves of Magnolia hypoleuca standing out conspicuously. The descent was an easy trail through a forest basically similar to that at Nopporo, but our collecting was limited since daylight was fading fast. The next morning after touring the botanic garden, we thanked Dr. Ui profusely and boarded the train for Urakawa on Hokkaido's southeastern coast. The countryside was beautiful, reminiscent in many places of southeastern Pennsylvania where I grew up. As we approached Urakawa, the Hidaka Range, among Japan's oldest mountains geologically, came into view. We tried to pick out Mt. Apoi, a peak isolated from the main range that we were to climb the following day. Mt. Apoi is a remarkable mountain, slightly more than 800 meters high, but with an alpine zone and several endemic plants at its summit. The low alpine zone is due to the almost continuous fog that keeps the mean temperature low throughout the year. We were met by a very jovial Mr. Minowa and ushered around to meet various local governmental and forestry officials. Evidently westerners do not often visit Urakawa. Quite exhausted, we were finally taken to our inn, the only ryokan (or Japanese inn) in which we stayed the entire trip. I was shown my room but told that I could not occupy it because dinner was being set up. I insisted on a bath, and upon returning found a seafood feast set up, attended by Mr. Minowa, the governor of the district, and Mr. Uchida, our guide for the following day. We had a most enjoyable evening, discussing all sorts of problems through Katsu's translation, while our cups were continually refilled with saki and other libations. We mostly looked at our breakfast the next morning, particularly the bowl of fern fiddleheads with what looked like bacon but turned out to be whale meat. Not knowing our condition, the cook was disappointed that we had not eaten more. The next morning we had eggs. Much too early on a dreary September 8 we set out for Mt. Apoi. The rain was light but persistent, and soaked us through, except for Mr. Uchida who had a distinct knack for remaining dry. We drove to the edge of the forest and proceeded to climb. The vegetation was basically similar to that at Nopporo. Viburnum furcatum was abundant and laden with its beautiful red drupes and we could not resist making a large collection. Several shrubs new to us added a bit of excitement. Our first large-leaved rhododendron, R. brachycarpum, was common at lower elevations, and although the capsules were green and scarce, we collected a few. Other members of the Heath Family included a species of Menziesia, a genus of deciduous shrubs Later, after lunch and seum 87 with flowers resembling those of blueberries, and Vaccinium oldhamii, our first of many encounters with this beautiful blueberry that now was taking on its burgundy autumn coloration. The maroon fruits in drooping clusters were just ripe enough for collection. In a clearing along the trail I stopped to photograph a clump of the very beautiful Ophelia tetrapetala var. yezoalpina, an annual member of the Gentian Family with pale blue, spotted flowers. Focusing with a wet view-finder and fogged-up eyeglasses was frustrating enough, but the last straw was to find that I was out of film after taking just one picture. Soon afterward, Steve discovered that he was out of film as well. (The day was not a good one for photography anyway. ) easy one, and the trail was good. As we ascendbecame admixed with Pinus parviflora, the Japanese White Pine. This area is one of the few places on Hokkaido where this species is native. We stopped to collect the \"berries\" of Juniperus chinensis var. sargentii, a low growing juniper, and soon came abruptly out of the forest and onto a very welcome, dry trailside shelter perched at the foot of a treeless ridge leading to the summit of the mountain. Exciting new plants were all about us. We soon made collections of dwarf forms of Berberis amurensis var. japonica and Lespedeza bicolor, the latter frustrating us as before with immature fruits, but we collected them anyway. A mountain ash, Sorbus sambucifolia var. pseudogracilis, only 3 feet tall with clusters of large red-orange berries, was one of the most beautiful ones I had The climb was an ed, the deciduous trees ever seen. climbing now became harder and we were lucky to find many interesting plants. The Japanese Stone Pine, Pinus pumila, a low, timberline species, was abundant, but we found few cones with seeds. We did make a good collection of Rhododendron dauricum, one of our favorite harbingers of spring back at the Arnold Arboretum, as well as of a prostrate form of Potentilla fruticosa, the Bush Cinquefoil. Well below the summit were 2-foot fruit-laden shrubs of one of our main objectives, Betula apoiensis, a dwarf birch restricted in distribution to this mountain. With the summit yet a half-mile distant and the clouds clearing to reveal magnificent views of the Hidaka Range and the Pacific, we cursed our lack of film and decided to go no further. Mr. Uchida suggested another route down, following the mostly treeless scrub for quite a distance. We soon found Ilex rugosa, Leucothoe grayana var. oblongifolia, Ledum palustre var. diversipilosum, Juniperus communis var. nipponica, and a large selection of my favorite group of herbaceous plants, the Lily Family. In a small area I found at least two species of Veratrum (false hellebore), Lilium medeoloides, Tofieldia nutans var. kondoi, an endemic species, Convallaria keiskei, the Japanese Lily of the Valley, and Clintonia udensis, with beautiful black fruits. We worked our way down, with Mr. Uchida in the lead making The 88 I various noises to warn bears of our presence (The Eurasian Brown Bear is still relatively common here.). After a very late lunch at Mr. Uchida's headquarters, the Experimental Garden for the Department of Forestry of the Hidaka District, we looked at the plantings surrounding the station. Many exotic trees were being tested there as candidates for a reforestation program, but native plants were well represented as well. Our best collection was of undoubtedly the most beautiful species of Euonymus I have ever seen, Euonymus macropterus, a small tree covered with long, pendent red fruits, each segment with a slender wing. The next morning Mr. Yojuuro Sato, a college friend of Katsu's who is now teaching high school on Hokkaido, joined us for a short collecting trip to one of the river valleys northwest of Urakawa. The rain was heavy and the plants mostly unexceptional. We did have our first encounter with Staphylea bumalda, the Japanese species of bladdemut, growing almost as a weed shrub. But it was wonderful to gaze over the forests and to see the treetops here and there splotched with the white-variegated leaves of Actinidia kolomikta, a woody vine closely related to A. chinensis, the plant that produces the familiar \"Kiwi Fruit\" we can occasionally buy in supermarkets in the United States. After expressing our sincerest thanks and fond farewells to our hosts in Urakawa, we headed north on a scenic, narrow road toward Asahikawa in the center of Hokkaido. Mr. Sato's station wagon was loaded with grapes from his father's orchard wonderfully sweet small grapes of the cultivar 'Delaware' from the United States, but seedless because each inflorescence had been hand-dipped in gibberellic acid. We had a feast, both of these grapes and hybrid melons which were like a cross between a cantaloupe and a honey-dew. In the late afternoon we stopped for an hour or so at the Tokyo University Forest in Hokkaido, an experimental station near the town of Yamabe. Our most gracious host, Mr. Kurahashi, served us a rather untraditional Japanese tea complete with tomatoes and corn on the cob, fresh from the garden, before showing us around the plantation. Many native woody plants were represented, and we collected our first material of Alangium platanifolium, a plant very high on our list of desiderata. This low, shrubby plant with trilobed leaves and black fruits, in a family close to the dogwoods, is very rare in cultivation in the United States. Another item of interest was a fine row of the true Monarch Birch, Betula maximowicziana. This plant has recently caused quite a stir in the United States since it has been touted as a white-barked birch resistant to the devastating bronze birch borer. Unfortunately the trees on which the observations were made were misidentified; as it turns out, most were the so-called Monarch Birches in the United States, including those at the Arnold Arboretum. The plant is resistant to the borer, but it does not have really white bark. Those - - Mr. Akio Kurahashi and one of his assistants at the Tokyo Hokkaido, preparing a rather untraditional Japanese tea. University Forest in \" had seen in the wild had mostly silver-gray bark, although those here in Hokkaido were the best we encountered in Japan, with bark approaching white. Just before we left we were ushered into what turned out to be the strangest museum I have ever seen: A dank, dark, concrete room lined with ceiling-high trunks and the corresponding cross-sections of what used to be magnificent specimens of the most important forest trees of Hokkaido. Who would have imagined two species of alders (Alnus japonica and A. maximowiczii) with trunks nearly 3 feet in diameter? The last part of our journey, with the sun setting, was most enjoyable : Small towns; rolling farmland with fields of rice and melons growing beautifully at a latitude further north than that of Boston; the volcanic massif of Tokachi with steaming vents; and finally Asahikawa, Hokkaido's second largest city, pleasant and bustling, with a good room and a wonderful meal in a non-tourist restaurant complete with a traditional Japanese folk-singer. we 90 To me, the next day, September 10, was the best of the trip. Our objective was Daisetzu-san National Park, encompassing the Daisetzu massif with one of the peaks, Asahi-dake, at 2345 meters the highest point on the island. As soon as we reached the outskirts of Asahikawa, the mountain loomed before us, the steaming vents plainly visible. Soon after we started the drive up the mountain, we saw a plant of Sambucus sieboldiana heavy with fruit. This elderberry is closely related to our own native S. pubens. A bonus at this stop was Spiranthes sinensis, one of the loveliest wildflowers we encountered. This orchid, the only Japanese species of Spiranthes, closely resembles our native ladies tresses, except that the flowers, arranged in a long spiral spike nearly 10 inches long, are pink rather than creamy white. Climbing higher, we drove through a forest completely different from those we had seen before. The aspect was much like that of the subalpine forests of the western United States. Conifers, primarily Picea jezoensis, were mixed with deciduous trees, the commonest being Acer ukurunduense and Betula ermanii. The road ended at the ski lodge, and we had to rely on a cable car to take us to the alpine zone. The views from the cable car were such that we could hardly contain our anticipation. For the most part the Japan we saw is often beautiful, but seldom spectacular. However, the view after we left the car and walked over a small rise was breathtaking. The peaks themselves set the backdrop, with the steam from the fumaroles near their base rising eerily to blend with the fog above. The half-mile in between was a gently rolling plateau covered with alpine vegetation. The edges, basically the treeline, were rimmed with Pinus pumila, Acer ukurunduense and Sorbus matsumurana, the last two with their autumn foliage brilliant orange and scarlet. Although Gentiana triflora var. japonica, a bottle-type gentian with flowering shoots nearly 2 feet tall, added a touch of color, very few plants in the alpine vegetation were in bloom at this season. The vegetation is dominated by shrublets of a wide variety of species, mostly members of the Heath Family. The most conspicuous plant, however, was a species of the Rose Family, Sieversia pentapetala, a woody segregate of Geum, whose fuzzy fruit aggregates stood out above the green. The alpine zone of Mt. Daisetzu is carefully patrolled by uniformed rangers, and we were warned by our hosts that we must not collect any plant material. Thoroughly frustrated, we were poking about on our hands and knees when one of the rangers came to investigate. As it turned out, he had a great appreciation for the plants he was protecting. Apparently overjoyed to find kindred spirits, he went about gathering seeds for us. After about an hour we decided to climb up for a closer look at the fumaroles, and when we returned, The alpine zone of Mt. Daisetzu, showing the active fumaroles. The shrubs in the foreground are Pinus pumila and Sorbus matsumurana. 91 our ranger friend had several more packets of seeds, neatly labeled in were as follows: Several species of Vaccinium, including V. vitis-idaea, the Mountain Cranberry, an old friend from the alpine areas of New England, and V. praestans, a prostrate species with large, red fruits; Gaultheria miqueliana, a relative of our Checkerberry but with large white fruits; Loiseluria procumbens, the Alpine Azalea of the New Hampshire mountains, but here growing more upright; Phyllodoce nipponica, still with a few pink flowers; Rhododendron aureum, a dwarf, yellow-flowered species that I can hardly wait to see in bloom; Harrimenella stelleriana (a segregate of Cassiope ) and Arcterica nana, two dwarf species of the Heath Family; and a lovely alpine blackberry (Rubus) which we could not identify. As we worked our way down the mountain we were appalled to find that Sasa kurilensis, the scourge of Hokkaido, was spreading even into the lower areas of the alpine zone. The subalpine forest was lovely, very open with many herbaceous plants of great interest, although few were in bloom. The most conspicuous was Lysichiton camtschatcense, a member of the Arum Family whose western Ameri- Japanese, waiting for us. Some of the plants we collected 92 counterpart is called the Western Skunk Cabbage. The large leaves resemble those of our native Skunk Cabbage of a related genus. The ripe fruit aggregates were all that remained of the inflorescence, with its large white, calla-like spathe. In our searches on Mt. Daisetzu we failed to find one of our objectives, Bryanthus gmelinii, a rare, endemic Japanese shrublet of the Heath Family. But Mr. Sato knew of a nursery near the base of the mountain that specialized in local alpines. We paid the establishment a visit on our way back to Asahikawa, and among many other interesting plants we found a Bryanthus. The next day, after a few hours of collecting, we boarded the train for a seven-hour trip to Hakodate, Hokkaido's main port and one of the first Japanese cities opened to foreign commerce in the late 1850's. That night Katsu and I took a cable car to the top of Mt. Hakodate, overlooking the city, for a magnificent view. Our collecting the next day, in the coastal scrub near the city, was interesting but we encountered few new plants. On September 13, we boarded the ferry for Aomori on Honshu, the Japanese \"mainland.\" The boat was spacious and comfortable, a good thing since the trip took about four hours. Dr. Kankichi Sohma and one of his graduate students, Mr. Masamichi Takahashi, our hosts for the second portion of our trip, met us when we landed. Katsu had to return to Hiroshima, so we made arrangements for meeting him again in Nagoya before bidding farewell. Dr. Sohma, a palynologist at Tohoku University in Sendai, was driving a university jeep into which we loaded all our gear before heading south for Mt. Hakkoda. Our destination was Tohoku University's biological laboratory on the slopes of the mountain. The laboratory itself turned out to be a delightful place. The main building was rustic inside and out, with a large western-style dormitory room, a small kitchen, and a traditional style room which we used as a combination working-dining room. Surrounding the building was a small but fine botanic garden, with plants native to the region interspersed amongst the natural vegetation. Most of the plants were labeled with their Japanese and Latin names. Dr. Sohma suggested that we take a bath in the hot springs nearby before supper. As he said that it was one of the few traditional baths remaining in this part of Japan, we were excited and curious. When we got inside the men's dressing room we found a window leading directly to the comparable room for women so we suspected that the baths were coed. Inside the baths themselves, the scene was eery in the extreme - a huge room paneled with rough-hewn timbers, dimly lit and very steamy, smelling strongly of sulphur, with two very large pools filled with milky-colored water and mostly old Japanese of both sexes. We slipped into the first bath, whose water had been slightly cooled, and tried to relax. The bath was soothing, and we soon decided to try the other pool, whose water had been heated so can I 93 was possible for me to stay in only for a few minutes at a time. Mr. Takahashi left before we did, and when we got back to the laboratory he was busily cooking supper. Since Steve and I had trouble remembering his name, it was suggested that we call him \"Hashi,\" which appropriately was the word for the utensils we call chopsticks. Both Hashi and Dr. Sohma spoke English well and were extremely personable men, so we had a very enjoyable, as well as profitable, time with them. The next morning, September 14, we climbed Mt. Hakkoda. Like Mt. Daisetzu, this is a volcanic massif with several peaks. However, there are no active vents and the hot springs are about the only evidence of volcanic activity. The trail we took led to the highest peak, at 1585 meters above sea level. This was a good day for collecting, since we encountered many new plants. The vegetation at the beginning of the trail was mostly deciduous forest with Sorbus commixta, Acer tschonoskii, Acer ukurunduense, Cornus controversa, and Acanthopanax sciadophylloides; the last, a member of the Aralia Family with large, palmately compound leaves. The shrubs again were mostly members of the Heath Family, including several azaleas, blueberries and species of Menziesia; in addition, Ilex sugerokii var. brevipedunculata, an evergreen holly, and Lindera umbellata var. membranacea, a relative of our spicebush, were abundant. As we climbed, Abies mariesii, a species of fir with dull purple cones, became prevalent. Mt. Hakkoda is the northern limit of its distribution. This day we also had our first of many encounters with the phenomenon of Japanese high school students on holiday. Particularly in the fall, students from all over Japan, dressed in their black and white uniforms, are taken en masse on field trips. This day they were rather like ants and just as annoying. Besides detracting from the pristine beauty and seeming isolation of Mt. Hakkoda, they wasted much of our time by causing us to step off the narrow trails as they passed in seemingly unending streams. We persevered, and finally lost the students as we neared the summit. Unfortunately, at the same time the weather deteriorated. The gray skies finally did more than threaten, and in the chill at the top of the mountain sleet fell as we tried to view the old crater through the mist. The woody alpine vegetation was similar in composition to that on Mt. Daisetzu, except that here Phyllodoce aleutica, with creamy flowers, replaced P. nipponica. The herbaceous flora was quite new to us, however. On our descent we came across a large area where the snow had melted relatively recently, and many plants were in bloom. One of the most wonderful was Shortia soldanelloides, its pink, frilled flowers reminiscent of those of its famous American counterpart. This rare and notoriously difficult plant in American gardens was almost a weed all over the alpine zone on Mt. Hakkoda, even growing in the middle of the trail. Quite common also was a that it Phyllodoce aleutica, a dwarf shrub of the Heath Hakkoda in northern Honshu. The urn-shaped, 3\/8-inch long. Family in the alpine zone on Mt. creamy-colored flowers are about brilliant blue alpine gentian, Gentiana nipponica, and a relative of the gentians, Fauria crista-galli, with its clusters of white star-shaped flowers and kidney-shaped basal leaves. Metanarthecium luteo-viride, an endemic Japanese member of the Lily Family, and a diminutive primrose, Primula nipponica, were in abundant fruit and I could not resist collecting them. In the subalpine zone we came upon vast areas of a very unusual a peat bog almost completely covered with a type of vegetation mat of grasses and sedges but interspersed here and there with orchids and several members of the Lily Family. Traversing the area was easy because of a very extensive and beautifully constructed boardwalk. Occasionally we came upon clumps of shrubs, mostly Pinus pumila and a natural hybrid, P. X hakkodensis ( P. pumila X P. parviflora). Our most exciting find was a dwarf witch hazel, Hamamelis japonica. Hopefully, the seeds we collected from it will produce equally dwarf plants. Heading south the next day, our ultimate destination being Sendai, we paused to make a collection of Tsuga diversifolia, one of the two Japanese hemlocks, which we found growing at the northern limit of its range. At Tsuta Hot Springs on the lower slopes of Mt. Hak- Drs. Stephen Spongberg and Kankichi Sohma in the beautiful forests typical of the Lake Towada area on northern Honshu. The commonest trees in the forest were Magnolia hypoleuca, Fagus crenata, and Aesculus turbinata. 95 koda, we stopped longer to admire the truly magnificent forests where the dominant trees were Fagus crenata, (a species of beech), Magnolia hypoleuca, and Aesculus turbinata, the Japanese species of horse chestnut. All of these species have a smooth silvery-gray bark, and the last two have huge leaves. The undergrowth was sparse and open, everything combining to make a forest of uniquely beautiful character from the floor to the canopy. It was perfectly quiet and beautifully sunny, devoid of tourists or schoolchildren all in all a wonderful experience for one who loves forests. Still further south we collected along the shores of Lake Towada, a deep and very blue lake occupying the caldera of a long-gone volcano, much like Crater Lake, Oregon, in our own country. The forests here were similar but not quite so beautiful as those described above. After spending the night in the city of Morioka, we collected part of the next day (September 16) on Mt. Hayachine, a non-volcanic mountain with serpentine rocks and several unusual plants. On our way to Sendai we stopped to inspect a traditional thatch-roofed farmhouse, a rare sight in Japan these days. For the next several days our base was Sendai. We went to several interesting localities with Dr. Sohma and\/or Hashi, but space will allow the discussion of only one, the northeastern part of Nikko National Park. This day, September 17, did not yield a large number - 96 of collections, but the ones we did make were among the most interesting of the entire trip. The forests of the central part of Honshu are very rich, many of the more southern elements reaching their northern limit here. Within a few miles of Kashi Hot Springs, we found nine species of maples, unfortunately with very few in fruit. Here we saw our finest wild specimens of Stewartia pseudocamellia, but again without fruit. We did manage to make good collections of Euptelea polyandra, an unusual tree of uncertain classification, and one rare in cultivation but here growing almost as a weed. Our main objective this day was Trochodendron aralioides, a primitive, evergreen tree with its northernmost high elevation station in this area. To reach it we had to climb nearly to the top of Mt. Kashi on an easy trail through beautiful forest. On the way were a number of plants of Magnolia salicifolia, of great interest to Steve because these were shrubby, while most plants of this species cultivated in the United States are treelike. Reaching the ridge, we could not help but notice the similarity in the aspect of the vegetation to that of like situations in the Appalachians. Only pines were absent. We found the Trochodendron as the sun began to get quite low and we searched desperately for fruits. Finding none, in desperation we dug up a few rooted layers. As we were about to head down we found a few plants of another broad-leaved evergreen that none of us could identify. A few layers of this \"mystery plant\" were taken also, and we will have to wait until it flowers to find out what it is. The morning of September 22 was our last in Sendai. Our farewell to Hashi and Dr. Sohma was a sad one since we had become good friends. I still look back in amazement at the time and effort these two men put into helping two complete strangers. Most of the two days in Tokyo were spent packing things to be sent home as we would be taking the train to Sukuoka, on the island of Kyushu, before catching a flight for Seoul. Our party had now grown to three with the arrival of Steve's wife on September 24. The Japanese trains were as efficient and comfortable as universally reported, especially the Shinkan-sen or Bullet Train, with a maximum speed of 120 miles per hour. On September 26 we arrived in Nagoya where Katsu and his father were waiting for us. We visited the Nagoya Botanical Garden briefly and were able to collect a few plants in a patch of natural woodland there. The next day we visited the elder Kondo's garden a remarkable place. Mr. Kondo is interested in carnivorous plants and he has amassed a very good collection which he grows in a natural boggy area about an hour's drive from Nagoya. We were amazed to find Venus Flytraps growing happily and reseeding themselves, as well as many species and hybrids of our native pitcher plants. On the evening of September 27 we arrived in Kyoto, spending the next day sightseeing in this wonderful city. Always on the go, we took the train to Hiroshima on September 29 and spent an en- 97 afternoon at the Botanic Garden there. At that time the garden was less than a year old and it was hard to believe the progress in such a short time. It features the largest conservatory in all of Japan, and it is well planted with remarkably well established plants; even orchids have started reseeding themselves. The research program spearheaded by the Director, Mr. Karasawa, an authority on terrestrial orchids, is well established; so is the educational program which, we can proudly say, was developed with help and advice from the Arnold Arboretum. On September 30 we met Katsu's young family before saying goodbye and leaving for Fukuoka. It was a sad moment. Besides providing more assistance than we can ever adequately thank him for, Katsuhiko Kondo has become a good friend. joyable Itinerary 2 in Japan with plants collected at each site September - Arrived in Tokyo. and 3 September - Sightseeing shopping in Tokyo. Met Katsuhiko Kondo. 4 September - Took bus tour to Nikko and Nikko National Park. Acer japonicum Weigela hortensis 5 September - Flew from Tokyo to Sapporo. Visited botanical garden of Hokkaido University in Sapporo, and Government Forest Experimental Station, Hokkaido Branch, near Sapporo. Magnolia hypoleuca Magnolia kobus Quercus mongolica Vitis coignettiae . Acer mono Acer palmatum Actinidia arguta Aralia cordata 6 September - Visited *Abies sachalinensis Acer japonicum *Alnus hirsuta *Alnus japonica *Alnus maximowiczii *Betula grossa Carpinus cordata Nopporo Natural Forest near Sapporo. Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. nana Daphniphyllum macropodum var. humile Euonymus oxyphyllus Paeonia japonica - \"Photinia villosa var. laevis Picrasma quassioides *Prunus grayana Prunus ssiori *Rosa acicularis var. nipponensis Rubus phoenicolasius Rubus sp. Shimmia japonica *Sorbus commixta Viburnum wrightii car Visited Hokkaido Centennial Museum. Took cable up Mt. Moiwa, near Sapporo. Betula ermanii Rhus sp. 7 Vaccinium smallii Vaccinium sp. Took train from September - Visited Cultivated material. Botanical Garden in Sapporo. kawa. Visited with local officials in Urakawa. Sapporo to Ura- * 98 8 September - Climbed Mt. Apoi. Acer japonacum Quercus mongolica Alnus maximowiczii Rhododendron brachycarpum Betula apoiensis Rhododendron dauricum Clintonia udensis Rosa acicularis Ilex rugosa Rubus crataegifolius Sorb aria sp. Juniperus communis var. nipponica Sorbus commixta Juniperus chinensis var. sargentii Ledum palustre var. diversipilosum Sorbus sambucifolia var. pseudogracilis Lespedeza bicolor Spiraea miyabei Leucothos grayana var. oblongifolia Vaccxnium oldhamii Menziesia sp. Vaccaninium vitis-idaea Pinus parviflora Viburnum furcatum Pinus pumila Viburnum sp. PotentxLla fruticosa Zanthoxylum piperitum Prunus nipponica - Visited Experimental Garden for the Department of Forestry of Hidaka District in Urakawa. *Acer ukurunduense \"llex macropoda *Rhododendron albrechtii \"Euonymus macropterus \"`Euonymus sp. 9 September - Collected around Actinidia polygama Urokorethu, Urakawa Mountain. Rubus sp. Juglans ailanthifolia Metaplexis yaponica Picrasma quassioides Prunus sp. Staphylea bumalda Stephanandra sp. Tilia sp. - Traveled by automobile to Asahikawa; enroute stopped at Forest in Hokkaido near Yamabe. *Abies sachalinensis *Euonymus planipes ~ *Acanthopanax divaricatus Euonymus sieboldianus 'Acanthopanax senticosus Juglans ailanthifolia *Aesculus turbinata ' Ribes latifolium 'Alangium platanifolium var. trilobum ' Spiraea cantoniensis Alnus hlrsuta =-Spiraea sp. *Betula platyphylla \"Styrax obassia Carpinus cordata ^ Symplocos chinensis Vaccinium uliginosum Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. nana 10 September Collected Acer ukurunduense Arcterica nana Betula ermanii - Tokyo University on Asahi-dake, Mt. Daisetzu, Daisetzu-san National Park. Potentilla miyabei Rhododendron aureum Rubus sp. Sambucus sieboldiana Sieversia pentapetala Sorbus matsumurana Empetrum nigrum var. japonicum Euonymus sieboldianus Gaultheria miqueliana Harrimanella stelleriana Ledum palustre var. diversipilosum Loiseluria procumbens Spiraea betulifolia Streptopus sp. Vaccinium hirtum Vaccinium praestans Vaccinium uliginosum Vaccinium vitis-idaea Phyllodoce nipponica Picea jezoensis Pinus pumila 11 September - Alangium platanifolium Bryanthus gmelinii * Collected in Northern Plant Garden, Asahikawa. var. trilobum Caulophyllum robustum Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. nana Cultivated material. 99 *Gaultheria adenothrix *Houttynia cordata Parthenocissus sp. Traveled by train to Hakodate. - Phellodendron amurense Prunus ssiori '~TiareLLa polyphylla Forest Experiment Station at Ohno, near Hakodate. Collected in coastal scrub in Akukawa-cho, near Hakodate. Smilax sp. Crataegus jozana (?) Ilex macropoda Staphylea bumalda Pinus thunbergii Vaccinium oldhamii Viburnum dilatatum Quercus dentata Viburnum sp. Quercus dentata X mongolica Quercus mongolica Weigela hortensis Collected along roadside in Mitsumori-cho, near Hakodate. Maackia amurensis var. buergeri Ampelopsis brevipedunculata var. Prunus grayana heterophylla Viburnum opulus var. calvescens Ampelopsis sp. Vitis coignettiae Corylus sieboldiana - 12 September - Visited 13 September hashi. by ferry to by jeep to University; enroute stopped (Aomori Pref.) Traveled Traveled Aomori on Honshu; met Dr. Sohma and Mr. Takathe Mt. Hakkoda Biological Laboratory of Tohoku at entrance to Hachimantai-Towada National Park to collect. Akebia trifoliata Betula ermanii Sorbus commixta Tilia miqueliana Climbed Mt. Hakkoda, Aomori Pref. Lindera umbellata var. membranacea Loiseluria procumbens Acanthopanax sciadophylloides Menziesia ciliicalyx var. multiflora Acer japonicum Menziesia pentandra Acer tschonoskii Acer ukurunduense Phyllodoce aleutica Prunus grayana Alnus maximowiczii Arcterica nana Quercus mongolica Rhododendron brachycarpum Cornus controversa Rubus vernus Daphniphyllum macropodum var. humile Gaultheria adenothrix Tripetaleia bracteata Vaccinium )aponicum Gaultheria miqueliana Vaccinium ovalifolium Hamamelis japonica Ilex sugerokii var. brevipedunculata Weigela hortensis 14 September Abies mariesii - . September - Collected in vicinity of Mt. Hakkoda Biological Laboratory. *Ilex leucoclada *Daphniphyllum macropodum var. humile Traveled by jeep to Tsuta Hot Springs; enroute stopped to collect 15 - on slopes of Mt. Hakkoda. Tsuga diversifolia Collected in forest Aesculus turbinata - surrounding Tsuta humile Hot Springs, Aomori Pref. Pterocarya rhoifolia Vaccinium smallii Viburnum wrightii Daphniphyllum macropodum Hyrangea macrophylla - var. Ilex leucoclada Drove to Lake Towada and collected in the vicinity. (Aomori Pref.) Lindera umbellata var. membranacea Acer japonicum Acer mono var. mayrii Pterocarya rhoifolia Aucuba japonica var. boreale Stachyurus praecox Euonymus sp. * Cultivated material. 100 Drove to Morioka to spend the wada and collected along roadside - night; near enroute did sightseeing around Lake To- Ampelopsis brevipedunculata brevipedunculata Berchemia racemosa var. Yuze, Akita Pref. Rhus javanica Stachyurus praecox Viburnum dtlatatum Wisteria floribunda Lespedeza bicolor Quercus 16 serrata September - Drove from Morioka to Mt. Hayachine; climbed into alpine zone. (Iwate Pref.) Acer distylum Juniperus communis var. nipponica Leucothoe grayana var. oblongifolia Acer tschonoskii Lonicera sp. Acer ukurunduense Betula corylifolia (?) Rhododendron tschonoskii Betula ermanii Thymus sp. Clematis apiifolia Tsuga diversifolia Juniperus chinensis var. sargentii Drove from Mt. Hayachine to Sendai. - 17 September Drove from Sendai to Nikko National Park; collected climbed Mt. Kashi, behind Kashi Hot Springs, Fukushima Pref. - along roadside and Acer cissifolium Magnolia salicifolia Meliosma tenuis Sktmmia japonica Trochodendron aralioides Euptelea polyandra Hamamelis japonica Hydrangea macrophylla Leucothoe sp. Returned to Sendai. - 18 September - Collected on the grounds of the Medical School of Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi Pref. *Camellia sp. *Trachycarpus fortunei #Distylaum - racemosum Visited the Botanical Garden of Tohoku University, Sendai, Miyagi Pref. Neolitsea sericea Ardisia japonica Rhododendron semibarbatum Aucuba japonica *Betula platyphylla *Spiraea nipponica f. nipponica *Spiraea nipponica f. rotundifolia Buckleya lanceolata Viburnum phlebotrichum Enktanthus campanulatus Zanthoxylum ailanthoides Lespedeza homoloba Lyonia elliptica 19 September - Drove from Sendai to Mt. Abelia spathulata Akebia trifoliata Aucuba japonica var. boreale Berchemiaracemosa Callicarpa sp. Castanea crenata Clematis maximowicziana Clematis sp. Daito, Miyagi Pref. Lespedeza bicolor Lespedeza homoloba Pyrus calleryana var. dimorphophylla (?) Sapium japonicum Schisandra repanda Staphylea bumalda chinensis Viburnum sp. Weigela sp. Symplocos Cryptomeria japonica Deutzia crenata Helwingia japonica - Returned to Sendai. * Cultivated material. 101 20 September - Drove to Ardisia japonica Boehmeria biloba Buckleya lanceolata Call1carpa mollzs Camellia 7aponica Corylus sieboldiana Diospyros lotus Euonymus radicans Miyato, near Matsushima, Miyagi Pref. Orixa japonica Paederia scandens Pinus densiflora Pinus thunbergii *Pittosporum tobira Rhododendron semibarbatum Rhus trichocarpa Eurya japonica Helwingia japonica Juniperus chinensis Ligustrum ovalifolium Liriope manor Neolitsea sericea Returned to Sendai. - Torreya nucifera Trachelospermum asiaticum Tripetaleia paniculata *Viburnum awabukii Viburnum wrightii Zanthoxylum piperitum Drove to Yamagata Prefecture on the Sea of Japan side of Honshu; collected in the mountain behind Yamadera. Betula schmidtii Quercus acutissima Clethra barbinervis Styrax obassia Deutzia sp. Thujopsis dolabrata Drove to Yamadera; visited the temple there and collected in the vicinity. Acer cissifolium Hex serrata Betula platyphylla Lindera praecox Returned to Sendai. 21 September - - - 22 23 24 25 September - Took train from Sendai to the the Tokyo. with Professor Hara. arrived. September - Spent day day in in Tokyo; met September - Spent September - Took on to Tokyo; \"Happy\" Spongberg bus tour to Kamakura to see the giant Buddha, and then continued Hakone; visited Art Museum and adjacent garden. Returned to 26 September Ilex serrata Tokyo. by train to - Traveled Nagoya; visited the Nagoya Botanical Garden. Vaccinium sp. Quercus sp. - Visited Chrysanthemum show at Nagoya Castle. Nagoya to 27 September - Drove from Mr. Kondo. Toyota; visited the carnivorous plant garden of Ilex serrata Quercus sp. Returned to Nagoya. Traveled by train from Nagoya to Kyoto. 28 29 September - Sightseeing in Kyoto. September pendula on Traveled Botanical Garden. by train from Kyoto to Hiroshima. Visited the Hiroshima Alnus 30 September - Sightseeing Fukuoka. Miyajima Island. Traveled by train from Hiroshima to 1 October - Flew from Fukuoka to Seoul. * Cultivated material. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Summer Bloom in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":102,"end_page":113,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24724","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24e8128.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Burch, Ida Hay","article_content":"Summer Bloom in the Arnold Arboretum by IDA HAY BURCH A guidebook comprised of a series of self-guided walks through the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum is currently under preparation by the staff. Tours organized around topics such as the seasons, twenty of the finest individual trees, seed dispersal, the meadow, plant introductions of the Arboretum, and more will be included. The following walk, intended for July and August, has been selected to give Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and other Arnoldia readers a chance to sample a self-guided tour this summer. We hope you will stop in at the Administration Building to give us your comments, or drop us a line. This will help us in the preparation of other walks. Ed. While of summer is vacation time for most people, it is the season of most active growth for the plants in the Arboretum. The majority temperate woody plants here bloom in spring, which is the princireason for the Arboretum's greater popularity at that season. In when maximum heat and light are available, they are using summer, this energy to mature fruit and form buds for next spring's flowering. In summer there are few groups that are as showy as the forsythias, cherries, lilacs or crabapples. Summer-blooming trees and shrubs may be a neglected group horticulturally because of their more subtle displays, but there are many here to see. A number bloom a month or more for some. Several of the over quite long periods shrubs in flower at this time formed their flower-buds since growth started this season; that is, their flower-buds do not over-winter as do those of spring blooming species. For some, much of the wood dies back each winter. Many of our summer blooming woody plants are members of unusual plant families, families that are found predominantly in tropical regions. All of the plants highlighted in this walk are of value in gardens for their color in summer, which is relatively rare among trees and shrubs hardy in this climate. Visitors to the Arboretum will find that summer is a good time to observe the color and texture of foliage and the quality of shade produced by many spring-flowering trees and shrubs, and to evaluate their effectiveness in the landscape. Some plants definitely have more character or interest in their summer foliage than others. Starting down the Meadow Road from the Administration Building, look across at the meadow, which is now at its height of color. (You may want to take the Meadow Walk at this time.) Up on the hill at the end of the flat lawn area next to the building are two of the important summer-blooming trees, the yellow-flowered, green-fruited Goldenrain Tree and the Silktree with its fuzzy, pink flower clusters. pal - 102 ts 3 IX) ~ a M 0 &~;3#x C :j t~ll 0 x a 104 Appreciate these from a distance since you will have a closer look at other specimens further along. As you proceed, a collection of Tilia species, lindens and basswoods, is on the right. A few of these excellent shade and street trees may still be in bloom in early July. Fragrance and nectar for bees are the main assets of their flowers. Next, while you walk under and enjoy the architecture of the cork trees, look up the road to see the smoketrees. They are especially beautiful if seen with the morning or late afternoon light shining through their fuzzy fruiting structures. Cotinus coggygria is native to an area from southeastern Europe to central China. These large shrubs prefer a sunny, well-drained site and actually perform best in dry, rocky ground. In June small insignificant flowers appear. After flowering, the numerous stalks of sterile flowers elongate and become covered with fine hairs. By early July and lasting through August, the pinkish, plumose fruiting structures cover the plants, giving them their smoky look. The dark blue-green foliage is quite distinctive. Several cultivars can be seen by walking around the group. Some of these, such as 'Flame', have especially bright autumn color; others have purplish or red foliage throughout the growing season. Here you will also see some plants of the largerleaved Cotinus obovatus, the only other species in the genus and native to the southeastern United States. It is now rather rare in the wild, probably because it has been cut down extensively to obtain a yellow dye from the wood. The fruiting clusters of the American Smoketree or Chittamwood are not as showy as those of the Eurasian, but in autumn this species outshines C. coggygria when the leaves turn a brilliant scarlet or orange. If it is mid-July, leave the road on the right at the Aesculus or horsechestnut collection and walk about 20 yards to the foot of a wooded hill to see a very lovely summer blooming shrub, A. parviflora, the Bottlebrush Buckeye. The most familiar members of the genus Aesculus are trees, and all but this species bloom in late spring. With its large spikes of white flowers and dark green, palmately compound leaves, this shrub is one of the finest sights of summer in the Arboretum. There is a very cooling effect in the combination of green and white here in the shade. This species is endemic to Georgia and Alabama where it occurs in dense colonies in rich woods, shady hillsides and along stream banks. So distinct is it compared to other Aesculus that it is considered alone in a separate section of the genus. That means it has no very close relatives. Another distinction is that moths are most likely its principal pollinators. This particular plant, which forms a neat border to the oak woods, was added to the Arboretum collection in 1898 from the garden of Charles S. Sargent. At the end of July, as this plant has ceased flowering, A. parviflora var. serotina is in full bloom. Located to the right, further in from the road, it is a taller plant with narrower flowering spikes. Cotinus coggygria. of the Goldenrain Back at the road reuteria are some examples Tree, Koel- paniculata, a medium-sized, round-headed tree species from China. The generic name honors Joseph G. Koelreuter, an 18th century German professor of natural history who is attributed with being the first to point out that insect visits are necessary for flower pollination. Wide clusters of cheerful yellow flowers appear on this plant during the first three weeks of July and are soon followed by light green bladder-like fruits which remain attractive all summer and autumn. In detail the four asymmetrically arranged petals each have a glowing orange-red spot at the base which changes color as the flowers age, probably serving as an indicator to insect visitors. Koelreuteria and a shrub, Xanthoceras, are the only members of a primarily tropical family, Sapindaceae, that can be grown in the Arboretum. Because of its ability to withstand drought and high winds, the Goldenrain Tree has been widely planted in the Midwest. Two of the varieties here may be of interest: 'September' consistently blooms two months later than the species. Originating as a seedling found growing on the campus of Indiana University, it has been in the trade only since 1967. A bit further down the road are two specimens of the very narrow-crowned variety, 'Fastigiata'. 106 Aesculus parviflora. the time the typical Koelreuteria is in fruit, the Clethra alnifolia in front of it will be in bloom with upright clusters of pale pink, wonderfully fragrant flowers. This is the pink-budded form of the Summersweet, which often is found as quite a tall shrub in swamps or wet woods from Maine to Florida. When grown in drier situations, its form is dense and compact. There are a few places in Massachusetts where it occurs in colonies large enough to be of im- By var. rosea portance as a honey-plant. Few woody plants supply great quantities of nectar at this season, and so beekeepers usually must rely on a large source of flowering herbs for any late season honey production. 107 Above the azaleas in this border, Oxydendrum arboreum starts to flower as the Goldenrain Trees finish. Called Sourwood or Sorrel Tree, it is native to the eastern United States from Pennsylvania south. Both common and scientific names refer to the acid or sour taste of the leaves. Across the road beyond the Flowering Dogwood is another example of the species that you can examine more closely. The slightly drooping, lustrous leaves, curved sprays of ivory-white flowers, and narrow or pyramidal crown make this a distinctive and graceful tree. It is equally handsome in autumn when the leaves turn a rich red while remaining pale underneath, and flowers are followed by similar clusters of yellow-tan fruits. A close look at the urn-shaped flowers similar to those of Pieris or blueberries gives a clue that this is a member of the Heath Family, Ericaceae. Oxydendrum is the only tree of this family that is hardy here although the family is well represented in the Arboretum by such popular ornamental shrubs as Rhododendron, Pieris, Vaccinium and Kalmia. Sourwood has no close relatives among Ericaceae and is believed to be the survivor of a comparatively long, isolated evolutionary sequence. In the mountains of the South, Sourwoods are a very important source of nectar. The honey made from them is regarded as one of the finest flavored and commands a high price. Also on this side of the road can be seen the last of the azaleas to bloom, Rhododendron prunifolium, Plumleaf Azalea. Its orange flowers appear throughout the summer. Not discovered until 1913, this species is found wild in a limited area along the Georgia-Alabama border. The Arnold Arboretum was responsible for first introducing this valuable azalea into cultivation in 1918 when it grew seed received from T. G. Harbison, a collector for the Arboretum. Two more species of Clethra which may be compared with the Summersweet are across the road. This genus is another that is the only representative of its small family in the Arboretum. Taller than C. alnifolia and blooming a couple of weeks earlier is Clethra acuminata, called Cinnamon Clethra because of its smooth, rusty-brown bark. C. barbinervis, a native of Japan, is the tallest and earliest to bloom. It can attain the proportions of a small tree. Its flowers are larger, but only slightly fragrant, and the light tan bark is attractive. E. H. Wilson called it the handsomest of our clethras. Your first close view of the Silktree, Albizia julibrissin, is at the B foot of the wooded hill that reaches the road on the right. The best example of this species will be seen at the top of Bussey Hill. The delicate, airy aspect of the twice-pinnately compound leaves and pink powder-puff inflorescences on the flat-topped crown is unique among hardy trees in the Boston area. Of the three sub-families of the great Legume Family, the Mimosoideae is a group that occurs almost exclusively in tropical regions. Albizia julibrissin is the only woody mimosoid legume that will grow in this climate. The \"powderpuff\" is actually a cluster of several flowers, each with numerous pink thread-like stamens and insignificant green petals. Many un- B 108 opened buds and spent flowers a period of several weeks. reveal that the Silktree blooms over If you do not have time to complete the walk, at this point you may choose either to go only as far as the shrub collection or to go directly to the top of Bussey Hill. There are a great many things to see in the shrub collection, but we will concentrate on only a few of them. As you enter the lefthand path from the grassy area between the ponds, honeysuckles occupy the first two rows. When laden with blue or bright red or orange translucent berries, many of these plants are quite pretty. The berries are relished by birds. Mottled, lopsided, apple-like fruits on shrubs in the next rows are those of the flowering quince, Chaenomeles species and varieties. These are not the \"true\" quince but can be used for jelly and are eaten by squirrels and other animals. More examples of Clethra are at the end of the fourth row. Here you can see Clethra alnifolia cv. 'Pink Spire' which is the best pink not blooming until late in August, are plants of Clerodendrum trichotomum, Harlequin Glorybower. The fragrant white flowers with long-exserted stamens and reddish calyx give a star-studded effect. As fruits mature to a steel-blue drupe, the calyx becomes fleshy and dark red in striking contrast. Clerodendrum and Vitex are members of another predominantly tropical family, the Verbenaceae. This gives a clue as to why these shrubs die down to the ground every winter in our New England climate. This is not necessarily a disadvantage. Since clerodendrum produces its flowers on growth of the current year, nothing is lost, except large size, by its being killed back. You may see a few lingering flowers on the roses, but by August the orange or red hips begin to color, prolonging the season of interest for many of the shrub or wild-type roses. Rose hips are high in vitamin C and are used in teas and preserves. The large shrubs with plume-like panicles of white flowers or reddish immature seed capsules are species of Sorbaria. They are members of the large, ornamentally important Rose Family. Called falsespireas, sorbarias come from central and eastern Asia. The impressed veins make individual leaflets look pleated, giving a rugged texture over-all. Because of their large proportions and suckering habit, false-spiraeas need plenty of room or a heavy pruning every few years. Across the path are their close relatives, the true spiraeas. Various species and varieties of Spiraea come into bloom throughout the and summer months. Most of the commonly planted kinds spring are of Asian origin. You may recognize that Steeplebush or Hardhack and Meadowsweet, which bloom in fields and roadsides of New England at this time, are also species of Spiraea. Spirea X bumalda 'Anthony Waterer', a hybrid of two Japanese species which originated in England in the 1890's, is one of the most popular spiraeas be- variety. Nearby, Albizia julibrissin. Photo: P. Bruns. cause of its long period of bloom, deep flower color and compact habit. Good shades of blue are rare among hardy shrubs. The grey cast and lacy texture of foliage add to the garden value of the uncommon chaste-trees or Vitex. Of the two species here, Vitex agnus-castus has coarser foliage but its dense clusters of flowers are more prominent than those of Vitex negundo. The white-flowered V. agnus-castus var. alba is rather bland by comparison. All have a strong aroma in their foliage which you may enjoy. The epithet, agnus-castus, and common name refer to the ancient use of this Mediterranean native as a symbol of innocence and purity at festivals and weddings. The flexible stems of Vitex are still used by the Greeks in basketry. Like clerodendrum, Vitex agnus-castus often dies back in winter. Next to the chaste-trees, 'Hever Castle' is one of many varieties of Buddleia davidii which we'll see on top of Bussey Hill. This one blooms later than the chaste-trees. Behind the vine trellis, on the rock wall, the trumpetcreepers send forth 3-inch orange or red tubular flowers from mid-July to September. The Arboretum's plants are varieties of Campsis radicans, na- 110 to Missouri and south where it can become that it is considered a pest. C. X tagliabuana 'Madame rampant Galen' is a handsome hybrid between C. radicans and a tenderer oriental species, C. grandiflora. Climbing by root-like holdfasts, trumpetcreepers may grow to 30 or 40 feet. As you start back through the shrub collection on the other path, you may notice some low shrubs with arching branches full of pink flowers and spongy white berries resembling popcorn. Several species of Symphoricarpos, snowberries, grow here. All do well in any soil and retain their decorative fruits well into the winter. In the western United States where several species occur, their fruits are an important wildlife food. They may be toxic to humans, however. Potentilla fruticosa, another member of the Rose Family, is one of a very few woody plants native to both northern hemispheres. It has an unusually wide, though discontinuous, natural distribution in mountainous regions and northern latitudes. Varieties of Potentilla are good subjects for the small garden since they seldom reach 4 feet in height. They have no serious insect or disease problems and will grow in a wide range of soils. As you can observe, there are many cultivars varying in flower color, length and time of bloom, and compactness of habit. Among the potentillas and elsewhere in the shrub collection and on Bussey Hill are examples of the genus Hypericum, the St. Johnsworts. This large genus is represented here by several hardy, low shrubs with bright yellow flowers. There is an interesting explanation for their curious common name. With their sunny coloring, numerous radiating stamens, season of bloom and supposed curative properties, hypericums were most likely associated with celebrations of the summer solstice in ancient times. When the Christian Church took over these rites and converted them to honor St. John, the plants were renamed as well. The characteristic feature of Hypericum flowers is the numerous stamens which are sometimes grouped in three or five bundles depending on the species. H. frondosum, from the southern United States, is one of the best with its 2-inch orangeyellow flowers and bluish foliage. On older plants the red-brown bark exfoliates. Selected for its especially large flowers with striking orange anthers on relatively short filaments, Hypericum cv. 'Sun Gold' is a hybrid involving H. patulum, a widely cultivated species from China. The hypericums are recommended for their ability to grow on poor soils. Of all the summer blooming shrubs, the hydrangeas are perhaps the most familiar. The flower clusters are flat, rounded, or pyramidal, often with fertile flowers in the center surrounded by showy neuter flowers which have only large petal-like sepals. Many garden forms have been selected for their more numerous neuter flowers. The \"snowball\" types completely lack reproductive flowers. Some of these were long cultivated in Japanese gardens before being introduced into this country. tive from so Pennsylvania Hydrangea quercifolia. Photo: P. Chvany. 111 Four of the species here bloom from late June into July. Variety 'Grandiftora' of the American species arborescens, the so-called Hillsof-snow, is one that develops only neuter flowers. Its flower heads are often so large that stems droop with their weight. H. cinerea is similar to, and often considered a subspecies of, H. arborescens. It is mainly represented in cultivation by cv. 'Sterilis'. H. heteromalla from the Himalayas has a similar inflorescence type but is a taller plant. The hydrangeas commonly sold by florists at Easter time are forms of Hydrangea macrophylla; here you can see a few of the hardiest forms. H. macrophylla is more commonly grown further south, especially along the seacoast, where its flower color is blue on acid soils and pink on alkaline. The pyramidal panicles of H. quercifolia, Oakleaf Hydrangea, start to open in mid-July. Its bold, distinctive foliage which takes on russet tints in autumn, and its ability to thrive in shaded locations make this a valuable garden plant although it is less hardy than the other species. The last to bloom is Hydrangea paniculata from Japan and China. Two varieties can be seen here: 'Praecox' which blooms three weeks earlier than the type, and 'Grandiflora' with all-neuter flowers in the cluster. , 112 At the edge of the pond the shrub with neat spherical flower clusters is the Buttonbush, Cephalanthus occidentalis. It grows wild in similar situations throughout eastern America and is the only hardy woody member of the mainly tropical Madder Family, Rubiaceae. Look across toward the other pond to see the dramatic effect of the 2- to 3-foot wide plumes of creamy-white flowers on the Japanese Aralia elata. Upright, scarcely branching stems and large horizontally oriented compound leaves forming a flat-topped crown add to the exotic look of this plant. Because of their threatening thorns and tendency to form dense thickets, this and its close American relative, A. spinosa, are both called Devil's Walking Stick. In the Tree Legume area two genera exhibit summer bloom. The dense racemes of dull white flowers of Maackia species are not particularly showy but the shiny greenish bark with diamond-shaped lenticels is attractive. The second Legume, Sophora japonica, Pagoda- or Scholar-tree, is one of the outstanding summer blooming trees. Its creamy-white flowers in loose panicles appear through the month of August, and a light shade is cast by its fine foliage. Leaflets are dark green above and a contrasting grey-green beneath. The Scholar-tree has been cultivated on temple grounds in Japan for at least a thousand years but is actually native to China and Korea. Chinese tradition dictates Sophora japonica as the memorial tree at the graves of scholars. A yellow dye can be obtained from the dried flowers and has been used medicinally in China. This tree is easy to grow and very tolerant of city conditions. About midway up Bussey Hill, a planting of Rose of Sharon or Shrub Althea is the next flowering group to see. Linnaeus named the species Hibiscus syriacus, believing it to come from Syria. As with many plants that have been long cultivated by man, its nativity is uncertain but is now thought to be northern India and China. With either single or double flowers in shades of pink, purple or white, about twenty of the many cultivars are growing here and on the far side of the hill. Most of the summit area of Bussey Hill was replanted in 1972, except, of course, the grove of White Pines and the large Silktree and other older specimens. This is our finest plant of Albizia julibrissin. (See the Twenty Favorites Walk for more on this.) Around the circle of fence are several shrubs of interest. In August and September, Elsholtzia stauntoni bears its spikes of reddish-purple flowers profusely. This species was introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum in 1905 when John G. Jack obtained cuttings from plants he found in the hills near the Great Wall in China. Details such as the opposite arrangement and aromatic leaves, square stems and two-lipped flower form indicate that this is a member of the Mint Family. Sophorajaponica. 113 Blooming earlier is a group of Hypericum prolificum. Compared with the species we saw in the shrub collection, this one has smaller flowers but they are abundantly produced. It is one of the hardiest of the St. Johnsworts. You may see butterflies, or in the evening, moths fluttering around the nearby group of Buddleia davidii cultivars. They are called butterflybush and do attract these insects in numbers. This planting demonstrates some of the variability of flower color, time of bloom, and size of inflorescence of this species. The French missionary and plant explorer Abbe Armand David, who first discovered it wild in western China in 1869, is honored by the specific name. The shrubs are rather coarse-leaved, ungainly and large, but their fragrance and butterfly-attracting qualities make them welcome in any garden with sufficient space. These and the elsholtzias share the habit of dying back in winter here, but both grow up to bloom every year. The brown fruiting spikes of buddleias are good subjects for winter bouquets. In front of the view of the Blue Hills are some striking plants, superficially resembling the Chaste-trees but smaller. Russian Sage, Perovskia atriplicifolia, is the only other woody member of the predominantly herbaceous Mint Family in the Arboretum. Its silvery white stems and leaves have a strange pungence and contrast visualwith the violet-blue flowers. It is found wild from Afghanistan to western Tibet where it sometimes covers large areas to the exclusion of other vegetation. It does not appear to be that vigorous here but is said to thrive in hot situations. We have seen the majority of the plants in bloom at this time in the Arboretum, giving good examples of the diversity and qualities of summer bloomers. From here you can use the map to see more or choose a different route to return. ly "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Austrobaileya","article_sequence":4,"start_page":114,"end_page":115,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24723","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24ebb6f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Austrobaileya by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. One of the plants unfamiliar to most Arnold Arboretum visitors is a rather nondescript vine with opposite leaves that is growing in the conservatory section of the Dana Greenhouses. The plant has been scrambling around the conservatory for about twelve years now, but has never shown any signs of flowering until three buds were noticed a few weeks ago by the greenhouse staff. One flower opened on March 29, the first time, to our knowledge, that a plant of this species, genus, or even family has ever bloomed in cultivation. The plant is a species of Austrobaileya, native to the tropical forests of North Queensland, Australia. The flowers are not particularly attractive, and they have a strong, unpleasant odor, but their structure places Austrobaileya among the flora that theoretically most closely resemble the first flowering plants on the earth. As shown in the accompanying photograph, probably the first ever published of a living Austrobaileya flower, the perianth is not differentiated into petals and sepals, but rather consists of a series of spirally arranged tepals of greatly varying size. The stamens consist of a broad, almost leaf-like structure with the anther sacs attached to the upper surface. These all are considered to be primitive characteristics, and there are numerous others that do not show in the photograph. Ever since Austrobaileya was described in 1933, botanists have been puzzled as to where it should be classified. It now is usually placed in a family of its own. The name commemorates two men, F. M. Bailey, a noted Queensland botanist, and I. W. Bailey, longtime Arnold Arboretum staff member and world-renowned wood anatomist who was particularly interested in primitive flowering plants and who published a detailed account of the anatomy and morphology of Austrobaileya. The Arnold Arboretum's plant was grown from seed collected by a Mr. Webb and a Mr. Tracey near Ravenshoe, North Queensland. The seeds were sent to Mr. Peter Green, then on the staff here, and were sown in 1964. The lot consisted of four seeds, and only one germinated about a year later. In the absence of flowers, the plant was tentatively identified as Austrobaileya scandens, the only other 114 115 species described being A. maculata, and it was widely distributed under the former name. Now, even with flowers, we are not able to identify the plant with certainty. It has fewer tepals than either of the described species, and the flowers are not solitary; the stamens combine characters of both species. We are reluctant to describe it as a new species because of the very few, miserably preserved herbarium specimens on hand with which we can compare it. The Arnold Arboretum has a long association with Austrobaileya. The genus and both species were described in Contributions from the Arnold Arboretum and the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Accounts of its chromosomes, anatomy and morphology were published in the latter journal. It is fitting that our plant, the parent of most all other plants in cultivation, should be the first to flower. The botanists of North Queensland also have an attachment to the plant, since it commemorates one of the most famous of them, since it is restricted to the region, and since it has caused such a stir in the botanical world; consequently, the new publication from the Queensland Herbarium has been named Austrobaileya. The flower of Austrobaileya sp., slightly larger than life size, photographed in the Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. The fleshy tepals are greenish-white with purple spots. The heavily spotted structures in the center of the flower are staminodes, or sterile stamens. Photo: R. Weaver. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":116,"end_page":116,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24721","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eb726.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS The Terrace Gardener's Handbook. Linda Co. 283 pages, illustrated. $8.95. Yang. New York: Doubleday and Gardening Off the Ground. Art C. Drysdale. Canada: J. M. Dent and Sons Ltd., 125 pages, illustrated. Paperback. $3.95. Both of these books are written for the increasing numbers of individuals who would like to garden but are limited to the small spaces afforded by balconies, terraces or rooftops. Linda Yang offers her personal experiences as a professional architect and an avid terrace gardener in New York City to discuss basic plant requirements and garden design. More important, however, are her observations on situations unique to terrace or rooftop gardening; things such as support strength of balconies and roofs, problems with high winds and falling objects, winter protection, and suitable plant material and containers. The use of woody ornamental trees and shrubs is recommended to provide year-round interest and form in these types of gardens. Gardening Off the Ground gives similar but less detailed advice and cautions, and places more emphasis on flowering annuals and vegetables. The author writes from experience with plant material in Toronto, Canada which should be a source of encouragement to those inhabitants of the northern U.S. who are doubtful about the success of growing woody plant material outdoors in containers. JAMES A. BURROWS Flora of Okinawa and the Southern Ryukyu Islands. Egbert H. Walker. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press. 1159 pages, 209 black and white illustrations. $36.75. Ryukyu Islands are familiar to those who lived durWorld War II as the islands to the south of the archipelago of Japan. Egbert Walker is the author with the late Dr. E. D. Merrill of the Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany and sole author of the supplement. The present massive volume of 1159 pages (8\" X 10 3\/4\") is the result of eleven years of work converting a check list to an excellent flora. It is not a tourist volume but rather a major contribution to the taxonomists and plant geographers studying the flora of Asia. The inclusion of cultivated plants, the indication of introduced weeds, the detailed synonymy with complete references and the high quality of the descriptions and the keys make this a volume certain to become a classic in its field. RICHARD A. HOWARD Okinawa and the ing 116 Hydrangea paniculata. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23348","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd2608528.jpg","title":"1978-38-3","volume":38,"issue_number":3,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Protection","article_sequence":1,"start_page":37,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24719","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eb328.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":2,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Shaw, Kenneth","article_content":"Plant Protection by KENNETH SHAW Plant protection involves the proper selection, placement and establishment of a plant in a favorable environment that will maintain its health, thus minimizing the need for chemical control of pests and diseases. The concept is as applicable to the backyard gardener as it is to the commercial grower. Selection is the key to successful establishment and plant longevity. Aside from aesthetic considerations such as differences in flower color or leaf texture, a plant should have proven hardiness and suitability for the climate and site in which it is to be placed. The minimum temperature and the amount of annual precipitation in a region are often the most important factors regulating plant hardiness; soil factors strongly influence a plant's suitability for the prospective growing site. An ornamental variety that occasionally suffers winter injury from low temperatures or drying winds may temporarily lose its aesthetic value if subjected to such conditions. If repeated winter injury occurs, the plant may lose its functional value as well. Annual rainfall can be supplemented by timely irrigation, but little can be done about the effects of excessive precipitation, except for the possible improvement of soil drainage. The soil can be altered to improve its texture or depth on a small scale, but extensive alterations are costly. Growing conditions within a site may vary from more severe to more favorable than the established norm for the area. The subtle differences in soil drainage, pH, air drainage, light, wind velocity and direction, and the site's proximity to salt water, pavement, or utility lines will influence the plant's health, as well as the life cycles of organisms associated with the plant. A slight modification of the micro-environment to improve the site suitability for a particular plant or crop is often practiced in plant protection. Sometimes, as in the case of the common scab of potatoes, a cultural change (such as the lowering of the soil pH below 5.2) has its principal effect on the pathogen ( Streptomyces scabies ) which thrives in soil with a pH of 5.2 or above. However, should a site require continual modification or the plant need continual protection from an adverse environmental factor, it would be wiser and easier to select a plant suited to the site's limitations. 37 38 A systematic survey site of the living components in and around a proposed planting lection, and (biotic community) will greatly aid plant se- is a basic tool of plant protection. Notes are made on the various plants and animals found in the environs; the survey also may detect the presence of any organism that may threaten the health of a newly established transplant. Observation of the existing plants in the community will give a clue to the prevalence and variety of disease or pest organisms at hand. Plant selection then is based upon species resistant to the local diseases or pests. An example of this is the choice of Ilex pedunculosa for I. opaca in instances where leaf miners are a serious problem. The former, a highly ornamental species, is not affected by these pests. The function or purpose of a plant in a garden or landscaped area is a limiting factor in selection. The space that is to be occupied by the plant material should be sufficient for the plant's normal growth and mature size. Proper selection and placement eliminates the need for restrictive pruning, which creates not only a higher level of maintenance but also wounds that are possible sites for the entry of, and subsequent infection by, disease or decay organisms. miner destroys the value of holly leaves for Chrishnas decorations. A chemical spray applied before females deposit eggs is an effective control. (Photos except as noted: P. Chvany) Holly leaf 39 Black Knot on cherry caused by a fungus. Partial control requires pruning and burning infected stems m late fall and early spring. Egg mass of the eastern tent caterpillar often found on roadside cherries and crabapples. Controlled by pruning and removing in late fall or early spring. 40 I Once a range of suitable species has been determined, attention be given to varietal and aesthetic considerations. It is best to avoid monoculture, which is the large scale culture of a single crop, because it creates a situation that (a) invites an organism to adapt or at least increase its population by supplying it with an easily attainable food material in large amounts or (b) causes the removal of natural balance organisms by the destruction of their niche. The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is an example of a native insect that became a pest because man's activities created a better food source. Prior to potato cultivation, the Colorado potato beetle fed on various wild species of Solanum, and was of no economic significance. Now this beetle is a serious pest throughout most of the United States and parts of Europe. Another example is the spread of the Dutch Elm Disease, caused by Ceratocystis ulmi, after its introduction into the United States where it decimated many an elm lined street. The fungus, after initial development in the xylem, is transported throughout the tree via the vascular system and can be transmitted from tree to tree via spontaneous root grafts. The disease also can be vectored by bark beetles. The adult beetle inoculates a healthy tree by depositing fungus spores in the wounds made during its feeding. Monoculturing of the elm along streets increases the possibility of root grafts and subsequent disease transmission; in other words, control of the insect vector alone will not stop the dispersal of this fungal disease. Had a mixture of tree species suitable for street plantings been interplanted with an American Elm, the dispersal of the Dutch Elm Disease would have been at least slowed and those trees immune to Dutch Elm Disease might now remain, providing visual relief to what otherwise would be barren streets. Correct identification of any organism in question, as well as a study of its life cycle and habits, will indicate if there is a need for control measures and when the control should be implemented. Usually, after initial pest identification, a second survey, sometimes a series, is made to monitor the pest populations' growth and dispersal, as well as to discover any evidence of indigenous biological controls. In an effort to find an approach to safe, non-chemical insect and disease control, many federal, state, and private agencies have researched the possibility of integrated pest management programs. These combine the natural resources in an area, and all information and control methods known for a given pest; in each case the goal is a program that will give adequate control, while being non-disruptive to the environment. The principles of pest prevention are based on exclusion, containment, eradication, protection, and immunization. Exclusion of pests by quarantines prevents the pests from entering uninvaded areas where natural control organisms do not exist. Containment of a pest within an area is done by field inspections and the shipping of only can 41 Gypsy moth eggs are laid in protective spots on tree trunks and on the underside of limbs. Egg masses can be physically removed or painted with creosote. (Photo: K. Shaw) 42 certified, \"disease free\" stock into new areas. Eradication or elimina- -~ tion of an introduced pest is usually accomplished by chemical means since an introduced pest has few, if any, natural enemies in its new\" environment. Should that environment be favorable to the pest, its could quickly overrun the area. This has happened in the of the gypsy moth and the Japanese beetle. Unfortunately, exclusion and containment are not always effective, and eradication is not one hundred percent certain; therefore, susceptible plants require protection and possible immunization. By crossing susceptible but desirable plants with those that are resistant, but perhaps less desirable, the hybridizer tries to build a resistance to most pathogens in the hybrid. The Surecrop strawberry with its multiple disease resistance is a strain that evolved in this way. In some situations, augmentation and conservation of biological controls will provide an adequate level of control. Encouraging the overwintering of birds that feed on insects and their eggs by providing bird nesting sites and food near the infestation, or attracting colonies of predatory wasps by supplying them with shelters or nesting boards are two cases in point. population case Typical structure used for sheltering wasps in the f'reld. (Drawing: S. Geary) 43 The egg mass of a praying mantid, which overwinters in this stage. Egg case should not be destroyed, for this insect feeds on a variety of harmful insects, providing biological control. In other instances, the use of biological control organisms alone is not enough for the complete control of disease or insect damage, and chemical protectants must be applied. The application of a chemical control should either be scheduled to avoid interference with the key beneficial organism(s), or selective in its control of only the pest species. In this way, the chemical controls are integrated with the natural or applied biological controls. The interaction of three basic conditions are necessary for the development of a pest build-up. 1. The pest must be prevalent in the area. Most pests have a limited dispersal range, though several fungi that cause disease travel great distances by the wind, and pests often enter a new area on 44 Adult black vine weevil emerges at night and feeds namentals including Taxus and Rhododendron. on the foliage of various or- Typical adult weevil damage is the notching of leaf margins. 45 of stock and must over-winter in the area. The removal from the wheat growing areas is an example of an effort to reduce the prevalence of the causal agent in an area. 2. The environment must be favorable for the pest during reproduction, dispersal, and infestation or infection. The environment could also have adverse effects on the susceptible plant or on the pest's natural control organisms; both situations allow the pest organism more freedom and increase the chance of widespread disease transported barberry or damage. 3. A of susceptible plants is needed. Monoculture often the third condition for a disease outbreak, but natural areas, like the pine forest, also offer a plentiful supply of susceptible plant material needed for the growth of a large pest population. Apart from weather conditions favorable to the pathogen or pest, most pest outbreaks are the result of man's activity. Through poor sanitational practices he has allowed disease organisms to remain in an area year after year. The careless use of wide range pesticides has removed natural balance organisms, inducing as many problems as it has controlled. Mun, through travel, commerce, and war, has greatly aided the distribution of some pest organisms. There are many manuals that describe the cultural requirements of the various economic and ornamental plants; some of these are supply provides 46 on Rhododendron. Damage similar to that caused by iron deficiency. Lacebug injury on upper leaf surface ( left ) is ( Photo: K. Shaw) listed in the Bibliography. It is best to read the manual before trying to establish a new planting; in this way, one avoids a lot of trial and error, lost time, and disappointment. A seed, given proper conditions for germination and growth, can adapt itself to adverse microclimates, provided that all requirements for growth are at least minimally present. For example, there is the environmental adaptability of Ailanthus altissima, the Tree of Heaven, to grow in dark city alleys, between cracks in the pavement, and to withstand nearly all the pollutants a city can heap upon it. Despite this abuse, it regenerates, disperses, and flourishes. The selected transplant initially needs a more benign environment than does the developing seedling. It is necessary to prepare for anticipated stresses from the environment during the period from transplanting to establishment. Prevalent stresses include water loss, nutritional disorders, strong winds, heat, reflected light, unsuitable soil pH, soil moisture disturbances, pollutants and tissue damaged in the process of transplanting. The composite result of several stresses is a plant predisposed to the ingress of pathogens or pests. One also must consider the age of the plant, the season of transplanting, the type of aftercare needed, as well as unexpected environmental challenges, and then compensate for any detectable deficien- 47 cies. Ways to compensate would include supporting trees with guide wires or stakes to protect them from strong winds, mulching to reduce soil water loss, pruning to improve branching structure, as well as to balance the stem\/root system, adding fertilizer or lime to improve nutrition, placing wind screens to reduce desiccation, utilizing soil additives to improve moisture retention or drainage, and monitoring of pest population and migration for timely application of proper chemical protectants. The initial compensation for environmental deficiencies will allow for a more rapid establishment of the plant material, after which the transplant should be capable of existence with a minimum amount of maintenance. Plants that provide shade, screening, architectural elements, or function in other ways within a garden or landscaped area should be selected and established with the above priorities in mind; in this way the garden area will be largely maintenance free. This allows time for growing other plants that may require more maintenance, but are desirable for their unique aesthetic characteristics. --- - -~--~ -----~ _ ~ Bibliography Agrios, G. - ______ N. 1969. Plant Pathology. Academic Press, New York. C. J. 1962. Introductory Mycology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Anderson, R. F. 1966. Forest and Shade Tree Entomology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc , New York. Baker, W. L. 1972. Eastern Forest Insects. Miscellaneous Publication No. 1175, U.S. Department of Agriculture. Baker, K. F. and R. J. Cook. 1974. Biological Control of Plant Pathogens. W. H. Freeman and Company, San Francisco, Ca. Borrer, D. J., D. M. delong and C. H. Triplehorn. 1976. 4th ed. An Introduction to the Study of Insects. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., New York. Carter, J. C. 1975. Diseases of Midwest Trees. University of Illinois Press, Urbana, Ill. Childers, N. F. 1973. Modern Fruit Science. Horticultural Publications, Alexopoulos, and their Control. The Ronald Press, New York. Clements, F. E. and C. L. Shear. 1973. The Genera of Fungi. Hafner Press, New York. Dahl, M. and T. B. Thygesen. 1973. Garden Pests and Diseases of Flowers and Shrubs. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., Riverside, N.J. Davidson, R. H. 1966. Insect Pests of Farm, Garden and Orchard. 6th ed. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Day, P. R. 1974. Genetics of Host-Parasite Interactions. W. H. Freemand and Co., San Francisco. DeBach, P., ed. 1973. Biological Control of Insect Pests and Weeds. Halsted Press, New York. Hepting, G. H 1971. Diseases of Forest and Shade Trees of United States. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook No. 386. Horsfall, J. G. and E. D. Cowling. 1977. Plant Disease - an Advanced Treatise. Vol. 1, Academic Press, New York. Rutgers University, Brunswick, N.J. Chupp, C. and A. F. Sherf. 1960. Vegetable Diseases 48 Practice of BioControl. Academic Press, New York. Hume, H. H. 1953 Hollies. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., Riverside, N.J. Jacobson, M., ed. 1975. Insecticides of The Future. Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York. Jaynes, R. A. 1976. The Laurel Book. Hafner Press, New York. Jeppson, L. R., H. H. Keifer and E. W. Baker. 1975. Mites Injurious to Economic Plants. University of California Press, Berkeley, Ca. Jermy, T., ed. 1976. The Host-Plant in Relationship to Insect Behavior and Reproduction. Plenum Press, New York. Johnson, W. T. and H. H. Lyon. 1976. Insects that Feed on Trees and Shrubs. Comstock Publishing Associates, Ithaca, N.Y. Kiraly, Z., ed. 1974. Methods in Plant Pathology. Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, New York. LaCroix, I. F., ed. 1973. Rhododendrons and Azaleas. David and Charles, Huffaker, C. B. and P. S. Messengari. 1976. Theory and logical -. Inc., Pomfret, Vt. Pfadt, R. E. 2nd ed. 1971. Fundamentals of Applied Entomology. Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., Riverside, N.J. Pirone, P. P. 1970. Diseases and Pests of Ornamental Plants. The Ronald Press, New York. 1972. Tree Maintenance. The Oxford Press, New York. Roberts, D. A. and C. W. Boothroyd. 1972. Fundamentals of Plant Pathology. W. H. Freeman, Co., San Francisco, Ca. A. L. and E. vH Larson. 1969. A Photo Guide to the Patterns of Discoloration and Decay in Living Northern Hardwood Trees. U.S.D.A. Forest Service Research Paper NE-127 Smith, W. H. 1970. Tree Pathology. Academic Press, New York. Thompson, H. C. and W. C. Kelly. 1957. Vegetable Crops. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Torgeson, D. C., ed. 1967. Vol. I and II. Fungicides. An Advanced Treatise. Academic Press, New York. Toussoun, T. A., ed., R. V. Bega and P. E. Nelson. 1970. Root Diseases and Soil-Borne Pathogens. University of California Press, Berkeley, Ca. Walker, J. C. 3rd ed. 1969. Plant Pathology. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Webster, J. 1970. Introduction to Fungi. Cambridge University Press, New York. Westcott, C. 3rd ed. 1971. Plant Disease Handbook. Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York. Wheeler, B. E. J. 1969. An Introduction to Plant Diseases. John Wiley and Sons, Inc., New York. Wyman, D. 1971. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. Revised edition. Macmillan Publishing Company, New York. 1972. Trees for American Gardens. Revised edition. Macmillan Publishing Co., New York. Shigo, -. U.S.D.A. Publications: Developing Resistant Plants - The Ideal Method of Controlling Insects. Agricultural Research Service Production Research Report No. III Establishing and Operating Grower-Owned Organizations for Integrated Pest Management. Extension Service U.S. Department of Agriculture, PA-1180. Preventing Japanese Beetle Dispersion by Farm Stock. 1972. Agricultural Research Service 1441. Products and Nursery Technical Bulletin No. 49 Crown gall on fiowering dogwood. Disease micro-organisms often enter nursery stock through wounds made while handling the plant in the nursery. (Photo: K. Shaw) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Case of the Dunbar Dogwood: A Neglected Hybrid","article_sequence":2,"start_page":50,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24720","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eb36d.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":2,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kehne, C. Lewis","article_content":"The Case of the Dunbar A Dogwood: Neglected Hybrid LEWIS KEHNE by C. Arboreta and botanical gardens commonly grow related species in proximity to each other for ready comparison of species characteristics. The Arnold Arboretum, for example, has thirty-three species of the genus Cornus, the dogwood, and forty-nine named varieties, forms and cultivars. Hybrids between closely planted species might be expected when bees and other pollinators can readily visit several plants bearing flowers at the same time, carrying pollen from one species to the pistil of the flower of another species. Different flowering times would prevent such hybridization as would genetic barriers between species not closely related. When fruits are collected and the seed germinated, many plants will produce seedlings that are all alike and comparable to the parent plant, indicating that the pollen involved in fertilization presumably came from the same flower or perhaps another flower on the same plant. Often, however, the seedlings will show a great deal of variation in stem color, leaf pubescence, or habit, suggesting to the propagator that more than one species is involved and that the seedlings represent hybrids. When the seedlings reach flowering age, other characteristics including a high percentage of abnormal pollen or a light fruit production or the failure to produce embryos - may confirm a hybrid origin. The hybrids may be of horticultural interest in presenting minor variations from either parent or the combination of characteristics of the parent species. Five such hybrids of Cornus have been recognized and described as species by Alfred Rehder, the outstanding horticultural taxonomist of the past century. Two of these species came from the collections of the Arnold Arboretum and three from the materials grown by the Parks Department in Rochester, New York. The first recognized hybrid was named Cornus X arnoldiana Rehder in 1903, when a variant was noted among shrubs recently planted in a row on the Arboretum grounds. Rehder considered this shrub to be a hybrid of Cornus obliqua and C. racemosa, both native species. - Dunbar Dogwood (Cornus dunbarii) in fiower. (Photos: P. Chvany) 50 51 As number 4628, it is among the earliest numbered collections in the Arnold Arboretum. Although first described from cultivation, this hybrid subsequently has been found in the wild from New England to Missouri where the species are in proximity. The seed parent was not specified in the original description nor in the nursery record and it is not known if the cross can be reciprocal. In 1923 a variant grown from the seed of Cornus paucinervis was recognized in nurseries at the Arnold Arboretum and described a year later by Rehder as Cornus dubia. Rehder suggested the pollen parent was C. amomum. In between these two publications, Rehder received a plant from Rochester that was recognized in 1906 but not described until 1914 as Cornus X slavinii Rehder. This hybrid of Cornus rugosa and Cornus \"stolonifera\" was named for B. H. Slavin, Superintendent of the Rochester Department of Parks (1925-1940), who sent material to Rehder. Cornus X slavinii also has been found infrequently from New York to Wisconsin within the range of the native parents. In 1919 John Dunbar, Assistant Superintendent of Parks (18911915) and later Superintendent (1915-1925) in Rochester, sent to _ 52 two specimens obtained from a seed lot collected from Cornus macrophylla, a species introduced to cultivation from Asia in 1827. Dunbar indicated in subsequent correspondence that nine years earlier an employee of the park, William Edson, had collected the seeds of Cornus macrophylla and as a routine experiment in seed culture had germinated three hundred seedlings, two hundred of which had been planted out in a nursery and were now 9 feet tall. Dunbar wrote to Rehder \"Is it not strange that amongst all of these seedlings there does not appear to be one true to the characters of C. macrophylla\"? Dunbar noted that \"C. asperifolia stands about 75 feet east of C. macrophylla and C. amomum about 150 feet distant on the east side. I might say that C. arnoldiana and C. bretschneideri stand close to C. macrophylla on the east side. I do not suppose that either of these species could have any influence on C. macrophylla, although they flower somewhat late.\" Rehder had his clues from the identity of the neighboring plants and described Cornus X horseyi, a hybrid of C. macrophylla and C. amomum, and Cornus X dunbarii, a hybrid of C. macrophylla and C. asperifolia. The two hybrid species therefore came from the one lot of seed. Both Cornus asperifolia and C. amomum are native to eastern North America while C. macrophylla was introduced from its range in Asia of Japan, China and the Himalayas. Only in a botanical garden could such hybrids occur naturally or be produced artificially. Cornus X horseyi, named for the first curator and taxonomist of the Rochester Parks System, is a shrubby plant with a dull purplish-red tinge to the twigs and a golden pubescence on the leaves. Cornus X dunbarii has an arborescent habit, an ash-gray bark and whitish hairs which give the leaves a silvery appearance when fresh and dry. Of the five hybrids, Cornus X dunbarii has been most neglected by horticulturists, but is worthy of further consideration. The single tree in the collection of the Arnold Arboretum is now 20 feet tall with a checkered bark on a trunk 10 inches in diameter. It is densely branched with a spreading habit. Some branches nearly reach the ground and many are contorted and rope-like in appearance. Although it bears most of its delicate white flowers in tightly packed corymbs in late June and early July, the plant continues to produce flower clusters into October. Fall color is not outstanding and the fruits are blue-black in contrast to the reddish pedicels and inflor- Rehder escence branches. Cornus X dunbarii is not listed in Hortus III, suggesting that there are no commercial sources for this hybrid. The only location mentioned in the microfiche records of the Plant Sciences Data Center is the Arnold Arboretum. Herbarium specimens, however, indicate that the plant was grown in Rochester and in the Cedar Brook Park Cornus collection, Plainfield, New Jersey recently. Neither Bean Dunbar Dogwood (Cornus dunbarii) in fruit. (Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, 1970), Hillier (Manual of Trees and Shrubs, 1972) nor Krussman (Handbuch der Laubgeholze, 1972) mention the Dunbar dogwood and it is not represented in herbarium specimens from European gardens. Derman in 1932 (J. Arnold Arb. 13: 410.) reported an abnormal pollen percentage of 75 for Cornus X dunbarii and a low rate of fruit per corymb. The rate of fruit provary from year to year. The current crop of fruit seems to have well formed embryos and experiments concerning the fertility, viability of seeds and vegetative propagation have been initiated at the Arnold Arboretum. Whether a difficulty in propagation or simply oversight has resulted in the obscurity of the Dunbar dogwood is of little consequence. The subtle white flowers of C. dunbarii lack the commercial appeal of the more prevalent, production of one or two drupes to duction, however, does seem 54 bracted, ornamental species; yet the extended period of flowering, the attractive habit, the unusual branch form, and the greater hardiness compared with C. macrophylla suggest that it has a place in cultivation. The Dunbar dogwood stands as a silent reminder of the way in which nature, aided by man, seeks and achieves diversity. I am grateful to Mr. James W. Kelley, plant taxonomist at the Department of Parks in Rochester, for his aid in identifying those former staff members honored by the hybrids of Cornus described by Rehder. C. Lewis Kehne (Arnoldia 37: 249. 1977), as a horticultural trainee in the summer of 1977 admired this plant and chose to investigate Cornus X dunbarii, as a summer thesis. Current address. Albright House, Smith College, Northampton, Mass. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Labelling","article_sequence":3,"start_page":55,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24718","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eaf6f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":2,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lynch, Donna A.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Labelling by DONNA A. LYNCH of the Arnold Arboretum, labels have played an role in its development and function. The labelling system important has been evolving for over a hundred years, becoming progressively more responsive to our needs as an institution, to other arboreta and botanical gardens, and to the public. At this time, the focus of the labelling system is on the needs of the public. A survey taken in May 1977 revealed that 92 percent-of the people who visit the Arboretum, whether for recreation or education, look at the labels. While some are not intent on learning more than the names of the trees, many would like to see more information. Questions people ask are: When does it flower? What color are the flowers ? How old is it? What is its ultimate size? What country does it come from and in what kind of environment does it grow in that country? And perhaps the most pertinent to them is, will it grow in my back yard? Because of size limitations, it is impossible to include all this information for each tree on every label. We have designed some larger labels for a select number of trees which will include these specifics, but most trees will eventually carry a new label with the botanical name, common name, and one piece of data. Observing many trees of one species will enable the visitor to acquire much additional information as well as to see the trees at different sizes and in different habitats. Information is the most important aspect of the labelling system, but it must be well presented to be effective. Labels must be readable and visible from a distance. The yellow metal labels traditionally used by the Arboretum are visible, but due to the wear from weather, vandalism, and repositioning to allow for tree growth, the paint easily cracks and the metal beneath rusts, obscuring the whole label. Since the beginning - Display labels 1\" to allow are nailed to for tree trees of sufficient girth. Nails growth. (Photos: D. Lynch) must protrude at least 55 56 systems, in experimental use now, are rectifying these Both employ a photographic process using an aluminum problems. base. After the content of the label is determined, copy is printed with a headliner machine (ours is a StripPrinter), and pasted to a sheet of transparent mylar. In the first process, Foto-Foil, this sheet of copy is sent out to be made into a negative and finished label. Although these are relatively expensive, the label is guaranteed to last twenty Two new years. The second process, Scotch-CalT~i is less expensive and can be done entirely \"in house.\" It has a guaranteed outdoor life of three to five years, which is adequate where vandalism is a problem. In this process, the copy is placed underneath the Color Key negative material and exposed to ultra-violet light for three minutes. The negative then is developed with isopropyl alcohol, washed with water, dried, and placed on top of the photo-sensitive aluminum base. After another three-minute exposure to ultraviolet light, the developing process is repeated and the plate is sprayed with a fixer to permanently seal the surface. Foto-Foil labels are thick enough not to require mounting. ScotchCalT~f labels are thin and do need additional backing. Backing materials variously used are wood, metal, or plastic. Scotch-Cal's base material comes adhesive-backed, which greatly facilitates mounting. The photo-sensitive sheets for Scotch-Cal range in size from 10 X 12 inches to 24 X 48 inches and can be cut easily with a paper cutter. The Foto-Foil labels are cut to our specifications since they require a metal shear. The display labels described above are trunk labels for trees that have attained a sufficiently wide girth. All trees and shrubs also carry a smaller scientific label that is attached before they leave the nursery for the grounds in the spring and fall transplanting program. These Above right: A Foto-foil label for the ground cover beds at the Case Estates. Much information can be placed on the label because it is read from a short distance only. Below right: Three Scotch-calTns labels, each having are attached to three different trees in a group. a different piece of data, 57 58 labels also are in the process of evolution. More information is added in a layout comparable to the one below: being aluminum scientific labels now in use are damaged being replaced by a color-coded label. There are four color possibilities: Orange labels indicate plants that the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into cultivation in the United States. Plants that have been the basis of new names and descriptions in botanical literature are indicated by blue labels. Deciduous plants with no other designation carry yellow labels. Evergreens and azaleas are designated by red labels. This enables anyone to tell at a glance into which category a given plant falls. As the plain or lost, they are 59 To be valuable to an arboretum or botanic garden, a plant must be well documented. The labelling system is coordinated with a record file, a computer file, and a mapping system. This enables us to correctly replace any lost labels, and insures that no plant ever loses its history. Sources Scotch-Cal Ardon Graphics 176 Brookline Ave 5 Boston, MA 02215 3M Company, Decorative Products Division 3 M Center Bldg. 223-15 St. Paul, Minn. 55101 StripPrinter StripPrinter - Inc. P.O. Box 18-895 Oklahoma City, Also available Photo-Foil Okla. 73118 Ardon 20142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014 through Graphics - - - George Day Co 6 Southhampton Rd. Amesbury, MA 01913 Scientific Label Plates Addressograph-Multigraph Corp. 64A St. __ _ ___ Needham, MA _ ~~ Two scientific labels are conspicuous place and one attached with aluminum wire to each plant, somewhat hidden. one in a "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":60,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24717","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eab6b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":2,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Edible Nuts of the World. Edwin A. Menninger. Stuart, Florida: Horticultural Books, Inc. 173 pages, illustrated. $14.95. This book deserves a two-part review, one descriptive, and the other critical. It is an excellent and potentially useful compilation in the pattern of the author's earlier works, Fantastic Trees, Flowering Vines of the World, and others. Nearly every plant or plant part that might be called an \"edible nut\" is included. The text is presented in thirty chapters of intriguing titles and associations, and consists primarily of quotations from the forty-seven books cited as references (with other references interspersed in the text), supplemented by quotations from \"several hundred friends all over the world.\" The personal comments of the correspondents add to the charm and value of the text. They represent opinions and observations that otherwise might never appear in print. The correspondents, too, have contributed, in their areas of specialization, such items as the definition of hazel nut, filbert or cobnut, and have clarified the confusion in the literature between the two plants known as \"Old Man's Stick,\" Panopsis (edible) and Calatola (toxic). The volume is profusely illustrated, and all figures but one serve the purpose well, for fruits and seeds are not easy to describe, and the illustrations will aid in identifications of unusual ones. The compilation is certainly original, and therein lies much of its value as a reference volume. Although a few of the \"nuts\" will be familiar, uncommon facts may be noted, but in addition there are many plants with strange common names belonging to unfamiliar genera or even families_ In general these are not the \"nuts\" of the market, and many described will not be tempting. Many are poisonous and are so marked with skull and crossbones in the margin. Others may require days, weeks, or months of preparation before they are edible in \"times of famine.\" However, the usefulness of this volume is impaired by its size, the arrangement of material, and a series of irritating errors. The size of the volume, 9.5 X 12.5 inches, is awkward for shelving, or for reference use as a text. The title of the book is wrong - \"seeds\" are the subject matter. The definition of the word \"nut\" as \"any hard shelled fruit or seed of which the kernel is eaten by mankind\" is given twice in the introduction for emphasis, and then not followed in the text. The chapter titles are \"clever,\" but either misleading or not helpful. The chapter on \"Pumpkins and Gourds\" does include those Cucurbitaceae that are treated, but not all of the Leguminosae are in Chapter 19, \"Peanuts and other beans (Leguminosae).\" Chapter 26 under \"Monocots\" is entitled \"Grains and Grasses, including Zostera.\" Representatives of eleven families, nine of them Dicots, are included in this chapter, but not Zostera, which is presented in Chapter 22, \"Water nuts,\" under the \"Dicots.\" The four-column four-page index requires an explanation. It should have been the salvation of this volume but it isn't. Some generic names in the text (e.g. Abrus, Litchi) have been left out of the index. Some common names ending in \"nut\" are indexed only under the general topic of \"nuts,\" while others occur only under \"chestnut,\" \"cola,\" or \"walnuts.\" 60 61 Other common names without the suffix \"nut\" also are found only under that heading. \"Palms\" represents an index unit as does 'Beans,\" which appears twice. Errors in the alphabetical arrangement occur as do typographical errors affecting the reference value of the index. Family assignments of the genera may be faulty and misleading to the user, but fortunately Chrysobalanus (Rosaceae) and Parinari (Chrysobalanaceae) appear on the same page. The irritating errors also include more than a few photographs printed upside down. The introduction states \"The Tiger Nut or Chufa of our childhood, delicious eating though it was, is not found in this book because it is a tuber.\" However, Chufa is indexed and treated briefly on page 168. The chapter \"Not Nuts\" is devoted to plant parts \"not eaten by anybody,\" and includes the Betel Nut and the Litchi among many others which are poisonous or of medicinal or even economic importance. In all, a useful volume that could have been better. RICHARD A. HOWARD Plants-a-Plenty. Catharine Osgood 328 pages, illustrated. Foster. Emmaus, Pa.: Rodale Press. $10.95. Catharine Foster is a frequent contributor to gardening magazines, the author of a syndicated gardening column, and has book titles on organic gardening to her credit. Her new work is a very practical and relatively complete guide to the science and art of plant propagation. It is very attractively set with a fine type and wide margins The photographs are well chosen and always relevant, and their placement is synchronized with the appropriate text, a feature often overlooked by editors. The author shares her vast reading, travel, and lengthy personal experiences in gardening and one is certain she has employed all of the methods described. This is significant and unusual in a period where there are too many gardening books put together with the clipping shears rather than recollections of personal experiences. The author describes the morphology and physiology of certain plants to demonstrate why particular propagation techniques are suitable. Sexual reproduction (from seed) is treated fully including notes on longevity in respect to vegetable seeds, of economic interest to many of us. The various vegetative propagation methods are well described, and everything is there, layering, dormant stem cuttings, current stem cuttings, root cuttmgs, bulb wounding and all kinds of division. Division, here, though, includes the wild cyclamen - one of the few errors noted. In general, the data is unusually accurate. All of this material is well-documented by an especially good index of botanical names as well as a comprehensive general index. This reporter always tests books she is reviewing or buying by looking for and trying out the indices. These passed stern tests. The only fault this notoriously judgemental reviewer finds is the use and misuse of popular names and some odd classifications. The allocation of Crinum to \"garden plants\" and the statement ... \"hardy to New York\" are surely errors. When said Crinum is Swamp Lily in one place and Angel Lily in another, the errors are combe it individual pounded. Why not call it Crinum and educate the reader gardener or nurseryman? Swamp Lily might well be assumed by some to be Lilium canadensis since it often occurs in damp places at the sides of roads. In summary, this work on propagation is warmly recommended to the serious amateur or the commercial plantsman. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE - 62 Manual Ill.: of Woody Landscape Plants - Their Identification, Ornamental Characteristics, Culture, Propagation and Uses. Michael A. Dirr. Champaign, Stipes Publishing Company. 536 pages. A second edition of the Manual first published in 1975, this edition includes information on over 150 plants not included in the first Hardiness zone maps, additional line drawings, and discussions of keys for plant identification and those morphological features of plants most often utilized in keys, are also useful new additions. The bulk of the text, as in the first edition, is devoted to discussions or listings of information relating to the topics outlined in the title for \"common and not so common\" woody ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, and ground covers, both evergreen and deciduous, that are adapted to landscape use in the midwestern and eastern United States. Plants treated in this section are in alphabetical sequence either by Latin generic or species name, and this arrangement makes the volume easy to use. Notes on numerous \"related species\" and cultivars are also included as are helpful discussions of plant diseases and insect pests. While this reviewer has located several minor factual errors and finds several statements on particular plants disconcerting, most of the latter are offered by Dirr as opinions or expressions of personal bias only. For example, Dirr states that Albizia julibrissin \"... is not a quality plant and definitely not suited for northern climates,\" an observation he has undoubtedly based on this plant's performance in the midwest and one that New England horticulturists might disagree with. Aside from a very few minor errors, this same use of personal opinion and observation is what makes the book useful and interesting. This aspect is perhaps most fully evident in the notes on propagation. Originally conceived as a textbook for use in courses in woody plant materials, this volume should prove singularly useful not only in the classroom (where a text such as this has long been needed), but in the arboretum, nursery, landscape architect's office, and in the home garden as well. Dirr indicates in the preface to this edition that yet another revision will be forthcoming, and it is hoped that this valuable reference will be refined even more in a third edition. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG The Rain Forests of Golfo Dulce. Paul H. Allen. Stanford, Ca: Stanford Univ. Press 417 pages, 22 figures, 34 plates. Reissue 1977. $25.00. \"Our library copy has disappeared.\" \"My personal copy cannot be located.\" \"The volume is out of print.\" \"No secondhand copies can be located.\" A familiar tale indicating a useful volume. Now The Rain Forests of Golfo Dulce has been reissued by a different press, unfortunately at a higher price, but still worth having. Although first published in 1956 and reissued without changes, the volume has not lost its reference value for the forest plants of Costa Rica with wide application in Central America. General descriptions are given of the ecology of the area and of the forest types with lists of component species and practical keys, e.g. \"Trees with thorny or spiny trunks,\" \"Trees with stilt roots,\" Fence row plants,\" etc. These are followed by an alphabetical listing of common names and scientific names of the species of the area, with descriptions and discussions of many. The plates, most with four photographs, are a valuable survey of many genera and species.. The volume is very easy to use. A foreword, prepared for the reprinting by Peter Raven, Director of the Missouri Botanical Garden, is a fitting tribute to the late Paul Allen. RICHARD A. HOWARD 63 Ornamental Grasses. Mary Hockenberry Meyer. New York. 136 pages. Hardcover. $9.95. Charles Scribner's Sons: A book dealing solely with ornamental grasses has been long overdue. Finally one has arrived and, in addition to filling an obvious void, it is interesting and informative as well. By some unfortunate circumstance, ornamental grasses are all too often overlooked as landscape possibilities in many parts of the United States. I stress unfortunately because they are a versatile and exciting group of plants with much to offer. Worthy of inclusion in the garden for their stunning beauty alone, they have other merits as well: they are nearly entirely insect and disease free, they require little maintenance, and they tolerate a wide variety of soil and temperature conditions. It is difficult to believe that this is the first popular book ever published in the United States on this subject. The British are obviously way ahead of us in their appreciation of the horticultural value of grasses. It is to be hoped that this particular volume will have some impact on the American gardening public. In addition to cultural directions, individual plant descriptions and a guide to the ornamental uses of various grasses, there is an interesting chapter on using grasses as cut flowers in arrangements. An abbreviated list of nurseries at the end of the book lists both wholesale and retail sources of plants and seeds. My only complaint about this book is in regard to the pictures, some of which are out of focus or underor overexposed. Otherwise, it is a fine treatment of a welcome subject. MARGO WITTLAND REYNOLDS Saxifrages. Winston Harding. London: Alpine Rock Garden Society. 134 pages, numerous full and part-page black and white photographs and draw- ings. 50 British pence. ~ well-travelled and knowledgeable horticulturist, currently serving as Chief Horticultural Officer for an international agency of the British Commonwealth. This volume represents a compilation of articles originally written for Britain's Alpine Garden Society and its avowed intention is to restore the saxifrages to the favor they once enjoyed among English gardeners. The fifteen species represented are described in terms comprehensible to the informed gardener and one need not be a taxonomist to understand the descriptions. The author's familiarity with the plants in the field, in the garden and under glass is evident. Cultural directions abound and each plant is considered with reference to its native habitat. There are a number of allusions to literature on the subject and the author doesn't hesitate to dispute some of the claims of the late rock garden expert, Reginald Farrer. The flavor of the book is modest and gracious. The American and British attitudes toward rock gardening are quite different and this poses a problem as to the usefulness of this book to the American rock gardener. The reader who is a \"serious\" rock gardener will want to own it; others will not. ELINORE TROWBRIDGE Winston Harding is a Trees of the British Isles in History and Legend. J. H. Wilks. Anchor Press Ltd.: London, England. 255 pages. f5. Trees have played an integral part in the history of the British Isles since Celtic times. Worshipped by the Druids, taken over as symbols by the Christian missionaries, the source of navies that eventually built the 64 Empire, used as boundary marks after William the Conqueror, the trysting place of royalty, the great trees of the British Isles have both a romantic and an historical appeal. This book is a compendium of facts and fancies about U.K. and Irish trees in history, legend, literature and war. It is generously illustrated with old prints and modern photographs, and has five appendices. These meticulously list the origins, habitats and records of U.K. and Irish trees, biographical notes, notable and record trees, gardens and estates where collections can be found, a further list of trees not mentioned in the text, and a series of the number of insect species on trees in Britain and EuroBritish refuge and pean Russia. Though the writing veers from the simplistic to the fulsome (e.g. \"... the dark dregs of a witch's brew of legend and unrequited hate\"), the book is a pleasure to browse through, full of delights and surprises. It can be highly recommended to anyone interested in horticulture, En- glish history, ecology, or legend. CORA WARREN Inside back cover: Rhododendron fargesii. (Photo: P. Chvany) "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23347","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260816e.jpg","title":"1978-38-2","volume":38,"issue_number":2,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Fire Pines Richard Warren &","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24715","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24ea76d.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"The Fire Pines by RICHARD WARREN and ALFRED J. FORDHAM Author's Note: When an Arnold Arboretum volunteer develops an interest in conifers, he inevitably comes under the stimulating influence of Alfred Fordham. So it happened with me. One day Al remarked on a photograph he had taken of Pinus attenuata. The branches were covered with closed cones all the way back to the tree trunk. The conversation then led to the question of how long seeds can remain viable in these cones. Since no answer was easily discovered in reference books, we decided to inquire more deeply. This we did by consulting source material in libraries, writing letters to various experts, and performing our own tests of seed germination in the Dana Greenhouses. The most consistently serotinous pines, Pinus radiata and P. attenuata, are not hardy in the Arboretum. I have, however, enjoyed the privilege of frequent trips to Western Ireland where P. radiata is planted as a shelter from the high winds of the area. Also, fortunately, a daughter in Marin County, California, lives within an easy drive of the dry elevations of the coastal range where P. attenuata thrmes. Material for this inquiry was obtained from these sources. (R.W.) Among members of the pine genus are those the term \"serotinous.\" The word means \"late developing\" and describes their distinguishing feature, the habit of holding cones closed on their branches for many years. A strong resin glues the tips of the scales together and these trees do not disperse their seeds at maturity as other pines do. In many cases seeds are not liberated until a forest fire melts the resin; hence the common name, \"Fire Pines.\" Subsequent revegetation of the burned area is of teleological significance for the survival of the species. Table I lists these pines. The degree to which they demonstrate serotinous tendencies varies between species, and in some of these also according to geographic location. Variation may be seen both in the proportion of cones with persisting closure and in its duration. In some trees of Pinus banksiana, P. clausa, P. rigida and P. contorta, for instance, the cones open at maturity. This seldom occurs in P. serotina, but later separation of scales and seed dispersion almost always occurs before five years. P. radiata plants in the British Isles, furthermore, hold their cones closed for a long period, but in California in exposed sunny positions they may open a year or two after ripening. Badran observed that P. radiata from the Monterey Peninsula showed many open cones, particularly those that were more than four years old, whereas those from most specimens found in the Berkeley-Oakland Hills area remained closed. P. contorta the most we interesting to which apply 2 TABLE I SEROTINOUS PINES also demonstrates the influence of climate on the serotinous habit. The cones of plants in coastal regions open promptly, whereas those in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain regions are persistently serotinous. Cones of P. attenuata are virtually unknown to open under influences other than fire, decay, or attack by wildlife or insects. This persistence may be the result of its restricted geographical distribution in the California coastal mountains. Genetic factors also seem to play a part (Fig. 1). The retention of cones by serotinous pines even after opening is characteristic. In the New England area it is familiar to us in the cone-peppered silhouettes of Pinus rigida, and in Canada of P. banksiana. The relation between the cone and the branch on which it remains is of note. In the specimens of Pinus radiata we have observed, the cones most recently matured have had pedicels of 1 cm. As the branch has grown in diameter, the pedicels have been swallowed so that by the third or fourth year the cones have become sessile. In cones up to thirty years of age, the pedicel has continued to stretch and their bases have remained tightly pressed against the branch. In other species such as P. banksiana and P. attenuata, however, the woody tissues have been observed to grow out around the cone 3 characteristics tree in the case of Pinus banksiana. At right is a specimen collected from a tree where some cones were closed and some were open. Below is one in which all cones are closed. Both trees were siblings grown together in a nursery row. Still other plants in the same population had cones that were all open. These characteristics are genetic, and it is not uncommon to see trees in native habitats whose cones are all serotinous growing beside trees with cones all open and still others that contain some of each. Photos: A. Fordham. Fig. l. Closed vary cone can from tree to 4i so that it becomes embedded and actually disappears within the wood (Figs. 2 and 3). Why this occurs in some species and not in others is unknown. Coker suggests that it is pure mechanics, the breadth of the surface presented to the branch being less in the narrower cones of P. attenuata and P. banksiana than in the broader ones of P. radiata and P. muricata. The degree to which advancing age of cones may influence the germinating ability of seeds should be of particular interest to the Arnold Arboretum since Professor C. S. Sargent seems to have been among the first to ask the question. He received a branch of Pinus contorta from Dr. George Englemann (Fig. 4) four and a half years Fig. 2. Cones of Pinus banksiana in the same in various stages of embedment. Sister did this one. trees nursery row did not engulf their cones as Photo: A. Fordham. I 5 '1 A transverse section of a Pinus banksiana tree trunk, from the same tree that provided Fig. 2. It was collected at a 5-foot level from a fast growing tree in a nursery row and shows nine annual growth rings. The embedded cone is one of a pair that originated nine years ago at the tip of a shoot that was about 1 \/4-inch in diameter. As the trunk increased in girth during the first four years, the cone was forced outward and this caused the pedicel to elongate. Wood that formed during the fifth annual growth increment surrounded the cone and this process continued each year until only the tip remained uncovered after the 1976 growing season. In the course of another year, it seemed probable that it would have been completely hidden and the sound seeds it contained would then be lost for reproduction. Cones of Pinus banksiana often appear in multiples of two and three. This illustration shows one of a pair that continued to grow, and evidence of one that failed six years ago. The annual rings show that at that time the cone was entirely exposed (not embedded at all) and may have been destroyed by a squirrel seeking seeds. It is interesting to see how annual growths have filled the void. Photo: A. Fordham. Fig. 3. after it had been collected from a tree in Colorado in 1874. Five years later, on planting the seeds, he observed germination for the years 1869 through 1872, but not for 1873, the most recent year, nor for the earlier years of 1865 and 1868. He commented that \"this experiment is unsatisfactory owing to the want of seeds of 1866 and 1867 and because those of 1873 had probably never fully developed. It is only interesting in view of the fact that it may possibly lead to this subject being more fully investigated. It is particu- Fig. 4. Charles S. Sargent, Francis Skinner and George Englemann posed in Monterey, California, in 1880 toward the end of their summer trip in connection with the U. S. forest census. Note that some of the cones on the branch Sargent is holding are open and some are closed, a normal occurrence for Pinus radiata in coastal areas (see text). I 7 desirable to obtain and test the seeds from old serotinous cones of such species as P. serotina, the Florida Pine, P. inops var. clausa (P. clausa) *, P. Tuberculata (P. attenuata) *, P. muricata, and P. insignis (P. radiata) *. There are always facilities for making such experiments at the Arboretum when sufficient material can be obtained.\" Although throughout the world much effort has been put into investigating methods to increase the yield of seeds of serotinous pines for forestation purposes. little attention has been devoted to answering Sargent's question: How long can the seeds remain viable in the cones? Now, nearly one hundred years later, we have used the Arboretum's facilities to test the influence of age on germination of seeds of cones from Pinus radiata collected in West Cork, Ireland. The following discussion will tell us of this experiment together with what we have been able to discover of others. In 1909 Professor W. C. Coker of the University of North Carolina procured cones of Pinus serotina up to fourteen years old and germinated seeds from all years. Badran in 1949 observed germination of seeds of P. radiata from cones up to ten years old, and of P. attenuata from those up to twenty years old. Other allusions to the very long viability of seeds are Bowers, fifty years; Kotok, eighty years; Mason, seventy-five to eighty; and Mills, one hundred fifty all for Lodgepole Pine (P. contorta var. latifolia). Exact documentation of these observations has not been possible because the original reports have not been available to us. Mirov only states: \"Seed viability may be preserved within the cone for an amazingly long time.\" After making his tests and finding viability up to five years he said: \"There are records of much longer viability of pine seeds, but it is difficult to say how reliable they are.\" Our experience with two limbs from the Irish trees was as follows : In limb #1(Fig. 5), the cone ages ranged from one to twentysix years. We found fertile seeds up to and including twenty-one years of age, but no germination in years twenty-two through twentysix. In limb #2 we tested twenty-one cones ranging in age from one to twenty-six years. The twenty-six-year-old seeds did not germinate. Also infertile, however, were seeds from the years two, three and five. Otherwise, all years up to twenty-four showed fertility. In sum, these two experiments showed that seeds can be viable at least up to twenty-four years. Our observation of infertility in seeds older than twenty-four years is of interest. It is clear, however that the limited scope of the experiment prevents general conclusions about maximum age of fertility with respect to the species as a whole. We were curious about the possible cause of infertility in the cones of limb #2. On external examination and sectioning of the seeds, the twenty-six-year-old specimens all appeared sound but yet did not germinate. In the young infertile years the cones looked sound larly - * Names in parentheses inserted by present authors. Fig. 5. Lzmb Warren. #1 showing cone whorls spanning twenty-six years. Photo: R. but many of the seeds were shriveled or empty. This implies that the older seeds became infertile from aging whereas the younger ones had undergone some injury. The effect of cone age on the percentage of seeds germinating from a batch of Pinus radiata and P. attenuata was documented by Badran who found a gradual decrease with time in the production of seeds that germinated. He observed also that the total number of seeds per cone, although varying between specimens, was not related to age. The percentage of empty seeds increased only slightly with age, but not in proportion to the decrease in germination. Thus, age adversely affected many apparently full seeds; furthermore, the time needed for germination was increased in the older seeds. Vogl observed no change in the above features with the passing of time, but the report does not give exact ages. The number of seeds sown was carefully counted in one of our Pinus radiata limbs. We observed great variation in germinating capacities, but, as Badran noted, germination appeared to decrease with age until the last two years (twenty-two and twenty-four) when only one and three seeds, respectively, out of thirty germinated. 19 One further question that logically arises is whether the cones are living or dead. Although this has not been studied extensively, it is assumed that those that remain sessile must be dead, since the pedicels have become so stretched within the wood. Sargent, already mentioned, found that seeds from cones on a branch of Pinus contorta, taken from a tree four and one-half years before, germinated well. We have germinated seeds taken from a tree that had been dead for at least five years. Furthermore, Mirov states: \"In the author's experience a P. attenuata cone kept at room temperature for twenty-seven years yielded germinable seed.\" There is not reason to suppose that seeds in a cone on or off the branch should deteriorate if kept at appropriate conditions of temperature and humidity. Estimation of a cone's age is not always simple. This is particularly so in Pinus radiata where additional flushes of growth each year may produce more than one cluster of cones. Counting the number of whorls can thus result in an overestimate. This feature renders slightly unreliable many written reports involving age of cones, since the method of dating, though not usually stated, is assumed to be such a count. The annual growth rings are a reliable method, provided one recognizes that certain dry years may cause rings to be incomplete. Thus, the procuring of a total cross-sectional specimen, rather than a core sampling, is the safest method. The worry about false rings (those caused by a resumption of growth in a year when growth was temporarily arrested by some unfavorable environmental condition) can be allayed by the rarity of this occurrence and the different appearance of false rings from true ones. They fade gradually, both to the outside and the inside, whereas the true ring shows a sharp cutoff externally. Another method of determining age, according to Badran, is the bunching together of the bud scales and the horizontal constrictions at the nodal points where the terminal buds were forced into a resting period. This is useful for only the first few years of growth, since these landmarks tend to fade with age. In dating the cones on our two branches we used tree rings, where possible, from cross sections of the limbs. Where this was not possible because of unavailability of the sections, we counted whorls. Where there was a discrepancy between the numbers derived from the two counts, we chose the lesser in order to err on that side rather than to overestimate age. We made other incidental observations. Although stratification of seeds in cold is not considered necessary for optimum production in Pinus radiata, we found in comparing one set stratified for three weeks at 4C and one not, that the former germinated in 50 per cent to 75 per cent of the interval of time needed for the latter. Cold, however, did not produce fertility in the infertile years. ' 10 The farmers in Ireland who grow their own Pinus radiata trees open the cones by exposure to direct flame. Early foresters used this method. We tried opening cones by direct flame in a broiler for four to twenty-four minutes, by boiling for two to five minutes, and by heating in an oven (kiln) at 50C (120F) for twenty-four to forty-eight hours. Although seeds procured by each method germinated, the kiln method seemed to us the most satisfactory because with it there is no worry about seed damage if heating is carried on too long. We learned that if either of the other two methods is used, the duration of heating should be less than that tried in our experiments ; not more than ten to fifteen seconds in boiling water or two to three minutes close to a flame. This is because the cone scales separate gradually after the resin is dissolved. Vogl states that in P. attenuata, shedding of seed does not start until one to twelve hours after heating, and that it continues up to three days later. Our impression was that this applies to P. radiata also. In using either rapid method for opening cones, it is important that they be removed from the heat after opening has only partially begun. Although it was of interest that boiling for five minutes and direct flame exposure to a 5-inch distance for ten minutes did not hinder germinative ability nor germinative capacity (which occurred in up to 90 per cent of the seeds so procured) there must be a limit of time after which these temperatures will kill seeds. Badran observed a falling off in the germinative capacity of seeds with progressing years and commented on the apparent soundness (\"fullness\") of many of the infertile seeds. We found this also; all twenty-nine seeds that did not germinate from the twenty-two yearold cone from limb #2 looked quite healthy externally. Although arithmetical precision cannot be hoped for in describing these features of the various serotinous species, this does not diminish our sense of wonder at the extreme patience with which these trees wait to protect and reproduce their kind in the face of their natural enemy, fire. Acknowledgements The assistance of John H. Alexander III, James A. Burrows, and Kenneth D. Shaw of the Greenhouse staff and of Sheila Geary, the Librarian, is gratefully acknowledged. Helpful information was procured through the kindness of the follow- ing : Dr. M. P. Bollmann, New Zealand Forestry Service Dr. Stanley L. Krugman, Timber Management Research, U.S. Forest Service, Washington, D.C. Dr. Leroy C. Johnson, Research Forester, U.S. Forest Service, Placerville, California Dr. William J. Libby, Department of Forestry and Genetics, University of California, Berkeley Minn. Albert G. Johnson, Research Associate, University of Minnesota, Chaska, A Pinus radiata laden with land Forestry Service. unopened cones. Photo: M. P. Bollman, New Zea- 11 1 References Badran, Osmer Adly. Unpublished Master's thesis on file at University of California, Berkeley, 1949. Bowers, Nathan A. Cone Bearing Trees of the Pacific Coast. McGraw- Hill, 1942. Coker, W. C. Vitality of pine seeds and the delayed opening of Naturalist 33:677:1909. Harlow, Wm. H. Jack Pine: the tree that swallows its cones. Am. own cones. Am. Forests 51:543:1945. Kotok, E. S. Lodgepole Pine (Pinus contorta Dougl.) U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. Forest Service. American Woods - FS - 253. Revised May 1971, pp. 1-5. Mason, D. T. The management of Lodgepole Pine. Forestry Quart. 13: 171-182:1915. Mills, E. A. The Rocky Mountain Wonderland. Boston, Houghton Mifflin Co., 1915. Mirov, N. T. The Genus Pinus. Ronald Press Co., N.Y., 1967. Sargent, C. S. Vitality of the seeds of Pinus contorta. Bot. Gaz. 5:54: 1880. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Forest Service Service, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Washington, D.C. Agricultural Handbook No. 450, 1974. Silvics of Forest Trees of the U.S. Dept. Agriculture Forest Service. Washington, D.C., 1965. Agricultural Handbook No. 271. Stokes, Marvin A., and Smiley, Terah L. An Introduction to Tree Ring Dating. Univ. of Chicago Press, Chicago, 1968. Vogl, Richard J. Ecology of the Knobcone Pine of the Santa Ana Mountains, California. Ecol. Monographs. 43:125:1973. Dr. Richard Warren, a regular volunteer and member of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, is Emeritus Professor of Surgery at the Harvard Medical School. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Introductions: The Second Fifty Years [continued; see vol. 32, no. 1]- 1923-1972","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24712","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270896b.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Arnold Arboretum Introductions: The Second Fifty Years (continued)-1923-1972 by RICHARD A. HOWARD ' ' ~ ,\/ ~ series of papers concerning the history of the Arnold Arborecompiled in honor of its First Century, Dr. Donald Wyman prepared a list of plants received at the Arnold Arboretum between 1923 and 1972. The first part of this list including Abelia through Fraxinus was published in Amoldia (32 ( 1 ) : 30-43. 1972). It largely represented plants received during the years when Donald Wyman served as horticulturist and many of the plants were obtained by him during several trips to Europe. The list as published was \"to be continued\" and through oversight the remainder of the manuscript was misplaced. We continue here, for the record, what was begun in 1972. As before, the plants are listed alphabetically under the names by which they were received or listed in Index Semina. A few names indicated by an asterisk (*) cannot be verified in standard references, including Index Kewensis. In general, the names follow the nomenclature of Rehder's Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs although some are now accepted as either hybrids or cultivars. These names are indicated by the sign of multiplication ( X ) in the case of hybrids, or are cited in single quotation marks when accepted as cultivars. We recognize that some modem works by Bean, Hillier and Krussman have realigned species concepts, cultivar status or established synonymies. We retain the original form of the name in many cases for historical perspective and for the opportunity of verifying such new assignments. A parenthetical (A) has been added following a name when the accession is still alive within our collection. As Dr. Wyman stated, \"The Arboretum has long had a policy of sharing its introductions with other institutions and unfortunately we do not know whether plants which have died for us may have survived in other institutions.\" We repeat his request that \"if any individual has firsthand knowledge that some of these have been introduced into America before the dates herein listed, we will be glad to hear about it and delete them from this list.\" We also would like to know of living propagations of these plants elsewhere in the United States, to help establish hardiness records. a In tume 12 13 14 15 16 17 7 18 19 20 I 21 22 23 24I 25 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Unusual and Mysterious: The Black Pussy Willow","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24716","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24eab26.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Unusual and Mysterious: The Black Pussy Willow by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The Arnold Arboretum's next biennial plant dividend to our Friends will be a rooted cutting of Salix melanostachys, the Black Pussy Willow. We have always tried to offer plants that are both desirable and unusual, and this year's choice is no exception. The Black Pussy Willow is a most unusual plant in several respects. First, its origin is unknown and its exact classification is a matter of debate. It has been cultivated by the Japanese for years, but the plant is not known in the wild. Only a single clone exists, and this consists strictly of male plants. Therefore the status of S. melanostachys as a distinct species is thrown into considerable doubt. It has been classified as a variety of S. gracilistyla, but it differs from that very beautiful Japanese species in a number of important technical characteristics (e.g., non-silky catkins, hairless twigs, shorter scales, etc.) The Black Pussy Willow most likely arose as a hybrid between several willow species. It probably should be called by a cultivar name, and there are several Japanese ones available, but that will be for a willow specialist to decide. The second unusual aspect of the Black Pussy Willow is the color of its catkins (\"pussies\"). Black is essentially nonexistent in the plant world. The very few so-called black flowers or other plant structures are invariably very dark shades of red and purple. So it is with Salix melanostachys (the species named from the Greek melano, meaning very dark, and stachys meaning spike or catkin.) The scales of the catkins are a very dark red-purple, beautifully contrasting with the brick-red anthers that turn to yellow as they mature. But do not expect the gigantic catkins seen on sprays of Pussy Willow sold in florist shops. The \"pussies\" of S. melanostachys are rather small, but they are profusely produced, and they are set on reddish twigs. When your plant arrives, hopefully in April 1978, plant it outdoors, either in a nursery area or in its permanent place in your garden. Small as it may seem to be, it will grow quickly. Perhaps you should soak its roots in water for a few hours before planting, and surely protect it with stakes or chicken wire from lawn mowers and erring feet. Do not take pity on its small size and try to keep it indoors. Now a few tips for siting and maintenance: (1) Willows tolerate or even prefer moist or soggy soil, but most, including Salix melano- 26 Salix melanostachys. Drawing by Esther B. Heins. 27 stachys, will do quite well in a drier, but not parched, situation. (2) The more sun the plant receives, the more compactly it will grow, and the more catkins it will produce. It will do reasonably well in partial shade, however. (3) The plant will grow to be a bushy shrub about 10 feet in height and spread. For a few years it may be a bit spindly, so judicious pruning may be required. (4) The catkins appear in early to mid-March, while the yellow, red, or copper flowers of the Witch Hazel, Hamamelis X intermedia, are still in good shape, or while the flowers of the Cornelian Cherries, Cornus mas and C. officinalis are beginning to show color. Siting the Black Pussy Willow against any of these would produce a striking contrast. The Black Pussy Willow is still rare in the United States. Our original stock was received in 1971 from the Kalmthout Arboretum in Belgium. Enjoy your plant, nurture it, and share it with friends. Cuttings root easily at nearly any time of year. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24714","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24ea728.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.; Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Collecting Expedition to Japan and Korea by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG and RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Why send two of the Arnold Arboretum's staff members on a seedcollecting expedition to Japan and The Republic of Korea? The flora of the former country is about as well catalogued as that of any in the world; most of its outstanding ornamental woody plants are already in cultivation in the West; and several other American arboreta and botanic gardens have recently sponsored collecting expeditions to Japan. These facts notwithstanding, there are several very good reasons why we embarked with enthusiasm and high expectations on September 1, 1977 for a six-week collecting trip marked by international goodwill and several botanical surprises. First, the Arnold Arboretum was the leader among American institutions in exploring the flora of temperate Asia, yet it had not sent an expedition since E. H. Wilson returned from Japan and Korea in 1918. The time was certainly due for the Arboretum to re-establish its contacts and interests in that part of the world. Second, many of Japan's fine ornamentals are represented in Western horticulture by relatively few original collections collections that often were made in warmer parts of the country and the resulting plants are not reliably hardy in the northern United States. Could not collections of these same plants from areas with more rigorous climates increase the hardiness range of some fine ornamentals? Third, collections from wild sources, with minimal chances of being hybrids, are valuable for botanical study. And finally, Korea has been largely neglected by American plant explorers, yet in its flora are many plants otherwise known only from China (at present still inaccessible to us) and its climate is in some places more rigorous than that of much of New England. The first week and a half of collecting were spent on Hokkaido, where our itinerary had been largely arranged by Dr. Tadao Ui, Director of the Botanic Garden of the Faculty of Agriculture of Hokkaido University in Sapporo. We were accompanied by Dr. Katsuhiko Kondo of Hiroshima University, and received support from many Japanese officials. The northernmost of Japan's four major islands, Hokkaido lies approximately between 41 and 45 degrees North Latitude, more or less equivalent to that of New England from southern - 28 I 29 Cryptomeria japonica grove on the western, area Yamadera. Trees in this Japan Sea slope of Honshu at exceeded 100 feet in height. Photo: S. Spongberg. 30 Connecticut to central Maine. Collecting was concentrated in southern Hokkaido where the woody flora is particularly rich, this area being the meeting ground for both temperate and boreal elements. In one small area near Sapporo, the prefectural capital, 108 species of trees are native, the highest concentration in all of the North Temperate Zone. There, two broad-leaved evergreens of considerable ornamental value, Skimmia japonica and Daphniphyllum macropodum var. humile, were collected near the northern limit of their ranges. With the help of Mr. Yojuuro Sato, a short excursion was made into central Hokkaido, where the temperature has gone as low as -40C. Exciting collections in the lowland forest of this region included Alangium platanifolium var. trilobum and Cephalotaxus harringtonia var. nana, probably the northernmost representatives of these plants ever introduced into the United States. The primary objective in central Hokkaido was Mt. Daisetzu, a volcanic massif with still active vents and a very extensive alpine zone. At 2345 meters it is the highest point on the island. The alpine flora there is characterized by a great diversity of shrublets including species of Rhododendron, Vaccinium, Empetrum, Loiseluria, and Sieversia, a woody relative of Geum. The second major portion of the trip was spent in the northern district of Honshu, the main Japanese island. Here we were accompanied by Dr. Kankichi Sohma, a palynologist from Tohoku University in Sendai, who is well versed in the Japanese flora, and one of his graduate students, Mr. Masamichi Takahashi. Collecting was concentrated on the higher mountains of the district, including: the volcanic Mt. Hakkoda, where Abies mariesii and Tsuga diversifolia were found at their northern-most stations, and seeds were collected from a dwarf Hamamelis japonica; the predominantly serpentine Mt. Hayachine where the most exciting finds were Betula corylifolia and Acer distylum, a maple with leaves like those of a linden; and the mountains of Nikko National Park where Trochodendron aralioides, a primitive evergreen tree, was collected near its northern limit at an elevation of 1000 meters. In Korea, Mr. Carl Ferris Miller was our host. Several profitable days were spent in Mr. Miller's Chollipo Arboretum on the western coast of Korea south of Seoul, and nearby, seeds of Koelreuteria paniculata, the Golden Rain Tree, were collected from one of the two localities where the species is known in Korea. A stop at an old garden on the way back to Seoul yielded one of the trip's major surprises a fine specimen, in fruit, of Magnolia of~cinaLis, the Chinese Umbrella Magnolia, a species very rare in cultivation in the West. Perhaps the most exciting excursion in Korea was to some of the higher mountains in the northeastern part of the country. Temperatures in this region fell to -30C. during the winter of 1976-1977, so most of the plants growing there should be hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Notable collections included Magnolia sieboldii, Paulownia - 31 Diospyros kaki, the Oriental Persimmon, and Sapium japonicum, a small tree in the Euphorbia Family with beautiful autumn coloration, and one that is not even mentioned in Alfred Rehder's Manual oCultivated Trees and Shrubs. A total of 505 collections were made, representing 327 taxa in 69 coreana, families. Included were fifteen species of maple, nine of birch, five of alder (some of which are very beautiful trees), nine of viburnum, six of euonymus, and five of magnolia. With the exception of a single package, of which there fortunately was a duplicate, all of the material arrived safely at the Arnold Arboretum and is now being processed at the Dana Greenhouses. Eventually, representatives will be added to the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum, bolstering our already impressive collection of Oriental plants; others will be used for staff research projects, and the excess will be distributed to other arboreta and botanic gardens. A future issue of Arnoldia will feature a full length article detailing more fully the itinerary, the plants collected, and the people met en route. Fruit aggregates of Magnolia hypoleuca, Japanese White Bark Magnolia, collected on Mt. Hayama in the Yamadera region. Photo: S. Spongberg. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24713","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd24ea36f.jpg","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS ,..... _.. Concord Areas Trees. Ray Angelo. 39 pages, illustrated. $1.50. Bedford, Mass.: Concord Field Station. This is an attractive booklet for the identification of tree species growing wild in the area of Massachusetts' Concord Field Station. The instructions for the use of the guide suggest obtaining tree fruits, if these are available, and matching them against the 43 illustrations. Page references then refer the reader to species grouped according to leaf characteristics: needle- or scale-like, alternate or opposite, simple or compound. Within these categories, leaf drawings offer a further aid to identification, aided by brief descriptions of the plants, their habitats and their common and scientific names. A bibliography suggests both popular and technical volumes for further study. This book will serve well as a primer for students and visitors to the Concord area. RICHARD A. HOWARD Mille et Un Livres Botaniques, Repertoire Bibliographique de la Bibliotheque Arpad Plesch. Bruxelles: Arcade. 517 pages, 34 colored plates, 36 black and white illustrations. Belgian francs 3900. ' This handsomely produced volume is the second catalogue of the botanical and horticultural library of the late Dr. Arpad Plesch (1890-1974) who in 1939 established an experimental garden on the French Riviera, a garden whose aim, he said, was \"... to enrich the flora of Europe by the introduction and acclimation of new tropical plants ....\" The first catalogue was prepared in 1954 by Jacques Pley: Bibliothegue Arpad Plesch La Leonina I. Botanique. The present catalogue was compiled by HenryPierre Gourry. The catalogue provides complete bibliographic descriptions of many more than the \"mille et un livres\" of the title, with annotations culled from many sources, but notably from the Catalogue of Botanical Books in the Collection of Rachel MacMasters Miller Hunt, as well as Blunt's The Art of Botanical Illustration and Nissen's Die botanische Buchillustration. An overview of botanical literature in French and English, from its beginnings through the nineteenth century, is provided in the form of an introductory essay that would have been more helpful had the accompanying black and white illustrations followed the text more closely. The English rendering is marred for the English speaking reader by numerous infelicities of translation. The annotations in the catalogue itself, when from a source other than French, are sometimes attributed, sometimes not; sometimes set apart by quotation marks, sometimes in italics. This lack of uniformity of style is disturbing, and means that the reader must seek out the original annotation. The introductory essay is followed by an alphabetical list of the authors and main works, \"from the origins to the nineteenth century,\" although the entire work is itself a dictionary catalogue, including, it must be said, some twentieth century titles. There are index, Latin meanings indices: principal illustrators, a topical subject of cities, and an index of Latin abbreviations and their in German, French and English, to mention but a few. A useful numerous names 33 American Beech (Fagus grandifolia). Photo: A. Bussewitz. 34 eighteenth century paper sizes (taken from the Hunt catalogue) as is an explanation of the calendar of the French Republic. The a fault of poor generous indexing, however, inspires little confidence proofreading that let stand such barbarisms as Goebel for Goebel; as well is table of given, - Goethe and Goethe for Goethe. The Plesch collection as represented by this catalogue no longer exists. The collection was sold at auction by Sotheby's in three sales: June 16-17 and November 17-18, 1975, and March 15-16, 1976. For that reason, if for no other, the catalogue is valuable as a source of reference for the many rare or unique items and the interesting bindings and association copies. It is, however, a source to be consulted with some reservations in view of the many flaws in its execution. It will be most helpful if used in conjunction with the authoritative Hunt catalogue, and, for English botanical and horticultural literature, the recent superb volumes by Blanche Henrey. For works unique to the Plesch Collection, the present volume will serve if used with the Sotheby sales catalogue (3 volumes, 1975-1976) which provides a useful index of provenance. The book itself, although attractively bound with slip case, is supported in the binding by the paste-down endpapers alone, and will not serve for long without strengthening at the hinges. It is to be hoped that the copies printed on rag paper and bound in full leather will be a more lasting memorial to Dr. Plesch. as ' LENORE M. DICKINSON History of the Orchid. Merle A. Reinikka. Coral Cables, Fla.: University of Miami Press. 316 pages, black and white illustrations. $15.00. A Orchids were first named when Theophrastus, writing in the fourth cen- tury B.C., spoke of their medicinal properties. It was not until the seventeenth century that Europeans began to enjoy them for their beauty, though in the Orient they had been admired for their scent since the time of Confucius. In the nineteenth century, an orchid mania struck England. The sixth Duke of Devonshire paid one hundred guineas for a white Phillipine Phalaenopsis, while particularly rare specimens commanded up to seven hundred pounds. Today, orchid societies draw as many as 1,500 members to their meetings, and the classification and hybridization of these lovely plants is a continuing challenge. A prodigious amount of research has gone into this history of the orchid. The author states that with the amount of material he had accumulated he could have written an entire encyclopedia on orchidology. His first section deals with the history, cultivation, and scientific application of orchids and includes a guide to orchid literature. The second section comprises short biographies of the leading figures in orchid history, from Linnaeus to Oakes Ames. This is a book that should be of great interest to orchid growers, though its specialization will not appeal to a wider public. CORA WARREN American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century \"For Use or For Delight.\" Ann Leighton. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company. 514 pages; illustrated. $17.50 hardcover. When, in 1970, Ann Leighton published Early American Gardens, Walter Muir Whitehill, in an enthusiastic review, exclaimed, \"What a perfectly enchanting book!\" This present volume surpasses even Mr. Whitehill's encomiums. Bark of Tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Photo:A. Bussewitz. 35 A most impressive amount of research has been done, and this is presented in a witty and charming manner. Contemporary sources are copiously quoted on every aspect of both English and American gardening of the period, with an imaginative selection of eighteenth century prints scattered throughout the clear and comprehensive text. The book begins with chapters on the history of the horticultural development of the Southern and Northern states and continues with detailed accounts of husbandry, naturalists' and botanists' and nurserymen's lists. The correspondence and the records of seed and plant exchanges that took place among such eminent people as Washington, Jefferson, Bartram, Collinson and many others make fascinating reading. There are chapters on medicines, the changing style in gardens (from formal to natural), and chapters on vegetables, fruits and flowers with contemporary, annotated lists of those grown. There is a 104-page index of the plants most frequently cultivated in eighteenth century gardens with many indigenous flowers added to the list. Each plant is identified by its correct botanical name, and the majority are accompanied by encapsulated accounts of eighteenth century comments on them. For those interested in horticulture this is a book through which it is a joy to browse. The historian will find a refreshing new approach to America's beginnings, and for those who wish to restore an eighteenth century garden to its original aspects, this work is an essential tool. CORA WARREN "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23346","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd2608128.jpg","title":"1978-38-1","volume":38,"issue_number":1,"year":1978,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":253,"end_page":277,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24708","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270816f.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING 1977 THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, The dictionary definition of an arboretum as a place where trees and shrubs are cultivated for scientific or educational purposes is an inadequate description of the Arnold Arboretum today. While neither the largest nor the smallest of America's botanical gardens and arboreta, it is among the most active in the use of its collections for these purposes. The living collections have been designated a National Historic Landmark; and the herbarium, a National Scientific Resource. The use of the collections is not limited to the staff : the general public finds the Arnold Arboretum a pleasant place to visit, and it is a source of information for education, science and industry, with the staff handling requests and visitors from many states and foreign countries. The Arnold Arboretum functions in three areas: Jamaica Plain, Weston, and Cambridge, with staff members in each location. Most of the land in Jamaica Plain is owned by the City of Boston, and used by the Arboretum for a token rental fee on a long-term agreement. Since the Arboretum is considered a part of the Boston Department of Parks and Recreation, the City is supposed to maintain the roads, fences, and benches, and to offer police protection. The Arboretum staff and funds maintain the collections, with the agreement that they be open to the public at reasonable hours. The Arnold Arboretum is considered a charitable trust administered by Harvard University as a department. Neither the City of Boston nor Harvard contributes directly to the financing of its operation. Gifts and bequests from the public in the past have created an endowment, with the income and contributions from current Friends forming the operating budget. Accounting procedures and benefit programs are those of the University, and Arboretum funds are assessed for them. Staff members may have academic or nonacademic appointments, and the grounds staff is represented by a union. The complexity of these interrelationships is evident in many items of this report. A grant from the National Science Foundation for the past three years has supported curatorial work in the herbarium and library in Cambridge. None of the money could be used for horticulture or for the care of the living collections. In an application for a renewal of this grant, information was requested and supplied on the number of professional visitors who used the herbarium or the library. Their 253 254 location in a closed building permitted the tabulation of use by means of a guest book with visitors' signatures. The living collections in Jamaica Plain are partially surrounded by a fence. However, the gates are not operable and the general regulations of being open sunrise to sunset cannot be enforced. With 265 acres and many gates, no accurate count of the visitors is possible. The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston are not fenced at all, and a visitor record is impossible to acquire. We have police department estimates of fifty to sixty thousand people in Jamaica Plain for a fine Sunday in May when the lilacs are in bloom. Parking of cars around the periphery of the Arboretum is a problem on such days. Although no reliable figures are available for the total number of visitors in the course of the year, it seems likely that sixty per cent of them visit the grounds during May when most of the shrubs are in flower. With the aid of volunteers this spring, a questionnaire was compiled and visitors were interviewed to determine who they were, where they came from, and why they were here. A random sample of three hundred revealed fifty-one per cent female and forty-nine per cent male visitors, twenty-three per cent alone, thirty-three per cent with friends, thirty-nine per cent with family, and five per cent as part of an organized group. Daily visitors numbered ten per cent; twentyfive per cent came once or twice a week; twenty per cent, once a year. The largest age group was eighteen to thirty-four, representing fiftyfive per cent of the visitors interviewed. Towns inside Route 128 produced sixty-four per cent of the visitors, with twenty-two per cent from Jamaica Plain and eighteen per cent from Boston. Visitors from out of the state were twenty per cent of the total and included some from twenty-four states besides Massachusetts. Newspaper publicity and radio or TV announcements accounted for only six per cent of the visitors. When asked about the labels, ninety-two per cent of the vistors responded that they looked for and lead the labels on the plants. The information they found was useful to eighty-six per cent and only twenty-eight per cent wished for more information; yet forty per cent reported they came to the Arboretum, in part at least, to learn more about plants. Every visitor interviewed responded to a question concerning the problems at the Arboretum, which were listed in order: litter, vandalized labels and plants, dogs, bicycles, and skateboards. It is of interest to the staff that eighty per cent of the visitors indicated they would pay a nominal entrance fee to visit the grounds. Much of this information and additional items elicited by the questionnaire will be used in developing methods of operation and education programs. ment Dr. Richard A. Howard presents party. Photo: M. Reynolds. gifts to Alfred J. Fordham at the latter's retire- 255 Staff University departments and special committees were active the year considering the larger problems of employment at Harvard. Arboretum staff members received questionnaires relating to their job classification and compensation. Recommendations received subsequently from the Personnel Office were implemented, with changes of job title, level of classification, and increases in Several during salary rate. June 30 marked the retirement of Mr. Alfred Fordham, who joined the staff on February 1, 1929 as assistant in the propagating department, and served for many years as the plant propagator for the Arnold Arboretum. As an expert propagator of plants for our collections, Al Fordham handled equally well a role as a lecturer, writer, and talented representative of the Arboretum to the horticultural profession. During the last year he was given the appointment of research horticulturist, with freedom to continue his writing, while being available to help his successor as needed. The staff expressed appreciation to Al in a cooperative retirement party attended by many of his friends. 256 I Resignations were received from Dr. Kenneth Robertson of the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States project, Miss Jackie Smith and Mrs. Marsha Knoll of the herbarium staff, Miss Rebecca Rohr, Miss Nancy Karasik and Mr. Patrick Pancoast from the library, and Journal of the Arnold Arboretum technical editor, Miss Kathleen Clagett. New employees included Miss Carolyn Hesterberg in the herbarium office, Miss Sandra McLeod and Mr. Mark Belson in the library, Miss Laura Frank providing secretarial assistance, Mr. Kenneth Shaw as assistant supervisor of the living collections, and Mrs. Elizabeth Schmidt as assistant editor of the Journal. Dr. Peter Stevens received an academic appointment for three and a half years as assistant professor of biology in addition to his curatorial appointment. Dr. Stephen Spongberg and Dr. Richard Weaver were given appointments of unspecified duration as horticultural taxonomists at the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Ida Burch was reclassified as a staff assistant. Dr. Bernice Schubert and Mr. Michael Canoso were recognized by the University in a special ceremony honoring those who had served the University for twenty-five years. Mr. Fordham was honored by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society with a Certificate of Appreciation. Dr. Richard Howard received a citation from the American Horticultural Society for services to that organization; he also was elected an honorary life member in the Garden Club Federation of Maine. At the commencement exercises of Framingham State College, Dr. Howard received an honorary Doctor of Science degree with the citation: to people of all botanical explorer in the world's remote comers, entrusted ages, with the care of our botanical treasures, he has taught us survival in the wilderness and the beauty of civilized nature.\" \"Scholar, interpreter of the world of plants Four committees have been functioning during the year to consider the problems of operation of the Arboretum. The horticultural committee meets weekly and has been chaired jointly by Dr. Weaver and Mr. Koller. All staff members in Jamaica Plain, including the superintendent and union representative, are invited to attend the discussions. The library committee, chaired by Mrs. Lenore Dickinson, librarian jointly for the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium, has as members Drs. Schubert and Spongberg of the Arboretum staff, and Dr. Elizabeth Shaw of the Gray Herbarium. Dr. Alan Erickson attends as Science Specialist in the Harvard University Library. The herbarium committee is chaired by Dr. Norton Miller, a joint appointee of the Arnold and the Gray Herbarium, and includes Mr. Canoso, also a joint appointee, Drs. Weaver and Wood of the Arnold, Dr. Rolla Tryon of the Gray Herbarium staff, and Dr. Donald Pfister, representing the Farlow Herbarium. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum committee functions under the leadership of Dr. Schubert 257 with staff members Drs. Spongberg, Stevens and Wood; Mrs. Schmidt, the assistant editor, serving as secretary. An educational committee for Jamaica Plain comprises staff members Burch, Canoso, Koller and Mr. George Pride, volunteer Mrs. June Hutchinson, and Mrs. Margaret Savage representing the Neighborhood Coalition of Jamaica Plain. Miss Margo Reynolds serves as chairperson. Reports of the committee meetings are posted; and plans, programs, and recommendations are circulated in the staff-produced Arboretum Newsletter edited by Miss Reynolds. Through these media of communication, the staff is informed of the diverse activities of the three locations and the responsibilities of the staff members. Horticulture The care of the living collections and the appearance of the grounds are the responsibility of the Arboretum staff. However, by legal agreement almost a century old, the protection of the collections by fences and gates, the care of the roads, paths, and benches, and the surveillance by the police are the responsibility of the City of Boston. The care of the living collections is becoming increasingly difficult through the failure of the City to fulfill its obligations. In spite of meetings with City officials last year, there has been no improvement, and little cooperation beyond that of Station 13 of the Police Department. Fences in conspicuous locations, damaged by automobiles, remained unrepaired during the full year, although a section of stone wall was restored. The City asked for bids to repair the driving and pedestrian gates which are so deteriorated as to be unsightly, and the Arboretum staff cooperated in determining priorities. However, no contract was awarded and nothing was done. The macadem paths are so fractured in many areas that they are dangerous for pedestrians, and pieces are used regularly by vandals as missiles. Almost in desperation the director requested permission from the President and Fellows to spend Arboretum funds on a threeyear program to repair those gates, fences, paths and benches which are the City's responsibility. A proposal, legally acceptable to the and one which would protect the Arboretum, was subUniversity, mitted to the City in the spring, with no response by the end of the fiscal year. Another time-consuming episode of the past year involved the Adams-Nervine property. These eight acres, with seven buildings, jut into the Arboretum property and form part of the boundary between the Administration Building-Greenhouse area and Centre Street. The Adams-Nervine property was no longer needed by the Faulkner Hospital and was placed on the real estate market. Acquisition of the land by the Arboretum would have permitted expansion of our collections on contiguous land; the development of special collections; the possibility of a new entrance, of parking, of a reception center, of dormitory space for student employees, and even public toilets. Ac- 258 was obtained from the President and Fellows, and a bid was submitted and accepted by the Adams-Nervine trustees. The proposal had to be withdrawn on the day the agreement was to be signed when the Boston Landmarks Commission designated the property, including the buildings, an Historical Landmark. The Arboretum would have demolished many, if not all but one of the buildings on the site. The Landmark designation required the preservation of all of the buildings and would have prevented clearing any land for expansion of the Arboretum collections. Many hearings and appeals were involved. The Arboretum acquired the support of the local residents through the Jamaica Hills Association but was opposed by the Boston Redevelopment Authority, the Landmarks Commission, and many of the local political officers. Subsequently, the Mayor signed a \"temporary designation,\" and a bid was accepted by the Adams trustees from a developer who agreed to create taxable condominiums within the large buildings. We shall watch with interest the duration of the \"temporary designation\" and the alteration of zoning regulations on the property. We regret that neither the Mayor nor the Park Department felt able to support our desire for this property as an addition to the Arnold Arboretum. The extremes of weather that Boston can experience were well exemplified during the year. The four months, October through January, proved to be the coldest Boston has endured since 1918. The January temperature averaged officially 23.3 F with a high of 47 and a low of 3 at the airport, but was below 10 on fourteen evenings and reached 20 only one night during the month. On January 7 Boston attained an official reading of 13.8 inches of snow and the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain had over 15 inches, the most snow for one January day since 1897. March and April proved to be warmer than normal, and by April 21 the plants were two weeks ahead of schedule. April rains in excess of normal caused flooding on the grounds due to blocked drains. On May 9 the only measurable snow ever recorded in eastern Massachusetts for May caused great damage in Weston but none in Jamaica Plain. A total of 11 inches of wet, heavy snow was recorded at the Case Estates, with the plants in full leaf and in flower. The remainder of May and the month of June proved to be exceedingly dry and we were plagued with fires on the grounds. The grounds crew and the pruner were extremely busy following each storm, for plants were broken and twisted, requiring much repair work. Electric power was lost in both storms, although the use of emergency generators saved the greenhouse collections in both Jamaica Plain and Weston. The foul winter weather did permit indoor work, and the lecture room and the lunchroom in the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain were redecorated. New display panels were installed in the lecture room to permit larger exhibitions, and a new storage cabinet for folding tables and screen was built in a stairwell. During May cordingly, permission 259 heatingcooling system replaced. Following the storms, the living collections were reexamined carefully. As a result, a number of damaged or deteriorating plants, weed trees, and duplicated plants were identified. Many have been removed and others will be. One-of-a-kind plants and those representing living types were selected for propagation to place an additional example on the grounds or for distribution to other institutions. The nursery inventory had also increased during the past few years, and a careful was the roof of the cold storage unit resurfaced, and the needs revealed that about half of the accessions were the grounds or were unneeded. All surplus plants are already offered first to the University. Large numbers were accepted by the College, through the office of the Landscape Architect, and by the Business School; the remainder were then offered to other arboreta and botanical gardens and to local colleges or towns, including Cambridge and Weston. The final disposition of surplus plants was made to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Several generic collections in Jamaica Plain and Weston received special attention in association with taxonomic work of the staff. The entire Philadelphus collection was repropagated during the summer of 1976, when the plants are large enough, they will be used to replace the existing collection which lacks vigor and is not visually attractive. The birch collection was checked for identification, for representation in our herbarium, and for evidence of infestation by the bronze birch borer. This insect is among the most serious pests now in the Boston area, and there is a question whether plants in any area of the grounds can be protected against infestation. Every plant placed in the collections in either the spring or fall planting program must be recorded, not only in the inventory maintained locally, but in the records of the Plant Sciences Data Center. Maps are annotated regularly and redrawn at intervals. Several types of new labels are being developed, and some are being tried experimentally on the grounds. Color-coded, embossed labels, larger than those used previously, are being provided for staff use and visitor reaction. Plants introduced by the Arnold Arboretum bear an orange label. Deciduous plants are marked in yellow, and evergreens in red. Plants representing living type specimens have blue labels. An information kiosk is planned to explain the coding of the labels, refer to outstanding floral areas or plants, and display a map of the grounds as well as the rules and regulations. Larger labels, stressing uses, culture and propagation, and origin or availability, are being placed in the ground cover plots at the Case Estates, and some will be placed in Jamaica Plain to determine visitor reaction. A \"strip printer\" was purchased and labels are being prepared on \"Scotch-cal\" to obtain a negative that will permit ready and replicated reproduction on survey of our on \"Foto-foil.\" One of the new, informative P. Chvany. plant labels on trial in Jamaica Plain. Photo~ In response to requests for plant materials for growth or for experimental projects, 130 shipments were made representing 630 taxa, and 54 shipments of seeds of 160 taxa. Most requests came from the United States, but some also from fifteen other countries in North America, Europe, Asia, and the West Indies. Two hundred nine taxa were propagated to prepare replacements for specimens that appeared to be failing or were represented by insufficient numbers in the collections. At the request of the office of the Landscape Architect, a section of land on the Case Estates has been designated for the use of that department to grow selected plants for University use. Many desirable landscape plant materials are not available in quantity from our surplus plants or in large size from commercial sources. The land chosen will be used to set out smaller plants and give them sufficient time to develop larger stature, to be available when needed. Dr. Weaver completed a project of identification and mapping of all the plants on the grounds of the Harvard Business School. The greenhouse staff propagated mulberry seedlings to be held in our greenhouses for a silkworm research project of the Harvard Medical School. The greenhouses are also used to aid graduate student research, and materials in the programs of seven graduate students are being cared for. 261 In cooperation with the City of Boston, a portion of the South Street tract of Arboretum land is being studied for the establishment of neighborhood vegetable gardens on a temporary basis. The land involved cannot be developed for the Arboretum collections until the final plans are made for the relocation of the Orange line and the Forest Hills rapid transit system operations of the Massachusetts Bay Transit Authority. The line's relocation and the associated highway development will alter the drainage and the boundaries of the property. The temporary use for \"victory gardens\" can be implemented, provided the City will install pipes and supply water. The staff also is developing plans for a walk to be constructed on top of a storm conduit through the meadow near the Administration Building. Such a walk through a marsh-swamp area would offer convenient observation of the swamp plants and the wild life that abounds in the area. The actual installation of the walk will require permission of the City of Boston, and it is hoped this can be acquired in the fall to permit completion during the winter when the ground is frozen. In association with their professional work, three staff members attended a University of Massachusetts Extension Service meeting on labor-saving devices; three attended a Management Workshop Series offered by Harvard's Career and Organizational Development Training Center; and six attended a series of meetings on pesticides and plant nutrition sponsored by the Massachusetts Nurserymen's Association. The Arnold Arboretum serves as the International Registration Authority for specific groups of cultivars, and as the National Registration Authority for woody plants not otherwise represented by registration appointees. Dr. Spongberg is chairman of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta plant nomenclature and registration committee, and of the comparable committee for the American Horticultural Society. A two-day conference was sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum for those persons involved in such activities. Dr. Howard serves on the Plant Sciences Data Center committee of the American Horticultural Society. Records of plants registered are published in the Bulletin of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. A special gift from Mr. Paul Bernat has permitted the development of a plant propagation unit in the cold storage house in the greenhouse area. The experiment is designed to root cuttings under artificial lighting, and with controlled temperature and humidity so that the plants, once rooted, can be held at low temperatures until the weather permits direct transplanting to outside beds. If successful, this project will reduce the intensive labor requirements of hardening off rooted cuttings and several transplanting sequences. Mrs. Constance Derderian, honorary curator of the bonsai collection, offered several courses in bonsai at the Arboretum greenhouses, 262 and donated much time to the care of the special plants during the year. In addition, she edited a handbook on bonsai for the Brooklyn Botanic Garden series, Plants and Gardens, writing many of the articles herself. Mr. Peter Chvany was commissioned last year to produce a film for the Arnold Arboretum on the subject of plant propagation. The filming and editing were completed during the year, and the prints for showing should be available in the fall. Mr. Chvany's interest in E. H. Wilson as a photographer led to an issue of Arnoldia on the subject, and a special exhibition of Wilson's photographs. The year 1976 marked the hundredth anniversary of Wilson's birth. The work may be continued in the production of a book, and Mr. Chvany is transcribing many of Wilson's field notebooks and diaries and reexamining the photographs and negatives taken in Asia. Regrettably, both Wilson's daughter and son-in-law died during the year, before they could be interviewed in depth on their reminiscences. There is an attempt to establish a Wilson garden in Chipping Campden, England, Wilson's birthplace. The Arboretum is preparing copies of Wilson artifacts for the exhibition there. Case Estates An open house was held at the Case Estates on May 8. The grounds and flowering trees were magnificent following the early warm weather, and a large number of visitors enjoyed a perfect day. However, the following day the record-breaking snow storm hit the Case Estates. Forty trees were so badly damaged that they had to be removed from the organized collection. The pruning crew from Jamaica Plain spent the rest of the month in Weston, aiding the Weston staff in the cleanup and repair operation. Damage was most severe in the birch, ash, and maple collections. Trees that were not broken, such as many of the cherries and mountain ash plants, were badly strained and required tying and bracing. Damaged plants in the wooded and less conspicuous areas will be pruned or removed during the coming fall and winter. The staff is to be commended for carrying through the extra labor required to handle the effects of this storm. However, the full year's work program was set back. Plans to reorganize the nursery area had to be postponed, although one additional section of the ground cover plots was removed, the area was lined with boards, and the soil treated for replanting in the fall. The long-planned work on Wellesley Street was completed by the Town of Weston during the summer of 1976. The Corporation approved the gift to the town of one quarter of an acre total land to permit the straightening of Wellesley Street, improvement in street drainage, and the location of a sidewalk within the boundaries of the Case Estates. Both curves and rises were eliminated in the reconstruction, and the road level raised in other places. The single stone wall, which has been a feature of the boundary of the property along 263 was not moved, but the raising of the road level by reduced the optical impression of the size of these boulders; however, the magnificence of these stones can be seen from the Case Estates side. In all, the addition of a safe walkway for visitors is an asset to the property, and flooding has been eliminated from a section of the nursery by the installation of drains. A new brochure for a self-guiding tour of the Case Estates was prepared and is available to visitors. New labels have been placed on many of the trees and shrubs, and informative signs have been installed on many of the ground cover plots. Several volunteers have undertaken an inventory of the perennial garden area and the preparation of up-to-date maps for the collection. Volunteers also began a study of the flowering times of the plants in this garden. The small lecture room in the Red School House was used for lectures in the fall and winter class program, and was available for special meetings of several visiting groups as well as for meetings of the American Rock Garden Society, the Rhododendron Society, dnd the American Hemerocallis Society. The clonal plantings of the Cabot Foundation in one section of the Case Estates have been maintained for nearly thirty years for the study of growth rates and hardiness in Populus, Quercus, and Pinus. With the death of Mr. Scott Pauley several years ago, and of Dr. Albert Johnson during the year, the responsibility for the continuing observations has been given to Dr. Harrison Flint of Purdue University and Dr. Frank Santamour of the United States National Arboretum. Material is taken on a regular schedule for hardiness testing and other studies. One recent observation is of interest: Pinus strobus, the native white pine, is subject to attack by the white pine weevil, which causes shoot dieback and a slow growth. The Balkan pine, Pinus peuce, although slower growing, appears to be resistant to the weevil. A hybrid of these two species, produced by Dr. Johnson, has proved to be resistant to the weevil and to have a better growth rate than either of the parents. A new series of resin acids, present in Pinus peuce and in the hybrid, have been found through chemical studies. This may be significant in the production of weevil-resistant trees for New England forests as well as for ornamental plantings. Wellesley Street, a foot or more Herbarium There is little progress to report on the basic problem of cramped quarters and less-than-desirable storage conditions for herbarium specimens in the Harvard University Herbaria building in Cambridge. As reported earlier, the Corporation did approve an addition to the building, and preliminary drawings were made by consulting architects in collaboration with the Planning Office to permit cost estimates and the quest for funding. A descriptive appeal brochure was prepared and an advisory committee appointed. Dr. John Torrey is chairman of the committee, yet full, active support of the Uni- 264 No significant progress has been made in acquiring the funds for the building construction. The curatorial work in the herbarium and library in Cambridge has been supported in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation to the University for the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, Botanical Museum, Farlow Herbarium, and Gray Herbarium. The portion assigned to the Arnold and Gray permits the employment of extra mounters and inserters, the acquisition of some supplies, and retrospective binding and cataloguing in the libraries. At the end of the initial grant, permission was obtained from the National Science Foundation to purchase sixty-one herbarium cases, which were placed in the area formerly devoted to the fern collection before that was relocated. This required a considerable shift in the herbarium with the result that some of the families are now inconveniently out of sequence. Although it has been possible to remove all of the Compositae from cardboard box storage, since this family is particularly susceptible to insect infestation, 2,400 cardboard boxes are still used on tops of cases to store mounted material. The type specimens have now been placed alphabetically by genus at the end of each family. Work continues on dividing overfull folders and replacing worn genus covers throughout the herbarium. With the help supplied through the grant, it has been possible to reorganize and annotate specimens associated with recently published monographs when these specimens had not been studied by the author. The original curatorial grant expired and an application was prepared for a new grant, which was approved in part. The new grant contains an allotment for the purchase of compactors to be utilized in the addition to the building. However, if the building is not ready for occupancy, the significant grant item may be lost. The recent acquisition of a Polaroid MP-4 camera and equipment, through a grant from the Tozier Fund, has permitted the staff to photograph type specimens before material is sent on loan, as well as specimens on loan from other institutions. Frequently, photographic information can be supplied in response to requests, thus eliminating the need for shipment of specimens. A large negative file of herbarium specimens maintained in Jamaica Plain has been taken to Cambridge for inclusion in a general file of such material. Over two thousand other negatives have been catalogued and placed versity is lacking. in new glassine envelopes. The herbarium staff has maintained a listing of new genera represented in the herbarium that have been described or brought into current use since the publication of Della Torre and Harms Genera Siphonogamarum. Such genera lacking the Della Torre and Harms serial numbering had been placed generally at the beginning of each family. As part of the curatorial work, each genus has been checked in the literature to determine its proper position within the phylogenetic sequence of genera maintained in the herbarium. New family boards have been prepared for many genera, the recent additions 265 placed in proper sequence, and the data included in a new in-house supplement to Della Torre and Harms for use in the herbaria. A curatorial inventory was made of the fruit, seed, and cone collections maintained separately from the herbarium but cross-referenced in it. There are at present 13,846 such items in Cambridge, and 3,682 units associated with the herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain. Specimens totaling 9,573 were received as accessions during the year, representing exchange, gift, subsidy, identification, and staff collections. Through mounting and direct insertion, 13,203 specimens were added to the herbarium, bringing the total in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium to 1,068,027 specimens, of which 163,268 are of cultivated plants housed in Jamaica Plain. Specimens distributed to other institutions in an exchange program were 2,790. The herbarium is used on a daily basis by the staff of systematic botanists comprising the Arnold Arboretum professional staff. Myriad questions are answered directly or the answers sought from the plant material preserved as herbarium specimens. The specimens are fundamental to monographic or floristic studies, as recent publications show. Specimens are borrowed from other herbaria to supplement our own holdings in special studies, and are loaned to other institutions or scientists for study and annotation, and are cited in their publications. Fragments of material may be used or supplied for special studies. One of the most interesting is the recent study of mineral accumulations in leaf tissue by Dr. Robert Brooks of New Zealand. The abundant collections of the Arnold Arboretum from tropical Asia have aided in his study of hyperaccumulation of nickel by plants growing on such deposits in Celebes and the Moluccas. Some plant collections revealing large amounts of nickel have even suggested areas worthy of mineralogical study and possible commer- cial of No record is development. kept of the daily use of the herbarium or the number specimens consulted or annotated. The activity of the staff and students, however, is indicated in the incoming and outgoing loans. the past year, 170 loans were made to 56 different institutions in the United States totaling 13,993 specimens. Loans totaling 8,676 specimens were sent to 37 institutions in 16 countries. At the present time, 94,589 specimens from the Arnold\/Gray herbaria are on loan. During the year 200 loans were returned totaling 21,989 specimens. It is this type of activity that merits the support of the curatorial grant from the National Science Foundation. However, the cold, numerical statistics do not express fully the work involved in handling the correspondence; locating, extracting, repairing, fumigating, photographing types, counting, packaging and shipping the specimens; and repeating most of the processes when the material is returned. The manager and the curatorial staff are the devoted and uncredited aides to the scientific work that results from the use of herbarium specimens. Now one more regulation has been added to their obliga- During 266 tions: The adoption by the United States government of the goals of an international program for the conservation of natural resources includes the recognition of threatened and endangered species and the regulation of trade or movement of these species. The list of species so controlled includes many specific plants, those difficult to distinguish from the endangered species, and even such general groups as cycads, cacti and orchids. The regulations apply not only to whole organisms, living or preserved, but to parts as well, and to herbarium specimens. There is a provision for scientific institutions to loan or exchange such material, and application was made on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum for permission to send herbarium specimens from our collections on loan. This, in practice, requires the annotation of all packages with the code designating this permit. Although the Arnold Arboretum now has this permit, it is not yet clear how this affects the field work of botanists who may collect for scientific study such general groups as cacti or orchids. As an example of the lack of clarity of present regulations, Dr. Howard, on a field trip to the West Indies, found a cactus not previously reported on the island of St. Maarten, and a second on the island of Saba. In theory, permission to collect these new records should have been obtained before the field work was started. Library All staff positions in the library were reviewed by the Personnel Office during the year, and library assistants were raised to grades 3 and 4. Under the supervision of Mrs. Dickinson, librarian, Mrs. Sheila Geary is in charge of the library in Jamaica Plain; and in Cambridge, Mr. Belson, interlibrary loan assistant, Miss Susan Farwell, bindery assistant, and Miss Sandra McLeod, public services assistant, hold appointments made jointly with the Gray Herbarium. A library committee of staff members of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum offer advice and guidance. Under discussion at the present time is possible participation in a computer-assisted cataloguing system and conversion of the library to the Library of Congress system of classification. The former would eliminate the present hand-processing system, while the latter will produce cataloguing that conforms to national standards, and will provide such byproducts as union and subject lists. With the aid made possible by the NSF curatorial grant, retrospective cataloguing and revision continued, and old volumes were rebound or restored. Pamphlets of the eighteenth century were removed from old bindings and rebound in cloth with arid-free end papers. All bookplates now used in the library are also printed on acid-free paper. Work continued in Jamaica Plain, with the help of volunteers, in cleaning and treating the volumes of the library. We are grateful for this contributed help in maintaining the resources of the library. Grounds crew member Vincent Antonovich and Photo: M. Reynolds. a morning's collection of litter. 267 During the year 725 volumes were added to the library, received by purchase, in exchange for our publications, for review, or by direct gift. The library now contains 85,829 volumes and pamphlets. Of particular interest was a sizable number of books, pamphlets, and artifacts associated with the work of Charles Sargent, given to the library either outright or on permanent deposit by the SargentMurray-Gilman-Hough House of Gloucester, Massachusetts. The Worcester County Horticultural Society presented several original letters of Charles Sargent, while other individuals allowed such letters to be copied. Use of the library in Cambridge can be judged by the number of volumes borrowed from the shelves by staff, students and visitors. This number increased by eight per cent during the year. Three numbers of the Combined Accessions List, Selected Titles, prepared during the year for staff information. A new intralibrary loan form was developed to improve record keeping of material requested and supplied between the libraries in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain. Among the staff contributions to the development of systems and procedures for managing the collections are: a program to expedite binding of paperbacks, pamphlets and rare books; a system to control the use of unbound or recently received periodicals; reorganization of the Kardex periodical check-in system; and improved interlibrary loan record keeping. For the latter item, 626 total requests were received for interlibrary loan of materials, of which 383 were on standard ILL forms. Although some requests had were 268 to be refused due to the condition of the items, many could be handled were by photocopying, The librarian the Council of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries committee on Union List of Serials. At the annual meeting at the Morton Arboretum, Mrs. Dickinson was a member of a panel discussion on preservation. She also attended the annual meeting of the Guild of Book Workers, the meeting of the American Library Association, and that of the American Society of Indexers. She continues to serve on the Harvard University Library's Committee on Bibliographic Control and Computer Applications. Miss Farwell was awarded the M.S. degree, completing the requirements at the Simmons College School of Library Science. She and Mrs. Geary attended a workshop sponsored by the New England Technical Services librarians. Miss McLeod and Mrs. Geary attended a workshop on the Conversion of Serial Records, a national project in which Harvard University libraries participate. The library of the Arnold Arboretum is rich in historical and archival materials which still require a great deal of work in cataloguing and maintenance. A special room is proposed in the herbarium addition for such materials to be assembled. When space is available, grants may be sought to expedite this work. Among the archival material, reference is made to historical letters in response to many requests for information during the year. For example, the Big Horn Commission issued during the year a volume entitled Rediscovering the Big Horns, based on rephotographing the scenes taken during the expeditions of John George Jack, dendrologist on the Arboretum staff in 1900. The photographs show the changes between 1900 and 1975, and the archival material in the Arboretum library revealed many of Professor Jack's notes on the vegetation seen in the photographs. In another project Peter Chvany has undertaken a transcription of the field notes and diaries of E. H. Wilson, and a reexamination of the photographs and negatives taken by Wilson in Asia. It is hoped that a biography may be assembled. only a few volumes actually completed work as a member of and loaned. Volunteers The Arnold Arboretum staff is very fortunate to have a group of willing helpers called \"Volunteers,\" who donate their time, effort, and talents to many phases of our operations. They are a diverse group, male and female, young and old, retired or still working for a living, talkative or quiet, single or now alone, and a husband and wife team. Some live nearby, while one is unique in being the wife of a college professor living in Switzerland. When her husband spends several months here each year, our volunteer reports for duty at the Arboretum. Many do report on a regular schedule, and others are available on call. We keep no records of the hours they devote to the Arnold Arboretum, and their real reward seems to be in the satisfaction of being part of this staff. They receive no compensation 269 other than an occasional surplus plant, but all have our sincere thanks and deep appreciation. They are a real help to the staff and are one of the Arnold Arboretum's assets. When the volunteers were loosely organized five years ago, an informal lecture series was prepared to introduce them to the nature of the organization and its facilities and resources. They learned more on the job. During the past year another introductory lecture series was held for a new group. Their own interests soon became evident and they found their own place to contribute, although most are willing to do what is asked. Many groups of visitors come to the Arnold Arboretum and request a guided tour. Volunteers who like to teach and to answer questions have been the guides for groups of school children and visiting garden clubs. They have been so effective that one has been requested by name as a guide on a subsequent visit. Several have assisted in staff-taught courses or have offered those of their own. Volunteers have helped staff the building on weekends during the spring; are present when the greenhouse area is open; or are on the grounds during open house occasions or visits by conventions. Their help was invaluable in gathering data for the visitor questionnaire previously mentioned. One volunteer assembles the most interesting plants on the grounds into seasonal arrangements, properly labeled, in the entrance to the Administration Building. Information tables at flower shows have been staffed by volunteers who answer questions about the exhibit or the Arnold Arboretum. In fact, these are usually the people who helped prepare and stage the exhibit. One of the outstanding exhibits on permanent display in the Administration Building, a collection of flowers, fruits, and cones embedded in clear plastic, is the work of a volunteer. This exhibit attracts so many questions that she prepared an article on the technique for Arnoldia. This volunteer also is implementing a suggestion that the Arboretum have traveling exhibits for school libraries or bank windows. The greenhouse is an area popular with volunteers, and their efforts are diverse. They collect seeds and propagating material on the grounds to help fill requests or for research needs. They clean the seeds, keep records, and do germination experiments. They weed, take inventories, package plants for mailing, including the massive distribution of small plants to the Friends. They spray rabbit repellent, tie up plants for the winter, record flowering and fruiting times, inspect for disease, and check labels. They pot plants, transplant seedlings, and prepare grafts and rooted cuttings. The greenhouses are open to the public one afternoon a week, and volunteers offer this tour. Volunteers have helped with the mapping of the grounds, even with the aid of snowshoes and skis in midwinter. One has a special 270 interest in the conifer collection, which extended to putting a large herbarium collection of cones into proper order, and is now preparing an article on the conifers. He also compiles the annual Arnoldia index. The herbarium has a few devotees among the volunteers. Sorting and inserting herbarium specimens does not appeal to all, but when it does we have an excellent assistant. Others go on the grounds to collect herbarium specimens for addition to our collection or for distribution to other institutions. They prefer to be out of doors, and specimens are collected from plants in flower, in fruit, and in winter condition on a regular basis. In the library two volunteers have devoted many hours to restoration activities. They received special instruction from the University Library's consultant on conservation, and have systematically dusted, cleaned, and oiled leather-bound volumes. Volunteers have helped prepare shelf lists, alphabetized and located folio volumes, devoted their linguistic talents to translations of titles or articles, relabeled and helped shelve volumes, and are now preparing many of the reviews published in Arnoldia. The collection of kodachrome slides has been reorganized by the volunteers who keep up with the additions ; one volunteer attended a seminar on the care and preservation of slide collections, sponsored by the Rocky Knoll Nature Center, to compare our procedures with those of others. The scrapbooks of clippings relating to the Arboretum are in excellent shape and up to date through volunteer help. Last but not least, some volunteers type, and complete clerical work and stuff envelopes. All of these many services are valued and contribute to the efficiency and effectiveness of the staff and the Arnold Arboretum. Education The role of the Arnold Arboretum as an educational organization is expressed in many ways, ranging from an active teaching role within the University to the passive role played by the labeled collections or the several publications. Formal courses were offered in the Department of Biology by Dr. Howard (Biology 209, The Phylogeny of the Flowering Plants) and Dr. Wood (Biology 103, The Taxonomy of Vascular Plants); while Drs. Miller and Wood each had a series of lectures in Biology 18 (Diversity in the Plant Kingdom). Drs. Howard, Miller, Stevens, and Wood were guest lecturers in other courses in the Department of Biology, in the School of Design, in Seminar series, and in the graduate student-organized \"Society for Expeditionary Biology.\" Drs. Robertson and Wood both lectured in the special seminar series sponsored by the Harvard Summer School, and Dr. Howard taught a portion of the Summer School course, Plants of The Tropics (Biology S-105), offered in Miami, Florida. Each staff member with an academic appointment offers a numbered research course in the 300 series, which represents individual instruc- Richard Stomberg, Photo: M. Reynolds. thtrd-year horticultural trainee, at work in sarart house. graduate level. Staff members also served as undergradadvisors for the Department of Biology in the College. Weekly seminars are held in Cambridge, and were arranged during the year by Dr. Stevens. Informal horticultural seminars for the staff have been initiated in Jamaica Plain. A formal course entitled \"Botanical and Horticultural Practices at Arboreta\" was offered for the first time in 1977 as part of the Harvard University Extension program. Drs. Spongberg and Weaver organized the course, which included lectures, field trips, laboratory sessions, and individual projects under the guidance of a staff member, in addition to assigned work on the grounds. The course allowed the students selected for summer employment to earn four hours of academic credit. One day a week was devoted largely to lectures, laboratory sessions, and field trips. The students were graded not only on their work on the grounds but also on the oral presentation and written reports of their projects. Lectures were given by staff members Alexander, Geary, Howard, Koller, Lynch, Pride, Spongberg, Wadleigh, and Weaver, and by an occasional outside speaker. The summer employees represented thirteen colleges, and the group included two work-study students. uate tion at the 272 Some New England colleges conduct a \"Jan-plan\" program, wherein students are required to participate in a professional organization during the month of January vacation. Other colleges use a \"student intern\" program in which a semester or one day a week are devoted to learning about a profession. The Arboretum staff agreed to accept students in these programs from Connecticut College, Colby College, Pine Manor Junior College, the University of Massachusetts, and the Buckingham-Browne and Nichols School. Depending on the length of time available, the students were assigned to one or more areas of Arboretum activities. At the request of the Cambridge Economic Opportunity Committee, two individuals reported for work-training at the Arboretum for a short period of time. Neither proved to be interested in horticultural work. Many horticulture classes from other colleges come to the Arnold Arboretum on prearranged visits. A staff member offers a tour of the facilities and the grounds. Many of these groups are interested in career opportunities, while others are concerned with operations or with the plant material. During the year requests for one to three such visits were received from the Universities of Vermont, Connecticut, Massachusetts, New Hampshire, and Maine, Springfield Technical College, Veterans Administration Hospital Horticultural Therapy program, Thompson School, Smith College, Essex County Agricultural and Technical Institute, Minuteman Regional Vocational Technical School, Ontario-Niagara Agricultural and Technical College, five high schools in Massachusetts, and the students of Longwood Gardens. When Boston is the location of a national meeting, many organizations now include a tour of the Arnold Arboretum in their programs. The volunteers may serve as guides for some tours, but the staff will meet other groups such as the American Nurseryman's Association, the Landscape Design Critics Council of the Garden Club of America, the Parks and Recreation Congress, and the Bristol and Norfolk County Tree Wardens, where the interest is professional rather than tourist. The Harvard Club schedules an annual visit to the Arboretum, and Innings and Outings, a newly formed group of Harvard employees, offered trips to Jamaica Plain and to Weston. The Arboretum is listed among the places to visit during Commencement week, and special tours are arranged for the alumni who attend. The Arnold Arboretum occupies a conspicuous place in Jamaica Plain and in Weston. The staff attempts to cooperate with local groups in supplying speakers, advice, tours, or surplus plants. Open house occasions are scheduled each spring, with the staff on the grounds to answer questions. We have had direct contact with citizen groups in Jamaica Plain, West Roxbury, Roxbury, Roslindale, Cambridge, and Weston. Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu has been active in bringing groups from the Chinese community to the Arboretum. Mr. Robert G. Williams served as a judge at the Massachusetts science fairs, and Mr. Pride at the 4-H horticultural competition in Franklin Park. Each 273 year the Arboretum donates a dozen or more plants of special interest and value for the fund-raising auction of WGBH Channel 2 TV, the educational channel in Boston. Dr. Howard has served as an auctioneer for several years, and staff member Mr. James Burrows and volunteer Mrs. Elinore Trowbridge manned the telephones on a horticultural hotline. The Arboretum staff answer telephone calls on a twenty-four-hour basis relating to possibly poisonous plants. Calls are referred to the Arboretum office in the daytime by the Boston Poison Information Center, and to individual staff members at their homes in the evenings. Mr. Pride gave a recorded telephone interview for a local radio station, regarding poisonous plants, which was used in segments over a period of several weeks. The Arboretum film, Poisonous Plants, is used frequently in staff lectures and is available from several film libraries or from the commercial distributor. The film was reviewed very favorably in the American Association for the Advancement of Science film review issue, and has had special publicity in a booklet issued by the distributor of the film. Miss Reynolds appeared on the TV show, \"Woman 76,\" talking about poisonous plants, and later on the show, \"Place,\" spoke about the Arboretum. A cooperative educational program continues with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. A series of tours called ArboRambles is conducted jointly at the Arboretum. The Arboretum staff have also participated in a lecture series held at Horticultural Hall, and staged an exhibition there of the photography of E. H. Wilson. Joint horticultural workshops involved greenhouse gardening, and techniques of bonsai. The Arboretum staff helped stage a midwinter Orchid and Camellia Show, while the Arboretum exhibit at the Spring Flower Show displayed a map of the world with cultivated ornamental plants in their area of origin. Volunteers at the Arboretum not only helped assemble and label the exhibit, but were present during show hours to answer questions. The exhibit was awarded a first prize, an educational merit certificate, a gold medal, and the coveted Bulkeley Award for educational excellence. Another exhibit, at the Christmas Show held in Horticultural Hall, was also prepared jointly by staff and volunteers and manned during show hours. That also received a first prize. Four exhibitions were held in the lecture room of the AdministraBuilding of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. \"Wilson as a Photographer\" was prepared by Mr. Chvany. \"Bark is Beautiful\" featured the color photography of Mr. Albert Bussewitz. \"Flowers Art or Science?\" displayed the paintings of Mrs. Eudoxia Woodward; and the final staff exhibit was on \"Poisonous Plants.\" Each exhibit was preceded by a special open house, a reception, and a lecture. During the spring and the fall, the Arboretum staff offer a series of courses open to the Friends and the general public. Thirty-nine courses, ranging from one two-hour session to five weekly meetings tion - 274 of varying duration, totaled three hundred hours of instruction. The smallest class was limited to five students; and the lecture series in Weston, to forty-five. Field walks were limited and had an enrollment of sixty people. The average class had twenty-five participants. Radio and press coverage of the course openings has been good. An attractive brochure with a new format on colored paper is eligible for the educational institution mailing rate, and so has been distributed at a much more reasonable rate than was previously possible. Two special seminars were organized by the staff during the year. Mr. Koller arranged a program entitled \"Interpretation What Do We Have to Offer,\" with speakers, Koller for the Arnold Arboretum, Mr. Charles E. Roth of the Massachusetts Audubon Society, Dr. Darrell Apps of Longwood Gardens, and Mr. Bruce McHenry of the National Park Service. Those attending represented thirty organizations from five states. Dr. Spongberg organized a two-day discussion for a group of invited participants on the subject of registration and nomenclature of cultivars. The meetings were held in Jamaica Plain and in Cambridge on successive days. - Travel and Exploration The Arnold Arboretum is an institutional member of several national and international societies; staff members may be individual members of professional societies, serve on committees, or present papers that require their presence at annual or regional meetings. It is well for the Arnold Arboretum to be represented, and profitable for the individual to participate. Accordingly, partial financial support for attendance is shared among the members of the staff. Vacations for staff members are also apt to be \"busman's holidays,\" for invariably the meeting provides the opportunity to collect specimens for research programs or for addition to our herbarium; to visit herbaria or libraries ; or to take photographs that can be used in teaching or lecture programs, or be added to our slide collection. Visits to herbaria or other botanical gardens yield information of value to our organization, and permit the exchange or acquisition of material, and further staff research. Mr. John Alexander is on the Board of Directors of the International Lilac Society, and attended the annual meeting as well as a preparatory meeting in Amherst, Massachusetts. He was a participant at the annual meeting of the International Plant Propagators Society, and attended the regional meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta at the Old Westbury Gardens on Long Island, New York. Mr. Burrows visited the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Mr. Fordham spoke on propagation of the Hamamelidaceae at the International Plant Propagators meeting in New Jersey, and participated in the Connecticut Nurseryman's Education Program in Connecticut. 275 Dr. Howard conducted field work related to his research on the Lesser Antilles in visits to Barbados, St. Vincent, and Grenada, and collected specimens. As a member of the Scientific Advisory Board of the Arbor Fund, he attended a meeting at the Bloedel Reserve in Washington, en route visiting the Denver Botanic Garden, the University of Washington Arboretum, the Pack Forest, and the University of British Columbia Botanical Garden. Dr. Howard represented the Arnold Arboretum at the dedication of the bonsai pavilion and collection at the United States National Arboretum, and spent time during this trip at the National Herbarium in Washington, D.C. He was the principal speaker at the dedication of the Mini-Arboretum of the City of Portland, Maine, established by the Longfellow Garden Club. Dr. Hu has published two papers on the medicinally useful plant, ginseng. There is a recurrence of medical interest in this plant for its reputed value in the revitalization of elderly people and those under physical stress. She was invited to attend and speak at an International Gerontological Symposium held in Singapore, and en route visited gardens in Istanbul, Tehran, Bangkok, Sri Lanka, and India. At several herbaria she was able to renew her work on collections of Ilex. Later in the spring she spoke about ginseng at the National Institutes of Health in Bethesda, Maryland, and also presented a seminar at the University of Maryland. Mr. Koller represented the Arboretum and spoke at the annual meeting of the AABGA held at the Missouri Botanical Garden, and at regional meetings at Old Westbury Garden and at the Frelinghuysen Arboretum. While on vacation he examined the collections of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew and at Edinburgh, and visited Hillier's in Winchester, England. Miss Donna Lynch visited the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, the Morris Arboretum, the Longwood Gardens, the U. S. National Arboretum, and the facilities of the American Horticultural Society and the Plant Sciences Data Center in Mount Vernon, Virginia. Dr. Miller worked on moss collections at the Natural History Museum in Ottawa, Ontario. Miss Reynolds represented the Arboretum at the AABGA symposium, \"Facing the Future,\" held at the Callaway Gardens, Pine Nursery Mountain, Georgia. Dr. Robertson paid visits to the U. S. National Arboretum, the BiltEstates, and the Memphis Botanic Garden. Dr. Spongberg reported on plant registration activities at the AABGA annual meeting in St. Louis. He also visited the U. S. National Arboretum when he was in Washington, D.C., as a speaker at the annual meeting of the American Magnolia Society. Dr. Stevens spoke to the staff of the New York Botanical Garden of his work on the evolution of tropical Ericaceae, and to the Massachusetts Rhododendron Society on Malesian Rhododendrons. Drs. Weaver and Spongberg are planning a collecting trip to Japan more 276 and Korea in the fall of 1977, and consulted with Dr. John Creech, of the National Arboretum, regarding his recent experiences in the area. Gifts and Grants The Arboretum and its staff have been fortunate in the support offered in the form of gifts, grants, and materials from many individuals and sources. The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum respond to annual requests that they renew their membership contributions, and the staff is grateful for this continuing support. Such funds are without restrictions. Although most are used in the work associated with the living collections, some have been used in the production of an educational film on plant propagation; and during the present year, in the support of field work in Japan and Korea for additions to our living collections. A special gift was received from Mr. Paul Bemat for experimental work in plant propagation. A grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust enables artistic work associated with Dr. Spongberg's work on a manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. A grant from The Charles E. Merrill Trust was specified for the publication of Dr. Howard's Flora of the Lesser Antilles, Dr. Perry's treatment of the medicinal plants of Asia, and work on the manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Memorial gifts were received in memory of Mr. Thomas Matthews and Mrs. Allen Brailey. Mrs. Katharine Abbott Batchelder died on January 11, 1977. Mrs. Batchelder was, for many years, a member of the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum. She supported, anonymously at her request, work on the taxonomy of cultivated trees and shrubs, and continued this support by a bequest. The obituary notice requested gifts to the Arnold Arboretum in her name, and thirty-four gifts were received. Artifacts associated with the history of the Arnold Arboretum are always welcome. Special gifts of publications of Charles Sargent were received from the Sargent-Murray-Gilman-Hough House; papers of James Arnold, from Mrs. Charles Jackson, Jr.; letters of E. H. Wilson, from the Worcester County Horticultural Society. Gifts of books for the library were donated by Messrs. Fred Bonnie, Richard J. Eaton, Augustus Kelley, George Taloumis, Mrs. Derderian, and the Botanical Museum, Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation, the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society, and the Wing Lung Bank. Several other donors wished to be anonymous. We are grateful for gifts of plant materials from firms including Hillier and Sons Nurseries, Monrovia Nursery Company, Princeton Nurseries, and the Weston Nurseries. The grant from the National Science Foundation, shared with other botanical collections at Harvard, is truly significant in the curatorial work in the library and herbarium. A grant for an additional three years was received during the year. 277 Publications The two regular publications of the Arnold Arboretum are the Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum, issued quarterly, and Arnoldia, issued six times a year. The four issues of the Journal published during the fiscal year comprised 523 pages and twenty-three articles by twenty-six authors. The assistant editor, Mrs. Schmidt, is supervised by Dr. Schubert and assisted by an editorial committee whose members, as well as other staff members, review manuscripts. A new cover, illustrating the cone-like follicetum of Magnolia tripetala, drawn by Mrs. Karen Velmure, was adopted for the Journal. A set of guidelines for authors was prepared, and this is sent to prospective authors who inquire as to the possibility of publication. A subscription increase to $25.00 a volume was announced for 1978. Dr. Schubert attended a meeting sponsored by the National Science Foundation, concerned with editorial processing centers and the improvement of dissemination of scientific and technical information. Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh edited the six issues of Arnoldia comprising 320 pages and thirteen articles by fourteen authors. Miss Reynolds was appointed assistant editor of Arnoldia; members of the staff supply the majority of articles and assist in proofreading. Issues of Arnoldia now regularly contain book reviews written by members of the staff and the Arboretum volunteers. Books received for review are added to the library, and the reviews are published if the volume is considered of interest to the readers of Arnoldia. Letters have been received regarding the reviews, many complimentary and some critical of the \"honest reviews\" and the opinions expressed. Two numbers of Arnoldia were regarded as special issues. In a photographic essay, Mr. Chvany considered E. H. Wilson as a photographer. For another issue, Mr. Fordham and Miss Leslie Spraker prepared a \"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms,\" based on experience in handling these plants at the Arnold Arboretum. The second volume of the Flora ofthe Lesser Antilles was issued by the Arnold Arboretum. The Flora is part of Dr. Howard's research, and the volume on the Pteridophytes was prepared by Mr. George R. Proctor. A grant from The Charles E. Merrill Trust assisted in the publication. Two publications of the Arnold Arboretum, long out of print, are again available through commercial sources. Contribution from the Arnold Arboretum #9, \"Species of Tradescantia Indigenous to the United States,\" by Edgar Anderson and Robert Woodson, is available as a microfilm or a xerographic reprint through University Microfilms of Ann Arbor, Michigan. A Monograph of Azalea, Rhododendron Subgenus Anthodendron, by E. H. Wilson and Alfred Rehder, has been reprinted in facsimile by the Theophrastus Publishers, Little Compton, Rhode Island. Otto Koeltz Antiquariat, The Netherlands, received permission to reprint Alfred Rehder's Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, a volume also out of print. RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weather Station Data","article_sequence":2,"start_page":278,"end_page":279,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24709","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd2708528.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Burrows, James A.","article_content":"278 WEATHER STATION DATA FOR 1976 t Temperature measured in degrees Fahrenheit Precipitation measured in inches 0 $~ Hurricane Belle August 10 Average Temperature Precipitation Snowfall during winter of 1975-76 - * 49.89F 42.89\" 31.56\" Continuous snowcover December 21, 1975 - February 10, 1976 Warmest Temperature 100F on August 23 Coldest Temperature -8F on January 23 Date of Last Frost in Spring April 13 Data of First Frost in Autumn October 20 190 days *Growing Season * Growing Season - The growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32F or lower. FOR THE WEATHER STATION DATA FIRST SIX MONTHS OF 1977 * t Temperature measured in degrees Precipitation measured in inches Fahrenheit 279 Average Temperature Precipitation Snowfall During Winter 44.9F 25.34\" of 1976-77 60.9\" Continuous snowcover December 17, 1976 - March 6, 1977 96 on May 25 Warmest Temperature -1F on January 18, 19 and 30 Coldest Temperature 0 Date of Last Frost in Spring May 10 JAMES A. BURROWS "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Alfred J. Fordham- Portrait of a Plant Propagator","article_sequence":3,"start_page":283,"end_page":284,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24706","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270bb26.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Alfred J. Fordham - Portrait of Plant Propagator by MARGO W. REYNOLDS a one It is, after all, a story of hands. Broad and calloused, they tell of man's life work, a life well-spent. In their simple roughness they speak with uncommon eloquence of the untold numbers of beginnings that have passed between them. How humbling it is to know that life has been perpetuated indeed, improved upon a mere touch, a laying-on of hands. by Given voice, the stories they might tell! The aristocratic and the common, the difficult and the untested, the foreign and the exotic: few are the plants that have not passed through Al Fordham's hands and have not been nurtured by him in turn. A portrait of Al Fordham is not merely the portrait of a plant propagator; it is a portrait of the plant propagator, for Al Fordham is unique. His expertise in woody plant propagation is acknowledged throughout the country and his advice is sought, and much valued, by colleagues, both here and abroad. It would be easy to enumerate Al's professional accomplishments; to recite dates and length of service and papers published. To list his achievements, awards and research interests (which are numerous) would be so simple. They add to the portrait, to be sure, but they do not really illuminate the man. Those who wish the facts of Al Fordham's career can find them elsewhere. This is a portrait of the man. Ask Al's friends and associates to characterize him in a word or two and they respond immediately, without hesitation. The adjectives differ somewhat but together they form a whole that all would recognize. \"Inquisitive\" and \"curious\" are oft repeated, and with good reason. There is nothing that does not arouse Al Fordham's curiosity. For many of us, our childhood sense of wonder remains just that a fleeting phase of youth when everything is looked upon as new, exciting and oh-so-very-interesting. Al Fordham has never lost that childhood gift. It is what keeps him young and intellectually alive. Because propagation was never merely a \"job\" to Al, but rather an ongoing intellectual pursuit, his work (and by association, his life) has never become stale and routine. His curiosity has led him to develop numerous research interests. The resultant accomplishments have won him a well-deserved position of eminence in - horticultural circles. 283 284 Al Fordham's greatest gift to the future will not be found in his writings or in the many plants he has brought to fruition. It will be preserved, instead, in the many young people with whom he has come in contact throughout his career. Some may not realize the full extent of his legacy until their careers are well along. Inevitably, enormous debt to the man who not retained his own unique \"sense of wonder\" but kindled it in others whose lives touched his. Al delighted in the students who sought his advice and nothing pleased him more than seeing one catch a bit of his fire and go forth with enthusiasm and curiosity to make independent observations. Al Fordham is ingenious, too. Where a machine for a particular operation didn't exist, he invented it. It was a constant source of amazement to all at the greenhouse to see what Al could do with some scraps of wire, a cast-off nut and bolt and a few assorted parts of other machines. None of his inventions was patented, but that doesn't necessarily mean that Rube Goldberg's reputation is safe! Efficiency means a great deal to Al Fordham and he admired it and inculcated it in his staff. Two of them tell of being sent out on the grounds to collect seeds, and of being instructed to wear their plastic collecting buckets around their necks. This apparently was to serve two purposes: free both hands for picking, and eliminate the need of an extra motion to toss the seeds into a bucket on the however, all will recognize their only ground. A later Fordham scheme resulted in an even more efficient operation that eliminated the waste of one hand to hold down a branch while the other picked the seeds. A hook was attched to a rope at one end and thrown up to the branch that was to be bent. When it was sufficiently low, the other end of the rope was made into a loop that was slipped around the picker's foot. Both hands now were free for picking, and Arboretum visitors were able to view a most little operation. Al Fordham's sense of humor is legend. Everyone who reminisced about him could call forth at least one occasion when one of Al's practical jokes made life at the Dana greenhouses a little more interesting. Once when Arboretum volunteers were packing small plants into mailing tubes for distribution to the Friends, Al played one of his most famous tricks. Spying one of the tubes, he surreptitiously removed it from the assembly line and substituted his bologna sandwich for the Maackia amurensis that should have been inserted. Fortunately, the prank was discovered and the mails (then faster than they are now) were not put to the test. Al Fordham has given much to the Arnold Arboretum and long will be remembered by all who knew him. Someone once told me that \"if it's alive and growing, then Al's interested.\" How fortunate for all of us. entertaining "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Preserving Woody Plant Material for Winter Arrangements","article_sequence":4,"start_page":285,"end_page":288,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24707","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270bb6b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Warren, Cora L.","article_content":"Preserving Woody Plant Material for Winter Arrangements by CORA L. WARREN Many excellent books, pamphlets and articles have been written on the subject of preserving flora for winter arrangements, but it is far from an exact science. Only a few of the many hardy woody plants that respond to treatment are mentioned, although there are wide possibilities of achieving interesting and unique affects with such materials. Branches treated in glycerine, in particular, can add a whole new dimension to the usual dried winter bouquets of grasses, statice and star flowers, or silica-gel dried flower heads, producing beautiful arrangements appropriate to a large variety of settings. Almost all foliage can be dried by pressing the branches between sheets of newspaper and placing them under a light weight. This method will retain the leaf shape, but the color will be somewhat muted and the leaf will be unnaturally flat and difficult to use in a container. There are some plants that may be air dried and will retain their interest. Hung by their stems in a warm, moisture-free environment until completely dry, they serve as a pretty contrast to the more dramatic glycerine treated material. Many fruits dry naturally on the plants and need only be collected at the appropriate time. Some of this material becomes very fragile when dry and shatters with too much handling. This difficulty can be prevented to some extent by dipping the fruits after they are dry in a mixture of equal parts of clear lacquer and alcohol, or in an acrylic polymer medium thinned with water. Most soft fleshy fruits such as berries do not dry well, but the few that do should be defoliated and placed upright in containers, or hung by their stems in a cool, dry place until thoroughly dehydrated. Their staying power can be improved by the use of lacquer and alcohol or acrylic polymer as described above. Glycerine and water treatment will preserve foliage almost indefinitely, and leaves treated by this method can be used effectively for years. The color of the leaves changes, sometimes dramatically, but the form and texture retain their original aspect. Cut or crush plant stems and place them in a glass jar containing a mixture of one part glycerine to two parts water. One part anti285 286 287 freeze to three parts water to obtain. The level of the be substituted if glycerine is difficult liquid will drop quickly if large branches are absorbing it successfully, so it is well to check the liquid level daily, and top up with more of the mixture as needed. A tablespoon can of charcoal added to the container will stop the formation of a grey film that sometimes appears on the surface. The liquid can be stored and used for another year if it is strained through fine cheesecloth and more charcoal added. Not all woody plants will take up the glycerine successfully by the method described. Some authorities advise preserving certain materials by total immersion in a bath of glycerine solution; vines and other small plants that otherwise are a failure often respond to this treatment. Broad-leaved evergreens are particularly satisfactory at all seasons, except possibly in the dead of winter, and have the advantage of being available after deciduous trees and shrubs have become dormant. Branches cut as the season advances toward autumn generally react better to treatment than if gathered earlier, but the conditioning takes somewhat longer as the sap is not flowing as freely. The number of days taken to complete the absorption of glycerine sufficient for satisfactory preservation will vary greatly. Leaf color will continue to darken after removal from the liquid so a little experimentation may be needed to ascertain when to stop the process. Some books advise waiting until the leaves begin to ooze, but this produces an unattractive and dust-catching surface. A good test is to bend the leaves gently after they have been immersed in the solution for a few days; when they have reached the consistency of soft leather, they are ready for use. It is well to cut considerably more material than will actually be needed, as the end product will vary from plant to plant, or even from specimen to specimen of the same plant. Preserved branches may be stored flat in large boxes or hung until needed in a dry, airy place. If the leaves become crushed or limp on removal from storage, they sometimes can be restored by a light pressing with a warm iron, or by placing them between sheets of newspaper under a rug for a few days. When one is planning a garden or adding to a collection, a new source of pleasure can be achieved by the discriminating choice of plants that lend themselves to preservation; for then, with little effort, the delights of the garden can be enjoyed indoors in a unique and intimate way during the long winter months. Fagus grandifolia, Oxydendrum arboreum, Symphoricarpos berries of the Symphoricarpos are added not dry well. Photo: P. Chvany. as a albus. The white temporary accent though they do 288 Bibliography Bolton, Eleanor Reed. 1958. Dried Flowers with Nostrand Co., Princeton, New Jersey. a Fresh Look. Van Brooklyn Botanic Garden Handbook. 1974. Dried Flower Designs. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, New York. Carica, Nita C. and Guynn, Jane C. 1962. Dried-Flower Book. Doubleday, Garden City, N.Y. Squires, Mabel. 1958. The Art of Drying Plants and Flowers. Barrows, New York. Cora Warren, a volunteer and Friend of the Arnold Arboretum, is responsible for the beautiful seasonal arrangements that regularly appear in the entrance to the Administration Building. Cryptomeria japonica lobbii, Mahonia sp., Carpinus orientalis. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Guide by Plant Family to Foliage Preservation","article_sequence":5,"start_page":289,"end_page":304,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24705","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270b76d.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Magullion, Sheila","article_content":"A Guide by Plant Family to Foliage by Preservation SHEILA MAGULLION A comprehensive list of hardy woody plants that can be preserved by glycerine treatment has long been needed. Therefore, this guide has been compiled after experimentation with a wide range of plant materials drawn from the Arnold Arboretum's collections in Jamaica Plain; all are hardy in the Boston area. Results of the testing showed that, with few exceptions, all members of a family react in much the same manner. Some families refuse completely to absorb the glycerine mixture; some absorb it, but with poor results; and some are outstanding in their response. Exceptions to the general rule could be vines, which are usually a failure especially if they are deciduous and broad-leaved everwhich nearly always give excellent results even though they greens, may belong to a mostly deciduous family that otherwise has a poor response to glycerine. Some families may react in a different manner if treated earlier in the year. The following information has been compiled from experience gained during the months of July to November, inclusive. Genera tested are listed under each family. It was not considered possible to test all species in some of the large genera, such as Acer and Salix; therefore, in those and similar cases, conclusions were made after trials with half a dozen species. The total immersion method was not used in any case. In order to keep the guide as concise as possible, the general remarks for the family apply to all members mentioned, unless otherwise stated. Additional information often relating to the value of the fruits, when and how to dry them - will be found following many listings, and is indicated by an *. - . ANACARDIACEAE Cashew Family Glycerine treatment of foliage improves toward the end of the growing season, but results will vary greatly. Fruits require no drying. * Cotinus are more (smoke bush ) - Red-leaved forms of C. coggygria effective than the green. Large plumy fruit last very well if collected no later than July. panicles 289 290 Rhus (sumac) - Large red fruit heads can be useful in large arrangements. AQUIFOLIACEAE Holly Family Evergreen foliage in most cases. takes glycerine very well, becoming a dark brown Deciduous types are not a success. Fruit is very long lasting. Ilex (holly), *Nemopanthus * Ilex Fruit of I. pedunculosa - is outstanding. Matures late and can be collected into November. I. verticillata and I. decidua have profuse fruits that dry well and can be collected into the winter months. The latter is the more desirable. ARALIACEAE Ginseng Family Handsome foliage takes glycerine but then Fruit not suitable for drying. droops unattractively. Acanthopanax, Aralia, (ivy), Kalopanax * Kalopanax - Huge leaves on long petioles take treatment surprisingly well. Can be treated and used individually. Hedera BERBERIDACEAE Barberry Family Evergreen genera and species have excellent foliage that takes glycerine superbly. The colorful fruits are too fleshy to dry well. * Berberis (barberry) Contains deciduous species that are - much less successful than the evergreens. Mahonia - Assumes red winter coloring that is attractive after glycerine treatment. particularly preceding Mahoberberis - Evergreen hybrids between the two genera. BETULACEAE Birch Family good foliage that refuses treatment early in the year, but by August and September seems to be quite satisfactory. All have interesting fruit clusters that dry easily and last well if collected early. * Alnus (alder) Dry strobiles like small cones can be collected Contains - any time. Betula (birch) at - Catkins should be collected by midsummer. Carpinus (hornbeam) - Pendulous clusters of small nutlets enclosed in leafy bracts should be collected during July and August for best results. Can be dried or treated with glycerine for an olive-green effect. 291 Smilax sp., Rhododendron smirnowi, Cotinus coggygria. Photo: P. Chvany. 292I Corylus (hazelnut) squirrels BUXACEAE and so The attractive nuts are beloved should be collected green by late July. - by Box Family Evergreen foliage Buxus (boxwood), takes glycerine very slowly. Fruit of little interest. Sarcococca CALYCANTHACEAE Calycanthus Family a Interesting fruit a dry pod somewhat resembling produced but dries well. Foliage a failure. Calycanthus (sweetshrub) fig. Sparingly CAPRIFOLIACEAE Honeysuckle Family Contains many horticulturally popular genera. The foliage takes glycerine but then droops in some cases. Fruits are too soft to dry. Abelia,* Diervilla, Dipelta, Kolkwitzia (beauty bush),* Lonicera (honeysuckle),** Sambucus ( elderberry ) ,* Symphoricarpos (snowberry),* Viburnum,* Weigela * Abelia . , Evergreen species give satisfactory results. Kolkwitzia Fuzzy seed heads are moderately attractive but must be collected in July. Lonicera Foliage of some of the small-leaved species and - - - forms are very successful. Sambucus - An exception - in that it did not take glycerine. Foliage responds well. Viburnum - Evergreen foliage of V. rhytidophyllum droops after treatment but is handsome enough to be worth wiring. Symphoricarpos CELASTRACEAE Staff-tree Family Foliage takes glycerine but, except for the evergreen members, is not worthwhile. Excellent for fruit. * Well-known Celastrus (bittersweet) should be collected before they split. - yellow and red capsules Capsules of various colors must be collected before they split, and treated with alcohol and shellac to help preserve color and prevent dropping. Includes some evergreen species. Euonymus (spindle tree) - Pachistima - Small evergreen foliage takes glycerine well. 293 A deciduous vine that does not take glycerine. Tripterygium of winged seeds are interesting if collected in Long panicles - August. CERCIDIPHYLLACEAE Katsura-tree - Family Cercidiphyllum (katsura) but not Attractive foliage takes glycerine, well. Results from individual specimens vary always greatly. Clusters of small pods arranged along the branches are very useful, and can be collected into the winter months. Goosefoot Family CHENOPODIACEAE Atriplex - Small gray leaves take ' glycerine. White-alder Family CLETHRACEAE Clethra (white alder) Foliage does not absorb glycerine, but the racemes of dry, long lasting capsules are attractive and can be collected into the winter months. - CORNACEAE An extremely variable * Dogwood Family in this genus vary Corrcus family. (dogwood) - Results refuses according to species. Helwingia - This CRUCIFERAE glycerine altogether. Fruit is of no Small evergreen foliage takes glycerine. Mustard Family interest. Aethionema, Alyssum, CYRILLACEAE Iberis Cyrilla Family An interesting shrub that responds but the leaf arrangement makes it difficult - Cyrilla (leatherwood) well to to glycerine use effectively. ELAEAGNACEAE Foliage is inclined to Oleaster Family after treatment, but the silver and grey colors provide such a welcome change from olives and browns that extra fussing is worthwhile. Spectacular fruit is too soft to dry well. droop Elaeagnus (oleaster),* Hippophae (sea buckthorn), Shepherdia (buf- faloberry) * Elaeagnus - Offers the best results in the family. 294 Magnolia tripetala, Liriodendron tulipifera, Koelreuteria paniculata, Staphylea elegans hessei, Carpinus betulus, Aruncus sp., Hydrangea. Photo: P. Chvany. 295 Heath Family All genera tried, both evergreen and deciduous, take glycerine beautifully. These have very neat foliage that is ideal for small arrangements. Fruits are most often dry capsules of minor interest; some genera have soft fruits that do not dry. ERICACEAE Andromeda (bog rosemary), Arctostaphylos (bearberry), Bruckenthalia (spike heath), Calluna (heather), Cassiope, Chamaedaphne (false daphne), Enkianthus, Erica (heath), Gaultheria, Gaylussacia (huckleberry), Kalmia (laurel), Ledum (Labrador tea), Leiophyllum, Leucothoe,* Lyonia (fetterbush), Oxydendrum (sorrel tree),* Pieris, * Rhododendron,* Vaccinium, Zenobia (dusty zenobia)* Leucothoe - Variegated form of L. fontanesiana is particu- larly good. Oxydendron - Large leaves Rhododendron to are very floppy. and forms are Large-leaved species inclined droop. Zenobia - Has grey foliage and that are very handsome. FAGACEAE long racemes of grey capsules Beech Family . glycerine treatment and is well known to arrangers. Interesting fruits dry naturally but should be collected early before the squirrels take them. * Castanea (chestnut) Large leaves are inclined to flop and may need wiring. Collect the chestnuts in early September. Superb foliage is excellent after - Fagus (beech) - The many forms of F. sylvatica often. make an interesting change Acorns Quercus (oak) - and could be used more may need a drop of glue to hold them in their cups. Small-leaved species are generally easier to use. GRAMINEAE Grass Not satisfactory in glycerine but the narrow-leaved genera quite well and the broader leaves can be pressed. Family air-dry Arundinaria, Phyllostachys, Sasa, Sinarundinaria. HAMAMELIDACEAE A very satisfactory family that takes mostly of little interest. glycerine Witch-hazel Family beautifully. Fruit Corylopsis, Fothergilla, Hamamelis (sweet gum),* Parrotia, Parrotiopsis. (witch-hazel), Liquidambar 296 * Liquidambar - Foliage and fruit is very different from the other members of the family. Long petioles permit the leaves to droop somewhat after treatment. Fruit a prickly globeshaped collection of capsules popular for Christmas decorations. HIPPOCASTANACEAE Horse-chestnut Family - Aesculus Foliage does not respond to The well-known nuts will need glue to hold them in their cases and should be collected in August. (horse-chestnut) glycerine. LABIATAE Aromatic method. foliage and small flowers that are best dried by Mint Family the hanging Teu- Elsholtzia, Lavandula (lavender), Perovskia, Salvia (sage), crium (germander), Thymus (thyme). LARDIZABALACEAE Foliage takes glycerine but then Lardizabala Family not droops. Large fleshy fruits do dry well. Akebia,* Decaisnea * Akebia Deciduous vines that in the season. - produce usable results late Pea Family LEGUMINOSAE A large family that includes many popular members that unfortunately are of little use for drying and preserving. Fruits are a pod interesting only for size in a few genera. Mostly compound foliage either closes up or refuses glycerine. ~ Albizzia (silk tree), Amorpha (false indigo),* Caragana, Cercis (redbud),* Cladrastis (yellow-wood),* Colutea (bladder senna),* Cytisus (broom), Genista, Gleditsia (honey-locust),* Gymnocladus (Kentucky coffee tree),* Halimodendron (salt bush), Indigofera, Laburnum (golden chain tree), Lespedeza, Maackia, Pueraria (kudzu vine), Robinia (false acacia), Sophora (Japanese pagoda tree), Wisteria * Amorpha - spikes Cercis Simple leaves that sometimes absorb glycerine. Cladrastis Does take glycerine but not satisfactorily. Colutea Interesting inflated pods. Gleditsia Fruit a very large flat, twisted pod. are - Fruits small pods in dense terminal 297 Gymnocladus - Interesting heavy pods. Attractive velvety pods that Wisteria from splitting. - cannot be prevented LEITNERIACEAE Leitneria to (corkwood) - Has good foliage Fruit a Corkwood Family that responds well glycerine. drupe not often produced. Lily Family LILIACEAE The two hardy * woody members are very useful to the arranger. Smilax (green brier) - Wonderful foliage takes glycerine superbly. Prickles should be snipped off before treatment. Yucca - Sword-shaped leaves absorb glycerine very slowly and are probably better pressed or air dried. Fruit a cluster of capsules that dry very well. Collect by midsummer. MAGNOLIACEAE Magnolia Family Has very handsome foliage that does not always absorb glycerine well but is worth perseverance. Large fruits are spectacular but difficult to dry. * Liriodendron Foliage from young trees seems to respond to treatment better than that from older specimens. The long petioles permit the leaves to flop and will need to be wired, or the leaves can be used individually. Fruit is a pointed cone that dries well but needs shellac treatment to prevent shattering. Collect in August. - Some species have very large leaves that are better used individually. M. virginiana is the most satisfactory of the smaller-leaved species. Fruits should be collected as they begin to split, and treated with shellac to hold the seeds in Magnolia - place. MALVACEAE - Mallow Family Hibiscus (shrubby althea or rose of sharon) Has unremarkable foliage that takes glycerine quite well. Fruits are attractive capsules popular with arrangers. MYRICACEAE Excellent foliage absorbs Sweet Gale Family glycerine well. Fruit Comptonia (sweet fern), Myrica (bayberry) dries readily. 298 OLEACEAE Olive Family Foliage takes glycerine well with some variations. Fruit is not exciting. Abeliophyllum, Chionanthus (fringe tree),* Fontanesia, Forsythia, Fraxinus,* Ligustrum, Syringa * Chionanthus * Foliage is very good. The blue fruits dry well. Fraxinus - Syringa - Foliage is a complete failure. Foliage is not very satisfactory. PINACEAE Pine Family With the exception of the very resinous genera, most members of the Pine Family absorb glycerine well. However some turn a dark brown that is not particularly attractive. Since many last so well untreated, the family is included here primarily for its deciduous members; all have cones invaluable to the arranger. * Abies (fir) Heavy resin inhibits the absorption of Cedrus (cedar) Too resinous for success. - glycerine. Takes glycerine but some Chamaecyparis (false cypress) species and forms turn brown. Foliage of C. squarrosa is interesting after treatment. Turns a dark brown. Cryptomeria Takes treatment well. Cupressus (cypress) Takes glycerine but also lasts indefiJuniperus (juniper) - - nitely Larix without any treatment. (larch) Very successful. - i Libocedrus (incense cedar) Takes treatment Metasequoia - Very successful. Picea fairly well. Pinus (spruce) (pine) - Too resinous for success. - Too resinous for - success. seem to react Pseudolarix best. (golden larch) Young specimens Too resinous for Pseudotsuga (Douglas-fir) - success. Turns an attractive tan color. Sciadopitys (umbrella pine) Sequoiadendron (redwood) - Very successful. Taxodium (bald cypress) Moderately successful. Thuja (arborvitae) Very satisfactory in all forms tried. Turns a dark brown. Thujopsis - - - Tsuga (hemlock) - Takes glycerine but drops many needles. 299 Leucothoe tulipifera, fontianesiana `Gzrard's Rainbow', Castanea pumila. Photo: P. Chvany. Mahoma bealei, Liriodendron PLATANACEAE Plane-tree - Family (plane tree) Large foliage takes glycerine particularly spherical seed heads on long pendulous stalks are long lasting if collected no later than August. Platanus well. The 300 RANUNCULACEAE Foliage absorbs glycerine but esting and useful. - Buttercup Family droops too much to use. Fruits inter- * Clematis Plumy seed heads should be collected as they form. as soon Paeonia (peony) - Foliage can be pressed or single leaves wired after glycerine treatment. Collect the attractive pods after they open in September. Xanthorhiza (yellow root) - Fruit too filmy to be effective. ROSACEAE Rose Family A large, horticulturally important family that gave some of the most outstandingly successful results of any family tested. Foliage of most members quickly turns a very dark reddish-brown. Most of the spectacular fruits are too soft and fleshy to dry well. Amelanchier (shadbush), Aronia (chokeberry),* Aruncus,* Chaen* omeles (Japanese quince), Cotoneaster, Crataegus (hawthorn),* Cydonia (quince), Exochorda, Kerria, Malus (apple), Neillia,* Pho* tinia,* Physocarpus (ninebark),* Potentilla (cinquefoil), Prinsepia,* * Prunus (plum, cherry, etc.),* Pyracantha (firethorn),r Pyrus (pear),* Rosa (rose),* Sorbaria,' Sorbaronia, Sorbus,* Spiraea, Rhodotypos, Stephanandra * Aronia * - Some species have fruits that are dry well. Aruncus - Fruit clusters July. Crataegus - Among the larger fruits offers the best hope for successful drying. Contains many different species that ripen from July to October. Collect at the first sign of color and hang to dry. Neillia Foliage is inclined to droop. Photinia Red berries that ripen late and last well treated - useful if collected in with alcohol and shellac. Physocarpus - Heads Prinsepia - of dry follicles are of possible use. Uncomfortably thorny to work with. Prunus - P. laurocerasus foliage is particulary good. Pyracantha Too thorny for comfort. P. calleryana 'Bradford' foliage is outstanding. Pyrus Rosa - R. multiflora and R. virgiuiaaaa fruits dry and extremely well. - last 301 Sorbaria useful. - Seed follicles in branching clusters that are very Contains species such as S. alnifolia and S. hostii Sorbus with fabulously successful foliage. Fruits of the former and a few others dry well, but most are too soft. - Stephanandra - Small foliage small arrangements. RUBIACEAE on arching stems is good for Madder Family Cephalanthus (button-bush) cerine but is not a Foliage is particularly interesting. - successful in glySeeds arranged in spherical head. Rue RUTACEAE Family Foliage refuses glycerine. dry well. * Evodia,* Some members have attractive fruits that * (cork tree),* Orixa, Phellodendron orange),* Ptelea,* Zanthoxyllum Poncirus (hardy * Evodia - Outstanding large clusters of numerous seed pods should be collected as soon as they mature around mid-September, and treated with alcohol and shellac to prevent seeds from dropping. Phellodendron dry fairly well. Poncirus - - Blue fruits in large bunches shrivel but do Small oranges must be collected in samaras July are while inter- still green. Ptelea - esting, SALICACEAE Fruits are clusters of round but difficult to use. that Foliage refuses to always popular. Populus (poplar), Foliage * - absorb Salix glycerine. The familiar furry Willow Family catkins are (willow). Soapberry Family SAPINDACEAE refuses glycerine. Fruits dry well. Koelreuteria (golden raintree),* Xanthoceras (shiny yellowhorn) Koelreuteria Large panicles of papery pods are good for large arrangements. Collect in August. - 302 SAPOTACEAE Sapodilla Family Bumelia (chittamwood) - Has good cerine well. Fruit has no interest. SAXIFRAGACEAE Foliage absorbs glycerine but interest except in Hydrangea. foliage that takes gly- Saxifrage Family droops too much to use. Fruit is of no Deutzia, Hydrangea,* Philadelphus (mock orange),* Ribes (flowering currant), Schizophragma. * Hydrangea or Contains many species with either white, pink sterile flowers that dry naturally on the plant, and green are extremely showy and useful. - Philadelphus STAPHYLEACEAE Small-leaved species produce usable results. Bladdernut Family to Staphylea (bladdernut) - Compound foliage responds well treatment. The green inflated ing. Collect from July to pods September. are different and interest- STYRACEAE Foliage does not take glycerine too fragile to be of great value. * - successfully. Storax Family Fruit attractive but Halesia (silverbell) Fruits are dry, winged drupes that drop from the branches very easily. Treat with alcohol and lacquer. Pterostyrax quickly. easily. Pendulous panicles of furry drupes shatter Treatment with alcohol and lacquer helps somewhat. - Styrax (snowbell) Collect in SYMPLOCOCEAE - July Fruits are small ovoid for best results. drupes that dry Sweetleaf Family Symplocos (sweetleaf) - Foliage takes treatment very well. Fruit dries well and although small is very effective because of the brilliant blue color. Collection time in August is very short. THEACEAE Foliage is not Tea Family satisfactory * - after glycerine treatment. Franklinia, Stewartia * Stewartia Fruit a beaked capsule that is attractive in some species. 303 THYMELAEACEAE Foliage takes glycerine well in the Mezereum Family only species tested. Daphne, Dirca (leatherwood) Linden - TILIACEAE Family Handsome foliage absorbs glycerine fairly Tilia (linden) well at some times of the year. Fruits are small nutlets attached to a leafy bract. Trochodendron Family TROCHODENDRACEAE Two uncommon trees that take glycerine well. Fruits are winged nutlets that are not attractive when dried. Eucommia, Euptelea Vervain Family VERBENACEAE Members are inclined to be tender in the Boston area and usually kill to the ground; new growth is too lush and soft to take glycerine. Fruits unusual and useful. Callicarpa (beautyberry),* Caryopteris, Clerodendron,* Vitex Collect the long sprays of small violet berries * Callicarpa before frost and lay flat or hang to dry. - rPd the Clerodendron - Blue berry-like fruits surrounded by bright callrx remain attractive when dried. Mature very late in season. , Following is a list of families and their hardy members that or nothing to recommend them for preserving purposes. ACERACEAE (Maple Family) Acer (maple) ACTINIDIACEAE (Actinidia Family) little Actinidia (silver or fleecevine ) ANNONACEAE (Custard-apple Family) Asimina (pawpaw) ARISTOLOCHIACEAE (Birthwort Family) Aristolochia (birthwort) BIGNONIACEAE (BignoniaFamily) have Campsis (trumpet vine ), Catalpa BORAGINACEAE EBENACEAE (Borage Family) Ehretia, Lithospermum (Ebony Family) Diospyros (persimmon) EUPHORBIACEAE (Spurge Family) Andrachne, Securinega 304 GINKGOACEAE (Ginkgo Family) GUTTIFERAE (Garcinia Family) Hypericum (St. John's-wort) JUGLANDACEAE (Walnut Family) Carya, Juglans, Pterocarya LAURACEAE (Laurel Family) Lindera (spice bush), Sassafras LOGANIACEAE (Logania Family) Buddleia (butterfly bush) MENISPERMACEAE (Moonseed Family) . Menispermum (moonseed) MORACEAE (Mulberry Family) Broussonetia (paper mulberry), Macludrarzia, (osage orange), Morus (mulberry) NYSSACEAE (Tupelo Family) Nyssa (tupelo), Davidia POLYGONACEAE (Buckwheat Family) RHAMNACEAE Cudrania, Maclura Polygonum (knotweed) (Buckthorn Family) Berchemia, Ceanothus, Hovenia, Rhamnus (buckthorn) SCROPHULARIACEAE (Figwort Family) Hebe, Paulownia (empress tree) SIMAROUBACEAE (Quassia Family) Ailanthus, Picrasma SOLANACEAE (Nightshade Family) Lycium (matrimony vine) TAXACEAE (Yew Family) Taxus (yew) ULMACEAE (Elm Family) Celtis (hackberry), He~niptelea, Ulmus (elm), Zelkova VITACEAE (Grape Family) Ampelopsis (porcelain vine), PartYzenocissus (Virginia creeper), Vitis (grape vine) , A member of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and an actrue volunteer, Sheila Magullion has collaborated with Cora Warren on the exhibit of holiday arrangements using preserved plant materials, currently on display through December 30 in the lecture room of the Administration Bmlding. Betula jacku, Rubus sp , Staphylea elegans hessei, Corylus sp , Aesculus glabra. Photo P. Chvany. Celastrus sp.. Castanea pumi'.i, "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23334","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260a328.jpg","title":"1977-37-6","volume":37,"issue_number":6,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Balloon Flowers, Bladdernuts and Rattle-boxes","article_sequence":1,"start_page":217,"end_page":229,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24701","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270af26.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Balloon Flowers, Bladdernuts and Rattle-boxes by RICHARD A. HOWARD Many plants trap air or hold gases within their tissues resulting in inflated or swollen stems, leaves, flowers or fruits. The value of this characteristic in the survival of the plant is readily observed in some, but remains unclear in others. An inflated calyx, corolla or inflorescence axis may be more conspicuous and aid in attracting pollinators, although this supposition may be pure speculation on the part of the human observer. However, the inflated calyx surrounding a fruit, or the inflated fruit itself aids in the dispersal of the plant as the sw~mem part a~ the plant ~\"..~ along the ground or is carried in streams or ocean currents. A few aquatic plants may have stems, leaf blades or petioles with spongy, air-filled tissue that enables the plant to float and so be blown about the water surface by wind or carried by currents. It would appear to be an easy matter to extract a sample of the gas from within -- the plant tissue and analyze it. Apparently this has never been done, for no reference to the composition of the gas can be found in modem literature. One can only speculate that it is an air mixture, possibly heavily laden with carbon dioxide, possibly generated within the plant from the process of respiration. In some plant parts the gas is under considerable pressure and so the swollen corolla or fruit is not alone the result of growth, but of turgidity. When pressed by hand, the organ may rupture or explode with a respectable noise, as observed in the Firecracker Plant. In other plants, the swollen calyx or seemingly inflated fruit may occur by growth alone without the trapping of gas, as evidenced by an opening or orifice to the calyx or the fruit. The leaves of water lilies float because they trap gas in open spaces between the living cells of the leaf blade. Large air-filled cells occur in the Water Lettuce enabling the rosette of short stem and thick flat leaves to support the plant on the surface of the water. Finger pressure on the leaves may reduce their thickness to one-tenth of their natural size. The petioles of the Water Hyacinth contain air and are swollen, enabling this plant to float while extending the leaf blades well above the water surface. In military survival manuals the Water Hyacinth leaves and petioles are recommended as a green vegetable. When deep fried, the spongy petioles retain the crispness of corn crisps and have been used as an unusual hors d'oeuvre. 217 _ 218 Plants that have developed swollen or inflated parts are found in many families and are among our cultivated garden plants. They are not only attractive and unusual, but subjects of conversation. Many have been used in dried arrangements or wreaths. Their names are often descriptive of the inflated condition, as for example the scientific name of the Desert Candle, Caulanthus inflatus. This plant is native to California and a member of the Mustard Family. The swollen hollow stem bears leaves below and flowers above, and a field of these plants in flower is an unusual sight of erect flowering stalks. Lobelia inflata, also known as the Indian Tobacco, has a swollen fruit in which the many small seeds are free to rattle when mature. The common names of Balloon Flower, Balloon Vine, Bladdemut or Chinese Lantern Plant also suggest some unusual characteristic. Some of the more common plants with inflated parts are discussed below according to the inflated part. Inflated Calyx Tulip Tree. Bignoniaceae. Native to Africa. This is a large tree of tropical Africa now cultivated in Florida, Hawaii and the tropics of both hemispheres. The bright red-orange flowers, slightly compressed and asymmetrical, have a brilliant margin of gold on the corolla. The calyx is similarly shaped, pubescent, and golden. Glands inside the calyx normally secrete a liquid, and when the young swollen calyx is pressed the secretion may squirt several feet from the pointed apex. Occasionally the calyx may contain a little or great amount of air and actually explode when pressed. Spathodia campanulata. African Silene cucubalus. Bladder Campion. Caryophyllaceae. Native to Europe. Lychnis alba. White Campion. These are Caryophyllaceae. Native to Europe. of several members of the Pink Family that have become naturalized in the United States and often occur as weeds in northern gardens. The calyx is inflated in flower and continues to increase in size as the fruit develops. When young, the lobes of the calyx may be tightly appressed, but never tightly enough to hold gas. The mature capsule is enclosed in the swollen calyx which is clearly separated from the capsule. two Swollen Corolla Platycodon grandiflorum. Balloon Flower. Campanulaceae. Native E. Asia. An old-fashioned to corolla, blue-gray veal a with a swollen turnip-shaped the outside and eventually opening fully to revivid blue color inside. White-colored flower forms are known. garden perennial on 219 Hernandia ovigera. a. Whole fruit in expanded receptacle; b. from above; c. receptacle split open showing ribbed fruit. Bixa orellana. d. Habit of fruit cluster. Spathodia campanulata. e. Cluster of flowers with curved calyx. Drawing: Robin S. Lefberg. 220 The corolla swells as the flower and may pop when pressed. develops and before opening is turgid Russelia equisetiformis. Firecracker Plant. Scrophulariaceae. Native to Mexico. Commonly grown in the tropics, this red-flowered shrub with arching green stems is well known to children in the area. The tightly adhering lobes of the corolla overlap. The flower may be 1 inch long and 1\/4 inch in diameter. When pressed between the fingers, the unopened flowers explode as a gentle firecracker. The specific name suggests a similarity in the appearance of the green-angled stems to those of the horsetails. While broad ovate leaves are developed, these last but a short time and the stem with chlorophyll manufactures most of the food for the plant. Penstemon spp. Chelone Scrophulariaceae. Native to western N. America. glabra. Turtlehead. Scrophulariaceae. Native to eastern purpurea. N. America. Digitalis Foxglove. Scrophulariaceae. Native to western Europe. These additional members of the Figwort Family have elongated tubular corollas that are swollen in development. The overlapping petals adhere tightly and the corolla may become turgid and rupture when pressed. Calyx Inflated in Flower or in Europe Fruit to Physalis alkekengi. Chinese Lantern Plant. Solanaceae. Native and Asia. The Chinese Lantern Plant is the most familiar ornamental species of this large genus and the best known example of an inflated calyx. The flowers are pendant and the calyx in this species is orange-red to bright red, angular in cross section, and extended to sharp calyx tips. The stems are picked and dried and commonly used as dried bouquets. A tomato-like red fruit is enclosed in the enlarged calyx and can be seen only if the calyx is tom deliberately. Unfortunately, this plant spreads easily by runner and can become a persistent weed in a garden. Other species of Physalis are native or introduced in the United States and have smaller calyces that are swollen, but of a tan or straw color when dry. Several species are grown for the edible berries, the most common ones being known as the Cape-gooseberry, Tomatillo, Husk-tomato, or Strawberry tomato. The fruits can be removed from the swollen husk and eaten out of hand or used to make a preserve. Many grow and produce prolifically so that the ground can be covered below the plant with the fruiting calyx and its enclosed berries. These plants also spread by runners or persist from seed for 221 Physalis alkekengi. berry. Sterculia sp. Habit; b. whole fruiting calyx; c. section of calyx and Open mature fruits showing marginal seeds. Asclepias fruticosa. e. Inflated fruit with soft spines. Cardiospermum halicacabum. f. Habit; g. single fruit; h. fruit walls have fallen showing spherical seeds. Drawing: Robin S. Lefberg. a. d. 222 many years after initial cultivation and cation. subsequent attempts at eradi- Hernandia sonora. Hemandiaceae. Native to tropical America. This and several related species occur in similar river bank habitats in the Caribbean, tropical America and tropical Asia. They can be cultivated as handsome, intriguing shade trees, for the leaves of young plants are very different from the foliage on older specimens. The leaves in some species are peltate to varying degrees and the flowers, generally unisexual, are borne in the same inflorescence or on different trees. The stamens have a flap type of dehiscence similar to that found in the Laurel Family and in some barberries. After the pistillate flower has been fertilized, the receptacle develops into a yellow colored cuplike structure that surrounds the fruit but is clearly separated from it by an air space. At the beginning of fruit development, the circular orifice of the cupule is adherent to the turbinate apex of the fruit and inflates, forming a balloon-like unit. On full maturity of the fruit, the cupule is free at the apex but attached to the fruit at its base. The fruit and its round cupule will roll a considerable distance downhill from the parent plant, or may be blown in a strong wind about the ground under a cultivated tree. If the fruit and cupule should fall into water, the unit bobs freely near the surface, open end up, and again may be carried a considerable distance. Eventually the cupule rots away or is eaten, leaving the fruit as drift material on sandy beaches. This is common in the West Indies and in Florida, and one specimen has been found on a Cape Cod beach in Massachusetts. The one-seeded fruits with ruminated cotyledons are crownlike at the apex, have rounded ridges on the side, and are strung as beads in seed necklaces in the West Indies. Inflated or Swollen Fruits The common garden pea is an example of the many inflated fruits found in genera of the Leguminosae. Pea pods, swollen and turgid, will pop if fresh when pressed between the fingers, due in part to the pressure of gas enclosed in the air-tight pod. Normally, of course, the pod is split to extract the green peas used as vegetables, but ripe pea pods float easily-perhaps as their normal means of distribution. Wild species of Astragalus in western North America produce inflated pods and have been observed rolling across desert sands through wind action. Among the garden ornamentals of the Pea Family are Bap~ tisia tinctoria, Colutea arborescens, Crotalaria spp., and Swainsona galegifolia, all with conspicuously swollen pods. Baptisia tinctoria. Wild Indigo. Leguminosae. Native This native years ago and perennial herb persists in old was cultivated extensively garden plots or near America. many old foundations. not to N. 223 foliage turns blue-black on drying and was used to produce an indigo-like dye. The flowers may be white, yellow or blue, and develop into inflated globose pods containing many small seeds. Fruit clusThe ters are often used in dried arrangements. Colutea arborescens. Bladder Senna. Leguminosae. Native from the Mediterranean region to the Himalayas. Colutea is generally a shrub but may become a woody plant 15 feet tall. Dwarf varieties have been selected for garden use. The fairly large and attractive flowers vary from bright yellow to deep orange or a reddish color. The swollen fruits are elongated, 2 to 3 inches in length, and a pale cream color. The species is hardy in the Boston area and, although little used, is recommended for shrub borders. Crotalaria spp. Rattle-box. Leguminosae. Native and introduced from tropical areas. A large genus of herbs and shrubs with foliage varying from simple to palmately compound leaves. The flowers may be blue, purplish, yellow or brown and can be followed by elongated racemes of inflated, elongated pods. When fully ripe the seeds tend to break loose andare free in the dried pods. The common name of Rattle-box is derived from the noise heard when the wind blows the pods. I have seen children in the tropics use clusters of these pods as maraccas. The tropical species can be grown as annuals in northern gardens and will flower in greenhouses. The plants are attractive in flower and the fruits useful in dried arrangements. Some enterprising seedsman should make these more readily available. Swainsona galegifolia. Leguminosae. Native to Australia. A genus of herbs or subshrubs grown in greenhouses or in warmer areas out-of-doors. Swainsona galegifolia, with deep red flowers, is the most commonly encountered species: others have blue-violet or white flowers. The pod in most species is turgid and inflated. Inflated fruits occur on growth are found in many other families of plants and forms ranging from herbs to vines or trees. paniculata. Goldenrain-tree. Sapindaceae. Native to E. Asia. The Goldenrain-tree is becoming a popular ornamental throughout the United States, and a number of cultivars now have been selected. It is useful as a shade tree and attractive through its bipinnately compound leaves with serrate margins. The trees flower in midsummer with conspicuous, large, bright yellow or golden-yellow panicles which show spots of red on close examination. The fruit is a large, bladdery, inflated, three-angled capsule produced in large numbers and remaining on the tree for long periods of time. The capsules are light and papery, rattle in the wind, and change color as they mature, becoming Koelreuteria 224 Colutea orientalis. a. Habit showing fruit; b. of fruit; d. cross section of fruit. flowers; c. longitudinal section 225 Koelreuteria paniculata. bract of fruit. a. Leaf; b. fruits; c. cross section of fruit; d. single 226 chestnut-brown color on many plants. Fully fruited spectacular in large scale dried arrangements. a panicles are Bixa orellana. Annatto. Bixaceae. Native to S. America. The Bixa is a truly handsome shrub or small tree with many points of interest. The heart-shaped leaves may have bright red petioles and veins, and change position during the daylight hours, drooping at night. The flowers are borne in panicles and the petals are a soft pink or rose color with clusters of stamens with bright red anthers. The fruit is heart-shaped in outline, a vivid red color when mature and fresh. Swollen and \"popable,\" it is covered with soft spinose protuberances and dries dark red-brown. The seeds are borne along the walls of the fruit and when immature are soft and a pink-purplish color. When crushed they produce a vivid orange-red pigment. Fully matured or dried seeds are dark red in color and when boiled or powdered are the \"annatto\" used today to color rice for Latin-American cuisine. In South America the Indians have traditionally used the pigment to produce ornamental patterns on the skin, and more recently the pigment has been incorporated in some \"natural product\" lipsticks. Older Americans will remember coloring margarine with a capsule that contained this pigment. Dried seeds of annatto or the powdered seeds are available in nature food stores or in Latin-American markets. Bixa may be grown out-of-doors in the south but has a role in greenhouse collections in the north. Small plants are attractive for their foliage, but will also flower and produce fruit. The inflated capsules are highly prized for flower arrangements. Kleinhovia Asia. hospita. Guest Tree. Sterculiaceae. Native to tropical Although this plant is not well known and is rarely cited, it is a handsome tree cultivated in warm areas of Florida and Hawaii. When in bloom with its abundant but small flowers, the tree appears to be covered with a gauze of pink. The fruits are angular, papery, inflated capsules with small seeds. Kleinhovia contrasts with species of Sterculia of the same Cocoa Family. Plants of Sterculia may be stout-trunked large trees with simple or palmately compound leaves and comparatively inconspicuous flowers, often with a foul odor. One of the best known species has the appropriate scientific name of Sterculia foetida. In fruit, however, most of the Sterculias are spectacular. The flowers basically have five carpels, one to all five of which may expand into stalked, elongated, or globose \"fruits\" that are often brightly colored outside, or inside, or both. The woody or rigid walls of the fruits are exif not inflated, with a conspicuous air space inside. When the panded, fruits open, the colored seeds, small in comparison to most of the fruits that produce them, are borne on the edges of the fruit. They are commonly black or purple and contrast with the brightly colored 227 inner wall of the fruit which is often velvety in appearance. Caution must be used in touching the inner surface of all Sterculia fruits, for the soft appearance may be created by a myriad of sharp pointed needle-like hairs. Nevertheless, the mature open fruits with seeds are always prize winners in contests of floral or fruit arrangement. Cardiospermum halicacabum. Balloon Vine. Sapindaceae. Native to tropical regions. The original home of this slender herbaceous vine is unknown. The has been cultivated as an ornamental for many years, and has become established in many areas of the United States and generally in the tropics. The delicate slender stems with dissected, usually three-parted, leaves climb by tendrils developed from parts of the inflorescence of white flowers. The fruits are papery, inflated and threeangled. Enclosed in each section of the three-parted capsule are one or more black-purplish spherical seeds that sometimes appear silvery due to a minute shiny pubescence. Outer segments of the fruit may fall off, leaving the colored seeds attached to the papery, membra- nous, white \"bracts.\" The plant can be grown as an annual in the north, or used as an attractive house plant in a pot with a small trellis. When in full fruit the plant lives up to its name of Balloon Vine, being heavily laden with fruit. plant - - - Herissantia crispa. Malvaceae. Native to tropical regions. Although lacking a common name, this plant has an abundance of scientific names. It has been classified in the genera Sida, Abutilon, Gayoides, Bogenhardia, and, currently, Herissantia. It is probably a native of tropical America, but it is now found throughout the tropical areas of the world. Herissantia is an annual semi-woody herb with slender trailing or spreading branches. The plant can be trained on a trellis to form an attractive house plant. The soft cordate leaves are velvety in appearance due to a fine pubescence. Petals of the small flowers vary in color, but are usually white at the apex, and yellow, orange, or green at the base. The fruit consists of about twelve inflated, papery, one-seeded capsules arranged in a whorl and long lasting when dried. Staphylea Four spp. Bladdemut. Staphyleaceae. of the Bladdemut are common in cultivation. Staphylea trifolia is a native of eastern United States; S. pinnata is from Europe; S. colchica, from the Caucasus area; and S. bumalda, from Japan. The plants form shrubs or small trees with leaves having three or five to seven leaflets in a pinnate arrangement. The short terminal racemes of white or greenish-white flowers are aromatic. The fruits are papery and inflated, greenish or yellow in color, and usually open at the apex. All species are hardy in northeastern United States and are grown both for the flowers and the attractive lantemlike fruits. species 228 var. Hessei. a. Habit showing fruit; b. cross section of fruit; longitudinal section of fruit. Staphylea Bumalda. d. Fruit; e. cross section of fruit; f. longitudinal section of fruit. Staphylea colchica f. grandiflora. g. Frutt; h. longitudinal section of fruit; i. cross section of fruit. Staphylea elegans c. 229 Merremia tuberosa. Wood-rose. Convolvulaceae. Native to tropical America. The common name applies to the fruits of this robust vine, which are well known for their use as corsage components or in dried arrangements. The light-colored, rigid but papery calyx enlarges in fruit, and surrounds an inflated capsule that is papery, dark or chestnut-brown in color. This contains free, large, angular seeds. Although seeds are often offered and suggested for culture as house plants, this vine has value as such only for the divided leaves. In tropical areas it quickly covers and obscures a fence, or it climbs to the tops of tall trees before displaying the bright yellow flowers and developing fruit. Asclepias fruticosa (A. physocarpus). Native to Africa. Milkweed. Asclepiadaceae. Although commonly cultivated in gardens in Europe, this plant is rarely seen in American gardens. The slightly woody stems may reach a height of 3 to 6 feet as an annual. The typical milkweed flowers are small and pink in color but develop an inflated fruit the size of a tennis ball or larger. Soft threadlike protuberances cover the surface of the green to light yellow or white fruit. The inflated portion consists of a spongy mass of tissue outside of the harder inner unit which contains the seeds. procera. Crown-flower or Dumb Cotton. Asclepiadaceae. Native to tropical Asia. The pink, purple and white flowers of this tropical shrub or small tree are used in Hawaii for making the Crown-flower lei. In tropical America the plant is reputed to have medicinal properties. In either case, it is well to keep in mind that the copious milky sap may be caustic to sensitive skin. The fruit may be single or borne in pairs, and is inflated below the skin by spongy, cotton-like tissue. Large fruits may be 6 inches in diameter. The sessile gray-green leaves give the plant a characteristic appearance and allow easy recognition of it in drier areas of tropical America. Calotropis - but a few of the inflated fruits or flowers one may enflora of the world. In the many ways plants have evolved and developed specialized means of distribution, the inflated fruit remains unusual. The characteristic, however, does make such plants attractive as ornamental occupants of a selected spot in your are These counter in the garden or greenhouse. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Transplanting Stress- A View from the Plant's Perspective","article_sequence":2,"start_page":230,"end_page":241,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24704","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270b728.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"Transplanting by GARY L. KOLLER Stress - A View from the Plant's Perspective Transplanting, a horticultural process as old as civilization, is generally misunderstood and often results in the loss of many beautiful or valuable plants. This is due in part to the fact that many people disregard the living aspect of the plant and treat it as they would a of furniture. Even under the most optimum conditions, the first year is full of great hazards for the newly transplanted specimen. Some of the problems it may encounter and some guidelines are discussed below. piece Root Loss Roots are part of the life support system of the plant and function in the uptake of water and minerals, while providing anchorage and support for tall growing woody specimens. During transplanting the components of this vital system often are brutally hacked, mangled, and reduced so that little remains except thick, woody segments shorn of the tiny, actively growing root hairs essential to moisture and nutrient absorption. Since these root hairs also secrete substances aiding the movement of the root into new soil areas, their regeneration is extremely important. Anything that slows this recovery retards the ultimate growth of the plant. Minute fungus organisms collectively called mycorrhiza often live in association with the root hairs and assist with water and mineral uptake, possibly even synthesizing materials beneficial to the larger host. This symbiotic relationship is not well understood, but may affect the success of a plant in its new location. It is believed that many plants known for transplant difficulty are lost because the proper soil organisms are lacking. Old horticultural literature often suggests that soil from the old planting location be incorporated into the soil of the new; this would inoculate these microorganisms into the new site. The new soil should be favorable in terms of composition, aeration, pH, and moisture to encourage the fungus to grow and thrive. At present the state of horticultural science has not provided techniques that we can adapt to our home plantings to increase success associated with the microorganisms. 230 231 An abandoned plant from which the container has rotted away. Note that the tree rooted through the bottom. With time, erosion may wash the soil from the root ball and leave the upper surface exposed and vulnerable to mechanxcal damage. Photo G. Koller. 232 Wilting transplant operation, is greatly this loss must be compensated for by rewoody plants moving at least one-third of the growing vegetative shoots. Neglecting this essential step intensifies the following plant reactions: Preformed vegetative buds, based on the strength and vigor of the plant prior to moving, burst into growth. The plant immediately undergoes moisture stress because there are not enough roots to support the lush growth. Generally a wilting plant is watered immediately and until the wilt symptoms disappear. What is not obvious is that this wilting causes internal physiological tissue stress that upsets the normal chemical activities of the plant. After a severe moisture stress it may take weeks for the chemical and hormonal balance to readjust so that normal growth may be resumed. During the normal drought of late summer, newly moved plants generally undergo several periods of wilt and each subsequent occurrence requires a longer period of recovery. As a result of the chemical slowdown, fewer carbohydrates or food are elaborated in the foliage and less material is transported downward to support the growth of a healthy root system. The longer the root is deprived of its full potential food supply, the longer it takes for complete recovery. Initial damage from lack of water is very insidious and the chemical reactions may slow down before the plant goes limp and droops; therefore it becomes important to supply additional water on a regular basis throughout the first full growing season and beyond depending on rainfall, soil conditions and vigor of the plant. Even if specimens seem to have recovered, the heat and drought of late summer necessitate this precaution. The root system, on even in the best reduced; Insects and Diseases During the process of transplanting, many plant roots and branches may be cut or broken, creating wounds that allow the entry of disease organisms. In its new site the plant may undergo severe stress from the wind, reflected heat, and inadequate soil moisture. In such a weakened condition, it is particularly prone to the attack of insects as well. The quicker the specimen recovers and resumes full growth, the less likely the chance of these invasions. Timing the Move Bad timing seems to be the most frequent error the home owner makes in moving existing plants from one location to another. Most amateurs assume that the plant needs to be in leaf, but the stresses on the root system that are imposed by the lush foliage lessen the plant's chance of survival. 233 Plants that have been successfully In north moved when growing in naturally existing soil are most they are in a dormant or quiescent state. this can occur at two seasons. The first and lasts until the plant begins active vegetative growth (the best rule is \"the sooner the better\"). The reason for transplanting as soon as the soil can be worked is that the plant produces the most active root growth when soil and air temperatures are low, and before vegetative growth begins. Research indicates that once top growth commences, root growth slows and in some cases halts. Early transplanting will allow maximum root growth to supply necessary water to unfolding leaves, stems and flowers. The second transplanting season begins in late summer after all vegetative portions have expanded and the tissue has hardened off, therefore requiring less water. Fall transplanting may be most advantageous for those plants considered to be reliably hardy because it will permit active root growth in late fall and again in early spring before new vegetative growth begins. In the autumn it is considered optimum to await frost and defoliation of most deciduous plants. However, in northern areas where weather is severe and deep soil penetration of frost may damage semi-anchored plants, early transplanting prior to defoliation may be preferable. At the Arnold Arboretum we begin moving needled evergreens in early September and try to accomplish this task before the latter part of October. During late October the first killing frost generally occurs, bringing active vegetative growth to a halt. As the soil and air temperatures go down, active root growth begins again and allows some degree of anchorage before frost penetrates the soil deeply. Additional root growing time can be achieved with the use of a thick basal mulch around the plants. In northern areas with low winter temperatures and sweeping winds some plants should not be transplanted in fall. This group includes all broadleaved evergreens, any plant that is considered to be marginally hardy, and young, poorly rooted specimens. Cold sweeping winds can dry out the evergreens which, even under ideal conditions, have problems with water uptake from frozen soils. Plants of marginal hardiness are prone to freezing; spring transplanting permits them to have a whole growing season to store carbohydrates for increasing winter hardiness. This additional growing time also benefits semi-anchored plants by allowing them to root fully. The nursery industry has increased the planting season by growing plants in large containers or digging them with a soil ball and wrapping the soil with burlap. As a result it is now possible to install plants at any time during the growing season, but these modem methods have not reduced the need for good follow-up care. temperate areas begins any time after spring soil thaw -- - 234 I The nursery industry is now digging trees and shrubs bare-root and pottmg them for an extended sales period. Occasionally a poor root system results, as in this young pine tree. Prwr to purchase it is advisable to carefully remove a plant from its contarner and check along the sides and bottom of the root ball for adequate development. Photo: P. Chvany. 235 Most large trees are moved with a ~Crm soil ball which reduces root disturbance, retains moisture from xrrxgatxon water, and increases transplant success. Photo. P. Chvany. 236 Soil Conditions In the past most nursery plants were grown in natural soil occurat the nursery site, then they were transferred to natural soil at the customer's house. Generally the soil was prepared to receive the plant by the addition of organic matter and drainage material, using some magical formula as a guide. What usually resulted was a soil aggregate that packed together like cement. Soil preparation is essential and deserves careful attention. If the existing soil is well drained, it usually is not necessary to add drainage material. A large hole should be dug to loosen the soil and reduce compaction, thereby improving soil structure. In most instances it is advantageous to reuse the excavated soil as return fill. Before doing so, however, the soil should be amended with an equal volume or more of organic matter in the form of compost, leaf mold, wood chips, etc. It is scarcely possible to add too much. The organic matter loosens the soil particles, traps and stores water, and becomes the sponge that captures fertilizer and holds it for long term use by the plant. Because these functions contribute to quick root regeneration, the plant re-establishes more readily. The soil should be firmly pressed around the plant's roots. Some of the excess may be used to form a saucer around the base of the plant so that water will soak into the proper area. In many soils drainage is a problem and it becomes necessary to add sand, gravel or drainage pipes to allow for the movement of excess water. In amending the soil, enough coarse drainage material must be added to separate the fine textured soil particles that tend to pack together. Equally important is the incorporation of large quantities of organic matter. Where drainage is a severe problem, it may be easiest to garden above ground level by using modified, well-drained soil to create mounds or raised beds. This permits free water to drain to the existing grade and away from the critical root zone. A new soil problem has recently entered the picture. For some time nurseries have been using a lightweight, highly modified soil mix supplemented with time-released fertilizers as well as periodic applications of liquid or granular fertilizer. Plants are grown with supplemental light and watered very efficiently a cultural combination that gives quick growth, develops good root systems, and produces saleable products in the shortest amount of time. The trouble occurs when a lush, vigorous plant gets to the customer's yard where it is put into an inferior soil, is lucky to get any fertilizer, and is watered only when it displays severe wilt symptoms. I don't propose that the nursery industry change its growing methods, but we do need to look at what can be done to better assist the transplant at its new site. ring - 237 Thls plant is well staked and ets trunk is wrapped to prevent sun scald. But the planting demonstrates two major errors: The top of the tree was not pruned; a shallow saucer of soil to hold irrigation water was not provided. Photo: P. Chvany. 238 In preparation for planting, outer roots of a containerized pine seedling havP been gently pulled away fronz the root mass so they can draw moisture from the larger volume of new soil. This procedure also helps the roots to make the transxtxon frcm the artificial soil mxx to the natural medium. Photo: P. Chvany. 239 raised in light soil mixes have great soil substrate at the planting location. While some of the reasons for this are unknown, it may result from varying moisture conditions between the soil mix and the surrounding soil, or the creation of soil interface problems. The artificial soil mix will hold a great quantity of water, but when it becomes totally dry it is difficult to rewet. When a plant is installed in a permanent location, it is usually set at the same depth as it was in the container so that the upper surface of the light soil mix is exposed to the air. A wick-like effect occurs and the artificial soil dries out much faster than the surrounding natural or amended soil. This creates a moisture stress in the soil mix and it may also shrink, causing a gap between the containerized root mass and the surrounding prepared soil. To prevent this problem, check for root development after lifting the plant from its container, and eliminate all surplus soil mix in the area where there are few or no roots, using your finger or a mechanical device. If possible, loosen roots so that they can be pulled away from the mass. During this process the roots should not be allowed to dry out and a bucket of water should be kept handy for moistening the root ball. A portion of the topsoil also should be scraped away; this will be replaced with soil from the planting site after the plant is reset at its original depth. In planting, care should be taken to spread the loosened roots into the backfill. It has been found that plants difficulty growing roots into the existing Pruning essential to the transplant operation. People are usually reduce the size of an expensive plant because they want an instant effect. As a result, they jeopardize the long term survival and health of the plant. The minimum that should be removed is generally considered to be one-third of the growing stems. This reduction accomplishes the following goals: It reduces moisture stress; invigorates the plant and directs more energy into fewer growing points, while stimulating the development of adventitious buds; provides the opportunity to shape and control growth by removing interfering or rubbing branches, dead wood, and lush vegetative growth. As a rule, the pruning should not be in the form of a crew cut which shears all stems back to the same level, but rather a selective thinning. Equally important to top pruning is root pruning. Removing damaged and broken roots and making clean cuts on ragged edges encourages new growth to cover and protect these sensitive areas that are in intimate contact with soil-borne disease organisms. Root pruning also tends to make roots branch, which is especially critical in the success of tap-rooted plants such as oak, hickory and sassafras. Pruning is to hesitant 240 Staking One factor that tends to retard root growth is lack of proper support. A newly planted tree or large shrub has a foliage mass that catches the wind and acts like a sail. In addition, the height of tall plants causes an instability due to imbalance. As the wind blows, these plants shift back and forth causing actual movement of the soil ball within the surrounding prepared soil area which is soft and porous. This slow movement and friction tears away minute but critical root hairs, slowing the recovery of the plant. To reduce the amount of sway, all large plants should be securely staked, but the binding should be loose enough so it will not girdle the stem. Prolonged staking tends to weaken the stem and may lead to topheavy plants. Normally, a windblown or windstressed tree develops additional wood fiber or support roots to offset or compensate for the stress. With rigid and prolonged staking this natural process is retarded and structural weakness may result. Consequently, it is important to stake the plant during its first full year to encourage the most rapid development; after that time it is equally important to remove the support. Planting Depth Most plants have adapted their root growth to soil levels most conducive to maximum growth. After transplanting, the prepared soil becomes compacted and the heavy plants settle down to a depth greater than that to which they were accustomed. From observation it seems that a plant will adapt more quickly to slightly shallow planting rather than to being set too deeply. The only problem that may result from shallow planting is that the plant may be top-heavy and blow over. To prevent this, initial support or staking becomes critical so that the plant can sink new support roots. Fertilization newly planted specimen by apthe planting hole or mixing the material with the backfill. Often this causes more harm than good, for the chemicals easily bum or dehydrate sensitive young roots. During the first growing season the plant may be assisted with an occasional application of a liquid or soluble fertilizer applied with the irrigation water. If the soil is extremely dry it should be well watered before the liquid fertilizer is applied. Once the plant has been in place for a year and is somewhat established, it will benefit by supplemental granular fertilizer applied every second or third year to stimulate vigorous and healthy growth. Many people insist on fertilizing plying chemicals to the bottom of a I 241 Woody plants frequently are selected on the basis of their rapid growth and quick effect, but the owner subsequently provides no support for this vigorous growth in the form of supplemental nutrition. Slow growing trees and shrubs, generally the most successful over time, can be hastened into growth with periodic fertilization and in many instances will out-perform those rapid growing, unfertilized plants. If commercial agriculturists operated without catering to the nutritional needs and water requirements of their crops, we would be unable to feed the present world population. Most ornamental plants struggle along on their own and are blamed if they perform poorly; more often it is we who are at fault. As their guardians we must attend to their needs so they will thrive and produce the lush growth that cools, and the brilliant flowers that brighten our world. __ References Flemer, W. H., III, \"Is Bare-root Transplanting a Dying Art?\" American Nurseryman, Vol. 144 (5), September 1, 1976. Kozlowski, T. T. \"Effects of Transplanting and Site on Water Relations of Trees,\" American Nurseryman, Vol. 141 (10), May 1, 1975. Page, Nancy M., \"A Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree,\" Arnoldia, Vol. 35(5), September\/October 1973. Pellet, H., \"Effect of Soil Amendments on Growth of Landscape Plants,\" American Nurseryman, Vol. 134 (10), November 15, 1971. Pirone, P. P., Maintenance of Shade and Ornamental Trees. Oxford University Press, N.Y., 1948. Planting and Transplanting at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. A film which visually depicts the planting process. Available from the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11225. Transplanting Ornamental Trees and Shrubs. Home and Garden Bulletin 192. Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington 25, D.C. Price 35. Thompson, A. Robert, Transplanting Trees and Other Woody Plants. Tree Preservation Bulletin No. 1, Revised 1954. U.S. Department of the Interior and National Park Service. Out of print. Weiner, Michael A., Plant a Tree, A Working Guide to Regreening America. Collier Books, 1975. Well illustrated. Whitcomb, C. E., R. L. Byrnes, J. R. Shulte and J. D. Ward, \"What is a $5 Planting Hole?\" American Nurseryman. Vol. 144 (5), September 1,. ,. 1976. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Girdling Roots","article_sequence":3,"start_page":242,"end_page":247,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24702","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270af6b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Shaw, Kenneth","article_content":"Girdling by Roots KENNETH SHAW A problem now becoming apparent in many plantings and one that will be even more serious in the future is that of constricting and girdling roots. Girdling develops when the normal course of a root is deflected by a barrier, or when an unfavorable interface exists between the transplant's medium and the soil type at the planting site. A hyperplastic symptom termed sarcody, which is an abnormal swelling above or below a constricted organ, can be caused by girdling roots. When a root encircles the trunk above the soil's surface, the swelling usually occurs above the girdled area (Fig. 1 and 2). This type of damage is easily detected and corrected by cutting the girdling root cleanly, and dressing the exposed wounds with a tree paint. In other cases, the restricting root may be forced out of the way by the swelling of the main roots (Fig. 3), or the tree may grow over the offending roots (Fig. 4). Occasionally, the entwining surface roots may be normal and require no corrective treatment (Fig. 5). When a root encircles the main or tap root below the soil surface, the normal flaring of the trunk at ground level is checked; instead, the tree trunk rises straight up with no flare at the base. Girdling roots in this area can cause many problems. Plants become weak and have reduced vegetative growth due to restricted translocation of nutrients and water. Leaves are smaller, having a tendency to show nutrient deficiency symptoms and wilting during dry weather. Fruits are smaller and abscission is premature. The stability of the plant also may be affected. Instability is often noted shortly after planting, as soon as the wind has had a chance to blow the plant around, and results from binding of the buttress roots by an encircling root (Fig. 6) so that support begins lower than normal. Thus, top-heavy plants sway back and forth, pushing the soil away from the tree base and forming air pockets. This type of air pocket and those present around twisted, encircled roots provide an excellent microclimate for pest organisms, a condition that should not be encouraged. Container-grown plants probably offer the best example of girdling caused by deflection from a barrier, although the condition also is seen in street trees planted in compacted soil between the sidewalk and the road, and in forest trees growing over a hardpan. 242 243 Above: Fig. Below: Fig. I. 2. Girdling of Surface an ash's buttress root. roots encirclmg a maple tree. Photos. K. Shaw. 244 245 Containerized plants have become very popular because they are easy to handle, extend the planting season, and reduce root loss at transplanting time. The last is important with plants like magnolias, dogwoods, and cytisus which have fragile, fleshy root systems easily damaged by balling and burlapping. Girdling roots may also develop on bare-rooted transplants that have been crammed into a small hole, which results in twisted and circling roots. The proper method of handling plants is to dig a hole large enough to accommodate all roots after they have been straightened. The composition of the transplant's medium and the soil at the planting site is usually dissimilar. When a plant is merely slipped into a hole, with no melding of the soils, an abrupt soil interface is created. At transplanting time the two soils should be blended together, so that no drastic change occurs from one type to the other. Left above. Flg. over 3. Surface root approachzng a maple trunh; notlce swelling restricted portion. Below: Fig. 4. This maple tree has overcome a restricting surface root. Above: Fig. 5. Entwining surface roots of an American beech. Photos: K. Shaw. 246I The abrupt soil ing capacity of veloping roots. interface mainly affects the oxygen and water holdthe soil, which has a primary influence on the de- A soil interface problem is created when planting is done in moist clay soils. As the shovel cuts through the clay it slicks the sides of the hole, thus creating an impenetrable surface similar to that of a container. This condition can be remedied by scratching the hole's surface before planting. Grafted plants may suffer from being containerized because it is likely that the root stock was grown in a container for a year prior to grafting. When buying such plants, check to see if the plant material is pot bound; if it is, don't purchase the plant unless there is no alternative. Fig. 6. Pyracantha with support roots bound together has sent up a shoot of its own. Photo K. Shaw. by a girdling root that 247 encircling roots are not noticed until transplanting time, you to exchange the plant at the place of purchase, or you can remedy the situation yourself. This is done in a shaded area to protect the roots from direct sunlight (\"a minute in sun and the root's done\"). The plant should be watered first so that the soil ball will hold together after removal from the pot. The spiralling roots can easily be stretched out and cut off (Fig. 7). Dense clusters or mats of entwining roots (Fig. 8) that occupy nearly all the soil mass can be handled by making three slices spaced equally around the soil ball to cut any looping or encircling roots that may cause girdling later. The plant is now under stress and needs after-planting care, which involves shading for at least two weeks, and keeping the plant watered well may be able the first season. If the Left: Fig. 7. Spiralling Right: Fig. 8. Shallow roots of a containerxzed cuts are made seedling pine. through dense outer root mass to sever encircling roots. Photos P. Chvany. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Horticultural Trainees Program","article_sequence":4,"start_page":248,"end_page":250,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24703","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270b36f.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Horticultural Trainees Program by MARGO W. REYNOLDS For a number of years, the Arnold Arboretum has supplemented its ground maintenance staff in the summer with college students interested in botanical and horticultural careers who wished practical experience. Students have had the opportunity to work alongside veteran members of the grounds crew, learning the mechanics and techniques necessary to maintain and improve the living collection. A weekly rotation of duties exposed them to as many different maintenance jobs as was possible within the space of a summer. Fertilizing, spraying, pruning, weeding, mulching and transplanting have been but a few of the duties assigned. A week on the pick-up truck collecting trash has been considered a rite of passage for all; unglamorous though it is, it points out quite graphically that litter (and its effective control) are major problems in many arboreta that are heavily used by the public. A series of Friday morning lecture\/field trips soon became part of the program. Various staff members introduced facets of the Arboretum's diversified activities, such as the research facilities in Cambridge, the collections at the Case Estates, the herbarium, the educational programs, the Friends, and the Arboretum's publications. Field trips were taken to Mt. Auburn Cemetery, the Hunnewell Estate, the Suburban Experiment Station in Waltham, and the Franklin Park Zoo as well, to acquaint the students with other horticultural resources in the Greater Boston area. In 1975, these summer students were officially designated \"horticultural trainees.\" Evaluation forms distributed to the students at the close of the 1976 summer session were encouragingly candid and characterized by a certain amount of constructive criticism. It was particularly heartening to see the care with which many of the trainees filled out the evaluations. Oftentimes, where merely a v\/ would do, students took the time to write lengthy explanatory remarks and comments. As a result of last summer's questionnaires, the goals and content of the existing program were re-examined and evaluated. Under the supervision of Drs. Spongberg and Weaver, the staff worked throughout the past year to produce an academically-oriented program that 248 249 Second-year horticultural trainee Carohne Kehne learns Arboretum cedures. Photo M. Reynolds. lsbrary pro- would more realistically serve the needs of the students, nearly all of whom plan careers in botany and horticulture. As a result, this year's summer program represented a change in format and content, adding a new dimension to the horticultural trainees' preparation. The program has continued to give students the practical experience in grounds maintenance work considered so valuable by future employers. In addition, students have met for four hours each Wednesday morning as participants in an academic course entitled \"Botanical and Horticultural Practices at Arboreta.\" Upon successful completion of the course, each trainee will receive four college credits through the Harvard University Commission on Extension Studies. The course was designed to relate the botanical and horticultural knowledge of the students to its practical application in arboreta and botanical gardens. Topics considered included the principles of taxonomy and the classification of vascular plants, as well as special problems presented by plants in cultivation. A special section on woody ornamental plants in the landscape emphasized the application of botanical and ecological theory to the use of plants in the environment. The development and maintenance of living collections stressed horticultural practices and equipment. 250 As part of the course work, each student was expected to select, with instructor guidance, a research project to be conducted during the ten-week term. A written report on the investigation was required at the course's conclusion. Among areas of student interest this summer were a phenological study of flowering in certain deciduous trees, studies of the genera Indigofera and Physocarpus, and a project on economic entomology. A number of students worked on the development of interpretive labels for various of our collections; still others studied weed identification, and edible trees and shrubs. For all, staff and students alike, it has proved to be an educational summer. Student ]erald Shing tackles the prunang of an overgrown juniper. Photo. M. Reynolds. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":251,"end_page":252,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24700","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270ab6d.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"AftNOLDIA REVIEWS The Room of Delight. Oldrich Otypka. Co. Inc. 164 pages, illustrated. $15.00. Cranbury, N.J.: A. S. Bames and A Minnesota designer of heating and air-conditioning systems and a Mr. Otypka describes in this book the fulfillment of his longheld dream for a garden in his home. Most of the text is devoted to a description of the plants suitable for an indoor garden and the details of their culture. The author's own photographs, some more effective than others, and some in color, illustrate several of the plants. An excellent section of plants that may be wick-watered, and lists of plants that are insect-free, sources for plants and greenhouse structures and allied equipment are also included. Regrettably, the details of the room itself and its requirements cover a scant dozen pages. Even the photographs of the author's room of delight do not give a clear idea of its extent and plan. B. JUNE HUTCHINSON plant lover, E. f. dur ~ont,~otaniste. Norman B. Wilkinson. Charlottesvllle:- ThE lJntversity Press of Virginia. 139 pages, illustrated. $7.50 hardcover; $3.95 paperback. _ of great horticultural significance in American of Longwood, Winterthur and Eleutherian Mills are a testament to their interest in horticulture and garden design. This work is an historical and anecdotal biography of Eleuthere Irenee du Pont, a French ancestor of these American du Ponts and the man who laid the family's horticultural foundations. A boyhood interest in gardening in his native France became a consuming interest throughout E. I. du Pont's adulthood in America. Strong ties with his homeland resulted in shipments of numerous seeds of American trees and shrubs to France. His strong horticultural leadership affected successive generations of the family and resulted in t.ie establishment of the famous gardens with which many of us are familiar. The author is Director of Research for one of the du Pont foundations and his account is interesting, lbeit a bit worshipful. He has constructed his story from family memorabilia, anecdotal accounts, letters, and other documents. Parts of it are fascinating reading, as when we discover that in addition to sending seeds of such American favorites as sourwood, sweetgum, wintergreen and mayflower to France, du Pont also sent prodigious quantities of poison ivy. Du Pont is portrayed as what we might now call an \"apecatos\" (operator) and his wheelings and dealings with the French upper class, and Josephine Bonaparte in particular, make enjoyable reading. Visitors to any of the du Pont gardens will find value in this book, which is richly illustrated with fine quality photographs. This reviewer would have liked to have seen a geneology and a brief chronological history of the family included as well as a more coherent reader orientation in the first chapter, but these are small failings in an otherwise intriguing book. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE was The du Pont family gardening history and the gardens 251 252 The Complete Garden. Arnold Leggett and Pat Falge. Willits, Calif.: Oliver Press. 246 pages, illustrated. $3.95, paperback. This book is beyond my understanding so I quote the introduction to exits purpose: It is \"to provide sources for those seeds and tools which the homesteader may wish to use in bringing food from the earth.\" The book consists of two alphabetical indices. The Master Index lists the products, with the companies offering each item, and a company index supplies information about each company, including a list of available items. The logic behind the idea is obvious, but not so obvious is the criteria used to select the companies to be listed in the book. Items such as environmental calendars and Hawaiian perfume, to name but two, do not seem relevant to bringing food from the earth. Also confusing is the fact that the Master Index lists different sources under Latin and common names of many plants. Thus, adjacent entries for Gentian and Gentiana have no common source. Novice gardeners may find something of interest in The Complete Garden but those with experience will have better use for $3.95. SHELIA MAGULLION plain Wildflowers of Hong Kong. Beryl M. Walden and Shiu Ying Hu. Hong Kong: Sino-American Publishing Co. 83 pages plus 83 plates. U.S. $25.00. H.K. $125.00. Paintings for this book were done from living specimens of 255 plants of Hong Kong, a few cultivated, a few adventive weeds, but mostly the wild flowers as trees, shrubs and vines. The plants are pictured as seen and are without leaves when appropriate, some insect eaten, some in flower or in fruit. The drawings and reproductions are excellent and the volume includes many plants not commonly illustrated. The textual material comprises scientific and common names in English and Chinese, ecological notes, brief descriptions and often economic uses. Entries are arranged by the month in which the material was collected, and reference is given to the plate or plates. Some plants are shown two or three times. Each figure is numbered and a numerical list is supplied, along with a bilingual glossary, an arrangement of plants according to the Engler system, and an index by page and plate. This is an attractive volume and one needed for the plants of Hong Kong and the New Territories. It is not a field manual, however, and one hopes for a future paperback volume of smaller size. One wishes for an easier reference to the family for unfamiliar genera, also. The dust jacket is truly a work of art and, with several of the plates which illustrate a single plant, should be made available for framing and individual use. The publisher has offered to supply copies autographed by the artist and the author if the order is placed through the Arnold Arboretum. However, this offer must be of limited duration. RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23333","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0708927.jpg","title":"1977-37-5","volume":37,"issue_number":5,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wildflowers from East and West","article_sequence":1,"start_page":169,"end_page":197,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24699","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270ab28.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":4,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Wildflowers from East and West by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Soon after plant explorers started bringing their specimens out of Japan, it became obvious to plant geographers and other botanists that the flora of that country was similar in many ways to the flora of eastern North America, and to a lesser extent, that of western North America as well. Asa Gray, Professor of Natural History at Harvard, was one of the first to draw the attention of the scientific community to this phenomenon, and he enumerated a list of about ninety genera of plants that occurred in two of these three areas and nowhere else on earth. As the rich flora of China became known, a similar relationship became obvious. The reasons for the similarity of the flora of such widely separated geographic areas appears to have begun during the Tertiary era of geologic time (starting more or less seventy million years ago), when the climate of the earth was much different from today, and a rich forest of quite uniform composition covered much of the Northern Hemisphere. As climate changed and glaciation occurred, and as the continents became separated, much of this forest disappeared. Relicts remained primarily in eastern North America, Pacific North America, and eastern Asia, where the climate remained relatively stable. But the relict floras were then widely separated, and the plants of each geographic area evolved separately, resulting in similar but not identical floras. As a result, although certain genera may be common to two of the three areas, the representative species are often slightly different. In some cases, evolution proceeded a bit further, and the related plants are now classified in different genera. In other cases, a group became extinct in all but one of the areas. Several years ago, I began to gather a collection of plants representative of this ancient Arcto-Tertiary forest, as it is commonly known. Following is an account of my experiences in growing some of these as well as descriptions of others I hope to grow someday. I have included plants from only a few selected families; all are herbaceous rather than woody. I shall call them wildflowers, a term that I find useful, although many other people consider it nebulous, misleading or unscientific. First of all I offer a word of warning, or perhaps a tantalization. Many of the Asiatic plants are rare in cultivation in this country so they are difficult to obtain unless one is willing to import them from 169 170 abroad. A application plant import permit may at the following address: Permit Unit USDA be obtained by writing for an APHIS, PPQ Room 638 Federal Building Hyattsville, Md. 20782 At the end of this article I have included a list of nurseries, together with a few of their specialties, where I have been able to find some of these very fine plants. Second, I offer a short general description of the growing conditions under which I have been working. Many people might consider wildflowers difficult to grow in anything other than a \"woodsy\" situation. My gardens have been in the City of Boston, in anything but such a setting. The first was in a small backyard, under the high shade of a White Ash and in the additional shade of the house for the entire afternoon. The whole yard had previously been a sandlot, so large amounts of organic matter were dug in. Most plants, particularly orchids, did well, although frequent watering was necessary, particularly in the early spring before the ash leafed out. I recently moved my garden to a new location, most of it under the low shade of an old apple tree. The soil had previously supported a lawn, and it was quite heavy. I dug in a half-ton of sand and a good bit of organic matter. Again, the garden appears to be very successful, and it does not require a great deal of supplementary watering. A smaller part of my new garden is at the edge of a clump of hemlocks. The soil is light, humusy, and a bit dry. My only problem there has been the unidirectional sunlight, which causes the taller plants to \"stretch.\" The Arum Family (Araceae) is a large group of plants that has reached its greatest diversity in tropical regions. Many members of the family, for example Philodendron, Dieffenbachia and Anthurium, are among the most commonly grown foliage plants in our homes; others are familiar wildflowers in temperate regions. Arisaema Plants of the Arum Family are easy to recognize because of their distinctive type of inflorescence. The individual flowers are small and inconspicuous, but they are arranged on a fleshy spike technically termed a spadix. This structure is surrounded or even covered by a modified and commonly colorful leaf known as a spathe. The familiar Jack-in-the-pulpit (Arisaema) will serve as an illustrative example. The \"jack\" is the spadix and the \"pulpit\" is the spathe. This genus of about one hundred fifty species is most diversified in temperate and subtropical Asia, but a few species are native to eastern North America. Most authorities have considered our common Jack- 171 in-the-pulpit to be a single species, Arisaema triphyllum, variable in the shape, size, and color of the spathe. Now many botanists divide these plants into several species, restricting A. triphyllum to include only those plants with the spathe usually dark inside and not furrowed (without longitudinal ridges) on the outside, and with the hood horizontal rather than arched. At any rate, these are curiously attractive plants with their distinctive inflorescences followed by clusters of brilliant scarlet berries and their bold, three-parted leaves. The large, fleshy tuber from which they grow has given rise to an alternative common name, Indian Turnip. Although the tuber is edible, it and all other parts of the plant contain crystals of calcium oxalate which, unless they are destroyed by repeated boilings, are excruciatingly irritating to the delicate linings of our digestive tract. Closely related but quite different in appearance and much less common, the Green Dragon, Arisaema dracontium, is native to rich woods through much of the eastern United States and adjacent Canada The leaves are rather curiously constructed, with five to fifteen leaflets of greatly varying size. The inflorescence is even more curious with its elongated spadix, the shorter flower-bearing portion tightly enclosed by the slender spathe. Most of the forty or so Japanese species are generally similar to Arisaema triphyllum, although the spathes are variously colored, and the leaves often have more than three leaflets. Others, however, are bizarrely different. Arisaema thunbergii and its closest relatives are almost lurid in appearance. The spathe of A. urashima, one of these species I have grown, is large and dark reddish-purple streaked white, with a white blotch on the inside of the hood. The spadix is dark redpurple and greatly elongate, projecting as much as a foot from the spathe. The solitary leaf has a stout, purple-blotched stalk; the blade itself is divided into two parts, the axis of each strongly curved with the leaflets arranged only on the outer edge. Arisaema sikokianum, on the other hand, is delicately beautiful. It is a small plant, less than a foot tall, and the inflorescence is well developed before the leaves expand. The spathe has a narrow, dark purple tube and an erect hood that is purple streaked with white. The spadix is pure white and the tip is expanded into a ball-shaped structure. The leaves have three to five leaflets, each one with a central, paler blotch. None of the Asiatic species is generally available in this country. Many of the Japanese species should be hardy even here in New England with some protection in the winter, although I say this from their distribution in the wild rather than from experience since even the two species that I have been able to procure have yet to pass the test of a single winter outdoors. The Himalayan species, including some of the most wonderful of all, are probably tender. 172 is of the easiest culture and it may even beIt is not fussy about soil, and it will flower well in moderate shade to nearly full sun. Arisaema dracontium prefers moister conditions with more shade, and so, I suspect, do the Asiatic Arisaema triphyllum come weedy. species. Symplocarpus and Lysichiton - The plants commonly called Skunk Cabbage are included in two different genera: Symplocarpus, with two or three species in eastern North America and eastern Asia, and Lysichiton, with two species in western North America and eastern Asia. They are similar plants with their thick spadices, colored spathes, and very large basal leaves appearing with or after the inflorescences. All are plants of moist to mucky soil, and they require the same for successful cultivation. Symplocarpus foetidus is the common Skunk Cabbage of the eastern United States. Its fleshy, reddish-purple spathes variously streaked and flecked with yellow-green usually poke out of the still frozen soil before the end of February in the Northeast. Their odor when crushed, and the large leaves that follow them by about a month, are the source of the plants' common name. The Japanese S. renifolius is so similar that it is often classified as a variety of our plant. The other Japanese species, S. nipponicus, differs in the shape of the leaves and in the fact that the leaves appear with the inflorescences. Neither of the Japanese plants is in cultivation to my knowledge. The genus Lysichiton differs from Symplocarpus in the following obvious characters: The spadix of the former is longer and narrower, the spathe is not fleshy and is solid white or yellow, and the \"skunky\" odor is absent. Lysichiton americanum is native to the Pacific Northwest. It is truly a handsome plant with its lemon-yellow spathes that may stand nearly a foot tall. It is not an easy plant here in the Northeast, although a clump at the Will C. Curtis Garden in the Woods, Framingham, Mass., has flourished and flowered well for many years. The similar L. camtschatcense, with white spathes, is common in northeastern Asia It should be hardy here in New England, and is available from a few wildflower nurseries. The Lily Family contains some of the most wonderful of woodland plants, and it is almost impossible for me to imagine a wildflower garden without a generous representation from this group. A number of genera, for example Uvularia, the Bellworts or Merrybells, and Medeola, the Indian Cucumber Root, are endemic to the eastern United States; that is, they occur nowhere else. Others are represented also in the western United States and eastern Asia, and my discussion here centers on some of these. Trillium The largest and most diverse to limited growing one genus is Trillium, of course. If I were group of plants to the exclusion of all others, 173 Left Trillium albidum. Right: Trillium discolor Photos. R. Weaver. I probably would choose this one. The Latin name of the genus is derived from the fact that the parts of the plants are in threes three leaves, petals, sepals, and stigmas, and six stamens. It also indicates a major difference between Trilliums and most other members of the Lily Family: the fact that the sepals and petals are very different in color and structure rather than being similar, as in the true Lilies which appear to have six \"petals.\" Trilliums are easily divided into two groups of species, one in which the flowers are sessile (stalkless) and appear to arise directly from the junction of the leaves. In these species, the petals usually stand erect and the leaves are commonly mottled with brown and\/or silvery-green. The other group contains species with flowers that are at the end of a distinct stalk and therefore are carried well above or below the leaves. The petals are spreading or even reflexed, and the 7 .` leaves are never mottled. The species of sessile Trilliums have been the source of confusion for botanists and gardeners alike. A recent study recognized twentytwo species, all of them American, and many very similar in general appearance. The most commonly grown species appear to be Trillium sessile and T. cuneatum, with maroon petals, and T. luteum, with yellow-green petals. I shall limit my discussion here to some of the less common species that I have grown. Trillium discolor has a very limited distribution in the mountains of North and South Carolina. It is one of the most attractive of the sessile-flowered species native to the eastern United States, as well as 174 of the most distinctive. Its most outstanding features are its pale yellow petals which are almost paddle-shaped; that is, with a broad, rounded upper portion gradually tapering to a narrow base. Also, the stamens are maroon in contrast to the greenish ones of other yellow-flowered species. This plant is not available commercially to my knowledge; I collected my plants in the wild. Five species of sessile-flowered Trilliums are native to the western United States. The most distinctive, but the least showy, is Trillium petiolatum, with unmottled, almost round, long-stalked leaves that are held barely off the ground. The maroon flowers are almost hidden by the leaves. A very attractive species, on the other hand, and also one with unmottled leaves, T. albidum has flowers with white to white-chartreuse petals. It is often listed in catalogues as T. chloropetalum, another western species I have not grown. Trillium angustipetalum, as the species name implies, is distinctive because of its very narrow petals. They are bronzy-maroon in color and may be as long as 3 inches. I have received this species several times as either T. chloropetalum var. rubrum or T. sessile var. californicum. Since the identity of all these species is somewhat confused, it is very difficult to predict what will arrive when \"T. sessile\" is ordered from one a nursery. Trillium vaseyi. Photo: R. Weaver. 175 The species of Trillium with flowers on stalks are perhaps more familiar than the preceding to most gardeners. All but four species are American. The Himalayan T. govanianum is distinctive on account of its narrow petals that give the flower a spidery appearance. I have seen no reference to this species being cultivated in this country, although it is occasionally grown in Europe. The three Japanese species should all be hardy in New England. Perhaps the most unusual of these (but certainly not the showiest) is T. smallii, which normally has flowers without petals. Occasionally one, two or even three maroon petals are present, and then the flowers somewhat resemble those of our native T. erectum. The most attractive of the Japanese species is T. kamschaticum, a plant with broad leaves and erect flowers with white petals. It closely resembles the white-flowered form of T. erectum except that its ovary is cream-colored rather than maroon and there is no tinge of maroon at the base of the petals. The last species, T. tschonoskii, is similar in appearance to the preceding, except that the flowers are smaller, the petals barely exceeding the sepals in length. All three of the Japanese species are now available in this country, and T. kamschaticum has been for some time. This last is the only species that I have grown at present. It presents no difficulties in cultivation. Most of the eastern American species are familiar to wildflower gardeners, so only a few will be discussed here. Those that hold their flowers below the leaves are confused taxonomically. Trillium vaseyi is the most distinctive of the four species which I shall recognize here, and is, in my opinion, one of the finest of the entire genus. It is the last species to bloom in my garden; the large, sweetly scented flowers with their broad, overlapping burgundy petals streaked with green on the outside usually open during the last week of May. They unfortunately are not held to their best advantage, being almost completely hidden from above by the broad leaves. This rather rare native of the Carolina mountains has been classified as a variety of Trillium erectum, but about the only characteristics it shares with that species are the color of the flowers and the shape of the leaves. The delicate southeastern Trillium catesbaei (often listed as T. stylosum) just precedes T. vaseyi in bloom. It is often confused with the two following species, so its distinctive features will be stressed. The leaves are quite narrow so they do not completely obscure the flower from above. The petals are pink or white changing to pink with age, and they have a distinctly wavy margin; in addition they reflex backwards in a gentle arc. The anthers are bright yellow. Trillium flexipes and T. cernuum have been considered to be synonymous, but they appear quite distinct to me. Both are more northern in their distribution than T. catesbaei. Both also have broad leaves, somewhat like those of T. erectum, and their petals are white or pink. The flower of T. flexipes is generally held more or less horizontally rather than nodding and below the foliage. The petals 176 are not wavy-margined, and they reflex backwards in a gentle arc. The ovary and anthers are creamy-white. The flower of T. cernuum is completely obscured from above by the foliage. The petals are not wavy-margined and they reflex abruptly rather than gently. The anthers and ovary are maroon or pink. The last two species bloom about the same time and probably hybridize, so intermediates may occur. Most Trilliums are of easy culture. Basically, deciduous shade and any good, light, slightly acid soil that is rich in organic matter are all that is required for successful cultivation of these wonderful plants. Scoliopus A close relative of Trillium, the genus Scoliopus is native to the moist lowland forests of Oregon and California. Two species, S. bigelovii and S. hallii, are known. These are odd plants with two basal leaves variously spotted with brown and one to three longstalked, ill-scented flowers with erect, threadlike petals and much broader sepals that are basically dingy yellow with purple stripes. The flowers of S. bigelovii, or \"Stinking Willie,\" are almost an inch across. This is the only species that is commercially available. I have tried it several times, and although it has bloomed, it has not persisted for more than three years. Many of the other plants from its native habitat are difficult to grow in our climate. They appear to be reasonably winter hardy, but the New England summers are too hot for them. Disporum The species of Disporum are native to eastern and western North America and eastern and southern Asia. For the most they are not showy plants, but their delicate flowers have a certain charm, and their attractive foliage remains in good condition throughout the growing season. The two species native to the eastern United States are similar in habit, both ultimately growing to about 18 inches tall. The Yellow or Common Mandarin (D. lanuginosum) ranges throughout the Appalachians from New York to Alabama. The nodding flowers with narrow, greenish-yellow segments are not conspicuous and are somewhat obscured by the foliage, but the bright orange berries are attractive in the fall. The closely related Spotted Mandarin (D. maculatum) occurs over the same range as the preceding species, but is a much rarer plant. It is also much more handsome, with its white or cream-colored flowers dusted with minute purple spots. The greenish-white berries are densely covered with short, wartlike protuberances. I consider this to be one of the finest plants in my garden but unfortunately I know of no nursery source where it may be obtained. Above right: Disporum Photos smithii. Below: R. Weaver. Disporum maculatum. 177 178 Of the three or four species native to the western United States, I have been successful with Disporum smithii. This is the smallest of the hardy species, seldom growing more than 8 inches tall in my garden. The greenish-white flowers are much more tubular in shape than are those of the preceding species, the segments spreading only at thir tips. The bright orange berries, almost half an inch in diameter, are showier than the flowers. Of the Asiatic species, only the Japanese Disporum sessile is at all commonly cultivated in this country. The plant and even the flowers closely resemble our native Wild Oats (Uvularia sessifolia), of a different but related genus. The form most commonly grown is one with white variegation on the margin of the leaves. The giant of the hardy species, D. flavum may grow to be nearly 3 feet tall. This native of China is quite showy. The narrowly bell-shaped yellow flowers become apparent soon after the leaves of the developing shoot begin to unfold, but they become fully exposed only when the plant reaches its mature height. All of the species of Disporum mentioned above have been hardy and vigorous for a number of years in my garden. They thrive under the same conditions described above for Trilliums. I have tried growing several species from seed without success, probably because the seed was not fresh, but seedlings of D. lanuginosum and D. smithii have appeared in my garden. ' Stenanthium The genus Stenanthium is one unfamiliar to many wildflower gardeners, but it includes one of the finest herbaceous plants native to the eastern United States. Stenanthium gramineum var. robustum (sometimes considered a distinct species, S. robustum), Featherbells or Featherfleece, blooms in August, a valuable attribute in itself. The hundreds of small, white, narrowly bell-shaped flowers are grouped into a loose panicle as much as 2 feet tall. The inflorescence towers above the long narrow leaves on a slender stalk, the tip often being as much as 5 feet above the ground. The flowers turn green as the fruits are developing, and they remain ornamental until frost. The typical S. gramineum is a similar but much smaller and less showy plant, but is still well worth cultivating. Both plants are distributed throughout the southern Appalachians, but var. robustum ranges into the Midwest and as far north as Pennsylvania. They grow best in nearly full sun as long as the soil is not too dry. In more heavily shaded situations, the inflorescences tend to be weak and floppy. The western species, Stenanthium occidentale, is a plant of streamsides and boggy places in the mountains from British Columbia to Montana and northern California. It is quite different in appearance from our eastern species, being very slender and seldom more than 179 Disporum flavum. Photo: R. Weaver. foot tall. The inflorescence is a simple raceme and the flowers are bronzy-green, giving rise to the common name \"Bronze Bells.\" I have a few seedlings of this species and they have proved to be hardy. They are less than vigorous, but I have them in a fairly dry situation. The remaining species, S. sachalinense, is a poorly known plant native to the island of Sakhalin, north of Japan. It is not in cultivation. The American species are easily grown from seed, a two-month period of cold stratification being necessary for germination. a Clintonia The six species of Clintonia are equally divided between eastern North America, western North America, and Asia. The Bluebead Lily, C. borealis, is one of the most characteristic plants of the coniferous forests of the northern United States and southern Canada east of the Great Plains. It is an attractive plant with its two or three broad, glossy basal leaves and loose umbels of greenish-yellow flowers followed by clusters of berries that are about as blue as anything in the plant world. Cultivation is easy as long as a cool, acid soil and shade are provided. My clump has been vigorous for a number of years, but flowering has been unreliable. Plants of all Clintonias should be moved soon after flowering because, like some other members of the Lily Family, the shoots of the present season are annual but produce offsets which will in turn give rise to next season's plants. The Speckled Wood Lily, Clintonia umbellulata, is a common plant in the rich deciduous forests of the southern Appalachians. The Clintonia umbellulata. Photo: R. Weaver. leaves are similar to those of the preceding species, but the flowers are held in much tighter umbels, and the segments are white, tipped or dusted with purple. The berries, which are seldom formed in my garden, are black or blue-black. This is a most satisfactory plant in cultivation, flowering well and soon producing clumps of attractive foliage under cultural conditions that are suitable for Trilliums. The species of western North America are a bit more difficult to cultivate here in the East, again because they are plants of the moist forests of the Pacific Coast and intolerant of our hot summers. The Queen Cup, Clintonia uniflora, differs from other members of its genus in that its large, white, upfacing flowers are borne singly rather than in clusters. This is a very beautiful plant, often forming large clumps in the wild. Unfortunately, I have not had it persist for more than a season although I have tried it several times in several different situations in my garden. Clintonia uniflora does grow in the mountains of western Montana, and I suspect that material from there might be easier to cultivate; most of the wonderful coniferous trees from the Pacific Northwest have proved satisfactory here at the Arnold Arboretum only if they were collected in this eastern, more continental outlier of their ranges. Perhaps the most beautiful species in the genus, Clintonia andrewsiana is native to the Redwood forests of California. The plant is more like our eastern species than the preceding, but the flowers are red. A clump persisted in my garden for several years, but it never flowered. 181 The Asiatic species are closely related and have been considered synonymous. Clintonia alpina is native to the Himalayas, and C. udensis is widespread through Japan, China and eastern Siberia. They are evidently quite attractive plants, although I have never seen them in bloom. The flowers are white, about an inch across, and are arranged in racemes rather than umbels. The plants are somewhat taller than our species, sometimes standing nearly 18 inches tall in flower. I have not seen reference to either species being cultivated in this country, although C. udensis is occasionally grown in England. This species should be hardy in New England, and as a plant of coniferous forests should require about the same cultural conditions as C. borealis. Helonias and Heloniopsis - One of the rarer members of the Lily Family native to the United States and the only species of its genus, Helonias bullata, the Swamp Pink, occurs in scattered localities in swamps and bogs from New York to Georgia. It is perhaps most abundant in the Pine Barrens of New Jersey. It is an intriguing plant to me, and one I have always wanted to grow, but I have not yet found a source. The long, narrow basal leaves are numerous and evergreen, and they lie flat on the ground after flowering. From the rosette arises a stout, hollow stalk 10 to 18 inches tall, at the tip of which is borne a short, dense raceme of flowers with a most appealing combination of colors the sepals and petals are pink and the protruding anthers are blue. The plant apparently requires abundant moisture for successful cultivation, and sun or partial shade. Once established it can be quite persistent, as evidenced by the fine colony at the Will C. Curtis Garden in the Woods, headquarters of the New England Wildflower Society. A closely related genus, Heloniopsis, includes a few species of beautiful plants native to Japan, Korea and Formosa. I have grown H. breviscapa (or H. orientalis var. breviscapa) for several years, and it appears completely hardy although it flowered for the first time this past spring. Besides being attractive, the flowers of this Japanese native appear in early April. If my plant is typical, the stalk of the inflorescence is very short at flowering time, and the flowers seem to be nestled among the flat rosette of evergreen basal leaves. The stalk elongates gradually, and by the time the flowers wither, it may be 6 inches tall. The flowers themselves are bell-shaped but with narrow segments that are pink, beautifully accentuating the blue-lavender stamens and pistil. I have had good luck with my plant in light, humusy soil at the edge of a grove of hemlocks. A number of our native orchids, including Pogonia, Tipularia, Galearis (Orchis spectabilis) and Arethusa, have close counterparts in the Japanese flora. I shall limit my discussion here, however, to those species I have had experience in growing. . 182I Liparis Liparis is a large cosmopolitan genus of about two hundred fifty species of terrestrial and epiphytic herbs. One of these, Liparis lilifolia, the Lily-leaved Twayblade, is a familiar, if somewhat uncommon, orchid of the deciduous forests of the eastern United States. It is one of our few native orchids in which the base of the stem is swollen and modified as a pseudobulb, the usual condition in the tropical, epiphytic orchids so commonly grown as greenhouse plants. Although not showy, this is a charming plant with its odd flowers dominated by the flat, broad, almost translucent brown-purple lip. It is also an orchid of easy culture, now having flourished and bloomed reliably for several years in my garden in a light, rich soil and deciduous shade. The nearly identical Liparis makinoana is widely distributed in Japan. This species is more robust than our native one, with longer spikes and larger flowers. It is difficult to obtain in this country, and I have only recently found a Japanese source for the plant. It should be hardy, and should require about the same cultural conditions as our native species. Cypripedium The genus Cypripedium, the Ladyslippers, contains some of the showiest orchids native to the North Temperate Zone. As in all orchids, the third or central petal is expanded into a structure termed a \"lip.\" Unlike other orchids, the lip in the Ladyslipper flower is inflated and pouchlike, sometimes resembling a slipper hence the common name of the genus. The typically hairy leaves of these plants are characterized by having several large and conspicuous longitudinal veins, and they appear as if they had been folded. This character is enough to separate them at a glance from the greenhouse Ladyslippers which are now classified in the genus Paphiopedilum and are native to tropical Asia. Between thirty and forty species (depending on whose taxonomy you follow) are native across much of North America and Eurasia, with a concentration in Eastern Asia. The familiar Yellow Ladyslipper (Cypripedium calceolus), represented by several varieties, is the most widely distributed species. The var. calceolus is native throughout North Temperate Eurasia, although it is now rare or extinct in many parts of its original range. The large-flowered var. pubescens, with yellow-green lateral petals, and the smaller flowered var. parviflorum, with brown-purple petals, originally occurred in forest areas through much of the United States and Canada, although the latter plant is more northern in distribution. These last two varieties intergrade to some extent, both in the size of the flowers and the color of the petals. The exotic but delicate beauty of the Yellow Ladyslippers, plus their ease of culture, has made these plants popular subjects for the wild- 183 Cypripedium calceolus var. pubescens. Photo: R. Weaver. 184 Cypripedium japonicum. Photo: R. Weaver. 185 flower garden. They are perhaps the easiest native orchids to cultivate, and they will succeed and even increase in ordinary garden soil as long as there is not vigorous root competition from other herbaceous plants. It should be noted that they will need to be watered frequently during the springtime if grown in sandy soil, and that a high deciduous shade is ideal. All of the varieties reportedly grow best in neutral or slightly alkaline soil, but I have had excellent luck in our acidic New England soil, even though the plants more seem to be about vigorous now that I have added a few pieces of mortheir roots. tar rubble The other eastern American species of Cypripedium often present some difficulties for successful cultivation. The Pink Ladyslipper or Moccasin Flower (Cypripedium acaule) is notoriously difficult, and the various tips for successful cultivation have not worked for me. The delightful C. candidum, the Small White Ladyslipper, is a rare plant and should not be attempted by anyone who has not had success with other species. It is reportedly easy to grow, requiring a good bit of sun. I have had only one plant of this species. It has persisted for several years, but has yet to flower. The Showy Ladyslipper, C. reginae, certainly among the finest of the genus, also is a light lover. It needs some moisture to do well, but soggy conditions invariably is cause it to rot. The diminutive Ram's Head unique , appears soil to which peat has been added and a site with rather dense shade, such as under hemlocks or Rhododendrons. One plant at least has flowered two out of three years under such conditions in my garden. This species is native in scattered localities in the northeastern and north-central United States and adjacent Canada, and also in eastern China. The Chinese plants differ from ours in a few minor characteristics, and have been classified as a separate species, C. plectrochilon. As far as I can determine, these plants have never been brought into cultivation. A few species are native to the western United States, but I shall mention only one here. Cypripedium montanum, the Mountain Ladyslipper, is native to the mountains from southern Alaska to central California and Wyoming This to me is the most beautiful of the American species. The brown-purple lateral petals are widely spreading and the slender pouch appears to be made of fine white porcelain. Otherwise it somewhat resembles C. calceolus var. parviflorum, except that a single plant may carry as many as three of the exquisite flowers. Unfortunately this species is not particularly easy to cultivate. It apparently grows best with cool soil about its roots, so planting in rather dense shade would be best. I have had a plant flower for two years under a Rhododendron, but it eventually died out. Ladyslipper (Cypripedium arietinum) purple-veined, oddly shaped pouch. In cultivation it particularly susceptible to rot, so I would recommend a light in its 186 Only a few of the wonderful Asiatic cultivated in this country, New England; none are The widespread Eurasian C. macranthum and its varieties, and the Himalayan C. cordigerum are being grown, however, by a few local enthusiasts, but I have been unable to obtain healthy plants. Perhaps more dramatic than beautiful, the Japanese C. japonicum is unusual in the genus in having a pair of broad, fanlike leaves at the top of a short stem. The striking flower, arising from between the leaves, somewhat resembles that of our Pink Ladyslipper. The color is basically yellow-green with red spots, except for the pouch which is white with red streaks and spots. Unlike our native species, C. japonicum grows from a slender creeping rhizome. I received a small plant of this species from England three years ago. It has prospered, and this year, to my delight, it flowered. As soon as the shoot appeared, I started squeezing it gently, as I do all my Ladyslippers and Trilliums, hoping to find a flower bud. I could hardly contain my anticipation from the first day I could be certain that the hard lump within the folded leaves would actually produce a flower. The plant has been under Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and a year ago was moved under a group of hemlocks where the soil is light and humusy and quite acidic. I have watered it occasionally through the summers, and have always protected it with about 6 inches of pine needles in the winter. species of Cypripedium are although many would be hardy even in available commercially to my knowledge. Goodyera The forty or so species of Goodyera are widely distributed in the Northern Hemisphere. They are low, evergreen, rhizomatous herbs with mostly basal leaves that are various shades of green with paler green mottling or venation. The flowers of most species are small and whitish and are borne in dense spikes well above the foliage. The mottled leaves and the habit of the plants have given rise to the common name \"Rattlesnake Plantain.\" Four species are native to North America. One of these, G. pubescens, the Downy Rattlesnake Plantain, is one of the commonest orchids in the eastern United States. Another, G. repens, has a circumboreal distribution; that is, it ranges around the world at northern latitudes. Of the several Japanese species, I have grown Goodyera macrantha. This native of eastern and southern Japan is very different in appearance from our native species. The plants have a short, somewhat creeping stem and the leaves are a deep, velvety-green with a pale green central stripe. The inflorescence is very short-stalked and the two to four flowers are almost an inch long. My plants is growing in dryish soil under hemlocks and it survived the past winter with a generous mulch of pine needles. The remaining orchids to be discussed here are Asiatic species that do not have close relatives in the United States. All, however, I 187 are worthwhile if somewhat challenging subjects for the wildflower garden. Bletilla The first, Bletilla striata, often listed as the \"Hardy Chinese Orchid,\" is readily available from commercial sources in this country. This native of China and Japan is an exceptionally attractive plant, both in flower and afterwards. The plants may attain a height of 18 inches in flower, with two or three bold, strongly ribbed leaves that may be a foot long and 3 inches broad. The 1 ~\/2- to 2-inch, rose-purple flowers are borne in loose spikes of three to seven and individually resemble a Cattleya, the commonest corsage orchid, in general form. Bletilla is probably not hardy without protection in the Boston area. However, I have had several plants outdoors for three years, and although they have increased threefold, they flowered for the first time this season, every shoot having produced an inflorescence. The plants are situated directly by the house with a southern exposure, in heavy and not particularly rich soil, and partially shaded by a pear tree. I have mulched them with about 6 inches of pine needles during the winter. Cymbidium The genus Cymbidium contains about forty species of terrestrial and epiphytic herbs native primarily in the Old World tropics. The numerous commercial hybrids are among the most spectacular of orchids. While perusing Ohwi's Flora of Japan, I discovered that one species, C. goeringii, is native in that country as far north as 42, about the latitude of Boston, so I suspected that it might be hardy here. I obtained a plant from Japan during the summer of 1976 and planted it in my garden at the base of a rock in shallow soil over a 3-inch layer of pebbles. During this past winter I protected it with about 8 inches of pine needles, and to my delight when I uncovered it this spring I found that only the end portions of the old leaves had sustained any damage at all; the new growth was firm and green. It is too early to tell whether or not the plant will flower, but to have had it survive even one winter outdoors is exciting indeed. Cymbidium goeringii, is admittedly one of the least spectacular of its genus, but it and its numerous forms and cultivars are extensively cultivated by the Japanese. The plant itself resembles most of the other Cymbidiums, with short, ovoid pseudobulbs and long, narrow, evergreen leaves. Unlike most of the other species, the flower, bascially green and white, and 2 to 3 inches broad, is borne singly rather than in a long, multiflowered spike. Calanthe Calanthe is another genus of greenhouse orchids with hardy or semi-hardy species. Three of these, C. nipponica, C. discolor and C. 188 189 island of Hokkaido at latitudes I have tried C. discolor, a deciduous species. A plant survived last winter outdoors with a mulch of pine needles, but at the time of writing (20 May) it had only begun to make growth, so further observations are not possible at this time. The Barberry Family (Berberidaceae) includes a number of herbaceous genera, some of which have been classified in separate smaller families (e.g., the Mayapples in the Podophyllaceae), but they all will be discussed together here. torifera, are native to the Japanese comparable to that of Boston. Podophyllum The Mayapples are perhaps the best known of this group, and indeed Podophyllum peltatum is one of the common wildflowers in deciduous woods through much of the eastern United States. It is as typical a plant of the virgin forests in the Great Smoky Mountains as it is of the small woodlots so common in the mid-Atlantic States. The large, umbrella-like, deeply lobed leaves, two per plant on flowering individuals, hide the solitary, large white flower and the fleshy yellow fruit that follows it. Although the creeping rhizomes are seriously poisonous if eaten, the fruit is edible when ripe. The remaining species in the genus, Podophyllum emodi, is a plant of the Himalayas (var. emodi) and the mountains of western China (var. chinense). This is an even more attractive plant than our native one, and certainly deserves to be more widely cultivated than it is at present. The most obvious difference between P. emodi and P. peltatum is that the flowers of the former are often pinkish and somewhat cup-shaped, held above the leaves as they open but overtopped as they fade. The plants of the Asiatic species also are more robust and not rhizomatous; the leaves have sharp-pointed rather than rounded teeth and lobes, and the berry turns bright red when mature. The var. chinense differs from typical P. emodi in having rose-colored flowers and more deeply lobed leaves. Both varieties should be hardy here in New England, but I have only grown var. emodi. A closely related genus, Dryosma, includes a few species that are often listed under Podophyllum. These natives of Formosa and southern China have red or purple flowers in clusters, and appear to be truly wonderful plants. They probably are quite tender, unfor- of Podophyllum are easily cultivated, and P. peltatum become invasive. Both prefer high or partial shade, but may P. emodi has flowered well for me at the edge of a clump of hemlocks. Seeds of the Asiatic species are available from a number of sources in England. They germinate well even if not particularly fresh, requiring about two months of cold stratification. The plants should bloom in their fourth season. even tunately. Both species Plates reprinted with permission from Curtis's Botanical Magazine are, clockwise from top left: Podophyllum emodi var. chinense (Vol. 146, 1920); Cypripedium montanum (Vol. 119, 1893 ) ; Arisaema sikokianum (Vol. 162, 1940 ) ; Jeffersonia dubia (Vol. 164, 1948). [These and plates following are by The Royal Horticultural Society, London.] 190 Diphylleia related to the former and similar in general appearance, or Umbrella Leaf, includes three species, none of which is common in cultivation. Diphylleia cymosa is native to rich, moist forests in the southern Appalachians. It is a tall but not coarse plant, robust individuals standing nearly 3 feet high. Like Podophyllum, each flowering shoot bears two broad, coarsely lobed leaves. The flowers themselves are white, about an inch across, and are borne in small clusters that are held above the leaves. They are followed by clusters of small, bright blue berries. The similar Diphylleia grayi is native to alpine and subalpine areas of northern Japan. The major difference between the two species is that the leaves of the Japanese plant are only shallowly lobed. The Chinese D. sinensis is poorly known. Only our native species is available in this country, and then from only a few collectors and growers of native plants. It is a valuable accent plant in the wildflower garden due to its height and its bold foliage. Although it usually grows in moist areas in the wild, abundant moisture is not necessary for its successful cultivation. My plant of D. grayi is a recent acquisition, so I can report little of its cultural requirements. Being from high elevations, however, suggests that it should be kept as cool as possible. Closely Diphylleia Jeffersonia The Twinleaf (]efj\"-ersonia diphylla) is an attractive spring-flowernative to rich woods in the eastern and midwestem United States. In general appearance it is similar to the Bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), a much more familiar plant of a different family. The solitary flowers, about an inch across with eight white petals, are unfortunately short-lived. The long-stalked leaves appear with the flowers and their curious shape has given rise to the plant's common name; they are split down the middle into two broad, nearly identical segments, recalling the wings of a butterfly. The only other member of the genus, ]efj\"-ersonia dubia (sometimes classified in a distinct genus, Plagiorhegma ) is native to a small area in northeastern Asia, on the border of China and the U.S S.R. It is more attractive than our species, since the flowers are a pale bluelavender (very pale in some clones). Of the Asiatic plants discussed here it is one of the commonest to be cultivated in this country. Both species are perfectly hardy in New England, and they are easy to grow under deciduous shade. Jeffersonia dubia often occurs naturally on soils derived from limestone, but it appears perfectly vigorous in acid soils. ing plant Epimedium and Vancouveria The genera Epimedium, from eastern Asia, southern Europe and North Africa, and Vancouveria, from western North America, are closely related and have been combined by some botanists. Unlike 191 Left. Bletilla striata. Right Diphylleia cymosa. Photos: R. Weaver. plants under consideration, they have no counterpart in the flora of eastern North America. Both groups are exceptionally ornamental, with decorative foliage and curious but attractive and often brightly colored flowers. Most species in both genera are clumpforming or rhizomatous, and therefore are often used as groundcovers. The flowers are composed of two series of sepals, the outer ones inconspicuous or deciduous soon after the flowers open, and the inner ones colored and resembling petals. The petals themselves are inconspicuous in some species, but in others are prolonged into tubular or club-shaped spurs. Although similar in general appearance, the two genera are easily distinguishable upon close inspection of the flowers. In Vancouveria the flower parts are in sixes, and the sepals and petals reflex, exposing the stamens and pistils; in Epimedium, the flower parts are in fours, and the sepals and petals do not reflex, mostly hiding the stamens and pistils. Inside-out-flower, the common name of Vancouveria, is a bit clumsy, and Barrenwort is an unattractive name for so singularly attractive a group of plants as Epimedium, so I prefer to call these genera by their Latin names. most of the 192 Epimedium pinnatum var. colchicum. Photo: R. Weaver. 193 The three species of Vancouveria are native to the moist forests of the Pacific Coast, and all are hardy in New England. The most widely distributed and only commonly cultivated species, V. hexandra, is a vigorous plant spreading by rhizomes. The inflorescences of six to forty-five white flowers stand over a foot tall, well above the leaves. The deciduous, twice-compound leaves are divided into three nearly equal parts, each one with three to nine, three-lobed leaflets. The remaining species are not nearly so vigorous in our climate. Both have leathery leaves that are evergreen in their native habitat, although they are barely so here. Vancouveria chrysantha is restricted in distribution to the Siskiyou Mountains of southwestern Oregon, and, as the specific name implies, has yellow flowers. They have been sparsely produced in my garden. Vancouveria planipetala is a plant of the redwood forests of California. It has tiny white flowers held in a rather tall panicle, and they appear in late June, several weeks after those of the other species. All of the species are easy to cultivate in light, humusy soil. They bloom well in rather dense, evergreen shade, although V. hexandra at least will tolerate a good bit of sunlight. Epimedium contains about twenty-five species centered in Japan and China, with a few in Europe and North Africa. Several of these, with their various hybrids and selected forms, are commonly cultivated and commercially available. The following discussion will not be an exhaustive one. Only a few selected species, representing various types within the genus, are included. Epimediums are spring-flowering, and the commonly cultivated species are essentially past bloom by the end of May. But their foliage is attractive through the growing season, and a few species are partially evergreen. Epimedium diphyllum is the smallest species in general cultivation and also about the last to flower. The flowers are less than a half-inch across, pure white, and spurless, and they are held barely above the leaves. The leaves themselves are composed of only two leaflets, and these are nearly smooth along the margins and very lopsided at the base. This Japanese native seldom grows more than 6 inches tall, and it is densely clump-forming. E. X youngianum, the hybrid between this species and E. grandiflorum, is similar in general aspect, but it has larger flowers with short spurs, more leaflets per leaf, and is somewhat taller. It is more common in cultivation than E. diphyllum. Epimedium grandiflorum, a native of Japan, Korea and northeastern China, is one of the showiest species in cultivation. The flowers are usually more than an inch across, the size due largely to the elongated spurs that project conspicuously from beneath the sepals, giving the flowers a spidery appearance. The color varies from white to pale lavender, deep rose, or pale yellow in the various forms. The leaves are two to three times compound, with small, conspicuously toothed leaflets. The plants are usually less than 10 inches tall and are loosely clump-forming. 194 The North African Epimedium perralderianum and the closely related E. pinnatum, from the area between the Black and Caspian Seas, form loose colonies by long, fast-spreading rhizomes; they are perhaps the best species to use as groundcovers. They both tend to be partially evergreen, but this is hardly an advantage because the old leaves look quite messy by spring. The latter species, mostly represented in cultivation by var. colchicum, is the more ornamental of the two. The flowers with yellow sepals and paler, spurred petals appear before the leaves are well developed on inflorescences about a foot tall. Epimedium perralderianum is somewhat shorter than the the flowers are a brighter yellow throughout. somewhat hidden by the leaves. The rhizomatous Epimedium alpinum from southern Europe is much rarer in cultivation than its hybrid with E. grandiflorum. This plant, E. X rubrum, is tightly clump-forming. Its flowers are among the most ornamental in the genus, the sepals being crimson and contrasting nicely with the conspicuous but not protruding spurs. The foliage is also exceptionally ornamental with the heart-shaped leaflets edged and veined with red, at least when young. A number of very fine Chinese species are not in cultivation, but hopefully they will eventually find their way into our gardens. One in particular appears desirable from available descriptions. Epimedium acuminatum may stand 18 inches tall when in flower, with leaflets as much as 6 inches long and flowers 1 ~\/, inch across. Epimediums are useful in situations other than the wildflower garden. They do well in any decent soil, and they can tolerate nearly full sun to dense evergreen shade. High or partial shade is preferable, however, to prevent burning of the foliage and to allow for good preceding species, and Unfortunately they are flowering. The last genus included here is often classified in the Crowfoot Family (Ranunculaceae). Glaucidium palmatum, the so-called Blue Japanese Poppy (not a poppy at all), is restricted to Japan, and is the only species of its genus. It is a truly spectacular plant with its 3to 5-inch, pale blue-lavender flowers and its bold, coarsely lobed leaves. The aspect of the plant is much like that of Podophyllum and Diphylleia, making it a valuable accent specimen in the wildflower garden even after it has passed out of bloom. Well grown plants stand about 15 inches tall at maturity, and the leaves are as much as 10 inches across. Once established, G. palmatum is vigorous and hardy, thriving in partial shade. It is easily grown from seed, germination proceeding after a cold stratification period of two months. The plants will flower after about four years. The Heath Family (Ericaceae) consists primarily of woody plants, and even the single genus discussed here would be considered a shrublet. Epigaea repens, the Trailing Arbutus, or Mayflower to New Plates repnnted with permission from Curtis's Botanical Magazine are, clockwise from top left: Epimedium grandiflorum [as E. violaceum] (Vol. 66, 1840); Epigaea asiatica (Vol. 154, 1928); Glaucidium palmatum (Vol. 159, 1936); , Dryosma pleiantha [as Podophyllum pleianthum] (Vol. 116, 1890). 195 196I Cymbidium goeringii. Reprinted azine, New Series, Vol. 174, 1962. with permission from Curtis's Botanical Mag- with its extremely fragrant, white to pink flowers, is one of our best-loved wildflowers. It is a common plant in open, dryish woodlands throughout the Appalachian region. Unfortunately this plant is notoriously difficult to cultivate in gardens. Insufficient sunshine and too much water about the roots are probably the most common causes of failure. It is also very difficult to transplant, even if seedlings are taken with a clump of earth, and only pot-grown plants started from seeds or cuttings would be recommended for the Englanders, average gardener. The Japanese counterpart, Epigaea asiatica, is a rare plant in cultivation. It differs from our native species in its narrower, more pointed leaves; its more tubular, less fragrant flowers; and in not being dioecious (with separate male and female plants). It is hardy here in New England with some protection, but it should be planted in a cool, shady situation. It is by no means an easy plant, but the clump in front of the cold storage unit of the Dana Greenhouses here at the Arnold Arboretum has prospered and flowered well for a number of years. Arisaema urashima. Photo: R. Weaver. 197 between the above species has been known for but it has probably disappeared from cultivation. Its time, tion and propagation would be most welcome. A hybrid a long recrea- Nursery Sources Rte. 2, Box 259, Spokane, Washington 99207 - Cypripedium, Disporum, Goodyera, Trillium. Gardens of the Blue Ridge, Ashford, North Carolina 28603 - Clintonia, Cypripedium, Diphylleia, Disporum, Liparis, Stenanthium, Trillium. Griffey's Nursery, Marshall, North Carolina 28753 - same as above. Edgar L. Kline, 17495 S.W. Bryant Road, Lake Grove, Oregon 97034 Clintonia, Cypripedium, Disporum, Glaucidium, Scoliopus, Trillium, Alpines West, Vancouveria. J.A. Mars of Haslemere, Haslemere, Surrey, GU27 3DW, England Cypripedium, Trillium. Mr. Tatsuo Niizuma, 6-10, Yamate-2-chome, Nakasuji, Takarazuka, Hyogo 665, Japan - mostly orchids, but other genera on request. Siskiyou Rare Plant Nursery, 522 Franquette Street, Medford, Oregon Clintonia, Cypripedium, Disporum, Epimedaum, Scoliopus, Trillium, Vancouveria. 198 Hemerocallis 'Little Hustler', a melon-colored dwarf diploid. Photo: G. Pride. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Today's Daylilies","article_sequence":2,"start_page":199,"end_page":209,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24698","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270a76f.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":4,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"Today's Daylilies by GEORGE H. PRIDE A Hemerocallis show twenty-five or thirty years ago featured flowers mostly in shades of yellow and orange. Other colors were rarely seen. A modern daylily exhibition has classes for the following colors or color patterns: Near white, yellow, orange, pink, peach, melon, rose, bright red, orange-red, dark red, lavender and purple, polychromes, bicolors, and eyed. True blue and pure white are about the only colors missing. The show includes classes for large-, small-, and miniature-flowered varieties. There is a class for \"spider-flowered\" types that have long thin floral segments and a class for \"double\" flowers. A section for dwarf cultivars is usually added for daylilies that normally grow under 24 inches in height. Two recent developments will probably have to be included soon: New cultivars are appearing with deeper colored contrasty margins on the flower segments, a pattern known as \"picotee\"; and for several years now there have been daylilies with lacy fringing along the edges of the petals creating an attractive and novel appearance. One reason for the rapid increase in popularity of these new plants is their relative ease of cultivation. They thrive in ordinary garden soil in a location receiving at least a half day of sunshine. Though they can stand long periods of drought, they grow best and have more flowers when they are kept well watered. Few if any serious pests or diseases seem to bother them. All wild species of daylilies are native to Asia, mainly China and Japan. They have been cultivated in China for hundreds of years for medicine and as vegetables. A translation of an account written in China in 656 A.D. states that Hemerocallis \"quiets the five viscera (the heart, lungs, liver, kidneys, and stomach), benefits the mind and strengthens the will power, gives happiness, reduces worry, lightens the body weight and brightens the eye.\" Dr. Shiu Ying Hu, formerly of the Arnold Arboretum staff, and an authority on the taxonomy and lore of these plants, states that the written Chinese character for daylilies is the same as that for \"mother love.\" The dried buds known as \"golden needles,\" and available in Chinese stores in most large cities, are used in cooking. The roots and crown of the plants also are used for culinary purposes, and as a pain reliever. A hallucinating effect is said to occur when a lot of young shoots are eaten, giving the sensation of \"feeling no pain.\" The flavor of the cooked plants is described as like that of creamed onions. 199 200 known Unfortunately labelled \"Tiger Lily\" flowers, these are the dried daylily buds as \"golden needles\" and used in Chinese coohing. Photo: R. Howard. Horticulturally, the modem daylilies of our gardens are unique in several ways: A relatively few species have led to a remarkable diversity of types and flower colors; this galaxy was created in a relatively short time; and daylilies are one of the few major garden subjects that originated in China and were not first developed beyond the species stage by the Chinese.(Except for the very earliest work, most of the breeding has been done in the United States. ) Species from which this new race of garden plants has so rapidly developed include Hemerocallis citrinn from China, whose large fragrant lemon-yellow flowers unfurl in late afternoon, remaining open all night. (In breeding this acts as a dominant characteristic.) H. middendorffi is a dwarf plant producing fragrant orange flowers of very firm texture in late spring. H. thunbergi from Japan is a robust grower bearing many fragrant lemon-yellow flowers in mid- to late season. It has been widely used in hybridizing. H. aurantiaca, also from Japan, with fragrant bright orange flowers sometimes flushed purple helped produce darker colors in the breeding work; it and H. thunbergi were used extensively by the early breeders. H. lilioasphodelus (H. flava), the Lemon Lily, is spring flowering and is still widely grown as a popular garden plant; in 1848, Asa Gray noted that it was \"extensively cultivated.\" H. fulva, with tawny-colored flowers, 201 has been known in the West since 1576. Thomas Nuttall, in 1818, distributed it around Philadelphia so thoroughly that it appeared to be naturalized. It is certainly the most widely cultivated daylily in the world today (probably all the plants are the cultivar 'Europa'). It is a highly sterile, self incompatible triploid. Despite this, through extensive and persistent breeding work it did give rise to a few important seedlings. Its tenacity on life is legendary. Portions of plants have been buried 40 inches deep in soil and have survived, producing long rhizomes that emerged from the top of the heap and developed into healthy plants. An edition of Gray's Flora published in 1848 lists it as a common escapee. The double flowered cultivar of this species, known as 'Kwanso', and a green and white-leaved double flowered cultivar known as 'Kwanso Variegata' still fascinate many gardeners. H. minor, the Dwarf Yellow Daylily, is an early flowering species with fragrant yellow flowers. Charles Sargent, the first Director of the Arnold Arboretum, reported it growing in his Brookline garden in 1895 and recommended it highly. H. multiflora, first described in 1929, has numerous small orange flowers later in the season. A wellknown cultivar developed from it is called 'Tinkerbell'. In the late 1800s the first daylily breeding work began in England. The first cultivar, named by George Yeld in 1892, was 'Apricot'probably a cross between H. lilioasphodelus and H. middendorffi. Sporadic work continued in England, but nothing we would now consider remarkable appeared. The new cultivars were moderately popular garden subjects, but similar in color, being mostly yellow and shades of orange. Breeding work in daylilies started in America mainly as a result of cooperation between Dr. Albert Steward, who was a teacher of botany at the University of Nanking from 1921 to 1950, and his close friend, Dr. Arlow Stout of the New York Botanical Garden. Dr. Steward was highly regarded by the Chinese and was readily admitted to many gardens and farmyards where he found interesting \"forms\" of daylilies. These were sent to Dr. Stout for his consideration and to be used in his breeding work. Perhaps, from the gardening standpoint, the most important plant of all was H. fulva var. rosea, which had rose-colored flowers. The first specimens of this variety were sent from China in 1924. When the chromosomes of this variety were counted it was found to be a diploid, making it much easier to use in breeding than the triploid cultivar 'Europa'. A seedling named 'Rosalind' resulting from Dr. Stout's work with this variety had rosered flowers and helped unlock a vast array of new colors in daylily breeding. During the forty-one years three hybridizers were known between 1893 and 1934, only twentybe working with daylilies, producing a total of one hundred seventy-four cultivars or an average of only four a year with no great change in flower color evident. With the availability of the new species and their variants that Steward sent to 202 Left: Hemerocallis fulva (Tawny Daylily). From The Botanical Magazine, Vol. 2, 1790. Right: Hemerocallis fulva var. rosea. From Addisoma, Vol 15, 1930. to Stout, many colors not seen before began to emerge. During a period of only fourteen years, from 1934 to 1948, the American Hemerocallis Society registered 2,278 new cultivars, an average of one hundred fifty a year; but from 1948 to 1966, a period of eighteen years, 10,145 new cultivars were registered, averaging around five hundred fifty a year. During the last ten years the average number per year of newly registered kinds has been seven hundred thirty-four. In 1975, more than one hundred fifty active daylily breeders were listed in the American Hemerocallis Society's registry. Since this society started in 1946, known then as the Midwest Hemerocallis Society, it has registered over twenty thousand cultivars. With daylilies' skyrocketing popularity already underway, a remarkable new development in their breeding occurred in the middle 1940s when the first man-made tetraploids appeared. Up to that time most cultivars had been diploids with a normal set of twenty-two chromosomes in each somatic or body cell of the plant; each gamete or sex cell contained eleven of these structures. Hemerocallis 'Frances Photo: G. Pride. Fay', with diploid form on the left and tetraploid at right. 203 The tetraploids were developed as a result of the use of the chemi- cal, colchicine, which is obtained from the Colchicum or Fall Crocus. (Colchicine is a well-known agent for developing polyploidy in plant tissues.) The tetraploids have forty-four chromosomes in each body cell - four times the number in a sex cell of a diploid variety, which \"tetra.\" be confusion about who should be considered first in bringing about this radical change in what was already a popular garden plant. According to the best information available, the first tetraploid daylily flowered in 1947, and was the result of the work of Robert Schreiner, a student at the University of Minnesota. Mr. Schreiner flowered several tetraploid clones that year, and a treated plant of the cultivar 'Cressida' was named 'Brilliant Glow'. In 1948, more tetraploid daylilies were flowered at the University of California in Los Angeles; these were the results of work by Quinn Buck. Over the years much daylily breeding has been done at the United States Department of Agriculture in Beltsville, Maryland. In 1951, Dr. Hamilton Traub gave detailed descriptions of his experiments there. In 1949, he flowered what he described as a \"complete tet\" and named it 'Tetra Starzynski'. The term \"complete\" indicates that the plant is completely tetraploid. When colchicine is administered to a grown plant or seedling, there is a very high possibility that the result will be a \"chimaera\" with some tissue diploid and some tetraploid. Much more desirable for breeding work is the \"complete\" tetraploid. By 1959, sixteen named tetraploids bred by Dr. Traub were introduced to the gardening public at prices ranging from $65.00 to $500.00 a plant. The race was on! accounts for the prefix There seems to 204I People were confounded by this extraordinary development and the prices being asked for the plants. All the Traub introductions were \"evergreens,\" which do better in the southern states than in the north because they have a tendency to continue to grow and not die down to rest during the winter, even after frosts have killed them back. (This usually results in enough damage to the plant tissues to cause the plants to do poorly the next season.) In the 1950s, Dr. Robert Griesbach and Orville Fay teamed their efforts and treated many diploid seedlings with colchicine. By 1959 they had flowered around one hundred tetraploids. In 1961, four tetraploids were introduced: 'Crestwood Ann', 'Crestwood Bicolor', 'Crestwood Evening', and 'Crestwood Lucy'. In 1963, the GriesbachFay team added 'Crestwood Gold' to the roster; and in 1967, 'Mary Todd' and 'Golden Surrey'. The latter was the first known daylily with a pronounced lacy fringing on the petals. All these cultivars were \"dormant;\" when the cold came they died down and rested until spring when new growth started. They were, therefore, more suitable for northern gardens. More and more researchers became involved. It is only possible to name a few of them here, which means slighting a great many others. In 1964, Dr. Toru Arisumi at Beltsville reported converting seventeen diploid cultivars to the tetraploid condition. In Illinois, Brother Charles Reckamp's work was notable for the production of many new tetraploids in shades of yellow and so-called melon colors. Drs. Virginia and Richard Peck, two college professors who taught English in Tennessee, started intensive work in the 1960s. The results are still bearing fruit. Soon there were hundreds of dedicated amateurs and professionals who were deeply involved with work on this new type of plant. In New England alone, several growers started work with colchicine more than fifteen years ago with excellent results. A whole series of tetraploid daylilies has been developed especially suited to this climate. And yet, by 1967 from all of the United States only sixty-six tetraploids that had been grown from seed, and seventeen that had been induced by the use of colchicine, had been registered by the American Hemerocallis Society. The differences in the tetraploids and diploids were striking even to the non-scientist. In most cases the petals of the flowers were larger and heavier textured. Flower buds and flower stalks were thicker in diameter and the colors of the flowers were deeper and richer than before. Pollen grains examined under .a microscope were seen to be noticeably larger. The leaf pores or stomates were fewer, but larger by about 1\/3. The illustration accompanying this article of the diploid and tetraploid cultivars of 'Frances Fay' will give some idea of the obvious differences. The conversion work in this case was done by William Lachman of Amherst, Massachusetts who has been especially active in this field. 205 Left. Hemerocallis 'Love Is', an unintroduced tetraploid developed by Donald Stevens. Photo. L. Mitchell. Right. H. 'Dawn Ballet', polychrome tetraploid. Photo. G. Pnde. a light Left. H. `EL Tigre', an eyed tetra- ploid. Photo G. Prade. 206 there was much discussion among gardeners as to whether or not the new tetraploids were as superior as was being claimed. Now most Hemerocallis growers seem to be convinced that they are a decided advancement both as a garden subject and as a show flower. Some gardeners have abandoned the diploid cultivars and are now growing almost exclusively the newer tetraploids. Jokingly referred to as the \"Tet Set,\" they are strong in their praises of the new tetraploid daylily cultivars. Perhaps the greatest advance in making these plants even more available to the average gardener is tissue culture, which is going on at the present time. Hemerocallis are especially adapted to this process, which is bringing radical changes in the speed of plant propagation. In the last few years, several researchers, including Dr. Martin Meyer of Urbana, Illinois and Dr. Abraham Krikorian of Stony Brook, New York, have shown that by using very small pieces of the undeveloped buds and inflorescence stems one can increase the number of plants from a single specimen astronomically. The proper techniques are well understood, but are not easy for the amateur as they involve a laboratory similar to one used for growing bacteria, and completely sterile conditions. Claims of a potential of several hundred thousand plants produced in less than a year from the tissues of one plant are being made. A new film that the Arnold Arboretum has just completed dealing with plant propagation features this process in some scenes. It may be only a short time before a new, very choice daylily which would have been introduced in the past for from $50.00 to $100.00 will be available to the gardener in quantity for only a few dollars a plant. There are several gardens not far from Boston where many of these exciting new tetraploids may be seen. A collection has been established at that part of the Arnold Arboretum known as the Case Estates in the town of Weston. Two commercial growers in Massachusetts have quantities of these cultivars. They are Robert Seawright, 134 Indian Hill, Carlisle, and Charles Trommer, 45 River Street, Rehoboth. A dozen or so non-commercial gardeners have excellent collections that may be seen by visitors. One might check the membership roster published in the Journal of the American Hemerocallis Society to locate members nearby and request permission to see their new daylilies. This list is on file at the library of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. Another way to see many of the newest daylilies is to visit a horticultural show featuring them. For many years, the Worcester County Horticultural Society, Elm Street, Worcester, Massachusetts has held one of the finest daylily shows in the world. One day only, it is usually on the last Saturday of July. It would be wise to call the Society and check before visiting. I Originally 207 Hemerocallis 'Kzndly Light', a diploid, spider type. Photo. G. Pride With all that has been accomplished so far in such a short it is hard to believe that daylily breeders are still unsatisfied. are now time, They concentrating on clearer colors, and the white and a true blue daylily. Improvement in is being sought. There is hope for many more cultivars with flowers that stay open at night for indoor decoration, and even that a daylily with flowers lasting two days may yet appear. Startling picotee edges are showing up on some of the new cultivars. Reblooming or remontant varieties are being used extensively in hope of producing an everblooming daylily that would start to flower in the spring and continue until stopped by frost. production of a pure early flowering types has been neglected. Many gardeners are hoping for varieties with pleasant scents. Some of the night-flowering yellow daylilies are noticeably fragrant; other cultivars have no fragrance at all. This is apt to be true of the red and purple varieties. The scent occurs only when the flower is open and comes from special \"scent cells\" widely distributed over the inside of the petals. The daylilies of the future may have all these desirable characteristics, and new methods of propagation will make the plants available in great quantity at very reasonable prices. The components needed for such marvels are available now. All that is necessary is the wizardry of the plant breeder to assemble them in the proper manner. more 208I Fragrance Hemerocallis 'Chicago Picotee Promise', a recent development in tetraploids featunng a striking eye zone. Photo: Courtesy, George Lennington. 209 Author's Favorite Fifty Regardless of Price ( all are tetraploids except where noted) bright red Bruce (Pride) orange-red Chicago Rosey (Marsh) rosey-red Cherry Cheeks (Peck) rose-red Dragon Lore (Peck) rich medium red Ed Murray (tet. form ) (Grovatt) black-red Firedrake (Peck) rich red Howard Goodson (Griesbach) medium red SHADES OF RED Barbarossa (Peck) SHADES OF YELLOW Erin Prairie (Fay) greenish-yellow Evening Bell (Peck) light yellow Golden Prize (Peck) deep yellow Hudson Valley (Peck) large light yellow (Pride) very pale yellow Mary Todd (Fay) gold Royal Kin (Peck) light yellow Orange Prelude (McEwen) very Ice Follies early orange Yellow Crystal (Griesbach) medium yellow EYED Brindlee Beauty zone Joey Langdon red (Griesbach) bright Lusty Leland (Peck) bright red Rubric (Griesbach) red with green throat Scarlock (Peck) bright red Slowly Won (Peck) bright red Turned On (Pride) firey-red Wine Bold (Peck) wine-red POLYCHROMES Dawn Ballet (Reckamp) (Webster) pale eye Chicago Maid (Marsh) striking eye zone Tigre (Durio) medium eye zone Kempion (Peck) light eye zone Thumbprint (Peck) odd patterns El LAVENDER AND PURPLE SHADES Aberdeen (Peck) very pale lavender Chicago Bride (Marsh) pale bluishlavender Heavenly Harp blend Prides Crossing light blend (Reckamp) light (Pride) light blend VARIOUS Lass (Peck) bicolor Heather Green (Peck) pink with green throat King Alfred (Reckamp) double yellow Little Hustler (Pride) dwarf yellow Highland Chicago Queen (Marsh) lavender- purple Helen Boehm (Peck) pale lavender Rum Plum (Pride) purple FRINGED PETALS diploid Mary Moldovan (Moldovan) melon Ruffled Apricot (Baker) scribes it Rose Revue rose Chicago Knobby name (Marsh) purple de- with \"knobbed\" petals Creepy Crawler (Hite) yellow with pronounced fringing Golden Surrey (Griesbach-Fay) low with fine fringing (Griesbach) medium yel- Night (tet. form ) (WildHardy) deep chocolate Segramoor (Peck) wine Thai Ballet (Moldovan) cerise Sable "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Flowers- Art or Science?","article_sequence":3,"start_page":210,"end_page":211,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24697","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270a36b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":4,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"210 NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM \"Flowers - Art or Science?\" by MARGO W. REYNOLDS The Arnold Arboretum means differing things to its various publics. To some, it is an institution devoted to the scientific investigation of plants. To others, it is an oasis of green in the urban sprawl of Boston; a place where plants can be enjoyed and admired for their aesthetic merits. Art or This spring, in an unusual exhibit entitled \"Flowers Science?\", Belmont artist Eudoxia Woodward attempted to answer that question and ascertain if plants could, indeed, bridge the gap between art and science. Well over forty sketches and watercolors illustrated Mrs. Woodward's belief that science and art are not incompatible in an understanding and appreciation of botany. As she explained in her April 13 gallery talk: - For the past few years I have been exploring some universal concepts found in nature; spirals, helices, conic sections and symmetry. Through close examination of (plants), I continue to find examples of the \"divine laws of nature.\" I also find endless pleasure in looking at and recording their structure and growth. In my paintings I hope to transmit my excitement about these laws and, by bringing together science and art, lessen the bridge that exists between them. Visitors to the month-long exhibit came away with a new perception of art, botany and mathematics, and were treated to an exhibit both educationally and aesthetically rewarding. 211 Rieger Begonia illustrating the mathematical concepts of spiralling, where the path of a point (generally on a plane) moves around an axis while continually recedmg from (or approaching) It. Painting by Eudoxia Woodward. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":212,"end_page":216,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24696","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd270a326.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":4,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"212 ARNOLDIA REVIEWS J. Thompson. Thompson Begonia Guide, second edition. Mildred L. and Edward P.O. Drawer PP, Southampton, N.Y.: Edward J. Three volumes, illustrated. Vol. I, $18.50, plus $1.25 Thompson. (shipping costs); Vol. II, $17.50, plus $1.25; Vol. III, $23.25, plus * $1.50. Revision sheets, $1.25. The Until now, anyone interested in learning about begonia culture has found it almost impossible to locate much information that is pertinent and available. Most of the books devoted to growing begonias are out of print and dated. One cannot even buy an inexpensive beginner's pamphlet such as those available for orchid and gesneriad growers. In 1975, the American Begonia Society published a translation of Chevalier's Begonias. Written in 1938, this work offers much information of historical and taxonomic interest but obviously lacks the information on soils, fertilizers and light that has been learned in the intervening thirty-nine years. Even if there were not this appalling lack of information on begonia culture, The Thompson Begonia Guide would still have to be considered a major contribution to horticultural literature. It is a comprehensive work that satisfies all levels of amateur growing. The beginner simply wants to know how to keep the plants alive and healthy, whereas the more sophisticated grower is interested in producing plants for show. The very advanced begonia enthusiast often wants to hybridize or venture into taxonomy. The Thompson Begonia Guide, happily, is a reference book to grow with, for the information in the three-volume set is for all levels of expertise, and the loose-leaf format allows revision sheets to be inserted as they become available. The guide is organized around the concept that begonias with similar characteristics and growth habits have similar cultural requirements. On this basis, 1800 species and cultivars have been classified into horticultural groups and alphabetized in the guide. The information on potting soils, light, humidity, watering and care is clear and practical. A good mixture of photographs and drawings clearly shows the \"how to\" of every aspect of growing from potting to propagation. * Because of its significance to both horticulturists and botanists, The Thompson Begonia Guide is being reviewed by a representative of each group. Corliss Engle, a Friend of the Arnold Arboretum, is an experienced amateur grower and past President of the Buxton Branch of the American Begonia Society. Bernice G. Schubert, a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, is Curator and Senior Lecturer on Biology, with a special interest in Begoniaceae. Ed. 213 Because success in growing is an art, at best, based on experience, locale and style, the Thompsons have included articles by begonia growers from various sections of this country and around the world. Each article offers tips applicable to each region; common truths weave their threads in combination with the specifics. In addition, there are excellent articles on special growing areas, such as windowsills, artificial lights, etc., written by experts. The more advanced growers will find a wealth of information, again with excellent graphics, on growing begonias for exhibition. The sections on terrariums, growing begonias on rocks or driftwood, and grower will find the sections dealing with bloom information, parentages of hybrids, and the extensive references to sources of information written about each begonia (not otherwise available) helpful and well organized. The reproduction of old begonia prints and the historical section will fascinate any amateur hangers are especially good. The sophisticated amateur Thompson have long been known as growers of spectacular begonia specimens. With this guide, all begonia fanciers will at long last reap the benefits of their knowledge and experience. CORLISS K. ENGLE grower. Millie and Ed The Thompson Begonia Guide is a very impressive, though unorthodox, document assembled with good taste and complete dedica- by the Thompsons, who consider themselves hobbyist-growers and who have other unrelated, full-time careers. Its chief interest, for botanists, is the clearly presented information concerning those members of the Begoniaceae that are in cultivation. This material is not so easily available in as great detail anywhere else to my tion knowledge Volume I includes an alphabetical listing (A) of all species, hybrids, and cultivars known to be in cultivation; a horticultural Classification Listing (CS) in which the taxa are classified by the habit of the plants (cane-like, shrub-like, tuberous, rhizomatous, semperflorens characteristics, rex cultorum, etc.), an artificial but useful grouping since begonias with similar habit have, in general, similar cultural requirements. Also included is a Parentages of Hybrids (P) section, containing information not often compiled with such com- pleteness. In Volume II a section on Bloom Information (B) lists species and cultivars separately and indicates flower color, flowering period, and amount of flowering. This section also includes some excellent photographs of both individual flowers and of inflorescences of various species and cultivars. Volume III is devoted almost completely to the interests of Begonia growers, but includes a fine Pictorial Re- 214 (R) with 72 pages of photographs of species and cultivars. The volume is concluded with an enlarged and completely revised Bibliography (Bi), superceding the one in Volume I. The symbols in parentheses following the section names appear on each page of the appropriate section, followed by the page number. That is, each section (seven in Volume I, five in Volume II, and four in Volume III, plus introductory matter for each volume) is separately paged making for extreme awkwardness in citation, and the impossibility of a general index. I think that if the symbols followed the page number and the pagination were continuous, much of this awkwardness would disappear. The order in which the various taxa are considered in the Classification Listing section (C) follows that spelled out and illustrated in the section on the Classification System (CS). Much more information is included here for each taxon listed. However, there are various new symbols and abbreviations in such profusion that checking each one makes the task of acquiring the complete information complicated and time-consuming. The method of citing references by symbols does not follow any earlier formulated system I know of, either botanical or bibliographic, so mastering the \"mechanics\" of the section must be undertaken. The system seems a bit wasteful, also, in that the bibliography is listed at the beginning of the section (with the symbols) and again at the end of the volume in its own section (Bi). In addition, a revised bibliography occurs at the end of the volume (where most pages are dated April, 1977). A bibliography at the end with each entry numbered would obviate the need for the earlier list and all the symbols. The references could then be referred to simply by number. The Classification Listing section (C) is 146 pages long and is of much interest to botanists because it presents the horticultural classification of each of various species of Begoniaceae considered in the view I 215 Guide and also lists the hybrids in each of the categories. This is very useful information obtained through long searching and much interchange with growers. It is a real contribution. The Parentages of Hybrids section (P) is another extremely useful portion of the Thompson guide and surely must have been one of the most difficult to compile. Through the efforts of the Thompsons and other contributors to the Begonian, most growers of begonias have now become aware of the necessity of keeping records of the hybrids they produce. Until very recently, however, this has not been the case, making it difficult for botanists to identify these plants or to duplicate the crosses. The section called Glossary of Descriptive Botanical Terms (G) comprises a list of definitions compiled from various sources, \"formulated for the grower and geared to his needs.\" The effort to modify definitions for the grower has, unfortunately, led to oversimplification and inaccuracies. A few examples will suffice to indicate the kind of trap into which one may fall. In the list below, the line following the term is the definition as given in the Guide. The line directly below, starting with a capital letter, is a correction and\/or correctly explanation. androecium reproductive portion or more of male flower composed of a one stamens dichotomous The androecium is also the \"male\" element of fect (bisexual) flower. divided in two parts per- Dichotomous, or in botany, implies forking into more dioecious gynoecium indigen isotype less equal parts. unisexual Unisexual with staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants. reproductive portion of a female flower The gynoecium may be the \"female\" portion of a perfect (bisexual) flower also. naturalized plant An indigenous plant, i.e., a native. form common to the holotype An isotype is any duplicate (part of a single gathering made by a collector at one time) of the holo- perianth stamen type, it is always a specimen. [International Code of Botanical Nomenclature - Article 7.1 ] floral envelope The two floral envelopes considered together; a collective term for the calyx and corolla. the pollen bearing organs of a male flower From The Vol. IIl. Begonia versicolor. Thompson Begoma Guide, Drawtng by Rosemary D'Andrea. 216 The stamens are the flower in which sexual) flowers. A term not occur in pollen bearing organs of any they occur, e.g., perfect (bi- important in botanical descriptions of Begonias, which does the original or revised list (5\/15\/76), is tepal, used for a segment or unit of a perianth that is not clearly differentiated into calyx and corolla (i.e., sepals and petals), the usual case in Begonia 10\/1\/76, and and has been insterted in the Addenda (G-15), dated is defined as \"petal,\" an unsatisfactory equivalent. The sections of the Guide in Volume II which I have not discussed flowers. Tepal in any detail include Historical Excerpts (H), Cultural Listings (L), Those in Volume III include Culture of of 277 pages, profusely illustrated; Pictorial Review (R), an excellent set of photographs arranged by the horticultural classification groups; the Appendixes A and B (Ap); and the revised and enlarged Bibliography (Bi). The section of Historical Excerpts is replete with interesting information from various periods in the collection and study of Begoniaceae and of botanical research on them. Translations of the excerpts not in English are an additional bonus. The horticultural reproductions in this series will also be of much interest to those not having access to such literature. The efforts of the Thompsons in amassing such a fine collection of reproductions is an indication of their deep interest and thorough devotion to the study of BegoniaPropagation (PR). Begonia (CB), a section ceae. The Cultural listings (L) are arranged so that Begonias may be chosen according to the light, space, and equipment they require. Subdivisions indicate which plants are best for beginners and\/or more experienced enthusiasts. The Propagation section (PR) covers in a clear, detailed, and well illustrated manner what seems to be complete information on stem cuttings, leaf cuttings, and propagation by seeds. It sounds as if anyone with a will to try these procedures could accomplish his objectives. Begonias (CB) Volume III, which is concerned almost entirely with Culture of and the Pictorial Review (R), needs little comment from someone as inexperienced in growing these plants as I. However, the possibilities are numerous, challenging, and interesting and should draw many more adherents into the rapidly growing group of Begonia enthusiasts. These three volumes of The Thompson Begonia Guide are large (29.5 X 10.5 cm.), hard cover books reproduced by a good quality photo-offset process. For the future I should like to think that the bulk of the volumes might be somewhat reduced and a single-volume \"real\" book be prepared which would have all the basic information and be somewhat easier to handle. In the meantime many people should derive great pleasure and satisfaction from enjoying Begonias with the Thompsons. BERNICE G. SCHUBERT "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23332","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0708526.jpg","title":"1977-37-4","volume":37,"issue_number":4,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cladrastis: The Yellow-Woods","article_sequence":1,"start_page":137,"end_page":150,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24694","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd2608928.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":3,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Robertson, Kenneth R.","article_content":"Cladrastis: the Yellow-Woods by KENNETH R. ROBERTSON ~` . A contest held to select the most beautiful flowering tree native to eastern North America (exclusive of southern Florida) would certainly bring forth a number of entrants, each staunchly supported by many admirers. A leading contender for the title would be the evergreen magnolia or bull bay, Magnolia grandiflora. The catalpa trees, Catalpa speciosa and C. bignonioides, would likely be nominated, along with the Franklin-tree, Franklinia alatamaha, the black locust, Robinia pseudoacacia, the Carolina silverbell, Halesia carolina, the sourwood, Oxydendrum arboreum, and the tulip-tree, Liriodendron tulipifera. A number of small trees would also have to be considered, including the flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, the eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis, the native crabapples, Malus species, the shadbushes, Amelanchier arborea and A. laevis, and the hawthorns, Crataegus species. All of these trees are outstanding ornamentals, being attractive not only when in flower but throughout most of the year, and they are all commonly cultivated in the eastern United States wherever they are hardy. There is, however, another plant, rare in nature and in cultivation, that is worthy in every respect of being considered one of the most beautiful trees of eastern North America. This is the yellowwood, Cladrastis lutea, which was discovered in March of 1796 by Andre Michaux, as related in his Journal. \"The 2nd remained over in order to pull young shoots of a new Sophera I had remarked in the vicinity of Fleen's Creek about 12 miles from the Fort [Fort Blount, on the north bank of the Cumberland River near the present town of Gainesboro, Tennessee]. Snow covered the ground and I was unable to get any young shoots but Captain Williams, the young [officer] stationed in the Fort, cut down some trees and I found some good seeds. \"I also pulled up some roots of those trees to replant them in my in Carolina. \"The same day I had occasion to write to Governor Blount.\" garden I do not know if plants were successfully propagated from these seeds and roots. Andre Michaux died of a tropical fever in Madagascar in 1802, but his son, Fran~ois Andre, who had accompanied his father on many collecting trips in the Carolinas, continued to explore '` Present address. Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, Illinois 61801. 137 138I the southeastern United States. Fran~ois also Travels. came across yellow-wood In the year of his father's death, trees, as mentioned in his \"We found particularly, in these forests, a tree which, by the shape of its fruit and the disposition of its leaves, appears to have great affinity with the Sophora japonica, the wood of which is used by the Chinese for dyeing yellow. My father, who discovered this tree in 1796, thought that it might be employed for the same use, and become an important object of traffic for the country. He imparted his conjectures to Mr. Blount, then governor of this state, and his letter was inserted in the Gazette at Knoxville on the 15th of March 1796. Several persons in the country having a great desire to know whether it were possible to fix the beautiful yellow which the wood of this tree communicated to the water by the simple infusion, cold, I profited by my stay at Nasheville to send twenty pounds of it to New York, the half of which was remitted to Dr. Mitchell, professor of chemistry, and the other addressed to Paris, to the Board of Agriculture, attached to the Minister of the Interior, in order to verify the degree of utility that might be derived from it. This tree very seldom rises above forty feet, and grows, in preference, on the knobs, species of little hills, where the soil is very rich. Several of the inhabitants have remarked that there is not in the country a single species of tree that produces so great an abundance of sap. The quantity that it supplies exceeds even that of the sugar maple, although the latter is twice its bulk. The epoch of my stay at Nasheville being that when the seeds of this tree were ripe, I gathered a small quantity of them, which I brought over with me, and which have all come up. Several of the plants are at the present moment ten or fifteen inches high. It is very probable that this tree may be reared in France, and that it will endure the cold of our winters, and more so, as, according to what I have been told, the winters are as severe in Tennessee as in any parts of France \" was not included by Andre Michaux in his Flora boreali-americanae of 1803. However, his son did describe it in his Histoire de arbes forestiers de l'AmMque septentrionale of 1813, naming it Virgilia lutea. At that time, the genus Virgilia was used for a number of species that had been included previously in Sophora. (Today, Virgilia is restricted to one or two species of South Africa.) In 1824, C. S. Rafinesque published a new generic name, Cladrastis, for this tree, renaming the species C. tinctoria. The International Code of Botanical Nomenclature recognizes the principle of priority so that the proper scientific name of a plant is the combination of the earliest available legitimate specific epithet with the correct generic name. For many years, the accepted scientific name of the yellow-wood tree has been Cladrastis lutea (Michaux f.) K. Koch. However, Rudd (1971) adopts the name C. kentukea (Dum.-Cours.) Rudd. This specific name is based on a description published by Dumont de Courset in 1811 of a young, nonflowering plant cultivated in France. Although the description appears to correspond to the yellow-wood, there are differences, and I am hesitant to accept this name change. Yellow-wood is a moderate-size deciduous tree, with mature plants reaching a height of 50 feet (Cover, Figures 1 and 4). The trunk, yellow-wood tree posthumously published The Fig. 1. a-c, Cladrastis lutea in winter: a, grove of four trees on the Tree Legume slope in the Arnold Arboretum; b, base of tree with short trunk and several main branches; c, smooth, beech-like bark of a main branch. Photos: K. R. Robertson (from colored slides). i 140I forks into a few widebroad rounded top. The record tree in 58 feet tall with a crown spread of 70 feet and a trunk circumference of 16 feet. The heart-wood is a clear yellow when first cut, partly changing to a light brown. The hard, heavy, strong, and close-grained wood takes a good polish, and early pioneers used it to make gunstocks and small articles of furniture. Fortunately for the sake of the species, but not for cabinetmakers, the trunks of wild trees fork too closely to the ground for the species to be harvested commercially for lumber. Also, the wood tends to crack and check unless carefully dried. The bark (Figure lc) is smooth and silvery-gray, much resembling that of beech trees. As a result, yellow-wood trees in parks and arboreta usually bear the marks of young lovers and others who like to carve their initials on trees. The root system, deep and extensive, does not interfere with neighboring trees or a lawn (although it possibly might clog underground drainage systems) and enables well established yellow-wood trees to endure periods of drought. Branches of the yellow-wood are brittle (the generic name comes from the Greek klados, branch, and thraustos, fragile), and the crotch of the tree trunks also are weak; thus, yellow-wood trees, particularly old ones, are susceptible to damage by strong winds. Young yellow-wood trees may be pruned to a single upright bole that is considerably more resistant to wind damage. The winter buds are very distinctive (Figure 2a). They are in ~u~ct~u~cu viumct~ ui u~uaiiy ~imcc ~c~mic, ucmciy Yuucwcmi uuu~ that are nearly encircled by a prominent C- or V-shaped leaf scar (the bud cluster was entirely enclosed by the base of a petiole of the previous year). A true terminal bud is lacking (although the last axillary bud is often produced very near the tip of the twigs) and branching is thus sympodial, with the twigs often being slightly zigzagged. In midspring, the uppermost bud of the more apical bud clusters (Figure 2b, c) and also some of the lower axillary clusters enlarge and quickly send out the growth of the year. Since the new shoot with its leaves and inflorescence is largely preformed in the winter bud, growth and expansion is quite rapid. Each new shoot on mature trees is only a few inches long and is terminated on flowering branches by the very long inflorescences. The leaves expand to their full size quickly, but the flowers do not open until early summer; thus there is a period of several weeks when the pendulous inflorescences, hanging below the foliage, give yellow-wood trees an unusual, rather graceful appearance (Figure 2d). The leaves of Cladrastis lutea are arranged alternately along the branches, are pinnately compound with an odd number, usually seven (five to eleven), of leaflets per leaf, and are mostly 10 to 15 inches long at maturity. The lateral leaflets are broadly elliptic or ovate in outline, with acuminate tips, tapering or slightly rounded bases, and entire margins; the terminal leaflet is more often 2 or 3 feet in diameter, is short and and the tree has a soon spreading branches, graceful, Morristown, Pennsylvania is Fig. 2. Cladrastis. a-h, C. lutea: a, winter twig - note superposed buds surrounded by leaf scar, b, tzp of twzg in early spring with tzuo leaves and znflorescence emergtng; c, branch later in sprxng with expanding leaves and young inflorescences; d, fully expanded leaves and pendulous tnflorescences, the flowers not yet open; e, tnflorescence with open flowers, f, lower part of flowering tree; g, large tree in full flower; h, tip of summer twig with bases of two leaves, the base of the leaf to the right pulled away from the twig to show how it encloses the winter buds; i, Fruits of C. platycarpa. Photos: K. R. Robertson (from colored slides). 142 or ly acuminate tip less rounded-rhomboid in outline with a cuneate base and an abruptand is shorter and broader than the lateral ones. The upper lateral leaflets are usually 4 to 6 inches long and 2 to 31\/2 inches wide at maturity, with the lower lateral leaflets being somewhat smaller. A characteristic feature of leaves of Cladrastis is that the lateral leaflets are arranged alternately along the rachis of the leaf (Figure 4b). This feature, plus the relatively large size of the leaflets, could cause the casual observer to think that the leaves were simple instead of being compound (the first leaves produced by seedlings are, in fact, simple). Stipules and stipels are absent. In autumn, the leaflets turn a clear bright yellow. As mentioned earlier, the base of the petiole is swollen and completely encloses the winter buds (Figure 2h). The white flowers, opening in June, are borne in long, manyflowered, pendulous, Wisteria-like panicles that terminate the growth of the current year (Figure 2e, f). Flowers are produced in abundance usually only every second or third year, but in a good year, the trees are The papilionaceous (pealike) member of the pea subfamily of the legume family (Leguminosae subfamily Faboideae). The sepals are united into a green tube with five calyx teeth. The five petals are of three different sorts (Figure 3). The upper \"banner\" petal is outermost and, in bud, encloses the two lateral \"wing\" petals and the two inner \"keel\" petals. All the petals are clawed below, and they fit together so that the banner petal, which has a yellow area toward the base of the blade, is very conspicuous and attracts insect pollinators, while the all white wing and keel petals function as a landing platform for insects. The flowers are quite fragrant, particularly in the evening. The ten stamens are enclosed by the keel petals. In Cladrastis, the filaments of the stamens are all free from one another. This feature indicates that this genus is allied with Sophora, pagoda trees, Maackia, and numerous other genera. As in nearly all Leguminosae, the pistil is of one simple carpel. The cylindrical ovary is shortly stalked below and tapers above into an elongate style that is tipped by a small stigma. The fruit of Cladrastis lutea is a flattened legume, somewhat like that of redbud (the genus Cercis), up to 4 inches long and mostly 3\/s inch wide (Figure 4c). There are one to several seeds in each fruit, and the fruits are often slightly constricted laterally between the seeds (perhaps the best botanical description would be \"flattened tortulose\"). The fruits mature in size by August and in September are brown and dry. They remain on the trees for a short period after the fall of the leaves, but they soon fall to the ground. The fruits on the trees, both during the summer and after the leaves have fallen, detract from the appearance of the trees, but at least they do not remain on the trees during winter. After the fruits have fallen to the ground, the fruits either dehisce or they decay over winter to release spectacular! (see Figure 2g.) a flowers show that Cladrastis is 143 Fig. 3. Cladrastis lutea. Original drawing by C. E. Faxon from which the engraving for Tab. CXIX in Vol. 3 of Sargent's Silva was made. Shown in the illustration are: a fiowering branch, the petals of a flower (lower left), a diagram of a flower, a stamen, a vertical section of a flower and an ovary, and an ovule (all to the lower right). From the Library of the Arnold Arboretum. 144I Fig. 4. Cladrastis lutea. a, grove of trees on Tree Legume slope in mature leaves; c, fruit. Photos: K. R. Robertson. summer; b, 145 the seeds. The seeds are olive-brown and beanlike, slightly laterally flattened, and about 1\/4 inch long and 1\/8 inch wide; the hilum is quite off-center. Cladrastis lutea is endemic to the eastern United States, occurring from Brown County, Ohio and Brown County, Indiana west through southern Illinois to southwestern Missouri, northern and central Arkansas, and extreme eastern Oklahoma, south through central Tennessee to central and southern Alabama, and east to the mountains of eastern Tennessee, North Carolina, and extreme northern Georgia However, this overall distribution does not really reflect the distribution of C. lutea since the species occurs disjunctly in numerous scattered localities (Figure 5). Wild yellow-woods are found in two quite different habitats: cliffs along river systems and openings in hardwood or hemlock forests of moist coves. Cove forests are most common in the southern Appalachian Mountains, and yellow-wood trees of these forests are tall with erect, flat crowns and trunks that fork fairly close to the ground. Toward the western and southern part of their range, yellow-wood trees occur primarily at the brink of cliffs, along ledges on cliffs, or sometimes toward the base of cliffs. Yellow-wood trees of the cliff habitat are small and have trunks that fork about half way up (much of the above information from Pittillo, 1963). Steyermark has noted that thousands of these rare trees have been destroyed by the construction of dams (Bull Shoals, Taneycomo, and Table Rock) along the White River and its tributaries of northern Arkansas and southwestern Missouri. Because of its rare occurrence, scattered distribution, and presence in areas subject to flooding by man-made dams, yellow-wood has been included in the Federal list of endangered plant species. Yellow-wood is not for mass planting as a yard or street tree; it is, instead, for the discriminating gardener who will give it a prominent place among other rarities. Such a person will be rewarded. In winter, the beech-like bark and overall appearance of the tree is very attractive. In late spring, the tree is truly spectacular when in full bloom (heavy flowering occurs only every other year or so). The rounded shape of the crown, the rich green color and medium texture of the foliage, and the short trunk make the yellow-wood a nice tree during the summer. In autumn, the leaves turn a rich yellow. In short, the yellow-wood has something ornamental to offer at all seasons. The only unattractive period is when the fruits mature and, for a short time, hang on the trees in the fall. Perhaps someday plant breeders will develop a sterile form that does not set fruit and that might flower more regularly every year. Yellow-wood is hardy nearly throughout the eastern United States and southern Canada. It is not bothered by insect or fungal pests, is tolerant of most soil types, and can withstand moderate drought once it is established. Yellow-wood is also for the patient gardener. First of all, it is rather difficult to find in nurseries, and, when available, it is usually 146 Fig. 5. Distribution map by county of Cladrastis lutea. I 147 in limited ' quantities. It also is slow growing, taking ten to twenty years to flower for the first time, and it only flowers heavily every second or third year. Although yellow-wood is not commonly cultivated, there are a number of fine specimens in Cambridge, Massachusetts, particularly in the vicinity of the Botanic Garden Apartments on Garden Street (former site of the Harvard Botanic Garden), in Mount Auburn Cemetery, and in the Tercentenary Theater of Harvard Yard between Memorial Church and Widener Library. The Arnold Arboretum's grove of yellow-woods is on the Tree Legume slope (Figures 1 and 4). Yellow-wood may be propagated by root cuttings or by seed, which should be covered with hot water (190'F), allowed to set overnight, then stratified for three months at 40F. On the grounds of the Perkins School for the Blind in Watertown, Massachusetts is a pink-flowered yellow-wood. It is not at all clear where this tree originated, and there is no report of a pink-flowered form from the wild. This tree has been propagated by scions and distributed to the Arnold Arboretum and to the Brimfield Nurseries in Connecticut. A number of years ago, the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, and the Arboretum of the Bames Foundation, Merion, Pennsylvania obtained plants from the Brimfield Nurseries The plant at the Morton Arboretum first flowered in 1970, while that at the Barnes Foundation first flowered in 1976 The plants at the Arnold Arboretum have not yet flowered. For more information on the pink-flowered yellow-wood, see Fogg ( 1976) and Wyman (1963). While Cladrastis lutea is the only species of the genus native to the New World, there are four other species in eastern Asia. These are: C. sinensis Hemsl. of central and western China (Figure 6), C. Wilsonii Takeda of central China, and C. platycarpa (Maxim.) Makino and C. shikohiana Makino of Japan. All of these, except for the last species, are cultivated in Europe, but only C. platycarpa and C. sinensis are occasionally grown as botanical curiosities in this country. They are not as ornamental or as reliably hardy as our native C. lutea. Cladrastis is closely related to Maackia, and the two genera are sometimes united under the former name. Maackia amurensis, a native of Manchuria, is occasionally cultivated in the eastern United States for its July bloom. KEY TO THE CULTIVATED YELLOW-WOODS 1. 2. flattened but not winged, stipels absent. Leaflets broadly elliptic or ovate with acuminate tips and tapering or slightly rounded bases; ovary glabrous, panicles mostly drooping. C. lutea. 2. Leaflets oblong to oblanceolate with obtuse or acutish apices and rounded bases, ovary finely pubescent, panicles upright. C. sinensis. Legumes flattened, winged all the way around; stipels present. C. platycarpa. Legumes 2. 1. .... 148 Fig. 6. A 60- x 10-foot specimen of Cladrastis sinensis at base of Fex-Yueh-ling in Ching Chi Hsien (5,000-foot altitude). Photo. E. H. Wilson, 1908. 149 Selected References Anonymous. Yellow-wood. Missouri Bot Gard. Bull. 11: 17. pl. 2. 1923. -. The discovery of the southern yellow wood Ibid. 15. 40-42. pl. 4. 1927. -. Bean, W.Cladrastis - Yellow-wood, Cladrastis lutea. Morris Arb. Quart. 3 14, 15. 1967. tmctorza (yellow wood). Gard Chron. III 42. 186, 187. 1907. [Also see entry by Bean in F. J. Chittenden, ed., Roy. Hort. Soc. Dict. Gard. ed 2. 1: 495. 1956.1 Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, ed. 8, G. Taylor, ed. Vol. 1. xx + 845 pp. 77 pls. on 48 pp. London 1970. [Cladrastis, 630-633. ] Dumont de Courset, G. L M. Le botaniste cultivateur. ed 2. Vol. 6: 631 pp. Paris. 1811. [Sophora hentuhea, 56.] Duncan, W. H. Preliminary reports on the flora of Georgia. 1. The distribution in Georgia of spermatophytes new to or rare in the state. Castanea 13: 70-83. 1948 (Cladrastis, 77-79, includes distribution I map of the genus in the southeastern U.S.] Fogg, J. M., Jr. The pink-flowered yellow-wood. Newslet Arb Barnes Found. 17: 10, 11. 1976. Harper, R. M. Economic botany of Alabama. Part 2. 357 pp. 1928. .I [Cladrastis, 220, 221.] Hooker, J. D. Cladrastis tinctoria. Bot. Mag. 127: pl 7767. 1901. Krussmann, G. Handbuch der Laubgehblze. Vol. 1. vi + 495 pp. 164 pls. Berlin & Hamburg. 1960. (Cladrastis, 319, 320.] I Lewis, C. E. The yellowwood tree and its uses. Am. Nurseryman 106(6): 14, 15. 1957 Little, E L , Jr Endemic, disjunct and northern trees in the southern Appalachians. Pp. 249-290 In: P. C. Holt, ed., The distributional of the biota of the southern Appalachians. II. Flora. Virginia Inst State Umv Res Div. Monogr. 2. 1970 [Distribution map of C. lutea on p. 270.1 I Michaux, F A. Voyage a l'ouest des monts alleghanys, dans les etats de 1'Ohio, du Kentucky et du Tennessee, et retour a Charleston par les hautes-carolines. vi + 312 pp. map. Paris. 1804. Travels to the westward of the Alleghany Mountains, in the states of the Ohio, Kentucky, and Tennessee, in the year 1802. (Translated and condensed from the French.) iv + 96 pp. map. Richard Phillips, London. 1805. Nakai, T Speciality of asio experiment forest of Kyoto Imperial University. (In Japanese.) Jour. Jap. Bot. 17: 273-283. 1941. [Cladrastis, 282.] Osborn, A. Cladrastis sinensis. Gard. Chron. III. 114. 61, 62. 1943. Peattie, D. C A natural history of trees of eastern and central North America. ed. 2. xv + 606 pp. 16 pls. Cambridge, Massachusetts. 1966 (Clndrastzs, 409-412 1 Pittillo, J. D. Distribution and ecology of Cladrastis lutea. Master's Thesis, Univ. Kentucky. 31 pp. 1963. Yellowwood (Cladrastis lutea, Fabaceae). an example of a nationally threatened species. (Abstract.) ASB. Bull. 23. 87. 1976. Rivera, R., H. W. Popp, & R. B. Dow. The effect of high hydrostatic pressure upon seed germination. Am. Jour. Bot. 24: 508-513. 1937. [Seeds of C. lutea among those tested; see Table 2.] Rudd, V. E. Studies in the Sophoreae (Leguminosae). I. Phytologia 21: 327. 1971. [Adopts C. kentuhea (\"kentuckea,\" sphalm. ) for C. lutea.] Sargent, C. S. Journal of Andre Michaux, 1787-1796. With an introduction and notes. Proc. Am. Phil. Soc. 26(129): 1-145. 1888. Cladrastis. Silva N. Am. 3. 55-57. pls. 119, 120. 1890. history Polytechnic -. -. -. 150I Stapf, O. Cladrastzs sinensis. Bot. Mag. 150: pl. 9043. 1925. Steyermark,J A. A tomentose form of Cladrastas lutea. Rhodora 40. 1938. [From along the Black Warrior River near Tuscaloosa, bama.] ] Flora of Missouri. lxxxiii + 1725 pp. Ames, Iowa. 1963 [Cladrastis, 881, 882.] Takeda, H Cladrastis and Maackia. Notes Bot. Gard. Edinburgh 37. 95104. pls 26, 27. 1913. Thwaites, R. G. Early western travels, 1748-1846. Vol. 3. 383 pp. map. Cleveland, Ohio. 1904. [Includes translations of Andre Michaux's -. 487. Ala- Travels mto Kentucky, 1793-1796 and F. A. Michaux's Travels west of the Alleghany Mountains, 1802.] U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. U.S. Dept. Agric., Agric. Handb. 450. viii + 883 pp. 54 pls. on 16 pp. 1974. [Cladrastis, 329, 330.1 Wagner, R. Ein altertumlicher Charakter der Cladrastis lutea (Mchx. fil.) Koch. Osterr. Bot. Zeitschr. 77: 285, 286. 1928. Wyman, D. International plant registration. Arnoldia 23. 85-92. 1963. [Cladrastis lutea 'Rosea', p. 88.] Wyman's gardening encyclopedia. xv + 1222 pp. 62 pls. on 16 pp. New York & London. 1971. [Cladrastis, 234.] 1 -. Fruiting branch of Cladrastis lutea. Tab. CXX, Vol. 3, The Silva of North America, by C. S. Sargent, 1892. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Buckleya- The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":151,"end_page":155,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24693","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260856f.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":3,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Buckleya - The Oldest Cultivated Plant in the Arnold Arboretum by RICHARD A. HOWARD Although the Arnold Arboretum was legally established in 1872, the first plantings on the grounds did not occur for several years. It is of interest, therefore, that a plant collected in Tennessee by Asa Gray in 1843 was transplanted to Hemlock Hill in Jamaica Plain in 1946 and so represents the oldest documented cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum. Strangely, it is a semi-parasitic plant with an unusual history. It is not common in cultivation, has no well-known common name, and is to be recommended only for its oddity. Buckleya distichophylla (Nutt.) Torrey was first seen by Thomas Nuttall in his travels along the French Broad River in East Tennessee in 1816. Nuttall, an English-American botanist and ornithologist, was to become the director of the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge, Mass., in 1822, preceding the more famous Asa Gray. His discovery was described by him as Borya distichophylla, in his book, The Genera of North American Plants, in 1818. Unfortunately, he assigned it incorrectly to a genus in the Oleaceae, the olive family. The plant was found again in the spring of 1843 by Samuel Bradford Buckley, a naturalist and plant collector for Prof. John Torrey of Columbia College. Torrey then correctly assessed the plant to represent a new genus of the sandal-wood family, Santalaceae, and named it Buckleya in honor of Mr. Buckley. Torrey recognized that the proper specific name was that published earlier by Nuttall, and made the transfer and new combination. Professors Torrey and Gray had published A Flora of North America, containing short descriptions of all the known indigenous and naturalized plants growing north of Mexico and were continuing a program of collecting unusual plants. Thus Gray sought out Buckleya in the fall of 1843 and returned with herbarium specimens and plants and fruits of the rare Buckleya for cultivation at the Harvard Botanic Garden, then under his direction. The introduction to cultivation of a living partially parasitic plant is unusual, yet it was successful. Herbarium specimens from this plant labelled \"Hort. Cantab.\" or \"Botanic Garden of Harvard University\" are dated 1852, 1879, 1926 and 1930, the last two, by John George Jack for the Arnold Arboretum herbarium. Charles Sargent was the director of the Botanic Garden of Harvard University in Cambridge from 1873 until 1879, and there he pre151 152 l. Flowering branch of the staminate plant, natural size. 2. Flowering branch of the pistillate plant, natural size. 3. Fruiting branch, natural size. 4. Staminate flower, enlarged. 5. Vertical section of a staminate flower, enlarged. 6. Pistillate flower, enlarged. 7. Vertical section of a pistillate flower, enlarged. 8. Vertical section of a seed, somewhat enlarged. 9. Embryo, much magnified. From Garden and Forest, 3:237. 1890. Buckleya distichophylla. of the Arnold Arboretum that Sargent noted the lack of fertile fruits on the Buckleya in the botanical garden and attempted vegetative propagation. When this was unsuccessful, he sought additional plants from the wild and in 1888 he and W. M. Canby made a trip across the Smoky Mountains of Tennessee, including a \"detour to the French Broad for the purpose of looking up Buckleya.\" He reported that he found plants in ripe fruit at Paint Rock and sent back several hundred seeds packed in damp soil as well as a number of small seedlings. All arrived at the Arboretum in pared plans property in and plants for the development Jamaica Plain. One can assume 153 and the seeds germinated \"at once.\" These accessions recorded in the numbered inventory of the Arnold Arboretum as \"#3255,\" a plant collected by Sargent at Paint Rock, Tenn., Oct 1888, and \"3255-1 seeds\" from the same area. Herbarium vouchers of fruiting specimens support the collection data. We have no record of the length of time the plants or seedlings obtained by Sargent were maintained in the living collections, for the existing records show only the undated annotation \"dead or disposed of,\" representing a period when non-ornamental plants were removed from the living collections. Sargent wrote of his search for this plant and of its introduction to cultivation in an article on \"New or Little Known Plants\" in Garden and Forest in 1890. A plate prepared by Charles Faxon was included and is reproduced here. Buckleya, as a native plant, was not included in any edition of A Manual of Botany as prepared by Asa Gray, although several of these editions included the state of Virginia, where the plant has been found. It was first mentioned in the 8th edition of Gray's Manual of Botany published by M. L. Fernald in 1950 Sargent mentioned the plant only briefly in a footnote in his Silva of North America. Buckleya is included in Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, but supporting specimens for this record are only those of the Botanic Garden of Harvard University. When the Botanic Garden in Cambridge was abandoned in favor of university-sponsored housing at the end of World War II, the shrub introduced by Asa Gray in 1843 and cared for by Charles Sargent in 1873 was transplanted to the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum in 1946 It continues to thrive in a natural stand of Tsuga canadensis, the Canada Hemlock. Buckleya is a genus of dioecious shrubs, the male and female flowers occurring on different plants. The specimen Asa Gray collected is a female plant. Buckleya is known to be a semi-parasitic plant, that is, during part of its development it is dependent as a parasite on the attachment of its roots to those of other plants. The plant becomes a shrub, has green leaves, and does manufacture its own food. I have not been able to locate a 19th century reference to this parasitism, but herbarium specimens from the Biltmore Herbarium, collected in 1897, were made deliberately to show the haustorial connection with Tsuga canadensis. Since the natural range of Bucklez~a distichophylla is also that of the Carolina Hemlock, botanists speculate that Tsuga caroliniana might have been the original host plant. other botanists have reported an association of In the last Buchleya with species of Pinus, and, in fact, as many as twenty-five different forbs, grasses and ferns as well as broad-leafed trees. Even today it is not clear at what stages of growth or for how long or to what degree Buchleya must be dependent on a host plant. Sargent reported in 1890 the lack of success in attempts to propagate vegetatively the specimen of Buckleya in the Botanic Garden in good order, were decade, 154 Cambridge. Since that time the Arnold Arboretum has acquired several seed lots of Buchleya distichophylla from native locations and from other plants in cultivation in the United States, and one infertile seed lot from the Forest Botanic Garden, Charlottenlund, Denmark. Mr. Fordham, longtime plant propagator for the Arnold Arboretum, has conducted many experiments with this species. In spite of Sargent's early report that seeds germinate \"at once,\" Mr. Fordham has found that seeds failed to germinate when planted directly upon receipt. However, seeds given a cold treatment of 40 degrees for two In or three months produced seedlings in over 50% of the cases. 1962 a generous quantity of seeds and cuttings was received from Mr. Fred Lape from plants growing in the George Landis Arboretum in Esperance, New York. Mr. Lape wrote that the original plants in his collection came from seed collected by F. M Crayton of Biltmore, North Carolina; they germinated well and are established in the Landis Arboretum as well as in an old woodlot. He reported that in one place \"there is a spread of it the size of a small room,\" and that the large plants fruit heavily each year. The cuttings received rooted poorly under mist propagation and developed roots only at the very base of the cutting. Other cuttings treated with Amchem 60-89 diluted to 5,000 ppm produced better roots. The seeds developed and the seedlings appeared to flourish without a Tsuga or any other host plant present in the container. Thirtyfive of the vigorous seedlings were planted on Hemlock Hill in the Arboretum in 1963, but by the fall of 1964 all had died. Other seediings planted near a hemlock m the nursery area persist to the present but have yet to flower and so are unsexed. Regrettably, these plants, even if staminate, are too far from the older pistillate plant for normal ` cross-pollination. The fruits of the American Buchleya distichophylla are drupes When mature they are or light brown color on lanceolate bracts at the summit which are shorter than the fruit. These often fall early but if they persist are certainly of no aid in dispersal. In 1846 the German botanical collectors Philip Siebold and Joseph Zuccarini described in their Flora of Japan a plant they called Quadriala lanceolata, literally referring in the name to the four large bracts found on the fruit. Friedrich Miquel, in 1870, recognized this plant to be of the same genus as Buckleya distichophylla of the United States, and published the combination. Thus Buchleya was recognized as one of the many plants occurring in the southeastern United States and in Japan and China. Buckleya distichophylla is known today from Tennessee, Virginia and North Carolina. Buckleya lanceolata (Sieb. & Zucc.) Miq. is known from Japan (Honshu) and China (Hona, Hupeh, Shensi, Szechwan) with a possible second Asiatic species, B. graebneriana Diels from Shensi in China. Two other resembling a small olive in size and shape. a yellow-green in color and they turn a tan drying. The fruits may possess four narrow 155 have been referred to B. lanceolata in herbarium annotations made by Rehder. In 1892 on a collecting trip to Japan, Charles Sargent found fruiting specimens of Buckleya lanceolata on the steep banks of the Kisogawa near Agematsu in Nagano prefecture of central Honshu in Japan. Upon his return Sargent wrote in Garden and Forest of the Japanese Buckleya: \"Indeed it is so common in some parts of the country that the fruit, which is gathered when about two-thirds species from Asia grown, having been subjected to some pickling or preserving process, is sold as a condiment, packed in small, neat wooden boxes. Nikko is the headquarters of the industry, and in late autumn the fruit of Buckleya is displayed in many of the shops which line the street leading through the straggling village up to the burial place of the founder of the dynasty of the Tokugawa Shoguns. To appreciate the flavor of Buckleya, the culture and refinement of the Japanese palate is essential \" There is no record of the seeds Sargent described being grown at the Arnold Arboretum, but in 1905 John George Jack, Sargent's colleague, returned to the same area and obtained comparable fruiting herbarium specimens. It appears that both men might have attempted to introduce this species into cultivation. In 1964 the Arnold Arboretum received fruits of Buchleya lanceolata from the Kobe Municipal Arboretum in Kobe, Japan After a cold treatment of 40 degrees for three months, several seeds germinated, but the seedlings could not be established. In 1902 the Japanese botanist, S. Kusano, in an article in the Journal of the College of Science of the Imperial University of Tokyo, noted that no information had been published on the host plants of Buchleya or for the abundant local species. He described the haustorial connections with species of Cryptomeria, Abies, and Chamaecyparis as well as nine genera of dicotyledonous trees and shrubs. Although he did-not locate naturally occurring parasitism with Pinus or Torreya, he was able to establish such relationships experimentally Buchleya lacks a common name and never will be widely cultivated or useful as an ornamental plant. It is, however, a good example of plant of limited distribution showing unusual phytogeographirelationships, representative of a small family, and worthy of a place in the educational collections of an arboretum. The oldest cultivated plant in the Arnold Arboretum also has an historical connection with several of America's distinguished botanists. a rare cal "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: More About Tours of Botanists and Gardeners in China","article_sequence":3,"start_page":157,"end_page":163,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24695","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260896d.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":3,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM More About Tours of Botanists and Gardeners in China by SHIU YING Hu Recently, an unusually large number of letters came to me from Arnoldia readers regarding my report on the \"Tour of a Botanist in China\" (35: 264-295. 1975). Two letters came from botanical friends in Peking, suggesting areas that need corrections; the other letters brought questions from botanists, horticulturists, dendrologists, landscape gardeners, etc., who are interested in going to the People's Republic of China to visit gardens and experimental stations. The purpose of this short article is to make necessary corrections in my former report, and to answer questions concerning the application for, and planning of, tours to China. Corrections in Former Report Regarding the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, referred to on page 276, the herbarium and library of the Institute have the collections of the former Fan Memorial Institute of Biology and those of the former Laboratory of Botany, National Academy of Peiping. On the next page, the Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae was mentioned. The four volumes already published are: Pteridophyta: Ophioglossaceae Oleandraceae, Rosaceae, Cyperaceae, and Scrophulariaceae (Part II). In the same paragraph, the enlarged Sixth National Convention was called by the Academia Sinica. In order to prepare a report on my tour in China while my memory was fresh, I wrote the article in Hongkong, where the library facilities for botanical publications are inadequate. It was published before I returned to the Arnold Arboretum where the volumes of the flora mentioned above are available. The outline map used for illustrating the route of my trip is an old one used by people outside China. The contemporary term for \"Manchuria\" is the Northeast. ' Answers to Inquiries The questions that I have received from people interested China may be in visit- ing grouped into three categories: (1) application, 157 to visit, and (3) time and expenses. Readers are advised refer to my former report, and to consider the following information as supplementary material. Application: The first rule about tours to China is that the application for entry visas must be made with the official representatives of the People's Republic of China in the country of the applicants. In the United States of America, this is the Liaison Office, People's Republic of China, 2300 Connecticut Avenue, N.W., Washington, D. C. 20008. In other countries it may be the Chinese Embassy or Consulate. The procedure for applying varies with the size of the visiting group. I have known people who went to China as individuals, or in small groups representing academic or research institutions, or as special interest tours of twenty to twenty-five. People who intend to make the trip as individuals can write to the consulate or the liaison office, or go in person, to ask for application forms. Those who plan to visit China in groups must have a leader who represents them in all communication with the liaison office. In writing to ask for the application forms, it will be helpful to state the nature of the group, the purpose of the visit, a list of the participants, and the places hoped to be included in the tour. Programs of touring groups within China are prepared by the China Travel Service (CTS), which has various routes for different interest groups. However, it will help the CTS program makers when they know the intention of the group in visiting certain places, gardens, =_^_i;tu~:c.. , and pc;.plc. Ir. c~n~uitauuu wi~ii Wbotanical, horticultural, agricultural, and forestry organizations of the country, officers of CTS often try to include the specific places and people desired. In the tour in which I participated in the summer of 1975, I was the only person interested in botanical institutions and botanists in China. In my application, I listed over two dozen people and botanical gardens and institutions. Arrangements were made for me to see a large number of these. Places to Visit: In 1963,I participated in a tour of the International Dendrological Society in the eastern United States of America. From this experience, I know the kind of gardens, natural areas, and botanical institutions European and American visitors like to see. My limited experience of living and traveling in China, and the information that my friends shared with me, enable me to tell approximately what places are available in China to satisfy the botanically minded or horticulturally inclined foreign visitors. For these reasons, I venture to offer a tentative itinerary for the reference of future tour 158I (2) places to ' planners. The places suggested are marked by numbers on a map. Some of the places are mentioned in the letters of inquiry received. The insert of the map shows the longitudinally and latitudinally comparable positions of China and the USA and may help some tourists to plan the 159 kind of clothes to take along. There is no luggage problem within China, for all transportation and baggage are taken care of by the CTS. 1. Hongkong: Assuming that the tour lasts for a month and the group enters China via Hongkong, two or three days should be scheduled for seeing the vegetation and gardens there. The vegetation of Victoria Island has been under protection from fire for over one hundred years. The walk over the Peak will give a general idea of the species of Hongkong forests. In the New Territories, there is a beautiful 300-acre private garden - Kadoorie Farm - which is open to the public. It has a unique natural setting with streams, falls, colorful plantings, and spectacular view of the surrounding countryside with farms in the plains and a vegetation of fire-climax on the hillsides. If time allows, a stop should be made at the Tai-po-Kau Forestry Station of the Hongkong Government. Here one can see the results of afforestation under government management, the regeneration of a natural forest from a former village woods protected from cutting and fire, and the magnificent bamboo gardens planted in the 1930s when F. A. McClure was studying the bamboos of South China. Some of his species can be seen in this garden. 2. Canton: If the group is interested in the tropical gardens of China, two or three days should be allowed for Canton. In addition to the parks and gardens scheduled by CTS, requests should be made for visits to Kwangtung Botanical Garden, and the present Sunyatsen University located in the campus of former Lingnan University where F. A. McClure planted his Bamboo Garden Permission may be obtained for visiting the following places of botanical and horticultural interest: Huang-pu (Whampao) where Peter Osbeck collected for Linnaeus in 1751 and Henry Fletcher Hance resided for a quarter of a century from 1860 onward; and Hua-ti (Fate-Flower Gardens) where William Kerr, the Botanical Collector of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, obtained his specimens in the 1800s and where John Reeves got his plants for the Royal Horticultural Society, London in the 1810-20s. 3. Hangchow. Three or four days should be saved for this garden city of China. The CTS program covers many gardens by lakes and in hills (Fig. 1) and temple grounds. Special request must be made for visiting the Hangchow Botanical Garden, with particular emphasis on seeing the portion set aside as a natural reservation. 4. Shanghai: When our party was in Shanghai, we were shown schools and industry. After I returned to Canton, I was told of Miss S. K. Cheng's work in establishing the Shanghai Botanical Garden. Request should be made to see it. 5 Soochow. A minimum of three days should be allowed for this area. The program of CTS includes many gardens within the city, and the Tai Lake commune which takes the group into the countryside. The gardens in Soochow with the moon gates (Figure 2), and 160I Fig. l. The Flower Creek Park of Hangchow including lakes and hills, with beautiful lawns, impressive deodar-cedar, graceful willows, elegant pavilions, and many xnterestxng plants. (See Arnoldia 35. 268 for detaxls). famous throughout China, and have been treated of Chinese gardens in many western books. They are stereotype old, and some of them can be traced to the Ming Dynasty or earlier. The Tiger Hill (Hu-ch'iu), which is a public park now, is the only one which has a natural setting of massive cliffs and steep gorges. It has a tea house and a slanting pagoda. The other gardens formerly were private and are small. By skillfull use of rocks and water, the designers were able to express nature in a reduced scale (Figures 3-4). Thus, in a small courtyard, one may feel the effect of hills, streams, cliffs and lakes, with plantings to fit with the ecological backthe rock work as a are Two or three days should be scheduled for Nanking. The CTS program includes the Tomb area of Dr. Sunyatsen, the father of China as a republic. In the vicinity of the Tomb area the ground. 6. Nanking: 161 Institute of Agricultural Sciences and the Kiangsu Botanical Institute and the Associated Botanical Garden, situated at the Ming Tomb, are two interesting places to visit. The vegetation of the Spirit Valley is better preserved than is that of the Tomb area, and the group may want to see a deciduous forest of eastern China there. Special requests must be made in advance for visiting the Nanking Technical Institute of Forest Products to see the result of Prof. P. C. Yeh's tree breeding, and the plantings of the medicinal plant gardens of the Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine. 7. Peking: Four or five days should be set aside for Peking. There are many interesting places to see in this ancient city which is also the present capital. Botanically, Peking was the site where Alexander Kiangsu Fig. 2. The rnoongate in a Soochow garden. 162 von Bunge collected in 1830-31. Many of our common ornamental garden trees and shrubs came from the Peking Hills, originally sent as seeds to the Arnold Arboretum and several European botanical gardens by Emil Bretschneider between 1866 and 1883. My time in Peking was too short to visit the hills. From the Palace ground I could see beautiful woods on the hills to the north, and also above the lake area of I Ho Yuan (Garden of Smiling Harmony, also known as the Summer Palace). My suggestion is that the tour leaders of botanical groups write to botanists in the Institutum Botanicum, Academia Sinica, 141 Hsi Chih Men Wai Ta Chie, Peking, for advice. 8-9. Central China. The following information I obtained from friends who visited Central China in the summer of 1973, and Kweilin in 1974. Hotel facilities are available for foreign visitors in WuHan (8) of Hupeh Province, and in Chang Sha (9w) in Hunan Province. People who have inquired about visits to Lu Shan Botanical Garden may like to know that Wu-Han is the nearest metropolis to Lu Shan. The name is an abbreviation of two adjacent cities, Wu Chang and Hankow (Han Kou). Botanists of the Hupeh Institute of Botany may answer questions about places of botanical interest in Wu-Han and about arrangements for visiting Lu Shan Botanical Garden. Looking at a map of China, one may see that Wu-Han and Chang Sha are on a central artery of communication between Peking and Canton. It would be a very interesting trip if arrangements could be made for leaving Peking by train and stopping at Wn-Han for a few 163 then continuing the trip to Chang Sha by train. After visiting the hometown of Chairman Mao in Hunan, the group could proceed forward to Kweilin (Kwei Lin) in Kwangsi. 10. Kweilin: The natural beauty of Kweilin is well known in China. There is a saying that describes the superb scenery of the area: \"The hills and waters of Kweilin is FIRST under heaven.\" There is a direct flight between Kweilin and Canton. A minimum of two days should be allowed for visiting this area. days, I Time and Expenses The expenses of the trip depend primarily upon the time spent in China, and on personal likes and dislikes. Here I can only give my personal experience as a rough reference. I went to China with a Hongkong group (CTS Group 57). This designation was our identification and our address within China. It should be mentioned that when the name of an individual, the group number, and the city within China were given, all mail, telegrams, and long distance telephone calls were received. In the summer of 1975, a Hongkong dollar was equivalent to US 20 cents; now its value is slightly higher. For the basic expenses of the tour, which was originally scheduled for July 12th (leaving Hongkong in early morning) to August 6th (leaving Canton at 8:20 A.M. and arriving Hongkong about noontime), each member paid in advance $4,000.OOHK. This covered transportation, food, hotel (double room), and luggage. Later, our request for an extension of one more day in Peking was granted, and we each paid an additional charge of $100 OOHK. The food was good and plentiful, the service excellent, the hotel rooms comfortable and with private baths, and the program full, including many entertainments in the evenings. Drinks ranging from soft drink to beer, etc., are available in the dining rooms of the hotels at extra charge. In each hotel, there also is a shop for fruits, cigarettes, candy, and small gifts In every city visited there was a Friendship Store that carried antiques as well as expensive modern articles Such stores are open only to tourists. Finally, it should be mentioned that hotel facilities for accommodating foreign visitors are limited in number and capacity. All the overseas Chinese holding passports of their naturalized countries are treated in China as foreign guests. On account of the large number of applications of these people who want to return to see relatives and friends, applicants often have to wait a long time for permission to travel in China. It pays to apply as early as possible and to be patient in waiting for the permit. Acknowledgement My deep appreciation is due to Miss C. H. Young and for the photographs and for much help during my tour Fig. 3. Soochow garden rock work. Mr. K. B. Liu in China. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":165,"end_page":168,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24692","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260816b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":3,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Woodland Ecology. Leon S. Minckler. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 229 pages, illustrated. $9.95. Of all the potentially productive forest land in this country, 59 percent is under private, non-industrial ownership. In the 300 million acres eastern part of the country the figure is as high as 73 percent. This book addresses itself to these woodland owners, who number 4.5 million, emphasizing their responsibilities and privileges Having worked for many years with the U S. Forest Service at forest experimental stations and being now Adjunct Professor at SUNY College of Environmental Science and Forestry at Syracuse, the author knows his subject and his readership. He provides detailed information on the forces that bear on their woodlands and on techniques of channelling these forces towards economic and esthetic goals. The book, which deals exclusively with the eastern U.S., begins with a concise description of forestry and silviculture. Then follows a systematic presentation of the seven types of eastern forests, the five classes of tree for timber production, the five methods of timber cutting and the seven principles of planting. An important chapter focuses on the relation of woodland management to wildlife and fish habitat. Modern dilemmas are laid out on the table. \"Wildlife and fish belong to the people, their harvest is controlled by the state, but the land where the wildlife lives and the shores of the streams are controlled by the landowner \" Professor Minckler does not have the answer, but it is refreshing to see clear-sighted definitions of this and similar problems. He is a straight shooter. For example, pond management in his view is relatively simply stated: \"The only way to have an attractive and useful pond is to have it properly constructed in the first place and then to prevent pollution.\" The three appendices contain addresses of agencies and book references to which the woodland owner can turn for advice and actual help. It is stimulating to find a book on ecology that does not devote itself to crying havoc, but provides a well-written set of practical and philosophical guidelines for the future management of our forests RICHARD WARREN - Ten-Minute Field Trips. Helen Ross Russell. Chicago: J G. Ferguson Publishing Co 172 pages, illustrated. $6 95 paperback. The author has lifelong experience teaching children, and judging from the warm enthusiasm throughout her book, she must have been a marvelous inspiration to countless youngsters Geared toward use by grade school teachers, the book presents a series of investigative \"lessons\" designed to teach the principles of nature study. As a source of ideas and information, it is equally valuable to parents, camp counselors and teachers of older children. The institutional method makes full use of outdoor materials at hand, encouraging students to observe and investigate. A lesson on the dandelion brings together a multitude of disciplines Counting individual flowerets and estimating reproductive possibilities teaches statistics and demography; etymology comes to the fore when one explains the deriva- 165 166 tion of the name from the French \"dents-de-lion\" and notices the supposed resemblance of the flowers to lion's teeth, in learning that the greens are edible, students are introduced to cultural and culinary practices of other people in other times. Ten Minute Field Trips is a \"learn and do\" manual of exceptionally high quality. It deserves a position of prominence in classrooms throughout the country. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Gardens Without Soil. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 127 pages, illustrated. $8.95. The sprouted carrot top, sweet potato or avocado growing in a container of water has long adorned the kitchen window in many homes. This attractive, expensive, illustrated volume elaborates on the method of soilless culture, proposing that commercial or experimental methods of hydroponics can be used in the home or greenhouse. The point is stretched considerably with the suggestion that cauliflower, cabbage and squash can be so produced. RICHARD A. HOWARD Gardening With Perennials Month by Month. Joseph Hudak. New York: Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co. 398 pages, illustrated. $12.50. There are many books on \"how,\" but too few that emphasize the \"when.\" Mr. Hudak's new book is of value to the amateur gardener whose interest has been limited to the evanescent world of annuals, and it also will assist the professional in plant selection. Each chapter represents a month of the growing season and is preceded by a listing of the color values of various perennials selected for hardiness and growth characteristics. This information on time, color, and site should mitigate the concern of those whn ccich u tn ~lot?r ro_C--\":.:.`7:. 1';:I :..., :f:.::u `i u d' u iWcii uuJLdhCJ W111 1.UI1front them for many seasons. The descriptive material is clearly written, and the pictures are good. Although the selection of plants for a book of this size admittedly cannot be encyclopedic, it is eminently practical and satisfies the writer's criteria of endurance, growth habits, and flowering traits. A pleasant bonus is an alphabetically arranged descriptive list of hardy ferns and an addendum of plants for specific conditions such as perennials with a blooming period of eight weeks or more, perennials having the bonus of foliage effects with or after blooming, etc. While the book's emphasis is on useful practicality, it is also enjoyable reading and can be recommended without reservation. BARBARA O. EPSTEIN New Plants From Old. Charles M. Evans. New York: Random House. 116 pages, illustrated. $3.95, paperback. Cook books and manuals on growing house plants continue to proliferate. This simple, clear and instructive book on house plant pruning and propagation will certainly be of great assistance to the beginner. If it is read with care, the pleasures of plant propagation should be within the grasp of the rankest amateur. An index of plants, listed both botanically and by their common names, and stating how they are best propagated, should be of much value to anyone who wishes to increase his house plant collection. The format of the book is most attractive and the illustrations by Lauren Jarrett are both clear and charming. - 167 From New Plants From Old. Apples. Peter Wynne. trated New York. Hawthorne Books, Inc. 280 pages, illus- $12.50. Apples are ancient, delicious, mythological, medicinal, sexually symbolic and beautiful in flower and fruit. A book on their multiple aspects and assets should be welcome, but unfortunately, this book is not adequate. It attempts to cover the apple's history, culture and folklore, with a hundred pages of recipes as a final chapter. But the history is too brief, the culture written in an over-simplistic and patronizing style (surely we do not have to be told that \"each blossom has five petals\"), and the folklore is too long and too speculative. The recipes are mainly adapted from Victorian cook books, and consist of such standard fare as \"Brown Betty\" and apple pie. CORA L. WARREN The Gardener's Catalogue. New York: William Morrow and Co. 320 pages, illustrated. $6.95. This 141\/2\" x 101\/z\" paperback compendium, copiously illustrated with line drawings in the Victorian manner, is nothing more than a product of the scissors and the photocopier. In general, The Gardener's Catalogue consists of brief articles, lists and garden catalogue excerpts grouped under various topics. There are extensive lists of plant societies, plant sources, etc., some of them including England and Australia, so the editors obviously aspire to some sort of international market. Although there is a three-page index at the back, it is by no means complete. 168 For serious reference work, this book has many inaccuracies. A novice gardener will surely end up with horticultural indigestion. Because of its emphasis on the current popularity of nostalgia, however, it probably will sell well - only to grace many a white elephant table next year. A Naturalist in Costa Rica. Alexander F. Skutch. of Florida Press. 378 pages, illustrated. $12.50. Gainesville: University _ For more than thirty-five years, Alexander Skutch made a living in Costa Rica by providing herbarium specimens for institutions. He lived among the natives, acquiring a knowledge of their ornithology, horticulture, religion and economy. Despite the inexorable march of civilization and the resultant deforestation, vandalism and ecological upset, the author's joy in his surroundings is clearly felt. Skutch philosophizes on the myth that the tropical environment is one of easy bounty and explains how the \"slash and burn\" horticulture of the Mayans produced the present day nomadic population. This work has the charm of the journals of Fairchild, Wilson and Teale. It is recommended to botanists travelling to Central America, to field naturalists in training, to armchair naturalists, and to those with a love of nature. I endorse it highly! ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Modern Potting Composts. A. C. Bunt. London: George Allen and Unwin Ltd. 277 pages, illustrated. 8.00. The author introduces the need for changing to loamless potting compost by a comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of both loam and loamless based composts. An informative description of most available alternative compost components is followed by an analysis of the physical aspects of compost formulation, the principles of nutrition, and the procedures involved in compost preparation, fertilization and irrigation. The mamuni, ueiy miccem for ~ite pmie55iumai hmic.uiturist, student and scientific hobbyist, includes many graphs, tables and figures which demonstrate the interactions between the potting compost, the plant material, and the cultural practices. The technical information, which is based on studies made in England, U.S.A. and several European countries, and the appendices, which contain important conversion tables and chemical constants, constitute a valuable reference manual for anyone intending to prepare composts for pot plants. KENNETH D. SHAW House Plants Indoors\/Outdoors. San Francisco: Ortho Book Division, Chevron Chemical Co 97 pages, illustrated. $3 98. Over 350 color photographs make this an attractive volume to glance through at leisure, but pictures are definitely not its only attributes A clear, well-written text explains everything from air layering Dracaenas to Zebrina propagation. Many excellent photographs illustrate such processes as repotting, pinching and watering. These visual aids should delight the beginning gardener, and in this case, a single clear photograph _is worth a thousand words. In addition to the usual sections on artificial lights, pests and diseases, bulbs and individual house plants, there is an interesting calendar that tells you what you should be doing with certain of your plants month by month. A source list gives some of the retail outlets for common and not-so-common house plants. A book such as this certainly ought to recruit legions of indoor plant fanciers. In addition, with its reasonable cost and lucid presentation, it ought to find its way onto many experienced gardeners' shelves as well. MARGO W. REYNOLDS _ Zenobia pulverulenta. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23330","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070bb6f.jpg","title":"1977-37-3","volume":37,"issue_number":3,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Early Rock Garden","article_sequence":1,"start_page":89,"end_page":109,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24690","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260bb6d.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":2,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"The by Early Rock Garden GEORGE H. PRIDE Here in the north it is hard to imagine anything that can give more pleasure to a gardener than a rock garden featuring hardy plants that bloom early in the spring. During the month of May in this area almost any rock garden can be spectacular without much effort; every bit of bloom that appears earlier, therefore, is prized in a special way. The plants capable of making a fine showing this early are really more numerous than most people realize, and with some judicious planning, the display can begin in early March. In fact, in my rock garden there are two plants, Narcissus bulbocodium 'Nylon', and Merendera sobolifera, that become so enthusiastic about being \"first\" in the spring that they frequently end up being \"last\" each fall. Before going into discussions of plants it is well to set the stage. The main source of information for this article is a rock garden at the Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, that has been under my care for nearly ten years. Although it is a :~lati~Ciy small garden, it contains over 1,000 species and cultivars; the majority of them coming into bloom in May or soon after. This garden is in Zone 4.5 according to the Arboretum map, but I have found micro-habitats in it which allow plants to do well that normally would be much happier in warmer areas. There will be no effort to include every possible rock garden plant that might grow here; only those that I have had experience with in this garden will be considered. Most of the plants included are available from nurseries listed at the end of this article. A few however, like the merendera, will be difficult to obtain without much search, or through contacts in foreign countries. They will be worth trying to get, nevertheless. To put some system into this large array of plants, it seems to make the most sense to discuss them alphabetically by genus. Then, at the end of the article there will be a listing by time of bloom. Adonis, first in the list, is also among the first of my favorites in the early rock garden. I have enjoyed especially the cultivar 'Fukujukai' of the species A. amurensis, which glows with a golden light and blooms from the middle of March to the end of April some years, depending upon the weather. This past spring, it was at its peak of beauty when the temperature reached 67 F on March 20th. This special cultivar is available from several sources. A plant that waits until May to flower, but has a tidy appearance throughout most of the year, is Alyssoides utriculata. It is sometimes 89 Adonis amurensis 'Fukujukai'. Photo: G. Pride. The as a Vesicaria. The flowers are a greenish-gold shade. seed pods that follow are inflated, making the plant one of the showiest in late June and July. It would be hard to imagine a rock garden without anemones. Anemone blanda from Europe, flowering here in mid-April, is available in shades of pink, deep blue and white; a cultivar, 'Radar', is a brilliant purplish-red with a white center. The finest for me has been 'White Splendor', which persists and flowers well each year. The European Wood Anemone, A. nemerosa, is available in many colors and forms, all good. Perhaps the easiest and showiest of all is A. ranunculoides, the Yellow European Anemone, which asks only for a bit of extra moisture in the soil and full sun to establish itself and spread rapidly. It is especially fine here in April. The many colors and forms of what was once known as Pulsatilla vulgaris and is now usually called Anemone pulsatilla, with the common name of Pasque Flower, serve a double purpose in the garden. They flower in the middle of April, then produce large fluffy seed heads that are as attractive as the flowers. Ordinary soil suits them well. I have found 'Camla' to be an excellent cultivar. listed Right: Anemone pulsatilla 'Camla'. Photo: G. Pride. Anemone blanda. Photo: G. Pride. 92 maddening problem of scientific name changes is especially in rock gardening because so many different families, genera and species are involved. Once one has learned a scientific name for a plant it becomes unpleasant to have to learn a new name for an old friend. I grew up enjoying Anemonella thalictroides, the Rue Anemone, which some now consider a Thalictrum giving us the The common - odd name of Thalictrum thalictroides, which means the \"thalictrum that looks like a thalictrum.\" In middle to late April this species and some of its very unusual or even strange cultivars make tiny, fragile, fascinating woodland-rock garden subjects. Our wild Marsh Marigold is represented in the garden by the dwarf double flowered form, Caltha palustris 'Nana Plena', a very welcome addition in late April in a somewhat moist spot. Chionodoxa, the Glory of the Snow, is commonly grown. C. luciliae seeds in easily and produces sheets of exquisite blue in early to middle April. Another species, C. gigantea, with larger but paler blue flowers is almost as easily adapted. The Chionodoxa cultivar called 'Pink Giant' is one of the most exciting of all early rock garden plants. I know of no other plant with flowers of this shade of pink blooming at this time in the rock garden. It is worth making every effort to obtain the bulbs. It will slowly seed in and should be isolated from the others to keep its \"purity.\" Chionodoxa 'Pink Giant'. Photo: G. Pride. w - Reginald Farrer, one of the tartest-tongued gardeners to ever evalplants, referred to Claytonia, the Spring Beauty, as \"pretty little weeds\" becoming in a few years \"an irrepressible pestilence.\" They spread a candy-pink and white mist over the ground when they flower for a relatively long time during April, but the plants soon disappear completely until flowering time next year. Several corydalis make excellent rock garden subjects. Corydalis sempervirens, our native Pale Corydalis, is definitely a weed in my rock garden, but a lovely one - especially in flower against greyish uate rocks. C. bulbosa and C. densiflora are far from weeds. The latter blooms near the end of March, and the former during the first week of April. They are both shy, non-spreading, attractive and eagerly anticipated each spring. They may be difficult to buy, but are worth hunting for. I am sure that the average rock garden connoisseur would be shocked to know that the only draba I have succeeded with year after year is Draba sibirica. I look forward annually to its lacy masses of tiny golden flowers. It is as dependable as the seasons and is at its best in my garden during the first week of April. Anemone ranunculoides. Photo: G. Pride. 94 Corydalis bulbosa. Photo: P. Chvany. of the early rock garden. They welcome in the early spring. I have avoided the large-flowered hybrids and concentrated on the species Crocus tomasinianus, and the many cultivars of C. chrysanthus. The first is easy, persistent and lovely, though the flowers are somewhat fleeting. All cultivars of C. chrysanthus are early and worth growing. Some will start to flower in late February in favorable years and others will still be showy in early April. I have enjoyed immensely the cultivars 'Lady Killer', a rich purple edged in white; Certainly crocus are the mainstay are easy, colorful, problem-free and most 95 'Gypsy Girl', golden yellow feathered purplish; 'Goldilocks', a rich yellow; 'Princess Beatrix', a magnificent shade of blue; 'Snow Bunting', the nicest white; and a brownish-gold called 'Zwanenburg Bronze'. The composite family is conspicuously rare in the early rock garden. The cultivar 'Finesse' of Doronicum caucasicum (or should it be called D. cordatum? ) is usually blooming by the middle of April with attractive golden daisy-like flowers on dwarf plants. Dicentras are so well known, so generally easy, and so effective that all one needs to say is grow as many as you can. Both Dicentra cucullaria, the Dutchman's Breeches, and D. canadensis, Squirrel Corn, prefer the woodsy side of the rock garden. Both are at their best in the early part of April; both seed in easily if they like their surroundings. Aconite, and the species Eranthis hyemalis without Winter be as good as any. Even though it is an extremely hardy plant, a bit of patience may be needed to establish it, but from then on it is with you forever. Call them what you will, Adder's Tongues, Trout Lilies, Dog-tooth Violets, or Fawn Lilies, the erythroniums all are very attractive, hardy, and mostly easy doers. They are at their best in middle April. I strongly recommend the violet-purple flowered Erythronium japonicum, the lavender-purple E. hendersonii, and the various cultivars of E. dens-canis, which come in shades of rose to purple-violet as well as white. Two of these that are especially striking and usually available are 'Frans Hals' and 'Snowflake'. Some erythroniums have delightfully attractive leaves mottled with reddish-brown. It is hard to imagine the early spring garden seems to Erythronium hendersonii. Photo: G. Pride. 96 A strange prostrate plant from the Mediterranean, Euphorbia myrsinites, is one of the few members of the euphorbia family to be of value in the rock very garden. Despite its place of origin, it seems to be hardy, flowering rather inconspicuously in middle April. It gives a different look to its special place in the garden. Certainly the easiest of all the fritillaries is the Checkered-Lily, Fritillaria meleagris. Several cultivars are available, all excellent and easy to grow and all flowering in May with one exception: the earliest in my garden is 'Saturn', which flowers consistently in late April. All the cultivars are so hardy that bulbs heaved during the winter will go on flowering after being poked back in the ground. Nothing says \"Spring is coming\" more clearly than the first snowdrops. Depending upon how sheltered the spot is, one may expect flowering any time from late January through February and into late March. Galanthus nivalis, the common snowdrop, is the only one I grow in the rock garden. It is usually at its best in late March. I have never had a Christmas Rose flower for me at Christmas time. The species Helleborus niger and its subspecies macranthus are apt to be flowering from late March to middle April. Most gardeners know that one way to get the earliest and most perfect flowers is to place a low wooden box around each plant, leaving the top open and mulching heavily with deciduous leaves. Parting the leaves at the proper time will reveal flowers in excellent condition undaunted by the severest of weather. Hepatica, both H. acutiloba and H. americana (H. triloba), and the Eurasian species, H. nobilis, flower from the last week of March to mid-April. I especially like the cultivar 'Ballard's Variety' with lovely soft lavender-blue flowers nearly an inch in diameter. To those who grow only the tall bearded iris, the species and their variants in the early rock garden can be a revelation. Certainly Iris reticulata with its many forms and colors is the most interesting. They are excellent for rock gardens, easy to grow and flower, and increase reasonably well. They also stand up to very bad weather conditions which are apt to occur when they are in flower. The earliest in my garden is 'Springtime', which blooms in late March, followed by 'J.S. Dijt', 'Violet Beauty' and 'Harmony'. Later in April, 'Joyce' and 'Jeannine' are fine, and the latest has been 'Wentworth' flowering in late April or early May. Thus, by careful planning, nearly a month and a half of these delightful iris may be enjoyed. Iris danfordiae, with deep greenish-gold flowers, blooms early in April. It is spectacular, but many growers complain that after the first year of flowering the corms tend to split up into many small cormlets that take years to flower again. Two suggestions I have not tried that seem to work with others are to plant the corms much deeper than normal, and to feed the plants with weak solutions of manure water while they are in bloom, continuing until the plant dies down naturally. In middle March, I. histrioides and its cultivar - 97 draw all attention to themselves. The flowers are an intense violet-blue and are large for the size of the plant. In 1976 a very heavy snowstorm occurred right after their flowers had opened with no noticeable harm. A remarkable hybrid between Iris his triodes 'Major' and I. danfordiae is 'Katherine Hodgkins', which shows hybrid vigor and increases well. Its large flowers of a strange but attractive turquoisechartreuse are unique. The flowering time is almost exactly between the two extremes of its parents. Expensive, hard to find now, and coveted by all who see it, it is bound to be grown widely when there is sufficient stock available. Our native Jeffersonia diphylla and the Asiatic J. dubia have flowers that can best be described as fugacious. Were it not for the very attractive leaves and the equally unusual seed pods, the plants would be recommended with reservation. Known as Twinleaf, they flower in early April and are edge-of-the-woods rock garden plants. Merendera sobolifera, a member of the lily family and a bulb that is rarely grown, has bloomed in late November and again in February through what appeared to be frozen ground. Admittedly it is not a showy plant, but its small, very ragged pale bluish flowers and tiny narrow leaves are very welcome in the desolation of late winter. It will be hard to find in any catalog. It is not mentioned in the new \"Hortus IIL\" In a moist corner, the Virginia Bluebell, Mertensia virginiana, is a striking plant in mid-April. Dying down and disappearing soon after flowering, it can be grown in association with other plants that would normally follow it. Many Grape Hyacinths are available for rock garden work and are easily grown and remarkably persistent. I especially enjoy the two that are earliest for me: Muscari armeniacum, the Early Giant Grape Hyacinth from Asia Minor, and the relatively new bright blue M. tubergenianum from N. W. Iran. These are followed by others that flower mostly in May. If I were confined to growing only one kind of bulbous plant in the early rock garden, it would have to be Narcissus. Earlier I mentioned 'Nylon', a cultivar of N. bulbocodium, the Hoop-Petticoat Daffodil. This obliging plant has flowered beautifully for me in November and December as well as in April, which I suspect would be its normal flowering time here. I should emphasize that all the variants of this species are well worth growing. Anyone who has been fortunate enough to visit Wisley in England when the alpine meadow is in bloom will have seen an unforgettable sight of masses of these plants. The varieties citrinus, conspicuus, obesus and romieuxii, flowering mostly in mid-April, all are fine. Under ideal conditions these very hardy plants will be free-seeding and will build up colonies. Other very desirable species that provide great charm with only a few plants are N. asturiensis (N. minimus), which has a tiny deep yel- 'Major' ' 98 on a plant only 4 inches high; N. cyclamineus, blooming early April; N. rupicola, a dwarf yellow daffodil flowering in middle April; and Angel's Tears, N. triandus var. albus, with an exquisite pure white nodding flower appearing at the same time. A species deserving special mention is N. watieri from the Atlas Mountains of Morocco. This tiny white jonquil blooms in April and seems to be completely hardy, but likes to dry out well in the summer. More gardeners should know it. Named narcissus cultivars that are excellent for the rock garden in order of their flowering for me are 'Little Beauty' in early April; 'Little Gem'; 'Tete-a-Tete'; 'February Silver', despite its name, flowering in middle April; 'Trevithian', one of the finest of all jonquils; and 'Jumblie' in late April. Pulmonarias, the lungworts, seem to be suffering from nomenclatural woes. \"Hortus III\" lists only four species. Other authorities list more and different ones. I have grown and enjoyed two in the moister part of the rock garden. Pulmonaria affinis flowers in early April with white spotted leaves and flowers opening pink and changing to purplish-blue. Blooming a bit later, P. angustifolia also bears spotted leaves and flowers opening pink but changing to a bright blue. Looking much like a scilla and closely related is Puschkinia libanotica, which also is known as P. scilloides. It is very hardy and very early flowering, usually in full bloom by the first week of April. The flowers are watery blue with a dark stripe through the center of each petal and sepal. The edge of the wild flower garden that blends into the rock gar- low trumpet in den is where I have grown the few primroses that I am able to enjoy. The true primrose fancier will be unhappy about the few that I have, but I have found that only a limited number persist under my conditions and perform well each year. Primula X Juliana 'Dorothy' is reliable for mid-April. The bright yellow 'Butterball' and rich red-purple 'Wanda' are both sure to be there each spring. A pretty weed from Europe, Ranunculus ficaria, the Lesser Celandine, may be controlled by pulling up and discarding a good amount of it each year. Its blooming time is brief, around the middle of April, and its small golden yellow flowers soon disappear followed by the rest of the plant. One often forgets that it is there until it reappears the next spring. I find the native bloodwort, Sanguinaria canadensis, seeds in easily all about the rock garden. Its brief but attractive flowers are welcome ; but its amazing relative, the double-flowered form, is one of the few multi-petaled plants that can be accepted without a feeling of abnormality. This double-flowered cultivar is now quite widely grown and probably is correctly called 'Multiplex'. It is seedless and will last in flower a long time. In middle April the multi-petaled bloodroot is a brilliant sight in any garden, completely eclipsing its normal wild relative. 99 Puschkinia libanotica. Photo: P. Chvany. Primula X Juliana `Butterball'. Photo: G. Pride. All scillas appeal to me, but I have two favorites: the special form of Scilla siberica called 'Spring Beauty', which is larger in all parts than the species and to me a truer blue, and S. tubergeniana from Northern Iran, with pale blue flowers accented by a darker stripe in each segment. It will start to bloom in mid-March and last well into April. I understand a British authority claims it should be called S. mischtschenkoana. Take your pick. In the wild garden\/rock garden area, trilliums thrive. My favorite is Trillium nivale, the Snow or Dwarf White Trillium. In 1976 it flowered on March 14th and stayed in excellent condition for three weeks under very rough weather situations. At best it may reach 6 inches. If it likes its habitat, seedlings will appear and in time a colony will form. T. grandiflorum and T. sessile and its forms are hard to do without, although I think of them as wild garden subjects rather than as rock garden candidates. Several species of tulip supply the brass in the spring orchestration. Grown in a sunny spot that bakes in summer, they persist for many years and are amazingly free from disease and troubles. Very early 101 and very lovely is Tulipa pulchella 'Violacea' which, as its name imhas very attractive violet flowers and is at its best in the first week of April. It is soon followed by T. greigii, the many forms of T. kaufmanniana, and T. linifolia. This last is a showy dwarf of brilliant scarlet with a black center that opens out flat in bright light. Its brilliant shimmering red almost hurts one's eyes in the sun. Then comes 'Fusilier', a cultivar of T. praestans, followed by T. tarda and T. turkestanica in mid- to late April. Finally I have many pansy and viola \"volunteers\" that pop up here and there in the rock garden. I will find them in bloom at almost any time of the year, but they are especially welcome in early March or April. This year a lovely blue, large-flowered one seeded into the crevices in the rocks above the gentian bed and was the last plant to flower, still greeting visitors in late December! plies, Sanguinaria canadensis `MultipLex'. Photo: G. Pride. 102 Anemone blanda White Splendor'. Photo: G. Pride. 103 Flowering Times (very general) February (into April) Galanthusnivalis (into March) Merendera sobolifera Crocus March (early to middle) Adonis amurensis 'Fukujukai' Eranthis hyemalis Iris histrioides Scilla sibirica, S. tubergeniana Narcissus bulbocodium, N. rupicola, N. triandus var. albus, N. watieri, N. 'February Silver', N. 'Little Gem', N. 'Tete-a-Tete' Ranunculus ficaria Sanguinaria canadensis Thalictrum thalictroides Tulipa greigii, T. kaufmanniana, T. (into April) Trillium nivale March linifolia, T. praestans 'Fusilier' (late) Corydalis Hepatica Iris reticulata Helleborus niger (to late April) April (late) Caltha palustris 'Nana Plena' Claytonia Fritillaria meleagris 'Saturn' Narnssus `Jumblie', N.'Trevithian' April (early) Chionodoxa Dicentra Draba siberica Iris danfordiae Tulipa tarda, T. turkestanica ]effersonia Narcissus cyclamineus N. 'Little Beauty' Pulmonaria affinis Puschkinia libanotica Tulipa pulchella `Violacea' April (middle) Anemone Doronicum caucasicum 'Finesse' Erythronium Euphorbia myrsinites Mertensia virginiana Muscari (into May) Primula Pulmonaria angustifolia 104 Shrubs and Shrublets No treatment of the early rock garden is complete without a referto these woody relatives which may or may not be in flower before May, but even out of bloom add immensely to the attractiveness and patterning of the garden. A great pet of mine is Andromeda polifolia 'Nana' which looks well year round, especially when its charming flower bells appear in ence May. Bearberry, Mealberry, Hog Cranberry, Sandberry, Mountain Box, Bear's Grape or Kinnikinick all are common names for Arctostaphylos uva-ursi. Providing no lime is in the soil, this native prostrate creeper can add greatly to any rock garden. Its pinkish-white flowers may start to open as early as late April. The Dwarf Arctic Birch, Betula nana, is another favorite, rarely reaching 2 feet in height. It loses its dainty, tiny toothed leaves in the fall and regrows them rather late in the spring. I have never seen it in flower, but it is a fine addition to the rock garden even when leafless in winter. Bruckenthalia spiculifolia, the Spike Heath, is an evergreen heathlike shrub and a fine addition to any rock garden. It rarely reaches a foot in height and it waits until June to produce its small pinkish flower clusters. Heathers belong in every rock garden for the year-round effect and the texture they offer. For the most part they flower in late summer. The one I would like to single out from all others is Calluna vulgaris 'Foxii', which forms a slow growing, compact, dense green cushion. It produces a few wispy small pink flowers in late summer, but looks better without them the rest of the year. Few gardeners I know have grown a remarkable plant from New Zealand called Carmichaelia enysii. I find no common name for this member of the legume family. It has congested, flat, light green branches and small pealike violet colored flowers that are fragrant and borne in great quantity in June. If it grows much above a few inches in height, rabbits seem to find it and chop it back. Try it in the warmest, sunniest spot in the rock garden. It is a treasure to be enjoyed at close range. It is difficult to know what to say about the cassiopes. I have tried most of them and found them hard to please. They seem unhappy with my growing conditions and the little dwarf, prostrate whipcordlike branches have only rarely had a few tiny flower bells; a far cry from the magnificent things they can be when growing wild in their native areas. Try them if you want to struggle with something well worth the time and effort when you are successful. Two daphnes, one common and one relatively rare in gardens, are worth their place in the rock garden. Daphne cneorum is well known 105 gardeners and attractive most of the year though the flowers usually appear in May or later. A much earlier flowered daphne is D. blagayana, which bloomed last year on April 8 and was followed right after by a freeze of 12 F which badly browned the attractive pinkish-white flowers. Evergreen, straggling, and rarely reaching more than a foot in height, it has creamy pink flowers that are very fragrant and most welcome in the early spring. The ericas or heaths are valuable shrubs for the rock garden the year-round but are appreciated especially for their early flowers in March. Erica carnea 'Springwood White' and 'Fox Hollow' are fine; somewhat later in April, 'Arthur Johnson' adds its pink bells to the to garden scene. Lavender is marginally hardy in the rock garden area. I have found the most satisfactory and permanent variety to be one that goes by the name of Lavendula officinalis 'Nana Compacta'. It is a beautiful, soft greyish-green all year-round; the small flower heads appear in mid-July. To me, the most pleasing of all mints is Mentha requienii. It is not woody and plants will not live through the winters here, but once established, it produces tiny lavender flowers that in turn produce abundant seeds that do survive the cold to start new plants each year. It has three common names: \"Menthella,\" \"Corsican Mint,\" and the \"Creme-de-Menthe Plant.\" The last name is very appropriate for no one ever forgets the wonderfully intense mint fragrance that this off when bruised. It may be enjoyed as a house plant plant gives and returned to the rock garden in the spring. The Pieris that seems to be just right for rock gardens is 'Millstream'. A fine addition throughout the year, it is generous with its sprays of white bells in the first week of April. It is a highly recommended origination from the garden of Lincoln Foster in Falls Village, Connecticut. The woody polygalas should be grown more than they are. Polygala chamaebuxus and its variety grandiflora (P. chamaebuxus var. are fine, low, bushy plants and always enjoyable even though the small pealike flowers do not appear until mid-May. Many potentillas are of year-round value in the rock garden. My favorite is Potentilla rupestris var. pygmea, a delightful prostrate shrublet that flowers in early May. purpurea) a wide selection of rhododendrons that can be great asrock garden. The outstanding one in this garden has been Rhododendron degronianum, which received the Award of Excellence of the American Rhododendron Society and is sold as 'A. E. Form'. It is very dwarf, about 1 foot high, and yet has large clusters of deep pink flowers in late April or early May. Two others also have been very exciting. The very dwarf form of R. keiski placed in the most sheltered niche in the whole garden is delightful even out of flower. The soft yellow flower bells may not appear until the first There is sets to the 106 part of May. A remarkable plant from Formosa is R. nakaharai, a little creeping evergreen azalea with brick-red flowers in June. It took several years to form a charming \"bonsai shape\" and this last year rewarded me with a few flowers. It is an attractive plant throughout the rest of the year even when not in bloom. It is supposed to stand temperatures as low as -10 F. Other rhododendrons I can recommend either because of their low growth, attractiveness, or early bloom are Rhododendron impeditum and the hybrid clones 'Purple Gem' and 'Ramapo'. I have grown only one willow in this garden. It is in the trade as Salix X moorei and apparently is a natural hybrid between S. herbacea and S. phylicifolia. Hillier's catalog says it was found in Scotland. In \"Shrubs For the Rock Garden and Alpine House,\" Heath claims it was found in Ireland. Wherever it came from it makes a low wide-spreading mound of slender green stems with small glossy green leaves. When my plant grew big enough to flower, it produced tiny reddish-yellow pistillate catkins early in the spring, well before the leaves came out. It is relatively slow growing; but there is a possibility of using it for a ground cover if it can be propagated readily. It has never reached a height of 1 foot in this garden. I consider most thymes prostrate shrublets and like them all. This garden is fortunate in having a variety of species and variants that flower at different times, creating a succession of interest wherever they are. Finally, one of the most charming spots in the rock garden is a clump of our native dwarf blueberry, Vaccinium angustifolium. Through all the seasons it is attractive. I especially enjoy the masses of small white bells which in turn produce quantities of fruit. They never fully ripen because the ever watchful chipmunks get them long before this can happen. In the nearly ten years I have grown this patch I have never been able to beat these varmints to a single ripe berry! Sources of Plant Material It has been said that there are two basic types of successful nurserythose who sell a great many very ordinary plants to a great many ordinary gardeners, and those who sell very rare and intriguing plants to the discriminating specialist gardener. Those listed below fall in the latter category. There are others, of course. men : Michaud & Co., 13328 King George Highway, Surrey, B.C. Canada. Bovee's Nursery, 1737 S.W. Coronado, Portland, Oregon 97219 Greer Gardens, 1280 Goodpasture Island Road, Eugene, Oregon 97401 Edgar L. Kline, 17495 S.W. Bryant Road, Lake Grove, Oregon 97034 Alpenglow Gardens, (wholesale) Lamb Nurseries, E. 101 Sharp Ave., Spokane, Washington 99202 Oakhill Gardens, Rt. 3, Box 87, Dallas, Oregon 97338 (Sempervivums and sedums) Oliver Nursery, 1159 Bronson Road, Fairfield, Conn. 06430 The Rock Garden, Litchfield-Hallowell Road, Litchfield, Maine 04350 Siskiyou Rare Plant Nursery, 522 Franquette Street, Medford, Oregon 97501 Weston Nurseries, East Main Street, Route 135, Hopkinton, Mass. 01748 1 The Wild Garden, Box 487, Bothell, Washington 98011 The American Rock Garden Society, 90 Pierpont Road, Waterbury, Connecticut 06705. This organization issues annually a very large and comprehensive list of seeds available to its members. Left: Anemone pulsatilla Above right: Sanguinaria canadensis. Photos: G. Pride. ' 108 Scilla tubergeniana. Photo: P. Chvany. 109 References The great majority of books written on rock gardening are published in the British Isles about plants growing there, and are for gardeners in that part of the world. A very limited number are written by Americans for American gardeners. Of the following five, two are so hard to obtain that the average gardener does not know they exist; one is by Bissland and the other by Hamblin. The Klaber book should be available with a little searching. The book by Foster is readily available and highly recommended, and the publication from the Brooklyn Botanic Garden is a \"must.\" to Grow in This book is part of the Gardener's Library, published by Hale, Cushman and Flint, copyrighted by the Massachusuetts Horticultural Society, printed in Lexington, Massachusetts by the Adams Press and edited by E. I. Farrington. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, \"Handbook On Rock Gardens,\" Vol. 8, No. 3. 1000 Washington Avenue, New York 11225. Foster, H. Lincoln, Roch Gardening. 1968. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston, Massachusetts. Hamblin, Stephen. 1929. American Rock Gardens. Orange Judd Publishing Co., New York. Klaber, Doretta. 1959. Rock Garden Plants. Henry Holt and Co., New York. Bissland, James H. and others. 1939. Rock Gardens and What Them. Of the many foreign books that have become available in this country have been reprinted here, the following are worth checking on: Barker, Frank. 1958. The Cream of Alpines. Thomas Nelson and Sons Ltd., London. Elliott, Roy. 1963. Alpine Gardening. Vista Gardening, Vista Books, London. Farrer, Reginald. 1907. My Rock Garden. Republished by Theophrastus, 1971, Pawlet, Vermont 05761. Gillanders, K. D., Paterson, G. M., Rotherman, E. R. 1973. Know Your Rock Garden Plants and Dwarf Bulbs. A. H. and A. W. Reed, London. Heath, Royton. 1964. Collector's Alpines. W. H. and L. Collingridge Ltd., London. Heath, Royton. Rock Plants for Small Gardens. Collingridge Books, London. Heath, Royton E. 1954. Shrubs for the Rock Garden and Alpine House. W. H. and L. Collingridge Ltd., London. Hills, Lawrence D., The Propagation of Alpines. Pellegrini and Cudahy, New York. Mathew, Brian. 1973. Dwarf Bulbs. B. Y. Batsford, London. Published in association with the Royal Horticultural Society. Phillips, G. A. R. 1946. The Rock Garden and Alpine Plants. W. H. and L. Collingridge Ltd., London. Schacht, Wilhelm. Rock Gardens and Their Plants. Blandford Press, London. Tosco, Uberto. The World of Mountain Flowers. Bounty Books, a division of Crown Publishers, Inc., New York. or All good rock gardeners should be members of the American Rock Garden Society in order to receive their very valuable publications. The true connoisseur also joins the Alpine Garden Society of the British Isles and the Scottish Rock Garden Society. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Blooming Shrubs","article_sequence":2,"start_page":111,"end_page":126,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24691","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd2608126.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":2,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Winter Blooming Shrubs by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Winters in the eastern part of this country south of Washington, D.C. are seldom as unpleasant as they are here in the Northeast. Of course the temperatures there are less extreme, but for those of us who appreciate plants and flowers, the real difference is perhaps due to the Camellias. Blooming through the worst weather that January and February have to offer, these wonderful plants with their bright and showy blooms make winter something almost worth anticipating. Although there are some hopeful new developments through concentrated breeding efforts, we in most of the Northeast still must do without Camellias in our gardens. Nevertheless, there are a surprising number of hardy shrubs, perhaps less showy but still charming and attractive, that will bloom for us through the winter and the early days of spring. Some, such as the Witch Hazels, are foolproof; others present a challenge for they are susceptible to our capricious winters and may lose their opening flowers to a cold March. For those gardeners willing to take the chance, a few of the best earlyflowering shrubs displayed in the border, or as the focal point in a winter garden, will help to soften the harshness of the season. Many plants that bloom in the early spring have their flowers perfectly formed by the previous fall. Certain of these do not require a period of cold dormancy, and in mild climates will flower intermittently during the fall and winter. Most species, however, do require an environmental stimulus, usually a period of cold temperatures, before the buds will break and the flowers open. Occasionally these species will bloom in the fall, particularly if there has been a sharp drought during the summer, followed by a cool, wet period during the early autumn. The very early blooming shrubs discussed in this article are particularly prone to this abnormal fall flowering, and the expanded or partially expanded flowers are invariably frozen later, substantially diminishing their spring display. Although the flowers of all of the species discussed here can withstand temperatures below freezing, they will be destroyed by extreme cold. In my experience, the flowers, except for those of the species that normally flower during the very cold months, will be nipped when the temperatures fall much below 20 F, those of several species will not take temperatures even this low. Therefore for best bloom, these latter early-blooming shrubs should be planted in a cold micro111 Rhododendron mucronulatum. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1923. 112 climate, such as an area of the yard that is somewhat shaded during the winter. Blooming then will be slightly delayed, reducing the chances that the flowers will be destroyed by cold temperatures in the spring, even though somewhat defeating the objective of having early-blooming plants. Alternatively, a spot by a sunny wall, or on the south side of a house, should be selected. Here bloom will come early, but air temperatures will be modified by the wall, again reducing the chances of having the flowers nipped. The latter exposure is preferable, particularly for those species that are somewhat tender, as well as for those that do not bloom well in shade. The following plants are ones that can be expected to begin blooming before the end of March, or by the first week in April at the latest. All are hardy in Zone 5 except where noted. The list is not an exhaustive one; a few other shrubs sometimes bloom early enough to be included, for example the Shadbushes (Amelanchier spp.), the Cornelian Cherries (Cornus mas and C. ofJacinalis) and Forsythias (especially F. ovata), but these have already been discussed in detail in recent Arnoldia articles and need not be repeated here. The arrangement of the plants is more or less by their order of bloom. Hamamelis - Witch Hazel The Witch Hazels are the premier winter-blooming trees and shrubs for northern areas of the United States. I have already discussed them in a recent article (see references), so their treatment here will be brief. The winter of 1976-1977 has been characterized by prolonged periods of cold weather, and the blooming time of the Witch Hazels has been delayed. Some plants of Hamamelis virginiana, our native species, were still in full bloom in early December, but abnormally cold temperatures during the first week of the month destroyed the flowers. Then a warming trend brought the Ozark Witch Hazel (H. vernalis) into partial bloom at least two weeks ahead of schedule. Very cold temperatures during the rest of December, all of January, and early February did not damage the partially expanded flowers of this species, but further bloom was delayed, and the plants were not in full flower here until the last week of February, a month or more late. Hamamelis mollis and the cultivars of H. X intermedia were also somewhat delayed. The former usually flowers here about the end of January, but this year the petals were not fully expanded until the end of February. Our wonderful specimen of H. X intermedia 'Arnold Promise' next to the Administration Building usually delights us with its profuse bloom in mid-February. As of this writing (1 March), the petals of its bright yellow flowers are just visible. We will be patient and will be rewarded, but this winter, more than most others, the touch of color the Witch Hazels usually provide would have been welcome a bit earlier. 113 Left: Chimonanthus praecox, taken from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. 13, plate 466. Right: Jasminum nudiflorum, taken from Botanical Register, vol. 32, plate 48. Jasminum nMdt~orttttt 2014 Winter Jasmine This native of China is a member of the Olive family, and its bright yellow flowers appearing on leafless branches suggest those of Forsythia, a much more familiar plant of the same family. Flowers of Winter Jasmine have six corolla lobes (\"petals\") instead of four, however. The sessile (stalkless) flowers, often nearly an inch across, are borne in pairs along the slender, green branches, beginning as early as mid-January in mild winters. The species is marginally hardy in the Boston area, although it is the hardiest of the true Jasmines, and it often does not bloom freely here unless it is grown in a sheltered spot. The plant itself is somewhat of a scrambler, with long, flexible branches. Because of its growth habit, and its unreliable hardiness, the Winter Jasmine is best grown against a sunny wall. It will have to be supported, however, because the plant is not actually a climber. 114I Chimonanthus praecox-Wintersweet of this Chinese native is well chosen, since its flowers appear during the dead of winter. The shrub is not a familiar one in this country, and indeed it is virtually unknown to New England gardeners since it is hardy only into Zone 7. It blooms reliably in Philadelphia, but even there the flowers often suffer from exposure to wind and snow, and the plant is best grown in a sheltered spot. Wintersweet is a relative of Calycanthus, our familiar Sweet Shrub or Carolina Allspice, and the flowers of the two are similar in overall structure. Those of the Wintersweet, however, are usually only about an inch across, and the fifteen to twenty petal-like segments are a translucent yellow, the innermost ones heavily streaked and blotched with purple. Several varieties with slightly different flowers are occasionally encountered. Chimonanthus praecox var. grandiflorus has flowers almost twice the size of those of the typical plant, but they are only slightly fragrant. The flowers of the var. concolor (var. luteus) are entirely yellow, and they often are sparingly produced. Although cultivated in Japan for centuries, the Wintersweet did not reach Western gardens until the middle of the Eighteenth Century. In our gardens it forms a much-branched shrub as tall as 10 feet. The leathery but deciduous, prominently veined leaves are opposite on the twigs, and lance-shaped to oval in outline. Like most of the winter-flowering shrubs mentioned here, the Wintersweet is not a showy plant. The flowers are perhaps more unusual than beautiful, and they are best appreciated close at hand where their wonderful fragrance is evident. The common name spicy fragrant Erica - Heath This genus, from whose name are derived the Latin and common of a large and horticulturally important family of plants, includes several species and hybrids that are among the most charming additions to the list of winter-blooming shrubs. These are also low in stature, with finely-textured foliage, enabling them to be used effectively as complements both to the early spring bulbs as well as the taller shrubs that are the nucleus of the winter garden. Although a number of Erica species grow to be trees, the hardy species, and particularly those included here, are low or even almost prostrate shrubs. The descriptions that follow pertain to the winterflowering plants. The leaves are basically needle-like, spreading in whorls of four around the branches. The flowers are produced on the upper part of the branches, forming one-sided \"spikes.\" The flowers themselves, about ~ ~ inch long, are narrowly bell-shaped or cylindric, with the brown to nearly black anthers protruding and conspicuously contrasting with the white to pink or purplish corollas. names Erica tum, carnea vars. and dwarf Cryptomeria at University of Washington ArboreSeattle, Washington. Photo: D. Wyman. 115 Heaths grow and bloom well in full sun or partial shade. Like all members of their family, they prefer acid soils; Heaths evidently will flourish also in soils that are nearly neutral. The plants discussed below are perfectly hardy, but the bloom is apt to be more reliable and earlier if the plants are protected by pine boughs during the coldest months. The hardiest species is Erica carnea, a native of the mountains of south-central Europe. Most cultivated forms of this species are very low growing with spreading branches, and they make a fine ground cover. The flowers of the wild plant are pale pink, but numerous cultivars have appeared with flowers ranging from pure white to deep reddish. The most commonly available winter-flowering cultivars are described below. In all of these, the flower buds are large and conspicuous by the beginning of the winter. Depending on the weather, they may open as early as January, but even if covered with snow the plants are usually in bloom by early March. Blooming continues for more than a month afterwards. 'King George' - Foliage dark green; flowers deep rose-pink with ple-black anthers; flowers freely produced on short spikes. pur- 116 Erica carnea, taken from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, vol. 1, plate 11. 'Springwood Pink' - Foliage midgreen ; flowers nearly white, gradually changing to clear pink; vigorous, spreading, and free-flowering. 'Springwood White' - Foliage bright green; flowers white with brown anthers; vigorous and spreading with long spikes of flowers. The plant known as Erica X darleyensis is probably a hybrid beupright in growth, sometimes attaining a height of 18 inches. Although perfectly root hardy in Zone 5, cultivars of E. X darleyensis may suffer some winter damage here, and the blooming may not be profuse without the protection of a snow cover or a light mulch during the coldest months. This hybrid is represented by the following readily are more tween E. carnea and the tender E. mediterranea. similar to those of the first species, but the plants The flowers are obtainable cultivars. long spikes, 'Arthur Johnson' - Foliage light green; flowers and therefore useful for cutting. `Sffberschmelze' - mauve-pink in very Foliage anthers; free-flowering, and forming dark green; flowers pure white with brown a neatly rounded plant. 117 Daphne mezereum (left) and D. m. forma alba (right). Daphne mezereum - February Daphne delightful plant does not flower here as early as its implies, it can be relied upon to brighten our shrub borders from the last half of March through much of April. Besides providing welcome color during the drab first days of spring, the flowers are extremely fragrant, and they are followed in the late summer by brightly colored fruits. The flowers are borne profusely in small clusters directly on the branches. Although they originally appear long before the leaves, Although common name this flowers may persist until the leaves are in evidence. The blooms are a bit unusual in that what appear to be petals are actually four colored sepals united into a tube. Their color is typically a dull pinkish-purple, but a whitish variant (Daphne mezereum forma some 118 is occasionally encountered both in the wild and in cultivation. pink flowered plants produce bright red fruits in August and September while the white-flowered ones bear yellow fruits. The plants grow slowly to a maximum of 3 to 4 feet, and seldom need pruning, and they flower well even when grown in the shade. Several very fine cultivars are grown in Europe, and if introduced into this country could greatly enhance the appeal of an already most desirable plant. They include: 'Paul's White' or `Bowle's White', with pure white flowers; 'Grandiflora' (`Autumnalis') with larger flowers which, at least in England, appear from October through February; 'Rubra', with reddish-purple flowers; and 'Plena', with double white alba) The flowers. Individuals of many Daphne species, including this one, have the disconcerting habit of flourishing for years and then suddenly dying for no apparent reason. Several explanations for this phenomenon have been offered, but none appears to be satisfactory. When conditions are just right, however, D. mezereum prospers, as evidenced by the fact that this native of Europe and Siberia has become naturalized several places in the United States and Canada. Presumably because of their fleshy roots, Daphnes have a reputation for being difficult to transplant. However, by moving them in the spring and keeping them moist well into growth, I have not encountered problems, even with fairly large individuals. It must be pointed out that all parts of the plants of Daphne species contain seriously poisonous compounds. They are basically attractive to children only when in fruit, so that danger of poisoning may be greatly reduced by removing the \"berries\" before they ripen. Corylus - Hazelnuts All of the Hazels bloom early in the spring, before the leaves have The plants are monoecious; that is, with separate pistillate (\"female\") and staminate (\"male\") flowers borne on the same individual. The pistillate flowers are inconspicuous, obvious at all only because of the feathery red styles protruding from what merely appear to be buds. The staminate flowers are borne in long pendulous catkins that are in evidence throughout the winter. Usually during the last half of March, they elongate and open, exposing the yellow anthers and pollen. In many species the catkins are borne profusely. Although not exactly showy even then, the catkins are conspicuous and delicately beautiful, and the aspect of the plant is certainly pleasing. The familiar nuts, which ripen in midsummer, are an added bonus for growing these plants. Perhaps fifteen species of Corylus are in cultivation, but only one will be singled out here. Selected clones of the European Hazelnut, C. avellana, are the primary source of the commercial Hazelnuts, and this species is one of the most attractive in flower. The catkins expanded. 119 Corylus avellana. Photo: H. Howard. 120 of this species, which is native through much of Europe, western Asia and northern Africa, are often as much as 2% inches long and are borne in profusion. Two cultivars are particularly desirable because their growth habit adds greatly to their winter interest. Corylus avellana 'Contorta', the original plant of which was found in an English hedgerow in 1863, is certainly among the best of a class of rather bizarre plants cultivated for their twisted and contorted branches. A mature specimen of this plant is striking indeed, particularly in flower, with the vertically oriented catkins set off against the network of intricately twisted branches and twigs. It is available from a number of nurseries as \"Harry Lauder's Walking Stick,\" this picturesque name referring to the familiar prop of a famous Scottish performer of an era before mine. The plant is slowgrowing, with the ultimate size perhaps 8 feet tall with a spread of 10 feet. Much rarer in cultivation, Corylus avellana 'Pendula' is also a desirable ornamental. The branches of this shrub are stiffly drooping, forming a symmetrical, mound-shaped specimen at maturity. This clone is occasionally grafted onto a standard. Although I have never seen a specimen grown in this manner, the result, somewhat formal, should be most attractive. Salix - Willow a The genus Salix is large one, with a wide geographic distribu- tion, and it includes plants of greatly varying habit, from large trees to prostrate shrublets. All of the species, however, are dioecious; that is, with separate male and female individuals, as in Hollies. The flowers themselves are minute and greatly reduced in structure; the males consisting basically of only stamens, and the females of a single pistil. Each is surrounded at the base by a scale-like structure that is often densely hairy. The flowers are grouped into clusters of a type known as catkins. Those species with silky-hairy flower scales and dense, compact catkins are commonly known as Pussy Willows. These are among the most ornamental of the Willows, and they are among our best-loved harbingers of spring. A few of the species with the earliest and most ornamental catkins are included in this article. Even with the unusually cold weather this winter, the catkins of most of these were in evidence by the first of March, even though the plants are not yet technically in flower. In all Pussy Willows the male plants are more desirable horticulturally than the females because they are more attractive in bloom. The slender yellow or reddish stamens provide a pleasing contrast with the pearly gray of the rest of the catkin, and they are more conspicuous than the stubby, green pistils of the female flowers. 121 The male catkins also are often denser and more compact than are the females. If the plants are pruned back annually and generously fertilized, the new growth will be vigorous, unbranched, and floriferous. This provides good material for indoor arrangements; the branches sold in florist shops are the result of these cultural methods. Vigorous annual pruning also reduces the damage from the boring insects to which many species are so attractive. The Pussy Willows available in the nursery trade are often hybrids of obscure origin. The following species are prominent in the parentage of many of these hybrids, but they are ornamental in their own right. Salix caprea, the Goat Willow, a native plant through much of Europe and northeastern Asia, is perhaps the best known species. It responds well to heavy pruning, producing sturdy branches with darkish gray catkins almost 1'_~ inch long; if not pruned back it will form a bushy tree as much as 25 feet tall. It is quite susceptible to borers. The Daphne Willow (Salix daphnoides) is a native of Central Asia and the Himalayas. It is less well known than the preceding species, but is resistant to borers and considerably more ornamental. As the catkins emerge they are almost white, and contrasted against the red-bronze twigs, they are exquisite. When fully expanded they are about an inch long, soft pearly-gray, and very silky. Salix gracilistyla is a beautiful Pussy Willow from Japan, Korea, and adjacent China. Unlike the two preceding species, this one is definitely shrubby, seldom growing taller than 10 feet. The pale silvery catkins are different from the preceding in that they are more or less cylindrical in shape; that is, distinctly longer than broad. This is one of the earliest flowering Pussy Willows. The last \"species\" to be discussed here is a most distinctive Willow and one that has only recently become commercially available in this country. Its correct name, and its origin, are somewhat of a problem. It has passed as a variety of the preceding species, but it differs from Salix gracilistyla in a number of important technical characters, and it has never been found in the wild. It has been in cultivation in Japan for some time, and is perhaps a hybrid. For the time being at least we will call this Willow Salix melanostachys. The most outstanding feature of this plant is its black catkins. Although they are only about ?!~ inch long, they are abundantly produced, and their color is truly striking, particularly with their brick red anthers which finally turn to yellow as they mature. Only the male form of this shrubby plant has ever been found. Those readers who are members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum can look forward to receiving a plant of this outstanding Willow in the spring of 1978 - barring crop failure, of course. 122 Lonicera - Honeysuckle related Chinese species of this large and varied genus, hybrid between them, are indispensable additions to the winter garden. Lonicera fragrantissima, L. standishii, and their hybrid L. X purpusii (the last having appeared spontaneously in the botanical garden at Darmstadt, Germany), differ primarily in characters of foliage and pubescence. They are nearly equivalent from a horticultural standpoint, so they will be considered collectively here. It must be pointed out, however, that only L. fragrantissima is generally available in this country. The Winter Honeysuckles form more or less erect shrubs with an ultimate height of approximately 6 feet. Their bark is pale brown with a papery texture and a somewhat ragged appearance. They are evergreen in mild climates, but in New England they are completely deciduous. As implied by the Latin name of the commoner species, the flowers of these plants are exceptionally fragrant. The fragrance is distinctive and pleasant, spicy with a hint of lemon. If the buds are not injured by frosts in the early autumn, or by extreme cold in March, the ~%~-inch, translucent white flowers with their projecting yellow stamens begin to appear in Boston just as Two closely as as well the 123 technically ends. In good years the bloom is generous, but the shrubs are never by any means \"covered with flowers.\" The Winter Honeysuckles are excellent for cutting, and branches can be easily forced into bloom as early as January. In the home, close at hand, the delicate flowers with their wonderful fragrance are much more charming than Forsythias could ever be. winter Viburnum The genus Viburnum includes a large number of plants of outstanding horticultural value. Many species are ornamental in flower, fruit, and autumn color, so they are exceptionally versatile in the garden. The versatility of the genus is further enhanced by the flowering periods of the various species that span almost the entire year. Viburnum farreri (formerly V. fragrans) blooms early enough in New England to be included in the winter garden. Here this native of China produces a generous display of intensely fragrant, pink tubular flowers in roundish clusters before the end of March in good years. In milder climates, the flowers appear intermittently during the fall and winter, and not infrequently here at the Arnold Arboretum a few will open just in time to be nipped by the first frost. The foliage appears quite early and remains in good condition during the growing season, taking on a bronzy tint during the summer and finally turning maroon in the fall. Several variants of the species are in cultivation. Viburnum farreri var. album has pure white flowers that are slightly larger than those of the typical plant, and they also appear perhaps a week earlier. The cultivar 'Bowles' has deeper pink flowers. Viburnum X bodnantense, a hybrid between this species and the tender V. grandiflorum, has been produced several times. A selection from the cross that was made at the famous Bodnant Gardens in Wales has been given the cultivar name 'Dawn'; this is the clone now in general cultivation. This plant is a better garden plant than either of its parents for us in the Northeast. It blooms slightly later and more profusely than V. f arreri; the flower clusters are looser, and the flowers themselves are deep pink in bud but fading to a blush as they mature. _ Rhododendron March is hardly a month when most New Englanders start to look for Rhododendrons and Azaleas in bloom. However, two closely related species can be counted on to add a splash of color to the drab landscape before the month is out. The color of the blossoms of both species is typically lavender to rose-purple, colors that many people find objectionable in flowers; but at this time of year, who can be choosy? Lonicera standishii. Photo: H. Howard. 124 Viburnum farreri var. album. Photo: D. Wyman. 125 The difference between Rhododendrons and Azaleas is often a point of confusion, and this is not the place to enter into a taxonomic discussion. Both types of plants are generally classified botanically in the genus Rhododendron, but as distinct subgenera. The species discussed here are technically Rhododendrons, even though they are usually deciduous and would easily pass as Azaleas to the non-botanist. Rhododendron dauricum, the Dahurian Rhododendron, is the first of its genus to bloom in New England. The flowers, 1 to 11\/2 inches across, from clustered buds near the ends of the branches, generally begin to appear during the last week of March. Typically the small leaves are deciduous in the fall, but var. sempervirens is partially evergreen even in our climate. This species is horticulturally less desirable than the following, and it is not commonly grown. It is perhaps best known indirectly, since the evergreen variety is one of the parents of the increasingly more popular PJM Hybrids. The Korean Rhododendron, Rhododendron mucronulatum, is a first-class garden plant. It is vigorous, hardy, and floriferous, perhaps the showiest of the early-blooming shrubs. It is completely deciduous, and the flowers usually appear at the very end of March, long before the leaves which might hide their glory. The species, growing as tall as 6 to 8 feet, is widely distributed throughout northeastern Asia, and the flower color is variable both in the wild and in cultivation. Most commonly, the 11\/2- to 2-inch, widely open blooms are a pale rosy-purple; several darker flowered variants have been named, but they are not yet commonly available. A clear pink-flowered seedling appeared among a population grown by Mr. Henry Skinner at Cornell University in the 1930's; this selection, named 'Comell Pink', is now widely distributed, offering an attractive alternative for those people who do not like the flower color of the typical plant. A white-flowered variant (forma albiflorum) has been found in Korea, but it is not yet widely known in cultivation. Another series of variants recently discovered at high elevations in Korea may eventually lead to the development of dwarf forms of exceptional horticultural merit. References Anonymous. 1799. Calycanthus [Chimonanthus] praecox. Japan Allspice. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 13: plate 466. Anonymous. 1852. Jasminum nudiflorum. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 78: plate 4649. Bean, W. J. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, ed. 8. Sir George Taylor ed. Vol. 1, 1970; Vol. 2, 1973; Vol. 3, 1976. John Murray Ltd., London. H. W. 1963. Heath and heather on Cape Cod. Amoldia 23: 103-106. DeWolf, G. P. and R. S. Hebb. 1971. The story of Forsythia. Arnoldia 31: 41-63. Egolf, D. R. 1962. Ornamental deciduous flowering Viburnums. American Horticultural Magazine 41: 139-155. Copeland, 126 to Forsythia flower buds. Amoldia 31 : 64-67. Rohrbach, H. 1963. Pussy Willows. Horticulture 41: 502-503. Stapf, O. 1926. Salix gracilistyla. Curtis's Botanical Magazine 152: plate 9122. Turrill, W. B. 1952. Chimonanthus praecox. Curtis's Botanical Magazine, New Series, 169: plate 184. Weaver, R. E., Jr. 1974. The Shadbushes. Arnoldia 34 : 22-31. 1976. The Cornelian Cherries. Arnoldia 36: 50-56. 1976. The Witch Hazel Family (Hamamelidaceae). Arnoldia 36: 69-109. Woodland, D. 1959. The cream of winter-flowering shrubs. Gardeners' Chronicle 146: 106-107. Fordham, A. J. 1971. Cold damage . . Rhododendron dauricum. Photo: H. Howard. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Storm Damage","article_sequence":3,"start_page":127,"end_page":133,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24689","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260bb28.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":2,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Koller, Gary L.","article_content":"NOTES FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Storm by GARY L. Damage KOLLER This winter, storms with rapidly dropping temperatures, great snow accumulations and winds fluctuating from gentle to severe struck much of the Northeast. These conditions will cause the 1976-77 season to be long remembered for the discomfort and inconvenience caused to people across the nation. What may be overlooked or forgotten is the effect this winter phenomenon had on plant life. In late autumn, Boston temperatures dropped quickly and hovered around zero. Although not dramatic, it was unusual for cold weather to arrive so early with a lack of snow to insulate and protect the soil. This allowed quick and deep penetration of frost into the ground and it struck the plants before they were fully acclimated to the full brunt of winter. Such a combination is particularly harmful to newly planted, semi-anchored plants as well as those marginally hardy specimens that are the delight of avid gardeners. Those who were wise and energetic applied a deep mulch in order to slow frost penetration and extend the growing season in the root zone. This one effort may have saved many fragile specimens. On the 7th of January, Boston was struck by a snow storm that deposited 15.4 inches of snow in a 24-hour period. Even though the wind velocity was relatively low and there was little ice accumulation, many trees and shrubs suffered great structural damage. This resulted from the build-up of snow in the dense, twiggy branch structure which allowed ever increasing amounts to accumulate. Plants are remarkable in the stress they can endure, but the tremendous weight along with the occasional gusts of wind overcame their endurance and resulted in split crotches, sheared off branches, shattered limbs, and bent and twisted shapes. At the Arboretum, minor damage affected specimens in all areas; however, in the area from the Administration Building to Bussey Hill damage was severe on the following plants or plant groups: Acer sp. Amelanchier sp. Betula sp. Celtis sp. Cornus florida Maackia sp. Magnolia X soulangeana M. virginiana 127 128 Oxydendron arboreum Pinus strobus Syringa sp. Tilia cordata Ulmus sp. Robinia sp. Sophora japonica It saddens one to see stately specimens fifty to seventy-five years old ruined so quickly. In some instances a severely damaged plant represented our only specimen of a particular taxon. Maackia chinesis, for example, was full and picturesque and is now gaunt and pathetic looking. Its present appearance does not do justice to the species, however, this specimen cannot be removed until it is propagated and replaced. So it remains, attesting to the brutality of nature. Visitors occasionally remark about broken stubs or large wounds on Arboretum plants and regard them as poor maintenance. What is overlooked is the fact that our maintenance staff gets so little help from the New England climate. Further south, winter snow and ice storms are infrequent and less severe, allowing gardens to display a larger percentage of perfect specimens. In the light of our problems, our plants are well maintained in terms of good arboriculture practices. The positive approach to storm-damaged trees is not to lament the loss of a majestic specimen that cannot be restored to its former splendor; instead, the plant must be evaluated for the potential development of new artistic beauty or enhanced character, which can be by-products of breakage. Examples are the magnificent and stately white pines of New England that show the ravages of many storms, yet add a distinct flavor to the New England landscape. Examples follow of some of the types of damage suffered by the Arboretum's collection this winter, along with remedial measures taken by our maintenance staff. . Long branches with insufficient girth have split from the weight of heavy ice and snow. Such damage can be reduced by occasional preventative thinning of the canopy. The injured branch should be cut back to a large lateral limb, or to the trunk. On rare and valuable trees, fresh wounds sometimes can be pulled together, secured with bolts, and covered with grafting wax. Natural grafting will ultimately unite the tissue, but the branch will remain structurally weak. As a precaution agamst further injuries, thinning of the terminal end will be necessary. All photos: G. Koller. 129 130 Split crotches result when increasing stem girth and opposing canopy weight cause stress on narrow crotch angles, creating a structural weakness susceptible to storm damage. Preventative measures should begin early. In choosing small trees, avoid those with narrow, V-shaped crotches. Trees in your yard with this flaw should have their branches pruned flush with the crotch; the wounds will heal quickly and new branches soon will fill out the symmetry of the plant. Structural weakness caused by years of stress made this crotch a prime candidate for winter storm damage. Note the dark area at the upper edge of the wound. This indicates that a cleft due to physical stress had begun, along deterioration. disease-associated with Heavy snows, added to the existing stress, caused the limb to be ripped away at the crotch. Once damage has occurred, the injured branch should be pruned flush with the trunk, and the ragged edges of the wound made as smooth as possible. Eliminate hollow areas that might trap and hold water, fostering the growth of disease organisms. Painting large wounds with tree paint is primarily cosmetic. 133 Left: Ice, snow, and wind can bend or twist structurally weak plants, sometimes causing a permanent change in configuration or irreparable breakage. In early autumn, susceptible plants should be staked, bound together with lacing, or covered with burlap to prevent or minimize damage. If possible, accumulated heavy snow should be brushed ofj= gently. Ice and crusted snow tends to cling to branches and foliage, and wood can be brittle when temperatures are low and external stress is great. Once damage has occurred, bent plants must be staked, sometimes permanently. Plants with flayedout branches must be pulled back into their normal shape and belted or cabled into place. Stripped bark, often the result of storm damage, also frequently results from incorrect pruning practices or mechanical damage from automobiles and groundscare equipment. The large wounds that may occur are difficult or impossible for the tree to cover with protective bark. If the injury is fresh and the flap of stripped bark is partially attached, the injured branch may be pruned away and the bark flap often can be pushed bach into place and secured with nails. Exposed edges should be covered with grafting wax or wrapped with moist sphagnum moss. Natural grafting should result. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":134,"end_page":136,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24688","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260b76f.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":2,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Plant Names. T. S. Lindsay. Detroit: Gale Research Company. viii and 93 pages. $8.00. This book, first published in 1923, begins with the premise that there is an unreasonable prejudice against the use of scientific plant names and that if the author's fellow gardeners could understand the meanings of \"those long, weird\" Latin names, they would remember the names more readily. His introductory chapters give a very good defense for the more widespread use of Latin binomials of garden plants, and a brief history of plant naming. However, the discussion of current principles and rules of nomenclature is out-dated. Since 1923, the International Botanical Congress has published several revisions of its Code of Botanical Nomenclature and there are other books which more clearly interpret this code for the non-botanist. The remaining chapters of this book consist of lists of plant names and their meanings organized in rather arbitrary, whimsical groups. Emphasis is on popular British garden plants. Anyone who knows garden plants by either common or scientific names may be interested to know how these names came to be and what their meanings signify. Much of this fascinating and amusing information is presented; however, throughout the book, common and scientific names are treated equally and no clear distinction between them is made. This could only be confusing to anyone interested in learning the correct names for plants. IDA BURCH The Complete Handbook of Plant Propagation. R. C. M. Wright. New York: Macmillan Co. 191 pages, illustrated. American edition. $12.95. was titled \"Plant American edition is of the revised British edition and should be received with favor. The volume is attractive, with excellent color and black and white photographs, and many drawings. Twenty-three chapters from general principles to pests and diseases in relation to propagation offer encyclopedic coverage. This will meet the requirement for a single volume on plant propagation for the home owner who has trees, shrubs, annuals and perennials, vegetables, and even aquatics. It could serve well as a textbook in courses in horticulture. Seven pages of four columns, and over fifty entries in each column comprise a good index and indicate the coverage of this volume. RICHARD A. HOWARD The preface indicates that the original publication Propagation\" and was favorably received. This first Historic Virginia Gardens. Preservations by the Garden Club of Virginia. Dorothy Hunt Williams. Charlottesville, Virginia: The University Press of Virginia. 350 pages, illustrated. $20.00. This moderately expensive book is an account of the efforts of the Garden Club of Virginia over approximately a fifty-year span (from 1928 through the early 1970's) to restore and preserve twenty-two gardens of historic interest in Virginia. It is interesting to note that the financing for this enormous project was initially accomplished by a statewide tour of private homes and gardens, with the proceeds used to finance the restorations. Admission fees to the restored gardens have made the endeavor self-perpetuating. 134 135 specific problems of each restoration in addition description of each garden. Reproductions (some documents, plans, and illustrations used in the restorations and many excellent pictures, some in color, comprise a large portion of the book. Lists of the plant materials used in each garden are The author details to a physical and historic not too readable) of the also included. This book might have specific appeal to the student of landscape architecture or to an individual (or group) contemplating restoration of an old garden. It also offers the traveling gardener (including the armchair variety) a chance to acquaint himself with Virginia's superb garden heri- tage. B. JUNE HUTCHINSON The Trees Around Us. Peter Barber and C. E Lucas Phillips. Weidenfeld and Nicolson. 191 pages, illustrated. f8.50. London: \"Our purpose in this book will be to make a wide ranging survey of the trees of the Temperate Zones and to select from among them those that can most profitably be put to use for man's delight. We do so as a contribution to those movements, so far all too weak, that aim to bring home to men's minds the social and aesthetic consequences of the wastage and neglect of the trees around us and to stir those in authority to more effective action.\" The authors accomplish this tastefully and effectively by first telling of the relation of trees to their environment - soil, wind, salt spray, temperatures, sun and shade, of their use in landscaping from private gardens to city planning projects; and how to transplant and prune them. The remaining and largest part of the book is a register of \"the majority of the ornamental trees that can be successfully grown in the Northern Temperate Zone.\" This register is both more and less than a manual. More because it provides lore, word origins, historical items, horticultural uses, and aesthetic values; and less because the taxonomic descriptions are sprinkled in rather informally. The illustrations are a combination of black and white and color photos and excellent line drawings for identification. Highly readable, it will be of interest to all, amateur or professional, novice or expert, British or non-British. RICHARD WARREN Wildflowers of Eastern America. John E. Klimas and James A. Cunningham. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 273 pages, illustrated. $17.95. The excellent format, fine paper and marvelous plates immediately identified this book as of foreign origin. Planned by the Chanticleer Press of the United States, it was printed in Italy and is of fine quality indeed. This work is intended as a field guide and uses a dichotomous key based upon flower color. The book commences with a very brief exposition of botanical nomenclature, including useful line drawings of plant parts. There is an excellent glossary at the beginning, where it belongs, rather than at the end. Because the photographs, all good, were selected from so many sources, the scale of various plants is inconsistent from one photo to another and this is one major flaw in the book. A second, smaller, drawback is that the common name accompanies each photograph, leaving us to search the text or the excellent index for the botanical name. In general, this is a truly delightful and useful work. Because of its expense, however, many of us will have to consult it in the library, rather than at home or in the field. 136 Wildflowers of Western America. Robert T. Orr and Margaret C. Orr. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 270 pages, illustrated. $17.95. How the writer would have treasured this on a recent visit to the Rocky Mountains! The authors are professional biologists and they emphasize the uses of wild plants in their contemporary, ecological, medical and other contexts. The editorial style is particularly agreeable. It flows naturally and reads as the work of enthusiasts rather than sentimentalists. The photographs are excellent and the plants are shown as one might actually see them - on one's knees, combing the foliage and searching inquisitively for the elusive blooms. A very instructive and delightful volume. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Winter Flowers in Greenhouse and Sun-heated Pit. Kathryn S. Taylor and Edith W. Gregg. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 281 pages, illustrated. $4.95. We welcome this paperback, low priced edition of a well written, inforis within the capa- mative, enjoyable book. A sun-heated pit greenhouse bilities of nearly every home owner. It is relatively economical to build, maintain and operate and requires little space. A remarkable variety of plants can be grown. This is a \"how to do it\" book by experienced authors. Their successes and failures are described with equal enthusiasm and their suggestions and warnings are well founded. An extensive listing of plants for pit and cool greenhouse has the cultural details of what the authors say \"has worked for us.\" RICHARD A. HOWARD Sedum of North America North of the Mexican Plateau. R. T. Clausen, drawings by Elfriede Abbe. Ithaca and London: A Comstock Book, Cornell University Press. 742 pages, illustrated. $65.00. Since 1935 Robert T. Clausen of Cornell University's Wiegand Herbarium has devoted much of his time to the study of the North American species of the taxonomically complex genus Sedum. His labors have resulted in two volumes, Sedum of the Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt (Cornell University Press, 1959), and more recently, the book noted here. This latter work, like the first, includes an almost overly detailed and belabored statistical analysis of the thirty native species, while containing material usual in a monographic treatment, viz. keys, descriptions, distributional, cytological, and ecological data, and nomenclatural and biological information. Other sections of the book synthesize geological and geographical data with the evolution and interrelationships of the species. The concluding chapters, moreover, deal with naturalized species and those cultivated but not native in North America. Closely allied genera of the Crassulaceae that occur in North America are also treated. The volume is beautifully illustrated with line drawings by Elfriede Abbe, which are supplemented by numerous photographs and distribution maps. While botanical libraries and persons with a deep interest in Sedum will require this book on their shelves, the price alone will discourage its purchase by those with only a moderate interest in these diverse succulent plants. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Iris reticulata 'Springtime'. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23329","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070b76e.jpg","title":"1977-37-2","volume":37,"issue_number":2,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24687","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260b36b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":1,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.; Spraker, Leslie J.","article_content":"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms by ALFRED J. FORDHAM and LESLIE J. SPRAKER * FOREWORD Although this manual is designed for the advanced amateur, the authors sincerely hope that professional propagators will find information of interest to them within its pages. With the amateur in mind, the manual is prefaced by a discussion of common propagating techniques and appended by a glossary of propagating terminology. It is hoped that readers will refer to these whenever questions arise as they use the manual. The genera treated are arranged alphabetically. Recommendations for propagation are general for the genus, unless otherwise specified. In some cases, experience with propagation of a genus has been limited at the Arnold Arboretum because the species are not hardy in the Boston area. Efforts to gather propagating information on these plants were frequently disappointing, and contributions from readers will be welcomed. Brief bibliographies follow the propagating information on each genus. These by no means are complete, but may suggest directions for further research on the part of both amateurs and professionals. The nomenclature used follows that of Den Ouden and Boom. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS - The authors wish to acknowledge the assistance of many persons who have contributed to this manuscript. Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., former Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Richard A. Howard, Director, and Donald M. Vining, former Mercer Fellow, helped with the bibliographical research; Drs. DeWolf and Howard also were responsible for much of the information concerning tropical genera. Many valuable suggestions for the improvement of the manuscript were made by readers, particularly Harold R. Bruce, Instructor in English at the University of Delaware, Dr. Harrison L. Flint, Professor of Horticulture at Purdue University, Dr. Donald G. Huttleston, work was made possible through a travel grant from the at the University of Delaware, where she was a graduate student from June 1972 to June 1974, and by the generous donation of her time by Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, where she currently is employed. The manuscript was submitted by Miss Spraker to the Faculty of the University of Delaware in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Ornamental Horticulture. Miss Spraker's Longwood Program * 1 2 I Longwood Gardens, Gary L. Koller, Supervisor of the Collections at the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Richard W. Lighty, Coordinator of the Longwood Program at the University of Delaware, Dr. Russell J. Seibert, Director of Longwood Gardens, Dr. Stephen A. Spongberg, Assistant Curator at the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Richard Warren, Arnold Arboretum volunteer, and Dr. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum. The bibliography was painstakingly verified by Mrs. Ida H. Burch, Curatorial Assistant at the Arnold Arboretum; Ms. Nancy LeMay patiently typed and retyped the manuscript. The sketches were prepared by Monroe M. Givens, graphic designer at the University of Delaware. We also are grateful to D. M. Henderson, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, for information quoted as D.M.H. in the text. Taxonomist at Living Male and female cones of Abies koreana. Fertilized tumn of their first year. Photo: H. Howard. cones will mature in au- 3 INTRODUCTION Botanists divide seed-bearing plants into two groups angiosperms and gymnosperms. Angiosperms bear true flowers and fruits. The male reproductive structure is the stamen. The female reproductive structure consists of one or more carpels. The usually enlarged base of the carpel, termed the ovary, contains ovules which, when fertilized, develop into seeds. As these mature, the ovary also undergoes structural changes and, at maturity, is termed the fruit. The seeds are enclosed within the fruit or ripe ovary, and are called angiosperms or enclosed seeds. Gymnosperms do not bear flowers or fruit, though their reproductive structures can be roughly equated to those of angiosperms. Pollen is borne on modified structures called microsporophylls. These occur in small, cone-like clusters on branches and are often incorrectly referred to as male \"flowers.\" There is no real carpel or ovary in the female reproductive structure of the gymnosperms. Instead, the ovules usually are borne either singly or in pairs on the surface of structures called megasporophylls. As a result, the ovules are exposed, or \"naked,\" and are called gymnosperms or naked seeds. After fertilization, the ovules develop into seeds and the megasporophylls also undergo structural changes. The familiar pine cone is an aggregation of megasporophylls, while the fleshy red structure that partially encloses the seed of Taxus is a single megasporophyll. Since gymnosperms have no carpels, their reproductive structures technically cannot be called \"flowers\" or, when ripened, \"fruit,\" and in this manual they will be called \"cones.\" Gymnosperms may be propagated in two ways - by seedling (sexual) or vegetative (asexual) reproduction. Seedling reproduction is generally more economical, but it allows for genetic variation among the propagants and usually requires more time to develop usable plants. However, seeds and seedlings are uniform enough in size that they can be handled by mass production techniques. This is of importance to growers producing large numbers of plants. Vegetative propagation eliminates the problem of genetic variation since propagants identical to the parent plant, that is, maintaining their unique characteristics, are produced. - _ - - SEXUAL PROPAGATION Limitations of Seedling Propagation Seedlings Genetic Variation of The horticultural characteristics of a plant are determined by its genetic make-up. They can be altered by recombination or mutation of the genes. Variation among cultivars of some plants such as false- 4 (Chamaecyparis) seems to be derived from both recombination and mutation; that of others, like hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), is largely derived from genetic recombination. Each gene affects the expression of some characteristic of the plant. In many cases, the effect of the gene is hidden for many generations until recombination allows it to be expressed. Recombination occurs only in the sex cells, prior to fertilization of the ovule with pollen. Therefore, variation due to recombination occurs only cypress among at seedlings. on the other hand, may alter horticultural characteristics time during the life of a plant. Such mutation affects the any nature of a gene, so that its expression produces a different characteristic. If mutation occurs at an early stage in plant growth, the entire plant may be affected. More often only a single branch, or even a small part of a leaf, is modified. Generally, mutation affects only one characteristic while recombination has manifold effects. In nature, genetic variation among seedlings can be advantageous, since it allows a particular species to adapt to changes in the environment. A tall, rapid-growing pine may have a competitive advantage, surviving in a crowded woodland situation where competition for light is intense, while a lower, slow-growing plant may not survive. Seedling variability is also a key factor in the development of new cultivars, and many superior horticultural taxa have arisen this way. Mutation, Seedlings of Pinus strobus (Eastern white pine), show similarity of size. They germinated in unison after two months of cold stratification at 40 F. Photo: P. Chvany. 5 in cultivation variation may reduce the value of a plant, its intended use. Uniformity of characteristics is esdepending pecially important for plants used in landscaping. In a hedge or a However, on row of trees, for example, similarity of form, color, texture, and growth rate may be essential. Sex of Seedlings In some gymnosperms, male and female cones are produced on different plants. Frequently, one sex is preferred for cultivation. For instance, since large female ginkgos (Ginkgo biloba) produce prodi* gious quantities of foul-smelling \"fruits,\" male plants are usually grown. Sex of plants propagated by seed cannot be determined until the plant is mature enough to develop reproductive structures. Most gymnosperms do not mature for many years, by which time they are large and occupy prominent positions in the landscape. (The authors know of a specific instance where a ginkgo produced reproductive structures for the first time after twenty-four years.) Therefore, when young plants of a particular sex are required, they must be propagated asexually from clones of a known sex. Time - Required to Produce Plants - - most gymnosperms is slower than asexual of some species require extended periods of pretreatment to break dormancies and seedlings require more time to develop into mature plants than do vegetative propagants. Umbrella-pine (Sciadopitys verticillata) seedlings, for example, usu-ally produce only cotyledons, or seed leaves, the first year and several true leaves the second. The whorl of leaves for which the plant receives its name appears during the third year. At this time the seedling has attained a size comparable to that of a cutting taken propagation of propagation. The seeds Sexual for propagation. Advantages of Seedling Propagation The primary advantage of seedling production is that large numbers of plants can be reproduced easily and inexpensively. This is particularly important for those genera used extensively in reforestation, development of shelter belts, and Christmas tree farming. Most gymnosperm seed can be stored for at least short periods. The seeds of some \"fire\" pines (Pinus attenuata, P. contorta, P. muricata, P. pungens, and P. radiata) remain viable as long as twentyfive years or more in cones on the tree; seeds of P. contorta in closed cones have been reported viable after eighty years. Relatively little storage space is needed for seed of gymnosperms. Large quantities of seed can be shipped easily and inexpensively to any location in the world, while vegetative propagating material requires special handling and packaging techniques. Many states * See page 1. 6I and countries have quarantine barriers allow seeds to cross their borders since disease organisms and insect pests. Sources of Seed against they are the latter, but will less apt to harbor After obtaining permission from landowners, small lots of many types of gymnosperm seed may be collected from individual specimens along roadsides and in natural woods. When possible, parent plants should be evaluated for form and other characteristics, and seed taken only from those most desirable. Some botanic gardens and arboreta make seed of unusual plant taxa available upon request. Large quantities of seed needed by commercial seedsmen and foresters are ideally collected from designated seed production areas where trees have been developed and evaluated for special characteristics. Foresters throughout the world have long recognized the need for selecting superior seed plants. Evaluation of seed trees is especially important for producers of Christmas trees, lumber and paper products, since their trees must be standard for certain desirable characteristics such as size, color, shape, and rate of growth. In some cases, seed can be purchased from commercial dealers who specialize in controlled storage, handling, and sales. These dealers should specify the place and year of origin, and indicate the percentage of foreign matter. Where possible, seed from plants of known hardiness should be used, since seed lots vary widely in this respect, depending upon the locality of origin. In most species, distinct strains (termed geographic races) varying in hardiness have evolved. For example, seed of Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menzesii), collected in the Rocky Mountains, tends to be hardier in the Boston area than seed of the same species collected along the West Coast. Harvesting of Seed Harvesting dates depend on the natural agents of dispersal and seed ripeness. Ideally, seed should be collected as soon as it is mature, but before natural Natural agents remove it from the tree. Dispersal The natural agents responsible for distributing gymnosperm seed are wind, water, birds and animals. Of these, wind is the most important. Most gymnosperms produce light, winged seeds that are whipped from their opening or shattering cones by the wind and carried varying distances, depending on wind velocity and plant location. These seeds also float in water and may be carried far away from the parent plant if they happen to fall into a river or stream. Cones must be collected immediately prior to opening to assure maturity and prevent loss of seeds. Taxus reproductive structures comprised of single seed surrounded by a fleshy cone scale open at the apex. They must be collected before they are taken by birds and animals. Photo: H. Howard. 7 7 yew (Taxus), and juniper (Junipscales that are eaten by birds and animals. The pulp furnishes food while the hard-coated seeds pass through the vectors' digestive tracts and are scattered about the countryside in their droppings. Migratory birds may carry seeds Seeds in fleshy coatings some distance from their point of origin. that are attractive to wildlife must be collected just prior to the final color change. At this stage, the seeds will have developed enough to be viable, but the immature cones will not appeal to their natural A few gymnosperms, including erus), produce fleshy, succulent cone consumers. Seed Ripeness In general, seed is ripe when the surrounding structure begins to develop characteristics that lead to natural dispersal. Fleshy cone scales change color and become palatable, attracting vectors. Dry cone scales begin to separate for release of seeds to the wind. No single characteristic can be used to determine the ripeness of all seed. Color and dryness of the cone scales may be used as an indicator of maturity for some species. In others, the texture, color, moisture content, and hardness of the seed itself may suggest ripeness. It is important to know the characteristics that indicate ripened seed for a particular species. 8 I Cones of summer of their second Pinus strobus open and release seeds to wind year. Photo: H. Howard. dispersal during late 9 tree, most gymnosperm seed ripens uniformly, but of the same species may differ, making collection neighboring of large seed lots difficult. On a single trees Harvesting Techniques Fallen seed can be collected from the ground if one is certain of its identity. Standing trees present more of a problem, since fruit is frequently borne high on the branches. Often, seed can be shaken free by agitating the tree limbs. Cone hooks with curved metal blades attached to a long light pole may be used to cut cones from high places. Pole shears two cutting blades mounted on a pole and operated with a line or wire also may be used. Cones that shatter upon ripening, such as those of the true cedars (Cedrus), firs (Abies), and golden larch (Pseudolarix amabilis), must be handcollected. Before collecting seed from any one source, a sample should be checked for sound contents. - Cleaning of Fleshy Cones Because of decay organisms and limitations of storage space, seed should be separated from the fleshy cones as soon as possible after collection. The pulp surrounding most seeds contains inhibitors that prevent premature germination of the seed while it is still attached to the parent tree. This pulp must be removed to permit germination. In many cases, moist pulp of fleshy cones starts to decompose a few hours after collection. If not controlled, this may lead to seed spoilage and loss of viability, but it is an important first step in the separation of viable seeds. The pulp decomposes into a soft mass that is easily separated from the seeds by maceration and flotation techniques. Disintegration may be hastened by placing the cones in a container and adding a little water. The material should not be allowed to remain in the containers longer than necessary to break down the pulp, since decomposition may cause heat build-up or production of harmful chemicals. Maceration and Flotation - , Seeds and softened pulp may be separated by macerating the mixgently but thoroughly and placing it in a container of water so that heavy, sound seeds sink to the bottom while the lighter pulp and void seeds float. The pulp mixture and water are then poured off, leaving only clean, sound seeds in the vessel. Tall, narrow containers are especially efficient for flotation as the tall column of water allows wide separation between floating pulp and sound seeds. Two or three washings may be necessary. Small quantities of fleshy cones may be hand macerated; mess and inconvenience can be avoided by kneading them in a disposable plastic bag. Large quantities are processed in specially constructed macerating machines. ture 10I pulp Seeds and macerated pulp are separated by floatation. Sound seeds sink while and void seeds float and can be poured away. Tall narrow vessel allows wide separation of pulp and seeds. Photo: P. Chvany. 1 11 Small amounts of fleshy the mass in a disposable pulp can be separated from seeds by hand-kneading plastic bag. Photo: P. Chvany. At the Arnold Arboretum, a food blender is used to clean small quantities. The blender has been modified by removing its blades since they chop up the seeds. A small square of reinforced rubber, taken from the center of a worn truck tire, has been fastened to the cutter head, concave side up. This rubber square beats the cones effectively without injuring the seeds. gymnosperms must be allowed to dry so that the scales separate and the seeds can be extracted. Air drying of cones spread out in shallow layers takes from one to three weeks, depending on the species, stage of maturity, and atmospheric conditions. It is best done in a location where animals, rain, and wind will not be disruptive. Good ventilation and periodic turning of cones will insure even drying. Cones of the fire pines open only at high temperatures and are dried in heated kilns by commercial processors. Small quantities of Cleaning of Dry Cones Cones produced by most 12 I many gymnosperm cones can be opened by placing them in a closed paper bag on a home radiator. Cones of other species requiring greater heat can be dried in the kitchen oven at temperatures not 130F. Some cones (i.e. Cedrus, Abies, etc.) may be opened by soaking them in water, after which they crumble apart. Wetted cones that fail to open can be frozen out-of-doors in winter, or in a freezing unit. Ice crystals form and force the scales apart. After opening, cones must be shaken to remove the seeds. Cones and seeds are separated by shaking them in a screen with mesh small enough to retain the cones or scales but large enough to allow passage of the seeds. Commercial seedsmen tumble large quantities of cones in revolving wire cages above containers that catch the seeds. exceeding Fanning and Winnowing Cones of the firs, true cedars, and golden larch are composed of scales and seeds surrounding a central woody axis. When dry, these shatter and the seeds must be separated from the scales. In some species there is little difference in size between the winged seeds and the scales, and so screening does not work. However, the winged seeds are much lighter and small numbers can be separated by gently blowing the material as it is passed slowly from hand to hand. The scales are retained in the hand while the seeds are carried away to a nearby surface where they can be gathered. Large numbers of seeds and scales can be separated by placing the material in a screen and bouncing it in the air current of an electric fan. The heavier scales remain in the screen while the seeds are blown a short distance away, where they can be collected later. Some experimentation is necessary to determine how close the screen should be placed to the fan. Dewinging number of gymnosperm species are fragile and easily In commercial practice, the wings are removed with specialized equipment that reduces the chance of injury. If small quantities are to be processed, and the seeds are not easily damaged, they can be dewinged by rubbing them between the hands; if the seeds are fragile, they can be sown satisfactorily with a Seeds of damaged by dewinging. wings remaining. Storage Many gymnosperms bear seeds sporadically, the intervals between crops varying with climatic conditions and species. Seed crop quantity also fluctuates, with trees producing more seed in some years than in others. Growers who use seed annually must store it from year to year to assure its availability. 13 Screens or of various mesh size are used to separate seeds from cones, cone scales, extraneous matter. Photo: P. Chvany. 14 Optimum storage time varies greatly with genus, species, and seed lot. Some seeds can be held for years with little difficulty, while others normally lose viability within a few months. Germinative capacity following storage also is determined by seed viability at harvest and method of storage. The most favorable conditions for storage of any seed species are those that slow natural desiccation and reduce the rate of respiration and other metabolic processes without injuring the embryo. Moisture content and storage temperature appear to be the most important exterior influences on seed longevity. Moisture Content Most gymnosperm seed endures long periods of storage best when stored dry. In many cases, the moisture content of seed is affected by the degree of saturation of the immediate atmosphere. Seeds absorb or give up moisture until they are in equilibrium with the surrounding air. Frequently, fluctuations in moisture content caused by variation in the relative humidity are detrimental to seeds and reduce their longevity, but the extent to which relative humidity affects seeds in storage depends upon the species. Ideal storage conditions should maintain atmospheric moisture at levels which insure constant low moisture content of seeds. In temperate climates, a suitably low moisture content can be achieved by air-drying the seeds. It then can be maintained by storing them in a sealed, vapor-proof container. Polyethylene bags are suitable since they seal tightly and easily, are moisture-proof and allow some exchange of gases. For short periods, seeds of those species that require cold treatment before germination are best held at high moisture content. They can be mixed with a dampened medium such as sand and peatmoss, and placed in a sealed, vapor-proof container held at about 40 F. . Temperature As storage temperature drops, viability of gymnosperm seed is prolonged. Temperatures between 33 and 50 F appear to be optimum, although some researchers have noted benefits from storage below 32 F. The family refrigerator is usually set at about 40 F, which is satisfactory for seed storage. Germination of Seeds External Requirements for Germination Germination can occur only when the seeds themselves are ready and when the environment is right. The major factors regulating 15 germination are available water, appropriate soil temperature, sufficient oxygen, and sometimes light. Permeability of the seedcoat determines the rate at which water is absorbed by seeds. Impermeability is a problem with only a few gymnosperms. Temperature also can have an important influence on germination of gymnosperm seeds. Some have extremely specific requirements while others germinate over a wide range of temperatures. Most seeds germinate best at temperatures slightly higher than those required for optimum growth following germination. Diurnal temperature fluctuations often result in a higher percentage of germination than does a constant temperature. At the Arnold Arboretum, seeds are sown in late winter or early spring in a greenhouse where the minitemperature is 70 F. On warm, sunny days temperatures in the house may reach 90 F or more. Energy used by the seed for germination is provided by a process called respiration. During this process oxygen changes stored sugars, starches, and oils to energy, water, and carbon dioxide. If insufficient oxygen is available in the soil air, germination is inhibited. Lack of oxygen is a problem only if the soil is too wet or compacted, or if the seed is planted too deeply. Light appears to play a role in the germination of some gymnosperm seeds (i.e. Tsuga), while others germinate well in total darkness. Only certain colors of the spectrum are important. Red light promotes germination while far-red light acts as an inhibitor. Since red light penetrates the soil to only about an inch, seeds that have a light requirement and are planted deeper than an inch will not mum - -- germinate. Internal Requirements for Germination Simple or Embryo Dormancy Seeds of some species, including a few pines and some lots of false-cypress and arborvitae, require no more than a satisfactory external environment (i.e. sufficient water, heat, light, and oxygen) for germination. Other species have internal factors that inhibit germination despite favorable external conditions. Germination may be inhibited by embryos that are not fully developed although the seed appears mature. A period of after-ripening, during which the seed is exposed to cold under moist conditions, usually overcomes this dormancy. In nature, after-ripening requirements are met by low temperatures and dampness when seeds overwinter out-of-doors. Dormancy is a natural adaptation preventing germination when weather is unfavorable for seedling survival. Without this protection, seeds could germinate during a warm period in late autumn and perish in sub- 16 I in the fall and sequent cold. Some nurserymen provide natural after-ripening by cold sowing seeds out-of-doors requirements. allowing nature to fulfill the Alternatively, a period of artificial cold may be employed in afterripening seeds. Stratification is the term commonly used to describe this procedure. The word is derived from the practice of placing seeds in boxes between layers, or strata, of a damp medium before exposing them to cold. Stratification now is interpreted as any process used to encourage germination of dormant seeds that require pretreatment by time and temperature. It tends to hasten and synchronize germination of most gymnosperm seeds, even those that exhibit no dormancy. Seeds can be stratified by placing them in a refrigerator for a period of time. There is some leeway in refrigeration temperatures, but 40 F has proven satisfactory. Seeds should not be placed in the freezing compartment. A polyethylene bag is excellent for stratifying seeds since it allows air exchange but prevents water loss. Large quantities of seed can be stratified in barrels, boxes, or cans. Seeds should be layered or mixed in the container with a stratifying medium. At the Arnold Arboretum, a combination of equal parts of sand and peatmoss is as sand and well-weathered sawdust are also satisfactory. The stratifying medium is dampened carefully, since a wet, soggy medium reduces the amount of available oxygen. The volume of the stratifying medium should be no more than two or three times that of the seeds. This is enough to stratify the seeds effectively, but eliminates the need to separate them from the stratification medium before sowing. Depending on the species, gymnosperms require stratification of one to several months. Stratification should be timed to allow sowing of the seed in the lengthening days of late winter or early spring, when light and temperature conditions are favorable for seedling growth and survival. used, but other media such Double Dormancy Sound seeds of some gymnosperms (for example, Juniperus) are from germinating by impermeable seed coats that hinder the admission of water, as well as by immature embryos. Such seeds are said to be doubly dormant, since two conditions must be overcome before germination can take place. In nature, it takes two or more years for these seeds to germinate. They often are termed twoyear seeds. In many cases, impermeable seed coats can be altered by a process called scarification, during which the seed coat is modified by scratching and breaking it to allow water penetration. Seeds can be rubbed prevented 17 7 - sandpaper or scored with a file (mechanical scarification), or they can be placed in strong acid. Impermeability in a number of pines is best overcome by acid scarification. Dry seeds are placed in a glass container and covered with concentrated sulfuric acid. The mixture is carefully stirred periodically with a glass rod and the seed coats checked for degree of erosion. They should be extremely thin, but not eaten through all the way. As soon as they are sufficiently eroded, the acid is poured off and the seeds are washed thoroughly. Acid scarification should be approached with great care by the amateur since sulfuric acid is highly corrosive and spatters violently upon contact with water. Protective clothing should be worn and used acid should be disposed of outside in unused soil rather than poured down a household drain. Frequently, the most effective way of breaking down seedcoats is to expose the seeds to a period of warm, moist conditions during which micro-organisms decompose the seed covering. This treatment is called warm stratification, and it must precede cold stratification. For many doubly dormant seeds, a period of five months' warm stratification makes the seedcoat sufficiently permeable for with cold stratification to be effective. The moist medium used for warm stratification must contain some -unsterilized material so that micro-organisms will be present. Ordi-nary garden soil is satisfactory; at the Arnold Arboretum a combination of equal parts of sand and peat moss is used. Sphagnum moss should not be used since it contains a natural antibiotic. Seeds are mixed with the stratification medium, placed in a polyethylene bag, and set in a location where the temperature will fluctuate. Window sills and greenhouse benches are suitable. There is some latitude in temperatures for warm stratification. Temperatures fluctuating between 60 and 100 F have produced good results. Seeds should not be exposed to full sun since this may cause detrimental buildup of heat within the polyethylene bags. Bags should be checked periodically for possible germinating seeds, and the medium dampened if necessary. Immediately following warm stratification, seeds can be transferred to refrigeration units for cold stratification without opening the bags. When cold stratification facilities are unavailable, doubly dormant seeds can be sown out-of-doors and allowed to experience seasonal temperature changes. Sowing Small quantities of seed may be sown in any container that can be sterilized and that provides adequate drainage. Styrofoam cups, plastic flats, and seed pans are suitable. Tin cans with holes punched in the bottom also are quite satisfactory. 18 I Technique for sowing very fine seeds. Even distribution is achieved by tapping the hand holding the folded card in which seeds are placed. Photo: P. Chvany. 19 The medium used should be loose and well drained, maintaining supply of moisture for the germinating seeds. Many excellent prepared and sterilized mixes are available at nurseries and garden centers for reasonable prices. An adequate growing medium can be prepared in the home by combining one part sand, one part loam soil, and one part screened peatmoss. At the Arnold Arboretum, the growing medium is placed in the container and covered with a layer of milled or screened sphagnum moss. Seed is distributed over the surface of the prepared containers and covered with a second layer of sphagnum. It is not necessary to separate seed from stratification medium. If the container used is a tall vessel, such as a can, it may be necessary to fill the bottom with a coarse material, such as pot shards or stones, before adding soil medium and seeds. Sphagnum moss or leaves can be placed over the coarse material to prevent the soil mix from sifting through and blocking drainage. The container should be filled to within 1\/2 inch of the top. Later when the remaining space is filled with water, it provides exactly the volume needed to wet and leach the container's contents thoroughly. To dampen the soil medium initially without disturbing the seeds, the container can be placed in a vessel of water deep enough to reach above the material used for drainage. Capillary action con_ ducts the water upward through the container, wetting its contents. Completed containers are placed on a greenhouse bench or on a window sill. an even Watering of the most important factors influencing seedling Because germination occurs in the upper surface of the soil medium where the atmosphere has a constant drying effect, maintenance of even moisture may be difficult. Under greenhouse conditions, atmospheric humidity is usually maintained at high levels and drying of the soil surface is greatly reduced. In the home, drying can be avoided by placing the seed pans in polyethylene bags and sealing them tightly. A high humidity is maintained inside the bag and water should not be needed until the seedlings have germinated. It is important that the bag not be exposed to direct sunlight, since this will cause build-up of heat. After germination, the plastic cover must be removed, as the seedlings become too succulent when grown in a close atmosphere. Rather than remove it all at once, the bag should be opened for lengthening periods over several days to allow the seedlings to become accustomed to a less humid atmosphere. one Water is germination. Disease Control diseases Gymnosperm seedlings are particularly susceptible to damping-off fungus-caused disorders that attack seedlings. The fungi - 20I invade stem tissues beneath or near the soil surface, causing seedlings to die. These diseases can destroy entire flats in a day and are best controlled by careful, preventive cultural techniques. Sterile soil and containers are absolutely necessary. Soil mixes can be sterilized by heating them in a 180 F oven for thirty minutes. Insects and most weed seeds will be killed as will most disease organisms. Flats and seed pans can be sterilized by soaking them in disinfectants such as 10 per cent household bleach solution. Clay or metal containers may be heated in an oven or immersed in boiling water to prevent disease problems. Sowing seed between two thin layers of milled sphagnum reduces the chance of damping-off since its antibiotic properties discourage damping-off fungi. The sphagnum should be unsterilized, since it is a bacterium in the moss that produces the antibiotic. Stratification of gymnosperm seed hastens and unifies germination, discouraging the development of disease organisms and permitting early separation of the seedlings. Development of fungi can be limited by watering early in the day so that seedlings dry off quickly, and by providing ventilation to evaporate excess water. If damping-off does occur, drenching with a fungicidal material specific for the purpose will help to reduce losses. A number of highly satisfactory preparations are available. After-care of Germinated Seedlings Newly germinated seedlings grow rapidly and soon compete with each other if not separated. They should be moved into pots or flats or lined out in beds where they can develop under uncrowded conditions. Flatting and lining out are preferable to potting since young plants in pots often develop circling root systems that may girdle them in later years. During their first summer, young plants should be provided with shade to protect them from scorching, both in and out of the greenhouse. In autumn, woody temperate-zone plants go dormant and must be given a period of cold before they will grow again. They should not be planted in the open ground, since repeated freezing and thawing through the winter months causes small plants to heave. A naturally lighted cold storage facility such as a cold frame will give young plants the protection they need, at the same time providing them with the necessary cold period. Attention should be given to venting and shading if the frame is exposed to the sun. ASEXUAL PROPAGATION Vegetative propagation is based upon the ability of many plant parts to produce missing essential organs when severed from the parent plant. Shoots can be induced to generate roots, and roots 21 may when produce stems and leaves. Separate shoots joined together, form bridging tissue to make of Asexual one and roots may, entire plant. Advantages way of Propagation Though reproduction from seeds is the most common and natural producing plants, there are numerous advantages to vegetative reproduction. Some gymnosperm species are easier to reproduce asexually than sexually. Many yew seeds, for instance, germinate slowly due to embryo dormancies, yet most taxa of this evergreen root quite easily. Usable plants are produced more quickly and less expensively by asexual techniques. Plants that produce no viable seed because they are sexually immature, are fixed juveniles, or are dioecious, can be propagated only asexually. Finally, propagants identical to the parent plants can be produced, preserving their unique characteristics and eliminating the problem of genetic variation. Plants derived asexually from a single original plant are all members of a specific \"clone\" and maintain its distinguishing characteristics. These characteristics may not be duplicated in all of the plant's sexual progeny. Cultivars and hybrids are generally propagated asexually for this reason. Disadvantages - of Asexual Propagation serious disadvantage to asexual propagation is that it may perpetuate a number of plant pathogens (fungi, bacteria, and viruses). Some of these, particularly the viruses, cause permanent changes in the clone, and most affect plant growth adversely. Scrupulous use of disease-free propagating material and tools generally eliminates the problem. Material should be taken only from healthy plants that have developed normally and possess the desirable attributes of the clone. Propagating stock should be examined carefully to determine whether or not it is infected with pathogenic organisms. Attacks by fungi and bacteria usually produce obvious evidence, but the presence of a virus may not be easily detectable in all clones or at all seasons. The only Types A to of Asexual Propagation Cutting cutting is a plant part removed with the intention of inducing it generate the organs that will allow it to function independently. Propagation by cuttings is usually preferable to grafting because plants are produced on their own roots and the possibility of incompatibility between stock and scion is avoided. No special manual skills are needed for cutting propagation. stem cuttings are important in the propagation of gymnosperms. They are taken from branches or shoots and bear preformed vegetative buds from which new shoots will arise. Roots alone must be generated to turn a stem cutting into a functioning 22I Only plant. Stem cuttings may be taken from plants in either hard- or softwood stages. Hardwood cuttings are those taken in fall or early winter from mature shoots that have ceased growth and become woody. Requiring less care than softwood cuttings, they are not especially perishable and can be shipped long distances safely. Most gymnosperms root best from hardwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings are taken in spring or early summer from new growth of the current season that has not fully matured. Because softwood cuttings are actively growing when severed from the parent plant, they lose a great deal of water to the air through transpiration. Since they have no roots to take up water and replace this loss, the cuttings soon wilt unless placed in an atmosphere of high humidity. Softwood cuttings generally root more quickly than hardwood cuttings ; a number of gymnosperms can be propagated in this manner. Selection of Cutting Material Cutting material should be taken from plants that are free from disease and insect pests and show normal growth. For best results 23 shoots with long internodes should be avoided when possible. Both lateral and terminal shoots may be taken, though there is some evidence that terminal shoots may root less readily than lateral ones. Some gymnosperm species produce diverse plant forms, depending on whether they are propagated from lateral or terminal shoots. For example, only cuttings taken from terminals or upright laterals will reproduce the normal upright form of Japanese yew, vigorous Taxus cuspidata 'Capitata'. In some cases, cuttings taken close to the ground are more likely to root than those taken higher on the plant, since they tend toward an immature phase termed \"physiological juvenility.\" Longer shoots may be sectioned into several cuttings, but there may be some variation in root formation on cuttings taken from different parts of the same shoot. In the case of hardwood cuttings, the lower parts of the shoots root better than the tips; with softwood cuttings, the new growth of the tip generally roots more satisfac- torily. For some unknown reason, cuttings taken from plants growing in a greenhouse will frequently root successfully while comparable material taken from out-of-doors does not. Physiological Juvenility ~syoungseedlings, plants go through an immature phase called \"juvenility.\" Characteristics of young seedlings often differ from those found later in the plant's life. Cuttings of many plants that are difficult or impossible to root in the mature phase root easily in the juvenile phase. In some instances, the change from juvenility to maturity fails to take place and the juvenile characteristics remain. Such plants have been called \"fixed juveniles,\" and they root as easily as do seedlings of the same species regardless of age. Procedure for Taking Cuttings An effort should be made to gather softwood cuttings early in the morning before much transpiration has taken place and while they are in their freshest, most turgid condition. Hardwood cuttings may be taken any time of the day. Cuttings should be removed from the parent plant with a clean sharp tool. The cut should be immediately above a bud, leaving no stub. Cutting size is dependent on the growth rate of the plant that is to be propagated. Some gymnosperm cultivars produce less than 1\/z inch of growth in a single year so that, unless the stock plant is to be destroyed, only small cuttings can be taken. At the Arnold Arboretum, large cuttings consisting of two or three years' growth are usually preferred. Not only do they contain greater food resources, which lead to quicker rooting and more extensive root systems, but Collected cuttings placed in band. Air remains inside so contents. Photo: P. Chvany. a plastic bag bound at the mouth with a rubber bags can be piled on one another without crushing Portion of cutting that will be in rooting medium must be leaves and twigs. Photo: P. Chvany. stripped clean of rapidly. Immediately upon polyethylene bag tightly sealed with a rubber band to prevent drying. Air is not squeezed out of the bags when cuttings are taken, since it provides a cushion that allows the bags to be placed on top of each other without crushing the contents. To prevent build-up of heat within the bags, they are shielded from the sun. A large capacity styrofoam picnic cooler may be used to protect freshly collected softwood cuttings. After collection, the bags of cuttings are placed in a refrigerator to retain freshness until processed. It is best to handle all cuttings (particularly softwood) as soon as possible. they produce plants collection, cuttings more are of usable size placed in a Processing ofCuttings Cuttings are prepared for insertion by removing all twigs and leaves from the portion of the stem that will be in the propagating medium. If allowed to remain, this material may decompose, inviting infection from pathogenic organisms. Removal of these parts also creates small wounds on the cutting. These wounds remove a physical barrier to root emergence, exposing a larger area to the action of root-inducing substances and enCuttings of Taxus showing various sizes. All will root, but heavier cuts on right tend to root faster and will produce usable plants sooner. Photo: P. Chvany. I 25 couraging formation of a more extensive root system. Frequently, wounding stimulates the development of protective tissue called callus, which is composed of undifferentiated cells. Callusing may precede rooting but is independent of it. Cuttings are usually treated with root-inducing materials. Indolbutyric Acid (IBA) has proven satisfactory and is used extensively. Naphthalene-acetic acid (NAA), indoleacetic acid (IAA), and 2, 4, 5-trichlorophenoxy alpha propionic acid (2,4,5-TP), also are used. All but the last are commercially available in a number of different preparations, including combinations. IBA and NAA combined lead to excellent rooting response in certain cases. A fungicide added to the material also improves rooting, a synergistic effect not yet explained by plant physiologists. Root-inducing substances are available in different concentrations. In general, the more difficult a taxon is to root, the higher the required concentration. For example, certain yew and arborvitae, and creeping juniper root well when treated with a powder formulation containing 3 mg IBA\/gm of talc. More difficult taxa respond better to a concentration of 8 mg\/gm of talc. - Root-inducing powder is applied to the basal parts of cuttings by dipping them into enough powder to coat the newly cut surfaces, then tapping them to remove any surplus. The cut surfaces are generally moist enough so that the rooting powder wilLadhere and wetting is unnecessary. It is advisable to estimate the amount of rooting material needed and transfer it to a separate container, discarding what is left after treatment, since dipping cuttings directly-into the main supply moistens and contaminates it. 26 Liquid formulations of rooting materials are purchased in concentrations that can be diluted with tap water. Only enough solution should be prepared for the work at hand, since it too becomes contaminated when cuttings are dipped into it. Rooting Medium The rooting medium performs three functions. It holds the cutting in place, serves as a reservoir for water, and allows air to reach the cutting base. Sand, peatmoss, sphagnum moss, vermiculite, and perlite, among other things, are used as propagating media, frequently in combination. Any medium should be free of extraneous organic matter, such as dead leaves and twigs, that may introduce pathogenic organisms. At the Arnold Arboretum, a one-to-one mixture of coarse sand and horticultural grade perlite is used for conifers. Perlite improves the physical structure of the medium, preventing compaction of fine particles of sand and allowing the removal of cuttings with less possibility of root damage. When dealing with extremely small cuttings, such as those often taken from dwarf conifers, a mixture of sand and peatmoss sifted is substituted for the sand and perlite mix. Root initiation is hastened by supplemental heat in the rooting medium. Thermostatically controlled electric heating cables buried below the root zone can be set at optimum temperatures for the cuttings being rooted. At the Arnold Arboretum, bottom heat is maintained at 75 F. The depth to which cuttings are inserted depends to a certain extent upon the size of the cutting. The bases of large cuttings may be as much as 3\/8 inch in diameter and will require insertion to a depth of 2 inches or more for adequate support. Smaller cuttings may be inserted more shallowly. Before inserting cuttings, a hole is made in the rooting medium large enough to accept the cuttings without brushing off the rooting compound. For large numbers of cuttings, a single long slit can be formed by drawing a thick knife through the medium using a straightedge as a guide (metal instruments are less likely to carry infection than wooden ones.) It is important that the cuttings be uncrowded in the bench. Enough space should be left between them to allow for free air circulation. Light should be allowed to reach the surface of the rooting medium to discourage the growth of harmful organisms. Labeling is necessary to prevent confusion. Plastic labels are sanitary, can be marked with a graphite pencil, and remain legible for several years. Cuttings should be arranged systematically in the medium. One method is as print runs in a book: starting on the left, cuttings are 27 inserted in completed, of a line from front to back. When one line of cuttings is the next begins in front again. A label precedes each lot cuttings. Once planted, the medium around them. cuttings are heavily watered to compact the Propagating Structures for Cuttings At the Arnold Arboretum, hardwood cuttings are propagated in winter either in open greenhouse benches or under polyethylene plastic, which maintains an atmosphere of high humidity. The benches, peninsular in design, are 6 by 5 feet wide, and 6 inches deep. They are constructed of 3\/4-inch transite. Each is completely lined with two-mil polyethylene plastic and 11\/2 inches of rooting medium is placed in the bottom. Heating cables are installed at this level and cover with 1\/2-inch mesh hardware cloth. This promotes even distribution of heat by conducting it away from the cables. The polyethylene plastic covering over the bench is supported by a frame of 2- by 4-inch welded-joint wire mesh. This is known as turkey or utility wire and is obtained at farm supply stores. Purchased by the roll, it can be cut and bent into any shape. The frames are fashioned to hold the plastic about 10 inches above the rooting medium. ~t is important that this framework lie flat on the top, rather than in a curve as is sometimes suggested. Temperatures within the propagating unit are warmer than the surrounding atmosphere and water continually condenses on the inner surface, accumulating in heavy droplets. These fall on the cuttings and into the medium, creating an environment of continual moisture. A flat surface above permits even distribution of the falling drops, whereas a curved top directs them to the sidewalls and down, leaving the center portion of the cutting bed dry. In recent years elaborate mist systems have been employed for the propagation of softwood cuttings, preventing the cuttings from desiccating even in full sunlight. However, both hard- and softwood cuttings can be rooted satisfactorily in polyethylene enclosures. At the Arnold Arboretum, fall and winter cuttings still are rooted either in these structures or on an open bench even though mist systems were installed in 1962. The chambers have some distinct advantages for amateurs. They are inexpensive and relatively carefree. There is little chance of loss through mechanical or human failure. Nutrients do not leach from the leaves as can happen under mist when cuttings require a long period to root. In areas where hard water presents a problem, there is no build-up of minerals on the cuttings. Small numbers of cuttings can be rooted by amateurs in far less elaborate (but equally satisfactory) structures than those used at the Arnold Arboretum. A simple polyethylene bag, filled with root- 29 medium and placed in a container to give it support, is quite for the rooting of most cuttings. Once the cuttings are inserted and watered-in, the bag should be bound at the mouth with a rubber band. This little propagating unit can be placed on a north window sill where cuttings will not be exposed to direct sunlight. It is important that the bag be set inside the container rather than the other way around, for water condensing on the bag's sides then can run back into the rooting medium. A simple enclosure for outdoor propagation can be constructed for softwood cuttings. First, a site is chosen that offers as much light as possible without direct sunlight. (A location open to the sky and on the north side of a house, wall, or tree would be ideal.) A standard 1- by 2-foot greenhouse flat is pressed against the earth to show its outline, and the soil is then excavated to a depth whereby the flat's edges will be level with the surrounding soil. Two-mil polyethylene plastic is cut to line the flat with enough surplus so that it extends about 6 inches on all sides. A shallow excavation in the ground, framed with boards and lined with plastic to keep the surrounding soil from contaminating the rooting medium, could also ing adequate container. Medium is added to the container, slightly firmed, and the cuttings are inserted and watered. A flat-topped turkey wire frame, cut and bent to support the polyethylene plastic about 6 inches above cuttings, is placed over the container. The frame is covered with polyethylene and soil mounded over the plastic where it meets the ground to form a seal. serve as a After-care oCuttings On cloudy, humid days, polyethylene coverings are removed and the cases checked for fallen leaves and dead cuttings which, if allowed to remain, would decay and invite disease. Cuttings should be checked weekly for symptoms of fungus and, if necessary, sprayed with a fungicide. Watering is seldom required. After several weeks, the first signs of rooting may be observed. Cuttings may be checked by giving them a gentle tug. Heavy resistance indicates good roots; slight resistance, small roots; and no resistance, no roots. Occasionally, a ball of callus tissue forms at the base of cuttings but even after an extended period no roots appear. This tissue may be removed, the cuttings retreated with root-inducing material, and returned to the propagating chamber for a second try. Once cuttings are rooted, they should be carefully lifted from the medium and potted or flatted in a suitable growing medium. Material rooted under conditions of high humidity and temperature must Above left: A hole is made in the medium to prevent root inducing material from being rubbed away when cutting is inserted. Photo: P. Chvany. Below: Section of propagating structure showing labelling arrangement and frameworh of 2- X 4-inch welded joint wire used to support polyethylene plastic fclm. Photo: P. Chvany. 30 into normal atmosphere gradually. This is done by again them with polyethylene. covering On cloudy, humid days the plastic can be removed; if several such days occur in succession, the transition will be complete. Otherwise, the cuttings may be uncovered at night and recovered during the heat of the day for a period of five or six days. be ] brought Layering Layering is a simple but highly effective technique by which plants may be reproduced. It is perhaps the easiest of the asexual methods for amateurs to practice. Plants propagated by cuttings require speequipment to maintain a humid atmosphere so that excess water is not lost to the air. Layers remain attached to the parent plant and are sustained by it until sufficient roots have formed to make them self-sustaining. Water lost by transpiration from the leaves of branches being layered is replaced by the roots of the parent plant. As no facilities are needed for layering, it is the ideal method for amateurs who wish to propagate a few plants in their yards. Layering of trees and shrubs can be done wherever the soil is cial workable. Common The or Simple Layering only type of layering suited to gymnosperm propagation is simple layering. Branches selected for common layering should be limber enough to be bent to the ground. Each branch is first arched to the ground and a line is scratched parallel to it and about a foot behind the branch tip. This scratch mark is used as a guide for digging a trench parallel to the bent branch and sufficiently deep to cover it. common or The branch is fitted into the trench in such a manner that the be bent into a vertical position. At the point where the branch turns sharply upward, it is girdled by cutting two parallel rings about 1\/2 to 1 inch apart through the bark and around the branch. (This creates a block that intercepts the downward movement of auxins and other materials manufactured by the leaves and buds. A bulge forms above the girdle as these substances collect, and rooting is initiated at the swollen area.) The bark between the cuts is removed and the branch returned to the trench and pegged immediately behind the girdle with a heavy stone or a large staple made from a coat hanger or a forked branch. The tip of the branch above the girdle is then raised to an upright position with the girdle remaining at the lowest point in the bend. The trench is filled with soil and the branch tip staked to keep it vertical. In the event the soil is poor at the layering site, a good, well-drained soil mix should be substituted in the trench when it is refilled. During periods of dryness, the soil in the area of the layer should not be tip can allowed to dry out. I 31 By carefully removing some of the soil covering the layer, it is possible to check the extent of root development. If adequate roots have formed in one growing season, the layer can be severed from the parent plant and moved to its new location. Some plants may require two growing seasons to form enough roots to sustain themselves. After being separated from the parent plant some conifers will require staking for several years in order to encourage upright growth. Grafting is the process of joining roots of one plant to the shoot of that they unite, grow, and function as a unit. The root of a graft is called the \"rootstock\" or \"understock,\" and the portion shoot portion is termed the \"scion.\" Grafting requires time, skill, and special after-care, making it the most expensive method used to reproduce plants. When plants fail to produce seed or will not come true from seed, when they refuse to root from cuttings and are impractical to layer, they are grafted. In the past, many gymnosperms were grafted as a last resort because they did not come true from seed and were difficult to root. Advances in cutting propagation, such as the use of rooting compounds, mist units, and polyethylene enclosures, have made grafting less important in conifer propagation. A number of taxa that were grafted previously now can be rooted as routine practice. Grafting so another Compatibility factor in establishing a successful graft union between rootstock and scion. When two species are compatibility incompatible, the rootstock and scion may fail to form connecting tissue that knits them together into a strong union. Movement of water and nutrients between rootstock and scion is partially or wholly restricted and the plant fails. Many incompatible grafts fail immediately, the young plant never commencing growth following grafting. Others appear to grow for a period of weeks, months, or even years before failing. The direct evidence of incompatibility may be abnormalities such as swellings at the graft union. The weak junction between stock and scion is susceptible to breakage, sometimes splitting cleanly apart in a wind storm, even after years of apparently normal growth. In general, the more closely related botanically the two taxa are, the more likely they are to form a successful graft union. Grafting a variety on its species is almost always successful, but compatibility between species in a genus is highly variable. Though there is no reliable test for predicting incompatible combinations, trial and error have resulted in a number of recognized compatible combinations used commonly by nurserymen. The most important is 1. Pinus strobus, 2. P. cembra, 3. P. flexilis, 4. P. parviflora, 5. P. bungeana, 6. P. rigida, 7. P. virginiana, 8. P. thunbergii, 9. P. sylvestris, 10. P. densiflora, 11. P. banksiana, 12. P. nigra, 13. P. resinosa. ~ Selection and Storage ofScions Gymnosperms are grafted in winter or early spring. Scions for grafting are collected late in the fall, after the plants have gone dormant and the buds have been exposed to a cold period. Only healthy wood of normal growth should be chosen. Shoots with long intemodes that have grown rapidly make poor scion material. Wood with abnormalities of any kind should be rejected (unless the purpose of propagation is an attempt to reproduce the abnormality). Healthy, well-developed, vegetative buds should be present on the scion wood. Terminal growths of tree forms should be taken whenever possible, as the grafted plants require less training to produce normal, upright trees. After collection, scion wood must be carefully stored to prevent desiccation of the wood and development of the buds. When a refrigerator is available, scions can be stored in sealed polyethylene bags at about 40 F. Alternatively, they can be stored in a box of I 33 slightly dampened sphagnum moss, peatmoss, or sawdust in location. Excess moisture will cause deterioration. All scions in storage should be distinctly labeled. Selection and Preparation of Rootstocks a cool seedlings and rooted cuttings may be used as rootstocks for gymnosperm propagation. Cuttings of easily rooted taxa are used for those clones of false-cypress, juniper, yew, and arbovitae that are not easily rooted themselves. Seedling rootstocks are least expensive to produce, but they require more time to reach a usable size than do rooted cuttings. Rootstocks must be of a species compatible with the scion, and are best potted one growing season ahead of grafting so that a firm rootball will develop. Such understocks prepared in advance are called \"established understocks.\" After potting, seedling understocks are plunged in an outside frame during the summer for storage and growth. In early winter, after they have been dormant long enough to satisfy cold requirements, they are brought into the greenhouse to be forced into active growth in preparation for grafting. Rootstocks can be grafted as soon as they break dormancy and begin growth - usually three to four weeks after being placed in the greenhouse. They need not have begun topgrowth. If the roottips show new growth, the plant is ready for grafting. At the Arnold -Arboretum, most gymnosperms are grafted in January arrc~FebruaryBoth Tools Two pieces of equipment, a knife and suitable tying material, are needed for grafting. The knife should be well-made of a high-quality steel. Good knives have folding or fixed blades, usually beveled on only one side. The blade is straight, about 3 inches long, and firmly hafted deep in a handle that fits comfortably into the user's hand. The tying material can be grafting tape, grafting thread, or rubber strips that are used as wrapping to hold scion and understock together until the two unite. At the Arnold Arboretum, ~;~,;-inch-wide strips of rubber, made especially for grafting or budding work and available commercially, are wound around the union from bottom to top. These are secured by slipping the end of the rubber strip under the last turn taken. An ordinary cut rubber band also would be satisfactory. If exposed to sun and air, it rots away. Below ground, the rubber does not deteriorate and can girdle small plants if not removed. Wax is not used for conifer grafting, since natural resins seal the graft union, preventing desiccation. Grafting Techniques A successful graft union depends on new cells formed by the scion and rootstock that mingle and interlock. These cells originate from 34 a ring of tissue just under the bark of rootstock and scion called the \"cambium layer.\" The cells form callus tissue which eventually gives rise to new cambial and vascular tissue, forming a completed graft union. To insure a graft union, it is important that the cambial layers of stock and scion be placed against each other in such a manner that callus formation is promoted. (Cambium layers are usually green, sometimes red, and are easily exposed by a cross-section cut through scion and rootstock.) All grafting techniques are designed to allow close cambial contact. Only the side graft, the veneer graft, and the whip-and-tongue graft are customarily used in grafting gymnosperms. Side Graft To prepare the stock plant for side grafting, branches are removed from the stem for several inches above the soil line. The side with the least knots and blemishes is selected and a shallow downward cut about 11\/z inches long is made through the bark and cambium and into the wood to form a small tongue. The scion is then prepared by removing two slivers of different sizes from either side of its base. To complete the graft union, the scion is fitted to the understock so that the cambial surfaces are united and the tongue covers the outer cut. Care must be taken to match as much cambial surface as possible. If the understock is larger than the scion, fitting should be done so that the cambium layers are in contact at the bottom and along one side. The combination now is ready for binding with a rubber budding strip. Top growth remains on the understock of the grafted plant until the scion has come into growth; it then can be removed in either one or two stages depending on the subject being propagated. Veneer Graft stock plant is the area just above the soil line with two cuts. One cut, downward and slightly inward, is about 11\/2 inches long. The second cut is short, downward and inward, about three-quarters of the way down the first cut and intersecting it. A short spur of bark and wood is left at the base of the long cut. The scion is also prepared with two cuts a long shallow one on one side of its base and a short one on the opposite side. It slanting is then fitted into the rootstock, cambium layers carefully matched, and the union bound with a rubber strip. As with the side graft, the top growth remains on veneer-grafted plants until the scion begins active growth. - This is a widely used variation of side grafting. The prepared by removing a piece of bark and wood from 35 Veneer Graft. Drawing: M. Givens. 36 Side Graft. Drawing: M. Givens. 37 Whip-and-Tongue Graft. Drawing: M. Givens. I Whip-and-tongue Graft This is the only grafting technique used for gymnosperms in which the top growth of the stock plant is entirely removed prior to grafting. A sloping cut is made through the stem after the top growth is removed. A second, downward vertical cut is made through the surface exposed by the first cut, forming a small tongue of wood. To prepare the scion, a long sloping cut is made at its base, the same length as the first cut on the stock plant. A second cut is made through the first, forming a thin tongue similar in size to that of the stock plant. To form the graft the tongues of stock and scion are tightly fitted together so that they are immovable. They should be joined with as much cambial contact as possible. When a scion of small diameter is grafted on a larger understock, care should be taken that the cambium layers meet on at least one side. The completed graft is bound with a rubber band. After-care oGrafts 38 Following grafting, plants are plunged in a greenhouse bench with bottom heat. This encourages the development of callus tissue, the first step in the formation of a graft union. The graft union should be completely covered with dampened peatmoss to prevent desiccation as the cut tissue knits. As callus tissue forms and growth activity begins to appear on the scion, the top growth of the understock, if it remains, may be reduced. This is usually done in two steps, half the top growth being removed first, the remainder at a later date, when growth of the scion is well advanced. In the spring, after danger of frost is past, young grafted plants can be planted outside. They should be placed with the graft union below the surface of the soil to encourage formation of roots on the scion. Before placing them outside, the grafting rubbers must be removed, since they will not deteriorate beneath the ground. Budding Budding is a form of grafting that makes use of a single vegetative bud as a scion. Large numbers of plants can be budded quickly and efficiently, a smaller quantity of scion stock material is required than would be needed for grafting, and no special facilities are needed. Budding is done when the stock is growing actively, its bark can be separated easily from the wood, and the scion buds are well-developed. To prepare for summer budding, shoots of the current season's are cut. To reduce transpiration, the soft tip and leaf blades are removed. About 1\/2 inch of the petiole is allowed to remain to growth 39 serve as a handle when processing the buds. At this stage the shoot is termed a bud stick. Bud sticks must be kept in fresh condition until ready for use. When stored in a cool place in sealed polyethylene bags they will keep in good condition for a week or more. The most common budding technique is shield or T-budding. These names are derived from the shield-like appearance of the prepared scion and the T-shaped cut that is made in the stock plant. To remove the bud scion from its stick, a cut is made from about 1\/2 inch below the bud to about 1\/2 inch above it, forming a small oval shield. The shield should be thin but not too flexible. Some propagators recommend removing the sliver of wood attached to the shield behind the bud. At the Arnold Arboretum, however, this is allowed to remain, since its removal may damage the bud or leave an air space immediately behind where it is joined by the rootstock To insert the bud in the rootstock, a T-shaped incision is made through bark and cambium to the woody layer beneath. The flaps of bark thus formed are raised from the wood and the bud shield slipped between them and forced downwards into the slit. The bud should be positioned well below the horizontal cut, so that the flaps may be closed above it. To hold the bud in place, commercially available rubber budding strips or plastic bud ties are wrapped above and below it. In about a week, success or failure can be determined. If the portion of petiole accompanying the bud falls away when tapped, the bud has taken; if it is shrivelled and attached, failure is indicated and a second attempt can be made by inserting another bud in a different location. Examination in early spring will reveal whether or not the bud is still alive. If so, the understock is cut away about 1\/2 inch above the bud. An occasional inspection after growth begins will reveal whether sprouts are developing on the stock beneath the bud. These can be removed quickly by hand rubbing while they are still soft. - Shield budding showing T-shaped incision, inserted bud, and twine From Charles Baltet, L'Art de Greffer. Paris. 1885. binding. 40 GENERA ABIES: Fir There are about are forty species trees sphere. They cultivars, fir evergreen trees are commonly of fir native to the Northern Hemiof pyramidal habit. Except for their propagated by seed. Sexual Propagation Male and female cones of Abies are borne on the same tree. The female cones stand erect on branches of the previous year's and are composed of thin, closely spaced scales, each having two seeds at its base. Cones ripen in autumn of their first year and shatter from the top down, releasing winged seeds to wind dispersal. Since the cones shatter shortly after they mature, they should be collected as soon as possible after ripening. They are attached to the tree by short woody stalks and must be cut free. After the cones dry, seeds may be separated from the scales by screening and fanning oblong growth techniques. Fir seed loses viability in less than a year if kept in dry storage. To assure high percentage of germination, it should be sealed and placed in controlled cold storage until time for stratification. Abies seed exhibits embryo dormancy, which can be overcome by two or three months of cold stratification at 40 F. Because the seedlings particularly susceptible to damping-off organisms, pretreatment should be planned to coincide with the lengthening days of late winter or early spring. If stratification is extended beyond the threemonth period, the seeds tend to germinate in the cold. Depending on the species and seed lot, germination takes from one to three are weeks. Asexual Propagation Cutting vars At the Arnold Arboretum, cuttings of some abnormal Abies cultihave rooted in high percentages. When treated with a rooting compound containing 3 mg IBA and 150 mg Thiram (a fungicide) per gram of talc, three out of four cuttings of Abies koreana 'Prostrate Beauty', taken in June were rooted. Abies balsamea 'Nana' cuttings taken in December rooted almost as well when treated with a rooting compound containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc, plus a fun- gicide. 41 Grafting Choice of understocks for the grafting of fir trees is less limited than for many genera. Abies alba and A. balsamea are generally considered suitable understocks for all Abies clones. Abies nordmanniana is compatible with most short-needled firs, and A. concolor with those having long needles. Scions taken in January and February are side-grafted on established understocks potted one growing season in advance of their use. The plants are then plunged in peatmoss to a depth that covers the graft union. These graft combinations have survived a significant number of years at the Arnold Arboretum. Abies alba A. amabilis A. cilicica A. fargesii A. fraseri `Prostrata' A. lasiocarpa 'Compacta' A. procera `Glauca' A. veitchii A. veitchii var. olivacea _ _ _ _ Rootstock Abies balsamea Compatible Scion -__ __ -~ ~ --- A. concolor I A. cephalonica A. concolor 'Violacea' A. alba A. concolor 'Conica' . A. firma A. concolor 'Violacea' A. firma A. homolepis A. koreana A. lasiocarpa 'Compacta' Bibliography Barton, L. V. 1930. Hastening the germination of some coniferous seeds. Amer. J. Bot. 17: 88-115. Ching, Te May. 1960. Seed production from individual cones of grand fir (Abies grandis Lindl.). J. Forest. 58: 959-961. Cooper, W. S. 1911. Reproduction by layering among conifers. Bot. Gaz. 52: 369-379. Doran, W. L. 1952. Effects of treating cuttings of woody plants with both a root-inducing substance and a fungicide. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 60: 487-491. Propagation of woody plants by cuttings. Univ. of Mass. Experiment Station Bull. No. 491. Amherst. 1957. pp. 17, 18. Heit, C. E. 1968. Propagation from seed. Part 14: Testing and growing less common and exotic fir species. Amer. Nurseryman 127(10): 10-11, 34-51. (not inclusive). -. 42 I Isaac, L. A. 1934. Cold storage prolongs the life of noble fir seed and apparently increases germinative power. Ecology 15: 216, 217. Kirkpatrick, H., Jr. 1940. Rooting evergreens with chemicals. Amer. Nurseryman 71(8): 9-12. Thimann, K. V., and A. L. Delisle. 1942. Notes on the rooting of some conifers from cuttings. J. Arnold Arb. 23: 103-109. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 168-183. ACTINOSTROBUS: Actinostrobus This genus contains two species of shrubs. They are related to Callitris and are native to Western Australia. The unopened cones of these evergreens remain on the plants for a long period. They may be picked and allowed to dry, after which the scales will open, releasing the seed. Seed germinates readily without special treatment. Cuttings should be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs. Mist is recommended, or the bench may be covered with a polyethylene propagating structure. Without hormone treatment, rooting takes six to nine months. Bibliography Blombery, A. M. 1968. Australian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 258. -. 1968. Growing conifers. Australian Plants 4: 255. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 290. Fairall, A. R. West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation. Australia. 1970. pp. 43, 45. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 418, 419. AGATHIS: Kauri Pine Sixteen to twenty species of large evergreen trees with massive trunks make up this genus, which is native from the Malay Peninsula to New Zealand. There is little information on propagation. Seed appears to germinate readily, but must be sown immediately upon collection. Many of the seeds are infertile. Adventitious shoots from the stumps of felled trees exhibit physiological juvenility and may be used as cuttings. As with Actinostrobus, cuttings should be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs. They should be rooted under mist or polyethylene plastic. In the absence of hormone treatment, rooting takes six to nine months. Bibliography Blombery, A. M. A Guide to Native Australian Plants. Sydney. 1967. pp. 203, 204. . 1968. Growing conifers. Australian Plants. 4: 255. 1968. Australian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 262. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 93. . 43 ARAUCARIA: Araucaria ten or twelve species of Araucaria, some natives of South others of Australia and the Pacific Islands. These plants America, are most commonly propagated by sexual means. are There Sexual Propagation Male and female cones of Araucaria are borne on the same tree. The female cone is ovoid and composed of wedge-shaped scales that break apart at maturity to release winged seeds. The seed is produced at irregular intervals and much of it is infertile. It deteriorates quickly and should be sown immediately upon collection. Germination is usually good, but growth of seedlings is slow. Vegetative Propagation of Araucaria heterophylla develop into more than do seedlings, as they are slower growing and more compact in habit. Only vertical shoots, however, are suitable for cuttings; shoots from branches root, but they lead to misshapen plants. Though Araucaria ordinarily produces only one vertical shoot, its leader, it is possible to produce numerous suitable cuttings from one stock plant. A seedling is grown until it has five or six branch whorls, and its leader is removed and rooted. Erect shoots soon arise from the axils at the top whorl of branches and can be removed and rooted. The plant is then cut back to the next whorl of branches, where a second set of vertical shoots develops. This process may be continued until shoots have been taken from the axils of the last whorl of branches. Rooted desirable cuttings trees - Bibliography A. A Guide to Native Australian Plants. Sydney. 1967. p. 207. 1968. Growing conifers. Australian Plants 4: 255. 1968. Australian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 262. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1957. pp. 107, 110, 117. Duhme, F., and K. Fuchs. 1931. Araucaria araucana - ihre anzucht. Deutsche Baumschule 23: 156, 157. Hartmann, H. T., and D. E. Kester. Plant Propagation Principles and Practices. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1959. p. 197. Ntima, O. O. The Araucarias. Fast Growing Timber Trees of the Lowland Tropics No. 3. Commonwealth Forestry Institute. Dept. of Forestry. Univ. of Oxford. 1968. 139 pp. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. Blombery, . . pp. 417, 418. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 223-225. 44 ATHROTAXIS: Tasmanian Cedar Tasmania, is apparently related This genus of three evergreen trees, native to the mountains of to Cryptomeria. Athrotaxis species are commonly propagated by both seeds and cuttings. Seeds should be sown in February or March. Cuttings should be taken in late spring or early summer from the tips of vigorously growing twigs, and inserted in sandy soil under mist or in a polyethylene propagating structure. Rooting, without hormone treatment, takes six to nine months. Cuttings of Athrotaxis selaginoides form callus readily, bLt root poorly. Athrotaxis has been grafted successfully on stocks of Cryptomeria japonica. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgo- Gray, New York. 1967. p. 119. A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 270-272. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. aceae. pp. 418, 419. AUSTROCEDRUS: Austrocedrus This monotypic genus of variable sized trees often has been included in Libocedrus and is native to Western Argentina and Chile. Austrocedrus chilensis. \"Cuttings of ripened wood (brown at base) with heel inserted in 75% peat, 25% sand mixture, in mist unit with medium temperature of 65 75 F, rooted 50% successfully. Cuttreated in February were a total failure.\" D.M.H. tings similarly - CALLITRIS: Cypress Pine An evergreen genus of about twenty species of trees and shrubs, Callitris are native to Australia and Tasmania. They are best propagated from seed, which germinates readily. It is borne in a globular cone composed of six to eight woody scales arranged in one whorl. The cone remains on the tree for a long period and can be collected at any time. When dry, it opens to release the dark brown winged seeds. Many of the seeds are infertile. Cuttings taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs of Callitris oblonga and C. tasmanica have been rooted. Mist is recommended, or the propagating bench may be covered with plastic. Rooting without hormone treatment takes six to nine months. Bibliography Blombery, A. M. pp. 223-225. A Guide to Native Australian Plants. Sydney. 1967. 45 Fairall, A. R. West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation. Australia. 1970. pp. 79, 80. Gray, A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 267. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. p. 419. CALOCEDRUS: Incense-cedar There are three species of evergreen trees in the genus Calocedrus native to North America (C. decurrens), Formosa (C. formosana) and China (C. macrolepsis) respectively. They were formerly included in the genus Libocedrus but probably are more closely related to Thuja. Incense-cedar is best are grafting propagation reproduced possible. from seeds, though cutting and Sexual Propagation Male and female cones are borne separately at the tips of twigs on the same tree. Oblong, pendant female cones mature in one season, but remain attached to the branch until the following year. They are composed of six paired, hard flat scales. Each of the two middle scales bears two winged seeds which are shed in late summer and early fall. Crops are not produced regularly, but when they do occur they are ~avy. The seeds have a broad wing and can be carriedgreat distances by air currents. Cones are ready for collection when they turn a light reddish-brown. They can be separated from the seed by screening. Under ordinary storage conditions, seed loses viability rapidly, but storage of dry seed in sealed refrigerated containers prolongs its life somewhat. A fair percentage of incensecedar seed germinates without pretreatment, but a two- to threemonth period of cold stratification greatly improves and unifies ger-- mination. Asexual Propagation Partially hardened cuttings of Calocedrus may be taken in August. Scions consisting of the current year's growth can also be grafted at this time. A side graft should be used on understocks of Thuja occidentalis established at least one growing season ahead of their use. Bibliography Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 436, 437. Siggins, H. W. 1933. Distribution Agric. Res. 47: 119-128. . and rate of fall of conifer seeds. J. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. 1907. Incense cedar. Libocedrus decurrens. Torr. Silvical Leaflet 9: 1-4. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 494-499. [Libocedrus decurrens]. 46 CEDRUS: Cedar Members of this genus are found in North Africa and Asia. There four species, all large evergreen trees. Cedars are generally propagated by seed. are Sexual Propagation Male and female mature cones are cones of Cedrus are borne on the same tree. The large, light brown, and held upright on the tree branches by short woody stalks. They are composed of numerous thin woody scales, each with two seeds at its base. The seeds are roughly triangular in shape and have a broad papery wing that aids in wind dispersal when the cones shatter to release seeds in autumn of their second or third year. In the Northeast, cones are ripe enough for collection by August and are cut free from the branches before they crumble apart. After they dry, scales and seeds break away from the central woody axis and must be separated from each other. Since they are similar in size, screening is impractical. Small quantities of seed may be hand-cleaned, while large quantities must be separated from the scales by fanning techniques. The seed is fragile and must be handled gently. It need not be dewinged. Cedrus seeds lose their viability after several months if kept at room temperature, but seeds dried for a week or two, then placed in sealed polyethylene bags and stored in a refrigerator at 40 F have germinated in high two years. variable degrees of dormancy may be observed within Extremely a single lot of Cedrus seeds. If they are not provided with a period of cold stratification, they germinate erratically over a period of several months. Seeds stratified for one month at 40 F germinate in about two weeks, while those stratified for two months germinate in four to seven days. After three months of stratification, germination takes place in the refrigerator. Because cedar seedlings are particularly susceptible to damping-off organisms, it is advisable to germinate them in the lengthening days of late winter or early spring. Dry seed should be placed in cold storage until about two months before the desired germination date, then treated to a period of cold stratification and sown. percentages after Asexual Propagation Cutting Cedrus libani and C. atlantica cuttings have been rooted, but usually in small percentages. However, cuttings taken in October from some clones of C. deodara have rooted well. The table below shows four treatments which led to high rooting percentages in Cedrus deodara 'Kingsville'. Cuttings were placed under polyethylene film with bottom heat at 75 F. After one growing season, the rooted cuttings were 22 inches tall. C. deodara 'Kashmir' and an unnamed clone each showed similar responses. 47 Cedrus deodara 'Kingsville' Grafting be propagated by side-grafting seedling understocks in February, when roots begin active growth. The understocks are potted one growing season in advance of their use and provided with a cold period before being brought into the greenhouse. Cedrus libani, C. atlantica and C. deodara all are compatible and can be used as understocks, but C. deodara is preferred, since it can Cedrus January or has the most compact and fibrous root system. Bibliography Curtis, W. J. 1962. The grafting of Koster spruce, Cedrus atlantica glauca, copper beech, pink and variegated dogwoods. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 12: 249-253. Fordham, A. J. 1968. Cedrus deodara 'Kashmir' and its propagation by * cuttings. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 18: 319-321.* Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage methods for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14-15, 38-54 (not inclusive ). -. 1968. drus species. Amer. -. 1968. 66: 632-634. from seed. Part 15: Testing and growing CeNurseryman 128(6): 12-13, 87-94. Thirty-five years' testing of tree and shrub seed. J. Forest. Propagation Kirkpatrick, H., Jr. 1940. Rooting seryman 71(8): 9-12. Schubert, G. H. 1954. evergreens with chemicals. Amer. Nurof various coniferous seeds after cold Osborn, A. Shrubs and Trees for the Garden. London. 1933. p. 289. Viability 52: storage. J. Forest. 446, 447. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. p. 291-294. Wyman, D. 1947. Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Amoldia 7: 5356. * This cultivar later was determined to be Cedrus deodara 'Kingsville'. 48 CEPHALOTAXUS : Plum-yew All five species of Cephalotaxus are native to Asia. They are evergreen trees or shrubs and may be propagated by seeds or cuttings. Male and female cones of the genus are borne on separate trees. The fleshy cones are about 21\/2 centimeters long, each bearing one or two seeds. They ripen during their second season. Softwood cuttings taken from the tips of Cephalotaxus harringtonia twigs in late June have been rooted under intermittent mist, after treatment with a powder formulation of 2, 4, 5-T and NAA. In five instances, cuttings taken in autumn and treated with 8 mg IBA in a gram of talc plus the fungicide Thiram have rooted in high percentages. Seeds stratified for three months at 40 F produced 70% germination in ten days. Bibliography 1958. Mist propagation technique in South Africa. Gard. Chron. 144: 271. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 147. Doran, W. L. Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Univ. of Mass. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 491. Amherst. 1957. p. 26. Enright, L. J. 1959. Cephlotaxus cuttings respond to rooting aids. Amer. Nurseryman 110(7): 16. Fillmore, R. H. 1961. Rooting a sport of Cephalotaxus species. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 83, 84. Myhre, A. S., and C. D. Schwartze. 1948. Rooting evergreen cuttings with hormones. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 51: 639-650. Atkinson, B. CHAMAECYPARIS: False-cypress There are six species of false-cypress: three native to North America, three to East Asia. Since there are a large number of recognized cultivars, Chamaecyparis is usually propagated asexually. Sexual Propagation Male and","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1977-Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24687","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260b36b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":1,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.; Spraker, Leslie J.","article_content":" female cones are borne separately on the same plant. The female cones are small and spherical, composed of six to twelve scales. They open in autumn of the first year to release from one to five winged seeds per scale for dispersal by the wind. The empty cones may remain on the tree through the winter. Seeds are small, slightly flattened and oblong, with two narrow longitudinal wings. When cones turn from yellow-green to pale brown, they are ready for collection and drying. Seeds can be separated from the dry cones by screening, but they are easily damaged and should not be dewinged. They lose their viability quickly unless stored in sealed containers at 40 F following collection. Some species of Chamaecyparis exhibit embryo dormancy. There is also variation between different lots of the same species, with 49 dormancy apparently influenced by the geographic origin of the seed. In all cases, a two- or three-month period of cold stratification is of benefit, leading to rapid germination and a uniform stand of seedlings. Chamaecyparis is particularly susceptible to damping-off and germination during the lengthening days of late winter or early spring increases chances of survival. If necessary, stratification can be extended beyond the three-month period so that the seeds can be sown in late winter or early spring. Asexual Propagation Cutting Hardwood cuttings of most Chamaecyparis cultivars, taken any time from September to April, root in high percentages. Cuttings of normal size may be taken from most Chamaecyparis. However, some cultivars produce less than a 1\/2 inch of growth in a single year and be propagated from extremely small cuttings. Cuttings may be treated with a variety of commercially available rooting compounds. Preparations containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc have been used. Chamaecyparis pisifera, C. thyoides and C. lawsoniana root in approximately three months. In an English experience, extending the day length by four hours with artificial lighting increased the speed and percentage of rooting. In general, Chamaecyparis obtusa and C. nootkatensis cultivars are more difficult to root than those of other species. Cuttings taken in late winter or early spring appear to root more easily than those taken in fall or midwinter. Growth-promoting materials containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc have been used for these hard-to-root taxa, and in recent years, materials containing combinations of IBA plus NAA have been used effectively. Rooting time for Chamaecyparis obtusa cultivars varies widely, and rooting percentages are sometimes low. must - 20142014201420142014201420142014 has been an accepted way of propagating the more difficult-to-root taxa of Chamaecyparis. In the nursery trade, C. obtusa, C. lawsoniana, and C. nootkatensis are frequently grafted on Thuja orientalis or Chamaecyparis lawsoniana seedlings. Rooted cuttings of Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Boulevard' are also satisfactory understocks for these taxa. 'Boulevard' is a juvenile form and can be rooted easily. Cuttings inserted in October or November are ready for veneer- or side-grafting by January or February. After grafting, plants are plunged in peat to above the level of the graft union. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana seedlings have also been used for special purposes such as the production of tall rootstocks for grafting standard plants. Grafting Grafting 50 Bibliography Gardner, E. J. 1941. Propagation under mist. Amer. Nurseryman 73(9): 1940. Rooting evergreens with chemical. Amer. Nurseryman 71(8): 9-12. Lamb, J. G. D. 1970. Trials on the propagation of Chamaecyparis at Kinsealy. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 20: 334-338. 1971. Heeled cuttings of conifers are not always , and J. C. Kelly. an advantage. Gard. Chron. 169(9): 24, 25. 1971. The propagation of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana cultivars. Gard. Chron. 169(5): 19, 22. Nelson, S. H. 1959. The summer propagation of conifer cuttings under intermittent mist. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 61-66. 1959. Mist propagation of evergreens in the greenhouse during winter. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 67-76. Sanders, C. R. 1970. Conifer propagation with light. Gard. Chron. 168(18): 21. Schubert, G. H. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage. J. Forest. 52: 446, 447. Teuscher, H. 1962. Speeding production of hard-to-root conifers. Amer. Nurseryman 116(7): 16. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 316-320. Kirkpatrick, H., Jr. -. -. CRYPTOMERIA : Cryptomeria Cryptomeria japonica, native to China and Japan, is the only species in this genus. Cryptomeria may be propagated by seed, which has a reputation for germinating poorly. A sowing rate based on 30% germination to obtain a proper seedling density has been reported from Japan. Sixty to ninety days of cold stratification at about 40 ' F is recommended. Cultivars of Cryptomeria are usually propagated by grafting, using the species as understock. However, cuttings of many cultivars have rooted in high percentages. Among these are 'Bandai-Sugi', 'Compressa', 'Cristata', 'Elegans', 'Nana', 'Spiralis', 'Spiralis Falcata', and 'Vilmoriniana'. All were taken in autumn and propagated in polyethylene structures. Root inducing material containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc plus the fungicide Thiram at the rate of 150 mg has proven satisfactory for rooting Cryptomeria cuttings. Kirkpatrick H., Jr. seryman 71(8): 1940. 9-12. Bibliography Rooting evergreens with chemicals. Amer. Nur- CUNNINGHAMIA: China-fir. contains three species of evergreen native to China and Formosa. China-fir can be propagated by both seeds and cuttings. Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. The cones are round The genus Cunninghamia trees related to Taxodium and Sequoia and 51 leathery scales, bearing three seeds. Following release of seeds, the cone persists on the tree. Hardwood cuttings taken in autumn and treated with 8 mg IBA plus a fungicide root in high percentages. However, they tend to retain the characteristics of a branch, resulting in horizontal growth. with each Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 193. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 427, 429. CUPRESSUS: Cypress This is a genus of about twenty species. Cypress are widely distributed in the warmer areas of the Northern Hemisphere. The best known species, Cupressus sempervirens, is widespread in the Mediterranean region. Cypress may be propagated by seeds, cuttings, and grafts. Sexual Propagation Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. Female cones, - s~ai~and globe-like, ripen their second season and consist ef s~ te~ twelve scales, each having numerous winged seeds. Many cones remain closed on the tree for long periods of time. They can be collected as soon as they turn dark brown; the seeds are separated by screening. Seeds can be held from one to four years with little loss of viability if refrigerated in sealed containers. A period of cold stratification, usually about two months, appears to improve germination. Asexual Propagation Cupressus cultivars can be increased by cuttings taken and August. Cupressus macrocarpa cuttings responded well in July to treat- ment with IBA prior to insertion. Although a number of authors recommend taking cuttings between October and February, we have not had much success ( t 10~~ ) at the Arnold Arboretum with cuttings taken at this period. Scions from Cupressus cultivars can be veneer-grafted on twoyear understocks of the parent species. Because the foliage is especially susceptible to mildew, an effort should be made to keep the foliage dry when caring for newly grafted plants. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of aceae. New York. 1967. p. 196. Coniferae and Ginkgo- 52 Doran, W. L. Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Univ. of Mass. Exp. Sta. Bull. No. 491. Amherst. 1957. p. 33. Kirkpatrick, H., Jr. 1940. Rooting evergreens with chemicals. seryman 71 ( 8 Komissarov, D. A. Amer. Nur- ) : 9-12. Israel by Cuttings. 1968. 250 pp. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 429~131. Schubert, G. H. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage. J. Forest. 52: 446, 447. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 363-369. Widmoyer, F. B., and D. T. Sullivan. 1967. Morphology of Arizona cypress on Hetz juniper. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 17: 403-405. X CUPRESSOCYPARIS: Leland X Cypress is an intergeneric hybrid between Cupressocyparis leylandii Cupressus macrocarpa and Chamaecyparis nootkatensis which originated spontaneously at Leighton Hall, Welshpool, England in 1888. The propagation of X Cupressocyparis is similar to that of the easily propagated forms of Chamaecyparis. Cuttings taken in autumn and winter have rooted in high percentages when treated with 8 mg of IBA in a gram of talc combined with a fungicide. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. pp. 193, 194. Lamb, J. G. D., and J. C. Kelly. 1971. The propagation of Chamaecyparis lawsoniana cultivars. Gard. Chron. 169(5): 19, 22. Sanders, C. R. 1970. Conifer propagation with light. Gard. Chron. 168(18): 21. DACRYDIUM : Dacrydium is a genus of about twenty species of evergreen trees Dacrydium related to Podocarpus. They are distributed from the Malay Peninsula and Indo-China south to Australia, Tasmania and New Zealand, and one species, D. fonkii, is native to Chile. Dacrydium may be propagated by cuttings taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs and rooted under mist or plastic. Without benefit of hormone treatment, root initiation takes from six to nine months. Dacrydium cupressinum and \"Heel cuttings, semi-ripe D. laxifolium during the summer, rooted between 35%-75% successfully. August\/September appears to be the optimum period. A rooting medium of 75% peat\/ 25% sand has been used. Similarly treated cuttings taken in December were a total failure.\" D.M.H. at various times 53 Bibliography Dallimore, W., aceae. Gray, and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and GinkgoNew York. 1967. pp. 218-225. A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 267-273. DISELMA : Diselma A single species of evergreen bush, or small tree, related to Fitzroya, Diselma archeri is native to Tasmania. Cuttings of this plant may be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs. Mist is recommended, or the bench may be covered with plastic. Rooting, without hormone treatment, takes six to nine months. Bibliography Gray, A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 268, 272. EPHEDRA : in Ephedra A genus of about warm forty species of leafless shrubs, Ephedra is native dry areas in both North America and Eurasia. Seeds germinate readily without special treatment. Cuttings are reputedto root readily.-Layering seems-ta be-eomrnorr-- in nature. -~-- Bibliography Cutler, . H. C. 1939. Monograph of the North American species of the genus Ephedra. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 26: 373-428. Dayton, W. A. Range Plant Handbook. USDA Forest Service. 1937. p. B 73. Voth, P. D. 1934. A study of the vegetative phase of Ephedra. Bot. Gaz. 96: 298-313. FITZROYA : Fitzroya native to Chile and western Argentina. It can be proseeds and cuttings, though it is reported that most cultipagated by vated trees bear only female cones and produce infertile seed. \"Cuttings of ripened wood (brown at base) with a heel, inserted in 75% peat\/ 25% sand, under mist, with the medium at 65-75 F, rooted 75% when taken in mid-August. Cuttings taken in mid-November were a total failure.\" D.M.H. Fitzroya is Callitris, and a monotypic genus of large evergreen trees related to Bibliography Dallimore, W., and aceae. A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and New York. 1967. pp. 225-227. Ginkgo- 54 GINKGO: Maidenhair Tree Ginkgo is a monotypic genus unknown in the wild, but preserved for many years in the temple gardens of China. It is best propagated vegetatively as seedlings lead to plants that vary widely in growth rate and tree shape. Female plants are undesirable because of malodorous fruits. Therefore desirable clones are propagated asexually. Sexual Propagation Male and female reproductive structures are produced on separate It takes twenty years or more for seedlings to develop their first cones and then the crops are not borne regularly. Some trees appear to be alternate bearers. The buff-colored seed, with a hard seedcoat, is enclosed within a fleshy pulp, and is mature in autumn of its first year. Its fleshy outer layer would suggest natural dispersal by birds or animals, but none is known to feed on it. Since the ginkgo (Ginkgo biloba) is a primitive tree, its vector quite possibly is extinct. For this reason, seeds are never carried far from the parent trees. seed is ready for collection in autumn about the same time the tree's leaves begin to fall. Seed can be cleaned by maceration and flotation techniques; gloves and protective clothing are recommended since there have been reports of illness among workers processing ginkgo seeds. The seed loses viability quickly if stored at room temperatures. It should be placed in sealed containers and held at 40 F. to prolong viability. Newly collected ginkgo seed requires a period of after-ripening, since it shows no embryo. When sown outof-doors immediately following collection, the seeds develop embryos and germinate in the spring. In one experience with seed germinated in the greenhouse, untreated seed germinated erratically over a period of eighty-one days. Seven tests using cold pretreatment for various periods, and tests combining warm and cold pretreatment failed to unify germination. plant. Ginkgo Asexual Propagation Cutting Ginkgo cuttings can be taken in late June from the current season's growth as the shoots become woody. When treated with a rooting compound containing 8 mg IBA and 15 mg Thiram per gram of talc, and placed either under mist or polyethylene plastic, rooting occurs in seven to eight weeks. Ginkgo trees have a rather unusual growth pattern. Terminal buds lead to long shoots while lateral spurs generally produce short shoots. Since long shoots are found mainly at the branch tips of ginkgo trees, it is difficult to obtain long cuttings in quantity. Experiments have shown that cuttings made from short lateral spurs will root as well as those made from long I 55 shoots. Rooted spurs produced long shoots their second summer after a period of dormancy. By their second autumn, the plants were about 2 feet tall. Grafting and Budding Ginkgo trees are frequently grafted by commercial nurserymen. Scions can be taken in January and February and grafted on potted understocks using a whip-and-tongue graft. Ginkgo may be shield-budded during the growing season when the bark separates easily from the wood. This technique is used to propagate ginkgo standards. Buds, usually from the cultivar 'Pendula', are inserted high on a 6- to 8-foot standard rootstock. Bibliography vegetative propagation of ginkgo. J. Forest. 52: 176, 177. Eames, A. J. 1955. The seed and Ginkgo. J. Arnold Arb. 36: 165-170. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 8: Fall planting of fruit and hardwood seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(4): 12, 13, 85-90. Schneider, G. 1960. Production of rootstocks for ornamental trees in the Doran, W. L. 1954. The container nursery. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: 282-285. Vermeulen, J. 1960. Propagation of Ginkgo biloba by cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: 127, 128. Yerkes, G. E. 1938. Treat cuttings with indolebutyric acid. Amer. Nurseryman 67(9): 10, 11. ___________________________ JUNIPERUS: Juniper About sixty species of trees and shrubs, almost all native to the Northern Hemisphere, make up this evergreen genus. Junipers are commonly propagated both sexually and asexually. Sexual Propagation cones Juniperus are borne on the same, or The mature female cone is fleshy, containing from one to twelve brown seeds. Depending on the species, it is light or dark green. When ripened in autumn of its first, second or third year, it turns to blue, red-brown or black, with a distinct bloom. Cones should be collected as soon as possible after ripening, since they are taken quickly by the birds. Juniperus ashei and J. virginiana cones ripen in autumn of their first year; those of J. occiof Male and female occasionally different, plants. dentalis, J. deppreana, J. scopulorum, ]. osteosperma, J. recurva and J. rigida in autumn of their second year; and those of J. communis and ]. monosperma in autumn of their third year following pollination. Juniperus sabina ripens in fall of the first season or spring of the second. Seed may be cleaned by macerating the cones in a modified blender and floating the pulp and void seeds away. All juniper seeds exhibit embryo dormancy and require a threemonth period of cold stratification to induce germination. Many 56 benefit from at least a five-month period of warm stratification prior to cold stratification in order to overcome impermeable seed coats. ' Asexual Propagation exhibit extremely variable rooting behavior, depending on the species. Juniperus communis, J. conferta, J. horizontalis and J. sabina are easily rooted from cuttings taken in October, November or December. Summer cuttings may be rooted if taken back to mature wood of the previous year's growth. Root-inducing materials are not necessary, though treatment with a compound containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc may hasten root initiation and encourage more extensive root development. Cuttings root in eight to ten weeks. Cutting Junipers Juniperus procumbens, J. pseudosabina, J. recurva and J. squamata, and most of their cultivars, root in worthwhile percentages. taken in November and December have responded well when treated with a material containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc and wounded on one side. Rooting occurs in about three months. In one experience, cuttings of Juniperus distans, taken in November and treated with a compound containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc, rooted in four months. Some of the variants of Juniperus chinensis are grafted, but many can be rooted successfully. Juniperus chinensis 'Hetzii' roots so easily that it is frequently used as an understock for other junipers. Cuttings may be taken in autumn and treated with a rooting material containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc. More difficult-to-root cultivars may be treated with a material containing 8 mg per gram of talc. Rooting occurs in three to four months. The following cultivars of Juniperus chinensis have been rooted commercially: 'Armstrongii', 'Blue Cloud', 'Columnaris', 'Fairview', 'Globosa Cinerea', 'Hetzii', 'Kaizuka', 'Kalley', 'Keteleeri', 'Obelisk', 'Old Gold', 'Olympia', 'Pfitzeriana Aurea', 'Pfitzeriana Compacta', 'Pfitzeriana Glauca', 'Plumosa Aurea', 'Pyramidalis', 'Richeson', 'San Jose', 'Shoo- Cuttings smith', var sargentii, var. sargentii 'Glauca', 'Spartan', 'Variegata'. Juniperus virginiana is considered difficult to root and is usually propagated by seed or grafting. Cuttings of four cultivars, Juniperus virginiana 'Burkii', 'Nana Compacta', 'Silver Spreader', and 'Skyrocket' taken in early winter and treated with a rooting compound con8 mg IBA per gram of talc. All rooted well but did so slowly. 'Burkii' rooted in eight months; 'Skyrocket' in six months. Another Juniperus virginiana cultivar, 'Kosteri', rooted well when treated with IBA and NAA at 2.5 mg per gram, or with IBA at 8 mg per gram of talc. were taining 57 Grafting Many cultivars Juniperus chinensis, J. scopulorum, J. squamata difficult to root in practical percentages and usually are grafted. Juniperus rigida and J. turkestanica do not root and are always grafted. Juniperus virginiana and J. chinensis 'Hetzii' are compatible with all junipers and are commonly used as understocks. Some Juniperus virginiana varieties have been grafted on ]. of and J. virginiana are horizontalis 'Plumosa' and J. sabina understock as well. Scions taken in December, January and February can be sidegrafted on established understock. Cuttings to be used as understocks will be ready by January if inserted in September or October. The following cultivars of Juniperus are commonly grafted: Juniperus chinensis 'Ames', 'Blaauw', 'Iowa'; ]. scopulorum 'Blue Heaven', 'Moffetii', 'Pathfinder', 'Sutherland', 'Tabletop', 'Welchii'; J. virginiana 'Burkii', 'Canaertii', 'Cupressifolia', 'Glauca', 'Hillii', 'Manhattan Blue'. Bibliography - Afanasiev, M., and M. Cress. 1942. Changes within the seeds of Juniperus scopulorum during the processes of after-ripening and germination. __ J. Forest. 40: 798-801. __ __ Barton, L. V. 1951. Germination of seeds Juniperus virginiana L. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Pl. Res. 16: 387-393. Buckley, A. R. 1957. The grafting of Juniperus virgzniana varieries on unrooted cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 81-83. Chadwick, L. C. 1951. The influence of several understocks on the growth of scions of some varieties of Juniperus. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. ___ 58: 301-307. Chase, H. H. 1959. Rooting junipers in the open field. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 92, 93. De Groot, C. 1960. Successful winter grafting of juniper varieties on unrooted cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: 124, 125. Gorman, J. 1961. Propagation of Juniperus chinensis torulosa. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 304, 305. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 9: Fall sowing of conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(6): 10, 11, 56, 60-69. Hill, J. B. 1953. Juniper grafting - practical and technical aspects. Proc. -. Prop. Soc. 3: 86-93. 1962. The propagation of juniperus chinensis in greenhouse and mistbed. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 12: 173-178. Johnson, T. N., Jr. 1959. Longevity of stored juniper seeds. Ecology 40: a progress report. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 58: 298-300. Klapis, A. J., Jr. 1964. Grafting junipers. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 14: 101103. Kyle, T. B. 1955. Grafting juniperus virginiana varieties without potting the understock. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 5: 60, 61. Lanphear, F. O. 1963. Influence of endogenous rooting cofactors and environment on the seasonal fluctuation in root initiation of selected evergreen cuttings. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 83: 811-818. Leiss, J. 1966. Trials with three juniperus understocks. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 16: 215-217. Pl. 487,488. Keen, R. A. 1951. Cutting grafts of juniper: 58 1926. Grafting rhododendrons and choice conifers. Part III. Florist's Exchange 61: 749-751. Nelson, S. H. 1959. The summer propagation of conifer cuttings under intermittent mist. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 61-66. Riffle, J. W., and H. W. Springfield. 1968. Hydrogen peroxide increases germination and reduces microflora on seed of several southwestern woody species. Forest Sci. 14: 96-101. Sanders, C. R. 1970. Conifer propagation with light. Gard. Chron. 168(18): 21. Snyder, W. E. 1953. The fundamentals of juniper propagation. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 3: 67-77. Steavenson, H. 1959. Propagating Taxus and Juniperus in a closed plastic house. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 82-86. Tomlinson, W. M. 1961. Propagation of Juniperus conferta. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 306-309. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 460-469. Westervelt, D. D., and R. A. Keen. 1960. Cutting grafts of junipers II: stionic effects. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 76: 637-643. Wilms, G. L., and F. L. S. O'Rourke. 1960. The effect of nodules on the rooting of cuttings of Juniperus and Thuja. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: Mallinson, J. W. 203, Zorg, 204. P. G. 1953. Prop. Soc. 3: LARIX : Larch The propagation of 81-84. junipers from cuttings. Proc. Pl. Larches are found in the cold regions of the Northern Hemisphere. There are about ten species in the genus. Propagation of the larches is by seed, except for their cultivars which are grafted. Male and female cones are borne separately on the same tree. The female cone is erect, round-to-oblong, maturing during autumn of its first year. Seeds are dispersed in autumn or spring following cone-ripening, but the empty cones remain on the tree following dispersal for an indefinite period of time. After collection, seed can be separated from cones by screening and then stored dry in sealed containers at 40 F. Larch seed germinates fairly well without pretreatment, but benefits from stratification for one or two months prior to sowing in March or April. Cuttings of Larix are considered difficult to root, though softwood cuttings of L. sibirica, L. laricina, and L. griffithii have rooted in small percentages when treated with a rooting compound containing IBA at 8 mg per gram of talc. Cultivars can be grafted on established understocks of L. decidua in winter. A whip-and-tongue graft can be used. Bibliography Boe, K. N. 1954. Periodicity of cone crops for five Montana conifers. Mont. Acad. Sci. Proc. 14: 5-9. Chandler, C. 1959. The propagation of Larix from softwood cuttings. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Pl. Res. 20: 231-238. I Dallimore, W., and aceae. 59 A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and GinkgoNew York. 1967. pp. 290, 291. Doran, W. L. Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Univ. of Mass. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 491. Amherst. 1957. p. 48. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage methods for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14, 15. 1968. Thirty-five years' testing of tree and shrub seed. J. Forest. 66: 632-634. Olson, D. S. 1932. Germinative capacity of seed produced from young trees. J. Forest. 30: 871. Schubert, G. H. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage. J. Forest. 52: 446, 447. Shearer, R. C. 1961. A method of overcoming seed dormancy in subalpine larch. J. Forest. 59: 513, 514. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 435, 436. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 478-485. . METASEQUOIA : Dawn Redwood Metasequoia is a monotypic genus, introduced to the West from Mainland China in 1947 when an expedition sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum procured seed from a stand of trees in the Shuisapa Valley. Shortly after, diplomatic relations between the United Statesand China were severed and dawn redwood (Metasequoia glyptostroboides) seed could no longer be obtained. It is not known whether the trees in the Shuisapa Valley have survived. Until recently, when trees raised from the original 1947 seed lots began bearing fertile seed, Metasequoia was propagated exclusively by asexual techniques. Sexual Propagation Male and female cones of Metasequoia are borne on the same tree. The female cones are small, pendulous and egg-shaped, with numerous thick scales which, upon ripening in autumn of their first year, release seed for wind dispersal. The empty cones persist on the trees for at least part of the first winter. Closed cones are ready for collection by late October, about the time the leaves fall. The seeds of Metasequoia are small and flattened, entirely surrounded by two, broad convergent wings. They are easily extracted from the cones by screening. Little information is available on the storage and germination of Metasequoia seeds. Seed from the original 1947 shipment was sown immediately upon receipt at the Arnold Arboretum with no pretreatment. centages but there are no records of germination pertimes. A small number of the original seeds were saved and attempts were made to germinate them in 1950; this effort failed. It germinated, or 60 Asexual Propagation Excellent rooting can be expected from both hard- and softwood cuttings of Metasequoia. Hardwood cuttings have been successfully rooted in November or December; softwood cuttings in late June or early July. All can be treated with a root-inducing material containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc. An open greenhouse bench with bottom heat is suitable for rooting hardwood cuttings. Softwood cuttings should be placed under mist or in polyethylene structures. The approximate rooting time for both is seven to eight weeks. Bibliography Chu, K., and W. S. Cooper. 1950. An ecological reconnaissance in the native home of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. Ecology 31(2): 260278. 1959. Experiences with Metasequoia. J. Calif. Hort. Soc. 20: 10. Fordham, A. J. 1960. Metasequoia glyptostroboides, (dawn redwood) and its propagation. Plant Propagator 6(4): 7, 8. Hu, H. H. 1948. How Metasequoia, the \"living fossil,\" was discovered in China. J. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 49: 201-207. Merrill, E. D. 1948. Metasequoia, another \"living fossil.\" Arnoldia 8: Daniels, A. C. note on rooting cuttings of dawn redwood. J. Calif. Hort. Soc. 20: 9. Pam, A. 1950. The vegetative reproduction of Metasequoia glyptostroboides. J. Roy. Hort. Soc. 75: 359. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 540-542. Wyman, D. 1951. Metasequoia brought up-to-date. Arnoldia 11: 25-28. 1968. Metasequoia after twenty years in cultivation. Arnoldia 28: Mirov, N. T., and M. Blankensop. 1958. A -. 113-123. MICROBIOTA: Microbiota decussata, the only species in its genus, is a small everrelated to Juniperus and native to southeastern Siberia. green shrub, \"Cuttings of ripened wood (brown at base) with a heel, inserted in 75% peat\/ 25% sand, under mist, with the medium at 65-75 F rooted 50% when taken in mid-June.\" D.M.H. Microbiota MICROCACHRYS : Microcachrys This monotypic genus of evergreen shrubs is related to Podocarpus and native to Tasmania. Cuttings may be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs and rooted under mist or polyethylene. Rooting without hormone treatment takes six to nine months. I 61 \"Cuttings of ripened (and frosted) wood (brown at base) with a heel inserted in 75% peat\/ 25% sand, under mist, with the medium at 65-75 F, rooted 60% in 3 months, when taken in February.\" Bibliography Gray, A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 268, 272. MICROSTROBUS: Microstrobus This genus contains to two species of evergreen shrubs and is related Dacrydium, Diselma, and Microcachrys. One species is native to Tasmania; the other, to New South Wales. These plants may be propagated from cuttings. However, while callus forms freely, root production often is not good. Cuttings may be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs. Mist is recommended, or the bench may be covered with plastic. Without hormone treatment, rooting takes six to nine months. M. fitzgeraldii \"Ripe cuttings lish.\" D.M.H. taken in September rooted Bibliography 50%. It is easy to -C~ tatr Gray, A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 268, 272. PAPUACEDRUS : Papuacedrus Papuacedrus is a genus of three species endemic to New Guinea; all have been transferred from Libocedrus by H. L. Li. Plants are monoecious with ovoid female cones of four scales; the outer two sterile, and the inner two each with two seeds. Seeds of Papuacedrus papuana sown one month after collection germinated in five weeks without pretreatment. Seedlings were established without difficulty. Subsequent propagation of the seedling plants was by cuttings treated with 8 mg of IBA and 150 mg of Thiram per gram of talc. High rooting percentages were obtained in four months under mist or in a polyethylene propagating structure. Bibliography Li, Hui-Lin. 1953. A reclassification of Libocedrus and Cupressaceae. J. Arnold Arb. 34: 17-36. 62I PHYLLOCLADUS: Phyllocladus Six species of evergreen trees or shrubs native from the Philippines to Tasmania and New Zealand comprise this genus. Cuttings may be taken from the tips of vigorously growing twigs. Mist is recommended, or a polyethylene propagating structure may be used. Rooting, without hormone treatment, takes six to nine months. Bibliography Gray, A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 268, 272. PICEA : Spruce About forty species, native to the cold and temperate the Northern Hemisphere, make up this evergreen genus. its cultivars, Picea is usually propagated by seed. Sexual regions of Except for Propagation Male and female cones are borne on the same trees. The female cone is egg-shaped and hangs from twigs of the previous year's growth. Its scales are thin and sometimes pointed, each supporting two, oblong winged seeds which are released by most species for dispersal by the wind during autumn of their first year. (The cones of Picea abies open over a long period of time, releasing their seeds from autumn to early spring. Picea mariana cones release their seeds over a period of two to three years.) Cones should be collected in the fall, after they turn brown but before they open. Once the cones have opened, seeds may be separated from them by screening. When held under ordinary storage conditions at room temperature, Picea seeds retain their viability for several years. In sealed containers held at 40 F, they may retain viability for up to ten years. Dormancy of spruce seed varies with the species and seed lot. Most lots show embryo dormancy and benefit from a three-month period of cold stratification at 40 F. Picea mariana and P. sitchensis germinate in fair percentages without any pretreatment, but a period of cold unifies and shortens the time required for germination. Asexual Propagation of numerous spruce cultivars showing dwarf characterisbe rooted in worthwhile percentages. Dwarf and abnormal forms of Picea abies, P. glauca, P. mariana, P. omorika, P. orientalis and P. pungens have been rooted from cuttings consisting of two or three growth flushes taken in October, November and December. tics can Cutting Cuttings 63 They rooting compound containing 8 mg IBA per of talc, plus a fungicide, and rooted in about three months. gram In one test involving Picea pungens, softwood cuttings were taken when new growth was 2 to 4 inches long and terminal buds were starting to appear. The leading shoots proved more difficult to root than comparable wood on the six or so lateral growths immediately behind. All these cuttings were treated with a rooting compound containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc and placed outdoors under mist. They rooted in high percentages and were ready to be potted by the end of September. were treated with a Grafting There appears to be wide latitude in the selection of understock for clones of Picea, though many nurserymen consider P. abies to be the most satisfactory understock for all taxa. Scions can be taken in December, January or February and side-grafted on established understock potted one growing season in advance of use. These graft combinations have survived for many years at the Arnold Arboretum. Rootstock Picea abies Compatible Picea abies Scion - p.~Lauca P. P. P. P. P. P. P. _______________ jezoensis mariana orientalis pungens purpurea rubens - - - glauca P. abies P. aurantiaca P. mariana P. obovata P. abies P. aurantiaca P. pungens P. o~rzoziha P. puzzgens Bibliography Allen, 1957. Storage behavior of conifer seeds in sealed containers held at 0 F, 32 F, and room temperature. J. Forest. 55: 278-281. Cooper, W. S. 1911. Reproduction by layering among conifers. Bot. Gaz 52: 369-379. 1931. The layering habit in sitka spruce and the two western hemlocks. Bot. Gaz. 91: 441-451. Curtis, W. J. 1962. The grafting of koster spruce, Cedrus atlantica glauca, copper beech, pink and variegated dogwoods. Proc. Pl Prop. Soc. 12: 249-253. -. G. S. 64 C. G. 1942. Plagiotropic habit of growth in norway spruce. Sci95: 301. 1939. Rooting norway spruce cuttings without , and J. L. Farrar. chemical treatment. Science 90: 109, 110. Enright, L. J. 1959. Growth response of rooted cuttings of pine and spruce. J. Forest. 57: 509, 510. Ferguson, D. C. 1968. Propagation of Picea abies by cuttings. Plant Propagator 14(2): 5-9. Feucht, J. P., and F. L. S. O'Rourke. 1959. Air-layering of pine and spruce. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 212, 213. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 5: Control of seedling density. Amer. Nurseryman 125(8): 14, 15, 56-59. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 9: Fall sowing of conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(6); 10-11, 56, 60-69 (not inclusive). 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage methods for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14-15, 38-54 (not inclusive). 1968. Propagation from seed. Part 13: Some western and exotic spruce species. Amer. Nurseryman 127(8): 12-13, 51-57, 60-63. Mahlstede, C. 1962. A new technique in grafting blue spruce. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 12: 125, 126. Meahl, R. P. 1957. Propagation of the genus Picea. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 29-32. Nienstaedt, H. 1958. Fall grafting of spruce and other conifers. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 8: 98-104. Oliver, R. W., and S. H. Nelson. 1957. Propagation of spruce from cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 41-43. Pedersen, J. 1965. Propagation from cuttings of Picea pungens 'Glauca Globosa.' Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 15: 207. Pinney, T. S., Jr. 1957. The propagation of Picea by seed. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 33-38. Ravestein, J. 1957. Our method of grafting blue spruce. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 38~10. Savella, L. 1965. Propagation of Picea pungens glauca cultivars. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 15: 199-201. Sherwood, D. 1968. Rooting of blue spruce from cuttings. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 18: 187, 188. Stoutemyer, V. T. 1931. Some comparisons of methods of grafting evergreens. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 28: 498-500. Teuscher, H. 1956. Montgomery blue spruce. Amer. Nurseryman 103(9): 9, 83, 84. Thimann, K. V., and A. L. Delisle. 1942. Notes on the rooting of some conifers from cuttings. J. Arnold Arb. 23: 103-109. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 587-597. Willard, F. 1968. Notes on the grafting of Picea pungens 'Kosteriana.' Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 18: 84-87. Deuber, ence . -. -. PILGERODENDRON: Pilgerodendron A monotypic genus of evergreen tree, Pilgerodendron is related to Libocedrus and Calocedrus, and is native to Chile. Pilgerodendron uviferum \"Semi-ripe cuttings taken not easy to in mid-November rooted establish.\" D.M.H. 65%, but were I PINUS : Pine 65 The genus Pinus, with about ninety species, is one of the most widely distributed genera of trees native to the Northern Hemisphere. It ranges from the Arctic Circle to below the Equator at one point in Sumatra. Sexual Propagation Male and female cones of the pines are borne separately on the same tree. Pollination takes place during late spring and early summer, but fertilization is delayed until the following spring. The resulting cone is quite woody and is composed of thick, closely packed scales. These vary greatly in size and shape, depending on the species. Cones of most pines mature in autumn of their second year, opening to release two seeds per scale for dispersal by the wind. Serotinous cones of the so-called \"fire\" pines (Pinus attenuata, P. radiata, P. contorta var. latifolia, P. muricata and P. pungens) remain on the tree for many years after they mature, dispersing their seeds only following the intense heat of a forest fire. Cones of other pines, such as P. banksiana vary in behavior. Some open immediately upon maturity while others are serotinous. Pine cones should be collected in late summer or autumn before they open and after they begin to turn brown. Seed can be separated from open cones by screening. Longevity in storage varies eno~ mously with the species. Fire pine seed remains viable in cones on the tree for long periods, while seed of other species is more perishable and may deteriorate within a year of collection if not held under controlled storage conditions. Its viability is extended by storing it dry in sealed containers at 40 F. The flotation technique for separating viable from non-viable seed must be modified for some pine species. Pinus bungeana and P. aristata seeds, for example, have an air chamber which makes even sound seed buoyant for about a day after it is placed in a column of water. By the second day, separation has occurred and sound seed has sunk to the bottom while void seed remains afloat. Seed of many pine species benefits from a period of cold stratification, though some germinates in high percentages when sown directly. Germination behavior varies widely depending on the species and seed lot. Pinus banksiana, P. bungeana and P. pungens require no cold period, though germination of seed that has been stored for long periods may be unified by stratification. Pinus aristata, P. cembroides var. monophylla and P. virginiana should be stratified at 40 F for an eight-month period. Pinus strobus and P. taeda require two months of stratification, and P. armandii, P. balfouriana, P. flexilis and P. peuce three months. Four months should be allowed for P. albicaulis and P. monticola; P. cembra may require up to nine months. In the event that the cold requirement of seeds is not known, a three-month cold treatment is recommended; it will do no 66I harm to those seeds not requiring it. Some pine seed (Pinus cembra, P. albicaulis, P. flexilis, P. cembroides var. monophylla and P. monticola) benefits from acid scarification. Asexual Propagation Grafting g Rooting of pine cuttings is difficult, and asexual propagation is usually accomplished by grafting. As a simple rule, the number of needles per fascicle can be used to gauge grafting compatibility. Two-needled pines are generally compatible with other two-needled pines; the same is true for threeneedled species. Five-needled pines are always compatible with other five-needled pines. There are, however, exceptions to this general rule. For example, Pinus bungeana and P. rigida, both three-needled pines, are not compatible. Pinus bungeana has proven compatible with a five-needled pine, P. strobus. Pinus rigida cultivars should be grafted on their parent species. A more useful rule may be that pines in the same subgenus are apt to be compatible. Classification of pines may be determined by checking a standard reference. These graft combinations have survived a significant number of years at the Arnold Arboretum. Rootstocks Pinus Compatible Scions nigra Pinus densiflora P. heldreichii P. nigra varieties and cultivars Pinus resinosa Pinus densiflora P. heldreichii P. heldreichii leucodermis P. nigra caramanica P. ponderosa 'Pendula' P. resinosa cultivars Pinus aristata P. ayacahuite P. bungeana P. cembra P. cembra 'Stricta' P. cembroides P. flexilis P. holfordiana P. hunnewelliana P. koraiensis P. parviflora varieties and cultivars P. peuce Pinus strobus ' 67 P. pumila P. strobus varieties and cultivars P. wallichiana P. wallichiana zebrina Pinus sylvestris Pinus densiflora P. densiflora 'Globosa' P. mugo P. mugo rostrata P. sylvestris varieties and cultivars Bibliography Barnett, J., and B. F. McLemore. 1970. Storing southern pine seeds. J. Forest. 68: 24-27. Barton, L. V. 1930. Hastening the germination of Amer. J. Bot. 17: 88-115. some coniferous seeds. 2014201420142014 1942. The vegetative propagation of eastern white pine and other five-needled pines. J. Arnold Arb. 23: 198-215. Enright, L. J. 1959. Growth response of rooted cuttings of pine and spruce. J. Forest. 57: 509, 510. Feucht, J. R., and F. L. S. O'Rourke. 1959. Air-layering of pine and spruce. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 212, 213. Fordham, A. J. 1966. Dwarf white pines from witches'-brooms. Amer. Nurseryman 123( 1 ) : 14, 15, 85-87. Grigsby, H. C. 1961. Propagation of loblolly pines by cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 33-35. . 1965. Captan aids rooting of loblolly pine cuttings. Proc. Int. PI. Prop. Soc. 15: 147-150. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 9: Fall sowing of conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(6): 10-11, 56, 60-69 (not inclusive). 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage method for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14-54 (not inclusive). 1968. Propagation from seed. Part 12: Growing choice, less common pines. Amer. Nurseryman 127(2): 14-15, 112-120. 1968. Thirty-five years' testing of tree and shrub seeds. J. Forest. 66: 632-634. . 1969. Propagation from seed. Part 19: Testing and growing scotch pine seeds from different sources. Amer. Nurseryman 129(7): 10-15, 110-118. Hess, H. 1961. Pines by grafting. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 35, 36. Komissarov, D. A. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Israel Program for Scientific Translations. Jerusalem. 1968. 250 pp. Kummerow, J. 1966. Vegetative propagation of Pinus radiata by means of needle fascicles. Forest Sci. 12: 391-398. Larsen, F. E., and R. W. Dingle. 1969. Vegetative propagation of lodgepole pine ( Pinus contorta Dougl. ) from needle fascicles. Forest Sci. 15: 64, 65. Libby, W. J. 1964. The rooting of monterey pine. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 14: 280-285. McAlpine, R. G., and L. W. R. Jackson. 1959. Effect of age on rooting of loblolly pine air-layers. J. Forest. 57: 565, 566. McLemore, B. F., and F. J. Czabator. 1961. Length of stratification and germination of loblolly pine seed. J. Forest. 58: 267-269. Mirov, N. T. 1944. Experiments in rooting pines in California. J. Forest. 42: 199-204. Deuber, C. G. _ _ _ ____ . . . 68 Nienstaedt, H., F. C. Cech, F. Mergen, C. W. Wang, and B. Zak. 1958. Vegetative propagation in forest genetics research and practice. J. Forest. 56: 826-839. O'Rourke, F. L. S. 1961. The propagation of pines. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. Perry, 11: 16-22. T. 0., and C. W. slash and Sherry, S. P. Wang. 1957. Collection, shipping and storage of loblolly pine cuttings. J. Forest. 55: 122, 123. 1942. A note on the vegetative propagation of Pinus insignis. Proc. Pl. J. S. African Forest. Assoc. 9: 23-25. Spann, J. 1961. Grafting pines out-of-doors. 36-38. Thielges, B. eastern white Prop. Soc. 11: A., and H. A. J. Hoitink. 1972. Fungicides aid rooting of pine cuttings. Forest Sci. 18: 54, 55. Thomas, J. E., and A. J. Riker. 1950. Progress on rooting cuttings of white pine. J. Forest. 48: 474-480. Ticknor, R. L. 1969. Review of the rooting of pines. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 19: 132-137. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 598-638. Vuyk, A. 1961. The propagation of pines by seed. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 31, 32. P. C., and J. P. Barnett. 1968. Viability of slash and shortleaf pine seed stored for 35 years. J. Forest. 66: 840, 841. Waxman, S. 1969. Variability in rooting and survival of cuttings from white pine witches' broom seedlings. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 19: 338-344. Wakely, PODOCARPUS : Podocarpus The genus Podocarpus consists of about one hundred species of evergreen trees and shrubs widely distributed in warm regions of the Southern Hemisphere and tropical regions of the Northern Hemisphere. These broad-needled plants can be increased by seed or cuttings. The oval nut-like seed is borne at the top of a fleshy, often red-colored, stalk. Seed sown in late winter will germinate in good percentages, but slowly. Cuttings should be taken from terminal shoots of the current season's growth in late summer or early autumn. They should be inserted in a sandy medium in a polyethylene propagating structure or under mist. Bibliography Blombery, 306. A. M. A Guide to Native Australian Plants. Sydney. 1967. p. Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 511, 515. A. M. 1968. Tasmanian conifers. Australian Plants 4: 270, 272. Komissarov, D. A. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Israel Program for Scientific Translation. Jerusalem. Gray, 1968. 250 pp. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. pp. 440, 441. 1965. 69 PSEUDOLARIX: Golden-larch This monotypic deciduous genus is native to China and bears male and female cones on separate branches of the same tree. It can be propagated by seed. Cones are yellow-brown and rosette-like in form, composed of numerous woody triangular scales. The winged seeds are released to wind dispersal in late October when the cones shatter, about the same time the tree sheds its leaves. For propagating purposes cones should be collected just prior to this, in early or midOctober. Seeds and scales are somewhat similar in size but differ in weight. They can be separated by fanning techniques. Golden-larch (Pseudolarix amabilis) seed loses viability quickly when kept in dry storage. However, seed stored in sealed containers at 40 F germinates well after one year. Seed sown without pretreatment germinates erratically, but a two-month period of cold stratification produces a uniform stand of seedlings in about ten days. ~ Asexual Propagation Rooting of cuttings is not necessary since the plant grows readily from seed. Cultivars may be grafted using seedling understocks of the species. Bibliography Fordham, A. J. 1962. Methods of treating seeds tum. at the Arnold Arbore- Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 12: 157-162. PSEUDOTSUGA: Douglas-fir The five or six species of evergreen trees in this genus are native to North America, Japan and China. Douglas-fir can be increased by seeds, cuttings Sexual or grafts. Propagation Male and female cones are borne on the same tree, on branches of the previous year's growth. The female cone, brownish in color, bears two seeds per scale. Cones may be collected in August or September and air-dried. Seeds can be separated from cones by screening and fanned to remove chaff. Both Pseudotsuga menziesii and P. macrocarpa seeds have retained viability for four years when stored in sealed refrigerated containers. Embryo, and quite possibly seedcoat, dormancy inhibit germination of Douglas-fir seed. Germination rate, and in some cases germination percentage, are improved by stratifying the seeds for one to two months at 40 F. Seedlings transplant easily. 70I Asexual Propagation taken in late winter rooted in high percentages after with IBA. Those taken in fall or early winter were less successful. The best cuttings were made from year-old wood of the past season's growth. In one instance rooted cuttings failed to develop a well-defined leader by their third season. Douglas-fir cultivars can be side-grafted in winter on established understock of the species. Cuttings treatment Bibliography Barton, L. V. 1954. Storage and packeting of douglas-fir and western hemlock. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Pl. Res. 18: 25-37. Brix, H. 1967. Rooting of douglas fir cuttings by paired-cutting technique. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 17: 118-120. Copes, D. 1967. Grafting incompatibility in douglas fir. Proc. Int. PI Prop. Soc. 17: 130-138. 1969. External detection of incompatible douglas-fir grafts. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 19: 97-102. Doran, W. L. Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Univ. of Mass. Expt. Sta. Bull. No. 491. Amherst. 1957. p. 62. Griffith, B. G. 1940. Effect of indolebutyric acid, indoleacetic acid, and alpha naphthalene-acetic acid on rooting of cuttings of douglas fir and sitka spruce. J. Forest. 38: 496-501. Hahn, P F 1968. Douglas-fir graftability and wood specific gravity. J. Forest. 66. 934, 935. Heit, C. E. 1968. Propagation from seed. Part 17: Testing and growing douglas fir seeds from different sources. Amer. Nurseryman 128(10): -. 12-16, 40-60 (not inclusive). W. P. 1966. Apparent meteorological requirements for abundant crop in douglas-fir. Forest Sci. 12: 185-192. McCulloch, W. F. 1943. Field survival of vegetatively propagated douglas fir. J. Forest. 41: 211, 212. Rediske, J. H. 1969. Effects of cone-picking date on douglas-fir seed quality. Forest Sci. 15: 404-410. 1965. Loss of douglas-fir seed viability during -, and K. R. Shea. cone storage. Forest Sci. 11. 463-472. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 441, 442. Siggins, H. W. 1933. Distribution and rate of fall of conifer seeds. J. Agric. Res. 47: 119-128. Trappe, J. M. 1961. Strong hydrogen peroxide for sterilizing coats of tree seed and stimulating germination. J. Forest. 59: 828, 829. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 674-683. Lowry, cone SAXEGOTHAEA : Prince Albert's Yew Saxegothaea related Chile. to contains a single species both Podocarpus of evergreen tree, distantly and Araucaria. It is native to Southern mid- \"Ripe cuttings (after frost) rooted 99% when inserted in January, 3 months to root. Fairly easily established.\" D.M.H. 71 SCIADOPITYS : Umbrella Pine Sciadopitys is a monotypic genus native to Japan. It may be propagated by seed or cuttings but is of extremely slow growth. Many years are required to produce plants of usable size. Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. The woody female cone with thick scales ripens the second season. When sowing Sciadopitys seed, care must be taken to cover it no more than 1\/ inch. Sciadopitys seed germinates erratically in three to four months. Efforts to shorten and unify germination by stratification growths in June or July root in fair percentages by January cuttings, taken from lateral branches of the most recent year's growth on fifty-year-old trees, rooted in five months when treated with a compound containing NAA. April cuttings from the same trees rooted well in six months when treated with IBA at the rate of 8 mg in a gram of talc. Cuttings taken in April from seven-year-old trees and treated with IBA rooted well in eight months. mid-October. It has been said that rooted cuttings of Sciadopitys lead to trees of poor shape. To investigate this, seedlings and rooted cuttings were grown side by side in the Arnold Arboretum nursery. The seedlings exhibited variable growth rates and plant shapes, while the rooted cuttings duplicated the form of the tree from which they were taken.- have not been effective. Cuttings taken from terminal Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 575. DeFrance, J. A. 1938. Propagation of Sciadopitys verticillata with rootinducing substances. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 36: 807, 808. Flemer, W., III. 1961. Further experience in rooting Sciadopitys verticillata cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 11: 104-106. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. p. 442. U.S.DA.. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. p. 763. Waxman, S. 1957. Effects of daylength on the germination of Sciadopitys verticillata. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 7: 71, 72. 1960. Propagation of Sciadopitys verticillata. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: 178-181. . SEQUOIA : Coast Redwood A This evergreen tree is native to the Pacific coast of North America. single species, Sequoia sempervirens, is recognized. Except for its cultivars, Sequoia is generally propagated by seed. Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. The small egg-shaped female cones mature at the end of their first season but may persist for many years after the seeds are released. Ripe seed is light brown and flattened. 72I It may be collected in October, as soon as the cones turn yellowish in color. Drying of cones takes ten to thirty days but may be hastened by heating them in a kiln or oven to about 120 F, after which seeds can be separated from cones by screening. Usually, a high percentage of non-viable seed is present. Sound seed should be stored in sealed containers at 40 F to preserve viability. The seed is ready to germinate soon after release, but germination percentage is often improved by a period of cold stratification. Following germination, young seedlings require more water than do most gymnosperm seed- lings. Both hardwood and softwood cuttings Sequoia cultivars also may be grafted on winter using a whip-and-tongue graft. are reported to root well. established understock in Bibliography Browne, J. H. 1941. The redwood of California. Amer. Forest. 20: 795802. Heit, C. E. 1968. Thirty-five years' testing of tree and shrub seed. J. Forest. 66: 632-634. Komissarov, D. A. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Israel Program for Scientific Translation. Jerusalem. 1968. 250 pp. Metcalf, W. 1924. Artificial reproduction of redwood (Sequoia sempervirens ). J. Forest. 22: 873-893. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. New York. 1965. pp. 443, 444. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 764-766. Agric. SEQUOIADENDRON : Big-tree A monotypic evergreen tree, Sequoiadendron giganteum, native to California, makes up this genus. Big-tree is generally propagated by seed. Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. The eggshaped female cones are pendulous and mature in two or more years, remaining attached to the branch following seed dispersal. The stalk that attaches each cone to its branch forms growth rings yearly. These can be used to indicate ripened cones, ready for collection. Cones having three or more rings are mature while those having fewer may not be ripened. Big-tree seeds germinate without pretreatment. The sowing should be determined by the percentage of sound seeds, usually quite low. Asexual Propagation hibit Shoots that arise from burls on the trunks of Sequoiadendron exjuvenility and can be rooted from cuttings. Cultivars can be propagated by grafting, using the species as understock. 73 Bibliography Buchholz, J. T. 1938. Cone formation in Sequoia gigantea. I. The relation of stem size and tissue development to cone formation. II. The of the seed cone. Amer. J. Bot. 25. 296-305. Fry, W., and J. R. White. 1930. Big Trees. Stanford University. 114 pp. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 767, 768. 1908. Bigtree. Silvical Leaflet 19: 1-5. history . TAIWANIA: Taiwania A large evergreen tree, the monotypic genus Taiwania is native to Taiwan and related to Cunninghamia. Cuttings taken in mid-September, with or without treatment with IBA, rooted 24-46% in 150-300 days. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1966. pp. 582, 583. Komissarov, D. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Israel Program for Scientific Translation. Jerusalem. 1968. 250 pp. TAXODIUM : Bald-cypress There are three species of deciduous trees in this genus. They are natives of southeastern North America and Mexico. Bald-cypress is commonly propagated by seed. Male and female cones are borne on the same tree. The female cones are small, round and purplish, ripening from late September to November of their first season. The cones bear large, triangular seeds, too heavy to be dispersed by the wind. Water carries them to wet sites along streams and rivers and plays an important part in germination under natural conditions. Freshly gathered seeds sown in autumn lead to a good germination in spring. In greenhouse situations, untreated seed germinates slowly and poorly without pretreatment. Stratification for ninety days at 40 F speeds and improves germination. However, at best only about one-third of the sound seed germinates. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae. New York. 1967. p. 587. Komissarov, D. A. Biological Basis for the Propagation of Woody Plants by Cuttings. Israel Program for Scientific Translation. Jerusalem. 1968. 250 pp. Sheat, W. G. Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers. pp. 444, 445. New York. 1965. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 796-798. Agric. 74] TAXUS : Yew Eight species of evergreen trees and shrubs make up the genus Taxus. They are native to the northern hemisphere. Male and female cones of all yews except Taxus canadensis are borne on different plants. Taxus canadensis is monoecious. A single seed is surrounded by a fleshy cone scale that is open at the apex. It ripens early in autumn of its first year and must be collected immediately, since it otherwise is taken quickly by birds and squirrels. Following collection, seed may be separated from the flesh by maceration and flotation techniques. Yew seed exhibits double dormancy and natural germination does not take place until the summer of its second year. Satisfactory ways of overcoming dormancy in greenhouse situations have not yet been developed. Seed coat impermeability does not appear to be a problem, since neither hot water nor acid treatments have improved germination. In some instances, small lots of seeds have responded to a five-month warm stratification period followed by three months at 40 F. Should seed fail to germinate within several months after this treatment, it can be given an additional three-month cold period. However, yews tend to hybridize freely and seeds from collections such as are found in arboreta cannot be relied upon to reproduce the plants from which they came. Asexual Propagation Cutting Most Taxus cultivars may be rooted with ease, the cuttings being taken from August through March and treated with a root-inducing material which contains 3 mg IBA per gram of talc. Some cultivars root without benefit of any rooting compound, though root initiation may take longer. Rooting time varies with the clone. Taxus cuspidata, T. canadensis and T. X media usually root in two and one-half to three months. In general T. baccata is more difficult to root and often requires a longer period of time. A root-inducing material containing 8 mg IBA per gram of talc should be used when dealing with this species. Taxus cuttings of large size, comprised of two or three years' growth, root well and produce plants of usable size quickly. Grafting Taxus clones difficult to root may be propagated by grafting on rooted cuttings. Any clone which roots easily and forms a good compact root system may be used as an understock. Taxus cuspidata 'Nana' and T. X media 'Hatfieldii' are both satisfactory. Cuttings inserted in October or November can be side-grafted by January or February. They should then be plunged in a mixture of peat and perlite to a depth which covers the graft union. 75 Bibliography Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage methods for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14, 15, 38-54. (not inclusive). 1969. Propagation from seed, Part 18: Testing and growing seeds of popular Taxus forms. Amer. Nurseryman 129(2): 10, 11. 118128. a review. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 4 : 63-68. Mitiska, L. J. 1954. The propagation of Taxus by seeds. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 4: 69-73. Snyder, W. E. 1949. Responses of cuttings of Taxus cuspidata to treatments containing powdered growth regulator and fermate. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 54: 500-504. 1955. Effect of photoperiod on cuttings of Taxus cuspidata while in the propagation bench and during the first growing season. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 66: 397-402. Steavenson, H. 1959. Propagating Taxus and Juniperus in a closed plastic house. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 9: 82-86. Turner, F. 1958. Form variations in Taxus as related to the source of cuttings on the stock plant. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 8: 164-166. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 799-802. Vermulen, J. 1954. Propagation of Taxus by cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 4: 76-79. Wells, J. S. 1956. Problems in the rooting of Taxus. Amer. Nurseryman 104(7): 15-16, 83-86. ~ma~ ~'~Seed collecting dates of woody plants. Arnoldia 7: 5356. -. , -. Keen, R. A. 1954. The propagation of Taxus - ----- ---- - THUJA: Arborvitae There are six species of arbovitae: two natives of North America, the others of East Asia. This common genus is easily propagated both sexually and asexually. , Sexual Propagation cones Male and female of the arborvitae are borne on the same plant. The small female cones are composed of from six to twenty thin leathery scales, each bearing two to five winged seeds. The cones ripen in early autumn, opening soon after to discharge seeds for wind dispersal. The cones should be collected as soon as they turn from yellow-green to ~ight brown. Seeds can be separated from open cones by screening but should not be dewinged since they are easily damaged. At room temperature, Thuja seed loses viability quickly. To preserve it, the seed should be stored in a sealed container at 40 F. Some lots of Thuja seed require pretreatment to remove inhibitors while others germinate as soon as they ripen. Variation within a seed lot is also found. To insure germination, all seed should be stratified at 40 F for a period of two months. Germination then occurs uniformly in approximately three weeks. 76 Asexual Propagation Cutting Thuja cuttings appear to root well when taken any time from September to March. They can be treated with a rooting compound containing 3 mg IBA per gram of talc, and placed on an open greenhouse bench or in polyethylene chambers. Rooting occurs in two and one-half to three months. Bibliography Bruckel, D. W., and E. P. Johnson f1970]. Effects of yi on rootability of Thuja occidentalis. Plant Propagator 15(4): 1G -12. Harlow, W. M. 1928. Reproduction of Adirondack white cedar by natural cuttings. J. Forest. 26: 244. Heit, C. E. 1967. Propagation from seed. Part 10: Storage methods for conifer seeds. Amer. Nurseryman 126(8): 14-15, 38-54 (not inclusive ). Sanders, C. R. 1970. Conifer propagation with light. Gard. Chron. 168(16): 21. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Wilms, G. L., and F. L. S. O'Rourke. 1960. The effects of nodules on the rooting of cuttings of Juniperus and Thuja. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 10: 203, 204. Washington. 1974. p. 805-809. THUJOPSIS: Hiba Arborvitae Plants raised from seed of this monotypic Japanese genus show considerable variation in habit and grow slowly for a period of years. Cuttings taken from erect shoots are the preferred method of propagagating Hiba arborvitae (Thujopsis dolobrata). At the Arnold Arboretum, hardwood cuttings taken in November and January and treated with 4 mg IBA in a gram of talc plus a fungicide rooted at the rate of 100%. Bibliography Dallimore, W., and A. aceae. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and New York. 1967. p. 626. Ginkgo- TORREYA : Torreya The six evergreen species in this genus are native to North Ameriand East Asia. Torreya is best propagated by seed. Male and female cones are borne separately on different trees. The mature female cones are drupe-like and oval, each containing a single seed with a woody outer coat. They ripen from August to September of their second season and can be collected from September to November. Torreya seeds germinate slowly without pretreatment. It is possible that a period of cold stratification would hasten germination. ca 77 Summer cuttings from short side shoots of Torreya have been rooted. In two instances, cuttings of Torreya taxifolia taken at the Arnold Arboretum in autumn and treated with IBA at the rate of 8 mg in a gram of talc rooted in four months. Bibliography A. B. Jackson. A Handbook of Coniferae and GinkgoNew York. 1967. p. 627. Emery, D. 1964. Seed propagation of native California plants. Leafl. Santa Barbara Bot. Gard. 1 ( 10 ) : 81-96. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 815, 816. Dallimore, W., and aceae. TSUGA: Hemlock There are ten species of hemlock; some native to North America and others to Japan, China and the eastern Himalayas. Hemlock is commonly propagated by seed. There is, however, great genetic variation, particularly in Canadian hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), and many dwarf and abnormal cultivars have been selected. These must be propagated asexually. Sexu~ropagatio Male and female cone cones are borne on the same tree. The female -- is solitary, pendulous, and borne at the end of a lateral shoot from the previous year. The cones release winged seeds for wind dispersal, then persist on the tree until summer or autumn of the second year. They are ready for collection in autumn of their first year, when they turn from green to purplish brown. Two seeds are borne per scale; each brown, slightly flattened and with a paper- thin wing. They are easily separated from open cones by screening. Most lots of hemlock seed show some embryo dormancy and require a period of cold stratification for satisfactory germination. Three months at 40 F is usually adequate. Germination time is approximately three weeks. Asexual Propagation Cutting Hemlock cuttings consisting of two or more years' growth taken in October and November, wounded and treated to a five-second dip in a liquid formulation of IBA and NAA at 5 mg per gram each have rooted well. Placed either on an open greenhouse bench or under polyethylene chambers, cuttings can be expected to root in high percentages in four to five months. Cuttings may also be taken from December through April. 78 Grafting it was customary to propagate all hemlock cultivars them on Tsuga canadensis understocks. Instances of by grafting incompatibility between hemlock cultivars and their species, overgrowth of the scion, and girdling, brought about by circling roots which developed on understocks established in small pots, led to failure of the grafted plants shortly after grafting or in subsequent years. Therefore, we now propagate these plants from cuttings. Were we to graft hemlocks, it would be done in January or February on established understocks. A side or veneer graft would be used. In the past, Bibliography H. 1. 1930. The effect of after-ripening treatment on the germination of eastern hemlock seed. J. Forest. 28: 853-857. Barton, L. V. 1954. Effect of subfreezing temperatures on viability of conifer seeds in storage. Contr. Boyce Thompson Inst. Pl. Res. 18: 21-24. Ching, T. M. 1958. Some experiments on the optimum germination conditions for western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla Sarg. ) J. Forest. 56: 277-279. Cooper, W. S. 1931. The layering habit in sitka spruce and the two western hemlocks. Bot. Gaz. 91: 441-451. Doran, W. L .1941. Propagation of hemlock by cuttings. Amer. Nurseryman 74(6): 18, 19. 1952. The vegetative propagation of hemlock. J. Forest. 50: 126129. Flint, H., and R. Jesinger. 1971. Rooting cuttings of canada hemlock. Plant Propagator 17(1): 5-9. Fordham, A. J. 1963. Tsuga canadensis and its multitude of variants. Arnoldia 23: 100-102. Gray, H. 1958. Tsuga canadensis from cuttings. Proc. Pl. Prop. Soc. 8: Baldwin, -. 166, 167. Schubert, G. H. 1954. Viability of various coniferous seeds after cold storage. J. Forest. 52: 446, 447. Stearns, F., and J. Olson. 1958. Interactions of photoperiod and temperature affecting seed germination in Tsuga canadensis. Amer. J. Bot. 45. 53-58. U.S.D.A. Forest Service. Seeds of Woody Plants in the United States. Agric. Handbook No. 450. Washington. 1974. pp. 819-827. Wilson, C. G. 1965. Success and failure in rooting Tsuga canadensis. Proc. Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. 15: 139, 140. Tsuga canadensis 'Pendula' (Sargent weeping hemlock). Photo: H. Howard. 79 APPENDIX products listed below are root-inducing materials which are commercially available. Manufacturer Effective Ingredient Product Hormodin # 1 Merck Chemical Division 1 mg IBA\/gm of talc 3 mg IBA\/gm of talc Hormodin #2 Hormodin #3 3 8 mg IBA\/gm of talc Hormo-Root \"A\" Hortus Products Co. 1 mg IBA\/gm of talc plus 150 mg Thiram Hormo-Root \"B\" 4 mg IBA\/gm of talc plus 150 mg Thiram Hormo-Root \"C\" 8 mg IBA\/gm of talc plus 150 mg Thiram Rootone #10 o Amchem Products Inc. 5 mg Naphthaleneacetamide\/gm of talc Rootone with .57 mg IBA plus.33 3 Fungicide mg NAA plus.13 mg Naphthylacec tami e gm of talc plus 40 mg Thiram The \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ~ \" \" 80I GLOSSARY After-ripening: Period during which changes take place in seeds to prepare them for germination. In nature, such changes are brought about through seasonal variations. means other than ferand grafts all are asexual methods of Cuttings, layers, propagation, involving the increase of plants through ordinary cell division and differentiation. Asexual propagation: Propagation of plants by tilization. Auxins: amounts. flower Organic substances that organisms produce in minute In plants their action regulates plant growth, influences and fruit production, root initiation, etc. was Basal: At the base of, on cuttings the basal end is that which closest to the roots of the stock plant. Bench: A raised structure used in a greenhouse to hold potted or flatted plants, propagating or soil media in which plants are grown. Usually planned so all parts can be reached from aisles. Benches vary widely in design. Bloom: A Bud: An scale-like leaves. powdery surface coating found on some fruits and leaves. undeveloped shoot or flower, usually enclosed by scales or in which the scion consists of one Budding: A grafting procedure bud. Budstick: A shoot cut from for bud-grafting. a plant for the purpose of using its buds Callus: A mass of undifferentiated cells that develop around wounded plant tissues. It arises mostly from cambial tissue and is frequently associated with the rooting of cuttings and the healing of graft unions. Cambium: A layer of meristematic tissue found between bark and wood of woody plants, the cells of which are capable of dividing to produce new tissue. Responsible for the successful regenerative activity of woody plants (i.e. production of roots on cuttings, formation of graft unions, etc.) a Capillary action: The movement of because of its surface tension. Carpel: The female of ovary, style, and or liquid into fine tubes or spaces ovule-producing organ of a flower, composed stigma. propagated Clone (Clon): Defines a category of genetically uniform plants, all from a single individual by vegetative means. 81 Cold frame: A shallow unheated structure placed on or in the ground out-of-doors and covered with glass or plastic. Used for carrying small hardy plants over winter, propagating seedlings and cuttings in spring and summer, and holding plants between greenhouse and nursery. Mitigates extreme temperature fluctuations. Cold stratification: Treatment of seeds with ditions to break internal dormancies. a period of moist cold con- Compatibility: The degree of affinity between stock and scion of a graft union, as expressed by subsequent growth, vigor of the grafted plant. Plant parts which form a when grafted together are said to be \"compatible.\" Cone: longevity strong, healthy union \"fruit\") of the and Reproductive structure are (often loosely types of cones: termed gymnosperms. There and two pollen-bearing (male) the gymnowhich bear seed-bearing (female). Conifer: Any of the cone-bearing trees or shrubs among sperms. Includes those plants such as yew and juniper modified cone-like structures. Controlled storage: Any of various methods used to maintain viability in seeds until they are needed. tion as high ~otyledons: The primary leaf or leaves of an embryo. They may func- *\" initial germination seedling growth. leaves after or may contain food reserves for _ Cultivar: A term derived from \"cultivated variety.\" A taxon known only in cultivation; named, selected and propagated for its desirable characteristics. Cutling: A plant of any size or age that has been grown from a cut- ting. Cutting: A severed portion of shoots vidual. a and\/or roots which allow it to grow into stem plant, usually capable of regenerating an independent indimade from the mature Cutting, hardwood: A shoot of a cutting woody dormant plant. an Cutting, softwood: A stem cutting made from which has not yet become woody. Dioecious: The condition in which cones actively growing shoot sex are of each borne on separate plants. Dormancy: Period during which plants become inactive so they can survive periods of adversity. Quiescent condition in seeds which remains until specific requirements for germination have been fulfilled. 82 Double a seed having two barriers to germinaseed coat impermeability plus internal conditions. tion, usually Sometimes called \"two-year\" seeds. dormancy: Dormancy in Embryo: The rudimentary plant within a seed. - Embryo dormancy: Dormancy due embryo requires growth. some to conditions of the embryo. The environmental stimulus before it will resume Established understock: A rootstock which has been one growing season in advance of its use. potted at least External dormancy: Dormancy caused by seed coats which retard the entry of water or oxygen. Sometimes called seed coat dormancy. Fanning: The process of removing extraneous matter from seeds by using a current of air. Also called \"winnowing.\" Fascicle: In conifers, a cluster of needles. Fertilization: Union of the sperm or male sex cell from the pollen grain with the egg nucleus or female sex cell inside the ovule, resulting in the development of an embryo inside a seed. \"Fire\" pines: Species of pine whose seeds are not normally released until the cones have been exposed to the heat of a fire. to pass from the juvenile stage seedlings to the adult stage found in mature plants. Flat: A shallow wood, plastic, or metal tray supplied with drainage holes and used for germinating seeds, rooting cuttings or raising plants. Flats are available in a wide variety of sizes. Flotation: A technique based on differences in specific gravity for separating seeds from pulp debris. Seeds usually sink when placed in a column of water, while pulp floats and can be poured or floated away. Fixed juvenile: A plant which fails characteristic of Frame: See \"Cold frame\" and \"Hot bed.\" Fruit: The developed ovary of a flowering plant, including seeds and accessory structures. Gene: The basic unit of inheritance which determines the characteristics of a plant. Gene mutation: A sudden specific change in a gene which causes a concommitant change in the characteristics of the plant, or plant part, growing from the cell in which the mutation occurred. Genetic variation: Inherited variation in the characteristics of Genus: A category of classification lower than than a species. a a family and plant. higher 83 Geographical races: Variations of a taxonomic species, based upon subtle deviations from the typical form. Related to specific peculiarities of a climatic region. Germination: The velopment into a resumption of growth by an embryo and its seedling. Prior to germination the conditions defor con- must have been satisfied and environmental ditions must be favorable. breaking dormancy Germinative capacity: The percentage of seeds in potentially capable of germination. a given lot that are Girdling ment in roots: Roots which establish containers, sometimes art circling pattern during confineleading to \"strangulation\" and death a of the plant. as Grafting: The and grow of joining parts of single individuals. plants so that they are will unite Graft union: The point at which stock and scion the climate of joined in a grafted plant. Hardiness: Ability of a plant to survive ical location. a given geographso Hardening-off: Any of various methods used to that they will not suffer when transferred from another. condition plants one environment to Hormone: A substance naturally produced in one part of a plant and transported to another part where, in extremely minute quantities, it is capable of producing marked growth effects. Hot bed: A structure essentially identical to a cold frame, but supplied supplemental bottom heat by electrical cables, hot water steam pipes, or decomposing manure. with Hybrid: The offspring of a cross between two taxa. Incompatibility: When applied to a graft union, a lack of affinity between stock and scion, usually expressed by failure, poor or abnormal growth, lack of vigor, or overgrowth, of the stock or scion. Grafted plants which fail to form a satisfactory graft union are said to be \"incompatible.\" Indolacetic acid: A chemical compound commonly used as a synthetic auxin. When applied to cuttings, it promotes the production of roots. Frequently abbreviated \"IAA.\" Indolbutyric acid: A chemical compound commonly used as a synthetic auxin. When applied to cuttings, it promotes the production of roots. Frequently abbreviated \"IBA.\" 84 Dormancy due to conditions within the seed, either or the embryo. Juvenility: Physiological condition usually associated with the seedling stage of plants. It may or may not be visibly apparent, and it persists for varying lengths of time. Lateral: In referring to buds or shoots, one found on the side, rather than the tip, of the branch. Layer: A plant part which produces its own roots while still attached to the parent plant. Internal dormancy: in the stored food Layering: The development of roots tached to the parent plant. The stem a stem while it is still atis detached after it has formed on enough matter. roots to sustain itself. Loam: Soil having moderate amounts of clay, sand, and organic Longevity: Length of life. In seeds, the period of time they remain viable under specified environmental conditions. Maceration: The process of crushing fleshy fruits or cones so that the pulp and seeds can be readily separated by flotation techniques. Medium: The substance in which rooted, seeds are stratified, etc. plants are grown, Plural is \"media.\" a cuttings are Microsporophyll: In seed plants, modified leaf-like organ bearing pollen Milled sacs. sphagnum: Sphagnum in moss ground to a particle size suitable for use sowing seeds. Mist system: Device designed taining a to at consisting of nozzles and control mechanisms keep cuttings from desiccating as they root by main- operates their turgor. film of water on the leaves. An intermittent mist system intervals frequent enough for the cuttings to maintain Moisture content: In reference to seeds, the can tained, expressed tion percentage. It of seed viability during storage. as a be amount of moisture consignificant in the reten- Monoecious: The condition in which the same plants. cones of each sex are borne on Monotypic genus: A genus comprised of one species. Naphthalene-acetic acid: A chemical compound commonly used as a synthetic auxin. When tion of roots. applied to cuttings, it promotes Frequently abbreviated \"NAA.\" the produc- 85 Non-viable seed: Seed which lacks the capacity to germinate. Ovule: Immature seed borne on the scales of female cones in gymnosperms. The ovule contains the female sex cell before fertilization. At maturity, it becomes the seed. Pathogenic organisms: Organisms capable of producing disease. Peatmoss: An organic substance formed by partial decomposition of sphagnum moss in water and used by horticulturists to modify soil mixtures and aerate media. Photoperiod: The relative length of light and darkness has marked influence Pollen: Bodies on in a day. It the behavior of plants. cleus cones to containing the produce an embryo. male cells which fertilize the egg's nuBorne in sacs on the scales of male in gymnosperms. structure: A structure designed to prevent plant desiccating while they are developing roots. It conpolyethylene plastic film supported by some sort of frame- Polyethylene plastic cuttings sists of work. from Pretreatment: As applied to seeds, any measure used to overcome dormancy in seed before it is sown. Seed coat modification and stratification are methods of pretreating seeds. Propagant: The plant resulting from any propagating technique. Propagation: The multiplication of plants by seeds, cuttings, layers, grafts, etc. (See \"Asexual Propagation\" and \"Sexual Propagation\".) Propagule: A plant part capable of growing Relative into a new individual. humidity: The pressed as a percentage of the total of holding at a given temperature. amount of water vapor in the atmosphere examount which the air is capable Respiration: The metabolic processes by which a plant oxidizes its food material. Oxygen and carbohydrates are assimilated into the system and oxidation products are given off. Root-inducing substances: Materials used on to stimulate root initiation cuttings of plants. Those most commonly used are IBA (indolbutyric acid) and NAA (Naphthaleneacetic acid), both artificial compounds which act like natural plant auxins. Root initials: Groups of cells which arise in cuttings and are the first step in the development of roots. Those already present in shoots before they \"preformed are root removed from the initials.\" parent plant as cuttings are called 86 I portion of a Rootstock: The graft combination which becomes the root system of the grafted individual. Sometimes called \"understock.\" Rubber budding strips: Rubber strips specifically designed for tying bud grafts and for binding newly made graft unions. They are manufactured in a variety of sizes. to the dormant condition after the initial dormancy has been overcome. Usually caused by unfavorable environmental conditions. Secondary dormancy: Return Scale: In female conifer cones, the bract-like appendages which are attached to the central woody axis and which bear seeds on their upper surfaces. Scarification: Alteration of a seed coat through the use of an abrasive technique so that it becomes permeable to water or air. Mechanical scarification involves breaking, scratching, or otherwise mechanically altering the seed coat. Acid scarification involves eroding it with acid. Scion (Cion): The portion of a graft combination which the stem and leaves of the new individual. develops into Scorching: Parching not or shriveling hardened-off before ment to another. properly of leaves. Occurs when plants are being moved from one environ- extraneous matter from seeds. The mixed material is passed through a screen with mesh coarse enough to retain either chaff or seeds, but not both. Screening: A process for separating Seed: A ripened ovule closed by a seed coat. Seed consisting of an embryo and stored food en- dormancy: Inhibition of seed germination due ternal, external, or environmental conditions such to temperature and moisture. Seed coat to as restrictive inthose related dormancy: Dormancy due a entry of a water or to a seed coat which retards the oxygen. Sometimes called external dormancy. Seedling: Any plant raised from seed; often used a to indicate such plant while it is young in age. Seed lot: A batch of seeds, usually from which may be of any quantity. single, specific a source, Seed pan: A shallow pot of clay or plastic, available in of sizes. About two-thirds the depth of a standard pot. wide range 87 Serotinous: Flowering or fruiting late in the season. Applied to cones of gymnosperms that remain closed on a tree for prolonged periods after they have matured. Sexual propagation: Propagation of union of sperm and egg cells. plants by seeds, formed upon the Shield budding: A grafting procedure in which the detached scion bud and wood resembles a shield. It is inserted into a \"T\"-shaped incision in an understock. Shoot: A flush of growth arising from a single bud. Side graft: A grafting technique in which the scion is inserted in the side of the understock. The topgrowth remains, sustaining the plant until the scion has made growth. Simple layer: A layering technique in which a plant by bending girdled branch into covering it with soil to induce it to a a trench, fastening its own is propagated it down, and produce roots. Species: A category of classification lower than a genus or subgenus and above a subspecies or variety. The basic category of classification. In nature, individuals of one species normally interbreed. Sphagnum moss: Any mosses of-the genus~ph~g~zuu~ found in-we~-boggy areas and valued for their water-retaining and antibiotic qualities. Standard: A plant grown with a single, erect, tree like stem. Often achieved by budding or grafting on a tall stem. Stratification: Any process used to encourage germination of dormant seeds which require pretreatment by time, temperature, and moisture. Stratification medium: Any material used to keep seeds moist stratification; often organic peat, sand, or sawdust. during Synergy: The effect of two or more substances which together have a greater effect than the sum of their individual effects. Taxon: A term variety, or referring to any taxonomic unit, such cultivar. Plural is \"taxa.\" as species, Terminal: In the propagation of is the distal part of a branch. plants by cuttings, the terminal end Transpiration: The evaporative loss of Turgor: The firmness of tent of cells. water vapor from leaves. as plant tissues influenced by the fluid con- Understock: See \"rootstock.\" 88 Variety: A category of classification within a species based on hereditary differences from the species. A wild population of plants differing from other varieties in one or more characteristics, but not sufficiently Vector: An etc. different to be a species. as a organism which acts carrier, i.e. of seeds, diseases, Vegetative dormancy: Resting condition of plants or vegetative parts of plants, such as buds or roots, due to low temperatures, drought, or the presence of inhibiting hormones. Vegetative propagation: See \"Asexual propagation.\" Veneer graft: A type of side graft. manufactured by expanding mica under high in weight and retains water and nutrients hold its structure well. Vermiculite: A but does not product temperatures. It is light Viability: Capacity seed lot to to renew germinate growth; in seeds, the and grow under favorable ability of a certain ex- circumstances, pressed as a percentage. Warm stratification: Warm pretreatment of seeds under moist conditions at about room temperature to bring about external or internal change. Such treatment precedes cold stratification. Whip-and-tong","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1977-Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation Manual of Selected Gymnosperms","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24687","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260b36b.jpg","volume":37,"issue_number":1,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.; Spraker, Leslie J.","article_content":"ue graft: A grafting technique in which the topgrowth of the understock is removed prior to grafting. the sides of rootstock and scion and the two form the graft union. Tongues are are cut into to fitted together Wing: A membranous appendage to a seed which facilitates wind dispersal. Winnowing: See \"Fanning.\" Woody: The parts of one trees and shrubs which persist for more than year. Often qualified as to degree of maturity, i.e. softwood and hardwood cuttings, etc. term used to define the slitting, cutting, or otherwise of the basal ends of stem cuttings. It can remove a physical barrier to root emergence, expose more surface to the action of root-inducing materials, and lead to more extensive root systems. Wounding: A damaging "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23328","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d070b36d.jpg","title":"1977-37-1","volume":37,"issue_number":1,"year":1977,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":2,"start_page":237,"end_page":262,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24684","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260af28.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":6,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING ENDED JUNE 30, 1976 THE FISCAL YEAR - The nation's Bicentennial celebration continued through the spring of 1976, although the expected large number of visitors to Boston, and possibly the Arnold Arboretum, did not appear. In cooperation with the official \"Boston 200\" program the Arboretum staff supplied new publicity material for many brochures and pamphlets distributed to visitors by the committee. A plant press revealing old newspapers from China was exhibited at the display area of the multimedia exhibit \"Where's Boston,\" and elicited many comments and inquiries. The artifact was associated with the role of the Arnold Arboretum in introducing to the Boston area plants new to cultivation through expeditions to China. The Arnold Arboretum was awarded a special certificate indicating its primary position as an arboretum created for the purpose, another Boston \"first.\" For our own contribution to the Bicentennial, the staff propagated 300 plants of Liriodendron tulipifera, the tulip tree, for distribution to New England organizations for commemorative planting. The trees averaged 6 feet in height and were available in containers. All 300 were accepted and we received much publicity as these were planted. Staff members took part in the dedication plantings in Concord and in Lexington. From the standpoint of horticultural interest, the year will be regarded as anomalous in its weather conditions and the effects they had on the flowering of the living collections. We experienced a dry summer and fall when we were plagued with vandal-set fires that caused considerable damage. Moderate and above-average temperatures occurred early in the spring, climaxed by one week in April with subfreezing temperatures on a Monday followed by a weekend with temperatures in the nineties, and then cooler weather. For the first year on record a great many lilac inflorescences were aborted; and the flowers were destroyed in several species of plants including all specimens of the dove tree. The inevitable contrast occurred in spectacular flowering of dogwoods, rhododendrons (but not azaleas) and mountain laurels. The situation was so unusual and severe that a committee of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta is assembling comparative data from gardens in the northeastern United States for future reference. 237 Paul Mazerall (left), Lexington Superintendent of Parks and Trees, and Dr. Richard A. Howard break ground for h~~ ^f !he tcx;r ~'t cc:-~::xc ~:~ra~i~a tulip tree. The mains ture. following an ticipation Staff notes will indicate that the Arnold Arboretum reactive organization nationally and internationally, in parin, and contribution to, botanical sciences and to horticul- Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu reached retirement age during the year and retired officially on June 30, 1976. Dr. Hu came to Radcliffe College for graduate work in 1946, and in 1949 joined the Arnold Arboretum staff to become a specialist in such groups of horticulturally important plants as Philadelphus, Hemerocallis, Ilex and Paulownia. In recent years she has spent considerable time in Hong Kong on work directed toward a modem flora of Hong Kong and the New Territories. Resignations were received from Dr. Gordon DeWolf as horticulturist, Edward Flaherty as record keeper, and Mrs. Thomas Walsh as horticultural secretary. Dr. Eric Lee, a Mercer Research Fellow, completed his appointment and returned to Hong Kong. New appointments to the staff included John Alexander III as plant propagator, Gary Koller as supervisor of the living collections, Constance Derderian and Alfred Fordham ish nurseryman, Harold G. Hillier (right). enjoy the company of visiting Brit- Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu. 240I Robin Lefberg as botanical artist, Donna Lynch as Margo Reynolds as a staff assistant, and Jackie Smith as record keeper, senior cura- torial assistant. Dr. Bernice Schubert was appointed a senior lecturer on Biology within the University during her term as curator of the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Alfred Fordham, who has served as plant propagator for the past 18 years, was given a new assignment as research horticulturist. Mr. Fordham received a professional citation from the American Horticultural Society during the annual meeting in Hawaii. He was recognized as \"one of the world's foremost propagators and ... particularly noted for work in the woody plant seed germination and the development of dwarf conifers.\" In commemoration of the United States Bicentennial, the Royal Horticultural Society selected 200 American horticulturists as complimentary fellows for the year. Dr. Howard was among those selected. He was also appointed to the ISHS commission for horticultural nomenclature and registration. Stephen Spongberg was appointed chairman of the American Horticultural Society committee on nomenclature and plant registration, and a member of the comparable committee of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. Norton Miller joined Drs. Weaver and Spongberg as an associate editor of the journal Rhodora issued by the New England Botanical Club. He also has joined the editorial boards of Systematic Botany and the Journal of the Hattori Botanical Laboratorzes. Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., was honored by Harvard University for 25 years of service to the University. This honor includes the gift of a Harvard chair with a suitable name plate. Members of the staff traveled widely during the year, specifically for field work or to attend meetings which offered also the opportunity of collecting or of study at other herbaria and libraries. The major meeting of the year was the International Botanical Congress held every four years the 1975 meeting having been scheduled for July in Leningrad in the Soviet Union. It was preceded by a meeting of the Nomenclature Section in Leningrad and a meeting of the International Association of Botanical Gardens in Moscow. A number of field trips were scheduled following the Congress. Dr. Spongberg represented the Arboretum and cast the institutional ballots at the nomenclature sessions. He visited gardens in England and studied at herbaria preceding and following the nomenclature meetings. Dr. Miller attended the Botanical Congress and presented a paper on Quaternary Fossil Bryophyte Assemblages in North America in a symposium on Aspects of Geography and Ecology of Bryophytes. Following the Congress he participated in a field trip to the north Caucasus region. Dr. Howard, as past president of the International Association of Botanical Gardens, was a member of the presidium - Turide Palace, Leningrad, center of activities for the twelfth International Botanical Congress. Photo: R. Howard. Moscow meeting. He also spoke on the use of computers in and analysis of plant introductions. As an Honorary Vice-President of the International Botanical Congress, Dr. Howard was a guest of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR and was presented a Congress medal. Following the Congress he was a member of the group that visited the Crimea, where he had a chance to spend extra time in Yalta at the Nikita Botanical Garden. The trip also included a visit to the botanical garden in Kiev in the Soviet Union, and stops were made in Vienna and London for herbarium study on the return route. The Council of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries arranged a special trip to England preceding their regular annual meeting at Longwood Gardens. Mrs. Dickinson traveled to England for the joint meeting with the Biological Group of the Association of Special Libraries and Information Bureaus which met at the British Museum (Natural History). Visits to other libraries, including that of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, were part of the program. The annual meetings of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta were held on Kauai in Hawaii, followed by the annual meeting of the American Horticultural Society on Oahu. Dr. Howard and Mr. Fordham attended the former meeting where at the registration 242 ] presided and completed his term as president of the Mr. Fordham stayed on for the American Horticultural Dr. Howard organization. Society meetings. The Northeast Regional Meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta was held at Skylands in New Jersey. Drs. Spongberg and Weaver represented the Arboretum and had the opportunity of special collecting for the herbarium, the living collections, and their own research programs. Dr. Miller was the sole staff member to attend the meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sciences where he presented a paper on \"The Viability of Windblown Bryophyte Fragments in Arctic Canada.\" Dr. Hu continued her association as a professor at Chung Chi College in Hong Kong while proceeding with her work toward a flora of the area. She was fortunate to join a group from the college in a visit to the People's Republic of China during the summer. An account of her trip, including observations on botanical gardens, herbaria, botanists and publications, was published last November in Arnoldia. In late January Dr. Hu participated in a task force on Indigenous Plants for Fertility Regulations sponsored by the World Health Organization (WHO) in Mexico City. Dr. Schubert was a participant in the 5th Mexican Botanical Congress at Xalapa, Veracruz, Mexico, and continued field work in her search for material of her specialty, Dioscorea. The Arnold Arboretum was represented by Mr Pride at meetinuc of the rieeerccalhs Society at Raleigh, North Carolina, and by Mr. Pride and Dr. Weaver at the meetings of the American Rock Garden Society in Boston. Mr. Fordham has attended meetings of the Plant Propagators' Society regularly; the recent meeting was in Tallahassee, Florida. Staff members are asked to speak at botanical and horticultural meetings at the Arboretum and elsewhere. Our films on the Arnold Arboretum and on Poisonous Plants are often the basis of lectures to garden clubs and schools. College lectures usually involve a topic representing the individual's research or specialty. Many such requests were filled during the year. Dr. Howard chaired a section of a symposium on Better Trees for Urban Environments held at the U. S. National Arboretum; was the featured speaker at the dedication of the Callaway Building at the University of Georgia Botanical Garden; and spoke also at the annual meeting of the Dallas Arboretum Society. All three occasions were accompanied by invitations \" to speak at nearby colleges. The Arnold Arboretum was asked by the National Science Foundation to be the collaborating institution for two projects in Pakistan supported by the foreign currency program. In October Dr. Howard traveled to Islamabad to consult with Dr. Mohammad N. Chaudhri of the National Herbarium, and to Peshawar to meet with Dr. S. M. 243 A. Kazmi of the PCSIR. Both men are collecting plants of Pakistan and the first set of duplicates will be deposited with the Arnold Arboretum. Drs. Chaudhri and Kazmi, as well as Dr. E. Nasir of the Stewart Herbarium, arranged field trips for Dr. Howard. The fall season also permitted the collection of seeds at higher elevations which may produce useful plants for cultivation in the United States. An extended field trip completed by Dr. Stevens permitted him to make field observations and collections of the genus Calophyllum. One month was spent in herbaria at Edinburgh, London, Paris and Geneva en route to Malesia. Bases for field work were established in Malaya, Sarawak, Sabah, and Papua New Guinea. Fifty species were encountered and studied in the field and 900 numbers collected. Shorter visits were made in Singapore, Java and Australia. The trip was sponsored in part by a grant from the Atkins Fund. Horticulture By terms of agreements with the City of Boston, dated 1882 and amended in 1896, the Department of Parks and Recreation assumed responsibility for the roads, paths, benches, fences and police protection of the Arnold Arboretum. In return the collections were to be open to the public \"at reasonable hours,\" with maintenance of the living collections, by the staff, financed solely by unrestricted and restricted funds of the Arnold Arboretum and by special gifts to the Arboretum. The protection of the collections and the visitors is the responsibility of the City of Boston. We receive excellent cooperation from the Captain and staff of Station 13 of the Boston Police Department in Jamaica Plain. The station supplies occasional patrols of the grounds during the day and at night, and responds effectively to emergency calls. The control of unauthorized cars and motorcycles, of occasional theft, of damages to plants by vandal-set fires and malicious breakage, the accumulation of litter and the thefts from cars, is extremely difficult due to the faulty maintenance of fences and gates at the periphery of the property. Pedestrian gates do not close, driving gates are broken and damaged fences have remained unrepaired for over two years. Several meetings were held during the year with local legislators and with representatives of the Mayor's office in an attempt to obtain some action. There has been no response and the problem remains. Vandals have set fires in the vine collection and in the Leitneria and Hamamelis plantings, and deliberate breakage was extensive in young Magnolia and Cercidiphyllum holdings. The director has been refused permission to make the necessary repairs with Arboretum funds. Until the periphery is secured, any admission charges or patrols are not reasonable. The low priority the Arnold Arboretum has in the budget of this city is perhaps understandable, but it is regrettable. The resignations of two members of the horticultural staff and the appointment of replacements permitted the reexamination of the 244 Superintendent Robert G. Williams (center) and Arboretum grounds members join forces to extinguish brush fire. crew 245 current lections. work, the goals, and the work to be done on the living colA complete inventory of the nursery and the permanent the identification of of the living collections in Jamaica Plain is under way to reaffirm the location of each plant, to check its physical condition, to verify its identification and to determine the need for labels. The loss of labels over the last few years has been disturbing, and their replacement time consuming and expensive. A major effort will be required during the winter months to revise many of the maps of the collections, to prepare new record labels and to redesign the display labels for the major part of the collection. Utilization of a new computer printout of the inventory by geographic areas will make this work feasible. The close cooperation of the Plant Sciences Data Center of the American Horticultural Society is appreciated. Our printouts now give complete data on the origin of each plant within the collection. In response to requests for material from our collections, 95 shipments of plant material in the form of seeds, cuttings or plants, comprising 272 taxa, were sent to cooperating institutions, nurseries or scientists in the United States and 14 foreign countries. A total of 114 shipments, representing 411 taxa, were received during the year from 22 countries. These ranged from potential taxa for the hardy collections, such as the 40 and 35 kinds of seeds selected from seed lists distributed by the Lu Shan and the Yunnan Botanical Gardens in the People's Republic of China, to materials requested by the staff for individual research projects. During their travels many of the staff members collect plant materials which are accessioned into our records. Some, such as those from Pakistan, may prove hardy in Boston, or will be shipped, after study, to gardens in warmer climates. Some material will be consumed in the course of research efforts, and of course many of the seeds requested do not germinate or survive. Drs. Weaver and Spongberg, in the course of their horticultural studies, acquired new material from the wild in both North Carolina and Pennsylvania. Additional material may be acquired from plants cultivated elsewhere, but an effort is made to have as many plants as possible from wild sources. Not included in the records of material shared with other arboreta is that obtained by responsible visitors to whom collecting permits are granted. As an example, cuttings of over 300 taxa were obtained by representatives of the Cary Arboretum during one visit. The practice is reciprocal and reduces the demands on the Arboretum staff when such permission can be granted. As staff members work on the living collections, any plants that are in poor condition or otherwise need attention are noted and called to the attention of the propagator, the superintendent and the record keeper. During the year 222 taxa were propagated to prepare replacements for such specimens. Ninety taxa were processed plantings in Weston has been completed, and the plants is being verified. A detailed survey 246 I Liriodendron Bicentennial tulipifera giveaway. trees are labeled by James A. Burrows preparatory to 247 acquire or verify propagation data, and 54 were propagated in larger numbers to be tested for hardiness in appropriate areas. The program to distribute a plant of special interest to contributing Friends of the Arnold Arboretum was implemented this year with the distribution, in mailing tubes, of over 2,000 rooted cuttings of Syringa 'Rutilant'. This is a custom in alternate years, with surplus plants from the nursery being distributed to local Friends as the supply lasts. The surplus plants are offered first to the Department of Buildings and Grounds of Harvard for the campus, and to the to other arboreta or universities. Such plants dug transported by other than the Arboretum staff. The remaining surplus materials are dug and balled by our staff, and are available on a selected day on a first-come first-served basis. The distribution of 300 Liriodendron plants, already mentioned, was completed with the help of Volunteers of the Arnold Arboretum. The Volunteers also were responsible for the mechanics of packaging and shipping the mail distribution. Business School, and then and to are Volunteers Allen Brailey, Leslie Oliver, Lucy Richardson, and Louis Segel pack rooted cuttings of Syringa 'Rutilant' for distribution to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. 248I Volunteers also are continuing a program of systematic collecting of herbarium specimens from plants on the grounds and in the nurseries. A set is mounted for addition to the herbarium of cultivated plants, and duplicates are available for distribution, in exchange, to other institutions. We are indeed grateful for this regular help. The bonsai collection is under the supervision of our honorary collection, who obtains staff or Volunteer help as needed. Most of the smaller plants were reported during the year. One old and valuable pot was repaired and essentially restored to its original condition. A special gift made possible the production of copies of two of the older pots. Regrettably, the bonsai collection was the object of two episodes of vandalism. After plants from the outdoor collection were stolen, an alarm system was acquired. The second theft involved subtropical bonsai taken when the greenhouse was entered through a soil bin. The staff continues to function as registration authority for cultivars of woody taxa not otherwise represented by societies. A request is made for a plant of each registration for testing in the Boston area. Drs. Spongberg and Howard serve on national and international committees associated with this activity. Dr. Howard was a participant in the symposium on computer processing of cultivar registration held at the American Horticultural Society headquarters in Virginia through the auspices of the Plant Sciences Data Center. The Arnold Arboretum ,4.chiPVPm~nt Award for Botanical and Horticultural Excellence has been offered in the past to outstanding students in high schools or private schools in Massachusetts who receive a certificate accompanied by a gift of books and plants from the Arboretum surplus. Nominations are received from school administrators. The 1976 award was made to Frederick S. Creager, a graduating senior of Jamaica Plain High School. Assistance was given to Walter Judd, a graduate student, in support of field studies of the genus Lyonia in the United States and the Dominican Republic. curator of the bonsai - The Case Estates The Case Estates in Weston comprises approximately 110 acres, and serves several important functions in the work of the Arnold Arboretum. Plants from the greenhouses or the small nursery area in Jamaica Plain are grown to larger size in Weston. Plants we wish to preserve, but for which space is unavailable in Jamaica Plain, are maintained in low-maintenance areas. Some display collections have been developed. The area is ample for staff research projects, and the buildings are used for classes and public lectures. Renovation work continued on an irrigation system for the nursery area. The ground cover display section has been consolidated for more effective display and maintenance. A new inventory and Jo Umber, Jackie Smith, Eric Lee, and Ray Umber (right to left) sorting room of Harvard University herbaria in Cambridge. at work in 249 evaluation has been completed for all temporary and permanent nursery collections. The Weston location is maintained by a small permanent staff, which is increased by several student horticultural trainees during the spring and summer months. We also are grateful to the Arboretum Volunteers who take the responsibility for guided tours of the Case Estates during the year. The Arboretum donated 75 trees to the Town of Weston during the year for roadside plantings in the town. The work to widen Wellesley Street along the Case Estates property, which will create sidewalks and reduce some curvature and visual obstacles, is under way. The Arboretum lost approximately one acre of land to this renovation, but has preserved the historic \"hen's tooth\" stone wall and the row of Malus 'Henrietta Crosby'. The area should be safer for pedestrians and visitors to the Case Estates. New plantings will be established where some vegetative screens were removed. Herbarium The crowded conditions of the herbarium in in remain a Cambridge, mentioned previous reports, major problem day-to-day operations, and relief remains several years ahead. The architects hired by the University to consider the problem concluded that the logical exin 250 pansion area would involve an addition to the front of the Harvard University Herbaria building. Preliminary floor plans have been submitted for staff and University consideration. The use of compactors to house herbarium specimens in the new structure appears to be a necessity. An architect's drawing of the facade of the building is under study by the University Planning Office. If all aspects of appearance, floor design and costs are approved, such plans, along with a brochure describing the work carried on in the building, will be used in a campaign to raise money for the construction. In the meantime, heroic measures are being taken by the herbarium staff to accommodate the specimens added to the collections annually. The use of cardboard storage cartons on top of the regular cases is both an inconvenient and an inadequate storage method. The boxes now total 2,708 with the addition of 312 units during the year, and such additions will increase. The purchase of steel herbarium cases, to be placed in space created by the move of the fern collection, has become a necessity. Some additional space has been provided in the regular herbarium sequence by the removal to a basement storage area of specimens identified only to family. Unfortunately, this reduces the occasions when such material will be consulted by staff and visitors. The overcrowded storage units have impeded the proper care of the type specimens which have been located at the end of each taxonomic and geographic unit. To offer these specimens better curatorial care, all type specimens are now being placed in an alphabetical generic sequence at the end of each tamily ot plants, and the collection is shifted as required. A program is also under way to examine every folder in the herbarium, divide those that contain an excessive number of specimens and replace worn or outdated folders. This will involve several years of work. Seventy new genus and family boards have been prepared. Procedures have been adopted to photograph routinely all type and authentic specimens on loan to staff members, as well as those belonging to our herbarium. Documentation against possible loss or damage to specimens sent on loan is thus assured. The special collections of fruits and seeds have been receiving care and all collections, excepting the Cactaceae, are now completely protected in plastic bags and catalogued. As a result of all this curatorial work, shifts of specimens have altered locations and require the relabeling of cases and editorial changes on indices. The curatorial work has been supported in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation to the Harvard University herbarium collections considered of national scientific significance. The staff is grateful for this grant which has been extended for another year, at which time a new long-term application must be submitted. To justify the grant, the organization agrees to make its specimens available on loan to qualified investigators, and to maintain the 251 financial level of curatorial assistance contributed previously by the recipient. Some record keeping which seemed onerous at the time has revealed interesting figures. All visitors using the herbarium are asked to register, and during the present fiscal year 146 individuals from 87 institutions used the herbarium for periods ranging from a few hours to several months. Records must be kept of requests for information requiring the use of the herbarium or the library, and these numbered over 300 from the office of the director alone. When the information is compiled for all library and herbarium staff members, the service aspect of the work of the Arnold Arboretum is clear. Volunteers under the supervision of Ida Burch have been hard at work in the herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain. Activities include putting the cone collection in order, replacing the labels on the herbarium cabinets and checking the geographic sequence of specimens. Specimens added to the herbarium during the year totaled 28,365, bringing the total herbarium holdings to 1,054,824 sheets of which 161,661 comprise the herbarium of cultivated plants housed in Jamaica Plain. The Arboretum received 11,292 specimens during the year: 8,473 by exchange with other institutions; 1,838 by gifts from individuals, 916 by subsidy; and 65 sent for identification that were worthy of retention. The largest lots came respectively from Western Malaysia, Papuasia, India, Australia, and the United States, with smaller numbers from other areas. Due to staff involvement in curatorial work, only 3,064 specimens were distributed as exchange. Requests for our specimens on loan for study came from 50 domestic and 29 foreign institutions, representing 185 and 83 loans respectively, totaling 21,647 sheets. Although it is professional procedure to loan specimens for an indefinite period of time, excluding only types, each institution expects that specimens will be studied and returned as soon as possible. A review of our records during the year indicated that some specimens have been on loan to institutions since September of 1938, and that at present a total of 93,909 specimens are out on loan. Fortunately not all of these will be returned simultaneously, or our crowded conditions would become critical. The development of federal legislation on threatened and endangered species has involved both staff knowledge and the resources of the herbarium. Congress assigned to the botanists at the Smithsonian Institution the responsibility of assembling a list of plants, and an original list was circulated to botanists at other institutions for comments and additions. Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands, as well as Hawaii, were included in the area to be covered domestically, but the list also contained many plants of scientific interest in other countries. Some plants listed are used in staff research or teaching programs, and so the wording of the proposed legislation and 252 the involved cooperation with similar foreign agencies is pertinent to work. The New York Botanical Garden sponsored a symposium on Threatened and Endangered Species in the Americas, at which Dr. Howard presented a survey and discussion of the plants and problems of the Caribbean area. The research of the staff is varied, and includes floristic studies, manual preparation, monographs and investigations of single species of plants. The bibliography of published papers indicates the type of projects completed and published during the past fiscal year. Such studies may require initial or continued field work and\/or be laboratory or herbarium oriented. The basic resources of the Arnold Arboretum are a living collection, an herbarium and a library, and appropriately equipped offices and laboratories. The use of these facilities is excellent. our ' Library The curatorial grant from the National Science Foundation permits the use of some money for retrospective work including cataloguing and binding of older material. One library assistant was assigned to this work during the past year, and in four months 72 titles of the backlog were catalogued and 94 titles completely recatalogued or revised in classification. Current cataloguing by other staff members is done with the assistance of the publication, Cataloguing in Publication (CIP), for the majority of books in the English language, as well as through a systematic search of the National Union Catalog when orders for Library ot Congress cards are not tilled. CIP is rapidly replacing the Library of Congress card orders as a cataloguing source. The remainder, including specialized volumes and those of foreign languages, require original cataloguing. A net increase in volumes and pamphlets during the fiscal year was 748 items, bringing the total holdings to 85,094. A total of 723 periodicals is received. The entire library staff was closely involved in the reclassification of the reference collection in the Herbaria building. The project could be brought to completion due, in large part, to the excellent searching, organizing and collating of editions by Bemita Anderson and, upon her resignation, by Becky Rohr. Books were catalogued and Library of Congress classification numbers were assigned, replacing the former shelf location numbers for each volume. Then in one day the library staff, assisted by the library committee and a graduate student volunteer, shifted 950 volumes to sequence demonstrating the application of the Library of Congress classification a botanical reference collection. The use of the library in Cambridge increased 8%, based on the number of volumes returned to the stacks, as compared with the previous year. Interlibrary loan requests numbered 478, an increase of 12% over the previous year. Although the majority of these are to 253 Albert Thompson treats leather binding of volume in Jamaica Plain library. of the desired pages, a number of refused due to a \"no loan\" policy or the inability to photocopy because of age or condition of the volume. Beginning July 1, 1976, the Harvard College Library is instituting a basic fee of $8.00 for interlibrary loans, and has indicated a willingness to pay a comparable amount if billed. Although there are exceptions made to cooperating libraries of the Research Library Group, there is the possibility of charges to the staff for interlibrary loan requests. Fortunately our needs for such requests have been few. Photocopying charges are also increased to a minimum charge of $6.00. This is the method through which most requests made to our library or from our staff are filled. For the present the Arboretum Library will charge a lesser amount. Binding of current items as well as older items continues on a regular schedule. Volumes that cannot withstand rebinding are placed in boxes lined with acid-free paper. In the case of the first filled by supplying photocopies were requests 254 numbered copy of E. H. Wilson's America's Greatest Garden, The Arnold Arboretum, we wished to preserve the original binding; hence, the volume was boxed in its present condition. A book treatment program recommended by the conservator of the Harvard University Library has begun on the collections in Jamaica Plain. Volunteers were the original helpers during the winter months, and the program has continued as experience for the sumBooks are removed from the shelves, mer horticultural trainees. which are then thoroughly cleaned. The volumes are dusted and the leather bindings treated with a special preservative dressing. Call number labels are being replaced by Identastrips of acid-free paper. A new shelving guide and shelf labels improve the ease of use of the library. Volunteers under the direction of Margo Reynolds have brought up to date the scrapbooks of clippings pertaining to the Arnold Arboretum, and have prepared an alphabetical list of genera as an index to the collections of Wilson photographs. Education The Arnold Arboretum functions as an educational organization at many levels and in many ways. The nearly 400 acres of organized collections, nursery areas and greenhouses of labeled plants offer the greatest educational exposure to botanical and horticultural subjects. The grounds are open to the public for casual visits or for organized tours. The majority of visitors respect the plants an~l :,nhrPriatP the opportunity to visit and to learn from the material. Regular classes are offered as tours of the grounds or in the form of lecture series in Jamaica Plain and in Weston. Staff members generally conduct the tours for professional groups, but we are fortunate to have the help of talented and well-trained Volunteers to conduct tours and offer some classes for other visitors. Questions are received and answered by telephone and by mail, and the staff shares this responsibility. During the year the staff prepared two exhibitions for the display area of the Administration Building. One exhibit focused on the herbarium, explaining the preparation, housing and use of herbarium specimens. While this exhibit was on display the American Begonia Society met in Boston and scheduled some of its meetings at the Arnold Arboretum. A special section of herbarium specimens of Begonia species was prepared by Dr. Schubert who has worked on this family for many years; and Dr. Spongberg was a speaker for the participants. A second exhibit related to the living collections and displayed the methods by which plant material is received, processed and then planted in the collections. The nature of the care and maintenance of the collections was easily documented in the display, as were the records and record keeping, the labeling and finally the use of the collections in staff research or in supplying material for other scien- Final touches are put on herbarium display by Michael Canoso and Ida H. Burch. 255 The Arboretum staff earlier had prepared an exhibit on the propagation of woody plants for display at the New Hampshire Spring Flower Show. When this show concluded the exhibit was added to the horticultural display. The technique of embedding plant material in plastic was used by Volunteer Sheila Magullion to enrich this special display. The photographic files of the Arnold Arboretum also are used in educational efforts of the staff. The historic collection of the photographs taken by E. H. Wilson, primarily in China, has had much use in recent years. The photographs not only show the life and buildings of China in the early part of the 20th century, but represent the plants that were sources of seed introduced into cultivation. An attempt is made to have every plant species that flowers or fruits in the Arboretum represented in the photographic collection. During the past year Peter Chvany has added hundreds of pictures to this collection. Prints of specific plants are requested regularly by staff and by others for use in articles. Prints also are supplied regularly to University publications to publicize the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. tists. seed 256 The two films developed by the staff are now distributed in sales and rentals by a commercial firm, with royalties returning to the Arnold Arboretum. The film on Poisonous Plants continues to be a popular one. Staff members use the film regularly in speaking to local groups, which have included the Harvard Community Health Center, the New England Medical Center and several universities, among others. The Poisonous Plant film was awarded a Red Ribbon as the second best educational film entered in the American Film Festival in New York City. Using the royalties, special gifts from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and a matching fund grant from the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture, work has been started on a film on plant propagation. This type of educational effort may well become self-supporting and permit the development of less popular but important educational films on such subjects as collection management and herbarium procedures. The Arnold Arboretum cooperates with the Boston Poison Information Center by handling referral of calls concerning the ingestion of plant material. Calls received at the Center in the Boston Floating Hospital (Tufts-New England Medical Center) are referred to the Arboretum office during the daytime and to various staff members in the evening hours. Although most calls involve nontoxic plants, a sufficient number of potentially toxic plants have been identified to make the service offered worthwhile. During the year the staff has collaborated with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in two new programs. One involved joint sponso:siuY W a distingmshed visiting horticulturist who spoke to the Arnold Arboretum audience in Weston and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society members in Boston. Another new program involved tours to distant areas of horticultural interest. Dr. Howard led a plant study tour to Florida, centering in the Miami area. Mr. Pride led a tour to Monaco. In each case the Massachusetts Horticultural Society staff handled the solicitation of participants and the arrangements before and during the trip. Each participant made a financial contribution which was shared by the two organizations. Although many other botanical gardens have sponsored or led such trips, these were the first ventures of the Arboretum and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society into this type of educational program. The care of the living collections and maintenance of the grounds are the responsibility of a few individuals who supervise a small but skilled crew of employees. This group is supplemented during the growing season with selected students of botany or horticulture who have applied for summer employment. The students are designated horticulture trainees, selected for their abilities and the usefulness of the practical experience to their academic programs. They have represented an average of 14 colleges, universities and high schools. Participants receive student rate wages as approved by the Harvard Personnel Office. Tours and special lectures by the staff 257 offered every week so that the students not only receive on-the-job training in caring for the living collections, but have the opportunity to see other aspects of the work of the Arboretum staff, as well as other gardens, businesses and horticultural practices in the Boston area. A few other students are accommodated during the year in cooperation with other colleges in student intern programs. These may be oriented in favor of the library, herbarium or horticulture. Such students are either volunteers or are paid by their own colleges. Formal courses are taught at Harvard by several staff members. During the year Dr. Wood offered Biology 103, an elementary course in plant taxonomy, and shared the teaching of Biology 18, Diversity in the Plant Kingdom, as well as the Summer School course, Plants of the Tropics, offered in Florida. Dr. Miller offered Biology 138, the Biology of Mosses, Liverworts and Homworts, and participated as well in Biology 18. Drs. Howard, Miller, Schubert and Wood supervised the work of graduate or undergraduate students in numbered research courses. are Publications The two regular publications of the Arnold Arboretum are the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, issued quarterly, and Arnoldia, issued six times a year. The four issues of the Journal published during the fiscal year comprised 429 pages and 20 articles by 22 authors. The technical editor, Miss Kathleen Clagett, is assisted by an editorial committee. Other members of the staff review manuscripts. Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh edited six issues of Arnoldia comprising 259 pages and 17 articles by 11authors. Again staff members may review manuscripts and, in addition, assist with proofreading. Of interest to the staff was a complimentary article in Russian, by T. G. Chubarian and P. I. Lapin, entitled \"Through the Pages of Amoldia,\" which appeared during the year in the Bulletin of the Main Botanical Garden, Moscow. The demand for reprints of the Arnoldia issue, \"Poisonous Plants,\" remains high, and a recent article on subtropical bonsai also had an enthusiastic audience. The issue on low maintenance perennials was republished as a paperback volume by Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Company, and is incomeon several early publications of the Arnold Arboretum, and commercial publishers have issued facsimiles. In the United States a Dover reprint of the 1930 editon of Aristocrats of the Trees, by E. H. Wilson, is now available. The Koeltz science publishers in Germany have reproduced The Bradley Bibliography and The Catalogue ofthe Arnold Arboretum. Such reprints do not require permission, nor do we derive royalties from them. The considerable stock of back issues of various publications was recatalogued during the year, and the prices reconsidered in terms of filling and mailing orders. A booklet on the available publications producing through royalties. The copyrights have expired 258 of the Arnold Arboretum was prepared and distributed to libraries and departments that might be interested. Gifts and Grants The Arboretum and its staff have been fortunate in the support offered in the form of gifts, grants and materials from many individuals and sources. The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum respond regularly to requests that they renew their membership contributions, and the staff is grateful for this continuing support. Such funds are without restrictions, although most are used in the work associated with the living collections. A bequest was received from the Estate of Miss Harriet Rantoul, and memorial gifts were accepted in memory of Mrs. John E. Thayer and Ms. Virginia S. Coen. As mentioned previously, a matching fund grant was obtained from the Massachusetts Society for Promoting Agriculture for the production of a film on plant propagation. The generosity of the Society was matched promptly by gifts from interested Friends. A similar grant from The Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust provided for the preparation of illustrations for a new manual of cultivated woody plants, and again matching funds were received from interested Friends. One gift was specified for support of work in plant propagation under the direction of Mr. Fordham, and two gifts were received to be applied to the care of the bonsai collection. A most welcome grant was received from The Charles E. Merrill Trust following our request for funds to support publication of three items of staff ic~calLll IlCdtlllg compienon. Gifts in kind included many books, some for review in Arnoldia, pots for the bonsai collection, and artifacts, including letters and photographs, relating to the history of the Arnold Arboretum. Many nurseries have donated the plants we ordered for our living collections, and these were accepted with gratitude. The grant from the National Science Foundation, shared with other botanical collections at Harvard, is truly significant in the curatorial work in the herbarium and the retrospective work in the library. Support of field work for Dr. Stevens' trip to Malesia was obtained from the Atkins Fund. The Tozier Fund of Harvard granted a request by Drs. Miller and Wood for photographic equipment, and one by Dr. Howard for the development of visual material useful in teaching the families of flowering plants. RICHARD A. HOWARD 259 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum 1975-1976 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology Donald and Director Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus - John Herbert Alexander III, A. of Sci., Plant Propagator (Appointed June 1, 1976) Ida Hay Burch, B.A., Curatorial Assistant James Alvah Burrows, B.S., Assistant Plant Propagator (Appointed August 11, 1975) Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collections* Kathleen Ann Clagett, M.A., Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Constance Tortorici Derderian, A.B., Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist (Resigned January 24, 1976) Lenore Mikalauskas Dickinson, M.S., Librarian* Edward Herbert Flaherty III, Curatorial Assistant (Resigned March 5, 1976) Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Sheila Connor Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian Arturo Gomez-Pompa, Dr. Sc., Honorary Research Associate* Henry Stanton Goodell, Assistant Superintendent Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Research Fellow in Temperate Asiatic Botany Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Gary Lee Koller, M.S., Supervisor of the Living Collections (Appointed June 16, 1976) Donna Anne Lynch, Curatorial Assistant (Appointed May 16, 1976) Norton George Miller, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Associate Professor * of Biology* George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Margo Wittland Reynolds, B.A., Staff Assistant (Appointed August 4, 1975) Kenneth Ray Robertson, Ph D , Assistant Curator Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Senior Lecturer on Biology Jackie Marie Smith, M.A., Curatorial Assistant* (Appointed July 16, 1975) Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Peter Francis Stevens, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Karen Stoutsenberger Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne Stockbarger Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Arnoldia Richard Edwin Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology * Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium 260 Bibliography of Published Writings of July 1, 1975-June 30, 1976 the Staff Burch, I. H. News from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 36 ( 1 ) : 1976. Derderian, C. T. Subtropical bonsai for indoor gardening. Arnoldia 36 ( 1 ) : 1-21. 1976. DeWolf, G. P., Jr. Common pines of Massachusetts. Arnoldia 35(5): 197-229. 1975. Plants in winter. Horticulture 53(12): 28. 1975. Anatomy of spring. Horticulture 54(5): 18-20. 1976. Fordham, A. F. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum, Weather Station Data - 1974. Amoldia 35(6): 263. 1975. The Deodar Cedar - two new hardier forms. Plants and Gardens 5(2): 33. 1975. Cornus kousa and its many variations. Amer. Horticulturist 55(2): 30, 31. 1976. -. Propagation facilities at the Arnold Arboretum. Amer. Nurseryman 144 ( 1 ) : 13, 104, 106, 108, 110. 1976. (with S. A. Spongberg). Stewartia for ornamental planting. Amer. Nurseryman 162(10): 7, 57-61. 1975. (with S. A. Spongberg). Stewartias - small trees and shrubs for all seasons. Amoldia 35(4): 165-180. 1975. Gillis, W. T., R. Byrne and W. Harrison. Bibliography of the natural history of the Bahama Islands. Atoll Res. Bull. 191: 1-123. 1975. Grime, W. E. Botany of the black Americans. Scholarly Presc St C'l~ir Shores, Mich., 230 pp. 1976. Howard, R. A. Modem problems of the years 1492-1800 in the Lesser Antilles. Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 62: 368-379. 1975. The genus Anetanthus (Gesneriaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(3): 364-368 1975. Lindernia brucei, a new West Indian species of the Asian section Tittmannia. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(4): 449~55. 1975. The director's report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1975. Amoldia 35(6): 241-261. 1975. -. Cumulative index, National Horticultural Magazine and American Horticultural Magazine 1922-1971. Amer. Hort. Soc. iii-v: 1-109. 1976. The university botanical garden. Newsletter, Univ. Ga. Bot. Gard. Spring: 7-16. 1976. The Arnold Arboretum. Amer. Nurseryman 144(1): 8, 9, 90, 92, 94. 1976. The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. Amer. Nurseryman . . . -. - - . -. -. -. -. -. 114(1): 17, 119, 120, 123. 1976. -. -. . In defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the plant called Neviusia. Amoldia 36(2): 57-65. 1976. The Nikita Botanic Garden, Yalta, USSR. Arnoldia 36(3): 110118. 1976. (with N. H. Giles, R. H. Wetmore and R. C. Rollins). Karl Sax. Harv. Univ. Gaz. 71: No. 21. 1976. Hu, Y. S. The Orchidaceae of China, VIII. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 27(3, 4): 419-467. 1974 (1975). IX. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 28(1, 2): 125-182. 1975. - 261 . The tour of a Koller, G. L. Gardening 1975. - botanist in China. Arnoldia 35(6): 265-295. 1975. on rescued soils. The Green Scene 3(6): 19-21. -. -. - -. (with Blum, S.). Plant treasures of Fairmount Park. Morris Arb. Bull. 26(3): 40-46. 1975. Yellow or red for autumn: Enkianthus. The Green Scene 4(1): 24-25. 1975. Shrub profiles - sparkling Winterberry. Morris Arb. Bull. 26(4). 1975. Lee, Y. T. (with J. H. Langenheim). Chromosome numbers of Hymenaea L. Taxon 23: 619-624. 1974. (with J. H. Langenheim). Systematics of the genus Hymenaea L. (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae, Detarieae). Univ. Calif. Pub. Bot. 69(v). 109 pp. 1975. The genus Gymnocladus and its tropical affinity. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57 ( 1 ) : 91-112. 1976. (with K. R. Robertson). The genera of Caesalpinioideae (Leguminosae) in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57( 1 ) : 1-53. 1976. Miller, N. C. (with K. R. Markham and L. J. Porter). The taxonomic position of Sphaerocarpos and Riella as indicated by their flavonoid chemistry. Phytochemistry 15: 151, 152. 1976. -(with L. J. Howe Ambrose). Growth in culture of wind-blown bryophyte gametophyte fragments from Arctic Canada. The Bryologist 79: 55-63. Spring 1976. Reynolds, M. W. Dwarf fruiting shrubs. Arnoldia 35 ( 5 ) : 230-237. 1975. Small shrubs with noteworthy winter bark. Arnoldia 36( 1 ) : 2832. 1976. Liriodendron tulip f era its early uses. Arnoldia 36(3): 119124. 1976. Robertson, K. R. The genera of Haemodoraceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57(2). 205-216. 1976. . Cercis: the redbuds. Arnoldia 36(2): 37-49. 1976. (with Y. T. Lee). The genera of Caesalpinioideae (Leguminosae) in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57( 1 ): 1-53. 1976. Schubert, B. G. (with E. A. Shaw). A reinterpretation of Leucaena and Lysiloma. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57(1). 113-118. 1976. Spongberg, S. A. (with E. A. Shaw). In reply to Mr. Welch. Taxon 24(5\/6): 629-632. 1975. (with A. J. Fordham). Stewartia for ornamental planting. Amer. Nurseryman 162(10): 7, 57-61. 1975. (with A. J. Fordham). Stewartias - small trees and shrubs for all seasons. Arnoldia 35(4): 165-180. 1975. Styracaceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57(1): 54-73. 1976. Stevens, P. F. The old world species of Calophyllum (Guttiferae). I. The Mascarene species. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57(1): 167-184. 1976. The altitudinal and geographical distributions of flower types in Rhododendron section Vireya, especially in the Papuasian species, and their significance. Bot. Jour. Linn. Soc. 72. 1-33. 1976. Wadleigh, J. S. (pseud. J. Kilborn). Mushrooms at home. Horticulture 53(8): 30. 1975. Planting the minor bulbs. Horticulture 53( 10 ) : 53, 54. 1975. What to give the gardener. Horticulture 53(11): 50-55. 1975. The overlooked leek. Horticulture 54(4): 22-24. 1976. - -. -. - -- - -. -. . . . 262I Weaver, R. E., Jr. Sassafras: 36 ( 1 ) : 22-27. 1976. . a neglected native ornamental. Arnoldia . - - The Cornelian Cherries. Arnoldia 36(2): 50-56. 1976. The Witch Hazel family (Hamamelidaceae). Arnoldia 36(3): 69-109. 1976. Wood, C. E., Jr. The Balsaminaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(4): 413-426. 1975. (with S. A. Graham). The Podostemaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(4): 456-465. 1975. (with L. B. Smith). The genera of Bromeliaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(4): 375-397. 1975. (with Preston Adams). The genera of Guttiferae (Clusiaceae) in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 57( 1 ) : 74-90. 1976. - The Arboretum provides a pleasant outdoor studio for young art students. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":263,"end_page":264,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24683","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260ab6f.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":6,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Burrows, James A.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum WEATHER STATION DATA - 1975 ' Average temperature for 1975: 62.0 Precipitation for 1975: 55.35\" Snowfall during winter of 1974-75: 39.3\" Warmest temperature: 100 F on August 3 Coldest temperature : -1 F on February 10 Date of last frost in spring: April 30, 1975 Date of first frost in autumn: October 30, 1975 * Growing season for 1975 was 184 days * The growing season is defined as the number of days Growing season between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. - _ began precariously. It was one of the earliest in many an unusually warm ten days in April. Temperatures began rising on the 15th, and reached a record high of 95 F on the 19th. Five days of warm weather followed until the 24th of April when a sudden drop of 30 F resulted in damage to many flowers and developing buds. The floral displays of Magnolia and Forsythia were prematurely ended by the sudden change of temperature, and on top of Bussey Hill the flower buds of Davidia involucrata and Chionanthus retusus never developed. Spring 1976 years; the result of 263 264I The remaining days of April and early May were seasonably cool with day temperatures in the 50's and 60's and night temperatures in the 30's and 40's. In spite of these cooler days, the spring season progressed two weeks ahead of time so that visitors to the Arnold Arboretum on Lilac Sunday found the early Syringa vulgaris varieties past their peak and the later lilacs just coming into bloom. JAMES A. BURROWS "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botanical Embedding","article_sequence":4,"start_page":265,"end_page":275,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24682","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260a76b.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":6,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Magullion, Sheila","article_content":"Botanical Embedding by SHEILA MAGULLION not intended as a detailed guide to embedding, but disthe basics of botanical embedding and some of the procedures that have been moderately successful for me. As with all practical matters, experience is the only real teacher, and the hope here is to provide a starting point for readers interested in pursuing the subject. To embed is \"to lay in surrounding matter - as to embed in clay or sand,\" according to Webster. A simplified outline of the process of dried horticultural material with plastic is to lay the surrounding specimen on a supporting layer of plastic in a suitable container, cover it with another layer, and when the resulting block has hardened, remove it from the mold to be sanded and polished. The plastic used is a polyester resin that comes from the manufacturer as a light blue, syrupy liquid with a strong gaseous odor. On the addition of a catalyst (usually M.E.K. peroxide), it turns green, then clear, and eventually cures hard and odorless with some shrinkage. Technical books on plastics in general include information on the make-up of embedding plastic (or casting resin, as it also may be called), and the exact manner in which it reacts to the catalyst. Knowledge of this process is a prerequisite to understanding and solving some of the problems that may arise in embedding. It should be mentioned that both the plastic and catalyst are inflammable - the catalyst highly so and although the makers usually state that the plastic is no more toxic than ordinary house paint, I find that it is, especially when large quantities are curing. As a safety precaution, an exhaust fan should be operating while the odor is noticeable. It is advisable to have the work area located away from food and food preparation because of the insidious odor that is readily transferred. A place where the materials may be left undisturbed for several days at a time, and where the inevitable spill will not be a tragedy is necessary; the plastic has great adhesive qualities and once hardened is almost impossible to remove. In the liquid or tacky stages it can be taken off one's person with an abrasive cleaner, and off clothing, if tackled immediately, with a strong detergent. Most other surfaces, including measuring and mixing containers, can be cleaned with a solvent, or detergent and hot water. Heatproof glassware can be boiled in a strong detergent solution. Cleaning of equipcusses This article is only - 265 266 ment is not easy, so whenever possible disposable items should be not used. Clean-up material and the plastic itself should of by way of household plumbing. Flower be disposed Drying Drying the botanical material is a very important part of the embedding process. Since there is so much excellent literature available on the subject, only a few points in relation to the preparation of the items for embedding will be mentioned here. It is essential that the material be quite dry and as perfect as possible before it goes into the plastic. Any flaws will worsen and appear magnified in the finished cast, and improperly dried items will discolor. Select perfect flowers just opened or opening. Mature blooms often develop brown edges in the drying medium and are much more likely to become transparent in the plastic. Flowers with woody stems attached should be removed from the desiccant when the petals are crisp; then the stem portion is given extra time to dry either in or on top of the drying medium. Flowers such as roses with heavy calyces require similar treatment. Large leaves can trap air bubbles when positioned in the plastic, so care must be taken to preserve their natural contour and to avoid flattening them in the drying process. Leathery evergreen leaves turn brown unless given time to dry thoroughly. They also are prone to \"silver\" when embedded, as are nuts, pine cones, and certain woody materials 267 when the plastic fails to adhere to the embeda void that gives the illusion of a silver The exact cause of the trouble is uncertain; the shrinkage coating. of the plastic or specimen, or the presence of a barrier substance are two theories. Some authorities advise preparing difficult materials by soaking them in various solvents. Unfortunately, this has not yet worked for me and silvering remains a problem. In any case, I think it is very important that material prone to this difficulty receive long and careful drying to insure that all shrinkage has taken place before the embedding process. Dried pine cones, nuts and seeds can be stored indefinitely under ordinary room conditions without deterioration. Autumn leaves when dried also will keep their color and form for months with a minimum of fussing. Other material must be kept closely covered at all times and is best embedded as soon as possible after it is thoroughly dry. If storage is necessary, light and humidity should be excluded to preserve flower color, and to keep fragile items crisp. Silvering occurs ded specimen, creating Molds leakproof container other than those made of copper, plastics can be used as a mold for the plastic while it is setting. However, in order to produce the most satisfactory results, the following points might be considered before making a rubber, and selection. certain Almost any Square and rectangular casts with straight sides are easier to sand polish than are those of other shapes, and in general are more satisfactory to display. and It is much easier to remove the hardened cast from a flexible mold than from a rigid one; however, as the inevitable shrinking takes place during the gelling process, the sides of a flexible mold will draw in. All rigid molds should be treated with mold release before the plastic is poured. When hardened, the plastic will mirror exactly the container in which it was set; a glass surface will produce a cast with a glasslike finish that requires no sanding or polishing. Most miscellaneous objects such as tin cans have bumps and seams that are transferred to the cast and will have to be sanded out later. Materials that scratch easily and are difficult to clean should be avoided if the molds are to be reused. When only a few small specimens are to be embedded, suitable molds can be found among the commercially available ceramic or plastic types; or there are specially designed metal molds that can be taken apart to facilitate removal of the cured cast. The sizes available limit their usefulness for most botanical embedding. Satisfactory containers, mostly round, can be found among laboratory glassware; however these are expensive and have a limited life Stems are allowed extra time to dry thoroughly on top of desiccant. 268 Euonymus leaves and fruits that have silvered badly. 269 expectancy. Items with beading around the rim make removal of breakage. Tupperware and freezer containers in heavy polyethylene plastic come in acceptable shapes and sizes and some bakeware may be useful. Kitchenware should not be used for food after being used as a mold for the plastic. If a number of larger casts are contemplated, it usually will be more satisfactory to make molds to the required specifications. Aluminum or other light gauge metal makes up into quick easy molds, inexpensive enough to be considered disposable. Aluminum sheets can be measured and ruled with a pencil and a long straight ruler, and cut into strips with kitchen scissors. Right angle comers are made by bending the strip against the ruler, or any straight sided object, and joining the ends with Scotch or masking tape to make a frame; this is sealed to the base with caulking cord, or similar material, to form a leakproof container. Four pieces of wood strip or plate glass can be made up in the same way. Wood must be covered with Mylar or cellophane to make it waterproof. The base need not be of the same material as the sides. An aluminum base sometimes permits a large thin cast to warp, but on the other hand presents no removal problems as it needs no mold release and can be peeled off easily as soon as the plastic has hardened. If the cast is to be displayed bottom side up, a glass base will allow the work to be checked at all stages for bubbles and general effect. Plate glass should be used to minimize the possibility of cracking from stress as the plastic sets. the Catalyst This is a very critical phase of the embedding procedure. If too much catalyst is added, the plastic will set too quickly and in the process generate internal heat; the degree of heat reached being in direct proportion to the amount of catalyst used. This internal heat produces adverse results such as bleaching and silvering of the embedded specimen and fracture and splitting of the cast. Shrinkage also seems to increase. Conversely, too little catalyst will keep the plastic under control but it will not cure to the desired crystal the cast difficult without Calculating clarity. When the percentage of to most important factors to consider are the quantity of to cover the specimen, and the temperature at which the determining catalyst plastic, the two plastic needed work is to be done. Most instructions advise working at a temperature between 70 and 75 degrees. I have found temperatures as low as the upper 50s to be quite satisfactory, especially when embedding large and difficult items, and would postpone beginning any major project if the temperature of the work area were above 70 degrees. The plastic takes longer to set in this lower range, but there will be much less danger of internal heating. 270 A major fracture. A fast setting form~:l~ iz ~:~F.~ for all ~, .:a e., aie ubut-ily less than 1\/4 inch deep, and for very small casts. However, as the size of the block increases, decreasing amounts of catalyst are needed for the covering layer. Material requiring a mold 5 inches square and larger can be covered more safely by two or more layers. The drawback here is the noticeable dividing line between layers, especially when slow setting mixtures are used. Flowers with large fragile petals should be covered completely with one pouring or layer, otherwise the portion of petal left exposed will probably become limp and collapse into the plastic. Be sure to select a resin specifically designed for botanical embedding, and use the manufacturer's instructions as a general guide. Some experiments with small expendable material will develop experience and confidence. will need to be cleaned with an artist's brush to remove dust and any remaining traces of desiccant. Trim it to fit comfortably into the selected mold, establish a plan for the exact position of the arrangement, and determine the quantity of plastic that will be needed to cover it. This can be calculated mathematically. In metric measurements, L X W divided by 30 will give the number of ounces necessary to Embedding Procedure The specimen probably make a layer 1 cm. deep, or the quantity can be the mold with water to the required depth and measuring container. Make sure the mold is clean and dry and apply mold release if necessary. Measure into a small mixing container enough resin for the base layer, and with an eye dropper add the catalyst to make a fast setting mixture. Stir thoroughly for at least a minute or until all traces of the catalyst have disappeared. The catalyst will spread outwards to the circumference of the container and must be stirred back into the center to insure thorough blending. Pour the mixture into the mold, cover it with a tent of paper to keep out dust and foreign objects, and leave it to gel for approximately an hour or until it is firm but still very tacky. Using tweezers or forceps, position the specimen so that it makes contact with the plastic in at least two or three places, particularly if it is a spray or consists of several small pieces. If possible, arrange leaves and campanulate flowers so that air can escape. Minor adjustments can be made for a few minutes; fragile items should be moved as little as possible after being positioned on the base layer of plastic. 271 measured by filling transferring it to a Positioning a specimen on base layer of plastic. 272 Cover the mold until the specimen has adhered firmly to the supporting layer. This probably will take less than an hour, but the project can be left for longer periods or even overnight. Any part of the specimen that has not adhered will float to the surface when the covering layer is poured; if allowed to remain there, the fragment will be moved by the setting action of the plastic to the side of the mold, ruining a cast that might otherwise have been usable. irreplaceable item, the situation until the covering layer has begun by waiting to set. The wayward object then may be pressed back into its position on the base layer very gently with the stirring rod, and held in place until it has been caught by the setting plastic. This is time consuming and irritating and it is much better to avoid the problem when the item is positioned by trickling a few drops of catalyzed plastic over any part that may fail to adhere. Measure resin and catalyst to make the covering layer. Mix thoroughly as before and pour it into the mold, taking care not to direct the stream onto any fragile areas. Let the resin run down the stirring rod to break the force and also to help eliminate air bubbles. Again cover the mold with the paper tent and leave it to set overnight. If another layer is needed to cover the specimen, repeat the procedure the next day using the same formula as for the first layer. An identifying label written or printed on plastic film can be placed on the layer preferred. If it is to be set on the supporting or base layer. place it in position after the covering lavPr h~c hrrn n~\"rPd so no air will be trapped under it. Unlike plant material, it will not rise to the surface. Some thin textured and light colored flowers become transparent while the plastic is setting. If this tendency is aesthetically displeasing, it can be prevented to a great extent by waiting until the catalyzed plastic begins to turn clear before covering the specimen. The timing has to be very exact in order to permit the air bubbles trapped in the specimen to be released and rise to the surface before the plastic sets. a or If this mishap befalls sometimes can be saved valuable to the air does not cure completely for some days and will remain slightly tacky to the touch. If sanding is attempted at this stage the paper will gum up and become useless immediately. To overcome this some instructions advise curing the cast by applying gentle heat, but as this can very easily result in damage to a flower of unstable color, I prefer to finish the cast with a very thin layer of plastic of the same fast setting formula used Sanding and Polishing The surface exposed for the base. When it has set, the mold and contents can be moved to a warmer situation where it may be left for a few days to cure to workable hardness. 273 A cast prior to sanding. If a flexible mold was used there will be no problem in removing the cast at this point, but with rigid molds more curing time may be needed for the cast to come free. If the embedded item is sturdy enough, gentle top heat may be applied using a 40-watt light bulb inside a cardboard carton; or the mold can be given alternate hot and cold water treatment. Placing the mold in the refrigerator for a few hours may be enough to release the cast. Glass molds sometimes shatter under this cold treatment, so they should be securely enclosed in a heavy paper bag as a precaution. The sanding and polishing operation is easier if done by machine; however, if none is available satisfactory results can be accomplished by hand rubbing. Sanding is done wet with four grades of waterproof silicon carbide paper. A small cast that can be grasped comfortably in the hand may be sanded by laying a sheet of 120 grit paper on a flat bench and rubbing the cast across it until the surface is completely smooth. A large cast of 4 inches or more is easier for a small hand to manage if it is placed on a wet towel or thin piece of wettex laid on the work area, then rubbed with the sanding paper which has been wrapped around a piece of wood or a sanding block. At intervals the cast and the paper should be washed to remove accumulated sludge and to check progress. 274 left of the original top surface the same the 220, 400, and 600 grits. Before moving on from the 220 paper make sure there are no deep scratches left from the 120 grade. Depending on the type and texture of the mold that was used, the bottom and sides may only need to be sanded with the 600 grit. Rottenstone can be used for the final sanding operation. Hand buffing does not produce the same finish as a buffing wheel, but brisk rubbing with a soft cloth and either silver polish, auto polish, or one of the polishes sold specifically for plastic will produce a very satisfactory lustre. A final gloss can be added with a coat of spraytype furniture polish. are no traces When there procedure is repeated with Sheila Magullion is a Friend of the Arnold Arboretum and an active volunteer who has been working on an experimental embeddmg pro~ect for several years. Many of her beautiful casts of Arboretum plants are on display in the entrance hall of the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain. A group of finished casts. 275 Materials For Flower Drying Sand Silica Gel (hobby Desiccant shops, garden supply easily. ' stores, etc.) Boraxo Cornmeal Rigid, leakproof containers that can be covered Camel's hair brush for cleaning flowers. For Embedding Level work bench Newspapers to protect work surface, floor and surroundings. Plastic (hobby shops are possible sources of suitable types) comes with plastic. Catalyst Eye Droppers - usually come with catalyst. Measuring and Mixing Containers glass or disposable laboratory containers. Pyrex glassware (1\/2-pint to I-quart pitchers), paper cups (un- - waxed), coffee cans. Stirring Rods - laboratory glassware, wire made from coat hangers or such. Molds Mold Release (hobby shops or Brush - for release. Solvent Detergent Tide, Boraxo. An old saucepan for cleaning up. - same source as plastic). For Polishing t Sanding paper - 120, 220, 400, 600 wet strength. Any silver polish, auto polish, polishing cloth (or any Furniture polish Pledge. - old soft rags). Suggested Reading Carico, N. C. and Guynn, J. C. 1962. The Dried Flower Book. Doubleday and Co., New York. Cherry, R. 1967. General Plastics. McKnight Publishing Co., New York. Condon, G. 1970. The Complete Book of Flower Preservation. PrenticeHall, Inc., New Jersey. Cook, J. G. 1975. The Miracle of Plastics. Dial Press, New York. Foster, M. 1974. Preserved Flowers. Transatlantic Arts, Inc., New York. Karel, L. 1973. Dried Flowers. Scarecrow Press, New York. Newman, J. H. and Newman, S. 1972. Plastics for the Craftsman. Crown Publishers, New York. (Some sources.) Newman, T. 1969. Plastics as An Art Form. Chilton Book Co., Pa. (Some sources and notes on Simonds, H. R. and Church, J. M. 1963. Concise Guide procedures.) to Plastics. Van Nostrand Reinhold Publishing, New York. Vance, G. S. 1972. The Decorative Art of Dried Flower Doubleday and Co., New York. Arrangement. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":276,"end_page":280,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24681","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260a726.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":6,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Trees of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia: University $17.50. - the Atlantic States and the Lake States. Hui-lin Li. of Pennsylvania Press. 276 pp., illustrated. This extraordinary volume is primarily a reference book but of a special kind it has both winter and summer keys. The usual leaves, flowers and fruits of trees are described and depicted, but in addition spring and fall leaf color are noted as well as winter bark and bud. There are discussions of habitat, hardiness, cultural needs, and ecological companions for all the trees cited. The geographical distribution of the various species is mentioned. Everything is in this volume to aid the serious student in finding answers to his questions (by student is meant the amateur tree-lover rather than the academician). Basic botany and taxonomy are included, there is also a very high component of aesthetic pleasure in the trees depicted and the physical make-up of the book itself. The craftsmanship in the drawings by the author's wife is of the highest order, and the artist is obviously a knowledgeable observer. The author's descriptions seem to be accurate and the choice of accompanying photographs is superb. The work itself is on the finest quality paper, exquisitely printed, and no typographical errors were observed! The reviewer has seldom met a volume as admirable. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE The Enchanted World of Alpine Flowers. Dr. Elfrune Wendelberger, translation by Oscar Konstandt and Gisela Farnworth. Innsbruck, Austria: Pinguin Verlag. 88 pp., illustrated. Austrian S 27.80. In this small volume the interested reader will find no construction details for rock gardens, no discussion of ventilation systems for the alpine house, and no suggestions for the domestication of even the most docile of the alpine flora. No, this is not a rock gardening book at all, but a song in celebration of the natural beauty of the Alps. The book is divided into sections that consider the flora of the Alps on the basis of altitude, local habitat and season of bloom. Additional sections briefly deal with the glacial period and local common names and traditions surrounding the plants. Dr. Wendelberger's concern for the delicate balance of life in the mountains is evident throughout the book, periodically surfacing in a description of once-rich meadows despoiled by man's careless use, or in a comment about the tourist's role in the gradual decline of native plant populations. Although Dr. Wendelberger credits the book's success to its lavish adornment with full-page color illustrations, the real charm of the volume lies in her own love of the mountains and her ability to convev this love to the reader. Her prose is lyrical despite occasional lapses which may be due to difficulties in translation, each phrase as delicately balanced as the mountain flora itself. This is not a book to which the collector of alpines will turn again and again for information. There is nothing here for which a more com- 276 277 reference does not already exist. Rather, this is a book for the lover of flowers, offered as a cordial invitation to spend a rainy afternoon visiting, or revisiting, the enchanted world of alpine flowers. prehensive JENNIFER HICKS The Laurel Book. Richard A. Jaynes. New York: Hafner Press. 180 pp., illustrated. $10.95. Subtitled \"Rediscovery of the North American Laurels,\" Jaynes' book on laurels (Kalmia) fills a gap in the horticultural literature by bringing together much of the available knowledge on these beautiful plants. His book will doubtless please the growing band of laurel enthusiasts, as well as all horticulturalists interested in shrubs, particularly those who grow rhododendrons. All aspects of growing laurels are considered, much attention being paid to their genetics, breeding and hybridisation, subjects on which Jaynes himself has carried out much original work. Propagation of laurels, both from seed and vegetatively, is dealt with in detail, as are all aspects of growing the adult plant and of protecting it against pests. J. E. Ebinger contributes two chapters, one on laurels in the wild and the other on their toxicity. recognize more species of Kalmia, but fewer varieties and forms. Regarding the latter, the wisdom of recognizing forms based on polypetalous and apetalous variants may perhaps be questioned, the \"apetala form\" mentioned on pp. 26 and 27 is not recognized by Ebinger in his formal revision. It is not clear just what the 25 distinct traits of mountain laurels referred to on pp. 35 and 157 are, the table 13-1 listing many more than 25 variations. A number of illustrations, unfortunately including some of the colored ones, lack clarity, printing errors are pleasantly Hardin few. All in all, this is a useful book which should stimulate more interest in one of the finer groups of shrubs native to North America. PETER F. STEVENS . It should perhaps be mentioned that the classification of Kalmia proposed by Southall and Hardin (referred to briefly by Ebinger), differs considerably in detail from that adopted by Ebinger himself. Southall and One Hundred Great Garden Plants. William H. Frederick, Jr. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. vi + 207 pp., illustrated. $15.00. With few exceptions, this book admirably fulfills its self-avowed purto introduce the author's personal choices of the 100 best trees, pose shrubs and groundcovers for use in the home landscape. One might, of course, take issue with his selection, for everyone has favorites, but one can hardly find fault with his presentation. There is an unmistakable impression that the author is on intimate terms with each and every one of the 100 plants mentioned; this is borne out when one learns that each specimen included is cultivated by Mr. Frederick on his own 25-acre property. It is, no doubt, from daily contact such as this that the author is able to write with such feeling about his choices. Each specimen is presented in a one- or two-page essay and is accompanied by a color photograph that very effectively captures the nature of the individual plant. In addition to plant descriptions, the essays include observations on care and intriguing historical vignettes. The author is not content to merely offer descriptive paragraphs on the plant material, there is a multitude of good advice on how best to fit the specific plant into the home landscape. He discusses color, texture and structural form, and freely dispenses advice on companion plantings to further enhance the appeal of the various plants he has chosen. - 278 are I The essays alone are sufficient reason to purchase this volume, but there other reasons as well The print is easily readable, and a very pleasant balance, both visually and content-wise, exists between the written words and the photographs, which are exceedingly lovely and capture subtle nuances of most of the plants mentioned. Indeed, it is hard to find much fault at all with this very pleasing little book. It would make a lovely housewarming gift for the new homeowner. MARGO W. REYNOLDS How to Grow Wildflowers and Wild Shrubs and Trees in Your Own Garden. Hal Bruce. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 294 pp. + v., illustrated. $12.95. Harold Bruce is one of that small but very fortunate band of people who are born with eyes that see and with hearts made to sing by the beauty of the world about us. He lives in Delaware which he has explored quite thoroughly, but he also has made many excursions to the north, south and west. He writes with much charm and with a great deal of knowledge. Nearly every page contains useful advice and bits of information new even to the fairly knowledgeable reader. The book makes no pretense of being a botanical textbook, but Bruce discusses some subjects in considerable detail: the trilliums, the hardy hollies, the pine tree tribe and others. He describes many trips to the seashore, the barrens and the piedmont, and the reader feels himself included in these explorations and is delighted with the companionship offered and the very interesting information given. I was very pleased to find properly extolled the many virtues of the hobblebush (Viburnum alnifolium),-perhaps the most beautiful of our deciduous, flowering shrubs - which grows well in quite deep shade. In describing trees that contribute to autumn color, the author, however, makes only passing reference to the sugar maple (Acer saccharum) as one that turns a good yellow. (Perhaps sugar maples do not thrive in the latitnrla ~f Tl~=~., , ~ ; The book contains some 28 beautiful colored plates and the rather wide margins are adorned with very good line drawings and also with short synoptic sentences such as students often scribble on the margins of their textbooks. This book is warmly recommended both for the pleasure of its reading and for the information contained. ALLEN BRAILEY Ornamental Conifers. Charles R. Harrison. New York: Hafner Press. 1975. 224 pp., illustrated. $17.95. \"This book was designed to fill the long felt need for a popular all-colour guide to garden conifers, written and compiled in such a way as to be easily used and understood by the average home gardener.\" This introductory statement is well executed by the author in the production of a handsome volume featuring 516 superb illustrations of garden conifers, mostly cultivars, ranging from Abies to Widdringtonia; another 38 colored illustrations of conifers in garden use follow. No other volume approaches the excellent color reproduction so essential in distinguishing horticultural varieties in conifers. The vast majority of the photos were from New Zealand locations, the author's home country, and are of young plants. The author knows his plants and the descriptions often indicate this familiarity, as \"an irregular, dumpy little heap of cheerful, darkgreen foliage bearing little resemblance to its towering forest parent.\" The general descriptions and suggestions on cultural methods are good, and a helpful glossary is supplied. Only the few paragraphs on diseases seem inadequate for United States readers. RICHARD A. HOWARD 279 Spring Events to be held in The Arnold Arboretum is pleased to announce several spring activities conjunction with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Registration in the following is open to the members of both organizations and spaces are limited. An early registration will assure you a place. Series: $8.00 members; $12.00 non-members Individual walks: $2.50 members; $ 3.50 non-members ARBORambles Informal walks and talks on the Arnold Arboretum grounds one Sunday month throughout the spring. Topics of seasonal interest will be featured each month and the informal nature of the walks will allow ample time for questions. We will meet rain or shine, so come prepared. Walks will start from the Administration Building promptly at 2:00 p.m. and will last approximately two hours. a Sunday, March 20 7 Sunday, April 17 5 Sunday, May 15 June 19 Sunday, DWARF SHRUBS FOR THE HOME LANDSCAPE $3.00 members, $5.00 non-members Dwarf shrubs are low-maintenance, eye-catching, and provide colorful accents for terraces, patios and small city spaces. Selection, care and cultivation will be discussed, utilizing the Arboretum's renowned collection Registration limited to 25. Class will be held at the Dana Greenhouses, 1050 Center Street, Jamaica Plain. Monday, April 4 10: 00 a.m. - 1 : 00 p.m. Instructor: Gary Koller A special lecture series will be offered in late winter for A.A. and M.H.S. members only. We have engaged three exciting speakers and are very enthusiastic about the series. The lectures will be held on three consecutive Tuesday evenings at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Mass. Ave., Boston. The talks will begin at 7: 00 p.m. and will be followed by refreshments. Subscription for the series is $12.00. Individual lectures will be $6.00. Registration must be made in advance by sending a check, made out to the Mass. Horticultural Society, to Horticultural Hall, 300 Mass. Ave., Boston, Mass. 02115, attn: Pegze Campbell. Tuesday, January 25 - \"Plant 1 Hunting Around the World\" Arnold Arboretum George Pride - Tuesday, February Tuesday, February - \"The Plants of South Africa\" Steven K-M Tim - Brooklyn Botanic Garden \"Indoor Gardening Revisited\" Thalassa Cruso - nationally-known 8 - gardener 280 * AN AFTERNOON WITH NURSERY CATALOGS This session will be devoted to studying various catalogs offering seeds and plants for both indoors and outdoors. Common and unusual material will be reviewed. A remarkable opportunity to share your experiences with others and get an early start on your spring gardening. Tuesday, March 8 Fee: $3.00; Friends $2.00 Instructors: George Pride, Assoc. onomist 1:00 p.m. - 3: 00 p.m. Tax- Horticulturist, and Richard Weaver, * AN EVENING WITH NURSERY CATALOGS The content of this course is identical to structors are also the same. the one above. Fees and in- Tuesday, * March 15 Meet at the Red Schoolhouse, Case Estates, 133 7:00 p.m. - 9: 00 p.m. Wellesley St., Weston (These events are not offered in conjunction with the Massachusetts Hor- ticultural Society. ) "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23399","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eaf6e.jpg","title":"1976-36-6","volume":36,"issue_number":6,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. H. Wilson, Photographer","article_sequence":1,"start_page":181,"end_page":236,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24680","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260a36d.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":5,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Chvany, Peter J.","article_content":"E. H. Wilson, by PETER J. CHVANY * Photographer The achievements of Ernest Henry \"Chinese\" Wilson as a plantsman are familiar to countless plant enthusiasts throughout the world. Few temperate areas have been unaffected by his collections and introductions, yet his other activities and interests remain largely obscure. A widely read author, popular public lecturer, and interesting correspondent, Wilson also was an accomplished photographer who produced a body of work that deserves to be viewed not only for its scientific merits, but for its aesthetic qualities as well. Throughout his travels Wilson carried at least one camera, making a total of over 5000 glass plate photographs for the Arnold Arboretum of the plants and locales to which his journeys took him, plus an estimated 5000 nitrate-base negatives for himself. At one time his photographs, sold as a large collection and as the individual illustrations in his books, carried his view of China and especially her plants across the occident. Wilson, his \"Boy,\" * or head bearer, and a bag of pheasants after a day's shoot. Peter Chvany is the producer of the two award-winning films, \"The Arnold Arboretum\" and \"Poisonous Plants.\" He also is a contributing photographer to Arboretum publications. 181 182 I It is difficult to assess Wilson's early photographic training. Beyond the evidence that he took photos on the 1899 and 1903 Veitch expeditions, and his friendship with E. J. Wallis, a photographer at Kew, we know little of a substantive nature. We should note however, that Wilson was not a professional photographer and as far as can be determined never evidenced great He concern about the technical side of his photographic efforts. sent his plates to England for processing, an expediency that may place him beyond the artistic pale in the view of modem photographers ; indeed, his work contains its share of plates that are technically of a low quality. But he recognized the value of a camera as an instrument that could, with proper use, record whatever was put in front of it, and he conscientiously used it for this purpose. Wilson had carried a \"snapshot\" camera on his first two journeys to China for the Veitch Nurseries. Charles Sprague Sargent, the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, insisted that he make photography an important part of his work during the trips he was to make for this institution. On the 6th of November, 1906, Sargent wrote to Wilson in England: Dear Mr. Wilson: I write again to remind you of the very great importance of the photograph business in your new journey. A good set of photographs are really about as important as anything you can bring back with you. I hope therefore you will not fail to provide yourself with the very best possible instrument you can, irrespective of cost, and it ought to be large enough to take rmmcid you~ ~\"ahr rn ~u~t a stout leather case in which to have it carried. It would be well too, to take along a small instrument in case of accident. The large instrument only means another porter, and that is not a very important item. Bring, too, enough plates and films with you as there will certainly be a large amount of material to photograph. Sargent also wrote to a dear English friend, horticulturist Ellen Willmott, asking her to use her influence and reinforce certain points. Dear Miss Willmott : Wilson will be leaving, I hope, about the 1st of December, but before he leaves I think it would be well for you to have a talk with him about those things which you are specially interested in and which you want him to collect. This would stimulate his interest I am sure and would, on the whole, be more satisfactory than if I talked to him more generally on the subject. I am very anxious that he should take a good series of photographs and I have already written him on the subject. Please impress the importance of his doing this and of providing himself with the very best possible camera without regard to its cost. I wrote him, too, to take lessons in photography, and this is another thing which I hope you will insist on with him. Even if he is to delay starting for a week or two it would be best for him to be thoroughly equipped as a photographer. In the letters between statement of Sargent and Wilson we never obtain a clear Sargent's wishes for the eventual use of the photos, 183 A view of the Yangtze River at Wilson collected. nor Ichang; in the background are the hills in which ,_ of Wilson's understanding of his photographic goals. We do know that as Sargent was developing the Arnold Arboretum he took care to obtain a photographic record of the activities and to secure botanically interesting photographic prints whenever possible from around the world. The Arboretum collection of that period includes not only the work of Wilson, but also material from Joseph Rock, Frank Meyer, Ernest Palmer, and Herbert Gleason, as well as the prints of many other men. Wilson in his book, A Naturalist in Western China, describes the difficulties he met on his expeditions to the interior of China. From the coast for a thousand miles inland the country was a heavily populated alluvial plain with isolated chains of mountains rising from the agricultural flat; but at the city of Ichang, miles inland on the Yangtze River, the flat land abruptly changed to wilder terrain. The rivers no longer wandered across the plains but ripped their way through cliffs of stone. Here the population thinned, was poorer, and while centuries of Chinese and aboriginal kingdoms had left their marks, much of the land was still wild. From here Wilson began his explorations. With his Chinese collectors and coolies he traversed the unkempt roads and savage countryside of Szechuan and Hupeh, sleeping in the poor inns and crossing barren mountains past fresh graves of men killed by robbers as he searched for the plants on which his fame would rest. 185 186 I This crude log bridge and fast torrent Wilson faced in China. are typical of the back country conditions 187 Towering cliffs, narrow ravines, and trees on WiLson's arduous path. 189 Wilson frequently included in his tree photographs enough background to provide secondary areas of interest. This photo of a Cornus ulotricha taken beside a trail in western Szechuan helps to give an idea of what travel was lihe for hirn and his coolies and collectors. We may catalog the incidents of extreme danger only by the most careful examination of Wilson's letters, journals, and books, for he rarely ventured to comment in more than a few words on his personal perils. On occasion he told of the disastrous landslide that broke his leg, leaving him with a lifelong impediment; of the capsizing of his boat in a treacherous Yangtze River rapid with the loss of a 190 large quantity of his photographic plates; and of his near death on a cliff where only the quick action of one of his coolies saved him from plummeting hundreds of feet. Except for an occasional glimpse or two, we are not privy to his daily battles to secure good photos. However there is one brief account that is revealing. 30 - Wen-tsao. On a precipitous slope facing our lodgings a score Davidia trees occur; they are one mass of white, and are most conspicuous as the shades of night close in. Two large trees of Pterostyrax hispidus are growing amongst these Davidias, and are laden with pendulous chains of creamy-white flowers.\" Go over and investigate the Davidia trees and the forests gen\"May 31 erally. Crossing a narrow neck a wood-cutters' circuitous path leads us down to a narrow defile through a fine shady wood. Ascending a precipice with difficulty, we soon reach the Davidia trees. There are over a score of them growing on a steep, rocky declivity; they vary from 35 to 60 feet in height, and the largest is 6 feet in girth. Being in a dense wood they are bare of branches for half their height, but their presence is readily detected by the numerous white bracts which have fallen and lie strewn over the ground. The tree starts up from below when falled; indeed, it naturally throws up small stems after it gets old. The bark is dark and scales off in small, irregular flakes. By climbing a large Tetracentron tree growing on the edge of a cliff and chipping off some branches to make a clear space, I manage to take some snapshots of the upper part of the Davidia tree in full flower. A difficult task and highly dangerous. Three of us climb the tree to different heights and haul up axe and camera from one to another by means of a rope. The wood of Tetracentron is brittle, and the knowledge of this does not add to one's peace of when rvrhac th;~k with a sheer y_..\"\".h drop of a couple of hundred feet beneath. However, all went well, and we drank in the beauties of this extraordinary tree.\" \"May or more - _ is from the Veitch expeditions. Unfortunately, few of the photos taken on these are thought to be lost, although an active search for them is being conducted both here and in England. Not only are we deprived of pictures that could help us trace Wilson's development as a photographer, and of more views of the trees and plants of China, but we are unable to see a very special difference between the dove tree, as Wilson would say, \"at home,\" and as it appears in Europe and America. In China the tree produces its hanging white bracts and flowers before the leaves so that it stands forth with its bracts fully exposed to view. In Western climates, the tree leafs and then flowers so that the bracts are seen partially obscured. The trails, paths and unmaintained roads Wilson travelled amidst the rough Chinese terrain would not permit carts, so twenty coolies transported his supplies. As a personal camera, he carried a small roll-film type, but for the Arboretum photos he chose a Sanderson whole plate field camera complete in three heavy boxes with bellows and a stout wooden support tripod. This tripod, incidentally, provided the splint when Wilson was injured in the landslide. This all but description a 191 192 Wilson made many plates in other areas, although they are not as well known as his photos of China. This Widdringtonia juniperoides was photographed in South Africa in 1922. It not only shows the tree beautifully but also evokes a feeling for the land in which the tree is found. 193 194 Wilson's note on this Gleditsia photograph states that \"the boards are votive offerings to the healing spirit who is supposed to dwell in the tree.\" 195 This Sciadopitys verticillata `Pendula' growing on temple grounds in Japan shows an unusual form. Wilson frequently noted the debt owed the priests of Japan and China who preserved many special trees on their temple grounds when all else was cleared for agriculture. 196 This photo of a Juniperus squamata shows branches, which have been taken to be used as props leaning against the cut-off incense. 197 Rheum alexandrae with spikes 3 to 31\/2 ft. tall, - ~ether with t~.~ low .~ing Primula involucrata photographed growing near che Tibet-China border at 13,000 ft. elevation. While awkward and heavy, and rapidly becoming obsolete, this old-style camera met the needs required of it. Each image to be photographed could be accurately composed and focused on the large ground glass screen at the rear of the camera, and it reproduced perspectives and tall objects without distortion. The heaviest part of the apparatus was its fragile glass plates. They nevertheless had one special advantage: the emulsion permitted the recording of great detail and produced a high level of image quality. It is interesting to note that other photographers working at the same time as Wilson made similar choices; in fact they often utilized cameras with larger plate sizes. These other men, however, rarely were as far out of contact with civilization as he and did not have to carry the quantity of supplies or trek the distances. In the photographs of the first expedition, we find some clues to Wilson's approach to photography. As he journeyed from his takeoff point at Ichang, he began to photograph the solitary trees that clearly revealed species characteristics. He also on occasion made a plate of an interesting shrub or herbaceous plant in bloom, while taking only a slightly lesser number of views of the Chinese land; its geographical or geological forms, its shrines and exotica. While same 198 initially there are some plates that indicate difficulties with basic photographic techniques a multiple exposure, some where staining has taken place, or where random and unwanted light has left its mark - the plates are generally of a rather uniform and more than adequate quality. As the journey progresses, the balance of subjects shifts abruptly near the time that Wilson is moving rapidly back to Ichang to close off his expedition. Now we find more and more photographs of single trees, and while still of scientific merit, their aesthetic quality decreases. There are several possible reasons for this. We can deduce from Wilson's pattern of photography that earlier in his journey he was careful to save his plates, photographing only those trees that he knew he must have, but being prepared to perhaps expend extra - effort in order as was to make each camera set-up and exposure as possible. Husbanding his materials, he approached of his journey with a surplus of plates and may have begun more rapidly and with less selectivity. valuable the end to work A rich man, his family, and friends. 199 As Wilson traveled he made a large number of photographs of the Chinese la~zdscape. This picture reveals interesting facts about the land. 200 203 eral Crossing and recrossxng different ones. many bridges in his travels, Wilson photographed sev- 204 This bridge made of plaited bamboo is typical of many of the upland river crossings. 205 Wilson often took photographs of tree trunks to show bark patterns, or other interestang characteristics. These are the remains of Cercidiphyllum japonicum a remarkable size. Unfortunately, the specitrees measuring 55 feet in girth mens of these Wilson brought to Jamaica Plain from China have not survived. - 206 In photos such as this of Primula polyneura, only a sense of the plant itself, but also of the Wilson managed to convey not conditions under which it grew in nature. 211 did Wilson perform his appointed tasks as a plant cola naturalist he made rich note of the surrounding lector, scene in terms of geology, fauna and economic botany. In at least one or two photos we see Wilson himself (travelling at this time with another occidental) posed with his dog, \"Boy,\" and his bag of 57 pheasants, and looking much as if he'd stepped off the English moors after an afternoon of hunting (page 181 ). There is in this photo a pleasant lack of formality on Wilson's part. Notice how he is looking off and not at the camera, obviously not posing himself in a rigid position until the photo is taken. Without the posturing for posterity we have the feeling that we are in the hands of a man we can trust, and if a contemporary audience would find little sympathy for the hunter with his kill, at least there is no pretension on the part of the hunter. When Wilson made his expeditions, the circumstances that caused him to take a photograph would vary. In the case of the pictures he made for the Arnold Arboretum, it must be remembered that he had already been to China twice for Veitch and knew of trees whose locale was worth revisiting for pictures as well as seeds, cuttings, and specimens of the plants he needed. The requirements of this collecting shaped his photographic activities in several ways. Typically, Wilson lived at one central location, making journeys to find plants at appropriate seasons, and often returning to collect again at a different time. Trees observed in flower needed to be seen in fruit. Trees recognized as superlative examples could be revisited on occasion and photographed, with lesser specimens eliminated because of their unsuitability. Wilson's daughter, Muriel Primrose Wilson Slate, who travelled with her father on his 1914 expedition to Japan, has recently described the way in which he would scout the countryside for the subjects he wished to photograph. Then he would return, often leading a small caravan on foot; his wife in a sedan chair, Muriel on a small Russian pony, the heavy camera, plates, and tripod borne behind them. At the location of his selected tree, Wilson would proceed to circle and study it from different viewpoints, reviewing his initial perceptions, making certain that the tree would reveal itself when photographed. The trunk, the branching structure, the background and other details were checked until he was at last satisfied that one particular vantage point was best; then he would set up the camera. On occasion the entire expedition would have to be repeated. Wind jostling the branches and leaves might keep the tree in constant motion and even after several hours delay it would not be still for a single exposure. A particular time of day and sun position would be awaited only to have it pass with too much wind, for Wilson preferred to have only the optimum light for his pictures. Not only but as 212I 220 Wilson set up his camera wherever he could get interested him. He remarhs in a note that these are often found among graves. a good shot of Juniperus a tree that chinensis clumps 221 This photo of Salix babylonica again shows Wilson's ability to combine a tree with the specific details of a locale in an effective and pleasing manner. 222 I Wilson's photos sometimes record the surprising size of relatives of commonly known plants. This Senecio kenensis rising to 25 feet is closely related to our familiar ragworts. 223 A grass tree, Xanthorrhoea reflexa, photographed in Australia. 224 The largest tree Wilson found in China, feet tall. a Cunninghamia lanceolata over 120 225 Many of Wilson's best photos of China are only tangentially, if at all, related to his plant anterests. Unfortunately, on his later journeys there are fewer pictures such as this simple yet beautiful scene of boats and nets alongside the Yangtze. 226 Wilson did not make many photos of people; when he did the subject usually was shown in some context with plants or plant products. Here a coolie is carrying approximately 270 pounds of bowls carved from Pinus massoniana. 227 This tea coolie and the others Wilson photographed all appear at ease and un- affected before the camera. The men shown here carried about 300 pounds and averaged 6 miles a day over primitive roads from China to Tibet. 228I Wilson says these lectors. men are typical of types of Chinese; both served him as col- ' 229 A cultivated stand of Lilium tigrinum. This with a plant is rare for Wilson. use of an apparently posed model Wilson had a deep respect and love for the beauty of nature. Voracious reading gave him an ever-widening context in which to place his view, yet, as his daughter has commented, he always returned to extolling the infinite variety and eloquence of natural scenes themselves, having found in the plants and views of landscape the greatest pleasure of his life. This quality of deep appreciation and sensitivity towards nature, with his commitment to reveal the best of what he saw, stands as the foundation for his photographic work. Wilson has been described in plant circles as a man who had the ability to visualize the plants he discovered in the settings where they might finally be placed. This special talent served him well in his selection of materials for introduction, and also affected his photography, aiding him in his selection of trees to be photographed and in his choice of the right vantage point. 230 A I portion of Wilson's photographic work encompasses his journeys through Eastern Asia to Korea, Formosa, Japan, the Linkin Islands, as well as trips to Australia, India and South Africa. These littleknown photographs are primarily scientific and serve the research of arborists in institutions around the globe. Less frequently in these photos do we see individuals or small groupings of people, artifacts, or for that matter, wide and scenic vistas. The absence of such subjects raises a small question of Sargent's reaction to Wilson's photos. Did Sargent ask Wilson to restrict the valuable glass plates to subjects of prime arborial interest, or was Wilson less enamored of the people and scenes he subsequently visited than of China and the Chinese? Wilson's photography did not stop when he returned to the home grounds of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. He continued to take photographs of trees in the Arboretum itself, and at other locations around New England as well as an occasional photo in Kew or in France. Some of these photographs were taken of particularly well-known trees; trees which had a historical significance or were notable for their size or age. Wilson used lantern slides of his Arboretum photographs in his very popular lectures, for which he received $150, a very good fee in the twenties. He had some of the slides hand-colored in China and Japan, and a few of these remain in the Arboretum's collection. In the last analysis Wilson achieves with his camera not only the \"trnth\" n\"ntiPnt nPrPCCary fnr criPn~P the nroof of existence and the specific nature of the thing in situ but also an evocation of extraordinary beauty and timeless, universal appeal."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23397","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eab6e.jpg","title":"1976-36-5","volume":36,"issue_number":5,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Old and New Interspecific Magnolia Hybrids","article_sequence":1,"start_page":129,"end_page":145,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24679","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8abd260a328.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":4,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"Some Old and New Interspecific Magnolia Hybrids by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG In 1820, John Sims described a new variety of the native American sweet-bay, Magnolia virginiana, and presented an illustration of the new plant in Curtis's Botanical Magazine under t. 2164 (Figure 1). Sims named the plant var. major due to the larger size of its leaves and flowers, and in a brief discussion he suggested that the plant was similar in several respects to M. tripetala, the umbrella-tree, another American species. The plant on which Sims based his new variety was growing and flowering in the nursery of Archibald Thompson (sometimes spelled Thomson) at Mile End, near London, and had been grown from seed collected by Thompson in 1808 from a plant of M. virginiana growing in his nursery. Thompson also grew M. ~tripetala, and the intermediate appearance of the new plant obviousl~ suggested that it might be a hybrid or \"mule\" between the two Ameri- species. Despite this circumstantial evidence and the intermediate appearance of the plant, the English horticulturist J. C. Loudon, in 1838, persisted in considering it as a large-flowered variety of Magnolia virginiana. However, he referred to the plant as var. Thompsoniana, since Thompson had been distributing propagated plants under that name. Finally, in 1876, C. de Vos was convinced that the plant repre\"~r ted a hybrid between M. virginiana and M. tripetala, and, as a result, he gave it a species name, M. X Thompsoniana. Only recently, however, has the hybrid status of M. X Thompsoniana been proven more or less conclusively. Dr. J. C. McDaniel, a noted authority on Magnolias at the University of Illinois, has made deliberate crosspollinations between the two suspected parental species and obtained can viable seed. Plants he has grown from this seed in Illinois are almost identical with the plant Sims described as var. major, and photographs of McDaniel's plants in flower match the illustration in the Botanical Magazine. It may seem somewhat ironic that Magnolia X Thompsoniana, a hybrid between two American species of Magnolia and the first Magnolia hybrid to be suspected and described, originated across the Atlantic in the nursery of an English plantsman. An important as129 130 Figure 1. Magnolia Botanical x Thompsoniana as it was illustrated Magazine, t. 2164, in the year 1820. in Curtis's Thompsoniana, however, is the fact that the growing in close proximity to one another in cultivation. Unlike species of numerous genera of flowering plants X two pect of the origin of M. parental species were that are known or strongly suspected to hybridize freely in nature, I know of no reports of Magnolias that are considered to represent hybrids that have arisen in nature. More than likely, the absence of natural hybrids in the genus is due to the fact that within any geographical region where species of Magnolia occur in the native flora, 131 the different species occupy different habitats or have developed other barriers to hybridization, such as different blooming periods or genetic blocks that prevent fertilization or that result in inviable hybrid seed. However, once the ornamental value of Magnolias was recognized and gardeners and horticulturists began to assemble collections of these desirable trees and shrubs, the natural barriers of habitat and geography were no longer present, and several spontaneous hybrids have originated in gardens, while horticulturists, anxious to combine characters of one species with those of another, have aided the process with paint brush, forceps, and paper bags. That species often hybridize in gardens and arboreta is a well known fact, and many of the most highly prized woody ornamentals have originated in cultivation by means of interspecific hybridization. One only need to bring to mind Daphne X Burkwoodii, Hamamelis X intermedia, Platanus X aceri f olia, Rhododendron PJM hybrids as well as a multitude of other Rhododendron hybrids, the large and popular group of hybrid-tea roses, and numerous other examples to realize the importance of interspecific hybridization to modem horticulture. Some extreme examples of hybridization are found in the orchid family where a particular hybrid plant may be the result of a series of crosses that eventually involved species of as many as five different genera. But the object of this article is to discuss briefly and call attention to some of the older and newer hybrids in the genus Magnolia. Before discussing these Magnolia hybrids, however, a few com- concerning hybrids in general are appropriate since the terminology surrounding hybrids is potentially confusing. While geneticists may use the term hybrid interchangeably, they usually use it to ments refer to the progeny that result when any two genetically different organisms are mated sexually. Genetic hybrids can be produced between individuals of the same or different taxa. As an example, the plants resulting from the natural process of reproduction through cross-pollination and seed formation would, to the geneticist, constitute hybrids, since the new plants are genetically different from the two parental plants. In contrast, offspring resulting from self-pollination or matings of genetically identical individuals would constitute non-hybrids or \"pure lines.\" To the taxonomist and horticulturist concerned with woody ornamentals, plant hybrids consist of offspring resulting from the sexual union of plants belonging to different taxa, and this is the sense in which the term is used in this paper. Thus, Magnolia X Thompsoniana is an interspecific hybrid because the two parental taxa, M. virginiana and M. tripetala, belong to different species. Hybrids between two different varieties of the same species, or between a subspecies and a variety of the same species, are referred to as intraspecific hybrids. If 132 breeding is carried out within a single taxon, such as cross-pollinations between red- and white-flowered plants of the same species or variety to produce a desired pink-flowered plant, the resulting plants are usually referred to as \"crosses.\" The names that apply to hybrids can also be rather confusing, inasmuch as some have received species names, while others are known by a formula name, and many others of horticultural importance are known chiefly by cultivar names. In general practice, taxonomists refer to interspecific hybrids by a formula that consists of the names of the two parental species linked by the sign of multiplication. The sign of multiplication is used to indicate the hybrid nature of the group, and if it can be determined, the name of the seed parent is given first. Therefore, the Magnolia that originated in Thompson's Mile End nursery could be assigned to M. virginiana X M. tripetala (or more usually as M. virginiana X tripetala). But, provision is made in the Code of Botanical Nomenclature for giving a hybrid a less cumbersome species, subspecies, or varietal name if, for ease of communication, one is merited. In that case, as in M. X Thompsoniana, the generic name and the species epithet (the \"Thompsoniana\" part of the species name) are linked by the sign of multiplication, again to indicate the hybrid nature of the plants. A species name has the advantage of being more easily remembered, yet the formula name has the advantage of indicating the parental species of the hybrid group. If the hybrids are the result of intraspecific crosspollinations, the group can be recognized as a variety or subspecies, but the rank given the group can be no higher than the highest ranking parental taxon, and the connecting X is not used. Obviously, hybrids between different varieties of the same species can also be indicated by a formula name. Another provision of the Code of Botanical Nomenclature states that once a botanical name has been given to a hybrid group, that name is a collective epithet and all hybrids, past, present, and future, between the two parental taxa, fall under that name. This provision holds, despite the fact that hybrids between particular plants of two species, subspecies, varieties, etc., may appear quite different than hybrids between other plants of the same two taxa. In most instances, not all the plants that result from hybridization between two taxa are of horticultural merit, and often only one or two hybrid plants are outstanding additions to the ornamental flora. These plants are often given cultivar or fancy names to distinguish them from their siblings, and if these cultivars are used as stock to propagate clonal offspring, their genetically identical plants carry the same cultivar name. Cultivars may be selected from hybrid groups that otherwise are known by a formula name or by a species, subspecies, or varietal name. But in either case, the formula or other botanical 133 is often omitted when reference is made to a particular cultivar. one often encounters Magnolia 'Charles Coates' in nursery catalogs and plant lists without reference to its botanical or formula name. It should be noted that not all cultivars are selected from hybrid name Thus, groups. Returning to Magnolia, one of the intriguing biological aspects that has been noted concerning interspecific hybrids is the fact that none is known between species of the two subgenera into which taxonomists customarily divide the genus. This phenomenon appears to be maintained despite the fact that in cultivation species of the two subgenera are often grown in the same collection. Apparently, in addition to the geographical and habitat differences that prevent hybrids in nature, strong genetic barriers to compatibility exist between certain species. The fact that hybrids are not known between species of the two subgenera has strengthened the validity and naturalness of the division of the genus. These two groups are briefly characterized as follows: Magnolia subgenus MAGNOLIA: Evergreen or deciduous trees or the flowers appearing with the leaves; tepals subsimilar, shrubs, the outer whorl like the inner whorls, never reduced in size and sepal-like; anther sacs introrsely dehiscent. Magnolia subgenus YULANIA : Deciduous trees and shrubs, the flowers appearing before the leaves or with the leaves; the outer whorl of tepals sometimes reduced in size and sepal-like; anther sacs laterally or sublaterally dehiscent. While both of these subgenera are further divided into a number of sections (each comprised of one to several species), within subgenera there appear to be weaker barriers to interspecific hybridization between species of different sections, while within sections hybrids are relatively common or easily obtained by intentional crosspollinations. Figure 2 presents, in a diagrammatic fashion, the interspecific hybrids that are known or suspected in subgenus MAGNOLIA and subgenus YULANIA, respectively.' The lines connecting the species names that appear on the periphery of the circles indicate that interspecific hybrids are known or strongly suspected between the species so linked. Many of these hybrids have been produced in recent years as the results of intentional cross-pollinations by Magnolia enthusiasts, and most are currently of very limited distribution in cultivation and are not available commercially. As a result, the - species and interspecific hybrids indicated in these diagrams are those in my treatment of the cultivated Magnoliaceae that is scheduled to appear in the July, 1976, number of the ]ournal of the Arnold Arboretum. In that treatment the status of several previously recognized hybrid groups that are not included here are rejected and the reasons discussed. The ' accepted 134 SUBGENUS MAGNOLIA SUBGENUS YULANIA 135 concern some of the interspecific hybrids that are available from nurseries specializing in Magnolias, and these notes are followed by a short list of nurseries I know of that offer these plants for sale. Following the discussion of each hybrid, those nurseries offering plants of that hybrid for sale are listed by abbreviations explained in the nursery list. notes that follow Interspecific Hybrids of Subgenus Magnolia Magnolia X Thompsoniana (Loudon) C. de Vos, Nederl. Fl. & Pomon. most 131. t. 43. 1876. aspects of this hybrid between Magnolia virginiana of and M. tripetala of sect. Rytidospermum have already been discussed, it deserves mention here that in all probability old plants of this hybrid have been derived from Thompson's original plant by clonal propagation. To my knowledge, Dr. McDaniel's plants have become available commercially only recently and are not widespread in cultivation. While M. X Thompsoniana has been considered as precariously hardy in the Philadelphia area, the new plants of this hybrid produced by Dr. McDaniel may prove hardier, since he took great care to use plants of M. virginiana and M. tripetala from northern populations as seed and pollen parents, respectively. Usually forming large deciduous shrubs or small trees, often of ungainly habit if not pruned, plants of Magnolia X Thompsoniana are noted for their large leaves that are markedly glaucous on the undersurfaces and for their creamy white, fragrant flowers that are showier than those of either of its parents. Most easily confused with plants of M. virginiana, plants of the hybrid can be distinguished at any time of year by the incompletely septate pith of its young branchlets. The pith of M. virginiana is completely septate while young branchlets of M. tripetala have a continuous pith. (GF; H; T.) sect. While Magnolia ______ Magnolia virginiana X M. grandiflora O. M. Freeman, Natl. Hort. Mag. 16: 161, 162. 1937. This is another hybrid group, like Magnolia X Thompsoniana, that involves M. virginiana as the seed parent and an additional American species, M. grandiflora of sect. Theorhodon, as the pollen parent. Despite the great horticultural potential of this group, it has never been given a botanical name, although it is often referred to informally as the Freeman hybrids, after O. M. Freeman of the United States National Arboretum, who first produced plants of this parentage. Freeman made cross-pollinations between M. virginiana and M. grandiflora, the bull-bay that is native to the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States from North Carolina to central Florida Figure 2. Documented or strongly suspected interspecific hybrids of Magnolia species of subgenus Magnolia and subgenus Yulania. 136 and west to eastern Texas, in 1930 and 1931. Despite the documented influence of M. virginiana, plants of this evergreen hybrid resemble M. grandiflora most closely. The overall resemblance of the hybrid plants to M. grandiflora is so great that difficulty might be encountered in distinguishing the hybrid plants without resorting to technical botanical characters. The fact that the petioles of M. grandiflora lack stipule scars is diagnostic for that species. Petioles of M. virginiana, however, have large stipule scars that are prominent along the upper sides of the petioles. The hybrid plants, like M. virginiana, also have the stipules attached to the petioles in bud, and as the leaves expand the stipules fall off, leaving scars on the petioles. However, the scars are very small and often obscured by the pubescence of the petioles. Careful observation of the petiole base, however, will indicate the presence of a stipule scar and will distinguish the hybrids from M. grandiflora. Two cultivars, 'Freeman' and 'Maryland', have been selected from the hybrids grown at the National Arboretum and represent the group in cultivation elsewhere. 'Freeman' is a plant of upright, columnar habit, while 'Maryland' is of spreading habit, and both clones are reported to propagate fairly easily from cuttings. At the Arnold Arboretum we have several small plants of Magnolia virginiana X M. grandiflora in the nursery. While the plants have suffered during some of our recent winters, most of them withstood the rigors of this past winter with little or no die-back. Further testing for hardiness within this hybrid group might eventually provide New England with a Magnolia that has the overall appearance and the attributes of M. grandiflora. (H; T.) Magnolia X Wieseneri Carriere, Rev. Hort. 62: 406. 1890. Plants of this hybrid (Figure 3) are currently referred to in nursery catalogs and in the horticultural literature as Magnolia X Watsonii J. D. Hooker. However, Carriere's name for these hybrids was published a few months before Hooker's name and description appeared in Curtis's Botanical Magazine (117: t. 7157), and under the rule of priority in the Code of Botanical Nomenclature, Carriere's name has precedence and is the correct name for this group. First introduced into western horticulture by the Japanese in 1889 at the International Exposition held that year in Paris, M. X Wieseneri is considered to constitute a hybrid of garden origin between two native Japanese Magnolias, M. Sieboldii of sect. Oyama, and M. hypoleuca of sect. Rytidospermum. The plants exhibited by the Japanese were purchased by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and some plants of M. X Wieseneri in cultivation are undoubtedly derived from this original importation. Other plants may have been imported directly into this country from Japan. Figure 3. Magnolia M. x Wieseneri, a hypoleuca, of garden origin hybrid between M. Sieboldii and in Japan. the Japanese white-leaf Magnolia, is a large related to the American M. tripetala, and like M. closely tripetala, has its very large leaves clustered in false whorls near the ends of branchlets. This leaf arrangement gives the appearance of an open umbrella, the prominent midveins of the leaves appearing as the supporting ribs, and the blades of the leaves as the fabric. The other presumed parental species, M. Sieboldii, is a large shrub or small tree with distinctly alternate, only moderately-sized leaves, and its beautiful white flowers are held nodding or pendent on the branchlets. Moreover, the stamens are a beautiful crimson red and contrast markedly with the white tepals. By contrast, the waxy white flowers of M. hypoleuca are held more-or-less upright on the branchlets, and the stamens are red only at the base. Plants of M. X Wieseneri known to me are deciduous shrubs that are intermediate in most respects between the two parental species, but they have inherited the crimson stamens of M. Sieboldii while the upright pose of the flowers is indicative of the influence of M. hypoleuca. The leaves are sometimes tree that is Magnolia hypoleuca, 138 crowded at the ends of branchlets, and the plants usually develop into small, bushy trees. Unfortunately, this beautiful hybrid, which commences to bloom in June, is not known to me to be cultivated outside the collections of one or two botanical gardens and arboreta. It is deserving of much wider planting, particularly since it blooms after the majority of spring-flowering shrubs and because it would be appropriate for small garden areas. (H; T.) Magnolia 'Charles Coates' R. J. Sealy, Gard. Chron. III. 152: 77. 1962. Magnolia 'Charles Coates' (Figure 4) is a putative hybrid between the Asiatic M. Sieboldii and the American M. tripetala. Its cultivar name honors Mr. C. F. Coates, former foreman-propagator in the Arboretum at the Royal Botanic Garden, Kew. In 1946 or 1947 Mr. Coates discovered three small, self-sown seedlings in the Magnolia collection at Kew and suspected that they might prove to be hybrids. He removed the seedlings to the nursery, and when they first flowered in 1958, the hybrid nature of the plants was confirmed. Like Magnolia X Wieseneri, M. 'Charles Coates' has inherited from M. Sieboldii the beautiful crimson stamens that contrast with the creamy-white tepals of the flowers, while in vegetative aspects the plants most closely resemble the sect. Rytidospermum parent, M. tripetala. The large leaves are somewhat smaller than those of M. tripetala, but, like the leaves of that parent, they are often clustered in false whorls at the ends of branchlets. The most attractive feature of M. 'Charles Coates' are the large, upward-facing flowers; the creamywhite tepals, unlike those of other Magnolias, are wavy margined. The plants I have seen form small trees or large shrubs that bloom in May and June, and judging from the hardiness of the two presumed parents, M. 'Charles Coates' should prove hardy at least as far north as the Boston region. (H; T.) Interspecifcc Hybrids of Subgenus Yulania Magnolia X Soulangiana C. E. Soulange-Bodin, Mem. Soc. Linn. Paris 1826: 269. 1826; Ann. Soc. Hort. Paris 1: 90. 1827. saucer Magnolias, Magnolia X Soulangiana (Figure 5), are to people synonymous with Magnolia, and because of their widespread use in ornamental plantings probably need no description here. This hybrid group, which was first raised by Chevalier Sou- The many and 1840, is unof all Magnolias in temperate regions. Moreover, it serves as a good example of the variability characteristic of some hybrid groups. The plants classed under M. X Soulangiana include a complex array of hybrid plants lange-Bodin at Fromant, near Paris, between 1820 doubtedly the most widely cultivated and popular 139 Figure 4. Magnolia 'Charles Coates', Botanic Gardens, Kew. a chance hybrid discovered at the Royal between two Asiatic species, M. heptapeta (syn. M. denudata) of sect. Yulania, and M. quinquepeta (syn. M. liliflora) of sect. Tulipastrum, which are also widely cultivated, both in China and Japan as well as in western gardens. Soulange-Bodin's original plants of M. X Soulangiana were produced as a result of intentional pollination of M. heptapeta flowers with M. quinquepeta pollen. Undoubtedly, part of the reason that plants of Magnolia X Soulangiana are variable is because the parental species themselves exhibit variation. But the situation within this hybrid group is complicated 140 by still another factor. The Magnolia hybrids that have been discussed under subgenus MAGNOLIA represent first generation plants that have been maintained by asexual propagation. As a result, the plants in cultivation exhibit only minor differences that are associated with local environmental or climatic factors. The situation in M. X Soulangiana, however, is more complex. Despite the fact that most plants of the group are partially sterile, seed is occasionally produced and it appears that a hybrid \"swarm\" has developed in cultivation that includes not only first generation plants but plants of succeeding generations as well. Plants of the succeeding generations display variation due to genetic segregation, a phenomenon first explained by Gregor Mendel based on experiments he conducted with the common garden pea. Still other variants of M. X Soulangiana have undoubtedly resulted from crosses between hybrid plants and both parental species; this type of cross is known as a backcross. The consequence is a continuum of variation between M. heptapeta and M. X Soulangiana on the one hand and M. X Soulangiana and M. quinquepeta on the other. Because many of these crosses between hybrid plants as well as the backcrosses to the parental taxa are undocumented, precise knowledge of the origin or genetic background of most plants of Magnolia X Soulangiana is lacking. However, numerous individual plants of horticultural value have been selected from the array of variability, and they have been given cultivar names. One hundred and three cultivars of Magnolia X Soulangiana are listed by Fogg and McDaniel (1975) in their checklist of Magnolia cultivars, and since those available commercially from reputable nurseries are propagated asexually, the gardener is assured of obtaining the particular variant he wants to grow. Magnolia X Veitchii W. J. Bean in 321. 1921. Veitch, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 46: More widely grown in England, the country of its origin, than in the United States, Magnolia X Veitchii (Figure 6) combines M. heptapeta and M. Campbellii, both of sect. Yulania. Peter Veitch of the Royal Nurseries, Exeter, attempted a series of cross-pollinations between M. Campbellii and M. heptapeta in 1907, yet only one cross resulted in a fruit cone with viable seed. The successful cross had employed M. Campbellii as the pollen parent and M. heptapeta as the seed parent. The resulting hybrid plants proved variable in flower color. Of five plants raised from the seed obtained, four eventually produced white flowers, while the fifth plant produced pink flowers, and two cultivars have been designated, 'Peter Veitch' with pink, and 'Isca' with white flowers. Plants of Magnolia X Veitchii are extremely vigorous trees that have attained over 80 feet in height in Cornwall in Figure 5. Magnolia x Soulangiana, the Magnolia hybrid in cultivation. saucer Photo: P. Magnolia, the Chvany. most widespread southwestern England; in this country the plants are hardy at least as far north as the Philadelphia region (Zone VI), but the plants I know of have not yet attained great heights. Aside from the abundantly produced large flowers that have the inner whorl of tepals held somewhat erect, partially enclosing the stamens and carpels in the center of the flowers, the plants are noted for their large, glossy green leaves. Both of these characteristics are indicative of the genetic influence of Magnolia Campbellii. For eastern areas of the United States, where the spectacular Himalayan M. Campbellii unfortunately has not proved, except in rare instances, 142 Figure 6. The beautiful large flowers of Magnolia between M. x Veitchii, a hybrid Campbellii and M. heptapeta. to adapt to the climatic conditions, M. X Veitchii is an alternative ,plant that deserves wider use in ornamental plantings. (GF; H; T.) Magnolia quinquepeta X M. kobus var. stellata T. R. Dudley & W. F. Kosar, Morris Arb. Bull. 19: 26-29. 1968. Often referred to as the Kosar hybrids, plants of the above parent- represented in cultivation by a series of eight cultivars ('Betty', 'Susan', 'Pinkie', 'Jane', 'Ann', 'Judy', 'Randy', and 'Ricki') that were selected from the F, generation. The results of intentional cross-pollinations made by William Kosar and Francis de Vos, the hybrid plants were produced at the National Arboretum in 1955 and 1956 using the early-flowering star Magnolia, Magnolia kobus var. stellata, and two of its cultivars as pollen parents and the later-flowering M. quinquepeta 'Nigra' and `Reflorescens' as the seed parents. One of the objectives of this hybridization program was to produce plants that age are 143 bloom later in spring than the star Magnolia in order that the flowers escape damage by hard spring frosts. Like other members of sect. Buergeria, of which it is a member, Magnolia kobus var. stellata is a diploid with 38 chromosomes, while might M. quinquepeta, the Asiatic species of sect. Tulipastrum, is a tetraploid with 2n=76. As a result of crossing diploid with tetraploid plants, the hybrid progeny are triploids with 57 chromosomes in somatic cells, and because of this unbalanced chromosome number, the hybrid plants are sterile. Generally intermediate between the two parental taxa, plants of Magnolia quinquepeta X M. kobus var. stellata are erect, multiplestemmed shrubs of rounded or conical form that grow to six to ten feet. Like both parents, the hybrid plants are deciduous, but the leaves are most similar to those of the seed parent, M. quinquepeta. At the Arnold Arboretum the eight cultivars have bloomed while still young, opening their flowers after the star Magnolia, depending upon the season, about the first or second week of May. The greatest variability encountered in the hybrids, and the major reason eight selections were made, is in flower color and in the number of tepals comprising the perianth. Tepal color ranges from dark reddish-purple through varying shades of light purple or magenta to pinkish, while in number, the tepals vary from six to nineteen per flower. These excellent shrubs, which are as hardy as both parents~ s~IcTbe w~ come additions and useful spring-flowering plants in small gardens where space is limited. (GF; H.) Magnolia X brooklynensis G. Kalmbacher, Newsl. Am. Magnolia Soc. 8(2): 7. 1972. Magnolia X brooklynensis is the name that has recently been given to hybrids between Magnolia acuminata, the native American cucumber-tree, and M. quinquepeta (syn. M. liliflora), a species widely cultivated in China and Japan and judged to be native to the former country. These two species are the only species that comprise sect. and the hybrids between the American and Asiatic members of the section were originally produced by Mrs. Evamaria Sparber at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden. Both parental species are tetraploids with 78 somatic chromosomes, and the hybrids, produced by pollination of M. acuminata flowers with M. quinquepeta pollen, are fertile and produce viable seed. Two cultivars of Magnolia X brooklynensis have been named. The first, 'Evamaria', honors Mrs. Sparber, but it has not yet become available commercially. The second cultivar, 'Woodsman', was named by Dr. J. C. McDaniel and was selected from plants of M. X brooklynensis that he produced through cross pollinations in Illinois. This cultivar has recently become available commercially. Tulipastrum, 144 I have not seen plants of 'Woodsman', Dr. McDaniel it has inherited the tree habit of Magnolia acuminata, as well as the hardiness of that species. The seed parent, M. acuminata, is widely distributed in eastern North America and is the only Magnolia native to Canada. Although the flowers of 'Woodsman' are similar in shape to flowers of M. X Soulangiana, their coloration is unique for a Magnolia. The tepals grade from dark purple through pink and yellow to green. Another asset of this hybrid is the fact that the unusual flowers appear late in spring and thereby avoid being damaged by frosts. Inasmuch as the hybrids are fertile, future generations of gardeners and horticulturists may enjoy variation that will assuredly become apparent as succeeding generations of M. X brooklynensis (as well as yet unknown backcrosses to the parental species) are raised, selected, and grown more widely. Although (1975) reports that (GF.)x&# 3E; glance at Figure 2 will indicate that the interspecific Magnolia hybrids that have been discussed above are but a few of those that have been obtained. Moreover, it is obvious that not all of the possible hybrids that might be synthesized have been achieved. Undoubtedly, some crosses have been attempted and have failed, but others remain to be tried, and there is always the possibility of new hybrids arising in cultivation without the interference of the hybridizer, and many may prove to be of horticultural significance. While this article has been limited to those hybrids between two species available commercially, another group of Magnolia hybrids already exists that consists of some spectacular ornamentals. These plants are tri-hybrids, involving some of the di-hybrids discussed above as one parent and other species (other than species involved as a parent of the di-hybrid) as the second parent. Thus, these hybrids are combinations of three species. These tri-hybrids are largely unknown in the United States, and most are of limited distribution in the nurseries or gardens where they originated. We all can look forward to these tri- and new di-hybrids becoming better known in American gardens and arboreta. Nurseries A cursory Selling Magnolia Hybrids Unfortunately, two of the nurseries listed below are in England, and importation of plants will be necessary. Nurseries other than those listed below may offer plants of these hybrids for sale, and omission of their names from this list is unintentional. No sources are listed for Magnolia X Soulangiana since it is almost universally available in all sections of the country. 145 The nurseries are: Gossler Farms Nursery, 1200 Weaver Road, Springfield, Oregon, 97477. Abbreviated GF; catalog available for small charge. Hillier & Sons, Winchester, Hampshire, England. Abbreviated H; price lists available. Treseders' Nurseries (Truro) Ltd., Truro, Cornwall, England. Abbreviated T; special Magnolia catalog available. References & J. C. McDaniel, eds. Check list of the cultivated Magnolias. vii + 54 pp. + 12 pp. Am. Hort. Soc. Pl. Sci. Data Center. Mt. Vernon, Va. 1975. Loudon, J. C. Magnoliaceae. Arb. Frut. Brit. 1: 259-291. 1838. McDaniel, J. C. A new-old Magnolia hybrid. Illinois Research, Ill. Agr. Expt. Sta. 8, 9. Fall, 1966. Some Asiatic-American Magnolia hybrids. Am. Horticulturist 54 ( 1 ) : 10-13. 1975. Fogg, J. M., Jr., -. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Selected Maples for Shade and Ornamental Planting","article_sequence":2,"start_page":146,"end_page":176,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24678","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070896f.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":4,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Selected Maples for Shade and Ornamental Planting by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. hardy genera of plants are as diverse and desirable horticulturally or as valuable economically as Acer, the Maples. Several species are among the most important forest trees in eastern North America, and they are largely responsible for the spectacular blaze of color that covers the landscape of that region during the fall of the year. One of these, the Hard, Rock, or Sugar Maple, is particularly dear to the hearts of New Englanders, as its sap is the primary source of maple sugar a regional specialty. The most familiar Maples are perhaps those few large species that are grown as shade trees primarily utilitarian plants with little thought given to their ornamental value except for the color of their autumn foliage. Others, particularly the Japanese Maples, are universally admired as accent plants for their graceful form and delicate foliage. But some extremely decorative aspects of Maples - namely their flowers and their bark patterns - are largely ignored by the American horticultural public. And many of the intermediate-size species, including some of the handsomest of the genus, are almost entirely unknown to most people. - Few In this article, the various decorative and utilitarian aspects of Maples hardy in Zone 5 are discussed. Under each of these characteristics, some good and not-so-good species are described. Finally, there is a list of the nursery sources for most of the species and cultivars mentioned. Culture, pests, diseases and propagation in general will not be discussed because of the existence of excellent articles on the subjects (see references below). Hopefully, my basic enthusiasm for these plants of my readers to grow also, my warnings will a will persuade some few of the more unusual types. Hopefully save other readers a lot of aggravation. REFERENCES Bean, W. J. 1970. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, ed. 8. Sir George Taylor, ed. Acer, vol. 1, pp. 185-240. John Murray Ltd., London. Dirr, M. A. 1975. Manual of woody landscape plants. Stipes Publishing Co., Champaign, Ill. 146 147 University of Massachusetts. B. O. 1958. Maples cultivated in the United States and Canada. The American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. Murray, E. 1967. A key to the cultivated Maples. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 18: 43-47. Rehder, A. 1940. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. ed. 2. Macmillan Co., New York. ture, Holmes, F. W., C. S. Chater and W. B. Becker. 1969. Culture, diseases, injuries, and pests of Maples in shade and ornamental planting. Publication 443, Cooperative Extension Service, College of Agricul- Mulligan, FOLIAGE A typical leaf of a Sugar or Norway Maple is an object familiar to most people, whether they are interested in plants or not, and the leaves of most other species are basically similar to these. They are always opposite and, in the great majority of species, simple, with palmate veins and lobes; the margins are variously toothed. There are exceptions to the general rule, however, and some of the species displaying them might not be immediately recognizable as Maples unless fruits were present. A few tender Maples are evergreen, and a considerable number of species, including hardy ones, have compound leaves, these usually with three leaflets, but with up to seven in the Box Elder. A few species have leaves with inconspicuous lobes; the Hornbeam Maple has leaves that are pinnately veined and lack lobes - completely. Maples are well known for the spectacular coloration of their autumnal foliage. In fact, they are among the most showy of woody plants in this respect. But other aspects of Maple foliage are decorative as well. Forms and cultivars of several species have colored leaves during the growing season, and the texture of the foliage of many is of unusual interest. All of these aspects will be considered in this section. - Red Maple (Acer rubru~n). This species turns swamps and low woodlands throughout eastern North America into a blaze of scarlet in the fall. The brilliant color of the foliage and the abundance of the species make this Maple certainly one of the most conspicuous trees in our autumn landscape. The foliage of the Red Maple is also of interest during the growing season. The leaves are whitish on their undersurfaces, and the tree appears silvery when the leaves are rustled by a breeze. A number of cultivars have been selected for their unusually good autumn coloration. Those available in the trade are briefly described below. 'Autumn Flame' foliage turning a brilliant scarlet about two weeks before most other Red Maples. - 148 foliage turning a brilliant scarlet; also attractive for its pyramidal habit. 'Morgan' foliage color consistently brilliant, even on young plants. 'October Glory' - foliage turning brilliant red and persisting on the tree longer than in most others of the species. 'Red Sunset' brilliant red-orange foliage lasting well into the season. 'Scanlon'- dark green foliage during the summer, turning bright red and orange in the fall; a compactly branched, conical tree. 'Schlesingeri' foliage coloring rather a darker red at least two weeks before most other Red Maples. - 'Bowhall' Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). Like the preceding, this is a common native tree in the eastern United States, although in the Southeast it is primarily a mountain species. The foliage is similar to that of the Norway Maple during the growing season, but the individual leaves are a brighter green, and they are somewhat more slender. The crown is also less densely branched, so the Sugar Maple casts a lighter shade than does the Norway Maple. The foliage is quite delicate and is susceptible to sunscald and spray damage. Autumnal coloration is somewhat variable, but most commonly the foliage turns golden orange with a tinge of red. A mature specimen tree in full color is about as magnificent a plant as we can grow here in New England. The two cultivars selected for their outstanding foliage characters are as follows: 'Green Mountain' - autumnal coloration about average for the species, but leaves waxy, dark green during the growing season and reasonably resistant to sunscald. 'Sweet Shadow' ('Laciniatum') - leaves deeply cut, turning bright orange in the fall. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). Although its yellow autumn coloration is less spectacular than that of some of its relatives, the texture and color of the summer foliage of this species are outstanding among the Maples that grow to be large trees. The deeply cut leaves show their silvery undersides in the slightest breeze, accounting for the common name. The cultivar 'Laciniatum' ('Wieri') has more deeply cut leaves than the species, in addition to its somewhat pendulous branches. one of the most encountered trees of foreign origin in the eastern United States, its shallow root system and the deep shade cast by its dense, dark green foliage usually destroy the lawns in which it is most commonly planted. Its clear yellow autumn coloration is desirable, Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). Although this is frequently The foliage of the Silver Photo: R. Weaver. Maple, showing the whitish undersides ot the leaves. it appears late in the season, after many trees have-lost their leaves. already A number of cultivars of this species are available in the American nursery trade. Those with colored or \"improved\" foliage during the growing season are described below. It must be pointed out, however, that these generally carry the same liabilities as the species. Further, the foliage of the red-leaved forms is coarse and characterless in my opinion. Although much cheaper and faster growing, these could never be a reasonable substitute for the Purple Beech, the only other large tree with similarly colored foliage. 'Crimson King' foliage deep red-purple throughout the growing - however, because season. `Drummondii' - leaves with a broad, fairly regular, white or yellowish margin. 'Emerald Queen' - foliage dark green and of heavy texture - probably liability. a 'Faassen's Black' - similar to 'Crimson King'. 'Royal Red' foliage a clearer red than 'Crimson King' and 'Faassen's Black'. 'Schwedleri' foliage red when emerging, turning rusty, then brownish and finally green. `Summershade' - leaves large, dark green, with a heavy cuticle; quite resistant to sunscald. - - 150 Paperbark Maple (Acer griseum), Manchurian Maple (A. mandshuricum), Nikko Maple (A. nikoense) and Three-flower Maple (A. triflorum). The foliage of all four species is similar during the growing season. The leaves are compound, with three leaflets, and appear loose and airy in comparison with those of most other Maples. In the autumn the foliage of A. griseum, A. nikoense, and A. triflorum turns bright red or orange, that of the first being perhaps the least spectacular. The real standout in the group is A. mandshuricum, the foliage of which turns a unique and most attractive rose-red. It is also the hardiest species, surviving quite well in Zone 4. Japanese-type Maples. These wonderful small trees need little introduction. The foliage is outstanding in all of the species; each of them is distinctive, and each will be treated separately below. The descriptions of the cultivars are largely condensed from those in the catalogue distributed by Greer Gardens, where more than 80 forms of Acer palmatum are listed. Vine Maple (Acer circinatum). This native of western North America, and the only species indigenous to this continent, is infrequently cultivated here in the Northeast. Although listed by Rehder as being hardy in Zone 5, it has not proved vigorous at the Arnold Aboretum. The leaves are broad, almost circular, with 7 to 9 shallow lobes, and the texture of the foliage is perhaps not as good as that of its relatives. Its autumn coloration, in shades of brilliant red, orange and yellow, is spectacular, however, even when grown in the shade of evergreens. The cultivar 'Monroe', the only dissected form yet described, has leaves that are finely cut in a most unusual manner. Its autumn coloration is as good as that of the species. Siebold Maple (Acer sieboldianum) and Purplebloom Maple (A. pseudosieboldianum). These species are quite similar except for their foliage of both is outstanding throughout the growing being a fresh green and of fine texture, although the individual leaves are not as deeply lobed as those of A. palmatum. Autumn coloration is bright red and yellow. flowers. The season, Fulhnoon Maple (Acer japonicum). The leaves of this species are among the largest in the group, and their autumn coloration is about as spectacular as that of any woody plant. Being precariously hardy in Zone 5, the specimens at the Arnold Arboretum are rather poor and small. But they are still magnificent in the fall. The coloration is brilliant red and yellow, without a hint of purple, and the plants appear as if they were on fire at the height of the season. Two outstanding cultivars are: 151 Leaves of \"Japanese-type\" Maples, ~\/a life-size. A, Acer circinatum; B, A. circinatum 'Monroe'; C, A. pseudosieboldianum; D, A. palmatum; E, A. japonicum ; F, A. japonicum `Aconitifolium'; G, A. palmatum 'Dissectum'; H, A. palmatum `Burgundy Lace'; 1, A. palmatum var. heptalobum; J, A. palmatum 'Linearilobum'. 152 'Aconitifolium'- leaves large, so deeply cut as to appear almost compound ; autumn coloration as good as the species. `Aureum' - leaves of medium size, yellowish during the summer. Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum). This native of Japan is certainly one of the finest of all small trees, with its spreading habit, somewhat \"layered\" branches, and elegantly formed, deeply lobed, almost starlike leaves. Many cultivars have been selected for their outstanding foliage; all of them are beautiful. The few described below are grouped according to the character of their leaves. It should be noted that all of them develop their best form, and best colors, when grown in full sun. A. palmatum var. heptalobum. Since this type occurs commonly in the wild it has been designated a botanical variety as opposed to a cultivar. The plants in general have leaves that are larger plants than normal, usually 7-lobed and with fine teeth. Many of this type develop a bright red autumn coloration, and the cultivar 'Osakazuki' is outstanding for its intense crimson display. group - leaves more or less of normal shape, during the summer. 'Bloodgood' leaves perhaps the deepest red of any of the forms, and holding the color well throughout the summer; autumn foliage bright red. 'Burgundy Lace' leaves deeply lobed, holding their deep red color well during the summer. 'Oshio-beni' leaves more orange-red, the color lasting well. 'Sherwood Flame' - similar to 'Burgundy Lace', but holding its 'Atropurpureum' - but red - - color better. 'Dissectum' group leaves deeply divided, the 7 to 11lobes deeply cut and separate almost to the base of the leaf; color green or red; form of the plant generally low and weeping. 'Everred' - one of the best red-leaved forms. 'Filigree' leaves green with tiny flecks of white or cream. 'Garnet' - leaves a transparent gamet-red throughout the summer ; a vigorous grower with bright red autumn coloration. 'Viridis'- leaves green, turning to gold in the fall; habit gracefully drooping; twigs green. Waterfall' one of the most graceful of the green-leaved types; leaves divided into long segments. - 'Linearilobum' group - leaves not cut; color red or green. deeply lobed; lobes straplike and The lacy foliage of Acer palmatum `Burgundy Lace'. Photo: P. Bruns. 'Atrolineare' leaves blood red. leaves green. 'Linearilobum' 'Red Pygmy' - a round-headed shrub with red leaves. - Variegated lowish or group - leaves with regular or irregular white, yelpinkish markings. 'Butterfly' leaves tiny and blue-green with cream or pink margin. 'Roseo-marginatum' leaves dark green with a pinkish margin and with irregular white streaks. 'Sagara-nishiki' leaves dark green with scattered golden spots. 'Tsumagaki' leaves green with purple tips and borders during spring and early summer. - 154 I foliage: Maple (Acer ginnala). This is Other Maples of interest for their Amur one of the hardiest of all the and it is also tolerant of poor, dry soils. It is recommended for its brilliant red, scarlet or orange autumn coloration particularly in the Plains States where such a display is especially desirable. species, (Acer negundo). Although this is a rather weedy, weakstemmed tree, it is almost as hardy as the preceding species, and it is recommended only for cold, dry areas. The autumn coloration of the species is a good yellow, and the following cultivars have colored leaves during the growing season. `Aureum' - leaves golden-yellow, the color persisting through much of the summer. 'Variegatum'- leaflets and fruits with an irregular white border, in many becoming almost totally colorless. Box Elder Mountain autumn is not as Maple (Acer spicatum). Again a very hardy species, the foliage turns shades of red and orange. Although the color good as in A. ginnala, this tree has somewhat more character. Painted Maple (Acer mono). A relative of the Norway Maple, this medium size tree is outstanding for its low, rounded crown. The foliage is fine-textured, the individual leaves being bright green, small and more or less star-shaped. Striped Maple (Acer pensyLvanicnm). An elegant small tree with large 3-lobed leaves, this species is hardy in Zone 3. The foliage is attrac- tive during the summer and turns bright yellow in the fall. Its Asiatic relatives (mentioned elsewhere) are equally desirable. BARK AND TWIGS Maples are variable in the texture and color of their bark. In most species it is quite thin, making the plants vulnerable to mechanical injury and therefore adding to their limitations as street trees. But on the other hand, the bark of many species is unusually decorative, adding greatly to the ornamental value of the plants, particularly during the winter. Following is an enumeration of the species with the most handsome or distinctive bark; most of them are illustrated on pages 157 and 159. The descriptions, except where noted, pertain to the mature trunks and larger branches. The foliage and flowers of Acer Photo: P. Bruns. pensylvanicum, our native Striped Maple. 156 Paperbark Maple (Acer griseum). This is perhaps the most celebrated species as far as decorative bark is concerned. The bark has a waxy sheen, and on old trunks is smooth and mottled in shades of rich redbrown ; that on less mature growth peels off in thin papery strips. The pattern and species terest. t. one texture are exceptionally attractive, and they make this of the most desirable of all deciduous trees for winter in- Three-flower Maple (Acer triflorum). The bark of this species is a blend of cream, buff, and pearly gray-brown, with a waxy sheen, and splits into thin, irregularly shaped vertical plates. Although very different in appearance from that of its close relative, A. griseum, the bark of the Three-flower Maple is almost equally decorative. Trident Maple (Acer buergerianum). The bark on mature trunks is basically buff with pale gray-brown patches and from a distance resembles that of the preceding species. The flakes or plates are thicker, however, more irregular in shape, and not oriented vertically. Snake-bark A. Maples (Acer pensylvanicum, A. rufinerve, A. davidii, A. tegmentosum, grosseri). The bark is much the same in all of the species, being smooth and tight and basically dark olive-green, with vertical stripes of bright green and white, particularly on the branches. The common names \"Snake-bark\" or \"Striped\" Maples are derived from this bark pattern. The best species in the group are A. davidii and A. grosseri, both of which are precariously hardy in Zone 5; in these, the stripes are most pronounced. A cultivar, 'Erythrocladum', of our native A. pensylvanicum is also outstanding in that the twigs turn bright red after the leaves have fallen. Japanese-type Maples (Acer palmatum and A. pseudosieboldianum). The bark on the trunks and the main branches is similar to that of the Snake-bark Maples, except that the basic color is medium gray and the stripes are dark gray. The twigs of the above species and several of their cultivars are decoratively colored. Those of A. pseudosieboldianum are an unusual gray-lavender, while many green-leaved A. palmatum have bright green twigs. A selection, 'Aoyagi', of the latter species is particularly outstanding in this respect, while another, Sango-Kaku' ('Senkaki'), the Coral-bark Maple, has bright red twigs in the winter. Red on the branches and the upper of the main trunk is smooth and silvery gray. That on the older part parts of the trunk becomes dark with thick plates, presenting an in- Maple (Acer rubrum). The bark teresting contrast. The bark of Maple species. Upper left, Three-flower Maple; upper right, Trident Maple; lower left, Paperbark Maple; lower right, Red Maple. Photos: R. Weaver. 158 Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus). The bark somewhat resembles that of a Sycamore, however, and basically exfoliating plates hence the common name. It is darker in color, in shades of gray rather than brown. The also are thicker, tighter, and smaller. Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). The bark of this species is about the thickest of any hardy Maple. spicuous network of tight, Devil It is dark crisscross ridges. gray-brown with a con- Maple (Acer diabolicum). \"Elephantine\" would be the best ada jective to describe the bark of this tree. It is dark gray with bled\" texture, resembling the skin of pachyderms. \"peb- FLOWERS AND FRUITS Most everyone is familiar with the fruits of maples. They are certainly the most distinctive feature of the genus. Although their shapes vary considerably, the fruits (technically termed samaras) are always borne in pairs, the members tightly fused together, each with a broad, elongate wing and a single seed. They drop from the tree in pairs, and as they fall they spin like the blades of a helicopter, often landing a considerable distance from the parent plant. While the large and abundant fruits of species such as the Norway Maple are often considered a nuisance, those of other species are brightly colored and add to the decorative value of the trees. Few people would think of growing Maples for their flowers. However, while none could actually be called showy, the flowers of most species are distinctly charming, and those of a number of species are, at least in my opinion, quite beautiful. Individually they are small, seldom exceeding 1\/2 inch in diameter, and they are borne in rounded or elongate clusters which may be erect or drooping. The flowers are generally unisexual, with \"males\" and \"females\" present in the same cluster in many species, or on separate trees in others. The petals are red, whitish, or greenish, or occasionally absent; in many species they persist in good condition while the fruits are maturing. The flowers are most conspicuous when they appear before the leaves, a normal occurrence in several common native and introduced Maples. The most attractive species, however, are those in which the flowers appear with the expanding foliage. Viewed with or against the foliage, the dark flowers of some produce a lovely contrast, while the greenish ones of others complement its already elegant texture. The best species for flowers and\/or fruits are described below. The bark of Maple species. Upper left, Norway Maple; upper right, Sycamore Maple; lower left, Striped Maple (Acer tegmentosum); lower right, Devil Maple. Photos: R. Weaver. 160 Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). This species is included because it is one of the first plants to bloom in the spring. The flowers, which are borne in dense, tight clusters, and the expanding bud scales cast a reddish haze upon the trees in late February or early March - a time when any flower is a treasure. Red species Maple (Acer rubrum). Appearing later than those of the preceding but still before the leaves are evident, the bright red flowers of the Red Maple contrast beautifully with its silvery gray branches. The young fruits are about the same color as the flowers, and due to their size are more conspicuous. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). The delicate, yellowish, somewhat most trees. bell-shaped flowers gracefully drooping on long, slender stalks are alsuperfluous on what is already one of the most elegant of large Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). The soft yellow-green, delicately ing help greatly to that cover this species just as the leaves are expandsoften the curse of the monster that bears them, at least for a week or two. Individually quite large, and borne in clusters as much as 4 inches broad, the flowers make this species about the showiest Maple in bloom. Their contrast against the red leaves of such cultivars as 'Schwedleri' and 'Crimson King' is particularly striking. This species bears fruit prolifically, and the large samaras are a bit messy when they fall. The equally prolific seedlings that inevitably follow are a further annoyance. fragrant flowers Japanese-type Maples (Acer circinatum, A. japonicum, A. palmatum, A. pseudosieboldianum). The flowers are quite similar in all of these species, with conspicuous dark red to purple sepals and\/or petals. They are borne in drooping or pendent, loosely globose clusters, each of these containing both \"males\" and \"females.\" The combination of the dark flowers and the fresh green, beautifully shaped leaves is truly exquisite, although this quality admittedly cannot be realized when the plants are viewed from a distance. In my opinion, the Vine Maple (Acer circinatum) is the most beautiful of the species in bloom, although the flowers of A. japonicum are by far the largest. In the red-leaved forms of A. palmatum, the leaves and the flowers are about the same color, and the latter therefore are not so effectively displayed. However, the fruits of these forms have reddish wings and provide a pleasing contrast with the darker foliage. The fruits of A. circinatum and A. pseudosieboldianum are also red, at least when young. The flowers and expanding foliage of (above) the Schwedler Maple (Acer platanoides 'Schwedleri') and (below) the Sugar Maple. Photos: R. Weaver, P. Chvany. 161 162 Hornbeam capillipes, A, Maple (Acer carpinifolium) and Snake-bark Maples (A. davidii, A. grosseri, A. pensylvanicum, A. tegmentosum). The Hornbeam Maple is quite a different species from the Snake-bark types, but its aspect in bloom is similar, and therefore it is included with them here. To me these are among the most beautiful of the Maples, in bloom or otherwise. The pale yellow-green flowers are borne in long, slender drooping or pendent racemes. They are seen to best advantage from beneath, looking up into the canopy of the tree (see page 155). Although the individual flowers are delicately beautiful, the form of the inflorescences is more so, particularly in conjunction with the foliage. The young fruits produce about the same effect as do the flowers and therefore prolong the show. It must be pointed out, however, that these species are basically dioecious (separate \"male\" and \"female\" trees) and therefore only the \"females\" bear fruit. Amur Maple (Acer ginnala), Mountain Maple (A, spicatum), Tatarian Maple (A. tataricum). Although related to the other two species included here, the Mountain Maple stands out in flower and fruit. The yellow-green flowers are borne in erect racemes as much as 6 inches long. They are followed by red fruits borne in the same manner. Both flowers and fruits are decorative. Like the preceding species, the Amur and Tatarian Maples bloom after the leaves have almost fully expanded. Their white flowers and red fruits are held in shorter clusters, and are conspicuous against the foliage. FORM AND SIZE The species and cultivars treated here are divided into three groups according to their size and form. Good and bad types are discussed in each group, as are appropriate or inappropriate planting situations. The form of trees is somewhat difficult to describe, except in terms of the ratio between the height and the width of the crown. The table below presents this ratio for representative specimens at the Arnold Arboretum. If the ratio is more than 2, the tree is columnar; if it is less than 1, the tree is more or less spreading. The trees are listed from the highest to the lowest height\/width ratio; actual dimensions are given in parentheses. HEIGHT\/WIDTH RATIOS AT THE OF REPRESENTATIVE MAPLES ARNOLD ARBORETUM 3.6 2.5 2.2 2.1 1.5 Acer saccharum 'Temple's Upright' (54 x 15 feet) Acer platanoides 'Erectum' (42 x 17 feet) Acer saccharum 'Newton Sentry' (60 x 27 feet) Acer rubrum 'Columnare' (63 x 30 feet) Acer saccharinum (103 x 88 feet) 163 The fLowers of the Red Photo: H. Howard. Maple appear before the leaves have begun to expand. flowers and expanding foliage of \"Japanese-type\" Maples. Above, pseudosieboldianum; below, A. palmatum 'Burgundy Lace'. Photos: M. Rosenfeld, P. Chvany. The Acer 165 The fto~rers and foliage of Acer per~sytvanieu~ (below). Photos: P. Chvany, R. Weaver. (above-)- and A~~n..a~a 166I 1.3 1.2 1.2 0.9 0.8 0.8 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.7 0.5 Acer tegmentosum (44 x 35 feet) Acer platanoides 'Schwedleri' (60 x 51 feet) Acer triflorum (36 x 60 feet) Acer griseum (35 x 39 feet) Acer mono (38 x 45 feet) Acer tataricum (30 x 39 feet) Acer carpinifolium (multiple trunks) (24 x 37 feet) Acer palmatum var. heptalobum (28 x 38 feet) Acer palmatum 'Sanguineum' (27 x 38 feet) Acer pseudosieboldianum ( 18 x 25 feet) Acer capillipes (multiple trunks) (26 x 50 feet) 50 feet tall at Large Trees (more than maturity) : Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). In cultivation in this country, this species seldom grows more than 75 feet tall. The crown is typically even, dense and rounded, nearly as broad as tall. Although it is fast growing and cheap, and it has attractive flowers and good autumn color, the Norway Maple is not as desirable as most of the other species in this section. It tolerates air and salt pollution reasonably well, but its shallow roots cause heaving of sidewalks as the tree matures, therefore limiting its use for street planting. Grass cannot compete with a Norway Maple for water, nor can it survive in the dense shade cast by the tree. Therefore this species is also unsuitable as a lawn tree, unless the branches are periodically thinned. The following cultivars are distinctive for their rapid growth: 'Emerald Queen', 'Jade Glen', and 'Superform'. 'Cleveland', 'Columnare', and 'Summershade' are more upright in growth than the typical Norway Maples, all developing a regular, broadly oval crown. Red Maple (Acer rubrum). This relatively fast growing native an tree develops open, somewhat irregular crown at maturity. Height and spread seldom exceed 60 feet. The foliage is not dense, and this is an excellent lawn tree, at least in rural or suburban areas where air pollution is not a serious problem. It should be used as a street tree only where salt is not applied during the winter. The cultivars 'Bowhall' and 'Scanlon' are more upright growing and more symmetrical than the species. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). Typically a tree with a tall, irregu- larly spreading crown, this is among the largest of all Maple species. Specimens more than 90 or even 100 feet tall are not unusual. Although it is a graceful and very beautiful tree, the wood is brittle, limiting its usefulness for planting along streets or close to buildings. The roots in addition have a reputation for invading water mains and sewer pipes. 167 The torm of various Maples. Upper left, Acer saccharum 'Temple's Upright'; upper right, A. saccharum 'Newton Sentry'; lower left, A. rubrum 'Columnare' ; lower right, typical A. rubrum. Photos: D. Wyman, M. Rosenfeld, H. Howard, H. Howard. 168 typically Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). A stately tree with a regular crown somewhat taller than broad, this species occasionally reaches a height of 100 feet. It makes a magnificent specimen tree for lawn planting. Although it casts quite a dense shade, grass generally does well beneath it. Sugar Maples cannot tolerate air pollution and they are unsuitable as street trees in areas where salt is applied during the winter. Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus). This European plant is similar to the Norway Maple in its mature size and form, but its crown is less dense. It is a stately tree with attractive bark, but its foliage is somewhat coarse. Perhaps this tree's outstanding attribute is its salt tolerance, thus it is one of the best deciduous trees for seaside planting. ' Columnar or Fastigiate Forms: Several upright growing cultivars have already been mentioned, but these still have a rather broad crown. Those briefly described here are distinctly narrow, with the crown less than half as broad as tall. All of the following are more or less formal in aspect. They grow about as tall as their normal counterparts, but their spread will be less than half; they are also somewhat slower in growth. The number in parentheses following the names of the plants below is the height\/spread ratio of the specimens at the Arnold Arboretum. Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). 'Erectum' (2.5) a narrowly upright form of rather graceful pect ; far superior to normal Norway Maples for street planting. - as- Red Maple (Acer rubrum). 'Columnare' (2.1 ) - less formal than many columnar forms because of its somewhat irregular outline; autumn coloration more orange than scarlet. 'Armstrong' slightly narrower and more symmetrical than the - preceding. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). 'Newton Sentry' (2.2) a beautifully shaped tree with a symmetrical, conical crown; very formal in appearance. 'Temple's Upright' (3.6) the narrowest of all the Maples discussed here; the branches very stiffly erect, the crown broadest at the top. - 169 An old specimen of the Paperbark Maple. Photo: P. Bruns. Medium Size Trees Painted a (30 to 50 feet tall at maturity) : Maple (Acer mono). An exceptionally attractive plant, with symmetrical, broad, low, umbrella-shaped crown, this species is unfortunately rare in cultivation. Maximum height is about 40 feet with a spread of slightly more. The texture of the foliage is similar to that of the Japanese Maples, but more dense. Casting a moderate shade, this is a fine specimen lawn tree. Paperbark Maple (Acer griseum) and related species (A. mandshuricum, A. nikoense, and A. triflorum). All of these have unique ornamental features which were mentioned earlier, but they are similar 170 in size and form and therefore are treated together. They are certainly among the most desirable of all medium size trees for specimen planting. The crown is open, somewhat irregularly rounded or broad oval, and many specimens branch a few feet from the ground. Maximum height and spread is approximately 40 feet. Snake-bark sylvanicum, are Maples (Acer capillipes, A. davidii, A. grosseri, A. penA, rufinerve, A. tegmentosum). These again are fine a lawn trees where specimen of intermediate size is desirable. All occasionally multi-trunked trees, and then they are spreading and umbrella-shaped. More typically, perhaps, they grow with a single trunk, and then the crown is irregularly rounded or oval. Maximum height and spread is generally 30 to 40 feet (but see A. capillipes in table above.) to 25 Small Trees ( 12 Amur feet tall at maturity): Maple (Acer ginnala) and Tatarian Maple (A. tataricum). are Both of these occasionally grow larger than 25 feet tall. Young specimens bushy in habit, but as they mature they assume a broad moundlike or umbrella-shaped crown, with several trunks. They can be grown with a single trunk, however, and then might be useful for street planting when small trees are desirable. Suckers, 171 however, would have are quite hardy plants for colder areas. to be kept under control. Both of these species and tolerant of dry soils and would be good screen Hornbeam Maple (Acer carpinifolium). Normally a spreading tree with several small trunks, this tree is very rare in cultivation. Its form and its unusual (for a Maple) foliage are most graceful, but autumn coloration is poor. It would be a fine tree for a patio where an informal effect is desirable. Japanese-type Maples (Acer circinatum, A. japonicum, A. pseudosieboldianum, and A. sieboldianum). These A. palmatum, are certainly among the most elegant of small trees, and their landscaping uses Most develop their best form in full sun, however, are infinite. and they do not grow well in dry soil. The first two species listed above are not vigorous in Zone 5 and at least A. japonicum is often shrubby in this climate. The dissected forms of A. palmatum are also shrublike, the weeping branches forming a red or green mound at maturity. The remaining forms of A. palmatum, and typical A. pseudosieboldianum and A. sieboldianum form gracefully spreading small trees, with multiple trunks or with a single trunk branched close to the ground. The habit of all three is similar, except that the crowns of the last two are typically more open with the branches in more horizontal planes. HARDINESS All of the Maples mentioned in this article are hardy in at least Zone 5, although Acer davidii, A. grosseri, and A. japonicum are not vigorous there. A number of species are perfectly hardy further north. The hardiest species, and their hardiness zone according to Rehder are listed below. Zone 2 Acer ginnala (Amur Maple) Acer negundo (Box Elder) Acer spicatum (Mountain Maple) Zone 3 Acer pensylvanicum (Striped Maple) Acer platanoides (Norway Maple) Acer rubrum (Red Maple) Acer saccharinum (Silver Maple) Acer saccharum (Sugar Maple) Zone 4 Acer campestre ( Hedge Maple ) Acer mandshuricum (Manchurian Maple) Acer tataricum (Tatarian Maple) Acer tegmentosum (Manchurian Striped Maple) The low, weeping growth Photo: D. Wyman. -__ typical of the 'Dissectum' types of Acer palmatum. The habit of some small to medium-sized Maples. Above, Acer pseudosieboldianum ; below, A. palmatum 'Sanguineum' in front of A. mono. Photos: R. Weaver. 173 NURSERY SOURCES Following is a list of the Maple species and cultivars discussed in this article which are in the American nursery trade, together with the nurseries which have listed them in recent years. Addresses of the nurseries are at the end; those nurseries printed in capital letters are exclusively wholesale. The Maples with no sources given are generally available at any large nursery. A. buergerianum - Gossler, Greer, HOLLANDIA, Mellinger's, MONROVIA, - - SCANLON, Silver Falls, VIEWCREST. A. capillipes Greer, GULFSTREAM. A. circinatum COLE, Eddie, Fiore, Greer, Light's, MALMO, Robin, Rosedale, Silver Falls, Siskiyou, TEUFEL, Wild Garden. 'Monroe' Greer. A. davidii GREENBRIER, Greer, Gossler, HOLLANDIA, MELLINGER'S. A. ginnala too many sources to list. A. griseum - too many sources to list. A. grosseri ( hersii ) Eddie, Greer, Gossler, HOLLANDIA. A. japonicum 'Aconitifolium' Brimfield, Greer, Raraflora, TEUFEL. 'Aureum'- Brimfield, Greer, Palette, Raraflora, Spingarn, VERMEULEN. A. negundo - too many sources to list. Raraflora, TEUFEL. 'Variegatum' A. nikoense Girard, Gossler, HOLLANDIA, Robin. --A.~almatum - too many sources to list. Greer. 'Aoyagi' - - - - - - 201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014201420142014 - 'Atrolineare' - Greer. - too many sources to list. 'Atropurpureum' 'Bloodgood'- BOYD, GREENBRIER, Greer, HESS, HILL'S, LAKE COUNTY, MONROVIA. 'Burgundy Lace' - COTTAGE, Greer, HESS, MONROVIA, Park, Raraflora, TEUFEL. Greer. 'Butterfly' too many sources to list. 'Dissectum' `Everred' - Brimfield, Greer, TEUFEL. 'Filigree' Greer. 'Garnet' Greer. var. heptalobum - Greer. Greer. 'Linearilobum' 'Oshio-beni' Comerford's, Greer, HESS, Jackson & Perkins, MON- - - - - ROVIA, Park, Raraflora, TEUFEL, VERMEULEN, 'Red Weston. Pygmy' - Greer. Greer, HESS. 'Roseo-marginatum' Greer. 'Sangara-nishiki' 'Sango-kaku' ('Senkaki', 'Corallinum') - Brimfield, Greer, HESS, HOLLANDIA, TEUFEL, Tingle. - Comerford's, 'Sherwood Flame' - Greer. 'Tsumagaki' Greer. 'Viridis'- Brimfield, Greer, HESS, Jackson & Perkins, TEUFEL. 'Waterfall' Brimfield, Greer. A. pensylvanicum - Brimfield, Dutch Mountain, Gardens of the Blue Ridge, Greer, Sinclair. - 174 A. platanoides and cultivars series A. too many sources to list, the following nurlarge selection of cultivars: COLE, Fiore, LAKE COUNTY, Lafayette, PRINCETON, SCANLON, Sheridan, TEUFEL. pseudoplatanus Fiore, HILL'S, Littlefield-Wyman, PRINCETON, Wes- offer a - ton. A. rubrum - too many - sources to list. LAKE 'Armstrong' BOYD, COLE, COTTAGE, Lafayette, Light's, Sheridan, TEUFEL. Weston. 'Bowhall'- COLE, - COUNTY, 'Autumn Flame' - Atlantic, BOBBINK, BULK'S, COLE, Lafayette, Lafayette, LAKE COUNTY, TEUFEL. 'Columnare' COLE, Dauber's, Fiore, Lafayette, PRINCETON, Sheridan, TEUFEL. 'October Glory' - too many sources to list. 'Red Sunset' - COLE, COTTAGE, LAKE COUNTY, TEUFEL, Weston. 'Schlesingeri' - - HESS, HILL'S, Lafayette, TEUFEL, Weston. A. rufinerve Greer, Gossler, HOLLANDIA, MONROVIA, A. saccharinum - too many sources to list. Tingle. 'Laciniatum' ('Wieri') A. saccharum - too many - Fiore, Hinsdale, Robin, Sheridan, TEUFEL. to list. 'Green Mountain' - Bachman's, COLE, Corliss Bros., sources - Lafayette, LAKE COUNTY, Light's, MILLCREEK, PRINCETON, SHENANDOAH. 'Newton Sentry' ('Columnare') BOYD, Dauber's, Fiore, Lafayette, PRINCETON, SCANLON. 'Sweet Shadow' - Weston. 'Temple's Upright' ('Monumentale') A. A. A. A. Brimfield, Cole, Dauber's, Fiore, HILL'S, PRINCETON, Raraflora, TEUFEL, Weston. - sieboldianum Greer. spicatum - Dutch Mountain, Gardens of the Blue Ridge, Sinclair. tataricum - COLE, COTTAGE, Dauber's, HILL'S, Valley. tegmentosum - Greer, Tingle. ADDRESSES Atlantic Tree Service, Inc. 1 2 Church Street, Tariffville, Connecticut 06081 Bachman's, Inc. 6010 Lyndale Avenue South, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55423 Bobbink Nurseries, Inc. P. O. Box 124, Freehold, New Jersey 07728 Boyd Nursery Co., Inc. P. O. Box 71, McMinnville, Tennessee 37110 Brimfield Gardens Nursery 3109 Main Street, Rocky Hill, Connecticut 06067 Bulk's Nurseries, Inc. 610 West Montauk Highway, Babylon, L.I., New York 11704 Cole Nursery Co. R. D. # 1, Route 1, Circleville, Ohio 43113 Corliss Bros. Garden Center Essex Road, Ipswich, Massachusetts 01938 The Cottage Gardens, Inc. 0 Rt. #3, South Waverly & Bishop Roads, Lansing, Michigan 48910 Dauber's Nurseries 1705 N. George Street, Box 1746, York, Pennsylvania 17405 175 Dutch Mountain Nursery Augusta, Michigan 49012 H. M. Eddie & Sons 4100 S. W. Marine Drive, Vancouver, British Colombia, Canada Charles Fiore Nurseries, Inc. Prairie View, Illinois 60069 Gardens of the Blue Ridge Ashford (McDowell County), North Carolina 28603 Girard Nurseries #4 North Ridge East, Geneva, Ohio 44041 Gossler Farms Nursery 1200 Weaver Road, Springfield, Oregon 97477 Greenbrier Farms, Ltd. 412 Thracher Road, Chesapeake, Virginia 23320 Greer Gardens 1280 Goodpasture Island Road, Eugene, Oregon 97401 Gulfstream Nurseries Wachapreague, Virginia 23480 Hess Nurseries P. O. Box 326, Route 553, Cedarville, New Jersey 08311 1 Hill's Nurseries Warsaw, Kentucky 41095 Hinsdale Nurseries 7200 S. Madison Road, Hinsdale, Illinois 61257 Hollandia Gardens 10125 37th Avenue NE, Seattle, Washington 98125 Jackson & Perkins Co. -- - Box 1028, Medford, Oregon 975((3~Lafayette Home Nursery Box 148, Route 17, LaFayette, Illinois 61449 Lake County Nursery Exchange Box 122, Route 84, Perry, Ohio 44081 _ __ ____ _ _______ _ Light's Landscape Nurserymen 9153 East D. Avenue, Richland, Michigan 49083 Nurseries Littlefield-Wyman 227 Centre Avenue, Abington, Massachusetts 02351 Malino Wholesale Nurseries 1 4700 25th Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98901 Mellinger's, Inc. 2310 W. S. Range Road, North Lima, Ohio 44452 Millcreek Nurseries 1 Corner Ketch, Route 3, Newark, Delaware 19711 Monrovia Nursery Co. Box Q, 18331 E. Foothill Blvd., Azusa, California 91702 Palette Gardens 26 W. Zion Hill Road, Quakertown, Pennsylvania 18951 George W. Park Seed Co. Greenwood, South Carolina 29646 Princeton Nurseries Box 191, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 Raraflora Fred W. Bergman, 1195 Stump Road, Feasterville, 19047 Clyde Robin Box 2091, Castro Valley, California 94546 . Pennsylvania 176I Rosedale Nurseries Saw Mill River Parkway, Hawthorne, New York 10532 Edward H. Scanlon & Associates 7621 Lewis Road, Olmstead Falls, Ohio 44138 Shenandoah Nurseries Box 99, 301 Wabash Avenue, Shenandoah, Iowa 51601 Sheridan Nurseries 100 Sherway Drive, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada Silver Falls Nursery & Christmas Tree Farm Silver Falls Highway, Star Route, Box 55, Silverton, Oregon 97381 Siskiyou Rare Plant Nursery 522 Franquette Street, Medford, Oregon 97501 Francis M. Sinclair R. F. D. 1, Newmarket Road, Exeter, New Hampshire 03833 Joel W. Spingam 1535 Forest Avenue, Baldwin, New York 11510 Alfred Teufel Nursery 12345 N.W. Barnes Road, Portland, Oregon 97229 Tingle Nursery Company Pittsville, Maryland 21850 Valley Nursery Box 845, 2801 N. Montana, Helena, Montana 59601 John Vermeulen & Son, Inc. Box 267, Woodfem Road, Neshanic Station, New Jersey 08853 Viewcrest Nurseries 9617 N. E. Burton Road, Vancouver, Washington 98662 Weston Nurseries Hopkinton, Massachusetts 01748 The Wild Garden George Schenk, 8243 N.E. 119th, Kirkland, Washington 98033 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":177,"end_page":180,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24677","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070856b.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":4,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Color In The Sky. Flowering Trees In Our Landscape. Edwin A. Menninger. Stuart, Florida: Horticultural Books, Inc. 1975. 260 pp., illustrated. $14.95. This book is deceptive in title and as a result may be disappointing to the unwary. The subtitle might have read more properly, \"Flowering Trees In A Florida Landscape.\" There are 211 numbered black and white photographs, many of poor quality, and but six colored plates to document the title. Within the first seven illustrations are Aesculus, Eucryphia and Magnolia, not otherwise mentioned in the text and species not grown in Florida. All others are of tropical or subtropical plants. With the exception of the foreword written in 1971 by George Lawrence and the acknowledgements, prologue, and possibly the single page on Barklya, the material has been published previously and in this volume reproduced by offset, retaining the original one- or two-column format. Dr. Menninger's contributions have been enjoyable and wort~whil~scriptive and, often provocative, reading. This might be considered an anthology of many of his articles issued between 1951 and 1974. If so, it is regrettable that an effort was not made to correct the errors in nomenclature perpetuated here. Canangium, for example, is not correct in spite of the impression one derives from a forceful footnote, for Cananga (A. DC) Hooker & Thompson, is a conserved name. Stenolobium stans cannot be used since Bignonia stans L. is the type of Tecoma juss. and of Tecoma stans (L) Juss. as indicated in all recent tropical floras. Peltophorum pterocarpum (DC) Heyne is the correct name for P. inerme. Woody species of Datura are now generally recognized in the genus Brugsmannia. Plates 146 and 147 are used twice, while the plates and text of many of the Bauhinia species are not in agreement, etc. The author states the chapters \"are printed here just as they originally appeared, including many inconsistencies. Botanical nomenclature has undergone radical changes, word forms and compounds and even meanings have shifted in that time, but no matter.\" It does matter to many of us. This might have been a useful volume. RICHARD A. HowARD -- Handbook of Wild Flower Cultivation. Kathryn S. Taylor and Stephen F. Hamblin. New York: Collier Books. 1976. 307 pp., illustrated. $4.95. First published in hard cover in 1963, this handbook has been an invaluable aid to all who are interested in wild flowers and their propagation. It is a pleasure to see it now in paperback, thus hopefully reaching an even wider audience. 177 Part of the Maple collection at the Arnold Arboretum, with Acer mandshuricum in the center and A. platanoides 'Erectum' at the right. Photo: H. Howard. 178 Another review would be redundant, as this book over the years has been such a well-known and essential guide to every aspect of wild flower cultivation. The excellent presentation, useful appendices on cultural requirements and bibliography, the comprehensive glossary and the lovely, delicate drawings by Catherine R. Hammond are still a delight to the reader. CORA L. WARREN Rhododendrons in America. Ted Van Veen. Portland, Ore.: and Dimm, Inc. 1969. 176 pp., illustrated. $20.00. Sweeney, Krist This marvelously illustrated volume addresses itself to Rhododendron enthusiasts in every climate, whether they be homeowners, landscape designers, or nurserymen. It contains a comprehensive discussion of choosing, planting, and maintaining the plants, with a moderate position in respect to the chemical fertilizer\/organic amendment controversy. The heart of the work is, however, the presentation of more than two hundred color photographs judged by the reviewer to be of the highest quality. For example, the chromatic difference between Rhododendron elegans and R. superbum is accurately shown. There is a table of selected species and hybrids listing ancestry, plant height, month of bloom, and minimum temperature endured. The presentation pays attention to the new dwarfs, so useful for foundation planting in the West Coast where the grower-author carries on his work; also considerable space is devoted to the rock garden use of Rhododendrons. This up-to-date treatment even includes material on greenhouse forcing of Rhododendrons, their display indoors, and the use of chemical growth regulators. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Wild and Old Garden Roses. Gordon Edwards. New York: Hafner Press, Macmillan Publishing Co. 1975. 162 pp., 31 color plates, 38 drawings. $9.95. An \"American edition\" of a successful British publication by the same The author has grown 130 of the 240 roses described and reports with pleasing personal impressions. An appendix lists where to see wild and old roses in botanical gardens in the United States. The colored plates are excellent. Regrettably no sources are given for the varieties, and a check of several specialty catalogues failed to list any of the plants name. sought. RICHARD A. HOWARD The Alaska-Yukon Wild Flowers Guide. Helen A. White, editor. Anchorage: Northwest Publishing Co. 1974. viii + 218 pp., illustrated. $7.95. Travelers to Alaska (and residents of the state) interested in identifying the region's beautiful wildflowers either have had to consult one of the floras that really were compiled for use by trained botanists, or had to try 179 one of the are guide books for the Pacific Northwest or the not very applicable to Alaska. This book from Alaska magazine is designed to fill this void. For each of over 160 species there is a color that Rocky Mountains photograph (more than one in a few cases), a line drawing, and a paragraph of text. At the end of the book is a short article on \"Wild flowers in your garden\" (throughout this section, it is emphasized that rare and endangered species are not to be molested), a glossary of botanical and ecological terms, a bibliography, and indices of the plants by family name, by botanical name, and by common name. The actual extent of involvement of E. Hulten, S. L. Welsh, and L. A. Viereck with this book is not clear, but if these three authorities on Alaskan plants approved the text and checked the identification of the photographs, then we may be sure that the material presented is accurate. From a magazine such as Alaska, one would expect fine photographs, and, in general, those in the book are very good. The quality of printing is first-rate, and the color balance of most of the plates is tolerably accurate. A few photographs are out of focus and\/or overexposed. For some reason, compilers of picture flowers books select the worst possible photographs for double-page spreads, and that certainly is the case with this book, particularly pages 50-51 and 138-139. The simple line drawings are pleasing, accurate, and appear to have been drawn from living plants. Features not shown in the photographs, such as habit, underground parts, leaves, and fruits, are often depicted in the drawings. This combination of a colored photograph and a line drawing of each species enhances the usefulness of the book. The paragraph of text associated with the photographs gives the height of the plant (a description is not given), the habitat, the geographical distribution of the species in Alaska and elsewhere, and other useful and interesting bits of information. Particularly noteworthy is the attention given to poisonous plants. Special boxes under Astragals, Oxytropis, Castilleja, and Pedicularis point out the taxonomic complexities of these genera. KENNETH R. ROBERTSON Fern Growers Manual. Barbara Joe Hoshizaki. New York: Alfred A. 1975. 256 pp., illustrated. $15. Knopf. It has been said with reverence and admiration that if the Lord created all plants, then ferns were made to show what could be done with a leaf. This excellent volume displays in text and photographs the range of variation in a significant section of the plant kingdom and the attractiveness and usefulness of non-flowering plants. Ferns vary in size from a few millimeters to many meters in length and height. They may be floating aquatic plants, epiphytes, climbers or terrestrial in habit. Although most attractive for the variations in texture and division of the leaf, they may have color in pubescence on the stems, in the iridescence of mature fronds. Reproduction is generally by the production of spores in sporangia, or cases interestingly grouped on the backs of the fronds, or only on special fronds. From the spores develops a free living sexual generation. Asexual or vegetative reproduction occurs naturally with the production of \"buds\" on the leaf surface or at the tip. Several ferns meet the general name of \"walking fem\" when the arching leaf tip is capable of developing roots and a new plant. 180 The hardiness of the Boston fern, perhaps the most popular Victorian house plant, contrasts with the tenderness of the thin-leaved fems often grown in bottle gardens. Pots of maiden hair ferns once decorated private banquet tables, and homes had fern rooms. This volume may return the fern to its rightful place in American horticulture. Mrs. Hoshizaki writes for horticulture under the name of Barbara Joe. The bibliography clearly indicates her experience. Instructions are complete regarding the nature of ferns, their collection, introduction, maintenance and propagation. Genera of the cultivated ferns are treated in alphabetical order with useful species listed, and in summary form data are presented on height, form, and requirements for temperature, light, soil and water. One of the valuable appendices is a classification of ferns and fem allies. The index is excellent. Perhaps all that is missing is reference to botanical gardens that maintain collections of hardy outdoor ferns (e.g. Foster Botanical Garden, Garden in the Woods) or tender ferns in special display houses (e.g. Como Park, Kew, Longwood, Morris Arbo- retum ) . RICHARD A. HOWARD The University gists Description and Classification of Washington Press. of Vegetation. David W. Shimwell. Seattle: 1972. 322 pp., 70 figures. $10.50 A technical reference volume that reviews the methods used by ecoloand phytosociologists of North America and Europe to describe and classify the vegetation on the earth. An excellent historical review of a special field of botany. RICHARD A. HOWARD DIVIDEND PLANTS During spring of of 1976 many members received a plant Syringa nancieana 'Rutilant'. Because of a shortage of plant material, some of you had nothing but an empty mail box. The propagation department is busy rooting cuttings and, barring a crop failure, these will be mailed out during to spring 1977 mailing. all members who missed out on this year's "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23396","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eab28.jpg","title":"1976-36-4","volume":36,"issue_number":4,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Witch Hazel Family (Hamamelidaceae)","article_sequence":1,"start_page":69,"end_page":109,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24676","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d0708526.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":3,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Witch Hazel by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Family (Hamamelidaceae) The Arnold Arboretum has claimed that there is a tree or shrub in bloom every month of the year on its grounds in Jamaica Plain, Mass. In many years this assertion is true, but only because of a single genus of plants, Hamamelis, the Witch Hazels. As December arrives, the last pale yellow flowers begin to fade on the Common Witch Hazel, H. virginiana, a native of the eastern United States. And with the New Year come the fragrant, bronzy flowers of the Vernal Witch Hazel, H. vernalis, closely followed by the bright and beautiful yellow blossoms of the Chinese species, H. mollis. The Witch Hazels belong to the Hamamelidaceae, a family of plants which are mostly neglected by the American horticultural public. Admittedly, the family is insignificant horticulturally compared with some others, for example, the Rose Family, as a result of the diversity and sheer number of its genera and species, and the Magnolia Family, because of the universal appeal of some of its members. But a high percentage of the species in the Hamamelidaceae are first class ornamentals, possessing charm, beautiful and often fragrant flowers, unusual blooming times, and brilliant autumnal coloration. Most also are easy to grow if the soil is light and loamy, and they bloom reasonably well in partial shade. In addition, they are not bothered by any serious diseases or insect pests. This article will present a brief discussion of all of the genera which are hardy in the northern half of the United States. Keys are provided for the identification of genera and species. The references listed are those which were consulted in the preparation of the article, and they are recommended for anyone desiring further information. Many of the species are rarely encountered in the American nursery trade, so sources are given if they exist. Nurseries are listed by name for each species and cultivar, with the addresses at the end of the article. Some, however, may not be current. For those willing to import plants from abroad, Hilliers' Nursery in Ampfield, Hampshire, England, lists all of the species treated here. I am most grateful to Mrs. Ida Burch, of the Arnold Arboretum staff, for preparing the list of the cultivars for the species treated here, for 69 Leaves of the Witch Hazel Family - 1\/3 life-size. A, Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana ; B, Parrotia persica; C, Corylopsis spicata; D, C. platypetala; E, C. pauciflora ; F, C. veitchiana; G, C. glabrescens; H, Fothergilla gardenii; 1, F. major; J, Hamamelis mollis; K, H. virginiana; L, H. japonica; M, H. vernalis; N, Loropetalum chinense. Leaves of the Witch Hazel Family - 1\/2 life-size. A, Liquidambar styraciflua; B, L. orientalis; C, Distylium racemosum; D, Sinowilsonia henryi; E, Disanthus cercidifolius; F, Sycopsis sinensis; G, Liquidambar formosana. 72I searching out the nursery sources for the species and cultivars, and for helping with the preparation of the leaf drawings. As they go through this article, many readers will wonder how such seemingly diverse plants could be classified in the same plant family. The basic features which are common to the Hamamelidaceae are: woody plants with simple, alternate leaves which are often uneven at the base; stipules which are deciduous soon after the leaves expand; apparently simplified, but actually very complicated flowers, often without petals or sepals, but with the parts present inserted on the rim of a \"floral cup\"; a pistil with two separate styles; fruit that is a hard, almost woody capsule splitting with two or four usually slender projections at the apex, these representing the hardened remains of the styles; and seeds usually hard and shiny and usually two per capsule. General family references: Bean, W. J. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles, editions 1-8. John Murray, London. Malmo, B. B. 1958. Hamamelidaceae. The University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin 21: 3-6, 30, 31. Sargent, C. S., ed. 1913. Plantae Wilsonianae. Hamamelidaceae by A. Rehder and E. H. Wilson, vol. 2, pp. 421-432. KEY TO THE CULTIVATED GENERA OF THE WITCH HAZEL FAMILY la. lb. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 5a. Leaves palmately lobed Liquidambar. Leaves unlobed (2). Flowers with conspicuous petals (3). Flowers without petals or with inconspicuous ones (6). Leaves palmately veined, without teeth along the margins; flowers borne back-to-back in pairs Disanthus. Leaves pinnately veined, with teeth along the margins; flowers borne in pendulous racemes or in tight clusters of 3-6. (4). Flowers in pendulous racemes; petals as long as broad, or slightly longer than broad, leaves with sharp-pointed, usually triangular teeth Corylopsis. Flowers in tight clusters of 3-6; petals long and slender, much longer than broad; leaves with fine, almost hairlike teeth, or with rounded ones (5). Petals white; leaves evergreen, with fine, almost hairlike teeth Loropetalum. 5b. 6a. 6b. Petals yellow, orange, bronzy, or reddish; leaves with coarse, round teeth Hamamelis. Trees with flaky, exfoliating bark; leaves with coarse, rounded teeth. Parrotia. Trees or shrubs with smooth or ridged bark (but not exfoliating); leaves without teeth along the margins or with sharp-pointed ones. Leaves evergreen, without teeth, or with a few inconspicuous, scattered ones above the middle (8). Leaves deciduous, with conspicuous teeth along the margin (9). 7a. (7). 7b. 1 73 8a. 8b. 9a. Flowers in dense, nodding clusters, the clusters surrounded at the base by fuzzy, brownish bracts Sycopsis. Flowers in upright racemes, without conspicuous bracts Distylium. 9b. Flowers in dense, upright heads or spikes, with conspicuous filaments much longer than the anthers; fruit clusters upright ( 10 ). Flowers in pendulous catkin-like spikes or in racemes, the filaments not particularly conspicuous, and about the same length as anthers; fruit clusters pendulous (11). Inflorescences surrounded at the base by conspicuous white bracts, as in Dogwoods; filaments threadlike Parrotiopsis. Inflorescences with white bracts at base; filaments thickened in upFothergilla. per portion Male and female flowers in the same inflorescence; flowers with inconspicuous petals; at least some of the teeth on the leaves triFortunearia. angular in shape Male and female flowers in different inflorescences; flowers completely apetalous; teeth on the margins of the leaves fine and bristle-like Sinowilsonia. 10a. lOb. lla. llb. Corylopsis Sieb. & Zucc. References: Bean, W. J. 1910. Winter Hazels Corylopsis veitchiana. Botanical Magazine 136: 8349. plate Li, Hui-Lin. 1962. The cultivated Corylopsis. Morris Arboretum Bulletin 13: 63-68. Morley, B. and Jew-Ming Chao. The genus Corylopsis S. & Z. (Hamamelidaceae). To be published in the Journal of the Arnold Arr boretum. , A genus of eight to twelve species native to the Himalayas, China and Japan, this is a group of fine ornamental plants. Their aspect in flower is completely different from that of any other hardy shrubs. The fragrant, soft yellow flowers are borne in pendent racemes from conspicuously zigzagged branches on the graceful, spreading plants. They are not splashy, and their fragrance is not strong, but they are distinctly charming and many of my colleagues here at the Arnold Arboretum place them among their favorite early-flowering shrubs. The flowers generally appear in early April, before the leaves have expanded. The individual flowers are somewhat bell-shaped with five broad petals, and vary from 14 to 1\/a inch long. The racemes may be as much as 3 inches long. The foliage is attractive through the summer, although not distinguished in its autumn coloration; the individual leaves resemble those of the Hazels (Corylus), accounting for the generic name which means \"a likeness to Corylus.\" The species treated here are all hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, although most are planted in one of our most sheltered spots, the Center Street Area. They would not be recommended for a climate any more harsh than ours. Even here the buds are occasionally winter-killed, and the flowers themselves are sometimes nipped by 74 I spring frosts. Cultural requirements would be the same as for Witch Hazels a good, rich soil and partial shade. They are most effective when planted in an informal situation, such as at the edge of woods or at the base of a large tree. The flowers will hold up well in water, and the form of the twigs and inflorescences are attractive in arrangements. - KEY TO THE SPECIES OF CORYLOPSIS la. lb. 2a. 2b. 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. 5a. 5b. Inflorescences (flower clusters) with 2-4 flowers; mature leaves C. pauciflora. usually less than 2 inches long Inflorescences with more than 5 flowers; mature leaves usually more than 2 inches long (2). Flowers greenish, small, individually 1\/4 inch long or less; flowerbearing winter buds slender, with a long tapering point; petioles C. platypetala. (leaf stalks) usually with glandular hairs. Flowers yellow, larger, individually ~\/8-1\/z inch long; flower-bearing winter buds egg-shaped, blunt; petioles sometimes hairy, but the hairs not gland-tipped (3). Leaf stalks and twigs with fine hairs (4). Leaf stalks and twigs glabrous (without hairs) (5). Inflorescences with less than 10 flowers C. spicata. Inflorescences with 11 or more flowers C. sinensis. Stalks and axis of inflorescences glabrous; anthers not protruding C. glabrescens. beyond the petals; capsules glabrous Stalks and axis of inflorescences pubescent; anthers protruding beC. veitchiana. yond the petals; capsule pubescent Corylopsis spicata H. Howard. in flower, with Prunus cyclamina in the background. Photo: 75 Corylopsis glabrescens Fr. & Sav. C. gotoana Makino A native of the mountains of Honshu and Kyushu, Japan, this species was introduced into cultivation from seeds collected by J. G. Jack for the Arnold Arboretum in 1905. It is one of the hardiest species, and at 4 to 6 feet, one of the lowest growing. The flowers are not as large as some of the other species, nor are they very fragrant. It is not commercially available in this country. Corylopsis pauciflora Sieb. & Zucc. Although native to Taiwan, Korea, and the island of Honshu, Japan, most plants in cultivation are probably of Japanese origin. This species is reputedly not as hardy as some of the others, but in my experience it appears to be about the most reliable for bloom here at the Arnold Arboretum. The pale yellow flowers are in the shortest clusters of any species in the genus, but they are also the largest among those of the hardy species, and they open more fully than most others. Since they also appear in profusion, this is perhaps the showiest species. The plant grows to about 10 feet tall here in New England. It is available from the following nurseries: Gossler Farms, Gulfstream, Hollandia, Malmo, and Tingle. Corylopsis platypetala Rehd. & Wils. This species, a native of western China, Wilson, who introduced it into cultivation. discovered by E. H. One of the plants from the original seeds is still growing at the Arnold Arboretum. The species is not vigorous here, although in England it grows to be 20 feet tall. It is the latest blooming of the hardy species, and also the least showy. The racemes are long, but the flowers are small and yellow-green. The species is not commercially available in this country, and is rare even in botanic gardens. Most of the plants grown as this species appear to be either C. sinensis or C. veitchiana. A close relative, and another Wilson introduction, C. wilmottiae Rehd. & Wils., is apparently not grown in this country, and there seems to be much confusion about its identity in general. A cultivar (the only one in the genus) said to be of this species is offered by Hilliers'. It is called 'Spring Purple' because of the most attractive plum-purple color of the spring growth. As a parent in hybridization, this clone could give rise to some particularly attractive plants. was sinensis Hemsl. Related to C. platypetala but more showy, this native of China was introduced by Wilson when he was collecting for Veitch and Son. It is somewhat tender here, and the only specimens at the Arnold Arboretum are still in the nursery. It is offered for sale by Dauber and Gossler Farms. Corylopsis 76 I Corylopsis spicata Sieb. & Zucc. A native of Japan, this is the oldest species in cultivation. It is distinctive because of its non-flaring petals and its projecting red anthers. It is an attractive species, but forms a rather large plant. The largest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is nearly 60 years old, and is 10 feet tall with a spread of 18 feet. A hybrid between this species and C. pauciflora ( the only one reported for the genus ) is being grown at Winterthur and the Morris Arboretum. From photographs, it appears to be most handsome, and it points out the ornamental possibilities of hybrids between other species. Corylopsis spicata is available from Brimfield and Hollandia. veitchiana Bean Another Wilson introduction for Veitch and Son, this native of western China is a particularly desirable species. In bloom and habit it resembles Corylopsis spicata, but the flowers are more open and there are more of them per raceme. In good years it is an attractive plant indeed. It is available in this country only from Tingle Corylopsis Nursery. Disanthus cercidifolius Maxim. Reference: Bean, W. J. 1917. Disanthus zine 143: plate 8716. cercidifolius. Curtis Botanical Maga- :1.`:::u~ i it i.ciiaiuiy iia~ v131d1IICIIld1 itLl1'lULILeS, this plant is probably more interesting than beautiful. The curious, faintly ill-smelling flowers somewhat resemble those of the Witch Hazels, but they are more star-shaped, with five tapering, dark red-purple petals rather than four strap-shaped, yellow or reddish ones. They appear in the autumn as the leaves are falling, when few other shrubs are in bloom, but although individually attractive, they are seldom sufficiently profuse to provide much of a show. The flowers are borne in a most unusual manner - in pairs, backthus obviously accounting for the derivato-back, on a short stalk tion of the generic name from the Greek dis, meaning \"twice,\" and anthos, meaning \"flower.\" The specific name meaning \"leaves of Cercis,\" the Redbud genus, alludes to a resemblance that has nothing to do with evolutionary relationships, Cercis belonging to the Legume Family. The leaves of the two are remarkably similar; but they are completely different from those of all of the other plants in the Witch Hazel Family. In fact, Disanthus, with D. cercidifolius the only species, is usually classified as a distinct subfamily of the Hamameli- daceae. Inflorescences of Corylopsis-Life-size. Upper left, C. veitchiana; upper right, C. spicata; below, C. pauciflora. Photos: P. Chvany. 78 I In the autumn the foliage of Disanthus turns a spectacular blend of reds, purples and oranges, even in the shaded position in which it seems to grow best. This along with its unusual flowers and elegant, spreading form would recommend it for more frequent cultivation. The plant is native to the islands of Shikoku and Honshu, Japan, and is apparently quite rare in the wild. We have not been able to keep it for more than a few years at the Arnold Arboretum; it is apparently hardy only in Zone 6. The only material offered in this country is seed, available from Schumacher. Distylium racemosum Sieb. & Zucc. Reference: Airy Shaw, H. K. 1937. Distylium racemosum. Curtis Botanical Magazine 160: plate 9501. Distylium is a genus of about eight species distributed through much of tropical and subtropical Asia, with extensions into the more temperate zones. This species, a native of Japan, Korea, and Taiwan, is the only one in cultivation in the West. It is more curious than ornamental. The evergreen leaves somewhat resemble those of our native Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia), and the flowers are conspicuous only for their large red anthers. Although becoming a small tree in the wild, cultivated specimens form stiff shrubs seldom more than 6 feet tall. Rehder lists the plant as being hardy in r7,.-... ~ uv.a.. ..~..1 ci .7..,...... ~w _. ~xl,..,t~:~.,.4,.~. T ! ....... T.., al.,=~ ., ..,t...9 ~4 ... n, ~.,.au .v ov...~.., ........,i....b.,...., ~......~...,........,~~ appears to be cultivated primarily in California, but sources have been located. Fortunearia sinensis Rehd. & Wils. no commercial Another plant of little ornamental value and therefore was rare in discovered by Wilson in China and originally described by Rehder and Wilson at the Arnold Arboretum. It is named for Robert Fortune, another great student of the plants of China and Japan. Vegetatively this species resembles Sinowilsonia henryi, which will be discussed later. The flowers are in inconspicuous drooping racemes. Rehder gives its hardiness as Zone 5, but the original plants survived here for but a few years. It is probably no longer present in cultivation in cultivation, Fortunearia sinensis, the only species, this country. Fothergilla L. Reference: Weaver, R. E., Jr. 1971. The Alders, The two known species of are restricted in the wild to the southeastern United States. Fothergillas. Amoldia 31: 89-96. Fothergilla, occasionally called Witch Disanthus cercidifolius, taken from Curtis Botanical 8716. Magazine, vol. 143, plate Distylium 9501. racemosum, taken from Curtis Botanical Magazine, vol. 160, plate 81 They quite similar in appearance except for stature, and they are the more desirable ornamentals in the Witch Hazel Family. among The flowers lack petals, the conspicuous parts being the twelve to thirty-two long, creamy-white, narrowly club-shaped staminal filaments. The individual flowers are tiny, but they are massed together into a dense, upright spike resembling a \"bottle-brush.\" The bloom is often profuse in cultivated specimens, so a plant in full flower is quite showy. The flowers are strongly scented, but the odor is of a type that is somewhat unpleasant to some people, myself excepted. Autumn coloration is spectacular, varying from red and orange in some specimens to mostly yellow in others. Bloom and autumn coloration are good even in partial shade, and both species grow well on poor, dry soils. are KEY TO THE SPECIES OF FOTHERGILLA la. lb. Flowers appearing with the leaves; leaves usually more than 2 inches broad, the margins toothed to near the base, spikes usually more than 11!~ inches long; tall shrub, 3-10 feet tall at maturity F. major. Flowers appearing before the leaves; leaves less than 2 inches broad, the margins toothed only above the middle; spikes less than llt_ inches long; low shrub, ll~r3 feet tall at maturity F. gardenii. Fothergilla major Lodd. This, the more ornamental of the two species, is native to the southern Appalachians where it typically grows on dry, sunny ridges. In the wild it is generally a straggling, stoloniferous shrub, attaining a maximum size of 20 feet. In cultivation it forms a more compact plant. Two growth forms are prevalent; one more or less erect, the other spreading. These have been considered to be two distinct species, Fothergilla major being the upright type, in addition to having leaves which are glaucous beneath, and F. monticola Ashe being spreading with leaves which are green on both surfaces. Intensive studies of wild populations have convinced me that F. monticola is not a valid species or even a variety. The plants observed in the wild are mostly of spreading habit, with both green- and glaucousleaved individuals growing side by side. Cultivated specimens are variable in other respects, including size of flowers and autumn coloration, but to date no clones have been selected and named as cultivars. the first half of May in New the Redbuds, and the two planted England, together produce a most pleasing effect. The finest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is planted just inside the Main Gate. This plant, 32 years old, is a shapely, rounded shrub 10 feet tall and about as broad. The species is perfectly hardy in Zone 5. It is available from Fothergilla major blooms during about the same time as Above: Flowering branches of Fothergilla major. mature Photo: D. Wyman. Right: Foliage and nearly Howard. capsules of Fothergilla major. Photo: H. 83 the following nurseries: Brimfield, Charles Fiore, stream, Panfield, Princeton, Weston. Hollandia, Gulf- Fothergilla gardenii Murr. F. alnifolia L.f. F. parviflora Kearney Native to the margins of swamps and pocosins on the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from Virginia to Alabama, Fothergilla gardenii is far less frequently cultivated than its more spectacular relative. Although it is generally less graceful in habit and may not bloom so profusely, it possesses most of the ornamental qualities of F. major, except on a smaller scale. In cultivation it is seldom more than 3 feet tall. It is slightly less hardy than F. major, and the Arnold Arboretum has lost the species a number of times. The plants presently in our collections are still quite young; they are best observed on Bussey Hill near the Dove Tree. As in Fothergilla major, glaucous-leaved forms of F. gardenii occur in the wild. One of these has been given the cultivar name 'Glaucophylla', but it is doubtfully in the trade at present. The species is available only from Hollandia (as F. alnifolia), and from Gerard K. Klyn. 84I Flowers of Hamamelis (twice life-size), showing the intermediate nature of H. X intermedia 'Arnold Promise' (upper right) compared with its parent .,u ..,~n:., r,... _ r..ca...,.a v : .. ,. r.,.. pi,.,...... _. ,.~ z_r__ These drawings were prepared by Robin Lefberg and were made possible by a grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust. Hamamelis L. Witch Hazel References: 1970. Complete guide to Hamamelis - the Witch Hazels. Gardeners Chronicle 167 (21) 32-35; (23) 26-29; (24) 24-27. Peattie, D. C. 1966. A natural history of trees, ed. 2. Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Rehder, A. 1945. Notes on some cultivated trees and shrubs. Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 26: 67-78. Youngken, H. W. 1936. A textbook of pharmacognosy, ed. 4. P. Blakiston's Sons, Philadelphia. Lancaster, R. The genus Hamamelis, the Witch Hazels, after which the family takes its name, consists of four or five species. Most of them are outstanding ornamentals still little appreciated by the American horticultural public. Even if they bloomed in the month of May, the I 85 height of the flowering season for woody plants in New England, they would be well worth growing for their visually delicate, fragrant, spidery flowers. But the fact that the various species bloom from September through March makes them indispensable for northern gardeners who want a year-round display from their flowering shrubs. The flowers of Witch Hazels are borne in tight, usually outward or downward facing clusters of three to six. The four petals, yellow, orange, bronzy, or reddish, are long and strap-shaped and unfold in a most unusual manner - similar to the uncoiling of fern fiddleheads. It seems almost incredible that such delicate structures can withstand temperatures near 0 F. without damage. But they do this quite well, coiling up on very cold days and uncoiling in milder weather. Equally incredible is the fact that the individual flowers remain fresh for 6 weeks or more. The four sepals are often colored a deep wine red on the inside, presenting a pleasing contrast to the paler petals. They persist after the petals have fallen and are then decorative in their own right. Autumn coloration of the foliage is an added ornamental feature, the color varying from bright yellow to shades of orange and red. The name \"Witch Hazel\" is of uncertain origin. Almost certainly the last part is due to the resemblance of the leaves to those of Corylus, the true Hazels. But the \"witch\" probably has nothing to do with those unsavory characters who ride on brooms or were burned at the stake in Salem. It is probably derived from the word wych, meaning \"to bend,\" applied because of the tough, limber branches of the plants. Whether the \"witching rods,\" which doubtfully bend toward underground water, or \"Witch Hazel,\" their traditional source, came first is like the proverbial chicken and egg. A preparation made from the leaves and bark of Hamamelis virginiana has long been a standard item in barber shops and bathrooms. Its astringent and antiseptic properties, however, are probably due to the alcohol in which it is extracted, but it does have a nice smell. Witch Hazels prefer a deep rich soil, and partial shade. Given these conditions they generally live and bloom for many years. The following discussion of the species and cultivars of Hamamelis will be brief because of the existence of an excellent article on the subject by Roy Lancaster (cited above), Curator of the Hillier Gardens and Arboretum, Ampfield, England. These plants are much more popular in Europe than here, and many of the fine cultivars are not available in this country. In general, the cultivars here mentioned are those that are in the American nursery trade. All species and cultivars are hardy in Zone 5, with H. virginiana and probably H. vernalis also in Zone 4. Our collection here at the Arnold Arboretum is somewhat scattered, but the main concentrations are in the Center Street Area and around the moist depression occupied by Leitneria floridana, between the Buckeyes and the Tree Legumes. 86 KEY TO THE SPECIES OF HAMAMELIS la. Plants Plants blooming from September through December H. virginiana. lb. 2a. (2). blooming from January through March Margins of the leaves with teeth to their base; leaves conspicuously hairy beneath into the summer, feeling soft and felty to the touch (3). 2b. Margins of the leaves with teeth only in the upper two-thirds; leaves somewhat hairy beneath when unfolding, but soon becoming smooth (4). 3a. 3b. 4a. 4b. H. X intermedia. Petals crinkled; flowers faintly fragrant H. mollis. Petals not crinkled; flowers strongly fragrant Petals short, 1\/=;~8 inch long, not crinkled; densely branched shrub H. vernalis. with strongly ascending branches Petals more than 1\/2 inch long, crinkled; shrub or small tree with H. japonica. spreading branches Hamamelis X intermedia Rehd. This is not a species at all, but rather a hybrid between the Chinese Hamamelis mollis and the Japanese H. japonica. It was first described from seedlings raised at the Arnold Arboretum in 1929. Seeds had been collected the previous year from the specimens of H. mollis on the grounds. None of the resulting plants turned out to be true H. mollis, but rather were intermediate between this species and H. japonica, also present in the Arboretum collections. Several of these plants are still alive Onlv one nf them thp rvlahratcr~ 'Arnold Promise', was propagated and registered as a The plants of Hamamelis X intermedia in our collection are large shrubs with several strongly ascending trunks. They begin to bloom in mid- to late February and remain in good condition until the middle of March. Several outstanding cultivars are described below. cultivar. 'Arnold Promise' - In good years, the original plant of this cultivar is a joy to behold. It is planted to the side of the Administration Building, right outside the window by my desk, and it never fails to lift my spirits during the dark days of February. It is certainly the best Witch Hazel at the Arnold Arboretum. The flowers have stiffly drooping, bright yellow petals and sepals which are mahogany inside. Although produced in abundance, they are only faintly fragrant. The original plant, after 47 years, is 17 feet tall with a spread of 18 feet. The cultivar is available from the following nurseries : Carroll, Hess, Herman Losely, Panfield, Princeton, Weston. 'Jelena'- This cultivar ers are was originally raised in Belgium. The flowand the petals yellow suffused with copper. Our plants large, are still small, but they are most attractive. According to Lancaster, the cultivars 'Copper Beauty' and 'Orange Beauty' are identical to this. It is available from Hollandia and West Oregon. The original plant of Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise' beside the Administration Building at the Arnold Arboretum. As shown here, the flowers of this Februaryblooming plant are often covered with snow. 88 Again of Belgian origin, this has the reddest flowers of Witch Hazel available. The petals are medium red with a tinge any of copper. It is often erroneously listed as a cultivar of Hamamelis japonica. It is available from the following nurseries: Charles Fiore, Hess, Hollandia, Tingle, West Oregon. 'Ruby Glow' - Hamamelis japonica Sieb. & Zucc. This native of Japan is generally a large shrub or small tree, but the cultivar 'Arborea' may reach a height of nearly 40 feet. The flowers appear in late February at the Arnold Arboretum; they are finished about the same time as those of the Hamamelis X intermedia cultivars and therefore do not lengthen the period of bloom for the genus. The flowers are large and spidery with narrow petals, those in the type of the species being bright yellow. Although some of the European cultivars are apparently quite beautiful, the plants offered in this country are inferior to the H. X intermedia cultivars. The species is offered by Charles Fiore, and the cultivar 'Rubra' (probably the same as 'Flavo-purpurascens') with yellow petals suffused with red at the base, is available from Tingle Nursery. Hamamelis mollis Oliv. A native of Central China, this species was first introduced by Charles Maries and was later also collected by E. H. Wilson. Several of our plants originate from Wilson's collections. Although in England plants of this species are often of ascending habit, the RnPrttnPnc at tloa Arnnlrl A,-h~=or.,......~~~-' ...-.. shiubs ui small trees. The largest specimen, a sparse shrub with two main trunks, is 11 feet tall with a spread of 30 feet. The flowers appear here about the middle to the end of January, and individually are the handsomest in the genus, in my opinion. The sepals are mahogany inside and the petals are broad, bright yellow, and not crinkled. The flowers have a strong fragrance, so strong as to be almost overpowering when kept in a small room. Our specimens are never as floriferous as is 'Arnold Promise'. Following 'Brevipetala' of the cultivars which are available: The flowers of this plant have shorter petals than those of the species, but they are packed in dense clusters. It has the unfortunate attribute of holding its dead leaves into the winter, thus somewhat obscuring the flowers. The plant is available from: are some - Brimfield, Weston, Tingle. `Superba' - This is probably not a genuine cultivar, but rather a collection of selected clones of the species. It is available from Weston Nurseries. Flowers of Witch Hazels - Twice life-size. Above: Hamamelis japonica 'Flavopurpurascens', a cultivar of the Japanese Witch Hazel with petals that are red at the base. Below: Hamamelis )( intermedia ']elena', a fine coppery-orange flowered plant. Photos: P. Chvany. Flowering branch of Hamamelis vernalis, the Vernal (twice life-size). Photo: P. Chvany. or Ozark Witch Hazel I - 91 This is mentioned because it is supposedly one of the finest 'Pallida' of all the Witch Hazels, as well as one of the most popular in Europe. The flowers are large, densely crowded, with bright yellow petals. It is not available in this country. Hamamelis vernalis Sarg. The Vernal or Ozark Witch Hazel is a native of the Ozark Mountains of Missouri, Arkansas and Oklahoma. It was originally described by Charles Sargent, the first Director of the Arnold Arboretum, and the type plant is still in our collections. This is the shrubbiest of the Witch Hazels, and also the one with the smallest flowers; unlike the others previously described, its autumn coloration is a clear yellow. The flowers, with short petals varying from pale orange to bronzy-red, are borne in great profusion and are strongly fragrant. They appear in January at the Arnold Arboretum, often during the first week of the month. Our mature specimens are immense; the 68-year-old plant by the parking lot of the Administration Building is a dense shrub 11 feet tall with a spread of 27 feet. Alfred Rehder described a number of forms of this species, including f. carnea, with dark reddish petals, and f. tomentella, with leaves pale and pubescent beneath. The latter is available in the trade, as \"tomentosa,\" from Tingle Nursery. The species is rarely cultivated, but is a desirable plant. Its large size should not be a problem since it is easily restrained. It is available from the following nurseries: Brimfield, Cole, Charles Fiore, Greenbriar, Gulfstream, Lake Co., Princeton, Panfield, Tingle. Hamamelis virginiana L. This is the familiar Witch Hazel of eastern North America. It is a plant of the understory or the margin of forests from Canada to Georgia, and west to Nebraska. The pale yellow flowers open while the leaves are still green, and then are not conspicuous. As the leaves fall in October and November, the flowers become much more noticeable, and in good years this is a very attractive plant. Plants in the wild are often sparse and straggling, but in cultivation form shapely large shrubs or small trees. At the Arnold Arboretum an old specimen, probably a spontaneous plant, is 20 feet tall with a spread of 34 feet. The largest of the numerous trunks is a foot in circumference. A more southern plant with leaves that are more nearly lobed than toothed, and with flowers which appear in November, has been called a separate species, Hamamelis macrophylla Pursh. It is similar to H. virginiana in other respects, and is perhaps only a variety of that species. Hamamelis virginiana is readily available in the trade. It is listed by the following nurseries: Charles Fiore, Cole, Forest, Greenbriar, Gulfstream, Herman Losely, Lake Co., Mellingers, Princeton, Pan- field, Tingle. 92 Liquidambar L. Sweet Gum References: Collins, W. H. 1964. New trees in the trade. American Nurseryman 120 (3): 34. Peattie, D. C. 1966. A natural history of trees, ed. 2, Houghton Mifflin Co., Boston. Santamour, F. S. 1972. Interspecific hybridization in Liquidambar. Forest Science 18: 23-26. Ware, G. 1970. A sketch of the sweetgums. Morton Arboretum Quarterly 6 ( 1 ) : 5-11. Many readers will be surprised to find that this genus is a member of the Witch Hazel Family. With their palmately lobed leaves and fruits in spherical, spiny, pendent aggregates, the plants bear very little obvious resemblance to the Common Witch Hazel. A number of botanists are also skeptical about the inclusion of Liquidambar within the family. They would prefer to classify it and its close Asiatic relative in a separate family, the Altingiaceae. But detailed examination of the flowers and fruits of the Sweet Gums reveals many features basically similar to those of the other plants treated in this article. And Sweet Gum leaves are basically the same as those of Disanthus, except that they are lobed. But enough of taxonomy. The genus Liquidambar consists of three species, widely separated geographically. All are handsome trees with maple-like leaves (but those of Maples are opposite) on long, slender petioles. The flowers appear .w,......., ... uaa uW. not uci,vJlaeivc. T11G~' d1C UViIIC lIl dense, spherical clusters, the \"males\" consisting almost entirely of stamens, in clusters of clusters, like an upright bunch of grapes. The \"females\" are usually in a solitary, drooping cluster. The generic name, derived from the Latin liquidus, meaning \"fluid,\" and the Arabic ambar, meaning \"amber,\" alludes to the aromatic but bitter tasting gum which the trees exude. This substance has long been used by man, primarily as an incense or in perfumes, but also as a hopeful cure for a long series of ills. Historically derived from the Turkish species, Liquidambar orientalis, but present in the other species as well, the gum does appear to have some value as an expectorant and in the treatment of bronchial disorders. The aromatic principle is present in most parts of the plants, and the leaves and twigs are fragrant when crushed. A magnificent specimen of Liquidambar formosana wild in China. Photo: E. H. Wilson. var. monticola growing 94 KEY TO THE SPECIES OF LIQUIDAMBAR la. Mature leaves with 3 lobes; fruit aggregates with long bristles between the capsules, appearing and feeling bristly rather than spiny; L. formosana. winter buds densely silky-hairy Mature leaves with 5-7 lobes; fruit aggregates without bristles, appearing and feeling spiny; winter buds not hairy, except on the (2). margins of the scales Main lobes of the leaves with smaller lobes near the apex; branchL. orientalis. lets without corky ridges Main lobes of the leaves without secondary lobes; branchlets usuL. styraciflua. ally with conspicuous corky ridges........... ... . lb. 2a. 2b. Liquidambar formosana Hance A native tree through much of central and southern China, as well as the island of Taiwan and parts of Southeast Asia, this species is rare in cultivation in the United States except in California. According to Rehder and Wilson in Plantae Wilsonianae, mature trees in the wild often form majestic specimens as much as 125 feet tall with straight trunks and a much-branched crown. The leaves turn red or chestnut-brown in the autumn, and remain on the tree into the winter. A variety, monticola, of this species, discovered by Wilson and introduced by him, differs little from the species except that its young growth is glabrous. However, plants grown from this Wilson material are considerably hardier than others of the species. They .e:~' :. ,. asfar :W i tm a' iiW aueipiiia, a very nne specimen being among the plantings of the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation on the campus of Swarthmore College. Unfortunately, the plants from Wilson's collection survived on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum for less than 10 years; the few subsequent trials have also met with failure. Plants of L. formosana are offered by Boething Treeland and Central Nursery Co. Liquidambar orientalis Mill. Even rarer in cultivation than the preceding species is this native of the mountains of Turkey. It is slow-growing in cultivation, usually forming a low, bushy tree. Rehder characterizes it as being hardy in Zone 6, and no specimen has lived for more than 9 years at the Arnold Arboretum. Liquidambar styraciflua L. The Sweet Gum is a native tree in the Ohio and Mississippi River and in the Atlantic Coast states as far north as Long Island and western Connecticut. It typically is a plant of wet lowland forests where it reaches its greatest size. The largest specimen on record, in Richland Co., S.C. (American Forests, Jan. 1971), is 125 feet tall, its trunk more than 6 feet in diameter. However, in much valleys A mature specimen of the American Sweet to : H. Howard. , Gum, Liquidambar styraciflua. Pho- Liquidambar styraciflua. From Sargent, C. S. The Silva of North America, vol. 5, plate 199. Included are: flowering twig (1 ) with male inflorescences (upright), female inflorescence (pendent); cross-section of former (3); cross-section of latter (6); individual female flowers (7,8) ; seeds (12); on twigs (16). corky ridges Detail of 97 of the Southeast, Sweet Gum is almost a weed tree, growing commonly along roadsides and in old fields. It is a handsome and desirable tree in cultivation. Most everything about it is attractive: its fragrant, glossy, star-shaped leaves; its spiny, globe-shaped fruit aggregates, remaining on the tree into the winter and a favorite component of \"cone wreaths\" and other winter decorations; its bark, silvery when young but dark and deeply furrowed with age; its twigs, with their curious, corky ridges; its form, symmetrical and pyramidal when young, but eventually with a tall, rounded crown; its ease of culture and its freedom from pests; and perhaps best, its autumnal coloration. This last feature varies from individual to individual sometimes a deep burgundy, sometimes a brighter red, but perhaps most commonly, a crazy-quilt pattern of colors from primrose to purple. The Sweet Gum is eastern one of a number of familiar plants of our forests, including White pine (Pinus strobus) and Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), which also occur in disjunct populations in the mountains of Mexico and Guatemala. I had forgotten that fact when, early in my graduate student days, I made a 3-month trip to Central America for course work and plant collecting. By the end of that summer I was anxious to get home, but I needed to stop in Mexico to collect a plant that was important to my research. I was also most anxious to see the great snow-covered volcanoes that lie on the eastern edge of the Valley of Mexico. Luckily, I had a collection locality near the base of one of these mountains, Citlaltepetl or the Pico de Orizaba. I arose early, and from my hotel window in the town of Orizaba I could see the very peak of the mountain over the buildings of the town. I caught a bus that I thought would take me close to my collecting site and the mountain. This time the mountain had priority, because tropical mountains have an annoying habit of covering themselves with clouds early in the day, not to reveal themselves again. I searched out a clearing in the forest, and there before me was the magnificent mountain, framed by, of all things, a Sweet Gum tree. One of my fondest memories to date is that morning - the Sweet Gum and the mountain, my feelings a mixture of awe, exhilaration, strangeness, famil- and homesickness. But enough of nostalgia. The Mexican Sweet Gums were the first of their species known to Europeans. The chronicler of Cortez' rape of the Aztecs reportedly recognized the smell of \"liquidamber\" in the tobacco which Montezuma offered the Spaniards (see the book by D.C. Peattie cited iarity above). The gum which is the source of \"liquidamber\" is still harvested from trees in the South and used as an aromatic in soaps, perfumes, and tobacco. According to Peattie, the bark of the trees is peeled off when the leaves have fully expanded. The gum gathers slowly and is scraped off, eventually to be heated and canned. 98I The wood of the Sweet Gum has become very important in cabinetmaking. The heartwood, called Red Gum or Gumwood, has an attractive grain and a pinkish or ruddy color. All of the wood takes a high polish. All in all, this plant is one of North America's finest trees. Several cultivars have recently been named. Short descriptions of these, with their commercial sources, follow. striped and mottled with flecks of gold - Lake County Nursery. `Burgundy' at least in California, the leaves turning a uniform burgundy color later than other clones, and persisting on the - 'Aurea' - leaves Cole, Monrovia. fast growing, with an upright crown; leaves coloring yellow with tinges of peach - Cole, Monrovia. Forest Nursery. 'Gum Ball' - slow growing and bush-like 'Palo Alto' - leaves changing simultaneously to a rich orange-red; tree with a uniform pyramidal crown - Cole, Lights, Monrovia, Peters & Wilson. 'Pendula' - habit erect, but with pendent branches - source unknown. 'Rotundiloba' -lobes of leaves rounded rather than pointed; primarily a curiosity source unknown. 'Variegata' - leaves broad, mottled with yellow - Hess, Scanlon. - tree into the winter - 'Festival' - - Dr. Frank Santamour, of the U.S. National Arboretum, has produced hybrids between all three of the species. These have not been distributed, and their ornamental possibilities are not known. Loropetalum chinense Oliv. References :-. Creech, J. L. 1960. On the distribution of Loropetalum chinense. American Horticultural Magazine 39: 236. B. 1904. Loropetalum chinense. Curtis Botanical 130: plate 7979. Wilson, E. H. 1911. Loropetalum chinense. Horticulture 14: 799. Helmsley, W. Magazine This plant, which has been called the Chinese Fringe Shrub, is related to Hamamelis, and the flowers of the two are similar closely in shape, size, and arrangement. Those of Loropetalum, however, have white petals. The two genera are amply distinct in additional features, particularly the foliage. The leaves of Loropetalum chinense, the only species known, are usually less than 2 inches long; they have fine, almost hairlike teeth along the margins, and they are evergreen, at least south of Washington, D.C. Forming a twiggy shrub with horizontal branches, and growing to about 8 feet tall in cultivation with fragrant flowers appearing Loropetalum chinense, 7979. taken from Curtis Botanical Magazine, vol. 130, plate 100 early spring, but sporadically throughchinense would appear to be a most desirable plant for cultivation in the warmer parts of the United States. At present it appears to be grown mostly in California. None of the plants in cultivation is hardy north of Zone 7, or possibly Zone 6 with protection. The species is native to low elevations in the Khasia Hills of India, throughout much of southern China, and a single locality on the island of Honshu, Japan. It was introduced into cultivation by Charles Maries for the famous nursery of Veitch and Son in 1880 from a collection made in the vicinity of Chiukiang (Kiukiang) in the province of Chianghsi Sheng (Kiangsi), China (Wilson, E. H. 1913. A Naturalist in Western China, vol. 2, p. 3.). For years, all plants in cultivation were evidently grown from this material, and since the original collection site is less than 1000 feet elevation (at Latitude 30N., approximately that of Jacksonville, Florida), they were tender even in most parts of England. The species was generally grown as a tub plant set outside in the summer and wintered in a cool greenhouse where it would produce flowers from Christmas until March. Ernest Wilson wrote a short article for Horticulture (cited above) which outlined the procedure. Wilson also collected the plant in several localities in China, but it is not known whether or not he sent back seeds. At any rate, no plants of Wilson origin ever were displayed on the grounds here in Jamaica Plain. More recently, plants have in cultivarinn that aTP hawrw as far north as Washington, D.C. and Baltimore. The original source of this material is not known, but most likely it is Japanese. At any rate, the Japanese plants would be hardier than any known from China or India, and they would show the most promise as the source of plants more amenable to wider culture in the United States. Loropetalum chinense is available from: Hearn, Mitsch. mostly in the late winter and out the year, Loropetalum appeared Parrotia persica C. A. Mey. References: Hooker, J. B. 1868. Parrotia persica. Curtis Botanical Magazine 94: plate 5744. Mey, E. C. 1967. Parrotia persica. Gardeners Chronicle 162 ( 8 ) : 7. This species, again alone in its genus, is one of the largest members of the Witch Hazel Family that can be cultivated in the northern United States. Although the species is moderately slow-growing and under certain conditions is almost shrubby in habit, the specimen at the Arnold Arboretum in the Center Street Area is a magnificent tree perhaps one of the finest specimen plants on the grounds. Started as a cutting from the Harvard Botanical Garden in 1881, it is now 55 feet tall with eight trunks, the largest of which is 3 1\/2 feet in circumference. The total spread is 55 feet. Although they - Trunks of the fine specimen of Parrotia persica ing the exfoliating bark. Photo: H. Howard. at the Arnold Arboretum, show- be trained to grow with a single trunk, most cultivated speciof this species in various parts of the world seem to have this multi-stemmed habit. However, Mr. Roy Lancaster reports that the trees that he observed in their native habitat, which is northern Iran and the Caucasus Mountains of the southern U.S.S.R., usually grow with a single trunk unbranched for a considerable distance. The leaves of Parrotia persica are strongly reminiscent of those of Hamamelis with an uneven base and shallow but coarse, rounded teeth above the middle; sometimes the teeth are barely discernible, and the margin appears merely wavy. The autumn coloration of the foliage is one of the tree's attractions; it develops the brilliant blend of reds, oranges and yellows so typical of many members of the can mens family. The flowers are not particularly conspicuous. They appear before the leaves, in late April to early May at the Arnold Arboretum, and are borne in small clusters enclosed by several dark brown, hairy bracts. Petals and sepals are absent, the most conspicuous feature being the numerous, red anthers. Although our specimen rarely blooms profusely, specimens in England have been described as being a haze of red when in full bloom. Parrotia persica, taken from Curtis Botanical Magazine, vol. 94, plate 5744. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana, plate 7501. taken front Curtis Botanical Magazine, vol. 122, 104I The bark of the tree and the forms of its trunks are perhaps the ornamental features of Parrotia. The trunks are slightly ridged and tightly covered with a bark that exfoliates in a mottled pattern of shades of grey. These attributes are particularly effective when the tree is allowed to develop several trunks. The species was apparently introduced into cultivation in the West from several plants sent from Leningrad (then St. Petersburg) to Kew around 1840. It is rare in cultivation in this country, which is a great shame since a well-grown specimen is magnificent indeed. Perfectly hardy in many parts of the country, it has a rating of Zone 5, according to Rehder, although it certainly could be grown in parts of Zone 4. Hilliers' in England lists a form of this species, 'Pendula', with drooping branches, slow growth, and a maximum height of 10 feet. This clone is unavailable in the United States, but the species is listed by the following nurseries: Brimfield, Daubers, Gossler Farms, most Hollandia, Hess, Tingle. Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana (Decne.) Rehd. Reference: Hooker, J. D. 1896. Parrotia jacquemontiana. Curtis Botanical cultivation in the United States, this rather handsome species is related to Fothergilla. and was originallv described as a member of that genus. It also has been classified as a species of Parrotia, although its resemblance to Parrotia persica is slight indeed. The flowers appear before the leaves, in late April or early May in New England. They resemble those of Fothergilla in that they are without petals, and they are borne in dense head-like clusters, appearing as tufts of stamens. But unlike Fothergilla, the clusters are surrounded at the base by a series of white bracts, and the assemblage, which may be as much as 2 inches across, is similar to the inflorescence of the Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida). The plant is attractive in flower, but unlike many members of the Witch Hazel Family, the coloration of the autumn foliage is not Magazine 122: plate 7501. Again a plant little known in spectacular. Native to the is the only species of its genus. Himalayas and adjacent ranges in India, particularly Kashmir, Pakistan, and Afghanistan, it is locally abundant between 2800 and 9000 feet elevation, forming dense stands. Natives of the area use the tough, flexible twigs in wickerwork and for making rope that is used in the construction of crude suspension bridges. In Parrotiopsis jacquemontiana cultivation in this country it forms 20 feet tall. a shrub or slender tree to about of a dried specimen of Sinowilsonia henryi showing of female flowers. Portion an inflorescence The plant was discovered in 1838, and was introduced into cultivation at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1879. The Arnold Arboretum received its first plants from Kew in 1910. These survived for 35 years, the longest period of time that we have been able to keep the species alive. Therefore, although Rehder, in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, lists it as being hardy in Zone 5, Parrotiopsis would require a sheltered position to do well in central New England. There are several specimens thriving at the Arnold Arboretum at present; one by the cold storage unit of the Dana Greenhouses, and another on Bussey Hill, but they have not yet attained flowering size. Although perhaps more popular in Europe, Parrotiopsis marily grown in botanic gardens and arboreta in the United It is not is priStates. commercially available in this country. 106I Sinowilsonia henryi Hemsl. Reference: Helmsley, W. B. 1909. Sinowilsonia tarum 29: plate 2817. The Latin name henryi. Hooker's Icones Plan- of this plant commemorates two indefatigable plant explorers, E. H. Wilson and Augustine Henry. The former introduced it into cultivation for the Arnold Arboretum from material collected in western Hupeh, China, in 1907. Seeds from this collection were distributed to various botanic gardens, and apparently were the ultimate source of all the plants presently in cultivation. The specimens at the Arnold Arboretum survived for about 25 years. Unsuccessful attempts have been made to re-establish the species from seeds obtained from the fine specimen at the Planting Fields Arboretum on Long Island. This plant, more than 20 feet tall with a trunk a foot in diameter, is probably the best specimen in North America. Although not unattractive, Sinowilsonia, again a genus with a single known species, is mostly grown for its botanical interest. The foliage, resembling that of a Linden, is somewhat coarse and does not color well in the fall. The staminate (\"male\") and pistillate (\"female\") flowers are borne in separate catkin-like clusters on an individual plant in May and are not conspicuous. 107 Sycopsis sinensis Oliver Of the five or so species of Sycopsis, all of them native to the Himalayas and China, this is the only one in cultivation. It is an attractive evergreen shrub, growing to about 8 feet tall in cultivation. The leaves are dull-textured, oval, narrow and pointed, sometimes with a few inconspicuous teeth along the margin. The flowers are somewhat similar to those of Parrotia persica; that is, surrounded by brownish bracts and conspicuous only because of the large reddish anthers. Rehder lists this plant as being hardy in Zone 7, and it does well in Washington, D.C. Plants have never survived here for more than a few years. Although there are many more attractive broad-leaved evergreens, Sycopsis sinensis is worthy of more frequent cultivation. It is extremely rare in this country, but is offered by Hollandia Gardens. PROPAGATION References: Bailey, L. H. 1942. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture, ed. 4. Macmillan Co., New York. Fordham, A. J. 1971. The propagation of Fothergilla. Arnoldia 31: 256-259. Schopmeyer, C. S., ed. 1974. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. U.S.D.A. Handbook #450. Little has been published on the propagation of the members of the Witch Hazel Family. The seeds of Liquidambar germinate readily after cold stratification for several months, but those of Fothergilla are doubly dormant and must be subjected to warm stratification (optimally for twelve months) followed by cold stratification. It is to be expected that most other members of the family should be treated like Fothergilla. Since the seeds of both Hamamelis and Fothergilla are forcefully ejected from the capsules at maturity, the capsules should be collected just as they are beginning to turn brown. Layering appears to be an effective means of propagating several genera, particularly if it is done in the spring. Plants of many, such as Fothergilla and Corylopsis, are readily increased by division. Softwood cuttings of Fothergilla root readily, and the other genera are probably similar in this respect, but they have trouble surviving their first winter after transplanting. Therefore, the cutting flats should be moved intact into a cold-storage unit, without disturbing the cuttings, to induce dormancy. Portion of a dried specimen of Sycopsis sinensis showing the conspicuous thers and the dark brown bracts at the base of the inflorescence. an- 108 ADDRESSES OF NURSERY SOURCES Boething Treeland Farms 23475 Ventura Boulevard, Woodland Hills, California 91364 Retail Brimfield Gardens Nursery 245 Brimfield Road, Wethersfield, Connecticut 06109 Retail Carroll Gardens East Main Street Ext., Westminster, Maryland 21157 Retail and Wholesale Central Nursery Company 2675 Johnson Avenue, San Luis Obispo, California 93401 Wholesale Cole Nursery Company, Inc. 3 30627 Orr Road, Circleville, Ohio 43113 Wholesale Dauber's Nurseries 1705 North George Street, Box 1746, York, Pennsylvania 17405 Retail and Wholesale Forest Nursery Company 0 Route 2, Box 118-A, McMinnville, Tennessee 37110 Wholesale Gossler Farms Nursery 1200 Weaver Road, Springfield, Oregon 97477 Retail Greenbrier Farms Ltd. 412 Thrasher Road, Chesapeake, Virginia 23320 Wholesale C~If u. uoa,y, (~1F ~y..~~ nTU_______ uii.. n_ 2014201420142014201420142014201420142014 Wachapreague, Virginia 23480 Wholesale Hearn Nurseries Arcadia, California 91006 Hess Nurseries, Inc. P.O. Box 326, Route 553, Cedarville, New Jersey 08311 1 Wholesale Hollandia Gardens 10725-39th Avenue N.E., Seattle, Washington 98125 Wholesale Gerard K. Klyn, Inc. 6784 Hopkins Road, Mentor, Ohio 44060 Wholesale Lake County Nursery Exchange, Inc. Box 122, Route 84, Perry, Ohio 44081 Wholesale Light's Landscape Nurserymen 9153 East D Avenue, Richland, Michigan 49083 Retail and Limited Wholesale Herman Losely & Son 3410 Shepard Road, Perry, Ohio 44081 Wholesale Malmo Wholesale Nurseries 14900 Stone Avenue, Seattle, Washington 98133 Wholesale 109 Mellinger's, Inc. 2310 West South Retail Range, North Lima, Ohio 44452 Wholesale Mitsch Nursery Route 2, Box 34, Aurora, Oregon 97002 Wholesale Monrovia Nursery Company P.O. Box Q, 18331 East Foothill Boulevard, Azusa, California 91702 Wholesale Panfield Nurseries, Inc. 322 Southdown Road, Huntington, New York 11743 Retail and Wholesale Peters & Wilson Nursery East Millbrae Avenue & Rollins Road, Millbrae, California 94030 Princeton Nurseries P.O. Box 191, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 Wholesale Rosedale Nurseries Sawmill River Parkway, Hawthorne, New York 10532 Retail Edward H. Scanlon & Associates, Inc. 7621 Lewis Road, Olmstead Falls, Ohio 44138 Wholesale F. W. Schumacher Co., Horticulturists Sandwich, Massachusetts 02563 Select Nurseries 12831 East Central Avenue, Brea, California 92621 Wholesale The Tingle Nursery Company Pittsville, Maryland 21850 Wholesale West Oregon Nursery 3550 N. W. Saltzman Road, Portland, Oregon 97229 Weston Nurseries East Main Street, Hopkinton, Massachusetts 01748 Retail and Wholesale "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Nikita Botanic Garden, Yalta, USSR","article_sequence":2,"start_page":110,"end_page":116,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24675","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070816d.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":3,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Nikita Botanic Garden, Yalta, USSR by RICHARD A. HOWARD ~ International Botanical Congress held in Leningrad Mrs. Howard and I participated in a post-Congress tour to the Crimea, with headquarters in Yalta. The trip was arranged, as is all travel in the Soviet Union, by Intourist, and we were accompanied by an Intourist guide and twin girl interpreters selected by the Academy of Sciences. The girls, English teachers by profession, had received special instructions in botanical and horticultural vocabulary in anticipation of the Congress, and were pleasant, efficient, interested in our fields, and excellent representatives of the Soviet people. In Yalta our group was met by Nikita Botanic Garden staff members who accompanied us for four days on bus tours to the Botanic Garden; on an exciting mountain trip through conservation lands to the taiga vegetation; to historic houses and gardens, such as those a~ Livauia Paiace where Kooseveit, Churchill and Stalin signed the Yalta agreement; and through many agricultural areas of cereal grains, tobacco and stone fruits. It was an excellent tour, and perhaps the best of those offered by the Congress. Fortunately we had preplanned our trip to fly from the Crimea to Kiev, instead of returning to Moscow before leaving the Soviet Union. Thus we had two extra days in Yalta, during which time we returned to the Nikita Botanic Garden for additional personal conversations with the director and the staff, and for closer examination of the facilities and collections. We enjoyed the hospitality extended to us and would like to repay the kindness in Boston, although such an opportunity seems unlikely as the Nikita staff does not travel abroad. The majority of the botanical gardens in the Soviet Union are state-supported and, in their operation, effect a combination of the roles of agricultural experiment stations and botanical gardens in the United States. The purpose of the Nikita Botanic Garden, for example, is to assist the economy of the country, and the direction of the garden was described for us as \"agrobotanical.\" However, of the gardens we saw, including those in Moscow, Leningrad and Kiev, it is the most attractive and best-maintaW ed park for public Following the in July 1975, use. 110 Administration building of the Nikita Botanic Garden. of most gardens is to improve the quality of useful and to distribute as plants or seeds the better selections they plants, produce to appropriate collective farms. The gardens are also repositories for varietal collections to be held as reserves or gene pools, and the economic plant collections are comprehensive. In a new awareness they seek to preserve, as well, the designated endangered species of the area. Colorful flower displays are much enjoyed, especially by the Russian visitors, and portions of every botanical garden are devoted to eye-catching plantings that receive the ultimate in maintenance. Rose gardens were most attractive during the period of our visit. Not one wilted rose was seen; nor were mulches, since the available labor force hoes and weeds continuously. Northern gardens are open long hours during the extended periods of summer light, and visitors were in the gardens early and late. Baskets for litter were beside the numerous benches and at every path crossing, even though for several reasons litter is not a problem in the Soviet Union. A primary goal 112I Most botanical gardens have a natural area, but in many cases these are not open to the public. Greenhouses for display and for propagation are numerous, but surprisingly ancient structures. The Main Botanical Garden, USSR Academy of Sciences, Moscow, has elaborate plans for large geodesic domes with acres of land under glass, but the funding is not yet available for construction. Some indoor collections were meticulously maintained, while others were deplorable as examples of horticultural skills. Statues of Lenin occupy conspicuous positions in every garden, while lesser political or historical figures may be in attractive niches. Display slogans, so Geocommon in cities, are pleasantly absent from the gardens. graphic plots, found often in older European gardens, are exhibits in some Soviet gardens and frequently emphasize the phytogeographic areas of the USSR. Independent of the state-supported gardens are a few universityassociated botanical gardens whose primary purpose is education. It is in these that the classical systematic beds are maintained as teaching aids. A Soviet Council of Botanic Gardens is headed by the Main Botanical Garden, Moscow, and its director, Academician N. V. Tsitsin. The presidium of the Council meets two or three times a year to determine the general policy for each state-supported botanical garden, and has control of budget allocations to each area. There are also regional councils of botanical gardens to which the director may take his junior staff members for meetings. The ::lWd B~tamiv GaW en was founded m ltsmby the I)uke ot Richelieu, a refugee from France during the rule of Napoleon, who became governor of the Crimea. He selected the site for the botanical garden and recommended the appointment of Christian Steven as the first director. His goal was to introduce all plants hardy to the area and, by distribution, stimulate the agriculture and forestry of the area. An assemblage of new fruit trees was achieved by 1817, and the Nikita Botanic Garden became the cradle of viticulture when the southern slopes of the Crimea proved excellent for the growing of grapes. Interestingly, the Nikita Botanic Garden won a special citation for an exhibit of wines at the Philadelphia Exposition of 1872, the year the Arnold Arboretum came into being. For timber trees, an expedition to North America introduced a large collection of conifers, and these introductions today are handsome specimen trees. A college of agriculture and horticulture was founded in 1869 by the garden staff. The publication program of the garden began in 1815, and is noted for its contribution of agricultural and horticultural notes, as well as for its Flora of the Crimea. The Soviet Revolution, which began in Leningrad and centered its new government in Moscow, quickly had an effect in the Crimea. Under Communism the chief gardener became the new director, and An entrance to the garden. This has been popular in the Soviet Union. reproduced on the decorative pins so great changes were made in the administration and personnel relationships, although the direction of research was unchanged. The college of agriculture became independent of the garden. Research in the breeding and selection of ornamental herbs was introduced, and from this developed a major program on the culture of ethereal oil plants for perfumes. Satellite gardens were established where research was coordinated through the Nikita garden. When the current director, Dr. M. A. Kochkin, was asked about the administrative organization of the Nikita Botanic Garden, he replied it was complicated and difficult to explain, and pointed to an intricate chart on the wall. The main garden at Yalta comprises 280 hectares, and a steppe and a maritime experimental area, respectively 480 and 200 hectares, total 960 hectares (2,372 acres); all are under his direction. He has two assistant directors who, in turn, supervise the work of 18 subdepartments; these include the A guided tour in the Nikita Botanic Garden. The bed of Vinca minor. ground cover is a weed-free I areas 115 nut of two seed laboratories, ornamental horticulture, floriculture, trees, industrial crops, entomology, phytological pathology, podology, climatology, scientific information, photography, printing, biochemistry, cytology, radiobiology, plant quarantine, library and herbarium. The labor staff is approximately 700 people. Student given time average 100, and the research staff comfor a total of about 1,000 employees. Approximately two thirds of the staff are women, and a principle of equal pay for equal work is followed. All department heads are men, but the director admitted that the women do all the hard work; that we observed. I asked the director a number of questions in our interview, and each was answered with the aid of the interpreters; but then each question was repeated to me for a comparison of our organization and experiences. Employees may or may not belong to the Communist party, but there is no union representing the employees. Each month every department head reports to the director on the progress in maintenance and research, on problems, and on the performance of employees. The outstanding workers may be recommended for a bonus, but this is supplementary income and an actual raise in pay is rare. A poor worker, or one with unexplained or unapproved absences, may be discharged. Attempts are made to place an employee in another position if he or she lacks a \"green thumb\" or proves inept in an assignment. The professional staff may be graduates of a botanical institute and apply for open positions which are advertised in newspapers. College students may be assigned to summer work at the garden, and the Ministry of Higher Education decides what institutes need help and which students will be chosen. It was suggested to us that the students \"obey the Ministry.\" When students graduate, the best are invited to accept employment. Near Yalta is a vacation camp, called Artek, for outstanding elementary students throughout the Soviet Union. The Nikita staff visits the camp and explains the work of the garden; later groups of these children, immaculately uniformed, are given conducted tours of the garden. However, even while on vacation, the children have \"working days,\" and these may be at the botanical garden. The herbarium of the Nikita Botanic Garden is housed in a modern building, and the specimens are stored in wooden cases with attractive patterned veneer doors made of Juglans regia, the English walnut. The Englerian system is followed for families, but the genera are arranged alphabetically. Moth flakes are used as a fumigant, and specimens are affixed with cloth strips or sewed to laborers at a prises 120, An education exhibit open only to special groups. The balcony exhibit depicts the history of the garden. The lower floor illustrates the crops under study. Hands subtending a flower form the symbol of the Nikita Botanic Garden. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Liriodendron tulipifera- Its Early Uses","article_sequence":3,"start_page":117,"end_page":124,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24674","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d0708128.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":3,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"117 the sheets. The herbarium was started in 1914 by Eugen Wulff. It removed from the country by the German forces during World War II, but later recovered. Today it contains 107,000 specimens; about half of these are from the Crimea. Material is exchanged with other herbaria in Russia, and with organizations abroad. No staff member seems particularly interested in the taxonomy of cultivated plants. The library is in the administration building and has one section for literature in the Cyrillic alphabet, and another section for foreign literature. Two catalogues are maintained, one in Cyrillic and one in the other languages. About 40 percent of the library represents foreign literature, which is obtained only by exchange or gift. The resident staff, we were told, could request books from publishers' lists, but the American literature familiar to me was not apparent. We were shown current issues of four journals, Botanical Review, Phytopathology, Genetics, and the Journal oHeredity, which were photocopies prepared in the Soviet Union. The garden itself has several entrances, and a small admission fee is charged, although a group of children appeared to be admitted without charge. This group, and others we saw, were supervised in their tour. Although we could not understand the comments, the guides (employees of the garden), talked freely in reference to plants. Individual family groups also were enjoying the garden, but without guides. The garden is on a steep hillside with excellent views of the Black Sea. The paths are exceptionally wide, and the concrete steps between levels are arresting to the eye and contrast to the welldesigned, gently sloping paths. All plants appear to be well labeled with scientific and common names, and the Latin was welcome to this visitor. Descriptive labels, some very large and complicated, are numerous, and often include the geographic origin. A large, 35-foot specimen of Metasequoia, the dawn redwood, an Arnold Arboretum introduction to cultivation, attracted my attention, and I was told this was an original garden introduction from China in 1952. Although this specimen was sterile, the younger plants we saw were, we were told, grown from seed obtained when plants were kept pot-bound in the greenhouse. Although the garden has had few American professional botanists as visitors, Mrs. Howard and I were cordially welcomed. We met with seven department heads in a Board Room, at a table set for us with place mats, china and silver, water goblets and wine glasses, bowls of fruit and flowers. Each staff member described his rewas Above: Perennial plant area of the Nikita Botanic Garden with central pool for aquatic plants. Below: Broad paths meticulously maintained traverse the garden. The palms, yuccas, and succulents suggest the subtropical environment. 118 briefly. At intervals they asked questions of us. The pomolproud of the variety of peaches, plums, apricots and ogist almonds offered to us, and we had to sample each type. Fruits which were out of season came into the discussion at one point, and suddenly pint canning jars of preserved fruits were brought to the table to be opened and sampled. The wines of the area were evaluated, and the best offered for our enjoyment. Chocolates and sweet cookies were passed many times. I had to report that visitors do not receive such hospitality at the Arnold Arboretum. search was (All photographs in this article are by the author.) Liriodendron tulipi f era - Its Early Uses by MARGO W. REYNOLDS Colonial America was spawned in the forest and it was to the forest the early settlers turned for nearly all their necessities. Each successive group of English settlers to land upon North American soil must have gazed in wonder at the vast primeval wooded areas that stretched before it, their boundaries apparently limitless. It was a very different world from the one the immigrants had left behind, for the England of the late 16th and early 17th centuries was in the throes of a severe timber crisis. Wood was in short supply throughout Great Britain and large areas of forest were rapidly turning into countryside and fields. Great Britain had shown little interest in the New World in the hundred years following Columbus' discovery. However, with their own forest reserves rapidly dwindling away in the late 1600's, there was sudden impetus to exploit America's untapped wilderness. In 1584, the English geographer, Richard Hakluyt, proposed a scheme for colonization. As he envisioned it, according to Charles Carroll, \"men from the treeless English countryside would settle in the forests, set up sawmills, and produce boards for English craftsmen.\" Once the operations were set up, craftsmen would begin making pipe staves, bows, \"targets of Elme and tough wood, for use against the darts and arrowes of Salvages [and] spades like those of Devonshire, and of other sorts, and shovels from time to time for common use.\" It was some time, however, before this vision became a reality. There were very few craftsmen among the first settlers and most communities fashioned dwellings and the necessary tools and utensils as best they could. For the most part they were crude but serviceable. Pine, oak, walnut, butternut, and chestnut were among the preferred woods for colonial furniture making and sundry other purposes, but another wood, less known, served the colonists reliably and well and continues to be of value even today. I refer, of course, to the native American tulip tree, Liriodendron tulipifera. The tulip tree has scarcely any equals in the world of trees. Once seen it is rarely forgotten. Few other specimens can approach it in magnificence, overall beauty or sheer size. Few other trees masquerade under such a variety of common names, either. To the American Indians it was always known as canoewood, owing to its 119 Mature specimen of Liriodendron tulipifera showing stately habit. ~ 121 extensive use in the manufacture of their dugout canoes. At various other times it has been called poplar, tulip poplar, Virginia poplar and saddle tree. Whitewood, canary whitewood, Canadian whitewood, yellow poplar and yellowwood all are monikers that refer to the color of the interior wood; depending upon the type of soil in which it is grown, the wood color varies considerably from yellow to a very pale white. No matter what its name, it has, from colonial times onward, proven to be a timber tree of great commercial and utilitarian value. Several properties have combined to make the tulip tree adaptable for a number of commercial uses. As a wood, it does not easily warp or split and it has a close, fine, uniform grain that is much admired. It is light, elastic and easy to work and so has long been used for carved articles. Tulip wood takes both paint and varnish well and exhibits no odor. This latter property made it ideal for use by the colonists as a container for butter, cheese, lard and other foodstuffs that easily become tainted by external odors. All manner of other containers also utilized this very adaptable wood. These ranged in size from tiny pillboxes to berry baskets to good-sized tobacco hogsheads. It was a favorite substitute for the more expensive cedar in cigar boxes. Also common throughout the colonies were Bible boxes. Treasured items in the colonial home, these items were often richly carved and ornamented, as befitted a repository for the family's most cherished possession. Colonial boxes such as these are currently quite valuable and much in demand by antique collectors. The building trade relied on the tulip tree as well. From shingles and clapboards to joists and beams, its wood was a valuable timber in the construction of colonial dwellings. Even the Southern homes, which were generally of brick and in the Georgian style, made use of it in their interiors. For carved moldings, borders and inlays it enjoyed great popularity. In 1856 a machine that turned nests of trays was invented, and in 1899 a wooden bowl-turning machine appeared on the market. As a result, lathe-turned woodenware for the mass market suddenly became very popular. Tulip, maple, boxwood and lignum vitae were the primary woods employed in the production of such utensils as scoops, spoons, rolling pins, wooden measuring cups and a multitude of assorted kitchen items and small children's toys. Cherry, mahogany, maple and walnut were the most highly prized woods for fine furniture of high quality, but tulip was commonly used in the manufacture of everyday furniture. One often finds tulip wood used in the legless chests that were so much a part of the colonial home, particularly in Connecticut. Curiously enough, it was usually only the front panel that was made of tulip wood. The frame and other panels were generally made of pine or oak. Close-uv of Liriodendron tulinifera inflorescence. Photo: P. Chvany. No doubt there are two reasons to explain this rather curious use of Liriodendron for a single panel only. First of all, it is easily carved and so was a good subject for the ornamentation that was commonly sculpted on the front panel. In addition, tulip wood receives paint well. Painted chests represented nearly the only color in an otherwise drab colonial life and were often very richly decorated. Oak and pine insured that the chests were strong and durable while the tulip wood allowed successful carving and painting; not surprisingly, one of the most popular designs employed on these tulip wood chests was a tulip flower motif. In addition to the wood, the tree and root bark was of value as well. It has a bitter, pungent taste and when powdered was used 123 as a was tonic or stimulant for chronic arthritis. Not infrequently, it given to horses as a cure for worms. Indigenous to North America, the tulip was one of the many new species to greet the Old World explorers upon their arrival in America. Liriodendron tulipifera is one of two species of Lirioden- dron in the Magnolia family and enjoys a range that extends from Massachusetts and central New York and Michigan south to northern Florida. Its western boundaries extend as far as Illinois, Mississippi and Arkansas. It reaches its greatest proportions, however, in the lower Ohio valley and in the southern Appalachian mountains. Under optimum conditions, which include a deep, loose, welldrained soil that is primarily fertile loam, tulip trees have been known to reach heights of 200 feet. What makes these trees so striking is the almost ramrod straightness of the trunk and the fact that they are almost devoid of branches for the first 40 feet or so. Until the trunk exceeds 7 or 8 inches in diameter, it is smooth and even; as the tree grows older the bark becomes deeply furrowed and quite attractive. Above all, the tulip tree is a highly individual tree. Its leaves have the singular distinction of not really resembling any other leaf in appearance. Once seen, tulip tree leaves are quite impossible to forget. They somewhat resemble the maple leaf, with a lobe on each side, but instead of coming to a point at the tip, they look as though they had been cut off abruptly. Unfortunately, the unusually lovely and distinctive flowers grow too high to be seen well from ground level. It is the appearance of the flowers that actually gives the tree its most common name, for they closely resemble the garden tulip in form. The large greenishyellow flowers are marked with orange and often are nearly 21\/2 inches long. The flowers persist quite some time and when they at last go by they are followed by pointed, conelike seed heads which stand upright and regal on the branches. In addition to the appearance of the unusual fruits, fall brings a vibrant touch of color to the tulip It becomes suffused with a delicate yellow overall, making it of the more visible autumn specimens. Aside from its many commercial uses, Liriodendron tulipifera has long enjoyed popularity as an ornamental of great merit. Where it has the advantage of a lot of open space, it grows to be a handsome tree. Increasingly, it is being used in street plantings and as an impressive shade tree in parks, cemeteries and other public grounds. Because of its grand proportions and majestic appearance, the tulip tree came to be known as the \"tree of liberty\" during the Revolutionary War period. Throughout the colonies, cities and towns planted the tulip as a symbol of their quest for independence. As the nation celebrates its 200th anniversary, the Arnold Arboretum tree. one Characteristic foliage of Liriodendron tulipifera. Photo: P. Chvany. is marking the occasion by distributing small tulip trees to cities and throughout the state of Massachusetts. What better way to commemorate America's 200th birthday than by planting living reminders of its strength and growth? No tree is more indicative of this than the stately, elegant tulip tree. towns "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":125,"end_page":128,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24673","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070bb6f.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":3,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews -~ -~- ~- - Bibliography of Books and Pamphlets on the History of Agriculture in the United States ... 1607-1967. John T. Schlebecker. Santa Barbara, Calif.: ABC-Clio Press. 1969. 183 pages. $5.50 paperback. first major compilation of works rebe published since 1930. As the authe introduction, \"71% of the titles (in this book) have apsince 1965.\" This peared since 1930, 41% since 1950, and 7.7~Jo book, then, represents a significant updating and offers much of value to the historical researcher. In order to avoid frequent repetition of each work, a topical breakdown has been abandoned in favor of an alphabetical listing by principal author. An 81-page index listing entries by author, subject and title facilitates the search for a particular work. Brief annotations are provided for those works whose titles are not self-explanatory. All in all, a welcome reference book that ought to prove most useful to sociologists, historians and economists as well as agriculturists. This lating to the thor states in comprehensive volume is the history of agriculture to ... MARGO W. REYNOLDS Trees of the World. Sandra Holmes. New York: Bantam Nature Ridge Press. 1974. 159 pages, illustrated. $1.95. Guide, Flowers of the World. Sandra Holmes. New York: Bantam Nature Guide, Ridge Press. 1974. 159 pages, illustrated. $1.95. books for casual reading. Paperback and the volumes are well illustrated with good color reproduction. Flowers of the World is a miscellany of photographs arranged in family groups, these alphabetically. Trees of the World has the contents arranged in groupings of conifers, palms, hardwoods, food trees, spice trees, beverage trees, drug trees, other useful trees, ornamentals and unusual trees. Descriptive material is brief but generally accurate. Either book will lift your spirits if you like plants. Two remarkably satisfying reasonably priced, RICHARD A. HOWARD Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine. Tony Swain, editor. Cambridge : Harvard University Press. 1972. 367 pages. $12.50. This book is a reprint of papers presented at a symposium held in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1968. It offers a rapid summary of what is known of plants and plant extracts active in human physiology, as seen from the points of view of anthropologists, phytochemists, biologists and others devoted to drug research. Men have always been experimenting with the effects, whether good or bad, of the plants that grow around us. 125 126 the plants that have been consumed, or smoked, or poked into various orifices of the body have been shown to have no effect whatever, but it has slowly been established that others do certainly contain active Many of principles that can change body metabolism. The discovery and development of penicillin set off an explosion of search for other products of molds, algae, bacteriae and higher plants that might be of use to man in fighting diseases. Thousands of species have been studied but probably these comprise no more than five percent of the plants that still remain to be investigated. The study of the old Calabar ordeal bean is a fascinating story. This legume grows near the mouth of the Niger river in Nigeria and for many generations of Nigerians it was a convenient method of execution. The victim was caused to swallow a suspension of five or six beans ground up in a little water. If he promptly vomited up the mix, he was deemed to be innocent of all charges. But usually it stayed down too long and he died quite promptly. Analysis of this bean has yielded physostigmine, a very potent alkaloid that is now used to relieve the symptoms of myasthemia gravis. This book is not light reading. Much of it is highly technical and not easily followed except by specialists, but it is a book which should not be overlooked by any serious student of plants in relation to human physiology. ALLEN BRAILEY Vegetables in South-East Asia. G. A. C. Herklots. New York: Hafner Press, Macmillan Publishing Co. 1972. 525 pages, 159 drawings. f3.75. In the preface Dr. Herklots states, \"In recent years several practical books have been written on the cultivation of vegetables in the tropics. Is ..:j ~::,. `..~.vaa for yC.i W lViilcl.\"' lie W11L111UC.~, ~~1 Lll111K SU, for in the books I have seen there is little about the tropics of South-East Asia where vegetables are so essential in the diet.\" Better justification is found in the Introduction. \"My object is not to instruct the gardeners of Asia in the art of growing familiar Asiatic vegetables they know more than I shall ever hope to learn. It is to collect and collate some of the knowledge available in the scientific literature, but not generally accessible to the gardener, in the hope that new ideas may emerge and other crops may be tried.\" Although the author fails to cite Ochse et al., Tropical and Subtropical Agriculture ( 1961 ) or Purseglove's Tropical Crops, Dicotyledons 1 and 2 (1968) he has compiled an interesting and useful volume for anyone interested in tropical vegetables, involved in a course in economic botany, or attempting to identify the vegetables in a Chinese market. The first portion of this volume concerns the culture of tropical vegetables. There follow chapters on salads, spinaches and other greens; cabbages ; beans and peas, cucurbits; bulbs, roots and tubers; and market vegetables. Both major and minor crops are discussed. The correlation of scientific names and local names in English and Chinese is particularly valuable. The author has sampled the product or observed its preparation in most cases. For the botanist who has only read that Trapa, Lagenaria, Psophocarpus, Chrysanthemum and similar plants are \"edible,\" this volume has the answer to \"how.\" The illustrations are particularly useful in the identification of the many varieties of Brassica, beans and cucurbits. - RICHARD A. HOWARD 127 A Flora of Essex Peabody Museum, botanically County, Massachusetts. Stuart K. Harris. Massachusetts: Salem. 1975. 269 pages. $12.50. Local floras are a labor of love. Their usefulness is generally to local interested individuals, to a college department of botany or local school for teaching purposes, or for details of local geographical distribution of plants. Essex County, north of Boston, represents the northeast corner of Massachusetts. This glaciated area, once heavily cultivated, has interesting pockets of vegetation ranging from coastal marshes to inland quaking bogs. Historic seaports and dumps and ballast areas have been intriguing collecting areas for novelties in the plant world. Nature reserves in Essex County are well-known to ornithologists. This flora, without keys or descriptions, concerns only the native or escaped vegetation and must be used in conjunction with Gray's Manual of Botany, 8th. edition, on which the nomenclature is based. An appendix correlates the taxa listed with illustrations in the Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America published also by the Peabody Museum of Salem. Stuart Harris, professor of biology at Boston University, was asked to prepare this volume in 1951. For over 18 years he collected specimens now preserved in the New England Botanical Club. Unfortunately, he died before completing the manuscript; thus the introductory portions have been contributed by his friends. The volume is a fitting memorial and a tribute to his scholarship. RICHARD A. HOWARD , The Ivy Book. Suzanne Warner Pierot. New York: Macmillan. 1974. 164 pages, illustrated. $4.95. The first book on ivy in 100 years, this small volume up-dates nomenclature and describes new cultivars, as well as old favorites. Over 60 indoor and outdoor ivies are included, with notes on general culture and specialized uses in landscaping and indoor topiary. Unfortunately, the close-up photographs, many of which are not identified, do little to amplify the text which separates ivies into nine categories, primarily on the basis of appearance. Ms. Pierot is the founder and president emeritus of the American Ivy Society; her modest book should produce many enthusiasts and boost membership considerably. JEANNE S. WADLEIGH Trees for Your Garden. Roy Lancaster. New York: Sons. 1975. 147 pages, illustrated in color. $8.95. Charles Scribner's Shrubs for Your Garden. Peter Seabrook. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975. 144 pages, illustrated in color. $8.95. Conifers for Your Garden. Adrian Bloom. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975. 146 pages, illustrated in color. $8.95. Perennials for Your Garden. Alan Bloom. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1975. 144 pages, illustrated in color. $8.95. One will be envious of the British gardens and plants pictured in these The text, pictures, publication style and price are a credit to the authors and the publisher. As so often happens in these American editions, the species and varieties mentioned are not available locally or do not do well in the more diverse climates of the United States. By contrast some of our best, such as Cornus florida, does not grow well in the British Isles and so is not mentioned. Excellent cultural infor- spectacular volumes. 128 mation and directions supplied in each volume and the taxa considered are listed alphabetically for easy reference. RICHARD A. HOWARD Traveler in a Vanished Landscape - The Life and Times of David Douglas, Botanical Explorer. William Morwood. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. 1973. 244 pages, illustrated. $7.95. \"In almost every category of plants to be found between Alaska and the Mexican Border there is at least one species named for Douglas ...\" Although Morwood does not overlook the measure of Douglas's contribution (the book contains sketches of many of the plants Douglas introduced into cultivation), he dwells more on the human aspects of his career. In 1820 Prof. William J. Hooker of Glasgow University recommended this young Scotsman, who stood out above his fellow trainees, to the Horticultural Society of London. The Society was looking for a talented and steadfast collector to send to the North American West, the horticultural treasures of which had been reported by the recent Lewis and Clark Expedition. Talented Douglas was, and industrious beyond description, but steadfast he was not. This arresting tale takes an emotionally driven man up and down the West Coast and Coastal Mountains of North America, and finally to Hawaii where he died under extraordinary circumstances in 1834 at the age of 35. It gives a vivid picture of the operation and personalities of the Hudson's Bay Company under whose auspices Douglas travelled. It tells of the Indians, who called Douglas \"grassman\"; of the Mexicans and Spanish in Monterey, where he was called \"Don David El Botanico\"; of Dr Menzies, who had accompanied Vancouver 30 years before, of Banks; of Nuttall, of Lindley; of Coulter, of McKenzie; and of others who brightened the stage of those years. It is good biography and great RICHARD WARREN ~ reading. Introduction to Insect Pest Management. Robert L. Metcalf and William Luckmann. New York. John Wiley and Sons. 1975. 570 pages. $19.95. A text for researchers and students of applied entomology, this book delineates ecologically oriented pest control using a total systems approach that combines biological, natural and chemical control factors to minimize effects on the environment and prevent economic damage. Many of these principles are best applied to wide area pest management such as one to several counties, states, or a region. Many are too complicated for practical application in a small garden or the usual home grounds. The seventeen authors and contributors cover the concepts in the broad field of pest control management from the basic idea of using all favorable factors to aid in managing pest populations, the ecological aspects and the economics thereof. The tactics from plant resistance, parasitoids and predators, diseases, insecticides, attractants, repellents and genetic control are discussed at length as are the strategies of sampling and measuring, analysis and modeling. Examples discussed in detail are cotton insect pests, forage crop insects, fruit tree pests and insects of man and domesticated animals. To many to whom these concepts are new, the vision of future pest management that these authors advocate will seem unduly complicated; but for readers with scientific training and interest, the book is well worthwhile. ROBERT G. WILLIAMS "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23395","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ea76e.jpg","title":"1976-36-3","volume":36,"issue_number":3,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cercis: The Redbuds","article_sequence":1,"start_page":37,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24670","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070b36d.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":2,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Robertson, Kenneth R.","article_content":"Cercis: The Redbuds by KENNETH R. ROBERTSON One of the few woody plants native to eastern North America that is widely planted as an ornamental is the eastern redbud, Cercis canadensis. This plant belongs to a genus of about eight species that is of interest to plant geographers because of its occurrence in four widely separated areas the eastern United States southwestward to Mexico; western North America; southern and eastern Europe and western Asia; and eastern Asia. Cercis is a very distinctive genus in the Caesalpinia subfamily of the legume family (Leguminosae subfamily Caesalpinioideae). Because the apparently simple heart-shaped leaves are actually derived from the fusion of two leaflets of an evenly pinnately compound leaf, Cercis is thought to be related to -~auhinic~, which includes the so-called orchid-trees c$~~ cultivated in tropical regions. The leaves of Bauhinia are usually two-lobed with an apical notch and are clearly made up of two partly fused leaflets. The eastern redbud is more important in the garden than most other spring flowering trees because the flower buds, as well as the open flowers, are colorful, and the total ornamental season continues for two to three weeks. In winter a small bud is found just above each of the leaf scars that occur along the twigs of the previous year's growth; there are also clusters of winter buds on older branches and on the tree trunks (Figure 3). In early spring these winter buds enlarge (with the exception of those at the tips of the branches) and soon open to reveal clusters of flower buds. Each flower bud is composed of two parts: a bright magenta calyx tube and, protruding through the tube, five unopened, lavender-pink petals. A magenta stalk supports each flower bud. These flower buds do not open immediately, but their color and sheer number on otherwise bare stems make redbud plants very conspicuous at this time of the ~ year. Whoever coined the common name \"redbud\" must surely have been colorblind, but \"redbud\" is certainly more euphonious than \"magentabud.\" In any case, the name \"redbud\" has been around for a long time. George Washington referred to the 37 38 Fig. 1. Young flowering tree of Cercis canadensis (eastern redbud). Photo: Arnold Arboretum. var. canadensis 39 of redbuds around Mt. Vernon, and later Thomas Jefferson described them at Monticello. Some people use the name \"Judas-tree\" for this plant, although that name rightly belongs to the European species Cercis Siliquastrum. After a period of one to two weeks, the flower buds open into flowers that suggest those of a pea. The petals are a delicate, but still rather intense, shade of lavender-pink, which harmonizes well with the magenta calyx tubes. There are also forms in cultivation with pale pink to white flowers. With a little practice, one can tell from a considerable distance when a plant has open flowers by its overall pinkish rather than magenta color. Close examination of the open flowers shows that there are five petals of three different sorts (Figure 2). The upper \"banner\" petal is innermost and is enclosed in bud by the two lateral \"wing\" petals and the two \"keel\" petals. The transfer of pollen from one flower to another is usually done by various longand short-tongued bees, which are guided to the center of the flower by lines (nectar guides) on the \"banner\" petal. The two \"keel\" petals, which enclose the stamens, form a landing platform for the insect visitors. When an insect lands on a flower, the \"keel\" petals are pushed downward and the stamens spring -~pward, depositing pollen on the insect's abdomen. Atthis time the stigma is exposed so that it can receive the pollen already present on the abdomen. The insect meanwhile feeds on nectar produced by special tissue at the base of the stamens. This \"papilionaceous\" (pea-like) flower, which is unusual in this subfamily, is a good example of convergent evolution, for this flower functions like the flowers of another subfamily (the Faboideae) of the legume family. In flowers of that subfamily, the banner petal is outermost, the keel petals are innermost, and the wings and keel together function as a landing platform. Not all flowers within a cluster (inflorescence) open at the same time, but the \"life span\" of the flowers that open first is long enough so that they have not withered by the time the younger flower buds open. Since all flower clusters on a tree mature nearly simultaneously, there is a period when most of the flowers on an individual tree are open at the same time and the branches appear to be covered with flowers (Figures 1, 3). At this stage, redbud trees are spectacular! However, the plants do not remain this way for very long, as the older flowers soon begin to fade and wither. At about this time the winter buds at the tips of the branches enlarge and open, sending out the new growth of the year. Suddenly the plant becomes quite unsightly, with the remains of the flowers scattered along the branches and only immature planting 40I note swolFig. 2. Cercis. a-j, C. canadensis var. canadensis: a, leaf Len pulvinus at tip of petiole, X 1\/2; b, flower, the uppermost (banner) petal innermost, X 3; c. flower in partial longitudinal section, the petals removed, X 4; d, wing petal, X 3; e, keel petal, X 3; f, banner petal, X 3; g, branch with fruits after fall of leaves, X 1\/4; h, mature fruit, X 1\/2; i, seed, X 4; j, embryo from soaked seed, X 3. Drawn by Arnold D. Clapman for a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States and reproduced here with the permission of Prof. Carroll E. Wood, Jr. - 41 leaves at the tips. The young leaves, glossy and often reddish, grow rapidly, and in a few weeks the plants develop an attractive summer foliage. The mature leaves are arranged alternately in two rows along the branches of the current year. They are rather thin, dull green on both surfaces, usually three to six inches long and wide (with the largest leaves at the tips of the branches), and heart-shaped with abruptly tapering tips. Five to nine conspicuous veins radiate outward from the notch at the base of the leaf blade. Each leaf is borne on a petiole that is about as long as the blade itself. At each end of the petiole is a swollen area called the \"pulvinus\" (Figure 2). Changes in the volume of cells in the upper pulvinus bring about the sleep movements of the leaves the leaf blades are usually held more or less horizontally, but at certain times, such as during the middle of a hot day, they droop. These sleep movements, while distinctly noticeable, are not as pronounced and regular in the redbud as in plants such as the hardy silk tree, Albizzia Julibrissin, and the sensitive plant, Mimosa pudica. The ovaries of one to several flowers in most flower clusters enlarge and develop into fruits that reach their full size by midsummer. The fruits are elongate, lustrous, deep pink or reddish legumes about 21\/a to 4 inches long and mostly % inch wide (Figures 2, 3). They are strongly flattened laterally with tapering tips and bases and parallel margins, or the upper margin curves downward at the tips. A small wing is usually present along the upper margin. Each fruit contains four to ten compressed, reddish-brown, beanlike seeds. The generic name Cercis is derived from the Greek kerkis, weaver's shuttle, alluding to the shape of the fruit. In early autumn, the inner leaves of the eastern redbud turn a clear yellow while the outer leaves remain green, thus creating a contrast of colors that is particularly vivid against a brilliant blue autumn sky. The outer leaves soon turn so that the whole tree is yellow for a brief period. Rapidly, however, the yellow changes to brown and the leaves drop. Thus, while attractive for a short time in autumn, the redbud is not as effective as some other native plants (such as the witch hazels or dogwoods) in contributing to fall color. The fruits remain on the trees after the leaves have fallen. By autumn, they have lost the reddish pigment and are dry, very light, and tan or brown in color. Dispersal of the seeds takes place primarily during the fall and winter as the wind periodically blows most of the fruits from the branches. Late in the season, after the - __ Fig. 3. Cercis. a-e, C. canadensis var. canadensis: a, tip of winter twig with vegetative bud above and ftoral buds below; b, close-up of winter twig with buds of 2 inflorescences (flower clusters); c, inflorescences with flower buds; d, stem with numerous inflorescences and open flowers; e, branch with mature fruits. f, flowering twig of C. chinensis. Photos: K. R. Robertson (from colored slides). 43 or while they are still on the plants, the suof the fruits open, releasing the seeds; in the case of those fruits that do not open, seed release is effected by the decay of the fruit walls. The eastern redbud is most often seen these days as a small tree or tall shrub. Mature specimens, however, can be moderatesized trees with broad, rather flat-topped crowns, the largest being more than fifty feet tall, with a crown spread of over forty feet and a trunk diameter at breast height exceeding thirty inches. The natural range of the eastern redbud is from southern Connecticut and New York, south to central Florida, and west to Michigan, southern Wisconsin, Iowa, eastern Nebraska and Kansas, much of Oklahoma (except for the panhandle), and eastern Texas. In Canada, only one plant has been reported outside of cultivation a tree that grew formerly on Pelee Island in Lake Erie, Essex County, Ontario. The eastern redbud is most abundant to the west of the Appalachian and Alleghany - mountain ranges. It has a rather wide tolerance of environmen-- tal conditions, preferring strong sunlight and soils that have good drainage and are derived from limestone or acidic sandstone. In the northern and eastern part of its range, it is mostly found in open woodlands, limestone glades and openings, and thickets and along the borders of woods, rocky streams and bluffs. Toward the south and west, it occurs in deep woods, ravines, bottomlands, and rich soil along streams. Eastern redbud and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida) have similar geographical distributions and often occur together. Although the flowering season of the redbud is usually almost over when the dogwood begins to bloom, there are exceptional years when the trees flower simultaneously and produce a memorable show of spring color. I was raised in southwestern Missouri at the edge of the Ozark Mountains and vividly remember excusions into the countryside to admire the spectacle of the redbuds and dogwoods. Both of these species thrive in a border habitat, and, as a result of the many roads constructed in this century, they are probably more abundant now than ever before. In some places, redbud also flowers at about the same time as some of the shadbushes and wild plums (Amelanchier and Prunus species). The type of redbud that has been discussed thus far corresponds technically to Cercis canadensis var. canadensis. It is native to the eastern United States and is distinguished from other North American redbuds by its tapering-acute leaves that at maturity are thin and dull green on both surfaces. Southwestward from the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma, some or all of the wild redbuds are shrubs, instead of trees, with rather fruits have fallen tures on some - 44I thick, rich deep-green and waxy-shiny leaves that have blunt tips. Plants of this kind that lack hairs on the young branchlets and the petioles are known as the Texas redbud, C. canadensis var. texensis (or C. reniformis), which ranges from the Edwards Plateau to north-central Texas and the Arbuckle Mountains. Those plants with densely hairy branchlets and petioles are called the Mexican redbud, C. canadensis var. mexicana, and they occur from Crockett and Val Verde counties, Texas, to the Trans-Pecos and northeastern Mexico. Finally, the California or western redbud, C. occidentalis, distinguished from the eastern redbud by its larger flowers and fruits, occurs naturally from the Siskiyou Mountains of northern California southward through the Coast Ranges and the Sierra Nevada to San Diego County, California, eastward to southern Nevada, southwestern Utah, and northwestern Arizona (particularly along the canyons of the Colorado River). The Texas, Mexican, and California redbuds are commonly cultivated in the areas to which they are native. They are seldom grown in the eastern U.S., however, except as curiosities in botanical gardens. Isely, in a very recent paper that appeared since the preceding discussion was written, while officially adopting the classification scheme established by Hopkins and modified by Turner, recognized six types of redbuds in the United States: (1) the eastern redbud, (2) the Texas redbud of east-central Texas and adjacent Oklahoma, (3) the Mexican redbud of TransPecos Texas and south into Mexico, (4) the Intermountain redbud, Cercis occidentalis pro parte, of nothern Arizona, adjacent Utah, and contiguous southeastern Nevada, (5) the San Diego redbud, C. occidentalis pro parte, of the Laguna Mountains of California, and (6) the Sierra redbud, C. occidentalis pro parte, that occurs on the inner Coastal Ranges and eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada from Kern to Siskiyou counties, California. Two hypotheses were advanced by Isely to accommodate these phases in a taxonomic scheme. Following the first hypothesis, two species would be recognized, with C. canadensis including only the eastern redbud (C. canadensis var. canadensis of this paper) and C. occidentalis including all the forms with thick rounded leaves that occur from Texas to California. Isely's second hypothesis would treat all the redbuds of the United States (and probably Mexico) as a single species constituted of a number of regional varieties (approximately as outlined above). In addition to the redbuds found in North America, several other species of Cercis are found in the Old World. The Judastree, C. Siliquastrum, is commonly seen throughout the Mediterranean region and southern Europe. According to legend, Judas Iscariot hanged himself from a branch of this plant, and 45 Fig. 4. boretum. Young flowering plant of Cercis chinensis. Photo: Arnold Ar- 46 its white flowers then turned red with either shame or blood (Figure 5). The Judas-tree is so widely cultivated and naturalized that it is difficult to ascertain its original geographical distribution; a good guess is that it is native only from Turkey eastward to Afghanistan. This species is quite variable both in nature and in cultivation, and many of the variants have been recognized as botanically different varieties or species. Just as the eastern redbud, C. canadensis, does not do well in cultivation in Europe, so the Judas-tree is not adaptable to gardens in eastern North America; each species is at its loveliest in the areas in which it grows spontaneously. Five additional species of Cercis have been described from central and eastern China. One of these, C. chinensis, commonly called the Chinese redbud, is hardy in the Boston area (Figure 4). The flowers of this plant are larger and of a deeper color than those of the eastern redbud. In cultivation, the Chinese redbud is a moderate-sized shrub, but in the wild it can be a tree up to fifty feet tall with a trunk three to four feet in diameter. Another Chinese species, C. racemosa, is unique in the genus in that the flowers are borne in elongated racemes rather than in umbels. This species was collected in the wild and distributed to botanical gardens in 1907 by E. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum, who said that of all the flowering trees he introduced into cultivation this was one of the very best and most beautiful. Unfortunately, C. racemosa is not hardy in Boston, but it would be worth trying on Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and Nantucket Island. Apparently no commercial nursery in eastern North America currently offers C. racemosa. The other Chinese species of Cercis are poorly known to science and are evidently not in cultivation. Our native eastern redbud and the Chinese redbud have much to recommend them for gardens in eastern North America. They are reliably hardy; they are highly ornamental in spring and summer; they flower consistently each year; they stay a nice compact size in a yard; and they are reasonably free of serious diseases, although canker can be a problem, particularly in areas where the summers are hot and humid. Commercially available cultivars of the eastern redbud include 'Alba' with white flowers; 'Flame', with double flowers and a more erect habit; 'Forest Pansy', with bright red new growth deepening to maroon as the season progresses; and several forms with light pink flowers, such as 'Pink Bud', 'Ruby Atkinson', and 'Withers Pink Charm'. The cultivar Cercis 'Oklahoma' is a variant of the Texas redbud with rich wine-red flowers and glossy foliage. Artificial hybrids have been obtained between C. canadensis and C. chinensis at the U.S. National Arboretum in Washing- 47 ton, D.C., where research Cercis is being conducted. involving breeding and selection of Redbud plants should be transplanted at an early age since large specimens usually die when moved. Propagation is mostly from seed. Ripe seeds must be treated to break the hard waterproof seed coat. This may be done by filing or nicking the seed coat, by soaking the seeds in sulphuric acid for about an hour, or by covering the seeds with hot ( 180 F.) water and letting them sit overnight. The seeds should then be subjected to a moist cold treatment (40 F. for 3 months). The following key is presented as an aid to the identification of cultivated redbuds. The use of this key requires knowledge of the flowers, fruits, and mature leaves. The species of Cercis are so similar that it is often necessary to observe a plant throughout a season before it can be identified. The overall shape of leaves and of leaf apices mentioned in couplet \"2\" of the key reflects the usual condition on a plant, rather than that of individual leaves. Flower length is measured from the base of the calyx tube to the tip of the \"keel\" petal. --- -- KEY 1. TO THE CULTIVATED REDBUDS 1. Flowers in umbels or shortly elongated fascicles. 2. 2. Leaves cordate or more or less triangular in overall outline, some or all with acuminate, acute, or narrowly rounded apices (at least tapering toward the tips); fruits mostly less than 16 mm. wide. 3. 3. Leaves without a definite translucent border; flowers 612 mm. long; petals light lavender-pink (white to dark 4. pink in cultivars). 4. Leaves dull green above and below, thin, not coriaceous, the apices usually abruptly acuminate. C. canadensis var. canadensis. 4. Leaves rich green, glossy, coriaceous, the apices nar5. rowly rounded or acutish.. 5. Leaves glabrous beneath. C. canadensis var. texensis. 5. Leaves densely pubescent beneath. C. canadensis var. mexicana. 3. Leaves with a narrow translucent border; flowers 1518 mm. long; petals purplish-pink. C. chinensis. 2. Leaves orbicular or reniform in overall outline, some or all with broadly rounded, often emarginate apices, not distinctly tapering toward the tips; fruits mostly 15 mm. or more wide....... 6. 6. Leaves subcoriaceous to coriaceous; flowers 10-15 mm. C. occidentalis. long........... 6. Leaves thin, not coriaceous; flowers 15-20 mm. long. C. Siliquastrum. Flowers in elongate racemes..................... C. racemosa. . ....... 48 Acknowledgments I would like to extend special thanks to Kathleen Clagett, Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, for making numerous suggestions that have contributed greatly to the readability of this paper. Drs. Carroll E. Wood, Jr. and Stephen A. Spongberg also made useful comments. Figure 2 is the work of Arnold D. Clapman and was prepared for a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, a joint project of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University made possible through the support of the National Science Foundation (Grant BMS74-21469, principal investigator, Carroll E. Wood, Jr.). It is reproduced here with the kind permission of Dr. Wood and has been published in a somewhat different format in \"A student's atlas of flowering plants: some dicotyledons of eastern North America\" (Harper & Row, publishers; copyright 1974 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College). Karen S. Velmure, artist for the Generic Flora project, assisted with the preparation of the Figures. The manuscript was typed by Beverly Vincent. This article is dedicated to my late mother, Mrs. Faye Robertson, who loved redbuds. Selected References Anderson, E. The story of the white red-bud. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 56(2): 5-7. 1968. [Photographs.] Anonymous. Redbud, Cercis canadensis. Morris Arb. Quart. 10: 60, 61. 1974. [Illustration.] Bagby, M. The white redbud found again. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 26: 82. 1938. [One plant found growing wild near Pacific, Missouri. ] Bean, W. J. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. ed. 8, G. Taylor, ed. Vol. 1. xx + 845 pp. 77 pls. on 48 pp. 1970. [Cer- L. New or noteworthy plants for St. Louis. VIII. A doubleflowered red-bud (Cercis canadensis var. plena). Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 23. 77, 78. pl. 11. 1935. [Photograph.] Fordham, A. J. Germination of woody legume seeds with impermeable seed coats. Arnoldia 25: 1-8. 1965. Hopkins, M. Cercis in North America. Rhodora 44: 192-211. 1942. [Taxonomic revision.] Isely, D. Leguminosae of the United States: II. Subfamily Caesalpinioideae. Mem. New York Bot. Gard. 25(2): 1-228. 1975. Cutak, [Cercis, 134-150.] cis, 579-581.] Kohl, P. A. 1951. The redbud. Missouri Bot. Gard. Bull. 39: 102-104. Kriissmann, G. Cercis. In: Handbuch der Laubgeholze 1: 301-303. pls. 92, 93. 1959. [Includes photographs of leaf rubbings.] Li, H. L. Taxonomy and distribution of the genus Cercis in China. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 71: 419-425. 1944. Plummer, G. L., & A. A. Lindsey. On the occurrence of redbud in Indiana. Proc. Indiana Acad. Sci. 64: 79-87. 1954. [Important information on ecology of C. canadensis; photograph of large tree.] 49 Robertson, K. R., & Y. T. Lee. The genera of Caesalpinioideae (Le- in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56: 1-53. 1976. Sargent, C. S. Anacardiaceae-Leguminosae. Silva N. Am. Vol. 3. 141 pp. pls. 98-147. 1892. [Cercis, 93-98. pls. 133-135.] Small, J. K. Cercis chinensis. Chinese redbud. Addisonia 6: 33, 34. pl. 209. 1921. [Colored illustration.] Stephens, H. A. Trees, shrubs, and woody vines in Kansas. vi + 250 pp. Lawrence, Kansas. 1969. [Cercis, 144, 145; photographs of flowers, fruits, leaves, twigs, bark.] Turner, B. L. The legumes of Texas. xii + 284 pp. frontisp. Austin, Texas. 1959. [Cercis, 68, 69; interpretations of vars. texensis and mexicana different from those of Hopkins.] U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. U. S. Dep. Agr., Agr. Handb. 450. viii + 883 pp. 54 colored pls, on 16 pp. 1974. [Cercis, 305- guminosae) 308 ; references.] Wood, C. E., Jr. Some floristic relationships between the southern and western North America. Pp. 331-404 in P. C. Holt, ed. The distributional history of the biota of the southern Appalachians. II. Flora. Research Div. Monogr. 2. --- Virginia Polytech. Inst. State Univ. 1971. [Cercis, 390; distribution map of genus, fig. 30, p. 348.] Wright, S. C. Leaf movement in Cercis canadensis. Bot. Gaz. 19: 215-224. pls. 19, 20. 1894. Wyman, D. Wyman's gardening encyclopedia. xvi + 1222 pp. 62 colored pls. on 16 pp. New York. 1971. [Cercis, 207, 208.] Appalachians - Fig. 5. Cercis Siliquastrum, showing derivation of common name \"Judas-tree.\" From Castor Durante, Herbario Nuovo. Venice. 1636. [Arnold Arboretum copy on deposit at the Houghton Library, Harvard University.] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Cornelian Cherries","article_sequence":2,"start_page":50,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24672","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070b76b.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":2,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Cornelian Cherries by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. In late March at the Arnold Arboretum the signs of spring are few and subtle. True, the male Red-wing Blackbirds are in the meadow, and the meadow itself is beginning to calling turn green. And the Snowdrops in front of the Administration building have been blooming for some time, as have the Silver Maples along Meadow Road. But most of the trees and shrubs look about as they had during the drab days of winter. Only their swelling buds hint at their preparation for the season to come. A few woody plants, however, are in full bloom during the last week of the month, at least if the weather has been seasonable. Silver Maples, Daphne mezereum, and Rhododendron dauricum provide a bit of color in the brown landscape, but the Cornelian Cherries put on the best show. At the Arnold Arboretum, the finest specimens are just behind the Cork Trees along Meadow Road and near the ponds close to the Forest Hills Gate. These members of the genus Cornus, the Dogwoods, are poorly known in comparison with some of their relatives, at least in America, but they are first class ornamentals. Forming large shrubs or small trees, they are literally covered with soft yellow flowers at a time when any color is much appreciated. They are also long-lived, relatively disease-free, and tolerant of poor soils; their fruits are attractive and edible, and the bark of one species is among the most attractive of any hardy woody plant. The Cornelian Cherries, Cornus mas and C. officinalis, along with two other, little known species, form a distinctive group (Cornus subgenus Comus) within a varied and highly ornamental genus. In these species, the flowers appear before the leaves. They are small and greenish or yellow and are borne on slender stalks in dense, rounded clusters or umbels. The clusters are surrounded at the base by a series of bracts similar to, but not nearly so conspicuous as, those in the Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) or the Kousa Dogwood (C. kousa). The fruits, also borne in clusters, are oblong drupes (fleshy fruits with a single, hard stone, as in Cherries), typically red 50 51 A fine specimen of Cornus officinalis in flower. This plant, growing at the Arnold Arboretum, is about IS feet tall. Photo: D. Wyman. and C. in C. two mas officinalis, but black or blue-black in the other species. The best known of the Cornelian Cherries, and the one to which the name is most properly applied, Cornus mas, has been valued in Europe as a utilitarian plant since classical Greek and Roman times, and was mentioned in the writings of Homer and Virgil. The Latin name now given the plant is derived from the names applied to it in ancient times, and the common name also has been long established. Both are derived from its utilitarian attributes. The wood of Cornus mas has been valued over the centuries for its hardiness, durability, and flexibility. Although put to more mundane use in recent times, such as for the manufac- 52 I ture of wheel spokes, ladder rungs, and tool handles, it was favored by the Romans to make the shafts of javelins. The modern generic name Cornus is the name they used for the plant, its derivation being from the Latin cornu, meaning \"horn,\" because of the hardness of the wood. The specific name mas, meaning \"male\" in Latin, was also applied to this plant by the Romans, presumably because (according to J. C. Loudon in Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum, vol. 2, page 1014. 1838) young plants bear only male flowers, and therefore do not set fruit. This would have been of some significance to the Romans, since they used the fruit as food. The common name, Cornelian Cherry, or shortened to \"Cornel,\" was given to the plant because its cherry-like fruits are about the color of the gemstone carnelian. Although seldom eaten today, they were formerly used for various purposes in Europe: to make confectionary, marmalades, and liqueurs; mixed with apples and pears to make cider; and pickled green to serve as a substitute for olives. Key 1. to the Species a single trunk, or with a few main trunks close the bark on mature individuals exfoliating, exposing the pale inner bark and creating a mottled effect; leaves usually with 6-7 pairs of veins, and with conspicuous tufts of brown hairs in the axils of the veins on the undersurface; flower stalks and the base of the flowers sparsely covered with short, straight, straw-colored hairs Cornus officinalis. (use a magnifying glass) 1. Large shrub or bushy tree, usually with numerous stems from the base (or occasionally with only a few), the bark on mature individuals close, scaly, dark-colored; leaves usually with 4-5 pairs of veins, with often inconspicuous tufts of white hairs in the axils of the veins on the undersurface; flower stalks and the base of the flowers densely covered with short, slightly crinkled, white hairs (use a magnifying Cornus mas. glass The two related species are rare in cultivation, so they are not included in the above key. They are, however, briefly described below. Tree with together, .. Top left: The flowers of Cornus mas, appearing before the leaves in early spring. Photo: R. Weaver. right: The trunk of Cornus officinalis with its characteristic ex- foliating bark. Photo: R. Weaver. Bottom left: Trunks of Cornus mas showing the dark, scaly bark. Photo: P. Chvany. right: Fruits and foliage of Cornus mas 'Flava', about 1\/2 life-size. This cultivar is distinguished from the species by its yellow rather than red fruits. Photo: H. Howard. 54I Cornus mas L. Cornelian Cherry. Native from central and southern Europe into western Asia, and reliably bud-hardy into Zone 4, this is the most frequently cultivated of the species. In this country it generally forms a large, multi-stemmed shrub to 15 feet tall. The largest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum has grown about 12 feet tall and twice as broad in its 93 years. A specimen this size would hardly be suitable for the average sized American yard, but with careful pruning of sucker shoots, the plant can be trained into an attractive, several-stemmed small tree. As mentioned earlier, the fruits are edible. But, although they may reach the size of a small olive, the stone is large and the flesh relatively scant. Also, fruit set is seldom heavy in this country. A number of cultivars have been selected, most of them differing from the species in having variegated leaves or white or yellow fruit. A few are described briefly below, a condensation of a more complete list which appeared in Arnoldia, Vol. 21, pages 9-18, in 1961 (Registration Lists in Cultivar Names of Cornus by R. A. Howard). Cornus mas 'Alba'- fruits white. 'Argenteo-marginata'- leaves with a broad, white edge. 'Aureo-elegantissima' early leaves golden-edged, but becoming flushed with - carmine at maturity. 'Flava'- fruits yellow. The species is available from a number of nurseries in this country, but I have been unable to find sources for any of the cultivars. Cornus is of\/%cinalis Sieb. & Zucc. Korean Cornelian Cherry. This the finest of the hardy species. A native of central and southern Korea and perhaps the Chinese province of Chekiang where it grows into a tree 30 feet tall, it was introduced into cultivation in Europe about 1870. It is not quite as hardy as C. mas, being reliable only in Zone 5. The fruits, similar to those of C. mas, were thought to possess medicinal properties by Oriental peoples, and the plant has been widely cultivated by them for centuries. At least young individuals of this species are easily confused with C. mas, and if only flowers are certainly 55 A large specimen of Cornus mas at the Arnold Arboretum showing the -shrubby habit typical of the species. Plant was 86 years old when photographed ; now 93, it has a height of 12 feet. Photo: H. Howard. available, distinguishing between the two species is always difficult. The diagnostic characters separating the two are outlined in the key above. The most obvious differences, and the ones which make C. officinalis far superior horticulturally to C. mas, are in the bark and the habit of the plants. Cornus of~tcinalis is almost always a vase-shaped small tree with a single trunk, or with a few main trunks close together. The finest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is 62 years old and about 15 feet tall. The bark on mature specimens exfoliates in a pattern suggesting that of a Sycamore or a Stewartia (but not as attractive, I must admit, as the latter). More subtle differences, but also horticulturally significant, are that the flowers of C. officinalis are a slightly better yellow, they are borne in larger clusters, and they appear a few days earlier than those of C. mas. 56 I A more complete account of this species is to be found in: Wilson, E. H. Rare and Noteworthy Plants. The Garden 88: Although the Korean Cornelian Cherry is certainly plant, it is rarely offered for sale by nurserymen. It is, however, listed by LaFayette Home Nursery in Lafayette, Ill., and by Greenbrier Farms in Chesapeake, Va. 333. 1924. a desirable Cornus sessilis Torr. Miner's Dogwood. This species, a native of the mountains of California, is a shrub or small tree to 15 feet tall. The flowers are in few-flowered clusters and the fruits are blue-black. The plant is not showy in flower or fruit, and it apparently is seldom cultivated. It is tender in all but the warmest parts of the northeastern United States. Cornus chinensis Wanger. This is a tree to 40 feet tall in the wild, with flowers in larger clusters than those of C. mas and C. officinalis. The leaves are also large with conspicuous veins, and have been compared with those of a Hosta. It is native to northern India, northern Burma, and western and central China, and is very rare in cultivation. The plants cultivated in England were grown from material collected by Kingdom Ward in northern Assam, and they are tender even in most parts of the British Isles. However, considering the natural range of the species, hardy clones might well be found if botanical exploration would be possible once more in China. Neither Cornus mas nor C. officinalis seems to be fussy about soil conditions, nor are they bothered by any serious insect pests or diseases. According to Mr. Alfred Fordham, Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, the seeds have a double dormancy. His experiments have shown that this may be overcome by a warm treatment for five months followed by cold stratification for three months at 40 degrees F. He also suggests that the seeds may be sown when mature in the fall, with germination to be expected in the spring of the second year hence. The intervening summer and subsequent winter supply the conditions necessary for germination. Both species are also easily propagated from softwood cuttings. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the Plant Called Neviusia","article_sequence":3,"start_page":57,"end_page":65,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24671","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070b726.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":2,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"In Defense of the Rev. Dr. Reuben D. Nevius and the Plant Called Neviusia by RICHARD A. HOWARD In 1857 Prof. Asa Gray named Neviusia as a new genus of the Rose family, based on material supplied by the Rev. Dr. Reuben Denton Nevius. The plant later was grown in the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge, Mass., and sent by Charles Sargent to Kew and to other European gardens; it had a limited native distribution along the Black Warrior River in Alabama near Tuscaloosa. Although they lacked petals, the flowers were extremely showy in the spring, due to the display of bright, yellowish stamens. An enlarged calyx along with the presence of only a few 1-seeded carpels made the plant of great botanical interest and suggested a relationship with the Asiatic genera Kerria and --Rhodotypus and an association with Spiraea. For many years the tribute to Nevius was acknowledged by botanists, but in 1900 Charles Pollard wrote of a visit to the home of Neviusia. \"During a recent collecting trip in the south a visit was made to Tuscaloosa for the purpose of seeing this and other rare plants of that region, and I was most fortunate in meeting Prof. W. S. Wyman, who was Dr. Nevius' companion on the trip during which the discovery was made. From his interesting account I learned that Dr. Gray erred in ascribing the discovery of the plant to Dr. Nevius; for it was first observed by Dr. Wyman, who had proceeded some distance ahead of his associate. These facts never have been made public, so far as I am aware, and it is unfortunate that the laws of botanical nomenclature forbid the substitution of Wymania for Neviusia.\" This allegation of error on Gray's part and of a lack of candor on the part of Dr. Nevius have now been accepted in recent floras where the discovery of Neviusia is credited to both Wyman and Nevius. In an attempt to understand the true story, I read the correspondence of Dr. Nevius with Prof. Asa Gray. Regrettably, Gray's letters to Nevius on the subject are not available. - 57 58 The Rev. Reuben Denton Nevius was bom in Ovid, New in 1827 and received his D.D. from Union College in 1849. He served as rector of the Protestant Episcopal church in Tuscaloosa, Alabama, from 1855 to 1866. Subsequently he served in Mobile, Alabama, and in Portland, Oregon. He is reported to have been a general missionary in Oregon and Washington from 1873 until his death in 1913. On May 11, 1858, Dr. Nevius wrote to Asa Gray, \"I take the liberty of sending you a plant that I have been unable to determine. I cannot think it undetermined as it is not rare, though not common. I found the specimens which I send last year before I procured your valuable Manual and have not been able to procure a specimen for analysis since. Although I cannot think it unknown to you I will take this liberty to affix a description I have made.\" Gray apparently replied suggesting the plant was new to science and offering some corrections for Nevius' description. On May 29, 1858, Nevius again wrote to Gray, \"I hasten to tell you of my very agreeable surprise in finding that I had made a discovery and to thank you for the kind notice you have taken of the same. Had I not distrusted my own analysis of the plant attributing my failure in it to ignorance, I should have sent it a year ago. Since then I have learned something more by the study of your excellent books, Systematics and Structural Botany and the Manual, for which in my humble way a mere tyro I thank you in the name of the lovers of the herbal craft.\" He promised to observe whether the plant was evergreen or deciduous and continued, \"Two years ago I began with Prof. Tuomey to make a register of the Flora of this neighborhood, but before we had taken our first ramble together he was lost to us and to the scientific world by death. Since then I have pursued the study alone, with many regrets for his loss both as a friend and a teacher.\" Gray sent Nevius a copy of the Torrey & Gray Flora ofNorth America, and on June 21, 1858, Nevius replied from the Christ Church Rectory, Tuscaloosa, \"Immediately on receiving your kind note of the 8th. inst. (for which with your generous offer of assistance in my study and your valuable Flora North America I thank you most sincerely) I arranged an excursion to the locality of the new unknown and procured the specimens herewith enclosed. I sent them immediately as the carpels are not fully perfected and would wither in drying.... I send also a specimen of the wood. The shrub has the general habit of growth of the Philadelphus and resembles it very much except York, 59 Neviusia alabamensis. From: A. Mem. Am. Acad. Arts Sci. II. 6: Gray. Neviusia, pl. 30. 1858. a new genus of Rosaceae. In the thickets where many twigs grow from the twig is gracefully bent over another towards the sunny side of the cliff forming a dense mass of foliage almost impervious to the sunlight. The shrub is a very beauty and well worth cultivation.... I will still watch the ripening fruit and send it to you when perfected. If the plant proves to be a new genus it would be gratifying to me and to my friends and associates in this study, Prof. Wyman and Dr. Mallett of the University, to be permited to name the genus in compliment to our old lamented friend Prof. Tuomey - Tuomeya. I have no doubt that the plant was known to him as he studied the flora of this neighborhood very thoroughly and that his sudden death cut short in this instance as in many others, a further investigation. Please inform me if this name will be agreeable to you. If it will I will leave to you if you please the site and form of publication and the pleasure (as it will be such I doubt not) of introducing it formally into the family of known plants and of making it known to science.... I beg you will do me the favor to write to me soon letting me know if this plant does establish a new genus and if you concur with me in the choice of a name, for really my interest in it and my desire to call it by its own name and to communicate my designed compliment to Mrs. Tuomey will hardly brook delay.\" Gray received the material Nevius mentioned and on a packet containing fruit wrote the name Tuomeya alabamensis. On July 12th Nevius wrote again, \"Your kind letter of June is before me and hasten to thank you for your promptness in writing as well as for cordial agreement with me in naming the new genus. Your disposition to do me the unmerited honor of giving it my name was pleasing to me but far less so than my ability to honor the name of a most excellent and deserving man - my friend in such an enduring monument. One word as to the name. Shall it be written Tuomeya or Tuomara? I think the former with the accent thus Tuo-mey-a. The name you know is Tuomey - Toomay. The name is Irish as Prof. T. was himself from Ireland.\" In this letter Dr. Nevius also refers to two other plants that had been the subject of correspondence between him and Prof. Gray. He obtained and sent material of Croomia, which Gray was able to grow in the Botanic Garden. Later Gray wrote a significant paper on the affinities of this unusual genus with Roxburghia of Asia. Nevius also wrote, \"As to the Sedum, I really hope it is new that I may thus by your favor enter by same 60I in foliage. root ... one - 61 Branch of Neviusia alabamensis in full bloom. Photo: K. Robertson. enrollment in a more modest way than you at first designed the honorable and gentle guild of botanists. I think, however, you have mistaken my name, as indeed all people do to whom I do not particularly say, it is Nevius not Nevins. My name you will see is already latinized. Perhaps so long ago as when written Naevius by Horace if so though I may not claim with modesty a descent so eminent. I may with reasonable pride see my name (through your works) incidentally mentioned like his upon a \"Monument more lasting than brass.\" Gray later was to write in a published paper: \"The Sedum a small, white-flowered species, with short and nearly terete cannot be adequateleaves, which may be named Sedum nevii ly characterized until better specimens shall be obtained.\" By present rules of botanical nomenclature Gray may have published an illegitimate provisional name. However, Dr. Nevius has been honored by others for his work on mosses and algae, for Chenactis nevii, Mnium nevii and Racomitrum nevii have been published honoring him. In October 1858 Nevius reported to Gray, \"I have a few more seeds of Tuomeya which I will send enclosed.\" - 62 On August 12, 1858, Asa Gray read a communication to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in which Neviusia was proposed as a new genus of the Rosaceae. The communication was not published until April 25, 1859. Shortly after reading the paper, Gray must have written to Nevius that another name must be chosen for the Alabama plant. His paper on Neviusia as published noted, \"But the publication of the third part of the Nereis Boreali-Americana (since the present communication was made to the Academy) shows that the name of Tuomeya is preoccupied, Dr. Harvey having dedicated to Professor Tuomey's memory a curious fluviatile alga discovered by the latter in Alabama, as well as by the late Professor Bailey in Virginia.\" On November 16, 1858, Dr. Nevius lamented to Gray, \"You may know how greatly I have been disappointed by being anticipated by Prof. Harvey in choice of a name for my new genus when I say that the discovery itself scarcely gave me more pleasure than the opportunity it afforded for honoring the name of my deceased friend. Prof. Harvey's compliment has given me great pleasure, yet I cannot help wishing that he had been a few months later in publishing his book. \"I do not see what can be done but to accept your kind proposition to give the genus the less honorable name Nevius except it would be proper to call it Toomara and trust to the usual note to designate the person. I can hardly hope, however, that you will think this proper. I will leave the whole matter entirely in your hands and by your will be godfather to the new genus.\" What name Gray used for the genus when he read the paper be clarified. It is clear he modified the printed version to use the name Neviusia rather than Tuomeya. On February 21, 1859, Nevius wrote to Gray, \"I have just received with great pleasure a sheet containing your article upon the new genus Neviusia and a few days before a sheet came to me by your kindness containing your notice of Harvey's Nevius, etc. I am greatly obliged to you for both and I take pleasure in again expressing my obligation and my thanks for your favor and kindness shown in the matter of Neviusia both in bringing it out and in keeping me appraised of its progress. Your kind notice of my first intention in giving it a name and your pleasing tribute to Prof. Tuomey has been peculiarly gratifying to me. Your article is quite an imposing one and it surprises me by its fullness. I am glad to know that there is an importance in its discovery aside from the discovery itself in its bearing upon the affinities of other genera.\" cannot 63 With this, the correspondence with Gray lags, judging from the letters retained in the historical files of the Gray Herbarium. On July 11, 1868, Dr. Nevius married Margaret Mercer Tuomey, the daughter of Prof. Tuomey. Dr. Nevius is recorded as a minister in Mobile, Alabama, from 1869 until 1871; on October 22, 1870, Mrs. Nevius died. Alone then, he moved to Portland, Oregon, and from there wrote in March, 1873, \"it is long since I have done anything in botany save with the mosses. But there are so many new plants here and so many interested persons continuously applying to me that I find my old love for the phanerogams returning upon me. And so I find myself turning to you in my difficulties as I used to do. By the way, how does the Neviusia thrive in Cambridge ? Has it come to you from any other quarter than Tuscaloosa ? Can you not have a few roots sent me by mail yet this spring?\" Nevius was to write to Gray on November 18, 1883, congratulating him on his birthday, and in December his correspondence with Sereno Watson began. Gray died January 30, 1888. _ In the spring of 1891, Nevius asked Watson to send roots of Neviusia to a friend in Tacoma, Washington, and in June of 1892 he wrote, \"Thank you for securing for my friend a root - of Neviusia. It will grow very well here. I think that ... it is not so much climatic difficulties which affects it as a want of loose acid soil. In its native place ... under a perpendicular rock (long cliff) I could pull up perfect roots by hand by simply pulling and shaking the loose virgin soil from its roots. It spreads from the roots and makes a long hedge-like thicket which in season is white with bloom.\" The role of Wyman as the first to find the original plant cannot be verified. It is clear that Dr. Nevius was not seeking honor for himself in the naming and that the final choice of a name was that of Gray when the suggestion of Tuomeya could not be implemented. The material sent to Gray was on the initiative of Dr. Nevius and his acknowledgment of \"friends and associates in this study, Prof. Wyman and Dr. Mallett\" is in the correspondence with Gray. The seeds in a packet with the name Tuomeya alabamensis in Gray's handwriting and full herbarium specimens preserved in the Gray collections are those of 1858 and 1859 from Tuscaloosa, Alabama. The oldest herbarium specimen from a cultivated plant is labeled Hort. Cantab. Anno 1864, and later specimens are dated 1871 and 1879. Such plants must have been grown from the seed Nevius sent to Gray. - 64 was the director of the Botanic Garden in from 1872-9 as well as director of the Arnold Cambridge Arboretum. An Arnold Arboretum specimen numbered 430 in our inventory was made from cuttings in the Botanic Garden, Cambridge, in 1876. One cutting from this plant was also established in Holm Lea, Sargent's residence. Other plants from this propagation must have been distributed by Sargent. J. D. Hooker illustrated Neviusia alabamensis and wrote of it in the Botanical Magazine in 1885. \"Neviusia flowered at Kew in May 1883; the plant was nailed against a wall exposed to the east and presented a very beautiful appearance from the abundance of its snow white heathery blossoms. Considering the climate and position of its native country, I should doubt its being hardy. It has been received at Kew from several contributors, notably a living plant from Prof. Sargent of Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States in 1879 and another from M. Miles, Esq. in 1881.\" George Nicholson had made a specimen of a flowering plant of Neviusia at Kew on May 31, 1880; a specimen from Zabel at Hannover, Germany, in 1894 bears the annotation of source as Simon Louis Fr. 1882. Neviusia has proved to be hardy in England, although L. P. Raffill noted in the Gardener's Chronicle that in sooty London of 1907 the plants failed to achieve a brilliance of flower when grown out-of-doors. An illustration is supplied of a greenhouse plant forced into early bloom which displayed spectacular white flowers worthy of a prize in any exhibition. In the northern hemisphere the flowering is in May or June, while in Sydney, Australia, the shrubs flower in Septem- Charles Sargent ber. from cuttings. Kenneth Robthe Rosaceae growing in the Arboretum and noted in the Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum that \"information on pollination mechanisms is lacking, but the plants are evidently partly self-compatible since the sole plant of the species in cultivation at the Arnold Arboretum produces some fruit.\" Our propagation records do not indicate that any propagator has tried to germinate the seeds of our plant. In fact, only one seed lot from another arboretum was tried and these seeds were infertile. The original locale where Neviusia was collected has been destroyed by blasting operations, but populations still occur along both sides of the Black Warrier River in the vicinity. Originally it was thought to be restricted to Alabama, but subNeviusia is reproduced readily ertson has made observations on 65 sequently plants have been found in Arkansas and reported but unverified in Missouri. In any case all locations are on the periphery of the Mississippi embayment of the old Gulf Coastal Plain. Neviusia is considered by phytogeographers to be a relatively old relict species rather than a strict endemic of recent origin. spring of 1976 affords the opportunity of observing this interesting plant in our collections. What pollinates it? What attracts the pollinators? Do the flowers have an odor or nectar? Are fertile seeds produced? Do the seeds germinate in the same manner as the relatives Kerria and Rhodotypus? Perhaps in the future sufficient young plants may be obtained to distribute again the material which Dr. Nevius sent The to Prof. Asa Gray over a century ago. Close-up of Neviusia flowers. Photo: K. Robertson. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":66,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24669","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070b328.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":2,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Wildflowers and Weeds. Booth Courtenay and James H. Zimmerman. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. 1972. 144 pages, illustrated. $9.95. This is a field guide intended for the lay person who is discouraged technical keys and scientific terms. The authors have emphasized common names and have used habitat and a system of family group charts based on simple structural detail as the \"tools\" for identification. Each of the 650 plants selected for inclusion is briefly described and represented by a color photograph that could be used alone for identification purposes. The area covered is the Great Lakes region of the United States and Canada; however, the plants included also will be found growing in similar habitats outside that area. The book should be useful for a large part of the Northern United States, and should appeal to everyone who likes to see his wildflowers depicted in color. SHEILA MAGULLION by Container Gardening Outdoors. George Taloumis. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1972. 95 pp., illustrated. $7.95. This is an idea book; it shows where and how to use plants in containers, mostly out-of-doors and in warm climates. Gardening procedures and management occupy but a few pages, and virtually cultural material is included. The volume has particular application to the needs of designers of shopping malls and municipal parks as well as West Coast residences where money is no object. The rest of us might look at it in a library for fun and inspiration. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE no The Complete Handbook of Pruning. Roger Grounds, editor. New York, Macmillan Co. 157 pages, illustrated. American edition 1975. $12.95. Originally published in England, this volume retains a few British characteristics in vocabulary, and in references to species grown or for hardiness ranges within the United States. A glossary explains the less familiar terms. The section on grapes, for example, is applicable in its entirety to England and not to the United States. The fundamentals of pruning procedures are described and illustrated with color plates and black and white diagrams and illustrations. The three sections of the book cover the pruning of ornamental plants; the pruning of fruit trees and bushes; hedges, including topiary; greenhouse plants; and the care of old trees. In several sections an alphabetical listing of the plants considered uses interchangeably scientific and common generic and specific names. RICHARD A. HOWARD 66 1 67 P. mamei. From: Philodendrons. Philodendrons. Jack Kramer. 1974. 87 pp., illustrated. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. $5.95. This little book covers the selection, care, and propagation of philodendrons and related genera. The fifteen line drawings by Charles Hoeppner are the best part of the book; they are attractive, accurate, and correctly identified except for Monstera deliciosa (listed as Philodendron pertusum). Unfortunately the text does not live up to the illustrations; it is repetitive and sometimes misleading. For example, the delicate Monstera Friedrichsthalii is described as \"a treelike rampant climber,\" (p. 62), and dieffenbachias are said to have \"large heart-shaped leaves resembling those of caladiums,\" (p. 68), which is untrue. The chapters on the care of philodendrons contain useful summaries of the standard horticultural practices. However, the charts on diseases and their control (p. 28-30) recommend in several instances spraying with Malathion, a chemical toxic to humans which should not be used in the home. The description of propagation by air-layering (p. 57) is adequate, but the accompanying illustration by James Carew (p. 83) shows the gardener air-layering a petiole instead of a stem, a procedure certain of failure! 68I Much of the material presented in the first part of the book is in the last chapter in a question and answer format. An index would have been more to the point, and the remaining pages could have been used to amplify the cryptic two-line descriptions of \"forty favorite philodendrons,\" (Chapter 5). The volume ends with a list of references. Notably absent is Monroe R. Birdsey's excellent work, The Cultivated Aroids ( 1951 ), which covers the same subject matter as Philodendrons and is still available from the publisher, Eric Lundberg, Ashton, Md. 20702, for a modest $5.00. MICHAEL MADISON repeated Wild Flowers of the Canary Islands. David and Zoe Bramwell. London : Stanley Thornes Ltd. 1974. 261 pp., illustrated. f5.00. Canary Islands are a paradise for plant lovers. The climate growing a diverse group of garden plants from temperate to tropical types, but it is the native plants that are of particular interest. There are approximately 2000 of these; about one-fifth are is ideal for The found nowhere else on earth, and many are restricted to small areas on a single island. A large number are spectacular in a weird or a beautiful sense, particularly the Echiums, which are relatives of the familiar, weedy Viper's Bugloss. Succulents in several families are numerous. This book is an indispensable aid for anyone interested in the native plants of the Canaries, whether he be a botanist or a more casual observer, as I can attest from firsthand experience. I took the book with me on a recent trip there, and I would have been lost without it. A total of 205 species are illustrated by means of color photographs, and an additional 109 with reasonably good line drawings; nearly every genus is represented by at least one illustration. The last half of the book contains short descriptions and keys to the identification of a large percentage of the total flora. Although a glossary is provided, this section is most useful to the botanist or the serious amateur. Equally as useful as the identification aids is the excellent section on areas of botanical interest. A map of each of the seven major islands is given, and areas with concentrations of interesting plants are delineated. The plants listed in the accompanying text are usually among those illustrated later in the book. This section is particularly useful in preparing one's itinerary when time is limited. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. Galanthus nivalis demure harbinger of spring Administration Building. Photo: P. Chvany. - brightens entrance of "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23394","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ea728.jpg","title":"1976-36-2","volume":36,"issue_number":2,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Subtropical Bonsai for Indoor Gardening","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24668","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070af6f.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Derderian, Constance T.","article_content":"Subtropical Bonsai for Indoor Gardening by CONSTANCE TORTORICI DERDERIAN Traditional bonsai are trained hardy trees and shrubs grown in classic containers on shelves or benches and brought indoors to be enjoyed for a day or two, then returned to the growing area. In winter they require dormancy, as do the same species growing in the ground. If one has succumbed to the charm of these miniatures of nature and one lives in a cold climate, winter is a time of parting, for the bonsai must go into a cold frame or other storage place until spring. Happily, such deprivation is no longer necessary because bonsai enthusiasts have discovered a new challenge: growing subtropical trees and shrubs in containers indoors, at all seasons if desired. The purpose of this ar'~ 3~ ~O provide -a~ ~tred~st~~^ , rather than a detailed guide, to this new facet of the ancient art. Anyone experienced with hardy materials will find subtropicals a \"breeze\" to work with. They require a much shorter period to develop from potted tree to bonsai; in two years of training a specimen can be developed that would take four or more years with the use of hardy material. If one starts with nursery stock, it is not so risky to cut back large-sized plants, and because subtropicals have comparatively shallow root systems, they adapt well to shallow pot culture. Surface roots develop nicely because they are growing almost twelve months of the year; branches thicken and form fine twigs sooner because growing and pinching also are continuous. As a group subtropical material is more colorful than hardy material. Many of the trees and shrubs produce showy blossoms, some blooming more than once a year, or even constantly. Among frequent bloomers are Malpighia, Calliandra, the jasmines, and Serissa foetida, known as the snow rose in the south. In addition to flowering trees and shrubs, some also produce fruit that is a delight to see. Outstanding in this category are some of the citrus family; Punica granatum nana, bearing perfect miniature pomegranates; Carissa grandiflora, with edible 1 2I Malpighia punicifolia tural root growth. Photo. nursery stock planted P Chvany. over the rock to show na- fruits preceded by very fragrant blossoms; Severinia buxifolia, which develops interesting black fruits; and Triphasia triphylla, offering scented white flowers followed by tiny, lime-shaped fruits. Bark and leaf forms also are appealing in color and variety. Bark color ranges from almost white to almost black; texture can be spongy to \"hard as nails.\" In appearance bark can have a matte finish or a high shine, and its character is evident as soon as one year of growth in a seedling. Melaleuca quinquenervia, cork tree or punk tree, has a bark so spongy that a flying golf ball will penetrate it an inch or more. The bark is matte creamy-beige and shaggy in appearance. Bright red-brown, shiny, and peeling a little in a very thin layer is the bark of the gumbo limbo, (Bursera simaruba); that of the Malpighia coccigera is the more familiar dark brown, 3 Above: Bark, blossom, and leaves of Malpighia coccigera. Right: Bark of Myrciaria cauliflora. Photos: P. Chvany. 4 Punica granatum nana fruit. Photo: P. Chvany. 5 Malpighia Branch on original 8 inches tall, grown as a bonsai for fifteen years. coccigera right nllowed to grow out of proportion to thicken as it replaces one that was broken accidentally. Photo: P. Chvany. - _ and lightly furrowed like our hardy trees. Malpighia punicifolia has tiny white, birchlike horizontal markings that are interesting in a group planting. Little known because it is on the list of protected trees is holywood or lignum-vitae (Guaiacum), with bark that is almost white and rough in texture. The wood is so hard that it will sink in water. A tree with mottled bark is jaboticaba (Myrciaria cauliflora). Whereas the bark on a fouryear-old Stewartia shows no variation of color, a four-year-old jaboticaba shows all the colors of an adult tree. Some subtropicals have foliage as interesting as flowers. First among these is the Malpighia coccigera or Singapore holly which bears at the same time spiny, holly-shaped leaves and smooth-edged oval ones, both very shiny deep green. Breynia distica, called Jacob's coat, has leaves of many colors; they are mottled in shades of red, white and green. The leaf of Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 'Snow Queen' is light gray-green in the center with a white border tinged all around with pink. Serissa foetida variegata has tiny creamy-white rimmed, dark green leaves. From a distance it looks as if it were in bloom. Pithecellobium brevifolium, commonly called ebony, has a light green compound leaf with leaflets so small that the tree has a feathery, fernlike appearance. Acacia baileyana has a - Bucida spinosa - 20 inches tall, grown in container for five years. 30 inches wide. Collected specimen Photo: P. Chvany. similar leaf but it is bluish-green and silvery underneath. The of Sparmannia, African hemp, is shaped like a maple but is fuzzy and yellow-green. Even some of the very leaf, large-leaved trees like Grevillea and Jacaranda can make acceptable bonsai because the leaves are deeply cut and light in foliage feeling. general rules for selecting hardy bonsai materials the subtropicals. Choose plants with small leaves and apply short internodes. If possible, avoid grafted material because it usually has ugly swellings on the trunk. In the south one often finds nursery stock has been grafted on nematode resistant roots. For example, Gardenia radicans is grafted on Gardenia jasminoides stock; Gardenia radicans is very desirable for bonsai because it has small leaves and small flowers. If there is no choice and the graft is well done or can be concealed neatly, the design of the bonsai may not be ruined. Since subtropicals are in bloom frequently, choose plants with small flowers so that the proportions of the bonsai will not same The to 7 be destroyed. Hardy material blooms for such a short period that this selectivity is not always a requirement. As with all the rules in bonsai, there are exceptions. Plants with compound leaves usually are avoided in hardy bonsai; in subtropical material there are too many to pass over. Therefore, one should simply choose the smallest leaved plants and work with them to see if bonsai techniques will reduce the leaf sufficiently to keep the overall tree in proportion. Pithecellobium and Acacia, for example, work well for small bonsai. Grevillea and Jacaranda would have to be large bonsai; be sure you have room for them. The greatest satisfaction comes from hunting subtropical bonsai material in the wild, which is considerably easier than hunting for hardy trees. The ground is never hard (except when the digging is in coral rock), and the weather is warm. ~ ~ Lantana - collected plant. Photo: P. Chvany. Calliandra haematocephala nana - nursery stock planted in cascade style and overpotted to allow growth to thicken trunk and branches. In the meanwhile the composition is pleasing; note blossoms. In this container four months. Photo: P. Chvany. 9 Trachelospermum 12 inches overall; grown seven years as a Photo: P. bonsai; blooms well. Chvany. Carissa grandiflora from a cutting. Grown as a mame over ten years. Has never fruited or flowered although its parent did. Foliage is one-fifth normal size. Height is 8 inches. Photo: P. Chvany. 10 optimum time for collecting the material desired well as what equipment will be needed. Keep the collected trees very moist until well-established to insure success. One should not bring material from the southern states to the north unless it has been inspected and approved by the U.S.D.A., by the way. In the northeast, subtropical material is not so readily available, but prowling the nurseries and flower shops is half the fun for bonsai enthusiasts. With the increased interest in indoor gardening under lights, the variety in the commercial establishments is growing, and a wider selection is appearing. There are a few plants that are especially amateur-resistant and therefore satisfactory as a beginner's bonsai. Calliandra, powder puff plant, has red feathery blossoms shaped like a semihemisphere. They burst forth from a bud shaped like a red raspberry, and the leaf is compound. The plant responds well to top and root pruning and will blossom sporadically all winter - the number of blossoms depending upon the amount of light. In a north window with no sun there will be one to six or more at a time; in an east or south window the bonsai will be covered with blooms. Exotic, modem in appearance, and altogether appealing is the sea grape, (Coccoloba uvifera). It is grown for its leaves, which are reddish in color when they first come out, later turning a deep green and then bright red and yellow before they drop. In the south the first crop of leaves is cut off to cause the second to be smaller; in New England the normal light in winter is weak and short in duration so that the leaves grow small and in good proportion. The sea grape is tolerant of poor light and dry soil. The genus Ficus provides a whole range of rugged bonsai for beginners. The plants are fast growers and soon produce the effect of a mature tree. They are also tolerant of poor soil, poor light, and poor humidity. Again, Malpighia must be mentioned - both M. coccigera and M. punicifolia, the latter having a perseverance that is a comfort to the novice. Even when a specimen has been defoliated due to desiccation, placement in the shade and careful watering will induce new growth. Nicodemia diversifolia with its oak-shaped leaves is easy to grow, but attention to its shaping must be given. When explaining that bonsai are made from trees and shrubs one should also mention vines, for they, too, are woodystemmed plants. Although many subtropical vines have blosas Learn the 11 1 Cuphea hyssopifolia Shown life-size. - from Photo. P. a cutting planted Chvany. in this container five years. soms that are too large for bonsai (blossoms and fruit do not reduce in size even though the leaves do), there are many desirable materials from which interesting specimens can be made. Among these are Trachelospermum (confederate jasmine) and Clerodendron, which have attractive growth patterns, foliage, and flowers; Hedera helix and Ficus repens, which make handsome mame (mah-may) bonsai miniature trees not more than six inches overall. Trachelospermum grows slowly and has fragrant blooms occasionally; should its shape be neglected, it responds to a few snips or a severe pruning. Hedera helix has one major problem: the initial pruning. Once a plant is found with a sufficiently large trunk, it is very difficult to cut away the luxuriant long growth that such a specimen would have! Spectacular in bloom is bougainvillea. It does require attention to its needs, however, and must be warm and dry to produce flowers. - 12 In designing bonsai the ideal is to represent nature in miniature. Neither grotesque forms nor unnatural designs are acceptable to modern bonsai enthusiasts. (In ancient times creators of bonsai exaggerated the twisted trunks beyond those found in nature, and the practice was encouraged by the approval of a royal personage upon a visit to a nursery.) But styling a bonsai to the same form found in nature is not always practical. Formal upright style is represented by the araucarias which, although good house plants, are difficult to reproduce in miniature. Taxodium distichum will make a magnificent formal upright bonsai, but it requires a cooler winter than summer even though indoors. To have a bonsai of this design one may substitute compatible material that is easier to shape, such as Eugenia myrtifolia, Ficus neriifolia regularis, or Ulmus parvi- folia. Informal upright and slanting styles are most often seen in and are the easiest to duplicate as bonsai. Under slanting style is windswept style and one can have fun with it in deciding \"how the wind is blowing\" and which way the tree will lean. If the \"wind\" gets out of hand the result may be a semicascade style. Cascade style trees do not grow in nature in the south. The closest to cascade would be a vine that has traveled as far upward as it can and then begins to grow downward. Plants other than vines that lend themselves to cascade styles are Calliandra, Carissa, Gardenia, Lantana, Serissa, and juniper. Driftwood style is found mostly along the shores where trees have survived the struggle against storms; inland, with few exceptions, they decay and soon disappear if damaged. Conocarpus erectus, Jacquinia keyensis and Taxodium distichum are good subjects for this style, for the wood is slow to deteriorate and \"silvers\" nicely. Spring is always the best time to pot up hardy bonsai. Subtropicals (with exceptions) can be started successfully throughout the year at the grower's convenience. Naturally, heavy pruning of the top must be done when the roots are severely cut back; after that, light pruning and pinching of branches and twigs can take place at any time, as can wiring. (It may be prudent to paper-tape the wire, for many subtropical plants have tender bark.) Established subtropical bonsai have two periods of strong growth: spring and fall. Reshaping and heavy top pruning should be done before these periods. Style dictates the shape and depth of the container used. Shallow round, oval, or rectangular trays are most appropriate since they are complementary to the informal upright and nature 13 slanting styles of subtropicals. Cascade and semicascade styles, of course, require a deep container for balance. Even though the tray is shallow, a free-draining soil is very important. Subtropical bonsai, with rare exceptions, prefer a light humus and sand-soil mixture slightly acid to neutral. Watering is simplified under these conditions; generally, a heavy application once a day should suffice. In the dark winter months as the light and temperature decrease, reduce watering; except for the mames it is even possible to skip a day. With heavy watering of a small amount of soil, a regular program of fertilization is advisable to replace the nutrients that have leached out. Frequent but VERY dilute applications of an all-purpose product are recommended. Ficus neriifolia regularis - five-tree grove planted six years ago nursery stock. Height is 22 inches. Photo: P. Chvany. from 14 Ficus benjamina - from is 28 inches. Height nursery stoch grown as a bonsai fifteen years. Note surface roots. Photo: P. Chvany. Above: Ficus neriifolia group regularis. Cuttings newly planted to make a mame planting. : Pinus halepensis. the right one as a Both plants grown from seed six years-a~e;bonsai for four years. Photos: P. Chvany. 16 6 The familiar indoor pests mealy bug, scale, spider mites, will attack subtropical bonsai, but unless the air is very still and very hot, it is possible for the plants to go through the winter without trouble. If infestations do occur, they may be dealt with in the usual manner by spraying with insecticides. This is not always practical in a house or small apartment, however. A simple solution is to use a 1\/.z-inch-wide soft paint brush dipped in alcohol to brush the entire plant trunk, branches and both sides of the leaves; then rinse off under a spray of water. (The surface of the soil should be covered with plastic during this operation.) An alternative is to wash the plant with soapy water. In case of heavy infestation, both treatments can be used consecutively. It is possible to leave these small gems of horticulture untended for a few days if precautions are taken to prevent desiccation. The easiest procedure is to water and drain each bonsai thoroughly and enclose it in a plastic bag placed out of the sun; that will keep it from three to five days. Or water the bonsai thoroughly and set it in a tray filled with 1\/> to 1 inch of water. The plant will be sitting in it for only a day; in three days the water will have evaporated and the bonsai will be drying. Alternatively, if the thermostat is lowered and the shades drawn, the plant will not use much water and can wait fortyeight hours for its next application. A way to determine if there is sufficient light to grow bonsai indoors is to photograph the growing area with a simple Instamatic or similar camera, and film normally used for outdoor photography. If there is no image when the film is developed, there is not enough light; conversely, the better the photograph, the better the growing conditions. Small subtropical bonsai those about 14 inches or less grow well under fluorescent lights. Taller bonsai require more complicated light systems to assure good light on the lower branches. A combination of good natural light, plus artificial light to lengthen the day, has proved to be most productive of good plant health and blossom. A dear friend and accomplished horticulturist recently said to me, \"I've always considered bonsai the chamber music of horticulture and up to now I've not been ready to get into that.\" When one finds one's self \"into that,\" the return is immeasurable in new interests, pleasurable activity, visual delights, and satisfaction to the soul. - etc. - - - at Constance Derderian is Honorary Curator the Arnold Arboretum. of the Bonsai Collection 17 ~ Top: Jacquinia keyensis - collected in 1972. Has very brittle branches; still breaking with leaves from wood that seemed dead. Below: Ficus aurea - 3i\/2 inches high planted in the rock two years. Photos: Deborah Thompson 18 Subtropical Plants Suitable for Indoor Bonsai are plants with which I have had from two to fifteen years of experience. The list of possible subtropical material is almost end- These less. 1 do very well in normal house conditions 2 - adapt easily 3 - need careful attention 4 - difficult requirements - 4 Acacia baileyana (golden mimosa)-wants cool growing to warm tem- 3 3 2 2 2 2 1 peratures Acacia farnesiana - will adapt temperatures spp. - will drop leaves if too wet or too cold Breynia disticia var. roseopicta (Jacob's coat) - needs sun for best leaf coloration Bucida spinosa (black olive ) - water well, root prune quickly and lightly Buxus japonica (boxwood) - keep in cool spot, root prune light- Bougainvillea ly Buxus microphylla nana - do not overwater or overfertilize Calliandra haematocephala and C. h. nana (powder puff plant) leaves fold at night Camellia sasanqua -depending on variety blooms Oct. to Feb. in cool temperatures Carissa grandiflora (Natal plum) - resents heavy root pruning Citrus spp. (calamondin, marco orange, meyer lemon, grape- 3 2 3 1 1 1 2 1 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 1 3 2 2 1 1 2 fruit) Clerodendron thomsonae (glorybower)-keep well watered Coccoloba uvif era (sea grape ) - do not overwater or overfertilize, likes alkaline soil Conocarpus erectus (buttonwood) - water well, tend to pinching Cuphea hyssopifolia needs sun for bloom Eugenia myrtifolia (brush cherry) - grows quickly, easy to - shape Eugenia uniflora full Eurya japonica - keep - sun warm Ficus aurea (strangler fig) dryness, leaf reduces drastically Ficus benjamina (weeping fig)-will develop aerial roots Ficus diversifolia (mistletoe fig) Ficus neriifolia regularis - responds well to heavy pruning of for edible fruit and well-drained - tolerant of heat and top Ficus pumila minima - very slow but worthwhile Ficus retusa nitida tolerant of poor light Galphimia gracilis shape by pruning; brittle Gardenia jasminoides nana - uniform temperature and moisture Gardenia radicans - will grow in window without sun Guaiacum ofjzcinale (lignum vitae)-grow warm and in full sun for truly blue flowers Hedera helix (English ivy) Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 'Snow Queen' - do not overwater; full sun for best leaf color - - 19 2 2 (Yaupon holly ) - wire carefully; prune roots lightly; pot up quickly Ixora spp. - acid soil, tolerant of poor light but needs sun for Ilex vomitoria full bloom 3 3 2 Jacaranda spp. terminals - difficult to achieve lavender-blue flowers on Jacquinia keyensis (joewood) - collected only. Keep roots damp, pot quickly J asminum dichotomum (pinwheel jasmine)-stands pruning well 2 3 2 3 2 4 2 1 1 -2 Jasminum pubescens (star jasmine)-keep in warm, moist, and good light in cool Juniperus chinensis sargentii - best temperatures, pinch fo- carefully Juniperus procumbens liage thinned out nana - stands heavy pruning; keep moist and in Lagerstroemia indica ( crapemyrtle ) - keep good for bloom. Adapts to any style. Lantana spp. brittle to wire, easy to shape light - by pinching Leptospermum scoparium (tea tree) - resents heavy root pruning Ligustrum japonicum (Japanese privet ) - wants neutral to alkaline soil; easy to shape Malpighia coccigera (Singapore holly ) - burns in sun; do not keep wet a twig breaks it heals and grows if not severed Melaleuca gningue~zerr~iu-(cork -tree) -stands heavy-top-~nd- Malpighia punicifolia-when 2 _ 2 2 1 1 2 root pruning Myrciaria cauliflora (jaboticaba) -fertilize carefully to prevent yellow leaves; needs sun for its edible fruit Olea europaea (olive) - tolerant of heat and dryness Pinus elliottii (slash pine) - needles do reduce; start with young _ plant Pinus halepensis (Aleppo pine ) - tolerant of heat and dryness; do not repot often Pithecellobium brevifolium (ebony)-best shaped by pruning best shaped by pruning because of growth Pittosporum tobira - pattern 2 1 1 4 4 2 Podocarpus macrophylla 'Maki' (southern yew)-root prune carefully; responds well to top pruning Punica granatum nana (dwarf pomegranate) - tend to pinching Pyracantha angustifolia - likes alkaline soil; tolerant of dryness Quercus nigra - same as Q. virginiana, water well Quercus virginiana (live oak ) - start with young plant; do repot often, and root prune very lightly not Raphiolepis wire indica (Indian hawthorn) - slow grower; brittle to 3 2 Rhododendron indicum (azalea)-`Coral Bells' (Kurume) an excellent variety Serissa foetida (snow rose) - tend to pinching, do not overfertilize 20 2 1 1 4 1 1 Serissa foetida variegata - tolerant of poor light but becomes leggy if grown too dark; tend to pinching for shape Severinia buxif olia - very brittle to wire Sparmannia africana (African hemp) - grows quickly, shapes easily by pinching a cool and dry peplenty of water to grow Trachelospermum jasminoides (confederate jasmine)-pinch out vining growth Triphasia triphylla (lime berry) - keep warm, well watered; Taxodium distichum (bald riod to lose foliage, then cypress)-needs 2 1 watch for wire cuts Ulmus parvifolia sempervirens good shallow root system Vitis munsoniana (bird grape ) light and heat (evergreen - fast or Chinese elm) - grower, tolerant of poor 21 Bibliography Ballard, Ernesta D. 1973. Noble, Scranton. -. Growing Plants Indoors. Barnes and 1974. The Art of Training Plants. Barnes and Noble, Scran- ton. Brockman, C. Frank. 1968. Trees of North America. Golden Press, New York. Crockett, James U. 1971, 1972. Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening. Time-Life, New York. Harrar, Ellwood S and Harrar, J. George. 1962. Guide to Southern Trees. Dover, New York. Hull, George F. 1964. Bonsai for Americans. Doubleday, New York. Jenkins, Dorothy H and Wilson, Helen Van Pelt. 1954. House Plants for Every Window Barrows, New York. Kuck, Loraine E. and Gongg, Richard C. n.d. A Guide to Tropical and Semitropical Flora. Tuttle, Rutland, Vt. Mattoon, W. 1943. Common Forest Trees of Florida and How to Know Them. Florida Forestry Assoc., Jacksonville. Maxwell, Lewis S. 1961. Florida Plant Selector. Lewis S. Maxwell, Tampa. Morton, Julia York. __ F. 1971. Exotic Plants. Western Publishing Co., New . 1974. Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida. 1964. Bonsai: Trees and Shrubs. Trend House, Tampa. Perry, Lynn. York. --Snyder, Ethel. Fla. Ronald Press, New 1952. Florida 1966. 1959. Trees,~nd ~d. Ethel SnydEr, Sanibel,Van Stowell, Jerald P. Princeton. Sturrock, David. Bonsai. Indoors and Out. Fruits for Southern Florida. Nostrand, Southeastern Edith W. 1969. Winter Flowers in Greenhouse and Sun-heated Pit. Scribner, New York. Taylor, Norman. 1961. Taylor's Encyclopedia of Gardening, 4th ed. Houghton Mifflin, Boston. Printing Co., Stuart, Fla. Taylor, Kathryn S. and Gregg, Pithecellobium brevifolium 9 inches. Grown from to adjust branch placement. Photo: P. Chvany. - a seedling and wired "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sassafras: A Neglected Native Ornamental","article_sequence":2,"start_page":23,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24666","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070ab26.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Sassafras: A Neglected Native Ornamental by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. One of Boston's fine old trees is the specimen of Sassafras (Sassafras albidum ) pictured on the opposite page. It is growing in the front yard of a home owned by Mrs. B. Carney at 153 Savin Hill Avenue, Dorchester, and it measures 43 feet in height with a trunk circumference of 6 feet, 5 inches. Although little is known of its history, the tree is certainly more than a - hundred years old. Sassafras is a common and familiar tree throughout most of the eastern half of the United States, from southern Maine -west to Iowa and south to Florida and Texas. The picturesque common (and generic) name is of obscure origin, but it was used by the French settlers in Florida as early as the sixteenth century. The tree is characteristically a plant of forest margins and clearings, but it also is often somewhat weedy, appearing in old fields, hedgerows, and along roadsides where it rapidly forms clumps by means of suckers and stolons. It is often thought of as being a rather small tree, but in the southern part of its range it occasionally reaches considerable size. The largest specimen on record (American Forests 75(2) :24. 1969), growing in Owensboro, Kentucky, is 100 feet tall with a trunk circumference of 17 feet, 3 inches. Therefore the tree featured in this article is rather a small one in comparison to the \"national champion,\" but still an exceptional specimen considering that it is growing in an urban environment near the northern limit of the species' hardiness range. Still, it is by no means the largest tree of its species in Massachusetts. That distinction goes to a specimen in East Taunton with a height of 56 feet and a trunk circumference of 9 feet, 10 inches. An even larger one, long since gone, was reported (Russell, G. W. 1886. Gardener's Monthly 28: 22.) to have grown in West Cambridge in the mid-nineteenth century. 23 24I Sassafras, with one American and two Asiatic species, is a member of the Laurel Family, a large group of primarily tropical woody plants; several genera are native to the United States, but the only other representative in the New England flora is the Spicebush (Lindera benzoin). The family is named for the Grecian Laurel, Laurus nobilis, of the Mediterranean region (not to be confused with the native Mountain Laurel, a member of the Heath Family or Ericaceae), the leaves of which are the source of the bay leaf used as a seasoning in cooking. The leaves, stems, and\/or bark of most members of the Laurel Family contain pleasant-smelling oils, and therefore are strongly aromatic when crushed or scraped. These oils are distilled from the wood of Cinnamomum camphora, an Asiatic member of the family, to produce the camphor of commerce; the dried bark of another species of Cinnamomum yields the spice cinnamon. Various parts of the Sassafras tree also give off a spicy fragwhen crushed, and the oil distilled from the bark of the roots has been used commercially as a flavoring in candies, medicines, and soft drinks, such as root beer and sarsaparilla, and as a perfume in soaps. The oil also has mild antiseptic qualities, and it was used in dentistry as a disinfectant of root canals. In addition, a tea brewed from the roots and served either hot or cold, has long been a popular drink in rural areas of this country, both as a refreshment and as a \"spring tonic.\" The healing qualities of Sassafras were once believed to be quite considerable. As early as 1574, soon after the tree's discovery, various extracts were hailed as a virtual panacea, and they commanded high prices in Europe. Several expeditions were sent to the New World with the express purpose, among others, of collecting Sassafras. Among these was the voyage of Bartholomew Gosnold and Bartholomew Gilbert in 1602, one of the earliest to the coast of New England. Good accounts of this fascinating aspect of our history may be found in the following: Carroll, C. F. 1973. The timber economy of New England. Brown University Press, Providence, pp. 42-44; and Randall, C. E. 1964. A toast to a tree. American Forests 70( 5 ) : 22-24; 42. Eventually Sassafras fell into disrepute as a panacea, and recently oil of sassafras actually has been found to be potentially hazardous. Experiments carried out by Lehman (Assoc. Food Drug Officials U.S., Quart. Bull. 25: 194. 1961.) under the auspices of the United States Food and Drug Administration, found that if safrol, one of the primary constituents of rance 25 Foliage, male flowers (#1 ), female flowers (#2), and fruits of Sassafras albidum. From. Michaux, F.A. 1818. The North American Sylva, vol. 2, plate 81 (as Laurus sassafras). 26 were fed to rats in large quantity, they developed liver cancer, and if fed in smaller quantities, it produced other, non- the oil, cancerous damage. And, as reported in the 25th edition of the Dispensatory of the U.S.A. (1955), safrol, if taken in sufficient dose, quickly kills by paralysis of respiration; lesser doses cause death by \"widespread fatty deterioration of the heart, liver, kidneys, etc.\" The same reference also reports, from the December 1888 Cincinnatti Lancet-Clinic, that a teaspoon of the oil itself \"... produced in a young man vomiting, collapse, somewhat dilated pupils, and pronounced stupor.\" The FDA, as a result, placed a ban on sassafras oil in 1960. Sassafras lumber has never been of commercial importance, partly because trees of timbering size are few and far between and partly because the wood is brittle and coarse-grained. However, since it is quite resistant to rot and it shrinks very little upon drying, the wood has been used for fence rails, railroad ties, buckets, barrels, and small boats. Even though its wood is weak, its healing powers mostly fable, and its oil a potential hazard, Sassafras is still a useful tree and a very beautiful one as well. Few of our native trees have so many ornamental qualities and yet are so infrequently cultivated. Sassafras is attractive at all seasons. The yellow-green flowers appear in the springtime before the leaves, in late April or early May at the Arnold Arboretum, and although individually they are not showy, a tree in full bloom is pleasing, giving about the same effect as a Norway Maple, Spicebush, or Cornelian Cherry. The leaves are a fresh yellowish-green during the summer, and they are unusual in that basically three different types are found on an individual tree (see illustration). The fruits are of a type unique to the Laurel Family. Those of Sassafras resemble a small dark blue cherry perched atop a red stalklike structure reminiscent of the shape of a golf-tee. The fruits, though attractive, are seldom seen for several reasons: (1) Sassafras trees are basically either male or female, as in hollies, so not all individuals produce fruit; (2) fruit production is evidently sporadic, even in basically female trees; and (3) the fruits are eaten by a variety of bird species as soon as they ripen. The color and the effect of the fall foliage is about as spectacular as that of any tree, the leaves typically turning orange with tints of yellow, red, and salmon, and for this reason alone the tree deserves more recognition as an ornamental. Finally, Sassafras is attractive even in the winter with its bright green twigs and picturesque profile. In younger individuals, I the branches are horizontal with upturned specimens, like the one pictured here, develop crown. 27 tips, while older a rugged, craggy Little information is available on the behavior of Sassafras in cultivation. It has not been used as a street tree to any appreciable extent, so it is not known whether or not it would be a suitable species for this purpose. The fact that such a large apparently healthy specimen is present in Dorchester, however, suggests that it will tolerate urban conditions. Sassafras apparently prefers acidic, sandy, well-drained soils, but I have seen it growing perfectly well in heavy limestone soils. It is not susceptible to any serious diseases, and the Japanese Beetle is its only major insect pest. The larvae of several other species do feed on the leaves of the tree, causing but minor damage, but this may not be an unfavorable attribute since two of them, the Spicebush Swallowtail and the Prometheus Moth, are among our more attractive insects. Sassafras is somewhat difficult to propagate and definitely difficult to transplant, perhaps helping to explain why it is not more _ frequently cultivated. According to Mr. Alfred Fordham, Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, the seeds germinate readily if stratified when fresh, but they are seldom available in large _ quantities. Propagation by cuttings is difficult if not impossible, unless the cuttings are taken from sucker shoots. are The root fleshy; only seedlings or small saplings can be successfully transplanted as a rule. But perhaps with the ascendency of sophisticated containerized growing by nurserymen, the Sassafras, one of our most ornamental native trees, will become more readily available to the horticultural public. system is extensive and the roots themselves "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Small Shrubs with Noteworthy Winter Bark","article_sequence":3,"start_page":28,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24667","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070ab6b.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"Small Shrubs with Winter Bark by MARGO W. REYNOLDS Noteworthy ~ large expanse of land has the opporsomewhat and develop separate areas tunity experiment devoted to specific genera of perennials, showy shrubs and the like. In a small garden, because of its limited size, all things must be rolled into one. If done well, with forethought and careful planning, it can have nearly as much variety as its larger counterpart without sacrificing style or aesthetics. Since numbers of plants must of necessity be restricted, it is important to select those that can fulfill multiple purposes. Shrubs planted solely for their flowers, fruits or form are too limiting for the small garden. Every attempt should be made to seek out materials that have a combination of attributes good form plus fragrant flowers, attractive fruits as well as eyecatching blossoms, low maintenance with fruit tempting to a The homeowner with to birds, etc. Toward that end, this article proposes to present shrubs that, in addition to other primary attributes. have the secondary characteristic of interesting bark to recommend them. Since bark, for the most part, is not readily discernible until the leaves have fallen off in the autumn, these plants are especially valuable in the winter landscape. Inexperienced gardeners, if they think of the winter garden at all, think of it as the dull period that follows autumn's foliage extravaganza and precedes spring's bulb display. Adding a few shrubs such as these to the garden could make it an object of year-round interest rather than \"just another garden.\" Shrubs With Red Winter Color A number of shrubs exhibiting a characteristic red winter bark are suitable for planting in the small garden. Space dictates that we limit these to only a few, and the ones selected 28 Cornus sericea. Photo~ P. are some Chvany. of the best. The selection ineludes both upright shrubs and groundcovers, evergreens and deciduous specimens, plants with prominent floral displays, and those with inconspicuous flowers. Certainly there should be something for everyone. Dogwood. As a group, shrubby dogwoods afford some of winter's most attractive colors. There are at least ten species that could be used, but, undoubtedly, the most spectacular of the group is Cornus alba 'Sibirica', the Siberian Dogwood. With a maximum height of 9 feet, it can be used as either a prominent specimen shrub in a moist area or as a backdrop for lower growing dwarf conifers. Its twigs reach maximum coloration in winter when they become a lovely coral-red. Faster growing than the Siberian Dogwood but equally at home in moist locations is Cornus sericea, commonly known as Red Osier Dogwood. The winter twigs of the species are a brilliant red and when seen \"en masse\" they almost appear as a sheet of flame. Two varieties exhibiting differing twig colors are also available. Cornus sericea 'Flaviramea' colors yellow and C. sericea 'Nitida' is green. Because they spread rapidly by underground stolons, this species and its varieties are especially suited to bank plantings where they succeed in checking erosion. 30 Among red-twigged shrubs, some of the roses present as possibilities. Many have a dull or dark red bark that is perfectly satisfactory in the winter landscape. There are several, however, whose coloring is a more glossy red, and one of these is Rosa virginiana, the Virginia Rose. Indeed, as an all-round rose in general, this is certainly one of the best. Flowers appear in late spring, followed by good summer foliage, blazing autumn color and fruits, and brilliant red twigs in the fall. It attains a height of approximately 6 feet and is most effectively used as an informal barrier hedge. A vigorous growth habit requires that this shrub be kept under restraint in the small garden, but if cut to the ground every few years or Rose. themselves so it grows back into a handsome specimen in no time at all. Willow. Once seen, it is difficult to forget the graceful weeping willow with its long, slender yellow branches gently raking the ground in the breeze. One of the most handsome willows by far is Salix alba 'Chermesina', the Redstem Willow. If left to mature into a tree this will reach a height of 75 feet, but if cut back frequently and regularly it can be maintained as a good-sized shrub with conspicuous, vibrant red-orange twigs. As a tree its color is considerably less pronounced. Like all willows it prefers moist soil, but beware of planting near septic lines or drainage pipes. A very invasive root system has the tendency to clog the pipes and cause problems. Green-Twigged Shrubs Broom. long Two of the most attractive green-twigged shrubs bethe same genus - Cytisus. Commonly called \"brooms\" because of the use to which they were put in centuries past, these relatives of the pea maintain a uniform green all winter, giving them an evergreen look. Add to this the fact that they are lovely in flower, have small, dainty leaves, and are virtually insect and pest free and it is understandable why so many people have developed an affection for these plants. They are not terribly fussy as to site requirements and actually prefer a poor, dry, sandy soil with good sun. Two of the very best are Cytisus X praecox and Cytisus scoparius. The former, the Warminster Broom, is more reliably hardy in New England than the Scotch Broom (C. scoparius), although the latter has managed to naturalize itself on Cape Cod and Nantucket. Pale yellow flowers cover the 6-foot Warminster Broom in profusion each May, making this one of the first brooms to flower each spring. to 31 Cytisus scoparius, up to 9 feet, is slightly taller and offers hybrids with great variation in flower color. Shrubs With Exfoliating Bark Plants with exfoliating bark are among the most eye-catching in the white world of winter. Whether the bark peels off in long, thin strips, as on the White Birch, or in small, irregular patches as it does on the Stewartias, the contrasts and color tones between the layers are unparalleled for visual interest. Stewartia. Although most Stewartias fall into the tree category, the Showy Stewartia (Stewartia ovata grandiflora), at 15 feet, is worthy of inclusion in the small lot. In addition to tree bark, which on older trees flakes off in irregular patches exposing lighter colors beneath, there are the flowers and autumn color to consider. The large (4-inch diameter) white flowers are extremely showy with very attractive purple stamens, and the foliage colors up to a distinctive orange in fall. Devoid of leaves in the winter, the Showy Stewartia nonetheless remains prominent in the landscape because of its very distinctive bark. An excellent small tree accent plant, it is not reliably hardy north of southern New England. St.-John's-Wort. Hypericum prolificum (Shrubby St.-John's-, Wort) is one of the taller of these woody shrubs at 3-4 feet. It is a vigorous grower and forms a rounded mound covered with yellow flowers and glossy green leaves. Like the brooms, most Hypericums will do well in a dry, sandy soil with plenty of sun. The bark is a cinnamon-like red-brown that separates readily into masses of thin scales. Curious Barks Winged Euonymus (Euonymus alatus) is one of the hardiest of all Euonymus species. It reaches a maximum of 9 feet and has ornamental value for several reasons. Its autumn color is a vivid scarlet, suggesting its other common name - Bumingbush. It is often noticeable in the autumn in highway plantings along major roadsides. The twigs are covered all over with a corky growth that lends this shrub an aura of the exotic. Although not as visible from the distance as the shrubs with colored twigs, Winged Euonymus still merits planting if only because it is somewhat unusual. It makes an excellent hedge as well as a specimen shrub. Be forewarned, however, that all Euonymus are susceptible to seEuonymus. The 32 rious infestations of scale. The vine types are attacked more frequently, but all species should be carefully watched for signs of the pest. A few notes on cultural practices necessary for the maintenance of optimum color are in order here. As many of these shrubs mature and grow older, the glossy, vibrant twig coloration displayed in their youth tends to grow dull and almost disappear. Heavy pruning annually in the early spring generally results in the vigorous production of new young shoots that will color up nicely by winter. Oftentimes it is entirely in order to cut a rank, overgrown shrub right down to the ground in order to stimulate new shoot growth. In most of the abovementioned shrubs, resurging growth develops quickly and in the Rosa virginiana, for example, it will have achieved a lovely form only two years after being cut down. As is the case with autumn foliage coloration, twig coloration is dependent upon sunlight and reasonably good soil. The addition of a nitrogenous fertilizer to the soil is an additional factor often spelling the difference between adequate and superlative coloration. The list of plants with interesting bark is a fascinating one and could go on almost endlessly. For the person with a small property and the desire to cultivate a winter garden, the above suggestions are listed as mere starting points. The scope and aesthetics of plants with winter appeal are limitless and certainly worth pursuing. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":33,"end_page":33,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24665","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070a76d.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Burch, Ida Hay","article_content":"_._ _ . Plaoto P. Clauun~. -I~Tews from the Arnold Arboretum - -~-_ ~ ~ ~~ _ ~ ~ The Arboretum's herbarium is a reference collection of dried, mounted plant specimens numbering more than one million sheets, and is a valuable source of information as a complement to the living collection and the library. Currently on display at the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain is an educational exhibit designed to show how the plant specimens are collected and pressed, the methods used in mounting them to their protective sheets of paper, the system by which they are arranged and stored, examples of ways the specimens are used in research, as well as other facets of an herbarium such as ours. Visitors to the Arboretum are invited to study this extensive display which will be open weekdays through March from 9 A.M. to 5 P.M. IDA H. BURCH 33 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":34,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24664","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d070a728.jpg","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Vegetation of West Printing Company. ganization of flora Virginia. Earl L. Core. Parsons, W. Va.. McClain 1966. 217 pages, illustrated. $7.00. The author's concept of in vegetation refers to the ecological or- communities, and its interrelationships with other forms of life. The paper jacket depicts an overview from West Virginian mountaintops and is synoptic of the work within, which is a companion to a predecessor, the Flora of West Virginia. The text commences with the geography, topology, climatology, and geology of West Virginia, illustrated by the necessary charts and tables Evolutionary ages are presented; the zones of vegetation and their characteristic flora and fauna are offered; endemic and are differentiated and enumerated, plant communities are characterized. These topics are treated in breadth and depth by the author. Documentation in scholarly footnotes is frequent, and there is a well-organized index. Unfortunately the gravity of the presentation makes it onerous reading. This book is best suited to the student of elementary botany, especially of the south Atlantic states. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE epidemic species The Native Orchids of the United States and Canada (excluding Florida). Bronx, N.Y.: The New York Botanical Garden. 1975. 361 pp., illustrated. $40.00. This rather sumptuous volume is one that most orchid or wildflower enthusiasts would love to own. However, many more of us would have fulfilled our desires if the book were somewhat condensed and therefore less expensive. The color photographs, however beautifully posed and reproduced they may be, are certainly excessive. Many plates, and there are 96 of them - mostly a full 71\/2 X 101!~ inches, contain essentially repetitive photographs; a particularly striking example is Plate #51, representing Platanthera peramoena, which is made up of one photograph of a close-up of a flower, one habit shot, and four of inflorescences at different magnifications, three of these taken at the same locality. Nevertheless, the book, which is the second of a two-volume work (the first on the orchids of Florida), is quite valuable as well as very beautiful. Every species and variety north of Florida is represented. Most treatments include a short, technical description, a list of synonymous names, a distribution map, line drawings of floral details, a full-page color plate, and a generally informative and quite readable text usually concerned with anecdotes or various aspects of the plant's biology. Accounts of the genera include keys to 34 35 Introductory material includes a discussion of orchid and rather technical keys to genera and higher categories. The book is actually quite technical in general, but the photographs can be enjoyed by anyone. The author must be given considerable credit for having photographed every single native orchid species in the wild. A minor part of the book, but one that deserves mention, are the often whimsical sketches, also by the author, scattered throughout. Some are unusually clever, particularly those which are of flowers exaggerated so as to conform more closely to the objects whose supposed similarity gave the genus or species its common or Latin name, e.g. Dragon's Mouth, Ladies' Tresses, etc. RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. the species. biology Dried Flowers. From Antiquity to the Present. tuchen, N J.: The Scarecrow Press, Inc. 1973. Leonard Karel. Me192 pages. $6.00. Flowers are not the only dry things in this book. The prose is rather dull and so littered with indigestible facts that beginners are likely to be overwhelmed. A great deal of information on the history of dried flowers and various drying techniques is presented at the outset, but the uneven writing style and the somewhat excessive use of quotations make it difficult and tedious reading. A section on definitions written in lengthy paragraph style would best be presented in a more succinct glossary at the end of the book. Simple line drawings of the plant parts, at the very least, would be an aid to the beginner, for whom this book is intended. Dried Flowers is the work of a professional scientist whose hobby is preserving flowers. More than anything else, this book is a diary of his personal experience with various desiccants and preservation techniques. A 77-page table details his results with over 300 flowers, arranged alphabetically by common name This, together with an interesting bibliography, is the most informative part of the book. MARGO W. REYNOLDS - _- __________ Garden Pests and Diseases of Flowers and Shrubs. Mogens Dahl and B. Thygesen. New York. Macmillan. 1974. 223 pp. illustrated. $6.95. Thyge Many European-based works are unsuited to America, but this reasonably-priced book translated from the Danish for readers in be quite useful in our area. True, there are some vodifferences (what we call Ladybug, the English call Ladybird, for example), and some of the ailments pictured are rare in the American scene. However, these disadvantages are more than compensated for by excellent colored drawings of various organisms, disease symptoms, signs of such injuries as cold and wind damage in leaves, illustrations of lawn-grass pathologies, and so forth. An excellent index with both popular and technical names follows the can the U.K. cabulary text. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE 36 Fundamentals of Horticulture. J. B. Edmond, T. L. Senn, and F. S. Andrews New York: McGraw Hill. 1964, 3rd edition. 476 pp., black and white photographs and line drawings. $10.50. This is a textbook divided into 3 parts. The first deals with the second, with basic problem-solving in horticulture; and the third, with practical horticulture technocracy i.e crop-growing. As the work is intended to furnish all necessary background material to students undertaking the practice of horticulture as a vocation, the treatment of crop-raising is, expectedly, economic in its orientation Crops both in greenhouse and on large out-door acreages are dealt with, floriculture has only a few pages. This is a revision of a 1951 work and some of the cited researches are dated in the 1940s. Most carry no dates and there is no bibliography. The appearance of the text has been brought up-to-date by numerous photographs of mechanized field equipment - spraying by plane, and the like. however, the student will need to modernize his information on plant pathology, and the efficacy and government status of various chemical controls. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE theory; - Sacred Narcotic Plants of the New World Indians. Hedwig Schleiffer. New York. Hafner Press. 1973. 156 pages, paperback. $5.95. The rather astonishingly high number of hallucinogenic plants in this anthology are comfortably arranged according to families, with plants from Agaricaceae, Cactaceae, Convolvulaceae, Erythroxylaceae, Leguminosae, Malpighiaceae, Myristicaceae and Solanaceae included, plus a selection of plants of uncertain origin, as well as indices of the Latin names of genera and species, and of the vernacuof plants and plant products. Schleiffer has made an acknowledged attempt to present a cross-section of moral viewpoints wherever possible. These seem somewhat repetitious at times, but I believe this is the result of the lack of cultural background for the descriptions. The few times cultural depth and metaphysical positions are bared, the sources truly take on credibility as in the explanation of why the Desano Indians of the Columbian northeast Amazon use viho (Piptadena spp. of the Pulse Family), written in 1968 by Gerardo Reichel-Dolmatoff. In each case, the sources have been carefully documented to facilitate further research of the excerpted texts which date from the 16th century to the present. In a time when plants have often become little more than another luxurious strip of chrome around outsized human economic endeavors, this anthology also provides refreshing perception as to just what life is all about, and its bearing upon human-plant associations. EDWARD H. FLAHERTY, III names lar Hedwig - "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23393","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25ea36e.jpg","title":"1976-36-1","volume":36,"issue_number":1,"year":1976,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":241,"end_page":261,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24660","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060856d.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":6,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING ENDED JUNE 30, 1975 THE FISCAL YEAR in the The observance of the Bicentennial of the United States began spring of 1975 in Lexington and Concord, Massachusetts. The additional publicity given to the Commonwealth has cited the Arnold Arboretum in brochure and maps, resulting in an increase in the number of visitors to both Jamaica Plain and Weston. The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston is shown on many of the route maps of the colonial battles. The Jamaica Plain location of the living collections is one of the stops in the Museum Loop Shuttle Bus service, furnished free to visitors, and operating from Boston Common to the Franklin Park Zoo, with numerous intermediate attractions. Special attention has been given by the Arboretum staff to the appearance of the grounds and the handling of these visitors on weekends. National problems have affected the Arboretum through the continuing increase in costs of supplies, in shortages, and in the need for fuel conservation. The Arboretum followed the University policy as far as possible in observing fuel-saving days during the Christmas holidays, and by reducing temperatures in all buildings. The only exception made was in the greenhouses where reducing the temperature the previous winter had serious effects on the research projects and the quality of the collections. The annual meeting of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta was held in Boston in October with headquarters at the Arnold Arboretum. Representatives of approximately 100 botanical gardens, arboreta, and horticultural societies gathered for these meetings which were hosted by the Arboretum staff with the valuable assistance of the Arboretum's Volunteers. The previous fiscal year saw an attempt by the City of Boston to acquire the South Street tract of the Arnold Arboretum for a campus-style high school. No sooner had the City agreed to seek an alternate site, than a bill was filed in the legislature of the Commonwealth to acquire the same site for athletic facilities for Boston State College. 241 242 Much time is required of the Arboretum staff, the officers of the University, and even representatives of the National Historic Site Commission in Washington, to combat such bills. The land in question is classified as \"wetlands,\" is inadequately fenced and has relatively few organized collections. It is, however, included within the boundaries of the Arnold Arboretum as recognized in the National Historic Landmark designation. The land is used in teaching and research programs, will be needed in the future for the development of the living collections, and should not be lost to the use of the Arboretum. Convincing legislative committees that open land is useful for current biological studies and is needed for future plantings seems to be difficult. Finally it should be noted that the changes in governance and fiscal operation of the University in recent years have had an ever-increasing effect on the Arnold Arboretum. Additional charges for University operation have been made against the endowment and gift funds of the Arboretum. Other departments have chosen to de-emphasize the status and role of the curator in their operation. The decision by some organizations and departments to appoint only professors with stipulated and required teaching assignments within the University has been proposed as a University-wide policy. The role of the Arnold Arboretum has been quite different from that of other departments, or even some museums, in its association with the public and with the City of Boston, in the emphasis of curatorial excellence in living and other collections, and in its traditional method of staff appointments for research and service with an option of compensated teaching within the University. These and other problems of academic life in 1975 have been the subjects of continuing discussions within the staff, with the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, and with Deans and administrative officials of the University. The complex and difficult role of a self-supporting arboretum with a significant autonomous reputation must be considered in its association with a special public, as well as with one of general interests, with a city and with a university. Staff j= There were staff changes in the several sections of the activity of the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Patricia Hall resigned as Librarian of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum, and we were fortunate to secure the services of Mrs. Lenore Dickinson on transfer from within the University. In the herbarium, Dr. Norton G. Miller, appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium as 243 Associate Professor and Associate Curator, arrived to assume his duties on January 1. With regret we received the resignation of William Grime, Curatorial Assistant, to accept a position at the Field Museum in Chicago. Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu was given a leave of absence for the second half of the year to teach at Chung Chi College in Hong Kong, and to continue her work on the vegetation of Hong Kong. Miss Kathleen Clagett was promoted to the role of Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. In the horticultural area Mr. Robert Hebb, Assistant Horticulturist, resigned to accept a position at the Cary Arboretum, and Miss Pamela Bruns, Illustrator, resigned to relocate in New Hampshire. Mr. Edward H. Flaherty, III, was appointed Curatorial Assistant to work with the labeling, mapping and record keeping of the living collections. Mr. Arturs Norietis of the greenhouse staff reached the mandatory retirement age and retired at the end of the year. Dr. Yin-Tse Lee was reappointed a Mercer Research Fellow, and honorary appointments were approved for Mrs. Constance Derderian (Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection) and for Dr. Arturo Gomez-Pompa (Honorary Research Associate of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium). Horticulture The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum are grown on 265 acres in Jamaica Plain and 110 acres in Weston. By an agreement nearly a century old with the City of Boston, the grounds, and therefore the collections in Jamaica Plain, are open to the public at \"reasonable hours.\" The care and development of the collections are the responsibility of the staff, while the maintenance of roads, paths, benches, and fences are the responsibility of the City of Boston, which also supplies police and fire protection. Not all of the Arboretum is fenced in, and even the fenced areas cannot be closed due to nonfunctioning gates. In fact, the Arboretum collection is open all of the time. A periodic review by staff and Visiting Committee of the problems of nighttime parties, vandalism to plants, labels and buildings, litter, undisciplined visitors, illegal behavior, fires, etc., commonly results in recommendations of additional guards, better fences, locked gates and admission fees. Contrasting recommendations have also been received from legal advisors, security agencies and the Police Department. Although the problems remain unresolved, they are less than those experia small consolation. enced by arboreta in other major cities - 244 i During April and May, Captain L. Quinlan of Station 13, Boston Police Department, had a 12-hour patrol from 10 : 00 A.M. to 10:00 P.M. in the Arboretum each day. This resulted in a marked improvement in the crowd behavior and in the litter indenture directed the staff of the Arnold Arboretum to grow all plants hardy in the vicinity of West Roxbury. Sargent and subsequent directors limited this directive, for the most part, to woody plants appropriate in an arboretum. Many plants are acquired and placed on the grounds only to be lost through a lack of hardiness, improper environmental conditions, theft, injury or other factors. The grounds of the Arnold Arboretum were mapped carefully in the 1940s and the location of each plant recorded in the permanent files. It is today one of the most carefully documented living collections. The collections in 1949 numbered 3,861 taxa. Additions and losses have been variable in subsequent years, but in 19741975, 6,186 hardy taxa, as species, varieties and cultivars, are within the living collections in Jamaica Plain and Weston. Other taxa are in greenhouses or nurseries as young plants or research collections and are not counted. Each taxon is repre- problem. The original 245 sented by one or more plants, and often by several collections from different geographic areas or different sources. In recent years the records of the Arnold Arboretum living and dead collections were incorporated in the data bank of the Plant Sciences Data Center, an organization recently renamed from the Plant Records Center. The original printouts of the computer records of the living collections revealed duplication of numbers, misidentifications, misspellings, and the lack of information really needed for some entries. During the past year Mr. Hebb, assisted by several Volunteers, worked over the computer printout and submitted corrected entries to the Plant Sciences Data Center. When these have been incorporated, an up-to-date printout will be available. The greenhouses and plant propagation efforts are fundamental to the care and maintenance of a quality living collection. Mr. Fordham and his staff handled 617 taxa within the greenhouses for replacement of plants on the grounds (339), for information on methods of propagation (220), for general observation (12), for distribution (20) and for staff research (26). Requests are received from other organizations for seeds or propagation material, and these are filled whenever possible. Thus, 99 shipments representing 468 taxa of plant materials were consigned within the United States, and 11 shipments of 69 taxa were made to 7 foreign countries. We received from United States sources 71 shipments of 161 taxa, and from 8 foreign countries 12 shipments of 37 taxa. Although it is easier to ship and receive materials as seeds, these have genetic variability and may be less than satisfactory for research purposes. Nevertheless we requested and received 114 shipments of seeds of 589 taxa from the United States and 30 other countries, and distributed on request 48 shipments of 186 taxa to 11 countries. The area around the greenhouses contains many interesting plants of small stature, espaliers and bank plantings. This area is open to the public daily. The greenhouses themselves contain no display material, but only research and maintenance collections. Classes and special groups are admitted as scheduled, and the greenhouses are open to the public one afternoon a week. We are indebted to Volunteers who serve as guides during these open afternoons. The major landscape development on the summit of Bussey Hill was completed during the first part of the fiscal year and formally opened in October with a special invitation to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. The construction was done Volunteer Mrs. Garrett Birkhoff (left) assists greenhouse Donna A. Lynch in saran house. Photo: P. Chvany. staff member 246 I by Delmonico Construction of Hull, Massachusetts under the supervision of Mr. Vincent Merrill of Shurcliff, Merrill and Footit. The plantings were done by the Arboretum grounds The attractive new area, with benches and walls, has drawn many visitors to its special plantings of summer bloomcrew. ing plants. Labeling and mapping of the plants has been the responsibility of Mr. Edward Flaherty, III, who received support from Volunteers as well as from summer student trainees in checking maps and plants for labels. Hopefully the labels can be prepared during the winter months and placed next spring. The Case Estates The Case Estates in Weston comprises approximately 110 acres, and serves as a general nursery area for recent introductions, an area for accessioned collections either not wanted, or for which there is no room in Jamaica Plain, and for display collections of special educational value. Staff research projects also can be accommodated in Weston, and to facilitate this use new irrigation lines are being installed by our staff on a program to take several years. The ground cover plant collections are also under renovation on a schedule, and other beds were lined with new edging material and improved in quality during the spring season. The collection of 111e1111.111A1 11G1 VJ 11QJ VGG11 t1111W.U11, to 111Q111Lct1i1 UUG LV tllG laplU spreading of some taxa by vigorous rhizome development. Sections of metal barrels have been prepared and used to contain the most rampant spreading species. Two buildings in Weston are used for teaching, as class rooms or informal laboratories. The central portion of the brick barn has excellent acoustics and is used for meetings of 50 to 150 people. During the winter the wood paneling of this area was cleaned and refinished. At the request of the Director, the Harvard Corporation voted to permit the town of Weston to take 10,446 square feet of land of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston for a compensation of one dollar ($1.00). This taking is associated with a long-planned and equally long-delayed action to widen Wellesley Street in order to permit sidewalk and bicycle paths for the protection of pedestrians and visitors to the Case Estates. Although construction is delayed again for reasons of fundings, eventually a larger measure of safety will result. 247 New Bussey Hill plantings Volunteer Guide. Photo: P. are shown to tour group by Joyce Fantasia, Chvany. 248I Herbarium In a multifaceted trade for space involving the Botanical Museum and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, the herbaria acquired three units within the MCZ representing approximately 3,000 square feet. With funds supplied largely by the Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences, the rooms were renovated for herbarium, research and office space. Professor Carroll E. Wood, Jr., moved his office into one of the units along with the resources and staff of the project on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. The herbarium cases containing the herbarium of the New England Botanical Club, a responsibility of the Gray Herbarium, occupies slightly more than one unit, and the remainder of the space now holds the collections of ferns and related nonflowering plants. The shift of these collections permitted some expansion of the storage of each. Special attention has been given during the year to curating the ferns, with funds from the NSF curatorial grant. This collection is now in superb condition. The removal of the New England Botanical Club collection from the fourth floor of the Harvard University Herbaria building has permitted further adjustments within the building. A suite of three rooms, forming an office and laboratory complex, has been designed for Professor Rolla Tryon of the Gray Herbarium, and his associates. This will be completed and occupied during the next fiscal year. A small room has been created for archivai material previousiy scattered in rmsceiianeous fiies. Dr. Miller has acquired space adjacent to his office which will be remodeled as a laboratory. Dr. Schubert will obtain a larger office and Dr. Howard will acquire a small laboratory area. While additional space is welcomed by the recipient staff members, the problems of overcrowding of library and herbarium collections remain critical. The University did approve the hiring of an architect to prepare drawings for an addition to the Herbaria building. A prospectus, including such drawings, will be needed when funding for construction is solicited. Hopefully the addition contemplated will offer proper housing for herbarium specimens and library resources, as well as supply the laboratories and offices for professors of biology. The herbarium of cultivated plants and general herbarium storage area maintained in the administration building in Jamaica Plain were fumigated by the Waltham Chemical Company during the Christmas holidays. An Herbarium Committee was formed under the chairmanship of Professor Miller. An initial duty of the committee was Staff members Dr. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., and Ida H. Burch collect herbarium specimens. Photo: P. Chvany. to seek a replacement for Mr. Grime, and Mrs. Jackie Smith was selected to begin her duties in the next fiscal year. Following the changes in the herbarium location of specimens, a new Information for Visitors leaflet was prepared, and the leaflet on loans and the handling of specimens was revised. At the end of the year all microscopes in the herbaria were inventoried, and were cleaned and adjusted on a special contract. The curatorial grant received from the National Science Foundation was renewed for the third year of a possible five-year period. The grant to Harvard is administered in the office of the Gray Herbarium on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum, Botanical Museum, Farlow Herbarium and Library, and the Gray Herbarium. The grant has permitted the hiring of additional personnel for mounting of specimens and for curatorial work; the result of this additional labor is evident and welcome. The herbarium is an active one. The collections are funda- 250 I mental to the research of many of the staff, and are regarded as a significant national systematic collection. The requests for loans honored during the year comprised 129 loans of 18,288 sheets to 46 institutions within the United States, and 55 loans of 8,105 sheets to 32 institutions in other countries. Specimens mounted and inserted in the herbarium totaled 15,014, bringing the accessioned herbarium to 1,026,459 specimens of which 154,044 comprise the herbarium of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain. A total of 16,339 specimens was received: 10,012 by exchange, 2,101 as gifts, 3,632 by subsidy, and 594 in return for identification. In contrast 3,894 specimens were sent in exchange. The herbarium collections housed in the Harvard University Herbaria building in Cambridge require repeated adjustments due to the lack of sufficient space for proper storage and curating. Another 25 Merrill cardboard boxes were added during the year, making a total of 2,396 such containers holding regular herbarium specimens, used in stacks or on top of other cases. In addition it has been necessary to remove unidentified specimens from the generic sequence in the herbarium in order to house properly regular and identified collections. At present the basement area holds 25 cases of such material, identified only to genus or family and removed from the regular sequence. This admittedly is improper care of valuable collections, but is the best that can be done until additional space and facilities become available. '1 he research of the staff inciudes noristic studies, monographs, and investigations of single taxa. The bibliography of published papers indicates the type of projects completed and published during the past fiscal year. Library duty of head Librarian joint appointment with the Gray Herbarium. Mrs. Dickinson is assisted in Cambridge by three full-time Library Assistants, also shared with the Gray Herbarium, and in Jamaica Plain by one Library Assistant. Students are employed for shelving of books and routine cleaning in Cambridge, and Volunteers have assisted materially in Jamaica Plain. A Library Committee consisting of staff members from the Gray Herbarium and the Arboretum was appointed under the chairmanship of Dr. Bernice Schubert to assist the library Mrs. Lenore Dickinson assumed the on August 1, 1974, in a staff in policy decisions. The number of botanical periodicals pertinent to areas of staff interest seems to increase yearly. The subscription costs 251 of both new and existing periodicals have increased, as have expenditures for binding, supplies and equipment. Throughout the University library system, efforts to restrict budget increases have led to an examination of library holdings. In the Biological Laboratories, for example, periodical subscriptions are being canceled if the journal is in another library in Cambridge or Boston. This is certain to increase the demands upon the Arboretum library. To the present, however, no journal has been dropped from the Arboretum holdings. Since its beginning, the library of the Arnold Arboretum has had an individual system of cataloguing and book arrangement. This was feasible while the library was small or increased slowly, while the primary use was by a cooperative staff, and while management was through the personal interest of a Librarian familiar with the arrangement through long years of service. All these permissive factors have been changed in recent years, and the necessity of adopting a standard system has become evident. Thus, the Library of Congress system of cataloguing has been adopted for new accessions, and as time permits volumes or sections of the current library will be changed to conform. Catalogue cards under this system can be obtained from the Library of Congress, other research libraries such as the National Agriculture Library, or from the publishers when ordering books. The reference collections in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain will be the first areas where the Library of Congress classification can be put into effect. In time the staff adapts to the methods being taught to library personnel. There has been an 18 per cent increase in total library circulation over the past year and the use of books by other than staff and students within the Herbaria building is now 20 per cent of total circulation. The requests for books on loan has been handled largely by photocopies, and only three volumes were sent on interlibrary loan during the year, while the 277 photocopy requests filled represented a 20 per cent increase in such service. Following the discovery of vandalism of rare books, an alarm system was installed in the library, greatly restricting the off-hour use of the library by the scientific staff. With financial assistance provided by the Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities it was possible to repair and restore the bindings on a number of valuable books of the 18th and 19th centuries. The curatorial grant from the National Science Foundation has provision for some retrospective binding and restoration of volumes, as well as the acquisition of 252 book boxes for the storage of unbindable materials. The regular binding program for periodicals is continued with unrestricted funds of the Arnold Arboretum. Archival materials associated with the library holdings include catalogued collections of kodachrome slides and historic negatives of Wilson and Rock expeditions. Many hours of labor were contributed in Jamaica Plain by Volunteers during the year in renovating both the kodachrome slide collection and the negative files. The glass negatives exposed by Wilson have been placed in special plastic envelopes for better protection and the legends have been carefully restored on these and the Rock was increased during the year with the addition of 1,433 catalogued items to total holdings of 84,346 volumes and pamphlets. pictures. The library Education The staff of the Arnold Arboretum must function within several distinctive educational levels in the Boston community. By terms of the endowment the Arnold Professor and Director of the Arnold Arboretum is required to teach the knowledge of trees within the University. The role of other staff members in college and university teaching has varied over the years. The opportunity to teach at Harvard has been extended to qualified staff members who have had various joint appointments, usually as lecturers, but occasionally as assistant or associate professors in addition to their regular curatorial appointments. Some departments and museums within the University have now adopted a policy of appointing only professors who will be required to teach a minimum number of courses. Curatorial work in these museums will only be supervised by the professors, and no public service function will be required. Traditionally, and in practice, the Arnold Arboretum has not been solely a teaching organization, but one devoted to research, offering its collections for public visitation or scholarly use to horticulture as well as botanical need. Both teaching and service roles of some or all of the staff have involved contacts with a general public in answering questions, lecturing or conducting tours, supplying material, preparing exhibits or displays, and writing at various levels. However, the role of the curator in maintaining collections is still valid and fundamental to an organization whose traditional work is based on collections of living plants, dried specimens and library books. Dr. Wood taught all or part of three regularly scheduled Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., instructs class at the Arboretum. Photo: P. Chvany. I 253 The the Dr. Howard shared the summer course with Dr. Wood and also offered in the fall, Biology 209, The Phylogeny of the Flowering Plants. Drs. Howard, Schubert and Wood all supervised the work of graduate or undergraduate students in numbered research courses. Two Summer School classes were offered at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. Biology S-110, Principles of Practical Horticulture, was taught by Dr. DeWolf, and Dr. Weaver offered Biology S-109, Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants. An evaluation is now being made of the participation by Arboretum personnel in the Summer School program in view of the distance from Cambridge, the lack of air-conditioned lecture rooms as well as proper laboratories and equipment, and the difficulties of involving the staff in summer instruction programs without additional direct compensation. The staff members of the Arnold Arboretum are invited to present seminars or lectures at other colleges, and they meet college classes that visit the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Fordham has the greatest contact in this area, for most biology or Harvard courses in Biology during the year: Biology 103, Taxonomy of Vascular Plants; Biology lla, Diversity in Plant Kingdom; and Biology S-105, Plants of the Tropics. 254I horticultural classes visiting the Arboretum request explanation of the propagation work or the procedures used in the greenhouses and nurseries. For tours of the collections, primarily in the spring, the Volunteers are willing and able to lead visiting garden clubs or plant study groups, but the curatorial and professional staff is involved in the explanations and tours of college groups in the library, herbarium, greenhouses and laboratories. Nationally and internationally, members of the Arboretum staff have had roles in professional organizations. As selected examples, Dr. DeWolf has served on the International Orchid Commission on Classification, Nomenclature and Registration. He attended the Eighth World Conference in Frankfurt, Germany, and was elected chairman of the commission. Dr. Schubert has attended the Mexican Botanical Congresses and served as an active section chairman. In preparation for consideration at the International Botanical Congress, Dr. Schubert has served as chairman of the Standing Committee on Stabilization of Specific Names. For the past two years Dr. Howard has been president of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta. Many requests are received for staff members of the Arnold Arboretum to speak, or to take part in various ways in local organizations and projects. Staff members usually will speak without charge within the communities where the Arboretum is located: i.e., Jamaica Plain, Cambridge, and Weston. Our instructional programs are coordinated with those offered to the public by such local organizations as the Garden in the Woods, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Wellesley College, the Massachusetts Audubon Society, Habitat, Inc., and the Cambridge and Boston Adult Education programs. Mr. George Pride serves as coordinator for the Arboretum in these programs. He has also represented the staff at the Earth Week inner city environmental conference on the theme of changing vacant lots to garden plots. As these gardens developed, he served as a judge for the Street Scene exhibits in Cambridge and the 4-H Club vegetable workshop in Dorchester-Roxbury. The nationwide interest in conservation, particularly the category of endangered plant species, has also involved the staff. Dr. Wood was invited to participate in a discussion at River Front Farm in Virginia, where twelve botanists and a total of fifty people attempted to prepare a list of such taxa for publication. Dr. DeWolf chaired a session on plant materials for the International Conference on Preservation and Restoration of Historic Gardens and Landscapes, held at Dumbarton Oaks in 255 D.C. Locally, Dr. Howard has attempted to con\"reasonable approach\" in advising on some drastic legislation proposed for the Commonwealth of Massachusetts by concerned citizens. Staff handling of sales and rentals of our two educational films has proved costly in time. We asked for and received competitive bids from film distributors, and contracted with Macmillan Films for the distribution of The Arnold Arboretum and Poisonous Plants. With extensive advertising by this company the films will receive wider use; the staff has the right to retain several copies for local use. We plan to apply the royalties and additional gifts to the development of another film. Displays explaining the work of the staff or the plants grown at the Arnold Arboretum are often requested by schools and libraries. The lecture room in the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain offers wall space for other exhibits. One, \"Plants in Many Moods,\" comprising the photography of Peter Chvany, was followed by photographs of botanical gardens and arboreta of the United States by Dr. Howard. An exhibit of books, specimens, and photographs of poisonous plants was prepared by Sheila Geary and displayed in Widener Library during the summer and fall. Specimens of species roses embedded in Mrs. Sheila Magullion, an Arboretum Volunteer, has plastic by made an attractive exhibit that has been displayed in libraries in the suburbs of Boston. Another exhibit, of cones and needle foliage, has been displayed similarly. The transparency display panels used in Jamaica Plain have formed part of an exhibit in the Information Office in Holyoke Center, and artifacts of the Wilson expedition to China were supplied to the Boston 200 Committee for the exhibit \"Where's Boston?\" staged at the Prudential Center. During travel for field work or vacation, the staff acquires specimens or photographs useful in teaching and demonstration programs. During the year Dr. Weaver visited the Canary Islands; Mr. Pride, the West Indies; Dr. Stevens, herbaria and gardens in Europe; Dr. Spongberg, gardens and collections in England. Ms. Annette Aiello, a graduate student working on the ornamental genus Portlandia, visited Mexico and Jamaica during the year, supported in part by a grant from the Atkins Fund, and in part by the Arnold Arboretum. The James R. Jewett Fellowship was awarded to Mr. Larry Morse, a graduate student, for support of field work in a study of the species of Hudsonia in the coastal areas of eastern North America. Washington, tribute a 257 Publications An Editorial Committee was appointed during the year to aid Dr. Bernice Schubert, who has served as Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum since 1963. In October of the fiscal year, Miss Kathleen Clagett was appointed Technical Editor, Dr. Schubert continuing as chairman of the Editorial Committee which will assume responsibility for the botanical content of the manuscripts submitted. The publication schedule of the four numbers comprising a volume of the Journal was upset during the year by the employee strike in the Printing Office. The four numbers issued included 26 articles by 32 authors, and totaled 626 pages. The new cover for Volume 56, 1975, represented a mass collection of leaves of Sassafras albidum drawn by Karen Velmure. The six numbers of Arnoldia, edited by Mrs. Jeanne S. Wadleigh, totaled 550 pages. A treatment of \"Low Maintenance Perennials,\" by Robert Hebb, was issued in two numbers. One number was devoted to \"Wild Plants in the City,\" by Nancy Page and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. \"Lichens,\" by Weaver, and \"Poison-ivy,\" by Gillis, were major articles of other issues. The first volume of Flora ofthe Lesser Antilles was published by the Arboretum during the year. A grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust made possible the printing. The first volume contains a treatment of the Orchidaceae by Leslie Garay and Homer Sweet, and introductory historical and phytogeographical data by Dr. Howard. Hastings House Publishers, Inc., issued Stephanne Sutton's biography of Joseph Rock under the title, In China's Border Provinces This work utilizes many of the historical records and photographs among the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Rock made one trip to China sponsored by the Arnold Arboretum during the administration of Charles Sargent. Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Company reprinted \"Wild Plants in the City\"; it also plans to reprint and distribute \"Low Maintenance Perennials.\" Harper and Row Publishers, Inc., published A Student's Atlas of Flowering Plants: Some Dicotyledons of Eastern North America. This work was planned and prepared under the direction of Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., who was assisted by Dr. Elizabeth Shaw, Karen Velmure, and Dr. Kenneth Robertson. The volume features 120 illustrations, representing habit sketches and detailed drawings and dissections. The work is enhanced by an \"atlas of descriptive terms,\" with references to illustrations, and a comparable list of adaptations for pollina- Top left Spring dresses the hillside adjacent to the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain. Photo: P. Chvany. Below: The quiet beauty of the Arboretum in winter. Photo: P. Bruns. 258 tion and seed dispersal. The original printing was soon depleted, and a second printing, with a new title page, was issued during the year. The staff also prepared a new brochure and map for the collections in Jamaica Plain, incorporating additional data on publications and on the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Gifts and Grants Dr. Wood received a grant from the National Science Foundation for a one-year extension of the research associated with a generic flora of the Southeastern United States Dr. Howard received a grant from the Stanley Smith Horticultural Trust to aid in the publication of a volume of the Flora of the Lesser Antilles issued during the year. The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum generously contributed monetary gifts as well as gifts in kind. Donations of books for the library were accepted from Mrs. F. S. Deland, Mrs. S. C. Lee, and Mrs. Maud E. Upton. Memorial gifts were received in the names of Mrs. Peter Boshco, Stephen Britton, Loring Conant, William Coulter, Sr., Virginia S. Jewett, Elisha Wilson Morse, and Stanley Woicik. RICHARD A. HOWARD I 259 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum - 1974-1975 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D , Arnold Professor of of Dendrology and Director Donald Botany, Professor Wyman, Ph.D , Horticulturist, Emeritus Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Director of Arnoldia (Re- signed April 18, 1975) Ida Hay Burch, B.A., Curatorial Assistant Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec* tions Kathleen Ann Clagett, M.A., Technical Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Constance Tortorici Derderian, A.B., Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Lenore Mikalauskas Dickinson, M.S., Librarian* (Appointed September 1, 1974) Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Edward Herbert Flaherty, III, Curatorial Assistant (Appointed July ' - - 15, 1974 ) Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian Arturo Gomez-Pompa, Dr. Sc., Honorary Research Associate* William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant* (Resigned February 28, 1975) Patricia Dick Hall, M.S., Librarian* (Resigned August 31, 1974) Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist (Resigned October 31, 1974) Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Research Fellow in Temperate Asiatic Botany Sheila Connor Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Norton George Miller, Ph.D., Associate Curator and Associate Professor of Biology* (Appointed January 1, 1975) George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth Ray Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Peter Francis Stevens, Ph.D , Assistant Curator Karen Stoutsenberger Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne Stockbarger Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Arnoldia Richard Edwin Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology * Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium AABGA members relax between sessions P. Chvany. during Annual Meeting. Photo: 260 Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff July 1, 1974 - June 30, 1975 DeWolf, G. P., Jr., Plant registrations. A.A.B.G.A. Bulletin 9(2): 44-47. 1975. A. J., Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 34(6): 425-430. 1974. Internat. Pl. Prop. , Why some conifers deviate from normal. Comb. Proc. 24: 472-477. 1974. Gillis, W. T. (with G. R. Proctor), Caesalpinia subgenus Guilandina in the Bahamas. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 425-430. 1974. , Phantoms in the flora of the Bahamas. Phytologia 29: 154166. 1974. Arnoldia 35 ( 2 ) : 93-123. 1975. , Poison-ivy and its kin. (with G. R. Proctor), Additions and corrections to the Bahama flora - II. Sida 6 ( 1 ) : 52-62. 1975. Hebb, R. S., Low maintenance perennials. Arnoldia 34(5): 253384. 1974, 35(1): 1-91. 1975. Howard, R. A., Karl Sax, 1892-1973. (With portrait.) Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 333-343. 1974. , Foreword in J. F. Morton, Folk Remedies of the Low Countries. Seeman Co., Miami, Fla. 1974. , The director's report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1974. Arnoldia 34(6): 385-423. 1974. Flora of the T accPr Antillac Vol 1 Qrrh;r~a~aop by T A Garay and H. R. Sweet. [Includes foreword and graphic and floristic relationships by R. A. Howard.] Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass. 1974. Sida 5(5): 334-337. 1974. , Further comments on Styrax L. Gaultheria swartzii, nom. nov. and the combinations in , Raeuschel's Nomenclator. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 240-242. 1975. Plant Sci. Bull. 21 ( 2 ) : 18-23. 1975. , The Arnold Arboretum. Lee, Y. T. (with J. H. Langenheim), Additional new taxa and new combinations in Hymenaea (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 441-452. 1974. Page, N. M. (with R. E. Weaver, Jr.), Wild plants in the city. Arnoldia 34(4). 137-252. 1974. [Reprinted by Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co. x + 117 pp. 1975.] Pride, G. H., 'Constant Nymph' Updated. Arnoldia 35(2): 124-127. 1975. Robertson, K. R., The genera of Rosaceae in the southeastern United States. (Continued from Jour. Anold Arb. 55(2): 303-332. 1974.) Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(3): 344-401; 55(4): 611-662. 1974. Jour. , The Oxalidaceae in the southeastern United States. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 223-239. 1975. Fordham, . phytogeo- 261 Schubert, B. G., Report of the standing committee of on stabilization specific names. Taxon 24: 171-200. 1975. Spongberg, S. A. (with E. Shaw), Nomenclature proposals to the Leningrad Congress, 148. Taxon 23: 878. 1974. (with C. E. Wood, Jr.), Nomenclature proposals to the Leningrad Congress, 150. Taxon 23: 879, 880. 1974. -, Changes of botanical names. Brooklyn Bot. Gard. Rec., - Plants & Gardens 30(4): 45-47. 1975. Lauraceae hardy in temperate North America. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56 ( 1 ) : 1-19. 1975. Stevens, P. F., The hybridisation and geographic variation of Rhododendron atropurpureum and R. womersleyi. Papua New Guinea Sci. Soc. Proc. 25: 73-84. 1973. (1974.) -, The circumscription and relationships of Dimorphanthera (Ericaceae), with notes on some Papuasian species. Contr. Herb. Austral. 8: 1-34. 1974. Contr. -, A review of Chisocheton (Meliaceae) in Papuasia. Herb. Austral. 11: 1-55. 1975. Sutton, S. B., In China's Border Provinces. 334 pp. Hastings House, N.Y. 1974. Wadleigh, J. S., (pseud. J. Kilborn), Gardening in these times. Horticulture 53(3): 41-43. 1975. Arnoldia 35(3): 160-161. 1975. -, The worthy Kerrias. Weaver, R. E., Jr., Lichens: mysterious and diverse. Arnoldia 35 ( 3 ) : 133-139. 1975. (with B. Maguire), The neotropical genus Tachia (Gentianaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 56 ( 1 ) : 103-125. 1975. (with N. Page), Wild plants in the city. Amoldia 34(4): 137-252. 1974. [Reprinted by Quadrangle\/The New York Times Book Co. x + 117 pp. 1975.1 (with L. Rudenberg), Cytotaxonomic notes on some Gentianaceae. Jour. Arnold Arb. 56(2): 211-222. 1975. Wood, C. E., Jr., A student's atlas of flowering plants: some dicotyledons of eastern North America. 120 pls. Harper & Row, New York, N.Y. 1974. -, Illustrated angiosperm families. pp. 852-877 in A. E. Radford et al., Vascular Plant Systematics. Harper & Row, New York, N.Y. 1974. (with S. A. Spongberg), Nomenclature proposals to the Leningrad Congress, 150. Taxon 23: 879, 880. 1974. -, - - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":263,"end_page":263,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24659","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d0608528.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":6,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum WEATHER STATION DATA - 1974 ~ Average temperature for 1974: 50.6 Precipitation for 1974: 45.85 inches Snowfall during winter 1973-74: 31.2 Warmest temperature: 98 on July 10 Coldest temperature: -8 on Jan. 18 Date of last frost in spring: April 26 Date of first frost in autumn: Oct. 14 ~`Growing season for 1974 was 170 days season The growing season is defined as the number of between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. * Growing - days ALFRED J. FORDHAM 263 Trellis for woody vines Photo: G. Wadleigh. adjacent to shrub collection in Jamaica Plain. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Tour of a Botanist in China","article_sequence":3,"start_page":265,"end_page":295,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24661","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d0608926.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":6,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"The Tour of by SHIU-YING Hu a Botanist in China On the morning of August 7, 1975, three members of the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, were at the International Airport of Peking to fare me well Their message was, \"Please bear our greetings to botanists elsewhere.\" To give this message of goodwill to the readers of this article is an objective of the following report. I had the opportunity to participate in a tour members of the Faculty of Science, Chinese Uniorganized by versity of Hong Kong. The purposes of the tour were to visit China, and to see the industrial and scientific institutions there. My personal hopes were to see my relatives and friends whom I have not seen for thirty years, to visit botanical institutions, gardens and professional botanists, and to purchase publications for the library of the Arnold Arboretum. To these ends I returned with satisfaction and gratitude. The programs and activities of the tour were arranged completely by the China Travel Service (CTS). As soon as the group arrived in Canton, two members of CTS were assigned to us for the entire tour. With the exception of personal friends and relatives, all contacts with people and institutions had to be made through the introduction of an official agent such as CTS. As the programs for the tour were designed for a wide spectrum of interests which included only some parks and gardens, most of my visits to herbaria, professional botanists, and botanical and medicinal gardens were made through special requests, at the cost of certain items of general interest and mostly with additional expenses. Under these conditions, the number of botanical institutions visited was limited. I fully realize that such limited observations cannot give a fair picture of botany in China today. However, incomplete as it is, so far as I know, such information is not available to botanists outside China. To give these botanists a glimpse of the botanical activities in China and some information of botanists there, as far as material is available to me, is another objective of this article. summer This 265 266 This report contains a general account and first impression of the tour, the botanical gardens and institutions visited, botanists and their current work, and some lessons learned through contact with the people. For convenience, the places visited are plotted in an outline map and the geographical names adopted are those appearing in outstanding newspapers such as the New York Times. Some older familiar names and those used in the Times Atlas of China (1974) are placed in parentheses. A General Account of the Tour with First Impressions Our tour within China began at Shen-chen (Sham-chun, Hong Kong spelling), where we went through customs inspection and made some currency exchanges. There the group was taken to a large garden which has a hedge of Fokienia. Among the trees there are several cauliflorous Artocarpus with large oblong fruits about 20 cm. long and 15 cm. in diameter. In a large dining room with a capacity for 300 people, we were served a sumptuous welcome lunch, then we took a train for Canton. The train went over the Pearl River delta. There are a few low hills in sight. Rice is the major crop on both sides of the railway. The minor crops include tapioca plant, sweet potato, taro, greater yam (Dioscorea alata), jute and hemp. The latter two species are planted for fibers. Large trees of lychee ( Litchi chinensis) and lungan (Euphoria longan), and banana are planted near villages. Papaya is occasionally cultivated along the banks I ucivvccil rice tlduuicJ. A vcly111LC1CJL111~' ~.JI1C11V111CI1V11 Lllitl JL have not seen before is a green manure plant, Sesbania cochinchinensis, grown in loose rows among rice. For our tour Canton was treated merely as a passing station. Programs were arranged for one half-day to see two historical sites before we took off for eastern China. However, at the conclusion of the tour, permission was granted to me and a former student to stay for two extra days in China to see botanical establishments in Canton. Then I was able to visit Sun Yatsen University which is now in the campus of former Lingnan University where F. A. McClure started a bamboo garden in the early 1930s. We also visited a botanical garden and the Herbarium of the Institute of Botany established by W. Y. Chun at Shih-p'ai, outside Canton. Hangchow (Hang-chou) was the first city that we visited in eastern China. This place is known as the garden city of China. It is built by the side of West Lake (Hsi-hu) and it has Chientang River on the other side. Our hotel was situated on the lake side. For the first day we were driven 40 miles into the country not seen beforeis a green manure plant, Sesbania cochin- Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu and Prof. H. T. Chang in Sun Yatsen University. Photo: C. H. Yeung. front of gate of the present to see a temple preserved for its art objects. Formerly the monks of this temple had the holdings of vast areas of land, and a good sized forest was preserved. So far as I know, this is by far the best preserved mesophytic forest of eastern China. There many large trees of Acer, Aesculus, Catalpa, Celtis, Cinnamomum, Cryptomeria, Liquidambar, Platycarya, Pterocarya, Quercus, Sapindus, and Ulmus have attained the height of 30-40 meters and a diameter of one meter or more. In Hangchow we also visited a nursery specializing in flowers and flower arrangements. A young lady who is responsible for the bonsai section showed us around. From her we learned that the administration of botanical activities of Hangchow is the responsibility of the Bureau of Garden and Forestry. This office has 17 departments; the Flower Nursery, the Hangchow Botanical Garden, the Park Department, etc. are some of the departments. The nursery was started in 1958. It has 16 technical staff members who take care of the sections of bonsai, orchids, greenhouse, roses, chrysanthemums, woody and herbaceous flowers. It supplies flowers for all occasions and all needs. We were shown over 2,000 bonsai, and 5,000 pots of Cymbidium. Some of the cultivars of Cymbidium are extremely expensive: $500.00 per plant in U.S. currency. In Hangchow we visited a water garden over zigzag bridges, a hill garden with pagoda on a hill-top in a setting of natural boulders, and a small garden with streams. We spent half of 268 a day in Hua-kang Park (Flower Creek Park). It is very well cared for and it reminds me of gardens visited in Kyoto and Tokyo, only this one is much larger. Its site of 300 mu (15 acres) is covered with beautiful lawn, impressive deodar-cedar and lace-bark pine, wisteria, and many other trees, shrubs and creepers, natural boulders, lakes, ponds with various kinds of aquatic plants, bridges, and hundreds of fishes swimming, jumping, and fighting for the bread thrown to them in a special area. By a special arrangement I was able to visit the Hangchow Botanical Garden, which will be described later. From Hangchow we took a train to Shanghai, the largest city, and a highly industrialized and commercialized center of China. In Shanghai we were put up on the thirteenth floor of the International House where we had an extensive view of the city below. This building is next to the Shanghai People's Park which is converted from the former race course under British management. A bonsai exhibition was going on while we were in Shanghai. It occupied one-tenth of the Park and admission was five cents. All lights on the streets are put out by 4:45 A.M. People begin to appear individually under the trees of the sidewalks along the park for morning exercises and by 5:40 A.M. a loudspeaker broadcasting instructions begins. Then the park is open and people also practice physical exercise on the walks in the park. A reliable informant told me that under the leadership of Miss S. K. Chene- the laraP~t hnran;ral garden of China is ;: :d~r construction in Shanghai. Five million dollars have been allocated for this work. In the spring Miss Cheng took a party of eleven persons to Hainan Island. They visited botanical gardens and research institutions in botany along the way to find out what may be introduced into cultivation in Shanghai, in the field or under glass. From Shanghai we took a train to Soochow (Su-chou). Formerly western visitors to China called Soochow the Venice of China. Then transportation within the town was carried on by boat. Now modern roads and streets for cars and buses are built to and within the city; yet vegetables and other farm products are carried by boat from producers on the farm to consumers of the street. There is a Chinese saying about Soochow that we heard quoted proudly by our guides. This is, \"The paradise above is the Soochow-Hangchow below.\" Soochow is indeed beautiful in landscape and rich in produce. In comparison with Hangchow, the gardens in Soochow are smaller, more compact and artificial. 269 With the exception of Hu-ch'iu ( = Tiger Hill), all the gardens that we visited were former private residences. The unique characteristics of these gardens are the skillful use of rocks which gives the appearance of a scenery with hills, ledges, cliffs and streams, and the scanty planting of trees, shrubs and creepers. One of our most impressive days in China was the one spent in a rural commune 40 miles outside Soochow. On the eastern side of Tai Lake there is an island called West Tung-ting Shan, and a peninsula with a hill called East Tung-ting Shan. The area we visited is called East Tung-ting Shan Commune. Members of this commune work in teams, but they all have their own homes. Each family has a small piece of land near the house for vegetables. Together they work in ponds for fish and shrimp, in paddy fields for rice, lotus and chiao-po (Zizania caducifiora), and in orchards of mei (Prunus mume), yang-mei (Myrica rubra), loquat, peach, Chinese date (Zizyphus jujuba), orange, tangerine, chestnut and ginkgo. They cultivate mulberry trees and keep them short for harvesting the leaves to feed silkworms. This is the first time I saw ginkgo in orchards. The trees are kept short and with broad crowns for the convenience of gathering the seeds. In this area all the trees bear seeds much larger than what one may see elsewhere in China or in America. Good cultivars are propagated by grafting. This commune has factories for making tea and canning fruits and ginkgo seeds. We were taken to a factory where women were embroidering fine garments; one of them was for the Emperor of Japan, we were told. The commune takes order from Shanghai and assigns the work to its members. The real achievement of this commune is that through group action the problem of water in agriculture has been solved. Over eighty small reservoirs have been built and the water of Tai Lake is pumped by steps up the hill where proper irrigation keeps the fruit trees in the orchards flourishing. Likewise a 20-mile-long dam has been built to prevent the fields from flooding in summer. The increased area of arable land and the insured return of labor have not only improved the life of the people, but they have also enriched the capital investment of the commune in tractors and trucks. Consequently, mechanization releases a certain amount of man power for work on fine objects of art. From Soochow the group took a train to Wu-hsi to visit a modern city of the silk industry. Special arrangements were made for me to skip the activities in Wu-hsi so that I might have two extra days in Nanking to visit relatives, former teachers, and friends. I was most happy to return to Ginling College 2~0 ~I campus where I had the first course of botany. It is now used by the Kiangsu Teachers' University, and there are many new buildings on the back hills. The campus has retained its former charm and the trees are taller with bigger trunks. The pond is full of lotus, but I did not see any birds on the trees around it. My classmates and I had a very enjoyable evening in the house of our former president, Dr. Y. F. Wu, who entertained us with a delicious dinner. Botanical activities in Nanking included a visit to the medicinal plant garden of the College of Chinese Medicinal Sciences, and the Institute of Agricultural Sciences. A very informative and inspiring morning was spent in Nanking Hotel with Dr. R. W. Shan and T. Y. Chou, two taxonomists from the Institute of Botany in Kiangsu, and Prof. P. C. Yeh, a dendrologist and tree breeder of Nanking Technical Institute of Forest Products. We flew from Nanking to Shen-yang (Mukden), and passed over my home town, Suchow (Hsu-chou). Formerly, in this part of China, Suchow was the dividing point for the type of agriculture, and used to be the northern limit of rice culture. The major crops of this region were wheat, sorghum, soybean, mungo-bean, cotton, peanut and sesame. Now from the air one can see canals and irrigated rice fields all the way from Nanking to Shen-yang. At Tsinan (Chinan), the capital of Shantung Province, we landed for lunch. If it had not been for the attractive flowers of Calystegia pellita, an indicator of North China, I wouid not have known that I was in the Yeiiow River Region, for the airport is surrounded by rice fields. 0 Shen-yang is a city of heavy industry; there are about one thousand factories in the area. Visits to plants of steel industry, electronics and mines were arranged for our group. As Shenyang was the capital of Ching Dynasty before it was moved to Peking, there are imperial palaces and royal tombs in the area. We visited a park that is converted from a royal tomb. The place has been protected and some native trees are preserved. Sophora japonica was in full bloom; Celtis, Morus, Phellodendron, Pinus, Pyrus, and Ulmus are common. It is interesting to note that the street trees common in Shen-yang are Populus canadensis and Robinia pseudoacacia, both introduced from the New World. A day-long bus trip took us through rice fields and an extensive area with eggplant, Chinese cabbage or radish, to a mining area, Fu-shun, where we descended 535 meters to a coal mine. A similar trip took us to a hydroelectric plant with a dam of 1700 meters. Fields of sorghum and corn are equally common. In plains and hills of this area there is hardly any native vegetation left. 271 In An-shan we were taken to a park called Two Nineteen, so named to commemorate the date of liberation of the town, February 19th, 1948. In this park there is an artificial lake with bridges, lotus in flower, and boats for pleasure rides. This lake is called Labor's Lake, and we were told that it was built voluntarily by laborers of the area. While members of the group and the guides enjoyed the boat ride and the lake sight, I slipped off to the greenhouse area and made a list of the species in cultivation. It is worthy of note that 70 percent of the species are woody and are planted in large containers 50-100 cm. in diameter. These specimens are moved around for decorating auditoriums or other public places for special meetings. Cycas revoluta, Araucaria excelsa, Juniperus chinensis, Magnolia grandiflora, Ficus elastica, Camellia japonica, Rhapis excelsa and Trachycarpus fortunei are among the 35 species listed. It is also interesting to note that annually tropical species such as Michelia alba, M. ftgo, and Nerium indicum are brought to flower and their containers are buried in the ground in certain broad city streets to provide temporary islands. This practice was observed on the streets of Shen-yang. Arrangements were made for me to spend an evening in the homes of Prof. T. N. Liou, Director of the Institutum Sylviculturae et Pedologiae, and C. Wang of the same institute. Wang was the first person who collected a specimen of the living species of Metasequoia. Before World War II he graduated from Peking University where he had his botanical training from Prof. Liou. Wang gave me a personal account of the discovery of the type tree that evening. It happened in July 1943 when he was making a trip between Szechwan and Hupeh. While waiting for available means of transportation, he met a former Peking classmate, Mr. L. H. Yang, who was teaching in the Agricultural School at Wan Hsien. Yang told him that there was a very unusual conifer at Mou-tao-chi. With the instruction given by Yang, Wang went and found the tree. He collected some leafy branches and picked up some cones dropped between the tiles of the roof of a small temple nearby. In his field book, he named this specimen as Glyptostrobus. On returning to Chunkging (Chung-Ching), he showed the specimen to C. L. Wu who was working with Prof. W. C. Cheng in Central University. Wu took a set of the collection to Prof. Cheng, who in turn sent a collector for some better specimens, and published the species with H. H. Hu. We left Shen-yang for Ta-lien (Dairen) via An-shan. The trip between An-shan and Ta-lien was by train. Robinia pseudo- 272 acacia is planted on both sides of the railroad. On the slope between the trees there are many yellow flowers of Potentilla and Ranunculus. The major crop of this region is corn. Sweet potato and soybean are occasionally planted also. Distant hills are barren; erosion by rain and wind is obvious. It should be mentioned here that in a report published in January 1975 by the Bureau of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry, one reads about the excellent result of afforestation in Hsingchin Hsien of the Liao-tung Peninsula. According to this report, small trees were planted over 85 of the 108 barren hills of the county in 1973, and through the Four-sides Movement, six million small trees were planted by the village-side, the houseside, the road-side and the bank-side of the same county. Perhaps similar activities are going on in other counties of the Peninsula, but the trees are too small to be observed from a distance in a moving train. Ta-lien reminds one of Boston, Massachusetts about thirty years ago. A list of 35 trees, shrubs and herbs observed in the Hsing-hai Kung-yuan (Star Ocean Park) indicates that all the genera and many of the species occur in the Arnold Arboretum or other gardens in the Boston area. From Ta-lien we flew to Peking. In addition to visiting historical sites and educational institutions, we made two day-long trips: one to Tientsin (Tien-chin) in the south, and another to the Great Wall in the northwest. On the day when the group .1 \".vas scheduled ts visit Peking University, which 15 now situated in the Campus of former Yenching University, arrangement was made for me to visit the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica. Early that morning, Miss S. Y. Wang of the Institute in 273 me to the Institute where I exwelcome and the best reception ever botanical institution I have visited. There I met some old friends and many eminent botanists whose publications have been familiar for decades. The pictures of some of them are shown at left. From Peking we returned to Canton by plane. In the plane, Mr. S. T. Chen asked me to read a poem which can be translated as follows: came to the hotel room and took perienced the given me by a warmest \"The thousands of poplar and willow trees of Peking, Can not tie up the iron-bird from flying. If not restricted by the schedule of returning time, I would stay forever in this mother-land of mine.\" It seems that members of the tour all share Chen's feeling as this poem. Before giving my first impressions of the tour, I should like to explain that I left China as a mature botanist with the background of farm life in northern Kiangsu, and what impressed me the most is the effect of scientific agriculture on the life of farmers. This is not to say that the agricultural practices in expressed by China today are all modern. Most of the methods used now were familiar to me before I left. Although tractors are introduced into farms, ploughing is done largely by oxen or buffaloes in the south, and horses, donkeys or oxen in the north. Although chemical weed killers are known to some farmers, the weeding in fields and gardens is done primarily by hand. Although most communes have one or more trucks and tractors for transporting farm products, the bulk of fruits and vegetables is moved in carts pulled by animals in the north, and by men or women around Nanking. However, the amount of science and technology applied to agriculture and forestry has already made marked changes in the rural landscape. The rice fields that extend from Canton to Shen-yang and Peking, and the woods on hills in some places such as the White Cloud Mountain near Canton and Purple Mountain east of Nanking, are all new to me. The fundamental factors that brought about these changes lie in a nationwide planning and the mobilization of the people for group action. The use of electricity to improve irrigation and the construction of canals and dams to regulate the water supply and to prevent flood are primary factors that change the rural landscape. In my youth I experienced repeated annual floods, famine and hunger. The people of the small cluster of villages Photograph taken outside the Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Peking. Front row, left to right F. T. Wang, T. Tang, S. Y. Hu, Y. Ling, S. Li, and R. Hsu. Back row: C. C. Hu, T. T. Yii, and T. H. Wang. Photo: Institute of Botany, Peking. 274I related to mine tried to improve the condition by digging the canal running between them. As they had no cooperation from people in distant villages at the lower end of the canal, the portion repaired was soon filled up by the deposits brought down from the hills by rain. Now with nationwide or provincial planning and group effort of all the people concerned, flooding is practically under control. July to August is the rainy season and the flood time in the area visited. In the extensive stretch of land the tour covered this summer, I did not observe any flooding over crops except along the railroad near Tientsin. The other factor that brought about changes of the physiognomy in the country and attracts the attention of a botanist is the LU-HUA movement. The short and concise term, lu-hua, is seen and heard everywhere in China. The Chinese character that stands for lu means green and that for hua means to transform. In the manner by which the term is used by the people, lu-hua connotes ideas that can be expressed by no English equivalent. The word \"verdification\" may be used for lu-hua, but such a word is not in my dictionary. The aims of lu-hua are to make the countryside garden-like, to convert the hills into orchards and forests, to produce firewood for the people, and to supply timber for houses and for national construction. The activities of lu-hua involve afforestation of the barren hills, the establishment of orchards of fruit trees and of other species of economic importance such as tea-oil trees (Camellia oleifera), dW u iviii'-ai~c~ Yiaiiiiilg in Yiaiii~ dW u Liiie~. At present the most obvious effects of lu-hua are the trees along the railroads and highways, the small vegetable gardens around houses and even some public buildings, the castor-oil plants along the banks of canals, and the quick and low growing woody species that yield firewood from stump sprouts, and grow on the narrow paths between paddy fields and irrigation ditches. The most striking features are the broad bands of Taxodium in the swampy low land along the railway between Shanghai and Nanking, and the wide stretches of trees along both sides of the highway between Peking and its airport. On each side of this highway there is a green wall formed by a harmonious planting of tall poplar, intermediate pagoda tree (Sophora japonica), and short Amorpha fruticosa. Beyond this wall are several rows of willow, and then apple or walnut orchards and farmhouses. Another ten years from now visitors to China will have a different view of the distant hills from their train or bus. For several years, especially after the conclusion of a National Con- 275 vention of Workers for Afforestation that took place in August 1974, the communes of hilly districts have responded to the lu-hua movement by mobilizing fifteen to one hundred thousand farmers each. These workers have planted hundreds of millions of trees in each county, according to reports in publications of the Bureau of Forestry, Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry. It is worth noting the species planted. These vary with the locality. In North China, apple, pear, peach, grape, mulberry, walnut and junipers are planted. In the middle Yellow River Region where strong wind and moving sand is characteristic, paulownia and willow are planted. In Central China, cunninghamia, cryptomeria, black locust and other exotic species are used. In South China localities such as Fukien, tea-oil, persimmon, lungan, lychee and many introduced species such as Eucalyptus citriodora, Grevillea robusta, Casuarina equisetifolia, and Acacia con f usa are planted. In many places introduced species are preferred to the native ones that fit the same habitats. For example, Taxodium ascendens and T. distichum are planted in place of Glyptostrobus pensilis and Metasequoia glyptostroboides in low land and swampy areas; Pinus elliottii, P. taeda, and P. palustris are used instead of P. massoniana on slopes. Some of these species are chosen for a better quality of wood; others, for stronger resistance to insect attacks or for faster growth than the native species. My first impression of changes in cities is the degree of industrialization. From the hotel buildings in all the cities visited, one can see tall chimneys of factories on the horizon. Even the residential cities such as Hangchow and Soochow, which used to be called the land of rice and fishes, are now proud of their industrial productivity. We were told that in Hangchow there are 700 factories. Thirty-eight of these employ one thousand or more workers each; these are steel industries, refineries, truck manufacturers, etc. In Soochow, watches, optical equipment, art pieces, furniture and carvings are produced. Although industries have brought better life to the workers and stronger financial capacity to the municipal governments, in the business centers and residential areas there seems to be a loss of the grandeur and brilliance that were formed in my memory. The change in me might have contributed partially to this impression. Before I left China, I was moving from a village to a town, and from smaller towns to larger cities. The first impressions of things seen appeared bigger and more magnificent than the ones known before. However, there seems to be evidence of less concern by the people regarding the outside appearance of the 276I houses where they live. With the exception of the hotels visited, the front view of houses and stores generally looks shabby. The four-sided planting of the lu-hua movement will eventually improve this condition. At present some areas have good-sized trees along the street. As birds are not encouraged, insect control becomes a serious problem. In Hangchow and Shanghai we met crews spraying the London Plane-tree ( Platanus aceri f olia ) every day. Botanical Institutions Visited In my general account of the tour, I have mentioned special arrangements provided for me to visit some botanical institutions and botanical gardens in China. Here some additional information about each one is given. Peking is taken arbitrarily as the focal point. As no other institutions were visited north of Peking, the sequence adopted for entering the units is geographically southward from Peking to Canton. Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica, Peking: The Institute is temporarily located in a building near the Peking Zoo on the northwestern section of the city. Plans have been made for a modern new building as its permanent home near the Botanical Garden outside Peking. The herbarium and library of the Institute have the collections of the former Fan Memorial Institute of Biology and those of the Botanical Institute of the former Peking University. At present the herbarium contains ten times more specimens than it did in the early mSUs. It has a statt ot slightly over 300 technical people. In its seven laboratories, active research programs are progressing in many directions of various botanical disciplines, including taxonomic and floristic studies, physiology and morphogenesis, paleobotany, ecology, economic botany, etc. A monumental work has been completed in the preparation of Iconographia Cormophytorum Sinicorum in five volumes. The work is in Chinese with scientific names and illustration for every species. Volume V is in press. The following summary may give some general idea of the volumes published. Volume 1. (1972) Bryophyta, Pteridophyta, Gymnospermae, Angiospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Archichlamydeae, fam. Casuarinaceae to Hernandiaceae according to the system of phytochemistry, Engler, pp. 1-1157, figs. 1-1730, including: (1) Appendix I. Keys to the families and some genera; keys to the species of Gymnospermae; (2) Appendix II. An illustrated glossary of botanical terms; and tific names. (3) Indices to Chinese and scien- 277 Volume II. (1972) Angiospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Archichlamydeae, fam. Papaveraceae to Comaceae, pp. 1-1312, figs. 1731-3954, including keys to genera of the families included and indices to Chinese and scientific names. Volume III. (1974) Angiospermae-Dicotyledoneae-Sympetalae, fam. Diapensiaceae-Solanaceae, pp. 1-1083, figs. 39555414, including descriptions of the families included and keys to the genera of each family, and indices to Chinese and scientific names. Volume IV. (1975) Sympetalae, fam. Scrophulariaceae to Compositae, pp. 1-932, figs. 5415-6830, including descriptions of the families included and keys to the genera and some species, and indices to Chinese and scientific names. The Flora Reipublicae Popularis Sinicae is largely in preparation, with portions of Rosaceae and Cyperaceae already published. The responsibility for the manuscripts of various families and genera is assigned to different persons in universities and botanical institutions throughout the country. In March 1975 the enlarged Sixth National Convention of the participants of the stupendous preparation of the flora took place in Peking under the auspices of the Bureau of Science and Technology. In addition to the people who are responsible for the manuscripts of various families and certain large genera, representatives of the Party, the Army, administrators of the botanical institutions that contribute scientists and technical personnel, leaders of workers in the farms, industry, and the barefoot doctors were invited. I was informed that at the conclusion of the convention an important decision was made that the flora will be completed in ten years. Members of the Institute of Botany in Peking all have confidence that this will be done. Two excellent journals are published regularly under the auspices of the Botanical Society of China. These are the Acta Botanica Sinica and the Acta Phytotaxonomica Sinica. Another periodical, Zhiwuxue ZaZhi ( Botanical Magazine ) , is a popular quarterly journal. It is designed for short articles of two or three pages introducing botanical principles and technology to the general public. It is published regularly in February, May, August and November. Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine: The scientific world has begun to turn its attention towards traditional Chinese medicine. For example, in the past three years teams of American doctors and of pharmacological scientists have visited China to observe and to learn. In a R. Farnsworth of the School of Pharmacy, University report, Prof. Norman of Illinois, 278 - the computerized information of his office, has confirmed Chairman Mao's statement that Chinese medicine is a treasure house. It is fitting to say that the College of Traditional Chinese Medicine at Nanking is a pioneer institution in the study of Chinese materia medica. By applying scientific methods in its work on Chinese medicinal plants, it has opened the treasure house and done an excellent job in illuminating the principles and facts on Chinese medicine. From the beginning its triple objective included teaching, research and production. Its various research teams have identified the raw material of Chinese medicine, analyzed various market products and studied their chemical compositions, and extracted pure forms of the effective principles. Its production team has cooperated with drug manufacture houses to produce pills, ointments and injections for the service of the people and to meet government assignments. In 1976 it will celebrate its fortieth anniversary. Its four thousand graduates work in various disciplines of Chinese medicine throughout the country. At present the college has 800 students and 190 teaching staff members. In my visit I was shown the herbarium, the collection of identified Chinese drugs as bought from the market, and the laboratories where chemical activities take place. Then we went to the medicinal garden twenty miles outside Nanking. The herbarium was organized by H. T. Sun who was its curator before he died. Sun was a student of S. S. Chien, and w~WCU wi~l~ him im ~iie nwanicai Laboratories in Nanking and in Po-pei, Szechwan, during World War II. For many years he was recognized as the Chinese specialist of Labiatae. The Chinese drug collection occupies a large room. All the samples are in individual glass containers, each with a label of the Chinese and the scientific names. So far as I know this is the best reference collection of Chinese materia medica prepared and identified by men of scientific training. The activities in the Chemistry laboratories are out of my line. The exhibits that attracted my attention were the extracts of Andrographis paniculatus used as a substitute for penicillin, and those of different species of Lycoris employed as anticancerous drugs. The most interesting object was the preparation of injection material from the fruit of Camptotheca acuminata for the treatment of patients with cancer. A syrup prepared from Ilex chinensis for patients with high blood pressure was naturally a delightful surprise to one who has spent thirty years in the study of the genus Ilex in China. using 279 Camptotheca Wilson, 1908. acuminata growing near Shih-Fang Hsien. Photo: E. H. 280 The medicinal garden is the best of its kind. It is on a thirtyfive-acre farm assigned to the College for the following purposes : to have a living collection of Chinese medicinal plants, to provide material for chemical analyses and other experiments, and to perform research in the field. The living collection has about 900 species. The specimens are planted in three groups. The shade loving species and those introduced from the high mountains of western China or from the cold temperate regions are cultivated with special care under shade. The mesophytic species are cultivated in plots by families in the nursery. Climbers are planted in a special area with supports. For the mesophytes and the shade loving species each plot is about one and The climbers are a half meters long and one meter wide. in rows. One of the interesting projects of field research is the cultivation of Poria cocos, a parasitic fungus growing in the root of 5 Pinus massoniana. The large sclerotia of the parasite, about 15 cm. long and 10-12 cm. in diameter, are collected for medicinal use. So far, only spontaneous products are known. Formerly, large amounts of the sliced central chalk-white portion were exported under the common name, China Root. Small sclerotia of the species are now produced in a laboratory of the medicinal garden. They are too small to be of any practical use yet. The publications of the College include a Bulletin, a statistical Survey of the Amount and Cost of Production of Chinese Media v.e.eC (i~5i-.~rv), Nrciiuiiu0.iy study oii the ltLCIGLL\/L(.U,LLUlL LL7GG. Preparation of Chinese Medicine in Nanking Area (1958), and the Chinese Pharmacognosy (1960). The last mentioned work is an illustrated treatise on Chinese materia medica. It is a large book with a dimension of 26 by 18 cm., and consists of 1416 pages with 1396 figures. It is divided into four parts. Part I (pp. 1-115) consists of general aspects of Chinese medicine, including the history, source material, chemical constituents, preparation, identification and principles. Part II (pp. 1161173) consists of plant drugs, including introduction of plant cells, tissues, and organs with an illustrated glossary, descriptions and illustrations of important plant families, explanation of the cultivation of medicinal plants, and 498 detailed treatments of species grouped by the organs from which the drugs are obtained. Part III (pp. 1174-1273) consists of 82 kinds of animal drugs. Part IV (pp. 1274-1324) contains 54 kinds of mineral drugs. The plant drugs are arranged by the parts employed. These include whole twigs 24, wood 6, bark 20, rhizomes 55, roots 87, leaves 23, flowers 37, fruits 97, seeds 62, entire 281 herbs 50, and others (including resins, gums, copals, etc.) 42. Illustrated discussions of related products of 160 species are given as notes at the end of some drugs. Consequently the book contains 634 species of plants that yield Chinese drugs. Regarding the quality of the work, Japanese pharmacologists who can read Chinese have commented that it is the best of its kind ever produced in Chinese pharmacognosy. I was told that a bigger book of similar nature is in preparation. In this one both the officinal and the herbal medicines are included. Kiangsu Institute of Agricultural Sciences: \"Everyone has food,\" was the comment I heard from friends who had returned to China before I did. The higher per acre yield now than 25 years ago is the fact told me proudly by the people who are engaged in agricultural productions, whether in communes or in experimental stations. Now in every province there is an Institute of Agricultural Sciences which is responsible for the development of high yield strains, of better methods in farm management, and of modern measures in crop protection. On the advice of Dr. Y. F. Wu, President of the former Ginling College, arrangement was made for me to visit the Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Nanking. The Institute is situated outside the Chung Shan Gate on the outskirts east of Nanking, and is on an 165-acre farm. Its eight research laboratories are engaged in crop plant improvement, plant protection, animal husbandry and veterinary science, soil and fertilizer, horticulture, economic crop plants, farm management and farm products. It has a staff of six hundred people. On observing my surprise at such a large number of people, my hosts quickly explained the dual responsibilities of members of the Institute In addition to operating research projects in Nanking, they also go out to reside in the communes to work with the people, which they call tun-tien (to squat on points), or to carry on surveys, or to give supervision in a large area, which they call p'ao-mien (to run the surface). In the field I was shown the various improved strains of high-yielding rice and different demonstrations in the management of cotton farms, including intercropping of cotton with corn or with sweet potato. Then I was taken into a reception hall to see the exhibits of four strains of high-yielding wheat developed by the Institute, and seven kinds of seeds of green manure plants introduced by the Institute to the farmers of the province. Finally I was asked to try the fruit of a cultivar of peach called pan-t'ao (discoid peach). The fruit of this cultivar is strongly compressed on the baso-distal axis. It has a diam- 282 The stone is small and to the flesh. This cultivar has a long history. It was developed from the famous shui-mi-t'ao (watery honey peach) of the lower Yangtze Region. Its fruit is the most juicy and sweet of the peaches. Bonsai Exhibition in Shanghai: This exhibition was prepared for the general public in a park of the business center of metropolitan Shanghai, and occupies an area of about one-half of an acre. At the entrance there is a frame with a miniature landscape. The frame is approximately 4 meters long, 3 m. high and 1.5 m. wide. The background is a painting; the floor, white with running water, and the scenery composed of small dwarfed trees and gray rocks. The plants used are Cryptomeria japonica, Pinus wangii, P. massoniana, all about 20 cm. high; four Pseudolarix amabilis about 12 cm. high; an Acer palmatum ; a Punica granatum about 20 cm. tall and with a flower bud; a species of Rhododendron; a Serissa serissoides ; and a small bamboo. It is a very attractive arrangement. Individual specimens are in pots on attractive stands and labeled in Chinese. Ten genera of gymnosperms and 23 genera of angiosperms are used. These are: Cycas, Ginkgo, Torreya, Podocarpus macrophylla var. maki, Metasequoia, Pinus wangii, P. tabulaeformis, Juniperus, Cryptomeria, Pseudolarix, Ulmus eter cm. of 6-7 and a height in of 2-3 cm. round, about 1.5-2 cm. diameter, and clings parvifolia, Berberis, Nandina, Pyracanthus, Caragana, Millettia, Buxus microphylla var. sinica, Acer palmatum, A. paxii, Sageretia al..,., 71A~.1..,.,-\".:,.., .,.e..a...,me , .awevwvoov.w uwyWuoiwuoiw oneww.w, T .....,.\"u....,.,.,.... \"...7:.,.. a mvw n..\"..\" yTwW .ouino, Elaeagnus, Rhododendron, Jasminum nudiflorum, Schefflera, Diospyros sinensis, Trachelospermum, Rhapis excelsa, and Serissa. Also a bamboo and a variegated-leaved grass are on display. Hangchow Botanical Garden: This is the youngest and also the largest of all the botanical gardens that I have ever visited. It was started in 1956, and it covers 517 acres. Three-fifths of the area is planted and the remainder is for conservation of the spontaneous vegetation. The objectives of the garden are exhibition and research. The activities concern classification, economic botany, a bamboo garden, ornamental plants, and dendrology. All the plants are labeled on stone or cement blocks buried in the ground; the names, both Chinese and scientific, and economic importance are chiseled and colored. It was raining and time was short. Under umbrellas we went through the medicinal plant collection, and the plantings of Juglandaceae. The design of the medicinal plant section is unique. All the species are planted in an area with a landscape 283 of an oriental garden with a winding stream, trees, rocks and various herbs. Aquatic species are planted in individual containers a meter in diameter and these are buried in the ground. The lawns between trees are very well kept. We went to see the Sequoia sempervirens and Sequoiadendron giganteum that came with the Nixon party. These are kept in a locked-up area. Garden in Canton: This bamboo garden was started in the late 1920s and the 1930s by the late Prof. F. A. McClure of Lingnan University with the assistance of H. Fung. The campus is now used by Sun Yatsen University. A large building occupies a portion of the former garden, and the front gate of the present University is nearby. A portion of the Bamboo Garden is left on the old site. According to my memory it is less than one-fifth of the original size. Fung is living, but he is too old to work in the garden. I was shown three species of Lingnania, and was told some of the species died after flowering while some others have been moved to a more suitable site. At present the center of the study of bamboo in this area is shifted to the Kwangtung Institute of Botany at Shih-pai where L. C. Chia is active in research of the bamboo of Kwangtung Province. Kwangtung Institute of Botany: The name of this institution has been changed several times. When it was first organized by Prof. W. Y. Chun, the name was the Botanical Institute, College of Agriculture, Sun Yatsen University, as it appeared in its journal, Sunyatsenia. By the 1950s and in the 1960s its name was Instituti Botanici Austro-Sinensis, Academiae Sinicae, as it appeared on the title page of its publications, Flora of Canton (1956) and Flora Hainanica II (1965). On the title page of Flora Hainanica III (1974) the present name is used. The herbarium of the Institute is the second largest in China. It is kept in excellent condition, and it has good working space for its staff and for visiting botanists. It was in this herbarium that Y. Tsiang carried on his research of the Apocynaceae and Asclepiadaceae of China. His research area is kept there although he has been on the teaching staff of a neighboring institution of higher education, the College of Agriculture and Forestry of Kwangtung. When Professor Chun started the herbarium in the late 1920s, he decided to file the specimens of the world's newest herbarium by the newest system of classification of the flowering plants. Consequently this becomes the only known herbarium that has adopted Hutchinson's system, both in the filing of the specimens and in the publications. Lingnan Bamboo From left, T. C. Li, P. W. Li M. Wu (ecologzst) at entrance Garden Photo. C. H. Yeung. (pomologist), S. Y. Hu, Y. Y. at of the guest house Yeh, and H. Kwangtung Botanical Regarding the research activities of the Institute, all its botanists are participants in the preparation of the Flora of China, each taking one or more families. Other publications include Flora of Canton and Flora Hainanica. Flora of Canton ( 1956, 1-951, figures 1-415) is a very useful book for the identification of species in the Canton-Hongkong area. It was the collaboration of sixteen botanists, F. C. How being the Editorin-Chief. It is in Chinese, with keys, descriptions, Chinese and scientific names, and the citation of a few voucher specimens. I have seen only two volumes of Flora Hainanica. Volume II (1965, viii, 1-470, figures 1-520) was published under the editorship of W. Y. Chun and C. C. Chang. It is in Chinese, with keys, descriptions, Chinese, scientific and important synonyms and citations of literature, distribution and ecological notes. This volume contains 844 species and 51 infraspecific taxa in 287 genera of 44 families, including Myrtaceae, Mal- Euphorbiaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminoseae, Fagaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Moraceae, etc. It has indices of the Chinese and vaceae, scientific names and synonyms. Volume III (1974, i, 1-629, figures 527-942) indicates no authorship. It contains 927 species and 77 infraspecific taxa in 409 genera of 56 families. The treatment of the species is similar to that of Volume II. However, there is one very different feature, i.e., the publication 285 of genera, species and varieties, and many nomenclatural changes in fourteen families including Rutaceae, Sapindaceae, new Sapotaceae, Myrsinaceae, Styracaceae, Oleaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Rubiaceae, Compositae, Primulaceae, Solanaceae, Scrophulariaceae, Gesneriaceae and Acanthaceae. Kwangtung Botanical Garden: This is a large garden adjacent the Institute of Botany. It is concerned with scientific research for the service of the people. Its activities include the introduction, acclimatization and extension of species economically important. It has an exchange program with sixty countries, especially Africa. At present it has over three thousand species under experiment. The research team of the Garden to has found many desirable characteristics in Taxodium ascendens and T. distichum for lu-hua in the low-land of Kwangtung. These species can be propagated vegetatively. They have relatively smaller crowns than the native species, and cast less shade on the adjacent crops. They grow rather fast and after six to eight years they can be cut and the wood can be used as a substitute for Cunninghamia to meet the need of farmers for construction. The Garden has 200 acres of developed land. At Ting Wu Mountain of northern Kwangtung, it has an arboretum of 3,000 acres. One-fourth of this area is occupied by natural forest. With our limited time, we were able to walk through the excellent orchid collection and the medicinal plant section of 700 species planted in pots. News about Some Botanists in China It is a great pleasure to tell the news about two of the oldest botanists wno are active in research projects or teaching. These are Prof. S. S. Sin, who is now 84 and is working on the nu-shz~ (Ancient Agricultural Books) of China, and Prof. J. C. Liu who is 83 and goes to work in Peking University daily. Sin is well known for his exploration of Yao Shan in Kwangsi, and Liu for his Systematic Botany of the Flowering Families in North China published in 1931. To many Chinese students of botany, this book is like Gray's Lessons in the United States in the 1850s. The pioneer floristic and taxonomic botanists of China, S. S. Chien, H. H. Hu, and W. Y. Chun are dead. So is Prof. Y. Chen, author of Classification of Chinese Trees and Shrubs. This work is illustrated. Its usefulness in China is like Rehder's Manual in the English speaking world. The revised edition is now in press; for this work Chen stayed in Nanking during World War II to be with the material for the revision while his 286 associates moved with the University of Nanking to Chengtu, Szechwan. He died in Peking as a member of the Institute of Agriculture and Forestry. The following information about botanists active in various disciplines of botanical research is gathered from available publications and personal communications. This incomplete list is being sent to several institutions in Peking, Nanking, Hangchow, Canton and Shen-yang for corrections and additions. If I hear from any of these while the report is still in manuscript form, due changes will be made. As in the report on the botanical institutions visited, Peking is again taken as a focal point. Botanists in Peking and Vicinity Institute of Botany, Academia Sinica Floristic and taxonomic research: Collaborator of T. Tang in Cyperaceae. Chen, C. Same as the above. Chen, S. C. Ferns, now works at home, recently published Ching, R. C. two new families, Pteridiaceae and Hypodenatiaceae. Chung, P. C. Scrophulariaceae, Campanulaceae. Commelinaceae. Hong, D. Y. Geraniaceae. Huang, C. C. Collaborator of T. T. Yii. Ku, T. C. Book review, botanical critic. Kuan, K. C. Physochlaina. Kuang, K. Z. Collaborator of Tang in Cyperaceae. Liang, S. Y. Compositae, Convolvulaceae, Director. Ling, Y. T nn T C - Collaborator r,f P. C. ~x7~. Lu, A. M. - Collaborator with K. Z. Kuang in Physochlaina. Collaborator with T. T. Yu in Rosaceae. Lu, L. T. Lu, L. Y. Myrtaceae. Collaborator with Tang in Cyperaceae. Tai, L. K. Orchidaceae, Cyperaceae. Tang, T. Population study, Tofieldia mentioned. Tang, Y. C. Tsui, Y. W. - Caryophyllaceae. Liliaceae, Leguminosae. Wang, F. T. Ranunculaceae, Gesneriaceae. Wang, W. T. Wu, P. C. Bryophytes. Epimedium. Ying, T. S. Rosaceae. Yii, T. T. - _ - - Morphogenesis and cytology: Collaborator Chang, P. T. - of L. C. Chien, see the following. Ultrastructural changes in cold resistant wheat. Collaborator with Z. C. Chu and J. S. Kuo Y. H. Collaborator with L. C. Chien. Ching, Chu, Z. C. Morphogenesis of wheat pollen plants. Collaborator of C. H. Lou. Duan, C. H. Effects of OZ and CO= on post-maturation of tomato. Li, Y. Lou, C. H. Protoplastic withdrawal in the withering leaves of Chien, L. C. Chien, N. F. - - - - - - - plants. 287 Anther culture of Nicotiana and Capsicum. Collaborator of C. L. Lee of Peking University. Collaborator of Y. Li. Androgenesis of Triticale. Pollen development and physiology of Clivia. Tang, P. H. Tsui, C. Physiology and nutrition of micro-organisms. Tuan, H. C. Cytology. Collaborator of Z. C. Chu. Wang, C. C. Studies on factors affecting growth, development Wang, S. C. and yield of wheat. Collaborator of Y. Li. Wang, V. H. Collaborator of J. S. Kuo. Wang, Y. Y. Wu, S. H. Cytology. Kuo, J. S. Kwei, Y. L. Mao, C. Y. Sun, C. S. - - - - - - - - - - - - Paleobotany: A leading Chinese paleobotanist, lately worked on collections of the recent Chinese Himalayan expeditions, from plant-bearing sandstone beds at 8,012 m. altitude. Collaborator of J. R. Tao. Kong, Z. C. Collaborator of J. Hsii. Sun, X. J. Fossil flora and spore-pollen investigation on the Tao, J. R. Shang-in coal series in Yunnan. Morphology and anatomy: Chang, C. Y. Morphology of Archangiopteris and relationship with Angiopteris. Collaborator with Y. L. Kwei. Hu, Y. S. Kwei, Y. L. Epidermal feature in classification of Taxus. Pollen morphology of Thalictrum. Shi, Y. C. Ecology and vegetation studies: Collaborator of Y. L. Li. Chang, C. S. Beech forest of Fan-ching Shan in Kweichow. Li, Y. L. Collaborator of Y. L. Li. Ming, T. L. In Y. L. Li's team. Tsien, C. P. Same as the above. Ying, T. S. Vertical vegetation belt of Mt. Jolmo-lungma (Mt. Everest): Chang, K. W. and S. Chiang - Co-authors of the above subject. Azotobacter and nitrogenase: The team of Laboratory 7 of the Institute. Hsu, J. - - - - - - - - - - - - - Institute of Academia Sinica D. Usnea of China. Hsii, L. W. - Collaborator of C. D. Chao. Sun, Z. M. - Same as the above. Yii, Y. N. Fungus infection of Zizania, Yenia is as a genus, segregated from Ustilago. Microbiology, - Chao, C. - recognized Institute of Agriculture and Forestry Gymnosperms of China, director. Cheng, W. C. Wood technology. especially the anatomy of wood Chu, W. F. and bamboo; compilation of a Dictionary of Forestry in - Chinese. Wu, C. L. - Ecology and afforestation. 288 Institute of Materia Medica, Chinese Academy of Medical Sciences Collaborator with P. K. Hsiao. Chen, P. C. Same as the above. Chen, Y. H. Same as the above. Feng, S. C. Same as the above. Feng, Y. S. Same as the above. Ho, L. Y. Same as the above. Hsia, K. C. Hsiao, P. K. Phytochemistry of medicinal plants, using chromatography and UV spectra. Lien, W. Y. Menispermaceous plants used in medicine, with new taxa described. Collaborator with P. K. Hsiao. Ling, S. C. Same as the above. Liu, K. S. Same as the above. Lii, S. C. Same as the above. Sung, W. C. Collaborator with C. Y. Cheng in Trichosanthes. Yueh, C. H. - - - - - - - - - - - - - Peking Medical College, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences Cheng, C. Y. - Trichosanthes, with nomenclatural changes and description of new species, in collaboration with C. H. Yueh; synopsis of Rheum with descriptions of four new species and two new varieties, in collaboration with T. C. Ko. Collaborator of C. Y. Cheng. Ko, T. C. - North China Agriculture University - Shao, L. M. - Collaborator of C. H. Lou in cell physiology. Wu, H. J. Physiology, effect of gibberellin on growth of Ramie. Peking University, Department of Biology Lee, C. L. Morphogenesis, excised - stem of mint. Peking Teachers Chao, W. P. College, Department Cell physiology. - of Fundamental Agriculture Botanists in the Maritime Provinces Eastern China Shantung Institute of Tobacco Research, Academy of Agricultural Sciences Anther culture, collaborator of J. S. Kuo. Hsii, H. C. Same as the above. Kung, M. L. Kiangsu Institute of Botany, Nanking Chen, S. L. Gramineae, collaborator of Y. L. Keng. Cruciferae. Chou, T. Y. Umbelliferae. Shan, R. H. Kiangsu Institute of Agricultural Sciences, Nanking Research in the genus Gossypium. Hsi, Y. L. Research in the genus Triticum. Mei, C. L. Research in the genus Oryza. Tsui, C. L. Nanking College of Traditional Chinese Medicine Research and teaching in Chinese medicinal plants. Hsu, K. C. Same as the above. Hsu, L. S. - - - - - - - - - 289 Nanking University Gramineae, now works largely at home. Keng, Y. L. Plant pathology, Manual of Rice Pathogens, Wei, C. C. - re- vised edition in press; gens. manuscript Manual of Fungus Patho- Nanking Technical Institute of Forest Products Lauraceae Shang, C. B. Tree breeding, produced Fl of Liriodendron chiYeh, P. C. nense X L. tulipifera and intergeneric hybrids of Cryptomeria - X Cunninghamia and Taxodium X Cryptomeria. Futan University Viburnum of China. Hsu, P. S. Hu, C. C. Screening the plants of Chekiang and Anhwei for antibacterial properties. Collaborator of C. C. Hu. Wang, H. J. Same as the above. Yin, C. C. Shanghai First Medical College Collaborator of R. H. Shan in Bupleurum. Li, Y. Shanghai Teachers' University, Department of Biology Asiatic Woodwardia. Chiu, P. S. Shanghai Institute of Materia Medica Obtained lycoramine from Lycoris longituba Hsu Fan, G. J. & Fan for curing epilepsy. Senior author in the Lycoris work, see above. Hsu, Y. Hangchow Botanical Garden Economic botany, medicinal plants, adminisChang, S. Y. Shanghai, - - - - - - - - - trator. Ferns, new species of Plagiogyria chekiangensis. Bamboo. Rui-an District Medical Team, Chekiang Acanthaceae, Championella sarcorrhiza C. Ling, and Ling, C. C. obligantha (Miq.) Bremek., source of a medicine for curing kidney trouble. Chiu, P. L. Yao, C. Y. - - - Southern China (including Kwangsi) Kwangtung Institute of Botany Blumea. Chang, C. T. - Chen, F. H. Primulaceae, Carpesium. Economic botany, bamboo. Chia, L. C. Hu, C. M. - Collaborator with F. H. Chen in Carpesium. - Hwang, S. M. - Aristolochia. - in Blumea. Sun Yatsen University, Canton Hamamelidaceae, Myrtaceae, Pittosporaceae. Chang, H. T. Marine algae. [Deceased on December 20, 1974.] Fan, K. C. Kwangtung College of Agriculture and Forestry, Canton Sterculiaceae. Hsii, H. H. Plant physiology. Lee, Li, P. M. - Pomology, Dean of the College. Collaborator of Y. Tsiang in Asclepiadaceae. Li, P. T. - Rubiaceae. Kao, Y. C. Liu, Y. H. Magnoliaceae, Sabiaceae. Wu, H. M. - Ecology. Collaborator of C. T. Chang Yu, C. N. - - - - - 290 Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Asclepiadaceae, Tsiang, Y. phorbiaceae. - Eu- South China Sea Institute of Oceanology, Academia Sinica, Hainan Island Collaborator with Y. C. Wang and K. C. Fan. Pan, K. Y. Marine algae of Hsi-sha Islands, new species of Wang, Y. C. Rhodophyta, in collaboration with Y. C. Wang and K. Y. Pan. Zhan-jiang College of Fisheries, Hainan Island Marine algae, new species of Rhodophyta. Li, W. H. Kwangsi Institute of Botany Chang, P. N. - Economic botany, medicinal plants, Check List of Plants of Kwangsi. Aristolochiaceae. Liang, C. F. - Central China In Central China there is Wu-han University which has been active in botanical explorations in Hupeh and Szechwan. There is also the Lu Sha Botanical Garden in Kiangsi. Unfortunately, in this tour Central China was not included, and the information about botanists there is regrettably scanty. Hupeh Institute of Botany, Wu-han Fu, S. S. - Ferns and many families of flowering plant, including Moraceae, Proteaceae, Ficoideae, Polygalaceae, Actinidiaceae, etc. Hupeh Kiangsi Institute of - Hydrobiology Hupeh. Jao, C. C. Lee, Y. Y. Fresh water algae, the Charophyta of Collaborator of C. C. Jao. - Chuang, Communism Proletarian University, Department of Forestrv F. T. Anatomy of Pinus elliottii, introduced to China in 1946, now used extensively for afforestation in Kiangsi, variations of resin canals and vascular tissue observed. Szechwan and Yunnan Szechwan University, Department of Biology A Chinese pioneer in the exploration and study Fang, W. P. of the botanical resources of Szechwan, especially those of - Mt. Omei, Aceraceae, Comaceae, Ericaceae, recent work including Nyssaceae, with the description of new species in Nyssa and Camptotheca. Collaborator of W. P. Fang in Nyssaceae. Soong, T. P. - Szechwan Medical Hsieh, C. K. College, Department as as of Pharmacy in team work with the - Codonopsis in Szechwan, the above. the above. the above. following people. Same Shen, L. D. Same Tang, S. Y. - Yueh, S. G. - - Same as Szechwan Institute of Biological Sciences Potentilla and related genera. Li, C. L. 291 Szechwan Institute of Forestry Chao, N. Zanthoxylum. - Yunnan Institute of Botany Chen, C. Labiatae, in collaboration with C. Y. Wu. Studies of Panax in Yunnan, in collaboration with Chou, C. the team of H. T. Tsai, chemotaxonomic study and experimental work. Feng, K. M. - Same as the above. Same as the above. Huang, W. K. Same as the above. Yang, C. Same as the above. Wu, M. C. Senior author in the report of team work in the Tsai, H. T. study of Panax. Li, H. W. - Labiatae (Paraphlomis) and Rafflesiaceae (Sapria and Mitrastemon). Labiatae, in collaboration with C. Y. Wu. Huang, S. C. Wu, C. Y. - Labiatae, Chenopodiaceae, Amaranthaceae, Saxifragaceae, Malvaceae, etc.; Director of the Institute. - Northwestern China - Including Chinghai and Sinkiang Northwestern Institute of M. S. Fu, K. T. Botany Tsinling. Exploration, Crassulaceae, especially Sedum and Sinocrassula, new taxa of Corydalis published recently. Hsii, Y. P. Exploration, Pteridophyta of Tsinling, described 15 new taxa as junior author with R. C. Ching. Flora Tsinlingensis In Chinese, without authorship, two parts published. Volume I. part 2. Spermatophyta, 1 + 1-647, figures 1~87. 1974. Including 813 species and 166 infraspecific taxa, families arranged by Engler system, Saururaceae-Rosaceae, with description of new species and varieties in Salicaceae, Betulaceae, Papaveraceae, Ranunculaceae, Crassulaceae and Chang, - Mosses of - - - Rosaceae. Volume II. Pteridophyta, iii + 1-246, plates 1-50. Including 29 families from Psilotaceae to Azollaceae, with 52 new species and varieties described in addenda, of which 34 are by R C. Ching alone, 15 by Ching and Hsii, 2 by Ching and Hsieh, and 1 by Ching and Wu. Northwestern of Biology Histochemical and cytological study on the formation of rubber and differentiation of cellular structures in the secretory epidermis of the fruit of Decaisnea fargesii. Collaborator of Z. H. Hu. Tien, L. H. University, Department - Hu, Z. H. - Lanchow University, Department of Biology Cheng, K. C. Physiology, on the mechanism of the intercellular migrating chromatin substance in pollen mother cell. A member of C. S. Lu's team. Ching, H. - Li, Y. C. Lii, C. S. - Same as - Physiology, the above. on the effect of CCC on the distribution 292 and accumulation of materials during the grain in wheat. Nien, H. W. - A member of K. C. Cheng's team. Same as the above. Wang, 1. H. Same as the above. Yang, C. L. A member of C. S. Lu's team. Yang, C. T. - filling period - - Shensi Institute of Forestry Fu, Y. C. Salicaceae, described - a new variety of Populus tomentosa. Wang, Shansi C. H. - Same as the above, junior author. University, Department of Biology - Rusts of China, including the description of Calostoma Liu, P. variispora as a new species. Collaborator of the above. Li, T. Y. Same as the above. Tu, F. - Chinghai Institute Chang, H. T. Chinghai Sinkiang of - Biology Revision of Notopterygium in Umbelliferae. Institute of Materia Medica Institute of and Hu, H. M. - Medicinal plants of Chinghai. Biology, Pedology Psammology Shen, K. M. - Umbelliferae including new species of Ferula and their economic importance in Sinkiang. Collaborator of K. M. Shen but not co-author of Shui, L. R. - the new - species. Yong, G. Same as the above. Ramil - Same as the above. Sinkiang August An, C. H. Agricultural College Morphology of Cruciferae. Chang, H. S. Ecology and geography forest in the Ili Valley of Sinkiang. - I of the wild fruit tree Northeastern China Shen-yang Institute of Sylviculture and Pedology, Liao-ning Gramineae, Cruciferae. Chang, Y. L. - Salicaceae. Fu, P. Y. Ranunculaceae. Li, S. H. Director. Liou, T. N. - Wang, Wang, C. Salicaceae. W. - Compositae. - Academy of Agriculture - and Forestry of Hei-lung-chiang Anther culture of wheat, collaborator of Z. C. Chu. Hsu, C. Same as the above. Yin, K. C. Northeastern Forestry Academy, Harbin Salix of Shingan-ling. Chou, Y. L. Lauraceae of China, Director. Yang, H. C. - 293 The four-week's tour gave me a good opportunity to listen, to observe and to learn. In conclusion I should like to summarize what I have learned about the condition of the life and work of professional botanists in China. They work in a state emphasizing trio-union (san-chieh-ho), and cherishing its brain-bank and experience pool. They live in a style that lacks physical and social gaps, and they entertain a dedicated devotion to their profession and a strong will to serve the country and the people. The botanists of China, like all other scientists of the country who work in institutions where science, technology and experience are essential, are familiar with the san-chieh-ho of members of the Revolution Committee, the technical staff and the manual workers. In every institution we visited, be it a coal mine, an electronic plant, or a steel factory, we were introduced by the representatives of CTS to members of the Revolution Committee of that organization. One of them acted as the spokesman and gave us the history and the general condition of the organization, with special emphasis on the manifested changes and the increased production after the Cultural Revolution. Then we were shown the operation of the establishment with members of the technical staff explaining, and the laborers demonstrating the performance. All the botanical institutions visited, except Hangchow Botanical Garden, operate in similar manner. In Hangchow Botanical Garden, S. Y. Chang performed all three functions. The legal age for retirement in China is 55 for a woman and 60 for a man. On retirement a person receives 70 per cent of his regular salary for life. However, this regulation does not seem to apply to the top scientists, professors, doctors and experienced administrators; these people neither have retirement nor sick leave. They work till the end of their lives and they receive full pay even if they are sick or incapacitated for decades. The national medical insurance takes care of their medical bills. I met four persons who are in this condition. The following fact is cited merely as an example of respect for the older members of an institution. In North China, people salute a man who has passed his 70th birthday by adding the word \"lao\" ( = old, sounds like lord ) to his surname. In the Institute of Botany, Peking, everyone calls Y. Ling \"Ling Lord\" and in Shenyang, T. N. Liou is called \"Liou Lord.\" In public meetings one hears about the importance of soldiers-laborerspeasants in the national reconstruction. In popular publications one is advised to learn from them. The exaltation of these 294I people, however, does not mean the neglect of the brain-bank and experience pool in China. By the governmental regulations for salary scale, the professional people have higher monthly salaries than the technicians and laborers of the same institution; yet the physical environment and social condition of all the people are very similar. The physical and social gaps that used to exist in China before I left thirty years ago are now bridged. Unexpectedly I visited an institute of higher education. The president of the college lives next door to the driver of the car for the institution; their bungalows are of similar size and structure. All the teaching staff as well as the laborers live in such units, each shared by two families. The president's bungalow is shared by a nurse who takes care of a grandchild, and cooks. In another city I visited the director of a botanical institution in his two-room apartment. His right-hand man receives visitors in a bed-livingroom combination in similar manner, as do high school teachers or factory workers. After visiting homes of people in different occupations from Shen-yang in the north down to Canton in the south, I realize that a great change in the professional people of China has occurred. Their former aspiration for material gains and personal fame are replaced now by the pride of having an independent and strong country, and the will to serve her and the people to the best of their ability. The time and labor saving devices and modern facilities that are considered daily such as a private automobile on the road and a necessities are not available to any of the in the kitchen refrigerator scientists, engineers and physicians whom I have met. Visitors to China are given red-carpet treatment. The luxuries of modern hotels and the beautiful products in friendship stores are for guests of the country. Only those with the proper introduction of CTS or foreign passports stamped correctly may enter. Regarding material possessions, the Chinese professional people have had a mental revolution. They seem to be content with what they can have, and they are looking forward to a time when all the citizens of the country may enjoy more of the products of science and technology. They are working hard towards that goal. In Nanking, my former professor of dendrology and his wife came to see me in the hotel. As lunch time approached, I asked them to stay and eat in the hotel. They refused because he had to return for a program with representatives of the Royal Society of the United Kingdom. Holding my hands in his, this well-tanned, white-haired professor said, \"Let's each use the time due to us for the service of the people and the country.\" - 295 Acknowledgements I should like to take this opportunity to express my deep to the members of the Revolution Committee of various botanical institutions and gardens visited, for their hospitality and for the information on the general aspects of their organizations; and to the professional botanists who have explained their work to me. To my former teachers, Dr. Y. F. Wu of Nanking and Dr. H. T. Chen and Prof. P. W. Li of Canton, I am most grateful, for without their advice and assistance I would have missed seeing several botanical establishments included in this report. My thanks and fond memories are due my former students of Chung Chi College, the Chinese University of Hong Kong - Miss C. H. Yeung and Mr. K. B. Lau, who assisted me in many ways in the tour, especially in taking photographs, and to my nephews, Dr. C. L. Hu and Mr. C. C. Hu who helped me in traveling by means of public transportation in Nanking and Peking, respectively, to visit friends and former teachers. appreciation "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":296,"end_page":296,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24658","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060816f.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":6,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews ~ How to Control Plant Diseases in Home and Garden. Second edition. Malcolm C. Shurtleff. Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press. 1966. 649 pages, illustrated. $10.50. A condensed, encyclopedic handbook in non-technical language to guide in the identification and control of plant diseases, with emphasis on the control. A brief discussion of the general nature of plant diseases is followed by a chapter on causes, including environmental conditions, and diseases caused by various organisms and their control measures. These sections prepare the reader for the main part of the book where diseases are briefly described after listings of the plants that are susceptible to them. Common names with technical names italicized in parentheses help the average gardener. Resistant plant varieties have been included in the control recommendations for many diseases. This volume with its wealth of information is the best on disease control that I have ever seen for use by most gardeners. The person using this reference work will have to remember, ivvvcvcl, tiidi ~~me ~yay materials referred to can no longer be employed because of restrictive regulations. ROBERT G. WILLIAMS Popular Flowering Shrubs. H. L. V. Fletcher. New York: Drakes Publishers. 1972. 192 pages, illustrated. $5.95. A truly excellent book with the usual reservations about those of English authorship; unless they live in California, most U.S. gardeners must forego the joys of ceanothus, cistus, escallonia, and hebes. I continue to be impressed by the high educational level of English horticultural writers, and Mr. Fletcher is outstanding in this regard. The various shrubs are considered alphabetically with good discussions of the particular varietal attributes. There is a great deal of horticultural information; for example, I had never read that all prunus need lime (our much-used P. laurocerasus is in that category). This is an inexpensive, satisfying book for the shrub lover. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE A pleasant stroll in the Case Estates. Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23380","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eb328.jpg","title":"1975-35-6","volume":35,"issue_number":6,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Common Pines of Massachusetts","article_sequence":1,"start_page":197,"end_page":229,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24656","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060bb26.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":5,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Common Pines of Massachusetts by GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. We tend to take wood for granted; or, if we are very modem, to assume that steel, aluminum, and plastics have made wood obsolete. Such is not the case, and, although wood may not seem very important in a stainless steel and glass office building, it still provides shelter and comfort for most of us. To the English colonists who settled New England, wood was a vital commodity that shaped their future in an alien land. The trees that they encountered were usually in vast tracts, and some were totally different from any they had known in England. - The colonists' need to clear land for gardens and pastures, combined with the fact that Spain, Portugal and the British West Indies were experiencing a lumber shortage, encouraged the development of a thriving export trade in timber products. White oak barrel staves to make barrels for wine, molasses, and rum were one of the most valuable New England exports. Old England seemed to be interested in only one commodity, however : white pine logs for masts. Until the settlement of the American colonies, Britain had obtained most of her ship building timber either locally or from various ports around the Baltic Sea. With the growth of population and empire, the numbers and sizes of ships increased. One of the most serious problems for the ship builder was the availability of suitable masts. At the end of the Colonial period a First Rate ship carrying 120 guns required a main mast 40 inches in diameter and 40 yards (120 ft.) long. A mast this size could be made from several smaller stems, but was expensive. Such \"sticks\" had been available in logs of Pinus sylvestris from the Baltic, but these soon became rare due to excessive lumbering. White pine ( Pinus strobus ) from New England was the best substitute. The need for large white pines for masts for the Royal Navy led to a continuing series of laws restricting the use of white pine and to a lumbering industry set up to supply them. It became illegal to cut white pines over 24 inches in diameter for any other purpose. 197 trees were cut (or poached) of course, and the evidence be seen in many an old house where the boards for floors may and wainscotting are between 20 and 23 inches wide. In many cases the sides of the board are not parallel, one side being straight, the other, tapering. The tapering side was the outside of a great log; the straight side, the middle. Two boards 20 inches wide at the widest end could be obtained from a 40-inch 198I Big log. We should not assume that in days of old all trees were sound. Sir John Wentworth, Surveyor General of His Majesty's Wood, recorded in 1771 that: \"This season the Mast Cutters for His Majesty's Contract found in one District a fine Growth of large and uncommonly fair trees, but on cutting them, one hundred and two out of one hundred and six proved rotten at the heart and not worth a shilling.\" The whole question of the colonial timber trade is a fascin* one, and has been dealt with by two skillful authors.* Our interest in pines, however, is not in the timber but in the living plant and in particular, those that are commonly available for planting in Massachusetts. Pines constitute the most important group of lumber trees in the world, and also are highly valued for ornamental planting. There are about 80 species, mostly of temperate regions, but a few occur in the tropical and subtropical climates of the West Indies, Central America, the Philippines, and southeastern ating Asia. In nearly all of the species the trunk is typically erect, with whorls of secondary branches inclined more or less at right angles to the trunk. If the terminal bud or shoot of the trunk is destroyed, one or more of the buds or branches in the whorl immediately below the damage becomes erect and assumes the function of the trunk. If a single bud or branch becomes erect, the trunk ultimately has a crook in it at that spot. If two or more buds or branches develop, a forked or multi-trunked tree is the result. The leaves of pines are narrow and needle-like. The primary leaves (Fig. 1), which may be reduced to mere scales (Fig. 2), are produced on all the growing shoots. In the upper axil of * Robert Greenhalgh Albion, Forests and Sea Power, The Timber Problem of the Royal Navy 1652-1862. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books. 1965. Charles F. Carroll, The Timber Economy of Puritan New England. Providence, R.I.: Brown University Press. 1973. 199 Fig. l. Pine seedling with prileaves, some with fascicles of leaves in their mary Fig. 2. Twig from mature tree showing primary leaves reduced to scales. axils. of the primary leaves a bud grows forward to produce a cluster or fascicle of 1 to 5 leaves (Fig. 1). This fascicle of leaves consists of a rudimentary mass of stem tissue to which the needles are attached at the tip (Fig. 3). At the base of the needles is a series of closely appressed scale-leaves that form the sheath (Fig. 4). In Pinus strobus, the white pine, and species closely related to P. strobus (subgen. STROBUS; syn. sect. Haploxylon) the sheath generally falls away in the first summer (Fig. 3). By contrast, the sheath persists for the life of the fascicle in the hard or yellow pine group (subgen. Pirrus; some syn. sect. Diploxylon). The growing shoot produces at its tip a terminal bud surrounded by a whorl of generally 5 lateral branch buds (Fig. 5). One or more of these buds may be modified to form a young female cone, one evidence that the cone is simply a modified branch (Fig. 5). The young female cone continues its development through the summer of the year it is formed; the branch buds remain dormant until the following spring. The male cones are produced in clusters in the base of the terminal bud, in the same relative positions as the fascicles of leaves. 200 Fig. 3. Fascicles of leaves of the white pine group after the sheath scales have fallen. Fig. 4. Base of fascicle of leaves showing sheathing scales. 201 In all of the white pines the female cones are produced at the tip of the first flush of growth in the spring. If there is a second flush of growth later in the season, the cones will seem to be borne laterally. In some of the hard pines the young female cones are borne laterally (not at the tip) on the first flush of growth (Fig. 6). The young female cones are pollinated in the spring of the year of their formation. They enlarge somewhat during that summer, become dormant in the fall and rapidly enlarge to maturity during the second spring and summer. Generally the cones open at maturity during the fall of the second year and shed their seeds. Some pines (P. rigida and P. sylvestris) produce cones every year. In many species, however, cones are only produced at longer intervals, sometimes only every 5 to 10 years. The seeds may be small and winged, or large and nut-like. In some species the cones do not open at all, or do not open immediately and the seeds consequently are retained for several years or indefinitely. Pines generally produce a tap-root; hence a deep, well-drained (but not necessarily rich) soil suits them best. Their roots are easily injured by drying so, except in seedling stages, they must be moved with a ball of soil. Bushiness in growth may be promoted by removing the terminal buds of the branches, which stimulates the growth of lateral buds. Propagation is generally by seed. Selected clones must be propagated by grafting. Each year, sometime between spring and fall, the oldest needles on the twigs turn brown and fall away. This is a natural phenomenon and not a cause for alarm. The term evergreen simply means that the green leaves of one year are retained on the plant until new leaves are formed the following year. In general, the leaves of pines are retained for two or Leaves on more years according to each individual species. are retained longer vigorously growing young plants usually than those on plants that are growing slowly. Leaves on leading shoots may be retained longer than those on branch twigs. Finally, pines growing in exposed situations, or at the limit of their hardiness, will generally shed their leaves sooner than trees growing under more favorable circumstances. - - Fig. 5. Branch tip showing terminal bud surrounded by lateral branch buds and two female cones. a whorl of three 202 Fig. 6. Female cone in subterminal position on the twig. Fig. 7. Pine needle scale leaves of Pinus mugo. on 203 Key to the Identification of Common Pines in Massachusetts A. AA. B. BB. Sheaths of the needle clusters deciduous Sheaths of the needle clusters persistent Haploxylon (B) Diploxylon (J) edulis C aristata D E C. CC. D. DD. Needles 1 to 4 in a fascicle Needles 5 in a fascicle Needles with conspicuous whitish exudations of rosin, persistent 10 to 12 years Needles without rosin exudate, persistent for less than 10 years Needles drooping on the twigs Needles straight, twisted or curved, but not E. EE. F. FF. drooping Twigs hairy, at 3-5 in. long in. F least when young, needles strobus 5-8 Twigs smooth, without hairs, needles long 1-3 in. long or curved wallichiana -- ____ Needles twisted, parviflora G Needles straight H Needles curved, directed forward G. I GG. Needles straight, more or less spreading Winter terminal buds acute, stomates in H. rows only on the back of each needle albicaulis HH. Winter terminal buds with an elongate tip, stomates in rows on all three sides of flexilis each needle I. Winter terminal buds 1\/4 in. long, the of the scales appressed Winter terminal buds 1\/2-3\/4 in. long, of the scales spreading tips cembra II. tips koraiensis J. JJ. K. KK. Sheaths of the fascicles persistent but reflexed the 1st year, deciduous the 2nd or 3rd year Sheaths of the fascicles persistent for the life of the fascicle aristata K L. LL. M. MM. Twigs 1\/12-1\/8 in. diameter, needles 3\/4-11\/2 in. long Twigs more than 1\/8 in. diameter, needles more than 11\/2 in. long Twigs more than 1\/2 in. diameter, needles 5-10 in. long Twigs more than 1\/2 in. diameter, needles less than 6 in. long Winter buds resinous, tips of bud-scales appressed Winter buds not resinous, tips of budscales free banksiana L M N ponderosa jeffreyi 204 N. NN. O. 00. P. Needles 3 in Needles 2 in a a fascicle fascicle rigida 0 P Needles 4-6 in. long Needles less than 4 in. long Q resinosa PP. Winter buds with the basal scales reflexed, needles slender and flexible, not breaking when bent Winter buds with the scales spreading, needles stout and stiff, breaking when bent nigra mugo R Q. QQ. R. RR. Shrub with ascending branches, 5 years or more needles persistent for Tree, with an erect trunk, needles persis- tent 2 to 3 years Winter buds resinous, bark of upper portion of trunk reddish-brown Winter buds not resinous sylvestris S S. Winter buds chestnut-brown, needles slender, flexible, bark of upper part of trunk densiflora SS. reddish-brown Winter buds whitish, needles stout, stiff thunbergii Young branch tip of P. thunbergii. 205 -Pinus albicaulis White-bark pine Tree to 10 m. (30 ft.) or a shrub at timberline. Twigs stout; bark reddish-brown with scattered stiff hairs. Bark on older branches and trunk broken by narrow fissures into thin, narrow, brown or creamy-white plate-like scales. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 5 to 8 years, 5-7.5 cm. (2-3 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved, densely crowded on the twigs, directed forward. Cones subterminal, ovoid-cylindrical, 3.5-7.5 cm. ( 11\/z-3 in.) long, never opening. Seeds edible. Grows in mountains above 1500 m. (5000 ft.) from SW Alberta and British Columbia south to NW Colorado, NE Nevada and the mountains of east central California. It matures in about 150 to 200 years and is a very slow growing species. Some individuals only 5 feet tall are about 500 years old. There is some doubt as to whether this pine is actually in cultivation here. Young trees (less than 50 years old) are very similar in appearance to Pinus flexilis. The surest identification is by the cones, which do not open in P. albicaulis but do in P. flexilis. We have had reputed P. albicaulis here, but on coning the trees have proved to be P. flexilis. Englemann 206 Pinus aristata Engelmann m. Hickory pine, Bristlecone pine (50 ft.) or a semiprostrate shrub at Twigs reddish-brown, smooth or hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 10 to 12 years, 2-4 cm. ( 3\/4-11\/2 in.) long, stout, stiff, curved, densely crowded on the twigs, directed forward the first year, spreading later, marked with one or more resin droplets. Cones subterminal, cylindric-ovate, 7.5-8.5 cm. ( 3-31\/4 in.) long, each scale with a slender, curved spine to 6 mm. ( 1\/4 in.) long. Grows in mountains above 2300 m. (7,500 ft.) from Colo- Bushy tree to 15 timberline. rado to Arizona and New Mexico. A very slow growing pine with an irregular habit. In the eastern United States it may be only 4 feet high in 16 years. A closely related form, growing in Utah, Nevada and extreme eastern California, has recently been separated as Pinus longaeva. This includes the pines recently heralded as the \"oldest living things.\" The habit of the two species differs in that the branches of P. aristata are spreading or ascending, while the branches of P. longaeva are spreading and pendulous. 207 Pinus banksiana Lambert Jack pine scrubby tree 8-18 m. (25-60 ft.). Twigs slender, greenish-yellow, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting for 2 to 3 years, 2-3.8 cm. ( 3\/4-11\/2 in.) long, stiff, curved or twisted. Cones lateral, bent, conical, 2.5-6 cm. ( 121\/z in.) long, sometimes opening at maturity, sometimes reto Small medium-sized maining closed for several years. Found in well-drained sandy or rocky soil at elevations from 30-400 m. (100-1200 ft.) from Nova Scotia to the Athabasca River southward to Maine and central Michigan. It bears cones at 10 years of age, and practically stops growing at 80 years. Some of the cones remain closed for many years, opening in response to the heat of forest fires and shedding their seed over the burned land. The seedlings are very intolerant of shade. Jack pine will grow on sterile, well-drained, soils. It is not an attractive tree. 208I Swiss stone pine Tree 20-25 m. (60-75 ft.). Twigs densely yellowish-brown, hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persisting 3 to 5 years, 5-12 cm. (2-5 in.) long, straight. Cones ovoid, 5-8 cm. (2-31\/2 in.) long, never opening. Seeds edible. Native to central European Alps from 1200-2400 m. (4,0008,000 ft.) and in the Carpathian mountains. A very hardy, but very slow growing pine, preferring a deep, moderately fertile soil for best growth. In Europe the wood is highly prized for wood carving. It is related to P. sibirica and P. horaiensis. Three plants received in the Arboretum in 1918 are only 20 to 25 feet tall today. Pinus cembra Linnaeus 209 Pinus densiflora Siebold & Zuccarini Japanese red pine Tree 20-36 m. (70-120 ft.). Twigs green, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 2 to 3 years, 5-6 cm. ( 2-21\/2 in.) long, slender, soft, twisted. Cones subterminal, about 3.5 cm. (2 in.) long, slender, soft, twisted. Cones subterminal, about 3.5 cm. (2 in.) long, conic-oblong, opening at maturity. In Japan it ranges from 150-900 m. (500-3,000 ft.). It also occurs in the Chinese provinces of Kiansu and Shantung. The stems tend to be twisted. Like P. sylvestris the branches and upper part of the trunk are covered with thin, exfoliating, orange-brown bark. P. densiflora is intolerant of shade, but grows well on heavy, moist, but not wet, soils. 210 Pinus edulis Engelmann Pinyon pine Short stout tree 4-15 m. (12-50 ft.). Twigs stout, orangebrown, smooth or very minutely hairy. Needles 2 to 3 in a fascicle, persistent for 3 to 9 years, 2.5-4 cm. ( 1-11\/2 in.) long, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, ovate, 2.5-3.5 cm. ( 1-11\/2 in.) long, opening to release the edible seeds. Native to mountains and foothills 1500-2400 m. (5,0009,000 ft.) from S Wyoming and N Colorado south to W Oklahoma, W Texas, and San Bernardino County, California. A dominant component of the juniper-pinyon pine woodland of Utah, Colorado, Arizona and New Mexico. Pinyon nuts were an important food for the Indians of the Southwest. They are still important commercially and are, after pecans, the most important nut crop in the United States. Pinyon pine is extremely slow growing; trees 25 years old may be only 3-4 feet tall. They grow at the rate of only 2-4 inches per year. At the Arnold Arboretum there is a single tree grown from seed received from Utah in 1927. In 48 years it has reached a height of about 10 feet. 211 Pinus flexilis James Limber pine Short stout tree 12-25 m. (40-80 ft.), or a shrub at timberline. Twigs stout, orange-brown, hairy at first. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 5 to 6 years, 3.8-7 cm. ( 11\/2-3 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, subcylindric, 7.5-13 cm. ( 3-5 in.) long, opening at maturity. Native to mountains 1500-3600 m. (5,000-12,000 ft.) from S Alberta and British Columbia south to W Texas and S California. The slow growing trees virtually stop increasing in size at about 200 years of age, but may live to be 400. Young plants are very similar in appearance to P. albicaulis and form a rounded, bushy tree. At the Arnold Arboretum three young grafted plants received in 1951 are now 15 to 20 feet tall. 212 je~reyi A. Murray Jeffrey's pine Tree 30-60 m. (100-200 ft.). Twigs massive; buds nonresinous, with an odor of pineapple when crushed. Needles 3 in a fascicle, persisting for 5 to 9 years, 12-25 cm. (5-10 in.) long, stout, stiff, elastic. Cones broadly oval, 13-30 cm. (5-12 Pinus in.) long, opening at maturity. Occurs in mountains between 1000-3100 m. (3,500-10,000 ft.), in SW Oregon to Baja California, generally at higher elevations than P. ponderosa, which it resembles. This species begins cone formation at 8 years of age. Individual trees fruit at 4- to 8-year intervals. Individuals mature at 150 years and live to 500 years. 213 Pinus koraiensis Siebold & Zuccarini Korean pine (100-150 ft.). Twigs densely growing rusty-brown, hairy. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent for 2 to 5 years, 6-12.5 cm. (21\/2-5 in.) long, straight. Cones subterminal, becoming lateral by the growth of the shoot in the summer, cylindric or conic-oblong, 10-15 cm. (4-7 in.) long, Slow tree 30-45 m. when mature, but so encrusted with pitch that the seeds are retained. Grows on well-drained hillside and mountain slopes ranging from near sea level to 2500 m. (8,000 ft.) in E Russia, Manchuria, Korea and the mountains of central and S Japan. An important timber tree with uses similar to P. strobus. The seeds are edible. Two plants grown from seed received in 1918 are now about 25 feet tall at the Arnold Arboretum. opening 214 Pinus mugo Turra Dwarf mountain pine A shrub with ascending branches to 3.5 m. (11 ft.). Twigs dark greenish-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 5 to 10 years, 2-8 cm. ( 3~4-3 in.) long, stout, crowded on the twigs. Cones subterminal, 2-5 cm. ( 3~4-2 in.) long, conical. Grows on mountains of central and southern Europe. Part of a variable complex of forms that range from prostrate shrubs to erect, single-stemmed trees. The forms in cultivation are useful for mass plantings on slopes and rocky areas, as well as for foundation plantings. 215 Pinus nigra Arnold Black pine, Austrian pine Fast growing yellowish-brown, tree, 36-45 m. (120-150 ft.). Twigs stout, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting about 4 years, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) long, stiff, stout, straight or curved. Cones subterminal, 5-8 cm. (2-3 in.) long, ovoid- conic, opening at maturity. It is native to SE Europe. as a Widely planted windbreak, it is tolerant of poor and heavy snow, also salt spray, but is damaged by atmospheric pollutants. Although the stem is usually straight, it is so full of knots that it is useless for timber. alkaline soils. It survives wind and 216 I parviflora Siebold & Zuccarini Japanese white pine Tree 6-15 m. (20-50 ft.). Twigs slender, grayish, with minute scattered hairs. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent for 2 to 5 years, 2-7.5 cm. ( 3~4-3 in.) long, slender, curved and twisted. Cones subterminal, ovoid or oblong-ovoid, 5-10 cm. (2-4 in.) long, opening when mature. Grows on elevations of from 60-2500 m. (200-8,000 ft.) Pinus throughout Japan. In cultivation this is a relatively short, spreading tree, and may be recognized by its sometimes tufted needle clusters and small cones which are borne even on young trees. It is much used in Japan as a subject for Bonsai. 217 Pinus ponderosa Douglas ex pine, Ponderosoa pine Tree 45-70 m. (150-230 ft.). Twigs stout, orange-brown, smooth; buds resinous, with an odor of turpentine when crushed. Needles 2 to 5, usually 3, in a fascicle, persistent about 3 years, 12-26 cm. (5-10 in.) long, stout, rigid, curved. Cones subterminal, 8-15 cm. (31\/2-6 in.) long, ovoid-oblong, Lawson Western yellow opening at maturity. Grows at altitudes ranging from sea level to 3350 m. (10,000 ft.), from SW Oregon and NW California to North and South Dakota, Nebraska, and extreme W Oklahoma, and from British Columbia south to central Mexico. Ponderosa pine was first recorded by Lewis and Clarke, who saw it on the upper Missouri River in 1804. It is very sensitive to air pollutants. 218 Pinus resinosa Aiton Red pine (70-120 ft.). Twigs stout, orange-brown, a fascicle, persisting 4 to 5 years, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) long, slender, flexible. Cones subterminal, ovoidconic, 5-6 cm. ( 2-21\/2 in.) long, opening at maturity. Tree, m. 21-36 smooth. Needles 2 in Grows from Nova Scotia to the valley of the Winnipeg River, south to Pennsylvania. Red pine is a valuable timber tree. It grows more rapidly than white pine, but is less tolerant of shade. It is resistant to salt spray, but suffers breakage from ice, and is sensitive to air pollutants. 219 Pinus Pitch pine rigida P. Miller Tree, 15-18 m. (50-60 ft.). Twigs stoutish, green, becoming smooth. Needles 3 in a fascicle, persistent 2 7.5-12 cm. (3-5 in.), stout, rigid, slightly curved and years, twisted. Cones lateral, ovoid, 2.5-9 cm. ( 1-31\/2 in.). Occurs in poor, sandy or rocky soils, Maine to SE Ontario, south to N Georgia and E Tennessee. Remarkable for the adventitious buds on stems and branches that produce short, scrubby, branches. Unique in its ability to sprout from cut or burned stumps. It was widely planted on Cape Cod in the 1840s and 1850s on abandoned farm land. These plantations were the basis for the extensive pine woodlands there now. brownish-orange, 220 Pinus strobus Linnaeus pine (80-150 ft.). Twigs thin, greenish, hairy at first. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persistent 2 to 21\/2 years, 7.5-10 cm. (3-4 in.) long, slender, soft, drooping. Cones subterminal, cylindrical, curved, 10-15 cm. (4-6 in.) A fast White growing tree 24.5-45 m. resinous. Common tree of second growth ranging from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia. It grows best on moist, well-drained, sandy soil; is easily transplanted, and unlike many other pines may be sheared. It is the largest growing native conifer east of the Mississippi. Old growth trees found in early colonial times were up to 6 feet in diameter at the butt. Subject to snow and ice breakage, P. strobus survives temperatures to 94 below 0 F. It is very sensitive to salt damage. The wood is white to light brown. It is used for boxes and crates; for patterns, millwork, building construction and matches. Wood from trees less than 50 years old is usually so full of knots that it can be used for nothing save crates and long, knotty pine panelling. 221 Scots pine sylvestris Linnaeus Tree, 20-30 m. (70-100 ft.). Twigs slender, orange-brown, smooth. Needles 2 in a fascicle, persistent 2 to 3 years, 2.5-10 cm. ( 1-4 in.) long, stiff and twisted. Cones subterminal, ovoidconic, 2.5-7.5 ( 1-3 in.) long, opening at maturity. Pinus Occurs in north and central Europe, extending south in the mountains to Spain, N Italy, and Macedonia, eastward in N Asia to the Pacific coast of Siberia. Widely grown and valued for timber in Europe, where it has a long history of use. The forms that have been commonly cultivated in this country have not made straight trunks and have been short-lived. Requires a well-drained soil and sometimes self-sows. It is more or less tolerant of salt spray, ice, drought, and wind, but less so than P. nigra. P. sylvestris and P. densiflora are unique in having thin, redbrown, scaling bark on the upper parts of the trees. 222I Pinus thunbergii Parlatore Japanese black pine 30-36 m. (100-120 ft.). Twigs light brown, smooth. Tree, Needles 2 in a fascicle, persisting 2 to 3 years, densely crowded the twigs, 6-11 cm. (21\/2-41\/2 in.) Cones terminal, ovoid, 4-6 cm. ( 13\/4-21\/2 on long, rigid, twisted. at in.) long, opening maturity. S Occurs in coasts and lowlands of the islands of central and Japan, and the coast of S Korea, sea level to 950 m. (3,100 ft.). A common plant that has been extensively used for Bonsai. 223 Bhutan pine Jackson or greenishTree 15-45 m. (50-150 ft.). Twigs greenish brown, smooth. Needles 5 in a fascicle, persisting 3 to 4 years, 12.5-20 cm. (5-8 in.) long, slender, drooping. Cones subterminal, cylindrical, 15-30 cm. (6-12 in.) long, resinous, Pinus wallichiana A. B. opening Grows in at maturity. mountains from 1600-3200 to m. on (6,000-12,000 ft.) timber tree and a source of rosin and turpentine. It is fast growing, but in cultivation has a tendency to branch near the base, forming a bushy tree. In Boston it has been damaged by winter cold and severe winds. It is reputed to be resistant to atmospheric pollution, and to white pine blister rust, but is susceptible to white pine weevil which damages the buds and deforms the stems. Afghanistan An important Nepal. # M H M W P-4 H U W [J) z ~2014~ d O x .a 9 ~ b N '\" ~ U vi ro 0 U p ci 'm ro a, . ~o ;:10 . ..c::o . Cd N t~a Fi = os S '\" H m N H yU' WC O 41 o~ ;:I m O U a O .Li : CJ ~ m Ud~ o .,`~, O m os Ca t ro.....-*~) ... os S g~ a CJ 'E '\" In '\" to- ~ 3 ~ . : '\" = W .H U ie oNw X > xos ~a ... gos 'a~ o U~0 : V 0 ~ ,n d o~ ]lJ GO~ pPa Po. * M <: M ~ ..... r. M g (1) M s oj o Q~ (1) ro a N ~CJ Uo v~ o au ro ~; ~fio ~' as U ~; ~ m ~~ ~! 8 ro M j # J m .C m m HH~N m 4, a~ mm 0 o ro ~ # M o ,% 2N '\" N -< a~ R Uo a~ 'fl QJ V ~ m w cd (\/~ N ~1 cu C7 . a\"~ b~ d~ 0~ q o ro '~ m ~;x!&# 3C;! NW q r~ .,~, nH > t< N ia o .~ o U y dk E~ o d) z ~ ~p ~ ~ro ~r1, x a c .0 p< Cd 0 0 a~ N M ~x m ~ 0 p~ ~' ro ~ E M 'U m fl 0 # (J1 229 Garden planting of Vaccinium vilisidaea minus. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs","article_sequence":2,"start_page":230,"end_page":237,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24657","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060bb6b.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":5,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reynolds, Margo W.","article_content":"Dwarf Fruiting Shrubs by MARGO W. REYNOLDS ... To the average gardener the chief attraction of any shrub is usually its flowers: the bigger the better, and if it's bright and showy, too well, that's just an added plus. Connoisseurs and those familiar with plants know better and recognize the flaws in this kind of thinking. They realize that although flowers are often the most conspicuous feature of a plant, many shrubs - dividends. All too often they are consideration or overlooked entirely relegated secondary when one is selecting materials for home planting. Yet many shrubs are more highly prized for their fruits than they are for their flowers. Bittersweet is one colorful example, and there are many, many more that will provide year-round interest in extra offer a great deal more. Fruits are one of the to a display garden. A boon to the homeowner with a small piece of property are fruited shrubs that are both small in size and easy to maintain. Dwarf shrubs, evergreen and deciduous alike, that either by habit or occasional pruning can be kept to three feet or below, have an infinite number of uses in today's small gardens. Classified as shrubs by virtue of their woody stems, they fulfill a multitude of purposes in the contemporary landscape. Some form dense, spreading mats and act as soil binders on eroding slopes or banks, as well as ground covers where grass is difficult to establish. Others highlight certain areas of the rock garden or serve as attractive specimen plants in the overall garden scheme. Because of their compact, slow-growing habit, these dwarf shrubs are easy to maintain and remain in scale with the settings for which they were planned. Most conspicuous among fruiting shrubs are those with red and yellow fruits, and foremost in this category are the viburnums, cotoneasters and barberries. Although there are fewer ornamentally attractive ones, white-fruited shrubs provide their share of color also. Dark blue and black-fruited shrubs are generally the least striking from a color standpoint, but there attractively 230 I 231 are several which do merit more than passing attention. I have included them in the recommended list that follows although they probably should not be given preference over plants with more vivid coloration when space is very limited. Before listing some of the more spectacular fruiting shrubs, it might be worth just a moment to stop and discuss some of the factors that affect fruit development and insure maximum coloration. Fruiting, in general, is enormously dependent upon both weather and soil conditions. Temperature, rainfall and amount of sunshine all are pertinent. Frost, too, plays an important part. In some instances it serves to hasten development, while in others it merely causes the fruit to brown and drop off prematurely. Long periods of rainy, overcast weather often have a deleterious effect upon fruit ripening. Protracted periods of sunshine and warmth, on the contrary, will cause fruits to ripen and color more quickly. To the same degree, soil composition is a factor. Poor, dry soil often retards development, whereas the same plant growing in moist, well-drained soil will develop normally and fruit without problem. The addition of nitrogen and phosphorous to the soil of some plants often results in better coloration. Red-fruited Dwarf Shrubs Cotoneasters. As a group, cotoneasters are a reliable and ornamental addition to almost any garden. They run the gamut from evergreen to semi-evergreen to deciduous, and vary in height from prostrate ground covers to 18-foot specimens. The flowers of this plant group are fairly inconspicuous and the primary ornamental value lies in their brightly colored berries, seldom more than 1\/4-inch in diameter. Several species can be grouped in the low-growing category with which we are concerned. Among the best are Cotoneaster horizontalis and C. ~m,icrophylla. C. horizontalis, commonly known as rock spray or rock cotoneaster, is semi-evergreen and attains a height of 18 to 24 inches. Probably the best known and most widely planted cotoneaster, this neat, rugged little plant can be used with equal facility in the rock garden, as a foundation planting, as an edging for the shrub border, or as a ground cover on steep banks. It has an interesting cascading habit, which makes it especially suitable for these kinds of plantings. The fruit is a pea-sized berry produced in abundance that persists well into December. 232 I Cotoneaster horizontalis. Cotoneaster microphylla, a low, evergreen shrub commonly called small-leaved cotoneaster, attains a height of 2 to 3 feet and is an excellent specimen plant for the rock garden. It, too, has persistent small berries. C. thymifolia, a variety of C. microphylla, should also be mentioned here. It has the smallest leaves of any cotoneaster (1\/8 to 3\/8 inches) and it is a good small specimen plant for a special area of the rock garden. Viburnums. Most viburnums are rather tall and somewhat coarse for specimen plantings, but their fruits are often spec- I 233 tacular. For this reason it is particularly gratifying to know that there is a small viburnum suitable for rock garden planting. The berries, too, are every bit as showy as they are on some of the larger viburnums. The plant to which I refer is Viburnum opulus 'Compactum', a dwarf form of the European cranberrybush. Although its eventual height is 5 feet, it is a slow grower and periodic pruning will keep it small This particular variety blooms freely and then produces red berries in great profusion. These fruits have the added plus of persisting throughout the winter. Again, unlike most viburnums, V. opulus 'Compactum' is both dainty and compact, assuring it a place of distinction in the small garden. Vacciniums. The mountain cranberry or mountain cowberry, as it is sometimes called, has the Latin name of Vaccinium vitis-idaea var. minus and is a close relative of the blueberry. Vaccinium vitis-idaea. Photo. P. Chaany. 234I Although not quite as ornamental as the above-mentioned plants, it definitely has a place in naturalistic landscaping provided its requirements for cool shade and moisture are met. It cannot tolerate hot, dry summers, but withstands severe northern winters with ease. The mountain cranberry, which reaches a maximum height of only 4 to 8 feet, is often difficult to establish and one should be forewarned. It is best started in spring from potted plants set out in sandy, acid (pH 5.0) soil. out this because I like the sound of its name, or whether I have other reasons! In this particular case, there is no denying that this diminutive shrub has great value as a fruiting ground cover plant. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (bearberry) is certainly worth more than just passing note. Evergreen, with scarlet berries and prostrate, creeping habit, bearberry is well-adapted for growing in poor, dry sandy soils. Increasingly it is being used along highways and sandy bank areas where little else will grow. In the home garden it is of enormous value in the rockery or as a ground cover. Happily, it is nearly maintenance-free as well. Arctostaphylos. I often wonder whether I always single plant Blue-fruited Dwarf Shrubs are many and varied. Among the first to come to my mind is the versatile bayberry (Myrica pensylvanica) with its small greyishblue fruit. Growing wild throughout its range from Newfoundland to North Carolina, the bayberry is found predominantly in sandy soil along the coast. Because it also prefers full sun, it is a natural choice for seaside gardens and exposed, dry hillsides. An attractive twig habit, aromatic, semi-evergreen leaves and persistent grey-blue berries all contribute to the ornamental value of this shrub. Although plants are known to grow 8 feet tall, they seldom attain more than 3 to 4 feet and can be kept small and vigorous by occasional heavy pruning of old clumps. It is necessary, however, to plant both male and female plants together in order to insure fruiting, as the sexes are usually Bayberry. Blue-berried shrubs with ornamental appeal separate. Holly-grape. Two species of Mahonia, the Oregon holly-grape, lend themselves to planting for their fruits alone, although their 235 and flowers are equally noteworthy. The larger of the Mahonia aquifolium which generally grows to about 3 feet. The bright yellow flowers are followed by grape-like clusters of blue-black berries in the fall. The lustrous semi-evergreen to evergreen foliage turns a most attractive purplishbronze in the autumn. Mahonia repens is similar in every way to the above except that it is smaller (10 inches) and its foliage is slightly less lustrous. Planting in the shade seems to protect these plants from the winter burn to which they are susceptible if grown in the sun. Maintenance is at a minimum, for severe winter weather keeps these superior ornamentals low; occasional pruning will keep them dense and vigorous. foliage two is White-fruited Dwarf Shrubs _ Dogwood. White-fruited shrubs are probably best represented by Cornus sericea stolonifera 'Kelseyi'. This dwarf form of and so is an exthe edge of the plant shrub border. Although better known for its vivid red twigs which show to best advantage against a new-fallen snow, its white fruits have their own merits against the red twigs. This particular native shrub seems to grow well under most conditions, though it prefers to be somewhat moist. C. sericea rarely exceeds 24 inches in coarse, height cellent, though slightly to use at - purplish fruit group. ornamental value are the particular coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus) and the Chilean pernettya (Pernettya mucronata). The latter is an excellent specimen and probably one of the best-fruiting small shrubs available. An evergreen with lustrous dark foliage, the pernettya produces fruit in great profusion. Varieties run the gamut from white through pink to a lovely deep purple. Pernettya's mature height is 11\/2 feet, so it makes an attractive specimen at the edge of the shrub border or in the rock garden as an accent plant, provided it is growing in an acid soil. Full sun will keep it neat and compact; shade tends to cause untidy, open growth. Like many other shrubs this requires two strains or varieties, growing in close proximity, to insure fertilization and subsequent fruiting. It should be noted here that unlike the other shrubs mentioned, pernettya is only hardy as far north as central Connecticut and Cape Cod. we come From red, white and blue shrubs of to the Here, two dwarf 236 237 Top left: Symphoricarpos orbiculatus. Lower left: Close-up of its fruit. Cornus sericea stolonifera 'Kelseyi.' Coralberry and Indian currant are two of the names under which the native Symphoricarpos orbiculatus masquerades. A widely planted ornamental, coralberry's flowers are of secondary importance to the spectacular purplish-red fruits that decorate the gracefully arching branches in the fall. At 3 feet it most definitely fits into our dwarf shrub classification. Its greatest value, perhaps, is that it adapts readily to nearly any soil and grows equally well in sun or shade. Because it suckers freely, it is best used as a soil binder for slope planting. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":238,"end_page":240,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24655","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060b76d.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":5,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews The Complete Flower Arranger. Amalie Adler Ascher. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1974. 288 pages, illustrated. $9.95. The dust jacket tells us that Mrs. Ascher began flower arranging as a pastime and has pursued her interest in the subject to become a nationally successful exhibitor, teacher, and judge. She also conducts a TV series and writes articles for various publications. She shares the wealth of knowledge gained from this profession in a very comprehensive book that covers every possible aspect of arranging. It explains the basics of color and design, simplifies the tiresome mechanics, gives advice on accessories and how to keep the finished design fresh for days. All the traditional styles and materials are discussed, but also accorded full chapters are the subjects of lighting, flower show competition, and the increasingly popular modern styles. These give the book a very complete and up-to-the-minute outlook. To conclude, there is a chapter of ideas for the flower arranger's garden. Using her own as a guide, Mrs. Ascher suggests plants to provide a year-round selection of interesting flowers and foliage. Each chapter is well illustrated with appropriate black and white photographs of the author's arrangements. There are two groups of color plates that include, as well as numerous other modern concoctions, the design for which she won a \"flower arranger of the year\" award. Whether you are interested in competition or require only that the daylilies stay open for a dinner party, this is definitely a book to consider adding to your collection. SHEILA MAGULLION Genetic Resources in Plants. O. H. Frankel and E. Bennett, editors. Philadelphia: F. A. Davis Company. 1970. 554 pages. $17.50. Conference reports can be deadly documents to read. The present volume, which is based upon a conference held under FAO sponsorship in 1967, is a very mixed bag. Many of the general papers in the first section of the book contain little that is new and much that is of questionable relevance to the sub238 239 ject. However, there intensely interesting. The themes that is much in the balance of the book that is run the book seem to be: 1) in cultivated under \"primitive\" condigeneral any given crop, tions, contains a relatively large sample of the available germ plasm of the species. 2) individual crops, as cultivated in the \"developed\" countries, are based on a dangerously small sample of the available germ plasm of the species. 3) the replacement of indigenous varieties of crops in the \"underdeveloped\" nations by cultivars produced in or by the \"developed\" nations is causing a serious loss of germ plasm. 4) some practical way must be found to preserve the germ plasma of \"primitive\" forms of crops. The chapters on the various aspects of plant exploration are perhaps the most exciting reading. The chapters on the individual crops give a good view of contemporary problems. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. through as You Can Grow. Rob Herwig. New York: 61 pages, paperback. $1.75. Nothing Grows for You? Frances Tenenbaum. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1974. 118 pages, illustrated. $6.95. 128 More Houseplants 1974. Collier Books. value of these two books on houseplants is in inproportion to their price. Rob Herwig has presented his 128 plants in a well-organized and well-photographed booklet. His symbol code for the growing requirements of each plant is most helpful. The plants depicted were chosen by Dr. Donald Wyman, and are, therefore, an interesting group. It should be noted that many of them require greenhouse culture for their survival when not in the true verse The house In archness in presentation, which seems many people when writing about plants, this is a useful and attractive book at a reasonable price. Nothing Grows for You ?, costing almost four times as much as Mr. Herwig's volume, is rambling, verbose, and written in a painfully coy and folksy style. Except for some very basic suggestions as to how to treat various ordinary houseplants, the advice to the reader consists mainly of exhortations to throw away any plant that seems ailing or difficult to grow. The illustrations range from barely recognizable and botanically incorrect line drawings of common houseplants to depictions of pots of ivy, each leaf with a smiling or weeping face. They have no horticultural or aesthetic merit. to overcome display. spite of a certain on 240 Mrs. Tenenbaum mentions in her preface that there are \"loads\" of books on houseplants. The novice would do well to consult other authority than hers. CORA L. WARREN Lake Tahoe Wildflowers. Kenneth Legg. Healdsburg, Calif.: Naturegraph Publishers. 1970. 96 pages, illustrated. $2.25. This is a \"mini-volume\" pocket guide written by a naturalist who has evolved into an ecologist. The wildflowers are arranged in color categories and each is identified by popular and botanical name and depicted by a full page in color from original watercolors. The editorial style is charming, informal, and chatty without being irritating. The pictures accurately represent the plants. The work is intended as a companion on a nature walk rather than as a scientific tool. Viewed in this light, it agreeably fulfills its purpose. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE Leaves City Trees. Edward Gallob. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1972. 64 pages, illustrated. $6.50. The format consists entirely of large black and white pictures with text. Author's photographs show trees in real city settings: flanking playgrounds, street parking areas and various architectural backgrounds. There are also some excellent photograms, or black and white prints, made directly from leaves, and a very simple key-like introduction. The trees pictured and described are in the northern segment of the United States, east of the Mississippi. This work apparently is intended for the novice and is suitable for the teens on. It does not \"talk down\" to the reader, but the editorial style is pleasantly simple and unaffected; there is even humor. Popular plant names are used. The photographs have human interest and feeling. The plant details are good and flowers and fruits are sometimes included. This volume could well develop further an uninformed curiosity by supplying the tool of basic recognition, building a feeling of mastery, and arousing and sustaining interest. Highly recommended. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE City _ ___ __ _ Lonicera korolkowii 'aurora' Photo: P. Chvany. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23379","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eaf6e.jpg","title":"1975-35-5","volume":35,"issue_number":5,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Stewartias- Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons","article_sequence":1,"start_page":165,"end_page":180,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24653","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060b36f.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":4,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.; Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Stewartias - Small Trees and Shrubs for All Seasons by STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG and ALFRED J. FORDHAM some of the most interesting and unusual small trees and shrubs available for use in ornamental plantings are the deciduous species of the genus Stewartia. And although the horticultural merits of these plants have occasionally been extolled, we feel justified in bringing them to your attention again, particularly since a new species, already in cultivation at the Arnold Arboretum, has recently been discovered and named. Moreover, the methods given below of propagation of Stewartias from seed and cuttings will hopefully encourage growers to increase the numbers of these pest-free plants so that they can receive the widespread use and popularity we feel they deserve. Stewartia is a member of the tea family, the Theaceae, and plants of the genus are easily recognized in our cultivated flora by their numerous creamy white flowers that are produced individually on short to long pedicels in the axils of the leaves. The small, sometimes bushy trees or shrubs have alternate, simple, dark green leaves that lack stipules; the leaf margins are serrated or toothed, and the under surfaces are often finely pubescent when young. In the Boston area Stewartias bloom during late June and early July, a period when most of the springflowering woody ornamentals have past. The flowers are produced on the current season's growth, and the flower buds, enveloped by the calyx and subtended by one or usually two floral bracts, are evident early in spring as the leaves expand. The calyx is comprised of five sepals that are usually similar in size and shape to the floral bracts, and in some species both are conspicuously foliaceous. The five (or sometimes up to eight) petals of Stewartia flowers are essentially scallop-shaped in outline and form and are silky pubescent on their outer surfaces ; in one species the petals are flushed with red on the outer surface near the base. The stamens are numerous, and the filaments are united to one another towards the base where they Certainly 165 166 are usually attached flowering, the petals to the base of the petals as well. After and stamens fall to the ground still at- tached to one another. The flowers of Stewartias are similar in size, general structure, and appearance to a single Camellia flower. This fact is not surprising since these two genera, along with Franklinia and Gordonia, belong to the same subfamily of the Theaceae. A key to these genera and other genera of Theaceae in cultivation has been published previously in Arnoldia (17: 1-12. 1957) in an interesting and informative article by Dr. C. E. Wood, Jr. Equally intriguing as the flowers, the relatively large fruits are rounded or conical, usually five-ribbed, woody capsules that are tapered at their upper ends into beaklike projections. The capsules develop from the superior, compound ovaries found at the center of the flowers. When in bloom, the ovaries of the flowers are usually hidden from view by the numerous stamens. Green at first and subtended by the persistent sepals and floral bracts, the capsules gradually assume a rich, light or dark brown color at maturity when they open to disclose the seeds in five internal locules or compartments. The capsules of most species remain on the branches during the winter months, providing an attractive accent to the delicate tracery of the branches. But perhaps the most notable aspect of several species during the winter months is the fact that, once the colorful fall foliage drops, the bark of trunks and limbs is exposed to full view. Four of the deciduous species develop smooth, mottled bark, and on larger trunks and branches soft fawn, silvery or pinkish-brown, or buff colored areas alternate in irregular patterns with one another or with darker cinnamon or reddish-brown areas. The beautiful bark colors and patterns alone are reasons enough to plant these species of Stewartia. As it is now understood, the genus Stewartia consists of both evergreen and deciduous species, although the latter are by far the most familiar horticultural subjects. Only one evergreen species, Stewartia pteropetiolata Cheng, is known to be cultivated in western gardens, and we have documentation of its cultivation in southern California and in England. While the exact number of evergreen species (sometimes grouped as comprising the separate genus Hartia) remains indef.nite (probably Flg. 1. Close-up photograph of the mottled bark pattern developed trunks of Stewartia on the pseudocamellia. Photo: P. Bruns 167 168 exceeding eight or nine), seven deciduous species and one hybrid are currently recognized, and all have been introduced not into cultivation (see G. P. DeWolf, Jr., The introduction of our hardy Stewartias. Arnoldia 29: 41-48. 1969). All of the evergreen species and five of the deciduous species are native to eastern Asia, but the two additional deciduous species occur naturally in the southeastern United States. Thus, Stewartia exhibits one of the fascinating distribution patterns that illustrates the floristic relationships between eastern North America and eastern Asia. The first plants of Stewartia on record were found in Virginia by the Reverend Mr. John Clayton in about 1687. The plants Clayton described and distinguished from the dogwood (Cornus florida L.) were from a population near Williamsburg on Archer's Hope Creek; that population is still in existence today. Fifty-five years after the Reverend Mr. Clayton had discovered these plants, Mark Catesby, the English traveler and naturalist, received a new shrub for his garden at Fulham, England, from another John Clayton, an English naturalist in Virginia. The plants flowered in May of 1742, and it is suspected that Catesby, recognizing their ornamental value and botanical interest, gave plants of the new shrub to John Stuart, the third Earl of Bute, for the botanical garden he was helping to establish at Kew. In addition to his gift of living plants to Catesby, the younger Clayton also sent dried herbarium specimens of the shrub to Gronovius, a Dutch botamst who forwarded one to Lmnaeus. The name Stewartia (sometimes incorrectly spelled Stuartia), honoring John Stuart, was given to the new genus and first published by Linnaeus in 1746. An interesting and ironic historic note to the dual discovery of Stewartia by the two John Claytons lies in the fact that both men had discovered different species of the genus. All of the subsequently discovered species of Stewartia have been found in eastern Asia, and like several other ornamental genera with eastern Asiatic and eastern American distributions, certain Asiatic Stewartias are the most commonly cultivated ones in western gardens. However the following key, based primarily on floral and fruit characters, will serve to distinguish between all the deciduous species, American and Asiatic. Following the key are notes on the individual species and the one hybrid, an account of the rather unexpected discovery of S. rostrata from within the Arboretum's collection, and in conclusion, notes on the propagation of Stewartias. 169 KEY 1. 1. TO THE DECIDUOUS SPECIES OF STEWARTIA the lateral S. ovata. Styles 5, distinct, petioles widely winged, enclosing and terminal buds, floral bract 1. Styles united, terminating in 5 or 6 petioles narrowly winged, buds; floral bracts 2. 2. not stigmatic crests or arms; enclosing the lateral and terminal 2. 2. Stamens with purplish filaments and bluish anthers, capsules dehiscent by the outward folding of the valve margins, the apices of the valves ~ coherent; seeds angular. S. malacodendron. Stamens with whitish filaments and yellow or orange anthers; capsules apically dehiscent, the valves spreading apart from 3. the apex, seeds planoconvex. 3. Floral bracts about equalling or longer than the calyx; small or large trees or shrubs with smooth or fissured bark, young branches usually terete, not zigzagged. 4. 4. Ovaries and\/or capsules subglobose, completely 5. glabrous or pubescent only at the very base. 5. Ovaries and\/or capsules completely glabrous; 2 ovules or seeds per locule; bark on older branches smooth and mottled. S. serrata. 5. Ovaries and\/or capsules pubescent only at the very base; 4 ovules or seeds per locule; bark on older branches finely fissured. S. rostrata. 4. Ovaries and\/or capsules conical, pilose or appressed 6. pubescent over the entire surface. 6. Sepals oblong or ovate with acute apices. 7. 7. Floral bracts ovate, subequal to the sepals; styles 6-8 mm. long; seeds 7-9 mm. long. S. sinensis. 7. Floral bracts oblong, conspicuously longer than the sepals; styles 3-4 mm. long; seeds S. monadelpha. 5-6 mm. long. 6. Sepals ovoid with rounded, ciliate apices. S. X henryae. 3. Floral bracts conspicuously shorter than the calyx, small trees with smooth, mottled bark; young branches usually compressed and zigzagged, rarely terete. S. pseudocamellia. . . .................................. Stewartia ovata (Cavanilles) Weatherby Stewartia pentagyna L'Heritier Mountain Stewartia Stewartia ovata occurs naturally in the mountains and on the adjacent Piedmont of North and South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Kentucky, and Tennessee. It is also known from two isolated stations on the Virginia Coastal Plain in the vicinity of Williamsburg, and it was at one of these localities that the species was first discovered by the Reverend Mr. John Clayton. 170 Fig. 2. Stewartia. a-e, S. rostrata: a, dormant winter buds, X 2; b, floral bract, X 2; c, ovary and style X 2, note pubescence only at the base of the ovary; d, dehisced capsule with persistent floral bracts and 1 1\/2; e, seed, X 4. f-j, S. sinensis: f, dormant winter sepals X floral bract, X 2; h, pubescent ovary and style, X 2; i, dehisced capsule with persistent floral bracts and sepals, X 11\/2; j, seed, X 4. k-o, S. monadelpha: k, floral bract, X 2; 1, stamens, X 2; m, pubescent ovary and style, X 2; n, dehisced capsule with persistent floral bracts and sepals, X 1 1 \/2; o, seed, X 4. Illustrations by Virginia Savage. g, bud, X 2; 171 This species is easily distinguished from other Stewartias by the single floral bract that subtends each of its flowers and by its five distinct styles. The flowers, about 21\/2 inches in diameter, are among the largest produced by any Stewartia, and f. grandiflora (Bean) Kobuski, a form that occurs sporadically throughout the natural range, is of particular horticultural interest due to its slightly larger flowers (up to 31\/2 inches across) with five to eight petals. In addition, the stamen filaments in f. grandiflora may be purplish rather than the usual white or yellowish color. At the Arnold Arboretum, one plant of f. grandiflora, which came originally from Highlands, North Carolina, produces flowers with both purplish and yellowish stamen filaments. Although the bark of Stewartia ovata does not exfoliate to produce a smooth, mottled pattern, the plants develop into small bushy trees or shrubs to about 18 feet in height. And despite its natural southern range, the species and f. grandiflora are hardy as far north as the Boston region. Stewartia malacodendron Linnaeus Stewartia virginica Cavanilles Silky Stewartia Native to the Coastal Plain and Piedmont of the Southeastern United States from Virginia south to northern Florida and west to Arkansas and eastern Texas, Stewartia malacodendron is the species that John Clayton, the naturalist, discovered growing in Virginia. While the Silky Stewartia is rather infrequently encountered in cultivation, it produces, in our opinion, the most beautiful of all Stewartia flowers. The five large white petals form a contrasting, saucer-shaped background, 3 to 31\/2 inches across, for the erect boss of stamens that are entirely purplishblue. The color of the stamens alone is sufficient to identify the species when they are in flower. Unlike the other species of the genus, the reddish-brown capsules of S. malacodendron open along the sides rather than from the apex. Furthermore, the seeds are a dark, shining, reddish-brown color and are unwinged and angular in outline. Other Stewartias produce more or less flat, narrowly winged, pale brown seeds. Although we have attempted to grow Stewartia malacodendron several times at the Arnold Arboretum, it has not proved hardy. However, the plants, which develop into large, albeit rather spindly shrubs or small trees to about 20 feet, have been successfully grown as far north as Long Island. 172 Stewartia serrata Maximowicz Including Stewartia epitricha Nakai haps the gardens. With the exception of Stewartia X henryae, S. serrata is perleast frequently encountered Stewartia in American Native to Japan, where it inhabits mountainous regions of Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu Islands, it is represented in our herbarium of cultivated plants by only a few collections. It is, however, known to be hardy as far north as Connecticut. A small tree with horizontal branches and smooth, reddishbrown, mottled bark, Stewartia serrata will be recognized by its petals that are flushed with red near the base on the outer surfaces, as well as by its completely glabrous ovaries. The capsules, like the ovaries, are completely devoid of hairs and are strongly five-ribbed; two seeds are produced in each locule. In England, where it is apparently more commonly cultivated, S. serrata is reported to begin flowering before the other species in early June. Stewartia rostrata Spongberg In 1939, the Arnold Arboretum received seed of a Stewartia from the Lu Shan Arboretum in Kiukiang, China, under the name S. sinensis, a species Alfred Rehder and E. H. Wilson had described in 1915. Subsequently, one plant grown from that SPPIj-~tlY was ll~antarl in the Cto~ynrtin collection ~n R4~yj' Hill in the Arboretum. Only recently, however, did the name and identity of our plant come into question. As one of us was checking the identities of our living specimens, this plant did not seem to correspond to the published descriptions of S. sinensis. On consulting Dr. G. P. DeWolf, Jr., and Mr. R. S. Hebb of the Arboretum staff, it was found that they, too, were aware that something was strange about our plant labeled Stewartia sinensis. Mr. Hebb's recollection of S. sinensis grown at Kew in England was of an upright tree with reddish-brown, exfoliating, smooth, mottled bark. Our Arboretum plant, now 38 years old, is a small bushy tree with several limbs from near the base and with tight, non-exfoliating, finely fissured gray bark. As a result of these contradictions, further study was undertaken in the herbarium and library. Examination of the holotype specimen of Stewartia sinensis, a specimen collected in eastern Hunan Province, China, by Wilson in 1901, showed that Mr. Hebb's memory had served him well. The specimen represents a species with smooth, exfoliating bark; furthermore, --- 173 Fig. 3. Flowering branch of S. rostrata, the species recently described new, growing tn the Arboretum collections. Photo. P. Bruns as the ovaries in the center of the flowers are finely pubescent. The ovaries from flowers of the Arboretum tree have hairs only at the very base. Other herbarium specimens that Rehder and Wilson had annotated as Stewartia sinensis included some plants that agreed in bark and flower characters with the holotype specimen. Additional specimens, however, appeared to represent the same species as the Arboretum tree on Bussey Hill. Further study revealed other differences between the two species, differences that are most readily observed when the plants are in fruit. Once it was determined that the Bussey Hill plant was not Stewartia sinensis, the question remained whether it belonged to another species already described, or if it were, indeed, a new undescribed species. In an attempt to answer this question, the taxonomy of the entire genus was reviewed (see the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 55: 182-214. 1974), and all of the published names and as many type specimens as possible were examined. During this process, S. gemmata, a name by which several of our living plants were known, also became suspect. 174 On checking type herbarium specimens of this name it was discovered that Chien and Cheng, the Chinese botanists who had published S. gemmata, had redescribed S. sinensis. Chien and Cheng had obviously realized that two species were passing under the name S. sinensis, but in an attempt to remedy this situation they chose to give the name S. gemmata to the species Rehder and Wilson had described and named in 1915. This aspect of the confusion, incidentally, points out the great value of type herbarium specimens in determining the correct application of botanical names. Had Chien and Cheng studied the type of S. sinensis, they, too, would have realized that the species that lacked a name was the tree with non-exfoliating bark and flowers with the ovaries pubescent only at the very base. The name S. rostrata has been proposed for this new species because of its distinctive rostrate or beaked, five-ribbed capsules that remain on the branches over winter and sometimes into a second or third growing season. It is of note that Stewartia rostrata is the only deciduous Asiatic species that, like the two American species, has tight, non-exfoliating fissured bark. And herbarium data indicate that it is apparently confined in nature to mountainous regions of Chekiang, Kiangsi, and eastern Hunan Provinces in China. In cultivation, it is included in the collections of the Bames and Morris Arboreta and at Longwood Gardens, as well as at the Arnold Arboretum. Stewartia sinensis Rehder and Wilson Stewartia gemmata Chien & Cheng Once it was realized that the Arboretum's plant labeled as Stewartia sinensis was not that species, we were momentarily disappointed that our collection lacked a plant of this Chinese Stewartia. It had been discovered by E. H. Wilson, and Alfred Rehder and Wilson had named and described it as new. However, during the taxonomic studies that were initiated because of the unknown identity of S. rostrata, it was recognized that plants on Bussey Hill labeled as S. monadelpha, a species native to Japan, were actually plants of S. sinensis. These plants had been grown from seed obtained in 1934 from the Sun Yat Sen Memorial Park in Nanking, China, and despite the mobility of ornamental plants, it had seemed strange that we had received a Japanese species from a Chinese source. An erect tree or ascending shrub to about 60 feet, Stewartia sinensis is characterized by its attractive, smooth, exfoliating, 175 mottled bark, its pubescent ovaries, and its foliaceous floral bracts that are about as long as, or slightly longer than, the similar appearing sepals. The capsules are conical and densely pubescent, and two seeds are produced in each locule. The flowers, while smaller than those of some other species (about 2 inches across), are produced in great numbers. In nature this species occurs in mountainous regions of eastern central China, and its closest ally, with which our plants were originally confused, appears to be the Japanese S. monadelpha. Stewartia monadelpha Siebold & Zuccarini Stewartia monais native to mountainous areas of southern Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku Islands. In American gardens, however, it is usually a smaller tree that is noted for its beautiful reddishbrown bark on both the trunk and delicate horizontal branches. Its flowers are the smallest produced by any deciduous Stewartia (a little over an inch in diameter), and it is easily identified in Including Stewartia sericea Nakai Known to attain a height of 50 feet in Japan, delpha bud, flower, and fruit by the oblong, persistent floral bracts that are conspicuously longer than the five sepals. pseudocamellia Maximowicz Stewartia Including Stewartia koreana Rehder its Readily distinguished from other members of the genus by small, kidney-shaped or rounded floral bracts that are considerably smaller than the densely silky-pubescent sepals, and by its branchlets that are usually compressed or flattened and zigzagged, Stewartia pseudocamellia is the most widely cultispecies of the genus. The flower buds, rounded before opening, and the flowers which are up to 31\/2 inches in diameter, vated are borne on long pedicels. The boss of stamens with orange anthers suggest those of a single Camellia flower. The ground beneath the small trees or shrubs becomes carpeted with the fallen corollas and the attached stamens as the flowering season progresses. Native to Japan, where it is also cultivated, Stewartia pseudocamellia is also known to occur naturally in southern Korea, and the Korean plants grown at the Arnold Arboretum were germinated from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in 1917. Originally regarded as a distinct species (S. koreana Rehder), and then as a variety of S. pseudocamellia (var. koreana (Rehder) Sealy), 176 the Korean plants do not appear to be morphologically distinct from the plants of Japanese origin. Korean plants at the Arnold Arboretum do, however, differ from Japanese plants in their more saucer-shaped flowers, their extended blooming period, and in the coloration of the leaves in fall. The foliage of the Japanese plants becomes a deep burgundy-red in fall, while leaves of the Korean plants turn a bright yellow- or reddishorange. As a result of these behavioral differences, differences that are significant to nurserymen and horticulturists, we propose here that the Korean plants henceforth be designated as a cultivar, and we suggest the cultivar name 'Korean Splendor'. Observations made here at the Arboretum indicate that individual flowers of 'Korean Splendor' persist on the plants for slightly longer than 24 hours once the buds have opened fully. The prolonged blooming season (as compared with the Japanese plants) is not the result of the persistence of individual flowers, but is apparently the result of a greater production of flowers coupled with the less synchronous maturation of the buds. We Fig. 4. The camellia-like flowers of S. pseudocamellia 'Korean Splendor' are accented by the rich green foliage. Note the rounded, silky buds yet to open. Photo: P. Bruns 177 have also noted that small bumblebees are attracted to, and force their way into, the unopened buds of S. pseudocamellia and 'Korean Splendor', apparently in search of pollen. The value of S. pseudocamellia and'Korean Splendor' as summer-flowering trees is extended and enhanced by their equal beauty in winter when the mottled bark is viewed against snow-covered ground. Stewartia X Stewartia henryae Li pseudocamellia 'Korean Splendor' X S. monadelpha This putative hybrid between the two above listed Stewartias originated spontaneously in the collections of the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research in Gladwyne, Pennsylvania. It differs only slightly from S. pseudocamellia, but can be distinguished from that species by its oblong floral bracts that resemble those of S. monadelpha, its slightly smaller flower size, and the presence of two seeds per capsule locule. Stewartia pseudocamellia produces four seeds per locule, although two are often abortive. From S. monadelpha the hybrid can be distinguished by its ovoid sepals with rounded, ciliate apices, and by its larger flower size. This small tree is known from several specimens at the Henry Foundation where both of the presumed parental species grow in close association with the hybrid, and it is also known in cultivation at Barnard's Inn Farm on Martha's Vineyard. Cuttings obtained from the latter source have been rooted in the Arbogreenhouses, and young plants of S. X henryae will soon be added to the Arboretum collection; to our knowledge, it does not occur elsewhere in American gardens. retum PROPAGATION OF STEWARTIAS BY SEED Stewartia seeds are produced within the five-locular, woody and each locule, depending upon the species, contains two or four seeds. In some instances fewer seeds are produced in each locule due to the abortion of one or more of the ovules; abortion results because the egg within the ovule either was not fertilized, or the egg failed to develop after fertilization. Natural dispersal of the narrowly-winged, flattened seeds of most species is by wind, and in the latitude of Boston the capsules open and the seeds are available for dispersal (or collection) during late September and early October. capsules, 178 A careful watch must be maintained if one intends to collect the seeds from the dehisced capsules on the plants, since tightly closed capsules can open unexpectedly, and the seeds may be scattered quickly. As a result, it is best to collect capsules before they have dehisced. Maturity of seeds is indicated by a change in the appearance of the capsules; about mid-September they begin turning from green to brown, and at this stage the seeds are fully developed and viable, and the capsules can be gathered. Separation of the seeds from the capsules is easy if the fruits are placed in a paper bag, tray, or other container that is then placed in a dry location. In a few days the closed capsules will have opened, and when the container is shaken the seeds will fall out. Separation of the seeds from the capsules can then be accomplished by emptying the contents into a screen of suitable mesh size to retain the capsules but to permit the passage and final collection of the seeds. Difficulty in the separation of seeds from capsules may be experienced with the fruits of Stewartia malacodendron. As mentioned previously, the capsules and seeds of this species differ from those of other species. The angular seeds are often held tightly within the locules, and their removal may require the forceable opening of the capsule by hand. Since the hard woody capsules of this species dehisce naturally along the sides, a blow on the top of the capsule with a small hammer may be necessary to release the seeds. When ~:Cpt in dry itviugi., ._Cr~i.uiulLtu ~cGUJ 1VJC L11C11 VlQUlllly quickly. As a result they should be sown or placed in pretreatment without delay after they have been harvested. All of the species grown and tested at the Arnold Arboretum (S. ovata, S. pseudocamellia and 'Korean Splendor', S. rostrata, and S. sinensis ) produce seeds that are doubly dormant, and in their natural habitats the seeds would require two years to germinate. In other words, seeds dispersed in October of 1974 would be physiologically prepared to germinate by natural seasonal changes in the spring of 1976. However, by placing the seeds in a stratifying medium and providing artificial seasons, the seeds can be induced to germinate in about seven months. This pretreatment must be done in two stages, and the container for the seeds and stratifying medium during the process should be a polyethylene bag. Polyethylene film has the property of being air permeable yet vaporproof. Twisting the top of the bag and binding it with a rubber band makes the stratifying unit vaporproof for the entire treatment, and it should not be opened until the treatment has been completed. - 179 At the Arboretum greenhouses, a stratifying medium comof equal parts sand and peatmoss has worked well with Stewartia seeds. This mixture is dampened (moist but not wet) and, in proportion, the medium should be two or three times the volume of the seeds. This factor is important since at sowing time the seeds are not separated from the medium and the entire contents of the polyethylne bag are sown. Using seeds of those species in cultivation at the Arnold Arboretum, it has been determined that a period of warm stratification for four months followed by cold stratification for three months satisfies the requirements for germination. Seeds placed in warm stratification in early October are transferred to cold pretreatment in early February, and the seeds are ready for sowing in the greenhouse or out-of-doors in early May. This timetable is excellent, since the seedlings will respond favorably to the warm and lengthening days of spring. Warm stratification can be accomplished by placing the sealed bags in a location where the temperature is subject to normal day and night fluctuations. We place our bags in bins on a greenhouse bench where the temperature has ranged between 60 and 100F. Any location where the day and night temperatures vary would be satisfactory; full sun, however, should be avoided since it might lead to high temperatures within the bags that would be detrimental to the seeds. When the period of warm stratification has been completed, the bag is simply transferred to a refrigerator to satisfy the need for cold treatment. At the Arboretum, cold pretreatment is accomplished at about 40F.; however this temperature is arbitrary, and the temperature maintained in the storage compartment of any refrigerator should suffice for the cold treatment. posed PROPAGATION OF STEWARTIAS BY CUTTINGS As an alternative method of propagation, soft-wood cuttings may be taken from Stewartias to be rooted, and depending upon the availability of donor plants, large numbers of new plants At the Arboretum, cuttings of can be asexually initiated. Stewartias have been taken as early as June 23 and as late as August 20. Although rooting has been partially successful in all our attempts over this time period, the greatest number of cuttings was successfully rooted when the cuttings were taken and treated between June 23 and mid-July. 180 variety of root-inducing chemicals have been with Stewartia cuttings, we have found that Indolebutyric acid (IBA) has proven to be the best rooting stimulant. Normally, the cut ends of the cuttings are dusted with a 0.8% treatment of IBA in talc with the fungicide 'Thiram' added at the rate of 15 percent. High percentages of rooting have also occurred employing quick-dip treatments using a combination of IBA plus NAA (Napthalene acetic acid) at the rate of 2500 parts per million of each in water. Quick-dip treatment involves immersing the bases of prepared cuttings in the liquid preparation for five seconds. Rooted cuttings of Stewartia, particularly those made late in the growing season, have presented a survival problem during the subsequent winter. When potted or flatted after rooting, the plants have gone into dormancy and never recovered. This loss can be averted, however, if the cuttings are not disturbed after they have rooted. The procedure we use is to fill plastic flats with a rooting medium of half 'Perlite' and half sand by volume. The cuttings are made, treated, and inserted in the flats which are then placed under intermittent mist. When rooting has occurred, the cuttings are left in the flats and hardened off. In November they are transferred to our cold storage unit where the temperature is maintained at approximately 34F. In February or March the flats are returned to a warm greenhouse, and when new growth begins to appear, the plants are transferred to ~nntainarc When h?ndlAd i.= this m,A\"\"~ the rooted cuttings can be expected to survive and grow. When a Stewartia is planted in the garden, it is advisable to place the plant in its permanent location where it will be exposed to full sun or high, only partial, shade. The plants appear to grow best in moist, acid soils, and it has been reported that larger plants transplant poorly. However we have had no difficulty transplanting plants upwards of 7 or 8 feet if a sufficient ball of soil is taken. Ideally, the plants should be grown as specimen trees and shrubs so that the full beauty of form, flowers, and bark can be enjoyed from all aspects and at all seasons of the year. Although a wide used with success "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis","article_sequence":2,"start_page":181,"end_page":186,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24654","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060b728.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":4,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flemer III, William","article_content":"The Arboretum and the Commercial Nursery: A Symbiosis* by WILLIAM FLEMER, III ' The many services that an arboretum performs for the public at large are too well known to require elaboration. So also is the educational importance of an arboretum attached to a college or university. Less frequently appreciated are the services that an arboretum performs for the commercial nursery industry. And in exchange there are services that the nursery can perform for arboreta, so the relationship can be a two-way street; in short, a symbiotic one. Perhaps the most important arboretum function of all, from the nurseryman's point of view, is to serve as a show case for the products that he grows and sells. Most nurseries, being relatively small commercial enterprises, must make every acre count from a production standpoint. In the case of plant markets unattached to field production, space is even more limited and the efficient manager tries to make every square yard count. Therefore, few nurseries indeed can find the room to grow to full size and display mature specimens of the many tree and shrub species that they offer for sale. This limitation is especially evident in the case of shade trees, many of which need a quarter of an acre or more of ground space at maturity. While it is true that many of the important nursery plants can be found in mature form and size in the average older residential town, they are almost never labeled for identification and similar species or clones are rarely if ever planted adjacent to each other so that meaningful comparisons can be made. Consequently, fortunate is the retail nurseryman whose establishment is near an arboretum. Not all customers wish to research very thoroughly the trees and shrubs that they propose to plant; but for those who want to see the differences and special qualities for themselves, a nearby arboretum or botanical garden offers the best answer to their many questions. * An address presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta in Jamaica Plain, Mass. on October 5, 1974. 181 182 Lllac collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo. P. Chavny. The \"show case\" function of an Arboretum can be a valuable sales tool for a nursery too. Displays of mature plants in full bloom often serve as a strong stimulus to the mthli~ to sppk out a nursery and buy some younger specimens for their home grounds. This is particularly true of collections of showy flowering shrubs like Azaleas, Lilacs, and Rhododendrons. I know of one retail nurseryman located near an arboretum famous for its lilac collection. He regularly stocks a container-grown selection of the best cultivars because he knows he will have a brisk demand for them each spring following \"Lilac Sunday.\" Of equal importance to the nursery industry is the arboretum's function as the only source of many authenticated trueto-name species and cultivars. If a grower wishes to add a rare plant to his production schedule, he frequently has nowhere else to turn for foundation stock. In the vicissitudes of human error, mistakes do occur in the propagation department and clones become mixed, to everybody's chagrin. This is particularly true in the case of very similar appearing plants that are slow to come into bloom, like lilacs, cherries or crabapples. In such a plight, a request to an arboretum specializing in the group can provide a new supply of true-to-name scions or cuttings. 183 For a limited number of nurseries engaged in breeding programs arboreta are invaluable genetic \"banks\" for parent breeding material. It is impractical for a nursery to maintain in perpetuity, true-to-name plants of all the parent stock that might someday be wanted for a breeding program. Yet, taken as a whole, our North American arboreta do this as a matter of routine operation, and this resource is invaluable for the serious private or institutional plant breeder. The nursery industry, particularly its mail order segment, thrives on new and improved plants. All arboreta that maintain a policy of adding new plants to their collections for testing and display are an important source of new plants for nurserymen. Those which have an active breeding program are even more important because they are actually producing new and improved clones themselves. The National Arboretum in Washington, with its many breeding programs and its plant exploration trips (in part financed by Longwood Gardens) is doing especially noteworthy work in this area at present. The new and unbelievably hardy Azaleas being produced by the University of Minnesota's Landscape Arboretum is another example, as is the imposing list of woody ornamentals introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in Massachusetts. It is difficult to appreciate the enormous contribution that arboreta and botanical gardens have made to our nursery industry and thence to the gardening public. Arboreta have a new and growing role in the preservation and dissemination of rare native species and races of plants. Just as zoological gardens may end up as the sole hope for the survival of rare and endangered mammals and birds, so arboreta may become the sole hope for endangered plants. Suburbanization and other changes in land use patterns are taking an increasing toll of rare plants each year. When possible, the creation of sanctuaries for rare plants or biomes is the best solution, but all too often local indifference or even greed may militate against such a hope. In these cases the concern and skill of an arboretum can save the day for posterity. The case of the Franklinia is a well known illustration. One small private botanical garden literally saved this handsome small tree for the gardens of today. A unique natural population of Franklinia was extirpated by collecting and export to England where the climate was unsuited to it. The sole surviving parent tree in Philadelphia was the source of all the Franklinias that we enjoy today. 184 Franklinia alatamaha - A final important Arboretum function is research in propagation techniques and the dissemination of the findings. This is particularly important in the area of rare or little-grown plants. The Arnold Arboretum's Alfred Fordhnm rP~Pntly rPCP;vP.d the Award of Merit of the International Plant Propagators' Society for his lifetime of contributions to this field. Research in how to germinate seeds of rare plants, often with peculiar dormancy requirements, research in the rooting of cuttings and in finding and evaluating understocks for clones that must be reproduced by grafting, have made important contributions to the nursery industry. In the field of propagation, the last word has never been said, and the future will hold many happy surprises for the nursery propagator, as a result of arboretum research. On the opposite side of the equation, there is much that the nursery community can and does do to further the work of the arboreta and botanical gardens. Especially important is the dissemination to the gardening public of the new plants that they create. An arboretum has neither the space and staff, nor the finances to distribute new plants to the public at large. The best that can be accomplished is to send new introductions to cooperating producing nurseries, the solution presently in effect. Not all new plants have commercial possibilities, and 185 there are bound to be no means some disappointments. Arboretum breed- immune to the temptation of commercial by ones, that tendency to think that each creation is unique and valuable in itself. A fairly recent example was the flood of Glen Dale Azaleas, a group of hundreds of cultivars whose acceptance by the trade was buried under an avalanche of \"look alike\" clones. The harsh reality of commerce is necessary to separate the unique yet vigorous clones from the competing \"also rans.\" Commercial nurseries also can provide, free or at a nominal cost, the understocks needed for routine arboretum propagation and research. Space and facilities are always at a premium, especially in the limitations imposed by an urban location, and nurseries that grow such understocks in enormous quantities can provide exactly the kinds and sizes wanted, thus relieving limited Arboretum propagation facilities of the burden. For establishments with a propagator on the staff, and many are ers are Propagatzng unit in the Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses. ias ~I in this situation, nurserymen can propagate the young plants needed for replacement or addition to the collection quickly and efficiently. Each year finds our firm engaged in such activity for arboreta that have no propagator or the specialized structures and techniques needed for certain unusual propagation practices; and many other nurseries regularly take on such special work for favored institutions. Nurseries, as individuals and through their state and national associations, also can and do assist in financing arboretum work. Our firm and many others regularly make grants of funds and plant material; the latter especially useful for the establishment of the many new arboreta springing up across the country, especially teaching arboreta associated with the new community colleges. The assembly of \"one of each\" orders for arboretum planting is especially costly and time-consuming, but we think it a very valuable investment for future generations of plant lovers. More and more arboreta and botanical gardens are forming associations of \"Friends of The XYZ Arboretum.\" Such groups, properly led and encouraged, can provide financial assistance, tour guides to relieve pressure on the Arboretum Staff, and volunteer teachers for classes and children's activities. \"Friends\" associations are an invaluable first line of defense when condemnation proceedings arise, as they sometimes do. And a devoted group of wealthy \"Friends\" is almost the only source for bequests when death takes its toll. Such a valuable association, like any other, must be carefully 4-UIL-LVtLUU to bear fruit. Nurserymen are more than glad to provide quantities of small rare or new plants to be distributed as gifts to members of such supportive groups. The scope of this kind of industry cooperation and support is bound to grow in the years now tobear fruit. Nurserymen are 2014 more than to come. Symbiosis is an association of living organisms from which both derive benefits they could not have alone. It is a term that can truly characterize the fruitful relationship between the members of the AABGA and the nursery community. Mr. Flemer is President of Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, New Jersey. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":187,"end_page":196,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24652","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060af6b.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":4,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews The British Oak. M. G. Morris and F. H. Perring, editors. Faringdon, Berks., England: E. W. Classey Ltd. 1974. 376 pages, illustrated. 6.00. The Botanical Society of the British Isles is an association of and professional botanists whose common interest lies in the study and conservation of flowering plants and ferns. The Society has sponsored a series of conferences, and since 1948 many of the papers presented at individual conferences have been published as symposium volumes. In 1973 we welcomed \"Plants, Wild and Cultivated\" edited by P. S. Green. The current volume relates to a three-day conference held in the same year. \"The British Oak\" is a comprehensive study of two native species, Quercus petraea and Q. robur. Peats and sediments provide a pollen record indicating that the oak has been dominant over large areas of the British lowlands for some 8,000 years. Today Q. robur and Q. petraea remain the dominant trees in all of the British Isles. As chapters in this volume, twenty-one papers by botanists, foresters and historians cover the taxonomy, cytology, morphology, reproduction, regeneration, productivity, and the ecological role of the oak. The wealth of information makes this an excellent reference work and demonstrates the value of such conferences. The pattern is one that might well be followed to consolidate the knowledge of equally valuable American trees. amateur RICHARD A. HOWARD Chain of Friendship. Betsy C. Corner and Christopher C. Booth, editors. Cambridge: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. 1971. 538 pages. $20.00 Nearly everyone knows of Peter Collinson, the Quaker Merchant of Mill Hill who subsidized and encouraged John Bartram. Less known is his contemporary, the Quaker physician, Dr. John Fothergill, and his garden at Upton. Fothergill's contacts were world-wide. It is recorded that, in the most flourishing 187 188 From Chain of Friendship. his garden contained nearly 3,400 kinds of glasshouse exotics and about 3,000 kinds of hardy plants. Fothergill is of interest to Americans because of his support of, and contact with, horticulturists in the Philadelphia area (including William Bartram), and because he is commemorated in the genus Fothergilla. period, These selected letters of Dr. John Fothergill give us a glimpse of English society as seen through Quaker eyes in the middle of the 18th century. It includes, incidentally, some background to the political troubles that culminated in the American Revolution. Altogether a delightful and interesting book. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. 189 Flowering Cherries. Geoffrey Chadbund. London: Collins Publishers. 1972. 160 pages, illustrated. f2.85. It is unfortunate that in many areas cherries are threatened by a virus that, added to their other problems, now makes these spring favorites a poor choice for the average small garden. However for those who are prepared to ignore the hazards, this is a reasonably priced and well-written book that should fulfill the late author's hope that he can help the cherry lover to select, plant, and grow the best variety for his purpose. The 58 cultivars and species described have been selected from the hundreds that have evolved since the cherry first became popular in the Orient centuries ago, and are arranged according to habit of growth. This at first appears to be awkward ; but with the aid of the index it proves to be simple and quite effective. The real problem will arise when the gardener has selected the tree that he wants and then tries to locate it commercially. The chapter cultivation contains sound information and are dismissed too lightly. To add variety and complete this very pleasant volume there is also a list, with short descriptions, of trees and shrubs for use as foil and background. on advice, but I feel that the disease and pest problems SHEILA MAGULLION Trees of the United States and Canada. F. H. Montgomery. New York: Frederick Warne and Co., Inc. 1970. 144 pages, illustra- ted. $4.95. a This work is pocket-sized in northern tree areas. and, occasionally, shrub guide to specimens but unique, substantially keys to woody plants. The key is described as the usual dichotomous represents The descriptions of particular species are fuller than usual and there are good, brief descriptions of habitat. Although it has a glossary at the back, this little volume is virtually useless to anyone who does not have a good basic course in botany and\/or taxonomy. A book best suited to the expert rather than the novice. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE 190 Forests of lishing Nepal. J. D. A. Stainton. New York: Hafner PubCo. 1972. 181 pages, illustrated. , Devotees of British Colonial literature recognize Nepal as the home of the Gurkha, legendary fighting men of the wars in the Indian sub continent. Nepal is also an Indian state in one of the most horticulturally and botanically interesting regions of the world. It has been only recently however, that westerners have been allowed to travel in the country. Between 1954 and 1969 J. D. A. Stainton made 18 plant collecting trips to Nepal. The present volume is a synoptic overview of the plant association to be found in that country. It is written for the interested lay person who may have the good fortune to visit Nepal. Supplementing the text are 156 colored reproductions of photographs and a folding map which shows the physiography and the botanical regions. All in all a useful and interesting book. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. A Flora of the White Mountains, California and Nevada. Robert M. Lloyd and Richard S. Mitchell. Berkeley: University of California Press. 1973. 208 pages. $8.00. - The White Mountains on the California\/Nevada border are celebrated as the home of the oldest known living things: the Great Basin bristle-cone pines. This manual details our knowledge of the plants and plant communities of this area. The little book is a model of what a local flora should be. A map shows the location of various areas mentioned. Chapters deal with the geology of the area, the phytogeographical relationship of the plants and the plant communities and vegetation. For pilgrims to the bristle-cone pine forests this little book will be indispensable. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. 191 White clover. From Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It. Your Lawn: How to Make It and Keep It. R. Milton Carleton. New York: Van Nostrand. 1971. 2nd edition. 127 pages, illustrated. $7.95. The author is a well-known contributor to various garden Lawn management is his horticultural specialty. On the basis of decades of study of grasses, fertilizers, disease identification and treatment, he distills his wisdom in this treatise. Everything is here. Emphasis is on starting newly or anew. We read how to site, grade, prepare the soil, fertilize, select appropriate grasses for seeding or sodding. We are instructed in how to nurse the grass, recognize ailments and engage in the neces- magazines. sary chemotherapy. The treatment is so complete, so scientific, and so dull that most readers will find their salvation in the chapter \"Places Where Grass Doesn't Grow.\" The author's solution to that dilemma : ground-covers. This should arouse the ire of an Arnold Arboretum staff member who is fond of stating, \"the best groundcover in the long run is grass.\" He obviously hasn't read Milton Carleton's book or his reply might be, \"anything but grass grass is SO MUCH WORK.\" - ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE 192 A Dictionary of Useful and Everyday Plants and their Common Names. F. N. Howes. New York: Cambridge University Press. 1973. 290 pages. $12.50. One of the most useful indices of plant names available to taxonomists has been A Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns compiled by J. C. Willis (6th ed. 1931). The 7th edition of this work (1966), edited by H. K. Airy Shaw, eliminated for brevity much of the general information on economic uses, as has the 8th edition (1973). The present volume compiled by the late Keeper of the Museum at the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, consists of that material extended and brought up to date. It is said to include the \"common names of plants throughout the world, where English is, or has been spoken or used.\" Trade names and the names of economic or commercial plant products, including timbers, are included and given in English. No dictionary could ever be complete since common names are so variable in use and in spelling. \"British-English\" spelling commonly is not the same as an \"American-English\" spelling. The information supplied varies considerably from long detailed discussions to very brief statements. Most data is supplied under the common name, requiring a cross reference from a generic or scientific name; the cross references are not always adequate. A number of the binomials used do not represent the correct scientific name. Recognizing such limitation, the work of Howes will he ~Pfml fnr n~~acin_n_al reference and probably best used as a starting point for further research on an otherwise obscure English common name. RICHARD A. HOWARD The Timber Economy of Puritan New England. Charles F. Carroll. Providence: Brown University Press. 1973. 221 pages. $12.50. The colonial economy of New England was based upon fishing, farming, and lumbering. While most of us have heard, in a general way, about the King's Trees, I think we are rather ignorant about the colonial timber trade. This volume tells, in a few pages, a great deal about the economic impact of various forest products upon England and Europe and the West Indies. Along with R. G. Albion's \"Forests and Sea Power\" it should be on the shelf of every New England colonial history buff. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. 193 Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. T. Merrill Prentice, artist, and Elizabeth Owen Sargent, text. Salem: Peabody Museum and Barre Publishers. 1973. 114 color plates plus unpaged preface, forward, introduction, and index. $45.00. appropriate, accurate description of this volume is the artist on the third flap of the dust jacket which, in time, will be lost. It is worth repetition. \"This book is not intended to be a reference book and certainly not a field guide. It is by no means complete; however, it may serve to identify some of the less familiar plants and to draw attention to others which may have escaped notice. I have made a real effort to The most supplied by Lilium tigrinum. From Weeds and Wildflowers of Eastern North America. 194 draw the plants accurately, true to form and color. In general the plates are arranged in the sequence of bloom, beginning with skunk cabbage which appears in March and ending with the seeds and berries of autumn. The book is intended for pleasure rather than instruction and I hope it may in some measure achieve its goal.\" The brief commentary rarely exceeding fifty words of free verse which Ms. Sargent provides for each plate is indeed an \"enthusiastic response to the life around me.\" Both the artist and the writer have achieved their goals in this expensive, attractive, well-bound and pleasing volume. RICHARD A. HOWARD Viability of Seeds. E. H. Roberts, editor. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 1972. 448 pages, illustrated. $20.00. Viability is defined as: \"ability to live, grow and develop.\" \"Viability of Seeds\" is an attempt to assess the state of our knowledge of the factors which affect or influence seed viability. It is apparent that much of the work on this subject has been done with a limited number of species of crop plants and weeds; thus the data base is still too limited to allow sure generalizations to be made. E The present volume is ~.ml~~mo.7 ,.\" ., `. \"........v^.:of t.rCSC .v an indication of the vast quantity of work to knowledge and be done. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. Azaleas. Fred C. Galle. 96 pages, illustrated. Birmingham, Ala.: Oxmoor House. 1974. $6.95 hardcover, $1.95 paperback. This work is part of ern Living, a a long series of titles published by Southregional magazine. The contents are, therefore, suited to readers who reside in Zones 8 or 9, and for visitors to azalea country in spring and early summer. In a pleasant and comfortable style, the author, director of the Callaway Gardens in Georgia, fully describes and illustrates basic procedures relating to azalea growing. The first half of the test includes digging, planting, weeding, feeding, pruning, mulching and watering. There is attention to selecting suitable sites for \"naturalistic\" plantings; there are lists and discussions 195 Detail of raised bed planting. From Azaleas. of complementary \"companion plants.\" Azaleas in containers, including Bonsai, are treated. Propagation and disease diagnosis and treatment have complete but not excessive space. The final half considers particular species and hybrids thereof with color descriptions, hardiness ratings, sunshine requirements at various altitudes, and the like. Several pages are devoted to a state-by-state listing of various southern \"azalea show gardens.\" For one in the northeast this little book is still a good buy. The cultural information alone is worth the price of the volume. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE 196 trees and shrubs mainly of South East Hzn. Wageningen, Netherlands: Centre for Burger Agricultural Publishing and Documentation. 1972. 399 pages, illustrated. 60 Dfl. Seedlings of Asia. Dr. D. some tropical The variation in form between seedlings of different species is familiar to all gardeners. We are less apt to observe the change in form of the successive leaves produced by the germinating seed until the mature pattern of leaf position, size and shape is established. The young plant in its cotyledons and first few leaves does offer characteristics by which the species be identified. Dr. Burger obtained fruits from known native and cultivated plants and germinated the seeds. In this volume 187 species of 49 families are described and illustrated. The book will be useful primarily to foresters in South East Asia. When used along with James Duke's comparable work on plants of Panama and Puerto Rico (Ann. Mo. Bot. Gard. 52: 314-350. 1965; 56: 125161. 1969) a good coverage of seedling morphology of tropical families is obtained. The present volume was prepared for publication in Dutch in 1924, but was never published. In 1967-1971 the manuscript was translated into English for the present publication. Regrettably the translation has resulted in many awkward sentences and questionable use of punctuation. The identification keys ~~pyiieu im a few families seem superfluous considering the few taxa treated. The illustrations are excellent and useful. can RICHARD A. HOWARD . Symplocos paniculata (Asiatic Sweetleaf). Photo: P. Bruns. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23378","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eaf28.jpg","title":"1975-35-4","volume":35,"issue_number":4,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse","article_sequence":1,"start_page":133,"end_page":159,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24650","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060ab6d.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":3,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Lichens: Mysterious and Diverse by RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. The science of lichenology, or the study of lichens, has lagged behind other branches of botany, and many aspects of lichen biology are still shrouded with mystery. In fact, the most mysterious aspect of these plants, and the one basic to understanding them, was not known until the relatively late date of 1867: that although outwardly lichens appear to be discrete organisms, they are in fact made up of two very different kinds of plants bound together in a totally unique union. The components of lichens are these: (1) numerous individuals of an alga, usually of a one-celled green type similar to those which commonly give a green cast to the northern or shady sides of tree trunks, but occasionally a filamentous blue-green type like the ones which form the familiar blackish, rank-smelling scum on shallow water, damp soil, or clay flower pots; and (2) strands of a fungus, similar and somewhat related to the bread molds. The arrangement by which they live together as a lichen is referred to as symbiosis, the close association of two dissimilar organisms with, in this case, mutual benefit. The exact nature of the lichen symbiosis, and the role that each of the components plays, is not completely understood. The fungus obviously provides protection for the alga, accumulates mineral nutrients, and helps in retaining moisture. The alga, because it contains chlorophyll, is able to synthesize carbohydrates. There appear to be mutual exchanges of other organic nutrients, but these have not been identified. The balance between the components appears to be a precarious one, and slight environmental changes can in some cases upset it, resulting in the death of the lichen. But here an anomaly presents itself: lichens are able to prosper in some of the most extreme of the earth's environments, in places where no other plants are able to survive. They are particularly abundant, for example, in parts of Antarctica. Because of their resistance to damage by extreme desiccation and cold, it has been suggested that lichens or lichen-like organisms would be able 133 134 to survive in extra-terrestrial environments. In fact, the pronounced seasonal color changes on the surface of the planet Mars have been suggested to be due to the presence of lichens. Several species have in fact been subjected to simulated Martian conditions, but none survived for more than a few days. In the remainder of this article I shall discuss various aspects of lichens which, I hope, will prove of interest to the reader. The final portion consists of a simplified, illustrated key to the identification of some common species. Lichens and Air Pollution The possibility that lichens are intolerant of air pollution was suggested as early as 1866 from observations made around Paris, France. Since then, studies have been conducted in large urban areas on several continents, and the results are clear: the number of species as well as the number of individual lichen plants decreases as the center of a city is approached. The reason appears to be that the lichens accumulate toxic substances dissolved from the air of cities until they reach lethal proportions. The most important substances in the decline of urban lichens appear to be sulphur dioxide, a common component of the gases given off by the burning of fuels, and various fluorine compounds. The former primarily affects the algal component by destroying its ability to produce food through the process of photosynthesis. Lichens are decidedly rare in Boston, according to my personal observations. Even in the Arnold Arboretum and Franklin Park, relatively large forested areas near the city limits, they are not common. The most common lichen in these places to be a species of Cladonia on the bases of trees. But appears even this plant rarely produces fruiting bodies. Various other Cladonias, several crustose species, and depauperate specimens of a Parmelia also are occasionally to be found. The forests in towns as close as Concord to the west and Walpole to the south support a reasonable diversity of lichen species. But the further one goes from any large city, the better the chances of finding a good development of lichen vegetation. Economic Uses When one considers the complete range of plant products utilized by man, those obtained from lichens are of minor importance ; yet lichens have proved to be of some use. The cell walls of the fungal component consist almost entirely of a unique starch called lichenin. As a result, lichens have some 135 value, but the acids present render them somewhat pleasant to the taste. They have been eaten historically, food in un- but of the Israelites, for exmostly desperation. ample, was possibly a species of lichen. The Japanese, however, consider Umbilicaria species, or Rock Tripes, to be a delicacy. Cladonias and other fruticose genera of the far northern latitudes provide a forage crop for reindeer and caribou, and the native people of these areas harvest the lichens in large quantities to feed their semi-domesticated stock. But Arctic lichens apparently concentrate radioactive fallout from atmospheric atomic bomb tests, and the animals that eat them, and ultimately the people who eat them are showing signs of radiation poisoning. Various other animals, particularly invertebrates such as slugs and springtails (Fig. 1) also occasionally eat lichens. Besides the folk remedies concocted from various lichens, such as cures for lung disease from Lobaria pulmonaria and for rabies from Peltigera canina, lichens do have medicinal uses. Several of the lichen acids are effective as antibiotics, and commercial preparations are available in Europe. In addition, a number of species have had a major importance in the past as dyestuffs, and Harris tweeds still are made with the original lichen dyes. The manna Figure l. Springtails feeding on a subfoliose lichen. 136 Structure and Form The plant body of a lichen is described as a thallus, a term referring to those plant bodies that are not differentiated into leaves, stems, and roots. A cross section through the thallus of most lichens would reveal a structure similar to that illustrated in Figure 2. Both upper and lower surfaces of most lichens are covered with a tough protective covering known as the cortex. This tissue is composed of tightly packed fungal strands or hyphae. Immediately below the upper cortex is the Figure 2. The structure of a lichen in cross section, greatly simplified. made up of loosely packed individual cells of the algal component interwoven with fungal hyphae. The medulla, with loosely packed fungal strands, makes up the bulk of the lichen thallus, perhaps as much as 2\/3 of the thickness. Extending from the lower cortex are hairlike appendages called rhizines, which anchor the lichen to its substrate much as roots do in higher plants. Unlike roots, however, rhizines do not absorb water and mineral nutrients. There are numerous variations on the general pattern. For example, some lichens do not have a well-defined algal layer; rather, the algae are scattered throughout the medulla. Other lichens lack a lower cortex, and still others, lack rhizines. Lichens can generally be broken down into three easily recognizable groups on the basis of growth habit (although there are intergrades between each of the groups). Crustose lichens 3) are those that form an encrustation on their sub(Fig. strate, with such close contact as to be difficult to separate from it. Extreme forms actually have most of their tissues embedded in solid rock. algal layer, Figure 3. The trunk of a red maple nearly covered with several genera of crustose lichens. The round black, gray, and pink (in life) structures are fruiting bodies. Figure 4. Two species in our area, of Parmelia, the largest growing on a tree trunk. genus of foliose lichens 138 Figure 5. Cladonia verticillata, a fruticose or \"shrubby\" lichen, showing the upright podetia growing out of flake-like squamules. Figure 6. A species of Physcia with numerous, granular-appearing isidia. 139 Foliose lichens (Fig. 4) are perhaps the most familiar type. The thallus of these is organized into lobes or projections radiating from the center but maintaining a position more or less parallel with the substrate. Lichens of this type appear somewhat \"leafy,\" hence the derivation of the term \"foliose.\" Many species may be firmly attached to the substrate, but at least they can be pried off with a knife. A few genera of foliose lichens are more or less rounded in shape without distinct lobes. These are attached to the substrate only in the center of the thallus and are known as umbilicate lichens. Fruticose, or \"shrubby\" lichens are those in which the thallus is generally freely branched and stands away from the substrate. The most familiar genus of fruticose lichens, Cladonia, (Fig. 5) including those species commonly known as \"British Soldiers\" and \"Reindeer Lichens,\" are unusual in that the plants are composed of two kinds of thalli: one, made up of flake-like, almost foliose segments known as squamules, growing close to the substrate; and the other, of upright structures known as podetia, which bear the fruiting bodies. In those species commonly known as \"Reindeer Lichens,\" the squamules disappear early in the development of the plant. In other familiar genera such as Usnea, the \"Old Man's Beard,\" the entire thallus is fruticose. Reproduction Many aspects of the reproduction of lichens remain a mystery. Most species appear to reproduce primarily by vegetative part of the thallus is broken off, it has the capability to produce a new plant. But a large number of lichens have specialized structures for vegetative reproduction. Isidia are minute, cylindrical or branched outgrowths of the thallus, containing all of its tissues. They are present in large numbers in certain species (Fig. 6) and are very fragile. If detached, each one can grow into a new plant. Other species produce soredia, which are minute clumps of algal cells interwoven with fungal hyphae. These erupt in powdery masses (Fig. 7) through the upper cortex. They are easily dispersed by wind and rain, and again each tiny soredium is capable of reproducing the lichen. Sexual reproduction also occurs in lichens, at least in the fungal component. Sexual reproduction has been reported in lichen algae that have been separated from the thallus and grown in sterile culture, but in the lichen itself they appear to reproduce solely by simple cell division. Fruiting bodies of means, and indeed if any 140 lichens. The disclike structures cuplike known as apothecia (Fig. 8). In these structures the fungal component produces spores by sexual means, much as a bread mold would do. The spores are scattered by the wind, and apparently many of them germinate. But to produce another lichen, contact must be made with cells of a suitable species of alga. Since few of the lichenized algae are common as freeliving organisms, it is hard to visualize how lichens can be reproduced in this manner. Yet some common crustose species have no obvious means of vegetative reproduction. One of the classic goals of lichenologists has been to synthesize lichens artificially, that is to create a new thallus by combining the algal and fungal components in the laboratory. Although both lichen algae and fungi can easily be grown in sterile culture, getting them to combine and produce a complete, mature thallus resembling that of a naturally occurring species has never been achieved. Partial successes have been reported in a few cases. The reasons for the repeated failures seem to he in the simple fact that the algae and fungi, when grown separately, are different from the same species grown together as a lichen, underscoring the uniqueness of the lichen symbiosis. various sorts most are produced in many species of or common are external Classification and Identification little is known about the algal components of liit is believed that different genera, with strikingly different morphological characteristics, often contain the same species of alga. Therefore it appears that the fungal component is primarily responsible for the morphological diversity of lichens, and it is assumed that each species of lichen contains its own unique species of fungus. The current taxonomic system reflects this assumption, and lichens are classified essentially as if they were fungi. Many of the characters used in the classification of lichens, such as those present in the reproductive spores, are quite technical and need not concern us here since they are not necessary for the identification of the common species. But one of these technical characters has recently become extremely useful to professional lichenologists and should at least be mentioned. Lichens produce a large number of complex chemical compounds, called lichen acids, which are unique in the plant kingdom. A particular acid may be produced by each of a large number of species or even genera. Others are of more restricted occurrence. But the type of acids present are usually constant Relatively chens, but 141 Fxgure 7. A species of Physcia with powdery masses of soredia. structures or Figure 8. A species of Physcia showing the disclike fruiting apothecia. 142 a given species. Within the last 40 years, a series of chemical tests has been worked out for determining the presence or absence of certain acids in the thallus of given lichen species. Three chemicals are used: potassium hydroxide, calcium hypochlorite, and paraphenylene-diamine. Applied to the cortex or the medulla these produce various color reactions depending on the acids present. The tests are easy to make and results are immediately and clearly visible. Thus they have become indispensable aids for the serious student of lichenology. In recent years a number of lichen species have been found to consist of several chemical races. That is, a widely distributed species may appear to be externally quite uniform throughout its range, but plants from different areas may contain different lichen acids. The significance of this is not clear. However, some taxonomists have described each chemical variant as a different species. In the following key, technical characters are completely excluded. The species are identified only by means of easily visible attributes. The lichens included are common and conspicuous foliose and fruticose species that I have encountered in eastern Massachusetts, but most of them are common and widespread throughout the Northeast. Due to the difficulty in identifying them, crustose species are not included. Most lichens do not have well established common names, so only their Latin names are used. The species are broken down into four main groups based on growth form and habitat or substrate. To identify a given lichen, turn to the appropriate category and work through that section of the key. All species are illustrated as an aid to identification. The key is by no means complete for all of the lichens of Massachusetts, or even of eastern Massachusetts, but it still should be useful to the interested beginner. It will hopefully at least enable him to gain an appreciation for the diversity among this most fascinating group of plants. within simple 143 ILLUSTRATED KEY TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF SOME COMMON LICHENS IN MASSACHUSETTS Fruticose lichens growing base of living trees. la. on soil, moss, dead stumps, or the structures grayish or yellowish, the branches round in cross section, without short, hairlike projections on the margins Go to Number 2. lb. Upright structures dark brown, the branches flattened, with short, hairlike projections on the margins. Cetraria islandica Upright . Cetraria islandica (L.) Ach. Iceland Moss. This is a common lichen on sunny, exposed soil and rock outcroppings, often growing among mosses. It is widespread throughout the northern latitudes of the world, and is one of the lichens commonly eaten by caribou and reindeer. The thalli are dark olive or brown and grow from 1 to 3 inches tall. 2a. Podetia of cup-shaped or cone-shaped segments, sometimes one on top of another. Go to Number 3. 2b. Podetia not 3a. Podetia of cup-shaped or cone-shaped. Go to Number 4. or ......... single cup-shaped .. cone-shaped segments. Cladonia chlorophaea. 3b. Podetia of several cone-shaped segments on top of anCladonia verticillata. other...... 144 Cladonia chlorophaea (Flk.) Spreng. There are many species of the so-called \"Goblet or Li- chens,\" in the most of them differing the shape of their cups types of lichen acids present. This is the one most common and widespread, occurring throughout much of North America. The cups stand to about an inch tall. Cladonia verticillata (Hoffm.) Schaer. Several Cladonia species are characterized by having several tiers of \"cups,\" but this is the only one in which the tiers arise from the center of the \"cups\" below rather than from their margins. This species is common in eastern North America, and grows from ',to 2?!~ inches tall. 4a. Podetia thin and without finely branched, appearing treelike, conspicuous fruiting bodies. Go to Number 5. 4b. Podetia thicker and unbranched or sparsely branched, not appearing treelike, often with conspicuously colored Go to Number 10. (Page 146) fruiting bodies. 5a. Tips Tips ous of branches pointing downward in one direction. Go to Number 6. 5b. of branches directions. pointing upward and outward in variGo to Number 7. 6a. Podetia ashy gray.. or Cladonia rangiferina. 6b. Podetia yellowish greenish. Cladonia arbuscula. 145 Cladonia rangiferina (L.) Wigg. Several species of Cladonia are called \"Reindeer Lichens,\" but this is the one most properly socalled, because the species name rangi f erina is derived from Rangifer, the generic name of Reindeer. It is widely distributed in northern latitudes. The only finely branched Cladonia in the Northeast that is ashy gray in color, C. rangiferina often stands as tall as 3 or 4 inches. Cladonia arbuscula (Wallr.) Rabenh. This species is similar to Cladonia mitis, another common plant in the Northeast. They may be distinguished with certainty only by means of chemical tests. Both are similar also to C. rangiferina but are yellowish rather than ashy gray in color. 7a. Podetia often .. split open, with scattered flaky squamules. Cladonia furcata. open, without 7b. Podetia not split flaky squamules. Go to Number 8. Cladonia furcata (Huds.) Schrad. This species may be distinguished from the other finely branched Cladonias both by its color, tending to be slightly brownish when dry, and by the presence of flake-like squamules on the podetia. It is common throughout eastern North America, and it grows to about 3 inches tall. 146 8a. Plants forming discrete conical . or mound-like clumps. Cladonia alpestris. masses. 8b. Plants forming scattered, entangled Go to Number 9. Cladonia alpestris (L.) Rabenh. This species and the closely related but ashy gray Cladonia evansii of the southern states form discrete, conical or mound-like clumps. After being dyed green and treated with glycerin to keep them pliable, they are often collected and sold as artificial miniature shrubs for model train setups and architectural models. 9a. Tips of the the podetia usually podetia usually in twos. Cladonia subtenuis. 9b. Tips of in threes or fours. Cladonia uncialis. Cladonia subtenuis (Abb.) Evans. The most common \"Reindeer Lichen\" in the southern states, this species is also abundant in the Northeast. It may be distinguished from C. uncialis by its usually thinner podetia, the tips of which branch in pairs rather than by threes or fours. Cladonia uncialis (L.) Wigg. This species is similar to C. subtenuis. See that species for the differences. lOa. lOb. Fruiting Fruiting bodies bodies bright red. pink or brown, Cladonia cristatella. or ... absent.. Go to Number 11. 147 Cladonia cristatella Tuck. This and familiar lichen is known by the name \"British Soldiers\" because of the brilliant red color of its apothecia or fruiting bodies. The allusion to the color of the uniform of the British infantrymen of colonial times should be obvious to anyone who has seen this lichen. It is a common species on roadside banks and other sunny areas, and it is a popular, if ephemeral, component of the terrarium plantings so much in common vogue - at present. but brown if present. Go to Number 12. lla. Fruiting bodies usually absent, llb. Fruiting bodies present and conspicuous, globular or Baeomyces roseus. mushroom-shaped and pink. roseus Pers. Unlike of the other lichens treated in this section, this species is not a member of the genus Cladonia. Although resembling it Baeomyces most superficially, Baeomyces numerous roseus differs from Cladonia in that its primary thallus is made up of white, closely spaced granules, rather like squamules. than of flakeIt is a common species in the NorthPast, being almost always found on The sunny roadside banks. stalks are seldom more fruiting than 1~4-inch tall. 148 12a. Podetia unbranched and without .... squamules. Cladonia bacillaris. 12b. Podetia branched and densely .. covered with squamules. Cladonia squamosa. Cladonia bacillaris (Ach.) Nyl. This is an inconspicuous and not particularly attractive species of lichen, but it is one of those most tolerant of air pollution. It is perhaps the most common species within the city limits of Boston. It typically grows on dead wood or at the base of living trees. The podetia are seldom more than 1\/zinch tall and are gray-white in color. Cladonia squamosa (Scop.) Hoffm. Although related to C. chlorophaea and other \"Goblet Lichens,\" the cups of this species are often so modified as to be almost unrecognizable. The species is quite variable in the amount of branching of the podetia and in the development of squamules on them. ~ ' Fruticose lichens la. growing on rocks or trees. Upright or pendent structures unbranched or sparsely branched, arising out of a base of squamules. Cladonia bacillaris (See discussion above). lb. out Upright or pendent structures much branched, withGo to Number 2. squamules at base.. 149 2a. Thallus tufted (all of the branches arising from a single point)....... 2b. Thallus not like strands. Go to Number 3. in long, hairUsnea trichodea. tufted, but rather hanging Usnea trichodea Ach. One of the most common of the lichens popularly known as \"Old Man's Beard,\" this species is often as much as a foot long. It is typical of the high elevation forests of the Appalachians, but it is also common in the Coastal Plain of the southern states. There it is sometimes confused with Spanish Moss, Tillandsia usneoides, a flowering plant the species name of which means \"Usnea like.\" - 3a. Plants with conspicuously fringed fruiting bodies; cross branches of thallus round in with a tough central cord. main section and hollow Usnea strigosa. 3b. Plants with unfringed fruiting of thallus flattened and solid. bodies; main branches Ramalina fastigiata. Usnea strigosa (Ach.) Eaton. This and other members of the genus Usnea seem to be particularly susceptible to air pollution and are not often found in the environs of cities. The fringed apothecia, fruiting bodies, are typical numerous or of this species. The branches grow to as much as 3 inches long, much shorter than those of the related \"Old Man's Beard.\" 150 Ramalina fastigiata (Pers.) Ach. The genus Ramalina contains perhaps 20, mostly epiphytic in the United States, but this is the one most common and widespread. The specimen illustrated is unusual in that it does not display the disclike apothecia that are commonly produced in this species. The flattened, solid branches are seldom more than 11\/z inches species long. Foliose lichens growing on soil or rocks. la. Thallus roundish, without distinct lobes, and attached to the substrate only in the center. Go Go to Number 2. to the Number 3. lb. Thallus branched, with distinct lobes, attached substrate 2a. throughout. to Upper surface of the thallus with conspicuous, raised, blister-like areas; lower surface brown or tan. Lasallia papulosa. Upper surface of the thallus smooth; lower surface black... Umbilicaria mammulata. Lasallia papulosa (Ach.) Llano. This lichen is often classified in the genus Umbilicaria. It differs from U. mammulata, the only other common umbilicate lichen in our area, by its smaller size, its tan undersides, and perhaps most conspicuously, the raised, blister-like areas on the upper surface. The thalli are brownish when dry and are usually from 1 to 2 inches in 2b. diameter. 151 Umbilicaria mammulata (Ach.) Tuck. Members of the genus Umbilicaria all are lichens that are attached to the substrate only by a tough cord in the center of the thallus. They are commonly called \"Rock Tripes\" and have been used as human food. This species with its densely felty, jet-black undersides, grows to nearly a foot in diameter, and is one of our largest growing on mosses on lichens. 3a. Plants dark brown when wet; plants usually Peltigera Go to damp soil. found canina. 3b. Thallus orange, yellowish, or grayish. Number 4. Peltigera canina (L.) Will. This species is common shady places and Europe. tinent it has as in damp, in North America On the latter con- the long been known \"Dog Lichen,\" hence its name, due to the fact species to that, mixed with black pepper and milk, it was once believed provide a cure for rabies. The thallus is dark brown when wet, but it assumes a whitish cast when dry. The lobes are often 1\/~-inch or more broad. This genus is one of the relatively few in our area that contain blue-green algae. 4a. Thallus orange..... Caloplaca elegans. Go to Number 5. 4b. Thallus yellowish or grayish.. 152 Caloplaca elegans (Link) Th. This beautifully colored lichen is very closely and firmly attached to the rocks on which it grows, and sometimes appears to be almost crustose. In fact, some members of its genus are crustose lichens. It is common on Cape Cod, often growing on tombstones. Fr. 5a. Thallus pale yellowish or greenish, usually more than 2 inches in diameter; undersurface black or brown. Parmelia conspersa. 5b. Thallus ashy gray, usually less than an inch in diameter ; undersurface white. Physcia subtilis. Parmelia conspersa (Ach.) Ach. This lichen is a member of the largest and most familiar genus of foliose lichens in the United States. Most of its relatives, however, grow on trees. It is a very common species, often areas completely covering large of rock. Physcia subtilis Degel. This ge- large tree-dwelling as well as rock-dwelling species. Most of them are small plants with narrow lobes, but specific idennus a Physcia contains number of tification is often difficult. This perhaps the commonest rock species in our area. The individual plants are seldom as much as an inch broad, but they often coalesce into large colonies. The lobes are less than ~\/is-inch broad. is 153 Foliose lichens la. growing on trees. Thallus bright yellow, tiny, usually broad, often almost hidden among not less than 1~a-inch mosses on tree trunks. lb. Thallus bright yellow, more ....... Candelaria concolor. than an inch broad. Go to Number 2. concolor (Dicks.) foliose lichen common in our area that is bright yellow in color, this tiny plant grows on various hard- Candelaria Stein. The only woods, particularly ash, elm, and sugar maple, as well as on junipers. It is not a particularly conspicuous plant, in spite of its color, because it often grows intermingled 2a. Thallus among mosses. bright orange, on trees near the seacoast. Xanthoria parietina. found in variGo to Number 3. 2b. Thallus brownish, ous habitats.. yellowish or grayish, Xanthoria parietina (I.) Th. Fr. Members of the genus Xanthoria are usually bright found in our orange in area. color, and several other species are This plant, often with very numerous fruiting bodies, is common on exposed trees near the seacoast, particularly on Cape Cod. A similar but smaller species, X. polycarpa, is found in various habitats, most commonly on aspen trees. 3a. Thallus brown or olive green when dry. Go to Number 4. .... 3b. Thallus gray or greenish yellow when dry. Go to Number 6. 4a. Upper surface of thallus with a network of conspicuous, raised ridges......... Lobaria pulmonaria. 4b. Upper surface of thallus smooth. Go to Number 5. 154 Lobaria pulmonaria (L.) Hoffm. The common Lichen. name of this plant was derived from its supposed resemblance to lung tissue. Because of this resemblance, the plant was once considered to provide a This cure for lung diseases. and conspicuous species large is only common in rich, mature forests and swamps. When it dries, the lobes curve outward and upward, exposing the pale undersides. Lung 5a. Underside of thallus with numerous whitish, dotlike Sticta depressions.......... 5b. Underside of thallus without these weigelii. depressions. Cetraria ciliaris. weigelii (Ach.) Vain. A drab, dark brown lichen, large, Sticta this species is occasionally found on rocks as well as trees. The pale, dotlike depressions, called cyphellae, on the undersurface are its most distinctive feature. Although occasionally found in open woods in the Northeast, it is much more common in the southern states. Cetraria ciliaris Ach. The genus Cetraria is similar to the more common Parmelia. A number of species are found in the Northeast, but this is among the more common and distinctive ones. The thallus is generally between 1 and 3 inches in di- ameter, and the lobes '\/4-inch broad. are about 155 6a. Thallus 6b. Thallus greenish-yellow when dry. gray when dry. Parmelia caperata. Go to Number 7. Parmelia caperata (L.) Ach. This is the only large, greenish-yellow lichen that is common on trees in our area. The plants are often as much as 6 inches in diameter, with lobes almost ~\/>-inch broad. Fruiting bodies are not common, but when they occur their bright chestnut color is conspicuous against the rest of the thallus. 7a. Thallus papery and ly black when wet. slate-gray when dry, turning nearLeptogium cyanescens. when dry, becoming Go to Number 8. 7b. Thallus more ashy gray or gray-green greenish when wet. Leptogium cyanescens (Ach.) Koerb. One of the lichens with blue-green algae in its thallus, Leptogium is most commonly collected on the bases of hardwoods where it often grows over or among mosses. It ocis to be found also casionally on rocks. This species is the most common one in the Northeast. It very rarely produces fruiting bodies, a characteristic that distinguishes it from L. corticola, another native species. 8a. Lobes of the thallus inflated and hollow. ... Hypogymnia physodes. Go to Number 9. 8b. Lobes of the thallus flat and solid. 156 Hypogymnia physodes (L.) Nyl. This species is sometimes classified in the genus Parmelia, which it resembles in many re- spects. Upon close inspection, however, the lobes of H. physodes are inflated and hollow at least at the tips. It is a common species on both hardwoods and junipers, often almost covering the younger branches. 9a. Lobes about '~lc-inch broad. (For a discussion of Physcia species, 9b. Lobes more see P. subtilis Physcia spp. above.) than '\/s-inch broad. Go to Number 10. lOa. Lobes with slender margins. . black, hairlike projections on the Parmelia perforata. lOb. Lobes without these hairlike projections on the margins. Go to Number 11. Parmelia perforata (Jacq.) Ach. several other species of Parmelia with ciliate lobes (hairlike projections on the margins) may occasionally be found in our area, this one is easy to recognize because of the Although numerous cup-shaped fruiting bodies with holes in their centers. The thallus is loosely attached to the substrate, and the lobes frequently curve upward. lla. Lobes more or less angular; upper surface of thallus with a network of fine ridges. Parmelia saxatilis. lib. Lobes broadly rounded; ....................... upper surface of thallus smooth. Parmelia rudecta. 157 Parmelia saxatilis (L.) Ach. A species of Parmelia with rela- tively narrow, angular lobes, this lichen is very common on the trunks of hardwoods. A similar species, P. sulcata, lacks the coarse isidia found in this plant. Parmelia rudecta Ach. This is the most common large gray species of Parmelia found on hardwoods in our area. A conspicuous feature are the dense masses of granular isidia in the center of the large thalli. Note: The genus Parmelia is the largest group of foliose lichens in the United States. Only a few of the more common and conspicuous species have been included in this key. 158 Selected References The following is a short list of books which are strongly recommended for the reader wishing to know more about lichens. I have used them all in the preparation of this article. Amadjian, V. This is and M. E. Hale, eds. 1973. The lichens. Academic Press, New York, 697 pp. a the recent developIt is a collection of discussions by lichenology. experts in various aspects of the field. Although meant to be used by the serious student of lichens, amateurs will find many items of interest. technical book, summarizing ments in Bland, J. H. 1971. Forests of Lilliput: the realm of mosses and lichens. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 210 p;~. This is a truly remarkable book, perhaps the only basically popular work on mosses and lichens. Although not a professional in either lichenology or bryology, the author has a thorough knowledge of both fields. Many aspects of the uses and natural history of the fascinating plants are presented in a most readable style. 1961. Lichen handbook. Smithsonian Washington, D.C., 178 pp. E. Hale, M. Institution, works by the same very useful book. It ina succinct discussion of lichen biology and natural history in language readily understood by an amateur. The keys are good, but they are not effectively illustrated. This is the book I used as a text when I took Dr. William Culberson's lichenology course at Duke University. Although superceded by author cludes more recent a (see below), this is still . 1967. The biology of lichens. American Elsevier Publ. Co., Inc., New York, 176 pp. Meant to be a student textbook, this is perhaps the best review of lichen biology available on a semi-technical level. It is recommended as a \"must\" for anyone seriously interested in lichens, and if used in conjunction with the following book, would provide most of the information a serious amateur would need. 159 . 1969. Dubuque, How to know the lichens. Iowa, 225 pp. Wm. C. Brown Co., This is the best book available for the identification of lichens in the United States. The keys are similar in style to those used in the present article. They are excellent and well illustrated, but they do rely on chemical tests for many identifications. A short discussion of lichen biology is included in the introductory material. Parmelia conspersa (All illustrations iu this article are by the author.) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Worthy Kerrias","article_sequence":2,"start_page":160,"end_page":161,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24651","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060af26.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":3,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wadleigh, Jeanne S.","article_content":"The Worthy Kerrias by JEANNE S. WADLEIGH An old fashioned shrub, Kerria japonica, infrequently grown these days, has been accorded a position of prominence in the renovated Bussey Hill planting at the Arnold Arboretum. William Kerr, a plant hunter from Kew who discovered Kerria japonica and sent it back from China in 1805 would be pleased: his acquisition, originally known as Corchorus japonicus, has more than justified his notice of it and has been widely cultivated both here and in England where it was a popular cottage shrub in years past. Perhaps its recent recognition in Jamaica Plain will cause gardeners in this area to consider it and its four varieties when an easy, durable accent plant is wanted for informal landscapes. Kerria has other attributes: it bears sunny yellow flowers beginning in May and intermittently throughout most of the summer, it prospers in shady spots (which also help to preserve the brilliant color of its blossoms), it increases freely, and its slender bright green branches are attractive during the winter months. A member of the Rosaceae and actually native to Japan, Kerria was renamed in 1818 by Prof. A. P. De Candolle in tribute to Kerr's memory. The original plant sent back from China was the double K. japonica 'Pleniflora,' which at first was cultivated as a warm greenhouse plant because of uncertainty about its hardiness. It subsequently was discovered to be frosthardy and by 1810 had made its appearance in most of the principal plant collections about London. The species itself bears 1- to 2-inch single flowers not unlike buttercups in appearance; K. 'Pleniflora' is more vigorous and its ball-shaped blossoms remain in good condition on the arching branches for a longer period of time. Popularly known as Globeflower (not to be confused with Trollizis ), it is the variety most commonly grown, although K. 'Aureo-variegata' with yellow-edged leaves appeals to people favoring variegated foliage. A dwarf form, K. 'Aureo-vittata' bears branches conspicuously striped with green and yellow. Kerria 'Picta' has leaves bordered 160 161 Left. Kerria japonica. From The Botanical Register. Vol. 22. London, 1836 Right. Corchorus japonicus flore pleno. From The Botanical Magazine. Vol. 31-32. London, 1810. with white (specimens in the Arnold Arboretum shrub collection have tended to revert, however.) Generally growing from 4 to 8 feet in height, Kerrias benefit from pruning after the flowering period to promote new growth to bear next year's blooms, and also to remove tips that have winter-killed. Although hardy to Zone 4, they are susceptible to this injury if not provided with a well-drained, partly sheltered location. The plants increase very rapidly by suckers which the roots produce in ample numbers, but the preferred way to obtain new stock is by softwood cuttings taken in June or July. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":162,"end_page":164,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24649","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060ab28.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":3,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Wildlife and Plants of the Cascades. Charles Yocum and Vinson Brown. Healdsburg, Calif.: Naturegraph. 1971. 293 pages, 400 line drawings plus several full-color plates. Paperback, $3.95. This work represents the collaboration of two biologistnaturalists who have taught, lectured, and published. The volume is part of a series designed to acquaint residents and visitors to the Cascade Mountains region of the West Coast with the flora and fauna of the area. Habitats and their ecology are fully outlined. There are botanical descriptions of the plant families represented in the various plant zones. Animals are treated in a similar fashion. The drawings and colored prints are of excellent quality. Some prior reader knowledge of botany and zoology is implied throughout the work. The impression of this publication is that it is a required field guide for students. It is not, however, a traditional guide with keys; on the contrary, it consists of a series of descriptive paragraphs concerning various plants and animals of the Cascade region. It is therefore recommended for students in the Cascade area and in general for adults with an interest in nature and\/or ecology. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE John mon Press. Evelyn and his times. Bernice Saunders. Oxford: Perga1970. 203 pages. $6.95 John Evelyn was born in 1620 and died in 1706. From the time of the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660 he appears to have been a person of consequence in the government. What this book does do is to give a view of Evelyn and his social milieu what it does not do is give any real background to explain Evelyn the forester and author of \"Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees, and the Propagation of Timber ...\"a work which went through four editions in Evelyn's lifetime. Neither does it - 162 163 From John Evelyn and his times. explain Evelyn the ing translator of \"The French Gardiner: Instructhow to cultivate all sorts of fruit trees, and herbs for the garden ...\" 1658 - (3rd ed. 1676). Nor does it explain Evelyn the author of \"Kalendrium Hortense ...\" 1664, 10th edition 1706, which seems to be the original for all subsequent gardeners calendars. The Evelyn portrayed is a very human person and one for whom it is easy to feel sympathy. The book is well worth reading for its perspective on the life and times of 17th GORDON P. century England. DEWOLF, JR. 164 The International Book of Trees. A guide to the trees of our forests and gardens. Hugh Johnson. New York: Simon and Schuster. 1973. 288 pages (9 X 111\/a'), illustrated. $29.95. justice on This book must be seen to be believed, for no review can do to the encyclopedic coverage, the beauty of the illustrathe charm of the text. It is, by far, the best single volume tions, trees ever published. The author admits he is not a botanist, nor a forester, nor even a gardener, but a writer who has found in trees \"a new point of contact with creation, a source of wonder and satisfaction,\" and he has presented a personal account that, as he states, has made his former awareness of trees seem quite shameful. With the cooperation of many people, he has assembled a tremendous amount of information on trees. The opening chapters, 30 in number and each two pages long, cover topics from how a tree grows, to pruning and other arts. They are delightful essays and reviews at first botanical, then historical; all skim the subject, yet are profusely and appropriately illustrated. It is impossible to stop reading this book because of its content, but one does because of the small type, only to pick it up again and again. The bulk of the volume comprises illustrated, short articles on groups of trees. Chapters such as The Pines of Asia, The Plum Yews and Podocarps, The Chestnuts, The Hawthornes, Empress Trees and Indian Beans, The Elders, cover the best known genera and range from their wild habitat to their appearance and diversification as cultivated plants. A reference section and index completes the book, with charts and graphs covering the seasons of flowering, rates of growth (tree outlines superimposed on photographs of buildings depicting ten to one hundred years), insect pests and a guide to choosing the proper plant according to the site, characteristics of the plant or the environmental problem. A book costing this much is often considered a display item for homes or libraries, but this is a readable, useful, attractive volume, highly recommended. Anyone interested in trees should have a personal copy and no single volume would be more useful to the botany or horticulturel \"student\" of any age. The International Book of Trees is a remarkable accomplishment. RICHARD A. HOWARD Viburnum Sieboldii. Photo: P. Bruns. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23377","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eab6e.jpg","title":"1975-35-3","volume":35,"issue_number":3,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Poison-ivy and Its Kin","article_sequence":1,"start_page":93,"end_page":123,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24648","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060a76f.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":2,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gillis, William T.","article_content":"Poison-ivy and Its Kin everyone has an acquaintance with poison-ivy, chiefly from the rash that it causes rather than from its nature as a plant. Most of what I shall write here, however, concerns this very interesting plant and its distribution in the world. Hopefully I can dispel myths - old wives' tales that persist in our folklore despite scientific findings to disprove them. Nearly - Benign Relatives is a member of the sumac family (Anacardiaceae) which a number of other familiar plants belong. One of them is the common staghorn sumac ( Rhus typhina ) (See Fig. 1 ). Actually this plant has several relatives in the United States, all with the upright cone of red fruits in the late summer and fall, which differ very little from one another and which, in fact, occasionally hybridize. These are the smooth sumac (Rhus glabra) and the dwarf sumac (Rhus copallina), which has a winged petiole or rachis. Some other related species are found in local areas of the Southeastern United States. Another member of the benign sumacs is the aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica) (See Fig. 2). It is found in diverse places generally in regions of well-drained sands with pine forest cover in the eastern half of this country. A cognate species, Rhus trilobata, exists in the western part of the United States. Perhaps it might be assumed that there is one species complex with distinguishable forms at geographical extremities of east and west. This matter needs to be examined much more carefully. Additional relatives of the sumacs are found in North America. Cotinus coggygria, the smoke-tree, a native of Mediterranean Europe east into Central Asia as far as China, is cultivated in temperate North America. There also is an endemic smoketree (C. obovata) that is restricted to limestone and dolomite cliffs in the southern Appalachians, extending into eastern Texas. It has larger leaves and inflorescences than its Eurasian counterpart. The pepper-trees, Schinus spp. are native in Latin American countries. One, Schinus molle, has become weedy Poison-ivy to - 93 Fig.1 - Staghorn sumac (Rhus typhina) in flower. 95 Latin America way up into Texas and southern California. It is a tree with finely divided pinnae and long clusters of red drupes on the carpellate, or female, plants. Like most members of the Anacardiaceae, the plants are dioecious (i.e. either male or female). Another common member of this group, S. terebinthifolius, has become weedy in the southern part of Florida and is so well established there that it is called Florida holly. The name Brazilian pepper-tree is probably more appropriate, however, since it is no relation to the true holly throughout (Ilex). Poisonous Relatives The familiar cashew nut (Anacardium occidentale), planted and escaped throughout the world Tropics, is originally native to India. The \"nut\" itself is the ripened ovary, but below this is an expanded pedicel and receptacle that become very much enlarged, fleshy and tasty at fruiting stage (See Fig. 3). It is called the \"cashew-apple,\" and may be eaten raw or made into jam. Because the cashew-nut has poisons in the shell that are closely allied chemically to those in poison-ivy, it is worth mentioning as a poisonous relative of poison-ivy. Cashew nutshell liquid despite its poisonous properties has been important in making heavy-duty brake linings and electrical insulations. During the Second World War, American servicemen overhauling planes in the Canary Islands (where there is no similar dermatitis-producing plant) repeatedly broke out with a rash that looked similar to poison-ivy dermatitis. It was finally traced to the fact that they were working with the brakes and electrical parts of the planes that had been coated with cashew nutshell liquid hardened to a lacquer-like finish. A decade ago, a number of cocktail stirrers (See Fig. 4) came into the United States from Haiti. They were light in weight, took up little space in one's luggage, and looked \"exotic.\" They were, hence, very popular as souvenirs among air travelers who needed to keep their baggage weight to a minimum. The trouble was that the \"head\" of this little stirrer (in the shape of a voodoo doll) was an unroasted cashew nut, complete with poisons intact! Moreover, the \"eyes\" were seeds of Abrus precatorius, the rosary-pea, containing one of the most dangerous poisons of the tropics. (Two chewed and swallowed seeds can kill an adult.) They have been banned from further entry into this country. Fig. 2 - Aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica) in flower. Fig. 3 -Tiny flowers and large fruits of cashew (Anacardmm occidentale) in the West Indies. Note the \"cashew-apple,\" the enlarged and swollen receptacle. Fig. 4 - A cocktail stirrer or \"voodoo doll\" souvenir from Haiti made from unroasted cashew nut head. Eyes are of rosary-pea (Abrus precatorius). Fig. 5 - Fruiting specimen of dhobi-nut. This one is Semecarpus gigantifolia, endemic to Taiwan and the Philippines. 97 In the Far East the fruits of the tree Semecarpus (chiefly S. are used to make indelible laundry marks in The fruits have a poison similar to that in poison-ivy clothing. that will harden to a black, indelible, and unwashable substance. The fruits have been called dhobi-nuts (See Fig. 5) after the Indian name for the laundrymen, the dhobis. American servicemen stationed in India during the war often broke out with poison-ivy dermatitis on the neck or waistband i.e. those places where the dhobis had placed a laundry mark in their underwear. anacardium) - Fig. 6 - Poison-sumac in a typical swamp habitat. 98 The poison-wood, Metopium toxif erum, a tall shrub or small tree, grows in the Bahamas, Greater Antilles, and in Florida as far north as Daytona Beach. It produces a rash no different from that caused by poison-ivy. The most common member of the family in the Tropics is the mango (Mangifera indica). Even the mango has poisons in it, but they appear to, be restricted to the exocarp (\"skin\" of the fruit) and pedicel. It is therefore advisable always to peel a mango before eating it. One will note that persons who live in regions of the world where the mango is common do so. Poison-ivy's best known relative in this area is poison-sumac (Toxicodendron vernix), which grows only in swamps and other wet places in the eastern third of the United States (See Fig. 6). This is a shrub with a few stout, ascending stems, pale grey bark, compound leaves with smooth shining leaflets, and pendent clusters of greenish flowers followed by whitish fruits (See Fig. 7). In Asia one of the close relatives of lacquer tree of China and our poison-sumac is the Japan (Toxicodendron vernicifluum), from which the beautiful oriental lacquer ware is made. This 99 lacquer actually is layer after layer of the sap with its natural poisons in oxidized and polymerized form. Those who work with the lacquer endure a painful apprenticeship until they become insensitive to these poisons. The poisons in poison-ivy have been determined chemically by Dawson (1954, 1956) as being catechols with long side chains: R may equal: (CHZ)\"CH3, (CH2),CH CH(CH2),CH., (CHZ),CH=CHCH~ CH=CH(CHZ)2CH,, or (CHZ),CH=CHCH~ CH=CHCH= CH=CHz = The lacquer tree has the first 3 the following radical: R = compounds plus the one with (CH:),CH=CHCH: CH = CHCH = CHCH, can grow to a rather large size, although the stems do not exceed an inch or so in diameter. There are some records of poison-ivy vines that have achieved 5 or 6 inches in diameter (See Fig. 8), and there is at least one tree of it on record from Sanibel Island, Florida that stands 15 to 20 feet high (Cooley, 1955). The wood is not poisonous because the poison is carried in special ducts in the phloem, not the xylem. When the leaves are missing from the shrubs and vines during the fall and winter, poison-ivy may be seen with its stems climbing a number of trees, especially elms. The aerial stems nestle in the corrugations of the bark (See Fig. 9), while the aerial roots hold the vines fast to the tree. In the autumn and Morphology Poison-ivy commonly Fig. 7 - Fruits o\/' poison-sumac (Toxicodendron vernix) in winter. , 100 I or are pale yellow fruits that remain on the carpellate plants by a variety of birds; certain species of flicker make up nearly a third of their diet from poison-ivy fruits. Because these fruits are eaten by birds the plant is common around trees, fence-rows, under telephone wires, and wherever birds are likely to perch. Incidentally, I refer to the winter the buff harvested disseminules as fruits rather than seeds because the fruits of Rhus and Toxicodendron species are drupes with the seed wall firmly attached to the endocarp of the fruit wall. What is disseminated is the entire fruit, with the possible removal of the papery exocarp. and poison-sumac are used in decoraarrangements because of their autumn coloration. Poison-sumac, with its bronze-red or cherry-red leaves in autumn, is one of the most attractive of our shrubs at that season. Poison-ivy has fall colors ranging from yellow through orange to dark red. The flowers which are produced in June and July often are overlooked because people do not wish to approach the plant closely enough to see them. They are rather tiny, rarely exceeding 3 mm. in diameter, with the staminate more obvious than the carpellate because of the exserted stamens with yellow anthers. The flowers are greenish-cream in color and blend into the background of leaves (See Fig. 10). Occasionally poison-ivy tive indoor Distribution The total world distribution of the genus Toxicodendron includes Eastern Asia and North America south to Colombia in South America. One will note that it is found in North America and Eastern Asia, a classical distribution pattern first noted for a number of plant species by Asa Gray over a hundred years ago (Gray 1846, 1889). A somewhat reduced range is occupied by the Section Toxicodendron, in which poison-ivy and its immediate relatives, the poison-oaks, belong (See Fig. 11). Poison-ivy is found only in North America and Eastern Asia. It presumably originated in North America about 80 million years ago and migrated across the Bering Straits when there was a land connection between North America and Asia, and when the climate was much milder. In the intervening time, with the formation of the Bering Sea and Straits and the subsequent cooling of the Arctic, plants that were left in North America went their own way evolutionarily from those in Eastern Asia (MacGinitie, 1937). There are similarities in the morphology of both forms of poison-ivy (Asiatic and North American) to suggest their common ancestry. Chief among these are hairs on Fig. 8 - Section of poison-ivy wood nearly six inches in diameter. Fig. 9 - Poison-ivy vines nestled in corrugations of elm bark. Fig. 10 Close-up of staminate poison-ivy flowers. The flowers are about 3 mm in diameter. - Fig. 11 Poison-ivy dzstributzon. Shaded poison-ivies and poison-oaks. - areas show native range of all the fruits which are common in plants along the Atlantic Coast (T. radicans subsp. radicans ) and the two taxa in Asia (T. radicans subsp. orientale of Japan and T. radicans subsp. hispidum of China and Taiwan). Although poison-ivy was unknown in Europe prior to the colonization of North America, references to it are known in Eastern Asia in writings of Chinese scholars back as far as the seventh century (Toyama, 1918). Capt. John Smith (1609) first described poison-ivy to Western Europe when he reported that it \"causeth itchynge.\" Although the plant was known much earlier than the writings of Linnaeus, the specimen upon which the name is based is one which Peter Kalm collected about 1751 in the vicinity of Philadelphia. 103 Most of the diagnostic features of the poison-ivy taxa are found in the carpellate plant, especially in the fruit; therefore it has been difficult in the past to place the original name of poisonivy among the several subspecies because the type specimen is a staminate plant in flower. One form of poison-ivy (T. radicans subsp. radicans) is essentially an Atlantic coastal dweller that occurs from southern Nova Scotia south to the Florida Keys and the western Bahama Islands, and west to eastern Texas. Although there is some variation throughout its range, there is no clear-cut division between populations with specialized characters. I have had to recognize all of these populations as one continuous, although variable, subspecies. A character that unites all of this group along the Eastern Seaboard and incidentally is shared with populations in Asia is small tufts of hairs in the vein axils on the lower surface of the leaves. These may be either clear and hyaline or reddish-brown, with a predominance of hyaline ones in the New World and reddish-brown ones in the Old. This subspecies of poison-ivy is the one that can become most dense in its growth. It is perhaps nowhere more abundant than along the sandbars off the coast of New Jersey, Long Island, through the Carolinas, and along the rocky coast of New England. At Island Beach, New Jersey, for example, it forms a dense thicket and carpet that covers the rear dunes and swales essentially 100 to 200 yards wide - for about ten miles down the undisturbed barrier beach. In the lower Mississippi River basin there is a form of poisonivy (T. radicans subsp. pubens) that is virtually confined to the cotton-growing area of rich soils in places such as the \"Delta\" region of Arkansas, Louisiana, and Mississippi. On the Edwards Plateau region of Texas and continuing north to the Arbuckle Mountains of Oklahoma another subspecies of poison-ivy is found with sharply pointed lobes on the leaflets (T. radicans subsp. verrucosum) (See Fig. 12). In recent years, with the activities of man disturbing the habitat, both of these have begun to migrate and come into contact with other subspecies of poison-ivy, with which they interbreed. Because a number of subspecies impinge upon sections of Arkansas and southern Missouri, it is most difficult to name the taxa in these areas due to the great extent of hybridization, introgression, and the blurring of subspecies lines. Two subspecies of poison-ivy are encountered in Mexico. T. radicans subsp. barkleyi seems to follow the Sierra Madre Oriental, extending into western Guatemala to the ruins at Zacaleu; - - - 104 I T. radicans subsp. divaricatum, which is common in the Sierra Madre Occidental, extends northward into the southeastern corner of Arizona, and to the southern tip of Baja California. There are a few outliers of both of these forms in isolated regions of Mexico, presumably the result of long-distance dispersal, probably by birds. Where the subspecies overlap chiefly in the trans-Mexico volcanic belt occasional hybrids between these two subspecies appear. The most unusual form of poison-ivy is T. radicans subsp. eximium. I say it is unusual because it has leaf forms quite divergent from all other poison-ivy populations, and because it is rarely collected (not between 1937 and 1964, for example). It is restricted to the tributary valleys of the Rio Grande in Texas and Mexico with one outlier in southern Sonora. The leaflets resemble the \"club\" on a deck of playing cards. The leaflets of shade leaves are very much smaller than those growing in open sunlight, a general principle with poison-ivy and one that is quite contrary to our usual ecological concept of sizes of sun- and shade-leaves of other plants. Figure 13 shows a single collection in which the shade-leaves are very different from those growing in the sun. These two leaf forms are from the same individual plant from Big Bend National Park, Texas. In the center of the United States (the midwestern states generally north of the Ohio River), there is a subspecies of poison-ivy that has no distinctive characteristics of pubescence, leaf form, etc. The ca~tciii u~umuaiy uf iiiis ~uu5pec:ies (T. radicans subsp. negundo ) is the Allegheny ridge, especially clearly delimited in the vicinity of Tuscarora Mountain in Pennsylvania. On the east flank of the Alleghenies is subsp. radicans and on the west is subsp. negundo (See Fig. 14). One of the closest relatives of the poison-ivy of our East Coast is found in Japan (T. radicans subsp. orientale) (See Fig. 15). It extends from the southernmost portions of the Kurile Islands and the lower half of Sakhalin Island (under Russian mandate) to the northernmost of the Ryukyus (Yakushima) and the Bonin Islands. The Japanese poison-ivy is not nearly so abundant in Japan as poison-ivy is in this country. I believe that this phenomenon is due to the fact that all poison-ivies are essentially plants of disturbed habitats, and respond to the activities of man. Most of the land that is under cultivation in Japan has been thus for a long time with little additional disturbance by the removal of forests and construction of cities, the making of new roads, etc. - 105 Fig. 12 - Poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. verrucosum) from the Edwards Plateau, Texas. Fig. 13 - Herbarium men speciof poison-ivy from Big Bend National Park, Texas cans (Toxicodendron radisubsp. exim- ium). Both sprigs are from the same individual. The upper one with large leaves is from a climbing in the sun; the lower one with small leaves is from a prosin trate branch cane shade. Fig. 14 - A barn gan leaning under the weight of a poison-ivy vine (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. negundo). in Michi- Flg. 15 - Poison-ivy (Toxicodendron radicans subsp. orientale) from the Boso Peninsula, southeast of Tokyo, Japan. 107 Poison-ivy also occurs in China where it has bristly hairs on the fruits (T. radicans subsp. hispidum). It is found both in northern mountainous regions of Taiwan and also in the interior of Szechuan, Yunnan, and Hupeh provinces of mountainous western China, the area least visited by western explorers. A peculiarity of the various subspecies of T. radicans is that they will climb trees if given the opportunity. If there is no fence or tree to climb, or if the original support is removed, the plant will continue to grow as a sturdy shrub, often up to 5 and 6 feet high. Also peculiar is the fact that the ranges of these subspecies stop as one reaches the 44th parallel of latitude on the north and approximately the 100th meridian of longitude on the west. North and west of these boundaries is a form of poison-ivy that normally does not climb trees. It has a number of other characteristics that set it apart from the viney poison-ivies. It never produces aerial roots; it will grow in different ecological settings from T. radicans (e.g., it will grow in vegetation containing abundant bracken fern, whereas T. radicans usually does not); its leaflets are on much longer stalks than are the leaflets of T. radicans; its leaves tend to be much broader and its fruits far larger. This form is recognized as a separate species, T. rydbergii, because it differs in so many characteristics from all the other forms of poison-ivy both in America and in Asia. It is the most widespread and the most uniform of all the poison-ivies. Although it occurs all the way from Central Arizona to the Gaspe peninsula and to the Rockies in southern Canada, it is impossible to distinguish any one geographical race from any other throughout this range (See Fig. 16). The reference to the 44th parallel of latitude as being a boundary is intriguing for it can be detected along north-south rivers such as the Hudson and the Connecticut as well as it can be seen to be a dividing line between the southern portion of Nova Scotia and the northern part. This parallel of latitude marks an ecotone that has had significance in the past, being the dividing line between the agricultural Indians and the huntergatherer Indian in parts of Michigan, for instance (Cleland, 1966). This line also separates the region of presence and region of absence of mastodon skeletons. It presumably is an ecological boundary of some importance, on either side of which two forms of poison-ivy have evolved. The Poiso~z-oalzs Now to poison-oak. The term \"poison-oak\" means different 108 Fig. 16-Herbarium specimen of Rydberg's poason-ivy (Toxicodendron rydbergii). Note long petioles and orbicular leaflets that have a tendency to fold along the midrib. Fig. 17 - Distribution of western poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) and poison-ivy (T. rydbergii) in the Columbia Rtver gorge of Oregon and Washington, and location of intergrades between them. Fig. 18 - Eastern poison-oak (Toxicodendron toxicarium) in an oak-pine forest, Bastrop County. Texas. Fig. 19 - Poison-ivy fruits (left) in dry rangement. ar- 110I to different persons. It generally is applied to plants in the sumac family, and not to any true oak (Quercus). The term evolved because of the shape of the leaflets among some of the trifoliolate Toxicodendrons that appear to resemble leaves of true Quercus species. The leaflets of the western poison-oak resemble leaves of one or another of the western oaks such as Quercus agrifolia, and the leaflets of eastern poison-oak look like small leaves of Quercus alba. There is a western poison-oak (Toxicodendron diversilobum) that is indigenous to the region from southern British Columbia to northern Baja California, wedged between the deserts and the Sierras and Cascades on the east and the Coast Ranges on the west. Neither poison-oak on the western flank of the mountains, nor poison-ivy (T. rydbergii) on the east crosses the Cascades (except for one population of poison-oak known from a low-elevation pass in northern California). On the other hand, they come into contact in the Columbia River gorge. Where western poison-oak and Rydberg's poison-ivy overlap in range in the Columbia gorge, they form intergrades (See Fig. 17). The western poison-oak is similar to T. radicans in that it may grow as a healthy vine or shrub, and that it is found in a multitude of habitats. In fact, it exhibits one of the broadest ecological amplitudes of all the species of plants in the west. In the eastern United States, the second poison-oak (Toxicodendron toxicarium ) occurs from southern New Jersey to Marion County, Florida, west to eastern Texas and Oklahoma. Eastern poison-oak, ecologically very different from western poison-oak, is seldom found outside of scrub-oak forests on the coastal plain, commonly where there are ericaceous shrubs, some pine, and bunch- and wire-grasses (Andropogon and Aristida) (See Fig. 18). In eastern Oklahoma, outside the range of pine, all the typical associates are present with T. toxicarium, minus the pine. The sands of poison-oak habitats are usually excessively drained and coarse, low in nutrients, especially calcium. This species never climbs and is always a sub-shrub, like T. rydbergii. There is some variation in the morphology of the poison-oaks. In the western poison-oak, it is chiefly expressed as a response to variation in site, and not geography. Poison-oak from southern California may be indistinguishable from that growing in northern Washington, but two forms growing within a mile of one another may differ considerably. In eastern poison-oak this variation pattern seems to hold as things 111 well, but there are greater differences in leaf morphology be- tween staminate and carpellate plants than there are in reference to site, geography, etc. As a standard pattern (occasionally re- versed), the staminate plant will have considerably more deeply lobed leaflets than the carpellate. In fact, many female plants have leaflets with undulate or entire margins. The late Prof. Fernald described an elobate form of poison-oak from Virginia, never having noticed that all the plants were carpellate! If the reader feels that he has always been confused by the true definition of poison-oak, he is not alone. On the sheet that was examined by Linnaeus and is the first known herbarium specimen of eastern poison-oak, there are two different species attached: eastern poison-oak and aromatic sumac! The name that Linnaeus applied was Rhus toxicodendron. For strict application of this name among those who believe that the toxic sumacs belong with the benign ones in the genus Rhus, the only plant to which this binomial can properly be applied is eastern poison-oak. Yet the literature is rife with the name Rhus toxicodendron applied to all forms of poison-ivy and to both species of poison-oak. The great French botanist Michaux (1803) ignored the name Rhus radicans and made all the toxic American sumacs varieties of R. toxicodendron; the Swiss botanist DeCandolle (1825) did just the converse. There must be something particularly euphonious about the binomial Rhus toxicodendron that has made so many persons latch onto it for use in such a multitude of contexts! For those like myself (Barkley, 1937), who employ a segregate genus (Toxicodendron) for the poisonivies and poison-oaks, the rules of nomenclature preclude any combination using the word Toxicodendron as both a generic and specific epithet (a tautonym). Thus, in Toxicodendron, one must employ the next oldest specific epithet legitimately published for this plant. Eastern poison-oak thus has become T. toxicarium. Although typical poison-ivy (both species) and both poisonoaks normally have but three leaflets, occasionally additional leaflets are formed. Added leaflets are especially common in western poison-oak, in which nearly every clone studied can be found to have some leaves with five or more leaflets. I have seen one population that consistently produced additional leaflets, ranging even up to seventeen! The Generic Name The use of Toxicodendron as a generic name is an old one, 112 the writings of Tournefort. Few topics of taxonomists so much as arguing the group merits of Rhus over Toxicodendron as the name of poison-ivy and its kin. For the poisonous species that have axillary inflorescences, pendent fruits, smaller pollen grains, and fruits without glandular hairs, I use the generic name Toxicodendron, as do Barkley (1937), Heimsch (1940), and others. Dr. Joe Hennen of Purdue University has found rust parasites that attack only Toxicodendron species and others that parasitize only Rhus species. It appears that these rust fungi are fairly competent taxonomists in noting biological distinctions to add to the morphological ones mentioned above. dating can back to 1700 in a steam up Uses When I give a talk about poison-ivy, generally someone in the audience will ask, \"Well, what good is it?\" It is surprising to most persons that poison-ivy does have some value. The Dutch of Friesland Province in the north of the Netherlands have used it since early in this century to stabilize dikes (Van Der Ploeg, 1966). It has been cultivated in England (as far back as 1640!), in New Zealand, and Australia for its ornamental attributes, probably chiefly the autumn coloration (Conner, 1951, Anonymous, 1908, and Anonymous, 1949). Many birds feed on its drupes, some flickers and wren-tits making up at least a quarter of their diet from poison-ivy fruits (Martin et al., 1951). Bees can make a nontoxic honey from its nectar (Rostenburg, 1955). A number of small mammals use it for cover. And there are those intrepid flower arrangers who employ poison-ivy fruits in have been known among the American Indians and have been considered both poisonous and useful in their cultures since pre-Columbian times. In a few American Indian languages the word for poison-ivy is equivalent to \"bad woman\" or \"venereal disease.\" In a few cases the Indian language word for this plant reflects an attempt on the part of the culture to appease the species; the word may be roughly translated as \"you are my friend\" in Cherokee language. The Pomo Indians of California used the poisonous sap to dry arrangements (See Fig. 19). Poison-ivy and the poison-oaks basket fibers (Balls, 1965). The Meskwaki, Ojibwe, and Potawatomi Indians used it as a poultice to remove warts or on a swelling to make the skin open (Smith, 1928, 1932). In the Wetherill project diggings at Mesa Verde some poisonivy was found among the medicine man's possessions. The seeds dye 113 radiocarbon-dated as having grown around the 13th have been preserved intact simply by the dry desert air. century They are clearly identifiable to this day as Toxicodendron rydbergii (See Fig. 20). The use to which the medicine man put these plant products is unknown. As stated in one of my earlier publications ( Gillis, 1971): \"The Ramah Navahoes made an arrow poison from poison-ivy mixed with deer's blood and charcoal from a lightning-struck tree, the latter no doubt a connection with black Magic (Vestal, 1952). Another version of making this arrow poison added the juices of Phacelia crenulata var. ambigua Macbr. (Wyman and Harris, 1941). The Navahoes also used poison-ivy (T. rydbergii) for good luck in gambling: they chewed a small piece of leaf and gave it to an opponent (Vestal, ibid.). The Karok Indians used sticks of T. diversilobum to spit salmon steaks while smoking them over a fire, and its leaves to cover soaproot (Chlorogalum pomeridianum Kunth) when baking it in an earthen oven. The Concow Indians of northern California even mixed the leaves of T. diversilobum into their acorn meal when they baked bread. Other northern California tribes simply wrapped their meal in its leaves while baking (Balls, ibid.). Some, too, used its supple stems as the warp in weaving baskets (Balls, ibid.). that were Fig. 20 - Comparison of poison-ivy fruzts (Toxicodendron rydbergii). Those on left are modern. The ones on the right were retrieved from clif~ dwellings at Mesa Verde, and were radiocarbon-dated as having grown in the 13th century. 114 \"The Yuki tribe of California used sap from T. diversilobum get rid of warts: they would cut off the wart and apply poisonoak sap to the wound. The same treatment was applied to ringworm and rattlesnake bites (Balls, ibid.). They also used the sap, mixed with mountain hemlock and suet, for tribal markings (John N. Taylor, personal communication). The Yukis also (especially the Tatu or Huchnom branch) used a sprig of poisonoak dipped in water to 'keep the women in due subjection.' The men, while attempting to conjure up the devil in their meetinghall, would paint one of their peers, strip him, place a chaplet of leaves over his face to render him incognito, and send him through the village amid whoops and diabolical yells. As he cavorted through the village, he would sprinkle wet poison-oak branches in the squaws' faces. Screaming with uncontrollable terror, the women would fall prostrate on the ground. Sworn to silence lest they die while discussing a spook, they would never realize who had, in fact, been their attacker (Powers, 1877).\" to Fossils Fossils of poison-ivy (Toxicodendron magnifolium) have been known from the western part of the United States from Oligocene time (40 million years ago). Some fossils were quite common constituents of the Weaverville flora of northern California (MacGinitie, 1937), curiously enough a region that has no poison-ivy today, but only western poison-oak. The fossils resemble more closely the poison-ivies of eastern Asia than they do extant poison-ivies from this country today (See Fig. 21 ). This resemblance further strengthens our belief that the two populations were once continuous between the two continents. Fossils of western poison-oak have been found in Pleistocene deposits in the West. They seem to be little different from T. diversilobum of today. The Disease Now to the disease, which has been studied extensively by Kligman (1958) and Epstein (1958). The poison in the poisonivies, poison-oaks, and poison-sumacs is carried in specialized vessels or resin ducts in the phloem. It is not, therefore, normally on the surface of the leaves or twigs. But it is found within these resin ducts, in leaves, flowers, stems, or roots in all the Toxicodendron species. Should the leaves be bruised, chewed by insects, or otherwise damaged, then and only then will the poison exude from these resin ducts onto the leaf present - - 115 Fig. 21 - Type collection of Oligocene fossil of poison-ivy (Toxicodendron magnifolium) from the Weaverville flora of Trinity County, California. surface. Being composed of chemically unstable compounds, the original clear liquid oxidizes and polymerizes in a few hours to a black, gummy substance, not unlike the lacquer exudates of the Asiatic sumac relatives (T. vernicifluum, T. succedaneum, and T. trichocarpum). It is transferable to the human being either directly by breaking the leaves and stems as one brushes against the plant, or it may be transferred by the blackened catechols that have come to the surface of the leaves and remained for some time. The poisons may be effective for an indefinite period of time in causing dermatitis. Several hundredyear-old herbarium specimens have been known to affect a sensitive person who has handled them! The so-called \"cures\" employed by laymen to treat the dermatitis range from the desperate to the fantastic. A compilation of such treatments (see Kligman, 1958) reveals the range of human imagination in dealing with disease. Some of the cures include drinking photographer's hypo (sodium hypochlorite), applying either morphine, gunpowder, cream and marshmallows, or aqua regia to the skin. There are those who swear by the application of sap of Impatiens capensis or I. pallida (jewel-weed), 116 and one pharmaceutical company once sold a decoction of jewelweed for this purpose. Some New Englanders claim that the \"sure cure\" is application of the boiled concentrate of stems, leaves, and fruits of sweet-fern (Comptonia peregrina). The dermatitis may be induced in man via the smoke of burning poison-ivy, but not for reasons commonly supposed. The poison is not volatile, even at the temperatures of bonfires. Any transmission of poison in the smoke is therefore by droplets on particles of dust and ash in the smoke, rather than as a gas. While raking up and burning leaves that may include poisonivy, the wise householder should avoid standing in the smoke, especially if he is sensitive to Toxicodendron poison. The poisons may be transferred to human beings by the hair of animals such as dogs that may run through the poison-ivy or poison-oak; or they may be carried on gloves, boots, and other articles of clothing worn by a person who has been out for a tramp in the woods. Originally over 200 years ago - poison-ivy was placed in the genus Rhus. For this reason the dermatitis which is caused by poison-ivy and its relatives is known as \"Rhus dermatitis\" by the medical profession. Although I have attempted (Gillis, 1971 ) to make a good case for separating the poisonous species from the benign ones into a separate genus, Toxicodendron, (which, as a segregate genus, has a history dating back to 1700 in the writings of Tournefort and is therefore not a new idea), it is probably best for the medical profession to retain its general termmoiogy tor the disease as Rhus dermatitis a kind of nomen conservandum for the medical folk. - Herbicides There is no quick-and-easy way to rid oneself of the poisonivy plant should one wish to do so; it is hardy enough to be little discouraged by weed killers. The surest method is to pull it up. Use cotton work gloves rather than rubber ones to protect the hands. The poisons are soluble in rubber and will eventually dissolve their way through the glove to the inside. After eradicating, discard both plants and gloves. Herbicides that attack woody species will also do the job (commercial preparations of 2,4-D or 2,4,5-T, or a mixture of them), but application probably will have to be repeated inasmuch as the apparently \"dead\" plants will usually sprout from the not-so-dead roots.* As I said earlier, they're hardy. The dead vines and branches still must be dealt with and removed, and may cause poisoning even in the dead state. Amitrol-T is a weed killer that has been used with considerable the Arnold Arboretum. In our experience it is slow to act, but effective. success at * 117 Plants With Which Poison-ivy Is Confused Poison-ivy may frequently be confused with a number of other woody or vine plants with trifoliolate leaves. Each one will be described below with the differences that one can use in distinguishing it from poison-ivy. 1. Box elder (Acer negundo). This plant is in the maple family and, therefore, has opposite leaves. It frequently has leaves with five leaflets in addition to some with three. The young stems are bright, glossy green with an occasional glaucous patch. Poison-ivy always has brown or dull green young stems and alternate leaves. It also frequently climbs box elder trees, thus adding to the confusion. 2. Hop-tree (Ptelea trifoliata). This plant grows as a shrub like poison-ivy. It does not have any well-defined buds, whereas poison-ivy does. The tips of the branches will be quite stubby. The twigs tend to be gray or black, rather than the brown of poison-ivy. The leaflets are borne in threes like those of poison-ivy, but the central leaflet tapers to the base, while that in poison-ivy does not taper. The edge of the leaflets on the hop tree is smooth, or ocsionally has fine teeth, but that in poison-ivy (except along the Atlantic Coast and in the Orient) will tend to be notched The fruits are samaras, that is, there is a dry, circular, papery wing surrounding the seed like a wafer. Poison-ivy fruits are berry-like drupes. 3. Bladder-nut (Staphylea trifolia). This plant, like the maple, has opposite leaves. It has sac-like persistent fruits which may be an inch or more in diameter and an inch and one-half to two inches long. It grows as a small tree. 4. Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia). This plant grows in some of the same habitats that poison-ivy does, and it climbs much as poison-ivy does. It has five leaflets, all originating from one point, unlike poison-ivy's three. However, some of the younger leaves at the tip of the growing Virginia creeper vine may have only three leaflets. One can look at the scars left from the places where the leaves used to be to determine the difference. In Virginia creeper, they are circular with a raised edge, looking very much like a crater. In poison-ivy, these leaf scars are triangular in shape, often quite narrow. The fruits of Virginia creeper are juicy, purple (almost 118 black) berries, poison-ivy. 5. not hard and light colored like those of This Virgin's as a bower (Clematis virginiana). plant vine, but has opposite leaves. The leaflets tend grows to be a light green and they are quite thin and never glossy. The leaves have veins that turn out from the middle vein and curve upward, almost parallel to the edge. The veins of the poison-ivy plant come out at 60 degrees from the midvein and then run into the edge. The flowers of Virgin's bower are quite conspicuous, cream-white, about threequarters of an inch across. The fruits have long feathery tails on them. 6. Aromatic sumac (Rhus aromatica). This plant is related to poison-ivy, but has leaves more uniform in size. The notches are rounded, rather than pointed. The leaves are generally quite hairy, with their leaflets tapered to the base, unlike those of poison-ivy. The flowers are yellow and appear immediately as the buds open early in April. The fruits will be almost ripe by the time the poison-ivy flowers are just coming out. The fruits of the aromatic sumac are fuzzy and red. Facts Frequently Misunderstood About Poison-ivy ___ I frequently have used the following 20 summary statements ahnllt~nien_n--i~W thenlant and the disease to hol\" .lie pel much misinformation. 1. Poison-ivy is in the sumac family (Anacardiaceae) along with staghorn sumac and its close relatives: pistachio, cashew, mango, squawbush, poison-sumac, and some poisonous trees of the tropics. It is not closely related to Boston-ivy 2. Some nor English-ivy. poisonous relatives of poison-ivy are poison-sumac (Toxicodendron vernix), poison-wood (Metopium spp.), and guao or maiden-plum (Comocladia) of the Caribbean area, cashew (Anacardium occidentale), the dhobi-nut (Semecarpus), and the mango (Mangifera). In mango, the poison is in the pedicel and possibly in the \"skin\" of the fruit. Poison-oak is not an oak, but a sumac. It is called poisonoak because its leaflets resemble the leaves of some native oaks. There is no poison-oak in Massachusetts; elsewhere there are two species with this common name: one along the 3. 4. 119 5. Pacific Coast (Toxicodendron diversilobum), and one in the southeastern United States (T. toxicarium). There are two species of poison-ivy in the United States (and Canada, Mexico, and Western Guatemala and the Bahamas). One, which may grow as a shrub or vine, is Toxicodendron radicans. There are a number of variants now recognized as subspecies. To the west of the 100th meridian of longitude and north of approximately the 44th parallel of latitude there is a non-climbing species, T. rydbergii. The chemical nature of the poison in poison-sumac or in either of the poison-oak species presumably is related chemically to that in poison-ivy, but its actual identity has yet to be determined. It is possible that the human body can detect differences between these poisons, but this has yet to be demonstrated. It is likely that a person who is \"allergic\" to one of these plants is allergic to them all. The poisons are not volatile and therefore cannot be contracted \"out of the air.\" A direct or secondary contact is 6. 7. necessary. 8. The poison may be spread in the smoke of burning poison-ivy because of tiny droplets of the poison present on the particles of dust and ash in the smoke. Poison-ivy may be spread by animals. Petting a dog after it has run through a patch of the plant is a frequent way contracting it. Poison-ivy may be spread by articles of clothing. A person may reinfect himself by handling the same shoes he wore when he walked through a patch of the plant. The poison cannot be spread by breaking the blisters on 9. of 10. 11. 12. 13. the skin. There is little way of hastening the departure of the disease. Any medicines that are used on the skin serve to help dry the blisters, treat for secondary infection, or relieve itching. ACTH or cortisone derivatives will help cure the disease, but should be administered only with the advice and direction of a physician. The level of sensitivity differs from person to person. Once one has surpassed his threshold of sensitivity, he will most likely alter the threshold. In some instances it appears that a severe case will herald more severe cases; in others it appears that one very virulent case precludes any others. 120 An initial contact is sufficient to give a person a rash if he is abnormally sensitive. Usually, however, one must be sensitized by an initial contact before he will react by producing a rash from subsquent exposures. 15. It is difficult to wash off this insoluble poison completely. Strong soap merely removes excess poison from the skin, but will not remove any which has already reacted, because the poison is believed to form a complex with skin proteins. It is therefore not removable short of removing the skin! 16. Injections are sporadic in effectiveness. They generally should be avoided as prophylactic measures, and definitely should be avoided during an attack of the dermatitis. At best, they may confer some degree of immunity; at worst, they may make a mildly sensitive person very sen14. sitive. 17. 18. w Eating a leaf of poison-ivy may have disastrous results. One may surpass his normal level of immunity by the first bite; in this instance, he is headed for an internal case of poison-ivy, occasionally known to be fatal. The idea that American Indians chewed a leaf of poison-ivy to confer immunity is a myth that has never been documented. The mechanism of sensitivity is not thoroughly understood. It does not behave like protein sensitivities such as hay fever puiienusis. i~ is a hypersemsi~iviiy of ~he delayed type, whose mechanism is related to that of organ transplant rejection. are some persons who appear to be immune to poison-ivy. Probably very few persons are potentially totally immune, but rather have (a) a high threshold of sensitivity or (b) have never been sensitized. Any survey of 19. There the population generally reveals about 50% of those surveyed are immune at the time of census. Some studies indicate that red-heads are more susceptible than who seem in turn to be more sensitive than brublonds, seem to nettes. 20. ivy, There is no known easy method for either the plant or the disease. ... getting rid of poison- One Man's Meat Although it would be useful to be able to give one sure-fire method of recognizing poison-ivy or poison-oak from all other 121 plant kingdom, it is not possible to do so withlarge number of benign species in the wild. One can say that a person should beware of all plants whose leaves are made up of three leaflets, but by the time he has gotten close enough to see the number of leaflets, he is probably too members of the out indicting a close for comfort. Besides, the average tramper in the woods is not going to examine every plant before he steps on it or passes through it. Hence, only by experience will one be able to spot easily these plants in question among the many others in our woodlands and fields. Of all animals in the animal kingdom, only man and a few of the higher primates are sensitive to the poisons. Even rhesus monkeys may be sensitized only with difficulty, and they lose their sensitivity relatively rapidly. A few instances are on record of deliberately sensitizing dogs once the poison was applied directly to the skin with the hair removed. But the fact remains that all medical experimentation on this dermatitis must be conducted on Homo sapiens himself. He may use no surrogate in his investigations. We have seen that poison-ivy and poison-oak have value to animals other than man. Birds, small mammals, insects, etc. have made use of the plants in one way or another. Although occasionally browsed by deer, poison-ivy certainly is not a preferred food. All of this goes to show that \"one man's meat is another man's poison.\" WILLIAM T. GILLIS Department of Biology Hope College Holland, Michigan 122 Literature Cited 1908. (Untitled) J. & Proc. Royal Soc. New South Wales 42: xlviii. Anonymous. 1949. English grow poison ivy. Sci. News-Letter 56: 70. Balls, E. K. 1965. Early uses of California plants. Univ. Calif. Press. Berkeley. Barkley, F. A. 1937. A monographic study of Rhus and its immediate allies in North and Central America, including the West Indies. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 24: 265-498. Brizicky, George K. 1962. The genera of Anacardiaceae in the southeastern United States. J. Arnold Arbor. 43: 359-375. 1963. Taxonomic and nomenclatural notes on the genus Rhus (Anacardiaceae). J. Arnold Arbor. 44: 60-80. Candolle, A. P. de. 1825. Prodromus, Vol. 2. Paris. Cleland, C. E. 1966. The prehistoric animal ecology and ethnozoology of the Upper Great Lakes region. Anthrop. Papers Mus. Anthrop., Univ. Michigan No. 29. Connor, H. F. 1951. The poisonous plants of New Zealand. Bull. 99, D.S.I.R.O. Wellington. Cooley, George R. 1955. The vegetation of Sanibel Island, Lee County, Florida. Rhodora 57: 268-289. Dawson, C. R. 1954. The toxic principle of poison ivy and related plants. Rec. Chem. Prog. 15: 38-53. 1956. Chemistry of poison ivy. Trans. New York Acad. Sci. 18: 427-443. Epstein, William L. 1958. Rhus dermatitis: fact and fiction. Bull. Kaiser Found. Med. 6: 197-204. Gillis, William T. 1962. Poison-ivy in northern Michigan. Michigan Bot. 1: 17-22. 1971. Systematics and ecology of poison-ivy and the poisonoaks (Toxicodendron, Anacardiaceae). Rhodora 73: 72-159; 161-237; 370-443; 465-540. Gray, Asa. 1846. Analogy between the flora of Japan and that of the United States. Amer. J. Sci. 2: 135-136. 1889. The similarity between the flora of Japan and that of the United States, especially the Atlantic side. Darwiniana. Appleton Co., New York. Heimsch, Charles. 1940. Wood anatomy and pollen morphology of Rhus and allied genera. J. Arnold Arbor. 21: 279-291. 1942. Comparative anatomy of the secondary xylem in the \"Gruinales\" and \"Terebinthales\" of Wettstein with reference to taxonomic grouping. Lilloa 8: 83-198 (-~942). Jones, N. R. 1955. Economic losses due to poison oak dermatosis. Proc. Calif. Weed Conf. 7: 3-6. Kligman, Albert M. 1958. Poison ivy (Rhus) dermatitis. A.M.A. Arch. Derm. Syph. 77: 149-180. Linnaeus, C. 1753. Species Plantarum, Vol. 1. Facsimile of the first edition with an introduction by William T. Stearn. 1957. Ray Society. London. MacGinitie, H. D. 1937. Eocene flora of western America. iii. The flora of the Weaverville beds of Trinity County, California. Anonymous. . . . . . 123 Publ. Carnegie Inst. Washington 465: 83-151. Martin, A. C., H. S. Zim, and A. L. Nelson. 1951. American wildlife and plants. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. Michaux, A. 1803. Flora boreali-Americana. Vol. 1. Paris. Powers, S. 1877. Tribes of California. Contr. N. Amer. Ethnology 3: son 1-635. 1955. An anecdotal biographical history of poiDerm. Syph. 72: 438-445. Smith, H. H. 1928. Ethnology of the Meskwaki Indians. Bull. Publ. Mus. City Milwaukee 4: 175-326. 1932. Ethnology of the Ojibwe Indians. Bull. Publ. Mus. City Milwaukee 4: 327-525. Smith, J. 1609. Unpublished manuscript later published (1882) by the Hakluyt Society of London and edited by Sir. J. Henry Lefroy under the title \"The history of the Bermudas or Summer Isles.\" Tournefort, J. P. 1700. Institutiones Rei Herbariae. Vol. 1. Paris. Toyama, 1. 1918. Rhus dermatitis. J. Cutan. Dis. Syph. 36: 157165. Van Der Ploeg, D. T. E. 1966. Rhus radicans in Friesland. Gorteria 7: 345-353. Vestal, P. A. 1952. Ethnobotany of the Ramah Navaho. Papers Peabody Mus. Amer. Arch. Ethn. Harvard Univ. 40, No. 4. Wyman, L. C. and S. K. Harris. 1941. Navajo Indian medical ethnobotany. Bull. Univ. New Mexico Anthrop., Ser. 3, No. 5. Rostenburg, A., Jr. ivy. A.M.A. Arch. -. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"'Constant Nymph' Updated","article_sequence":2,"start_page":124,"end_page":127,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24647","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060a36b.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":2,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"'Constant Nymph' Updated Streptocarpus 'Maassen's White' There was considerable response to the article \"Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and Its Mutants\" published in the May\/June 1973 issue of Arnoldia. Since recent developments have occurred of interest to indoor gardeners, it seems desirable to bring things up-to-date. Several nurserymen throughout the United States have rereceived propagation material from us. At some Houses held for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, 'Constant Nymph' and its mutants have been given away when stock was sufficient. This has led many indoor gardeners to tell us that these Streptocarpus are among the most satisfactory and exciting house plants they have grown. The author has quested and of the Open 124 125 several very fine specimens that prove these plants can become quite large with a bounty of remarkable blue flowers if given proper care. They seem to be superior to other Streptocarpus used as house plants. An item of additional interest has been discovered by indoor gardeners: These plants set seed readily and the easily grown seedlings flower at an early age in an assortment of types, colors and sizes that best can be described as \"motley.\" Home growers therefore can make selections of their own favorite seedlings and propagate them with seen ease. The five new clones introduced by the Arnold Arboretum were 'Blue Nymph,' 'Cobalt Nymph,' 'Mini Nymph,' 'Netta Nymph' and 'Purple Nymph.' They were carefully described in an article called \"New Streptocarpus Varieties\" by Carl D. Clayburg in The Gloxinian for September-October, 1970, where the fact was mentioned that the Arnold Arboretum was propagating them at that time. When the first Arnoldia article was written it was pointed out that there was \"more to come.\" At that time a fine white clone called 'Maassen's White' was causing a sensation in Europe. Soon after it was available in this country the demand was so great that growers found it difficult to keep it in stock. Its snow-white flowers are strikingly beautiful, making it a good companion for the various shades of blue of the earlier clones. 'Maassen's White' propagates readily, matures rapidly, and should be as popular as its blue relatives. Continuing development in both England and Holland makes it clear that the best is yet to come. A Christmas card from the John Innes Institute in 1971 showed a remarkable mixture of new Streptocarpus seedlings obviously of 'Constant Nymph' alliance. Since the card was in color the startling new shades of soft pink, rose, dusty red and blue-violet had considerable impact. In the May, 1973, Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, an article called \"Hybrid Streptocarpus\" by A. G. Brown of the John Innes Institute, Norwich, England reviewed the previous work done on Streptocarpus and described the new work in progress at the Institute. The whole article was reprinted in The Gloxinian for July-August, 1974. The plates accompanying the original article were in color; those used in the reprint appear to be the same but are in black and white. Mr. Brown confirmed what we had found. He pointed out that 'Constant Nymph' or any one of its derivatives makes \"an ideal flowering house plant not only tolerating but thriving in the 126 climate and conditions of the average house.\" He rightfully concluded that a much greater color range than the various shades of blue would be very desirable. The cross that produced 'Constant Nymph' was remade several times but each time the Streptocarpus X hybridus parent used was in a shade of pink or red rather than blue. Nearly 3,000 seedlings were grown and evaluated in the second (F2) generation where the variation is great in a cross of this sort. The color range went from white through various shades of pink to red, to purples and new shades of blue. New flower patterns and markings resulted also. The same habit of flowering almost constantly from April to October was inherited. By using supplementary lighting to counteract shorter days in November through March, it would be possible to have bloom throughout the year, according to Mr. Brown. Nine clones have been named so far. They are 'Diana,' a deep cerise with a white throat; 'Fiona,' a good pink; 'Karen,' a ma- genta-pink ; 'Louise,' a deep blue-violet; 'Marie,' a dusky purple; a reddish-purple; 'Tina,' bright magenta and pale pink; 'Olga,' described as \"a bold cerise\"; and 'Helen,' a pale blue. 'Paula,' A recent letter from Mr. Brown in answer to my request for propagating material from the above clones indicates that we may have a wait. He states that \"we are a Government financed research station and so we have to take out Breeders' Rights on our new cultivars and the distribution is undertaken for us by a Government sponsored company ... They relieve us of all the business side of propagation and distribution.\" Apparently, a two-year lapse is required from the time the \"Government sponsored company\" receives the plant material until it is released so that adequate testing may be done. The writer is waiting now to hear from this organization with the hopes that the Arnold Arboretum may be the means of bringing this whole new crop of fine plants to the American gardener. In the meantime, news of an excellent \"mini white\" clone has come from Holland. Another, a tetraploid form of 'Maassen's White' called 'Albatross,' has been described as \"very fine indeed.\" GEORGE H. PRIDE References Brown, A. G. 1973. Hybrid Streptocarpus. Journal of the ticultural Society. 98 ( 5 ) : Royal Hor- 127 Brown, A. G. Personal Correspondence Clayburg, ian Carl D. 1970. New Streptocarpus Varieties. The Gloxin- 20(5): 19-20. Pride, George H. 1973. Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and its Mutants. Arnoldia 33(3): 184-188. Arnoldia Reviews Ximenia americana. From A Flora of Tropical Florida. A Flora of Tropical Florida (A Manual of the Seed Plants and Ferns of Southern Peninsular Florida). Robert W. Long and Olga Lakela. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press. 1971. 980 pages, illustrated. $29.50. on the vegetation of the southeasculminated in the publication in 1933 of his Manual of the Southeastern Flora, an impressive volume of 1576 pages. Small was regarded as a \"splitter\" since he emphasized minor variations in form, structure or distribution as the basis for describing new genera and species. In the genus Chamaesyce Small recognized thirty species, seventeen of which he described. John Kunkel Small's work tern United States "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":127,"end_page":132,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24646","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d060a326.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":2,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"127 Brown, A. G. Personal Correspondence Clayburg, ian Carl D. 1970. New Streptocarpus Varieties. The Gloxin- 20(5): 19-20. Pride, George H. 1973. Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and its Mutants. Arnoldia 33(3): 184-188. Arnoldia Reviews Ximenia americana. From A Flora of Tropical Florida. A Flora of Tropical Florida (A Manual of the Seed Plants and Ferns of Southern Peninsular Florida). Robert W. Long and Olga Lakela. Coral Gables: University of Miami Press. 1971. 980 pages, illustrated. $29.50. on the vegetation of the southeasculminated in the publication in 1933 of his Manual of the Southeastern Flora, an impressive volume of 1576 pages. Small was regarded as a \"splitter\" since he emphasized minor variations in form, structure or distribution as the basis for describing new genera and species. In the genus Chamaesyce Small recognized thirty species, seventeen of which he described. John Kunkel Small's work tern United States 128 He divided the wood-sorrel, Oxalis, creating three new genera and describing as new ten of the nineteen species. The burden of proof that such splitting is not biologically sound unfortunately rests on the succeeding botanists who combined the taxa. Work at the generic level has been conducted at the Arnold Arboretum by Dr. Carroll Wood and collaborators, among whom was Dr. Long, senior author of the present volume. To the student of the vegetation of southern peninsular Florida a new manual was needed presenting insofar as possible a modern treatment both of the taxonomy and the nomenclature of the plants. Long and Lakela's volume of 980 pages is physically as large as Small's and is not designed to be carried easily in the field. Included are treatments of 1647 species of ferns and their allies, gymnosperms and flowering plants. Many of the commonly cultivated plants or those escaped from cultivation are included. A special introduction on the history of botanical collecting in southern Florida was contributed by Joseph Evan. The authors review the geology and the plant communities of the area which has its northern limit at the latitude of Lake Okeechobee and includes the Florida Keys. A useable key to families is supplied along with keys to genera and species. The 125 illustrations in general adequately represent the plants. There are some technical errors of fact and of nomenclature which other reviews have noted, but these are very few and can always be corrected in the next edition. The authors are to be commended for completing and publishing a useful volume for an interesting and much visited area of the United States. RICHARD A. HOWARD Plants: Wild and Cultivated. P. S. England: E. W. Classey, Ltd. 1973. Green, editor. Hampton, 231 pages. f2.70. This volume is fundamentally the 24 papers presented dura conference on horticulture and field botany scheduled by the Royal Horticultural Society and the Botanical Society of the British Isles. The papers represent the interests and talents of the several speakers and form an extremely valuable compendium highly recommended for personal and professional libraries. The lead article titled \"And never the twain shall ing 129 Horticulture and Botany - allies not enemies\" approsets the stage for discussions of conservation; the roles of nurseries, private gardens and botanic gardens; the principles of botanical nomenclature and of horticultural nomenclatural problems; the relevance of genetics and the development of garden plants from wild plants; the value of the herbarium; the literature of plants and special treatments of such genera as meet: priately Alchemilla, Aceana, Hypericum, \"Mesembryanthemums,\" Mints, Hebe, Arums, Dandelions and others. The editor apologizes that the colored slides used to illustrate the talks could not be included. The symposium is an idea that should, and certainly will, be copied by other horticultural societies. The reviewer only regrets that he could not have been present for the Conference, for each article, excellently written, deserves the presence of its author. Copies of this volume are available from the Botanical Society of the British Isles, c\/o Department of Botany, British Museum (Natural History), Cromwell Rd., London, S.W. 7. RICHARD A. HOWARD Wild Plants for Survival in South Florida. Julia F. Morton. Tampa, Florida: Trend Publications, Inc. 1974. 80 pages, illustrated. $3.95. This is the third edition and is by a new publisher (the former having allowed the publication to go out of print). Corrections and additions are minor in the current edition, and it is handsome with 16 color and 99 black and white illustrations of more than 125 edible and poisonous wild or, occasionally, cultivated plants of Florida. If not used for actual survival, the volume would be extremely useful to the casual visitor for the identification and lore of many of the common plants. RICHARD A. HOWARD 130 Chimaphila maculata. From Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine. Winter Keys to Woody Plants of Maine. C. S. Campbell, F. Hyland, M. L. F. Campbell. Orono: University of Maine Press. 1974. 52 pages, 81~2 X 11\", 63 plates, paper cover. $3.00. The identification of plants in winter condition has always been a challenge to the professional as well as the amateur botanist. Nevertheless there are characteristics in the twigs and buds that enable one to name the plant to genus and oc- casionally to species. - The present volume, although in title limited to the state of Maine, will have a wider application, and has proven to be a pleasure to use. Dichotomous - two-choice keys are supplied ; the first enabling a determination to genus, and the second to species within the larger genera. Reference is made to the excellent plates that illustrate the critical portions, even to the appearance of the cut end of the stem. The drawings are alive and certainly among the best available for this purpose. A good glossary and an index combining common and scientific 131 with reference both to plates and to the ocin the keys. I particularly appreciate the dedication of this volume to Professor Merritt L. Fernald who, I am sure, would have \"humphed\" his approval and appreciation. Copies are available from the Secretary, Department of Botany, Deering Hall, University of Maine, Orono, Maine 04473. The book is highly recommended for enjoyable use on winter names is supplied currence of the name days. RICHARD A. HOWARD Your First Garden. Planning, Planting and Plants. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1973. 120 pages, illustrated. $3.95, paper. $6.95, hard a cover. Although truly beginner's book, this large (81~a X 11-inch) volume has exceptionally good photographs and drawings, a clarity of text and printing to enhance its basic information, and good suggestions. Chapters are devoted to planning; plant selection, culture and sources; lists of perennials, trees, shrubs and ground covers; suggested reading; and public gardens worth visiting. This would be an excellent guide for the new home owner or a fine housewarming gift. RICHARD A. HOWARD Plants for Ground-Cover. Graham Stuart Thomas. London: Dent and Sons. 1970. 273 pages, illustrated. $12.00. This work by an English author, dealing obviously with British gardening, arouses mixed feelings in the American reader. There is gratitude for a good deal of material that is useful even in a New England setting; yet there is envy that we cannot utilize all the good things here in the United States. The concept of ground-cover embraces certain plants, mainly perennials and shrubs, that cover the ground. The height of the plants described ranges from a few inches to several feet. There are many pages of descriptive lists on site, micro-climate, native habitat, season, growth habit, as well as characteristics 132 of blossom, fruit, and leaf. Few of the cultivars cited are available at U.S. nurseries. There is an interesting section on planting public areas such as highway slopes, but no reference to cushioning plants for softening the impact of ejected motorists. The discussion of cemetery planting makes sense. A very useful appendix, applicable here as well as in England, deals with the extermination of certain ground-covers that the author considers to be vicious weeds. Americans will endorse his opinion. In summary, a most useful book with the English orientation taken into consideration. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE The After-Dinner York: Macmillan. Gardening Book. Richard W. Langer. New 1969. 198 pages, illustrated. $9.95. The title of this work, now in its third printing, aroused exof coyness in this jaded reviewer Examination qnitP erased the This pleasant, readable, humorous account of sprouting and growing avocado pits, grapefruit, papaya. mango, kiwi and other seeds in an apartment is presented as the experience of a novice. The author is actually as knowledgeable as most people get to be in a lifetime. He teaches not only techniques of indoor gardening for a beginner, but the underlying generalizations about plant needs which usually are omitted from such books. Material on containers, soil mixes, drainage, domestic hazards to furniture and marital harmony are included. Langer arouses the reader's interest in botany by his example of watching the potted mango seed and discovering grass blades. Although most of the experiments described involve seeds or cuttings of tropical plants, he also deals with others such as Jerusalem artichokes and sunflowers. No nicer gift than this little book can be imagined for the person just developing some curiosity about plants. ELINORE B. TROWBRIDGE pectations prejudice. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23374","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ea728.jpg","title":"1975-35-2","volume":35,"issue_number":2,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Low Maintenance Perennials. Part II","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24645","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e896d.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":1,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"I Linum 1 Flax Flax Family (Linaceae) Although quire sown Boston, this is much farther north than of otherwise long-lived plants which regroup little attention other than the occasional removal of selfnot dependably hardy a seedlings. A position in full sun with a light, well-drained soil is about all that is necessary. Soggy soil conditions in winter lessen the hardiness of the whole group. The small flowers last only about a day, but they are borne in great profusion and appear over a long period of time. They are not useful when cut for bouquets. L. narbonense Narbonne Flax - 1-inch azure-blue flowers with white centers produced from late June through August. Plants 11\/ to 2 feet in height. Sources: 24,60; A,I - L. narbonense `Heavenly Blue' - Very heavy-flowering cultivar on with deep blue blossoms Source: 69 L. perenne - plants - 12 to 18 inches in height. Perennial Flax Pale blue flowers, duced nearly all summer on 2-foot plants. Sources: 3,14,46,66,68; B,J,K,L - freely pro- L. perenne `Album' White-flowered form of the preceding speabout 18 cies. Sources: 24,66; I - L. perenne `Tetra Red' inches in height. Satin red flowers on plants Sources: I 24; as The following may not be which precede: L. robust or as long-lived as those as a rock may occasionally have uses at the very front of the border. Slender plants with clear blue flowers in June on 6 to 9 inch stems. Narrow, almost Heather-like leaves. Sources: 4,13,24; C,I alpinum - Alpine Flax - This is probably better garden plant, but ~, the L. flavum - Golden Flax Another species equally adapted to rock garden or front of the border. The compact plants are about 15 to 18 inches in height with leathery leaves; bear numerous bright yellow waxy flowers from late June to mid-August. Sources: 69; K - m 3 L. flavum `Compactum' - A dwarf version of the Grows to a height of about 9 inches. I Sources: 3,4,24,60,68, preceding. Lobelia Lobelia Family (Lobeliaceae) It is a shame to have to condemn such a beautiful group of native plants, but under most garden situations they are shortlived perennials and will usually disappear after a few years. When they find conditions exactly to their liking, they will selfsow in quantity and always be around. For this reason it would be wise to experiment with a few plants to see if seeding will Lobelia occur. Lobelias are frequently associated with wet conditions because are encountered in the wild along streams or in generally wet areas. In the garden, a well-drained, yet moisture-retentive loam is best. Light shade for at least part of the day is preferable, but a position in full sun will not be harmful if the soil is moist. Mulching the plants both in summer and winter is often beneficial when a permanent display is desired. When self-sowing does not occur, the new basal growth which appears in early fall after flowering may be divided and replanted. Seedlings sown in pans and set out annually also will provide a continuing display. they L. cardinalis Cardinal Flower 3 to 4-foot stems from the end of - Bright scarlet-red flowers on July to early September dis- tinguish . this as one of the best-loved wild flowers of eastern North America. Sources: 3,4,5,7,13,14,24,26,27,39,43,46,50,58,66,67,68; A,B,C,I, L. cardinalis 'Alba'- A rare white-flowered form of the Cardinal Flower. Does not reproduce true from seed and must be perpetuated by cuttings. Only worth growing by serious collectors of wild flowers. Source: 29 Blue Cardinal Flower, Great Blue Lobelia Not siphilitica very good name for a beautiful native plant. Has deep blue flowers and grows to 2 to 3 feet in height under garden conditions. The Indians believed that a concoction made from it was useful in curing venereal disease. Sources: 4,7,26,27,39,43,57; B - L. a L. X vedariensis winter. Sources: A stunning hy(L. cardinalis X L. siphilitica) brid with brilliant purple flowers from July well into September on spikes 21\/z to 3 feet tall. Best results are obtained in the shade, and this plant definitely benefits from a protective mulch in the - 4,13,66,69; C Left: Lobelia cardinalis 4 I Lupinus Pea Lupine, Lupin Family (Leguminosae) These cannot be recommended for general cultivation because of their sensitivity to hot summers. They do best in cool, humid areas such as northern New England and the Pacific Northwest. To those familiar with Lupines where they grow well, the show produced in our area is disappointing to say the very least. Of the several types which are hardy, the following strain is by far the showiest and most popular. Stately spikes 3 to 4 feet in with large pea-like flowers in nearly every color or combination imaginable. Sources: 13,14,25,30,32,39,46,58,66,69; A,B,C,E,J,K,L L. X regalis 'Russell Hybrids' - height Lychnis can Campion, Maltese Cross, German Catchfly Carnation Family (Caryophyllaceae) Some members of this group of bright-flowered plants only be recommended for a low maintenance situation if the soil is light, and very well drained. Others lack complete hardiness or are distressingly short-lived. All should be given a situation in full sun. Brilliant scarlet flowers in to 3 feet in height. Will be short-lived unless soil drainage is excellent, especially in winter. Sources: 4,24,32,68; A,E,I,J,K,L L. chalcedonica dense heads in - Maltese Cross - June and July. Plants 21\/_> L. chalcedonica 'Alba' The white flowers are not very interesting when compared to those of the species. Sources: 24; I - L. viscaria German Catchfly This species and its several cultivars are the hardiest and longest-lived. The reddish-purple clustered blossoms appear on 12 to 18-inch stems in late May and June above tufts of grass-like foliage. If soil and exposure are correct, little care will be required other than division after about the fourth year. Source: 46 L. viscaria 'Alba'- Short 9-inch spikes of white flowers in June and July. Sources: 24; I L. viscaria 'Splendens' - Bright rose-pink flowers. Source: L L. viscaria 5 5 'Splendens Flore-Pleno' - Double, bright rose-pink flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,49,66,67,69; C,I,J,K - L. viscaria 'Zulu' Sources: 32,66 Flowers light red. - Rose Campion, Mullein-pink L. coronaria Short-lived, usually behaves as a biennial, but will seldom disappear from the garden as it seeds freely. Very bright, small reddish-purple flowers on 2-foot stems. Leaves silverish. Listed in some catalogs as Agrostemma coronaria. Sources: E,L - , haageana (L. fulgens X L. coronaria var. sieboldii) Campion - Brilliantly colored flowers from orange-red let or salmon, produced from June to August. Plants foot in height. Hardiness sometimes questionable. L. X - Haage a to scar- about Sources: 69; L ~ ~ ~~~~ ----- - ~~ ~ ~ ~ ---- ~ Lysimachia Loosestrife Primrose Family (Primulaceae) Most members of this genus would not look well in a manicured, formal border because of the spreading tendency of the more commonly grown species; however, they are acceptable in the low maintenance situation if space permits. Loosestrifes planted in full sun require soil that is moist and fairly rich. If the exposure is partial shade, much drier soil conditions are tolerated. Almost no care is needed if they are planted about 3 feet from their nearest neighbors; otherwise, an occasional reduction in the size of the clumps will become necessary. Division to rejuvenate the plants will not be required for a number of years. Gooseneck Loosestrife The 3-foot denselybend over at the tips producing the curious spikes \"gooseneck\" appearance. Flowers are white; blooming time is July and August. Leaves turn a bronzy-yellow in the autumn. It bears repeating, with this species especially, that the clumps - L. clethroides flowered soon become large. - Sources: 13,49,66; C L. punctata Yellow Loosestrife The leaves are produced in whorls around the stem, and the yellow flowers arise from these. Plants range in height from 21\/2 to 3 feet. Flowering time is June - 6 I light shade. and early July. Plants are at their best in Sources: 14,24,32,66,67,69; I L. nummularia - Creeping Jenny, Moneywort - A low creeping plant not suited to the border. Best as a ground cover, used with discretion, in semishaded places. Will often escape into the lawn. Sources: 3,13,14,57; C L. nummularia `Aurea' - Yellow-leaved cultivar of the preceding species. Sources: 24,68; I Lysimachia clethroides 7 Lythrum Purple Loosestrife Loosestrife Family (Lythraceae) The Purple Loosestrife, a native of Europe, is now so widely naturalized that it is difficult to believe that it is only a comparatively recent addition to our flora. A number of selections have been made. These vary considerably in height and flower color, many without the magenta tint so conspicuous in the wild forms. They are worth cultivating, especially in difficult wet areas of the garden, and also will grow perfectly well in an ordinary soil in full sun. Purple Loosestrifes will tolerate almost any form of neglect and grow vigorously for many years. They range in height, depending upon cultivar, from 11\/2 to 4 feet and are suitable at the front or middle of the border. They are best grown as single specimens, or in small groupings of two or three plants spaced 11\/z to 2 feet apart. Most cultivars blossom over quite a long period between June and the end of September. For garden situations, the species is not as interthe selections listed below, but it may find a place in the wild flower garden or for naturalizing in wet places. It should be remembered that this may seed freely and take over extensive areas, frequently choking out all other vegetation. The named cultivars do not seem to possess this tendency. Sources: 4,7,14,39,45,66 L. salicaria - esting as L. salicaria 'Columbia' Soft bushy plants about 31\/2 feet in Sources: 28, 66; L - pink flowers height. - on well-branched, L. salicaria 'Dropmore Purple' plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Rich violet-purple flowers on Sources: 13,24,69; C,I L. salicaria 'Firecandle' in height. Sources: 13,24; C,I - Intense rosy-red flowers. Plants 3 feet L. salicaria `Happy' Dark pink flowers ed plants, 15 to 18 inches in height. on dwarf, well-branch- Sources: 24,32,69; I L. salicaria 'Morden's Gleam' - Flowers nearest to red of any of the cultivars. Plants 3 to 4 feet in bright carmine, the height. Sources: 13,28,32,37,39,59,69; C,H,J,K 8I Lythrum salicaria 'Purple Spires'. Photo: P. Bruns. 9 Floweis clear pink. Plants 3 to 4 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,25,32,46,59,60,66,67,68; B,C,H,I,J,K,L L. salicaria 'Morden's Pink' - L. salicaria 'Morden's Rose' feet in height. - Flowers bright rosy-red. Plants 3 Sources: 24,28; H,I L. salicaria 'Pink feet in height. Spires' - Bright pink flowers, plants 31\/2 to 4 Sources: 58; A L. salicaria 'Purple 4 feet in height. Spires' - Rose-purple flowers, plants 31\/2 to Sources: 28,32,37,58; L. salicaria 'Robert' - A,H,K,L Flowers bright rose-red. Plants 2 feet in height. Very compact. Sources: 3,14,24,30,37,59,68,69; B,H,I,J,K,L L. salicaria 'The Beacon' - Flowers near-red. Plants 21\/2 feet in height. Sources: 68; B L. salicaria 'Tom's Choice' feet in height. Source: 68 L. - Rosy-red flowers. Plants 3 to 31\/2 Wand Loosestrife Similar to L. salicaria with branched stems. Plants about 3 feet in height. purple The species is seldom offered by nurseries, but may have played a part in the parentage of a few of the cultivars listed above as L. salicaria. The following cultivar is of interest, primarily because of its low stature. virgatum - - flowers on L. virgatum 'Rose Queen' - Rich rose-pink flowers on plants 2 feet in height. Sources: 24; I Macleaya cordata name Plume-poppy, Tree-celandine Poppy Family (Papaveraceae) This is almost universally listed in catalogs under the old Bocconia cordata. Plume-poppy is a large plant that produces stems 6 to 8 feet tall with large scalloped leaves that are almost tropical in their effect. Under most conditions it tends to spread rapidly by its 10 wide ranging underground stems. It should not be considered for a small garden or a low maintenance situation. Sources: 24,25,32,66,67,68,69; I,K Mertensia virginica Virginia Bluebell, Bluebell Borage Family (Boraginaceae) This plant is indispensable to the spring garden, especially where true blue flowers are wanted. It grows to a height of about 2 feet with clusters of drooping, bell-like flowers in early May. The buds are soft pink and contrast nicely with the blue, opened flowers. A white-flowered form exists, but is very slow growing and not widely offered by nurseries. This is not a plant for massing in the perennial border. After it blooms the foliage starts to die down and usually has disappeared by July. Therefore, Mertensia should be placed among plants with spreading summer foliage, such as Hostas or Ferns. Plants will not require division for many years. For increase, this is best done in the early autumn, after the plants have died down. Cultivation in summer should be done with care around the dormant plants, and it would be prudent to mark their location in some way. They grow best in shady areas where the soil is cool and moist and contains ample organic matter. Sources: 3,5,13,14,23,24,25,27,28,29,39,43,46,50,57,60,66,67, 68,69; B,C,I,L Monarda didyma Beebalm, Bergamot, Oswego Tea Mint Family (Labiatae) In a strictly low maintenance situation, Beebalm may be recommended only for naturalizing in places where the plants can romp. In most herbaceous border situations, clumps spread rapidly, and division is necessary by the end of the second or third year to keep them in bounds and to prevent degeneration. Plants grow to a height of 21\/2 to 3 feet and bloom from late June to August. The 2 to 3-inch tubular flowers are borne in single or double whorls forming dense heads, and are excellent for cutting purposes. The pungent, mint-like fragrance of the leaves and stems is another good feature. Although Beebalms will tolerate light shade, such a condition encourages the spreading tendencies. A site offering full sun and soil with good moisture retention is best. M. didyma - Flowers bright scarlet. Sources: 14,27,39,46,68 Above and Below: Monarda didyma `Violacea Superba' 12 M. didyma 'Adam'- Ruby-red flowers. red-flowered cultivars. Sources: 13,24,29,30,66,67; C,I Probably the best of the M. didyma 'Blue Stocking' - Flowers blue as the name would imply. Source: 69 M. - bright violet-purple, not Brilliant scarlet flowers. didyma 'Cambridge Scarlet' Sources: 24,25,60,66,69; A,B,I,K,L Rich rose-pink flowers. didyma 'Croftway Pink' Sources: 3,13,24,67,69; A,B,C,I,K,L - M. didyma 'Granite Pink' - Rose-pink flowers. More compact habit of growth than most of the other cultivars. Sources: 29,66,68 M. Dark wine-red flowers. M. didyma `Mahogany' Sources: 13,57,66,67,69; C - M. didyma 'Melissa' Source: 69 M. a - Soft pink flowers. to height didyma 'Prairie Brand' - Salmon-red flowers. Plants grow of 4 feet, taller than most other cultivars. - Source: 69 M. didyma 'Salmonea' Sources: 66,68 Salmon-pink flowers. M. didyma 'Snow Source: 69 Queen' - White flowers. M. didyma 'Snow White' - White flowers. Sources: 24; 1 M. didyma 'Violet Queen' Sources: 13,24,66; C,I - Lavender-violet flowers. Nepeta X faassenii (N. mussinii X N. Mint This is listed invariably in nursery which is one of the parents. N. X faassenii grows into a mound 15 to 18 inches wide and 10 to 12 inches in height, and is a valuable plant for the front of the border. Blue-violet flowers are produced abundantly on 12inch stems from late May through July and intermittently thereafter until September. A heavy autumn flowering is produced if the stems are cut back to about half their length immediately after the first blooming finishes. This encourages vigorous new Catmint nepetella) Family (Labiatae) catalogs as N. mussinii, 13 growth from bushy habit. the base of the plant and helps to perpetuate a The small leaves are silvery-gray in color, a handsome contrast to the blue flowers. They give an unpleasant pungent aroma when bruised. Sources: 3,13,24,45,66,67,68,69; C,E,I,L N. X faassenii 'Blue Wonder' - Lavender-blue flowers 12 to 15-inch mounds. pact, Sources: J,K - on com- N. cataria Catnip Easy to grow and beloved by cats and bees, but too nondescript to find a home in a real perennial garden. Besides the few sources listed here, the plant is readily found in the catalogs of the various herb specialists. Sources: 45,68 N. 'Six Hills Giant' - A beautiful light blue-flowered hybrid with gray leaves that grows to a height of about 2 feet. It is rampant and spreading and would soon become an untidy nuisance in a low maintenance situation. Source: 66 Evening Primrose, Sundrops Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae) Plants of this group that open their flowers during the day are called Sundrops; those that are night bloomers are Evening Oenothera Primroses. Ozark Sundrop - Here is an American plant O. missouriensis that may be grown in any garden offering a well-drained light soil, and space in the sun. If these conditions can be provided, plants will thrive for many years and make few other demands. Ozark Sundrop is a low plant with a somewhat sprawling habit, not over 8 inches in height, and useful at the front of the border. The 5-inch, golden-yellow, cup-like flowers are quite spectacular. They appear over a long period of time from June through August and have a mild fragrance. The plant is late to appear in the spring so its location should be marked. Sources: 14,24,25,27,49,59,66,67,68,69; A,I,J,K,L - O. tetragona Common Sundrop - This is listed in catalogs under the following names: O. fruticosa var. youngii, O. youngii. The species is quite hardy. It is very showy in flower and may be grown where minimal maintenance is not the aim. Soil conditions and exposure are the same as required by O. missouri- 14 ensis. Plants grow to a height of about 2 feet. The lemon-yellow, 11\/2-inch, cup-shaped flowers are borne in profusion throughout June and July. Sources: 29,46,66,67,69; L,B,K O. tetragona `Highlight' inches in height. Sources: 24; I - Large yellow flowers on plants 18 O. tetragona 'Yellow River' - The standard variety. Large canary-yellow flowers up to 2 inches across on plants about 11\/2 feet in height. Sources: 3,13,24,68; C,I O. tetragona var. fraseri 'Illumination' (may be listed as O. fyror O. 'Fireworks') Deep yellow flowers on plants 15 inches in height with leathery bronze foliage; the young stems and flower buds are reddish-brown. A good plant for rock verkeri, - gardens. Sources: 24,32; I Below: Partially open blossom of Oenothera missouriensis. Photo: P. Bruns. 15 Paeonia Peony, Paeony Peony Family (Paeoniaceae) Peonies are most fitting perennials for the low maintenance garden. The relative ease of culture combined with an exceedingly long life, great hardiness, and their popularity as cut flowers make them nearly indispensable. Plants that are to last thirty years and sometimes more in one spot require a deep, rich, well-drained soil. Plenty of humus should be incorporated at planting time, but manure, especially fresh manure, should never come in contact with the thick, fleshy root system. Divisions should contain at least three to five buds or eyes at the top of the roots, and these should be set about 1 inch below the soil line. Deeper planting leads to poor flowering, or no flowers at all. Late August or early September is the preferred time for planting or transplanting. Although a site in full sun is the usual recommendation, the more delicately colored varieties can be placed in light shade to keep the flowers from fading quickly. Deep shade should be avoided. This produces the same result as planting too deeply: few flowers, or none at all. Blossoms also may be lost if buds are nipped by late spring frost. Larger flowers can be produced if the lateral flower buds are removed early, taking care not to injure the terminal bud. This usually will be done only by the perfectionist, even though it takes but a few moments. Peony flowers come in a number of types as well as colors. The Doubles last longest, the stamens and sometimes the carpels being petal-like so that a fully double flower results. The Singles (sometimes called Chinese type) have one or several rows of petals that surround a center of numerous yellow stamens. This simpler type may be preferred by those who find the Doubles too flamboyant. The Japanese type and the Anemone type are often lumped together in catalogs. The former have five or more quite large petals that surround a center of stamens bearing abortive anthers (the part that normally contains pollen). The filaments (the \"stemlike\" part of the stamen) are thick and enlarged. In the Anemone type the filaments have become narrow, incurved petal-like structures. So many cultivars are available from specialist nurserymen that only a few of the better ones can be included here. Each year sees the advent of new ones, and gardeners interested in the group would do well to join the American Peony Society. 16 Double types: P. 'Albert Crousse' - Soft pink. Fairly late flowering. Sources: 68; H P. 'Festiva Maxima' - White. Early flowering. Sources: 3,8,12,13,20,23,24,30,37,59,60,65,66,68,69; C,H,I,M - P. 'Karl Rosenfeld' Dark red. Midseason flowering. Sources: 6,8,12,20,24,37,59,66,68,69; H,I,M P. White. Early midseason flowering. 'LeCygne' Sources: 13,66,67,68; C,H,M - P. 'Lowell Thomas' season - Brassy red, crinkled petals, dwarf. Mid- flowering. Sources: 6,31,69 Single types : P. 'Clair de Lune' Sources: 44,65,68 - Yellow. Very early flowering. P. 'Pico'- White. Midseason flowering. Sources: 6,40,66 17 Above: Paeonia lactiflora cultivar. Left: Foliage of herbaceous peonies remains attractive throughout the growing season. 18I Japanese Sources: and anemone types: P. `Alstead' - Deep pink with yellow center. - 8; M P. 'Ama-no-sode' Bright pink with yellow rose stamens center. Sources: 8,40,65,68,69 P. `Mikado' season Bright red, flowering. - tipped with gold. Mid- Sources: P. 13,24,68; C,H,I,M 'Nippon Brilliant' Sources: 8,65,66 Bright red. Papaver orientale Poppy, Oriental Poppy Poppy Family (Papaveraceae) Oriental Poppies now can be obtained in such a beautiful array of colors that it is unfortunate many people still associate this group only with the orange-scarlet types. Cultivars with showy flowers 6 to 12 inches across that range in color from white to pink, red and near yellow, deserve consideration today. Of these, the white varieties probably should be avoided as they tend to be rather short-lived, and the flowers often become gray from their own pollen. The so-called yellows are basically orange with a yellow tinge. Oriental poppies are bold plants, 2 to 4 feet in height when in flower, with coarse, hairy lobed leaves. In time clumps become large: up to a yard across in some varieties. In small gardens, one or two plants are all that will be necessary. About their only fault in a low maintenance situation is the tendency of the stems of some of the more vigorous cultivars to flop under the weight of the flowers. This can be remedied easily (see staking methods, page 203). A well-drained soil of moderate fertility, and full sun or partial shade are required. Wet soil conditions in winter lead to a rapid demise. The flowering season is relatively short and the plants disappear entirely from July to September; conspicuous gaps in the garden will result if they have been massed. The leaves reappear in the autumn and remain throughout the winter. Plants can be divided or transplanted only in August or September and generally do not bloom until the second year after transplanting. It is prudent to provide a mulch for the first winter. I 19 Papaver orientale cultivar 20 be used as cut flowers if the ends of the stems seared with a flame before being placed in water. Over sixty named cultivars are presently available from nurseries. The following selection illustrates the marvelous color Poppies may are range. P. orientale 'Barr's White' - purplish-black markings Sources: P. orientale at Large pure white flowers with the base of the petals. - 3,13,24,66,67; C,I spots at 'Beauty of Livermore' the base of the petals. - Deep red flowers with black Sources: 23,68; A,K,L P. orientale `Bonfire' Bright orange-red flowers with crinkly- edged petals. Sources: 12,54,66,67 P. orientale `Burgundy' - Maroon-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,66,68; C,I Flowers vivid lower half of each petal. Sources: 12,13,24,28,32,37,60; C,I P. orientale `Carnival' - orange-red, white at the P. orientale 'Crimson Pompom' Sources: 13,24,60; C,I P. orientale 'Curtis - Fully double deep red flowers. Mahogany' - Very dark maroon-red flowers with crinkled petals like crepe paper. Sources: 32,59 P. orientale 'Dubloon' - Fully double clear orange flowers. - Sources: 13,24,66; C,I P. orientale 'Field Marshal Von der Glotz' Large white flowers with black markings at the base of the petals. Sources: 13,24,28,32,37,59; C,I P. orientale Sources: 'Glowing Embers' 13,24,66; C,I,L - Crimson-red flowers. P. orientale 'Glowing Rose' flowers. Sources: 12,24,32; I Large luminous watermelon-pink P. orientale 'Harvest Moon' - Clear golden-orange flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,28,59,60,66,68; C,I 21 P. orientale 'Helen Elizabeth' markings Sources: at the base of the - Light pink petals. - flowers with dark 3,12,13,24,28,32,59,66,67,68; C,I Cayeux Imp' Flowers P. orientale 'Henry lavender tints. Sources: 24,37; I P. orientale 'Lavender smoky-rose with with Glory' C,I - Deep lavender flowers large black spots P. orientale at the base of the petals. Sources: 13,24,59,60,66; 'May Curtis' Sources: 13,24,28,68; C,I - Watermelon-red flowers. Flowers P. orientale 'Mrs. Perry' - salmon-pink with an apricot tinge. Sources: 13,24,60; C,I,L - P. orientale 'Pinnacle' Flowers white with flame colored Sources: 3,13,24,66,67; C,I Sources: 3; edges. P. orientale 'Queen Alexandria' A,K,L 'Raspberry Queen' - - Bright salmon-pink flowers. P. orientale - Raspberry colored flowers. Sources: 28,32,66 P. orientale 'Salome' Clear rose-pink flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,32,37,59,67,68; C,I P. orientale 'Surprise' - Large vermillion-red flowers. the finest Sources: 12,13,24,67; P. orientale 'Warlord' C,I - Probably deep crimson-red cultivar. Sources: 3,13,24,59,66,68; C,I,L - Iceland Poppy - These have Papaver nudicaule cultivars strong tendencies to behave as biennials in our area and are fre- quently self-sow treated as freely, but the several fine cultivars reproduce themselves true to variety. annuals. Under suitable conditions they often available may not Phlox paniculata (syn. P. decussata) Summer Phlox, Garden Phlox Polemonium Family (Polemoniaceae) Susceptibility to mildew, rust, and red spider attacks, combined with the need for thinning new growth annually and dividing about every third year, should be sufficient reasons to ban 22 this handsome group from the low maintenance garden. Also, they require frequent watering during the growing season, and self-sow easily, producing plants of inferior color. For those who are prepared to spray every two weeks against the diseases and pests, few other plants are as showy as Summer Phloxes over such a long period of time in the border. For those who cannot take the time, few other plants will produce such a ragged, tattered appearance. Summer Phloxes require a deep, rich soil, and full sun or light shade. Thorough deep irrigation in dry periods during the growing season is necessary. Cultivars range in height from 2 to 4 feet and bloom from late June into September. Removal of the faded flower heads prolongs the blossoming period. Flowers range in color from pink in all its shades to red, pale blue to purple, and white. Catalogs often list a group called SymonsJeune Phlox, which are the celebrated cultivars produced in England by the late Captain B. Symons-Jeune, one of the most noted breeders of Summer Phlox. P. paniculata 'Blue Ice' - Pinkish-blue at the center when first open, the flowers turn white as they age. Sources: 7,24,69; I - they P. pink One of the best with clear paniculata 'Dodo Hanbury Forbes' flowers. Huge pyramidal flower heads up to 14 or 16 inches across. Sources: P. 1,7,13,20,24,32,60,66,67,69; B,C,G,I,J,K,L a deeper \"eye\" Sources: paniculata 'Dresden China' - Flowers soft shell-pink with at the center. 7,13,23,24,59,67,68,69; C,G,I,J,K,L - P. paniculata 'Fairy's Petticoat' Very large light pink flowers with a darker pink \"eye\" at the center. Very long period of flowering. Sources: P. 7,24,44,60,66,67,68,69; H,I,J,K,L - paniculata 'Juliet' Sources: 24,69; I Pale pink flowers. Plants 2 feet in height. P. paniculata 'Lilac Time' - Lilac-blue flowers. Sources: 7,13,24,32,37,67; C,H,I,J P. paniculata 'Mount Fujiyama' - Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24,28,67,68; B,C,I - P. paniculata 'Orange Perfection' Sources: 3,13,66,67; C,L Near-orange flowers. P. paniculata 'Pinafore Pink' - Probably the lowest growing cultivar. Plants about 6 inches in height. Flowers bright pink with a deeper pink \"eye\" at the center. Sources: 24,66,67; L 23 P. paniculata 'Rembrandt' - Pure white flowers. Sources: 59,68,69 P. P. paniculata 'Russian Violet' - Bright Sources: 15,20,24,60,66,67; I,J,L violet-purple flowers. paniculata 'Sir John Falstair- Very large, luminous salmon- pink flowers with a darker \"eye\" at the center. Sources: 3,13,23,24,32,44,46,59,66,69; B,C,I,K,L - Brilliant deep red flowers. P. paniculata `Starfire' Sources: 1,3,13,15,20,24,25,28,30,32,37,44,58,59,60,66,67,69; B, C,G,H,I,J,K,L P. paniculata 'White Admiral' Very large clusters of white flowers. Sources: 3,13,15,20,23,24,37,58,60,66,67,68,69; B,C,G,H,I,J,K,L - P. paniculata 'World Peace' - Pure white flowers in Sources: 24,32,59,66,69; I,J,L September. Below: Powdery mildew on the leaves of Phlox paniculata. 24 following species of Phlox with their numerous are frequently listed in catalogs dealing with perennials, they are best either in the rock garden or the wild flower garden. Under most conditions they would not fit into the flower border because of their low stature and spreading habit: P. divaricata (Spring Phlox), P. nivalis (Trailing Phlox), P. stolonifera (Creeping Phlox), and P. subulata (Moss Pink, Although the varieties and cultivars Ground Pink). False Dragonhead, Obedient Plant, Stay-in-Place Mint Family (Labiatae) One could almost forgive this group for its invasive tendencies were it not for the fact that the plants also require annual or biennial division to maintain any semblance of neatness. As they grow with relative indifference to wet or dry conditions and will tolerate sun or partial shade, they are of value for naturalizing in a semiwild area or an informal wild flower garden. But they should be used in herbaceous borders only when time can be devoted to keeping them in bounds. The common names for Physostegia are of some interest. False Dragonhead refers to the one-time confusion between this genus and Dracocephalum (Dragonhead). Obedient Plant, or Stay-in-Place, refers to the fact that the individual flowers can be twisted on the stem and will remain as they are arranged, a characteristic that fascinates children. Physostegia Grows to a height of 3 to 31\/2 feet and produces of purplish-red flowers from July to September. The named cultivars are of much greater value than the species. Sources: 4,14,27,39,43 P. virginiana - spikes P. virginiana var. alba - Flowers pure white on spikes about 11\/2 to 2 feet in height. - Sources: 30,69; K P. in virginiana 'Bouquet Rose' Flowers rose-pink on spikes 3 feet height. - Sources: 24,66,69; I,K P. virginiana 'Rosy Spire' Later in cultivars. Rose-pink flowers in early 31\/2 feet tall. _ flowering September than the other on plants 3 to Sources: 39,66,68 P. .- virginiana 'Summer Glow' - Rosy crimson flowers on 3-foot plants. Source: 32 P. White flowers on 21\/z-foot spikes. virginiana 'Summer Snow' Less invasive than the other varieties, but requires the same frequent division. Sources: 13,14,24,32,66,67,68; B,C,I - 25 Physostegia virginiana var. alba 26I P. virginiana 'Variegata' - Deep green and white variegated leaves. Flowers pink. Sources: 24,32,66; I P. The lowest growing and most compact virginiana 'Vivid' cultivar, but just as invasive as the rest. Glowing deep rosy pink - flowers in early September on Sources: 13,24,66,67; B,C,I,L plants 2 feet in height. Platycodon Bellflower Family Balloon Flower (Campanulaceae) P. grandiflorum is the only species, but there are a few varieties and several cultivars that are easily grown and live for many years in a single place. The roots of Balloon Flowers are thick and fleshy and cannot tolerate wet ground. A light, well-drained soil of moderate fertility suits them best. The pink varieties may fade unless planted in partial shade, but full sun is best for the blueflowered or white-flowered types. New plants are rather slow of growth, but established clumps may be expected to thrive for twenty years and longer if they are not disturbed. They have no spreading tendencies, no major insect or disease problems, and they blossom from late June through July. Most varieties grow to a height of 3 feet and in some situations there may be a tendency for the stems to flop. This is easily remedied by supporting them by the hoop method described on page 203. Growth is late to start in spring, so early cultivation around the plants must be done with care. Balloon Flowers are seen to best advantage in groups of three spaced about 15 inches apart near the middle of the border. The flowers may be used for cutting purposes if the ends of the stems are seared with a flame before being placed in water. - P. grandiflorum Chinese Balloon Flower - Handsome 2 to 3inch cup-like blue flowers with prominent veins borne on stems 2 to 3 feet in height. Sources: 3,13,14,23,46,67,69; B,C,J,L P. grandiflorum var. album - White-flowered form. Sources: 3,13,24,46,66,67,68,69; B,C,I,J,K,L P. grandiflorum 'Apoyama' - A choice dwarf cultivar only 6 to 10 inches high from Japan. Highly prized on the rock garden, it has novelty value at the front of the border as well. Violet- Platycodon grandiflorum var. mariesii blue flowers almost all Source: 32 P. summer. Marie's Balloon Flower - One grandiflorum var. mariesii of the most compact forms, about 18 inches in height. Stems do not have the tendency to flop. Bright blue flowers. Sources: 14,24,46,66,67,68; B,I,K,L - P. grandiflorum var. mariesii album - White-flowered form. Source: 68 P. grandiflorum 'Shell Pink' - Soft shell-pink flowers veined 18 to 24 inches in deeper pink on plants planted in semishade. Sources: height. Might be best 13,24,25,69; C,I,J,K,L 28 Plumbago larpentae - See Ceratostigma plumbaginoides Polemonium Polemonium For Jacob's Ladder Family (Polemoniaceae) refined, delicately textured foliage effects, this small group of mound-like plants is of value in the garden, even the flowers will never set the world afire with their brilliance. Nonetheless, the terminal clusters of small cup-shaped pale to medium blue flowers appear in spring and early summer at a time when blue in the garden is particularly welcome. Relatively undemanding, these are plants for light or partial shade. They require soil of at least average fertility with good drainage. Hot sunny places where the plants will bake are definitely unsuitable; in such situations the foliage becomes unsightly by midsummer. though P. caeruleum - Jacob's Ladder - Some others such as common names are imaginaself-explanatory, really tion. This plant's leaves, composed of numerous opposite leaflets, supposedly resemble the ladder in Jacob's dream. The clear blue flowers are borne in nodding panicles at the top of erect, 15-inch stems during the month of May. Source: 14 P. caeruleum var. lacteum (syn. P. caeruleum it is listed in catalogs). White-flowered form. Source: 69 this stretch the 'Album,' by which P. caeruleum 'Blue Pearl' ters or - Cobalt-blue flowers with yellow cen- \"eyes.\" - Sources: 3,13,14,24,59,66,67,68,69; C,I Creeping Jacob's Ladder - Again, the common misleading. The plants do not creep; they sprawl, and produce mounds up to 2 feet in width. Flowers are light blue with white centers or \"eyes.\" These appear from May through June. P. reptans name may be Sources: 27,43,66 29 Polygonatum A small group of use Solomon's Seal soil. The special white flowers on short stalks from the axils of the erect opposite leaves. It is for the handsome foliage effect of deep green leaves on arching stems up to 3 to 4 feet in height that the plants are mainly grown. There are no insect or disease problems. Specimens seldom, if ever, require division, but this may be done in early spring for increase. in P. plants, handsome shady parts of the border in rich moist appear in late May or June, hanging Lily Family (Liliaceae) in leaf, long-lived, and of biflorum - Small Solomon's Seal - Grows to to 3 feet, depending upon soil conditions. The flowers either singly, or more often in groups of two at Sources: 7,14,26,39,43,57,66; B P. commutatum - True Solomon's of 11\/z borne each leaf axil. heights are Seal, Great Solomon's Seal - The tallest and probably the most handsome species in general cultivation. With good soil conditions plants often attain a height of 31\/2 to 4 feet. Sources: 1,7,14,26,39,66 30 Solomon's Seal, Lady's Seal, David's Harp This is a European and Northern Asian counterpart to our native P. biflorum and P. commutatum. It reaches a maximum height of 3 feet. Sources: 59,66,69; C P. multiflorum - Primrose Primrose Family (Primulaceae) This genus, containing hundreds of species varying from minute alpines to 4-foot bog lovers, is so diverse that it has been divided into some 30 sections according to botanical detail (flower structure) and cultural requirements. All except two are native to cool moist areas throughout the Northern hemisphere and most do not adapt readily to the cold winters and hot summers of the Northeastern United States. Soil and moisture demands vary with the section, but all need high shade, a summer mulch, and deep watering during dry periods. A winter covering also should be provided in areas of uncertain snow cover. Primula The following descriptions are limited to a few species and cultivars that are suitable for the perennial garden, and easy to obtain and maintain. Auricula One of a group of hardy European alpines with rosettes of leathery evergreen leaves. All these need rock garden conditions, but the hybrid forms of P. auricula are larger and less demanding and can be grown in very welldrained fertile soil with a stone chip mulch to protect the crowns and woody stems from excess moisture. The umbels of fragrant flowers on 6 to 8-inch stems have a white \"eye\" and a wide range of unusual muted colors. The whole plant is often powdered with white meal or farina. - P. auricula Sources: 14,50,67; G P. auricula 'Lynn Hall Strain' taining the full range of colors. Sources: 32,44,49 A fine mixture of seedlings con- P. auricula 'Monarch 5train' - Another mixture full color range. Leaves silvery. Sources: C,I - containing the P. denticulata Himalayan Primrose - This species has unique round flower heads up to 2 inches across, containing numerous small lilac flowers that open among the expanding leaves in April. In the autumn it forms a large dormant bud that sits on the soil surface throughout the winter. P. denticulata needs some protection and perfect drainage; it could be tried in conditions similar to those mentioned for P. auricula. Sources: 4,32,43,49,66,69; B P. denticulata var. alba - White-flowered form. Sources: 29,69 31 In deep rich soil this japonica Japanese Primrose will thrive and spread by self-sown seed without the waterside conditions it prefers; but it must have summer irrigation and constant shade. Since the plants can be left for a number of years without disturbance, a generous mulch of manure or compost applied before leaves appear in the spring will help maintain soil fertility. In late autumn after the plants have become dormant a 4-inch mulch of hay or pine needles is a precaution against winter heaving. In late May the first tier of flowers opens just above the leaves, and successive tiers appear for several weeks on the stems that may reach a height of 3 feet. Flower color is typically magenta, but includes white, and shades of pink and crimson. Sources: 4,32,43,49,66,67,68 Primula - species Primula X crossing P. The resul~ of polyantha Polyanthus Primrose vulgaris veris and P. elatior, P. X polyantha has been - the subject of much hybridization and is now available in a bewildering array of colors and forms. Although this is probably the most universally grown of primroses, it requires more frequent division and heavier feeding than some of the species to maintain the size and quantity of the often enormous flowers; it also is more subject to infestation of red spider. Some of the cultivars are not - completely hardy. - Mixed colors P. X polyantha Sources: 3,14,43,46,49,58,66; L P. X P. X unnamed varieties. unnamed varieties. polyantha - Separate colors - Sources: 69; C,L shades of polyantha 'Colossea Hybrids' - Large-flowered hybrids in yellow, pink, copper, and red. (Sometimes listed in catalogs P. X as P. veris 'Colossea Sources: 24,32,68; B,I,J Hybrids'.) - polyantha 'Pacific Giants' Very free-flowering strain with large flowers and an extensive color range. Sources: 24,32,44,53,60,67,68; G,I,K,L - P. sieboldii Siebold Primrose This species is distinguished by its crinkly and scalloped deciduous leaves. It appears very late in the spring, and if conditions are dry, may disappear soon after flowering, leaving at the surface a mat of rhizomes. This is very easy to divide for increase and should be marked against careless cultivation. The flowers appear in late May or early June and are borne in umbels on 10 to 12-inch stems. They range in color from white to shades of pink and rose. Sources: 4,32,66 P. as Common Primrose More often listed in catalogs vulgaris P. acaulis, this is the fragrant early primrose of English - - fame. It is an early-flowering evergreen species that is easy to grow in rich humus soil in woodland conditions; to maintain vigor, however, the plants should be divided and replanted in fresh soil every three or four years. A light winter hedgerow 32I covering of oak leaves or pine boughs will protect the leaves open winters. Flowers of the various cultivars come in white and shades of yellow, blue, purple, orange, and red. They are fragrant, appear very early in the spring, and are excellent for cutting. during The following list P. vulgaris in Sources: 14,22,24,66; C,I,L a mixture of colors. in the The following list P. shade of blue. Sources: 22,67 vulgaris cultivars sought-after Individual named cultivars are listed by the ber 22 has a particularly comprehensive list). Sources: 22,24; I following (Num- Pulmonaria Lungwort Borage Family (Boraginaceae) This is a small group with only a few varieties, but it provides with plants of low stature, early flowers, and foliage that remains attractive from spring to autumn. Plants are effective as single specimens, but are used more frequently in groups, spaced about 10 inches apart to give a ground cover effect. The drooping clusters of trumpet-shaped 1\/2-inch flowers appear late in April and May on stems about a foot in height. They often open pink, then change to clear blue. Some varieties have clear pink or white flowers that do not undergo a change in color as they age. Any shady position where the soil is moist and cool, but not necessarily rich, seems to suit them. Although it is frequently stated that the Lungworts should be divided every four years, they often last in good condition for much longer periods, and division is only necessary when plants have become overcrowded. Because they commence growth early in spring, late summer is the most convenient time to divide the plants. When this is done, frequent watering is necessary to encourage the development of a good root system before the onset of cold weather. us Blue or Cowslip Lungwort, Mary and Joseph, angustifolia Soldiers-and-Sailors Flowers open pink and turn to blue or blue. The deeper blue forms receive names in catalogs deep such as 'Azurea' or 'Coerulea.' The hairy green leaves are not spotted with white as are those of P. saccharata. P. - - Sources: 3,32,66,67,68,69 33 Even if this did not flower P. saccharata Bethlehem Sage at all, it still would be valuable in the garden. The handsome 3 to 6-inch deep green leaves have numerous white spots that help - distinctive appearance. Flowers dish-violet. Sources: 14,68 to create a are bluish or red- P. saccharata 'Mrs. Moon' - Large pink buds and showy deep blue flowers. Sources: 3,32,66,67 P. saccharata 'Pink Dawn' - Bright rose-pink flowers. Source: 69 Rudbeckia Cone Flower Daisy Family (Compositae) The cultivars listed in catalogs under the name of R. purpurea be found in this discussion under Echinacea purpurea. The garden varieties in the genus Rudbeckia have yellow flowers, often with a dark \"cone\" or center, and resemble our native Black-eyed Susans. Those belonging to the genus Echinacea are to 34I have Daisy-like flowers in colors ranging from pink to red or white. Rudbeckia is a genus of mixed blessings for the low maintenance gardener. Selections of R. hirta called the Gloriosa Daisies have handsome, large single or double flowers all summer long in shades of yellow to orange or mahogany. They are more apt to captivate the gardener than any other Rudbeckia, and are sometimes advertised as \"perennials\"; on all but the best-drained soils they invariably behave as annuals. Another of the group, R. laciniata var. hortensis, is commonly known as \"Golden Glow.\" It is a true perennial, towering to 7 feet in height. It produces 2 to 3-inch double yellow flowers for most of the summer; these are excellent for cutting purposes. A cultivar of this species, R. 'Gold Quelle,' discussed below, does not romp and is much better suited to a low maintenance situation. For the few Cone Flowers that can be recommended, culture is quite simple. They must have full sun and soil of average fertility; good winter drainage is essential. All the cultivars listed here probably will require division for rejuvenation after the fourth or fifth year. Plant them in groups of three or more spaced about 12 inches apart at the middle of the border. All are excellent as cut flowers. R. nitida 'Autumn Sun' (the correct cultivar name is 'Herbstsonne' but it is listed by its English translation in American catalogs) Grows to a height of 4 to 5 feet and produces 3 to 4-inch, Black-eyed Susan-type flowers. The stems are rugged - and staking is not Sources: 13; C required. - Flowers through July and August. R. laciniata 'Golde Quelle' Plants reach a height of only 21\/z feet and clumps increase very slowly. The bright, double yellow flowers appear in profusion from July to September. Sources: 14,24,32,66; I This is probably the fulgida var. sullivantii 'Goldsturm' finest cultivar in the genus, and represents the Black-eyed Susan to perfection. The deep yellow flowers with near-black \"cones\" or centers are 3 to 4 inches across and are freely produced on well-branched 21\/2 foot plants. They start to appear in mid-July and continue through September. Although this cultivar does not perform well in dry soil, it is one of the best perennials for continuous summer color in a low maintenance situation. Sources: 13,14,24,32,59,60,66,67,69; C,B,I R. - 35 Salvia .. Salvia, Sage Mint Family (Labiatae) A number of the Salvias are quite hardy in this area, but certainly not in every location or in every garden. Some people can grow them well, and others have fleeting success. A few species are biennial or otherwise short-lived and must be raised from seed every few years. The well-known red-flowering types are tropical perennials that are treated as annuals. All perennial Sages require full sun and well-drained soil. Too much moisture at the roots in winter causes certain death, and most species should have the protection of a winter mulch. They often tolerate positions where they bake in summer, and will withstand a surprising amount of drought. Azure Salvia Native to the Southeast, it can be S. azurea grown as far north as Vermont but is not reliably hardy without a good snow cover in the winter. Whorls of icy blue flowers on 4 to 5-foot stems in August and September. Sources: 57,66 - 36 I grandiflora (syn. S. pitcheri, the name Pitcher's Salvia listed in catalogs) flowers. Plants 3 to 31\/2 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,67,68; C,I S. is azurea var. frequently - - by which it Deep blue S. glutinosa Sticky Salvia The large flowers are pale yellow. Plants 3 feet in height. Somewhat coarse in appearance. Blooms in July. Sources: 24; I - One of the most conspicuous species when in S. haematodes blossom. Flowers are lavender-blue in large panicles during June. Plants are about 3 feet in height. Often behaves as a biennial. Sources: 67,69 - This species is perfectly hardy in our area, but its height and habit of growth better fit the plant to the rock garden. Perhaps of some use at the very front of the border as edging. Forms mat-like clumps and produces violet-blue flowers for most of the summer if seed production is prevented. S. jurisicii - 8-inch Sources: 4,69 Has strong biennial tendencies. S. sclarea 'Vatican Variety' Large silvery leaves with a somewhat unpleasant odor. Lavenderpink and white flowers on 3-foot stalks. Source: 67 - S. sclarea X superba 'May Night' Violet-blue flowers from May to August if seed formation is prevented. Plants li\/z to 2 feet in - height. Sources: 28,69 Salvia X superba (frequently found in catalogs as S. nemorosa) - If seed production is prevented, this and its cultivars will flower from mid-June until late August. The flowers are violet or purple with reddish-purple calyces. Plants are about 21\/2 to 3 feet in height and quite hardy. Sources: 68; B,J,L S. X superba 'East Friesland' (listed in some catalogs as 'OstfriesMuch branched 18-inch plants with violet-blue flowers land') - in erect spikes. Sources: 3,66,67,69; I,J Scabiosa Pincushion Flower, Mourning Bride Teasel Family (Dipsacaceae) Here is another good group for the low maintenance gardener who can provide a sunny spot and a sandy loam enriched with compost. 37 The \"flowers\" are really an inflorescence, similar to Sunflowers. Their globular shape with the stamens sticking out of the individual florets has earned them the name \"Pincushion.\" Varieties recommended here grow to a height of 2 to 21\/2 feet and have flowers in shades of blue to white. They are excellent for cutting and are long lasting. The flowering season spans the months of June to September. After the fourth year clumps may become crowded and need dividing for rejuvenation. This is best done in the early spring using only the young divisions growing vigorously from the outer portions of the old clumps. Scabiosas have no serious pests or diseases, and staking will not be required; they are most effective planted in groups of at least three, spaced 12 to 15 inches apart near the front or middle of the border. This species and its sevCaucasian Scabiosa eral cultivars are the only Scabiosas recommended for the flower border; the others are best in a rock garden situation. S. caucasica has 3-inch blue flowers with contrasting gray S. caucasica - stamens. Sources: 3,14,59,66,67; L S. caucasica var. alba - White-flowered form. Sources: 13,67; C,K - S. caucasica 'Blue Snowflake' Rich amethyst-blue flowers. flowers. Sources: 29,32 S. caucasica `Constancy' ___ - Amethyst-blue Source: 32 Hybrids' (sometimes also listed in cata\"House Mixture\" or \"House Hybrids\") The somewhat unusual name refers to their place of origin at Isaac House, Bristol, England. They are a mixture of shades that are basically lavender-blue. Sources: 13,68; A,C,J,K S. caucasica 'Isaac House as logs - S. caucasica 'Miss Wilmott' - Pure white flowers. Source: 32 alpina Alpine Scabiosa Typical small mauve-blue \"pincushion\" flowers on tufty little plants about 6 to 9 inches in height. This species has a reputation of not being long-lived, and is best treated as a rock garden plant. Sources: 3,32 - S. - 38 S. lucida Very similar to the above in size, recommended treatment, and life span. The flowers are more lilac than blue. Source: 57 - Grassleaf Scabiosa Silvery grass-like foliage 10-inch plants. The flowers are pinkish and appear from June into August. Another species that is best in the rock S. graminifolia - - on garden. Sources: 13,24,32; C,I Sedum spectabile Showy Stone Crassula Family Crop, Live-Forever (Crassulaceae) There are many species in the genus Sedum for use in the rock garden, but only two are subjects for the low maintenance flower border. Of the two, the one that should have a home in every border is the nearly indestructible S. spectabile, the Showy Stone Crop. This forms a neat, compact mound about 18 inches high, and produces numerous brightly colored flowers in large flat-headed clusters (cymes) 3 to 6 inches across from early August until frost. Another species quite similar in appearance and uses is S. telephium (called Live-Forever or Orpine). These two require a well-drained soil in full sun. Division will not be necessary for many years, and the plants need be disturbed only when an increase is desired. They are best seen as single specimens, or in small groups of no more than three, planted about 15 inches apart at the front of the border. S. Sources: S. spectabile Showy Stone Crop - Rosy pink flowers. 58,66,68; B - Sources: S. Carmine flowers. spectabile 'Brilliant' 13,20,24,37,61,66,68; C,H,I,J,K,L,M - spectabile `Carmen' - Carmine-rose to red flowers. Sources: 28,32,66,67; L - S. spectabile `Meteor' Very large wine-red flower clusters. Sources: 13,32,66,67; C - S. spectabile `Star Dust' Ivory-white flowers. Blue-green leaves. Sources: 13,24,32,49,69,70; C,I telephium 'Indian Chief' leaves. - S. Copper or Indian-red flowers. Gray-green Sources: 24,32,66,67,68; A,F,I,L Above and below: Sedum spectabile Above: Sidalcea 'Stark's Hybrids' S. telephium 'Autumn Joy' Sources: 28,32,49,66,69; L - Rust-brown flowers. Prairie Mallow, Miniature Hollyhock Hibiscus Family (Malvaceae) Here is an answer, in diminutive form, for those who wish a Hollyhock-like plant without the biennial characteristics of the true Hollyhock. Prairie Mallows are the products of cross breeding several western American species to obtain a group of narrow upright plants about 3 feet in height with flowers in bright shades of rose, pink or purple. They have single flowers, and the same vertical effect as Hollyhocks, but the leaves are deeply Sidalcea 41 lobed, quite unlike those of Hollyhocks. Another dissimilarity is the freedom from infestations of Hollyhock rust. Sidalceas require a position in full sun and must have a good well-drained loamy soil that is moisture retentive in summer, but well drained in the winter. They are excellent subjects for the middle of the border when planted in small groups with 12 to 15-inch spacings. Division of the clumps after the fourth year is advisable. Cutting back the plants immediately after flowering in July will encourage second flowering at the end of the summer. S. 'Elsie Heugh' Source: 68 S. 'Rose - Soft pink flowers. Plants 2 to 3 feet in height. Queen' - Rose-pink flowers. Plants about 4 feet in height. Source: 66 S. 'Rosy Gem' - Rose-pink flowers. Plants 11\/2 to 3 feet in height. Source: 69 S. 'Stark's Hybrids' - Mixture of pink, white or purplish vari- eties. Plants 3 feet in height. Sources: 13,24,68; C,I Solidago Goldenrod Goldenrods are such from midsummer to fall that their garden value is overlooked in this country. Perhaps, too, they are spumed because of their undeserved reputation as hay fever plants. Hybridization involving several of our native species, principally in Europe, has produced cultivars with 10 to 12-inch flower heads on compact plants. They are first class perennial border subjects. Full sun is necessary, and almost any soil type except the extremes will do. There are no significant insect or disease problems, plants are extremely hardy, and staking is not required. Division after the fourth year of flowering is frequently necessary. Plants appear best in groups of three, spaced about 12 inches apart. Daisy Family (Compositae) conspicuous \"weeds\" of the wayside 42 S. 'Cloth of Gold' - Soft ters, compact and September. 7 Sources: 32,67 on plants Primrose-yellow flowers in large clus18 to 20 inches in height. Mid-August flowers S. 'Golden Mosa' - height. August - and Dark yellow September. on plants plants 3 feet in Sources: 13,24,67,69; C,I flowers on S. `Leraft' Bright golden-yellow height. August. 3 feet in Sources: 13,24,69; S. 'Peter Pan' - C,I flowers on Canary-yellow plants 21\/2 feet in height. August. Sources: 32,67 Betony, Lamb's Ears Mint Family (Labiatae) The two recommended species in this group differ so greatly in appearance that they are discussed separately below. They have similar cultural requirements that include a position in full sun and very well-drained soil of moderate fertility. They require no care other than occasional division sometime after the fourth year depending upon the condition of the plants. Stachys S. macrantha Big Betony (may sometimes be listed as Betonica grandiflora, but is most commonly found in catalogs as This grows to a height of 11\/2 to 2 feet Stachys grandiflora) - produces tiered whorls of typical Mint-like, 1-inch bright purple flowers. These appear in May and June and are excellent as cut flowers. The heart-shaped leaves are wrinkled and hairy. This species will tolerate partial shade and in such a position the flowers may last longer. and Sources: S. lanata 67,68 - Woolly Betony This is a wonderful low plant for a silvery foliage effect. Its soft, gray, densely hairy, tongueshaped leaves are 4 to 6 inches long. The plant forms a mat of growth often 2 feet in width and a few inches in height, but may become invasive in rich soil. The flowering stalks rise to about 12 inches above the leaves and bear small pinkish purple flowers starting in June. These continue to appear until the end 43 of the growing season. Although the flowers really cannot be called ugly, they are not handsome either, and some gardeners may wish to cut them off. This species has great value as an accent at the front of the border when used sparingly. Sources: 13,24,46,49,66,67,69; A,C,E,I,L Below. Stachys lanata. Photo: P. Bruns. 44 Stokesia laevis Stokes Aster, Cornflower Aster Daisy Family (Compositae) There is only one species, which is listed invariably in catalogs under the old name S. cyanea. The plant is of value for its blue, 3 to 4-inch, Aster-like flowers in August and September. It is of easy culture where a well-drained soil in winter can be provided. If this is not possible, it would be better not to attempt to grow this plant in our area. In nature the flowering stems may reach 18 to 24 inches in height but cultivated selections seldom grow more than 12 inches tall. Stokesias are most effective when planted in groups of at least three, about 12 to 15 inches apart. Spring planting or dividing is recommended. After the fourth year of flowering the plants will probably become crowded and require division. Sources: 4,14,24,49; A,I,L S. laevis 'Blue Danube' Plants 12 to 15 inches in Deep blue height. C,I,J,K flowers in July and August Sources: 13,24,28,49,58,60; S. laevis 'Blue Moon' - Sources: Quite large silvery blue 13,25,37,66,68; C,H,L to lilac flowers. S. laevis 'Blue Star' - Light blue flowers. Sources: 67; B S. laevis 'Silver Moon' - Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24; C,I. Above : Stokesia laevis Thalictrum Meadowrue Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) The delicate compound foliage and lacy flowers of the Meadbe used to impart a light airy feeling in the border. The flowers, which have no true petals, are comprised of petallike sepals and numerous colored stamens. This somewhat unusual characteristic seldom fails to attract attention. Most species tolerate shady conditions, but may be grown in full sun if soil is relatively moist. The taller growing species have sturdy stems, so staking is seldom required. Established plants should remain in good condition for a number of years. Flowers are excellent for cutting. To achieve maximum effect in the garden, set the plants in groups of at least three, spaced 15 to 18 inches apart. owrues can -- T. aquilegifolium Columbine Meadowrue - The gray-green leaves are similar in appearance to those of the Columbine. The individual lilac-purple flowers are small but produced in great quantity on 3-foot stems; they appear for a relatively brief period in late May and early June. Sources: 32,66 _ 46 T. aquilegifolium 'Album' - White-flowered form. ' - Source: 32 T. aquilegifolium 'Dwarf Purple' - Purple flowers on plants 21\/2 feet in height. I Sources: 24; T. aquilegifolium `Roseum' dipterocarpum - - Pink flowers. Source: 32 Yunnan Meadowrue - Has lavender or flowers with contrasting yellow stamens. A valuable plant for its August flowering. Reaches a height of about 5 feet and requires a rich moist soil. This species was discovered in Western China by Ernest H. Wilson while travelling for the Veitch Nurseries before he became associated with the Arnold Arboretum. Sources: 24,66; I T. mauve T. dipterocarpum 'Album' - White-flowered form. Source: 68 T. A completely double form dipterocarpum 'Hewitt's Double' with rich mauve flowers, it is probably the most desirable cultivar, but does not appear to be available at present from any mail-order source in the country. - be found in catalogs listed by its old name, T. Low Meadowrue - This is a handsome foliadiantifoliu~rz) for the front of the border. The much-dissected, femage plant like leaves are reminiscent of the Maiden Hair Fern, and are of great value in bouquets. The flowers appearing in June and July are greenish-yellow and not at all conspicuous. Source: 32 T. minus (may - This is one of the finrocquebrunianum - Lavender Mist est of the Meadowrues, and a plant that could well be in every T. - The lavender flowers with soft yellow stamens appear the top of 6-foot stems from mid-July through August. Gardeners should not be discouraged with this species after the first or even the second year, especially if the plants obtained from the nursery were small; they require a few years to come into their own. Sources: 13,32,67; C garden. at 47 Thalictrum rocquebrunianum 48 Dusty Meadowrue - This yellow-flowered be found listed in catalogs as T. glaucum or T. species may rugosum. The dense clusters of slightly fragrant flowers appear in August on stems 4 to 6 feet in height. The blue-gray leaves are effective in flower arrangements. Sources: 32,66,67 T. speciosissimum - ~ Thermopsis False Lupine Pea Family (Leguminosae) This is another in the relatively small group of perennials that have the ability to endure considerable neglect for many years. Although native in the Southeast, it will survive New England winters, has no insect or disease problems, and the compound leaves remain in excellent condition throughout the growing season. The 12-inch spikes of bright yellow, pealike flowers appearing in June and early July resemble a yellow Lupine, hence the common name. Old plants may reach a height of 4 feet and form clumps up to a yard wide. Under such conditions they may require staking. False Lupines should be grown in full sun in soil that is well drained; only moderate fertility is necessary. Sources: 3,4,13,14,25,29,66,68,69; B,C,E,K Tradescantia virginiana Spiderwort Spiderwort Family (Commelinaceae) Our native spiderwort, Tradescantia virginiana, is a plant that will tolerate poor soil, poor drainage and poor light, but may become a serious pest under favorable conditions. Plants reach a height of 18 to 24 inches and have fleshy, somewhat grass-like leaves and stems. The three-petaled flowers appear in small clusters during the summer. virginiana 'Blue Stone' Sources: 24,69; I T. T. - Clear deep blue flowers. virginiana 'Innocence' - Pure white flowers. White flowers with Source: 66 virginiana 'Iris Prichard' Sources: 13,32,66,67,69; C T. - a violet flush. 49 T. virginiana 'T. C. Weguelin' Sources: 13,24,32,66,69; C,I virginiana 'Kreisler' - - Porcelain-blue flowers, T. Deep - blue flowers. Source: 66 T. virginiana 'Orchid Lady' - Orchid-pink flowers. Source: 1 T. Rose-mauve flowers. virginiana 'Pauline' Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I,K T. virginiana 'Pink Delight' - Rich orchid-pink flowers. Source: 1 T. virginiana 'Purple Dome' - Rosy-purple flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,67,68,69; C,I T. virginiana 'Purple Perfection' - - Rich purple flowers. Source: 1 virginiana 'Red Cloud' Rosy-red flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I,K T. T. virginiana 'Royal Purple' virginiana 'Snowcap' - - Deep purple flowers. Source: 1 T. Pure white flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,69; C,I T. virginiana `Valour' - Deep red-violet flowers. - Source: 66 T. virginiana `Zwanenburg Blue' - Medium blue flowers. Source: 66 Trollius Globe Flower Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Globe Flowers are found in nature growing in sunny, moist or marshy situations. In the garden they must have a position where they will remain moist throughout the summer. Under such conditions they will require little attention for many years. Despite catalog claims to the contrary, they bloom only in spring and early summer. The flowers range in size from 2 to 3 inches and may be single or double in shades ranging from pale yellow to orange. They make excellent, long-lasting subjects for flower arrangements. 50 I species The to are deeply-lobed leaves resemble those of Buttercups. According or cultivar they range in height from 1 to 3 feet and most effective in groups of at least three spaced 10 to 12 inches apart near the front or middle of the flower border. Division may be accomplished either in spring or fall, but in most situations it will not be necessary for five years or more. Although a number of fine selections are available in this country, it is unfortunate that more nurseries do not stock them. Orange-yellow, semidouble flowers anthers. Plants 21\/2 feet in height. Flowers a little later than the T. europaeus hybrids. Source: 69 T. asiaticus 'Byrne's Giant' - with bright orange-red T. europaeus Common Globe Flower - The true species probis not offered by nurseries; but a number of cultivars atably tributed to this species are available. Many are undoubtedly hybrids between T. europaeus and other species. - ers. T. europaeus `Commander-in-Chief' Plants about 2 feet in height. - other varieties and Source: 66 prefers a deep, Less rich soil. Large deep orange vigorous than flowmost T. europaeus 'Earliest of All' - Small clear Plants about 2 feet in height, true to name. Source: 66 T. europaeus 'Excelsior' - yellow flowers. Bright yellow flowers. - Source: 32 T. europaeus 'Fire Globe' Deep burnished orange flowers. 2 feet. Source: 32 T. europaeus 'First Lancers' - Fiery - orange flowers. 21\/2 feet. flowers. flowers. Source: 66 T. europaeus 'Golden Monarch' Large golden-yellow Source: 66 T. europaeus 'Lemon 2 feet. Queen' - Very pale lemon-yellow Sources: 32,66,68; C T. europaeus 'Mrs. Mary R.ussell' - Pale yellow flowers. Sources: 66,68 I T. europaeus 51 'Orange Glow' - Large deep orange-yellow - flowers. Sources: 32,66 T. europaeus 'Orange Princess' Orange-gold flowers. 21\/2 feet. Source: 68 T. europaeus 'Prichard's Giant' Plants about 21\/2 feet in height. Large golden-yellow flowers. Sources: 66,69; C T. europaeus 'Superbus' - - Bright lemon-yellow flowers. - Source: 68 Similar in general apT. ledebouri Ledebour Globe Flower to the preceding species, but flowering starts in June. pearance The flowers are orange-gold with erect bright orange stamens. Plants attain a height of about 2 to 21\/2 feet. Sources: 14,32,37,67,68,69 This is the tallest of all the TrolQueen' lius cultivars, reaching a height of nearly 4 feet under the most favorable circumstances. The very large flowers, often 4 inches T. ledebouri 'Golden - across, are orange-yellow. - Sources: T. C,I This is a treasure for a Dwarf Globe Flower pumilus moist spot on the rock garden or similar situation at the very front of the flower border. The 1-inch, clear yellow flowers are produced in May and June on plants 6 to 8 inches in height. Source: 29 -- ~~~~ ~ Verbascum Mullein Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) Although they are close relatives of the common Mullein, V. thapsus, which is frequently seen along roadsides and in waste places in our area, the species and cultivars for garden use far outshine the wild plant. Unfortunately the types most frequently available to the gardening public exhibit biennial tendencies, and new batches of seedlings must be raised every year to insure against losses. Many of the species and cultivars will self-sow and perpetuate themselves in a low maintenance situation, but this cannot always be guaranteed. The key to success with Verbascum is a location where the soil is very well drained especially during the winter months. Sandy loam that has moderate fertility will suffice, but the planting site must be in full sun. Although plants will withstand surprising amounts of drought, periodic watering during long dry spells will be beneficial. 52I The types discussed here vary in height from 2 to 4 feet. The five-petaled saucer-shaped flowers are about an inch in width and densely borne on spikes above basal rosettes of green to silvery-gray leaves. Depending upon variety, the spikes may be solitary or branched; some types produce numerous secondary spikes. The taller varieties invariably need staking to prevent the flower spikes from bending or flopping over after heavy rain. Removal of the flowering stalks immediately after flowering may encourage the production of new basal rosettes of foliage, thus discouraging the biennial tendencies of some of the forms. This will not always work, however. V. nigrum - Dark Mullein This European native bears bold 2 to 3-foot spikes of small yellow flowers that are purplish at the center. The basal leaves may be oblong or heart-shaped. This species will often be much longer lived than the others discussed here. Source: 69 - V. nigrum var. album - White-flowered form of the above species. Sources: 24; I - V. phoeniceum - Purple Mullein This species exhibits a strong biennial tendency. It is one of the principal parents of the garden hybrids, and unfortunately that tendency has been passed along to them. In a sunny dry location, the plant self-sows with little difficulty in the Boston area, but not prolifically. Plants reach a height of 21\/2 to 3 feet and bear loosely branched spikes of 3\/4-inch white to violet or purple flowers. Sources: 66,69; L V. X hybridum 'Bridal 21\/a to 3 feet in height. Source: 66 V. X Bouquet' - Pure white flowers on plants hybridum 'Cotswold purple centers. Plants 3 Sources: 24,67,69; I V. X Gem' - Soft amber-colored flowers with to 4 feet in height. maroon hybridum 'Pink Domino' - Rose-pink flowers with Plants 4 feet in centers. height. - Sources: 13,24,66,69; C,I V. X hybridum 'Yellow 3 feet in height. Source: 68 Queen' Bright yellow flowers on plants Veronica This is a very Speedwell Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) large group of garden plants. Many are best 53 suited to the rock garden or naturalized areas, but a surprisingly large number of forms of great value in the perennial garden are presently offered by American nurseries. Of these selections, most are suitable for a low maintenance situation and are highly prized for their flowers which are excellent for cutting. Blue predominates, but purple, white and pink shades are obtainable well. With proper selection of varieties, a succession of bloom throughout most of the growing season is possible. The flowers are small, but are borne densely on numerous erect spikes. Plants vary in height, according to variety, from 12 to 18 inches. They do best in an open, airy, sunny location where the soil is of moderate fertility and well drained, especially during the winter. For tidy growth, clumps probably will require division after the fourth year, either in the spring or fall. Single specimens, or small groups of three plants spaced 12 to 18 inches apart at the front or towards the middle of the border as are equally satisfactory. - V. holophylla Japanese Speedwell - Broad spikes about 12 to 15 inches high with vivid blue flowers. Starts to bloom in August and continues almost to the end of the growing season. Deep green glossy foliage. Very hardy. Sources: 13,24,29,32; C,I - V. incana Woolly Speedwell - The woolly white leaves and lilac-blue flowers form a handsome contrast. The flowers appear on 12 to 18-inch stems in June and July. When not in flower the plants seldom exceed 6 inches in height, so may be used at the front of the border or in the rock garden as well. Good drainage is a necessity. Sources: 14,24,39,46,49,66,68,69; A,I,J,K,L - Hungarian Speedwell This species forms a mound of foliage. The deep blue flowers are produced with surprising freedom throughout most of the summer. Source: 66 V. latifolia - - tangled V. latifolia `Crater Lake Blue' It has vivid season. species. long blooming V. above A most desirable cultivar of the gentian-blue flowers and the same - Sources: 24,32,59,66,67,69; - I,K - Beach Speedwell, Clump Speedwell longifolia Densely borne, lilac-blue flowers on long spikes that average 2 feet in height. Flowers from midsummer to fall. Sources: 66; L 54 V. longifolia striking with the Sources: V. var. subsessilis - Rich royal blue flowers, quite in their effect. Much superior to the species form, and same long blooming period. - 24,46,66,67; B,I spicata of spikes V. Spike Speedwell Numerous 14 to 18-inch bright blue flowers from June to early August. - dense Sources: 30; K,L alba - spicata var. Pure white-flowered form of the preceding species. Source: 66 V. in A very low compact form not over 6 inches of more value in the rock garden, but of some interest for the very front of the flower border. Blue flowers at the same time as the species. Source: 66 spicata 'Nana' - height. Probably V. spicata 'Nana Alba' tivar. Source: 66 - White-flowered form of the above cul- Of the following list of cultivars, some may properly belong under V. spicata and others under V. longifolia. The two species have been crossed extensively and some cultivars are obviously hybrids between the two. For convenience they are lumped together here as Veronica hybrids. V. 'Barcarolle' 1-foot spikes of from June to August. Sources: 24,49,59,69; I,K - striking deep rose-pink flowers V. 'Blue Champion' - Medium blue flowers from July to late summer on bushy, - 21\/2-foot plants. Source: 67 V. 'Blue Peter' Deep blue flowers on compact spikes. Much branched 11\/2-foot plants with fairly long serrated leaves. Blooms from July to August. Sources: 68,69; B,I - V. 'Blue Spire' Very blue flowers from June Sources: 13,66; C V. `Icicle' - erect to 11\/2-foot plants with deep violet- August. Pure white flowers from June to September on 2- 55 foot spikes. Gray-green leaves. on 18 to 24-inch green leaves. Sources: 13,14,24,32,39,46,58,66,67,68,69; C,I,J,K,L V. 'Lavender Charm' - Lavender-blue flowers from June to September. Dark Sources: 13,24; C,I,J spikes glossy V. 'Minuet'- Soft pink flowers from June to about 1 foot in height. Handsome gray-green August foliage. on plants Sources: 13,14,24,32,39,46,49,66,67; C,I,J,K,L V. 'Pavane'on Bright pink or rose flowers from June to August 18-inch spikes. Sources: 32,58,66; K - V. 'Pink Spire' 18 to 24-inch spikes of soft red anthers. Gray-green foliage. Sources: 13,66; C V. pink flowers with 'Romily Purple' - ust on rigid spikes - Dark blue-violet flowers from June to 11\/2 to 2 feet in height. Aug- Source: 68 on Violet-blue flowers from June 20-inch spikes. Sources: 66,67 V. 'Saraband' through August V. 'Sunny Border Blue' - Navy-blue flowers from June to tember on 18 to 24-inch spikes. Sources: 13; C,J,L Sep- Although all of the following are excellent in their own way, they are quite low growing and not superior to the few low types already mentioned. For this reason it is suggested that they are better suited to the rock garden than to the front of the flower border. V. alpina `Alba' White flowers 8 inches in height. Sources: 24,67,69; I - on stalks seldom exceeding 6 to A mat-forming plant with pink flowers pectinata `Rosea' with white centers. Hardiness a bit doubtful in the Boston area. Source: 66 V. - V. prostrata Harebell spikes June. in catalogs as V. rupestris ) Speedwell Forms tufted mats of foliage. Flower 2 to 8 inches in height. Flowers deep blue in May and - (sometimes listed Sources: 68; B 56 I V. prostrata 'Heavenly Blue' - Sapphire-blue flowers, otherwise the same as the above. Sources: 24; I,K Plants 2 inches in height V. repens - Creeping Speedwell produce slender spikes of pale or lavender blue flowers in June. Sources: 32,66; A - HARDY ORNAMENTAL GRASSES Some of the easiest perennials to grow are members of the Grass family (Gramineae). They are not seen frequently enough in perennial gardens, and some have a special importance in a low maintenance situation. Ornamental grasses may be of value for their habit of growth, variegated leaves, or decorative inflorescences (flowers). Most possess combinations of these; with some, winter interest is an added asset. The dried flowers or fruiting stalks of many are useful in flower arrangements as well. All the grasses recommended here are fully hardy in our area and should grow for many years before division for rejuvenation will be necessary. This is best done in early spring, just before new growth commences, and only when clumps start to die out in the center. Those noted for their winter interest should be allowed to retain their dead leaves until early spring, at which time plants should be cut back to an inch or so above ground level. An excellent, fully illustrated publication Ornamental Grasses for the Home and Garden, Information Bulletin 64, is available at a price of $.30 from the Extension Service, New York State College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 14850. Carex morrowi 'Variegata' - Japanese Sedge Grass a - A low, clump forming plant (actually sedge, Cyperaceae, not a true grass) that grows from 6 to 12 inches in height. The evergreen leaves have narrow white margins. The flowers are insignificant. It will not spread rapidly under normal conditions and is handsome in both winter and summer. Full sun or partial shade is satisfactory, but a soil that does not dry out for long periods is necessary. Excellent for growing in pots or other containers, both indoors and out. Sources: 66,67; C 57 A very densely-tufted Blue Lime Grass with short blue-green leaves. It grows to a height of about grass 2 feet and is quite effective in small groupings at the front of the border. Unlike E. arenarius which is sometimes used in gardens, this species does not spread rapidly. Full sun is necessary, but the soil may be either moist or sandy and fairly dry. Useful in gardens near the sea. The leaves lose their coloration with the first frost. Sources: 66; L Elymus glaucus - - Plume Grass, Ravenna Grass, Hardy Erianthus ravennae Grass This is a very stately, tall grass that forms Pampas imposing 5-foot clumps, and flowering stalks rising 7 to 10 feet in height. It gives the closest effect to Pampas Grass of any plant that can be easily grown in New England. The green leaves present a somewhat coarse effect. The silvery plumes of white or beige flowers are 1 to 2 feet long and appear in September and early October. These are occasionally destroyed by - early frosts. Well-established clumps are 40 to 50 flower heads and these may produce upwards of excellent for use in dried arrangements. Plume Grass is not invasive, but clumps do eventually beseveral feet in width. A single specimen will be sufficient in most gardens, where the effect will be dramatic to say the least. Where massed, it can be effective as screening for those who may wish something a bit out of the ordinary. Foliage should not be cut down until early spring as the plants have a rather handsome effect in winter. A fairly moist but welldrained and fertile soil should be provided along with full sun. come Sources: 67; B - Miscanthus sinensis (syn. Eulalia japonica) Eulalia Grass, Chinese Silver Grass This is another very tall grass, usually attaining heights of 5 to 10 feet, and has many of the same uses as Erianthus ravennae due to its large size. The flowers are pale pink or red and appear in large, feathery fan-shaped panicles in September. These can be very effective when dried for arrangements. As with Erianthus the foliage should be left over winter and not cut until early spring. In a low maintenance situation, a site in full sun with somewhat poor but moist soil conditions should be chosen. In shady locations, or if encouraged by excessive fertility, clumps may require tying to prevent toppling. Gigantea; Sources: 66; B. (The same sources list a form that they call this grows a foot or so taller than the species. ) Above: Clump of Miscanthus sinensis provides a contrast to shapes and of shrubs and perennials in the Low Maintenance Garden at the Case Estates, Weston. Photo: P. Bruns. textures Above: Erianthus ravenne. From Dictionnaire Practique D'Horticulture et du Jardinage. Paris, 1892-93. Left: Miscanthus sinensis. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. (ed. 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USDA Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. 59 This form Maiden Grass Miscanthus sinensis 'Gracillimus' differs from the above in that the leaves are finer in texture, have a conspicuous white midvein and a more arching habit of growth. It is shorter by about 2 feet. Sources: 13,24,28,67,68; B,I,L - Miscanthus sinensis 'Variegatus'- Striped Eulalia Grass Grows to a height of 3 to 6 feet. The leaves are striped yellow, white, and green. Although hardy in the Boston area, it seldom flowers here. Sources: 66,67; B Miscanthus sinensis 'Zebrinus'- Zebra Grass grass with basically green leaves that have striking prominent yellow bands. It has an upright habit, and the unique foliage makes it an interesting and unusual specimen plant. It is frequently used near water. Does not form as vigorous clumps as the species, and will require staking if grown in the shade. - A very Sources: 66,67; B 'Variegata' - Variegated Moor Grass - This forms small dense, upright to arching tufts 1 to 2 feet in height. The leaves have cream-colored margins. The green to purplish flowers are produced over most of the summer and are effective when dried. The plant dies to the ground in winter, so has no value at that time of year. It is effective as a low specimen plant or in small groupings at the front of the border. Adapts well either to full sun or partial shade. Sources: 24,66,69; I Molinea caerulea Panicum virgatum Switch Grass Densely upright clumps 3 to 6 feet in height that produce light, airy panicles of dark reddish-purple flowers from July to September. Because of the habit of growth, Switch Grass has distinct ornamental winter value and also has been suggested for use as a wildlife cover at that time of the year. It is suitable as a specimen plant at the middle of the border, and can be used in naturalizing schemes, in waterside plantings, or as a screen when massed. Prefers a site in full sun and is impartial to soil type. In a shady location plants may require staking. Light sandy soils may encourage spreading, but this happens slowly. Sources: 66; B - Uniola latifolia one of the best propriate for a right Northern Sea Oats, Spangle Grass This is hardy native grasses, and probably the most appartially shaded location. It has a narrow, upto arching habit of growth. Clumps reach 3 to 5 feet in - Above: Panicum virgatum. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Printing Of~rce. Above: Uniola latifolia. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. (ed. 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USDA. Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. The handsome 10 to 12-inch spikes of reddish-brown flowers (which turn to bronze) appear in late July and persist into the winter when they retain their pleasing appearance. The best planting site is where soil is fertile and well drained. A position in full sun will cause the plants to grow shorter and be less effective. height. ' . Source: B 61 The ation, but they above: following grasses may be used in a low maintenance situmust be placed second in value to those discussed - Arrhenatherum elatius var. bulbosum 'Variegatum' Variegated This grows Bulbous Oat Grass, Variegated Tuber Oat Grass to a height of 18 to 25 inches and has wide green leaf blades with contrasting white stripes. The foliage is most effective in spring and autumn. Because the clumps become untidy looking during hot weather, they should be cut back to the base in midsummer. Plants have a definite tendency to spread, and possess an open, upright habit of growth. Will grow well either in full sun or partial shade, and tolerate dry soil conditions. Sources: 24,66; I - Phalaris arundinacea `Picta' Ribbon Grass, Gardener's Garters Although this is a very attractive low grass, it has a decided tendency to become rampant in light soils. Also, the foliage becomes less decorative toward the end of the summer. It grows about 2 or sometimes 3 feet in height and has an open, upright habit, not forming tight clumps or mounds. The leaves are green, striped with white, and occasionally pink. This grass was very popular in the past, and still frequently marks the site of old gardens. - Spartina pectinata 'Aureo-marginata' (syn. S. michauxiana either 'Aureo-marginata') Cord Grass - An excellent plant for sandy or wet soils, but may become invasive in the former situation. It grows to a height of 4 to 8 feet (tallest in moist - and should have a site in full sun. The 2 to 4-foot leaves are shiny green with yellow stripes along the margins. Yellow flowers on 6 to 15-inch stalks appear from late August through September. This is a very good plant for use along streams and ponds or near the sea; it is of less value in the locations) perennial garden. Sources: 66; B The following grasses are not maintenance situation: recommended, especially in a low Arundo donax - Giant Reed - A very coarse, but striking plant. It may vary in height from 7 to 20 feet, but is seldom over 8 to 12 feet in our area. Although it can be used locally, it is at the margin of its hardiness, and must be heavily mulched in winter. Sources: 67; B Aboae: Arrhenatherum elatius. From Manual of the Grasses of the U.S. (ed. 2) by A. S. Hitchcock and A. Chase. USDA. Misc. Publ. 200, 1950. Above: Phalaris arundinacea. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Printing Of]'sce. Arundo donax 'Variegata'- Leaves with broad white stripes at the margins, and a narrower white stripe down the midrib. Less hardy than the species and not for outdoor culture around Boston. Sources: 13,66,67; C - Cortaderia argentea (syn. C. selloana) Pampas Grass A densely tufted perennial grass that grows up to 9 feet and more in height and produces conspicuous silvery-white panicles of flowers in late summer. In the Boston area it can only be grown with considerable protection, and this is hardly worthwhile, as Erianthus ravennae makes such a good substitute. Sources: 25,44,59; A - S~ Above: Arundo donax. From The Garden, Vol. XVI:322, Oct. 1879. Above: Festuca ovina. From Yearbook of Agriculture, 1948. U.S. Govt. Print- ing Of~ice. Blue Fescue - Although this is the var. glauca ornamental grass most frequently offered by nurseries, it is one of the least satisfactory for the true low maintenance situation because of its need for division every second or third year to maintain the vigor of the clumps. It is frequently suggested for use as a ground cover, a purpose to which it is unsuited. Growing in neat clumps about 6 to 12 inches in height, with silvery blue, finely textured leaves, Blue Fescue remains completely evergreen in New England winters. It must have a well-drained soil, but will tolerate either full sun or partial shade. It is a beautiful little plant, well loved by some landscape architects, but not worthwhile for easy maintenance. Sources: 24,32,44,49,58,59,66,67; A,B,C,I,K,L Festuca ovina - 64I Planning and Preparing the Garden Site Considerations The ideal site for a perennial garden is one exposed to full sun for the entire day, out of the wind, with a well-drained, fertile, loamy soil abundantly supplied with organic matter, on flat, not sloping land, and occupying a conspicuous location on the property. Few people are blessed with such a site! Fortunately, many perennials adapt to a fairly wide range of conditions, and there are numerous species for special situations. A thorough survey of one's property should be taken before any decision is made on location. If at all possible, the garden should be sited so that it is visible either from the house or patio, or from the street as an embellishment to the dwelling itself. Traditionally the perennial garden has been provided with a backdrop, usually a hedge or wall of some sort. Wooden and metal fences of many styles are used for this purpose; in fact, a well-planned perennial border can mask a chain link fence as effectively as it complements the beauty of a wooden fence or screen. Other backdrops may include the shrubbery in the foundation planting of a house, a wall of the house itself, or the boundary of a woodland using the distant scene as a back- drop. To","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1975-Low Maintenance Perennials. Part II"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Low Maintenance Perennials. Part II","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24645","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e896d.jpg","volume":35,"issue_number":1,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"day landscape thinking and practice have set the perennial border free of the prescribed, often stereotyped, backdrop, making it optional according to the situation. The garden now may be brought out into the middle of the lawn, independent of any single feature, yet integrated into the total scene. In such a position it can take on the various shapes of free-form beds often raised or contoured, and gently defined by curving lines. Shrubs having contrasting shapes, textures, or color can be used as complementary plantings; even interesting large stones or boulders may be sparingly incorporated. The use of these elements adds extra interest during both the growing season and the bleak winter months when most gardens are least attractive. Liberation from the necessity of providing a riot of color at all times enables the gardener to give consideration to the sub- 65 tleties of texture and leaf form, to the dramatic effects of bold masses, or interesting small nooks set against the lines or shape of the garden itself. Freed from the rectangular or circular designs that any child could produce, the art rather than the trade of horticulture can come into full play, and almost endless possibilities for the design or location of beds and borders can arise: beside walks, along driveways, in or next to terraces or patios, around existing specimen shrubs or small trees, at the base of a rock outcropping, with or partially surrounding the vegetable garden, by a fence or hedge, or amongst the shrubs of the foundation planting. The number of acceptable sites for perennials, and for low maintenance perennials in particular, is almost equal to the diverse sites to be found on any property. Sun vs. Shade Once a visually satisfying location for the perennial garden is selected, attention must be given to the interrelated factors of soil and sun and shade. A relatively large number of plants will survive a poor dry soil in full sun; but relatively few will do well in deep shade even with soil of optimum quality. Shade conditions may be divided into three categories: 1) partial shade, 2) light shade, and 3) deep shade. Partial shade exists when a location is in direct sun for only a portion of each day. Many sun-loving perennials will adapt to such conditions, but the fewer the hours of direct sun, the greater will be the need for staking, the greater the danger from fungus diseases, and the likelihood that some plants will produce rampant growth. Full sun during the early or later hours of the day is sometimes considered to be preferable to full sun during the middle of the day. Early afternoon sun is the hottest, and is apt to dry the soil and cause flowers to fade rapidly. Light shade exists when plants receive no direct sunlight, but the light intensity is nonetheless high. This occurs when widely spaced buildings or trees cut off the direct rays of the sun, and is the ideal condition for nearly all shade-loving plants. The extreme condition, deep shade, results when plants receive no direct sunlight, and the light intensity is quite low, similar to indoor room conditions. In such a situation, root competition from trees is often a serious problem. As a practical rule of thumb, the roots of a tree extend from the trunk at least as far as the tips of the branches. A garden that is situated beneath the branches of a tree has to contend with not only the lack of light produced by the branches, but also the competition of the 66 tree roots for water and nutrients. If at all possible a garden should not be sited adjacent to trees. perennial Soil and Its Modifications soil conditions may limit choice of perennials just exposure to varying degrees of light can affect success. Though it frequently is not possible to alter exposure to sun or shade, soils can be modified; perennials that are not to be divided frequently and will stay in place for several years or longer require thorough attention to their needs before they are Existing as planted. The first order of business is to determine what is under the surface of the soil. One or more holes should be dug to a depth of 18 to 24 inches in the area of the prospective site. This will determine the depth of the topsoil, the character of the subsoil, and the conditions of drainage. Many housing developments provide only an inch or two of top soil over a gravel or clay subsoil. This is not adequate to support a garden. Furthermore, the subsoil may be contaminated with mortar, old boards, tin cans, broken bottles, and similar debris that will interfere with drainage and nutrient availability. The soil for the perennial garden should be 6 to 8 inches deep; the subsoil should be freely drained, and drainage should not be impeded by a layer of clay (hardpan). If the conditions are not ideal, they can be easily remedied. The amount and depth of the soil can be increased by incorporating some sort of organic material into the top 6 to 8 inches. This may be compost, stable or cow manure, sawdust, leaves, chopped hay; in short, any sort of decomposable organic matter that can be obtained cheaply. It can be incorporated into the soil with a rototiller, or it can be dug in with a fork or shovel. Preferably, it should be dug in several months before planting is contemplated to allow time for decomposition. Organic matter also will moisture retention in a droughty, sandy or gravelly soil, and will tend to lighten a clay soil. However, if drainage is poor, it will pay to add sufficient bulk to the soil to raise the surface several inches above the surroundings. Always the watchword is organic matter and more organic matter. It is impossible to state how much fertilizer or lime should be added to the soil before planting. That depends entirely upon the existing state of fertility, and it is necessary to have a soil test made to obtain the true picture. Most State Experiment Stations or County Extension Services will make such tests and help 67 distribute information on how to collect a proper sample for analysis. The report they issue on the analysis will state how much of a particular fertilizer will be needed for so many square feet, how much lime will be required to compensate for overacidity (most perennials prefer soil conditions ranging from slightly on the acid side to near neutral), and how much organic matter will be needed. Fertilizer and lime are easily purchased in any garden store. If the garden is being prepared in the autumn, to be planted the following spring, it is best to withhold fertilizer until spring and rototill again. Initial preparation of a new site is usually best in the autumn. The soil is easier to work then; grass can be rototilled in to decompose over the winter, and the soil has a chance to settle. If the initial preparation is in the spring, the grass should be removed, including all roots, and placed on the compost pile. After rototilling the soil will be too loose for immediate planting. It should be tamped down by slightly treading with the feet, up and down in rows until the entire area is covered. A distinction should be made here between \"treading\" and \"stomping\" as it is easy to compact the soil too much, especially if it is wet. After the treading process is completed, and a firm planting bed has been established, the soil should be raked level, and the planting process may begin. After the garden has been planted it should be mulched to a depth of 2 to 4 inches with the same material that was dug in to provide organic matter. This mulch should be renewed annually. In the long run a mulch should break down and add organic matter and nutrients to the soil; in the short run, it reduces the temperature of the soil in the summer, delays freezing in the fall and warming in the spring (thus helping to avoid frost damage), and acts as a reservoir for soil moisture. It also slows evaporation of water from the soil surface, and inhibits the germination of weed seeds in the soil. Proprietary mulching materials such as ground bark may be used, but they have little to commend them over less expensive materials. Peatmoss has disadvantages since it dries to form a surface that is difficult to wet; on the other hand, once thoroughly wet it may cause soggy soil conditions. 68 Some The Suggested Staking Methods tendency to flop, or the inability of a plant to bear the heavy weight of its own flowers has been listed throughout this handbook as a \"fault\" possessed by a number of perennials. Some that have this unfortunate tendency possess too many other good characteristics to be excluded from the low maintenance garden. All methods illustrated here are simple, effective, and require very little time of the hurried gardener. It should be emphasized, however, that all staking should be done as early in the growing season as possible, or as soon as the taller growing plants have attained half their height. Staking a full grown plant requires much more time, and results frequently are unattractive. If it is allowed to flop, or to be toppled by wind and rain, stems often can become twisted or come sometimes broken. After a few days the twists tend to bepermanent, and staking at such a late date is of very little benefit. Below: A clump of Thermopsis has collapsed at the end of the summer. Proper staking earlier in the growing season would have prevented this problem. Many plants that produce multiple stems may be staked with twiggy branches set in the ground just as, or even before, plants commence growth in the spring. This is an old European method, particularly favored with Asters. Seldom used in this small country, it is most effective. As the plant grows, it is completely but the twigs are entirely hidden. supported by the twigs, 70 The stems of some taller perennials with large, heavy flowers be staked individually. Green bamboo canes are best with such plants as Delphinium and the larger flowered Chrysanthemums ; Raffia, cloth or plastic ties are preferred to metal or wire ties which may constrict or damage stems. A twist in the tie should be made between the stem of the plant and the stake to further avoid damage to the stem. must [71 Shorter plants such as Peonies with large, heavy flowers can be supported with a round hoop attached to three or four legs. Such hoops are easily constructed from heavy gauge wire or even old coat hangers. The legs may be either of wire or bamboo cane. 72 I Many taller perennials form dense clumps with many stems. With such plants the most satisfactory method of support is often to construct a \"cage\" with bamboo canes and string as shown in the diagram. If this is done relatively early in the growing season, the structure will be almost completely hidden by the subsequent growth of the plant. Baby's Breath is one of the most difficult plants to stake effectively. The method we offer is pictured in the White Flower Farm catalog and adapted here. Just as growth starts, 10 to 12 bamboo canes about 2 feet high are placed all around the clump. Twist-Ems are then used to make rings around the canes. 74I As growth progresses, stems grow by the structure. through, and are supported 75 the time the plant flowers, the supporting structure is hidden and the plant will withstand high winds or rain without injury. By completely 76I Division Sooner or later most perennials will need to be divided either to prevent excessive spreading, or to reinvigorate the plant (or both). Division is also one of the simplest means of propagating many perennials on a modest scale. Spring or fall division is satisfactory with most types. However, plants divided in the early spring just as new growth is about to start have the advantage of an entire season for new roots to grow and plants to become established before winter. The best indications that a plant should be divided include: 1) vigor shows a general decline; 2) clumps become very tangled in growth - or become invaded by other plants and weeds; 3) clumps open up and form a dead space in the center. The best divisions are usually obtained from the outermost portions of old clumps - i.e. growth furthest away from the center. This is the most active growing and vigorous part of the plant. Small plants may be lifted with a fork or small spade; they also may be pulled apart by hand or cut with a knife. Three to five \"eyes\" constitute the best sized division. Anything smaller may not flower during the current season. Large vigorous clumps are best lifted with a spading fork. First the top growth is cut down to about 3 inches. The fork is then inserted at several points around the outside of the clump, and gentle upward pressure exerted at each point. If this is done gradually and gently, the clump can be lifted with a minimum of root breakage. Left: A clump of Anthemis has died at the center and should be divided. 78 large tightly growing clumps after they have been one fork down through the center of the clump. Then insert a second fork parallel to the first. As indicated, pull the two forks first inward, then outward, and the clump will break in two with minimal crown and root damage. It is important that the initial placement of the forks be as shown. To divide lifted, plunge 79 Once a large clump has been broken up by the spading forks, smaller divisions may be obtained using a hand fork or a knife. ''d Q;) ~ O .r, ~ Q;) 00 +r G cd P~ ~ O +r S ~ a 00 ~~ ~ r., .~ ~ ,.Q Cb x :;:j a~ ~~ '~ 1; ~s ~ F. U u .~ U U C3 U U ~3 v ~ 3 N t. a Sn x N x U ~Q ~ .+~ 'c N U G x U N x 'N S \/~ ~ a U v T? E 'fl a p ~ x 'N el) ~ ~ S V YJ H ~7 U U u 0~ ~ x N 'N ~ to d U \/~ ~\/ 1--~ 86 Acknowledgements The author is grateful to colleagues and members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum for their assistance in the preparation of this guide. Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., is responsible for the comprehensive tabular list of low maintenance perennials, and for portions of the chapter on culture. Mrs. Robert S. Blacklow spent many tedious hours carefully codifying the sources; Mrs. Frank Magullion put the primroses in their place, and offered constructive criticism of other portions of the manuscript, as did Drs. DeWolf and Richard E. Weaver, Jr. Mrs. Irving Fraim's lovely garden in Waltham was the setting for many of the photographs; other illustrations reflect the fine workmanship of artist Robert Opdyke. To others, too numerous to mention, gratitude is due for their interest, encouragement, and knowledge freely shared. Without these contributions, large and small, Low Maintenance Perennials could not have become a reality. ROBERT S. HEBB Horticulturist, Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Garden (formerly Assistant Horticulturist, Arnold Arboretum) First two sentences under Heuchera should read: These are excellent plants with few troubles, and capable of being left in place at least five years or longer before division will become necessary. They flower best in full sun, but also will perform well in light shade. Erratum, page 107 - 87 Index to Common Names ( Page numbers refer Acanthus, 15 Aconite, 19 to those in brackets) 27 Bugloss, Italian, -, Ageratum, Hardy, 87 Siberian, 47 Bulbous Oat Grass, Variegated, 193 Alkanet, Italian, 27 Alum Root, 107 Alyssum, Goldentuft, 25 Amsonia, 26 Anchusa, Dwarf, 47 Anemone, 29 Angels Hair, 36 Artemisia, 35 Aster, 40 -, Cornflower, 176 -, Stokes, 176 Astilbe, 41 Auricula, 162 Avens, 94 Burning Bush, 72 Butterfly Weed, 38 Button Snakeroot, 127 Camomile, False, 47 -, Golden, 30 -, Ox-eye, 30 Campion, 136 Candytuft, 119 Canterbury Bells, 51 1 Cardinal Flower, 135 Baby's Breath, 95 Bachelor's Button, Carnation, 68 1 Carpathian Harebell, 51 Catchfly, German, 136 Catmint, 144 53 Hardy, Catnip, Balloon Flower, 158 145 Cat's Ear, 30 Barrenwort, 80 Basket-of-Gold, 25 Beebalm, 142 Bellflower, 49 -, Garland, 21 Centaurea, 53 Cerastium, 54 Chalk Plant, 95 Chinese Silver Grass, 189 Christmas Rose, 102 Bergamot, 142 Bergenia, 45 Bethlehem Sage, Betony, 174 Chrysanthemum, Hardy, Clematis, 62 Cohosh, 60 Columbine, 31 Cone Flower, 165 Coneflower, Hedgehog 77 58 165 '- Bigleaf-Goldenray, Bishop's Hat, 80 Blackberry Lily, 44 Blanket 131 or Purple, Flower, 89 Blazing Star, 127 Bleeding Heart, 69 Bloody Cranesbill, 94 Bluebell, 142 -, Virginia, 142 Bluebells of Scotland, 51 Blue Fescue, 195 - Coral Bells, 107 Cord Grass, 193 Coreopsis, 64 Cornflower Aster, 176 Corn Flower, Perennial, 53 Cranesbill, 92 Creeping Jenny, 138 Cupid's Dart, Cupid's Love Dart, 52 Indigo, 44 Leadwort, 55 Lime Grass, 189 Bluet, Mountain, 53 Boltonia, 47 - Bugbane, 60 Bugle, Bugleweed, 21 Daisy, Gloriosa, 166 -, Painted, 58 -, Shasta, 59 Danesblood, 50 David's Harp, 162 88 Daylily, 103 Delphinium, Dittany, 72 Goldentuft 66 Alyssum, 25 Grasses, Hardy Ornamental. 188 Groundsel, Golden, 131 156 Doronicum, 76 Dragonhead, False, Dropwort, 88 Dunesilver, 38 Dusty Miller, 38 Dwarf Hardy Ageratum, - 87 Aster, 40 Anchusa, 47 Eryngo, 84 Eulalia Grass, 189 Euphorbia, Myrtle, 88 Evening-Primrose, 145 False - Camomile, 47 Dragonhead, 156 Goat's Beard, 41 - - - - Indigo, 44 Lupine, 180 Rampion, 51 1 Spiraea, 41 88 Bachelor's Button, 53 58 Hibiscus, 109 Pampas Grass, 189 Statice, 132 Zinnia, 100 Harebell, Carpathian, 53 Hedgehog Coneflower, 77 Helen's Flower, 98 Heliopsis, 100 Hellebore, 101 Hibiscus, Hardy, 109 Hollyhock, 22 -, Miniature, 172 - Chrysanthemum, - - - - Hosta, 112 Starwort, 47 Fescue, Blue, 195 - Iceland Filipendula, Flax, 133 Fleabane, 83 Fleur-de-lis, 120 Poppy, 153 Blue or False, 44 Iris, 120 Italian Alkanet, 27 Bugloss, 27 Indigo, - Foxglove, 74 Fringed Sagewort, Funkia, 112 Jacob's Ladder, 160 38 Japanese Anemone, 29 Pearly Everlasting, 26 Sedge Grass, 188 - Gaillardia, 89 Gardener's Garters, 193 Garden Phlox, 153 Garland Bellflower, 21 Gas Plant, 72 Knapweed, Mountain, Lace 53 Gayfeather, 127 Geranium, Bloodred, 94 German Shasta, 60 Ladybells, 21 Lady's Mantle, 21 Seal, 162 Lamb's Ears, 174 - Catchfly, 136 Geum, 94 Ghost Plant, 36 Giant Reed, 193 Globe Centaurea, 53 Flower, 181 Thistle, 79 - Larkspur, 66 Lavender Mist, 178 -, Sea, 132 Leadwort, Blue, 55 Lenten Rose, 103 Leopard Flower, 44 Gloriosa Daisy, 166 Goats-Beard, 38 Golden Camomile, 30 Glow, 166 - Leopardsbane, 76 Lily, Blackberry, 44 Lily-of-the-Valley, Lime Grass, Blue, 64 189 Groundsel, 131 Marguerite, 30 Goldenrod, 173 - Live-Forever, 170 Lobelia, 135 Loosestrife, 137 89 -, Purple, 139 Lungwort, 164 Lupine, Lupin, -, Summer, 153 Pig Squeak, 45 136 Pincushion Pink, 68 Flower, 168 False, 180 Lyre Flower, 69 -, 2 Plaintain-lily, 112 Pleurisy Root, 38 Madwort, 25 Maiden Grass, 191 Mallow, Prairie, 172 -, Rose, 109 Maltese Cross, 136 Marguerite, Golden, 30 Martha Washington Plume, 89 Plume Grass, 189 Plume-Poppy, 141 Poppy, Iceland, 153 Oriental, 150 -, Plume, 141 Prairie Mallow, 172 Primrose, 162 -, Mary and Joseph, Meadowrue, 177 Meadow Sweet, 88 164 -, Evening, 145 Purple Coneflower, - 77 Loosestrife, 139 Megasea, 45 Michaelmas Daisy, 40 Pussytoes, 30 Pyrethrum, 58 Queen-of-the-Meadow, 89 Queen-of-the-Prairie, 89 Milfoil, 15 5 Miniature Hollyhock, 172 Mist Flower, 87 Moneywort, 138 Monkshood, 19 Moor Grass, Variegated, 191 Mountain Bluet, 53 Rampion, False, Knapweed, 53 Mourning Bride, 168 Mugwort, 35 - 51 Ravenna Grass, 189 Red-Hot Poker, 126 Ribbon Grass, 193 Rock Cress, 33 Rose Mallow, 109 Mullein, 183 Mullein-pink, Mum, 58 137 Sage, 167 -, Bethlehem, 164 38 Myrtle Euphorbia, 88 Sagewort, Fringed, Salvia, 167 Sandwort, 33 Sea Northern Sea Oats, 191 Obedient Plant, 156 Old Man, 36 Woman, 38 Orange Daisy, 84 Sunflower, 100 Oriental Poppy, 150 Orpine, 170 Oswego Tea, 142 Ox-eye Camomile, 30 - Holly, 84 - Lavender, 132 Oats, Northern, 191 Sea-Pink, 34 Sedge Grass, Japanese, 188 Senna, Wild, 52 - Shasta 59 Stone Crop, 170 Siberian Bugloss, 47 Silver Grass, Chinese, 189 Daisy, Showy 58 Pampas Grass, 194 -, Hardy, 189 Peach Bells, 49 Painted - Daisy, Snakehead,56 Snakeroot, 60 -, Pearly Everlasting, Japanese, Paeony,Peony,147 Perennial Corn Flower, 53 Phlox, Garden, 153 26 Button, 127 Sneezeweed, 98 5 Sneezewort, 15 Snow-in-Summer, Southernwood, 36 54 Soldiers-and-Sailors, Solomon's Seal, 161 1 164 90 I Torch-lily, 126 Spangle Grass, 191 Speedwell, 184 Spiderwort, 180 Spiraea, False, 41 Spurge, 87 Starry Grasswort, 54 Starwort, 40 -, False, 47 Statice, Hardy, 132 Tree-Celandine, 141 Tritoma, 126 Turtlehead, 56 Bulbous Oat Grass, 193 Moor Grass, 191 Tuber Oat Grass, 193 Virginia Bluebell, 142 Variegated - Stay-in-Place, Stokes Aster, Stone 156 176 Stonecress, 21 Crop, Showy, 170 Striped Eulalia Grass, 191 Sundrops, Summer Phlox, 153 145 Wall Cress, 33 Wild Senna, 52 Willow Amsonia, 26 Wolf's Bane, 19 9 Wormwood, 35 5 Yarrow, 15 Yellow-Hardhead, 53 Sunflower, Orange, 100 Switch Grass, 191 Thistle, Globe, Thrift, 34 Tickseed, 64 79 Zebra 1 Grass, 191 Zinnia, Hardy, 100 An attractive grouping of low maintenance perennials. 92 ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1975-Low Maintenance Perennials. Part II"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23373","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ea36e.jpg","title":"1975-35-1","volume":35,"issue_number":1,"year":1975,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":385,"end_page":423,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24644","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e8928.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":6,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1974 The Arnold Arboretum has been described accurately as \"Boston's finest park\" and an \"oasis of beauty within the city.\" As events of the past year indicate clearly, it is not completely isolated but is affected directly by national and international trends as well as by those within the city and the University. Activities reflecting the past, developing in the present, and anticipating the future all are seen in a review of the past year. Four events, two negative and two positive, seem to stand out. The national fuel crisis and inflation affected, and continue to affect, all of our operations. The difficulties the staff had in reaching the Arboretum because of a shortage of gasoline were paralleled in temperature reductions to conserve fuel in buildings and in greenhouses, and in the necessity for reduction of the use of gasoline-fueled equipment. Higher costs of supplies and shortages of materials are having a direct impact on our operations. A well-developed plan by the City of Boston to build a 1,200student school on the South Street tract of the Arnold Arboretum came as a complete surprise to the staff. The University cooperated in our defensive action. We appealed to our federal representatives, and secured support from the National Park Service in view of the designation of the Arnold Arboretum as a National Historic Landmark. We are grateful, also, for the actions on our behalf by the Jamaica Plain organizations, our neighbors. After several meetings, the city officials agreed to look for an alternative site, and hopefully that crisis is over. The land involved has been a part of the Arnold Arboretum since 1923, and is essential as the only area for future development of the collections. On the positive side, the financial and physical contributions of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum have increased. With a special gift, the top of Bussey Hill was redesigned, and the landscaping and planting have been completed. An excellent educa- 385 386I tional film on Poisonous Plants was completed, again with contributions of the Friends. The Volunteers contributed hundreds of hours of talented labor, from guiding tours to helping with staff projects. Along with all of this, an increase in staff research is evident in the larger number of scientific papers published by the staff. Finally, we see a hoped-for solution to the crowded conditions and improper housing of books and specimens, and of staff, in the Harvard University Herbaria building in Cambridge. The University has agreed our needs are real, has authorized planning, and will support a search for funds to make an addition to the building. The years ahead offer a challenge and an opportunity for further development and contribution of the Arnold Arboretum. Staff We report with regret the death of Karl Sax, on October 10, 1973. Dr. Sax was Professor of Botany, Emeritus, at Harvard University, Director of the Arnold Arboretum from 1946 to 1954, and a member of the Arboretum staff from 1928 until his retirement in 1959. A biographical paper reviewing his many contributions in the botanical fields of cytology and genetics, in horticulture, and in demography, and listing his 181 publications, appears in the October 1974 issue of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Through resignations we lost the services of Miss Nancy Page as Coordinator for Community Activities, and of John Link as Curatorial Assistant. John Dunn, of the grounds crew, reached retirement age during the year and, due to ill health, Harry Hill, a stalwart in the greenhouses, retired with a medical disability. We wish them all well. Miss Kathleen Clagett was appointed Editorial Assistant to help with the Journal ofthe Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Peter F. Stevens, a specialist on the flora of New Guinea and tropical Asia, joined the staff in October 1973 as Assistant Curator. In a joint appointment with the Gray Herbarium, Dr. Norton G. Miller of the University of North Carolina, has been approved as Associate Professor and Associate Curator, the appointment to become effective early in 1975. Dr. William Gillis received a special appointment as Research Fellow for the year to further his work on the vegetation of the Bahama Islands. Four Mercer Research Fellows for all or part of the year were Dr. Yin-Tse Lee (Taxonomy), Dr. Umesh Ban- South Street tract. Photo: P. Bruns erjee (Cytology culture), and and Palynology), Miss Martha Dahlen (HortiMr. James Wolpert (Horticulture). Honorary appointments were approved for Mrs. Ara Derderian (Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection), Ms. Stephanne Sutton (Honorary Research Fellow), and Dr. Arturo G6mezPompa (Honorary Research Associate in the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum). Special honors came to two staff members. Dr. Donald Wyman, Horticulturist, Emeritus, was recognized by his alma mater, Pennsylvania State University, with a \"Distinguished Alumni Award.\" The University noted his \"scientific skill and award winning research on woody plants and ... his ability to translate that skill to popular use ... for helping the world to bloom in beauty.\" Dr. Howard was honored at the annual meeting of the National Council of State Garden Clubs with the presentation of the \"Gold Seal,\" the highest award offered by the Council. 388 Dr. at Harvard Shiu-Ying Hu completed twenty-five years of employment University, and was among the University employees a honored with certificate and a Harvard chair. an attempt was made to have one person coordinate all community requests for horticultural information and plants. Miss Page represented the Arboretum in this capacity, and the duties she filled have been distributed among other staff members while the position is being reconsidered. During the fall of 1973, Miss Page attempted to coordinate the distribution of plants from the Arboretum nursery which were surplus to our immediate needs. After a choice has been offered to the University, as specified in our indenture, the remaining plants rarely are of sufficient quantity or type to work into a comprehensive landscape scheme. Nevertheless, Miss Page worked with eight groups in the South End, Back Bay, East Boston and Dorchester, where theoretical as well as practical information was needed, and each group wished to improve the local environment. In each case it was necessary to check the site, discuss the materials suitable for the area and the purpose, and give instruction in methods of moving, replanting, and caring for the plants chosen. Miss Page also served on the Cambridge Conservation Commission and the Charles River Watershed Association. In 1973 the Arboretum was asked by the Exploring Division, Boy Scouts of America, to offer an Explorer Post in forestry and horticulture. Miss Page and Mrs. Burch agreed to coordinate a program involving work at the Arboretum, including lectures and demonstrations by other staff members, and visits to other appropriate areas or organizations. Fifteen participants were selected from over fifty who applied; but during the year the group dwindled to five regular and very interested persons, and three who were sporadic in attendance. Since the programs were held after school and on weekends, a considerable dedication was required by both the leaders and the participants. The attrition rate was not considered unusual by the Exploring Division, but the amount of time devoted to the program challenged the value of staff participation in such a formal presentation. Perhaps the same goal could be attained by encouraging those interested to apply for student laborer positions at the Arboretum during the summer months. Community Service During the past year State Labs framed by early spring greenery in the Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns . 390 I other community programs Arboretum is represented. the Horticulture Planning Garden. Mr. Pride serves on the Building Committee of the Franklin Park Zoo, and other staff members have offered suggestions on plants to be used in the proposed new environmental units. The Boston Conservation Commission plans to start a municipal composting program, and asked the Arboretum for advice and guidance. Several staff members served as judges at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society spring flower show, and that of the Worcester County Horticultural Society; for the Dorchester-Roxbury 4-H show, as well as science fairs in three cities. Miss Page and Mr. Hebb worked with the planning group of the City of Boston Park Department in midwinter, teaching principles of vegetable gardening to community leaders who work with the applicants for land to garden. Active discussions of the role of women in American society have taken place nationally and locally in the past year. Dr. Schubert served on the Steering Committee of Women Employed at Harvard. Another group, planning a program in the Hynes Auditorium in Boston with much local participation, asked the Arboretum to have an exhibit of poisonous plants. While the male members of the staff were permitted to set up the exhibit, only ladies from the staff and Volunteers could \"man\" the booth during the day. Within the University every year, the Arboretum makes surplus plants available to the Department of Buildings and Grounds. Dr. Weaver and Mrs. Burch are completing a requested survey of the plantings of the Business School area, supplying correct identifications for the specimens. Staff members have participated in in the three localities in which the Dr. DeWolf has been a member of Committee of Friends of the Public Horticulture The Arnold Arboretum, to most people, is a collection of flowering trees and shrubs. It is the primary duty of the staff to maintain this collection and, in fact, the major part of the budget is so allocated. Although one expects such a collection to be static, there is a significant amount of replanting and replacement necessary. Trees have a life span, and as older ones become dangerous or stagheaded through disease or storm damage, they may be propagated and replaced by younger specimens. Unfortunately, not all young plants placed on the grounds prove hardy, and death of specimens may be due to dryness or Planting White Pines on Bussey Hill. Photo: R. Hebb 391 Records are kept of such losses, and the same plant may be tried another time from a different source or in a different location. Accidental destruction of young plants does happen, and the theft of small plants is a fact of life. The past year saw the addition of 1,810 plants to the grounds, representing the largest planting schedule for fall and spring attempted in recent years. The superintendent, the assistant horticulturist, and the grounds crew are indeed commended for this accomplishment. A special gift enabled us to make oftencontemplated changes in the area of Bussey Hill, the second highest point within the Arboretum, offering vistas of Boston and the Blue Hills. We engaged Mr. Vincent Merrill, of the firm of Shurcliff, Merrill and Footit, to draw plans and supervise the project; a contract was let to the R. J. Delmonico Corporation of Hull, Massachusetts, for the basic construction. Plantings were designed in collaboration with the Arboretum staff to provide floral display through the growing season, and to feature a collection of summer blooming shrubs. A small grove of pines has been accentuated with additional hilltop planting of the species. Curved paths and steps edged with granite offer a sloping access from the roadway, and several benches have been provided. A rail fence between granite posts delimits part of the area; a paved portion still permits buses to be taken to the hilltop during conducted tours. The to cold. species Above: View from Bussey Hill after renovation. Photo: P. Bruns Left top: Construction of new overlook area on Bussey Hill. Photo: R. Hebb Bottom: New granite steps offer sloping access to new planting. Photo: R. Hebb 394 area is extremely attractive, and is the first major renovation within the Arboretum in several decades. We are most grateful to our Friends for this contribution to the beauty and usefulness of the grounds. We welcome visitors to the grounds which are open to the public from sunrise to sunset. During the summer months these hours exceed the normal work schedule of the staff. Again this year we found it necessary to engage a private security guard completed for patrol four hours of the evening, seven days a week. During weekends in May, this protection was supplemented with two off-duty policemen on motorcycles. We do not appreciate the nighttime visitors nor the picnickers who leave trash for the staff to collect in spite of the large number of trash barrels available. Trash pick up, which ran at the rate of 100 man-days per year in 1960, has jumped to 479 man-days in 1973. This is the equivalent of 112 men full time, plus vehicles. Once the rubbish is collected, the Arboretum also must hire disposal com- panies to remove it. The lack of public toilet facilities remains a problem at the Arboretum. A survey by the Boston 200 Bicentennial study groups indicates that this is true generally for all of Boston. During the spring and summer months, we have rented two portable toilets; these have been placed within a locked fence enclosure in a secluded spot on the grounds. Although serviced regularly by the supplier, the units are still subject to vandalism. A program of soil sterilization was implemented for the nursery area at the greenhouses. In the past whenever balled plants were removed from the nurseries, the resulting craters were filled with soil from a stockpile where weed seeds and rootstocks are abundant. In recent years this has led to an infestation of Canada thistle (Cirsium arvense), which has fragile horizontal roots 2 to 10 inches below the surface. A general use of an herbicide is not possible, considering the wide variety of taxa grown and the unknown effect of herbicides on many plants. To remedy the situation, it was decided to sterilize the soil with methyl bromide. All plants were removed from the area; the soil was deeply rototilled, covered with large sheets of polyethylene plastic, and fumigated for five days with the methyl bromide. This treatment appears to have worked extremely well on both dormant seeds and living root or stem portions. When a heavy mulch is applied, any new weed plants are easily removed. A small portion of land within the Arboretum is a pre-Revolutionary War cemetery, known as the Walter Street \"Berrying\" 395 Two visitors enjoy the view from summit of newly-renovated Bussey Hill. Photo: P. Bruns 396 Ground. This is all that remains of the second oldest church in the Jamaica Plain area. Care of the cemetery was given to the Arboretum in 1923. The West Roxbury Historical Society, anticipating the national Bicentennial, proposed a new survey of the cemetery, and volunteers from that organization have polished the plaques and will recondition some of the stones. The area will receive additional plantings of native species as used in the early period to make the area more attractive. The Arnold Arboretum serves as the national and international registration authority for cultivar names in specific genera. We also accept for registration cultivar names in groups of woody plants not otherwise represented by special authorities or societies. The number submitted varies from year to year, with twenty new cultivars having been registered during this past fiscal year. Brief descriptions of these new cultivars have been published in Arnoldia, but in the future this listing may be in the Bulletin of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. The records of our collection are incorporated in the computerprocessed files of the Plant Record Center, American Horticultural Society. The original printout developed several years ago showed clearly that some types of desired information were not readily available. Mr. Hebb, with the assistance of Volunteers June Hutchinson and Corliss Engle has worked on the records, tracing back each entry to the original source. A given plant in our collection may have been propagated trom another plant living or dead, and the present computer record shows only the immediate source of the specimen. As a result of this effort by Mr. Hebb and his assistants, every card in our files now shows the original source of the material, and this will be added to the computer-stored information for future printouts. In scanning our records for this information, we have compiled data on all plants still living in our collection that came from known locations in Asia. The collectors, including Wilson, Jack, Sargent and others, are now indicated. Eventually this might have been obtained by a special program developed for the computer, but the information is now on hand in readily available form. Taxonomic work on the living collections is a regular activity involving several staff members. Herbarium specimens are prepared for our own herbarium and for material to be used in exchange. Volunteers at the Arboretum have been most helpful in collecting and processing such material, and have filled many special requests from other arboreta and herbaria for herbarium 397 material. Some special studies have had most unusual results. Dr. Spongberg, in his work on a manual of cultivated plants, noted that one specimen of Stewartia in our collection retained its fruits throughout the winter in an attractive fashion. The tree was grown from seed obtained from the Lu Shan Arboretum. Kuikiang, China, in 1936, and had been identified as Stewartia sinensis. Further study revealed other distinctive characteristics and differences from true S. sinensis, and established that the plant should be recognized as a new species, now named Stewartia rostrata. Herbarium specimens of this species are to be distributed to other herbaria. Dr. Lee, investigating the Leguminosae of China, studied our oriental material of Gleditsia. Again, some specimens growing on the grounds are not what they have been called, and only further study will determine if a new name is needed, or whether some previously published name is available for this species. In the course of his work, Dr. Lee was able to obtain pods of Gleditsia from an herb shop in Hong Kong. The seeds proved viable, and a new introduction is now growing in the greenhouses for future trial on the grounds. The irregular and very scanty production of viable seeds by our plants of the paperbark maple, Acer griseum, was called to the attention of Dr. Banerjee as a possible cytological problem. Although several plants produced typical winged maple samaras regularly, these rarely had developed seeds. Other plants have produced few or no samaras. In a very rare year, fertile seeds would be numerous. The solution to the problem was amazingly simple. Some specimens proved to be functionally male, and others functionally female. The distance between the trees was too great for regular pollen distribution in one case. In the instance of two adjacent trees, the pollen matured at one time, while the stigmas were receptive at another. Hand pollination with stored pollen has proved to be effective in the production of viable seeds. Dr. Howard continues his studies of the growth characteristics of the plants in the living collection. It is now clear that the patterns of vegetative growth and flower and fruit production do not fit into the published descriptions that have been developed primarily from tropical plant studies. During the fiscal year, 123 shipments of plant material, comprising 507 taxa, were sent to cooperating institutions, nurseries, and individuals in the United States and nine other countries. A total of 143 shipments, consisting of 600 taxa, was received 398 I from 23 countries. Not all of the material acquired is destined for planting on the grounds. Many seed lists are received which contain offerings of scientific interest to staff members, and seeds are supplied generously in a mutual exchange for individual research projects. Plants in our collections which appeared to be failing, or for which additional specimens were needed, were propagated in numbers totaling 154 taxa. Twenty-three items were propagated asexually to fill special requests, primarily for material which would be open-pollinated, and therefore variable if grown from seed. These were materials that could not be expected to come true from open-pollinated seed; we are not in a position to do controlled cross-pollinations. Seeds obtained on request from index semina are without propagation data. Each becomes an experiment, and if the seed number is sufficient, several methods of treatment may be employed. Our collections are subject to the same type of investigations on a continuing basis. The propagator studied 79 taxa during the year for propagation data, while an addition 37 taxa represented studies for seedling and transitional morphological characteristics. The Arnold Arboretum was the local host organization for the International Shade Tree Conference in August 1973. Superintendent Robert Williams was local arrangements chairman. Above: Equipment demonstration at the International Shade Tree Conference. Photo: P. Bruns Left: Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., lecturing of the conference. Photo: P. Bruns on poisonous plants to members 400 Dr. Howard was the opening speaker and showed the Centennial film. The group had an open house day at the Arboretum, with a demonstration of tree maintenance equipment arranged by Mr. Williams. Luncheon was served under tents in the greenhouse area for the largest group ever so accommodated on the grounds. Lecture-demonstrations during the day were presented by Mrs. Derderian and Messrs. DeWolf, Fordham, Howard and Weaver. The Annual Meeting of the National Council of State Garden Clubs was held in Boston in the spring. The landscape design council of this group had tours and a luncheon at the Case Estates, and the meeting participants toured the grounds by bus later in the program. Gift plants and seed packets were supplied. The Region One meeting of the Garden Club of America met at the Arboretum later for tours, talks and a luncheon. For the first time in many years, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society also offered a tour of the Arboretum for its members, with Dr. Howard serving as guide. Plant distribution to the Friends during the year consisted of two offerings. Surplus plants from the nurseries were distributed at the Case Estates in the fall; during the spring, small seedlings of Maackia amurensis were mailed to each Friend. Members of the Volunteers packaged the seedlings and took care of the mailing. The Amur Maackia, an Arboretum introduction, is a good summer-flowering shade tree, rarely available from commercial sources. Above: At Case Estates, Bruns plants are distributed to the Friends. Photo: P. Left: Volunteers pack Maackia amurensis seedlings Photo: A. Fordham at Dana Greenhouses. 402 Case Estates The Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, although separated physically from Jamaica Plain, are an integral part of our horticultural collections. Plants started from seed or by vegetative propagation in the greenhouses in Jamaica Plain are transferred, while of small stature, to the Case Estates where they increase in size, are checked for identification, and are evaluated for their possible addition to the main collection in Boston. The grounds, therefore, consist of nursery areas, display plantings of several types, and holding collections of plants which cannot be accommodated in Jamaica Plain or are not desirable for collections there. Staff members who live on the grounds offer surveillance of the Case Estates collections and supply guidance to visitors. Land is used for experimental work and for special studies; a small lecture room is used for classes and public lectures. Four popular classes were held in Weston during the year, tours of the plantings were offered to various groups, and some classes of Weston schools or those of other towns visited the area for instruction. A special pruning demonstration, offered by the Arboretum staff, drew 80 people on a rainy day. Occasional meetings of the American Rock Garden Society, the American Hemerocallis Society, and the American Rhododendron Society convened at the Case Estates during the year. A special meeting of the Landscape Design Council of the National Council of State Garden Clubs was held on the grounds with tours included. The ground cover display plots are among the display plantings drawing the greatest amount of visitor attention. Although many of these beds are truly low maintenance plantings, others require more attention than would lawn grass. We have begun a four-year program to rejuvenate the display area. The water supply to the nursery areas was extended during the spring season by the installation of plastic piping into the beds. The Town Engineer of Weston and the Sidewalk Committee completed their proposals for the widening of Wellesley Street. A plan acceptable to the staff has been recommended to the Harvard Corporation for cooperative action. The proposal will be presented to Weston residents for financing at a special town meeting in the fall. Herbarium The Arnold Arboretum's herbarium, a collection of dried plant specimens mounted on sheets of rag paper, is one of its 403 major resources, along with the living collections and the library. All are used by the staff in a variety of ways. The dried herbarium specimen is always available as a source of information. The specimen is a record that a given plant was growing in a specific area; hence, documents a geographic distribution. The dried specimen can be analyzed for chemical content, or reconstituted by being softened for a study of its structure or its internal anatomy. As specimens are studied by the staff or by others, annotations on the sheet increase the value of the specimen. The specimens essentially last forever, and are frequently examined. The quality of the herbarium and its maintenance is a legacy to this generation of botanists and a reflection of the interest of the staff. The herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum is the fifth largest of all herbaria maintained by a University staff, and that part of it representing plants under cultivation in Jamaica Plain is the largest anywhere. The curating of this collection has been, and currently is, unexcelled. However, past reports of the Director have called attention to the fact that the herbarium in Cambridge has grown beyond the capacity of the steel cases, which are considered to offer the best protection for such specimens. Currently, 2,371 cardboard boxes are used to house mounted herbarium specimens of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum; and represent the equivalent of 140 steel cases. The cardboard boxes have been placed on top of cases throughout the herbarium, and are not insect proof, therefore endangering the specimens. Also, ladders are required for the staff to reach the specimens so stored. The arrangment is inefficient, and an unsatisfactory housing of specimens. Crowded conditions also exist in the library, and in both the library and the herbarium the staff has inadequate space in which to work. Students cannot be housed in the building, and the space for classes, laboratories and lectures has become inadequate. During the fiscal year the University administration authorized a further study of the situation, and with the cooperation of the University Planning Office, plans were drawn for an addition to the Harvard University Herbaria building. The proposed addition will cost two million dollars, with an additional million dollars required as an endowment for future maintenance. The University has agreed to officially support a drive for the necessary funds to make this addition of space and facilities. Even anticipating a successful appeal, the time required for the preparation of architectural drawings and construction means that crowded conditions will exist for another five years. 404 Friends and staff join in honoring Dr. Richard A. Howard on the occasion of his 20th anniversary as Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns A small increment of space will be available during the next fiscal year through the use of three rooms in the Museum of Comparative Zoology. These quarters are being renovated in equal thirds to house Dr. Wood and his associates working on the Generic Flora of Southeastern United States; the herbarium of the New England Botanical Club, a responsibility of the Gray Herbarium; and some portions of the combined herbaria. Access 405 possible from the third floor of the Harvard Herbaria building. A curatorial grant from the National Science Foundation has been in effect for two years, supplying funds for curatorial work in the Farlow Herbarium, the Botanical Museum, the Gray Herbarium, and the Arnold Arboretum. A third year of support now has been approved. The grant has been used to increase the mounting of specimens to reduce the backlog of stored, inaccessible collections in each of the four institutions, for retroactive binding of books, for processing of herbarium loan requests, and for services to other botanists working with these collections of national significance. The move of the collections of wood samples and microscope slides to new quarters was completed during the year. Laboratory work space associated with the collections has been improved by the move. New slide holders were purchased to permit The wood more compact and efficient storage of the slides. collection has been officially designated as the Bailey-Wetmore Laboratory of Plant Anatomy and Morphology. During the year, 26,069 specimens were mounted and inserted in the Arnold Arboretum herbarium, bringing the total to 1,026,459; 154,044 represent plants under cultivation and are housed in the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain. The Arboretum received 13,971 specimens by exchange, as gifts, as subsidy of collectors, or for identification. A total of 3,677 specimens was distributed in exchange or sent as gifts to other institutions. Loans numbering 176 from 57 institutions, and totaling 20,948 specimens, were borrowed: 92 loans totaling 11,735 specimens for students, and 84 loans totaling 9,213 specimens for 10 staff members. Requests to the combined herbaria for specimens to be loaned were filled when possible with 172 loans to 87 institutions, comprising 24,522 specimens. Of these, 54 requests were from institutions in the United States; and 33, from institutions in 18 other countries. For the first time in several decades, communication has been re-established with scientists of the People's Republic of China. We have received publications, seed lists, and requests for photographs and speciIn an exchange of herbarium specimens, the Arnold mens. Arboretum received some from Academica Sinica and has sent to this space will be University , , comparable materials. The staff is involved in many types of research projects, and those dependent on the herbarium are represented by floristic studies and monographs. Dr. Hu is preparing a flora of Hong Drs. Wood and Robertson continue work on a generic flora of the Southeastern United States. Dr. Howard is studying the vegetation of the Lesser Antilles, with the ultimate goal a flora of the area. Dr. Gillis is working on a flora of the Bahama Islands, including the Turks and Caicos Islands. Dr. Spongberg continues his work toward a revision of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs of Eastern United States. Dr. Schubert conducts special studies of the genera Desmodium, Begonia and Dioscorea. Dr. Lee is studying the Leguminosae of China. Dr. Stevens continues his studies of the Ericaceae, primarily of Asia, and is undertaking a revision of the genus Calophyllum. Dr. Weaver is investigating the tropical genera of the Gentianaceae. Scientific studies by the staff may be published in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum or in other botanical journals. There is always a period of time between the completion of a paper and its appearance in print; in some botanical journals this may be a matter of years. For that reason, the staff has priority in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Contributions of former staff members, representing work done while at the Arboretum, appeared during the year. Miss Dulcie Powell is the author of a study of the introductions and distribution of plants by Captain William Bligh in the voyage following the mutiny on the Bounty. Her study, entitled \"The Voyage of the Plant Nursery, H.M.S. Providence, 1791-1793,\" was published by the Institute of Jamaica. Before joining the Arboretum staff, Dr. Thomas Hartley collected extensively in Papua and New Guinea plant materials that were to be analyzed by chemists for the alkaloid content and other significant constituents. Identifications were completed in the Arboretum herbarium, but publication was delayed until the chemists completed their work. The article, \"A Survey of New Guinea Plants for Alkaloids,\" comprising 102 pages, and considering 2,310 species of 172 families, was published in the journal, Lloydia, by Dr. Hartley and four co-authors. This is a major addition to our knowledge of plant chemicals and their distribution in various plant families. A former Mercer Research Fellow, Dr. S. M. A. Kazmi, of Pakistan, used the library of the Arnold Arboretum during his stay in Cambridge to prepare a comprehensive bibliography of literature on the flora of Pakistan. The fourth portion of his work entitled \"Bibliography on the Botany of West Pakistan and Kashmir,\" has been published by Field Research Projects in Miami, Florida. Two family treatments for the generic flora of the Southeastern United States were published by former 406I Kong of the New Territories. 407 staff members Dr. A. Linn Bogle of New Hampshire, and Dr. Thomas S. Elias of the Cary Arboretum. Dr. Howard has had a project of long duration, a survey of the nature of the distribution of the vascular tissues in the stem and petiole of the families of the Dicotyledonae. Information on each family is to be included in the projected revision of Metcalfe and Chalk's Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. A survey paper, needed for the first volume of that work, was published in expanded form in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum as \"The Stem-Node-Leaf Continuum of the Dicotyledonae.\" The National Science Foundation has a Special Foreign Currency Program for Research, Science Education, and Related Activities, which will consider research proposals from institutions in countries where U.S.-owned foreign currencies exist. Each organization applying must have a cooperating U.S. scientist or scientific organization. Two scientists in Pakistan submitted proposals related to the work of the Arnold Arboretum, and we have agreed to cooperate with them. The University of Islamabad wishes to establish a University Herbarium, and to have the Arnold Arboretum assist in the identification and distribution of herbarium specimens. The Arboretum herbarium has a good representation of specimens from India, China and Malaysia, but few from Pakistan. We believe the cooperation will be mutually beneficial. Dr. Kazmi received approval for his proposal to collect and publish on the cultivated woody plants of Pakistan. Again, the Arboretum wishes such herbarium specimens and will cooperate in identification and distribution of such specimens. Both projects, paid for in U.S.owned Pakistani rupees, can progress without direct costs to the Arnold Arboretum. It is probable that some staff member will be able to visit the two organizations in Pakistan during the course of the projects. Dr. Schubert serves as secretary of the Standing Committee on Stabilization of Specific Names appointed by the General Committee of the International Botanical Congress. Several meetings of the committee were held in Cambridge, and a report was submitted for consideration in the Nomenclature Section of the 12th Botanical Congress to be held in Leningrad in June, 1975. Library Ms. Sheila Geary, was Jamaica Plain, the year, and has daily library responsibilities in granted maternity leave of absence during returned to duty. We particularly appreciate a who has the Witches'-broom seedlings growing in Dana Greenhouse area. Pinus vestris IS In foreground; P. resinosa IS at rear. Photo: A. Fordham syl- the services of several of the Volunteers who ~ helped in the li_ brary during her absence. The rapidly increasing great concern. A Harvard libraries topic volumes can be reduced. The proper selection of volumes within areas pertinent to the work of the staff can be a part of the responsibility of the library committee. In spite of rising costs of publication, new periodicals continue to appear, and subscriptions to four scientific journals not available on exchange were added during the year. The Arboretum has two special endowment funds created by Charles S. Sargent and periodicals is of greater coordination of purchasing with the is developing so that duplication of general costs of books and 409 R. Sargent for the purchase of books. At one time the infrom these funds was sufficient to meet the annual needs for book purchase and book binding. At the present time, this income is less than half the annual cost of purchases alone, and the remainder is derived from unrestricted funds. A program of reconditioning historical volumes was aided again this year by the Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities. Some money from the curatorial grant of the National Science Foundation also can be used for retroactive binding and book care. The staff receives and seeks gift volumes from publishers as review copies. Reviews are published in Arnoldia, but not in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Although the benefit may be considered mutual, we are grateful for these books. The holdings of the Library of the Arnold Arboretum were increased by 904 items to a total of 82,813 catalogued volumes. Currently, 641 periodicals are received by the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum, forming a truly excellent library for botanical and horticultural research. Additional microfiche of herbaria and books are purchased jointly, with a current holding of 10,814 such items. The biography of Joseph Rock, a former collector for the Arnold Arboretum, has been accepted by Hastings House Publishers, Inc., New York. The author, Ms. Stephanne Sutton, Honorary Research Fellow, is currently reading proof and preparing the index. The volume is expected to be issued during 1974. The Society of Printers met at the Arnold Arboretum in May, at which time Dr. DeWolf spoke on the plagiarism of botanical illustrations, tracing the history of original illustrations and the examples of alterations as these were copied in subsequent editions or for other publications. Many fine examples are in the Arboretum library, and they cover well over four centuries of publishing. Mary come Education Education has many definitions; the sharing of information or knowledge may be the most common meaning. This represents a major facet of the daily activities and operations of the Arnold Arboretum and its staff. A living collection of labeled plants is open to the public, as are various exhibits and displays within the Boston area. The staff answers questions by telephone and by letter, and teaches formal and informal classes, and conducts tours for visitors. It also shares its knowledge through public lectures, TV appearances, and publications. 410 During the spring semester, Dr. Wood offered Biology 103, an elementary course in the taxonomy of vascular plants. The staff gave three summer school classes: two in Jamaica Plain, and one in Florida and Massachusetts. Drs. Wood and Howard taught S-105, Plants in the Tropics, using the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Coral Gables, Florida, as headquarters for three weeks of laboratory and field work, followed by a week in Cambridge using the herbarium and library. Biology S-109, Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants, was taught by Dr. Weaver; and S-110, Principles of Practical Horticulture by Dr. DeWolf. Both courses were held in the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain and on the grounds of the Arboretum. Drs. Howard, Schubert and Wood supervised the work of graduate and undergraduate students in research courses, or served as advisors to undergraduate students in the Department of Biology. Dr. Spongberg was in charge of the seminar programs in systematic botany held in Cambridge. Noncredit courses consisting of lectures and laboratory work held in Jamaica Plain and in Weston. The staff offered courses in practical gardening for the homeowner, introduction to plant identification, nature photography, and plant biology for teachers; also, field classes in ornamental woody plants. Mrs. Julian Underwood, a member of the Visiting Committee, conducted a series of workshops on garden design and construction ; and Mrs. Ara Derderian, three courses on bonsai. Two lecture series were held in Weston at the Case Estates: a series by members of the staff, and another by members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Open houses were held at Jamaica Plain and Weston, and a special pruning demonstration attracted eighty people on a rainy day in Weston. The horticultural staff of the Arboretum prepared an exhibit on abnormal and dwarf conifers for the N. E. Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, receiving five major awards. Special exhibits were staged in three areas: the Peabody Mall, Brookline Village, and Boston Common, in conjunction with Earth Week programs in April. When the local merchants sponsored sidewalk educational exhibits and displays in Jamaica Plain, Mercer Fellow James Wolpert manned an exhibit of plant propagation using home materials. Three exhibits were staged in the lecture room of the Administration Building: an exhibit of water color paintings by Catherine Hammond; paintings, sketches and photographs of East Africa by Karen Velmure, a member of the staff, and her husband ; and an exhibit of poisonous plants prepared by the staff. were 411 Arboretum field class. Photo: P. Bruns Potting a bonsai in Mrs. Ara Derderian's class Photn~ P. Bnins The Arboretum has offered guided tours to visiting groups; of these are conducted during the spring flowering season. Volunteers now have been trained to conduct tours for garden club groups, and are effective in this role, relieving the staff for other duties. Other groups requiring more highly trained leaders, or with special needs, are served by members of the staff. During the past year, classes from seventeen colleges visited the Arboretum for tours of the grounds, the greenhouses, and the herbarium, or for special lectures by the staff. We also receive many requests for lectures by the staff away from the Arboretum. A few of these can be handled by Volunteers showing the films produced by the Arboretum. Others are met as individual staff schedules permit, or in association with other most Photography class member focuses OM the tree peonies. Photo: P. Bruns , , M 415 travel. Dr. Howard was in Hawaii for a biennial meeting of the Scientific Advisory Committee of the Pacific Tropical Garden, and lectured to the Honolulu Garden Club. He combined this planned travel with a stop in Texas to discuss the creation and maintenance of botanical gardens with guests assembled by Texas A&M University. At that time he was able to lecture to classes at the University and to a garden club of the area. Mr. Fordham took part in a short course at Ohio State University, and presented two papers on dwarf conifers and juvenility in plants. He also presented two papers at the meeting of the International Plant Propagators Society in Chicago, in addition to chairing one session. Drs. Spongberg and Wood represented the Arboretum at the First International Congress of Systematic and Evolutionary Biology at Boulder, Colorado, and both presented papers during the meeting. At a regional meeting of the A.A.B.G.A. held at Swarthmore College, the program chairman was unable to obtain a speaker for the negative regarding the value of herbaria to arboreta. Dr. Howard filled this role, with Dr. John M. Fogg, Jr., of the Arboretum of the Barnes Foundation, taking the affirmative. Since both speakers know the value and the problems of maintaining herbaria, the discussion was for the benefit of the audience. In early spring, an education film on Poisonous Plants was completed and released. Peter Chvany, who made the Centennial Film on the Arnold Arboretum, was also the producer and photographer for this film. Subsequently, it has had a wide showing to hospitals in the Boston area, and to many organizations, including the 1974 summer school. It also has been entered in film competitions, and we have received three offers from film distributors to handle sales and rentals. An issue of Arnoldia was devoted to the topic of Poisonous Plants to supplement the information in the film. Dr. Howard was a guest on two commercial TV programs: the Sonya Hamlin Show and the medical program entitled House Call with Dr. Tim Johnson; both appearances resulted in requests for copies of the reprinted Arnoldia. Travel and Exploration International travel of the staff was associated with their various research programs, while domestic travel was primarily to attend scientific and professional meetings. Dr. Wood collected materials for the generic flora project in Florida while teaching a summer school course. In the fall, Dr. Weaver made a trip to North Carolina seeking members of the Gentianaceae; Dr. Richard E. Weaver, Jr., assisted by Volunteer Mrs. Elinor B. Trowbridge, conducts Harvard Summer School class in Biology S109, Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants. Photo: P. Bruns 416 and in midwinter, to Costa Rica and British Honduras where he secured tropical representatives of the family. Mr. Pride brought back living specimens for teaching and research from his travels to Dominica, Costa Rica and British Honduras. Dr. Howard traveled to the Dutch Antilles, visiting St. Martin, St. Eustatius and Saba, with a stop in Puerto Rico. He also accompanied Dr. Yeo of Cambridge, England, to Campobello and the Wolf Islands of Canada, and made collections of the cultivated plants of the International Park. Dr. Gillis was able to visit several of the Bahama Islands and the Turks and Caicos group for field work. He also made a trip to England for herbarium study. Mr. Fordham participated in the International Plant Propagators Society tour of England and Holland, visiting many gardens and commercial nurseries. Volunteers The contributions in service to the Arnold Arboretum by a faithful group of Volunteers have been of tremendous significance during the year. We call on these willing people for regular duty or for special events, and their help is greatly appreciated. During much of the year this help was arranged by Ms. Joyce Fantasia, who unfortunately could not continue. She has our gratitude for the many hours she did contribute. Most of the tours of the grounds for garden clubs are now conducted by members of the Volunteers. They also help in the library; staff the open days at the greenhouse; assist with general duties in plant propagation and the inventories of the nursery areas; collect and prepare herbarium specimens from plants on the grounds, and eventually file these in the herbarium ; read proof and correct galleys of manuscripts; assist in revising our computer printout records of the living collections; catalogue and recondition the collection of kodachrome slides. They also assist staff members in their research programs in various ways, from literature searches, and the preparation of illustrations, to making chromosome counts of seedlings and flowers. The wife of a visiting professor from Switzerland volunteered her services, and her translating skills were used in the library and the herbarium. One Volunteer supplied by \"RSVP,\" the Retired Senior Volunteer Program of Boston, is a regular secretarial assistant. Several of the Earth Day programs were staffed by the Volunteers, as was the Woman's Lib Day exhibit, \"Yes We Can,\" from which male Volunteers and staff members were excluded. One of the permanent exhibits in the Snow-couered Azalea seed capsules. Photo: P. Bruns Administration Building drawing admiration and attention is a collection of flowers and fruits attractively embedded in clear plastic. This is the continuing contribution of one Volunteer. The blocks are useful not only for teaching in classes and in plant identification, but also have been used in many temporary displays elsewhere which call attention to the Arnold Arboretum. We stand in amazement with deep gratitude for the many talents available to the staff in the Volunteer program. Gifts and Grants The staff of the Arnold Arboretum is grateful to many individuals and organizations for gifts of money and of material objects which support our general activities. The members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum are regular contributors to an appeal for support. The basic fee for single membership was increased to $15 this year, and the Friends responded in kind with many increasing their contributions in recognition 418I of the fact that inflation affects the Arboretum as well as individual consumers. We are particularly appreciative of a gift from Mrs. Alan Cunningham which has been used to redesign and landscape the top of Bussey Hill, making it an attractive overlook of the grounds with educationally useful plantings for many seasons of bloom. Memorial gifts are gratefully received, and are used as requested. A plant on the grounds may be marked with an appropriate small metal embossed label, indicating the donor and the one memorialized. A book for the library or a special piece of equipment purchased with the gift may be similarly marked. Memorial gifts were received in the names of Mrs. Peter Boshco, Loring Conant, Sr., Virginia S. Jewett, Lowell Trowbridge, and Mrs. Frances Williams. Plants for research, or for use on the grounds, were donated by Mr. Charles L. Austin, Mr. and Mrs. Robert W. Corson, and Mr. and Mrs. Don Smith. We acknowledge with gratitude the generosity of many nurserymen who fill our requests without charge or with generous discounts. The film on Poisonous Plants was completed largely with gifts from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, but special gifts for this purpose were received from the George I. Alden Trust and the Smith, Kline and French Laboratories. A Japanese stone lantern was a gift of Maynard J. Lebowitz in memory of his parents. This lantern, in the Gyoen style, stands in the bonsai house, replacing an older one which was badly deteriorated and crumbling. The Massachusetts Council on the Arts and Humanities supour program of rare book restoration. Mrs. Julian Hill donated a valuable printout of the living collections of the Barnard's Inn Farm. Books for the library collections were received from Mrs. Ara Derderian, Samuel E. Weir, Q.C., Mr. Charles Mead, Mrs. Percy Merry, Mr. J. Newfield, and Mrs. Richard War- ported ren. - We received two gifts in support of work toward a revision of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Woody Plants: one from an anonymous donor, and one from the Rare Plant Group of the Garden Club of America. A grant from the Tozier Fund was made to Dr. Schubert for the purchase of a Polaroid MP-4 camera for staff use in the Herbaria Building in Cambridge. A collection of excellent kodachrome slides of plants of southeastern United States was donated to the University by Dr. Wil- 419 liam S. Justice for use by Dr. Wood in teaching and in the generic flora project. We received another collection of slides from the estate of Mrs. Edith Hausman. Work on the flora of the Bahamas, undertaken by Research Fellow Dr. William Gillis, has been supported by anonymous gifts. Grants for field work in the area were received from the National Geographic Society and the Society of Sigma Xi. Publications Four numbers comprise each volume of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, and the four numbers issued during the fiscal year totaled 495 pages. Twenty-three articles by 31 authors were edited by Dr. Bernice Schubert, with the aid of Miss Kathleen Clagett as editorial assistant. Due to labor problems in the Harvard Printing Office, the publication schedule during 1974 was delayed. The labor situation has been resolved, and the Journal should return to its regular quarterly appearance. An Index to Authors and Titles, Volumes a 1 through 50, 1919- former editorial assistant, Ms. Ellen B. Bernstein. The Index, with an introduction by Dr. Schubert comprising a history of the Journal and a table of publication dates, was issued as a separate publication of 74 pages in July of 1973. The six issues of Arnoldia totaled 268 pages, and were edited by Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh with the assistance of Miss Pamela Bruns as art director. A special number paralleling our latest film was devoted to the subject of Poisonous Plants, and was reprinted for separate sale. In order to meet the public demand for this handbook, copies have been placed in selected book stores and garden centers. The production schedule of Arnoldia also suffered as a result of the prolonged strike at the Harvard University Printing Office. Publication now is returning to normal. was 1969, for the Journal compiled by RICHARD A. HOWARD 420 I the Staff Bibliography of Published Writings of July 1, 1973 - June 30, 1974 < A. L., The genera of Nyctaginaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55 ( 1 ) : 1-37. 1974. Dahlen, M., Willow oak (Quercus phellos): A Fenway jewel. Arnoldia 33(5): 292-294. 1973. Derderian, C. E., Big trees. Bonsai 7: 60-61. 1973. DeWolf, G. P., Jr., Educational systems in public gardens. Longwood Program Seminars 5: 30-33. 1973. , Introduction in facsimile edition of W. Bartram, Travels through North and South Carolina, Georgia, East and West Florida. pp. v-xx. Beehive Press, Savannah, Ga. 1973. Amer. Horticulturist 53 ( 1 ) : 4, Vegetables then and now. 13. 1974. Amoldia 34(2): 45, Guide to potentially dangerous plants. 91. 1974. *Elias, T. S., The genera of Mimosoideae (Leguminosae) in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55 ( 1 ) : 67-118. 1974. Fordham, A. J., Struggle for survival. Amoldia 33(4): 235-238. 1973. Arnoldia 33(6): 341, Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. 342. 1973. Inter, Dormancy in seeds of temperate zone woody plants. nat. Pl. Prop. Comb. Proc. 23: 262-266. 1973. Gillis, W. T., Bell's last invention. Kampong Notes 8(3): 3, 4. 1974. , Name changes for the seed plants in the Bahama flora. Rhodora 76: 67-138. 1974. , Typification and correct names of Leucaena and Lysiloma species in the Bahama flora. Taxon 23(1): 185-191. 1974. *Hartley, T. G. (with E. A. Dunstone, J. S. Fitzgerald, S. R. Johns and J. A. Lamberton), A survey of New Guinea plants for alkaloids. Lloydia 36(3): 217-319. 1973. Howard, R. A., Notes on the Piperaceae of the Lesser Antilles. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54(3): 377~111. 1973. (with W. T. Gillis and G. R. Proctor), Additions to the Bahama flora since Britton and Millspaugh. Rhodora 75: 411425. 1973. , Lazella Harenberg Schwarten 1900-1973. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54(4): 419-421. 1973. , The Enumeratio and Selectarum of Nicolaus von Jacquin. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54(4): 435-470. 1973. , The director's report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1973. Arnoldia 33(6): 309-340. 1973. *Bogle, _ 1 421 A partial history of the New England Botanical Club. Rhodora 75: 493-516. 1973. -, The vegetation of the Antilles, in Vegetation and Vegetational History of Northern Latin America, ed. A. Graham. Chapter 1, 1-38. 1974. Elsevier Publishing Co., The Netherlands. Arborist's -, The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. News 39(5): 78-82. 1974. -, Living with poisonous plants. Arnoldia 34(2): 41--44. 1974. Jour. -, The stem-node-leaf continuum of the Dicotyledoneae. Arnold Arb. 55(2): 125-173. 1974. Hu, S. Y., Life of a botanist in Hong Kong - in verses (in Chinese). Annals Taiwan Mus. 16: 103-111. 1973. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. -, The orchidaceae of China, VI. 26: 373-406. 1973. VII. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 27: 155189. 1974. *Kazmi, S. M. A., Bibliography on the botany of West Pakistan and Kashmir IV References. Field Research Projects: 1-111. 1973. Link, J., The Arboretum's labels: A valuable teaching aid. Amoldia 33(4) : 239-244. 1973. *Nevling, L. I., Jr. (with Arturo Gomez-Pompa), The use of electronic data processing methods in the flora of Veracruz program. Contr. Gray Herb. 203: 49-64. 1973. Page, N. M., A guide to selecting a strong and healthy young tree. Arnoldia 33(5): 261-283. 1973. *Powell, D. A., The voyage of the plant nursery, H.M.S. Providence, 1791-1793. Bull. Inst. Jam. Sci. Ser. 15(2): 5-70. 1973. Pride, G. H., Second thoughts at six-thirty in the morning. Bull. Reg. 4, Amer. Hemerocallis Soc. Spring: 15-17. 1974. Arnoldia 34(1): 32-, Dykes Medal iris at the Case Estates. 34. 1974. , Bibliography (Poisonous Plants). Arnoldia 34(2): 92. 1974. , Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum. Amoldia 34(3): 125-132. 1974. Robertson, K. R., The genera of Rosaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(2): 303-332. 1974. (Continued , in Africa, the West Indies, and the Hawaiian Islands. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 61: 502-513. 1974. Schubert, B. G., Short history of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, pp. i-viii. Index to authors and titles, Volumes 1 through 50, 1919-1969. July 1973. A review. Rhodora 76: -, The Asiatic species of Desmodium: 142-144. 1974. -, [Treatment of] Begoniales in Encyclopaedia Britannica, ed. 15. 801-804. 1974. [with consultation of L. B. Smith]. *Spongberg, H. C., The Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection. Arnoldia 33 ( 4 ) : 231-234. 1973. Spongberg, S. A., A tentative key to the cultivated Magnolias. Arnoldia 34 ( 1 ) : 1-11. 1974. -, A review of the deciduous-leaved species of Stewartia (Theaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(2): 182-214. 1974. -, July, October, 1974.) Jacquemontia ovalifolia (Convolvulaceae) 422 Stevens, P. F., A review of Calophyllum L. (Guttiferae) in Papuasia. Austral. Jour. Bot. 22: 349-411. 1974. Mammea L. and Mesua L. (Guttiferae) in Papuasia. Austral. Jour. Bot. 22: 413~23. 1974. , Three new species of Phaleria (Thymelaeaceae) from Papuasia. Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(2): 264-268. 1974. Sutton, S. B., A review of J. F. Rock, A Na-Khi - English Encyclopedic Dictionary. Harv. Jour. Asiatic Studies 33: 277-282. 1973. Wadleigh, J. S., Some afterthoughts on apples. Arnoldia 33(4): 228-230. 1973. Weaver, R. E., Jr., The shadbushes. Amoldia 34(1): 22-31. 1974. , The reduction of Rusbyanthus and the tribe Rusbyantheae (Gentianaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 55(2): 300-302. 1974. , A group of outstanding goldenrain trees (Koelreuteria paniculata) along Boston's Fenway. Amoldia 34(3): 134-135. 1974. , * Former Staff Member 423 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum - 1973-1974 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of of Dendrology and Director Karl Sax, S.D., Professor of Botany, Emeritus* Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus Botany, Professor Umesh Chandra Banerjee, Ph.D., Research Fellow Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Director of Arnoldia Ida Hay Burch, B.A., Curatorial Assistant Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec* tions * Kathleen Ann Clagett, M.A., Editorial Assistant Constance Tortorici Derderian, A.B., Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Sheila Connor Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian * Arturo Gomez-Pompa, Dr. Sc., Honorary Research Associate** * William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant** * Patricia Dick Hall, M.S., Librarian** Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Research Fellow in Temperate Asiatic Botany Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates John Herbert Link, Jr., B.S., Curatorial Assistant+ Nancy Markham Page, B.A., Coordinator for Community Activities++ George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth Ray Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Peter Francis Stevens, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Honorary Research Fellow Karen Stoutsenberger Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne Stockbarger Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Amoldia Richard Edwin Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology ' . * Deceased October 8, 1973 ** Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium + Resigned June 7, 1974 ++ Resigned January 31, 1974 ' Bark of Pinus bungeana. Photo : P. Bruns "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":425,"end_page":430,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24643","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e856f.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":6,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum WEATHER STATION DATA - 1973 Average temperature for 1973: 52.4 Precipitation for 1973: 48.51 inches Snowfall during winter 1972-73: 14.6 inches Warmest temperature: 101 on Sept. 1 Coldest temperature: 0 on Jan. 8 Date of last frost in spring: April 15 5 Date of first frost in autumn: October 22 Growing season for 1973 was 189 days season - The growing season is defined as the number of between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. * Growing days 425 Nature's design. Photo: P. Bruns 426 EQUIPMENT USED AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM WEATHER STATION IN 1974 It seems reasonable to suppose that in years to come sophisticated and perhaps automatic apparatus will be used to compile the Arboretum's weather data. Those responsible for such equipment might be interested in the simple instruments used in 1974. Often routine procedures are taken for granted and go unrecorded. With this thought in mind, instruments presently used at the Weather Station are described here as an historical record. Since August 15, 1962, the Arnold Arboretum has maintained a simple climatological substation in cooperation with the U.S. Weather Bureau. A representative of the Weather Bureau approved a site for the instruments, supervised their installation, and checked the thermometer for accuracy. Daily at 8 : 00 A.M., observations of temperatures and precipitation covering the previous 24 hours are entered on forms which the Weather Bureau provides. The equipment includes a maximum and minimum selfregistering thermometer furnished by the Arboretum and an 8-inch non-recording precipitation gauge provided by the Weather Bureau. - Thermometer The thermometer consists of a glass bulb filled with a substance that expands or contracts as the temperature increases or decreases. A connecting U-shaped tube contains a mercury column and an expansion chamber which takes care of the change in volume caused by expansion or contraction. A small steel pin known as an index has been inserted in the bore on each side of the U-tube. That on the left is used for making minimum observations; that on the right, for maximum readings. As the temperature increases the substance in the glass bulb expands, forcing the mercury column down on the left side of the tube and up on the right. Conversely, as the temperature decreases, contraction causes the mercury in the column on the left side to rise. In either case, the indices are pushed ahead of the mercury column. The indices fit the bore snugly enough so the maximum index remains at the highest point it has reached during temperature increases, while the minimum remains at the lowest point during temperature decreases. A magnet is used to reset the steel indices drawing them downward until they rest on the tops of the mercury columns. __ - Fig. 1 Shelter that houses thermometer is mounted on a sturdy post. It is designed so that air can circulate freely through it. Photo: A. Fordham 428 The small-sized (8 X 8 X 17 inches) shelter (Fig. 1), that houses the thermometer is designed so that air can circulate freely through it. Sides facing east and west are louvered so that rays of the sun cannot enter, while the door which faces north is screened. The back which faces south is solid. The sloping top is of double construction with an air space between the two parts. Thus the lower part is shaded by the upper, and air circulates between the two, averting any build-up of heat within the box through solar radiation. To make the unit reflective rather than absorbant, it is painted white within and without. The shelter is mounted firmly on a sturdy cedar post to minimize the possibility of the indices being moved through vibration caused by wind. Eight-Inch Non-recording Precipation Gauge The 8-inch non-recording precipitation gauge is a simple, yet interesting instrument. (Fig. 2). It consists of a rainfall funnel, a measuring cylinder, an overflow can, and a measuring stick. The top of the funnel has a diameter of exactly 8 inches and its beveled rim is machined to a knife-like edge. It is designed so that only the portion of rain falling within the 8-inch diameter is collected and led to the measuring cylinder. This cylinder is exactly 1\/lOth the diameter of the rainfall funnel, and therefore the depth of rain that enters the cylinder is increased ten-fold. (One inch of rain becomes a column of water 10 inches high.) Increasing the column of water from 1 to 10 inches leads to a situation whereby it is possible to make readings using the measuring stick which is graduated in hundredths of an inch. The measuring cylinder, which is 20 inches tall, is designed to hold exactly 2 inches of rainfall. In the event that one day's rain exceeds 2 inches, the excess drops into the overflow can. When this happens, the measuring cylinder is emptied and counted as 2 inches. The funnel is then placed on the cylinder and water from the overflow can is poured into it. The process is repeated until the last pouring only partially fills the cylinder. By keeping track of the number of times the cylinder was emptied and by measuring the final partial filling, the total rainfall for the past twenty-four hours is determined. During colder parts of the year, the rainfall funnel and measuring cylinder are removed and only the overflow can is left to capture precipitation. This is done as a precautionary measure because water freezing in the measuring cylinder could lead to Fig. 2. It should be Eight-inch non-recording precipitation gauge. precisely levelled. Photo: A. Fordham 430 its distortion, making it inaccurate; or to its rupture, making it useless. During this season, precipitation caught in the overflow can is measured by pouring as described above. If the precipitation is in the form of snow, sleet or frozen rain, the overflow can is brought into a warm location to thaw before the water content is measured. In the event precipitation is still occurring at time of measurement, a known volume of hot water is used to thaw the contents quickly. The combination is then poured into a second vessel so the overflow can may be returned to its station without loss of time. The volume of added water is then poured off and the remainder measured. The overflow can used to measure precipitation in winter might not accumulate wind-driven snow accurately. In this case it becomes necessary to collect a snow sample. To do this the observer chooses a site where the snow depth appears unaffected by drifting. By inverting the overflow can and using it like a cookie cutter, a cylindrical plug of snow is obtained. This then is processed as described above. When collecting snow of loose consistency, it may be necessary to slide a sheet of thin metal under the can so that the sample remains complete. ALFRED J. FORDHAM "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":3,"start_page":431,"end_page":440,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24642","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e816b.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":6,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews January. From To Everything There Is A Season. To Everything There Alfred A. Knopf. Is A Season. Thalasso Cruso. New York: 1973. 309 pages, illustrated. $6.95. Like its two predecessors, this book raises the question: for whom has it been written: beginning gardeners, old-time gardeners who seek polishing, modem ecologists of the lay variety, or for the author herself? Probably all are addressed, but Miss Cruso is primarily a spokesman for herself. The work is a subjective distillation of her newspaper columns in the form of essays bearing a calendar format, but in no sense a horticultural calendar. Much of the work is autobiographical and the recollections of her English childhood are seldom relevant to horticulture, but more sociologically and historically illuminating. 431 432 I The work is splendid for the account of the evolution of an individual's development of horticultural acumen, emphasizing the \"look it up,\" \"try it another way\" empirical approach to problems. Valuable portions deal with shopping for plants, repotting and growing-on techniques; devices like shaping a bough to order by weighting it with a bagful of stones; revelations that white-flowering pelargoniums (geraniums) are difficult to flower indoors; the desirability of abandoning greenhouse benches (advice with which this reviewer concurs). It's a fine book for reading in winter when you can't garden. Do not, however, buy it for your young niece who is on a hanging-philodendron-inthe-window kick. Said niece will not know what is being talked about, for this is not a work for the novice. The writing in some areas is over-contrived. For example, an allusion to \"... the red snouts of the peonies\" was found far from felicitous. Nevertheless, this is a handsome, well-set volume incorporating a very useful index. ELINOR B. TROWBRIDGE Plum Crazy, A book about beach plums. Elizabeth Post Mirel. New York: Clarkson N. Potter, Inc. 1973. 144 pages, illustrated with drawings. $5.95. The beach Plum, Prunus maritima, native and restricted to the eastern shores of North America from Maine to Virginia, was described as new to science by Humphrey Marshall of Pennsylvania in 1785. Earlier the Pilgrims had described the fruit in letters to England, comparing it to damson plums. Explorers and travelers had encountered the plant, and a Hessian officer, fighting for the British in the Revolutionary War, had taken seeds to Germany. By the early 1800's several horticultural selections had been made and were offered by local nurseries. But in spite of its beauty as a flowering shrub, which also produces a useful fruit, the beach plum is infrequently cultivated in the 1970's. Making beach plum jelly remains a cottage industry. Perhaps this charming book, well-written after much research, and illustrated with appealing drawings by Betty Fraser, will change all this. The plant deserves to be grown in home landscaping plantings, and Ms. Mirel's suggestions for the use of the fruit offer many opportunities for experimentation. RICHARD A. HOWARD 433 Land Above the Trees: A Guide to American Alpine Tundra. Ann H. Zwinger and Beatrice E. Willard. New York: Harper and Row. 1972. 489 pages, 230 line drawings, 45 color plates. $15.00. a book comes along that fills a complete void excellent in its treatment that it will be difficult to improve upon it for a long time. This is such a book. It is the first comprehensive work dealing with the ecology of the alpine tundra of the United States. The areas covered in detail are the Colorado Rockies, the Sierra Nevada of California, the White Mountains in Great Basin on the Nevada - California border, Mount Hood and Mount Ranier in the Cascades of Oregon and Washington, the Olympic Mountains of Washington, and Mount Washington in the New Hampshire White Mountains. Most of the many line drawings by Ann Zwinger are fine, but in a few cases some of the wispier ones would seem to be more useful in bolder outline. These drawings should be very helpful in identification of the plant material as was intended. Sixty pages are devoted to a \"comprehensive listing\" of alpine plants giving the flower color, blooming time, type of habitat, distribution in the United States and throughout the rest of the world. A brief glossary deals mostly with terms in the book associated with alpine conditions and there is a valuable series of references covering eleven pages. This book should appeal to a wide audience consisting, at least, of rock gardeners, ecologists, botanists, artists, photographers and lovers of the outdoors in general. The authors seem to feel that each plant should have a common name, and if none exists they have translated the scientific name literally, resulting in some odd epithets. If your background in botany is so poor that you are not familiar with woolly kittentails, owl clover, mousetails, whitlowworts, elephantelles, bastard toadflax, monkeyflowers, bladder- Occasionally so and is pods, billberries, pussypaws, eyebrights, chimneybells, viviparous bistorts, sticky sky pilots, louseworts, and kinnikinniks, and if you Smelowskia, Leutkea, Lesquerella, Lloydia, Phyllodoce, Oxyria, Erysimum, Eritrichium, Thlaspi, and Zygadenus, all is not lost. This book will fill you in. You will, also, be able to tell a fellfield and a solifluction are unfamiliar with the genera, terrace from a krummholz if anyone should ask! GEORGE H. PRIDE 434 A Traveler's Guide to North American Gardens. Harry Britton Logan. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1974. 253 pages, illustrated. $15.00. This directory of arboreta and botanical gardens in North America, including Hawaii, Puerto Rico, the Virgin Islands, and Canada, would be a useful book for interested travelers. It is illustrated with black and white and colored photographs of some of the gardens, and is alphabetized according to state and then by cities and towns within each state. Many national and state parks, famous nurseries, tourist information bureaus, and plant societies also are included. There are several errors in the information given about the Arnold Arboretum, which might apply as well to other gardens and arboreta listed. I do not think this book is worthy of the price. ROSEMARY WALSH The ABC of Indoor Plants. Jocelyn Baines and Katherine Key. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1973. 192 pages, 300 full color illustrations. $12.50. As this book's title indicates, it is a primer. Its avowed purpose is to introduce the indoor gardener to the very basic information concerning propagation, cultivation, and growth characteristics of some 300 house plants. It carries the amateur beyond the usual philodendron, Ficus elastica stage, introducing him to many of the more exotic and rewarding, but still easily-grown genera. Concise, descriptive paragraphs in large print accompanied by beautifully-reproduced and detailed photographs comprise the text. An outstanding feature is the use of a symbol system for plant requirements and characteristics. Incorporated in each paragraph, its simple diagrammatic illustrations eliminate redundancy in description. Index and glossary by which names, botanical names, and families can be crossreferenced easily make the book most useful for the less-thanscientific reader as well as the more sophisticated house plant enthusiast. What seems to be another coffee-table decoration at first glance, becomes upon inspection a delightfully informative working addition to the indoor gardener's library. BARBARA O. EPSTEIN common 435 Jamaica, A Vacation Guide. Ian Sangster. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1974. 96 pages, illustrated. $4.95. This brief volume with some illustrations (black and white), maps, and uncomfortably small print, is an excellent guide to the island of Jamaica, before, during, or after a visit. The text is unusually and disarmingly frank in its discussion of history, race and color, modem social problems, scenic values or the difficulties of climbing certain hills, or visiting certain areas (take a compass, there will be no one to help you if you get lost.) I looked for a special section on botanic gardens, to no avail, for the data is scattered in area studies. My favorite spot, the Institute of Jamaica, deserves more emphasis. Highly recommended. RICHARD A. HOWARD Environmental Boomerang. Leonard J. Webb. Australia: The Jacaranda Press. 1973. 126 pages, illustrated. $3.85. (Available in the United States from Richard Abel & Company, Post Office Box 4245, Portland, Oregon 97208) The catchy title supports the fact that man's misuse of his environment will return to challenge his ability to survive on this planet. Webb calls this \"a problem without boundaries\"; this volume is written for Australians about Australia. Five case histories are presented on the topics of soil erosion, killing of wildlife, water pollution, air pollution, and sensory stimuli and stress from noise and crowding. The illustrations are frightening graphic documentation. The author is very practical in discussing \"the Criteria for Conservation,\" and the book ends with an excellent summary of \"Ecological Principles in Practice.\" This short volume is a forceful treatment of the subject by a competent scientist who is concerned about his homeland. The same text could be written for the United States, yet those who tried have not had comparable success. We recommend that you read Environmental Boomerang and take heed. RICHARD A. HOWARD 436 I Greenworks. Judith Handelsman and Sara Baerwald. New York: Macmillan. 1974. 182 pages, illustrated. $5.95. This is an arch, infantile, breathless, ungrammatical, overly- enthusiastic manual on how to grow the particular plants that the young authors coincidentally vend somewhere in Manhattan. It is tedious in its overuse of such epithets about the plants as \"perky, bouncy ...\" The term \"hardy\" is frequently used when apparently \"durable\" is intended. The book is written in the first person by two authors who exude an awareness of the state of ignorance in which they took up minor horticulture; a state in which this reader feels they remain. This is unkind; actually this is the book to buy for that young person who is pulsating with \"good earth\" identification and has the pocketbook to go into the Schefflera\/Maranta\/Tradescantia route of self-expression. In case you think I am too brutal, try this quotation: \"(Scales) remind me of turtle-like warts.\" In the jargon of the authors, if you shiny are over twenty-five this work will drive you up a wall although you are not a vine. If you are younger, this little manual may satisfy your immediate horticultural needs. ... ELINOR B. TROWBRIDGE Wandering Jew. From Greenworks. 437 Conradi Gesneri Historia Plantarum. H. Zoller, M. Steinmann, and K. Schmid (eds.). 1972. Zurich, Switzerland: Urs GrafVerlag Dietikon. 106 pages, illustrated. $250.00. Conrad Gessner (1516-1565) was called by Cuvier the Pliny of the Middle Ages. He was variously Professor of Greek at the University of Lausanne, Professor of Philosophy and Professor of Natural History at the University of Zurich. Among his accomplishments were a Bibliotheca Universalis one-volume folio, 1545, in Latin, Greek, and Hebrew and Mithridates de differentiis linguis, 1555, an account of about 130 languages with the Lord's Prayer in 22 of them! Among biologists Gessner is remembered for an Historia Animalium (1551-1558) published in four volumes folio. He planned a companion Historia Plantarum but this was never published due to his death from the Plague. Various of his illustrations were used by Kaspar Wolf and Joachim Camerarius the Younger. In 1751-1771 Casimir Christoph Schmiedel edited two volumes containing some 74 of his illustrations. The entire corpus of Gessner's materials was acquired by the Library of the University of Erlangen where it still remains. The present volume printed in the German language and in folio format, with pages 18 X 121\/2 inches, is a sumptuous presentation of some 27 leaves of water colors from the Erlanger collection. The reproduction is superb. The critical apparatus, transcription, identification, and annotations seem to be full and accurate. Five hundred and fifty numbered copies have been printed. Most, no doubt, will be purchased by libraries. It is to be hoped however, that there still remain a few private individuals who appreciate beauty and revere the names of famous men. GORDON P. DEWOLF Gardening With Wild Flowers. Frances Tenenbaum. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1973. 206 pages, illustrated. $7.95. The cliche \"you can't tell a book from its cover\" truly applies this volume. A major error in identification relates to the colorful jacket and is repeated on page 139. The plant at the left, partially cut off in reproduction, is the \"native blue elderberry,\" not the \"exotic-looking tall plants in the center\" which to 438 are a I member of the Umbelliferae, Heracleum mantegazzianum, from Europe. The author has accepted a broad definition of \"wild flowers,\" including many plants native to foreign lands, that have become established in America as weeds or escaped garden plants. Horticultural varieties are often confused as \"wild flowers\" in the text and the illustrations. The gardening aspect of this book has been divided into chapters of application as ground covers, ferns, woodland gardens, seashore gardens, meadows and ponds and bogs, and in basic chapters on culture of wild flowers, as well as collecting and buying. A chapter on \"poisonous plants and edible plants\" is well written but no supporting references are given there, and only one on poisonous plants appears in the \"selected bibliography.\" Many plants are mentioned in several categories and described in detail but once. When used subsequently in the text, the plant name is followed with an asterisk indicating a discussion elsewhere which causes the reader to refer to the index. Rarely does one criticize an index, but this one, essential to the use of this book, is woefully inadequate. The plants mentioned under \"meadows,\" for example, are not included in the index and other references are lacking. The author is frank in stating what is included and what is omitted from this book. The information given is based on her own experience and herein lies the value of this volume. It is a useful book for the beginning gardener who wishes to use wild flowers in appropriate garden locations and needs to know their culture and propagation. RICHARD A. HOWARD Beach Heather. From Gardening With Wild Flowers. 439 Terrarium Gardening. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1974. 146 pages, illustrated. $9.95. The Complete Book of Terrariums. Charles Marden Fitch. New York: Hawthorne Books, Inc. 1974. 150 pages, illustrated. $8.95. Fun With Terrarium Gardening. Virginie and George A. Elbert. New York: Crown Publishers, Inc. 1973. 144 pages, illustrated. $5.95. It is difficult for an author to come up with anything original when he is writing on a subject as popular as terrariums. In fact, judging from the covers of these three books, it's even hard to find a distinctive title. Each of the authors under scrutiny covers the standard topics : types of terrariums and their selection, how to plan and assemble, accessories, types of plant materials, care after planting, and sources of supply. Jack Kramer is seriously at fault for not stressing the importance of proper light in the maintenance of all types of terrariums ; in fact, he dismisses the matter with just a few lines, inaccurately suggesting that the \"desert or tropical garden will tolerate more light, perhaps a few hours of late afternoon sun.\" He also falls short by giving only brief descriptions of the plants he recommends, without noting characteristics such as aggressive tendencies, need for dormancy, or special care. The book is beautifully illustrated with fine drawings and photographs, both black and white and colored. A detailed appendix with tabular lists of plants for various uses is included, but there is no index for ready reference. Charles Marden Fitch has produced a good, basic guide that lives up to its title in most respects. His step-by-step planting instructions are clear and explicit, and he includes a useful section on propagating terrarium plants, as well as one on growing orchids which usually are not included in such plantings. The book is well-indexed, profusely illustrated, and offers a long and diversified list of recommended plants with useful notations on many. The Elbert guide accurately and successfully delineates the pitfalls as well as the pleasures of terrarium gardening. Emphasizing artificial light culture, as might be expected (George Elbert is president of the Indoor Light Gardening Society of 440 I on Fun With Terrarium Gardening offers pertinent comthe plants described, and details the actual building of a basic terrarium in 24 pages of how-to text and photographs. A section devoted to terrariums of many kinds focuses on their contents and explains how they were assembled; bottle gardens also are noted briefly. JEANNE S. WADLEIGH America), ments Wildflowers of Alabama and Adjoining States. Blanche E. Dean, Amy Mason and Joab L. Thomas. Alabama: The University of Alabama Press. 1973. 230 pages, illustrated. $10.00. This volume is a welcome addition to the recommended list of books on wildflowers of a state for local residents and visitors. The book will apply to Mississippi, Georgia, northern Florida and Tennessee. Every species is illustrated with excellent photographs in color well reproduced in soft tones; many of them are truly works of art. Dr. Thomas has supplied concise, easily read botanical descriptions offering flowering times, distribution, and comments on the plants' frequency or need for protection. The volume contains plates of line drawings illustrating the technical terms used; a glossary; and a combined index to common and scientific names. The plants are arranged by families in the sequence of more technical floras. Dr. Thomas, now a university dean with administrative responsibilities, was formerly a member of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. RICHARD A. HOWARD Lectures on Photomorphogenesis. H. Mohr. New York: Springer- of Arnoldia, we call attention to this volume based on a series of lectures given by the author at the University of Massachusetts. The emphasis of the volume is the response of the plant to light. Various chapters have a bearing on horticultural practices and knowledge, such as the effects of light on the germination of seeds, the developments of seedlings and of pigments, and the induction of flowering. Work on higher vascular plants and ferns, fungi and liverworts is included. A bibliography of 303 titles is supplied. The volume is an excellent scientific review of the topic. RICHARD A. HOWARD Verlag. 1972. 237 pages. $14.80. Although beyond the interest of most readers "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23268","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160a725.jpg","title":"1974-34-6","volume":34,"issue_number":6,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I","article_sequence":1,"start_page":253,"end_page":384,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24641","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e8126.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":5,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Some Necessary Definitions Terms May Be Misleading definition, a perennial is By year, not completing its life as do, or in two years, plant which lives on from year to cycle in a single season as annuals with biennials. Properly applied, the a \"perennial\" includes trees, shrubs, and herbs. Trees and shrubs are woody; herbs die to the ground each winter. The term \"herb\" is loosely used by many gardeners in referring to a special group of plants grown for culinary or medicinal purposes. While some of these plants are perennials, others are annuals or biennials; some are woody perennials and could not be classed as \"herbs\" according to the botanical definition of term the word. Perennial herbs are classified in many other ways, and terms become even more confusing when we consider the special uses of plants in the garden. Some perennial herbs are grown in a place called the \"wild flower garden.\" These may be plants that are native locally, or come from much wider geographic areas and have cultural requirements similar to the plants of the local region. Other perennial herbs either require, or will tolerate, a great deal of moisture and, when grown together in a wet place, may constitute a bog garden. Others may be low in stature or will endure hot, dry conditions. When, in various ways, they are combined with rocks or boulders and certain shrubs, they form a rock garden. Plants in all the categories above have representatives that, when planted closely under just the right conditions, grow together densely and tend to discourage competition from other plants. Under these circumstances they qualify as ground covers. be considered always in have not discussed yet is the subject of this Handbook: the plants traditionally known as \"herbaceous perennials\", or just \"perennials\", and customarily grown in a place called the \"perennial garden\" or the \"herbaceous border.\" This group draws representatives from all the cannot we Obviously, perennial herbs separate categories. One group 253 254 above groups of perennial herbs, and its members are most often cultivated for their bright flowers; but plants with interesting foliage effects also are included. The very word \"perennial\" conjurs up the idea of permanence, and to those who would make a perennial garden the great trap is that permanence is equated all too often with ease of culture or freedom from a great deal of maintenance. In his Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, Liberty Hyde Bailey succinctly up the sums problem A as follows: popular fallacy about perennials lies in the common state\"they die down every year and come up again in the spring.\" Many of them never come up again after two or three years of flowering; that is perennials are not necessarily perpetual. (our emphasis) Peonies may be as long-lived as shrubbery, and a clump of fraxinella * has been known to outlive father, son, and grandson in the same spot. But these are exceptions. The general practice with perennials is to divide them every second or third year. Nearly all hardy herbaceous plants ment that should be lifted now and then, because the crowns that give the flowers in most desirable kinds flower only two or three seasons and then die; but the plant may be continually spreading and making new growths, which furnish the flowers, and, unless lifted and divided, the stocks become scattering and unattractive. Standards for Low Maintenance Perennials Another feature of these plants that the word \"perennial\" does not convey is that many have exacting requirements which must be catered to if any degree of perfection whatever is to be attained. The cultivation of several of such types together in the same garden will add up to a lot of work; certainly more work than the novice gardener, or even the experienced one with little spare time, would wish to devote. Some of the \"faults\" many perennials have which will necessitate considerable maintenance can be itemized as follows: - - - - Short-lived. Require annual or biennial division of the Become invasive. Subject to attack by insects or diseases. albus, the Gas Plant crowns. ^ Dictamnus 255 - Need - - - staking and tying to prevent flopping. Foliage does not remain attractive during the entire growing season. Tolerate only a very narrow range of growing conditions with regard to soil, moisture, or light. Not fully hardy. Possession of any of the above \"faults\", with the exception of the last, is probably not sufficient reason in every case to ban particular plants from the garden, even when the standard for minimal maintenance is a priority. If this were so, the list of perennials that could be grown would be a scanty one indeed ! It is when certain plants combine two or more of these \"faults\" that they may be regarded as requiring considerable maintenance. To look on the brighter side, there are many perennials that possess the endearing qualities of ease of culture, a relatively long life, and freedom from insects and diseases. However, the gardener who lacks years of experience faces the very considerable problem of selecting these from amongst the many hundreds of varieties available from nurseries. Catalogs are notorious for their glowing descriptions of flower color, or any other good attribute a plant may possess; however, information about the amount of work necessary to produce a dazzling display or the life expectancy of a plant is mighty scanty. This is not meant to discredit the nurserymen. In general, American nurseries are doing a fine job of offering the better species or selections to a very heterogeneous group of gardeners. Textbooks too, are not always the most convenient sources of information about low maintenance perennials. They often tend to be encyclopedic in nature some even include varieties that are completely unavailable from nurseries. For the average reader it thus becomes tedious to select those plants that are easiest to grow from the numerous varieties described, and the lengthy cultural formulae provided. In this discussion we wish to draw attention to the perennials that will require the least amount of maintenance. We know of no desirable plant, however, that can be expected to thrive in the garden without some form of attention. This handbook, - 256 I therefore, should not be considered a \"lazy man's guide\" to perennials. The standards we have selected that qualify a plant as \"easy\" in the ensuing text are as follows: - - - - - - division for about four years under normal circumstances; some can go much longer. Perfectly hardy in the Boston area, though some form of winter protection is advisable for most perennials. (In this category we also place resistance to summer heat as a type of hardiness.) Immune to, or tolerant enough of, insect and disease problems so that spraying usually will not be necessary. Stems sufficiently sturdy so that staking may be avoided under most circumstances. Tolerant of a fairly wide variety of soil types and conditions. Foliage remains in acceptable condition through the growing season. If not, it dies down quickly and may be masked by surrounding plants. Will not require In applying these standards, we banish some of the showiest of all perennials. Gone are the hybrid Delphiniums, most of the hardy Chrysanthemums, and Phloxes, Lupines, or Carnations, and many others traditional to the perennial garden. But how many traditional perennial gardens do we see nowadays? In our hurried times, perennials have come into some measure of disfavor because a few of the more famous ones are the most difficult to grow. People have tried them, have had good results only temporarily, and have given up altogether. Recommended Perennials for Low Maintenance The perennials we recommend for ease of culture are described in this chapter. Representatives of most all the major groups discussed here have been tried at one time or another at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in the area known as the Low Maintenance Garden. This garden is situated in a frost pocket where winter temperatures may drop to -20 F, or lower. Soil conditions in some parts of the garden are very moist, especially during the winter months, and some perennials are either killed or heaved out of the ground during alternate periods of freezing and thawing. Some sections of the garden receive full sun all day, while others remain either in partial or deep shade. Thus we have been able to observe and record the performance of many perennials under adverse, and frequently poor, growing conditions. We make the basic assumption that a plant which has performed well for several years in the Low Maintenance Garden can be grown in most gardens in the Boston area, and often considerably further north. In order that gardeners may make intelligent choices when selecting their plant materials, we discuss in alphabetical order most all the major genera of perennials offered by the nursery trade. Those that qualify as \"easy\" plants, and are especially recommended as low maintenance subjects, occupy the main body of the text. Those which are of secondary value (or of no value at all where low maintenance is concerned) are included, but set apart in smaller type. This secondary listing is in no way meant to condemn the groups of plants involved. As already stated, some of the most beautiful perennials belong in these groups. If a gardener has selected mainly the recommended plants, he then may have the time to cater to the needs of a few of the more demanding types if he so desires. We have attempted to provide as many sources as possible for each plant discussed. Most of the nurseries included publish a retail catalog on a national basis and will ship plants. A few nurseries are represented which do not ship, but their lists are 257 258 so extensive that they warrant inclusion. Several desirable cultivars seem to be available only from wholesale nurseries, which will not deal directly with the general public. If this is the case with a plant you wish to obtain, we recommend that you persuade a local nurseryman to get it for you from the wholesaler; do not attempt to deal with wholesale nurseries directly. Wholesale sources are included here mainly for the benefit of the professional horticulturist or landscape architect entitled to use them or, hopefully, the operators of local retail outlets who may wish to extend their offerings to include some of the more desirable varieties discussed. Retail nurseries are identified by a series of numbers after the description of each plant; wholesale nurseries, by a series of letters. These correspond to a list of the nurseries beginning on page 7. Before deciding to order a particular plant from any of these sources, it would be prudent first to see if it is available from a local garden center or nursery. It is always better to obtain a plant locally when possible; the plant's size and condition are then known to the buyer. Also, local nurseries frequently sell perennials already established in containers; therefore the possible shock of transplanting or delays in the mail can be avoided. According to the listings which follow, it may appear that some worthy perennials have limited availability; that is, they are available only from one or two mail order nurseries. These listings do not present the true picture in every case, however. In all major population centers there are garden outlets or nurseries which operate on a local basis and do not distribute lists or catalogs. Thus some plants enjoy a popularity which our listings do not reflect. Exclusion of a nursery is not intentional on our part. The listings were compiled from the hundred or more catalogs of American dealers in perennials currently represented in the Arnold Arboretum's catalog collection. It is quite possible that other sources exist of which we are not aware. We did not deem it expedient to list general nurseries which offer only four or five of the recommended varieties. Further, many specialists in rock garden plants and wild flowers list a few plants suitable for the perennial border; some of these dealers could not be included. There are far more nurseries specializing in Iris, Hemerocallis, or Paeonia than we could list. For more information about these, consult the advertisement sections of The Hemerocallis Journal, (the publication of the American Hemerocallis 259 Society), the Bulletin of the American Iris Society, and The American Peony Society Bulletin. Inclusion here of a particular nursery does not constitute an endorsement by the Arnold Arboretum, nor does it guarantee that plants obtained will be true to name, nor that sources will not change from year to year. RETAIL NURSERY SOURCES FOR HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS 1. J. Herbert Alexander, Dahliatown Nurseries, Middleboro, Mass. 02346. Specializes in Lilacs, Blueberries, shrubs, ground perennials. Ships. 2. covers and Armstrong Nurseries, Inc., Box 473, Ontario, Calif. 3. 4. 91761. grower of Roses, but catalog lists an interesting selection of Hardy Hibiscus. Ships. Arrowhead Gardens, Inc., 115 Boston Post Rd., Wayland, Mass. 01778. Extensive list of perennials, rock garden plants and others. Does not ship. Avalon Mountain Gardens, Dana, N.C. 28724. Extensive listings of perennials, wild flowers, and some Principally a woody plants. Ships. 5. Beersheba's Wild Flower Gardens, P.O. Box 551, Beersheba 6. 7. 8. 9. Springs, Pa. 37305. Mostly wild flowers, but list includes a few perennials suited to the border. Ships. Myron D. Bigger, 201 North Rice Rd., Topeka, Kan. 66616. Specializes in Peonies, many of which are Mr. Bigger's own named varieties. Also Hemerocallis. Ships. Blackthorne Gardens, 48 Quincy St., Holbrook, Mass. 02343. Specializes mostly in bulbs, but also lists some perennials, particularly Hosta. Ships. Brand Peony Farm, Box 36, Fourbault, Minn. 55021. Specializes in Peonies, Iris, and Lilacs. Ships. Bristol Nurseries, Inc., Bristol, Conn. 06101. Specializes in hardy Chrysanthemums. Extensive list. Ships. Brown's Sunnyhill Gardens, Route 3, Box 102, Milton-Freewater, Ore. 97862. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive list. Ships. Burge's Iris Garden, 1414 Amhurst, Denton, Tex. 76201. Specializes in Iris. Extensive list. Ships. W. Atlee Burpee Co., Box 6929, Philadelphia, Pa. 19132. The fall catalog, separate from the main seed catalog, lists bulbs and plants, including some perennials. Ships. Carroll Gardens, Westminster, Md. 21157. Extensive retail list of perennials of all kinds. Also herbs, ground covers, trees and shrubs. Separate wholesale list for 10. 11. 12. 13. perennials. Ships. 260I 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Garden Center, Inc., Boothbay Harbor, Me. 04538. General line of nursery stock, including perennials. These are mostly available at the garden center, only a few being included in the list of materials which can be shipped. The catalog has been very thoughtfully produced, and is a horticultural handbook in itself. The Conard-Pyle Co., Star Roses, West Grove, Pa. 19390. Specialists in Roses. Catalog also offers a selection of perennials. Ships. Cooley's Gardens, Silverton, Ore. 97381. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive, profusely illustrated color catalog $.50. Ships. P. Dejager & Sons, Inc., South Hamilton, Mass. 01982. Catalog primarily lists bulbous plants, but sometimes includes a few perennials. Ships. Dooley Gardens, R.R. 1, Hutchinson, Minn. 55350. Conley's - Specializes in Chrysanthemums. Ships. 20. Eden Road Iris Garden, P.O. Box 117, Wenatchee, Wash. 98801. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive profusely illustrated color catalog $.50. Ships. Emlong's Nurseries, Inc., Stevensville, Mich. 49127. Catalog of general nursery items including a few perennials. - 21. Ships. Englerth Gardens, Route 2, Hopkins, Mich. 49328. Specializes in Hosta, Hemerocallis, Siberian and Japanese Iris. Ships. Far North 48154. 22. Gardens, 14621 Auburndale Ave., Livonia, Mich. Specializes in extensive list. 23. Fowler's N.C. 27605. hardy Primroses, both plants and seed. Very Ships. Nursery, 4210 Fayetville Rd., P.O. Box 10324, Raleigh, 24. 25. trees and shrubs. Ships in the southern states only. Garden Place, 6780 Heisley Rd., Mentor, O. 44060. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds. This is the retail outlet for Springbrook Gardens, Inc. Ships. Gurney Seed & Nursery Co., Yankton, S.D. 57078. Catalog of general nursery items, includes some perennials. Perennials, bulbs, bedding plants, 26. 27. 28. 29. Ships. Hardy's Wildflower Nursery, Falls Village, Conn. 06031 Specializes in wild flowers and ferns. Some suited to the perennial border. Ships. Hi-Mountain Farm, Seligman, Mo. 65745. Extensive list of wild flowers and ferns. Many suited to the perennial border. Ships. Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Ia. 51644. Catalog of general nursery items. Lists some perennials. Ships. The Jamieson Valley Gardens, Jamieson Rd., R. 3, Spokane, Ruth Wash. 99203. Hardy perennials, alpines, plants. Catalog $1.00, free wild flowers and Western native with orders over $10.00. Ships. 261 30. 31. Kelly Brothers Nurseries, Inc., Dansville, N.Y. 14437. Catalog of general nursery items. Includes some perennials. Ships. Charles Klehm & Son, 2 East Algonquin Rd., Arlington Heights, Ill. 60005 in Peonies, especially the Estate Peonies developed Extensive list. Ships. Lamb Nurseries, E 101 Sharp Ave., Spokane, Wash. 99202. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds. Also rock garden plants, and some shrubs which combine well with perennials. Specializes at Klehm's. 32. Ships. 33. 34 35. 36. 37. 38. H. V. Lawrence, Inc., The Cape Cod Nurseries and Gardening Center, P.O. Drawer B, Falmouth, Mass. 02541. General nursery stock including perennials. Does not ship, but a good source for perennials on Cape Cod. (Apparently a catalog is no longer being published.) The Lehman Gardens, Faribault, Minn. 55021. Extensive listing of hardy garden Chrysanthemums. Ships. Lexington Gardens, 7007 Manchester Ave., Kansas City, Mo. 64133. Specializes in Hemerocallis. Extensive list. Ships. Mathews Iris Gardens, 201 Sunny Dr., College Place, Wash. 99324. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive list. Ships. Earl May Seed & Nursery Co., Shenandoah, Ia. 51603. Catalog of general nursery items and seeds. Lists some perennials. Ships. Melrose Gardens, 309 Best Rd., South, Stockton, Calif. 95206. Specializes in Iris of all types. Extensive lists Catalog $.35. 39. Ships. Mincemoyer Nursery, County N.J. 08527. Mission 60082. Line Rd. (Route 526), Jackson, 40. Perennials, wild flowers, herbs. Ships. Gardens, Highway 43 (Waukegan Rd.), Techny, Ill. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. Specializes in Peonies (both herbaceous and tree types), and Hemerocallis. Extensive lists. Ships. Mission Bell Gardens, 2778 West 5600 South, Roy, Ut. 84067. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive list. Ships. Moldovan's Gardens, 38830 Detroit Rd., Avon, O. 44011. Specializes in Iris, Hemerocallis, and Peonies. Ships. Orchid Gardens, Route 3, Box 224, Grand Rapids, Mich. 55744. Specializes in native plants, but lists some suited to the perennial border. Catalog $ 25. Ships. George W. Park Seed Co., Inc., Greenwood, S.C. 29647. A catalog, separate from the main seed catalog, lists supplies, bulbs and plants, including some perennials. Ships. Pellett Gardens, Atlantic, Ia. 50022. Specializes in plants which attract bees, but catalog also contains some plants useful in the perennial border. Ships. Putney Nursery, Inc., Putney, Vt. 05346. Good list of perennials. Also wild flowers, ferns, herbs, trees, shrubs, and vines. Ships. 262 47. David L. Reath, Box 251, Vulcan, Mich. 49892. Specialist in Peonies, both the herbaceous and tree types. Ships. 48. Richland Iris Productions Ltd., Richland Center, Wis. 53581. Extensive list of Iris, including Siberian and Japanese types. Ships. 49. 50. The Rock Garden, Litchfield-Hallowell Rd., RFD 2, Litchfield, Me. 04350. Extensive list of plants for the perennial border and the rock garden. Catalog states that listing may vary considerably every year. Ships. Savage Gardens, P.O. Box 163, McMinnville, Tenn. 37110. Supplier of wild flowers and ferns, some appropriate to the 51. perennial garden. Ships. Savory's Greenhouses, 5300 Whiting Avenue, Edina, 55435. Minn. 52. Specializes in Hosta. Extensive list. Ships. Schreiner's Gardens, 3625 Quinaby Rd., N.E., Salem, Ore. 97303. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Also Siberian and Spuria types. Extensive list. Catalog profusely illustrated in color. $.50. Ships. R. H. Shumway, Rockford, Ill. 61101. General catalog of seeds and plants. Some perennials. Ships. C. G. Simon Nursery, Inc., P.O. Box 2873, Lafayette, La. 70501. Specializes in Hemerocallis. Extensive list. Ships. Smith's Iris Gardens, 614 Bryden Ave., Box 483, Lewiston, Ida. 83501. Specializes in Bearded Iris. Extensive list. Ships. Southern Meadows Garden, 1424 South Perrine, Walnut Hill Rd., P.O. Box 230, Centralia, Ill. 62801. Extensive list of Bearded Iris and Hemerocallis. Ships. Sperka's Woodland Acres Nursery R2, Crivitz, Wis. 54114. Perennials and wildflowers. Ships. Spring Hill Nurseries, Tipp City, O. 45366. Catalog of general nursery items. Lists some perennials. 53. 54. 55. 56. 57. 58. Ships. 59. Stanek's Garden Center, East 2929 27th Ave., Spokane, Wash. 99203. General line of nursery stock, includes a list of perennials. Ships. 60. Stem's Nurseries, Inc., Geneva, N.Y. 14456. General line of nursery stock. List includes some perennials. $.35. Ships. 61. Alex J. Summers, 14 I. V. Willets Rd. W., Roslyn, N.Y. 11576. Specializes in Hosta. Extensive list. Minimum order $20.00. Catalog costs 62. Ships. Sunnyslope Gardens, 91775. 8638 Huntington Dr., San Gabriel, Calif. Specializes in Chrysanthemums garden varieties. Ships. 63. of all types including hardy Thomasville Nurseries, Inc., P.O. Box 7, Thomasville, Ga. 31792. Extensive listing of Hemerocallis. Ships. 263 64. 65. 66. Crystal Lake, Ill. 60014. Specializes in Chrysanthemums. Profusely illustrated color catalog. Ships. Top O' The Ridge, 100 NE 81st St., Kansas City, Mo. 64118. Extensive listing of Peonies and Iris. Ships. Thon's Garden Mums, 4815 Oak St., Martin Viette Nurseries, Northern Boulevard (25A), East Norwich, Long Island, N.Y. 11732. Probably the most extensive listing of perennials in this country. Exceptional lists of Astilbe, Hosta, ferns, grasses, herbs, Hemerocallis, Iris, Phlox, Paeonia. Does not ship. The Wayside Gardens Co., Mentor, O. 44060. Catalog costs $2.00 but price is refundable on orders over $15.00. May be worth the price for color pictures alone. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds, also trees, shrubs, and vines. Ships. Weston Nurseries, East Main St., Rte. 135, Hopkinton, Mass. 01748. Retail only, does not ship, but carries one of the most extensive selections of perennials in the Boston area. Also complete line of trees and shrubs. White Flower Farm, Litchfield, Conn. 06759. Extensive list of perennials, shrubs, bulbs, etc. Catalog published spring and fall costs $3.00 but price is refundable on orders totaling $15.00. Catalog is a handbook in itself and gives good descriptions and cultural directions. Ships. Gilbert H. Wild and Son, Inc., Sarcoxie, Mo. 64862. Specializes in Peonies, Bearded Iris, and Hemerocallis. Extensive lists. Catalog $1.00. Profusely illustrated in color. 67. 68. 69. 70. Ships. WHOLESALE NURSERY SOURCES FOR HERBACEOUS PERENNIALS (The following nurseries do not deal directly with the general public. Do not attempt to order plants from them. If a plant you wish to obtain is available only from one of these suppliers, have your local nurseryman order it for you.) A - Bluebird Nursery & Greenhouse, 515 Linden St., Clarkson, Neb. 68629. General list of herbaceous perennials. B - Bluemount Nurseries, Inc., 2103 Blue Mount Rd., Monkton, Md. 21111. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds, including ornamental grasses. C - Carroll Gardens, Westminster, Md. 21157. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds. Separate retail cataDE- log. Cunningham Gardens, Waldron, Ind. 46182. Chrysanthemums, ground cover plants, Clematis. Hauser's Superior View Farm, Bayfield, Wis. 54814. General list of perennials. Includes selection of named forms of Russell Hybrid Lupines. 264 Gardens, RR 1, Box 177, Palatine, Ill. 60067. General listing of perennials. G - The Joseph F. Martin Company, Inc., 1500 W. Jackson St., P.O. Box 189, Painesville, O. 44077. General list of perennials and ground covers. Extensive list of Chrysanthemums. H - Mount Arbor Nurseries, P.O. Box 129, Shenandoah, Ia. 51601. Primarily a grower of trees and shrubs, but offers a selection of herbaceous perennials, including Peonies. I Springbrook Gardens, Inc., 6776 Heisley Road, Mentor, O. F - Iverson Perennial - J K L M N 44060. Extensive list of perennials. Strictly wholesale, but Springbrook's retail mail order outlet is Garden Place. - Jack Vermeulen Nurseries, Route 1, Holland, Mich. 49423 or P.O. Box 296, Saugatuck, Mich. 49453. Perennials, ground covers, dwarf shrubs. - Walters Gardens Inc., P.O. Box 137, 96th Ave. at M-21, Zeeland, Mich. 49464. Extensive general list of perennials. - Weller Nurseries Company, P.O. Box 1111, Holland, Mich. 49423. Extensive list of perennials of all kinds. Particularly good list of Phlox. Also, ground covers and Clematis. - Dale Wild, Sarcoxie Nurseries, Inc., Peony Fields, P.O. Box. 306, Sarcoxie, Mo. 64862. Specializes in Peonies, Iris, and Hemerocallis. Extensive lists. - Yoder Brothers Inc., Barberton, O. 44203. Extensive catalog of Chrysanthemums and other plants for the commercial grower. In Mulch Display Beds at the Case Estates, 20 different mulches suitable for use in herbaceous or shrub borders are on view in small rectangular beds. In addition, many perennials that have not been included in the Low Maintenance Garden may be seen here. ~ - Low Maintenance Perennial Garden of the Arnold Arboretum at the Case Estates, Weston, Mass. Herbaceous perennials requiring a mmimal amount of maintenance have been selected with care for this garden. They are displayed in free-form beds among shrubs that have attractive shapes, colors, or textures, giving the garden interest at every season of the year. 266 Achillea 'Coronation Gold' 267 A SELECTION OF PERENNIALS AND THEIR SOURCES Acanthus in species our area Distributed by a few nurseries, but not without considerable winter protection. - hardy Achillea Yarrow, Milfoil, Sneezewort Daisy Family (Compositae) Some members of this genus of the Daisy family are easy to grow, will live on in spite of considerable neglect, and are very hardy. All adapt well to poor garden soils. In fact, average to poor soil somewhat on the dry side is best for them; rich or moist soil conditions promote weak growth and inferior flowers. The ability to withstand drought in open, sunny locations and the finely textured, pungent, fernlike foliage which remains in good condition throughout the growing season are other points in their favor. Never plant any of this group in the shade. Those called the Yarrows (mainly varieties of A. fclipendulina, A. millefolium, and A. 'Taygeta') blossom for several weeks, and the flowers are excellent for cutting or drying; but beware of the claim in catalogs that they \"bloom from June to the end of September.\" Recurrent flowering in this group is possible, but best results can only be achieved by faithful attention to the removal of the faded flowers to prevent seed formation. filipendulina (syn. A. eupatorium) - Femleaf Yarrow - Of value, but the named selections which follow have bigger, A. brighter flowers or are smaller in stature. The numerous small flowers of this group are yellow and are densely grouped in flattened saucer-shaped heads (corymbs) up to 4 to 6 inches across. The species grows to a height of 3 to 4 feet. Plants may require staking unless given full sun and dry soil, especially if grown in a windy place. The grayish leaves are dissected and fernlike; blossoms appear in late June to mid-July, with recurrent flowers until September. Very drought-resistant with no insect or disease problems. Fernleaf Yarrows should be divided in spring after the fourth year to maintain vigorous growth. They are effective when planted either singly or in a group of three, 10 to 12 inches apart. Sources: 3,4,46,68; L 268 filipendulina 'Gold Plate' - Largest and showiest of the group. Plants grow to 4 to 4'\/2 feet with corymbs up to 6 inches across. Flowers bright yellow. Essential to have in a relatively dry place and away from strong winds to avoid staking. Especially fine for cut flowers. Culture same as for the species. Space 12 to 15 inches apart or as a single specimen. A. Sources: 28,58,60 A. 'Coronation Gold' growing than A. require staking. Mustard-yellow flowers and pleasing, finely divided, gray-green leaves. Long succession of flowers if seed formation is prevented. Culture and spacing the same as for the species. Sources: 13,24,32,57,66,67,70C; I,J,K,L A. Lower (A. filipendulina X 'Clypeolata') filipendulina (2'\/> to 3 feet) and less likely to - 'Taygeta'- Lowest growing of the Yarrows recommended here, about 1' : feet. Handsome silvery leaves not as finely divided as those above. as same long period group of three, 10 to Sources: 24,66,69; B,L,T A. `Moonshine' - Flowers pale yellow, blooming over the the others. Culture the same; space in a 12 inches apart. Selected form of A. deeper, canary-yellow. Otherwise the Sources: 3,24,32,49,66,67,68,69; C,I,K 'Taygeta'. same. Flowers are a Milfoil or Common Yarrow - The species is weed of waste places and lawns where the soil is infertile; it is of questionable value in the perennial garden. The flowers are off-white. The selected forms which have flowers ranging from deep pink to rosy-red are, however, of interest, but must be placed second in value when compared to the usefulness of the varieties of A. filipendulina and A. 'Taygeta'. The flowers are borne in the same corymb-type inflorescence, but smaller to 2'\/~ to 3 inches across, and the leaves are finely divided. Plants are about 1% to 2 feet tall when in flower. Blossoming time is late June, July, and into September if the old flower heads are removed. These have a tendency to spread more than the other Yarrows; but if the soil is not rich, they cannot be classed as invasive. Full sun and a dry planting site are necessary. Somewhat ineffective as single specimens, they should be planted in groups of three about 12 inches apart, at the front of the garden. Staking will not be required, but division after the fourth year is recommended. A. millefolium - a common 269 A. millefolium 'Crimson Beauty' - Flowers rose-red. 18 inches tall. Sources: 13,66; C Flowers deep rose-red. This is probthe most handsome of the A. millefolium cultivars. 18 inches tall. Sources. 32,67,68,69 A. millefolium 'Fire King' - ably A. millefolium 'Red Beauty' - Flowers red. Plants 18 inches 24,39,66; B,I - tall. Sources. Achillea ptarmica Sneezewort - All varieties not recommended for low maintenance. Require division every other year, in some situations, annually to maintain the clumps in good condition. Become invasive if not restrained by division. Flowers excellent for cutting. Cultivars available include: A. ptarmica 'Angel's Breath' Sources: 24,66,67,68; I,J,K,L A. ptarmica 'Perry's Giant' Sources. 13, C A. ptarmica 'The Pearl' Sources. 3,24,43,46,69; - Double white flowers. Double white flowers. Double white flowers. I,L The following are sometimes listed by suppliers of but are better suited to the rock garden. perennials, A. ageratifolia - Greek Yarrow - Flowers white. Plants 2 to 4 inches tall. Sources. 66,69 A. - ageratifolia var. the Sources: 3,24; I Superior to aizoon (listed in catalogs as Anthemis aizoon) species. Flowers white. Plants 6 inches tall. A. tomentosa Woolly Yarrow - Bright canary-yellow flowers, woolly gray-green leaves. Plants 10 inches tall. Spreads very - rapidly. Sources: 3,13,24,39,66, C,I A. tomentosa `Moonlight' ers lighter yellow in color. Sources: 49,66 A. X - Less invasive than the species. Flow- 'King Edward' (A. clavenae X A. tomentosa) - Flowers, primrose-yellow; woolly, gray-green leaves Plants 8 inches tall Sources: 24, I 270 Aconitum napellus - Aconite Monkshood 271 Aconitnni Aconite, Monkshood, Wolf's Bane Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Plants which prefer to be left alone and yet do not outgrow their welcome must be considered valuable. When they also display attractive, glossy foliage throughout the season and provide conspicuous blue or purple flowers which are excellent for cutting, they deserve to be widely grown. Monkshoods qualify on all counts. Attention is focused from time to time on the poisonous nature of these plants. Although it is true that no portion should be eaten, it is unlikely that humans would find occasion to taste either the leaves or roots. The tuberous roots are particularly virulent and could be confused with Jerusalem Artichokes or other root vegetables, however. For this reason, Monkshoods never should be grown near the vegetable garden; it also would be prudent not to plant them in areas frequented by small children. Monkshoods are very hardy. They blossom in August and September, a time when most other plants with blue flowers have gone by, and the vertical effect, similar to that of Delphiniums, is particularly welcome. They require a fairly rich soil to which liberal amounts of compost have been added. If plants are grown in full sun, the soil must be moist, (not wet); drying out will check the growth and cause stunting. Aconites often do best in partial shade, or where they are exposed to full sun for only part of the day; however, they soon will decline in vigor if grown near trees providing root competition. Whatever the spot chosen, watering in really dry periods of the summer will be beneficial. Clumps are easily divided either in early spring or autumn, but the plants are slow to increase and can be left for many years before division for rejuvenation, or to relieve crowding, will be necessary. About the only fault that can be found is that some of the taller varieties will require staking to prevent toppling from winds or rain. If the proper conditions can be provided, Monkshoods possess so many other good traits that this can be tolerated in a low maintenance situation. Monkshoods are best seen as individual specimens planted about 2 feet from their nearest neighbors. According to variety, they are suited to the middle or rear of the border. 272 A. carmichaelii (syn. A. fischeri, the old name by which this is listed in catalogs) Azure Monkshood - Grows to 21\/ feet in sun and up to 31< feet in shade, and is one of the lower varieties. Flowers pale blue from mid-August to mid-September, on stems - strong enough to be self-supporting. Leaves large, smooth and lustrous, three-parted, with attractively divided segments. Sources: 3,13,24,32,69; C,I var. Wilsonii (syn. A. fischeri var. Wilsonii, the which it is listed in catalogs )- Tallest of the group, towering to 6 to 8 feet depending on location; must be staked, otherwise easily toppled by wind or rain. Best sited at rear of the border. Violet-blue flowers during most of the month of September. Sources: 24; I A. carmichaelii old name by Wilsonii 'Barker's Variety' Grows 4 to 5 feet, and requires staking. An excellent color form, bright violetblue or amethyst-blue flowers from late August to mid-SeptemA. carmichaelii var. - ber. Sources: 24,69; I Aconite Monkshood - Flowers may be variable napellus from blue to violet. Has probably the most attractive, finely divided foliage of the group. Plants 3?!> to 4 feet in height and may require some staking. Blossoms earlier than most in August and early September. This is said to be the most poisonous A. - species. Sources: 4,32,57 A. Considered to be better than the species napellus var. bicolor because of the two-toned appearance of the flowers. Outer edges are bright blue and fade to white in the center. Leaves as finely divided as the species. Plants 31\/~ to 4 feet tall and may re- quire staking. Source: 32 A. napellus 'Spark's Variety' 3 to 4 feet Flowers deep violet-blue, on spikes tall; they appear in August and last well into Septem- ber. are Secondary spikes extend likely to require staking. 13,24,46,69; C,I the flowering season, but plants Sources: 273 Ladybells, Garland Bellflower Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae) A much underrated genus of the Campanula family. The plants closely resemble the Campanulas or Bellflowers and to a non-botanist are virtually indistinguishable. The following appears to be the only species presently offered by dealers in Adenophora perennials. Native to confusa (usually listed in catalogs as A. farreri) China. Flowers deep blue on 30-inch spikes for a relatively long time in July and August. Highly resents division or disturbance of any sort, is long-lived and very hardy. Quite sturdy and will not require staking. Does poorly in a dry soil and requires full sun. Plant at the middle of the border, either singly or in groups of three spaced 12 inches apart. I Sources: 24,69; A. - Aethionema Mustard Frequently seen in catalogs which feature suited to hot, dry areas of the rock garden. Stonecress Family (Cruciferae) perennials, but best Ajuga Bugle, Bugleweed Mint Family (Labiatae) Numerous varieties are offered, but are not recommended for the herbaceous border as they spread rapidly and soon become invasive especially in the lawn where they are a great nuisance. - Lady's Mantle Rose Family (Rosaceae) This is a low growing plant suitable for the front of the border and does equally well in sun or in partial shade. It does not like dry soils, but otherwise is undemanding. Although not outstanding, the yellowish-green or chartreuse flowers in July on stems to 18 inches are interesting and unusual subjects, either fresh or dried in small bouquets. The palmately-lobed, 3 to 4-inch-wide leaves are handsome throughout the growing season. They are somewhat hairy and rounded, and the lobes are creased like the segments of a fan. vulgaris Alchemilla 274 Clumps will last in good condition for many years, but by the third or fourth year will have enlarged sufficiently so that division for purposes of increase is possible, either in early spring or autumn. For best effect, plant in groups of at least three, spaced 10 inches apart. Larger groupings are effective as ground cover. Sources: 24,69; I Too diminutive for the perennial garden, but a A. alpina choice subject in the rock garden. Grows to a height of 4 to 6 inches. Sources: 49,57 - ~ Althaea rosea Hollyhock Hibiscus Family (Malvaceae) Although Hollyhocks are short-lived perennials (often best treated as biennials), they seed in so easily that plantings almost always perpetuate themselves. This tendency may make them unsuitable for well-groomed formal gardens, but most low maintenance situations should have a plant or two. Demonstrating their permanence is a spot in the Arnold Arboretum at the far side of Bussey Hill where the old Bussey Mansion once stood; the building was torn down over thirty years ago and today a mound of earth remains which is crowned in summer with Hollyhocks, and in spring with Snowdrops and Crocuses. All that is required for successful cultivation of Hollyhocks is a well-drained soil of average fertility, and a site in full sun Seedlings in unwanted places are easily controlled if discarded when young. The main enemy of Hollyhocks in our area is the Japanese Beetle. Also, Hollyhock rust is frequently a problem. This is a fungus disease which produces large orange spore cases on the leaves. A combination of these two problems produces very unsightly foliage and is the principal reason that Hollyhocks should be used sparingly. Hollyhocks attain heights of 5 to 8 feet, and thus are suitable for the rear of the sunny garden. The flowers are borne all along the tall spikes and appear in July and August. They may be either single or double. The doubles seed just as freely as the singles, but after several years they will revert to single-flowered types. It is perhaps easier, and certainly less expensive, to start a Hollyhock planting from seeds, but most all the varieties are obtainable as started plants from the usual mail order sources. A. rosea - single-flowered forms - The these in a mixture of colors yellow and white, etc. Sources: 3,39,68,69, E following sources list including red, pink, apricot, copper, Hollyhock leaves disfigured by Japanese Beetles and Hollyhock Rust disease. - -----~ -- - ~ j list these in A. rosea - double forms - The following sources separate colors. Sources: 28,46,66; C,E,F,J A. rosea - double forms - The following sources list these in a mixture of colors Sources: 24,25,28,30,60,69, C,I or The following flowers. A. are named strains cultivars, all having double Full range of colors. Chaters Hybrids rosea 'Chaters Double' also include single-flowered forms, but they seldom are available from nurseries. Sources: 14,23,58,68; A,B,E,K,L - A. rosea 'Newport Pink' Sources: 24,60; E,I - Double pink flowers. 277 A. rosea 'Pompadour' Another double strain including all the range of colors. Petals tend to be crinkled, with a single row of outer petals surrounding the usual double \"half-ball\" of petals. Source: 67 - A. longer `Powderpuff Hybrids' Very double flowers, often with flower spikes than the 'Chaters Double' forms. Sources: 3,14,24,28,68,69, A,I rosea - Alyssum saxatile Basket-of-Gold, Goldentuft Alyssum, Madwort Mustard Family (Cruciferae) seen in rock gardens displaying its bright yellow 12-inch stems in April or early May, Goldentuft Alyssum can be recommended for low maintenance borders only if the soil is dry and approximates rock garden conditions Plants assume a coarse, sprawling habit in response to rich or moist soils, or shady conditions. It is best to encourage new growth by cutting back the stems to about half their length after flowering. If Alyssum saxatile is to be used in the herbaceous border, the two compact varieties discussed below should be given preference. They are best seen at the very front of the garden in groups of two or three planted 10 to 12 inches apart. Sources: 14,23,37,39,46,54,67 Commonly on blossoms Flowers A. saxatile 'Citrinum' with the silvery leaves. Sources: 3,13,66,69, B,C,J,K - lemon-yellow, contrasting well A. saxatile 'Compactum' - Neater, slower growing than the species, and will not require division for a number of years. Flowers the same bright yellow as the species, contrasting well with the silver foliage. Sources: 3,13,66,67,68,69; A,B,C,J,K,L 'Compactum Flora-plena' (frequently listed as A. saxaDouble-flowered compact form; flowers Plena') brighter yellow than the preceding cultivar, but not produced as freely as in the species. A. saxatile tile 'Flora - Sources: 13,32,66,67,69; C A. saxatile 'Silver Queen' Lemon-yellow flowers which attractive against the silvery leaves. Source: 68 - are most Althaea Bruns. rosea state at the The single form of Hollyhock growing in a nearly wild far side of Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: P. - 278I Amsonia tabernaemontana Amsonia, Willow Amsonia Dogbane Family (Apocynaceae) An American plant native from Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas, this has been neglected by gardeners and yet is one of the easiest plants to grow. Amsonia is very hardy, insect and disease-resistant, slowgrowing and never invasive. It does almost equally well in moist or dry soils, is easily transplanted in spring or fall, never needs staking, does well in full sun or partial shade (perhaps a little better with some shade), and the foliage remains in excellent condition throughout the growing season. The tough stems are quite resistant to wind and the plant will thrive in seaside gardens. Few plants possess so many virtues, so perhaps Amsonia may be excused if it is not the showiest plant in the border when in blossom. The clusters of small star-shaped flowers appear for weeks at the end of May and into June and are an attractive steel-blue color, quite unlike the blue of any other perennial except some varieties of Echinops. Plants grow to a height of 2 to 3 feet and form clumps about 1',!~ to 2 feet wide. Because they do not produce a great show of color, they are best seen as single specimens or small groups near the front or toward the middle of the border. Clumps remain in good condition for many years so division, except for purposes of increase, is unnecessary. Another native species, A. salicifolia, is quite similar in appearance and also may be in the trade listed as A. tabernaemontana. Sources: 1,3,24,49,57,66,69; I (Source number 66 lists an early and a late flowering form as well as the species.) two A. citiata Even less frequently grown than A. tabernaemontana, but equally worthy. Much lower growing, to 18 inches. Source: 50 - Anaphalis yedoensis more Japanese Pearly Everlasting Daisy Family (Compositae) This is a close relative of our own native A. margaritacea, but suitable for the perennial garden. The pearly white, button-like flowers are profusely borne in clusters 2 inches wide on 2-foot stems. They are conspicuous from mid-July until 279 September, and both the flowers and silver foliage are excellent for cutting and drying. Plants are of a compact, bushy habit. They will grow in any well-drained soil in full sun, and are particularly useful in hot or dry areas. Best at the front of the garden, they will hold their own as single specimens or in groups of three planted about 10 inches apart. Division usually is required after the fourth year. Sources: 24,67; I Anchusa azurea (syn. A. italica) Italian Alkanet, Italian Bugloss Borage Family (Boraginaceae) Beautiful but demanding, some plants are best admired in other people's gardens; perhaps Italian Bugloss is such a plant. It blooms for a long period and has flowers of true-blue, a color which is always welcome. Not particular as to soil, it must be well watered in periods of drought. Plants grow from 4 to 6 feet tall and require no staking, but are coarse and bristly; after flowering, the foliage becomes very unattractive. A secondary, lesser blooming period is encouraged if the plants are cut back. They invariably start to deteriorate after the second year (sometimes the first), and must be divided. They also have a very bad habit of seeding in all over, a distinct nuisance, especially if the garden is small. Source: 66 The following prone to equally A. varieties all seeding in: - require frequent division and growing variety, about 1 to are azurea 'Little John' Lowest 11\/~ feet, deep blue flowers. Sources: 24,69; I A. over 'Loddon 3 feet. Sources: 66,67 azurea Royalist' - Another good blue variety. Not A. azurea 'Pride of Dover' Flowers medium blue. others requires staking; height 4 feet. Source: 69 - Unlike the A. azurea 'Royal Blue' (also listed as 'Dropmore Royal Blue') Smaller in stature; to 3 feet. Large deep gentian-blue flowers. Sources: 13,24,69, C,I - Anchusa mysotidiflora This is the old name for a most valuable garden plant; it still is listed this way in most catalogs. See Brun- nera macrophylla. 280 Anemone X hybrida cultivar 281 Anemone X hybrida Japanese Anemone Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Anemones are a large garden group. Some belong in the general category of bulbous plants; others are for rock or wildflower gardens. The varieties of A. X hybrida (mainly A. hupehensis var. japonica selections) and one variety of A. vitifolia - the Grape-leaved Anemone - are of interest in this discussion. We hesitate to give them unqualified approval, for in our area they will not be hardy if the proper circumstances cannot be provided. If they can, these Anemones will reward the gardener for many years without much further attention. So, although most of the group cannot be recommended for low maintenance situations, we would suggest that you try a plant or two if your conditions approximate those described. If you succeed for three years, you ought to try more. Anemones require a rich soil well supplied with humus, but it must be very well drained. Partial shade is recommended for best performance but plants will often tolerate exposure to full sun. If the soil dries out in summer, irrigation should be provided. The worst enemy in winter is an overly wet soil; this, more than anything else, will lessen the plants' ability to survive the dormant season. In the Boston area, a winter mulch of straw, oak leaves, or evergreen boughs is advisable, but not until the ground is thoroughly frozen. Set out potted plants in the spring so they will have sufficient time to become established before winter. The Japanese and Grape-leaved Anemones blossom in white or shades of pink from late summer to mid-autumn. The handsome dark green leaves are deeply lobed and on established specimens form dense mounds up to 2 feet wide The flowering stems reach a height of 2 to 3 feet depending upon variety. The plants increase slowly in size and require several years to form full-sized clumps. When circumstances are to their liking, they will remain in good condition for many years and dislike being disturbed. Best seen in groups of three, they may be planted about ll~z feet apart. A. X hybrida 'Alba' Single white flowers 2 to 3 inches across, with only one ring of petals. Sources: 13,24,32,66,67,68, B,C,I - - A. X hybrida'Max Sources: 24, I Vogel' - Semidouble, rose-pink. A. X hybrida `Prince Source: 32 Henry' - Large double, deep purplish-pink. A. X hybrida 'Profusion'- Semidouble somewhat dwarf, about 2 feet. Source: 67 A. X deep rose-pink. Plants hybrida'Queen Charlotte' - Semidouble Sources: 24,32,58,66, I deep pink. 282 A. X Hybrida 'September Charm' - Single silvery-pink shaded rose-mauve. Sources: 13,24,32,66,67, B,C,I A. X hybrida 'September Sources: 13; C A. X hybrida 'Whirlwind' Sources: 13,32,66,68, C A. hupehensis var. Sources: 66,68 Sprite' - Single rose-pink. - Semidouble white. japonica - Flowers rose-pink to purple. - Anemone pulsatilla (or, properly, Pulsatilla vulgaris) Pasque Flower - Listed by many suppliers of perennials, but is better suited to the rock garden). vitifolia `Robustissima' - Grape-leaved Anemone - This is the hardiest of the autumn Anemones. Plants have survived in the Low Maintenance Garden of the Arnold Arboretum with only minimal winter protection and where the soil was too moist for other varieties. Very similar in appearance to the Japanese types and very free-blooming with light pink flowers. Sources: 13,24,66,67; C,I A. Antennaria Pussy toes, Cat's-Ear Daisy Family (Compositae) Diminutive plants of the Daisy family, well-suited to the rock or for planting between paving stones, however, of little value in the perennial border. garden Anthemis tinctoria Golden Marguerite, Golden or Ox-Eye Camomile Daisy Family (Compositae) Unfortunately, this plant and its several cultivars cannot be considered for low maintenance situations. They require division every other year or clumps will tend to develop a dead area in the center. Most all varieties require staking as well, otherwise, this is a fine plant for hot, dry areas with sandy soil where most other plants fail. In such situations it will thrive and produce masses of flowers in July, continuing until September if the faded blossoms are removed. The yellow flowers are Daisy-like and make excellent subjects for cutting; the leaves are aromatic. Golden Marguerite grows to about 21\/> feet. Sources: 46; E 283 A. tinctoria 'Beauty of Grallagh' - Deep golden-yellow flowers on bushy, 21\/~ Source: 32 to 3-foot plants. - A. tinctoria 'E. C. Buxton' Source: 32 A. tinctoria 'Kelwayi' Sources: 68,69; B,J,L Lemon-yellow flowers. 21\/z feet. 2 feet. Deep yellow. - Pale yellow. A. tinctoria `Moonlight' Sources: 13,24,32,57,58,66,67; C,I Other types offered: A. biebersteiniana - Flowers den plant. 10 to 12 inches. Sources: 66,68 A. bright yellow. Best as a rock gar- sancti-johannis - inches across, Source: B bright St. John's Camomile. - Flowers 11!> to 2 orange. Same uses as A. tinctoria. 2~\/ feet. Aquilegia apt Columbine Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Unless one can provide excellent drainage, Columbines are to be transitory in nature and of no value to those who have little time to continuously replace plants. We cannot disregard them altogether, though, for if they find conditions to their liking, they seed in on their own and seedlings in unwanted places are not difficult to control. Many of the popular long-spurred cultivars possess a decided tendency to degenerate into all sorts of \"mongrels\" when seeding occurs. Columbines have another bad feature which must be taken into consideration if space is limited. Often they suffer from leaf miners, insects which eat their way through the tissues of the leaves and produce characteristic \"tunnels.\" These pests are difficult to control, and when the flowers are gone, one is left with a not-too-beautiful display of debilitated foliage. There are a large number of species and cultivated strains from which to choose. The Alpine sorts are difficult and should be avoided by the novice. A. 'Mrs. Scott Elliot' and A. 'McKanna's Giants' are old favorites of vigorous growth and fairly easy culture. Flowers appear in late May and June, and, depending upon variety, are between 1?!~ to 4 inches across, mainly in shades of red, yellow, pink, white, blue, or lavender. The sepals, which surround the five true petals (arranged like a cup), may be the same color, or contrast in color, to the petals. A spur varying in length from ~\/Z-inch to 6 inches is attached to the back of each petal. Culture is fairly simple. As mentioned above, good drainage is a necessity, but plants will not tolerate an overly dry soil. Leaves of Columbine marred by leaf miners. Either full sun or light shade is satisfactory, but a shady condition will prolong the flowering season somewhat. Leaf miner can be controlled to some degree by spraying with Malathion in early and mid-May; however, we recommend that all affected plants be removed and burned. A selection of the many varieties available includes: A. chrysantha Golden Columbine - Native to the Rocky Mountains and the Southwest. Shades of yellow. Long spurs. Flowers 2 to 3 inches across. Plants 3 feet high. Sources: 3,24,46,68,69; I,L - A. chrysantha 'Silver Queen' A white-flowered selection of the above. Flowering season is longer than most of the others. Sources: 3,69 - A. coerulea the Colorado Columbine - Another species native to Rocky Mountains; the State Flower of Colorado. Blue sepals, - 285 creamy-white petals, slender spurs 11\/~ inches feet tall. Quite short-lived in hot locations. Sources: 3,24; I A. long. Plants 21~ Fan Columbine - From Japan. White flowers tinged with lavender-rose in late April, and light green foliage. 15 inches high. Source: 4 flabellata - A. flabellata 'Nana Alba' - Good dwarf form of the above with pure white flowers. 6 inches high and suited to the very front of the border. Frequently used in rock gardens. Sources: 3,4,68 A. 'Copper Queen' I Sources: 24; - Flowers copper-red. Long crimson- - A. `Crimson Star' Petals white, tinged with red. red sepals and spurs. Sources: 3,4,24,32,37,68,69; I,K,L - A. 'Dragonfly Hybrids' - Includes the normal range of colors. are Flowers long-spurred. B,E,I,K Plants semidwarf, to 18 inches. Sources: 4,24,68; The most popular strain. An AllA. 'McKanna's Giant Hybrids' American Seed Trial winner in 1955. Extensive color range, very sturdy growth. The large flowers have spurs 4 inches and more long. 21\/> to 3 feet tall. Sources: 4,13,14,23,24,25,28,30,32,37,46,53,58,66,68,69; A,B,C, - E,F,G,I,J,K,L A. 'Mrs. Scott Elliot Hybrids' - Now of somewhat lesser value than the preceding, but used to be the standard varieties. Flowers somewhat smaller, but the colors tend to be deeper and range through shades of crimson, purple, blue, and pink. 21\/z to 3 feet tall. Sources: 25,53; J,L Pure white A. 'Rose Queen' Sources: 3,32,37,69; K,L - petals, rose-colored sepals. Arabis to hot Many types offered by dry areas in rock gardens. Rock Cress, Wall Cress Mustard Family (Cruciferae) dealers in perennials, but best suited Arenaria Sandwort Carnation Family (Coryophyllaceae) Mat-forming plants, some almost mosslike in appearance. Best suited to the rock garden; sometimes used as ground covers. 286 Armeria Thrift, Sea-Pink Leadwort Family (Plumbaginaceae) Most members of this group are traditional rock garden subjects, but they may also be of value at the very front of the border if the proper soil conditions can be provided. They all possess neat, compact tufts of evergreen foliage. A. maritima and its cultivars are very low-growing, mat-forming plants useful where the soil is poor and dry. Rich or overly moist soil conditions will cause the mats to rot at the centers and become unsightly after about the second year. The varieties of A. plantaginea and A. psezidoarmeria are taller, to 2 feet, and find suitable positions a bit further back from the front. All have globular heads of flowers. The basic shade is pink; some are intense pink. All varieties may be left in place until the clumps begin to deteriorate, normally after the fourth year. They all should be given a position in full sun with sharp drainage at the roots. A. maritima Forms dense, roundSea-Pink, Common Thrift ed mats 3 to 4 inches tall, about 1'!> feet wide, and has blossom stems up to 10 inches. Flowers light pink to rose-pink; the species is somewhat variable. Sources: 14,68 - A. maritima var. alba - The white-flowered form of the above It is considered Sources: 24,66,67,69; I species. quite choice. A. maritima `Brilliant' - Bright pink. - Sources: 32,66 A. maritima 'Laucheana' Plants very tufted, to 6 inches tall. Flowers intense rose-pink in dense heads. Sources: 13,24,39,66,67,69; B,C,I,J,L A. maritima 'Vindictive' - Deep rosy-red. - Sources: 24; I A. Cultivar of Plantain Thrift 11~~ to 2 feet when in flower. Blossoms bright ruby-red Taller, in June and July. Effective when massed as a group of three or plantaginea 'Bee's Ruby' to more planted about a foot apart. Sources: A. 13,24,66; C,I pseudoarmeria 'Glory of Holland' ball Thrift (usually Cultivar of Giant or Pinklisted under the old species name A. cephal- Armeria maritima - At the very front of the border, this five-year-old men has been effectively combined with Coral Bells and Peonies. speci- otes) - To 2 feet when in blossom. Flower heads large, deep pink. Sources: A. A,J,K,L - 'Royal Rose' Source: 67 7 Rich pink flowers on 15-inch stems. Artemisia Artemisia, Wormwood, Mugwort Daisy Family (Compositae) Silver or gray foliage can be used in the perennial border in number of ways, either to provide notes of accent or as a contrast to such colors as blue, red, pink, or yellow. In our area, for really reliable gray foliage plants, we must depend upon the Artemisias. Even of this large group, for low maintenance situations we can recommend only two: one short, a 288I and one tall. In addition to the gray foliage, all of the group have finely divided aromatic foliage. Flowers are yellowish or white, and insignificant for the most part. The plants perform best in light, well-drained soils, even infertile ones; all should be planted in full sun. Southernwood, Old Man - This is actually a slender shrub since the stems are woody. It grows from 3 to 5 feet tall depending on the fertility of the soil and is suited to the middle or rear of the border. The leaves are grayish-green, much divided and pleasantly aromatic. Plant Southernwood singly or, for strong accents, in groups of three, about 1?feet apart. Division is not necessary, but cutting back from time to time may be required to keep plants vigorous. Sources: 13,24,32,39,46,69; C,I A. abrotanum - Angels Hair This has become listed in catalogs of perennials. popular plants It grows to a height of 12 inches and forms a rounded mound about 1?_ feet in diameter. The bright silvery foliage is of the greatest value in border foregrounds. If A. 'Silver Mound' is planted in too rich a soil, growth is lush and the mound of foliage flops and opens in the center; therefore, it would be best to use this plant where hot, sunny conditions prevail and soil conditions are relatively poor. Sources: 3,13,14,20,24,25,28,30,39,46,49,58,59,66,67,68,69; A, A. schmidtiana 'Silver Mound' one - of the most B,C,G,H,I,J,K,L All the following needed. plants are are of value in our area when silver-foliaged They require frequent division, usually on an annual basis, vasive. or some will deteriorate and others will become in- A. absinthicum Wormwood - 2 to 4 feet tall. and silky. Spreads quickly. Sources: 13,24,39; C,I - Leaves white A. albula 'Silver King' (frequently listed in catalogs as 'Silver 2 to King,' rather than by the species name) - Ghost plant 3 feet tall. Silvery-gray leaves. Sources: 13,14,24,25,32,39,59,66,67,68; B,C,I,K,L - A. albula 'Silver Queen' - Similar to the preceding, but the leaves are more Source: 66 glistening, intense silver. Artemisia schmidtiana 'Silver Mound' - The distinctive shape and finely textured foliage (shown below) can be used for effective accents in front of taller growing perennials or shrubs. 290I A. frigida Fringed Sagewort to 12 inches tall. Sources: 13,32,49; A,C - Silvery leaves, deeply cut. 8 A. lactiflora - White Mugwort - 4 feet tall. Fine-textured leaves. About the only Artemisia valued for its flowers which are creamy-white in August and September. Sources: 13,24,32,49; C,I A. stelleriana Beach Wormwood, Dunesilver, Dusty Miller, Old Woman - Native along our coast. Beautiful silvery-white leaves. Plants about 2 feet tall. Sources: 13,14,24,32,46,66,68,69; C,I - Aruncus sylvester Goats-Beard Rose Family (Rosaceae) This is a very desirable subject for the rear of the border, especially in low maintenance situations, and it is strange that it is so infrequently offered by nurserymen. Resembling a giant Astilbe, its attractive compound foliage is topped with large, showy plumes of white flowers in mid-June. We emphasize that this is a large plant. It grows to 5 feet tall with a spread of over 3 feet; but despite the height, staking is not required. Tolerant of a wide range of soil conditions, it can be grown almost anywhere. In situations away from the border, Goats-Beard could compete with shrubbery in the landscape. It deserves to be more popular. Sources: 29,66 Similar to the species except that it has finely-cut foliage and is therefore more graceful in appearance. Unfortunately we are unable to locate a mail-order A. - sylvester 'Kneiffii' more source. Source: 66 Asclepias tuberosa Butterfly Weed, Pleurisy Root Family (Asclepiadaceae) This should be tried in every garden where the soil is poor or sandy and dry, particularly if a place in full sun can be given. This native American is hardy and showy in flower, has a long Milkweed life, will sease never outgrow its allotted space, has and once no insect no or dias problems, established requires almost atten- tion. This is the type of description we immediately suspect tuberosa - Asclepias Butterfly Weed 292 \"phony\" in advertisements for some a plants, or encourage Butterfly sults should be expected. It grows from 2 to 3 feet tall with hairy stems and leaves which are pointed. The orange flowers in midsummer are borne in umbels and last for about two weeks. They are followed by the typical Milkweed-type pods which are attractive in dried Weed with rich but if you do not moist soil, excellent re- arrangements. Butterfly Weed develops a tap root, so once established it is very difficult to move. Young potted plants obtained from nurseries may be planted either in the spring or autumn. They are slow to start in the spring so careful cultivation will be necessary until the new growths appear; division is not recommended. Sources: 1,3,5,7,13,14,24,25,27,29,30,39,46,57,58,60,66,67,68, 69; A,B,C,I,J,K,L Aster Hardy Aster, Michaelmas Daisy, Starwort Daisy Family (Compositae) - The requirement of annual division for some, and every other year for most of the rest, removes this large and valuable group from most low maintenance borders even though the plants are easy to grow otherwise. Because Asters are of great value from late summer to late autumn, and particularly because they are much easier than Chrysanthemums, many gardeners certainly will wish to have a few varieties. Long admired in Europe, particularly in Britain, Asters have not always been as popular here probably because the parents are common \"weeds\" along our roadsides. In fact, A. novae-angliae the New England Aster, A. novae-belgii, the New York Aster, and A. ericoides, the Heath Aster are the principal parents of the modern cultivars, although a few other species are involved. Apart from frequent division, culture is fairly simple: spring is the best time for planting; full sun and a well-drained, light soil are best; ordinary fertility will do. In humid summers, the leaves of some cultivars are susceptible to mildew and rust diseases. Height, according to variety, ranges from under a foot to about 6 feet. Those over 2 feet may require staking. This is best done in the European manner by placing twiggy branches 21!> to 3 feet high (4 feet for the taller sorts) amongst the plants while the growth is still low. As the plants grow, these twigs will provide support, but will be largely hidden by the foliage. - The able : following is but a sampling of the many varieties avail- A. 'Autumn Glory' Sources: 13,67; C - Rich red. 31!> to 4 feet tall. 293 A. 'Countess of Dudley' - Clear pink. 9 to 12 inches tall. Sep- tember. Sources 68; K A. 'Crimson Brocade' - Crimson-red. 3 feet tall. Sources: 24,59,67,69; I A. 'Eventide' Deep violet-blue. 3i\/ feet tall. Sources: 3,13,28,32,58,59,66,67,68,69, C,H,K - A. 'Finalist' Strong violet-blue. 2? ~ to 3 feet tall. flowering, October to mid-November. Source: 67 - Very late A. X frikartii 'Wonder of Stafa'(usually listed as A. frikartii [sic.], this is a hybrid between A. thomsonai and A. amellus ) - Bears lavender-blue flowers from July to October, even during periods of drought. In our area frequently requires the protection of a wmter mulch to be hardy, especially if the soil is at all wet; usually needs staking too. Sources: 3,13,14,24,32,44,58,59,60,66,67,68,69; B,C,G,I 'Harrington's Pink' - Pure pink, mid-September blooming. 4 feet tall. Requires less frequent division; probably would be one of the best for a low maintenance situation. Sources: 3,13,24,59,66,68,69, B,C,I,L A. A. 'Patricia Ballard' Fully double, young has a yellow \"eye\" in the center 3 feet tall. September to October. Sources: 32,59,67,68,69; H,K - pink; as when flowers are do the other varieties. A. 'Violetta' Rich habit. September. Sources: 67,68 - deep blue. 2 to 3 feet tall with a rounded A. 'White to Lady' - Good pure white. 2 to 3 feet tall. September October. Source: 68 A. 'Ypres' Source: 68 - Rosy-pink. 11!~ feet tall. September. Astilbe Astilbe, Astilbes have become waterside plantings, and thrive where soils are rich and moist in the summer. Their main enemy, however, is a wet soil in winter. The plants are heavy feeders and exhaust the soil around them, hence they may need to be divided at frequent intervals (every three years) if maximum flowering is to be ob- Spiraea, False Goat's Beard Saxifrage Family (Saxifragaceae) an almost indispensable feature of False 294 tained. The roots are shallow so at planting time it is not necessary to re-work the soil deeply, but ample amounts of fertilizer and organic matter should be added. In a low maintenance situation, Astilbes may remain for much longer than three years before they are divided. The flower spikes will not be as large, or the plants as vigorous, but an acceptable display still can be had, especially if they receive a top dressing of a 5-10-10 fertilizer each spring. Best in partial shade, the plants may be situated in full sun if the soil does not dry out easily. The flowers themselves are very small, but are displayed in June and July in dense, erect or arching panicles about 2 feet tall. There is a wide range of colors, often in vivid pastel hues, from purple to red, pink, or white. Foliage ranges in color from green to bronzy green and is dissected and decidedly attractive. Many of the cultivars are classified under the general name A. X arendsii and result from the breeding efforts of George Arends of Ronsdorf, Germany, who crossed several species and produced a dazzling array of colors. The following is but a selection of the many available types: 18 inches. A. `Avalanche' - White. Deeply cut, dark green foliage. Sources: 24,32,69; I,L - A. chinensis var. pumiLa - Dwarf Chinese Astilbe Very dwarf, only 6 to 8 inches. Unlike the others, has a creeping habit and blooms in August. Flowers lavender-pink. Sources: 13,32,49,66; C - A. `Deutschland' Pure white. 24 inches. Sources: A. 24,58,66,67,68,69; B,I,L - Clear pink. 1'to 2 feet. 'Europa' Sources: 66,68,69; B A. `Fanal' Foliage dark green. dark reddish- Deep garnet-red. 1?feet. green. Sources: 13,23,25,58,66,68,69; C,L - Foliage A. `Irrlicht' Sources: A. `lVlainz' Pure white. 1? ~ to 2 feet. 13,49,66,68; C - Deep rose. I,J 18 to 20 inches. Sources: 24,49,68; j 295 Astilbe X arendsii `Deutschland'. Photo. P. Bruns. 296 A. `Montgomery' - Deep red. 2 feet. Sources: 20,24,49,66; B,I,L - A. `Peach Blossom' Pale peach-pink. 30 inches. Sources: 13,24,25,58,66,68,69; C,I,L A. 'Queen Alexandra' Sources: 3,49,68; L A. 'Red Sentinel' - Soft rose. 2 to 2?feet. Rich, intense red. 2 feet. Sources: 3,13,66,67,68,69; B,C,J,L - A. 'Rheinland' Carmine-pink. B,I,J,L 2 to 21\/~ feet. Sources: 24,32,67,69; Blue or False Indigo Pea Family (Leguminosae) It has been suggested that our native B. australis might be desirable for those who have difficulties with Delphiniums and Lupines. If grown specifically for this purpose, it may prove to be a rather poor substitute; but the plant is of value in many other ways. It does not require a rich soil, has no serious insect or disease problems, will live on for a number of years in one spot, and will not become invasive. It is tolerant of full sun or partial shade. The indigo-blue flowers are borne in terminal racemes on stems 3 to 4 feet in height. After flowering in June, attractive inflated black pods develop which are as handsome on the plants as they are in dried arrangements. Baptisia australis is also a member of that group whose foliage remains in good condition all summer. Although the plants are tall and suited to the middle or rear of the border, they will not require staking. One author has suggested that this may be just the plant for the person who says, \"I can't grow a single thing.\" Sources: 3,4,13,24,45,46,58,66,67,68,69; C,I Baptisia australis Blackberry Lily, Leopard Flower Iris Family (Iridaceae) Often described as not reliably hardy in colder regions, this somewhat unusual member of the Iris clan is perfectly hardy in Boston in our experience; in fact it has escaped and formed Belamcanda chinensis 297 colonies in the wild in some parts of New England. In Western Massachusetts or northern New England it will require the protection of a mulch in winter. This plant seems to have been much more popular in bygone days; it deserves a comeback. Out of flower, the plant resembles a large Iris, about 3 feet in height. The flat, star-shaped, 2-inch flowers are orange spotted with red, an exotic combination for northern gardens. They appear in late July and August on stems 3 to 4 feet tall. Also interesting are the shiny black clusters of seeds which somewhat resemble a raspberry in shape and appear after the seed pods burst. These persist for a long time and are useful in winter dried arrangements. Self-seeding may occur, but young plants are easily removed if not wanted. Culture is simple. A place in the sun and well-drained soil are about the only requirements; soggy soil conditions in winter may prove fatal. About the only insect problem is caused by the Iris Borer which may occasionally attack the fleshy rhizomes. For control, see Iris. Blackberry Lilies do not lend themselves well to mass effects; they are seen best as single specimens placed somewhere between the front and the middle of the border. Division will not be necessary for a number of years. Sources: 1,4,25,27,39,58,69; B Bergenia Bergenia, Megasea, Pig Squeak Saxifrage Family (Saxifragaceae) Bergenias have uses in many garden situations due to their tolerance of a wide variety of conditions: sun or shade, moist or dry soil, which either can be moderately rich or moderately poor. They are recommended most frequently for use in rock gardens, along stream banks, or as ground covers for small areas. They are low plants, not over a foot in height, so their use in a perennial garden would be restricted to the very front. Where perennials are displayed in combination with shrubbery, Bergenias can be very useful as edging. They are prized for the glossy green, 8 to 10-inch, rounded, cabbage-like leaves which are evergreen with reddish tints in the winter. The flowers are of secondary interest; in our area they may not be produced after a severe winter or if the plants are in exposed locations. The flowers are borne on short stems just above the foliage and, depending on variety, are pink, rose-pink, or white. Little care is necessary. If the soil is a dry one, plants can Bergenia cordifolia - Heartleaf Bergenia go for many years before they will require division; but this may be necessary after about the third or fourth year if plants are encouraged into excessive growth by very fertile soil conditions. They spread by rhizomes on the surface of the ground; as these grow away from the center and the clumps expand, bare spots may result. Division, leaving a short piece of the rhizome (3 to 4 inches is enough), is best done in the spring so that the new plants will have the benefit of a growing season to produce new roots and become established by winter. Single specimens appear lonely, so plant several in a group about 1 foot apart. Heartleaf Bergenia Very hardy, the most commonly-planted species. Leaves are rounded, somewhat heartshaped and toothed at the margins. Flowers reddish-pink. Sources: 13,32,59,66,67,68,69; B,C,J B. cordifolia - - 299 B. cordifolia Source: 66 B. var. purpurea - Flowers purplish-pink. crassifolia - Leaves Source: 32 our area. Less commonly grown in Leather Bergenia more oval than round. Flowers reddish-pink. - var. orbicularis Leaves broader than the preceding. Flowers pink. Sources: 66,68 We have not tried some of the other species and interesting hybrids offered by a few nurserymen on the West Coast, so are unprepared to comment on their hardiness. B. crassifolia - Betonica grandiflora - See Stachys grandiflora Boltonia Similar in Boltonia, False Camomile, False Starwort Daisy Family (Compositae) appearance to, but taller than, most of the Fall a much more limited range of flower colors. Culture is the same. Division is required annually or every other year. Staking is mandatory. Asters, they have B. asteroides ers. - Grows to about 6 feet high. Lilac or purple flow- Sources: 24,66,68; I B. Violet Boltonia Grows to about 6 feet high. latisquama Flowers bluish-violet and showier than those of B. asteroides. Sources: 4,46 - Brunnera macrophylla Dwarf Anchusa, Siberian Bugloss Borage Family (Boraginaceae) A very easy plant to grow, especially in light shade where the soil is somewhat moist. In April to early June it is of value for the branched racemes of small, clear blue, starlike flowers similar to those of Anchusa or Forget-me-nots. Throughout the rest of the growing season the dark green 6 to 8-inch heartshaped leaves provide an excellent foliage effect. The leaves increase in size from spring until midsummer, at which time they give the most effective display. Plants range in height 301 from about a foot to 18 inches and may be planted singly or in a group of three or more placed about 15 inches apart; they are suitable for use as a deciduous ground cover in a shady moist area. It will be many years before the clumps open at the center and require division. Sources: 3,13,23,24,32,49,66,67,68,69; B,C,I,J,K,L Bellflower Bellflower Family (Campanulaceae) This is a large and varied group with many members which are of great value in the rock garden; some, in the perennial garden; and one which is such a pestiferous weed it never should be in any garden. Campanula The principal sorts for the perennial garden have similar, easy cultural requirements. They will tolerate either full sun or partial shade. The soil should be well drained and need be of only average fertility. All are best seen in groups of about three rather than as single specimens. Under most conditions, staking of the taller varieties will not be necessary. Clumps need not be divided until deterioration starts; this will, in most cases, be about every four years. Spring rather than fall planting, is usually recommended. Removal of the seed heads will prolong the flowering and prevent undesirable self-seeding. some catalogs as C. persicifolia 'GrandiPeach-leaved Bellflower, Peach Bells We place this species and its cultivars first in value for the low maintenance garden. They grow to a height of 2 to 21!> feet and bloom in July. The several erect stems from the base of the plant bear a profusion of cup-shaped flowers in shades of blue or white and are excellent for cutting. It is said that the plants are best divided every other year, or every third year, to keep them vigorous; in our experience they can go for at least four years before this may be necessary. The species has light blue flowers. Sources: 3,4,13,24,46,53,67,69; C,I,K C. persicifolia (listed in flora Coerulea') - - C. persicifolia var. alba (this is listed by some nurseries as 'Alba Grandiflora') Same as the above, but the flowers are white. Sources: 3,13,24,66,67,68,69; C,I,K - C. persicifolia 'Blue Gardenia' - Flowers deep silvery-blue, double. Source: 32 Brunnera macrophylla - Siberian Bugloss. Photo: P. Bruns. 302 C. persicifolia 'Landham's Giants' - Assortment of shades of blue and white. Sources: 24; I C. persicifolia `Telham Beauty' - Often considered more one of the 3- best, but may require frequent division. Large, single, inch porcelain-blue flowers. Sources: 32,66,68; B C. persicifolia 'White Pearl' - Flowers Sources: 24,32; I - white, double. C. glomerata Clustered Bellflower, Danesblood - In a low maintenance situation these are recommended only for positions in full sun; in shade they spread rapidly by runners and will become invasive. Plants are 1% to 2 feet tall and bloom in late spring and early summer. The flowers are borne in dense upward-facing clusters in shades of blue, purple, or white. Axillary C. flowers open after the terminal head has finished. var. glomerata acaulis - The lowest-growing variety, not ex- ceeding 8 inches. Sources: 13,66; C C. Quite large, purple flowers. glomerata 'Crown of Snow' - Large white flowers in dense clusters. Source: 69 C. glomerata 'Joan Elliott' Sources: 24,67; I C. glomerata var. superba Sources: 13,66,69; C C. lactiflora - Deep violet-blue flowers. Large heads of deep violet flowers. - - Milky Bellflower Of easiest culture. Blooms from late June to the beginning of August with large blue, 1inch flowers on 3-foot stems. The species itself appears not to be widely available at present, but the cultivar which follows is excellent in every respect. C. lactiflora 'Pritchards Variety' - This includes a range of colors from pale to deep blue. - Source: 70 C. latifolia Great Bellflower Another excellent is very showy in blossom, and produces terminal violet-colored flowers in June and July. Plants stemmed, to a height of 3 feet. Source: 66 - species. racemes are It of many- 303 C. latifolia'Brantwood' Sources: 24,67; I C. latifolia 'Macrantha' - Flowers deep violet. - 21!~ inches across. The plant is very other cultivars of this species. Source: 68 The one Bright purple flowers which are up to showy and grows taller than following have merit in the rock garden, or are biennials; is included as a warning. We cannot recommend them for general purposes in the perennial border, but occasionally the lower growing sorts may be of use at the very front. C. carpatica - Carpathian Harebell, Carpathian Bellflower Beloved by rock gardeners, this forms neat clumps of foliage less than 6 inches high. The 2-inch blue or white cuplike flowers on 6 to 8-inch stems appear over a long period in June and July. The species has blue flowers. Sources: 3,4,13,24,46,67,68,69, B,C,I,K,L C. carpatica var. alba The white-flowered form of the Sources: 3,49,66,67,68,68, B - species. C. carpatica `China Doll' Lavender flowers. Sources: 13,24,69, A,C,I,J,K - C. carpatica `Blue Sources: 32,66 Carpet' - Deep blue flowers. - C. medium var. calycanthema The well known Cup and Saucer form of Canterbury Bells. A biennial, it requires replacement each year to keep a succession. Often raised from seed; some nurseries sell started plants. Sources: 13,66, C,J,L C. rapunculoides Rover Bellflower, False Rampion - In our area this is one of the most noxious weeds that can invade a garden. Although rather handsome in flower, it spreads freely and has become widely naturalized. The roots are fleshy, and the smallest portion left behind in weeding is capable of regenerating new plants which take over large areas in a relatively short time. Once established, the Rover Bellflower is nearly impossible to eradicate without resorting to herbicides, a chancy business in a perennial garden. Although a few nurseries offer this species for naturalizing in wild gardens, it is better enjoyed in waste places where it belongs. - C. rotundifolia A diminutive Harebell, Bluebells of Scotland species, not much over 10 to 12 inches when in flower. Flowers are small, nodding, and bell-like. In the species they are blue. - Sources: 13,24,46,67,68,69; C,I C. rotundifotia cies. Source: 69 var. alba - The white-flowered form of the spe- 304 Wild Senna Pea Family (Leguminosae) Here is another infrequently used native American plant which has great potential in the perennial border and is excellent for low maintenance situations. It blooms in August, with a profusion of bright yellow flowers in 3-inch clusters, on stems 3 to 4 feet tall. Some large border plants have a coarse appearance, but Wild Senna is extremely fine-textured and the compound leaves remain in attractive condition throughout the season. If the plant did not bloom at all, it still would be valuable on this account. Plants will grow for many years before division is necessary; it is easily accomplished in early spring. Positions in either full sun or partial shade are equally satisfactory, but wet soil conditions should be avoided. There are no insect or disease problems ; staking is never necessary. When grown in a perennial border, Wild Senna should be placed well to the rear. It is unfortunate that sources of supply are so limited. Sources: 24; I Cassia marylandica Catananche coerulea division every year or every other year in order to perpetuate the form and prevent the numerous inferior self-sown seedlings from taking over. Also, they are short-lived if not frequently divided. A sunny position is demanded; soggy soil in winter is fatal and even under the best of conditions hardiness cannot always be assured. The flowers are a good blue with deeper blue centers, and somewhat similar in appearance to, but smaller than, Wild Chicory. The ends of the petals typically look as if they have been cut off with pinking shears. The leaves are silvery-green; the flowers are excellent for cutting and drying. Of rather frail habit, plants must be massed in groups of three, or preferably more, to get a good effect. Flower stems reach a height of about 2 feet. Sources: 3,13,14,24,66,69; C,I,K,L C. coerulea Source: 69 var. Cupid's Dart, Cupid's Love Dart Daisy Family (Compositael These plants, particularly the named color selections, require alba - Silvery-white - flowers. C. coerulea 'Blue Giant' Source: 67 Pale blue flowers. 305 Centaurea Daisy Family (Compositae) This group will survive all sorts of neglect if the right conditions can be given: a sunny aspect, and soil of ordinary fertility which is well drained, especially in winter. All plants of this group can endure considerable drought. With one exception, they can go four years or longer before division will be necessary Spring planting is usually recommended. They all are very hardy. C. dealbata - Persian Centaurea - Lilac to purple, deeply flowers in mid-July and August, sometimes into autumn. The foliage is more finely textured than most other Centaureas, and somewhat white below. Best seen in groups of three, planted about a foot apart. 2 feet tall. Sources: 13,24; C,I,K,L C. dealbata 'Sternbergii' Superior to the above. Petals are deeply notched and bright purple, surrounding clear white - fringed centers. Plants are quite bushy and blossom from the end of June into September. Sources: 13; C Globe Centaurea, Yellow-Hardhead - Grows feet and is considered to be coarse in appearance, partly because of the large, stiff leaves which are borne sparingly. The golden-yellow flowers appear in 3-inch Thistle-like heads in June and July. Best seen toward the middle or rear of the garden alone rather than in groups, this is a plant to consider when a bold effect may be wanted. Sources: 13,24,58,67; C,E,I,J C. macrocephala - to 3 to 4 C. ruthenica - yellow-flowered, The leaves are Ruthenian Centaurea - Grows to 3 feet and is but not as coarse in appearance as the above. deeply lobed, giving a somewhat finer-textured appearance. Sources: 24; I C. montana - Mountain Bluet or Knapweed, Hardy Bachelor's Button, Perennial Corn Flower - The most popular of the group, but requires division every other year or it will spread rapidly and become unkempt in appearance. Its tendency to self-sow can be a nuisance in some circumstances. Deep Comflower-blue flowers, 2 to 3 inches wide, on 2-foot stems. Sources: 3,13,14,24,46,67,68, B,C,E,I,J,K,L Centaurea montana - Mountain Bluet Cerastium Snow-in-summer, Starry Grasswort Carnation Family (Caryophyllaceae) Of great value for their handsome silver foliage, these plants spread rapidly; annual division will be necessary to keep them in check on all but the very poorest or driest soils. Best left to dry, exposed situations in the rock garden where they can romp; or to the top of walls which are set against banks of soil. C. biebersteinii Taurus Cerastium - Considered the choicest species; its spreading is not as offensive as the C. tomentosum clan. Silvery-gray leaves and white flowers which are larger than those of C. tomentosum. Sources: 24; I - C. tomentosum - Snow-in-summer - 2-foot creeping stems, very silvery foliage. Covered with white flowers in June. Highly invasive ; may be difficult to eradicate when well established. Sources: 14,46,68; A,B,J,L Ceratostigma plumbaginoides - Blue Leadwort 307 C. tomentosum `Columnae' - A dwarf form of the above. 4 to 6 inches tall. Sources: 13; C,K C. tomentosum Only 6 'Silver Carpet' - Another dwarf selection. inches tall. Source: 67 Blue Leadwort Leadwort Family (Plumbaginaceae) The Latin name is quite a mouthful and this may account for the nearly universal use in catalogs of the old name Plumbago larpentae. This is a desirable little plant which produces an abundance of ~-inch blue flowers in late summer. Its maximum height is 6 to 8 inches, and when left undisturbed, plants form clumps 12 to 18 inches across. In fall the leaves turn a bronzegreen and this color intensifies as the weather becomes cooler. Blue Leadwort is not always reliably hardy in the Boston area, especially when soil conditions are wet in winter. A light covering with a winter mulch is advisable here, and mandatory further north. Spring is the only planting time recommended. Plants are very late to appear in the spring and one may be fooled into thinking they have not survived the winter, thus early cultivation must be done with care and it may be wise to have some sort of a small marker to indicate the plants' location in a large Ceratostigma plumbaginoides garden. Sources: 3,13,24,28,30,32,37,49,66,67,68,69,70, A,B,C,G,H,I,J,L 308 Chelone These are Turtlehead Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) for light shade where the soil is form a large clump and division be necessary by the fourth year. Otherwise, they are simple may to grow and have no insect or disease problems. The maximum height is 3 to 4 feet. Best planted as single specimens instead of in a group because of their robust nature. Plants possess shiny dark green leaves, and the pink or white flowers are about an inch long in short terminal clusters appearing in August or September. The shape of the flower is supposed to resemble that of a turtle's head. excellent plants moist; they increase rapidly to C. White Turtlehead, Snakehead - Flowers generally glabra white, sometimes tinged with rose. 2 feet. Sources: 39,43 - C. lyoni 4 feet. Sources: - Pink Turtlehead - Flowers pink to rose-purple. 3 to 39,46,68 - C. obliqua Rose Turtlehead Sources: 29,66 Flowers deep rose. 2 feet. Chelone lyoni - Pinh Turtle head 309 The soft rose-colored flowers of Chelone lyoni combine well with the bright blue of Ceratostigma plumbaginoides in foreground. 310I Chrysanthemum morifolium Hardy Chrysanthemum, Mum Daisy Family (Compositae) If any degree of perfection whatever is desired, these are situation, and little space the least recommended of all plants for a low maintecan be devoted to them here, ot","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1974-Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I","article_sequence":1,"start_page":253,"end_page":384,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24641","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e8126.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":5,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"her than to list the faults. Annual division is necessary because healthy growth and flowering diminish after the first year. Mums are gross feeders and require frequent top-dressings during the growing season. Most all, except the low cushion varieties, must be pinched back several times during the earlier part of the summer to encourage branching and heavy flowering. Some of the large-flowering types should have the secondary flower buds removed. Spraying or dusting every two weeks with a complete pesticide often will be necessary. Although some probably nance varieties are quite hardy in our area, most are not reliably so and require the protection of a light mulch, or are better overwintered in a cold frame. If the homeowner with little time wishes a bright autumnal display, it would be far better to purchase a few mums in pots; almost every garden center, florist, or roadside stand features them in the fall Chrysanthemum From the are one coccineum Pyrethrum, Painted Daisy Daisy Family (Compositae) standpoint of low maintenance, the Painted Daisies group in the Chrysanthemum clan which can be recommended. Pyrethrum is the old generic name; they are commonly called Pyrethrum and are so listed in catalogs rather than under or Chrysanthemum. are of particular value for their bright, Daisy-like single double blossoms in vibrant shades of pink to red or white, in June and early July. Another asset is the bright green, finelydivided foliage. Painted Daisies perform best in a fairly rich soil that is well supplied with humus. They squarely belong in the group whose hardiness is lessened when the soil is soggy during the winter months, but are perfectly hardy in Boston when good drainage is assured. Best in full sun, they will tolerate light shade during part of the day. They have no important pest or disease problems and will not require staking; division will be necessary after the fourth year. Planting or dividing is always done in spring and the protection of a winter mulch is advisable the first winter following Height ranges from about 9 inches to 2'!~ feet so Pyrethrums are suited either to the front or middle of the border. They are effective singly, but better in groups of three planted about a foot apart. They 311 Of the over 20 cultivars currently available, the following is but a selection to demonstrate the color range. Plants do not take kindly to long periods in the mail, so are better obtained from local sources where possible. C. coccineum 'Buckeye' double. 2 feet. I Sources: 24; - Deep rose-red, flecked white, semi- C. coccineum 'Crimson Giant' ers. - Bright red, 4-inch, single flow- 31!~ feet. Sources: 13,24,32; C,I May Robinson' - C. coccineum 'Eileen Salmon-pink, single. 2 feet. Source: 66 C. coccineum 'Helen' Sources: 20,24,32,66; - Soft light pink, - double. 21!~ feet. 2 feet. I,J Crimson, single. C. coccineum 'Robinson's Crimson' Sources: 24,67,69; B,I,J,L C. coccineum 'Snowball' - Double white. 2'\/ feet. Sources: J 20,66; Chrysanthemum maximum The requirement of division to third year, and their somewhat unreliable hardiness in our area causes us, grudgingly, to place these in the \"not recommended for low maintenance\" category. The mostly white, single or double Daisy-like flowers are excellent for cutting and appear from June until frost on plants 2 to 4 high. Shasta Daisies prefer rich soil which is moist but well drained in the summer, and not soggy in winter. Most cultivars will be hardy in this area if this condition can be met. The single cultivars are best in full sun, but the doubles will be disappointing unless they receive partial shade. They are effective singly or in groups of three or more planted about a foot apart. Plants in seemingly good health may sometimes wilt and die for no apparent reason, especially in a wet summer. This demise is caused by Verticillium Rot, a fungus disease which attacks the roots. Sick plants should be discarded im- Shasta Daisy Daisy Family (Compositae) maintain vigor every second or mediately. so, Shasta Daisies are almost a necessity in the cutting garden, despite the problems, flower arrangers will probably wish to 312 try a currently few. This list is but available: - a selection of the nearly 40 cultivars Double white, petals very Lace Shasta C. maximum 'Aglaya' fringed. Robust and considered one of the hardiest. 2 feet. Sources: 13,15,24,28,32,44,58,67; C,I,J,K,L - One of the most popular; perhaps the C. maximum `Alaska' hardiest. Single, white with a yellow center; typical Daisy flower. Cut the plants back after the first flowering has finished in mid-July and they will bloom again. 2 feet. Sources: 3,23,24,25,37,46,53,58,67,69; A,B,E,F,I,K,L - C. maximum 'Cobham Gold' gold flush. Large, double, with Sources: 24,32; I,L maximum 'Diener's petals. 2 feet. Sources: 37; B,E, C. - a Flowers cream-colored, with a high crest in the center. 2 feet. - Double' Double white with frilled C. maximum `Esther Read' Sources: 13,15,32,59; C,E, as - Double white. 18 inches. A sport of C. 'Esther Read' but not double white flowers about 4 inches C. maximum 'Horace Read' - free-flowering - Larger across. Sources: 13,15,29, C C. maximum 'Little Miss Muffet' - Quite Semidouble, white. Sources: 3,13,24,32,49,58,66,69; C,I,J C. maximum 'Majestic' Single, very with a small yellow center. Sources: 13,15,24,44,67; C,I,K - dwarf, 14 inches high. large (4 to 5 inches), white C. maximum 'Marconi' Double white, up to 6-inch flowers with very frilled petals, long period of bloom 2 feet. Sources: 3,15,37,69, A,B,F,K,L C. maximum 'Thomas Killin' crested center. 18 inches. Sources: 13,24,67; C,I,J,K - Double white with cream-colored Cimicifuga These are Snakeroot, Bugbane, Cohosh Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) stately plants 3 to 8 feet tall which, when well The small can be left alone almost indefinitely. white flowers are produced on long racemes well above the shiny compound leaves. Best used as single specimens at the middle or rear of the herbaceous border, Snakeroots adapt themselves established, Cimicifuga racemosa - welcome in the Bugbane or Cohosh. The spire-like effect perennial garden in midsummer. is most ! I equally well to massing at the edge of a pond or stream, or even amongst shrubbery. For best growth, a moist soil with a high organic content is necessary. If this condition can be provided, the plants may be grown in full sun; however, they are used more commonly in semishaded areas as they perform best in a cooler location. They will tolerate deep shade, but at the expense of best results. Dahurian Bugbane - Much-branched, it grows of 4 to 5 feet. The creamy-white flowers appear in height August and last into the fall. Sources: 13; C C. dahurica to a - 314 Kamchatka some catalogs as C. simplex) Much smaller, to 3 feet, and more branched from the base, with numerous spirelike spikes of flowers. Sources: 13,66,68,69; C C. foetida (listed in - Bugbane - C. 'Armleuchter' - A more vigorous selection of the preceding native with somewhat Source: 68 C. racemosa - larger flowers. Black most Snakeroot, Cohosh, Bugbane - A 5 grown species, and the tallest (5 to 8 feet depending on soil and location). Blooms in late June and the display is prolonged to early August by smaller lateral spikes of flowers from the main stem. American, the commonly Sources: 13,14,26,27,46,66,67,68,69; C. 'White Pearl' flowers. Sources: 59,66,68 - B,C, Pure white Very compact, 3 to 4 feet tall. Clematis Clematis Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) The numerous climbing woody varieties of Clematis are demanding when it comes to the proper conditions for good growth. The herbaceous kinds are somewhat less so, but few amateur gardeners know of their value. Although not as showy as the climbers, they bloom over a long period in the summer and, once established, become permanent additions to the garden. All provide flowers which are excellent for cutting, and when flowering is finished develop attractive, fluffy seed heads. 315 They require rich, well-drained soil and benefit from occaapplications of lime. Full sun or partial shade is satisfactory. They grow fairly large (3to 4 feet tall) and a spacing of about 2 feet is necessary. Since they are slow to establish, gaps between plants may be filled with annuals for a few years. Like the climbers, herbaceous Clematis prefer cool soil conditions so a 2-inch covering of mulch is advisable in summer. They resent frequent cultivation around the roots; in fact, all lower parts of the plants are easily damaged. sional The Blue Tube Clematis last of the herbaceous group to bloom, this bears tubular deep blue flowers in August and September. They are fragrant and produced in terminal and axillary clusters on 21_~ to 3-foot-high stems which may require support. The foliage has a somewhat coarse appearance so it would be undesirable to feature this plant in the most prominent part of the border. Nevertheless, it is of value for the display of blue flowers so late in the season. C. heracleafolia var. davidiana - - Sources: C. I 24,59,66,67; - var. davidiana `Wyvale' with deeper blue flowers. ceding Sources: 24; I heracleafolia A selection of the pre- Solitary Clematis Has 11\/ inch porcelain-blue bell-shaped flowers. Although it attains a height of only 2 feet, the stems have a tendency to flop if not supported. Where staking is not done, allow plenty of room so that the plant will not crowd its neighbors. When given a moderately moist situation, or if watered during dry spells, it will bloom from June to August. Sources: 13,32,67; C C. integrifolia 'Coerulea' - - Ground Clematis Less handsome than its selections, and less frequently grown. Taller than the preceding two species (3 to 4 feet) and best near the rear of the border. Freely produces terminal and axillary clusters of B!~-inch fragrant, tubular white flowers in June and July. The species and the following cultivars or varieties require staking to prevent the plants from flopping at flowering time. Sources: 24; I C. recta - C. recta `Grandiflora' June and July. 3 feet. Sources: 66,69 - Bears a profusion of white flowers in 316 The most commonly grown form of C. recta var. mandshurica this species, it is valuable for its fragrant, tubular white flowers in June and July. Quite vigorous in growth so allow about 3 feet for it to spread. Sources: 59,67 - C. recta 'Purpurea' Flowers white. Sources: 24; I - A selection with purplish-green foliage. Lily-of-the-Valley Lily Family (Liliaceae) Little need be said of this plant by way of description. It is popular because it is so undemanding and versatile. The ability to colonize restricts its use in the perennial garden where it may become a nuisance by usurping space. Where there is room for it to romp, few plants are hardier and more adaptable. Permajalis manent, tolerant of most soil conditions except the extremes, it is suited to sun or shade, but does better with some shade. It should be kept in mind that Lily-of-the-Valley is poisonous in all parts, and that young children are attracted to the orangered berries appearing in late summer and fall. These fruits should be removed. The common white-flowered form is easily available. Sources: 3,13,14,20,24,27,32,37,43,44,57,58,59,66,67,68,69; A, B,C,I,J,K,L C. majaLis `Flora Plena' Sources: 32,66 C. - Convallaria - Quite rare, double white form. majalis `Rosea' Very pale pink. Sources: 1,13,30,32,58,59,66; C C. majalis `Striata' Sources: 32,66 - The leaves have creamy-white stripes. Coreopsis Coreopsis, Tickseed Daisy Family (Compositae) A few members of this large genus are excellent for the low maintenance border; but some lack complete hardiness, behave as biennials, or are best seen naturalized in a wild garden. They all are sun lovers and prefer a light, sandy, well-drained soil. Coreopsis verticillata - Thread-leafCoreopsis 317 of C. lanceolata, division probably will be after the fourth year. necessary Yellow Daisy-like flowers over long periods in the summer, and finely textured foliage are their best attributes. With the exception C. auricuLata 'Nana' Dwarf Eared Coreopsis A small spread4 to 6 inches tall, bearing numerous small bright ing plant - orange-yellow flowers from June to August. Suited to the front of the perennial garden. Plant in a group of three spaced about 10 inches apart. Sources: 3,66 Perennial Coreopsis This and its cultivar folthe best for the low maintenance garden. It thrives lowing for years in a sunny spot without needing to be divided. The bright yellow Daisy-like flowers are about 2 inches across, on stems 2 feet high. Blooms for most of the summer. C. lanceolata are - Sources: 27; B - C. lanceolata 'Sunburst' An excellent cultivar of the above with large, bright, semidouble yellow flowers. E,F,I,J,K,L Sources: 24,60,66,67,68,69; 318 Thread-leaf Coreopsis This often is found in C. verticillata under the name \"Golden Shower.\" It makes large dense catalogs clumps about 2 feet tall, and 2 to 3 feet wide, and although the individual bright yellow flowers are small, they are freely produced throughout most of the summer among the finely textured leaves. Another good feature of this plant is its ability to withstand dry soil conditions. Sources: 3,13,24,66,68; B,C,I,J,K,L - 'Baby Sun' - A hybrid, usually raised from seed but fairly uniform in its bright yellow flowers. 20 inches tall and compact C. in growth. Sources: 3,13,69; A,C,J,L - Another hybrid which grows 3 feet tall C. 'Mayfield Giant' with 3-inch bright yellow flowers in June and July. Sources: 3; K Delphininm Delphinium, Larkspur Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Few plants can approach the Pacific Hybrid Delphiniums for their bold effect in the border. However, the whole Delphinium clan is finicky in nature and cannot be guaranteed as longlived in our area even with ideal conditions of site and care. The soil must be rich, well drained, and slightly alkaline. A position in full sun is preferred. Shady conditions lead to troubles with mildew, but plants can be affected by this in a sunny spot, too. Annual applications of a 5-10-10 fertilizer and a side-dressing during the growing season are necessary to produce vigorous growth. Staking the flower stems individually to prevent toppling is a must with the taller varieties. Plants should be cut back after the main period of bloom to induce a second flowering at the end of the season. Spraying with a fungicide and miticide at 10-day intervals during the growing season is frequently necessary to control mildew and cyclamen mites. The latter carry a blight disease which distorts the leaves and buds and causes them to turn black. Elaborate winter protection may be necessary. Sand or ashes placed around the crowns helps to prevent attack by slugs. After the ground has frozen, plants should be covered by a thick layer of hay or straw (2 to 3 inches). It often is safer to overwinter the plants in a cold frame. In the few situations where Delphiniums prosper, they will live for many years and require division when the clumps have become large. This usually is after the third or fourth year. However, as a rule they are best treated as short-lived perennials, or biennials. 319 Common Delphinium, Candle or Bee Larkspur D. elatum These are the large-flowered types so prized for their 4 to 6-foot columns of densely packed blooms. Individual flowers may be 2 inches or more across. They come in many colors and may be single, semidouble or double; self-colored, or bicolor. Many have a central \"eye,\" often called a \"bee,\" usually of a contrasting shade or color. The parentage of the modem garden types is not well known but D. elatum is certainly the principal species involved. In this country the D. elatum types commonly offered are the Pacific Hybrids. These are as good as, if not better than, any of the strains developed by the English breeders. (Those of English origin include the 'Blackmore and Langdon Hybrids,' available from: 69, 70; J, and the 'Wrexham Hybrids,' available from: 37; K.) All the cultivars which follow belong to the Pacific Hybrid group. Many nurseries offer them as plants grown from seed, and although they do reproduce relatively true, some variation from the descriptions offered here may be expected. - D. elatum 'Pacific Hybrids' - The named plants in a mixture of colors. Sources: 16, 23, 28, 32, 68; J,K,L D. 'Astolat' - following sources offer un- Shades of lavender and pink, with \"bee\" at the center. Sources: 15,20,44,58,59,60,66,69, A,B,E,L - a black or gold D. 'Black Night' Shades of deep purple with a black \"bee.\" Sources: 20,37,46,58,59,60,66,69; A,B,E,F,K,L D. 'Blue Bird' - Shades of medium blue with Sources: 15,25,44,66,69; A,B,E,K D. 'Blue Jay' - Shades of dark blue. Sources: 15,59, E,K D. `Elaine' Shades of pink to Sources: 3,13,32, C,E,K - a white \"bee.\" rosy-lilac with a white \"bee.\" D. 'Galahad' Pure white, no contrasting \"bee.\" Sources: 3,15,20,25,37,44,46,58,59,60,67,69; A,B,E,F,K,L - D. 'Guinevere' Outer petals light blue, inner white \"bee.\" Sources. 20,25,37,58,59,69; A,E,F,K,L D. - petals lavender, 'King Arthur' Deep violet with a white \"bee.\" Sources: 3,15,25,44,46,59,60,66,67,69; A,B,E,K,L D. 'Percival'- Pure white with Sources: 59,66,69; E - a black \"bee.\" D. 'Summer Skies' Soft blue with a white \"bee.\" Sources. 3,15,20,37,44,46,58,59,60,66,67,69, A,B,E,F,K,L 320 Garland Larkspur (Sometimes listed in garden D. X belladonna books as D cheilanthum var. formosum, but this is a garden race of mostly unknown parentage.) Garland Larkspurs differ from the hybrids in the D. elatum group in their open branching habit. They have numerous short spikes with a looser arrangement of flowers, and blossom for a longer period. They are quite susceptible to mildew problems and must be in a position where air circulation is good. Light blue flowers. Plants reach a height of 3 to 4 feet. Sources: 3,13,59,69,70; B,C,J,K,L - D. X belladonna 'Bellamosa' Sources: 3,67,68,69; B,J,K,L - Dark blue-flowered form. A D. X belladonna 'Casa Blanca' - Pure white-flowered form. vigorous grower which attains a height of nearly 5 feet. Sources: 13,24,25,29,67,68,69; C,I,K,L D. X belladonna 'Cliveden feet in height. Sources. 24,28,67; I,L Beauty' - Sky blue flowers. Plants 3 D. X belladonna 'Lamartine' 3 feet in height. Sources: 13,28, B,C, - Flowers deep purplish-blue. Plants D. 'Connecticut Yankee' - A comparatively new race of hybrids which are exceptionally free flowering and form densely branched plants 2~'_~ feet in height. The 2 to 21_.-inch blossoms are loosely arranged on the spikes and have a color range including shades of blue, purple, lavender, and white. Sources: 13,14,20,24,25,28,68,69; A,B,C,E,I,J,K,L (The species and its forms invariably are listed D. chinense) Siberian or Bouquet Larkspur Members of this group are best treated as biennials in our area. They bloom in late summer, have a slender branching habit, and grow to 11_. to 2 feet in height. The flowers are violet-blue D. in grandiflorum - catalogs as - or white. I Sources. 24,46, - D. grandiflorum `Album' Sources. 24,69, I White flowers. D. grandiflorum 'Blue Mirror' - Gentian-blue flowers. Source: 69 D. grandiflorum Source: 69 'Cambridge Blue' - Rich light blue flowers. Dianthus Pink, Carnation Carnation Family (Caryophyllaceae) This is a genus which contains many garden varieties. Considered in relation to their stature, they fall into two fairly distinct groups. The shorter, mat-forming types require conditions Dicentra spectabilis - Bleeding Heart r ron , 321 of excellent soil drainage and are best in the rock garden. Many of these thrive in the Boston area. The taller types are suitable for the perennial border, but are distressingly short-lived, or extremely intolerant of the hot, humid weather frequently ex- perienced during the summer in our area. Dicentra For permanence, the best Heart or Lyre Flower. It is a true aristocrat of the border for the short period when it is in bloom. A well-established plant forms a large clump 2'!~ feet tall and up to 2?'s to 3 feet broad with arching stems bearing pink heart-shaped flowers in late May and June. It prefers a rich soil well supplied with organic matter and results are always best if light shade can be provided. Specimen plants are preferable to groupings because each requires a lot of room. If they are situated in full sun, the Bleeding Heart, Lyre Flower Fumitory Family (Fumariaceae) of this group is D. spectabilis, the Bleeding 322 foliage has a tendency to die down in the hot part of the summer, leaving a large gap in the border. For this reason Bleeding Hearts are frequently planted near Gypsophila paniculata (Baby's Breath). By the time the former is about to disappear, Gypsophila is ready to mask the gaps. Other plants which will fillers include Hosta, Hemerocallis, or even annuals. Dispectabilis is a very long-lived plant which dislikes being disturbed. It is best planted only in the spring before new growth commences, and in a place where it can be left alone for many years. Sources: 3,7,13,14,23,24,28,30,32,37,39,46,58,59,67,68,69; B,C, act as centra G,H,I,J,K,L Plume or Fringed Bleeding Heart This species is of great value for its long flowering period from May to August. The dissected leaves are grayish-blue, remain attractive throughout the growing season, and make a good contrast to the pink flowers. The flowers are a paler pink and smaller than D. spectabilis, but have the same overall heart-shaped form. D. eximia will not die back if planted in full sun, yet is perfectly adaptable to conditions of light shade. It grows from 12 to 18 inches tall, and is best seen in groups of three or more planted about a foot apart near the front of the garden. Plants may require division after the fourth year, but are best left alone until the clumps begin to deteriorate. Sources: 1,3,7,13,24,28,37,39,46,57,58,66,68; B,C,H,I,J,K,L D. eximia - - 323 Flowers of Dicentra eximia Several cultivars are presently available which, in general, resemble D. eximia in habit of growth and have the same general cultural requirements. Their flowers range in color from pink to deep pink, or almost red, and some have a flowering period considerably longer than D. eximia. Confusion exists as to the exact parentage of some of these forms and they frequently are listed under the name D. eximia, but are hybrids involving D. eximia, D. formosa (Western Bleeding Heart), or D. oregona. They all grow to a height of about a foot. Those advertised to bloom intermittently through the summer should have faded blossoms removed at frequent intervals for best results. D. 'Adrian Bloom' Crimson-red flowers. Forms large clumps, about a foot tall. Sources: 13,24,29; C,I - Blue-green foliage. D. 'Bountiful' Deep pink flowers. Blue-green foliage. Produces intermittent blossoms in the summer after the main flowering period in May. Has another period of heavy flowering in - early autumn. Sources: 59,66,67 D. `Luxuriant' - liage. Blossoms Sources: 57; K Flower buds cherry-red, intermittently until frost. flowers red. Green fo- Dicentra eximia - Fringed Bleeding Heart 324 I Beauty' - Deep summer. rose D. 'Summer flowers. Gray-green foliage. Blossoms into the Sources: 24,32; I - A new introduction, flowers described by the D. 'Valentine' introducer as Spiraea-red. Recurrent blossoms until frost following the main blooming period in late April or May. Source: 67 D. 'Zestful' - Deep rose flowers. Gray-green foliage. Blossoms through the summer. Sources: 7,14,20; L Dictamnus albus Gas Plant, Dittany, Burning Bush Citrus Family (Rutaceae) Dictamnus albus (usually listed in catalogs as D. fraxinella), is one of the most permanent perennials in the garden. The best treatment is simply to leave the plants alone, and they will increase in vigor as each year passes. In fact, the best way to ruin a good clump of Dictamnus is to divide it and attempt to re-establish the resulting plants elsewhere. For this reason, it is advisable to begin with young plants of seedling size, preferably started in pots. Even then it may take several seasons before they give the desired effect, but the results will be worth waiting for. Although it will tolerate partial shade, a sunny location with moderately rich soil is best for the Gas Plant. Situations which remain wet for any length of time should be avoided, and the plant can be counted upon to withstand moderate periods of drought. Although it is slow to start, a well-grown specimen will take up a lot of room in the border and it is best to leave about 2 to 2','~ feet in each direction for expansion. Annuals could be used to fill the gaps in the meantime. A well-grown Gas Plant will eventually attain a height of 3 feet, and is of value as a specimen plant in the background of the small garden, or as a middleof-the-border subject, especially when combined with shrubs. Staking will never be necessary. The 2-inch flowers are grouped in terminal racemes and appear for about two weeks during June. The relatively short period of blossom has been listed as a disadvantage, but the handsome, pinnate leaves remain in good condition throughout the season and provide an excellent accent wherever the plant is placed. When crushed, bruised, or 325 Dictamnus albus - Gas Plant 326 even I brushed against, leaves and stems emit a pleasant fragrance of lemons. The fruits remain on the plant well into the winter and provide interest long after the flowers have gone. They are very useful in dried arrangements. The name Gas Plant or Burning Bush is derived from the fact that the plant exudes a volatile gas just below the flowers, and this can be ignited by a match without harm to the plant. A small blue flame of very short duration is produced, but conditions must be quite calm as the gas is easily dispersed by breezes. It is often stated that the best conditions for producing this phenomenon exist on calm sultry evenings when the plants are in full flower. D. albus Flowers pure white. Sources: 3,4,13,24,32,46,59,67,69; - C,I D. albus - var. purpureus or Deep pink (usually listed in catalogs as var. ruber) purplish flowers with deeper colored veins. C,I Sources: 3,13,14,24,25,32,59,67,68,69; Foxglove Figwort Family (Scrophulariaceae) Well-loved for their spirelike stalks with pink, white, yellow, or rosy purple flowers in midsummer, most Foxgloves are biennials. Digitalis will often perpetuate themselves by self-sowing, but cannot be relied upon to do so in all situations. There are a few perennial species which are of quite easy culture, but they are not particularly showy and space should not be wasted upon them, especially in a small garden. All Foxgloves prefer a location in light shade and a fairly fertile soil which does not dry out quickly during the summer. Soggy soil conditions in winter are usually fatal. Plants should be discarded as soon as the seeds are dispersed, as the dying foliage becomes unsightly by August. They D. grandiflora - Yellow Foxglove - Frequently listed in nursery advertised frequently as a best treated as a biennial. The 2-inch pale yellow flowers have brown blotches in the throats, appear in July, and are not par- catalogs by the old feet and, although name, D. ambigua. It grows to a height of 3 true perennial, is ticularly striking. Sources 13,24,25,29,32,69, C,I,K - D. 'Mertonensis' nance Showiest and most nearly perennial a types commonly available. One of the best for garden. The Strawberry-red flowers appear on of all the low mainte3 to 3~%-foot June and July. Sources: 13,14,24,29,32,66,69, C,I stems in Digitalis purpurea 'Excelsior Hybrid' II 328 I Most effective of the D. purD. purpurea `Excelsior Hybrids' purea group because the flowers are borne all around the spike, rather than on one side. They come in many beautiful pastel shades of pink, mauve, yellow, and white with attractive deep mottling in the throat of each. They attain heights of 4 to 5 feet. The spirelike habit is most welcome in the garden during the month of June. Sources: 13,24,68,69; A,B,C,E,J,K,L - D. purpurea Hybrids,' are these `Shirley Hybrids' - The progenitors of the 'Excelsior come in the same array of colors, but the flowers borne on one side of the spike Sources: 13,23,24; C,E,I,K,L - only. D. purpurea `Hyacinth Hybrids' Similar to the 'Shirley Hybrids' with a color range including white, shell-pink, and deep rose. Throats of the flowers are mottled with crimson or chocolate. Source. 67 D. thapsi Although native to Spain, this species is quite hardy and has good perennial tendencies. It is fairly similar in appearance to the wild forms of D. purpurea. The flowers are basically cream-colored, suffused with Strawberry-pink. Plants grow to a height of 2~!~ to 3 feet. Source: 29 - ~ Doronicnw Doronicum, Leopardsbane Daisy Family (Compositae) These plants are valued for their 2 to 3-inch bright yellow, Daisy-like flowers in May. Apart from the display they make in the garden, the flowers are excellent for cutting purposes. Doronicums will tolerate a position either in full sun or partial shade, but the soil should be well supplied with humus for the root systems are quite shallow. The leaves begin to deteriorate, or disappear entirely, in midsummer so it is wise not to make large groupings. Although reputed to require division two or every years years, the plants may remain undisturbed for four in more. Division, when indicated, usually is done August or very early spring before new growth commences. Depending upon variety, Doronicums may be planted either at the front or middle of the border. Allow them to be close enough to plants with spreading foliage so that gaps will be filled in when the Doronicums disappear in summer. D. caucasicum - Caucasian Leopardbane - Flowers about 2 inches across, borne one to a stem. Stems about 12 to 15 inches 329 high when in flower. Leaves kidney-shaped, edges. Plants of low, creeping habit. Sources: serrated at the 3,14,66,67,68; A,K var. D. caucasicum magnificum - Flowers 2~'s inches. Otherwise about the same as the preceding. Sources: 24,39,66,69; I,J,L D. caucasicum 'Madam Mason' - Similar to D. caucasicum var. magnificum in flower, but the foliage tends to be somewhat more persistent in summer than D. that of the Sources: 13,32,59,66,67,68; C species. Showy Leopardsbane - Flowers up to 3 inches across on plants 3 to 5 feet. Very showy in flower, but considered coarse in overall appearance compared to the others. plantagineum - Source: 66 Several other species and cultivars of Doronicum are quently described in books on perennials. None of them pears readily available from nurseries at the present time. freap- Echinacea purpurea Purple or Hedgehog Coneflower Daisy Family (Compositae) In general appearance this plant is very stiff and coarse and is best seen naturalized well away from the perennial garden or more formal plantings It will vary in height from 3 to 5 feet and has large bristly leaves and purplish flowers with ray petals which droop in a rather unattractive manner. There are several named varieties which invariably are listed as cultivars of E. purpurea. Undoubtedly they are hybrids derived from crossing E. purpurea with several other species; they frequently are found in catalogs under Rudbeckia. All are much more refined in appearance, bloom over long periods in dry soil, and reach heights of 3 to 4 feet. They are best in well-drained, sandy soils in either full sun or light shade. The stems are very sturdy and staking is not required. Division after the fourth year often will be necessary. About their only real drawback is that the flowers are prone to attack by Japanese beetles; therefore Purple Coneflowers probably should not be grown extensively where these insects are a problem and spraying cannot be done regu- larly. Sources: 4,27,29,39,59,60; A,B,K,L 330 Echinacea purpurea - Purple Coneflower E. X 'Bright Star' - Bright rose-red, 2?to 3-inch, Daisy-like flowers with maroon-red centers; plants 2'!~ to 3 feet. I Sources: 24,67, E. X 'Robert Bloom' - Vigorous, freely branching plant, with flowers with orange centers. 2?!~ to 21\/~ to 3-inch 3 feet. carmine-purple Sources: 66,67 Echinops ritro - Steel Globe Thistle 331 3-inch coral-crimson flowers with brownish centers. 3 feet. Sources: 13,24,32,66,67,68, C,I E. X 'The King' - maroon or E. X 'White Lustre' ers. are - The only Blossoms heavily, even in times of quite coarse and the petals cultivar offered with white flowdrought, but the leaves are inclined to droop in an un- gainly manner. Sources: 13,24,32,66,67; C,I Echinops Globe Thistle Daisy Family (Compositae) If one is unfamiliar with the appearance of Globe Thistles, it would be prudent to observe them growing in a garden setting before deciding whether or not to obtain some plants. Some people object to the rather coarse general appearance and the harshness of the Thistle-like leaves. Others, including those who like to arrange cut flowers, prize the blue globular flowerheads which are made up of many spiny bracts and flowers. These appear in midsummer to early fall, are excellent for cutting, and may be dried easily for winter arrangements. The leaves are white on the undersurface and give character to the plant. Whatever one's opinion, these are bold plants which seldom fail to attract comment. 332 Although Globe Thistles will tolerate partial shade, a position in full sun gives best results. The soil should be well drained and need not be unusually fertile. Plants will endure considerable exposure to dry conditions, but prefer soil of average moisture retention; wet, soggy conditions should be avoided, however. Plants form dense clumps which never require staking. They best seen arranged in a fairly bold group of about three at the middle or rear of the border. Division is not necessary for many years, but is an arduous chore because established clumps have very extensive root systems about a foot deep. New plants will sprout up from old roots left in the ground so replanting is seldom necessary. are E. 'Taplow Blue' a heads with bushy, 4 to - The best cultivar. Rich steel-blue flower overcast, up to 3 inches in diameter. Plants 5 feet tall. Blooms in August. - silvery Sources: 3,13,21,24,32,67,69; C,I,L E. ritro Steel Globe Thistle Blue in color, on 3 to 5-foot plants. Sources: 39,45,46,66,68; A,B,E,J,L - flowers, somewhat variable E. sphaerocephalus gray ; plants Common Globe Thistle 5 to 6 feet tall. - - Flowers silvery- Source: 45 Epimedium Barrenwort, Bishop's Hat Barberry Family (Berberidaceae) This group is well known to a number of advanced gardeners, but has been neglected undeservedly by the majority of the gardening public in this country. Barrenworts' greatest value is as foliage plants. The delicate pinnate leaves are semi-evergreen in winter; new leaves in spring are pale green tinted with a delicate shade of rose, and often have pink veins. In summer they become a deep glossy green, mottled with purple in some varieties. The cooler weather of autumn brings out an attractive crimson coloration. The old foliage should be cut back to the ground in late winter or very early spring to enhance the beauty of newly unfolding leaves and to show off the flowers. Although these are small (about They are 1\/2-inch) they are as handsome as some orchids. cup-shaped with conspicuous long spurs, and are borne Epimedium grandiflorum stems 8 to 12 inches high. According to variety, colors may range from red to yellow, white, rose or lilac. Barrenworts are most accommodating in their ease of culture. Although most frequently grown in light shade, they will thrive at the front of the border in full sun if the soil is fairly moist during the summer months. In a shady position they will tolerate considerably drier conditions, but very dry places should be avoided. One of the great unsung virtues of the plants is their ability to grow at the base of a tree, a situation which few other perennials will tolerate due to root competition. Many perennial gardens are planned around small trees such as crab apples or magnolias, and underplanting often poses a problem. Epimedium is frequently the best plant to use, treated as a on numerous ground cover. are very long-lived plants and division will usually be necessary only for purposes of propagation. This is best done in early spring or early fall. Barrenworts are best seen planted in small groupings of at least three, spaced about 10 inches These 334 in a modest way, but never to the of becoming invasive, so it would be wise to allow at point least a foot of space around them to accommodate this tendency and prevent crowding by taller neighboring plants. Unfortunately, in the case of this group, incorrect names abound in the nursery trade. Although many others are described in text books, the following appear to be all that are offered at the present time by dealers in perennials. A few not listed here might be found in the catalogs of nurseries specializing in rock garden and alpine plants. apart. The plants spread E. grandiflorum 12 inches tall. var. album - Flowers white. Plants about 10 to Source: 66 E. grandiflorum 'Rose with white. Sources: 29,66 E. Queen' - Flowers bright rose, spurs tipped pinnatum - Flowers bright yellow with very short brownish- spurs. Plants 8 to 12 inches tall. Plants obtained from nurseries under this name are often the variety colchicum which has fewer leaflets than the species. Sources: 66,67 purple E. pinnatum 'Snow Queen' - Flowers white. Plants 10 inches tall. Source: 66 E. X rubrum (E. alpinum X E. grandiflorum) Large 1-inch bright crimson flowers, flushed yellow or white. The showiest variety in flower. New leaves red in spring. Sometimes listed under the name E. alpinus var. roseum. Sources: 13,32,67,68; C - versicolor 'Sulphureum' (E. grandiflorum X E. pinnatum colchicum), sometimes listed as E. pinnatum var. sulphureum or E. sulphureum - Flowers yellow. Leaves have a pinkish tinge in autumn. E. X var. Sources: 13,32,49,66,67,68,69; C var. E. X warleyense (probably E. alpinum X pinnatum col- chicum) - Sepals coppery-red, petals yellow, spurs yellow streaked with red. Plants about 12 inches high and quite vigorous of growth. Source: 68 335 E. X youngianum 'Niveum' (probably E. diphyllum X E. grandi- fiorum) - Flowers white. Sometimes listed as E. macranthum var. niveum. Plants about 9 to 10 inches and of compact habit. Sources: 13,49,66,67,68,69; C youngianum `Roseum' ( sometimes listed as E. macranthum lilacinum or E. lilacinum) Flowers clear purplish-mauve. Sources: 49,66,67, 68 E. X var. - E. 'White Flower Hybrid #1' - Flowers red and yellow. Source: 69 Erigeron Fleabane Daisy Family (Compositae) Although quite similar in flower to the Fall Asters, this group blooms earlier (June and early July) and does not need frequent division if the soil is light and sandy with good drainage. Diversity of color and height are far more restricted than with the Asters, but most varieties can be left in place for four years before clumps begin to deteriorate. They demand a position in full sun. Flowers are excellent for cutting; it is said that frequent removal of old blossoms will help to prolong the blooming season. Fleabanes are more appreciated in Europe, particularly England, than they are here. The lower growing cultivars frequently have been used in rock gardens; when brought into the perennial border, they are best planted in groups of at least three to produce a strong effect. Fleabanes are good plants to try where soils are relatively dry and infertile, otherwise there are many showier plants which bloom at the same time. 336 E. aurantiacus - Orange Daisy or Fleabane Semidouble, bright orange flowers up to 2 inches across in July and August on plants about 9 inches high. Perhaps the showiest of the in flower, but may not be quite as hardy as some of the group others. Sources: 24; I - Fleabane Narrow, violet-blue petals, yellow centers. Plants 18 inches to 2 feet tall. Bloom in late June and July, then with sporadic flowers to September. Sources: 69; J,K,L E. speciosus - Oregon - E. 'Double Beauty' Double violet-blue flowers with ters. Plants 18 to 24 inches tall. - yellow cen- Sources: 13,24,32; E. 'Foerster's C,I - Liebling' (also listed as 'Foerster's Darling') Flowers bright pink with yellow centers, semidouble. Plants 18 to 24 inches tall. Sources: 13,24,49,67,69; C,I E. 'Pink Jewel' Flowers Plants 18 to 24 inches tall. - lavender-pink with yellow centers. Source: G E. 'Prosperity' - Flowers mauve-blue, nearly double. Plants 18 inches tall. Sources: 24,66; I E. 'Red Beauty' Flowers 15 to 18 inches tall. - ruby-red with yellow centers. Plants Sources: 28; K E. compositus - to 6 inches tall. Fernleaf Fleabane - Flowers white. Plants 4 Blooms in early sring. More suited to the rock garden. Source: 29 E. linearis Narrow-Leaved Fleabane - Flowers 8 inches tall. More suited to the rock garden. Source. 29 - yellow. Plants Eryngium Sea Holly, Eryngo Family (Umbelliferae) Deserving of more frequent cultivation, these are ideal plants for sunny areas where the soil is sandy and remains dry, especially in winter. Carrot Eryngium planum 338 Thistle-like in appearance, usually are planted single specimen or in twos; they do not lend themselves to massing. Although they give a bold effect, it is not a coarse one. They are very long-lived. The species recommended here develop deep fleshy roots, and resent disturbance of any sort. They range from 1~!~ to 3 feet in height, the wiry stems do not require staking, and there are no insect or disease problems. The rather unorthodox flowers make interesting subjects for arrangements, and if picked when fully open, retain their color when dried. Sea Hollies are as a alpinum Bluetop Eryngo - Perhaps the most beautiful of the group, it is the only one that will tolerate light shade and somewhat heavier soil conditions. The 2-inch flower heads are a beautiful silvery-blue. The uppermost leaves or bracts just below the flower heads are pointed or jagged and have this color also. The lower leaves are deeply heart-shaped and toothed. Plants grow to a height of 18 to 20 inches; the flowers appear in August and last through September. Source: 29 E. - E. over amethystinum - Amethyst Sea Holly - Lower growing, not 1? ~ to 2 feet in height. The flowers, bracts, and upper stems leaves are The are steel-gray shading to amethyst in color. deeply cut and spiny. Blooms in July and August. Sources: 13,24,66,67,69; C,I Mediterranean Sea Holly bourgati bracts steel-blue. Plants about 1~!~ feet in E. - - height. Flowers and long Blooms from June E. to August. Source: 29 planum - Rounded, small blue flower heads on stems which branch more than the other species, thus are denser in growth. Plants grow to 3 feet in height and may require staking unless the soil is poor. Source: E E. 'Violetta'feet in height. Sources: 24; I Large violet-blue flowers. Plants about 2 to 21 ~ 339 Eupatorium coetestinum Mist Flower, Hardy Ageratum Only gardens one species in this genus is Daisy Family (Compositae) appropriate in the perennial are more suitable when naturalized in wild woodlands. E. coelestini~m is native from New Jersey to Florida and Texas, and its blue or lavender flowers can be used in the same manner as Asters to provide a contrast to the yellow, orange, and bronze colors of many autumn flowering plants. It resembles Ageratum when in bloom and some people will mistake it for that plant even though it flowers in late summer and is taller, growing to a height of 2 feet. The blossoms are excellent for cutting, and dry well if picked just before opening. Mist Flower does best in full sun in an ordinary well-drained garden soil, and also will tolerate partially shaded conditions. Plants spread rapidly by underground stems and will require division after the second or third year to keep them in bounds and in good appearance. They appear late in the spring, so early cultivation should be done with care. Sources. 24,39,59,66,69; B,G,I,K border, all others or --- -- E. coelestinum var. album - White-flowered form of the Sources. 39; B E. coelestinum 'Wayside form of the species with 14 inches in height. Sources: 13,32,67, C species. compact are Variety' - A somewhat more pale lavender flowers. Plants 12 to Euphorbia Several members of this areas Spurge Spurge Family (Euphorbiaceae) and varied family of both temof outstanding value in a low maintenance situation. They require full sun and a porous, somewhat sandy soil of ordinary fertility; if encouraged by anything more than a \"lean diet\" they may spread rapidly and lose their value. The varieties recommended here all are long-lived and dislike being transplanted. They appear to be immune to insect or disease problems. Flowers are relatively long lasting and make excellent subjects for arrangements if the cut ends of the stem are charred by a match and plunged into deep water. As with their well-known relatives, the Poinsettias, the true flowers appear in small clusters surrounded by the more showy petal-like leaves called bracts. large are perate and tropical 340 An American species which and produces numerous flowgrows er clusters with small white bracts in July and August. It is similar in appearance to Gypsophila (Baby's Breath), in blossom, and when cut the flowers have the same use. Gives a refined, lacy effect in the garden. The leaves turn red in the fall. I Sources: 24; E. corollata to a Flowering Spurge height of about 2 feet - - Almost always listed in Cushion Spurge nursery catalogs as E. polychroma, this is a neat, symmetrical, mound-like plant for the front of the border. It grows to a height of 1 to 1'<_~ feet and produces globular umbels of bright chartreuse-yellow bracts from the end of April through May. The leaves turn red in the fall. Sources: 13,14,24,32,57,59,66,67,68,69; A,C,I,K,L E. epithymoides - - Myrtle Euphorbia - Probably best as a rock garden plant, but of use at the front of a border if soil conditions are especially dry. This species produces stems about 1 to 1>; > feet long which are never over a few inches high because they trail over the ground. The leaves are blue-green and remain on the plant through the winter. Flowers appear in clusters at the ends of the stems in late April and early May. The plant selfsows, but seldom freely enough to become a nuisance. E. myrsinites - Sources: 32,66,67; L Filipendula, Meadow Sweet, Dropwort Rose Family (Rosaceae) Filipendulas are grown for their feathery terminal clusters of numerous small flowers. Some may be large plants 4 to 6 feet high and suitable only for the back of the border or in combination with shrubs; or in woodland or streamside plantings. The taller types require moist soils with a fairly high humus conFilipendula tent, and not some shade. These all are long-lived plants which do require frequent division. - F. hexapetala Dropwort - Seldom exceeds 2 feet in height and is the only Filipendula suited to the front of the border. Tolerates full sun and dry soil conditions. The finely divided fernlike foliage is especially pleasing and can be used to advantage to tone down the appearance of coarser plants. Creamy-white flower panicles are produced in June. Sources: 32,68 341 F. hexapetala `Flore-plena' - Double Dropwort- A form with double white flowers. Smaller in stature, about 15 to 18 inches tall, and suited to the front of the border. Sources: 4,32,66,67,68 F. purpurea `Elegans' as - (sometimes listed height of 2 to 4 feet white with bright red stamens. Sources: 32,66 - Japanese Meadow Sweet Grows to a palmata var. elegans) depending upon soil conditions. Flowers F. - cultivar of E. rubra One of the best back-of-theQueen-of-the-Prairie border plants. Grows from 4 to 6 feet tall and produces large terminal clusters of small pink flowers in June and July. Sources: 32,66 - F. rubra venusta Martha Washington Plume - Fragrant, flowers in 12-inch clusters in July and early August. deep pink Considered far superior to the species but presently difficult to obtain. Source: 66 var. - Queen-of-the-Meadow - Another tall species which will reach 4 feet in height under good conditions. Fragrant white flowers from mid-June to mid-July. This is a Eurasian species which is now rather widely naturalized in parts of New England. It does not seem to be available at the present time, but the following cultivars can be recommended. F. ulmaria - F. ulmaria 'Aurea Variegata' - A rare form with leaves varie- gated with creamy-yellow. Source: 32 F. ulmaria 'Flore-Plena'- Double-flowered form of the preced- ing. Sources: 32,66 Gaillardia Blanket Flower Daisy Family (Compositae) can cause great disappointment unless they are very well-drained soil. Many types sprawl unless staked early, and the best ones are seldom very hardy. Some people are greatly attached to the bright colors of the Daisy-like flowers; others think them too gaudy. Many varieties have an extended period of blossom throughout the summer, but because Gaillardias a grown in 342 of their tendency - they cannot to be only temporary residents of the be recommended here. - garden, Common Perennial Gaillardia The principal parG. aristata ent of the modern cultivars. Native in the western U.S.A. Flowers basically yellow, but may have purple to red blotches at the base of the petals. Source: 46 G. 'Baby Cole' Probably the best of all the cultivars, haps more permanent than most. The dwarfest, plants high. Large red flowers, tipped with yellow. - and per6 inches Sources: 24,29,60, I,K G. `Burgundy' - Large wine-red flowers up to 3 inches 30-inch plants. Sources: 3,13,25,30,39,49,68,69, A,B,C,E,K,L across. 343 G. 'Dazzler' Bright, golden-yellow flowers with Plants 2 to 3 feet tall. Sources: 3,25,58,68, B,E,J,K,L - maroon centers. G. 'Goblin' Flowers deep red with Plants 1 foot tall. Sources: 3,13,49,68,69, A,B,C,E,K - yellow tips on the petals. G. 'Portola'- A strain raised from seed. Flowers in various binations of red and yellow. Plants about 30 inches tall. Sources: 69; K - com- height. G. 'Sun Dance' Dwarf, compact plants about 8 inches in Red centers and petals which have yellow tips. Source: 67 G. 'Yellow Queen' feet tall. Sources: 67, L - Buff or chamois-yellow flowers Plants 2 Geranium Geranium is Cranesbill Family (Geraniaceae) Sometimes confused with Pelargonium (whose common name Geranium), this is a showy group of great value for summer bedding and as pot plants. True geraniums come from temperate parts of the world. A number of the handsome species are hardy as far north as Boston and among them are several which adapt well to low maintenance plantings. They are low mound-like plants, seldom over a foot high and best for positions at the front of the perennial garden. The lower growing varieties are highly adaptable to rock garden conditions. Blooming is best in full sun, but results are nearly as good in partial shade. Flowers vary in size from an inch to nearly 2 inches and are produced fairly freely throughout most of the summer. Rampant growth is encouraged by an overly fertile soil. All species discussed here can be left undivided for a minimum of four years, often longer. When the clumps begin to deteriorate, division is best performed in the spring. Lilac-colored flowers with dark red G. cinereum 'Ballerina' veins and center. Plants 4 inches high. - Sources: 24; I G. cinereum across 'Splendens' - Screeching magenta with dark blotches at the base of each petal. flowers 1 inch Flowers Gaillardia aristata cultivar I freely all summer. Source: 69 G. dalmaticum freely in May and - 344 Plants 3 to 4 inches. Light pink flowers with deeper veins; produced June. Plants 4 inches. Sources: 13,24,32,39,49,58,66,67,69; C,I,J,L var. album - White-flowered form of the ing species, very pale pink at the center. Sources: 13,66,69; C G. dalmaticum - preced- Much taller in stature, 15 to 18 inches, and can G. endressii be used further back in the border. Flowers light rose with somewhat darker veins. Cut back after the first flowering in May for more flowers late in the summer. The two cultivars which follow are better color forms than the species. Sources: 32,49 G. endressii 'Johnson's Blue'- Good heavily produced but may not last cies. Plants 15 to 18 inches. Sources: 67,68 G. endressii over as light blue. Flowers very long in bloom as the spe- 'Wargrave Pink' summer. most of the Flowers clear pink, Plants 15 to 18 inches. - produced Sources: G. 13,67; C - grandiflorum - See G. meeboldii - G. ibericum Iberian Cranesbill Violet-blue flowers with darker veins. Blossoms during June and July. Plants 2 feet in height when in flower. Source: 67 G. meeboldii is, Lilac Cranesbill The recent change of name perhaps, unfortunate for a plant so firmly entrenched in garden circles as G. grandiflorum, (as it is listed in all catalogs.) - to 2-inch magenta flowers with reddish veins; blooms into July. 18 to 24 inches in height when in flower. InMay dividual plants form clumps about a foot wide. Sources: 3,24,32,67,69; I Large 1''-. G. meeboldii to true blue. var. Flowers 1'= inches alpinum Plants about 12 inches high with - across deeply and close lobed fo- liage. Sources: 13; C,K Geranium sanguineum var. prostratum 346 G. meeboldii 'Plenum' - Double purple-blue flowers in May and June. Sources: 13,49,66; C sanguineum - Bloodred Geranium, Bloody Cranesbill Forms large clumps 1'!> to 2 feet in diameter. Fine in an ordinary situation, but excessive spreading is encouraged by overly rich soil conditions. Flowers purple-red from May to August. Deep red autumn foliage coloration. Plants about 12 inches G. high Sources: 4,32,66 G. sanguineum var. aLbum - White-flowered form of the pre- ceding species. Sources: 3,32,68 Often listed in catalogs as G. G. sanguinPU~n var. lancastniense. Much more compact in growth than the species and not as rampant. About 6 inches in height. Bright pink blossoms with reddish veins. Flowers most of the summer. G. sanguineum var. prostratum - lazzcastriense or Sources: 1,3,13,24,32,59,66,68; C,I Geum Rose Geum. Avens Family (Rosaceae) Geums have had a bad name among some gardeners in the Boston area. Many people have heard glowing reports of the wonderful flower colors but have been dismayed when their newly acquired plants died during the first winter. G. coccaneurn, a species with bright orange-red flowers, is native to Asia Minor and Southern Europe. Breeders have selected hardy forms of this and crossed them with a somewhat less hardy species, G. chiloense (the Scarlet Avens from Chile), to produce a remarkably showy and valuable group of cultivars These are relatively hardy in our area and do not require the bi~ ennial divisions necessary to maintain some of the older selections which are seldom available today. Despite this, Geums cannot be recommended for general use here, for not all gardeners will succeed with this group. Geums prefer a spot in full sun and a well-drained soil which contains as much organic matter as possible for moisture retention in the summer. Soggy winter conditions are fatal. The plants are slow to increase in size, and may not produce a great show of either leaves oi flowers until the second or third year. The cultivars discussed here will go for many years before division is necessary for purposes of rejuvenation. Plants usually attain a height of 2~!~ to 3 feet. They are most 347 effective in groups of three planted 12 to 18 inches apart. Geums bloom freely from about mid-May to August, and intermittently thereafter if seed formation is prevented by removing the faded flowers. Best in rock garG. X borisii (G. bulgaricum X G. reptans ) dens. Does not tolerate heat or dry conditions. Flowers bright orange-scarlet. Plants 8 inches in height. Sources: 4,13,32,49,66; C - G. 'Fire Opal' - 21~_~ to 3-inch brilliant red flowers with bronze overtones. Sources: 13,32,66, C G. 'Golden Sunset' Source: 67 - Semidouble golden-orange flowers. golden-yellow flowers. flowers. G. 'Lady Stradheden' Sources. 24,60,66,69, G. 'Lamb's 8 inches in Source: 32 - Semidouble A,B,I,J,K,L - Spectacular' Bright golden-yellow Plants height. G. 'Mrs. Bradshaw' - Semidouble scarlet flowers. Sources: 3,24,49,59,60,67,69; A,B,I,J,K,L G. 'Princess Juliana' Sources: 13,32,66, C G. 'Red Wings' Source: 32 - - Semidouble, bronzy-orange flowers. Semidouble scarlet flowers. Double G. 'Starker's Magnificent' Sources: 24,32,66, I G. 'Wilton Ruby' Sources: 13; C - apricot-orange flowers. - Glowing ruby-red flowers. Baby's Breath, Chalk Plant Carnation Family (Caryophyllaceae) The second common name and the generic name, derived from the Greek word which means lime-loving, give one of the main clues to success with this group. It is wise to have the soil tested before attempting to grow Gypsophila; if the reaction is lower than pH6, ground limestone should be applied to bring it up to pH7 or pH7.5. One other condition is equally as necessary if success is to be achieved: Gypsophila will not overwinter in moist soggy soils and a well-drained sunny situation is essential. Care should be taken in choosing a good location because all except the dwarf cultivars of Baby's Breath take up Gypsophila 348 lot of room. Once established, they should not be moved as the thick fleshy roots resent disturbance. These may seem rather exacting requirements for a plant that is included in a list of maintenance-free garden subjects. These requisites are, however, relatively simple if properly understood ; and once established Gypsophila can be expected to grow for years with little further attention if it receives the necessary dose of ground limestone from time to time. A position in full sun is desirable, but light shade during part of the day is also acceptable. In our area it is wise to protect the plants with a winter mulch. This, however, should not cover the crown lest rotting occur before the ground becomes completely frozen. a paniculata Baby's Breath Single, white-flowered form. Plants grow to a height of 3 feet or more with a similar spread. In July masses of flowers are produced in large panicles. These are excellent for cutting and, if picked when fully open, are easily dried by placing the stems upside-down in a shady, wellventilated place. This applies to cultivars of G. paniculata as well. Plants take at least two years to become established; spring planting is favored so they will have the benefit of an entire growing season before winter arrives. Sources: 3,25,46; E,J,K G. - The most popular, and perhaps the best cultivar. The double white flowers are freely produced in July and again in August to October if the old flowers are removed. It is a large plant; established specimens often will cover an area 4 feet wide. This and the other cultivars are grafted onto roots of G. paniculata, and it is advisable that the graft union be set at least 1 inch below the soil line. This will encourage roots from the stems and possibly help to keep them from flopping. Even so, the taller varieties often require staking as soon as the growth starts to appear. (See section on staking.) Sources: 3,13,23,24,25,28,32,37,44,58,59,60,67,68,69; B,C,G,I, G. paniculata 'Bristol Fairy' - J,K,L G. paniculata 'Compacta' to 3 flowers. Plants 2 Sources: 37,67 G. A smaller form with single white feet in height with a similar width. - paniculata `Compacta Plena' - Double white-flowered form of the preceding. Sources: 13; C,H,L Gypsophila paniculata lilies. 'Bristol Fniry' planted too close to a clump of Day- G. paniculata 'Perfecta' Double white flowers up to twice the size of those of G. 'Bristol Fairy'. Plants of compact habit, about 3 to 4 feet in height and up to 3 feet wide. Sources: 3,7,24,32,67,69; I - G. repens Creeping Baby's Breath - Trailing, nearly prostrate plants with 12 to 18-inch stems bearing masses of white flowers in early summer. Cultivars of this species are hardier - than those of G. paniculata. Suited to the front of the border, but have many other uses in rock gardens or on dry walls. Sources: 3,69; B,J,K G. repens `Rosea' Rosy pink flowers. Plants about 6 inches. Sources: 3,4,13,24,29,59,68,69; A,B,C,E,I,J,L - 350 G. repens 'Rosy Veil' (syn. 'Rosenschlier') - Delicate, double, soft pink to white clusters of flowers on interwoven stems; blooms June to August. Grows in an erect manner to a height of 18 inches. Due to the tangled stems, it is not good for cut flowers, but in all other respects is a fine border plant. Although commonly classed as a cultivar of G. repens, it may be a hybrid. Sources: 3,24,32.59; G. X H,I - Similar in 'Bodgeri' (G. repens 'Rosea' X G. paniculata) overall appearance to cultivars of G. paniculata but considerably more compact. Semidouble white flowers, often with a pinkish tinge, in late May through June. Thoroughly hardy. Excellent for cut flowers. Sources: 24,32,68; I G. 'Pink Fairy' Usually offered as a cultivar of G. paniculata. Double pink flowers which are produced for most of the summer. Plants 18 inches to 2 feet in height. Sources: 7,13,24,37,44,58,60,69; B,C,G,I,J,K,L - G. 'Pink Star' - Usually offered as a cultivar of G. paniculata. Double pink flowers. Plants about 18 inches in height. Sources: 25,28,32,67,68 G. oldhamiana - Pale pink flowers in dense clusters in August and September. Plants about 3 feet in height. Not superior to any of the above, and inclined to flop. Sources: 4,46 G. Double-flowered form which perhaps 'Flamingo' the above species. Flowers pink with tints of mauve. Sources: 13,24,59; C,I - belongs to Helenium Sneezeweed, Helen's Flower Daisy Family (Compositae) Cultivars of our native H. autumnale have long been considered valuable for fall color in the border. Some cultivars grow from 4 to 6 feet tall and must be divided, if not every other year, then every third year, to maintain any semblance whatever of tidiness. The few available cultivars under 2?!~ feet may go for longer periods, and do not require staking as the taller ones do. For this reason they are useful in the low maintenance garden as a partial substitute for Chrysanthemums. They blossom throughout most of the late summer and autumn, with numerous small, Daisy-like flowers in shades ranging through yellow and red to bronze. 351 Helenium 'Butterpat' with underplanting of hardy Chrysanthemums. 352 A position in full sun is necessary. Plants perform poorly in dry soils; those of moderate fertility and high organic content matter will produce the best results. Sneezeweeds are remarktolerant of wet soil conditions during the growing season. Division to rejuvenate the plants should be done after the fourth year. The cultivars recommended here are best seen in groups of three planted 18 to 20 inches apart at the front or middle of the border. ably H. The tallest variety recommended. autumnale 'Brilliant' About 3 feet in height with strong stems. Source: 69 - H. autumnale 'Moerheim Beauty' - Deep bronze-red flowers in July and August. Plants 21\/> feet in Sources: 13; C H. height. Orange Sneezeweed - Unlike the cultivars of H. this species blooms in May and June with large autumnale, orange flowers. It will tolerate light shade. Plants 2 feet in hoopsei - height. Sources: E,L H. autumnale 'Pumilum Magnificum' - Deep yellow flowers from late July through Sources: 32,67 September on plants 12 to 18 inches tall. H. autumnale - 4 to 6 feet under garden conditions. Flowers yellow. Sources: 14,39 H. 'Bruno'- Flowers deep mahogany-red in August and September. Plants up to 4 feet high. Sources: 25,66,67; K Flowers yellow. Plants 3 to 4 feet in height. H. 'Butterpat' Sources: 13,25,66,67,68,69; C,K H. 'Chippersfield Orange' - Flowers copper to gold with markings of crimson. Plants 4 feet in height. Source: 67 - Heliopsis Heliopsis, Hardy Zinnia, Orange Sunflower Daisy Family (Compositae) At the middle or rear of the border, these plants are of value for their bright color and long blooming season. Semidouble or double bright yellow to orange flowers which are up to 3 to 4 across inches appear in midsummer and fall and are excellent I 353 for cutting. Plants are stems which do not usually topple. 3 feet in height, with strong About the only requirements are a position in full sun and soil that is moderately rich and does not dry out during the summer months. During periods of drought, frequent irrigation is advisable. If one's soil conditions are poor and dry, it probably would be better to avoid this group. H. 'Golden Plume' inch flowers which greenish. June Sources: to (`Goldgefieder') Bright yellow, nearly 3are almost fully double; the centers are September. Plants 3 to 31\/> feet in height. - I 24; H. 'Gold Greenheart' Completely height. with emerald-green centers. double bright yellow flowers As the flowers age, the green dis_ appears. Plants 3 feet in Sources: 13,68,69; C H. 4-inch golden-yellow, semidouble September. Plants 3 feet in height. July Source: 69 H. scabra `Incomparabilis' Deep yellow semidouble with dark centers and overlapping petals. Plants 3 height. `Hohlspiegel' to - flowers. - flowers feet in Sources: H. 'Karat' 32,60,66,67,69; L - Single deep yellow flowers. Plants 4 feet in height. Source: 69 H. 'Summer Sun' - Double in height. Sources: 13,24,67; A,C,I,K golden yellow flowers. Plants 3 feet Helleborous Hellebore Buttercup Family (Ranunculaceae) Depending upon weather conditions and species selected, this is a small group of perennial plants which will bloom anytime from about mid-November to May. The Christmas Rose, H. niger has a time span between November and April in periods when the ground is free of snow. The Lenten Rose, H. orientalis and its cultivars are later, from about early March to May. The exact timing depends upon weather and may vary from year to year. 354 of the word \"Rose\" in the common names may be These are not shrubs, but true herbaceous perennials about 15 inches in height with lustrous, leathery, dark evergreen leaves. The flowers are borne several to a stem and vary between 2 and 5 inches in diameter. The five large petallike sepals surround a conspicuous center of yellow stamens. These are plants which should be seen at close range to be fully appreciated; moreover, because of the time of the year in which they flower, a location close to a walk, patio, or a prominent part of the perennial or shrub border should be chosen. An area where the plants will receive partial shade in the summer and some sun in winter is best. The soil should be well drained, but not dry; this usually will necessitate the addition of organic matter. Highly acid soils are unsatisfactory and should be limed to bring the pH to around 6.5 or 7. Hellebores will benefit from the addition of about a handful of ground limestone around each plant every third or fourth year. If the above conditions can be provided, culture is simple, and the plants will be very long-lived. They resent disturbance and take several years to form sizeable clumps. Spring is the best time for planting and the crown should be covered with about an inch of soil. A mulch is recommended to keep the plants evenly moist during the summer months, and irrigation will be necessary in times of drought. The life of the flowers can be prolonged by covering the plants with a small frame of plastic which is open at the base or ends to allow free circulation of air. This will help to keep ice and snow from the blossoms and prevent mud from being splashed onto them. The flowers are excellent for cutting and most valuable considering the time when they are in bloom. Char the base of the stems with a flame immediately after cutting. The use misleading. The Latin name Christmas Rose, Black Hellebore and the second common name refer to the black roots, not the flowers. The latter are white, faintly flushed with pink as they age, and borne one to three per stem. They may vary between 2 and 4 inches in diameter. The leaf margins have sparse, coarse teeth. Sources: 13,23,24,32,59,66,67,68,69; C,I,L H. niger - - H. are niger var. altifolius - A very desirable variety. larger, up than those of the species. Sources: 30,32,60 to 5 inches across, on stems an The flowers inch or 2 taller I - 355 H. orientalis Lenten Rose - A very variable species. Flowers are 2 to 3 inches in diameter and come in shades from white to chocolate-brown, purple, and rarely green. The leaves green and the are a paler margins bear numerous small serrated teeth. Sources: 59,66 The petals greenish and purple on easier to transplant than other varieties. H. orientalis 'Atrorubens' - are chocolate-purple on the inside, and the outside. Said to be Sources: 13,24,67; C,I - A group having 2 to 3-inch flowH. orientalis `Millet Hybrids' ers in colors ranging from pure white, to pink, red, and choco- late. Some Source: 32 are speckled and striped. Hemerocallis - Hybridizers have produced so many perfect plant for the low maintenance problem is knowing which varieties to choose. In general, the plants are nearly indestructible if placed in a reasonably fertile soil in sun or partial shade; excessive fertility will lead to rank growth and poor flowering. Soils which are fairly well supplied with organic matter and do not remain soggy for long periods will produce best results. Planting is best done in the spring at distances of about 2 feet to allow for expansion of the clumps. Although Daylilies have the reputation of being able to remain nearly forever without being divided, the most vigorous, heavy-flowering clumps are obtained when the plants About the only are divided at intervals of four to six years. other work is the removal of the flower stems once the blossoms have faded. These present rather an ugly appearance if left to dry on the plants. Daylilies now can be obtained in almost any color of the rainbow; some varieties often combine two or more colors or hues. Flowers range in size from 3 to 8 inches across and may have a single ring of petals, or a double row of overlapping petals. When plants are in bloom, heights may range from about 20 inches to 4 or 5 feet according to variety. With careful selection it is now possible to obtain a flowering span from May to October. Daylily Lily Family (Liliaceae) cultivars of this nearlygarden that the greatest - - 356 Above. Hemerocallis - A~z unnamed ban Boston garden. hybrid seedling growing in a subur- Right. Hemerocallis 'First Choice' 357 presently given by Hemerocallis fanciers group called the tetraploids. These are varieties whose chromosome numbers have been doubled and, in general, are more robust and have larger flowers than the standard or diploid varieties. At present, the former fall into the category of \"collectors items\" due to their relative scarcity and very high prices ($100.00 and frequently much more is not an uncommon price for a newly-introduced tetraploid cultivar.) Ordinary gardeners will want to select from the more reasonably Much attention is to a relatively new priced diploids. Many hundreds are of varieties are listed by nurseries, and there nurseries which specialize in Hemerocallis exclusivemany ly. It would be very difficult to choose the best moderately priced varieties to grow today if it were not for the Popularity Poll published in the December issue of the Hemerocallis Journal. Daylily fanciers throughout the country have sent in lists of what they consider the best cultivars. 358 I following eight cultivars received the largest number of the New England Region in December 1973. These are listed in order of popularity: H. 'Mary Todd' Large 6-inch, ruffled, golden-yellow flowers with very wide petals. 24 to 26 inches in height. Tetraploid. The votes in - Sources: 35,54,66 H. 'Winning Ways' - 6 green throats. greenish-yellow flowers with Wide, overlapping petals. 32 to 34 inches in to 8-inch height. Diploid. Sources: 54,56,66; M H. 'Catherine Delicate 6-inch, light orchid flowers Woodberry' with green throats. 30 inches in height. Diploid. Sources: 56,66 - H. 'Hortensia' - 5-inch medium yellow, waxy flowers with rufin fled, crimped borders. Greenish-yellow throats. 34 inches height. Diploid. Sources: H. 40,66;M - 6-inch pinkish-red flowers with small yel'Cherry Cheeks' low throats. Quite velvety in texture. 28 to 30 inches in height. Tetraploid. Sources: 56,66 H. 'Heavenly Harp' - Polychrome type of flower, basically overlaid with gold, and with bright pink ribs and a flush of intense rose-pink at the tips of the petals. Very ruffled. 28 to 32 inches in height. Tetraploid. Sources: 35,40,56,66; M creamy-yellow H. `Ice Carnival' - Icy and crisp, small green throats. 28 inches in Sources: 54,66, M - near-white, 6-inch flowers with height. Diploid. flow- H. 'Little Wart' ers Attractive with green throats. 18 to 24 inches in Sources: 35,54,61 deep lavender-purple, 3?!~-inch height. Diploid. Other cultivars well suited to our area, which ranked the national polls are as follows: H. 'Little Rainbow' - high in Polychrome blend of colors. Basically creamy-yellow overlaid height. Diploid. Sources: 40,54,56,66 with hues of bright pink. 26 inches in 359 H. 'Renee' ly Diploid. Clear, pale yellow, 3'!~-inch flowers which are nearcircular in form. Small green throats. 28 inches in height. - Sources: 40,55; M - H. 'Perennial Pleasure' Fragrant height. Diploid. Sources: 54,66 H. 'Lavender sun. and remain open into the Bright yellow, 6-inch evening. ruffled flowers. 26 inches in Flight' - 6','a-inch deep fled, wide petals, yellowish-green throats. Hold color well 34 inches in Sources: 35; M lavender flowers with rufin hot height. Diploid. 30 to H. 'Sail On' - Bright red flowers of very firm substance. 34 inches in height. Diploid. _- Source. 66 Heuchera Coral Bells, Alum Root Saxifrage Family (Saxifragaceae) These are excellent plants with few troubles, and capable of being left in place at least five years or longer before division will perform well in light shade. Soil shculd be well drained both in summer and winter, but should have sufficient humus so that it does not dry out quickly in the summer. Despite their long, fleshy roots, plants are very subject to being heaved out of the ground during periods of alternate freezing and thawing in late winter. To help alleviate this, the crowns should be set an inch below the soil level and mulching is advisable. Because of the heaving tendency, spring planting is preferred so that as large a root system as possible will be produced before winter. Divide only when the clumps become old and woody and flower production is scanty. Heucheras produce numerous dainty, pendent, bell-shaped flowers on stems 15 inches to 2? ~ feet. Colors range from white to pink and vivid deep red. The blossoming period in June and July can be prolonged somewhat by removing the faded flower stalks and watering during dry periods. Flowers are excellent for cutting. The leaves are evergreen, and in some cultivars they are marbled with patches of bronze. The modern cultivars are mainly derived from crossing H. sanguinea and some of its cultivars with H. micrantha. Al- 360 though tivars several of the species are are superior is but a vars are being in flower. offered in this offered in catalogs, all the culApproximately 30 named cultiat country the present time; the following H. selection: A strain of mixed colors in shades coral-red in May. Flowers stems 2 feet in - 'Bressingham Hybrids' from white to pink to height. Sources: 24,32,67; A,B,I H. 'Brizoides' Small, soft inches in height. Sources: 13; C,J,L - pink flowers on stems 20 to 24 H. 'Chartreuse' Flowers soft chartreuse, an unusual color in this group. Stems about 20 inches in height. Source: 67 - H. 'Chatterbox' Deep rose-pink I,J,K flowers. Stems 18 inches in height. Sources: 24,49,66; H. 'Fire Sprite' - Large rose-red flowers. Source: 67 H. 'Freedom' - Rose-pink flowers. Stems 18 inches in 361 height. Sources: 32,67,68 - H. 'June Bride' Large pure white flowers on Pink flowers 15-inch stems. Source: 67 H. 'Peachblow' - tipped with white. flowers on Source: 32 H. `Pluie de Feu' - Cherry-red stems about 18 inches high. Sources: 3,24,68,69; I,L H. `Rosamundi' Probably the best coral-pink variety for those who wish Coral Bells. Stems 15 to 18 inches in height. Sources: 3,13,23,24,66,67; C,I - H. 'Scarlet Sentinel' - 30-inch stems. Very Sources: 29,32,66 H. 'Snowflakes' - Large scarlet-red showy in flower. flowers on strong 24 to Large white flowers. Sources: 3,32 H. 'Splendens' - Bright scarlet-red flowers on 28-inch stems. A,I Flowers white to cream - Sources: 4,24,68; H. 'White Cloud' stems. in color on 18-inch Sources: 13,24,49,69; C,I,J,L _ _ - __~_ Hibiscus The numerous Hardy Hibiscus, Rose Mallow Hibiscus Family (Malvaceae) cultivars which have arisen from the selection H. moscheutos and H. palustris are not frequently seen in the Boston area even though most of them are perfectly hardy. This is strange because the equally showy, tropical representatives of this genus, so frequently associated with Florida or Hawaii, are featured in many amateur greenhouses. Some of the new cultivars display gigantic flowers up to 10 and 12 inches across, making them the largest flowered herbaceous perennials that can be grown in this area. Some people object to the size and bright colors as being too gaudy; but when plants are grown as single specimens in the mixed border, striking effects can be achieved. The largest flowers are produced and crossing of Foliage of Heuchera sanguinea 362 the beginning of the blooming season in midsummer. By fall the flowers are usually smaller by about 2 inches. Hardy Hibiscus are of very easy culture. They are the perfect answer to locations that are too moist for most other herbaceous perennials to survive; conversely, they will grow perfectly well in an ordinary well-drained garden soil. In moist areas heights may range from 5 to 8 feet, but in drier soils 3 to 5 feet is about average, depending on cultivar. Full sun is preferred. These are quite long-lived plants that resent disturbance. About their only fault is that the flowers are attractive to Japanese Beetles. It is fortunate that the blossoming period of most of the varieties extends well after the worst of the beetle population is gone. In wet areas self-seeding may occur freely, and if the named varieties are to be perpetuated, it would be best to remove all seedlings. at Hibiscus 'White Beauty' Hibiscus 'Appleblossom' attacked by Japanese Beetles. \" Some nurseries list a selection of unnamed varieties under such names as Mallow Marvels Mixed or Giant Mix. The following sources are for named varieties only: H. 'Albino' - Flowers pure white. Flowers - - - Source: 37 H. `Appleblossom' 2,66 - - light pink margined with deeper rose-pink. Crinkly petals. Sources : H. 'Brilliant' Source: 37 Flowers bright red. H. 'Cotton Candy' Source. 67 - Flowers soft pink. H. 'Crimson Wonder' - Flowers rich red. Sources: 60,66,67; M - H. 'Intense Pink' Flowers rose-pink, brighter pink veins. Sources: 67; M 364 H. 'Pink Giant' - Flowers large pale pink with a small red throat. Source: 67 H. 'Pink Princess' - Flowers clear pink. - Source: 37 H. 'Raspberry Rose' Flowers deep rose-pink with a bright red throat. Source: 2 H. 'Ruby Dot' Sources: 60,67 - Flowers white with a ruby-red throat. H. `Ruflled White' - crimson throat. Petals Source: 2 H. 'Satan' - Smaller than usual. White flowers with crinkly at the edges. a Large brilliant fire engine-red flowers. - Sources: 2,23,66,67 H. 'Snow White' Flowers pure white with - a cream throat. Sources: 23,67 H. 'Strawberry Blonde' Flowers bright deep pink, not as large of the others. Source: 67 as some H. 'Super Clown' - Very large creamy-white flowers shaded rose- pink. Sources: 2; M H. `Super Red' - Medium size dark red flowers. Source: 2 H. Flowers rose-pink. 'Super Rose' Sources: 23,48,60; M - Plantain-lily, Hosta, Funkia Lily Family (Liliaceae) If given a proper location as regards both soil and light, this group can rank high amongst those to delight the gardener who cannot spend a lot of time pampering his plants. A moderately rich soil with partial shade (preferably the shade of high trees) is about all that Hostas require to develop into majestic, eye-catching specimens. They will survive in almost any Hosta Hosta Collection of the Arnold Arboretum at the Case Estates in Weston, Mass. Photo: P. Bruns. 366 are best in one well-supplied with organic matWet soil conditions should be avoided. A visit to the Hosta collection at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum can be a rewarding experience for most visitors are unaware of the exciting range of variations in the group. This special planting is one of the most extensive collections of Hostas in this part of the country. The most demanding seasonal task with Hostas is the removal of the flower stems once the blooming period has finished. They not only are unattractive when they dry out, but should not be allowed to go to seed; most named varieties do not reproduce true to type and the resulting seedlings can be a distinct nuisance. Nonetheless some of the best cultivars on the market today have arisen as chance seedlings in just this way. There is little doubt that most Hosta cultivars are seen to best advantage if planted singly as specimen plants rather than being massed. In this way the handsome radial symmetry of the individual plants can be appreciated. Some of the more vigorous varieties will eventually occupy up to 3 to 4 feet of space in the garden and this must be taken into account at planting time. Some types make excellent ground covers, but the symmetrical effect is sacrificed. H. undulata with its white and green wavy leaves has been used extensively for this purpose, perhaps overly so, and is often seen growing in the full sun - a condition not tolerated well by most other species. The taxonomy of Hosta is confused, and synonyms and incorrect names abound in the trade. The following is a selection of the many varieties offered. It should be noted here that they fall into two different groups: some grown for the interesting leaves only, and others for their flowers as well. If the latter are of primary interest, choices from this list will provide a period of blossom from late June into September. type of soil, but ter. H. albomarginata (syn. H. lancifolia var. albo-marginata) - This is a rather small plant. Clumps spread to about 2 feet. Leaves lance-shaped, with very narrow, pure white borders sometimes marked by short stripes running toward the center. Flowers are pale lilac on stems about 2 feet in height. Blooms in August. Sources: 7,20,21,24,32,51,67,68; B,I,J White Rim Plantain-lily - H. decorata Blunt Plantain-lily (syn. H. 'Thomas Hogg') Similar to H. albomarginata in size and leaf coloration. Leaves are oval with blunt tips, about 6 inches long, with a prominent - - 367 silvery margin. Flowers are dark lilac blooming. Plants form 2-foot mounds. Sources: H. on 2-foot stems; August 3,7,13,21,32,46,49,51,58,61,66,67; C - Plantain-lily Leaves are 5 to 8 inches and quite glaucous. Flowers are white to lavenlong, pale green der, almost 1',inches long, on 3-foot stems in August. Sources: 7,21,24,51,66,67,69; J fortunei -Fortune's H. A very large form of the preceding with leaves up to 12 inches. Mature clumps may reach up to 5 feet in diameter and are just the thing for a really bold fortunei var. gigantea - species accent. Sources: 51,61,66 H. fortunei `Marginata-alba' - Irregular shiny Yellow borders white bands around the leaf Sources: 7,61 H. edges. - fortunei 'Marginata-aurea' I 24,61; on the leaves. Sources: Overleaf top left. Hosta plantaginea Bottom left. Hosta sieboldiana 'Frances Williams' Top right- Hosta sieboldiana Bottom right: An effective groupxng of Hostas illustrating their diversity of texture, leaf form, and flower. 1 370 6Narrow-leaved or Japanese Plantain-lily inch-long lance-shaped leaves forming dense clumps about 2 feet across. Pale lilac flowers on 2-foot stems in August. H. lancifolia - - Sources: 13,21,24,49,51,61,68,69; H. B,C,I,J,L - Fragrant Plantain-lily Grown especially for the flowers which are white and trumpet-like up to 4 inches long. These appear in late August and September on 2-foot stems and are very fragrant. Clumps grow to a width of 3 feet. Shiny, rounded, pale - plantaginea (syn. H. subcordata, H. grandiflora) green leaves. Sources: 7,13,21;23,32,46,51,61,66,67,68; C,L - Blue-leaved or Siebold Plan(syn. H. glauca) and its cultivars are grown for the retain-lily species markably large, heavy-textured leaves, often crinkled somewhat H. sieboldiana The like seersucker. The leaves are gray-green with a bluish cast; usually up to 12 inches in length. The flowers are white, appear in July and are usually pretty much hidden amongst the foliage. Plants develop into clumps about a yard in width. Sources: 3,4,7,13,21,32,49,51,59,61,66,67,68; C,J,L H. sieboldiana 'Frances Williams' (syn. H. sieboldiana 'Yellow One of the most deEdge' or H. sieboldiana aureo-marginata) - sirable of all cultivars. The rounded in shades of cream and yellow. Sources: H. glaucous leaves are bordered 7,21,32,51,61,66 - var. tardiflora) Autumn PlanOf interest for its very late deep lavender-purple tain-lily flowers in October. The plants are quite diminutive for the group, only 12 inches wide at maximum with a similar height. Sources: 7,32,61,66 tardi~Lora (syn. H. lancifolia - H. media picta, H. variegata) - Wavyleaf The leaves have wavy margins and are variePlantain-lily gated white on green. The flowers appear in July on 3-inch stems and are pale lavender. Plants are about 20 inches in width. This is the species that is perhaps the most familiar, having been used extensively as an edging plant for borders and walks. Withstands conditions in full sun better than the others. Sources: 3,7,12,13,20,23,24,28,30,32,46,51,59,61,66,67,68; A,B, H. undulata (syn. - C,I,L 371 H. undulata var. univittata (syn. H. univittata) green, waxy leaves have a central white clear lavender and appear in July. Sources: 7,21,51,61,66 H. ventricosa stripe. The large The flowers are - ' (syn. H. coerulea) Blue Plantain-lily The large, shiny, deep green leaves are twisted at the tips. The large flowers appear on 3-foot stems in July and August and are nearblue with a purplish tinge. Clumps reach a width of about 2 - feet. Sources: 4,7,13,21,51,57,61,66,67,69, B,C,H H. 'Betsy King' - Grown mainly for its rich purple flowers on 20-inch stems in 1 Sources: 51,61 H. August. - 'Honeybells' (H. lancifolia X H. plantaginea) Very on grant medium-sized lilac-lavender flowers striped blue stems in fra3-foot August. B,C,F,G,I,J,L on - Sources: 3,7,13,20,21,24,28,32,49,51,61,68,69; H. 'Royal Standard' Very sweetly scented white flowers foot stems in August and September. Sources: 24,59,61,61; I ---------- --~ ---- 2- Iberis Mustard Candytuft Family (Cruciferae) mounds of shiny foliage up to 2 feet wide covered of white flowers in May characterize this valuable group for the low maintenance border. Cutting back the old stems at least halfway after the flowers have gone by is about the only work necessary. This will promote vigorous new growth and prevent the clumps from becoming woody and open-centered. A light, well-drained soil is necessary. Wet soil conditions in the winter lessen the hardiness of most varieties. In open winters without much snow, a light covering of evergreen boughs will prevent the foliage from burning. Aside from these few simple requirements, Candytufts present few other demands and will thrive for many years. In the perennial garden they should be planted in groups of at least three spaced about 15 inches apart so the clumps will grow together at their edges. Evergreen masses with 372 1. Evergreen Candytuft The most common and the most reliable in the Northeast. Numerspecies offered, ous pure white clusters of flowers are borne on 8-inch stems in May. Older plants will form mounds 6 to 9 inches high and as much as 2 feet in diameter. Sources: 3,13,14,23,24,25,39,46,66,67,68; A,C,E,I,J,K,L sempervirens - 1. sempervirens 'Autumn Snow' - Blooms again in September. Fairly compact habit of growth. Sources: 13,28,44,65,66,67,68; C sempervirens 'Little Gem' - Compact plants only 6 inches high and 8 inches in diameter with small leaves and small clusters of flowers. Sources: 3,13,24,66,68; C,I 1. Quite compact habit of growth, but sempervirens `Purity' somewhat larger than the preceding cultivar. Very free blooming, flowers pure white. Sources: 3,13,24,67,68,69; C,I,J,L 1. - Forms mounds 8 to 10 inches sempervirens 'Snowflake' with heavy foliage and large white flowers. Sources: 13,24,32,59,66,68; C,I I. - high 1. sempervirens `Snowmantle' - Forms mounds about 8 inches high and is of quite compact growth. Sources: 13,28,66; 1. C,G,J,K,L Gibraltar Candytuft - Not fully hardy in our Plants of a rather scraggly habit, but with handsome lilac to light purple flowers which are produced into July. Source: 49 gibraLtarica - area 1. tenoreana growth too Tenore Candytuft unpredictable. - Not fully hardy in our area, Source: 32 Iris There are so Iris, Fleur-de-lis Iris Family (Iridaceae) many varieties of Iris from which to choose that knows where to begin. The Tall, Intermediate, and hardly Dwarf groups of Bearded Irises, which are the most popular groups grown, are the most demanding. The Siberian Irises, especially, and to a lesser extent the Japanese Irises, are not so demanding. Each group is discussed separately in order of their desirability for the low maintenance garden. one 373 Siberian Iris The easiest type of Iris to grow in forms large clumps up to 3 feet tall, with slender area; leaves, and 3-inch flowers in shades from white through blue and deep blue, purple, reddish-purple and violet The blooming season is from mid-June t","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1974-Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I","article_sequence":1,"start_page":253,"end_page":384,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24641","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15e8126.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":5,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"o early July, just after the Bearded Irises and before the Japanese Irises. This species is fairly undemanding as to soil conditions, and although the plants will tolerate a somewhat poor dry soil, performance always will be best on rich, moist, slightly acid soils. They are best in full sun, but will tolerate partial shade as well. Very little attention is necessary. After a number of years the clumps will have started to die out at the center and division must be resorted to. It is fortunate that this is an infrequent task, as the large clumps are deeply rooted and become so tightly matted together at the base that the lifting and dividing process can be quite arduous. Planting and division are best done in the spring. Siberian Irises present a far different picture in the garden than the more familiar Bearded Irises do. The foliage is more refined and the sizeable clumps have an upright vase-shaped habit of growth. When used singly scattered here and there from the front to middle of the border, they provide excellent bold contrasts. Although the range of flower colors and the length of the flowering season are considerably more limited than those of Bearded Irises, the foliage effect alone makes Siberian Iris worthy of consideration in any garden. When blossoming has finished, the numerous flower stalks bear attractive 2 to 3-inch seed pods. These dry out and turn brown later in the season, and are very handsome if left on the plants through the winter. They also are attractive in winter arrange1. sibirica our - ments. I. sibirica 'Cambridge' - Large turquoise-blue - flowers. Sources: 48,52,69 1. sibirica 'Caesar's Brother' Deep pansy-purple flowers. Sources: 13,21,24,38,49,67,69, B,C,I,K,L,M - 1. sibirica'Eric the Red' Reddish-purple flowers. Sources: 13,38,48; C I. sibirica 'Gatineau' - Large violet-blue flowers. Sources: 21,38,48 374 375 1. sibirica 'Perry's Pygmy' - Deep blue, plants only 20 inches high. Sources: 21,48,69 1. sibirica `Ruby Wine' Sources: 38,48,52 - Bright ruby-red flowers. Flowers mixed blue and 1. sibirica 'Sea Shadows' Sources: 48,52,69 1. sibirica `Snow Crest' - turquoise. - Ruflled white flowers. Sources: 21,48,66 1. sibirica 'Tycoon' Large deep violet-blue flowers. Sources: 21,25,38,48,67,68 - 1. sibirica 'Violet Repeat' produced intermittently Sources: 48,52,69 Bright violet flowers which are often after the main blooming season. - 1. sibirica 'White Swirl' - Satin white flowers produced in abun- dance. Sources: 21,38,48,52,66,69 1. sibirica 'White Magnificence' Sources: 38,48,52 Iris - Large white flowers. Iris Members of this group are far than Siberian Iris as to soil conditions, but if the proper site can be provided, they are easy to grow and have few problems. It would be wise to avoid them altogether, however, if one's soil conditions do not approximate the following. quite acid, rich, and capable of retaining abundant moisture throughout the growing season. Anything else usually will produce inferior results. Full sun or partial shade is satisfactory. If lime is spread anywhere near the plants, fatalities quickly oc- kaempferi - Japanese - more demanding cur. Given the above requirements, Japanese Irises have few problems and can be left alone without disturbance for many years. They are ideal for planting at the edges of ponds and streams, or in the border if the soil is moist. The leaves are narrow, like the Siberian Irises. The plants grow to a height of 2~% to 3 feet with flowering stems 3 to 4 feet tall. The large, 6-inch, flattopped, beardless flowers come in shades of white, blue, rose, and purple, often with attractive combinations of color. Spring is the recommended planting time. 1. kaempferi `Great White Heron' flowers. Sources: 66,69 Iris sibirica - - Semidouble, large, pure white Siberian Iris 376 I. kaempferi 'Jeweled Kimona' - Flowers white with blue markings. Source: 68 I. kaempferi 'Kagari Bi' Sources: 21,24,69, I I. kaempferi 'Mahogany' Sources: 21,24,68; I - Large rose-pink flowers. Double - deep red flowers. I, kaempferi 'Pink Frost' - Double light pink flowers to 8 inches across. Sources: 21,69 kaempferi 'Pin blue stripes. Sources. 66,69 I. I. en Stripe' - Flowers white, penciled with bright kaempferi 'Purple and Gold' - Velvety purple flowers with gold- throats. Sources: 21,68,69 I. kaempferi `Rose Anna' - Flowers mauve, veined with rich pur- ple. Sources. 21,24,68; I Although these rank high on the popularity list in perennial gardens, they have several serious faults and cannot Bearded Iris - be recommended for most low maintenance situations. Division or reduction in size of the clump every third or fourth year is necessary to prevent deterioration and to maintain vigor. This process involves separating the rhizomes, specialized stems that creep near the surface of the ground, and replanting them about an inch below soil level in groups of three. The foliage, hence the new growth, should face outward; the leaves are cut back to about 6 inches. This usually is done as soon as flowering has finished; however, satisfactory results are obtained any time up to August. The most serious problem with Bearded Iris is their susceptibility to attack by the Iris Borer. This is a worm which tunnels into the rhizome via the leaves. Aside from the damage the borer does to the plants, it opens the way to a bacterial infection known as Soft Rot. This is a foul-smelling rot which can infect the entire rhizome. Control of borers and Soft Rot often necessitates digging up and discarding (burning) the affected rhizomes. In the autumn it is prudent to remove and burn old foliage on which borer eggs may overwinter. Systemic insecticides such as Cygon sprayed as the leaves begin to grow, and again just before flowering, will effectively prevent borer infestations. Elimination of the borers is the most effective prevention for the Soft Rot disease. Bearded Irises are obtained in nearly every color, in fact the genus name Irzs is the Greek word for rainbow. Tall Bearded 377 Irises bear flowers up to 8 inches across on stems 3 to 4 feet in Intermediate Bearded Irises range in height from about 15 to 24 inches with 2 to 4-inch flowers. Dwarf Bearded Irises The are under 10 inches in height with 2 to 4-inch flowers. Dwarf Bearded Irises appear to be less susceptible to borer problems than the other two groups Many hundreds of varieties are currently offered. Numerous nurseries specialize in Iris to the exclusion of all other plants. A large and flourishing society (The American Iris Society) devotes itself to the genus. As with the American Hemerocallis Society, a popularity poll is published yearly in the Bulletin of the American Iris Society. The following 12 Tall Bearded Irises are listed, in order of popularity, from the 1973 Poll of the 100 favorites: height. 1. 'Stepping Out' Flowers white with violet margins. Sources. 8,10,13,16,19,28,36,38,52,55,56,65,66,68,69, - C,M 1. `New Moon' - Large, ruffled, light yellow flowers. Sources. 10,11,16,36,38,41,52,56,65, M 1. Ruffled blue flowers with light textured 'Babbling Brook' veining, pale lemon-yellow beard. - Sources. 10,16,19,36,38,41,52,55,56,65,69, M 1. 'Debby Rairdon' - Excellent combination of white and soft 10,16,19,36,38,52,55,56,65, - yellow. Sources. 1. M Intense medium blue. 'Shipshape' Sources: 10,11,16,36,41,52,56,65, M - 1. `Pink Taffeta' Heavily ruffled, Sources: 10,11,38,41,52,56,65, M - light rose-pink. 1. `Dusky Dancer' Very dark, velvety black-violet. Sources: 10,11,16,19,36,38,41,52,56,65, M 1. 'Kilt Lilt' - Large flowers basically a blend of rich apricot and gold. Very ruffled. Sources: 10,11,16,41,52,56,65, M 1. `Cup Race' Large, pure white flowers. Sources: 10,16,19,28,38,41,52,65,69 - 1. 'Camelot Rose' Large ruffled flowers. Combination of textured orchid and bright burgundy-red. Sources: 10,11,16,19,36,41,52,55,65,69; M - silky- L. `Lime Fiz' Flowers shaded lime to pure Sources: 10,11,16,41,52,65,69; M - yellow. leathery substance. 1. 'Winter Olympics' Large ruffled flowers of Pure white. Sources: 10,16,19,36,38,52,55,65,69; M - 378 Kniphofia Torch-Lily, Red-Hot Poker, Tritoma Lily Family (Liliaceae) Although newer cultivars are, in general, hardier than the older ones, Torch-Lilies do not survive some Boston winters and cannot be recommended for general use here. Kniphofia uvaria (often listed in catalogs as K. pfitzeri), is the best known, commonly offered species, but its bright red and yellow flowers are thought to be overly gaudy by many people. This shortcoming has been remedied in the modern cultivars through breeding and selection which has produced a much better range of softer colors. All Torch-Lilies require rich, perfectly drained soils. Soggy conditions are fatal, and although a position sheltered from the wind should be selected, they should be in a location which receives full sun for most of the day. Divisions obtained from nurseries are usually small and take a few years to become fully established. Spring is the only time for planting or dividing. After five or more years, clumps may build up to 21!> to 3 feet in width, however, division will not be necessary for many years. Torch-Lilies range in height, according to variety, from 2 to 4 feet when in blossom. The individual drooping flowers are tubular and arranged in dense poker-like racemes at the tops of the flowering stems. The long, rigid leaves are somewhat grasslike in appearance. These are bold plants in flower and are suitable either as single specimens or in groupings of not more than three placed 15 to 18 inches apart either near the front or middle of the border. Kniphofia is frequently listed by the old name Tritoma in catalogs. K. `Alcazar' Source: 44 K. 'Blastoff' feet. Source: 7 - Velvety textured rosy-red flowers. 3 feet. - Flowers pure white, red at the top of the spike. 3 Flowers K. 'Comet' I Sources: 7,24, - orange-red. 21\/~ feet. Flowers coral-rose. Blooms earlier than most K. 'Earliest of All' other cultivars and is one of the hardiest. 2 to 2~\/z feet. Source: 67 K. `Glow' - Flowers coral-red. I Sources: 24,32, 21\/ feet. 3 feet. 3 feet. K. 'Golden Scepter' Sources: 44,67 - - Deep yellow flowers. Burnished K. 'Goldmine' Sources: 7,67; L - golden-yellow flowers. Dense spikes of pale yellow flowers which K. 'Maid of Orleans' fade quickly to a beautiful ivory-white. 3 to 31\/2 feet. Source: 67 379 K. 'Primrose Beauty' Sources: 7,13,24,32,66; - Primrose-yellow C,I,K,L flowers. 2~!~ feet. flowers. 2 feet. of the stem are K. 'Robin Hood' - Bright orange-scarlet - Sources: 13,44, C K. 'Rosea white; K. on Flowers on the lower % Superba' the upper 3, pinkish-red. 2 feet. - pure Source: 67 'Royal Standard' Top flowers shaded to cream. 3 feet. Sources: 24,66, I,L K. - bright red; bottom, yellowivory-white, Flowers on lower ?!~ of stem 'Springtime' those on top, bright coral-red. Sources: 13,32,44,67; C K. 'Vanilla' - are Flowers clear pale yellow. 2 feet. - Source. 67 7 Flowers ivory-white, 3 feet. K. 'White Giant' Sources. 13,24,32,44,66, C,I,L - K. nelsonii var. flowers. 2 feet. Source: 67 K. uvaria major - A dwarf species with deep orange-scarlet - The typical old-fashioned form of (syn. K. pfitzeri) Red-Hot Poker with scarlet upper flowers and yellow lower flowers. 3 feet. Sources. 44,66, A,J,K,L - Liatris Blazing Star, Gayfeather, Button Snakeroot Daisy Family (Compositae) It is rather unusual that a member of the Daisy family should have flowers which are arranged in a dense spike formation. It is also unusual for flower spikes to start blooming from the top and continue downward, but most all Liatris do this. The exceptions are L. scariosa 'September Glory', and its sport, L. scariosa 'White Spire'. These open their flowers more or less simultaneously. All the commonly grown species provide excellent flowers for cutting purposes, but these two are probably the best. Liatris are upright plants which appear best when planted sparingly rather than as large masses. They will tolerate considerable moisture during the growing season, but soggy soil conditions during the winter will lead to rapid deterioration of the clumps. (This is particularly important to note with L. pycnostachya, L. scariosa, and their several cultivars.) A mod- 380I erately fertile sandy soil and a position the only other requirements for Liatris. ing in full sun are about Division will be nec- essary sometime after the fourth year, depending upon growconditions. Stems of taller growing L. pycnostachya, L. scariosa 'September Glory', and L. 'White Spire' have a tendency to lean under their own weight and may require staking. For the gardener with stringent requirements for minimal maintenance, the lower-growing varieties would be best. L. pycnostachya of - Cat-tail or Kansas or spikes purple September. Stems well clothed with leaves. Sources: 13,24,27,32,46,57,68; L. Gayfeather Dense 5-foot pinkish-lavender flowers in August and - A,C,I,K,L pycnostachya 'Alba'- White-flowered cultivar of the preced- ing species. L. scariosa stems. 4 feet. Sources: 67; K - Tall Gayfeather Purple flowers Flowers in late August and September. Sources: 4,24,57; I,K on 2 to 3-foot L. scariosa most 'September Glory' simultaneously along Purple flowers which open althe 5 to 6-foot stems. Late Septem- ber. Sources: 7,24,32,66,67,69; C,I,L L. scariosa 'Snow White' - Pure white flowers in late August and September. Sources: 24; I L. scariosa 'White Spire' A ber Glory'. Sources: 7,13,32,49,66,69; C - on 4-foot stems white-floweringsport of L. 'Septem- spicata Spike Gayfeather Bright purple flowers on 3foot stems. Will tolerate wetter conditions than the other species. Sources: 4,13,14,59,66,68; B,C, L. - Liatris spicata - Spike Gayfeather. The flowers begin to open at the top of the spike. 381 Liatris spicata - Spike Gayfeather L. spicata 'Kobold' - Flowers dark purple, plants of compact growth habit. Sources: 24,32,49,57,69; I,J,K,L Tips' - L. spicata 'Silver 3 feet. Flowers lavender with a silvery sheen. Source: 67 L. 'August Glory' Source: 7 - Deep bluish-purple flowers in August. flowers on L. 'Orchid Pink' - Orchid-pink mid-July into September. 5-foot spikes from Source: 7 Ligularia clivorum 'Desdemona' 383 Ligularia clivorum `Desdemona' Var. of Bigleaf-Goldenray or Golden Groundsel Daisy Family (Compositae) Several species and cultivars of Ligularia could be used in our area, but this is the only one which seems available from nurseries at the present time. It is a bold, handsome plant with large purple tinged leaves up to 12 inches across; for these alone, the plant would be well worth growing. In mid- to late August, branched flower stalks 2?!> to 31\/ feet in height bearing numerous 2-inch orange-yellow flowers are produced. These last into early fall. Plants are quite sensitive to drying out, and a good rich soil which contains ample organic matter should be provided. A position in partial shade is preferable to full sun where the large leaves are subject to wilting, especially after extended cloudy or rainy periods. They soon recover from this, however. Large clumps up to 2',!> feet wide are formed in fairly short order, so ample space should be provided at planting time; they can remain in place for years without requiring division. This plant often is found listed in catalogs under the genus name Senecio. Sources: 13,24,68,69; j C,I 384 Limonium Sea Lavender, Hardy Statice Leadwort Family (Plumbaginaceae) This is a small group of very long-lived plants for the herbaceous border. Established plants bear numerous small flowers in large panicles. These are frequently up to 11\/ feet across and can be used effectively in dried flower arrangements. In time, a clump may have up to a dozen flowering stems and form a spectacular canopy of flowers 2i!> to 3 feet wide. Sea Lavender may be used in much the same way as Gypsophila (Baby's Breath) to impart a light, airy effect in the garden, and is an excellent substitute in areas where the latter does not overwinter well. It is a fitting subject for gardens near the sea; inland, the major requirement is that plants be grown in a light sandy loam in a sunny position. If planted in a heavier soil, stems invariably will be weak and require staking. They may be supported by the hoop method discussed in the chapter on staking. The roots are very long, and will need large holes at planting time. Frequent division or transplanting is not advisable since it takes plants several years to become established and grow into sizeable specimens; they are best left entirely alone to improve as each year passes. Limonium is most frequently listed in catalogs under the old name Statice. L. latifolium - Sea Lavender, Hardy Statice use. - The most impor- tant species flowers in on stems up to 21!~ feet in length. Full grown specimens may be up to a yard in width when in flower. The leathery green leaves are partially evergreen, and produced in rather small basal rosettes. For winter bouquets, cut the stems when the flowers are fully open and hang them upside down in a well ventilated, shady place. Sources: L. garden July and August for Bears masses of bright lavender 13,24,25,32,67,68,69, C,I,J,K - latifolium 'Colliers Pink' - An excellent pink-flowered form. Source: 67 An excellent deep violet-blue flowered latifolium 'Violetta' form. Sources: 24,59,67, I L. , var. angustifolium (found in catalogs under the old L. dumosa) - Lanceleaf Tatarian Sea Lavender - In no way is this superior to the preceding species, but it is worth growing for its large masses of silvery lavender flowers in August and September. Reaches a height of nearly 20 inches when in flower. Sources: 24; I,J L. tataricum name ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1974-Low Maintenance Perennials. Part I"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23267","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d160a36f.jpg","title":"1974-34-5","volume":34,"issue_number":5,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wild Plants in the City","article_sequence":1,"start_page":137,"end_page":252,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24640","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ebb6d.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":4,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Page, Nancy M.; Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Wild Plants in the City The curious in gardens of wild greenery that penetrate cracks city pavement and grow lushly on old building lots are produced primarily by plants which have immigrated from overseas. as A few of them were brought originally to North America garden plants and have since run wild; but most have slipped in accidentally, their tiny seeds caught in the belongings and supplies of settlers or mixed with the seeds of commercial crops. Many of the most common weeds we find growing in our cities date far enough back into man's history to have grown in the settlements of ancient Greece and to have marched across Europe with the Romans. Man seems to have produced the conditions they require to flourish, and it is largely through his agency that they have come to assume such prominence throughout the world. By destroying the native vegetation with his towns and roads, fields, pastures and gardens, civilized man has opened the way for weeds; and through his wide-ranging travels, he has helped scatter them to every corner of the earth. The aggressive characteristics which suit these weedy plants so well to their role as pioneers on cleared sites are the same traits which make them troublesome to gardeners. They are a vigorous, adaptable and tenacious group, well-equipped to seize a quick foothold and thrive where other plants cannot effectively compete with them. They grow well even where soil is deficient in nutrients; often where it is too dry or too moist, too alkaline or too acid. They grow fast enough to surpass their struggling rivals, and they produce unusually abundant seed crops that are apt to fill the surrounding soil with their offspring. Their seeds may be able to lie dormant in the soil for decades, if and necessary, until conditions are favorable for germination it is suspected that some may last for centuries. The ease with which the more common weeds have spread from one site to another, and from one part of the world to - 137 139 another, is explained largely by their enormous production of easily dispersed seeds. Nowhere is this more apparent than in the midst of the comes where the bare soil of new sites beplants almost overnight. Where do these seeds come from? Some, of course, already may be present in the soil of a new lot, and merely need to be brought closer to the surface through cultivation or bulldozing in order to germinate. Other seeds are carried into a new site with the fill used to cover the foundation of a demolished building, or in the topsoil of a landscape planting. Still others, such as the seeds of Poplar, Dandelion and Milkweed, are equipped with silky parachutes which allow them to float on wind currents from surprisingly long distances. Heavier seeds are dropped by nearby trees, and seeds contained within edible fruits and berries often are scattered by feeding birds and animals. Seeds also are transported on fur and clothing, in mud on the soles of shoes, and on the wheels of vehicles. This continual invasion of seeds helps explain the speed with which weeds can colonize a bare site, even when there are few other plants in view. Within a year a vacant lot's cleared surface may be covered with plants, and within two years tree saplings may be evident. Within three or four years, an undisturbed lot will be wildly overgrown. But few lots have an opportunity to actually reforest themselves, for the wild gardens that occupy these areas in the city tend to have a fleeting life. Few are left completely undisturbed for more than two or three years, and they often are replaced so rapidly with one of man's constructions an asphalted that the transformation can be lot, a used car lot parking somewhat startling to observers. The role of these wild plants in the city is an especially ambiguous one. Their presence is often a mark of neglect and poor land management, yet the spontaneous cover they provide is a welcome improvement over the rubble-strewn and dusty wastelands which otherwise would be in view. They raise questions about the use and management of vacant land in the city, for when land is so precious, one wonders how these \"wastelands\" can be economically and socially expedient. city, settled with - - This is a rather typical building lot, slightly on the seamy side, but already lushly carpeted with Clover and Mugwort (and a less typical Grass) after a few years of growth. The trees springing up along the foundations of adjacent buildings are saplings of the Tree of Heaven. 140 untidyness, the wild plant growth on these lots delightful qualities. Even the seamiest site conveys an intriguing sense of life and a connection with nature that is often lacking in the simplistic environments of contemporary parks and playgrounds. It offers the diversity of an entire community of plants and insects; a surface that has contours, slopes and hollows; and the pleasant surprise of new perspectives and contrasts: the wild lushness of a weedy planter set against the elegance of Copley Square, sheer cliffs rising against the Boston skyline, or an unexpected puddle of water surrounded by Cattails and Sedges. Despite its has many A Note on Trees and Shrubs In contrast to the vast number of foreign flowers and grasses which were introduced accidentally into the United States and now grow wild in New England towns, the trees and shrubs one is apt to encounter growing wild here are either native plants or plants which were intentionally brought here for cultivation. On the following pages we have provided only a small sampling of these woody plants; there are many others which most certainly will be encountered as well such as the Apple, Catalpa, Horsechestnut, Mulberry, and Linden. Exactly what one finds in a particular area depends, of course, on what has been planted there. For instance, the large number of volunteer Maples, Oaks, and Elms which spring up in Boston may be attributed to the use of such trees for street plantings. The potentially large number of other trees and shrubs which may appear, depending on the breadth of local plantings, is suggested by the wide variety of exotic seedlings one finds growing on the Arnold Arboretum grounds and within a few miles of its boundaries. One group of plants is notably absent in the city, however, and this is the evergreens. Nowhere in urban Boston have we seen seedlings of such evergreens as the Pines or Junipers, which are such prominent pioneers of the old fields in more rural areas. - This is one of a series of tiny ponds we found hidden among piles of fill which had been dumped systematically across a lot along South Huntzzzgton Avenue. One day we came upon two wild duchs floating in the center of this pond, on another occasion we flushed a pheasant out of the surrounding vegetation. Wildlife may be more plentiful on this lot than most others because of its proximity to the Muddy River. On the summer pond's edges grow Willows, Cat-tails, Sedges, and - in mid- a bright array of wildflowers, such as Loosestrzfe, Tansy, and Queen Anne's Lace. From the road this waterfront area looks like an abandoned parking lot; but as one approaches the back of the site, small ponds (such as this one rimmed by Cat-tails and beautiful Grasses) appear in shallow depressions. A miniature meadow, created by a weedy planter in Copley Square, stands in strange juxtaposition to the urban surroundings. The planter was dominated by Clover, Yellow Wood Sorrel, and Horseweed, but we collected 30 different kinds of plants from this site. Shortly after this photograph was taken, the weeds were removed and a cover of sod laid down, producing a neater, but less interesting, landscape. 143 These spectacular cliffs are one of the finest natural features of Boston now in private hands, and they should be carefully preserved. They form an outcrop along one side of Mission Hill, hnown as \"The Ledge.\" Looking across the old quarry which lies on one side of The Ledge, one sees the startling juxtaposition of natural and man-made landscapes pictured at right. 144 In the quarry grow trees of many kinds, such as the Tree of Heaven, Norway and Sycamore Maples, Black Locust, Oaks, Poplars, and Ashes. Pin Oaks and Gray Birches (and even occasaonaL ferns) grow out of the crevices in the cliffs. On the rim above the cliffs are a few Black Cherries, a Red Maple or two, and a large, rather flat field covered with flowers of many different kinds. 145 How to Use This Handbook This handbook should be useful in identifying plants in cities throughout the northeastern United States, even though our observations were made almost entirely in Boston. We have not attempted to include all of the wild plants that we encountered. Rather, we have selected those which are most common and\/or conspicuous, as well as some which are of unusual interest for one reason or another. Each plant included is represented by one or more illustrations. Identifying features such as height and leaf dimensions, and pertinent facts such as habitat and area of origin are included in the text accompanying the illustrations. The plants are divided into four categories: Herbaceous Flowering Plants Grasses and Grasslike Plants The are Trees and Shrubs Ferns most numerous, plants in the first category, being by far the to again subdivided according egories bemg. white the color of their flowers, the catorange magenta blue greenish pink purple yellow inconspicuous To find a particular plant, simply flip through the pertinent category, using the illustrations as a means of identification. To further aid in the identification of the herbaceous flowering plants, the following \"key\" may be used. This key consists of a series of diagrams showing generalized leaf shapes, and these are divided into eight main groups. The individual groups consist of to five leaf types, representing variation within each of these groups. When identifying an unknown plant, first try to decide into which of the eight groups its leaves best fit. Remember that the diagrams are not meant to look exactly like actual leaves, but only to give general impressions of the leaf shapes. The plants within each leaf-shape group are further subdivided according to flower color. Especially with the larger groups, this key will not lead to a specific identification, but it will help to narrow down the choices. It still will be necessary to look through at least a portion of the guide. one Along Washington Street one sees this example of pioneering vegetatio~a squeezing through the cracks and crevices of an entirely paved site. The largest trees are Lombardy Poplars which were 15 or 20 feet tall when this photograph was taken m 1973. There also was a mature Quaking Aspen, as well as smaller saplings of the Tree of Heaven, Norzuay Maple, and Lombardy Poplar. 147 148 149 Bibliography F. 1968. Trees of North America. Golden Press, New York. DeWolf, G. P., Jr. 1974. Guide to Potentially Dangerous Plants. Arnoldia 34: 45-91. Fernald, M. L. 1950. Gray's Manual of Botany, ed. 8. Van Nostrand Reinhold, New York. & A. C. Kinsey. 1958. Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America, rev. ed. Harper & Brothers, New York. Georgia, A. E. 1930. A Manual of Weeds. Macmillan, New York. Hatfield, A. W. 1971. How to Enjoy Your Weeds, American ed. Sterling Publishing, New York. Hinds, H. R. & W. A. Hathaway. 1968. Wildflowers of Cape Cod. Chatham Press, Chatham, Mass. Kingsbury, J. M. 1964. Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada. Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey. Leighton, A. 1970. Early American Gardens. Houghton Mifflin. Boston. Montgomery, F. H. 1964. Weeds of the Northern United States and Canada. Ryerson Press, Toronto. Muenscher, W. C. 1939. Poisonous Plants of the United States. Macmillan, New York. 1955. Weeds, ed. 2. Macmillan, New York. Rickett, H. W. 1966. Wild Flowers of the United States, Vol. 1, The Northeastern States, McGraw-Hill, New York. Salisbury, Sir. E. 1961. Weeds and Aliens. Collins Clear-type Press, London. 1962. The Biology of Garden Weeds. Journ. Royal Hort Soc. 87: 338-350. Tobe, J. H. 1969. Proven Herbal Remedies. Provoker Press, Canada. Wright, R. H. 1972. What Good is a Weed? Lothrop, Lee, and Shephard, New York. . . Brockman, C. 150 Herbaceous Flowering Plants Field Bindweed - Convolvulus arvensis Naturalized fro~n Europe HEIGHT. trailing or twining stems, 1-3 feet long. LEAVES: 1-2 inches long. pale pink, 1-2 inches across. FLOWERS: white or June to July. Trailing along the ground of building lots and old fields, the Field Bindweed with its lovely trumpet-shaped flowers can be a most charming sight. But Field Bindweed tends to be more renowned for its aggression than for its flowers, because this is a particularly troublesome vine in cultivated fields and gardens throughout the United States. It may take 20 to 30 cultivations to eradicate Bindweed from a field. Its roots are capable of penetrating soil up to 20 feet deep, and new plants are formed along a creeping, perennial root system that may spread over an area as large as 30 square yards in a single season. Bindweed also reproduces freely from seeds. It is particularly persistent in rich, heavy soil on the alkaline side. 152 Queen Anne's Lace - Daucus carota Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 3 feet. LEAVES: feathery, finely white, in cut. FLOWERS: conspicuous flat clusters 3-4 inches across. July to September. This wild relative of the domesticated carrot thrives in almost any sunny, well-drained soil, and it often provides a startling contrast to its bleak surroundings, for it is one of the most elegant plants to appear m Boston fields and building lots. Apparently Queen Anne's Lace came to the United States with early settlers, since it was already present in New England by the seventeenth century. Today its delicate foliage and large, umbrella-shaped, white flower clusters are a familiar sight in old dry fields and waste places throughout North America. In the first year of growth this biennial produces a stout taproot and a low rosette of parsley-like foliage, followed the second year by a flowering stalk which may reach 3 feet tall. After flowering and producing its lightweight seeds, which are easily dispersed by wind, the plant dies. 153 Yarrow - Achillea millefolium Native to the United States and most parts of the world HEIGHT: up to 1-2 feet. LEAVES: 1-10 inches long, deep green, lacy-textured, strongly-scented. across. FLOWERS: whitish tember. heads, in flat clusters 2-3 inches June to Sep- All summer long, Yarrow's decorative, flat clusters of tiny white flower heads and lacy, dark green leaves are a familiar sight in Boston lots and grassy fields, as they are in sunny meadows, lawns, pastures and waste places throughout much of the world. As perennials, the plants spread by seeds and horizontal rootstocks. The first year plants, evident as low rosettes of lacy, fernlike leaves, are perhaps as familiar as the mature ones. Yarrow is an herb of ancient medicinal repute. It reportedly has been used for stopping bleeding and healing wounds, and for relieving inflammations and toothache, and even for preventing baldness. According to legend, its powers to heal were first discovered by Achilles, who used it on his soldiers' wounds in the Trojan War. Yarrow was grown in Colonial days as a medicinal herb, and it is lovely enough to be included still in purely decorative flower gardens today. It has been grown with Thyme, Clover, and Camomile in mixed lawns in Europe, as it is more drought resistant than grasses, and its rich color and dense texture contribute to the appearance of such lawns. 154 Sweet Clover - Melilotus alba Naturalized from Ezarope HEIGHT. up to 6 feet. LEAVES: dark green, divided into 3 narrow leaflets '~_-2 inches in narrow, long. FLOWERS. fragrant, white, to inch long, slightly curving spikes. June October. This tall, bushy plant is one of the largest herbaceous weeds growin Boston lots. It is common on porous soil throughout the United States and sometimes is cultivated as a \"green manure\" or cover crop, as is the Red Clover. Sweet Clover's popular name is derived from the honey-like fragrance of its flowers. The flowers are held in distinctive, long, curving spikes which are not conspicuous from a distance, but are attractive at close hand against the rich, dark green of its leaves. The plant is biennial. It reproduces by seeds which may lie dormant in the soil for many years and germinate when conditions eventually become favorable for growth. The Yellow Sweet Clover (Melilotus ofrzcinalis), similar to the above species in most respects other than the color of the flowers. also is found in Boston's lots, but it is much less frequent. ing 156 White Clover - Tri f olium repens Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. creeping, only a few inches high. long. dense, globose clusters '\/_-1'\/a inches LEAVES. dark green, divided into 3 rounded leaflets'\/a-1 inch FLOWERS. white across. or rose-tinged, in May to October. One of the world's most widespread plants, this perennial often forms a beautiful, lush groundcover over the infertile soil of old building lots. Its ability to thrive on poor soil is largely due to its capacity to increase the supply of available nitrogen through the action of nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with its roots. Since it actually improves the soil it grows on, especially after being turned under, White Clover is sometimes cultivated as a \"green manure\" or cover crop. In addition, the flowers are attractive to bees and make a very fine honey. Its delicate, rich green leaves and white or rose-tinted flowers form an attractive, thick, rapidly spreading carpet, a solitary seedling can cover 10 square feet by the end of summer. All the plant seems to require to thrive is well-drained soil. 157 Arrowhead - Sagittaria latifolia Native to the United States HEIGHT. to 2 feet. LEAVES: to 1 foot FLOWERS. about long and half as broad. an inch across, with 3 white petals and a yellow center July to September. Arrowheads are generally found in shallow water along the edges of lakes, ponds, or sluggish streams. In Boston they are most common in the Fens and along the Muddy River. The broad, arrowheadshaped leaves originating from the base of the plant, and the dainty white flowers are not likely to be confused with those of any other wild plant in Boston. In the autumn, Arrowheads produce potato-like tubers, an inch or two in diameter, at the ends of long, underground runners. These are eaten by ducks, muskrats, and other aquatic animals, and they formed an important item in the diets of many of the American Indian tribes. They are evidently quite good, either roasted or boiled. 158 Galinsoga - Galinsoga ciliata Naturalized from Tropical America HEIGHT. to a foot, but usually shorter. LEAVES. dull green, hairy, 1-3 inches long. FLOWERS: in small, inconspicuous heads, about 1\/4 inch broad, with 5 short, white \"petals\" and a dirty-yellowish center. June to November. undistinguished-looking plant that does not have a local Galinsoga is one of the very few weeds in our area that originated in Tropical America. It arrived in New England in the mid-1800's and is now widespread, being particularly abundant in gardens or other recently-cultivated soil. It has also appeared in several European countries. Galinsoga is an annual, and produces seeds prolifically. The seeds attach easily onto clothing, doubtless aiding in dispersal of the plant. A rather common name, 159 Chickweed - Stellaria media Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. more or less prostrate. LEAVES: ~_-1~%_ inches FLOWERS. tiny long. across. white, 'h inch February to December. fragile-looking plant is distinguished by its striking throughout the world, it may be the most common weed on earth. It appeared in New England shortly after the first settlers arrived from Europe, and it now is established in lawns and grassland and the cultivated soils of gardens and fields throughout the success This rather United States. While it can grow in a wide variety of habitats, it is aggressive when growing on rich, moist soil. Part of Chickweed's success in spreading is due to its capacity to and hence a new generation in little begin producing seeds more than a month after its seeds have germinated. In addition. the blooming season is very long, in favorable spots the plant may bloom through the winter. Despite its annoying aggression, Chickweed has useful features. Its young shoots may be eaten in salads or cooked as a vegetable, and its seeds are eaten by birds. most - 160 White Campion - Lychnis alba Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 3 feet. LEAVES. 1-3 inches FLOWERS: white or long, slender, hairy. pale pink, 1 mch across, fragrant June to August. In midsummer this plant is often found blooming in open, grassy lots in Boston. The lovely, fragile flowers usually open in the evening and are closed by early the next day. They are pollinated by nightflying moths which are attracted by their fragrance and pale color. White Campion grows most abundantly on rich, well-drained soil. It is common locally along roadsides and in grassland in the eastern, north-central and northwestern states. It is often seen in new seedings of grass, clover or alfalfa, for its seeds are abundantly produced and are a common impurity among the commercially available seeds of such plants. White Campion also spreads by forming new shoots along its underground rootstock. 161 Bladder Campion - Silene cucubalus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 2 feet. LEAVES. 1-3 inches long, smooth, across. gray-green. FLOWERS: white, 1\/, inch June to September. The smooth, gray-green stems and leaves of this delicate perennial easily distinguish it from the hairy White Campion (Lychnis alba), which has a similar flower. Bladder Campion came to the United States from Europe. It spreads both by seeds and creeping perennial rootstocks, and it is often encountered in fields, meadows, and along roadsides in the northeastern states. It also is seen locally in the Pacific Northwest. PinkFamily (Caryophyllaceae) 162 Ox-eye Daisy - Chrysanthemum leucanthemum Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. up to 1-2 feet. LEAVES: lower leaves 2-4 inches long, clustered into a low rosette; upper leaves narrower and clasp- ing. FLOWERS. large flowerheads 1-2 inches across, with white rays and a to conspicuous yellow July. center. June Its bright flowers make an occasional conspicuous appearance in sunny fields and old building lots in Boston, but the Ox-eye Daisy does not grow as abundantly in Boston soil as one would expect from its performance in old fields, meadows, pastures and roadsides of more rural areas. It came to the United States with early settlers, and its presence in New England was noted by the seventeenth century. Today this plant has spread throughout most parts of the country. Its seed production is abundant, and the seeds may lie buried for years yet still germinate. They also may pass unharmed through the digestive systems of animals, aiding in the plant's persistence and spread on grazing land. Ox-eye Daisy has a history of medicinal use since classical times. The entire plant was used in a tea which was reputed to act as an anti-spasmodic, helpful for treating asthma, whooping cough and nerves. The leaves of this tangy taste and are used in salads. plant have a occasionally SunflowerFamily (Compositae) 163 Asters - Aster spp. Native to the Un2ted States HEIGHT: 6 inches-3 feet. A. ericoides LEAVES: variable among the different species, from narrow and grasslike to broad and heart-shaped, usually with toothed edges. FLOWERS. purple rays and daisy-like heads '\/4-1~\/~ inches broad, with white, pink, a yellow or purplish center. August to November. or with the Goldenrods, Asters are among the most conspiculate summer and fall-flowering plants in many parts of the United States. Many species, most of them native perennials, are found in a wide variety of habitats from rich woods to dry roadsides. Some of the species are attractive enough to be cultivated in gardens, but they are less commonly grown in this country than in England, where they, or their hybrids, are known as Michaelmas Daisies. Several species are found in Boston. Perhaps the most common is the Heath Aster (Aster ericoides), a weedy plant with long arching branches nearly covered with small white heads in season. The Heart-leaved Aster (Aster divaricatus), with few, relatively large, white heads per plant, is occasional in wooded areas of the Fens and along the Muddy River. Several species with purple flowers sometimes are encountered in a variety of habitats, from wet areas to dry, sunny lots. Along ous 164 Daisy Fleabane - Erigeron annuus Native to the United States HEIGHT: 1-2 feet. LEAVES: hairy, coarsely-toothed, the lower stem leaves shorter. ones to 6 inches long, the FLOWERS: daisy-like heads about ~\/,: inch across with many, slender white to pink rays and a yellow center. June to September. annual weed is found in many parts of the country. It is a particular pest in hayfields across the United States, and seed-bearing plants are often transported in bales of hay. The seeds are a common impurity of grass seed. In Boston it is most common in sunny, grassy lots. The flower heads of Daisy Fleabane are quite attractive. They are similar to those of many of our Asters, but the plants should not be confused since Asters generally bloom late in the season. The leaves of this or related species, when dried and made into a powder, were supposedly good for getting rid of fleas, hence the common name \"Fleabane.\" coarse a This rather world, but it is native in this 165 Japanese Knotweed - Polygonum cuspidatum Naturalized from Japan HEIGHT: up to 8 feet. LEAVES: dark green, 3-6 inches long. FLOWERS: small, creamy-white, in showy clusters about 4-5 inches long. August to September. This is a striking plant when it is in full bloom in late summer. But under the frothy cascade of flowers lies sive an amazingly aggresplant. It spreads rapidly from long underground rhizomes, forming large clumps which are diffi- cult to eradicate; the shoots are capable of emerging through a layer of asphalt. Japanese Knotweed was originally introduced into the United States as an exotic garden plant, but it has escaped from cultivation and has spread aggressively throughout the northeastern region. In Boston it grows abundantly in rather rich, damp soil, such as that of parks and gardens, and it is particularly well-established along the moist banks of the Muddy River. Cooked for a few minutes, its young stems (up to 1 foot long) are edible and apparently quite delicious. even 166 Hollyhock - Althaea rosea Escaped from cultivation HEIGHT. 4-8 feet. LEAVES: roundish, but with a scalloped or lobed margin, to 10 inches broad, with a long stalk. FLOWERS: showy, 3-4 inches broad, with 5 pink or white petals. July to September. our Hollyhocks are among the few of garden plants that have be- come established in the wild in Boston. We have seen them in a number of locations, and they seem to do well even in grassy lots. Hollyhocks are native to China, but they were cultivated in England as early as 1593. They were grown in this country before 1700. Many garden forms have appeared, with single or double flowers from white through yellow to pink and red. However, as is the case with many garden plants, only those forms resembling the wild plants do well as escapes; wild forms of Hollyhocks have white or pink, single flowers. 167 168 Smartweeds - Polygonum spp. Detail of a node Some introduced from HEIGHT: up to 2 Europe; erect or others native to the United States feet, sprawling. LEAVES: 1-8 inches ter. long, often marked by a brown blotch near the cen- FLOWERS: small, white spikes 1_-3 mches long. or pink, in usually dense, May to October. erect or drooping One of the several species of Smartweed can be found growing in most every situation in Boston, from unweeded planters and sidewalk cracks to vacant lots. Almost all are annual weeds, and their seeds are eaten and dispersed by birds. Smartweeds are members of the Knotweed group, and although they are different in appearance from the others already discussed, they all share one common characteristic: the nodes of the stem (where the leaves are attached) are swollen and surrounded by a papery sheath, resembling knots on a string. This is the origin of the common name, \"Knotweed.\" A few species of Smartweed have leaves with a brown blotch, resembling a thumbprint, near the center. These sometimes are called \"Lady's Thumb.\" 169 Bouncing Bet - Saponaria ofr'zcinalis Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. up to 2 feet. LEAVES: 1-3 inches long. fragrant, pink. July to FLOWERS. to 1 inch across, September. are Throughout the summer the flowers of this ornamental perennial conspicuous along fences, walls, garden edges and in old vacant lots in Boston. Bouncing Bet arrived in New England with settlers from Europe in the seventeenth century. It has spread aggressively by seeds and perennial rootstocks, and today it is found in damp soil along roadsides and railroad tracks, and in old fields and pastures throughout the eastern United States. A double-flowered form is more common than the single-flowered in many areas but we did not see it in Boston. Bruised in water, the stems and leaves of Bouncing Bet emit a juice which makes a lather once considered an excellent substitute for soap in cleaning particularly delicate fabrics and china. The plant also has been used as an antiseptic for treating wounds, and it has a reputation for being effective in relieving the itching of Poison Ivy. 170 171 Common Milkweed - Asclepias syriaca Native to the United States HEIGHT. 2-5 feet. LEAVES. 4-9 inches long, downy on the underside. pale and FLOWERS: dull pinkish-purple, in rounded clusters 2-3 inches across, fragrant. June to August. The Milkweed's plumed seeds its trademark. In September when the ripe pods split open, masses of light, silky seeds take to the air, floating on the slightest breeze. Milkweed forms large colonies in rich gravelly soil in old fields and waste places of the eastern United States. Usually it is found growing in patches, because the plant is perennial and spreads not only by seeds but also by horizontal root-stocks, along which new are plants arise. The tender young shoots, leaves, and even flower buds and seed pods of Milkweed are edible, and provide good greens if their bitterness is removed in several changes of water during cooking. Indians used its roots, juices, and seeds medicinally, and made string and rope out of its fibers. Although Common Milkweed is perhaps too invasive a grower to be recommended for gardens, the flowers are attractive and sweet-scented. 172 4mr, Red Clover - Trifolium pratense Naturalized from Europe _ HEIGHT : up to 2 feet. LEAVES. divided into 3 rounded leaflets 1'\/~-2'\/~ inches by a distinctive light band. FLOWERS. pmk to magenta, in dense May to October. long, each marked globose clusters, 1-1'\/~ inches across. This plant grows in lush clumps on the poor soil of old building lots. Like White Clover, Vetch and other leguminous plants, it is sometimes cultivated as a \"green manure\" or cover crop. Red Clover is easily distinguished from other Clovers by its large pink or magenta-colored flower clusters and the distinctive light bands which appear on each leaflet. It came to North America shortly after the first settlers arrived from Europe. It may have been introduced intentionally as a cover crop, since it was highly thought of by the English as a soil conditioner. 173 Nightshade - Solanum spp. S. dulcamara Naturalized from Europe Two nightshades are encountered in Boston. The annual Black Nightshade (Solanum nigrum) is distinguished by its white flowers and small, shiny black berries, and it is partial to fields and shady sites. The perennial Deadly Nightshade (Solanum dulcamara) is an herbaceous vine which favors rich, damp soil, and bears violetblue flowers and shiny red berries. The berries of both plants are poisonous, causing extreme nausea and cramps if eaten. However, the severity of their effects seems to vary considerably. The berries of Black Nightshade have been used in baking, but it would seem wisest not to eat any part of either plant. - 174 Vetch - Vicia cracca Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. climbing 1-3 feet long. or trailing stems, LEAVES: rows of tiny, lets '\/2-1 inch long. FLOWERS: narrow leaf- June This to blue-purple, August. 1 inch long. plant has an interesting mechanical method of seed dissimilar to that of the Yellow Wood Sorrel and Jewelweed: when its ripe seed pods slit open, the seeds within are flung away from the parent plant. Vetch has been cultivated in fields as a cover crop or \"green manure\" and sometimes as a forage plant. It also has been used on highway embankments and roadsides as a rapid-growing ground persal, cover. 175 Burdock - Arctium minus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. up to 3-4 feet. LEAVES: 10-18 inches long, about half as broad. or FLOWERS. pink, ple, in dense, occasionally purflower to across. thistle-like heads 1\/2 October. inch July Inadvertantly carried from Europe to the United States by early settlers, Burdock was already recorded in New England by the seventeenth century. Today it is widespread on rich soil in waste places and neglected farm yards throughout the United States, and its large, rather dull, green leaves are conspicuous in many Boston lots. During the first year of growth, a distinctive 1-2 foot rosette of large leaves and a thick taproot are produced, followed the second year by a flowering stalk which reaches 3 to 4 feet in height. After flowering and producing the familiar prickly burrs which cling to the coats of passing animals and humans, each plant usually dies, for the Burdock is a biennial. The first-year roots, young leaves and peeled young flower stalks all are edible, and Burdock has been so valued as a food plant in Japan that a special garden variety has been developed. The plant has been used medicinally since ancient times. It was believed that its roots would draw out the poison of vipers, or cure eczema and toothache 176 Bull-thistle - Cirsium vulgare Naturalized from HEIGHT: 3-6 feet. LEAVES: - Europe spines; coarsely and irregularly lobed, the teeth tipped with sharp lower leaves to a foot or more long, the upper ones smaller. prickly FLOWERS: medium purple, in heads 1-3 inches broad and very at the base. June to September. Anyone who has tried to get close enough to a Bull-thistle to admire its attractive flower heads, let alone pick them, is well aware of the vicious spines so characteristic of the stems and leaves of this plant. It is conspicuous in pastures, fields, roadsides and other open places throughout the United States. Being a biennial, a first year plant appears as a broad rosette of spiny leaves. Flowering occurs the second year, and then the plant dies. The seed head resembles that of a Dandelion, only denser and much larger, and the light seeds are dispersed by the wind. 178 Purple Loosestrife - Lythrum salicaria Naturalized from HEIGHT: 3-6 feet. LEAVES. Europe slender, 2-5 inches long. spikes. July FLOWERS magenta, about ~\/~ inch across, in dense, slender to August showy plant is abundant in marshy or other wet places the northeastern United States. In mid- to late summer it turns acres of such areas into sheets of magenta. It is particularly conspicuous along Route 1 in Dedham and along Route 128 south of Boston. Although most characteristic of wet areas, it does appear here and there in dry lots in Boston, but usually only in scattered instances. A native of Europe, Purple Loosestrife is gradually extending its range in North America. This perennial produces large quantities of light, easily windblown seeds. It has become rather a serious pest in New England because it chokes out the native vegetation in places where it has become established. This very throughout 179 Viper's Bugloss - Echium vulgare Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. 1-2~\/_ feet. LEAVES: 2-6 inches long, hairy. FLOWERS: bright blue, ~\/z-1 inch long, in short curving clusters on a loose spike. June to July. In Boston the lovely bright blue funnel-shaped blossoms of Viper's Bugloss are a welcome sight when they appear in early summer, but in the fields and rural areas this pastures of more plant can be a persistent and troublesome weed. It is so despised in Australia that it is known as \"Paterson's Curse,\" after the unfortunate settler who introduced it to that country. Viper's Bugloss arrived in New England from Europe by the seventeenth century. Today it is widespread in dry, gravelly fields, meadows and roadsides throughout the eastern United States. A biennial, this plant produces a stout taproot and rosette of leaves in the first year, followed by a flowering stalk the next. Viper's Bugloss is a difficult plant to eradicate because it easily regenerates if any portion of the deep taproot is left in the ground. Viper's Bugloss was reputed to be effective against poisonous snake bites, either made into a drink, or chewed and laid directly on the bite. Borage Family (Boraginaceae) 180 Chicory - Cichorium intybus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. 1'\/~-S feet. LEAVES: lower leaves 4-8 inches long, clustered in sette ; upper leaves small and clasping. FLOWERS. Bright blue, or rarely pink 1-1'~= inches across. June to August. or a flat, evergreen ro- white, daisy-like flowerheads, In midsummer Chicory's stems distinctive are stiff, almost leafless old blue, daisy-like flowers and conspicuous in Boston's fields and to the United States by early as a food plant. Today it ranges through old fields and roadsides in most parts of the country. It is particularly persistent in light, sandy, somewhat alkaline soil. Chicory has long been a popular vegetable and salad plant. Its large basal leaves are cooked for greens, or blanched and used in salads. Its roots are boiled and served with butter, or roasted and used as a coffee substitute or additive. The plant also has been used medicinally for several disorders. It was said to be useful for jaundice and to be comforting for a weak stomach. building lots. Chicory was originally brought it in their settlers, who cultivated gardens 181 Dayflower - Commelina communis Naturalized from Asia HEIGHT: usually less than a foot; creeping. LEAVES: smooth and lustrous, 1-2 inches long. across. FLOWERS: bright blue,'\/~ inch July to September. Since most of the New World's early contacts, both in commerce and immigration, were with Europe, the great majority of its introduced weeds have come from that continent. Asiatic weeds are rare here, but the Dayflower is one which has become well-established. An annual species, it prefers soils richer and moister than those found in most building lots. In Boston, at least, it is most common in gardens. The curious flowers, with two of the petals bright blue and conspicuous, and the third one tiny and greenish, open only in bright light. This, plus the fact that they last only a single day, accounts for the plant's common name. The creeping, lustrous green foliage resembles that of the \"Wandering Jew,\" a common house plant and a close relative of the Dayflower. Spiderwort Family (Commelinaceae) 182 p,vw,o Yellow Iris - Iris pseudacorus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. 2-4 feet. LEAVES. very slender, to 3 or rarely 4 feet long and less than I'\/, inches broad, gray-green. FLOWERS: showy, bright yellow, 3 or 4 inches broad. June. This beautiful plant was brought to America as a garden plant sometime before 1700 and has since escaped to the wild. It is common in wet areas, particularly at the edges of ponds and streams, throughout much of the eastern United States. In Boston it is most abundant in the Fens and along the Charles and Muddy Rivers. This, and many other species of Iris, grow from thick rhizomes or rootstocks which lie just below the surface of the ground. These rhizomes may cause dermatitis if broken and brought into contact with human skin. The Yellow Iris produces abundant seeds, accounting for its ability to spread rapidly in the wild. 183 Buttercups - Ranunculus spp. Some native to the United States, others naturalized from Europe. HEIGHT: to 3 feet. LEAVES: face. FLOWERS. showy, about 1 inch across, with 5 shiny, bright yellow petals. April to August. deeply lobed, often with silvery markings on the upper sur- Several species of Buttercups found in Boston, but two in particular, both naturalized from Europe, are common and conspicuous. The Bulbous Buttercup (Ranunculus bulbosus) is a low plant (seldom more than 18 inches tall) that is common in lawns, gardens and other cultivated places as well as in sidewalk cracks. The leaves are often silver-spotted on their upper surface. The Common Buttercup (Ranunculus acris) is a taller plant, often nearly a yard tall, that is most common in grassy lots. The stems and leaves of these perennials contain a substance which may irritate the mouth and stomach if eaten or cause blisters if rubbed on the skm. Cattle have died from eating them in quantity. The Celandine (Chelidonium majus) is often mistaken for a Buttercup. The flowers of this plant, however, have only 4 petals, and they are dull-textured rather than shiny. are Crowfoot Family (Ranunculaceae) R acris R. bulbosus 184 Celandine - Chelidonium majus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 2-3 feet. LEAVES: green with FLOWERS: grayish undersides, irregularly inch across. cut into 5 parts. bright yellow,'_ May to July. The delicate, scalloped leaves and bright yellow flowers of Celandine are conspicuous along the rich, damp edges of Boston gardens. This plant was originally brought to the United States by New England settlers who valued it as a medicinal herb and grew it in their gardens. Today, it has spread to rich soil in farmyards, roadsides, gardens and woodland edges from the northeastern United States south to Georgia, Tennessee and Missouri. A biennial, Celandine lives for two years only. In the first year of growth low tufts of foliage are produced, followed in the second year by the lovely flowering stalks. The roots and yellow juice of Celandine have been said to cure a variety of ailments, ranging from ringworm and warts to \"the itch.\" The juice, however, may produce skin irritation. 186 Yellow Wood Sorrel - Oxalis stricta Native to the United States HEIGHT: up to 10 inches, but most often low and somewhat LEAVES. creeping. across. clover-like, separated into 3 leaflets, each to'_ inch FLOWERS. yellow, 'h-'le inch across. May to September. This plant is often mistaken for clover since its leaves are so similar in shape, but its small, five-petaled yellow flowers are dis- least, Wood Sorrel is a rather charming plant. Close relatives with larger flowers are considered decorative enough to be cultivated in gardens and on windowsills. It is a native of the United States, and is often encountered in woods and dry fields throughout the country, but it grows most abundantly in the eastern states. Rather than thriving in the rigorous environment of most building lots, in Boston it is usually found growing in or near gardens where it is often quite a persistent weed. Wood Sorrel has an interesting method of avoiding competition between the parent plant and its oflspring. When a ripe pod splits open, its interior lining turns completely inside out, and thus explosively catapults the seeds some distance away. Its foliage is rich in vitamin C and is sometimes used in salads, however, it should not be eaten in large quantities as the plant also has a high oxalic acid content and could be toxic. tinctive. In appearance, at 188 Purslane - Portulaca oleracea Naturalized f~om Europe HEIGHT. LEAVES. sprawling, fleshy stems, fleshy, often up to 12 inches long. tinged reddish, 11'2-1112 inches long. opening only in FLOWERS: inconspicuous, pale yellow, bright sunhght. July to September. ~~a inch across, Purslane grows almost all over the world. It is a hot weather up on bare soil in local fields and gardens from June onward. It grows only on cultivated soil, and is often very difficult to eradicate. Purslane is an excellent and well-respected food plant which has been encouraged and cultivated since ancient times. The tips of its succulent young stems can be harvested periodically throughout the summer and cooked and seasoned like Spinach, or eaten raw in salads. Other members of this genus are cultivated in gardens for their decorative flowers. plant, springing 189 St. John's-wort - Hypericum per f oratum Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: 1-3 feet. LEAVES: '~z-1 inch long, pale green. FLOWERS broad, in gust. golden yellow, clusters. July v~-1 inch and Au- In midsummer, clusters of the flowers of St. John's-wort make a conspicuous appearance in grassy fields and old building lots in Boston. This familiar perennial has a wide distribution throughout many parts of the world. Its seeds are a common impurity in grass seed, and have been most likely scattered from one part of the world to another in shipments of hay. This plant came to New England with the early settlers, and has since spread through much of It temperate North America. prospers on dry, gravelly soil, and it is a difficult plant to suppress, for it spreads vigorously from short runners. It also produces seeds prolifically, perhaps as many as 30,000 per plant in a single season. The seeds are easily carried off by the wind, and they are so light that St. John's-wort even has been found growing in the steeples of old churches. St. John's-wort was listed in the early herbals as useful to stop bleeding, cure burns, heal ulcers, or as a laxative. A bit of the bright, golden-yellow plant was supposed to provide protection against witchcraft and enchantment, also damage from storms, thunder, and evil spirits. It also has been used dye for wool. as a yellow St. John's-wort Family (Hypericaceae) 190 Winter Cress - Barbarea spp. Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: to 2 feet tall. LEAVES. deep glossy green, deeply lobed, 2-6 inches long. FLOWERS. inch across. bright yellow, about % many parts of the United States, these and other yellow-flowered members of the Mustard family are particularly conspicuous in the spring when they turn fallow fields yellow with their blooms. Winter Cress is not particularly common in Boston, but it is occasionally encountered in open, sunny lots. The leaves of Winter Cress remain green and succulent throughout the winter and, when boiled in two changes of water, are evidently quite good as greens. The Latin name Barbarea was derived from the fact that these plants can be eaten as early as St. Barbara's Day in early December. Throughout eastern Mustard Family (Cruciferae) 191 Butter and Eggs - Linaria vulgaris Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 1-2 feet. LEAVES. 1-2 inches long, about ';Z inch wide; gray-green. FLOWERS: pale yellow and orange; about 1 inch long. June to Octo ber. and orange flowers and the narrow gray-green foliage of this rugged perennial appear in sidewalk crevices and open, sunny lots throughout Boston. Butter and Eggs was introduced to New England by the seventeenth century. Today it grows profusely along roadsides and waste places throughout much of the United States. While seed production is apt to be poor without cross-pollination, the shoot production of this plant is abundant: over one hundred shoots may be produced The delicate yellow Snapdragon-like typical two-year-old plant! and Eggs derives its popular name from the color of its flowers. butter yellow with a blotch nearly the color of the yolk a by Butter a fresh egg. The early herbalists listed this plant as useful in treating a variety of disorders, ranging from skin eruptions to jaundice and ulu. cers. y Figmort Family ( Scrophulariaceae ) 192 A~JY. Mullein - Verbascurn thapsus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT. up to 7 feet. LEAVES: light green, woolly; lower leaves 4-12 inches long, in a rosette 8-24 inches across; upper leaves smaller. FLOWERS: bright '2 inch across in sulphur yellow, a narrow dense cylindrical spike, but only a few open at any given time. June to September. quite a distance one easily spot Mullein's rosette of large, soft, fuzzy, pale green leaves, and its thin, cylindrical flower spike, which often reaches up to 7 feet or so in height. This biennial produces massive Even from can amounts of seeds, but it is not an invasive erate plant, and it cannot tolcrowding. It grows on dry, mea- stony soils in old fields and dows and along roadsides throughout the United States. It may have been intentionally imported into New England as a garden plant, for it has a long reputation as a good medicinal herb. Mullein has been found useful for quite a variety of other purposes as well. Over the years its leaves have provided a soft lining in shoes, dried and floated in oil, they are serviceable lamp wicks. Its long stalks have been coated with fat to serve as tall candles. Figwort Family ( Scrophulariaceae ) 193 Evening Primrose - Oenothera biennis Native to the United States HEIGHT: stems. 2-6 feet, with reddish LEAVES. 3-6 inches long, hairy. about 1 to FLOWERS: pale yellow, inch across, fragrant. June September. Primrose is one of it is a common plant of fields and roadsides throughout the eastern and central United States. During the summer it occasionally forms large colonies on dry, sunny sites in Boston. This plant is distinguished by its tall, erect, reddish stems and its pale yellow flowers. Its blossoms usually open at dusk, when they emit a soft fragrance, and close by early the next day; thus, the origin of the common name Being biennials, the first year plants appear merely as rosettes of rough-hairy leaves. At this stage, the thick, fleshy taproots are palatable, if cooked in two changes of water and if collected at the right time during the winter months Otherwise they are too The Evening our native weeds, and peppery to appeal to most people. Evening Primrose Family (Onagraceae) 194I Goldenrods - Solidago spp. Native to the D~zited States HEIGHT: 1-5 feet. LEAVES: variable among the different species, from like to 3 inches broad, starting in a basal rosette. FLOWERS: narrow and grassflat clusters. yellow heads '~-'\/a August to October. inch broad, in slender, pyramidal, or From late summer until frost, the bright yellow flowers of Goldenrod are conspicuous in all sorts of habitats across the country, particularly in the eastern half. There are many different species, and even a botanist often has trouble identifying them. Several species are found in grassy fields and lots in Boston, but the Canada Goldenrod (Solidago canadensis), pictured here, is perhaps the most common. Although generally thought most of as a major cause of hay fever, species of Goldenrod shed pollen in quantities significant. This erroneous notion probably arose fact that these are among the most conspicuous plants of the worst hay fever seasons. Sunflower Family (Compositae) small to be because of the too during one 195 Sow Thistles - Sonchus spp. Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: to 6 feet tall. LEAVES: more coarsely and ones irregularly to a lobed, the lower foot or long, the upper ones smaller. FLOWERS: yellow, Dandelion-like heads, 1-2 inches across; followed by fluffyseed heads, again like those of Dandelions. June to September. Several species of Sow Thistle found in grassy or gravelly lots in Boston, and we will make no attempt here to separate them. They all are coarse herbs that resemble the Wild Lettuce in many respects, including the presence of a milky juice in all parts of the plant. The flowers of the Sow Thistles are larger, however, and the leaves have spiny teeth all along their edges. These spiny teeth resemble those of Thistles, but are not so stiff. Most of these plants are annuals, but the Field Sow Thistle (Sonchus arvensis), is a perennial, and it spreads vigorously by are a fast-growing underground root- stock. The leaves of the Common Sow Thistle (Sonchus oleraceus) are cooked as greens in Europe. Sunflower Family (Compositae) 196 Wild Lettuce - Lactuca scariola Naturalized from HEIGHT: 1-5 feet. Europe LEAVES. pale green, to 6 inches long, with a row of sharp prickles along the midvein on the underside. FLOWERS. numerous yellow, Dandelion-like heads (only a few open at any one time) ~\/a-' inch across; followed by fluffy seed heads. again resembling those of Dandelions. July to October. Although this plant is closely related to the cultivated Lettuce, the similarities are not particularly obvious to the casual observer. The leaves of the two plants are quite different, yet the flowers are nearly identical, although few gardeners ever get to see Lettuce flowers because they harvest the crop before the plants are old enough to produce them. This coarse annual is common both in cultivated and in uncultivated ground throughout the United States. It is particularly troublesome if abundant in grain fields, because the milky juice present in all parts of the plant can clog threshing machines. The light seeds are dispersed by the wind, and are a common impurity of grain. These factors account for the plant's widespread distribution. One curious habit of the Wild Lettuce, which may be useful for identification purposes, is that, when it is grown in the open, its leaves are oriented vertically. This is well illustrated in the accompanying photograph. When grown in the shade, the leaves are oriented horizontally as in most other plants. Sunflower Family (Compositae) 197 Hawkweed - Hieracium canadense Native to eastern United States HEIGHT: to 5 feet. LEAVES. hairy, irregularly toothed, dull, bright yellow October. to dark green; 2-6 inches long. across. FLOWERS. Dandelion-like heads '\/?-11\/_ inches August summer- This attractive perennial is one of the most colorful of the late and fall-flowering plants in Boston. It is most common in shady, wooded areas, where it forms dense stands that are conspicuous even when not in flower. Hawkweed is occasionally found in open, sunny lots, as indicated in the photograph above. Many introduced species of Hawkweed are common weeds in the United States, but this is the only one that is frequently encountered in Boston. According to legend, hawks used the plants to improve their eyesight, hence the common name of the group. Sunflower Family (Compositae) 198 Dandelion - Taraxacum of~ccinale Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: to 15 inches. LEAVES: 3-12 mches long, irregularly lobed, in a basal rosette. FLOWERS. golden-yellow flowerheads to 2 inches broad, opening only in sunny weather and closing at night. Mostly blooms April to June. This scourge of suburban homeowners is basically a very attractive plant. However, few people stop to appreciate the beauty of the flowers as they are eradicating the plants from their lawns and gardens. The common name is a corruption of the French dent de lion, which means \"lion's tooth\", in reference to the plant's jaggedly toothed leaves. The first Dandelions appeared in New England shortly after the first settlers arrived from Europe. The plant's deep, persistent root and light, widely dispersed seeds have helped it become established in fields, lawns, sidewalk cracks, and roadsides throughout the United States. The Dandelion is a plant of many uses. Before a plant has flowered, the leaves are excellent, either raw in salads, or cooked like Spinach. Its flowers are used to make wine, and its roots and leaves are used to prepare a medicinal tea. 199 Black-eyed Susan - Rudbeckia hirta Native to the United States HEIGHT: up to 3 feet. LEAVES: 2-6 inches FLOWERS: long, hairy. 2-4 inches across, with a orange-yellow flowerheads plish-brown center. June to August. dark pur- Travelling eastward in shipments of commercial seeds and hay, this striking native of the western prairies has gradually spread to New England fields, meadows and roadsides. It is now so wellestablished here that, like Queen Anne's Lace, it often is considered to be a native wildflower. Its large, golden-yellow, daisy-like flowerheads with their dark purplish-brown centers are so attractive that Black-eyed Susan is often cultivated in gardens. In the first year of growth this biennial appears as a rosette of slender, hairy, green leaves. The second year, showy flowering stalks appear and, after producing seeds, the plant dies. 200 0 Tansy - Tanacetum vulgare Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT up to 3 feet. LEAVES: up to 1 foot long, deep green, fernhke, extremely aromatic. across or FLOWERS: golden-yellow, in flat-topped clusters. July to button-like heads I\/a'~s inch less, September. Tansy is one of the most appealing of the very common weeds in Boston. Its aromatic, rich green foliage, and its midsummer clusters of distinctive, golden flowers form a splendid cover for the dry, gravelly soil of many old building lots. Tansy was brought to the United States from Europe as a garden plant, grown for its decorative qualities and its supposed medicinal uses. It has been used in quite a variety of ways: to preserve meat and corpses, to repel insects; as a tea to dispel worms and relieve nausea; and in poultices to relieve rheumatism and gout. Its leaves also are used occasionally in salads as a flavoring. It is a perennial weed and often grows in dense colonies formed by its creeping rootstocks. 202 Jewelweed, Touch-me-not - Impatiens capensis Native to northeastern United States HEIGHT: 1~\/z-5 feet. LEAVES. 2-5 inches long, blmsh-green. speckled with brown or FLOWERS. orange, or occasionally yellow, son, 1 inch long. June to September crim- The delicate orange (or yellow) flowers and bluish-green leaves of this lovely New England native are conspicuous in a few damp places in Boston, particularly along the unmowed banks of the Muddy River. One of the popular names of this plant \"Touch-me-not\" alludes to the sudden way in which its ripe seed capsules burst when they are touched, flinging the seeds to distances of 6 feet or so. The seeds float and are often carried to new locations by running water. According to tradition, the juice of Jewelweed brings immediate relief from the itching of Poison Ivy and Nettles - 203 Pineapple Weed - Matricaria matricarioides Native to western United States HEIGHT: 3-12 inches. LEAVES. to 2 inches long resembling pineapples. with a delicate, fernlike texture, and a scent FLOWERS: inconspicuous, greenish-yellow, in dense flowerheads 1\/~ n inch across. May to September. little annual with aromatic leaves, this on the Pacific Coast to old fields and roadsides in the eastern states and on to Europe. It is capable of growing on extremely poor, packed down soil, and is often seen in Boston growing on sites such as dirt paths and the bare patches of playing fields. A plant rugged, low-growing has spread from its native habitat 204 Beggar-ticks - Bidens frondosa Native to the United States HEIGHT: up to 5 feet. LEAVES: 2-5 inches FLOWERS. long, dull, dull dark green leaflets, 3 to 5 per leaf. across. August to inconspicuous, September. orange-yellow, in heads 1\/2 inch A tall, drab-looking plant with purplish stems and dull green leaves, Beggar-ticks seems to prosper particularly in the moist soil gardens, although it does appear even on our driest lots. Beggar-ticks is native to the United States, and is common in pastures, roadsides, gardens, cultivated fields and waste places across the country. Its seeds are widely distributed, because they are armed with two barbed projections which catch easily on fur and clothing, thus the origin of the generic name \"Bidens\", meaning \"two teeth.\" of Boston 205 Ragweed - Ambrosia artemisiif olia Native to the United States HEIGHT: 1-4 feet. LEAVES: 2-4 inches long, with a lacy texture. FLOWERS. inconspicuous, yellowish-green, in dense slender inches long. August to September. spikes 2-3 An infamous cause of hay fever when its pollen is in the air in late summer, Ragweed is probably one of the most widely detested weeds growing in the United States. It is common to cultivated fields, meadows, pastures and waste places throughout the United States, but it is particularly abundant in the eastern and north central states. Due to its copious seed production and the longevity of its seeds, it is a difficult plant to eradicate once it has been allowed to flower. While Ragweed does grow on dry, sunny soil in Boston lots, its incidence here is probably greatly overestimated since it closely resembles the more pervasive Mugwort. 206 Mugwort - Artemisia vulgaris Naturalized from Europe; as well HEIGHT: 1-6 feet. LEAVES: 1-4 inches possibly native to the western United States long, silvery on undersides, strongly aromatic. FLOWERS. inconspicuous greenish-white heads 'uc inch across, in slender clusters. July to September. long, The coarse reddish stems and lacy foliage of Mugwort are seen practically everywhere in Boston. It seems to thrive in the rubbly soil of old building lots, and its seedlings carpet the ground of these lots in early summer. It has spread across entire blocks in areas of the city where many buildings have been demolished in recent years. Because of its conspicuousness in such areas, Mugwort, probably more than any other weed, signifies municipal neglect to most Bostonians. is widethe northern and western United States, particularly on limey soil. In appearance, Mugwort, a perennial, so closely resembles the more notorious Ragweed that it is often mistaken for that plant. However, Mugwort is easily distinguished by its strong scent and the silvery undersides of its leaves. spread This relative of the Sagebrush in fields and waste places (Artemisia tridentata) across 207 Horseweed - Conyza canadensis Native to the United States HEIGHT: to 10 feet, but more than 6 feet. LEAVES: 1-6 inches usually not long, narrow. FLOWERS: small, inconspicuous, whitish heads; extremely numerous in a large, branched cluster at the top of the plant. July to October. annual weed is in old fields, pastures, roadsides, and other open places throughout the United States. In the Southeast, it is the first plant to appear in fallow fields. It is found in a variety of habitats in Boston, but it is mostly abundant in newly cleared lots. Although it may grow to be nearly 10 feet tall, Horseweed often begins to bloom before it has reached a foot in height. The foliage of Horseweed contains an oil that has been used as a mosquito repellant. This same oil renders the plant unpalatable to grazing animals, and it may This coarse, common and conspicuous produce an irritating reaction on human skin. 208 Lamb's Quarters, Pigweed - Chenopodium album Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 2-3 feet. LEAVES: 1-2 inches whitish undersides. long, with FLOWERS: inconspicuous, greenish, in irregular spikes. June to September. An ancient and extremely nutritious food plant, Lamb's Quarters was one of the most valued leafy vegetables of early Europeans until Spinach was introduced from Asia in the sixteenth century. Lamb'sQuarters spreads copiously by seeds. It grows abundantly in Boston gardens and lots, and in fields, gardens, pastures and wasteland throughout the United States. Its succulent young foliage may be cooked for greens, and its seeds can be ground into a flour which resembles buckwheat flour. 209 Curly (or Yellow) Dock - Rumex crispus Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT : up to 3 or 4 feet. LEAVES: basal leaves 6-12 inches FLOWERS: to long, upper ones smaller. small, greenish, in dense spikes up to 12 inches long. June September. one This is are of our most distinctive weeds, for its tall, stiff stalks topped by large spikes of brown or rusty-colored seeds which stand out conspicuously against the greenness of surrounding vege- tation. Curly Dock grows in grasslands, old fields, and along roadsides throughout the United States. It appeared in New England short!) after the English arrived. Its perennial roots are deep and persistent, and its seeds are abundantly produced - up to 30,000 have been counted on a single large plant! Its seeds also may lie dormant in the soil for exceptionally long periods of time, allowing future generations of Curly Dock to spring up even after 50 years have passed by. Birds are very fond of its seeds, and feed on them throughout the winter. Its thick, yellow roots have been used medicinally, and its first-year rosette of long crinkly leaves are sometimes gathered and cooked like Spinach. Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae) 210 Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 12 inches. LEAVES: light green, '\/2 to 3 inches. arrow-shaped, FLOWERS: very small, greenish or reddish, in spikes. May to September. This close relative of Curly Dock is distinguished from that plant by its small arrow-shaped leaves and daintier stature, but it too is conspicuous among most surrounding plants, due to its spikes of rusty-colored seeds. Sheep Sorrel grows on dry, sandy or gravelly soil in old fields and meadows throughout the United States. It can grow on very acid soil where other plants have difficulty, and so it is often associated with such soils, but it also will grow in soils that are more neutral or even slightly alkaline. This plant appeared in New England shortly after settlers arrived from Europe. Its creeping, perennial rootstocks make it a difficult plant to eradicate. Sheep Sorrel's leaves have a refreshing, vinegary taste, and they are sometimes eaten raw in salads or cooked like spinach. The substance responsible for the sour taste, however, may be toxic in large quantities. Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae) 211 Plantain - Plantago spp. P. major P. lanceolata Some species native to the United States and others naturalized from Europe The Plantains have a long history as travellers and have kept close company with man. Their association with our paths and roadsides is reflected in their Latin name, Plantago, which was derived from a word meaning \"footprint.\" Three different Plantains are often encountered in Boston. The Narrow-leaved Plantain (Plantago lanceolata) has come to us from Europe. It differs from the other species in its narrow leaves and its short flower clusters atop a long slender stalk. It is common in fields, roadsides, and other open areas. The Red-stem Plantain (Plantago rugellii), a native plant, and the very similar Broadleaved Plantain (Plantago major), a European plant, both have broad leaves and long, slender flowering and fruiting spikes. They are common in lawns and sidewalk cracks. The size of these plants varies enormously according to their environments. While all are pesty weeds in grassy places, the Redstem Plantain has a particularly strong association with roadsides and the packed down soil of yards and paths. All are particularly difficult to eradicate, because they can easily regenerate from their perennial rootstocks if only the tops are chopped off. Plantain Family (Plantaginaceae) 212 Pokeweed - Phytolacca americana Native to the United States HEIGHT: up to 8 feet, with reddish stems. LEAVES: 4-12 inches long. in FLOWERS: small, greenish-white, become purplish with age; to long, slender, drooping clusters. July August. This is such a handsome plant that it has been imported to Europe to be grown as an ornamental. In Boston it is most commonly encountered in rather rich, damp ground. The juicy, deep redpurple berries are attractive to birds, which help to disperse the plants, and to children, who may be seriously poisoned by eating them. All parts of the plants contain poisonous substances. The roots and the area where the roots and stems join are particularly dangerous. The berries reputedly become less toxic with age, and ripe ones have been used in baking, but cases of serious poisoning from eating them indicate that as few as three or four can seriously sicken a child. The young shoots, however, are considered an excellent substitute for asparagus. If collected when less than 6 inches long, peeled, and boiled in at least two changes of water, they are perfectly safe. Older shoots on mature stems should never be eaten. Poheweed Family (Phytolaccaceae) 213 Shepherd's Purse - Capsella bursa-pastoris Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: 6-18 inches. LEAVES: toothed lower or leaves leaves irregularly a lobed, clustered in small rosette; stem and clasping. FLOWERS: tiny, white, ous ~\/~s'~ inch across. December. inconspicuMarch to The loose spike of tiny, flat, heart-shaped seed pods (resembling shepherd's purses) is the conspicuous feature of this little annual, which holds the distinction of being one of the most common weeds on earth. Shepherd's Purse grows in all cultivated regions of the world. It reproduces abundantly by seeds and is always assured of a good seed crop because its flowers are self-pollinated before they open. In addition, its seeds are remarkably long-lived and can lie buried in the soil for 35 years or more with occasional germination. The seeds of Shepherd's Purse are eaten and dispersed by birds. The somewhat peppery young leaves of the plant are edible, and may be used in salads or cooked for greens. most wiry Mustard Family (Cruciferae) 214 Peppergrass - Lepidium virginicum Native to the United States HEIGHT: 6-24 inches. LEAVES: lower leaves 1-5 inches long, irregularly lobed; smaller, FLOWERS: narrower. stem leaves inconspicuous, tiny. greenish-white in slender spikes up to 6 inches long. May to Octo- ber. Spikes of tiny, flat, circular seed pods resembling those of Shepherd's Purse are the most distinctive feature of this common little annual, which grows abundantly on most open sites in Boston. The popular name \"Peppergrass\" alludes to the peppery taste of the plant's foliage and seeds. both of which are edible and are occasionally used as a minor food. Its young shoots may be substituted for watercress, and its seeds used as a seasoning for salads or soups. Birds are quite fond of its seeds. Mustard Family (Cruciferae) 215 Prostrate Knotweed - Polygonum aviculare Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: prostrate stems, up to 2 feet long. LEAVES: bluish-green, slender, '\/4-1 inch long. FLOWERS: across. inconspicuous, greenishwhite, tinged with pink 'h= inch June to October. This species of Knotweed is often encountered on dry, hardpacked ground, and it forms a common ground cover in vacant lots, along the edges of sidewalks, and in garden borders. An annual weed, its seeds are eaten and dispersed by small birds, and can pass through the digestive tracts undamaged. Buckwheat Family (Polygonaceae) 216 Grasses and Grasslike Plants Grasses Grasses are, and have long been, civilized man's most important food plants. The cereal grains Corn, Wheat, Barley, Rice, Oats, etc. which feed by far the majority of the world's people as well as their livestock, all are members of this large and widespread plant group. Many Grasses are low plants with narrow leaves, like the species which commonly make up our lawns. Others, however, such as Corn and the various Bamboos, are much taller with relatively broad leaves. All of them produce small, greenish flowers, arranged in clusters of various types; some dense and spike-like, others loose and airy. Many different Grasses, including several of the perennial lawn species, are common in a wide variety of habitats in Boston, but only a few of the more readily identifiable ones are included here. Perhaps Boston's most conspicuous Grass, at least by virtue of its size, is the plant known locally as Reed or Bulrush (Phragmites communis). Growing to 12 feet tall, this species forms impenetrable thickets along the Muddy River and the waterways in the Fens. This perennial, which spreads rapidly by means of thick, underground stems, is found in wet areas throughout the world. Although considered an unsightly menace by some Bostonians, it has been put to good use by the southwestern Indians as a shaft for arrows and as a weaving material. Squirrel-tail Grass (Hordeum jubatum), a very attractive species, is a relative of the cultivated Barley. A native annual or biennial, it is widespread in North America. The long, tawny bristles that make this plant so conspicuous cause great discomfort to animals if eaten or inhaled. We have seen it only on the waterfront, but it is so conspicuous there that we felt it deserved to be included in this handbook. Timothy (Phleum pratense), a perennial Grass with dense, spikelike flower clusters, is common in older lots in Boston. A native of Europe, it is extensively cultivated because it produces an excellent hay when cured. It has escaped from cultivation and is now a common wild plant in many parts of the United States. Crab-grasses (Digitaria spp.) are persistent weeds on both cultivated and fallow ground in many parts of the world. All are annuals, reproducing by seeds which remain viable for many years after ripening. Although suburban homeowners may despise them as pests in their lawns, some species of Crab-grass make good hay; also the seeds are very nutritious, and in Germany and Poland they are made into a kind of gruel. Several species of Bent Grass (Agrostis spp.) are common weeds in Boston. The flower clusters are large (perhaps as much as a foot tall) and open, composed of many tiny florets on long, threadlike stalks. Large clumps of the Red-top (Agrostis alba), one of the most common species, appear as a red haze when fully mature. This species is an important lawn grass. - 218 219 Hordeum jubatum Phleum pratense Phragmites communis 221 Sedges Native to the United States and most other parts of the world Sedges are a large group of grasslike plants characteristic of moist throughout the world, from the tropics to the polar regions. In Boston they grow along waterways or around the small pools which occasionally appear in vacant lots. Since Sedges are difficult to identify, we have made no attempt here to differentiate between the various types. They resemble Grasses in many ways, and indeed the two groups are closely related. However, Sedges in general have solid stems which are triangular in areas stems. In Boston the different species of Sedge vary in height from 3 inches to 5 feet. Sedges have few economic uses today. They were, and still are, used by the American Indians and native people of other countries for the weaving of baskets and other articles. Papyrus, a kind of Sedge, was used by the ancient Egyptians to make paper. cross-section, while Grasses have hollow, round Sedge Family (Cyperaceae) 222 Wild Plants in the City 223 Cat-tail - Typha latifolia Native to the United States HEIGHT: up to 6 feet tall. LEAVES: pale green, very long and slender, only ~\/4-~4 inch wide, but exceeding the stalk in length. Cat-tails spring up quickly along the edges of small pools or puddles which occasionally collect in the low areas of old building lots in Boston. They are also to be seen in the Fens, along the Muddy River, and in ditches along local railroad tracks. The attractive immature fruiting heads, shown in the accompanying illustration, often are used in dried floral arrangements. However, as the heads dry, they tend to come apart in cottony masses. This can be avoided to some extent by applying several coats of hair spray or one of the commercially available acrylic sprays. Both the young and mature rootstocks may be eaten raw in salads or cooked as a vegetable. While still green, the young flowering spikes may be boiled for a few minutes and then eaten around the tough, central core, like corn on the cob. Cat-tail Family (Typhaceae) 224 Trees and Shrubs Tree of Heaven - Ailanthus altissima Naturalized from Asia HEIGHT: up to 60 feet LEAVES: of or so. com- pinnately compound, numerous posed inches when long, they leaflets 3-7 with a reddish tinge first emerge in the spring. FLOWERS. greenish-yellow, in clusters. The flowers on male trees have an extremely powerful and unpleasant odor. Showy clusters of red or gold, winged seeds in late summer. No other tree can compete with the Tree of Heaven in its capacity to make itself at home in the strange environments produced by our cities. It can squeeze up through tiny cracks in a foundation wall or penetrate the mesh of a chain-link fence, and thrive in back alleys, gardens and the harsh, exposed sites of city lots. It seems to grow well regardless of soil moisture and fertility, and its irrepressible vigor and adaptability have allowed it to become a pest where most other trees must be coaxed and coddled to survive. But if it were not for the spontaneous appearance of this great weed, many sections of cities such as New York and Boston would be far bleaker than they are today, for it is one of the most formidable forces working at bringing shade and greenery into every comer of our urban areas. The Tree of Heaven was carried from Northern China to England in the mid-eighteenth century, and was brought to the United States by the end of the century. It was widely recommended for city planting at one time, but due to its invasive tendencies it is rarely planted now. Quassia Family (Simaroubaceae) 227 Staghorn Sumac - Rhus typhina Native to the central and eastern United States HEIGHT: to 20 feet, but LEAVES: usually less. pinnately compound of numerous toothed leaflets 2-4 inches long; smooth, dark green above, pale beneath, turning red in autumn. hairy, red berries, very FRUIT. erect clusters of showy in late summer. Staghorn Sumac forms dense, shrubby thickets on the dry, gravelly soil of sunny embankments and vacant lots in Boston. The plants become particularly conspicuous in late summer when the dense, erect clusters of berries, thickly covered with velvety bright red hairs, stand out almost like torches against the surrounding greenery. The thick twigs and branches of Staghorn Sumac also are densely covered with soft hairs, which give them the velvety brown appearance of a stag's immature antlers. The berries of this Sumac are edible, and a refreshing beverage. which has been used as a gargle for sore throats, may be made by crushing the berries and straining the juice. Indians also used its leaves and fruits as a poultice to soothe irritated skin. Cashew Family (Anacardiaceae) 228 Quaking Aspen - Populus tremuloides From C. S. Sargent, Manual of the Trees of North America Native to the United States HEIGHT. up to 60 feet LEAVES: 1-3 mches or so (has reached 100 feet). less wide, long, slightly turning yellow in autumn. This fast-growing, short-lived tree is very intolerant of competition and grows in open woods and clearings throughout the United States except in the Southeast It is said to be the most widely distributed native tree in North America. The Quaking Aspen is characterized by smooth, whitish or greenish-gray bark and leaves which tremble in the slightest breeze. The light, silky-haired seeds often are carried long distances by the wind, and they germinate one or two days after landing. This tree also reproduces by suckers which are abundantly produced along its long, shallow roots. Willow Family (Salicaceae) 229 Lombardy Poplar - Populus nigra 'Italica' Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: up to 90 ly much less. LEAVES: inches feet, but usual- somewhat across. triangular, 1-3 --- --- - ------- - a narrow, columnar clone of the Black introduced into the United States in the late eighteenth century and since then has escaped from cultivation. It has been widely planted as a fast-growing screen throughout this country, but it is often troubled by borers and a canker which may cause death before it is 10 or 15 years old. Relatively large specimens of Lombardy Poplar are seen growing wild on exposed sites in Boston, and young plants are found on many vacant lots. The Lombardy Poplar, was Poplar, Willow Family (Salicaceae) 230 Gray Birch - Betula populifolia Native to the northeastern United States HEIGHT: up to 30 feet, usually with multiple trunks in 2-3 inches a clump. LEAVES: BARK: triangular, with long, turning yellow markings. in autumn. white, triangular black Seedlings and small saplings of this native Birch are often encountered on vacant lots, but larger trees are less often found growing wild in Boston perhaps because they are not able to compete successfully with fast growing grasses and herbaceous weeds. Gray Birch seeds are very light, and, like those of the Aspen and Poplar, may be carried long distances by the wind. This fast-growing, short-lived tree is abundant on dry, gravelly, barren soil throughout New England. It springs up in large numbers on abandoned farmland and in areas that have been recently burned. Like other pioneer trees, it provides protection for seedlings of trees that will eventually constitute a forest. This photograph was taken above Brigham Circle, where the Gray Birch grows in association with Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) in steep puddingstone cliffs. - Birch Family (Betulaceae) 231 A variety of different Willows, grows wild in Boston. We have found at least five different ones, including both native and introduced species. As a group they tend to be associated with damp soil in low-lying areas, and they are generally rapid-growing, shortlived, and very intolerant of competition. Willows produce large quantities of seeds which are carried long distances by the wind. This fact accounts for their presence on vacant lots far from seed producing trees. While Willows have been cultivated widely, their inclusion in city plantings has been discouraged because their roots often clog drains and sewers. Willow Family (Salicaceae) 232 233 Black Locust - Robinia pseudoacacia Native to the States HEIGHT: to 70 LEAVES: Appalachians and or some parts of the central United 80 feet, but usually less than 40 feet. pinnately compound, of many oval, rounded leaflets 1-2 inches long. FLOWERS: white, in Wisteria-like pendulous clusters in late grant ; followed by a cluster of narrow, Pealike pods. spring, fra- Besides its decorative value in gardens and parks, the Black Lohas had a practical significance in forestry as an excellent, temporary cover for old fields and land strip-mined for coal. It grows rapidly (4 feet or more a year on good sites) and is able to tolerate a wide variety of soils. In addition, it can pave the way for less tolerant trees by improving the soil it grows on. Soluble nitrates, calcium, magnesium and potassium are released in its litter of leaves and twigs which rapidly decompose, and nitrogen-fixing bacteria associated with its roots further increase the nitrogen content of the soil. Black Locust requires an open site to grow well, and will not tolerate competition from other plants. Its natural mode of reproduction is through the production of root suckers. Its seeds have very hard outer coats which are relatively impervious to water and do not germinate readily. However, some seedlings of the Black Locust do spring up here and there on open, sunny sites in Boston. cust 234 The Black Locust tree is ers. distinguished by its deeply furrowed bark, thorny twigs, rich dark green leaves, and lovely, fragrant flowThe wood is particularly resistant to weathering and thus was used for fence posts. Despite its fine decorative characteristics, however, the Black Locust is no longer cultivated extensively in parks and gardens because of its susceptibility to injury from an insect known as the Locust Borer. extensively Legume Family (Leguminosae) 235 Honeylocust - Gleditsia triacanthos Native to the Ohio and HEIGHT: to 70 LEAVES: or Mississippi Valleys 80 feet. lacy-textured; pinnately compound, narrow, of many leaflets '~=-1 inch long. FRUIT: long, flat, brown pods 1-1'\/~ feet long. In recent years, a thornless form of this tree that seldom bears fruit has become a popular tree for street plantings. The Honeylocust has an impressive list of characteristics that are considered important in urban conditions: it grows rapidly and is tolerant of alkaline soil, road salt, and drought; its lacy foliage casts light shade and does not obscure business signs, it creates minimal leaf litter to be raked up in the autumn. In the wild this tree becomes established only in sunny openings, and, oddly enough, grows as a bottom land tree, preferring moist soil despite its reputation as a drought tolerant tree. The seeds are scattered by animals, which feed on the sweet seed pods. The tough outer coverings of the seeds are softened (improving their chances of germination) as they pass through the digestive tracts of the animals. While the native Honeylocust bear long, branched thorns sometimes reaching 4 inches in length, most of the trees planted in the city are thornless cultivars. Legume Family (Leguminosae) 236 Ashes - Fraxinus spp. ' Native to the United States HEIGHT: 40-60 feet, but LEAVES: occasionally in excess of 100 feet. leaflets 3-6 inches pinnately compound, of 5-7 oval, at pointed end. long. FRUITS: 1-2 inches long, slender, winged one Two native Ashes grow wild in Boston. The White Ash (Fraxinus americana ) is a large, fast-growing tree, which appears as a pioneer on fertile, abandoned fields in some parts of Massachusetts. It prefers a well-drained soil and is somewhat exacting in its soil nitrogen requirements. Its seeds are not apt to travel far (up to 400 or 500 feet) but abundant seedlings are produced in the vicinity - of mature trees. The Green Ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) prefers damper locations than the White Ash, and is most commonly found on alluvial soils along rivers and streams. In Boston it is often encountered along unmowed sections of the Muddy River. Its seeds are dispersed by water and wind. This is the most widely distributed Ash in North America. Both of these Ashes have been widely planted in the United States. The White Ash is a very large tree growing to more than 100 feet tall. It is identified by its erect form and distinctive but unusual autumn foliage, a unique blend of yellow, russet, and purple. The Green Ash is smaller and more rounded in shape. Olive Family (Oleaceae) 238 Oaks - Quercus spp. up near fair distances if squirrels have transported and buried acorns; if given half a chance these trees thrive in Boston. One of the best examples of active Oak regeneration in the city can be seen along the Muddy River, where the original Oak plantings have been allowed to go wild and now cover a rather extensive area. By far the most common Oak to be encountered in Boston is the Red Oak (Quercus rubra), a handsome tree which is native to the eastern United States and has been widely planted in Boston parks and along its avenues. The Pin Oak (Quercus palustris ) is another native Oak which is common in the city. Unlike the Red Oak, it can tolerate wet sites, but it is more sensitive to competition from other trees. It is dis- Young Oaks spring trees or at parent tinguished by its more deeply cut leaves (which turn scarlet in autumn), a distinctive pyramidal outline, at least when young, and drooping lower branches. Beech Family (Fagaceae) 239 Maples - Acer spp. species of Maple spring up locally near parent Boston, but only two species are frequently encounterd throughout the city: the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) and the Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus). Both trees are aliens, brought to the United States from Europe in Colonial days. The Sycamore Maple is the more rugged of the two. It almost rivals the Tree of Heaven in its vigor and adaptability, and is very often found in gardens and on urban lots. It is characterized by coarse, dark green foliage (resembling the Sycamore leaf in shape, hence its name), distinctive long clusters of winged seeds, and flaky trees here and there in Several different Norway Maple has been more widely cultivated than the Sycamore Maple in recent years. In fact, it has been one of the most widely planted street trees in the eastern United States during the past century. Its popularity has stemmed from its beautiful show of greenish-yellow flowers in early spring before its leaves are out, its yellow autumn foliage, and its fairly strong tolerance of difficult growing conditions. As its winged seeds ripen, they are showered over the ground below, and are found germinating in nearby any shallow little pocket of moist soil the But the saplings of this tree are fussier about their growing conditions than those of the Sycamore Maple, and make their best growth in the moist fertile soil of open gardens. Two other Maples are occasionally encountered locally in Boston. The Red Maple (Acer rubrum), a common tree in low woods throughout the eastern United States, is distinguished because of its brilliant red autumn foliage. The Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum 1 was widely planted along New England streets in the past, but its use has been discouraged because it attains a very large size and the wood is brittle. Seedlings of both these species are locally common in scattered locations, but mature trees growing wild are rare. bark. The gardens, gutters, following spring. or Maple Family (Aceraceae) 240 ~'T ~J~ ~ Black or Rum Cherry - Prunus serotina Native to the United States HEIGHT: 15-40 feet, but LEAVES: toothed occasionally to 90 feet. 1%-6 inches lustrous, oval with pointed tips, long, with finely margins. FLOWERS: small, white, in slender, showy, drooping clusters 4-5 inches long; followed by small, black fruits 14 inch or so in diameter. This is a pioneering tree of secondary successions that cannot tolerate the competition for sunlight, moisture and nutrients in dense forests. It seems to grow best in slightly protected sites with moist, fertile soil, such as that provided by small clearings and the peripheries of thickets and woodland in the co","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1974-Wild Plants in the City"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wild Plants in the City","article_sequence":1,"start_page":137,"end_page":252,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24640","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ebb6d.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":4,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Page, Nancy M.; Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"untryside. In the city it is most commonly found on the edges of gardens and parks, or in slightly overgrown areas. The Black Cherry becomes particularly conspicuous in the late spring, when its long, narrow clusters of small white flowers come into bloom. These flowers are followed in late summer by clusters of small, black cherries which are edible and widely dispersed by feeding birds. Its fruits have been used to make jelly and wine, and also to flavor rum or brandy (hence its popular name, \"Rum Cherry\"). The wood has been prized for cabinetmaking since Colonial days, and as a consequence there are few large trees still to be found growing in the wild. The Choke Cherry (Prunus virginiana), a similar species, also is found wild in Boston. Its fruits are acid and puckery, without the winey taste characteristic of those of the Black Cherry. Rose Family (Rosaceae) 242 Buckthorns - Rhamnus spp. Above: R. cathartica Naturalized from Europe HEIGHT: to 20 feeet. LEAVES: toothed roundish to oval, with the Alder margins in Buckthorn, 1-3 inches long. FRUITS: black, Cherry-like, borne or singly in clusters of 2-5. The two Buckthorns that grow wild in Boston are the Common R. frangula Buckthorn (Rhamnus cathartica) and the Alder Buckthorn (Rhamnus frangula), both introduced species. Several native species occur in the Northeast, but none has been seen in Boston. are large, coarse, rapid-growing shrubs with lusThey often appear in association with Black Cherry along the slightly overgrown edges of parks and gardens. They were originally introduced from Europe for use as hedges, and have escaped from cultivation to hedgerows, thickets and open woods throughout the eastern United States. Their seeds are widely scattered by birds, which are attracted to the shrubs by the berries. Since the fruits of the Alder Buckthorn ripen at slightly different times, there may be green, red and black ones all growing on the The fruits of both species are violently same plant at one time. purgative and should not be eaten. The Buckthorns trous dark green leaves. Buckthorn Family (Rhamnaceae) 243 Elms - Ulmus spp. U. pumila Elms are distinguished by their coarsely toothed leaves that are often lopsided at the base and rough on the upper surface. The Siberian Elm (Ulmus pumila) is the one most commonly found growing wild in Boston. This native of Siberia and northern China is a tough, rapid-growing tree eventually becoming as tall as 75 feet, that does well on dry, exposed sites with infertile soil. It has been widely planted in recent years, particularly in the Midwest, and has proved to be a valuable screen tree in drought-prone areas of the Great Plains. The Siberian Elm, however, is rather undistinguished in appearance, and has neither attractive flowers, colorful autumn foliage, nor graceful shape to recommend it for general planting. In addition, the wood is brittle, and its abundant seedlings can be annoying. It might be distinguished from most other Elms by its small, 1 to 3-inch long leaves. The American Elm ( Ulmus americana ), a native American tree, also is occasionally found as a volunteer in Boston. This very fine tree, with its graceful, fountain-shaped habit, is one of New England's most distinctive and widely planted shade trees. Unfortunately, it is highly susceptible to the Dutch Elm disease which is caused by a fungusJ Elm Family (Ulmaceae) 244 U. americana 245 Raspberries and Blackberries - Rubus spp. Native to the United States HEIGHT: to 5-6 feet, but like. FLOWERS: to an usually much lower and spreading, often vine- inch or more or across sweet, juicy, dark reddish - purplish with 5 white fruits. petals, followed by Raspberries the Northern and Blackberries are widely distributed throughout Hemisphere. Many species are weeds of fields, road- areas; others persist after cultivation around old homesites. All of them are prickly or thorny, and the more vinelike Blackberries, often called Brambles, are particularly unpleasant to walk through. The \"berries\" of these plants are familiar and delicious. They are actually tight clusters of tiny fruits, each with a single seed. When Raspberries are picked, the central portion, a whitish, coneshaped structure, remains on the plant. In Blackberries, this central portion does not separate from the fruit, causing the fruit to be somewhat tough in the center. sides, fencerows, and other open Rose Family (Rosaceae) 246 Ferns Hay-scented Fern - Dennstaedtia punctilobula Native to eastern United States This is a common Fern in a variety of habitats, from shady woods to open, rocky pastures, in the eastern half of our country. It is rare in Boston, however. Unlike the other plants treated in this handbook, Ferns do not produce flowers or seeds. They reproduce by spores which are borne in brownish spots of various shapes on the undersides of the leaves. In the Hay-scented Fern, the spore-spots are enclosed in minute cups located near the tips of the smallest lobes on the leaves. The Hay-scented Fern is a somewhat invasive species, spreading by fast-growing underground stems. Its leaves, which are finely divided and up to 2 feet long, do not appear in clumps as do those of many other Ferns. Rather, they sprout individually along the underground stem. Their sweet scent, resembling that of freshmown hay or grass, is evident when they are crushed, and particularly so when dried. Fern Family (Polypodiaceae) 248 Sensitive Fern - Onoclea sensibilis Native to eastern United States Ferns are uncommon in Boston, but this is the one most frequent- ly encountered. It is a familiar plant in wet areas and low woods throughout New England. In Boston it is most abundant along the Muddy River, but the photograph above was taken on a series of cliffs on Mission Hill, quite an atypical habitat. The leaves of the Sensitive Fern may grow to nearly a foot long. They are pale green in color and not as finely divided as in most Ferns. The spores are borne on separate leaves which are greatly modified in shape, without any obvious resemblance to the normal (sterile) ones. The whole structure resembles an upright cluster of small grapes. This Fern is particularly sensitive to its common name. even the lightest frost, hence Fern Family (Polypodiaceae) 249 Index to Plants Described (Scientific names are in italics) Acer, 240 platanoides, 240 pseudoplatanus, 240 rubrum, 240 saccharinum, 240 Achillea millefolium, 154 Agrostis, 218 alba, 218 - Cat-tail, 224 Celandine, 186 Chelidonium majus, 186 Chenopodium album, 209 Cherry, spp., 218 Ailanthus altissima, 227 Althaea rosea, 167 Ambrosia artemisiifolia, 206 Arctium minus, 176 242 242 -, Rum, 242 Chickweed, 160 Chicory, 181 -, Black, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, 163 Cichorium intybus, 181 1 Circium vulgare, 178 Clover, 156, 157, 173 -, Red, 173 -, Sweet, 156 -, Yellow Sweet, 156 -, White, 157 8 Crab-grass, 218 Comnzelizza communis, 182 Convolvulus arvensis, 152 Conyza canadensis, 208 Daisy Fleabane, 165 Daisy, Ox-eye, 163 Dandelion, 199 Daucus carota, 153 Dayflower, 182 Dennstaedtia punctilobula, 248 Digitaria spp., 218 Arrowhead, 158 vulgaris, 207 Asclepias syriaca, 172 Ash, 238 -, Green, 238 -, White, 238 Aspen, Quaking, 229 Aster, 164 divaricatus, 164 ericoides, 164 - Artemisia - Aster, 164 -, Heart-leaved, 164 -, Heath, 164 Barbarea spp., 191 205 Betula populifolia, 231 Bidens frondosa, 205 Bindweed, Field, 152 Birch, Gray, 231 Beggar-ticks, Dock, 210 -, Curly, _ 210 Blackberry, 246 - Black-eyed Susan, 200 Bouncing Bet, 170 Buckthorn, 243 -, Alder, 243 -, Common, 243 Bull-thistle, 178 8 Bulrush, 218 Burdock, 176 Butter and -, Yellow, 210 Echium vulgare, 180 Elm, 244 -, _ ' _ _ American, 244 Siberian, 244 Erigeron annuus, 165 Evening Primrose, 194 Fern, 248, 249 -, -, -, Hay-scented, 248 Buttercup, 192 184 -, Bulbous, 184 -, Common, 184 Campion, 161, 162 -, Bladder, 162 -, White, 161 Eggs, Sensitive, 249 Field Bindweed, 152 Fraxinus, 238 americana, 238 - pennsylvanica, 238 159 Galansoga, 159 ciliata, 159 Galinsoga, - Capsella bursa-pastoris, 250 214 Gleditsia triacanthos, 236 251 Goldenrod, Canada, Grass, 218 -, Bent, 218 -, Crab, 218 195 Plantago, 212 lanceolata, - 212 -, Red-top, -, Squirrel-tail, 218 218 Hawkweed, 198 Hieracium canadense, 198 Hollyhock, 167 Honeylocust, 236 Hordeum jubatum, 218 Horseweed, 208 Hypericum perforatum, 190 Impatiens capensis, 203 major, 212 rugellii, 212 2 Plantain, 212 -, Broad-leaved, 212 -, Narrow-leaved, 212 -, Red-stem, 212 3 Pokeweed, 213 Polygonum, 166, 216 6 aviculare, 216 cuspidatum, 166 - Poplar, Lombardy, 230 Populus, 229, 230 - pseudacorus, 183 Iris, Yellow, 183 Jewelweed, 203 Knotweed, 166 -, - Iris nigra `Italica', 230 tremuloides, 229 Japanese, 166 Prostrate, 216 Lactuca scariola, 197 Lady's Thumb, 169 Lamb's Quarters, 209 5 Lepidium virginicum, 215 Lettuce, Wild, 197 Linaria vulgaris, 192 Locust, 234, 236 -, Honey, 236 -, Black, 234 Loosestrife, Purple, 179 Lychnis alba, 161 Lythrum salicaria, 179 Portulaca oleracea, 189 Prunus serotina, 242 Purslane, 189 Quaking Aspen, 229 Queen Anne's Lace, 153 Quercus, 239 palustris, 239 rubra, 239 Ragweed, 206 Ranunculus, 184 acris, 184 bulbosus, 184 Raspberry, 246 8 Red-top Grass, 218 - Maple, 240 -, Norway, Reed,218 Rhamnus, 243 cathartica, 243 - 240 -, Red, 240 -, Silver, 240 -, Sycamore, 240 Matricaria matricarioides, 204 Melilotus alba, 156 officinalis, 156 Milkweed, Common, 172 Mugwort, 207 Mullein, 193 Nightshade, 174 -, Black, 174 -, Deadly, 174 - frangula, 243 Rhus typhina, 228 Robinia pseudoacacia, 234 Rubus spp., 246 Rudbechaa hirta, 200 1 Rumex, 210, 211 - 1 acetosella, 211 0 crispus, 210 Sagittaria latifolia, 158 - Salix spp., 232 Saponaria officinalis, 170 214 Silene cucubalus, 162 Smartweed, 169 Solanum, 174 -, dulcamara, 174 -, nigrum, 174 Sedge, 222 Shepherd's Purse, Oak, 239 -, Pin, 239 -, Red, 239 Oenothera biennis, 194 Onoclea sensibilis, 249 Oxalis stricta, 188 Ox-eye Daisy, 163 Solidago, 195 canadensis, - 195 Peppergrass, 215 5 - spp., 195 Phleum pratense, 218 8 Phragmites communis, 218 Phytolacca americana, 213 Sonchus, 196 arvensis, 196 - oleraceus. 196 Pigweed, 209 Pineapple Weed, 204 1 Sorrel, 188, 211 1 -, Field, 211 252I 1 -, Sheep, 211 Wood, 188 Sow Thistle, 196 -, Common, 196 -, Field, 196 Staghorn Sumac, 228 -, Stellaria media, 160 St. John's-wort, 190 Sumac, Staghom, 228 Sweet Clover, 156 Tanacetum vulgare, 202 Tansy, 202 Taraxacum ofrzcinale, 199 Thistle, Sow, 196 -, Bull, 178 Timothy, 218 Tree of Heaven, 227 Trifolium, 157, 173 pratense, 173 repens, 157 Typha latifolia, 224 Ulmus, 244 americana, 244 pumila, 244 Verbascum thapsus, 193 Vetch, 175 Vicia cracca, 175 Viper's Bugloss, 180 Willow, 232 Winter Cress, 191 Wood Sorrel, Yellow, 188 Yarrow, 154 - Touch-me-not, 203 ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1974-Wild Plants in the City"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23266","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d25e896d.jpg","title":"1974-34-4","volume":34,"issue_number":4,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Aromatic Pelargoniums","article_sequence":1,"start_page":97,"end_page":124,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24638","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eb76f.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":3,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Swain, Roger","article_content":"Aromatic Pelargoniums Introduction. In recent years the culture of horticultural plants has become increasingly popular. This trend prevails especially among city dwellers who perhaps have suddenly become conscious of the sterility of asphalt and concrete. One of the flowers that is in increasing prominence is the geranium. Traditionally grown for Memorial Day decorations, the sturdy plants with their large clusters of flowers in shades of red and pink are now used in great numbers in parks, along streets and on corners of houses in some of the more venerable quarters of older cities. The geranium with which we all are familiar is the zonal pelargonium, Pelargonium hortorum. There are, however, many other species in the genus. They are grouped into several types: the ivy-leaved, the regals, the uniques, and the scented-leaved. Each of these deserves to be popular on its own and was wellknown in the gardens of our grandparents. This paper is an introduction to scented-leaved pelargoniums.l In essence it will have to be a defense of pleasant scents. Pleasant smelling substances were once utilitarian, being used to hide objectionable odors; today, however, soap and public hygiene have successfully removed many of the noxious odors of the past. The perfumes, however, are still with us, now justified either as a custom or a pleasantry. Many perfume substances today are synthetic and are presented in even more artificial manner. Perhaps because of the crass commercialization of scents and the indiscriminate juxtaposition of scent and object, it seems refreshing to be able to smell a scent exuding from its natural source. This is the joy of carnations, cedar panelling, and scented-leaved pelargoniums. The last have odors that variously evoke descriptions of rose, lemon, nutmeg, almond, peppermint, lime, coconut, apricot, strawberry, ginger, pine or camphor. The varieties all have attractive foliage and, although most have small flowers, they ' The terms geranium and pelargonium are often used interchangeably, but as Pelargonium is the proper generic name, I shall try to adhere to it. 97 98 are delicate and beautifully colored. Of the approximately 250 varieties known, about 75 are available to the home gardener. They are easy to culture, do well as house plants, and as Clifford (1970) so succinctly put it, \"they are ideal for those whom the current time-saving techniques have left no time for any- thing\". thing From the expert gardener or the would-be-grower of green, the group deserves attention. some- The family Geraniaceae contains three genera: Geranium, Erodium, and Pelargonium. The names, derived from the three Greek words meaning crane, heron and stork, refer to the resemblance of the seed case to the slender bills of these three birds. Geranium and Erodium both have regular flowers; that is, the petals (and sepals) all are of equal size and shape. In Pelargonium the flower is zygomorphic (Gr. zygos yoke); in other words, the petals (and sepals) are of different sizes and so arranged that in only one place can a line be drawn to separate the flower into equal halves. Geranium and Erodium are easily separated. All ten stamens are fertile and bear anthers in Geranium; in Erodium, some of the stamens do not bear anthers. Members of the genus pelargonium while exhibiting wide variations in plant and flower habit all are characterized, in addition to the beak-like fruit of the family, by a nectar tube. This distinctive feature of the pelargoniums is a tube that runs from the uppermost sepal along the flower pedicel and is attached to it. Although it varies in length, its location usually can be observed externally by a bend in the pedicel occurring at the end of the tube. The pelargoniums are mostly restricted to South Africa. There are however several from Abyssinia, Kenya and Tanganyika, four from Australia, and one each from Asia Minor, Madagascar, St. Helena, Tristan da Cunha and New Zealand (Clifford 1970). Their usual habitat is desert-like, arid, stony and frost free. Pelargonium Botany. = Early History of Pelargoniums. The first record of a pelargonium in cultivation appeared in 1633. In his edition of Gerarde's \"Herbal ...\", Thomas Johnson noted that Tradescant had flowered \"Geranium indicum nocte odoratum\" the preceding year. Later, in 1668, the plant was listed in the catalog of the Botanic Garden at the University of Leyden. Where Tradescant obtained his specimen is a mystery. Presumably it came from some British ship that had stopped at Pelargonium Paris, 1635. triste. From Canadensium Plantarum ... by J. P. Cornut. Table Bay, the harbor of Cape Town, South Africa; the plant, Pelargonium triste, is common in the wild around Cape Town, and the harbor had been in intermittent use by the British;' and Portuguese ever since its discovery by the last in 1487. It was not until the last quarter of the 17th century that collections of living plants were sent back to Holland in any quantity. In 1668, the printed catalogue of the plants growing in the Botanic Garden at Leyden listed only 1821 species; in 1687, the number of names had risen to 3029. In particular, in comparison to the one species of Pelargonium listed in 1668, ten pelargoniums were growing in the garden in 1686. From this time forward pelargoniums were to be important members of the European garden flora. In 1724 some eight new species were recorded in cultivation for the first time in the Chelsea Physic Garden. Included among these plants were Pelargonium odoratissimum, the apple or nutmeg-scented geranium, and Pelargonium vitifolium, the balmscented geranium. Who brought these to England, and when, is not recorded. Dutch, Pelargonium radens. From Icones Plantarum Rariorum by N. J. Jacquin. Vienna, 1781-1793. . ~~rdra ~,~ ~ ,~s~a~ e .~ -~.--`~ ~ ~:_ I . He 4'1' ~* Above: *- I ,'*i ~6'!~ s ~~ . i '~' Pelargonium graveolens ~ ~~ ~ .. u~ Left: Pelargonium crispum Both from Geraniologia by C. L. L'Heritier de Brutelle. Paris, 1787-1788. '~ 101 scented-leaved species appear to have been imuntil Francis Masson was sent out from Kew to South Africa in 1771 or 1772. Masson spent five or six years there and travelled extensively. During this period he sent back to Kew the rose-scented Pelargonium radens (incorrectly called P. radula), Pelargonium quercifolium, and No more ported into England the lemon-scented Pelarin 1776, later reIt may have been he who sent the peppermint-scented turning. geranium Pelargonium tomentosum which appeared in England sometime before 1790. Pelargoniums flower abundantly in the northern hemisphere summer. Hybridizing with ease, they are readily raised from seed. Once a collection of species has been gotten together, and the bees allowed to go about their business, the resultant seed will yield a myriad of hybrid forms. This is precisely what happened in the gardens and conservatories of Europe between 1750 and 1850. A multiplicity of forms appeared; some to survive for years, other to disappear quickly. There also arose a multiplicity of names, and the connections between names and plants was sometimes highly tenuous. Between 1787 and 1838 seven monographic works were published in an attempt to keep up with the bewildering hordes of seedling pelargoniums. Different names were applied by different authors to the same plant, and identical names were applied by different authors to different plants. Hybrid seedlings were grown under the same names as their maternal parents. The resultant confusion still persists. For example: in some cases the plant which is called Pelargonium 'Attar of Roses' seems to be, instead, the old species Pelargonium capitatum; while the plant which is grown as Pelargonium capitatum is really a hybrid between Pelargonium graveolens and Pelargonium radens which is properly called Pelargonium X asperum. Likewise, at least some plants grown as Pelargonium odoratissimum are probably hybrid seedlings of that species with Pelargonium exstipulatum and should be properly called Pelargonium X fragrans. The clue is that true Pelargonium odoratissimum does not have lobed leaves. Some relief may come from genetic studies of the genus. M. G. Daker (1969) has done chromosome counts of several pelargonium species and cultivars. He concludes that the majority of aromatics are derived from two species, Pelargonium crispum and Pelargonium graveolens, both with a base number of an x = 11. (The zonals and the ivy-leaved have x = 9). Pelargonium graveolens, as well as gonium crispum. Masson left South Africa Pelargonium tomentosum. From Icones Plantarum Rariorum by N. J. Jacquin. Vienna, 1781-1793. aberrant base number x 8. a real species and not a hybrid. Pelargonium grossularioides, the coconut-scented pelargonium, is also unusual with a chromosome number of 38. Daker postulates this an allotetraploid resulting from an x 8 such as Pelargoniuna X fragrans and x = 11 such as Pelargonium australe. The cultivar 'Endsleigh' has long been considered a variety originating from a cross between Pelargonium capitatum (hexaploid 2n 66) and Pelargonium quercifolium (tetraploid 2n 44). This would make 'Endsleigh' pentaploid (2n 55). In fact, Daker found 54 chromosomes. This substantiates the proposed ~ncestry although one chromosome has been lost. an = Pelargonium Clifford X fragrans has (1970) suggests that this is = = = = 103 Scent. Because of the many wild scented pelargonithe aromatic foliage must have some biological justifiums, cation. For plants in general, several hypotheses have been presented for the existence of essential oils. The first is that the oils are simply waste products being excreted by the plants. Although once popular, this catch-all explanation has generally been discarded and there is no reason to expect that it explains the oils in pelargoniums. The second hypothesis is that the oils serve to attract pollinators. Because the aromatic pelargoniums do not have showy flowers and yet are adapted for outcrossing (the pollen maturing prior to stigma formation) it is reasonable that the foliage odor may serve to attract pollinators to the plant. A third hypothesis is that the aromatic oils are allelopathic; that is, they inhibit the growth of other plants nearby. This has been studied on several aromatic herbs in the California desert (Whittaker 1970). It is true that the pelargonium oil does leach out of the foliage with rainfall and it may have Plantations of pelargosome allelopathic effects in the soil. nium do contain weeds but there is no reason that the allelopathy could not be selective for certain species growing in association with pelargonium in its native habitat. A fourth hypothesis is that essential oils serve to repel predators, either arthropod or larger animal herbivores. In their native environment pelargoniums are growing where vegetation is relatively scarce. Hence the pressure from herbivores may be strong enough to justify the development of repugnant oils that would discourage predators. These last three hypotheses are not mutually exclusive and only further research will explain the biological significance of the essential oils. Ecology of ' Distribution of Varieties and Scents. The following is a list of aromatic pelargoniums and their scents. It has been synthesized from other lists in recent works on pelargoniums. Because of the problems with nomenclature and because many authorities only describe the scent, it is difficult to decide whether conflicting accounts of scents for the same named variety are due to improper naming of one of them or to justified differences in odor interpretation. The list does ~erve to emphasize the diversity of varieties and accompanying scents. Chromosome numbers (Daker 1969) are given where available and references to descriptions of each variety are coded with each listing. 104 105 106 107 108 109 Pelargonium X asperum. From Revue Horticole. Vol. 65. 1893. 110 Geranium Oil. Although pelargoniums are largely associated with horticulture, they have been of considerable importance as a source of essential oil for the perfume industry. Only one actual geranium, Geranium macrorrhizum, a minor species, is used occasionally in Bulgaria and other Balkan countries (Guenther 1960); all others are pelargoniums. Although 99% of the oil comes from pelargoniums, the term geranium oil was used historically and is still employed today. Although they had been cultivated for their scent in Europe for more than a century, it was not until 1819 that the aromatic pelargoniums came to the attention of the perfume industry. They were first commercially grown in fields at the foot of the Maritime Alps near Cannes (Knuth 1921). By 1847 they were in regular cultivation both in Grasse, France and in several locations in the French Province of Algeria. In 1880 plantations were established on the French island of Reunion 500 miles east of Madagascar in the Indian Ocean at altitudes between 400 and 1200 meters where sugar cane, vanilla and manioc could not be grown (Perrot 1915). Just which pelargoniums are now used, or have been used, for commercial oil production is conjectural, since most of the literature seems to have been produced by people not in a position to accurately identify the plants. It is certain that P. X asperum was the major crop in France before 1900. (Revue Horticole, 1893). It is also certain the P. graveolens was the plant grown in Kenya in the 1920's and 1930's (Hutchinson 1931). What other species or hybrids may be involved must wait until a taxonomist has an opportunity to study the plants. It is surprising in view of the diversity of odor presented in the previous table that only those pelargoniums with rose scent are used. Holmes (1913) noted this as well, and proposed that others should be considered. The exclusive use of rose-scented pelargoniums is probably due to the extreme popularity and expense of the rose extract from Damascus roses, for which rose geranium oil was a cheap and acceptable substitute. For other scents, the pelargonium counterpart was probably not outstandingly less expensive. Commercial Culture. For perennial growth, the pelargonium requires frost-free conditions, since a temperature of + 3 C. kills the plant. Hence it can be grown only as an annual in France, while in Africa the plants live five to ten years. Such regional variations result in differences in culture, but the basic technique was as follows: 111 The pelargonium The best, it was tings. was These cuttings were spaced 8 inches apart in nursery beds. When the latter cuttings were rooted, they were set out, usually in late autumn (Bull. Imp. Inst. 1929). The spacing of the plant varied from 36\" each way in S. France, to 12\" apart in rows 30\" apart in Algeria. The plants were kept weed-free and well-watered where irrigation was available, the application of water resulting in a greater volume of herbage with a slightly lower percentage yield of oil. In Algeria the plants were originally grown on dry slopes where the oil was reported as being of great delicacy. Once the plants became established on low-lying, humid soil, the three-fold increase in yield was balanced by a poorer quality in the \"geranium irrigue\" oil, and the superior product of dry land was apparently mixed with it to ameliorate the quality. Depending on the locality, from one to three crops were harvested a year. When three wcre made in a given year, it was usually followed by two the next, thus making five cuttings in two years. If two cuttings were made, the first was in midApril when the plants were in full bloom and their usual lemonlike odor had changed to a strong rose. The second would be during late October when the leaves had turned slightly yellow (Bull. Imp. Inst. 1932). A third cutting might be made in July if particularly good growth was achieved. In Reunion, the first of three cuttings took 60-70 cm. of growth, the second and third, 25-30 cm. (Perrot 1915). The cutting was done after several days of dry weather, as otherwise the oil yield was very low. Cutting was done by hand with sickles after the morning dew had dried. In Algeria in 1931 native boys were paid 5 francs per day, adults 10 francs per day, whites twice this rate, and the average cost of cutting one hectare (2.47 acres) was 400 francs or 40 man days for a native adult laborer (Bull. Imp. Inst. 1932). The material was stored for 24 hours which permitted some fermentation. This released the portion of the oil stored in the form of B-geranyl glycoside (Guenther 1960). The whole plant, stalk and all, was steam distilled. The sizes of the stills varied from ones holding a 250-kilogram charge that one man could handle, to ones holding 20 metric tons of plant material equipped with electrically driven hoists.2 The yield of oil was 2 Brown and Islip (1952) have written an elaborate treatise for essential oils for anyone wishing more information on this propagated by taking 10-12 inch cutreported, included a heel of old wood. then placed either directly in the field or on stills subject. 112 Pelargonium denticulatum. From Icones Plantarum Rariorum by N. J. Jacquin. Vienna, 1781-1793. reported as varying from 0.07% in Italy to 0.20% in some areas of France (Amer. J. of Pharm. 1918). A hectare in Reunion might yield as much as 30 kg. of oil per year but a more usual figure was 18 kg. (Guenther 1960). The yield depended on the age of the plantation. Yield of Oil per Hectare (2.47 acres) From Guenther 1960 113 History of Production. In Algeria the production of geranium oil was 31,200 kg. in 1903 (Perrot 1915) and rose to 143 metric tons in 1928 (Guenther 1952). At this point it Recent prosubject to the same labor laws as France. The gruesome years of war, rebellion and insurrection also took their toll as did increasing competition from the cultivation of grapes and vegetables in the same area (Guenther 1960). Production in the late 1950's was down to between 6 and 15 metric tons per year. Production on the island of Reunion rose to 120 metric tons per year in 1936-1940 but by 1948 this had dropped to 34 tons. Guenther (1952) cites both the sugar industry luring away labor and the tremendous cyclones which ravage the island regularly. A cyclone on January 25, 1949 killed 150 people, destroyed 70% of the dwellings, 50% of the cattle and 80% of the pelargonium plantations (Guenther 1960). Arctander (1960), however, reports that Reunion in spite of the cyclones now produces 100 metric tons per year valued at 3-5 million U.S. dollars, one half of the world's production. The French production of geranium oil is at an all-time low and still decreasing (Arctander 1960). Although its quality is high, high labor costs and continual pressure from resorts has virtually eliminated the industry (Guenther 1960). The world's second largest producer is the USSR (Arctander 1960). Plantations in the Crimea and the Caucasus in 1959 produced 50-55 metric tons, all of which were used domestical- declined rapidly. This was duction, Algeria becoming no partly due to the high cost of longer a colony and hence ly. A rather recent introduction is Moroccan geranium oil. Bein 1935, the industry capitalized on inexpensive female labor for harvesting and on modern distillery equipment, and under the management of a French essential oil producer after World War II rapidly became a major producer (Guenther 1960). Problems in establishing this industry included a swarm of locusts in 1947 that destroyed 50 hectares of nursery beds (Guenther 1952). In spite of this, Morocco is now the world's third largest producer after Reunion and the USSR (Arctander 1960). Congo geranium oil from the Zaire Republic, Kenya, Tanzania and Angola has been produced for some years and the production is increasing (Arctander 1960). This is oil from Pelargonium graveolens and is not to be mistaken for the oil from P. radens grown in Kenya, known as Mawah oil. Pelargoniums have been cultivated in Kenya since before 1914 (Hutchinson 1931). It is interesting that with the exception of Kenya, pelargoniums first went to Europe and subsequently were transported ginning 114 south for cultivation. In Kenya the plants probably came directfrom S. Africa. The term Mawah oil has been applied to the oil from both Pelargonium graveolens and P. radens. Today it exclusively refers to oil from the latter. The word \"Mawah\" is adapted from the Swahili word \"Maua\" the plural form of \"ua\" simply meaning flower (Hutchinson 1931). The odor of Mawah oil is \"a bitter-harsh, leafy-woody, slightly earthy, but later toning out to more pleasant rosy, geranium type of odor\" (Arctander 1960). It is not a substitute for geranium oil. The \"East Indian\" or \"Turkish\" geranium oil is oil from the grass Cymbopogon Martini (Hutchinson 1931). French financing has established pelargonium plantations in El Salvador that are apparently now past the experimental ly stage (Arctander 1960). In addition to Reunion, the USSR, Morocco, Algeria, El Salvador and East Africa, West Africa, Japan, Italy, Haiti, Corsica, Lebanon and India produce annual lots of 1-2 metric tons which are used locally (Arctander 1960). Although little if any is produced in the United States today, there was once considerable pressure to establish domestic production of geranium oil. In 1914 the Office of Drug, Poisonous and Oil-Plant Investigations of the Bureau of Plant Industry of the U.S. Department of Agriculture undertook the task of studying the feasibility of commercial prpduction (Russell 1921). Cuttings of Pelargonium odoratissimum (P. graveolens ?) were obtained and rooted in Orlando, Florida, in the winter of 1915. Enough plants resulted to plant two acres. From successes and disasters (they all froze out the first year) growers were able to obtain a number of conclusions based on the plantings of 1917-1919. First, they found that the cuttings could be rooted directly in the field. Second, that the plants were frost susceptible. Third, although plants tolerated drought and wet weather well, 24 hours under water was fatal. Fourth, fertilization increased the yield of herbage with a slight decrease in percentage yield of oil. Fifth, because mowing machines simply uprooted the plants, cutting would have to be done by hand unless new machinery could be invented. Sixth, rains prior to harvest reduced the yield. Seventh, that their yield, 0.035 % -0.109 % , was probably low but with even better yields the monetary returns per acre would vary between $15 and $24 per acre per year (Russell 1921). With this conclusion, hardly a promising one, the field was abandoned during the winter of 1919-1920. 115 In 1923 the Committee on Raw Products of the Association of American Manufacturers of Toilet Articles provided money for further research by the same department of the USDA. Enough plants were left from the previous experiment to set out 5,000 cuttings near Mt. Dora in Lake County, Florida, in 1924. This plantation failed to survive due to neglect. A second planting in 1925 died of drought. In 1928 new assistants were obtained; cuttings were established in 1929, and 0.39 acres planted. The first harvest was made in October 1928 and a second in June 1930 (Sievers, Lowman and Marshall 1932). Experimental plantings were also set up at Harlingen and Raymondville in the Lower Rio Grande Valley in Texas. These plants froze out in December 1929. Plantings in 1924 were undertaken in National City and San Jose, California. Mixups resulted in no yield from these plants. A cold spell killed all the plants in San Jose. Plants set out in Calipatria, California, died of summer heat. In 1925 cuttings were set out on a fifth of an acre in the United States San Diego Acclimatization Garden at Torrey Pines, California. This planting was harvested in 1926, 1927, 1928, 1929, 1930 and 1931. Experiments were conducted on the effects of nitrogen fertilizers either alone or in combination with irrigation. In 1931 these experiments were shifted to a large ranch near Tustin, California. Four one-quarter acre plots were established and studies of the effects of soil type and irrigation were done. The final conclusions of the investigators were that Texas and Florida were unsuited for commercial production because of frost. In southern California plantations would need irrigation, but if this were provided, three yearly harvests could be obtained on fertilized land. Based on a maximum yield of 25 pounds of oil to an acre, they concluded that the crop could only be grown with labor saving devices (Sievers, Lowman and Marshall 1932). I have not heard of any further attempts to make this a profitable agriculture commodity in this country. Although steam distillation was the only extraction technique used in the majority of localities, by 1937 in Grasse (Naves and Mazuyer 1947) a geranium concrete was being produced. A concrete is made by extraction with petroleum ether or benzene. The advantage of this technique is that the yield is somewhat improved. In 1937 fifty tons of herbage yielded 0.20-.25%. 116 The geranium concrete is a dark green or brownish-green waxy mass. The odor is an intense earthy-herbaceous, sharprosy, foliage green one with great tenacity (Arctander 1960). It is best for soap perfumes, adds body to rose perfumes and blends well with spicy additives. Morocco in the 1950's was the largest producer of geranium concrete, producing 5 tons per year. In Morocco an alcohol extraction of geranium concrete also is done removing waxes and terpenes. When the alcohol is subsequently evaporated the product is known as geranium absolute. Usually a liquid, it is entirely soluble in alcohol and hence is ideal for fine perfumes (Actander 1960). Although largely used for perfumes, geranium oil is occasionally used sparingly for flavoring with rich and sweet flavored materials such as vanillin, clove oil, patchouli oil and bergamot. Old fashioned toothpaste occasionally still contains small amounts of geranium oil (Arctander 1960). The odor of raw geranium oil varies in different regions. In Reunion it is described as \"very powerful: green, leafy-rosy, with a pronounced fruity-minty undertone and a rich, longlasting dryout\" (Arctander 1960). The Algerian oil is \"lighter more rosy-leafy, less minty ... and the rich, sweet-rosy dryout undertone is more pronounced\" (Arctander 1960). The variation in the oil produced in different regions may be due partly to differences in the variety of the pelargonium grown. Climate, however, also plays an important part. Experiments of the International Commission for Applied Ecology in association with UNESCO in 1957 established a series of plantings in the Middle Limpopo River Valley. The area is African savannah where the annual rainfall is less than 10 inches. Examination of oils from plants of the same variety grown in different locations within this area revealed surprising variation in oil type. The oil from plants grown on high land was distinctly related to the Algerian type while those plants growing along the river in an area of greater humidity produced oil with characteristics similar to Bourbon (Reunion) oil (Sholto- Douglas 1969). Chemical Constitution of Geranium Oil. Geranium oil primarily contains geraniol and citronellol, the mixture of which makes up 75-80% of the oil. This percentage and the ratio of the two alcohols varies with the origin of the oil. These alcohols are usually found partly as esters with acetic, isobutyric, isovaleric and tiglic acids. In addition to these major components the following chemicals have been isolated from gera- 117 dimethyl sulfide, ethyl alcohol, diacetyl, isoamyl alcohol, 1-a-pinene and \/3-phellandrene, d-3-methyl-l-pentanol, 3-hexen-l-ol, n-l-hexanol, methylhexyl carbinol, 1-isomenthone, linalool, a-terpineol, menthol, 2-phenylethanol, eugenol, sesquiterpenes, and sesquiterpene alcohols and a paraffin (Guenther nium oil: 1960). The physicochemical properties of the oil such as specific gravity, optical rotation, refractive index, ester and alcohol content vary with the origin and all are measured regularly as a check for adulteration. Adulteration can be very sophisticated and techniques for detecting it equally so. Medicinal Use of Pelargoniums. Although neither geranium oil geraniol is recognized as having medicinal applications in the United States, Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk (1962) discuss several medicinal uses of aromatic pelargonium species by tribes in southern Africa. In general the pelargoniums are used by the natives for relief of diarrhea and dysentery. Some species are used for treating syphilis. Pelargonium fumaroides is claimed to bring on the menstrual flow and with celery or mint is used for abortions. Among the aromatic pelargoniums, P. alchemilloides, the Clammy Cranesbill, is reported used by the Xhosa as a paste for healing wounds. A decoction of another variety of this species is supposedly used by the Sotho of Basutoland to wash feverish patients. P. cucullatum is used as a decoction for colic, nephritis, and in suppressing the urine. The root of this species is used to cure diarrhea, the leaf as a dressing for open sores and an antispasmodic. P. grossularioides is used to stimulate expulsion of the placenta, the onset of menstruation and parturition. The Nama apparently also use it for anemia, fever and general weakness. In the Malay archipelago it is used as a menstrual stimulant and an abortive (Watt and Breyer-Brandwijk 1962). A curious mechanical danger associated with some of the pelargoniums is that the points of some fruits are sharp enough to enter the flesh and kill sheep (Pammel 1911 ). nor Pelargonium odoratissimum Pelargonium inquinans Both from Horti Elthamensis Plantarum Rariorum by J. J. Dillenius. London,1732 119 For the individual gardener, aropleasantly easy to grow. Cultural repelargoniums quirements are basically those used for the other cultivars as well. Propagation is ordinarily done by cuttings either from your own or someone else's plants. Although seeds may be available for some varieties, they do not always come true and the majority of the seedlings grow very slowly. Cuttings are made with a sharp knife from the soft green wood of well-grown, stocky plants at a time when the plant is making good growth. The cut should be made just above a node and preferably where the remaining node faces outwards (the resulting shoot producing a more pleasing parent specimen). The cutting is then trimmed off just below a node, as the roots only develop from the node and any material below this will simply rot. Cuttings should be about three inches long or should contain about three nodes. All but the new top leaves and perhaps one mature leaf should be gently stripped off. Rooting can be done in water, in moist sand or perlite, or in compost. JifFy-7Tns Peat Pellets are popular self-contained peat-filled compressed tablets that swell up when soaked and are very good for rooting cuttings provided they are not overwatered The major cause of death of cuttings is \"black leg\" wherein the stem simply rots completely. The fungus causing this can be stopped by using a fungicide in the water or by being careful not to overwater. When the cutting has developed roots it should be potted up. The British favor a soil mix of their own called John Innes Compost Mix. For Americans a suitable equivalent is the Cornell Mix. A peck of this can be made by mixing four quarts of vermiculite or perlite, four quarts of shredded peat moss or sphagnum, two level tablespoons of ground limestone, and four level tablespoons of 5-10-5 fertilizer (Carleton 1967). As to the fertilizer any composition will suffice as long as the last figure is similar to the first, i.e., 10-10-10. Avoid lawn fertilizer, 30-10-10, which is unnecessarily high in nitrogen. For the city dweller who is not prepared to mix his own soil, the pre-mixed Jiffy MixT~i can be purchased, and when mixed two parts Jiffy MixT`I to one part perlite or vermiculite is an ideal, cjean, sterile, easy-to-handle substitute. The rooted cuttings should be potted in three-inch pots. Clay pots are better aerated and hence need more watering than those of plastic. The current trend is to switch entirely to the Pelargoniums in the Home. are matic 120 plastic. This simply requires a little less water and a slightly better drained potting mix with more perlite, vermiculite or sand. When the roots of the young plant appear through the holes in the bottom of the pot, or it is clearly outgrowing the pot, it should be repotted in a four-inch pot. This is usually large enough unless you wish specimen plants; then larger pots may be used. Outdoors all the aromatics except for Pelargonium tomentosum thrive best in full sun. Indoors they should be placed where they get as much sun as possible. Should sunlight be unavailable, artificial light when properly used can produce startling results. Perhaps the best new book on this subject is by Kranz (1971). Lamplight gardening, as they call it, can be done under the purplish Gro-lux fluorescent lights or under cool white fluorescent lights. Since scented pelargoniums are not grown for their flowers and rarely bloom in winter, the requirement for incandescent lights with the fluorescent is superfluous. Cool white fluorescent lights six inches apart and hung twelve inches over the plants will permit them to grow normally without any sunlight. Incandescent lights alone do not provide enough intensity. I have postponed the subject of pinching back or stopping the young plants because the ultimate desired shape will delimit the approach. For specimen plants, stopping the young cutting once it is established will cause it to branch; subsequent stopping of these branches will result in a lovely bush shape. This of course depends on the variety. Pelargonium X fragrans will produce an upright bushy plant while P. tomentosum tends to be viney and runs along the ground. The scented-leaved pelargoniums as well as the zonals make impressive standards. A standard is a plant with a single tall stem capped with a ball of foliage. Varieties of P. graveolens and P. quercifolium make excellent standards. Lateral buds should be pinched off at the main stalk as they develop and only when the desired height has been reached should the top be pinched back. Standards can be produced with stems as high as six feet but a more modest height would be desirable for beginners. Stake the plants well, for standards are very susceptible to wind damage. Many of the Pelargonium crispum varieties and others with small leaves can be made into bonsai. For those with similar patience some plants can be espaliered on walls and fences. The plants always make impressive growth in the summer and by winter there are too many to take indoors. Cuttings may be taken in August and the parents discarded. During the win- Right: Pelargonium capitatum. From Horti Academici Lugduno-Batavi Catalogus by Paul Hermann. Leyden, 1687. ... Left: Pelargonium exstipulatum. From Geraniologia by C. L. L'Heritier de Brutelle. Paris, 1787-1788. 122 ter them back occasionally and turn them so they do grow lopsided. The major insect pests of the indoor aromatic is the white fly. This is difficult to eradicate but Malathion is effective if the treatment is repeated within a week. There are other occasional pests but to enumerate them would make their occurrence appear more than rare. Indoors the simple presence of healthy plants is reward enough regardless of display technique. Usually they are crowded up against the window so as to obtain the maximum light on those dark winter days. Although the plants will not thrive except in a sunny window or under artificial light, the owner should not hesitate to move them to a dim location for a special occasion. The few hours spent away from good illumination is not damaging and will provide a special delight. Outdoors the gardener is free to devise all types of display. Planters, tubs, hanging baskets all can be used. The individual habit of each of the aromatics may suggest its own best display. The important thing is to grow them close to the path or within people's reach, for it is through rubbing or crushing a bit of the foliage that one most appreciates the aromatics. They are perhaps most popular in gardens for the blind where they can be smelled and enjoyed by the sightless. not I pinch Non-commercial Uses. Although geranium oil production is practical in the home, there are numerous uses for the leaves of the scented pelargoniums. For those who still remember the sentiments that scents once were given, a sprig or leaf can be used as a messenger: rose for preference; nutmeg for unexpected meeting; and lemon for expected. It now has become traditional to place a leaf of rose geranium in the bottom of the glass when making apple jelly. Not only is the deeply cut leaf attractive but it adds a delightful accent to an otherwise bland jelly. The tiny leaves of lemon scented Pelargonium crispum are floated in finger bowls, and hence its name, the finger-bowl geranium. Crushed leaves of rose, lemon and peppermint-scented geraniums when boiled in water produce an extract that is a delightful addition to tea, either hot or iced. Branches of a scented pelargonium can be used in flower arrangements. Not only do they replace the function of the florist's asparagus \"fern\" but their aroma adds much to the bouquet, if its flowers were chosen for color rather than scent. Young plants make lovely gifts for new brides, apartment dwellers and others. Their ease of culture should permit everyone to have several on hand for such gifts. There is really no not 123 limit to the uses of these plants; their lovely foliage in its myriad forms and scents invites creative approaches One common use is in a potpourri. I give Helen Van Pelt Wilson's (1965) recipe below: On a dry day after several days without rain collect leaves of rose scented P. graveolens varieties, some lemon scented P. X hmoneum and P. crispum and a very few peppermint P. tomentosum. These should be spread on some screens to dry in the shade. By turning them regularly they should dry in a week Add a fixative, orris root or benzoin or styrax at a rate of one ounce to one quart. Place these leaves in a jar and add spices at a rate of one tablespoon for one quart of leaves Cloves, cinnamon, allspice, mace, and powdered nutmeg may all be blended Fill jars two-thirds full and stir well. Cover tightly and let stand for six weeks, stirring every few days. When opened the jars will provide a potent and long lasting aroma largely of pelargonium. This has been a discussion of one group of pelargoniums, those with unusually scented leaves. I have tried to present some of the facts about their biology, history and cultivation and to convey something of the enjoyment obtained by growing them. Since the latter is largely subjective and emotional, I may have restrained myself too much. I can only urge everyone to consider growing these plants either singly or in a collection. They have had a showy history, a neglected present, and merit a popular future. ROGER SWAIN (The author is a graduate student in the Department of Biology at Harvard University. This is a portion of a term paper prepared by him for Biology 104, additional notes have been supplied by Gordon P. DeWolf, ]r.) Bibliography American Journal of Pharmacy 1918.90. Distillation of Geranium Oil in India. Arctander, S. 1960. Perfume and Flavor Materials of Natural Ori- gin. Elizabeth, N.J. Brown, E. and Islip, H. T. 1952-53. Stills for Essential Oils. ColoBull. nial Plant and Animal Products. Vol. 3 No. 1:287. Imp. Inst. 1929. Vol. 27:307. New Crops for the Colonies: Essential Oil Plants. 124 Bull. Carleton, R. M. 1967. Vegetables for Today's Gardens. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., N.Y. Charabot and Gatin 1913. La Culture du Geranium Rosat. Journal Imp. Inst. 1932. Vol. 30:458. Geranium Oil. d'Agriculture Tropicale. Vol. 13:289. Clifford, D. 1970. Pelargoniums. Blandford Press, Great Britain. Cross, J. E. 1951. The Book of the Geranium. Saturn Press, London. M. G. 1969. Chromosome Numbers of Pelargonium Species and Cultivars. J. Royal Hort. Soc. Vol. 94:346. Guenther, E. 1952. Recent Developments in Essential Oil Production. Economic Botany. Vol. 6:355. Guenther, E. 1960. The Essential Oils Vol. 4: 671. D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., N.Y. Harper, R., Bate Smith, E. C., and Land, D. G. 1968. Odor Description and Odor Classifccation. American Elsevier Publ. Co. Inc., Daker, Heuze, G. 1893. Geranium Rosat. Revue Horticole. Vol. 65:305. Holmes, E. M. 1913. The Genus Pelargonium. Perfumery and Essential Oil Record. July: 239. Horticulture 1972. New for '72. Vol. 50 No. 1:22. Hutchinson, J. H. 1931. Essential Oils. Kew Bull. No. 2: 107. Knuth, R. 1921. Pelargonium Oil. Amer. J. Pharm. Vol. 93:302. Kranz, F. H. and J. L. 1971. Gardening Indoors Under Lights. Viking Press, N.Y. Moore, H. E. 1955. Pelargoniums in Cultivation I. Baileya. Vol. 3 No. 1 : 5. Naves and Mazuyer 1947. Natural Perfume Materials. Rheinhold Publ. Co., N.Y. Pammel, L. H. 1911. Manual of Poisonous Plants. Torch Press, Cedar Rapids, Iowa. Perrot, M. 1915. Les Grandes Produits Vegetaux des Colonies Francaises. E. Larose, Paris. Russell, G. A. 1921. Rose Geranium - Results of Experiments in Its Culture in Florida. J. Amer. Pharm. Assoc. Vol. 10: 19. Schulz, P. 1965. All About Geraniums. Doubleday and Co., Inc., Garden City, N.Y. Sholto-Douglas, J. 1969. Geranium Culture. World Crops. May\/ June: 122. Sievers, A. F., Lowman, M. S., and Marshall, C. G. 1932. Geranium in the United States. Amer. Perfumer and Essential Oil Review. Jan.-Mar. Veendorp, H. and Baas Becking, L. G. M. 1939. Hortus Academicus Lugduno Batavus. Typographia Enschedaiana. Harlem. Watt, J. M. and Breyer-Brandwijk, M. G. 1962. Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. E. and S. Livingstone Ltd., London. Whittaker, R. H. 1970. Biochemical Ecology of Higher Plants. In: Chemical Ecology (Sondheimer and Simeone, eds. ) Academic Press, N.Y. Wilson, H. V. P. 1965. The Joy of Geraniums. M. Barrows and Co., Wood, H. J. 1966. Pelargoniums: A Complete Guide vation. Faber and Faber, London. to Their Culti- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":125,"end_page":133,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24639","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ebb28.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":3,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"Lilies and the Arnold Arboretum No article with this title could possibly start without reference to E. H. Wilson and the Regal Lily. Despite all that has been written and said about this lily and its introducer, the full story of its impact on gardens and gardeners will probably never be fully documented. Up until recently, at least, Regal Lilies were still growing in the garden by the house where Wilson used to live at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. A very good example of Wilson's writings and feelings about the Regal Lily first appeared in \"The Lilies of Eastern Asia\". In \"that little-known hinterland which separates China proper from the hierarchy of Lhassa there in narrow, semi-arid valleys, down which thunder torrents, and encompassed by mountains composed of mud-shales and granites, whose peaks are clothed with snow eternal, the Regal Lily has its home. In summer the heat is terrific, in winter the cold is intense, and at all seasons these valleys are subject to sudden and violent windstorms against which neither man nor beast can make headway. There, in June, by the wayside, in rock-crevices by the torrents edge, and high up on the mountainside and precipice this lily in full bloom greets the weary wayfarer. Not in twos and threes but in hundreds, in thousands, aye, in tens of thousands. Its slender stems, each from 2 to 4 feet tall, flexible and tense as steel, overtopping the coarse grass and scrub and crowned with one to several large funnel-shaped flowers more or less wine-coloured without, pure white and lustrous on the face, clear canary-yellow within the tube and each stamen filament tipped with a golden anther. The air in the cool of the morning and in the evening is laden with delicious perfume exhaled from each bloom. For a brief season this lonely, semidesert region is transformed by this Lily into a veritable fairy... land.\" A hundred miles or so to the southwest, Wilson discovered another lily new to science which he named \"in compliment to the late Mrs. Charles S. Sargent, artist and lover of flowers, the wife of Professor C. S. Sargent, the famous dendrologist and Director of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University.\" This lily, L. sargentiae, along with L. regale, and L. davidii were intro125 126 duced to American gardens by Wilson. Also, he was responsible for L. henryi becoming common in cultivation. The Regal Lily was discovered in August, 1903. In 1908 Wilson shipped a few bulbs back to the Arnold Arboretum and to some friends, but in 1910 he succeeded in introducing it in quantity to America, and the stock passed from the Arnold Arboretum to Farquhar and Co. in Boston. Perhaps Wilson should have the last word, here, about this lily. He felt \"it will thrive where the common Apple can be successfully grown.\" He said that under cultivation it had \"behaved royally, being equally indifferent to winter colds, summer droughts, and deluges and has flowered and fruited annually.\" He pleaded with the gardener that \"all who possess or will possess this treasure not to ruin its constitution with rich food.\" Although the Regal Lily has been superceded in favor with many gardeners by the fine modern trumpet strains of lilies, there are still gardeners who cherish and grow Lilium regale in its pristine, true species form and consider it still one of the best of all lilies. II In the fall of 1962 the, so-called, \"Lily Demonstration Plots of the Arnold Arboretum\" were established at the Case Estates in Weston. This was a cooperative effort between the New England Lily Group of the North American Lily Society and the Arnold Arboretum. Seventeen societies, nurseries or individuals contributed the bulbs to the test garden. Included were a wide range of species and cultivars. For a period of nearly ten years, various observations were made on this collection. Dr. Donald Wyman has turned over to the writer all the literature accumulated by him and his workers which was recorded during this period. One entire issue of Arnoldia, Vol. 20, No. 10, November 6, 1964, was devoted to a detailed study of about 250 species and cultivars in the collection that had been studied up to then. Dr. Wyman called this article \"Lilies In Their Order of Bloom\". The name of each lily, the week the first flower opened, number of days in bloom, number of flowers per stalk, size of flower, height of stalk, color of flower, and shape of flower were recorded. A few copies of this popular issue are still available at the Arboretum. As the years went by it became obvious that certain lilies in the plot were better \"doers\" than others. The idea arose that this group of lilies could be of great value to the average gardener, who could not bother with fussy lilies and who would like to know which ones could be relied upon to perform well under average or even poor garden conditions. E. H. Wilson and lilies, just after he received honorary doctorate from Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. Arnold Arboretum photo, 1930. 128 In the last few years no effort was made to give special care, fertilizer or insect repellent to these lilies. Some died out completely, others lived on in quite undesirable stages; but others thrived and even increased to large clumps, performing well in full sun, surviving drought, animal predation and about every evil that could befall a lily. During these years of experimentation a misunderstanding arose with the New England Regional Lily Group. Because of the unpleasant appearance of these beds, at one of their meetings in 1971 the President of the group stated that \"the lily display at the Case Estates is a disgrace.\" After some discussion of who initiated the planting and who was supposed to care for it, it was suggested that the NERLG name be removed from the display and that the Case Estates be asked what could be done about maintenance. The many visitors who saw the lily beds and made notes on those that did well, and those that did not, under trying conditions have profited by what may have appeared shabby at the time. It is significant that no crosses of L. auratum by L. speciosum were among the survivors. For the first time the final results of this experiment are offered to the gardener for what they are worth. Only those that did very well are considered here. Those followed by an asterisk did exceptionally well. During and the same species were period, another group of 17 cultivars planted at the Case Estates for testing in time heavy shade beside what is known as the \"wood road\". Of these, the Bellingham hybrids, L. tsingtauense, Gay Lights, and L. hansoni have persisted under \"natural conditions\" and are still performing well. Lilium 'Stardust'. Photo: G. Pride. Lilium 'Corsage'. Photo G. Pride. 130 A Lilium X Parkmannii hybrid. Photo: G. Pride. 131 III Our most recent and continuing involvement with lilies conremarkable collection of \"Parkmannii hybrids\" now being tested at the Case Estates. At their request, an agreement was made in the fall of 1971 with the Sun Valley Bulb Farms, Inc. of Oregon. They would supply us with 600 bulbs of this famous cross, and we would observe these plants for a period of 4-5 years doing nothing special in fertilizing, spraying or in any way \"fussing\" with them. Generally these lilies, which are called in the trade \"Oriental hybrids,\" are considered very susceptible to disease, and some nurseries have them plastered with insecticide and fungicide from the time they come out of the ground until they die down in the fall to avoid disease. A talk given by the writer at the national meeting of the North American Lily Society in July 1971 stressing the need for disease resistance in lily breeding programs led to this agreement. Very few East Coast lily fans seem to grow these beautiful speciosum-auratum hybrids. Because of their lack of diGood sease resistance, they fail to live on year after year. lilies should form clumps in five years from a single bulb. The plan is to divide the bulbs of the survivors between the bulb company and the Arnold Arboretum at the end of a five-year period. They will be used for further breeding work and testing. During the flowering season from June to August in 1972 and 1973, when this large bed of lilies was in bloom, they created a sensation. Mostly in shades from white through pale pink to deep rose, with flowers from L. speciosum size up to about 1 foot in diameter and with a heavy, sweet fragrance, they were the center of attention. Even during the first year, dozens of them died. It was not unusual to have a lily die out completely while another seedling a few inches away was not only living but increasing. Most of those that survived increased noticeably in height and performance the next year. In a way, it is appropriate that we be involved with perfecting this type of lily. The first cross made and the flowering of what is perhaps the most famous of all lily hybrids took place in Jamaica Plain a few hundred feet from where the Arnold Arboretum is now, at a time just before the Arnold Arboretum was conceived. It occurred in the garden of Francis Parkman, whose home was on the shore of Jamaica Pond. Parkman, who was also a professor of horticulture at the Bussey Institution, started experimenting with hybridizing lilies in the 1860's. His main concern was to combine \"the two superb Japanese lilies, L. speciosum and L. auratum\". After several years of cerns a Test bed of L. X Parkmannii at Case Estates. Photo P. Bruns. 132 hard work and considerable patience, he flowered this nowfamous seedling. Parkman described this remarkable flower with restraint by saying, it \"opened on the seventh of August and proved a magnificent flower, nine and a half inches in diameter, resembling L. auratum in fragrance and form, and the most brilliant varieties of L. speciosum in color. In the following year, it measured nearly twelve inches from tip to tip of extended petals, and in England it has since reached fourteen inches. A colored plate of it will be found in the Florist and Pomologist of March, 1876, and engravings of it have appeared in the Gardeners Cleronicle and other horticultural publications. The stock has been placed in the hands of Mr. Anthony Waterer, the distinguished nurseryman who has given it the name of L. Parkmanni.\" Accompanying the plate of Lilium X Parkmannii in the Florist and Pomologist for 1876 was a comment by the editor which is well worth repeating, \"the limits of our ordinary page are so inadequate to represent the aspect of this noble flower, that we have found it necessary to adopt a double-page illustration, which we think will show that we have by no means been guilty of exaggeration in describing Mr. Parkman's Lily as magnificent, and one of the grandest flowering plants yet introduced to our gardens.\" Mr. Parkman increased this one bulb to a stock of about 50 by bulb scale propagation and sold the whole lot to Mr. Anthony Waterer of England for $1,000.00. It flowered for Mr. Waterer in 1875. The published color reproduction of the lily was made from his plants. However, disease took its toll and all bulbs of this remarkable lily died before it could be placed on the market. Through the years many hybridizers attempted to re-create this hybrid but all failed until 1914 when a Mr. O. S. Hayward of England succeeded in making the cross again. E. H. Wilson described it then as Lilium X Parkmannii var. Haywardii and wrote that \"Mr. Hayward is to be congratulated on his triumphant success.\" Since this time the cross has been made many times, and the resulting seedlings have ben crossed and recrossed. The collection we are testing is essentially this type. Visitors coming to the Case Estates to see these lilies should remember that they are involved in an experiment that may eventually lead to some new, fine, hardy lilies that can be enjoyed widely here in the East with less danger of loss from disease. Let the beauty of the survivors compensate for the dead and dying that may be seen nearby. GEORGE H. PRIDE Monarch buttery Song sparrow. Photos: R. Weaver. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Group of Outstanding Goldenrain Trees (Koelreuteria paniculata) Along Boston's Fenway","article_sequence":3,"start_page":134,"end_page":135,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24636","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eb326.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":3,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"A Group of Outstanding Goldenrain Trees (Koelreuteria paniculata) Along Boston's Fenway Among the very fine and unusual trees planted in Boston's Back Bay Fens is a group of four Goldenrain Trees (Koelreuteria paniculata), located near the intersection of Boylston Street and the Fenway, close to the Willow Oak that was featured in the first article in this series on outstanding trees of the Boston area (Arnoldia 33(5): 292-294. 1973). The best specimen in the group, and a truly outstanding one, stands 46 feet tall, with a spread nearly equal to the height and a trunk diameter of 22 inches. Another tree just beside this one, shorter and not in as good condition, has a trunk diameter of 24 inches. These are the largest specimens of this species that I have seen in Massachusetts, and they were probably part of the original plantings in the Fens. The Goldenrain Tree, the only arborescent member of the primarily tropical Soapberry Family that is hardy in the Northeast, is native to Japan, Korea, and western China. It was introduced into cultivation in 1763, but in most parts of this country it is still relatively rare. However, it has several attributes which would argue for its being planted more often. The mustard-yellow flowers borne in large, open, upright clusters appear in June when few trees are in bloom. In fact, this is one of the very few hardy trees with truly yellow flowers. The inflated, papery fruits, green changing to brown, are also conspicuous and attractive, and they frequently persist well into the fall. The trees grow well in a wide variety of soil types. Goldenrain Trees are escaping from cultivation in several parts of the United States. Seedlings have been found in three places in the Boston area: in the Fens, here at the Arnold Arboretum, and on the Harvard campus along Memorial Drive in Cambridge. There are also a few saplings at the last site. However, all groups of seedlings are growing in close proximity to mature trees, so it appears that the Goldenrain Tree is not becoming truly naturalized in Boston. RICHARD E. 134 WEAVER, JR. Koelreuteria paniculata. Photo: N. Page. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":136,"end_page":136,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24637","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eb36b.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":3,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Exotic House Plants. A. B. Graf. E. Rutherford, N.J.: Roehrs Company. 1973. 176 pages, 1200 illustrations. Julius $7.50. Originally issued in 1953 as a guide to common as well as unusual house plants, this 8th edition, profusely illustrated with photographs, presents a changed format and benefits from the corrections of nomenclatural errors. The volume is compact and reasonably priced. Illustrations are grouped in eighteen categories and a few general plates are in color. Cultural directions are given in an introductory section and each illustration is accompanied with a graphic symbol designed to suggest a house plant, or one better grown in a greenhouse; also, the requirements of temperature, light, moisture, and soil type. An alphabetical index of scientific names supplies each with a modicum of miscellaneous information and is followed by an index of common names. A handy, useful, and recommended volume continuing an admirable tradition of illustrative plant handbooks. RICHARD A. HOWARD Pots and Pot Gardens. Mary Grant White. London: AbelardSchuman. 1969. 160 pages, illustrated. 1.90. Not to be equated with other recent books on the popular of container gardening, this little English volume offers a comprehensive treatment of an art which originated in ancient Greece and continues to flourish in the Mediterranean subject area. Few gardeners have access to the traditional earthenware and terracotta pots which the author describes, and many of the plants she recommends are unsuited to our climate; but the classic concept of a pot garden is a valid one, distinct from today's ubiquitous redwood and plastic planters. Anyone interested in creating an adaptation will find this a useful guide, as will the potter in search of authentic and pleasing designs. These are copiously illustrated in over 100 black and white photographs which underscore the need for artistry in the selection, planting, and placing of garden pots. JEANNE S. WADLEIGH 136 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23543","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260b76e.jpg","title":"1974-34-3","volume":34,"issue_number":3,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Living With Poisonous Plants","article_sequence":1,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24634","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eaf28.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Living With Poisonous Plants 1~ ~ ~~ ~ a.~~. A . ~ d w~ d The word POISON too often creates fear when it should suggest a warning. Many chemicals or common household substances used incorrectly, usually in the wrong quantity, can cause illness or even death; this is also true with certain plants. Left alone they are harmless. Bruised, crushed, or eaten in varying quantities, they may provoke effects which are upsetting, painful, or even fatal to man. The plant is the product of a series of chemical reactions. These reactions produce useful materials such as carbohydrates, fats, proteins, enzymes, gums and resins as well as other chemicals which may adversely affect men or animals. Plant chemicals are known to cause irritating reactions in the human body. Certain chemicals on leaf surfaces or in plant juices may be irritating to the skin, inducing blisters, swelling or reddening. They also sometimes effect chemical changes leading to light sensitivity, discoloration, and in exactual erosion of skin tissues. plant effects are strictly mechanical. Punctures or tears by spines, thorns, or the small protuberances on microscopic pollen grains may cause irritation, with subsequent swelling. Hypodermic-like hairs of the Stinging Nettle, for example, puncture the skin and forcibly inject a chemical which creates a sensation of violent pain or burning. Latex or milky juices of certain plants coagulating in the throat or drying on the skin produce an uncomfortable tightening sensation that could induce panic in the small child. In some parts of a plant potentially injurious chemicals accumulate in quantity as storage products. This occurs in seeds or roots and occasionally in leaves. Thus, a small volume of the plant tissue may contain a relatively large amount of toxic material. Man throughout his years on earth has learned by trial and error which plants threaten his well-being and has passed on this information. However, neither the modern botanist nor the physician can predict the possible human reaction to all plants nor the quantities of reputedly toxic ones necessary to cause illness. treme cases, an Some other 41 42 there is an urgent need for public information and of potentially hazardous plant materials. Our increased contact with them in and about the home, as well as in the country; the trend to using natural foods, to eating wild plants, to living off the land has led many people to try strange plants as food. Often mistakes have been made in identification, while in other cases plant products have not been prepared properly and illness and poisoning have resulted. Although adults obviously are vulnerable, our primary concern is the inquisitive child. Relatively small amounts of potentially toxic material are necessary to cause severe or even fatal consequences in a small body, whereas the same volume might have little or no effect on a teenager or adult. During the Second World War, staff members of the Arnold Arboretum produced survival manuals for the military forces and conducted training programs which led to the establishment of the air-sea rescue services. Special emphasis was placed on the edible and poisonous plants and animals of each area of operation, with simple general rules of safety included. For adults these guidelines are valid today in and around the home as well; however, children should be taught not to put any unknown plant material in their mouths. awareness I Today Safety Rules 1. Avoid eating all plants that have milky or colored juices: this includes members of the Milkweed, Poison Ivy, Spurge and Poppy families. Needless to say, there are exceptions to all general rules, for the young shoots of the Milkweed plant are edible and even Lettuce has a milky juice. 2. Avoid all unknown white or red fruits. Poison Ivy, Poison Sumac, and some species of Baneberry have white fruits and are poisonous. Strawberries, Apples and Tomatoes are red, but these are known. The majority of unrecognized red fruits are - potentially toxic. 3. Avoid eating wild seeds, for the seed of the plant usually has the greatest accumulation of chemical which may be toxic. In general the toxicity of plants is greatest in the storage organs of seeds, fruits, roots and tubers. Young plants or young fruits may be less toxic than the same parts in mature condition. However, some plant poisons are breakdown products, and wilted leaves may often be more dangerous than fresh material. 4. Avoid all fruits which are three-angled or three-lobed and thereby eliminate the potential dangers of the Spurge, Soapberry, Horsechestnut, Amaryllis and Lily families. Some of 43 the world's most infamous poisonous plants belong to these families. 5. Avoid all bulbs that lack the smell of Onions or Garlic. Some members of the Lily and Amaryllis and related families with basal bulbs may kill you if eaten in quantity. 6. If you must experiment in eating unknown plant materials, it is a rule of safety to cook the plant parts in two changes of water. Then sample a small bit before consuming a lot. If the cooked material tastes unpleasant, don't eat it. Your own reaction may be the sensible one. Many plant poisons are watersoluble or destroyed by heat. Cooking and discarding two changes of water lessens the amount of poisonous material or removes it completely. What To Do IfPoisoning Is Suspected Seek information as soon as possible. Plant poisons may cause an immediate reaction in the human body or may be delayed in their effects for several hours. Residents of cities that have poison centers or large botanical gardens may get information from either source. Look under \"Poison\" in the emergency pages of your telephone book. Before you call have a piece of the plant in your hand so you can give a description of it. The person answering will ask questions according to the time of the year, for he probably knows what poisonous plants are most conspicuous at each season in woodlands, cultivated out of doors, or in your home. His questions may involve the size of the plant, the presence of spines or thorns, the position of the leaves (opposing each other or alternating on the stem), the color of the fruit, seed or flower, and whether a juice is present or lacking. He will need to know the age or size of the child and how much he may have consumed. If you know a name for the plant, volunteer this information but remember that common names vary with locations. For example \"Dog Berry\" generally applies to a non-poisonous plant in Massachusetts and to a toxic plant in Maine. Frequently \"Mayflower\" and \"May Apple\" are confused (the latter may be poisonous) and \"Ivy\" can apply to a dozen different plants, some toxic and others harmless. The doctor or the botanist who answers the call will recommend the action you should take. It is not always desirable or necessary to have the child vomit; when it is advised, don't hesitate. The direction will generally be to administer one tablespoon of Ipecac syrup for children over one year. This is an emetic which can be purchased without prescription in one 44 drug stores and should be on hand for emerhome with small children. If vomiting is not induced within fifteen minutes, a second dose of one tablespoon may be given; then notify your physician. If vomiting still does not occur, take the child to the emergency room of a hospital. In serious cases a doctor may wish to use special methods to clean out the stomach, or to keep the child under observation. Sometimes the irritating or potentially poisonous material would be spread if vomiting occurred. In such cases Ipecac syrup is not recommended, and the alternative suggestion is to dilute the substance by feeding the child. Some materials such as the latex of Spurges are best treated by feeding dry crackers or bread. In other instances involving plant oils, the recommendation may be for large amounts of peanut butter and jelly, cereal, or even ice cream. ounce quantities gencies in every at a guide to the most common plants of woodlands, and homes which are potentially dangerous if misgardens, used. It is based on the collaboration of medical consultants and the staff of the Arnold Arboretum experienced in answering questions from residents of the northeastern states referred to us by the Boston Poison Information Center. Obviously, not all potentially poisonous plants from this area or others can be included. We have omitted mushrooms, toadstools and fungi because there are poisonous mushrooms which are very difficult to identify. Always call the poison center for suspected cases of mushroom poisoning and carefully follow the advice of the specialist. Comprehensive reference volumes are available for the person who wishes larger lists of edible or potentially toxic plants; such references form the bibliography of this guide. As a service to the community at large, the Arnold Arboretum has just produced a 26-minute, color and sound educational movie on 78 poisonous plants. The film may be borrowed by groups wishing to show it for educational purposes. Reservations should be requested well in advance by writing to the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130. This is RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Guide to Potentially Dangerous Plants","article_sequence":2,"start_page":45,"end_page":91,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24632","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ea76b.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"45 Abrus precatorius - Jequirity Pea, Precatory Bean (y~cLs.'Tt) pc~'e.'~f~~v cl-&~ I CT-0 Lw-Sfi2~s~ E, POISONOUS PARTS - The red and black seeds which contain a toxin, abrin, similar to snake venom. It begins to act in 12-72 hours. SYMPTOMS and fast pulse, Vomiting, diarrhea, drowsiness, weakness, circulatory collapse, coma and death. weak The seed coat must be cracked before danger occurs; intact seeds will pass harmlessly through the digestive tract. However, a single damaged seed may be sufficient to kill a child. Seeds of Abrus are frequently used in jewelry, dolls and other souvenirs of the tropics. 46 Aconitum spp. - Monkshood POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain a number of substances. The roots are particularly virulent. poisonous SYMPTOMS - Tingling a by numbness; frequently without vomiting; slowing tion. Death may follow within a of the tissues of the mouth followed sensation of warmth in the stomach; nausea, of the pulse and respirafew hours of ingestion. Monkshood is 3 feet; its blossoms or yellow som ornamental garden perennial growing to deep blue or purple, and occasionally white. The common name aptly describes the blosan are form. 47 Actaea spp. - Baneberry POISONOUS PARTS - The roots and berries sonous are the most poi- parts. SYMPTOMS - Severe stomach cramps, vomiting and diarrhea. in the Baneberry is a perennial herb sometimes cultivated garden; when in fruit it is conspicuous in the woods. All species are poisonous. 48 Arisaema triphyllum - Jack-in-the-Pulpit POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain needle-like calcium oxalate, as well as other chemicals. crystals of SYMPTOMS - An intensely painful burning sensation in the mouth and throat, accompanied by swelling of the soft tissue in these areas; vomiting and diarrhea sometimes occur. Death may result from blockage of the windpipe due to swelling of the surrounding tissues. Jack-in-the-Pulpit is a common plant in partly shaded, wet woods. The clusters of red fruits are conspicuous in the fall. Children sometimes eat the swollen underground base or the fruits. 49 Buxus spp. - Box, Boxwood POISONOUS PARTS - The leaves and twigs contain of poisonous substances, including buxene. a number SYMPTOMS - Stomach pains, and in extreme cases, death. Box is diarrhea, vomiting, convulsion; evergreen commonly used as an plant gardens from Boston All species are poisonous. in southward. hedging or edging 50 Caladium spp. POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain needle-like of calcium oxalate, as well as other chemicals. crystals SYMPTOMS - An intensely painful burning sensation in the mouth and throat, accompanied by swelling of the soft tissue in these areas; vomiting and diarrhea sometimes occur. Death may result from blockage of the windpipe due to swelling of the surrounding tissues. Caladiums are plants commonly grown in are summer for their as colorful, variegated leaves. They also house plants. All species are sometimes used poisonous. 51 Caltha palustris - Marsh Marigold POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain a volatile oily substance called protoanemonin, which acts as an irritant to the skin or mucous membranes. In addition, several alkaloids may be involved. SYMPTOMS - Irritation and inflammation of the soft tissue of the mouth, salivation, abdominal pain and diarrhea. Symptoms of alkaloid poisoning, such as nervousness and depression, also may occur. spicuous Common to marshes and wet areas, Marsh Marigold is in early spring for its showy, yellow flowers. con- 52 Cannabis sativa - Hemp, Marijuana stance POISONOUS PARTS - The plants with narcotic properties. SYMPTOMS - produce a resinous sub- Exhilaration, delusion, blurred vision, loss of coma coordination, drowsiness and result from any form of ingestion. Marijuana is found as a weed in waste ground. the Federal and state laws Cannabis in any form. presently regulate possession of 53 Celastrus spp. - Bittersweet , ~_ POISONOUS PARTS - Leaves, bark and the attractive fruits with contrasting color of seeds and flesh. SYMPTOMS coma. Vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, chills and Bittersweet is a native, woody, deciduous vine often encountered wild as well as in cultivation. Its showy fruits are commonly collected in the fall for dried arrangements which should not be accessible to small children. All species are poisonous. ' 54 I Cicuta maculata - Water Hemlock POISONOUS PARTS - All tain a yellowish viscid fluid parts, particularly the roots, or con- resinous solid called cicutoxin. SYMPTOMS - Occur within 15-45 minutes, beginning with excessive salivation, then tremors of the limbs and sudden and violent convulsions. Unconsciousness and death follow. Water Hemlock may be a weed of hedgerows, ditches, or field margins. It is readily recognized by its clusters of thickened roots, the series of diaphrams of the pith at the base of the stem, and drops of yellow, oily fluid which secrete on surfaces of cut tissue. 55 Colchicum autumnale - Autumn Crocus POISONOUS PARTS - All parts of the plant are equally and inthe mouth, intestinal pain, vomcoldness of the extremities and tensely poisonous. SYMPTOMS - Burning pain in reduced iting, diarrhea, prostration. pulse, Autumn Crocus is commonly grown for its showy lavender flowers appearing without leaves in the fall. It is advertised for forcing to bloom without soil or water on a windowsill and thus is an object of curiosity to a small child. 56I Conium maculatum - Poison Hemlock POISONOUS PARTS - All oil called coniine. parts contain a poisonous ~ volatile SYMPTOMS - Occur within 15-45 minutes. Muscular weakness, dizziness, disordered vision, loss of muscular control and sensation in the extremities. Poison Hemlock is a fairly common weed of hedges, ditches and waste land. The plant bears a resemblance to Queen Anne's Lace or Wild Carrot in its white flowers, but is smooth throughout, not hairy. It has an unpleasant odor variously described as \"mousey\" or like cat urine; its taste also is offensive. 57 Convallaria majalis - Lily-of-the-Valley POISONOUS PARTS - All parts (leaves, flowers, berries, and contain a poisonous substance called convallarin. underground portions) SYMPTOMS - The pulse and heart beat and diarrhea may occur. are slowed; vomiting or Lily-of-the-Valley cover is a common garden perennial ground grown for its sweet-scented white flowers in spring. The red berries in late summer and fall are attractive to small children. 58 I Daphne mezereum - Daphne POISONOUS PARTS - All parts are highly toxic. SYMPTOMS - Skin blisters from the juice; blisters of the soft tissues of the mouth from plant portions chewed and\/or swallowed. Vomiting and diarrhea, with blood or mucus are common. Two or three fruits may contain be fatal to a child. enough of the acrid juice to Daphne is a shrub commonly grown for pink flowers in early spring. The white, or its fragrant lilacred fruits are at- tractive to children. Daphne cneorum, Rose Daphne, with spreading stems, evergreen leaves, and clusters of pink flowers in spring is equally injurious. 59 Datura spp. - Jimson Weed, Thorn Apple, Angel's Trumpet POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain several alkaloids which act on the human system. Approximately an ounce of any plant part constitutes the lethal dose for a child. Dust from seed pods causes what is called \"com picker's eye\", a persistent dilation of the pupils. SYMPTOMS - Intense thirst and disturbance of vision; rapid and high blood pressure; delirium, violence, convulsion, coma, death. pulse Jimson Weed, Datura stramonium, is a common weed in rich soils around manure piles, animal enclosures, and the like. Several other species with large, white, trumpet-shaped flowers are cultivated in gardens for ornament and also are poisonous. 60 Delphinium spp. - Delphinium, Larkspur POISONOUS PARTS - Seeds and young plants contain substantial quantities of several harmful alkaloids. SYMPTOMS - Salivation, coma. vomiting, diarrhea, convulsion, Delphinium and Larkspur are commonly cultivated, usually blue-flowered annuals or short-lived garden perennials. Mature plants and flowers are less toxic than the young plants and seeds. All species are poisonous. 61 Dieffenbachia spp. - Dumb Cane POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain needle-like calcium oxalate, as well as other chemicals. crystals of SYMPTOMS - An intensely painful burning sensation in the mouth and throat, accompanied by swelling of the soft tissue in these areas. Vomiting and diarrhea also may occur. Death may result from blockage of the windpipe due to swelling of the surrounding tissue. Commonly leaves, Dieffenbachias intensity. All species are poisonous. cultivated house plants often with variegated are recommended for areas of low light They should be kept out of the reach of small children. 62I Digitalis purpurea - Foxglove POISONOUS PARTS - All parts (including the a number of harmful substances. seeds) contain SYMPTOMS - Nausea and vomiting and a very slow pulse, followed somewhat later by rapid and\/or erratic heart beat. Foxglove is a common garden biennial or short-lived perennial. Children sometimes pick the drooping tubular flowers and suck the nectar from their base. This is a practice which should be discouraged. 63 Euonymus spp. Burning Bush, Spindle Tree, - Wahoo POISONOUS PARTS - Leaves, bark and the attractive fruits with contrasting color of seeds and flesh. SYMPTOMS coma. Vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, chills and Euonymus are shrubs or evergreen vines; their fruits are frequently collected in the fall and used for dried arrangements. Such arrangements should be kept out of the reach of small children. All species are poisonous. 64 Euphorbia marginata - Snow-on-the-Mountain Euphorbia pulcherrima - Poinsettia 65 Euphorbia milii - Crown of Thorns POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain posed of substances which may cause mild a milky juice com- to severe dermatitis. SYMPTOMS - Rash or blistering of the skin; severe irritation of the mouth, throat, and stomach; vomiting and diarrhea. Snow-on-the-Mountain is cultivated in the garden as a hardy annual. The leaves are commonly variegated or white on the margins. Although the florist's Poinsettia is probably one of the least noxious Euphorbias, its seasonal abundance and availability in the home make it important. It should be placed where small children cannot reach it. Crown of Thorns is a red flowers. spiny house plant bearing clusters of 66 I Hedera helix - English Ivy, Baltic Ivy POISONOUS PARTS - The leaves and berries contain stance which may cause poisoning. SYMPTOMS coma. a sub- Excitement, labored breathing, diarrhea, and English Ivy has numerous forms, some hardy and used as ground covers, or to climb on brick walls; others, not hardy, are grown as house plants. 67 Ilex spp. - Holly POISONOUS PARTS - Leaves and berries contain stance. a bitter sub- SYMPTOMS - Vomiting and diarrhea; stupor. Berried sprigs of Holly are commonly used as household decorations during the Christmas season. As they dry, the leaf and berry stalks become very brittle, shedding freely. Great care should be taken that small children do not eat the tempting berries. Hollies are woody shrubs or trees, evergreen or deciduous, which are cultivated for their berries, and for general landscape purposes. All species are poisonous. 68 I Kalmia latifolia - Mountain Laurel POISONOUS PARTS - All parts, including the flowers, are poisonous. SYMPTOMS - Salivation, vomiting, staggering walk, convulsions, difficult breathing, paralysis. Mountain Laurel is a popular cultivated evergreen shrub bearing large clusters of white and pink blossoms in spring. K. angustifolia and K. polifolia, Lambkill and Bog Laurel, respectively, are common in the wild in New England and also are potentially toxic. Children have been poisoned by sucking on the flowers to obtain nectar \"honey\" or by making a play \"tea\" from the leaves. I Labz~rnum spp. - 69 Golden Chain Tree POISONOUS PARTS - All parts, but and seeds, contain a substance called SYMPTOMS - particularly cystine. in severe the flowers Vomiting, convulsions; cases, death. A member of the Pea family, this as all others should be regarded with suspicion. While garden beans and peas are wholesome and nutritious, the seeds and\/or foliage of many such as Precatory Bean, Wisteria, Lupine, and Loco Weeds are definitely injurious or cause fatality. The Laburnum is a showy shrub or small tree. Its clusters of pendant, yellow flowers have prompted its popular name. All species are poisonous. 70 Lantana camara - Lantana POISONOUS PARTS - Leaves and fruits. The green, fruit is most virulent. SYMPTOMS - unripened Vomiting and diarrhea, muscular weakness, col- lapse. Lantana is a tropical shrub commonly cultivated in the house and out-of-doors. In the north, berries are not usually produced in the house, but outside in summer they may be plentiful. Children should be discouraged from eating them. 1 71 Ligustrum spp. - Privet POISONOUS PARTS - Leaves and berries may lems. SYMPTOMS - cause prob- Vomiting and diarrhea. not Privet is a common shrub used for hedges. Clippings should be left lying on the ground and children should be discouraged from putting either the leaves or the fruits in their are mouths. All species poisonous. 72 Narcissus spp. - Daffodil POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain active SYMPTOMS - principles. convulsions. Vomiting, diarrhea, trembling, Daffodils are bulbous plants widely cultivated for their yellow flowers in early spring. The juice of the leaves and flower stalks also may cause a dermatitis. All species are poisonous. 73 Nerium oleander - Oleander POISONOUS PARTS - All parts are toxic. potentially a lethal dose for an adult. A single leaf is SYMPTOMS - Nausea, vomiting, stomach pain, weakness, abnormal heart beat, and coma, usually beginning several hours after ingestion. Death may follow within 24 hours. a shrub commonly cultivated in warm temperate for its flowers. It is occasionally grown as a large house regions plant in the north. Oleander is 74 Philodendron spp. POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain needle-like calcium oxalate, as well as other chemicals. crystals of SYMPTOMS - An intensely painful burning sensation in the mouth and throat, accompanied by swelling of the soft tissues in this area. Vomiting and diarrhea also may occur. Death may result from blockage of the windpipe due to swelling of the surrounding tissues. rosette Philodendrons, both the climbing and forms, are commonly used in the home and in public buildings to produce an \"exotic\" effect in areas of low light intensity. In the home, at least, they should be placed out of reach of small children and pets. All species are poisonous. 75 Phoradendron serotinum - Mistletoe POISONOUS PARTS - The white berries SYMPTOMS - are particularly toxic. coma. Vomiting, diarrhea, convulsions, Sprigs of Mistletoe are used for Christmas decoration. As they dry, the stalks of berries and leaves become brittle and shed readily. They should be placed so that small children cannot obtain the detached berries. 76 Phytolacca americana - Pokeberry POISONOUS PARTS - All parts are poisonous. SYMPTOMS - Burning sensation in the mouth. In one to two hours, stomach cramps, vomiting, diarrhea, prostration, salivation, dimness of vision, and convulsions. A common herbaceous weed in disturbed areas, Pokeberry may grow to 8 feet in height. The young shoots (6-12 inches long) when boiled in two changes of water are considered good greens for the table. The berries are attractive to children because of the \"squashy\" consistency and deep purple stain. However, three or four berries may sicken a child and ten can seriously affect an adult. Allegedly, they are edible when cooked. 77 Prunus virginiana - Chokecherry POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain a substance which be converted to hydrocyanic acid. Particularly dangerous the bark and wilted leaves. SYMPTOMS - can are convulsions, Difficulty in breathing, coma, and death. paralysis, prostration, Since the wilted leaves are most dangerous, broken and branches and twigs should be gathered and disposed of. The flesh of the fruit is safe (though \"puckery\"); the kernels of the seeds should be avoided. pruned Chokecherries, weedy trees growing to 10 feet, usually are found along roadsides and in disturbed areas; are cultivated. they sometimes 78 Ranunculus spp. - Buttercup POISONOUS PARTS - Stems and leaves contain a number of substances which may irritate the mouth and stomach. The juice also may blister the skin of sensitive persons. SYMPTOMS - Irritation of mouth and throat, excessive salivation, colic, diarrhea, depression, slow pulse. Buttercup is an herb, usually bearing bright yellow flowers, which is most common in wet meadows. The leaves may be mottled with silver and usually are much dissected. All species are poisonous. 79 Rheum rhaponticum - Rhubarb POISONOUS PARTS - The green, tains calcium oxalate. expanded, leaf blade con- SYMPTOMS - Stomach pain, vomiting, weakness, coma and death result from large amounts. Muscular weakness and twitching, slowed respiration, weak pulse, coma, and death occur from small amounts. Rhubarb is a commonly cultivated vegetable. Leaf blades be eaten either raw or cooked under any circum- must not stances. 80 Rhododendron spp. - Rhododendron, Azalea POISONOUS PARTS - All parts, including the flowers, are poisonous. SYMPTOMS - Salivation, vomiting, staggering walk, convulin sions, difficulty breathing; collapse. Rhododendrons and azaleas are commonly cultivated shrubs. Children may be poisoned by sucking the flowers to obtain nectar (\"honey\") or by making a play \"tea\" from the leaves. All species are poisonous. 81 Rhus radicans - Poison Ivy POISONOUS PARTS - All parts contain a sap containing a chemical which may cause allergic dermatitis; the irritant also is carried by smoke. SYMPTOMS - Itching, redness of the skin, small blisters. In severe cases the blisters may become quite large and local swelling of the flesh may occur. If the sap is removed immediately from the skin by washing with strong soap, the dermatitis may be prevented or at least reduced. Poison Ivy is a woody shrub or vine with changeable appearance ; it is harmful at all seasons, and should never be placed in the mouth. Poison Sumac (Rhus vernix) grows in wet areas and bears greenish flowers and white fruit. It should not be confused with other plants called Sumac which have red fruit and are harmless. Poisonous species of Rhus also are known as Toxicodendron. 82 Ricinus communis - Castor Bean POISONOUS PARTS - Although all parts seeds are the most toxic. are poisonous, the SYMPTOMS - Burning sensation in the mouth and throat, vomiting, stomach pains, prostration, convulsions and death. Ricin, the poisonous principle, is one of the most toxic of plant poisons. One to three seeds are sufficient to kill a child, four to eight will kill an adult. Castor Bean is an annual plant cultivated for its large leaves and spiny, often colorful seed pods. It may be grown safely if the flower clusters are packets containing removed. Do not allow children the seeds. access to 83 Robinia pseudoacacia - Black Locust POISONOUS bark. PARTS - Young leaves, seeds and the inner SYMPTOMS - Flushed face, vomiting, diarrhea, reduced heart action, coldness of legs and arms, stupor. Black Locust is a large tree, sometimes cultivated, and sometimes found growing wild in dry wooded areas and along roadsides. It bears pendulant clusters of white flowers. Children may be poisoned by sucking the flowers or by chewing twigs. 84 I Sanguinaria canadensis - Bloodroot POISONOUS PARTS - All parts SYMPTOMS - are poisonous. Burning sensation, vomiting, thirst, dizziness, prostration. Bloodroot is frequently cultivated for its white flowers which the leaves in early spring; in the wild it appears in rich woodlands. The blood red sap is a conspicuous feature of its leaves, stems, and roots when broken. precede 85 Solanum tuberosum - Potato POISONOUS PARTS - Unripe tubers which have turned green from exposure to light; \"sprouts\" from the tubers. SYMPTOMS - Headache, colic, vomiting, diarrhea; pupils of the eyes may or may not be dilated; mental confusion, stupi- fication, coma. Except for known edible fruits or members of the Potato family should be tubers, all parts of all regarded with suspicion. 86 Solanum pseudocapsicum - Jerusalem Cherry Solanum nigrum - Black Nightshade 87 Solanum dulcamara - Deadly Nightshade POISONOUS PARTS - All parts the unripe fruits are most toxic. are potentially dangerous but SYMPTOMS - Headache, colic, vomiting, diarrhea; the eyes may or may not be dilated; mental confusion; pupils of stupifica- tion ; coma. The Jerusalem Cherry is a favorite holiday plant with fruits resembling cherry Black Nightshade is a weedy annual with small white flowers and shiny black berries. Deadly Nightshade is a sprawling shrub or herbaceous vine simultaneously bearing small purplish flowers and red berries. These, like all other members of the Potato family, should be regarded with suspicion unless known to be edible. tomatoes. 88 Taxus spp. - Yew POISONOUS PARTS - All parts except the around the seed. SYMPTOMS - fleshy red covering Vomiting and diarrhea, trembling, difficult weakness, convulsion, coma, death. breathing, commonly cultivated evergreen used for hedges and foliage is poisonous; therefore hedge clippings should be gathered and disposed of. Because of the potential toxicity of the seed, children should not be encouraged to eat the red, fleshy covering. a Yew is plantings. The All species are poisonous. 89 Urtica dioica - Nettle POISONOUS PARTS SYMPTOMS - Rash Nettle is a on Stinging hairs on leaves and stems. the skin. weedy herbaceous in waste along roadsides, and perennial places. found in rich soil, 90I Veratrum viride - False Hellebore POISONOUS PARTS - All parts are poisonous. SYMPTOMS - Burning sensation in the mouth and throat; salivation; prostration; shortness of breath; slowed heart-beat and lowered blood pressure. A coarse The large herb, 3-8 feet tall, commonly found in wet areas. basal leaves may resemble those of Skunk Cabbage. 91 Wisteria spp. POISONOUS PARTS - Seed SYMPTOMS - Stomach Wisteria is a pods and seeds. pain, vomiting and diarrhea. woody vine clusters of flowers in the commonly spring. grown for its pendulant re- This, like all other members of the Pea family, should be garded with suspicion. While garden beans and peas are wholesome and nutritious, the seeds and\/or foliage of many others such as Precatory Bean, Lupine, and Loco Weeds are definitely injurious or fatal. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bibliography","article_sequence":3,"start_page":92,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24631","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ea726.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"Bibliography This selected list of references includes those most readily available which are concerned with humans. Many others not listed deal almost exclusively with animals from the veterinarian's point of view. Those starred ( '`probably are the best investments. Enari, Dr. Leonid. Poisonous Plants of Southern CalIfornia. Arcadia, California. County of Los Angeles, Department of Arboreta and Botanic Gardens. 1972. 35 pages, illustrated. * Hardin, James W. and Arena, Jay M. Human Poisoning from Native and Cultivated Plants. Durham, N. Carolina: Duke University Press. Second Edition, 1973. 167 pages, illustrated. * Kingsbury, John M. Deadly Harvest, A Guide to Common Poisonous Plants. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. 1965. 128 pages, illustrated. Kingsbury, John M. Poisonous Plants of the U.S. and Canada. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.. Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1964. 626 pages, illustrated. Kommedahl, Thor and Johnson, Herbert G. Peshy Plants. St. Paul, Minnesota: University of Minnesota, Agricultural Extension Service. Extension Bulletin 287, revised 1972. 58 pages, illustrated. Kosma, Joseph J., M.D. Killer Plants, A Poisonous Plant Guide. Jacksonville, Illinois: Milestone Publishing Co. 1969. 50 pages, illustrated. Morton, Julia. Plants Poisonous to People in Florida. Miami, Florida: Hurricane House. 1971. 116 pages, 48 color photographs. Wyman, Donald. \"A Few Poisonous Plants.\" Jamaica Plain: Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Arnoldia 26: 65-75. 1966. 10 pages, illustrated. Youngken, Heber W., Jr. Common Poisonous Plants of New England. Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office. Public Health Service Publication No. 1220. April 1964. . GEORGE H. PRIDE 92 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index","article_sequence":4,"start_page":93,"end_page":94,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24633","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eab6f.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Plants Described (Scientific names are in itaLics. ) Abrus precatorius, 45 Aconitum spp., 46 Actaea spp., 47 Daphne, Rose, 58 Datura spp., 59 - stramonium, 59 Angel's Trumpet, Apple, Thorn, 59 59 Arisaema triphyllum, 48 Autumn Crocus, 55 Azalea, 80 Baltic Ivy, 66 Baneberry, 47 Bean, Precatory, 45 -, Castor, 82 Berry, Bane, 47 -, Poke, 76 Bittersweet, 53 Black Locust, 83 Nightshade, 87 Bloodroot, 84 Bog Laurel, 68 Box, 49 Boxwood, 49 Burning Bush, 63 Buttercup, 78 Buxus spp., 49 Caladium, 50 Caladium spp., 50 Caltha palustris, 51 Cannabis sativa, 52 Castor Bean, 82 Celastrus spp., 53 Chain Tree, Golden, 69 Cherry, Choke, 77 -, Jerusalem, 87 Chokecherry, 77 Cicuta maculata, 54 Colchicum autumnale, 55 Conium maculatum, 56 Convallaria majalis, 57 Crocus, Autumn, 55 Crown of Thorns, 65 Daffodil, 72 - Deadly Nightshade, 87 Delphinium, 60 Delphinium spp., 60 Dieffenbachia, 61 Dieffenbachia spp., 61 Digitalis purpurea, 62 Dumbcane, 61 English Ivy, - 66 Euonymus spp., 63 Euphorbia marginata, 65 milii, 65 pulcherrima, 65 False Hellebore, 90 - Foxglove, 62 Golden Chain Tree, 69 Hedera helix, 66 Hellebore, False, 90 Hemlock, Poison, 56 -, Water, 54 Hemp, 52 Holly, 67 Ilex spp., 67 Ivy, Baltic, 66 -, English, 66 -, Poison, 81 Jack-in-the-Pulpit, Jequirity Pea, 45 Jerusalem Cherry, Jimson Weed, 59 - 48 87 Kalmia angustifolia, 68 latifolia, 68 polifolia, 68 Laburnum spp., 69 Lambkill, 68 - Daphne, 58 Daphne cneorum, Daphne 58 mezereum, 58 70 Lantana camara, 70 Larkspur, 60 Laurel, Bog, 68 -, Mountain, 68 -, Sheep, 68 Ligustrum spp., 71 Lantana, 93 94 I 57 Lily-of-the-Valley, Loco Rheum Weed, 69 Locust, Black, 83 rhaponticum, Rhododendron, 80 79 Lupine, 69 Marigold, Marsh, 51 Marijuana, 52 Marsh Marigold, 51 68 Narcissus spp., 72 Nerium oleander, 73 Nettle, 89 Nightshade, Black, 87 -, Deadly, 87 Oleander, 73 Pea, Jequirity, 45 Philodendron spp., 74 Phoradendron serotinum, 75 Phytolacca americana, 76 Poinsettia, 65 Poison Hemlock, 56 Poison Ivy, 81 Sumac, 81 Pokeberry, 76 Potato, 85 Precatory Bean, 45 Privet, 71 Prunus virginiana, 77 Ranunculus spp., 78 - Mistletoe, 75 Monkshood, 46 Mountain Laurel, Rhododendron spp., 80 Rhubarb, 79 Rhus radicans, 81 vernix, 81 Ricinus commitnis, 82 Robinia pseudoacacia, 83 Rose Daphne, 58 - Sanguinaria ca~zadensis, 84 Sheep Laurel, 68 Snow-on-the-Mountain, 65 Solanum dulcamara, 87 nigrum, 87 pseudocapsicum, 87 tuberosum, 85 Spindle Tree, 63 - Sumac, Poison, 81 Taxus spp., 88 Thorn Apple, 59 Trumpet, Angel's, 59 Urtica dioica, 89 Veratrum viride, 90 BVahoo, 63 Water Hemlock, 54 Weed, Loco, 69 -, Jimson, 59 Wisteria spp., 91 Yew, 88 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Acknowledgements","article_sequence":5,"start_page":95,"end_page":95,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24630","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ea36d.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Acknowledgments We are grateful to the following for their constructive criticism of the text in this special issue of Arnoldia : Joel P. Alpert, M.D., Executive Secretary, Poison Information Center, The Children's Hospital Medical Center; Frederick H. Lovejoy, Jr., M.D., Assistant to the Physician-in-Chief, The Children's Hospital Medical Center; and Benjamin Sachs, M.D., Associate Director, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, Division of Community Operations - Tuberculosis Control."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Poison Control Centers","article_sequence":6,"start_page":96,"end_page":96,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24635","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15eaf6d.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Poison Control Centers The following cities in Massachusetts maintain an answering service which provides poison information without charge. Emergency service at these centers is available to everyone 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. Poison Information Center Dr. Joel P. Alpert, Exec. Sec. Children's Medical Center 5 30 Longwood Avenue (Zip) 02115 BOSTON Area Code 617 7 232-2120 FALL RIVER Poison Control Center Union Hospital 300 Hanover Street (Zip) 02720 NEW BEDFORD Poison Control Center St. Luke's Hospital 101 Page Street (Zip) 02740 Area Code 617 7 674-5789 Area Code 617 7 5 997-1515 1 Ex 311 3 Area Code 413 788-7321 Ex 229 3 Area Code 413 1 788-4581 Ex 704 or 705 3 Area Code 413 787-2500 . SPRINGFIELD Poison Control Center Mercy Hospital 233 Carew Street (Zip) 01104 01107 Poison Control Center Springfield Hospital 759 Chestnut Street (Zip) Poison Control Center Wesson Memorial Hospital , 140 High Street (Zip) 01105 7 Area Code 617 799-7094 WORCESTER Poison Control Center Worcester City Hospital 71 Jacques Street (Zip) 01603 Your Physician: Dr. - Phone : 96 _______________________ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23542","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260b728.jpg","title":"1974-34-2","volume":34,"issue_number":2,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Tentative Key to the Cultivated Magnolias","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24626","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14e8526.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Stephen A.","article_content":"A Tentative Key to the Cultivated Magnolias The genus Magnolia was named by Linnaeus to commemorate Pierre Magnol, 1638-1715, a professor of botany and medicine and an early director of the botanical garden at Montpellier. Comprised of about 75 or 80 species, the genus occurs naturally in two widely separated areas; about 50 species are native in eastern Asia from Japan to the Himalayan region and southward to Java, while in North and Central America 25 or 30 additional species are known. Most of the species are apt and sought-after ornamentals, noted for their white, pinkish, purplish, or greenish-yellow flowers that are almost unrivaled in both size and beauty. Moreover, the ease with which some of the species hybridize has added to the popularity of the genus with plant breeders, and some of the finest ornamentals are the result of hybridizations. The leaves of Magnolia also are noteworthy, since some species have leaves that are as large as those of any of our native or cultivated plants. Some of the deciduous species flower before the leaves expand in the spring, and the pastel-colored blossoms stand out against the delicate tracery of the branches, while in other deciduous and evergreen species, the flowers are produced against the luxuriant backdrop of the foliage. In late summer and fall, the interesting fruit aggregates divulge the red or orangish seeds and add to the ornamental value of the plants during that season. The densely pubescent flower buds of some deciduous species, moreover, make the dormant plants attractive during winter and anticipate, long in advance, the spring to follow. The tentative key presented here is a result of an examination of the taxonomy of Magnolia for a projected manual of cultivated trees and shrubs. Since Magnolia is a genus that is an established favorite with gardeners and horticulturists, as well as botanists, it is hoped that publication of this key in its present preliminary form will allow interested individuals to test its utility with living specimens. I shall greatly appreciate com- 1 2 3 - the workability of the key as well as mistakes and that become evident in it, so that they can be corrected for a final version. Although there are several keys for the identification of the species of Magnolia (and comparisons of these with the present key will show my indebtedness to their authors), most are restrictive since they treat species of a particular region or botanical group. Dandy's key to the species of the genus, published in the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, is not readily available to the American public. The present key addresses itself to species cultivated in North America, north of tropical and subtropical areas. With the exception of Rehder's key in the second edition of his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, there is no single reference for the identification of the taxa and hybrids of Magnolia either commonly or uncommonly encountered in temperate regions of North America. Most determinations of infrequently cultivated species, moreover, require consultation of monographs and numerous references scattered in the older botanical and horticultural literature. All of the names of Magnolia included in Rehder's Manual have not been keyed or accounted for here largely due to some unresolved problems requiring further research and taxonomic judgement. Yet, the number of keyed taxa has been doubled from 19 in Rehder's Manual to 38 in the present key. Of these 38 taxa and hybrids, three were not treated by Rehder, while the ranks of some other taxa have been changed in accordance with the results of recent research into the taxonomy of the species by several investigators. The treatment prepared by Rehder for L. H. Bailey's The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (1914), which predates his treatment in the second edition of his Manual, keyed the 23 taxa then known in cultivation in a larger geographic area, but the taxonomy has since been modified and the nomenclature largely superseded. ments on oversights Figure 1. Magnolia. a-m, subgenus Magnolia. a-i, M. virginiana: a, flowering branchlet, X 1 \/2; b, flower with tepals removed to show androecium (many stamens removed) and gynoecium (carpels), X 2; c, 3 stamens from adaxial side, showing lines of introrse dehiscence, X 3; d, cross sections through anthers to show pollen sacs and vascular bundles, X 6; e, longitudinal section of gynoecium showing 5 carpels, each with 2 ovules, X 3, f, nearly mature fruit aggregate wlth longitudinal stylar scars on the carpels, X 1 \/2; g, mature fruit aggregate with pendulous seeds, X 1 \/2; h, seed in longitudinal section showing seed coats, endosperm (dotted), and minute embryo, X 2; i, seed with fleshy red outer coat removed, X 2. j-l, M. grandiflora: j, bud, with stipular bud scale about to fall, X 1\/2; h, flower with tepals removed to show androecium (stamens) and gynoecium (carpels), half of the stamens removed, X l; l, stamens from adaxial side, showing lines of introrse dehiscence, X 2. m, M. tripetala: stamen from adaxial side, X 3. n-q, subgenus Yulania, M. acuminata var. subcordata: n, flowering branchlet, X 1\/2; o, opening flower bud showing reduced outer tepals, X 1\/2; p, stamen from adaxial side, showing lateral dehiscence, X 4; q, cross section through anther, showing lateral dehiscence and 3 vascular bundles, X 8. 4 \/ Casual inspection of the key will indicate that nomenclatural and taxonomic judgements have affected the names changes by which several taxa are usually referred to in the literature and horticultural trade. In these few instances, pertinent synonyms and references to the literature are indicated in footnotes. One of the problems encountered in preparing the key was deciding which species, taxa of a rank lower than species, and hybrids should be included. Documented specimens in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum have been the basis on which most taxa have been included. In other instances, published records of the occurrence of taxa in cultivation within the range of Rehder's Manual (including the plant inventories of several arboreta and botanical gardens produced in computerized form by the Plant Records Center) have been accepted as documentation. In general, a taxon has been included if there is good evidence of its occurrence or possible occurrence within our area. Another problem of considerable concern has been the lack of treatment accorded cultivars. The purpose here is to provide a key for the identification of species and botanical varieties, some of the more distinctive hybrids, and in one instance a botanical form. Because of the difficulties surrounding their circumscription, cultivars have not been accounted for here. A bibliography has been appended to the key to serve as a guide to some of the literature where information concerning cultivars can be found. Unfortunately, in my opinion, altogether too many plants in the trade are listed and sold only under a cultivar name without any reference to the relationship of the plant to a botanically accepted species or hybrid group. This procedure is acceptable under the rules of the International Code of Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants 1969, but the cultivar name alone (and they are in excess of one hundred in Magnolia) gives no indication of derivation or relationship. Hopefully, this key will enable the association of some cultivars with the taxon or hybrid group to which they belong. Unfortunately, it has been impossible to construct a key using only vegetative, floral or fruiting characteristics; as a result, characters from the flowers and fruit aggregates, as well as from the vegetative parts, may be required for an identification. It is conceivable that an entire growing season may be necessary for the accurate and correct identification of a particular plant, and it is suggested that careful notes and a series of pressed herbarium specimens be made throughout the season to preserve flower and fruit characters as well as those of the leaves. Concomitantly, the different stages available should be used in conjunction with the key until a determination is made. Some of the characteristics used in the key are illustrated in Figure 1, and in these instances the appropriate drawings illustrating the character are referred to in the key. - 5 6 7 8 9 Acknowledgements I would like to express my thanks to Drs. C. E. Wood, Jr., G. P. DeWolf, Jr., and R. E. Weaver, Jr., for their valuable suggestions and help during the course of this work. Figure 1 is the fine and careful work of the late Mrs. Dorothy H. Marsh and was prepared for a generic flora of the southeastern United States, a joint project of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University made possible through the support of the National Science Foundation (Grant GB-6459X, principal investigator, Carroll E. Wood, Jr.). It is reproduced here with the kind permission of Dr. Wood. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Bibliography Bailey, L. H. The standard cyclopedia of horticulture. Vol. 4. v + pp. 1761-2421. pls. 61-80. New York. 1914. [Magnolia, 19641969 ; the key to species and species descriptions contributed by A. Rehder.]] Bean, W. J. Trees and shrubs hardy in the British Isles. ed. 8. Sir G. Taylor, ed. vol. II. xvi + 784 pp. pls. 1-64. London. 1973. [Magnolia, 641-675, with notes and descriptions of numerous species, cultivars, and hybrids.] Chittenden, F. J. Royal Horticultural Society dictionary of gardening. ed. 1. vol. III. viii + pp. 1089-1712. Oxford. 1951. [Magnolia, 1230-1234.] Dandy, J. E. Key to the species of Magnolia. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 52: 260-264. 1927. [Includes species not in cultivation.] A survey of the genus Magnolia together with Michelia and Manglietia. Pp. 64-81 in P. M. Synge, ed. Camellias and magnolias, Roy. Hort. Soc. Conference Rep. 134 pp. figs. 1-55. . London. 1950. Fogg, J. M., Jr. The temperate . American magnolias. Morris Arb. Bull. 12: 51-58. 1961. [Discussion of native American species.] Gresham, D. T. Deciduous magnolias of Californian origin. Morris Arb. Bull. 13: 47-50. 1962. [Includes descriptions of numerous cultivars.] ] An appreciation of Magnolia Campbellii subspecies Mollicomata. Ibid. 15: 29-31. 1964. Hillier & Sons. Hilliers' manual of trees and shrubs. 576 pp. Winchester. 1972. [Magnolia, 178-185, includes extensive listing of cultivars with descriptions.] -. 10 Johnstone, G. H. The in P. M. a gardener's key. Pp. 44-52 and magnolias, Roy. Hort. Soc. 1-55. London. 1950. [See also, pp. 53-63, Chinese magnolias in cultivation, by the same author.] ] Asiatic magnolias in cultivation. 160 pp. Frontisp. -~ 14 col. pls., 20 figs. + foldout map. Roy. Hort. Soc. London. 1955. [The most complete treatment of Asiatic species cultivated in Great Britain; includes keys and descriptions.] McDaniel, J. C. Recent hybridizations with American magnolias. Intern. Pl. Propag. Soc. Combined Proc. 13: 124-132. 1963. [Survey of hybridization in Magnolia with discussion of crosses, back-crosses, barriers to hybridization, and possible hybridiza- eastern magnolias, Synge, ed. Camellias Conference Rep. 134 pp. fcgs. . tion programs.] Millais, J. G. Magnolias. viii + 251 pp. frontisp. + 33 pls. London. 1927. [Key to species by J. E. Dandy.] Rehder, A. Manual of cultivated trees and shrubs hardy in North America. ed. 2. xxx + 996 pp. New York. 1940. [Magnolia, 246-252.] ] K. Oriental magnolias in the South. Nat. Hort. Mag. 29: 54-57. 1950. Wyman, D. Magnolias hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 20: 17-28. 1960. [Includes notes on numerous cultivars, particularly those of M. X Soulangeana.] Wyman's gardening encyclopedia. xv + 1222 pp. 16 col. pls. New York. 1971. [Magnolia, 678-682.] In addition to the references listed above, articles on Magnolia too numerous to mention individually have appeared in the following publications or special issues: American Magnolia Society. Newsletter of the American Magnolia Society. Vols. 1-9, 1964-1973, and continuing. Arboretum Bulletin, Univ. Washington Arb. Found. Vol. 10, No. 4. 1947. \"Special Magnolia Number.\" Journal of the California Horticultural Society Vol. 23, No. 1. 1962. [Entire issue devoted to articles on Magnolia.] Sawada, . Notes 1 Magnolia hypoleuca Siebold & Zuccarini is the correct name of the taxon that is often referred to and sold as M. obovata Thunberg. The name M. obovata Thunberg is superfluous. 2 The correct name is Magnolia Sieboldii K. Koch, not M. parviflora Siebold & Zuccarini, which is a later homonym. 3 The inclusion of Magnolia mollicomata within M. Campbellii follows the treatment of J. E. Dandy, Notes Roy. Bot. Gard. Edinb. 16: 123, 124. 1928. - 11 4 A nomenclatural problem exists in the treatment of Magnolia Sprengeri that may be solved by examination of the type specimen. No typical variety (var. Sprengeri) has been designated, and if one of the two varieties recognized here corresponds with the type of the species, it automatically would be designated var. Sprengeri. For the rationale behind the treatment accorded Magnolia Kobus and its var. stellata, see B. C. Blackburn, Amatores Herbarii 17: 1, 2. 1955, and Baileya 5: 3-13. 1957. Magnolia X Loebneri represents forms that link the two varieties. The treatment of Magnolia acuminata followed here is essentially that of J. W. Hardin, Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 70: 298-312. 1954. The correct name of Magnolia cordata Michaux, when treated as a variety of M. acuminata, is var. subcordata (Spach) Dandy, Am. Jour. Bot. 51: 1056. 1964, not var. cordata Sargent, Am. Jour Sci. III. 32: 473. 1886. 5 6 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Materials for Chair Seat Weaving","article_sequence":2,"start_page":12,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24628","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14e896f.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wheeler, Ralph E.","article_content":"Materials for Chair Seat Weaving sat cross-legged on the the latter still a preferred resting posture in much of the Orient. In Egypt, several millennia before the birth of Christ, the lightweight, frame chair evolved with the seat frame filled in with cords made of twisted leaves of marsh plants (Juncus, Cyperus) or of palms. Cabinetmaking did not evolve to that point in Europe for many centuries. Instead, stools and benches were made of crude boards or split logs with wooden pegs for legs. Chairs with wooden (plank) seats and backs began to appear as cabinet-making evolved in the Occident, and were used by ecclesiastic and lay nobility as a prerogative of rank. It was not until the 17th century A.D. in Europe and somewhat later in the American colonies that the less cumbersome frame-seated chair like that developed by the Egyptians came into general use. An attempt then was made to find material to fill in the seats and backs. Probably the first material used in Europe for weaving the seats was osier. Osier can be obtained from nearly any species of willow, if properly prepared. Salix viminalis, commonly called osier, and S. vitellina, the Yellow Willow, were the materials of choice for early craftsmen, who had long used them for basket-weaving. Still grown commercially, chiefly in Europe, these willow species can be seen at the Arnold Arboretum in the field opposite the administration building. In the production of osiers, plants are started by taking onefoot sections of one-year-old shoots or branches. These are planted on two-foot centers in rows 18 inches apart. From each cutting one or two shoots should be allowed to develop. At the beginning of the third growing season, the sprouts are cut back to two or three buds from the base. Long new sprouts will arise from the remaining buds on the plant, and the process is repeated again each succeeding year. The cut sprouts, known as \"raw\" osier, should have the bark stripped off after which they may be stored dry for a long period. Boiling the stems before stripping, a process known as When temporarily at rest, Man first ground or squatted on his haunches - 12 Wooden seat and carved wooden back, old German chair. Photo: R. E. Wheeler. chair Splint-seated high early American. Photo: R. E. Wheeler. - 14 makes this operation easier and imparts a pleasant brown color to the material. When used for seating, the osiers are used whole or split lengthwise in two or into four pieces and are soaked for some hours in water to make them more pliable. Osier at its best produced a coarse weave that must have been uncomfortable to sit on; though the heavy homespun clothing of the period when it was chiefly used perhaps made it more tolerable. There were other disadvantages, too, not the least of which was the tendency of the woven twigs to crack and break. At any rate osier was soon displaced for chair seating by more durable products, and the sturdy old chairs on which it was used are hard to find now, even in antique shops. Osier was soon replaced by flat splints, another material borrowed from basket-making. These were made by removing the outer bark from young trees three or four inches in diameter. The stems, cut to the required length, were then beaten all over with a mallet to destroy the vessels of the spring wood in the annual rings. This treatment separated the annual rings one from another; the rings then were split up into strips to be dried and sliced lengthwise into ribbons of even width. After being soaked in water, these strips were rendered pliable enough to weave around the seat frames to make more attractive, comfortable and durable seats than those of willow. The rest of the tree was not wasted: ash and hickory wood made the best plough and axe handles, and chair parts. The fragile-looking Hitchcock chairs owe their durability to these rugged woods as much as to the care with which they were assembled. The hickories were favored among early substitutes for willow because their strips or splints were tougher and longer-lasting in use. Species most commonly employed were Hicoria lacunosa, shellbark, H. glabra, pignut, and H. ovata, shagbark; this last, a favorite because its outer bark was so easily removed. Specimens of these three may be seen today in the collections at the Arnold Arboretum. Conservationists will be happy to learn that splints from these valuable trees have in turn been replaced by even more practical materials, also of plant origin. True splints now are only available on special order, if at all. A singular variant on the splint seat came about when the Shakers in Pennsylvania began weaving comfortable and easily replaced chair seats out of heavy cotton ribbon. When the warp and woof ribbons were dyed in contrasting colors, the various kinds of weave (basket, herringbone, etc.) produced an effect buffing, Left to right: Round reed; flat reed; coarse cane; fine cane. Left:Flat reed. Right: Coarse cane. Scirpus americanus. Photo: R. E. Wheeler. Left: Fibre rush. Right: Reed. 17 quite gay for such an austere sect. This type of ribbon can still be purchased at the Shaker Shop on the Common in Concord, Massachusetts. Splint, in turn, was displaced in Europe and the American colonies by twisted cords of marsh plant leaves much as the Egyptians had used them centuries before. The long, narrow leaves of several species of bulrush, cat-tail and even of wild iris were used. Favored in America were bulrushes of the genus Scirpus; indeed S. americanus came to be known as the \"chairmaker's rush\". Leaves of cat-tail, particularly the species Typhus angustifolia, furnish the bulk of natural \"rush\" commercially available today. Ardent workers don't need to buy the material, however, for this plant grows abundantly in marshes and water-filled roadside ditches. The leaves are harvested toward the end of August when they begin to turn brown at the tips. They are dried in the shade outdoors or in attic or cellar indoors to preserve the pleasant green color, and stored away from any dampness that might make them moldy. Properly cured and stored they can be used for a year or more. The weaving of a chair seat with natural rush is done with a continuous cord composed of two or three moistened, tightly twisted rush leaves to which new leaves are added progressively to maintain a uniform cord size. The cord is carried over and under the frame rails in figures-of-eight at each successive corner around the chair until the whole seat is filled in. The knack of producing an even thickness of rush cord is not readily mastered by the amateur. Fortunately there is a practically indistinguishable substitute made of another vegetable material - tightly twisted, tough paper commercially known as \"fiber\". The need for proper preservation of both natural rush and fiber seats is not generally understood. Routinely given a coat of shellac, the interval between coats depending on the degree of use, these seats will last indefinitely; otherwise they need periodic replacement. When American clipper ships spurred trade with the Orient, a revolution in chair making and weaving began. Among other cargoes, they brought back rattan which is derived from the stems of a number of climbing palms native to the East Indies. Entire chair frames, legs and backs could be made from the tough stems as well as walking sticks, polo sticks, ski poles, etc. The outermost layer or rind of these plants is a hard, shiny substance which is taken off in strips and becomes the \"cane\" 18 Carya ovata. Photo: H. Howard. 19 sold can commercially for basket-weaving and chair seating. Cane be obtained in widths from \"superfine\" barely a millito \"coarse\" about 5 millimeters wide. The last meter wide are almost the size of narrow splints, for which they can be substituted. Cut into long strips of even width, cane is strong, - pliable (when moistened), no durable (wet or dry) and requires maintenance. The weaving of cane-seated chairs was done originally by threading double strands of cane through evenly spaced holes in the front and back of the seat frame to make what, in clothweaving terminology, would be called the \"warp\". The \"woof\" strands then were woven in through similar holes in the side frames. The weave was further strengthened by two diagonals producing the durable and attractive hexagonally-holed pattern. During the last few decades this difficult weave has become available in machine-made sheets which are simply cut somewhat oversized, wedged into grooves in the side rails, and glued with splines to hold the cane in place. Beautiful reproductions of antique chairs are sometimes sold as genuine antiques; but if the seat is retained with splines instead of holes through the frame, the fraud can be readily detected. Either type of cane seat would be virtually indestructible if the manufacturers took the trouble to round the inner edges of the seat frame. The weight of the occupant tends to cut the cane against a sharp-edged frame, particularly at the front of the chair, and periodic replacement becomes necessary. When the rind of rattan stems is removed to produce cane, the tough fibrous inner portion is cut in various shapes and widths. Long, flat strips become the flat \"reed\" of commerce an ideal substitute for the hickory and ash splints of long ago and far less expensive. Long pieces, round in cross-section, become the round \"reed\" of commerce - ideal substitutes for osier which is available here only as an import. Finally, the Orient has provided a partial substitute for natural rush in the form of \"Hong Kong Grass\". This is made from the fine twisted leaves of salt-marsh grasses. While it is only available in a thin, string-like gauge of any specified length, it is surprisingly strong and can be purchased in a variety of colors. It is often used either in an open or closed weave on modern chairs. This product is not to be confused with Raffia a less substantial material made by stripping and drying the cuticular layer from the leaves of the Madagascar palm, Rhaphia raffia, or the Japanese one, R. taedigera. Raffia has more basketry than chair seat applications, but can be used as part of the binding-off strip around the edges of cane seats. - 20 Salix purpurea lambertiana. Photo: H. Howard. I Today value, which has lost favor 21 many homes have at least one chair, often of antique because its seat is no longer sound. Years ago this would not have posed a problem; but the current shortage of craftsmen able to make authentic and durable repairs almost dictates that we learn the craft ourselves. It is an extremely interesting and challenging hobby, as well as a practical occupation; one particularly suited to the elderly or handicapped. A little patience, modestly-priced materials, and a few simple tools found in every household are all that are needed for the work. Expert guidance and advice are obtainable at adult education courses; several books also detail the procedures clearly. The author recommends Seat Weaving (II), by L. Day Perry (Washington, D.C.: Hobby House Press 1940) and Chair Seat Weaving for Antique Chairs by Marion Burr Sober (Michigan Graphic Corporation, Whitmore Lake, Michigan 1964). In addition, Yankee and Early American Life magazines periodically carry advertisements of mail order firms * offering the supplies which sometimes are difficult to procure locally. It is hoped that the foregoing historical and practical notes also will assist the novice in his restorative efforts. RALPH E. (Dr. Wheeler, at the WHEELER, M.D. a resident of Brookline, is Emeritus Professor of Bacteriology Tufts University Medical School. His hobby is the restoration of antique chairs. )x&# 3E; * The traditional supplier in New England is the H. H. Perkins Co., 10 South Bradley Rd., Woodbridge, Conn. 06525. Its catalog lists most of the materials discussed in this note as well as tools and kits containing chair parts of early American antique reproduction for do-it-yourself assembly ; also, books on seat weaving and on furniture refinishing (often a necessary preliminary to replacing the seats of antiques). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Shadbushes","article_sequence":3,"start_page":22,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24629","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d15ea328.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Shadbushes As I ern was growing up in the rich farming country of southeastPennsylvania, one of my greatest pleasures was to walk through the fencerows and woodlots in April, searching for signs of spring. Herbs like Hepaticas and Bloodroots were always welcome finds, but I will never forget the Shadbushes. Looking across the brown and gray countryside to a woodland lined with these trees in full bloom never failed to lift my winter-weary spirit. Ever since, I have looked on these plants with a special fondness, a prejudice that may color some of my statements and descriptions in the present article. These attractive members of the Rose Family are known by a variety of common names: Serviceberry or its corruption, Sarvisberry, from the resemblance of the fruit (not actually a berry) to that of the European Service-tree, a species of Sorbus; Juneberry, because the fruits of several species ripen in June; and Shadblow or Shadbush, because most species in the eastern United States started to bloom as the shad began to ascend the rivers. My preference for the last of these is based merely on a personal prejudice. It was the name by which I first learned the plants, and it is somewhat more romantic than the rest. The generic name Amelanchier is probably derived from \"amelanche\", the name of the European species in Provence, a section of southeastern France. Like so many of our native trees and shrubs, the Shadbushes have been largely neglected by gardeners, even though they are of considerable ornamental value. Most of the species are colonial shrubs, spreading by woody underground stems which send up innumerable aerial shoots, often forming dense clumps or small thickets in the process. A group of species, however, grow into small or medium-sized trees, usually with one or two trunks, but occasionally with more. The arborescent species are probably the best from an ornamental viewpoint. The flowers appear in late April in New England when no other trees, except for the early Cherries and Magnolias, provide a spectacular showing. Although the flowering period may be short, perhaps only three or four days if the 22 23 The airy elegance of Amelanchier arborea in full bloom. Photo: H. Howard. 24 rainy, the display, in my opinion, is incomsoft and delicate show, without the gaudiness or a Crab Apple, entirely in tune with its season. One of the most beautiful sights in the Arnold Arboretum is the specimen of Amelanchier arborea planted on the edge of the Junipers near Bussey Brook. This tree, 30 feet tall and with a trunk diameter of 15 inches, is covered with a misty shroud of white in late April. To one driving or walking up Bussey Hill, it stands like a beacon among the drab brown of the field and the green of the conifers. With their wonderful floral display in the springtime; the delicious fruits in early summer; the brilliant red-orange of the foliage in the fall; the smooth, soft gray, somewhat striped bark in the winter; and the tidy, graceful shape always, these are trees for all seasons. If one wanted a medium-sized specimen for a large or small yard, I could hardly think of a more beautiful plant. In a naturalized setting, by a pond or the edge of a woodland, only a Dogwood could be better. The shrubby species of Shadbush are of somewhat lesser ornamental value. Although they are attractive in flower, and the fruits in some cases are superior to those of the arborescent species, there are many shrubs with a more durable, colorful bloom that would be more desirable for the average gardener. If used in a naturalized planting, however, all species can be very effective, and the tall, fountain-shaped Amelanchier canadensis would be suitable as a specimen plant or a deciduous weather is hot or parable. It is of a Magnolia a screen. All Shadbushes are susceptible to attack by a number of pests to many rosaceous trees, which limits their usefulness. Lacewing fly, red spider, various scales, and fireblight all can become serious problems; if any of these are rampant in an area, Shadbushes, or any other rosaceous plants, should be planted with caution. The fruit of the Shadbush is not a berry, as implied by the common names \"Juneberry\" and \"Serviceberry\"; rather it is a small pome, the technical name for a type of fruit found only in certain plants of the Rose Family, including Pears, Apples, Hawthorns, Mountain Ashes, and Pyracanthas, as well as Shadbushes. In most of the species they are 1\/4-3\/8 inch in diameter, firm but juicy in texture, sweet tasting, and basically dark red-purple in color, but thinly covered with a bluish, waxy bloom, as in blueberries and grapes. The fruits are high in Vitamin C content and were used as food to some extent by the American Indians of the eastern forests, as well as by the early common Amelanchier canadensis, Photo: H. Howard. one of the clump-forming species of Shadbush. The smooth, Bruns. striped bark of a mature Amelanchier arborea. Photo: P. 26 settlers. But it was the Indians of the prairies, with a dearth of other fruits to choose from, who used them most extensively. They crushed the fruit of Amelanchier alnifolia with dried bison meat and fat; the resulting mixture, called pemmican, served as their primary winter food. The Cree name for the fruits was Mis-sask-qua-too-min, or some similar phonetic rendering. Shortened to \"saskatoon\" by the fur traders, the name is still used to refer to A. alnifolia, and it was given to a city in Saskatchewan in whose environs the plant was abundant. There has been some interest recently in growing several species of Amelanchier as commercial crops. Several cultivars have been named on the merits of their superior fruit. The earliest, \"Success\", a cultivar of A. canadensis, was offered for sale as early as 1878. The flowers are resistant to late frosts, and the fruits ripen evenly making them amenable to mechanical harvesting. However, the fruits deteriorate in flavor rapidly upon standing, limiting their commercial possibilities. So Shadbushes probably will remain basically a \"home crop.\" The fruits are delicious when served fresh, and they make excellent preserves. They also can be used like more traditional fruits as a pie filling, or in muffins, much like blueberries. The fruits of the Shadbushes are attractive to a wide variety of birds. This may be good or bad, depending on one's point of view. They generally last only a very short time here at the Arboretum. If a homeowner wishes to save the fruits for his own use, at least in a quantity large enough to make the effort worthwhile, it may be necessary to cover the plants with a cheap netting as the fruits are maturing. If one is interested in planting trees or shrubs to attract birds, a species of Shadbush would be a good choice. But a word of caution from a friend of mine: do not plant such a tree near a patio or any other place where one would like to sit out on a pleasant late June evening. The fruits have rather an immediate effect on the birds. Most of the 20-30 species of Amelanchier are native to North America, but three species are found in Europe, North Africa, and southwestern Asia, and another in Japan, Korea, and China. All the American species are mostly closely interrelated and quite similar in general appearance. Therefore their identification is difficult for the layman. In addition, hybrids occur between many of the species, both in the wild and in cultivation. These hybrids are usually intermediate between their parents in many respects, making identification even more difficult. Below is a list and a key to the identification of the species of Shadbush which are most commonly encountered in cultivation 27 Amelanchier arborea (as A. canadensis), from the Silva of North America by C. S. Sargent. 1, flowering branch; 2 floral diagram; 3, vertical section of flower; 4, stamens; 5, cross section of ovary; 6, ovule; 7, fruiting branch; 8, vertical section of fruit; 9, cross section of fruit; 10, seed; 11, embryo; 12, winter buds. 28 in the Northeast. as an [For a summary of how to use a key, as well explanation of terms, see the March, 1972 issue of Arnoldia (Volume 32, pp. 59-97).] The key makes use of flower, leaf, and fruit characters. Therefore for identification it is necessary observations, perhaps aided by photographs and pressed specimens, at different seasons of the year. Keys of this sort are frustrating to use, but in the case of difficult plants like the Shadbushes, they are frequently the only ones possible to conto make struct. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF AMELANCHIER MOST COMMONLY CULTIVATED IN THE NORTHEAST 1. 1. Flower clusters held horizontally or slightly drooping; plants treelike, usually with 1-5 trunks, sometimes shrub-like with many trunks, but at maturity more than 12 feet tall. 2. Unfolding leaves densely hairy. A. X grandiflora. 3. Unfolding leaves bronze or purplish. 3. Unfolding leaves green or silvery white. 4. Fruits dry and insipid; mature leaves hairy beneath, A. arborea. at least along the veins. 4. Fruits juicy and sweet; mature leaves not hairy, exA. asiatica. cept perhaps on the stalk. A. laevis. 2. Unfolding leaves not or only sparsely hairy. Flower clusters held erect, colonial or clump-forming shrubs, with many stems, often less than 6 feet tall. A. ovalis. 5. Stalks of fruits and mature leaves hairy. 5. Stalks of fruits and mature leaves not hairy. A. sanguinea. 6. Petals 1\/2 inch long or longer. 6. Petals 3\/8 inch long or less. 7. Top (in the area between the tooth-like projections) of the fruit hairy; low shrubs, less than 6 feet tall. A. spicata. 7. Top of the fruit not hairy; tall shrubs, more than 6 feet tall at maturity. A. canadensis. Amelanchier arborea. Downy Shadbush. Found in dry to moist woods or clearings throughout the eastern half of the United States (west to Iowa and Oklahoma), this species is generally a shapely small tree in cultivation. Although seldom growing more than 30 feet tall, the largest recorded specimen, growing near Standish, Michigan, is 48 feet tall with a trunk circumference of 10 1\/2 feet and a spread of 76 feet. The name A. canadensis has been applied erroneously to this plant by many authors, including Alfred Rehder in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. It may be distinguished from A. laevis, the only other arborescent Shadbush native in the Northeast, by the downy, silvery-white unfolding leaves and the dry, insipid fruits. 29 It was cultivated in England as early as 1746, and probably earlier in this country. At the Arnold Arboretum the tree blooms from early April to early May, and the fruits are ripe in mid-June. Amelanchier laevis. Alleghany Shadbush. Similar to and often confused with the preceding, this species grows in woodlands and thickets from Newfoundland and Minnesota southward to Missouri and Indiana, and in the Appalachians to Georgia. It holds the record for size among Shadbushes. The largest individual, from Siler's Bald in Great Smoky Mountains National is 60 feet tall with a circumference of 6 feet, 2 inches. Its bronze-colored unfolding leaves and delicious fruit, as well as the spectacular floral display, make this one of the more desirable of the Shadbushes. At the Arnold Arboretum it blooms from late April until mid-May, and the fruits appear in late June. Park, Amelanchier X grandiflora (also known as A. con f usa and A. lamarckii). Apple Shadbush. This is apparently a hybrid between the above two species. The type specimen was collected in the Botanical Garden of the Forest Academy at Muenden, Germany, but the plant is also known in the wild. Specimens have been collected in several states from New Hampshire to Missouri and Georgia, and it is apparently naturalized in parts of Europe. It is more floriferous than its parents, the fruits are larger and more succulent, and the unfolding leaves are purplish. All in all, it is probably the handsomest of the Shadbushes. A form of this plant, 'Rubescens', found as a spontaneous seedling in Seneca Park, Rochester, New York, has flowers which are purplish-pink in bud and suffused with pink when open. Amelanchier asiatica. Asiatic Shadbush. A native of Japan, China, and Korea, this plant was introduced into the United States in 1865. It is not common in cultivation. It is similar to A. arborea, but it has palatable fruit and blooms somewhat later. Amelanchier canadensis (A. oblongifolia). Thicket Shadbush. A species of bogs, swamps and other low areas chiefly in the Atlantic Coastal Plain from Newfoundland to Georgia, this differs from all of the preceding in that it is never treelike, although it may grow to be 25 feet tall. In the wild it often forms dense clumps, hence its common name. This same attribute makes it desirable in cultivation where a tall, deciduous screen is wanted. It was reputedly cultivated in this country as early as 1641, the succulent fruits undoubtedly providing a welcome addition to the diet of the early settlers. In the Arnold Arboretum this 30 Amelanchier arborea, shown here, and several of its close relatives form tidily shaped, small to medium-sized trees. Photo: P. Bruns. I in 31 species blooms during early July. the first half of May and the fruits ripen Amelanchier sanguinea. Round-leaved Shadbush. Native to woods, thickets, and lake shores from Maine westward along the Great Lakes to Minnesota, with a few isolated stations in the mountains of North Carolina, this is perhaps the best of the shrubby species for general cultivation. It is of medium height (3-9 feet), it has large flowers, and the fruits are particularly tasty. Here it blooms during May and the fruits ripen in mid- July. Amelanchier spicata. Low Shadbush. A low, colonial shrub, growing from 1-6 feet tall, this species occurs in woods and thickets, sandy barrens, dunes, and other open places in eastern North America from Newfoundland to the eastern Dakotas, south to Missouri, Ohio, and Georgia. The correct name for this plant is the subject of considerable debate. Some authorities break it down into several species, with names including A. stolonifera and A. humilis. And, due to confusion as to the identity of the plant which the original author had in mind, some botanists use the name \"spicata\" to refer to an entirely different plant, a hybrid between A. canadensis and A. ovalis. At the Arnold Arboretum this species blooms during the first half of May and the fruits ripen in early July. Amelanchier ovalis (A. vulgaris). Snowy Mespilus. The only Shadbush native to Europe, this species is rarely cultivated in the United States. It is an attractive shrub with large flowers and palatable fruits, and it was grown in Europe as early as the 16th century. In this country it grows to 6 feet tall; it blooms in early May and the fruits ripen in late June. One or more of the above species is offered for sale by many nurseries. Raymond Nelson, in DuBois, Pennsylvania even specializes in one of them (probably Amelanchier laevis) which he calls the \"Sarvistree\". RICHARD E. WEAVER, JR. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dykes Medal Iris at the Case Estates","article_sequence":4,"start_page":32,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24627","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14e856b.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"Dykes Medal Iris at the Case Estates The highest award an iris can receive in the United States is the Dykes Medal sponsored by the American Iris Society. Usually the long climb upward to this honor begins when the iris receives the High Commendation (H.C.) award as an unintroduced seedling. Once it has been introduced it can be considered for the Honorable Mention (H.M. ) award. After this award is given, two years must elapse before it is eligible for the Award of Merit (A.M.); a maximum of twelve iris may receive this award in a single year. Again, two years must pass after winning the A.M. before a plant is eligible for the Dykes Medal; only one medal is allowed each year. More than 500 named cultivars of iris are introduced into commerce annually, so one can understand how small the chance is that an iris will eventually win the Dykes Medal. When dealers list an iris as having recently won this coveted award, one can be reasonably sure that it is excellent from almost all standpoints. A gardener should feel confident when buying such an iris that it is an aristocrat. The American Iris Society has registered more than 600 authorized judges in the United States, many of whom have wide leanings regarding their likes and dislikes in iris. If, when the votes are finally tabulated for the Dykes Medal, no variety receives at least 15 percent of all the votes, the award is not given that year. This situation occurred in 1946, 1960 and 1969. Formerly, the Arnold Arboretum attempted to maintain a collection of all the Dykes Medal winners from 1927 to the present in the display area of the Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts. This was not only difficult but of questionable value to the average gardener. Some of the older cultivars like 'San Francisco', which won the award in 1927, were bred in California and were either trying or impossible to grow in our New England climate. Other older varieties had little appeal except from a historical standpoint. If a gardener took a liking to one of these, chances were it would have been unavailable in the trade for a long time; even award winners going back much beyond 15 years are not readily obtained. 32 Iris `4Vinter Olympics'. Photo: G. Pride. 34 A new bed of Dykes Medal iris has been established at the Case Estates in the area near the daffodil collection. Starting with 1957, an arbitrarily selected year, the line up is as follows: 1957: 1958: 1959: 1960: 1961: 'Violet Harmony', a New 'Blue Sapphire', a heavy substanced 'Swan Ballet', a ruffled white self. no England-bred, lavender-violet. light blue. award 'Eleanor's Pride', a New England-bred, powder-blue with a white beard. 1962: 'Whole Cloth', a new pattern in white and medium blue. 1963: 'Amethyst Flame', of subtle lavender and rosy-violet shades. 1964: 'Allegiance', ultra-marine blue. 1965: 'Pacific Panorama', a large, ruffled sea-blue. 1966: 'Rippling Waters', an outstanding blue-orchid and cream blend. 1967: 'Winter Olympics', 1968: 'Stepping Out', markings. an an intensely ruffled, large white self. excellent snow-white with blue-violet 1969: no award 1970: 'Skywatch', a very large, ruffled lavender self. 1971: 'Debby Rairdon', a beautiful white and soft yellow. 1972: 'Babbling Brook', a ruffled blue. 1973: 'New Moon', a large ruffled, light yellow self. long for an iris to receive a Dykes Medal that usustock is available in the trade by then, and the price is reasonable considering the high quality of the cultivar. We were fortunate to have all these varieties donated by members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" so that no expense was involved in obtaining the rhizomes. The tall bearded iris generally are in full flower during the first week in June; an excellent time to view this small but potentially effective display. so It takes ally ample GEORGE H. PRIDE "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24625","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14e816d.jpg","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews The Leaf Book: A Field Guide to the Plants of Northern California. Ida Geary, with a forward by David Cavagnaro. Fairfax, California: A. Philpott, The Tamal Land Press. 1972. 388 pages, softbound. $5.50. The idea of \"nature printing\", making prints directly from leaves or entire plants, is not a new one. Wilfrid Blunt, in The Art of Botanical Illustration, states that the process was developed as early as the 15th century and was periodically rediscovered, refined, and modified during the 18th and 19th centuries, culminating in von Ettinghausen's Physiotypia of 1853-73. Ida Geary, the authoress of the present book under notice, credits Leonardo da Vinci as the first to experiment with the process. Basically, it involves applying a pigment or some transferable substance, whether it be an ink or soot from a candle, to the surface of a pressed or living plant surface and then laying the plant on paper and pressing or rubbing an impression onto the paper. The Leaf Book is purportedly, as the subtitle states, a guide to the plants of northern California. The book consists of a total of 261 plant prints and one drawing (of poison oak, to which the authoress states she is allergic) loosely arranged in categories, which include marine algae; fungi, lichens, and mosses; ferns and fern allies; grasses, sedges, and rushes; wild flowers; shrubs; and trees. The placement of the nature prints within these categories is something less than scientific, as is exemplified by the inclusion of a cat-tail (Typha sp.) and a bur-reed (Sparganium sp.) along with the ferns and fern allies. Each plate is labeled with a common and scientific name, along with a short caption intended to help in positive identification. The idea is that the plant prints are the main aid in identification. Unfortunately, the majority of prints are muddy and unclear, and in most instances one would have to be familiar with the plant in question before it would be recognizable in the nature print. It would seem to me that anyone interested in learning and identifying the more common plants of northern 35 36 California would be far ahead to consult one of the several pocket guides that cover the flora of the region, many of which are profusely illustrated with clear color photographs and diagnostic line drawings. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG Intermountain Flora. Vascular Plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A., Volume 1. Arthur Cronquist, A. H. Holmgren, N. H. Holmgren, J. L. Reveal. New York: The New York Botanical Garden and The Hafner Publishing Company. 1972. 270 pages, illustrated. $17.50. This is the first of a projected six-volume flora covering an which includes all of Utah, most of Nevada, and smaller portions of Arizona, Oregon, Idaho and Wyoming. Somewhat more than half of the present volume is devoted to introductory essays, physiography, plant geography and a most useful biographical section entitled \"Botanical Explorations in the Intermountain Regions\" (36 pages). The Flora proper follows the pattern of the New York Botanical Garden floras; large page size, each species illustrated, and ample ecological and other notes at the end of each description. Volume one includes the Ferns, Fern worts, and Gymnosperms (including Ephedra). It looks like an interesting and useful series for anyone interested in the plants of the West. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. area The Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening-Landscape Gardening. James Underwood Crockett and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 1972. 160 pages, illustrated. $6.95. In Landscape Gardening we have another beautiful coffee table book that offers a good deal of general information and sets some lovely moods with its flowing text and stunning photographs. The author provides good introductory comments, some useful guidelines for each topic he chooses to pursue, and the photographs often furnish new ideas of ways to handle problems. However one is left with a feeling that the essentials, the nitty-gritty stuff that makes real landscape gardening, have 37 been left out. The emphasis here is on the \"homeowner\", most certainly the suburban clientele at which this series of books is aimed. There is a quotation from Robert Roylston which doesn't seem to have influenced Mr. Crockett: \"... But not everyone can have one-half to three-quarters of an acre to let nature flourish for him alone, there's not that much nature to go around. It stretches our resources too thin ...\" Now is the time for a book that starts here and faces the needs of a community that is ecologically and sociologically concerned and active. The Time-Life editors should start publishing books with real information for us to put into practice; not picture books that are out of date as they come to the stands. JACK LINK Cornut. New York: [18] + [238] + 2. Canadensium Plantarum. Jacques Philippe Johnson Reprint Corporation. 1966. $15.00. xxii + This is the era of the reprint book. Contemporary hard-cover titles are reprinted in paper back. Out-of-print titles are reprinted verbatum. Antique books are reprinted with scholarly introductions, explaining their importance and setting them, and their authors, in the proper milieu. Cornut's Canadensium Plantarum Historia has long been a sort of mythical book, mentioned with bated breath in lectures on the history of botany, or botanical art, as a milestone in human intellectual progress, as the \"first North American Flora\"; very rarely as containing the \"first flora of Paris\". Let there be no mistake, it is good to have a reprint of Comut at a reasonable price. It is good, too, to have the available information about Cornut brought together and digested. It is unfortunate that the introduction imputes to the plant descriptions and illustrations greater accuracy than actually exists. Many of the illustrations lack sufficient detail to be readily identifiable, and the descriptions are not very helpful. Further, in many cases the nativity of the plant is not given. We may note that Canada, the West Indies, Southern Europe and the Near East, and the Cape of Good Hope, are all represented. It is unfortunate that the author of the introduction did not consult a botanist or horticulturist before producing his list of \"probable modern identifications\" of the plants mentioned and\/or illustrated. Of the 78 plants cited, 20 were either unidentified, incompletely identified, wrongly identified, or incorrectly named. ... 38 I - Not a very good average. Many of Comut's names are indexed in Richter, H. E. Codex Botanicus Linnaeanus Leipzig: Otto Wigand. 1840, and some are mentioned in Krause, G. Geschichte der Planzeneinfurhrungen in die europaischen botanischen gdrten Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann. 1894. t9 possibly a European Thlaspi luteum spanospermon Epilobium similar to E. alpinum, L. ? t 17 7 De Valeriana = Epilobium, if American probably E. coloratum, but it could equally well be a European species. t 21 1 Valeriana urticaefolia flore albo Eupatorium rugosum. t 32 Polygonatum spicatum sterile = typical form of Smilacina stellata (L) Desfontaines. t 34 cited by Linnaeus in Polygonatum spicatum fertile the original description of Convallaria (Smilacina) stellatum. t 39 and 41 1 Polygonatum ramosum flore luteo maius] Uvularia - = = = perfoliata Polygonatum diflora. t 82 or ramosum flore luteo minus] U. gran= t 84 t 95 t 100 t 124 t 142 t 154 t 158 t Rhamnus myrtifolius ex insula sancti christophori There has been a mix-up of names between this plate and the next. This plate is Primula vulgaris Hudson (P. acaulis (L) Hudson). Carchichec turcarum sive primula veris constantinopolitana the name refers to the previous plate. This illustration seems to be a sterile twig of a Cassia. Ranunculus latifolius multiplex serotinas a doubleflowered form of Ranunculus bullatus L. which seems to have been lost to cultivation for more than 200 years. Edera quinquefolia canadensis Parthenocissus quinquifolia (L) Planch. Scordium spinosum odoratum Teucrium spinosum L. Millefolia tuberosa Filipendula hexapetala Gilib. a common old-fashioned garden perennial native from Scandinavia to Siberia. Not native in North America. Narcissus pumilus indicus polyanthos Crinum, possibly C. lineare from South Africa. Narcissus iaponicus rutilo flore = Nerine sarniensis (L.) Herb. = = = = = = 163 Plantago Gouan. side maxima hispanica = ... = Plantago cornuti t 165 Sisynrichium (= indicum Spiloxene capensis Hypoxis stellata (Thunberg) L.f.). (L.) Gar- 39 t 169 t 187 t t 194 205 maxima americana Solidago sempervirens L. Thalictrum canadense = Thalictrum cornuti L. = T. aquilegifolium L. var. typicum Beck. f. cornuti (L.) Boivin a native of Europe. Bellis Ramosa umbellifera Erigeron annuus (L.) Per- Solidago = = soon. Calceolus Marianus canadensis = Cypripedium reginae Walt. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. The Plants of Southern New Jersey. Witmer Stone. Boston, Mass.: Quarterman Publications, Inc. 1973. 828 pages, 128 plates. $25.00. Originally published in a limited edition in 1911 as Part II of the Annual Report of the New Jersey State Museum for 1910, entitled \"The Plants of Southern New Jersey with Especial Reference to the Flora of the Pine Barrens and the Geographic Distribution of the Species\". The Quarterman edition has been enlarged to include a foreword of four pages by Elizabeth M. Woodford. The pine barren as a area of New Jersey has long been recognized unique vegetational sector comprising some endemic species of plants; some with ranges northward to Newfoundland; some showing affinities on Cape Cod; some with continuous or disjunct ranges southward to the coastal plain of Georgia and Florida. Since Stone's time, new highways have made additional areas readily accessible. A few portions of the area have been established as nature reserves, state parks, or state forests for preservation of the unusual plants and animals. Federal recognition of the sector as a landmark or national park was sought in 1967. Hopefully, this reprinting of Stone's work will give additional impetus to steps toward preservation of the pine barrens and adjacent areas. This reprint is well done, and the original illustrations of photographs, line drawings and paintings, not always well printed in the original, have lost but little in the current reproduction. Regrettably, no attempt has been made to bring the nomenclature up to date from that of the American Code used by Stone. The foreword suggests that the correct scientific name can be obtained, via the common name, from Gray's Manual of Botany, or Britton and Brown's Illustrated Flora. This is misleading since neither reference volume suggested offers syn- 40 onyms of scientific names, which are necessary to sort out the from the several offered by Stone. Some of the common names used by Stone, checked at random, do not occur in either Gray or Britton and Brown. Reprinting of older and rare volumes is admirable. For some volumes it should be done without changes, but others like this one would be improved by at least an appendix of modern nomenclatural equivalents or the suggestion of references such as Jack McCormick's excellent \"Pine Barrens of New Jersey, A Study of Significance\", prepared by the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia in 1967. RICHARD A. HOWARD correct name Downy Woodpecker. Photo: R. Weaver. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23541","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260b36e.jpg","title":"1974-34-1","volume":34,"issue_number":1,"year":1974,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":309,"end_page":340,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24623","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14ebb6f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":6,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1973 The calendar year 1972 was designated as the Centennial Year of the Arnold Arboretum, and the special program held the last week in May was described in the previous report of the Director. The second half of the year was no less a busy one for the staff, since the publicity continued to draw additional visitors to the grounds for scheduled meetings and casual visits. Features of the publicity proved to be our own film which was made available to colleges, schools, and private groups; an educational TV film by Thalassa Cruso, entitled \"Changing Seasons\", a tribute to the Arnold Arboretum, shown locally and on the NET; a feature section in the Boston Globe; and an article entitled \"Harvard's Unique 'Bush Country'\" which appeared in the Ford Times, a small magazine of very large distribution. One unusual side effect of the Centennial is worthy of note: Visiting botanists participating in the Centennial program were offered a tour which stopped at a bog in the town of Acton, Massachusetts. This focus of international attention on a small piece of vegetation led the Acton Conservation Commission to purchase the land and declare the Acton bog a nature preserve. When the Olmsted Sesquicentennial was celebrated nationally in the month of October 1972, the Arnold Arboretum - being in part the handiwork of Frederick Law Olmsted - also was involved. Dr. and Mrs. Howard attended the opening of the national exhibit at the Mellon Gallery of Art in Washington. The Boston observance consisted of a small display and a reception in City Hall, with the announced theme a plan to revitalize Boston's parks. Later Brookline staged a more formal program, and offered the public visits to areas exhibiting Olmsted's influence ; included were bus tours of the Arnold Arboretum guided by members of our staff. Throughout the fiscal year the assistance of Volunteers, a group established for the Centennial program, was most effective. The training program which produced the first Volunteers 309 jeep-drawn surrey transports springtime visitors around Arboretum grounds. Photo P. Bruns repeated in 1972-73, and the graduates of the two programs helping the staff in nearly every aspect of the work of the Arboretum. We are deeply indebted to these men and women was are for their contributions of time and talents. An innovation tried experimentally for three weekends during the spring was the use of a rented, jeep-drawn, two-unit, openseated vehicle for transporting visitors around the grounds. The \"surrey\" route had to be limited to areas of the Arboretum where the vehicle could be turned around, resulting in a convenient 50-minute ride through most of the conspicuous flowering tree and shrub collections. An amplifying system permitted the guides, who were either staff or volunteers, to comment to groups of 50 people. The fee charged produced a small profit over actual rental costs, and the surrey rides elicited a most favorable reaction. Staff Two resignations from the staff must be recorded for the past year. Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., resigned his position as Curator 311 of the Arnold Arboretum and Coordinator of Botanical Systematic Collections to accept a position as Chairman of the Department of Botany of the Field Museum of Natural History in Chicago. Ms. Ellen Bernstein resigned as Editorial Assistant for the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. We value the services each has rendered to the Arnold Arboretum and seek their re- placements. We were saddened on January 2, 1973 by news of the death of the retired Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum, Mrs. Lazella Schwarten. Mrs. Schwarten served as librarian under three directors and during the most demanding period, when portions of the library were moved and both sections were reorganized. Her energy and effort were tremendous; in fact, perhaps she gave more of herself than she should have done. No librarian could have been more helpful to members of the staff, or more concerned for the properties under her direction. Dr. Bernice Schubert and Dr. Richard Howard were named honorary vice-presidents of the First Latin-American and Fifth Mexican Botanical Congresses. A handsome certificate accompanied this honor and was accepted for both by Dr. Schubert, who attended the meetings. Dr. Howard also was elected president of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta at the annual meeting held in Arcadia, California. The term of office is two years. Dr. Carroll Wood was elected vicepresident of the Southern Appalachian Botanical Club. Mr. Alfred Fordham, Propagator for the Arboretum, was honored by the International Lilac Society with an Award of Merit. Service The role of the Arnold Arboretum and its staff in community affairs has grown in scope and significance in recent years. Known as a \"park\" to many people, the grounds are open to driving weekdays and to walking from sunrise to sunset daily throughout the year. However, many of the visitors expect to have staff members present, facilities available to them, and someone to answer their questions in person or by telephone. From mid-April to mid-June in the last few years, the administration building has been staffed on weekends. Although the Volunteers have helped, the need still arises for staff members to be present, with the concomitant administrative problems of overtime, adjusted work weeks, or special employees. Friday night accumulations of litter require two men working all day on Saturday to pick up debris. Saturday night accumulations Community 312I of litter are not cleared up until Monday, with the result that there is often distasteful debris visible on a spring day of high visitor count. This weekend duty is expensive to the organization, and unwelcome in a society accustomed to Monday-throughFriday work schedules. The professional competence of the staff and the resources of the organization also are subject to many requests for service. These include requests for plant identification and sources of plant material, information on culture or plant disease, aid in landscape design, conduct of classes or tours, and presentation of lectures and donations of plants for worthy environmental improvement p3ograms. It is apparent now the requests exceed the abilities of a limited staff. Many requests, if fulfilled, exact the sacrifice of professional staff time more profitably devoted to research and publication. Some critical decisions must be made in the near future regarding this role of the Arnold Arboretum. The Arnold Arboretum staff handles all questions regarding toxic plant materials, excluding only mushrooms, for the Boston Poison Center. These calls are most frequent in the spring and the fall, and are received at the administration building during working hours, but referred to the home telephones of several staff members after hours. During one month telephone calls ingested plant materials averaged 30 a week; and over a year involved 74 different plants. About half of the evening calls are from doctors or emergency staff of hospitals. While most calls are from eastern Massachusetts, every New England state has been represented, as well as New York, Ohio, and Illinois in the last year. Realizing the need for public information on this subject of potentially poisonous plants, the Arboretum staff made poisonous plants the theme of its exhibit at the New England Spring Flower Show; plans an issue of Arnoldia on the subject; and has been engaged in the development of an educational film on the topic. Requests are on hand for the loan and purchase of this film which is still in production. The Arboretum has a few houses on the grounds in Jamaica Plain, and on the Case Estates in Weston. Staff members who occupy these houses are in effect resident guards against fire and vandalism, and are sources of information for visitors to the collections. These duties often span 24 hours a day. No matter what community they live in, the staff members are called upon for professional services. Dr. Nevling served on the City of Boston Conservation Commission. Mr. Hebb is the representative of the Arnold Arboretum on the Board of Directors on Harry Hill and Arturs Norietis of grounds staff transfer conifers to the west nursery. Photo: P. Bruns 313 of the Jamaica Hills Association, and is a member of the Jamaica Plain Community Police Relations Committee. Miss Page is on the Cambridge Conservation Committee, and is chairman of the Cambridge Tree Committee. Dr. DeWolf is an advisor to the Weston Conservation Commission. Dr. Howard has served on special committees associated with school buildings in Weston, and has been on the Green Committee of Harvard College since its inception. In 1972 Miss Nancy Page was appointed Coordinator for Community Activities, a position created to coordinate the many requests that come to the Arboretum from civic groups. Her activities have involved various groups in Jamaica Plain, Charlestown, Roslindale, Somerville, East Boston, Brighton, the South End, Back Bay, Dorchester, and downtown Boston. She has cooperated with the Boston Council, Boy Scouts of America, in their Explorer program, and has aided in the development of a vocational horticultural curriculum for the sixth grade of the Agassiz School in Jamaica Plain. Other staff members have served on committees or worked with such organizations as the Friends of the Public Garden, the Traphole Brook Protection Association, the Metropolitan District Commission, the Metropolitan Area Planning Council, the Boston Rehabilitation Association, the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority, the Boston Zoological Society, the New England Aquarium, the Model Cities Program, and the Suburban Experiment Station; as well as with three Boston TV stations, including WGBH, which was 314 another donation of plants for the annual fund-raising auction. Unlike other large arboreta or botanical gardens, the Arnold Arboretum has not had a specific program for the education of children. It has been felt that this role was filled adequately by the Children's Museum, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and the Massachusetts Audubon Society. Our efforts in- given stead have been addressed to reaching school teachers, offering the invitation for classes under their direction to visit the Arboretum, and instructing them ahead of time on what to see and what to tell. Mrs. Harmony Spongberg, a Mercer Fellow, supervised a survey of horticultural and botanical activity in Boston area schools during the past year. A questionnaire sent to 451 teachers was answered by 105 from 78 public, private and parochial schools. Only one school offered courses in horticulture ; none had a course in botany, although 19 offered some botany as part of general biology during a pathetically few hours a week. Six schools had greenhouses, four of these being private schools. Few indicated any encouragment of the students to bring plants to school, or to have gardens, or even plant trees on school property. About half of those replying indicated they took students on plant science field trips, and 17 indicated they had visited the Arboretum. In view of the interest expressed, two special tours of the Arboretum and the Case Estates were offered for teachers, and 35 attended. A special class, \"Introduction to Plant Biology\", was offered especially for instructors by Dr. DeWolf. Two workshops on house plants were conducted by Messrs. Hebb and Link at the Agassiz Community School in Jamaica Plain. The Arnold Arboretum Achievement Award was given to Neil Gould of Jamaica Plain High School. This award of a choice of books and a specimen tree or shrub has now been presented six times. Schools are asked to submit a recommendation of an outstanding student in botany or horticulture. Recommendations have come largely from Jamaica Plain High School. The article, \"City Trees of Boston\", developed by Dr. Weaver and published in Arnoldia, was reprinted and made available to local schools. With the aid of Miss Page this survey has been extended to the spontaneous plants and the common weeds. This study permits some professional observations on natural regeneration and the nature of invasion by plants, and provides some specimens for our herbaria. A check list will be submitted for publication in a professional journal, and a guide to the weeds is being prepared for publication in Arnoldia. Oriental hybrid lily in Photo: P. Bruns experimental disease-resistance plot at Case Estates. Messrs. as DeWolf, Nevling, Weaver and Williams all have served at science , fairs in and around Boston, while Mr. Pride has been a judge of 4-H projects in the Dorchester-Roxbury Fair. Staff cooperation with these various agencies has been both rewarding and frustrating. Considerable time was spent in the development of landscape plans for one rehabilitation program involving two park areas. The loss of federal funds completely terminated state and city interest in the project, in spite of the offer from the Arboretum of the major specimen trees, surplus to our needs, which would have enhanced the area at the nominal cost of moving the plants. By contrast, an appreciative letter was received from the Mayor of Somerville for the work of Nancy Page and others in the development of Riverside Park in that judges city. The Metropolitan Area Planning Commission hopes, as part of the Olmsted celebration, to enhance the park system in Boston designed by Olmsted and referred to as the \"emerald necklace\". To learn what is present in these parks, what is worth saving, and what plants need attention, Dr. Weaver, with the help of the Misses Page and Hay, has mapped the Fens and Muddy River area between the Charles River and Longwood Avenue; the work continues. The Green Committee of Harvard, largely a group 316 of area, have energetic students concerned with the plantings of the campus requested information on the plants of Harvard and the associated natural history area. The Arboretum staff has helped in the development of a booklet to be available to students. One undergraduate undertook the task of mapping and naming, with the help of Dr. Weaver, all of the plants between the Charles River and the Biological Laboratories; the ultimate goal is to place labels on the most significant plants. Community service by the staff in many ways has become a major role of the Arnold Arboretum. Horticulture Man and nature combined to make the care of the grounds difficult than usual during the past year. Throughout the Centennial year the appearance of the grounds received more than the ordinary attention. We are obviously understaffed to have perfect maintenance of 265 acres in Jamaica Plain with twelve regular men, or of 110 acres at Weston with four men. The Arboretum does not need to be mowed to lawn level as long as the plants are cared for properly, labels are in place, and debris is kept to a minimum. Each of these objectives, however, has presented special problems. It is generally true that the quality of machinery has decreased; most aggravating is the unavailability of replacement parts for otherwise satisfactory more equipment. Vandalism remains a problem, along with the growing carelessness of some of the visitors. The administration building was broken into three times during the year, and typewriters, cameras, projectors, dictating machines, and miscellaneous materials were stolen. An alarm system now has been installed in the basement and first two floors of the building, so that any window or door broken for entry signals the Harvard University Police Department in Cambridge. They in turn call a member of the staff and the Boston Police, who must investigate. Within the building, fire doors or other doors between rooms and sections are locked, often with chains or padlocks. Not only is the installation expensive, but the increased inconvenience nearly eliminates the possibility of voluntary staff work evenings or weekends. It has been a normal procedure for the records staff to check about one-fifth of the living collection annually. Since all of the grounds are mapped, new additions to the collection must be added to the maps. The inspection reveals the conditions of the existing plants, the presence of weed trees or the growth Accumulation of weekend litter ham mars conafer collection. Photo: A. Ford- of understock, and the presence of the display labels. During the winter nearly one-half of the labels in one large part of the collection was stolen, and a large number was switched. An examination of other parts of the collection indicates a similar situation. Our records are such that the important data is not lost, and labels can be replaced, but our ability to present a labeled collection is sorely tested. Additional trash barrels have been placed on the grounds, but even these must be chained to posts or trees. The presence of such receptacles in large numbers is not attractive, and they are not used by many visitors. The weekend of April 14-16, Patriot's Day weekend, was unusually pleasant and warm; as a result, young people congregated and the after-dark assembly is best described as a mob. Tuesday, the 17th, the conifer collection and the hillside near the administration building resembled a windblown dump; the area was literally covered with paper, bottles and cans. It required the work of the full ground crew for the rest of the week to pick up the debris. Unfavorable publicity appeared in the Boston papers, and a petition was received from the neighbors to \"Save the Arnold Arboretum.\" A meeting was arranged with the Park Commissioner, the Boston Police, and representatives of Harvard and the Arboretum. As a result, we have received significantly more police attention. 318I It should be noted that Captain Quinlan and Deputy Superintendant Blair have been most cooperative. It also has been possible, with the cooperation of the Traffic and Parking Commission, to declare three bays in entrance areas as tow zones after dark. The signs indicating this are effective until they also are stolen. Further consideration must be given to more adequate fencing, restricted hours of admission, and perhaps an admission charge. The City does not contribute to the cost of maintaining a clean arboretum, and the Arnold Arboretum budget cannot supply additional guards or labor without eliminating some other program. Nature, too, had a role in the exceptionally cool and wet spring of 1973. There may be lasting effects from major infestations of canker worm on plants of Carya, Juglans, Quercus, Acer and Tilia; of anthracnose on Carya, Quercus, and Platanus; and of blight on species of Juniper. Although sprays will control such outbreaks, they must be used judiciously; unfortunately the recurrent rain washed away the material before it was fully effective. Following the Centennial, the dwarf conifer collection on terraces in the greenhouse area was renovated. Thirty overgrown 319 were removed from the planting and established elsewhere on the grounds. A total of 717 plants was added to the collections by transfer from the nursery area to permanent planting. A total of 211 new taxa was included, but this number is offset by the loss of 67 taxa during the year through lack of hardiness or by theft. The Propagation Department received, from expeditions or from exchange with other botanical gardens, 243 shipments of plant materials representing 1,360 taxa from 26 countries. Of these, 119 shipments, or 754 taxa, were plants or vegetative propagating material, while 124 shipments were seeds of 576 taxa. Many of these are potential additions to our collections, while others are plants for experimental work or for special study by members of the staff. In response to requests, the staff sent 124 shipments of plants or vegetative propagations of 401 taxa, and 29 shipments of seeds of 69 taxa to eight countries. Plants of Malus 'Donald Wyman' and Magnolia 'Centennial' were offered in quantity to cooperating nurserymen. Both plants are newly-named selections of the Arboretum staff. During the Centennial plants were offered to other gardens, colleges, and communities, and requests for such plants that could not be filled at the time are being completed. One of the most unusual requests came from Nepal for a specimen of sugar maple. Such a plant was sent by diplomatic courier. The records of plants within the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are in the data bank of the Plant Records Center, American Horticultural Society. Any initial computer program reveals duplication of numbers, factual errors, and errors in naming and spelling. Each error must be checked and corrected. We also are attempting to incorporate into the computer records the original source of all plants now living. An original introduction by Wilson may have died of old age, but seedlings or propagation of the original plant may remain; current records show only that the present plant is a propagation of an earlier number. The many bits of detective work involved, historical in nature, will increase the value of the record when completed. Messrs. Hebb and Link, with the welcome help of some volunteers, are making progress on these corrections and additions. A new printing machine has been acquired to permit the staff to make its own blueprints and permanent sepia transparencies. This machine will facilitate our record keeping and allow us to make copies of our maps for the use of visitors seeking specific collections for study. specimens Domingo Rivera, Peter Ward, and Timothy O'Leary, grounds staff members, move tree from east nursery. Photo P. Bruns Above: Recognition of Service ceremony in Kathmandu, Nepal, honoring the late Ambassador Henry E. Stebbins, a Friend of the Arnold Arboretum. The present ambassador, CnroL S. Laise, is seen addressing some of former Ambassador Stebbxns' frxends. Left. Ambassador Laise and her husband, Ambassador Ellsworth Bunker, immediate predecessor to Ambassador Stebbins, plant small Amertcan sugar maple supplied by the Arnold Arboretum for memorial observance in Nepal, May 30, 1973. 322 The registration of cultivars of woody ornamental plants is service of the Arboretum staff to American and international horticulture. The Arnold Arboretum is the international registration authority for a large number of genera; its records offer service for other groups of plants as well. During the past year 50 registrations were received for new cultivars. Descriptive material on these has been published in Arnoldia, but may in the future be placed in the Bulletin of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. The number of registrations is higher than in the past, due to the efforts of the staff to locate data on thcse plants in reference to our collections and to our work on Rehder's Manual. Registrations are rarely volunteered; the majority are solicited. We have been able to acquire authentic material for our living collections through our efforts, and therefore can prepare herbarium vouchers as well. The annual meeting of the International Lilac Society was held at the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and at Weston on May 25-26, 1973. The group honored the Arboretum with a special a plaque. Case Estates The Case Estates' 110 acres are located in the town of Weston, 13 miles from the plantings in Jamaica Plain. The land is used primarily as a nursery for young plants propagated in the greenhouses at Jamaica Plain, and for the permanent holding of taxa for which there is neither room nor desire in the Jamaica Plain plantings. Some special display collections are maintained at the Case Estates, and one building is available for lectures, classes and meetings. The area is attractive and parking has not become a problem, so the number of visitors to the Case Estates is increasing. A publicized \"open house\" on a Sunday in May drew over 1,000 visitors as represented by 600 cars counted during the day. Classes and lectures were held this year in the fall and the spring, and were well attended by persons who will not venture into the city. Special groups included members of The Massachusetts Federation of Garden Clubs and the Garden Club of America districts, as well as meetings of the International Lilac Society, the American Begonia Society, and societies concerned with rock gardens, rhododendrons, hemerocallis and iris. The Case Estates' grounds are maintained by a staff of four men, supplemented during the summer by student help. We were fortunate to have more highly qualified student help than in previous years, and some much-needed work was accom- 323 The permanent and growing nurseries were pruned; the narcissus bulbs were lifted from overgrown display beds, the soil fumigated, and the bulbs replanted. Many trees were removed where collections of Ilex and Rhododendron had become overshaded. Surplus plants from the nursery are offered first to Harvard University, and many were accepted for use in Cambridge and at the Business School. Several colleges in New England also accepted larger plants of botanical or horticultural interest. Smaller surplus plants were offered to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum on an annual \"give-away\" Saturday, and a few more than two hundred people arrived for the first-come-first-choice distribution. Discussions continue with the Sidewalk Committee of the Town of Weston regarding the development of a bike path and sidewalk along the hazardous Wellesley Street frontage. Involved are some unique historic stone walls, partly dry walls, with a long line of large single stones. These will be expensive and difficult to move if the walk cannot be placed behind them. One row of Malus 'Henrietta Crosby' planted about 25 years ago has matured to give a spectacular display every spring. These trees are too large to move, and their preservation has become a public issue. The alternative is to place the sidewalk well into the Arboretum property, sacrificing other collections, giving up valuable nursery space, and destroying the front yards of two Arboretum houses. plished. The Herbarium The Director's Report last year noted the award of a grant, renewable annually for five years, from the National Science Foundation to the Harvard Botanical Institutions for support of curatorial activities in the herbarium and the library. The grant (GB 33856Xl) is shared by the Arnold Arboretum, the Botanical Museum, the Farlow Herbarium and Library, and the Gray Herbarium. During the first year of operation, the new funds permitted additional mounting of herbarium specimens to make available the backlog of unmounted and often unstudied collections. Additional personnel were hired for the insertion of the increased number of specimens mounted, and one person was assigned the task of checking our holdings against recently published monographs. Some aid was allotted to the purchase of supplies and materials; in a future year, when space is acquired for them, additional herbarium cases will be purchased. Allocations to the library will be discussed later. 325 During the year, 29,319 specimens were mounted and inserted, bringing the total for the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum to 1,000,559 mounted specimens, of which 151,609 are cultivated plants and are housed in Jamaica Plain. The Arboreceived 6,182 specimens in exchange, and 5,953 under a subsidy program. The purchase of the 5,000-sheet herbarium of the Hesse Baumschule in Germany is especially valuable, since this herbarium was built up as a study collection of plants cultivated in Germany. The collection is on oversized sheets, with data handwritten on them. Several of the Volunteers have undertaken the task of remounting the specimens and preparing typed, long-lasting labels. The Hesse Herbarium will be added to the collections of cultivated plants in Jamaica Plain, and can be accommodated in available cases and space. The housing of specimens in Cambridge, however, is increasingly difficult. At present, over 2,053 cardboard boxes, representing approximately 114 steel cases, are used on top of existing cases. These boxes of specimens can be reached only by ladders, and so are difficult to use, and constitute a barrier interfering with the circulation of air in the building. A report on the space problem, with recommendations for readjustments and new space as an addition to the building, has been submitted to the administration of Harvard University. For some immediate relief of the crowded conditions for the housing of staff and collections, the Botanical Museum made some space available to the Museum of Comparative Zoology in exchange for space in the Agassiz Museum contiguous to the third floor of the Harvard University Herbaria building. Renovations should be completed in the next year and offer some relief primarily as office-laboratory space. for the loan of herbarium specimens, noted as greatRequests ly increased last year, continued at the increased rate. Such requests are filled with specimens from both the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium collections, and with cultivated specimens from Jamaica Plain when appropriate. From the several collections, 23,237 specimens were sent as 190 loans to 59 institutions in the United States, and to 33 institutions in 20 foreign countries. The outgoing loans averaged 122 specimens. For staff and student research, 7,007 species were borrowed as 96 loans from 36 institutions, and averaged 73 specimens. Student use accounted for 36% of the loans and 45% of the specimens. The additional help made possible by the grant also was applied to the wood and fruit collections. These are being upgraded by the removal of undocumented materials, while the collections retum - Friends of the Arnold Arboretum study offerings at annual away. Photo: G. plant give- Wadleigh 326 remaining are now placed in sealable plastic bags to reduce the danger of spillage and infestation, and to maintain cleanliness. The history of the wood collections has been compiled by Dr. Ralph Wetmore. While the Arboretum many years ago assumed responsibility for the collection through the work of Professor I.W. Bailey, it appears, on a legal basis, that the material was accumulated and maintained in the early years with funds from the Department of Biology and the Bussey Institution; and only later, the Arnold Arboretum. Resolution of the proper responsibility for the wood specimens has not been made. The space currently occupied by the collection in the Harvard University Herbaria building is more urgently needed, and the collection will be moved to new basement quarters in the Botanical Museum. The NSF grant will permit the acquisition of new slide holders to replace the old-style wooden boxes now in use, resulting in considerable compaction. The normal research activities of the staff were disrupted by the special demands of the Centennial year program. This is clearly reflected in the reduced bibliography of published papers. Schedules are returning to normal, and the following types of research activities are in progress: Floristic studies are the work of Dr. Howard on the Lesser Antilles; Dr. Hu on the Flora of Hong Kong and the New Territories; Dr. Nevling on the Flora of Veracruz, Mexico; and Dr. Wood and associates on a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. Monographs and other systematic studies were undertaken by Dr. Howard, who completed a treatment of the Piperaceae in the Lesser Antilles, and a study of Jacquin's Enumeratio; Dr. Robertson, who is completing a treatment of the Rosaceae for the Generic Flora project; and Dr. Schubert, who continues her studies of Dioscorea and Desmodium. Dr. Spongberg is working toward a revision of Rehder's Manual, with current emphasis on the Theaceae. Dr. Weaver is studying tropical Gentianaceae. Drs. Hartley and Perry have completed an enumeration and key to the species of Syzygium in Papua, New Guinea. The staff is supervising the studies of two students investigating Lonchocarpus and Portlandia. Library The curatorial grant from the National Science Foundation has permitted improvement in the facilities and care of the library collections. For Jamaica Plain used library stacks were purchased and painted by the grounds staff during the winter. The addition of nearly 3,000 running feet of shelving has al- 1 327 leviated crowded conditions and will permit expansion. In Cambridge the old steel card cabinets holding the general catalogue have been replaced with modern wood and plastic files, greatly increasing the convenience of use through smaller drawFile cabinets were added to the Torrey Card Index. The has been reorganized in a more pleasing and practical manner. A new compact table-top microfiche reader was obtained. The grant has also permitted an increase in the retrospective binding of old publications and periodicals. The holdings of the library of the Arnold Arboretum were increased by 1,296 items to a total of 81,909 catalogued volumes. Currently 637 periodicals are received by the Gray Herbarium and Arnold Arboretum, forming a truly excellent library for botanical and horticultural research. Additional microfiches of herbaria and books are purchased jointly, with the current holding comprising 9,222 microfiche cards. Books charged within the library totaled 4,579 during the year, with 1,338 volumes charged outside of the library. A survey of the use of the library in Cambridge over a period of several months revealed a ratio of 8-3-1 in use by staff, students, ers. reading room and visitors. Stephanne Sutton, Honorary Research Fellow, has completed biography of Joseph Rock, plant collector for the Arnold Arboretum for many years. A publisher is being sought for this manuscript. a Education The educational program of the Arnold Arboretum involves formal teaching at Harvard; participation in the guidance of graduate and undergraduate students; noncredit informal courses at the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and Weston which are attended by adults and students alike; many public lectures, radio and TV appearances; a publication program which includes our regular journals as well as newspaper and magazine articles not cited in staff bibliography; and many displays and exhibits. During the spring semester, Dr. Carroll Wood offered Biology 103, an elementary course in the taxonomy of vascular plants. Twenty-two regular students plus auditors made this the largest class in this subject in nearly two decades. He offered research courses Biology 96 and 91r to special students, and cooperated with Professor Tomlinson in teaching a summer school course in tropical botany which met for three weeks in Miami, and a following week in Cambridge. Dr. Howard pre- Arboretum staff members, Jack Link, Robert Hebb, and Gordon DeWolf, instruct class in practical horticulture. Photo: P. Bruns sented Biology 209, an advanced class in phylogeny and evolution of flowering plant families. Dr. Schubert and Dr. Wood were undergraduate student advisors for the Biology Department, and combined to conduct the botanical seminars held in Cambridge at the Herbaria building. Among the noncredit courses offered in Jamaica Plain and Weston, Dr. DeWolf offered plant biology for instructors, and two field courses in ornamental plants; Dr. Weaver taught courses in natural history and in plant identification; Mr. Hebb presented a course in basic gardening; and Drs. Wood and Howard repeated a course in economic botany called \"Botany in Boston's Restaurants\". Mrs. Derderian conducted workshops on bonsai; and numerous demonstrations of plant propagation were offered by Mr. Fordham to visiting classes and groups at the greenhouses. Among the special programs open to the public were open houses in Jamaica Plain and Weston with staff members on the grounds to answer questions; a special all-day symposium on \"Botanical and Horticultural Resources of Massachusetts\", with twelve organizations participating; instructors' tours of the collections in Jamaica Plain and Weston, particularly for elementary and high school teachers; and a vegetable gardening class limited to teachers and leaders of local community garden projects. For the N. E. Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the Arnold Arboretum, in cooperation with ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ARNOLDIA A publication of OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOLUME XXXIII 1973 PUBLISHED BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS 02I30 The index to Volume XXXIII begins on page 343. Contents of Volume XXXIII January\/February RICHARD s. COWAN - Number 1, The Herbarium As a Data Bank Ornamental Plant Introduction Building On the Past The Botanist and the Computer Plant Ailments Cambial Activity in Trees The Wood Collection What Should Be Its Future? Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation The History of Ornamental Horticulture in America - 3 13 26 37 46 JOHN L. CREECH GILBERT s. DANIELS PASCAL P. PIRONE LALIT M. SRIVASTAVA WILLIAM L. STERN 67 81 ' CARROLL E. wooD, JR. DONALD WYMAN 97 7 Number 2, March\/April 113 119 Cold Hardiness of Woody Plants JOHN R. HAVIS Plant Propagation The Union of Art and Science CHARLES E. HESS Arboreta, Genes and FRANK S. SANTAMOUR, JR. Plant Improvement Chromosome Cytology and Arboreta: OTTO T. SOLBRIG A Marriage of Convenience Horticultural Education Participants Louis B. MARTIN Warmly Invited The Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta WILLIAM c. STEERE and Botanical Gardens - 127 135 147 157 Number 3, May\/June 169 184 189 199 210 Francis Parkman as WALTER MUIR WHITEHILL Horticulturist GEORGE H. PRIDE Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' RICHARD E. WEAVER In Search of Tropical Gentians ROBERT s. HEBB Plant Registrations NANCY M. PAGE Tree Giveaway Community Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Memorial Gifts and Plantings Arnoldia Reviews Number 4, RICHARD A. HOWARD 213 216 July\/August 217 7 228 231 235 239 245 248 FRED LAPE The Decline of the Apple Some Afterthoughts on Apples JEANNE S. WADLEIGH The Ralph F. Perry Wood HARMONY C. SPONGBERG Collection ALFRED J. FORDHAM for Survival Struggle The Arboretum's Labels: A Valuable Teaching Aid JACK LINK News from the Arnold Arboretum Arnoldia Reviews Number 5, September\/October NANCY M. PAGE A Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree Cranberries The Last One Hundred Years Willow Oak ( Quercus phelLos ) A Fenway Jewel Arnoldia Reviews - 261 284 292 295 CHESTER E. CROSS : MARTHA DAHLEN Number 6, November\/December ALFRED J. FORDHAM The Director's Report Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Index to Volume XXXIII 309 341 343 Above: Arboretum's poisonous plants display at N. E. draws tnqutsitive viewers. Photo. P. Bruns Sprtng Flower Show Below: Mrs. Sheila Geary, Arboretum assistant librarian, dures to class of Volunteers. Photo: P. Bruns - explains proce- ~------- 330 the Botany Department of Wellesley College, offered an exhibit of potentially toxic or dangerous plants. Miss Bruns prepared large, colorful backdrops to illustrate many of the plants, and these have been used repeatedly in other exhibits. Material had to be forced for this display, and movies of many of the plants were made to be used in an educational film under preparation on the subject of poisonous plants. An exhibit of photographs of the work and collections of E. H. Wilson, prepared for the Centennial program, was requested for display elsewhere in smaller units, but the full exhibit was sent to Callaway Gardens, Pine Mountain, Georgia, for display in their educational rotunda. Miss Page organized two exhibits for Earth Day activities in Boston and Brookline a pruning display and a composting display, respectively; also, an exhibit of seeds and fruits of woody plants for the Boston Cityfair. During the Boston Fenway Garden Day, she assisted in an exhibit of propagation methods for cuttings of woody plants. Mr. Hebb supervised a display of woody ornamental plants for a Christmas Show sponsored by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Mrs. Geary prepared exhibits on the work of the Arnold Arboretum for display in the Lexington, Wellesley, and Milton public libraries; and an exhibit on roses, using books, specimens and embedded flowers of roses, for the Rose Society Show held at the Natick Mall. An exhibition of the painting and drawings of the late Joseph B. Martinson was held in the administration building, with an introductory lecture by Dr. Howard on the staff projects in Puerto Rico. An exhibit of color photographs by John F. Carter also attracted attention in the administration building during the spring. The Arboretum Centennial film was shown many times by staff and Volunteers to groups requesting it in the Boston area. During the spring it was shown on a regular schedule preceding the surrey rides around the grounds and it has been borrowed by many colleges, universities, botanical and horticultural clubs. Its most distant showing was in Colombia, South America, where the director of the botanical garden at Medellin prepared a tape in Spanish to accompany it when it was shown to local audiences. The film was entered in competition at the film festival of the American Horticultural Society at its annual conference, and was given the Society's Award of Merit. Requests for staff members as speakers at various horticultural meetings, and at colleges and universities, exceed our - ability to accept every invitation. Nevertheless, seven staff Davidia involucrata. Photo. P. Bruns 332 members spoke in 17 states and presented three lectures in Canada during the year. Various staff members attended the meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sciences in Minnesota and Massachusetts; the American Horticultural Society in Seattle, Washington; the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta annual meetings in Seattle, and Arcadia, California, and a regional meeting Washington, at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden; the United States Department of Agriculture open house in Beltsville, Maryland; a Systematic Symposium at the Missouri Botanic Garden; the International Propagators' meting in Hartford, Connecticut; the American Rhododendron Society meeting in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania; and the Linnaean Symposium at the Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation in Pittsburgh. The First Latin American and Fifth Mexican Botanical Congresses were held simultaneously in Mexico City, and were attended by Dr. Schubert and Dr. Nevling. Dr. Nevling represented the Arboretum in discussions of national systematic resources in Washington, D.C., and Claremont, California. He also attended a special Tropical Ecology workshop in Turriabla, Costa Rica. - Travel and Exploration The travels of the Arboretum staff may be for field work, meetings, or lectures, but each trip is an opportunity to make botanical observations, collect special materials for staff research, or obtain photographs useful in teaching. Dr. Hu spent eight months of the past year in Hong Kong. She offered courses in taxonomy and local flora at Chung Chi College, and involved the students in obtaining material for her work toward a flora of the area. Dr. Wood took two classes to Florida and preserved a considerable number of plant parts from which an artist can prepare illustrations supporting his work on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. Dr. Schubert attended a meeting in Mexico City, and visited adjacent areas as well as the state of Veracruz to find material of Dioscorea. Dr. Nevling continued his work on a flora of Veracruz which is supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. Dr. Gillis, a Research Fellow, visited several islands in the Bahamas, as well as the Turks and Caicos, seeking new collections and illustrative material for his research. A grant from the Atkins Fund was awarded to Dr. Weaver, enabling him to visit Venezuela and Colombia to collect tropical members of the gentian family. Mr. Pride had a vacation safari to Kenya 333 and Tanzania, acquiring useful pictures for his lecture prosome grams, and plant material. Dr. and Mrs. Spongberg traveled to South Carolina in the spring, and worked their way north, visiting botanical gardens, and making collections related to his work on a revision of Rehder's Manual. To increase the collection of lilac cultivars in the Arnold Arboretum, Mr. Hebb visited the Royal Botanical Gardens in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, where the newer European varieties are grown which we have been unable to obtain directly from Europe. Research Fellows A small portion of the income from the Mercer Fund of the Arnold Arboretum has been designated each year to permit the support of qualified persons to visit the Arnold Arboretum for study and experience. A graduate student from Mexico, Mario Sousa-Sanchez, has been supported in his studies of the genus Lonchocarpus, using both the herbarium and the greenhouses. Harmony Clement Spongberg received a renewal fellowship to investigate the nature of botanical and horticultural teaching in the Boston area and determine the role the Arnold Arboretum should or could play James Wolpert, a graduate of Purdue University, received a fellowship to learn more about arboretum activities and management problems. Martha Dahlen, an undergraduate at Purdue, received summer assistance to learn herbarium techniques. A gift to the Arnold Arboretum from an anonymous donor carried the wish that the fund be used for the study of the flora of the Bahama Islands. Dr. William Gillis was awarded a research fellowship to enable him to pursue his studies in that area, using the extensive collections in the Arboretum herbarium. The number of applications far exceeds our ability to support or to house the many candidates with excellent recommendations. The fundamental idea behind the fellowship is to permit the recipients to use our collections of books, specimens, and living plants to increase their knowledge of an arboretum and its activities through close association with staff members. Volunteers During 1972, fered an a pare the Centennial Year, the Arboretum staff ofinstructional program of 13 weeks' duration to pregroup of volunteer men and women to help the Arbo- Mrs. Lowell Trowbridge, nxenxber of Volunteers, at work houses. Photo: P. Bruns retum zn Da~za Green- staff with the Centennial program. Mrs. Paul Wechsler gave a great deal of time and thought to the coordination of the training program, and then to the utilization of these people and their varied talents during the year. A second program was conducted in the fall for a new group. The staff is extremely grateful for the dedicated, efficient, and most helpful role the Volunteers have played in many aspects of the activities of the Arboretum. They have helped staff the building, answer the telephone, lead guided tours, work in the greenhouse, type, collect and dry herbarium specimens. They have assisted in the library, and have helped renovate the special collections on the Case Estates, take inventories, organize photographic files, prepare labels, prepare displays, answer questions at the flower shows, check computer printouts, search records of books for information, and dissect and draw for staff research projects; and have been useful in many unexpected ways. Several Volunteers under staff guidance collected on a regular basis from the living collections a total of 522 numbers and 1,567 specimens which can be used for exchange. One talent worthy of special mention is that of Mrs. Frank Magullion, who has perfected a technique of drying flowers and embedding them in blocks of clear plastic. The results 335 beautiful and useful. The blocks are on display at the adbuilding, and have been used in classes taught by the staff. To all of the Volunteers the staff, collectively, expresses its appreciation for the help it has received. are ministration Gifts and Grants The income from the endowment of the Arnold Arboretum and from the special Mercer Trust covers only 75% of the expenditures of the organization. Gifts and grants make up the difference, and offer the only means of meeting the inflation of costs in the present economy without reducing the activities and number of the staff. We are most grateful for the repeated annual gifts from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Facing rising costs in all aspects of our work, we will request an increase in the basic contribution of a Friend from ten to fifteen dollars in 1974. A Friend receives six copies of Arnoldia, miscellaneous mailings offering classes, lectures, tours and demonstrations, and an annual offering of surplus plants from our nurseries. The cost of these benefits leaves only four dollars, the equivalent of one hour of average labor on the grounds, from a ten-dollar gift. We believe the Friends mean to support the work of the Arnold Arboretum by their membership and gifts. The increase proposed will assist a very great deal. Memorial gifts have been offered to the Arboretum on many occasions, and are gratefully received. Such gifts are acknowledged and recorded in our files according to the donor's wish. A gift fund for special purposes may be established; a plant on the grounds may be marked with an appropriate small metal embossed label; or a bookplate, indicating the donor and the one memorialized, may be placed in a library volume. Memorial gifts were received in the names of Peter K. Boshco, Joseph Alexander Boyer, Dorothy Paine Brayton, Helen Barnet Gring, Mrs. Lillian Cassat Smith, and Mrs. Florence Dorward Wyman. Grants in support of travel were received from the Atkins an anonymous donor. National Science Foundation grants support curatorial activities as well as projects on the flora of Southeastern United States and Veracruz, Mexico. An anonymous gift permits special work toward a revision of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. A grant from the Tozier Fund (Harvard University) was made to Dr. Howard to develop illustrative teaching aids for an advanced taxonomy class. A gift from the Rare Plant Group of the Garden Fund and Cornus florida. Photo: P. Bruns Club of America was presented in recognition of the willingness of the Arboretum staff to share rare plant materials. Generous gifts of plant materials were received from the Mitch Nurseries, the Monrovia Nurseries, and the Simpson Orchard Company. These often were Arboretum plant orders filled without charge. Many other companies offered generous discounts which also were appreciated. Individuals have donated books to the Arboretum during the year. These often have been additions to our collections, duplicates needed to reduce the wear of present holdings, or surplus to our needs which can be used in exchange. Gifts of library volumes, gratefully acknowledged, were from Mrs. Konrad Braun, G. Buchheim, Jay Fritz, Augustus Kelley, Merle Myerson, James H. Wilder, and Mrs. John Wind. Many publishing companies have sent books for the library with the request that they be reviewed. Such reviews are published in Arnoldia when the staff feels the volume is of interest to the Friends and subscribers to Arnoldia. We are grateful for these further marks of generosity to the Arnold Arboretum. 337 Publications The regular four issues of the Journal of the Arnold Arboreand six issues of Arnoldia were published during the fiscal year. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, edited by Dr. Bernice Schubert, comprised 638 pages with 27 articles by 33 authors. A new decorative cover, of Ginkgo biloba, was prepared for Volume 54 by Karen S. Velmure. Ms. Ellen Bernstein, Editorial Assistant, compiled and prepared an index to authors and titles of articles published in the first fifty volumes. Dr. Schubert prepared a short history of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum as an introduction. Publication is scheduled for the summer of 1973. Arnoldia was edited by Mrs. Jeanne Wadleigh, with artistic and layout help from Miss Pamela Bruns. The six issues comprised 371 pages, including 243 pages devoted to the botanical and horticultural Centennial symposium lectures. These lectures also were bound separately for future distribution. tum RICHARD A. HOWARD 338 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum 1972-1973 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology and Director Karl Sax, S D , Professor of Botany, Emeritus Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus Ellen Bernstein, M.A., Editorial Assistant * Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Director of Arnoldia Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collections t Constance Elizabeth Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Sheila Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant t Patricia Dick Hall, M.S., Librarian t Ida Hay, B.A., Herbarium Assistant Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Jack Link, B.S., Curatorial Assistant Lorin Ives Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Coordinator of Systematic * Botanical Collections ~` Nancy Markham Page, B.A., Coordinator for Community Activities George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth R. Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Honorary Research Fellow Karen S. Velmure, B.A , Botanical Illustrator Jeanne S Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Arnoldia Richard E. Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Professor of Biology ~`~` \" Resigned July 15, 1973 Resigned June 30, 1973 t Appomted jointly with the Gray $ Deceased October 8, 1973 Herbarium I 339 Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff, 30, 1973 July 1, 1972 - June DeWolf, G P., (with R. J. Favretti), Colonial Gardens Barre Press, Barre, Mass., pp. 163, illus. 1972. Godine ---, (with woodcuts by J. Hnizdovsky), Flora Exotica. Press, Boston. pp. 160. 1972. Ras~ ~,trauon of cultmar names, A A.B G.A Bulletin 7. 401973. Fordham, A. J., Canadian hemlock variants and their propagation. Internat. Pl. Prop. Combined Proc. 21: 470-476. 1971. 160---, A simple frame for softwood propagation. Arnoldia 32: 164. 1972. ---, Arnold Arboretum weather station data, 1971. Arnoldia 32: 289. 1972. Magnolta 'Freeman' at the Arnold Arboretum - its hardiness and propagation. Newsletter, Amer. Magnolia Soc. 8. 6. 1972. ---, Variation in Canadian hemlock. Amer. Nurseryman 137(2). 10-11, 101-104. 1973. ---, A simple frame for softwood propagation (with an addition by the author). Bonsai 7(10): 12-13. 1973. Plants and Gar---, A simple frame for softwood propagation. dens 28(4): 49-51. 1973. Horticulture 51 ( 5 ) : 42, 43, 53. 1973. -, Layering. Amer. Hor-, Late summer injury of Korean rhododendron. ticulturist 52. 31-37. 1973 Hartley, T. G., (with L. M. Perry), A provisional key and enumeration of species of Syzygium (Myrtaceae) from Papuasia. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54: 160-227. 1973. Hebb, R. S., Plant registration. Arnoldia 32: 277-287. 1972. 33: 199-209. 1973. 47-54. 1973 ---, Plant registration, A.A.B.G A. Bulletin 7 Howard, R A., The director's report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1972. Arnoldia 32: 249-276. 1972. ---, Notes on Tibouchina and Charianthus (Melastomataceae) in the Lesser Antilles. Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 399-402. 1972. Arnoldia 33. 213-215. 1973. ---, Memorial gifts and plantings. Hu, S. Y., Floristic studies in Hong Kong. Chung Chi Journ. 11: 125. 1972. -, Terminology for modern plant taxonomy with Chinese equivalents. Dept. Biology, Chung Chi College, Hong Kong. 81 pp. 1972 of Hong ---, A preliminary enumeration of the vascular plants Kong and the New Territories. Board of Studies in Biology, Chinese Univ., Hong Kong. ii, 100 pp., indices. 1972. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. ---, The Orchidaceae of China, III. 25: 41-68. 1972. IV., Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 25: 199-230. 1972. V., Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 26: 131-165. 1973. Page, N., Community tree giveaway. Arnoldia 33. 210-212. 1973. ---, 45. --- 340 L. M., (with T. G. Hartley), A provisional key and enumeration of species of Syzygium (Myrtaceae) from Papuasia. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54: 160-227. 1973. Powell, D., The Botanic Garden, Liguanea (with a revision of Hortus Eastensis). Bull. Inst. Jam. Sci. Ser. 15: 5-94. 1972. Pride, G. H., Thoughts at six-thirty in the morning. Region 4 Bulletin, Amer. Hemerocallis Soc. Fall, 1972. Arnoldia ---, Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and its mutants.. 33: 184-188. 1973. Robertson, K. R , The Krameriaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 54: 322-327. 1973. Roca-Garcia, H., Arnoldia in the kitchen (Tilia) Arnoldia 32: 166167. 1972. Schubert, B. G., Aspects of taxonomy in the genus Dioscorea. Publ. Esp. Inst. Nal. Invest. For. Mexico 8: 31-42. 1972. Spongberg, S. A., The genera of the Saxifragaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arb. 53: 409-498. 1972. Rho---, A new Alaskan species of Erigeron L. (Compositae). dora 75: 116-119. 1973. Weaver, R. E., Jr., The genus Macrocarpaea (Gentianaceae) in Costa Rica. Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 553-557. 1972. Arnoldia 33. 189-198. 1973. ---, In search of tropical gentians. Wood, C. E., Jr., Eastern North American plants in cultivation. Arnoldia 33: 81-96. 1973. ---, Morphology and phytogeography: the classical approach to the study of disjunctions. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 59: 107124. 1973. Wyman, D., The history of ornamental horticulture in America. Arnoldia 33: 97-112. 1973. Perry, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":341,"end_page":342,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24622","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eb76b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":6,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum The weather during 1972 was characterized by overcast skies and abnormal precipitation. Observations at the National Weather Service, Logan International Airport, show total pre10.21 inches above normal. Avercipitation of 53.11 inches age precipitation for Boston is 42.77 inches. Precipitation at the Arboretum during 1972 was 60.85; thereby exceeding the Boston average by 18.08 inches. It is not unusual for weather data at the Arnold Arboretum to differ widely from those at the Boston Weather Station, particularly during periods of sum- mer storms. The following table, however, shows a year when precipitation at the Arboretum exceeded that at the Logan Airport during each month; these two weather stations are seven miles apart. COMPARATIVE MONTHLY PRECIPITATION TOTALS 1972 Weather Station Logan Airport January Arnold Arboretum Weather Station 2.35 5.82 6.22 3.62 5.28 7.17 3.87 1.16 7.12 3.33 7.80 7.11 February March April May June July August September October November December 2.05 5.29 5.37 3.34 5.26 6.76 2.18 0.83 5.94 2.98 7.72 6.02 53.11 1 Total Inches: 60.85 Boston's record for the least amount of sunshine in any year toppled in 1972. A total of 2250 hours (about 50% of that possible) was observed. This was the least sunshine recorded in any year since records were first started in 1893. December 341 342 I low record for sunshine with 21 % of the potential. a set a new total of 59.9 hours, or only ARNOLD ARBORETUM WEATHER STATION DATA Average temperature for 1972: 49.1 Precipitation for 1972: 60-85 inches Snowfall during winter 1971-1972: 54.5 inches Warmest temperature: 97 on July 13, 1972 Coldest temperature : -1 ~ on January 17 and February Date of last frost in spring: April 27, 1972 Date of first frost in autumn: October 10, 1972 Growing season for 1972 was 165 days * 23, 1972 The growing season is defined as the number of Growing season days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. ALFRED J. FORDHAM ~~ - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXXIII","article_sequence":3,"start_page":343,"end_page":349,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24621","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eb726.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":6,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Index to Volume XXXIII Illustrations Accession numbering system, 240 Acer japonicum 'Aconitifolium', 200 'Green Cascade', 200 nihoeuse, 16 - are in bold face. Beattie, R. Kent, 15 Beech, European, 202, 203 -- palmatum - 'Burgundy Lace', Flame', 200 'Crimson King', 200 --`Sherwood platanoides 200 2014 2014 'Crimson Sentry', 200 Aesculus hippocastanum, 107 - parviflora var. serotina 'Roggers', 199 Agassiz School, 313, 314 Agave, 137 Air pollution, 162 Alhum schoenophrasum, 254 American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta, 311 Andes mountains, 192-196, 193 Aneuploidy, 137, 138 I Anthracnose, 11 Apples, 217-230 Aquilegia, 245, 259 Arboreta, Genes and Plant Improvement, Frank S. Santamour, Jr., 127-134 Arboretum's Labels. A Valuable Befaria, 192 Benlate, 41 Berlin-Dahlem, Royal Botanical Garden, 161 Bidens, 192 Bookplate, Memorial, 215 Boletus viscidus, 304 Bomarea, 192 Borage, 255 Borago ofj'zcinalzs, 255 Boston Poison Center, 312 Schools, survey, 314 Botanical Congress, First Latin - American and Fifth Mexican, 332 Botanist and the Computer, The, Gilbert S Daniels, 26-36 Breeding, woody plants, 127-134 Britton, Elizabeth Gertrude, 159 Boertjes, Dr C., 186 Brooklyn Botanic Garden, 160 Brown, Harry P., 71-72, 78 Brunnera ~nacrophylla, 258 Buckeye, Late Bottlebrush, 199 Bussey Institutions, 176 Cambial Activity in Trees, Lalit M Srivastava, 46-66 Canker worm, 318 Cary Arboretum, 45 Case Estates, 322 Castanea crenata, 15 5 dentata, 40, 83 5 mollzsima, 15 Catalpa bignonioides, 107 Centennial Film, 330 - Teaching Aid, The, Jack Link, 239-244 Arborvitae, Eastern, 208 Arceuthobium, 58 Arnold Arboretum Achievement Award, 314 Ash dieback, 43 - Aster, 192 Azaleas, Glenn Dale, 15 - Bailey, Irving W., 75, 78 Bark formation, 46-66 Barro Colorado Island, 190 Basil, Sweet, 21 - Year, 309 Cerastium, 192 Ceratocystis fagacearum, 42 ulmi, 40, 44, 83 Chelonanthus alatus, 196, 197 343 344 Chemical - injury to plants, 38-39 Jewel, 292-294 5 Chestnut, 15 American, 83 Damping-off, -, 119 9 35 Botanist 26-36 Daniels, Gilbert S., The 15-25 blight, 40 China, plant exploration, - and The Computer, Chives, 254 and Arboreta : A Marriage of Convenience, Otto T. Solbrig, 135146 Cider making, 228-230 City gardening, 128, 148, 210 Chromosome Cytology Data-control systems, 3-12, 2636 Davidia involucrata, 331 Decline of the Apple, The, Fred Lape, 217-227 Diseases of plants, 37-45 Dodder, 43, 58 Claytonia megarhaza, Cold Hardiness of 252 Dogwood, 91, 201, 202, 272, 273, 277 Woody Plants, Nancy M. John R Havis, 113-118 1 Community service, 311 - Tree Draba, 192 Dutch elm disease, 40-42 Dwarf conifer collection, 318 Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation, Carroll E. Wood, 81-96 Echeveria lauguaefolia, 295 Education, horticultural, 147155 Elderberry, 47 Elfin forest, 195 Elliottia racemosa, 95 Elm, American, 40-42, 83 -, European, 83 -, hybrids, 44 Endothia parasitica, 40, 83 Erwinia amylovora, 37 Espletias, 192 Espeletia schultzii, 193 Exhibits, 330 Exploration for plants, 13-25 Giveaway, Page, 210-212, 211 Computer, botanical applica- tions, 3-11, 26-36 Conservation of species, 82 Container planting, 115, 261-283 Cooper, A. S., 15 Cornus florida, 336 'Rainbow', 201 -- `Welchii', 202 kousa 'Summer Stars', 202 1 nuttallii, 91 Cowan, Richard S., 11 , The Herbarium As a Data 2 Bank, 3-12 Crabapple, Parkman, 174 Last One Cranberries - The Hundred Years, Chester E. Cross, 284-291 Cranberry, 284, 289 Cranberry bog, 289 Creech, John L., 25 Ornamental Plant Intro, duction - Building on the Past, 13-25 Cross, Chester, E., Cranberries - The Last One Hundred Years, 284-291 Cryptogamic botanists, 158-168 Cryptogams, 157-168 Cuscuta, 43, 58 Cuttings, rooting, 120-123 Cytzsus scoparius, 99, 101 Cytology, 135-146 - Fagus 203 -- sylvatica 'Atropunicea', -- -- `Dawyck Gold', 202 3 'Dawyck Purple', 203 'Fastigata', 203 - 'Rohan Gold', 203 --`Rohanii', 203 'Zlatia', 203 Fairchild, David, 16, 18 8 Farrer, Reginald, 14, 15, 18 Faull, J Horace, 43 -- Fire-blight, 37 Flora of North America 9, 10 Program, Survival, Fordham, Alfred J., 43 Dahlen, Martha, Willow Oak (Quercus phellos ) : A Fenway --, Struggle for 235-238 345 Weather Station Data, 342 Forest Products Laboratory, U S., 73 Forrest, George, 14, 15, 18 Francis Parkman as Horticulturist, Walter Muir Whitehill, 169-183 Franklin, H. J., 285 Franklinia alatamaha, 83, 84 Fraxinus amencana, 43 - pennsylvanica var. lanceolata 'Honey Shade', 204 Friends of the arboretum, 245 Frost m~ury prevention, cranberries, 287 201420142014, Hedera helix, 122 209 Hemlock, Canadian, 208, Henry, Augustine, 16 Henry Foundation for Botanical Henry, 92 Research, 88 Mrs. J. Norman, 88, 91, Herbarium As a Data-Bank, The, Richard S. Cowan, 3-12 Hess, Charles E., 125 Plant Propagation - The , Union of Art and Science, 119-125 Hesse Herbarium, 325 History of Ornamental Horticuculture in America, The, Donald Wyman, 97-112 Garden clubs, history, 104 Genetic resources, 23 Genetics, woody plants, 127-134 Gentiana sedlfolia, 191, 192 Gentianella, 193, 198 , Holly, 24 Honeylocusts, 265 Hooker, Sir Joseph D., 256 Sirs Joseph and William, 160 Horticultural - nevadensis, 191, Gentians, 189-198 193 Education - Par- ticipants Warmly Invited, Gifts and grants, 335 Gifts, memorial, 213 Girdled roots, 275 Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis 'Emerald Lace', 204 Gloriosa daisy, 89 Gonolobus obliquus, 307 Grain of wood, 59 Green Committee, 315 Growth rings, eccentric, 58 Guide to Selecting a Strong and M Louis B. Martin, 147-155 Horticultural societies, 99-112 Howard, Richard A., Memorial Gifts and Plantings, 213-215 Director's Report, 309201420142014, 337 Ilex centrochinensis, 24 - ciliospinosa, cornuta, 24 24 15 5 - --`Rotunda', - crenata, 24 Healthy Young Tree, A, Nancy Page, 261-283 - longipes, 87 Impatiens, 22 In Search of Tropical Gentians, Richard E. Weaver, 189 Information storage and retrieval, 3-12, 26-36 Insecticides, 288-291 International Lilac Society, 311 Introduction of plants, 13-25 Irwin, Howard S., 2 - Halenia, 192, 198 asclepiadea, 198 deflexa, 195 Halesia monticola, 87 Hall, George B., 174 Hamamelis vernalis, 86 - Hardiness in 118 -, woody plants, 117 113- Havis, John R., Jamaica Pond, 172-182 JefFerson, Thomas, 99 Cold Hardiness in Woody Juniper blight, -- 318 205 Plants, 113-118 Hawthorn, 269 Hebb, Robert S., Plant Registrations, 199-209 Juniperus 'Hermit', horizontalis, 205 'Livingston', 205 - virginiana, 205 346 I Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 174, 175, 180 Memorial Gifts and Plantings, Richard A. Howard, 213-215 Mercer Fellows, 333 Meristematic activity, 46-66 Kalmia latifolia, 102 Kew Royal Botanic Garden, 160161 Komarov Botanical Garden, 161 Labels in the arboretum, 214, 239-244 Lagenanthus prmceps, No. 3, cover 1, 196, 198 Lape, Fred, The Decline of the Apple, Layering, 217-227 123 Metaseguoia glyptostroboides 'National', 19 Meyer, Frank, 14, 15, 17, 20 Mills, Ralph, 15 Millspaugh, Charles F., 67-68 Leichtlin, Max, 178, 180 Lespedeza stipulacea, 15 Leucobryum, 157 Lichens, 162, No. 5, cover 1 Lilies, hybridization, 174-182 -, oriental, 315 Lilium, 260 - deficiency, 38 Missouri Botanical Garden, 160 Mist system for propagation, 124 Mistletoe, 58 Morrison, B. Y., 20 Morus alba multicaulis, 106 -- `Pendula', 111 Mosses, 157, 162 Native American plants in cultivation, 81-96 N. E. Spring Flower Show, 312, 328 New York Botanical Garden, 158-159 Norweb, R. Henry, 2 Nursery industry, 99, 103, 110 Nursery practice, 261-283 Mineral auratum, 174, 178 - - - giganteum, 179 hansoni, 178 parkmanni, 174, 178 - polyphyllum, 178 - specaosum, 178 thunbergianum, 179 Linden, Littleleaf, 208 Link, Jack, The Arboretum's - La- A Valuable Aid, 239-244 Linnaeus, 300 bels : Teaching Lisianthus, 189, 197, 198 - longifohus, 190, 196 - nagrescens, 189, 196, 197, Litter, 311, 317 198 Oak, Pin, 294 -, Red, 294 -, Willow, 291, -, wilt, 42 292-294 Longwood-Agricultural Research Service Program, 15, 22, 24 Lonacera, 141 Lupinus, 192 - Macrocarpaea, 195 pachyphylla, 195 Magnolia ashei, 90 soulangea~aa 'Brozzoni', virginiana, 306 - Ocimum basilicum 'Dark Opal', 21 Olmsted parkway, 181 Sesquicentennial, 309 Orchard at Old Sturbridge Village, 230 Ornamental Plant Introduction Building On The Past, John L. Creech, 13-25 Oxalis, 192 - 243 Maple, Japanese, 200 -, Norway, 200, 278, 279 -, Silver, 1 - 276 155 Page, Nancy M., A Guide to Selecting A Strong and Healthy Young Tree, 261-283 , Community Tree Giveaway, 210-212 Martin, Louis B., Horticultural Participants Education Warmly In- Paramo, 192, 193 Parasitic plants on trees, 58 171 vited, 147-155 Parkman, Francis, 169-183, 347 , Home, 172, 183 Raven, Peter H., 2 Pathology, 37-45 Pests, plant, 37-45 Perry, Ralph F., 231 -, Record, Samuel J. 68, 69, 78 Registrations, plant, 199-209 Review, Capability Brown and 231- Wood Collection, 234 Phloem, 46-66 Phloem necrosis, 42 PhoradendTon, 58 Pine, Monterey, 206 Pinus bungeana, 241 - radiata 'El Dorado', 206 - stem, 49, 50, 52 Pirone, Pascal P., 45 -, Plant Ailments, 37-45 Plant Ailments, Pascal P. Pirone, 37-45 - Humphrey Repton, Edward Hyams, 302 -, The Compleat Naturalist, , Wilfrid Blunt, 300-301 The Complete Book of Flower Preservation, Geneal Condon, 299 -, The Country Garden, Josephine Nuese, 305 , Early Gardening Catalogues, John Harvey, 297 , Echeveria, Eric Walther, 295-296 , - - - Union of Art and Science, Charles E. Hess, 119-125 Records Center, 319 Registrations, Robert S. Hebb, 199-209 societies, 104 Poisonous plants, 312 Pollutants, air, 39 Polyploidy, 137 Populus, stem section, 63 Propagation - The Everybody's Ecology, Glay Schoenfeld, 251 , Exotic Mushrooms, Henri Romagneis, Ed., 304 , Pride, George H., Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph', 119-125 and Its Mutants, 184-188, 185 Privet, 'Cheyenne', 21 Propagation, 121 Prunus - chamber, polyethylene plastic, caroliniana 'Crisfield Dwarf', 206 Puccinia graminis, 44 Pulmonaria saccharata, Purdieanthus 259 pulcher, 196 Pyrus calleryana 'Bradford', Quarantine, plant, etto 20 22 frain'Macon', 207 - phellos, 291, 292-294 - pontica X dentata 'Pondaim', 207 Quercus macranthera X Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection, The, Harmony C. Spongberg, 231-234 Ferns and Palms for Interior Decoration, Jack Kramer, 308 of the Galapagos , Flora Islands, Ira L Wiggins and Duncan M. Porter, 250 of the Canyon , Flowers Country, Stanley L. Welsh, 257 Environments in , Forest Tropical Life Zones, L. R. Holdridge et al, 298-299 , A Gardener's Guide to Plant Names, B. J. Healey, 303 With Herbs , Gardening for Flavor and Fragrance, Helen Morgenthau Fox, 254 Handbook of , Herbicide the Weed Society of America, George E. Barrier, 256 Banister and His , John Natural History of Virginia, 1678-1692, Joseph and Nesta Ewan, 306-307 , Native Flora of the Golden Isles, Gladys Fendig and Esther Stewart, 249 -, The Naturalists' Directory, PCL Publications, Inc., 297 -, Plant Jewels of the High Country, Helen E. Payne, 253 348 for Man, Robert 248 Dahl, A Revision of B. E. gren's Index of American Palms, Sidney F. Glassman, 303 , Rocky Mountain Flora, A. Weber, 252 , The Southern Garden, Ben Arthur Davis, 305 , Trees, Shrubs and Vines, Arthur T. Viertel, 256 Wealth, Paul B. , Wild Sears, 216 , Plants Seed dispersal, 235 W. Schery, Senecto, 192 Shade trees, 261-283 Solbrig, Otto T., 144 Chromosome -, Cytology and Arboreta: A Marriage of Convenience, 135-146 Some Afterthoughts on Apples, Jeanne S. Wadleigh, 228-230 Sparks, Jared, 170, 172 Spongberg, Harmony C., The Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection, 231-234 Spooner, William H., 174 Srivastava, Lalit M., 65 , Cambial Activity in Trees, 46-66 Steere, William C., 163 -, The Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gar- William , Your City Garden, Jack Kramer, 305 , Zander der Handworterbuch Fritz Pflanzennamen, Gunther Encke, 308 Buchheim, Seigmund Rhodobryum, Seybold 157 (Eds.), Rhododendron 'Boule de Niege', 116 - carolinianum 'P.J.M.', 116 catawbiense 'Grandiflorum', 116 kaempferi, 16 - dens, 157-168 Stern, William L., 80 - speczosum, 87 Robinza 52 pseudoacacia, cambium, Rock, Joseph, 18 Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gardens, The, William C. Steere, 157-168 Rollins, Reed C., 2 Root balls, 266, 268, 269, 276 6 - hardmess, 115, 116 initiation, 123 tolerance of temperature, 238, 266-268 Roses, 174-182 Rudbeckia serotina, 89 - - Salix babylonica, 108 Santamour, Frank S., 134 Arboreta, Genes 1 The Wood Collection Should Be Its Future?, 67-80 Stewartza malachodendron, 93 Sturbridge Village Preservation Orchard, 230 Streptocarpus 'Blue Nymph', 184 186 -'Cobalt Nymph', 184, 187 - `Constant Nymph' and Its Mutants, George H. Pride, 184-188, 185 johannis, 184 'Maassen's White', 187 -'Merton Blue', 184 - `Mini Nymph', 184, 187 - `Netta Nymph', 184, 187 propagation, 185 - `Purple Nymph', 184, 187 Struggle for Survival, Alfred J. Fordham, 235-238 Surrey rides, 310 Symbolanthus, 196, 198 tricolor, 194 What - - - and Plant Improvement, 127-134 Sargent, Charles S., 16, 177, 178 Sarracenia flava, 249 Scaphoideus luteolus, 42 Scolytus multistriatus, 40 Taraxacum cover 1 of~ZCinale No. 2, Taxonomy, numerical, 26-36 1'huja occidentalis \"Ellwangeriana Aurea Nana', 208 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23525","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070bb6e.jpg","title":"1973-33-6","volume":33,"issue_number":6,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree","article_sequence":1,"start_page":261,"end_page":283,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24617","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eab6b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":5,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Page, Nancy M.","article_content":"A Guide to Selecting a Strong and Healthy Young Tree a tree is logically the various stresses of its lifelong growing conditions: related stem, leafy branches and roots are molded to forms which will best suit the tree's performance in a particular landscape, whether to reach up high for a woodland's diminished sunlight, or to spread out wide into the abundant sunlight and space of an open field. In a nursery, the basic structural form of a tree is artificially molded by a set of growing practices. Its strength and health and beauty are largely a product of the grower's sensitivity and expertise: how wide he makes his rows and spaces his plants, how frequently he root-prunes or transplants them, how sensitively he trains them, how they are stored and marketed. His techniques may produce a tree far more suited to be grown as a specimen in the average landscape than a tree one would be likely to find in the wild; or they may inadvertently produce a tree which is a structural failure. The long-range significance of some growing techniques has not been well understood. For instance, research at the University of California at Davis in recent years has demonstrated that the natural capacity of young seedling trees to support themselves even in a high wind can be undermined by severely crowded conditions, or the drastic pruning and staking practiced by some growers. Modifications of the tree's canopy and trunk structure may create an individual which is actually unable to support itself upright when moved out into the landscape (6, 7). Similarly, modifications of a tree's root system through container line production may create permanent structural defects rarely found out in the wild. Such deformities as these underscore why trees are such a particularly vulnerable form of merchandise; not primarily because they may not have survived poor handling or growing conditions (living things are remarkably adept at finding ways In the wild, the basic structural form of to ' 261 A tree may be inadvertently modified by growing practices in such a way that it actually can no longer support itself upright, such as this young Tupelo. 263 adjust to the most adverse conditions), but because their structural quality and vigor may have been critically diminished through the struggle to survive. And, unfortunately, this kind of damage is not always immediately perceptible. It is of particular significance with trees, over smaller and shorter-lived plant material, because what initially may be considered a minor structural handicap may become a major structural flaw in time. As a tree matures, the sheer massiveness of its upright bulk generates enormous stresses on every part of its framework. To hold together, and meet the force of environmental stresses successfully, this framework must be strong and healthy. to The at stem. According to research at the University of California Davis, trunks tapering uniformly from base to tip can withstand greater stress from wind and vandals than trunks with little or no taper. While a tapered trunk tends to bend uniformly along its entire length, a trunk with little or no taper bends from more susceptible to deformation or breakage. Crowding or rigidly staking a tree tends to suppress the normal outward growth of its trunk and the normal trunk taper, while increasing its height (4, 5, 6, 7). * The relationship between the trunk diameter (or \"caliper\")* and height of a tree is one of the most visible indications of the environment it has come from and the quality of a grower's the base and is cultural practices. Trees grown in crowded rows bear the same features as woodland trees: trunks are tall and narrow, branching is concentrated up high towards the only available source of light with lower branches dead or dying from lack of light. Trees which have grown particularly fast from being overwatered and over-fertilized also tend to be taller and lankier than average, but branching is more widely and evenly distributed along the trunk. Those which have grown slowly due to poor soil conditions, girdling roots, or an extremely exposed site tend to have the form characteristic of dwarfed plants: branches and trunk are short and stout, branching is concentrated densely along the stem. While caliper or height is usually the governing measurement for categorizing the size of a tree, the relationship between height and caliper is so greatly variable that referring to stock * Caliper of trunk is measured 6 including, 4-inch caliper size; 12 inches above inches above ground ground level up to, and for larger sizes. 264 solely by one characteristic or the other gives an unreliable indication of the plant's actual size and age. Accordingly, the American Association of Nurserymen has developed standards useful for indicating a \"normal\" relationship between key characteristics of several different types of trees. For instance, shade trees are expected to have a rather broad, but definite correlation between height and caliper. Smaller growing trees are expected to have a correlation between number of branches and height, or among height, caliper and number of branches (see Tables I-III). The canopy Branching is characteristic of a particular kind of tree and a given site. But in almost all cases the growing tip of a tree should be limited to one dominant ascending shoot (or 'leader\"), because trees with multiple leaders lose upward growth. Double leaders are apt to have a their directed narrow angle of attachment to the trunk, and as branches form on one side only of each leader and greater pressure is exerted on this weak point of attachment, the tree may eventually split in two. The proper height above ground of the first permanent branches depends largely on personal taste, the type of tree, and the landscape use it will be put to; and may vary from only a few inches to many feet. But note that the height of a branch will always stay fixed at exactly the same distance from the ground (except for its thickening); in other words, branches do not grow up as the trunk elongates. There has been a tendency to train a young tree's branches disproportionately high up for its size, particularly in the case of street trees. If a high branching specimen is required, it should be trained gradually. At least some temporary branches should be left on the stem as these branches will both protect and nourish the young trunk, contributing measurably to its caliper growth and taper. As a result of their findings at Davis, Richard W. Harris and Andrew T. Leiser recommend that one-half or more of the foliage or one-year-old wood be left on the lower two-thirds of the trunk, and half or less on the upper third of the trunk. Besides contributing to the proper growth of the trunk, this distribution will center the wind load acting on a tree at a mechanically desirable point at about two-thirds its total height (6). If the tree is old enough to have formed permanent branches, their vertical and radial distribution up the trunk should be carefully noted. The major scaffold branches of a tree are best Overcrowdmg has produced extreme attenuation of form in 18 ft. tall, 13\/4 in. caliper Honeylocusts growing a scant 2V2 ft. apart in the row. Note concentration of canopy towards upper one-third of trunk, narrow stem girth in relation to height, dying lower branches. A height of about 10 to 12 ft. would be normal for the caliper of these trees. 266 distributed symmetrically up the trunk in a configuration that avoids competition for nutrients and light. At least 8 inches and preferably 11\/2 to 2 feet should be allowed vertically between major scaffold branches; many mature branches lie 4 to 12 feet apart vertically. As a tree matures, closely spaced branches may break more easily than those with wide spacing because close spacing encourages long thin branches to develop with little structural strength (4). All permanent branches should be attached widely to the trunk, as narrow angles of attachment are weaker and are apt to split with increasing stress as the tree grows. If a tree has lost its leader, undesirable whorls of branches shortly spaced apart may be formed. Branches lying directly over each other are considered undesirable because they must compete for nutrients and water, and the lower branch is shaded. Two or more vigorous branches at or near the same level of trunk are apt to suppress the leader and limbs growing above. Crossing branches, or branches growing vigorously upright in an otherwise horizontally branching tree will have to be removed to avoid interference. Roots. particularly vital relationship exists between mechanical and nutritional interthe roots and aerial portions of a tree. But an imbalance between roots and canopy is not uncommon in greenhouse and container production when plants are subjected to an overly intense feeding and watering program which tends to encourage top growth over root growth, and produces a small root system incapable of supporting the canopy and trunk in a more demanding environment without A commensurate maintenance (6). An even more drastic disruption of the nutritional and mechanical balance between aerial parts and roots occurs each time a tree is transplanted. When roots are cut in transplanting not only the physical stability of the tree is affected, since the ratio of above to below ground parts is thrown off, but also its capacity to absorb enough water and minerals from the soil to maintain its disproportionately large aerial structure. How severe this imbalance is depends on what proportion of the root system remains, how rapidly it can regenerate, and the type of environment in which it is planted. While the growth characteristics of root systems vary by species, and some kinds of trees are innately more difficult to move than others Right: The two balls in the foreground are \"soft\" or \"homemade\" balls, dug up bare root and simply wrapped loosely in burlap and soil afterwards ; the root ball lying behind them has the characteristics of a \"hard\" ball, dug and carefully packaged in burlap to keep the entire ball of roots and soil intact. Root balls should never be left exposed like this to possible injury from heat and drought. 267 as well mulched as root balls systems from temperature fluctuations and drought. Note well mulched stock stored to the right and left. Above: During storage, containers should be to prevent damage to root New roots have penetrated lower one-thlrd of burlap on a Cut-leaf Beech apparently over-wintered above ground in a heavy mulch. The absence of new roots on the upper two-thirds of the ball is probably due to root injury from alternate freezing and thawing. (such as Pawpaw, Hickory, Dove Tree, Walnut, Tupelo, Sassafras, White and Scarlet Oaks), growing practices can exercise considerable effect on the ease of transplanting. The development of a root system is influenced by the entire soil environment (soil texture, availability of water and nutrients, soil depth, and competition). A more compact root system is apt to be formed in deep organically rich soil than in sandy soil. Root systems are also directly and positively modified by the nursery practice of root pruning: an important element of nursery training which should occur every few years as it tends to artificially consolidate a rangy system by encouraging side branching. Trees grown in the wild are particularly difficult a 269 Poorly stored Hawthorns have lost most of their foliage by mid-summer. Burlap has completely disintegrated on the two root balls in the foreground, and the balls are crumbling apart. The other balls are wrapped in plastic which is tightly bound around the base of the trunks with wire presumably to seal in the moisture and create a \"carefree\" maintenance - system. 270 to transplant because through pruning. Trees are their roots have never been shortened or sold with their roots in containers, balls of soil wrapped in burlap, or completely bare. Each method has its advantages and disadvantages. Bare root stock and containerized plants are much cheaper than field grown trees which have been carefully balled and burlapped. But trees moved bare root are affected most severely by transplanting since many small feeding roots are damaged when the soil is disroot system is more vulnerable to mechanical and climatic damage while being stored and shipped. Normally only trees such as maples, ashes, and honeylocusts, which have demonstrated their relative speed of recovery, are sold bare root; and they are available only in small sizes, during the dormant periods of fall and early spring. Containerized stock is affected least by the transplanting process; the entire root system can be easily transferred and few of even the small roots are apt to be lost in the process. Nevertheless, containerized stock is sometimes subject to critical root defects, and should be examined closely for damage (see section on Root damage). Clearly, a tree moved with an intact ball of earth around its roots (\"balled and burlapped\" or \"B&B\") will retain more of its small feeding roots than a tree moved bare root, which is why trees reputed to be difficult to move are always transplanted B&B even in small sizes. or grown in containers. In addition, the buffer provided by the soil around the root system tends to protect roots of both containerized and B&B stock while being stored or shipped. There are several techniques to balling and burlapping a tree's roots; but due to the increasing expense of handling stock, recent practices are tending to become more expedient and less expert. The best method produces a completely intact ball of earth and roots, which is packaged so expertly it is unlikely to shift or come apart during transport and replanting. In recent years nurseries have tended towards the \"soft\" or \"homemade\" ball for all but the largest or most difficult material. This alternative is really just a bare root tree wrapped in soil and burlap. Since the original ball of soil has not been retained intact, one might well question whether a homemade ball accomplishes much over the bare root method, aside from buffering the root system a bit from mechanical or climatic turbed, and the injury. 271 Signs of branch die-back from poor storage. The major structural framework of this young Dogwood is poor. The kink in the trunk may be left from the point where a competing second leader has been removed later than desirable, as it has already substantially affected the form of both trunk and canopy. Under stress, the weak V-shaped joint where the leader divides into two main branches may split right down the middle. - --- - - - ---->- basic structural flaw. Instead of bmnching of the three major branches of this specimen is growing in against another and wall have to be removed - leaving a large hole along one side of tree's silhouette. a Another Dogwood with outward from the stem, one 274I The American Association of Nurserymen also provides minimal standards governing the spread of roots in bare root nursery grown shade trees. For instance, a tree of 2 to 21\/2-inch caliper, approximately 12 to 14 feet high, would be expected to have a minimum root spread of about 28 inches (see Table V). The amount of stress on roots to provide water for the above ground structure varies according to weather conditions and the relative dormancy of the plant. The hotter the weather and the more fully leafed out the plant, the more water normally passing through its system from roots to leaves. This is why plantsmen prefer to move field grown material in the cool damp periods of early spring and fall when deciduous stock is dormant; however, it is possible to move just about any kind of tree any time of the year if it is done expertly and with a large enough root ball. To reduce the imbalance between above ground and below ground parts, a newly transplanted tree is usually pruned. If it has been moved bare root, the tree is normally pruned quite severely, with up to a third of its branches removed. While necessary if a tree has been moved roughly, this method of compensation has important disadvantages: the tree may lose several years' past growth in a heavy pruning; pruning the canopy in turn reduces the tree's capacity to produce and store food needed not only for sustenance but also for its new growth; and, of course, balancing the canopy to the roots will in no way diminish the dimensions of the trunk which will remain out of proportion to both of them. If greatly disproportionate, the trunk may even consume most of the food produced by the tree simply to sustain its bulk. damage. Growing practices can be responsible for a series of root deformities which may seriously handicap a tree for Root or even cause its death if left uncorrected (6). Kinked, twisted or circling roots are most commonly found in containerized stock, but also may be observed out in the field if the stock has been raised in containers at some point. These root defects are easily corrected by pruning while the roots are young; but as a tree matures, one may do as much damage by attempting to correct them as by leaving the tree alone. Improper storage of tree stock also may be responsible for life, 275 Girdled root system. extensive damage to the root system. When roots are raised out of the ground, whether balled and burlapped, containerized or bare root, they become extremely vulnerable to temperature fluctuations, drought, and mechanical injury. Roots on stock stored out of the ground in cold weather may be entirely or partially killed by alternate freezing and thawing. In storage the entire root system should be kept well covered with a thick layer of mulch, and watered regularly. Two Silver Maples toppled over by the wind. These are actually balled and burlapped trees which were replanted in containers to keep the root systems intact during prolonged storage. When replanted, burlap should have been pulled bach from the upper one-third of the ball. The American Association of Nurserymen provides standards for the relationship between tree caliper and a minimal ball diameter (in the case of shade trees) and between tree height and a minimal ball diameter (in the case of smaller growing trees). For instance, shade trees of approximately 2 to 21\/2-inch caliper are expected to have a minimal ball diameter of about 2 feet; smaller types of trees of about 6 to 7 feet would be expected to have a minimal ball diameter of about I1f2 feet (see Table IV). The American Association of Nurserymen figures are applicable only to stock which has been grown under favorable conditions and which has been properly root pruned. Plants with a coarse or widespreading root system, or those moved out of season, would require a larger ball. 277 Defective bark on a Dogwood. confused whorl of branches wtth no domznnnt growing point characterizes the growth response of a tree which has lost its main leader. The Norway Maple on the right, the same age and caliper as that on the left, but with an intact single leader, is a foot or so taller and has the directed upward growth we associate with most shade trees. Note also the vertical distribution of the canopy on these two trees: both have been trained higher than desirable for their present height, with the canopy concentrated along the upper one-third to one-fourth of the trunk. This is not atypical of most shade trees available in the trade, but for the sake of structural strength and nourishment of the trunk it would be preferable to raise the crown more A gradually. A group of young Norway Maples with branching occurring in undesirable whorls. This is a common growth response when the main leader has been pinched back to induce branching. 280 Indications of health and vigor. A specimen's vigor is indicated by the plumpness of its buds; the size, color and shape of its leaves; the length of last year's growth, as indicated by the length between terminal bud scars; and the rate of callousing over small wounds. Any signs of branch die-back, or leaf-fall and discoloration should be taken as ample indication of poor health and vigor. Bark should be light and smooth; bark and leaves should be free from all signs of pests and diseases. Young roots should be light colored. A reputable nursery guarantees its stock for at least one full growing season after transplanting; preferably, it is guaranteed for a complete year. Prospective purchasers would be wise to check the extent of this responsibility in addition to the visible indications of strong and healthy stock. NANCY M. PAGE (All photos by the author.) Table I. shade trees. (From American Standard for Nursery Stock. to Height relationship caliper for 1973) Examples of trees in this category: Acer rubrum, A. saccharinum Betula spp. Fraxinus americana, F. pennsylvanica Ginkgo biloba Gleditsia triacanthos Liriodendron tulipifera Platanus spp. Populus spp. Quercus rubra, Q. macrocarpa, Q. phellos, Q. palustris Salix spp. 281 Tilia americana Ulmus americana While shade trees of slower growth may not attain the height-caliper relationship indicated above, their heights should not be less than two-thirds the height relationship given above. Examples of trees in this category: Aesculus spp. Celtis spp. Cladrastis lutea Fagus sylvatica Koelreuteria paniculata Laburnum anagyroides Liquidambar Styraciflua Nyssa sylvatica Quercus alba Sorbus spp. Tilia cordata, T. euchlora Height relationship Table II. and branching for small upright trees. (From American Standard for Nursery Stock. 1973) to caliper Examples of trees in this category: Crataegus spp. Halesia spp. Malus spp. Prunus cerasifera 'Thundercloud' Prunus serrulata, P. subhirtella Styrax Syringa amurensis japonica Table III. for small spreading trees. (From American Standard for Nursery Stock. 1973) to Height relationship branching Examples of trees in this category: Acer palmatum, A. griseum Cornus spp. Lagerstromia indica Magnolia soulangeana, M. stellata Malus sargentii Viburnum prunifolium 282 Table IV. between ball size and height or caliper. American Standard for Nursery Stock. 1973) Relationship (From * Standard and slow shade trees. growing Small upright spreading trees. ** and small Relationships Table V. among root spread, caliper, and height of bare nursery grown stock. (From American Standard for Nursery Stock. 1973) root (Tables I Association of through V are reprinted Nurserymen, Inc.) with permission of the American 283 Literature Cited 1. American Association of Nurserymen, Inc. 1973. American Standard for Nursery Stock. 230 Southern Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20003. British Standards Institution. 1965. Specification for Nursery Stock. Part I. Trees & Shrubs. (British Standard 3936: Part I: 1965). British Standards House, 2 Park St., London W.1. Furuta, Tokuji. 1970. Controlling growth and development of ornamental plants. Nursery Management Handbook - Section X. California Agricultural Extension AXT-321. Harris, Richard W., W. Douglas Hamilton, William B. Davis, and Andrew T. Leiser. 1969. Pruning Landscape Trees. California Agricultural Extension AXT-288. 1969. ----, Andrew T. Leiser and William B. Davis. Staking Landscape Trees. California Agricultural Extension AXT-311. 1971. Selecting Quality ----, and Andrew T. Leiser. Landscape Trees. Unpublished discussion paper. Neel, P. Lanny. 1967. Factors influencing tree trunk development. International Shade Tree Conference Proceedings. 43. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. pp. 293-303. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cranberries- The Last One Hundred Years","article_sequence":2,"start_page":284,"end_page":291,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24619","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eb328.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":5,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Cross, Chester E.","article_content":"Cranberries The Last One Hundred Years Vaccinium macrocarpon. From Hortus Kewensis, Vol. II, by William Aiton, 1789. (The following article is excerpted from a talk presented at the Arnold Arboretum during the January 1972 meeting of the Northeastern Section of the American Society for Horticultural Science. Ed.) It is difficult for us to picture the state of the cranberry industry one hundred years ago. Observing my loss of hair and the graying of what is left I sometimes think I should be able to tell you from personal recollection what it was like. We know, however, that berries were hand-picked by fingers, that foremen saw to it that each picker harvested every berry in his allotted patch and that these were all shipped in wooden barrels of 100 lbs. (or 100 quarts) each. Horse and cart took them to rail terminals where they were stacked four high in the freight car. There was no market for processed cranberries so all were shipped dry except for some packed in water-filled barrels for 284 285 to the west coast and overseas. I can still remember seeing the last of the hand-picking gangs in the early 1930's; about 160 men, women and children in a long, irregular line across the bog picking into 6-qt. pails and most talking steamship transport continuously. Statistics are hard to find for this industry a century ago. Farm operations in general and cranberry production in particular required much hard labor for long hours by many people, all of which may well account for the paucity of records. I think it is perhaps true that my audience may not want a long string of statistics so I will try to review some of the more significant events. It was just a hundred years ago in 1872 when the Wisconsin cranberry crop exceeded that of Massachusetts for the last time. My source of data refers to the Wisconsin crop as from \"the West\". It was in 1894 that New Jersey's crop beat that of Massachusetts for the last time. It was not until 1924 that Pacific Coast production reached proportions that merited recording. Since 1949 the records of production in Washington and Oregon are reported separately. It is undoubtedly a blessing that cranberry production appears impractical in California. So five states are, and have been, important in this industry and it is probably significant with respect to Black Monday, November 9, 1959, when the notorious \"cancer scare\" broke, that the industry could count on support from only 10 of 100 senators. I will say more on this later. In 1907 cooperative license #1 was granted to the American Cranberry Exchange with the Eatmor brand name. Much as I abhor such a name, this established a trend toward cooperative marketing in cranberries, a trend that has persisted to the present to the great benefit of both cranberry growers and consumers. In 1909 the Cranberry Experiment Station was founded with Dr. H. J. Franklin providing the talent and industry as both chief and Indian. Originally he slept at the Station, the better to work long hours seven days a week. He came to be known as \"Mr. Cranberry\" and I can vouch he was a most difficult person to follow as head of the Station. Two significant events date from 1913. The first can of Ocean Spray cranberry sauce was produced in that year, and Chester E. Cross was born! The Ocean Spray name began under Marcus L. Urann and was the trade name of his company, the United Cape Cod Cranberry Company. By combining the canning interests of this and others, the canning cooperative, \"Cranberry Canners, Inc.\", was founded in 1930. Thus the industry came to have 286 two large cooperatives, one for fresh fruit and one for processing, and while many efforts were made to keep these functioning amicably, there existed great rivalry. Cranberry Canners, Inc. became the National Cranberry Association in the mid1940's to undertake the cooperative marketing of both fresh and processed cranberries. In the 1950's the National Cranberry Association bought the New England affiliate of the American Cranberry Exchange, and under the new name of Ocean Spray Cranberries, Inc. now markets about 85% of the total U.S. crop. The cranberry industry's growth in acreage shows a steady increase in Wisconsin, Washington and Oregon, reaching currently to 7,000, 1,250, and 875 acres respectively. In New Jersey the century began with 9,000 acres, increased slowly until after World War I when the false blossom disease struck. From the 1920's to the 1950's many of New Jersey's cranberry bogs were converted to high bush blueberry culture, the cranberry acreage declining to 2,500 acres in 1958. With control of the false blossom disease and a conversion to flood harvesting, New Jersey's acreage is now up to 3,800. In Massachusetts the cranberry bog acreage started this century at 11,300 and now has the same total! It rose to 15,000 in the late 1940's but, as competition increased, marginal bogs (chiefly those with limited water supplies) were abandoned. It will probably surprise you to know that here \"in the land of the free and the home of the brave\" the cranberry industry is unlikely to have any further wide fluctuations in acreage. Under a federal marketing order dated August 1, 1968, no cranberries may be sold from new plantings made after the effective date. A similar regulation has been adopted in the chief cranberry-producing provinces in Canada. The present surplus of cranberries was clearly foreseen in 1967, and the national referendum showed nearly unanimous support for the order. The cranberry industry, therefore, resembles other branches of American agriculture in showing great increases in production efficiency. The success of food production in the U.S.A. may prove to be its bane, for the producer has now become a scattered minority. A newspaper article of last summer projected the present decline of farmers and farm workers (the decade of the 1960's showed a decline of 1.2 million farmers and a decline of 2.8 million farm workers) to the year 1986 when farmers would number near zero. It suggested that the U.S. Department of Agriculture is no longer needed, and the 287 few farmers could be transferred to the U.S. Departof the Interior where they could be placed on the Endangered Species List and be protected accordingly! When Dr. Franklin founded the Cranberry Experiment Station in 1909 the average production per acre was 20 bbls. When he retired in 1952 productivity had doubled to average 40 bbls. per acre. The 1970 and 1971 Massachusetts cranberry crops averaged over 90 bbls. per acre, and this State's crop is just under half of total U.S. production. Combining these data with the acreage figures which show 11,300 acres in both 1900 and 1971, the efficiency of Massachusetts cranberry production becomes clear. In my opinion, three cultural improvements are primarily responsible for the increasing production per acre: frost injury prevention, improved harvest technology, and modern control of insect pests. On September 10-11, 1917, an estimated 50% of the Massachusetts cranberry crop was frozen on the vines just prior to harvest. The very next spring on the night of June 20-21, 1918, an estimated 55% of the coming crop was destroyed. The terrible frost of May 18-19, 1944, came shortly after the widespread winter-killing of the previous winter. Together they reduced the crop about 65% to 159,000 bbls., less than average production back in 1900. On the night of Memorial Day, 1961, a sudden hard frost reduced the crop by one-third, and in that year the Wisconsin crop came within 10,000 bbls. of equalling that of Massachusetts. While these are just the greater frosts, lesser ones occur almost every year. Clearly, such losses cannot be absorbed in a highly-competitive, narrow-profit business. A frost warning system was developed by the Cranberry Experiment Station in cooperation with the U.S. Weather Bureau, which computes twice daily the minimum expected temperature (accuracy 1-3F.) and issues a warning by telephone to subscribing growers, and as a public service by radio. With heavy capital outlay growers have supplemented or replaced the slow and sometimes wasteful method of flood frost protection with solid-set, low-gallonage sprinkler systems. These are fully protective about four minutes after starting and continue to protect buds and berries as long as they continue to operate, even though ice forms and coats the vines when ambient temperatures fall below 27F. Buds, flowers and small green berries are known to tolerate 29.5F., while under continuous sprinkling at 50 gallons per acre per minute the temperature of plant tissues remains at 30.5F. or higher. Over 7,000 of Massachusetts' 11,000 acres of cranberries are pro- remaining ment 288I tected in this way, using only about 10% of the water required by frost flooding. Cranberry growers here and in other states have impounded vast quantities of fresh water and therefore may be thought of as effective, eager conservationists. The time-honored method of picking cranberries with the fingers had to be abandoned when the picker could not pick enough berries to equal the value of his time. The wooden or metal-toothed scoop replaced hand-picking in the 1930's, 40's and 50's. It was hard work for knees and back, it was hard on the cranberry vines (some broke off, and the roots of many were pulled up), and some 20 to 35% of the berries was dropped and lost down among the vines. After-harvest flooding retrieved some lost berries as \"floats\", but costs of clean-up were considerable and the value of such fruit was limited. Right after World War II, and after many unsuccessful attempts, two dry-harvest machines were introduced which late in the 1950's and in the early 1960's came to harvest over 90% of the State's crop. Mechanical damage to the vines was less and the pulling of root systems was almost eliminated by these machines. The efficiency of harvest improved also, so that only 5-20% of the berries was lost. Finally in the late 60's flood harvesting came to Massachusetts and it is certain that this mode of picking, though used on only one-third of the State's bogs, is largely responsible for the two successive record crops of 1970 and 1971. The first national million-barrel crop was raised in 1953, while the first state to raise such a crop is Massachusetts with its 1971 crop of 1,058,000 barrels. It would appear to be appropriate timing that the Massachusetts cranberry industry should produce its first million-barrel crop as the Arnold Arboretum celebrates its centennial year. Finally, the control of insect pests must take its place in the forefront of the causes of high productivity. The Cranberry Experiment Station was originally founded by an entomologist to find ways of curtailing devastating losses due to insect depredation. As long ago as 1859, B. Eastwood published his book The Cranberry and its Culture in which it is clear that two kinds of \"worms\" cause extensive damage; one to the vines, the other to the fruit. In the effort to find controls for these and a dozen other insect pests, cultural methods like flooding and winter exposure were first thoroughly explored. By 1933 the following insecticides were in regular use: lead arsenate, Paris green, nicotine sulfate, sodium cyanide and pyrethrum. None of these is now used, but I can recall the smelly, hazardous job of dissolving 7 oz. of sodium cyanide in 100 gallons of water and 289 Above~ Cranberry bog. Below. Vaccinium macrocarpon in flower. Photos: M. Gilmore 290I applying one gallon of solution to each square foot of cranberry bog in the effort to control root grubs, grape anomala and white grub. Here was a dangerous insecticide, men wading around in it with rubber boots and breathing fumes for the 9-hour work day, but I never heard of a casualty. Ground-rig dusters and aircraft made their appearance with the newer organic insecticides. Dragging hoses and the tramp of the booted feet of the spray gang caused much mechanical damage to the vines, so it was not long before helicopters and planes took over pesticide distribution, and refinements in their technique and a conversion to concentrate spraying has made for very efficient control. In the 1960's the installation of sprinklers has led to precision insecticide distribution through these devices, at the same time permitting treatment at dusk when birds and bees are no longer on the bog. The careful grower loses very little to insect pests today and he can do this with only three to five insecticide sprays * a year. To read from the above you might gather all is well in the cranberry industry with its record crops, its control of pests, its mechanical harvesting, and even its sprinkler weather controls. Such is not the case, and our problems date back to 1959 and the amino-triazole cancer scare. With the nation's newspapers warning people of the hazards of residues on cranberries, the market died. It made no difference that we had a registered and approved use for the weedkiller that would leave no residue on the fruit, it made no difference that we had a fine educational program to instruct growers in the herbicide's proper use. Headlines across the country proclaimed the hazard. Very few Americans know the sequel. By agreement between the White House, growers organizations, U.S.D.A., and U.S.D.H.E.W., the growers, at their own expense but under supervision of H.E.W., tested systematically the unsaleable 1959 cranberry crop; when proved to be free of residue, it was allowed to be dumped and the grower was paid 8.1 cents per pound for his clean fruit. This was the estimated cost of production, and it cost the * Unlike some commodities, cranberries in Massachusetts are treated only after insect infestations are discovered and quantitated. A prebloom treatment with Diazinon, Carbaryl or Parathion may be needed to control fireworms, cutworms, Sparganothis fruitworm, gypsy moth, tipworm, green spanworm or red mites. Repeated treatments with the same insecticides may be needed in late bloom or post-bloom to control the cranberry fruitworm, second brood fireworms, girdler larvae and weevils. An after-harvest treatment with Dieldrin may be needed once in five years (with drainage flumes closed) to control any of three species of root-eating grubs. 291 U.S.D.A. nearly $10,000,000 to pay for the residue-free berries that had to be destroyed. It was not until 1963 that a whole crop could be sold again. The industry was accused in the headlines; the efforts at amelioration were relegated to the back pages. The cranberry crisis occurred three years before the publication of Silent Spring, described by Dr. Norman Borlaug as \"halfscience-half-fiction\". Since then environmentalists have been attacking insecticides, and particularly DDT, with misused facts and many fancies. It has been many years since the cranberry industry has made use of DDT, but I was living and working on Cape Cod when the whole Cape was sprayed with DDT in 1949 and the whole of Plymouth County in 1950 for the control of the gypsy moth. I know that the gypsy moth was removed from our list of cranberry insect pests soon after this and that no cranberry bog in either county had to be sprayed for gypsy moth caterpillars for over twelve years. In fact, it was not until 1966 that the gypsy moth again appears on the cranberry insect control chart, and an extension education meeting was called to show the growers what the insect was and what it looked like. Perhaps you can imagine my disgust when I read in the MayJune 1971 issue of the Massachusetts Audubon Newsletter in the unsigned article, \"Man vs. Gypsy Moth\", \"... The knockout punch that man counted on was DDT - but it failed. In fact, biologists now say, it actually spread the gypsy moth, making it more annoying\". This is pure rubbish, like so much of the environmentalist propaganda. It is literally true that millions of people are alive today because of DDT, and the U.N. World Health Organization feels it cannot continue its programs for world health improvement without DDT. The U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization feels that tens of millions of the world's people would die of starvation if we had a world ban of DDT. The outcry of the environmentalists has been so loud that it is now doubtful if we could get approval and registration of short-lived alternatives to the chlorinated hydrocarbon insecticides. The food production enterprise in U.S.A. is sorely beset by the very people who know the least about it and who at each mealtime take it all for granted. CHESTER E. CROSS Professor of Botany and Head, Cranberry Experiment Station University of Massachusetts, East Wareham "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Willow Oak (Quercus phellos): A Fenway Jewel","article_sequence":3,"start_page":292,"end_page":294,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24620","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eb36d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":5,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dahlen, Martha","article_content":"Willow Oak (Quercus phellos): A Fenway Jewel One of the living jewels which studs Boston's \"Emerald Necklace\" of park systems is a stately specimen of Quercus phellos, the Willow Oak. The tree is growing in the Fens near Boylston St., with the Fenway on one side and a steep bank leading to a shelter and the distant river on the other. Sturdy and majestic, the tree stands nearly 60 feet tall with a branch spread equal to its height. Its growth habit represents the best of both the willows and the oaks because its narrow, graceful leaves have a fine, willowlike texture, while its symmetrical rounded crown and dense branching habit give it the nobility of an oak. The 34-inch diameter and mature habit of this specimen imply an age of at least 80 years, so it seems likely this tree was 292 Above and right: Quercus phellos. Photos. N. Page 294 among the original plantings directed by Olmsted when he the \"Emerald Necklace\" in the 1880's. Quercus phellos is a native North American species, common further south but rare in Massachusetts. It is distributed on the Atlantic coast from New York to Florida, along the Gulf Coast, and north on low sites into Missouri, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Nevertheless, it is hardy as far north as southern New Hampshire. The species generally prefers moist sites such as swamp borders, but will grow under dryer conditions. The Willow Oak resembles the Pin Oak in a number of ways, and in fact is as widely planted in the south as Pin and Red Oaks are in the north. The tree grows rapidly, suffers from few pests, and has a shallow root system which makes it easy to transplant. The handsome, fine-textured form it develops is often characterized by slender drooping side branches, much like the Pin Oak. If planted more widely, the Willow Oak could provide desirable and interesting variety to the abundance of Pin and Red Oaks now in Boston; the Fenway tree stands as a designed living testament to the virtues of the species. MARTHA DAHLEN (The author, a summer trainee at the Arnold Arboretum, is a student in horticulture at Purdue University. ) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":295,"end_page":308,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24618","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eaf6f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":5,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Echeveria linguaefolia. From Echeveria. Echeveria. Eric Walther. San Francisco: The California Academy of Science. 1972. ix + 426 pages, 16 colored plates and 226 text figures. $15.00. A beautifully produced book with numerous photographs, diagnostic line drawings, and colored plates, Eric Walther's monograph of the crassulaceous genus Echeveria represents the work of over 30 years, during which most of his energies were devoted to the development of the Strybing Arboretum and Botanical Garden in San Francisco's Golden Gate Park. At the 295 296 I time of Walther's death in 1959, the manuscript of his monograph remained unfinished, but he had arranged with the California Academy of Sciences for his estate to be used to publish the work. Subsequently, the manuscript was edited and prepared for publication by John Thomas Howell with helpful collaboration from Elizabeth McClintock and Reid Moran, the latter a noted specialist in succulent plants. Although by far the greater portion of the book is devoted to descriptions and keys to 143 species arranged in 14 sections, the introductory portion covers the botanical history, morphology, natural occurrence, and systematic position of the genus. In addition, cultural notes and sections devoted to hybrids and species in cultivation are included. As with most succulents, herbarium specimens of Echeveria are difficult to prepare, and diagnostic species characters are often obscured in pressed specimens. It is important to note in this connection that Walther's descriptions were largely based on living materials. Employing the type method of taxonomy, he revisited the type localities of numerous Mexican species to study the plants in nature and to supplement his studies of important herbarium collections. Certainly most readers of this notice will be familiar with at least a few species of Echeveria in cultivation, both as houseplants and as striking ornamentals in warm temperate gardens. For persons wishing to know the identity of their plants, as well as botanists and horticulturalists anxious for more detailed information concerning the species of the genus, Walther's monograph will serve as the standard reference for years to come. It is a pleasure to see a genus of succulent plants (a group that as a general rule is dominated by amaturish coverage in the literature) monographed in a professional manner. STEPHEN A. SPONGBERG 297 The Naturalists' Orange, N.J.: PCL Publications, Directory (International), 41st edition. South Inc. 1972. 178 pages. $5.00. The Naturalists' Directory is an institution of impeccable ancestry and dubious prospects. The current edition lists \"more than 3,000 individuals\". The edition of 1895 lists 5747. This is not a reflection of decline in the number of naturalists, but rather a decline in the comprehensiveness of the Directory. There is a need for a comprehensive, national and\/or worldwide listing of naturalists. Most of the natural history specialist societies publish lists of members; some of them indicate the specialties of their members, some indicate current research projects of the individual members. There are fairly up-to-date, fairly comprehensive lists of arboreta and botanical gardens both national as well as international. One presumes that comparable lists are available for zoology and geology. If, as alleged, this is a compilation of materials, it is very poorly done. To be sure, for one who has nothing else, it is better than nothing. However, a publication in its 41st edition ought to do better than this. GORDON P. DEWOLF Early Gardening Catalogues. John Harvey. London: Phillimore and Co. Ltd. 1972. 182 pages, illustrated. 2.25. John Harvey has written a fascinating book about the early trade in seeds, roots and plants, primarily in England from the Middle Ages until about 1800. It is of importance for American gardeners because such plants were available for American gardens, and tell us something of the way our ancestors gardened. About one-third of the book is occupied by description text; the balance by reprints of various gardens and dealers' lists ranging from c. 1500-1833. The one serious criticism one may make about the book is the size of the type. It is too small to be read with comfort by middle-aged eyes. GORDON P. DEWOLF 298 W. C. Forest Environments in Tropical Life Zones. L. R. Holdridge, Grenke, W. H. Hatheway, T. Liang, and J. A. Tosi, Jr. Elmsford, N.Y.: Pergamon Press. 1971. 747 pages, four pocket maps. $80.00. This volume, subtitled \"A umentation of a pilot study\", is a remarkable doctheory. Holdridge proposed a model for the classification of the world's vegetation into 100 Life Zones arranged on the basis of latitudinal regions, altitudinal regions, and humidity provinces. The system has been applied in some tropical American countries and forms the basis of ecological vegetation maps of El Salvador, Guatemala, Panama, Honduras and Haiti. The present study is a detailed account of the vegetation of 46 selected forest sites in Costa Rica, culminating in an ecological map, with an appendix presenting data from seven areas in Thailand. It is remarkable that these data were assembled in about two years even with hard work. Holdridge's system is complicated, but this volume presents the first detailed discussion of the factors he considers important. The sites selected were studied by means of several types of aerial photographs, and supported by on-the-ground transects of the vegetation and a great deal of climatological data, as well as soil chemical and physical data. The presentation of facts is remarkably clear. For each area there are stereopair photographs, some in color; standard profiles of the vegetation, also interpreted as idealized profiles; soil profile diagrams; crown cover photographs for vertical visibility, and these compared with MEGA vegetation diagrams of the Dansereau school. The best explanation available of the MEGA vegetation symbolization forms Appendix III. The only discordant element in an extremely handsome layout is the computer print-out reproduction of the species encountered in the Costa Rica study areas. The presence or absence matrix of sample tree species by life zones, which accompanies the listing, is also followed by a listing of life zones indicating the dominant taxa within each zone. The authors asked three questions: \"Does the use of the Holdridge system contribute to the organization and understanding of field data and thus lead to increased predictability? Is it broadly applicable? Is it usable in practice?\" They conclude the answer is \"yes\", but they have demonstrated the difficulty of gathering the data desired as well as the value of 299 their data for comparative purposes. They admit there remains a problem of developing a predictive system which will produce reliable information on under-canopy features from aerial observations. The man observing within the forest is still needed. RICHARD A. HOWARD Complete Book of Flower Preservation. Geneal Condon. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc. 1972. 210 pages, illustrated. $7.95. The publisher's blurb describes Mrs. Condon's instructions as \"simple\". Lucid they are; simple they are not. The author narrates in assiduous detail her method of preserving fresh flowers, using Great Salt Lake sand. Other equipment is described and pictured. Sources for supplies are given when required. Absolutely fresh flowers are essential, negating the preservation of a bridal bouquet. A large, dry working area is necessary and the patience of Job would be helpful. Mrs. Condon suggests that a course in flower arranging is advisable. She covers every vegetative subject which can be preserved by her method and even recommends its use by students of botany. A teachers' manual, special treatment for special flowers, and answers to frequently asked questions offer still more information. The book is well-indexed. If one feels intensely about flowers going through the cycle of life, assisting other forms of life in the process, seeding, and returning to the earth which nourished them, then this book is not for him. However, in 1972 it was in its fourth printing indicating a strong desire by many to preserve flowers. MILDRED PELKUS The 300 Linnaeus. Frontispiece from The Compleat Naturalist. The Compleat Naturalist. Wilfrid Blunt. New York: Viking Press. 1971. 256 pages, illustrated, with an appendix by William T. Stearn. $14.95. The fact that The Compleat Naturalist is a biography of Linnaeus should be enough to recommend the book; in addition it is so handsomely illustrated (32 color plates and numerous half-tones) that it is as much a joy to look at as it is to read. William Stearn's contribution, \"Linnaean Classification, Nomenclature, and Method\", makes this definitive work more definitive, if that is possible, and provides a simple, clear explanation of Linnaeus' contributions to science. The account of Linnaeus' life makes interesting reading for the most part. No man's life is continually compelling, and some parts of the book are less compelling than others; but that is no fault of the author. Often the serendipitous information is 301 as interesting as the main line of the biography. There is a fascinating picture of university life at Upsalla during the 18th century, for example, which makes you wonder how anyone survived an education. Blunt's account of life among the in- telligensia of Europe, with their \"curio cabinets\" filled with treasures brought from around the world, also is interesting. The biography of Linnaeus is a gold mine of botanical trivia, such as the story of Linnaea borealis, the only plant that bears Linnaeus' name. He described it as \"lowly, insignificant, disregarded, flowering but for a brief space from Linnaeus who - resembles it.\" DONALD M. VINING Linnaeus' drawing of a cranefly. From The Compleat Naturalist. 302I Capability Brown & Humphrey Repton. Edward Hyams. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1971. 248 pages, illustrated. $7.95. The of the be attributed may flowering garden Humphrey Repton. Mr. tracing the evolution and refinement of his talent and the influence of the society in which he flourished. Lancelot (Capability) Brown, following in the footsteps of William Kent, was the greatest exponent of this essentially new approach to planning and planting. The presentation of his life and work is used as a vehicle for the author's questionable theories concerning English gardening. Information must be sparse on the design and execution of Mr. Brown's landscapes, for the text becomes overinvolved with names and places; thus it fails to really capture either the character or the mind behind the genius who was to influence the course of landscaping and ultimately produce a master such as F. L. Olmstead. Humphrey Repton, on the other hand, published several books on his work and, luckily for us, all of Mr. Repton's clients were presented with 'Red Books' which contained plans, paintings and sketches, and detailed explanations of all proposed work. Mr. Hyams takes advantage of this information and not only gives us a fairly comprehensive view of the Reptonian landscape, but introduces us to a fascinating and complex artist who characterizes the society of the late 1700's and early 1800's. Unfortunately the book does not provide us with adequate illustrations or plans, but there is a list of the surviving works of each man so one 'Picturesque' or English landscape primarily to 'Capability' Brown and Hyams details the life of each artist may view the artistry first hand. JACK LINK 303 A Gardener's Guide to Plant Names. Charles Scribner's Sons. This is an B. J. Healey. New York: 1972. 284 pages. $7.95. English book which has experienced a relatively painless transition to the United States. The bulk of the book is made up of an alphabetical listing of genera of plants in cultivation and their species, with translations of the Latin words. It will fulfill the author's purpose: \"An excursion into the mysteries of botanical names; and, I hope, an answer to your friends who fix you with a glassy eye and ask, 'What's that in English ?' \" GORDON P. DEWOLF A Revision of B. E. Dahlgren's Index of American Palms. PhanTomus VI. erogamarum Monographiae Sidney F. Glassman. 120. Lehre, Germany: J. Cramer Co. 1972. 294 pages. DM Dr. Dahlgren, in 1936, brought together in one index taxonomic and nomenclatural information on all species of New World palms. Since that time a Palm Society has been organized, with its publication Principes; several important books on palms have appeared, including an annotated checklist of cultivated palms, and many smaller monographic studies. Glassman's revision brings all sources together again by supplying an alphabetical list of names of New World palms. Accepted names and synonyms are indicated, along with basic bibliographic citations and designations of type specimens, and references to published treatments. A supporting bibliography cites papers into 1971. Appendices offer a geographical list of taxa by country, an enumeration of the genera, and the respective number of species. This is an excellent reference volume for curators or collectors, and belongs in all botanical libraries. RICHARD A. HOWARD 304I Boletus viscidus. From Exotic Mushrooms. Exotic Mushrooms. Henri Romagnesi (ed.). New York: Sterling Publishing Co., Inc. 1971. 192 pages, 160 full page color illustrations. $12 95. A coffee table book or micologists and others interested in mushrooms. The book consists mainly of 160 beautiful fullpage color drawings of mushrooms. It might be useful for identification if you can get the mushrooms to the coffee table before they have discolored. DONALD M. VINING 305 Your City Garden. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1972. 120 pages, illustrated. $3.95 paperback. The Country Garden. Josephine Nuese. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1972. 256 pages, illustrated. $2.95. The Southern Garden. Ben Arthur Davis. Lippincott Co. 1971. 252 pages. $5.95. at the end of Philadelphia: J. B. What these three books have in common is the word \"garden\" a three-word title in which the second word is an adjective indicating the place where the garden involved may be found. Throughout this review I shall refer to the books by the distinguishing adjective. I question the whole premise of City. It is a landscape architect's view of urban gardening given world enough (and money enough) and time, you can manage to ignore the city entirely. The book is really about small gardens and the author assumes that city dwellers will be the most interested parties. Also, whichever city Mr. Kramer has in mind, it is not a city in the sense of urban Boston or New York where even dandelions have a hard time; he has a gentle city in mind, like Atlanta or Seattle, where gardening is not a struggle with a hostile land. Perhaps the title should have been Small Gardens in Seattle. Country is a book to read straight through like a novel. It is Ms. Nuese's affair with gardening. There is a great deal of really good information tucked in among the honeyed phrases and, truthfully, a deal of good wit too. Southern is the kind of book that sits on my shelves and induces guilt. It is organized on the \"what-to-do-in-the-gardenon-May 6th\" principle and as long as it is in the house, you will feel that there is something to do in the garden that you are not doing which is always the case anyway, so you don't need a carping book. (Country is also arranged by months but you don't have to do anything about it.) That business aside, Southern is a pretty standard type garden book with lots of good lists of things to plant. - DONALD M. VINING 306 Magnolia virginiana. From John of Virginia 1678-1692. Banister and His Natural History Joseph John Banister and His Natural History of Virginia, 1678-1692. and Nesta Ewan. Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois Press. 1970. 485 pages, illustrated. $15.00. one of the legendary figures of AmeriHe was an English clergyman, sent to Virginia to botany. study and collect objects of natural history for Henry Crompton, Bishop of London. He arrived in America in 1678. He died after a shooting accident in May of 1692. In the interim he supplied his correspondents in England with natural history material, much of which was utilized by them without acknowl- John Banister has been can edgement. The Ewans have provided us with an eminently readable book. They tell us as much about Banister as they could find and a very great deal about his contemporaries and correspon- 307 dents. Indeed this book is a veritable mine of information about 17th century English botanists. Annotated transcripts are provided of Banister's catalogs of plants, insects and arachnids, mollusca, fossils, and stones and \"Mr. Banister's papers\". Finally, 69 of his drawings are reproduced. This book can be enthusiastically recommended to anyone interested in the history of biology in America. GORDON P. DEWOLF Gonolobus obliquus. From John Banister and His Natural of Virginia 1678-1692. History 308 Zander. Handworterbuch der Pflanzennamen. 1972. Dr. h.c. Fritz Encke, Dr. Gunther Buchheim, and Dr. Siegmund Seybold (eds.) Stuttgart: Eugen Ulmer. 744 pages. DM. 42. Although this little book is in German, its value is such that it should be brought to the attention of American readers. In the first place this book deals primarily with plants in cultivation. Its features include ( 1 ) a sketch of the systematic classification of the plant kingdom, (2) a list of the cultivated families of cultivated plants with a list of the genera included in each, (3) an alphabetical list of genera and species with directions for cultivation indicated by a series of conventional signs (a technique widely used in the last century), (4) a list of the abbreviated name of authors of plant names with their full names, dates, and brief biographical information, (5) that indicates the a brief bibliography literature. outstanding current horticultural dictionary, for It is a book to stand on your desk beside the it will receive an equal amount of use. - GORDON P. DEWOLF Ferns and Palms for Interior Decoration. Jack Kramer. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. 1972. 113 pages, illustrated. $6.95. It is difficult to become enthusiastic about this book - but also difficult to condemn it. Its main strength lies in some very nice line drawings by Michael Valdez. There are many photographs which tend to be \"arty\" and not very diagnostic and the text is distinctly lightweight. In fact, one could probably get all of the information here from a good one-volume horticultural encyclopedia. This is a fairly good magazine article that has been blown up with photographs and wide margins to make a small book. In all fairness the price is not excessive. GORDON P. DEWOLF Trifolium pratense. Photo: P. Bruns "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23524","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070bb28.jpg","title":"1973-33-5","volume":33,"issue_number":5,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Decline of the Apple","article_sequence":1,"start_page":217,"end_page":227,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24615","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14ea76d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lape, Fred","article_content":"The Decline of the Apple of the apple in this century has been partialIts breeding program has been geared almost ly retrogression. completely to the commercial interests. The criteria for selection of new varieties have been an apple that will keep well under refrigeration, an apple that will ship without bruising, an apple of a luscious color that will attract the housewife to buy it from the supermarket bins. That the taste of this selected apple is inferior has been ignored. As a result, sharpness of flavor and variety of flavor are disappearing. The apple is becoming as standardized to mediocrity as the average manufactured product. And as small farms with their own orchards dwindle and the average person is forced to eat only apples bought from commercial growers, the coming generations will scarcely know how a good apple tastes. This is not to say that all of the old varieties were good. Many of them were as inferior as a Rome Beauty or a Stark's Delicious. But the best ones were of an excellence that has almost dis- The a development appeared. As a standard of excellence by which to judge, I would set the Northern Spy as the best apple ever grown in the United States. To bite into the tender flesh of a well-ripened Spy and have its juice ooze around the teeth and its rich tart flavor fill the mouth and its aroma rise up into the nostrils is one of the outstanding experiences of all fruit eating. More than this, the Spy is just as good when cooked as when eaten raw. Baked, in pies, in applesauce, it holds its firmness and its flavor. I speak of the Northern Spy in the present because it is still being sold, usually at top prices, at the older orchards in the northeast. One can even buy it occasionally in the larger cities, at exorbitant prices. But I doubt that it is being planted much, if at all, in the newer commercial orchards. There is a reason for this. The Northern Spy tree is large, and difficult to keep in shape for picking. It is sometimes an erratic bearer, and the fruit is very susceptible to a wire worm, which writes tiny scrolls of brown through the flesh and gives it a bitter taste. The Northern Spy is purely an American apple. It originated 217 218 chance seedling at East Bloomfield, N.Y., about 1800. By 1840 it had begun to attract general attention throughout the northeast. No one seems to know what ancestry lies behind it. It is typical of the breeding programs of this century that in some orchards the Northern Spy has been replaced by the Red Northern Spy, which has a more brilliant red skin than the Northern Spy and is therefore more likely to attract attention for sale. But in taste the Red Northern Spy is only a shadow of the old Northern Spy. My other standard of excellence has almost disappeared. It is the Spitzenburg, originally known as the Esopus Spitzenburg because it originated at Esopus, in Ulster County, N.Y. Its date of origin is not known, but by 1900 throughout New York State it was considered an old apple. In my childhood no farm orchard would be without one Spitzenburg tree, as beautiful in fruit in October as when in blossom in May. The fruit is of medium size, semi-conic in shape but not long, and somewhat ribbed. The skin is a deep, rich yellow verging into bright red; at its best, completely flaming red marked by pale yellow dots. The flesh is tinged with yellow, firm, crisp, tender, aromatic, not quite as juicy as the Northern Spy. But the taste is unique, as good in its way as the Spy. And like the Spy it is as good cooked as when eaten raw. It was always considered the supreme apple for baking. A few commercial orchards still have an old tree or two tucked away in a corner. Some twenty years ago, when I was in my fifties, I went to one of these orchards to get some Spitzenburg scions for grafting. The owner of the orchard turned me over to his father, whom I judged to be in his eighties, to show me the tree. On the way I tried to make conversation by saying I thought the Spitzenburg a pretty good apple. Whereupon the old gentlemen stopped, turned in his tracks, looked at me severely, and said, \"Young man, the Spitzenburg is the best apple God ever invented.\" In recent years I have heard of no new plantings. One seedling of the Spitzenburg, the Jonathan, not as inferior to the Spitzenburg as the Red Spy is to the Northern Spy, is still being planted in at least one orchard for use in commercial applesauce. But the Spitzenburg itself is too good to be lost. Its gene source should be used for breeding. One variety, older than either the Spy or the Spitzenburg, has managed to hold a small place in commercial orchards. It is the Rhode Island Greening, more commonly called the Greening. It originated in the 1700's in Rhode Island, near Newport, as a 219 Jonathan Esopus Spitzenburg Rhode Island Greening 220 at a place known as Green's End, where a Mr. Green kept a tavern and raised apple trees from seed. The fruit of the tree was occasionally given to visitors at the tavern, and the came back in succeeding springs asking for grafts from the tree started the Greening on its two centuries of success. Its fame soon spread throughout the northeast. It is a long-lived and sturdy, wide-spreading tree. One tree cut down in 1903 was known to be nearly 200 years old. The fruit is large; the skin, grass green varying to dull yellow, sometimes with a cinnamon blush on the sun side. It is an inferior apple to eat raw, but in many households in the northeast it still reigns supreme as a cooking apple. Less tart than either the Spy or the Spitzenburg, it has a unique mellow flavor that any apple fancier can detect at once in a pie or in applesauce. Other old varieties have disappeared completely. I doubt that one can now find a Russet, except in an arboretum of old varieties of apples. Yet the Russet was once one of the commonest varieties. A smaller apple, dull green with russet flaking on its skin, rock hard until midwinter, it was actually a mediocre apple both for eating raw and for cooking. Its virtue lay in its keeping ability. In the days before refrigeration it was one of the apples that could be shipped long distances. With modern shipping under refrigeration that quality was no longer as important, and the Russet disappeared. The Red Astrachan is another important apple that has almost disappeared with the demise of the home orchard and the reliance upon commercial plantings. Once again, no farm orchard of my childhood would have been without a Red Astrachan tree. It is a Russian apple, imported first to Sweden, thence to England, and thence before 1835 into the United States by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society from the London Horticultural Society. It is one of the early ripening apples known as \"harvest apples\", and the most important of this group. In central New York State it ripens about the middle of August, sometimes earlier. It has no keeping ability. Two days after it is ripe it begins to deteriorate unless put under refrigeration. A medium-sized apple with a fiery red skin and much too tart for eating raw, it vies with the Spitzenburg and the Greening for cooking. Of all apples, it makes the best jelly or marmalade. Both in jelly and in applesauce made by cooking with the skin and straining, the red color of the skin comes through as a bright pink in the finished product. Its flavor both in pies and in applesauce is as good as one can find. Its lack of keeping ability makes it a complete loss for the modern commercial markets, original visitors who 221 but it remains a most valuable variety for anybody with a home orchard. It can be kept under refrigeration over the winter, but it must be used immediately when brought into warmth. I know one home owner who puts a couple of bushels in refrigeration each summer simply for the joy of having Red Astrachan pie and applesauce the next spring; its freshly made applesauce, when canned, will hold its taste for a year with little deterioration. The tree is unfortunately a biennial bearer, but there are two varieties extant, completely similar except for the fact that their bearing years alternate with each other so that with sufficient room one can have a tree of each and have Red Astrachans apples are disappearing as home orchards disappear. Commercially they are valueless, since once ripe they will not keep long enough to be displayed anywhere except on an orchard's roadside stand. But in the days before refrigeration, when the winter apples had gone by the next May, they were an important summer delight. And even now their loss means the loss of the flavor of a fresh apple in midsummer, for the refrigerated apples now sold in midsummer are flat to the taste. The earliest of the harvest apples was the Yellow Transparent, which sometimes began to ripen by the Fourth of July. It was another Russian apple, this one imported directly from Russia by the USDA in 1870. It is a medium-sized, butter yellow apple, juicy and pleasant to the taste, but quickly becoming mushy and dry. For cooking it is not sufficiently tart and holds no form. The tree, however, is an annual and heavy bearer. It is still available at some fruit nurseries. A better variety in our area was a slightly larger and whiter apple known locally as White Transparent. I have been unable to trace this, unless it is the variety called Early Harvest in Beach's Apples of New York. If so it was an American apple, and was in 1903 already over 100 years old. Its liability was that it was a biennial bearer. One of the common harvest apples, the Sweet Bough, belonged also to that group known as \"sweet apples\". The sweet apples are all, as the name implies, without tartness, and though many of them are fine for eating raw, they are valueless for every summer. All of the harvest applesauce coring, or pies. They were cooked, however, by quartering, and then boiling them with plenty of sugar, either with or without the skins, for an hour or two over a low flame. Cooked so, they made a fine, sweet dessert. 222 I have not seen a Sweet Bough for years, though I think I have seen a listing of it in a nursery catalogue. It was, as I remember it, a good-sized green apple with a golden tint, and probably its main distinction was in being a sweet apple that ripened so early. It was an American variety, on the scene before 1817. Two other sweet apples used to be common. The Pound Sweet, listed officially as the Pumpkin Sweet, vied among apples for size with the Tompkins King. It is a good eating apple, but it has the unfortunate habit of waterlogging. The flesh of the sections around the core, and sometimes of almost the whole apple, are transformed into a translucent golden green, which however does not seem to change its taste. The other common sweet apple was the Tolman Sweet, which was a small, butter yellow apple with faint russet dots. Being small it was used not only for boiling but for pickling. And since the tree is very hardy, it was at one time used extensively as a grafting stock. The Tompkins King, which I have mentioned, is not a sweet apple, but it is the largest apple I have ever seen, specimens often being as big around as the largest grapefruit. It is a showy apple, its skin red with sunlight yellow shining through. Eaten raw it has a pleasant tart taste, not distinctive, and it is not sufficiently tart to be a good cooking apple. As a tree it was considered desirable because its limbs grew out horizontally and needed little pruning, also it is a goad annual bearer. It originated as a seedling in northern New Jersey, but a graft of it was given to one Jacob Wycoff of Tompkins County, N.Y., who gave it the name of King. The rise and fall in popularity of certain strains of apples is curious. I have said that the Spitzenburg was considered indispensable for the home orchard of the turn of the century. Another apple of the same strain, the Baldwin, was in 1903 the leading variety in commercial orchards in New York, New England, southern Canada, Michigan, and northern Ohio. It originated shortly after 1740 as a chance seedling on the farm of John Ball, at Wilmington, Mass., near Lowell. It was by no means as good an apple as the Spitzenburg, but it was a larger apple, an easier tree to grow, and as a keeper sufficiently good that it was used for export trade along with the Russet, even before refrigeration. The fruit is large to very large, the skin tough, light yellow blushed with bright red, with conspicuous gray dots. The prevailing effect is bright red, but darker than the Spitzenburg. Sweet Bough Yellow Transparent Tompkins King Tolman Sweet 224 I The flesh is yellowish, firm, crisp, and juicy. Though neither raw nor cooked is it as good an apple as the Spitzenburg, it is nevertheless an all around good usable apple. But I think that no variety has disappeared so rapidly and so completely as the Baldwin. The strain that supplanted it was the Fameuse strain, which had dawdled for 200 years without much success. The Fameuse, more commonly known in the United States as the Snow, was a French apple, of which either a plant or seed was brought to the United States from France in the late 1600's. The Snow is a very small apple; red, with glistening white flesh filled with juice; delicious to eat but of little value for cooking. It was sparingly planted in home orchards. Then sometime before 1870 the strain yielded a chance seedling on the McIntosh homestead in Dundas County, Ontario, and that chance seedling, the McIntosh, was destined to change the commercial production of all the northeastern United States. Its popularity grew slowly at first, and then with a rush. In my childhood there was not a single McIntosh apple tree in the Schoharie Valley of New York, then a high producing apple section. It was, I think, about 1915 that the McIntosh apple first began to appear in the city markets, and once there it became the apple that everybody wanted. Part of its immediate success may have been its novelty to its public, which had not known so beautiful a red apple; one so tender and with so much juice, so good to the taste. It had, and has, its liabilities. In spite of being a.z apple beautiful to look at and delicious to bite into, its skin is annoyingly tough; it keeps very poorly; and when cooked it goes to complete mush, although good tasting mush. It has managed to hold its own all during the middle of the century. Its place is now being superseded by an apple of the same strain, the Cortland, which keeps and ships better than the McIntosh, but unfortunately has lost the edge of sharp taste which kept the Fameuse strain alive those 200 years. One variety that as far as I know never reached commercial importance and yet was fairly common in home orchards was the Yellow Bellflower. Locally in central New York it was known as the White Spitzenburg, perhaps because it had the same ribbed semi-conic shape of the Spitzenburg. It may have had an origin from French seed, since the name was sometimes given as Bellefleur, but the original tree, large and old, was in 1817 still standing on a farm in Burlington County, N.J. The tree is large and vigorous. The fruit, lemon to butter yellow, russet-dotted, sometimes with a pinking cheek, ripens 225 in October; but even then it is not at its best. Of all the old apples, like the Russet it is one of the best keepers, but unlike the Russet, its flavor improves during the keeping, and is at its best after being stored in the cellar until March or April of the next spring. It is then a delicious eating apple, with a mellow taste equal in quality to the taste of a cooked Greening. Neither taste has ever, as far as I know, been duplicated in other apples. But I speak actually from little knowledge. The 1845 catalogue of the Prince Nursery on Long Island offered 350 varieties of apples, including already the Baldwin. Three hundred and fifty varieties: Think of the different tastes one will never know, the fascinating names of apples never to be tasted; the Fallawater, whose only claim to distinction seems to have been its size, the Black Gilliflower, a long red apple with a pointed nose. Perhaps the Black Gilliflower is the apple I knew as the Sheep's Nose, though our Sheep's Nose was more green than red, with dull reddish streaks, and a solid somewhat mealy flesh. It was probably an ancestor of the modern Red Delicious, for it was as dry to the lips and as insipid to the tongue; its only distinction being its strange shape. One variety that I have never been able to identify surely was the apple called locally the Pomeroy, though I assume that this was the anglicized version of Pomme Roy, an apple long thought to be French but later believed to have originated in Rhode Island before the Revolution. I remember it only as a pale yellow apple, mild, delicious to eat raw, but the last tree I knew disappeared 60 years ago. One wonders why certain varieties ever became popular. The Hubbardston, originating in Hubbardston, Mass., before 1832, was never more than a mediocre apple, yet it still lingers in a few orchards. Perhaps the low mark of the old varieties that were once much planted was the Ben Davis; a beautiful apple to look at, brilliant red and shining, but inside dry, coarse, and tasteless. A great many of small commercial orchards got stuck with the Ben Davis, having planted good stands of the new and much touted variety, and brought them to production only to find that buyers bought the fruit one year and never again. There was nothing then to do but tear the trees out and replace with another variety. On the other hand there are, I am sure, many local varieties that still remain popular in their own localities. The Smokehouse is one of these, named from an original tree that grew near a smokehouse on the farm of William Gibbons, Lancaster County, Penna. It is still a popular late, Yellow Bellflower Baldwin Black Gilliflower Hubbardston 227 apple throughout the Pennsylvania Dutch section, but never seems to have been good enough to extend its range. The sad fact we must face is that, as in pears, we have let the gene pool grow limited. Intensive breeding primarily for commercial purposes, and the disappearance of home orchards may already have limited the possibilities for future development. Unless the apple is going to become a standardized mediocre fruit, the main emphasis on future development should be toward taste. What we need now are apples that will bear annually, keep well, ship well, look beautiful in a supermarket bin, and at the same time taste as good as a Northern Spy or a Spitzenburg. If we cannot do that, then we have failed. And I must confess that I am equally worried over the modem practices of culture, once again geared only to commerce. Because labor is expensive and an apple grower wants to make money, he keeps down weeds with chemicals, kills the pests with chemicals, thins the fruit with chemicals. All of these go into the soil, thousands of tons of them annually. Who has studied the effect this may have on the soil of the future, on the drainage water of the future, on the water springs of the future, on the health of men in the future? Perhaps the apple growers and the university agronomists had better pay more attention to Rachel Carson FRED LAPE Director, George Landis Arboretum Esperance, New York Notes The best source of information on old varieties of apples is The New York by S. A. Beach, published in Albany, N.Y., in 1905, as Part II of the Annual Report of the New York Agricultural Experimental Station for 1903. ` Apples of The illustrations in this article and II of the above. are reproduced from Volumes I "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Afterthoughts on Apples","article_sequence":2,"start_page":228,"end_page":230,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24612","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170896b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wadleigh, Jeanne S.","article_content":"Some Afterthoughts on Apples Apples were grown almost exclusively for cider making until the advent of the temperance movemem in the 1830's. Consumed by rich and poor alike, the refreshing beverage also served as currency and from earliest colonial days provided a principal item of export to the southern colonies and the West Indies. According to U. P. Hedrick, author of A History ofHorticulture in America to 1860, the product sold as 'cider' was always hard cider; freshly extracted juice was offered as 'sweet apple juice'. Many bought the latter to age according to their individual tastes. Although the commercial demand for cider declined as a result of the temperance reformation and many orchards were destroyed, interest in home production continued unabated, judging from the lively correspondence to be found on the subject in various early gardeners' journals. Advocates of abstinence branded the golden liquid unsafe, unwholesome, and nonnutritious, while health faddists attributed laudable properties to it in the treatment of such disorders as dyspepsia, biliousness, and even alcoholism. 228 229 in W. F. Heins of Paterson, N. J., writing in The Horticulturist 1868, had these directions to offer the home brewer: A good and pure article of cider requires but little labor in its manufacture. The apples are gathered before they are fully mature, and placed in a cool, dark room ... for about a week then take two thirds tart and one third sweet apples, rejecting carefully any that have appearance of decay; put them in a tub of water, to free them from dirt ... then grind to pulp. To avoid particles of fruit getting into the juice, a clean, coarse bag is put into the press to receive the pulp. Fill the receiver with pulp, close the bag, and apply the screw gradually until the juice ceases to run freely. After waiting five minutes, apply strong pressure, and press all out. For barrels, those used for whisky or alcohol answer well ... The barrels should be placed in an airy and cool cellar, on skids, and are then ready for the juice as fast as it comes from the press. When full, the holes are closed with corks, in which are inserted glass tubes of an inch in diameter, made air-tight at their insertion by sealing-wax. A cup, or other vessel, filled with water, is placed under the free end of the tube, which should be covered by the water at least one and a half inches. Fermentation will soon begin, and violently at first. The water in the cup must be replaced as evaporation takes place ... to prevent air coming in contact with the liquor in the cask. The tubes are not removed from the casks until the bubbling in the water cups entirely ceases, The nearly clear liquor is then drawn off carefully avoidinto new ones ... filling the casks ing shaking the casks full. To have a supply, to keep the barrels continually full to the bung, which is a matter of the first importance, some of the cider is put into small casks, turned over, that the contents may cover the bung, to prevent acidity. During the following autumn, about the end of October, the cider is again drawn off into prepared barrels kept always full, and in the following spring it is ready for bottling, and will keep for years. ... - ... - a By contrast, this entry in a late simple receipt for unfermented Cider should be made from reason, and to 19th century cook book offers cider: ripe apples only, and for this to make it late in the season. Use only the best-flavored grafted fruit, rejecting all that are decayed or wormy. The best mills crush, not grind, the apples ... Press and strain juice as it comes from the press through a woollen cloth into a perfectly clean barrel; let stand two or three days if cool, if warm not more than a day, rack once a week for four weeks, put in bottles and cork tightly. Do not put any thing in it to preserve it, as all so-called preservatives are humbugs. Lay the bottles away on their sides in prevent fermentation, it is better sawdust. Home cider making panied by a volume of enjoying a modest revival, accomdisparate directions. In the interest of is 230 one might be well-advised to first consult the USDA Farmers' Bulletin No. 2125 (revised 1972), \"Making and Preserving Apple Cider\". Through the joint efforts of the Worcester County Horticultural Society and Old Sturbridge Village, selected old varieties of apples are to be perpetuated in a preservation orchard at the Village. A tract of land has been cleared for the project which was launched officially at dedication ceremonies this spring. Presently about 90 varieties have been planted of stock moved from the Society's North Grafton experimental orchard established 20 years ago by S. Lothrop Davenport, former Secretary of the organization. The search continues for additional old varieties to expand the collection at Sturbridge. As the trees mature, scion wood and bud sticks from them will be available through the Society to supplement that which they sell from their original orchard. The fruit from the preservation orchard will be sold at Old quality control, Sturbridge Village. For a list of nurseries specializing in under stock of old varieties of apples, consult the Society (30 Elm Street, Worcester, Massachusetts 01608). JEANNE S. WADLEIGH "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection","article_sequence":3,"start_page":231,"end_page":234,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24616","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14eab26.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Spongberg, Harmony C.","article_content":"The Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection Mr. Ralph F. Perry cabinet stands against the east wall of the lecture in the Arnold Arboretum's administration building in Jamaica Plain. The one hundred-plus drawers comprising this cabinet are each 11\/2 inches high, 61\/2 inches wide, and 131\/2 inches deep. The drawer fronts attract the eye because each has a distinctive wood pattern, and the total effect of the patterns creates a pleasing design. It also arouses one's curiosity. In late October of 1972 a group of sixth graders from Quincy visited the Aboretum to do bark rubbings of some trees on the grounds. Each student was equipped with five or six grades of paper and fists full of crayons. Before beginning their endeavors on the grounds, the students were brought by their teacher into the building where they assembled in the lecture room to look at the photographs on the walls, the slide display cases, and, perhaps most importantly, to discover the wooden cabinet. I happened to be in the room at the time solely to observe the children's discoveries. Investigating the cabinet, they were surprised and pleased to find bark and wood specimens in the drawers. Obviously old enough to have acquired some knowledge about plant names, the youngsters attempted to locate, let us say, an oak, a birch, and a maple specimen. After the Quincy questers left for the grounds, I sat down in front of the cabinet and selected some of the drawers at random. I studied the wood specimens and the information in each of the drawers I examined. Before I realized it, I was knee deep in drawers and records. A solitary room 231 232 I Ralph F. Perry Wood Collection cabinet is arranged alphabetically by genera; a generic index, common name index (both in lists and charts), and a card catalogue allow for locating particular drawers. The sheer amount of research entailed and the information compiled, let alone the labor and craftsmanship required to organize such a collection, motivated me The about Mr. Perry. F. Perry lived in Watertown and was an electrical Ralph draftsman for the Cambridge Gas and Electric Company. His job kept him outdoors a good deal as he was present during tree removal at construction sites where he collected specimens of the felled trees. In the early 1950's after his retirement, Mr. Perry worked constantly on further collections for, and construction of, his wood cabinet and the preparations of the specimens and the information to be contained in each drawer. His hobby demanded long hours, determination, and devotion. His efforts and meticulous work gained him a goodly amount of recognition. He lectured, appeared on television, and established a wood exchange program with people in foreign countries. One arrival, from a contact in Africa, was a shipment of small wooden blocks. Unfortunately, Mr. Perry's health was on the decline at the time, and he was unable to do any extensive research on these blocks. His great-grandchildren use them as to learn more toys today. sorely failing health, Mr. Perry was a perfectionist. By reading portion of the printed explanation that accompanies the collection, one gains a better understanding of his personality and his execution of the project. Even with a few questions before you ask them. No other coloring material of any sort has dye, stain, filler, been used on any of these wood specimens. After careful examination of wood specimens in a dozen of the best museums in the East and consultations with the curator staffs, the method of treatment that leaves them in the most nearly natural color and texture and still assures the least change thru what is called ageing over the passage of years has been chosen. \"After very careful and thoro (sic) sanding to produce a smooth and flat surface all of the specimens in the wood trays have been treated with two coats of the finest quality of clear white shellac, each coat very carefully sanded. That is all. This is the process used by the Furniture Museum, Grand Rapids, \"Let us answer a or Michigan. \"The FRONTS of the trays and the Veneer Panels have re- 233 above, then three coats of the varnish has been applied, the first two with very fine sandpaper, the final coat rubbed with pumice stone and water, then with rotten stone and oil, approximating the finish of fine furniture. \"The NAME at the top of the card is the common name most generally accepted; the second line is the botanical or scientific name. Following that is the original home of the tree, the weight of a cubic foot of the wood and its specific gravity, and finally a very short condensed story, giving a description or interesting facts. \"The WEIGHTS and specific gravities, so far as the trays are concerned, are for these individual specimens, computed very accurately by laboratory methods. While they follow fairly well those given by authorities, there are differences; many of them being a little heavier. Every piece of wood here has been seasoned, aged, or cured, whichever you desire to call it, for twelve months or more from the time of cutting, in (a) dry, warm storeroom, before being finished up as specimens. In reweighing it has been found that some of the specimens will gain or lose as much as two per cent in weight with the variations in prevailing humidity. The weights and specific gravities of the Veneers are those credited by the best authorities, because they could not be derived from these very thin pieces. \"The PIECE in the lower left corner of the tray is 'quartersawed' and shows the wood perpendicular to the grain; the piece in the lower right is 'slab-sawed' showing the wood parallel to the grain or nearly so. The square immediately below the label is a cross-section; the upper right is the bark, showing that part of the tree that we all may see as it is growing ...\" Upon examining the collection at the Arboretum, one will discover that each drawer front is a piece of wood of the same type as is found in the tray. This explains the varied tonal pattern of the whole cabinet front. The visitor also can absorb a great deal of information from the cards in the drawers. Each drawer has a portion or all of a 3 x 5 index card glued to the bottom, while all the wood specimens are rivetted to the bottoms of the drawers. Mr. Perry clearly intended his collection to survive any mishandling! Someone browsing through the cabinet can locate a grass that is used for water pipes, wood that is used for shuttles in textile mills and golf club heads, and note drastic differences between the wood and bark of a street grown Ash (Fraxinus) and a park grown Ash. Further looking will reveal a sample of a ceived the same treatment as highest grade, clearest carefully rubbed down 234 tree that grows in salt water, wood that is most prized for musical instruments, and (without opening a drawer!) the foulest smelling wood in the collection. Other information on the cards includes interesting historical facts. Some, relating to plant names, tell us that Magnolia, Halesia, and Wisteria were named for the 17th century botanical professor, Pierre Magnol, the English botanist, Stephen Hales, and the 18th century physician and anatomist of Philadelphia, Caspar Wistar, respectively. In addition there are references to trees with significant associations in religious history, those that serve as state trees, and a dozen other items of interest. Donated by Mr. Perry's family in 1968, the collection of cabinet specimens and the separate collection of wood veneers, are a comprehensive source of historical, sociological, and economic information illustrating the importance of the plant world. Above and beyond that, the cabinet is impressive to look at and a skillful and thorough creation. The Arboretum is most fortunate to have received this gift. HARMONY C. SPONGBERG "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Struggle for Survival","article_sequence":4,"start_page":235,"end_page":238,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24613","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14ea36f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Struggle for Survival In nature's scheme of things many remarkable designs have been evolved for the dispersal of seeds as they ripen. Fleshy fruits containing seeds which are dependent on birds and animals for dispersal change to a wide range of colors enticing to those responsible for their distribution. The pulp provides food to the vector which in turn carries the seeds about in its digestive system until they are expelled in its droppings. In this way the seeds are scattered about the countryside. Fruits with seeds which rely on the wind for dispersal undergo changes that prepare them for this manner of dissemination. Weight is reduced and the seed coats and wings harden as water is decreased in their structures. Such fruits are functional in design and illustrate nature's way of getting the seeds away from the parent plant. Large trees which have produced prodigious numbers of seeds throughout their lives may never reproduce themselves, however. Competition for space in nature is uncompromising and fierce, and existing sites are frequently inhospitable. In 1954, a south-bound off ramp was cut through a granite mass at the intersection of Routes 128 and 109 in Westwood, Massachusetts. This led to a roadway running between two ledges about 25 feet tall. The following list* shows nine species of woody plants that have germinated and continued to grow in the fissures and on the small shelves of this forbidding location. (Figure $~ 1 ) Four are subjects whose seeds are normally dispersed by wind, while five are carried by birds. Dispersal Acer rubrum (Red Maple) Betula lenta (Cherry Birch) Betula populifolia (Gray Birch) Populus tremuloides (Quaking Aspen) Bird Dispersal Juniperus virginiana (Red Cedar) Malus species (Apple) 235 Wind 1 Fig. top left 2 Fig. bottom left 3 Fig. above 238I Sambucus canadensis Sassafras albidum (Sassafras) Vaccinium angustifolium (Lowbush blueberry) Figure #2 - shows birch trees growing in seams of the rock, apparently in the absence of soil. Moisture and nutrients reach the roots by seeping down through the fissures. Figure $f 3 - shows a birch tree growing in a small pocket. Decayed vegetable matter has accumulated at its base in sufficient amount to form a growing medium capable of supporting a fruiting plant of lowbush blueberry (Vaccinium angustif olium ) . demonstrate the wide range of tolerate. Stone is a dense medium and one that conducts heat readily. This ledge faces south-east and is of a color that absorbs heat from the sun; during a sunny summer day temperatures in the root areas might well be many degrees above 100 F. Conversely, during periods of cold in winter temperatures in the root zones would approximate those of the surrounding atmosphere and could be many degrees below zero. ALFRED J. FORDHAM The plants on the ledge temperatures which their roots can ~` Determination verified by Miss Ida Hay of the Arnold Arboretum staff. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arboretum's Labels: A Valuable Teaching Aid","article_sequence":5,"start_page":239,"end_page":244,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24614","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d14ea728.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Link, Jack","article_content":"The Arboretum's Labels: A Valuable Teaching Aid The living collections of the Arnold Arboretum are used by visitors for diverse purposes which range from sheer enjoyment to serious study. An understanding of the labeling system can greatly increase the pleasures and benefits to be derived, for we try to keep every shrub and tree accurately identified, and to include such other information as may be pertinent. Sometimes this additional data recalls a tale of adventure harking back to the earliest plant explorations, or attests to a nearly extinct species. Starting down the meadow road, one is immediately aware of the large metal trunk labels found on most mature trees. These labels provide us with the scientific name (Latin name), common name, and native land of the specimen. The metal collection, on low shrubs, and many specialized plantings give the same information. stand labels used in the shrub in To understand the Latin nomenclature one must have an idea of how the system of plant classification works. The entire plant kingdom has been divided into distinct groups called families; each of these, in turn is divided into subgroups called genera. A genus often contains many species, and a species may be further differentiated by varietal or cultivar names. A family has some characteristic (or characteristics) which allow it to , be separated from all other families. Likewise all genera within a family (and all species within each genus) are differentiated from each other by distinguishing traits. The working of this step-down classification system is similar to the relationship between the following pairs of words: Tool, saw, and keyhole saw. The general denomination tool refers to a large number of items; in order to be more exact, we refer to a certain type of tools as saws, having a more restricted , definition. Finally, we have a keyhole saw, referring to a specific type of saw (or perhaps we will have to be even more exact a red keyhole saw). In the same way, the more completely a plant is named, the - 239 240 more exacting are the characteristics by which it is defined. It is useful to note here the differences between a cultivar and a variety. A variety is a population of plants which occurs naturally in the wild, which is slightly different from the rest of the species but not enough so to be considered a species itself. Cultivars, on the other hand, are plants which come from an individual variant of a species that has been propagated, generally to maintain a particular characteristic. A cultivar name is always enclosed in single quotation marks. A common name also is often noted on the labels but this is a very inaccurate index since the same plant may have many different names in different countries throughout the world. Paradoxically, the same common name is sometimes given to several different plants. Common names are provided primarily for public interest and play no real part in the Arboretum's work. If a plant originates from one particular area of the world, occurring naturally in the wild, we try to note this on the label also. For example it is fascinating to observe all the kinds that have come from the Orient and which do so well in our New England climate. Wooden labels which hang from a branch or limb are placed on smaller trees and most shrubs. There also are plastic engraved labels in several specialized collections. These generally provide the same information as the trunk labels but also may carry additional notations which will help us in knowing a plant more completely. The lilac collection often has notes as 'One of the best early magenta varieties', and the tree peony collection has all the Japanese names translated into English ('Tatioshishi' means 'Lion with a Standing Tail' for example). In addition to the various display labels which I have just mentioned, small metal labels are placed on every specimen. These hold the key to understanding the Arboretum's living collection in depth. In the three lines of print that the typewriterlike machine (called an addressograph) can emboss on the zinc tape, we concentrate the accession number and year of accession, scientific name, propagation technique, and source from whence the plant came. Except in the case of large mass plantings of one type of plant, each tree and shrub should have one of these tags; unfortunately this is not always possible what with the ravages of Mother Nature and the increasing amount of vandalism. In the collection we do not limit ourselves just to the name of the plant for identification, but have a numbering system so each can be treated as an individual. Upon arrival at the Arboretum every plant (or seed, cutting, etc.) is given a number which is known as its accession number. For the first 45 years plants were numbered sequentially from 1 (the first plant) to 23000; in 1917 the accessioning system was changed to a number-year unit. Thus the number 443-26 would be the 443rd plant (or group of plants) received in 1926. If more than one plant is covered by the accession number, then the individual plants are designated by letters which come after the number. In the case of the Stewartia in the illustration we find that plant 11440-A is located in a specific spot on the map lla, whereas its brother plant 11440-B is found elsewhere on the grounds. Following the scientific name is an abbreviation which tells how the specimen was received, and from this we can tell how it was propagated. The following abbreviations are the most commonly used: ,. sd .. germinated plants collected . sdlg . ct or rc ... or from seeds received as seedlings a rooted cutting gr - or sc rtc or rp lyr bd. a grafted plant plants propagated from root cuttings plants propagated by layering plants propagated by budding (a type of grafting) . 242 These notations are important for our field work. The pruners know if a plant has been grafted, for they need to remove any suckers from below the graft union so that the understock does not take over the named plant. Also any plants that are grown from seeds or seedlings must be checked before they are put on the grounds. This is necessary because a seed may be a hybrid and one often cannot tell until the plant is a good size if it is true to its parent. Always of interest is the plant's source which also is noted on the tag. The Arboretum receives plants, seeds, and cuttings from other arboreta, nurseries, botanical gardens, and individuals from all over the world, and from expeditions into remote areas by famous explorers like Wilson and Rock. The metal labels shown above, for example, identify plants which were found in the Orient by the Arboretum sponsored expeditions and were the first of their variety in the United States. If a plant is derived from another plant already in the collection, the parent plant's accession number is given. If a plant comes from outside of the U.S., the country of origin is noted on the label. The entire Arboretum is mapped in detail and when a tree or shrub is planted it is immediately added to the maps. This is not only important for quickly locating a given plant, but also to expedite relabeling when a tag is lost or removed. Since most plants of one family or genus are grouped together on the Arboretum grounds, the laborious job of scientifically identifying the specimen in question is thus eliminated. One of the most important functions of the Arboretum over must 244 the last century has been the introduction of new plants into cultivation in the United States. Many of the most popular and interesting items in the commercial trade were either discovered on plant expeditions or introduced from European or Oriental sources, first into the Arboretum's collections and then to the public. The grounds have many living specimens which were the first of their name to be grown in the United States. The Paperbark Maple, Dove tree, and Silk tree on Bussey Hill are examples of just such individuals. These plants (and all plants that represent Arboretum introductions) are marked with yellow tags that read 'Introduced into the U.S. by the Arnold Arboretum'. Those students of plant history will be especially interested in any plants with a metal tag that simply says 'Type'. In horticulture and taxonomy the process of designating a plant as a new and distinct entity requires publication of a complete description in the literature (as in Arnoldia for example). The individual tree or shrub on which this description is based is called the 'Type Plant'. The Arboretum has many of these specimens and also many accessions that are cuttings from 'Type' plants and therefore carry the same characteristics. Around the Administration Building are located Magnolia 'Merrill', Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise', Magnolia stellata 'Centennial', and Hamamelis vernalis, all of which are original 'Type plants'. After one has obtained all the information from the tags that seems to suit his needs, it also would be wise to step back three or four paces and take a look at the sort of micro-climate in which the specimen has been planted. When plants are moved from the nurseries to the permanent collections they are always placed with an eye toward creating a beautiful display; but at the same time each plant is put in a spot where the horticulturists think it will find positive growing conditions. An understanding of the Arboretum's labeling system permits a self-guided tour of the living collections, preferably with notebook as well as camera in hand. Each visitor then has the opportunity to increase his knowledge as fully as his interests lead him, for the library, herbarium, and staff members also are available as further resources. JACK LINK Aquilegia Photo: P. Bruns "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":245,"end_page":247,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24611","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d1708926.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"News from the Arnold Arboretum As of January 1, 1974, contributions for regular member- in the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum will be increased to $15.00; other categories of membership will remain the same. The three issues of Arnoldia containing addresses and papers presented during the Centennial Week, May 21-28, 1972 have been assembled in a special commemorative volume just off the press. It is available to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum at ship $3.00, to others, $3.50. 246I Curatorial assistant Marilyn Gilmore gathers blossoms of Rhododendron Schlippenbachi for preservation by pickling. Photo: P. Bruns 247 Harry B. Hill planting houses. young trees in the east nursery at the Dana Green- Photo. P. Bruns "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":7,"start_page":248,"end_page":260,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24610","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170856d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Plants for Man. Robert W. Schery. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, Inc. 1972. 657 pages, illustrated. $15.95. \"Man-plant interdependency has existed since his advent. The interest in useful plants has shaped man and his civilization.\" With such a preface statement Dr. Schery has increased and modernized the coverage of the first edition to encyclopedic proportions and has proven his thesis. Several chapters are small essays on man's relationship with plants as well as his interest in and his use of plants and their parts and products. Material is presented under three primary headings: Products from the Plant Cell Wall, i.e. fibers and wood per se and cellulose compounds; Cell Exudates and Extractions, i.e. latex, tannins, oils and carbohydrates; and Plants and Plant parts used primarily for food and beverages. Data are given on the origin of many cultivated plants, the varieties that are now cultivated, the areas of cultivation, methods of harvest and the extraction or preparation of the marketed product. Scientific as well as common names are given and the appropriate plant family is indicated. Maps and charts, the latter often flow diagrams of commercial processes, are useful and the illustrations are abundant. A few plates from commercial sources were originally used as colored advertisements and these do not reproduce well and seem out of place in this book. The topics to be covered are so numerous that often lists with abbreviated commentary are used to supplement the data presented on the principal plants of economic importance. A bibliography of additional titles supplements each chapter and references to scientific papers adapted as illustrations or tables accompany the text material permitting further reading course or checking. can be recommended as a text for a and it also should have an appeal botany as a handy source book for the frequent questions concerning the products of a grocery store. It is indeed the best reference volume with up-to-date coverage now available. Plants for Man certainly in economic 248 249 Fly catcher (Sarracenia flava). From Native Flora of the Golden Isles. Native Flora of the Golden Isles. Gladys Fendig and Esther Stewart. Jesup, Ga.: Sentinel Print. 1970. 147 pages, illustrated. $2.50. Although the proceeds from the sale of this book are to be used for a worthy cause the development of the Botanic I can hardly recommend Garden at the University of Georgia it. Though meant to be an identification guide to the flora of the Sea Islands of Georgia, the drawings are stylized and hardly diagnostic, and a beginner would have a hard time recognizing many of the plants. In addition, the paper is of poor quality and the drawings show through from one side of the leaves to the other. This book is neither beautiful nor useful a great pity, since the flora it supposedly depicts is an exciting one. R. E. W. - - - 250 Flora of the Galapagos Islands. Ira L. Wiggins and Duncan M. Porter. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford University Press. 1971. 998 pages, 96 color photographs, 268 line figures, 170 range maps. $37.50. This is the first really comprehensive taxonomic coverage of the plant life of the Galapagos. No algae, fungi, bacteria, liverworts or mosses are included; but the flora includes every vascular plant, whether native or introduced, known to occur in these islands. Apparently what does not grow there is as startling as what does. It may not seem too strange that there are no native conifers or members of the rose family but it is odd that native members of the lily or arum families are missing. Perhaps the most puzzling fact is that despite hundreds of miles of tropical shore lines there are no native palms. In fact, there are very few native monocots. Endemism is very high. About one-third of the species on these islands has originated there. One endemic genus, Scalesia, a relative of our sunflowers, holds a position botanically somewhat equivalent to Darwin's finches in the animal world. The several species scattered about most of the islands are of particular interest to students of evolution. Yet the story of Scalesia helleri is unfortunately all too familiar. Less than 70 years ago, a visitor noted it \"all over the Island\". Now the species is confined on the same island to a few plants clinging to crevices on vertical cliffs where goats, these islands' worst enexnies, cannot get to them. It will be unfortunate if this volume is confined to use by only the professional botanist. Anyone, just interested in these \"Enchanted Islands\", or planning a brief visit will find a very informative introduction in the book. It deals with the history, -` population changes, economy, physiography, geology, climate, soil zones, vegetation zones, and the history of botanical collections there. In addition to a nine page bibliography, an index to every taxonomic name and a glossary of all technical terms used in the book are included. Most of the excellent drawings are the work of Jeanne R. Janish and the senior author. Each genus represented in the archipelago is illustrated by a line drawing showing all parts of the plant, often accompanied by detailed drawings of one or more parts important in differentiating taxa. These infinitely strange, unforgettable islands have several things in common. They are all volcanic, isolated, and usually very dry. Most of them suffer from the introduction of once tame domestic animals that have now gone wild. There is little lush and beautiful here. Even Charles Darwin after collecting 251 plants on several of the islands stated, \"All the plants have a wretched, weedy appearance, and I did not see one beautiful flower.\" Cordia lutea with its abundant bright yellow flowers, at least one species of wild cotton, and a morning glory or two could be considered exceptions. The authors are fully justified in stating that \"Darwin found much in the Islands to stimulate theoretical bent. We would hope that this account of the plant life of the Islands will, in some similar fashion, be found challenging beyond its basic purpose.\" , G. H. P. ~ Everybody's Ecology. Clay Schoenfeld. South Brunswick and N.Y.: A. S. Barnes Co., Inc. 1971. 316 pages. $7.95. The author hails from in Wisconsin, and writes about his most favorite topic Wisconsin. Conservation efforts to save the earth from gasping to death are world wide. Ecological problems are not unique to Wisconsin. Mr. Schoenfeld tells the reader of some of his outdoor adventures that are strangely akin to something one might read in Field and Stream. He writes with vivid nostalgia about his favorite boating lake. There is a decided those-were-the-good old-days tone in all these accounts. Pages 210-273 constitute a report from Sammy Squirrel, whom the reader discovers is the \"legislative representative\" for the Southern Wisconsin (where else!) Alliance of Fur, Fin, and Feathers (SWAFFF). Despite the above, Mr. Schoenfeld is genuinely concerned about the world and its protection. Everybody's Ecology is not a handbook of formulas, answers, and theories; it is a volume of reminiscences, hopes, and fears. Feelings and attitudes are expressed in a bitter, wry, wistful, amusing, and perturbing way. H. C. S. The title of this book is in misleading. - Wisconsin, works Wisconsin, vacations 252 Claytonia megarhiza, alpine spring beauty. From Rocky Mountain Flora. Rocky Mountain Flora (Revised Field Edition). William A. Weber Boulder, Colorado: Colorado Associated University Press. 1972. 438 pages, illustrated. $8.95. This guide to the flora of the Colorado Front Range is essentially a reprint of the 1967 edition but in a smaller format (so as to be more conveniently used in the field), with the addition of a few colored plates. According to the author, the book is designed to be used by both specialists and amateurs, but I would expect that only quite a serious amateur would find it very effective. The keys, including the one to family, are relatively simple with a minimum of technical terminology and the glossary is well illustrated (although the illustration of a spicate inflorescence in both this and the 1967 edition is drawn with pedicellate flowers). However, since there are no figures of grass inflorescences and their parts, a beginner could not hope to do well in this large group of plants using this guide alone. The line drawings appear to be diagnostic, but there could be more of them, and it is a shame that the plants illustrated by means of colored photographs are duplicated in the drawings. R. E. W. 253 Plant Jewels of the High Country. Helen E. Payne. Medford, Ore.: Pine Cone Publishers. 1972. 145 pages, illustrated. $15.00. In America few plants are better known and loved than the \"Hens and Chicks\" and various sedums. So it is strange that this is the first book both to be written and published in the United States dealing exclusively with them. Once the gardener discovers that there is more than one kind of sempervivum and more than two or three kinds of sedums the desire to know more about these easily grown, tough plants is great. Helen Payne's book goes a long way in satisfying this wish. The taxonomic botanist can criticize this book from several standpoints. For example only a few authorities are given for the scientific names that are used. But Mrs. Payne points out that the book is not written for the botanist but for the gardener-grower. The author has been fortunate in being able to rely heavily on Dr. R. T. Clausen of Cornell University for help with sedums. Others are given credit for their assistance. With an approach that some may find a bit too homey, the author discusses these plants from the standpoints of mythology, supposed curative properties, culture, propagation, hybridization, pests, diseases, and their great variety of uses in gardens. At the end of the book a listing of seven \"Public Collections of Sedums and Sempervivums\" is given. The Arnold Arboretum collection is the only one listed for New England. This collection is not located in Jamaica Plain however, but is in the small rock garden in a part of the Arboretum known as the Case Estates in the town of Weston. The sizeable collection here of both sempervivums and sedums is mainly the result of extremely generous gifts from Mrs. Payne. Included in the book are a short bibliography, sources of plant material, 111 color plates, mostly of excellent quality, and descriptions of 187 species, sub-species, varieties and hybrids. The sempervivum clone 'Elene' is very special to Mrs. Payne. She modestly says, \"This sempervivum I named for myself, having neither chick (forgive the pun) nor child to carry on my name ... This is my one link with posterity.\" Certainly Mrs. Payne now has a second link the book, Plant Jewels of the - High Country. G. H. P. 254 Above: Allium schoenophrasum, chtves. Rtght: Borago officinalis, borage. Both from Gardening With Herbs For Flavor And Fragrance. Gardening With Herbs For Flavor and Fragrance. Helen MorCo. 1970. 334 Fox. New York: pages, illustrated. $4.50. genthau Sterling Publishing Those who sought Gardening it was With Herbs For Flavor and Fragrance when tion. literature on growing herbs in America consisted of a slender volume and some government pamphlets\". To correct this sad situation Mrs. Fox engaged in intelligent, intensive research, and three years of propagation, cultivation and harvesting. Her acknowledgments and bibliography indicate the dedication with which she embraced her work. out of print will rejoice in its republicaWhen Mrs. Fox wrote this book in 1933 the \"available 255 Her selection of 68 herbs is explained. Botanical and comare given. A concise description, history, legend, use and culture of the herbs is recorded. Suggestions are made for the planning and planting of a herb garden. Fifty-six interesting recipes are presented, and Mrs. Fox describes the exacting care with which they were tested, and finally tasted at her own dining table. A chapter on herb teas suggests combinations not generally known, and a section is devoted to recipes for potpourri, sachets and toilet preparations. For the beginner this book is a wonderful point of departure for herb adventures. For those who must garden vicariously it is a book for refreshment and dreaming. M. P. mon names 256 Herbicide Handbook of the Weed Society of America. 2nd edition. George E. Barrier and others. Geneva, N.Y.: W. F. Humphrey Press, Inc. 1970. 368 pages. $4.00. As stated in the preface to the first edition, \"It was thought that a single publication limited to herbicides and dessicants, but containing detailed physical, chemical and toxicological properties, would be of value to researchers, teachers and extension workers in the field of weed research\"; also, \"information on herbicidal use is kept to a minimum.\" Thus the practical information as to which material to use, at what strength and when and how to apply it to control specific weeds must be garnered from other sources. This book is a must for one requiring technical information on weed killers; but I would not recommend it even for the advanced amateur gardener. R. G. W. to the Ornamental Plants of the Northern United States Exclusive of Conifers. Arthur T. Viertel. Syracuse: Syracuse University Press. 1970. 593 figures. $3.95. Trees, Shrubs, and Vines: A Pictorial Guide Woody This guide is inexpensive and quite comprehensive. All the included are illustrated by means of line drawings, and species these are sensibly arranged according to leaf form. Unfortunately, few flowers and fruits are illustrated, and when they are, the drawings are generally poor. The major problem, however, is that the author has included too many species in the difficult groups, and the illustrations are just not adequate to permit identification. Trying to identify species of elms and lindens, for example, from leaf drawings is difficult to say the least, and yet nine of the former and eight of the latter are included. Even consulting the descriptions provided for each species at the back of the book is of little help in these cases. Besides being confusing, this is a waste of space. R. E. W. 257 Flowers of the Canyon Country. Stanley Utah: L. Welsh (text) and Bill Univer51 pages, illustrated. $3.95. Neither sufficiently sturdy nor of suitable format, this book is not meant for use in the field. Rather, it is an inexpensive, attractive book to be enjoyed in the home. A total of 101 species is illustrated by means of color photographs which often are both beautiful and diagnostic, although the color is too vibrant in a few cases. The text is interesting and informative. I would recommend this book to anyone who enjoys wildflowers, even if he never intends to visit the Canyon Country. R. E. W. Ratcliffe (photographs). Provo, (ix) Brigham Young sity Press. 1971. Brunnera macrophylla at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns 259 Aquilegia at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns Pulmonaria saccharata at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns Lilies at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23523","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070b76e.jpg","title":"1973-33-4","volume":33,"issue_number":4,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Francis Parkman as Horticulturist","article_sequence":1,"start_page":169,"end_page":183,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24605","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170b76d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Whitehill, Walter Muir","article_content":"Francis Parkman ----~ -- as - Horticulturist ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ --- (This address was presented on Sept. 26, 1972 as part of the \"Evening With Friends\" series at the Case Estates, Weston. It is published here in its entirety. Ed.) Samuel Eliot Morison, in the sketch that introduced The Parkman Reader, selected from the historical writings of Francis Parkman, remarked that \"it used to be a joke in Boston that visiting Englishmen and Frenchmen asked to be presented to Mr. Parkman the historian, while the first person whom visitors from the Netherlands wished to see was Mr. Parkman the horticulturist.\" This dual career sprang, in an unpredictable combination, from the unusual circumstances of Francis Parkman's life and health. He was born in Boston on 16 September 1823 into a family of old Puritan stock that was both solvent and cultivated. His father, Francis Parkman of the Harvard class of 1807, was from 1813 to 1849 minister of the New North Church in Hanover Street, the handsome Bulfinch meeting house that in 1862 became St. Stephen's Roman Catholic Church. This Unitarian clergyman, who was a Harvard Overseer from 1819 to 1849, received the honorary degree of S.T.D. from the University in 1834. As the North End was becoming unfashionable, he preferred to live near Bowdoin Square, where his father, Samuel Parkman, a substantial shipowner and East India merchant, had a spacious house and garden between Chardon and Green Streets. In 1835, after the death of his mother, the Reverend Francis Parkman took over his father's house. His son Francis Parkman was so high-strung a child that at the age of eight he was sent to live in Medford with his maternal grandfather, Nathaniel Hall, whose property adjoined the wild, rocky area that later became the Middlesex Fells Reservation. For four years the boy attended a local private school in Medford ; out of hours he roamed in the woods, trapped squirrel and woodchuck, and generally acquired a taste for the wilderness. Even when he returned to his family in Boston at the age of twelve, he had more of the outdoors around him than was usual in the city, for behind Samuel Parkman's house, to which 169 170 his parents soon moved, were extensive terraced gardens, devoted to the cultivation of fruit trees, especially the Bergamot pear. birthday in 1840 Francis Parkcollege with the class of 1844. He was a highly energetic, sociable, lively, and handsome young man. In later life his friends were struck by his resemblance to the Just before his seventeenth entered Harvard man of the Condottiere Colleoni; if one home one might suggest that he sought analogy had the pronounced jaw that characterizes many Saltonstalls. A member of an undergraduate literary club to which Parkman belonged recalled that he \"even then showed symptoms of 'Injuns on the brain.' His tales of border life, his wampum, scalps, and birch-bark were unsurpassed by anything in Cooper.\" Parkman himself recalled: \"All my summer vacations were passed in the forests chiefly those between Maine and Canada, or in Canada itself or else in examining the scenes of battles, raids, and skirmishes in the various French and Indian wars.\" As a sophomore he sought the advice of Professor Jared Sparks, the first teacher of American history at Harvard, on historical sources concerning the Seven Years' War. Thus, at eighteen, between forests and books, his thoughts \"crystallized into a plan of writing the story of what was then known as the 'Old French War,' that is, the war that ended in the conquest of Canada. ... My theme fascinated me, and I was haunted by wilderness images day and night.\" Soon he \"enlarged the plan to include the whole course of the American conflict between France and England, or, in other words, the history of the American forest.\" Parkman's zest for outdoor life led him during his summer wilderness holidays to feats of energy that wore out his companions. Such excess of activity, combined with hard study, having brought on a physical breakdown early in his senior year, his parents sent him to the Mediterranean for his health. Although he returned from Europe only in time to take final examinations, he received his A.B. on time in 1844, standing in the top third of his class and being elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He then entered the Harvard Law School, and received his LL.B. in 1846, fitting in between his two years of law a summer journey to the Great Lakes to see the physical scenes of the first book that he planned to write, The Conspiracy of Pontiac. Over forty years later he wrote: \"The best characteristic of my books is, I think, that their subjects were largely studied from real life.\" Venetian equestrian statue an closer to - Francis Parkman at 20 years of age. In May 1846 Parkman's cousin, Quincy A. Shaw, who was setting out on a hunting expedition in the Rocky Mountains, asked him to come along. The expedition, which gave Parkman adventure, acquaintance with a new frontier, and first hand sight of Sioux warriors on their own ground, provided unique experience with Indians and the wilderness. It also, through over-exertion, permanently undermined his health. By the time he returned home in October he was unable to use his eyes, and constantly suffered from insomnia and raging headaches. This second breakdown was particularly galling for a man who so prized robustness and strenuous activity. The remaining of his life were an unremitting struggle forty-seven years against the ills that he personified as \"the enemy\". Living in a darkened room, unable to read, he drafted the record of his Western travels with the help of a sister or friend who read his rough notes aloud and took down his dictation. So the account of this \"tour of curiosity and amusement\", which had had a serious purpose for him, reached book publication in 1849 as The Oregon Trail. Although \"for about three years, the light of day was insupportable, and every attempt at reading or writing completely debarred\", he bravely tackled The Conspiracy of Pontiac, relying upon faithful helpers to read him the as- 172 sembled sources and take down his drafts. Gradually \"the enemy\" retreated. By means of a frame with parallel wires placed over a sheet of paper, he became able to write slowly. In spite of these obstacles the book was completed in two years and a half, and published in two volumes in 1851, dedicated to his teacher Jared Sparks, by then president of Harvard. By 1850 Parkman's health had so improved that on 13 May he married Catherine Scollay, daughter of Dr. Jacob Bigelow of Boston. A daughter was born in 1851 and a son, Francis, in 1853. The marriage proved an extremely happy one. Although they started housekeeping with an annual income of only a few hundred dollars, their finances soon improved, for after the death of his father in 1852 Parkman inherited property that made him comfortably off the remainder of his life. He soon bought three acres of land on the shore of Jamaica Pond, where, in a relatively modest cottage, they lived in the late spring, summer, and autumn, returning to Boston only for the winter months. Yet \"the enemy\" plagued even this happy scene, for in the autumn of 1851 Parkman had had an attack of water on the left knee, which led to almost permanent lameness. To give him an interest that would occupy him when physical pain kept him from intellectual concentration, his wife as Henry Dwight Sedgwick noted in an early biography - \"had given - 173 him the suggestion, 'Frank, with all your getting, get roses.' Up he got and made a garden of roses. He had three acres, his man Michael, such enrichment of the soil as a horse, a cow, and a pig could supply, a few garden implements, and a wheeled chair, or in happy seasons a cane; with these he grew his beautiful roses.\" Parkman's knee complaint returned in force in the spring of 1853, incapacitating him completely for two years. A gardener's life at Jamaica Pond proved beneficial, however, for in 1855 he was back at his desk, working again on his great project concerning the French colonization of North America. He had not completed a volume, however, when even more severe blows fell. Young Francis, his only son, died in 1857 when only four years old; the boy's mother, who never completely recovered from this loss, died the following year, not long after giving birth to a second daughter. This dual tragedy precipitated another return of \"the enemy\". Gravely ill again, Parkman returned to Boston with his two motherless daughters to live with his widowed mother and unmarried sister Eliza at 8 Walnut Street. In 1859 he went to Paris for medical treatment. Although specialists there achieved some improvement in his eyes and knee his recovery was never complete. Parkman's Harvard classmate Edward Wheelwright recalled how \"when crippled by disease and needing two canes to support his steps, he might often be seen in the streets of Boston, walking rapidly for a short distance, then suddenly stopping, wheeling round, and propping himself against the wall of a house, to give a moment's repose to his enfeebled knee. Whatever he did, he must do it with all his might. He could not saunter, he could not creep: he must move rapidly, or stand still.\" On returning from Paris, he went to Jamaica Pond, where his sister Eliza kept house for him and his daughters for over half of each year. To occupy himself in time of grief, when he could no longer concentrate on historical work, Parkman turned to horticulture. This, too, he did with all his might. Edward Wheelwright thus recalled his house: \"It stood on rising ground, close to the shore of Jamaica Pond. Here he had his gardens and green-houses, and here he came early in the spring, and remained late in the autumn of every year. He kept on the pond a boat, into which he could step from his garden, and obtain in rowing the exercise that was essential to him when walking was difficult and painful. Frequent friendly visits to a muskrat, his neighbor on the shore of the pond, added to the pleasure he took in his boat. It was pleasant to Parkman's home at Jamaica Pond. 174 garden. He took not only pride in his flowers, speaking of their characters, their habits, their as though they were sentient beings.\" caprices, Francis Parkman's extraordinary energy and determination visit him in his but loved them, soon carried him into other fields of horticulture than his first love of roses. Howard Doughty in his 1962 biography of Parkman wrote: \"Already in 1861, only a year or so after he had started gardening, his success was notable enough to put him in possession of a unique collection, his development of which, together with his work as a rosarian, gave him a permanent name in the annals of American horticulture. This was a collection of Japanese plants the first of its kind to arrive in America - made in Yokohama by the botanist George B. Hall, and turned over to Parkman by his college mate and neighbor, Francis Lee, on Lee's departure for the war. Among other specimens, the collection contained the double-blossomed apple, now known as the Parkman crab, and bulbs of the Lilium auratum, which he was the first known person in America or Europe to bring to flowering outside Japan. With such material to work on, he devoted himself particularly to the hybridization of lilies, his chief triumph in this field being the Lilium parkmanni, a crossing of L. auratum with another Japanese stock, which he sold in 1876 to an English florist for one thousand dollars. But he was also among the foremost of American rose-growers. He is said to have had at one time over a thousand varieties in his garden, and The Book of Roses, which he published in 1866, was for many years a standard manual of the subject.\" The extent of Francis Parkman's gardening and growing briefly tempted him into business, for in 1862 he formed a partnership with William H. Spooner, a nurseryman specializing in roses, who was active in the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. On 4 April 1862 he wrote to his cousin-in-law, Mary Dwight Parkman, then in Europe: \"I am daily here in Jamaica Plain and am at last really busy, having formed a partnership with Spooner which will absorb all the working faculties I have left. So you find me a man of business. I am content with the move, & resolved to give the thing a fair trial and, by one end of the horn or the other, work a way out of a condition of helplessness. At all events, this is my best chance, & I will give it a trial. Spooner wants me to go to England & France in the Fall, to look up new plants. The thing has difficulties & risks, not a few under my circumstances; but it is attractive, & doubly so as it gives me a prospect of meeting you. So I cherish it, as probably an illusion, but still a very pleasing one.\" Parkman did not go to Europe in the autumn, as Spooner - - 175 had was proposed; indeed the partnership in the nursery business of the briefest duration. Matters were quite different with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, then located in its first Horticultural Hall in School Street on the site of part of the present Parker House. For several years Parkman had been exhibiting there; Howard Doughty notes that he won over three hundred awards from the society between 1859 and 1884. In 1863 when he became chairman of its library committee, he vigorously underlined the importance of that aspect of the society's work. In his first report Parkman made this classic statement: \"To despise the aid of books is no evidence either of practical skill or good sense. This is particularly true of horticulture, in which the men of greatest practical eminence have without exception been those possessing the recorded knowledge of their predecessors or contemporaries. Horticulture is an art based on the broad principles of science, and has never found its most successful cultivators among those who have blindly ignored those principles.\" When the society moved in 1865 to the second Horticultural Hall in Tremont Street (between Bromfield and Bosworth Streets) Parkman asserted that the library, which extended across the entire front of the second floor, \"may be said to bear to this noble building the relation which the brain bears to the body.\" To a man who idolized courage and physical endurance as Parkman did, it was shattering to remain at home tending plants as his friends went into the Union Army. In September 1862 he spent a day and a night in camp at Readville with the Forty-fourth Massachusetts Infantry, of which Frank Lee, who had given him the Japanese plants, was colonel, and which numbered some forty Harvard alumni among its officers and men. Returning home he wrote of \"the banners I was not to follow, the men I was not to lead, the fine fellows of whom I could not be one.\" But as he worked with his plants, his spirits and strength so returned that he began to dream of asking Louis Agassiz's daughter, Ida, to become his second wife, although carefully avoiding \"the expression to her of anything beyond a simple though a very cordial friendship.\" Her marriage on 5 December 1863 to a dashing cavalryman, Major Henry Lee Higginson, who had returned to Boston to convalesce from severe wounds, ended such hopes for all time. Parkman remained a widower, bringing up his daughters with the aid of his sister. Despite such disappointments, Parkman's ceaseless activity with horticulture so benefited his health and spirits that before the 176 end of the Civil War he was again at work on his great historical project that he had set himself as an undergraduate two decades before. In March 1865 Little, Brown & Co. gave him proofs of The Pioneers of France in the New World, the first of six parts of France and England in North America. Thenceforth he advanced steadily with the project, which was completed in nine volumes in 1892. This fortunate return to history did not mean the abandonment of horticulture, for he published The Book of Roses in 1866 and devoted his leisure to growing and hybridizing plants. Between 1867 and 1872 he published not only the second and third parts of France and England in North America but twenty-six articles in Tilton's American Journal of Horticulture. His historical friends understood the role that horticulture had played in his life. The Canadian historian, the Abbe Casgrain, who visited Parkman in May 1871, noted that, after his severe illness, \"what agreed with him best was the cultivation of his garden, which he first oversaw while remaining seated near his employees. When his strength began to return, he tried to work with his own hands, while seated for the most part of the time in a folding chair. In this position he would cut his plants and the edge of his flower beds, or weed the ground nearby.\" The Abbe Casgrain was impressed by the tasteful simplicity of Francis Parkman's home at Jamaica Pond. He recalled particularly how \"the interior of the cottage corresponded to the exterior; everything was comfortable, but no display of luxury. What I most observed, and comes back to me when my thought returns to that American home, was the perfume of flowers spread through all the rooms. Everywhere there were very beautiful bouquets, or rather bunches, composed principally of rhododendrons of the most delicate rose tints.\" Soon after the Abbe Casgrain's visit, Parkman began the renovation and substantial enlargement of his Jamaica Pond cottage. The region now had an additional attraction for him, for in the spring of 1871 he had been appointed Professor of Horticulture at Harvard's Bussey Institution. This new undergraduate school of husbandry and gardening, which opened to students in September 1871, was located on a farm in the Jamaica Plain-Forest Hills section of West Roxbury, scarcely a mile from Parkman's house. On thus becoming an active member of the Harvard faculty, he resigned from the Board of Overseers, on which he had served since 1868, on the ground that it seemed \"essentially unfit that the member of a supervisory body should himself be one of those whom it is his duty to super- 177 vise.\" Although Parkman planned and oversaw the building of greenhouses for the new institution, his career as a professor was almost as brief as that of a commercial nurseryman a decade earlier, for he resigned at the end of the academic year. The death of his mother in August 1871, followed by that of a beloved brother in January 1872, brought on a period of illness that made him feel unable to offer the course on plant propagation and the management of hothouses, nurseries, and gardens that the Harvard catalogue had announced for the following year. one might claim that Francis Parkman's greatcontribution to horticulture was his resignation from the Harvard faculty, for his successor as Professor of Horticulture was the thirty-one-year-old Charles Sprague Sargent who created the Arnold Arboretum and ruled it until his death fifty-five years later. Although the evidence is only circumstantial, I firmly believe that Parkman must have played a crucial part in the selection of his successor. Otherwise, how would a young man who had stood eighty-eighth in his class of ninety on his graduation have reappeared ten years later on the Harvard scene as Professor of Horticulture? This then undistinguished scholar had entered the Union Army, which Parkman would have dearly loved to have done; made an extended Grand Tour of Europe, as Parkman had done before him more briefly, and settled down on his father's estate in Brookline, close to Parkman's smaller one, to occupy himself with horticulture, which was then a rich man's amusement rather than a profession. Parkman was thoroughly at home in the administrative stratosphere of a simpler Harvard, where people knew each other as they cannot today. He was re-elected to the Board of Overseers in 1874, and became a member of the seven-man Corporation in 1875, where he served until 1888. There being no body of professional candidates to draw from, President Charles W. Eliot had the previous year, when rounding up a faculty for the new Bussey Institution, filled the chair of horticulture with a Boston gentleman of property, living nearby, where he passed his time with the embellishment of his own grounds. President Eliot, facing so soon a second appointment in this unfrequented field, would, I suspect, have sought Parkman's suggestions about his successor. What could have been more natural than for Parkman to propose his young friend and neighbor? The promptness of Sargent's appointment in May 1872 supports this hypothesis Paradoxically est Francis Parkman ceased to profess horticulture after a year, he continued to study and practice it. In part three of the second volume of the Bulletin of the Bussey Institution, Parkman published in 1878 an article on \"The Hybridization of Lilies\" that represented a dozen years of personal experimentation on this subject. He told how he had attempted to combine the two superb Japanese lilies, L. speciosum ( lancifolium) and L. auratum, the former as female parent. After five or more years he was rewarded on 7 August 1869 with a bud that \"proved a magnificent flowcr, nine and a half inches in diameter, resembling L. auratum in fragrance and form, and the most beautiful varieties of L. speciosum in color. In the following year, it measured nearly twelve inches from tip to tip of the petals, and in England it has since reached fourteen inches.\" Several years later Parkman sent a bulb of this new lily to Max Leichtlin of the botanical garden at Baden-Baden and another to the English grower Anthony Waterer, the proprietor of the Knap Hill Nursery at Woking, Surrey. Both responded with enthusiasm. Leichtlin wrote to Parkman on 13 November 1875: In no small degree I am obliged to our mutual friend Mr. Sargent for his kindness to introduce myself to your notice, an introduction which I appreciate the more as it is to a gentleman who really seems to be a more successful hybridizer and grower of Lilies as even celebrated Marshall Wilder. You had the kindness to send me a splendid bulb of that costly and more remarkable hybrid L. Parkmanni. The bulb arrived in excellent condition and I call it welcome, and shall take every particular care to preserve and increase it; it is however so valuable a plant that I fairly cannot accept it and merely say my thanks! I rather regard it as still your property confided to my care to make sure of its preservation and propagation. Of course it will always be at your disposal. However I feel much obliged for your kind intention to procure to myself the pleasure of seeing it flowering; looking through my garden I find not much worth to reciprocate for but the only one bulb I can dispose of still of L. Hansoni and some 7 small bulbs of L. polyphyllum from the Himalayas. Through the kindness of Mr. Sargent you will receive the parcel. 178I Although 179 Here I beg to enclose a few seed of my own hybridising L. giganteum as parent female and L. Thunbergianum as male. This was apparently sent by way of Professor Sargent, for in the Parkman Papers in the Massachusetts Historical Society is preserved this undated letter: Monday, P.M. Dear Parkman, The enclosed came for you today, The bulbs have not yet arrived, but they no doubt will in a day or two, when I will hand them over to Charlie. Your Lily seems to be having a great success, and you seem in a fair way to out strip even \"celebrated Marshall Wilder.\" Come and see us when you can. Sincerely, C. S. Sargent Anthony Waterer wrote on 18 October 1875 of the bulb sent to him: \"I believe it was the most beautiful flower I ever beheld and that was the opinion of all who saw it. It must be a most desirable plant and if it is not distributed will doubtless prove of considerable commercial value. I note your kind promise to communicate with me before parting with any more. I shall be very glad of the opportunity of purchasing any you have to spare.\" This letter led to Parkman selling the lily to Waterer for exclusive distribution, apparently for the thousand dollars mentioned by Parkman's earliest biographers. Waterer gave it the name of Lilium Parkmanni. Parkman on 15 January 1876 wrote Waterer thus in regard to terms: My proposal is to send you all the bulbs of the hybrid L. Parkmanni which are in my possession.. These consist of three about as large as I sent you, and two or three smaller ones. The three larger ones (just mentioned) grow attached together in one pot, and each threw up a stem last season as large as a small goose quill. I do not propose to reserve any bulbs for myself or Mr. Sargent; but to take the risk of success or failure in raising bulbs from the scales of which I spoke in my last. If I succeed in doing so, I shall reserve two of the bulbs thus obtained one for myself, and the other for Mr. Sargent. - 180 All the rest will be sent to you, as soon as they are strong enough to bear transportation. The only bulbs which have left my hands are one sent to you and one to Mr. Leichtlin. I have lately received a letter from Mr. L. He promises not to part with the bulb or with any bulbs that may be raised from it; and I believe his word is entirely to be trusted. An account of the lily appeared in England in the March 1876 issue of Florist and Pomologist, illustrated by a colored plate. After completing a decade as Chairman of the Library Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Parkman was elected president on 7 November 1874. Although it was the custom only to seek a portrait of a president on his retirement, a committee was appointed for such a purpose one month after Parkman's election on the ground that his \"valuable services to horticulture should not be entirely eclipsed by this world-wide reputation as a historian.\" Accordingly a bust of Parkman by the Irish-born Boston sculptor Martin Milmore was completed and in Horticultural Hall early in February 1876, almost two years before its subject, having declined re-election, made his farewell address as president on 5 January 1878. Early in the 1880's as the tempo of his historical writing and his lameness increased, Francis Parkman gradually withdrew from horticultural activities beyond the care of his grounds. The beauty of this place above Jamaica Pond continued to attract his many friends. Henry Dwight Sedgwick wrote of the place a decade after Parkman's death: Sometimes in the richness of the blossoming time the colors were too heavily laid on by the horticultural hand; The fayre grassy grownd Mantled with green, and goodly beautifide With all the ornaments of Floraes pride, Wherewith her mother Art, as halfe in scorn Of niggard Nature, like a pompous bride Did decke her, and too lavishly adorne was too red and pink and yellow. The azaleas, rhododendrons, magnolias, syringas, lilacs, and the big scarlet Parkman poppies were too bold for a less scientific eye, and overshadowed the columbine, foxglove, larkspur, violet, even the Japanese iris, whose seeds had been fetched from the Mikado's garden, and all the wee, modest flowers; but people would drive thither many miles to see the splendor of the blossoms. - 181 garden was of modest dimensions and sloped down sharply to the shore, so that the little walk from the house to the dock on the pond's edge ran past all the vegetable friends, trees, shrubs, and plants. There was a tall, widespreading beech, elms sixty feet high, a big chestnut, a tulip, a plane-tree, two white oaks, a sassafras, Scottish maples and scarlet maples, lindens, willows, pines, and hemlocks; and holding themselves a little aloof, as befittted their rarity and breeding, a Kentucky coffee-tree, a gingko, the magnolia acuminata, and the Parkman crab, first of its kind in New England, radiant with its bright-colored flowThe ers. Francis Parkman died on 8 November 1893, a year after the publication of the final part of his great historical work. Soon after his death his property on Jamaica Pond was bought by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts to enlarge the Olmsted parkway that extends from the Back Bay to the Arnold Arboretum and beyond. A new road, bearing his name, runs through the former location of Parkman's rose garden. On the site of his house was placed an allegorical monument by Daniel Chester French with a bronze bas-relief of Parkman. Alas, the portrait relief has recently been stolen by vandals. At the base of the monument are carved these lines: \"Here where for many years he lived and died friends of Francis Parkman have placed this seat in token of their admiration for his character and for his achievements.\" The chairman of the committee that raised the funds for this memorial was Major Henry Lee Higginson, founder of the Boston Symphony Orchestra and Parkman's successful rival for the hand of Ida Agassiz in 1863. Although Francis Parkman's garden has vanished, the study in which he did much of his writing is still preserved, nearly eighty years after his death, substantially as he left it in 1893. His mother in 1864 bought a pleasant early nineteenth century brick house on the lower slope of Beacon Hill, where he and his children and his sister Eliza lived with her in the winters. On Mrs. Parkman's death in 1871 the house was left to her daughter Eliza, with whom Parkman continued to live during the winter, just as she lived with him at Jamaica Pond during the more clement months of the year. The 50 Chestnut Street house eventually passed to the Misses Cordner, nieces of Francis and Eliza Parkman, who made few changes in it, piously keeping his third floor study much as he had left it, save for his historical books and manuscripts, which were given, respective- 182 the Harvard College Library and the Massachusetts HisSociety. When Miss Elizabeth Cordner died in 1955 at a great age, 50 Chestnut Street was sold, but her heirs generously gave much of the furniture to the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, which had recently come into the ownership of a large Bulfinch house at 87 Mount Vernon Street. During the autumn of 1955 the contents of Parkman's study were moved, lock, stock, and barrel, to the Colonial Society's house, together with doors, mantlepiece, gas fixtures, and other details that permitted the reconstruction of this touching little room on the fourth floor of 87 Mount Vernon Street in a manner that would make Francis Parkman feel at home. Particularly so because in a corridor outside the study stands his wheel-chair, while on the walls hang numerous photographs of his house and garden at Jamaica Pond, and a print of Lilium Parkmanni, taken from his desk and framed. As I had the pleasure eighteen years ago of transferring Parkman's Lares and Penates from one part of Beacon Hill to another, I have welcomed the opportunity to remind the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum of the horticultural activities that he carried out on the shores of Jamaica Pond, so close to the Arnold Arboretum, whose first director I firmly believe he chose. WALTER MUIR WHITEHILL Director and Librarian, Emeritus Boston Athenaeum ly, to torical Notes Most of the details of Parkman's career as a horticulturist are scattered through his biographies by Charles Haight Farnham (1900), Henry Dwight Sedgwick (1904), Mason Wade (1942), and Howard Doughty (1962). Wilbur R. Jacobs, who edited Parkman's letters (1960) has another biography in project. Edward Wheelwright's memoir is in Publications of the Colonial Society of Massachusetts, I (1892-1894); Parkman was elected to that society, which today preserves his study, at its first meeting on 18 January 1893. Samuel Eliot Morison's The Parkman Reader (1955) is a delightful selection from Parkman's work by the twentieth century historian who has best emulated Parkman's style and practice of seeing at first hand the scenes that he describes. Selections from the letters of M. Leichtlin, Anthony Waterer, and Charles S. Sargent are published by permission of the Massachusetts Historical Society which owns Parkman's papers. 183 Francis Parkman and fnend on porch of his Jamaica Pond home. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and Its Mutants","article_sequence":2,"start_page":184,"end_page":188,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24609","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d1708528.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pride, George H.","article_content":"Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' and Its Mutants It appears that the Arnold Arboretum has introduced to American gardeners what may turn out to be the most exciting group of new house and greenhouse plants for a long time. It all started with a gift of a few plants of Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph' to Dr. Richard A. Howard. Director of the Arboretum, from the greenhouses at Dunbarton Oaks some years ago. The potentials of this cultivar as a remarkable house plant became obvious very quickly. It propagates with speed and ease and its magnificent blue flowers are produced in abundance throughout almost the whole year. It fully justifies its name. We cannot take credit for introducing 'Constant Nymph' in America but apparently we are responsible for introducing its five remarkable new mutants, 'Blue Nymph', 'Cobalt Nymph', 'Mini Nymph', 'Netta Nymph' and 'Purple Nymph'. To avoid future confusion, it seems wise to get the story in print. Dr. W. J. C. Lawrence, while working on color inheritance in plants at the John Innes Horticultural Institution in England in the 1940's, crossed a particularly good hybrid streptocarpus called 'Merton Blue' with Streptocarpus ~ohannis. One of the seedlings of this cross was named 'Constant Nymph'. Under normal house conditions it will bloom continuously from April to November. With supplementary lighting it can be kept in flower all year around. The unfortunate name, Streptocarpus, can be quickly dismissed as being no more than a description of the ripened seed pod. It means \"twisted fruit\". This genus of predominantly African plants has interested both gardeners and scientists for a long time for different reasons. Several unusual characteristics appear in many of the members of the genus. 'Constant Nymph' illustrates some of them. There appears to be no true stem or conventional growing point to the plant. The leaves seem to grow from the upper surfaces of the bases of other leaves. The flowers appear to arise from the upper surfaces of the petioles. As a house plant it can suffer considerable abuse and survive. If water is deliberately withheld from one 184 185 Streptocarpus 'Constant Nymph'. Photo: R. Spurr. plants for as long as a month, turgor is restored to the dead-appearing, limp leaves in a matter of hours after watering. Since 'Constant Nymph' and its mutants do not come true from seed, they must be propagated vegetatively. Leaf cuttings are the most effective method for as many as 100 new plants may be obtained from one leaf Two main methods of preparing the leaves are used. The leaf blade may be cut crosswise into several pieces. The proximal ends are then inserted into a rooting medium. Or the leaf blade may be split down the middle the long way, removing the main vein and placing the two large pieces of the leaf blade with the long cut edge in the rooting medium. A great many plantlets will of these result from either method A temperature of around 70-75 degrees F seems optimal for rooting. Roots should appear in about two weeks. In another two weeks independent leaflets appear which eventually grow into small plants. Progeny should not be separated from the old leaf until each plantlet has roots developed at the base of its own leaves. When all the new plants are eventually removed from the old leaf, these leaf 186 sections may be replaced in the rooting medium and another batch will develop. It is sometimes possible to get even a third batch of plantlets but with reduced results. The basal portion of the leaf from which the flowers arise, should not be left on during rooting. If this is not removed, roots will appear on this area and flowers usually develop without the formation of new plantlets. Not remo\"ing this part at the base of the leaf is the main reason some leaves do not propagate well. Fertilizing nutrients should not be included in the rooting medium because excessive activity results in producing an abundance of flowers. The result is a heavily-flowered, single-leaved plant with few plantlets. In March, 1969, the writer was fortunate in being able to spend about a week in the Netherlands. He was additionally fortunate in having a close friend, Dr. Robert Legro, as host during much of this time. During visits to the horticultural experimental station at Wageningen which involved nearly two days, some time was spent with Dr. C. Broertjes at the Institute for Atomic Sciences in Agriculture. He was doing experimental work involving radiation on several kinds of plants. One of the plants was 'Constant Nymph'. Dr. Broertjes explained a remarkable characteristic of this plant as well as some of its relatives which made them particularly valuable as experimental material. When he radiated whole mature leaves, each new plantlet that developed arose from a single mutated leaf cell. The resulting entire plant possessed the mutated trait or traits and could be readily propagated. The troublesome problem of chimaeras common in other plants treated in this manner was eliminated. In his preliminary experiments, Dr. Broertjes produced 1,650 mutants. Five of these eventually received Certificates of Merit in the spring of 1969 and are the named mutants with which we are concerned. In August, 1969, we requested from Dr. Broertjes propagation material of whatever mutants he cared to release. The first shipment consisted of unrooted leaves. Due to a delay enroute almost all arrived in a deplorable state of decay. We received a second shipment on November 3, 1969. These were leaves in excellent condition with well developed plantlets attached. They included the previously mentioned mutants In the greenhouse at the Case Estates all the plantlets had flowered by May 1970. 'Blue Nymph' has light blue flowers with a small 187 pale greenish-yellow blotch in the throat; 'Cobalt Nymph' has intensely dark blue flowers with a small greenish-yellow throatblotch. This tetraploid has a compact habit of growth and flowers of heavy substance. It seems to be more difficult to propagate than the others. 'Mini Nymph' has flowers very much like 'Constant Nymph' with a yellow throat blotch. It is very freeflowering and makes a fine compact plant. 'Netta Nymph' has dark blue flowers with distinctive darker reticulate venation on the petals It is also very free-flowering. 'Purple Nymph' with its rich purple flowers and small yellow throat blotch seems to make the largest plants and be the most vigorous of the five. The response of the general public to these new cultivars can best be described as covetous. On \"Friends of The Arnold Arboretum Days\" when a mixture of excess Arnold Arboretum plant material is sometimes offered free to Friends, the streptocarpus plants are always the first to be taken. The September\/October 1970 issue of The Gloxinian featured a striking color plate of 'Netta Nymph' on its cover. This issue contained an article, \"New Streptocarpus Varieties\" by Dr. Carl D. Clayburg. He reviewed Dr. Broertje's work, described the new mutants in some detail and mentioned that the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University was growing them and planned to release some propagative material soon to commercial growers. The Kartuz Greenhouses in Wilmington, Massachusetts had already received propagative material from the Arboretum before the article appeared. Additional leaves were sent to Wyrtzen Exotic Plants in Floral Park, New York and the L. Easterbrook Greenhouses in Butler, Ohio. On June 9th, 1970 we had been given full freedom by Dr. de Zeeuw, Director of the Institute for Atomic Sciences in Agriculture at Wageningen, to do with these mutants as we wished. Dr. Broertjes stated that \"they are not covered by any kind of protection; the only thing we did was to have them registered and commercialized.\" Recently, when the question arose as to whether or not the Arnold Arboretum had actually been first to introduce these mutants to American gardeners, Dr. Broertjes responded in a letter dated June 22, 1972 saying that, \"so far as I know we did not send leaves to other persons or institutions in the United States of America.\" There is more to come, for developments have not yet ended. A white flowered spontaneous mutant has occurred known as 'Maassen's White'. From this cultivar by use of irradiation and colchicine a number of mutants and tetraploids have been pro- 188 duced. We have been promised propagative material of 'Maassen's White'. We will hope for propagative material of two other cultivars that are expected to be released in 1973. One is a \"mini-white type\" and the other a white which is described as a tetraploid with very large flowers. GEORGE H. PRIDE References Broertjes, Cornelis. Euphytica 18: Broertjes, Cornelis. 1969. Mutation 333-339. Breeding of Streptocarpus. Personal correspondence. Streptocarpus Varieties. Clayburg, Carl D. 1970. New inian 20(5): 19-20. Marston, Margaret E. 1964-65 and Its Horticulture 17: The Glox- Hybrid Regeneration 114-120. The Morphology of a Streptocarpus From Leaf Cuttings. Scientific "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"In Search of Tropical Gentians","article_sequence":3,"start_page":189,"end_page":198,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24606","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170bb26.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"In Search of Tropical Gentians Gentians need no introduction to most people interested in Several species, particularly the Fringed Gentian (Gentianopsis cninita), are among the most beautiful and avidly sought-after wildflowers in the eastern United States. Others, mostly alpine and subalpine species of the Old World such as Gentiana acaulis, G. scabra, and G. septemfida, are becoming increasingly popular as rock garden subjects. But the Gentian Family, or Gentianaceae, includes a diverse group of plants, many of which are unfamiliar to the layman and probably would not be recognized by him as gentians. This is particularly true of those members of the family that are native to the American tropics. While the gentians (in this article, the term \"gentian\" will refer to any member of the family) of the North Temperate Zone are entirely herbaceous, many tropical species are shrubs or even small trees. My interest in tropical gentians began while I was a graduate student at Duke University; and it has continued, giving me an opportunity to travel to various parts of the American tropics. In this article I will recount some of my impressions and experiences of these travels, as well as discuss a few of the genera with which I came into contact. My thesis research was concerned with the genus Lisianthius, which includes 27 species distributed in Mexico, Central America, and the Greater Antilles. Plants of this genus are herbs, shrubs, or small trees with flowers to 2 1\/2 inches long, usually bright yellow in color. A few of the species have red or greenish flowers, but the most extraordinary one, aptly named Lisianthius nigrescens, or Flor del Muerte (Flower of Death) in its native Mexico, has flowers that are very nearly black. In certain light, a slight reddish tinge may be observed, but these are the blackest of any flowers I have ever seen. My first trip in search of Lisianthius took me to the island of Jamaica, with my sister, Sylvia, as a companion. This was my first experience with a tropical flora, and the variety of unfamiliar plants was quite bewildering; but it was a successful trip. We had unlimited (and free) use of a Land Rover, with which we were able to travel over much of the island, and I plants. 189 190 able to collect all eight of the Jamaican species. This is not impressive a feat as it sounds, since most of the species are found along roadsides. One of them, Lisianthius longifolius, locally called the Jamaican Fuchsia (although it resembles a Fuchsia only in the shape of its flowers, and then only vaguely) is common and conspicuous, and both my sister and I became adept at spotting it while speeding along at 50 mph. or negotiating the frequent hairpin curves on the tortuous mountain was as roads. During my travels through Mexico and Central America in search of Lisianthius, I have come across several other gentians, perhaps the most noteworthy of which are the species of Voyria. These delicate plants, seldom more than 6 inches tall and with the leaves reduced to inconspicuous scales, are without chlorophyll and therefore unable to manufacture their own food. They must obtain their nourishment from other plants, either living or dead. Most species have flowers 1\/4 to 1\/2 inch across, but some are much larger; the color varies from white through pink, purple, and yellow. I first saw these plants in the dense forests of Barro Colorado Island, a natural preserve in the middle of the Panama Canal maintained by the Smithsonian Institution. The field station for visiting scientists has comfortable accommodations, and, most welcome in the steamy climate of sea-level Panama, an air-conditioned laboratory. But it is the animals that are perhaps Barro Colorado's most spectacular feature. Nowhere else in Central America can such a variety of wild mammals be seen under such favorable circumstances. Three species of or White-faced, Spiders, and Howlers monkeys - Capuchins are conspicuous, the last particularly so because of the loud booming calls of the males. Sloths and Tamanduas (a kind of arboreal anteater) are frequently seen in the trees close by the station, and coati-mundis, peccaries, and even a tapir came by for handouts. Although there are a number of interesting and beautiful species of Gentianaceae in Central America, there are many more in South America. In fact there are probably more species of gentians on that continent than on any other. I had my first look at South America in the fall of 1968, when I spent three days in Colombia. I had little time to sightsee, but I did have an opportunity to visit the high elevation vegetation, or paramo, some of which is accessible by cable-car from Bogota. I saw enough to want very much to return. I had my chance four years later when a collecting trip took me back to Colombia, as well as to Venezuela and Peru. Gentianella nevadensis (above) and Gentiana sedifolia (below), both twice life size. These photographs illustrate one of the primary differences between the two genera. Gentiana has an extra fold between each of the corolla lobes, in the case of this species at least, giving the appearance of having ten \"petals\". These folds are absent in Gentianella. Photo R. Weaver. 192 is used to denote a vegetation type that the Andes of Venezuela, Colombia, and Ecuador between 10,000 and 15,000 ft. elevation. Although in their lower reaches patches of paramo are often interspersed with stunted trees, the upper levels are truly alpine; rain and fog are frequent, and the temperature usually hovers near the freezing point at night. The most characteristic plants of the paramos are the Espeletias (or \"frailejones\" to the natives), members of the Compositae, the same family that includes daisies, dandelions, and sunflowers. There are many species, with various habits of growth, but the most common ones are characterized by a dense rosette of silvery or whitish leaves which is often 2 feet across. As the plants grow older, the stem elongates and the rosette is borne above the ground, sometimes to a height of 5 feet or more, with the old, dead leaves hanging down like a skirt. The \"flowers\" or heads, borne singly or in clusters, arise from the rosette on long stalks. In a landscape dominated by Espeletias, especially in the fog-filtered sunlight so characteristic of these areas, the aspect is almost unearthly. Paramos are delightful places for a botanist. Besides the Espeletias, many other plants are present, some of them \"belly plants\" (best observed by lying on one's belly), and others with large, brightly colored flowers. Many of the genera Lupinus, The term \"paramo\" is peculiar to - Senecio, Bidens, Aster, Oxalis, Cerastium, Draba, familiar to us etc. - are from the North Temperate zone. Others of course are primarily Andean, such as the beautiful, azalea-like Befaria, and Bomarea, an Amaryllidaceae with red and yellow flowers that often grows as a vine. I had the good fortune during my trip in the fall of 1972 to be able to stay with a friend, a roommate from my graduate student days, who was studying Espeletias. Our cottage, at 11,500 feet right in the middle of the paramos, was about 30 miles west by good road from Merida, Venezuela. I have never stayed at a more delightful place. Set beside a subalpine lake, full of trout with Blue-winged Teal dabbling in the reeds, with dandelions and white clover by the doorstep, it was overlooked by a snow-covered mountain with a waterfall cascading down its slopes, and surrounded by miles and miles of Espeletiadotted paramo. The mixture of things familiar and unfamiliar was indescribably beautiful by day or night, in sunshine or rain. Three genera of gentians are common and conspicuous in the paramos. Gentiana sedifolia is the only member of its genus in the Andes. It is a diminutive plant, often indistinguish- Pnrnnzo surroundzxzg Laguna Mucubnyi at Venezuela. The conspicuous whitish plants 11,500 feet in the Andes of are Espeletia schultzil. Photo: R. Weaver. able from the mosses among which it grows unless its flowers are open. This is truly one of the gems of the paramo. The flowers are about 1\/2 inch across and of a brilliant sky-blue color; as is common in this genus, pure white variants are occasionally found. Many gentian flowers are sentitive to changes in light and\/or temperature, but those of this species are particularly so. Even a cloud passing over the sun will cause them to close. In contrast to Gentiana, perhaps 300 species of Gentianella are native to the Andes. Each high mountain seems to have its own species, and the range of flower color and form is incredible. A common type, exemplified by G. nevadensis, the most familiar species of the Venezuelan Andes, has flowers which are white to pale lilac with dark purple veins. Those of other species are pure white, purple, yellow, orange, or red. The third genus of the paramos is Halenia. Like Gentiana Symbolanthus shrub to tricolor (life size), photographed near Bogota, Colombia; five feet tall with beautiful rose-pink flowers. a Photo: R. Weaver. 195 and Gentianella, it is widespread in other parts of the world. A number of species occur in the mountains through Central America and Mexico into the southwestern United States; and H. deflexa is found in the north central and northeastern parts of our country and adjacent Canada. In addition, a few species are Eurasian. Halenia is unique among gentians in having four usually conspicuous spurs at the base of the corolla. Otherwise the flowers of most species are not particularly noteworthy, often being as green as the leaves. Immediately below the paramo and grading into it is a forest type variously known as cloud, mossy, or elfin forest, or, unromantically, subalpine scrub. The trees here are low in stature with gnarled branches, and they are often heavily covered with epiphytes, particularly mosses, liverworts, and lichens; all these attributes are probably a direct response to the very frequent fog. This forest type occurs at higher elevations throughout tropical America, and although the plant species may change from place to place, the aspect remains much the same. Three genera of gentians are characteristically found in the elfin forests. The largest of these, both in the number of species and the stature of the individual plants, is Macrocarpaea. There are perhaps 50 species, of which a third remain to be scientifically described. These plants are usually small trees, up to 15 feet tall, with large glossy leaves, and pale yellow or greenish flowers as much as 3 inches long and 2 1\/2 inches across. Although the color of the flowers is not outstanding, their large size and the profusion in which they are borne produce a spectacular display when the plants are in full bloom. In many species I noticed that a rather large percentage of the flowers appeared to have been torn open by something. This was quite a mystery until I realized these plants are probably pollinated largely by bats. These creatures, in search of nectar, are notoriously rough on the flowers from which they get their snacks. I have collected 10 species of Macrocarpaea, from Jamaica to southern Colombia, but perhaps the one I remember most vividly is a rather ordinary looking one from Venezuela. When I found it, I recognized at once that it was a species new to sciwhich was exciting ence but almost immediately my attention was drawn to a movement on the ground nearby. The stream by which the plant was growing was literally crawling with dozens of the most extraordinary frogs. These creatures were sluggish and easy to catch unusual enough for a frog - mon Macrocarpaea pachyphylla (114 life size), one of a genus of shrubs comin high elevation forests in the Greater Antilles, Central America, and northern South America. Photo: R. Weaver. 196 but their color, lemon yellow with ruby eyes, was their most startling attribute. How I wished that I could have taken a few home for my vivarium. In the lower parts of the elfin forest, another gentian is to be found. Plants of the genus Symbolanthus are usually shrubs less than 5 feet tall, and the flowers of many species are truly beautiful. Up to 5 inches long and a delicate rose-pink with white lines on the inside of the corolla lobes, they are not easily overlooked. They are unfortunately scentless, as are most of the family. Still another shrubby gentian of these forests, but only in that part of the Andes near the Colombia-Venezuela border, is Lagenanthus princeps. This plant has been called the \"prince of the gentians\" and deservedly so. The tubular flowers are 6 to 7 inches long, bright red at the base, changing to yellow in the middle, and finally lime green at the tips. Although I have seen flowers that are more beautiful, I have seen few that are more spectacular. As one travels through the tropics (or anywhere else for that matter), one finds that the plants grown ornamentally are seldom natives of the area; in fact roses and geraniums are far from uncommon. It is thus a tribute to the beauty of Lagenanthus princeps that people in the area where it is native often grow it beside their homes. The lowlands of South America are poor in gentians. The most conspicuous genus is Chelonanthus, and one of these, C. alatus, a weedy plant of roadsides and cut-over fields, is the most common and widespread species of the American tropics. Unfortunately it is also the least attractive. The plants are tall and coarse and the flowers are green and inconspicuous. It does have a redeeming quality, however; according to Dr. Bassett Maguire of the New York Botanical Garden, the Indians of Guyana boil it up and use the extract to make a glaze for their - pottery. Several of the more spectacular tropical gentians have been grown as greenhouse plants. Lisianthius longifolius was cultivated in England as early as 1793, and several species such as Purdieanthus pulcher, a beautiful red-flowered shrub, were first described from cultivated material. But most species gradually disappeared from cultivation, although Lisianthius nigrescens is still reportedly grown in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. I have grown various species of Lisianthius for several years, both in the greenhouses of Duke University and here at the Arnold Arboretum. Cultural requirements are relatively simple for these plants. The seeds germinate after about a month Lisianthius nigrescens (1 1\/2 ttmes life szze), a rather weedy plant whose nearly blach flowers are a common sight along the Interamerican Highway in southern Mexzco. Photo: R. Weaver. Chelonanthus alatus (life size), a common weedy plant along roadsides in Central America and northern South America. Photo: R. Weaver. Halenia asclepiadea (life size), showing the spurs at the base of the flowers that set this genus apart from all other gentians. Photo. R. Weaver. and the seedlings grow slowly during their first year. After that growth is rapid, and most species have flowered by the end of the second year. They are not fussy about soil, but they appear to do best with a periodic sprinkling of lime. Although the flowers and foliage of most species are attractive, Lisianthius can hardly be recommended as a good greenhouse subject. The plants get to be quite coarse and leggy, assuming a most ungraceful appearance after several years. However, because of the unusual color of its flowers, some people might consider Lisianthius nigrescens to be worth the trouble. Several members of my family have grown these plants on window ledges in their homes, with varying degrees of success. I have hybridized several of the species, but to date, none of the resulting progeny has proved more satisfactory horticulturally than both of the parents. Second generation hybrids are being grown at present, though none has reached maturity. Although the South American species of Halenia and Gentianella are primarily plants of alpine areas, temperatures in their native habitats seldom drop more than a few degrees below freezing. Therefore they would doubtless prove tender in most parts of the United States. I have seedlings of a number of species, but they will be grown indoors. The flowers of Lagerzantlzus princeps and several of the Symbolanthus species are so spectacular that, in my opinion at least, these plants are worthy of cultivation no matter how ungainly they might grow to be. I brought seeds of both genera from South America. However, judging from conditions in their native habitat, and from the experience of the British more than a century ago, a cool greenhouse will be needed to raise them to maturity. RICHARD E. WEAVER "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Registrations","article_sequence":4,"start_page":199,"end_page":209,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24608","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170816f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Plant Registrations Authority nus, The Arnold Arboretum acts as the International Registration for cultivar names in the genera Chaenomeles, Cor- Fagus, Forsythia, Gleditsia, Lantana, Malus (ornamental species), Philadelphus, Pieris, Ulmus, Weigela and any other miscellaneous woody genera to which an International Registration Authority has not been assigned. In addition, we are accepting registrations for new cultivars of conifers originating in this country to be forwarded to the Royal Horticultural Society the I.R.S. for that group. often during the past 12 years new cultivars of Every woody plants registered by the Arnold Arboretum have been published in Arnoldia (see Arnoldia, Vol. 21: 9-18; 31-34; 3942 ; 47-50. Vol. 23: 17-75; 77-83; 85-92; 111-118. Vol. 24: 18 ; 41-80. Vol. 26: 13-16. Vol. 27: 16-66. Vol. 29: 1-8. Vol. 30: 251-260. Vol. 32: 277-287). Included here are those cultivars which have been registered between October 1, 1972 and February 1, 1973. All correspondence concerned with more information, plants, or propagating material of these plants, should be directed to the various originators or introducers, not the Arnold Arboretum. as so which acts -- Aesculus A new parviflora var. serotina 'Rogers' cultivar of the Late Bottlebrush Buckeye is registered by Prof. Joseph C. McDaniel, Division of Ornamental Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. The original plant, which is now nine years old, originated from seeds collected from a specimen of A. parviflora var. serotina at the Missouri Botanical Garden. In Prof. McDaniel's words ... \"A. parviflora serotina 'Rogers' is a showy flowered cultivar which is especially easy to grow from root pieces divided in early spring. Its inflorescences are abundantly produced and are longer than those I have seen on most other clones even of the late variety. Unlike most other clones I have observed in either variety, (A. parviflora and A. parviflora serotina), it forms adventitious shoots both from the larger roots near the crown of the plant, and from severed root pieces farther out. Like other clones, it sometimes also layers itself naturally from prostrate branches 199 200 crown region, but the true root-cutting method offer the fastest and most economical method of increasing it for nursery propagation. The cultivar name honors Dr. Donald P. Rogers, Professor of Mycology at the University of Illinois, in whose front yard the original plant grows.\" Propagating material has been offered to growers, and commercial introduction is expcted in 1975. Divisions are to be sent to the Arnold Arboretum for trial in our collections. The name, with description, was originally published in American arising in the seems to Horticulturist 51(3): 11 (1972). Acer A japonicum 'Green Cascade' new Japanese Maple registered by Mr. Arthur Wright, Canby, Oregon. The original plant is now fifteen years cultivar of old and was grown from open pollinated seed collected from A. japonicum 'Aconitifolium'. As compared with A. japonicum 'Aconitifolium', the leaves of this cultivar are more delicately divided, and normally smaller in size. Its most outstanding characteristic is its prostrate or cascading habit which rather than as a small Acer causes the plant to grow as a shrub tree. palmatum 'Sherwood Flame' A new cultivar of Japanese Maple which is being registered for Mr. W. J. Curtis, Wil-Chris Acres, Sherwood, Oregon by Mr. J. D. Vertrees, Rt. 2, Box 593, Roseburg, Oregon 97470. The original plant is now about twenty years old, and is characterized mainly by its good red foliage and desirable serration on the edges of the leaves. As compared with Acer palmatum 'Burgundy Lace', it retains its red foliage better, especially when grown in full sun. This color is retained through the summer months and does not fade to bronze or green as is the case with so many other cultivars in this group. It is a vigorous plant, of upright habit, with the same limits of hardiness and adaptation to soils as other Acer palmatum varieties. Acer platanoides new 'Crimson Sentry' cultivar of Norway Maple, (Plant Patent #3258), is registered by Mr. Peter K. McGill, A. McGill and Son, Fairview, Oregon 97024. It originated in that nursery in 1970 as a sport of A. platanoides 'Crimson King'. It was first introduced to the trade in 1972, and the original publication of the name is to be found in the A. McGill & Son price list for that year. A. platanoides 'Crimson Sentry' is distinguished from other va- This 201 rieties of Norway Maple mainly by its upright, columnar nature and very profuse branching habit. The leaves are smaller than A. platanoides 'Crimson King' and cupped in form. The lower two lobes are very small, giving a three-lobed effect to the leaf. Hardiness limits and adaptability to various soil types are, at present, unknown for this cultivar, but the Arnold Arboretum is to receive plants for trial in Boston. Cornus florida 'Rainbow' A cultivar of Flowering Dogwood registered by Mr. J. Frank Schmidt, Jr., J. Frank Schmidt & Son Co., 23000 S. E. Stark Street, Troutdale, Oregon 97060. It originated on the property of Mr. Armond Marzilli, 5433 Everhard Drive Northwest, Canton. Ohio in 1964 from a specimen of normal Cornus florida by a truck and broken. In the multiple that resulted, one of the stems had multi-colored leaves. Budwood from this sprout was obtained in 1964 by the J. Frank Schmidt & Son Co., who have since offered it in their catalog as Cornus florida 'Rainbow', Plant Patent #2743. In the words of Mr. J. Frank Schmidt, Jr ... \"the leaves of our tree in autumn color are not only multi-colored, but the areas of darker coloration are centrally oriented, and there is a 'leaf within a leaf' effect. The darker areas of coloration are distinctly defined and in many places terminate at vein lines ... The darker areas vary in form and shape from leaf to leaf, but in general terminate short of the side edges of the leaf. The darker areas appear in spring, dark green in color surrounded or positioned on a matrix of lighter green. Thereafter, as the leaves age, portions of the darker green areas turn deeper green and then greenish-purple, while the lighter green areas turn medium and light yellow and some of the latter areas then turn reddish. The transition is varied so that it is not uncommon for a single leaf to have at the same time areas of deep green or deep greenish-purple, yellow, green and red. As the leaves age still more, the dark green-purple areas turn into deeper purple, the light green disappears, and the leaf is then green-purple with red and yellowish or tannish areas. Since the new leaves at the top of the tree ... commence their color change later than the older leaves, the tree at certain stages will have some essentially two-color leaves at the top, three-color leaves near the top and lower, three and four-color leaves in the middle zone and lower areas, and two and three-color leaves near the bottom ... while the darker areas of a leaf are was run over which growth 202 and the lines delineating the darker areas do not shift, and thus the relative sizes of the darker and lighter areas remain constant, each area increases in absolute size during the growth of the leaf. The various color zones of the lighter area are not sharply delineated from one another, but to the contrary merge into one another and their relative sizes change, some increasing in relative size while others decrease.\" The flowers of this cultivar are white, and the plant is said to resemble ordinary C. florida in all other respects including vigor. It differs from other variegated-leaved cultivars such as C. florida 'Welchii' in pattern and color of variegation, and is said to be much more vigorous in growth. It should be hardy in Zone 5 conditions of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map, and plants are to be tried at the Arnold Arboretum for hardiness under our climatic conditions in Boston. sharply delineated, Cornus kousa 'Summer Stars' A new cultivar of Kousa Dogwood registered by Mr. William Flemer III, P.O. Box 191, Princeton, New Jersey 08540 for the introducer, Treesearch, P.O. Box 113, Kingston, N.J. 08528. This originated in 1964 from seed of Cornus kousa chinensis grown by Mr. Peter E. Costich, Center Moriches, Long Island, \"characterized by its genN.Y. C. kousa 'Summer Stars' is eral similarity to typical varieties of the species Cornus kozisa but being primarily distinguished by its prolonged and spectacular summer-flowering habit, with flowers retaining their white color and remaining unblemished from about mid-June to late August or mid-September ... The flowers are about 25% more abundant and about 20% larger in comparison with flowers typical of C. kousa, which fade in about two weeks after their normal June 10th to 15th blooming date when grown under the same conditions in the same region of central New Jersey and Southern New York.\" C. kousa 'Summer Stars' was first described, without the name, in Avant Gardener, Vol. 21, No. 10, p. 73. Plant Patent #3090 has been awarded to Treesearch, and although the plant has not yet been introduced commercially, it will be. It should be adaptable to moist, but well-drained soils with pH of 5.0 to 6.5 and hardy to Zone 5 of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map. ... Fagus sylvatica 'Dawyck A van new Gold' cultivar of European Beech registered by Mr. J. R. P. Hoey Smith, Arboretum Trompenburg, Groene Wetering I 203 46, Rotterdam, Holland. The original plant, which is now four years old, is a hyhrid seedling with Fagus sylvatica 'Fastigiata' as the female parent and F. sylvatica 'Zlatia' as the male parent. It was selected at the Arboretum Trompenburg in 1970. Mr. van Hoey Smith states that F. sylvatica 'Dawyck Gold' may be distinguished from related cultivars by its pyramidal growth and yellow leaves. It is considered to be as hardy as the parents, with the same adaptability to soils and location (Zone 4 of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map). An article with a further description of the plant is to be published by Mr. van Hoey Smith in the May, 1973 issue of the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. The plant has not yet been introduced commercially. Fagus sylvatica 'Dawyck Purple' van cultivar of European Beech registered by Mr. J. R. P. Arboretum Trompenburg, Groene Wetering 46, Rotterdam, Holland. The original plant, which is now four years old, is a hybrid seedling with Fagus sylvatica 'Fastigiata' as the female parent, and F. sylvatica 'Atropunicea' as the male parent. It was selected at the Arboretum Trompenburg in 1970. Mr. van Hoey Smith states that F. sylvatica 'Dawyck Purple' may be distinguished from related cultivars by its pyramidal growth and purple leaves. It is considered to be as hardy as the parents, with the same adaptability to soils and location. (Zone 4 of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map.) An article with a further description of the plant is to be published by Mr. van Hoey Smith in the May, 1973 issue of the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. The plant has not yet been introduced A new Hoey Smith, commercially. Fagus syluatica 'Rohan Gold' van cultivar of European Beech registered by Mr. J. R. P. Hoey Smith, Arboretum Trompenburg, Groene Wetering 46, Rotterdam, Holland. The original plant which is now two years old, is a hybrid seedling with Fagus sylvatica `Rohanii' as the female parent and F. sylvatica 'Zlatia' as the male parent. It was selected at the Arboretum Trompenburg in 1972. Mr. van Hoey Smith states that F. sylvatica 'Rohan Gold' may be distinguished from related cultivars by its golden cut-leaves. It is considered to be as hardy as its parents with the same adaptability to soils and location. (Zone 4 of the Arnold Arboreum Hardiness Map). An article with a further description of the plant is to be published by Mr. van Hoey Smith in the A new 204 May, ciety. 1973 issue of the Journal of the Royal Horticultural SoThe plant has not yet been introduced commercially. lanceolata 'Honey Shade' A new cultivar of Green Ash registered by Mr. Roy G. Klehm, Charles Klehm & Son Nursery, 2 East Algonquin Road, Arlington Heights, Ill. 60005. It is a selection which originated at Rockford Nurseries in 1945 and has been grown and tested at the Klehm nursery for twenty years, but not introduced commercially until this year. Patent is being applied for. Mr. Klehm states that F. pennsylvanica var. lanceolata 'Honey Shade' is distinguished by the extreme glossiness of its leaflets, fast growth, and horizontal branching habit. It is hardy to temperatures of -30 F, and has already been grown successfully in Illinois, Minnesota, Indiana, and Oregon. The Arnold Arboretum is to receive plants for trial under east coast conditions. Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis 'Emerald Lace' A new variety of Thornless Honeylocust registered by Mr. Peter K. McGill, A. McGill & Son, Fairview, Oregon 97024. This is a seedling selection made by Mr. John H. McIntyre at Fairview, Oregon in June 1970, and is being offered commercially for the first time this year. The original publication of the name is to be found in the 1973 A. McGill & Son price list, under Plant Patent #3260; in the November 15, 1972 issue of American Nurseryman, the following description of Gleditsia triacanthos var. inermis 'Emerald Lace' appears (without the name) \"A strong growing habit which makes the trees approximately 20 percent taller than is average for the species in the first year of growth and continuing thereafter, a habit of carrying the leaflets at a more acute angle to the stem in a plane at right angles to the stem than is normal for the species, a twisted form of the leaflets when young and until they mature which gives the leaves a ruffled or rippled appearance, and a distinctive, attractive and darker green leaf color than is average for the species.\" Limits of hardiness and adaptability to soils are unknown for this cultivar at present, but the Arnold Arboretum is to receive plants for trial in Boston late this year. ... 205 Juniperus 'Hermit' A new cultivar which is possibly a hybrid between Juniperus virginiana and J. horizontalis is registered by Dr. Norman E. Pellett, Ornamental Horticulturist, University of Vermont, Bur- lington, The Maine Vt. 05401. original plant was found growing on Hermit Island, by Dr. R. B. Livingston, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., and propagations have been growing for several years at the University of Vermont and the Arnold Arboretum as 'Livingston No. 11'. Juniperus 'Hermit' is described as ... \"a vigorous, dense, spreading plant (similar to Pfitzer Juniper in habit) with predominantly acicular (juvenile) foliage, green in summer and silvery-purple in winter; of vigorous, compact habit.\" It is hardy in Zone 5A of the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map, but at present its adaptation in colder climates is unknown. Also, it grows vigorously on sandy soils, but other soil tolerances are unknown now. Plants were released by the University of Vermont to the following commercial growers in 1972: John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., Neshanic Station, N.J. 08853; C. M. Hess, Jr., P.O. Box 332, Cedarville, N J. 08311, Hoogendom Nurseries, 408 Turner Road, Middleton, R.I. 02840; Weston Nurseries, Inc., East Main Street, Hopkinton, Mass. 01748; Spring Hill Nursery, Tipp City, Ohio 45371; Plumfield Nurseries, Fremont, Nebraska 68025; and Willis Nursery Co., P.O. Box 530, Ottawa, Kansas 66067. Juniperus horizontalis 'Livingston' A E. new cultivar of Creeping Juniper registered by Dr. Norman Pellett, Ornamental Horticulturist, University of Vermont, Burlington, Vt. 05401. The original plant was found growing on Hermit Island, Maine by Dr. R. B. Livingston, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Mass., and propagations have been growing for several years at the University of Vermont and the Arnold Arboretum as 'Livingston No. 7 '. Juniperus horizontalis 'Livingston' is described as a \"Procumbent plant generally 6-8\" in height; foliage is steel blue in summer and bluish-green in winter; leaves mostly scale-like, minute; occasional fruit light blue with bloom; plant much branched and naturally dense.\" It is hardy in Zone 5A of the USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map but at present its adaptation ... in colder climates or to a wide range of soil types is unknown. 206 Plants have been distributed through the USDA Plant Introduction Station, Glenn Dale, Md. as PI 306621. In addition, plants were released by the University of Vermont to the following commercial growers in 1972: John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., Neshanic Station, N.J., 08853; C. M. Hess, Jr., P.O. Box 332, Cedarville, N.J. 08311; Hoogendorn Nurseries, 408 Turner Road, Middleton, R.I. 02840; Weston Nurseries, Inc., East Main Street, Hopkinton, Mass. 01748; Spring Hill Nursery, Tipp City, Ohio 45371; Plumfield Nurseries, Fremont, Nebraska 68025; and Willis Nursery Co., P.O. Box 530, Ottawa, Kansas 66067. Pinus radiata 'El Dorado' An aneuploid cultivar of Monterey Pine registered by Dr. Leroy C. Johnson, Manager, U.S.D.A. Forest Service, Institute of Forest Genetics, 2480 Carson Road, Placerville, Calif. 95667. This was grown from seed in 1960 by Dr. Margot Frode who studied natural variation in Monterey pine as a graduate student at the University of California at Davis. The seed parent was located one mile N.W. of Cambria, San Luis Obispo County, California. The aberrant plant occurred among 285 potted seedlings obtained from 53 parent trees. After 10 months of growth, it was 4.5 cm. tall compared to an average height of 16.7 cm. for five siblings from the same seed parent. Pinus radiata 'El Dorado' is described as being of slow growth, compact form, and with extremely dense foliage, 2N=25. Original publication of the name (which when translated means \"Gilded One\") with a description and photographs, is to be found in the Journal ofHeredity 63 ( 5 ) : 293-296 ( 1972 ). The plant has withstood very hot summer conditions (maximum 40 C) and relatively cold winters (minimum 7 C), but is not expected to grow under our conditions in the northeast. Unfortunately, it is susceptible to the Western Gall Rust (Peridermium harknessii). Prunus caroliniana 'Crisfield Dwarf' A new cultivar of Carolina Laurelcherry registered by Mr. George F. Crisfield, 10 Rockwell Avenue, S., Savannah, Ga. 31406. The original plant was found growing as a seedling in a dense growth of azaleas, vines, and other laurelcherry seedlings on Mr. Crisfield's property in Savannah, Georgia, in March 1969. Mr. Crisfield has taken cuttings from the plant and will continue to propagate for interested growers in his area. 207 Prunus caroliniana 'Crisfield Dwarf' is described as being a dwarf. Plants are only one-third as high as the native P. caroliniana of the same age, and the leaves are longer and more lanceolate New branches emerge from the base of the trunk as well as new growth from terminal buds. The leaves are alternate, as with normal P. caroliniana, and evergreen. It will withstand either a sunny or shady location, and favors sandy, welldrained soil. Information about hardiness is limited at present, but Mr. Crisfield's plants have not been damaged by temperatures in the upper teens. true Quercus macranthera X frainetto 'Macon' oak which has been registered by Mr. J. R. P. van Smith, Arboretum Trompenburg, Groene Wetering 46, Hoey A hybrid Rotterdam, Holland. The original plant is now fifteen years old, and is a seedling from Quercus macranthera with Q. frainetto as the male parent. It originated at the Arboretum Trompenburg in 1958. Mr. van Hoey Smith states that Quercus macranthera X frainetto 'Macon' has leaves which are intermediate in form between the two parents. The buds and indumentum of the young shoots resemble Q. macranthera. It is considered to have the same hardiness as the parents, which should make this new cultivar adaptable to Zone 5 conditions of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map. An article with a further description of the plant is to be published by Mr. van Hoey Smith in the May, 1973 issue of the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. The plant has not yet been introduced commercially. Quercus pontica X dentata 'Pondaim' A hybrid oak which has been registered by Mr. J. R. P. van Hoey Smith, Arboretum Trompenberg, Groene Wetering 46, Rotterdam, Holland. years old, and is a seedling from as the male parent. It originated at the Arboretum Trompenberg in 1963. Mr. van Hoey Smith states that Q. pontica X dentata 'Pondaim' may be described as having leaves which are intermediate between the parents. It is considered to have the same hardiness as the parents, which should make this new cultivar adaptable to Zone 5 conditions of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map. An article with a further description of the plant is to be published by Mr. van Hoey Smith in the May, 1973 issue of the Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. The plant has The original plant is now ten Quercus pontica with Q. dentata 208 yet been introduced commercially. This, and the preceding cultivar, along with the three Fagus cultivars mentioned above, not retum is presently being grown in the U.S.A. The Arnold Arbomaking arrangements with Mr. van Hoey Smith to import them all for representation in our living collections. are not Thuja occidentalis 'Watnong Gold' A new cultivar of Eastern Arborvitae registered by Mr. Donald P. Smith, Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N.J. 07950. It originated at Watnong Nursery in 1964 as a sport of Thuja occidentalis 'Ellwangeriana Aurea Nana', and the original publication of the name is to be found in the Watnong Nursery plant list 1968-1970, where it was first offered commercially. Mr. Smith states that ... \"This plant grows one foot per year, making a tall slender golden Arborvitae. It differs in that it retains good winter color and develops into a compact wellclothed plant.\" Hardiness should be the same as the parent, or Zone 5 of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map. The Smiths, who are generous benefactors of our collections at the Arnold Arboretum, have sent young plants for trial under our conditions. Tillia cordata 'Fairview' A K. new cultivar of Littleleaf Linden registered by McGill, A. McGill and Son, Fairview, Oregon Mr. Peter 97024. It was selected in June, 1969 by Mr. John H. McIntyre at Fairview, Oregon as a seedling of Tilia cordata and bears the Plant Patent #3259. The name was first published in the A. McGill & Son price list for 1973 where it was first offered commercially. In the Plant Patent column of the November 15, 1972 issue of American Nurseryman, Tilia cordata 'Fairview' is described (without the \"Characterized particularly as to novelty by the name) as unique combination of a strong growing habit, a larger leaf size than is normal, ... a heavier than normal leaf thickness, and a distinctive, attractive and darker than normal leaf color.\" Information on hardiness and adaptability is lacking at present but it is presumed to be the same as for the parent. ... Tsuga canadensis 'Bacon Cristate' A new cultivar of Canadian Hemlock registered by Mr. Donald P. Smith, Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N.J. The original plant was discovered in 1925 as a wild seedling growing in 209 northern New Jersey by Mr. Ralph Bacon. It was introduced commercially by the Don Smiths, and the original publication of the name is to be found in the Watnong Nursery Catalog for 1966. Mr. Smith states that ... \"Tsuga canadensis 'Bacon Cristate' is one of a group of extremely dwarf and cristate hemlock plants. It resembles T. canadensis 'Jervis' but is much more cristate and dwarf. The foliage is darker green.\" Plants of this cultivar are now in the Arnold Arboretum collection which represents numerous forms of T. canadensis. Tsuga canadensis 'Cloud Prune' A new cultivar of Canadian Hemlock registered by Mr. Donald P. Smith, Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N.J. The orignal plant was discovered in 1938 by Mr. William Wallbridge, Short Hills, N.J. as an isolated seedling in Sussex County, N.J. It was introduced commercially by the Don Smiths in 1972, and the original publication of the name is to be found in the Watnong Nursery plant list for 1972. Mr. Smith states that Tsuga canadensis 'Cloud Prune' \"was an isolated seedling. Forty-four years after it was collected, the plant is now three feet high and five feet across. It has developed in a pattern suggesting Japanese Cloud Pruning.\" The Smiths have donated a plant for our collection at the Arnold Arboretum. ROBERT S. HEBB ... "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Community Tree Giveaway","article_sequence":5,"start_page":210,"end_page":212,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24604","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170b728.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Page, Nancy M.","article_content":"Community Tree Giveaway For the past few years, the Arnold Arboretum has been of- fering its surplus nursery stock to local community parks and gardens. Interested groups qualify simply by their willingness to dig and move the plant material themselves. We try to provide whatever supervision and training is needed along the way to ensure that the plants are transplanted and maintained successfully. Our first effort along this line began as a somewhat casual response to a request for several trees to plant in a vacant lot which was being developed into a community park. We agreed to provide the plant material as long as people from the neighborhood were willing to dig it up and move it from our nurseries in Weston. Word time we spread rapidly through were finished transplanting several neighborhoods; by the for the season, over 50 Two women in the midst of digging operations at the Case Estates, Weston. Photo: P. Ogilvie. during a tree giveaway men, and children had managed to dig up, transport 100 trees and shrubs. replant seemed to find these plants useful for a vaNeighborhoods riety of landscaping purposes. Residents of a Cambridge housing project moved an entire row of mature honeysuckle to create an instant hedge. A community-run low-cost housing corporation began a storage nursery of our trees on a vacant lot in Roxbury to be available as needed for community landscaping. A few parks were started on vacant lots; a few neighborhood centers were embellished with a flowering tree or shrub; and probably an occasional tree or two found its way into a private yard despite our stipulation that all our plant material be planted on property open to the public. women and over Tom Kinahan of the Arnold Arboretum burlap a young tree. Photo: P. Ogilvie. demonstrating how to ball and 212I In addition to its landscaping aspect, this first plant giveaway proved useful to neighborhoods in several less expected ways. As a simple event, it helped some groups to mobilize. The appeal of a tree or two, combined with the effort needed to draw workers together who could transplant the trees, sometimes seemed to provide just what was required to get a group of people moving. As an event it also exposed many people to entirely new experiences, ranging from those of adults who had never used gardening tools before, to a child or two who had never been out to the country before. As an educational process it conveyed useful information and expertise it would be difficult to obtain ordinarily. And in almost every case, it created an unusual involvement between the trees going into a neighborhood, and the people of that neighborhood. Largely due to this involvement and our own care in trying to demonstrate how to handle and maintain plant material, the prospects of these young trees have been much brighter than one might expect. Few, if any, plants have died due to the shock of transplanting, although a few roughly handled specimens have gone dormant for a month or so. Despite the often rigorous character of the sites (vacant lots, school yards), surprisingly few plants have been harmed. Since the fate of these trees depends so heavily on a community's real understanding of site characteristics and proper maintenance, in more recent giveaways we have tended to refocus our efforts from moving a volume of plant material to more carefully assessing sites and teaching the processes involved in transplanting and maintaining trees. In the long run the real value of our program probably lies in its capacity to involve people with plant material and provide an educational experience. NANCY M. PAGE "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Memorial Gifts and Plantings","article_sequence":6,"start_page":213,"end_page":215,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24607","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170bb6b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Memorial Gifts and The Arnold created with a Plantings in its very name a memorial, was from the estate of James Arnold of New bequest Bedford, Massachusetts, and has been developed and operates to this day through the generous support of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, past and present. Over the years many individuals have requested that their gifts be used as memorial funds to care for the living collections, to acquire special plants for the grounds or books for the library. Funds have been established for special purposes, such as work in plant propagation, plant introduction, memorial lectures, the care of the rhododendrons or dwarf conifers and others. The Arboretum staff welcomes such gifts. The wishes of the donors are accepted and such funds are, in fact, permanent memorials. Gifts of five thousand dollars or more can be added to the Arboretum endowment as a named capital fund with the income to be used for special purposes. Thus the Arboretum has, today, Fellowships named for Martha Dana Mercer and James R Jewett; the William Judd Fund for plant propagation; the Irving W. Fraim, and George R. Cooley funds for staff travel and exploration; the Isabel Shaw Fund for the care of the rhododendrons ; and the Mary Sargent and Charles Sargent funds to purchase books in special categories for the library, to name but a few, recognizing either the donor or the person to be memorialized. The Director, or a representative of the Arnold Arboretum, is always willing to discuss the needs of the Arboretum with anyone wishing to establish a named memorial fund. Gifts are accepted by the Trustees of the Arboretum, Harvard University, and are tax deductible. In the past smaller gifts have been accepted and a memorial plant has been designated by the staff within the collection of the Arnold Arboretum. Such plants are marked with a specially Arboretum, 213 214 embossed aluminum label which carries appropriate wording such as \"In Memory of the gift of 1973\". The Memorial label is located on the plant along with the Arnold Arboretum record label which has data important to the staff regarding the plant. The gift and the plant involved are also recorded in our permanent record files. The staff tries to select and locate the plant in accordance with the wishes of the donor. Thus, memorial conifers, crabapples, lilacs, rhododendrons and fringe trees are to be found in the regular collections and in the woods, or near a pond or at a scenic outlook, as requested. The gift is added to the funds available for the general care of the living collections. The labels chosen are long lasting and not conspicuous or detractive of the beauty of the plant. We regret that we cannot accept specially cast labels or more prominent ones for such labels are vulnerable to damage by defacing, bending, or removal. An alternative suggestion which has been accepted by some as a memorial is the purchase and designation of a book for the library. The books chosen by the staff carry a special bookplate with the name of the person to be remembered and the donor. We also will accept gifts of books, if needed for our library, bearing the personal bookplate of the owner, to which we add the Arnold Arboretum bookplate and the name of the donor and the date of the gift. The librarian is willing to aid in the selection of appropriate memorial volumes. The books within the excellent library of the Arnold Arboretum have restricted circulation, but the library is available for research and special use by qualified individuals. The staff is deeply appreciative of the support it receives from the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum and is willing to cooperate in these special ways. RICHARD A. HOWARD , 215 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":7,"start_page":216,"end_page":216,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24603","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170b36f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Wild Wealth. Paul B. Sears, Marion R. Becker, and Frances J. Poetker. New York: Bobbs-Merrill Co. 1971. 322 pages, illustrated. $20.00. Three contrasting sections by an ecologist (43 pages), a practical gardener-horticulturist ( 135 pages), and a flower arranger (119 pages) are correlated with over 250 drawings to describe an area near Cincinnati, Ohio and its native and cultivated plants. Sears' essay is a rambling explanation of the factors of the environment that are present and have produced the growing conditions of southwestern Ohio. Mrs. Becker and her husband have grown an amazing array of plants on eight acres of woodland. Her account of success and failure with each species should be considered the highlight of this book. Regrettably the valuable horticultural suggestions seem to me to be lost in the literary style adopted. Mrs. Poetker's contribution begins with a chapter titled \"A different kind of beauty\" and then describes the preparations for arranging fresh or dried plant parts in a variety of containers. The artist, Ms. Forberg, has sketched the arrangements and a description accompanies each indicating the materials and procedures. Subdued color wash gives variety to the illustrations and enhances the attractive layout of the book. The illustrations are mostly impressionistic. While the representations of individual species are recognizable, the plates having several plants present an unnecessary puzzle of \"find the plant\". Marginal captions throughout the text describe the illustrations and are generally very well written. The compositor set these in italics and then, annoyingly, has the habit of using the generic name as a common name with an initial capital letter and in the same type; e.g. tradescantias, and several words or lines later refers to T. ohiensis in roman typeface. A very complete index is supplied. 216 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23521","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070b36e.jpg","title":"1973-33-3","volume":33,"issue_number":3,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cold Hardiness of Woody Plants","article_sequence":1,"start_page":113,"end_page":118,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24599","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170ab28.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Havis, John R.","article_content":"Cold Hardiness of Woody Plants Cold hardiness, or the capability to survive exposure to winter weather, is a major consideration in the introduction of woody arboreta and botanical gardens. Hardiness is usually described in relative terms in reference to a location or a temperature. A plant is said to be hardy north to southern New Jersey, or hardy north to Boston; or hardy to 0F or to -40F. plants by How Plants Are Killed Ice forms in almost all parts of a woody plant at temperatures more than a few degrees below the freezing point of pure water. Therefore, if a plant is to be hardy to temperatures such as -20F, the tissues of the plant must be able to withstand the stresses caused by their freezing and thawing. A key difference between a hardy plant and a non-hardy plant is believed to be where the ice forms in freezing: inside the living cells or outside of them. If ice forms inside of cells, it is almost always fatal to them, and this is probably the principal cause of frost kill in non-hardy plants. Normally hardy tissue may be killed by moderate temperatures that are reached by a rapid rate of freezing, e.g. 10F per minute. These tissues would tolerate much lower temperatures under slower freezing. Here again, it is believed that ice formation inside of cells, triggered by the unusually rapid drop in temperature, is the cause of tissue death. Do such rapid temperature drops occur in nature? Under normal conditions, air temperatures usually do not drop faster than 5 to 10F per hour. However, the rapid rate of freezing mentioned above has been measured in evergreen leaves during a sunny but very cold midwinter day when shade from a structure passes over the foliage. We believe, therefore, that damage from rapid freezing does occur in nature. In cold hardy stems and leaves, the initial freezing of water in the tissues occurs outside rather than inside the cells, and thus the freezing is not fatal. We are not certain how cells of hardy tissue avoid internal freezing. Several factors probably are involved. Cells of hardy tissue usually have a high con- 113 114 centration of sugars and salts which lower the freezing point, and thus the relatively pure water outside of the cells is encouraged to freeze first. Once the outside freezing starts, water is withdrawn from the cells to feed the outside ice, and this withdrawal effectively concentrates the cell solution and lowers its freezing temperature even more. Another protective characteristic of hardy cells is highly permeable cell membranes. Once the outside water freezes, the cell needs to lose water freely, and often rapidly, to the outside ice in order to maintain the cell's freezing temperature below the temperature to which it is exposed. The highly permeable membranes allow this to happen. As water moves out of the cell, the protoplasm collapses as it does during wilting, and as this collapse progresses with lower and lower temperature, great tensions are placed on membranes and protoplasmic proteins. Since we assume that protein structures vary in different plant genotypes, species variations in resistance to these stresses might be expected, and could explain differences in degrees of hardiness. Dr. Weiser's group at the University of Minnesota have observed an exotherm (release of heat) at the killing point of stems of fully hardened woody plants. They interpret this as being caused by the release of water which is intimately associated with protoplasmic constituents and necessary for life. The degree of hardiness of such a stem would therefore depend on the temperature at which this \"vital water\" is finally released. We have indicated that stems and leaves of hardy plants can withstand freezing of water in their tissues, provided that the ice forms outside of the cells. On the other hand, hardy flower buds apparently escape injury by avoidance of freezing; once they freeze, they are killed. Apparently, buds of certain plants are able to avoid freezing down to temperatures of-30 to -40F. How they do this remains unknown. Develop Hardiness Many attempts have been made to explain the development of hardiness (or acclimation) by analysis of cell constituents before, during and after acclimation. It is well known that during acclimation cells commonly lose starch and accumulate simple sugars. This was originally interpreted as a major protection mechanism. It is possible that sugars in the cell protoplasm act to reduce freezing damage to vital constituents. Sugars in the cell vacuole, where most sugars accumulate, effectively lower the freezing point of cells, but only to a limited How Plants 115 not nearly enough to account fully for the hardiness that occur. Other chemical changes are known to occur in the cells associated with cold acclimation, such as changes in quantity and kinds of proteins, but these changes are difficult to translate into specific benefits to the tissues. Cell membranes are known to become increasingly permeable to water during acclimation, thus allowing water to leave the cells more readily to feed ice crystals outside of the cells. Furthermore, reduced viscosity of cell protoplasm also occurs, probably having value in providing flexibility for surviving the stresses produced by freezing. Unfortunately, we do not know the mechanisms of these changes or how to induce them. Investigations in recent years have revealed that plant hardiness progresses in distinct stages in response to environmental changes in the fall of the year. Hardiness does not develop until growth ceases. The first stage of cold acclimation results from short days a photoperiod effect. The amount or degree of hardening from short days without frost is not great compared to the ultimate hardening of stems of plants such as apple, dogwood and maple. For example, stems with an ultimate hardiness of -50F acclimate to about OF from exposure to short days. It has also been shown that this first stage takes place most efficiently when days are relatively warm, at least at the beginning, and when leaves are present. An especially interesting finding is that the short day effect is translocated within the plant, as if it were a naturally produced hormone. The second stage of cold acclimation, which induces further hardiness, is caused by below-freezing temperatures. Leaves play no part in this induction, and the stimulus is not translocated in the plant. Judging from the outward appearance of the plant, we might assume that the plant's preparation for winter is a change from an active to an inactive state. There is ample evidence, however, that many chemical and physical changes take place as dormancy and cold acclimation develop. These changes result from active metabolic adjustments, rather than the mere cessation of activity. degree changes - - Root Hardiness Two recent trends, nursery production in containers and the use of above-ground planters in landscaping, have added a new dimension to hardiness problems of woody ornamentals. Investigations into the causes of frequent winter kill of plants 116 above-ground containers revealed that roots do not develop the same degree of cold hardiness as tops. Furthermore, root hardiness does not develop at the same time as top hardiness, and apparently the degree of hardiness or lack thereof can not be predicted from the characteristics of the tops. One of the complications is that roots of woody plants do not seem to have the same type of winter dormancy as their tops. Roots continue to grow in the fall as long as the soil is above about 40F, and apparently they will grow throughout the winter if the soil is kept warm. Since the short-day induced first stage of acclimation is translocated in the plant, one might expect that the roots would receive and respond to this hardiness induction. We do not know if this occurs, but if it does the roots must, of course, first stop growing. Exposure to freezing induces hardiness in tops (second stage of acclimation), and a similar response might be expected in roots. Our studies suggest that this does in fact occur in roots of some plants, but unfortunately not in all species. A practical method of inducing significant hardiness in roots would be a great boon to nurseries and landscaping g in northern climates. in Hardiness to Winter Desiccation For purposes of plant adaptation, we may speak of cold hardiness, when we really mean winter hardiness. An evergreen that is truly winter hardy must be both cold hardy and desiccation hardy. Winter desiccation is a major cause of leaf browning, sometimes called winter \"burn\", of cold hardy evergreens, especially Ilex, Leucothoe and Rhododendron in the climatic zones represented in Massachusetts. No matter how much water is in the soil, when the water freezes it cannot be taken up by the plant. In addition, even when water is available to the roots, if the water in the stem is frozen, no water can move through the stem to supply the leaves. At the same time, leaves exposed to winter sun and wind lose water. The combination of water loss and interruption in supply results in dehydration. Differences in the amount of injury from year to year and in different locations are due to variations in time or degree of exposure to conditions of dehydration. Rhododendron carolinianum 'P.J.M.' is a truly winter hardy evergreen, combining remarkable desiccation hardiness with cold hardiness. We found that 'P.J.M.' could lose up to 70% of its leaf moisture and recover without injury. In comparison, R. 'Boule de Niege' was injured by losing about 60% , and R. catawbiense 'Grandiflorum' was injured by losing 50% of leaf water. 117 Summary development of cold hardiness in stems and leaves of woody plants is initiated after the cessation of growth, first by a translocatable stimulus from short days. Further cold hardiness is induced by freezing. Many of the changes that take place are probably active metabolic processes, and the changes are numerous, no one of which can adequately account for freezetolerance. Cold acclimation does not occur equally throughout the plant, the roots being remarkably independent from the tops in this respect. Winter hardiness, especially in evergreens, involves desiccation hardiness as The well as cold hardiness. JOHN R. HAVIS Professor of Plant Physiology University Amherst of Massachusetts, 118 Selected References Fuchigami, L. H., Weiser, C. J. and Evert, D. R. 1971. Induction of cold acclimation in Cornus stolonifera Michx. Plant Physiol. 47: 98-103. Levitt, J. 1956. The Hardiness of Plants. New York: Academic Press. Olien, C. R. 1967. Freezing stresses and survival. Ann. Rev. Plant Parker, J. 18: 387-408. 1963. Cold resistance in woody plants. Bot. Rev. 29: 124-201. Siminovitch, D. and Scarth, G. W. 1938. A study of frost injury to plants. Can. J. Research C16: 467-481. Weiser, C. J. 1970. Cold resistance and injury in woody plants. Science 169: 1269-1278. Physiol. _ __ __ ~~ ~ ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Propagation- The Union of Art and Science","article_sequence":2,"start_page":119,"end_page":125,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24601","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170af26.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hess, Charles E.","article_content":"Plant Propagation-The Union of Art and Science I would like to start my presentation with a word of sincere appreciation to arboreta and botantical gardens in general and the Arnold Arboretum in particular for the contributions made to the field of plant propagation. An appropriate example, during the Centennial Year celebration, is the excellent research Mr. Alfred Fordham has conducted and published in the area of seed propagation. He has contributed to our knowledge of the basis of dormancy in seed as well as practical methods by which a horticulturist can overcome seed dormancy. Plant propagation is truly the union of art and science. I would like to present a number of plant propagation techniques where this phenomenon can be exemplified. I will continue with seed propagation. It has been known for some time that sphagnum moss improves the germination of seedlings. In part the favorable response is due to physical characteristics such as good aeration, and good moisture holding capacity. There is also apparently a fungistatic effect of sphagnum moss because damping-off usually does not occur when sphagnum moss is used as a germination medium. We were curious about the nature of the fungistatic agent and we made a number of extracts to see if we could separate it from the sphagnum moss. We found that there was in fact a substance, which could be extracted from the sphagnum moss, which prevented the growth of damping-off organisms. We also found associated with the sphagnum moss a bacterium, which when grown under culture conditions, produced a substance which inhibited the growth of organisms such as Pythium, and Rhizoctonia which can cause damping-off in young seedlings. It may be that the bacteria is the actual source of the fungistatic material associated with sphagnum moss. It is commonly recommended that the sphagnum moss should not be sterilized prior to its use because much of the fungistatic effect is lost. It could well be that the loss is due to the killing of the bacteria in the sterilization process. 119 120I I would now like to turn to the propagation of plants by cuttings in which we will see a wealth of examples in which art and science have been united to produce successful propagation techniques. When a cutting is taken from a plant, one of the primary responsibilities of the propagator is to prevent moisture loss. If the leaves are retained in a turgid condition, photosynthesis will occur leading to the production of sugars and other substances essential for root initiation which move down the stem and accumulate at the base. When a sufficient level of substances have accumulated, cell division is initiated and root differentiation follows. One of the techniques used to control - water loss is to increase the relative humidity surrounding the leaves of the cuttings. The result is that the tendency of water to leave the leaf is as great as it is to enter and an equilibrium is reached. One of the first structures that was used to achieve this equilibrium was the bell jar. However, in addition to being an excellent moisture barrier, the bell jar with its restricted space also becomes a heat trap. If it is exposed to direct sunlight, the temperature will reach a point at which the plant tissues are severely damaged, if not killed. A grafting case, although more efficient in operation, uses the same principle of trapping moisture around the cuttings so as to prevent any net loss of water. Plastic tents are once again more efficient, but are based on the same principle. In each case it is necessary to provide substantial amounts of shade during sunny periods to prevent excessive accumulation of heat. A unique variation in the use of shade to reduce the detrimental effects of direct sunlight was introduced by Mr. Guy Nearing who developed the Nearing Frame. The propagation unit consists of a cold frame covered by a reflector with an opening to the north. The cuttings receive only indirect or reflected light and therefore are not subjected to the intense heat of direct sunlight. An alternative to building up moisture in a confined space is to use a larger structure and introduce moisture by means of a humidifier. The larger volume of air provides a greater buffer to fluctuations in temperature. However, it is still essential to provide shade for even under these conditions, the large volume of air will be heated excessively and in many cases plant tissues will be damaged. In the early 1950's a new dimension was introduced into the control of water loss from cuttings. This was mist propagation in which a fine spray of water was applied intermittently to the cuttings. Not only was moisture introduced into the air, but chambers used in autumn at the Dana Greenhouses, Arnold Arboretum. This plastic is air permeable yet vaporproof. The high relative humidity maintained reduces transpiration and prevents the cuttings from wilting. Photo: A. Fordham Polyethylene plastic covered propagating 121 the moisture reached the leaves and then evaporated from it had a cooling effect. The cooler leaf temperatures reduced the rate of evaporation of water within the leaf and therefore reduced water loss. Since a confined space was no longer necessary to retain humidity, the cuttings could be propagated under open conditions and much higher light intensities could be used. As a result the cuttings were favored by greater potential rates of photosynthesis and since leaf tissue temperatures were reduced, the rate of respiration was reduced also. As a result photosynthate actually accumulated under the conditions of mist propagation whereas in conventional propaas them, 122 were used at a rate greater than their manufacture. The ultimate in plant propagation in terms of environmental control is plant tissue culture. Under these conditions the light, moisture, and even the makeup of the nutrients on which the tissues are grown are very specifically controlled. In fact it is possible by manipulation of the media to determine whether shoots or roots, or both, are formed on the plant tissue cultures. I would like to now consider some internal factors which effect the rooting of cuttings and one of them which has been of particular interest is juvenility. Juvenility can be expressed as the effects of the age of plants from which cuttings are taken. The younger the plants are, the greater are the percentages of rooting. It can be expressed also in the position on the stock plant from which cuttings are taken. It turns out that plants retain their juvenile characteristics in the lower portion of the plant. Therefore, if cuttings are taken from the base of the plant, the percentage of rooting is often higher than for cuttings taken from the upper portion of the plant. Propagators have taken advantage of this technique by maintaining stool beds in which the plants are constantly cut back and shoots are forced from the root system. The basal shoots have juvenile characteristics and are quite easy to root. Another alternative is to maintain the stock blocks from which cuttings are taken in the form of hedges. Again the propagator ensures that the shoots are obtained from the lower portion of the plant. An excellent example of a plant in which the effects of juvenility can be studied is Hedera helix. The juvenile and mature forms have distinct morphological differences. The juvenile form grows horizontally, has palmate leaves, and is used frequently as a ground cover. In contrast, the mature form grows upright as a shrub, has entire leaves, and is capable of flowering and producing fruit. The juvenile cuttings root very readily with or without a treatment with root promoting substances. In contrast, the mature cuttings root with extreme difficulty even though root promoting substances may be added. We have found that there are no substantial differences in the auxin or root promoting substances, or root inhibiting substances, in the juvenile and mature tissues. However, another group of substances which we have referred to as rooting co-factors appear to be in greater concentration in the juvenile tissues. We have developed a hypothetical scheme of adventitious root initiation shown in Figure 1 which is based on experiments conducted with the juvenile and mature forms of Hedera helix and other easy- and difficult-to-root cuttings. We gation techniques, carbohydrates 123 Figure 1. A hypothetical scheme of adventitious root initiation. From: Hess, C. E. 1968. \"Internal and External Factors Regulatmg Root Initiation\" in Root Growth, published by Butterworths, London, England. feel that easy-to-root cuttings contain four or more rooting cofactors and have an adequate supply of auxins. The auxin and the co-factors form a complex and if there is an adequate supply of carbohydrates and nitrogenous substances, root initiation will progress. If the cutting is difficult to root, it may be due to the lack of an auxin. This can be corrected by supplementing the auxin with a synthetic material such as indolebutyric acid, or naphthalene acetic acid. If, however, the cutting fails to root even with an auxin application, it may be due to the lack of one or more of the co-factors. In fact, the degree of difficulty can be an expression of how many and how much of the co-factors are missing. Therefore, we see that the rooting of cuttings involves the art of providing the proper environment so that cuttings will retain ample amounts of moisture and under these conditions a highly complex sequence of biochemical events can take place leading to the initiation and differentiation of root primordia. Now let us turn to the techniques of propagation by layering. One of the factors in layering that can effect its success is the girdling of the stem prior to placing rooting media around the branch. The purpose of the girdle is to interrupt the downward movement of the root promoting substances which are synthe- 124 sized by the leaves and buds. As this material accumulates, cuttings, root initiation is stimulated. This phenomenon can be demonstrated by girdling the branch and then removing the shoot directly above the girdle at various time periods after the girdle was made. As the time period increases, the rooting potential of the shoot also increases. We have found that sugars, auxins, and rooting co-factors accumulate in the tissues above the girdle. Layers are usually made by mounding soil around the stem or wrapping sphagnum moss, or peat moss, around the stem and then over-wrapping it with plastic just as in the to retain moisture. The beneficial effects of the dark conditions created by the presence of the sphagnum or peat moss can be described as an etiolation or degreening effect. In many plants the initiation of roots can be inhibited if the area in which the initiation is to take place is exposed to light. This is quite in contrast with the leafy area of the cutting which should be exposed to light in order to promote photosynthesis. Finally, I wish to discuss very briefly propagation by grafting. This is an area in which art predominates over science. Comparatively little is known about the physiology of graft union formation and what can be done to accelerate it. It is known that the botanical relationship of the graft partners must be very closely observed. It is nearly impossible to graft plants of distant botanical relationships. The phenomenon of incompatibility plays a major role in unsuccessful graft unions. Techniques such as the use of an intermediate stock, have been used to overcome the problem of incompatibility but the examples are rather few. Attempts have been made to accelerate graft union formation through the use of growth promoting and cell division 125 stimulating substances. Although a few instances of success have been reported, the general experience has been a lack of response. The area of propagation by grafting, therefore, is one which has great opportunities for research to provide the scientific basis to match the wealth of information that fied as art. CHARLES E. HESS Dean can be classi- and Environmental Science College of Agriculture Rutgers University Mist system in use for propagation at the Arnold Arboretum greenhouses. Photo~ P. Bruns "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arboreta, Genes, and Plant Improvement","article_sequence":3,"start_page":127,"end_page":134,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24597","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170a36b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Santamour Jr., Frank S.","article_content":"Arboreta, Genes and Plant Improvement Under the general heading of \"Arboreta and Botanical Gar- exists a wide diversity of institutional interests and objectives. Some institutions may be \"one-man operations\", while others may employ a research and teaching staff. Some may specialize in only a single group of plants, while others may maintain vast plant collections. Regardless of physical or administrative affiliation, each and every arboretum can play a significant role in developing new and improved plant materials through hybridization and selec- dens\", there dimensions, personnel, tion. In discussing the potential of arboreta and botanical gardens in plant breeding, I will refer only to \"arboreta\" and deal only with woody plants. All botanical gardens and, indeed, most arboreta, grow annuals and perennials. But the improvement of these herbaceous plants is largely in the hands of commercial interests or dedicated amateurs. The realm of the professional, arboretum-oriented plant breeder is the range of woody plants where, except for a few genera, amateurs dare not tread. - Why Plant Breeding? be little argument as to the merits of scientific among those plants used as food and forage. Breeding and selection of crop plants over the past century has given us high yielding, pest resistant, well adapted varieties that have, in conjunction with improved cultural practices, enabled us to reduce the acreage devoted to farming. These food plants nourish our bodies, but ornamental plants nourish our souls. Our view of life is influenced by the view from our windows and ornamental plants are instruments of psychological and social uplift. A recent Harris Poll, conducted for Life magazine (Hooper, 1970) was particularly revealing on this point. When a cross-section of Americans was asked to rate 26 items of \"The things Americans want most\", an overwhelming 95% responded affirmatively to \"green grass and trees around me\". Thus plants were rated ahead of churches ( 86 % ), schools ( 81 % ), and can There breeding 127 128 near close relatives (40% ). This is a challenge for those of us engaged in the development, production, and maintenance of ornamental plants. The congregation of masses of people in urban areas has stimulated attempts to restore part of the environmental heritage trees and shrubs in these new surroundings. But the cities are far from ideal sites for the majority of plants. Root growth is restricted by poor soil aeration resulting from soil compaction or impervious soil coverings of asphalt or concrete. Poor aeration also aggravates nutrient deficiencies and water stress. High concentrations of salts resulting from winter salting of roadways also have deleterious effects on root growth. Formerly, leaks in gas lines carrying artificially produced gas were a serious problem. Natural gas, which is becoming more widespread in use, is apparently non-toxic to plants, but may contribute to the removal of oxygen from the root environment. In addition there are subterranean wires, steam pipes, water lines, and other accoutrements and debris of civilization that further influence the environment beneath the ground. Above ground, the city contributes its own peculiar interferences to optimum plant growth. Various air pollutants produced by industry or automobile exhausts may frequently damage the foliage of shrubs and trees or weaken their resistance to pests and climatic changes. The reflected heat from streets and buildings may also result in temperatures high enough to cause injury to plants. Overhead utility wires, while not constituting a direct hindrance to the growth of city trees, do necessitate costly tree pruning that may alter the esthetic value of the plantings. Plant diseases and insect pests are present in both rural and urban areas, but their effects are frequently intensified by the negative influence of urban stress factors on plant vitality. Control of plant pests can usually be achieved by the use of chemicals as sprays or systemics. However, few pesticides are so selective that only a specific pest is killed or controlled. The undesirable toxic side effects of many chemical sprays have recently been emphasized in the popular literature, and while overstated in some instances, these effects cannot be dismissed lightly. Any reduction in the use of such chemicals must be considered as an ecological \"plus\". In the long run, the development of pest-resistant plants will provide the most efficient means of control, from both the economic and biological points of view. In short, we are in great need of trees and shrubs that possess inherent resistance to major insect and disease pests, that can living - - 129 resist or tolerate chemical air pollution, and that can survive and prosper in the man-created urban environment. In addition to their esthetic qualities, woody plants in urban settings can muffle the noise of civilization, trap particulate contaminants in the air, provide shade, and favorably alter the microclimate for man's comfort. There is also some evidence, not entirely convincing, that plants can absorb significant amounts of gaseous pollutants from the However, important as the only objectives for of Norway maple and one red-flowered azalea were the only plants that could survive in your community. As dismal as the prospects of treeless streets and a shrubless landscape might be, the use of an extremely limited range of plant materials would be tremendously dull. Novelty and variety are the spice of life, and plant breeders should strive to increase the range of variation in woody plants. A truly blue rose is asking a bit much, since the genetic material for this trait simply does not exist in the rose or in related genera. However, there are opportunities to obtain new and clearer flower and fruit colors, varying sizes, shapes, and forms, and different textures in most woody plants. \"New\" plants may not be entirely new, of course, but only new to a particular geographic area. Thus cold hardiness and drought tolerance are two factors that are amenable to genetic improvement. There are obvious limitations to the movement of plants into different climatic zones, but an increased adaptability range of only 50 miles may be worth the effort. I hope I have not belabored the need for plant breeding, but there is an urgency (in a relative time scale) for plant improvement. Ornamental plants cost money - to grow, to plant, to maintain, and to remove. With an unlimited budget, our municipal parks departments could indeed keep our cities green. The rather pathetic condition of the trees in most of our major cities is testimony to the fiscal stress of plant-related agencies. Scientific breeding of woody plants can produce shrubs and trees that will give more than a dollar's value for each dollar atmosphere. these genetic goals are, they are not plant breeding. Suppose that one clone spent. Why should arboreta contribute to or engage in the genetic improvement of woody plants? This question can be answered by the reason for this Symposium, the Centennial of the Arnold Arboretum. The long-term nature of genetics research with woody plants has probably been a major deterrent to the initiation and maintenance of such projects and may continue to constitute a problem in the minds of arboretum administrators. But 130 these administrators should recognize that they have the necessary factors, plant collections and time, to make a significant contribution in the development of genetically superior woody plants. The time element is important. In forest-tree genetics, Libby al. (1969) have stated \"that between 50% to 75% of the research information potentially available from forest genetics research has been lost due to personnel changes, administrative inconsistencies, and damage due to the occurrence of some low-probability disaster\". Part of this lost potential can be reclaimed by recognizing and maintaining a priority for such research projects and assigning new personnel to continue the work along established guidelines. In such a manner, the scientist will be partially repayed for this infringement on his \"academic freedom\" by the assurance that his own research will not be discontinued by default if he leaves. We have seen that arboreta can exist for long periods of time. In addition, directors of arboreta generally have a long tenure. However, most directors are specialists in some nongenetic area of botany or horticulture, and must also carefully weigh the merits of allocating available land, labor, and money to the various functions of the arboretum. Education and display are important elements of an arboretum's function, but they are local limited to the individuals who visit the arboretum. The results of all scientific research, and especially that involving the development of superior woody plants, may extend the influence of an arboretum to national and international significance. What is the status of plant breeding at arboreta today? Egolf (1968) surveyed a broad spectrum of horticultural and botanical institutions in the United States for breeding and selection research projects in woody ornamentals. Of the 26 organizations that reported active projects, only six could be classified as arboreta or botanical gardens. Four of these arboreta had research projects with only a single genus, one dealt with two genera, and the U.S. National Arboretum was involved with 16 genera. It would appear that the arboreta of the United States are not currently taking advantage of their opportunities in et - developing improved woody plants. While I do believe that arboretum research in plant breeding being generally neglected, I also think that this survey does not truly reflect the total involvement of arboreta in genetics research. Most arboreta, as a matter of policy, freely provide is 131 seeds, cuttings, pollen projects throughout the or plants of rare species for research world. _ The fine collection of poplars at Highland Park in Rochester, New York enabled Ernst J. Schreiner to carry out his famous poplar hybridization project in 1924. When work began in the Netherlands, in 1929, to develop elms resistant to Dutch elm disease, the Arnold Arboretum provided propagation material of five American, seven European, and five Asiatic species (Went, 1938). This spirit of cooperation in the exchange and distribution of plant materials has continued to the present day. Our relatively young, but intensive, breeding projects in shrubs (16 years) and trees (five years) at the U.S. National Arboretum have utilized the plant resources of arboreta from coast to coast and around the world. Many arboreta are also most willing to serve as test areas for the products of breeding and selection research. The wide diversity of climatic and edaphic zones occupied by the national network of arboreta and botanical gardens make these institutions ideal as test sites. Furthermore, the plant breeder knows that his material will receive the best of care and be observed and evaluated by skilled plantsmen. If arboreta are gene \"banks\", they are performing their functions of deposit and withdrawal. But the arboretum should be more than a bank. It should be a brokerage house, where the are invested, compounded, and diversified so that the genes long-term accrual of dividends can be used to stimulate the development of new projects or institutions or to tide the arboretum over during periods of stress. In the following paragraphs, I would like to discuss some of the ways and means whereby any arboretum can get \"a piece of the action\" in plant breeding. Pick A Genus Perhaps one of the greatest deterrents to getting started in breeding woody plants is indecision with regard to what group of plants to work on. Egolf's survey listed only 31 genera currently being investigated. Without too much effort, we can easily list at least 200 genera of trees and shrubs that are items of horticultural commerce in temperate regions of the United States. There is plenty of room for involvement. The choice of genera will, of course, be influenced by the arboretum's current plant collections, the diverse interests and training of staff members, and the size, location, and budget of the institution. 132 The \"glamour\" genera, like Rosa, Rhododendron, and Camellia, should generally be avoided in a new project. They are well covered by commercial or amateur interests. Large genera like Quercus should, if chosen at all, be taken \"piece-meal\". But there are other genera, like Fraxinus, Callicarpa, Hypericum, and many more that might yield significant rewards to the plant breeder. Each arboretum should become an \"area of excellence\" for one or more genera, so that plant breeders at that arboretum or from sister institutions can observe, evaluate, and utilize the assembled germ plasm. Collection of Germ Plasm There is little I can add to the accumulated knowledge within the arboretum fraternity on \"where\" and \"how\" to obtain plant material, although it might be well to stress the utilization of the Plant Records Center and the resources of the Plant Introduction program of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Perhaps the greatest need in most arboretum collections is for increased genetic diversity. An attempt should be made to obtain germ plasm of all species from several areas (provenances) within the species' natural range. These provenances could be selected on an elevational, latitudinal, or edaphic basis and would represent a substantial portion of the range of genetic variability available within a species. Forest-tree geneticists have taken the lead in provenance evaluation over the last 20 years, mainly with coniferous species. In hardwood genera, however, some provenance tests still involve the progeny of only a single mother-tree in each geographic zone. Arboreta, with limited planting areas, must compromise between increasing diversity within a species and adding new species. The success of plant breeding depends on the choice of parental stock, and the wider the area of selection, the more likely will be the development of improved cultivars. The assemblage of cultivars is a special situation. A representative group of cultivars is, of course, necessary in order to measure the superiority of the products of breeding research against the plants already in the nursery trade. However, in many cases, cultivars have been selected and named more for personal reasons than for the merits of the plant. As an example, there are more than 1000 named cultivars of Ilex opaca, most of which, with the labels removed, could not be readily distinguished by the layman. The limited space and labor available to an arboretum could be better utilized in main- 133 taining known different holly species or American holly cultivars from geographic areas than in amassing all the cultivars of a single species. Maintenance of Hybrid Germ Plasm Plant geneticists, in addition to making controlled crosses for specific objectives, frequently engage in \"reconnaissance breeding\". Reconnaissance breeding is simply a broad approach to the determination of crossability patterns within a genus, regardless of the possible merits of parents or progeny. Certainly there is much basic information derived from such a venture, especially in relation to plant systematics and intrageneric relationships. However, unless some of the hybrids exhibit distinctive or superior traits, they are frequently passed over and eventually discarded. I would argue for the maintenance of these first generation, interspecific hybrids in permanent plant collections. New pests and changing ecology are facts of life in arboreta. Who can say that some of these hybrids might not manifest resistance to a new insect or disease or prove to be tolerant to increased air pollution levels? Horticulturally undistinguished hybrids may also serve as genetic \"bridges\" between species that could not otherwise be combined. There is also a warning attached to the development of new hybrids. A new hybrid combination is a \"creation\", and the plant breeder may feel sufficient pride in his accomplishment to select, name, and introduce the best individual of this particular progeny even though the \"best\" of this group may not be as good as some other standard cultivars in the genus. The fact that a plant is a hybrid does not denote any special horticultural attributes. Only by rigorous testing and discriminating judgement can the products of scientific plant breeding become the \"superplants\" of tomorrow. I have not attempted to discuss the personnel and facilities necessary for effective plant breeding research. Nor have I mentioned the extremely important mechanics of introducing a superior cultivar into the nursery trade. There are also many aspects of technical procedure that could have been explained. These topics can be saved for a later time, when more arboreta have initiated genetics projects. What is most important is that arboreta and botanical gardens have an opportunity, and, perhaps, an obligation, to develop improved woody ornamentals. The desire to begin and the - 134 I commitment to continue a long-range plant breeding program are the only basic requirements. FRANK S. SANTAMOUR, JR. Research Geneticist U.S. National Arboretum Literature Cited Egolf, Donald R. 1968. Current developments in the breeding of woody ornamentals. Hortsci. 3(4): 262-269. Hooper, Bayard. 1970. The real change has just begun. A Life poll by Louis Harris. Life 68 ( 1 ) : 102-106. Libby, W. J., Stettler, R. F., and Seitz, F. W. 1969. Forest genetics and forest tree breeding. Ann. Rev. Genet. 3: 469-494. Went, Johanna C. 1938. Compilation of the investigations on the susceptibility of different elms to Ceratostomella ulmi Buisman in the Netherlands. Phytopath. Zeitschr. 11: 181-201. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chromosome Cytology and Arboreta: A Marriage of Convenience","article_sequence":4,"start_page":135,"end_page":146,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24598","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170a76f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Solbrig, Otto T.","article_content":"Chromosome Cytology and Arboreta: A Marriage of Convenience In this paper I would like to review the role cytology as a discipline, and cytologists, the practitioners of that discipline, play, or should play, in a botanical garden or arboretum. My thesis is that cytologists can play an important role in a botanical garden in fostering a better knowledge of the biology of the plants that are grown there, and in providing information of use for the breeding of new varieties, and that a botanical garden, all other things being equal, is a good place for a cytologist to be because he can benefit greatly from the use of a collection of living plants. Therefore my title: it is to the advantage of both parties to associate. Let us start first by restricting the term cytology. Strictly speaking, cytology is the study of the cell. As a modern discipline cytology arose with the development of good quality compound microscopes in the second half of the 19th century. The great German botanist Edward Strassburger is the first outstanding cytologist, who by discovering chromosomes and karyokinesis, drew attention to the phenomena taking place in the nucleus of the cell. Soon after the rediscovery of the Mendelian laws of inheritance, W. S. Sutton drew attention to the similarity of the phenomena that occur in the cell nucleus during cell division and the predicted behavior of the genes. It was, as we all know, the American geneticist Thomas Morgan and his brilliant collaborators and students, Hermann Muller, C. B. Bridges, and Alfred H. Sturtevant, who demonstrated that indeed the chromosomes are the carriers of the genes. This led to a concentration of interest in the nucleus and the chromosomes on the side of cytologists, almost to the exclusion of every other aspect. In the classical textbook on cytology by A. J. Sharp, that dominated the scene in the United States for almost twenty years from 1932 on, two-thirds of its pages are dedicated to the nucleus and chromosomes, while C. D. Darlington's classical work, Recent Advances in Cytology, from about the same time is entirely concerned with chromosomes in spite of its title. 135 136 The equation of chromosome cytology with cytology comes from that time. Today the emphasis has shifted back to the cytoplasm with fantastic results as any of you who have followed the literature in cell biology knows. Nevertheless, when we speak of cytology in this paper, we are going to refer exclusively to chromosomal cytology. Soon after chromosomes were discovered by Strassburger, it was noticed that their number was constant in the nucleus of all cells but for the nucleus of the gametes and cells of the gametophyte where it was exactly one-half. It also was soon noted that different species had different chromosome numbers in their nuclei. This fact was not let go unnoticed by taxonomists who saw the possibility of finding a constant, non-arbitrary character for use in classification. Alas, as we all know, chromosome number per se cannot provide a firm criterion of classification because related species often have the same chromosome number, and in a few cases, different populations of what on other criteria have to be considered the same species have different chromosome numbers. But the possibility that they might be the key to a non-arbitrary system of classification led to a great deal of work in the interface between cytology and taxonomy, what today is called cytotaxonomy. I will not attempt to review the history of cytotaxonomy, but very briefly and very appropriately, point out the role that some members of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum played in the development of the field. Although chromosomes do not provide absolutely reliable characters, as carriers of the genes, they can provide valuable information regarding the nature of the evolutionary process and the phylogeny of the species under study. Even when two species have the same number of chromosomes, they may differ in their shape and size. But even in those cases where the chromosomes are alike in their gross structure, they may differ in the internal content and arrangement of the genes. That species possess a unique individuality in their somatic chromosomes in respect to size, shape, position of centromeres and secondary constrictions and genic content was established in the 1920's by a number of workers in Russia, Europe and the United States, such as Navashin, Delaunay, Levitsky, Goodspeed, Darlington, Babcock and others. During this early period arose the concept of the karyotype, which can be defined as the phenotypic appearance of the somatic chromosomes, in contrast to their genic contents. Every species or group of closely related species has a unique karyotype, which is modified by natural 137 selection during the course of evolution. Consequently the more similar the karyotypes of two species, the more related they are. What are the ways a karyotype can evolve? It can evolve in a variety of ways, the most important of which are (1) change in basic number (aneuploidy); (2) duplication of all chromosomes (polyploidy); (3) change in size and (4) change in shape. During evolution one or more of these changes can and do occur, either simultaneously or consecutively, leading to the great variety of karyotypes. One of the most unique karyotypes is that possessed by some members of the family Agavaceae, particularly the genera Agave and Yucca. These genera have five pairs of relatively large chromosomes with mostly subterminal centromeres and 25 smaller ones. This was pointed out first by J. O'Mara, Susan McKelvey and Karl Sax in 1933 (O'Mara, 1932; McKelvey and Sax, 1933) when they were on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. At the time these genera were considered to belong to two different families: Yucca to the Liliaceae and Agave to the Amaryllidaceae. Their unique and identical karyotypes, as well as their morphological similarity, led to a reclassification of the group and the erection of the family Agavaceae by Hutchinson. Polyploidy, that is the existence in related species of chromosome numbers that are multiples of each other, was one of the earliest cytological characteristics to be studied. An example is furnished by the genus Triticum, the cultivated wheat. The earliest chromosome counts for any species of wheat are those of Overton who in 1893 reports n 8 for Triticum vulgare. This is followed by a number of authors (Kornicke, 1896; Dudley, 1908; Nakao, 1911) all reporting the same erroneous number. The first accurate count is by Karl Sax (1918) who reports 2n = 28 for Triticum durum. At about the same time, Sakamura (1918) reports the now well known polyploid series of n 7 for T. monococcum, n = 14 for T. dicoccum, T. durum, T. polonicum and T. turgidum, and n = 21 for T. spelta, T. vulgare and T. compactum. Since Sakamura's paper did not contain illustrations, its results were not immediately accepted. It was Sax (1921, 1922) who in a series of very fine papers established definitely that ( 1 ) the cultivated species of wheat can be divided into three definite groups according to their sterility relationships in interspecific crosses, (2) that each of the three groups is characterized by a unique chromosome number, the three forming a polyploid series on the base of x 7, and (3) classified all cultivated species into either the einkorn, emmer or vulgare group, according to their chromosome number and = = = , `. 138 crossing relationships. The discovery of the polyploid series of wheat is a very important step in the development of cytotaxonomy, since it showed clearly how cytology could aid in unravelling the phylogenetic history of a group. Finally, an example of aneuploidy with important taxonomic implications is that of Verbena investigated by Haig Dermen of the cytological laboratory of the Arnold Arboretum in the 1930's. On the basis of an analysis of the chromosome number of 25 taxa of this genus, Dermen was able to establish the existence of two basic chromosome numbers : n 5 and n 7. He also established the existence of polyploidy within each of the two groups. Species with n 7 have in general smaller flowers, the flowers are borne in spikes and they never have a glandular appendage to the anthers. Species with n = 5 have larger flowers, borne in cymes and often have glandular appendages. The n =7 species correspond to the section Verbenaca, while n =5 species belong to section Glandularia. Hybridization studies by Dermen, as well as by later authors (Schnack, 1971; Solbrig, 1968) have shown that species of different sections cannot be hybridized while species of the same section can. This and other evidence has led Schnack and Covas (1944) to erect the section Glandularia into a separate = = = genus. Chromosomal cytology is an invaluable addition to the arsenal of techniques and approaches at the disposal of the botanist who is interested in unravelling the past history of plants, as this very brief review hopefully has shown. We may ask ourselves, however, whether this is a valid activity for a botanical garden or arboretum. My feeling is that indeed it is. Let us see how it fits into the framework of a garden or arboretum. The three main activities of a botanical garden can be listed as being (1) the cultivation of a large number of species of plants, both foreign and domestic, for the education and enjoyment of the public; (2) the introduction of new species and varieties of plants; and (3) research on cultivated plants and their relatives. Although many gardens restrict their activities to certain groups of plants (for example, the Arnold Arboretum restricts its activities to woody plants), every major garden comprises all three of the mentioned activities. We may then ask what kind of research should be of first priority for a botanical garden. Here it is harder to obtain complete agreement, but if we accept as a valid criterion that first priority should go to activities that will increase our understanding of the relationships of plants, in order to be able to best further a program of 139 introduction and cultivation, then systematics in a broad sense, including cytotaxonomy, is a valid research activity for a botanical garden. That this is a valid assumption is attested by the fact that many of the great centers of systematic activity of the world (Paris, Kew, Edinburgh, Missouri, and my own institution, Harvard) are part of, or have a botanical garden associated with it, and that most botanical gardens large and small engage in some kind of systematic research. Using the same criterion, another activity that should be placed high in the list of research priorities is plant physiology and physiological ecology, but curiously enough, research in plant physiology and physiological ecology has not been pursued by botanical gardens with the same intensity as systematic research. If it is accepted that research in systematics is a valid activity for a botanical garden, then there is no problem in justifying cytological research, as it is widely accepted that cytotaxonomy is an integral part of modern systematics. Many arboreta and botanical gardens maintain active laboratories in cytology. The Arnold Arboretum maintained such a laboratory for some 30 years (1928-1959) under the direction of Professor Karl Sax. ~ew Gardens in- England has the Jodrell Laboratories with a very active cytological group under the direction of Dr. Keith Jones; in Denmark, the botanical gardens there have an active group working on cytology and cytotaxonomy under the direction of Dr. Tyge Bocher. The Botanical Gardens of the University of California started cytological work shortly after their inception in 1908, when Dr. Thomas Goodspeed joined the staff; that tradition is being maintained today by Drs. Herbert Baker and Robert Ornduff and their collaborators. These are but a few examples that show that it is valid to say that cytology should have a high priority in the research activities of botanical gardens. systematic research, they play a very important plant breeding. Dr. Santamour is going to refer to this phase in more detail, so I only will mention the example of the Arnold Arboretum and the extensive work on hybridization and improvement done by Karl and Holly Sax with crab apples and other members of the family Rosaceae, But not only do cytologists role in aid in and with the genus Syringa, the lilacs, work which is documented in a long list of papers that appeared in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, and in the present day living collections of the Arboretum. Having established that cytology can be of great aid in systematic research and that systematic research is a valid ac- 140 botanical garden, I would like now to address of the important unanswered questions within myself cytology that can be best researched in a laboratory associated with a botanical garden. The most important general area still open within chromosomal cytology is no doubt the architecture and biochemical composition of the chromosome and the events of mitosis and meiosis. Although we know a great deal regarding the gross morphology of chromosomes at one end, and we know the atomic structure of DNA, we know very little regarding the fine structure of the chromosome. The ordinary electron microscope has been of no help in this respect, but the scanning electron microscope and the imaginative use of physico-chemical and biochemical techniques may still succeed in unravelling the secrets of the chromosome. Although the question of the nature of the chromosome and the events of mitosis and meiosis is the most important unanswered question in the field of chromosome cytology, it is not one that should have first priority in a laboratory associated with a botanical garden or arboretum. The reason that I feel so is that it is a kind of research that does not require nor takes advantage of the richness and diversity of the living collection, while on the other hand, making great demands of resources and expertise in electron microscopy, biochemistry and biophysics which are not likely to be found in a botanical garden. So the answering of this question and similar ones are best left to a university or governmental laboratory. The kind of cytological research that can be best pursued in a botanical garden or arboretum is that which takes advantage of the diversity of plant collections that exist in a botanical garden. What are some of these activities? First there is still a great deal of routine inventorying of chromosome numbers to be done. At present we have established the chromosome number of only approximately ten percent of all vascular plants. Furthermore, while our knowledge is fairly good for certain groups, such as ferns and Compositae, it is almost nonexistent in other groups. But routine surveys, although useful, are not the most efficient way of acquiring knowledge, nor the most imaginative way of spending one's time. Whenever possible, such surveys should be done in conjunction with systematic investigations, in order to be able to interpret the meaning of the results in an evolutionary framework. Furthermore, such investigations, whenever possible, should not be restricted to chromosome number alone but should include investigations of other aspects of the karyotype as well. A good tivity for a to some 141 example of what can be done is furnished by the collaborative activity of my associate, Mrs. Lily Rudenberg, and Mr. Peter Green, a former staff member of the Arnold Arboretum, in their work on the genus Lonicera. The Arnold Arboretum possesses an unusually rich collection of species and varieties of Lonicera. The genus was monographed by Alfred Rehder, who was head curator of the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum for many years. Rehder worked with the collection of Lonicera and was responsible for many of its identifications. The collection is therefore not only unusually rich in taxa, but they are in excellent taxonomic order. Mrs. Rudenberg with the taxonomic assistance of Mr. Green systematically established the chromosome number for every growing shrub in the collection, a total of over 100 taxa. She established that the basic chromosome number in the genus is nine, and that the majority of species are diploid. They also established that many of the varieties and cultivars of diploid species are tetraploid. Mrs. Rudenberg was also able to establish that the chromosomes of Lonicera have interesting heterochromatic areas, a phenomenon which she is still investigating. Once enough information has been gathered from a routine survey, a number of interesting higher-level questions appear which I feel are one of the most challenging areas to be investigated. Let me illustrate this point with an example. Almost fifteen years ago, Dr. Peter Raven and I decided to initiate a survey of the chromosome numbers of the family Compositae. In this enterprise we were joined by a number of colleagues, and in the intervening years we have published over one thousand counts, including first counts for many species and genera (Raven et al., 1960; Raven and Kyhos, 1961; Ornduff et al., 1963; Payne, Raven and Kyhos, 1964; Solbrig et al., 1964; Ornduff et al., 1967; Solbrig et al., 1969, 1972). As a result of our work, and a similar parallel survey being undertaken by Dr. B. L. Turner and collaborators, as well as many other reports in the literature, approximately 25 percent of all species in this large family of flowering plants have been counted. Figure 1 shows a summary of the results obtained to date. Several aspects are revealed in the figure. First we see that the chromosome numbers in the Compositae are not randomly distributed but that they follow a very definite pattern, with a mode of nine and a more or less lognormal distribution. From this we concluded that nine is probably the ancestral chromosome number, although this of course is only a probability statement inferred from the evidence at hand. But there are 142 Figs. 1 and 2: Frequency of species with different chromosome numbers by habit in Compositae and Leguminosae, respectively. 143 other interesting observations that can be made. A very significant one is the correlation between habit and chromosome number. For the family as a whole as well as within each tribe, annual herbs have as a group a lower chromosome number than perennial herbs, which in turn have a lower chromosome number than shrubs or trees, although the sample number for this latter category is so low as to render this statement statistically suspect for the family Compositae. Finally the distribution of chromosome numbers is not uniform throughout the family, but certain tribes such as Cichorieae and Astereae have more species with lower chromosome numbers as well as lower numbers in an 3 for Cichorieae) than 2 for Astereae, n absolute sense (n Heliantheae (n 5). From this information a number of interesting questions arise, such as the following: (1) Why do annual herbs have a lower chromosome number than shrubs and trees? (2) Why do different tribes have a different distribution of chromosome numbers? (3) What is the significance of a \"basic\" chromosome number? The answers to these and similar questions are among the still unresolved aspects of cytotaxonomy. They involve the role of chromosomes as regulators of recombination, and the past history and geographical distribution of the various tribes (Solbrig, et al, 1964; Solbrig, = = = 1972). We can go a step further and compare the Compositae with other families. I have made such a comparison with the published chromosome numbers for the family Leguminosae (Solbrig, 1972). Figure 2 shows the distribution of chromosome numbers in that family. We can see that in this entirely unrelated family we again observe that annual plants as a group have lower chromosome numbers than perennial herbs, which in turn have lower numbers than shrubs and trees. This leads me to believe that we are dealing with a phenomenon that is general to the plant kingdom. The explanation of the reason of the correlation between habit and chromosome number is to be found in the functioning of the recombination system. Annual plants have of course shorter generation times and consequently a higher recombination index, all other things being equal, than populations of species with longer generations. A way to compensate for this higher rate of recombination is to increase genetic linkage by lowering the number of chromosomes. Although this explanation is highly plausible (Grant, 1958; Solbrig, 1972), more experimental and observational evidence is still needed. Another observation that can be made from Figure 2 is that the modal chromosome number of Leguminosae and Com- 144 is different, as well as the distribution of numbers in the two families, although the general form of the curve is similar. So far this difference has been attributed always to a more or less mythical \"phylogenetic component\", but that nonexplanation is to me very unsatisfying. I believe that as more information is accumulated for more families, more satisfying hypotheses based on firm foundations taken from genetical, ecological and evolutionary theory will be forthcoming. This is one of the still unresolved areas, and one which is very appropriate for a cytological laboratory connected with a botanical garden or arboretum to pursue. Only where a great variety of plants grow can this work be undertaken. In summary, then, chromosome cytology and botanical gardens are a marriage of convenience. For the institution the existence of a cytological laboratory will ensure that active research will be done with the collection, research that is interesting in itself and significant and of general interest in terms of botanical science as a whole. Furthermore, it is research which has direct bearing on systematics and plant breeding, two aspects that are very central to the research activities of any botanical garden or arboretum. For the cytologist, the existence of living plants that can be monitored and studied throughout the year, as well as the presence of representatives of many genera and families, and the possibility of cultivating under expert care those organisms that are of particular interest to the researcher offer unique possibilities, with which most of us dream, but seldom see realized. The cytological laboratory of the Arnold Arboretum, which has counted over the years such outstanding researchers as Karl and Holly Sax, Edgar Anderson, Dermen and more recently, Joab Thomas, and their numerous students like Carl Swanson, Allan Conger, and Arnold Sparrow to name just a few, is a fine example of the role a cytological laboratory can play in a botanical garden. We wish it an equal positae or greater success in its second century. OTTO T. SOLBRIG Department of Biology and Gray Herbarium Harvard University 145 Literature Cited A. H. 1908. Floral development and embryogeny in wheat. Ann. Rep. Liverpool Microsc. Soc. Grant, V. 1958. The regulation of recombination in plants, in Cold Spring Harbor Symposia on Quantitative Biology 23: 337-363. Kornicke, M. 1896. Untersuchungen iiber die Entwickelung der Sexualorgane von Triticum mit besonderer Berucksichtung der Klonteilung. Verhandl. Nat. Verd. Preuss. Rheinl. u. Westf. 53: 149-184. McKelvey, S. D., and Sax, K. 1933. Taxonomic and cytological relationships of Yucca and Agave. Jour. Arnold Arb. 14: 76-81. Nakao, M. 1911. Cytological studies on the nuclear division of the pollen mother-cells of some cereals and their hybrids. Jour. Coll. Agric. Sapporo 4: 173-190. O'Mara, J. 1932. Chromosome pairing in Yucca flaccida. Cytologia 3: 66-76. Ornduff, R., Raven, P. H., Kyhos, D. W., and Kruckeberg, A. R. 1963. Chromosome numbers in Compositae III. Senecioneae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 50: 131-139. Ornduff, R., Mosquin, T., Kyhos, D. W., and Raven, P. H. 1967. Chromosome numbers in Compositae VI. Senecioneae II. Amer. Jour. Bot. 54: 205-213. Overton, E. 1893. Ueber die Reduktion der Chromosomen in der Kernen der Pflanzen. Vierteljahr Naturf. Gesell. Ziiricb 38. 169-186. Payne, W. W., Raven, P. H., and Kyhos, D. 1964. Chromosome numbers in Compositae IV. Ambrosieae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 51: 419-424. Raven, P. H., Solbrig, O. T., Kyhos, D. W., and Snow, R. 1960. Chromosome numbers in Compositae I. Astereae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 47: 124-132. Raven, P. H., and Kyhos, D. W. 1961. Chromosome numbers in Compositae II. Helenieae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 48: 842-850. Sakamura, T. 1918. Kurze Mitteilung ueber die Chromosomenzahlen und die Verwandschaftsverhaltnisse der Triticum Arten. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 32: 151-154. Sax, K. 1918. The behavior of chromosomes in fertilization. Genetics 3: 309-327. Sax, K. 1921. Sterility in wheat hybrids 1. Sterility relationships and endosperm development. Genetics 6: 399-416. Sax, K. 1922. Sterility in wheat hybrids. II. Chromosome behavior in partially sterile hybrids. Genetics 7: 513-552. Schnack, B., and Covas, G. 1944. Nota sobre la validez del genero Glandularia (Verbenaceae). Darwiniana 6: 469-476. Schnack, B. 1971. Posibilidades en el estudio de procesos evolutivos en el genero Glandularia (Verbenaceas). In: Recientes adelantos en Biologia pp. 242-251. R. H. Meja and J. A. Moguilevsky Dudley, (Eds. ) Solbrig, O. T., Anderson, Rudenberg, L. 1964. L. C., Kyhos, P. W., Raven, P. H., and Chromosome numbers in Astereae II. Amer. Jour. Bot. 51: 513-519. Compositae V. 146 Solbrig, Solbrig, O. T. 1968. Fertility, sterility and the species problem. In: Modern Methods in Plant Taxonomy. pp. 77-96. V. H. Heywood (Ed.) O. T., Anderson, L. C., Kyhos, D. W., and Raven, P. H. 1969. Chromosome numbers in Compositae VII. Astereae III. Amer. Jour. Bot. 56: 348-353. Solbrig, O. T. 1972 Cytology and cytogenetics of shrubs. In: Wildland Shrubs - Their Biology and Utilization. pp. 127-137. C. M. McKell, J. P. Blaisdell and J. R. Goodin (Ed.) Solbrig, O. T., Kyhos, D. W., Powell, M., and Raven, P. H. 1972. Chromosome numbers in Compositae VIII. Heliantheae. Amer. Jour. Bot. 59:869-878. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Horticultural Education- Participants Warmly Invited","article_sequence":5,"start_page":147,"end_page":155,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24600","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170ab6d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Martin, Louis B.","article_content":"Horticultural Education -Participants Warmly Invited To me, the last three words of the title suggest a pleasant association between individuals with the bond of a special interest or in the pursuit of a common idea. Our bond of special interest is horticultural education and botanic gardens and arboreta. Asking questions seemed to be the easiest way to present my material. More questions are raised than are answered. The gardens and arboreta; the from the individual institutions. Local circumstances will determine the answers more often than not. For instance, in the matter of financial support, there are three types of botanic gardens or arboreta. Those operating entirely on private funds; those receiving some public money; and those wholly supported by public money. This factor, alone, is cause for different responses to a common question. No accounting will be made of the current ways gardens and arboreta educate people in horticulture and botany. Such listings are available from every institution. It must be acknowledged that the offerings, both formal and informal, are extensive and of an amazing diversity. It is my intention to consider what more we might try to do, as we move along through the 1970's, the '80's, and the '90's. There are three groups of Participants whose future will be considered: the Public, the Staff, and the Policy Makers. We will begin with the Public, because IT is so easy to identify. IT is everyone outside the Staff. IT is seen on the grounds every day. IT fills our educational classes. In fact, we have become so accustomed to the Public's presence, we often refer to this group with a singular implication. Maybe, it is time we looked at this Public more closely. If the composition is not as stable as we assume, is this reflected in our educational plans for the future? Are our plans flexible enough for frequent changes? A recent population survey of 70 major cities, including New York, revealed that the average residence in one place is less questions apply answers must come to many botanic 147 148 than four years. Reviewing the 885,000 telephone listings of D.C. for 1969, it was found that one-half of this number was different from the year before, 1968. Think for a moment about the thousands of air travelers who fly the length and breadth of this country daily. For many, the flight is a transfer from one city to another. Add buses, trains, boats and the family car to this transportation fleet, and we begin to realize what a mobile people our society has become. It's more than likely that you know people who have changed their job and location more than once in the past ten years. If the social and economic survey makers are at all correct, their predictions are, \"that we ain't seen nothin' yet\" in the moving about of the American family. How aware are botanic gardens and arboreta of this phenomenon of Public mobility? Might the old neighborhood be Washington, Methods in This State for the New Resident\". Is there such a course offered anywhere? Which gardens or arboreta have a printed leaflet which identifies local ornamentals for the visitor from out of state? Who has a booklet designed for the hitch-hiking\/camping youth movement, becoming increasingly noticeable on our highways? Couldn't we make their travels safer and more pleasant by illustrated guides to poisonous and edible plants? Or make them aware of the different ecological zones they invariably pass through? How much training is being offered young men and women in geographically oriented horticulture and botany? Today there is every likelihood that these young people will seek jobs hundreds of miles away from the site of their training or apprenticeship. Isn't it a responsibility of ours to maintain a constant awareness of our changing times and increase our effectiveness toward Participants Warmly Invited for our mobile Society? There's yet another point of reference concerning the Public. How many gardens or arboreta still use the premise of the homeowner, living in a single family unit, surrounded by a yard as a basis for planning education programs? Is it time that this premise be broadened? For instance, as the \"urban Edsels\", those high rise apartments and office buildings mushroom, are we offering sufficient instruction about house plants and their culture? Where is there a course teaching gardening on a 4 x 10 foot concrete patio, perched on the side of a building 30 stories above the ground? For that matter, what do we ourselves know about the micro- changing? \"Gardening 149 climates surrounding such living quarters? How many courses are there about the use of artificial light in plant culture? Should we be teaching apartment dwellers how to grow vegetables on their building's rooftop? Is it time to bring back some form of soilless gardening? Should we even be concerned about this Public and their relationships with plants or plants with them? I think we should be, but how do we implement a Participants Warmly Invited message for these people? A word about environments and ecology before we leave this no-yard Public. In most cases, there is a park, a planted parkway, a flower shop, a supermarket and weeds in vacant lots within walking distance of our apartment Public. There are also rain, sun, snow, shadow, wind, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, sulfur fumes, some oxygen, and plain dirt in the air. Isn't there some way that a city-related botanic garden or arboretum could develop a subject program that would weave all these natural and man made elements into a meaningful, educational experience of horticulture or botany for these city dwellers? Truly, we need more Dick Howards and his \"Botany in a Grocery Store\"! The Public also inhabits an area currently classified as the \"inner city\". Does anyone remember what these areas were called before this term became so popular? Anyhow, there is a real horticultural wasteland. Not too long ago, I held a strong conviction that very little could be done to rehabilitate these areas of shambles of people and property. Have you ever visited one of these areas? The sight chills the mind, the renewal problem staggers the imagination. Happily, attempts are being made to lessen the blight. Three such examples have given my thinking a new direction and hope. Mrs. Louise Bush-Brown led the way. By encouraging the use of plants in a very simple manner, she sparked the gradual development of a whole new neighborhood atmosphere, inside and outside the houses, in an otherwise disaster area of Philadelphia. The financing required was minimal. Read the story in her book, Garden Bloclzs for Urban America. Charles Lewis, Director of Sterling Forest Garden, Tuxedo, New York, was second. As a volunteer, working with the New York City Housing Authority, he has helped direct a beautification program of some 5,000 low-income apartment tenants. This program is a summer garden contest of about ten years' duration. Unsolicited comments by participants to Mr. Lewis, 150I attest to the facts that vandalism was reduced, an improvement relationships has occurred, and that litter accumulation has declined in the contest-involved apartment areas. The Raymond School, located in a depressed section of South Chicago, now has a combined school yard garden and a nature trail area one block long. Three years ago, that school yard was almost indistinguishable from the paved street outside the fence. The Morton Arboretum and a woman volunteer from the Chicago Horticultural Society assisted a bright, young biology teacher and the students of the whole school to bring about this transformation. These are not high caliber horticultural nor esoteric botanical exercises, but they did have Participants Warmly Invited, plants were the first consideration, and four AABGA members were involved. Is it not possible for every botanic garden and arboretum to find funds and people to effect one such betterment in the quality of life in their community? A sampling of active AABGA members from Coast to Coast was asked to state what they believed to be the most important consideration in planning for the future of horticultural education and botanic gardens. Two suggestions occurred repeatedly in their responses. First, botanic gardens and arboreta must provide more extension type services. These extension services must be directed more and more toward children and young adults. Trips to the garden or arboretum are important, but to influence these young people more successfully we must go to their home grounds. There are libraries on wheels, summer performing arts in mobile vans, and mobile historical exhibits. Has any garden or arboretum tried putting horticulture or botany on wheels? The second suggestion was by far the more important. We must do more interpretive type instruction in horticulture and in tenant botany. class announcements of many botanic garseen that the \"how to\" approach to subarboreta, The \"why\" appears in few titles. If we listen, jects predominates. even with half an ear, to today's self-titled \"under 30\" young people, the main thrust of their concern about our and their society is trying to find the \"why\" in the system. For horticulture and botany, shouldn't we supply more of the \"why\" in the relationship between man and plants? Anyone who has read the book by Mrs. May Watts, Reading the Landscape, or has attended one of her lectures on the subject, realizes she is saying something quite different from just \"looking at the landscape\". Reading through dens and it is 151 Facts and correct skills are important; however, it's only through understanding how these two fit together that we are to make progress toward saving, if not improving our environment for the future. Our second Participant group is the Staff. One of the most important endowments an institution can accumulate is a knowledgeable and alert Staff. After all, it is the Staff that makes possible the attainment of the goals we set. To what extent should Participants Warmly Invited involve the Staff? Does any arboretum or botanic garden include in their recruitment statements, \"on the job training with pay\", or \"continuing educational opportunities with pay\"? Such offerings are found in ads for other professions and private industry today. Other than through seniority, do we provide in-house training, leading to promotion from gardener-helper to garden foreman, to superintendent ? Someone will think or say that we already offer higher entry salaries, more fringe benefits, more overtime and longer vacations than any time in the past. In many cases this is true, and that's the point. Today, with his physical needs fairly satisfied, the employee seeks the meaning of his job and its relationship to the whole process. This is no less so in an arboretum or botanic garden than it is in Ohio where it is reported that 100 cars a day are made at one automobile plant. If one feels there has to be more of a balance of payment to the institution by the employee for his gains in benefits, wouldn't a Participants Warmly Invited program be of value to the administration in terms of increased productivity? Why shouldn't formal sessions be held regularly to improve or update Staff skills? An opportunity should be provided to explore and answer the \"what\", \"why\" and \"how\" of each job considered. Shouldn't we carry on a continuous program of management training and procedures for the various levels of Staff responsibilities ? Wouldn't our institutions benefit by encouraging our Staff to be active in a recognized society concerned with their skill or profession? Do we have enough \"Staff meet Staff\" exchanges? If the greenhouse foreman knew why the research man gets so \"up tight\" about watering, shading or container labels, he might give more consideration to the care of these special plantings. 152I It is said that travel is educational. How many of our Staff do insist or assist to visit other botanic gardens or aboreta to learn new methods or bring back new ideas? How far down the Staff line do we go in our planning sessions? Do we include those who really will carry out our plans? Staff education or Participants Warmly Invited must include every level and every individual of the Staff to be entirely effective. Now we come to the last Participant group, The Policy Makers - Trustees and government agency members. Their inherent authority and responsibilities, alone, signal this group's importance to botanic gardens and arboreta. There are many ways to play the game with the Policy Makers. But if our institutions are interested in reaching their goals more quickly and more surely, there is only one way to positive results involve this group in Participants Warmly Invited programs as completely as we should the Public and the Staff. What do all Policy Makers have in common which affect a garden or arboretum? They are interested: In our actual programs and services In the long-range plans of development That we improve the life quality of the community That the sources of financial support are satisfied with we - - - - - our progress, and they - receive: Personal recognition or for helping to guide successful gardens arboreta Pride, and a sense of honor being associated with our type of cultural endeavor or scientific professionalism. So much for how Policy Makers view us. How or what should our view of them? Or, we might ask, what director can operate successfully today without the Policy Makers': be - Strong community leadership Political clout Financial clout Real ability to make things happen or not happen Personal, private associations which often, like a giant web, reach far beyond the immediate vicinity of the botanic garden or arboretum. Since the Policy Makers do make decisions which directly affect our daily operations, shouldn't we make certain that we - 153 furnish them the best possible professional information and advice within our capabilities? Public supported institutions are being asked increasingly for accountability in the use of tax funds. What greater satisfaction can we experience than to have a well informed Trustee step up to the Hearing Room's microphone and speak meaningfully in our behalf? Suspicion always runs high in the minds of government people and some Trustees that a director's budget request is unreasonably padded. If we accept this appraisal without making every effort to make these people Participants Warmly Invited, are we not more at fault than the Policy Makers? It's a fact of life, many of us need every penny of all the funds we receive. Can we not find the time and the way to more thoroughly educate the Policy Makers? What does it really cost to put the government agency's key budget or planning people on our mailing lists for all materials sent to our members, the press or the general public? Should not Policy Makers participate in the early stages for planning requests? Policy Makers (particularly when local politics are involved), familiar with our needs and intent, have been known to give sound advice on how and when to submit requests in order that they will receive the best possible consideration. In one sense, the Policy Makers are the Public, too. Aren't they outside the Staff? Why not invite them to every horticultural and botanical function offered the general public? Policy Makers own homes, work in their yards, buy house plants, and enjoy pleasing landscapes. Some, even, are very active in one or another of our plant societies or garden clubs. One of the most productive Participants Warmly Invited programs for this third group is a planned visit to the garden or the arboretum. Why not, once or twice a year, provide an \"insider's\" view of your operation for the Policy Makers? Not just a walk through with the Director and other top brass. This should be an occasion for \"show and tell\", in which every Staff member demonstrates his\/her contribution to the daily operation of the garden. Trustees have many opportunities at this time to show their accomplishments, too. The government members not only see what they have helped provide, but find out how concerned and dedicated we are about horticulture and botany. By the way, don't forget to have a lunch or dinner planned for this outing, and be sure to invite the wives! 154 My present concept of Participants Warmly Invited needs only a few summary statements. The ascendency in the magnitude of mobility for some, and the complete inability to move by others, is rapidly segregating our once stable Public. Arboreta and botanic gardens must be continually aware of the changing times and reappraise what they offer in horticultural and botanical education. Today the life styles of our Public are changing, too. Space is vertical, open surfaces are hardened, interior space is air-conditioned ; yet, we continue to offer classical and conventional courses in horticulture and botany. Arboreta and botanic gardens must adapt the usual to the unusual in the plant cultural situations now developing within their communities. We, ourselves, would probably agree that the excitement of this life is finding out the why of living things. Arboreta and botanic gardens continue strong in teaching the how and what of plant culture. The insurance of future healthy environments depends on higher premiums paid to interpretive instructions. Human, basic needs are reasonably provided for, even in the jobs of horticulture. The employee seeks the meaning of his work to a degree far greater than his father or grandfather did in their day. Arboreta and botanic gardens must adopt management procedures which meet this need through in-house educational programs. Because of growing economic and social pressure from outside our fences, the role of knowledgeable and willing Policy Makers is assuming ever-increasing importance to us. Arboreta and botanic gardens must develop a better understanding of goals and purposes between themselves and their sources of community support and influence. Dr. William Steere recently put it this way, \"Today, man is rapidly coming to the realization that his activities burgeoning population and runaway technology are drastically changing environments. The reality of man's relationship to the biological world, needs the widest communication possible.\" What better or more natural way can arboreta or botanic gardens find to continue their leadership in responsible horticultural and botanical education than through a consciousness of - 155 changes Warmly in the community and a program of Invited which adapts to these changes? Participants LOUIS B. MARTIN President Chicago Horticultural Society "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Role of Lower Plants in Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gardens","article_sequence":6,"start_page":157,"end_page":168,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24602","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170af6b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Steere, William C.","article_content":"The Role of Lower Plants in the Research Programs in Arboreta and Botanical Gardens When I first prepared a draft of this paper late in 1971, after Professor Howard had invited a contribution, I was of the opinion that lower plants, interpreted here as non-vascular plants, had no other significance in the arboretum or botanical garden than as highly suitable material for research. However, after a second visit to the Higashiyama Botanical Garden in Nagoya, Japan, in early April, 1972, I have had to modify this view, as in a spectacular exhibit of interesting ground covers were included, as well as several orchids, two mosses (aspecies each of Leucobryum and Rhodobryum), which apparently flourish in the moist climate of oceanic Japan. Of course, moss gardens are traditional in Japan, the most impressive is the Kokedera in Kyoto. gardens conducted primarily for botanical purposes product of the European Renaissance, and were closely related to a university or some other institution. The earliest gardens of this type were found in Italy during the sixteenth century, and the movement spread northward into France, Germany, Holland and England during the seventeenth century. were a Botanical it Because of the broad intellectual spectrum of the universities, was not considered unusual or anomalous to include the study of cryptogamic plants in the botanical gardens associated with them. Also, once botanical gardens began the sponsorship of collectors in other and richer botanical areas of the world, or the sending out of full-fledged expeditions, many plants other than vascular plants had to be identified and curated, either in the garden or the herbarium. Moreover, it is only natural that the administrative officers of a botanical garden or arboretum should be concerned with actual or potential diseases of the plants they are cultivating, so that the association of mycologists and plant pathologists with such botanical institutions became customary soon after the disease-producing capacity of bacteria and fungi was discovered. 157 158 I By definition, an arboretum is more specialized than a botanical garden, which, by its own definition, in turn, is free to consider all kinds of plants, in addition to woody ones, as objects for display to the public, for instruction, or for research puror for all. To my knowledge, cryptogamic botany has poses been considered as an appropriate adjunct to an arborerarely tum, except perhaps in its wholly practical aspects, with reference to plant diseases, as already noted. In most of the great botanical gardens of the world, however, cryptogamic plants have received almost better attention than in other botanical - institutions. I have divided this paper into two parts, first, a cursory historical review, and second, a review of the situation today, plus a tabular summary derived from two relatively modern sources, International Directory of Botanical Gardens II (1969) and Index Herbariorum. Part I. The herbaria of the world (Fifth . edition, 1964). Historical Review a brief historical review, on a \"for example\" basis, I shall with the New York Botanical Garden, simply because it is the institution I know best. Cryptogamic botany has been represented at the New York Botanical Garden from its very beginnings_ in close association with Columbia University. Elizabeth Gertrude Knight Britton, wife of the founder and first director, was a bryologist of great talent who built up the bryological collections in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden and carried on productive research in mosses. Robert Statham Williams joined the staff of the Botanical Garden in 1899 and became a highly distinguished bryologist. Marshall Avery Howe, who joined the staff of the Garden around the turn of the century, had written his thesis at the University of California on the Hepaticae of that state, then turned his hand to the marine algae, especially of tropical areas, once he moved to New York. Lucien M. Under- For begin wood, a distinguished specialist on ferns, spent many years at the New York Botanical Garden. From the very beginning a mycologist has been in residence; Dr. Clark Rogerson and Dr. Kent Dumont today represent their several illustrious predecessors. The field of plant pathology has also been represented continuously during the present century at the New York Botanical Garden, and the brilliant work of Dr. B. O. Dodge on Neurospora led subsequently to several Nobel prizes. As a result of the involvement of cryptogamic botanists in the scientific work of the Elizabeth Gertrude Britton. Photograph taken at her desk at The New York Botanical Garden, June 22, 1902. Lucien Marcus Underwood on Blue Mountains in Jamaica. Photo: A. Rehder, 1903. 160 Botanical Garden from the very beginning, the collections have grown steadily; also, in the early days many important private collections were purchased which are now invaluable because of their large proportion of type specimens. This surprising abundance of cryptogamic botanists at the New York Botanical Garden had several causes. As already mentioned, Mrs. Britton was a prominent bryologist, and undoubtedly had considerable influence on her husband's interest. Moreafter all he over, Dr. Britton had a very broad scope of interest himself had started out as a geologist and his concept of the Garden was very broad. Finally, with so many botanists of all kinds working in the tropics in new areas, it was necessary to have different specialists to handle the large amounts of the several groups of plants that were collected and brought back to New York. I have used the New York Botanical Garden as my first example, not because of vested interest, but simply because of all American institutions it has had the widest scope of cryptogamic botanists in the country over a long period, and still maintains broad representation in these fields. The Missouri Botanical Garden has emphasized its work on higher plants, so that cryptogamic botany has never become very well developed as a broad field. However, there has always been some one specialist in cryptogamic botany in residence, and at the moment the cryptogamic botanist is a bryologist. The Brooklyn Botanic Garden has placed its emphasis almost totally on higher plants, cultivated ones as well as native plants, almost to the exclusion of cryptogams. Dr. Paul Burkholder, one of the few exceptions, was considered an algologist largely because he used this group of plants in his physiological experiments, although he did not concern himself with developing a collection either of herbarium specimens or of living cultures on a broad representational basis. At Kew, Sir William Hooker and Sir Joseph Hooker, father and son, were both accomplished cryptogamic botanists, with a special interest in bryophytes, in addition to their even greater brilliance in higher plants, so that, as directors of Kew, they encouraged the development of bryological collections. However, since the Hookers, bryological research at Kew has been desultory and the collections have lain fallow. The same situation seems to be true of the fungus collections. In fact, for decades there has been talk, sometimes serious and sometimes not so serious, of turning over the collections of lower cryptogams to the British Museum (Natural History), and this may now have been done with the fungi, in exchange for herbarium specimens - 161 of of greater interest at Kew. I should hasten however, that the collections of ferns and their relatives say, higher plants to at Kew are outstanding, both ferns growing in the great fern collection and in the herbarium, thanks to a series of specialists in this group. I am sure that the ferns will continue in ascendency at Kew. At the Komarov Botanical Garden and Botanical Institute at Leningrad cryptogamic botany has perhaps reached a higher level of development than in any other botanical garden around the world, unless we except the early days of the New York Botanical Garden. There are productive workers in the field of freshwater and marine algae, in many groups of fungi, and in bryophytes. In many ways, this is the most influential botanical center in Russia. The Royal Botanical Garden at Berlin-Dahlem has long been a great center of bryological research, as well as in other groups of cryptogams, especially lichens and fungi. The bombing of Berlin during World War II destroyed many of the cryptogamic collections, however, and most type specimens of Carl Muller especially do not seem to be any longer in existence, although many of the higher plants had been put into safekeeping for the duration of the war. Most other major botanical gardens in Europe have a long history of involvement with lower cryptogams, of which the University Botanical Garden and Institute in Copenhagen, and the Royal Botanical Garden in Brussels deserve special mention. To repeat, the emphasis on the taxonomy and geographical distribution of lower plants has been as great, if not greater, in major botanical gardens as in other kinds of botanical institutions. The Modern Situation Major botanical gardens are still following their ancient tradition of using lower plants as research material, even though today much of the work tends to be more experimental and less descriptive. The classical experimental work by Dr. B. O. Dodge on Neurospora has already been mentioned. Also at the New York Botanical Garden, an important research program is directed to the biochemistry of natural products of fleshy fungi, and to the sex hormones of water molds. Other botanical gardens throughout the world are carrying on similar research programs. The deep concern of many people for the improvement of environmental conditions is reflected in the botanical gardens that are developing special races of plants that may serve as 162 indicators of air pollution, for example. Mosses and lichens have been discovered to be excellent indicators of air pollution, in both negative and positive ways. In a negative way, most lichens and mosses that normally grow on tree trunks several feet above the ground are very sensitive to air pollution, especially to sulfur dioxide, so that there is an almost perfect correlation between the increasing concentration of SO~ and the decreasing number of plants of bark-inhabiting lichens and mosses. On the other hand, some few mosses and lichens seem to be able to metabolize SO=, and are therefore able to survive or even thrive in a polluted atmosphere. Their presence alone gives positive evidence of air pollutants, just as the absence of species that do not tolerate pollutants gives evidence of a more negative nature. A good deal of information can be obtained from the herbarium on the increase in air pollution by early collections of indicator species in areas where they no longer can survive. The use of lower plants as indicators of other environmental factors, such as moisture, humidity, rainfall, pH, etc., makes them useful tools for ecological research in botanical gardens. In early times, the nature of botanical gardens and arboreta was simple they either did or did not include lower plants in their research programs. Today the situation is so complex that unravelling the administrative structure has become the key to answering the question. Although the administration of botanical gardens and arboreta is a perennial topic of conversation among the staff members thereof, I do not know of any scholarly or comparative study of administrative structure on a historical or evolutionary basis. However, I do detect one trend that you may recognize also from your own experience, namely, the development of the botanical institute through the gradual separation of the herbarium function from the botanical garden and arboretum function, and the separation of both of these from the teaching function. I might cite, as an example of this trend, the situation in Montreal, where the Institut Botanique of the University of Montreal and the Jardin Botanique de Montreal share the same building, carry on somewhat overlapping herbarium - activities yet whose staffs at some times in the past were really close terms. At the University of Michigan, the Botanical Garden is closely affiliated with the Department of Botany, whereas the herbarium is a separate department of the Literary College. In other institutions, at the other end of the spectrum, there may be no administrative separation of teaching, living plants and herbarium. not on 163 In combing through International Directory of Botanical Gardens II (1969) and Index Herbariorum (Part I, Fifth edition, 1964), for the background information to establish the modern situation, I encountered many ambiguous entries. As a result, although I have tried to quantify the data extracted from these two publications in tabular form, there still remains a strong qualitative element, based on my own judgment in the interpretation of entries (Table 1). My error in interpreting the entry as a botanical research institute, separate from the botanical garden, may have resulted in the omission of important institutions. Also, my adherence to these two publications as my source of information means that the data summarized here are already out of date. I could have corrected and up-dated the entries for several institutions that I know personally, yet this treatment would have been unfair to those institutions unfamiliar to me. To give consistency to my data base, I have adhered firmly to the information gleaned from two publications, while recognizing fully the error built into the use of data that may be up to ten years old. (See Table 1.) WILLIAM CAMPBELL STEERE President, New York Botanical Garden 164 TABLE 1. List of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta showing numbers of staff members whose primary research interest is in non-vascular plants or in plant pathology. Derived largely from International Directory of Botanical Gardens II (1969), with supplementary information from Index Herbariorum. Part I. Fifth Edition (1964)] 165 (TABLE 1 continued) 166 (TABLE 1 continued) 167 (TABLE 1 continued) 168 I (TABLE 1 continued) "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23520","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070b328.jpg","title":"1973-33-2","volume":33,"issue_number":2,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Herbarium as a Data Bank","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24594","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d1608928.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Cowan, Richard S.","article_content":"The Herbarium As a Data-Bank practice of collecting plant samples to be preserved for purpose or another is very old indeed. While initially it may have reflected in part man's inherent curiosity about the natural world around him, he must have collected these samples largely because of some real or fancied property important to his survival. Food plants, medicinal herbs, as well as those with magical powers to control the reactions of friends and\/or enemies, are examples of the utilitarian thinking that undergirded the earliest plant collections. These along with pretty stones, fossil bones, butterflies, and other objects of nature were gathered in \"cabinets of curiosities\". Ultimately, of course, these proto-herbaria were recognized as important documentation of the kinds of plants, their distribution geographically and temporally, and their variability and evolutionary history, but in saying this I have omitted a long period of development of plant collections which continues even now. In spite of the early interest of Greek philosophers in the properties and identities of plants, the first herbaria, as such, were established only about 425 years ago, in 1543 at Pisa by Luca Ghini ( Stearn 1971) and at the University of Padua and Florence in 1545. It was almost 200 years more before herbaria were used extensively in the generation of classificatory systems by Linnaeus and others. Now, 200 years after Linnaeus, something like a thousand herbaria of various sizes, distributed over the world, contain upwards of 200 million specimens. We must recognize this as a significant accomplishment, but also as the source of enormous problems of organization, inter-communication, and support in terms of both people and funds. It is appropriate to the times, especially on this centennial of one of America's great botanical centers, to ask whether the herbarium as an entity continues to meet the needs of modern biology. I believe the most objective answer must be, only partially. If that is true, how can it become more responsive to the present, as well as the anticipated future requirements for botanical information ? We are told (Shetler 1969) that herbaria originated and were one The 3 4 organized by and for the use principally of descriptive botanists. This surely is not surprising nor pejorative. There are many other demands, however, which have existed, or are now emerging in most insistent terms, that must be satisfied somehow if the herbarium is to continue to be a viable organizational entity, supported by society because its information content\/accessibility is significant to problem-solving. After all, its principal reason for being is that it is the source of diverse botanical data and as long as only taxonomic purposes are served, there is little cause to restructure anything to recover those data in a timely fashion. However, can the urgent needs of systematic and environmental biology be satisfied by modem herbaria without some modifications in structure, attitudes, functional relationships? I very much doubt that any man-created institution can survive indefinitely without some genuine, major relationship to the context in which it exists and this is so very true of scientific institutions. As an especially poignant example of the truth of this statement, let me mention briefly the forthcoming national symposium on the development and management of the primary systematic resources; that is, collections and li- braries. One response by the National Science Foundation to the report submitted January 1971 by the Conference of Directors of Systematic Collections is recognition that the needs of systemaeics resource cemem aie cieaiiy caiauii~iicu. A ~cW uu icsponse, following closely on the heels of the first, is that the needs surpass present and near-future capabilities of the National Science Foundation to meet them and a \"national plan\" is essential to distribute what resources may become available in ways that will have the greatest benefit for science and the nation. The evolution of a national plan instantaneously is unlikely but the message is unmistakably clear the systematics centers must find ways in which they can operate more effectively, together. That some of our present autonomy is bound to be sacrificed is obvious but some other, perhaps more drastic, changes will doubtless emerge from such planning in the near future too. The alternative is to maintain the status quo and perhaps increasingly lose relevance and, as a consequence, also lose support that is already woefully deficient in most collections centers. So a review at this point of the role of the herbaria as it is and has been, as well as its potential, is a worthwhile - objective. Initially, as I indicated earlier, the creation and maintenance 5 of plant collections was largely motivated by economics and folk uses but one can believe that the first true herbarium developed at a university because of the necessity to transmit existing botanical knowledge to successive generations through the educational system. This is no less urgent today and most of our universities maintain at least teaching collections, although of the five largest herbaria, with the notable exception of Harvard University, all are at non-degree-granting institutions. In fact, in the last decade there was a considerable trend to transfer all except teaching collections to these great centers but this may have slowed with greater realization of the potential value of these materials and with the passing of the molecular biology bandwagon which has found its proper niche in relation to the rest of biology. What we have seen, I think, is the evolution of two kinds of herbaria, teaching collections and research collections, which may be a healthy division of labors. Most academic centers should perhaps concentrate on the development of teaching collections and documentation of their state and local floras. The research herbaria could be expected to develop global representation of plants from all regions, each herbarium with one or more emphases in which it would be responsible for developing great depth in its collections. The second major role of herbaria has been to provide services, largely identifications, and such division of responsibilities as suggested above would certainly facilitate this function. Because the roles of many herbaria are inexact and also because there are all too few curators to provide these services, an archaeologist, agriculturist, or ecologist may be totally frustrated in the search for systematic botany data. The largest obstacle to providing such data in a timely way is the lack of people, a shortage which has become more serious in direct proportion to the increase in professionalism of the curator. In earlier times he was frequently little more than a highly competent, knowledgeable cataloger-identifier, often with little understanding of or interest in the broader biological, philosophical bases for his work. With each succeeding generation, the level of professional competence has increased and today's curator must be reckoned with as a serious scientist whose researches are as harmful to interrupt for mundane routine services as are those of the more fashionable sub-disciplines of any moment. One way in which this impasse that arises from needs for services as well as for research can be met is by the recognition in the major centers of the usefulness of three kinds of individuals the \"curator\", the researcher, and the professional - 6 technician. The \"curator\" is similar to the herbarium botanist of yesteryear, who functioned essentially as a source of identifications and of related data. Motivated by a compulsive desire for order, for knowing what grows where, he was a most useful scientific colleague. As our understanding of processes and principles expanded in the course of advanced education, a new insistent kind of question was added to those of what and where - WHY. Both sets of questions still are, and always will be, valid but the WHY-hind of problems attracted a somewhat different breed to systematic biology, with the care of collections, in some instances, taking second priority. Thus, most major collections might meet needs more adequately with a staff consisting of some para-professional \"curators\" with technicians, aids, or other assistants to organize the data, the documentation, and to provide services generally. The research staff of such centers are then free to develop, singly and collectively, in concert with practitioners of other disciplines at times, the answers to the many \"whys\" and generally to generate the factual data for providing the services required. As Shetler (1969) points out, the herbarium has served many purposes, especially those which are based on the concept that the collections are an inventory of plant diversity in terms of kinds and distribution. One may identify several use-phases: A descriptive phase, followed by a phytogeographic one, are the earliest stages in the herbarium \"life cycle\". In the descriptive phase, the emphasis is on the accumuiation of representative materials of as many different taxa as possible from anywhere and everywhere. Some herbaria and their curators never evolve beyond this stage but in most, taxonomy grades into systematics and the growth of the collections has more direction both in terms of taxa and geographic representation. The next phase of botanical taxonomy, the biosystematic, has its characteristic influences on the development of herbaria too, whatever the term \"biosystematics\" means to each of you. Population samples of the taxa under study are amassed in great quantities for such studies and while they may threaten to overwhelm the ordinary herbarium, these samples are surely valuable documentation materials, just as much as those in conventional herbaria. Obviously, however, there is neither space, equipment, nor caretaking available for such vast accumulations of what may appear to be \"duplicates\" in many instances. At the National Herbarium these vouchers for taxon variability are kept in files separate from the \"regular\" herbarium as a special collection, partly perhaps because no one 7 is completely certain whether to keep or discard them. Certainly they are not duplicates in the usual sense, one of several whole plants or parts of plants collected under the same collec- tor's number. The most recent phase in the development of plant taxonomy is what Shetler calls \"ecosystematics\" or ecosystem taxonomy. If it is not already clear that all these phases continue to coexist in the present, let me emphasize that point now. It is that just now, botanical collections, indeed all those of systematic biology, have the opportunity to serve new purposes in addition to those they have always provided for previously. In meeting the new challenges of ecosystematics, the herbaria have an enormously important opportunity to address many of the problems with which they have been grappling only partially successfully from the beginning. Although the time is ripe for new strategies, we are scarcely prepared to meet the needs that are with us even now. Change is so rapid that only the most innovative thinking will serve to ensure the herbarium the place in science most of us would like, that in which we are not required either to operate without adequate support or to be constantly grubbing-out only survival-level support. Let us look at some of the recently developed and future demands of herbaria resources which, if met, contribute to the effectiveness of plant collections and the people who tend them. While not novel, strictly speaking, the use of herbaria in the search for new drugs and other economic plants seems almost a reversion to some of the earliest uses of collections. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has for decades carried on field and herbarium studies toward this goal and currently their global search for cash crops that might replace the culture of poppies and other drug plants in countries of the Near and Far East is an especially dramatic example. Herbaria as they are presently constituted are reasonably helpful to such efforts but data needs that cut across the ordinary organizational criteria (phylogeny and geography) of most herbaria are accessible only at great cost or, more often, not available at all. It is in the field of environmental research that herbaria are excitingly challenged. The use of plants, phanerogams and cryptogams, to detect and monitor environmental change is a genuine prospect, if the associated data resident in the relevant collections can be extracted and organized for recovery. Such a use of collections is not unlike those with which we are somewhat more familiar, as for example the use of plants to indicate soil fertility, the presence of economically important minerals, 8 the presence of salt or other materials unfavorable to most and the water content of soils. Some very interesting work has been done on the effect of air pollution on flowering plants, as well as some cryptogams, but most collections of phanerogams in herbaria have been made to avoid damaged foliage, so they may be somewhat less useful for tracing environmental degradation. On the other hand, such plants as the aquatic, unicellular, and colonial algae are most useful in that they are differentially affected by water pollution. Thus, the species composition at a particular site now and in the past, as shown by collections, may be highly significant for detecting the onset of water quality loss and tracing its history. Similarly, the distribution of lichens in industrial countries coincides precisely with the distribution of air-borne pollutants. It is reported that if one plots the distribution of lichens in some areas of Western Europe, the pattern of distribution of industrial pollu- plants, tants is new plotted simultaneously. use of herbarium collections is in a relatively sometimes called landscape planning. Two botanists field, at Colorado State University, using advanced electronic equipment, have constructed a system for data control that is proving Still another extremely valuable for management of the lands of that state. They collect information on the distribution of plant species and plant communities and plot these data electronically on base maps of the state. Then by superimposing plans for placement of new housing or 11CW d~11(.uiiutdi 0.lGa~ vW YiaW uiotribution maps, it is possible to avoid serious mistakes and to make the best use of the lands for each of several purposes. Because many plants are sensitive to altitude, soil nutrients and water, etc., the potential impact of botanical data on longrange planning for the best utilization of environmental resources is a most important aspect of our botanical future. One thing is sure, all these new and future uses of botanical information require sophisticated computer equipment and software technology. The major herbaria of the future will have computerized control of selected kinds of data, although not necessarily in each center on an individual, unilateral basis, nor will there need to be developed banks of all the data from all the collections in any herbarium. It is entirely practical and attainable, indeed mandatory, that segments of the total data represented in the principal botanical data centers be made available for a price in both people-time and money. It is just as certain that not all the three-plus million plant collections in the National Herbarium or the New York Botanical - 9 Garden will be are mindlessly cranked into a data-bank, for there least half of all these that do not have appended probably data worth incorporating in any data-control system. On the other hand, we could be capturing data regularly from newly arriving materials in all the most actively growing centers. At the same time, these botanical centers should be prepared constantly to respond to the needs for latent data in the collections that can be made available when those who need the information are willing to pay for its extraction from the herbaria. This, like the need for identification and other taxonomic\/systematic services, poses no real problems so long as they are budgeted for in advance. No longer can the taxonomic community provide any of these services as if they are not costly, as if they are of secondary importance to other sets of data for which people at to pay. The Flora North America Program illustrates very well indeed the kind of data-control system I believe is mandatory for systematic biology generally, if it is to have a vital role in human affairs of the future. Just as present arrangement of data in herbaria is unidirectional, the data presented in conventional floras, monographs, and revisions provide answers to questions that parallel their structure, but just try a question that requires search across the lines of organization of the data presented, questions such as which of the species grows with what others at x-1000 feet altitude and flower in June-July! Another kind of question needs asking how long does it take to produce a definitive flora of a state, or of a particular phytogeographic province, even if the funds were available? Then at what cost the next edition of such a flora? An example of what I mean by questioning the cost of a second edition is provided by a current entomological project in the National Museum of Natural History. The names, distribution, etc. of the Hymenoptera were compiled in a catalog published by the Department of Agriculture in 1950. Now, after two decades of new research and data accumulation, specialists are no longer able to retrieve their information rapidly and a new edition of the catalog is being prepared using machine methods. Interestingly, the new edition will be produced more economically, but even more important, all the data in the catalog will be on magnetic tape where it can be corrected or added to as required. At any point in the future, the third edition or any part of it can be generated by the computer with minimal human attention at that point. This kind of capability is going to be needed in all areas of systematic biology, I am convinced. expect - 10 The Flora North America as such a data-bank is an entirely viable concept. Once the existing information on North American plants is collected, collated, edited, and input to the data the possibility of answering many existing questions, inbase, cluding floristic treatments of various geographic, altitudinal, or phenological parameters will be semi-automatic. The taxonomist, rather than rearranging the data along still one more set of criteria, can be truly gainfully engaged in collecting new information and refining that existing in the bank. I am not presuming that this transformation will come quickly or inexpensively but it is unquestionable that the rate of publication of new information far exceeds the capacity of any of us to keep abreast of it. Will we use all the tools available to us and maintain our central role in addressing man's needs, or will we use only those that are familiar, those that satisfy the individual taxonomist's needs and the handful of his kind in the world interested enough in his work to request a reprint? The time to act with vision, with dynamic purpose is now. Even if we were concerned only with data from gross morphology and phytogeography, the time is now to find ways for more effective storage and retrieval of the facts. When we add to these, as we certainly must, the anatomical, embryological, cytological, and biochemical knowledge, taxonomists are more likely to be overwhelmed by the wealth of data than assisted in achieving improved understanding of evolutionary sequences and relation- ships. These remarks are not intended to be an attack on either traditional publications or on the herbarium as an institution. What I am speaking of is an extension to the usefulness of both by the application of data-processing technology to enhance their information value for the present and future. Clearly, systematists generally must evolve better means to deal with the millions of specimens and to make better decisions about the necessity of collecting additional ones; to control systematic data gleaned from the collections in such a way that they may be rapidly compared with new data; and to make available the data in published form so that the efforts of each generation of systematists will be truly additive, rather than repetitive or of minimal importance. There is too much to be learned of the planet's plants and animals for systematists to waste one day, one word in unproductive investigations and the need to know far exceeds our ability even to accumulate the data. We are already coming to the point in many parts of science where it is simpler to redo a study than to discover whether it has been done adequately! 11 long-awaited panacea for all our problems, I want to emphasize that the need for good observations, sound judgare Lest the someone concludes from my remarks that computers ments, and the other attributes of the human mind is not eliminated by the machine. Rather, the mind of man no longer needs to be cluttered by the inconsequential and it is thus freed for creative accomplishments at new levels. The taxonomist now is able, with this tool, to have access to any number of taxa, to discover new relationships and immediately associate these with those in the multi-dimensional data-base in storage. The role of the herbarium and those who are its curators has been to bring together samples of the world flora, to arrange and conserve them, to conduct studies of the identities and relationships of the taxa the specimens represent, and to make accumulated botanical wisdom available to those who need it. In spite of dire predictions to the contrary, that most species of organisms will disappear before being known, there is greater need to continue taxonomic\/systematic studies than ever before, but with a very clear new attention to those groups with the greatest potential for being important to man's struggle to adapt to new threats. The results may not enable us to be much more definitive about plant phylogeny but we may be able to preserve more of the earth's germ plasm in botanic gardens, arboreta, and other such live collections if we know it exists. Also, we may be able to preserve more of the aesthetic as well as practical aspects of our surroundings if we know them and their properties. So herbaria and their curators have a well-defined, important role today. With imagination, innovation, and inspiration, herbaria, systematic collections generally, have an expanding, nearly limitless role tomorrow. RICHARD S. COWAN Director, National Museum of Natural Smithsonian Institution History 12 Bibliography 1965. The Herbarium in the Modern University: A Taxon 14: 113-133. Cowan, R. S. (Ed.). 1969. Systematic Biology: A Survey of Federal Programs and Needs. Prepared by the Panel on Systematics and Taxonomy of the Federal Council for Science and Technology ; published by the Office of Science and Technology. Michener, Charles D. (Ed.). 1970. Systematics in Support of Biological Research. Report of an ad hoc committee of the Division of Biology and Agriculture, National Research Council. Shetler, Stanwyn G. 1969. The Herbarium: Past, Present, and Future. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 82: 687-758. Shetler, Stanwyn G., and Meadow, Harriet R. 1971. Flora North America: a comprehensive program of biological research, information systems development, and data banking concerned with the vascular plants of North America north of Mexico. A proposal to the National Science Foundation, Washington, D.C. Flora North America Report 61: 1-126. Stearn, Wm. T. 1971. Botanic Gardens and Herbaria. Biol. Journ. Linn. Soc. 3(3): 225-233. Steere, William C. (Ed.). 1971. The Systematic Biology Collections of the United States: An Essential Resource, Part I. A report to the National Science Foundation by the Conference of Di- Beaman, John H. Symposium. rectors of Systematic Collections. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ornamental Plant Introduction- Building on the Past","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":25,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24591","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d1608126.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Creech, John L.","article_content":"Ornamental Plant IntroductionBuilding On the Past It is a particular pleasure to participate in the Centennial Celebration of the Arnold Arboretum, not only because of the esteem with which we all hold \"The Arnold\", but also because of the fact that I have been assigned a subject to which I have devoted the major portion of my career plant introduction and exploration. As many of you know, plant introduction is a foundation stone on which a successful arboretum, botanic garden, or like institution, must build. Any one of the special activities that is encompassed by the broad term \"plant introduction\" can be an exciting program, whether simply exchange of plants and seed, the undertaking of actual field explorations, or the subsequent evaluation of introduced plants. The Arnold Arboretum has been deeply involved in all these pursuits and, because of its role in the introduction of new trees and shrubs and the explorations of E. H. Wilson in Asia, has often been called \"America's Greatest Garden\". During the course of the past 100 years, the Arnold Arboretum has introduced more than 2,000 new plants, of which 6070 are common in American gardens. The Arnold Arboretum is, of course, not alone in such activities, although during the early part of the 20th Century it was the Arnold Arboretum and the U.S. Department of Agriculture that were responsible for the majority of introductions through exploration. Today, many arboretums and botanic gardens are engaged in plant introduction, and there is no longer a single \"greatest garden\" but, rather, many great gardens share in the efforts to introduce new plants to the American public. Although the USDA has been engaged in plant explorations since 1897 and has undertaken over 150 explorations, these have been mostly for economic crop plants. Early USDA explorers did not ignore ornamental plants when encountered, but only the Arnold Arboretum sent out collectors whose main objective was to collect ornamental plants. It is fairly safe to say that these two organizations have pre-empted plant ex- 13 14 Reginald Farrer Frank N. Meyer George Forrest Photo: P. Popper 15 ploration for the United States, while English collectors have been in the same position in Europe. In 1956, however, the USDA, as a result of the cooperative Longwood-ARS program, assumed the leading role in ornamental plant exploration which I will discuss later. The history of plant exploration since about 1900 is replete with incidents of high adventure, encounters with adversity and tragedy, often in the loss of valuable plants enroute, failures after plants had arrived, and, sadly, in the death of plant collectors in the field - Frank Meyer (1918), Reginald Farrer (1920), and George Forrest ( 1932) - all of whom met their fate in the China or Burma region. While it is the professional explorer who must receive the plaudits for his contributions to horticulture due to his authoritative role and, in part, to the better documentation of his collections, mention must be made of the missionaries, doctors, foreign service officers, and occasional travelers who accounted for many of our plant introductions. A medical missionary, Ralph Mills, collected the handful of seed of Korean Lespedeza (Lespedeza stipulacea) in 1919 that was the basis of this multi-million dollar crop. A missionary, A. S. Cooper, introduced the lot of seed of Ilex cornuta, P.I. 65860, from which the widely-used clone 'Rotunda' was selected. The USDA inventory states that he collected the seed near Ichang, China, in 1923. Those of you who are familiar with the travels of our Chinese explorers will appreciate that this was the principal starting point on the Yangtse River for journeys into western China. This lot of seed was sent to the McIlhenny Estate, Avery Island, Louisiana, where it was sown and the seedlings planted into a long hedgerow. From this highly variable introduction, nine named selections have been made. Another scarcely-known collector was the departmental pathologist, R. Kent Beattie, who traveled in Japan and Korea from 1927 to 1931 while studying chestnuts, particularly Castanea mollissima and C. crenata, for sources of resistance to chestnut blight. In addition to large shipments of chestnuts, he sent back a number of ornamental plants. But, chiefly, he should be remembered for the collection of some 80 evergreen azaleas that were used by B. Y. Morrison as parents in the development of the Glenn Dale azaleas. When I traveled to Japan in 1955, Beattie's notes on Japanese nurseries and the lists of rare plants he encountered there were most valuable since the nurseries still maintained many of the plants described by Beattie. Today, because of very strict international quarantines, limitations of where most people can travel in foreign countries, 16 and fewer opportunities to encounter unique plants, the role of the casual collector has all but disappeared. I should now like to return to the professional plant collectors and comment on some of their journeys. The grand period of ornamental plant exploration began just prior to 1900 and continued up to about 1930. In 1899, E. H. Wilson set off for China on behalf of the English firm, Veitch and Sons. Before starting his field work, Wilson spent some time with the famous British medical officer, Dr. Augustine Henry. Henry was one of the most learned botanical collectors of the 19th Century, with years of experience in China, and was stationed at Ichang from 1882 to 1889. Wilson's two trips for the Veitch nursery in 1899 and 1903 netted a number of important ornamentals of western China, but chiefly his early trips are remembered for the introduction of Davidia involucrata and Meconopsis integrifolia. On Wilson's return to England, his reputation as a plant collector was established. Here begins one of the more intriguing developments in plant exploration of the early 20th Century. David Fairchild, champion of plant exploration in the Departof Agriculture, was responsible for many of the Japanese economic and ornamental plants introduced into the United States. He arrived in Japan on April 26, 1902, but, according to his notes, too late to see the flowering cherries he had set out to collect. However, he traveled the length of Japan, sam__,_ _ _ rmus wc W uuu~ cumac~ wiiii Cmiim~ia~m, ruc mayim ui iii' field map are annotated with notes on interesting plant localities. During his journey, he noted the extensive use of Zoysia japonica as a lawn grass and sent the first introductions of Zoysia (P.I. 9299-300) to the United States, along with a collection of 18 bamboos and 30 varieties of flowering cherries. To David Fairchild we owe recognition not only for his own collections, but also for his sustained encouragement of the Department's plant exploration program in China, resulting in vast numbers of plant introductions that have contributed to American agriculture. Charles S. Sargent, who had already been to Japan in the fall of 1892, was also determined to develop a leadership role for the Arnold Arboretum in plant exploration in the Orient. While Sargent spent only 10 weeks in Japan, his journey to Mt. Hakkoda was most rewarding. Not only must it have encouraged him to give primary attention to woody plant introductions from the Orient, but he introduced Rhododendron kaempferi, Acer nikoense in large quantity, and several magment ., -' ,., , ',1 .1' ,......., . l''' . 17 nolias into the United States. It was here that he may have been encouraged by James Veitch to emphasize collecting in China. Japan for many years after was not intensively explored for ornamental plants. Fairchild employed Frank Meyer, a Dutch immigrant, in 1905 to undertake extensive explorations in China. Meanwhile, Sargent was negotiating for the employment of E. H. Wilson, who finally accepted to collect in China for two years and hoped to return to become a member of the Arboretum staff. Meyer arrived in China in 1905 and concentrated on economic plants near Peking during the first winter, then moved down to the Yangtse River in the spring of 1906 and slowly journeyed northward during the summer as far as Manchuria and western Korea, collecting small grain cereals, forage crops, and soybeans. His shipments from northeast China included, as well, fruits with unusual hardiness and a number of shrubs and shade trees. Wilson arrived in China in 1907 and met with Meyer in Shanghai on an arrangement between Sargent and Fairchild. Meyer explored the Lau-shan mountains and agreed to collect in the Wu-tai mountains, a rather desolate and disappointing region. Nevertheless, Meyer collected more than a thousand seed and plant specimens from North China and returned with a wealth of information on dry-land farming methods and other facts on Chinese agriculture. Wilson, meanwhile, traveled his familiar route up the Yangtse from Ichang and spent the next two years collecting in western Hupeh and Szechuan, from Cheng-tu across the mountains to Tatsien-lu, and covered the triangle formed by the mountains Wa-wu-shan, Wu-shan, and Omei-shan. Keep in mind that, although this was only a journey of less than 100 miles, the terrain was of such a dangerous nature it was indeed a remarkable trip and yielded more than 2,000 packets of seed and 1,400 living plants. Both explorers returned to the United States; Meyer in 1908 and Wilson in 1909. And both soon were back in the field; Meyer in central Asia in 1909 and Wilson again in China in 1910. The accounts of their further journeys are so familiar that I need not go into them here. From the various letters and comments in books by and about Fairchild and Sargent, there was to continue an obvious amount of professional suspicion throughout their relationship. It is somewhat reflected in the attitude of Wilson and other collectors toward the rather morose Meyer. But I can find no similar attitude of his colleagues in the letters written by Meyer to Fair- 18 child. Indeed, Meyer's methods of collecting, with little attention to herbarium specimens and other supporting materials, his patient resolve to remain in the field in winter, and his attitude toward the Chinese customs, seem to have annoyed other collectors in China (see Farrer, R. On The Eaves Of The World, Vol. II : 276-282. 1917). Herein Farrer describes, with his vivid flair for over-emphasis, his encounter with Meyer in the village of Siku, Kansu Province in 1914. It is one of the enjoyable insights into the highly complex attitudes that prevailed among these individualistic collectors. It must also be remembered that Purdom, who had followed Meyer on an equally unfruitful journey to Wu-Tai for the Arnold Arboretum in 1909, was now the traveling companion of Farrer during the 1914 expedition to Kansu and may also have influenced Farrer's opinions. Despite their keen competition, these two very strong leaders (Fairchild and Sargent) did not permit their feelings to interfere with the sharing of introduced materials between the Arnold Arboretum and the USDA. This cooperation has continued through the century to the general benefit of American horticulture. The fervor of plant collecting in western China peaked just prior to the First World War. No fewer than six well-known British and American collectors Farrer, Forrest, Kingdon Ward, Meyer, Purdom, and Wilson - could be found attacking the great snow ranges of western China, up from Burma as 5eemeu w 've Lile rume fur c uriem amci iiimguum vv aW , ur aiumg the Yangtse River with Ichang as the starting point for Wilson, and the North China route for Meyer, Purdom and Farrer. Following the First World War Joseph Rock began collecting, first for the USDA in 1920 and later for the Arnold Arboretum and the National Geographic Society, until 1934. But now, Meyer and Farrer were both dead and Wilson had left off field work, leaving Forrest and Kingdon Ward to continue collecting. Kingdon Ward was the only one of this group who carried on into contemporary times. His field work exceeded 40 years and the amazing record of 23 expeditions. Few, if any, more recent collectors of note of ornamental plants can be added to this list. Fairchild did, however, continue his travels in the 1920's and 1930's to Europe, Africa, and South America, expounding on the importance of plant exploration and encouraging others to collect. The USDA continued in its collecting of economic plants and sent 38 exploration teams into the field between 1930 and World War II, and many of these collectors sent home ornamental species. - 19 Time does not allow for a discussion of the many introductions of plants obtained during the first 40 years of the 20th Century that survived the rigors of climate, war and depression, and horticultural acceptance to become important nursery plants. These are well documented in horticultural literature. As for plant exploration, an era was at end. No longer would explorers roam remote places on trips of several years' duration and the methods of collecting and shipment would be sharply changed by the advent of plastic films and the airplane. As for China, it was thought that the cream of the species had been collected already and there was little reason to continue interest in that country. But it should be noted that this same opinion was voiced prior to the explorations that began the 20th Cen- tury. The present era of plant introduction opened with a resounding discovery. Metasequoia glyptostroboides, previously known only from paleobotanic records, was discovered in China as a living species in 1945. Following this lead, the Arnold Arboretum promptly supported an expedition to the locality on the Szechuan-Hupeh border. As a result, a limited stand of about 1,000 trees was discovered in the Shui-sa-pa valley in Hupeh. Seed from this find was widely distributed by the Arnold Arboretum in 1948 and seedlings became established in almost every suitable locality around the world. I first reported on the rooting of Metasequoia from juvenile cuttings in 1948 and the National Arboretum selected and released a clone, 'National', in 1963 from P.I. 16188. This came from seedlings growing at the National Arboretum as the result of a shipment of seed sent from the National Central University, Nanking, to the USDA in 1948. I believe no species received as wide and as rapid a distribution around the world as was the case of Metasequaia. The finding of Metasequoia in a locality not far from where many early explorers had worked rejected the concept that the enormously rich flora of China had been sampled to the point of diminished returns. The opportunities to find new forms and more useful variants of ornamental plants in China was as promising as at any earlier time. During the first several years after World War II, arboretums that received scant support prior to World War II, such as the National Arboretum, began to progress markedly. Their interests turned to the evaluation of the many early introductions now reaching maturity in our arboretums, botanic gardens, and other test localities. A broader interest in horticulture resulting from the development of suburbia caused horticulturists B. Y. Morrison F. Kingdon Ward Photo: J. E. Downward to look for better and different types of trees and shrubs. Dr. Wyman provided outstanding leadership in this research evaluating hundreds of species and varieties trying to develop lists of those with the best qualities. Others followed this same approach. For example, when Frank Meyer collected seeds of Pyrus calleryana in China, his main purpose was a source of fire-blight resistance. The ornamental possibilities of this species were not even considered. In 1952 I selected a tree from the few specimens of P. calleryana remaining at the U.S. Plant Introduction Station, Glenn Dale, Maryland, grafted it onto P. calleryana seedlings, and established the trees in a nearby subdivision for a street tree study. Over the ensuing years, this selection has become more and more popular and the USDA named it 'Bradford'. Today, the 'Bradford' pear is regarded among the top ten trees for street planting in eastern United States. But it is limited in its cold-hardiness. Perhaps a search of its native Chinese homeland will locate additional germ plasm for evaluation. This species, it is important to note, was first introduced into the United States in 1908 by E. H. Wilson. Donald 21 Ornamental exploration had yet to fully recover from the War years. Kingdon Ward was back in the field and conducted six explorations in the Assam-Burma area between 1946 and 1957. The Royal Horticultural Society and the Japanese sent teams of explorers to Nepal in the early 1950's. In the United States a new concept of plant collecting resulted from the 1946 Research and Marketing Act. It gave support to foreign and domestic exploration on a sustained basis. Previously there were few Federal funds for explorations, and no mechanism to provide for inputs by States and others in determining priorities for exploration. Under the new Federal\/State cooperative program plant explorations became mission-oriented with emphasis on collecting to fill the gaps in our germ plasm base of specific crops. General collecting became a thing of the past. In addition to introduction activities, this program provided for four regional introduction stations Geneva, New York; Ames, Iowa; Experiment, Georgia; and Pullman, Washington. Later a special inter-regional potato station was established at Sturgeon Bay, Wisconsin, and in 1958 a National Seed Storage Laboratory was established at Fort Collins, Col. to house our genetic resources under optimum conditions for long term - storage. were also made for domestic explorations, taking of the many experiment stations and their scientific staffs to conduct the field work. Since 1953, 39 such collecting trips have been made, of which 9 have been for native ornamental plants, including rhododendrons, junipers, mountain ash, and ground covers. While the principal objectives of the regional stations were preliminary evaluation, increase, and distribution of plant introductions, some ornamentals were tested on a regional basis and released as named varieties. 'Cheyenne' privet, P.I. 107630, collected by Edgar Anderson during an Arnold Arboretum exploration in Yugoslavia in 1934, was introduced into the trade because of its superior hardiness in the northern Great Plains. A sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum) collected in Turkey during a field crop expedition in 1949 was named 'Dark Opal' by the Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station because of the purple coloring of foliage and flowers. It received the bronze medal in the 1960 All-America trials. Despite the profound effort at organized introduction of economic crop germ plasm, ornamentals did not share in the support. Quarantine laws had been tightened and many of the ornamental trees and shrubs previously imported from Europe Provisions advantage 22 were prohibited. This was unfortunate in that arboretums like the were Arnold, Morton, National, and University of Washington clonal material from European sources. In order that new material might reach the U.S., the Arnold Arboretum proposed a program to the USDA in 1953 whereby restricted plants already known to be in the U.S. would not be re-introduced. Rather the Arnold Arboretum would act as an \"agent\" for other gardens, and evidently \"new\" plants would be shipped from Europe to the Plant Introduction Station at Glenn Dale, Maryland, for quarantine. After the required 2year quarantine, the plants were then released to the ordering institution and propagated for other gardens. Individual botanic gardens and arboretums also searched European nurseries for non-restricted plants and these have continued to be introduced in order to fully understand the variation in our ornamental species and to locate improvements over current cultivars. Perhaps the most significant event in modern ornamental exploration was the initiation of the Longwood-ARS program in 1956. Recognizing that current Federal programs did not include ornamental collecting, Dr. Russell Seibert proposed that ARS enter into an agreement with Longwood Gardens to collect ornamentals on a sustained basis. For the first time public and private institutions were joining forces to meet the needs of the gardening public by collecting wild and cultivated plant materials in the fashion of the early explorers. In order not to coniiict with other ettorts, the Longwood-ARS program concentrated on regions of the world where exchange of plants and seeds could not be easily accomplished; it supported explorations to centers of origin of important ornamentals, and provided for a thorough survey of botanic gardens and nurseries of Europe for improved varieties otherwise not available to American horticulture. Thirteen explorations have now been completed under this program. Of these, 9 collecting trips have been to Asia, virtually ringing mainland China. The two most recent were the New Guinea exploration by H. Winters and J. Higgins in 1970 and my own journeys to Siberia in 1971. Materials collected on all these explorations are shared with experiment stations, botanic gardens and arboretums, and the nursery trade as rapidly as possible. For example, a large group of Impatiens collected from the 1970 expedition to New Guinea has already been released to growers. These have created considerable excitement by their striking range of flower color and variation in form renewing their activity in assembling 23 and foliage. This material will be the basis of new cultivars for the commercial trade and, in addition, will provide a wealth of germ plasm for breeding programs. With this rich history of plant collecting by various institutions and the success achieved in the evaluation of plant introductions, it is now time to look to the future. In relation to economic plants, there is a broad collaborative effort underway under sponsorship of a consortium of international agricultural institutions to develop a global network to collect, evaluate, and conserve genetic diversity around the world. There is evidence that our world's genetic resources of crop plants are being displaced, depleted, and, in the case of some collections, discarded. As a result, priorities for crops and geographical areas have been defined by experts in plant genetic resources for immediate action. Inventories are being developed of the total holdings of collections of crop germ plasm. Despite an inventory of over 2 million items reportedly held by various nations, an FAO survey showed that only 28% are under secure conditions to assure their survival. These are largely in the U.S., USSR, and a few other developed countries. There will be an attempt to place the bulk of our genetic resources into major regional storages before they are lost. The need for immediate action is readily understood. Th~se programs do not include ornamentals since it is assumed that the various associations devoted to ornamental horticulthre will develop their own program. These could very well be along similar lines to those proposed for economic crops. Already the American Horticultural Society is moving forward with its Plant Record Center to document living collections in the U.S. The Longwood program is providing for a long-range plan for exploration and, as discussed earlier, a system has been developed by the Arnold Arboretum to introduce plants normally prohibited from entry. Perhaps our weakest link is lack of a nationally coordinated program for evaluation of new ornamentals and a system of regional testing of superior selections for adaptation. There are some instances of this, but not on a major scale. In the North Central States there is a cooperative regional testing program underway among States and Federal institutions. This began in 1954 and provides for performance trials of selected ornamentals with respect to established criteria : survival, growth, freedom from pests and diseases, pollution resistance, and characteristics of foliage, flowers, and fruit. The results of these trials, reported on a 5-year basis, 24 provide scientists, nurserymen, and home-owners with reliable information on potentially new ornamentals. As for plant exploration, we are all aware that the future is on the Chinese mainland just as it was at the turn of the Century. The advent of air travel and access to areas previously unattainable because roads did not exist offer opportunities for collecting beyond what was accomplished by early explorers. In addition, new information gleaned from the ensuing years of evaluation, plant breeding, and taxonomic research provide us with useful priorities for future collecting trips. The hollies of Eastern Asia, numbering some 120 species, illustrate this point. Although China is especially rich in species of llex, we know many of them imperfectly because of the few introductions. A similar situation had existed with the species native to Japan, but it is now somewhat improved. Since 1956 a broad base of variability of the major Japanese species, Ilex crenata, has been introduced under the Longwood program. Over 50 collections of I. crenata representing its total range of distribution in Japan have been introduced and distributed. Seed lots of 14 other species and natural hybrids were introduced for the first time during this period. One of the very interesting research findings in relation to Chinese species of Ilex is the naming of a new species, Ilex centrochinensis, by Dr. S. Y. Hu of the Arnold Arboretum. Long confused with I. ciliospinosa, this new species was first introuwcu imW .iiima mv iai itum iiie iwaiivy wiicie ivieiuaeyuuiu was discovered. The importance of this species has been its usefulness in crosses with I. cornuta, from which some remarkably fine hybrids have been produced. Since there probably has not been a single wild collection of this particular species introduced under its own name during the last 50 years, it offers a challenge to the future collectors in China. Equally significant information could be developed for other Chinese holly species, i.e., I. cornuta, I pernyi, I. rotunda, and I. yunnanensis, and for many other plant genera. Just as for economic crop species, ornamentals are threatened with eradication and because of their lower status are usually the first to go when land is diverted to other use. Species diversity, and finally the species themselves, disappear as a result. As far as future plans for collecting in China are concerned, we might develop various levels of exchange programs such as have been in effect between the U.S. and the USSR since 1959. This initial exchange of seeds and plants on a quid pro quo basis developed into a mutually satisfying arrangement, 25 to four explorations of the USSR since 1963. We know very little about current germ plasm activities in China. It has been estimated that there are over 200,000 accessions of some 50 crops in Chinese collections. This is about the extent of the collections held in the U.S. and in the USSR. Probably a considerable amount of attention has been paid to ornamentals judging from earlier exchanges that took place between Soviet and Chinese botanic gardens. With airports at Cheng-tu, Szechuan, Kun-ming, Yunan, and development of modem roads in Western China, a new and equally rewarding phase of plant collecting in China may become a reality with exchange and exploration initiated simultaneously. leading JOHN L. CREECH Chief, New Crops Research Branch, ARS U.S. Department of Agriculture "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Botanist and the Computer","article_sequence":3,"start_page":26,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24593","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160856f.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Daniels, Gilbert S.","article_content":"The Botanist and the Computer Modern taxonomic botany has changed little from its descriptive origins in the 18th century. With the modern understanding of the plant as a living system and its place in the larger system around it, our descriptive efforts have changed to place the plant in context and not simply consider it as a dried specimen on an isolated herbarium sheet thousands of miles from its origin. In spite of this, however, our science has remained largely a descriptive one, and perhaps it is the pressure of our own needs, plus the pressure from our academic companions in other fields, which has caused us to look to a more mathematical approach to botany. The advent of the computer was a natural beginning to numerical processing of taxonomic data. From 1 initial enthusiasm about ten years ago for numerical taxonomy now settled as the cure-all for taxonomic problems, we have down into a more reasonable and wider use of computers in the field of botany. For many botanists, this early enthusiasm was entered into without a thorough understanding of the tool which made it possible. Today, with 30 years of computer experience behind us and perhaps some ten years of botanical ,__,_ cmutuma~mmmc~amcaica, vvcaic m a. 11VW11.1V11 1.V 1VV11 GlL the equipment available and to evaluate potential and the of the computer as a new tool in the botanist's laboratory. pitfalls We must, however, recognize that the computer is only a tool and not in itself a solution to the problems of botany. The computer can be used by the botanist only to the extent that he is logical or mathematical in his approach to problem solving. The past literature of botany, which is the data bank of the science, has already grown to such an extent that it is a nearly impossible task to extract from it all the pertinent facts relating to any given taxon. With the number of botanists working today, the situation will continue to worsen unless we start now to logically orient our facts and to place this logical assemblage into a machine-readable form which will allow us to search it and process it as the needs of the individual scientist require. In recent years there has been an increasing quantity of literature built up relative to the use of computers in the broad field of biology. It is not the purpose of this paper to review the applications of computers to specific problems. This has been done ., .., _ __ ____ ____ :__ _ _____~____ ~_ ~..... the 26 27 in part by Crovello and MacDonald in in their index of EDP-IR systematics,2 and also has been covered to a great extent by the papers reported in the Biological Journal of the Linnean Society in September 1971.3 It is the purpose of this paper to present some of the basics of computer operations and the effects they must have upon the approach to botanical probprojects lems if proper use is to be made of this new tool. Those persons who have not taken up the new world of computers often continue to shy away from, and in some cases even to fear, the unknown. Many others who have become absorbed in this new technology have often gone to the other extreme and completely masked the products of their efforts in a foreign jargon which has served only to increase the gap between the users and the non-users. This paper is an attempt to both slay the dragons and to bring the prophets back to earth for the greater number of botanists who have remained until now on neutral ground. The central theme of this discussion is that the computer is simply a tool, and in no way is it an end unto itself. The problems to which this modern tool may be applied are not unique to modern thinking, nor does the use of this equipment mean, of necessity, the abandonment of familiar procedures and techniques. On the other hand, a proper comprehension of the potential use of the new tool can lead to entirely new approaches to old problems. Perhaps it is best to start by looking at what a computer is and what it can do in the abstract. In its most fundamental form, a computer is a machine that can execute simple logical commands. It can be made to compare two sets of data and, based upon the result, can embark upon one or another of a set of previously determined courses of action. In its simplest form, the computer is not a mathematical machine, but it is as a consequence of specific series of logical operations within the machine that various mathematical operations are carried out. Computers in themselves exhibit no intelligence, and it is unfortunate that the anthropomorphic view of these machines has become the popular one. Problems cannot be solved nor questions answered except to the extent that a previously anticipated answer or course of action has been selected as the correct solution based upon a logical and previously determined analysis of the data in hand. In a perhaps over-simplified sense, what computers are best suited to do is to carry out a relatively simple manipulation in a repetitive fashion upon a large body of data. Alternatively, they can also be utilized to process a fairly complex series of operations on a relatively small quantity of data, 28 but since the operations must all be previously carried out by hand (i.e., programmed), a decision must be made as to whether it is worthwhile to spend the programming effort necessary for a relatively low degree of utilization of the computer. An early and continuing area of misunderstanding has been the supposed numerical nature of computers. Whereas most computers have been designed for the solution of numerical problems, there is nothing inherent in the nature of the machine which prevents representation within it of alphabetical characters. The concept of numericlature as opposed to nomenclature is both unnecessary and undesirable. The early mechanical limits of fixed field from a punch card origin, and of numericlature as a means to conserve storage space within the computer by codifying otherwise lengthier conventional language statements, have been two facets of the early use of computer techniques which have imposed unnecessary and unfortunate procrustean limits on data processing in botany. These initial difficulties, augmented by an unnecessary jargon and a number of unsuccessful projects initiated primarily in the name of fashion, have led to a slow start in the use of computers within the field of botany. Before going on to some of the possible advantages of computer utilization in the botanical area of activity, it is perhaps best to digress momentarily in order to discuss a matter which ;~ hacir nnt nnlv to the utilization of computers but in many Consideration of the broad spectrum of ways to science in light of possible solutions by computer biological problems means is, in effect, a consideration of the design of experiments. Perhaps one of the most critical areas in botany in this regard is the general field of taxonomy. Classical taxonomy has, since the time of Linnaeus, been rather in the nature of an art, in spite of all protestations as to its scientific status. The questioning of such status comes not from the end result which has stood the test of time well, but from the manner in which the decision is arrived at. In the physical sciences, an experiment can theoretically be conducted by anyone if the conditions and the equipment involved in the experiment are stated, and if this set of conditions and equipment can be duplicated. Given the same data and the same procedures, the same results should be obtained. What has been lacking in botanical taxonomy and, in fact, in taxonomy in general, has been the specific designation of the parameters involved in any given \"experiment\". It was precisely the rigidity of such re- itself. 29 quirements in which led to the early misunderstanding, apprehen- sion, and derogatory comment upon the use of computers in botanical taxonomy. It is not, however, the computer which is in such circumstances, but the statement of the exitself. If the taxonomist is not able to precisely define periment his terms and with equal precision to define the steps by which he arrives at a given conclusion, then he is unable to describe the experiment. If such parameters cannot be precisely determined and defined, then it is not possible for other individuals to consistently arrive at the same conclusion, given the same starting point. Recent work in the computer construction of identification keys and in random access identification queries in on-line computer systems have shown that the unforgiving taskmaster, the computer, can considerably simplify the task of identification if the logical processes by which a specific identification is reached are rigidly stated.4 The complexity and redundancy of the human mental process, while it is yet to be mechanically duplicated, can be more fully appreciated today than in the recent past. The capability of visualization without apparent quantitization was apparently unique to the human mind. It is now certain, however, that the neuron of the human brain is comparable to the single flip-flop of the computer, but both are meaningless except as they participate in the larger context of the total machine system. The process of learning in the human being is directly comparable, in part, to the building of a data bank in the computer. Furthermore, the learning process consists of considerable reprogramming which, as anyone who has worked with large data banks finds, is also a necessity as one develops the uses of the stored information. In many fields, such as computer design and chemical engineering, considerable effort has been expended in utilizing the computer both as a design tool and as an automatic means of control. In many cases where the problem has been reduced to a machine-soluble form, it has been the repetitive nature of the task which has lent itself to successful computer application. In other instances, however, the rigid test of logical statement that must be met before the problem can be reduced to computer solution has often times been sufficient in itself. That is to say, that having reduced the problem to a logical statement, it was no longer a problem and could be solved without the use of expensive computer equipment. It is precisely this rigid evaluation of logical processes with which the botanist is now faced, and it is in this context that the problems of botany must question 30 ' A careful distinction must be made between the and their potential solutions utilizing current techproblems nology. Too often the question is asked, \"How can I use the computer to solve my problems?\", in situations where the problems themselves have not been stated. While it cannot be denied that some of the solutions to botanical problems, particularly those involved in the curating of large collections or extensive literature search, are possible only because of the potential use of computer technology, it should not be presumed a priori that such problems will only have their ultimate solution through the application of computer systems. If the botanist can develop the ability to ask himself what he wants from his data without burdening himself with the seeming limitations of his present technology, the solution can ultimately result in considerably expanded horizons. This has been particularly significant in the statistical handling of biological data. Many of the techniques of such statistical evaluation, some of which have been unfortunately labeled as a sub-science of numerical taxonomy, are really only mathematical manipulations of data which could be done equally well with pencil and paper, but unfortunately could not be carried out in that way on a large data set within a reasonable period of time. The computer as a tool has allowed the statistical technique to expand, but statistics and computers are not synonymous. Whereas the advent of computers has offered a wider horizon to the botanist tor the potential solution of previousiy unsoivabie problems, this potential, in itself, is not the only basis upon which a decision for computerization can be made. A realistic evaluation of the utility of any information retrieval system or statistical evaluation must be made on a basis of the value of the net result without consideration of the means of possible solution. If the end result is justifiable, only then can the means of reaching that end be evaluated. The distinction must be clearly made between the organization of knowledge and the mechanization of that knowledge. In this respect, a realistic evaluation of time and cost for the solution to any given problem must be considered. The high internal operating speeds of modern computers are impressive statistics. The fact that data can be manipulated within the computer in fractions of a second is not a realistic statistic when evaluating the true time from presentation of the data to the availability of the solution to a given problem. The true solution time includes all that time which is involved in the entry of the raw data, all of the delays and waiting periods in submitting the problem to the be stated. 31 computer (and the programmer), and in ultimately receiving the printout or other output from the computer. In a practical sense, what is often spoken of as microseconds of response can, in fact, represent weeks of waiting time for the individual botanist. In a similar manner, costs must also be evaluated. Can the expense of direct communication with a computer data bank be justified for information which is needed for a paper presented next month? The identification of an unknown plant by carrying out a question and answer session at a computer console is an impressive application of the computer, and, in fact, the random sequence in which the pertinent characteristics may in some cases be presented to a computer is a considerable improvement over the dichotomous key. The questions which must be realistically asked, however, are, \"How to be much does it cost?\" and \"Is it worth it?\" In small systems operating in small computers, the cost may seem reasonable, but when larger data banks are involved and consequently larger computer systems, the cost can quickly get out of hand. For direct communication with the computer, the data which are being referenced must be kept in a readily accessible storage medium. Even the least expensive of these can cost in the hundreds of dollars per day, while the most sophisticated high speed systems may run into the thousands of dollars per day for a data bank equivalent to the information content of a onevolume printed flora. As one who pays a rather healthy monthly computer bill for the operation of my own research projects, I have strong feelings that an unrealistic approach to botanical problems is presented in instances where major data banks are proposed on a large-scale basis without realistically evaluating the true costs of immediate availability. Realistic operating times and ultimate costs must be evaluated in the context of the true need of the user. This aspect of computer utilization has become most critical in recent times with the introduction of on-line terminals and time-shared computers. Can the individual scientist really justify the true costs of direct communication to a computer data bank as compared to looking up a similar piece of information in a more conventional reference work? This question must be asked each time one goes to a computer for the solution to a problem. Oftentimes the on-line system is considered justification because of the supposedly random nature of the access need of the user. Critically evaluated, such access is too often not truly random but is limited to a finite number of rearrangements of the data. It must be remembered that the computer has not 32 - the mode of communication in terms of on-line stored data banks but has also greatly amplified the communication which is possible with the conventional printed word through the availability of permuted indices. By using computers for the preparation of multiple indices to a given reference work, the same ease of access that is available in an on-line operation can be made available in a printed report. In our own work, the preparation of a complete title index for a file of bibliographical references having more than 25,000 entries took only three minutes of computer running time. Actually, it took closer to a week in terms of response time from conception of the need to ultimate receipt of the print-out. Having once prepared this permutation of the data, however, it is now available on a direct access basis at a speed equal to that of an on-line computer inquiry, and, I might add, at a considerably lower cost of operation. When truly evaluated in terms of the total context of programming and equipment cost versus the time and effort required to manually look up a set of facts in a computer-prepared index to a data set, the justification for the use of on-line computer systems is difficult. The index which we prepared could not have practically been completed by other than computer means, but the off-line mode of operation was sufficient for our needs and continues to be so. The preparation of multiple indices by computer means brings out still another aspect of the need for proper preparation and anaiysis of problems betore entering mto the computer operation. While the computer is particularly well adapted to searching large quantities of data for a particular set of facts, this search is made by comparing the information content of the body of data being searched against a standard which is the item being searched for. Comparison of two items to determine whether or not they are completely alike in every detail is a characteristic ability which is inherent in the computer hardware. Comprehension of the significance of two items which are functionally the same but which are stated in a different manner is not a built-in ability of computers. Such comprehension must be programmed and is one of the most difficult types of logic to program. Thus, it becomes essential in preparing information for computer analysis that such information be presented in an absolutely consistent form in all cases. Such simple variations as an extra space or an incorrectly placed period are as different to the computer comparison as an entirely different word. If such variations are to be disregarded, the instructions to dis- only changed access to 33 specifically programmed into the comproblem is a simple one: consistency. This, however, is not an easy thing to achieve, particularly in an endeavor which extends over a long period of time. The preparation of indices requires the searching out and bringing together of all of a like item. Achieving this without programming comprehension into the computer can be done to a great extent by specifically identifying each particular type of information in each record. This \"data language\" is the responsibility of the individual botanist, and consequently data banks have the disadvantage, unlike museum specimens, that the information which is stored in the computer is already biased upon entry. regard puter. The solution to them must be this entered into the file in a consistent adequate recognition is given to the specific information units within the data and the potential extent of any piece of data, then for any given processing of the data the entire record need not be searched. Only that segment of the record which contains the specific information being sought must be processed. In more every-day terms, this simply means that the format in which data are presented to the computer must be rigidly adhered to, and that considerable attention must be given to this format before any data recording is begun. Only in this way will maximum utility of the data bank be possible for future needs. Another problem facing the individual botanist when using computers is that of compatibility. Actually, this involves three separate and distinct problems in data processing. Machine compatibility is the ability to enter data automatically into the computer file. In its most acceptable form, the data should be able to be entered into the file without the need for human intervention. Recording the shape of the leaf scanned by a computer input device is, for all practicality, still a dream of the future. The more practical entering of numerical data from mark-sensed cards is a direct machine entry procedure. The capability of entering literature files, such as Index Kewensis, by means of direct optical character reading is a rapidly developing technique of the present. For the taxonomic botanist, however, most of the data which he will need in the computer file must be entered manually, and only after this manual data processing will a machine-compatible form of the file exist. The second type of compatibility is that of the data bank itself. While there are various formats for internal storage use in different computer systems, the transition from one format to another is almost always possible by direct computer processing, are If, however, the data format and 34 and thus the data file compatibility is not a major concern, so long as the specific items of information which are stored in the file are analogous to any other file with which the data are to be utilized. This is not a new problem to botany but one which must be squarely faced if the botanist is to use a computer. Classification systems, based on the shape of leaf in one plant and the color of flower in another, do not lend themselves readily to the impartial comparison of a computer data file. Finally, the last level of compatibility is program compatibility, and this involves not only the operating programs which process the data but also is unfortunately tied closely to the individual hardware systems in use. The plea for compatible programs which can be exchanged between scientists is regrettably somewhat premature, considering the developmental stage of the computer industry. Computers began from a standing start at the end of World War II and now number in excess of 100,000 machines in use. The technology began with operations taking tens of milliseconds, and now has developed into operations described in nanoseconds. The hardware has developed from relatively small computers occupying the entire space of a large building to highly sophisticated computers occupying little more than the volume of an average television set. The development in this industry is not over, and with the rapidity of advance comes inevitable change. For the foreseeable future, true program compatibility is something to be sought but hardly to be nnr ncPC tr) rnmnatihilitv nf nrnaramc which of two basic approaches to prodepends large part gramming are utilized by the individual worker. If your computer needs are sufficient to maintain your own programming staff, then one can be relatively independent of changing hardware specifications, since new programs can be written to meet current needs and old programs can be modified as necessary. If, on the other hand, the computing needs are small and one uses the packaged programs which are available with most commercial computers, then one must be careful in this rapidly developing industry to choose a manufacturer who will provide a reasonable degree of stability. As a general rule, the more interchangeable the program, the longer the running time of that program in the machine, but here again, the true costs of using a computer must be evaluated, not in the simple running time of the computer, but in the total concept of the staff and equipment necessary to process the data. If the botanist is to use the computer well, he must understand the processing of his problem in the computer. He must, arhiavPrl What annrnarh on in 35 in essence, be able to program his own problems. Significant uses of computer data sets will come only from the individual who himself fully comprehends the abilities of the processing equipment. If the botanist is completely dependent upon another individual to provide programming, then he will be able to derive advantage from the computer only to the extent that he is able to state his problem in terms of the computer's ability. Programming has unfortunately become synonymous with the operation of translating the logical solution to the problem into the specific commands to be given to the computer. In reality, the most important part of programming is the ability to state the process of problem solution in simple logical terms. This is analogous to considering a skilled translator as equivalent to a talented novelist. The knowledge of the words of a language is not the same as the ability to use that language well. The botanist who does his own programming will soon learn to make the distinction between these two facets of the job. Where- university programming courses are exactly equivalent university language courses, the course, Computers in Biological Systematics,5 which is now offered at Michigan State University, is much more comparable to a course in composition and writing of a foreign language. Both knowledge of the language and fluency are necessary, but ultimately the latter is as most to essential to the successful use of this new tool. A recent paper by Cutbill,6 on new methods for handling biological information, should become required reading for any botanist involved in computer data processing. In closing, I should like to say that the computer offers the botanist the means of coming from the 18th century into the present, but in order to do so, a retraining program is required so that the individual botanist may become completely familiar with the abilities of the computer and fluent in its language. GILBERT S. DANIELS Director, Hunt Institute for Botanical Documentation Carnegie-Mellon University 36 References 1. Sokal, Robert R., and Sneath, Peter H. 1963. Principles of Numerical Taxonomy. San Francisco & London: W. H. Freeman and Co. Crovello, Theodore J., and MacDonald, Robert D. 1970. Index of EDP-IR projects in systematics. Taxon 19(1): 63-76. 3. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 1971. 3(3). 4. Morse, Larry E. 1971. Specimen identification and key construction with time-sharing computers. Taxon 20(2\/3): 2692. 282. 5. Furlow, J. J., Morse, L. E., and Beaman, J. H. 1971. Computers in biological systematics, a new university course. Taxon 20(2\/3): 283-290. 6. Cutbill, J. L. 1971. New methods for handling biological information. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society 3(3): 253-260. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Ailments","article_sequence":4,"start_page":37,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24592","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160816b.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pirone, Pascal P.","article_content":"Plant Ailments Plants, like man and animals, are subject to myriad diseases. Moreover, there is no single kind of plant that is not affected some disease. Plant ailments are older than man. We know this because fossils that predate man's appearance on earth show evidence of such ailments. As long ago as 700 B.C. man attempted to control plant ailments. The Romans later instituted the feast Robigalia to appease the rust gods with prayers and sacrifice. In 1660, nearly 200 years before the true nature of wheat rust was known, a law was passed in Rouen, France, requiring the eradication of barberry in order to control rust. At that time some connection between the rust and the shrub had been established but it was not known that barberry was an alternate host of the fungus. Later, in 1726 and 1766 several New England states passed laws to suppress the spread of the com- by mon barberry. Development of the science of 100 years States in the past plant pathology in the United parallels the development of bo- tanical gardens and arboreta. For some years the federal government maintained a commissioner of agriculture under whose jurisdiction were several divisions, including the Botanical Division. A section of Mycology of this division was established in 1881, and F. Lamson Scribner was appointed as the mycologist, with Erwin F. Smith as his assistant. This represented the first official recognition of the science of phytopathology in the United States, for the work had to do primarily with the diseases in plants. The early research on plant diseases was conducted largely by federal and state plant pathologists. In 1881 T. J. Burrill in Illinois demonstrated that the fire blight disease of apples, pears, and other members of the Rosaceae is caused by the bacterium Erwinia amylovora. Ten years later M. B. Waite proved that bees and wasps could spread the causal organism. In 1912 passage of the Quarantine Act officially prohibited the importation into the United States of certain plants and soils 37 38 in a belated attempt to reduce the possibility of introducing pests and diseases from other parts of the world. By this time pine blister rust fungus had already been introduced low-priced pine seedlings from Europe. Today, more than 35,000 different diseases affect our economic plants those used as food, feeds, fibers, and lumber. the white on - The number of known diseases of wheat in the United States, for example, is conservatively estimated at 100; of apple at 125; and of potato at nearly 100. Nor are such large numbers of ailments confined to plants producing food, fiber and lumber. Shade and ornamental trees and shrubs as well as flowers are also subject to many diseases. The average annual loss from plant diseases in the United States is estimated to be between 3 and 4 billion dollars. Causes of Plant Ailments There are two major causes of plant diseases nonparasitic and parasitic. Among the nonparasitic causes are mineral deficiencies, chemical injuries, and unfavorable water relationships. Mineral Deficiencies. All plants need a balanced diet to do well. Those grown in soil which lacks one of the so-called major - - or one or more elements - nitrogen, phosphorus, or potash of the essential minor elements, such as iron, boron, or magnesium, will nototbe normal. i ne foliage rhododendrons, mouncam-iaurei, and andromeda (Pieris) may turn yellow (chlorotic) because of a lack of available iron, which may, in turn, be due to excessive lime. This commonly occurs when these acid-loving plants are planted near a cement wall. Many trees, including pin oaks, cottonwood, boxelder, and sweet gum (Liquidambar styfaciflua), also become chlorotic because of the unavailability of iron. Incorporating a so-called iron chelate into the soil or spraying it on the - leaves helps to overcome such a deficiency. Chemical Injuries. Faulty application of nitrate, of potash, or of acid or alkaline fertilizers often brings on symptoms similar to those caused by parasitic organisms. If an excess of sodium nitrate is supplied during dry weather, for example, the foliage at the tops of the plants becomes brown and appears scorched. Careless use of weed killers also may result in severe damage or even death of trees and shrubs. Weed-killing materials containing arsenicals or the hormone 2, 4-D should be used with extreme care. Rock salt (sodium chloride) scattered over sidewalks or along 39 to melt ice and snow or prevent water from freezing also causes severe damage to plants growing nearby. Trees and shrubs growing along large bodies of salt water are often injured by wind-blown salt spray. During hurricanes the spray can actually damage foliage 50 miles from salt water. Smoke emanating from chimneys of manufacturing plants, apartment house incinerators, and other instruments of combustion, including automobiles, contains ingredients which are harmful to vegetation. The three major pollutants released by manufacturing plants are sulfur dioxide, fluorine compounds, and the smog typical of urban areas. Maple and other broad-leaved trees exposed to high concentrations of sulfur dioxide, for instance, show ivorywhite markings, mostly between the main veins; whereas Douglas fir and ponderosa pine exhibit a reddish discoloration of the needles followed by a shriveling of the affected tissues. Unfavorable Water Relationships. A deficiency of moisture in the soil may result in the scorching of leaves. In such cases the leaves wilt when water lost through transpiration cannot be quickly replaced. Winter injury of broad-leaved evergreens occurs, for example, when the leaves lose more water than can be replaced via the roots while the soil is still frozen in late winter or early spring. In summer, the blossom-end rot of tomatoes is caused by a combination of insufficient moisture and a deficiency of calcium in the soil. An excessive amount of water in the soil is another non-parasitic cause of some plant ailments. Yews (Taxus spp.), for example, are extremely susceptible to an overly wet soil. Research at Rutgers University revealed that yews could be killed by immersing their roots in water-saturated soil for 32 to 64 hours and then drying out the soil. roadways Parasitic Causes Fungi, bacteria, nemas (nematodes), and ultramicroscopic entities known as viruses and mycoplasmas are the five parasitic causes of plant ailments. The last, mycoplasmas, are half way in size between viruses and bacteria. Some diseases such as aster yellows and witches' brooms formerly thought to be due to viruses are now known to be caused by mycoplasmas. Let me briefly review the history and present status of some of the more important diseases of trees that have become widespread in the United States since the founding of the Arnold Arboretum a century ago. 40 Chestnut Blight The rapid disappearance of one of our best forest, ornamental, and nut trees, the American chestnut (Castanea dentata), as a result of infection by the fungus Endothia parasitica is too well known to warrant much discussion today. Despite tireless effort and tremendous monetary expenditures, dead and diseased chestnut trees are all that remain of the losing battle man has waged to check this invader. No one will dispute the statement that the chestnut blight disease has done more than any other single factor in American history to make the public tree-conscious. Within a span of 60 years many persons have witnessed the passing of this irreplaceable tree. Believed to be of minor importance when first reported by the late Herman Merkel, who found a few infected trees in Bronx Park, New York City, in 1904, the disease proceeded to wipe out the chestnut stands in New England forests and along the eastern slope of the Allegheny and Blue Ridge mountains, the principal range of this host. Today some chestnuts still stand in the extreme southern and western parts of this tree's natural range: in Tennessee, Georgia, and South Carolina. It is safe to say, however, that they too will soon suffer the same fate as their northern kin, for blight has been reported in all these states. Dutch Elm Disease l'he second most widely publicized disease in the last 35 years is the Dutch elm disease caused by the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi. The misleading name given the disease merely refers to the Netherlands, where it was first identified in 1919. The disease is believed to have entered the United States in the late 1920's on burled elm logs from Europe. After killing literally thousands of elms in the eastern United States, it has spread to the deep South, the Middle West, and Canada. The disease has been found in at least 33 states, the westernmost being Idaho. Conditions are ripe, however, for the spread of the disease to California. The principal carrier of the causal fungus, the smaller European elm bark beetle Scolytus multistriatus, has been found in 20 California counties. Many claims of cures or preventives have been made in re- However, as of now not one has been substantiated. I have worked with this disease since 1933 when I was in charge of the eradication campaign on Long Island. I have used many of the materials suggested as cures or preventives but found them all wanting. cent years. 41 introduced from Asia, the immune) are the Siberian elm (Ul(though mus pumila) and the Chinese elm (U. parvifolia). Unfortunately they lack the qualities that have made the American elm so great a favorite over the past century, particularly in the New a Among number of elm not species most resistant England states. One of the latest efforts to control the disease on American elm seedlings has been exposure to thermal neutrons or x-rays. Four of 150,000 treated trees showed increased resistance, and one has withstood nine inoculations of the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi. attractant produced by virgin female elm bark beetles is being investigated. If this substance can be produced synthetically in the laboratory, it may help to lure male bark beetles into traps where they can be killed or sterilized by any one of sex A also several methods. A new approach is to use predators to control the insect vector. A wasp-like insect (Dendrosoter protuberans), introduced from Europe, lays its eggs in dead or dying elms infested with the larvae of bark beetles. The young hatching from the predator's eggs attack and kill the bark beetle larvae. Whether or not this predator can become sufficiently well-established to cause an appreciable reduction in the bark beetle population remains to be seen. The use of systemic chemicals which are either injected into elm trunks or applied to the soil in the root feeding zone has been tried by several investigators. It was hoped that such chemicals would move up into the branches and twigs in sufficient amounts to kill the bark beetles which spread the causal fungus. Encouraging use results have recently been reported from the of Benlate. In fact, only a few months ago, the du Pont Company, manufacturers of this fungicide, received clearance from the federal regulatory agencies to permit its use as an aid in the control of Dutch elm disease. Benlate is applied as a foliar spray or is injected into the trunk of the tree. As a foliar spray, it is used at the rate of 8 pounds in 100 gallons of water in spring when the leaves are fully formed. This is the time the bark beetles begin to feed. As a trunk injection, it is used at the rate of 2 pounds per 100 gallons of water. Injector tubes equipped with cups of approximately 2 fluid ounce capacity are inserted into the outer growth rings just deep enough to prevent leaking at the point 42 of entry. The injector tubes are spaced at 2-inch intervals around the trunk. The cups are filled and left in place for 24 to 48 hours. They are refilled as needed. The injector tubes are removed when the treatment is completed. The Benlate treatment must be given by a trained arborist. It is to be hoped that this treatment combined with a sanitation and insect control program will be successful in slowing down this highly destructive disease. Phloem Necrosis Even more deadly than the fungus-induced Dutch elm disease is phloem necrosis. This disease was once thought to be caused by a virus but it is now known to be caused by a mycoplasma. Thousands of elms in the Middle West along the Ohio River basin have died from its effects in the past 30 years. Just recently phloem necrosis has appeared in the western and central parts of New York State. It is only a matter of time before it will reach New England to destroy those elms that have thus far escaped the Dutch elm disease. The phloem necrosis organism can be transmitted experimentally by grafting patches of diseased bark, scions or roots on healthy trees. In nature the infectious principal is transmitted by the elm leafhopper Scaphoideus luteolus. Because of the nature of the causal organism, there is a possibility that control of infected trees can be achieved by using an antibiotic ,~.1, .,n rorr.,r.\"~.1;\"0 ...,...,.._...,~..____... ..\"..,__ Oak Wilt Another highly publicized disease, wilt, arborists, nurserymen, of oaks, is causing some concern to tree owners, and lumber interests in the Middle West. The disease has been found in 20 states from Kansas and Nebraska eastward to Pennsylvania, and from Minnesota southward to Texas. The fungus Ceratocystis fagacearum is known to cause wilt. It is spread by root grafts and by several insects including fruit flies; Nitidulid beetles; the flat-headed borer, Chrysobothris femorata ; and two species of oak bark beetles, Pseudopityophthorus minutissimus and P. pruinosus. The fungus can also be transmitted on tools used by arborists and foresters. No effective control of wilt is known. For the present, eradication and burning of infected specimens is being advocated. Because the oak wilt fungus appears to be most infectious early in the growing season when the new spring wood vessels are developing, it is suggested that pruning operations in oaks be delayed until July or later. 43 Ash Dieback In the northeastern United States, white ash (Fraxinus americana) has been affected by a branch dieback, and since 1940 occasional death of some of the affected trees has been noted. Dr. Craig Hibben at the Kitchawan Research Laboratory of the Brooklyn Botanic Garden found that a strain of tobacco ringspot virus was associated with leaves exhibiting early symptoms of ash dieback. In addition, Dr. Hibben was successful in transmitting a mycoplasma-like organism from declining white ash trees showing witches' broom symptoms to healthy ash trees by means of the parasitic flowering plant known as dodder (Cuscuta sp.). Although much research still must be done, these discoveries should eventually help to solve some very serious problems on white ash. (The wood of white ash, by the way, is used to make baseball bats for America's favorite sport.) Other important contributions on plant diseases have been made by arboreta and botanical gardens over the years. A brief review of some of these may be in order here. At the Arnold Arboretum, more than 40 years ago, a forest pathologist, Dr. J. Horace Faull, was first to recognize the occurrence of the Dutch elm disease in the United States and warned of the potential danger of this disease to elms. Unfortunately his many warnings went unheeded. More widely recognized was the herbarium of specimens of diseases of native and cultivated plants prepared by Dr. Faull, his co-workers, and students. Alfred Fordham, plant propagator at the Arboretum, found that many woody plants which failed to grow in spring died not from so-called winterkill but from the first sharp freeze in autumn. The bark of susceptible plants is ruptured and separates from the wood, resulting in death of the plant. Donald Wyman, Horticulturist, Emeritus, at the Arnold Arboretum, found that some trees are unusually susceptible to certain pests and diseases and suggested that they should not be planted in areas where they cannot receive adequate care. He recommends, instead, the planting of trees that are unusually pest-free. Included in this group are: Carpinus species, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Eucommia ulmoides, Franklinia alatamaha, Ginkgo biloba, Gymnocladus dioicus, Koelreuteria paniculata, Liquidambar styraciflua, Phellodendron species, and Sophora japonica. At the Brooklyn Botanic Garden, classical research on virus 44 diseases has been conducted since the early 1940's, starting with Dr. L. M. Black and continuing with Doctors Karl Maramorosch, Myron K. Brakke and Walter Tulecke. Brakke's work on density gradient centrifugation was responsible for a new approach to the separation and identification of viruses. The contributions made more recently by Dr. Craig Hibben have already been noted in my discussion of ash dieback. At the Cornell University Arboretum, now known as The Cornell Plantations, hundreds of elms are being grown to determine their resistance to the Dutch elm disease fungus. At the Missouri Botanical Garden, early in this century Dr. B. M. Duggar contributed to the understanding of the future of viruses by measuring the tobacco mosaic particle. The garden also pioneered in the growing of mushrooms from pure culture spawn, transforming mushroom production into a profitable industry. In the 1930's A. P. Beilman made many contributions to the care of shade trees. At the National Arboretum in Washington, D.C., Frank S. Santamour, Jr., research geneticist, has discovered the first natural hybrid between the tetraploid American elm and the highly resistant diploid Siberian elm.l More recently, another triploid elm, a hybrid of U. pumila and U. rubra, was found through cytological research.2 According to Dr. Santamour, \"It is likely that triploids created by crossing diploids with colchicine-induced tetraploids will be partially fertile and be useful im lumici W ccuiay iVt tcDiJi.aiii.G iV Luii.ii ciiii uiocnoi.'~. There is one discouraging aspect in the development of plants resistant to fungi and other parasites. It is now well established that a plant resistant to one strain of a fungus may succumb to another strain of the same fungus. This has been shown in the development of varieties of wheat resistant to the rust fungus Puccinia graminis. The same situation holds for the fungus Ceratocystis ulmi, the cause of the Dutch elm disease. There are strains, particularly one known as the black line strain because it produces a black growth at its perimeter of growth in culture, that are extremely virulent and capable of killing an elm within a year of infection. Other strains are less virulent and may take three or more years to cause death. Important contributions have also been made by the New York Botanical Garden. Pioneer work on the cytology and genet' Santamour, Frank S., Jr. 1970. A natural hybrid between American and Siberian elms. Forest Sci. 16: 149-153. ' Santamour, Frank S., Jr. 1971. A triploid elm ( Ulmus pumila X U. rubra) and its aneuploid progeny. Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 98: 310-314. 45 ics of the fungus Neurospora sitophila was done by my predecessor, Dr. B. O. Dodge. This was followed by the work of other geneticists that resulted in the discovery of the chemical affinities of chromosomes and genes. For their part in these researches Doctors G. W. Beadle, J. Lederberg, and E. L. Tatum received the Nobel prize in medicine in 1958. Other contributions made by the New York Botanical Gar- den, directly or indirectly related to plant ailments, include the effect of natural gas on trees, and the application of plant nutrients directly to the foliage of trees and shrubs. The newly established 1800-acre Cary Arboretum of the New York Botanical Garden at Millbrook, N.Y., has among its objectives the finding of a replacement of the fast disappearing American elm, the mass planting of all elm species to assess their relative resistance to the Dutch elm disease, and the testing of blight-resistant clones of the American chestnut. Thus down through the years, the study of plant ailments and their control continues to progress. Modem research at botanical gardens and arboreta such as the Arnold Arboretum is a far cry from the efforts of the ancient Romans to appease the rust gods with prayers and sacrifice. PASCAL P. PIRONE Senior Plant Pathologist New York Botanical Garden "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cambial Activity in Trees","article_sequence":5,"start_page":46,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24589","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160bb28.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Srivastava, Lalit M.","article_content":"Cambial Activity in Trees The major difference between trees on the one hand and herbs on the other is that the trees show lateral growth or growth in thickness, over and beyond the growth in length. The growth in length called the extension growth - is due to division and elongation of cells at the tip of stem or root (Fig. 1). In trees, the subterminal regions which have ceased elongation undergo another kind of growth, the lateral growth which is due to cambium and which results in an increase in their girth. This is shown easily by a comparison of photographs of the same branch taken at different times (Fig. 2). In the photograph on the left the lowermost internode is about 1 1\/2\" long, and the one above it is about 2 1\/2\" long. After 3 weeks of growth (photograph on the right), a few more internodes have been added at the tip, but note that the bottom internode has not elongated. The one above it is now almost 3 1\/2\" long and also has stopped elongating, soon the one above it will stop elongatmg, then the one still above and so on. If cross sections of these intemodes are stained with phloroglucinol-HCI which imparts a red color to wood (Fig. 3), it can be seen that the cambial activity has begun in the two intemodes from the bottom. Henceforth, these internodes will only increase in - - girth. The cambium is a layer of cells between wood (xylem) and bark (phloem)1 which remains permanently meristematic or capable of division. In temperate climates, the cambial cells are active only in spring and summer, they cut a number of new cells toward the wood, about 1\/2 to 1\/4 that number toward the bark, and the new cells differentiate, respectively, as new wood and bark cells. With the beginning of autumn, the cam1 Strictly speaking the term wood pertains to secondary xylem or xylem derived from the cambium as opposed to primary xylem which is derived from the procambium. The term bark refers to all tissues outside the cambium and includes besides primary and secondary phloem such tissues In older stems of most as cortex, epidermis, periderm and rhytidome. trees the primary phloem, cortex and epidermis are shed and the bark consists essentially of the secondary phloem, periderm and rhytidome. 46 Fig. 1 Two types of volved. growth in trees, their location and meristems in- Fig. 2 Photographs of the same elderberry branch separated by a 3-week interval. Fig. 3 Cross sections of six internodes from the youngest (1 ) downwards stained with phloroglucinol\/HCI to show beginning of formation of wood (internodes 6 and 5) and hence beginning of cambial activity. 48 bial cells become dormant, remain in that state through the winter, and are activated again next spring. As a result of this seasonal activity of the cambium, there are growth rings in the wood, which may be considered as a record of cambial activity (Fig. 4). In contrast to the wood, the record of cambial activity is only poorly preserved in the bark (Fig. 4). First, the yearly increments in the bark are usually not distinct as growth rings. Second, they are further obliterated because of stress and distortion in mature bark due to the ever increasing diameter of the wood cylinder. Third, in most trees, the bark does not keep on accumulating from year to year as wood does; instead, the outer parts of bark are periodically cut off as bark scales by another kind of cambium, the cork cambium (Fig. 4). The formation and shedding of bark scales gives the trees their typical rough bark appearance. Some trees such as oak acquire a rough bark very early, at times within the first year; others like fir, poplar, birch, beech, and cherry may retain their smooth bark for several decades. Wood is an important commercial product and a good deal of research has gone into it. Much less is known about bark, mainly from pharmacological work concerned with extractives; but cambium which produces both wood and bark, very little indeed is known about it. Yet the cambium is a very interesting tissue indeed. Since it produces xylem and phloem, two very different tissues, on its two sides 2 and since each of these two tissues is composed of different types of cells, it is of interest to students of oriented cell divisions, cell differentiation, and pattern formation in plants. Its seasonal activity in temperate climates, likewise, is of extreme interest to students of dormancy and frost resistance. Finally, a feature of cambium that has not been well recognized in the past is that it is a very dynamic tissue it is the seat of rapid change and response to external and internal environment. In the following pages, I am going to concentrate mainly on cell types in the cambium, concept of the initiating ring, multiplicative divisions in the cambial initials and their role in plasticity of the cambium, and the effect of hormones on cambial activity and production of xylem and - phloem. 2 Some plants such as arborescent monocotyledons, tropical dicotyledons, and lianas show unusual cambial activity in that xylem and phloem are produced on the same side, at times in successive rings, or in different proportions in different radial sectors. Very little is known about the physiological and morphogenetical aspects of these types of cambial activity. They are not considered here. 49 Fig. 4 Montage of a cross secof a stem of pine. Only two growth rings and part of a third are shown in xylem (X). In contrast sevtion eral years growth, marked by small bars arranged in a row, is shown in the phloem (P). The approximate position of cambium is denoted by a longer horizontal bar. Note the distortion of tissue in outer bark and separation of outermost bark tissue by periderm (PD). The parts so separated comprise dead bark marked by an asterisk and shed as are periodically bark scales. 50 Figs. 5, 6 - Cross sections of stems of pine collected in winter and sum?BTnff fhnt __.__ ~F -a~^;--;,~;,-'~,j ~u~r~~ Nnto +hnt +hg ~., ,, ....w.\"\" ,., ~., ~ between the mature xylem (X) and phloem (P) is wider in summer than in winter. There is reason to believe that only one cell in a radial row acts as a cambial initial at any time. These initials maintain a certain degree of synchrony in their activity and occur more or less in a tangential line around the stem (C). The young differentiating xylem cells have weak walls and have ruptured during preparation of the material. Slippage of bark in spring and summer is due to this rupture and is indicative of cambial activity. mer. restjecti~p~ resroectivrlp ' 1. Cambial layer, f usif orm and ray initials : There are theoretical reasons for maintaining that cambium is a single layer of cells (2, 3, 6) between xylem and phloem although it is not easy and often impossible to identify the cambial layer from the neighboring layers. Figures 5 and 6 represent cross sections of stems of white pine (Pinus strobus) sampled in winter and summer, respectively. In the winter collection 3-4 layers of undifferentiated cells intervene between the fully differentiated xylem and phloem cells. In the summer collection, the number 51 of layers of undifferentiated cells is much larger. Many of these, of course, are differentiating though not yet mature, xylem and phloem cells. With experience and under the higher resolution of an electron microscope it is possible to delimit the cambium both in winter and summer material to either one of 2 or 3 layers of cells. Further delimitation has proven impossible so far and perhaps is of little practical consequence. The number of undifferentiated cell layers in winter and summer materials of different trees varies widely and in the same tree under different conditions of age, growth, and environment. For instance, in rapidly growing trees the number of undifferentiated and differentiating cell layers is usually much larger than in slow growing trees. Also, in winter collections of some trees, it may be possible to delimit the cambium to a single layer of cells. These variations aside, the cambium basically has two types of cells (Fig. 7): 1. one type is narrow and elongated along the length of the stem and is called the fusiform initial; 2. the other type is short, isodiametric or horizontally elongated and clustered in groups and is called a ray initial. The type of cambium shown in Fig. 7 is common in most hardwoods such as birch, poplar, willow, alder, sycamore, etc. and is called nonstoried cambium. The cambium of conifers is similar (Fig. 8), in fact except that the fusiform initials are as a rule longer in some red woods they may be as much as 10 mm. long - and that the ray initials are usually arranged in single series. The cambia of some other hardwoods, such as ash and black locust (Fig. 9) have very short fusiform initials, as little as 0.3-0.5 mm. long, and have rather large clusters of ray initials. Irrespective of these differences between species, it is clear that basically the cambium has only two types of cells,3 the fusiform and ray initials, and these two types of cells by tangential divisions produce all the different kinds of cells in wood and bark. But whereas the conducting cells such as the vessel elements in wood which transport water and minerals from roots up the trunk to the leaves, and sieve elements in the bark which transport the photosynthetic products from leaves down the trunk are produced only by the fusiform initials, parenchyma cells are produced by both. Fibres which provide strength to wood and bark are also produced exclusively by the fusiform initials. Besides differing in shape and size and nature of cells - 3 The only exception known is that of Alseuosmia macrophylla and A. pusilla which have been shown to have only fusiform initials in the cambia of their stems (5). 52 Fig. 7 left Tangential longitudinal section of the cambium of birch. Note that the fusiform initials are narrow and elongated whereas the ray initials are short and clustered in groups. The derivatives of ray initials on either side extend as sheets of cells called phloem and xylem rays (Fig. 6, R). Fig. 8 middle Tangential section of the cambium of pine. Fig. 9 right Tangential section of the cambium of black locust. 53 ray initials also differ in frethe fusiform initials dividing far many more times than the ray initials in any one season. What makes these two cells behave differently? As yet we have no explanation. There are vague suggestions of differential pressure and subtle differences at the molecular level but nothing concrete. Under the electron microscope the two types of cells show a basic similarity of structure which explains how the two may be interconverted one into the other but leaves the question why the two behave differently abegging. they produce, the fusiform and quency of tangential divisions - - - 2. The concept of initiating ring: The second noteworthy fea- of new cells internally to the cambial entails a continuous net movement outward for the camring bial initials and the bark tissues, and, furthermore, that the cambial initials show a remarkable degree of synchrony in their ture is that the production of the tangential activity of a single of a growth season. The mature (or part previous years') xylem and phloem are distinguished from the current year's growth and the cambial initial is distinguished from its derivatives. The initial divides and the internal of the cell 1 two cells differentiates as a xylem element; it exand pushes the cambial initial and mature phloem cells pands outwards. The cambial initial divides again, produces xylem derivative 2; derivatives 1 and 2 expand further and the cambial initial and mature phloem cells are pushed still further outwards. The cambial initial divides again but this time the outer of the two cells differentiates as the phloem derivative 1. The cambial initial divides again to produce xylem derivatives 3, 4, phloem derivative 2, and so on. This is, of course, a highly simplified model and does not assume tangential divisions in the young xylem and phloem derivatives. These divisions probably occur 10 is a activity. Figure mock-up fusiform initial over - - at a high rate in a growth season. It should be remembered further that it is not simply one cambial initial that is engaged in this tangential activity. There like soldiers marchare thousands of cells in the cambial ring in a row they are acting in concert, cutting cells toward ing xylem and less frequently toward phloem and as a net result moving outwards. When soldiers march in a row and it is a hot day once in a while one of them pitches forward or backward and his neighbors move in from the sides and close rank. The same thing happens in a row of cambial cells one of them drops out, or - - 10 An entirely hypothetical drawing showing the activity of a single cambial initial over part of a growth season. The mature or previous year's xylem and phloem are indicated by a double line and marginal stippling, respectively. The cambial initial is the cell with the broken line. Numbers indicate the order in which new xylem and phloem cells have been produced. The model does not assume tangential w:~=__ .\".\"I~\" .~~ y~kl~y ~.y:~l.~ ~', ~ rILLVCII4 CLCIILGlLLJ. uIW , ~ Fig. I . - Fig. 11 Loss and addition of cambial initials as seen in cross sections of xylem including the cambial initials, but excluding phloem. Markings are the same as in Fig. 10. The figure on the left dramatizes the loss of an initial by expansion of cells in neighboring rows. The figure on the right is more nearly correct and shows that the loss of an initial may be compensated for by addition of new initials elsewhere in the ring (stippled rows). 55 and the neighbors close in. It is world for the cambial initials; they have to keep competitive dividing or else either pitch forward and mature into a phloem derivative or get left behind and mature into a xylem derivative. In Figure 11, for instance, one of the initials has stopped dividing and the neighbors are shown expanded to fill the vacated space (figure on the left). Actually, this kind of expansion does not take place; instead as shown in the figure on the right, new cambial initials are added to the cambial ring. This dropping out or loss, or as we prefer to call it decline, can be sudden or protracted, but it is obvious that for each initial that declines at least one initial must be added if the cambial ring is to maintain its diameter; more than one if it is to increase in diameter. This leads us into the second type of division the multiplicative (or anticlinal) division that the cambial initials undergo. more accurately stops dividing a - - 3. in Multiplicative divisions : Let us assume that a tree 20 cm. diameter, after 50 years of growth, becomes 200 cm. in diameter, and further that the size of the cambial initials (tangential width) remains constant at 20 ~. Let us further restrict ourselves to fusiform initials. As Figure 12 shows, it can be calculated that the young tree has 10,000 initials in the cambial ring, and this number must be increased to 100,000 when the tree is 200 cm. in diameter, an increase which can be obtained if each initial multiplies a minimum of 9 times over the 50 year period. Actually the initials do increase in size (Table 1) and so the number of necessary multiplicative divisions would be less than 9. Surprisingly, however, in nearly all plants that have been investigated this number is much Table 1. Actual measurements from Pinus strobus. Adapted from Bailey (1). 56 \"\" i iy. ic. c.H~cvocai W ncuao vc vj j uaijw nc ireiiiaia u~e~ u ovthe above manner. Roman growth period can be numerals preceding bifurcations denote multiplicative divisions. For u mc year shown in m uw details see text. at least 2 to 3 times as much (Fig. 13). The excells that are produced either decline completely or bits of them are left in the initial ring by conversion to ray initials. Why should there be such an excessive production of new initials followed by a rejection of a large number of them? The answer to this question is unknown though it seems reasonable to assume that this device enables the cambium to adjust itself to changing conditions of growth and environment. It produces far more cells than it needs and hence can pick those that are wanted and throw out those that are not wanted. Let me explain this by a few examples: a. Eccentric wood : Trees normally grow straight but at times due to wind or snow or competition from neighboring trees they cess greater than 9, 57 Fig. 13 This figure is similar to Figure 12, but shows that the number of multiplicative divisions is much higher than 9 and that the excess initials are lost by decline (lines which terminate somewhere and do not reach the right end) or are converted to ray initials (broken lines). bend in a certain direction. If the tree is sawed, one sees growth rings in the wood that are eccentric rather than concentric (Fig. 14). This figure is further unusual in that it shows that the plane of eccentricity may change with time. In this stem there are at least 3 such planes which are marked by arrows. It should be noted that in the sectors marked by arrows, the cambial initials were not only producing more wood per year, but also there was a larger number of cambial initials than in the sectors on the opposite side. b. Repair mechanism : Another instance of where it is useful to have more cells than are needed is in repair of an injury. If some cells in the cambium and adjacent xylem and phloem are injured, the cambial cells on either side of the injury divide up into smaller cells, each of which behaves as an independent unit; these new initials then elongate, multiply, reject the un- 58 wanted pieces, elongate, multiply, further reject the unwanted pieces, eventually give rise to straight elongated initials in a complete cambial ring. c. Accommodation with parasitic plants : Still another way in which the cambial cells show adaptability is in accommodation with parasitic plants, such as mistletoes (Phoradendron, Arceuthobium ) and dodder (Cuscuta). Seeds of these plants germinate on a host branch and send out haustorial appendages and which grow in the host cortex and send out aerial stems which flower and seed. Tips of some of these appendages also come to rest against the cambial initials which respond by dividing into a number of smaller cells; the latter surround the haustorial appendage and henceforth the cells in the haustorial appendage divide tangentially and keep pace with similar divisions in the cambial initials (7). Thus, at the end of several years, sections of haustorial appendages - now known as sinkers appear buried deep in the host wood and draw water and nutrients from the host xylem (Fig. 15). But the advantage from the host's - Fig. 14 Section of a stem showing eccentric growth rings. 59 Fig. IS Tangential section of wood of hemlock which is infected with dwarfmistletoe. The large xylem rays are occupied by parasitic sinkers. The narrow uniseriate rays represent the normal condition. accommodation is made with the infection is very severe the splitting of wood is avoided and the host is able to survive for a long time. The multiplicative divisions therefore are necessary, not only to maintain the cambial ring and prevent it from bursting because of increasing diameter of the wood cylinder, but they also confer a degree of plasticity on the cambium, which would be absent otherwise. Cambium is hardly the placid tissue that monotonously keeps cutting xylem and phloem cells; it is the seat of active change, of constant multiplicative divisions, of frequent conversions between ray and fusiform initials, and of adjustment to changing conditions of growth and environ- point of view is that parasite and unless the an ment. d. Spiral vs. straight grain: Another phenomenon controlled by multiplicative divisions is that of spiral vs. straight grain wood. In straight grain woods, the fibres are arranged axially in line with the longitudinal axis of the stem, but in spiral grain they are placed at an angle and seem to describe a clockwise or an anticlockwise spiral in relation to the longitudinal axis of the stem. How do the straight and spiral grains arise? They have their basis in the multiplicative divisions in the fusiform initials. 60 In conifers and most hardwoods such as birch, poplar, alder, willow, etc. these divisions are of the pseudotransverse type, such that the new cambial initials are nearly half the length of the original initial (Fig. 16). Subsequently the new initials grow at their tips until they reach the length common to the fusiform initials in that region. During this tip growth they, of course, continue to divide tangentially and produce new xylem and phloem cells. The plane of the new division determines the direction of the subsequent tip growth. Usually the divisions occur in the two planes in about equal frequency, so that on elongation the initials and the xylem and phloem derivatives maintain their more or less vertical orientation (Fig. 17). But at times the divisions occur only in one plane. This phenomenon, combined with subsequent tip growth, results in a skewering of the fusiform initials and their xylem and phloem derivatives, either in a clockwise or an anticlockwise direction. Spiral grain is mainly associated with wood but can be seen in bark if it has lots of fibres (Fig. 18). The environmental factors which cause the pseudotransverse divisions to occur in one plane are still unknown, but records show that the spiral can change direction and become straight. Fig. 16 Pseudotransverse divisions (shown by broken lines in the figure on left) and subsequent tip growth ( direction shown by arrows in the figure on right) in fusiform initials of non- storied cambia. 61 Fig. 17 Straight and spiral grain have their basis in the planes of pseudotransverse divisions and subsequent tip growth of new initials. Fig. 18 Two trees of a conifer species growing side by side in Nara Kyoto, Japan. One shows spiral grain, the other straight grain. near 62 4. Seasonal growth and xylem and phloem production: I have mentioned earlier that in temperate climates the cambium becomes dormant in autumn and is reactivated in spring. The dormancy and reactivation of cambium are very little understood though there is reason to believe that daylength, temperature and relative concentrations of certain plant hormones play a role. With approaching autumn there is a shortening of daylight hours and a fall in temperature. If trees growing outside in the summer are transferred to growth chambers which simulate the daylength and temperature conditions of summer months, the cambium remains active and continues to produce new wood and bark cells. If these trees are then suddenly taken outside they get killed with the first frost. In contrast, the trees in the field become dormant with the onset of fall and then are able to survive very cold temperatures. In some experiments dormant twigs collected in winter were dropped in liquid nitrogen ( -196 C) and on thawing their buds were still able to produce new branches. Just as cambial growth can be extended by appropriate control of daylength and temperature, one can also induce dormancy. In recent years a plant hormone appropriately called dormin (abscissic acid) has been extracted from buds and leaves of plants which were induced to become dormant, and, as expected, external applications of this hormone on growing trees have induced dormancy. The reactivation of cambium in the spring has been related to another class of hormones, the auxins, specifically IAA. It has been suggested that in spring this hormone is present in increasing amounts in the buds and young leaves and then flows downwards, awakening the cambium so to say from its winter sleep by its magical touch (8). That IAA is involved in cambial activation is shown beautifully by a simple experiment. Twigs of poplar, birch, black locust or some other tree are collected in autumn and stored in a cold room (4 C) for a few months. After the cold treatment, which seems to be necessary, they are placed right side up in a small amount of water and their top ends are pasted with lanolin and with lanolin and various hormones individually and in combination. After 3 weeks, sections can be cut to see whether cambium is active and if so whether xylem is being produced, or phloem, or both, and in what proportion. From these experiments it appears that both auxin and gibberellic acid can induce cambial activity but whereas auxin promotes xylem formation, gibberellic acid seems to promote phloem formation (Fig. 19). Fig. 19 Cross sections of stems of poplar. A. from twigs which received only lanolin treatment, B, from twigs which received lanolin and IAA at IOOPp'~, and C. from twigs which received lanolin and GA at IOOPP'\". Note that the cambium (approximate level marked by C) is more active in B, C than in A; note also the f ormation of new xylem elements in B and their lack in C. Photographs are mounted such that the mature (or previous year's xylem is at the same level (Photographs courtesy of Mrs. V. Lai). The ultimate aim of all biology is to understand why a cell does what it does and how it does it. We want to know why fusiform and ray initials are different, why some cambial initials lose out while others persist in the ring, what triggers a cell to become a xylem or a phloem cell, and so on. Basic questions, perhaps of no economic value, but of fundamental importance to biology to which we still have no concrete answers. In an attempt to find answers to these questions, some investigators have tried to culture cambial cells. They have excised the cambial cells from the tree, and grown them in agar or liquid culture under well defined growth and nutritive conditions. But unfortunately, to date, all these attempts have failed for in culture they no longer behave as cambial cells they lose their characteristic shape, become spherical, there are no oriented divisions and there is no oriented production of xylem and phloem (Fig. 20). There is a certain element of mob psychology involved here. Outside their own milieu or deprived of - 64 their particular microenvironment in the tree which may include pressure, oxygen tension, and hormonal balance, these cells no longer behave as cambium. That pressure is involved is shown by some other experiments in which flaps of bark including cambium were lifted (see slippage of bark in Fig. 6), a sheet of polyethylene inserted between the flap and the stem, and measured amounts of pressure applied to the flap. The cells in the flap continued to live; the cambial cells continued to divide and produce oriented xylem and phloem derivatives (4). Fig. 20 Cambial cells in liquid culture. Explants from cambial region of Acer pseudoplatanus. (Slide courtesy of Dr. P. Albersheim.) 65 I have tried to show that the cambial ring outward with increasing diameter of the wood cylinder and that whether or not a cell behaves as a cambial initial depends to a large extent on how well it is able to maintain itself in the initiating ring. I have further tried to show that the cambial cells are in a state of constant flux and are the seat of changes which enable the tree to adjust itself to changing conditions of growth and environment. Finally, I have tried to show that the dormancy and activation of cambium as well as differentiation of the xylem and phloem are at least in part controlled by physical factors such as daylength, temperature, and pressure and relative concentrations of at least three different types of plant hormones - dormin, auxin, and gibberellin. These bits of information on the structure and physiology of cambium whet rather than assuage the curiosity for a greater understanding of this remarkable tissue. Arboreta, being the repositories of trees, have an important role to play in directing and supporting research on cambium. On this one hundredth anniversary of the Arnold Arboretum, I am happy and proud to say that the Arnold Arboretum has fulfilled this role admirably and, hopefully, will continue to do so in the future. To recapitulate moves LALIT M. SRIVASTAVA Professor of Biology Simon Fraser University 66 Literature Cited 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. I. W. 1923. The cambium and its derivative tissues. IV. The increase in girth of the cambium. Amer. J. Bot. 10: 499-509. Bannan, M. W. 1955. The vascular cambium and radial growth in Thuja occidentalis L. Can. J. Bot. 33: 113-138. Bannan, M. W. 1962. The vascular cambium and tree-ring development. In: Tree Growth, pp. 3-21. T. T. Kozlowski (Ed.). N.Y.: Ronald Press. Brown, C. L. 1964. The influence of external pressure on the differentiation of cells and tissues cultured in vitro. In: The Formation of Wood in Forest Trees. pp. 389-404. M. H. Zimmermann (Ed.). N.Y.: Academic Press. Paliwal, G. S., and Srivastava, L. M. 1969. The cambium of Alseuosmia. Phytomorphology 19, 5-8. Srivastava, L. M. 1964. Anatomy, chemistry, and physiology of bark. In: Intnl. Rev. Forestry Res. Vol. 1, pp. 203-277. J. A. Romberger and P. Mikola (Eds.). N.Y.: Academic Press. Srivastava, L. M., and Esau, K. 1961. Relation of dwarfmistletoe (Arceuthobium) to the xylem tissue of conifers. II. Effect of the parasite on the xylem anatomy of the host. Amer. J. Bot. 48: 209-215. Wareing, P. F., Hanney, C. E. A., and Digby, J. 1964. The role of endogenous hormones in cambial activity and xylem differentiation. In: The Formation of Wood in Forest Trees. pp. 323-344. M. H. Zimmermann (Ed.). N.Y.: Academic Press. Bailey, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Wood Collection- What Should Be Its Future?","article_sequence":6,"start_page":67,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24596","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d170a326.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Stern, William L.","article_content":"The Wood CollectionWhat Should Be Its Future? A wood collection maintained for scientific purposes is much the same as an herbarium in that it contains a preserved portion of a plant with associated documentation filed in an organized manner. By and large, wood collections so defined, are maintained by institutions rather than by individuals. There are about 14 wood collections in the United States housed in almost as many institutions. In the entire world there are only 115 institutional collections of wood. Pre-eminent in terms of numbers of specimens is the collection housed at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin where there are about 100,000 woods. Until a few years ago, there were six major collections of wood in the United States: the Samuel James Record Memorial Collection housed at the School of Forestry, Yale University; the Harry Philip Brown Memorial Wood Collection at the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse; the collections at the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago; the collections at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison; the woods at the Smithsonian Institution, Washington; and the woods forming the collections at Harvard University. Today, only four of these collections survive at the founding institutions: the Brown Wood Collection at Syracuse, the Smithsonian collections, the wood collections at Harvard, and those at Madison. The Field and Yale collections have been consolidated with those at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory. The wood collections of the Field Museum in Chicago were among the first collections of any kind at the Museum and they formed the original material of the world-renowned economic botany collections. Following the dismantling of the displays which comprised the World Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893, much of that material was transferred to form the nucleus of the collections at the Field Columbian Museum which was established shortly after the great exposition. The first curator of botany was Dr. Charles F. Millspaugh, a West Vir- 67 68 ginian, who had served on the jury of awards of the World Columbian Exposition. He was responsible in large part for the collections resulting from the Exposition which were left to the newly founded museum. The first exhibit materials of the Department of Botany of the Museum consisted of exotic woods, in the form of boards, remaining from the Exposition. These were put on display in 1894 in what had been the Fine Arts Building of the World Columbian Exposition. Millspaugh augmented the exotic woods derived from the Exposition with native woods from the United States, and some of the earliest collecting activities of the Department of Botany were dedicated toward this end. Millspaugh himself participated in these early expeditions and travelled to the southern states, Louisiana and Mississippi, for example - during the winter, of course. Later, additions to the collections were made through the efforts of Huron H. Smith, a loner, who collected wood specimens with herbarium vouchers from distant parts of the United States, particularly on the West Coast. It was these woods, in the form of boards and tree trunks, and herbarium specimens, which formed the basis for the displays in the Museum's Hall of North American Woods. After his tenure at the Field, Smith accepted a curatorship at the Milwaukee Public Museum. Exotic woods were also gathered for the Museum, notable among which were the collections of Llewelyn Williams from Peru and Acosta-Solis from Ecuador. But, as originally, most of the wood specimens were used primarily as examples of economic products of plants and to serve as bases for displays of useful timbers. Llewelyn Williams had travelled to Yale where he took courses in wood anatomy and identification under the tutelage of Professor Samuel J. Record. Subsequently he returned to the Field Museum where he undertook studies in wood anatomy until the beginning of World War II. Williams' work on the woods of northeastern Peru, published in 1936, resulted in part from these studies and from his field work in Peru. But, Williams' investigations were probably the only research in the comparative anatomy of wood based on the Field collections actually carried out at the Museum. Nevertheless, collections of wood continued to be amassed in the hopes that there would be a fulltime curator of dendrology or a wood anatomist on the staff to organize and direct a viable program of research in wood structure which could be carried out in situ. Those who had charge of the collections over the years Llewelyn Williams, B. E. Dahlgren, John W. Thieret, Theodore Just, Louis O. Wil- 69 liams, mens and research associate Archie Wilson - made the speciavailable for study elsewhere by botanists and others with an interest in studying wood structure, while at the same time they continued a holding operation for the future of the Museum. became apparent that chances of establishing a proon wood study at the Field Museum were remote. Reluctantly, after more than seven decades, the wood collection proper was turned over to the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory in 1971 where it was hoped more use could be made of the specimens than was possible in Chicago. The exhibits of North American timbers are still being maintained in a revitalized and decorative format. This amazing series of cases, containing dioramas and displays on the botanical aspects and economic products of woody plants, constitute the most complete pictorialization of the raw material of our forest resources in any museum today. The wood collection previously housed at the School of Forestry, Yale University, was begun almost coincident with the founding of the School itself and records show that a collection existed in New Haven in 1901. However, this group of specimens was burned in 1903 and the now famous Record Memorial Collection had its origin in 1905. Samuel James Record joined the faculty of the School in 1910 and in 1917 he was appointed Professor of Forest Products. His immense interest in woods sparked several trips to the tropics Guatemala, Honduras, British Honduras - and to many portions of the United States for purposes of observing forest trees and for the collection of wood specimens. It was Record, primarily, who elevated wood collecting from its former status of guesswork and curio gathering to a truly scientific occupation. He insisted that samples of wood be accompanied by determinable herbarium specimens gathered from the same tree and thus associable with described species of plants. These voucher specimens were kept at the Forestry School, adjacent to the woods, where they could be consulted as the need arose. By 1916 a committee of the Yale Corporation voted to recommend for favorable consideration the formation of a department of tropical forestry at the School with appropriate support in terms of finances, faculty, laboratory, museum furniture, and so forth. An important arm of the department was to be the museum and collection of tropical woods begun by Professor Record. In 1928, Record had already assembled the then incredible number of 11,000 specimens of wood, largely from It finally gram based - 70 tropical regions. larger than most time. The size of the Yale collection in 1928 was institutional wood collections of the present Record's success in obtaining wood specimens was not only about through his own activities in the field; he had an enormous correspondence and he must have been a very stimulating and persuasive man. He was able to secure financing from external organizations which he used to provide stipends for botanists and foresters in the field so that they could gather woods for him; he helped many United States and Latin American botanists with their endeavors in the tropics, for example, through modest subventions for the collection of wood specimens. It was Record who helped to support the field work of G. Proctor Cooper in Liberia, Panama, and Costa Rica; of Hugh Curran in Argentina, Brazil, and Venezuela; of Armando Dugand in Colombia; and of Adolpho Ducke in Brazil. By the time Record died in 1945, the collection amounted to over 40,000 specimens, far and away the largest and probably best collection of its kind in the world. Record founded the journal Tropical Woods which was published more or less uninterruptedly from 1925 until 1960. He also wrote the two most important works on the woods and forests of the New World, Timbers of Tropical America in 1924 and Timbers of the New World in 1943. In addition, Record authored several books on the physical and mechanical properties of wood and on the description and idPntifi~~tinn of wood. His research output was voluminous, much of it being published in Tropical Woods. Record established a unique form of exchange with Professor Laurence Chalk, then in charge of the wood collection at the old Imperial Forestry Institute, Oxford University. In return for specimens of wood, Chalk arranged to have permanent microscope slides prepared of them, which were returned to Record. These slides formed the basis of the large collection associated with the woods at Yale. Service was also an important part of the work done in conjunction with the collections at New Haven. Many thousands of specimens were distributed as duplicates on exchange to other collections and as small samples for microtome sectioning and research. Record himself performed wood identifications for lay people as well as for the government and industry, for botanists, anthropologists, and foresters. The collections also formed a basis for studies in the utilization of tropical woods and as demonstration specimens in teaching. brought 71 Following Record's death in 1945, the curatorship was held for a few years by Record's protege, Robert W. Hess. But Hess left Yale to join industry in the early 1950's, and following an interim appointment of the then retired Arthur Koehler, I assumed the responsibilities of the curatorship; teaching and research in wood anatomy and identification, tropical forestry, and microtechnique; editing Tropical Woods; and of the service work which seemed to be received unabated even in 1953 owing to the vast reputation of Samuel Record. The entire program of research in tropical woods and tropical forestry was made possible by the activities surrounding the great collection of woods. It was an integrated program embodying several facets of endeavor: research, teaching, publication, and service. But these activities had only been viable owing to interests and efforts of the curators of the wood collection and not to any great impetus or encouragement from the School or the University. Following my departure from the School of Forestry in 1960, the entire program so ably commenced and overseen with such vigor and excellence by Samuel Record, fell apart. The new wood anatomist had little interest in the tropics and even less in the \"busy work\" of curating woods and editing a scholarly publication. Thus, the collection became remote and difficult to consult, Tropical Woods discontinued publication permanently, and ultimately the administration of the Forestry School, seeing no hope for a future program, transferred the wood collection to the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory in 1969. Wood collections at the New York State College of Forestry, Syracuse, came into being shortly after the arrival of Harry Philip Brown in 1917 or 1918. The exact date of accessioning of the earliest specimens is unknown. Brown used these woods in his teaching of wood identification and in his publication, Atlas of the Commercial Woods of the United States, which appeared in 1928. Many of these early woods were not authenticated, that is, they were not associated with herbarium vouchers. It was Brown himself who made the early collections and others contributed specimens as well: William M. Harlow, Ellwood S. Harrar, and S. B. Detweiler of the U.S. Forest Service. Later specimens were collected with herbarium vouchers which were not, however, housed at the College; rather, they were deposited at the U.S. National Herbarium, in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, and in the herbarium of the New York Botanical Garden. Records of deposition were maintained at the College. 72 In the 1920's, at the request of the British Colonial Office, H. P. Brown visited India to organize a botanical section and laboratory for the study of wood at the Forest Research Institute and Colleges, Dehra Dun. There, Brown had the opportunity to work with and to become familiar with Indian timbers through the famous Gamble Collection. He remained in India for a year and a half and following his return to Syracuse, in 1932 he and R. S. Pearson, published the monumental two-volume work on Indian timbers, Commercial Timbers of India. Besides the use of the Syracuse collections for teaching, considerable service and research in wood anatomy was also carried out: R. A. Cockrell worked on Strychnos and studied woods from Sumatra collected by B. A. Krukoff; E. S. Harrar studied the woods comprising the Queensland (Australia) Forest Service collections; Luis J. Reyes studied Philippine woods and in 1938 produced a volume on Philippine timbers; Kafil. A. Chowdhury worked on Indian woods; and A. J. Panshin's research in anatomy involved collections from West Africa. H. P. Brown attracted many students and there was a very active program in the study of wood structure. At the present time, Professor Carl de Zeeuw is curator while at the same time he teaches courses in wood structure, identification, and utilization. There is still a modest program of incorporation of new specimens and some small amount of research in wood anatomy is carried out. A major effort, at this time. involves the continuing authentication an~l ~rrPCCinnino of wood specimens already on hand, since many woods were received in the past with but little documentation, despite collection by well-known botanists such as Joseph Rock. A word must be inserted here about the program of collecting, known at the New York State College of Forestry as \"Project I\". This project, spearheaded by H. P. Brown, was an attempt to collect wood specimens, ecological and habit data, and herbarium vouchers, from all the woody plants growing within the continental United States. To this end, Brown enlisted the aid of collectors from all parts of the country and in return for duplicate specimens these persons were asked to gather appropriate material from the forest trees native to their parts of the country. Accordingly, botanists, foresters, range and wildlife managers, were \"drafted\" to help with this monumental undertaking. Although at first Brown only admitted woods of commercial or potential commercial use, he later relented and the more recent collections comprise material from all woody plants. The project is still being carried on to a modest degree 73 and to date there are over 850 collections. Duplicate sets of the wood specimens have been distributed far and wide and the herbarium vouchers and associated documentation are deposited in the herbaria mentioned above. The wood collection presently housed at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory at Madison was founded sometime prior to 1910 by Arthur Koehler, the notable \"expert on wood\" at the Lindbergh kidnapping trial in 1935. Woods were then housed in Washington, D.C. before the construction of the present facilities in Madison. Initially, the collections were strictly of native forest trees. In those early days the specimens were used predominantly as comparative material for identification and only secondarily for research, description, and the construction of keys. Present emphasis at the Forest Products Laboratory is much the same as it was in 1910, that is, most of the activities are devoted toward the identification of wood specimens and the maintenance of the wood collections themselves. For example, there are on the average over 1000 inquiries during a typical year and these amount to some 4000 identifications. Arthur Koehler worked closely at the Laboratory with Eloise Gerry, a classmate at Columbia University of the anatomistmorphologist-geneticist, Edmund Sinnott. When Koehler retired, his position was assumed by B. Francis Kukachka, who had been at the Laboratory since 1945, and who is now in charge of the program of service and research associated with the wood collections. The major emphasis at the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory has always been service to the public, largely in the form of identifications. To this end, the Laboratory amassed a collection of specimens of wood, many consisting of pie-shaped radial segments, which numbered about 23,000 speciWith the addition in 1969 of Yale's Record mens in 1967. Memorial Collection of 55,000 specimens and subsequent augmentation in 1971 of the Field specimens comprising 18,000 specimens, the wood collections at the Forest Products Laboratory now number about 100,000 specimens, easily the largest wood collection in the world. With this great and rather precipitous increase, the wood collections, associated staff, and facilities at the Laboratory have been styled by the Director as a \"Center for Wood Anatomy Research\". It is hoped, with this vast increase in physical assets in terms of wood specimens, that there will be additional staff beyond the two permanent staff members now associated with the wood collection to enable an increase in activities, primarily 74 in the field of codifying information on wood structure for incorporation into a program of data processing. Work continues to integrate both the Yale Record collections and the Field collections into the already existing specimens at the Forest Products Laboratory. The herbarium of voucher specimens once housed at Yale is being intercalated among other vouchers already housed at the Forest Products Laboratory. Wood collections at the Smithsonian Institution were originally part of the Division of Arts and Manufactures of the Museum of History and Technology, and it was not until 1960 that they were transferred to the Department of Botany in the Museum of Natural History at the urging of Albert C. Smith, then Director of Natural History. In 1915, when the first wood specimens were catalogued, they were associated with the industrial and manufacturing sections of the Museum. Subsequently, they were stored next to an exhibit hall devoted to the commercial aspects of wood. The first curator, William N. Watkins, had been graduated from the New York State College of Forestry and his primary outlook was that of a wood technologist and expert in wood utilization. Accordingly, he was occupied in the amassing of specimens primarily for use in identification and service to the public. Specimens were made available to botanists and others who required material for their research in wood structure, but Watkins himself, over a tenure of 43 years, did not carry out any research based on the wood specimens. H-s :~ ...~..m. \"G tlie aT. ~iliI.uI.~Uli VVd~ dcwhich held domain above signing the until it was demolished in 1960 at the time of his retirement from government service. The first collections of wood at the Smithsonian were those gathered by the botanist Henri Pittier and they came from forest trees of Panama. All were associated with herbarium vouchers deposited in the U.S. National Herbarium. For a long time, many subsequent accessions were duplicates of those at Yale, and Samuel Record kept the Smithsonian Institution well provided with specimens. In addition, many other excellent collections were catalogued, for example: B. A. Krukoff's Brazilian, West African, and Sumatran material; the Project I set of the New York State College of Forestry; the entire private collection of Archie F. Wilson; collections of Jose Cuatrecasas from Colombia; Llewelyn Williams' Peruvian woods; and my own collections from Panama, the Philippines, Hawaii, and Dominica. In 1960, at the time the collection was transferred to the exhibit hall noted over he 75 Smithsonian Department of Botany, I was appointed curator of the wood collection which then numbered 15,000 specimens. The wood collection became the basis for a Division of Woods (later changed to Division of Plant Anatomy) and an active program of research in wood anatomy was begun. A modest amount of service work in identification was continued. Watkins had accumulated many thousands of duplicate wood specimens over the years and all these were distributed on exchange shortly after the commencement of my tenure. Two other staff members were added in the next several years, Richard H. Eyde and Edward S. Ayensu. When I left the Smithsonian Institution to return to university teaching in 1967, the collection of woods had grown to over 35,000 specimens. Presently, there is little research in wood anatomy per se being carried out in the laboratories at the Smithsonian Institution, but there is still an active program of accessioning and many blocks are sent on request to botanists and others interested in studying comparative wood anatomy. The collections are in excellent condition, carefully catalogued, and readily available to any who need them. The wood collections housed in the Herbarium Building at Harvard University owe their origin in large part to the work of Irving W. Bailey and W. W. Tupper. In conjunction with their early studies on size variations in tracheary cells, Bailey and Tupper were obliged to amass a diverse and sizeable collection of woods upon which to base their observations. This began sometime before 1918 and accretion of specimens has continued until the present time. According to my present information, the woods obtained and used by Bailey and Tupper in their pioneer investigations were not necessarily associated with herbarium vouchers. More recently, of course, most of the accessions have consisted of wood specimens associated with herbarium vouchers many of which are deposited in the Harvard University Herbaria. The principal activities which have centered about the Harvard wood collections have always been predominantly research-oriented. For several decades following 1918 there was a steady stream of what have proved to be the most significant and far-reaching investigations in plant evolution, based upon the study of wood anatomy, ever carried on in any institution. Not only were these investigations carried on personally by I. W. Bailey, but many of the botanists who studied at Harvard University used these specimens as bases for their own researches, both while they were students or fellows at Harvard, and subsequently. Names of these individuals represent some 76 of the luminaries in botany today: Wetmore, Barghoom, Heimsch, A. C. Smith, Carlquist, Tippo, Howard, and Cheadle, and their students of the second generation. The impact of anatomical studies associated with the Harvard wood collections is difficult to assess quantitatively, but it has already had a profound influence on interpretations of plant relationships and phylogeny. No botanist interested in these aspects of study can afford to overlook or casually consider the work of 1. W. Bailey and the Harvard plant anatomists. Service work, although carried on in conjunction with the collections, was indeed second to research and publication, and teaching. It is important to note here, even though his prodigious energies were mainly directed to anatomical research, Bailey was not an intellectual snob who had no real interest in the practical aspects of his profession. For example, with H. A. Spoehr he published on the role of research in the development of forestry in North America in 1929, and a number of his early papers reflected his appreciation of the pragmatic value of woods and forests. Specimens in the Harvard collection resulted from the quests of Bailey and Tupper in the early days, and from the collections of other botanists later on. Once the collection became established, and it was known that this was one of the major repositories for woods to be used in research and teac~'~ing, materials arrived from many sources. Albert C. Smith deposited d DCL V1 111D i`1~1 wuuu JlJGl,1111C11D L11C1C, lUl CXd1111J1C. t1 JCL Ul B. A. Krukoff's Brazilian woods is lodged at Harvard; Llewelyn Williams deposited a set of his Peruvian woods; and there is a set of the Jesup Collection woods of the United States prepared earlier under the supervision of Charles Sprague Sargent. There are groups of woods from various foreign forestry departments, particularly from Borneo and Sarawak. Unlike the Record Collection at Yale, special emphasis at Harvard was given to Asian material. Much of the publication resulting from studies of these woods appeared in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, particularly the later investigations of I. W. Bailey, his students, and co-workers. The Harvard wood collection now numbers somewhat over 25,000 specimens of dried woods. Besides dried wood specimens, the Harvard collections also comprise fluid-preserved specimens and permanent microscope slides containing sections of wood. In a report submitted by Professor Ralph H. Wetmore to Elmer D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, entitled \"Annual Report for the Wood Collection, Biological Laboratories\" 77 1940-1941, there mens, were recorded 9,324 fluid-preserved speci11,857 dried specimens, and 24,382 microscope slides. Since Bailey's retirement and death in 1967, activities both in the accumulation of specimens and in research had declined. Responsibility for the collection has devolved to the present Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Richard A. Howard, and it is through his good offices and personal interest in plant anatomy that specimens are made available to botanists on request for their own researches in comparative plant anatomy. If we examine the present status of the six major wood collections of a few years ago, the first observation to make is that Yale's Record Memorial Collection and the Field Museum Collection no longer exist as such. Secondly, the research, education, and service activities associated with the Brown Memorial Collection, the Smithsonian Institution collections, and the Harvard collections have diminished over what they were a relatively few years ago. This leaves the collections of the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, recently augmented by the additions of wood specimens from Yale and from the Field Museum. But, even here, where the traditional emphasis has been on service, the two-man professional staff is hardly able to care for the many curatorial responsibilities and at the same time to provide necessary service to the public and industry. Naming an institution a \"Center for Wood Anatomy Research\" does not in itself bring one into being. The plain fact of the matter is that wood collections and their associated activities are not being g fully supported by the institutions of which they are a part. There is some argument for a continued consolidation of wood collections, such as has recently taken place at the Forest Products Laboratory, and on the face of it, it seems eminently logical: greater resources in terms of specimens, expanded services and research through increased staff, heightened productivity through enlarged physical facilities laboratories, libraries, workshops, and the like. There are also cogent arguments against consolidation: centralization raises the possibility of control; destruction of all resources through natural or manmade catastrophe is more likely; research carried on in a single institution is more conducive to channelization. All of this is academic wool-gathering when we view today's trends in the upkeep of collections of all kinds, not just wood collections. It is a fact that there is a growing impetus for different types of institutions to transfer their study collections to other institutions, owing not only to lack of funding and the related problem, lack of space, but to a lack of interest on the - 78 to continue the kinds of activities which associated with the collections. I maintain that if the practitioners were deeply interested in the collections and dedicated to using them as bases for service, research, publication, and education, institutions would make adjustments to enable the continued maintenance of the collections for the purposes noted above. Basically, it is lack of involvement with the collections that permits administrators to temporize and to cast greedy eyes on space occupied and monies expended, both of which can always be diverted to other \"more pressing\" needs. The activities which surround wood collections are subject to the same human whims which accompany any other endeavor. What is exciting today fails to excite our followers. There is inherent glamour in new fields of effort and in new methods, despite the fact that older lines of effort and approach are far from being exhausted and yet have much to yield. We seem always to be seeking the untapped vein when present veins are still ripe with unexplored potential. Thus, the halcyon days, when H. P. Brown, S. J. Record, and 1. W. Bailey were pursuing their studies of wood based on their collections, have become attenuated and we find ourselves at a crossroad. We may ask ourselves: what should be the future of wood collections? Do they indeed have a future? Where can they exist and still serve their traditional functions while promoting expansion into new avenues of endeavor? parts of practitioners were once Af thie nnint T mnct or~mit ___ mw tnt~l hioe tn~amrr~ tho m~in___~ _____ __ ___~ ____ ________ _____ r_____ _ ______ _______ ___~ continuation and of wood collections and of wood collections and the continuation and enhancement of scientific activities based upon them. Wood collections represent the only preserved, unadulterated, and uninterpreted sources of facts through which it is possible to study the construction of the axis of the woody plants which clothe much of the surface of the earth. If we were only and exclusively concerned with the maintenance of wood specimens as a record or hedge against the present rapid diminution of our natural resources, I would say this is reason enough to keep these collections as a form of evidence of the natural products of the earth. But, of course, this would be a narrow view; nevertheless, I believe it to be valid and supportable if we but look into the future with an eye on the past. Except where wood collections exist primarily to serve the public need, they have flourished owing predominantly to the interest and dedication of single persons: H. P. Brown, I. W. Bailey, and S. J. Record, for example. What was lacking then and what is lacking now, is institutional appreciation of wood tenance 79 coi~ections and institutional commitment to their maintenance. Admittedly, these are frail requirements, but at least they are superior to the commitments of men who, after all, are shorterlived than institutions. The great museums have the best records for institutional commitment, but as we have seen, even these are not immutable. In the final analysis, then, we can only trust to good faith, the wisdom of administrators and scientists, and chiefly a concern for the future, for the continued existence of wood collections, or for that matter, any other organized collection of natural and cultural products. One may reasonably ask then, where can wood collections and allied activities be supported in the most favorable environment ? I believe the answer to this question depends on the activities which are associated with the wood collection, and not on the collection of woods, as such. I will be frank to admit that service work, in the form of identifications, is a price one pays for being affiliated with any collection. However, unlike the determination of herbarium specimens, bird skins, or mammal pelts, the act of identifying a wood specimen is not a totally satisfying experience, at least not to me. A wood specimen, at best, is only a fragment of an organism and the most accurate identification of the plant from which it was derived really depends on a determination made from a complete herbarium specimen. So, identifying a piece of wood lacks the pleasure attendant upon the identification of a herbarium specimen, and thus the species of plant. It is true that wood identification can be extremely important commercially and forensically, and it is often a major ethnobotanical and paleobotanical tool. But, many of the pieces of wood for which identification is required as a service come from curiosity seekers wanting to know the name of a bit of driftwood picked up on the beach during a summer vacation or uncovered in a garden. There should be a place where this kind of wood collection-associated activity can be carried on, and that place is probably a government-supported agency such as the U.S. Forest Products Laboratory. Indeed, as noted above, service of this kind has been the mainstay of activity in the wood collection at the Forest Products Laboratory, and I believe, as far as wood collections are concerned, that the Laboratory can perform its greatest service to the public and to industry by continuing this type of effort. Scientific research, publication, and education associated with wood collections, I believe are carried out most effectively in the inquisitive and stimulating atmosphere of the university, 80 well apart from directed research and service-oriented drudgery. Ideally, the wood collection should find its most sympathetic support in an institution which has some kind of commitment to the study of trees and other woody plants; that is, an arboretum, botanical garden, a department of botany, or a school of forestry. Thus, we have found in the past, in the United States the most active research in wood anatomy has taken place within the university milieu, at the Yale School of Forestry, at the New York State College of Forestry, and at Harvard University with its Arnold Arboretum and program of study in forest trees. Professor Laurence Chalk's work prospered at the Imperial Forestry Institute at the University of Oxford in England. It is also worth pointing out here that other important programs of research in wood anatomy have been associated with nonuniversity botanical gardens, for example, at the Jodrell Laboratory, Kew, and at such museum-oriented organizations as the Smithsonian Institution. It is up to the staff members of these organizations where there has been a commitment to the study of woody plants and where there is a framework already in existence in terms of a wood collection, to reinvigorate and revitalize research and education in wood anatomy. Lest I am accused of being a wood anatomy bigot, let me hasten to say that I do not believe that studies in wood anatomy can remain viable in a vacuum; rather, they must be integrated with other studies in plant anatomy and with other phases of botanical endenvnr it is incumbent upon individual botanists to dedithemselves to the achievement of commitments from institutions concerning wood collections, their associated activities, and their continued existence and increase. Without sincere, vigorous, and persistent involvement of botanists, the present trend toward consolidation of wood collections will swell concomitantly with attrition in basic scientific research. And all that will remain among the ashes will be the mundane service activities required to provide identifications for the curious public, for government, and for industry. WILLIAM LOUIS STERN Professor of Botany Assuredly, cate University of Maryland "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation","article_sequence":7,"start_page":81,"end_page":96,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24590","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160bb6d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wood Jr., Carroll E.","article_content":"Eastern North American Plants in Cultivation Many indigenous North American plants are in cultivation, but many equally worthy ones are seldom grown. It often appears that familiar native plants are taken for granted, while more exotic ones those with the glamor of coming from somewhere else are more commonly cultivated. Perhaps this is what happens everywhere, but perhaps this attitude is a handme-down from the time when immigrants to the New World brought with them plants that tied them to the Old. At any rate, in the eastern United States some of the most commonly cultivated plants are exotic species such as Forsythia species and hybrids, various species of Ligustrum, Syringa vulgaris, Ilex crenata, Magnolia X soulangiana, Malus species and hybrids, Acer platanoides, Asiatic rhododendrons (both evergreen and deciduous) and their hybrids, Berberis thunbergii, Abelia X grandiflora, Vinca minor, and Pachysandra procumbens, to mention only a few examples. This is not to imply, however, that there are few indigenous plants that have \"made the grade,\" horticulturally speaking, for there are many obvious successes. Some plants, such as Cornus florida, have been adopted immediately and widely, but others, such as Phlox stolonifera 'Blue Ridge' have had to receive an award in Europe before drawing the attention they deserve here, much as American singers used to have to acquire a foreign reputation before being accepted as worthwhile artists. Examples among the widely grown eastern American trees are Tsuga canadensis; Thuja occidentalis; Pinus strobus (and other species); Quercus rubra, Q. palustris, and Q. phellos (the last primarily in the southeastern United States); Acer rubrum, A. saccharinum, A. saccharum, and A. negundo; Gleditsia triacanthos (particularly some of the thornless staminate cultivars); Magnolia grandiflora; and Ulmus americana (certainly one of the most widely planted trees in the northern United States, but one that is severely threatened by the \"Dutch\" elm disease). Cornus florida and Cercis canadensis are, with doubt, two of the most ornamental and widely planted of all eastern Ameri- 81 82 small trees. Among other woody plants can be cited Ilex opaca, Leucothoe fontanesiana, Pieris floribunda (mainly in the North, for it is little planted in the southern Appalachians where it is indigenous), Hydrangea arborescens, Kalmia latifolia, and Campsis radicans. Herbaceous plants include Phlox paniculata, P. subulata, and the annual P. drummondii ( all three in numerous color forms), Phlox divaricata, Aquilegia species and their hybrids, and various species of Tradescantia, Oenothera, Coreopsis, Gaillardia, and Aster. And, of course, some of the plants derived from Mexico, such as Tagetes, Zinnia, Cosmos, and Dahlia, are almost ubiquitous garden plants. But who in the United States would cultivate any of the goldenrods (Solidago species), which are colorful garden plants in England ; or who would plant Rhus typhina as an ornamental shrub, as it is grown in Switzerland; and who would deliberately cultivate Ipomoea in the Southeast, where several species are among the most aggravating garden weeds? All of these are much too familiar. Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs (ed. 2, 1940) includes some 2535 species of woody plants in 486 genera that are in cultivation in one way or another in northeastern North America. Of these, 1047 species in 228 genera are indigenous to the continental United States. Obviously, it is impossible with an allotted time and space to consider even these, much less the herbaceous ones, in any detail. It seems most practicai here to deal pnmanly with plants ot eastern North America (those with which I am most familiar), without meaning to slight the contributions of the western part of the United States and Canada, Meso-America, or the West Indies, all important sources of cultivated ornamental plants. I must also restrict these comments to eastern North American plants as cultivated in the United States without much consideration of those cultivated in other countries. Within this limitation I shall comment briefly on a few of the future potentials of botanical gardens and arboreta in connection with the cultivation of native plants as ornamentals. Some of these ideas are already familiar, but among them may be some that will suggest some directions that are open for work with native plants under can cultivation. Conservation of Species. Certainly it is most desirable to preserve wild populations of each plant species in its own habitat through conservation of whole ecosystems in as many parts of the world as possible. Wild populations and their interactions 83 with other organisms are far better for study, research, and admiration than those in cultivation where only a few individuals can be preserved (and then largely under artificial conditions). It seems likely, however, that in view of the wholesale modification of large areas of the earth some species will survive only in botanical gardens or arboreta, in some instances far removed from the natural distribution of the species. In North America, the most conspicuous and well-known example is Franklinia alatamaha, which was known from a single colony near what was Fort Barrington, in McIntosh County, Georgia. It was last seen in the wild in 1803; nurserymen attempting to fill orders for the plant may have played a crucial role in its disappearance. No other colony has ever been found, and Franklinia now survives only in cultivation. Other rare plants that may meet a similar fate are the handsome redflowered mint Conradina verticillata; the rare Gentiana pennelliana, of western Florida; Lilium iridollae, of the same region ; and Lindera melissifolia, and Kalmia cuneata, two of our shrubs. Other plants endangered by man through his careless introduction of disease-producing organisms include Castanea dentata, formerly one of the dominant trees of the eastern deciduous forest. The chestnut still survives but hardly ever fruits in its native habitat, for the sucker shoots which spring from the roots are usually attacked by the blight organism, Endothia parasitica, before they are large enough to flower. Outside its original eastern American distribution and beyond the reach of the blight, the tree still flourishes, flowers, and fruits under cultivation, as, for example, in northern Michigan and in Portland, Oregon. It seems likely that a similar or even more serious fate may be in store for Ulmus americana, since, as yet, no individuals truly resistant to the disease caused by Ceratocystis ulmi have been found, in contrast to the European elm, Ulmus procera (also affected by the fungus but not so severely), which apparently is making a comeback in Europe. It seems likely that both Castanea dentata and Ulmus americana will survive primarily in botanical gardens and arboreta well removed from the sources of infection. rarest Promotion of Desirable but Seldom Cultivated Plants. In spite of Rehder's inclusion of over a thousand species of trees, shrubs, and woody vines in his Manual, it is evident that many of these are seldom encountered in cultivation outside botanical gardens and arboreta. Botanical and horticultural institutions 84 Franklinia alatamaha. a, branch before flowering, bearing fruit of two preceding years, I\/4; b, bud showing outermost sepal and two bractlets, x 1; c, flower, x l\/z; d, petal with group of stamens attached, x 1 ; e, gynoecium (pistil), x %; f, diagrammatic cross section of ovary, showing two rows of ovules in each locule, x 5; g, capsule from which seeds have been shed - note loculicidal dehiscence above, septicidal dehiscence below, x %; h, seed, the hilum to upper left. (Drawn by the late Dorothy H. Marsh from specimens cultivated at the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research and the Arnold Arboretum. Illustration prepared for a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, a project made possible through the support of the National Science Foundation [currently through Grant GB-6459X, C. E. Wood, Jr., principal investigator]. ) x 85 should make special efforts to bring knowledge of such neglected plants to the horticultural public and to promote their cultivation, for there are many worthwhile ornamental plants that fall into this category. Among these are the witch-hazels, Hamamelis virginiana (fall flowering) and H. vernalis (winter or spring flowering and in shades of deep red to yellow); Cladrastis lutea, yellow-wood, notable for its Wisteria-like clusters of white flowers in early summer; our only ericaceous tree, Oxydendrum arboreum, sourwood, outstanding in its panicles of small white flowers in summer and brilliant coloration in autumn; Ilex longipes and 1. decidua, two handsome deciduous hollies; Neviusia alabamensis, a rare rosaceous shrub with flowers lacking petals but with showy white stamens; Fothergilla major, an apetalous relative of Hamamelis with conspicuous stamens and leaves with brilliant red and yellow autumn color; the brilliantly colored Rhododendron speciosum, R. cumberlandense, R. prunifolium, and R. baheri; the white- or pink-flowered R. atlanticum and R. canescens; R. minus, the Piedmont counterpart of the more frequently grown R. carolinianum; the pink-shell azalea, R. vaseyi; the deciduous magnolias, such as M. macrophylla, M. ashei, M. cordata (particularly the yellow-flowered forms), and the pair of close relatives, M. fraseri and M. pyramidata ; the red-flowered Aesculus pavia and the shrubby Ae. parviflora with its candle-like racemes of white flowers; the silverbell trees, Halesia diptera (particularly the showy var. magniflora), H. parviflora, and the very variable H. carolina (including H. monticola) ; Lonicera flava and the more frequently cultivated coral honeysuckle, L. sempervirens; the shadblows or shad-bushes, Amelanchier arborea, A. canadensis, the dwarf A. stolonifera and A. obovata, and other species; Yucca glauca, some forms of which are hardy far beyond its natural distribution ; Ungnadia speciosa, of the Sapindaceae, a pink-flowered shrub known as Texas buckeye that has proved to be hardy as far north as Gladwyne, Pennsylvania; Pinckneya bracteata, notable for the one or two pink enlarged sepals of each flower; Cyrilla racemiflora, mentioned below; Leucothoe racemosa and L. recurvata and Clethra alni f olia and C. acuminata, of the Ericaceae, two vicarious Coastal Plain-montane species pairs; Elliottia racemosa with its racemes of white flowers; Zenobia pulverulenta, with its bell-shaped white flowers and leaves either whitened or green below; Stewartia ovata and the equally showy but much less hardy S. malacodendron; Styrax americana and S. grandifolia; various species of Vaccinium and Gaylussacia; and a host of herbaceous species, among which are Amsonia 86 Hamamelis vernalis. Photo: J. Henry. 87 Top left: Rhododendron speciosum right: Halesia monticola Bottom left: Zenobia right: Ilex longipes Photos: J. pulverulenta Henry 88 species, Baptisia sphaerocarpa, Ipomopsis rubra, Phlox bifida, Camassia scilloides, Zephyranthes atamasco, Hymenocallis species, Hesperaloe parviflora (the red-flowered yucca, from central Texas but perfectly hardy at Gladwyne), various species of Clematis, and the gray-leaved Senecio antenariifolius and the showy yellow-flowered Eriogonum allenii, both endemics of the Virginia and West Virginia shale barrens that flourish in open, dry situations as long as they are not shaded out by surrounding plants. The list could go on and on. Selection of Unusual Forms from Wild Populations. A reservoir that still has an enormous horticultural potential is the natural variability of wild populations. The late Mrs. J. Norman Henry brought together over a period of years a remarkable collection of native plants, especially from the southern and southwestern United States. These she grew (most far to the north of their native habitats) at Gladwyne (near Philadelphia), Pennsylvania, where they and others are maintained for study and distribution by the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, which she established. In the course of her extensive field work she brought into cultivation most of the species mentioned in the preceding paragraph and also made many interesting selections that deserve to be known better. These include intense color forms of Rhododendron speciosum, R. cumberlandense, R. bakeri, and R. austrinum ; a hose-in-hose form of R. alabamense; a vellow-fruited form of llvr ~Tv~;~n ~ ~ fc_~ ~F - I. lw~\"r that has maroon fruits until winter when they become black, as in the kind usually seen; Phlox nivalis 'Gladwyne' and 'Azure', P. carolina 'Chattahoochee', P. stolonifera 'Blue Ridge'; handsome natural hybrids of Aesculus pavia with Ae. sylvatica and with Ae. glabra; a red-flowered form of the cross-vine, Bignonia (Anisostichus ) capreolata; a number of color variants of Lilium superbum and L. canadense; a beautiful late-flowering Robinia, a small tree with densely gray-pubescent leaves and compact drooping racemes of pink flowers, distinctive enough to be given specific rank, except that it appears to be a natural sterile hybrid of unknown parentage; a pale orange-flowered Campsis radicans; a startling number of puzzling variants of eastern American Yucca; and several variants of Calycanthus floridus, including a green-flowered one - all valuable additions to horticulture. Still other examples are seen in the numerous cultivars that have been selected from wild populations of Ilex opaca. Currently Mr. and Mrs. Don Smith, of the Watnong Nursery, New , 89 have been bringing into cultivation a number of excellent forms of Gaylussacia brachycera and of Leiophyllum buxifolium. Further examples are among the cultivars recently registered at the Arnold Arboretum (Arnoldia 30: 251. 1970): Cercis canadensis 'Royal White' (larger white flowers than usual in form alba) and 'Silver Cloud' (variegated leaves), Cornus stolonifera 'Isanti' (dense, compact growth), Liriodendron tulipifera 'Ardis' (miniature in leaf and growth), and Tsuga canadensis 'Watnong Star' (dwarf, the new growth very pale at Jersey, first). Acer rubrum, with its great variability in intensity of flower and fruit color, as well as in autumn coloration; Robinia, which hybridizes extensively in the southern Appalachians producing a wide variety of attractive clones that vary in height of plant and size and color of flower; the polymorphic Vaccinium stamineum and its relatives, a taxonomic nightmare, but with much variation that can be of horticultural interest; and Magnolia grandiflora, with its variable flower size, color of new foliage, pubescence of the underside of the leaves, and stature (including dwarf forms), are all taxa that could yield desirable cultivars. A slightly different sort of selection that can be tried with other plants is seen in Burpee's 'Gloriosa Daisy', which is an artificial tetraploid derived from color forms of the common and widespread black-eyed susan. By selecting forms that are \"double-flowered\" or have the inner half of each ray floret brown instead of orange-yellow and then doubling the chromosome number by treatment with colchicine, Burpee's plant breeders produced a much more vigorous, much larger flowered plant that is more showy than and far superior to the wild Rudbeckia serotina. One wonders how other members of the Aster Family, e.g., Gaillardia, with its polymorphic corolla forms and colors, or members of several other families might respond to similar treatment. Still another type of selection is going on at the Arnold Arboretum, where Mr. A. J. Fordham is growing seedlings from cones on \"witches' brooms\" from various conifers. Each witches' broom represents a genetic mutation that has occurred on a growing branch of a tree, the resulting growth having a compact, bushy, stunted, or dwarfed appearance. Seedlings from cones produced on branches of this type yield about half \"normal\" individuals and half variously dwarfed ones. Selections from the latter group provide slow-growing genetically dwarf plants that are useful for bonsai, or in rock gardens or other Magnolia ashei. Photo: J. Henry. places where a low, slow-growing plant is desirable. (See Bonsai Bull. 6: 6-11. Fall 1968; 6: 9-14. Winter 1968-69.) Selection of Ecotypes. Still another type of selection from wild populations that botanical gardens and arboreta should continue is the search for physiological variants or ecotypes suited to various climatic extremes, e.g., for hardiness in northern areas, or to various soil types. In this connection, it is always necessary to remember that one can be quite mistaken in prejudging the physiological potentials of any plant. Thus, although Franklinia alatamaha came from the warm climate of the Coastal Plain of Georgia, it is hardy as far north as Boston; and there has been for many years on Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum a plant of Cyrilla racemiflara, a species that is not found in the wild north of southeastern Virginia. One can surmise, however, from what is already known of the ecotypic variation in plant species, that, in any wide-ranging species, the 91 individuals comprising populations in various parts of its range will be genetically (hence, physiologically) adapted to various climatic extremes, as well as to various soil types, and selections can be made accordingly. Many of the woodland plants of eastern North America have very broad distributions: a very commonly encountered one extends roughly from Quebec, west to Minnesota or southern Saskatchewan, and south to eastern Texas and to Florida. Among the populations of a species distributed so broadly, it is likely that there is a considerable amount of ecotypic differentiation and that the more northern populations consist of individuals more tolerant of cold than those of the more southern ones. Search for various ecotypes suited to special environments should produce some interesting results. Wright, for instance, almost thirty years ago (Jour. Forestry 42: 489-495, 591-597. 1944) demonstrated differences in resistance to cold in white and in red ash, Fraxinus americana and F. pennsylvanica; and ecotypic variation in response to day-length has been found in species of Populus, Pinus, and Alnus, among others. Certainly the northern populations of white pine, Pinus strobus, should prove to be physiologically, if not morphologically, quite different from those in southern Mexico, and the arborvitae, Thuja occidentalis, of northern bogs must be physiologically different from the plants of this species that grow on dry limestone cliffs in Virginia. Indeed, J. R. Habeck (Ecology 39: 457-468. 1958) has found evidence of ecotypic differentiation between populations of Thuja that grow in poorly drained swamps and those on well-drained upland sites in Wisconsin. As noted previously, Cornus florida is very widely cultivated, but its western counterpart, C. nuttallii, with six pointed bracts instead of four notched ones, has repeatedly proved to be too tender to survive the winter of the eastern United States. However, at Boyd's Nurseries, McMinnville, Tennessee, after twenty years of trials, a single seedling that has withstood -190 F., was found and this plant has now been propagated and is available commercially. Within the range of C. nuttallii, from southwestern British Columbia, to western Washington and Oregon, and southward in the Sierra Nevada and in the Coast Ranges of California, there must be other climatic ecotypes that would be suitable in the East. Disjunct populations of this species in central western Idaho offer particularly intriguing possibilities. As a result of many attempts to grow southern plants at Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, Mrs. Henry evolved the general principle that the hardiest forms of species that grow on the Atlantic 92 and Gulf Coastal plains and in the Mississippi Embayment of the Coastal Plain are to be found in the Embayment area, where the climate is more continental (hence more rigorous) and plants are subjected to more sudden changes in temperature than on the Coastal Plain of the southeastern United States. This principle leads to the suspicion (expectation?) that hardier forms of a plant such as Styrax americana, which at Boston is killed back each winter, can be found in the northernmost part of its range in the Mississippi Embayment, in the case of the Styrax the part that lies in southeastern Missouri, western Kentucky, southern Illinois, Indiana, and Ohio. Edaphic or soil ecotypes are also to be sought. Five very striking examples are found in shrubby races of Quercus chrysolepis, Quercus garryana, Lithocarpus densiflora, Chrysolepis (Castanopsis) chrysophylla, and Umbellularia californica that were reported from the Siskyou Mountains of southern Oregon and northern California by Whitaker (Ecol. Monogr. 1960). These forms are genetically dwarf and are adapted to growth in soils derived from serpentine, a mineral high in magnesium, while their arborescent counterparts are not. If these dwarfed races are like other plants adapted to serpentine soils, they will grow even better in richer soils, while retaining their dwarf character, and all five have interesting horticultural potentials as shrubs and even as bonsai subjects. Search should also be made for species and ecotypes that are W .O1DL0.11L LV Qll ~rviiuiiull ii1 CiiieS, aicmougm, hopetully, steps are being taken to reduce this. Some plants are known to be very sensitive, others are more resistant, but I do not know whether a real search has been made for especially smog-resistant plants. crosses of native American plants in arboreta are far from new, but there are still enormous untouched potentials, as in the genus Rhododendron. The 'Ghent' and 'Exbury' azaleas are spectacular examples of complex hybrids that involve eastern American species of Rhododendron, but there are many other possibilities among the dozen or so species of section Pentanthera that occur in eastern North America. At Gladwyne, Mrs. Henry saw the desirability of extending the flowering period of azaleas into midsummer or later, and in 1953 described R. X gladwynense, the hybrid (made in 1944) between the two latest flowering species, R. prunifolium, with large, brilliant red flowers, and R. serrulatum, with small white flowers. At Gladwyne, the hybrids bloom from mid-July to mid-August, or later, and have proved to 30: 299. Hybridization. Both spontaneous and controlled Stewartia malachodendron. Photo: J. Henry. 94 be quite hardy. Mrs. Henry later crossed R. X gladwynense with the earlier-flowering R. arborescens and made a number of other beautiful hybrids. Fred C. Galle, at the Ida Cason Calloway Gardens, Pine Mountain, Georgia, and Henry T. Skinner, of the U.S. National Arboretum, are currently producing a series of hybrids involving these and other American azaleas. The use of American species as a source of hardiness in hybrids is well known, as with Rhododendron catawbiense, which has provided the hardy genetic background of many red-flowered hybrid rhododendrons, or as with the white-flowered Nymphaea odorata in crosses with tenderer species of Nymphaea with colorful flowers. Such work could well be extended to other genera. Crosses between Hydrangea arborescens and its closest relative, the less hardy blue-flowered H. aspera, of Japan, might produce interesting results, as might the hybridization of Aesculus pavia with Ae. turbinata, of Japan, or other species, such as Ae. parviflora, which is placed in a section of its own. (The handsome pink-flowered Ae. carnea is a tetraploid that originated through hybridization of Ae. pavia and Ae. hippocastanum, which belong to different sections.) It would also be interesting to see what results could be obtained in crosses between Ceanothus americanus or C. sanguineus and some of the blue-flowered western American species that are not adapted to the climate of the eastern United States. _ _~ ~.\" \", ~.. ~\",,.~~,.~~ o, ~~u~~~c c~uB~. Fimiiy, ~iiere is much to be learned about many aspects of the cultivation of native ornamental plants. The seed-germination requirements of many of the tree species are well known, but those of many shrubs and of the majority of herbaceous plants have received relatively little attention. There are also numerous problems in connection with the vegetative propagation of native plants. Difficulties in rooting cuttings of American azaleas (Rhododendron sect. Pentanthera) worked against the propagation and wide horticultural use of these beautiful plants until the discoveries that cuttings should be taken early in the growing season when the new shoots are just beginning to become woody and that root-suckers can also be taken made the rooting of cuttings a routine matter (see A. J. Fordham, Quart. Bull. Amer. Rhododendron Soc. 23: 162-165. 1969). The further discovery that Elliottia racemosa will produce root-suckers that can easily be rooted has eased the difficulty of propagating that beautiful ericaceous endemic of Georgia (see Fordham, Amoldia 29(3): 17-20. 1969). Yet, plants such as Nyssa sylvatica and Sassafras 95 Elliottia racemosa. Photo: ]. Henry. each of which suckers from the roots but is difficult propagate vegetatively or to transplant, offer further problems. to albidum, These examples suggest some of the possibilities that workers botanical gardens and arboreta can find in native eastern American plants, both in and out of cultivation. Aside from these considerations, however, but basic to all that has been said, is the question of why anyone should bother to cultivate non-food plants at all. I think that the answer lies in the satisfyat 96 ing connection that plants make with the natural world around us, for there is every indication that man needs to keep in contact with the living world in which he evolved. With ever- increasing urbanization and with the profound changes man is bringing to his environment, cultivated plants are more important than ever in bringing a sense of appreciation for and a sense of the value of the remarkable organisms that inhabit the earth. Man removed to an artificial world would be a sorry animal indeed. Botanical gardens and arboreta have a critical role to play in maintaining and developing a real appreciation for the natural world and our proper place in it. CARROLL E. WOOD, JR. Professor of Biology and Curator of the Arnold Arboretum Harvard University "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The History of Ornamental Horticulture in America","article_sequence":8,"start_page":97,"end_page":112,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24595","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160896d.jpg","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"The History of Ornamental Horticulture in America Horticulture is the art or science of growing flowers, fruits and vegetables. At one time in the early history of this country it was not differentiated from agriculture, but now, as has been the tendency in many other areas, specialization in the study and use of plants has resulted in the field of horticulture itself being divided into several sub-divisions; namely, pomology, olericulture, floriculture, ornamental horticulture and viticulture. Today there is a fascinating potential for arboreta and botanical gardens in the field of ornamental horticulture. Ever since colonial days, the economic phases of horticulture have been given prime attention. The early colonists had to grow the vegetables and fruit trees in order to provide food. As more and more plants were established, more interest was taken in new and higher yielding varieties, then in better ways to grow these varieties and to control pests which began to infest them. Near the end of the last century, public institutions supported by federal and state tax income took up intensified experimentation in pomology and olericulture, and later viticulture and floriculture. Many excellent local state and federal stations of experimentation were established, not only to better the quality of the food produced, but also to improve the methods of producing it. Ornamental horticulture has been a late comer in all this experimentation, and until recently the emphasis has always been on the economic phases of growing plants. This is probably as it should be. At first large estate owners would collect a lengthy list of varieties of apples, or peaches, but usually the owner did not have suitable scientific background for gaining the most information from such collections. It was frequently a personal hobby, and when he lost interest, or finances became tight, the collection was removed. Great collections of apple, pear, grape and peach varieties have now been made at our state and federal experiment stations where there is impartial experimentation by trained scientific observers. In general, little 97 98 given to the ornamental plants that we now consider so essential to beautify the world within which we live. It is here that the arboreta and botanical gardens have their opportunities. They have the large collections of all kinds of plants, those of only botanical interest and those of purely ornamental interest. The experiment stations cannot give such collections space nor proper care. On the other hand, the arboreta and botanical gardens do not have space for large collections of economically important varieties of fruits and vegetables. Hence as far as horticulture is concerned, our interest is best confined to the ornamental aspects of horticulture. Certainly we who have had to do with arboreta and botanical gardens are far better endowed to deal with the problems which this field presents and let the government experiment stations deal with the economic fruits and vegetables. When the early settlers first came to America, they were primarily interested in hewing a home from the forest primeval. They brought many seeds and even plants of the fruits, vegetables, herbs and flowers that they were accustomed to in their European environment. The peach, for instance, was brought by the early Spanish explorers, and in the early history of Georgia and Alabama the Indians were known to have grown many different kinds of peaches (all seedlings) which they would use in barter. Those settlers with large land grants in Virginia were first interestedin b~C~~~~y and ~ciiiy a~ iIlUCn COLLOn, tObaCCO, or indigo as they could. It was not until this was accomplished that they began to have more leisure and take the time to plant flowers, trees and shrubs for ornament. The earliest writings about plants in America were those by physicians who were interested in herb collections, for medicinal purposes, or by naturalists who were interested in exploiting the plants of the New World. Prior to 1750 there were the excellent plantings of the gardens of colonial Williamsburg, where living had reached a luxurious level. Many of the plants used here were American natives as well as those brought over from England. It was not until about 1770 that we have the first treatise on American flower gardens written by a Mrs. Martha Logan of Charleston, S.C. The first American book on gardening was by Robert Squibb, the Gardener's Kalender published in Charleston, S.C. in 1787. However, things were happening elsewhere as people found more and more leisure to plant ornamentals. John Bartram's garden was established in Philadelphia in 1728 and although the economic side of horticulture was his prime motive, never- attention has been 99 theless his garden held great interest for land owners of estates who soon became his customers. After the fighting of the Revolutionary War was over, George Washington himself set a splendid example by settling down at Mount Vernon and planting his gardens. Thomas Jefferson was also a garden enthusiast and made no bones about where his interests were. He is generally given credit for sowing seeds of Cytisus scoparius along the roadsides of Virginia whenever he had to take a trip somewhere, and it may well be that naturalized stands of this European plant now found in Virginia were the results of his efforts. Land owners in New England were becoming more and more interested in ornamental gardening, for here some who had large collections of apple or pear varieties soon took up a new interest in ornamentals. If any specific time can be designated as the period when horticulture began to emerge as distinct from agriculture, it might be in the early 1800's. Grant Thoburn established the first seed store and florist shop in New York in 1802 while Bernard M'Mahon established his in Philadelphia in 1806. Joseph Breck established his in Boston in 1818. M'Mahon listed over 1000 different kinds of plants and seeds, many of them among the best of European importations. Interest was such in New England that the Cambridge Botanic Garden was established in 1808 and this naturally became a source of great interest to plantsmen of the area. Many nurWilliam serymen started into business at about this time Prince in 1837. The nursery eventually was to be owned by three generations of the family. William Prince was so interested in obtaining new plants for his customers that he wrote a form letter, in the 1820's, to sea captains asking their assistance in bringing back to him small amounts of seeds or bulbs of plants native about the ports they visited. Parson's Nursery was established in 1838 on Long Island, not far away from the Prince Nursery. Such nurseries, and many others did much to make it possible for home owners to obtain new ornamental - plants. The founding of the Massachusetts Horticultural 1829, and of the Pennsylvania Horticultural Society Society in in Philadel- phia shortly before, were two events which gave ornamental horticulture a greater impetus than anything else. It was through the \"exhibitions\" produced by these Societies that many of the ornamental plants first became known to the public. Even at the first exhibition, staged by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, prizes were given for the best American holly, Magnolia 100 Rhododendron maximum, and Kalmia latifolia, all of native plants, as well as for tulips, Chinese chrysanthemums, hyacinths, carnations and roses. In 1830, there were 30 varieties of Ranunculus asiaticus displayed; a little later, large collections of dahlias, but the emphasis at those early exhibitions was always on fruits. The first exhibit of Indian azaleas was in 1835. It is interesting to note in the history of the Society that even in 1841 ladies were not admitted to the dinners of the organization, for \"if they were, wine could not be\". In 1830 there was a great discussion against giving any lady horticultural honors for it was said that women in the garden had brought trouble since the time of Adam. No lady read a paper before the Society until 1880. However, there were indications of a change in perspective for one report read after the Committee on visiting gardens had found a Mrs. Fay at work in her garden \"what a pity that so few ladies of our land imitate her example, inhaling the fresh breath of the young day and the envigorating aroma of the freshly turned earth, planting the roses of health in their cheeks and nurturing the germs of health and strength and buoyancy of spirit\". In an exhibition staged in 1845 it was noted that there were 33 bouquets of flowers from 8 contributors, and later President Wilder of the Society was moved to note an improvement in the exhibited. \"arrangement\" of the flowers____ __W What would these \"ar_1` W aL_.__L~ L..___ m i~i.io~ mavc a.ucuSW ai uicy cVUiu 110.VG JGGli JU111G VL Utl1 modem flower shows? By 1850 there were indications of greater interest in ornamentals than in fruits and vegetables, for in that year the Society allotted $650. in prizes for flowers, $450. for fruits and $150. for vegetables. Usually however the displays of fruits and vegetables eclipsed those of flowers. In 1856 there was a display of 40 varieties of fuchsias, underwriting the fact that by this time many a New England estate owner also had his own greenhouse. Andrew Faneuil built the first, on Tremont Street between Pemberton and Beacon, in 1715. Mr. H. H. Hunnewell of Wellesley was a great grower of rhododendrons, and a staunch supporter of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society as well. He underwrote a large display of rhododendrons (under canvas) on the Boston Common in 1873 and this was the first time so many people had been able to see such magnificent plants in full bloom. This, and the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia (1876) where 1500 rhododendrons were exhibited by Waterer's Nursery of England were chiefly re- glauca, which were - 1_ __ -- - -- r 101 0 x 0 x 0 ts 0 C< m ~H cE O U m m 3 N U 102 Kalmia latifolia. Photo: D. Wyman. 103 for bringing these supposedly hard-to-grow shrubs to the attention of the general public. There had been large collections of plants, privately owned, where the public was invited on occasion, like the collection owned by Pierre S. du Pont at Kennett Square, Pa., later to be opened and called Longwood Gardens in 1937. Then there was Shaw's Garden in St. Louis, Mo., later to be called the Missouri Botanical Garden, and the Hunnewell estate in Wellesley, Mass., later to be known as the Walter Hunnewell Arboretum. Among the first large truly public collections to be established were the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, Mass., established in 1872; the Beal Garfield Botanic Garden on the campus of the Michigan State University in East Lansing, Michigan (1873); the Bayard Cutting Arboretum on Long Island, N.Y. (1887); HighlandDurand Eastman Park, Rochester, N.Y. (1890); and the New York Botanical Garden in New York City (1891). After these there were over a hundred others spread about the country, each one open to the public, each one displaying chiefly ornamental plants growing in the open. There is no question but what these have had a permanent effect in creating enthusiasm for ornamental horticulture by the general public. Most of these collections were started in a small way, but as funds became available more and more plants were added and the institutions concerned began using various means of presenting ornamental horticultural information to the public. Another tremendous impetus given ornamental planting was the great influx of new plants from the Orient, chiefly as a result of exploration initiated by the Arnold Arboretum. These colorful introductions spread over nearly half a century have reached practically every garden in America. It is of interest to note that in gardens and landscape plantings of a general nature in the northern United States, half of the plants used are of oriental origin, a quarter are native to Europe and only a quarter are native to America. The colorful and exotic Japanese crab apples and cherries, tree peonies, azaleas and rhododendrons make any garden interesting. It was during this same period that the nursery industry grew tremendously. New nurseries were formed in every state of the Union. Many an old established nursery found that it was more profitable to grow ornamental plants than it was to grow fruits. Vegetable sources were of course specialized seedsmen, but since 1920 there have been fewer and fewer nurserymen growing fruit trees. Julius Sterling Morton (1832-1902) certainly should be men- sponsible 104 tioned as one individual who greatly aided ornamental horticulture. He conceived the idea of Arbor Day and was responsible for establishing the first one in 1872 in Nebraska, when over 1,000,000 trees were planted in that state alone. True it was at first that in the prairie states fruit trees were first thought of, but the idea quickly carried over to the planting of any ornamental tree, and now the day is celebrated nationwide with tree planting ceremonies, with ornamental trees far outnumbering the fruit trees planted. It might be said that ornamental horticulture really came into its own at the start of the 20th century. By this time there were at least nine active state horticultural societies only two of which were in the mid-west, the others in the east. There were magazines featuring articles dealing with ornamental planting. Some of the great parks like Central Park in New York City (1858) and Durand Eastman Park in Rochester, New York (1890), had been popular places for visitors and this of course was bound to bring ornamental planting to the attention of the general public. Some state Experiment Stations were in operation; others were soon to follow. The 20th century was a time for the rapid expansion of single plant societies, over 50 of them in all. These were national organizations with annual meetings, dues and usually a publication, devoted to the study, discussion and improvement of one special flower. The American Carnation Society ....-: j' ...,.~~ ! 1 Q1191 and the A,m,n,.;r. ,, Do.. e.~~.j ~ ~ z ~__ ----- , ~y~w c~c YW uauiy the first established. However, others have been coming into existence ever since and only last year the International Lilac Society was formed. Some are lacking in finances and general public interest at first, but their very formation shows that people are interested in these ornamental flowers and are willing to grow them and to take up their study and improvement as a __ ___ , _ __-_ __...\"... a vv special hobby. By this time, the ladies have long been prominent in ornamental horticulture and in fact have actually taken over much of the garden planning and work. Their general interest in growing their own flowers, in color combinations and the exquisite effects they could obtain in the arranging of flowers have all been factors. The first garden clubs were probably a coming together of men and women interested in growing ornamentals in the garden. Soon however, the whole garden club idea was taken over by the ladies and it has been possibly the greatest factor in bringing interest in ornamental horticulture to what 105 today. One organization alone today has 387,700 members, mostly women. Their interests vary greatly from gardening, to flower arranging, to planting their communities, to conservation, to producing flower shows and awarding scholarships to deserving youngsters for college study. The majority of the gardeners in America are now closely associated with the garden club movement. Either the garden owner is a member or certainly she has friends who are. When national movements are undertaken by these well organized and very well informed groups, the majority of the gardeners in America at least are cognizant of what is going on and many find they are participating, willy nilly! More important is the fact that it is through these energetic people that advances in ornamental horticulture are quickly undertaken. With modern travel, radio, TV and newspapers what they are, new plants are soon heard about, new horticultural procedures are quickly passed along and enthusiasms for new and worthy projects are quickly publicized. A century ago such information was hard to come by. Today it might seem with all our horticultural publications that we are overwhelmed with too much information, but the growing of ornamental plants is a very popular project of every garden owner in America. It should be pointed out that competition among the amateur growers is still as much an incentive as it always was - to grow the biggest or best or newest flower, then to be rewarded for it at some show or exhibition. The garden club movement naturally fosters this idea. Ornamental horticulture has come a long way since the start of the nineteenth century. It is no longer an asset of the rich. It has become an important part of the lives of most Americans, even those apartment dwellers in the hearts of our large cities. Many individuals are now being trained to take a major part in this field. There are at present over 60 national horticultural organizations devoted chiefly to the ornamental phases of horticulture, about 50 single flower societies, 41 libraries featuring information on ornamental horticulture and 78 institutions of higher learning offering bachelor's degrees in ornamental horticulture. There are nearly 500 gardens, experiment stations or institutions where special information can be obtained concerning the growing, care and propagation of ornamentals. Canada, because of its less populated areas, has not proceeded as fast as the United it is 106 States in these respects, but Ontario has set an excellent example with its government organized and subsidized horticultural societies, underlining the great importance of ornamental horticulture in this fast developing country. The first gardens were of herbs because of necessity. Then the early settlers added a few plants popular in Europe, adding more of those native to America. Later there was a mixture of almost anything that was new or took a gardener's fancy. Methods of growing were passed around at first by word of mouth, then information was found in articles by experienced \"growers\" but not until the Hatch Act (1887) and the formation of state Experiment Stations, was there much scientific knowledge available to help amateur growers. Before this the best practices were those which apparently produced the best results. Interests and needs changed. With the planting of great municipal public parks there was a great popularity among the rich growers for bedding plants. Only the city park systems, or those rich enough to have greenhouses and employ a gardener, could have a large geometric planting of bedding plants, for geometric designs in gardens were popular everywhere at the end of the last century. Because of all the large estates and the fact that many Asiatic plants had not become commercially available, at the end of the last century there was a great demand for tall and fast growing trees. Some of these were Aesculus hippocastanum, Catalpa hi~nirdrrirlae Ailnntl??~c n1+~ee?,vnn_ Pn~,_l,:c ,=;~rn ~nl_., D~~~w and two small weepers, Ulmus glabra abies, Salix 'Camperdownii' and Morus alba `Pendula'. Now, although some of these are still grown, none of them is in the popular class. They are superseded by smaller trees such as the oriental flowering crab apples and cherries, as well as dogwoods and magnolias. There have been times when \"fads\" seemed to capture the fancy of everyone. Morus alba multicaulis in 1824 was called the \"silkworm\" mulberry and everyone wanted to get in on the ground floor of a new industry. At the height of this craze, when thousands of trees were raised, seedling trees that normally would sell for fifty cents were bringing ten times this amount. The project as we know now proved futile, and now it is impossible to buy a single plant of this variety from a commercial nursery in the United States. Morus alba 'Pendula' which Hick's Nurseries of Long Island termed \"the plant of the century' in the 1890's, soon became over-planted, and few are ~babylonica seen today. Above: Aesculus hippocastanum Right: Catalpa bignonioides Photos: Heman Howard. Salix babylonica. Photo: D. Wyman. 109 However, even the sophisticated gardeners of today are not immune. We are still \"taken in\" by the tubbed banana for the home with fruit advertised as \"always available\", with \"tree tomatoes\" producing crops \"up to 40-60 pounds a year\"; with a \"new\" rose bush (or a tree) that grows \"to the roof of your home\" in two years. To show how history can repeat itself, now 250 years after medicinal herb gardens were popular, it may well be that they will become so again. A new book will be published in England this summer by Maurice Messegue, Of MerL and Plants, which is an autobiography of a famous \"plant healer\" who heals people, often miraculously, with the use of hand and foot baths (or poultices) in which certain of our common herbs are soaked. Undoubtedly this will start many gardeners scrounging around among the weeds and herbs in their gardens to find those recommended by the author as helpful when used for particular ailments, in the way he suggests. There is still a great deal that the arboreta and botanical gardens can do for ornamental horticulture, being the youngest division of horticulture. With smaller houses, higher taxes and smaller home areas, there is now considerable interest in dwarf plants. Nurserymen formerly were not interested in many of these they grew too slowly to make a display in time to bring a profit. Now such plants are in great demand. Many of the arboreta of the country with large collections of plants have their own propagating units where special studies can be initiated in finding better ways to propagate such plants. No experiment station has sufficient source material or funds to enter into work on this problem on the same scale as some of our large arboreta. With large varietal collections of plants like lilacs, mockoranges, weigelas, Japanese tree peonies and many other types, the arboretum is the best place in the country to compare the ornamental qualities of these varieties. Once their ornamental merits are established, the arboreta should publish lists of \"the best\" and those worthy of discarding. Arboreta across the country can combine their efforts to make such studies more valuable. The arboretum is the best place to make accurate color chart notations of flower colors very few such studies exist. Here the varieties are growing under similar conditions and presumably are all on an even basis environmentally for color comparison. Several of the large arboreta have their own publications and can initiate plant information by such means, but they - 110 should also seek the cooperation of nationally circularized horticultural publications. They should also initiate a \"source list\" of where rare but good plants are available. This is one of the most difficult things to do for it is never up to date, but it is the best means of making source information available to the public. Without such information of availability, varietal studies have little current value. The information, the availability of the plants, and the national publicity concerning this should all be carefully worked out and coordinated. Arboreta with the space and the funds should have extensive breeding programs to provide better plants, with more colorful flowers and fruits, more resistant to pests, with better form or height or autumn color than those varieties available at present. New plants will continue to be found in cultivated areas and in the unexplored hinterlands, but the resources of the arboreta in their own collections are not to be ignored in this respect. We certainly do not need more plants but we can always use better plants and a widely publicized list of generally accepted (by other arboreta) discards which should be no longer grown commercially. Ornamental horticulture has come a long way in the last 150 years. Just the production of ornamentals alone is big business. In 1950 there were 17,400 nurseries in the United States producing ornamental stock, employing 121,800 persons. rrl\", r.,7\"~, ,.F \".. \".,,\"7 ,.f\"~7> \"l..r., \" .,s..a \",.,.. ~nc~ ~nc nnn ,.\" at wholesale prices. The number of ornamental woody plants sold (326,000,000) was three times what it had been 20 years before. Fruit trees (18,100,000) were down to half what they were two decades before and grape vines (302,000) were only one quarter of what they had been. It is obvious then that there is currently a great surge of active interest in ornamental plant... ,A.L\"'\"\", .\", ~~ ...........,..\"\".. \",~,..~ ....,..,. ,.....\"...\"..,. ,,. ing. In celebrating this Centennial of the Arnold Arboretum it is only fair to mention that the Arnold Arboretum has been vigorously promoting ornamental horticulture in many ways throughout its entire existence. It should not rest on its laurels. The modern potential that arboreta and botanical gardens have in the field of ornamental horticulture is unlimited. People today have more leisure than they have ever had, and with more single homes in America than there have ever been, more gardens are being planted. More individuals are interested in flowers and trees and ornamental plants and their artistic arrangement. Consequently more individuals are looking for help 'S <:B 0 x 0 ~ 0 x w 9 ql) a~ os ~ '\" 0 o 112 in growing and using ornamental plants than ever before. It should be a prime function of the arboreta and botanical gardens to recognize these facts and to produce better plants and better information about them so that all Americans can be active in making the world about them more beautiful. DONALD WYMAN , Horticulturist Emeritus of the Arnold Arboretum Harvard University "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23519","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070af6e.jpg","title":"1973-33-1","volume":33,"issue_number":1,"year":1973,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":249,"end_page":276,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24587","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160b36b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1972 A bequest from the estate of James Arnold was accepted by the President and Fellows of Harvard College in 1872, and so began the Arnold Arboretum. Nineteen hundred seventy-two was designated the Centennial Year, and a special program was planned for May 21-28 to which botanists and horticulturists throughout the world were invited. Approximately 700 persons accepted the invitation and attended one or more events or participated in the full Centennial week. Twenty-seven states, 10 foreign countries, 46 organizations, and 69 institutions were represented by the guests. Headquarters for the program were at the Sheraton-Plaza Hotel, where a formal banquet was held, as well as a day-long symposium with 12 papers given on the topic, \"The Potential of Arboreta and Botanical Gardens\". During the week special lectures were offered at the Harvard Business School to the Friends and to the public. Registrants had their choice of three days of botanical or horticultural tours of native vegetation or of private gardens in eastern Massachusetts; in addition, guided tours of the Arnold Arboretum facilities and collections in Jamaica Plain, Weston and Cambridge were offered. An exhibit of botanical books, treasures from the Arnold Arboretum library, was displayed in Houghton Library, and a special booklet, Early Botanical Books, was published to accompany the display. A color film on the Arnold Arboretum was prepared for a premiere showing during the week and is now available for rent. The film explains the activities, goals and resources of the Arboretum and its staff. At a final buffet supper, held at the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, awards of Jewett prizes were made to four horticulturists. Although the staff attempted to dissuade its colleagues and related organizations from the presentation of greetings, many brought them anyway, and these symbols of appreciation and respect were gratefully received. 249 250 The program could not have been accomplished without the participation and cooperation of many volunteers, headed by a Centennial Committee under the chairmanship of Rear Admiral Harry Hull, U.S. Navy (Ret.), of Manchester, Massachusetts. Organized into subcommittees, these individuals assumed responsibility for various aspects or days of the program, and arranged for the guides and the hospitality extended. A finance subcommittee undertook with success the task of raising sufficient funds to cover the expenses of the program for which Miss Harmony Clement served as staff coordinator. The staff is grateful for all this support. Especially noteworthy was the excellent publicity obtained, not only during the week, but before and after the celebration. Many magazine articles, TV and radio spot features and announcements, and especially a feature section of the Boston Globe drew attention to the celebration and the grounds. Visitations to the collections increased several fold. Displays of photographs and sometimes plant material, historical or current, were presented in Widener Library, the Boston Public Library, and many suburban libraries; also in Holyoke Center, Boston City Hall, and the Arnold Arboretum administration building. Requests for these displays have now been received from other botanical gardens and arboreta, and several traveling displays have been created by Miss Pamela Bruns of the staff. As a part of the Centennial, the staff wished to emphasize the historic and present role of the Arnold Arboretum in the introduction and distribution of plants. Through the cooperation of William Flemer of the Princeton Nurseries, seedlings of Cercidiphyllum japonicum were grown and distributed to all members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. A large balled shrub or tree was offered to every garden club in New England, and 153 organizations accepted the gift for ceremonial planting in a conspicuous public spot. Considerable newspaper publicity resulted from this cooperative effort. Every college and university in the United States with a department of botany or horticulture also was offered a gift plant of educational or teaching value; this offer was accepted by 112 institutions. Finally, every botanical garden and arboretum in the International Directory of Botanical Gardens was offered propagating material of some classic type plant within the Arboretum collections. To the present, 600 propagules have been sent to 70 institutions, and a backlog of requests remains to be filled 252I taking such cuttings in Massachusetts in diverse geographic and climatic areas. receipt Special plants offered to Boston area organizations were accepted by such groups as the Museum of Science, the Public Garden, Case Park in Weston, and the Boston Center for the at the proper season for and for their Arts. Several organizations holding annual meetings in the Boston area asked for special programs or guided tours of the Arnold Arboretum during the year. Since such requests and others are becoming more frequent, and often beyond the capabilities of the staff, a pilot program was launched to train a small group of volunteers to serve as guides to the Arnold Arboretum collections or to help in other capacities. Coordinated by Mrs. Paul Wechsler, the program was comprised of 15 four-hour instructional sessions covering a period of seven months. After practice talks and runs with the staff as an audience, the volunteer guides were used regularly on tours. Throughout our activities we have gained immeasurably from their assistance to the staff in many service roles. It is impossible to list here all the individuals who contributed so significantly to the success of the program. We can only indicate our deep gratitude. It is equally difficult for me to express adequately the credit due the staff. Any director who wanted such a program could not have had more support than was given by the staff of the Arnold Arboretum in honoring its 100 years. The regular work of the Arnold Arboretum was maintained during the year, and its details form the remainder of this Performing report. Staff the year. Dr. Thomon the preparation of a generic flora of Southeastern United States, accepted a position January 1, 1972 as dendrologist of the Cary Arboretum being developed by the New York Botanical Mr. C. Robert Long, librarian of the Arnold and the of the Gray Herbarium, also accepted a position in the New York Botanical Garden. Mrs. Heidi Duda, ca aloguer on a joint appointment, resigned to work elsewhere the Harvard libraries. Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., was appointed Professor of Biology at Harvard while retaining his title and role as a curator of the Arnold Arboretum. Miss Nancy Page, Mercer Research Three resignations were accepted during as Elias, who had been working with Dr. Wood Arboretum li~rary Garden. i~' psst Fellow for part of the year, was appointed Coordinator for Community Activities at the Arboretum. Dr. Lorin 1. Nevling, Jr., assumed additional responsibilities for curating the collections of the Farlow Herbarium while its director is on sabbatical leave. He has been given a special title of Coordinator of Botanical Systematic Collections. Honors and awards came to three staff members. Mr. Alfred Fordham was honored by the International Plant Propagators Society with their Award of Merit. This award is presented only occasionally to \"exceptionally gifted propagators in very special recognition of skills in plant propagation.\" Dr. Donald Wyman, horticulturist emeritus, was honored at the American Horticultural Congress held in Milwaukee with the receipt of the Liberty Hyde Bailey Medal, the highest award of the Society. Dr. Richard Howard received the gold medal of the Garden Club of America at its annual meeting in Memphis, Tennessee with a citation for eminence as a botanist, horticulturist, educator, and author. Professor Charles Sargent received the first award of this medal, and Dr. Wyman also has been a recipient. Dr. Howard also was elected vice-president and president-elect of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. Miss Nancy Page as Coordinator for Community Activities for the Arboretum staff, we have been able to centralize the requests for staff assistance on ecological problems and neighborhood beautification projects. During the year Miss Page was appointed a member of the City of Cambridge Conservation Committee, and is chairman of the Cambridge Tree Committee. The city plans associated with the proposed Kennedy Library have included a proposal for a parking garage under the Cambridge Common, and the beautification of Harvard Square. Miss Page has worked with Dr. Weaver and Miss Ida Hay of the staff in a survey of the common trees of Boston, which led to the special article in Arnoldia on Boston trees. This has been reprinted as a separate presentation for distribution to the city schools. Further work is in progress on the common plants other than trees. A national committee was established to commemorate the birth of Frederick Law Olmsted, and a local area credited to Olmsted's design was proposed as the Olmsted Park District. The staff was requested to survey, map and name the significant trees within this area. The staff has cooperated with many groups, as indicated in Community Service With the appointment of 254 the last report, but new ones are formed every year. Additional organizations requesting our assistance this year were Neighborhood Youth Corps in Roxbury, Somerville, Charlestown and Chelsea. Schools also were concerned, and help was offered the Massachusetts College of Art, the St. Francis de Sales School, and the Hurley School. We also have worked with the Boston Transportation Planning Review Committee; the BRA Tai-Tung project in Chinatown; the City of Boston Department of Parks and Recreation; and the Metropolitan District Commission, in offering instructional programs for residents or employees. Dr. DeWolf and Miss Page offered a special course at the Arnold Arboretum for the Boston Society of Landscape Architects under the title \"Planting the City: Urban Stresses\". Dr. Nevling served as chairman of a Cabot Estate advisory committee appointed by Mayor White of Boston. Interest in beautification and a concern for environmental problems spread to Harvard University as well. Students requested that the University concern itself with recycling of dormitory waste, dogs in the yard, and problems of grass and trees. The result of their interest was the formation of a \"Green Committee.\" Dr. Howard represented the Arboretum in the study sessions, and a redesign and planting of the area around Thayer Hall was completed before Commencement. The Arnold Arboretum supplied the landscaping plant materials. During the year special publicity drew the attention of the public to the Boston Poison Center operated by the hospitals of Boston. All calls concerning plant materials are referred to the Arboretum during working hours, and to individual staff members during the evening. Identification of plant specimens and problems of cultivation, maintenance, and plant diseases continue and have increased due to the public's greater awareness of the Arnold Arboretum as a result of the Centennial publicity Horticulture Much effort was devoted to improving the appearance of the grounds tors. at Jamaica Plain and Weston for the Centennial visi- the weather was not cooperative. A dry fall, late freeze, was followed by a mild winter, causing apprehension among the staff regarding the development of bloom. Normal fall planting from the nursery collection was curtailed, with 211 taxa added to the grounds in the fall and only 125 in the spring. The spring planting was largely in Unhappily, with a 255 the dwarf area. or slow-growing only was conifer grouping in the greenhouse - the only be described as wet and cold that of the Centennial program. The grounds, however, had been enhanced with the addition of over 2,000 bulbs planted around the administration building and on the adjacent hillside by volunteers from Mr. Hebb's gardening classes and the staff. The spectacular blooms in the spring drew admirers, not vandals, to our surprise. New identification signs, of letters carved in large planks, were erected along Route 1 and at the entrance gates on the Arborway within the Arboretum grounds. As the Centennial week began, the lilacs were mostly in tight bud, but the following five days of sunshine opened the flowers so that a good display was evident on the closing day and the week-end. The major transplanting event of the year was the acquisition of a 42-foot specimen of Sequoiadendron giganteum from the estate of the late Chandler Hovey in Chestnut Hill. In the early 1940's Mr. Hovey acquired seven redwood saplings from California. One was given to the Arboretum, but it failed to survive in the location chosen, the top of Hemlock Hill. Since the others grew well in the Boston area, Mr. Hovey decided to donate a larger plant to the Arboretum for its Centennial; regrettably, he did not live to accomplish the gift. His estate was sold to Boston College, but Father Seavey Joyce, aware of Mr. Hovey's wish, offered a tree. A Friend made the gift that permitted our acceptance of the plant, which was moved by Frost and Higgins since the Arboretum does not have equipment to handle so large a specimen. The original plan was to root-prune the tree in 1972 and move it a year later. When the trenching operation revealed no large roots outside of a projected ball, it was decided that the tree could be moved in one operation. In early May a site was chosen within the conifer collection where the Sequoiadendron would be protected from winds, and where other tender species were known to survive. The site, adjacent to a brook, also offered adequate water even in dry summers. Thus this large redwood was moved through the streets of Chestnut Hill to the Arboretum where it stands as a magnificent Centennial gift and memorial to Mr. Hovey. The Arboretum supplied to Boston College a collection of smaller trees and shrubs to relandscape the area vacated by the giant redwood. Spring can week of sunshine Moving Day for the Sequoiadendron giganteum Photos: R. Hebb 258 The card catalogues containing records of the plants in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum were incorporated into the data files of the Plant Records Center of the American Horticultural Society. After considerable work in preparation by Messrs. Hebb and Link, all the records were microfilmed by the Records Center staff, and the data processed for computer sorting. Printouts of these records in several programs are now on hand. The goal of the Plant Records Center is to process the records of all gardens in North America, and eventually to have a comprehensive inventory of the horticultural collections in one master file. The microfilm of our current records offers additional protection to our collections because of its separate storage. With the aid of the computer, additions, deletions, corrections, and new printouts permit us to have an up-to-date record of the living collections. This work of the Plant Records Center has been supported by a grant from the Longwood Foundation. The Arnold Arboretum serves as the registration authority for names of cultivars of woody plants proposed by horticulturists in the United States. A listing of new registered cultivars is published annually in Arnoldia. The data accumulated in this work, often supported by herbarium specimens or living plants, permits the staff to be aware of new introductions and their origin. Work has begun on a new edition of Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs through the kindness of an initial gift of an anonymous donor. A collection of current nursery catalogues has been assembled, and the horticultural and botanical literature is being screened on a regular basis for nomenclature changes. At present there are nearly 500 taxa, mostly cultivars, which are not in our collections. These are offered by American nurseries and are potentially hardy in the Boston area. Although many of the species have been tried in the past and proved to lack hardiness, it is hoped that new ecotypes may be available, and plants are being re- quested. The Arnold Arboretum has in its endowment a fund established in memory of James R. Jewett. According to the terms of the gift, prizes are to be awarded occasionally for work on the improvement of beach plums or other small native or introduced fruit or nut bearing plants. During the Centennial program four prizes were awarded: to Dr. George Darrow of Beltsville, Maryland; Dr. Richard A. Jaynes of New Haven, Connecticut; Mr. E. M. Meader of Rochester, New Hampshire; 259 and Dr. George R. Slate of Geneva, New York. The contributions of these four men were considered meritorious, and appropriate to the terms of the Jewett fund. Unauthorized driving of cars, motorcycles and bicycles within the Arboretum continues to plague us, is a hazard to visitors, and even results in damage to collections. Any enforcement of the Park Department regulations by the Boston Police is sporadic or lacking. Thus additional driving gates have been locked during the year in an attempt to control a potentially dangerous condition. A private detective agency has been hired again to patrol the grounds in the evening hours in order to offer a modicum of control and protection of visitors and plantings. Nevertheless, 17 vandal fires occurred on the grounds, five of which caused damage to collections. The administration building was broken into twice during the spring on week-ends, with resulting thefts of personal items and desk equipment. A policy of establishing locks on fire doors now divides the building into smaller segments, but causes inconvenience to staff members who wish to work week-ends or evenings. The greenhouse staff carried additional heavy responsibility during the Centennial year. The special effort to distribute plants to members of the Friends, to colleges, clubs, and other botanical gardens was accompanied by extra activities. Special gift plants were prepared for visiting groups, and packages of pretreated seeds were included in table envelopes for the participants in the Centennial banquet. In preparing plants for mailing, and in filling seed envelopes, the staff was aided materially by a dedicated group of volunteers. We continued to receive requests for propagating material from plants in our living collections for culture or research by individuals or institutions. During the year, 141 shipments were made of 652 taxa to 12 countries. We received 179 shipments of 794 taxa from 24 countries, largely in response to our requests for seeds to add taxa to our own collection or for the research of the staff. The greenhouses always are open to professional visitors and to scheduled classes from Harvard or other colleges. Thirteen colleges scheduled one or more classes in the greenhouse during the year. One day a week the greenhouses also are open to the general public; the volunteer guides have been most helpful in answering the telephone or instructing the public on these open days. Prior to the Centennial program, a gift of plants of succulents and cacti was offered by the Dartmouth College Department of 260 the teaching and display collection. The Bromeliad Society has been meeting at the Dana Greenhouses. This group, under the leadership of Mr. and Mrs. Paul Wechsler, reconditioned and added plants to the collection of Bromeliaceae. For the fifth year a student at Jamaica Plain High School, Mr. Brian J. Waldron, received the Arnold Arboretum Achievement Award. This award, financed initially by a Friend of the Arnold Arboretum, is offered annually to the most promising botany or horticulture student in the Boston area. The award is a selection of books, plant materials for a project of the recipient's choice, and a certificate. Biology to enhance local chapter of the Case Estates The 110-acre property in Weston is an isolated but significant part of the operation of the Arnold Arboretum. It serves as a nursery and growing area for young plants and a reserve area for taxa which cannot be accommodated in the Jamaica Plain collections. The Case Estates are used for education programs and for demonstrations as well. Classes and lectures are offered on a regular basis in Weston. The number of visitors during the year increased noticeably, and auto traffic on the gravel driveway caused us to have this area hardtopped. The available water supply has proved inadequate in recent years. When the town of Weston was installing new water mains on Wellesley Street, we used the opportunity to install a new 8\" water line to the property; later, as time and money permit, feeder lines can be added to the individual nursery areas. The town of Weston has plans to widen Wellesley Street fronting most of the Case Estates. This will result in a loss of land and necessitate the moving or abandonment of several stone walls and of some spectacular row plantings. In anticipation of this future action, we have begun barrier plantings in several areas. The pruning demonstration area received needed attention this year when three talented students from the University of Massachusetts were available for summer employment. Older reserve collections also received much needed pruning. A volunteer group of eight graduates of Mr. Hebb's practical gardening class contributed many hours of additional work on the low maintenance garden, the ground cover plots, and the demonstration beds. A gift of plants from Mr. and Mrs. Paul Rogers of Charlton, Massachusetts formed the nucleus of an herb demonstration area which received a favorable reaction Case Park planting and monument. Photos: G. DeWolf 261 from participants in the annual meeting of the American Herb Society, held in part at the Case Estates. Many visitors have admired the rock garden area near the Red Schoolhouse which has been the personal effort of Mr. George Pride. Miss Marion Case originally had a rock garden W in the same area but it was abandoned over the years and the site was planted to junipers. Now reclaimed, the area is most attractive with large collections of Sedums, bulbs, and small alpine plants. Personal vegetable gardens of staff members also attract the ' attention of visitors, as do the special areas of research collections or the trial plantings of new ornamental herbs. Mr. George Pride maintains a breeding program in Iris and tetraploid Hemerocallis. During the year one of his seedlings won the Junior Citation, the highest award of the American Hemero- callis Society for a new seedling. The collection of true lilies in demonstration beds has been mentioned in previous reports. It was anticipated that such a display might decline or be decimated by disease, leaving only the most hardy taxa, and this has happened. We were offered a collection of several hundred bulbs of unnamed hybrids of Lilium auratum X L. speciosum with the request they be planted in mass and the same selection process be permitted. An unused area of the nursery was available and Mr. Pride has undertaken to evaluate the quality of the flowers and record the erosion of the collection. The first flowering occurred in 1972 and was spectacular. To honor the Centennial of the Arnold Arboretum the garden clubs of Weston commissioned Mr. John Wacker to landscape a small area near the Case Estates. The Arboretum was able to supply some of the plants chosen for the planting which was formally dedicated as Case Park. 262 Herbarium A new program has been established by the National Science Foundation to support curatorial activities of systematic collections of national significance. An application for support was submitted jointly on behalf of the Arnold Arboretum, the Botanical Museum, the Farlow Herbarium and the Gray Herbarium. Dr. Lorin Nevling was indicated as the principal investigator. In March we received notice that a grant of $180,000 was approved for the first of five years of support. The Arnold Arboretum portion of the grant will be used during the first year to reduce the backlog of unmounted and therefore unavailable herbarium specimens; to increase the curatorial staff; to repair and rebind classical volumes in the library; to purchase additional library stacks; and to contribute toward general supplies and postage. If additional space becomes available, future grants will be used to purchase herbarium cases. Portions of the grant to be applied to the other organizations will be used in comparable ways. On June 30, 1972 the total herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum reached 971,248 specimens, of which 149,057 represent cultivated plants housed in Jamaica Plain. Specimens accessioned during the year totaled 11,312 and 15,128 were mounted. New specimens came from Asia, the United States and Canada, tropical America, Europe and Africa respectively. The increase in activity of mounting collections also increases the storage problem in the Harvard University Herbaria. Nearly 50% of the steel herbarium cases are now surmounted by two units of cardboard storage cases for herbarium specimens. This must be considered a temporary measure, for access to the specimens in the cardboard boxes requires the use of ladders and an additional amount of personal time. The arrangement is far from satisfactory. Requests for loans of herbarium specimens increased greatly during the year, reaching a point in excess of any demand since the early 1940's. No explanation is obvious. The combined herbaria filled requests for 201 loans to 88 institutions; 58 in the United States and 30 foreign. The average loan comprised 117 sheets. The staff asked for 45 loans from 16 United States and 12 foreign institutions, and the average loan received comprised 72 specimens. Student use accounted for 35% of the loans and 52% of the specimens. The figures are disproportionate due to the activities of Dr. Howard, who has received much old material of plants col- 263 lected a century ago in the West Indies. These specimens, long stored unnamed in the Museum of Natural History in Paris, are offering fascinating bits of information on the dates of introduction of plants cultivated in the old botanic garden at Saint Pierre on Martinique, and at the Camp Jacobs experimental station on Guadeloupe. Many of the collectors are known, but some names new to West Indian botany appear on the collections, presenting biohistorical problems to be worked out in the future. Two large loans of Piperaceae were requested by Dr. Howard to straighten out the confused nomenclature and biology of this group of high endemism in the Lesser Antilles. Monographic and floristic studies are the research interests of the herbarium staff. Dr. Hu spent part of the year in Hong Kong and the New Territories in continuation of her studies of that flora. Dr. Nevling travelled to Veracruz, Mexico, where his work on the indigenous flora is being conducted in cooperation with Dr. Arturo Gomez-Pompa of the University of Mexico and its staff. Identifications and bibliographic work are completed in Cambridge. Dr. Carroll Wood and associates continue to prepare family treatments for a generic flora of southeastern United States. Dr. Howard made a brief trip to St. Vincent in midwinter for material for his work on the Lesser Antilles. Publications derived from these studies are listed in the bibliography of the staff. Renewed interest in the condition of the wood collection developed following the symposium paper of Dr. William Stem during the Centennial. Dr. Ralph Wetmore has written the history of the collection, which was accumulated primarily from the research of Professors Jeffrey, Wetmore and Bailey. Recognized as the largest university held collection, it is an adjunct to the systematic biological work of many university staff members. Comparative and descriptive plant anatomy has been in a decline throughout the world in recent years. The wood collection has received a minimum of curatorial attention, and certainly its potential is no longer exploited. The NSF grant will permit additional curating, but there is a need for a scholar in this area, or at least a full-time curator-research assistant. Materials from this collection are sent on loan when requested. Wood samples and slides are added to the collection when available from local research projects and when received in exchange for samples from the collection or from the herbarium. Slides of wood, pollen and leaves of 94 families were added to the collection during the year. Stewartia koreana. Photo: P. Bruns 265 Library Mr. Charles Long, librarian, jointly appointed by the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium, resigned at the end of the fiscal year. Mrs. Norton Hall, formerly at the Hillis Library of Radcliffe, was appointed to succeed him. Mrs. Heidi Duda, a joint appointee as cataloguer, also resigned at the end of the year. The crowded conditions in the library in Cambridge were alleviated by the addition of sections of new stacks at the ends of rows, but at the expense of desk and reading space within the stack area. The entire library was shifted in a Herculean effort to use the new space. In a fundamental change, Princeton files were adopted for storage of reprints and pamphlets, especially in the monographic section. In the Jamaica Plain library, Mrs. Sheila Geary completed the tasks of bringing the catalogue up to date and of organizing the collection of nursery catalogues and publications on botanical gardens. New shelf lists have been completed in both libraries. Funds from HEW were available through the University under the MA 5 Program to teach basic clerical-library skills. One trainee was chosen to participate in the program of 20 hours per week of on-the-job training and 15 hours of formal instruction each week at the Personnel Department. As of June 30, 1972, the catalogued collections of the Arnold Arboretum library contained 80,613 items. During the year 585 volumes were bound, rebound or restored. Part of this was accomplished with a matching fund grant from the Council on the Arts and Humanities of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. A total of 16,458 cards was added to the files in an effort to increase the value of the card catalogue by cross references. Education The educational activities of the Arboretum staff are many and varied. Two staff members are professors of biology, and two are lecturers at Harvard. Contact with students is at the undergraduate and graduate levels. All four staff members participated in Biology 397, a survey of research topics in biology offered for new graduate students. Dr. Schubert continued the guidance of the graduate program of Mr. SousaSanchez, and was appointed an undergraduate advisor. Drs. Schubert and Wood conducted the weekly seminars in botany held in the Harvard University Herbaria building. 266 Thalassa Cruso, Channel 2 producer Rick Hauser, and Arnold Arboretum herbarium technician Hazel A. McDonald discuss sequence for \"Changing Seasons\". Photo: P. Bruns 267 Courses in to the botany, in in horticulture and natural history are offered public Jamaica Plain and in Weston. The very prac- tical courses gardening techniques, maintenance of plants, and plant propagation continue to be the most popular. Field walks stressing identification and ecology are offered in the spring and fall. The staff is often asked to present special lectures or seminars at other schools or for classes which visit the Arboretum. Mr. Fordham is responsible for such groups visiting the greenhouses. Approximately 80 lectures were given by the staff outside of the Arboretum during the year. International coverage was obtained during the year when Dr. Howard made a special broadcast for the Voice of America program. Channel 2, the Boston educational television station, has produced a film on the Arnold Arboretum under the guidance of Thalassa Cruso. This program, to be released to the educational network in late autumn, was prepared with considerable assistance from many members of the staff. Channel 2 crew on location. Photo: P. Bruns. - 268I The assembly of educational displays on the Arboretum for libraries in Massachusetts was part of the Centennial program. In addition, the Arboretum staff arranged displays of fruits for the fall show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and that of the Worcester County Horticultural Society. At the New England Spring Flower Show, the Arboretum exhibit featured the ornamental plants first introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum. Three educational displays of plant material appropriate for the Christmas season were staged at the Administration Building, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and the Boston Center for the Performing Arts. Not the least of the educational activities involves the training of students in the regular work program of the Arboretum. We have in the past cooperated with several colleges by offering work-study programs. Students from such programs have been used in the herbarium or library or on the grounds. Applications from students have increased for employment as laborers on the grounds or for work in the greenhouses. The number that can be accommodated is limited by the supervision they require, and the amount of money available for temporary help; not by the amount of work needed to be done. Avowed students of horticulture or botany are given priority, which proves to be difficult when applied to needy Harvard-Radcliffe students. Those who are accepted for work in Jamaica Plain or Weston are required to attend two hours of formal lectures during the work week. In the course of the summer the students thus receive instruction in the \"why\" of their efforts, and have the opportunity of hearing from the majority of the staff on the \"what\" of the Arnold Arboretum. Meetings The Arnold Arboretum was honored by the local chapter of the Society of the Sigma Xi, which dedicated its spring program to observance of our Centennial. Dr. William T. Stearn of the British Museum, Dr. P. Barry Tomlinson of the Harvard Forest, and Dr. Howard were the speakers of the evening program. The annual meeting of the Northeast Section of the American Society of Horticultural Sciences was held at the Arboretum, with the theme \"A Century of Horticultural Progress\". Dr. Howard spoke on some of the contributions in ornamental horticulture by the staff of the Arnold Arboretum; other papers concerned fruits and berries and vegetable crops of New England. Arnold Arboretum exhibit in New England Spring Flower Show. Photo: P. Bruns The staff was represented at such national meetings as the International Plant Propagators Society, International Lilac Society, American Institute of Biological Sciences, American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, American Horticultural Society, and the Shade Tree Conference. At each meeting one or more staff members presented a research paper or took part in a symposium. Travel and Exploration International travel of the staff was associated with their research programs. Dr. Hu was in Hong Kong and the New Territories. Dr. Nevling made collections and observations in Veracruz, Mexico. Dr. Howard returned to St. Vincent to make observations and collections around the newly active Soufriere volcano, and stopped in Puerto Rico on the return trip. Mr. Pride combined vacation with field collecting in Mexico, Guatemala, Venezuela and Peru. Mrs. Derderian and Mr. Vining were in Japan to obtain photographs of bonsai for their writings. 270 I Mercer Fellows The Mercer Fellowship Program is designed to permit individuals to work with the collections of living plants, herbarium specimens or books, or with staff on special projects. Mercer Fellows for all or part of the year were the following: Harmony Clement (Massachusetts) Development of horticultural meetings. Nancy Page (California) City beautification and education programs. Christian Puff (Austria) Nodal and petiolar anatomy. Mario Sousa-Sanchez (Mexico) - Studies of Lonchocarpus. Leslie Joan Spraker (Indiana) Horticultural writing. Donald Vining (Georgia) Plant propagation and bonsai. - - - - - Gifts and Grants The Arnold Arboretum has been particularly fortunate in the Centennial year to have generous support from the many Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, both in financial terms and in material gifts. Special appeals were made for funds to support the Centennial activities, to which individuals and corporations responded. We are exceedingly grateful to all. Gifts received over and above the actual costs of the Centennial will be capitalized as the Centennial Fund, the income to be used for the general purposes of the Arboretum. Regrettably, the University would not grant permission for a major fund drive to add professional people to the staff, to modernize the administration building, and to increase the operating budget of the Arboretum. We sincerely hope the Friends will continue their annual support of the institution, its resources, and its programs. Two special funds were established by gifts from George R. Cooley and Mrs. Irving Fraim, the income to be used to support field work and travel. One anonymous gift was designated to be used to begin work on a revision of Rehder's Manual. Support through gifts of the Massachusetts Society for the Promotion of Agriculture and the American Nurserymen's Association represented professional interest in our activities in the distribution of plants. Among the special gifts, some mentioned previously, were over 100 clay pots for the propagules of old bonsai specimens in the Arboretum collection. Mrs. Ara Derderian commissioned a Japanese artisan to design and mark these containers in honor of the Arboretum Centennial. The propagules are the result of clippings saved by Mr. Fordham and Mrs. Derderian during the pruning and training of the aged bonsai; after young plants are trained as small bonsai. Also as a Centennial gift were several thousand one-year plants of Cercidiphyllum grown by the Princeton Nurseries from seeds we supplied. These plants, obtained with the cooperation of Mr. William Flemer, were distributed in the spring in mailing tubes to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Special plants were donated for our collections, including the large Sequoiadendron from the Hovey family with the kindness of Boston College. John Vermuelen and Sons, Mr. Layne Ziegenfuss of Hillside Gardens, and Mr. and Mrs. Paul Rogers all contributed sizable numbers of plants for special educational collections. The libraries profited from the gifts of many volumes of books, always welcome whether new to our holdings or second volumes to reduce circulation damage. The library received a gift from the New England Botanical Club in appreciation of services rendered to its members by the library staff. A grant was received from the Council on Arts and Humanities of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts for the repair and reconditioning of 17th and 18th century books in our collections. This gift was conditional on matching funds, and members of the Visiting Committee supplied the needed amount. The work of Dr. Carroll Wood on the flora of the southeastern states is supported by grants from the National Science Foundation, as is that of Dr. Lorin Nevling on the flora of Veracruz, Mexico. Miss Stephanne Sutton received a grant from the National Geographic Society to aid her work in preparing a biography of Joseph Rock. Publications 271 rooting, the Regular publications nal of the Arnold Arboretum are the Jour- of the Arnold Arboretum, with a distribution of 650, and Arnoldia, with a circulation of 2500. Dr. Bernice Schubert, with Ellen Bernstein as assistant, edited four issues of the 24 articles by 29 authors. Journal representing 621 pages - Arrangements have been made with Kraus Reprint Company to reprint and distribute volumes 46 through 50 so that all fifty volumes are again available. A special cover, \"Century of Trees,\" was designed by Karen S. Velmure, and was used on the Journal during the Centennial year. With regret and with thanks we accepted the resignation of Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia as editor of Arnoldia. Mrs. Jeanne S. Wadleigh was appointed editor in June. Six numbers of Arnoldia contained 394 pages, and a special large issue was de- 272 voted to colonial gardens. The demand for this number soon exhausted the supply, and arrangements were made for the text to be reprinted and issued in hard cover by the Barre Press during late 1972. Two special publications were issued during the Centennial year. A descriptive Centennial program was compiled by members of the committee. A booklet entitled Early Botanical Books was prepared by Pamela Bruns, Beverly Croyle, Gordon DeWolf, Sheila Geary, Charles Long, Kenneth Robertson, Carol Shweder and Richard Weaver. This was planned to accompany an exhibit of unusual botanical volumes, but stands alone as a literary and bibliographic contribution. A new directional map to reach the Arnold Arboretum was designed by Pamela Bruns for distribution through tourist information centers. Miss Bruns also was responsible for preparing the sets of kodachrome slides of the Arboretum collections, which are offered for sale. RICHARD A. HOWARD From Strawberries, Fragaria Major. Fuchs, De Historia Stirpium. 273 Bibliography of Published Writings of the Staff, July 1, 1971-]une 30, 1972 C. E., Japanese Theory - American practice, Arnoldia 31: 294-296. 1971. DeWolf, G. P., et al, Early Botanical Books, 52 pp. 1972. Arnold Arboretum. DeWolf, G. P., Gardening books for libraries, Arnoldia 32: 116125. 1972. (with R. J. Favretti), Colonial garden plants, Arnoldia 31: 172-249. 1971. Some additional sources of information chronologically ar, ranged, Arnoldia 31: 250-255. 1971. , Confusion in the genus Juniperus, American Nurseryman, 134 (7): 16, 110-120. 1971. Elias, T. S., Morphology and anatomy of foliar nectaries of Pithecellobium macradenium, Bot. Gaz. 133: 38~2. 1972. , The genera of Juglandaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 26-51. 1972. (with L. I. Nevling, Jr.), The powder-puff tree, Plants and Gardens, 26: 27. 1971. Fordham, A. J., Propagation of Fothergilla, Amoldia 31: 256-259. 1971. , Propagation of some aged bonsai plants, Arnoldia 31: 297299. 1971. Arnold Arboretum weather station report, Arnoldia 31: 368. , 1971. , Arboretum studies temperatures, American Nurseryman, 134 (7): 56-59. 1971. , Microclimates and their effect on plant hardiness, Bulletin of the American Rhododendron Society, 25 (3): 149-153. 1971. , Mountain-laurel and its propagation, Plants and Gardens, 27 (2): 44~7. 1971. New plant introductions and their importance, International , Plant Propagators' Combined Proceedings 20: 270-271. 1970. Malus 'Donald Wyman,' Internat. PI. Prop. Comb. Proc. 20: , 271-272. 1970. National Association of Propagating Nurserymen, In, The ternat. Pl. Prop. Comb. Proc. 20: 116-122. 1970. Howard, R. A., Scientists and scientific contributions of the Arnold Arboretum - the first century, Arnoldia 32: 49-58. 1972. Sansevieria Thunberg versus Sanseverinia Petagna, Baileya , 18: 5. 1971. , The correct name of the Mabolo or velvet persimmon, Baileya 18: 26. 1971. , Clerodendrum philippinum - Correct name of the single and double forms of \"Clerodendrum fragrans\", Amer. Hort. Mag. 50: 1939. 1971. , Report of the registration committee, Arboretum and Bot. Gard. Bull. 6: 10. 1972. The Arnold Arboretum at the century mark, The Longwood , Program Seminars, 3: 33-35. 1971. the correct botanical name of the Mabo, Diospyros blancoi lo or velvet apple, Amer. Horticulturist 51: 32-33. 1972. - Derderian, . 274 The Director's Report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1971, Amoldia 31: 307-346. 1971. Hu, S. Y., Anoectochilus yungianus, A new spcies of Orchidaceae, Quart. Jour. Taiwan Museum 24: 257-262. 1971 (1972). , The Orchidaceae of China, II., Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 24: , 181-256. 1971 (1972). M. A., A revision of the Boraginaceae of West Pakistan and Kashmir, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 486-522, 666-690. 1971. Long, C. R., An informal history of bonsai, Amoldia 31: 261-273. 1971. Nevling, L. I., Jr. (with A. Gomez-Pompa), Lista floristica de la Flora de Veracruz, Impresion de computadora. No. 7, Septiembre 14, 1971; No. 8, Febrero 15, 1971, No. 9, Mai 20, 1972. (with A. Gomez-Pompa and A. Butanda C.), Bibliografia para la Flora de Veracruz. Impresion de computadora. No. 1, Septiembre 14, 1971; No. 2, Febrero 15, 1972. (with A. Gomez-Pompa), La Flora de Veracruz. An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nal. Aut6n. Mexico (Ser. Bot.) 41: 1, 2. 1971. (with T. S. Elias), The powder-puff tree. Plants & Gardens 26: 27. 1970-71. (with R. M. Weinberg, et al. ), Cabot Estate open space task force report. City of Boston. pp. 1-67. 1971. , The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico, 16. The flowering cycle and an interpretation of its seasonality. Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 586-613. 1971. Calliandra. In: A. G6mez, Estudio de biologia floral en Pompa & Silvia del Amo Rodriguez. Problemas de Investigacion en Botanica. pp. 159-161. 1971. (with A. G6mez-Pompa), Ordenaci6n de datos para la descripcion de especies para la Flora de Veracruz. In: El uso de computadoras en la Flora de Veracruz. Mexico, D. F. pp. 34~11. 1972. Perry, L. M., Leonard J. Brass (1900-1971), An appreciation. Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 695-698. 1971. Powell, D. A., Spices in Jamaica, Chron. West India Comm. 429431. 1963. Robertson, K. R., The genera of Geraniaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 182-201. 1972. , The Malpighiaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 101-112. 1972. , The Linaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 649-665. 1971. , Nomina conservanda proposita (329) 3316. Physocarpus (Cambessedes) Rafinesque, Taxon 21: 211, 212. 1972. Roca-Garcia, H., Weeds: a link with the past, 4. Shepherd's-purse, Arnoldia 32: 44~6. 1972. a link with the past, Bouncing Bet, Arnoldia 32: , Weeds: 136-137. 1972. Sax, K. and Sax, H., Effects of sonic energy on chromosomes, Environmental Mutagen Soc. Newsletter 5: 24, 25. 1971. Schubert, B. G., Desmodium. In: Milne-Redhead & Polhill, eds. Flora of Tropical East Africa. Leguminosae (Part 3) subfam. Papilionoideae ( 1 ) : 451-479. 1971. Kazmi, S. - - - 275 (with new C. V. Morton), Studies species 1971. in Dioscorea, II: An unusual from Mexico. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. 84: 445- 448. Sutton, S. B., Civilizing American cities: A selection of Frederick Law Olmsted's writings on city landscape. 310 pp. M.I.T. Press. 1971. , The Arboretum administrators: An opinionated history, Arnoldia 32: 3-20. 1972. Sullivan, S. L., Plants in early Japanese poetry, Amoldia 31: 284291. 1971. Vining, D. M., Bonsai: nature in miniature, Amoldia 31: 274-282. 1971. Weaver, R. E., Jr., Birds in the Arnold Arboretum, Arnoldia 31: 349-365. 1971. , A guide to city trees in the Boston area, Amoldia 32: 59-97. 1972. , A revision of the neotropical genus Lisianthius (Gentianaceae), Jour. Arnold Arb. 53: 76-100, 234-272, 273-311. 1972. Wood, C. E., Jr., Lectotypification of generic names in floras, Taxon 16: 23-28. 1967. Saururaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. , The Arnold Arb. 52: 479-485. 1971. Wyman, Donald, Arnold Arboretum plant introductions: the second fifty years, Amoldia 32: 30-43. 1972. , Woody vines, Horticulture 49 (8): 32, 33, 42. 1971. , When to collect woody plant seeds, American Nurseryman 139 (9): 10-13, 71-73. 1972. , Parks, Malls, Roadsides, Public Area Plantings, U.S.D.A. Yearbook: 76-80. 1972. New hillside planting of bulbs draws young admirer. Photo: W. Hebb 276 ~ ' ' ~ Staff of the Arnold Arboretum 1971-1972 ``~,~ . Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology and Director Karl Sax, S.D., Professor of Botany, Emeritus Donald Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus Wyman, ~:'\" '\" ` Ellen Bernstein, M.A., Editorial Assistant Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Editor of Arnoldia Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec- tg ~' ' tions * Constance Elizabeth Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Col. lection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Heidi Elisabeth Duda, S.M.L.S., Cataloger *t fi * Thomas Sam Elias, Ph.D., Assistant Curator * Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Sheila Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant * Patricia Dick Hall, Librarian * Ida Hay, B.A., Herbarium Assistant Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Associate Horticulturist Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Jack Link, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist Charles Robert Long, M.A., S.M.L.S., Librarian *t Lorin Ives Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Supervisor of the Herbaria * Nancy Markham Page, B.A., Coordinator for Community Activities Dulcie Alicia Powell, M.A., Botanist George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth R. Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Helen Roca-Garcia, M.A., Research Assistant and Editor of Arnoldia t Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Honorary Research Fellow Karen S. Velmure, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Jeanne S. Wadleigh, B.S., Editor of Arnoldia Richard E. Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator . ....-..-- ' . ' * Appointed jointly with the Gray ** Resigned, Jan. 1, 1972. t Resigned, Jun. 30, 1972. Herbarium. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Registration","article_sequence":2,"start_page":277,"end_page":287,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24586","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160b326.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Plant Registrations '< _ '\"' Every so often during the past 11 years new cultivars of woody plants registered by the Arnold Arboretum have been published in Arnoldia. (See Arnoldia, Vol. 21: 9-18; 31-34; 39-42; 47-50. Vol. 23: 17-75; 77-83; 85-92; 111-118. Vol. 24: 1-8; 41-80. Vol. 26: 13-16. Vol. 27: 16-66. Vol. 29: 1-8. Vol. 30: 251-260). Included in this issue are those cultivars which have been registered between October 1, 1970, and October 1, 1972. All correspondence concerned with more information, plants, or the pr~agating material of these plaats, should be directed to various originators or introducers, not the Arnold Arboretum. ~ --------- Cornus kousa 'Steeple' A form of Japanese Dogwood grown by Mrs. Julian W. Hill, Barnard's Inn Farm, Vineyard Haven, RFD, Mass. 02568 from seeds sown in 1961 from a tree growing on the property of M. M. Brubaker, Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania. The distinguishing feature of Mrs. Hill's plant is its extremely fastigiate habit of growth which gives it the appearance of a slender spire. The leaves are heavy in texture and dark, glossy green in color. Flowers are normal for the species. The plant has adapted well to the dry, well-drained sandy soil on the Island of Martha's Vineyard. It has not been introduced com- mercially. Cornus stolonifera 'Cheyenne' This originated at Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa 51640 in 1957 as a seedling of Cornus stolonifera coloradensis. It was originally described in the Inter-State Nurseries catalog for spring, 1967. In the words of Mr. L. B. Sjulin of Inter-State Nurseries ... \"Quite a number of years ago we saw C. stolonifera coloradensis at the U.S.D.A. Cheyenne Station. We thought it was a good shrub so we gathered some seed and brought it home and grew some. We did this for several years and noticed there was a big variation in the plants, there was quite a difference in the foliage, particularly in the resistance to disease and in the fall coloring of the leaves and bark. So we started to make selec277 278 tions. plant We gradually got down to one single plant ... This has more resistance to foliage diseases than any Cornus we have ever had. In most falls it gets an attractive reddish coloring, blooms freely all through the season and also has a good red winter bark. \"The C. alba 'Siberica' selections have brighter bark, but all of them, and we have tried a number of varieties, have very serious foliage trouble. The regular C. stolonifera is too uneven and also is subject to foliage disease and so is C. baileyi but to a lesser degree.\" The plant is hardy in Zone 4 (Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone Map) at least, and perhaps in Zone 3. It can be expected to thrive in any ordinary soil, and does well in alkaline soil such as in western Nebraska and Wyoming. Gleditsia triacanthos inermis 'Royal Green' A new form of the Thornless Honey Locust which originated as a chance seedling at Shenandoah Nurseries, Shenandoah, Iowa 51601. It was first offered to the wholesale trade in 1970 as \"Lakes #2.\" The name has been registered by the W. Atlee Burpee Co., Hunting Park Avenue at 18th Street, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19132, and is being offered to the trade through Shenandoah Nurseries. In the words of Mr. Jack Young of W. Atlee Burpee Co....\"The selection is characterized by a straight sturdy trunk, is thornless and of more compact upright habit than the regular Thornless Locust. Foliage is substantial of good dark green color. It has been found to do well in either wet or dry soils.\" Juniperus chinensis 'Gold Star' This handsome Juniper originated in 1961 as a sport of Juniperus chinensis 'Pfitzeriana Aurea' at the J. C. Bakker & Sons Nursery, Ltd., RR3, St. Catherines, Ontario, Canada. It first propagated in 1963. The plant, which is comprised of juvenile foliage, is denser and lower growing than its parent. The bright yellow-gold foliage is also more intense than the parent and other J. chinensis cultivars such as J. 'Old Gold'. The name was registered in 1971 with the Canadian Ornamental Plant Foundation, COPF, Carlisle, Ontario, Canada. The U.S. assignee is The Conard-Pyle Co., Star Roses, West Grove, Pa. 19390. Patent was applied for, but pending at the date of registration in March, 1972. Plants of this cultivar are now represented in our collection at the Arnold Arboretum, and although still small, appear suwas largely ~ perior to other golden-yellow for comparison. forms which we 279 have available Larix decidua 'Paula' The original plant was discovered in Hamden, Connecticut in 1962. It is characterized by its ascending branches and distinctly blue needles which are 1 1\/2 to 2 inches long. Although the plant is not at present in commercial cultivation, the introducers are: Mr. Vincent P. Bonaminio, Department of Horticultural Science, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, and Dr. Edwin D. Carpenter, Department of Plant Sciences, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut 06268. Malus 'Albright' This is registered by Mr. R. E. Harris, Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada. Mr. Harris is also the introducer. The plant was originally raised by Mr. W. O. Albright of Beaverlodge, Alberta in 1948 as a seedling of M. baccata. The male parent is unknown. Complete information for a description of this cultivar is lacking at present, but we do know that it has large, pink flowers and fairly large, dark-red fruits. Malus 'Arctic Red' This is a second registration from Mr. R. E. Harris, Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Beaverlodge, Alberta, Canada. The originator is Mr. J. A. Wallace, also of Beaverlodge, who grew it in 1928 as a seedling of Malus 'Osman'. The parent plant is approximately 44 years old. This cultivar is noted for its extreme hardiness and fruiting ability in northern Alberta. Further description did not accompany the registration, but the name was first published in the Canadian Journal of Plant Science 50:511. The name has also been registered with the Canadian Ornamental Plant Foundation, COPF, Carlisle, Ontario, Canada. Malus 'Springtime' Mr. Robert J. Hilton, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, is the originator of this new cultivar. It will be introduced commercially in 1973 by the Sheridan Nurseries, Ltd., 100 Sherway Drive, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada. It originated in Rockwood, Ontario, Canada, as a chance seedling from unknown parents. Mr. Hilton describes the plant as being similar to M. 'Dorothea' but the foliage is paler green, the shoots have 280 prominent lenticels, the flowers are initially a deeper pink color and the fruits are more golden and closer to M. baccata in form. It is hardy in Zone 5 of the Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone Map and currently under trial in Zone 2. The original description for Malus 'Springtime' is to be found in the Canadian Horticultural Council Research Report for 1971. more Malus 'Sylvanna' Dr. Earl H. New, who is the introducer, gives the following description for this cultivar: \"A vigorous growing, open pollinated seedling of M. 'Redflesh' which is characterized by more intense coloring of the leaves, flowers, and fruits. The fruit is shaped and sized more like that of some of the larger fruited M. pumila niedzwetzkyana vars. The fruit flesh is darker than M. 'Redflesh', approaching crimson in some of the smaller fruits. The seed coats are reddish. The wood in the twigs is reddish as in M. 'Redflesh', M. 'Hopa' and others derived from the red vein crab. The fruit size will vary from 1 1\/4 to 1 3\/4 inches. Flowering and fruiting are annual and heavy. The fruit makes excellent red jelly and a tart red apple butter. It is apparently resistant to most of the major diseases. Scab appears on the fruit and leaves but does not defoliate the tree. It should be sprayed for worm control if the fruits are to be used. At Strawberry Point, Iowa, the fruit matures in late August about with M. `Redflesh' and M. 'Dolgo'. The tree has an irregular growth, similar to M. hupehensis, which is more striking as fruit loads bend the branches. The reddish leaf color is darker and retained longer in summer than that of M. 'Redflesh'. The leaf color is not as red nor as persistent as that of M. 'Royalty'.\" The parent tree is approximately 20 years old and is growing on the property of the originator, Mrs. Enno Burrack, 401 W. Mission Street, Strawberry Point, Iowa. Dr. Earl H. New, Agricultural Department, Middle Tennessee State University, Murfreesboro, Tennessee expects that the plant will be available commercially. Bud wood was sent to Glenn's Nursery, Route 4, Box 332, McMinnville, Tennessee 37110 in August, 1971. The plant is fully hardy in Zone 4 and perhaps in most of Zone 3. Pieris japonica 'Valley Rose' This originated at the North Willamette Experiment Station, Rt. 2, Box 254, Aurora, Oregon 97002 as a cross made in 1961 by Prof. Robert L. Ticknor, between Pieris japonica 'Flamingo' and an unnamed deep pink form of P. japonica obtained from the Mitsch Nursery in Oregon. 281 It has a spreading habit of growth, the original plant being 30\" tall by 42\" wide after ten years. It blossoms a week later than other cultivars. The winter bud color is red (RHS RedPurple, Group 59A), and the open flowers are pink (RHS Group 61D). Prof. Ticknor says it should be adaptable to Zone 5 of the Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone map. Although the plant has not yet been introduced commercially, it will be, as stock plants were released to Oregon propagators in 1971. A specimen of this is now in our collection at the Arnold Arboretum and is being observed for performance under our conditions. Pinus ponderosa 'Canyon Ferry Dwarf' This is registered by Mr. Clayton Berg, The Valley Nursery, Box 845, Helena, Montana 59601. In 1966 Mr. Berg discovered a witches'-broom growth on an old specimen of P. ponderosa growing along the east shore slope of the Canyon Ferry Reservoir, Lewis and Clark County, Montana. Scion material was sent to the Morton Arboretum in 1969, and the resulting plants are to be given the name of their point of origin. Pinus strobus 'Lenore' Mr. Henry Vaughn-Eames, RD 1, Stockton, New Jersey 08559 l discovered the original plant in the middle of a plantation of three or four thousand white pines while scouting for plants to use on a state highway planting. The seedlings originally came from the Washington Crossing New Jersey State Nursery and were planted as a soil conservation measure in Somerset County near Far Hills, New Jersey about 1952. The plant has been registered for Mr. Vaughn-Eames by Dr. Robert B. Clark, Plant Taxonomist, Highland Park Herbarium, 375 Westfall Road, Rochester, New York 14620. It is characterized mainly by its extremely fastigiate habit and differs from P. strobus 'Fastigiata' in the shortness of its branches. The original specimen which has been moved to Mr. VaughnEames' property in Stockton, New Jersey is over twenty feet tall and only six feet wide. From a photograph supplied by Mr. Vaughn-Eames, the uppermost branches appear to be spreading considerably more than the lowermost, but the plant is still distinctly more columnar in form than P. strobus 'Fastigiata'. Mr. Vaughn-Eames has donated a small specimen to be grown and observed in our collection at the Arnold Arboretum. 282 Prunus armeniaca 'Autumn Royal' This originated at the L. E. Cooke Co., 26333 Road 140, Visalia, California 93277, and was first offered in the L. E. Cooke Co., nursery sales catalog for 1969. It is a sport Blenheim Apricot and bears Plant Patent No. 2906. It is described as a new and distinct variety of Apricot, which is large, vigorous, vase-shaped and densely branched. It is self-fertile and very productive, bearing medium sized, freestone fruit which ripens approximately seven weeks later than the Royal Blenheim apricot. The skin at the suture line is pronounced. Hardiness outside the San Joaquin Valley, California is unknown, but the L. E. Cooke Company has provided the Arnold Arboretum with young plants of this and the next two cultivars for observation in our collection. Prunus armeniaca 'Golden Amber' This was originally raised by Mr. Willard Clayton Hill, 3430 S. Santa Fe Avenue, Visalia, California. The introducer and patent holder is the L. E. Cooke Company, 26333 Rd. 140, Visalia, California. (Patent No. 3067). It was first described in the 1969 sales catalog of the L. E. Cooke Company. The plant is characterized as being a new and distinct variety of apricot tree which is large, vigorous, vase-shaped, and densely branched. It is self-fertile and very productive, regularly bearing large sized, freestone fruit. This variety has a long progressive blooming and ripening period, and its pit is bum resistant. At present, its hardiness is unknown outside the San Joaquin Valley, California. Prunus 'Purple Pony' This purple-leaved variety of Flowering Plum is also an introduction of the L. E. Cooke Co., 26333 Rd. 140, Visalia, California 93277. The originator is Mr. Walter Krause of Reedley, California who found the original plant at Merced, California in 1962. The parent plants are unknown. It has not yet been introduced commercially, and is still undergoing trials at the L. E. Cooke Co., and on the East Coast at the Arnold Arboretum. The plant is described by Mr. G. R. Daniels, Production Manager for the L. E. Cooke Company as being a semi-dwarf which grows at about only 60% of the rate of the well known P. 'Thundercloud', another purple-leaved variety. It has the characteristic of holding its purple color in temperatures above 100 degrees, leaves being as intensely colored at the end of the growing season as the beginning. In observations of this variety I 283 since 1962, it has not produced a single fruit. Blossoms are single-pink. Hardiness is presently not known outside the San Joaquin Valley, California. However, the Arboretum is now growing plants at the Case Estates which were supplied by the L. E. Cooke Company. Should it prove hardy, and adaptable to other conditions here, it would be worthy of much greater trial, as in our own observations we found the foliage color to be better (more reddish-purple) than other varieties in our collection, and on young plants it was retained better at the end of the growing season. Taxus baccata 'Davie' A new variety of English Yew which \"volunteered\" in the garden of Mrs. David Metheny, 2801-46th Avenue West, Seattle, Washington 98199 about nine years ago. A description of the plant received from Mrs. Metheny in December, 1970 states that ... \"At the present date the tree is 23 cm. high, with a maximum spread of 11 cm. Trunk diameter at ground level is 1 cm. Branching pattern is ascending to erect and compact. Leaf length to 1.5 cm. Mature leaf color is basically dark green (RHS Horticultural Color Chart 136 B), with margins and distal ends pale yellow-white (158 D) where exposed to light.\" Hardiness is presently unknown. In Mrs. Metheny's garden the plant exhibited no damage at all, in an unprotected location, from low temperatures of 15F in January, 1963 and 9F in December, 1968. Taxodium ascendens 'Prairie Sentinel' Mr. Earl Cully of the Cully Nursery, RR #5, Jacksonville, Illinois 62650 deserves credit for searching out and introducing superior forms of the Pond Cypress, Taxodium ascendens, and the Bald Cypress, T. distichum, two native American trees whose horticultural potential has for too long been neglected. This, and the following cultivar are the latest introductions from the Cully Nursery. T. ascendens 'Prairie Sentinel' was first observed in December, 1968 growing in White County in Southeastern Illinois. Mr. Earl Cully describes its main distinguishing characteristics from other forms of Pond Cypress as: 1.) its more rapid growth in height; 2.) its distinctive angle of numerous primary branches which leave the main stem at an angle of 65 to 70 below the vertical, and 3.) the very uniformly short branch length, the length of its lower branches not exceeding one-twelfth of 284 height. The original specimen is estimated to be approximately 30 years old. Mr. Cully further states that the plant is hardy in all of Zone 4 and the southern part of Zone 3. It will grow well in a very moist soil and also is equally suited to an upland site. It is very tolerant of air pollution. Patent is being applied for. Readers in the Boston area are probably unfamiliar with the horticultural possibilities for Taxodium here, even though several specimens can be seen in the Arnold Arboretum. They are usually thought of as trees of the Cypress swamps of the south and generally not presumed hardy this far north. One of the better specimens in our collection is growing by one of the ponds near the Shrub Collection, a site which has long been considered the coldest spot in the Arnold Arboretum, generally approximating Zone 4 conditions of the Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone Map. Two other plants are in the Meadow, another moist lowland site also considered a frost pocket. the tree's Taxodium 'Prairie Sentinel', left, and common Pond Cypress, extreme right. Photo: E. Cully. 285 To say that much more experimentation with the two hardy species of Taxodium should be undertaken in the Boston area would be an understatement, and for this reason we are quoting here portions of a letter which Dr. J. C. McDaniel, Assistant Professor of Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, sent to Mr. Earl Cully in February, 1971: \"Because this genus, in the U.S., has been a source of choice timber, its value for ornamental planting has tended to be overlooked. I think that in the future its imaginative landscaping use will probably outweigh its strictly forestry use. In some respects T. distichum may be the most adaptable of all the gymnosperms. Native from Southern Florida and Texas up to Delaware and Illinois, it has been cultivated successfully as far north as Minnesota, and in Ottawa, Canada. Add the Mexican species (T. mucronatum), and the native range (in the highlands) goes clear south to Guatemala ... T. ascendens, the Pond Bald cypress, though more restricted in its southeastern natural distribution, has accompanied the common Bald cypress, T. distichum in northern plantings, and seems equally hardy and perhaps even better adapted to soils with higher salts content and less than optimum aeration.... They are by no means confined to permanently wet soils, but can compete with most trees for use on upland sites. \"Besides having greater north to south adaptation than any of the other deciduous gymnosperms (including Ginkgo), Taxodium, I believe, excels the other deciduous conifers (Larix, Pseudolarix, Metasequoia) in winter interest. In particular, it does not have the dead tree look of a leafless Larix. \"Cypress knees are general with T. distichum growing in wet soil (waterside, or with a generally high soil-water level) T. ascendens generally lacks knees, but in Florida will develop them on a low percentage of trees in certain native stands. \"The greatest field for selection is in clonal variation for vigor, branching character and foliage quality. While broad-spreading trees are more common in T. mucronatum, and narrow crowns more prevalent in T. ascendens, both of these types can be found within the variable T. distichum. Even T. ascendens has some individuals and populations with spread equalling or exceeding height. For northern use, the preference may go to trees that show relatively early change to the attractive redbrown autumn coloration. T. ascendens generally, and many trees in T. distichum show a lack of noticeable spider mite infestation which can consistently damage the appearance of some more susceptible clones in midsummer. Resistant trees ... would have a considerable advantage for general planting. 286I There are apparently clones highly resistant to infestation by the gall-forming insects that (as far north as Urbana) can be profuse on many other clones in the same planting.... \"You and others have proved the clonal uniformity of grafted trees, the relative ease of grafting, and the lack of incompatibility in Taxodium\/Taxodium graft combinations. Some degree of success has been had here with rooting T. distichum cuttings, even from old clones, but much less than with the more evergreen T. mucronatum, in which it is considered commercially feasible ... more experimenting needs to be done on cutting rooting with both T. ascendens and T. distichum, but meanwhile, grafting of cultivars from both these species is quite practical as a nursery method. \"Some selection of seed sources for nursery propagation is in order. While the seed source, within T. distichum, seems to have little influence on the hardiness of seedlings (some from near Orlando, Florida have been quite hardy at Gilman, Illinois), Anderson, at the Missouri Botanical Garden, found seedlings from southwest Texas to excel others in being unappetizing to rabbits in their earlier years, probably as a result of natural selection. \"Beauty is in the eyes of the beholder, of course, but we are in good company in regarding bald cypresses (in the northern states) as aesthetically graceful, rugged trees. Under more southern swamp conditions, where festooned with Spanish moss, the word for bald cypress may be picturesque, rather than beautiful. But we are considering it as a tree for cultivation in the man-made landscape, outside the southern swamps, and here, think it has a combination of desirable features not quite matched by any other large growing deciduous trees. With named cultivars, we can repeat and emphasize the beauty of an individual by using avenues of the same uniform clone, or else plant a grove of contrasting clones, with ascending and spreading trees together. The Mexicans have adopted T. mucronatum as their national tree. With good reason, T. distichum and T. ascendens, once they are available in superior cultivar forms should be very prominent among the really choice ornamental trees planted north, way north, of the border.\" Taxodium distichum 'Shawnee Brave' This is a second registration from Mr. Earl Cully, Cully Nursery, RR 5, Jacksonville, Illinois 62650. The original plant is growing in Johnson County, southern Illinois and is approximately 40 years old. It was first observed by Mr. Cully in 1968 287 Cully lists the following characcultivar: 1.) Rapid straight growth of its central trunk; 2.) Abundant production of lateral primary branches; 3.) Angle of branching 45 to 50 below the vertical for the primary branches, and secondary and tertiary branching usually at increasing angles from the top of the tree downward giving a fuller than usual crown to this tree; 4.) Relatively short branches resulting in a tightly pyramidal crown. The plant is hardy in Zone 4 and the lower half of Zone 3. It will grow well in soils ranging from pH 4 to 7 in both moist lowland situations and upland sites. It is tolerant of air pollution. Patent was being applied for as of the date of registration in October, 1971. and propagated in 1969. Mr. new teristics for this Tsuga canadensis 'Narragansett' Mr. James W. Brandley, 212 Lowden Street, Pawtucket, Rhode Island 02860 discovered the original as a bud sport growing on a specimen of normal Tsuga canadensis in Providence, R.I. in 1958. In Mr. Brandley's words, \"The original sport was roughly round, low and spreading and concave. It was approximately two feet in diameter and, judging from the annual growth, was about twenty years old. It was growing on a branch about ten feet from the ground in dense shade. Two years later it died.\" An original graft from the above was sent to the Arnold Arboretum in 1964 by Mr. Brandley. ROBERT S. HEBB "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Weather Station Data","article_sequence":3,"start_page":289,"end_page":289,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24585","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160af6d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum ARNOLD ARBORETUM WEATHER STATION DATA 1971 Average temperature for 1971: 50.8 Precipitation for 1971: 36.73 inches Snowfall during winter 1970-1971: 38.8 inches Warmest temperature: 97 on July 10, 1971 Coldest temperature: -9 on January 19, 1971 Date of last frost in spring: April 28, 1971 Date of first frost in autumn: November 5, 1971 Growing season for 1971 was 190 days * * Growing season The growing season is defined as the number of days between the last day with killing frost in spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. - ALFRED J. FORDHAM Left: Sambucus canadensis. Photo: P. Bruns 289 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Abnormal Leaf Retention on Introduced Trees in Autumn 1971","article_sequence":4,"start_page":290,"end_page":291,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24583","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160ab6f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"290 ABNORMAL LEAF RETENTION ON INTRODUCED TREES IN AUTUMN 1971 1 In autumn of 1971 native trees in the Boston area exhibited of colored foliage. In keeping with the normal course of events, these trees went on to shed their leaves. Some exotic trees, however, did not follow this customary pattern. Norway (Acer platanoides) and Japanese maples (A. palmatum) and European linden (Tilia europaea) among other subjects, did not form abscission layers and retained their leaves until long after the native trees had shed theirs. Autumn foliage of Acer griseum (Paper bark maple) is usually brilliantly tinted from yellow through orange to deep red. In 1971 its leaves did not undergo color change and remained on the trees until November 22nd when they were pulled from the branches by a four-inch fall of wet, clinging snow. The extraordinary leaf retention on trees not native might be explained by the exceptionally mild autumn weather that prevailed in 1971. Figures kept at the United States Weather Bureau in Boston reveal the following: Summer of 1971 proved to be the sunniest in 14 years and the warmest in 16 years. Temperatures for September and October exceeded normal by 3 and 5 percent respectively. In fact, the third warmest October in the 142-year history of the Boston Weather Bureau occurred in 1971. In December of 1971, the author visited Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, Pa., Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Md., the U.S.D.A. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. The phenomenon of abnormal leaf retention similar to that seen in Boston was noted at these locations, as well as in other parts of the northeast. The trees which retained their leaves went through the usual stages of hardening in preparation for surviving the cold of winter. All those under observation foliated in a normal manner with the advent of spring. a good display ALFRED J. FORDHAM Right: Acer griseum. Photo: P. Bruns R "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":292,"end_page":294,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24584","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160af28.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews The Arboriculturist's Companion. N. D. G. James. Oxford, Eng.: Basil Blackwell. 1972. 237 pages, illustrated. 3.15 net. The author has used an outline style to cover the broad field of arboriculture from the selection of the proper tree through the legal responsibilities and regulations. In some instances detail and reasons for his recommendations are not as complete as might be desired, especially by one not already conversant with the practices. Any reader not in Great Britain will need to interpret some of the terms and must realize differences in legal regulations and responsibilities. Two forms which had me guessing the first time or two I read them were hessian (we call it burlap) and secateurs (we call them hand pruning shears). A \"companion\" to the arboriculturalist to remind him of all the phases of tree culture. R. G. W. The White Flower Farm Garden Book. Amos Pettingill. New York: Alfred A. Knopf. 1971. 365 pages, 215 line drawings, 36 half-tones, one map. $10.00. Most gardeners are familiar with the nursery catalog called \"The Garden Book\" if for no other reason than that it costs $2.50. It is published by the White Flower Farm of Litchfield, Connecticut and has been described as a \"notoriously truthspeaking catalog ... with useful, bluntly informative advice.\" The author of the White Flower Farm Garden Book claims that it is not just this catalog put between hard covers. The publisher claims there is a \"wealth of new information and new illustrations\" in the book. Among the new things the author has contributed are a \"lively account of his gardening life and philosophy\". However, it appears that almost all of the catalog is included in the book with minor changes. The catalog, for example, says Allium giganteum flowers last three weeks in water when cut. The book is more conservative; it says they last only two. Included in the book are 215 excellent pen and ink drawings of Nils Hogner which add greatly to the usefulness of the book. 292 293 The 36 half-tones include seven pictures of the author; five with a pipe in his mouth and two without. As almost everyone has known for some time, the whimsical name Amos Pettingill is the pseudonym of William B. Harris, the owner of White Flower Farm and now the author of this book. There is no questioning the fact that the catalog is a mine of tartly presented and especially helpful advice to the gardener. It will be up to the buyer to decide whether or not the additional material supplied by the author and the hard cover are worth the difference of $7.50. G. H. P. Diseases of the Cultivated Plants of the Southwest. Rubert Burley Streets, Sr. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. 1969. 390 pages, illustrated. $9.50. Each section of the country has its own particular disease problems, but a group of diseases remain that are found throughout the country. It is on this basis that this book is noticed here. The descriptions of the diseases are clear and, most important, the black and white photographs generally seem to show that which they were intended to illustrate. The book is well produced and seems well worth the modest price. G. P. DEW. Plant and Soil Water Relationships: A Modern Synthesis. Paul J. Kramer. New York: McGraw-Hill. 1969. 482 pages, with illustrations and diagrams. $16.00. The college textbook type of literary production is not generally a very easy kind of book to digest. The ponderous style is more conducive to sleep than to appreciation. However, the book under notice is important for anyone concerned with the problems of tree growth; in particular, tree growth in cities. The parameters imposed by soil conditions are among the most important limitations a tree has to face. This book is a useful synthesis by the acknowledged authority on plant-water rela- tionships. G. P. DEW. Topiary and Ornamental Hedges. Miles Hadfield. New York: St. Martin's Press. 1971. 100 pages, illustrated. $12.50. Either you like topiary or you don't; I've never met anyone who was lukewarm on the subject. If you do like topiary, you also will like this book. Miles Hadfield sets his history of these \"elaborate artificialities\" in the social and intellectual context of the times which produced them and makes topiary an ex- 294 of its age rather than a pruner's whimsy. The history takes up half of the book's 100 pages. The rest of the book is devoted to the practical facets of the art with thirty pages running from Acer to Tsuga detailing how each species can be used as hedge or ornament. Just in case you have been wondering what to do with that overgrown Taxus at the corner of your house, there is a neat cake stand with handle pictured opposite page forty-nine that should solve your pression problem. D. M. V. Native Trees of Canada. 7th edition. R. C. Hosie. Ottawa: Queen's Printer for Canada. 1969. 380 pages, illustrated. $5.00. This very fine book should prove useful to anyone interested in identifying trees, both in Canada and the northern areas of the United States. For each species there is a distribution map (only the Canadian range, however); a habit drawing; excellent black-and-white photographs of various features such as leaves, flowers, fruits, buds, bark, and habit; and a concise, non-technical description. The appendices include a section explaining the Latin names of the trees, a list of references on trees, and a very novel key in chart form. Many people are intimidated by keys simply because they find them hard to follow without previous instruction. Since this key is presented graphically, the mechanics of using it should be obvious to anyone. R. E. W. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23318","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060b76f.jpg","title":"1972-32-6","volume":32,"issue_number":6,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Medieval Park to Modern Arboretum: The Arnold Arboretum and Its Historic Background","article_sequence":1,"start_page":173,"end_page":197,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24578","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25e896f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Stearn, William T.","article_content":"From Medieval Park to Modern Arboretum: The Arnold Arboretum and its Historic Background In celebrating a hundred years of growth of an institution such as the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University primarily devoted to the cultivation and study of trees, it is natural even if trite to compare such an institution to a tree itself, above all to such an impressive sturdy long-lived tree as an oak, and then to seek analogies of development, elaborating the simile in a manner worthy of an old New England preacher somewhat like Father Mapple of Melville's Moby Dick. Thus tree-like, one might say, the Arnold Arboretum thrusts its roots deep into good hard earth such as solid Boston and Cambridge banking accounts provide, pushes out its dollar-fed branches slowly but strongly in many directions to resist wind and tempest, i.e. depressions, slumps, inflations, lawsuits, hurricanes and the like, towers massively above other institutions of more recent sprouting and displays its abundant foliage, both actual and figurative, for all to admire. Such eloquent comparisons can, however, be carried too far. The Arnold Arboretum's publications appreciated by botanists the world over may indeed be likened to the fruit of our imagined tree but, unfortunately for this nice simile, the fruit of an oak is most appreciated by crows and swine! Nevertheless, the simile has its value. An individual oak, while possessing its own particular characteristics as an individual, grows mainly the way it does because of events which happened even before it started as an acorn, sometimes very long before that. The Arnold Arboretum during its hundred years of growth has certainly been shaped by influences going back some two hundred or more years earlier. Hence, I have thought fit here not to concentrate on this New England institution in its present laudable state but instead to indicate its Old England antecedents by showing how the modern arboretum, 173 174 by the Arnold Arboretum, has developed English deer park, by way of the 18thcentury landscaped park, through the interaction of anxiety over timber shortage and of feeling for landscape, which together led to an interest in trees for their aesthetic and scientific value as well as for their economic use. These provide the background to the development of the important features which, thanks to the driving power, the wisdom and the wealth of Charles Sprague Sargent, have come especially to distinguish the Arnold Arboretum. well exemplified from the medieval so James Arnold and The Founding of The Arnold Arboretum A little over a hundred years ago various worthy citizens of Boston and members of Harvard University learned that the trustees of the estate of the late James Arnold, merchant of New Bedford, Massachusetts, had proposed to found an arboretum for Harvard University out of the money bequeathed by him 'for the promotion of Agricultural or Horticultural Improvements'. Arnold, who died in 1863 at the age of 87, was a formidable man of strong physique and domineering character, high intellectual and administrative ability, and shrewd business sagacity. He was noted, according to a contemporary eulogist, the Rev. J. W. Potter, for 'his systematic industry, his indomitable energy and will, his very positive opinions and habit of very positive utterance', and so he became one of 'that successful and hi~h-mincjPrl rana nf men xx~hn s>, the ~~;;t ^-~,~ of the present [i.e. 19th] century were the merchant princes of New Bedford'. Extensive philanthropic interests, perhaps derived from his Quaker upbringing, tempered his possibly ruthless efficiency. He made his large garden at New Bedford open to all, so that it became a place of public resort and interest, as has the Arnold Arboretum commemorating him, and this garden was celebrated enough in 1844 for the landscape gardener, A. J. Downing, to request a sketch of it. Arnold tragically lost his wife, daughter and sister in quick succession and, having devoted the last 25 years of his long life mostly to charitable activities, he bequeathed his money for their continuation. The foundation of a public arboretum was among his intentions, according to his trustee, George B. Emerson, although not explicitly mentioned in his will. Apparently Arnold had made much of his vast fortune out of the destruction of the timberland of Michigan. By a twist of circumstances, his name for a century now 175 has been associated with an institution concerned for the preservation of trees. Emerson and his fellow-trustee, John James Dixwell, were certainly much interested in trees, the one as a botanist, the other as a planter; and if, as we must assume, Arnold really wished to found an arboretum, he chose his trustees wisely. The Harvard professor, Asa Gray, had also advocated the provision of an arboretum 'if every means for its support were to be had'. Eventually, in March 1872, the trustees agreed to transfer to Harvard University the Arnold fund for 'the establishment and support of an Arboretum to be called the Arnold Arboretum'. Fifty years later, in 1922, the man who converted their good intentions into solid achievement, Charles Sprague Sargent, wrote in the Arboretum's Journal that 'the prospect of being able to establish a useful institution would not have been encouraging, if the men interested in it had had at that time as much knowledge as hope and enthusiasm. For it is safe to say that not one of them had an idea of what an Arboretum might be, or what it was going to cost in time and money to carry out the provisions of the indenture'. Sargent as director had to learn all that the hard way. The word 'Arboretum' was then probably an unfamiliar one in New England. To Boston businessmen it may even have sounded like an exotic disease. However, Webster's Dictionary of 1865 would have re-assured them by its entry: 'Ar'bo-re'tum. A place in a park, nursery, etc. in which a collection of trees consisting of one of each kind is cultivated'. That sounds safely humble, innocuous and inexpensive. Trees look after themselves and the upkeep of an arboretum should thus be almost nominal, or so it might have been hoped. However, Arnold's trustees had more ambitious aims. The deed of foundation stated that the Arnold Arboretum 'shall contain, as far as is practicable, all the trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants, either indigenous or exotic, which can be raised in the open air at the said West Roxbury ... each specimen thereof shall be distinctly labelled, and to have the support of a professor, to be called the Arnold Professor, who shall have the care and management of the said Arboretum'. All this was to come out of less than $3,000 a year! Good Bostonians, the trustees evidently looked for a good return on their money. Arnold's trustees can be readily excused for their supposed ignorance about the functions and potentialities and cost of an arboretum. Founding an arboretum then was a new Ameri- 176I can activity, almost an un-American activity, but one made acceptable, respectable and indeed desirable by such worthy New England families as the Hunnewells and the Sargents. It was an imported concept. The reason is really quite simple. Trees, like clean water and clean air, are taken for granted until allost. The concept of an arboretum, which has reached its and most elaborate development here at the Arnold Arboretum, took shape outside America at a time when there were too many trees in New England and too few in Old England, increasingly destroyed in the one, increasingly planted in the other. most highest Destruction of English Woodlands in 16th and 17th Centuries and Consequent Timber Shortage The trees of England, down to the reign of Henry VIII, i.e. 1509-1547, supplied timber enough for the country's needs. Thereafter, with vastly increased consumption for gun-founding and ship-building, wherein oaks had so important a part, trees were cut down more rapidly than they were replaced. During the reigns of Henry's successors and especially during the English Civil War and the subsequent Commonwealth of 1649-1658, the pace of destruction quickened, as the demands for wood for building and domestic and industrial fuel rose, and there resulted a dangerous shortage of the right kind of home-grown timber. According to Stapledon (1935), the state forests in 1508 were asscaaeu d.& Iiaving about 124,000 trees fit for naval use but in 1707 there were only about 12,500 trees available to meet needs which had grown so much greater. Timber shortage and inability to control dry rot in ships could then easily affect the balance of power for maritime nations (cf. Albion, 1926; Ramsbottom, 1937). In 17th- and 18thcentury England they became matters of grave concern. Deserted by human beings for a hundred years, England would become as covered with trees as are the farms of New England left derelict for the last century. This has been indicated by the Broadbalk Wilderness experiment at the Rothamsted Experimental Station, Hertfordshire; here an area of cornfield left completely untouched since 1882 has now become a mature woodland of oak, ash, sycamore and hawthorn with some trees over 60 feet high. To be undisturbed, however, has been the fate of very little woodland in Britain and Ireland for many many years. King Henry VIII was not only interested in chopping off the heads of his discarded wives and chancellors. He ~ 177 . also interested in chopping down trees to make guns and gunpowder for fighting the French; his warships were the first to mount heavy cannon within the ship to deliver an effective broadside. In both activities he effectively used the Church of his times. He chose a parson, William Levett, to take charge of gun-making in Ashdown Forest, and a very good job he made of it, according to the economic historians. 'The event', Cipolla has said, 'marked the beginning of a prosperous era for the iron industry in Sussex and opened a new chapter in the history of artillery'. It also marked the beginning of the end of much English woodland. Thereafter the English not only made guns for their own use, they developed an export trade, and to stoke their foundries with charcoal they felled and burned the oaks, which the ship-builders and house-builders also needed. Cutting down 300,000 tons of timber a year, without plans for replanting, sounds like the North American lumber business in its 19th-century heyday, with Arnold and his fellow-merchants on the make, but this was in 17th-century England. The Civil War of 1642-1646 made matters here far worse; the Parliamentarians controlled the southern woodlands and their foundries, and during the war and subsequently these were ruthlessly exploited. By 1660, when King Charles II returned, the old forests were largely gone; as in later America, nobody had bothered to replant, because quick and easy profits are not gained that way. A calculation published by William Marshall in 1785 illustrates the heavy demands made upon English woodlands by the Navy: 'When we consider the prodigious quantity of timber which is consumed in the construction of a large vessel, we feel a concern for the probable situation of this country at some further period. A seventy-four gun ship (we speak from good authority) swallows up nearly, or full, three thousand loads of Oak timber. A load of timber is fifty cubical feet; a ton, forty feet; consequently a seventy-four gun ship takes two thousand large well-grown timber trees, namely trees of nearly two tons each'. Thus, after the Restoration, John Evelyn and his contemporaries had good cause to advocate large-scale replanting. was John Evelyn and The Influence of His 'Sylva' Naval timber having thus become alarmingly short, the newly founded Royal Society of London held a symposium in 1662 on this unacademic but economically and politically important subject, which led John Evelyn (1620-1706) to publish in 1664 178 Sylva, or a Discourse of Forest-Trees, and the Propagation of Timber in His Majesties Dominions, dedicated to King Charles, 'Nemorensis Rex'. The fruit of Evelyn's travels on the Continent as well as in England, of his observations, learning his and patriotism, it stands among the most influential of all books on trees, their characters, history, uses and cultivation. It sold over one thousand copies in two years and these copies, many of them, went into the hands of the land-owning gentry and aristocracy of England. They took its teaching to heart. Apparently, by the time of Evelyn's death, several million more planted trees were spread over the English countryside, but there could be no quick recovery. His book passed into many editions, and its title has been incorporated into that of many later works, notably the most grandiose of American dendrological publications, the superb Silva of North America (18911902) by Charles Sprague Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum. John Evelyn was a Royalist who travelled abroad for some years during the Commonwealth, and he was naturally very critical of what he found on his return. The improvident wastage and excessive short-sighted exploitation of English woodland especially appalled him, since, as he wrote, 'our Forests are undoubtedly the greatest Magazines of the wealth and glory of this Nation; and our Oaks the truest oracles of the perpetuity of our happiness, as being the only support of that Navigation which makes us fear'd abroad and flourish at Home'. His aim in writing his book was tn h~ln Pnc\"rP that `~~ch woods as do remain intire be carefully preserv'd, and such as are destroy'd, sedulously repair'd'. This loss of woodland he correctly attributed to various causes; destruction had been due not only to 'the late increased Shiping alone, the multiplication of Glass-works, Iron-furnaces, and the like from whence the impolitick diminution of our Timber has proceeded, but from the disproportionate spreading of Tillage'. However, he particularly deplored the 'exorbitance and increase of devouring Iron-mills', for which in those days coal could not be used. His attitude towards conservation of national resources by exploiting those of other people has now become commonplace among the developed nations of the world. 'Twere better to purchase all our Iron out of America, then thus to exhaust our woods at home', particularly as the New English 'are now become very numerous and hindred in their advance and prospect of the Continent by their surfeit of the woods we want'. The continuing destruction of trees had also unforeseen biological side-effects. Crops in East Anglia, a predominantly arable 179 early in the 18th century from depredations on scale by grubs of the cockchafer beetle (Melolontha very large melolontha). The Norfolk naturalist William Arderon (17031767) in a letter to Henry Baker (cf. Whalley, 1971: 37) made the following observation: 'I have heard some ingenious persons endeavour to account for the large increase of these insects from the decrease of Rooks in this county which they say greedily devour them in their grub state and that the decrease of these birds hath been occasion'd by most of the antient Rookeries having been destroyed by the large fall of timber trees which hath forced those birds to remove to other parts of the Kingdom'. Rooks nest only in tall trees. Evelyn was undoubtedly an effective propagandist because, as with population increase today, the dire effects of doing nothing were becoming all too evident. area, suffered a Bishop Compton's Arboretum at Fulham Among those inspired by Evelyn's enthusiasm must have been Henry Compton (1632-1713), Bishop of Oxford, then from 1675 to 1713 Bishop of London. The Bishop had been a soldier for a short time in his early years and was an enthusiastic gardener in his later years. Evelyn heard him preach at Oxford in 1673 and noted 'This worthy person's talent is not in preaching' ! According to Pulteney (1790), 'he joined to his taste for gardening, a real and scientific knowledge of plants; an attainment not usual among the great, in those days'. His zealous Protestantism having brought him into conflict with pro-Catholic King James, who suspended him from his episcopalian functions in 1686, Compton retired to the Bishop's Palace at Fulham by the River Thames and continued his planting of trees and shrubs. In 1751 William Watson surveyed the episcopal domain at Fulham and listed the trees and shrubs still remain- ing in Compton's arboretum (see Appendix) despite long neglect, having 'endured our rude winter, some of them, for almost a century' and grown into the largest specimens in Britain and maybe in Europe. They were measured by Lysons in 1793 and 1809, and by Loudon in 1835 (cf. Loudon, 1838, 2: 43). As Watson stated, 'Dr. Henry Compton, heretofore bishop of London, planted a greater variety of curious exotic plants and trees, than had at that time been collected in any garden in England'. This excellent prelate presided over the see of London from the year 1675 to 1713, during which time, by means of a large correspondence with the principal botanists of Europe and America, he introduced into England a great number of but especially trees, which had never been seen here beand described by no author; and in the cultivation of these fore, he agreeably spent such part of his time as could most conveniently be spared from his other arduous occupations'. His activities and correspondence were certainly not wholly botanical and horticultural. He was among those who plotted the overthrow of King James and who invited William and Mary from Holland in 1688; with 40 horsemen he escorted Princess Anne (later Queen Anne) northward out of her father's reach and he later marched into Oxford, naked sword in hand, as the colonel of 200 volunteers. He then returned to the care of his garden and arboretum at Fulham. The North American genus Comptonia appropriately commemorates him. Bishop Compton's relevance to the history of the Arnold Arboretum is that he appears to be among the first to plant a large collection of trees and shrubs for interest and amenity rather than for economic purposes; as a pioneer arboretum founder he set an example increasingly followed during the 18th century and he readily made his plants available for study. Compton died in 1713 at the age of 81. I plants 180 Old English Parks Long Bishop Compton's time, English landowners had possessed parks, some going back to the year 1200. As stated by Cantor (1965; cf. also Crawford, 1953, Patten, 1971), a typical medieval park 'consisted of an area of woodland and Pawure enciosed by an earth bank often with an inside ditch. The bank was topped by a wooden paling fence, the whole forming an impassable barrier to the deer enclosed in the park ... The primary purpose of the park was to retain the wild animals, principally deer of the red, fallow and roe varieties, which provided the landowner with sport and with fresh and salt meat'. These parks were essentially enclosed game preserves, but they also provided timber and pannage, since pigs fattened on the acorns of their oaks. They ranged in size from 30 acres to above 600 acres, such as Chillingham Park, Northumberland, which enclosed, from the 13th century onward, not only red before deer and fallow deer but a herd of the wild white cattle, still there though inbred for 700 years (cf. Whitehead, The chronicler Raphael Holinshed stated in 1578 that 1953). 'in evry shyre of England there is great plenty of parks, whereof some here and there appertaine to the Prince [i.e. the Crown] and the rest into the nobilitye and gentry'. Remnants of earthworks, once enclosing deer parks now vanished, still occur here surviving ~ 181 and there in the English countryside (cf. Crawford, 1953). The disappearance of the forests in the 17th century led to greater interest in managed woodland as a source of future wealth and to increased planting of trees within such parks. In the 17th and 18th centuries the English deer park was developed into a planned landscape and gave rise in time to a specialized development, the arboretum. The older parks probably contained only hunting lodges or adjoined a castle, but the main feature of the newer parks was a great house standing in isolation and dominating by its size and elevated position an area of grassland dotted with clumps of trees or widely spaced individual trees. The park was the production in a northern climate of a kind of savanna providing fodder and shelter for game and animals. Miles Hadfield (1960) attributes to the Englishman's love of solitude this 'placing his house in the centre of a park, well away from his fellows, or in an elevated position so that he might enjoy the view and the air, and at the same time be observed only from an unembarrassing distance', but by separating their stately residences from the abodes of lesser creatures the English landed classes also expressed their feeling of superiority. The older parks consisted essentially of rough uneven land not particularly suited to intensive arable cultivation, certainly not to the open-field strip cultivation usual in much of England before the Enclosure Acts. To make parks around the mansions built in the 18th century, arable farm land was sometimes taken out of tillage and converted to pasture ; even villages were moved so as to be a proper distance from the great house and not to blemish the view! The parklike quality of part of the English countryside, which we are now destroying, is much of it a legacy from the 18th and early 19th centuries. To quote Hadfield (1960) yet again, 'the rising class of industrialists, merchants and new rich from India and North America sought political power, pleasure and gentility through the building or acquiring of country houses. Soon, in spite of the vulgar taint of trade, they were in a position equal to and often financially sounder than the inheritors of the old parks and country seats'. Something of the same attitude prevailed among wealthy New England families. Without it there would probably be no Arnold Arboretum today. grazing - Importance of Trees Trees formed an dently an as Part of Landscape essential part of parkland scenery and eviappreciation of their value in the landscape influenced 182 the placing of them as interest in landscape and in landscape painting quickened. The planting of trees was an act of faith, of creative imagination and of confidence in the future of the estate, for few of the men who put in the little trees could hope to enjoy the sight of their maturity or to fell them for profit. There thus arose an interest in trees not simply as masses of timber within woods but also as isolated elements having individually an aesthetic value. In the 18th century such an interest among the aristocracy communicated itself, possibly through social emulation, down to local squires. This attitude towards trees arising out of heightened sensitivity for landscape was well expressed by the cultured and scholarly Herefordshire squire, Sir Uvedale Price (1747-1829), in his celebrated Essay on the Picturesque (1794) : 'It is in the arrangement and management of trees that the great art of improvement consists; earth is too cumbrous and lumpish ... themselves at once from the surface, and into the air, have a more lively and immediate effect on the eye. They alone form a canopy over us, and a varied frame to all other objects, which they admit, exclude and group with, almost at the will of the improver. In beauty, they not only far excel everything of inanimate nature, but their beauty is compleat and perfect in itself, while that of almost every other object absolutely requires their assistance: without them, the most varied inaequality of ground; rocks and mounl~nir,n. .~ll :a .-.1....~.. ~t 1..-.~..7-.. 7..1-_._ ,..4..... :4....1~ : ~...cuu.i..`.v,io w mvvno, ianco, ,.,..__. , .w~.... rivers, cataracts, is cold, savage and uninteresting.... trees are almost indispensibly necessary to picturesque and beautiful scenery. The infinite variety of their forms, tints, and light and shade must strike everybody; the quality of intricacy they possess, if possible, in a still higher degree, and in a more exclusive and peculiar maner. Take a single tree only, and consider it in this point of view. It is composed of millions of boughs, sprays, and leaves, intermixed with and crossing each other in as many directions, while through the various openings the eye still discovers new and infinite combinations of them: yet, what is most surprising in this labyrinth of intricacy, there is no unpleasant confusion; the general effect is as simple as the detail is complicate, and a tree is perhaps the only object where a grand whole (or at least what is most conspicuous in it) is chiefly composed of innumerable minute and distinct But trees, detaching rising boldly ~7~~ ,_ __ ...w....,.~.,~ um .~o parts'. This attitude, this feeling for the picturesque with trees as 183 a dominant element in scenery, has its parallel in landscape painting, quite a relevant matter because the aristocracy bought and hung the pictures and cannot but have had their taste somehow influenced by them. To quote Sir Kenneth Clarke (1949), 'in the greatest ages of European art, the age of the Parthenon and the age of Chartres cathedral, landscape did not and could not exist. It is only in the seventeenth century that great artists take up landscape painting for its own sake and try to systematise the rules. Only in the nineteenth century does it become the dominant art'. Whereas, during the earlier period, trees in a painting were mostly rendered conventionally as background material for human figures, painters in the 18th and 19th centuries, notably John Constable, observed an individuality in trees interesting enough for specific portrayal, a subject discussed by Hadfield in 1960. Constable's 'Study of the Trunk of Elm Tree' (Victoria and Albert Museum, London) is particularly detailed and realistic; oaks, elms and willows, mostly sketched in Helmingham Park, Old Hall Park, East Bergholt, Suffolk, and at Hampstead, form essential elements in many of his paintings. Such an interest in the individuality of trees underlies the whole concept of an arboretum. English parks for all their social prestige were by no means purely recreational landscape areas. They had a definite utilitarian function in the rural economy. As already mentioned, they provided grazing for sheep, cattle, and sometimes deer, which could find cool shade beneath their trees in hot weather, and ultimately they provided timber, of which the most important was the English oak. The comparison, made above, of the Arnold Arboretum to an oak rather than to some other long-lived impressive tree is a deliberate association, because between the two there seems a linkage not entirely figurative. They connect through a peculiarity of growth of the English oak (Quercus robur L. sensu stricto, Q. pedunculata Ehrhart) formerly very important. The main growth bud of a shoot may be at an angle from the main shoot; the result can be the development of very angular, curved or oddly bent branches providing angled timber much stronger and more resilient to strain than could be achieved by jointing and these branches were accordingly valued formerly in ship-building and housebuilding. Oaks develop such branches best when given room to spread. Evelyn, of course, knew this as did his contemporaries: 'they require room, and space to amplifie and expand themselves, and would therefore be planted at more remote disan 184I tances, and free from all encumbrances'. Parkland was thus the ideal environment for the oak; the oak was the ideal parkland tree. It does not seem far-fetched to regard the development of English park scenery as being strongly influenced by an understanding of the importance of spacing oaks. Introduction of Trees and Shrubs From North America During the 18th century some landowners interested in the embellishment of their parks sought diversity by the introduction of exotic trees, particularly from eastern North America. Obtaining plants and seeds was at first a haphazard affair dependent on the goodwill of distant and probably uninterested correspondents. As Peter Collinson (1694-1768) the London cloth merchant wrote: 'My Publick Station in Business brought Mee acquainted with Persons that were Natives of Carolina, and New England. My Love for New & Rare Plants putt Mee often on Soliciting their assistance for seeds or Plants from those countries. I used much importunity to very little purpose ... What was common with them (but Rare with us) they did not think worth sending'. Eventually, however, Collinson obtained the help of John Bartram of Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and formed a syndicate, having Lord Petre and Philip Miller among its earliest members, which ultimately comprised 57 subscribers. Herbaceous plants naturally predominated in Bartram's shipments but he evidently alcn cant CPPI~c nf ~arnnflv nl~,,r~ The ..,f interest :-..7i.i~~.. not only in Britain but also on the Continent of Europe led Gregor Kraus in 1894 to designate the years 1687 to 1772 as the period of North American trees and shrubs (Die nordamerikanische Geholze) in the history of the introduction of plants into European botanic gardens. Virginia, Maryland, Pensilvania, Dendrological Literature Concurrent with this introduction of exotic plants and stimulating by example an interest in trees were the large-scale plantings of trees by noblemen such as Viscount Weymouth who planted the American white pine or Weymouth pine (Pinus strobus ) extensively on his Longleat estate, Wiltshire; by Lord Petre who in 1741 and 1742 'planted out forty thousand trees of all kinds, to embellish the woods at the head of the park' at Thorndon, Essex (cf. Ramsbottom, 1938); and by the two Dukes of Atholl who planted larch ( Larix decidua ) at Dunkeld and Blair in Scotland. This interest stemming from Evelyn's 185 Sylva in its various editions led also to the formation of more arboreta containing a diversity of trees. Two particularly notable collections were those planted by Archibald Campbell, Duke of Argyle, at Whitton, Middlesex in 1720 and by Archibald Russell, Duke of Bedford, at Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire. A specialized development of the arboretum was the pinetum, a collection of conifers, one of which started in 1795 by Lord Grenville at Dropmore, Buckinghamshire, had by 1834 become the most comprehensive in Europe; it still exists, with a Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), raised in 1829 from Douglas's 1827 seed, now 31m high (cf. Mitchell, 1963). All this stimulated the production of dendrological works, the most important of these being the Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum (1838) in 8 volumes by John Claudius Loudon (1783-1843). This monumental encyclopaedic work must always command admiration and respect for its astonishing wealth of detailed accurate information about every kind of hardy tree and shrub until then introduced into Britain; the first volume, moreover, contains an invaluable historical account and survey of arboreta and the introduction of woody plants into cultivation. It would seem indeed as if the massiveness of trees inspires their devotees to massive undertakings, for Loudon's work has had such worthy successors as Sargent's The Silva of North America (1891-1902) in 14 volumes; his Manual of the Trees of North America (1905 and 1921); C. K. Schneider's Illustriertes Handbuch der Laubholzkunde ( 1904-12 ) in 2 volumes; H. J. Elwes & A. Henry's The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1906-13) in 7 volumes; W. J. Bean's Trees and Shrubs hardy in the British Isles (1914) in 2 volumes, with a new 4-volume edition in course of publication; A. Rehder's Bradley Bibliography (1911-15) in 4 volumes; as well as his Manual of cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1927 and 1940); his Bibliography of cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1949); and G. Krussmann's Handbuch der Laubgeholze (1959-62) in 2 volumes. Loudon, a follower of Humphry Repton (1752-1818), was profoundly interested in landscape gardening, for which woody plants are basic material, and his influence extended across the Atlantic, helping to form the ideas and methods of Andrew Jackson Downing (1815-1852), his assistant Calvert Vaux (1824-95) and the latter's partner for a time Frederick Law Olmsted (18221903), who laid out the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum. Thus early in the 19th century the concept of the arboretum as a collection of trees and shrubs grown for their intrinsic 186I interest and the allied concept of the planned landscape as a setting for the country seat of the wealthy landowner had become firmly established and had spread over the Continent of Europe. In Britain they were often united, and from here they later crossed the Atlantic to flourish in New England. Trees in Eastern North America Meanwhile, what of eastern North America and in particular New England? The Pilgrim Fathers landing here in 1620 found not diminishing woods as in their abandoned homeland but appalling vast and seemingly endless virgin forests of tall trees. They did not much appreciate them and they soon acquired the pioneer's belief that the best tree is a felled one. Their effect on the forests is all too evident. What of the effect of the forests on them? or, as John Updike asked in 1955 when parodying the magazine Life's issue on the American woman, 'The American Man, What of Him?' Obviously this question is best answered by Updike himself, in the simple sober prose characteristic of American journalism: 'Things were not always easy for the American Man. He came here in his water-weathered ships and did not find broad throughways, \"cloud-capped towers\" and a ready-made Free Way of LIFE. No, what he found confronting him in the fabled New Land was, principally, trees. Virgin, deciduous, hundreds of feet taller than he, the trees of the Colonization left their scars on his mental make-up in the form of the high rates of alcoholism, suicide, and divorce that distinguish him from the men of Continental Europe or Australia. While his brethren of the Old World were dangling perfumed coquettes on their silk-garbed knees he was forging inward ... while his woods-tested faith ... took on a new austerity and became Evangelical Methodism'. Nothing therefore could have been more remote from the thoughts of the founding fathers of New England than to found a New England arboretum. Their main concern was to get rid of trees, thus establishing a tradition which their descendants and successors have followed with ever greater efficiency. By the 18th century a landed class with many of the attributes of the landed ruling class of England and often emulating this had become established in the eastern American colonies, the Old Thirteen. Its members too possessed extensive manors and had come likewise to prize trees in a domestic landscape, which in 18th-century Virginia would be dotted with native American 187 trees, such as oak, tulip-tree, magnolia, redbud, etc. Washington, for example, records in his diary the planting of many trees and shrubs, mostly American, for amenity and use. Jefferson on his two months' visit to southern England took the opportunity of visiting and studying the most celebrated gardens and parks there, significantly noting that in his own Virginian park the aspect was to be broken by clumps of oaks, elms and other native trees, as 'the open grounds of the English are broken by clumps of trees'. All these, of course, were private estates. A landmark in the extension of such ideas of landscape design to public land was the establishment in 1831 of the Mount Auburn Cemetery, near Boston, under the leadership of Jacob Bigelow and under the care of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, with some 80 acres laid out as a landscape garden having groups of trees and shrubs. This preceded the public park at Birkenhead, Cheshire, England, laid out by Joseph Paxton in 1844, which so strongly influenced Olmsted. Later Andrew Jackson Downing, already mentioned as influenced by Loudon, published his Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening (1841) and began the movement for public parks in America. Among those he advised on layout and planting was Henry Winthrop Sargent (1810-1882), the uncle of Charles Sprague Sargent. Henry Sargent travelled in Europe in 1847 to 1849 and planted a pinetum on his Wodeneth estate by the Hudson River. Downing's most important disciple was Frederick Law Olmsted ( 18221903), perhaps the greatest of American landscape architects, sometime farmer, sailor, surveyor and journalist, who in 1850 travelled on foot through Great Britain. Significantly, he noted in his Walks and Talks of an American Farmer (1852) that 'there is probably no object of art that Americans of cultivated taste generally more long to see in Europe than an English park'. The wealthy landed men of New England took readily to these ideas adopted from Repton and Loudon and developed by Downing and Olmsted. Thus Horatio Hollis Hunnewell in 1851 set out on his 40 acres, which included a pinetum, to test a diversity of trees and shrubs near Boston. In this way, over the years, the English-style landscape park became transferred to New England. As stated by Stephanne Sutton (1970), 'from Boston to Newport, from the banks of the Hudson to Philadelphia and Delaware, were acres of elesometimes pretentious gant private parks and gardens', 'all immodestly calculated to arouse envy and admiration'. An - 188I interest in the diversity of trees and shrubs for planting and the establishment and maintenance of such large grounds had become part of the way of life of the wealthy New England society into which Charles Sprague Sargent was born in 1841 and through him these became basic influences on the development of the Arnold Arboretum. Without them it would never have taken the shape it did; indeed without them it might never have been founded at all. This background made certain courses of action seem reasonable, desirable and possible to Sargent. The estates of such men as H. W. Sargent and H. H. Hunnewell provided examples of what could be achieved under the climatic conditions of New England. C. S. Sargent's character and ideals, thus directed, in their turn shaped and largely created the Arnold Arboretum. Charles Sprague Sargent Thanks to the very informative and well-documented cations man on publi- the and to him natural, exercise of power overcame the many difficulties which faced him. As she says, 'he did not possess a democratic soul. He was haughty, stem, abrupt, stubborn, and sometimes tactless; he was also strong, clever, relentless, a good judge of men, and wealthy. What he lacked in scientific experience at the beginnina nf hic ~araPr ha rnmmanc?tar~ fnr ~.nfl= o`aw,~.~~~tyf=:'~ imagination and money'. By birth and upbringing Sargent belonged to the upper level of New England society. His creed was that of the proper Bostonian: 'I believe in the Fatherhood of God, the Brotherhood of Man and the Neighbourhood of Boston'. A Doctor of Divinity of the University of Cambridge, England, assures me that there is no Biblical authority for all this but that it can be accepted as an act of faith based on later revelation, to the enlightened. Otherwise in many ways Charles Sprague Sargent was an Old England landed gentleman in a New England setting. He had much in common with such a representative of the English aristocracy as John Russell ( 17661839), 6th Duke of Bedford, and of the English landed gentry as Henry John Elwes (1846-1922). The Duke of Bedford developed the arboretum of Woburn Abbey, Bedfordshire; he sponsored important botanical works by his gardener James Forbes (1773-1861), among them Salictum Woburnense; or a Catalogue of Willows in the Collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey (1829) and Pinetum Woburnense; or a Cata- Sargent by Stephanne Sutton, we appreciate how his aggressive, and can picture 189 Logue of Coniferous Plants in the Collection of the Duke of Bedford at Woburn Abbey (1839); he also took an important part behind the scenes in saving the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew for development into a major botanical institution which in influenced the development of the Arnold Arboretum. a keen much-travelled naturalist and arboriculturist, produced, in collaboration with Augustine Henry, The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland (1906-13). An important characteristic of the ruling class, to which they belonged, was their assurance not only in their own personal position within society but also in the continuing existence of their class, their power, their land and their possessions. Thus they developed their estates, made vast changes in their landscapes and planted trees even more for their posterity than for themselves. As Miles Hadfield (1960) has remarked, 'to us, who see the great trees lying conformably on the contours, the winding lakes, and the now decaying temples, the scene can have none of the immense significance that it had for those who saw only skinny saplings, the newly turned banks, the bare verges of freshly cut ornamental waters and the shrines of new masonry'. Looking forward to future maturity through slow development was part of the confidence of Sargent's social group and in such confidence he created the Arnold Arboretum. Another mark of the ruling class which values its possessions and intends to have and to hold them is its choice of able men from much lower social non-competitive strata to manage its affairs and to serve its ends. A ruling class survives only through the faithfulness and ability of its servants. The maintenance of the old estates depended on capable bailiffs, agents, overseers, head gardeners and keepers. That the Arnold Arboretum developed into such high repute was in no small way due to Sargent's judgment in choosing his men, C. E. Faxon, Alfred Rehder, E. H. Wilson and J. G. Jack, loyal poorly paid servants of great ability who trusted Sargent the autocrat and in turn received his trust and support, all in one way or another adding lustre to the Arnold Arboretum. Yet another mark of the old ruling class was its sense of quality, of contempt for the second-rate, possessing as it did the means as well as the desire for the best. In Sargent's case this is very evident in the publications coming from the Arnold Arboretum during his reign, above all in The Silva of North America, with its excellent typography and its exquisitely drawn and engraved plates, a very costly work but one of lasting utility and beauty. Thus he established a proud tradition. turn Elwes, 190 Conclusion The conditions which led to the foundation of the Arnold Arboretum in New England a hundred years ago have, as has been explained above, their roots in Old England some two hundred years or so before that, when from the medieval parks with their spaced oak trees there developed the landscaped park as a setting for a stately residence and from the anxiety caused by the ruthless destruction of the old woodlands there came a surge of tree planting and an interest in trees for their diversity and amenity leading to the concept of the arboretum, with emphasis shifting from their economic to their aesthetic and ultimately their scientific aspects. The Arnold Arboretum has, however, had a development unparalleled by its Old World and its New World predecessors. It has become an institution where woody plants are not only grown in diversity but are scientifically studied. The Duke of Bedford encouraged the study of his trees and shrubs at Woburn Abbey and thereby sponsored two notable books, the Salictum Woburnense and Pinetum Woburnense, but these were private isolated pieces of dendrological scholarship, resulting from the happy but unusual and not repeated collaboration of a scientifically minded duke and a scientifically minded gardener. When one studies the history of botanic gardens of the past, with which arboreta have often been associated, one finds a high mortality rate. Those which have survived have always been attached to a centre of botanical learning, as, for example, the botanic gardens at Oxford, Edinburgh and Cambridge, or have become centres of botanical learning in their own right, as the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The Arnold Arboretum has had a curiously anomalous position. Although legally attached to a major centre of botanical learning, Harvard University, it has nevertheless for over half its history been somewhat like a New England version of Kew but restricted to the cultivation and study of woody plants. It would seem to be the first institution anywhere thus devoted to dendrology and arboriculture as distinct from forestry and general taxonomic botany. This specialization which won the Arnold Arboretum its unique place of honour among botanical institutions was Sargent's doing. Inhabitants of Boston and Cambridge could enjoy its plantings of trees and shrubs; botanical scholars everywhere could use with profit its erudite publications. Sargent and his collaborators established its international reputation and their successors have worthily 191 maintained this. Those who plant trees need long views; they must be imbued with hope and confidence that their efforts will bring rewards to later generations. Those who study them need patience, tenacity, industry and ability in good measure. Such qualities manifest in those who serve the Arnold Arboretum today a hundred years after its foundation provide the best augury for its future. WILLIAM T. STEARN Senior Principal Scientific Officer British Museum (Natural History) London 192 Appendix [The following account by William Watson (1715-1787) of the trees remaining in 1751 from Bishop Compton's planting at Fulham Palace, the residence of the Bishop of London, is reprinted below from the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London, vol. 47: 241-247 (1753). The accepted binomial names for the species listed have been added [in square brackets] on the assumption that Watson applied the pre-Linnaean names correctly. Loudon in 1835 computed the height of Quercus suber (no. 32) at 50 ft., Q. ilex (no. 16) at 50 ft., Q. alba (no. 27) at 70 ft. and ]uglans nigra (no. 23) at 40 ft.] ] An Account of the Bishop of London's Garden by Mr. William Watson, F. R. S. at Fulham; To the Royal Society: Gentlemen, I some time since communicated to you an account of what remained of the famous garden of John Tradescant at South Lambeth, which you did me the honour to receive favourably: Upon the strength of which I now lay before you the remains of that still more famous botanic garden at Fulham, wherein Dr. Henry Compton, heretofore bishop of London, planted a greater variety of curious exotic plants and trees, than had at that time been collected in any garden in England. This excellent prelate presided over the see of London from the year lb\/b to 1\/1d; aunng wnich time, by means of a iarge correspondence with the principal botanists of Europe and America, he introduced into England a great number of plants, but more especially trees, which had never been seen here before, and described by no author: and in the cultivation of these, as we are informed by the late most ingenious Mr. Ray,* he agreeably spent such part of his time, as could most conveniently be spared from his other arduous occupations. From this prelate's goodness in permitting with freedom persons curious in botany to visit his garden, and see therein what was to be found no-where else; and from his zeal in propagating botanical knowledge, by readily communicating to others, as well foreigners as our own countrymen, such plants and seeds, as he was in possession of, his name is mentioned with the greatest encomiums by the botanical writers of his time; to wit, by Herman, Ray, Pluknet, and others. Mr. Ray,f in the second volume of his history of plants, which was published in the year 1688, gives us a catalogue of the rare and exotic trees and shrubs, which he had just before observed in the * - t Cap. Hist. Plant. Tom. II. p. 1798. xi. 193 bishop's garden, novisque et elegantioribus magno studio dique conquisitis stirpibus refertissimus. which he at that time called hortus cultissimus, nec minore impensa un- As this prelate's length of life and continuance in the see of London were remarkable, so we find the botanists, who wrote after Mr. Ray, most frequently mentioning in their works the new accessions of treasure to this garden; and of this you meet with a great variety of examples in the treatises of Dr. Pluknet, Herman, and Commelin. Botanical, much more even than other worldly affairs, are subject to great fluctuations; and this arises not only from the natural decay of vegetables, and their being injured by the variety of seasons, but also from the genius and disposition of the possessors of them. So here, upon the death of bishop Compton, all the greenhouse plants and more tender exotic trees were, as I am informed by Sir Hans Sloane, given to the ancestor of the present Earl Tylney at Wanstead. And as the successors of this bishop in the see of London were more distinguished for their piety and learning, than for their zeal in the promotion of natural knowledge, the curiosities of this garden were not attended to, but left to the management of ignorant persons; so that many of the hardy exotic trees, however valuable, were removed, to make way for the more ordinary productions of the kitchen-garden. I thought therefore, that the state of this garden, after the revolutions of much more than half a century since what Mr. Ray wrote thereof, would be an acceptable present, not only to the Royal Society, but to such persons likewise, as are curious in these matters. A Catalogue of the exotic Trees remaining in the Bishop of London's Garden at Fulham, June 25, 1751. [1]Abies foliis solitariis, apice acuminatis. Hort. Cliffort, 449. [= Picea abies (L.) Karsten] [2] Abies taxi folio, fructu sursum spectante. Tourn. 585. The silver fir. [= Abies alba Miller] [3] Acer platanoides. Munting. Histor. The Norway maple. [_ Acer platanoides L.] [4] Acer Virginianum, folio majore subtus argenteo, supra viridi splendente. Plukn. Phyt. Tab. 2. Fig. ering maple. [= Acer rubrum L.] 4. The Virginian flow- [5] Acer maximum, foliis trifidis vel quinquefidis, Virginianum. Plukn. Phyt. Tab. 123. Fig. 4. The ash-maple, vulgo. [_ Acer negundo L.] [67 Arbutus folio serrato. C. B. P. 460. The strawberry-tree. [_ Arbutus unedo L.] [7] Benzoin, Boer. Ind. alt. II. 259. The Benjamin-tree. [= Lindera benzoin (L.) Blume] [8] Cedrus Libani. Barrel. rar. Tab. 499. Cedar of Libanus. [_ Cedrus libani A. Richard] [9] Celtis foliis ovato-lanceolatis serratis. Hort. Cliff. 39. Lotus arbor. Caesalpin. [Celtis australis L.] 194I [10] [11] ramos extra se spargens, quae mas Plinii. Tourn. 587. The male cypress. [=Cupressus sempervirens f. horizontalis (Miller) Voss] Cupressus meta in fastigium convoluta, quae foemina Plinii. Tourn. 587. The female cypress. [= Cupressus sempervirens L.] Fraxinus florifera botryoides. Morris. Prael. Bot. 265. [_ Fraxinus ornus L.] Fraxinus folio rotundiore. C. B. P. 416. The manna ash. [_ Fraxinus ornus var. rotundifolia Tenore] Gleditsia. Gron. flor. Virgin. 193. Acacia Americana triacanthos, &c. Plukn. Mantiss. The honey-locust. [= Gleditsia triancanthos L.] Guaiacana, Pishamin Virginianum. Park. Hist. 918. The Virginian date plumb. [= Diospyros virginiana] Ilex oblongo serrato folio. C. B. P. 424. The evergreen oak. [= Quercus ilex L.] Juniperus Virginiana. Herman. Hort. Lugd. 347. The Virginian cedar. [= Juniperus virginiana L.] Laburnum majus, vel Cytisus Alpinus latifolius flore racemoso pendulo. Tourn. 648. [= Laburnum alpinum (Miller) Bercht. & Presl.] Larix folio deciduo conifera. J. B. Hist. I. 265. The larch-tree. [= Larix decidua Miller] Lilac laciniato folio. Tourn. 602. Cut-leaved jasmine, vulgo. [= Syringa laciniata Miller] Mespilus prunifolia Virginiana non spinosa, fructu nigricante. Plukn. Phyt. Tab. 46. Fig. 2. [= Viburnum prunifolium L.] ] Morifolia Virginiensis arbor, loti arboris instar ramosa, foliis amplissimis. Plukn. Phyt. Tab. 46. Fig. 2. Corylus maxima folio latissimo Virginiana, Raii Hist. 1799. [= Corylus Cupressus [12] [13] [14] [15] [16] [17] [18] [19] [20] [21] [22] _ _ cornuta Marshall] [23] Nux [24] [25] [26] [27] [28] [29] [30] Herman. Hort. Lugd. Tab. 453. The black walnut-tree. [= Juglans nigra L.] Pavia. Boer. Ind. alt. II. 260. The red horse-chesnut, vulgo. [= Aesculus pavia L.] Pinus sativa. C. B. P. 491. The manured or stone pine. [= Pinus pinea L.] Pinus Americana, foliis praelongis subinde ternis, conis plurimis confertim nascentibus. The cluster-pine. Rand. Hort. Chels. 156. [= Pinus taeda L.] Quercus alba Virginiana. Park. Theat. 1387. The white or Virginian iron oak. [= Quercus alba L.] Rhus foliis pinnatis serratis. Hort. Cliff. 110. Virginian sumach. [= Rhus coriaria L.] Robinia aculeis geminatis. Hort. Cliff. 354. Pseudo-acacia siliquis glabris. Boer. Ind. II. 39. [= Robinia pseudoacacia L.] Ruscus angustifolius fructu summis ramulis innascente. Tourn. 79. Laurus Alexandrina fructu e summitate caulium prodeunte. Herm. Hort. Lugd. 681. [ = Danae race- juglans Virginiana nigra. mosa (L) Moench] 195 [31] Siliquastrum. glabris. Toum. 647. Cercis foliis cordato-orbiculatis Hort. Cliff. 156. Arbor Judae vulgo. [ = Cercis siliquastrum L.] [32] Suber latifolium perpetuo virens. C. B. P. 424. The cork-tree. [= Quercus suber L.] [33] Terebinthus Indica Theophrasti. Pistachia foliis impar-ipinnatis, foliolis ovato-lanceolatis. Hort. Cliff. 456. The pistachia-tree. [= Pistacis vera L.] These just now recited are the remains of that once famous garden ; among which are some, that notwithstanding the present great improvements in gardening, are scarce to be found elsewhere. From the length of time they have stood, several of the trees are by much the largest of their kind I ever have seen, and are probably the largest in Europe. This account of them therefore is not merely a matter of curiosity; but we learn from it, that many of these trees, though produced naturally in climates and latitudes very different from our own, have grown to a very great magnitude with us, and have endured our rude winters, some of them, for almost a century: and that they in proper soils and situations may be propagated for advantage, as well as for beauty. For the exemplification of this I would recommend to the curious observer the black Virginian walnut-tree, the cluster-pine, the honey-locust, the pseudo-acacia, the ash-maple, &c. now remaining at Fulham. I cannot conclude this paper, without testifying in this public manner my obligations to the present bishop of London, who has with so eminent a degree of reputation filled those high stations, to which he has been called, not only for his repeated civilities to myself, but likewise for his assurances to me, that no care shall be wanting for the preservation of the very curious particulars mention'd in this catalogue. I have the honour to be with the most profound respect, Gentlemen, Your most obedient servant, W. Watson. London, June 27, 1751. Dr. Thomas Sherlock. 196 Some Sources of Information Albion, R. G. 1926. Forests and Sea Power. The Timber Problem of the Cantor, L. M. 1965. The medieval parks of South Staffordshire. Birmingham Archaeol. Soc. Trans. & Proc. 80:1-9. Cipolla, C. M. 1970. European Culture and Overseas Expansion. Harmondsworth, Middlesex (Penguin Books). Clarke, K. 1949. Landscape into Art. London (Country Life). Collinson, P. 1925. An account of the introduction of American seeds into Great Britain [a manuscript of 1766]. J. Bot. (London) 65:163-165. Crawford, O. G. S. 1953. Archaeology in the Field. London (Phoenix House). Edwards, P. 1962. Trees and the English Landscape. London (G. Bell). Evelyn, J. 1664. Sylva: or a Discourse of Forest-Trees. London. Fabos, J. G., Milder, G. T. & Weinmayr, V. M. 1968. Frederick Law Olmsted, Sr., Founder of Landscape Architecture in America. Amherst, Mass. (University of Massachusetts Press). Hadfield, M. 1960. Trees in British art. Connoisseur Yearbook 1960:99-106. Royal Navy, 1652-1862. Cambridge, Mass. Hadfield, M. 1967. Landscape with Trees. London (Country Life). Hadfield, M. 1969. A History of British Gardening. London etc. (Spring Books). Hedrick, U. P. 1950. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860. New York (Oxford University Press). Irwin, H. S. 1972. Short history of arboretums. Garden J. (New York) 22:6-11. rr_.____ ~ ,~n~ ~;.~:.~_:..l~t:. ,_'~\"^\". n17.,...L,_...,.VVi.,..F::I.V..-w-.,~,~n ;,~, ~hn o paischen botanischen Garten. Leipzig. Loudon, J. C. 1838. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britannicum. 8 vols. London. [Marshall, W.] 1785. Planting and Gardening: London. Mitchell, A. F. 1963. The Dropmore Pinetum. a practical Treatise. London (Forestry Landscape University Commission). Ogden, H. V. S. & Ogden, M. S. 1955. English Taste in in the Seventeenth Century. Ann Arbor (Michigan Press). Olmsted, F. L., Jr., & Kimball, T. Ed. 1922. Frederick Law Olmsted, Landscape Architect, 1822-1903. 2 vols. New York & London. Patten, J. 1971. How the deer parks began. Country Life 150 :660662 (16 Sept. 1971). Potter, W. J. 1868. A Tribute to the Memory of James Arnold. New Bedford. Price, U. 1794. An Essay on the Picturesque, as compared with the Sublime and the Beautiful; and on the Use of studying Pictures, for the Purpose of improving real Landscape. London. 197 R. 1790. Historical and biographical Sketches of the Progof Botany in England. 2 vols. London. Ramsbottom, J. 1937. Dry rot in ships. Essex Naturalist 25 : 231-267. Ramsbottom, J. 1938. Old Essex gardeners and their gardens. Essex Naturalist 26:65-103. Sargent, C. S. 1922. The first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum. J. Arnold Arb. 3:128-171. Sharp, T. 1950. English Panorama. 2nd ed. London (Architectural Pulteney, ress Press). R. G. 1935. The Land, now and to-morrow. London (Faber & Faber). Stearn, W. T. 1971. Sources of information about botanic gardens and herbaria. Biol. J. Linn. Soc. (London) 3:225-233. Sutton, S. B. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge, Mass. (Harvard University Press). Sutton, S. B. 1972. The Arboretum administrators: an opinionated history. Arnoldia 32:3-20. Updike, J. 1965. Assorted Prose. London (A. Deutsch). Watson, W. 1753. An account of the Bishop of London's garden at Fulham. Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London 47:241-247. Whalley, P. E. S. 1971. William Arderon, F. R. S., of Norwich, an 18th century diarist and letter-writer. J. Soc. Bibl. Nat. Hist. 6:30-49. Whitehead, G. K. 1953. The ancient white cattle of Britain and their descendants. London (Faber & Faber). Wyman, D. 1947. The arboretums and botanical gardens of North America. Chronica Bot. 10:395-458. Stapledon, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"From Witch Doctor to Modern Medicine","article_sequence":2,"start_page":198,"end_page":219,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24579","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160a328.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Schultes, Richard Evans","article_content":"From Witch Doctor to Modern Medicine: Searching the American Tropics for Potentially New Medicinal Plants \"And as there are discouvered new Regions, new Kingdoms and new Provinces by our Spaniards, so they have brought unto us new Medicines, and newe Remedies, wherewith they do cure many infirmities, which, if we did lacke them, would be incurible, and without any remedie for which cause I did pretend to treate, and to write of all things that they bring from our Indias, apperteyning to the Arte and Use of Medicine, and the remedie of hurtes and diseases that we doo suffer and endure ...\". ... Nicholas Monardes [transl. John Newes out of the New-found World\" Frampton] \"Joyfull (1596) The search for potential new medicines from the Plant Kingdom is not new. It has been carried on since man first became aware ot the variety ot ettects that plants had on his mind body. It is still under way. But we now have many advantages over man in all prior ages. We have millennia of experience behind us; a deeper understanding of what plants are and how they live; an intensity of modern technology to help us; and, what is more important than all of the other advantages, a determination to probe into the still virgin vegetal world for active compounds of promise for man's existence. Today we follow several discreet paths in our search for \"new\" medicinal plants. Some modern programs - ambitious, technologically complex and potentially promising have emphasized the random or semi-random screening of plants from all parts of the world for new organic compounds. Emphasis lies usually in screening for a particular kind of compound: alkaloids, glycosides, etc. One such program, carried out over a ten-year period by an American pharmaceutical company, examined more than 40,000 species for alkaloids, bringing the number of known alkaloidbearing plants to nearly 5,000. Although this kind of program and - 198 199 it is highly efficient. Alkaloids, for example, were unknown in 1800; in 1949, approximately 1000 were known; by 1959, 2175 were recognized; in 1969, the total number stood at 4350. Another kind of screening stresses pharmaceutical activity instead of chemical constituency. Perhaps the best example of this type of program is that carried out by the Cancer Chemotherapy National Service Centre of the National Institutes of Health which has screened more than 8000 randomly collected species for antineoplastic activity and which still continues. Governmental and private agencies undoubtedly will from time to time continue a variety of random samplings of the world flora, and these programs may be expected to yield more and better results with increasing sophistication of chemical and pharmacological techniques. As Farnsworth has said: \"... in the light of present knowledge and experience ... a random selection and testing of plants selected from a broad cross section of families and genera will prove of greatest value in attempts to discover new entities for the treatment of clinical 200 ~I is costly, malignancies\". Still another method of searching for new medicinal plants utilizes as a guide the ethnobotanical or herbalistic literature of the past. Programs based upon this method are costly in terms of the number of plants that can be investigated, but it is true that the literature of the past is voluminous and, except im isolated cases, has really not been systemaucaiiy combed nor critically examined. There are many obvious drawbacks to the use of the older literature as the only guide for surveys: the exact identification of the plant in question may be, and more often than not is, open to serious doubt, and uncritical diagnosis of diseases negates the value of many, if not most, of the recommended medicinal uses of the plants. The herbarium has recently been recognized as an unexplored repository of ethnobotanical references valuable in the search for new medicinal plants. There have been several surveys based upon reports of folk-medicine uses on the labels of specimens. The most inclusive of these surveys conducted by Altschul comprises a sheet by sheet examination of the 2,500,000 specimens in the Harvard University Herbaria. This survey, which uncovered 7,500 reports of interest, is at present in press. There is a wealth of ethnopharmaceutical knowledge in our world herbaria. Information stored away on herbarium labels represents first-hand observations made by the plant collectors themselves in the field. It is usually of much greater - 201 than reports in the various kinds of literature. It written down usually in the field when the report was learned, and, since the information is physically attached to a specimen, there can be no uncertainty about the identity of reliability was the plant. Ethnobotanical research amongst extant and still viable primitive societies represents undoubtedly one of the best avenues for searching out promising new drug plants. It is not an easy nor a rapid method, but time and time again it has proved its effectiveness. Knowledge or understanding of the medicinal uses of plants in primitive societies has been the subject of some of the most absurdly laudatory enthusiasm on the one hand, and of the most abjectly damning deprecation on the other. Some students may feel that man in primitive societies possesses a particularly penetrating perception of the attributes of plants, a perception denied to men of more advanced cultures; others have interpreted the many superstitious beliefs concerning plants and their properties to discredit absolutely all of the understanding of plants in primitive societies. We now know how much into error both points of view fall. A good the best example is provided by the discovery during the past forty years of a almost all from the succession of so-called \"Wonder Drugs\" Plant Kingdom and almost all from plants with rich ethnopharmaceutical histories in aboriginal societies. The \"Green Revolution\" uncovered the unbelievable muscle relaxants from South American arrow-poisons or curares; antibiotics from moulds and other plants are now known to have been employed in the Egyptian Empire; rutin comes from a number of species, some of them with a wealth of ethnobotanical lore; cortisone is a gift from sapogenin-plants that were variously employed by natives in Central America and Africa; cytotoxic principles have been derived from Podophyllum, a plant that enjoyed sundry medicinal uses amongst the Indians of the Northeast; hypertensive agents from Veratrum viridis, a species first brought to the attention of researchers as a result of native uses; khellin comes from the Amrrai Visnaga of the ancients; and we should not forget the many psychoactive agents from the hallucinogenic plants cryptogams and phanerogams - of the New World Indians. Not only have promising new drugs been won from these and other common plants. These native \"medicines\" have yielded many new organic substances and in addition wholly new categories of secondary organic compounds the existence - - - - 202 - of which was hitherto unsuspected. And all of these new chemical structures have provided science with novel bases on which the synthetic chemist may build even more interesting and possibly more promising organic molecules. In the prosecution of our search for potential medicines from plants, we must examine and evaluate any pharmacological activity. How often has modern man come upon important and new products with uses totally different from those amongst the native peoples whose knowledge of a strange property possessed by the plant first called it to the attention of sophisticated research? Examples are legion. Who would have predicted that a valuable ophthalmic medicine physostigmine would be derived from a tropical African liana used as a dreaded ordeal poison to administer aboriginal justice? How fortunate for modem medicine that scientific inquisitiveness led modern investigators to look at the curares plant preparations employed by South American Indians to kill, yet the source of alkaloids capable, in the hands of surgeons, of safeguarding life when used as muscle relaxants? And where would our intensive modern agriculture be without that greatest of weapons against insect plagues, rotenone, a compound discovered in leguminous plants utilized in primitive societies as fish poisons? Could we ever have dared predict that the intensely poisonous false hellebore, employed by certain North American Indians to choose a new chieftain through a dangerous and ~ ~.... ~~ yGuii~ mavc~, wvuiu yieia a valuable hypertensive agent? Wherefore it behooves the ethnobotanist and ethnopharmacologist to scrutinize all biodynamically active plants even those which, according to aboriginal belief, are so toxic that they are studiously avoided. The most noxious poison may well turn out, in the hands of a proper investigator, to be a life - - saver. remains to be discovered by delving into much has been discovered and which lies available to researchers but which apathy, neglect or disbelief bom of our well established habit of prejudgment has kept from the searchlight of modern inmore How much primitive pharmacopoeias? Nay - how vestigation ? Although ethnobotanical studies amongst living and intact aboriginal societies offers undoubtedly the best avenue of approach, there are not enough trained ethnobotanists to carry out the necessary investigations against the ever increasing 203 tion (Codex Ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa), as illustrated in the Paso Troncoso ediy Florentino) of the Sahagun Historia de las Cosas de Nueva Espana. rapidity of disintegration of primitive societies. Botanists are usually far too occupied with the work of collecting plants essential to their own monographic or floristic studies to devote the time and effort in the slow sleuthing essential to assembling the pieces of an ethnobotanical puzzle. They often do make observations of far-reaching value in indicating avenues for later extensive ethnobotanical studies. Too many botanists, however, have manifested definite hostility to and distrust in ethnobotanical investigation and have refused to heed native lore, even when it was easily available and obviously authentic. The anthropologist, likewise, has normally been so deeply committed to unraveling obscure or complex sociological enigmas that he is occasionally unable to signalize an important point of departure for the ethnobotanist. And the anthropologist is, unfortunately, often discouraged from the pursuit of proper ethnobotanical research because of the collection of voucher specimens, which has too often been portrayed by professional 204I botanists as such a complex and burdensome chore as to be distasteful or even impractical for an anthropologist. Inasmuch as there appears to be little hope for the immediate training of enough men specifically in ethnobotanical research, the botanist and, to a lesser extent perhaps, the anthropologist must take the initiative to tap the reservoir of knowledge amongst aboriginal peoples of the unusual pharmacological properties of the vegetal organisms of the earth. We can no longer afford the luxury of complacency. This priceless lore much of it admittedly of limited or no practical value - is too ephemeral in the rapid changes that today swirl around all primitive cultures. We can no longer afford to ignore reports of any aboriginal uses of a plant merely because they seem to fall beyond the limit of our credence. To do so would be tantamount to the closing of a door, forever to entomb a peculiar kind of native knowledge which might lead us along paths of immeasurable progress. Almost all of my own ethnobotanical search for plants of biodynamic activity which might indicate potential medical value has taken place in Mexico, the northern Andes or the western Amazon. In the approximately fourteen years that I spent in the hinterlands of South America, I collected more than 26,000 plants, a good portion of them with ethnobotanical annotations. The path from ethnobotanical discovery to the production of an accepted pharmaceutical product is long and more nftan than nnt rjnPC nnt ~1`t'IVP aY ;i definitive ending. But the first steps in any search for potential new medicines must be the botanical and ethnobotanical. The wealth of plant lore of tropical American peoples has provided me with a large variety of very interesting biologically active plants, some of which are presently under phytochemical investigation, others of which will soon be subjected to analysis. A few of these plants are discussed below. - _ II. In studying the \"medicinal\" plants of aboriginal peoples in the Americas, we must always bear in mind that those \"medicines\" with psychic powers are often much more important than those with purely physical properties. This apparent anomaly is easy to understand. Illness and death in primitive societies are attributed to the intrusion into the body of malevolent forces from the spirit world. Consequently, what more logical way of diagnosing and often even of treating illness than 205 contacting these spirit forces? There is in the ethnopharmacopoeias of most American natives one or more plants capable, through a variety of hallucinations, of transporting the medicine man or even the patient to the realms where the spirits dwell and enabling one or both to communicate with the source of the evils. These plants, to which the Indian usually ascribes divine powers, are the hallucinogens or the psychotomimetics. They are the medicines par excellence of aboriginal America. And there are diverse indications that the active principles of some of them may, when thoroughly understood, become important in modern medicine in experimental, if not in thera- peutic psychiatry. The number of plants employed ceremonially as hallucinogens is vastly greater in the New World than in the Old. Some of the New World hallucinogens are well known and have been now for a century: peyote (Lophophora Williamsii) in North America; ayahuasca, caapi or yaje (Banisteriopsis spp.) yopo (Anadenanthera peregrina) in South America; and the species of Datura in Mexico, Central and South America. A surprising number - and some of those chemically most interesting have but recently been botanically identified; and several have been discovered only during the past few years. The ancient Mexicans ate hallucinogenic mushrooms which they called teonanacatl or \"flesh of the gods\". In 1941, the identification of Panaeolus sphinctrinus as one of these sacred narcotic fungi initiated the twenty-five year long field research which has resulted in the determination of at least two dozen species of mushrooms (species of Psilocybe, Conocybe and Stropharia) as the ceremonial hallucinogens of a number of modern Indian tribes, especially in Oaxaca. Phytochemical investigation of these intoxicating mushrooms has yielded psilocybine, a wholly novel kind of tryptamine with a phosphorylated hydroxyl radical a structure not hitherto known from the Plant Kingdom. In the same period came the definitive identification through voucher specimens of ololiuqui (Rivea corymbosa) - the narcotic morning glory so famous in early Aztec medical lore. And a few years later the discovery of another hallucinogenic convolvulaceous plant, Ipomoea violacea enlarged our underof the use of the morning glories as sacred divinatory standing agents. Phytochemical studies succeeded in showing the unexpected presence in the seeds of these morning glories of ergoline alkaloids, principles closely related to the semi-synthetic lysergic - Waiha Indian extracting resin for painting arrows from Virola theiodora. Tototobi, Territorio de Roraima, Brazil. Photo: R. E. Schultes. 207 acid amide (LSD) and known elsewhere in the Plant Kingdom only in totally unrelated primitive groups of fungi, such as ergot, Claviceps purpurea. Both the narcotic mushrooms and the hallucinogenic momwere well recognized in the ethnobotanical writings of the early Spanish conquerors of Mexico. We know much about their use by the Aztecs because of the long diatribes against their role in the pagan religions. But their use retreated to the hinterlands under the tremendous persecution, and they were lost to sight. In an attempt to identify teonanacatl and ololiuqui, modern botanists assigned them to other plants. Their correct identification took about four hundred years. An ancient narcotic employed by the Indians of the American Southwest before the arrival from Mexico of peyote is the red bean or mescal bean, the bright scarlet seed of the leguminous shrub Sophora secundiflora. A highly dangerous narcotic because of its content of the poisonous alkaloid cytisine, the mescal bean fell into disuse as a ceremonial hallucinogen with the arrival of the relatively safe peyote cactus. Much of an ethnopharmacological nature must be learned about the mescal bean, a rather difficult task with its apparent demise as a re- ing glories ligiously important plant. Field work in Oaxaca during the past twenty years has identified several interesting narcotics: Salvia divinorum and two introduced Asiatic species of Coleus as sacred hallucinogens in the northeastern part of the state; two species of puffballs (Lycoperdon spp.) in the Mixtec country; and the composite Calea Zacatechichi amongst the Chontal Indians. The puffballs and the Calea are unusual in acting as auditory hallucinogens. The active principles in these psychotropic mints, the puffballs and zacatechichi are still unknown. - Similarly, we find that in South America such an important hallucinogenic snuff as yakee, epenti, nyakwana or parica the basis of witch-doctoring and of ceremonies in the northwest Amazon and adjacent parts of the upper Orinoco basins was unknown until the 1950's. We have recently learned that sev- eral V. species of the myristicaceous genus Virola V. calophylla, calophylloidea and V. theiodora are the basis of this snuff - prepared from a red resin in the bark of these forest trees. Furthermore, the chemistry has been elucidated: the basic active ingredients are tryptamines, especially N,N-dimethyltryptamine and 5-methoxy-N, N-dimethyltryptamine. The acanthaceous shrub Justicia pectoralis var. stenophylla is dried and pulverized as an aromatic additive to the snuff 208 made from Virola. A plant with many uses in folk medicine because of its pungent fragrance, it has recently been said to be the source itself of an hallucinogenic snuff in the uppermost Orinoco basin of Venezuela. The chemistry of several historically well known and long identified hallucinogens has recently been elucidated, showing that their psychoactive properties are likewise due to dimethyltryptamine and other tryptamines : the snuffs prepared in the Orinoco basin from seeds of the leguminous Anadenanthera peregrina, where it is called yopo, and vilca or cebil, and elaborated in southern South America from the beans of A. colubrina ; and the drink known in eastern Brazil as vinho de jurema and made from roots of the related legume, Mimosa hostilis. The strange but only recently discovered snuff of the central Amazon, rape dos indios, comes apparently from the fruit of the moraceous tree Maquira sclerophylla. Thorough ethnobotanical studies on this drug are still needed. Anadenanthera peregrina in fruit. San Juan, Puerto Rico. Photo: R. E. Schultes. ~ mote times in 209 The genus Datura has been used hallucinogenically from reboth hemispheres. The South American species to a subgenus, Brugmansia, and all six or eight species belong are trees. Many tribes in most parts of South America have employed these tree-Daturas, but the identity of the species utilized in a given area has often been uncertain. Recent studies have helped to clear up some of the uncertainties, but the discovery that the Indians in the high Andean Valle de Sibundoy in southern Colombia cultivate for ceremonial, medicinal and narcotic use curiously atrophied clones or races, especially of Datura candida, has greatly complicated our botanical and ethnological understanding of this solanaceous genus. The atrophied condition brings about not only morphologically monstrous \"varieties\" so distinct that they have precise Indian names - but, according to the native practitioners, they have different biological effects, indicating, of course, that the atrophied conditions may have affected the chemical constituency as well as the morphology. The basic chemical make-up of the genus, with its tropane alkaloids, is well known; but little or nothing is understood about the chemistry of these atrophied clones. Nor do we know what has caused the atrophied conditions of these trees. In this same mountain valley of Sibundoy, the Indians cultivate a solanaceous tree which has recently been described as a new genus: Methysticodendron Amesianum. Obviously closely allied to Datura, it may represent possibly a very extreme instance of the atrophied state so common in Datura in the region. But if this be so, then we are at a loss as to which species of Datura to assign it. The natives prize it as an especially potent hallucinogen and designate it by vernacular names pointing out its strength: culebra-borrachero or mitskway borrachero. Its chemistry, basally that of a tree-datura, differs from Datura candida in relative proportions of the several alkaloids present. Several other South American solanaceous plants deserve attention as recently discovered or recently researched hallucinogens. The Chilean endemic Latua pubiflora, reported in 1858 as arbol de los brujos, a powerful poison employed by Mapuche Indians to cause permanent insanity, has been thoroughly studied, from a botanical, ethnobotanical and chemical point of view, only during the last three or four years. It is only six or seven years ago that Brunfelsia was found to be employed in the Amazon as an hallucinogen. And the hallucinogenic - 210 the Colombian Andes, open to doubt durthe past dozen years, is now more or less settled. ing Even with such long known and relatively well understood hallucinogens as the malpighiaceous species called ayahuasca, even here there are exciting new discoveries. caapi or yaje In 1948, Tetrapteris methystica was found to be the source of an hallucinogenic drink in Amazonian Brazil, and T. mucronata is indicated by the Karaparana Indians of the Rio Apaporis in Colombia as a source of the narcotic caapi. It is mainly, however, in the study of admixtures to the Banisteriopsis drinks that new and fascinating discoveries are being made. For many years, ethnobotanists have known that certain Indians in the - status of Iochroma in I 211 ayahuasca, caapi or yaje drink made from the bark of either Banisteriopsis Caapi or B. inebrians the leaves of oco-yaje or B. Rusbyana to lengthen or strengthen the effects of the beverage. Only recently has it been ascertained that B. Rusbyana contains dimethyltryptamine, not the 3-carboline alkaloids present in the other two species. The leaves of several species of the rubiaceous genus Psychotria, especially P. viridis, are similarly used on occasion as additives for the same purpose. Chemists have also found dimethyltryptamine in these species of Psychotria. This represents the first known occurrence of tryptamines in either the Malpighiaceae or the Rubiaceae. Some of the other plant additives may likewise yield interesting organic compounds when they are analyzed. Mescaline, the phenylethylamine in peyote responsible for the visual hallucinations, has turned up in the columnar South American cactus Trichocereus Pachanoi, basis of the psychotomimetic drink called cimora and employed in Ecuador and Peru. A recent addition to the growing list of hallucinogens, this cactus-drink is employed as a sacred \"medicine\" in magic curing rituals. There are other narcotics or hallucinogens that bear further ethnobotanical and phytochemical examination: Lobelia Tupa, known in the southern Andes as tabaco del diablo or tupa, is apparently smoked in Chile for its intoxicating effects. Little is known about Desfontainia spinosa var. Hooherii and the rare endemic Gomortega Keule, both used in Chile as narcotics. The well recognized poison Coriaria thymifolia has recently been reported as a narcotic in Ecuador where natives sometimes eat the fruit to induce a sense of flight; nothing definitive is known of the active principle. The same may be said for the fruits of several species of Pernettya employed in Ecuador and Bolivia. westernmost Amazon add to the Waiha Indians sorting leaves of Justicia pectoralis var. stenophylla preparatory to pulverizing them to add to Virola-resin snuff. Rio Tototobi, Territorio de Roraima, Brazil. Photo: R. E. Schultes. 212 m. It is not only in the realm of the psychoactive plants that for potential new medicinal agents may reside. Recent ethnobotanical field work has uncovered a large number of highly interesting uses of plants in tropical America as physically active medicines or as various kinds of poisons. These plants all deserve study. They represent a range of great diversity in use and effects. Many of them belong to families from which active constituents have rarely if ever been isolated. Consequently, their phytochemical investigation would be, even if only from the academic point of view, illuminating and worthy of attention. Recent research has disclosed several new or rarely employed kinds of arrow poisons. One hundred and fifty years ago, the German plant-explorer von Martius reported that Indians in the western Amazon of Brazil and Colombia prepared a curare from a small annonaceous tree, Unonopsis veneftciorum. Although it is one of the rare curare-plants of the Amazon, this same basic ingredient has recently been discovered in use amongst the Kofan Indians of Ecuador. A wholly new kind of curare amongst the Kofans is elaborated from the lauraceous Ocotea venenosa. The plant contains bisbenzylquinolinic alkaloids. One of the chemical mysteries still to be solved is the identity of the active curare-constituent in the resin of several species of Virnln The ,.... ~I,C~, ...almy v uuiu theiodora, employed amongst the Waikas to prepare their hallucinogenic nyakwana snuff is likewise the source, with no admixtures, of one of their arrow poisons. These same Indians value the roots and fruits of the thymeliaceous Schoenobiblus peruvianus to prepare one of their numerous kinds of curare. The flacourtiaceous Mayna amazonica is also an ingredient of a Kofan arrow poison. The bark of Connarus opacus and C. Sprucei have recently been reported as ingredients of Witoto curares on the Rio Karaparana in Amazonian Colombia. Another fascinating and newly reported arrow poison is that which the Taiwanos of the Vaupes of Colombia prepare from the bark of the leguminous Ormosia macrophylla together with the bark of a Strychnos and of Vochysia ferruginea and the stems of an aroid (possibly a species of Philodendron). Interesting new types of fish poisons have also recently come to light in South America. The pulp of the fruit of a species of Caryocar crushed and mixed with clay represents a principal piscicidal preparation amongst the Kubeo and other In- hope 213 dians of the Colombian Vaupes. In the same area, two aroids are employed for the same purpose: the Desanos cut and bundle the leaves of Philodendron crasspedodremum and allow them to ferment and rot for several days, whereupon they are macerated and cast into still water. Another species of still not described, is similarly utilized by the Philodendron, Kuripakos of the Rio Guainia except that the leaves and petioles are crushed and used fresh. Nothing is known of the chemical composition of these two aroids. A fascinating new species of the bombacaceous genus Patinoa P. ichthyotoxica represents a rare fish poison of the Tikunas of the region of Leticia on the Rio Amazonas. The pulp of the large fruit is dried and kept for use throughout the year: it is simply thrown upon the surface of still inlets or ponds to stupefy fish. The Kofans of Colombia and Ecuador employ Schoenobiblus peruvianus, one of their curare plants, to poison fish. Recent investigation has shown that the Kubeo Indians along the Rio Kuduyari in the Vaupes fish with the leaves of the myrsinaceous Conomorpha lithophyta, just as the natives of Dutch Guiana use the leaves of C. magnoliifolia to narcotize fish. A most interesting newly discovered fish poison is the root of the acanthaceous shrub Mendoncia aspera, valued by the natives of the Rio Kananari in the Vaupes; phytochemically, this genus is wholly unknown. There are many species of plants in the western Amazon which the Indians avoid as toxic. These poisons warrant study as potentially biodynamic agents for, in some cases, they belong to genera or families from which active principles have never been found. Several cucurbitaceous species of Gurania and. Anguria are considered toxic. A large number of rubiaceous species, especially in Psychotria, Palicourea and Duroia, are believed to have dangerous properties when ingested. The resin that naturally exudes from Retiniphyllum concolor, R. discolor, R. speciosum and R. truncatum is said to be poisonous and, because of this characteristic, enters into certain magical rites practiced by the medicine men in the Vaupes. There are many apocynaceous species in this same category of suspected poisons, especially in Malouetia, Himatanthus, Tabernaemontana and Aspidosperma; chemical studies of some of these genera bear out the veracity of the native lore. Various members of the Flacourtiaceae some employed medicinally by the Amazon Indians are suspect, especially in the genera Mayna, Lunania and Ryania: Mayna muricida, for example, has poisonous seeds employed to kill rats, and M. toxica is held to be one of the most poisonous plants of the Vaupes forests. Lunania - - - 214 is said formerly amongst the Tikunas to have been added to the food to despatch enemies or unwanted visitors. Nothing is yet known of the chemistry of these flacourtiaceous parviflora species. Ethnotoxicological studies in South America have revealed that the Malpighiaceae deserve closer scrutiny as a family with interesting biodynamic constituents. Several species of Tetrapteris are either avoided as poisons or are bent to use in folk medicine by Indians of the Colombian Vaupes. Heteropteris macrostachya provides the Indians of the Rio Apaporis with an infusion made from the leaves and stems for bathing skin covered with what appears to be fungal infection, and the Sionas of the Putumayo value H. riparia in the treatment of gonorrhoea. Several tribes assert that Mascagnia glandulifera might be employed medicinally but that it is usually avoided because of toxic side effects. The same is true of several species of Hiraea, especially H. apaporiensis and H. Schultesii. There are many plants in smaller families that enter into the ethnopharmacology of tropical America, and recent work has greatly increased our knowledge in this direction. A few examples of the many must suffice here to indicate the extent and promise for intensified research into the medicinal potential of the tropical floras. The Kubeos of the Vaupes use an astringent tea of the dried and powdered root of Aristolochia medicinalis in treating inlj7Vllj17alc tmhn c\"ffo` Fm frequenti aiia4iLD Wllll:ll lllay be epileptic ; the infusion cannot be taken in large doses or too often because of the danger, according to native medicine men, of its causing permanent insanity and muscular paralysis. There are two plants that are used, apparently with some success, to relieve eye infections such as conjunctivitis which is very common in the Amazonian regions: the yellowish leaves of the bignoniaceous vine Arrabidea xanthophylla are made into an infusion by the Tikunas to treat eye infections; the Makunas of the Rio Piraparana cultivated the cucurbitaceous Cayaponia ophthalmica for this same use. An interesting plant, the red saprophyte Helosis guyannensis of the Balanophoraceae, provides the Tikuna Indians of the Colombian Amazon with an heamostatic powder said to help congeal blood flowing from deep wounds. Whether or not its apparent effect is due to an active principle or to the mechanical increase in surface due to the fine powder cannot be stated at present. There is also the possibility that this use was sug- 215 Above : Cultivated vine of Banisteriopsis Caapi. Rio Piraparand, Vaupes, Colombia. Photo: R. E. Schultes. Left. Detail of Banisteriopsis Rusbyana (Ndz.) Mort. 216 gested to the Indians by the bright scarlet colour of the mushroom-like plant. Many bitter plants are valued as febrifuges most of them probably without any positive activity against fevers except possibly to relieve stomach discomfort and nausea that often accompany malarial and other fevers. One of the most widely esteemed is a species of the solanaceous Brunfelsia, known in Peru as chiric-kaspi. Another species highly valued in the Vaupes region is the bignoniaceous Martinella obovata, from the root bark of which a strong infusion, reputedly rather dan- gerously toxic, The is prepared. America are ethnoof extreme interest and bear pharmacological toxicologically investigation. Quite aside from the importance of certain species of Virola as hallucinogens, some members of this family appear, at least from native uses, to be psychoactive. Campsoneura capitellata is the source of a tea which the Makunas and Barasanas give to warm natives \"who go crazy and shake all over\"; it is said to help \"to calm them down\". In Brazil, the resin of Virola Bicuhyba is reputedly a \"brain stimulant\". A surprising variety of myristicaceous species finds use in the western Amazon in the preparation of a wash for fungal or other skin infections or for infected wounds: Campsoneura debilis, Iryanthera crassifolia, I. longifolia, I. polyneura, I. tricornis, I. Ulei, Virola carinata, V. flexuosa, V. Schultesii and V. surinamensis. Thtrlna mv manv vP?rc nf h\"rnr=r.41 `.'.- lnrut'~~ :\"' `~y -,..--`H ,., ....... ~ ....t..... western Amazon, I encountered three plants used in the belief that they have properties that make them oral contraceptives: Philodendron dyscarpium, Urospatha antisyleptica and Anthurium Tessmannii. These three plants belong to the Araceae. The first two are employed by a number of tribes in the Vaupes; the third by the Tikunas in the Colombian Amazonas. Corroborative pharmacological tests have not been carried out nor is anything known about their chemical constitution. myristicaceous plants of tropical ...... IV. What of the future? How much longer will this fund of lore be available for us to tap in our search for new medicinal plants? The future looks dim. What we euphemistically call civilization is on the march everywhere. It has long been on the march, but its pace is now accelerated. Wars, easier tourism, the construction willy-nilly of roads, increased commercial and mis- ethnopharmacological sionary activity are penetrating vast areas, especially in tropical Above: Helosis R. E. Schultes. guyannensis. Near Leticia, Amazonas, Colombia. Photo: Below: Flowers of Brunfelsia sp. Rio Guamii6s, Comisaria del Putumayo, Colombia. Photo: T. Plowman. 218 itive I areas America - hitherto more or less virgin and left to prim- societies, if indeed they were inhabited at all. Our political leaders equate \"progress\" with destruction of natural resources. The forest is, to many of them, an obstacle to be removed. What concerns us primarily as ethnobotanists is the progressive divorcement of primitive peoples to a greater or lesser degree from dependence upon their immediate ambient vegetation. Even if peoples are not exterminated or eliminated by racial and cultural absorption, the arrival and cheap availability of the aspirin pill and quinine tablet, for example, seems often to start an astonishing disintegration of native medicinal lore. The rapidity of this disintegraton is frightening. That the aspirin may be more efficient than native herbal remedies and magic is not ours to consider here. What does interest us and is the almost certain loss in the next half cenworry us tury of the greater part of America's nature herbal lore. Our search amongst the Plant Kingdom's half million species for new medicines will then have lost a most valuable and promising field of exploration. RICHARD EVANS SCHULTES Director, Botanical Museum and Professor of Biology, Harvard University - > 219 Selected Reading von R. Drugs and Foods from Little Known Plants: Notes in Harvard University Herbaria (1973, in press). Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. Farnsworth, N. R. \"Biological and Pharmacological Screening of Plants\" in Journ. Pharm. Sci. 55 (1966) 225-276. \"Folk Medicines: Credible or Incredible\" in Tile & Till 54, No. 3 (1968) 58-61. Kreig, M. B. Green Medicine. The Search for Plants that Heal (1964). Rand McNally & Co., New York. Schultes, R. E. \"Tapping our Heritage of Ethnobotanical Lore\". Econ. Bot. 14 (1960) 257-262. \"The Role of the Ethnobotanist in the Search for New Medicinal Plants\" in Lloydia 25 (1962) 257-266. \"De Plantis Toxicariis e Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes VI. Notas Etnotoxicologicas acerca de la Flora Amazonica de Colombia\" in [J. M. Idrobo, Ed.] II Simpdsio de la Biologia Tropical Amazonica (1970) 177-196. \"An Overview of Hallucinogens in the Western Hemisphere\" in [P. T. Furst, Ed.] Flesh of the Gods (1972) 3-54. Praeger Publishers, New York. \"The Future of Plants as Sources of New Biodynamic Compounds\" in [T. Swain, Ed.] Plants in the Development of Modern Medicine (1972) 103-124. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass. and A. Hofmann. The Botany and Chemistry of Hallucinogens (1972, in press). Charles C. Thomas, Publishers, Springfield, Ill. and B. Holmstedt. \"De Plantis Toxicariis e Mundo Novo Tropicale Commentationes VIII. Miscellaneous Notes on Myristicaceous Plants of South America\" in Lloydia 34 (1971) 61-78. Spruce, R. Notes of a Botanist on the Amazon and Andes 2 (1908) chap. xxv, 413-455. Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London. Altschul, S. --- --- --- --- --- --- --- (Much of the information presented in the foregoing report was gathered and studied under grant LM-GM 00071-01 from the National Institutes of Health. ) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants and Gardens of South Africa","article_sequence":3,"start_page":220,"end_page":225,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24581","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160a726.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rycroft, H. Brian","article_content":"Plants and Gardens of South Africa ture Gladiolus, Kniphofia, Pelargonium, Freesia, Tritonia, Sparaxis, Gerbera, Strelitzia, Plumas are South Africa has contributed by providing such plants significantly to world horticul- bago, Tecomaria, Agapanthus, Streptocarpus, host of others. as Many grown gardens, public parks and private gardens while others, through the work of plant breeders, are now quite different from the species from which they were originally developed. Modem garden forms of Gladiolus and Pelargonium the latter usually referred to as Geranium - are typical of the plant breeders' skill. South Africa's contribution to world botany and horticulture started centuries ago. It is still contributing and will continue to do so very largely through the activities of the National Botanic Gardens of South Africa. Every year native species hitherto never cultivated by man are introduced into the Gardens, propagated and increased until sufficient seed is nrc~lmPri tn make it available free of charge to botanic gardens, other scientific institutions and members of the Botanical Society of - natural Nemesia and a species in botanic all over the world, South Africa in all countries of the world. In 1953 seeds of 550 species were offered and this year the number has grown to about 1,500. Before I expand my theme let me briefly list some of the contributions which the National Botanic Gardens of South Africa have made to botanical science. 1. They are plants. field laboratories for the study of South African 2. 3. 4. At Kirstenbosch and the Natal Botanic Garden at Pietermaritzburg they provide open air classrooms for instruction in nature study by full-time qualified teachers to classes of school children every school-day of the year. Class material is supplied to universities, training colleges and schools. Plant material for research purposes is sent on request not only to workers in South Africa but throughout the world. 220 221 no end to the type of research for which it is reHerbarium and live specimens are supplied for taxonomic studies on South Africa's native flora. Material is also provided for chemical, cytogenetic, morphological, anatomical, physiological, pathological and medical investi- There is quired. gations. The National Botanic Gardens of South Africa publishes the Journal of South African Botany which includes contributions embodying the results of botanical research on any of the various branches of the science which have a bearing on the flora of South Africa. 6. Many species rare or even exterminated in their natural habitats are cultivated and thus preserved in botanic gardens. A threatened species such as Serruria florida, the Blushing Bride, is a good example. In the Franschhoek Mountains (the only place where it is known to occur naturally), its future existence is very precarious. Soon after Kirstenbosch was established seed was collected and sown. Now we have hundreds or thousands of plants and from these seed is distributed to all parts of the world. The extermination of this species has therefore been prevented. 7. Although the long-term aim is to grow all the South African species in our botanic gardens, special attention is paid to the large scale propagation of the more showy and ornamental types to encourage municipal parks and home gardeners to take a greater interest in South Africa's natural flora and 5. 8. garden layouts. Apart from their scientific and educational value, botanic gardens provide areas for recreation and relaxation. This aspect is of tremendous importance and will become so more to use it in 9. is to advance in a world of hustle, bustle, cut-throat competition, noise, strife and uncertainty, he needs, and his body and spirit demand, peace, beauty and quietness. These he can find in a botanic garden. These contributions collectively have been responsible in educating and encouraging the people of South Africa to take a greater practical and enlightened interest in the study, cultivation and conservation of the natural flora of their man in the future. If country. I trust that I have made it clear that botanic gardens are of value to science and to man. The need now is to ensure that all or as many as possible of the vast number of species native to South Africa should be cultivated in botanic gardens. The 223 at Kirstenbosch was established in 1913 with this as of its main objects, and we must admit that it has achieved considerable success in that about a quarter of the nearly 20,000 species native to South Africa are at present grown there. However, experiencing a Mediterranean type of climate with heavy winter rain and summer drought it is not suitable for many of the plants of the semi-arid regions, the Highveld, the Lowveld or the sub-tropical coastal areas. The Karoo Botanic Garden was established at Worcester for the flora of the drier parts of South Africa and for succulent plants generally, some of which are not confined to the semi-deserts. Worcester, incidentally, has an annual rainfall of approximately 130 mm. (5ins.) compared with 1,500 (60 ins.) at Kirstenbosch. This development helped considerably to increase the number of South African species in cultivation. Some time later the Botanical Research Institute created its Pretoria National Botanic Garden to function largely as an adjunct to the National Herbarium - a living herbarium we might call it. Under the control of the National Botanic Gardens of South Africa there are now 7 gardens; in the South Western Cape, Kirstenbosch at Cape Town and the Karoo Botanic Garden at Worcester have already been mentioned. In the Harold Porter Botanic Garden at Betty's Bay, situated in the richest floral area of South Africa, the Caledon Division, only plants indigenous to the winter rainfall region are cultivated. The Tinie Versfeld Wild Flower Reserve in the Darling area, as yet undeveloped to any extent, is concerned with the natural flora of the Sandveld and Swartland region of the Cape, whereas the Edith Stephens Cape Flats Wild Flower Reserve is devoted to the cultivation and preservation of the fast disappearing vegetation native to the Cape Flats. It was not until 1967 that the National Botanic Gardens of South Africa extended its activities outside the Cape Province. This was the first phase of a programme of establishing botanic gardens in the main ecological regions of South Africa. The purpose of this programme is twofold; firstly to provide sites where eventually the entire South African flora can be culti- garden one Above left: Babiana villosa right: Gladiolus carneus Below left: Gladiolus recurvus right: Streptocarpus rexii All from Curtis's Botanical Magazine. Vol. 16. London, 1803. Except Streptocarpus rexii. From The Botanical Register. Vol. don, 1828. 14. Lon- 224 to make botanic gardens accessible to as many people in the country as possible. Each Garden has a very special, definite and specific policy to cater for the natural flora of a selected ecological, geographic or climatic area. The Orange Free State Botanic Garden near Bloemfontein, as its name implies, is concerned only with the indigenous vegetation of the Orange Free State, whereas the Drakensberg and Eastern Free State Botanic Garden at Harrismith was established to accommodate the species of the entire Drakensberg range occurring more than 1,500 mm. (5,000 feet) above sea level and of the Eastern Orange Free State within a radius of 160 km. (100 miles) of Harrismith. The last two additions were the Lowveld Botanic Garden at Nelspruit in the Eastern Transvaal and the Natal Botanic Garden in Pietermaritzburg. In the former case the broad grouping by Acocks of Tropical Bush and Savannah Types forms the basis of selecting the ecological region and in the latter case the Garden serves the Province of Natal. This programme of the expansion of the National Botanic Gardens of South Africa has been carefully considered and it is felt that with the establishment of additional branch Gardens for the Eastern Cape, Natal sub-tropical coast, the Highveld and possibly South West Africa, the main geographical, ecological, climatic and population regions of South Africa will be adequately covered. To provide the maximum contribution to science it is considered that the various Botanic Gardens should, as far as possible, be situated near large educational centres or near areas of dense population. The eagerness and horticultural knowledge with which people are growing Proteas, Heaths and other plants are largely due to the example set by Kirstenbosch over a long period of time. Gardeners are now anxious to cultivate other types of native plants throughout South Africa. Proteas and Heaths may be very popular but they will not thrive everywhere. Since starting the Regional Botanic Gardens outside the Western Cape, many local species never cultivated before have been collected and grown in these Gardens. I make bold to predict that within the next few years such species will be grown and cherished in many home gardens as a result of the public being able to learn their names and to observe their horticultural potential in the Botanic Gardens. It is a natural and obvious consequence. These species were prob- vated, and secondly \" 225 evolved locally, they are adapted to the local climatic and soil conditions and with the help of man by watering to relieve drought and weeding to remove competition they will assume their rightful place as most desirable and \"easy\" horticultural subjects. What is more, seed will be made available to scientific institutions and members of the Botanical Society of South Africa free of charge. When all the gardens which I have mentioned have been established and developed, a complex will have been created which will be quite unique. I know of no other country in the world which is developing its botanic gardens on a similar principle and for this reason we can be justly proud of our endeavor to contribute to science and the advancement of man. H. BRIAN RYCROFT Director, National Botanic Gardens of South Africa and Harold Pearson Professor of Botany, University of Cape Town ably "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Population-Environment Crisis- Where Do We Go From Here?","article_sequence":4,"start_page":226,"end_page":240,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24582","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160a76b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ehrlich, Paul R.","article_content":"The Hysteria Against the Case Stanford physicist Dr. Sidney Liebes, Jr. proposed exhibit for the next Earth Day - a graphic display to illustrate the course of evolution. He suggestedthat the display be 5001 feet long, just under one mile. The starting point would be labelled 5000 feet from the present, representing the formation of the Earth, 5 billion years in the past. Each foot of the display would then represent one million years. The first 4000 feet would represent the eons when no multicellular organisms existed. The age of the dinosaurs would stretch from 200 to 60 feet from the present. Within 6 feet the first \"men\" would appear. The agricultural revolution would occur about one-tenth of an inch from the present; the year 2000 would be only five ten-thousandths of an inch in the future. To quote Dr. Liebes, \"A human population curve might be plotted, scaled at one vertical foot per 100 million human beiy~. vme miiiion years ago ( one toot mto the past) the population curve would be one-hundredth of an inch high. Ten thousand years ago (0.1 inch into the past) the curve would be half an inch high. At the time of Christ, 0.02 inch into the past, it would be two feet high. In April 1971 it would be 37 feet high and climbing vertically at a rate of some 37 feet for each horizontal one-half of a thousandth of an inch.\" Just one more way to dramatize the unique situation in which Homo sapiens finds itself? Perhaps. But I think it also contains a clue to a problem which has concerned my colleagues and me a great deal lately. Attempts to focus public attention on the seriousness of the environmental crisis has aroused a heavy \"backlash\" from certain politicians, labor unions, industries, a wide variety of scientists and technologists employed by government and industry. Their motives may be less than noble but at least they are understandable. Interestingly enough, however, some of the most ill-informed and vitupera- Recently an interesting 1972 Paul R. Ehrlich. 226 227 have no clear deterioration. In particular, biochemists,z physicists,~ demographers,4 chemists,~ and economists6 have stepped forward to condemn ecologists for \"exaggerating\" mankind's peril. The whole backlash is typified by a blithering unsigned editorial in Nature, entitled \"The Case Against Hysteria\".7 It would be simple to write off their attacks as being simply a function of jealousy at the attention suddenly showered on ecologists, since this is obviously involved in several cases. But I cannot believe that otherwise competent scientists would publish pronouncements in areas so clearly outside their competence unless they actually felt that they understood what they were writing about. Few people are anxious to appear foolish in print. The hypothesis that these colleagues don't realize that they are out of their depth is further supported by a characteristic of their writings: rarely is there any sign that their statements have been reviewed prior to publication by anyone even remotely familiar with the technical literature of ecology (which I define broadly here to include evolutionary biology, biosystematics, and so forth). Which brings me back to the Liebes display. Dr. Liebes clearly possesses something universally absent from the spokesmen of what I will call the scientific backlash. He has an evolutionary perspective. Putting man's present behavior into the context of evolutionary time in itself should be enough to bring most of these spokesmen to a reconsideration of their views. Can they really view with equanimity a human population explosion occupying only one-tenth of an inch on a 4000 foot scale of life? Can they fail to appreciate the significance of the rise, in a mere instant of evolutionary time, of just one among perhaps 5 million animal species to a position of dominance in the biosphere? Can they, for instance, remain undisturbed while that species exhausts the Earth's entire store of liquid petroleum in less than one thousandth of an inch? The answer is, sadly, that they probably can, and we evolutionary biologists must share a large part of the blame. We have consistently failed to develop a broad evolutionary perspective among scientists in general; indeed among biologists in general. This has permitted many scientists to view the population-environment crisis as a phenomenon that sprang de novo from the ruins of World War ILg This narrow perspective helps generate the belief that rather minor changes in human opposition has originated among those who pecuniary motive in promoting environmental tive 228 behavior can get us through the crisis. Install a smog control device here, a breeder reactor there, farm the Amazon Basin, but never promote a revolutionary pass out contraceptives in the behavior of an entire species. change Along with this lack of perspective three sources of misunderstanding seem to be at the root of most of the scientific backlash. The first is a confusion of pollution with environmental deterioration. This is closely linked with ignorance of the critical role of agriculture in the latter. The second is a series of misapprehensions about the so-called \"demographic transition\". And, finally, there is a lack of grasp of the consequences of exponential growth itself. - Environmental Deterioration The confusion between pollution and environmental deterioration is perhaps best illustrated by the backlasher's \"London Smog Defense\". The argument is made that ecological disaster can be avoided by the kind of steps which have made the air in London less opaque since the great smog disaster of 1952. John Maddox makes this point.9 He points to lower levels of particulates and sulfur dioxide in some urban environments in 1969 and 1970 than were present in 1962 and 1959. He then concludes : \"what these and other statistics imply is that pollution and other assaults on the natural environment are not nearly as novel as those who have recently discovered them pretend.\" NPPI~~PCC tn cav Prnlnaictc arP nnlv too aware as Maddox anparently is not, that serious environmental deterioration dates at least back to the agricultural revolution.lo Furthermore, the relatively novel elements of air pollution are neither particulates nor sulfur dioxide but nitrogen oxides and hydrocarbons (the sources of photochemical smog), radioactive materials and a wide variety of molecules synthesized by man which are truly novel in the sense that organisms have no previous evolutionary experience with them. And, from the point of view of global ecology, urban pollution may not be as important as the general dust load, especially from agriculture, which may ultimately have a serious effect on climate if population growth continues. But, more important, air pollution is by its nature the most readily reversed of pollution problems. In a sense we must continue to expend energy to keep the pollution airborne. If we stop pouring wastes into the atmosphere, most air pollution will settle out and convert itself automatically into soil and water pollution. From the point of view of man's long term tenure on Earth, air pollution may prove to I 229 trivial matter compared to, say, the reduction of organic unless a catastrophic climatic change or reduction in the ozone screen is triggered.\" What the producers of the scientific backlash fail to grasp is that man depends on natural ecosystems for the operation of the chemical cycles which support our food production, for the control of most potential pests of our crops, for the maintenance of the quality of the atmosphere, and for the storage of the genetic information from which all new strains of crops, biological pest controls, and antibiotics (among other indispensables) must come. We depend on those systems for virtually the entire commercial fisheries yield the source of a substantial proportion of mankind's desperately needed supply of high quality protein. And one of the major factors in the stability and thus continued functioning of those systems is their complexity. Unfortunately a vast spectrum of human activities, rapidly increasing in scale, has led directly and indirectly to the reduction in size or extinction of populations of many organisms, and to the extinction of some species. The loss of diversity has reduced the complexity of natural ecosystems and thus also reduced their stability. More and more energy is being diverted from the maintenance of complex networks involving millions of other kinds of organisms to the exclusive support of Homo sapiens. A side effect of this is a general repatterning of our life support systems so that, increasingly, energy is flowing through the simple food webs of decay rather than through the complex and relatively stable herbivore-carnivore webs. As George Woodwell 12 put it, \"the longterm trend of evolution toward building complex, integral, stable ecosystems is being reversed\". Simultaneously, man also has been further simplifying the artificial ecosystems which he has created in the course of practicing agriculture. In addition, all current trends indicate a pattern of rapidly accelerating simplification. The consequences of this can only be predicted in a general way - a lowering of the carrying capacity of the Earth for human life. Agriculture itself is central to the problem of ecosystem simplification. As the human population has grown, more and more land has been brought under cultivation. Generally this has meant the replacement of relatively complex and stable forest and grassland ecosystems with stands of one or a few kinds of plants, or the replacing of a balanced community of herbivores and predators with herds of domestic animals. Very often the instability of these systems has resulted in their be a diversity - - 230 collapse. Sometimes the collapse was followed by at least partial restoration of diversity. For instance, tropical forests partially reclaimed overworked milpa systems when the classic Maya civilization disappeared. Sometimes the complexity is not restored, as when faulty irrigation resulted in the desertification of the Tigris and Euphrates valleys. But, in any case, man tends to pay a price when he is not successful at maintaining the stability of his simple ecosystems. Consider the results of an early \"Green Revolution\", the introduction of the potato to Ireland. The productivity of the potato provided the basis for an increase in the Irish population from about 3 million to 8 million people.13 Unfortunately, as has frequently occurred, expansion of food supplies did not result in a general rise in the standard of living. Population increased along with food supply, and improvement in per capita supplies was limited. Then in 1845-48 the inevitable happened: the unstable potato ecosystem collapsed. A fungal blight invaded the fields and destroyed most of the crop, producing one of history's great disasters the Irish Potato Famine. In a four year period about 1.5 million Irish men, women, and children - starved to death. An additional million or so were forced to emigrate, and millions of others underwent great suffering and deprivation. The entire horror could be traced to the inherent instability of a simple ecosystem.14 Man is forced to pour large amounts of energy into modem ..__,~___..., 111 V1UC1 lV DLdU111GC lIleIIl. high ~w. l,;m~, :..lu agricultural ecosystems III UiL!Vi Lt.) bLt!J].!-[Le Lilelil. This energy is provided mostly as fossil fuels used to manufacture and transport pesticides and fertilizers, to construct and operate irrigation systems, and to cultivate the crops. The productivity of modern agricultural systems is, of course, based on the success of plant breeders at producing genetic strains which, given the proper \"inputs\" to the agricultural system, produce very high yields per acre. Under the related pressures of economics and population growth, a relatively few high-yield strains of crops are now rapidly replacing a rich diversity of more traditional strains. This is resulting in a further simplification of ecosystems, through the loss of genetic diversity in crops.I ~ Should enough of that diversity be lost, man could well be out of business of high-yield agriculture forever. There is, of course, no such thing as a strain of plants permanently \"resistant\" to all the organisms which attack it. Plants, like other organisms, are involved in a continual \"coevolutionary race\" lc with their parasites and predators. Unless the genetic variability necessary for natural selection to occur is maintained, new _ 231 defenses cannot be evolved to meet new attacks. The race is lost and extinction results. This rather important point is lost on those ignorant of evolutionary ecology. For instance, Maddox writes,17 \"In any case, damaging though plant diseases can be to harvests, there is no more reason to fear that they need go uncontrolled than there is to fear that infectious diseases that sweep the human population like medieval plagues will again be a hazard to human survival.\" If Maddox understood more of ecology, genetics, and epidemiology, he would know that there is ample reason to fear both. The Demographic Transition In fairness to those creating the scientific backlash it must be noted that most realize that human population growth must stop eventually. And, of course, the demographers in the group know very well how far off that \"eventually\" is likely to be if a halt is to be achieved by reduction in birth rates rather than a rise in death rates (their complacency about the current state of affairs seems rooted purely in their misunderstanding of the physical and biological world). But a major source of misapprehension among technologists relates to ideas about automatic (and relatively rapid) control of population. A typical view is that expressed by that most un-ecological of gentlemen, Buckminster Fuller, in a poem he sent to Senator Edmund Muskie : 18 \"As world industrialization will be completed By twentieth-century's end The ever-diminishing birth rate Of the industrial countries Will bring about world population stabilization By 2000 A.D.\" the small point that world industrialization by the 2000 is clearly not possible (indeed it may never be), it year must be pointed out that even if reproduction around the world dropped to the replacement level now, population growth will continue until nearly the middle of the next century! Although few of the other backlashers can be accused of making statements quite that absurd, some of them have come pretty close. Maddox writes,10 \"... in any case there are already signs that the most rapidly growing populations in the world will in the next few decades be held in check by natural social which have forces not just the machinery of contraception Skipping - - 232I in the past century given Western Europe and North America a measure of demographic stability.\" His general confusion about elementary demography is further illuminated by the incredible statement,20 \"Just what is meant by demographic stability? The slogan 'Zero Population Growth' is not much help, as can be told from what is now happening in Western Europe. The number of births each year is for practical purposes the same, but the population continues to grow.\" Maddox follows this with a discussion which shows that he does not know the difference between a stable population (one with a stable age distribution), a stationary population (one where crude birth rates and death rates are in balance, producing ZPG), and a population with a net reproductive rate (NRR) equal to one (where each generation of women is just replacing itself). He also makes the most elementary error of discussion reductions in the numbers of births without simultaneously analyzing trends in death rates, and even then carefully selects his data. Thus from his table showing \"Decreasing numbers of births in selected countries\", a naive reader might assume that the population explosion in Africa was about over, when in fact anticipated declines in death rates there may result in annual growth rates in the vicinity of 4% in the not too distant future. Maddox's discussion is capped by the statement 21 \"Although the demographic transition has only just begun in large parts of the developing world, there is every reason to expect that it will produce demographic stability entirely comparable with that which now exists in Western Europe and elsewhere in the industrialized world.\" If it only were that simple! A casual look at the statistics 22 will reveal the most fundamental flaw in this thesis, as he could have found out. Even after the completion of the demographic transition, the developed countries still have high growth rates. The reduction in birth rates associated with the demographic transition was not adequate to compensate for the even more dramatic fall in death rates that preceded it. In the industrial areas of the world the transition was essentially over by 1940.23 A quarter of a century later, birth rates in Europe, North America, the USSR, Australia, New Zealand and Japan were still, on the average, almost double the death rates. This is, to varying degrees, a result of the age composition of the population as well as of excess fertility. Nonetheless an examination of net reproductive rates 24 from the 1920s to today in the industrialized nations gives little reason to assume there is an automatic process of population regulation leading to stationary populations. Indeed it seems _ I 233 at least as likely, assuming death rates did not rise, that industrial nations could fluctuate over the long term at growth rates of about 0.5-1.0% annually, doubling their populations every century or so. Let's examine, however, what would happen if demographic transitions started immediately in underdeveloped countries ( UDCs ) and followed a pattern similar to that experienced by the developed countries (DCs) in the past. It would be perhaps eighty years before one could expect growth rates in underdeveloped countries to be in the relatively low range now found in developed countries.25 To see that such a demographic transition in the UDCs cannot stop population growth without a substantial delay, it is only necessary to examine a much more optimistic projection. Demographer Nathan Keyfitz has recently calculated the possible results of a population control miracle (which we might call a \"super demographic transition\").26 He calculated, in essence, what would happen if family size dropped precipitously in UDCs so that by around the year 2000 reproduction had reached replacement level. If that should occur (and no competent demographer thinks there is the remotest possibility of it occurring) the size of the population of a typical UDC would be 2.5 times its present size when it eventually stopped growing.27 That means, for instance, that the population of India would be some 1.4 billion people, that of China perhaps 1.7 billion, Brazil's 240 million, Indonesia's 310 million, and so on. Note that these are estimates based on wildly optimistic assumptions about population control. Since most underdeveloped nations are in the tropics, one need only mesh this information on the momentum of population growth with some knowledge of the problems of agriculture in the tropics 28 to see that the invocation of the demographic transition as a \"cure\" is a tragic mistake. Maddox is not alone in clinging to the demographic-transitionis-a-panacea view. Indeed he may have picked it up from Barry Commoner's book, The Closing Circle, which he strongly attacks. If so, it is poetic justice, since Commoner's treatment of the demographic transition is a low point in a volume not outstanding in its scientific competence. Commoner not only misinterprets the demographic transition, he also perpetuates the myth that population control soon can be achieved by, in part, dropping infant mortality rates. Laudable as the goal of reducing such rates is on grounds of compassion, it would in many cases result in temporarily rising growth rates, since the projected declines in birth rate will not compensate for the 234 lowered death rates.29 Moreover, there is virtually no evidence that depressing infant mortality rates anywhere would result in lower birth rates until at least a generation had passed. In addition it is not at all clear that UDCs would undergo a classic demographic transition, even if they were industrialized. The social and economic conditions are so different in those countries today in comparison to those in the now developed countries in the last century that prediction is difficult. Exponential to Growth Finally, there is the problem the backlashers have in coming grips with exponential growth. They do not comprehend a sense that in the last million years or so of cumulative human population growth will, barring disaster, be duplicated in the next 35 years. When something is growing (or shrinking) exponentially, a constant percentage of its size at the beginning of each successive period is added (subtracted) during that When the exponential rate does not change, the growth the period rebe characterized by the doubling time quired for the original quantity to double. Thus the human population, now growing at a rate of 2% a year, will have a doubling time of 35 years if that rate remains constant. This bit of simple arithmetic leads to an important way of looking at various kinds of limits. Suppose that the human population continues to grow at a constant rate of 2% per anS~mpnsP alcn that cnmPwhPrP num. doubling everv 35 vears there is a limit to this growth, determined by the carrying capacity of the Earth. That is, assume that there is some population size, which if reached in the future will overload the system and result in a catastrophic population crash. Such an assumption should be acceptable to most backlashers, who are willing to admit that population cannot grow forever. An important conclusion follows from these two assumptions. Whatever the overload size is, the population will be only one-half that size a mere 35 years before disaster strikes. Exponential growth progresses towards limits at an accelerating rate: a long history of growth does not necessarily imply a long future. It is no surprise that many environmental problems are perceived by the naive as having materialized de novo in the past few decades. Many of these problems are simply manifestations of exponential growth processes interacting with a series of thresholds. Similarly, recent awareness of impending resource depletion in part reflects exponential shrink- period. can - 235 exponential increases in demand. gathers somewhat over 60 million metric tons of fishes annually ~~ from the \"limitless\" resources of the sea. Many fisheries biologists feel that, in the absence of overfishing and ecocatastrophe, the maximum sustainable yield would be some 100 million metric tons.31 If that is the case and the human population continues to grow exponentially, per capita yields must decline around the year 2000 because another doubling of total catch will not be possible. Suppose, on the other hand, that a yield of 200 million metric tons can be sustained. If exponential population growth persists the decline is postponed a mere 35 years to around 2035. But, of course, it now appears that overfishing and oceanic pollution may prevent us even from approaching the lower figure. The situation is especially frightening when one considers reserves ages of in response to now For instance, mankind that recent estimates of the increase of environmental impact (or \"ecological demand\") are in the vicinity of 5% per annum 32 giving a doubling time of 14 years. If these estimates are correct, the ecosystems of the Earth will not have been stressed to half of their limit until only 14 years before they collapse. In an oversimplified view, if the symptoms of ecosystem malfunctioning of the first Earth Day in 1970 indicated that the systems were absorbing one-half of the impact they were capable of absorbing, then disaster is scheduled for 1984. If one wishes to make an ultra-optimistic assumption, that the systems can absorb more than 30 times as much punishment as they were receiving in 1970, then the ultimate disaster is deferred until 2040 - should ecological demand continue to grow at 5 % per annum. The seriousness of exponentially approaching limits is, of course, exacerbated by the momentum inherent in many current trends. The delays built into any reasonable program to halt population growth have already been mentioned. And apart from those intrinsic in the bottom-heavy age structure of rapidly growing populations, there are, of course, those resulting simply from the time lag which seems inevitably involved in public acceptance of new behavior patterns. The experience of the last few years also shows clearly that sounding of the ecological warning will not be followed by instant and drastic action to avert disaster (remember, a system stressed to only one-half the breaking point may seem in no danger whatever). Furthermore many ecological insults, such as persistent poisons, may do their greatest damage some time after 236 they are released. And worse, many of their consequences may be irreversible. In short, when a system is careening towards ecological oblivion, it may not be possible to turn aside at the last minute, and the point of no return may be passed without being detected. Conclusion Whatever time is left, it is clear that our chances of survival will be enhanced if the effects of the scientific backlash can be minimized. On the bright side, numerous natural and social scientists untrained in ecology have educated themselves about the environmental situation and are working with ecologists in attempts to find solutions. The groundswell of informed opinion is impressive the SCEP report, the report of the Workshop on Global Ecological Problems, the work of the Meadows' group summarized in The Limits to Growth, and the report of the Commission on Population and the American Future all indicate growing organized movement in the right di- rection. Furthermore we have one substantial resource which remains largely untapped. I am referring to the thousands of biologists who have the training to understand the current situation. Many individual ecologists, evolutionists, systematists, and so on have been heavily involved in the fight for survival, but they do not make themselves felt en masse. All of us have seen nuexamples of pseudo-expertise, some even more blatant than Maddox's masquerade. Consider for a moment the reaction of the American Medical Association to quacks - political pressure, successful lobbying for laws to restrict practice, and so on. But the number of quacks claiming to be ecologists is now myriad, and hardly a murmur is raised. It is high time that population biologists began to speak out as a group, through their professional organizations. It will take time, energy, money, and the recognition that some \"unscientific\" activities such as public relations are required if a world in which scientific research can be pursued is to persist. On its one hundredth anniversary it seems unlikely that the Arnold Arboretum will be around to host a bicentennial celebration. It is ironic that those most interested in its well-being are among those most capable of brightening its future. Or perhaps I should say that it is hopeful. Agriculture is moving to the center of the world stage, and plant scientists must move with it. Plant ecologists, geographers, taxonomists, evolutionists, merous I 237 must play key roles in the development of high yield agricultural systems which do not endanger the carrying capacity of the planet. Biologists must strive to find ways to inform the public about the problems of producing food and how these problems relate to the functions of the Earth's ecosystems. I can testify from wide personal experience that many if not most Americans now think their food materializes by magic in supermarkets. If that is still true a decade or so from now it means that institutions like the Arnold Arboretum will have failed when mankind needed them most. PAUL R. EHRLICH Professor of Biology Stanford University Notes 1. 2. Stanford Daily, April 12, 1972. Philip Handler, President of the National Academy of Sciences, 238 I highly competent biochemist, has unfortunately attempted minimize environmental problems. The quality of his thought on ecological matters can be gleaned from his statement (Science, vol. 171, p. 148) \"The predicted death or blinding by parathion of dozens of Americans last summer a to on the consciences of every car owner whose sticker urged a total ban on DDT.\" It is a pity he has not bothered to learn a little more ecology so that he could evaluate pesticide risks not associated with acute toxicity, men with his intelligence are badly needed on the side of survival. 3. Physicist John Maddox has performed the service of presenting in a single book, The Doomsday Syndrome (Macmillan & Co., Ltd., London, 1972), numerous examples of the ignorance, sloppy thinking, selected data and outright error which characterizes the worst of the backlash. 4. Demographer Philip M. Hauser perhaps characterizes the best of the backlash among demographers. A distinguished scientist who has been in the forefront of warning about various consequences of the population explosion, he got beyond his area of recognized expertise when he decided that environmental problems were not as serious as ecologists thought they were. A good example of his exposition is \"On population and environmental policy and problems\" (In: Noel Hinricks, ed., Population, Environment and People, McGraw-Hill, 1971) in which he confuses pollution with environmental deterioration and then proceeds to do battle with a series of straw men. 5. The prize here must go to Sir Robert Robinson, Nobel Laureate organic chemist, for a classic blunder. In a letter to the London Times (Feb. 4, 1971 ) discounting the threat of leaded compounds to oceanic plankton, he began: \"Neither our 'Prophets of Doom', nor the legislators who are so easily frightened by them, are particularly fond of arithmetic ...\" and then goes on to do some \"simple arithmetic\" (as he describes it) to show that the dilution of lead in the oceans will be so great that it will remain biologically negligible. Of course his whole exercise in \"simple arithmetic\" completely misses the point because of, among other things, the a process familiar phenomenon of biological magnification to most undergraduate students in ecology. I often wonder when some physical scientists will learn that things are a bit more complex in the biological and behavioral sciences. As Garrett Hardin wrote in his brilliant new book, Exploring New Ethics for Survival (p. 31), \"No great Chemist in the Sky stirs the ocean into one homogeneous soup. Lead enters the ocean in two ways: as fallout from the air, and as dissolved, suspended, and organism-bound matter in river water. River water is lighter than ocean water and tends to spread out on the surface and it is here that all of the photosynthesis takes place. Below about 250 feet there is too little light for photosynthesis. We need to know how much lead there is in the first 250 feet of the ocean. must rest bumper - - - 239 How much there is in the remaining 13,000 feet doesn't The 'window' through which lead enters is where the action takes place. The dynamic geometry of the earth system is quite different from that of a Waring Blender in the chemical lab.\" \"The Ecosystem Doom\" by Theodore W. Schultz (Science and Public Affairs, The Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, April 1972, pp. 12-17) shows that under some circumstances economists can be reduced to incoherence by the idea that their systems must operate within ecological constraints. Nature, Jan. 14, 1972. This view has been made explicit by plant physiologist Barry Commoner in his book, The Closing Circle (Knopf, 1971 ). Op. cit., p. 26. Ehrlich, P. R. and J. P. Holdren, 1972. One-dimensional ecology. Science and Public Affairs, Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists, vol. 28 (May). Ehrlich, P. R. and A. H. Ehrlich, 1972. Population, Resources, Environment, 2nd Edition, Freeman and Co., San Francisco; Man's Impact on the Global Environment, report of the Study of Critical Environmental Problems (SCEP), MIT Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1970. Woodwell, George M., 1970. The energy cycle of the biosphere. In The Biosphere, W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco, p. 31. Material on the Irish potato famine is from A. H. Barton, 1969, Communities in Disaster, Doubleday and Co., New York. An excellent elementary discussion of the relationship between complexity and stability in ecosystems, including some exceptions to the rule, can be found in E. O. Wilson and W. A. Bossert, 1971, A Primer of Population Biology, Sinauer Associates, Stamford, Conn. A collection of papers indicating the intricacy of explaining the relationships will be found in Diversity and Stability in Ecological Systems. Brookhaven Symposia in Biology no. 22, BNL 50175 (C-56), 1969. Above all, it is well to remember that regardless of explanatory mechanisms the correlation of diversity and stability is well-established empirically. Chedd, Graham, 1970. Hidden peril in the Green Revolution, New Scientist, 22 Oct.; O. H. Frankel and E. Bennett, eds., Their Exploration and 1970, Genetic Resources in Plants Conservation. F. H. Davis Co., Philadelphia; H. Garrison Wilkes, 1971, Too little gene exchange. Science, vol. 171, p. 955. Ehrlich, P. R. and P. H. Raven, 1965. Butterflies and plants; a study in coevolution. Evolution, vol. 18, pp. 586-608; P. R. Ehrlich, 1970, Coevolution and the biology of communities. Proc. 29th Biology Colloquium, Oregon State Univ. Press, Corvallis. Op. cit., p. 152. New York Times, March 21, 1971. Op. cit., p. 30. Ibid., p. 49. Ibid., p. 55. matter much. - 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 240 See either the Population Reference Bureau 1971 World Population Data Sheet, available from the Bureau, 1755 Massachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. or any recent annual volume of the United Nations Demographic Yearbook. 23. Coale, Ansley, J., 1969. The decline of fertility in Europe from the French Revolution to World War II. In S. J. Behrman and Leslie Corso, Jr., eds. Fertility and Family Planning, pp. 3-24. Technically the demographic transition is the change from a high death rate, high birth rate regime to a low death rate, low birth rate regime, such as has occurred historically in the developed countries. Most of those countries have had low birth and death rates since the 1920's, and now have birth rates well above death rates. For instance in 1971 Northern Europe had a birth rate of 16 per thousand and a death rate of 11. The birth rate in North America was 18 and the death rate was 9. Some demographers feel, even though there is no evidence for it, that somehow the demographic transition is an automatic process leading to a stationary population, and the older literature on animal population dynamics also is replete with such fanciful ideas. Even if this were the case, the obvious long lag-time would make depending on such processes a dangerous policy at best. 24. NRR is a measure of whether or not a population will be growwhen and if the age compoing, stationary or shrinking sition stabilizes, and if age specific vital rates remain constant. See, for example, Nathan Keyfitz and Wilhelm Flieger, 1971, Population Facts and Methods of Demography. W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco, p. 55. 25. See, for example, Donald J. Bogue, 1969, Principles of Demogrmnhv Wilav N Y fi_a ~-4 n 59 26. On the momentum of population growth, Demography, vol. 8, pp. 71-80, 1971. 27. It is important to remember that in a young, growing populalation, achievement of replacement reproduction (NRR=1) does not lead to a stationary population (ZPG) until many decades later. For instance, even if the U.S. reaches NRR-1 this year, it will be well into the next century before our growth stops. (See Tomas Frejka, 1968. Reflections on the demographic conditions needed to establish a U.S. stationary population growth. Population Studies, vol. 22, p. 379-397.) 28. A fine, concise treatment of the problems of tropical agriculture is \"The unexploited tropics\" by Daniel H. Janzen (Bull. Ecological Soc. of America, Sept. 1970, pp. 4-7.) 29. This conclusion has recently been confirmed by the computer simulation work of Donella Meadows at M.I.T. based on data from villages in India. 30. Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations (FAO), 1971. The State of Food and Agriculture, p. 8. 31. Ryther, J. H., 1969. Photosynthesis and fish production in the sea. Science, vol. 166, pp. 72-76. 32. SCEP, pp. 118-119. 22. - . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Bonsai and Bonsai Shows","article_sequence":5,"start_page":241,"end_page":249,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24580","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d160a36d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hodge, Walter H.","article_content":"Japanese Bonsai and Bonsai Shows Ever since those 17th and 18th century visits of Kaempfer and Thunberg - first European naturalists to discover its botanical wonders - Japan has been noted as a source of outstanding native plants for ornamental use in the temperate gardens of the West. Genera like Aucuba and Pittosporzim, Magnolia and Euonymus, Acer, Larix, Fatsia, Camellia and Cryptomeria are typical of many which have contributed woody species now well known to western horticulture. Japanese horticultural techniques have not immigrated quite as rapidly as Japanese ornamental plants. But bonsai, the Japanese art of growing tiny trees and other woody plants in miniature, is one that has been booming in our country. It permits anyone with time, patience, a green thumb - and with only a few square yards of to have his own arboretum, in miniature. space Bonsai as an art has been practiced in Nippon for at least 500 years. In a densely populated land, where living and garden space is very limited, the creation of miniature trees or tiny living landscapes for appreciation in the home makes good sense. Airy houses without central heating in a land of high humidity make for a good environment in which to display potted plants like bonsai which often have special attractions to the homeowner. Being compact a number of bonsai specimens can be maintained in minimal area. Thus, a mature though diminutive tree can be moved easily in and out of the house as desired important where space is a premium and where the custom is to focus attention and enjoyment to one art object at a time. Fine Japanese pottery and chinaware as beloved as the plants themselves are usually combined with choice bonsai specimens to yield outstanding conversation pieces. Depending upon the ability of the grower, one can bring into his house what appears to be a mature forest tree, a fragment of natural woodland, a clump of bamboo, a pine-clad islet, or a contorted windshorn conifer from some remote mounall in miniature. In short, the art of bonsai permits tain top the average Japanese to enjoy in his own home a tiny living replica of the natural landscape that he loves so well. - 241 Chamaecyparis obtusa (a representative conifer in unusual bonsai form). Fagus Azalea (an unusual bonsai subject, at least to westerners; specimen illustrated \"blue ribbon\" recipient as best was bonsai in annual azalea show at Kurume in Kyushu in 1967). crenata trees as a (to illustrate bonsai subject). a group of Right: Cycas revoluta (an unusual and rather All photos: W. H. Hodge. rare bonsai subject). Pinus parviflora (to show a favorite bonsai presentation of a rocky islet with dominating pine and related herbs growing on rochs and set in a low container with sand and water to represent the sea). Photo: W. H. Hodge. travels in Japan, collections of bonsai are to the racks beside windows or atop the roof of tiny city homes to the more spacious yards of the picturesque thatched farmhouses of Nippon's countryside. Anyone can be a bonsai owner from factory worker to a member of the Imperial Family. As likely as not, when the Japanese Emperor or Crown Prince speaks at a formal official ceremony he will stand in front of a golden folding screen along with one of his choice fine bonsai. Nurseries exist solely for bonsai production, and florists, garden shops, and even the big city department Wherever seen - one be on I 245 regularly offer either specimen plants in attractive conin miniature, or plants simply \"balled and burlapped\" to be trained in \"do it yourself\" fashion. Even the stalls of itinerant peddlers who assemble at the innumerable shrine or temple festivals regularly feature examples of bonsai art the plant subject being offered usually matching the season or the special holiday involved. Japan's bonsai \"aficionados\", like most other collectors of specialized horticultural material, have their own unique sostores, tainers - cieties. These are found all over the island nation. Like horticultural societies everywhere they foster annual exhibitions at Late winter or early a season appropriate for the material. is popular for most shows that display general bonsai spring material, but shows for specialty bonsai material must suit the season. Thus the city of Kurume in Kyushu - original source of many of the cultivars of our familiar \"Kurume\" azaleas, features a bonsai show devoted to these colorful plants in April; whereas chrysanthemum trained in bonsai form are featured of course in the autumn at the unique \"mum\" shows to be seen in many parts of Japan, principally in shrine gardens. A visit to a more typical bonsai show gives one not only a glimpse of the wide variety of Japan's bonsai art but enables Unlike an one to view some of the best existent specimens. American horticultural show, a Nipponese bonsai display is simplicity itself. Show specimens are simply lined up in long rows against plain white background walls enabling the visitor to appreciate the full beauty of form and container without distraction. Low partitions separate each individual display, which often consists of two features the major bonsai specimen plus a lesser container, the latter a dish garden of sorts for accent often featuring plants like dwarfed Sasa veitchii, creeping polypody ferns, prostrate ericads like Vaccinium vitisif it's wintertime the New Year flower favorite, idaea, or Adonis amurensis, which is commonly forced for bloom in this season. Displays are labelled simply with the common name of plant material and identification of the owner. In Japan there is no real season for bonsai. Evergreen specimens, both needle-leaved and broad-leaved types, may be enjoyed the year around. On the other hand, the form and architecture of deciduous trees is often best appreciated in the leafless condition, and since those species with showy flowers are at their prime in early spring, this gives the rationale for many Japanese bonsai societies to schedule vernal shows. - - 246 Three major kinds of bonsai art are represented in such general shows - single tree specimens, groups of trees planted to simulate woodland or copse, and lastly a complete landscape. In the latter case the favorite bonsai landscape is a representation of the microcosm of plants to be found on a typical coastal islet such as can be seen in the bay at Matsushima, one of the three famous \"views\" of Japan. The most common bonsai grown is the single specimen tree. Individuals may exhibit a wide variety of shape. Most obvious is the tree trained to be as exact a replica as possible of the ideal form and habit of the species found in nature. However, conifer bonsai often have branches and needle clusters clipped to give the ordered sort of beauty beloved by the Japanese and typical of full-sized specimens grown in manicured style in the landscape and shrine gardens of the country. Of conifers trained as bonsai, \"Goyo-matsu\", Pinus parviflora, a familiar 5-needle pine of Japan's mountains, is most popular. The habit of this species lends itself well to bonsai art so it outnumbers all others in most Japanese shows. Not as frequent but often seen is \"Kuro-matsu\", Pinus thunbergii, the native black pine which produces the characteristic look to Japan's rocky seacoasts. Other favorite conifers trained as bonsai include \"Hinoki\" (Chamaecyparis obtusa), \"Ezo-matsu\" (Picea yezoensis) and mountain juniper, \"Nezu\" (Juniperus with popularity about in that order. It is with cerrigida) toin nF thic rnni~ornmc mnfn,~i_nl o ;nll~r \"T~;\"l.lr;\" th..E T\".. __....~. , ..LC.....~ _.~...~... , \"..`.\" ,,` anese bonsai artists are able to create those bizarre specimens which bring to the viewer a strong feeling of the continual battle for existence that certain conifers must make when growing in the inhospitable environment that exists at montane timberlines. Some of these seemingly wind and snow battered bonsai feature essentially a bleached and twisted woody core with only a fragment of living foliage. One wonders how the green crown can possibly be maintained with only a tiny umbilical cord of living bark snaking its way up the surface of the bare and dead heartwood to connect the leaves with the roots below, As might be expected, varieties of Japanese cherries the national flower, and the winter-flowering plum (\"ume\"), one of the \"three friends of winter\", are the favored subjects for bonsai among flowering trees. Also commonly seen at shows as flowering bonsai are such plants as winter jasmine, native pieris, camellias, flowering quince and Cornelian cherry. Speci- _.___ .._ -___.. _._____.._...... - - . , Miniature bonsai (a a typical stand of \"super-dwarf\" bonsai showing variety of subjects including pine, zelkova, cherry, flowering quince, firethorn, etc.). Photo: W. H. Hodge. 247 mens still colorful with fruits from the preceding fall are often cultivars of ilex and firethorn. Of native deciduous trees exhibited three kinds \"Momiji\" (Acer spp.), \"buna\" and \"Keyaki\" (Zelhova serrata), are the obvious (Fagus crenata) favorites. This is understandable, for in leafless silhouette choice bonsai of these species, though pygmy-sized, look just like fullgrown trees transplanted from a Nipponese woodland. This impression is somewhat lost, it seems to this writer, after the leaves appear, for in size the latter are not quite in proportion to the over-all stature of the dwarfed plant. Some bonsai are even said to reflect the personality of their owners. Featured in a Tokyo show in 1968 was a bonsai from the collection of the late postwar statesman, Shigeru Yoshida. According to those who knew him his keyaki bonsai expressed beautifully the essence of this great Japanese premier in also being sturdy, upright and resolute in character! represented by - 248 though standard bonsai are not dwarfed enough, some Japanese specialize in producing truly Lilliputian specimens. Many of the same native species to be seen in normal bonsai size may be used for producing these pygmies. Whereas the As average bonsai creation may be grown in a shallow container a foot or more across, these dwarfs only inches in height occupy tiny containers seldom more than two to three inches in diameter. Such miniature bonsai, where displayed, are usually grouped in collections of six or more, often on deco- measuring - - stands, usually lacquered. An outstanding display at one recent show featured a series of pygmy plants including pine, keyaki, cherry, ume, flowering quince and firethorn each grown in its original tiny container for over 40 years! Actually any description of Japanese bonsai shows should rative wooden - close without reference to the container in which it is grown and displayed. To the bonsai artist it is essential that the container complement the form and character of the living plant itself. Each Japanese bonsai seems always to be in complete harmony with its container. Furthermore, the container and plant also appear always to be in balance with the stand or base used to display this living art. It seems almost as though the plant was created for the accessories and vice versa. A dwarf keyaki tree with solid bole or an ume with old angular trunk fits perfectly into a squarish low-key container; a winter not - rharrv cmhncP rlarlr tr,mlr \"\"\".\/ _____ ______ c~,nnnrtc ___ll __ _ hranrhac f,~ll nf hriarht hlnc_ ____ _____ ____ __ _______ ___~ _ _ dark container also decorated appropriately with bright flowers; or a knobby pot and intricately-turned wooden stand will be used to set off an old hinoki tree with its marvelously contorted trunk. So it goes. Bonsai as Japanese horticultural art may be booming in western countries but it is obvious that it may take a few more centuries of experience before we can match the bonsai masters of old Nippon. W. H. HODGE Section Head Ecology and Systematic Biology National Science Foundation soms is grown in a "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23317","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060b36d.jpg","title":"1972-32-5","volume":32,"issue_number":5,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Making of a Botanist","article_sequence":1,"start_page":141,"end_page":156,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24577","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25e856b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rehder, Gerhard","article_content":"The Making of a Botanist The centennial celebration of the Arnold Arboretum pays deserved tribute to the men who fashioned the \"worn-out farm\"1 into one of the world's greatest parks and botanical institutions. There is an interesting parallel here with a park in East Germany, the park in Muskau, Upper Lusatia, which too was fashioned from seemingly unpromising material into one of the outstanding parks of Germany and western Europe by the devotion and energies of a few men. A close personal tie exists as well. Alfred Rehder, who served the Arboretum for fifty-one years, next only to Sargent in length of service, was the grandson of one of the men who laid the foundations of the greatness of the park in Muskau. This personal tie, and the obvious likelihood that Alfred Rehder's interest and training were influenced by his family background, led the editors of Arnoldia to suggest that an article on this subject would be appropriate at this time. To go back over a century and a half to the story of the founding of the park in Muskau2 takes us to the spring of 1815. The long wars of the French Revolution and Napoleon were coming to an end, though for the moment, seemingly rekindled by the Emperor's dramatic return from Elba. Seven weeks before Waterloo, on May lst, Count Hermann Puckler,3 heir since the death of his father four years earlier to the feudal domain of Muskau, issued a proclamation to the inhabitants of the town announcing his intention to devote himself to the management of his inheritance and to transform a large part of the domain lands into a landscape park on the English model. Thus the first of May 1815 is regarded as the official date of the founding of the park. Count Hermann, on several visits to England, had come to admire the landscaped parks which were replacing the formal gardens of an earlier era. In deciding to follow this model in his proposed park he was to become one of the leaders in bringing the \"natural\" landscape style to Germany and would 141 142 Muskau Park, East Germany 143 make his The park in Muskau a throughout central Europe. gaged model which would influence parks political events of the time, and other duties which enCount Hermann, including another visit to England in 1816, did not allow him at once to turn his attention to the carrying out of his plans. Finally in 1817 he was ready to take up residence in Muskau and begin the great task which he had set for himself. It was obvious that he needed a trained gardener to assist him and he found the right man when, in that same year, he brought Jacob Heinrich Rehder to Muskau. For thirty-five years Rehder was to direct the work which created the park, laying the foundations on which his successors were to build. Count Hermann (after 1822, Prince Hermann) might contribute the drive, the imagination and the financial means, but it would be Jacob Heinrich who would translate the dreams and proposals into reality, devising the methods and supervising the day-to-day work. Jacob Heinrich Rehder, the grandfather of the Arnold Arboretum's Alfred Rehder, was born February 18, 1790 in Eutin, the chief town in a small enclave of territory belonging to the Duchy of Oldenburg and located near the free Hanseatic of Lubeck. His ancestors, judging by the name, came from region along the Baltic Coast. The name Rehder (also spelled Reeder and Reder, but in all cases pronounced alike) is an occupational name denoting a shipper or ship owner, and is not uncommon in this part of Germany. The word, with this mean~~ ing, is still current in the German language. A century earlier Jacob Heinrich's forebears had been farmers in the countryside outside Eutin, a region of lakes and rolling hills somewhat exaggeratedly called the \"Holstein Switzerland\". The grandfather, Joachim, moved into Eutin, became a burgher (in those days a meaningful title), and took up a trade. His son, Paul Heinrich,4 followed in his footsteps. It was Jacob Heinrich,5 eldest son of Paul Heinrich and his wife Juliane von Decke, who was again to break the pattern. In him the call of the soil seemed to reassert itself. In the spring of 1806, at the age of sixteen, he began a three year apprenticeship in gardening in the park of Ludwigslust,6 the summer residence of the Dukes (after 1815, Grand Dukes) of MecklenburgSchwerin. In 1809 he received his certificate testifying to the 7 successful conclusion of his apprenticeship.7 In those days the old guild system still carried on in some vocations, and the period of apprenticeship was followed by a ` this city I period 144 where one cared We do not know for sure where Jacob Heinrich worked in the eight years before he was called to Muskau, but it is likely that he spent part of this time, if not the larger part, on the estates of the Counts Bruhl in Pforten, Brandenburg, working under the court gardener, Paul Hermann Schmidt. We do know that in 1821, after he was well-established in Muskau, he returned to Pforten and married Paul Hermann's eighteen year old daughter, Auguste Friederike. His grandson was to follow a very similar pattern. Auguste Friederike outlived her husband by thirty-eight years, dying in Muskau in her eighty-eighth year in 1890. The grandson remembered her well. In 1817 Count Piickler and his newly-appointed Head Gardener Rehder were ready to begin work on the park. One can gain some idea of the problems faced and contributions made by Jacob Heinrich from the following description written by Jacob Heinrich's successor, Eduard Petzold: \"How carefully the Prince treated his material is made clear by the fact that on two occasions he had landscape gardeners come from England. One was the son of the great Repton, the other, named Vernal, was in Muskau from 1822 to 1823. The former was really more landscape architect than gardener, and, like the latter, was really of little use to the Prince, except insofar as both encouraged him in his plans. In comparison he received far greater advantage from his German head gardener Rehder through his tireless carefulness and the skilled way in which he entered into his plans. Rehder is a man to whom the park owes a great deal. \"Certainly it was not an easy task to give expression to the indefatigable genius of the Prince and to carry out his ambitious plans skillfully and tastefully in an unusually short time and with relatively little manpower and financial means. The problems this task presented were solved by Rehder. In a period of thirty-four years, which he devoted wholly to his chosen work, he was able to create under his skilled direction expansive lawns, richly adorned with flowerbeds of all sorts, fields with the most nutritious grasses, picturesque groves of trees and handsome and impressive plantings, all this where before hardly even a blade of grass grew, where the swampy terrain was impassable, and where some miserable sand hills supporting a few wretched pines offered the only vista to the eye of the beholder. What it means to carry out such tasks can be as to or could find \"journeyman\", when, seeking work it, one was paid a daily wage. 145 judged only by someone who has done the like. It could have been no ordinary man who could satisfy the Prince for so many years as the right man to carry out his ideas.\" 9 On occasion Jacob Heinrich accompanied the Prince on his travels. In the early 1840's both went to Babelsberg, a castle near Potsdam, to consider plans for redesigning its park. It was the residence assigned to Prince William of Prussia,l~ heir apparent to his childless elder brother, King Frederick William IV. Off and on for some ten years the Prince and, on occasion, Jacob Heinrich, worked on developing the park. As a memento of his part in this work Jacob Heinrich received from Prince a gold watch, still a prized family possession. Transforming the swampy and sandy terrain along the Neisse River and the spine of a steep ridge behind the town into the landscape park of his dreams cost Prince Hermann a fortune. William In addition he rebuilt the castle and was often on travels in Western Europe, North Africa, and the Near East. One might well ask whether this restless romanticist could ever have succeeded in creating his park without the practical and devoted Jacob Heinrich in charge. Bankrupt at last, the Prince was forced to sell the domain in 1845, though he did it reluctantly and to the sorrow of his loyal townspeople. The park was sold on April 1st to a Count Nostitz who, the following year, sold it to Prince Frederick of The Netherlands,\" who was to make it his favorite residence up to the time of his death in 1881. Prince Hermann retired to a smaller estate at Branitz, not far from Muskau, where he set about to create a handsome, if more modest, landscape park.12 He never again openly visited Muskau, but did once attempt a visit in disguise; on being recognized, he left. He died at Branitz on February 4, 1871. For Jacob Heinrich the more resounding title of Royal Netherlands' Park and Garden Inspector hardly compensated for the loss of the imaginative genius, and the sense of mutual interest and close cooperation which had grown up between him and Prince Hermann. Over the years the two men, with their common passion and their very different but undoubted talents, had developed a mutual respect for each other which gave their relationship a certain informality if never real intimacy. The class distinction, still carefully preserved in the first half of the 19th century, would never have allowed the latter. Yet in his letters to his wife, written from England in 1826-27, the Prince mentions Jacob Heinrich with casual and 146 friendly familiarity; speaks of taking him to the theatre and of his writing busily in his diary while the Prince pens his letter.13 Again, in a letter written from Muskau in 1833 to his wife, away on a visit, he speaks of a period of unusual heat and drouth in the spring which threatens to ruin much of their work: \"Rehder, who has been counting on a thunderstorm since yesterday, but in vain, has become an atheist and refuses to go to church any longer; I, however, remain pious and humble.\" 14 The Prince had hoped to establish a burial site in a secluded spot on the forested ridge behind the town. In a life of the Prince which appeared in 1873 this is mentioned: \"He wished to be buried here alone, with his loyal and skillful gardener, Park-Inspector Rehder, who had entered his service in 1814. Often he said to him, 'When people pass by here they will le say: \"Here lies the Prince and old Rehder.' This wish was never fulfilled, but the Prince had the satisfaction of knowing his plans were being carried on by his loyal co-worker who had shared his dream with him. He also was happy in the knowledge that Prince Frederick of The Netherlands had ample means to carry out the development of the park.l~ So the work went on, but the strain of the incessant demands told on Jacob Heinrich's health. He died, rather suddenly, nine days before his sixty-second birthday, on February 9, 1852. He is buried in the old churchyard in Muskau. The town has restored the grave and planted it with roses. In 1965 when the sesquicentennial anniversary of the park was celebrated, a memorial plaque in honor of Jacob Heinrich and his immediate successor, Eduard Petzold (1852-1878), was unveiled. A few days later, in a historical pageant and procession marking the founding of the park, the first carriage contained four townspeople representing Prince Hermann and the Princess and Park-Inspector Rehder and his wife. Just within this past year, a bridge over a stream in the park, in an area known as the Blue Garden, has been named the Rehder Bridge. Jacob Heinrich left his mark not only in the work he did in developing the park of Muskau, but in the skills and enthusiasm he passed on to three apprentices in particular whom he trained for their gardening careers. Even as he had learned the fundamentals during his apprenticeship in Ludwigslust, so did these three learn under his experienced guidance the fundamentals which would make them outstanding park directors in the following generation. And under two of these men, Alfred Rehder Below: Paul Julius Rehder Above: Alfred Rehder 148 of the third generation would receive his training and be launched on a career of distinction that would achieve its fulfillment far from Muskau in an area allied to but differing from park management. The first of the three, Eduard Petzold,17 entered his apprenin the spring of 1831, at the age of sixteen, as was then usual. He completed the customary three years and added a fourth, working in the park on a journeyman's wages, and then left to seek work and experience elsewhere. By 1844 he had become court gardener to the Grand Duke of Saxe-Weimar and it was from here that he was recalled to Muskau on the death of his former master in 1852. His careful training by Jacob Heinrich now proved its value for he carried to completion the original ambitious plans and, when he retired in 1878 at the age of sixty-three, the park could be said to have fulfilled with success the dreams of Prince Hermann and Jacob Heinrich Rehder. But parks are living organisms, and their growth and development are never really finished; here the second notable apprentice was to play the vital role. In the year that Petzold began his apprenticeship, there was born to the local wheelwright, Johann Gottlieb Schrefeld, a son, Gustav.1s In the spring of 1846, when fifteen and a half, he became an apprentice in the park and, like Petzold, completed his apprenticeship training in three years, staying on for a fourth to work in the ticeship park as a journeyman. In 1850, the fourth year ended, Gustav Schrefeld went to Weimar to work under his fellow-townsman Petzold for a year and a half. Three years of required military service followed, completed in the fall of 1854. He then returned home to Muskau, where Petzold was now park inspector, to work for a few months before being sent to the estate of the Barons Richthofen near Striegau southwest of Breslau, in Silesia,19 to carry out plans drawn up by Petzold for a landscape park on the estate. Schrefeld completed the task successfully in three years and in 1858 returned to Muskau. Petzold had established an extensive nursery on the right bank of the Neisse (on what is today Polish territory), and he now put Schrefeld in charge. In the same year an arboretum contiguous to the nursery was begun and with it, a program of systematic collection and cultivation of woody plants. Schrefeld was placed in charge of both nursery and arboretum in 1872. When Petzold retired in 1878, the direction of the park was shared by the newly-appointed 149 Park Inspector Roth 20 and Nursery and Arboretum Director Schrefeld. Eventually, when Roth left, the direction of the park with its nursery and arboretum were once more unified under Schrefeld. Following the death of Prince Frederick of the Netherlands in 1881, the estate was sold to Count Hermann von Arnim,21 member of a wealthy branch of an old Prussian Junker family. Schrefeld continued to carry on the work in the park, expanding in particular the arboretum and introducing many new trees and shrubs. His work was cut short by his untimely death in January 1891. The third apprentice to receive his initial training under Jacob Heinrich was his youngest son, Paul Julius. He was bom January 15, 1833, and began his apprenticeship in the spring of 1849 just as Gustav Schrefeld began his fourth year of training in the park; thus the two became acquainted. Just as Paul Julius was completing his apprenticeship in 1852, his father died. Seven years as journeyman followed during which he rounded out his training. In 1859 he undertook the direction of the park in Waldenburg, Saxony, then owned by Prince Otto Friedrich of Schonburg-Waldenburg.22 Two particular tasks awaited him here: to landscape the grounds about the new castle, built on the site of one destroyed on April 5, 1848 by revolutionary peasants and weavers, and to lay out a new park, Grunfeld,23 on the banks of the river Mulde which flows past the town. He carried out both tasks successfully and also added to the castle grounds a large temperate house which, with its rare tropical plants, was one of the showplaces of Saxony. This was unfortunately destroyed in 1889 in a severe hail storm and was never rebuilt. The blow this sudden loss brought may have been a factor in Paul Julius' decision to retire five years later; another, more immediate, was the death in December 1893 of Prince Otto Friedrich, leaving the estate to a sixteen year old grandson. Apparently, at sixty-one, Paul Julius felt he could not adjust to so great a change. He continued to live twenty-four more years, in honored retirement in his old home, a wing of the castle preserved undestroyed from the pre-1848 period. On December 8, 1917, in the dark final winter of the war, he died a few weeks before his eighty-fifth birthday. For some thirty-four years he had directed the park and gardens of Waldenburg, the same span of time which his 150 father had spent at Muskau. They were fruitful and satisfying years, even if Waldenburg broke no new paths in park design or in arboriculture and there was never the close bond of interest between park director and park owner which had existed at Muskau. Paul Julius' home life was a happy one. In 1862, four years after taking up his work in Waldenburg, he had brought home as his bride a young girl, Thekla,2~' daughter of Dr. Med. Johann Julius Schmidt of Hohenleuben .25 On September 4, 1863, in the wing of the old Schonburg castle which was their home, their first child, a son, was born and christened Alfred. It was he who was destined to link Waldenburg and Muskau and the Arnold Arboretum. Two other sons, one of whom died in infancy, and three daughters followed.26 Alfred Rehder 27 grew up in Waldenburg, attending elementary school there until 1874 when he was sent to the neighboring town of Berga on the Elster River, to live with a maternal uncle and be prepared particularly in Latin, French and ancient history for the entrance examinations to a gymnasium.28 After two years, at the age of twelve and a half, he was enrolled in the \"quarta\", or eighth grade, of the gymnasium in Zwickau, the nearest such school to Waldenburg. Here he studied for five years, spending his holidays at home or visiting his numerous maternal relatives in Thuringia. In April 1881 he graduated and his formal schooling came to an end. Usually one would consider graduation from a gymnasium the preliminary step to matriculation in a university; for Alfred this was not to be, for his father was in no position financially to support a son at a university. The son, therefore, returned at once to Waldenburg and, in the same month in which he graduated, entered his apprenticeship under his father's tutelage. If he felt any disappointment he did not show it, but we can judge from subsequent events that he was as determined as ever to find his own career in the field of systematic botany. This was the decisive moment in his life. Had he gone on to a university and achieved a doctorate he undoubtedly would have remained in Germany, probably at a university or botanical institute, no doubt achieving a degree of distinction, for the talent and devotion to work was there; but he would have been one among a score of distinguished botanical scientists in the established institutions of Western Europe. Now he was faced with a challenge, not like the one which his grandfather had faced of swamps and sandy soil. Equally demanding, it 151 was somehow to acquire the knowledge, to force his way without the talisman of a doctoral degree (in Germany by then already indispensable for recognition and advancement) into the ranks of scientists; to be able to make a real contribution in his chosen field; and to win acknowledgment of his talents from his peers. Without realizing it he was already following a pattern of thought more natural to America than the Old World; the pattern of the self-made man, though in this case the field would be science rather than business, and the reward would be professional recognition rather than a fortune. In the end the fulfillment would be achieved by going to America where the results of his efforts at self-education would be recognized, and the opportunity to make use of his talents and to develop them further would be given him. But that lay seventeen years ahead, and completely hidden from the knowledge of the young apprentice. Through those years of what must often have seemed routine and unrewarding labor, he never seems to have lost his sense of dedication to his goal, his enthusiasm for his science, or his ability to derive pleasure from the life he was living. As in his school days, he traveled during the holidays, took walking tours through the Thuringian Forest, and visited Bohemia. In June 1884, he paid his first visit to Muskau, visiting his relatives, including his grandmother, the eighty-two year old widow of Jacob Heinrich, and meeting Park-Inspector Schrefeld for the first time. In his travels, as at home, he always had his eyes open for anything of interest in the plant world around him, and his herbarium continued to grow. For three years Alfred Rehder worked in Waldenburg as an apprentice. During this time he published his first scientific article, an anonymous article on mushrooms which appeared in three issues of the local paper in August 1883.29 His botanical knowledge so impressed his former botany master at the gymnasium, Otto Wunsche, that he was hired to read proof for his \"Flora von Deutschland\" and, later, for a second work. With his apprenticeship behind him by March 1884, there followed fourteen years of varied positions, each adding to his fund of experience and used to further his ambition to devote his life to botanical study. He spent twenty months in the Botanic Garden in Berlin, which gave him the opportunity to attend lectures at the university. In 1886 he worked for six 152 months in the greenhouses of a large florist firm in Frankfurt am Main, and in the following year went to Muskau to work under Park-Inspector Schrefeld in the nursery for a year. Whether he was aware during that year of a lively twelve year old, the Park-Inspector's second youngest daughter, we do not know; yet twenty years later she would be his wife. A year in Darmstadt, at the Hessian Grand Ducal Botanic Garden followed, and then six years as head gardener at the Botanic Gardens in Gottingen, the chief university town in Hanover. Here at last Alfred Rehder had a degree of responsibility and this encouraged his ambitions and his independence. He initiated a complete reorganization of the gardens, began to publish more botanical articles, and came into correspondence with a number of Germany's leading botanists. This independent activity apparently irked the Director of the Gardens and in 1895 Rehder left to accept an associate editorship on the staff of Germany's leading horticultural journal, Moller's Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung. Fourteen years out of the gymnasium and he had come a long way. If progress was slow, and anything but dramatic, it was solid. A large amount of experience and knowledge was stored in the head of this mild-appearing and gentle-mannered man, with his professional pince-nez and somewhat deceptively fierce, curling, black moustache. The moment for the breakthrough was at hand; the determined will, the years of patient labor, had prepared him for the moment of opportunity. As so often with dramatic turning points in life, it came with deceptive simplicity. In 1898 Rehder, since he had mastered English, was to be sent by his paper on a six months' trip to the United States to gather material at firsthand for a series of articles. To add to his slender expense account he had also acquired a commission from the Imperial German Government to make a study of viniculture in upstate New York. He set sail in March 1898, heading for Boston. He chose Boston because he had heard of the Arnold Arboretum and had written Prof. Sargent asking for an opportunity to do some studying there on his own. While engaged in his studies, to eke out his living expenses he was quite willing to do manual labor on the grounds of the Arboretum for a dollar a day. This story has an eye-catching quality that makes it appear in any account of his first years here.30 It also tells Like any true friend of the one something about the man. 1 153 plant world, While he never meaning ; nor that any task its own dignity. felt that working with the soil was dethat was essential was not without on his project, Rehder came to know Prof. and Sargent, with his uncanny knack for sizing up Sargent; the men he needed for his staff, approached him with the offer of a permanent position. Suddenly the goal was within his grasp: the opportunity to work in his chosen field, to work in a new and growing institution with a great potential, and to work with a man of vision, ambition, and understanding. It was almost as if he were living his grandfather's experience working over again. Once the decision was made, the next steps followed in order. The first step was to begin the process of becoming an American citizen. Rehder's own experiences had prepared him to be sympathetic to the American way of life, and he was always grateful for the great opportunity offered him in the land of his adoption. But he also never lost his affection for the land of his birth, the background which had given him his start, and whose traditions he had imbibed as he grew up. In the course of working on the Bradley Bibliography, the first task Sargent set for him, he was able to take the second important step: to establish a family life for himself. On a trip to Europe in 1904 in connection with gathering material for the bibliography, he arranged to meet the late Park-Inspector Schrefeld's daughter, Anneliese,31 with whom he had been corresponding for some time, and they became engaged. On March 30, 1906 they were married in Dresden and, after a trip to Italy which combined work in Italian libraries for the bibliography and a honeymoon, they returned in the fall of 1906 to Jamaica Plain, and the European chapter was closed. So the background and training which reached back more than a century from that date, to Ludwigslust, Pforten, and, above all, Muskau, had brought the fruits to the New World and to a young institution which was then in the early years of its second quarter of a century. It was one element, in its own way unique, which helped make the Arnold Arboretum the outstanding institution it has become. For institutions, like individuals, have many ancestors; and they, like people, can gain inspiration and strength as they move forward into the future by looking back and being aware of their roots in the past. GERHARD REHDER 154 Notes: 1. Sargent, Charles S., The 2. 3. First Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, vol. III, 1922; p. 130. Kurland, K. H. A., ed., Fiihrer durch die Park- und Kurstadt Bad Muskau, 3rd ed., rev. + enl., 1969, Leipzig. This guide book gives a full account of the history of the town and the park. The appendix includes a useful chronological chart of events affecting both. Hermann Ludwig Heinrich, 1785-1871, only son of Ludwig, Count Piickler, Privy Councillor to the King of Saxony, and of Clemintine, Countess Callenberg, heiress to the domain of Muskau. 1762-1847. Born 18 February 1790; died 9 February 1852. Schiittauf, Hermann, Parke und Gdrten der DDR, 1969, Leipzig. This useful and attractive handbook describes the chief parks and gardens of the German Democratic Republic. Ludwigslust is described on p. 77. This very ornate certificate was one of the prized possessions of Alfred Rehder and hung in his study beside his honorary Master's Degree received from Harvard in 1913. Born 10 October 1802; died 2 February 1890. Petzold, Eduard, Der Park von Muskau, 1856, Hoyerswerda. Prince William, 1797-1888, succeeded his brother on the throne of Prussia in 1861. In 1871 he was proclaimed the first German 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. Prince Frederick, 1797-1881, was the younger son of King Willem I of The Netherlands (reigned 1813-1840), and younger brother of King Willem II (1840-1849). In 1825 he married Princess Louise of Prussia, sister of Prince William mentioned above. Schiittauf, op. cit., p. 24. Piickler-Muskau, Hermann, Fiirst von, Briefe eines Verstorbenen, 4 vols., 1831, Stuttgart; vol. 3, pp. 198 and 204. Assing, Ludmilla, Briefwechsel und tagebucher des Fiisten von Puchler-Mushau, 8 vols., 1873-76, Hamburg; vol. 8, p. 179. Assing, Ludmilla, Furst von Piickler-Muskau: Eine Biographie, 1873, Hamburg; pp. 217-218. Prince Frederick had surrendered his claims to the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg to his brother, King Willem II, for a substantial monetary settlement. 1815-1891. Petzold retired to Dresden in 1878. Born 21 October 1831; died 27 January 1891. Now in Polish territory; Striegau is today Strzegom. Breslau is Emperor. Wroclaw. 155 Muskau Park, East Germany ~ 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. No data is available on Park-Director Roth. Count Hermann von Arnim, 1839-1919. The family held the estate until July 1945 when it was confiscated by the provisional government, then under Soviet protection. It is now state property; the castle was destroyed in the fighting at the end of the war. Otto Friedrich, Prince (Fiirst) of Schonburg-Waldenburg, 1819-1893, succeeded to the property on the death of his father in 1858. Before Napoleon's reorganization of Germany the Princes were sovereign in their territories. The property was confiscated by the provisional government in 1945. The castle is now a hospital. Schiittauf, op. cit., p. 140. Born 13 August 1839; married 1 August 1862; died 21 September 1897. 156 25. Johann Julius Schmidt, 1796-1872, Dr. Med., University of Jena. As a boy he assisted his stepfather, also a physician, with the wounded on the battlefield of Leipzig, October 1813, (Battle of Nations); as a student at Jena he took part in the \"Wartburg Festival\", October 1817, a student defiance of the reactionary regimes of the time; and as an adult he was one of the founders, in 1826, of a local society for historical and archeological research, which still carries on. The museum, in 26. 27. Hohenleuben-Reichenfels, also exists today. The surviving son emigrated to Brazil in the early 1890's and established a branch of the Rehder family there which still flourishes. For a full biographical sketch see: Kobuski, Clarence E., Alfred Rehder, 1863-1949, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, vol. XXXI, 1950; pp. 1-38. This also includes a complete bibliog- raphy. 28. A gymnasium approximates an American college preparatory school; it has an eight year course, grades 5 through 12. 29. 30. 31. It later was reprinted in the agricultural supplement to a newspaper in Chemnitz, a city of some size and industrial importance in Saxony; a testimonial to its quality and its timeliness. As he often used to recall, he found substantial board and comfortable lodgings in Jamaica Plain at that time for $3.00 a week. Born 3 August 1875; died 14 July 1967. Alfred and Anneliese Rehder had three children, two sons and a daughter. At present there are also five grandchildren and four great-grandchildren. ~ (The author is the son of the Arnold Arboretum's noted horticultural taxonomist. For 25 years Gerald Rehder has taught at the Roxbury Latin School where he is Chairman of the History Department.) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Centennial Views","article_sequence":2,"start_page":157,"end_page":159,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24575","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25e816d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Centennial Weel~ at the Arnold Arboretum Photos: Paul Sansevero, Gibson Kennedy, Kim Takal, P. J. Chvany. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Simple Frame for Softwood Propagation","article_sequence":3,"start_page":160,"end_page":164,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24574","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25e8128.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"A Simple Frame for Softwood Propagation At the Arnold Arboretum's Dana Greenhouses the propagation of woody plant cuttings is carried out largely under polyethylene plastic, except during summer when intermittent mist is employed. The structures and system presently in use have reached a high degree of efficiency due to testing of new ideas and adoption of improvements seen elsewhere. With the advent of polyethylene plastic film, a great deal of the finicky care previously required to root cuttings has become unnecessary. The plastic material is air permeable, yet vaporproof; this permits a high relative humidity to be maintained, and by reducing transpiration prevents the cuttings from wilting. By modifying and adapting certain components of the Arboretum's carefully controlled system, amateur horticulturists can propagate easily cuttings that previously were considered difficult. The ensuing device is a simply constructed polyethylene propagating chamber which may be placed outdoors and left for weeks on end without attention. Plate 1 shows an assortment of plants that were rooted from softwood cuttings in such a frame. They include shrubby dogwoods, virbumum, magnolia, buddleia, weigela, and pachistima. Plates 2 and 3 illustrate the preparation sequence. First, a site is chosen which offers as much light as possible without direct sunlight. (A location on the north side of a house, wall, tree, or such would be satisfactory.) A standard 1 by 2-foot greenhouse flat is pressed against the earth to show its outline, and the soil is then excavated to a depth whereby the flat's edges will be level with the surrounding soil. Next, two-mil polyethylene plastic is cut to line the flat with enough surplus so that it extends about 2 inches on all sides. The medium (in this instance, half sand and half horticultural grade perlite) is added and slightly firmed. Plate 2 shows a flat with three rows of cuttings inserted be160 162 neath a structure of turkey or utility wire which has been cut and bent so that it will support the plastic about 6 inches above the cuttings. It is important that this framework lie flat at the top, rather than in a curve as is sometimes suggested. Temperatures within the little propagating unit are warmer than the surrounding atmosphere and consequently water continually condenses on the inner surface, then accumulates in droplets which become too heavy to remain. These fall back on the cuttings and into the medium, thus creating an environment of continual moisture. A flat surface above permits even distribution of the falling drops whereas a curved top directs them to the side walls and down, leaving the center portion of the chamber dry. Collection of Cuttings It is well to gather softwood cuttings early in the morning for at this time they are in their freshest condition. Only wood of normal growth should be chosen. Immediately on collection, the cuttings are placed in polyethylene bags which are tightly sealed with rubber bands. The bags are not squeezed to exclude air and this permits packing them on top of one another without crushing the contents. To prevent a buildup of heat within the bag, it must be shielded from the sun. At the Arnold Arboretum we put cuttings into styrofoam or picnic-type coolers and this has proven highly satisfactory. In the event that the cuttings cannot be processed immediately after collection, they will remain fresh for a week or two if stored in a refrigerator at 40 degrees. the Cuttings The leaves are removed from the part of the cutting which will be below the medium, and a slanting cut is made below the node or nodes (the place on the stem which normally bears a leaf or leaves). If the tip of the cutting is soft and rubbery, it too is removed as it could decompose, thereby inviting fungus infection. Making Root Inducing Substances A number of root inducing substances may be employed. Hormodin #2 or Hormo-Root \"B\" are used on most softwood cuttings; Hormodin #3 or Hormo-Root \"C\" would be needed for the more difficult subjects such as Ghent azaleas, stewartias, and so forth. 163 one should work with a small of the root inducing material on a piece of paper rather than dip directly into the supply container. Softwood cuttings are generally moist enough so that it is unnecessary to wet them before applying the auxin. The bases of the cuttings are dipped into the powder just deeply enough to cover the newly-cut surfaces. To prevent contamination, amount Insertion ofCuttings The cuttings are now inserted in the medium after a hole is made for each large enough to receive it without brushing off the root inducing material. An important point to consider is that cuttings should not be overcrowded. Enough interspace should be left so that air can circulate around the cuttings and light can reach the medium. This sanitary measure aids in preventing problems with diseases. See Plate 4. Next the cuttings are watered. This serves two purposes: first, it compacts the medium around the cuttings, and secondly, it provides the initial watering. The framework is put in place and covered with the polyethylene plastic; soil is then mounded over the plastic where it meets the ground. It should be emphasized that with this system of propagation it is imperative that all air leaks be eliminated as they could reduce the very necessary high humidity and cause failure. After Care of the Propagating Case After initial watering it is unlikely that any further moisture will be needed. It would be wise, however, to check the cuttings each week or so to make sure that fungus infection is not occurring, or that insects are not present which have hatched from unnoticed egg masses. Inspections can be made through the transparent polyethylene without its removal. It is unusual for problems to arise through the activity of fungi; however, in the event that this does occur, the covering should be lifted and infected cuttings disposed of. The remainder may then be sprayed with an application of 50% Captan at the rate of 2 teaspoons in a gallon of water. Tests for Rooting After several weeks, the cuttings are checked for rooting. This is accomplished by grasping each with thumb and forefinger. A gentle upward tug will show whether the cutting has 164 Plate 4 rooted. Heavy resistance indicates an extensive slight resistance, either a heavy callous or small sistance, the absence of roots altogether. or root system; no re- roots; Potting Boxing Once the cuttings are sufficiently rooted, they are carefully lifted from the medium and immediately potted or boxed. Material rooted under conditions of high humidity and temperature must be brought into normal atmosphere gradually. This is accomplished by again covering them with polyethylene. On cloudy, humid days the plastic can be removed; and if several such days occur in succession, the transition will be complete. Otherwise, uncovering the cuttings at night and recovering them during the heat of the day for a period of five or six days will accomplish this very necessary conditioning. ALFRED J. FORDHAM "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"News from the Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":165,"end_page":165,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24576","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25e8526.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"News from the Arnold Arboretum One of the nation's most prestigious horticultural awards, the Medal of Honor of the Garden Club of America, was recently received by Dr. Richard A. Howard. The Arboretum's director was cited for \"eminence as a botanist, horticulturist, educator, lecturer, author of definitive monographs on tropical plant material, authority on nomenclature, princeps among West Indian botanists.\" Howard's award marks the third time an Arnold Arboretum staff member has received the Medal of Honor. Previous recipients were Charles Sprague Sargent in 1920, and Dr. Donald Wyman in 1965. Also recognized for outstanding work in his field is Alfred J. Fordham who has been given the International Plant Propa- gators' Society Award of Merit. The honor, presented \"in recognition of outstanding contributions to the art and science of plant propagation,\" is given at irregular intervals; selection criteria include scientific discoveries and application of facts related to propagation practices and techniques. Shortly before Centennial Week, the Arboretum received an addition to its living collection: a stately Sequoiadendron giganteum, which was bequeathed to it by the late Chandler Hovey of Chestnut Hill. The 40-foot tree attracted considerable attention en route to its new situation in the Kent Field conifer collection. A gift from an anonymous donor paid for the transportation. 165 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia in the Kitchen","article_sequence":5,"start_page":166,"end_page":167,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24572","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eb76b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"Arnoldia in the kitchen Linden Tea day the Linden tree was known as Lynde (\"Be light as lyf on Lynde.\" - The Clerke's Tale). During Shakespeare's time it was known as Line or Lind (\"All prisoners in the Line-grove which weather-fends your cell.\" The Tempest). It is only in comparatively recent times that the name Lime tree has come into use, giving rise to the misleading name of - In Chaucer's ay of chier as Lime Tea for an infusion made from the flowers. Linden flowers were recommended in Gerard's Herball of 1597 as a medicine to be used against colds, dizziness, apoplexie, and \"the falling sicknesse\". In France dried flowers are still kept in the kitchen for making tilleul, and in Spain the infusion is called tilo and is used not only as a refreshing drink but also to calm the nerves. On the now-defunct ship, the Queen Elizabeth, Lime Tea appeared as a standard item on the opulent menu. Lime tea is prepared by drying the fresh flowers. (Care must be taken not to use flowers which have been treated with The flowers are dried slowly in a warm dry room such as an attic. They should be spread out on trays with cheesecloth bottoms, such as the kind that are used for drying mushrooms, or on a layer of paper towels, and when completely dry stored in a tight canister. To prepare the drink boiling water should be poured on the blossoms and they should be allowed to steep. Dried Linden flowers are also considered beneficial in the bathwater, so whether used internally or externally, these fragrant flowers should not be overlooked by those who are lucky enough to have them in their gardens. pesticides.) HELEN ROCA~GARCIA 167 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":6,"start_page":168,"end_page":172,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24573","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25ebb6f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Plants of Hong Kong. man Group (Far East) Ltd. 1971. (U.S.) postpaid. Stella L. Thrower. Hong Kong: Long192 pages, illustrated. $4.00 This volume is a handsome addition to the illustrated handbooks of tropical plants and certainly is recommended for any visitor to Hong Kong. It contains one or more colored illustrations, accurately reproduced, of 88 different plants. The illustrations, rarely of whole plants, are mostly moderate closeup pictures of flowering or fruiting branches with some enlargements. The size of the flower is given with each illustration. The plants included range from endemic and native species to exotics and pan-tropical weeds. About one-third of the plants would be found in Hawaii or in the West Indies. An accompanying text is set in parallel columns in English and Chinese, the latter said to be an exact translation for scientific accuracy. Besides the scientific name, common name, and the plant family there are brief descriptive details, an indication of where the plant can be seen in Hong Kong, and some miscellaneous information; the last, under \"points of interest\". A glossary of technical terms and a separate list of parts of the flowering plant, each in two languages, explains the vocabulary used and is accompanied by diagrams. The only index is of scientific names and appears on page 1. A few references also are listed. R. A. H. North American Apples: Varieties, Rootstocks, Outlook. W. H. Upshall, Editor. East Lansing: Michigan State University Press. 1970. 197 pages, illustrated. $8.50. A century ago fruit domestic horticulture. case. growing was a very important part of Today, unfortunately, this is not the This book, while written for pomologists, will be of in- 168 169 terest to those horticulturists and plantsmen interested in fruits. It is not a book on the culture of apples. The several chapters deal with the major commercial varieties of apples, their history, economic importance, and sports. G. P. DEW. New Approaches to Financing Parks and Recreation. Robert M. Books. 1971. 126 pages. Artz, Editor. $5.95. Washington: Acropolis Financing open space for recreation or education is a problem. This volume does give some information about sources and methods of applying for funds. It would, however, be more appropriate as a pamphlet than as a hard bound book. G. P. DEW. Making Gifts from Oddments and Outdoor Materials. Betsey B. Creekmore. New York:Hearthside Press, Inc. 1970. 224 pages, illustrated. $7.95. At the outset, I want it known that I make things from \"oddments\" myself, reusing some of the clutter that comes into the house with every trip to the market. Also, I like \"outdoor materials\" as decorations in my house dried weeds, seed pods, driftwood, small stones. So, I am not opposed to the idea of making things from \"oddments and outdoor materials\". I was surprised, therefore, to find that I did not want to make a single item that Mrs. Creekmore describes in her book. Most of the projects produce \"toe covers,\" to use Betty McDonald's fine phrase things of little and limited use. For instance, by embedding a dried flower in plastic resin in a glass percolator top, you can make (depending on the size of the percolator top) either a set of drawer pulls, a doorknob, or a decanter stopper. These are all useful items but I do not feel that the labor involved is commensurate with the final product. There is something disproportionate about learning to cure flowers and to cast in plastic resin (both processes fully described in the book) so that you can recycle a percolator top. Of course, it makes more sense if you have on hand the 8-10 tops needed for the set of drawer pulls. - 170 The publishers claim that this book is illustrated \"profusely\" and \"magnificently\". Sadly, it is neither. Considering the number of projects which the book details, the illustrations are downright scarce. The chapter devoted to \"portable topiary\" (\"pseudo\" and \"pseudo-er\") contains ten projects and two photographs of finished pieces but not a single illustration of how any of the constructions are to be made. One picture could have been worth several thousand words in this case. I had to keep reminding myself while I was reading about \"arrangements in wallpaper cleaner\" and a \"glittered pumpkin\" that everything in this book is meant to be given away. I do not have among my friends, as the author does, either a \"doll collector\" who would go ape over the corn shuck doll or \"the owner of a country home\" who has been breathlessly waiting for that dried arrangement to go on her churn. Perhaps that is the reason for my lack of enthusiasm; if I made any of these gifts, I'd have to keep them myself. D. M. V. Kentucky. Mary E. Wharton & Roger W. Barbour. Lexington: The University Press of Kentucky. 1971. 344 pages, illustrated. $9.50. A Guide to the Wildflowers and Ferns of Since Kentucky does not have a particularly unusual flora, this guide will be of considerable use in many areas of the eastern United States. The plants are illustrated by means of color photographs (a total of 486), accompanied by concise descriptions of distinguishing features, habitat, flowering time, etc. Similar and confusing species are mentioned and often described. Many of the photographs are excellent, but many are blurred, and some are not at all diagnostic. From the photograph, Valerianella intermedia, for example, could well be a species of Polygonum. Color is poor in the pinks and purples and the whites are often so glaring as to obliterate floral structure. The arrangement of the plates, a thorny problem in guides of this sort, is quite effective. They are broken down into ferns, monocots, and dicots, with subgroups based mostly on floral form and size. Flower color is fortunately not used as a major character. The characters used are well explained and illustrated in most cases, but amateurs will have trouble with some of them, particularly inflorescence type. The systematic 171 list of the families included, with their genera and species, will be useful to amateurs interested in plant classification, and the family descriptions, in non-technical terms, are particularly good. R. E. W. Vegetable Dyeing. Alma Lesch. New York: Watson-Guptill Publications. 1970. 146 pages. $7.95. Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing (formerly titled: Natural Dyes in the United States). Rita J. Adrosko. New York: Dover Publications, Inc. 154 pages. Paperback $2.00. a very straightforward natural dyestuffs and procedures. There is no deadwood in this handbook; the author begins with general information, continues with 151 dye recipes arranged by color, and concludes with sources of supply and charts for quick reference. It is a \"no experience required\" kind of book and seems an excellent introduction to the craft. Vegetable Dyeing by Alma Lesch is to guide Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing is a history of dyestuffs in America (see former title) which is posing as a craft handbook. It is a good history, but a poor handbook. The revised \"how-to\" section is poorly presented and would be difficult for a novice to follow. To her credit, Rita Adrosko includes the botanical names of the dye plants, which to my sorrow, Alma Lesch does not. Natural Dyes and Dyeing is a book for the dyeing enthusiast, not the beginner. Vegetable Dyeing by Alma Lesch is the one to have if you're having only one. D. M. V. 172I Know Your Garden Series: Trees and Shrubs. Richard E. and Charles R. Harrison. Wellington, N.Z.: A. H. and A. W. Reed. 1965. 199 pages. $12.50. The book is a companion to Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere by the senior author. The bulk of the book consists of about 560 colored illustrations of (generally) flowering twigs of trees and shrubs grown in New Zealand. They are arranged alphabetically by generic name. There are many north temperate zone plants included, along with natives of the Southern hemisphere. A paragraph with each picture gives a brief description and an indication of hardiness. The reduction of each illustration is given, as well as the plant family to which it belongs. Although the color is not always true, and some of the illustrations have suffered loss of detail, this is an excellent guide for identification of many commonly grown woody plants. In this country its greatest use will probably be on the West Coast, but gardeners from Philadelphia southwards will also find it of value. G. P. DEW. Plaque presented to the Arnold Arboretum by the International Plant Propagators' Society \"in Appreciation for 100 years of Exploration, Testing, Introduction, and Display of Ornamental Plants.\" Left to right: Alfred J. Fordham, Charles Hess, Richard A. Howard. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23316","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060af6c.jpg","title":"1972-32-4","volume":32,"issue_number":4,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"E. H. Wilson's First Trip to China","article_sequence":1,"start_page":103,"end_page":115,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24567","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eab6b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gardener, William","article_content":"E. H. WILSON'S FIRST TRIP TO CHINA Davidia involucrata, the Dove Tree, is a plant which has captured the imagination of the gardening public as few other plants have. It was originally discovered in 1869 by Abbe Armand David, a French missionary travelling in China. Abbe David found it \"near Moupine, Western China .... growing at an elevation of between 6,000 and 7,000 feet.\" The Abbe sent dried herbarium specimens to Paris and it was described as a new genus and species by Henri Baillon in 1871. In that same year a leaf and a bract were sent to the herbarium at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. In 1889 Dr. Augustine Henry found a single tree in the South Wushan district of Szechuen. From this he collected both flowering and fruiting specimens for the herbarium at Kew. This was illustrated and discussed by Dr. Daniel Oliver, Keeper of the Herbarium and Library at Kew. Oliver commented at the end of his description \"Davidia is a tree almost deserving a special mission to Western China with a view to its introduction to European gardens....\" M. Maurice de Vilmorin, of the famous French nursery firm of the same name, was much taken by the newly described plant and asked his correspondents in China to be on the look-out for it. In June of 1897 Vilmorin received a shipment of 37 fruits, collected by Pere Farges, another missionary, in Se-tchwen (Szechuen). The next year Farges sent 3 fruits collected in \"Eastern Tibet\" or Moupine. Of the 40 fruits only one from the first shipment germinated in 1899 two years after sowing. In 1901 Vilmorin made four cuttings and layered a branch. Only two of the cuttings survived one going to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, the other to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. The layer was sent to Professor Sargent at the Arnold Arboretum in 1904 and is still thriving. In 1906 this original plant in Vilmorin's nursery produced its first flowers, only 7 years after germination. G. P. DEW. When E. H. Wilson was sent to China in 1899 by the nursery firm of James Veitch and Sons to collect the seeds of Davidia involucrata, he was instructed by them to consult the botanist Augustine Henry as to the exact location of this tree. Henry's enthusiasm for the flowering of the tree had been caught by his correspondent Sir William Thistleton-Dyer (1) at Kew and spilled over to the people in the nursery firm. Evidently the tree was as rare as it was beautiful. Also, as it grew in the * \"In the spring to kind enough of 1899 Sir William Thistleton-Dyer of Kew was select a young man from the staff of the Royal Garden 103 104 mountains of Central China, it was likely to take kindly to the climate in an English garden. James Veitch & Sons had fi- nanced many profitable journeys to plants. Henry's find would recoup obtain and introduce new another. The Davidia that Wilson was to seek grew in hilly forested tracts where the Chinese provinces of Szechuen and Hupeh meet, on the northern side of the last awe-inspiring gorges of the Yangtze river. Henry had seen only a single specimen (2) in the course of his several expeditions from the neighbouring port of Ichang into an extensive area of mountain and valley, along the right bank of the Han river. This area is often held to be the richest of China's wild gardens. Henry had been able to make extensive botanical explorations there, the first westerner to do so on this scale, thanks to generous allocations of leave from his employment as port medical officer and Indoor (i.e. administrative) assistant in the Customs establishment at Ichang. It may be of interest to mention here that among Henry's contemporaries in this Service were the historian Hosea B. Morse and the sinologue Dr. F. Hirth, men of international reputation, and - by reason of birth and nationality in the one case, and of professional residence in the other of special significance in the United States. Ichang, nearly a thousand miles by river-steamer above Shanghai, was the only possible base for a plant-collector operating along the Middle Yangtze, where Wilson could find an expert guide and counsellor at his elbow whenever he returned from the field. However, Henry had found his Davidia in 1889, and within a few years he had left Ichang on a series of official transfers which brought him ultimately to Mengtsz, a town in southern Yunnan, situated just east of the Red River and near the Tongking (now North Vietnam) frontier. It was reached at that time only by steamer to Haiphong, then by launch up the trade route of the Red River (vessels that became progressively less comfortable as the one-time bandit stronghold of Manhao, at the head of cargo-boat navigation, was neared), and finally, at - who possessed, as far as could be judged, the necessary qualifications for undertaking a prolonged journey in certain districts of China.\" (3) \"E. H. Wilson, was born in Birmingham, and received part of his early training in botany and horticulture in the Botanic Gardens of that town... He afterwards entered the Royal Gardens at Kew as a young gardener, and when an application was made to Sir W. T. ThistletonDyer, the late Director of the Gardens, for a man likely to prove suitable to undertake a prolonged journey to China, the late Director suggested Wilson for the post.\" (5) ... , 105 106 the frontier itself, by pack-road for four days over the mountains, by mule-back, pony-back, mountain-chair, or one's own feet. when Veitch was considering his plans, off to Szemao in the far south-west of the province, Henry Send your man on to as Commissioner of Customs there. Szemao for a talk, was the gist of Henry's advice to Veitch, quicker than letters and cheaper than telegrams. A less committed traveller than Henry, and yet one having some knowledge of the country, might have taken a less lighthearted view. If Mengtz was not easily accessible, the Shan states of the remote border with Laos whereon Szemao lies were But in January 1898, was - even less so. ment and was taking on the excitethe twists and turns of a detective chase. He had the faith that derives from zeal supported by topical ignorance, and the expectation, based on past form in other expeditions, that the rewards would amply cover the costs of whatever detours were suggested. So in the spring of 1899 Wilson, his 23rd birthday just passed, set out from England, immediate destination Szemao. Wilson went to China by way of Boston, Mass.,* where he stopped off for a few days to call on the Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Though C. S. Sargent was to play a major part in Wilson's later life, he comes into this story because he was already a friend of Augustine Henry's, in close and continuous correspondence with him on botanical matters, and much interested in the flora of southern Yunnan. He was thus an early and direct link with the man Wilson was on his way to see. To reach Szemao in those days (and indeed until aeroplane and helicopter and roadmakers could change the nature of travel), the overland part of the journey really began at Mengtsz. Wilson made good time as far as the Tongking frontier with Yunnan, on the Red River. There he stuck. Surveys for the railway from Hanoi to Yunnan had been in progress, and antiforeign feeling had been sparked off. There had been riots For Veitch, the hunt for Davidia * \"Wilson sailed from Liverpool in April 1899. Traveling by way of America, he visited Professor Sargent, the well-known authority on ligneous plants at Boston, and consulted him respecting the trees and shrubs likely to be found in China. \"The information obtained, Wilson proceeded, and arrived at Hong Kong on June 3rd, 1899. \"Before leaving for the interior it was considered advisable that Wilson should consult Dr. Henry and benefit by his unrivaled knowledge of the Chinese flora.\" (5) Town of Ichang Fu. Photo E. H. Wilson 1907-09. in Mengtsz, and foreigners' houses had been burnt. Wilson was lucky not to have reached the frontier a week earlier. He might then have met the blast while in the mountains, and his first journey could have been his last. So he sat things out in the French frontier post of Laokay, the 'Old Market', hot, feverous, and rumour-rife, and after a couple of months the usual calm after storm permitted him to go on to Mengtsz. His employer was to write later that \"The journey to Szemao via Tonkin proved arduous, and at one time the chance of reaching Dr. Henry by this route seemed hopeless; but the steadfast pur- pose of the young Kew student, of which occasions he gave ample proof, enabled him on to this as on other reach his destina- tion.\" (3) At Mengtsz Wilson had the help of Henry's colleagues in the Customs, in hiring muleteers, engaging a cook, and making other arrangements, and was able to leave the place on the 8th of September. The road from Mengtsz to Szemao runs westward through the tropical south of the province. During the 70 years or so in which Europeans and Americans might travel along it, it involved a journey at caravan pace, and no wheeled traffic; up one range and down another, and over 108 spurs that seemed to run in any direction; with the Red River and the Black River and some lesser waters to cross, and mules to carry the baggage and the cooking gear. The average speed was two to two-and-a-half miles an hour, for seven or eight hours a day, and the voyage might last seventeen or eighteen days, perhaps marginally less if the traveller were experienced enough to dominate his muleteers. Altitudes along the road range from a few hundred feet above sea level at the Red River near the Tongking border, to about 7,500 feet over the Mekong-Black River divide. Hence the flora, in the usual south-west Yunnan switch-back, swings between the tropical and the temperate. Orchids provide some colour, in forests which are less flamboyant than the Indian equivalent. Monsoon rainfall is heavy, and ferns are numerous. Leopards, monkeys, barking-deer, and elephants in the remoter depths, are among the larger animals. Yunnan is a thinly-populated province, wherein the Chinese are the latest-comers, and live in the small towns, and terrace the hill-sides for rice, at the medium altitudes. The higher ridges and the depths of the forests are the haunts of various separate peoples of Mongoloid descent, hunters mostly, who practise also the primitive agriculture of burn, plant, reap and move on. The more numerous Shans, or Thais, who once ruled Yunnan, live as peaceably as they may in the lower valleys, growing rice and worshipping Buddha. Wilson did the journey in seventeen days. Daylight was perhaps more agreeable than dark, for the night's accommodations were found in dirty Chinese inns or a tribesman's hut. He could, in fact, have saved that leg of the journey. For when he arrived in Szemao, he found that Henry, although still there, had been transferred again, by a telegram re-appointing him to Mengtsz. The two travelled back there in company, for Wilson at last to make for Ichang, and reach the town on the 28th of February, 1900, nearly a year after leaving England. From Mengtsz, in early November, one successful garden plant went to England. In his Aristocrats of the Garden (4) Wilson remarks \"During my journeys in Yunnan I collected a number of interesting plants and among them Jasminum primulinum which has achieved widespread popularity in Europe and in this country\". Veitch was proud of the acquisition, which he states (5) that Wilson collected \"upon his return from Szemao\". The handsome 2-inch clear yellow blossoms won it a First-class Certificate from the Royal Horticultural Society in 1903. (6) It was described and illustrated in the Gardeners Chronicle (7), and in Curtis's Botanical Magazine. (8) 109 Wilson's other plants from Yunnan did not much interest Veitch. There is no mention of them in Hortus Veitchii, nor in his notes of 1902 on Recently Introduced Trees, Shrubs, etc. from Central China, published in Journal No. 28 of the Royal Horticultural Society. They appear to have passed out of record. Their despatch may have owed something to Henry. Clearly the collection of the jasmine did. Henry had found it near Szemao, as well as in the vicinity of Mengtsz, where another botanist, William Hancock (1847-1914), like Henry an official in the Chinese Imperial Maritime Customs Service, had found it a few years before. Henry regarded it as an escape from cultivation.*The name given to it when Hancock sent the first specimens from Yunnan masks an earlier finding still. In April 1880 one of Dr. J. F. Hance's band of amateur collectors, W. Mesny, discovered it in the province of Kweichow, which adjoins Yunnan on the north-east. Hance published it in the Journal of Botany (vol. xx, p. 367) under the name Jasminum Mesnyi, Hance. When the first Mengtsz specimen was sent to Kew by W. Hancock it was described in Hooker's Icones Plantarum (4th Ser. Vol. IV, pl. 2384, 1895) as Jasminum primulinum Hemsl. Since that time either name has been in use. Few westerners had been to Szemao before Wilson. After exploration of the lower Mekong had brought the Francis Garnier expedition to Yunnan, in 1867, some of its members had gone eastwards from Szemao to the Red River. Subsequently, there had been perhaps a score of western travellers, and all within the couple of decades preceding Wilson's journey. Their routes had varied slightly. Interests, and the time available to pursue them, had varied more. But each traveller, whether an army officer surveying for the dream of a Burma-Yunnan railway, a customs official proceeding on duty, or a missionary priest, was in a country of which little was known to the west, which the wheel age had not yet overtaken, and of which published personal impressions of its great attractions were few. Yet Wilson's description of this his first and very considerable journey, is confined, so far as I can discover, to one remark: * Although Wilson first sent back living plants, Augustine Henry had collected herbarium material for Kew earlier. Henry commented about the plant as follows: \"I found the plant both at Szemao and Mengtsz, in the Province of Yunnan; but I am of opinion that it occurs always, in the districts where it has hitherto been found growing cultivated or as The shrubs were seen in gardens, or more an escape from cultivation. frequently in hedges or amidst other shrubs, in the vicinity of villages, and never were met within woods or forests.\" Botanical Magazine, Vol. 130, 1904. 110 Above: Jasminum mesneyi. Longwood Gardens photo. Right: Cargo boat of 60 tons, built River, Western Hupeh. Photo E. almost entirely of Cypress wood. H. Wilson, 1910-11. Yangtsze Hostel of Che-tsze-how Western Hupeh. Photo E. H. Wilson 1910-11. 112 \"Being unable to speak any Chinese, I travelled very much as a parcel and enjoyed the trip.\" (9) Species brought back from the wilds have usually been collected arduously, sometimes in conditions of physical danger, and always under an eye trained to discern the potentially useful or delightful. Though the tracks the collector went by are unexplored, or have remained unfamiliar, it is no part of the bargain that he should describe them. Well, Wilson's pen on subsequent trips left records of sacred mountains in Szechuen, and of the ranges and river-valleys along the Tibetan border, and of much else that took his fancy during his travels in the provinces immediately north of the Yangtze. Ignorance of the Chinese language - for he never did learn it - was no romantic appeal, there and am teased by it. bar there. But on Yunnan, with all its was near silence. I find that a puzzle, is a little early for the best sightThe tracks have not then fully recovered from the summer monsoon, and a curtain of rain is still a possibility. (Indeed, had Wilson not been delayed at Laokay, he might have set out sooner and then fared worse.) Yunnan must have offered a bewilderingly strange first taste of the interior of China, to this young man of 23. The interpretative powers of his servant, more likely to have been based on petit-negre French than on pidgin-English, were not likely to illuminate, say, the distinctions between the several tribes encountered, and their customs, or the sudden sounds in the usually silent and emptyseeming forests through which the caravan passed, or the niceties of such manoeuvres as a river-crossing by ferry, and negotiation of a crumbling cliff-edge track, when conducted at the top of many voices at once. His instructions were to press on to meet Henry, and then locate Davidia. Tropical flora did not interest Veitch much, - and Henry rather less. (10) Orchids Admittedly, September seeing. were out. Yet neither strangeness nor haste seem adequate as explanations. I observe that Wilson's habit was to publish nothing in a hurry. Only on his second visit to China (to find Meconopsis integrifolia) did he start contributing regularly to the periodical press. His book describing his journeys, \"A Naturalist in Western China\", is an amalgam of all four visits to the country, those for Veitch and those for the Arnold Arboretum. Perhaps it was knowledge that interested him even more than impressions; and his relative ignorance of the Yunnan in which he spent three months silenced him. 113 None of the flora along his way there had had more than casual sampling. Even today this is, botanically speaking, the least explored segment of Yunnan - unless the hills of the Wa head-hunters now count as part of the province. The divides which the Mengtsz-Szemao route crosses, one of them high enough to receive snow in winter, contain what are probably the most southerly stations of some of the robust species of the eastern Himalaya, and, for good measure, the location of a genuine wild tea plant. ( 11 ) They may concern the plant geographer more than the horticulturist's plant-collector; for it may be taken for granted that they are less rich in the number of asters and deutzias, gentians and lilies, and primulas and rhododendrons, than the mountains further north. Yet to the traveller with a road to pass along, and little opportunity to linger off it, the species that will be visible are a matter of the luck of the time of the journey, and of proximity to the road itself. So southern Yunnan may contain many species still to be discovered. And while the area remains a delicate one for scientific expeditions, they are likely to remain unknown. As, of course, are Wilson's reasons for topographical, even more than floral, reticence on the journey when he travelled as a parcel. WILLIAM GARDENER Dowsings, East Mercer, nr. Colchester Essex, England Notes: 1. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. 2. Kew Bulletin 1907, p. 302. 3. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. vol. 28, p. 57. 4. E. H. Wilson: Aristocrats of the Garden, Williams and Edition, London, 1938, p. 284. 5. James H. Veitch: Hortus Veitchii, London 1906, p. 93. 6. Journ. Roy. Hort. Soc. vol. 28, lii. 7. 1903, no. 848, p. 197, fig. 83. 8. t. 7981 ( 1904 ) . 9. Wilson: op. cit., p. 284. 10. Kew Bulletin 1898, p. 289. 11. Kew Bulletin 1897, p. 100. Norgate As indicated, one of Wilson's principal objects on his first trip was to seed of Davidia. In May 1900 he found \"a considerable grove\" of trees. From this grove in November of the same year he collected \"a quantity of fruit which produced some thirteen thousand plants.\" Wilson collected more seed in 1903 and 1904. Contrary to the original speculation concerning the rarity of Davidia in the wild, Wilson commented as follows: \"This remarkable tree is fairly secure 114I in moist woods throughout western Szechuan between altitudes of 1600 and 2500 m.... The tree grows to the height of 20m ( t 60 ft.) with a girth of trunk of 2m (t 6 ft.); the branches are ascending-spreading and the tree is of a loose pyramidal habit similar to that of the common wild Pear. On old trees the lower branches are wide-spreading. The bark is dark gray, rough, with corky lenticels and exfoliates in thin, small flat irregularly oblong flakes. The wood is white, tough and heavy.... When in full flower the tree is more conspicuous on dull days and in the early morning and evening than when the sun is shining....\" E. H. Wilson in Sargent, C. S. Plantae Wilsonianae. common - G. P. DEW. The editor of Arnoldia has chosen photographs from Wilson's later to China to illustrate this article, showing the kind of terrain and the conditions of travel that would have been seen and experienced by young Wilson on the trip described here. trips Errata On page 82 of the March, 1972, Arnoldia the illustrations above Fig. 48 Alder and Fig. 50 Witch Hazel were incorrectly transposed. Right: Podophyllum peltatum (May Apple) at the Case Estates in Weston. Photo P. Bruns. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Gardening Books for Libraries","article_sequence":2,"start_page":116,"end_page":125,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24568","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eaf6f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Gardening Books for Libraries From time to time we receive requests to recommend books various aspects of gardening and horticulture. As a result of these inquiries various lists of titles have been compiled. One, a list of reference books of wide usefulness, has already been published.* The present collection is a list of titles suitable for the collection of a public library. As with any list of titles, the selection is somewhat arbitrary upon the discrimination of the compiler(s). The present selection is based upon an unpublished list compiled by Dr. Donald Wyman some years ago, which has been used as a source of information at the Arboretum. This list has been extensively revised with new titles and categories added. All that can be said for the present selection is that it is the compilers' belief that the titles are adequate for use by the layman. That is, they survey the particular field and they are reasonably accurate. There may well be titles not listed that are better it is certain that there are titles in most categories which are totally unacceptable for library use. There are somewhere in the neighborhood of 200 books published each year in the field of horticulture, broadly construed. A very few of these titles may have unique or lasting value, or may replace older standard works or may be acceptable rehashes of material previously presented or available elsewhere. Many of the volumes, however, are superfluous, trash, or both. Attention should also be called to several other lists which have been published, which are of importance to librarians and on - gardeners: Bowles, E. A. Books for a Gardener's Library. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 63(2): 68-73: 1938. Lawrence, G. H. M. - An Annotated Guide to Reference Works for Advanced Plantsmen. Pittsburgh: Hunt Botanical Library: 1966, 19 pages mimeographed. Books for a Gardener's Library. Journal of the Morton, Earl of Royal Horticultural Society 96(3): 139-143: 1971. - * Basic Books for the Library, Arnoldia 30(3): 107-113: 1970. 116 117 Books for Avant Gardeners. The Avant Gardener Powell, T. & B. 4(1): 1-8: 1971. Some Lesser Known Monographs on Hardy HerStearn, W. T. baceous Perennials. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 67(9): 296-303: 1942. - Books by Subject Annuals: Jenkins, D. H. rows : - Annuals for Every Garden. New York: M. Bar- 1953. Bible Plants: Moldenke, N. Bulbs: Plants Botanica: 1952. - of the Bible. Waltham, Mass.: Chronica Oliver, R. W. (ed. ) 15(3): 1959. - Handbook on Bulbs. Plants and Gardens to Synge, P. M. - The Dutton: 1962. Complete Guide Bulbs. New York: E. P. Children: Baker, S. S. The Indoor and Outdoor Grow-it Book. New York: Random House: 1965. Carleton, R. M. - Indoor Gardening Fun. Chicago: Reilly and Lee: 1970. - Dempsey, M. W., and Sheehan, A. Cleveland: World: 1970. (Eds.) - How Flowers Live. Edible Plants: Fernald, M. L. and Kinsey, H. C. (Rev. by R. C. Rollins) Wild Plants of Eastern North America. New York: 1958. - Edible Harper: Encyclopedias: Bailey, L. H. Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture, (ed. 2). New York: Macmillan: 1922. Hortus Second. New York: Macmillan: Bailey, L. H. & E. Z. 1941. Chittenden, F. J. & Synge, P. M. - Royal Horticultural Society 2 suppls. Oxford: Dictionary of Gardening, (ed. 2), 4 vols. Clarendon Press: 1956. Seymour, E. L. D. (Ed.) - The New Garden Encyclopedia. New York: Wm. H. Wise: 1936. Various editions. Taylor's Encyclopedia of Gardening, HorticulTaylor, N. (Ed.) ture, and Landscape Design. Boston: Houghton-Mifflin: 1961. Wyman's Encyclopedia of Gardening. New York: Wyman, D. Macmillan: 1971. - - - - Florists Crops: er Laurie, A., Kiplinger, D. C. and Nelson, K. E. - Commercial Flow1958. Forcing, (ed. 6). New York: McGraw-Hill: 118 I York: Oxford Univ. Press: 1950. in China. London: Collins: 1945. History: Hedrick, U. P. - A History of Horticulture in America. New Cox, E. H. M. - Plant-hunting House Plants: Free, Montague - All About House Plants. New York: Double- day : Perkins, 1950. H. O. (Ed. ) Gardens 18(3): - Handbook 1962. on House Plants. Plants and Identification: Abrams - Illustrated Flora of the Pacific States, vols. 1-4. Stanford, Calif.: Stanford Univ. Press: 1923-1960. Bailey, L. H. Manual of Cultivated Plants, (ed. 2). New York: Macmillan: 1949. Guide to Popular Floras of the United States and Blake, S. F. Alaska. U.S.D.A. Bibliographical Bull. 23, Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents: 1954. Gerth, van Wyk, H. L. (Compiler) - A Dictionary of Plantnames, 2 vols. Den Hague: M. Nijhoff: 1909-16. Gleason, H. A. - The New Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada. New York: Hafner: 1963. Hitchcock, C. L., Cronquist, A., Ownby, M., and Thompson, J. W. Vascular Plants of the Pacific Northwest, vols. 1-5. Seattle, Wash.: Univ. Wash. Press: 1955. Exotica 3. Rutherford, N.J.: Roehrs Co.: 1963. Graf, A. B. Hay, R. & Synge, P. M. - The Dictionary of Garden Plants in Colour ... : New York: Crown: 1969. Muenscher, W. C. Aquatic Plants of the United States. Ithaca, N.Y.: Comstock: 1944. Porter, C. L. Taxonomy of Flowering Plants, (ed. 2). San Francisco : W. H. Freeman: 1967. Manual of the Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy Rehder, A. in North America. New York: Macmillan: 1940. Rickett, H. W. - Wild Flowers of the United States. vols. 1-4. New York: McGraw-Hill: 1966. Manual of the Trees of North America, (ed. 3). Sargent, C. S. Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin: 1922 (Repr. New York: Dover: 1961). The Shrub Identification Book. New York: Symonds, G. W. D. M. Barrows & Co.: 1963. Symonds, G. W. D. - The Tree Identification Book. New York: M. Barrows & Co.: 1958. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. (rev. Wyman, D. ed.). New York: Macmillan: 1969. Trees for American Gardens, (rev. ed.). New York: Wyman, D. Macmillan: 1965. - - - - - - - - - - - Insect & Disease: Pirone, P. P., Dodge, B. 0., and Rickett, H. W. - Diseases of Ornamental Plants (ed. 3). New York: Ronald Press: 1960. Handbook on Garden Westcott, C. and Walker, J. T. (Eds.) Pests. Plants and Gardens 22( 1 ) : 1966. - 119 Landscape Design: Garden Design. New York: Dodd-Mead: 1935. Cantley, M. S. Clifford, D. - A History of Garden Design. London: Faber & - Faber: 1966. An Introduction to the Study of Hubbard, T. and Kimball, H. Landscape Design. (ed. 2). New York: Macmillan: 1929. Snow, W. B. (Ed.) - The Highway and the Landscape. New - Whyte, Brunswick: Rutgers Univ. Press: 1959. W. H. - The Last Landscape. New York: - Doubleday: 1935. 1968. Wilder, L. B. Color in My Garden. New York: Doubleday: Lights: Carleton, R. M. (Ed.) Gardening under Artificial Light. Plants and Gardens 26 ( 1 ) : 1970. - Miscellaneous: How Plants Get Their Names. New York: MacBailey, L. H. millan : 1933, (Repr. New York: Dover: 1963). The Small Garden Book. New York: MacCarleton, R. Milton millan : 1971. A Glossary of Botanic Terms, (ed. 4). London: Jackson, B. D. Duckworth & Co.: 1928. Manks, D. S. Dictionary Catalog of the Library of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Boston: G. K. Hall & Co. 1962. Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart. London: Royal Horticultural Society: 1966. Botanical Latin. London: Thomas Nelson & Stearn, W. T. - 1966. Willis, J. C. S. Sons: A Dictionary of Flowering Plants and Ferns, (ed. 6). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press: 1931. - ~luts: Jaynes, Handbook of North American Nut Trees. R. (Ed.) Knoxville, Tenn.: Northern Nut Grower Assoc. 1969. - Orchards: Chandler, W. H. Lea & - Febiger: - Philadelphia: Lea & 1950. Handbook on Fruits in the Home Garden. Plants Slate, G. (Ed.) and Gardens 17(1): 1961. Dwarfed Fruit Trees. New York: Macmillan: Tukey, H. B. 1964. Chandler, W. H. Deciduous Orchards, 1951. Evergreen Orchards. (ed. 2). Philadelphia: Febiger: - Perennials : Wilson, H. Perennials for van P. M. Barrows: 1953. - Every Garden. New York: Periodicals : The American Horticultural Magazine. 901 North Street, Alexandria, Virginia 22314. Washington 120 I The Avant Gardener. Horticultural Data Processors, Box 489, New York, N.Y. 10028. Gardener's Abstracts. Leisure Abstracts, 5852 Stow Canyon Road, Goleta, California 93017. Home Garden and Flower Grower. Universal Publishing and Distributing Corp., 235 E. 45th Street, New York, N.Y. 10017. Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society. Vincent Square, London SWIP, England. Plants and Gardens. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, N.Y. 11225. Poisonous Plants: Kingsbury, J. M. - Poisonous Plants of the United States. wood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall: 1964. Engle- Propagation: Hartmann, Plant Propagation, (ed. 2). Prentice Hall: 1968. Van Dersal - Woody Plant Seed Manual. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office: 1948. USDA Forest Service, Misc. Publ. 654. H. T. and Kester, D. E. - Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Pruning: Harris, R. W. et al. Pruning Landscape Trees. Berkeley: Univ. of California, Agricultural Extension Service: 1969. - Rock Gardens: Rock Gardening. Boston: Houghton MifHin: 1968. Foster, H. L. Farrer, R. - The English Rock-Garden. London: T. C. & E. C. - Jack: 1919. Clay, S. - Present Day Rock Garden. London: T. C. & E. C. Jack: 1937. Shade Plants: Epstein, H. (Ed.) - - Gardening in the Shade. Plants and Gardens 25(3): Morse, H. K. Soil : 1969. Gardening in the Shade, (rev. ed. ). New York: ' Scribner: 1962. Carleton, R. M. - Your Garden Soil. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand : 1961. Sub-tropical & Tropical: Your Garden in the South. Princeton, N.J.: D. Van Nostrand: 1961. Neal, M. C. - In Gardens of Hawaii. Honolulu. Bernice P. Bishop Museum: 1948. Sunset Western Garden Book (new ed.). Menlo Park, Calif.: Lane Magazine & Book Co.: 1967. Your Guide to Florida Landscape Plants, I and Watkins, J. V. II. Gainesville: University of Florida: 1961 and 1963. Your Florida Garden. GainesWatkins, J. V. and Wolfe, H. S. ville : University of Florida: 1954. Mason, H. - - - 121 Succulent Plants: Jacobsen, H. (Trans. H. Raabe) - Handbook of Succulent Plants (other than cacti) 3 vols. London: Blandford Press: 1960. Handbook on Succulent Plants. Plants and Teuscher, H. (Ed.) Gardens 19(3): 1963. - Vegetable: Burrage, Weeds : A. C. Burrage trand : 1954. - on Vegetables. New York: D. Van Nos- Handbook on Weed Control. Plants and Emerson, B. H. (Ed.) Gardens 22(3): 1966. Muenscher, W. C. Weeds, (ed. 2). New York: Macmillan: 1955. Weeds of Lawn and Garden. Philadelphia: Fogg, J. M. Jr. - - - Montgomery, Univ. Penn.: 1945. Weeds of the Northern United States and F. H. Canada. New York: Frederick Warne & Co.: 1964. - Horticultural Monographs Aceraceae: Mulligan, ada. Aizoaceae: B. Maples Cultivated in the United States and CanAmerican Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta : 1958. - Schwantes, G. (Trans. V. Higgins) Flowering Stones and Mid-day Flowers. London: Ernest Benn: 1957. - Amaryllidaceae: Bowles, E. H. 1934. 1969. Lee, G. S. - A Handbook - of Narcissus. London: Hopkinson: Narcissi. London: Faber: Jefferson-Brown, M. J. - Daffodils and (Ed.) Daffodil Handbook. American Horticultural Magazine, Special Issue. 1966. and How to Grow Them. New York: Schulz, P. Amaryllis - M. Barrows: 1954. Stern, F. C. Snowdrops and Snowflakes. London: Royal Horticultural Society: 1956. Traub, H. P. - The Amaryllis Manual. New York: Macmillan: 1958. Bromelliaceae: Bromeliads in Colour and their Culture. Padilla, V. (Ed.) American Bromeliad Society: 1966. - Aquifoliaceae: Hansell, D., et al. ticultural Handbook of Hollies. American Hor(Eds.) Magazine, Special Issue 49(4): 145-334: 1970. - Begoniaceae: Buxton, B. R. - Begonias and How to Grow Them. New York: Oxford University Press: 1946. 122I Langdon, Cactaceae: B. - The Tuberous Begonia. London: Carsell: - 1969. Britton, N. L. and Rose, J. N. D.C.: Carnegie 1964 ). The Cactaceae. Washington, Inst.: 1919-1923. (Repr. New York: Dover: Marshall, W. T. and Bock, T. M. - Cactaceae. Pasadena, Calif.: Abbey Garden Campanulaceae: The Bailey, L. H. - Press: 1941. Garden of Bellflowers. New York: Macmillan: Their Cultivation and 1951. 1953. Crook, H. C. London: - Campanulas, Country Life: - Classification. Caryophyllaceae: Allwood, M. C. Carnations and All Dianthus. Heywards Heath, Sussex: Allwood Bros.: 1947. The Garden of Pinks. New York: Macmillan: Bailey, L. H. 1938. - Compositae: Walker, M. C. rows : - Dahlias For Every Garden. New York: M. Bar- 1954. Cumming, Alex Hill : 1939. - Hardy Chrysanthemums. New York: McGraw- Coniferae: HandDallimore, W. and Jackson, A. B. (S. C. Harrison Ed.) book of Coniferae and Ginhgoaceae. New York: St. Martin's - Press: 1967. Ouden, P. den and Boom, B. K. Den - Manual of Cultivated Conifers. 1965. Hague: - Martinus Nijhoff: Crassulaceae: Crassulas in Cultivation. London: Blandford Press: Higgins, V. 1964. An Account of the Sempervivum Group. RePraeger, R. L. printed 1967 in Plant Monograph Reprints No. 1. - Cucurbitaceae: Bailey, L. H. - The Garden of Gourds. New York: Macmillan: 1937. Gourds. London: Faber and Faber: 1963. Organ, J. Cucurbits. London: Leonard Whitaker, T. W. and Davis, G. N. Hill: 1962. - Ericaceae: Bowers, C. G. Rhododendrons and Azaleas, (ed. 2). New York: Macmillan: 1960. Chapple, F. J. -The Heather Garden. London: Collingridge: 1952. Rhododendrons of the World. New York: ScribLeach, D. G. - ners : 1961. Lee, F. P. - The Azalea Book, (ed. 2). Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand : 1965. 123 Euphorbiaceae: White, A., Dyer, R. A. and Sloane, Gentianiaceae: Wilkie, D. B. L. The Succulent Euphorbeacea. 2 vols. Pasadena, Calif.: Abbey Garden Press: 1941. - - Gentians, (rev. ed.). London: Country Life: 1950. Geraniaceae: Clifford, D. Pelargoniums, (rev. Wilson, H. van P. Geraniums, Barrows: 1957. - ed.). London: Pelargoniums. 1970. New York: M. Gesneriaceae: Handbook on Gesneriads. Plants and Batcheller, F. N. (Ed.) Gardens 23(1): 1967. African Violets, Gloxinias and their Relatives. Moore, H. E. - New York: Macmillan: 1958. and How to Grow Them. New York: Gloxinias Schulz, P. M. Barrows: 1953. The Complete Book of African Violets. New Wilson, H. van P. York: M. Barrows: 1951. - Graminae : A. - First Book of Grasses... Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution: 1959. Manual of the Grasses of the United States. Hitchcock, A. S. USDA Misc. Publ. 200, Washington, D.C.: Superintendent of Documents: 1950. Bamboos of the Genus Phyllostachys McClure, R. A. Washington, D.C.: U.S.D.A. Agriculture Handbook No. 114. Chase, - - ... Iridaceae: A Handbook of Crocus and Colchicum (rev. ed.) London. John Lane, Bodley Head Press: 1952. Garden Irises, St. Louis, Mo.: American Randolph, L. F. (Ed.) Iris Society: 1959. Bowles, E. A. - - Liliaceae: Daylily Handbook. American Horticultural Magazine, Special Issue. 1968. Lilies, (Trans. M. Templeton). New York: Arco Feldmaier, C. Publ. Co.: 1970. The Genus Tulipa. London: Royal Horticultural Hall, A. D. Society: 1940. Lilies of the World. LonWoodcock, H. D. and Steam, W. T. don : Country Life: 1950. Darrow, G. M. and Meyer, F. G. (Eds.) - - - - Magnoliaceae: Johnstone, G. H. - Asiatic Magnolias in Cultivation. London: Royal Horticultural Society: 1955. Nymphaeaceae: Conard, H. S. - The Waterlilies. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Inst.: 1905. 124 Oleaceae: Lilac Survey Committee Report, 1953 - Lilacs f or America. Swarthmore, Penn.: Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation : 1953. Onagraceae: Wilson, S. J. - Fuchsias, (ed. 2). London: Faber: Orchidaceae: 1970. Northern, R. T. - Home Orchid Growing. Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand: 1962. Paeoniaceae: A Study of the Genus Paeonia. 1946. Stern, F. C. Wister, J. C. (Ed.) - The Peonies. American Horticultural Society : 1963. American Peony Society Handbook of the Peony. 107 1\/2 West Main St., Van Wert, Ohio. - Palmae: Ledin, R. B. (Ed.) - Cultivated Palms. American Horticultural Magazine, Special Polemoniaceae: Issue. 1961. Wherry, tum : E. T. The Genus Phlox. 1955. - Philadelphia: Morris Arbore- Primulaceae: Biffen, R. H. - The Auricula ... 1951. Lyall, H. G. - Cambridge: University Press: 1959. Hardy Primula. London: Collingridge: Moreton, C. O. - The Auricula. London: Ariel: 1964. Ranunculaceae: Bailey, L. H. - The Garden of Larkspurs. New York: Macmillan : 1939. The Delphinium. London: Collins: 1949. Bishop, F. Garden Clematis. London: John Gifford Ltd.: Whitehead, S. B. 1959. - Rhamnaceae: Van Renssalaer, M. and McMinn, H. E. Ceanothus. Santa Barbara, Calif.: Santa Barbara Botanical Garden: 1942. - ' Rosaceae: Den Boer, A. F. - Flowering Crabapple. Am. Assoc. of Nurserymen : 1959. Handbook on Roses. Plants and GarHutton, S. B., Sr. (Ed.) dens 21(2): 1965. Rockwell, F. F. and Grayson, E. C. - The Rockwell's Complete Book of Roses. Garden City, N.Y.: Doubleday: 1958. Crab Apples for America. AABGA: 1955. Wyman, D. - Rutaceae: Webber, A. J. and Batchelor, L. D. - The Citrus Industry, 2 vols. Berkeley: University of California Press: 1943, 1948. Right: A visitor enjoying the Lilac Collection. Photo P. Bruns 125 Stapeliaceae: White, A. and Sloane, B. L. - The Stapeliaceae, (ed. 2). Pasadena, Calif.: The Authors: 1937. Theaceae: Camellias, Kinds and Culture. New York: Macmillan : 1951. A Revision of the Genus Camellia. London: Royal Sealy, J. R. Horticultural Society: 1958. Camellia Culture. New York: Macmillan: Tourje, E. C. (Ed. ) 1958. Hume, H. H. - Vitaceae: Winkler, A. J. General Viticulture. California Press: 1965. - Berkeley: University GORDON P. DEWOLF of "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"One Hundred Years of Apples","article_sequence":3,"start_page":126,"end_page":132,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24569","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eb328.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hoffman, M. B.","article_content":"One Hundred Years of Apples The Northeastern Section of the American Society for Horticultural Science met in January of 1972 at the Arnold Arboretum for a symposium entitled \"A Century of Horticultural Progress.\" The following article is an excerpt from one of the talks presented. Future issues of Arnoldia will present additional excerpts of talks from these meetings. Ed. One hundred years ago, the apple industry of this country consisted of seedling trees and named varieties selected from seedlings and propagated vegetatively. The original seeds and plants of a few named selections had been brought from Europe * by early settlers.* Beach's Apples of New York published in 1905 described 698 varieties. The origin of 517 are listed as unknown, while the remaining 81 varieties were said to have resulted from seed planted without knowledge of either parent. According to one authority, by 1912 more than 3000 varieties had been described. A few of these developed from seeds supplied by one known and one unknown parent variety. The large majority were chance seedlings with both parents unknown. The Breeding Program Prior to 1878 there was no systematic breeding work aimed at improving apple varieties. Between 1878 and 1925 apple breeding programs were initiated at eleven state experiment stations and by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. By 1937 these breeding projects had over 100,000 apple crosses under tests, and the number has increased during the past 35 years. Today approximately 15 varieties account for 90% or more of the total apples produced in this country. All except Cortland originated as chance seedlings. Cortland is the only variety of any significant commercial importance that has resulted from the breeding program, and its production is limited to the Northeast region where it amounts to less than 10% of the total crop. There are, of course, numerous new varieties that have emerged from apple breeding projects that are being * See \"Colonial Gardens\" Arnoldia Vol. 31, No. 4, July, 1971. 126 127 tested by the industry. mercially important. But none have as yet become com- One of the reasons for this is that it takes 40 to 50 years from planting the seed of a new apple for the industry to accept or reject the new variety. Another problem is the fact that all apple varieties are a result of many mixed ancestors, also they are self sterile which means one generally cannot fertilize a flower with its own pollen to keep the strain intact. In the past promising seedlings were often found by chance in open fields and hedgerows but this is no longer true. Therefore long-time breeding programs must continue if further improvement of apple varieties is to be realized, and certainly further improvement is possible and is needed. in Production Prior to 1940 research aimed at improving production of apples was, in the main, limited to variety selection and trials, cultural practices including fertilizer testing, pruning, and pollination requirements. Yields ranged from 200 to 400 bushels per acre depending on variety, soil and management. The annual crops alternated significantly, resulting in a light crop one year followed by a heavy crop the next year. During the past 30 years more changes have occurred in the apple industry in eastern and mid-western areas of the United States than in all of its previous history. These changes were the result of modern technology and can be seen in a study made in New York State. In 1939 there were slightly over 5 million apple trees in the state of New York, yielding 19 million bushels of apples. In 1966 there were close to 2 1\/2 million trees giving 22 1\/2 million bushels of apples. Several diseases and insects attack the apple. In humid areas, such as the Northeast section of the United States, apple scab (Venturia inaequalis) affects both foliage and fruit. Sprays for control of this disease are essential for the production of acceptable fruit. Apple growers began to use Bordeaux sprays for scab control about 1890 and continued this practice until 1910. These copper sprays caused russet on fruits. Following the work published by the Cornell University Agricultural Experiment Station in 1909-10, lime-sulphur sprays replaced the copper compounds. Sprays of elemental sulphur were initiated in the mid-1920's and increased in use during the 1930's. These sulphur sprays, both lime sulphur and elemental sulphur for scab control, were standard practice for the 40-year period 1910-1950. Changes 128 In the early 1930's, it was shown that sulphur sprays, when employed as a fungicide reduced the process of photosynthesis by apple foliage in amounts ranging from 30 to 50 per cent depending on material and conditions at the time of application. Comparing elemental sulphur and lime sulphur as a seasonal fungicide program on mature McIntosh trees for a 5year period, an increased yield of 225 bushels per acre was found in favor of the elemental sulphur. In a similar field ex- periment pared on mature McIntosh trees where Fermate was comwith elemental sulphur, there was an increase in yield of 200 bushels per acre in favor of Fermate. Thus increased yields of the McIntosh variety amounting to over 400 bushels per acre were obtained by the development of nontoxic organic fungicides. Similar results have been reported by other investigators throughout the eastern apple districts of the United States. These field experiments were excellent confirmation of the earlier work on effects of sulphur sprays on photosynthesis. While emphasis on confining plantings to the better varietal selections, improved nutrition, the correction of soil acidity resulting from 40 years of sulphur sprays, and the limiting of plantings to the best soils and sites have been contributing factors, the development of non-toxic fungicides and insecticides was certainly the most important contribution to obtaining significantly better yields of fruit. Harvest Drop As apples mature, the fruits of some varieties may absciss and drop. The harvest drop problem varies with the variety. McIntosh is notorious for this fault and if warm weather prevails during the latter part of the harvest fifty per cent or more of the crop may fall from trees before they can be harvested. In 1939 it was learned that a spray containing naphthaleneacetic acid at concentrations of 10 to 20 parts per million would delay abscission and control harvest drop. Later work showed other growth regulating chemicals were effective for this purpose when used as preharvest sprays. Adaptability of these chemicals vary with the variety. The grower has considerable choice and is now in a position to control fruit drop of his apple crop until the harvest is completed. in Cropping Habit When left to its natural fruiting habit the apple is characteristically biennial; i.e. a heavy crop is followed by a light crop. Changes has been recognized since the There is now good evidence that the seeds in developing apple fruits are the guilty organ which have some unexplained physiological effect in inhibiting flower bud formation. When there are too many fruits with too many seeds, the newly formed spur buds remain vegetative and there is little bloom the following year. Biennial bearing creates marketing problems. There is a year to year irregular supply to the consumer. The grower is plagued with too many small fruits in the heavy crop year and too few fruits in the light crop year. While growing costs up to harvest time are approximately the same in the heavy crop year as in the light crop year, fruit prices are low when the crop is excessive and high when the crop is light. Biennial bearing is uneconomic. Thinning or removal of excessive fruits is the only practical means of assuring annual bloom and annual cropping. The thinning must be accomplished within 3 to 4 weeks of bloom or else many buds will have passed that stage in which they can be influenced to form flowers. Even if labor were available, hand thinning of commmercial apple plantings sufficiently early to assure annual flowering would be impractical. Research on the possibility of spray-thinning apples was started in 1940. The early work involved bloom sprays (of dinitro-ortho-cresol) which prevented fruit set by unpollinated flowers. During the 1940's and 1950's it was learned that the growth regulating chemicals (naphthaleneacetic acid and its amide, naphthaleneacetamide) would reduce fruit set when applied during the post bloom period. In 1959 Sevin (1-naphthyl N-methyl carbamate) was found to be effective in thinning apples when used as a post bloom spray. Early results varied from overthinning to no thinning. With continued effort a better understanding of those factors which influence results was obtained and the extremes in amount of reduction in fruit set have been brought closer together so that present day results may average within ten per cent of the amount desired. During the 20-year period, 1935-1955, the light year apple crop in New York State averaged 14 million bushels while production in the heavy crop years reached 22 to 23 million bushels. The average extent of alternation for this 20-year period was 35 per cent. Spray thinning of apples became a widely used practice during the late 1950's and early 1960's. With commercial use of the practice annual cropping during the This phenomenon culture. 129 beginning of apple 130 1960's has ranged between 22 and 24 million bushels. This is better situation for both the apple industry and the consumer. The Golden Delicious apple originated as a chance seedling in West Virginia. It was named and introduced in 1914. From the few early plantings it was soon learned that Golden Delicious set heavy crops, required much hand thinning and was completely biennial. There was little interest in the variety until the mid-1950's when growers recognized that spray thinning would solve the problem. Then planting of Golden Delicious increased rapidly. In 1969 production of Golden Delicious exceeded McIntosh production and today Golden Delicious is the second most important variety grown in the United States. Thus, technology made an important commercial variety from a chance seedling that otherwise would have been discarded. a Developments in Storage be held in some type of storage, if there is to be a fresh fruit during the winter. The fruit cellar, with its dirt floor, served this purpose in rural America during the early years and explains why certain varieties possessing good keeping quality, such as Roxbury Russet, a Golden Russet, were popular in those days. As the urban market developed, the common storage came into use to supply this outlet and lay the foundation for a commercial apple industry. The common storage was an insulated structure which was cooled during fall months by introducing cool air at night through suitable ports. All openings were closed during the day. The cool air introduced at night was circulated by gravity or forced through the storage by fans. Cooling of the common storage with night air was sometimes supplemented by the use of ice. This type of storage was used for many years. Bulletins published as late as the mid-1930's describe the best designs and techniques for operating the common storage. The main disadvantage of the common storage was the slow removal of field heat from fruit. This was a serious problem during harvest seasons characterized by warm weather. To overcome the faults of common storage, interest in refrigerated storage was initiated during the first decade of this century. The first ones consisted of refrigerated warehouses centrally located in fruit areas or large cities. As rural electrification developed and refrigeration equipment improved during the 1930's, refrigerated storages began to appear on individual fruit farms. By 1950 there were several hundred re- Apples supply of must 131 frigerated farm storages throughout the fruit areas of New England and New York. Apples can be held satisfactorily for rather long periods in refrigerated storage. The length of the storage period in this type of storage depends on the variety and other factors. For example, when McIntosh are stored later than January in refrigerated storage with normal atmospheres, the fruits are susceptible to a storage disorder known as brown core. Because of the importance of McIntosh in the New England and New York areas, research on Controlled Atmosphere (CA) storage was initiated in 1937. This type of storage was based on the established principle that if the amount of products involved in a given reaction can be controlled (in this case, the involvement of oxygen and carbon dioxide in respiration), the rate of the reaction may be controlled. The original experiments on McIntosh in CA storage more than doubled the period over which this variety could be satisfactorily held in refrigerated storage with normal atmospheres. The first commercial CA storage room for apples in this country was constructed by a New York State apple grower in 1940. It had a capacity of 10 thousand bushels. Thirty-one years later, 18.0 million bushels of the 1971 U.S. apple crop was placed in CA storage. The Northeast area, including New England, New York and New Jersey account for approximately one-third or 6.2 million bushels of the present CA storage space. By varying slightly the per cent of oxygen and per cent of carbon dioxide for different varieties, the CA environment has proven well-adapted to most varieties. Thus CA storage as a supplement to refrigerated storage with normal atmosphere, has extended the marketing season for fresh apples throughout the late winter, spring and early summer months or until early varieties of the following year's crops begin to mature. The present day consumer is never without the opportunity to obtain fresh apples. During the storage period, the greatest losses to the apple industry have been due to a physiological disorder known as scald. This nonparasitic storage trouble causes the skin to turn brown and the fruit is unsalable in fresh fruit channels. In its late stages scald affects the fruit so deeply it cannot be properly peeled for processing. Four decades of research have given no satisfactory explanation of the basic causes of scald. Susceptibility of apples varies from season to season. While climate during the growing season seems to play a part in susceptibility of stored fruit, all factors responsible for a \"bad scald year\" have not as yet been defined. 132 ;I Prior to 1955 the only means of scald control in significant amounts was the wrapping of individual fruits in paper treated with white mineral oil, or by mixing shredded oiled paper with packed fruit. This method calls for grading, wrapping and packing prior to storage, rather than on removal of fruit from storage when grading and packing for market can be more appropriately done. In 1956 it was reported that DPA (diphenylamine) showed promise as a chemical treatment for scald control. Further research efforts on this approach indicated another chemical, Ethoxyquin (6-ethoxy-1,2, dihydro-2,2,4-trimethyl quinoline) had similar effects. Developmental work with these two chemicals has shown that dipping the fruit is the most effective means of scald control with either DPA or Ethoxyquin. Dipping assures complete fruit coverage. Concentrations of 1,000 to 2,000 ppm. of DPA or 1,800 to 2,700 ppm. of Ethoxyquin, depending on variety, are appropriate. Other methods of treatment such as spraying the fruit on trees just prior to harvest or spraying it after harvest in field containers or as it passes over grading machinery has given significant control of scald. But these methods are not as effective as dipping for complete coverage. Because of susceptibility to scald in CA storage, the Cortland apple could not be held in this type of storage prior to the discovery of chemical control for scald. This development has been responsible for maintaining Cortland at its present level on the commercial list. The apple industry now has a simple chemical method for scald control, which when properly used will avoid the heavy losses of previous years. At present, approximately 15 million bushels of apples are treated annually for scald control. As in the production of apples, the past 30 years has brought tremendous improvements in the storage and length of marketing season of this important fruit. While costs experienced by the apple industry have risen significantly in recent years, the wholesale price has increased little, if any. Technology has made this possible. M. B. HOFFMAN Emeritus Professor Pomology Dept. N.Y. State College of Agriculture "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Rochester Strain of Lilacs","article_sequence":4,"start_page":133,"end_page":135,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24570","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eb36d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Clark, Robert B.","article_content":"The 'Rochester' Strain of Lilacs Modern lilac breeding was begun a century ago during the Franco-Prussian War, by Victor Lemoine, a nurseryman of Nancy, France, as a diversion from the trials of the time. With the able assistance of his wife, Lemoine dusted pollen of what were at that time the handsomest single lilacs, 'Ville de Troyes,' 'Sanguinea,' and others, onto the almost inaccessible stigma of 'Azurea Plena' to produce a race of ornamental double lilacs, the so-called French hybrids. Single lilacs have only one tubular corolla (circle of petals), having four lobes. The individual flowers (florets) of double lilacs have two corollas, one inside the other, forming a rosette of petals. Some of Lemoine's superb new lilacs were 'Lemoinei' (1879), 'Alphonse Lavalle' (1885), 'President Grevy' (1886), 'Mme. Lemoine' (1890), 'Belle de Nancy' (1891), and 'Charles Joly' (1896). Lemoine's son, Emile, in time relieved his mother as technical assistant. He reversed her technique by applying pollen of the double flowered lilacs on to the stigma of single flowered lilacs, an even more difficult task since it required removing the pollenbearing anthers from the flowers to avoid the possibility of selffertilization. As seed parent (female parent) Emile used the single white 'Marie Legraye.' Most of the finest white double lilacs produced up to fifty years ago came from this parent, one such being 'Edith Cavell' (1916). The 'Rochester' lilac is a seedling of 'Edith Cavell'. It was raised at Highland Park, Rochester, New York, by Richard A. Fenicchia, Superintendent of Horticulture. The seedling plant was slow to develop, but its dwarfness and glistening white flowers attracted attention. This cultivar is slow to propagate and therefore is not likely to become popular. However, 'Rochester' possesses two noteworthy characteristics : the florets are often five lobed or petaled (in freaks sometimes seventeen develop) and the color is of good substance, that is, slow to fade. In particularly fine plants the petals are 133 134 135 incurved or boat-shaped, giving a two-toned or bicolor effect, while with certain plants the petals are even streaked or striated in a deeper shade of the basic color. The colors range (according to the Nickerson Color Fan) (3) from light violet through strong purple to deep reddish-purple, the whole spectrum of the common or French hybrid lilacs. 'Rochester' is itself a seed parent; its progeny becomes known as the 'Rochester' strain. The following novelties are noteD. Eisenhower' R-102 is a light violet (all worthy. 'Dwight color names are those of the Nickerson Color Fan) which popularly passes for a pale but intense blue. The pollen parent is 'Mme. Charles Souchet.' Another seedling of the same cross is 'John Dunbar' R-101 with brilliant violet flowers in a conical thyrse six inches tall. The following pair resulted from the cross with 'Edward J. Gardner': Dr. Edward Moore R-88 is a light violet with florets loosely disposed in a seven-inch thyrse, 'Frederich Douglass' R74 has bicolored florets of strong reddish-purple in multiple thyrses six inches tall. The following trio are open-pollinated seedlings: 'Bishop McQuaid' R-63 has bicolored florets of strong purple in nine inch candle-like thyrses; 'George Ellwanger' R-46 bears streaked florets of moderate purple on nine-inch thyrses; while 'Barney Slavin' R-18 has glistening white florets in eight-inch thyrses. ROBERT B. CLARK Plant Taxonomist Department of Parks Rochester, New York Photo Monroe Left : Syringa vulgaris 'Rochester.' County Parks, Rochester, N.Y. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weeds, A Link with the Past: Bouncing Bet","article_sequence":5,"start_page":136,"end_page":137,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24571","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eb726.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"Weeds: A Link With the Past Bouncing Bet Bouncing Bet, or Soapwort (Saponaria officinalis), is a member of the Pink family (Caryophyllaceae) which often brightens railroad embankments and empty lots with masses of pale pink, raspberry scented flowers. Dioscorides called it \"Strouthion\" and wrote of its use as a soap \"which Fullers use for making cleane their wools.\" The fulling of newly woven wool cloth entailed washing the cloth with a soapy substance to clean it and to shrink the fibers so it would mat and become more dense and compact. The roots of Bouncing Bet were gathered when the plant was in flower, and soaked in water to extract the mucilaginous saponin. This mixture produced a soapy lather and gave the plant one of its names, 'Fuller's Herb.\" It was also useful for washing silks, as it not only cleanses, but when dry leaves a luster on the cloth. In fact it is still used in parts of Europe for cleaning old tapestries. John Parkinson wrote in the 16th century \"wild sopewort is used in many places, to scour country women's treen [wooden~ and pewter vessels.\" The leaves were sometimes used as a poultice for small cuts and abrasions, and earlier Dioscorides spoke of it as a remedy for those who were \"liver-sick.\" The plant was naturalized in England in the 16th century, and its double-flowered variety was popular in early English gardens. Its weedy tendencies were recognized, however, as John Gerard wrote, \"If they have but once taken good and sure rooting in any ground, it is impossible to destroy them.\" Gerard, who lived in the 16th century, was an herbalist and surgeon, and during a large part of his life he maintained a garden for the growing of medicinal plants, or simples. He produced an \"Herball\" which, although in some respects a translation and rearrangement of other earlier writers, did include some of his own observations on medicinal plants, and was the first popular book on gardening adapted for English gardens. Today Bouncing Bet, or Saponaria, has several horticultural varieties ranging in color from white to reddish purple, but its Latin name, from sapo, meaning soap, continues to remind us of its usefulness in the past. HELEN ROCA-GARCIA 136 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":6,"start_page":138,"end_page":139,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24566","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25eab26.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Outdoor Laboratory. People and Their Environment. Teachers' Curriculum Guide to Conservation. Edited by Matthew J. Brennan. Chicago: J. G. Ferguson Publishing Co. 1969. 142 pages, illustrated. Outdoor Laboratory is one of eight curriculum guides in the series People and their Environment, a broad program for teaching conservation in grades 1-12. This volume focuses on the obvious, and therefore overlooked, idea of using the outdoors to teach about the natural environment. \"Why study erosion by pouring water over a box of soil in a messy artificial classroom demonstration when a bit of the schoolyard (even an asphalt one) washes down the gutter every time it rains,\" it asks? I know from my own teaching experience that a curriculum guide can be a prescription for drudgery or a suggestion box of good ideas. So much depends on the selectivity of the teacher who is using it. For instance, I would have difficulty with Lesson 17 (Forests Awareness of Beauty). Standing in a forest with a group of six to twelve year olds and asking them \"How do you feel as you stand quietly here?\" is not my cup of tea. Nor could I assign the suggested essay on the travels of a paper plate at a picnic. That is not to say however, that there are not teachers who could make Lesson 17 a rewarding experience. More to my taste is Lesson 19 which teaches the value of insects (I had a sixth grade teacher who let us dig I earthworms for her daily fishing trip) or Lesson 20 on Birds (I didn't know that Ptarmigans have feathered feet for walking on snow - an adaptation to their environment). The only quarrel that I have with the guide and it would be resolved by my selectivity is that the trail to nature in Unit 1 passes through \"First Aid in the Outdoors\" and \"Water safety in the Outdoors\" in Lessons 1 and 2. After reading about shock, heat exhaustion, heart attacks, black widow spider bites, and accidental drowning (as different from suicide, I suppose), I wouldn't set foot out of the classroom. - 138 139 The Time-Life Encyclopedia of Gardening - Bulbs. James Underwood Crockett and the Editors of Time-Life Books. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. 1972. 160 pages, illustrated. $6.95. This is a coffee table book with instructions for growing. The useful feature of the book is the series of water color paintings of about 150 kinds of bulbs. These alone are worth the price of the book. The text is informal and informative, the historical notes are accompanied by some very interesting reproductions of paintings, which unfortunately are very sketchily identified. All in all, good value for money. most G. P. DEW. Proven Herbal Remedies. John H. Tobe. St. Catharines, Canada: The Author. 1969. 304 pages. $8.95. Ontario, People are always looking for an easy solution to their problems. For some, it is easier, or pleasanter, to believe what they want to believe than to rely upon facts, which they tend to find unpleasant. Over the centuries many plant products have been touted as \"cures\" for diseases. Most of them are harmless, a few are dangerous. The present work is a compilation of \"folk\" remedies, based in part on John Parkinson's Paradisi ... of 1629 and Thomas Green's Herbal of 1820. It is rather frightening to see Water Hemlock and Peyote, for example, listed as home remedies. It is unfortunate that the official pharmacopoeias of the 18th Century were not consulted! G. P. DEW. Florida Edition) Gardening Month by Month. Nixon Smiley. (Revised Coral Gables, Florida: University of Miami Press. 1970. 189 pages, illustrated. $5.95. newcomer This is directed to the Florida. It is written in a to gardening in South informal style, and conveys chatty, a surprisingly large amount of practical information. Recommended for northern gardeners who plan to spend the winter in South Florida. G. P. DEW. Next page: Viburnum in the Arnold Arboretum. Inside back cover: Edge of pond, early spring. Photos P. Bruns. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23315","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060ab6b.jpg","title":"1972-32-3","volume":32,"issue_number":3,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Scientists and Scientific Contributions of the Arnold Arboretum: The First Century","article_sequence":1,"start_page":49,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24565","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25ea76d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":2,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"- Scientists and Scientific Contributions of the Arnold Arboretum `I~he First Century ' A bequest in the estate of James Arnold, probated in 1872, was accepted by the President and Fellows of Harvard University, and became the financial beginning of the Arnold Arboretum. The executors proposed the money be invested and accumulated - until the endowment reached $150,000, after which 95% of the income could be used, with 5% being capitalized forever afterward. As Charles Sargent was appointed Director in 1873, he and his staff were financed primarily from other sources, such as the Harvard Botanic Garden and the Bussey Institution, for seven years until the Arnold Arboretum rightfully began to use its own money. While serving also as Director of the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, Sargent began to obtain seeds and plants to be used ultimately in the collections of the Arboretum. In his first report as Director of the Arnold Arboretum, Sargent wrote: \"I am under deep obligation to Dr. Asa Gray for the valuable assistance and advice with which he has honored me from the very outset of the undertaking, and for an introduction to his numerous correspondents both in America and Europe.\" announced that the Arboretum had become and administratively independent of the Botanic Garden, and that \"the separation of the Arboretum from the Botanic Garden, and its distance from the collections in Cambridge, have made the establishment of a separate Herbarium and Museum essential to its scientific position. The Museum is intended to illustrate the economic properties of trees both native and exotic; and the Herbarium will contain a reference set of ligneous plants to aid the determination of the living collections. A library of works on Dendrology and kindred subjects is also essential to the proper working of the Arboretum, In 1880 Sargent financially 49 50 and has been commenced.\" John Robinson of Salem, Massachusetts, as a volunteer, was the first curator, and his report indicated that on January 1, 1880, \"the specimens previously collected by Professor Sargent, or otherwise received by donation, numbered 848 species and 1,073 specimens of unmounted plants.\" In the succeeding eight months, 1060 species and 2,736 specimens of dried plants were prepared at the herbarium or received by donations. During the year, 222 specimens were distributed to 19 different persons and institutions. The list of contributors of specimens included 28 American sources and two foreign importantly, Mr. Brandis, the inspector of forests in India, and Sir J. D. Hooker of Kew. Sargent's inspiration from Asa Gray, therefore, was to complement a living collection of hardy woody plants with a museum for public education, and an herbarium and a library to support the scientific work. This foundation remains but slightly altered over the century. The museum at its peak contained primarily specimens of large tree trunks, and eventually became a collection of small specimens of wood rather than a public display. The restricted interest in only woody plants remained until 1954, when the Arboretum began to add to its herbarium herbaceous plants, as well as Monocotyledons and ferns and their allies. From the living collections, the herbarium and the library, however, the contributions of the Arnold Arboretum have been in the broad and perhaps ill-defined segregate areas of -~botany ~ and \"horticulture.\" Sargent and Olmsted, in planning the arrangement of plants on the grounds, recognized that the appeal of an arboretum could be enhanced with the proper arrangement of living plants. Although no avenue of single species was established, the placing of all lilacs in a highly visible group had a purpose. Today mass plantings of Forsythia and Rhododendron obtusum var. kaempferi are equally spectacular. Yet the folly of such groupings has also been shown by the loss of most cherry species from a conspicuous location by virus and nematode infections, as the separation of these trees from each other would minimize the spread of infection. The contribution of the Arnold Arboretum in horticulture has been varied, and offered by many staff members over the years. The introduction of plants into cultivation by Sargent, Jack, Wilson and Rock, as employees doing exploration, was elaborated by others of the staff in acquiring seeds from other gardens through correspondence or by the financial support of other expeditions. The taxonomic work of Alfred Rehder in the - 51 preparation of' the most of Cultivated Woody Plants and important Bibliography of Cultivated Woody Plants is the Manual outstanding. Sargent attempted to educate Americans through the short-lived publication, Garden and Forest. By contrast, The Bulletin of Popular Information went through three series of complex numbering before being renamed Arnoldia, now known for the articles by Wilson and Wyman. Independent of their salaried positions, Wilson wrote such lasting publications as: China, Mother of Gardens, Aristocrats of the Garden, and America's Greatest Garden; while Wyman's comparative observations of the living collections were expressed in his series such as Trees for American Gardens, or his most recent Wyman's Garden Encyclopedia. When the International Society for Horticultural Science recognized the need for bibliographic data on cultivars of ornamental plants, the staff of the Arnold Arboretum took the lead in the preparation of lists of cultivar names, serving as an International and\/or National Registration Center for cultivars of woody plants. Such listings have appeared in Arnoldia. Plants introduced by an arboretum must be propagated and distributed to be of value, and again in accordance with its age, the Arnold Arboretum has played a major role. The records of plants handled as seed or cuttings by the propagators, Jackson Dawson, William Judd, Richard Filmore, Louis Lipp, Roger Coggeshall, and Alfred Fordham, are complete and will, some day, form the basis for a complete manual of vegetative plant propagation. The \"Cooperating Nurseryman's Program,\" developed by Donald Wyman has placed many of the Arboretum's introductions in the commercial trade. The organization has been generous in offering surplus materials to other botanical gardens, to colleges and universities, and to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Selections of chance seedlings on the grounds, a result of growing many species of plants, have yielded many interesting plants to American horticulture, including Rosa arnoldiana, Malus arnoldiana, Lonicera 'Arnold Red,' and Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise.' Cytological studies of cultivated plants by Karl Sax and his students led to deliberate crosses producing such cultivars as Malus 'Henrietta Crosby,' Magnolia 'Merrill' and several Forsythias. Sax's work on dwarfing plants, reviving old suggestions of the use of interstock and bark inversions, was widely adopted by the commercial trade. The early use of propagation frames of plastic, although neither original nor new in principle, used modem materials and was widely publicized. 52I the earliest \"popular classes\" offered by American the walks around the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, conducted by J. G. Jack, which have continued and developed into numerous classes for the public. As the first Director, Sargent's prime contributions to the scientific program of the Arnold Arboretum might well be considered The Silva of North America, and the Manual of the Trees of North America. These volumes are modified floras or monographs, featuring accurate descriptions by Sargent and the classic illustrations by Faxon. During Sargent's administration, E. H. Wilson was to collect in China and to write voluminously on the flora of temperate Asia. Alfred Rehder, as Curator, was responsible for the identification of most of the plant specimens Wilson collected which were associated with the introductions made for their horticultural significance. The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum was started in 1919 as a place of publication of the scientific work of the staff. The four articles in the initial issue were on willows by Camillo Schneider; a phytogeographical sketch of the ligneous flora of Korea by E. H. Wilson; new taxa from the herbarium and living collections of the Arboretum by Alfred Rehder; and Notes on American Trees by C. S. Sargent. The Journal completed its 50th volume in 1970. It has been edited through the years by Rehder, A. C. Smith, C. E. Kobuski, C. E. Wood, Jr., and B. G. Schubert, all perfectionists, so that the periodical has a justified repuwium fUl exveiicmC. A series of special publications, offered only for sale and not for exchange, had a short life due to excessive costs. The series began as Contributions from the Arnold Arboretum (11 numbers), and was renamed Sargentia (9 issues). While a need continues for a place for the publication of longer papers, the financial problems of printing and distribution remain. When E. D. Merrill became Director in 1936, the research interest of the staff turned to Asia. Merrill invested a proportionately large amount of Arboretum funds in the support of local botanists in China, Indo-China, and tropical Asia, for the collection of plant specimens for scientific study. So large was the quantity of material, that some packages remain today unstudied for lack of staff to investigate the material. Merrill was a specialist on the flora of the Philippines, and recognized the paucity of materials and information on the islands further south. He encouraged collectors, including soldiers during World War II, to collect, and he was personally responsible for Perhaps arboreta were - 53 reporting quickly the initial determinations to genera. In this he was a master. With the beginning of the Archbold Expeditions to Papua and New Guinea, the Arboretum's association with that flora and the collections of Leonard Brass developed. Studies alone under the title of Plantae Papuanae Archboldianae, by Merrill and Lily M. Perry, number 21 papers in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Merrill's familiarity with the plants of the South Pacific allowed him to write a classic of its kind, Edible and Poisonous Plants of the Islands of the Pacific, which was published as a technical manual by the United States Army and served as a fundamental volume in the series of Survival Manuals to follow. The experience of working with Merrill and his volume allowed a graduate student, R. A. Howard, now Director of the Arboretum, to develop the Survival Training Program for the United States Forces. I. M. Johnston made a wartime contribution in taxonomic and ecological studies of San Jose Island, Panama. This program was one of the first to study the effects of chemicals as defoliants in tropical jungles. Contrasting were the studies made at the Arnold Arboretum in the use of plant materials for camouflage where studies of persistence of cut foliage were equally significant. Although taxonomic studies using the herbarium and the library have dominated the contributions of the staff, there are areas of special contribution. Perhaps the contribution of I. W. Bailey in systematic and comparative wood anatomy is foremost. Bailey's early work was an individual effort exemplified by his studies of the cambium and its derivative tissues. Upon joining the Arboretum staff, Bailey began a cooperation with taxonomists in approaching problems of identification, relationship and evolution, perhaps culminating in the studies of the conduplicate carpel and the families of the woody \"Ranales.\" The various articles which have appeared in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum demonstrate the continuing interest of individual staff members and recognition by the institution of the value of an anatomical and morphological approach to systematic problems. The Arnold Arboretum contributions in areas of cytology and genetics ranged from Sax's early work on the coiling of chromosomes to the numerical counts of chromosomes of cultivated plants produced by Edgar Anderson and continued by many others. Only one staff member has carried the title of Ecologist, that 54 whose work involved the Mackenzie Basin, the Canadian Northwest Territories, and the Alcan Highway. Work in descriptive ecology, however, has been part of the published work of many staff members, from Johnston's work on gypsophiles and gypsophobes of Mexico, to the recent studies of alpine vegetation in the Caribbean by R. A. Howard and his associates. Dr. J. Horace Faull was appointed pathologist on the Arboretum staff in 1928, and his small primitive laboratory was the first to recognize the occurrence of Dutch Elm disease in the United States. His many warnings of the potential of this disease went unheeded. With co-workers and students he amassed an herbarium of specimens of diseases of native as well as cultivated plants needed for the taxonomic studies of fungi. After his retirement, the field was not continued as a staff position, presumably due to the development of well-financed governmental laboratories by the State and Federal bureaus. The library of the Arnold Arboretum began with private purchases by Charles Sargent of the books fundamental to his program. These were kept in his own residence until the Administration Building was built. Alfred Rehder was sent to Europe to buy books for the Arnold Arboretum library, and his choices resulted in most of the classic items with our collections. The interest of these two men in books is best exjn the RrnrlloJi Rahl4nnrn~nhy nf flvP vnlnmeS one of the great privately sponsored works of the century. Merrill and Walker's Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany must rank a close second. Documentation of the library of the Arnold Arboretum was supplied by Miss Ethelyn Tucker in the three-volume annotated Catalogue of the Library of the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Lazella Schwarten made her contribution through the years of contribution to the Torrey Index of American Literature. The Schwarten and Rickett abbreviations of titles of periodicals can be regarded as the predecessors of more recent standardized lists of abbreviations. To Merrill must go recognition for the initial efforts to reprint and make available rare volumes of taxonomic value. Using either Arboretum funds or his own, Merrill arranged for the reproduction of the works of Blume, Rafinesque, and others, before reprint and photocopied editions became commercial opportunities. Merrill also obtained the financial support required to place on microfilm photographic images of the speci- being Hugh Raup, 55 mens in the Linnaean Herbarium in the early years of World War II. This innovative procedure has also been adopted commercially today. Merrill brought to the Arnold Arboretum and implemented his idea of pasting the entries of the many volumes and supplements of Index Kewensis in one alphabetical sequence. The work of the last decade of the first century is perhaps more familiar. It is exemplified by the selection, introduction, propagation or distribution of such plants as the Dawn Redwood (Metasequoia), Malus 'Donald Wyman,' and Magnolia 'Centennial' in the area of Horticulture. The floristic work of the current staff involves Hong Kong, the West Indies, and Mexico. Outstanding as an example of the value of utilizing the herbarium, the library, and good illustrative techniques, is the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, initially financed by a private benefactor, and more recently supported in part by a grant from the National Science Foundation. Other monographic work at the generic or familial level is published regularly in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Horticultural taxonomy, as a prelude to work on a revision of Rehder's manual, has involved the building up of an herbarium of plants under cultivation in the United States while continuing the literature additions to the Rehder bibliographic files. Over the first century, the endowment of the Arnold Arboretum has grown by gifts from individuals who value the efforts and the contributions of the staff. Gifts for current use, which Sargent required, remain today a need, and 2,000 persons are supporting the Arnold Arboretum on a regular basis as the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum.\" The library in 1972 contains 80,000 books and pamphlets, and receives nearly 300 periodicals. The herbarium contains 936,000 specimens, of which 145,000 form an herbarium of cultivated plants. Modern greenhouses and laboratories for research are associated with the living collections and the teaching programs. The distinguished heritage of the First Century is but the foundation of continued contributions of many present and future staff members. RICHARD A. HOWARD The following alphabetical list represents those members of the Arnold Arboretum staff with regular appointments who have contributed to our history through their publications. Only a brief indication of their title and contribution or area 56 of investigation is possible. Many, of course, are dead, and reference is given to appropriate obituaries. Some are now at other institutions or have retired. All, however, contributed to the work for which the Arnold Arboretum is now known. The Scientific Staff ' in the Herbarium. Lauraceae. tAmes, Oakes. 1928-34. Professor, Supervisor. Taxonomy - Orchidaceae. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 31: 335-349. 1950) tAnderson, Edgar. 1931-35. Arborist. Genetics: Tradescantia; horticultural articles. tAsmous, Vladimir C. 1940-46. Assistant Librarian. Bibliography, biography Russian botanists. tBailey, Irving W. 1935-55. Professor. Comparative and systematic wood anatomy. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 49: 1-15. 1968) Baranov, Andrey I. 1964-68. Curatorial Assistant. Flora of temperate Asia. Bogle, Alfred L. 1967-70. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Hamamelidaceae. tBrizicky, George K. 1960-68. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy and Nomenclature; history of sub- Allen, Caroline K. 1926-28, 1932-48. Assistant Taxonomy - generic categories. Channell, Robert B. 1955-57. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Ebenales, Primulales. Chester, Kenneth S. 1931-32. Research Assistant in Phytopathology. tinn Precipitin Leon. reactions. Coggeshall, Roger Croizat, - C. 1954-58. 1937-46. Propagator. Vegetative reproducAssistant. Technical Taxonomy - Euphorbiaceae. Crowell, Ivan H. 1931-33. Assistant Phytopathologist. Taxonomy Gymnosporangium. fungi. Darker, Grant D. 1928-33. Assistant in Phytopathology. Taxonomy of Dermen, Haig. 1929-37. Assistant Cytologist; Assistant in Phyto- pathology. Chimeras. DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr. 1967- . Horticultural Taxonomist; Horticulturist. Taxonomy - Moraceae. Dudley, Theodore R. 1963-66. Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist. Taxonomy - Cruciferae. Elias, Thomas S. 1969-71. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Leguminosae. tErnst, Wallace R. 1961-63. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Papaveraceae. tFaull, Joseph H. 1928~0. Forest Pathologist. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 43: 223-233. 1962) tFaxon, Charles E. 1882-1918. Curator, Artist. Silva North America. (Jour Arnold Arb. 3: 168. 1922; Rhodora 20: 117-122. 1918) Fergueson, t Deceased. I. Keith. 1964-66. Botanist. tern States. Taxonomy - Chenopodiaceae, Generic Flora SoutheasCornaceae. I Fillmore, Richard H. tion. Flint, Harrison L. ness. 57 1947-51. Propagator. Vegetative propaga- 1966-68. Associate Horticulturist. Plant hardi- Fordham, Alfred J. 1958- . Propagator. Vegetative propagation. Graham, Shirley A. T. 1963-64. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Lythraceae, Rhizophoraceae, Polygonaceae. Green, Peter S. 1961-66. Horticultural Taxonomist. Taxonomy Oleaceae. Hartley, Thomas G. 1964-71. Associate Curator. Flora of New Guinea. Hou, Ding. 1955-56. Botanist. Flora of China project. Taxonomy Celastraceae. Howard, Richard A. 1954- . Director. Flora Lesser Antilles; plant - anatomy. Hu, Shiu-Ying. 1949- . Botanist. Flora of China; Flora of Hong Kong Taxonomy - Ilex, Philadelphus. tjack, John G. 1886-1935. Associate Professor of Dendrology. Flora of Cuba; horticultural articles. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 30: 345-47. 1949) James, Charles W. 1955-56. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Melastomataceae. Jarrett, Frances M. 1956-59. Botanist. Taxonomy - Artocarpus. tJohnston, Ivan M. 1931-60. Associate Professor. Taxonomy Boraginaceae. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 42: 1-9. 1961) tJones, George N. 1937-38. Technical Assistant. Taxonomy - Sorbus, Tilia. (Plant Sci. Bull. 16: 10. 1970) tJudd, William H. 1913~6. Propagator. Horticultural articles. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 27: 493. 1946; Arnoldia 6: 25-28. 1946) tKobuski, Clarence E. 1927-63. Curator, Editor of the Journal. Taxonomy - Theaceae. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 44: 411~120. 1963) Li, Hui-Lin. 1941-43. Research Associate. Taxonomy - Araliaceae. Lipp, Lewis F. 1952-54. Propagator. Vegetative propagation. Liu, Su Y. 1954-56. Botanist, Flora of China project. Lott, Henry J. 1937-38. Technical Assistant. Taxonomy - Hypericum. Mangelsdorf, Paul C. 1940-41. tMcKelvey, Susan D. 1931-64. Syringa, Yucca; history of Professor. Genetics of Zea mays. Research Assistant. Taxonomy botanical exploration. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 46: 45-71. 1965) tMerrill, Elmer D. 1935-46. Director. Floras of tropical Asia; history of Cooks Voyages. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 37: 197-216. 1956) tMetcalfe, Franklin P. 1941~2. Research Assistant. Flora of China. Miller, Norton G. 1969-70. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Cannabaceae, Urticaceae. Nast, Charlotte. 1941-46. Curator of Wood Collection. Wood anatomy. Lorin I., Jr. 1949- . Curator. Taxonomy - Thymelaeaceae, Flora of Vera Cruz, Mexico. tPalmer, Ernest J. 1913~17. Collector, Research Assistant. Taxonomy - Quercus; Flora of Missouri. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 43: 351-358. 1962) Perry, Lily M. 1937-64. Botanist. Taxonomy - Myrtaceae, Macaranga ; Flora of New Guinea. Nevling, 58 Powell, Dulcie Indies. A. 1966- . Assistant Curator. Flora of the West M. 1932-46. Research Assistant. Flora of NorthwestCanada. tRehder, Alfred. 1893-1940. Associate Professor, Curator, Editor. Taxonomy of Cultivated Plants; bibliography. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 31: 1-38. 1950) Robertson, Kenneth R. 1971- . Assistant Curator. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Convolvulaceae. tRobinson, John. 1880-1882. Assistant in Charge of Herbarium. Flora of Massachusetts. (Rhodora 31: 245-254. 1929) tRock, Howard. 1956-57. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States Taxonomy - Helenium. Rousch, Eva M. F. 1930-32. Assistant in the Herbarium. Taxonomy - Malvaceae. tSargent, Charles S. 1872-1927. Director. Taxonomy - Crataegus; Silva of North America. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 8: 69-86. 1927) Sax, Karl. 1928-59. Director. Cytology and cytogenetics. tSchneider, Camillo K. 1915-19. Research Assistant. Taxonomy Salix ; Flora of China. (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 80: 101. 1953) Schubert, Bernice G. 1961- . Curator, Editor. Taxonomy - Desmodium, Begonia, Dioscorea. Schwarten, Lazella. 1945-67. Librarian. Torrey Index of Botanical Literature. tShaw, George R. 1909-1924. Research Associate. Taxonomy Pinus. Smith, Albert C. 1940~18. Curator, Editor. Taxonomy of tropical plants; Flora of Fiji. Sorenson, Paul D. 1967-70. Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist. Taxonomy - Dahlia. Spongberg, Stephen A. 1970- . Assistant Curator. Generic Flora ., uvmucdSicm oidico. T dnGalJW U0.A111d~6B.cNC, ULQ1J11yacaern - Raup, Hugh .ceae. Sturrock, David. 1936~15. Superintendent, Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, Cuba. Tropical fruits, tropical timber trees. Sutton, Stephanne B. 1966- . Research Fellow. Biography; History of the Arnold Arboretum. Thomas, Joab L. 1959-62. Cytotaxonomist. Taxonomy - Cyrillaceae. Tucker, Evelyn M. 1899-1939. Librarian. Catalogue of the Liof the Arnold Arboretum. Verdoorn, Frans. 1941-54. Research Associate. Bibliography, bi- brary ography. Vuilleumier, Beryl S. 1967-68. Botanist. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Compositae. Burdette L. 1958-61. Horticultural Taxonomist. Cultivar Registration. Weaver, Richard E. 1970- . Assistant Curator. Taxonomy Fothergilla, Lisianthius. Weber, Claude. 1956-59. Botanist. Taxonomy - Chaenomeles. tWilson, Ernest H. 1906-1930. Plant Collector. Taxonomy - Ericaceae ; Flora of China. (Jour. Arnold Arb. 11: 181-192. Wagenknecht, 1930) 1954- . Curator, Editor. Generic Flora Southeastern States. Taxonomy - Tephrosia. Wyman, Donald. 1936-70. Horticulturist. Evaluation of cultivated plants. Wood, Carroll E., Jr. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Guide to City Trees in the Boston Area","article_sequence":2,"start_page":59,"end_page":97,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24562","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24e896b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":2,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"A Guide to City Trees In the Boston Area From the number of specimens which are brought or sent to the Arnold Arboretum for identification, it is obvious that many people are interested in knowing the names of trees growing in their yards or along the streets of their communities. It is also clear that there is a need for a readily available and effective guide to the identification of city trees. Several guides are already available, but many of these cover too many species over too large an area, or else they are too technical, to be easily used by the average person. The guide which is presented here covers only the trees which grow wild or are cultivated in the Boston metropolitan area. Technical language is avoided wherever possible, and it is hoped that this guide will be useable by people without any botanical or horticultural training. Before trying to identify a tree by means of this guide, one must first be able to tell a tree from a shrub. The distinction is not always easy to make. Size is not reliable because large shrubs are often taller than small trees. The important difference is that trees have only a single main trunk and the lowest branches are well above the ground level (except in conifers, where the lowest branches often extend to the ground level); shrubs have several to many main trunks and the lowest branches are usually almost at the ground level. In this guide, the trees will be identified mostly by means of their leaves, simply because the leaves are conspicuous and they are available for at least seven months of the year. Flowers, fruits, twigs, and bark will also be used, but mainly as a supplement to the leaf characteristics. A discussion of the characteristics of leaves is presented below. It is important to read this section carefully, because the terms will be used throughout the guide. Most of the terms are illustrated by a drawing (figure) on page 60. A leaf is basically made up of 2 parts, the flat, green portion, called the BLADE, and the stalk, called the PETIOLE. At the base of the petiole, where it is attached to the branch, is found a B UD (Figures 1-8) which will give rise to leaves, flowers, or branches next season. On the blade are a series of straight or branching lines, called VEINS. These veins carry food and 59 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig. 1. Pinnately Veined and Pinnately Lobed Leaf. 2. Palmately Veined and Palmately Lobed. 3. Alternate Leaves with Entire Margins. 4. Opposite Leaves with Toothed Margins. 5. Once-Pinnately Compound Leaf. 6. Bipinnately Compound Leaf. 7. Palmately Compound Leaf. 8. Fan-shaped Leaf (Ginkgo). 61 throughout the leaf. Most of the leaves in our area have a large vein which runs down the middle of the leaf and is more prominent than the others (Figures 1, 3, 4). Branching off the midvein at regular intervals are smaller but still prominent LATERAL VEINS (Figures 1, 3, 4). Leaves with venation such as this, with a single midvein and lateral veins coming off at regular intervals are PINNATELY VEINED. Other water a MIDVEIN, leaves more are PALMATELY VEINED. In this type there are 3 or main veins which start from a point at the base of the blade (or the tip of the petiole) and spread like the fingers of an outstretched hand (Figure 2). The edge of the leaf is known as the MARGIN. In many leaves the margin is smooth and even and then is termed ENTIRE (Figure 3). In other leaves the margin has small, rounded or sharp-pointed projections called TEETH (Figure 4), and sometimes there are small teeth on the larger ones, a condition termed DOUBLE-TOOTHED. Some leaves have indentations which are much larger than teeth. The indentations between these projections usually reach at least halfway to the midvein. These projections are called LOBES and the indentations between them are called SINUSES. Leaves may be PINNATELY LOBED, as in oaks where the lobes are arranged like the teeth of a double-edged comb (Figure 1), or PALMATELY LOBED, as in maples where the lobes are arranged like the fingers of an outstretched hand (Figure 2). It is important to remember that pinnately lobed leaves are also pinnately veined, but not all pinnately veined leaves are lobed. The same is true for palmately lobed and palmately veined leaves. The margins of the lobes may be toothed or entire. Pines, hemlocks, junipers and other conifers have leaves quite different from those already described. Leaves of these trees do not have a flat blade, but rather they are narrow and needle-like or scale-like. Many people do not think of pine needles as being leaves, but they are so nevertheless. Most leaves are SIMPLE, that is, with a single blade and stalk (Figures 1-4). Others however are compound, with several blades, called LEAFLETS, attached to a single stalk. There are two basic types of compound leaves, just as there are of lobed leaves. PINNATELY COMPOUND leaves are those in which the leaflets are arranged at regular intervals along the stalk. ONCE-PINNATELY COMPOUND leaves have the leaflets attached directly on the main stalk (Figure 5). BIPINNATELY COMPOUND leaves have secondary stalks arranged at intervals 62 along the main stalk (like leaflets on a once compound leaf) with the leaflets attached to these secondary stalks (Figure 6). PALMATELY COMPOUND leaves have all of the leaflets attached at one point and arranged like the spoke of a wheel or fingers on an outstretched hand (Figure 7). Only Horse Chestnuts of our trees have palmately compound leaves. Both palmately compound and pinnately compound leaves sometimes have only three leaflets. Many people have trouble distinguishing a compound leaf from a branch with simple leaves. There should be no trouble, however, if one remembers that there is always a bud at the place where the leaf stalk is attached to the branch. Everything above that bud is part of a single leaf. There are no buds at the base of leaflets. Another thing which may be of help is the fact that leaves come off the twig in different planes, or in other words that they come off the twig in all directions. Leaflets, on the other hand, all come off the stalk in the same plane, and a compound leaf is always flat just as a simple one is. When leaves are arranged singly on the twig (Figure 3), the arrangement is known as ALTERNATE; when they are in pairs (Figure 4), the arrangement is OPPOSITE. When the leaves are in 3's or more, the arrangement is WHORLED, a rare condition in trees of our area. In this guide, leaf arrangement is a very important characteristic for identifying trees. If the leaves rho lon~rvo \" than the leaflets when deciding on the arrangement. This guide makes use of an illustrated key for the identification of trees. A key is a series of statements describing certain characteristics of the thing to be identified, in this case trees. The characteristics described are those which most easily distinguish one tree from another. The statements are arranged in numbered pairs and one statement in each pair is in direct contrast to the other. To identify a plant by means of a key, read the first pair of statements carefully and decide which one of them best describes the plant to be identified. The statements of each pair are indented an equal distance from the margin; they may be separated some distance in the key, but they will have the same number and will always be indented equally. After a selection has been made, go to the pair of statements immediately below the one of the first pair selected, and repeat the process. Then go to the next pair and It is important, when a seso on until the tree is named. lection is made from a pair of statements, to disregard everycw, ..\"n,m,...........~ ....., ..~,. ,... - 63 thing above it in the key. Only that which is below it is relevant to the identification. To use this key, turn to the \"Summary Key\" found below. Read the first pair of statements (the number 1's). If your tree has evergreen, needle-like leaves that are less than 1\/4 inch broad, turn to Key A on page 64. If it instead has flat leaves that are more than 1\/4 inch broad, go to the number 2's in the Summary Key and so on. If your tree, for example, has leaves which are not fan-shaped, but simple, opposite, and lobed, you would turn to Key F. Keys A to J work like the Summary Key. Each pair of statements may describe several characteristics. It is therefore important to read each statement in its entirety. If one cannot tell much from the first characteristic, the second or third may be of considerable help in making the choice. For example, look at the number 3's in Key B (Page 65). If you cannot decide whether your leaf has a gradually pointed tip or a bristle-tip, the distinctive fruits, if they are available, should enable you to make your choice easily. There are many references to \"Figures\" (drawings) and \"Plates\" (photographs) throughout the key. These illustrate many of the characteristics used in the key, and in many cases will help you to decide whether or not your identification is correct. * The help of Miss Ida Hay and Mrs. Sheila the drawings is greatly appreciated. Geary in preparing RICHARD E. WEAVER SUMMARY KEY 1. 1. Leaves needle-like or scale-like, less than 1\/4 inch broad, usually evergreen Key A (Page 64). Leaves more than 1\/4 inch broad, with a distinctly broad or flattened blade, usually deciduous. 2. Leaves fan-shaped, without any large and conspicuous veins (Figure 8)........... Ginkgo biloba 2. Leaves not fan-shaped, with at least one large and con........... spicuous 3. vein. Leaves compound. 4. Leaves with 3 leaflets.... Key B (Page 65). 4. Leaves with more than 3 leaflets. 5. Leaves palmately compound (Figure 7). Horse Chestnut (Aesculus) 5. Leaves pinnately compound. 6. Leaves once-pinnate (Figure 5). 7. Leaves opposite.. Key C (Page 66) * These figures are not drawn to scale. 64I 6. 3. 7. Leaves alternate. Key D (Page 67). Leaves bipinnate (Figure 6)..... Key E (Page 68). ........ Leaves simple. 8. Leaves opposite (Figure 4) or whorled. 9. Leaves lobed (Figure 2) (If both lobed and unlobed leaves present, take this key. ) ... 8. ......... Key F (Page 69). 9. Leaves not lobed.... Key G (Page 70). Leaves alternate (Figure 3). 10. Leaves lobed (Figures 1 & 2) (If both lobed and unlobed leaves present, take this ......... Key 10. Leaves not lobed. 11. Leaves with toothed 11. H key.). (Page 72). margins (Figure 4). ........Key I (Page 80). Leaves with entire margins (Figure 3). Key J (Page 90). ........ KEY A. LEAVES NEEDLE-LIKE OR SCALE-LIKE. 1. Leaves needle-like, more than 1\/4 inch long, not completely covering the branchlets like shingles. 2. Bark peeling off in long slender strips...... ........ 2. , Bark not peeling off in long slender 3. Needles in clusters of 2, 3, or 5 ~ Junipers ( Juniperus sp.). strips. (Figure 9).. ........... ' 4. Y. I, Pines (Yinus ). Needles in clusters of 5; open cones much longer than broad. White Pine (Pinus strobus). ..... 1VCCU1CJ 111 1.111DLCLJ Vl G VL 3; V11C11 W11CD V111)' slightly longer than broad, or about as broad as long. Needles in clusters of 3. Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida). ~~~ Fig. 9 Scots Pine. 5. Needles .. 19.. co s me. usually in clusters of 2. 6. Needles to 3 inches long, bluish, 5. usually - twisted . * ........ Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). 6. Needles 3-8 inches long, green, not twisted .. Red Pine (Pinus resinosa). 3. Needles borne singly along the branch (Figure ....... Fig. 10. Fir Needles. , spur-like~branches in rosette-like clusters 7. Needles borne (Figure 11 ). spur-like branches (Figure 11 ), the new twigs borne singly. 8. or .... ,. 1nl nr ,...~ ,n rlnnee rnenttc_lilro ...~...\",.........,.,.,.,.... rlnetPre nn ,........... ehnrt on short those on _ _ 7. Needles flat, soft-textured Larches (Larix sp., Plate 1). 8. Needles 3-sided, stiff.... Cedar of Lebanon libani). Needles always borne singly along the branch ..... . (Cedrus (Figure 10). Fig. 11. Cedar of Lebanon. 65 9. Needles flat, with 2 fine, longitudinal whitish bands beneath. 10. Needles 3\/8-3\/4 inch long; cones usually less than an inch long.. Hemlocks (Tsuga sp., Plate 2). 10. Needles 3\/4-1 and 1\/2 inches long; cones more than an inch long. 11. Needles about 1\/16 inch broad often blue-green; cones hang.. ing .. ......... Douglas Fir Fig. 12. Arborvitae. (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). 1. more than 1\/16 inch broad dark green; cones upright. Firs (Abies sp., Plate 3). Needles 3- or 4-sided, without white lines 9. beneath.... Spruces (Picea sp.). Leaves scale-like, less than 1\/4 inch long, completely covering the branchlets and overlapping like shingles (Figure 12); sometimes short needle-like leaves on the same plant. 12. Branchlets square or round; trees often with both scalelike and needle-like leaves; fruit a round, bluish berry. Junipers (Juniperus sp., Plate 4). 12. Branchlets flattened; trees with only scale-like leaves; fruit sometimes bluish, but not round or berrylike. 13. Branchlets (or leaves) without whitish markings beneath...... Arborvitae (Thuja sp.). with whitish markings 13. Branchlets (or beneath.. False Cypresses (Chamaecyparis sp. ). 11. Needles leaves) KEY B. LEAVES COMPOUND, WITH 3 LEAFLETS. 1. Leaves opposite. 2. Leaflets with numerous (more than 15 per inch), fine, regularly spaced teeth; leaflets never lobed; fruit inflated, 3-pointed (Plate 5)......... Bladdernut (Staphylea trifolia, Figure 13). .... 2. Leaflets with few (less than 5 per inch), coarse, irregularly spaced teeth; leaflets sometimes with 2 lobes near the base; fruit with 2 winged segments, not inflated (Figure 14)........... Box Elder (Acer negundo, Figure 15). ..... Fig. 13. Bladdernut. Fig. 14. Box Elder Fruit. Fig. 15. Box Elder. 66 1. Leaves alternate. 3. Leaflets tapering gradually to a pointed tip (Figure 16); margins of leaflets with indistinct, rounded teeth; fruit wafer-like, with 2 seeds (Figure 17); flowers greenish, inconspicuous........... 3. A Wafer Ash (Ptelea trifoliata). Leaflets with a bristle at the tip (Figure 18); margins of leaflets without teeth; fruit bean-like, with more than 2 seeds; flowers yellow, conspicuous (Plate 6). Goldenchain Tree (Laburnum sp.). ...... Fig. Fig. 16. Wafer Ash. 17. Wafer Ash Fruit. Fig. 18. Goldenchain Tree. KEY C. LEAVES ONCE-PINNATELY COMPOUND, OPPOSITE. 1. 1. Leaf scars completely encircling twigs (Figure 19); twigs green; leaflets 7 or fewer.. Box Elder (Acer negundo). Leaf scars not encircling twigs (Figure 20); twigs brownish or grayish; leaflets often more than 7. n R\"rle in ovile nf loovoe olmnetr rn:nnlefolv rnc:crarl hv the base of the leaf stalk; leaves with a pleasant odor when crushed; fruit not winged........ Cork Tree (Phellodendron). 2. Buds in axils of leaves not covered by the base of the leaf stalk; leaves without a pleasant odor when crushed; fruit winged (Figure 21)....... Ashes (Fraxinus). -. ..... ........... Fig. 21. Ash Fruit. Fig. Fig. 19. Box Elder Leaf Scar. 20. Cork Tree Leaf Scar. 67 3. Lateral leaflets without a stalk or with a very short one; buds black..... ..... European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior). 3. Lateral leaflets with a distinct stalk; buds brown. 4. Leaflets with hairs beneath, at least along the midvein. Green Ash (Fraxinus pensylvanica). 4. Leaflets without hairs beneath.... .... White Ash (Fraxinus americana). .. - KEY D. LEAVES ONCE-PINNATELY COMPOUND, ALTERNATE. 1. 1. with stout, branched spines. Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). Trunk and branches without spines, or rarely with unbranched ones. 2. Margins of leaflets without teeth, or with a few ( 1~1 ) near the base. 3. Leaflets with a few teeth near the base (Figure 22); flowers and fruits not pea- or bean-like.. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima, .... Trunk and larger branches .Honey Plate 7). Leaflets entirely without teeth; flowers and fruits pea- or bean-like. 4. Leaves with an even number of leaflets. 5. Leaflets mostly opposite; pods tightly twisting upon opening (Figure 23); flowers yellow......... Fig. 22. Tree of Heaven. , , .. Siberian Pea Tree (Caragana ..-.L.._.........~.. B G:l UVTCSGC IGS J . Leaflets mostly alternate; pods not twisting upon opening (Figure 24); flowers pink or white.. Locust (Robinia sp.). 4. Leaves with an odd number of leaflets. 6. Terminal leaflet more than an inch broad. 7. Terminal leaflet distinctly broader than the upper lateral ones; bark smooth Yellow-wood (Cladrastic lutea). Fig. 23. Siberian Pea Tree Pod. 7. Terminal leaflet about as broad as the upper lateral ones; bark ridged. Amur Maackia (Maackia 5. ......... .. ... amurensis). 6. Terminal leaflet less than an inch broad. 8. Leaflets tapering to a sharp tip; twigs green; flowers appearing in the summer Pagoda Tree (Sophora japonica). 8. Leaflets with a blunt or rounded tip; twigs brown; flowers appearing in ........ . _ Fig. 24. Locust Pod. , the , spring. * Locust .(Robinasp., Plate.8). 68I 2. Margins 9. 9. of leaflets with regular, evenly spaced teeth. Teeth rounded; middle lateral leaflets usually less than an inch long; fruit a long, brown slightly twisted pod........... Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). Teeth sharp-pointed; middle lateral leaflets more than an inch long; fruit a nut or apple-like. 10. Leaflets more than 9. 11. Leaves less than 8 inches long, the leaflets always opposite; leaflets and leaf stalks without hairs and the latter usually red; fruits like small apples, less than 1\/2 inch in diameter, in large clus. ters .... (Plate 9)......... Mountain Ash (Sorbus sp. ). \" 1U. more than 8 inches long, the leaflets often alternate; leaflets and leaf stalks hairy, the latter greenish or brownish ; fruit a nut, more than 1\/2 inch in diameter, borne singly or in groups of 2-6...... Walnuts (Juglans). 12. Leaf scars with a prominent band of hairs on the upper edge; teeth of leaflets pointed outward; nuts longer than broad...... Butternut (]uglans cinerea). 12. Leaf scars without a band of hairs on the upper edge; teeth of leaflets pointing forward or inward; nuts usually as broad as long. . Black Walnut (Juglans nigra). Leaiiets y or iewer... Hickories ~i.uryu). 13. Bark peeling off in long strips (Plate 10). . * . 11. Leaves Shagbark Hickory (Carya ovata). 13. Bark ridged or smooth, not peeling off in long strips. 14. Leaflets 7-9; leaf stalks hairy or fuzzy .. .......... Mockernut (Carya tomentosa). 14. Leaflets 5 or sometimes 7; leaf stalks not .... hairy......... Pignut .(Carya glabra). KEY E. LEAVES BIPINNATE. 1. 1. Twigs prickly... Devil's Walkingstick (Aralia spinosa). Twigs not prickly, but sometimes branches with stout, branched spines. 2. Trunk and larger branches with stout, branched spines. Honey Locust (Gleditsia triacanthos). 2. Tree entirely without spines. .... 3. Leaflets ers not or toothed; fruits pea- or bean-like; flow- pink greenish-white. 4. Leaflets less than 1\/4 inch broad; flowers 69 pink, , in powder puff-like clusters; (Plate 11 ). 4. Pods thin and papery, pale brown. .Silk Tree (Albizia julibrissin). Leaflets 1\/2 inch or more broad; flowers greenish-white, in long, open clusters; pods thick, and dark brown........ Kentucky Coffee Tree (Gymnocladus ... 3. Leaflets ers .. toothed; fruit not pea- or dioicus ) . bean-like; flow- yellow ........... Golden Rain Tree (Koelreuteria paniculata, Plate 12). KEY F. LEAVES 1. SIMPLE, OPPOSITE OR WHORLED, LOBED. Leaves pinnately veined and often in whorls of 3, usually more than 6 inches long; flowers large, white, appearing early in the summer, well after the leaves; fruit a long, cigar-shaped pod...... 1. Leaves palmately veined and opposite, usually less than six inches long; flowers small, greenish or red, appearing in the spring before the leaves or with them; fruit with 2 winged segments (Figure 25).. Maples (Acer). 2. Leaf stalks producing a milky sap when broken. ...... always Catalpa (Catalpa sp.). Norway Maple (Acer platanoides). Leaf stalks not producinga milky sap when broken. 3. Leaves distinctly whitish beneath, not hairy. 4. Leaves lobed about to the middle, the terminal lobe broadest at the base (Figure 26); leaves turning red in the autumn. Red Maple (Acer rubrum). 4. Leaves lobed deeper than the middle, the terminal lobe broadest well above the base (Figure 27); leaves turning yellow in the autumn. Fig. 25. Maple Fruit. Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). 3. Leaves green beneath, if slightly whitish then with hairs at least along the main veins beneath. 5. Margins of lobes without teeth or with a few ...... .... , large irregularly spaced ones (Figure 28).. Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum). .... Fig. 26. Red Maple. Fig. 27. Silver Maple. Fig. 28. Sugar Maple. 70 5. Margins of lobes with numerous small, regularly spaced teeth (Figure 29). 6. Leaves with 7 or more lobes (Figure 29). 7. Leaf stalks hairy to the base. . 7. Siebold Maple (Acer sieboldianum ). Leaf stalk without hairs or hairy only in the upper portions. 8. Leaves with 7 lobes. ..... ... Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum ) . japonicum ). Fig. 29. Leaves with 9 or more lobes.. Japanese Maple.... Fullmoon Maple (Acer 8. 6. Leaves with 3-5 lobes. 9. Leaves red when mature. . Japanese Maple (Acer palmatum). 9. Leaves green when mature. 10. Leaves thin-textured, 3-lobed, the terminal lobe larger than the others and always triangular (Figure 30) ..... 10. Fig. 30. Striped Maple. Striped Maple (Acer pensylvanicum ). Leaves thicker-textured, 5-lobed, the terminal lobe only slightly larger than the two adjacent ones and usually with parallel sides.. Sycamore Maple (Acer pseudoplatanus ). .... KEY G. LEAVES SIMPLE, OPPOSITE OR WHORLED, NOT LOBED 1. 1. ~ ' Leaves palmately veined; margins of the leaves with rounded teeth (Figure 31 ) Katsura Tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum). Leaves pinnately veined; margins of the leaves without teeth or with sharp-pointed ones. 2. Leaves toothed. 3. Leaf stalks about half as long as the blades; leaves often heart-shaped at the base and often with 2 small lobes near the base. ..... Tatarian Maple (Acer tataricum). 3. Leaf stalks considerably less than half as long as the blades; leaves never heart-shaped at the base and never with lobes. 4. Leaves with very numerous (more than 20 per inch) fine teeth; leaves and leaf stalks without hairs; flowers and fruits on long slender drooping stalks; fruits with 4-5 very ............ ..... Fig. 31. Katsura Tree. prominent ridges ... ......... Broadleaf Bumingbush (Euonymus latifolia). 71 4. Leaves with fewer (usually less than 10 per inch) and usually coarse teeth, or sometimes with only indistinct teeth, leaves, at least along the main veins beneath, or leaf stalks hairy; flowers and fruits in upright clusters; fruits without ridges. 5. Leaves mostly less than 1 inch broad; bark peeling off in long strips. ' ... Beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis, more 5. Leaves Plate 13). than 1 inch broad; bark not same ones peeling 6. off in long strips. Flowers of 2 kinds in the ter (small inconspicuous clusand 6. others with 4 large, papery \"petals\"); old flowers persisting into the winter ; fruit not berry-like..... Panicle Hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata, Plate 14). Flowers uniform in each cluster, all small; old flowers falling off after blooming; fruit a dark, oval or roundish berry .. Siebold Viburnum (Viburnum ....... sieboldii ). 2. Leaves not toothed. 7. Bark peeling off in . 7. long strips....... Beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis). Bark not peeling off in long strips. 8. Largest leaves more than 4 inches broad and the leaf stalks of these more than 2 inches long; leaves often with 2 lobes near the base. 9. Flowers purple, appearing before the leaves; fruit not cigar-shaped; leaves never whorled....... Princess Tree ( Paulownia tomentosa). 9. Flowers white, appearing after the leaves are well developed (Plate 15); fruit long and cigar-shaped (Plate 16); leaves often in whorls of 3.. Catalpa (Catalpa sp.). Largest leaves usually less than 4 inches broad and the stalks of these always less than 2 inches long; leaves never with lobes. 10. Uppermost pair of lateral veins running directly into the tips of the leaf; flower clusters with 4 large, white, petal-like bracts at base.. Dogwoods (Cornus). 11. Flower bracts indented at the tip (Plate 17); fruits shiny, red, berrylike, in clusters (Plate 18); buds (those enclosing next year's flow' . 8. ers) flat-topped ..... Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida ). ... 72 11. Flower bracts (Plate 19); fruit pointed at a solitary, the tip dull red, warty, ball-like structure (Plate 20); buds (those enclosing next year's 10. flowers) pointed....... Kousa Dogwood (Cornus kousa). Uppermost pair of lateral veins not running into the tip of the leaf; flowers in open clusters without conspicuous bracts. . 12. Leaves hairy, at least on the veins oval-shaped; individual flowers with long, slender petals.. Fringe Trees (Chionanthus, beneath, ... Plate 21 ). 13. Leaf blades usually less than 3 inches long, often with blunt tips... Chinese Fringetree (Chionanthus retusus). 13. Leaf blades usually more than 3 inches long, with sharply pointed tips....... White Fringetree ..... 12. Leaves not (Chionanthus virginicus). hairy beneath, eggflowers with shaped ; individual short, roundish petals..... Tree Lilac (Syringa mandshurica ). ..... KEY H. LEAVES SIMPLE, ALTERNATE, LOBED 1. Leaf stalk somewhat 1. producing a milky sap when broken; fruit juicy, resembling a raspberry or blackberry. Mulberry (Morus sp.). Leaf stalk not producing a milky sap when broken; fruit not juicy, not resembling a blackberry. 2. Young twigs and the undersides of the leaves densely ........... 2. covered with a smooth, white, felt-like fuzz. . White Poplar (Populus alba). Young twigs and the undersides of the leaves not covered with a white felt-like fuzz, although the leaves sometimes are somewhat whitish beneath. 3. Leaves palmately veined. 4. Margins of the lobes with numerous, small regularly spaced teeth; leaves with a pleasant odor when crushed; twigs usually with corky ridges .... Sweet Gum (Liquidambar 4. Margins of the lobes regularly spaced teeth; ant odor when styraciflua, Figure 32). with few, coarse irleaves without a pleassp., crushed; twigs without corky ridges ..... Sycamore (Platanus Figure 33). 73 Fig. 32. Sweet Gum. Fig. 33. Sycamore. 3. Leaves pinnately veined. 5. Branches with long, slender spines. Hawthorn (Crataegus sp.). 5. Branches without spines. 6. Bark of trunk white; leaves small, the blade usually less than 2 inches long. European Cutleaf Birch (Betula .... ... ' Fig. 34. Sassafras. pendula). 6. Bark not white; leaves larger, the blade more than 2 inches long. 7. Bark of trunk smooth, without ridges or cracks Femleaf Beech (Fagus sylvatica ......... . var. laciniata). 7. Bark of mature trunk with ridges and cracks. 8. Twigs with a strong, pleasant odor when bruised; fruit not an acorn. 9. Twigs bright green; leaves usually of 3 kinds on a single tree [some without lobes, near some with one lobe the base and then Fig. 35. Sassafras. mitten-shaped (Figure 34), and some with a lobe on each side below the middle (Figure 35)]but the tip of the leaf pointed or rounded..... Sassafras (Sassafras albidum). 9. Twigs dark green; leaves all the same kind on each tree, the tip squarish or indented (Figure 36)... ... Tulip Poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera). Fig. 36. Tulip Poplar. 74 8. Twigs .. without a pleasant odor when bruised; fruit an acorn. Oaks (Quercus sp.). Tips of the lobes rounded or blunt (Figure 37). 11. Acorns without a stalk or on a very short, stout one; the sinuses of at least some of the lobes reaching nearly (at least 2\/3 of the way) to the midvein; base of the blade tapering gradually to the stalk . White Oak (Quercus 10. ..... ' alba, Figure 37). 11. Acorns on a long, Fig. 37. White Oak. slender stalk; sinuses of the lobes not extending more than halfway to the midvein ; base of the blade narrowed abruptly to the stalk..... English Oak ... (Quercus robur). 10. Tips ure of the lobes extended into a narrow bristle (Fig- 38). ',1 12. Undersides ~ ' 1C0.VGD w11,11 , a of illtG ro the LuG6 r _ that rubs off as a fine, brownish powder. Black Oak .. .... (Quercus velutina). 12. Undersides of the leaves without a fine fuzz, but sometimes with tufts of hairs in the places where the lateral veins join the midvein. 13. Undersides of the leaves with conspicuous tufts of pale hairs in the places where the lateral veins join the midvein; sinuses of some of the lobes extend- Fig. 38. Red Oak. ~ ing nearly midvein to the (Figure 75 39); tree with a pyramidal shape, es the lower branch- pointing some- what ... downward Pin Oak (Plate 22)... ( Quercus palustris). 13. Undersides of the leaves without conspicuous tufts of hairs, or rarely with small tufts of dark ones; sinuses of the lobes usually not extending more than half-way to the midvein (Figure with a rounded shape, the lower branches pointing outward or upward.. Red Oak 38); tree more Fig. 39. Pin Oak. (Quercus rubra). Scarlet Oaks (Quercus coccinea) may be found occasionally. They resemble Pin Oaks, but the lower branches do not point downward. Note: Plate 1. Larch (Larix) Plate 2. Hemlock (Tsuga) Plate 3. Fir (Abies) Plate 4. Juniper (Juniperus) Plate 5. Bladdernut ( Staphylea ) Plate 6 Goldenchain Tree (Laburnum) Plate 6A Goldenchain Tree (Laburnum) Plate 7. Tree of Heaven (Ailanthus altissima) Plate 8. Locust (Robinia) Plate 9. Mt. Ash ( Sorbus ) Plate 10. Shagbark Hickory (Carya ovata) 80 KEY I. LEAVES SIMPLE, ALTERNATE, UNLOBED, WITH TOOTHED MARGINS. 1. and the undersides of the leaves covered with a dense, is easily rubbed off.......... White Poplar (Populus alba). 1. Young twigs and the undersides of the leaves not covered with a white fuzz, or rarely one or the other with a white fuzz, but never both. 2. Leaves palmately veined. 3. Teeth rounded... Katsura Tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum). 3. Teeth sharp-pointed...... Lindens (Tilia sp., Figure 40). 2. Leaves pinnately veined. 4. Leaves heart-shaped...... Lindens (Tilia sp., Figure 40). 4. Leaves not heart-shaped. 5. Leaf stalks more than half as long as blade, often as long as the blade or longer. 6. Bark of mature trunk white; leaves double-toothed (teeth on the teeth) (Figure 45).............. European Weeping Birch (Betula pendula). 6. Bark not white; leaves single-toothed. 7. Leaves lop-sided at the base (Figure 40); teeth with long, slender tips (bristle-tipped) (Figure 41)....... Lindens (Tilia sp.). 7. Leaves not lop-sided at the base; teeth usually rounded, rarely sharp-pointed but never bristle-tipped. 8. Leaf stalks flattened; leaves nearly as broad as long or sometimes broader than long, somewhat triangular or Young twigs white, felt-like fuzz that .............. * ...... .............. broadly diamond-shaped (rarely broadly egg-shaped), usually flat or broadly triangular at the base; flowers small, in fuzzy catkins, appearing before the leaves; fruit dry, fuzzy; branches never spiny. Q T Pp~~- ~ ... 2di-Eh _w.~y.bb~ uYv, (Figure 42). 10. Leaves usually less than 2 inches broad; teeth fine, Fig. numerous (more than 10 per inch)...... 40. Linden...... Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides). 10. Leaves usually more than 2 inches broad; teeth coarse, less than 10 per inch (Figure 42).... .... Big-tooth Aspen (Populus grandidentata). Fig. 41. Bristle-tipped Teeth. Fig. 42. Big-tooth Aspen. Fig. 43. Lombardy Poplar. 81 9. Leaves somewhat triangular shaped (Figure 43). 11. Trees with rounded crowns. Eastern Cottonwood (Populus deltoides). 11. Trees with tall, slender, spire-like crowns (Plate .... 8. Leaf stalks not 23)..... Lombardy Poplar (Populus nigra). flattened; leaves longer than broad, oval or egg-shaped, usually rounded at the base; flowers large, white, appearing with the leaves; fruit a pear; branches sometimes spiny........ Pears (Pyrus sp.). 5. Leaf stalks less than half as long as the blade. 12. Branches with long, slender spines.......... Hawthorn (Crataegus sp.). 12. Branches without spines. 13. Main lateral veins reaching to the margin of the leaf, usually ending in teeth (Figure 44). 14. Leaves double-toothed (teeth on the teeth) (Figure 45). 15. Teeth rounded.. Witch Hazel (Hamamelis sp.). 15. Teeth sharp-pointed. 16. Leaves strongly lop-sided at the base (Figure 46); teeth curving inward (Figure 47)... .......... Elms ( Ulmus sp.). 16. Leaves not lop-sided or only slightly so at the base; teeth pointing forward or outward (Fig............ ure 45). 17. Bark of mature trunks white (Plate 24). 18. Bark peeling off in papery strips; twigs and branches not drooping..... Paperbark Birch (Betula papyrifera). 18. Bark not peeling off in papery strips; branches and twigs drooping (Plate 25). European Weeping Birch (Betula . .. pendula). 17. Bark not white. 19. Bark of twigs with a wintergreen taste. Sweet Birch (Betula lenta). .... Fig. 44. with Veins Single-toothed Leaf Margin, Ending in Teeth. Fig. 45. Double-toothed Leaf Margin. Fig. 46. Elm. 82 19. Bark of taste. twigs without a wintergreen of leaves blunt or tapering gradto a short point (Figure 48); teeth projecting less than 1\/16 inch from the margin; small trees or large shrubs.... Alders (Alnus sp.). 20. Tip of leaves long and slender (Figure 49); teeth projecting more than 1\/16 inch from the margin; mediumsize to large trees. 21. Bark of mature trees with conspicuous horizontal lines (Plate 20. Tip ually 26) .. .......... Fig. 47. Teeth of Elm Leaf. Yellow Birch (Betula lutea). 21. Bark of mature trees without conspicuous horizontal lines. 22. Bark of mature trunks smooth (Plate 27) . ....... Hornbeams (Carpinus sp.). 22. Bark of mature trees shaggy 14. flaking (Plate 28) Hop Hornbeams (Ostrya sp.). Leaves single-toothed (Figure 44). 23. Leaves heart-shaped.... Lindens (Tilia sp.). 23. Leaves not heart-shaped. 24. Leaves strongly lop-sided at the base (Figure 50); teeth rounded; flowers appearing in the or ... ' late fall or ..... winter........... Witch Hazels (Hamamelis sp.). _ nn r.,., v 7,......:.7.,.7 ..a iL.., ..,.\" a\".,f7.......77.. i..,.\".. ..,.....t. ~.,..\"..,......, .......,......\" _...,_.....,..__ sharp-pointed; flowers appearing in the spring. Fig. 48. Alder. Fig. 49. Hop Hornbeam. Fig. 50. Witch Hazel. I 83 Fig. ~ 52. European Beech. Fig. 51. Chestnut. Fig. 53. American Beech. 25. Leaves 25. usually 5 inches long or longer, and usually more than twice as long as broad (Figure 51).. Chestnuts (Castanea sp.). Leaves usually less than 5 inches long, and usually less than twice as long as broad. . Beeches (Fagus sp.). 26. Teeth usually indistinct; leaves with 5-9 pairs of lateral veins (Figure 52); leaves Fig. 54. Veins not often purple in the summer..... ending in Teeth. European Beech (Fagus sylvatica). 26. Teeth distinct and sharp-pointed; leaves with 9-14 pairs of lateral veins (Figure 53); leaves never purple in the summer. . American Beech (Fagus grandifolia). 13. Main lateral veins merging with others or fading out before reaching the margin, not extending into the teeth .. (Figure 54). 27. Leaves more than 4 times as long ............ as broad.... Willows (Salix sp.). as 27. Leaves less than 4 times as long only 2-3 times as long as broad. broad, usually 84 28. Branches with long, slender spines...... ........ Hawthorns (Crataegus sp.). 28. Branches without long, slender spines. 29. Leaf stalks with 1-3 small, dark, roundish or oval structures (glands) near the top (Figure 55); branches and twigs sometimes drooping. Cherries (Prunus sp.). 29. Leaf stalks without these structures; branches ......... never drooping. 30. Leaves strongly lop-sided at the base, with the 3 large veins arising directly from the leaf stalk (Figure 56)........ Hackberries (Celtis sp.). 30. Leaves not lop-sided at the base, and with only one large vein (the mid-vein) arising directly from the leaf stalk. 31. Leaves not toothed all the way to the base (usually the lower quarter untoothed) ; flowers appearing in the summer and resembling those of blueberries ....... or Lily-of-the-valley (Plate 29).... Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum). 31. Leaves toothed to the base or nearly so; flowers appearing in the spring, not resembling those of blueberries or Lily.. of-the-valley. 32. Mature leaves more than 2 inches broad; flowers bell-shaped, hanging downward (Plate 30); fruit with 4 papery wings......... Silverbell (Halesia carolina). . iviame ieave~ ie~~ ~uam ~ iwiien broad; flowers not bell-shaped, more or less upright; fruit without papery Fig. 55. Glands on the Leaf Stalk of Cherry. wings. 33. Leaves heart-shaped at the base. Shadbushes (Amelanchier sp.). 33. Leaves rounded or triangular at the base. 34. Leaves white, gray, or silvery beneath; flowers in dense . ... pussy-willow-like clusters, appearing before the leaves. Willows (Salix sp.). 34. Leaves green or rusty beneath ; flowers with 5 to many white or pink petals, not in dense clusters, appearing with the leaves...... .... Apples (Malus sp.). Fig. 56. Hackberry. Plate 11. Silk Tree (Albizia julibrissin) Plate 12. Goldenrain Tree (Koelreuteria paniculata) Plate 13. Beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis) Plate 14. Panicle Hydrangea (Hydrangea paniculata) Plate 15. Catalpa (Catalpa )x&# 3E; Plate 16. Catalpa Fruit Plate 17. Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) Plate 18. Flowering Dogwood Fruit Plate 19. Kousa Dogwood Plate 20. Kousa Dogwood Fruit (Cornus kousa) Plate 21. White Fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus) 89 Plate 22. Pin Oak (Quercus palustris) 90 KEY J. LEAVES SIMPLE, ALTERNATE, UNLOBED, WITH ENTIRE MARGINS. 1. Twigs 1. and leaves (especially the undersides) densely covered with silvery scales; leaves usually less than 1\/2 inch broad and always less than an inch broad...... Russian Olive (Eleagnus angustifolia). Twigs and leaves without silvery scales, although the leaves sometimes whitish beneath; leaves more than an inch broad. 2. Twigs pleasingly aromatic when bruised; flowers more than an inch across (Plate 31); buds (those enclosing next year's flowers) more than 1\/2 inch long (Plate ...... 32)......... Magnolias (Magnolia). 3. Leaves distinctly white beneath, half-evergreen; flowers appearing in late spring or early summer. Sweet Bay (Magnolia virginiana). ..... 3. Leaves green or rusty beneath, deciduous; flowers appearing in early spring. 4. Flowers appearing with or after the leaves; flowers green or yellowish; large trees, to 70 feet tall Cucumber Tree (Magnolia acuminata). 4. Flowers appearing before the leaves; flowers pink, purple, or white; small trees, not more than 30 feet tall. 5. Mature leaves more than 8 inches long; buds (those enclosing next year's flow............ .. ers) 5. not ... hairy......... Umbrella Magnolia (Magnolia tripetala ) . Mature leaves less than 8 inches long; buds (those enclosing next year's flow- ers) densely hairy (Plate 32). 6. . _ Leaves less than 2 inches broad; flowers with more than 10 \"petals\", the \"petals\" usually 1\/2 inch broad or less, and white or pale pink (Plate 6. 31)...... Star Magnolia (Magnolia stellata). Leaves more than 2 inches broad; . flowers with less than 10 \"petals\", the \"petals\" usually an inch or more broad, pink or purple (at least on the outer or lower surface) or more rarely white. 7. \"Petals\" all about the same length in each flower. . Yulan Magnolia (Magnolia denudata). 7. Some \"petals\" shorter than others in the same flower . Saucer Magnolia (Magnolia X soulangeana). ........ conspicuously I 2. 91 Twigs not aromatic when bruised; flowers less than 1\/2 inch broad; buds (those enclosing next year's flowers) less than 1\/2 inch long. Leaves palmately veined and heart-shaped (Fig8. ure 57), flowers pink or purple (rarely white), pea-like (Plate 33); fruits pea- or bean-like... Redbud (Cercis sp.). ......... 8. Leaves white, 9. not heart-shaped; flowers greenish or not pea-like; fruit not pea- or bean-like. 9. Margins of leaves with indistinct teeth, or the margins at least wavy, leaves hairy at least along the midvein beneath..... European Beech (Fagus sylvatica). Margins of the leaves without teeth and not wavy; leaves not at all hairy. 10. Leaves with blunt or rounded tips (Figure 58), sometimes purple in the sum... mer .. .......... Smokebush (Cotinus sp., Plate 34). 10. Leaves with sharply pointed tips, never purple in the summer. 11. Leaves usually broadest above the middle; fruits on long slender stalks, blackish, berry-like, less than 1\/2 inch in diameter....... Black Gum (Nyssa sylvatica). 11. Leaves broadest at the middle or below; fruit without a stalk or on a very short one, orange, very juicy when ripe, more than 1\/2 inch in diameter .. ......... .... Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana ). Fig. 57. Redbud. Fig. 58. Smokebush. 92 Plate 23. Lombardy Poplar (Populus nigra) - - -~ -~- Plate 24. Plate 25. Birch (Betula) European Weeping Birch (Betula pendula) Plate 26. Yellow Birch Plate 27. Hornbeam (Betula lutea) (Carpinus) 94 Plate 28. Hop Hornbeam ( Ostrya ) Plate 29. Sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum) I 95 Plate 30. Silverbell (Halesia) 96 Plate 31. Star Magnolia (Magnolia stellata) Plate 32. Magnolia buds 97 Plate 33. Redbud ( Cercis ) Plate 34. Smokebush (Cotinus) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia in the Kitchen","article_sequence":3,"start_page":98,"end_page":99,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24563","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25ea36f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":2,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia in the kitchen Persimmon Pudding * The wild American persimmon, Diospyros virginiana, is found over a wide area from Cape Cod to Central Florida and west to Kansas and Texas. The sexes are usually on separate trees, but some cultivars have been developed which have a few male flowers on the female tree and a few female flowers on the male tree so they can self pollinate. A species from the Orient with larger fruits, D. kaki, can be grown in southern United States. The yellow-orange fruits are delicious when ripe. Often the wild fruits do not ripen until after a frost, but individual trees vary. Among the cultivars are some which ripen as early as mid August and September. When it is ripe the Persimmon fruit is very soft, with a distinctive pleasing flavor. 1 quart ripe persimmons 1\/2 cup butter 1 cup sugar 1 cup milk 2 eggs well beaten 2 cups sifted flour 1 1 1\/2 teaspoon salt teaspoon baking soda teaspoon vanilla Peel and pit persimmons and rub through a sieve. There should be two cups of pulp. Preheat the oven to 325. Cream the butter until very soft and gradually stir in the sugar, beating until the mixture is light and fluffy. Add the persimmon pulp, milk, and well-beaten eggs. Beat well. Sift flour with * Recipe from The Tuesday Inc. Soul Food Cookbook, copyright @ 1969 by Tuesday Publications, 98 By permission of Bantam Books, Inc. 99 salt and soda, add to persimmon mixture, and beat well. Butter a large loaf pan generously, and line bottom with brown paper. Pour in the batter and bake 1 1\/2 hours at 325. Serve warm, with whipped cream if desired. Serves 8. Arnoldia Reviews West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation, by A. R. Fairall Anyone who becomes interested in knowing more about the showy and unfamiliar Australian plants we may have seen at flower shows or growing in the warmest parts of the United States soon discovers that many of these are natives of Western Australia. This is the largest of the six Australian states, including a third of the continent, a great diversity of floristic types, and, in the southwestern corner of the state, an area of the greatest botanical interest and importance. Draw a line from Shark Bay on the western coast of the state southeastward to a point between Albany and Esperance on the southern coast and you have marked off the Southwestern Floristic Province, an area noteworthy both for a high degree of endemism (there are more than 100 genera restricted to this area) and for a remarkable degree of speciation in many groups nearly 500 of Myrtaceae and about 450 species of Proteaceae. species Australians, and Western Australians, in particular, who care about plants are understandably proud of this flora, but also have been concerned by the use which or the mis-use has been made of the area in which it occurs. In 1962 a group of interested botanists and horticulturists started, on a site overlooking the Swan River in Perth, a botanic garden devoted to native plants, with the goals of learning how best to grow them and of arousing more public interest in their preservation and use as horticultural subjects. Many Australians, I might mention, have a regrettable tendency to dismiss the handsome Callistemon growing by the roadside as \"just a bottlebrush,\" while at the same time wasting their horticultural energies on growing petunias and pelargoniums under the most unsuitable - . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":99,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24564","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d25ea728.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":2,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"99 salt and soda, add to persimmon mixture, and beat well. Butter a large loaf pan generously, and line bottom with brown paper. Pour in the batter and bake 1 1\/2 hours at 325. Serve warm, with whipped cream if desired. Serves 8. Arnoldia Reviews West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation, by A. R. Fairall Anyone who becomes interested in knowing more about the showy and unfamiliar Australian plants we may have seen at flower shows or growing in the warmest parts of the United States soon discovers that many of these are natives of Western Australia. This is the largest of the six Australian states, including a third of the continent, a great diversity of floristic types, and, in the southwestern corner of the state, an area of the greatest botanical interest and importance. Draw a line from Shark Bay on the western coast of the state southeastward to a point between Albany and Esperance on the southern coast and you have marked off the Southwestern Floristic Province, an area noteworthy both for a high degree of endemism (there are more than 100 genera restricted to this area) and for a remarkable degree of speciation in many groups nearly 500 of Myrtaceae and about 450 species of Proteaceae. species Australians, and Western Australians, in particular, who care about plants are understandably proud of this flora, but also have been concerned by the use which or the mis-use has been made of the area in which it occurs. In 1962 a group of interested botanists and horticulturists started, on a site overlooking the Swan River in Perth, a botanic garden devoted to native plants, with the goals of learning how best to grow them and of arousing more public interest in their preservation and use as horticultural subjects. Many Australians, I might mention, have a regrettable tendency to dismiss the handsome Callistemon growing by the roadside as \"just a bottlebrush,\" while at the same time wasting their horticultural energies on growing petunias and pelargoniums under the most unsuitable - . 100I From its foundation the superintendent of this world-famous as King's Park, has been Arthur garden, Fairall who, in this book, has produced the definitive work on the cultivation of west Australian plants. Mr. Fairall begins with a general introduction to Western Australia and its flora and provides a section discussing the horticultural practices followed at King's Park. Then follow 200 pages of data on plants in cultivation there, all of these native to Western Australia, although not all from the Southwestern Province. The genera, and within them, the species, are arranged in alphabetical order, and for each species comments are provided on the plants themselves, on flowering times (remember that December and January are mid-summer months in Australia), and on the conditions of soil and shade most favorable for their growth. In addition, and perhaps best of all, of the 650-odd species discussed, 106 are illustrated in color photographs, often of full-page size. To judge from the species I have seen in the field, the quality of the color reproduction is very good. The following comment is mere cavilling, but I do wish there could have been a full page photo of the Christmas Tree (Nuytsia floribunda), a large arborescent mistletoe which in November and December is laden with huge heads of orange-yellow flowers. To see Nuytsia in full flower is worth the trip to Western Australia. For most of us who do not live in southern California or Florida Mr. F.^.ir~ll'S bock can, T fear, only whPt our appetite for the unattainable, for the with species cannot our northern winters. However, some of the annual species might repay attention and the magnificent leguminous herb Clianthus formosus, Sturt's Desert Pea, can be grown in the greenhouse. It germinates quickly and grows rapidly with most rewarding results. For those who might wish to know more about the cultural requirements of these plants and of those from other parts of Australia, I would recommend the bulletin of the Society for Growing Australian Plants (SGAP). But even if we cannot grow any of these plants, I think that Mr. Fairall's book is still worth having. It is nicely bound and printed and, for me, the illustrations alone would be worth the price. E. A. S. now conditions. perennial cope A. R. Fairall, West Australian Native Plants in Cultivation. Pergamon Press, 1970. 253 pages and 105 color photographs. $14.50. Right: Ranunculus ficaria var. bulbifera along Indian Spring in the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23314","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060ab28.jpg","title":"1972-32-2","volume":32,"issue_number":2,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arboretum Administrators: An Opinionated History","article_sequence":1,"start_page":3,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24560","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24e856d.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sutton, Stephanne B.","article_content":"The Arboretum Administrators: An ' Opinionated History [The author of this article has been associated with the Arnold Arboretum since 1963. For two years she was secretary to the present Director; for four years she worked on a biography of the first Director; on other occasions she has scrutinized Arboretum history more closely than most. The administration of the Arnold Arboretum, to which this paper is largely addressed, has long interested her. However, she confesses that her association with Dr. Howard and her prolonged study of Sargent have influenced her views. She does not believe that purely \"objective\" history is worth much or, for that matter, that another person would necessarily produce a less opinionated discussion of this topic. Nevertheless, she feels it only fair to warn readers of her prejudices.] Charles ionable to trusts Sargent was a despot. Though it is currently unfashpraise despotism and the author instinctively mis- tyranny in any form - both the historical record and the existing Arnold Arboretum justify, in retrospect, Sargent's brand of even directorship. With the advantage of hindsight, was one the only solution to the administrative problems that faced him when the Harvard Corporation appointed him to his post in 1873. He did not make a conscious decision for absolutism; to assume authority came naturally to him. He was a Boston Sargent, and Boston Sargents were traditionally willful people, in public service or the professions, as artists or merchants. One senses authority in the gallery of family portraits reproduced in the Sargent genealogy as one senses it in the gruff likenesses of but surely Charles Sargent which, for better or for worse for posterity adorn the Arboretum Administration Building in Jamaica Plain. Sargent confronted a desperate situation: 125 acres of what he called \"worn-out farm\" and an available income of less than suspects that the aggressive exercise of power - - 3 Charles Sprague Sargent circa 1907. 4I James Arnold estate with which to arboretum. His grasp of the notion of \"arboretum\" was, at best, vague, and he had no formal training in either horticulture or the botanical sciences. He came to the Arnold Arboretum, on the strength of family reputation and social connections, as a man with an unremarkable record of dalliance. Looking for early evidence of aptitude for his career at Harvard, one notes only that he had managed his father's Brookline estate quite nicely for a few years. It would appear, therefore, that the Harvard Corporation did not consider either the Arnold Arboretum or its directorship very important. Sargent's dynamic administration made them change their minds. Under his rule which lasted more than half the centhe worn out farm grew into tury being celebrated this year a handsome botanical garden; a scientific program developed, and the library and herbarium were amassed to support it; exconvert it into an - $3,000 per year from the James Arnold 5 collected new plants in exotic places; the endowment increased to perpetuate the institution and its work ad infinitum. By the time Sargent died, in 1927, the Arnold Arboretum had an international reputation as a place of scenic beauty and as a leader in the plant sciences. Four men have administered the Arnold Arboretum since Sargent: Oakes Ames (1927-1935), Elmer Drew Merrill (19351946), Karl Sax (1946-1954), and Richard A. Howard (1954-). Like Sargent, each one has left his mark, by default or design, and some have been better administrators than others. They have differed in personality, style, background, physique, and scientific orientation. In fact, aside from their involvement with the Arboretum, no one characteristic is common to all of them. Their collective recommendations and decisions are responsible for the institution as it is today: the garden at Jamaica Plain, the expanded physical facilities in Weston and Cambridge, the research collections, the publications, and the scientific program. plorers Sargent: Benevolent Despot that the Arnold Arboretum is, above all, He was, as observed earlier, an autocrat, a man of financial substance from the top of the social heap. Though the United States had no royalty and Sargent himself thought kings and queens frilly excesses the so-called Boston Brahmins lived very regally indeed. Sargent's household servants dressed in livery; Sargent took a dim view of universal sufferage and graduated taxation. He did not possess a democratic soul. He was haughty, stern, abrupt, stubborn, and sometimes tactless; he was also strong, clever, relentless, a good judge of men, and wealthy. What he lacked in scientific experience at the beginning of his career, he compensated for with administrative imagination and money. Though the original situation the neglected farmland and the insignificant funds - had nightmarish aspects, Sargent had one colossal advantage over every other administrator who followed him: he started from scratch. He did not owe obeisance to traditions and he was not bound by others' decisions. It was for him to interpret the meaning of \"arboretum,\" only barely outlined in the indenture between Arnold's trustees and Harvard University, and to define the scope of its work. In the initial throes of enthusiasm, Sargent made one can No deny Sargent's creation. - - - grandiose plans: impractical planting schemes, forestry plots, an elaborate indoor museum. But nature, experience, and ad- 6I vice - - 9bme of which, one to conform with ecological necessities instead of textbooks; he gave up his forestry plot altogether; he drew realistic perimeters around his idea of a museum. He was fortunate to be able to draw on the opinions of great men: Asa Gray, Sir Joseph Hooker, F. L. Olmsted, John Muir, and others. Sargent refused to permit institutional poverty to obstruct the growth of the Arboretum. In this respect, his personal fortune and social status were indispensable. What the Arnold income could not pay for, Sargent covered out of his own pocket or begged from his friends. When Olmsted's firm had to be paid for preparing landscape plans, Sargent raised $2,000 in less than twenty-four hours. For decades he authorized expenditures of several thousands of dollars beyond the budget and solicited donations from Boston society to balance his books. For example, a $30,000 gift from Horatio Hollis Hunnewell built the main section of the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain in 1892. Furthermore, in addition to meeting his immediate needs, Sargent collected funds for the endowment to secure a financial footing for the future. By contemporary standards his patrons were few in number but exceptionally generous with their checkbooks. The Director, appreciative of their confidence, rewarded them with results at the Arboretum, gifts of rare plants, and personal attention. One of the by-products of Sargent's skillful fund raising was that it won him leverage within the University. Had he not demonstrated his considerable financial talents early in his administration, it is unlikely that the Harvard Corporation would have permitted him to negotiate with the City of Boston to share in the Arboretum venture. As it was, most University officials were lukewarm to the idea, and President Charles Eliot was downright hostile to it. Yet this was undoubtedly Sargent's most significant decision, and he and Olmsted fought fiercely for public and political support of their scheme. Thanks to the 1882 agreement between Harvard and the City (by which the City took over ownership of the land, leasing it back to the University for a dollar per year, and contracted to build and maintain the roads, provide a water supply and police protection in exchange for use of the Arboretum as a free public park), the Arboretum was masterfully landscaped by Olmsted and was able to develop on a much greater scale than it could have achieved as a private university botanical garden. altered his effectively prevented proposed planting pattern him from notes, he had the wisdom to accept over-committing himself. He Administration Building, 1890. Photo by Boston Park Commission. The combination of financial backing, the contract with the and geographic alienation from Cambridge made Sargent more independent of Harvard than any of his successors; and because the Arboretum was, so to speak, his baby, he oversaw its development with a thoroughness that no subsequent administrator duplicated. He made daily tours of the grounds, supervised the growth of the library and herbarium, carried on voluminous correspondence, checked on seedlings in the greenhouse, and controlled every penny of income and expenditure. He assembled a superior staff (Alfred Rehder, C. E. Faxon, Jackson Dawson, and E. H. Wilson were its prominent members) as much by luck as by good judgment. He treated them with feudal deference, remaining socially and personally aloof; but he was quick to delegate responsibility to those who could handle it and credit to those who deserved it. Though dreadfully underpaid, the staff were fiercely loyal to him and the Arboretum, perhaps inspired by his dedication and by the certainty that he would come to their aid in a crisis. Despite his administrative load and nagging physical ailments, Sargent produced his report on forest trees of North America for the 1880 Census, the classic fourteen volume Silva, the more compact Manual, and many short botanical works. City, 8 Oakes Ames 9 He crusaded for national park legislation and he travelled extensively in North America and throughout the world. He began every manuscript or trip with the Arboretum in mind and, indeed, his individual efforts contributed significantly to the institution's reputation. He seemed never to stop working and did not differentiate among weekdays, weekends, and holidays. In the process, he shortchanged his personal life, as have many other ambitious, vigorous men. Sargent lived until 1927 and retained the post of Director until his dying day. He had, therefore, a chance which arrives to few men: to manipulate his dream for a long time and to watch it mature. He also had more time to make mistakes, but they were surprisingly few. He blundered into naming hundreds of species in the genus Crataegus and planting the whole Peters' Hill tract with the troublesome creatures. He stubbornly insisted for what reason I cannot fathom - that a particular mountain in northeastern China supported a rich ligneous flora and wasted Arboretum money and the time of two explorers (Frank Meyer and William Purdom) to have it investigated. In a foul-tempered spat with federal authorities, he cancelled the Arboretum plant introduction program during the early 1920s. He argued needlessly with Gifford Pinchot over national forest policy. But none of Sargent's mistakes did serious damage to the Arboretum. If one wishes to criticize Sargent as an administrator, one might say that his intensely personal, autocratic, and independent directorship unwittingly created problems for his followers. Yet it is difficult to imagine that more could have been accomplished for the Arboretum by either another man or another style of leadership. - Ames: Remote Control Nothing demonstrates the absolutism of Sargent's office more dramatically than the panic that seized the Arboretum staff after his death. Rehder believed a rumor that all scientific work would be abandoned and that the grounds would remain open as a park. Wilson, who had been Assistant Director since 1919 and was in temporary command, was equally apprehensive and took immediate steps to cut back expenses. So closely had the Arboretum been identified with a single man that it seemed as though the one could not survive without the other. But the doubters sold Sargent short. He had planned for the future all along. Sargent's sovereignty had long been a thorn side, but during his lifetime the Corporation had in Harvard's not mounted 10 a I real challenge to it. With his death, however, they determined to draw the Arboretum closer and to coordinate its activities with other botanical branches of the University. It was hoped that, under an administrative umbrella, a spirit of cooperation would supplant the traditional competition which existed among the Arboretum, the Harvard Botanic Garden, the Botanical Museum, etc., and that the costly habit of duplicating facilities and materials could be brought to a halt. The Corporation, therefore, created a council of the directors and curators of all the botanical collections. At its head, with the awesome charge of creating harmony, was an old friend of Sargent and another Boston Brahmin, Professor Oakes Ames. Ames was also delegated as \"Supervisor\" of the Arnold Arboretum, of the Atkins Garden in Soledad, Cuba (over 200 acres of land donated to Harvard in 1926 and administered by the Arboretum until 1945), and of the Botanical Museum. Ames' administration proved to be precisely the opposite of Sargent's: impersonal and brief. Ames was the consummate gentleman - impeccably mannered, tactful, and articulate. He had been cast in the role of diplomat rather than leader, and he appears to have accepted the part reluctantly, out of a sense of duty to Harvard. A skilled orchidologist and a teaching professor of economic botany, he had been Curator of the Botanical Museum. Given a multitude of responsibilities, it is obvious why Ames could not indulge the Arnold Arboretum with Sargent-like concentration He kept his office in Cambridge and had his chauffeur drive him out to Jamaica Plain once a week for a tour of the grounds and a chat with the staff. Meanwhile Wilson - who had aspired to the directorship but, lacking executive experience and proper connections, probably would have made a terrible director made the day-to-day decisions, much as he had during Sargent's waning years. He asked for, and received, the title of \"Keeper,\" which soothed his ruffled fur and, incidentally, carried a good deal of weight in his native England where many people supposed he was the director a misunderstanding which he took no pains to rectify. Ames' weekly visitations at first troubled the staff, but their work continued smoothly and they learned to appreciate his integrity and his distant rule. After Wilson's death in an automobile accident in 1930, Ames distributed the everyday responsibilities at random among the staff, and routines established by Sargent perpetuated themselves. A campaign to fatten the endowment progressed nicely under the billing of a Sargent Memorial Fund, defending the Arboretum against the early Depression. - 11 1 Pen and Ink Sketch Ernest A. Wilson by P. Bruns. 12 loyalties deprived the Arboretum of his his broad appreciation of botany widened complete attention, the scope of the institution's research. Under Sargent, a resolutely nineteenth century figure, the staff had concentrated on taxonomy and horticulture. Ames encouraged a closer relationship with the adjoining Bussey Institution (of which Sargent had been unreasonably contemptuous) which carried on research in experimental breeding and plant diseases. He brought in J. H. Faull, a pathologist; I. W. Bailey, a specialist in wood anatomy; Karl Sax, a geneticist and plant breeder. All of these men became eminent in their fields and represented the Arboretum's commitment to modern, as well as classical, If Ames' divided botany. The task of following Sargent would have been difficult under any circumstances; under the conditions which the Harvard Corporation set for Ames, it was impossible. He intelligently made no pretense of replacing Sargent. He governed quietly from afar, watching the budget and permitting the staff to follow their inclinations within financial reason. His heart, however, was in the Botanical Museum, orchids, and his own research. The power which an ambitious man might have wrested from his multiple posts did not tempt him. He was, above all, a scholar and a gentleman. In 1935, having discharged his obligations for eight years, he resigned in favor of his work and the Botanical Museum, of which he eventually became Director. Merrill: Tiny Dynamo Ames' mantle fell to sixty-year-old Elmer Drew Merrill who came to Harvard from the New York Botanical Garden where he had succeeded Nathaniel Lord Britton an administrator of much the same style as Sargent as Director. Unlike Sargent and Ames, Merrill was neither socially prominent nor wealthy. He was, rather, an unusually talented research taxonomist who had coupled a career in science with one in administration. For twenty-two years, between 1902 and 1924, he worked as a botanist in the Philippines with the Insular Bureau of Forestry; he eventually became head of the Department of Botany at the University of the Philippines. While undertaking his comprehensive study of the local flora he initiated and oversaw the development of the herbarium and library for the Bureau of Forestry. (They were, unfortunately, demolished by Japanese bombs during the Second World War.) He accomplished more for Philippine botany, both administratively and scientifically, - 13 than any individual had done before or has done since. From the Philippines he moved to the position of dean of the College of Agriculture at the University of California, accepting a simultaneous appointment as Director of the Agriculture Experiment Station. He went to New York in 1929. Often faced with complicated problems, he had a record as an energetic and imaginative administrator. Merrill was one of the most able botanists ever to have been associated with the Arnold Arboretum, but he was not a man for whom scholarly research sufficed. It is clear from the course of his career that he voluntarily committed himself to tasks of increasing executive complexity, that he enjoyed power and institution-building. He was known to complain that administration interfered with his research but, like Sargent, he was a prodigious worker. He hired assistants to carry on the bulk of his studies but tried to find a few hours each day or on weekends to relax with botany. Harvard, theoretically, provided him with a balanced intellectual diet: a heavy administrative load and, at the Arboretum, an herbarium rich in Asian species. Still intent on a coordinated botanical program within the University, the Corporation appointed Merrill as \"Administrator of botanical collections.\" This was an upgraded version of the post Ames had held and placed Merrill more or less in control of nine separately endowed botanical agencies; of these nine, however, he was only directly responsible, as Supervisor, for two: the Arnold Arboretum and its adjunct, the Atkins Garden in Cuba. Mindful of his duties to the University, Merrill and a committee formalized a plan to consolidate the research holdings in biology under one roof in Cambridge. Wartime tabled the proposal, but it was eventually resurrected in a slightly different form which was to cause considerable commotion in Arboretum history. Merrill was a wiry, pint-sized man, around 5'2\", the product of a spartan Maine boyhood. He was meticulous, quick, decisive, and active. He believed, religiously, in hard work. During his first year at Harvard he kept his office in the Gray Herbarium on Garden Street in Cambridge. But, because his direct was the Arboretum and because the research colresponsibility lections which concerned him were there, he moved his headquarters to Jamaica Plain. (No doubt his propensity for quarreling with Merritt L. Fernald, the equally small and explosive man who headed the Gray Herbarium, also prompted his decision to transfer.) The Arboretum staff regarded Merrill with 14 mixed feelings, and one notes that those people who worked closest to him appreciated him most. His energy was an object of universal admiration; the herbarium botanists admired his knowledge of Asian botany. His research assistant, Dr. Lily Perry - who pursues her studies today in the Harvard University Herbaria found working under his supervision an exhilarating, though demanding, experience. One remarks Merrill's acts of consideration. For example, he contrived to keep Rehder on the staff, with pay, long after his retirement age because he knew that Rehder's resources had been limited by long years at low pay and Harvard, as yet, had no pension plan. An orderly man, Merrill administered with an eye to detail and suffered no wastefulness or frivolity from his staff. Merrill was not particularly interested in horticulture, and his response to the problem of caring for the grounds was to hire the first Arboretum Horticulturist in the person of young Donald Wyman. Unforeseen disasters complicated a situation which might, under ordinary circumstances, have been satisfactory. A hurricane in 1938 did serious damage to the plantings, and wartime created a shortage of labor and materials which affected their maintenance. Merrill, meanwhile, was engaged in building up the herbarium and library. The Arboretum supported native botanists all over Asia with small grants to collect specimens and seeds, the arrival thereof entailing additional expenditures in Jamaica Plain. While this program followed iraditio~~s set by Sargent, rounded out the collections of Sargent, Wilson, Joseph Rock, J. G. Jack, et al, enriched the Arboretum's research holdings, and produced seeds of Metasequoia glyptostrobaides, the living collections needed attention which they did not receive. Merrill seldom toured the grounds, and his relative disinterest in things horticultural was reflected in his annual budget, thus making Wyman's job difficult. While permitting things to lapse outdoors at Jamaica Plain, Merrill was instrumental in acquiring the Case Estates in Weston as a much-needed addition to the Arboretum. He had the confidence of the Case sisters, Louisa and Marian, and the foresight to realize how the land they offered could be used to expand the experimental breeding and horticultural programs. He persuaded the University officials to accept the terms of their bequests. During the otherwise gloomy war years, therefore, the Arboretum acquired two adjoining plots of land, accompanying buildings, and an endowment of $200,000, additions which have become more useful each year. - Elmer D. Merrill Karl Sax Joseph F. Rock In Tibetan Dress Merrill retired from active duty at Harvard and administrative life altogether in 1946 at the age of seventy, retaining enough vitality to continue his research work until 1954. The Arboretum which he left behind was richer in almost every respect than the one he had found: there was new land in Weston; the herbarium had increased by more than fifty percent ; the library was greatly enlarged; the endowment, though hurt by the war, had made progress; the scientific reputation had been enhanced by staff publications, many of them by Merrill himself, or \"Merrill and Perry.\" But growth aggravated problems, many of them not necessarily of Merrill's making. In fact, the most urgent problem, that of interior space, had been apparent to Sargent in 1922. Merrill's zealous accumulation of resources, however, had brought the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain to the bulging point and forced the 17 before his retirement, he approved a report, the pre-war plan, recommending the construction in Cambridge of a new building to house the herbarium and library collections of several botanical agencies at Harvard. This was nearly Merrill's last, and certainly his most important, administrative act. issue. Shortly to similar Sax: Troubled Times Arboretum leadership then fell to Karl Sax whose administration was, in many respects, the most troubled of all. He inherited the combined problems of previous administrations and little latitude to cope with them. He was hampered by traditions and existing conditions. Critical decisions for the future had already been made by Merrill. Even with his title of Director, Sax found himself in limbo. A soft-spoken, handsome man of few words, he appears to have been shy of administrative power, more involved in plant-breeding, cytology and, later, non-botanical research on population, than in his executive role. His inclination was to let the individuals on the staff proceed with their work; he made no effort to establish a coordinated program. Unlike Merrill, Sax was not very impressed with the herbarium. He was prone to wry, disparaging remarks about taxonomists which, though intended in jest, were collectively discouraging. He did not, however, meddle in their work, a fact which they appreciated. He turned his attention to the neglected grounds much to the satisfaction of the Horticulturist, the Superintendent, and the Propagator in an effort to restore their elegance. Among other things, he finally got rid of Sargent's unsightly Crataegus collection on Peters' Hill. The construction of the new building in Cambridge awaited the lifting of wartime restrictions, and it was not until near the end of Sax's appointment that it got under way. As the deadline for a new internal order approached, however, the staff began to exhibit signs of anxiety over the future. Having declined an authoritarian role early in his administration, Sax was unable to deal with organizational dissent. A period followed which can best, and most tactfully, be described as one of confusion, both for the Arboretum and for its chief executive. Shortly before the building was completed, the Corporation, eager to see the transition accomplished smoothly, looked for a man of energy and purposefulness who could implement the move. Sax resigned. The Corporation appointed Richard A. Howard Director and Arnold Professor of Botany. - - Richard A. Howard Howard: Economy Size Energy Howard had headaches from the beginning. First of all, the doorways and stairwells in Jamaica Plain had never been constructed for the convenience of his 6'5\" frame, and he spent a week or more banging his head on hard surfaces before he conditioned himself to duck. Secondly, he had been charged with guiding the Arnold Arboretum through a period of drastic change and he entered into an atmosphere that was already charged with tension. The physical relocation of books, specimens, and personnel to Cambridge was, in itself, a challenge, but one that could be met with hard labor and transportation. 19 More in an attempt to restore the from both within of individuals group and without the Arboretum - associated to bring suit against Harvard University. Howard, as the man who executed the move to Cambridge, became the target of personal attacks. Howard, luckily, possesses stamina, integrity, and a sense of humor; the Arboretum - thanks largely to posterity-minded Sargent had more flexibility than most people imagined. Both weathered what is now popularly known as the \"Arboretum controversy.\" Due to legal complexities and local political changes, the lawsuit was not settled until 1966, when the Supreme Judicial Court of Massachusetts handed down a verdict favoring Harvard, thereby confirming the legality of the transferral of a portion of the Arboretum staff and research holdings to the Harvard University Herbaria in Cambridge. After almost twenty years, it has become evident that the Arboretum, both as a scientific organization and as a garden of beauty, can operate within the altered framework. Its success as an expanded institution, in three physical locations (including Weston), is largely Howard's product. He can now get on with the business of running the Arboretum in relative peace. Howard's administration resembles Sargent's in some ways. Like Sargent, he has had many years in office though he has some way to go to equal the old man's record and, also like Sargent, he confronted a new situation and had the character and means to cope with it. Although geographic dislocation, a large staff, bigger herbaria and library, etc., make for a more cumbersome organization than the original, Howard attempts and the Arboretum budget to distribute his time impartially. He has recognized, perhaps better than any administrator since 1927, that the appearance of the grounds counts heavily with the public and, with the help of a generous bequest from Mrs. Martha Dana Mercer, has made improvements in the living collections and propagating facilities. Times, of course, have changed and, though he may occasionally envy Sargent's lot, Howard is no despot. He concerns himself with everything from mops to new plantings on the Case Estates. He feels, unlike many administrators, that it is his duty to deal with irritating decisions on all levels so that his staff remains free to pursue their botanical and horticultural research. He is a skilled taxonomist, and his own program of investigation of the flora of the West Indies suffers, but not as much as it would did he not, like Sargent and Merrill, work long hours and on weekends. His staff regards him with a mix- problematical a was that, traditional form, - - - - - - 20 ture of wonder and weariness, asking where he gets his energy. He usually seems to be flying from one place to the next and he is hard to pin down. Howard has the disease of all directors: the endowment. It has grown substantially from the Arboretum's inception, but the institution is bigger and prices have risen. A new century begins this year, and Howard knows there is growth ahead as well as existing programs to support. He would like to provide for the future, to retire one day from a much greater organization than he found. Howard's administration is not over yet. History will have another crack at him. S. B. SUTTON There has been no attempt to provide biographical background in this article. Those interested in additional information should consult: Sutton, S. B., Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Cambridge, Mass.: The Harvard University Press, 1970. C. S., \"The First Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum,\" JAA III: 127-171, January 1922. Sax, Karl, \"Oakes Ames,\" JAA XXXI: 335-349, October 1950. Howard, Richard A., \"Elmer Drew Merrill,\" JAA XXXVII: 197216, July 1956. Sargent, __ - 21 Salix spp. in winter at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo by P. Bruns Left to right: Alfred Rehder, E. H. Wilson, C. S. Sargent, C. E. Faxon, Camillo Schneider. 22 farmer on his way to the field with cuttings of for the day's planting. A taro and sweet potatoes "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"On Collecting Herbs in Madagascar","article_sequence":2,"start_page":23,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24559","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24e8528.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Seligson, David","article_content":"On Collecting Herbs In Madagascar in southeast Madaof humid groves and dry scrub sepatchwork questered from the rest of the Island by a range of encircling mountains on the north and opening on the south on the Indian Ocean. This geographic situation first invited colonization by the French, and now isolates a colorful and somewhat inscrutable citizenry from whatever Europeanizing influences emanate from the capital in the north. In the approximately three hundred years since Etienne de Flacourt complained about the Malagasy, little has changed: Atanoushi, the Province of Fort Dauphin, a gascar, is S'il y a nation au monde adonnee a la trahifon, diffimulation flatterie, cruaute, mefonge & tromperie, c'eft cell cy.... * Flacourt, p. 83. physician in search of useful plants in Southeastern Madagascar undertakes a tantalizing but frustrating task. In pursuit of a shrub with healing qualities, questioning a curious sign painted on a body or the appearance of a number of feathers near a hospital bed, he finds the answer concealed in a web of evasion which not only protects the native practitioner from expected scorn, but also serves to preserve this folklore The from Western influence. For example, as a clinic physician at the Manabare Lutheran Hospital, I noticed, when examining a pleasant elderly lady with leg pain, numerous elaborate scratchmarks, neatly spaced in groups of five, on her thigh above the lateral cutaneous nerve. On a prior visit, failure to appreciate a common pain syndrome caused the dissatisfied invalid to resort to the local competition. Following precise injection of an instant pain relief to this nerve, I was able to obtain from her the story that the scratches (Stephenne) de Flacourt, (1607-1660), a native of Orleans superintendent or governor of the colony established by the French on Madagascar. Later he became general director of the French East India Company. Although not a naturalist Flacourt observed well and wrote of the \"natural productions\" of the area. A quarto volume of his observations was published in Paris in 1658. The plant genus Flacourtia, type of the plant family Flacourtiaceae, was named in his honor. In fact, Flacourtia indica, a tropical fruit, is commonly known as the \"Governor's Plum\" having been described first by Flacourt. * Etienne was France, 23 24 had been made with a sharpened awl dipped in a potion made from certain plants thought to have anaesthetic properties. I was able to obtain a few scraps of leaves and twigs, but requests for flowers or fruits or the plant itself brought only endless smiles, leaving a botanical riddle. Rural medicine, as practiced by the Umbiasha, or sorcerer, Madagascar's General Practitioner, does not rely on botanicals. The Umbiasha performs his spells on talismans oodis-cornicopias stuffed with pebbles, dung, blood worthy of the Witches' brew in Macbeth. These horns are treasured by the holders as protection against illness, enemies, and the fates. Fortunes are told with the use of the seeds called the Voamponina (probably Strychnos spinosa). These seeds are arranged in a series of matrices following an elaborate ritual. Each position in the matrix represents an element of destiny: in the first square, the horizontal positions are labeled man, cattle, and brother earth, and the vertical ones labeled children, illness, wife, and enemies. At one point, I cured the sorcerer's son of a web-space infection of the hand and not too subtly expressed an interest in the ritual. It was then possible to learn my destiny from this impressive ceremony. Herbs are everywhere in use, but information is difficult for the foreigner to secure because precisely those people with the most knowledge are the least communicative. And how many times previously had I, as an outsider, going from clinic to market, passed by a common-looking hut, unaware that when night falls and there is enough moonlight to promote confidence, the Umbiasha's patients are bartering herds of cattle for remedies more powerful than those in the pharmacopoeia. Casual \"promenading\" (sangana-sangana), the chief recreation in a rural society, provided opportunity to look down and say, \"Oh yes, isn't this good for cough?\" If one's companion replies, \"Certainly, just boil the leaves and stems and drink the brew,\" the herbal verification has been made. But it takes time, attention, and willingness to seize on even informal situations to verify impressions as to how plants are used. It may be bad manners, when a dinner guest, to leave a home with a handful of uncooked spices from the kitchen, but on the other hand, the Malagasy do not expect Americans to understand their eti- quette. in the market, that the deputy had compiled a list of remedies and recipes, and my local mayor friend (an educated Northerner, a Royal Imerna who speaks fluent French ) quickly rendered all this information into French I discovered, while ambling 25 and offered to find some of the things. He shared a mutual interest in the medicinals in use among the heathen Southerners. He has pursued a semi-scientific interest in one concoction, claimed to be an anti-diabetic agent, and has taken samples to the University of Tananarive for analysis. His assistance was invaluable, but it was often difficult to persuade him to pick over a curious supply of leaves drying in front of his informant's hut, for he was more interested in displaying his knowledge of pathology and pharmacology. The most common remedies encountered are for diarrheal diseases which are frequent in an area where virtually everyone has parasites and sanitary precautions are unknown. Representative remedies are Kildo (Microstephanus cernaus N.E. Br.) and Tsy maky asotry (Ageratum conyzoides L.). In each case, leaves and twigs are used to produce a bland infusion which is given to the invalid. Indeed, considering that the chief risk of uncontrolled diarrhea is dehydration, the quantities of sterile bouillon remedies administered often cure these selflimiting diseases. It was also possible to collect purgatives, Vahona (Aloe divaricata Buger), Famonto kely (Helichrysum sp.), and an antispasmodic, Many-aho (Scorparia dulcis L.). A scrub which is particularly abundant along the roads in Manambaro, Tsotsorini-hangatra (Cassia occidentalis, L.), is used as a substitute for coffee by roasting and grinding the seeds. The leaves of this plant, as well as those of the climbing fern Tsiktolito (Lygodium lanceolatum, Dess.), a are boiled to produce cough remedy. Andrarika (Themeda triandra Frosh.) is said to be useful for jaundice, as is Famonta (Vernonia sp.). The hairy leaves of Famonta can be rolled up and tucked into the nostril to stop nosebleeding. Another such topical remedy is Sanirana (Phyllanthus sp.), the root of which is cooked with a little salt, made into a paste, and stuffed into aching teeth. A remedy with the picturesque name of Dinga-dinga (Pistachia altissima (DC) B. & H.) is claimed to be an antisyphilitic. The leaves are crushed and placed on the chancre. Here, the remission of the primary symptoms would explain the apparent success of the balm. A great many crushed botanical preparations are available for wounds. With Faingalala (Borreria verticillata, G.F.W. Meyer) the essence obtained from ground leaves is used. The bark of Tsimahavano ( Erythroxylon sp.) is thought to be useful for multiple pustules. The cooked leaves of Piment (Capsicum frutescens, L.) are used as a pomade on wounds. The fiery fruit 27 used as a condiment acbland and traditional poor-man's dish of meat and manioc. Both Urena lobata, L. and Triumfetta bartramia, L. are used to dress wounds, as well as to bind small packets, and hence they are both called Tsinga fcafi. An infusion of Ravinambatry (Cajanus cajan, Millsp.) is prepared for menstrual difficulty, and Romba (Ocimum gratissimum, L.) is used as an anti-hemorraghic agent following delivery. The description and characteristic odor of this plant correspond to entry number 40 in Flacourt's collection: of this plant is more commonly companying Kato-Kato, a . 40 Rhomba odorante a grandes fueilles, c'eft une efpece de Menthe franche, que l'on nomme Baume, elle a auec cela vne odeur de girole, & de canelle enfemble, elle vient de deux coudees de haut. p. 129 Tonga (Catharanthus roseus (L.) Don), which figures prom- inently against 42 in the modem pharmacy as a chemotherapeutic agent certain leukemias (Vincristin), was also described by Flacourt : comme Tongue, herbe reffemblante au Saponaris, qui a la fleur celle de Iaffemin, 1'vne eft blanche, 1'autre eft de cou- leur de poupre, la racine eft fort amere, de laquelle ifs fe feruent contre le mal de coeur, & eft bonne contre les poifons, elle approche du Vincetoxicon; ou afcelpia, & ne vient pas plus haute. Celle qui a la fleur blanche a plus de vertu. p. 130 who was collecting great bales of Catharanthus for an American drug firm, said it could be used as an infusion for fever with abdominal pain. Radriaky (Lantana aculeata, L.) is used as an infusion for hypertension, and Fandrotsarana (Cynodon dactylon (L.) Pers.) for urinary infection. Descriptions of this type are too indefinite to be reliable and, further, contain a hint of pseudoscience foreign to such prescriptions as Fandlikatany (Toddalia asiatica (L.) Lam.) in which a brew is made of the leaves to give troublesome children whose fontenelles are dangerously protuberant. Other such interesting recipes from the Sousprefect's list, but not collected, are items such as Sarongazana and Mandakolahy. Sarongazana is crushed, the juice warmed in a spoon and poured into the ear for earache. The grated root of Mandakolahy is placed on the forehead for relief of headache. Among the interesting edible herbs and fruits collected are Hazongalala (Canephora madagascariensis, J. F. Gmel. ) whose My informant, Top: Hillside in the valley of Ramanafana with cultivated fields of taro and sweet potatoes. Center: Inner court at the Manambaso Lutheran Bottom: A Hospital. is clay house in the village of Ejeda. A woman husking rice. 28 29 characteristic edible red fruits probably correspond to Flacourt's number 20, Azonualala, and Voakaiepoka (Brexia madagascariensis Thomas) the name of which is onomatopoetic for the sound made when cracking open the hard fruit. Perhaps the most common herbs are Anamaloho and Anabe (Solanum nodiflorum, Jacq.) which are used to season meat and are sold widely in the local markets for a few pennies a handful. The physician who sojourns in this very different and curious community returns home not only with lists of diseases treated and plants collected, but also with a new perspective one tinged with the ever-present irony of a scientific man in an - anti-scientific setting. DAVID SELIGSON a student in biology at Harvard, began colfor the Arnold Arboretum during his travels. While in medical school at Duke University Dr. Seligson received a Smith, Kline & French Foreign Travel Fellowship which permitted his observations in this paper. Documenting herbarium specimens are in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. Ed.] [Dr. David Seligson, as lecting plant specimens ')' ,y, The editor is appreciative of the editorial work of Miss Jean Howard in the preparation of this article. Above: Woman winnowing rice in a family compound. in banana Left: Fresh eggs and at Sunday market. a banana-rice-honey paste wrapped leaves, ' "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnold Arboretum Plant Introductions: The Second Fifty Years [see part II, vol. 38, no. 1]","article_sequence":3,"start_page":30,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24557","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24ebb6b.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Arnold Arboretum Plant Introductions: The Second Fifty Years 1923-1972 Professor Charles S. Sargent published a list of woody plants in 1922 (\"The First Fifty Years of the Arnold Arboretum,\" Jour. of Arnold Arboretum, Vol. 3, 127-171; 1922) which he thought were first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum. Most of these were species and botanical varieties, and the time covered was for the period of the greatest activity in the introduction of plants from the Orient and (in the early part of those first fifty years) from Europe as well. Many of these were the result of special expeditions into the Orient set up by the Arnold Arboretum primarily for the purpose of plant intro- fifty years has been a period during which many plantsmen throughout the entire United States were introducing plants from all parts of the world. It was impossible to keep track of all this activity accurately. Certain institutions active than others, and we have scanned the records of some of these for their specific plant introductions to make certain they did not introduce specific plants prior to the dates in the accompanying list. The Arnold Arboretum has participated in several expeditions during this period, including Hu's, Rock's, Anderson's and, near the end of the period, several that I made to Europe to introduce new plants found growing in European gardens, nurseries and botanical gardens. The major part of all these introductions have been varieties or cultivars, as contrasted with the species of the first fifty years of introduction. During much of the second fifty years the nursery industry has been at a peak of activity on both sides of the Atlantic and of course it is cultivars that now make up the greater part of \"new\" plants. Plant hybridizing has also become a very important tool in bringing many of these cultivars into being and into the attention of the public. were more duction. The second 30 31 The Arboretum has long had a policy of sharing its introductions with other institutions and unfortunately we do not know whether plants which have died for us may have survived in other institutions. Many of the plants in the following list may not now be alive; all have been brought into America by the Arnold Arboretum for what is thought to be the first time. There undoubtedly still are plants in the following list that have not yet been properly identified, but much has been done to eliminate those that are obviously misnamed or which we have obtained under synonyms. It will also be noted, that with the exception of those that have originated in the Arnold Arboretum, all have been introduced from abroad, and even though some of the cultivars may be of native American species, it is obvious that these could have originated in foreign countries from seed sown in those countries. The following list of plants is merely offered as what we think are first introductions, after we have done considerable checking with our own plant records, with records of other institutions and with information available in our library. If any individual has first hand knowledge that some of these have been introduced into America before the dates herein listed, we will be glad to hear about it and delete them from this list. DONALD WYMAN ; Plants Introduced by the Arnold Arboretum 1923-1972 Name Abelia graebneriana 'Vedrariensis' Abeliophyllum distichum \" \" Record No. 551-65 991-24 477-59 1043-71 677-67 622-67 975-68 750-65 378-32 986-68 985-68 213-39 380-60 244-39 Country England Japan Arn. Arb. Year 1965 1924 1959 1971 1967 1967 1968 1965 1932 1968 1968 1939 1960 1939 (pink flws.) Abies amabilis 'Procumbens' Abies balsamea f. phanerolepsis Abies concolor 'Argentea' \" concolor 'Fastigiata' \" \" \" # equi-trojani England England England England Turkey China ernestii 'Nana' \" nordmanniana 'Nana' Acanthopanax henryi 'Nana' Acer acuminatilobum * magnif~ca England England Poland \" japonicum'Vitifolium' Hungary England * These species are not listed in the Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the Cooler Temperate Regions of the Northern Hemisphere by Alfred Rehder. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 1949. 32 Name Acer \" \" Record No 715-33 1240-60 246-39 247-39 759-36 1758-25 741-38 1062-60 313-66 1762-25 455-27 206-66 381-60 745-55 208-66 804-38 160-40 556-27 552-27 1201-51 814-68 568-27 19781 197-66 1976-25 162-49 176-49 454-35 967-65 526-23 340-58 40-67 2075-65 265-24 1209-51 . Country Wales Year 1933 1960 1939 1939 1936 1925 1938 1960 1966 1925 1927 1966 1960 1955 1966 1938 1940 1927 1927 1951 1968 1927 1926 1966 1925 1932 1949 1935 1965 1923 1958 1967 1965 1924 1951 1965 1963 1965 1965 1965 1965 1963 1965 1965 1965 1965 1963 1963 1939 1939 1952 f. ambiguum negundo `Aureo-variegatum' mono \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Crispum Variegatum' 'Elegantissima' oliverianum opalus var. obtusatum \" palmatum 'Hagoromokaede' palmatum horeanum platanoides 'Maylimb' \" \" \" \" 'Walderseei' \" \" pseudo-platanus `Brilliantissimum' 'Nervosum' rubrolatum \" \" 'Simon Louis Freres' \" \" 'Tricolor' rufinerve f. albo-limbatum \" \" England England England England England England England Belgium England England Holland \" \" \" Hungary England Holland \" \" \" \" \" \" palmatum 'Shishigashira' rotundilobum saccharinum 'Lutescens' schwerinii turhomanicum * England England England England Holland Russia wilsoni Aesculus hippocastanum 'Incisa' Ailanthus altissima 'Aucubaefolia' \" \" 'Pendulifolia' Akebia X pentaphylla \" England England Holland England Arn. Arb. \" quinata 'Longiracemosa' * Japan Russia Russia Alnus borealis \" \" \" fruticosa * glutinosa 'Imperialis' incana f. acutiloba \" `Romulis Coccinea' * \" \" \" \" jourlensis subcordata viridis 'Undulata' \" \" \" \" \" England England England England England Holland W. Germany France W. Germany W. Germany W. Germany W. Germany France France Austria Alyssum alpestre * calycinum * 2317-65 1167-63 * cuneifolium diffusum * markgrafii * moellendorfianum nondensatum overense * * * \" \" 2290-65 2286-65 2289-65 2293-65 783-63 2324-65 \" \" repens var. transsilvanicum * scardicum 2314-65 2313-65 2297-65 1163-63 792-63 214-39 215-39 605-52 \" \" \" spinosum * tristachyum * wulfenianum * \" X Amelasorbus hoseri raciborskiana X Andromeda polifolia 'Grandiflora Compacta' Switzerland France Sweden Scotland Poland Poland Holland 33 Name Arabis albida * Aristolochia fimbriata * Aronia melanocarpa 'Wislei' Artemesia arborescens Aubretia montana * Aurinia petraea * Berberis angulosa \" aggregata 'Barbarosa' \" \" Record No 407-63 471-62 1210-51 813-60 409-63 2292-65 545-23 499-38 612-42 968-24 399-34 672-28 660-30 733-26 1069-24 404-30 396-37 266-39 267-39 271-39 469-58 272-39 615-42 706-65 559-36 2076-65 2-66 1979-65 660-34 367-34 200-40 165-40 167-40 98-31 266-68 1253-65 216-39 1110-24 422-36 808-68 57-64 425-29 971-65 19646 1056-65 333-38 918-26 1172-67 791-64 121-65 1284-71 . Country Scotland Estonia Holland Year 1963 1962 1951 1960 1963 1965 1923 1938 1942 1924 1934 1928 1930 1926 1924 1930 1937 1939 1939 1939 1958 1939 1942 1965 1936 1965 1966 1965 1934 1934 1940 1940 1940 1931 1968 1965 1939 1924 1936 1968 1964 1929 1965 1924 1965 1938 1926 1967 1964 1965 1971 Bulgaria Belgium W. Germany England Holland arido-calida aristata var. coriaria England Sweden France Crimea \" \" bergmanniae dealbata * dubia * hauniensis koehneana * * \" \" \" \" England Denmark England Scotland France \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" mehongensis * rigidicans * stenophylla 'Corallina' 'Corallina Compacta' \" 'Gracilis Nana' \" 'Picturata' \" 'Semperflorens' suberecta England England England England England England W. tsarongensis thunbergii 'Argenteo-marginata' \" \" \" 'Atropurpurea Superba' Germany England England Holland W. Germany Holland \" `Kobald' \" 'Rose Glow' \" turcomanica var. densiflora \" vilmorinii \" wilsonae 'Globosa' \" 'Autumn Cheer' \" 'Fireflame' Berchemia giraldiana Betula apoiensis * \" aurata 'Aurea' \" * hoseri \" \" \" Ireland England England England France Japan Holland Poland jacquemontii kochnei England Germany Russia Armenia Poland Russia Poland Russia France Russia Czechoslovakia Poland Russia Russia \" \" \" \" korschinskyi litwinowii obscura * * * \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" pamirica * pendula var. oycoviensis procurva * pubescens var. \" var. carpatica soongarica \" `Tortuosa' purpusii saposhnikovii * schugnanica * 34 Name \"` Betula tatewahiana \" * tianschanica Buckleya lanceolata * Buddleia alternifolia \" davidii 'Black Night' \" \" 'Fromow's Purple' \" \" Record No. 780-66 262-36 548-64 349-23 550-65 169-39 1066-62 539-59 499-52 1207-60 352-35 1359-66 1487-65 1407-51 Country Japan Russia Year 1966 1936 1964 1923 1965 1939 1962 1959 1952 1960 1935 1966 1965 1951 1966 1965 1965 1967 1965 1965 1966 1965 1967 1966 1965 1951 1966 1965 1965 1970 1965 1965 1966 1967 1967 1965 1966 1965 1966 1924 1965 1965 1965 1966 1965 1965 1967 1965 1966 1970 1965 'Variegata' 'Latifolia Buxus \" \" \" sempervirens 'Agram' \" \" \" Macrophylla' 'Ponteyi' 'Vardar Valley' 'Alba Carlton' `Alportii Praecox' `Beoley Gold' Japan England England England England England England England Rumania Calluna \" \" vulgaris 'Alba Aurea' \" England England Holland \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Bla7eaway' 1369-66 1501-65 1468-65 1288-67 1498-65 1473-65 1356-66 1475-65 1305-67 1364-66 1491-65 1355-51 1340-66 1467-65 1502-65 893-70 1478-65 1459-65 1367-66 1295-67 1299-67 1465-65 1341-66 1479-65 1333-66 18788 1463-65 1486-65 1470-65 1347-66 1469-65 1497-65 1300-67 1485-65 1346-66 894-70 1483-65 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" `Durfordii' \" 'E. F. Brown' \" 'Elsie Purnell' \" 'Foxhollow Wanderer' \" 'Fred J. Chapple' \" 'Gnome' \" 'Golden Carpet' \" 'Golden Feather' \" 'Gold Haze' \" `Goldsworth Crimson' \" 'Hookstone' ~' \" \" \" \" 'Humpty Dumpty' \" `Hyemalis' 'Janice Chapman' 'Jay Vanstone' \" `Kynance' \" \" England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England \" \" `Lock-na-seil' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Lyle's Surprise' \" `Mousehole' \" `Multicolor' ! \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Orange Queen' 'Peter Sparkes' 'Prostrate Orange' \" `Pyrenaica' 'Ralph Purnell' 'Robert Chapman' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Rosalind' 'Ruth Sparkes' \" \" \" \" 'Silver Spire' 'Silver Queen' \" \" \" 'Sunset' \" `Torulosa' \" `Underwoodii' \" `Walter Ingwersen' \" 'White Gown' England England England England England England England England England England England England 35 Akebia X pentaphylla. Drawing by P. Bruns. 36 Name Record No. Caragana arborescens 'Albescens' \" \" \" \" 'Cucullata' brevifolia densa franchetiana * laetna \" \" \" \" \" pekinensis * tangutica tibetica turfanensis * \" * turkestanica Carpinus caucasica * Caryopteris clandonensis Catalpa hybrida 'Purpurea' ovata f. flavescens Cedrus brevifolia \" Celastrus hookeri Cercis grifjcthii * Chaenomeles japonica 'Dwarf Poppy' \" speciosa 'Alba Grandiflora' \" \" 'Brilliant' \" \" `Nivea Extus Coccinea' \" \" `Rowallane' h \" 'Sanguinea Plena' \" superba 'Benichidari' \" \" 'Colette' \" 468-65 2229-25 345-26China China 125-27 China 278-23 60-64 Armenia China 61-23 W. Germany 565-57 464-27 England Russia 594-67 2078-65 England 516-58 Russia 562-36 England 21929 France 2140-25 England 114-63 Cyprus 1222-51 Holland W. Germany 313-64 195-61 Holland 51-61 France 196-61 Holland 685-66 Belgium 156-52 England 150-60 Holland 188-61 126-60 123-59 192-61 274-61 193-61 275-61 197-61 189-61 53-61 194-61 278-61 277-61 190-61 187-61 415-25 430-65 431-65 315-70 1808-65 650-65 2209-25 1046-71 1756-65 651-65 1766-65 1756-65 Country W. Germany England Year 1965 1925 1926 1927 1923 1964 1923 1957 1927 1967 1965 1958 1936 1931 1925 1963 1951 1964 1961 1961 1961 1966 1952 1960 1961 1960 1959 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1961 1925 1965 1965 1970 1965 1965 1925 1971 1965 1965 1965 1965 Italy France Holland Holland Holland Holland Holland Holland Holland France Holland Holland Holland Holland \" `Coquelicot' \" `Della Robbia' \" `Elly Mossel' \" 'Etna' \" `F ascinatioii \" 'Fire Dance' ' `Grandiflora Rosea' speciosa 'Mallarot' superba 'Nicoline' \" \" \" - .. \" \" \" \" \" 'Pink Lady' \" `Ulidia' \" 'Vesuvius' \" `Wakaba' * \" \" \" \" \" Italy Formosa Chamaecyparis formosensis \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" lawsoniana 'Green Hedger' \" 'Green Pillar' \" 'Stewartii' nootkatensis 'Variegata' obtusa 'Caespitosa' \" 'Compacta' \" 'Filicoid Dwarf' \" 'Hage' \" `Juniperoides Compacta' \" 'Kosteri' \" 'Nana Contorta' England England Hungary England England England England England England England England 37 Name Record No. \" \" Country Year 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1965 1968 1965 1922 1924 1958 1965 1965 1925 1965 1949 1938 1964 1964 1928 1936 1938 1965 1967 1925 1933 1968 1959 1929 1965 1940 1965 1966 1966 1966 1963 1936 1965 1937 1965 1966 1965 1927 1928 1952 1956 1957 Chamaecyparis obtusa 'Nana Intermedia' \" \" 'Pygmaea Densa' \" 'Repens' 'Rigid Dwarf' \" 'Aurea Nana' 'Filifera Aureovariegata' \" 'Golden Mop' \" \" 'Gold Spangle' \" \" `Squarrosa Aurea' \" \" `Squarrosa Minima Aurea' \" \" 'Squarrosa Nana' \" taiwanensis * \" thyoides 'Andelyensis Nana' \" \" `Conica' \" f. glauca \" 'Golden Twig' Chionanthus retusus 'Forrest's Variety' Cladrastis lutea (pink flowers) Clematis hexapetala \" montana 'Tetrarosi' ochroleuca Cornus alba 'Gouchaultii' \" \" var. sibirica 'Westonbirt' \" darvasica * \" mas'Alba' \" f. nana pisifera \" \" \" \" \" \" `Sphaerocarpa' meyeri oblonga * \" Corylus avellana 'Aurea' Cotinus coggygria 'Flame' \" \" `Notcutt's Variety' Carpet' Cotoneaster \" \" adpressa armena * var. * praecox 'Park ascendens \" \" \" \" \" \" bullata 'Firebird' congesta 'Jurgi' conspicua \" 'Nana' cooperi 'Cornubia' \" \" crispii dammeri 'Skogsholmen' denticulata * frigida 'Aldenhamensis' \" `Montana' francheti 'Sterniana' glaucophylla f. serotina \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" gracia * harrysmithii * heterophylla * 1742-65 England 1744-65 England 1757-65 England 1743-65 England 1769-65 England W. Germany 324-65 1770-65 England 990-68 England W. Germany 326-65 62-22 Ireland 830-24 Ireland 853-58 Sweden 1746-65 England 1777-65 England 2199-25 England 1778-65 England 333-49 England 182-38 464-64 England 285-64 Belgium 261-28 Scotland 641-36 France 727-38 England Russia 976-65 603-67 Rumania 19885 England 277-33 Russia 823-68 Russia 784-59 Scotland Holland 459-29 570-65 England 257~10 England 404-65 Holland 1708-66 Sweden Sweden 1698-66 Sweden 1709-66 115-63 W. Germany 1019-36 England 2054-65 Holland Ireland 376-37 634-65 England Sweden 1694-66 703-65 W. Germany Scotland 211-27 546-28 England Ireland 431-52 292-56 England 650-57 England Holland 2056-65 China 530-71 427~17 Scotland 1965 1971 1947 38 Name Cotoneaster hissarica * \" horizontalis 'Coralle' \" \" var. kansuensis \" \" 'Little Gem' \" 'Hybrida Pendula' \" khasiensis * \" kitaibelii * \" \" Record No 977-65 1981-65 1704-66 15-52 410-61 1358-70 1951-65 1703-66 1993-25 328-38 1691-66 802-63 1688-66 596-65 328-65 103-57 1707-66 1695-66 1693-66 803-63 1701-66 95-66 190-68 1357-70 194-40 716-65 1697-66 2053-65 1336-70 1331-70 1319-70 1349-70 1341-70 193-23 1321-70 1861-25 1343-70 65-64 436-26 1293-63 1339-70 1340-70 462-35 2083-65 684-65 250-66 642-65 479-67 . Countre~ Russia W. Germany Sweden Year 1965 1965 1966 1952 1961 1970 1965 1966 1925 1938 1966 1963 1966 1965 1965 1957 1966 1966 1966 1963 1966 1966 1968 1970 1940 1965 1966 1965 1970 1970 1970 1970 1970 1923 1970 1925 1970 1964 1926 1963 1970 1970 1935 1965 1965 1966 1965 1967 1970 1970 1965 England England Holland Holland Sweden mucronata * \" \" \" multiflora var. granatensis nitidifolia oligantha * England England Sweden E. Germany Sweden praewalskii * \" \" 'Robustus' rothschildiana saxatilis * silvestri * * \" \" \" \" \" (salicifolia )( dammeri) 'Saldam' England W. Germany W. Germany Sweden Sweden Sweden E. Germany Sweden Scotland splendens suavis * * \" \" submultiflora taylorii * turbinata * * \" \" \" \" valkenburg England Holland \" \" villosula * watereri watereri 'Pendula' zeravschanica * England W. Germany Sweden \" 'Braendkjaer' * T cerola chlorosarca Crataegus azarolus berberifolia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" var. pubescens chrysocarpa var. phonoecia chungtienensis * coleae * Holland Holland Holland Holland Holland Holland China Holland crus-galli cuneata var. splendens England Holland Armenia China Estonia Holland Holland Russia \" \" \" \" hissarica * kansuensis kyrtostyla lucorum * * \" \" macrosperma var. acutiloba \" \" microphylla monogyna 'Contorta Coccinea' \" \" \" \" \" Pendula Rosea' \" 'Pink Cork Screw' \" `Tortuosa' 'Xanthoclada' \" England England England England Holland Holland Holland France pentagyna 1348-70 1350-70 754-65 \" \" pringlei var. lobulata ruscinonensis * Top: Hamamelis 'Arnold Promise'. Photo by P. Bruns. Bottom: Comus mas. Photo by H. Howard. 40 Name Record Na~. Countr~ (J * * tortilis wattiana cantabricus Year 1970 1970 1970 1930 1943 1943 1924 1966 1965 1967 1934 1965 1965 1969 1965 1965 1951 1925 1951 1951 1937 1965 1932 1925 1925 1925 1965 1965 1965 1966 1966 1932 1931 1965 1925 1951 1967 1925 1963 1971 1967 1966 1924 1929 1968 1967 1966 1967 1965 1967 1966 Crataegus semi-incisa \" \" Cytisus \" \" * frivaldskyanus reverchoni * * \" \" scoparius 'Dragonfly' \" 'Golden Sunlight' Daboecia cantabrica 'Hookstone Purple' \" \" 'Porter's Variety' Daphne glomerata cneorum 'Pygmaea' \" \" \" \" 'Variegata' passerina * gracilis 'Albo-marginata' discolor Deutzia \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Major' hybrida 'Azaleaflora' magnifica 'Erecta' 'Fleur de Pommier' magnifica 'Superba' ningpoensis scabra 'Albo-punctata' \" `Eminens' ~ \" \"' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" `Longipetala' \" `Macrocephala' \" `Mirabilis' subulata * staurothrix * sunnyardii vidalii * 'Contraste' * * taiwanensis \" \" \" \" 'Magicien' 'Maguren' 'Montrose' Terle Rose' Diervilla bifurca * \" splendens Edgeworthia papyrifera Elaeagnus oxycarpa * \" \" * Elsholtzia ciliata * Enkianthus campanulatus 'Pendulus' cernuus Ephedra sinica Epigaea asiatica `Apple Blossom' Erica australis 'Mr. Robert' \" \" 'Riverslea' \" carnea `December Red' \" \" 'Eileen Porter' \" \" 'Foxhollow Fairy' \" \" 'March Seedling' 1320-70 1337-70 1342-70 693-30 414~3 415-43 14380 822-66 1477-65 1304-67 750-34 658-65 659-65 542-69 24-65 614-65 1230-51 1709-25 1232-51 1460-51 709-37 2019-65 7-32 1623-25 1996-25 1622-25 2015-65 2016-65 2018-65 409-66 412-66 12-32 133-31 2090-65 1717-25 1464-51 604-67 2128-25 1235-63 1297-71 592-67 100-66 795-24 283-29 191-68 1301-67 1350-66 1287-67 1476-65 1290-67 1345-66 Holland Holland Holland Ireland Scotland Scotland England England England England Asia Minor England England Russia Holland England Holland France Holland Holland China England France France England France England England England Poland Poland France France England France Holland Rumania England Japan Russia W. Germany Scotland England China England England England England England England England Top: Buddleia alternifolia. Photo by H. Howard. Bottom: Cornus stolonifera. Photo by H. Howard. 42 Name I Record No. Country England England England Holland Year 1966 1966 1965 1966 1965 1965 1965 1965 1970 1965 1965 1965 Erica ciliaris `Aurea' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Camla' 'Maweana' 'Norden' cinerea 'Atrosanguinea Smith's Variety' \" `Cevennes' 'Eden Valley' 'Foxhollow Mahogany' \" 'Fred Corston' 'Hookstone Lavender' \" 'John Eason' 'Joyce Burfitt' 'Lilacina' Skelton' -Miss Waters' \" 'Pink Ice' \" 'Lady 'Purple Beauty' 'Romiley' 'Silberschmelze' 'Smith's Lawn' \" 'Vivienne Patricia' 'W. T. Notley' mackaiana 'Lawsoniana' tetralix 'Ken Underwood' \" 'Pink Star' vagans 'Birch Glow' \" 'Cream' 'George Underwood' \" 'Hookstone Rosea' \" 'Miss Waterei \" 'Mrs. Donaldson' veitchii * \" \" \" \" \" \" mediterranea Bohlje' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" -~-------______ -_..-. \" \" \" \" 'Furzey' 'Ghost Hills' 'James Smith' europaea 'Acubaefolia' \" \" \" Euonymus \" \" \" \" 'Macrocarpa' \" 'Red Cascade' fortunei 'Aurea Variegata' \" 'Robusta' \" \" \" japonica 'Macrophylla' myriantha sacrosancta * semenovii \" Fagus sylvatica 'Atropurpurea Macrophylla' 'Aureo-pendula' Fontanesia phillyreoides 'Nana' Forsythia intermedia 'Mertensiana' \" \" \" 'Tremonia' * mandshurica \" 1343-66 1338-66 1452-65 1317-66 1461-65 1493-65 1462-65 1464-65 896-70 1472-65 1481-65 1489-65 1474-65 1354-66 1500-65 1298-67 1357-66 898-70 1493-65 1360-66 890-70 1344-66 1352-66 1319-66 1490-65 1348-66 1504-65 1488-65 1342-66 1361-66 133~66 1466-65 1480-65 1482-65 1292-67 1293-67 1650-25 440-52 16-52 1564-65 1417-51 139-31 619-65 764-71 782-36 39-67 664-65 473-64 83-57 23-66 857-67 England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England England Holland England England England England England England England England England England England England 1965 1966 1965 1967 1966 1970 1965 1966 1966 1970 1966 1966 1965 1966 1965 1965 1966 1966 1966 1965 1965 1965 1967 1967 England England England England Holland France England Russia Russia England England England Holland W. Germany Manchuria 1925 1952 1952 1965 1951 1931 1965 1971 1936 1967 1965 1964 1957 1966 1967 43 Name Record No. ovata (special form) suspensa f. atrocaulis Country England Holland Arn. Arb. Arn. Arb. Am. Arb. Arn. Arb. Holland Holland Year 1952 1957 1948 1947 1959 1952 1965 1925 1963 Forsythia \" 'Nyman's Variety' \" \" 'Arnold Giant' 'Beatrix Farrand' \" 'Karl Sax' \" 'Tetra Gold' Fraxinus americana var. juglandifolia \" insularis \" Arnold Dwarf' 507-52 84-57 127~15 262-47 590-59 683-52 406-65 461-25 1233-63 Japan to be continued Lonicera 'Arnold Red' Photo by H. Howard "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weeds, A Link with the Past: Shepherd's Purse","article_sequence":4,"start_page":45,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24561","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24e8926.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"Weeds: A Link With the Past 4. Shepherd's-purse Shepherd's-purse (Capsella bursa-pastoris) is a small unobtrusive weed which grows along roadsides and in barren fields in most parts of the world. Its common name is very old, recalling a time when shepherds roamed the countryside. William Coles explained the name in 1657 in his book Adam in Eden : \"In English it is called Shepherd's purse or Scrip, from the likeness the Seed hath with that kind of leatherne bag, wherein Shepherds carry their Victuals into the field.\" It was also sometimes called \"Clappe de pouch\" because it resembled wallets carried by licensed beggars and lepers who stood by the road with bell, clapper, and pouch, making noise with the clapper to attract attention and ask for alms. Other names for the plant have been \"Herdys purse,\" \"Caffe weede,\" \"Mothers Heart,\" and \"Sanguinary.\" The last-mentioned name arose because of the plant's reputation for stopping blood, a characteristic known to the Romans and described by Pliny in the first century. The Greek Dioscorides, writing in his herbal De Materia Medica, mentioned it, calling it \"Thlaspi.\" In the 16th century in the Netherlands a physician by the name of D. Rembertus Dodoneus (sometimes also called D. Rembert Dodoens) described the uses of Shepherd's-purse in one of a series of books on the history of plants, modestly entitled, \"The Second part of the Histoire of plantes\/ in treating of the differences\/ proportions\/ names\/ properties and vertues, of pleasant and sweete smelling floures, herbes and seedes, and such like. Writen by that famous D. Rembertus Dodoneus now Physition to the Emperour.\" His books were translated into English in the sixteenth century into the earthy language of that time: The Decoction of Shepherdes purse dronken, stoppeth the laske, the bloudy flixe, the spitting and pissing of bloud, women's termes, and all other fluxe of bloud, howsoever it be taken; for which it is so excellent, that some write of it, saying that 45 46I it will stanche bloud if it be but carried about the body.\" only holden in the hande, or an early visitor to America, reported Shepin this country as early as 1672. The colonists used herd's-purse it as a potherb, and it has been reported that the young leaves were sold as greens in Philadelphia in the spring. Those who have tried it report that it tastes somewhat like cabbage but has a peppery flavor. Among other things it was recommended in colonial times for diarrhea, and Sir John Hill, writing in 1820 in The Family Herbal, stated, \"the juice of the Shephard's purse is cooling and astringent.\" A modem herbal written in 1959 recommends a tea made from the dried plant as a specific for stopping hemorrhages of all kinds, and reports that during World War I when the Germans could not obtain drugs used to stop bleeding they used instead a liquid extract of Shepherd's-purse. Today the plant is not generally used, except in parts of China where it is eaten as a vegetable, but it continues to thrive as it did when Dodoneus wrote, \"Sheepeherds pouche groweth in the streates and wayes and in rough, stonie, and John Josselyn, untilled places.\" HELEN ROCA-GARCIA Arnoldia Reviews The Rust Fungi of Cereals, Grasses and Baker Cummins Bamboos, by George descriptive and illustrated manual of the rust fungi occurring on grasses of the world is a concise and usable handbook for the mycologist or the person interested in these pathogens of grasses. The book was produced by photo-offset of a type script which produces a uniform but monotonous aspect due to the limitation of type characters. Individual dichotomous This "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":46,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24558","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24e816f.jpg","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"46I it will stanche bloud if it be but carried about the body.\" only holden in the hande, or an early visitor to America, reported Shepin this country as early as 1672. The colonists used herd's-purse it as a potherb, and it has been reported that the young leaves were sold as greens in Philadelphia in the spring. Those who have tried it report that it tastes somewhat like cabbage but has a peppery flavor. Among other things it was recommended in colonial times for diarrhea, and Sir John Hill, writing in 1820 in The Family Herbal, stated, \"the juice of the Shephard's purse is cooling and astringent.\" A modem herbal written in 1959 recommends a tea made from the dried plant as a specific for stopping hemorrhages of all kinds, and reports that during World War I when the Germans could not obtain drugs used to stop bleeding they used instead a liquid extract of Shepherd's-purse. Today the plant is not generally used, except in parts of China where it is eaten as a vegetable, but it continues to thrive as it did when Dodoneus wrote, \"Sheepeherds pouche groweth in the streates and wayes and in rough, stonie, and John Josselyn, untilled places.\" HELEN ROCA-GARCIA Arnoldia Reviews The Rust Fungi of Cereals, Grasses and Baker Cummins Bamboos, by George descriptive and illustrated manual of the rust fungi occurring on grasses of the world is a concise and usable handbook for the mycologist or the person interested in these pathogens of grasses. The book was produced by photo-offset of a type script which produces a uniform but monotonous aspect due to the limitation of type characters. Individual dichotomous This 47 are given to the rust fungi occurring on about 240 genera of grasses. The format is not indented but fortunately no grass genus has more than 22 species of rust-fungi. A second group of keys treats the species of the 6 genera of rust fungi. Puccinia, with 291 species, is divided into groups. Each species of fungus is presented on a separate page and most are illustrated by line drawings of spores, mostly from type material. Literature references to original publications, synonymy, a descriptive paragraph, hosts and distribution, and an indication of the type specimen and its location are supplied. Two indices are offered of the fungus names and the names of grass hosts by genus and species. Monographers of other groups might well consider the excellence of this presentation as a model. keys R. A. H. George Baker Cummins, The Rust Fungi of Cereals, Grasses and Bamboos, New York: Springer-Verlag, 1971. 580 pages. $19.50. The Great American Forest, by Rutherford Platt Rutherford Platt has produced a dozen books and many articles popularizing nature by word and by superb well-chosen photographs. The Great American Forest was first published in 1965 and the current Prism Paperback edition makes this \"classic\" available at a moderate price. The coverage is historical, biological, geographical, and ecological, and there is a smattering of information on every conceivable aspect of the life cycle of a tree. The volume has been described as \"factfilled\" and the writing as \"artistic\" but the combination is often too simplistic, becoming misleading to the general reader and annoyingly inaccurate to the professional. . R. A. H. Rutherford Platt, The Great American Forest, Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1971. 271 pages. Prism Paperback. $2.95. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23313","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d060a727.jpg","title":"1972-32-1","volume":32,"issue_number":1,"year":1972,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":307,"end_page":347,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24555","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eb76d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":6,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"The Director's Report THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM ENDED DURING THE FISCAL YEAR JUNE 30, 1971 It is generally difficult to say exactly when a botanical garden begins, for desires, ideas, plants, financial support and personnel are needed and each may be equally critical to its development. We mark the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum in 1872, when James Arnold, a merchant of New Bedford, Massachusetts, left one twenty-fourth part of his estate to the care of his executors. His gift, accepted as a trust by the officers of Harvard College, was the foundation of the Arnold Arboretum. We are planning to mark 1972 as the Centennial Year of the Arnold Arboretum. A special program is planned for the spring, but noteworthy activities and meetings are scheduled .throughout the year. The development of this program has occupied much of our time and energies, from changes on the grounds and in the living collections to special publications and much correspondence with possible participants. We sincerely hope that many friends and colleagues, representing horticulture and botany, will join us in 1972 to share in an appreciation of the Arnold Arboretum. a community. It may only a geographic area of green leaves and colorful flowers in proximity to the congestion of bricks and concrete, or contrastingly, through its staff it may serve a significant role in the welfare of the community associated with it. For all of Community and Professional Service An arboretum is a conspicuous part of be its 100 years the Arnold Arboretum has been an oasis in the community of Boston. Always open to the public, it is indeed a place for many people to visit during the spring when the 307 Viburnum sieboldii. Photo: P. Bruns aos ~1 plants are in flower or in the fall when the autumn color of the foliage makes it equally attractive. The public service offered by the staff throughout the year may be less obvious. There are contributions in the many identifications of plant materials; the multitude of questions answered of a horticultural or scientific nature; the classes, lectures and tours; the collections it shares; and the pages of printed material in its own publications or in newspapers and other journals which are professionally as well as popularly valued by the recipients. Two aspects of a growing service are worthy of mention in detail the poison plant information service and the consultation offered ecology-minded citizens and organizations. Boston, like other major cities, has a cooperative Poison Center operated in one of the city hospitals on a twenty-four-hour basis. Calls from citizens which concern the ingestion of or exposure to plant materials of a possible poisonous nature are referred to the Arboretum office during the normal working hours and to specific staff members at their homes at other times. On the average a dozen calls a day are received throughout the year. The task of identifying and evaluating the plant from the description given over the telephone by an anxious mother is indeed a challenge. While most calls involve nontoxic plants, there are serious situations demanding emergency treatment. The call from the emergency room of a hospital requires quick access to a taxonomist who may, in turn, refer to appropriate library volumes kept near the telephone. A few years ago all of the calls to the Arnold Arboretum were from Metropolitan Boston. Now, however, the long distance calls, even from out of state hospitals, are more frequent. The phenomenal increase in the concern over the quality of our environment and the appearance of our cities and neighborhoods has been accompanied by the participation of many citizens and the financial support of their activities through federal, local and private funds. Soon every group faces the problem of what to do beyond the obvious picking up of debris. Almost everyone knows that a vacant lot can be made into a park, but how is the soil to be treated? What plants will grow there? How should they be placed? What subsequent maintenance is necessary? What are the best erosion control plants? Where can the needed plants be bought? Ultimately the questions become \"Will you teach our group?\" and \"Do you have surplus plants we can have for our project?\" - 309 The most important item that the Arnold Arboretum has to offer an organization or individual is information. The members of our limited staff do have the qualifications needed in a large number of horticultural and botanical areas. However, it must be a matter of policy that we cannot organize groups of people, cannot direct all, cannot finance any, and can supply relatively few plants. Rather we work with established organizations, providing advice as to the practicality of their proposals, providing demonstrations and education within the Arnold Arboretum on the proper method of dealing with their problems, and then allowing the members of the organization to carry out their work. This help is given free of charge. In a few cases organizations have chosen to retain a member of the staff to assist them in more detail on his own time and terms. During the year 1970-1971 members of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum have worked with the following organizations : Parks and Recreation Department, City of Boston The Mayor's Office of Cultural Affairs School Department - teacher training and program de- partment Conservation Commission Boston Redevelopment Authority \"Summerthing\" Program Metropolitan District Commission Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority Brookline Conservation Commission Cambridgeport T.R.E.E., Inc., Cambridge Model Cities Program Harvard University, Department of Buildings and Grounds Tufts University, Department of Buildings and Grounds Boston College, Department of Buildings and Grounds Regis College, Science Teachers' Workshops Massachusetts Horticultural Society, \"Bloom-in\" program APACA Roxbury-Dorchester Beautification Committee Lower Roxbury Community Corporation DARE (A \"Halfway House\" program for Boston teenagers) Roosevelt Towers Residents' Committee, Cambridge Delle Avenue Residents' Committee, Mission Hill area, Boston Friends of the Boston Public Garden Traphole Brook Protective Association Town of Weston Massachusetts Tree Wardens' Association 310I Children's Museum Community Economic Several of these are Development Program, East Boston Some are which contribute or seek their own financing. One group has a renewable grant from the Federal Department of Health Education and Welfare. Three groups are actually beautifying vacant land or areas owned by Harvard University in their neighborhod. It is clear that there is a desperate need for horticultural advice in the community which neither city nor private professional talent can meet. It is also clear that the Arboretum staff cannot do much more than it is doing currently, due to limitations in the number of its staff. In fact, if we are to continue or to increase our activities and contacts with the public sector of our society, it will be necessary to have a staff member with the clear sole responsibility of coordinating these activities with limited active participation in the work. self-supporting organizations. community-organized groups Horticulture The word rejuvenation must characterize our efforts on the grounds of the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain and in Weston during the past year. The horticultural staff planted 371 specimens on the grounds in the fall of 1970 and an additional 501 were placed in the spring of 1971. These included 168 taxa new to our collections. The seasonal weather extremes were not severe in contrast to previous years and the collections are growing well. The planning, however, is mostly for the future appearance of the living collections. An automatic irrigation system has been installed in the lawn in front of the Administration Building and in the newly regraded area to the south of it. Additional magnolias have been added to the collections in these areas and the badly damaged plants of Prunus sargentii were removed and replaced with smaller specimens. The hillside seen immediately upon entrance to the grounds has been planted with daffodils and scillas for naturalizing and more plantings are anticipated to increase the attractiveness of this area. During the winter a large number of old stag-headed trees in the area of the Leitneria swamp were removed and a part of the area cleared will be used to bring together representative taxa of Hamamelis. The areas where we maintain collections of Buxus, Cytisus, Erica, Calluna and prostrate Junipers were expanded to receive additional plants. The rockery which had Bonsai House. Photo: Alfred Fordham been damaged by fire was cleared and protected by being enlarged and some replanting was completed. The sequential display planting of azaleas along Meadow Road has also been improved. After regrading, with relocation and replanting of many specimens, the area was given a heavy application of wood chip mulch. Wood chips from our own operations or acquired from other sources have proven to be the most effective mulch material currently available. A new and generous supply of animal manure has been obtained from a local stable and used judiciously. The collection of dwarf conifers below the Dana Greenhouses required considerable attention. At the time of the original planting, it was expected that the individual specimens would increase in size, but some cultivars far exceeded expectations in their spread. Duplicate specimens were placed elsewhere on the grounds now that they are larger in size and less apt to be stolen. Through the efforts of Mrs. Derderian, about one third of the bonsai collection was repotted. An aerial bucket, mounted on a special truck body, which had been on order for over a year, was finally delivered. The effectiveness of our pruners in this expensive piece of equipment indicates that it was well worth the investment. On the negative side, extensive damage was experienced from rabbits and other rodents during the past winter. The use of chemicals :1 Spring in the Arnold Arboretum. Photos: P. Bruns 314 as repellents on what seemed to be susceptible shrubs only stimulated the animals to attack other plants. Damage was heavy on species of Chaenomeles, Malus, Cotoneaster, Hamamelis and Ulmus. Fires from vandalism fortunately constituted only a nuisance. Although fifteen fires occurred which could not be handled by our own staff and required the fire department, only two were classed as severe in their damage to plantings or to soil surfaces. A theft of four specimens from the bonsai collection on a summer evening proved to be the work of juveniles. Through the alertness of a staff member and the cooperation of a detective agency the plants were located. Two were dead from neglect or improper care, but the two most valuable older plants from the Lars Anderson collections could be saved. Court action has not been completed. One section of the Arboretum known as the South Street tract is low land with a pond of immediate interest as a wildlife area, which was reserved for future expansion of the collections after improvement in drainage, contouring and fencing. The area has been mentioned in previous reports when it was considered by city committees for school locations or recreational playgrounds. In 1959, as the result of an election, the land was to be taken by eminent domain proceedings, but the necessary legal action was never completed. In May of this year two small children were drowned when they fell from a raft they had constructed with material from a dump on adjacent city-owned property. There was considerable unfavorable newspaper publicity, reporting comments of local politicians. After serious consideration the pond was filled during the summer. was developed to reveal more information on the status of individual genera within our collections. The system shows in a tabular form the additions or losses within generic groups over a period of time. There was the usual continuing effort to maintain labels on all of the plants on the grounds of the Arboretum and to have all specimens accurately plotted on maps and recorded in card files. The extra effort devoted during the spring to having the records brought up to date anticipated the incorporation of our data within the inventory of the Plant Records Center. This center, sponsored by the American Horticultural Society, is developing a data bank on the holdings of the major botanic gardens and arboreta within North America. Our participation The record-keeping system readily 315 will permit us to receive computerized print-outs at tory of the Arnold Arboretum inate the need for of the invenmoderate cost and will elim- laboriously compiled catalogs. The horticultural staff was involved in four flower show exhibits during the year. Mr. Fordham prepared an exhibit of fruits, seeds and seedlings, with information on methods of propagating or germinating such material, for an exhibition in Horticultural Hall in Boston and for the Spring Flower Show of the Worcester County Horticultural Society. A display of mulching materials and methods of composting vegetable material formed an exhibit at the City of Boston \"Summerthing Bloom-in\" held on the Fenway. The largest effort was an exhibit entitled \"The Story of Forsythia\" which covered 700 square feet at the 1971 Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Gold was the pervading color of this anniversary show. The plants selected were forced into bloom exhibiting the various kinds of forsythia. A table display of literature and herbarium specimens was manned by the staff as an information booth. Although the exhibition was executed with satisfactory results, it was obvious to the staff that we do not have the facilities to attempt again an exhibit of such magnitude. Duplicate or supply plants from the nursery areas were again offered to the Department of Buildings and Grounds at Harvard as required by the indenture. The remaining material was given to members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, special selections to Weston High School, Jamaica Plain High School, Wellesley College, the University of Rhode Island, the University of Massachusetts, the Massachusetts Audubon Society, Channel 2 WGBH auction, and to civic beautification groups. There were ten groups concerned with city improvement that received plant materials for their local projects. There are problems in distributing surplus materials: the safety of the nursery must be considered, the material must be apportioned fairly, and it must be delivered in such a manner that it will survive. We do not have the staff to dig, ball, and assemble the material to be collected, nor can we permit individuals to help themselves. Miss Nancy Page, a Mercer Fellow, has served as a coordinator between the Arboretum staff and the interested groups. With the help of Mr. Kinahan, superintendent at Weston, and Mr. Vining, another Mercer Fellow, demonstrations were given on the methods of digging, balling, burlapping, pruning, replanting, watering, and general after- 316 Then the volunteers were permitted to prepare and rethe plants. Subsequent visits to the areas where these plants were taken revealed that the materials were used effectively and that approximately 99% success has been obtained in establishing these gift plants. The greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum are used for work in plant propagation, both for the maintenance of the living outdoor collections and for basic or experimental research of the staff. There are no display collections offered to the public within the greenhouses and the few general collections maintained are associated with teaching programs. At the present time there are the following diverse assemblages being used by the staff in their own research: Dr. Weaver is growing Lisianthius, Calolisianthus, and other members of the Gentianaceae. Dr. Wood has many plants from southeastern United States to provide descriptive and illustrative material for his generic flora project. Dr. DeWolf is attempting to establish new clones of Ceratiola and Gardoquia. Dr. Howard has many plants from mountain vegetation of the Greater and Lesser Antilles, including material recently obtained of Solanum lobulatum, a species never known in flower or fruit. Dr. Elias has material of Hamelia associated with his monograph. Dr. Schubert continues her interest in Dioscorea material from Mexico. Mr. SousaSanchez has brought taxa of Lonchocarpus into flower from seed. The tolerance of the propagator to this usurpation of space is much appreciated. The Centennial program of the Arnold Arboretum is planned to include the distribution of plant materials. Mr. Fordham and his staff verified a survey of the living collections to determine the condition of the plants which supplied the holotype specimens for taxa described by Sargent, Wilson and Rehder. A listing of 71 of these has been distributed to botanical gardens and arboreta, offering to them propagating material, i.e. budwood or scions, of type plants for their collections. The propagation staff has also grown specimens of twelve rare or unusual taxa of educational or teaching value to be offered to universities or colleges with strong departments of botany or horticulture. Another group of plants, more ornamental in nature, will be offered to garden clubs and horticultural organizations in New England. Finally, we plan to send a small plant by mail to all members of the Friends. In addition to these special projects, the regular work of the propagating staff proceeded. Requests were received for materials from our collections from twelve countries, and 169 shipcare. move Alfred Fordham's Fall Class at the Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns We received, by our request, 253 shipments of 1214 taxa from 31 countries. Material received as seed included 694 taxa. Much of this was grown only for experimental data on germination, for cytological or morphological information, or for herbarium specimens. To insure the continuity of our living collections 193 taxa were propagated to provide additional specimens for the living collections. or ments of 800 taxa were made. in exchange, Education The members of the Arboretum staff who are members of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences are available to offer formal courses within the Harvard curriculum and to guide the programs of graduate students. In this capacity Dr. Wood offered 318I in elementary plant taxonomy and Dr. Howard an adclass. Dr. Schubert is supervising the research graduate vanced studies program of Mr. Mario Sousa-Sanchez. Drs. Howard, Nevling and Wood participated in a new cooperative course offered in the Department of Biology to acquaint new graduate students with the various research fields and experimental programs of the department. Dr. Howard's class made a field trip to Southern Florida during the Thanksgiving vacation week. Several staff members made presentations as part of a weekly seminar in systematic botany held in Cambridge. In addition, Dr. Howard taught the systematics portion of a tropical botany institute sponsored by the University of Miami with the cooperation of the Fairchild Tropical Garden. He also presented lectures and conducted a field trip for the summer program in Marine Science offered by Cornell University at the Isles of Shoals off Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Throughout the year, but especially during the summer months, the Arboretum has offered employment to high school and college students. Due to more stringent wage controls required by the U.S. Government, this program, which had been informal and educational, was jeopardized. Accordingly, a new emphasis was placed on the training aspects of the opportunity by a careful selection of candidates who were bona fide students of botany or horticulture. The students are apprentices to staff members and receive several hours of formal instruction in the course of the week. Students were accepted during the past year from Antioch College, Belmont Hill School, Harvard College, Norfolk County Agricultural High School and Smith a course College. Andrew C. Robinson was the winner of the Arnold Arboretum Award for Botanical and Horticultural Excellence for 1971, given each year to a senior student in a high school near the Arnold Arboretum. Although Andrew lives in Arlington he has been a special student at Jamaica Plain High School. During the year Andrew visited the Arnold Arboretum frequently. He hopes to have his own greenhouse business in ornamental plants after he finishes his schooling at the University of Massachusetts. The informal education program at the Arboretum is open to members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum at special rates and to the general public. Classes during the past year included practical gardening, ecology, pruning, techniques of bonsai, and the evaluation of horticultural materials. Syringa chinensis f. metensis. Photo: P. Bruns 320 Two displays open to the public were staged in the auditoriof the Administration Building. One consisted of photographs, specimens, and books connected with the work of Charles Sargent and his staff and was associated with the publication of Sargent's biography by Stephanne Sutton. The second exhibit was a display of posters from foreign countries concerned with conservation, wild flower protection and ecology. The exhibition material was a part of the Saving the Flora of Europe exhibit shown in Glasgow, Scotland, during the previous year. This display requested by the Arnold Arboretum will be sent to other American institutions for display during the fall and winter. The Arnold Arboretum sponsored a conference on Rock Garden plants and a series of horticulture tours which visited places of special interest in New England. We particularly appreciate the kindness of individual Friends who permitted these groups to visit their private homes and gardens. Several other plant societies have held regional meetings at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain or in Weston. The staff receives many requests for speakers and as many as possible are accepted on individual option. Over 100 garden clubs, horticultural organizations and conferences had staff members as speakers during the year. When talks are given during normal working hours, a contribution to the educational work of the Arnold Arboretum is requested. Each speaker has the opportunity of stressing the Arboretum activities even though a talk on a specific topic is requested. We are pleased with the number of organizations that have scheduled visits to the Arboretum following the talk of a staff member. Lectures given to universities and colleges are usually without remuneration, but serve to communicate the professional work of the individual. The activities of the staff with the community projects are casual or organized efforts at instruction. We have participated in training programs for science teachers of the Boston school system in ecology as well as special plant maintenance oriented instruction for teachers of specific schools. um Herbarium The largest percentage of increase in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum occurred in that portion housed in Jamaica Plain consisting of plants under cultivation in various parts of the world. The herbarium of cultivated plants now contains 145,989 specimens and the total herbarium holdings is Part of are exhibit of Sargentiana associated with the publication of S. B. Sutton's book Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. --- S. B. Sutton Photos: P. Bruns 322 collected from plants growing additions to the living collecgrounds tions, to supplement existing records, making certain that as many taxa as possible are represented by flowers, fruits, and material displaying winter condition. Additional lots of specimens of cultivated plants have been received from Florida, Pennsylvania and Louisiana within the United States and from the West Indies, South Africa and New Caledonia. Many of these were obtained in exchange, but the amount of material sent to us for identification also increased. A survey of the plants cultivated in the Boston Public Garden and on the Boston Common has been completed. Specimens were collected and a list of determinations was supplied to the Friends of the Public Garden. The Boston Department of Parks and Recreation is now preparing new labels to be placed on these plants. An index, supported by herbarium vouchers, has been started of the plants commonly cultivated within the City of Boston. It is hoped that an evaluation of plant tolerance and performance under these environmental conditions will permit some comparative observations when new materials are tried in the community-cooperative programs. Four separate floristic studies involve several members of the herbarium staff. The areas are southeastern United States, the State of Veracruz in Mexico, the Lesser Antilles, and Hong Kong and the New Territories. Staff members continued the field work associated with each of the projects and progress is apparent in each. The bibliography of the publications of the staff and the students offers a survey of individual research projects that have been completed and published during the 935,839 sheets. Specimens on were the and from new year. Library The increasing costs of books and services associated with the libraries is becoming of great concern. The members of the Arboretum staff represent many areas of specialized interest and in the past we have attempted to have a representation of books pertinent to these interests for reference and for teaching purposes. Publications from foreign countries may once have been considered reasonable in price, but at the present time the price per page of many foreign publications exceeds that of American periodicals and books. Within certain areas of knowledge the association of the libraries of the Gray Herbarium and the Arnold Arboretum in Cambridge has permitted 323 coordinated acquisition program. In areas of forestry, world or horticultural publications for deposit and use in Jamaica Plain, the responsibility is that of the Arnold Arboretum staff alone. A careful study is in order to determine the coverage of library materials desirable. A few volumes are received annually from publishers as review copies and such reviews are published in Arnoldia. A few periodicals are received in exchange for the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum or for Arnoldia. The largest number of acquisitions, however, remains by direct purchase. The total holdings of the library of the Arnold Arboretum in volumes and pamphlets was 79,741 on June 30, 1971. This is a net increase of 2,093 items during the fiscal year. Microfiche reproductions are purchased jointly with the Gray Herbarium and twenty-one herbaria or rare volume microfiche were obtained. The binding of periodicals is a recurring expenditure, but during the year we have increased our attempts to recondition or repair older volumes which show the signs of age or deterioration. A total of 1,100 volumes were bound in the past year and a special gift was gratefully accepted to further this program during the next year. Shelf listings have been renewed in the library in Cambridge and were begun for Jamaica Plain. A reorganization of the American periodicals was completed in Jamaica Plain where the map collection was also catalogued for the first time. A Xerox 720 copy machine was leased for general cooperative use in the Harvard University Herbaria. This has reduced the number of library volumes which were formerly sent out for copying or on interlibrary loan. The volume of copy service to our scientists and to other libraries has increased due to the added convenience, but this effort is largely self-supporting through fees. Miss Stephanne Sutton is undertaking a biography of Joseph Rock who collected plants for the Arnold Arboretum in Asia. Many of Rock's letters, field notebooks and photographic negatives were the property of the Arnold Arboretum. Upon his death, however, materials of his estate were widely scattered. Miss Sutton visited the Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland, and several locations in Hawaii to study materials held there. She was able to purchase on our behalf the papers of Rock bequeathed to his nephew in Austria. These manuscripts and letters will be incorporated in the Arnold Arboretum library after they have been catalogued. a floras, 324 Case Estates The Case Estates in the geographic center of the town of Weston is an important area in the function of the Arnold Arboretum. Many of the materials propagated in the greenhouses in Jamaica Plain are moved to Weston as young plants to permit their development before selections are made of specimens to be incorporated in the main collections. These nursery areas, therefore, are in a state of change almost every season. In contrast are the permanent plantings in Weston. These in part are display plantings designed to enhance the appearance of the grounds for the local residents. They serve as well in the teaching programs conducted in Weston. The entire area is used by Weston schools in their science programs. The display beds of mulching materials were reworked when the wooden edging required replacement. A variety of materials, steel, aluminum, brick and plastic are now used as edging or dividers for the study of their comparative values. Mr. Pride has personally developed an extensive rock garden in the area around the Red Schoolhouse, which serves, as its name implies, as a teaching area. Miss Marion Case, from whom the property derives its name, had such a garden for the students of the Hillcrest Garden training program, but only a rock-lined pool and some Italian tiles remained as evidence of the former garden. This area, avowedly experimental, draws considerable attention. A dry stone wall was built by the staff and special plantings were made in an adjacent area. The town of Weston has a sewage problem and had proposed a treatment plant as one solution. As the Case Estates area requires irrigation of the trees and shrubs, and additional mulchfertilizer material is always useful, we felt some cooperative arrangement would dispose of the effluent and sludge on our collections. Regrettably, the proposal was not approved by Commonwealth of Massachusetts authorities. It was necessary, therefore, to begin a program of extending irrigation lines through the property, particularly to nursery areas. We have also secured a supply of sewage sludge from Regis College for use experimentally on a quarter-acre nursery bed. Initially, a cover crop of buckwheat will be used in repetition to measure preliminary effects. The course in practical gardening conducted by Mr. Hebb was asked to give its special attention to the perennial garden in Weston. With a devotion and efficiency that is greatly appreciated but must be seen to be believed, this group began the Perennial Garden at the Case Estates. Photo: P. Bruns 1 325 tremendous task. Old and overgrown plants were removed. were drawn up and new plants obtained and planted. The rejuvenated beds have been attractive this spring and forecast the improvements possible in this area and the usefulness of volunteer help. Designs The Staff We can report two promotions within the staff. Mr. Robert Williams as superintendent of buildings and grounds received an appointment without limit of time. Mr. Michael Canoso, formerly Senior Curatorial Assistant, has been given a new title and responsibilities as the Manager of the Systematic Collections. Dr. Kenneth R. Robertson and Dr. Stephen A. Spongberg joined the staff as assistant curators to work with Dr. Carroll E. Wood on the Flora of the Southeastern United States project. Mr. Jack Link has been appointed assistant horticulturist to be in charge of the records and mapping of the living collections. Mrs. Sheila Geary was appointed assistant librarian in charge of the library in Jamaica Plain, replacing Miss Jean Caldwell. An important facet, as well as a very pleasant one, of our work at the Arboretum is the collection of specimens from the different trees and shrubs on the grounds. Pieces are cut from the plants, between pages of newspaper as shown in these pictures, and dried as soon as possible. An effort is made to collect at different times of the year so that we have representative material winter twigs, unfolding leaves, mature from all stages of growth leaves, flowers, and fruits - of the various plants. After these specimens have been dried and mounted on stiff paper they become part of the permanent record of the plants we have grown here. Duplicate specimens are exchanged with other institutions, and as a result we have been able to build up a representative collection of plants cultivated around the world. These pictures show some aspects of a typical day's collecting. The participants are Richard Weaver, one of our Assistant Curators, Ida Hay, our Herbarium Assistant, and Jeanne Leavitt, a student from Antioch College who spent two terms at the Arboretum on a work- pressed - study program. Photos: P. Bruns 328 Staff Honors We are exceedingly pleased to report the special honors and awards received by members of the staff. Dr. Lily May Perry was awarded the degree of Doctor of Science, honoris causa by Acadia University, Wolfville, Nova Scotia, with the citation stating that Dr. Perry \"has devoted her life to solving the mysteries of plant relationships, and has become an authority on the vascular plants of South East Asia.\" Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., was honored by Roanoke College, Salem, Virginia, with its medal to alumni in recognition of distinctive service and professional achievement. Dr. Donald Wyman received the Arthur Hoyt Scott Garden and Horticultural award at the Commencement exercises of Swarthmore College. A citation noted him as \"a man whose devotion to horticulture has been absolute.\" The George R. Cooley award made annually for the best scientific paper presented during the meetings of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists was given to Dr. Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., and Dr. Thomas Elias for their joint paper on the genus Calliandra. Professional Appointments The services and participation of staff members in professional organizations are extracurricular, but are significant contributions to our profession. Many are term appointments, but some are of longer duration and have been mentioned in previous reports and so continue through this year. Some new appointments include the following: Dr. Gordon DeWolf. Editorial and Publication Committee of the American Horticultural Society. Director and Vice President, Traphole Brook Protection Association, Inc. Member of the Council, New England Botanical Club. Dr. Thomas Elias. Member of the Council, New England Botanical Club. Dr. Richard A. Howard. Chairman, Cumulative Index Committee, American Horticultural Society. Scientific Advisory Committee, Pacific Tropic Botanical Garden. Advisor, Horticultural Committee of the Garden Club of America. Mr. Robert Long. Chairman, Oberly Memorial Award Committee, Agricultural and Biological Subsection, Association College and Research Librarians. Chairman, Secretariat, Conference of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries. Public Relations Committee, New England Library Association. Viburnum plicatum 'Mariesii.' Photo: P. Bruns Photographing a sequence in the Arboretum centennial film. Hibiscus syriacus 'Meehani' shown in above Photos: P. Bruns film sequence. 331 Mr. George Pride. Trustee of the Worcester County Horticultural Society. Director, American Rock Garden Society. Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia. Member of the Natural Science Committee, Nantucket Maria Mitchell Association. Meetings Meetings of national professional societies are usually held annually and those of international societies at longer intervals. It is of benefit to the staff personally and to the Arboretum when members can attend. Two international meetings were scheduled during the year which were of interest to the staff. Dr. Schubert was an invitational speaker at the first international symposium on Dioscorea, held in Mexico. The genus Dioscorea has been the subject of much of her research. Mr. Pride attended the International Rock Garden conference in England. He is a director of the American Rock Garden Society. The Arboretum was represented by other staff members at the two meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sciences held in Indiana in September and in Canada in June, the American Horticultural Congress, the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta, the International Plant Propagators' Society, and the American Rhododendron Society. Drs. Howard and Wood presented papers in symposia at these meetings and Drs. Nevling, Elias and Mr. Fordham offered contributed papers in open sessions. Mr. Long represented the Arnold Arboretum and its library at the Conference of botanical and horticultural libraries in New York and at meetings of librarians in Madison, Wisconsin, and Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Travel and Exploration The travel of the staff in the course of the year appears to be extensive and is profitable to the organization. There are opportunities for special expeditions to specific areas seeking certain groups of plants. Travel to scientific meetings or even vacation travel often permits some collecting of herbarium material, the acquisition and preservation of material for special studies, and always the opportunity to take photographs of aid in teaching and lecture programs. Dr. Nevling spent part of each summer season covered by this report in Mexico gathering materials and data for the floristic project undertaken cooperatively with the National University of Mexico. Dr. Hu spent several months in Hong Kong where her work toward a flora received the cooperation 332I of the staff of Chung Chi College. Dr. Howard and Dr. Weaver made a special trip to the Lesser Antilles and the islands of St. Vincent and St. Lucia with the goals of climbing the Soufriere, Morne Garu and Morne Gimie. The cooperation of Messrs. McConnie and DeFrietas of the Department of Agriculture on St. Vincent made the trips successful. The help of members of the Bilharrzia project of the Rockefeller Foundation on St. Lucia is also acknowledged with gratitude. While attending a meeting of the Scientific Advisory Board of the Pacific Tropical Botanical Garden on Kauai in Hawaii, Dr. Howard was able to renew his observations on the bauxite rehabilitation project that concerned him several years ago. Mr. Fordham was able to visit and exchange materials with the Arboretum of the University of Manitoba and the Experiment Station at Morden while enroute to the meeting of the International Plant Propagators' Society. Associated with vacation travel, Dr. Wood obtained kodachrome pictures of vegetation in Mexico and Europe, as did Mr. Pride in Ecuador and the Gallapagos Islands and Mrs. Roca-Garcia in Spain. Mercer Fellows The Mercer Fellowship program is designed to permit individuals to work with our collections of living plants, herbarium specimens or books. Many applicants wish to have the opportunity of working with an individual staff member to learn a technique or to have informal guidance in developing a skill or a research project. Although no formal call for applicants has ever been distributed, the awards and opportunities are becoming well known and this year applications far exceeded the funds and the number of people we could house suitably. Mercer Fellows for all or part of the year and their origin and project area included the following: Harmony Clement (Massachusetts) Development of horticultural meetings Nancy Page (California) City beautification programs Christian Puff (Austria) Nodal and petiolar anatomy Mario Sousa-Sanchez (Mexico) - Monographic studies of - Lonchocarpus Leslie Joan Spraker (Indiana) Horticultural writing Donald Vining (Georgia) Horticultural writing and plant - propagation Ivey Woodworth (Massachusetts) recreation programs - City beautification and 333 Rhododendron sp. Photo: P. Bruns ~ Friends of the Arnold Arboretum Friends of the Arnold Arboretum is an informal group The of people who by annual contributions or occasional large gifts support the activities of research, display and education, which are the functions of the Arnold Arboretum. Membership is open to all who wish to join and the group increased to over 1500 during the year. The endowment of the Arnold Arboretum has been accumulated from gifts and bequests of former Friends. The gifts of the present membership are essential, not only to meet rising costs, but to undertake special projects. Special gifts from the Friends have, at their request, been used to support work on the grounds, including the care of the Rhododendron collections, the bonsai and dwarf conifers, the development and mainte- A group of volunteer workers Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns planting spring-flowering bulbs at the 335 nance narcissus collection, travel for staff members for plant exploration and introduction, the binding of books in the library, aid in the development of community projects and aid in special publications. Gifts for such restricted use are accepted if they are within the interests and abilities of the staff. The unrestricted gifts from the Friends are of great value as they allow the funds to be used where most needed for equipment, supplies, or labor. Gifts are tax-deductible within the usual Federal regulations, however, few people realize this is almost uniquely an American privilege and practice. Friends receive the issues of Amoldia published bimonthly. The Arnold Arboretum collections are theirs to visit and enjoy. The members of the staff are ready to aid as they can in special problems or requests of the Friends. Members of the Friends receive special publications according to their generosity, but all have the opportunity of special prices for lectures, classes of a or tours. The Friends organization promises to be more active and involved during the coming Centennial Year program. Rear Admiral Harry Hull, U.S.N. (Ret.), of Manchester, Massachusetts, has accepted the position of executive chairman of the Centennial program. Committees are being formed to assist and participate in the programs planned. Gifts and Grants The Arnold Arboretum was the beneficiary of bequests from the estates of Mrs. Homer Sweet and Dr. Helen M. Scorgie. Mrs. Sweet was a former member of the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum. Her bequest was increased with a special gift from the New England Section of the Women's Farm and Garden Association. The income of this gift will be used in association with the activities of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston and on the Case Estates. Dr. Helen Scorgie, formerly of Harvard, Mass., was an active member of the New England section of the American Daffodil Society. She was responsible for the development of the exhibit of classified varieties of narcissus maintained on the Case Estates. Her gift was specified to be used to maintain and enhance this display area. Gifts of plants, books and materials of value to the collections of the Arnold Arboretum have been received from many individuals. We are particularly grateful to Mr. and Mrs. Donald Smith, Mr. Joel Spingam and Mr. Layne Ziegenfuss for material of dwarf conifers which have added materially to our collection 336 of named and selected clones. A special generous gift was received from Dr. George R. Cooley to assist in a program of rebinding library volumes. The work of Dr. Carroll Wood and his staff toward a generic flora of the Southeastern United States has been supported by a grant from the National Science Foundation. A renewal of the current grant for the fourth year has been received. Miss Stephanne Sutton received awards from the American Philosophical Society and the Ella Lyman Cabot trust for her work toward a biography of Joseph Rock. Publications Dr. Bernice Schubert continued to serve as editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. The four issues comprising volume 52 involved 667 pages with 31 articles by 38 authors. Ellen Bernstein, editorial assistant, is preparing a 50-year index to authors and titles. This will be available to subscribers as a special publication during the year. A review of the increased costs of publishing and distributing the numbers of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum indicated that our subsidy of this publication was excessive. The Journal is used in exchange for other publications, but a comparison of the subscription prices would suggest incorrectly that the exchange was markedly in our favor. To place a more accurate value on the Journal and help to meet the ever increasing costs of publication, the price per volume was increased to $16.00 for the next year. In October of 1970 Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia accepted the editorial responsibilities for Arnoldia. Miss Pamela Bruns continued with the responsibility for the illustrations and the layout. An editorial board of Dr. DeWolf, Dr. Howard and Mr. Pride was appointed to assist in manuscript selection. Volume 30 of Amoldia contained 260 pages of text and ten pages of index. One special publication was issued by the staff during the year. A colorful booklet \"The Arnold Arboretum: The First Century\" was written and compiled by Stephanne Sutton with illustrations by Pamela Bruns. It was designed by Christopher Reed and printed by the Nimrod Press. The booklet of 72 pages includes eight pages of color illustration, a foreword by Walter Muir Whitehill, and an afterword by Dr. Howard. The Board of Overseers Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum To aid the University in its supervision of the administration Planting spring-flowering bulbs. Photo: P. Bruns of the Arnold Arboretum, the alumni-elected Board of Overseers appoints one of its members as chairman of a committee to examine the activities of the staff and the condition of the collections. The committee is selected by the chairman and members represent special qualifications in areas of horticulture or botany, publications, community affairs or education. One member is usually a resident of the town of Weston, the location of the Case Estates, and the chairman of the Boston Department of Parks and Recreation is an official member. The committee 338 or more each year and observes the Arnold Arboretum in its three locations and many activities. Ultimately a report from the chairman is given to the President and Fellows of Harvard as the trustees of the Arnold Arboretum. The committee, individually and collectively, is of great help to the staff. Their service on the committee and to the Arnold Arboretum is appreciated. The Visiting Committee during the academic year 1970-71 included: George Putnam, Chairman, Boston, Mass. George R. Clark, Vice-Chairman, Philadelphia, Pa. Mrs. George L. Batchelder, Beverly, Mass. Mrs. Ralph Bradley, Canton, Mass. Mr. Frederick D. Brown, Webster, Mass. Mrs. Paul Cabot, Needham, Mass. Mrs. Bruce Crane, Dalton, Mass. Dr. John Creech, New Carrollton, Md. Mr. Joseph Curtis, Commissioner, Boston Parks and Recreation meets once Dept. Mrs. F. Stanton Deland, Jr., Chestnut Hill, Mass. Mrs. Dudley B. Dumaine, Weston, Mass. Mr. William Flemer, III, Princeton, New Jersey Mrs. Irving Fraim, Waltham, Mass. Mrs. Julian W. Hill, Wilmington, Delaware Mr. Henry Hosmer, Boston, Mass. Mr. Seth Kelsey, Stamford, Conn. Dr. Russell E. Larson, University Park, Penn. Mr. Milford R. Lawrence, Falmouth, Mass. Deceased Mrs. John Lockwood, Bedford, New York Mr. R. Henry Norweb, Jr., Mentor, Ohio Mrs. Richard W. Pratt, Chestnut Hill, Mass. Mrs. Donald Ross, Montchanin, Delaware Mrs. W. Davis Taylor, Westwood, Mass. Mrs. Julian Underwood, South Dartmouth, Mass. Mrs. G. Kennard Wakefield, Milton, Mass. Mr. Nathaniel Whittier, Medfield, Mass. Mr. Roger C. Wilkins, Avon, Conn. Mrs. John G. Williams, Gladwyne, Penn. RICHARD A. HOWARD, DIRECTOR Visitors attending Conservation exhibition. Photo: P. Bruns Bibliography of Published Writings of July 1, 1970-June 30, 1971 *Bogle, the Staff, A. L., The genera of Molluginaceae and Aizoaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 431-462. 1970. DeWolf, G. P., Jr., (with M. Silber), Yews in fact and fiction, Arnoldia 30: 139-147. 1970. Suburban economics, Amoldia 30: 175-179. 1970. Notes on the history of tea, Amoldia 31: 20-23. 1971. The political limits of environmental quality, Landscape Arch. 61: 125. 1971. (with R. Hebb), The story of Forsythia, Amoldia 31: 4163. 1971. Key to Forsythias, Amoldia 31: 67, 68. 1971. A pesticide table, Am. Hort. Mag. 50: 27-29. 1971. Service justifies public support, Arb. & Bot. Gard. Bull. 5: 47, 48. 1971. ----------- --- --- * Includes in residence. publication of work done by former staff members while 340 Elias, --- T. S., Notes on the genus Galipea (Rutaceae) in Central America, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 427-430. 1970. Morphology and anatomy of foliar nectaries of Inga and Pithecellobium (Leguminosae), (Abstr.), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 744. 1970. --- --- --- --- Taxonomy of the genus Hamelia (Rubiaceae), (Abstr.), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 751, 752. 1970. (with L. I. Nevling), Calliandra, pollinia and systematic implications, (Abstr.), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 753. 1970. The correct name for the genus Cusparia (Rutaceae), Taxon 19: 573-575. 1970. (with L. I. Nevling), Calliandra haematocephala, history and taxonomy, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 69-85. 1971. --- The genera of Fagaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 159-198. 1971. --- The genera of Myricaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 305-318. 1971. (with L. I. Nevling), Calliandra haematocephala, Calif. Hort. Jour. 32: 61-65. 1971. Fordham, A. J., Production of juvenile shoots from root pieces, --- Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 19: 284-287. 1969. Acer griseum and its propagation, Int. Pl. Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 19: 346-349. 1969. Temperature and Forsythia buds, Horticulture 49: 16, 17. 1971. Climate at the Arnold Arboretum, Arnoldia 30: 186-193. 1970. Cold damage to Forsythia buds, Arnoldia 31: 64-67. 1971. *Green, P. S., Notes relating to the floras of Norfolk and Lord Howe Islands, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 204-220. 1970. Hartley, T. G., Additional notes on the Malesian species of Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae), Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 423-426. 1970. Hebb, R. S., Spring planting program, Arnoldia 30: 155-158. 1970. Autumn interest, Arnoldia 30: 168-173. 1970. Plant registrations, Arnoldia 30: 251-260. 1970. Perennials for low maintenance gardening, Arnoldia 31: 24-35, 70-82, 127-139. 1971. (with G. P. DeWolf, Jr.), The story of Forsythia, Amoldia 31: 41-63. 1971. ------- --- --- --- --- --- Top and left: Grounds crew working at the Arboretum. Photos: P. Bruns N 343 in Arnoldia, Arnoldia 30: 1. 1970. The \"alpine\" plants of the Antilles, Biotropica 2: 24-28. 1970. The summit forest of Pico del Oeste, Puerto Rico, in H. T. Odum, A tropical rain forest, Chapter B-20, B: 325-328. 1970. U.S. Atomic Energy Commission. Foreword, in Sutton, Charles Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum, xi-xvii. 1970. Harvard University Press. Plant registration activities, Arb. & Bot. Gard. Bull. 5: 20. 1971. Polygonaceae. In: Edwin A. Menninger. Flowering Vines of the World. Hearthside Press, N.Y. 278-282, 353. 1970. Afterword, in Sutton, The Arnold Arboretum: the first century, 69-71. 1971. The Director's Report, The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1970, Arnoldia 30: 201-246. 1970. The botanical gardens and arboreta of the United States, Act. Mus. Silesiae, Ser. Dendrol. 2: 131-139. 1970 (1971). Botanicke zahrady a arboreta Spojenych statu (preklad), Act. Mus. Silesiae, Ser. Dendrol. 2: 139-146. 1970 (1971). Some observations on the nodes of woody plants with special reference to the problem of the 'split-lateral' versus the 'common gap,' Bot. Jr. Linn. Soc. Suppl. 1: 195-214. 1970. The 'alpine' plants of the Antilles, in adaptive aspects of insular evolution, 24-28. 1971. (Ed.) W. Stem, Washington State Univ. Press. Hu, S. Y., The Orchidaceae of China, I. Quart. Jour. Taiwan Mus. 24: 69-103. 1971. *Kazmi, S. M. A., Bibliography on the botany of West Pakistan and Kashmir and adjacent regions. 1. Taxonomy, 136 pp. 1970; II. Paleobotany, phytogeography, cytology and palynology. 100 pp. 1970; III. Morphology, anatomy and ecology, 87 pp. 1971. Field Research Projects, Coconut Grove, Miami, Fla. A revision of the Boraginaceae of West Pakistan and Kashmir, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 133-184, 367-402, 499-520. 1970. 51: 110-136, 334-363. 1971. *Miller, N. G., A new species of Parietaria (Urticaceae), from northeastern Mexico, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 529-533. 1970. The genera of the Cannabaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 185-203. 1970. The Polygalaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 267-284. 1971. Nevling, L. I., Jr., Saxifragaceae. In: Edwin A. Menninger. Flowering Vines of the World. Hearthside Press, N.Y., 313-316. 1970. (with T. Elias), Calliandra haematocephala, history and taxonomy, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 69-85. 1971. (with T. Elias) Calliandra, pollinia and systematic implications, (Abstr.), Am. Jour. Bot. 57: 753. 1970. (with T. Elias), Calliandra haematocephala, Calif. Hort. Jour. 32: 61-65. 1971. Pride, G. H., Dr. Robert A. Griesbach, Hemerocallis Jour. 25(2): 25-26. 1971. --- Howard, R. A., A change --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- Conifer Collection. Photo: P. Bruns Dana Greenhouses and Nursery area. Photo: Alfred Fordham Robertson, K. R., Chromosome numbers in phanerogams, Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 57: 383, 384. 1970 ( 1971 ). Roca-Garcia, H., The cork trees, Arnoldia 30: 161-167. 1970. Weeds: A link with the past. 3. Tansy, Arnoldia 31: 37-38. --- 1971. The Lelacke, or pipe tree, Arnoldia 31: 114-120. 1971. Schubert, B. G., Desmodium, in: Correll & Johnston. Manual of the vascular plants of Texas, 855-869. 1970. A new species of Desmodium from Africa, Kew Bull. 25: 61-63. 1971. ----- 345 *Sorensen, P. D., The Dahlia: An early history, Arnoldia 30: 121138. 1970. Sousa, M., Ecologia de las Leguminosas de Los Tuxtlas, Veracruz, An. Inst. Biol. Univ. Nat. Auton. Mexico, Ser. Bot. 39: 121160. 1968. Spongberg, S., The Staphyleaceae in the southeastern United States, Jour. Arnold Arb. 52: 196-203. 1971. (with F. J. McCormick and J. R. Bozeman), A taxonomic revision of granite outcrop species of Minuartia (Arenaria), Brittonia 23: 149-160. 1971. Sutton, S. B., Actinidia chinensis, the Kiwi fruit, Arnoldia 30: 180185. 1970. Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum, 382 pp. 1970. Harvard University Press. The Arnold Arboretum: The first century. 72 pp. 1971. Arnold Arboretum. *van der Schijff, H. P., (with L. Snyman), The morphology and germination of seed of Elephantorrhiza elephantina, Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 114-128. 1970. Weaver, R. E., Jr., The Fothergillas, Arnoldia 31: 89-97. 1971. Wood, C. E., Jr., Some floristic relationships between the southern Appalachians and western North America, in: Perry C. Holt (ed.). The Distribution History of the Biota of the Southern Appalachians Part II. Flora. Research Div. Monog. 2: 331-404. 1971. Va. Polytechnic Inst. & State Univ. Blackburg, Va. Wyman, D., One hundred shrubs, three feet or less in height, Am. Nurseryman 133 (11): 8, 9, 61-71. 1971. Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970, Arnoldia 30: 81-91, 1970. Metasequoia after twenty years in cultivation, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 95: 445-451. 1970. The best flowering shrubs, Am. Nurseryman 132 (7): 10, 11, 60-67. 1970. The heathers, Am. Nurseryman 133(9): 10, 11, 81-84. 1971. The Preston lilacs, Am. Nurseryman 132(11): 10-12. 1970. Tree peonies in the Arnold Arboretum, Am. Nurseryman 132(9): 8-10, 56-59, 1970. The white fir, Horticulture 48: 44, 45. 1970. Wyman's Gardening Encyclopedia, 1222 pp. 1971. Macmillan Co. --------- --- --- --- --- --- --- --- 346 Staff of the Arnold Arboretum 1970-1971 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology and Director Karl Sax, S.D., Professor of Botany, Emeritus Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist, Emeritus Ellen Bernstein, M.A., Editorial Assistant Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist and Art Editor of Arnoldia Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Manager of the Systematic Collec,~ tions Constance Elizabeth Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticulturist Heidi Elisabeth Duda, S.M.L.S., Cataloger* Thomas Sam Elias, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Alfred James Fordham, Propagator Sheila Geary, B.F.A., Assistant Librarian William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant* Thomas Gordon Hartley, Ph.D., Associate Curator Ida Hay, B.A., Herbarium Assistant Robert Stephen Hebb, B.S., Associate Horticulturist Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Jack Link, B.S., Assistant Horticulturist Charles Robert Long, M.A., S.M.L.S., Librarian* Lorin Ives Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Supervisor of the Her* baria Dulcie Alicia Powell, M.A., Botanist George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Kenneth R. Robertson, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Helen Roca-Garcia, M.A., Research Assistant and Editor of Arnoldia Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum Stephen Alan Spongberg, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Karen L. Stoutsenberger, B.A., Botanical Illustrator Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Honorary Research Fellow Richard E. Weaver, Jr., Ph.D., Assistant Curator Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator * Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium. Children playing in the Arboretum Photo: P. Bruns early spring. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Birds in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":349,"end_page":365,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24553","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eb36f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":6,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"Birds in the Arnold Arboretum In the first published account of the birdlife of the Arnold Arboretum, in 1895, C. E. Faxon made the following observa- tion : \"Although the suburbs of Boston are peculiarly well fitted for the abode of a great variety of birds, the continual encroachment of urban conditions will eventually make such a place as the Arnold Arboretum a precious spot for the city bird-lover who is obliged to look near at hand for the enjoyment of his favorites.\" Mr. Faxon's prediction has been largely correct. In spite of its increasingly urbanized surroundings and large number of visitors, the Arnold Arboretum has remained a viable bird sanctuary from the time of its founding. However, truly natural habitats are rare in the Arboretum now, and as a consequence the resident birds are those which prefer an open or disturbed habitat, or those which can tolerate or even prosper under the presence of man. Still, the Arboretum provides a wide range of semi-natural habitats, as well as a varied and abundant food supply, a combination which attracts large numbers of migrants. Although the fauna is hardly an exceptional one, birds of various species are relatively numerous throughout the year, and some of the summer residents are among our most attractive and desirable songsters. During the wintertime, the regularly maintained feeder at the side of the Administration Building is visited by several species of birds, much to the delight of those of us who work here. Blue Jays, Black-capped Chickadees, Slate-colored Juncoes, and White-crowned Sparrows may be seen in fair numbers nearly every day, and Downy Woodpeckers, Cardinals and Ring-necked Pheasants are not uncommon. The ubiquitous \"city birds\" (Pigeons, Starlings, and English Sparrows) are conspicuous throughout the Arboretum, as are Crows and Blue Jays. Increasing numbers of Robins and Mockingbirds spend the winter here, especially in the more sheltered areas, and Mallards and Black Ducks are frequently seen on the ponds and brooks. If one is willing to wade through the frequently heavy 349 Cedar Waxwings in crabapple tree. Drawing by P. Bruns 350I one of the best places in the Arbowhich to observe winter birdlife. Although it has been culled from time to time, and plantings have been made in a few areas, the forest here approaches a primeval condition. Hemlock Hill is an isolated, sheltered haven for birds which prefer coniferous forests, and on most days it is alive with constantly moving flocks of Chickadees and their attandant Nuthatches, both the White-breasted and Red-breasted species. The colorful Cedar Waxwings are among the more delightful winter visitors in the Arboretum. They pass through irregularly during the year, but at this season when the resident bird population is a relatively dull one, their arrival is a welcome event for the bird-watcher and casual visitor alike. Waxwings are particularly attracted to the fruits of the crab apples, hollies, and junipers, and a flock alighting on a fruit-laden tree, accom- snowdrifts, Hemlock Hill is retum in panied by of a constant to pass unnoticed. high-pitched, wheezy twittering, is unlikely Because of the influx of a large number of migrants, mostly species that do not take up residence, springtime is the most exciting time for observing birdlife in the Arboretum. Although a few species, notably the Fox Sparrow, arrive in February, new birds are not conspicuous until mid-March. By then, the male Red-Wings are noisily choosing nesting sites in the meadow in anticipation of the arrival of their mates a few weeks later. At about the same time, the first metallic twangs of the Purple Grackles, larger and somewhat less desirable relatives of the Red-Wings, may be heard. During April, the bird population does not change appreciably, although winter visitants such as the Slate-colored Juncoes head north and Phoebes and Brown Thrashers arrive. By early May, however, the migrants start coming through in large numbers. Warblers of several species are conspicuous because of their bright colors and songs remarkably loud for such small birds. During May of 1971, Palm Warblers were common in the shrubby areas, and Hemlock Hill was virtually alive with flocks of Blackburnians, Black-throated Greens, Black and Whites, Cape Mays, and Parulas. Myrtle Warblers were common throughout, but they seemed to prefer the Conifer Collection. At about the same time, the resident birds settle in for the summer. The Mimic Thrushes (not to be confused with the Thrushes) are well represented among the Arboretum's bird fauna, all three eastern North American species being present. All are large and conspicuous with the ability to mimic the calls of other bird species. The best mimic, the true summer 351 is the least common of the three. It is primarily bird of southeastern United States where it is in many places one of the most common of the avian species. In the spring of 1971 a nest was found in the Arboretum for the first time. A pair of Mockingbirds raised at least two young in a small American Holly tree near the Bonsai House, and several surprised visitors to the Bonsai House were dive-bombed by the irate birds. The repertoire of these large gray, black, and white birds is incredible. One evening in southern Pennsylvania I heard a Mockingbird mimic with remarkable accuracy the songs of 23 different species of birds at one sitting. The phrases of the song are repeated numerous times, and a single concert may proceed without prolonged interruption for nearly an hour. Unfortu- Mockingbird, a nately can at times when they with a Mockingbird exactly appreciated. Trying sleep sounding off right outside one's bedroom window at 3 : 00 A.M. these birds sometimes choose to to sing are not be a most frustrating experience. The Brown Thrasher is much more but a as a ingbird, pleasing quality common than the Mockmimic it is far inferior. The song has as as that of its more talented relative, but is of shorter duration and the phrases are repeated only once or twice. Looking like a large and ungainly, long-beaked, longtailed, yellow-eyed Wood Thrush, with which it is frequently confused, the Brown Thrasher is one of the Arboretum's most conspicuous summer birds. The Catbird, the third of the Mimic Thrushes, is about as common as the Brown Thrasher, but because of its smaller size, drab coloration, and secretive habits, it is less conspicuous. Its mewing call, usually made from a low, concealed perch, is the source of its common name. In contrast to its relatives, the mimicking abilities of the catbird are poorly developed, and the mimicked phrases are seldom repeated. residents in the and conspicuous. The male is our only predominantly yellow bird. As these warblers prefer open shrubby areas, the Arboretum is a perfect place for them. During the spring of 1971, several pairs took up residence in the shrub collection and the lilacs, and the loud, clear \"sweet-sweet-mary-mary-sweet\" of the males was to be heard throughout the day in these areas. Four members of the Blackbird Family are common summer residents in the Arnold Arboretum - the Red-Wing and the Purple Grackle, mentioned earlier, the Cowbird, and the Baltiare summer Of the several warblers that Arboretum, only the Yellow Warbler is common Yellow Warblers are the most common of the three species of Warblers which presently nest in the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: Henry G. Daniels. Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society 353 Oriole. The male of the last is one of our most brightly colored birds and is easily seen, even though the species shows a distinct preference for the taller shade trees. The rattling chatter, made in flight, and the clear, flute-like whistles of the Orioles are familiar sounds here in the early summer. Although not as elaborate as those of some of its tropical relatives, the hanging basket-like nest of the Baltimore Oriole is still one of the most remarkable to be built by any of our native birds. Equally remarkable, but in a much different way, are the nesting habits of the Cowbird. This rather unattractive bird is a parasite, much like the completely unrelated Old World Cuckoos. Rather than raising its own young as a respectable bird would do, the Cowbird lays its eggs in the nests of other species, and then forgets about them. Particularly if they are of a smaller species, the offspring of the \"foster parents\" suffer at the expense of the young Cowbirds, frequently unable to compete for food and ultimately being forced out of the nest. Three species of Flycatchers have nested in the Arboretum during the past several years. The Robin-sized Crested Flycatcher is rare and not easily seen. The call and the habits of the Eastern Phoebe are more distinctive than its plumage. These drab-colored birds give the general impression of being nervous and high-strung, constantly wagging their tails while at rest and making frequent short, darting flights in pursuit of insects. The somewhat plaintive call sounds very much like the bird's common name. The Eastern Kingbird is the most conspicuous of the Arboretum's Flycatchers. Although its plumage is not brightly colored, the bird's white belly and terminal tail band are strikingly contrasted with the dark upper parts. Like the Phoebe, and most other Flycatchers for that matter, the Kingbird makes short, darting flights from an exposed perch in pursuit of insects. However, its normal manner of flight, with stiff, jerky wingbeats, is distinctive, as is its habit of hovering awkwardly in grassy areas, presumably to gain a vantage point for its insect-catching forays in the absence of a suitable perch. The Scarlet Tanager is the only representative of a large, primarily tropical family to be found among the New England bird fauna. Tanagers as a group are colorful birds, and our native species is no exception. Although they are among the most common birds in Eastern deciduous forests, Scarlet Tanagers are somewhat secretive and not often seen. The Yellow-shafted Flicker is the largest of the several Woodpeckers in the Arnold Arboretum, and the one most frequently seen in the summertime. It is also the only native Woodpecker more 354 which commonly descends to the ground, where it hops about somewhat clumsily in search of ants. In flight the Flicker is unmistakable. The white rump patch is very conspicuous, and it is our only large bird with a \"roller-coaster\" flight. Sparrows and finches are well represented among the summer birds in the Arboretum, and two are of particular note. The Indigo Bunting, a bird of fence rows and other sparsely wooded areas, finds numerous ideal habitats here. Although the male is a brilliant blue color when seen by reflected sunlight, in silhouette or among foliage he appears merely as a nondescript dark bird, and therefore not particularly conspicuous. The loud and varied song of these small birds, however, is one of the most frequently heard on summer days in the Arboretum. The Rufous-sided Towhee or Chewink, a larger, long-tailed member of the Finch Family, is also common in the Arboretum. These black, white, and rusty-red birds prefer dense brush and are most often seen (or heard) scratching around among fallen leaves. The call, the familiar, slurred \"chewink\" and the song, \"drink-your-tea\" or \"tow-hee\" are the sources of both of the bird's common names. on, the birds become less and less With the moult of their breeding plumage, they become more secretive and the songs practically cease. The Grackles and the Red-Wings have already gone south by the end of summer, and the waves of mostly dull-colored migrants signal the beginning of autumn. As the summer wears conspicuous. in the Arnold Arboretum Observations on the birdlife of the Arnold Arboretum have been recorded since the early days of the institution's existence. The first published account, by Mr. C. E. Faxon in 1895 (Garden and Forest 8: 292, 293. 1895), listed 50 species of birds as breeding residents on the grounds at Jamaica Plain. Records since then have shown marked changes in the composition of the resident bird fauna. From 1939 to the present, the Children's Museum (Jamaica Plain) Bird Club, under the leadership of Miss Miriam Dickey, presently of the Massachusetts Audubon Society, have made regular bi-monthly walks in the Arboretum. For the period 1968-1970, this group recorded a total of 36 species seen on a nest or with young, and 6 additional species whose behavior and numbers indicated that they also nested here. My own observations in 1971 have added Changing Bird Populations I 355 species breeding residents. Thus the number of species nesting in the Arnold Arboretum has decreasd during the last 75 years, and the change has not only been a quantitative one. As certain species ceased to nest in the Arboretum, others moved in to take their place, but the influx of new species has not kept pace with the departure of the others. A comparison of the breeding residents in 1895 with those in the period 1968-1971 is made in Table 1. During the last decade, the decline of several bird species has received considerable attention throughout the United States. The reasons for this decline are for the most part numerous and complex, but among them the toxic effects of pesticides have received the most study and publicity. The most effective pesticides, and those that have been most extensively used for a long period of time are a class known as chlorinated hydrocarbons - DDT, Dieldrin, Chlordane, etc. These compounds decompose slowly, and when they are concentrated in the body tissue (mostly fatty tissue) of birds calcium metabolism is impaired. Since the chlorinated hydrocarbons are not soluble in water, they cannot be concentrated in plant tissues. Seedeating birds, therefore, are not affected, but insectivorous and carnivorous species have suffered greatly. Of the birds that have ceased to nest in the Arnold Arboretum during the last 75 years, most are of the insectivorous species. The Warblers in particular have declined. In 1895 nine species nested here while only three do so at present. Flycatchers and Thrushes have also been disappearing. These groups are on the decline in many areas, particularly urbanized ones. Pesticides have certainly been responsible to some degree. However, insectivorous birds rarely show the type of reproductive failure attributed to pesticides that has been so well documented in the decline of Hawks and their relatives. Therefore other factors are involved. Urban conditions and civilization in general pose insurmountable problems to many bird species. Nesting sites are destroyed and the habitat generally becomes unfavorable. Predators cats, dogs, squirrels, and man - become more numerous, and introduced bird species compete for food and territory. The decline of certain of the birds which formerly nested in the Arboretum has been well documented and is well understood. Bam Swallows, Bobolinks, and Vesper Sparrows have decreased with the agriculture on which they are dependent. Bluebirds suffered heavy mortality during unusually severe two to the list of - 357 Southern winters in the 1940's and 1950's. Suitable nesting sites, especially with the heavy competition by English Sparrows and Starlings, have become increasingly rare, further hastening their decline. Bobwhites have suffered from over-shooting and severe winters. It is thought that native Bobwhites are now extinct in Massachusetts, and that the birds which are occasionally seen have been stocked. Although land use in the Arnold Arboretum has changed markedly since 1895, practices here do not appear to have significantly affected the composition of the resident bird fauna. There are still relatively undisturbed habitats available, and spraying with chlorinated hydrocarbons has been discontinued. The reasons for the change must largely be looked for in the Arboretum's increasingly urbanized surroundings, as well as in changing natural and man-influenced conditions throughout the Eastern United States. The appearance of new species of nesting birds in the Arboretum since 1895 has been a mixed blessing. The several species of alien birds Ring-necked Pheasants, Pigeons, Starlings, and English Sparrows - are a conspicuous element among the newcomers. The last three are omnivorous, aggressive, and remarkably prolific and thus able to outcompete many native species for food and nesting sites. The phenomenal increase in the distribution and numbers of these aliens since their introduction has been in part responsible for the decline of several of our most attractive native birds. A recent book, entitled \"The Alien Animals,\" by George Laycock (The Natural History Press), documents the introduction of these and other imported species and their effect on the native fauna. Much of the following information has been taken from this fascinating book. Although efforts had been made as early as 1730, the Ringnecked Pheasant, a native of China, was successfully introduced into the United States in 1882. Judge Owen N. Denny, then the American consul in Shanghai, shipped a number of these birds to Oregon in that year, and most of the Pheasants in this country are derived from that stock. Though Pheasants regularly breed in the Northeast, the young birds suffer in particularly damp springs, and many nests are destroyed during the hay-cutting season. Therefore regular stocking is required to keep up that population. The English \"Sparrow,\" a native of the Old World, is related to the Weaver Birds of tropical Africa and Asia rather than to the true Sparrows. This noisy, gregarious bird has been carried by man to most of the temperate areas of the world. Eng- A pair of Mockingbirds nested in the Arboretum for the first time during the summer of 1971. This nest was their second of the on record season. Photos: Top: Richard Weaver Middle and bottom: P. Bruns 358 lish Sparrows were introduced into a number of cities in the United States and Canada during the 1850's and 1860's, primarily by bird lovers who thought that they would be a welcome addition to the fauna. By 1890 they had multiplied enormously, becoming serious pests in many areas, and efforts were already underway to eliminate them. The Sparrows' aggressive tendencies were apparent from the beginning. In his monumental series on the life histories of North American birds, the noted ornithologist Arthur Cleveland Bent wrote the fol- lowing : Many years ago, when I was a small boy, probably in the late 1860's or early 1870's my uncle, who lived next door to us in Taunton, Massachusetts, was the first to introduce English Sparrows into that immediate vicinity. He built a large flying cage in his garden that was roofed over, covered with netting on four sides, and well supplied with perches and nesting boxes. Here the sparrows were so well fed and cared for that they soon began to breed. It was not long before the cage became overcrowded, and he ordered the coachman to put up numerous nesting boxes all over the place and to liberate the sparrows. They soon filled all the new boxes, and also drove away the purple martins, tree swallows, and house wrens from all the old boxes. The Starling has not been as widely introduced throughout the world as the English Sparrow, but in the United States it has been equally successful. Starlings had been released in this country numerous times during the nineteenth century, but the first successful introduction is thought to have taken place in 1890. In that year, Mr. Eugene Scheifflin, a drug manufacturer, released a number of these birds near Central Park in New York City. They nested the same year they were released, and the first known native-born Starlings in the United States were raised under the eaves of the American Museum of Natural History. By 1925 Starlings were the most common birds in New York City, and they had extended their range throughout the nation east of the Mississippi River. Mr. Scheifflin's interest in Starlings can be traced to his hobbies the study of birds and the study of Shakespeare. In what must be a unique instance in the history of American ornithology, he decided to combine his hobbies by introducing into the United States every bird mentioned by Shakespeare. - Brown Thrashers are among the most common and conspicuous summer birds in the Arboretum. Photo: Allan D. Cruickshank. Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society 360 The Starling qualified since it was mentioned once in Henry IV. The ancestry of the pigeon goes back to the Rock Dove of temperate Europe and Asia. These birds have been domesticated for nearly 5000 years and during that time a large number of unusual forms have appeared. Feral pigeons soon revert to their historic form and coloration, but they seldom desert the haunts of man. Although they have long been a nuisance in cities around the world, pigeons were and still are valued by man for their homing instincts and show qualities. They probably arrived in the United States with the first settlers, and are undoubtedly here to stay. These alien birds have been so common and conspicuous throughout most of our lifetimes that it is hard to imagine what it was like without them. Other species among the newcomers are native to the United States but only recently have extended their ranges northward into New England. The Cardinal was almost unknown in Massachusetts 20 years ago, but it is now a fairly common permanent resident. The Mockingbird falls into the same category, the first nest in the Arboretum having been recorded this past spring. With the decline of several of the insectivorous bird species, omnivorous species, which are as a group relatively immune to pesticides, have appeared to take their place. Pigeons, English Sparrows, and Starlings are the most conspicuous examples of these, but Purple Grackles and Mourning Doves, both native species, are also now nesting in the Arboretum. Hawks, Owls, and other carnivores have suffered from the effects of pesticides more than any other groups of birds. Hawks in particular are on the decline throughout the United States. Thus it is surprising that Miss Dickey found Red-tailed Hawks and Sparrow Hawks, as well as Great Horned Owls, to be probable nesters in the Arboretum. An abundant food supply, in the form of English Sparrows, Chipmunks, and Gray Squirrels, is likely the attraction. If birds so sensitive to the effects of civilization as these do actually nest here, the decline in our resident birds may be nearing an end. RICHARD E. WEAVER 361 TABLE 1 Breeding residents in the Arnold Arboretum * Not ing a nest actually seen on in the vicinity. nest or with young, but behavior indicat- 362 363 TABLE 2 both resident and transient, seen in the Birds, Arnold Arboretum by the Children's Museum Bird Club during the period 1939-1968 *Phalacrocorax auritus (Lesson) *Double-crested Cormorant Ardea herodias (Linnaeus) Great Blue Heron Butorides virescens (Linnaeus) Little Green Heron Black-crowned Night Heron Nycticorax nycticorax (Gmelin) *Botaurus lentiginosus (Montagu) *American Bittern *Branta canadensis (Linnaeus) *Canada Goose Anas platyrhynchos (Linnaeus) Mallard Black Duck Wood Duck *Common Merganser *Goshawk Sharp-shinned Hawk Cooper's Hawk Red-tailed Hawk Red-shouldered Hawk *Broad-winged Hawk *Rough-Iegged Hawk Anas rupripes Brewster Aix sponsa (Linnaeus) *Mergus merganser Cassin *Accipitergentilis (Wilson) Accipiter striatus (Wilson) Accipiter cooperi (Bonaparte) Buteo jamaicensis (Gmelin) Buteo lineatus (Gmelin) *Buteo platypterus (Vieillot) *Buteo lagopus (Gmelin) *Pandion haliaoytus (Gmelin) *Falco peregrinus Bonaparte *Falco columbarius (Linnaeus) Falco sparverius (Linnaeus) *Bonasa umbellus (Linnaeus) *Colinus virginianus (Linnaeus) Phasianus colchicus (Gmelin) *Charadrius hiaticula Bonaparte *Charadrius vociferus Linnaeus *Philohela minor (Gmelin) Actitis macularia (Linnaeus) Tringa solitaria Wilson *Totanus flavipes (Gmelin) *Ereunetes pusillus (Linnaeus) Larus marinus Linnaeus Larus argentatus Couses Larus delawarensis Ord Columba livia livia (Gmelin) Zenaidura macroura (Linnaeus) *Coccyzus americanus (Linnaeus) *Osprey *Duck Hawk *Pigeon Hawk Sparrow Hawk *Ruffed Grouse *Bob-white Ring-necked Pheasant *Semipalmated Plover * Killdeer *American Woodcock Spotted Sandpiper Solitary Sandpiper *Lesser Yellow-legs *Semipalmated Sandpiper Great Black-backed Gull Herring Gull Ring-billed Gull Rock Dove Mourning Dove *Yellow-billed Cuckoo *Black-billed Cuckoo *Barn Owl Screech Owl *Great Horned Owl *Snowy Owl *Barred Owl *Coccyzus erythrophthalmus (Wilson) *Tyto alba (Bonaparte) Otus asio (Gmelin) *Bubo virginianus (Gmelin) *Nyctea scandiaca (Linnaeus) *Stix varia varia Barton * Whip-poor-will Nighthawk Chimney Swift Ruby-throated Hummingbird * *Caprimulgus vociferus Wilson Chordeiles minor (Forster) Chaetura pelagica (Linnaeus) Archilochus colubris (Linnaeus) Infrequent or no longer seen In the wintertime, Black-capped Chickadees are frequent visitors to the bird feeder beside the Administration Building. Photo: Frank H. Wood. Courtesy Massachusetts Audubon Society 364 Belted Kingfisher Yellow-shafted Flicker *Pileated Woodpecker Yellow-bellied Sapsucker Hairy Woodpecker Downy Woodpecker *Arctic Three-toed Eastern Kingbird Woodpecker Northern Crested Flycatcher Eastern Phoebe Wood Pewee Tree Swallow *Bank Swallow Rough-winged Swallow Barn Swallow Blue Jay Common Crow ~ Fish Crow Black-capped Chickadee White-breasted Nuthatch Red-breasted Nuthatch Brown Creeper House Wren Megaceryle alcyon (Linnaeus) Colaptes auratus Bangs *Hylatomus pileatus (Bangs) Sphyrapicus varius (Linnaeus) Dendrocopus villosus (Linnaeus) Dendrocopus pubescens (Swainson) *Picoides arcticus (Swainson) Tyrannus tyrannus (Linnaeus) Myiarchus crinitus (Bangs) Sayornis phoebe (Latham) Contopus virens (Linnaeus) Iridoprocne bicolor (Vieillot) *Riparia riparia (Linnaeus) Stelgidopteryx ruficollis (Audubon) Hirundo rustica Boddaert Cyanocitta cristata (Linnaeus) Corvus brachyrhynchos Brehm ~`Corvus ossifragus Wilson Parus atricapillus (Linnaeus) Sitta carolinensis (Latham) Sitta canadensis Linnaeus Certhia familiaris Bonaparte Troglodytes aedon Mimus polyglottos (Linnaeus) Dumetella carolinensis (Linnaeus) Toxostoma rufum (Linnaeus) Turdus migratorius Linnaeus Hylocichla mustelina (Gmelin) Hylocichla guttato Bangs & Penard Hylocichla ustulata (Tschudi) Hylocichla minima (Baird) Sialia sialis (Linnaeus) Regulus satrapa Lichtenstein Regulus calendula (Linnaeus) Bombycilla cedrorum Vieillot *Lanius excubitor Vieillot Sturnus vulgaris Linnaeus *Vireo griseus (Gmelin) Vireo solitarius (Wilson) Vireo olivaceus (Linnaeus) *Vireo philadelphicus (Cassin) Vireo gilvus (Vieillot) Mniotilta varia (Linnaeus) *Vermxvora chrysoptera (Linnaeus) *Vermivora leuchobronchialis Mockingbird Catbird Brown Thrasher Robin Wood Thrush Hermit Thrush Swainson's Thrush Thrush Eastern Bluebird Golden-crowned Kinglet Grey-cheeked Ruby-crowned Kinglet Cedar Waxwing *Northern Shrike Starling *White-eyed Vireo Solitary Vireo Red-eyed Vireo *Philadelphia Vireo Warbling Vireo *Golden-winged Black and White Warbler Warbler *Brewster's Warbler (Brewster) Nashville Warbler Orange-crowned Warbler Parula Warbler Yellow Warbler Magnolia Warbler Cape May Warbler Black-throated Blue Warbler Myrtle Warbler Black-throated Green Warbler Blackburnian Warbler Vermivora ruficapilla (Wilson) Vermivora celata (Say) Parula americana (Wilson) Dendroica petechia (Gmelin) Dendroica magnolia (Wilson) Dendroica tigrina (Gmelin) Dendroica caerulescens (Gmelin) Dendroica coronata (Linnaeus) Dendroica virens (Gmelin) Dendroica fusca (Miiller) 365 ~Yellow-throated Warbler Chestnut-sided Warbler *Dendroica dominica (Linnaeus) Dendroica pennsylvanica (Linnaeus) Bay-breasted Warbler Blackpoll Warbler Pine Warbler Prairie Warbler Palm Warbler Oven-bird *Norther Water-thrush *Louisiana Water-thrush Yellowthroat *Yellow-breasted Chat *Hooded Warbler Canada Warbler *Wilson Warbler American Redstart House Sparrow *Bobolink Eastern Meadowlark Dendroica castanea (Wilson) Dendroica striata (J. R. Forster) Dendroica pinus (Wilson) Dendroica discolor (Vieillot) Dendroica palmarum Seiurus aurocapillus (Linnaeus) *Seiurus noveboracensis (Gmelin) *Seiurus motacilla (Vieillot) Geothlypis trichas (Swainson) *Icteria virens (Linnaeus) *Wilsonia citrina (Boddaert) Wilsonia canadensis (Linnaeus) *Wilsonia pusilla (Wilson) Setophaga ruticilla (Linnaeus) Passer domesticus (Linnaeus) Red-Wing *Orchard Oriole Baltimore Oriole Rusty Blackbird Common Grackle Brown-headed Cowbird *Western Tanager Scarlet Tanager Eastern Cardinal *Dolichonyx oryzivorus (Linnaeus) Sturnella magna (Linnaeus) Agelaius phoeniceus (Linnaeus) *Icterus spurius (Linnaeus) Icterus galbula (Linnaeus) Euphagus carolinus (Muller) Quiscalus quiscula Molothrus ater ater (Boddaert) \"Piranga ludoviciana (Wilson) Piranga erythromelas Vieillot Richmondena cardinalis (Linnaeus) Rose-breasted Grosbeak Pheucticus ludovicianus (Linnaeus) Indigo Bunting *Evening Grosbeak Finch *Pine Grosbeak *Common Redpoll Pine Siskin American Goldfinch *Red Crossbill *White-winged Crossbill Rufous-breasted Towhee (Linnaeus) *Hesperiphona vespertina (W. Passerina cyanea Cooper) Purple Carpodacus purpureus (Gmelin) *Pinicola enucleator (Muller) *Acanthis flammea (Linnaeus) Spinus pinus (Wilson) Spinus tristis (Linnaeus) *Loxia curvirostra Brehm ~Loxia leucoptera Gmelin Pipilo erythrophthalmus (Linnaeus) Passerculus sandwichensis Savannah Sparrow (Wilson) Vesper Sparrow *Lark Sparrow Slate-colored Junco Pooecetes gramineus (Gmelin) *Chondestes grammacus (Say) Junco hyemalis (Linnaeus) Sparrow Chipping Sparrow Field Sparrow White-crowned Sparrow White-throated Sparrow Fox Sparrow *Swamp Sparrow Song Sparrow *Snow Bunting Tree Spizella arborea (Wilson) Spizella passerina (Bechstein) Spizella pusilla (Wilson) Zonotrichia leucophrys (Forster) Zonotrichia albicollis (Gmelin) Passerells iliaca iliaca (Merrem) *Melospiza georgiana (Latham) Melospiza melodia (Wilson) *Plectrophenax nivalis (Linnaeus) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Weather Station Report","article_sequence":3,"start_page":368,"end_page":368,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24554","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eb728.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":6,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum ARNOLD ARBORETUM WEATHER STATION REPORT JULY 1, 1970 TO JUNE 30, 1971 Average temperature for the year: 50.1 Snowfall during the winter of 1970-71: 53.6 inches Precipitation: 43.44 inches Warmest Temperature: 101on July 26, 1970 Coldest Temperature: -9 on January 19, 1971 ALFRED J. FORDHAM CORRECTION The caption under the photograph of Fothergilla plants on page 258 of the July issue of Amoldia should read \"cuttings\" not \"seedlings.\" The photograph was taken by Heman Howard. 368 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":369,"end_page":371,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24552","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eaf6b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":6,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Methods of Hydrobiology, by Jurgen Schwoerbel The author of this work defines hydrobiology as a part of biology concerned with the life of organisms in water and does not admit it as a separate discipline. However he then limits his consideration to the methods of study of the ecology of accumulations of fresh water in lakes, ponds, or even holes in trees as well as to standing, running or underground waters. The emphasis in the volume is on the methods of possible study ranging from the type of equipment to procedures and to techniques of analysis and of calculation. Comparisons and evaluations of each topic are made freely and frankly. Although this book is directed to the professional scientist involved in studies of fresh water in the field, a student familiar with the vocabulary of hydrobiology will find in it much of value. The reader without this knowledge must recognize that this is not an elementary textbook nor a book for the identification of pollut- ing organisms. This is the first English edition of a work published originally in German. Following the text are appendices describing the methods of preservation and fixation of aquatic organisms and the techniques for the culture of such forms of life. A list of firms which make hydrobiological apparatus includes only companies in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. The references supporting the text are listed in an appendix and arranged according to the chapters. They may be referred to in the text or be supplementary suggestions. Referencs are given to papers published as recently as 1967, a remarkable feat for a translated volume. As might be expected the majority of the references are to papers published in the German language. As western hemisphere authors and publications are not cited frequently this volume is a useful reference to European literature and research. R. A. H. Jurgen Schwoerbel. Biology. ures. Oxford: Methods of Hydrobiology. Freshwater Pergamon Press, 1970. 200 pages, 100 fig369 $8.00. 370I The Story of the Royal Horticultural Society, by Harold R. Fletcher There is an old saw to the effect that those who will not learn from history are doomed to repeat it. We horticulturists are fortunate that we have The Story of the Royal Horticultural Society to instruct us. This great society, founded in 1804, has seen gardening fashions come and go. It has survived financial disaster. It has endured wars and rumours of wars. Begun and served by the elite of British horticulture, it has come to have one of the largest general memberships of any horticultural society. Its publications set the standards against which all horticultural literature is to be judged. Its exhibitions are the envy of other societies. Its awards to plants, to exhibitors, and to horticulturists take pride of place before all others. Service to Horticulture is perhaps the unwritten motto of the Society. From the beginning the Royal Horticultural Society was active in the propagation of knowledge about plants and in the importation and dissemination of new kinds of plants from abroad. John Reeves and Robert Fortune introduced Chinese plants. David Douglas explored the American West Coast. Thomas Knight grew exotic plants, and bred new varieties of fruits at home. A series of conferences, on orchids, - primulas, chrysanthemums, dahlias, daffodils, conifers, to name only a few, have given occasion to survey the state of knowledge of taxonomy, nomenclature, culture, and breeding of many horticultural groups. The examinations for the National Diploma in Horticulture, and the resultant training programs at Kew and Wisley, and elsewhere, have done much to maintain the high standards of competence associated with British gardeners. Dr. Harold R. Fletcher, late Director of the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, has completed the task so ably begun by Mr. A. Simmonds, and has given us a masterly, and very readable survey of the history not only of the Royal Horticultural Society, but also of horticulture in Britain. G. P. DEW., JR. Harold R. Fletcher, The Story of the Royal Horticultural Society, 1804-1968, London: Oxford University Press, 1969. 564 pages. f5.25 371 The Royal Botanic Garden Edinburgh, 1670-1970, by Harold R. Fletcher and William H. Brown The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, had its beginning in a Physic Garden, established in a garden plot in the grounds of Holyroodhouse by two Edinburgh physicians, Andrew Balfour and Robert Sibbard. Its original purpose was to provide demonstration materials for medical classes in the University. After many years, and numerous vicissitudes it was finally established on a portion of its present grounds about 1822. Throughout its history it and its staff have been involved with teaching first with the teaching of material medica to medical students, and most recently with the teaching of plant taxonomy. In the early part of this century, the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, was much involved with plant introduction from eastern Asia, especially from the Himalayas and China. Primulas, lilies, and rhododendrons, particularly, have been the forte of the garden and its staff. The names of George Forrest, the collector, and Bailey Balfour and William Wright Smith, the taxonomists and Directors, are inextricably intertwined. In recent years Peter Davis has taught us much about the flora of Turkey. As with the Story of the Royal Horticultural Society, H. R. Fletcher and W. H. Brown have built upon foundations laid by their predecessors and given us a most readable and detailed story of the triumphs and tribulations that have made the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, the outstanding institution that it is today. - G. P. DEW., JR. Botanic Harold R. Fletcher and William H. Brown, The Royal Garden, Edinburgh, 1670-1970, Edinburgh: H. M. Stationery Office, 1970. 309 pages. 13 12s od [3.60] net. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23292","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14eab6c.jpg","title":"1971-31-6","volume":31,"issue_number":6,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Informal History of Bonsai","article_sequence":1,"start_page":261,"end_page":273,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24545","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270896d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Long, Charles R.","article_content":"An informal History o f Bonsai One of the few positive aspects of human warfare is the inevitable blending of cultures which takes place immediately upon the cessation of hostile activities. For a short but crucial period the victor is exposed to the best and worst of the former enemy, and vice-versa. In the wake of World War II American society has responded with elan to this exposure and to the widest possible variety of things Japanese. Typical of this has been the popularity of the shibui object, understated elegance in home design, house furnishings, and gardens, and a renewed interest in oriental arts and crafts. Immediately after the close of hostilities in 1945 a flood of occupation forces, and, a bit later, trade representatives, began short tours of duty in Japan. In the ten years between 1945 and 1955, hundreds of thousands of Americans spent time in Japan. Persons from every walk of American society enjoyed this cross-cultural experience, one which formerly had been confined to diplomats, businessmen and the affluent. (In fact even through the war years Japan and the Japanese remained a sort of abstraction to the bulk of the American population.) Among those multitudinous aspects of Japanese culture which remained in mind was the feeling conveyed to the westerners by those small, carefully trained but artless and natural appearing trees contained by glazed or unglazed pottery containers the bonsai. Americans, who will celebrate the 200th anniversary of their country's founding in 1976, were faced with the living cultural artifacts of a nation which, although like the Americans in having been the result of wave after wave of migrations, had nearly 2,000 years of in situ cultural history. Indeed some of the bonsai were twice as old as the American nation! Little wonder that popular authors referred to the \"mysterious\" culture techniques, since bonsai were another facet of the \"inscrutable\" - 261 262 orient! In addition to age which never fails to intrigue Americans, the living trees, many of which only simulate age, also convey other admirable qualities which would entrance les nouveaux venus of every age endurance, natural beauty and understated strength. Although many treasures were destroyed during the war, and many living gardens and bonsai were lost for lack of care and watering, one can only wonder at the large number of very old trees which survived. And, unlike other works of art, living treasures required great care after substantial initial investment. Since the importation of living plants involves permit procedures of some complexity very few bonsai came to the United States in the postwar years. However, the small trees are such an ubiquitous part of Japanese life that it is safe to say that tens of thousands say, enjoyed, and cherished the idea of bonsai. There were several day-to-day indications that bonsai had captured the American imagination. Christmas cards printed in Japan for Americans featured a dwarf tree motif. In the mid-1950's American florist and gift shops blossomed with non-living dwarf trees concocted from driftwood or weathered branches topped with a flattened gray lichen to simulate foliage. A species of Filago, a flat perennial herb of the Composite family, was imported from India at this time for similar use. These \"ming\" trees were American equivalents of similarly artificial trees popular among the Chinese for household decor often fashioned from carved semi-precious stones. One of the earliest popular articles entitled \"How to Make a Tree\" [living~ appeared in the March 1950 issue of American Homes Magazine. A flood of publications to follow in the 1960's would demythologize the art for the American public. The strong economic bonds between the United States and Japan has allowed the initial cultural flow to continue through the 1970's. As more Americans were able to visit Japan and bonsai materials began to be exported local groups were formed particularly in California where many Americans of Japanese ancestry were leaders in the foundation of the California Bonsai Society in 1950. Later a national organization, the American Bonsai Society, with numerous affiliates, was organized in 1967. Before we look at the early movement of bonsai in the West or at the earliest examples from China perhaps we should consider the development of the art in Japan, the country with the earliest leading exponents in modern times, the coiners of the term itself (derived from the Chinese word p'en tsai), and the - \"Stories of Ladies\" by Chin Ying (Ming Period 1368-1644) Top: Terrace scene with screen, lacquer table, small potted tree. Bottom: Garden with potted plants and small trees. An aptly named era (Ming means bright), it was an era of native rule first in Nanhing then in Peking. Fogg Art Museum, Oriental Dept., Harvard University. 264 country which has the largest current number of practitioners. (An early use of the word bonsai appears in the SeiwanmyoenZushi published in Osaka in 1875.) For, as we shall see, while of training trees and schools of culture have decults in Japan, and while the culturing of the trees there is centuries old, there is evidence that the art was flourishing in China before the Sung Period (960-1279). The introduction of Buddhism to Japan about 550 is very important in considering the history of bonsai for it was in the centuries immediately after that the cultural flowering of China during the T'ang period (618-906) flowed to Japan. Zen Buddhism was to become a popular religion and forever after to touch the weft of Japanese life. With Zen comes the perfection of the miniature and the associated ideals of self discipline and the emulation of Nature. Potted trees kept small could serve as objects of contemplation as well as decoration. Within the temples small landscapes and gardens were used symbolically to represent Horai-san, the sacred Taoist mountain of eternal youth. Trees and shrubs in the ground were pruned for natural effects so that via miniaturization a natural contemplative scene could be achieved. P'en tsai may have originated from transferring small trees from small landscape dramas and\/or by artful pruning of larger potted trees used as relief against the traditional oval, rectangular and square motifs of courts, furniture and most man-made construction. Strong cultural exchanges between Japan and China began early during the Fujiwara Era (794-1192). Earlier the Japanese had been awed by the wealth and sophistication of the Chinese Court. The customs and religion of China were adopted in part by the ruling classes of Japan. Among early Japanese art works still extant which show dwarf trees is the scroll Tsurezure Gusa by Kenko Yoshida (1283-1351) and the fifth part of the twenty-scroll Kasuga Gongen Kenki by Takakone Takashima executed in 1309. Much later, in 1890, Tomioka Tessai (1837-1924) painting in a style reminiscent of earlier Chinese artists of the T'ang Period (618906) produced a scroll depicting two trees in the natural style. In the Japanese literary realm the earliest reference to bonsai occurs in a document dating to 1095 in which the cultivation of bonsai is related as an elegant activity for the samurai. Thus, only four hundred years after Buddhism was made a part of the state religion (in 685), the technique of bonsai cultivation received official approbation for the ruling class. In his collection of essays entitled Tsurczure Gusa, Kenko Yoshida criticized styles veloped into many - Period (960-1279). Pinus sp., p'en tsai on time characterized by a rise in commercialism and education. The Sung artists depicted the nouveau riche of their time. From The Pageant of Chinese Painting. Otsuke Kogeisha, Tokyo, 1936. Unsigned work from the Sung garden table. The Sung was a the bad taste of enjoying deformed trees and disproves that this form was preferred by those of his time. In the Noh drama Hachi-no-ki of the Muromachi Period (1334-1573) the author Zeami (1363-1443) develops a story about the fifth ruler of the Kamakura government who, wandering as a monk, is welcomed to the humble house of a discredited samurai. The latter is willing to sacrifice a cherished bonsai to warm the visitor. As a consequence the official is restored, and three flowering trees, 266I and pine, are established as bonsai favorites these were made as gifts from the ruler to the filial servant. There is also the legend of Hikozaemon Okubo, an elder statesman, in the government of the third Tokugawa Shogun, Iemitsu (1623-51), who threw down his most cherished bonsai while admonishing his ruler. In modern times post-World War II Prime Ministers have been bonsai enthusiasts following the lead of Count Okubo of the 17th century and Kujoji Itoh of the late 19th century. Records from the Edo Period (1615-1868) testify to the vogue of potted trees, and of such a kind as to rival the tulipomania of the 17th century Europe or the pteridomania of Victorian times. According to the knowledgeable Chuzo Onuki prices for potted trees went beyond bounds: \"As an example, according to a publication of this period named Koshienyawa, certain trees were bought and sold at exhorbitant rates according to the number of buds growing on them.\" Variegated forms of plants requiring potted culture became very popular at this time and aided the focus on the use of pots for trees and shrubs. In the late 19th century the Meiji Restoration marked the beginnings of modern Japan. The country was opened to world trade and industrialization. Urban centers were born. Also at this time the influence of the literati painters, an aesthetic movement in the arts which interpreted nature in terms of human values and which was influenced by earlier Chinese art, was being felt. Small potted trees were natural objects for the expression of the Nanga forms and tastes. Although this school was centered in Kyoto and Osaka, the traditional cultural capitals of Japan, by the time of the turn of the century, members of the new political and cultural class centered in Tokyo were vying with each other in garden-making and bonsai culture. (This forms a parallel with the rivalries among the nouveau riche of New York society at about the same time.) The early 20th century saw the formation of bonsai promotion groups with publications, auctions and exchanges. In October, 1927, bonsai from the Imperial Household Collection were exhibited at the public ceremonies held to honor the accession of Emperor Hirohito. This symbolic act reinforced in the public's mind the beauty and desirability of bonsai just as the Emperor Meiji's encouragement of the art had fueled the fad in an earlier era. Perhaps one of the best sources for the verification of craft or custom is the record of the early travellers. In the case of the the - apricot, cherry as 267 Orient, which was truly opened to the West only during the 19th and 20th centuries, these records are a staple of historical research. lished Among those curious and delightful accounts of Japan pubearly in this century, the daily record kept by Marie is one to read. Her observations rendered the incongruity Stopes of upper class life in Japan as measured against that which she knew in England: \"He has also a fine collection of dwarf trees, and I watched one of his gardeners pruning a mighty forest of pines three inches high, growing on a headland jutting out to sea in a porcelain dish.\" This and other observations of the home of Count Okuma contain a subtle humor which as we look back on the Victorian parlor clutter and love of the material, sound outrageously judgmental. We must assume that Miss Stopes found the typical English drawing room of her day as incongruous. Later during a short illness, while describing the simple beauty of her room appointments, Miss Stopes mentions \"a little bent and twisted tree\" which grew in \"a flat earthenware bowl.\" When one thinks of travellers in the modem sense, Robert Fortune of the mid-1800's serves as a model. He travelled far and seemed to miss nothing along the way. But this detailing which in other men might be cause for skepticism has been largely verified by later visitors. Fortune's observations are most important since he was looking for plants to send back to England, and searched out nurseries and gardens. Cultivation of Acorus was observed using porcelain pots, and which with the addition of rocks containing mineral crystals formed an imitative landscape (the modern term in Japanese is senkei). Fortune characterizes the garden containing these as having \"a novel and striking effect.\" This early phrase contains much of the essence of bonsai. He goes on: \"In Japan, as in China, dwarf plants are greatly esteemed; and the art of dwarfing has been brought to a high state of perfection.\" In the fall of 1843, Fortune visited Ning-po, continuing his voyage up the eastern coast. In visits to gardens of some of the Mandarins in this city he noted dwarf trees. Among these were a form of oriental also trees formed to resemble animals The presence of bonsai in China at this time may be topiary. explained as indigenous. Trading from the east coast to Japan had been common for a thousand years, which may be another way in which dwarfing of trees became common in geographical regions of both countries. Fortune also observed culture techniques for dwarf trees and commented on the species used by - 268 the Chinese. Fortune's acute observations on technique, long overlooked in the West, could be a succinct vade mecum for any fancier. In the introduction to the narrative of the U.S. Expedition to Japan, Francis Hawks mentions the wonderful dwarfing skills of the Japanese: \"... may be seen, in the miniature gardens of the towns, perfectly mature trees, of various kinds, not more than three feet high, and with heads about three feet in diameter. These dwarfed trees are often placed in flower pots. Fischer says that he saw in a box four inches long, one and a half wide, and six in height, a bamboo, a fir, and a plum tree, all thriving, and the latter in full bloom.\" In the West little notice of bonsai was taken until the London Exhibition of 1909 when an exporter, Mr. Sato, brought a display collection from Japan. Later he held private showings in New York. This entrepreneurial activity may have been spurred by plants presented as gifts to officials by the Japanese, or by individual specimens brought back by devotees of the grand tour. Previous to this in the United States Leonard and Company of Boston had a four-day auction of over 450 plants imported by Yamanako and Company. These plants were advertised as \"3 year acclimated\" and were sold in antique Chinese and Japanese containers. In 1911 the Ernest Francs collection came to New York (now at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden) and in 1913 a collection of dwarf trees was exported to the United States for Ambassador Larz Anderson (later given to the Arnold Arboretum in 1937). Many of the imported trees were doomed, since the literature available in western languages was sparse until the postwar period. (The stringent Federal Horticultural Board Embargo earlier in the century had dampened the enthusiasm for plant importation.) Short general articles appeared in the Gardeners' Chronicle of America in 1922, in the Journal Horticole et de Viticulture de Suisse in 1909 and in the Tribune Horticole in 1932. A perceptive article on the Larz Anderson Collection written by Elinor Guthrie appeared in the June 1937 issue of House Beautiful. Information on techniques of growing were not readily available to the West until the mid-1950's and later. The charge of some popular writers that the techniques of dwarfing \"have been clothed in secrecy by the orientals\" is unfair. The lack of competent translated works was the real brake on popular acceptance by the gardening public. But to turn to the third geographical area of interest in the \"The Drooping Pine\" by Li Shih Hsin (Yiian Dynasty 1280-1368). From the collection of Mr. S. M. Siu of Hong Kong, in \"Chinese Ancient Paintings Collected by S. M. Siu.\" of bonsai, we come to China. Bonsai are closely associated with Japan in the American mind. Many Japanese authors trace the word itself to growers in Azakusa Park in the mid-19th century of Japan. However we call them, bonsai or p'en tsai, it has become clear that the growing of small trees in pots has a long history in Japan and China. Further, it seems that the recent history of Japan and its close contacts with the United States has strongly influenced writers of popular works whose access to information on Chinese customs has been more limited. history Old tree, by an artist named Li Tang, the Southern Sung Dynasty ( l2th13th century). From The Pageant ot Chinese Painting, Otsuhe Kogeisha, Tokyo, 1936. The best evidence of Chinese antecedents for bonsai comes from scrolls and screens preserved to this day. For example from the Sung Period (960-1279) we have an unsigned work with figures seated about a table and a bonsai (Pinus sp.) in the lower left foreground [see The Pageant of Chinese Painting]. Other paintings from the Sung Period include Lady at a Dressing Table and Children Playing with Tops on a Garden Terrace by Su Hon-ch'en active about 1124-1162 AD. From the Ming Period (1368-1644) there is an anonymous work which includes a bonsai as an interior feature of a household [see Masterpieces of Sung, Yiian, Ming and Ch'ing Painting]. A work by Ch'on Ying depicts large artfully trained trees in porcelain tubs flanking a stair (a work executed in Japan), and those of another work by the same artist show a tree kept small but with roots in the ground. Those in the small tubs are certainly bonsai in the modem sense. The Ming paintings Stories of Ladies executed by Chin Ying are delightful vignettes of court life. Two of these depict bonsai which modern fanciers would be proud to own. The first shows a terrace scene where a lady is busying herself at a long lacquer table in front of a large screen; on the terrace and used by the artist as a focal counterpoint is an unmistakable bonsai. An- 271 scene shows a garden with mother, maids and children; table are three bonsai in the modern sense along with a bowl of potted bulbs. Another Ming work by Tu Ling Nei-shih describes a terrace scene with a bonsai as a table ornament. One of the best depictions of a bonsai of any age is that executed by Li Shih Hsin of the Yiian Dynasty (1280-1368). Called the Drooping Pine it is now in the collection of Mr. S. M. Siu of Hong Kong. Mr. Siu, a distinguished collector of art, has given permission to reproduce the photo of his treasure. In the Ching Period (1644-1911) the artist Erh-Ch'i depicts a truly modern bonsai planted in a tray with rocks. Due to the turbulence of Chinese political life in the late 19th century and after the death of the Empress T'zu-Hsi, evidence of bonsai as a Chinese garden art is sparse in western sources. However, Fortune's observations combined with much later observers gives us confidence that bonsai continued as a part of Chinese culture into modern times. Dr. F. A. McClure, noted botanist and teacher in China, reported on A National Art Club Exhibit of Chinese Table Plants and Paintings in 1930. Among those exhibited were species of Casuarina, Paeonia, Juniper and Buxus : \"dwarfed in what is known in the West as the Japanese style.\" In the notice of an exhibition he refers to these \"dwarfed plants and miniature landscapes\" or \"this peculiar form of Chinese art.\" Modern Chinese bonsai fanciers such as Mr. Wu Yee-sun of Hong Kong continue this time-honored art whose continued existence on the mainland is problematical. There have been many reasons advanced to account for the popularity of small, trained, potted trees. The earliest records of potted trees are found in references to the ruling classes of China and Japan. At the courts in early cities, in temples and monasteries, men confined in restricted space needed reminders of nature. The trees may have carried religious sentiment but later became popular as ornamental objects. As cities became larger the need was even more pressing among those who could afford the art, especially in the river and coastal cities where rapid growth and agricultural needs denuded the natural vegetation. The merchant class emulated the hobbies of the ruling families. In modem times with mega-urbanization the cultivation of dwarf trees has been espoused by individuals from every social level, and, in many parts of the world. The origins of bonsai may very well be traced to the T'ang Period of China. Verification in works of art go back to the Sung Period but it must be remembered it was only at that time on a other 273 that artists depicted the courts, homes and gardens as a common theme. The custom, among many others, was adopted in Japan possibly as early as the Fujiwara Period (794-1192). The art has been in continual practice in both China and Japan for over 1,000 years and in Japan it is considered as an art on the same level as painting and sculpture. In the West the custom has become widespread only within recent memory. It is difficult to define the appeal of these demanding tree forms. Perhaps the one common denominator which explains the lure of bonsai is their expressiveness of freedom. As man sees himself crowded by burgeoning populations and a rapidly narrowing ratio of square footage per person, the bonsai becomes symbolic, as it did in another context for the Buddhists, of a long-abandoned, far distant better time when man was a natural phenomenon in and not above nature. CHARLES R. LONG For further reference see: Itoh, Yoshimi, Bonsai Origins, Bonsai: Vol. 3, 1969. no. 1, 3-5. Spring Onuki, Chuzo, Bonsai, Tokyo, Jitsugyo No Nihon Sha, 1964. Fortune, Robert, Yedo and Peking. A Narrative of a Journey to the Capitals of Japan and China, London, John Murray, 1863. Yee-sun, Wu, Man Lung Garden Artistic Pot Plants, Hong Kong, Wing Lung Bank Ltd., 1969. Bonsai, Yee-sun, Wu, Public Lecture on Artistic Pot Plants University of Hong Kong, Feb. 10, 1971. (Copy available at - Library of Arnold Arboretum and Library of the Massachu- setts Horticultural Society.) Ming Huang Peeping at Bathing Court Attendants. Anonymous. From Masterpieces of Sung, Yiian, Ming, Ch'ing Painting, compiled by The Fine Arts Academy, Tokyo, 1931. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bonsai: Nature in Miniature","article_sequence":2,"start_page":274,"end_page":283,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24547","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24ea36b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Vining, Donald M.","article_content":"Bonsai: Nature in Miniature The 1914 Arnold Arboretum expedition to Japan led by Ernest H. Wilson produced, among other things, some excellent photographs which clearly show the natural inspiration for many of the forms of bonsai that most specialized kind of Japanese horticulture. Pictures such as these can help put the hobbyist in touch with the source of his art and can be of particular importance to bonsai enthusiasts who wish to follow the Japanese models for bonsai but who do not have the experience of the Japanese landscape. The first part of this article is devoted to the relationship between nature and bonsai, and the last part of the article will relate some specific bonsai styles to such scenes as Wilson photographed in Japan in 1914. A bonsai is a conscious attempt to suggest a natural scene. The first bonsai and still the ideal of bonsai were a part of nature. They were naturally dwarfed old trees dug and brought home to grow in containers in the collector's garden. Though the trees were of interest in themselves, their real beauty lay in their capacity to suggest the total landscape from which they had come. The gnarled and bleached old tree, potted and growing in the serenity of a garden, not only gave evidence of its struggle to survive but also suggested by its form the cliffs to which it had clung, the valley below the cliffs, the river in the valley, and perhaps the wind which had so tortured its branches. All of the forms of bonsai have a natural model. Each different kind is intended to take the viewer back to the great tree, the forest, or the island-dotted vista which inspired it. If a particular creation cannot transport the viewer into the total landscape, it is esthetically less than it should be. As the practice of the art of bonsai has spread from Japan to other parts of the world, its direct connection with the landscape which inspired its traditional forms has lessened. Although this separation has been remedied somewhat by relying on native plants and landscapes for inspiration, especially in semi-tropical and tropical areas, most bonsai hobbyists still prefer to emulate the classical styles and scenic compositions of the Japanese. - 274 I 275 Fig. l. 1914. Pinus parviflora. Slopes of Adzuma-san. Uzen Province. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 277 The result is that many bonsai are created in the image of other bonsai, copies of copies, and not in response to an immediate environment. Photographic studies of the Japanese landscape can help the bonsai enthusiast recapture the source and spirit of his art and understand that the rules of bonsai are derived from nature that, in fact, faithfulness to a natural model is the first rule of bonsai. Without a knowledge of the natural model, the bonsai hobbyist is likely to be a technician bound by convention. With a knowledge of the natural model, he has a context in which he can understand the \"why\" of the techniques he has learned. This will give him a basis to make his own judgements with confidence, and show him what a large range the bonsai artist has for expression if nature is his teacher and he has eyes to see. - as Models The most basic style of bonsai is the formal upright. A bonsai trained in this style has a perfectly vertical trunk with clouds of foliage sweeping alternately left, right, and to the rear. The three Japanese white pines (Pinus parviflora) in Fig. 1 are good examples of the kind of trees which a bonsai in the formal upright style means to suggest. The trees tower over the landscape, each magnificent in its own right. In contrast to the formality of the pines in Fig. 1, the Pinus thunbergii in Fig. 2 is more sinuous and graceful though no less impressive as a single tree. These qualities in a bonsai would classify the tree as an informal upright. The growing top of the tree is more or less directly above the base of the tree (upright), but the curving lines of trunk and branches are \"informal.\" Single Trees Trees and Forest Plantings Bonsai plantings which contain more than two trees are called Yose-ue. Look again at Fig. 1. The relative heights of the three trees and their place in the composition of the photograph could serve as a model for a Yose-ue planting and suggest Multiple such a landscape as Wilson saw. A group planting, however, need not suggest an entire landscape. The three Japanese red pines (Pinus densiflora) in Fig. 3 are more impressive planted together than either one would be alone. Two or three small trees which are undistinguished by themselves may look quite handsome in composition. Visable proof of the age of the trees in the photograph is supplied by the vestiges of dead limbs which project from the trunks. Fig. 2. Pinus thunbergii. Village Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914. of Shitogo behind Yakushima. Fig. 3. Pinus densiflora with torii at base of Kirishima. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914. Top: Fig. 4. Pinus densiflora forming pure woods. Northern slopes of Fuji-san, Yoshida, Shruga Province. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914. Bottom: Fig. 5. Remarkable cliffs of gray sandstone with Pinus Matsushima. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914 thunbergii, near 2so ~I Such remains of dead limbs, called jin, are often left or created bonsai to enhance the illusion of age. Wilson's photograph of a Japanese red pine forest (Fig. 4) contains two of the elements which one expects to find in a bonsai forest planting the illusion of depth and triangular groupings of the trees. Depth in the photograph is an illusion too. The trees in the background are not small; they are simply farther away from the photographer than the trees in the foreground. That same illusion of depth can be created in a bonsai forest planting by placing the tallest trees toward the front of the container and sharply decreasing the height of the trees toward the rear of the planting. Nature arranged this forest, and the bonsai hobbyist can take a lesson from the triangular scheme of composition which appears in the photograph. The tallest tree is forward in the composition and forms a triangle with the tall trees on the left and right of the main tree. Other trees in the picture fill in between the principal trees and form triangular sub-groupings with the ones on the left and right, uniting the entire composion - tion. Islands and Rocky Cliffs Ishi-tsuki is a style of bonsai which combines plant material and stones into compositions which present a miniature landscape, the rocks serving as landscape features as well as the container for the plants. Two of the most popular features of the terrain to reproduce are rocky cliffs and small islands. Fig. 5 shows a group of sandstone cliffs at a seashore. The photograph is a good guide for selecting the appropriate material to reproduce the scene as a bonsai composition. The rocks have a vertical orientation and are angular but smooth - evidence of the work of waves. The plant material is sparse, weathered, and tenacious. Notice the Japanese black pine (Pinus thunbergii ) clinging to one of the cliffs as if it had been planted there and trained by some bonsai master. The composition would be displayed in a shallow, water-filled tray a bonsai - sea. The is photograph of the island (Fig. 6) as an ishi-tsuki equally instructive. The stone used to represent the I model island Fig. 6. Pinus parviflora. Lake Towada, Northern Hondo. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914. Fig. 7. Larix gmelini showing effects of strong winds from Sea of Okhotsk. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1914. 282 should be to its lush. \"trees\" on the island should have an open appearance so that each is distinct against the background of sky and water. Ornament is appropriate in such a composition; the small house in the picture is a pleasing addition to the scene. horizontally oriented and rough-textured in contrast placid sea. The plant material can be copious, varied, and Since the silhouette of the composition is important, the Special Landscapes The trees which grow in winds blowing constantly from one direction reflect that pressure in their shapes. The grove of Dahurian larches (Larix gmelini) in Fig. 7 clearly show in their wind-swept branches the direction of the prevailing winds. This is one way in which nature contorts her natural forms, and is the inspiration for the wind-swept style of bonsai. A bonsai in this manner is trained so that its trunk and branches sweep in one direction, bent by the pressure of an imaginary, but constant, wind. Conclusion a grove of American beeches can be as instructive the bonsai hobbyist as a grove of Japanese red pines and the coast of Maine as suggestive of scenic bonsai as Japan's Inland Sea, it is nevertheless valuable to examine the wellsprings of the art of bonsai. Such an examination can help to recouple the link between nature and bonsai. That done, the hobbyist can hopefully see new forms and material around him. Or, if he chooses to follow the Japanese models, he can do it with understanding. Either way his art will be less detached, less artificial, and nearer to the goal of nature in miniature. Although to DONALD M. VINING ~ The Japanese garden of Johonet C. Wicks, Durham, N.H. Photo: P. Bruns. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants in Early Japanese Poetry","article_sequence":3,"start_page":284,"end_page":293,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24550","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eab6d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sullivan, Sally Lindfors","article_content":" 285 No matter what the motive religious, horticultural or artistic the Japanese have always treated plants with a special reverence. An intense appreciation of plants is evident in the magnificent Japanese gardens, Shinto shrines, paintings, and especially in Japanese poetry. From the earliest Japanese writings to the present day, in fact, plants are the most dominant single motif in all of Japanese poetry. To appreciate the remarkable continuity of this traditional subject, it is valuable to look at plants as they first appeared in Japanese literature. The two oldest extant Japanese books, the Kojiki and the Manyoshu, can tell us a great deal about the early attitudes towards, and uses of, certain plants. The Kojiki, completed around 720 A.D., is Japan's earliest \"Record of Ancient Matters.\" It is a compilation of myths, legends and songs as well as an \"official\" genealogy which established exactly who was related to the Emperor for the purpose of providing correct favors from the throne. The Manyoshu, completed about 780 A.D., only sixty years after the Kojiki, is Japan's earliest anthology of purely Japanese poetry. Both books contain court poetry as well as poetry and songs that obviously have a humble origin. Plants are referred to in three important ways in these books: first, as useful objects in eighth century culture in Japan; second, as analogies to describe human feelings or beauty; and third, as a source of comfort and wisdom. - * Useful plants.* Aside from were tury Japan with used used the thick leaves of the evergreen Castanopsis cuspidata as \"bowls\" for rice (Manyoshu II: 141-2). A very large oak, Quercus acutissima, provided elegant leaves which were used * providing food, plants also supplied eighth cena wide variety of useful items. Cryptomerias for building boats (Kojiki II : 102: 5). Countryfolk Japanese, Latin, and English names are identified in a list at the end of this paper. \"Branch of Flowering Plum.\" Japanese Kahemono painting by Jakuchu (ca. 1713-1800). Photo: Fogg Art Museum, Harvard University. 286 at banquets (Kojiki II: 102: 5). The cups from the of this same oak provided a greyish dye for clothing (Manyoshu MXVIII: 4106-9). Another dye was obtained from the juice of the atane plant (Kojihi 27: 21-25). Several textiles were woven from plant fibres. For instance: as cups acorns Under silken curtains, The fluffy ones, Under covers of MUSI fibres, The soft ones, Under cover of TAKU fibres, The rustling ones, You will embrace With your arms White as a rope of TAKU fibres. ( Kojihi 28 as : 19-29 ) Taku refers to the fibres made from the tree popularly known the paper mulberry, Broussonetia papyrifera, which is not a mulberry but is in the mulberry family, and has had a long history of material use for humans. In ancient times a particularly strong paper made from its bark was used for deeds in China; in modern times it is used for stencils because of its capacity for holding the necessary wax material. Strong, thin, and flexible rope and textile fibres can also be made from the bark. Taku fibres are still used as comfortably warm and flexibly sturdy lining material for silk, hence making it possible to wear quite delicate-looking silks in the worst of winters. The paper mulberry, however, is not particularly attractive and has an aggressive growth habit. The Japanese consider it a rather unaesthetic weed. Hence, though they might use its bark for strong white paper to write a poem to a pine or cherry tree, the paper mulberry itself has probably never been considered the subject for such a poem, much less a plant for anyone's garden. Its usefulness is its only merit. Plants used as analogies to describe human feelings or beauty. Most of the poetic similes and metaphors that appear in the Kojihi and Manyoshu are related to specific plants. For ex- ample : Her teeth were white Like SIPI acorns, like water-chestnuts. ( Kojihi II : 101: 32, 33 ) 287 Or, in reference to the \"pepper plant\": Beneath the fence Grows a pepper plant. It bums the mouth; Like this sting. I will not forget, But will smite them relentlesslyI Kojiki II: And 52: 32-38) again, in reference to this period's ideally docile wife: Your head drooping, Like the lone reed of Susuki grass On the mountainside. ( Kojiki I : 27: 39-41) The conventional Japanese epithet for the young wife is, in fact, that she is \"like the young grass\" (Kojiki I: 27: 46, 47). The susuki grass, or Miscanthus sinensis, is an autumnal flower that grows profusely on the mountainsides in the warmer regions of Japan. Like the ideal Japanese wife of this period, the susuki is not particularly elegant, but is very graceful when it flowers and \"droops\" itself on the mountainsides. Willow trees and bamboo stems also have a pliant gracefulness which can be used in poetry to describe the ideal wife: Beauty was hers that glowed like autumn mountains And grace as of the swaying bamboo stem. (Manyoshu II: 217-9) hand, is described in terms tree: The ideal concubine, of the tatibana (wild on the other orange) Its upper branches Are withered by the birds' nesting; Its lower branches Are withered by the people's plucking But the three-chestnut Middle branches Like these best branches Is the ruddy maiden ... ( Kojiki II: 102: 6-19) Often certain plant images are used to glorify the Emperor. For instance, when a mistress of the court is about to be executed for having let a leaf fall into a cup being presented to the Emperor, she saves herself by comparing the grandeur of the tall Albizia julibrissin. Photo: P. Bruns. elm tree with the stature and divine Its upper branches generosity of the Emperor: Spread out over the heavens: Its middle branches Spread out over the eastern lands: Its lower branches Spread out over the rural regions. The leaves at the tip Of the upper branches; Touch down On the middle branches; The leaves at the tip Of the middle branches Touch down On the lower branches; Drop, as floating oil Into the beautiful jeweled cup Presented By the girl of Mipe. ( Kojihi III : 133 : . 35-54) 289 Plants as a source of comfort and urisdom Nature is never seen as a threatening or malicious force in the Kojihi and the Manyoshu. Plants are treated with a sense of affinity and awe. In both the Kojihi and the Manyoshu, for instance, we find poems addressed directly to solitary pine trees. A young hero in the Kojihi is on his way to a decisive encounter with a great white boar; he sings, perhaps wistfully, for he will need help of some kind in this endeavor: 0 lone pine, Were you a man, I would give you a sword to wear, I would dress you with clothes, 0 lone pine -O my brother! ( Kojihi II : 86 : 13-23 ) This sense of kinship with the pine tree grows into veneration in the Manyoshu. A certain prince admires the age and constancy of the evergreen: 0 solitary pine, how many Generations of man have you known? Is it because of your great age That the passing winds sing in so clear f a tone? (Manyoshu VI: 1042) Veneration for an aging parent is often expressed images related to the longevity of the conifers: through Like the Flourish, my noble mother pines and junipers. (Manyoshu XIX: 4169-70) About the most treacherous natural event in the Manyoshu is when the autumn leaves, which are nonetheless flying about magnificently (Manyoshu II: 135-7), prevent the poet from seeing his wife's home. The events most often remembered by a surviving spouse are the moments shared with nature, when they went to look at the elm trees in autumn (Manyoshu II: 210-2) or were \"Bedecked with flowers in spring\" (Manyoshu II: 196-8). A dead husband or wife may be remembered by certain flowers in a garden: The fringed pink in my garden Which my beloved planted For her remembrance in autumn-tide Has all come out in bloom. (Manyoshu III: 464) 290 It is significant constant source that plantlife is seen, without of comfort and concern. exception, as a When so little of his life remained, He asked, 'Are the bush-clovers Yet in flower?' - Alas, my master! (Manyoshu III: 455) Certain plants take on symbolic meanings which need only be mentioned in the poetry in order to conjure up specific associations. For instance, a Lady writes to her lover: The silk-tree that blooms in daytime And sleeps the love-sleep at night, Your lady should not see alone. Look well on this, my slave! (Manyoshu VIII: 140-1) _ This silk-tree is the highly treasured Albizia julibrissin. It is a graceful tree, whose twice-compound leaves grow in such a way that there is never an odd number of leaflets on any rhachis. As the poem states, the tree blooms in the daytime; at night the leaves fold up, two by two, signifying couples sleeping together. Each season brings the delights of new sensations which are linked with certain plants. Early spring is celebrated with poems welcoming the plum blossom. The plum tree's rough, rugged trunk and angular branches have blossoms that look strikingly fragile in comparison, especially since they often bloom while snow is still on the ground. _ _ When with the first month comes the spring, Thus breaking sprays of plum-blossoms, We'll taste pleasure to the full. (Manyoshu V: 815) The luscious and thick-smelling cherry blossoms appear later spring. Cherries are dazzling when in bloom, but the flowers fall quickly; hence the Japanese poems about cherry trees often express a certain melancholy. in the I would wear it When the spring came Alas, my 'cherry flower' Is fallen and gone! I thought - (Manyoshu XVI: 3786-7) 291 The apotheosis of plant appreciation is the following poem about Manyoshu: The flowers that blow In the autumn field When I count them on my fingers, There they are The flowers of seven kinds. - autumn from the The 'tail flowers,' the flowers Of the kuzu vine and patrinia, The fringed pink, and the agrimony, And last the blithe 'morning face.' (Manyoshu VIII: 1537-8) The 'tail flower' is the Miscanthus sinensis; its color is generally yellow, with some white and purple. The Kuzu vine, or Pueraria lobata, is a creeping vine with reddish-purple flowers. Patrinia scabiosaefolia is a yellow wildflower, often as tall as three to four feet. The 'hemp agrimony,' or Eupatorium chinense var. simplicifolium, is a member of the chrysanthemum family, though its flowers are generally smaller than the normal chrysanthemum. It has a particularly strong, pungent odor, often used for rich perfumes. By simply listing certain plants the poet has created for the Japanese reader many sights, smells and connotations related to autumn. The Kojihi and Manyoshu mark the beginning of a long poetic tradition which focussed its thoughts and feelings on plantlife and the changing of the seasons. This tradition is not confined to poetry, though Japan's poetry developed a few centuries before her painting. In this tradition we see the Japanese poet at one with his natural environment and with the plants that grow in it. SALLY LINDFORS SULLIVAN Acknowledgments Dr. S. Y. Hu, Arnold Arboretum, provided much ethnobotanical information, particularly about the paper mulberry and hardy silk-tree. Also thanks to: Dr. E. A. Cranston and Dr. E. Bruce Brooks, Department of Far Eastern Languages, Harvard University; Pat Shen, Museum of Fine Arts; Louise Cort, Fogg 292I Art Museum; S. Sutton and E. Bernstein, Arnold Arboretum; K. Roby, Gray Herbarium; George E. Potter, Harvard-Yenching Institute; Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., Arnold Arboretum. Bibliography Kojihi, translated by Donald L. Philippi, Princeton University Press, University of Tokyo Press, 1969. -Manyoshu, Nippon Gakujutsu Shinkokai Translation, Columbia University Press, New York, 1965. Ball, Katherine M., \"Decorative Motives of Oriental Art, Part II: The Plum Blossom,\" Japan, date uncertain, ca. 1919, pp. 13-19. JAPANESE, LATIN, AND ENGLISH NAMES OF PLANTS IN EARLY JAPANESE POETRY Cryptomerias - Cryptomeria japonica (L.F. ) Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunberg) Schottky = = = D. Don = Sugi. Tsubura-jii = = = Kashiwa Quercus acutissima Carruthers akane Atane - Rubia cordifolia L. var. munjista Miq. Ramie Musi mushi Boehmeria nivea Gaudichaud Taku - Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. Pine matsu Cherry - sakura Pasania edulis Makino shii = Mateba-shii Sipi = = = = = = = or Tsubura-jii = Castanopsis cuspidata (Thunberg) Schottky Water-chestnut Hishi Trapa japonica Flerov. or shiroguwai Eleochoris dulcis (Burman f. ) Trin. = hajinami Asakuran zansho Zanthoxylum DC. forma inernze (Makino) Makino piperatum Susuki grass Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. Tatibana - = Tachibana Citrus tachibana (Makino) T. Tanaka Kuri Castanea Three-chestnut mitsu-gure probably crenata Sieb. and Zucc. Fringed pink - = nadeshiko = Dianthus superbus L. Bush-clover Lespedeza spp. = hagi Pepper plant - = = = - = = = = - 293 Silk tree Albizia julibrissin Durazz. Nemu-no-ki Plum tree ume Prunus mume Sieb. & Zucc. Morning face Ipomoea nil L. asagao Tail flower susuki Miscanthus sinensis Anderss. Kuzu Kudzu Pueraria lobata ( Willd. ) Ohwi Patrinia = Omina-eshi Patrinia scabiosaefolia Fisch. Agrimony Hiyodoribana = Eupatorium chinense L. simplicifolium (Makino) Kitam. - = - = = - = = = = = = - = = var. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. GEORGE E. POTTER E. BRUCE BROOKS The art of dwarfing trees, as commonly practised both in China and Japan, is in reality very simple and easily understood. It is based upon one of the commonest principles of vegetable physiology. Anything which has a tendency to check or retard the flow of the sap in trees, also prevents, to a certain extent, the formation of wood and leaves. This may be done by grafting, by confining the roots in a small space, by withholding water, by bending the branches, and in a hundred other ways, which all proceed upon the same principle. This principle is perfectly understood by the Japanese, and they take advantage of it to make nature subservient to this particular whim of theirs. Robert Fortune in \"Three Years' Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China.\" V. 2. 1847. - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Japanese Theory- American Practice","article_sequence":4,"start_page":294,"end_page":296,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24549","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eab28.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Derderian, Constance E.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Japanese Theory - American at Practice Mrs. Constance E. Derderian is Honorary Curator of Bonsai the Arnold Arboretum, is a director of the American Bonsai Society, and has worked with bonsai for many years. She has studied at the Brooklyn Botanic Garden with Frank Okamura, Kan Yashiroda, Lynn Perry, and others. In 1967 her studies took her to Japan where she had the opportunity to study with Kyuzo Murata. Mrs. Derderian is a leading authority on Bonsai in the northeastern part of the United States, and is well known throughout the country. She writes, lectures, and teaches classes in bonsai. In 1969 Mrs. Derderian was asked by the Arnold Arboretum to direct and carry out a program of pruning and re-potting the Larz Anderson collection of bonsai. Mrs. Derderian describes below one of the incidents which took place during the delicate operations. Ed. For many years I have been interested in the bonsai of the Arnold Arboretum. Now I had been asked to do the job of pruning and re-potting the collection. I was apprehensive, but I wanted above all to help the Arboretum care for its bonsai. Fortunately Robert Hebb, Assistant Horticulturist, and Henry Goodell, Head Pruner and Assistant Superintendent, were assigned to help me. We worked in the greenhouse by the desk of Alfred Fordham, Propagator, so the bonsai were not abandoned to a total stranger. The first of the five large Chamaecyparis presented a problem immediately. The tree is about three and one-half feet tall and the root ball, out of the container, measured about twenty inches in width and twelve to fourteen inches in depth. The trunk had split vertically at the base, severing the lowest branch on the right. The split began above the branch and extended down to the soil. When the tree was moved the branch wobbled I badly. Bob and Hank both said it would have to be cut offI couldn't bear it. The branch had such interesting form and was definitely alive and in good health. We called Al over and I explained the theory of cutting pie-shaped wedges from the soil ball of old bonsai in order to renew the roots. I suggested that 294 cut a wedge but begin the cuts at either side of the split at the base of the trunk. Then there would be a possibility of taking the roots which were feeding that branch. The result we would be a 175 year old bonsai in half an hour. The problem was that although I knew the theory well I had never had an opportunity to practice it. This was a larger wedge than was recommended. If it were too large we risked killing the large tree. If too small a wedge were taken, or there were not enough root structure, the branch would be lost. After a discussion the unanimous decision was to test the theory. I marked the wedge and began to cut, but the huge root ball was too much for me. Bob took over and neatly and carefully, with a very thin root-saw, cut the wedge away from the root ball. We had cut away as small a wedge as we dared but after it was cut it looked huge! Two years before while in Japan I had bought a very handsome old bonsai container, not because I had a use for it, but because it was beautiful. It was perfect for the new tree. In my excitement I knocked it off the table and it shattered. We had to use a shorter container which was too 296 for the graceful lines of the branch, and too narrow to allow proper placement, but it was all we had. We potted up the \"tree\" and Hank went to work skillfully smoothing up the ragged edges of the split and carving out the soft spots. There was only a narrow strip of living tissue connecting branch and root so it was important to leave as much support as possible. The part of the main trunk which was still attached was cleaned and allowed to whiten like the broken parts of trees in nature. Hank also made a crutch from pruned materials to use Japanese style to support the extending part of the branch. We had done all we could at that time. We offered the misfortune of the broken container to the evil gods, and put the new-old bonsai into the care of the greenhouse staff. Two years later the larger tree is thriving. The smaller tree is beginning to fill out and makes one of the most interesting trees in the collection. The theory which I had learned in Japan, plus American knowledge of growing plants, had worked together to save both the old tree and its branch. heavy CONSTANCE E. DERDERIAN Correction on The caption for the picture of Syringa chinensis which appears page 117 of the May issue of Arnoldia should read \"Syringa chinensis at Highland Park, Rochester, New York.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation of Some Aged Bonsai","article_sequence":5,"start_page":297,"end_page":299,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24551","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24eaf26.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Propagation of Some Aged Bonsai Plants The Arnold Arboretum bonsai, some of the oldest and largest in the United States, were imported more than half a century ago. Through the years changes have taken place in the characteristics of the plants, and early in 1969 it was decided to have a program of renovation. The ensuing alterations of Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Squarrosa' (Moss cypress) and the C. obtusa cultivars (Hinoki cypress) led to the removal of excess parts which provided propagating material. Ordinarily propagation of these subjects would have been done in autumn, but pruning the bonsai took place in March so the cuttings were processed at that time. specimens of bonsai Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Squarrosa' (Moss cypress). Juvenile. A Fixed When plants are grown from seeds, characteristics which appear on the young seedlings often differ greatly from those which are found later in the plant's life. In the case of conifers, the first or juvenile growth is gradually replaced by mature growth thereby leading to a normal plant. The interval between the advent of maturity and the time of flowering and fruiting has been termed the \"adolescent phase\". These stages represent the normal course of events in the development of conifers. However, in some conifers particularly in the genera Chamaecyparis and Thuja the juvenile to adult transition may fail to take place and some plants remain in the juvenile phase. These have been termed \"fixed juveniles\". Plants which remain physiologically juvenile also retain a trait associated with the seedling stage the ability to root readily. Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Squarrosa' is a fixed juvenile. The cuttings taken from our 75 year old bonsai plant, which is 30 inches tall, rooted easily. When propagating conifers at the Arnold Arboretum cuttings of large size are preferred. Figure 1 illustrates plants which arose from rooted cuttings of our 75 year old C. pisifera 'Squarrosa'. They have grown but little since being potted and the multi-branched framework which is evident was present when the cuttings were made. Each cutting consisted of at least several years' growth. Thirty cuttings were divided into two equal lots. These were inserted in a polyethylene plastic propagating chamber. A - 297 298 medium consisting of one-half sand and one-half Perlite was used. Lot #was treated with a root-inducing substance containing 0.8% indolebutyric acid in talc with the fungicide Thiram added at the rate of 15%. Lot #2 was treated with a liquid formulation of indolebutyric acid plus napthalene acetic acid at the rate of 5,000 ppm each. In both cases 87% of the cuttings produced excellent root systems. Chamaecyparis obtusa Seven unnamed the Larz Anderson gift are in the Arboretum's bonsai coloriginal lection. They range in age from 105 to 230 years. When raised from seeds Chamaecyparis obtusa has given rise to numerous dwarf and slow growing forms. The Arboretum's bonsai plants are not typical of the species and must have originated as seedling mutations or from propagules of such mutations. Figue 2 shows rooted cuttings of Chamaecyparis obtusa which were started in March of 1969. They, too, were made from multibranched cuttings consisting of several years' growth. The following table shows two methods by which the cuttings from three plants were treated together with percentages of success. (Hinohi False Cypress) cultivars of Chamaecyparis obtusa from ALFRED J. FORDHAM 299 Fig. 1. Plants of Chamaecyparis pisifera `Squarrosa' propagated from a 75-year-old bonsai. The multi-branched framework which is evident was present when the cuttings were made. Photo: Alfred J. Fordham. Chamaecyparis obtusa var. rooted from multi-branched cuttings consisting of several years' growth. Photo: Alfred J. Fordham. Plants of "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Donald Wyman Received Scott Award","article_sequence":6,"start_page":300,"end_page":301,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24548","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24ea76f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"DR. DONALD WYMAN RECEIVES SCOTT AWARD The following news release from Swarthmore of interest to the readers of Amoldia: College will be June 1, 1971 Donald Wyman, honored as \"a man whose devotion to horticulture has been absolute\" is the recipient of The Arthur Hoyt Scott Garden and Horticulture Award of $1,000 and a round medal with a man cherishing and cultivating the ground on one side and the tree of life on the other. The Scott Award was accorded Dr. Wyman by a special committee chaired by Swarthmore College President Robert Cross. Dr. Wyman, Horticulturist Emeritus of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, has continued his horticultural activities since his retirement from the Arboretum last year. He is the author of five books, three of which have become standard reference works: Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens ; Trees for American Gardens; The Arnold Arboretum Garden Book; Ground Cover Plants: and The Saturday Morning Gardener. In addition, in 1970 he published a garden encyclopedia, and he has contributed more than 1000 articles on woody plants to major horticultural publications of the U.S. and Europe. career of advancing knowledge of horticulture, Dr. has served as president and director of the American Wyman Horticultural Society and of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta. He has been a director of the American Institute of Park Executives and trustee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, of which he is now an honorary trustee. He has lectured widely and is the recipient of numerous other American and European Awards, including the Veitch Memorial Medal of the Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain in 1969 and the George Robert White Medal of Honor of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society last year. Dr. Wyman graduated from Pennsylvania State College in 1926, and received his M.S.A. and Ph.D. in horticulture from Cornell Uni- In his versity. 300 301 The Scott Award was founded in 1929 by Owen Moon, class of 1896, in memory of Arthur Hoyt Scott, owner of the Scott Paper Company and a Swarthmore graduate of 1895, who became treasurer of the American Peony Society and later a founder and treasurer of the American Iris Society. Given 17 times since 1930, the last time in 1970 to Dr. Aubrey Hildreth, the Award is designed to promote a deeper consciousness and love and a greater knowledge of plants, flowers, and gardening. In Moon's terms it is awarded by a committee chaired by the College President and composed of one representative each from the Horticultural Societies of Pennsylvania, New York, and Massachusetts, a nationally known garden or nature organization, a nationally known flower society, an editor in the general Philadelphia area, and two persons appointed by the Chairman. The medal is usually presented at the Commencement exercises of the College, although Dr. Wyman will not be able to attend. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation, which has offices at Swarthmore, maintains an extensive flower and tree collection on the campus. Correction The caption for the cover of the March issue of Arnoldia should read, \"Forsythia ovata at the Arnold Arboretum.\" "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":7,"start_page":302,"end_page":304,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24546","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d24ea326.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Ecological Studies. Analysis and Synthesis, edited by J. Jacobs, Munich; O. L. Lange, Wurzburg; J. S. Olson, Oak Ridge; W. Wieser, Innsbruck. Vol 1. Analysis of Temperate Forest Ecosystems, edited by David E. Reichle. Vol. 2. Integrated Experimental Ecology. Methods and Results of Ecosystem Research in the German Soiling Project, edited by Heinz Ellenberg. attempt to provide prompt approaches to the analysis of ecosystems and their interacting parts. Ecological studies will bring together methods or techniques of sampling and investigation and present results as well as hypotheses. Analysis will include biological, physical and chemical approaches while Synthesis will draw together scattered and new information to answer or clarify specific questions. The two initial publications are part of the International Biological Program, a cooperative effort on behalf of the world's scientists to understand, through research and synthesis, the new A series of concise books will on world-wide information basic processes of environmental systems which support life on this planet. Volume 1, Analysis of Temperate Forest Systems, is a collection of well-edited and coordinated papers presented at a workshop-seminar held in Gatlinburg, Tennessee, in 1968. The objectives of this meeting were to summarize much of the existing data and to establish a conceptual framework for the analysis of an ecosystem while emphasizing the temperate deciduous forest. Eighteen papers by authors from nine countries are grouped into six basic topics, an analysis of an ecosystem; primary producers; tions ; nutrient consumer organisms; decomposer popula- and hydrologic cycles. Well-selected bibliographies accompany each paper. As an appendix the series editor has presented a geographic index of world ecosystem. The ecosystem outline ordination is slightly modified from that of the UNESCO Committee on Classification and Mapping. The end-papers are useful additions to the book. Inside the front cover is a map rendition in color, after Leith, of the predicted annual fixation of carbon for the land cycling 302 303 and oceans of the world. The map inside the back cover is printed in black and white, with symbols and numbers modified from Bazilevich et al showing the continental ecosystem patterns and the reconstructed organic carbon in the live biomass prior to the Iron age. Volume 2, Integrated Experimental Ecology, is subtitled \"Methods and Results of Ecosystem Research in the German Solling Project.\" Solling is an area of forest and grassland near Gottingen, Germany. The research was begun in 1966 as one of the pilot projects of the IBP and involved scientists in a variety of disciplines. As the studies continue at the present time this series of papers by 33 German scientists represents a progress report and an opportunity to examine and compare the methods being used. Both volumes are technical publications not designed for the browser. They are excellent summary publications of the methods of modern ecological studies and as such are fundamental for students investigating undisturbed units of vegetation. There is no indication of the eventual scope or duration of the series but one hopes that all of the work of the IBP program can be incorporated in this series for comparison with these excellent volumes on the temperate forest biome. masses _ R. A. H. Edited by systems. David E. Reichle, Analysis of Temperate Forest EcoNew York: Springer-Verlag. 1970. 304 pages, 91 figures. $15.20. Edited by Heinz Ellenberg, Integrated Experimental Ecology. New York: Springer-Verlag. 1971. 214 pages, 53 figures. $16.80. Flora of New Zealand, Vol. 2. Indigenous Tracheophyta. Monocotyledones except Graminaea, by Lucy B. Moore and Elizabeth Edgar. a small country, has a flora of great interest and it is a pleasure to see in print the second volume of \"Flora of New Zealand\", making now available a modern floristic treatment of all, except the grasses, its indigenous vascular plants. On the death in 1957 of the late Dr. H. H. Allen, for many years director of Botany Division, Depart- New Zealand, although biogeographical 304 (D. S. 1. R.), and behind the flora project, Dr. Lucy Moore of prime D. S. 1. R. saw through the press the whole of volume 1 (dicotyledons and pteridophytes). She and her colleague, Dr. Elizabeth Edgar, have successfully produced an interesting and useful treatment of the monocotyledons. The classification is based on that of Hutchinson and, apart from the grasses, there are included 22 families of monocots, the largest by far being the Cyperaceae with 167 species. For each genus and species there is a description and notes on distribution and for each species reference to the place of publication and citation of the most important synonyms. There is also a great deal of interesting information in notes, often lengthy, which might have been set in something larger than 6pt type. Reading these requires some concentrated effort. There are only 43 figures, 18 of these orchids drawn by Bruce Irwin, but the number of text figures and the rather extensive use of small type probably were dictated by the desire to keep the size, and price, down to a level at which the book could be readily available to students. In addition to the keys, descriptions (based in general on both living and dried material), glossary and corrigenda to volume 1, there is a continuation from that volume of \"Annals of Taxonomic Research on New Zealand Tracheophyta\", a cross-indexed (by family and by author) bibliography of New Zealand systematic botany. Another valuable part of the book is an annotated list of chromosome numbers of native New Zealand mover ment of Scientific and Industrial Research plants. The book has been nicely produced by the Government Printer and is well-bound with maps on both front and back end papers. In the preface it is noted that in 1965 the Botany Division library received from the New Zealand state lottery, the \"Golden Kiwi\", a grant of NZf24,000 for the purchase of botanical periodicals, a truly enlightened use of lottery proceeds. The authors and the Government of New Zealand deserve congratulations on the production of this book. E. A. S. Lucy B. 2. Moore and Elizabeth Edgar, Flora of New Zealand, Vol. Wellington: Government Printer, 1970. NZ $4.50. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23291","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14ea76b.jpg","title":"1971-31-5","volume":31,"issue_number":5,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Colonial Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":145,"end_page":171,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24543","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270856f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Favretti, Rudy J.","article_content":"COLONIAL GARD~J~S I The Design of Colonial Gardens Landscape architects and horticulturists usually extend the colonial period 64 years to 1840. By including the years from 1620 to 1840 we can tell a more complete story even though the period isn't historically correct. There are several reasons for this. Garden design changed little until about mid-point in the Greek Revival (12) period. Then there was great change with the advent of Victorian architecture and styles. One reason for such gradual evolution may have been the limited number of books published on the subject. Most of those available until after the Revolutionary War came from England or France. Few were published in the colonies. Similarly, there were few nurseries and seed houses until after the Revolution (17). Another reason may have been the preoccupation with protest against restrictive arts and with independence. Actually gardens changed very little during this period even in Europe. Except for the development of the so-called \"natural style\" in the 1700's, garden design deviated very little from the Tudor style even in England (5). By extending the colonial period to 1840, we are able to include the effects of the \"natural style\" on the development of American gardens. The Gardens of Early Plymouth Plantation and Rural New England The gardens of the pilgrims were purely a functional outgrowth of their needs. The house and barn formed the focus and the site was divided into pens and barnyards near the barn, and the garden was placed near the house. The orchard and fields were planted where soil and exposure seemed best but not always near the \"homelot\". The plot was studded with sheds, hayracks, coops, and other necessary appurtenances (20). 145 146 The size of garden was proportionate to that of the family. Most of the vegetables needed on a small scale were grown in the fenced-in garden near the house. These included leeks, onions, garlic, melons, English gourds, radishes, carrots, cabbages and artichokes. A variety of herbs were grown among the vegetables, the most aromatic grown to one side so as not to \"flavor the soil\" (20). Vegetables needed in large quantities like maize, beans, and pumpkins were grown in fields. The herbs were used in cooking, medicines, and for fragrance. A popular dish was a variety of vegetables in a pot stewed with meat and herbs. Herbs for medicine were harvested and dried for later use. The herbs for fragrance were hung in rooms, sprinkled among linens and clothing, or carried in a pocket (20). Flowers were grown, too; some just to look at, but most for utilitarian purposes. Rose petals, for example, were dried for fragrance. If the lady of the house liked flowers, she often collected violets and mayflowers from the woods and transplanted them into her garden, for it was she who tended them. Otherwise, only those flowers needed for food, medicine, fragrance or dyes were grown. There was no garden plan as such. In other words, no conscious effort was made to plan a garden in today's sense. The house and outbuildings were sited according to the topography, exposure, and needed relationship. Areas related to them were fenced or penned, and walkways through the gardens were laid down as direct routes from doorway to outbuilding or as seemed best for tending the plants. The plants were planted in no particular order. Tall plants obscured short plants, flowers were mixed with vegetables, and among them all were herbs. Some of the vegetables may have been planted in blocks according to the European practice of the time. The beds were often raised by building up the soil and holding it in place by saplings laid on the ground. Great placed on drainage. usually tamped soil, sometimes gravel and occasionally they were surfaced with crushed clam shells. These walks were just wide enough so a person could walk through the garden or weed one of the beds from it The main walkway leading to an outbuilding may have been wider. The walk and bed pattern was not necessarily symmetrical or regularly patterned as in the parterre gardens of the merchants in Boston. Instead, an irregular walk pattern was often the case and the beds varied in size and shape according to what was was emphasis The walks were 147 grown in them and how they fit between the functional walks (1, 9, 10, 16). The gardens of the Dutch in New York, on the other hand, often laid out on a highly symmetrical plan with perfectly balanced beds on either side of a central walkway with a series of balanced secondary walks throughout (21). The Plymouth-type arrangement prevailed throughout the colonial period and well into the 19th century in agrarian New England (20). Numerous old farms laid out in the later part of the 17th century and during the 18th century reflect this scheme with little variation. Figure 1 shows one such plan on the Nehemiah Williams Farm in Stonington, Connecticut. This farm was recently sold after having been in the same family, handed down from father to son for nine generations. The plan remained essentially the same throughout that period. Notice how the buildings were sited to the northwest of the house to protect it from the prevailing winter winds. The orchard was so located to perform a similar function and to be handy to the house and sheds. The gardens were not in one large block as we plant them today. The south garden, which is on a three to five percent slope was so placed to capture the warmth of the spring sun for early crops like peas, lettuce, radishes, carrots, beets, and onions. The bean garden did not have a southern exposure but it was protected by two walls, out of the path of the northwest winds, so that the soil would warm up in time for bean planting which was later than lettuce and peas. This garden later became a flower garden. The two gardens in the front lot were for later vegetables and second plantings of some of the early ones. Also fruits such as strawberries, currants, gooseberries and rhubarb were grown in the front lot garden next to the wall. Flowers were grown in the dooryard garden to the front, or south of the house. This garden was in full view of the two front parlors or chambers, and people approaching these rooms on special occasions would have passed through them (7). Dooryard or parlor gardens were very popular in the 17th and 18th centuries, reaching the height of popularity after the Revoluwere tion. Dooryard gardens were usually enclosed with wooden fences. These fences often started at the comers of the house and came straight forward. In the case of the Williams garden, the fence went to the stone wall. Where a similar house was close to the street, the fence would have gone to its edge. 149 This plan persisted well into the 19th century the cover indicate. as Figure 1 and The Gardens of Merchants and Townsmen In contrast, the merchants who lived in Boston, New York, Philadelphia or most other colonial cities and towns had gardens quite different from those of their brothers in the country. Their gardens were formal, laid out in a symmetrical pattern with each side of a central walkway reflecting the other. These gardens imitated the formal parterre with which many of the merchants were familiar in their homelands (16, 22). During the colonial era, great emphasis was placed on siting the house on a high piece of ground (15, 18). Sometimes the foundation was purposely built high and the soil dug from the cellar was mounded around it to form a terrace or a series of them. Occasionally, additional soil was brought in to complete a particular terrace plan, but this was not often done. In fact, it is a characteristic of building in the colonial era to search for just the right, natural site for the house rather than to change the topography as we so often do today (15, 23). The garden was placed near the house. \"Have the garden near the dwelling house because such Beauty and Ornament, the more they are under constant Inspection, the easier and better they entertain those two finer senses, Seeing and Smelling\" (15, 18). Some writers of the time suggested an eastern or western slope for the garden in an attempt to benefit from the heat generated from the rays of the sun. Many suggested avoiding a southern slope because the sun would be too hot and the plants would \"hang their Heads, to wither away, and die\" (15). Other authors of garden books suggested a southern exposure to gain maximum benefit from the sun's rays (4). Actually, we find that in northern climates gardens were often sited on a southerly slope, especially vegetable gardens for early crops. Flower gardens were ideally placed on level spots because it wasn't as important to force perennials into bloom and the annuals couldn't be planted until late in the spring. In other latitudes we find gardens at all exposures depending on the site and philosophy of the owner. Fig. 1: This actual plot plan shows a typical layout commonly used throughout New England in the l7th and l8th centuries. In fact, similar plans were used well into the l9th century. The walls and buildings were drawn by the author from aerial photographs supplied by the Tax Assessor's O\/~ace, Stonington, Connecticut. ,~ U ~ U N s O U ~ 0 'S H O G UU H U ~s Sa 'a \" O ui -S~ .5 s 'S ~ C N U~ 0) Ar N '~ U ~ U ~ 'U > O Vj ~~ 'Li Qi U ~ *- O ~U O .C O ~~xa~ O m. xo a ~ o x~ t p Q t s > ~ ci c~ cv rN- 151 gardens were usually enclosed. Rarely do we find records garden without a fence, wall, or hedge around it. These enclosures were not only to lend privacy to the garden but also to of a The protect it from the winds (15). in were not used as extensively in America as they were England, Holland and other European countries. Certainly they were important in some cities, especially in the south of New England (22, 26). But except for a few, it seems that most of the gardens in New England were enclosed by wooden fences or hedges (22). Perhaps they were heeding the advice of John Walls Lawrence who wrote in 1776 that the sun and the wind were the worst enemies of plants and gardens. \"Walls are some defense, where they are tall and the garden little; but otherwise they occasion great Reverberations, Whilles, and Currents of wind, so they often do more harm than good. I should therefore choose to have the Flower Garden emcompassed [sic] by hedges .... which after frequent clipping are not only more ornamental than the best of walls, but by far more useful, and better defences against the merciless Rage we are speaking of, both with Respect to the Flowers themselves or the female Lovers\" (15). In many communities we find early ordinances regulating the height of fences. Mostly, a higher fence was allowed along the sides and back of the property with a lower one specified for across the front. The style and architecture of the fences were endless ranging from the homely picket fence to a solid board fence with a slatted, louvered or latticed top (16). The garden plan within the enclosure was a variation on a basic theme. It consisted of a central walk usually on axis with a door of the house (16, 18). Secondary walks radiated from the central walk, sometimes at right angles and other times at acute angles. The central walk was terminated by some sort of feature and often some of the secondary walks were also (See Figure 3). These terminal features might have been one or many. Sum- merhouses, arbors, specimen plants and gates were quite common while statues, sundials and steps were also popular (13, 16). Sometimes the focus was merely an opening in a fence, wall or hedge, framing a spectacular or pastoral vista (5). The length of the garden, its central walk and the complexity of the secondary walks was directly proportional to the extent of financial resources of the owner and his love of gardening. On either side of the central walk and between the secondary paths were the flower or garden beds. Some were square, others 152 rectangular, triangular, or round, depending on the design of the secondary walk system. It was not at all unusual to find all of these forms within one garden, especially if it was a large one (3, 7, 9, 10, 15, 16). The form would \"vary according to a Person's different Fancies; yet ought to throw the whole into Variety within Uniformity .... but care must be taken to contrive it so that it may be easily seen, that the curious Artist may find Admittance to the Beds in every Part, either by the large or by lesser Gravel Walks or Paths; so as by the reach of the Arm every Operation may be performed with Ease\" (15). Oftentimes the wide central walk had one round bed in the center \"filled with some curious Ever-green plant cut pyramidically or fluited\" (15). Sometimes there were a series of circular, triangular, square or rectangular beds down a very wide central walk. Around the outside of the garden and just inside the enclosure there was often a large bed or border encircling the entire garden. One description of an early garden (2) states that there were eight square beds in the center with two wide borders running along the fence, all tied together by a series of gravel walks between beds \"raised by boards.\" This typical pattern, used almost without exception, was imposed on every type of site, regardless of the topography. There are numerous descriptions, drawings, and plans of colonial gardens where the central axis walk plan was imposed on a sloping site (6, 24, 26, 27). Most of the gardens on old Pemberton Hill in Boston had this arrangement going up hill from the house, and the beds were on a series of terraces (24). Philadelphia had its classic examples, and one of the best garden examples using this arrangement is on the grounds of the Moffatt-Ladd House in Portsmouth, New Hampshire. This garden was restored according to an old record made by the Ladds who came to the house in 1819. It is unique for the set of grass steps which with an arbor as background) is the focus for the central path (6). The arrangement of plants within the garden varied with the whim of the owner. Sometimes the gardens we have described were devoted entirely to flowers. Others combined herbs with flowers. \"In our garden, according to custom of the time, four beds (of eight) were given to herbs useful in cooking or for household remedies\" (3). Some of the beds were even given over to vegetables, depending on whether or not the owner had a special kitchen or vegetable garden elsewhere on the property were (combined (7). Fig. 3: A typical formal garden design of the l7th and 18th centuries. Note the central axis walk with the secondary walks radiating from it. Also, the feature in the center of the main walk and the outbuilding as a terminus to one of the secondary walks. Photo of an oil painting entitled \"View of the Seat of Colonel Boyd, Portsmouth, New Hampshire\" 1774. By permission of the Trustees of The Phillips Exeter Academy, Exeter, New Hampshire. - Fig. 4: The VonGlummer reproduction of the original Vaughan plan of Mount Vernon. This plan shows the formal design of the Flower Garden (left) and the Kitchen Garden (right) on either side of the park-like bowling green and serpentine avenues surrounded by trees. Photo: courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia. 154 were Fruit trees were often found in the garden and trees in general included. Shrubs and roses were placed in the border beds that encircled the garden (3), but sometimes they were placed in the beds themselves as shown in Figure 3. There was no special massing of flowers and herbs for effect. \"In those days a garden was not usually arranged for the effect as a whole .... each plant was cherished for itself, and was put where it seemed best for it individually, or often, of course, where it was most convenient .... four corners of one bed were filled with fleur-de-lis (iris) white and blue .... and the corners of another with Sweet Williams\" (3). The taller flowers were often planted in the borders around the outside, but sometimes they were planted in the center of the beds with shorter plants surrounding them. The massing of plants and the repetition of these masses to give continuity of design was not a 17th and 18th century principle of garden planning. Gardens during that period were tied together by the system of walks, beds edged with boxwood, ribbon grass, moss pink (3), pinks (Dianthus), lavender (Santolina) and germander, or by the enclosure around the whole garden. Today some think of the colonial garden plan as being intricate and involved for no real purpose, but as we study it we find that it was an outgrowth of the times. The involved walk system was laid down to divide tall flowers from short flowers, culinary herbs from flowers, and medicinal herbs from vegetables. These walks made the beds accessible for cultivation, admiration and harvesting. And, they felt, why not arrange the walks and beds in an interesting pattern if you have to have them? Then the whole had to be fenced for protection against the unwanted glances, wind and roving animals. What a good place to grow tall plants the fence gave them background and support if needed and the plants softened the high, harsh fence or wall. A perfect solution for the times! - Fig. 5: This Fig. 6: reproduction of a 1792 painting of Mount Vernon shows the planting of trees on either side of the approach avenues and the Mansion. Note also the design of the courtyard immediately in front of the Mansion. Photo. courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia. This companion 1792 painting of Mount Vernon, East Front, shows the barely visible forms of deer (foreground) and the fence built to confine them. Photo: courtesy of the Mount Vernon Ladies Association of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia. 156 What about herb gardens? Some twentieth century gardeners think of colonial gardens only in terms of herbs, probably because herbs are so popular in culinary art today and we are generally familiar with them. But, during the colonial period, unless one was engaged in the growing of herbs for sale, as the Shakers (1) and some others were, most people did not have a garden set aside especially for them. These plants, as previously mentioned, were grown among the flowers and vegetables or in a portion of the kitchen garden (7, 16, 20). Country The Estates on the Outskirts of Town gardens described were laid out on the smaller, tighter sites along the streets of cities and towns. This does not imply that all city lots were small for some were of several acres (26). But they were often narrow and the parterre plan lent itself well to this shape of lot. Even people of limited financial resources used a similar but small version of either the Plymouth type or (more often) the parterre type of garden plan (23). In the early 18th century, Joseph Addison, Alexander Pope, and Sir Richard Steele wrote satire about the rigid, formal garden filled with topiary and enclosed by a wall. Addison revised his planting to \"run into as great a wilderness as their permit\" (25). Bridgeman, a leading landscape architect of the period, was greatly influenced by their satire, banishing sculpture and elaborate design in favor of bits of woodland in the landscape (10). William Kent emerged to fame eliminating walled enclosures and substituting ha-ha walls to separate areas inconspicuously. This so-called \"natural style\" was carried to its heights by Lancelot \"Capability\" Brown and others in the 18th century (14). In fact, Brown's gardens are often characterized as \"a own natures will round lake, an open lawn, and a copse of trees\". This influence was felt in the colonies by the wealthy plantation and estate owners. By the late 1700's, most wealthy properties covering vast acreage, whether in Virginia, Philadelphia, along the Hudson River, or in New England, were designed or \"layed out in the natural style\". New England, while not entirely so, was most conservative with this style, probably because the various skills necessary to run the household were housed under one roof because of climate, rather than strung out as they were at Mt. Vernon, Monticello, and in other southern estates. For this reason, an arrangement of buildings pulled close together lent itself better to the formal plan than to the \"natural style\" (23). 157 New England was not without its \"natural\" gardens, however. Numerous estates surrounding Boston, for example, were laid out in this manner (24). And Samuel McIntyre suggested such a plan for the Elias Haskett Derby Mansion in Salem, Massachusetts (16). Theodore Lyman's \"Waltham House\" purchased in 1795 \"arranged the grounds with .... noble trees, lake, gardens, terraces, lawns and a deer park\" (24). In fact, at least one garden in New England was revamped according to the style of the day. Miss Susan Quincy, in her Memoirs, tells how President Quincy changed the plan on the Quincy Estate, \"being a great lover of nature. Obstructions to views were removed; walls and fences leveled; lawns with trees and shrubs judiciously disposed, replaced the court-yard and gardens; and the approach to the house turned through an avenue of elms, a third of a mile in length ....\" (24). Mount Vernon is one of the best authentic examples of an estate that combined both the \"natural style\" and the parterre plan (See Figure 4). Approaching the Mansion is the Serpentine Avenue encircling the bowling green. Note how the avenue is heavily planted with trees (See also Figure 5). Some of the original trees are still growing along this approach (11). On either side of the tree-lined avenue and bowling green are the parterred flower and kitchen gardens (6), both the same size and shape, differing only in detailed interior arrangement. Actually, the whole plan approaching the Mansion is symmetrical in design, though informally planted. Between the Mansion and the Potomac River, however, is a broad expanse of lawn, a ha-ha wall (see upper right of plan in Figure 4) and a copse of trees on the east front of the Mansion (see Figure 6). This illustration shows that George Washington even included a \"Deer Park\" like so many of the estates in England. Washington wrote in 1792, \"I have about a dozen deer (some of which are the common sort) which are no longer confined in the Paddock which was made for them but range in all my woods and often pass my exterior fence\" (2). Several early gardens in this country had deer parks, among them the \"Waltham House\" Estate of Theodore Lyman (24) and the Robinson Estate, built in 1750, and opposite the present West Point Academy on the Hudson River (21). Deer in the landscape made these seats more \"natural\". Thomas Jefferson's plan also gets away from the formal, parterre layout, but it, too, is symmetrical immediately in front of the house (see Figures 7 and 8). His plan has an informal walkway which he called the \"Round-about\" and it was bounded 158 by flower borders. These have been restored according to his plan (See Figure 8). Near the house are circular beds which were planted in 1807 (19). The plan for \"Solitude\", the seat of John Penn in the Philadelphia area, shows an arrangement that would have pleased William Kent and Capability Brown. On this estate were a ha-ha wall, irregular flower gardens, a vista south of the house, and a clump of trees to the east (26). Along the Hudson River there were many estates (Philipse Manor, Van Cortlandt Manor, and the estates of the Livingstons and the Van Rensselaers, among others) landscaped in the \"natural style\" and less symmetrical than Mount Vernon, probably because of the more varied topography, but still with the parterre garden near the formal Mansion House (21). Conclusion It is safe to say that the gardens of the colonial period were planned according to the way of life of the owners. In rural agricultural areas the gardens were of the Plymouth type, laid out between functional walks and paths, but not rigidly formal in pattern as the parterres of the city merchants, tradesmen, and professionals. When the influence of the natural style, carried to its height by Capability Brown, reached this continent, the owners of the large estates and plantations were affected by it, but they retained the formal parterre plan for gardens near the house. On the smaller city sites that did not lend themselves to the development of lakes, copses of trees and expanses of lawns laid out to imitate nature, the rigid parterre plan remained until well into the 19th century. Fig. 8: The restored flower beds and borders at Monticello as they look today. Photo: courtesy of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation. Fig. 7: Thomas Jefferson's plan of the \"Round-about Walk\", flower borders (dotted lines) and beds (circles). The flower beds were laid out and planted in 1807 and the winding walk and flower borders in 1808. Courtesy of the Thomas Jefferson Memorial Foundation. 160 II How to Create or Restore a Colonial Garden In historic preservation, the creation or restoration of early gardens should be a subject of major concern. Often the grounds and gardens are overlooked, but fortunately this is becoming less as we progress through the century. For many it is hard to know what type of garden plan to use, where to put the garden, how to enclose it, how large it should be, whether to include vegetables and herbs as well as flowers, and how to go about installing the garden generally. It is best to hire professional assistance in the person of a landscape architect who is sympathetic towards the area of historic preservation and restoration. But sometimes funds do not permit this type of consultation and an individual or committee is appointed to develop the plans. Naturally, the first thing to do is research the site, the people who lived there, and the records. Leave no stones unturned because the more you can find the better and more individualistic the garden will be. It matters not what area you research first. Let us start with the people who lived in the house: what they did; when they did it; if there were several families, find data on each and determine which one or which period you will represent. An example of this is the research that went into the garden the author designed for the Noah Webster House. Naturally we knew about the famous linguist, but he didn't live there after he became famous. So the obvious question was: what did his parents do? They were farmers, not wealthy, but of moderate means. The architecture of the house was simple, not elegant, further pointing to the fact that the garden should be small and simple and not contain unusual plants such as a vast array of tulips that had to be imported. Instead, the garden should contain plants needed for everyday sustenance. Sometimes in researching the people who live in a house, you find facts that pertain directly to gardens. The garden at the Salem Towne House at Old Sturbridge Village contains many fruit trees because Mr. Towne experimented with fruit and actually developed a new variety of apple called the \"Porter\". These details lend interest and individuality to a garden. true . -- -- - - -- - - - - - -- Garden of the Standish House at Plimouth Plantation with Pot Marigold, cabbage, carrots, red kidney beans, watermelons and muskmelons. Photo: courtesy of Plimoth Plantation. 162 Written and published records could shed much light on the of a particular site. Probate inventories often mention orchards, walls and gardens, and some have been known to have plans attached. Some probate records name fruit trees by variety. But even if the inventories or wills contain no mention of gardens, they give you an idea of the relative worth of the person. This is invaluable information because it offers guidelines concerning a size for the garden and the elegance of the proposed gardens plan. offer garden information. The author recently came deed that mentions \"the southwest corner of the garden west of the dwelling house\" as the beginning of a boundary. Upon investigating the site, the exact dimensions of the garden were determined with relative ease. Diaries, journals, letters and personal documents usually contain a wealth of information. One has only to read the diaries of George Washington and Thomas Jefferson to get a clear picture of gardening and agriculture. Lesser known men and women kept records, too, on such facts as when flowers came into bloom, when seeds were planted, and how and when walks were laid. Account books, while they contain only facts and figures, are invaluable because in them are such items as listings of seeds bought, crops harvested, tools purchased, and materials bought to combine with herbs for household remedies. Personal letters written from husband to wife, sister to sister, brother to brother, reveal much because it was the custom of the day to speak of plants in bloom in the garden, the change of season and its effect on the garden, what was harvested, and much more. Town histories sometimes have descriptions of a garden or a site, but quite often contain sketches of houses showing their gardens and fences. It was in Caulkins' History of Norwich, Connecticut that we learned about some ordinances controlling the height of fences during the colonial period. John Warner Barber wrote \"Historical Collections of Every Town ....\" on many states in the early 19th century. His engravings of each town show gardens in some cases, fence styles, street tree arrangements, and many other details. News articles and advertisements are helpful, especially in developing a list of plants. Many state and local historical societies have collections of early newspapers and broadsides. Articles sometimes appear commemorating a particular individual and sometimes his house and grounds are mentioned. can across one ------------ Deeds Pumpkins Garden of the Winslow House at Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth, Mass. in the foreground. Photo: courtesy of Plimouth Plantation. 164 Old essays, speeches, and pamphlets are invaluable. The archives of horticultural societies are full of this type of information. The author relies heavily on paintings for information on the design of gardens. These works often suggest a fence style or garden arrangement typical of a particular town or region. We are aware of some murals that show village scenes that can be identified and many of these illustrate gardens. One is not often lucky enough to find a plan. How many people make a plan today? Not many. The same was true in early times and many of the plans that were made have been lost. But do not overlook this aspect of research; sometimes the files of historical societies contain them. Even if it is not the plan of the site in question, if it is in the same region or area you might get some ideas. While word of mouth is not considered as reliable a source as the written word, you should consider it. On asking a member of the ninth generation of the Nehemiah Williams family if there ever had been a garden in front of the old house and if there were had it been fenced as most of them had been, he responded in the affirmative. Upon probing the site, we found the stub of a stone fence post that had broken off, proving that there was a fence there. Probing the site itself often reveals much information. It is good to do this late in the fall when the tall grass has died down or early in the spring before it starts to grow. Then you can see the lay of the land. Sometimes you will find the remains of an old walk, and depressions on either side will suggest that there were beds there. Sometimes there are mounds instead of depressions suggesting that the beds were raised. Areas enclosed by walls or plants suggest that the enclosure was either a pen or a garden of some sort. One walled enclosure we found, family tradition says, was a children's play yard laid out to confine toddlers so they wouldn't stray into the woods. An odd arrangement of trees or shrubs, having no meaning today, with careful study might suggest a garden plan. Large shrubs and small trees around the outside of an area with a depressed or raised spot in the central portion most certainly sug- gests a garden. Sometimes removing soil from these depressed or raised areas, or from around walls or house foundations will bring plants to life. Many times seeds that haven't been planted in years will germinate because they have been preserved in the depths of the soil. These may not necessarily date to the colonial period, but they might suggest how a present-day garden evolved. 165 Should There Be a Garden? Sometimes there were no flower gardens because only vegetable gardens were planted, and flowers and herbs needed for food, fragrance and medicine were grown among them. Maybe there were a few flowers by the front door and some herbs by the kitchen, and that is all. This is where research about the people who occupied a given house may cast light on whether or not there should be a garden and what type. If you are thinking of a garden for your own home, there are two ways to approach the problem. If you are a purist and want things just as they were then, proceed as suggested. But if you do not really like to garden and cannot afford to hire a gardener, then perhaps just some fruit trees surrounding the property, some shade trees along the road, some lilacs at the comer of the house and near the shed, and some herbs by the back door will suffice, preserving the character of the site and yet not creating a burden on you. If you have reproduced a site, or even if you have an old one and are not a purist, why not plan as our forefathers did basing the plan on function: a dooryard garden near the front door to create an interesting entrance space, some trees to provide shade and define the front yard, some herbs by the back door and a little lawn for recreation, with a vegetable garden (if you want one) to the rear. This will satisfy your needs and, after all, that's how they planned in the colonial era. 166 Examples o f Authentic Colonial Gardens in New England Connecticut Henry Witfield House (17th century), Welles-Shipman House, Glastonbury Isaac Stevens House, Wethersfield Guilford Joseph Webb House, Wethersfield Hatheway House, Suffield Tappan Reeves Law Office, Litchfield Noah Webster House, West Hartford Maine Longfellow House, Portland Massachusetts Whipple House, Ipswich Pliny Freeman Farm, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge Salem Towne House, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge Fitch House, Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge Gardens at Plimoth Plantation, Plymouth Mission House, Stockbridge Coffin House, Nantucket New Hampshire Moffatt-Ladd House, Portsmouth Rhode Island The Garden at Shakespear's Head, College Hill, off of Benefit Street, Providence Governor Stephan Hopkins House, Benefit Street, College Hill, Providence Smith's Castle, Cocumscussoc, U.S. 1, Wickford Vamum Gardens, East Greenwich \"White Hall\", Middletown Wanton-Lyman-Hazard House, Broadway Street, Newport 167 III Authentic Plants for Colonial Garden Design People interested in colonial buildings and the grounds that surround them are excited to see that so many buildings and sites of this period are being carefully restored. Within recent years, restorers have used greater care in architectural restorations and have furnished buildings in an authentic manner. Generally, this has not been true concerning the grounds. It is disappointing to see careful restorations ending with the four outer walls and no care given to making the grounds equally authentic. In one sense, this is betraying the viewer who expects a thorough and accurate representation of the period. There are many carefully restored houses that have foundation plantings surrounding them. These are entirely wrong for they represent the period from about 1850 to post World War II and certainly not the colonial period. Within these plantings one finds Forsythia, not even introduced into England from the Orient until 1844 (27); Japanese Yews, introduced into America from Japan in 1861 (27); Pfitzer Juniper, introduced in 1901 (27); Pachysandra, introduced in 1882 (27); and Spirea vanhouttei, whose first documented date in America is 1866 (27). Certainly, the way in which plants are used around structures of the colonial period makes these buildings more authentic, real, and alive. It is the purpose of this article to present a documented list of authentic plants for the colonial period. Many lists exist but few are documented and it is possible to find errors and misinterpretations that have been perpetuated for over fifty years. Hopefully, this article will eliminate some of these errors. In discussing the design aspects of the colonial era, we usually deal with the years from 1620 to 1840 (6, 6a) because design did not change drastically during this period. But in considering the plants, many nurseries and seed houses were established after the Revolutionary War (14, 15), and many plants were imported (14); so we define the colonial period in its true, historical sense, 1620 to 1776, recognizing that there was a settlement in Jamestown, Virginia as early as 1607. Plants in the Colonial Period Although nurseries and seedhouses were few, research in this 168 reveals that there were many plants available. Many of them brought over from Europe with the settlers, others were sent for (14, 15), and there was a great deal of trading and exchange of slips, cuttings, and seeds from person to person. The statement is often made by individuals and committees in charge of restoring old gardens and grounds that the kinds of plants available were limited. This is not true as the following list shows. Perhaps there were fewer varieties and spectacular colors, but it was still easy to provide a \"splash\" of color during the summer months. The most common annuals during the colonial period were Four-O'Clocks in all the colors available today; Balsam, in red, white, purple, blush or pink, singles and doubles; the several Amaranthus in the following list; Globe Amaranth, or Gomphrena, in purple or red, and white; Batchelor's Buttons in white, blue, purple and red; and Calendulas in yellow and orange (1). Of the biennials, Sweet Williams were used extensively, in fact so much so that they divided the shorter and narrower leaved ones into a different common group called \"Sweet Johns\" (19). Hollyhocks were plentiful, both singles and doubles \"in several colors\" (17). Believe it or not, two of the most popular garden flowers were Buttercups (Fair-Maids-of-France) (5), and Dandelions (5, 8, 9). From these early gardens, these two flowers, among others, escaped from cultivation into the wild. Three flowers used little today were very common during this period. Cowslips or Oxslips (Primroses) gave a great deal of color to the gardens of our early settlers and so did the CloveGilliflowers, Pinks or Dianthus. Another common inhabitant of the garden was Feverfew or Featherfew. All of these flowers and others are mentioned in the attached list. Having listed a dozen or so of the most common flowers during the colonial era, how do these compare with what one authority considers the leaders of today? (21 ) era were We have found no mention of this flower in the early garden books. Perhaps it was grown in the early gardens but the literature does not identify it as such. The name Petunia is a South American aboriginal name said to have been applied to tobacco (3). It is possible that Petunias are called tobacco or Nicotiana in some of the early books. Petunia - These are listed quite frequently in the literature of the late 18th century but not during the early writings. It appears that they were just being introduced around the Zinnia ---- -~-- -- ~ ~ 169 turn of the century (1800). Reds and yellows would be appropriate for that period (1). Marigold - The French Marigold (Tagetes patula) was used extensively quite early in the colonial period, but it appears that the African Marigold (Tagetes erecta) was not as common until around 1800 or later. The tiny, dwarf varieties that are so commonly used today would not be appropriate in an authentic restoration. China Aster Contrary to earlier lists, this plant was used the colonial period, but it wasn't used as commonly as those flowers listed above. It seems that the most common varieties were single (5). - during Sweet Pea - These were probably used throughout the colonial period, but we have not found a reference to them before the 1700's. these do not appear to have been the most common annuals, they were used very among early and the most popular colors were \"red, white, purple, and variable\" (1). Snapdragon - Although Larkspur - These were used very early, but called Larkspur until late in the period. Earlier called Larks Heels or, rightly so, Delphiniums. Morning Glory every color - were not were they There seems to have been practically imaginable (red, white, purple, dark blue, and striped) (5) with the exception of today's popular \"Heavenly Blue\". Bibliography 1. Andrews, Edward Deming and Andrews, Faith. Shaker Herbs and Herbalists. Berkshire Garden Center, Stockbridge, Mass. 1959. 2. Annual Report, Mount Vernon Ladies Assoc. of the Union. Mt. 3. Vernon, Virginia. 1964. Bray, Mary Mathews. My cestral Orchard. 1931. Grandmother's Garden and an AnRichard G. Badger, Printer, Boston, Mass. 170 4. Cobbett, William. The American Gardener. C. Clement, Publisher, London. 1821. 5. Downing, Andrew J. A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening. C. M. Saxton Co., New York. 1957. pp. 1-40. A. T. The Moffatt-Ladd House. Published by Colonial Dames in New Hampshire. pp. 14-16. 7. Earle, Alice Morse. Old Time Gardens. Macmillan Co., New York. 1928. 8. Earle, Alice Morse. Sun-Dials and Roses of Yesterday. Macmillan Co., New York. 1902. 9. Favretti, Rudy J. Early New England Gardens, 1620-1840. Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass. 1962. 10. Favretti, Rudy J. New England Colonial Gardens. Pequot Press, Stonington, Conn. 1964. pp. 4-5. 11. Fischer, Robert B. The Mount Vernon Gardens. The Mount Vernon Ladies Assn. of the Union, Mount Vernon, Virginia. 1960. 12. Hamlin, Talbot. Greek Revival Architecture in America. Dover Publications, Inc., New York. 1944. p. xv. 13. Howells, John Mead. The Architectural Heritage of the Merrimack. Architectural Book Publishing Co., Inc., New York. 1941. 14. Hussey, Christopher. English Gardens and Landscapes, 17001750. Country Life, London. 1967. 15. Lawrence, John M. A. A New System of Agriculture. London. 1776. 16. Lockwood, Alice B. Gardens of Colony and State, Volume I. Chas. Scribner & Sons, New York. 1931. pp. 20-21, 26-251. 17. Manks, Dorothy S. How the American Nursery Trade Began. Handbook, Origins of American Horticulture, V. 23, No. 3. 1967. pp. 4-11. 18. M'Mahon, Bernard. The American Gardeners Calendar. Philadelphia. 1806. pp. 67-72. 19. Nichols, Frederick D. and Bear, James A. Monticello. Thomas Jefferson Memorial Association. 1967. pp. 53-64. 20. Rutman, Darrett B. Husbandmen of Plymouth. Beacon Press, Boston. 1967. 21. Schermerhorn, Richard, Jr. Homes and Gardens of Old New York. United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 33-44. 22. Schurcliff, Arthur A. Mount Vernon and Other Colonial Places of the South. United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 11-20. 23. Schurcliff, Arthur A. Gardens of Old Salem and the New England Colonies. United States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 45-53. 24. Slade, Daniel D. The Evolution of Horticulture in New England. Knickerbocker Press, New York. 1895. pp. 114-137. 6. Dudley, 171 25. Stroud, Dorothy. 1957. Capability Brown. Country Life, London. 26. 27. Robert. Gardens and Places of Colonial PhilaUnited States George Washington Bicentennial Commission, Washington, D.C. 1932. pp. 21-32. Wilder, Marshall P. The Horticulture of Boston and Vicinity. Tolman & White, Printers. Boston. 1881. Wheelwright, delphia. RUDY J. FAVRETTI Associate Professor of Landscape Design University of Connecticut Storrs, Connecticut Acknowledgements Without the help of many people, this compilation would not have been possible. Special thanks go to Miss Etta Falkner, Research Librarian, Old Sturbridge Village; Mrs. Fayre Nason, Librarian, Worcester County Horticultural Society; Mrs. Muriel Crossman, Librarian, Massachusetts Horticultural Society; Mr. Abbott Lowell Cummings, Assistant Director of the Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities; the Boston Athenaeum, and the staff of Mr. John Alden, Keeper of Rare Books, Boston Public Library. The author's wife, Joy, gave invaluable assistance in the compilation of the lists. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Colonial Garden Plants","article_sequence":2,"start_page":172,"end_page":249,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24542","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270816b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Favretti, Rudy J.; DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"COLONIAL GARD~J~ PLANTS I Flowers The Before 1700 commonly following plants are listed according to the names most used during the colonial period. The botanical name follows for accurate identification. The common name was listed first because many of the people using these lists will have access to or be familiar with that name rather than the botanical name. The botanical names are according to Bailey's Hortus Second and The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture (3, 4). They are not the botanical names used during the colonial period for many of them have changed drastically. We have been very cautious concerning the interpretation of names to see that accuracy is maintained. By using several references spanning almost two hundred years (1, 3, 32, 35) we were able to interpret accurately the names of certain plants. For example, in the earliest works (32, 35), Lark's Heel is used for Larkspur, also Delphinium. Then in later works the name Larkspur appears with the former in parenthesis. Similarly, the name \"Emanies\" appears frequently in the earliest books. Finally, one of them (35) lists the name Anemones as a synonym. Some of the names are amusing: \"Issop\" for Hyssop, \"Pumpions\" for Pumpkins, \"Mushmillions\" for Muskmellons, \"Isquouterquashes\" for Squashes, \"Cowslips\" for Primroses, \"Daffadown dillies\" for Daffodils. Other names are confusing. Bachelors Button was the name used for Gomphrena globosa, not for Centaurea cyanis as we use it today. Similarly, in the earliest literature, \"Marygold\" was used for Calendula. Later we begin to see \"Pot Marygold\" and \"Calendula\" for Calendula, and \"Marygold\" is reserved for Marigolds. The name \"Cowslips\" for Primroses can be confusing for in some parts of the world that is the name used for \"Marsh Marigolds\", Caltha palustris. \"Winterberry\" was a name commonly used for Chinese Lan172 173 terns (a modern common name), and \"Alkekengi\" was also used for this plant. But one must be careful in reviewing the literature because Ilex verticillata and Ilex glabra might also be called Winterberry. \"Gilliflowers\" is a name used for Dianthus and Stock, but there was also an apple by this name. In parts of Virginia, the name \"Ivy\" is used in reference to Mountain Laurel, Kalmia latifolia ( 5 ). Jefferson used the name \"Puckoon\" to refer to Bloodroot, or Sanguinaria canadensis (5). In some parts of Connecticut, the name \"Ox-eye Daisy\" was and is used for Black-eyed Susan, Rudbeckia hirta, but in most places \"Ox-eye Daisy\" refers to Chrysanthemum leucanthemum. In a village within a town in Connecticut, Daylilies (Hemerocallis fulva) are called Wash-House Lilies, not Daylilies. Unfortunately these common names were used freely, perhaps more so than the botanical names, such as they were. For this reason, the \"unraveling\" of lists in old books and the compilation and documentation of new lists becomes necessary. Wherever possible we have worked from primary sources. Where these were not available, we have used reliable secondary sources. The numbers in parentheses after each plant refer to the references in the bibliography from which they were derived. These lists have not been presented as complete and final compilations. We consider that an entire lifetime could be devoted to documenting the plants of the colonial period and then the list would not be complete. The reader should be aware that most of the early gardeners who kept notes or wrote books were either wealthy or experimenters in the field of horticulture. For this reason, many of the species that seem unusual today were probably unusual then and for that reason should be used with restraint. Also, other plants may not have been used freely. Barberry, which was once commonly grown, was outlawed in Massachusetts in 1754 because it was suspected as an alternate host for wheat rust (2). Furthermore, plants such as Kalmia latifolia, Mountain Laurel, were detested by farmers because they were poisonous to livestock (36). Some readers will be disappointed that varieties of fruits and vegetables are not listed. This was not within the scope of this article. Such listings may be found in numerous books on garden and fruit culture, one early one being McMahon's Garden Calendar by Bernard McMahon, published in Philadelphia in 1806. For the period this book had a large printing and is available in most horticultural libraries. The Worcester County Horticultural Society also has a list of available varieties ( 44 ) from their experimental orchard. 174 Aconitum napellus L. Aconitum, Wolfsbane (21, 32, 35) Native of Germany, France and Switzerland. Cultivated in England in 1596 by Gerarde. Cultivated for its showy bluepurple flowers and the medicinal properties of its poisonous roots. Winter Aconite (32) Eranthus hymalis (L.) Salisb. Engearly L. Native of Italy, Silesia, and Switzerland. Cultivated in land in 1596 by Gerarde. Desired for its yellow flowers in spring. Alkekengi, Winterberry (21, 32) Physalis alkekengi Native from southern Europe to Japan, but now adventive or naturalized in many parts of the world. Cultivated in England at least by 1597. Originally grown for the fruits which were used medicinally. More recently the fruits with their inflated orange calyces have been used in winter bouquets. Amaranthus tricolor L. Amaranthus, Flower Gentle, Joseph's Coat, Tricolor (32, 35) Found throughout the tropics, probably native in Asia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"The chiefest beauty of this plant consisteth in the leaves and not in the flowers; for they are small tufts growing all along the stalk, ... every leaf is to be seen parted into green, red, and yellow, very orient and fresh...\" (31 ). Amaranthus caudatus L. --Amaranthus, Great Flower Gentle, Love-Lies-Bleeding (32, 35) Native in the tropics. Cultivated by James Sutherland in 1683. \"... the flowers stand at the toppes of the stalke and branches more spread at the bottome into sundry parts, the middle being longest, and usually when it is in the perfection of a more excellent scarlet hanging down like a tassell red colour ...\" (33). ... Anemone coronaria L. Anemone, Windflower (32), Anemone hortensis L. Emanies (35) Native of southern Europe and the Mediterranean region. Cultivated in England in 1596, according to Gerarde, for their showy flowers. Dianthus barbatus L. Armeria, Sweet John, Sweet William (32, 35) Native in Europe and Asia, south to the Pyrennees. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... the common Sweet William ... has long been cultivated in the Gardens for Ornament, of which there are now great Varieties which differ in the Form and Colour of their Flowers, as also in the Size and Shape of their Leaves; those which have narrow Leaves were formerly titled Sweet Johns by the Gardeners, and those with broad Leaves were called Sweet Williams...\" (30). 175 Asphodell (21, 32) Both are Asphodelus albus Miller Asphodeline luteus L. region and were native of the Mediterranean known to Parkinson in 1640 (33). Aster tradescantii L. Aster amellus L. North American plant cultivated by Aster, Starwort (32) Aster tradescantii L. is a the younger Tradescant as early as 1656. Aster amellus L. is native in southern Europe and Asia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Balsam (32, 35) Impatiens balsamina L. Native in Southeast Asia. Parkinson grew it by 1629 from seeds sent from Italy, and Gerarde had it in 1596. \"... the Japanese use the juice prepared with alum, for dying their nails red ...\" (31 ). There is also a European species with small flowers which was early confused with our native Impatiens capensis Meurburgh. Bachelor's Button (26). ' Gomphrena globosa L. Centaurea cyanus L. According to P. Miller this name was applied to Gomphrena globosa. \"... by the Inhabitants of America ...\" (30). Centaurea cyanus \"... is called Bachelor's Buttons in Yorkshire & Derbyshire, but this name is given to many other flowers...\" (30) as, for example, double flowered forms of Achillea ptarmica L. Beare's Ears Bellflower (32) or - See Primrose (21, 32, 35) the Great Campanula pyramidalis L. Steeple, Chimney Bellflower. Native of Southern Europe. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... This plant is cultivated to adorn Halls and to place before the Chimnies in the Summer ...\" (30). --Peach-leaved Bellflower Campanula persicifolia L. Native of Eurasia. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... of this there are the following varieties, viz. the single blue, and white Flower, which have been long here; the double Flower of both Colours, which have not been more than twenty Years in England, but have been propagated in such Plenty, as to have almost banished those with single Flowers from the Gardens. ...\" (30). --Great Bellflower, Great or Campanula trachelium L. Nettle-leaved Throatwort, Canterbury Bells. Native in Europe. \"... The Varieties of this are, the deep and pale blue; the white with single Flowers, and the same Colours with double Flowers ... those with not merit a Place in Gardens ...\" (30). single Flowers do 176 --Creeping Campanula Campanula rapunculoides L. Native in Europe and Asia Minor. Resembling C. trachelium. Cultivated in 1683 by James Southerland. \"... Sometimes grown in Gardens, where it speedily becomes a weed\" (7). Blew Bindweed, Convolvulus ( 32, 35 ) Ipomoea nil (L.) Roth - Native of the Old World Tropics, but now widely distributed. There are many forms in cultivation such as cv. 'Scarlet O'Hara'. \"... It was cultivated before 1596 by Gerarde, but perished before it ripened its seeds ... This species is now rarely met with in our gardens ...\" (31 ). ... Bloodroot (22) Sanguinaria canadensis L. Native in eastern North America. \"... Cultivated in England in 1680 by Mr. William Walker ... in St. James Street not far from St. James Palace ...\" (31). \"This strange Celandine hath a fleshie roote, full of a yellow juyce, smelling strong like the ordinary, from whence rise onely three large blewish greene leaves, cut in after the manner of Vine leaves, without any foote stalke under them, or with very short ones, from among which rise a short reddish foote stalke, with a white flower on the toppe of it like unto the flower of Sowbread....\" (33). Calendula (22, 32, 35, 40) Pot Calendula officinalis L. \"... Native of France, in the vineyards of Italy, in the corn fields of Silesia, in orchards, gardens, and fields; flowering most part of the summer. Parkinson informs us that he received the seed of the single Marigold from Spain, where it grows wild, 'by Guillaum Boel, in his time a very curious and cunning searcher of simples.' It was however cultivated by Gerarde in 1597, and probably much earlier.... It has ... been cultivated time out of mind in kitchen gardens for the flowers, which were dried in order to be boiled in broth: from a fancy that they are comforters of the heart and spirits. According to the observation of Linnaeus, the flowers are open from nine in the morning to three in the afternoon. This regular expansion and closing of the flowers attracted early notice, and hence this plant acquired the name of Solsequia and Solis sponsa. There is an allusion to this property in Marigold. ... ... Shakespeare - 'The Marigold, that goes to bed wi' th' And with him rises weeping,' ... sun Golds or Gouldes is a name among the country people not only for this, but for Chrysanthemum segatum, any sort of Hawkweed, and in short for most yellow flowers of the syngenesia class.... The varieties are supposed to have been originally obtained from the seeds of the single sort, but most of these differences continue, if the seeds are properly saved; but the two childing [bearing additional small heads around the base of the main head] Marigolds, and the largest double, are subject to degenerate, where care is not taken in saving their No. 1-5 Amaranthus cvs. No. 6, 7 Heliochrysum spp. No. 9 Antennaria. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 178 seeds. The best way to preserve the varieties, is to pull up all those plants, whose flowers are less double, as soon as they appear, and to save the seeds from the largest and most double flowers; the childing sort should be sown by itself in a separate part of the garden, and the seeds saved from the large centre flowers only, ...\" (31). Campanula - see Bellflower Canterbury Bells (32, 35) In the time of Parkinson (the 1600's) this referred to Campanula trachelium L. (see Bellflower). C. medium L. which we know as Canterbury Bells was at this time called Coventry Bells. \"Doubles\" at this time almost surely referred to the double-flowered forms of C. trachelium, since double-flow- ered forms of C. medium Native of southern were not common even in 1800. Candytuft, Purple Candytuft (21, 35) Paradisus Iberis umbellata L. Europe. This seems to have been the commonly cultivated Candytuft of this period. It was grown by Gerarde in 1596, and was given nearly a page in Parkinson's ... (32). Lobelia cardinalis L. Cardinal Flower (21, 32) Parkinson grew it in 1629. \"... grows naturally by the Side of Rivers and Ditches in great Part of North America, but has been many Years cultivated in the European Gardens for the great Beauty of its scarlet Flowers ...\" (29). Centaury (21, 32, 35) Centaurea centaurium L. Native in Spain and Italy. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... stands in the List of medicinal Plants of the College, but is very rarely used; the Root is reckoned to be binding, and good for all Kinds of Fluxes, and of great use to heal Wounds. ...\" (30). Centaurea - See Centaury or or Cornflower Celandine Poppy, Common Great Celandine (22) Chelidonium majus L. Native in Europe and northern Asia. \"... flowering from may to july, during which time it is in the greatest perfection for use.... The juice of every part of this plant is very acrimonius. It cures tetters [Herpes] and ringworms. Diluted with milk it consumes white opaque spots on the eyes. It destroys warts, and cures the itch. There is no doubt but a medicine of such activity will one day be converted to more important purposes ...\" (31). Chequered Lily (32, 35) Fritillaria meleagris L. Native in most of Europe. \"... Gerarde calls it Turkey-hen or Guinea-hen flower, and Checkered Daffodill. The curious and painful herborist of Paris, John Robin, sent him many plants for his garden where they prospered (as he informs us) as in their 179 native country.... Some call it, says Parkinson, Narcissus Caparonius from the first finder Noel Caparon, an Apothecary then dwelling at Orleans, but shortly after murdered in the massacre of France ... The country people about Rislip own call the flowers Snake-heads....\" (31). Dianthus Chinese Lantern - See Alkekengi caryophyllus L. Clove-Gilliflower (21,26,32,34,35,40) Native from southern Europe to India. \"... grow like unto the Carnations, but not so thick set with joynts and leaves: the flowers are smaller, yet very thick and double in most ...\" (32). Parkinson described 29 varieties. ... Colchicum, Meadow Saffron (21, 32, 33). Colchicum autumnale L. Native in Central and Southeastern Europe. \"... Mr. Miller observed it in England in great plenty, in the meadows near Castle-Bromwich in Warwickshire, the beginning of September; and says that the country people call the flowers Naked Ladies, because they come up without any leaves (They give the same name to Hepatica, and indifferently to any plant, which has flowers on naked scapes, appearing at a different time from the leaves.) ...\" (31). Parkinson described a double flowered variety (32). Columbine (21, 32) Aquilegia vulgaris L. Temperate Europe and Asia. \"There are many sorts of Columbine as well differing in forme as colour of the flowers, and of them both single and double carefully nursed up in our Gardens, for the delight both of their forme and colours....\" (32). \"... The root, the herb, the flowers, the seeds have been recommended to be used medicinally, on good authority; but this plant is of a suspicious tribe, and Linnaeus affirms as of his own knowledge, that children have lost their lives by an over dose of it. The virtues ascribed to a tincture of the flowers, as an anti-phlogistic, and for strengthening the gums, and deterging [cleansing] scorbutic ulcers in the mouth, appear to be better founded; the tincture being made with an addition of the vitriolic acid [sulphuric acid], and differing little from our official tincture of roses ...\" (31 ). Centaurea cyanus L. Cornflower, Blew Bottle, Corn Centaury (21, 32, 35) Native in most of Europe. \"... It is a common weed among corn [grain], flowering from june to august, the wild flower is usually blue, but sometimes white or purple.... Dr. Stokes informs us, that it is called Bachelor's-buttons in Yorkshire and Derbyshire: but this is a name given to many other flowers. In Scotland it is called Blue Bonnetts.... The expressed juice of the neutral florets makes a good ink; it also stains linen of a beautiful blue, but the colour is not permanent in any mode 180 hitherto used. Mr. Boyle says that the juice of the central florets, with the addition of a very small quantity of alum, makes a lasting transparent blue, not inferior to ultramarine....\" (31). Crocus (21, 32, 35, 40) Crocus vernus (C. purpureus (L.) All. Weston) Europe. L. Native of the mountains of southern and central Parkinson listed some 29 garden varieties (32). Crown Imperial (21, 32, 35) Fritillaria imperialis Native from Iran to the Himalayas. \"... This grows naturally in Persia, from whence it was first brought to Constantinople, and about the Year 1570, was introduced to these Parts of Europe, ...\" (30). \"... Gerarde had great plenty of it in his garden in 1596, he calls it a rare and strange plant. Parkinson (in 1629) had not observed any variety in the colour of the flowers. Lobel, however, enumerated many varieties....\" (31). It is worth noting that by the time of Miller ( 1759 ) at least twelve garden forms had been recognized. Daffodill (21, 26, 35), Daffadown Dillies, Trumpets, Poets, Doubles, Multiples Narcissus sp. Narcissus --Common Jonquil by Gerarde in 1596. jonquilla L. Cultivated and Algeria. Native in southern Europe --Curtis Primrose Peerless Narcissus. Pale Daffodil Narcissus X biflorus Curtis Probably Pheasant's a hybrid between or N. poeticus and N. tazetta. --Poetic, Poets, according White Narcissus, Narcissus poeticus L. 1570 Eye Europe. Cultivated in Native of southern to L'Obel. England by --Polyanthus Narcissus Narcissus tazetta L. Gerarde grew it in 1596. Native from the Canary Islands to Japan. \"... Clusius observed it at the end of january 1565 in Spain and Portugal and at the begining of february at Gibraltar ...\" (31). --Rush-Leaved Daffodil, Narcissus triandrus L. namer Angels-Tears \"... Clusius says that a French herbarist, or Quilt, who searched the Pyrenees and introduced it in 1599 ...\" (31). Quelt Spain Nicolas le every year, --Sweet-scented Narcissus, Campernelle Jonquil Native in France and Spain. them in flower in april 1595, in the garden of Theodoric Clutius or Cluyts, prefect of the Academic Garden at Leyden ...\" (31 ). Narcissus odorus L. (N. Calathinus L.) \"... Clusius first observed 181 --Wild or Common Daffodil Narcissus pseudonarcissus L. Native in western Europe from Belgium to Portugal, naturalized in Scandinavia and central Europe. Parkinson (32) listed many varieties, several of them double. This is the common wild English Daffodil. Daisy. Great Daisy Common was Chrysanthemum leucanthemum L. ( 21, 26, 34 ) , --Perennial ... Oxe-Eye Europe. A common Native throughout double flowered form or known to weed of fields. Parkinson. A Common Daisy Bellis perennis L. Native over much of Europe. \"... the common Daisy, grows naturally in Pasture Land in most Parts of Europe, and is often a troublesome Weed in the Grass of Gardens, so is never cultivated.... The Garden Daisy is generally supposed to be only a Variety of the wild Sort, which was first obtained by Culture. This may probably be true, but there has not been any Instance of late Years of the wild Sort, having been altered by Culture; for I have kept this wild Sort in the Garden upward of thirty Years, and have constantly parted the Roots, and raised many Plants from Seeds, but they have constantly remained the same; nor have I ever observed the Garden Daisy to degenerate to the wild Sort, where they have been some Years neglected, though they have altered greatly with regard to the Size and Beauty of their Flowers....\" (30). Datura - See Thomapple Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L. emend. Hylander (H. flava L.) Hemerocallis fulva L. Daylily (40), Yellow Asphodel Lily, --Red Liriconfancie, Yellow Day Lily Asphodel Lily, Orange Day Lily Hemerocallis lilio-asphodelus L. is a native of Eastern Asia, H. fulva is known only in cultivation. \"... These Lilies, says Gerarde, do grow in my garden, and in the gardens of herbarists and lovers of fine and rare plants ...\" (12). Parkinson and Miller both note that while H. fulva sets no seed, and the flowers last for but a single day, H. lilio-asphodelus does set seed and the individual flowers last for more than one day. Miller further notes of the seeds of H. lilio-asphodelus that \"... if sown in Autumn, the Plants will come up the following Spring, and these will flower in two Years; but if the Seeds are not sown till Spring, the plants will not come up till the year after....\" (30). We now know that H. fulva is a triploid, and hence sterile, and that it is not known in a wild condition though allied diploids are found in China. - Dead Nettle (32), Red or Purple Dead Nettle Lamium purpureum L. or Archangell. 182 --White Archangell See Lark's Lamium album L. Native in Europe. In the time of Parkinson for medicinal uses. (1640) esteemed Delphinium Dittany - Spur See Fraxinella See Clove-Gilliflower Dianthus - Digitalis, Foxglove (21, 32) Native in western Europe. Yields a in large doses. At this period used as a Digitalis diuretic. purpurea L. powerful drug, poisonous Dogtooth Violet (21, 32, 35) Erythronium dens-canis L. - Native in central Europe. \"... The sorts of Dens Caninus do grow in divers places; some in Italy on the Euganean Hills, others on the Apenine, and some about Gratz, the chiefe City of Stiris, and also about Bayonne, and in other places. We have had from Virginia a root sent unto us, that we might well judge, by the forme and colour thereof being dry, to be the root of this, ... which the naturall people hold not onely to be singular to procure lust, but hold it as a secret, loth to reveale it....\" (32). ... Elecampane (22, 26) Probably native in Central Inula helenium L. widely naturalized in western Asia, Europe, North America and Japan. \"... The root is esteemed a good pectoral, and a conserve of it is recommended in disorders of the breast and lungs, as good to promote expectoration. An infusion of it fresh, sweetened with honey, is said to be an excellent medicine in the hooping cough. A decoction of it, applied outwardly, is said to cure the itch. Bruised and macerated in urine, with balls of ashes and whortleberries [Vaccinium spp.], it dyes a blue colour....\" (31). now Asia, but Emanies - See Anemone English Daisy (32, 35) - See Daisy Epimedium alpinum L. Epimedium, Barrenwort (32) This rare and strange plant (says Gerarde) was sent me from the French King's herbarist, Robinius, dwelling in Paris, at the sign of the black head, in the street called Du bout du Monde. I planted it in my garden, but it was dried away with the extreme heat of the sun, which happened in the year 1590, since which time it bringeth seed to perfection....\" (31). \"... The Roots if planted in a good Border, should be every Year reduced, so as to keep them within Bounds, otherwise it will spread its Roots and interfere with the neighboring Native in southern Europe. \"... Plants ...\" (30). 183 Feverfew (32, 35), Fether-Few ( 26, 34 ) Chrysanthemum parthenium (L.) Bemh. Native in Europe. \"... It grows naturally in Lanes, and upon the Side of Banks, in many Parts of England, but is frequently cultivated in the Physic Gardens to supply the Markets, ... the whole Plant has a strong unpleasant Odour. The Leaves and Flowers of this are used in Medicine, and are particularly appropriated to the female Sex, being of great Service in all cold flatulent Disorders of the Womb, and hysterick Affections, procuring the Catamenia, and expelling the Birth and Secundines....\" (30). Four-o-clocks - See Marvel-of-Peru Foxglove - See Digitalis Dictamnus albus L. Fraxinella, Dittany (21, 32, 35) Native from southern Europe to northern China. \"... There are three Varieties of this Plant, one with a pale red Flower striped with purple, another with a white Flower, and one with shorter Spikes of Flowers; but as I have observed them to vary when propagated by Seeds, so I esteem them only seminal Varieties.... This is a very ornamental Plant for Gardens, and as it requires very little Culture, so deserves a Place in all good Gardens ...\" (30). \"... It is held to be profitable against the stingings of Serpentes, against contagious and pestilent diseases, and to bring down the feminine courses, for the pains of the belly, and the stone, and in Epilepticall diseases, and other cold pains of the brains: the root is the most effectual for all these, yet the seed is sometimes used....\" (32). Fritillaria - See Chequered Lily and Crown Imperial Geranium, Cranesbill (32) Geranium sanguinium L. Native from southern Scandinavia to Portugal and Greece. \"... Petals obcordate, very large, pale red, with deeper veins, hairy at the base. The whole plant frequently turns red or purple after flowering.... Flowering most parts of the Summer, and often introduced into gardens as an ornamental plant. ...\" (31). --Long-Rooted Cranesbill Geranium macrorrhizum L. Native from south-eastern France to Italy, Austria and the Balkans. \"... The whole plant, when rubbed, emits an agreeable odour.... Cultivated in the Botanic Garden at Oxford in 1658 ...\" (31). --Tuberous-rooted Cranesbill Geranium tuberosum L. Native in southern Europe \"... the root is tuberous and round like unto the root of the Cyclamen or ordinary sowerbread 184 almost, but smaller, and of a dark russet colour on the outside, and white within, which doth encrease underground, by certain strings running from unto the roots bulbes, like the mother root into small round of the earth chestnut ...\" (32). --Herb Robert Geranium robertianum L. Native throughout Europe and temperate Asia. Naturalized in the United States. \"... the whole is beset with pellucid hairs.... It has a disagreeable rank smell when bruised ... A decoction of Herb Robert has been known to give relief in calculous cases. It is considerably astringent, and is given to cattle when they make bloody water or have the bloody flux. ...\" (31). Germander (16, 17) Teucrium chamaedrys L. Native in southern and central Europe, the Near East, and Morocco. \"... The Chamaedrys or Germander has been esteemed chiefly as a mild aperient and corroborant: and was recommended in uterine obstructions, intermitting fevers, rheumatism and gout. Of the last mentioned complaint the Emperor Charles the Fifth is said to have been cured, by a vinous decoction of it, with some other herbs, taken for sixty successive days....\" (31). Gladiolus, Corn Flag (21, 32, 35) Gladiolus sp. There are at least two \"hardy\" gladioli which have been cultivated since before the time of Gerarde ( 1596 ). They are native in southern and eastern Europe. They are probably not hardy in the United States north of Virginia. --French Corne In this the florets form a Flagge Flagge Gladiolus communis L. twist so that the the other. pedicels of the tubular flowers single line of flowers one above --Italian Corne This Gladiolus communis L. flowers flair open and side of the rhachis. are plant is similar, but the arranged in two ranks, one on each --Corne Flagge of Constantinople Gladiolus byzantinus Miller The flower has larger florets than the other two; cultivation by 1629. brought into Globe Amaranth (32) Gomphrena globosa L. Native in tropical Asia. \"... It was cultivated in 1714 by the Dutchess of Beaufort; but was not common in the English gardens till 1725. It was raised first in Holland about 1670. \"... The flowering heads are beautiful, and if gathered before they are too far advanced, will retain their beauty several years ...\" (31). Grape Hyacinth, Iacinth Iacinth Faire Haird Muscari comosus (L.) Miller (Gerarde), Great Purple Faire Haired (Parkinson) 185 Native of western Europe and North Africa. \"... The flower stalk rises about a foot (or eighteen inches) in height, round, upright, smooth, glaucous green. The lower half is naked, but the upper part has a loose raceme of flowers, frequently for a foot in length. The lower flowers are farther asunder, before they flower they are upright, but whilst they flower, and afterwards, they stand out horizontally, on pedicels half an inch in length; their colour is a yellowish green, with blue or purple at the end, these are fertile. The upper ones are smaller, barren, stand upright, form a corymb, and are blue or violet, as are also their long pedicels.... Gerarde, who cultivated it in 1596, calls it Faire haired Iacint; Parkinson, Great purple Faire haired Iacinth; It is distinguished more by its singularity than its beauty, ...\" (31 ). ... --Great Grape-flower Skie-Coloured (Gerarde), Grape Muscari botryoides ( L. ) Miller Flower (Parkinson) Native in southern Europe. \"... where it is once planted in a garden, it is not easily rooted out.... There are three varieties of this, one with blue, another with white, and a third with ash-coloured flowers ... Parkinson enumerates three varieties the white, the blush-coloured and the branched: the first is frequently imported with other bulbs from Holland, the last seems to be a curious variety and was obtained, according to Clusius, from the white ...\" (31). --Blew Grape Flower Muscari racemosum (L.) Miller ___ Native of the south of Europe, in corn fields. \"... It was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. He calls it Blew Grape-flower; and Parkinson, darke blew Grape-flower.... This is much more common in our gardens than the botryoides, and flowers in april and may....\" (31). Ground Ivy, Ale-Hoof (22) Nepeta hederacea (L.) Trev. (Glechoma hederacea) (4) Native from western Europe to Japan. Extensively naturalized in the eastern United States. \"... It gradually expels plants which grow near it, and thus impoverishes pastures. The leaves were formerly thrown into the vat with ale to clarify it, and to give it a flavour....\" (31 ). \"... Ground Ivie brused and put into the eares, taketh away the humming and noise of ringing sounds of the same, and is good for such as are harde of hearing....\" (27). Hellebore, Black Helleborus or Christmas Rose (1, 32, 35) Helleborus niger L. Called \"the black flower at Christmas\" by William Hughes in The Flower Garden and Compleat Vineyard (1683). Native in central and southern Europe. \"... Most, if not all the Hellebores produce very powerful effects when used medicinally. Although many writers consider this root as a perfectly innocent and safe medicine, yet we find several examples of its poisonous effects; it should, therefore be used with proper cau... 186 It seems to have been principally from its purgative qualities that the ancients esteemed this root such a powerful remedy in maniacal disorders ...\" ( 31 ). tion. Hepatica, Liverwort (21, 32, 35) Hepatica nobilis Miller Native in temperate Europe. \"... These Plants are some of the greatest Beauties of the Spring; their Flowers are produced in February and March in great Plenty, before the green Leaves appear, and make a very beautiful Figure in the Borders of the Pleasure Garden, especially the double sorts, ...\" (30). \"... The double kinde likewise hath been sent from Alphonsus Pantius out of Italy, as Clusius reporteth, and was also found in the Woods, near the Castle of Stamberg in Austria, the Lady Heusenstain's possession, as the same Clusius reporteth also ...\" (32). Herb Robert - See Geranium Hollyhock, Garden or French Mallow. Althaea rosea (L.) Cavanilles (21, 22, 26, 32) Native in China. \"... The great tame Mallow which beareth the beyondsea or winter rose, hath great round rough leaves ... The stalke is rounde, and groweth sixe or seven foote high or more: it beareth fayre great flowers of divers coloures, in figuere lyke to the common Mallowe or Hocke: but a great deale bigger, sometimes single, sometimes double ...\" (27). \"... The colours of their flowers being accidental, and the double flowers being only varieties which have risen from culture, I have not enumerated them here, but shall only mention the various colours which are commonly observed: these are white, pale, red, deep-red, blackish-red, purple, yellow and flesh colour. Besides these, I many years ago saw some plants with variegated flowers, in the garden of the late Lord Burlington in London, raised from seeds which came from China....\" (31). Hyacinth, Jacinth, BlueEndymion nonscriptus (L.) Garcke bell (21, 26, 35) (Scilla nonscripta (L.) Common Hyacinth, Harebell Hoffmansegg and Link) Native in western Europe. \"... It adorns our woods, copits flowers in the pices, and hedge-rows, with ...\" (31). --Garden spring months Hyacinth Hyacinthus orientalis L. Native from Greece to Syria and Asia Minor. \"... It is very abundant about Aleppo and Bagdat, where it flowers in February. Lepechin found it not only with purple, but with yellow flowers in Russia. With us it flowers in March and April; and was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Probably earlier, since neither he nor Parkinson speak of the Hyacinth as a flower then new in cultivation ...\" (31). \"... the roots of Hyacinthe boyled in wine and dronken, stoppeth the belly, provoketh urine, and helpeth much agaynst the venomous bitings of the field Spidder ...\" (27). 187 Iris (21, 34, 35, 40) \"Blue and Varied\" ( 35, 40 ) Iris Iris sp. --Flag, pumila L. Native from Central Europe to Asia Minor. Cultivated by Gerarde 1596. \"... There are many varieties of this sort, with white, straw-coloured, pale blue, blush-coloured, yellow-variable. blue-variable, and other colours in the flowers, which are now in great measure neglected...\" (31). --Florentine Iris, White Flower de Luce Cultivated manica very entire ...\" Iris germanica L., var. florentina (Ker.) Dykes in by Gerarde in 1596. much, but differs (31). ... having \"... It resembles I. gerthe petals white and --Flower de Luce \"This Flower de luce is most Iris common in germanica L. gardens...\" (32). --Great Turkie Flower de Luce, Chalcedonian Iris, Mourning Iris Iris susiana L. Probably native in Lebanon. \"... It takes the name from Susa in Persia. Clusius informs us that this magnificent Iris was brought from Constantinople to Vienna and Holland in 1573. In 1596 it was cultivated by our Gerarde ...\" (31) --Hungarian --Persian Iris Iris Iris sibirica L. The small variable Hungarian Iris of Clusius (32). Iris persica L. Native in Asia Minor. \"... Cultivated here in the time of Parkinson (1629), who remarks that it was then very rare, and seldome bore flowers ... Like the Hyacinth and Narcissus it will blow within doors in a water-glass, but stronger in a small pot, of sand or sandy loam, and a few flowers will scent a whole apartment ...\" (31 ). --Yellow water Flagg, Skeggs, Lugs North Africa and Iris pseudacorus or L. Europe, Flagge is very helping all Laskes and Fluxes, ...\" (33). Native in Syria. \"the root of this astringent, cooling and drying thereby whether of Blood Humors --Yellow Flower de Luce Iris variegata L. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Considered to be one of the parents of the I. germanica group. \"... This yellow variable Flower de luce loseth his leaves in winter, contrary to all the former Flower de luces ...\" (32). Lark's Delphinium consolida Spur, Lark's heel, Delphinium (21, 32, 35), Lark's Claw, Lark's Toes, Wild or Corn Lark's Spur. L. Native in Europe and western Asia. \"... The expressed juice of the petals, with the addition of a little alum, makes a good blue ink...\" (31). 188 --Upright or Garden Lark's Spur Delphinium ajacis L. Native in Mediterranean region. \"... The seed of the garden Larckes Spurre drunken is very good agaynst the stinging of Scorpions, and in deede his vertue is so great against their poyson, that the only herbe throwen before the Scorpions, doth cause them to be without force or power to do hurte, so that they may not move or sturre, until this herbe be taken from them ...\" (27). Leucojum, Autumnal Snow-drop Late- Leucojum autumnale L. region. Native in the Mediterranean --Summer Snow-drop, Great flowering Bulbous Violet. Leucojum Europe. aestivum L. Native in Central and Southern Lily (26) --Common White Lilium sp. Lily (32) Lilium candidum L. Native from southern Europe to Southwest Asia. \"... The water of the flowers distilled ... is used ... of divers women outwardly, for their faces, to cleanse the skin, and make it white and fresh ...\" (32). --Martagon Imperiale (21, 32, 35) Native from southern Europe to Gerarde as Martagon Imperiale. Lilium martagon L. Cultivated in 1596 Japan. by --Spotted Martagon of Canada (32) Lilium canadense L. Native from Quebec to Virginia. \"... This, says Parkinson, was brought into France from Canada by the French colony It is found in other [sic], and thence unto us, in 1629 parts of North America; for Catesby says it was sent to Mr. Collinson from Pennsylvania and flowered several years in his ... garden ...\" (31). Lily-of-the-valley Convallaria majalis L. Native through Europe and Asia. \"... Camerarius setteth downe the manner of making an oyle of the flowers hereof, which he saith is very effectual to ease the paine of the Gout, and such like diseases, to be used outwardly, which is this; Having filled a glasse with the flowers and being well stopped, set it for a moneths space in an Ants hill, and after being drayned clear, set it by to use ...\" (32). Linaria - See Toad-flax Lungwort (32), Cowslips Jerusalem of Pulmonaria officinalis L. Native from Central and Northern Europe to the Caucasus. \"... It is much commended of some, to be singular good for ulcered lungs, that are full of rotten matter ...\" (32). ~ ---- No. 1-5 Dianthus spp. No. 6-8 Bellis perennis cvs. No. 9, 10 Globularia spp. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 190 Lupine (21, 32, 35) Lupinus perennis L. Native from Maine to Florida. \"... It is native of Virginia and other parts of North America; and was cultivated in the botanic garden at Oxford in 1658 ...\" (31). --White Lupine scoure Lupinus albus L. and cleanse the skin from spots, morphew, blew marks, and other discolourings thereof, being used either in a decoction or ponther ...\" (32). Native in the Levant. \"doth --Great Blue Lupine Lupinus hirsutus L. Cultivated by Parkinson in 1629. Native in southern Europe. \"... The pods are large, almost an inch broad, and three inches long ...\" (31). Mallow, French - See Hollyhock Marigold (32, 35) Marygold, French Marygold, Flos Africanus, Africanus Multiplex ( 21, 35 ) Tagetes patula Flos L. Native in Mexico. \"Dodoneus ... affirms that it grows spontaneously in Africa, and was first brought into Europe by the Emperor Charles V after his expedition against Tunis. But that was in the year 1535; and Fuchsius in 1542, figures the plant under the name of Tagetes indica: it has never been found in Africa. Hernandez mentions it in his history of Mexico; and the variety figured by Dillenius, which flowered in the Eltham garden in 1727, was produced from Mexican seeds ... it was common with us in Gerarde's time ... 1597 ...\" (31 ). --Aztec Marigold, African Marigold Tagetes erecta L. Native in Mexico. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... Parkinson remarks that the flower is of the very smell of new wax, or of an honie combe, and not of that poisonfull sent of the smaller kindes ...\" (31). Marvel-of-Peru (21, 26, 32, 35) ... Mirabilis jalapa L. Native in tropical America. \"... These ... are very ornamental plants in the flower garden during the months of the flowers do not open till july, august, and september, towards the evening whilst the weather continues warm, but in the moderate cool weather, when the sun is obscured, they continue open almost the whole day ... It was cultivated here by Gerarde many years, as he says, before the publication of his Herbal in 1597 ...\" (31 ). Meadow Rue, Feathered Columbine (1, 32), Common Meadow Rue Thalictrum flavum L. Native in Europe and temperate Asia. \"... A cataplasm made of the bruised leaves is a slight blister, and has been known to give relief in the Sciatica. The root dyes wool yellow; ...\" (31). The name \"Feathered Columbine\" is used now for the 191 Thalictrum ever aquilegifolium L., another come that this did not at least, before 1731. it seems into cultivation in European species. HowEngland, Monarda Monarda, Blue (40), Purple Monarda, Wild Bergamot (31). fistulosa L. Native from Quebec and Ontario to Florida and Texas. \"... Cultivated in 1656 by Mr. John Tradescant, jun....\" Morning Glory - See Blew Bindweed Mullein, Verbascum (21, 32, 35), Great Mullein or Verbascum thapsus L. Aaron's Rod Native in most of Europe and western Asia, widely naturalized on dry soils, gravel banks, or pastures and the like in eastern North America. It was a common plant in fields around Boston by 1824. \"... The leaves and whole herb are mucilaginous, and recommended as emollients both internally and externally. A pint of Cow's Milk with a handful of leaves, boiled in it to half a pint, sweetened with sugar, strained and taken at bed-time, is a pleasant emollient and nutritious medicine for allaying a cough, and more particularly for taking off the pain and irritation of the piles ...\" (31). Verbascum blattaria L. --Moth Mullein Native in temperate Europe eastward to western and central Asia, also in North Africa. Nasturtium, Indian Cress, Great Indian Cress Tropaeolum majus L. (21, 32, 35) ... The flowers are frequently eaten in salads; they have taste like the garden cress, and hence the plant has its common name of Nasturtium; they are likewise used for garnishing dishes. The seeds are pickled, and by some are preferred to most pickles for sauces under the false name of capers...\" a warm (31 ). Nigella, Fennel Flower (21, 32, 35) Nigella damascena L. Native in southern Europe. \"... It was cultivated here in 1570, as appears from Lobel ...\" (31). Nonesuch - See Rose Campion Viola tricolor L. Pansy, Heart's Ease (3, 26, 32) people...\"(31). Pelletory, Paritary (32, 35) Native in northern and central Europe. \"... Linnaeus remarks the black line which sometimes appear on the petals; and gave occasion to Milton's expression of 'Pansies streackt It has ever been a favorite flower with the with jet' ... Parietaria officinalis L. Native in eastern and central Europe. \"... The dried herbe Paritary made up with honey into an electuarie, or the juice of 192 the herb, or the decoction thereof made up with Sugar or Hony, is a singular remedy for for any old continuall or dry cough. ... (33). Peony (21, 26, 32, 34), Male Peony Female Peony P. officinalis L. Paeonia mascula (L.) Miller Native in southern Europe. \"There are two principall kinds of Peonie, that is to say, the Male and the Female. Of the Male kind I have only known one sort, but of the Female a great The Male his leaf is whole, without any particular many; division, notch or dent on the edge, ... The Female of all sorts hath the leaves divided or cut on the edges ...\" (32). ... Poppy, French Poppy, Field Poppy (21,26,32,35) Papaver rhoeas L. Native in Europe, Asia, and North Africa, occasionally found escape in eastern North America. \"... There are several Varieties of this with double Flowers cultivated in Gardens; some of them have white Flowers, others have red Flowers bordered with white, and some have variegated Flowers; ...\" (30). The red double-flowered form was cultivated by Parkinson in 1629. as an --White Poppy, Opium Poppy Black Poppy, Papaver somni f erum L. Native in Greece and sub-tropical Asia, occasionally escaped from cultivation in eastern North America. \"... It is not unknown, I suppose to any, that Poppie procureth sleepe, for which cause it is wholly and only used, as I think: ...\" (32). Primrose, Cowslip (21, 26), Bear's Ears Primula vulgaris Hudson (21, 32) ... Asia Minor, and North Africa. Flowering call those only very short. \"... I Primroses that carry but one flower on a stalk, be they single or double ...\" (32). Native in Europe, peduncle lacking or --Bear's Ears Native in the Primula auricula L. \"... From Gerarde's herbal it appears to enumerate all that the Auricula was cultivated in 1597 the diversities of this plant would be almost endless; for every year produces vast quantities of new flowers ...\" (31). Alps. ... --Cowslip, Paigle Primula veris L. Native in Europe and temperate Asia. \"... The fragrant flowers make a pleasant wine, approaching in flavour to the Muscadel wine of the South of France....\" (31). Ranunculus asiaticus L. Ranunculus (21, 32, 35), Crowfoot ( 32, 35 ) Native in southwestern Europe and southwestern Asia. \"... Mr. Miller says it was originally brought from Persia; but 193 since it has been in Europe, many new varieties have been obtained from seeds ...\" (31). It was cultivated by Gerarde in 1696; Parkinson listed eight varieties in 1629. --Grassy Crowfoot Ranunculus gramineus L. \"... Parkinson figures it with double flowers, but describes it with semi-double ones only ... that with single flowers was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596 ...\" (31). --Fair Maid of France, Aconite-leaved Crowfoot Ranunculus aconitifolius L. Native in Central Europe, from Spain to Jugoslavia. \"... The double-flowering variety has been obtained by seeds, and is preserved in many curious gardens for the beauty of its flowers. It is by some gardeners called Fair Maid of France Gerarde in 1597 'it groweth in the gardens of Herbarists, and lovers of strange plants, whereof we have good plentie, ...(31). ... --Bulbous Crowfoot Native in Ranunculus bulbosus L. and Western Asia, naturalized throughout much of North America. \"... The flowers are sometimes double ... Like most Crowfoots it possesses the property of According to Hoffinflaming and blistering the skin; mann, beggars make use of them to blister their skins with a Europe ... view to exciting compassion ...\" (31 ). Ranunculus acris L. --Yellow Batchelor's Buttons The garden form is of apparently obscure origin. \"... It is frequent in gardens with a double flower, among other herbaceous perennials, under the name of yellow Batchelor's Buttons...\" (31). Rocket, Dames Violet (32, 35) Hesperis matrionalis L. Native in Europe and in Western and Central Asia. \"... The Garden Rocket with purple flowers was formerly in greater plenty in English gardens than at present, having been long neglected because the flowers were single, and made but little appearance : however, as they have a very grateful scent, the plant is worthy of a place in every good garden ... Gerarde in 1597 speaks of it as being then sown in gardens for the beauty of the flowers. And Johnson adds (1633) that by the industry of some of our florists, within two or three years hath been brought unto our knowledge a very beautiful kind of these Dames Violets, having very fair double white flowers....\" (31). Rose Lychnis chalcedonica L. Campion, Maltese Cross (21, 32, 35) Nonesuch, Flower of Constantinople, Flower of Bristow, Flower of Bristol. Native in Russia. \"... Cultivated in 1596 by Gerarde. In his time it was common in almost every garden; but he does not mention any of the varieties. Parkinson in 1629 and Johnson in 1633 have the varieties; but the latter says that 'the white 194 and blush single and the double one are not to be found but in the gardens of our prime Florists' ...\" (31 ). Scabiosa atropurpurea L. Scabiosa, Sweet Scabious (35) Native in Southern Europe. \"... The sorts of Scabious being many, yeeld not flowers of beauty or respect, fit to be cherished in our garden of delight; and therefore I leave them the Fields and Woods, there to abide. I have only two or three strangers to bring to your acquaintance, which are worthy this place ...\" (32). to Sea Holly (32) Eryngium maritimum L. Native on the coasts of Europe from the Baltic to the Black Sea. \"... By old English writers it is called Sea Holly, Sea Holme, and Sea Hilver....\" (31). Native in Sensitive Plant \"... Parkinson calls it Mimick, Plant or shrub, and says that he Mocking or saw a living plant of it in a pot at Chelsey in Sir John Davers garden, where divers seeds being sown about the middle of May 1638 and 1639, some of them sprang up to be near half a foot (35) tropical America. Thorny Sensitive Mimosa pudica L. high....\" (31). Snapdragons (21, 32) Antirrhinum majus L. Native in the Mediterranean region. \"... There is some diversity in the Snapdragons, some being of a larger, and others of a lesser stature and bigness; and of the larger, some of one, and some of another colour ...\" (32). Star of Bethlehem, Ornithogalum umbellatum, L. Ornithogallum (32, 35) Native in the Mediterranean region. Naturalized in eastern North America from Newfoundland to Nebraska southward to North Carolina and Mississippi. \"... The ordinary Star of Bethlehem is so common, and well known in all countries and places, that it is almost needless to describe it....\" (32). Matthiola Stock-Gilliflower, Wallflower ( 21, 26, 34, 35 ) incana (L.) Robert Brown Native in southern Europe, Asia Minor, and North Africa. \"... The Stock-Gilliflower is of very long standing in the English Gardens. Johnson [1633] gives a figure of the double stock, which was not in Gerarde's original work, and observes that many and pretty varieties of it were kept in the garden of his kind friend Master Ralph Tuggye at Westminster: we may conclude, therefore that double Stocks [Brompton Stocks] were not known in Gerarde's time (1596) ...\" ( 31 ) . Strawflowers, Everlastings (32) Helichrysum stoechas (L.) DeCandolle Native in southern Europe \"... the whole Plant is very woolly, the Flowers terminate the Stalks, in a compound Corym- Marigold spp. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 196 If these are gathered before the Flowers are much opened, the Heads will continue in Beauty many years, especially if they are kept from the Air and Dust ...\" (30). bus; ... --American Everlasting, Cudweed (31) Anaphalis margaritacea ( L. ) Bentham Native in North America. \"... A decoction of the flowers and stalks is used in America, to foment the limbs, for pains and bruises ...\" (31). Sunflower (21) Helianthus annuus L. Native in Western North America. \"... sometimes the heads of the Sun-flower are dressed, and eaten as Hartichokes are, and are accounted of some to be good meat, but they are too strong for my taste ...\" (32). Sweet John - See Armeria Sweet Peas, Perennial (35) Lathyrus latifolius L. Native in southern Europe. \"... It is a showy plant for shrubberies, wilderness quarters, arbours, and trellis work; but too large and rampant for the borders of the common flower garden ...\" (31 ). Sweet William - See Armeria Thornapple (32), Jimson Weed Datura stramonium L. Native in tropical Asia, widely naturalized in North America. \"... That it is a native of America ... we have the most undoubted proofs, ... Kalm says that it grows about the villages and that this and the Phytolacca are the worst there ...\" (31 ). Toad Flax, Wild Flax (35) Europe Linaria vulgaris Miller and western Asia, naturalized in the United States. \"... In Worcestershire it is called Butter and Eggs. Gerarde names it Wild Flaxe, Tode Flaxe, and Flaxweede.... The juice mixed with milk, is a poison to flies ...\" (31 ). Tomato (21, 32, 35) Lycopersicum esculentum Miller Native in Peru and Ecuador \"... In the hot countries where they naturally grow, they are much eaten of the people, to cool and quench the heat and thirst of their hot stomachs we only have them for curiosity in our gardens, and for the amorous aspect or beauty of the fruit ...\" (32). ... Tulips (21, 32, 35), \"Doubles and Singles\" eastern Tulipa gesneriana Tulipa ... L. clusiana DeCandolle Native in Asia Minor. \"... Conrad Gesner first made the he tells Tulip known by a description and figuers us that he first saw it in the beginning of april 1559 at Augsbourg, in the garden of John Henry Harwart.... Balbinus asserts that Busbequius brought the first Tulip roots to Prague, whence they were spread all over Germany the Tulip ... 197 cultivated in England by Mr. James Garret, in 1577 ...\" (31). \"Broken\" types were commonly requested. These, it will be recalled, are the result of a virus infection. Valeriana officinalis L. Valerian (26, 19), Official or was Great Wild Valerian Native in temperate Europe and Asia. \"... It is well known us that cats are much delighted with the roots. Dr. Stokes informs that rats are equally fond of them, and that rat-catchers employ them to draw the rats together ...\" (31). --Red Valerian Kentranthus ruber (L.) DeCandolle Native in Central and Southern Europe, North Africa and Asia Minor. \"Gerarde says it grew plentifully in his garden, being a great ornament to the same, and not common in England. Parkinson, that it grows in our gardens chiefly, for we know not the natural place of it ...\" (31). Violets (17, 18), Sweet Violets Viola odorata L. Native in most of Europe, Asia Minor and North Africa. \"... The Garden Violets (for the wild I leave to their owne place) are so well known unto all, that either keep a garden, or have but once come into it, that I shall (I think) but lose labour and time to describe that which is so common...\" (32). \"... The flowers of violets, taken in the quantity of a dram or two, act as a mild laxative ... The syrup is very useful in chemistry, to detect an acid or an alkali; the former changing the blue colour to a red, and the latter to a green ...\" (31). Wallflowers (26, 35), Keiri Cheiranthus cheiri L. native in the Eastern Mediterranean region. \"... the common Wall-flower ... is common on old walls and buildings in many parts of England. It is one of the few flowers which have been cultivated for their fragrancy time immemorial, in our gardens ...\" (31 ). Probably Yarrow (39) Achillea mille f olium L. Native in Europe and Western Asia. Naturalized in North America. Common in fields and pastures around Boston by 1824. \"... The inhabitants of Dalekarlia mix it with their ale, instead of hops, in order to increase the inebriating quality of the liquor ... an ointment is made of it for the piles and it is reckoned good against the scab in sheep ...\" (31). Yucca (32) Yucca gloriosa L. Native along the coast from North Carolina to Florida. \"... First cultivated in Europe by John Gerarde, who had it from the West Indies, 'by a servant of a learned and skilful Apothecare of Excester, named Master Thomas Edwards'. Parkinson adds, that Gerarde kept it to his death, but that it perished with him who got it from his widow, intending to send it to his country house. Gerarde sent it to Robin at Paris, and Vespasian the son of old Robin sent it to Master John de Franqueville, which plant was flourishing in Parkinson's Garden when he published his Paradisus in 1629 ...\" (31). 199 II Herbs, Aromatic, Culinary, and Medicinal, before Anchusa Native in southern years. 1700 Alkanet, Bugloss (32) Europe. sempervirens L. L. Cultivated in Britain for many Angelica (26, 32) Native in Angelica archangelica and Asia. Cultivated in Britain in 1568. Europe Anise ( 22, 26 ) Native from Greece to Egypt. Pimpinella anisum L. Cultivated in Britain in 1551. Ocimum basilicum L. in Britain in Basil (21, 32, 35) Native in the Old World 1596. tropics. Cultivated Melissa Balm, Baum (32) Native in the Mediterranean by 1596. officinalis L. in Britain region. Cultivated Bee-flower ( 32 ) Native in Britain. Ophrys api f era Hudson Collected, but probably not cultivated, as Salep. Borage (26, 32) Native in Europe a source of Borago of~ccinalis L. and North Africa. Long cultivated in Britain. Burnett (22, 32) Sanguisorba of~\"ccinalis L. Europe and Asia. Both long used in Britain. Carum carvi L. Caraway (32) Native in Europe. Long cultivated. Nepeta cataria L. Catnip, Catmint (32) Native in Native in Europe and west and central Asia. Long cultivated. Long Chamomile (26, 32) Native in western Anthemis nobilis L. Europe, North Africa and the Azores. cultivated. Chervil (22, 32) Anthriscus cere f olium (L.) Hoffman Native in eastern Europe, and southern and central Asia. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. Chives, Cives, Chibbals (26) Native in Europe and Asia. Clary (22, 26) Native in southern Europe. Allium schoenoprasium L. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. Salvia sclarea L. Cultivated in Britain in 1562. No. 2 Helianthus annuus. No. 3 Calendula officinalis. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 200 Comfrey (22) Native in Symphytum officinale L. Europe and Asia. Long cultivated. Coriandrum sativum L. Coriander (22, 26, 34) native in the eastern Mediterranean region. Long Probably cultivated. Castmary, Cress Dill Bibleleaf (32) Chrysanthemum balsamita L. Long cultivated. Native in western Asia. (32) Native in western Asia. Lepidium Long cultivated. Anethum Cultivated in Britain in 1597. sativum L. (26, 32) Native in graveolens L. Europe. Dock (32), Patience Dock, Rhubarb Rumex patientia L. Native in Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. Fennel Flax ( 26, 32 ) Native in the Mediterranean Foeniculum vulgare Miller region. Long cultivated. Linum usitatissimum L. (39) Origin unknown. Long cultivated. Houseleek (4) Probably Sempervivum Naturalized all over tectorum L. Origin unknown. vated. Europe. Long culti- Hyssop, Isop (32, 34, 35) Native in southern Britain in 1596. Hyssopus officinalis L. Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in Lavender (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Lavandula of~'zcinalis Chaix Native in the Mediterranean in 1568. region. Cultivated in Britain Lovage (26) Native in southern Europe. Levisticum officinale K. Koch Cultivated in Britain in 1596. Licorice, Liquorice (26, 32, 39) Native in the Mediterranean in 1558. Glycyrrhiza glabra L. region. Cultivated in Britain Madder ( 39 ) Sweet Rubia tinctorum L. Native in the Mediterranean in 1597. region. Cultivated in Britain (21, 32, 35, 39) Majorana hortensis Moench Europe. Long cultivated. Mints, Garden Mints (26, 32, 38) Native in Europe. Long cultivated. Marjoram, Native in 201 --Corn Mint --Horse Mint Mentha arvensis L. Mentha --Pennyroyal ( 22, 26, 32, 35, 39 ) --Peppermint --Spearmint (22, 32) Mustard longifolia Hudson (M. sylvestris L.) Mentha pulegium L. Mentha piperata L. Mentha spicata L. (M. viridis L.) (32) throughout Naturalized cultivated. Brassica nigra ( L. ) K. Koch south and central Europe. Long Parsley (26, 32) Purslane Petroselinum crispum var. (Miller) Nymann latifolium (Miller) Airy-Shaw Portulaca oleracea L. Native in southern Europe. Long cultivated. warm (22, 32, 34, 39) A cosmopolitan weed of in 1562. climate. Cultivated in Britain Rhubarb (32) Rheum rhaponticum officinalis L. L. Native in Siberia. Cultivated in Britain in 1629. Rosemary (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Native in southern Rosmarinus Ruta Europe. Long cultivated. Rue (26, 32) Native in southern graveolens L. Europe. Long cultivated. Saffron (26, 39) Probably native Crocus sativus L. in Asia Minor. Long cultivated. Sage (21, 22, 26, 32, 34, 35) Native in the Mediterranean in 1597. Salvia of~'ccinalis L. region. Cultivated in Britain Santolina, Lavender Cotton (22, 32) Santolina Native in the Mediterranean in 1596. chamaecyparissus L. region. Cultivated in Britain Savory, Summer (26) Europe. Cultivated Satureja hortensis L. S. montana L. in Britain in 1562. --Savory, Winter Native of Skirret ( 26, 32 ) Sium sisarum L. Native in eastern Asia. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. 202 Sorrel (22, 39) Native in the North Rumex acetosa L. Temperate Zone. Long used. Southernwood Sweet (21, 22, 26) Europe. Artemesia abrotanum L. Native in Cultivated in Britain in 1596. Cicely (26) Native in Myrrhis odorata (L.) Scopoli Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. Tansy (22, 26, 32) Native in Tanacetum and Asia. vulgare L. Europe Long cultivated. Tarragon (32) Native in Artemesia dracunculus L. Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1596. Thyme, Time (22, 26, 32) Europe. Long Europe. Thymus serpyllum cultivated. L. Native in northern --Garden Tobacco Thyme Thymus vulgaris L. Cultivated in Britain in 1596. Native in southern Nicotiana tabacum L. N. rustica L. Native in tropical America. Introduced to Britain by 1570. (32) Woad (39) Europe. Native in central and southern historic time. Isatis tinctoria L. Cultivated since pre- Yarrow (39) Native in Achillea mille f olium L. Europe and western Asia. Long cultivated. 203 III Artichoke Vegetables and Field Crops Be fore (5, 26, 32, 34) some 1700 Cynaria scolymus L. eaten raw in its wild state, by the must be a most wretched food. It \"... In common parts it is is said to rennet to turn and the flowers are used instead of milk for cheese ... We learn from Turner that the Artichoke was certainly cultivated in England in 1551. We probably had it sooner.\" (31). people, and surely, dye a good yellow: Artichoke, Jerusalem (32) Cultivated in England Helianthus tuberosus L. at least by 1617. \"... We in England, from some ignorant and idle head, have called them Artichokes of Jerusalem, only because the root, being boiled, is in taste like the bottom of an artichoke head; the Franks brought them first are by reason from Canada into these parts ... [they] of their great increasing, grown to be so common here with us at London, that even the most vulgar begin to despise them, where as when they were first received among us, they were dainties for a queen ...\" (32). ... Asparagus, Sperage (22, 32. 39) Asparagus officinalis L. ... The first shoots or heads of Asparagus are a Sallet of much esteem with all sorts of persons, as any other whatsoever, being boiled tender, and eaten with butter, vinegar, and pepper, oyl and vinegar, or as every ones manner doth please; and are almost wholly spent for the pleasure of the palate. It is specially good to provoke urine, and for those that are troubled with stone or gravel in the veins or kidneys, because it doth a little open and cleanse those end parts ...\" ( 32 ). Barley (22, 39) Hordeum vulgare L. \"... The ancients fed their horses with barley, as we do with oats. It was eaten also in bread by the lower sort of people; and the Gladiators were called Hordearei, from their feeding on this grain ...\" (31). Beans, French or Kidney Beans, Phaseolus vulgaris L. ( 5, 22, 23, 24, 34, 39 ) Cultivated in England in the time of Gerarde 1596. \"... The Garden Beans serve (as I said before) more for the use of the poor than of the rich. I shall therefore only shew you the order the poor take with them, ... They are only boyled in fair water and a little salt, and afterwards stewed with some butter, a little vinegar and pepper being put into them, and so eaten ... The Kidney Beans boyled in water, husk and all, onely the ends cut off, and the string taken away, and stewed with butter, are esteemed more savory meat to many mens palates, than the former, and are a dish more often times at rich mens Tables than at the poor.\" (32). ponium. No. 1 Lilium martagon. No. 2 Lilium canadense. No. 3 Lilium pomFrom Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 204 --Beans, Scarlet Phaseolus coccineus L. Cultivated in 1633 by John Tradescent. \"... The Scarlet Beane riseth up with sundry branches twining about stakes that are set for it to runne thereon, still turning contrary to the Sunne, having three leaves on a foote stalke, ... the flowers are for fashion like unto the rest, but are many more set together, and of a most orient scarlet color: the Beanes are larger than the ordinary kinde, and of a deepe purple turning to be blacke when is ripe and drie; ...\" (33). Beets (22, 32) Beta vulgaris L. \"... The roots of the Roman red Beet being boyled, are eaten of divers while they are hot with a little oyle and vinegar, and is accounted a delicate sallet for the winter; and being cold they are so used and eaten likewise....\" (32). Buckwheat (23) ... Fagopyrum esculentum Moench \"... it is now generally sowen in most of these Northerne Countries, where for the use and profit is made of it many fields are sowen there with, and will not refuse to grow in an hungry ground, but is held generally to bee as good as a dunging to the ground where on it is sowen, the straw thereof also being turned in thereto ...\" (33). Cabbage (5, 26, 32, 39) Brassica oleracea L. var. capitata L. \"... They are most usually boyled in poudered beef broth until they be tender, and then eaten with much fat put among them ... In the cold Countries of Russia and Muscovia, they pouder up a number of Cabbages, which serve them, especially the poorer sort, for their most Ordinary food in winter; and although they stink most grievously, yet to them they are accounted good meat ...\" (32). \"... The Savoy Cabbage, one is of a deeper green coloured-leaf, and curled when it is to be gathered ...\" (32). Carrot Daucus carota L. \"... The carrot hath many winged leaves ... of a deep green colour, some where of in autumn will turn to be of a fine red or purple (the beauty whereof allureth many Gentlewomen oftentimes to gather the leaves, and stick them in their hats or heads, or pin them on their arms instead of feathers (5, 22, 32. 34, 39) , ...)\" (32). Cauliflower (34), Cole-flower Brassica oleracea L. var. botrytis L. \"... The Cole-flower is a kind of Cole-wort, whose leaves are and like the cabbage leaves, but somewhat smaller, and indented about the edges, in the middle whereof, sometimes in the beginning of Autumn, and sometimes much sooner, there appeareth a hard head of whitish yellow tufts of flowers, closely thrust together, but never open, nor spreading much with us, which then is fittest to be used, this hath a much large, ... 205 pleasanter kind, and mens taste than either the Cole-wort, more is therefore of the regard or cabbage of any and respect at good tables\" (32). Corn (5, 39) Triticum sp. One of the most confusing common names in English is \"corn\". In Britain, and in colonial times in America, the name was a general term for Field grains, most generally wheat. Zea maize in the time of Parkinson was Indian or Turkie Wheat, or Maiz. Cucumber, \"Cowcumbers\" ( 5, 21, 22, 32, 34, 39 ) cast a Cucumis sativus L. Cultivated in the time of Gerarde, 1566. \"... Some used to little salt on their sliced Cowcumbers, and let them stand half an hour or more in a dish, and then powr away the water that cometh from them by the salt, and after put vinegar, oyl, etc. thereon, as every one liketh ...\" (32). Dandelion (22) Taraxacum officinale Weber \"... There are four or five Species of this Genus, which grow naturally in the Fields, so are not cultivated in Gardens; but some People in the Spring gather the Roots out of the Fields, and blanch them in their Gardens for a Sallad Herb; however, as they are not cultivated, I shall forbear saying any Thing more of them, than that they are very bad Weeds both in Gardens and Fields, so should be rooted out before their Seeds are ripe, ...\" (30). \"... Early in the spring, whilst the leaves are hardly unfolded, they are no bad ingredients in salads. The French eat the roots, and the leaves blanched, with bread and butter. Its diuretic effects have given it a vulgar name, not only in England, but other European nations....\" (31 ). \"... it wonderfully openeth the uritoric parts, causing abundance of urine, not only in children whose meseraical veins are not sufficiently strong to containe the quantitie of urine drawne in the night, but that then without restraint or keeping it backe they water their beds, but in those of old age also upon* the stopping or yeelding small quantitie of urine, ...\" (33).* Endive (5, 26, 32) Cichorium endivia L. Cultivated in 1562. \"... Endive being whited ... usually being buried a while in sand, ... is much used in winter as a sallet herb, with great delight; ...\" (32). * It is at least of interest to realize the bed-wetting was a problem in the time of the Pilgrims! It is also amusing to contemplate the reticence of botanical writers. I was curious about the \"vulgar name\", but found floras in English silent on the subject of other common names for Dandelion though Fernald does record the French-Canadian \"Pissenlit\". In a Dutch compendium of common names for plants in European languages I found that it was (or is) \"Piss i' bed\", or \"Piss th' Bed\". I was even more amused to find that our Horticultural Secretary, Mrs. Walsh, could confirm that her father, who was bom in Scotland, had used this name when she was a child. 206 --Succory, Chicory (32). Cichorium intybus L. \"... Although Succorie be somewhat more bitter in taste than the Endives, yet it is often times, and of many eaten green, but more usually being buried a while in sand, that it may grow white, which causeth it to lose both some part of the bitterness, or also to the more tender in the eating; ...\" (32). Garlic in salt broth, is often eaten of them that have strong stomachs, but will not brook in a weak and tender stomach ...\" (32). (5, 32, 34) \"... It being Allium sativum L. well boyled Gourds (35) see Pumpkin, also Melon, and Squash lagenaria L. Lagenaria vulgaris Ser. Cucurbita \"... fruit shaped like a bottle, with a large roundish belly and a neck, very smooth, when ripe of a pale yellow colour, some near six feet long, and eighteen inches round; the rind becomes hard, and being dried, contains water ... The Arabians call the bottle Gourd Charrah. The poor people eat it boiled, with vinegar; or fill the shell with rice and meat, and thus making a kind of pudding of it....\" (31). Hemp (39) Cannabis sativa L. \"The Manured Hempe (which is of so great use, both for linnen cloath and cordage) is as I sayd of two sorts, male and female ... to shew you the manner of steeping, drying, beating, and clensing hereof, to be made into cloth or cordage, is not my purpose or pertenent for this work; besides that, it would take up too much roome and time; it is familiarly known to every country housewife almost...\" (33). Hops (34, 39) Humulus lupulus L. \"The young shoots are eaten early in the spring as asparagus, ... The herb will dye wool yellow. From the stalks a strong cloth is made in Sweden ...\" (31). \"... The ale which our forefathers were accustomed onely to drinke, being a kinde of thicker drinke than beere (caused a stranger to say of it there is no drinke thicker that is drunke, there is no Urine cleerer that is made from it, it must needes be therefore that it leaveth much behind it in the belly) is now almost quite left off to be made, the use of Hoppes to be put therein, altering the quality thereof, to be much more healthfull, or rather physicall, to preserve the body from the repletion of grosse humors, which the Ale engendered ...\" (33). ... Indian or Turkie Come, Maize (33). Zea mays L. Cultivated in England in 1562. \"... is cultivated in North America and Germany ... The most common colour is a yellowish white, but there are some with deep yellow, others with purple, and some with blue grains; in Italy, Germany, and North America it is the food of the poor inhabitants. The Corn is ground to flour, and the poorest sort of people in America this grain seldom ... make their bread of this flour; ... No. Iris susiana No. 2, 3 Iris germanica cv. No. 4 Iris Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. pumila. From 208 however, agrees with those who have not been accustomed to eat it; in times of scarcity of other grain, this would be a better substitute for the poor than Bean flour ...\" (31 ). Leeks (26, 32, 35) Allium porrum L. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. \"... The old world, as we find in Scripture, in the time of the children of Israel's being in Egypt, and no doubt long before, fed much upon Leeks, Onions and Garlick boyled with flesh; and the antiquity of the Gentiles relate the same manner of feeding on them, to be in all countries the like, which howsoever our dainty age now refuseth wholly in all sorts except the poorest; ...\" ( 32 ). Lettuce (5, 21, 32, 34) Lactuca sativa L. Mentioned by Turner in 1562. \"... All sorts of Lettice are spent in Sallets, with oyl and vinegar, or as everyone please, for the most part, while they are fresh and green, or whited, as is declared in some of the sortes before, to cause them to eat the more delicate and tender. They are also boyled, to serve for many sorts of dishes of meat, as the Cooks know best...\" (32). Melon (5, 24) Citrall or Turkie Melon, Watermelon eaten Citrullus lanatus (Thunberg) Mansfield Cultivated in 1597 by Gerarde. \"... This fruit should be by Europeans with great caution; when taken in the heat of the day, whilst the body is warm, colics and other bad consequences often insue; and it is well known that persons are much troubled with worms, at the time this fruit is in season ...\" (31). --Musk Melon (22, 32, 34, 39) Cucumis melo L. have been formerly only eaten by great personages, because the fruit was not only delicate but rare; and therefore divers were brought from France, and since were nursed up by the Kings or Noblemens Gardiners only, to serve for their Masters delight; but now divers others that have skill and conveniency of ground for them, do plant them and make them more common\" (32). \"They Oats Avena sativa L. \"The meal of this grain makes tolerable good bread, and is the common food of the country people in the north [of Britain]. In the south it is esteemed for pottage, and other messes, and in some places they make beer with it.\" (31). ( 22, 39 ) Onion (5, 15, 26, 34, 39) \"... Onions are Allium cepa L. used many wayes, as sliced and put into pottage, or boyled and peeled and laid in dishes for sallets at supper, or sliced and put into water, for a sawce for Mutton or Oysters, or into meat roasted being stuffed with Parsley, and so many ways that I cannot recount them, ...\" (32). Garden Primroses. From Paradisi in Sole 1629. by John Parkinson. London, 210 Parsley (5, 22, 26, 32, 39) \"Parsley Petroselinum crispum (Miller) Nym. roasted, fryed, stewed, and being green, sundry Parsnip (5, 22, 32, 34) \"The Parsnep root is much used in all sorts of meats, being boyled, it serveth to lay upon meats, as also to draw meat withall ...\" (32). is a Pastinaca sativa L. great nourisher, and is much more used in this time of Lent, being boyled and stewed with butter, than in any other time of the year; yet it is very good all the winter long....\" (32). Peas (5, 22, 32, 34, 39) Pisum sativum L. \"Pease of all or the most of these sorts, are either used when they are green, and be a dish of meat for the table of the rich as well as the poor, yet every one observing his time, and the kind: the fairest, sweetest, youngest, and earliest, for the better sort, the later and meaner kind for the meaner, who do not give the dearest price: or Being dry, they serve to boyl into a kind of broth or pottage, wherein many do put Tyme, Mints, Savory, or some other such hot herbs, to give it the better rellish, and is much used in Town and Country in the Lent time ...\" (32). Pumpkins (5, 32, 39) Pompions Cucurbita pepo L. Cultivated before 1570 according to L'Obel. \"... They use likewise to take out the inner watery substance with the seeds, and fill up the place with Pippins [applesl, and having laid on the cover which they cut off from the top, to take out the pulp, they bake them together, and the poor of the City, as well as of the Country people, do eat thereof as of a dainty dish...\" (32). Potato Solanum tuberosum L. (5, 32, 39) These and the sweet potato Ipomoea batatas are much confused in early accounts, however they seem to have been cultivated in Virginia in 1609. They are said to have been introduced into Ireland either in 1565 by Hawkins or 1584 by Sir Walter Raleigh. Gerarde had the potato in his garden in London in 1597. \"... Potatoes are said to have been introduced into New England by a colony of Presbyterian Irish who settled in Londonderry, New Hampshire, in 1719, but cultivation did not become general for many years ...\" (20). Radish Raphanus sativus L. stimulum before meat, usually giving an appetite there unto; the poor eat them alone with bread and salt ...\" (32). (5, 22, 32, 34, 39 ) \"Raddishes do serve as a Rampion (32) Campanula rapunculus L. Cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Native in Europe from the Netherlands southwards. \"... The fleshy roots are eatable, and are much cultivated in France for salads. Some years past it was cultivated in English gardens for the same purpose, but ~ No. 1 Carum cavi. No. Ipomoea batatas. No. 3 SoLanum tuberosum. No. 4 Helanthus tuberosus. From Paradisi in Sole by John Parkinson. London, 1629. 212 is now generally neglected ... The roots are eaten not only raw in salads, but boiled like Asparagus. They tender, and eaten cold with Parkinson ...\" (31 ). vinegar boiled and pepper in the time of were Rye (22, 39) \"Rye Secale cereale L. is of a more clammy substance than Wheate, and neither is digested so quickly, nor nourished so well, yet is accounted to be next in goodnesse unto Wheate, especially if the come [grain] be sweet and good, and the bread well fermented and baked, ...\" (33). Spinach (5, 32) Spinage \"Spinage Spinacia oleracea L. is an herb fit for sallets, and for divers other purposes for the table only; for it is not known to be used physically at all....\" (32). Squash (39), Summer Squash Cucurbita pepo L. var. melopepa (L.) Alef. \"The word \"squash\" seems to have been derived from the American aborigines and in particular from those tribes occupying the northeastern Atlantic Coast ... The distinctions between the various forms of cucurbits seem to have been kept in mind by the vernacular writers, who did not use the words pompion [pumpkinl and gourd, as synonyms ... The word \"squash\" in its early use, we may conclude, applied to those varieties of cucurbits which furnish a summer vegetable and was carefully distinguished from the pumpkin ... At the present time, the word squash is used only in America, gourds, pumpkins, and marrows being the equivalent English names, and the American use of the word is so confusing that it can only be defined as applying to those varieties of cucurbits which are grown in gardens for table use; the word pumpkin applies to those varieties grown in fields for stock purposes; and the word gourd to those ornamental forms with a woody rind and bitter flesh, or to the Lagenaria ...\" (20). Succory, See Endive Turnip (22, 26, 32, 39) Brassica rapa L. \"Being boyled in salt broth, they all of them eat most kindly, and by reason of their sweetness are much esteemed, and often seen as a dish at good men's tables: but the greater quantity of them are spent at poor men's feasts....\" (32). Turnips are said to have been introduced into England from Holland in 1550. They were reported to be in cultivation in Massachusetts in 1629. Wheat (22, 39) Triticum aestivum L. Wheat was an unimportant grain in England as late as the reign of the first Elizabeth. It was ordered, from England, by the Plymouth Colony in 1629. By that time it seems to have been widely grown in England in many varieties. ~ No. J Petroselinum hortense. No. 2 Apium culum vulgare. No. 4 Anethum graveolens. No. Anthriscus cerefolium. From Paradisi in Sole don, 1629. graveolens. No 3 Foeni5 Myrrhis odorata. No. 6 by John Parkinson. Lon- 214 IV Shrubs, Trees and Vines Before 1700 Althea, Shrub Mallow (22, 35) Hibiscus syriacus L. Hibiscus mutabilis L. Parkinson illustrates (but does not discuss) an Althea frutex which seems to be Hibiscus syriacus. His Althea arborescens Provincialis seems to be frutex flore albo vel species. purpureo Hibiscus mutabilis and his Althea seems to be a mixture of the two Arbor-Judae (35), Judas Tree ( 25, 43 ), Sallad Tree (23) Cercis siliquastrum L. canadensis L. \"... The wood of the Tree is very beautifully veined with black and green, and takes a fine polish ...\" (30). Miller, in 1759, says of C. siliquastrum, \"... The pods are gathered and used with other raw vegetables by the Greeks and Turks in salads, to which they give an agreeable odor and taste. The flowers are also made into fritters with batter and the flowerbuds are pickled in vinegar\" (20). Of Cercis canadensis Sturtevant says \"... The French Canadians use the flowers in salads and pickles ...\" Arborvitae possibly also Cercis (21, 23, 32, 35) Thuja occidentalis L. reckoned the most durable wood in Canada, inclosures of all kinds are scarcely made with any other wood; especially the posts which are driven into the ground. The palisades round the forts are made of this wood ... Clusius says that he first saw this tree in the Royal Garden at Fontainebleau, whither it was sent from Canada as a present to Francis the First...\" \"Being (31 ). Bayberry, Wax Myrtle (23, 43, 4) Myrica cerifera L. Myrica pensylvanica Loisel. Newfoundland to North Carolina. Myrica cerifera is found from Delaware to Florida and M. pensylvanica from Newfoundland to North Carolina. \"... Candles of this kind do not easily bend or melt in summer, as common candles do; they burn better and slower, nor do they cause any smoak ... A soap is made in which has an agreeable scent, and is excellent for shaving ...\" (31). Bladder-nut (35) Staphylea pinnata L. \"... The Nuts are in loathsome and overturning their stomakes that eate them, although Scaliger commendeth them wee will give him leave to please his palate, and ... , but stomacke with them, and will not envy the good he shall get by them, we never yet could learne that they were accepted among our people, except with some strong clownish stomacke, which can almost digest an horse naile ...\" ( 33 ). 215 Box, English (32, 34, 35) Buxus sempervirens L. \"The Boxe tree ... is found with us in many woods, and wood grounds among other sorts of trees, it is also planted in divers Orchards or house backe sides, where it never groweth high, but serveth as a bush to dry Linnen on ...\" (33). \"It was second to the Yew with us in former times for the purpose of being clipped into the shape of animals ... The branches were in request among our ancestors for decking up houses; they are still seen among other evergreens in churches at Christmas, and in some countries they are borne by attendants at funerals ...\" (31). \"... The low Box is of excellent use to border up a knot or the long beds in a Garden, being a marvelous fine ornament thereunto, in regard it groweth low, is ever green, and by cutting may be kept in what manner every one please, ...\" or dwarf (32). Cherry, Wild or Choke (43) England Prospects, are Prunus very austere and as virginiana L. as \"Wood, Indians.\" in his New mentions choke cher- ries and says ... they yet \"as wilde (20). Broom Cytissus, Spanish (21, 32), Spanish Spartium junceum \"... They groweth naturally in many places of France, Spain and Italy, we have it as an ornament in our Gardens, among other delightful plants, to please the senses of sight and smelling ...\" (32). \"... It appears from Turner's Herbal that it was cultivated here in 1562 by Lord Cobham ...\" (31). Dogwood, Flowering (43) Cornus florida L. Native in North America. \"... There is a variety of it with a rose-coloured involucre, which was found wild in Virginia by Banister, and afterwards by Catesby ...\" (31). Introduced into England in 1739 by Philip Miller or perhaps earlier by Fairchild. Cultivated in Virginia between 1712 and 1719. --Cornelian \"... Cherry, reason Cornel (24, 25, 32, 40) Cornus mas L. of the pleasantnesse in them when they are ripe, they are much desired ... They are also preserved and eaten ...\" (32). \"... Formerly it was cultivated for the fruit, which was used to make tarts, and a rob de Cornis was kept in the shops...\" (31). by --Red Osier (43) Cornus stolonifera Michx. amomum --Silky Dogwood (43) Fir Cornus Miller Both valued for the red winter color of the young shoots. (32, 35) Picea abies L. Karsten \"... The Firre tree groweth naturally higher than any other tree in these parts in Christendom where no Cedars grow, and even equalling or over-topping the Pine ...\" 216 Gelder or Guelder Rose ( 21, 32, 34 ) Viburnum opulus L. var. roseum L. The sterile form \"... is generally called Sambucus rosea: In English, The Elder Rose, and more commonly after the Dutch name, the Gelder Rose....\" (32). Hackberry, Hemlock Common (43) Celtis occidentalis L. (22) Tsuga canadensis L. Carr. Red-satin Flowers (21, 32) Lonicera periclymenum L. L. capri f olium L. Honeysuckle, French, --Honeysuckle, Hypericum, Coral (43) (21) Lonicera sempervirens L. St. John's Wort Hypericum perforatum L. \"The common people in France and Germany gather it with great ceremony on St. John's day, and hang it in their windows, as a charm against storms, thunder, and evil spirits; mistaking the meaning of some medical writers, who have fancifully given this plant the name of Fuga Daemonum, from a supposition that it was good in maniacal and hypochondracal disorders ...' (31). Jasmine Jasminum officinale L. \"... Gerard cultivated this shrub in 1597. He says it was then common in most parts of England, being used for arbors and to cover banqueting houses in gardens ...\" (31). Gelseminum --Jasmine, Carolina (40, 43) sempervirens L. Aiton fil. \"... groweth in Virginia as Master Tradescant, who saw it there doth affirme, and from him I have a plant risen of the seed. [It] was never mentioned by any before, and but that Master Tradescant is confident to call it a Jasmine, and therefore I am content to put it with the rest to give him content, I would be further informed of it my selfe, before I would certainly give it my consent ...\" (33). Juniper, Juniper, Savin - see Savin tree or bush Red Cedar (23, 24, 43) Juniperus virginiana L. \"... this tree is much used for wanescotting rooms, making escritoirs, cabinets, etc., cockroches and other insects disliking the smell of it ...\" (31). Laburnum ( 17, 19 ) use Laburnum hereof in anagyroides Medic. \"... There is no natural place of the which it will do very ~ Physick with us, nor in the growing, save only to provoke a vomit, strongly ...\" (32). by D. Rembert From A Nievve Herball Dodoens, tr. by Henry Lyte. London, 1578. 217 Lantana ( 26 ) Lantana camara L. Cultivated probably for summer bedding. It was cultivated in 1691 in the royal garden at Hampton Court. (31). Larch Larix decidua, Miller \"... The coles of the wood hereof (because it is so hard and durable as none more) is held to be of most force being fined, to cause the iron oare to melt, which none other would do so well...\" (32). (32, 35) see Syringa Lilac, Pipe tree Tilia europaea L. Linden, Lime (17) a hybrid, it does produce some viable seed. CultiAlthough vated at least as early as 1562. \"... The coles of the wood are the best to make gunpowder and being handled, and quenched in vinegar, are good to dissolve clotted blood in those that are - bruised with a fall ...\" (32). 218 ... \"The most elegant use to which it is applied is for carv- ing. Many of Gibbons's beautiful works in Lime tree are dispersed about the kingdom in our churches and palaces; ...\" (31). Locust (40, 43) Robinia pseudo-acacia L. \"... Native of North America, where it grows to a very large size, and the wood is much valued for its duration. Most of the houses which were built at Boston in New England, on the first settling of the English, were constructed of this timber ...\" (31). Magnolia, Sweetbay (23, 24, 43) Magnolia virginiana L. \"... in American this tree is known by the names of White Laurel, Swamp Sassafras, and Beaver Tree. It has the last name, because the root is eaten as a great dainty by Beavers; and this animal is caught by means of it ...\" (31). Maple, Red (43) Acer rubrum L. \"... This sort was cultivated in 1656 by Mr. John Tradescant, jun.... It is propagated with us for the sake of the scarlet flowers, which come out early in the spring. In Pennsylvania, where it grows in the swamps, the natives use it for almost all sorts of wood-work; with the bark they dye a dark blue, and make a good black ink ...\" (31). Mezereum (Chamelaea) ( 21, 23, 24, 32 ) Daphne mezereum L. Gerarde cultivated it in 1596. \"... The branches make a good yellow dye ... The berries when swallowed prove a powerful poison ... There are two principal varieties of the Mezereum; one with a white flower succeeded by yellow berries; the other with peach-coloured flowers and red fruit; the latter has sometimes flowers of a much deeper red. There is also a variety with variegated leaves...\" (31). Mock Orange Philadelphus coronarius L. Lilacs, Mock Oranges, and some Jasmines were confused at this period. Mock Orange was Syringa flore albo simplici (Syringa with single white flowers ) , the single white pipe-tree. The double white pipe-tree or Syringa Arabica flore albo duplici (Syringa of Arabia with double flowers) is ]asminum. sambac the Arabian Jasmine. The Lilacs were called Lilac sive syringa Mock Orange was cultivated by Gerarde in 1596. Quercus alba L. Oak, White (25) ... dried and boiled for food by the Narmixed with their pottage by the Indians of Massachusetts. Baskets full of parched acorns, hid in the ground, were discovered by the Pilgrims December 7, 1620 ...\" (20). It was not cultivated in England until 1724. were \"... Acorns ragansetts. Oak acorns were Oak, Red ( 23, 25 ) Quercus borealis Michx. fil. or \"... The red oak is of little value for fuel for most pur- 219 poses as timber ... But, like some individuals in a higher field in creation, it compensates in ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1971-Colonial Garden Plants"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Colonial Garden Plants","article_sequence":2,"start_page":172,"end_page":249,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24542","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270816b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Favretti, Rudy J.; DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"some measure for its comparative uselessness, by its great beauty Emerson, G. B., Trees and Shrubs of Massachusetts. Oak, Scarlet (43) Quercus coccinea Muench. Periploca (32) Virginia Asclepias syriaca L. silk (17) Wisanck Milkweed, \"... I know not of any in our Land hath made any tryall of the properties hereof. Captain John Smith in his book of the discovery and description of Virginia, saith, that the Virginians use the roots hereof ... being bruised and applyed to cure their hurts and diseases.\" (32). Philadelphus Pine - see Mock Orange Pinus sp. were _ (17) See It is likely that individual trees of various species allowed to persist around the homesteads and in pastures. Pipe tree - Syringa, Mock Orange, or Jasmine Poplar ( 34 ) Both Populus species were alba or P. nigra used at this Privet (25, 32) period for timber. Ligustrum vulgare L. and var. italicum (Miller) Vahl \"... In point of utility and ornament few shrubs exceed the common privet. Its chief use is to form such hedges as are required in dividing gardens for shelter or ornament, and for this the Italian or Evergreen Privet is usually preferred. It is one of the few plants that will thrive in the smoke of London...\" (31). Pyracantha (32, 35) Pyracantha sp. Cultivated by Parkinson in 1629. \"... it is preferred with divers as an ornament to a garden or orchard, by reason of his ever green leaves, and red berries among them (32). see Red-bud Rose Arbor-Judae Rosa sp. & cvs. (32, 42) Many roses were deal with here. The reader should refer to Rose of Sharon - see Althea. cultivated, too many to Saint John's Wert - see Hypericum Sassafras albidum (Nutt.) Nees. Sassafras (25, 43) \"... A decoction of Sassafras with sugar was sold in coffeehouses at the end of the last century, under the name of Bochet ...\" (31). 220 Savin Tree or Bush, Savine (32) Juniperus sabina L. Cultivated in 1562 according to Turner ... \"It is planted in out-yeards, bush-sides or void places of Orchards, as well, to cast cloaths thereon to dry, as for medicines both for men and horses: being made with an oyle, it is good to annoint children's bellies for to kill the worms ...\" ( 32 ). Service Tree or Sorbus (32, 35) Sorbus torminalis Crantz \"... the fruit of this tree is in some round like an apple, and in others a little longer like a pear, but of a more pleasant taste than the ordinary kind, when they are ripe and mellowed, as they used to do both with these kinds and with Medlars ...\" (32). Smoke Tree, Venice sumacke Cotinus coggygria Scopoli \"... The wood is yellowish, and serveth to give a yellow dye: but the leaves and young branches, doe Dye a blacke colour; and with the barke they Tanne leather ...\" (33). Spicebush (43) Lindera Benzoin Blume \"Native of Virginia; whence it was sent by Banister to Compton Bishop of London, and cultivated in his garden at Fulham in 1688 ...\" (31). Spiraea (21, 35), Spiraea Frutex Sweet Gum Spiraea salicifolia Spiraea L. \"It appears from Rea's Flora that the common was cultivated here in 1665 ... ' ( 31 ). Frutex (43) Liquidambar styraciflua L. Cultivated by Bishop Compton in 1688. \"... from between the wood and the bark issues a fragrant gum, which trickles from the wounded trees, and by the heat of the sun congeals into transparent drops, which the Indians chew as a preservation to their teeth ... The Bark is also of singular use to the Indians for covering their huts...\" (31 ). Sycamore (43) Platanus occidentalis L. Cultivated in England in 1640 by John Tradescant junior. \"... the English Americans call it Button-wood ... or Water Beech ... It grows mostly in low places.... It is easily it is transplanted to drier places, if the soil be good, planted about houses and in gardens to afford a pleasant shade in the hot season ...\" (31 ). ... Syringa, Pipe Tree (see also Philadelphus) \"Gerarde and Parkinson cultivated the blue and white Lilac under the name of Pipe Tree or Privets. The former says, 'I have them growing in my garden in great plenty' 1597 - Mattiolus's figure [1598?]is engraved from a drawing which was taken from a plant brought over from Constantinople by Augerius de Busbeke, who during seven years was Ambassador to the Sultan Soliman from the Emperor Ferdinand I....\" (31). From the Herball by John Gerarde. London, 1597. 221 Syringa, Persian (43) \"It appears from the Catalogue of the Oxford was cultivated here in 1658 ...\" (31). Syringa persica L. garden that it Trumpetcreeper (43) Campsis radicans Seem. Cultivated in England in 1640. \"... This never bore flower with mee, nor any other that hath it in our country that I could heare of: but in the naturall place, as also beyond the sea, at Rome, and other warme countries it beareth a great tuft of flowers together...\" (33). tree Tulip (43) by Bishop Compton at Liriodendron tulipifera L. Cultivated Fulham in 1688. Virginia creeper (26) by Parthenocissus quinquefolia (L.) Planch. Cultivated Parkinson in 1629. Witch-hazel (43) Hamamelis virginiana L. Native in Eastern North America. Introduced into by Peter Collinson in 1736. England 222 V Fruits and Nuts Almond Be fore 1700 Prunus dulcis ( 32, 35 ) (P. Miller) D. A. Webb (P. amygdalus Batsch.) Native in western Asia. Phillip Miller knew 3 varieties in 1743, The Common, the Sweet with Tender Shells, and the Bitter. Apple (5, 8, 34, 35, 39, 42) Hybrid derivations from Malus pumila Miller. Native in Europe and western Asia. Apple seeds were introduced by the first Colonists, and gave rise to \"American\" cultivars. Although the art of grafting was known, apples were commonly propagated by seed for the next two hundred years. The Hon. Paul Dudley of Roxbury, who was Chief Justice of Massachusetts, published in 1734 a paper in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London entitled: \"Some Observations on the Plants of New England ...\" in which he comments \"Our apples are without doubt as good as those of A good apple tree England, and much fairer to look to; with us will measure from six to ten foot in girt...\" (13). ... Apricot (5, 32, 34, 35) Apricock, Abricot Barberry (32, 35) Prunus armeniaca L. Native in western Asia. As late as 1743 there were only about eight varieties of Apricot in cultivation in Great Britain. Berberis vulgaris L. Native in Europe. \"... grows naturally in the hedges in many parts of England, but is also cultivated in gardens for its fruit, which is pickled and used for garnishing dishes ...\" (30). \"The fruit is used for pickling and for preserving; a decoction of the berries sweetened is deemed useful as well as pleasant in fevers ...\" (30). Cherries (32, 34, 35, 38, 39) Sour Cherry Prunus cerasus L. Native in southeastern Europe and western Asia. \"... Francis Higginson writing in 1629, after naming the several other fruits then under cultivation in Massachusetts, notes that the 'Red Kentish' is the only cherry cultivated.... As early as 1641, a nursery had been started in Massachusetts and was selling among other trees those of a cherry.... These early plantations of cherries in New England were undoubtedly grown from seed; at least, the records make mention of seeds and not of trees ...\" (14). ... Currants Ribes sylvestre Mert. et Koch (32, 35, 39) Ribes Native in western Europe. \"There is little of interest or of profit to the pomologist in the history of the currant in America. The earliest English settlers in Massachusetts, ... brought 223 this fruit to the new country. Probably the sorts brought were the Red and White Dutch, and the fact that after those hundred years we still grow these varieties is significant, there have been few attempts to improve the currant in America ...\" (19). Elderberry (34) -- Eldern Sambucus canadensis L. S. Native in eastern North America. nigra L. used Native in Europe and western Asia. The berries for making wine and pies. were Fig (5, 32, 35, 40) Ficus carica L. Native in western Asia. \"... in 1629 one Mistress Pearce, of Jamestown, an honest, industrious woman, had gathered from her garden in one year 'neere an hundred bushels of excellent Figges' ...\" (19). Filbert (32, 35, 39) Filbeards Corylus avellana L. Native in Europe. P. Miller in 1743 recognized five sorts growing in England. European forms have not done well in this country except in the Northwest. Gooseberry (5, 32, 34, 35, 39, 42) Ribes grossularia L. Native in Europe eastward to the Caucasus. \"... The Gooseberry of history is well grown only in the Old World. Early settlers in America from England and Holland tried its culture here but the hot dry American summers parched and withered both fruit and foliage. Moreover, it was subject to a native mildew which, before preventive and remedial sprays were introduced, made short work of European Gooseberries in America. A few of the several hundred varieties grown in Europe vicariously grow in favored gardens in northeastern United States and adjacent parts of Canada...\" (19). Grapes (34, 35, 39, 42) Probably native in the grow foreign grapes Vitis vinifera L. Caucasus. There were many attempts to in New England. John Winthrop, Governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony, had planted a vineyard in one of the islands, known as Governor's Garden, \"in Boston Harbor before 1630. Vine-planters were sent to this colony in 1629. There were plantations at the mouth of the Piscataqua in Maine as early or before Winthrop's plantings were made if grapes were grown, or wine made from the foreign grape, no great degree of success was attained. Wine was made in plenty from the wild grapes in all of the New England colonies so that it was not because of Puritanical prejudices against wine that the grapes were not grown...\" (15). ... Hazelnut, Hazel (5, 34) - See Filberts Hawthorn, Oxycantha Crataegus oxycanthoides Thuill. C. monogyna Jacq. Planted for hedges - a double-flowered cultivar was available for ornamental planting. 224 Medlar (32, 34, 35) Mespilus germanica L. Native from southeastern Europe to Persia. \"These fruits are permitted to remain upon the trees till October, when they will begin to fall; at which time they must be gathered when dry, and laid by in a dry place, until they become soft, and begin to decay, which is commonly about a Month after they are gathered, when they will be fit to be eaten; before which they are so very harsh, that it is almost impossible to eat them.\" Miller P., Gardener's Dictionary Ed. 4, 1743. Mulberry (32, 35) ... Morus nigra L. \"... is very common in most gardens, being raised for the Morus alba L. is commonly cultivated Delicacy of its fruit for its leaves to feed silk-worms ...\" (30). Nectarine (5, 32, 34, 35, 39) Prunus nectarina persica (L.) Batsch. var. we (Aiton) Maxim. at \"... they have been with us not many years.... this day doe know five several sorts...\" (32). Orange, (32) Seville or Sour Orange Citrus aurantium L. Native in southern Asia. First plantings in South Carolina made before 1577. It is well known that oranges in small quantities have been grown for many years in South Carolina and Georgia, particularly on certain islands adjacent to the coast. It is therefore interesting to know that Bartholome Martinez in a letter to the King dated at Havana, February 17, 1577, stated: 'And what may be truthfully told to your Majesty is that in Santa Elena [Parris Island, South Carolina] I planted with my own hands grape vines, pomegranate trees, orange and fig trees; wheat, barley, onions, and garlic.' Martinez had lived in Santa Elena until 1576. His garden therefore was planted before 1577, the date of his statement. It is clear from this evidence that citrus fruits were introduced into several sections of the southeastern United States in the latter part of the sixteenth century. (Webber, H. J. & Batchelor, L. D. The Citrus Industry). Peach (8, 32, 34, 35, 39) Prunus persica L. \"Of peaches in the New England colonies, we need say but little. Except in favored parts of Connecticut and Massachusetts, this fruit was little grown in these northern colonies. It is not at all probable that New England Indians ever planted peaches and for a generation after the whites came the struggle for the necessities of life kept them from indulging in so great a luxury as a peach-orchard. Strong drink was commonly used by the Puritans as by the Churchmen in Virginia and peachbrandy would have been as acceptable but it was easier to produce cider, and rum from the West Indies could be had with little trouble. Still, peaches were sparingly grown in the New England colonies. \"The Massachusetts Company in 1629 sent peach-pits, along 225 with seeds of other fruits, to be planted by the colonists. Twelve years later George Fenwick, Saybrook, Connecticut, writes to Governor Winthrop that he is 'prettie well storred with chirrie & peach trees'. Justice Paul Dudley, who seems to have been the leading horticulturist in Massachusetts in his time, writes in 1726: 'Our Peaches do rather excel those of England, and then we have not the Trouble or Expence of Walls for them; for our Peach Trees are all standards and I have had in my own Garden seven or eight Hundred fine Peaches of the Rareripes, growing at a Time on one Tree.' From another statement made by Justice Dudley we learn that peaches were still being grown from the stone and may assume that budding was not known, or so careful a horticulturist as our author would have mentioned it. He says: 'Our Peach Trees are large and fruitful, and bear commonly in three Years from the Stone. I have one in my Garden of twelve years growth, that measures two Foot and an Inch in Girt a Yard from the ground which, two Years ago, bore me near a Bushel of fine Peaches.' (16). \"In the voyages undertaken for exploration and commerce soon after the discovery of America by Columbus the peach was introduced in America by the Spanish, for soon after permanent settlement had been made in the South the settlers found this fruit in widespread cultivation by the Indians and its origin could only be traced to the Spaniards who early visited Florida and the Gulf region. William Penn wrote as early as 1683 that there were very good peaches in Pennsylvania; 'not an Indian plantation was without them.' The abundance of this fruit was noted by all the early travelers in the region from Pennsylvania southward and westward ...\" (18). Pear (5, 8, 32, 34, 35, 39), Peare Pyrus communis L. Native in Europe and western Asia. \"He [Justice Dudley] says: An Orange Pear Tree grows the largest and yield the fairest Fruit. I know one of them near forty Foot high, that measures six Foot and six Inches in Girt, a Yard from the Ground, and has borne thirty Bushels at a Time: and this year I measured an Orange Pear, that grew in my own Orchard, of eleven Inches round the Bulge. I have a Warden Pear Tree, that measures five Foot six Inches round. One of my Neighbors has a Bergamot Pear Tree that was brought from England in a Box, about the Year 1643, that now measures six Foot about, and has borne twenty-two Bushels of fine Pears in one Year. About twenty years since, the Owner took a Cyon, and grafted it upon a common Hedge Pear; but the Fruit does not prove altogether so good, and the Rind or Skin, is thicker than that of the Original.\" (17). Plum (5, 8, 32, 34, 35, 39, 42) Native in Prunus domestica L. some the Pilgrims, for Francis Higginson, writing in 1629, says: 'Our Governor hath already planted a vineyard with great hope of increase. Also mulberries, plums, plums were Europe and planted by corrance, western Asia. \"In Massachusetts raspberries, chestnuts, filberts, walnuts, smalnuts, a hurtleberries.' The plums were Damsons, as made a little later that the 'Red Kentish is the statement is only cherry and 226 the Damson the only plum cultivated.' A further reference to this plum is made by John Josselyn, when, writing of a voyage to New England in 1663, he says, \"The Quinces, Cherries, Damsons, set the dames a work, marmalad and preserved Damsons is to be met with in every house.' (18). \"In 1797 there is the following concise account of the plums cultivated in New England. 'The better sorts which are cultivated are the horse plum, a very pleasant tasted fruit, of large size; the peach plum, red toward the sun, with an agreeable tartness; the pear plum, so-called from its shape, which is sweet, and of an excellent taste; the wheat plum, extremely sweet, oval, and furrowed in the middle, not large; the green-gage plum, which is generally preferred before all the rest.' ... ' ( 18 ). Pomegranate (5, 39) Punica granatum L. Native from southeastern Europe to the Himalayas. Pomegranates do not survive outdoors north of Washington. The First greenhouse in New England seems to have been that of Andrew Faneuil in the early 1700's, so it is unlikely that any planting of pomegranate in this area before that was successful. However, two or three varieties were known in England, so it is likely that some colonists may have tried to raise plants from seed. Quince (5, 10, 34, 35, 39) Native in central Asia. Cydonia oblonga Miller \"... Our fruit-trees prosper abundantly, Apple-trees, Pear-trees, Quince-trees, Cherry-trees, Plumtrees, Barberry-trees. I have observed with admiration that the Kernels sown or succors planted produce as fair and good fruit without grafting as the Tree from whence they were taken ...\" (22). Raspberries (32, 39) Rubus idaeus L. Native through much of the North Temperate Zone. \"... The Raspis berries is of two sorts, white and red, not differing in the form either of bush, leafe or berry, but onely in the colour and taste of the fruit ...\" ( 32 ) . Strawberries The (5, 26, 32, 39, 42) native explorers and a Fragaria virginiana Duchesne common European strawberry was mentioned by the early pioneers on our Atlantic seaboard. (19). Fragaria chiloensis, one of the parents of the modern cultivated strawberries did not arrive in Europe from Chile until 1712. Walnuts (32) Native from southeastern ]uglans regina L. Europe to China. \"... as there do not perhaps exist ... , south of the Hudson river, ten European Walnut trees ...\" ]uglans nigra L. \"... These nuts are sold in the Markets of New York, Philadelphia, and Baltimore, and served upon the tables.\" Hillhouse, S. L. (Trans.) Michaux, F. A. The North American Sylva. 3 vols. Paris. C. D'Hautel. 1819. 227 VI Flowers, 1700 Aster, China (40) to 1776 Callistephus chinensis (L.) Nees. Native in China and Japan. Sent Paris, grown in England about 1731. by French missionaries to Aster, Stokes (40) Stokesia laevis (Hill) Greene L. Native in North America from South Carolina to Louisiana. Introduced to England by James Gordon about 1766. Balsam, Double (5) Impatiens balsamina Double-flowered forms were not known in 1640 but common as not to be of exceptional note in 1759. were so Bearberry (24) Bedstraw, Yellow (23) Native throughout Europe. Bee Balm (23, 40) Arctostaphyllos uva-ursi L. Native in the Northern Hemisphere. Discovered in Britain before 1700 and noted in America by Kalm in 1750. Galium Cultivated in varum L. L. England in 1597. Monarda didyma Native from New York to Michigan, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1755. Bent Grass (24) Europe. Long Agrostis tenuis Sibthorp (and perhaps other species) cultivated in pastures. ________ Native in Black-eyed Susan (40) Rudbeckia hirta L. Native in North America from western Massachusetts to Illinois south to Georgia and Alabama. Cultivated in Britain in 1732 by James Sherard. Bouncing Bet, Soapwort (40) Europe. Long Carnation, Clove Pink (5) Native in southern Europe. Native in cultivated. Saponaria officinalis Dianthus Cultivated in L. L. caryophyllus in 1597. England Catchfly, Morning Campion, Red Campion (22) Melandrium rubrum (Weigel) Garcke (Lychnis dioica L.) Culti- Native in Europe, western Asia, and North Africa. vated in Britain in 1633. Catchfly (23) Native in in 1644. Viscaria vulgaris Bernh. ( Lychnis viscaria L. ) Cultivated in Britain Europe and western Asia. 228 Cat-tail ( 23, 46 ) Widespread in the northern Typha latifolia Hemisphere. Long Celosia argentea L. L. used in rural var. crafts. Cockscomb (5, 40) tropics. Native in the Asiatic cristata (L.) Kuntz. Cultivated in Britain in 1597. Columbine (40) Aquilegia canadensis L. Native in North America from Newfoundland to Wisconsin south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England before 1640 by John Tradescant, Senior. Coreopsis, Tickseed (40) Coreopsis lanceolata L. Native in North America from Virginia to Wisconsin, south to Florida and New Mexico. Cultivated in Britain in 1725. Creeping Jenny, Creeping Charley, Moneywort (40) _ Lysimachia nummularia L. Native in in 1597. Europe and western Asia. Cultivated in England Evening Primrose (24) Oenothera biennis L. Native throughout the United States. Originally cultivated at Padua in 1619, and in England in 1629. Fall Daffodil (40) Native in southern Sternbergia Europe. Cultivated in lutea (L.) J. A. and J. H. Schult. in 1597. England Foamflower (40) Tiarella cordifolia L. Native from New Brunswick to Michigan, south to North Carolina and Tennessee. Cultivated in Britain in 1731. Galax (40) Galax aphylla aureus L. Native from Virginia and West Virginia, south to Alabama. Cultivated in Britain in 1751. Georgia and Golden Ragwort (40) Senecio L. Native from Maryland to Missouri, south to Florida and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1759. Hydrangea (40) Inkberry (40) Iris, Dwarf (5) Native from central Britain in 1596. Hydrangea Ilex arborescens L. Native from New York to Missouri, south to Georgia and Oklahoma. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. glabra (L.) Gray Culti- Native from Nova Scotia to Florida and Louisiana. vated in Britain in 1759. Iris pumila L. Europe to Asia Minor. Cultivated in 229 Lizard's Tail (40) Saururus cernuus L. Native from Rhode Island and Quebec to Kansas, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1759. Lunaria, Moonwort, Honesty Native in southeastern 1596. Lunaria annua L. Europe. Cultivated in Britain in Maidenhair Fern (24) Adiantum pedatum L. Native from Quebec and Minnesota, south to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England by John Tradescant the younger before 1640. Mallow, Rose (40) Meadow Rue Hibiscus moscheutos L. Native from Maryland to Indiana, south to Florida and Alabama. Introduced to the Jardin des Plantes in Paris in 1644. (40) Europe Thalictrum and Asia. Cultivated in aquilegi f olium L. Native in Pea, Beach (23, 24) Native from Labrador to Lakes. England in 1731. Lathyrus japonicus Willd. var. glaber (Ser.) Fernald (Pisum maritimum L. in part) New Jersey, inland to the Great Vinca minor L. Periwinkle (5, 41, 40) Native in Europe. Long cultivated. Phlox (23, 24) Phlox paniculata L. Native from New York to Iowa, south to Georgia and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1732 by James Sherard. -- Phlox maculata L. Native from Quebec to Minnesota, south to Tennessee and Missouri. Cultivated in England in 1759. -- Phlox carolina L. Native from Maryland to Indiana, south to North Carolina and Alabama. Cultivated in Britain before 1728. Pinks, Grass (40) Native in southeastern Dianthus plumarius L. L. Europe. Cultivated in Britain in 1629. Poppy, Oriental (40) Papaver orientale Native in the eastern Mediterranean region. Paris about 1700 and in England before 1714. Cultivated at --Poppy, Prickly (5) Native in the American Argemone mexicana L. 1592. tropics. Cultivated in Britain in eastern Snowdrop Native in tivated. Galanthus nivalis L. central, southern, and Europe. Long cul- 230 Sweet Pea, Annual Native in (5) Italy. Cultivated Lathyrus odoratus L. in Britain in 1700. Trollius (5) Native of Trollius europeus L. Europe. Cultivated in England in 1581. Turtlehead Chelone glabra L. Georgia, L. Native from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Alabama and Missouri. Cultivated in Britain in 1730. -- Chelone Native from obliqua Mississippi. Veronica and Tennessee, south to Florida and Cultivated in Britain 1732. Maryland (40) Bluebells (5) Veronica maritima L. Cultivated in Native in central Europe and northern Asia. England by Mr. Hugh Morgan in 1570. Virginia Mertensia virginica (L.) Pers. Draba L. Native from New York to Minnesota, south to South Carolina and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1699. Whitlow Grass (23) Europe, Asia and North Africa. verna Native in Long common as a garden weed. 231 VII Broccoli Vegetables,1700 to 17 76 var. (5) Brassica oleracea L. botrytis L. Native in Europe. Apparently rope ?) sometime after 1680. originating in England (Eu- Cayenne Pepper (5) in 1656 Probably native in by John Tradescant, Junior. Capsicum frutescens L. var. longum Bailey tropical America. Cultivated in England Celery (5) Native in after 1640. Apium graveolens L. var. dulce (Miller) Persoon Europe. Apparently celery was not developed until Cotton (23) as Gossypium early as herbaceum L. Cultivated in Virginia crop until much later. 1621, but not an important Lentils Okra (5) Native in southern Lens culinarius Medic. Europe. Hibiscus esculentus L. (23) Native in the Old World Britain in 1692. Tropics, known in cultivation in Peas, Black Eyed or Cow Peas (5) Probably native in the Old 1776. Vigna World sinensis (L.) Savi in Tropics. Introduced Pepper, Guinea - See Cayenne Pepper (23) Lepidium Pepper Grass, Garden Cress (5) Native in western Asia. sativum L. Long cultivated. Rape (5) Known Brassica napus L. only in cultivation. Long cultivated. Cochlearia officinalis L. Scurvy Grass (5) Native throughout the Arctic and boreal regions. Long known as an antiscorbutic. Sorrel, Garden (5) Native in Europe and Vetch, Tares Native in Rumex America. acetosa L. Long known as a salad herb. stock food. Vicia sativa L. Europe and Asia. Long cultivated as a Yams (23) Native from India to Dioscorea alata L. Malaya. Long cultivated Dodoens, tr. in the tropics. From A Nievve Herball by D. Rembert by Henry Lyte. London, 1578. 232 VIII Shrubs, Trees and Vines, 1700 to 1776 Acacia f arnesiana ( L. ) Willd. Acacia, Egyptian (43) Probably native in Mexico or the West Indies, but now extensively naturalized in tropical areas. First cultivated in the garden of Cardinal Alessandro Farnese (The Famese Palace) in 1611. Alder (5) Native in Eurasia. Alnus Bastard glutinosa ( L. ) Gaertn. L. Amorpha, Indigo (5, 10) Amorpha fruticosa Native in eastern North America from southern Pennsylvania to Florida, west to Louisiana and Kansas. Sent to England by Mark Catesby in 1724. Andromeda (23) Leucothoe racemosa (L.) Gray Native in eastern North America from Massachusetts to Florida. Noted by Peter Kalm in 1750, but previously cultivated by Peter Collinson in England in 1736. Aralia or Devil's Walking Stick (43) Aralia spinosa L. Native in North America from New Jersey to Iowa, south to Florida and Texas. Sent by Rev. John Banister from Virginia to Bishop Compton in England and cultivated by him in 1688. Arrow-wood (43) Viburnum dentatum L. Native of North America from Massachusetts south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1736. Ash, American or White (10) Fraxinus americana L. Native in North America from Quebec and Minnesota to Florida and Texas. Raised in England from seeds sent from New England in 1724 by Mr. Moore [? Robert More of Shrews- bury ?]. --Ash, European (23) Native in Europe. Long fuel. Fraxinus excelsior L. cultivated in Britain for timber and Azalea, Flame ( 40, 43 ) period. Rhododendron sp. Azaleas of the section Pentanthera which are native in eastern North America seem to have been much confused at this Rhododendron calendulaceum (Michx.) Torr. was the most desired, with its deep red flowers, but R. periclymenoides (Michx.) Shinners (R. nudiflorum), R. prionophyllum (Small) Millais, (R. roseum), R. canescens (Michx.) Sweet, and R. atlanticum (Ashe) Rehder seem all to have been cultivated. One or more was cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1734. R. calendulaceum was not surely known in cultivation before 1806. 233 --Azalea, Indica (43) Known, but introduced to cultivation in introduced to Charleston, S.C., and 1796. not cultivated in Rhododendron indicum Sweet England in 1759; not surely until 1808. Probably Michaux between 1787 England by Andre --Azaleas, Swamp White. (43) Rhododendron viscosum (L.) Torrey Native in eastern North America from Maine to Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1734 by Peter Collinson. Beautyberry, American (43) Callicarpa americana L. Native in North America from Maryland south to Florida and Texas. Sent by Mark Catesby from South Carolina to Phillip Miller in England in 1724. Beech, American (40, 43) Fagus grandifolia Ehrh. Native in eastern North America from Prince Edward Island and Ontario to Florida and Texas. Introduced into cultivation in England in 1766 by the nursery firm of Kennedy and Lee. --Beech, European. Native in Europe. Long food. Fagus sylvatica L. used and cultivated for timber and Betula lenta L. Birch, Black (23, 24) --Birch, River (43) Native in eastern North America from Maine to Cultivated in England by Phillip Miller in 1759. Georgia. Betula nigra L. Native in eastern North America from southern New England to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson in 1736. - Bittersweet, American (43) Celastrus scandens L. Native in eastern North America from Quebec and Manitoba south to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. Black Gum, Tupelo, Black Tupelo, Sour Gum (10, 40, 43) Nyssa sylvatica Marshall Native in eastern North America from Maine to Florida, Texas and Mexico. It was cultivated in Britain in 1750 by Archibald, Duke of Argyle. Broom, Scotch (40) Native in of purposes. Cytisus scoparius (L.) Wimmer known and cultivated for a Europe, long variety Buckeye, Sweet (10) Aesculus octandra Marshall Native in eastern North America, from Pennsylvania and Iowa south to Georgia. Cultivated in England in 1764 by Mr. John Greening. 234 Burning Bush (10) Euonymus atropurpureus, Jacq. Native in eastern North America from Ontario and Montana south to Alabama. Cultivated in England in 1756 by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy. Butchers Broom Butternut (43) Europe. Ruscus aculeatus L. Native in southern ( 23, 43 ) Juglans cinerea L. Native in eastern North America from New Brunswick to North Dakota and south to Georgia. Cultivated in England by John Tradescant, Junior, in 1656. Button Bush (43) Cephalanthus occidentalis Sweetshrub (10, 40, 43) L. Native in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Florida and Mexico. Cultivated in England in 1735 by Peter Collinson. Carolina Allspice, Calycanthus floridus L. Native in eastern North America from Pennsylvania and Ohio to Florida and Mississippi. Introduced into cultivation in England by Mark Catesby in 1726. Cassine, Cassioberry, Yaupon (5, 10, 40, 43 ) Ilex vomitoria Aiton Ilex cassine L. Native of eastern North America, from southeastern Virginia south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England before 1700. Cassioberry is more properly a common name of Ilex cassine L. It is native on the coastal plains from North Carolina to Florida and Louisiana. Seed was sent to England in 1726 by Mark Catesby. Catalpa, Southern Catalpa (5, 10, 25, 40, 43 ) Catalpa bignonioides Walter Georgia and Florida to Mississippi. Sent to EnCatesby in 1726. Cedar, Atlantic White (23, 24, 43) Chamaecyparis thyoides Native from gland by Mark (L.) BSP. Native in eastern North America from Maine to Florida and Mississippi. Cultivated in England by Peter Collinson about 1736. Chaste Tree (40) Vitex agnus-castus L. Native in southern Europe and Western Asia. Cultivated in England in 1570 and recorded in Virginia by 1762. Cherry Laurel (40) Prunus caroliniana (Miller) Aiton Native from South Carolina to Texas. Introduced into England about 1750 by Phillip Miller. Probably introduced to cultivation in Charleston by Mark Catesby about 1725. From the Herball by John Gerarde. London, 1597. 236 China-berry, Fruit of China, Bead Tree (10, 43) Melia azedarach L. Native in southern Asia. Cultivated in England in 1656. Said to have been introduced to Charleston, S.C., by Andre Michaux between 1787 and 1796. Chinquapin (5) Castanea pumila ( L. ) Miller Native in eastern North America from Massachusetts to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1699 by the Duchess of Beaufort. Chokeberry, Red (10, 40, 43) Aronia arbuti f olia ( L. ) Ell. Native in eastern North America, from Nova Scotia to Texas. Mentioned by Josselyn in 1673 and cultivated in England by the Earl of Clarendon in 1700. Clematis virginiana L. Clematis, Virgin's Bower (40, 43) Native from the Gaspe Peninsula to Manitoba and south to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1767 by James Gordon. Clethra, Sweet Pepper Bush (5, 25, 40, 43) Clethra alnifolia L. Native in eastern North America from Maine south to Florida and Texas. Introduced into cultivation in England about 1730. Coffee-bean, Kentucky or Kentucky Coffee Tree ( 10, 43 ) Gymnocladus dioica (L.) K. Koch Native in North America from central New York to South Dakota, south to Tennessee and Oklahoma. First cultivated in Europe at Paris, cultivated in England by Archibald, Duke of Argyle in 1748. Coralberry (40) Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Moench. Native in North America from Pennsylvania to Colorado, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1730. Cornel, White (10) Native in northeastern Asia. Cultivated in Miller in 1759. Cornus alba L. England by Phillip Cowberry or Lingon (23, 24) --Cranberry (23) Vaccinium vitis-idaea L. This is the common name of the plant which has never been cultivated in this country. probably Vaccinium oxycoccus L. This fruit was much esteemed in the Philadelphia market at the time of Kalm's visit. Not cultivated, however, until about 1802. 237 Crabapple, Wild Sweet Crabapple, Anchor Tree ( 10, 43 ) Malus coronaria (L.) Miller Native in North America from New York to Wisconsin and south to Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1724. Crape-myrtle, Common ( 10, 43, 45 ) Lagerstroemia indica L. Native in China. First introduced into Europe in 1747. Cultivated in England in 1759 by Hugh, Duke of Northumberland. Introduced to Charleston by Andre Michaux between 1787 and 1796. Cross-vine (40, 43) Bignonia capreolata L. Taxodium distichum (L.) Richard Native in eastern north America from Maryland to Illinois south to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1730. Cypress, Bald or Deciduous ( 10) to Florida and Texas. Native in North America from New Jersey to Illinois, south Cultivated in England in 1640 by John Tradescant, Senior. Cyrilla, Swamp (43) Elder, American (5, 23, 43) Cyrilla racemiflora L. Sambucus canadensis L. Native in eastern North America from Virginia to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1765 by John Cree. Native in eastern North America from Cape Breton Island and Manitoba to Georgia and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1768. Elder, Box (43) Acer negundo L. Native in North America from western New England and Minnesota south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England by Bishop Compton in 1688. Elm, American (23, 25, 43) Ulmus americana L. Native in North America from the Gaspe to Saskatchewan, south to Florida and Texas. Introduced into cultivation in England in 1752. --Elm, Winged (43) Ulmus alata Michx. Native in North America from Virginia west to Illinois, southward to Florida and Texas. Possibly cultivated here, but not introduced to England until 1820. Emerus (5) England Coronilla emerus L. Native. Cultivated in in the time of Gerarde 1596. Fringe Tree (10, 40, 43) Chionanthus virginica L. Native in North America from New Jersey and Ohio south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. 238 Fern, Sweet (43) Comptonia peregrina (L.) Coulter Native in North America from Cape Breton Island to Manitoba, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1714 by the Duchess of Beaufort. Flowering Almond, Dwarf (25) Prunus var. glandulosa Thunberg. sinensis (Persoon) Koehne fil. Native in east Asia. Introduced into cultivation in in 1687 according to Rehder. England Murr. Cul- Fothergilla, Dwarf (43) Fothergilla gardenii Native from North Carolina to Florida and Alabama. tivated in England in 1765. Franklinia (10, 25, 43) Franklinia alatamaha Marshall Discovered in Georgia in 1765. It was grown by John Bartram in his botanical garden, but not used extensively in garden plantings at this period. Koelreuteria paniculata, Laxmann Golden Rain Tree (43) Native in China, Korea, and Japan. Cultivated in England in 1763. Grape, Muscadine, Scuppemong (43) Groundsel Tree Vitis Not surely cultivated before 1850 but the fruit from the wild throughout the period. rotundifolia Michx. likely collected halimi f olia L. (40) Baccharus Native in North America from Massachusetts south to Florida, Texas, and Mexico. Cultivated in England in 1688 by Bishop Compton. Haw, Black, or Blackhaw Viburnum (5, 10, 43) Viburnum pruni f olium L. Native in North America from Connecticut and Kansas, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1731. Hawthorn, Cock-spur or Haw (5, 23) Crataegus crus-galli L. Native in North America from southeastern Canada west to Minnesota, south to South Carolina and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1691 by the Honorable Charles Howard. --Hawthorn, Native in or May (10) Crataegus oxycantha L. Long cultivated. Europe and North Africa. --Hawthorn, Washington Thorn (10, 40, 43) Crataegus phaenopyrum (L.f.) Medic. Native in North America from Pennsylvania and Missouri to Florida. Cultivated in England in 1738. 239 Hickory, Scaly-bark Carya ovata (Miller) K. Koch Native in North America from Maine to Nebraska south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in 1629. Shellbark (10) --Hickory, Carya laciniosa Loud. Ilex aqui f olium L. Ilex opaca Aiton Native from New York to Nebraska, south to Alabama and Louisiana. Not surely cultivated before 1804. Holly, Evergreen The European Holly was repeatedly imported to America but with little success. American Holly was cultivated in England by 1744. --Holly, Swamp to or Possum haw (40, 43) Ilex decidua Walter Native in North America from Maryland and Kansas south Florida and Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1760 by Archibald, Duke of Argyle. Honey Locust (10, 23, 40, 43) Gleditsia triacanthos L. Native in North America from New York and South Dakota to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1700 by Bishop Compton. Honeysuckle, Flame. Tartarian (43) or Lonicera tartarica L. Native in Southern Russia. Cultivated in England - in 1752. --Honeysuckle, Wild Pinxterbloom azalea See Azalea, Hornbeam, American (43) Carpinus caroliniana Walter Native from Nova Scotia to Minnesota south to Florida and Texas. Not introduced into England until 1812. Horse Chestnut (32, 35) Aesculus hippocastanum L. \"... The Horse-chestnut was brought from the northern part of Asia into Europe about the year 1550, and was sent to Vienna about the year 1558. [From Vienna it migrated into Italy and France: but it came to us from the Levant immediately. Gerard, in his herbal, speaks of it only as a foreign tree. In Johnson's edition of the same work, it is said, 'Horsechestnut groweth in Italy, and in sundry dry places of the East Countries; it is now growing with Mr. Tradescant at SouthLambeth.' Parkinson says 'our Christian world had first the knowledge of it from Constantinople.\"' (31). Introduced to Philadelphia by John Bartram in 1746. --Horse Chestnut, Dwarf; Red Buckeye ( 10, 40, 43 ) Aesculus pavia L. Native in North America from Virginia south to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1712. 240 Hydrangea, Smooth (10, 43) Hydrangea arborescens L. Native in eastern North America from southwestern New York to Missouri, southward to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. Inkberry (43) Ironwood or Ilex glabra (L.) Gray Native in eastern North America from Nova Scotia to Florida. Cultivated in England in 1759. Hop Tree (10) Ostrya virginiana (Miller) K. Koch Native from Nova Scotia to Manitoba, south to Oklahoma. Cultivated in England in 1692. Georgia and Ivy, English ( 23, 25, 40, 43 ) Juniper (24) Juniper, Chinese Hedera helix L. Native in Europe. Cultivated from ancient times. in cultivation in North America by Kalm in 1750. Native in Eurasia and North America. Cultivated in in 1560. Reported Juniperus communis L. England Juniperus chinensis L. in En- (45) Mongolia, and Native in China, gland by 1767. Japan. Cultivated Kalmia Laurel, or Ivy, or Mountain Laurel (5, 10, 23, 43) latifolia L. Native from New Brunswick to Ohio, south to Florida and Louisiana. Introduced to England by Peter Collinson in 1734. -- Rhododendron maximum L. Native from Nova Scotia to Ohio, south to Georgia and Alabama. Introduced to England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. It did not flower there until 1756. Leatherwood (23, 24) Dirca palustris L. Native from New Brunswick to Minnesota, south to France and Louisiana. Introduced in Britain by Archibald, Duke of Argyle, in 1750. Leucothoe (10) Leucothoe axillaris (Lam.) D. Don Native in eastern North America from Virginia to Florida and Mississippi. Cultivated in England in 1765 by John Cree. Linden, American (23, 24, 40, 43) Tilia americana L. Native from New Brunswick to Manitoba south to Alabama and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1752. Loblolly Pine (40, 43) Pinus taeda L. Native in eastern North America from New Cultivated in England in 1736. Jersey to Texas. 241 Locust, Pink or Rose Acacia Locust (40, 43) Robinia hispida L. Native from V:rginia and Tennessee southward. Cultivated in England in 1758. Magnolia, Southern or Carolina Laurel Magnolia grandiflora L. (5, 10, 40, 43) Native in eastern North America from North Carolina to Texas. Sent to England before 1737 by Mark Catesby. Maple, Norway ( 43, 45 ) Acer platanoides L. Native in Europe. Not cultivated in England until 1724. Introduced by William Hamilton of Philadelphia after the Revolutionary War. --Maple, Silver (10, 43) Acer saccharinum L. Native in North America from New Brunswick to Minnesota southward. At this period much confused with Sugar Maple. Said to have been introduced in England in 1725. Maple, Sugar (10, 43) to Native in North America from the Georgia guished by Acer saccharum Marshall Gaspe to Manitoba, south and Texas. Silver and Sugar Maple were distinHumphrey Marshall in 1785. Said to have been cultivated in England in 1735. Mespilus, Snowy (10) Amelanchier stolonifera Weigand Native in eastern North America from Newfoundland to Ontario south to Virginia. Based on the description of cultivated plants this probably was the species cultivated in England as early as 1746. Mimosa (40) or Albizia julibrissin Dur. L. Native from Persia to China. Cultivated in England in 1745. Nannyberry Moosewood nessee. Sheepberry (10, 43) Viburnum lentago Native in North America from Quebec to Colorado south to Georgia. Cultivated in England in 1761. (10) Quebec to Acer pensylvanicum Georgia L. Native from Manitoba south to Cultivated in England in 1755. and Ten- New Jersey Tea (5) Ceanothus americanus L. Native in eastern North America from Quebec and Manitoba south to Florida and Alabama. Cultivated in England before 1713 by Bishop Compton. Oak, Black ( 10, 43 ) Native from Maine to Quercus velutina Lam. Nebraska, south to Florida and Texas. Quercus marilandica Muench. --Oak, Blackjack (10, 43) Native from Pennsylvania to Nebraska, south to Florida and Texas. 242 --Oak, Chestnut (10) Quercus prinus L. Native from Maine to Indiana, south to sissippi. Cultivated in England in 1730. Georgia and Mis- Quercus virginiana Miller --Oak, Live ( 10, 40, 43 ) Native from Virginia to Texas and Oklahoma. Cultivated in England in 1739. Quercus falcata, Michx. --Oak, Southern Red (43) Native from New Jersey to Illinois, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1763. Quercus nigra L. --Oak, Water (10, 43) Native from Delaware to Kentucky south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1739. Quercus phellos L. --Oak, Willow (40, 43) Native from Long Island to Missouri, south to Florida and Texas. Confused at this time with Live Oak. Olive, Russian, or Oleaster (43, 47) Europe to Elaeagnus angustifolia L. central Asia. Cultivated in Native from Southern England in 1633. Pagoda tree, Japanese (43) Paper Mulberry, Common Sophora japonica L. England in 1753. Native in China and Korea. Cultivated in (43) Broussonetia papyrifera (L.) Vent. Native in China and Japan. Cultivated in England in 1759, by Hugh, Duke of Northumberland. Female trees reported to be cultivated by 1768. Male trees said to have been introduced to New York by Andre Parmentier between 1824 and 1830. Pawpaw ( 10, 43 ) Native from New Jersey to Texas. Cultivated in England Asimina triloba (L.) Dunal Nebraska, south by Florida and Peter Collinson in 1736. to Pea-shrub, Siberian (43) Pecan, Mississippi Nut (10) Caragana Native in Siberia and Manchuria. in 1756. arborescens Lam. Cultivated in England Carya illinoensis K. Koch Native from Indiana to Iowa, south to Alabama, Texas and Mexico. Introduced into England about 1766. Cultivated by William Prince of New York in 1772. Persimmon (23, 40) England England to Diospyros virginiana L. to Florida and in the time of Parkinson (1633). Native from New Texas. Cultivated in Kansas, south Pinus Pine, Virginia Scrub (10, 40, 43) virginiana Miller Georgia and Native from New Jersey and Ohio south to Arkansas. Introduced into England before 1739. 243 --Pine, White, or Weymouth Pine ( 10, 40) Pinus strobus L. Native from Newfoundland to Manitoba, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England by the Duchess of Beaufort in 1705. Plum, Cherry, or Myrobalan Plum (10, 43) Cultivated in Prunus cerasifera Ehrh. 1600. Native in western Asia. England by --Plum, Damson (10) Native in western Asia and historic times. Europe. Prunus insititia L. Cultivated since pre- Poison Oak (5) over Rhus toxicodendron L. or Rhus radicans L. most of eastern Native North America. Cultivated in England in 1640. Poplar, Eastern Cottonwood (43) Populus deltoides Marshall Populus nigra L. var. Moench. italica, Native from Quebec to Manitoba, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England before 1750. --Poplar, Lombardy (43) Native in Europe. Cultivated England in 1758. Introduced by delphia in 1784. in France in 1749 and in William Hamilton of Phila- Potentilla (23) Native PotentiUa fruticosa L. the northern throughout in 1700. hemisphere. Cultivated in England Red Bay (40, 43) - Persea borbonia Florida and Texas. (L.) Culti- Sprengel Native from Delaware south vated in England in 1739. to Rose, Cherokee (40) Native in China. 1780. Rosa Introduced to laevigata Michx. spinosissima L. Rosa the United States before --Rose, Scotch (40) Native in Europe Rosa Rose and western Asia. Cultivated before 1600. --Rose, Wild, or Swamp (10, 43) palustris Marshall Native from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, south to Florida and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1726. Shadblow, Service Shad-bush ( 10, 40 ) Amelanchier canadensis (L.) Medic. Native in North America from Maine to New York, south to Georgia. Quite possibly cultivated, but the plant carrying this or 244 name in cultivation in Europe was probably A. stolonifera (see Mespilus, Snowy). Silver bell, Carolina or Snowdrop Tree (10, 25, 40, 43 ) Halesia carolina L. Native from Virginia to Missouri, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England by John Ellis in 1756 from seeds sent by Dr. Alexander Garden. Sourwood (40) Oxydendron arboreum (L.) DC. Native from Pennsylvania to Indiana south to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1752. Spiraea, Hardhack (43) Spiraea tomentosa L. Native from Prince Edward Island to Ontario, south to North Carolina. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. Stewartia (40, 43) Stewartia malachodendron L. Native from Virginia to Arkansas, south to Florida and Louisiana. Cultivated in England in 1743. --Stewartia, Mountain (43) Stewartia ovata to (Cav.) and Weatherby Native from Virginia and Kentucky, south Alabama. Cultivated in England in 1785. Georgia Sumac, Fragrant, or Pole-cat Bush (40, 43) Rhus aromatica Aiton Native from Quebec to Kansas, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in England in 1772. Sweet Gale (10, 23, 24) Myrica gale L. It has many folk Native to Eurasia and North America. uses in Europe. Thorn, Great-fruited or Large-berried (10) Crataegus punctatus Jacq. Kentucky. Argyle. Sent to Native from eastern Canada to Iowa, south to Cultivated in Britain in 1746 by Archibald, Duke of Trefoil, or Hop-tree (10) Ptelea trif oliata L. Native from Virginia south to Florida and Texas. England from Virginia by Rev. Banister in 1704. Umbrella Magnolia ( 5, 25 ) Magnolia tripetala Viburnum L. Native from Pennsylvania to Missouri, south to and Arkansas. Cultivated in England in 1752. Georgia Viburnum, Maple Leaf acerifolium L. virginica L. Florida and Native from Quebec to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. Willow, Virginia, or Sweet Spire (10, 43) to Itea to Native from Pennsylvania Missouri, south 245 Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1744 by Archibald, Salix Duke of Argyle. Willow, Weeping (10, 40, 43) Native in China. Alleged to gland by Alexander Pope about babylonica L. have been introduced to En1730. --Willow, Yellow (10) Native in Salix alba L. var. vitellina (L.) Stokes cultivated for Europe. Long basket-making. Winterberry or Swamp Red-berry Bush Ilex verticillata (L.) ( 10, 40, 43 ) Gray Native from Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to Georgia and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1736 by Peter Collinson. Wintersweet (43) Chimonanthus praecox (L.) Link. Native of China. Introduced into England Torin in 1771, or perhaps a little earlier. by Benjamin Wisteria, American (40, 43) Wisteria frutescens (L.) Poiret Native from Virginia, south to Florida and Alabama. Introduced in England in 1724 by Mark Catesby. Witherod (43) Viburnum cassinoides L. Native from Newfoundland to Ontario, south to Alabama and Tennessee. Cultivated in England in 1761 by Mr. James Gordon. Yew, English Yew (5, 10, 43 ) Native in Europe and Western times. Probably Taxus baccata L. Asia. Cultivated since ancient ' . Gentlewomen if the ground be not too wet may doe themselves much good by kneeling upon a cushion and weeding. The Art of Simpling, by William Coles, London, 1656. 246 IX Fruits and Nuts, 17 00 to 17 7 6 Blackberry (23, 38) Fruits of various Rubus sp. species of Rubus were collected from plants growing spontaneously in hedge-rows. Blackberries were not cultivated until 1832. Chestnut (5) Castanea dentata (Marshall) Borkh. Native from Maine to Minnesota, south to Florida and Mis- sissippi. Chestnut, French (5) Castanea sativa Miller Native in southern Europe, western Asia and North Africa. Cultivated by Thomas Jefferson in 1773. Crab Apple Malus angustifolia (Aiton) Mississippi. Michx. Native from Virginia to Florida and into cultivation in Britain in 1725. Introduced Cranberry (23) Vaccinium macrocarpon Aiton Newfoundland to Minnesota, south to North Carolina and Arkansas. Fruit collected in the wild from early colonial times, but not cultivated until about 1820. Ribes Native in tivated. Currant, European Black (24) Europe and northern and central Asia. nigrum L. Long cul- Mulberry, White ( 5, 41, 43 ) Native of China and 1660. Japan. Morus alba L. Cultivated in America about Morus rubra L. --Mulberry, Olive (5) Red Native from Vermont to South Dakota, south to Florida and Texas. Cultivated in Britain in 1629. Olea europaea L. Native in the Mediterranean Carolina in 1775. region. Cultivated in South 247 Bibliography 1. Abercrombie, John. The Gardener's Daily Assistant. London. 1786. American Garden Milestones. Flower Grower Magazine. V. 46, No. 12. New York. Dec. 1959. p. 24. Bailey, Liberty Hyde. The Standard Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. The Macmillan Co. New York. V. I, II, III. 1933. Bailey, Liberty Hyde and Bailey, Ethel Zoe. Hortus Second. The Macmillan Co. New York. 1947. Betts, Edwin Morris. Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book. The American Philosophical Society. Memoirs. V. XXII. Philadelphia. 1944. Bourne, H. The Florist's Manual. Monroe and Francis, Publishers. Boston. 1833. Clapham, A. R., Tuton, T. G., and Warburg, E. F. Flora of the British Isles. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge. 1952. Favretti, Rudy J. Early New England Gardens, 1620-1840. Old Sturbridge Village, Sturbridge, Mass. 1962. Favretti, Rudy J. New England Colonial Gardens. Pequot Press. Stonington, Conn. 1964. Fisher, Robert B. The Mount Vernon Gardens. The Mount Vernon Ladies' Association. Mount Vernon, Va. 1960. Fogg, John M. Common Weeds from Europe. Published in Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook. V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn, 1967. Gerarde, John. Herball (Or Generall Historie of Plantes). London. John Norton. 1597. Hedrick, U. P. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860. Oxford University Press. New York. 1950. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Cherries of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 22, Vol. 2, Pt. II J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1915. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Grapes of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 15, Vol. 3, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1908. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Peaches of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 24, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1917. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Pears of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 29, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1921. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Plums of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 18, Vol. 3, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1911. Hedrick, U. P. et al. The Small Fruits of New York. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 31, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1925. Hedrick, U. P. (ed.) Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants. Ann. Rep't. N. Y. Agr. Expt. Sta. No. 27, Vol. 2, Pt. II. J. B. Lyon Co. Albany, N. Y. 1919. Hughes, William. The Flower Garden and Compleat Vinyard. 3rd edition. London. 1683. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 248 22. 23. 24. 25. Josselyn, John. New England Rarities. London. 1673. V. I. 1964. V. II. 1964. Kalm, Peter. Travels in North America, The America of 1750. Dover Publications. Dover Publications. New York. New York. Kalm, Peter. Travels in North America, The America of 1750. Kammerer, E. L. What Woody Plants Were Used in American Colonial Gardens. Morton Arboretum Bulletin, Lisle, Ill. V. 22, No. 2, Feb. 1947. 26. Lawson, William. The Country Housewife's Garden. London. 27. 1617. H. (Trans.) R. Dodoens, A. Niewe Herbal ... London. Gerard Dewes. 1578. Manks, Dorothy S. How the American Nursery Trade Began, published in Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook. V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn 1967. p. 4. Manks, Dorothy S. Early American Nurserymen and Seedsmen, published in Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook. V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn 1967. p. 75. Miller, Phillip. The Gardener's Dictionary. ed. 7. London. 1759. Miller, Phillip. (Thomas Martyn, ed.) The Gardener's Dictionary. London. 1797-1804. Parkinson, John. Paradisi in Sole, Paradisus Terrestris. London. 1629. London. 1640. Parkinson, John. Theatrum Botanicum Platt, Sir Hugh (Knight). The Garden of Eden. 5th ed. London. 1659. Rea, John (Gent. ) Flora: Sev De Florum Cultura. London. 1665. Richardson, Josiah. The New England Farrier and Family Physician. Exeter, N.H. 1828. pp. 56 and 379. Rockwell, Fred F. and Grayson, Esther C. The Complete Book of Annuals. American Garden Guild and Doubleday and Co., Inc. Garden City, New York. 1955. p. 181. Sargent, C. S. Extracts from General Washington's Diary Relating to Trees and Plants (Handwritten Manuscript). Boston Athenaeum. Slade, Daniel P. Evolution of Horticulture in New England. Knickerbocker Press. New York. 1895. Taylor, Raymond L. Plants of Colonial Days. Colonial Williamsburg. 1968 edition. Thompson, Homer C. Vegetable Crops. 4th edition. McGraw Hill Book Co., Inc. New York. 1949. Wilder, Marshall P. The Horticulture of Boston and Vicinity. Tolman and White. Boston, Mass. 1881. Williamsburg: Authentic Plant Materials for Gardens of Colonial Williamsburg. Williamsburg Garden Symposium Mimeograph. Williamsburg, Va. Worcester County Horticultural Society: List and Order Sheet of Scions for Grafting. Worcester County Horticultural Society, 30 Elm Street, Worcester, Mass. Lyte, 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. ... 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 249 45. Wyman, Donald. Introductory Dates of Familiar Trees, Shrubs and Vines. Origins of American Horticulture, A Handbook. V. 23, No. 3. Brooklyn Botanic Garden. New York. Autumn 1967. p. 87. 46. 47. and Vines for American Gardens. The Macmillan Co. New York. 1949. Wyman, Donald. Trees for American Gardens. The Macmillan Co. New York. 1951. Wyman, Donald. Shrubs RUDY J. FAVRETTI GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1971-Colonial Garden Plants"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Additional Sources of Information Chronologically Arranged","article_sequence":3,"start_page":250,"end_page":255,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24541","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d2708126.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"250 Some Additional Sources of In formation Chronologically Arranged The great value of a library is that it preserves the records of the work of one generation so that subsequent generations may benefit from them. Interest in the cultivated plants of the American colonies is not new. Records of the plants cultivated by the Indians were made by the first explorers of our continent. Travellers and residents throughout the colonial period recorded information on the plants that were under cultivation. The newspapers in the colonies carried advertisements of plants and seeds offered for sale. In recent years biographies of early horticulturists and botanists have added much to our knowledge. The following list of book titles does not pretend to be complete. Indeed, many important titles, published in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries have been omitted. However, in conjunction with the lists of titles given in the preceding articles, the inquiring reader can make a beginning on the study of the cultivated plants of the colonial period. 1588 Harriot, Thomas. A Briefe and True Report of the New Found Land of Virginia ... London. Frankfort 1608 am Maine: I. Wechel. 1590 ... 1 1611 Smith, John. A True Relation of such Occurance and Accidents of Noate as hath hapned in Virginia London: J. Tappe Lascarbot, Marc. Histoire de la Nouvelle-France ... (ed. 2) Paris. 1612 Smith, John. A Map of Virginia, with Oxford: J. Barnes. a Description ... ... 1614 1624 1630 1634 1636 1637 1650 Smith, John. A Description of New England London: H. Lownes. Smith, John. General Historie of Virginia, New the Summer Isles London: I. D. and I. H. (1626, 1632) Higginson, Francis. New England's Plantation London: T. C. and R. C. for M. Sparke. Wood, William. New England's Prospect London: Tho. Cotes. (ed. 2, 1635) Sagard-Theodat, Gabriel. Histoire du Canada Paris. Morton, Thomas. New English Canaan Amsterdam: Jacob Frederick Stam. Williams, Edward. Virginia... (ed. 2) London: T. H. for J. Stephenson. --~ England, and -- ~ ~ ~ _ 251 1654 Johnson, Edward. A History of New England... [Wonder Working Providence of Sions Savior in New England] London: Nath. Brooke. [1653] 1655 1656 1670 1672 1674 Hartlib, Samuel. The Reformed Virginian Silhworm ... London: G. Calvert. Tradescant, John (Jr.). Museum Tradescantianum London: John Grismond. Denton, Daniel. A Briefe Description of New Yorh London: John Hancock. Josselyn, John. New England's Rarities Discovered ... ... ... London: Giles Widdowes. Josselyn, John. An Account of Two Voyages to New En- gland ... London: Giles Widdowes. 1682 Ash, Thomas. Carolina, or a Description of the Present State of that Country London. 1682 Wilson, Samuel. An Account of the Province of Carolina London: G. Larkin for F. Smith. 1683 Penn, William. Letter from William Penn to the Committee of the Free Society of Traders. London: Andrew Sowle. 1703 La Hontan, Armand Louis, Baron de Nouveaux. New Voyages to North America... [Engl. Trans.] London: H. Bonwicke, T. Goodwin, M. Wotton & B. Tooke. 1709 Lawson, John. A New Voyage to Carolina London. 1710 Anon. The Husbandman's Guide Boston, Mass.: John Allen for Eleazor Phillips. (ed. 2, 1712) 1714 Lawson, John. The History of Carolina London: W. Taylor and F. Baker 1724 Jones, Hugh. The Present State of Virginia London: J. Clarke. 1731- Catesby, Mark. Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands 43 London: The Author. (Ed. 2, 1754, Ed. 3, 1771) 1737 Brickell, John. The Natural History of North Carolina Dublin: J. Carson. 1742 Colden, Cadwallader. Plantae Coldenhamiae ... ... ... ____________ ... Uppsala. 1751 1758 Bartram, John. Observations ... 1758 1759 London: J. Whiston and B. White Le Page du Pratz. Histoire de la Louisiane (3vols.) Paris: DeBure. (English ed. in 2 vols., London: T. Becket and P. A. DeHondt. 1763) Pullein, Samuel. The Culture of Silk : or an Essay for the Use of the American Colonies London: A. Miller. Acrelius, Israel. Description of the Farmer and Present State of New Sweden (English trans. publ. in Memoirs of the Pennsylvania Historical Society, Philadelphia, 1874) Stockholm: Harberg & Hesselberg ... 252 176061 1763 1765 Jefferys, 1766 Thomas. The Natural and Civil History of the French Dominions London. Catesby, Mark. Hortus Britanico-Americanus London: W. Richardson and S. Clark. Smith, Samuel. The History of the Colony of Nova-Caesaria, or New Jersey Burlington, N.J.: J. Parker. Eliot, Jared. Essays upon Field-Husbandry in New En... gland Boston: ... Edes and Gill (\"The Foregoing essays were first printed in New London and New York; ...\" between 1748 and 1759) 1770- Kalm, Pehr. Travels into North America... (Trans. fr. the Swedish ed. of 1753-61) 71 London: Warrington. 1775 (?Mallat, Robert X. ?) American Husbandry (2 vols.) London: Bew. 1778 Carver, Jonathan. Travels Through the Interior Parts of North America London. 1782 Crevecoeur, Michel Guillaume St. John de (St. John, J. Hector, pseud.). Letters from an American Farmer London: Thomas Davies and Luckyer Davis. 1785 Cutler, Manasseh. An Account of some of the Vegetable Productions Naturally Growing in this Part of America, Botanically Arranged. Memoirs of the American Academy ... 1:396-493. 1785 Marshall, Humphrey. Arbustrum Americanum: The American Grove Philadelphia: J. Crukshank. 1784- Belknap, Jeremy. History of New Hampshire (Forest Trees and other Vegetable Productions in vol. 3:96-127) 92 Philadelphia: Robert Aitken. 1787 Squibb, Robert. The Gardener's Calendar for the State of North Carolina, South Carolina, and Georgia Charleston. 1789 Anburey, Thomas. Travels Through the Interior Parts of America (2 vols.) London: William Lane. 1790 Deane, Samuel. The New England Farmer; or Georgical Dic... ... ... tionary 1791 ... 1792 1792 1794 Worcester and Boston: Isaiah Thomas. Bartram, William. Travels through Carolina, Georgia, Florida Philadelphia: James and Johnson. Eddis, William. Letters from America London: The Author Imray. Description of the Western Territory of North America London. Williams, Samuel. Natural and Civil History of Vermont (Forest Trees, Esculent and Medicinal Vegetables pp. 67-71 ) Walpole, New Hampshire: Isaiah Thomas and David Carlisle. ... ... 253 1796 Dabney, John. An Address to Farmers... To which is added an appendix containing the most approved methods for the management and improvement of tillage. Salem, Mass.: J. Dabney. Marshall, Charles. An Introduction to the Knowledge and Practice of Gardening... (lst American ed. from the 2nd London ed.) Boston: J. Nancrede. * * 1799 * 1849 Darlington, Marshall Wm. Memorials ... of John Bartram and Humphrey ... 1879 1895 1927 1933 1933 1958 1961 1963 1964 1969 Plants: Boston. Slade, D. D. The Evolution of Horticulture in New England New York and London: Putnam's Sons. Woodward, C. R. The Development of Agriculture in New Jersey, 1640-1880 New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 451. Gray, L. C. History of Agriculture in the Southern United States to 1860 Washington: The Carnegie Institution of Washington. Hedrick, U. P. A History of Agriculture in New York Albany, N.Y.: New York State Agricultural Society. Bartram, W. (edited by Harper, Francis) Travells New Haven: Yale University Press. Frick, G. F. and Stearns, R. P. Mark Catesby, The Colonial Audubon Urbana, Ill.: University of Illinois. Berkeley, E. and Berkeley, D. C. John Clayton, Pioneer of American Botany Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina. Allen, M. The Tradescants, Their Plants, Gardens, and Museum, 1570-1662 London: Michael Joseph. Berkeley, E. and Berkeley, D. C. Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. Philadelphia: Lindsay and Blakiston. Pickering, C. Chronological History of 201420142014 Above and right from the Herball by John Gerarde. London, 1597. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Propagation of Fothergilla","article_sequence":4,"start_page":256,"end_page":259,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24544","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d2708928.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Propagation of Fothergilla By Seed There is little latitude in collection time of Fothergilla seeds. In the Boston area the fruits ripen about mid-September. They consist of capsules which shrink as they dry and bring pressure to bear on the seeds within. Finally, with a sharp snapping sound, the smooth, shiny seeds are ejected. By this dispersal adaptation the seeds are propelled away and will not be in competition with the parent plant. Scattering commences about mid-September and in a few days all are dispersed. To harvest the seeds one must watch the fruits carefully, and when they have turned from green to gray-brown, gather them just before they pop. After collection the capsules are placed in a warm, dry location in a container such as a paper bag fastened at the opening with a paper clip. If not confined, the seeds will be . strewn all over the area as they are dispelled. In a few days the seeds will have popped and can be separated from the capsules by screening. Seeds of Fothergilla major and F. gardenii have proved to be doubly dormant (two year seeds) and pretreatment must be done in two stages. To be prepared for germination they require warm fluctuating temperatures followed by a period of cold. Pretreatment may be done in polyethylene plastic bags which have the property of being air-permeable yet vapor-proof, making them ideal for seed stratification. The stratification medium can be composed of one-half sand and one-half peat moss mixed together and dampened. Emphasis is placed on the word \"dampened\" for a wet soggy medium could exclude sufficient oxygen. In proportion the medium should be two or three times the volume of the seeds. The seeds are combined with the medium and the mixture is placed 256 257 in the polyethylene bag which is bound with a rubber band making it vapor proof. For the warm period of stratification the unit is placed in a location such as a greenhouse bench, window sill or similar site where the day and night temperature will fluctuate. However, direct sun should be avoided for it could lead to a detrimental build-up of heat. Fothergilla major seeds have required exceptionally long periods of warm stratification with 12 months being optimum. After warm treatment they are transferred to a 40 refrigerator for 3 months. This satisfies the cold requirement and the seeds are ready to be sown. A high percentage of germination can be expected in about 2 weeks. Fothergilla gardenii has germinated well after 6 months of warm pretreatment followed by 3 months at 40. An alternative procedure to prepare Fothergilla seeds would be to sow them out-of-doors. In this case seeds sown in autumn of 1971 would be expected to germinate in spring of 1973. Layering Layering provides a simple and reliable method which enables produce plants of Fothergilla. Any branch pliable to be bent to the ground is suitable for layering. Fairly enough large sized branches can be used and they will lead to faster production of flowering specimens. A favorable time to layer is early spring before the plant comes into leaf. A narrow trench 3 or 4 inches deep and a foot or so long is excavated where the an amateur to branch arches down to the soil. Place the branch in the trench a manner that the last foot or so can be bent to a vertical position. In the area of the bend, remove a 4- or 5-inch slice from the lower part of the branch. Next peg the branch down firmly in the area of the cut with a large wire staple made from a coat hanger or other wire and refill the trench. Filling the trench and placing a stone on the surface of the soil is satisfactory. The branch tip is next brought to a vertical position and staked so it will remain that way. After two growing seasons the layer will have sufficient roots to be severed from the parent in such plant. ' , ' tr , .. _ : .~ . Division can by division. To do this, Fothergilla plants select a portion of the plant with stems that seem separable. With a spade or mattock, cut it away making certain to retain as many roots as possible. be increased Fothergilla seedlings two months old. These seedlings did not survive the first winter. Photo: Alfred Fordham. Grafting Fothergilla species can be propagated by grafting in winter using established understocks of Hamamelis virginiana. This practice is unjustified, however, for Fothergilla roots well from cuttings. Shoots arising from the understocks of grafted plants can create a nuisance which is averted when propagants are on their own roots. root well from softwood cuttings. In the Boston area a favorable time to take cuttings has been in the past about the third week in June. Cuttings can be treated with any of several available root-inducing substances containing IBA at the rate of 8 m. to a gram of talc. Cuttings Both species of Fothergilla 259 Although Fothergilla cuttings form roots readily the resulting plants may have trouble surviving the first winter. When transplanted after rooting they go into a dormancy from which they never recover. Such loss can be avoided if the cuttings are not disturbed after they have rooted. At the Arnold Arboretum we accomplish this by filling plastic flats with a medium consisting of one half sand and one half horticultural grade Perlite. The cuttings are inserted and the units are placed either under mist or in polyethylene chambers. Either has been satisfactory for propagating Fothergilla. When rooted, the cuttings are left in the flats and hardened off. In the autumn the flats of dormant cuttings are transferred to our cold storage unit which is maintained at about 34. In February or March, depending on convenience to the work schedule, the flats are returned to a warm greenhouse. When new growth appears the cuttings are moved to peat pots if they are to be planted out in spring or to two-quart containers in which they can be grown for the first year. ALFRED J. FORDHAM Correction Through error the Table of Contents for the January issue of Arnoldia lists the author of the article \"Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea in the United States\" as Robert Gardener. The correct name of the author is William Gardener. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23290","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14ea36a.jpg","title":"1971-31-4","volume":31,"issue_number":4,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Fothergillas","article_sequence":1,"start_page":89,"end_page":97,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24539","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270bb28.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weaver Jr., Richard E.","article_content":"The Fothergillas impressed and abundance of native woody plants has long visitors to the rich mountain forests and coastal swamps of the southeastern United States. From this rich and varied flora have come many of our cultivated flowering trees and shrubs. Perhaps the most famous of these, famous because of its history, rarity and beauty, is Franklinia alatamaha, discovered in southeastern Georgia by John and William Bartram in 1765. Other notable southeastern natives include the Sweet Shrub or Carolina Allspice (Calycanthus floridus), the Silverbell tree ( Halesia carolina), and several of the Stewartias, Rhododendrons, and Magnolias. Less well known than these, but undeservedly so, are those plants of the genus Fothergilla. These lovely shrubs are members of the same family as the Witch Hazel (Hamamelidaceae) and markedly resemble that plant in their foliage and the shape and structure of the fruits. The flowers, however, are quite different, at least with casual inspection. Rather than having the four narrow, yellow or reddish petals as in Witch Hazel, the flowers of Fothergilla are without petals, and even the sepals are greatly reduced. The conspicuous parts are the 12 to 32 stamens with creamy-white, narrowly club-shaped filaments and minute yellow or purplish anthers. The individual flowers are small, less than 1\/s inch across, but they are massed in dense, showy spikes which may be as much as three inches long and one-and-a-half inches broad. Although such colorful names as \"Bottle-Brush Bush,\" \"Granny Gray-Beard,\" \"Spring-Scent,\" and \"Witch Alder\" (the last the one most commonly used in the technical manuals), have been applied to these shrubs, none are in general use. As is the case with the Rhododendrons and the Magnolias, the scientific name has become the popular name. Dr. John Fothergill, in whose honor the genus was named, was a Quaker physician and philanthropist of London who maintained a life-long interest in natural history. At Upton, in Essex, he established an extensive garden in which he grew plants from all over the world in greenhouses reputed, at the time, to be the most extensive anywhere. It was as a patron however, that Dr. The variety 89 90 Fothergill rendered his most important service to eighteenth century natural history. Among other important contributions, he subsidized William Bartram's travels in the southeastern United States; and Philip Miller's The Gardener's Dictionary, one of the earliest works devoted to gardening and horticulture, was begun and finished under his patronage. At present, two species of Fothergilla are recognized, both of these native to the southeastern United States. F. gardenii (also known in the past as F. alnifolia or F. carolina) is restricted in its natural range to the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal Plains from northeastern North Carolina to the western panhandle of Florida and adjacent Alabama. Uncommon to rare in various parts of this range, F. gardenii is a plant of one of the characteristic Coastal Plain vegetation types the pocosin or shrub bog. Pocosins are low-lying areas, moist but without permanent standing water, which support a characteristic vegetation composed primarily of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs including Sweet Bay (Magnolia virginiana), Red Bay (Persea borbonia), Wax Myrtle (Myrica cerifera) and several species of Holly (Ilex). The vegetation is dense and frequently covered with a dense mat of one of the Catbriers (Smilax laurifolia), a combination which discourages exploration. Fortunately for one interested in collecting it, as I was during my graduate days at Duke University, F. gardenii generally grows only around the edges of the pocosins. The peak of flowering in North Carolina, where it is most abundant, is during the second and third weeks of April, a time when few other shrubs are blooming. An exception, unfortunately for the collector, is one of the low Shadbushes (Amelanchier) which is much more common and which strongly resembles F. gardenii, especially from a car window. Fothergilla major (including a plant known in the past as F. monticola), in contrast to F. gardenii, is a plant of the southeastern highlands. It occurs in scattered localities from northwestern North Carolina and northeastern Tennessee along the Appalachians into north-central Alabama, with a very few isolated populations in the Piedmont of central North Carolina. Growing at elevations several thousand feet higher than F. gardenii, the flowering season of F. major is consequently later, the peak in North Carolina occurring from late April to early May. Although F. major is infrequently encountered, it should not rightly be considered a rare plant since it is usually abundant in the localities where it occurs. The plants spread profusely by means of underground stems and often form large, virtually pure stands. F. major is occasionally found in mature, - 91 Fothergilla major. Photo: H. Howard. 92 Fothergilla major in natural habitat near Photo: R. Weaver. Hillsborough, N.C. 93 mesic characteristic habitats are disturbed dry ridges, unfortunately also favored by one of the more unpleasant residents of the Southern Appalachians. One of my most vivid memories of those otherwise delightful summers in the southern mountains is of the day when I discovered that I had been sharing, who knows for how long, the largest patch of Fothergilla I have ever seen with a four-foot Timber Rattlesnake. Ever after I entered and explored Fothergilla patches with the greatest caution. The two species of Fothergilla have often been confused by professionals and amateurs alike. There are, however, several characters by which they may easily be distinguished. F. major, or the Tall Fothergilla, is a profusely branched, medium-sized to tall shrub, usually three to six feet in height but occasionally becoming nearly twenty feet tall, at least in the wild state. The flowers appear with the leaves. The leaves are very similar to those of the common Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana), both in size and shape; the major difference is that the leaves of Witch Hazel are toothed to the base while those of F. major are toothed only in the upper two-thirds. F. gardenii, or the Dwarf Fothergilla, on the other hand, is a low, sparsely branched shrub, very seldom more than 21\/2 feet tall. The flowers appear before the leaves. The leaves are much smaller and narrower than those of F. major, and they are toothed only above the middle, if at all. There appear at present to be no named horticultural varieties of either of the species of Fothergilla. During the nineteenth century several varieties of F. gardenii were described from cultivated material in England. These were based on minor characteristics and do not merit recognition as cultivars. There are, however, two distinct types of F. major. The typical material has leaves which are distinctly whitish beneath; a form, which has been called F. monticola, has leaves which are green beneath. These types, which grow side by side in the wild, do not constitute biological species or even varieties but may well be worthy of recognition as cultivars. In addition to these rather distinct types, there is considerable clonal variation in shape, autumnal coloration, and profusion of flowering within the presently cultivated F. major. A selection program could well result in the establishment of several superior cultivars. Although restricted in their natural ranges to the southeastern United States, the Fothergillas are hardy as far north as New England, at least one specimen of F. major prospering in the Arnold Arboretum for the last 95 years. F. gardenii is evidently most areas or areas forests, but its 94 the more tender of the two species. The specimens of this species which have been grown at the Arnold Arboretum have not thrived, although one has survived for nearly 75 years. The rarity of the Fothergillas in cultivation is certainly not due to a lack of desirable characteristics. Although wild specibloom sparingly, the cultivated plants at the Arnold Arboretum are covered with spectacular masses of the unusual \"bottle-brush\" inflorescences in May. The flowers are decidedly fragrant, the scent being somewhat difficult to describe but nevertheless very pleasant. In the fall the shrubs are again a mass of color, the foliage varying from a brilliant scarlet to a more subdued russet. F. major, the more desirable of the species, becomes a dense, well-formed, erect or more or less spreading shrub; the largest specimen at the Arnold Arboretum is eight feet tall and about as broad. It is a particularly attractive subject for specimen planting and would also appear to be suitable in situations where a tall, informal hedge or barrier is desired. F. gardenii, a low, spreading shrub, is a fine subject for the shrub border, at least, in the Northeast, in sheltered spots. The first recorded collection of a Fothergilla was by Dr. Alexander Garden, a Scottish physician who settled in Charleston, South Carolina in 1752. Dr. Garden was an avid student of natural history. He corresponded extensively with the great naturalists of his time, notably Linnaeus, and he was a good friend of John Bartram. Fothergilla gardenii was named in his honor as was the familiar Gardenia. In a letter to Linnaeus dated May 18, 1765, Garden sent the \"characters\" of what he considered to be seven new genera of plants. One of these was Fothergilla (gardenii). At a later date, Garden sent specimens of these plants, both dried and pickled in \"spirits of wine.\" In a series of letters from 1765 to 1773, Garden and Linnaeus carried on an argument concerning the classification of Fothergilla. Linnaeus maintained that it should be classified under Hamamelis (Witch Hazel) because of the similarity in the leaves; Garden persisted in pointing out the numerous differences between Fothergilla, which he called \"Anamelis,\" and Hamamelis. Garden finally won the argument and in a letter to Linnaeus dated May 15, 1773, he wrote, \"I am very glad that the most elegant shrub, called by me Anamelis, has at length obtained its proper place, for I was much afraid that it must have submitted to range under the banners of another.\" Garden was justifiably proud of his victory in the argument with the great Swedish naturalist. In a letter to his friend John Ellis, dated May 15, 1773, he wrote: \"You would see by his [Linnaeus] last letter mens 95 I , , .:s ' , a a~ .: a 0 aC ' ca . '\" \" o ..:: ., N S :> xro ~W m a~ ~..\";:~. o t) ~ '1::! e ~A U N n U 's U . ~. ~O ~~ O wC ~ t:! t~ I ~~ I': ..Z' ro N m qm .~'o Q . <:I 0 GS 96 off conqueror in our dispute about the new genus which I plume myself not a little, but his candor charms me.\" Although he alluded to Fothergilla twice in descriptions of Hamamelis virginiana, the common Witch Hazel, Linnaeus never published a formal description of it. The founding of the genus, and the formal description of F. gardenii, is attributed to J. A. Murray (1774), a pupil of Linnaeus who revised a portion of his master's work. Fothergilla gardenii was evidently already cultivated in England in 1765, the year of its discovery. It was grown at Kew Gardens as early as 1789, and seeds were offered for sale by several nurseries in England and France at the beginning of the nineteenth century. Although F. major was not formally described until 1820, drawings representing this plant, from material cultivated in England, appeared as early as 1780. A Fothergilla, probably F. gardenii, was grown in John Bartram's garden near Philadelphia under the name \"Gardenia\" around the year 1785, the first record of its cultivation in America. Herbarium records show that the Fothergillas are rarely cultivated in their native Southeast at present. Their cultivation in this country appears to be concentrated in the New England and Middle Atlantic States. Elsewhere, there are a few records from England, France, Germany, and Switzerland. came that I Anamelis, on RICHARD E. WEAVER Top: Grandfather Mountain, North Carolina. Dry, rocky ridges, resembling the favorite habitat of Bottom: Fothergilla major. Photo: R. Fothergilla major. Photo: Weaver. H. Howard. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":99,"end_page":107,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24536","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270b326.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum* \" With more than three centuries of history intervening bethe present and the long period when the Boston area was occupied by the Indians, it is interesting that evidences of these earlier inhabitants and examples of their work can still be found here. For at least half of this historic period it is probable that no Indians lived here under the primitive conditions of the stone age, nor were any of the implements made then that we find on the old hunting and camping grounds. During much of this time, and especially since the middle of the nineteenth century, Indian relics have been collected assiduously; and yet a diligent searcher even in such a frequented place as the Arnold Arboretum can still find abundant traces of former Indian occupancy in the indestructible stone implements made by them and used in the chase, in war, and in their domestic life. Beginning with a chance find several years ago I became interested in looking for Indian evidences here, and by persistent search carried on at odd times in walks through the Arboretum I built up an interesting little collection, a part of which is shown on the accompanying plate. Aside from the sentimental and romantic interest of these bits of prehistoric art, their chief value lies in the clues they give to the life and customs of the people who made them, and to the sites of habitations occupied long before the coming of the first colonists. This helps us to reconstruct some picture of the local conditions in those times and of the significance of the changes that have ensued. The variety of artifacts remaining on the site of any prehistoric settlement at least in a climate like that of New England, is naturally limited and includes only objects made from indestructible materials, such as stone, or perhaps under more favorable circumstances, of shell, bone, or clay in the form of pottery. tween * Popular This article first appeared in December, 1934, in the Bulletin of Information of the Arnold Arboretum. 99 100 It is also highly probable that in a thickly settled and much frequented locality such as the Arboretum, most of the larger and more conspicuous objects originally left on the site would have been carried away long ago by earlier collectors. But even with the very limited material that can still be found on these old camp sites it is possible to learn much about the habits and culture of the Indians who occupied them, and a number of deductions can be made about the physical conditions that induced them to select certain places for their camps or villages. Most of the Indian artifacts that have been found in the Arboretum are of chipped stone, popularly called arrow heads, although probably only a few of the smaller ones were used for that purpose. Some of the larger and heavier ones may have been used for lance or spear heads and others for knives, scrapers or digging tools. A few of the rougher pieces that show evidence of chipping were probably unfinished or rejected objects. Besides the chipped implements, a few pieces have been found that were fashioned by pecking or grinding into hammerstones, celts, scrapers, and other objects, some of them of doubtful use. Stones accidentally shaped by natural agencies, such as small round boulders or sharp chips and flakes of the harder rocks, were no doubt used by the Indians with little or no improvement on their original condition, and in a few cases it is difficult to say whether a particular object should be regarded as an Indian relic or not. The experienced archaeologist can usually distinguish between even the roughest object of human handicraft and natural or unworked stones of similar shapes by the fine chipping or pecking found on the former and because of the obvious design shown in all the lines of fracture or polishing. In selecting material for his work, the ancient craftsman, guided by experiment and experience, used only the best that was readily available for his purpose, but in emergencies inferior stones or other materials were sometimes employed. For the manufacture of chipped stone implements he had to use some hard fine-grained variety from which small flakes could be struck off without shattering the whole mass, and points with a keen cutting edge could only be fashioned from a stone that broke with a clear conchoid fracture. Hard stones are abundant in the Boston area, although the material available here was not as good as that found in other parts of the country. All the relics found in the Arboretum, with one possible exception, are made from material which is local or found in eastern Massachusetts. 101 The material most commonly found in the Arboretum collecporphyritic basalt or felsite. These two crystalline rocks without the porphyritic structure, as well as quartz, quartzite, chert, and argillite or slate, were also used for making projectile points and cutting instruments. Slate, mica-schist, sandstone, greenstone and granite furnished material for the pecked or abraded implements. Porphyritic rocks are those in which crystals, usually either of feldspar or quartz, large enough to be detected with the unaided eye, are imbedded in a groundwork or matrix of finer or microscopic crystalline structure. The felsites are of a light color, usually pink, flesh color or gray; basalt, or traprock as it is popularly known, is of a dark slate color or black on fresh fracture, often turning to a lighter color on weathered surfaces. Both of these classes of rocks are found in a number of places in the vicinity of Boston, occurring in dikes and ledges and as loose material derived from them, as well as in detached masses in glacial deposits. The harder and finer-grained varieties, either with or without porphyritic structure, furnished a very satisfactory material for the fabrication of chipped implements, as is shown by the fine workmanship, sharp points, and keen cutting edges of some of those found in the Arboretum. In other cases the material was not of such good quality, and as a result the fracture was hackly and the implements thicker and rougher. Quartz is another vein or dike material found abundantly in this region, both in situ and as rubble, and also as pebbles or boulders in the glacial drift. When broken it sometimes produces a very keen cutting edge and it was highly prized by the Indians for this quality. But it usually shatters too readily to have been used for any except the smaller implements. Quartzite, which is also common locally, was used sometimes for both chipped and abraded implements, but only the harder and finer-grained varieties could be chipped successfully, and most of the points made from this material are rather rough and crude. A few artifacts of chert have been found, although this material was not abundant nor generally of a good quality in this vicinity. Slate furnished a very indifferent material for chipping, but it was sometimes used, though perhaps only in emergencies. It was one of the most easily worked materials for grinding and it was used commonly in this way for a variety of purposes. Of about sixty implements, either perfect or broken, in the collection made in the Arboretum, a little more than half were probably used as projectile points, either for arrows or spears. A number of the others, having a sharp edge but often a blunt tion is 102 rounded point, may have been used as knives. But in some it is impossible to distinguish definitely between those two classes of tools, since some of them could have been used for either purpose. One of the pieces shown in the illustration, No. 2, is a small hatchet or celt. Number 5 is a rather rough piece, plain on one side and bevelled on the other, that may have been used as a scraper in preparing buckskin and other hides. There is at least one other scraper in the collection. The largest chipped piece so far found, No. 14, measures in its present broken condition ten centimeters in length and five centimeters in greatest width. The color of the material was originally black, but it has been altered on the surface to an ashy gray by long weathering. Small chips struck off accidentally by the tools of the workmen who unearthed it show that the oxidation has penetrated to a depth of about one millimeter. The break is a very old one, as the truncated end is discolored as completely as the rest of the surface. This piece may have been used as a digger or as a skinning knife. Number 16, a drill or reamer, has undergone a similar alteration in color from the effects of weathering. Such drill points are comparatively rare, at least in a perfect condition, as they are fragile and easily broken. They are supposed to have been hafted and used for drilling holes by being turned with a swift rotary motion. Among the arrow points shown in the photograph, Numbers 7, 10, 13, 26, and 27 were probably war points. Three of these are of the triangular unnotched type and the others have only a trace of side notches or stem. Such points easily became detached from the shaft and so could not be removed from a deep wound, which was therefore likely to prove fatal. Number 29 is a flat piece of slate with rounded ends and bevelled on either edge following a natural cleavage plane which may have been ground to a sharp edge to make it serviceable as a scraper. Another interesting piece, not shown in the illustration, is a fragment of coarse gritty sandstone eight centimeters long by about two centimeters in width and a little less in thickIt is roughly rounded on one side and has a shallow ness. longitudinal groove on the other. This was used in smoothing arrow shafts, much as we would use sandpaper today. Number 30 of the illustration is not Indian work, but is a relic of the white pioneers. This is a gun flint, used in flintlock guns before the invention of percussion caps. The material is horn flint from the Cretaceous chalk deposits of England, where the quarrying and manufacturing of flints both of this sort and for domestic use with steel and tinder was at one time an important industry. or cases 103 Two other specimens of gun flints have been recovered in the Arboretum. Most of the relics in the collection were found on the surface in the cultivated strips and beds where groups of shrubs are planted, or in the small plots dug up about individual trees and shrubs where the covering of grass, weeds, and leaves had been removed so that they could be seen. As the ground is turned up by the forks of the workmen the implements buried to a shallow depth are brought to the surface, and after a rain the earth may be washed off sufficiently for a sharp eye to detect them. Although only a small part of the Arboretum is cultivated in this way the spots are well distributed, giving a cross-section of the whole area; this has been sufficient to show that there are certain localities in which the relics are most abundant. Interpreting this with some knowledge of the needs of Indian life, and with allowance for the changes that we know have been made in the topography in recent years, it becomes possible to locate with considerable certainty the homes of these first inhabitants of the Arboretum area. The most pressing needs of Indian life and the considerations that influenced them most in selecting sites for camps and villages were a nearby supply of drinking water, food, and fuel. They would also want a place that was comparatively open, welldrained, and as free as possible from rocks and brush that would have to be cleared away. A situation with a fairly level surface, near a perennial spring or running brook, shaded by large trees, and with an unobstructed view for some distance in all directions, would offer the maximum of advantages. Any spot offering most of these attractions was almost certain to have been chosen as a camp site at some time. And if in addition it were situated on some bay, lake, or navigable stream, affording ready means of travel by canoe and an abundant food supply, it was quite likely to have been occupied by a permanent village. Looking over the land today and taking all of the factors into consideration, the trained eye of the archaeologist can locate such places, and he can predict with a considerable degree of certainty that Indian relics will be found there. While scattered specimens of Indian relics have been found in a number of places in the Arboretum, the great majority of them have come from a few limited areas that were evidently occupied as camp or village sites. Nearly half of the pieces in the collection were picked up within the space of a few acres along Bussey Brook near the center of the Arboretum. A slight rocky elevation, the upper part of which is still 105 Projectile point (base and point broken). Material, basalt-porphyry. Top of Peters Hill. 2. Celt. Material, felsite-porphyry. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end. 3. Knife? Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. 4. Arrow point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. 1. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. Scraper. Material, chert. Border of meadow, near lindens. Projectile point or knife. Material, quartzite. Hickory group. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Top of Bussey Hill. Arrow point. Material, argillite (slate). Along brook northeast of Administration Building. Knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Spring Brook Village site. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Centre Street border. Projectile point. Material, basalt. Upper bench, Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Glacial esker, North Woods. Knife 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. tool (broken at both ends). Material, chert? Administration Building. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Border of Meadow, near horse chestnuts. Drill or reamer. Material, chert. Upper bench, Spring Brook Village site. Knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of meadow, near lindens. Projectile point or knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of former brook along Meadow Road, near corkwood. Projectile point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Vilor digging near Meadow lage site. Knife (point broken). Material, chert. Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook site. Arrow point (point broken). Material, chert. Upper Spring Brook Village site. Village bench, 29. 30. Knife (point broken). Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end. Knife. Material, quartzite. Hickory group. Arrow point. Material, quartz. Centre Street border. Arrow point. Material, quartz. Centre Street border. Arrow point (point broken). Material, quartz. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end. Knife or scraper? Material, argillite. Border of meadow, near lindens. Gun flint. Material, horn chestnuts. flint. Border of meadow, near horse 106 covered by a remnant of the native forest of deciduous trees, extends from the boundary formed by Centre Street towards the brook. Ledges of Roxbury conglomerate outcrop in many places at the higher elevations near the street, and farther east the formation again comes to the surface, crossing the Valley Road and connecting with Bussey Hill. A perennial spring issues from the rocks at a point near the road forming a small rivulet that flows away across the meadow to join Bussey Brook. Towards the brook and in the triangle formed by the channels of the two streams the hill flattens out into a comparatively level bench or small plateau a few acres in extent, which is now occupied by plantings of various conifers and the juniper group. The drainage in this triangular area is good; the soil though thin in places is fertile, and under primitive conditions it was probably covered with open oak or mixed woods. A good outlook could be had up and down the little valley and across to Hemlock Hill, while a little farther up, the valley widened into what was evidently a small swamp or bog. Such a place offered many advantages for a camp or small village site. The relative abundance of relics and fragments found here seems to indicate that it was occupied with some permanency. For even more significant than the finished implements are the small flakes or spauls of the different varieties of stone used by the Indians that have been picked up here. These spauls, having a characteristic conchoid fracture, were struck off from the small mass of stone in the process of manufacturing the chipped implements, and they afford an indubitable proof that such an industry was carried on where they are found. The location of other Indian camps or lodges at several points in the Arboretum is indicated by the number of relics that have turned up. For although a stray arrow or spear may have been lost almost anywhere on a hunting or foraging expedition, such an accident could not account for the presence of a number of relics near one spot, especially when they include implements of domestic use or spauls. In addition to the Spring Brook Village site just described, relics have been found in the largest number along the slopes bordering the low meadow from near the Administration Building to the wooded hills beyond the linden and horse chestnut groups. Until comparatively recent times much of this low ground was occupied by a shallow lake or bog fed by several perennial brooks that have now, with one exception, been obliterated and the water carried under ground through sewers and conduits. Even now the lower part of this area is quite swampy and it becomes flooded in wet seasons, with the 107 enough to the surface to afford homes for doubt the direct descendents of those that were trapped and hunted along with other game by the Indians who once camped along the borders of the bog and lake. Another Indian camp seems to have been located on the ground level at the east end of Hemlock Hill near the South St. gate and extending across the street. The construction of roadways and other changes have obliterated most of this site, but several relics and fragments have been picked up in a small cultivated area just within the Arboretum wall and in the nursery across South Street. Scattered relics have also been found near the top of Peters Hill, on Bussey Hill, in the shrub collection, on the wooded ridges above the horse chestnuts, and at ,several other places. People often ask how old these relics are. This cannot be answered definitely in regard to such relics as those found in the Arboretum. The hard stones from which most of the chipped implements were made are practically indestructible or yield very slowly to the disintegrating forces of time and weathering. The depth to which oxidation has penetrated some of the specimens indicates a considerable antiquity for them. Perhaps some of the pieces go back only to the time when the first European settlers began coming into the country or when the Indians abandoned their crude stone tools for the more efficient metal ones obtained by barter from the Europeans; others may have been made centuries earlier. All that we can say is that they are very old. water near table muskrats, no . ERNEST J. PALMER Ernest Jesse Palmer (1875-1962) was a naturalist of the old school. His interests in the aspect of nature were truly catholic. Despite the fact that his formal education ended with High School, and despite what we would term \"hardships,\" he managed to become well versed in Latin and Greek, English literature, mathematics, economics, and poetry, as well as field natural history. Palmer grew up in Webb City, in the Missouri coal mining country. At the age of 25 he made contact with the Arnold Arboretum, and for the rest of his working life was associated in one way or another with this institution. From 1901-1921 he collected for the Arnold Arboretum in the Middle West, notably in his home state of Missouri. From 1921 to 1948 he was Collector and Research Assistant, based in Jamaica Plain. In 1948, at the age of 74, he returned to his boyhood home in Webb City and continued an active life until his death at 87. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Prehistoric Land Use in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":108,"end_page":113,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24538","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270b76f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dincauze, Dena Ferran","article_content":"Prehistoric Land Use in the Arnold Arboretum _ ~ In the thirty-seven years since Ernest Jesse Palmer wrote his excellent report on \"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum\" archaeologists have learned a great deal about Massachusetts prehistory. It has been demonstrated beyond doubt that the styles of objects made by prehistoric men changed through time, as do the styles of things we make and use now. Through careful excavation of layers of food refuse and discarded tools, archaeologists have learned the order in which the many recognizable styles occurred through time. They have learned, also, which styles of spear points were in use with particular knife forms, or axe heads, or other tool types. The kinds of tools found together, the nature of the places where they are found, and the occasional traces of ancient houses and hearths have provided evi- dence about the way of life of the makers of the various tools. Human remains in graves with these tools show that the people who made them were of the same physical type as modern American Indians. Physicists have provided archaeologists with a technique for directly dating organic material associated with prehistoric artifacts. The age of organic matter, ideally charcoal, can be estimated from the measurable activity of radioactive carbon isotypes, the decay rate of which is approximately known. The age of organic matter thus analyzed is usually expressed as a number of years before the present, and often converted by simple subtraction into a date in terms of the Gregorian calendar. Radiocarbon years as now calculated apparently do not exactly equate with calendar years (Ralph & Michael 1967); in general, the older the radiocarbon age the younger it is than the actual age. Age and date estimates quoted below will be in radiocarbon years and therefore minimal. Geologists, zoologists, and botanists who concern themselves with prehistoric conditions have learned something about old landforms and ancient animal and plant communities in the 108 109 Boston area and have made inferences from such evidence about past climatic changes. It is clear that the Boston landscape, forest composition, and animal population have changed during the period of human occupation. The Arboretum collection of Indian stone tools has been augmented since 1934 by occasional finds made by Palmer and by Mr. Alfred J. Fordham on the sites Palmer enumerated and by some pieces recovered from the grounds of the Biological Laboratory adjacent to the Arboretum on South Street. The oldest tool styles in the collection are represented by the specimens numbered 6, 12 and 15 in Palmer's illustration, which are at least 5500 years old. These were followed 4500 years ago by spearpoints such as those numbered 4, 11 and 25, and by pieces like Nos. 8, 21, 22 and 26-28 (Ritchie 1969). A major new style appeared in southern New England about 4000 years ago, of which Figure I No. 1 is a representative. This particular spearpoint was originally wider, but has been narrowed by resharpening. By 3400 years ago. knives like No. 2 in Figure I were in use, with spearpoints like No. 24 in Palmer's illustration. Palmer's Nos. 18 and 20 were made between 3200 and 2600 years ago (Dincauze 1968). Figure I No. 5 is apparently of the same age, although it is not possible to be certain about it because of its broken base (Ritchie 1961:35). Number 4 of Figure I may be less than 2000 years old. Number 3 represents the last style in stone projectile points in the area; similar points were made of sheet brass and copper whenever the Indians could obtain the soft metals from Europeans. By bringing to the Arboretum collection information obtained elsewhere (Ritchie 1969; Robbins 1968) we can see that Palmer's Spring Brook Village and Centre Street Border areas were occasionally occupied by small groups of Indians as early as the fourth millennium B.C. These areas even now offer some protection from extremes of winter temperature (A. Fordham, 110 personal communication) special attractions. and Palmer has summarized other In the second millenium B.C. the Spring Brook, South Street and Meadow Border areas were foci for Indian activities. At Spring Brook, finds of stone flakes and unfinished tools indicate that tools were being made there and suggest that this was a dwelling area, not simply a camp site for hunters. The perforator (Palmer's No. 16) also suggests manufacturing or repair of domestic equipment, possibly sewing of leather or bark. Spring Brook Village may have been a winter camp site for one or two families at many different times. There is no evidence for the continued use of the Center Street Border area after 2000 B.C. After 1000 B.C. the Spring Brook camp may have been abandoned for the Meadow Border area. It is in the latter vicinity that tools of the period from 1000 to 600 B.C. were found. There is no evidence in the collection for any camping activity in the Arboretum after this period. Of tools which can be confidently dated, only a few projectile points are younger than 600 B.C. Number 4 in Figure I was found on Peters Hill, a good place from which to watch for game and refit hunting equipment. This knife blade or spearpoint is especially interesting, as is No. 5, because both were made of cherts which outcrop in the Mohawk Valley of New York state and are forms more common there than in Massachusetts. The triangular arrowhead, No. 3 in Figure I, was also found on Peters Hill, where it was lost sometime during the last 300 years of Indian hunting there. The Palmer-Fordham collection is obviously too small to support firm conclusions about prehistoric land use in the Arboretum, but it does suggest some interesting hypotheses. It appears that from a very early time the area was occasionally occupied by small groups of people who stayed for a number of days or weeks and carried on normal household activities. Sometime after 1000 B.C., people gave up living in the area, visiting only in the course of hunting expeditions. Indian horticulture was established in Massachusetts sometime around 1000 A.D., during the centuries when the Arboretum land was rarely frequented, so that it appears unlikely that any Indian gardens grew there. While the earlier Indians were living in the Arboretum area, the landscape and environment of the Boston area were somewhat different from what we know. The sea-level was many feet lower when the first campers came, and it continued to rise toward its present height as the last of the continental glaciers Figure 11 Bussey Brook Valley in the Arnold Arboretum, 1908. Photo: T. E. Marr. to the north (Kaye & Barghoorn 1964). In the third millennium B.C., a large intertidal fishweir was constructed by the Indians on the mudflats of Back Bay, 20 feet below the tidal zone of modern Boston (Johnson 1949; Byers 1959:242). As the sea rose and buried the Back Bay weir, the mouth of the Muddy River became brackish and tidal. By the time the Indians gave up living at the Arboretum, the intertidal zone was far up the Charles River valley, just below its modern location at the Watertown bridge (Dincauze 1968 : 9 ). Studies of old pollen deposits in southern New England have shown that during the second and third millennia B.C. the melted, far 112I deciduous forest composition was like that now found only south of the region, with a greater representation of hickories than in the forests which stood here in historic times (Davis 1965). Interpretation of this evidence is still debated, but it appears justifiable to see this period as a time of climatic amelioration, warmer and perhaps somewhat drier than the present average (Sears 1963). The abandonment of habitation in the Arboretum occurred at about the same time as the establishment of the modern forest association, which may indicate some deterioration of climate. Perhaps harsher winters forced the Indians to seek more shelter than the Arboretum sites offered. Deeper snows may have made this rough country inaccessible in winter. Whatever the reason for the change, abandonment of upland campsites at this same time has been noted elsewhere. Several sites in the Charles River basin show use almost continuously to 1000 B.C. and none later. For the two thousand years before the English came to cut hay, the Arboretum land was a swampy backwoods area, home to muskrats and other wild animals, attracting an occasional human hunter. DENA FERRAN DINCAUZE Dr. Dena Ferran Dincauze is Assistant Curator of North AmeriArchaeology and Thaw Fellow at the Peabody Museum of Archaeology and Ethnology of Harvard University. A Study of Indian settlement in the Charles River watershed first brought her to the Arnold Arboretum. We consider ourselves fortunate to have Palmer's work on \"Indian Relics...\" brought up to date and placed in its proper context. can _ References Cited D. S. 1959 The Eastern Archaic: Some Problems and Hypotheses. American Antiquity, vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 233-256. Davis, M. B. 1965 Phytogeography and Palynology of Northeastern United States. In The Quaternary of the United States, edited by H. E. Wright, Jr. and D. G. Frey. Princeton University Press, 1965. Dincauze, D. F. Cremation Cemeteries in Eastern Massachusetts. Papers 1968 of the Peabody Museum, vol. 59, no. 1. Cambridge. Johnson, F., ed. 1949 The Boylston Street Fishweir, II. Papers of the R. S. Peabody Foundation for Archaeology, vol. 4. Andover. Byers, 113 Kaye, C. A. and E. S. Barghoorn 1964 Late Quaternary sea-level change and crustal rise at Boston, Massachusetts, with notes on the autocompaction of peat. Geological Society of America, Bulletin, vol. 75, pp. 63-80. Palmer, E. J. 1934 Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information, 4th series, vol. 2, no. 12, pp. 61-68. Cambridge. Ralph, E. K. and H. N. Michael 1967 Problems of the Radiocarbon Calendar. Archaeometry, vol. 10, pp. 3-11. Oxford. Ritchie, W. A. 1969 The Archaeology of Martha's Vineyard: a framework for the prehistory of southern New England. Natural History Press, New York. A Typology and Nomenclature for New York Projectile 1961 Points. New York State Museum and Science Service Bulletin no. 384. Albany. Robbins, M. 1968 An Archaic Ceremonial Complex at Assawompsett. Massachusetts Archaeological Society, Special Publication. Attleboro. Sears, P. B. 1963 Vegetation, Climate, and Coastal Submergence in Connecticut. Science vol. 140 no. 3562, pp. 59-60. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree","article_sequence":4,"start_page":114,"end_page":120,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24540","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270bb6d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"The Lelacke, or Pipe Tree In Le Mans, France, there is hair, seated, reading a book. a It is statue of a man with long curly a statue of Pierre Belon, a French naturalist born about 1517, and, as far as we know, the first European to describe the lilac. As a young man Pierre Belon studied medicine in Paris, and after receiving his doctor's degree he became a pupil of the German botanist, Euricius (or Valerius) Cordus, and travelled with him throughout Germany. He returned to France when he was about 29 years old, and his ability and knowledge attracted the attention of two Cardinals, Tournon and Chastillon, who became his patrons. Financed by them the intrepid young man set out on an extensive journey of scientific discovery to Greece, Asia Minor, Egypt, Turkey, Arabia, and Palestine. After his return Belon published in 1553 a full account of his travels. Writing of the Turkish people's fondness for flowers, he described a bush with flowering branches the length of an arm, of violet color, which the Turks called Foxtail, the bush which we now call lilac. It was only two years later, in 1555, that a Flemish scholar, Augier de Busbecq, went to Constantinople, sent by the Emperor Ferdinand I, as Ambassador to Suleiman II, Sultan of Turkey. Busbecq lived in Constantinople for eight years. When he returned to his home in Vienna he brought with him many plants from Turkey including the lilac which he grew in his garden. The Viennese gave it the name Turhisher Holunder (Turkish Elderberry). A physician of series of commentaries on the first-century writings of Dioscorides (who was still, in the 16th century, an authority on medicine) and in the 1565 edition of his Commentaries he published a woodcut of a plant he called \"lilac,\" and stated that the plant was brought from Constantinople by Busbecq. The picture, although inaccurate in showing flowers and fruits on the same branch, was the first published picture of the lilac. In a later edition of the Commentaries, in 1598, Mattioli published a more accurate ilWord of the new plant soon reached Siena, Pietro Andrea Mattioli, was Italy. publishing a 114 115 116 lustration, after he had received flowering and fruiting branches from Giacomo Cortusi, head of the Botanic Garden at Padua. There is no doubt that the new bush proved popular. In 1597 John Gerard, surgeon and gardener (and author of Gerard's it in his garden in England \"in very great plenty,\" and by 1601 it was well established in western European gardens and had escaped and become naturalized. The white lilac must have appeared about this time; it was first mentioned by Basil Besler, a German botanist, in 1613, and its origin is unknown. In 1629 John Parkinson, a writer and gardener in England, referred to a \"Pipe tree ... of a milke Herball) reported silver colour, which is a kind of white ... coming somewhat neare unto an ash-color.\" Lord Bacon, in an essay on gardening written in 1625 referred to the Lelacke tree. It was also called Laylock, Lilach, and Pipe-tree. The name lilac may have come from lilaj, the Turkish name for the indigo plant, or from lilak, meaning bluish. The Latin name for the lilac, syringa, was used by a French botanist, Mathieu de l'Obel (Lobelius), in 1576. Alfred Rehder, an American authority on trees and shrubs, suggested that the name came from the Greek word syrinx, meaning \"pipe,\" referring to the hollow stems of Philadelphus (mock orange) which were used by the Turks to make pipes. Both the lilac and the mock orange were originally placed in the genus syringa and the name pipe tree was used indiscriminately for both. It is reasonable to believe that the lilac appeared early in Spain, as 1'Obel wrote of a lilac, Syringa caerula Lusitanica, Lusitanica referring to the part of the Iberian peninsula now known as Portugal. It is quite possible that the lilac came to Spain with the Moors, in fact an Arab botanist, Serapio, mentioned Jasminum caeruleum (Blue Jasmine) in the eleventh century. Later, in the 16th century the name of ]eser~zinum caerulium Arabum appeared as a synonym for the common lilac, Syringa vulgaris. Many of the features of Moorish gardens in Spain had their origins in Persia, coming by way of Egypt. Egypt was conquered by the Persians in 525 B.C. and remained under Persian domination for about two centuries, during which time there was a continuous interchange of ideas between the two cultures. When the Moors went to Spain from north Africa in the eighth century they took their art and architecture with them, and it is conceivable that the Blue Jasmine mentioned by Serapio was brought to Spain at an early date. The Moors, in their almost eight centuries in the Iberian peninsula, penetrated or Top. Syringa chinensis in the Arboretum. Bottom: Syringa persica. 118 into the central and northern areas, where lilacs at present do grow (such as in the Parque del Oeste, Madrid). In 1753 Linnaeus standardized the Latin name of the common blue lilac as Syringa vulgaris and gave its native land as the Orient, although there was a belief among some botanists of that day that it came from Persia. It was not until 1828 that the naturalist Anton Rochel found it growing wild in western Rumania, and within a few years it was reported growing wild along the Danube river and in Bulgaria. In spite of this, the belief that it was from Persia or China continued into the twentieth century. However in 1903 J. Lochot, who was in charge of the gardens of the Prince of Bulgaria, wrote of travelling through the Balkans and seeing it growing wild. Three of the plants collected by Rochel at that time were brought to the Arnold Arboretum. The lilac which is referred to as the Persian lilac was first described by John Bauhin, a Frenchman. He described it in 1619 as a lilac with cut leaves, which he received from a Venetian who grew it in his garden. He gave it the Latin name of Ligustrum foliis laciniatis. It appeared again in a book published in 1627 by an Italian botanist, Prosper Alpinus, who reported that it was sent to Venice by Jerome Capelli. Apparently Capelli was ambassador to the Sultan, so this lilac also appears to have been introduced by way of Constantinople. A Persian lilac with entire leaves was reported in 1660, listed in a catalog of the Jardin des Plantes, Paris, as Jasminum persicum seu ligustrum persic. (The Jardin des Plantes later became part of the Musee d'Histoire Naturelle.) No record has ever been found to indicate where this plant came from. Linnaeus in 1753 based his description of the Persian lilac, S. persica, on a specimen with entire leaves, and at the time many botanists included the cut-leaved form and the entireleaved one in the same species, since it was recognized that certain of the plants had both kinds of leaves. Toward the end of the 1700's one German writer suggested that the Persian lilac came from China, by way of Constantinople, later than S. vulgaris ; and in the early 1800's the belief grew that it was not a native of Persia, as it was only found there as a cultivated plant. In 1770 Richard Weston referred to the Persian lilac with cut leaves as S. persica variety laciniata and finally it was accepted as such by most botanists. In 1922 a specimen of this plant was collected in Kansu, China, which had two branches, one with entire leaves, and one with both cut leaves and entire leaves. This specimen is preserved in the herbarium of the 119 Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Susan Delano McKelvey in her monumental monograph of the lilac suggested that S. persica with entire leaves only, is a garden plant, not appearing in the wild. Many plants were carried from China to Persia: walnuts, grapes, peaches, and many others, and Mrs. McKelvey suggested that the cut-leaved type was brought along with them, and that the form with only entire leaves may have originated in a Persian garden as a seedling or sport, or was propagated from a branch or twig which bore only entire leaves. In the Botanic Garden of Rouen in the 1700's both the Persian lilac and the common lilac bloomed simultaneously. In about 1777 a third lilac appeared there, which was later given the misleading name of S. chinensis. This plant has since proved to be a hybrid of S. persica and S. vulgaris. Jacques Varin, the director of the Botanic Garden, for several years sowed the seed of the cut-leaved Persian lilac, and obtained what he considered a degenerate variety, unaware that what he really had was a hybrid. In America the came common lilac of the mansion of Governor Wentworth in is believed to have been planted in 1750. The garden book of Thomas Jefferson written at Shadwell, Virginia, on April 2, 1767, mentioned planting lilacs and Spanish Broom, and even earlier Peter Collinson wrote on December 20, 1737, to his botanist friend in America, John Bartram, \"I wonder that thou should be sorry to see such a bundle of white and blue lilacs ... But as your neighbours of Virginia, in particular Colonel Custis at Williamsburgh, who has undoubtedly the best collection in the country, desired some, I thought possibly you might want them ... But does thee know that there is both blue and purple Lilacs?\" George Washington was fond of lilacs and in 1785 set out plants along the walks in his garden, and in March, 1792, purchased lilacs from John Bartram to plant on the bowling green. About 1800 Bernard M'Mahon, Seedsman of Philadelphia, offered two lilacs, white (S. alba) and purple (S. violacea) which were in reality forms of the common lilac. Fifteen years later W. P. G. Barton mentioned lilacs among plants collected within ten miles of Philadelphia, in a flora of native plants and others \"either naturalized or so commonly cultivated among us that it has been deemed expedient to introduce them into this Prodromus.\" The annual catalog of William Price and Sons, Flushing, Long grown in the quite popular garden in the quickly adopted and beeighteenth century. Lilacs were was Portsmouth, N.H., which 120 Island, New York, of 1835, listed eleven lilacs: White lilac, Ditto large, Great white flowered, Blue or purple, Red, Charles the Tenth superb new, Purple Persian, White Persian, Persian cut leaved, Large Chinese or Siberian, and Large flowering hyextra brid. As plant explorers traveled through the world more lilacs appeared. Rosalia, Baroness von Josika, recognized, before 1830, that a lilac growing in Transylvania was distinct from those already known, and it later became Syringa josikaea. Robert Fortune brought back from China Syringa oblata in 1856. Two Russian explorers, Richard Maack and Carl Johann Maximowicz, independently discovered Syringa amurense in Amur, eastern Asia, and its variety the Japanese tree lilac (var. japonica). By 1889 Parsons and Sons, of Flushing, listed forty-six lilacs, the price from twenty-five to fifty cents each. A recent catalog Massachusetts grower has seventy-two. Among the many lilacs grown today, there occasionally appear individual bushes, or groups of bushes which differ in color, blossom size, or other characteristics, and each year horticulturists present those of the new lilacs which they believe are worthy of cultivation and whose characteristics will persist. These are given names by the discoverer and are registered as new \"cultivars.\" Along with the new lilacs however the nursery catalogs continue to list josikaea, amurense, and other old favorites. As one drives along the fast-disappearing country roads old lilacs can be glimpsed among the underbrush at the site of old farmhouses, recalling Thoreau's words, \"Still grows the vivacious lilac a generation after the door and lintel and sill are gone.\" a of HELEN ROCA-GARCIA "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"1970 Lilac Registration","article_sequence":5,"start_page":121,"end_page":126,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24534","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270af28.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wister, John C.; Oppe, Joseph","article_content":"1970 Lilac I Registrations During 19081, the Fifteenth International Horticultural Congress in Nice, France, in 1958, the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania was designated to be the International Registration Aufor Lilacs. The names of species, hybrids and cultivars published in \"Lilacs for America\" in 1953 were accepted as registered. Subsequent registrations were published in Arnoldia (and elsewhere) in 1963, 1965, 1966 and 1967. thority , Sn SI Agincourt Beauty - SI SV S VII SV SV L. K. Slater, Agincourt, Ontario, Can. About 1968.\"` Agnes Smith - O. M. Rogers, Univ. New Hampshire, Durham, N.H. Alexander's Attraction (EH-G) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. 1968. Alexander's Variegated (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. 1968. Alice Franklin F. Barnes, Julian, Calif. Alice Rose Foster (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. 1968. Basia (PR) - W. Bugala, New varieties of Syringa prestonae McK. obtained in the Kornik Arboretum. In Polish, with summaries in English and Russian. Arboretum Kornickie 15: 61-69. 1970. - * The format of the present list follows that used in \"Lilacs for America\" as to the Abbreviations and Symbols. D - Double flowers S Single flowers III IV - Lilac V - Pinkish I White II Violet Bluish VII VI - Magenta Purple - - - - If there are no capital letters in parenthesis following the name, the cultivar is a form of Syringa vulgaris. Cultivars of other species or hybrids have parenthesis ( ) with two or three capital letters as follows: (EH-D) - Early Hybrids (S. vulgaris X S. oblata dilatata) (EH-G) - Early Hybrids (S. vulgaris X S. oblata giraldi) (JF) - (Josiflexa) (josikaea X reflexa) (PR) - (Prestoniae) (villosa X reflexa) 111 122 S III Blue SV SV Delight M. Castle, Rowancroft Garden, Meadowville, Ontario, Can. 1969. Bright Centennial E. Robinson, Gaybird Nursery, Wawaesa, Manitoba, Can. 1967. Cynthia K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me. Danusia (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer- ence. S IV-V S III Dawn (Patent #2614) - C. J. Hauck, Hauck Botanic Garden, Cincinnati, Oh. 1966. Diana (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer- Dappled ence. DV SV D III SV D. Eisenhower - R. A. Fenicchia, Dept. Parks, Monroe Co., Rochester, N.Y. Eaton Red - M. Eaton, Glen Head, N.Y. Elaire Brown Alexander (EH-G) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me. Elizabeth Files Eliose (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Esterka (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer- Dwight - ence. SV Far Horizon - E. G. Polin, Fultonville, N.Y. Ferna Alexander (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Florence Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh. Goplana (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer- ence. A. Olsen and Prof. K. Hagny (wolfz X reflexa) Gram, Copenhagen, Denm. Hazel - Mrs. J. Lyden, North Monmouth, Ma., and - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Jack Alexander J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. - S II S II-IV Jaga (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Jagienka (PR) - W. Bugala, reference. Basia for reference. see cv. Basia for SV D III Jill Alexander (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Judy's Pink ( EH-D ) - R. de Wilde, Doylestown, Pa. Kum - Bum (tomentella) - Rev. J. L. Fiala, Media, Oh. Leone Gardner - Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wisc. Lillian Davis - Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh. Lynette Sirois K. Berdeen, Kennebunk, Me. - 123 SV SV SV S II Lustrous Mabel L. Franklin, Minneapolis, Minn. Mary Ann Gardner - Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wisc. Mary Evelyn White (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. May Day - J. Clarke Nursery, San Jose, Calif. Before 1967. Mount Domogled - Robert B. Clark, Monroe County Park System, Rochester, N.Y. Mrs. Charles Davis Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh. Nike (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for refer- ence. SV D VI SI D II SV D III SV S VI SV Old Fashioned - J. Clarke Nursery, San Jose, Calif. Phyliss Alexander (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Polly Stone Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wisc. Ralph W. Stone Mrs. Betty Stone, Ashland, Oh. Rochester Correction. The 1965 Registration should read \"Grant, Monroe County Park System, Rochester, N.Y.\" Royalty Listed in 1953 as JF (Josiflexa) and in 1963 was changed to PR (Prestoniae). This classification is still under dispute; it seems possible that two different cultivars were sent out under this name. Starlight E. G. Polin, Fultonville, N.Y. Stropkey Variegated J. Stropkey Nursery, Painesville, Oh. Sweet Refrain Mabel L. Franklin, Minneapolis, Minn. Telimena (PR) - W. Bugala, see cv. Basia for ref- - - - - - - erence. Tit Tat Toe - T. A. Glen Head, N.Y. Havenmeyer and Mark Eaton, S II SI S III Vivian Christenson (PR) - J. H. Alexander, Middleboro, Ma. Violet Glory - M. Castle, Rowancroft Garden, Meadowville, Ontario, Can. White Sands - Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wisc. Woodland Blue L. Hancock, Woodland, Nursery, Mississauga, Ontario, Can. - N 125 The following cultivars were imported from Russia by the Arnold Arboretum. The original publications using these names were discussed by R. A. Howard (Arnoldia 19: 31-35. 1959) and by R. A. Howard and G. K. Brizicky (Quarterly Newsletter, AABGA, Issue 64: 15-21. 1965). S ? S D D S I II VI I V VII D IV DI DV D VI D I? D II S VII S? S VII S? Galina Ulanova - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1953. Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. Gotensiia India Gromov, Moscow. 1955. Ivan Michurin - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1941. Izobiliie Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. K. A. Timiriazev Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. Kapriz Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1952 or 1961. See Brizicky, Quarterly Newsletter, AABGA. Issue 64: 22. 1965. Krasavita Moskvy - Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. Marshal Vasilevskii Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1963. Niebo Moskvy - Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. Olimpiada Kolesnikova Gromov, Moscow. 1955. Pamiat o S. M. Kirove Gromov, Moscow. 1963. Pioneer Gromov, Moscow. 1951. Sumierki Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1954. Zarya Kommunizma - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1951. Znamia Lenina - Kolesnikov or Gromov, Moscow. 1963. - - - - - - - - imported from the Komik Arboretum, Kornik, Poznan, Poland, by the Royal Botanical GarThe following cultivars were den, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, names in 1968-69. The cultivar attributed to Karpow were developed by Kikolaj Karpow- Lipski, Chelmza, Poland, D D D S D D S D IV I VI V III IV V IV between 1948 and 1958. The names appear to be first used in the Year Book, Kornik Arboretum, for 1968-1969. Adam Mickiewicz Karpow. 1958? Anna Karpow - Karpow. 1958? Bogdan Przyrzykowski - Karpow. 1961. Dr. W. Bugala - Karpow. 1962. Fale Baltyku Karpow. 1961. Irene Karpow-Lipska - Karpow. 1958? Jutrzenka Pomorza - Karpow. 1961. Kobierski Karpow. 1960. - - - Syringa vulgaris 'Rochester'. A single white lilac. Photo: Parhs, Rochester, N.Y. Monroe County 126 D S S S S S D D D D S S D S D D D S S D I Konstanty Karpow - Karpow. Leon 1953. 1958. V II VI II II III V II I VI III V V III III V IV V VI VI Leonid Leonov - Kolesnikov, Moscow. Before 1959. Wyczolkowski - Karpow. Malachow - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1955. Mieczta - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1941. Minister Dab Kociol - Karpow. 1961. Niewinnosc - Karpow. 1960. Pamiat o S. M. Kirove Gromov, Moscow. 1955. Panna Dorota Golabecka - Karpow. 1952. Piotr Chosinski Karpow. 1960. Pol Robson - Kolesnikov, Moscow. 1965. Pomorzanka - Karpow. 1962. Prof. Bialobok Karpow. 1961. Prof. Edmund Jankowski - Karpow. 1958. Prof. Hoser - Received at Kornik Arb. about 1930 from P. Hoser of Warsaw. Prof. Josef Brzezinski Karpow. 1938. Prof. Roman Kobendza - Karpow. 1958. Rozana Mlodosc - Karpow. 1960. Stefan Makowiecki - Karpow. 1958? Tadeiszko Karpow. 1954. - - - - JOHN C. WISTER JOSEPH OPPE Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation Swarthmore College Swarthmore, Pennsylvania "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Perennials for Low Maintenance Gardening Part III","article_sequence":6,"start_page":127,"end_page":139,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24537","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270b36b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Perennials for Low Maintenance Part III Gardening -. Iris Iris, Fleur-de-lis Irises are similar to Daylilies in that there are so many available varieties to choose from that one hardly knows where to begin. For the low maintenance garden the similarity ends here because the Tall Bearded Iris, the most popular of the group, cannot be called an undemanding plant. Clumps may start to degenerate after the third or fourth year and division of these, preceded by a thorough preparation of the new site, may be necessary. The Iris borer, a worm which tunnels into the rhizomes, can cause serious trouble and is more difficult to control now that DDT is not used. A short blooming period restricts the use of irises in most mixed borders, but when planted for mass effects the results are delightful. When used sparingly in a mixed border, the leaves of irises form good contrasts to the foliage of many other types of plants. According to the Popularity Poll in the October 1970 issue of the Bulletin of the American Iris Society, some of the best varieties to watch for in catalogs are as follows: I. 'Stepping Out' this is basically a white flower which is heavily overlaid with deep blue-purple edges to the flower segments; 1. 'Winter Olympics' - to date the finest pure snow-white flowered bearded iris; I. 'Rippling Waters' - a blend of pale lavender-blue; I. 'Esther Fay' a very husky growing variety with pink flowers; I. 'Dusky Dancer' one of the most popular of the so-called black variethe ties, the flowers being a deep purple-black; 1. 'Ultrapoise' most popular yellow; I. 'Ginger Snap' - the best brown; and I. 'Christmas Time' - snow-white with a fiery red beard. Of greater value in the low maintenance garden are the less numerous cultivars of the Siberian Iris, I. sibirica. Many of these will survive in poor soil, but do better where soil condi- 127 128 rich and moist, and although they will withstand light shade, they are at their best in full sun. A few of the good newer varieties are: I. 'Gatineau' large violet-blue flowers; I. 'Ruby satin-white Wine' - bright ruby-red flowers; I. 'White Swirl' in abundance; and I. 'White Magnificence' - very large white flowers. tions are - Kniphofia Torch-Lily, Red-Hot Poker Kniphofia uvaria is probably the best known species, and al- though still commonly offered it is not entirely compatible with New England winters, and its bright red and yellow flowers are thought to be overly gaudy by many people. This somewhat unsavory reputation is no longer fully deserved as breeders have developed new cultivars which are hardier and have a better range of softer colors. All Torch-Lilies require sandy, perfectly drained soils. Soggy conditions are fatal, and although a position sheltered from the wind should be selected, they should be situated so as to receive as much direct sunlight as possible. Divisions obtained from nurseries are usually quite small and it will take a few years for them to become established. Plants grow from two to three feet tall, have a somewhat coarse appearance, and are best seen as single specimens rather than massed. Some of the interesting new varieties which should be tried are: K. 'Earliest of All' coral-rose; K. 'Maid of Orleans' pale K. 'Primrose Beauty' primrose-yellow; K. 'Springtime' yellow; flowers in the upper part of the spike are coral-red, those below are ivory-white; and K. 'Summer Sunshine' - flame red. - Liatris Blazing Star, Gayfeather It is rather unusual that a member of the Daisy family should have flowers which are arranged in a dense spike formation. These spikes seldom fail to attract attention because the flower heads at the top open first, and flowering progresses down the stem rather than up. Exceptions to this are L. scariosa 'September Glory,' which produces five-foot spikes of purple flowers which open all at the same time, and its sport L. 'White Spire' which has white flowers. Although all the commonly grown species produce excellent flowers for cutting purposes, these two cultivars are probably the best. It should be noted, particularly with the shorter-growing varieties, that at least one third of the stalk should be left on the plant after cutting. This will leave sufficient foliage for the manufacture of food reserves. Liatris are stiff, upright plants which look best when planted - 129 sparingly rather than as large masses. They will tolerate considerable moisture during the growing season, but soggy soil conditions during the winter will lead to rapid deterioration of the clumps. (This is particularly important with L. pycnostachya, L. scariosa, and their several cultivars.) A moderately fertile sandy soil and a position in full sun are about the only other requirements for Liatris. Stems of the taller growing L. pycnostachya, L. scariosa 'September Glory' and L. 'White Spire' have a tendency to lean over under their own weight and require staking. For the low maintenance gardener, several other species and cultivars which do not possess this objectionable characteristic can be recommended. L. spicata with purple flowers in August forms fairly dense clumps with three-foot spikes; L. spicata 'Kobold' is only eighteen to twenty-four inches high, and has dark purple flowers; L. spicata 'Silver Tips' grows to three feet tall with flowers more nearly lavender in color. L. punctata, the Dwarf Gayfeather blooms in August and seldom exceeds two-and-a-half feet in height. Limonium - Sea-lavender, Hardy Statice When grouped closely together, plants of Limonium latifolium will form an attractive and somewhat unusual groundcover. When grown in the herbaceous border they may be counted upon to develop into long-lived specimens which will withstand considerable neglect. Established plants bear large panicles of numerous small flowers. These are frequently up to one-and-a-half feet across and can be used effectively in dried flower arrangements. In time, a clump may have up to a dozen sprays and form a spectacular canopy nearly a yard wide. Sea-lavender may be used in much the same way as Gypsophila (Baby's Breath) to impart a light, airy effect in the garden, and is an excellent substitute in areas where Gypsophila does not overwinter well. It is a fitting subject for gardeners near the sea, and inland the major requirement is that plants be grown in a light sandy loam in a sunny position. If planted in a heavier soil, stems will invariably be weak and require staking. Limonium latifolium blooms from July through August and produces bright mauve-lavender flowers. Two cultivars which somewhat extend the color range are easily available. These are L. latifolium 'Colliers Pink' with pink flowers, and L. latifolium 'Violetta' with clear violet-blue flowers. 130 Lupinus - Lupine Of the several types of Lupine which are hardy, the strain known as Lupinus xregalis 'Russell Hybrids' is by far the showiest. These cannot be recommended for general cultivation in our area, however, because of their sensitivity to hot summers. They do best in cool, humid areas such as northern New England and the Pacific Northwest. It has been said that L. cytisaides, the Canyon Lupine from California, might be crossed with the 'Russell Hybrids' to produce a more heat-resistant strain. Until this is done, or summer hardiness is achieved in some other way, gardeners in the Boston area and south should probably avoid Lupines. Catch Fly, Maltese Cross this group produces some of the most vividly colored Although flowers of any in the herbaceous border, the so-called perennial species are quite short lived and are of no value in a low maintenance garden. Lychnis coronaria, the Rose Campion, usually behaves as a biennial and seeds itself in such a copious manner that it may have some value in certain situations where many chance seedlings would not look out of place. Lychnis - Campion, Lysimachia - Loosestrife Most members of this genus would not look well in a manicured formal border, but the somewhat spreading (sometimes invasive) tendencies of the more commonly grown species may be a distinct asset in gardens which are to receive minimal care. They are of easy culture and adaptable to a wide range of conditions. Lysimachia clethroides, the Gooseneck Loosestrife, bears three-foot stalks of white flowers which are both attractive and interesting because they bend at the top in a somewhat gooseneck fashion. They last well and can be used for flower arranging. This is not a plant for confined spaces and it would be unwise to place choice smaller plants nearby or to expect it to fit into any ordinary-sized niche in the border. When naturalized, or planted in light shade near the base of shrubs, however, they will be seen to full advantage. Lysimachia punctata, the Yellow Loosestrife, produces sturdy three-foot stems which have axillary whorls of bright yellow flowers over most of their length during June and early July. It does not spread as rapidly as L. clethroides, and although best in partial shade, it will tolerate full sun if planted in rich, moist 131 soil. Another Loosestrife with yellow flowers is L. vulgaris, whose flowers are borne in terminal panicles during late July and August. This species will not tolerate exposure to full sun, and partial rather than dense shade will suit it best. Sometimes called Creeping Jenny or Moneywort, L. nummularia is a European plant now widely naturalized in North America. Were it not for its overly invasive tendencies, this would probably be one of our best ground covers, but it should not be planted where it cannot easily be contained. L. nummularia 'Aurea' is sometimes offered in catalogs as an unusual bedding or ground cover plant. The leaves are a garish yellow, difficult to combine attractively with other colors. Lythrum - Purple Loosestrife Lythrum salicaria, a native of Europe, is now so widely nat- uralized in our area it is difficult to believe that it has only recently become such a feature of our landscape. Those who travel along Route 128 in the Boston area during mid to late summer cannot fail to notice the vast expanses of rosy magenta flowers in the low, moist places. A number of selections have been made from the wild forms. These are well worth growing, especially in difficult wet areas in the garden. Lythrum 'Morden Pink' is a bud sport which originated at the Dominion Experiment Station, Morden, Manitoba, Canada. The restrained, three-foot plants are excellent subjects for the border as they flower nearly all summer long. Flowers are rose-pink. This cultivar is sterile (seeding can be a nuisance with some varieties), but clumps increase in size fairly rapidly. Other cultivars include: L. 'Morden Gleam' with deep carmine flowers; L. 'Morden Rose' with sparkling deep rosepink flowers; L. 'Robert' a very interesting two-foot dwarf with rose-red flowers which, unfortunately, is not as floriferous as the others; and L. 'Dropmore Purple' which has rather poor, muddy, dark pink flowers if planted in a hot place. The great value of this group is its hardiness and ability to survive without much attention for a long period of time. Although they are often used to advantage in moist areas, the plants will thrive in ordinary border conditions. They will also tolerate a considerable amount of shade. Macleaya - Plume-Poppy Macleaya cordata (listed in many catalogs as Bocconia cordata) cannot be considered for low maintenance plantings where the soil is rich and shady conditions prevail. Under these circumstances, Plume-Poppies spread at such a rate that much 132 time will be spent reducing the size of the clumps. Better results will be obtained in a sunny position where the soil is of average to slightly below average fertility. Even then, it must be remembered that this is a large plant which produces spikes fully six to eight feet tall and clumps three to five feet in diameter. Under these latter conditions, however, Plume-Poppies should develop into magnificent, long-lived specimens which should not have to be disturbed for many years. The most striking features of the Plume-Poppy are its large, bold, scalloped leaves which are almost tropical in their effect. Their appearance is further enhanced by being light green above and gray-white on the under surfaces, a pleasing combination when they are blown about by a light wind. Although a member of the Poppy family, the name may be confusing, as the flowers bear no resemblance to the true poppies. They are small, cream-pink to buff colored and appear on elongated panicles in July and August. In the border, they must be situated toward the rear where the leaves will not be as effective as when seen among shrubs or naturalized in a semi-wild area. _ ' Monarda - Tea the several leading cultivars of Monarda didyma Although are excellent subjects for herbaceous borders they have a shallow root system which spreads rapidly. Unless divided at fairly frequent intervals (at least every third year), plants will degenerate into rather unkempt clumps with decidedly tatty Beebalm, Bergamot, Oswego foliage. Monarda didyma 'Granite Pink' (a seedling of M. 'Croftway Pink') which was introduced by the University of New Hampin habit of growth and should not division. Also, the foliage at the end of frequent require the growing season was far superior to that of other cultivars of the same age grown at the Arboretum last year. Those who have given up Monarda may wish to try this relatively new cultivar which is now easily available. Monarda will tolerate considerable moisture during the growing season, but should be in a soil which drains freely during the winter. This is a member of the Mint family and both the leaves and the flowers are quite fragrant, the flowers on twoand-a-half- to three-foot spikes being especially useful in arrangements. Some of the cultivars available are: M. 'Cambridge Scarlet' - probably the most popular, with bright scarlet-red flower heads; M. 'Croftway Pink' - a clear rose-pink; M. 'Ma- shire, is much more compact such 133 hogany' - deep wine-red; pink. Oenothera - and M. 'Salmon Queen' - salmon- Evening-Primrose, Sundrop Annuals, biennials, and perennials can all be found in this large group. Some are rank weeds, others are variously used for naturalizing, in rock gardens, or in the perennial border. None of the perennial species are presentable in situations where they cannot be divided frequently and should not be included in a planting which is to receive limited attention. Paeonia Peony Peonies are perhaps the most fitting of all the plants discussed here for the low maintenance garden. The relative ease of culture combined with an exceedingly long life, great hardiness, and their popularity as cut flowers make them nearly indis- pensable. Plants which are to last a long time in one spot (thirty years and sometimes more) require a deep, rich, well-drained soil. Plenty of humus should be incorporated at planting time, but manure should never come in contact with the thick, fleshy root system. Divisions should contain at least three to five buds (\"eyes\") at the top of the roots, and these should be set about one inch below the soil line. Deeper planting frequently leads to poor flowering, or no flowers at all. Late August or early September is the preferred time for transplanting, and although a site in full sun is usual, the more delicately colored varieties can be placed in light shade to keep the flowers from fading; deep shade should be avoided. Soils of poor fertility which dry out excessively in the summer months are not suitable as they produce plants which grow weakly and flower sparsely. Even in better soils Peonies should be watered freely during periods of drought. Larger flowers can be produced if the lateral buds are removed early, but care must be taken not to injure the terminal bud. Peony flowers come in a number of types as well as colors. The Doubles last longest, the stamens and sometimes the carpels being petaloid so that a fully double flower results. The Singles (Chinese type) have one or several rows of petals which surround a center of numerous yellow stamens. This simpler type may be preferred by those who find the Doubles to be a bit flamboyant. The Japanese type and the Anemones are often lumped together in catalogs. The former has five or more quite large petals which surround a center of stamens which bear abortive 134 anthers devoid of pollen, while in the latter, the filaments of the stamens are transformed into narrow, incurved, petal-like structures. So many varieties are available from specialist nurserymen that only a few of the better ones can be included here. The Doubles include: P. 'Festiva Maxima' and P. 'Le Cygne' white; P. 'Karl Rosenfeld' and P. 'Lowell Thomas' - red; P. 'La France' and P. 'Albert Crousse' - pink; and P. 'Clair de Lune' yellow. The Singles include: P. 'Pico' and P. 'Cygnet' white; P. 'Champlain' - pink. The Japanese and Anemone types include: P. 'Nippon Brilliant' and P. 'Mikado'- red; P. `Fuji-no-mine' white ; and P. 'Ama-no-sode' and P. 'Alstead' - pink. New varieties are coming onto the market all the time, and people interested in this group would do well to join the Ameri- can Peony Society. Oriental Poppy Oriental Poppies can now be obtained in such a beautiful array of colors that it is unfortunate so many people still associate this group with the old orange-scarlet types. Cultivars with large flowers, six to twelve inches across, which range in color from white to pink, red, and near yellow deserve consideration today. Of these, the white varieties should probably be avoided as they tend to be rather short-lived, and the flowers often become grey from their own pollen. The so-called yellows are basically orange with only a faintly yellow tinge. The better varieties in shades of pink and red include: P. 'Bonfire' bright orange-red, the petals with a crinkled edge; P. 'Cavalier' an excellent deep red; P. 'Cheerio' coral-pink with red at the base of the petals; P. 'Crimson Pompon' - deep red, fully double; P. 'Doubloon' - orange, fully double; P. 'G. I. Joe' cerise overlaid with watermelon-red; P. 'Helen Elizabeth' probably the best of the pinks; P. 'Salome' rose; and P. 'Spotless' pastel pink without a black blotch at the base of the Papaver - - - - - - - - petals. are good subjects for low maintenance garbe left for five years and often much longer before division will be necessary. This should only be done for rejuvenation purposes if the clumps start to degenerate. The roots are fleshy, and well-drained soils are essential. Plants seem to succeed equally well in full sun or partial shade and Autumn (August and September) is the time when divisions should be made. The foliage of Oriental Poppies disappears during the summer leaving large gaps in the border. In the author's garden, Oriental as dening Poppies they can 135 clumps of poppies were planted among a ground cover of Vinca by previous occupants of the house, an interesting solution to the problem. Another solution would be to plant annuals which could take - over when the poppies die down. Phlox Phlox Phlox paniculata, the tall summer blooming species, should not be attempted in the low maintenance garden. Considerable effort is necessary to keep plants free of mildew, rust, or red spiders. Spraying every ten to fourteen days during the summer with a fungicide or miticide is almost a necessity and plants must be divided every third or possibly fourth year if the clumps are not to deteriorate. Modern cultivars are available in a range of very attractive colors, but the faded flower heads must be removed to ensure a succession of bloom, and if seeding occurs the resultant plants will have flowers of the common magenta color. Although numerous other species are in cultivation, many require frequent divisions. One of the best is P. stoloni f era. This can be a good ground cover in the shade, but only where it will have room to spread. Two cultivars are P. 'Blue Ridge' and P. 'Lavender Lady.' P. subulata, the Moss Pink, will form a good ground cover in a sunny position if the soil is well drained. It can also be used as edging on dry walls. Mr. J. Herbert Alexander of Middleboro, Mass., deserves great credit for introducing a number of cultivars which are hybrids between P. subulata and P. nivalis. Some of the better varieties available from nurseries include P. 'Alexander's Beauty,' P. 'Alexander's Surprise,' and P. 'Emerald Cushion' which are pink. P. 'Blue Hills' and P. 'Sky Blue' are violet, and P. 'Scarlet Flame' is red. False Dragonhead, Obedience Plant One could almost forgive this group for their invasive habits, were it not for the fact that they also require almost annual division to maintain any semblance of neatness. As they grow with relative indifference to wet or dry conditions and will tolerate sun or partial shade, they may be of value for naturalizing in a semi-wild area, but should only appear in herbaceous borders when time can be devoted to their upkeep. Physostegia virginiana has rosy lilac flowers, but there are several cultivars which are more attractive where color is concerned. Physostegia 'Vivid,' aptly named, is only eighteen to twenty-four inches high and has deep rosy-pink flowers. Unfortunately this beautiful low-growing variety is as invasive as - Physostegia 136 the rest. Physostegia 'Grandiflora' has bright pink flowers on five-foot stems. A hybrid between the two has been named P. 'Rosy Spire,' with rose-pink flowers in early September on three-and-a-half-foot spikes. The one cultivar with white flowers, P. 'Summer Snow,' blooms in August, somewhat earlier than the others. The common names for Physostegia are of some interest. False Dragonhead refers to the one-time confusion between this genus and Dracocephalum (Dragonhead). Obedience plant or Stay-in-Place, refers to the fact that individual flowers can be twisted on the stem and will remain at whatever angle they are placed, a characteristic which fascinates children. the only species, but there are a few varieties and several cultivars, all of which can be easily grown and last for many years in a single spot. P. grandiflorum grows to a height of nearly three feet and produces numerous two- to three-inch bell-shaped blue flowers from late June to early September. There are also pink-flowered and white-flowered forms. In low maintenance situations, P. grandiflorum var. mariesii which has blue or white flowers may be better. This does not exceed eighteen inches in height and never requires the staking which is often necessary for P. grandiflorum. P. 'Apo-yama' is a true dwarf with large, violet-blue flowers on very low six-inch stems. The roots of Balloon Flowers are thick and fleshy and cannot tolerate wet ground. A light, well-drained soil of moderate fertility suits them best, and although the pink varieties will fade unless planted in partial shade, full sun is perhaps best for the blue-flowered or white-flowered types. New plants are of rather slow growth, but well-established clumps may be expected to thrive for twenty years and longer if they are not disturbed. Sedum - Stonecrop Many of the species in this group are of interest to the low maintenance gardener, but only a few are subjects for the border, the majority being suited more for the rock garden or as ground covers in sandy, gravelly soil. One which should have a home in every herbaceous border, however, is the nearly indestructible S. spectabile, the Showy Stonecrop. This forms a neat, compact mound about eighteen inches high, and produces numerous flowers in large cymes three to four inches across from August until frost. Plants will grow in most ordinary soils Platycodon Balloon Flower Platycodon grandiflorum is - 137 is good, and although they will tolerate light sunny position is desirable. As with many other groups, the nurserymen have been busy making selections, and there are a number of desirable color forms to choose from: S. 'Brilliant' perhaps the leading variety, flowers are raspberry-carmine; S. 'Carmen'- carmine-rose to red; S. 'Indian Chief' - the pink flowers take on a copper tone during the cooler days of autumn; S. 'Meteor'- wine red; S. 'Star Dust' - ivory white flowers on blue-green foliage. provided drainage shade, a Thalictrum Meadow Rue The delicate compound foliage and lacy flowers of the Meadow Rues can be used to impart a light airy feeling in the border, and particularly to tone down the heavy effect of a shrubbery. The flowers, which have no petals, are comprised of petaloid, ,sepals and numerous colored stamens. This somewhat unusual situation seldom fails to attract attention. Most species are well adapted to tolerate shady conditions, but are often grown in full sun in the border if soil conditions are relatively moist. The taller growing species have sturdy so staking is seldom required. Established plants should stems, last in good condition for a number of years, and it is best to leave them alone until the clumps begin to deteriorate and need to be divided. T. aquilegifolium grows three feet tall and flowers profusely from late May through June. The flowers are lilac-purple, but there are also white and rose forms. T. dipterocarpum was discovered by E. H. Wilson in Yunnan Province, China, and until relatively recently was considered the finest of all Thalictrums. It grows up to five feet tall and the flowers appear in panicles with violet-tinted sepals, cream filaments, and yellow anthers in August. There is a white form, T. 'Album' and also a double one, T. 'Hewitt's Double.' T. rocheburnianum is decidedly the most outstanding of the whole group and probably one of the finest of all herbaceous perennials. It is now being offered by a few nurseries in the Boston area, and as it becomes better known it will undoubtedly become quite popular. This species is hardier than T. dipterocarpum and produces sturdy stems four to six feet tall with large masses of lavender-violet flowers with primose-yellow stamens. The plant is in blossom from mid-July until early September. - Thermopsis - False Lupine This is another plant which falls into the relatively small 138 group of perennials which have the ability to survive considerable neglect yet thrive for many years. They are extremely hardy, never invasive, have no insect or disease problems, and the compound leaves remain in good condition throughout the growing season. The one disadvantage of the most commonly grown species, T. caroliniana, is that there may be a tendency for the stems to droop, and where this happens, staking may be necessary. All False Lupines do best in full sun, but will tolerate some light shade. T. caroliniana is the tallest species. Stems-are up to 4 feet tall and are topped by twelve-inch spikes of yellow pea-like flowers in June and early July. Although native to portions of the southeast United States, it is hardy enough to endure the most rugged of New England winters. T. montana, a native of the western Rocky Mountains is a smaller plant, to two-and-a-half feet, and of value where space may be restricted. Tradescantia Spiderwort Our native Spiderwort, Tradescantia virginiana, has yielded a number of color forms which are well worth growing if neatness is not one of the prime considerations when selecting plants for the garden. In the more tidy formal borders, these plants must be divided regularly if they are not to become straggly. They seem to go best in gardens that have a semi-wild appearance and will also do well near the foundations of buildings, often a difficult place for plants to grow. If one has poor, unfertile soil conditions to deal with, T. virginiana and its various cultivated varieties might be considered. The following cultivars are a good indication of the range of colors obtainable in this group: T. 'Blue Stone' - deep blue; T. 'Iris Prichard' white with a flush of blue; T. 'J. C. Weguelin' pale blue; T. 'Purple Dome' - vivid rosy purple; T. 'Red Cloud' - rosy red; and T. 'Snowcap'- pure white. - - ROBERT S. HEBB Appendix I Perennials to Avoid in the Low Maintenance Garden Plants on this list require division every few years, those marked with an asterisk may require it annually under most conditions: Achillea ptarmica vars. (especially A. 'The Pearl') Arabis Helianthus Heuchera Lychnis 139 *Aster novae-angliae vars. *Aster novi-belgii vars. Astilbe Lysimachia (some spp. Monarda Phlox Campanula Cerastium Physostegia Polemonium Pulmonaria Chrysanthemum maximum *Chrysanthemum morifolium vars. Doronicum Solidago Stokesia Tradescantia Veronica Eupatorium coelestinum Gaillardia Helenium Plants on the following list will become invasive under most conditions and considerable time must be spent keeping them under control. Some of them have value as ground cover, but not in the low maintenance perennial border: Ajuga reptans vars. Cerastium tomentosum Coronella varia (Crown Helianthus spp. & vars. Vetch ) Lysimachia nummularia Macleaya cordata (under some conditions) Monarda didyma vars. Papaver orientale (some vars.) Physostegia virginiana ' Appendix II Perennials which do not require with an asterisk resent disturbance: Aconitum Amsonia Anemone Armeria frequent division, those marked Geranium (some spp.) *Gypsophila Hosta Kniphofia Liatris *Limonium . *Asclepias Baptisia Bergenia Caltha *Lupinus Lythrum *Mertensia *Paeonia Cimicifuga Clematis Convallaria Dicentra *Dictamnus * Papaver *Platycodon Sedum Thalictrum Echinops *Eryngium Euphorbia Thermopsis . Correction Through error the plant that was registered as Malus 'Prince Charming' was referred to as Malus 'Pink Charming' on page 258 of the November, 1970, Arnoldia. We take this opportunity of stating that the correct name is Malus 'Prince Charming.' "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":7,"start_page":140,"end_page":142,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24535","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270af6d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Early American Gardens \"For Meate Leighton or Medicine,\" by Ann Our knowledge of our Colonial heritage is curiously biased. We know much of politics and colonial dignitaries, of the movements of troops and of taxation, but singularly little of the way of life that our forebears endured. In particular, we are aware of few plants and crops raised by those who settled these shores. And yet, much is recorded. Part of the problem lies in the fact that the North American Colonies produced no indigenous books on agriculture before 1710 (The Husbandman's Guide, Boston: John Allen, for Eleazar Phillips) and the first writing on horticulture seems to be a 'Gardener's Kalender' in Tobler's Almanack for 1752, printed in South Carolina. The first separate work on Horticulture seems to be Robert Squibb's \"The Gardener's Kalender for South Carolina and North Carolina\" published in 1787 in Charleston. The historian has to rely upon letters, advertisements and reports, some now republished, but frequently found in collections of historical documents not easily discovered by the horticultural historian. Withal, much has been done. L. H. Bailey has provided extensive data in the Cyclopedia of American Horticulture. \"Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants\" edited by U. P. Hedrich and published by the New York Agricultural Experiment Station in 1919 is a mine of information and reference. Ann Leighton has attempted to give us an idea of what Colonial gardens were like, and what they had in them. Her book is full of curious information. A little more than half the book is taken with discussion of garden design, horticultural authorities, and early New England gardeners and their plants. The balance of the book is an alphabetical listing of the plants known to be grown in colonial gardens, accompanied by appropriate \"quotes\" from Gerard, Parkinson, and Culpepper. \"For Meate or Medicine\" is a masterful beginning. There is 140 141 much more plants Ann to to be learned, more sources to be explored, more be grown, and, no doubt, more books to be written. G. P. DEW. JR. Leighton, Early American Gardens \"For Meate or Med- icine,\" Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1970. 441 pages. $10.00. Gardens, Plants and Man, by Carleton B. Lees At first glance this appears to be another coffee-table book, a picture book to be examined once and laid aside. But after an introduction of delightful colored photographs of meadows and flower closeups, of tree bark and bare branches against the sky, one comes upon a series of chapters about the history of gardens. There is a brief description of gardens of the ancient world, Egyptian gardens, Roman gardens seen through the eyes of Pliny in the first hundred years of this millenium, Moorish gardens, and medieval gardens. There are photographs, and reproductions of drawings and plans from old books. The scene then turns to early Italian Rennaissance, with the gardens of Villa Farnese at Caprarola, the Villa Lante at Bagnaia, and the Villa d'Este, Tivoli. With original garden plans and his own photographs the author tells the story of these three gardens. The chapters which follow tell, in the same manner, the history of a few of the leading gardens of France and England: Vaux-le-Vicomte, Versailles, Hampton Court, Stowe, and others. The last of the series, on United States, deals primarily with modern gardens. It is an interesting account of the history of gardens, perhaps because it is a personal one. These are photographs taken by Carleton Lees, of gardens he knows. There follow more pages of pictures, some showing gardens just discussed, some featuring close-ups of flowers and leaves; and the reader then arrives at another series of chapters telling of the men who, since early times, have had an important role in the development of botany and gardens. The list, of course, is not complete. No two writers, having to choose from among many famous names, would agree upon the same ones. But Theophrastus is there, and Fuchs; Parkinson, Kaempfer, Linnaeus and John Bartram; Andre Le Notre, a landscape architect _ 142 of the 1600's is there, and Redoute, a botanical illustrator, and many more. Although the list is arbitrary it is an interesting one, and the author has something to say about each. Some might wish that this volume contained fewer irrelevant photographs, beautiful though they may be, and instead dealt with the subjects more completely, and it is unfortunate that no list of books for further reading is included. The old books listed in the text are not usually available in public libraries, and the sampling in this book surely will whet the appetite of many readers for more. But for the gardener who strives for beauty in his small backyard, for the armchair gardener, and for the would-be traveler this is a book which will surely open new worlds. H. R. G. Carlton B. Lees, Gardens Plants and Man, Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1970. 251 pages. $19.95. Right. Right. Paeonia suffruticosa. 'Paeonia Moutan Peony oT TTee Peony. The TTee or Tree Tree Peonies bloom in the Arboretum in late May. They have solitary, 12 single or double flowers of white, pink, red or purple from 6 to 12 inches in diameter borne on plants 4 to 5 ft. high. Cultivated for centuries in China and Japan they have only recently become popular in America. Photo: P. Bruns. Prunus subhirtella 'Pendula' in the Arnold Arboretum. P. Bruns. Page 144: Photo: Inside back cover: The 'Arnold Arboretum Lilac Collection in 1915. Photo: T. E. Marr. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23289","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d170896a.jpg","title":"1971-31-3","volume":31,"issue_number":3,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Story of Forsythia","article_sequence":1,"start_page":41,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24533","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270ab6f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":2,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.; Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"The Story of Forsythia It is difficult to imagine what the spring garden must have been like without the Forsythias, but it is of interest to note that no Forsythia species was common in cultivation until about 1850 and it was not until 1908 that the first really outstanding horticultural variety was imported into this country. Because of their ability to produce an abundant display of bright color so early in the season, few groups of shrubs have risen to favor as quickly as the Forsythias. The only other hardy early flowering shrubs that have yellow flowers are Cornus mas, the Cornelian Cherry; Lindera benzoin, Spice Bush; and Dirca palustris, Leatherwood. Delightful as each of these may be, none can match the bright display which most of the Forsythias produce. The following account is an attempt to describe the various species and cultivars of Forsythia which have played a role in the development of our current garden varieties, and also to describe a number of the best ones which are easily available on the market today. Some varieties, of interest only in bo- _ tanical collections, well as a have been omitted from this discussion as few cultivars currently available which will probably never become popular. Forsythia x intermedia and its cultivar 'Spectabilis' have played an important role in the development of many varieties. These are excellent garden plants, but it is felt by the authors that much more needs to be done. Larger, more attractive flowers should be developed; greater hardiness should be bred into future varieties probably using F. ovata; and forms with a more graceful habit of growth would be a welcome addition using a variety such as F. suspensa var. sieboldii as a starting point. Dwarf shrubs are in great demand today and in Forsythia we have only F. 'Arnold Dwarf,' a good ground cover but with washed out flower color and sparse bloom; F. viridissima 'Bronxensis,' which flowers well but is difficult to propagate and grow; and F. x. intermedia 'Nana,' another plant with poor, greenish-yellow flowers. Even though the story of our garden Forsythias is a long one, several more chapters are undoubtedly waiting to be written. , , , ~ 41 42 suspensa (Thunberg) Vahl, Enum. Pl. 1: 39. 1804. Between August 1775 and November 1776 Carl Pehr Thunberg, a pupil of Linnaeus, visited Japan as a member of the Dutch Embassy to the Imperial Court at Tokyo. Some years later, in 1784, he published a Flora Japonica which included about 1000 species which he had collected on his trip, including many cultivated plants. One plant in particular, and the one in which we are interested, he called Syringa suspensa. This was a deciduous shrub with slender weeping branches which produced quantities of yellow flowers in April, before the Forsythia leaves began to grow. According to P. J. van Melle, a catalog published in 1817, of a garden maintained by Christian August Breiter in Leipzig, lists the name Syringa suspensa. We suppose that this is the plant that Thunberg described, but how or when it got to Leipzig we have no idea. In 1804 Martin Vahl, Professor of Botany at Copenhagen, recognized that Thunberg's plant was not a lilac and established the genus Forsythia for the plant. The genus commemorates William Forsyth, who was at that time Director of the Royal Garden at Kensington. From 1825 to 1830 Philipp Franz von Siebold was living in Japan as an employee of the Dutch government. He too studied many Japanese plants, native and cultivated, and on his return to Holland he (with Joseph Gerhard Zuccarini) prepared a Flora Japonica. In this work he published a colored illustration of Forsythia suspensa, indicating that it was known only in cultivation, and noted that there were two forms, one with slender, weeping stems and the other with stouter, more erect and spreading stems. In 1833 Verkerk Pistorius is said to have imported living plants to Holland where they were apparently cultivated for the next twenty years. In 1857 Forsythia suspensa var. sieboldii was flowered in England at the Veitch Nurseries. This is the form of the species with long, slender, pendant branches which is effective when planted in such a way that it may trail over walls. The shrub grows to 6 feet tall, the stems are arching and become 10-12 feet long. The flowers are slightly larger than F. viridissima, being about an inch long (2.5 cm.), clear yellow without a tinge of green, and borne singly. In 1864 the erect form of the species, Forsythia suspensa var. fortunei, was introduced, with spreading (not weeping) branches. The flowers are either solitary or as many as 6 together. The leaves are frequently 3-lobed or 3-parted, and the corolla lobes are narrow Fig. 1: Forsythia suspensa from Flora Japonica by Siebold and Zuccarini, 1835. 43 rcnt~~ n u ~.~ ~~\"p I , p I ,._, 44I and generally twisted. The Arnold Arboretum received cuttings of Forsythia suspensa from Francis Parkman, the historian, in 1876. Hort. Soc. 1: 226. 1846. 1845 Robert Fortune, on his first trip to China sponsored by the Horticultural Society of London, found a Forsythia cultivated in a Chinese garden. He sent material to London and John Lindley, the Assistant Secretary of the Horticultural Society, described it in the first volume of the Journal of the Horticultural Society as Forsythia viridissima. At this time he quoted Fortune's notes as follows: Forsythia viridissima Lindl., Jour. In 1844 or This is a deciduous shrub with very dark green leaves, which are prettily serrated at the margin. It grows about 8 or 10 feet high in the north of China, and sheds its leaves in autumn. It then remains dormant like any of the deciduous shrubs of Europe, but is remarkable for the number of large prominent buds which are scattered along the young stems produced the summer before. Early in spring these buds, which are flower-buds, gradually unfold themselves, and present a profusion of bright yellow blossoms all over the shrub, which is highly ornamental. I first discovered it growing in the same garden with Weigela rosea, which, I have said in another place, belonged to a Chinese Mandarin, on the island of Chusan, and was generally called the Grotto Garden by the English. Like the Weigela it is a great favourite with the Chinese, and is generally grown in all the gardens of the rich in the north of China. I afterwards found it wild amongst the mountains of the interior in the province of Chekiang, where I thought it even more ornamental in its natural state amongst the hedges than when cultivated in the fairy gardens of the Mandarins. _ For twenty years or more Forsythia viridissima was the only Forsythia in cultivation in Britain and in the United States. Today it is rarely seen. It forms an erect branching shrub four to nine feet tall; the flowers are a little less than an inch long (2-2.5 cm.), yellow tinged with green, and borne singly or two together. It is hardy to Zone V (Massachusetts and southern New York State as far north as Albany). The Arboretum obtained seed of Forsythia viridissima from the garden of Charles Sprague Sargent in 1874. 45 51: 296. 1947. F. viridissima 'Bronxensis' is difficult to propagate and for that reason not many nurserymen offer it. At the time the plant was first described, it was growing at the New York Botanical Garden where no record of its origin had been kept. It was later found that the Botanical Garden had received its plant from the Boyce Thompson Arboretum, Yonkers, N.Y., where it was grown from seed received from the Imperial University Botanic Garden of Tokyo, Japan, in 1928 as F. koreana. Three plants developed from these seeds, two of which were F. viridissima var. koreana and the third a dwarf seedling. F. viridissima 'Bronxensis' is a true dwarf, ten-year-old plants being little more than a foot high and two feet in diameter. It blossoms freely, unlike F. 'Arnold Dwarf,' but although the outer branches are somewhat spreading, they do not root into the ground at their tips as F. 'Arnold Dwarf' does, and it cannot be used as a ground cover. It is, however, a very fitting subject for the rock garden. Forsythia viridissima 'Bronxensis' Everett Gard. Chron. Am. ' - intermedia Zabel, in Gartenflora 34: 35. 1885. In the summer of 1878 Hermann Zabel, Director of the Municipal Garden in Munden, found seedling Forsythias in the Botanic Garden of Gottingen which were apparently the result of a cross between F. viridissima and F. suspensa var. fortunei. He described this, in 1885, as Forsythia x intermedia. This hybrid has been the source of many garden forms. Its value lies in its being somewhat hardier than either parent, being hardy through much of New Hampshire, Vermont and up-state New York. In habit it is similar to Forsythia suspensa var. fortunei. The Arboretum received its first plant of this hybrid in 1889. Forsythia x intermedia is of importance today because it has yielded a series of selections, and hybrids between those selections which are among the most useful of Forsythia x __~ contemporary Forsythias. Forsythia x intermedia 'Vitellina' Koehne, Berlin, Germany. 1899. in Spath Nurs. Cat., Beginning in 1899 a number of selections were made at the Spath Nurseries, Berlin, Germany, from seedlings of F. x intermedia. Forsythia x intermedia 'Vitellina' was offered for sale in the same year, thus starting the parade of new cultivars which are characterized as having more upright and vigorous 46 growth than their \"ancestor,\" F. suspensa var. fortunei, and larger and more profuse flowers than either F. suspensa or F. viridissima. Forsythia 'Vitellina' is noted for having the smallest flowers (3.6 cm. diameter) in this general group of hybrids and although these are deep yellow, the cultivar is not in general cultivation today. Forsythia ner, et x intermedia 'Densiflora' (Koehne) Schelle, in Beissal., Handb. Laub.-Ben 413. 1903. Forsythia x intermedia 'Densiflora' was introduced in the same year as F. 'Vitellina' by Spath and proved popular for a number of years because of its profuse flowers. It has spreading and pendulous branches, like F. suspensa, and crowded, pale yellow, rather flat flowers with slightly recurved corolla lobes. Its parentage is the same as 'Vitellina.' x intermedia 'Spectabilis' Koehne in Gartenflora 55: 227. 1906. The next introduction from Spath in 1906 was F. 'Spectabilis' and it is the one cultivar in the series from that nursery which has remained extremely popular to the present day. Combining the stiffer habit of F. viridissima, with the more profuse flowering of F. suspensa var. sieboldii, it is especially noted for its display of large vivid yellow flowers which are one-and-ahalf inches across, and are produced in clusters. Never before had any Forsythia produced as many or such deeply colored flowers as this new hybrid selection. After sixtyfive years, during which many other varieties have come on to the market, Forsythia x intermedia 'Spectabilis' remains the standard for any new cultivar to better when it comes to critical comparisons. Forsythia x intermedia 'Primulina' Rehder, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 1912 (21): 193. 1913. The story of the Forsythias switched next to the other side of the Atlantic, to the Arnold Arboretum, where in 1912 Alfred Rehder observed a chance seedling growing in a mass planting of Forsythias on Bussey Hill. It was propagated and named F. 'Primulina.' Of much the same habit as F. 'Spectabilis,' it xs a selection from F. x intermedia but in. this case the flow..rs are pale-yellow. It was much admired by those who objected to the \"brassy\" tones of F. 'Spectabilis,' but is seldom grown outside of botanical collections now that the following cultivar is easily available. Forsythia ~ - -- -- 47 Forsythia x intermedia 'Spring Glory' Wayside Gardens Cat., Mentor, Ohio. 1942. Mr. M. H. Hovarth of Mentor, Ohio, discovered 'Spring in 1930 as a branch sport on a plant of F. x intermedia 'Primulina' which grew in his garden. He noted one branch consistently produced larger and more densely arranged flowers than the others on the bush. Cuttings taken from this branch produced plants which were far superior to F. 'Primulina,' and about 1942 it was introduced into the trade by Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio, as F. x intermedia 'Spring Glory.' It is still one of the leading varieties on the market today, and well worth growing by those who object to the color of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' Glory' E. Peterson, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 82: 127. 1957. The next sport to be found on a plant of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis' occurred in a garden in Northern Ireland called Lynwood. The owner, Miss Adair, noticed a branch on her plant that had flowers which were more open and better distributed along the stem than those on the rest of the plant. The Slieve Donard Nursery of Newcastle, Northern Ireland, took cuttings from the branch and introduced it about 1935. It is called F. 'Lynwood' in honor of the garden where it originated. The flowers are brilliant yellow and slightly lighter than F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' Although the plant is possibly a bit stiff in habit of growth, in flower it is without doubt one of the best. By 1949 the cultivar had reached America where nurserymen called it 'Lynwood Gold,' a name thought to have greater appeal. Unfortunately, it still appears in catalogs under this incorrect name. Forsythia x intermedia 'Lynwood' G. x intermedia 'Arnold Giant' Sax, Arnoldia 7: 10. 1947. Until the 1940's the main role played by the Arnold Arboretum in the story of the Forsythias was that of the original importer of some species and cultivars into the United States. About this time Dr. Karl Sax, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, and certain of his students became interested in the breeding of Forsythias, and particularly in the treatment of seedlings with a colchicine emulsion in an attempt to produce tetraploid plants. By producing tetraploid cells (which contain double the ordinary number of chromosomes) in the growing point of a young plant, entire plants can be developed which have two Forsythia Figs. 2 and 3: Typical habitat for Forsythia, Kongo-san, Korea. Photos: E. H. Wilson, 1918. 50 I times the normal chromosome number. In many instances such have more vigor and larger flowers. Forsythia 'Arnold Giant' was developed in this manner from a seedling of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' It has thicker leaves, larger and darker flowers, and is more erect in habit of growth than F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' Although offered by some nurserymen, it has never proved popular in this country as it is too rigidly upright and difficult to place correctly in the garden. It is also difficult to root from cuttings, an objectionable characteristic plants for a Forsythia. x intermedia 'Tremonia' In 1966 the Arnold Arboretum obtained a new cultivar of Forsythia x intermedia called 'Tremonia' from Mr. Gerd Krussman of the Dortmund Botanic Garden, Dortmund, West Germany. Although it is too early to predict the habit of growth or flower production of our specimens, young plants in the nurseries produced flower buds for the first time last fall. The plants are of immediate interest, moreover, because of the deeply cut leaves, giving it the most interesting foliage of all the Forsythias. Young plants and hardwood cuttings were released by the Arnold Arboretum to the nursery trade in 1969 and it is hoped that within a few years Forsythia x intermedia 'Tremonia will be available commercially. Forsythia Forsythia europaea Degen and Baldacci, in Oestr. Bot. Zeitschr. (1897): 406. In 1897 a new species of Forsythia was discovered in Albania. Seed was immediately distributed and by 1904 seedlings were flowering in various public and private gardens. The story was set out by Otto Froebel, a nurseryman of Zurich: It may be regarded as a most interesting phenomenon that in our days an entirely new shrub should have been found in Europe, the existence of which no one had any idea of and the family of which had hitherto only been known in Japan and China. This was only rendered possible through this European species having its home in a part of the Balkan Peninsula in Albania, which has hitherto been comparatively unexplored on account of the danger and difficulty of the journey and the absence of any accommodation. I was indebted to the kindness of Dr. A. von Degen in Budapest for a small packet of the seed collected by him in October 51 1899, from which I was able to raise a few plants. Thanks to careful attention the seedlings throve well, and by the autumn of 1902 they had grown to be fine, strong bushes 8 feet and more high; and to my surprise, and contrary to all expectation, one single plant, in 1904, produced a small number of blooms scattered over two year old wood, but unfortunately it was not observed until too late. I sent the already half-bloomed spray to Herr Beissner in Bonn, but he could not use the material for further investigation. Forsythia europaea is a stiff upright shrub 6 feet or more tall. The flowers are generally solitary, or two or three together, a little less than one inch long (2 cm. ) and pale yellow in color. Although it is about as hardy as F. suspensa it is not a particularly ornamental species, and is seldom found outside of botanical collections. The Arnold Arboretum received seed of this new species from A. K. Bulley in 1900. in Jahresb. Schles. Ges. 1908, lxxxvi. 1 (1909). In 1897 G. Giraldi collected a Forsythia in North Shensi, China. The material was not in flower, but fruits were present. The dried specimens were studied by Alexander Lingelsheim who determined that the plant was related to, but differnt from, F. viridissima. He published a description based on the dried specimens and the collector's notes and called the plant Forsythia giraldiana. In 1914 Reginald Farrer collected seeds of the same species in Kansu, China. Forsythia giraldiana is an upright shrub up to twelve feet tall. The flowers are yellow, borne singly, a little less than an inch long (1.6-2.1 cm.) and it is one of the earliest of Forsythias to flower. It is as hardy as F. suspensa but not so ornamental. The Arboretum obtained material of this species in 1938. Forsythia giraldiana Lingelsh., in Bot. Mag. Tokyo xxviii: 105, Fig. IV. 1914. In the first part of the twentieth century plant exploration in eastern Asia produced quantities of interesting plants. In 1914 Tomitaro Makino, Lecturer in Botany in the Imperial University, Tokyo, described a Forsythia collected in the mountains in the Province of 'Bitchu' which is in southwest Honshu, between Hiroshima and Kyoto (it is now the Chugoka District). This is a relatively small-flowered species, the flowers only a little more Forsythia japonica Makino, 52 I than one-half an inch long, (1.5 cm.). He called it Forsythia japonica, and it is the only species of the genus native in Japan. ovata Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo xxxi: 104. 1917. In 1917 Takenoshi Nakai collected fruiting material of a Forsythia in the Diamond Mountains of Central Korea (just inland from the eastern coast and bisected now by the boundary between North and South Korea) and published a description of Forsythia ovata in 1917. In that same year E. H. Wilson collected seeds of the species in the same location and in 1923 Alfred Rehder published a description of the flowers based on plants raised in the Arnold Arboretum. Forsythia ovata makes a stiff spreading shrub 4 to 6 feet tall. The flowers are small, less than 1 inch long ( 1-1.5 cm.) and \"butter yellow.\" Its great virtue is its hardiness (to Zone IV) and the fact that it is the earliest Forsythia to come into bloom. Forsythia Forsythia japonica Makino Tokyo xxxiii: 10. 1919. var. saxatilis Nakai, in Bot. Mag. In 1919 Nakai described another Forsythia from specimens collected near Seoul, Korea, a small shrub 3 feet tall, with small flowers. Its only claim to fame is that it is one parent of Forsythia 'Arnold Dwarf.' Nakai originally considered this to be only a variety of Forsythia japonica; however in 1921 he decided that it was sufficiently different from that species to be considered a species in its own right. Further study by Rehder suggests that Nakai's original disposition was the correct one, and it is now generally referred to as Forsythia japonica var. saxatilis. - var. koreana Rehder, in Jour. Arn. Arb. 5: 134. 1924. Exploration in Korea continued and in 1924 Rehder described another of Wilson's introductions as Forsythia viridissima var. koreana. In 1923, Nakai, in the course of a study trip to the United States, visited the Arnold Arboretum and discussed this plant among others with Rehder and Wilson. In 1926 he published a description of it and raised it to specific rank saying: \"This Korean species is one of the most decorative among the Forsythias.\" It is a large shrub, up to 12 feet high, with flowers about the size of F. ovata. Forsythia viridissima Lindley Fig. 4: Forsythia x intermedia 'Arnold Giant.' 54 Forsythia mandschurica Uyeki 9: 21. 1929. in Jour. Chosen Nat. Hist. Soc. Mt. ria, Keikwan, ManchuThis is said to be similar to F. japonica and F. saxatilis but little more is known of it. So far as we know it is not in cultivation. Homika as Uyeki described a plant from Forsythia mandschurica in 1929. T. B. Lee, Ill. Woody Pl. Korea: 330. 1966. year, 1930, Nakai described a plant which he Forsythia densiflora based on specimens collected growing on calcareous rocks on Mt. Chojusan in the Province of Kokai in Korea. Nakai thought it would be a good garden plant, but it apparently has not been used in cultivation. It should be noted that the name Forsythia densiflora had already been used for an entirely different plant, so that Nakai's name cannot stand. In 1966 T. B. Lee, of the Forest Experimental Station at Seoul, Korea, published the new name Forsythia nakai for this plant, and this is the name that must be used henceforth. Forsythia nakai next The called Hybrids Because of the value of Forsythias as garden plants, a number of hybrids have been made, although relatively few aside from Forsythia x intermedia have proved superior to selections from the species. Forsythia x intermedia has already been mentioned. In 1935 a cross between Forsythia europaea and F. ovata was raised in the Arnold Arboretum. We still have a plant of this cross, but it is not particularly ornamental. In 1965 Z. Katedry Roslin Ozdobuych described two hybrids raised in Poland Forsythia x kobendzae (F. europaea x F. suspensa) and F. x variabilis (F. ovata x F. suspensa). Unfortunately we do not have specimens and so are in no position to evaluate these plants. The best known hybrids are those which were produced by Professor Karl Sax at the Arnold Arboretum. Forsythia 'Arnold Giant' is a seedling of F. x intermedia whose chromosomes were doubled by treatment with colchicine in 1939. This has stiff erect stems, with thick, large leaves and flowers one inch long, but is difficult to propagate. It was crossed back to F. intermedia spectabilis and in 1944 a large population of seedlings was produced. One of these (which is no longer in cultivation) was a triploid and was named F. 'Beatrix Farrand.' Another clone, a tetraploid, was named F. 'Karl Sax' by Joab L. Thomas - 55 in 1960. There are still a number of these seedlings growing in the Arnold Arboretum. They have become large, massive plants, six to eight feet tall with relatively large flowers. A number of clones from this cross were distributed, and since there has arisen a confusion over the name 'Beatrix Farrand,' propose the following: The progeny of the cross Forsythia 'Arnold Giant' x Forsythia intermedia 'Spectabilis' shall receive the group name (Farrand Hybrids). Within the group two cultivars (clones) have so far been named: we 1.) Forsythia (Farrand Hybrids) 'Beatrix Farrand,' Wyman, Arnoldia 19: 12. 1959. This triploid cultivar was the result of a cross made by Dr. Sax and his students between F. 'Arnold Giant' and F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' It is described as being upright and dense in habit, producing dense clusters of flowers which are slightly darker than those of F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' Its name honors Mrs. Beatrix Farrand, a well-known landscape architect who served as landscape consultant to the Arnold Arboretum for several years. This clone apparently is not in the trade. All of the plants with this name that have been examined cytologically have proved to be tetraploids. Sax' J. L. Thomas, Arnoldia 20: 49. 1960. This clone was later selected and named F. 'Karl Sax' in recognition of Dr. Sax's work with the group. It is a moderately compact shrub, the branches not being as rigidly erect as those of F. 'Arnold Giant.' The deep yellow flowers are profuse and large, up to 4.5 cm. across. It is easier to root from cuttings than F. 'Arnold Giant' and is hardier than many other cultivars. We recommend that all Forsythias in the trade now called 'Beatrix Farrand' be designated F. (Farrand Hybrids) and that each grower, if he feels his clones warrant it, register a new cultivar name. Another of Dr. Sax's hybrids is Forsythia 'Arnold Dwarf' Sax, Arnoldia 7: 10. 1947. This Forsythia is grown not for its flowers, but because of its value as a ground cover. It originated at the Arnold Arboretum in 1941 as the result of a cross which Dr. Sax made between F. x intermedia and F. japonica var. saxatilis. It is a low-growing shrub, old specimens seldom reaching over three feet in height. Young branches root readily when 2.) Forsythia (Farrand Hybrids) 'Karl 56I they come in contact with moist soil, and in the process they droop to form a dense mat of foliage. The flowers are very sparingly produced, and when observed are pale greenish-yellow and of no value from an ornamental standpoint. The great versatility of Forsythia 'Arnold Dwarf' as an unusual ground cover, even under somewhat difficult conditions, more than makes up for this latter defect. Floral Dimorphism Forsythias exhibit an interesting form of floral dimorphism. Some plants have styles as long as, or longer than, the tube of the corolla, and others have the style only as long as the calyx, or shorter. This is a structural adaptation to prevent or reduce self-pollination. The phenomenon has been studied in Primula where it has been determined that pollination of long- and short-styled flowers gives significantly better seed production than self-pollination. Culture the easiest of all our hardy shrubs to Forsythias among grow. Mass plantings in the Arnold Arboretum have been placed on steep hillsides where the soil is poor and very dry in the summer. Despite this, our plants have flourished for a number of years and blossom well, except when an unusually severe winter destroys the flower buds. Forsythias have been reported to tolerate both acid and alkaline soil conditions, and do especially well when given an annual application of a 5-10-10 fertilizer. They will also flower when planted in slightly shady conditions, but a sunny position will insure better ripening of the wood in late summer, a condition which relates directly to the ability of plants to withstand periods of severe cold in the winter. One of the few soil conditions which Forsythias will not tolerate is one in which excessive moisture surrounds the roots for any period of time. With the one exception of F. viridissima, which is the least hardy of the common forms, all Forsythias in cultivation are reliably hardy in the Boston area, but not much further north except along the sea coast of New Hampshire and southern Maine. A few species and cultivars, namely F. ovata, F. ovata 'Robusta,' F. 'Arnold Giant,' and F. 'Karl Sax,' are reported as being able to withstand colder conditions which roughly approximate to Zone 4 of the Arnold Arboretum Plant Hardiness Zone Map; that is, southern Maine, southern New Hampshire, southern Vermont, and most of New York State. Probably the hardiare Fig 5: Top: left: F. japonica var. saxatilis right: F. suspensa var. fortunii Center: left: F. ovata right: F. suspensa var. sieboldii Bottom: left: F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis' right: F. europaea 59 est of all is F. ovata and its cultivar F. ovata 'Robusta.' This latter plant flowers much more freely than the type and should be tried in areas where other varieties have not been successful or where F. ovata has been disappointing due to its rather shy flowering habits. F. europaea, the species from Albania, is extremely hardy, too, but because of its ungainly upright habit of growth it is not popular. F. 'Karl Sax' has not been in cultivation long enough for us to make a proper assessment of its hardiness, but it has been reported as being nearly as hardy as F. ovata. The above discussion has been concerned with the ability of certain species or varieties to survive more extreme cold than others, but unfortunately still another factor enters the picture with Forsythia namely bud hardiness. During some winters temperatures are experienced which, although not cold enough to kill the plants, will injure flower buds to such an extent that blossoming may be either reduced somewhat or almost entirely eliminated the following spring. These conditions can occur when temperatures drop below -15 F as determined by Robert Mower and his students at Cornell. Flower buds of the hardier varieties listed above are generally less affected, and it is of interest to note that F. ovata and F. ovata 'Robusta' flower well at the Arnold Arboretum when exceedingly harsh winters have killed the flower buds of other Forsythias. When planting Forsythia it must be remembered that they will form specimens six feet tall and eight feet wide, and too often we see them severely cut back or sheared into nearly topiary form in an attempt to confine them into a small space. However, they will grow vigorously and flower even under this treatment. Ernest H. Wilson once wrote (Am. Arb. Bull. Pop. Inf. Ser. 3, Vol. 11. 1928 ) : - - - one of the tragedies of spring is the brutal way in which these good-natured shrubs are clipped and sheared at the annual tidying up of the garden. As one travels through the suburbs and countryside decapitated bushes ... Fig. 6: Top: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. F. ovata F. europaea F. x intermedia `Nana' F. suspensa var. sieboldii F. intermedia 'Spectabilis' x F. x Bottom Bottom left: right: F. intermedia 'Spectabilis' x intermedia 'Arnold Giant' right: F. 'Karl Sax' 60 despite the obearly April means a loss of flowers. If people would only wait and enjoy the crop of blossoms and then cut the Forsythia bushes back as severely as circumstances or fancy dictates, no harm would be done. Like other spring flowering shrubs and trees Forsythias produce their blossoms on the past season's growth and the pruning of all these plants should be done immediately after the blossoms have fallen. It is surprisingly difficult to get people to appreciate or at least to practice this simple fact. of Forsythias are to be seen on either hand vious fact that every branch cut from them in On this Bull. same theme, Donald Wyman once wrote: (Arn. Arb. Pop. Inf. Ser. 4, Vol. 5. 1937): Unfortunately many public plantings of Forsythias are sadly mutilated because of lack of intelligent care in pruning. Forsythias should be given plenty of room in which to grow and expand. They should not be crowded closely together for any reason except to make a good, dense bank planting where the whole object is to cover the ground. Many times when a single bush is used, it will be placed only two or three feet from a walk when actually it should be placed 8 to 10 feet from the walk, in order to give the plant plenty of room to expand fully at maturity. If the plants are pruned from the side, this necessarily cuts off the lovely drooping branches and spoils the entire effect, leaving only the unsightly base and a few branches ending prematurely in mid-air when they should be allowed to arch gracefully to the ground. In fact, it is best to prune Forsythias as little as possible. Varieties of F. x intermedia seem to flower best on growth of two to three years, and when pruning must be done, only the older branches and dead wood should be removed to ground level. One should not leave stubs nor cut branches half-way back. In a very old planting where much dead wood occurs and drastic measures must be resorted to, entire plants can be cut back to the ground. The vigorous young shoots which result will be flowering well in a few years. Forsythias can be used against walls and fences, as espaliers, or as informal hedges. The graceful F, suspensa var. sieboldii, with its long trailing stems has been used as an espalier or trained up over pergolas. A few striking examples can be seen in the Boston area where plants of this species have been 61 a way that their branches hang down and walls along roadsides. One such example can be seen the Arborway close to the Forest Hills gate of the Arnold Arboretum. Few problems are encountered with insects or diseases on Forsythias. The only insect known to cause problems is the four-lined plant bug, Poecilocapsus lineatus, which makes characteristic tan circles in the leaves. When the insects begin to feed plants should be sprayed with Malathion. Leaf-spots occasionally occur due to the presence of one or several fungi (Alternaria sp., Phyllosticta discincola, P. forsythiae, and P. terminalis). Infected leaves can be picked off and burned or a copper spray can be used. Stem-Gall is another fungus disease (Phomopsis sp.) which causes abnormal nodular growths similar in appearance to the bacterial crown-gall disease or galls caused by insects. When severely attacked, whole branches die back and the bushes can look unsightly after the leaves have fallen. The best control is to cut off and burn all branches that bear the galls. Die-back is caused by a fungus (Sclerotinia sclerotiorum) which enters the plant via the flowers and flower stalks, and then grows into the twigs and kills them for some distance. The best control is to remove and burn all dead twigs and stems. Buds on the Forsythias are fully formed by autumn. Every few years when we experience an unusually mild spell towards the end of autumn such weather induces some to break their dormancy and open. This is a normal occurrence (it also happens with such groups as Chaenomeles, Lonicera, and even with a few varieties of Syringa), but at such times we can expect to receive at the Arboretum telephone calls from a number of people who wish to report this \"strange phenomenon.\" placed cover in such high along - GORDON P. DEWOLF ROBERT S. HEBB Appendix 1. Forcing Cut Branches preparation for a flower show in 1955, Mr. Roger Coggeshall, Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, kept a record of the length of time it took to force branches of certain shrubs which were collected at various dates (see Amoldia 15: 2. 1955.) These were forced in a greenhouse where night temperatures were maintaind at 55-60F. The figures he kept for two species of Forsythia give an indication of the number of days it should take for those In then who may wish to force cut branches in the home. 62 No. of cut days to bloom: cut Jan. 28 Mar. 18 8 6 Date of normal bloom out-of-doors Forsythia Forsythia 2. ovata suspensa 18 20 April April 5 15 Bibliographic list of varieties which have never been popular, illegitimate names, and synonyms (see Wyman, Arnoldia 21 : 6. 39-42. 1961). Forsythia x intermedia (suspensa var. sieboldii x viridissima) (Zabel in Gartenflora 34: 35. 1885). 'Arnold Brilliant' (Tingle Nurs. Cat., Pittsville, Md. 1959). Illegit. nomen nudum. 'Aurea' (Beardslee Nurs. Cat., Perry, Ohio. 1958). \"Golden leaved Forsythia with pale yellow flowers, found by us in a flowering shrub border.\" 'Compacta Nana' (Anonymous, Plant Buyer's Guide, Oak Park Nurseries, Inc., East Patchogue, L.I., N.Y. 1958). x intermedia 'Nana.' Illegit. nomen nudum 'Dwarf' (Siebenthaler Nurs. Cat., Dayton, Ohio. 1951). Illegit. as a nomen nudum x intermedia 'Nana.' 'Farrand' (Sax, Arnoldia 15: 10. 1955, Sax ex Wyman, Arnoldia 16: 14. 1956). Changed at the request of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand to 'Beatrix Farrand' in 1959; = 'Beatrix Farrand.' 'Lynwood Gold' (Wayside Garden Cat., Mentor, Ohio. 1949). A commercial synonym 'Lynwood.' 'Mertensiana' (Mertens & Nussbaumer ex Krussm. in Deutsche Baumschule 2: 298. 1950). Originated in nursery of Mertens and Nussbaumer, Zurich, Switzerland, in 1949. \"Low, compact, leaves monstrous, variable. Distinguished by deformed leaves and crowded flowers.\" 'Nana' (Wyman, Nat. Hort. Mag. 40: 194. 1961). Low dwarf, with simple, lobed and sometimes compound leaves; lamellate pith between the nodes, solid pith at the nodes; slow to bloom; poor, greenish-yellow flowers. A twenty-year-old plant was only 5' tall and 8' wide. Originated in midwestern United States. = = = Forsythia suspensa men (Thun. Vahl, Enum. Pl. = 'Aurea' (Anonymous, nudum Buyer's 'Variegata.' Pl. 1: 39. 1804). Guide. 1958). Illegit. no- 'Aureo-variegata' (Koehne in Gartenflora 55. 206. 1906) = 'Variegata.' 'Decipiens' (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). Originated in Spath Nurseries, Germany, 1905; flowers single, not nearly as conspicuous as those of other cultivars of this species. 'Fortunei Nana' (Siebenthaler Nurs., Dayton, Ohio, Cat. F. intermedia 'Nana.' 1938). Illegit. nomen nudum 'Nyman's Variety' (Krussman, Die Laubgeholze 155. 1951). Branches bronze-colored, closely resembles F. suspen= I 63 sa atrocaulis, bush erect, profuse flowers of ivory yellow. 'Pallida' (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). Flowers a very pale, washed-out yellow. 'Variegata' (Butz; Penn. State Agr. Coll. Rep. 1899-1900: 376. 1901). \"With yellow variegated leaves.\" Forsythia viridissima (Lindl., Jour. Hort. Soc., London 1: 226. 1846). 'Variegata' (Dict. of Gard.; Roy. Hort. Soc. 2: 830. 1951). A \"golden variegated form.\" Other hybrids (?) 'Golden Queen' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's Guide, 1958). Illegit. nomen nudum. 'Gloriosa' (Brimfield Gardens Nurs. Cat., Wethersfield, Conn. 1956). Listed as \"pale yellow flowers.\" Illegit. nomen nudum. 'Golden Bell' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's Guide. 1958). Illegit. nomen nudum. Undoubtedly confused with the sometimes used general common name of Forsythia. 'Golden Sun' (L. Kammerer, Morton Arb., Bull. Pop. Inf. 34: 25. 1959). Illegit. nomen nudum. 3. Forsythias introduced by the Arnold Arboretum The Arnold Arboretum has played a long and continuous role in the story of the cultivated Forsythias, perhaps more than any other institution. This role has included the discovery and introduction into cultivation of new species from the wild, the introduction of cultivars developed abroad, and the breeding and introduction of improved new forms. Species or varieties discovered and introduced by the Arnold Arbo- retum F. ovata, introduced by E. H. Wilson. Collected in Diamond Mountains, Korea, 1917. F. suspensa var. atrocaulis, discovered by E. H. Wilson. Collected in Hsing-shang, Hsien, W. Hupeh, China, January 13, 1908. F. viridissima var. koreana. Seeds sent by the Korean Department of Forestry, 1919. F. x intermedia 'Spectabilis.' Plants received from Spath Nurseries, Berlin, Germany, 1906. F. x intermedia 'Tremonia.' Cuttings received from Dortmund Botanical Garden, Dortmund, Germany, 1966. Hybrids produced at the Arnold Arboretum 'Arnold Dwarf' (x intermedia x japonica var. saxatilis) 1941. 'Arnold Giant' (x intermedia 'Spectabilis') 1947. 'Beatrix Farrand' (x intermedia 'Arnold Giant' x intermedia 1959. 'Spectabilis') 'Karl Sax' (x intermedia 'Arnold Giant' x intermedia 'Specta1960. bilis') 1912. 'Primulina' (x intermedia 'Spectabilis') - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds","article_sequence":2,"start_page":64,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24531","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270a726.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":2,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Cold Damage to Forsythia Flower Buds At the Arnold Arboretum in spring of 1967 the Forsythia near the summit of Bussey Hill flowered well while most of those in the main group opposite the shrub collection were ringed with blossoms only on their lower portions. Why the Forsythias behaved differently in the two locations may be readily explained by figures contained in temperature records kept at the Dana Greenhouses. Since August 15, 1962, the Arnold Arboretum has operated a simple weather station in collaboration with the U.S. Weather Bureau. (See Arnoldia 30(5): 186-193, Sept. 1970). The equipment consists of a maximum and minimum thermometer and a non-recording precipitation gauge. Daily at 8 A.M. observations of temperature and precipitation are recorded and some interesting data have been accumulated. Those familiar with the Arnold Arboretum are aware of the wide variety of topographical characteristics that are present within the bounds of this relatively small 265 acre area. With such geographical variation there is also a wide range of climatic differences. These deviations from the overall climatic picture have been termed microclimates. Microclimatic situations are infinite. They can occur at hilltops, slopes, valleys, different sides of a house, either side of a wall, under a tree, over a stone, or in a footprint. Areas concerned can be highly localized and sometimes involve distances as little as portions of an inch. plants Temperature at Ground Level In early autumn of 1966 a recording thermometer was placed on the ground below the Arboretum's official thermometer which is positioned at 5 feet. Each day when official observations were made, the temperature at the ground was also recorded. During some nights with radiational cooling, temperature differences as great as 16 existed between the two levels. Radiational Cooling Radiational cooling is typical of calm, clear nights during ~4 65 which the atmosphere loses heat to outer space through radiation. In the absence of wind, cold air settles to the ground and drains from the higher elevations to lower areas. These nights during which our lowest temperatures occur are the most damaging to plants. Temperature drop is often greater during winter than at other seasons because the longer nights allow radiation to take place over a longer period of time. Table 1 shows differences in minimum temperatures which occurred at ground level and the official thermometer five feet above ground level in February and March, 1967. Table 1 reveals two instances in which the flower bud damage described above could have occurred. The buds of most Forsythias are susceptible to freezing at about -15. February 13 shows -9F at official level and -22F at the ground, while March 19th shows 0F and -16F at these same levels. The wide differences in each example would indicate nights of radiational cooling and therefore even deeper cold in the Arboretum's low areas. The Forsythia collection is at a lower elevation than the weather station, and it is situated on the fringe of the large bowl-shaped cold pocket that contains the shrub collection. It is reasonable to suppose that the temperature there was many degrees colder than those cited in each of the above examples. Buds which led to the display of flowers on lower portions of the plants as previously described were insulated by a protective covering of snow, and were not affected. Snow with its myriad air spaces is the finest of all winter protective coverings. The Forsythias on Bussey Hill are located on slopes with good air drainage and they flowered well in 1967. Owing to more favorable microclimates their buds were not damaged. Graduation of Cold In January, 1968, additional thermometers were placed at weather station so that temperatures at the ground and at one and two foot levels could be recorded. Table 2 shows some temperatures at these levels during the mid-January cold spell, 1971. our Forsythia bloom It may be the Arnold Arboretum - Spring 1971 predicted as of January 22, 1971, that Forsythia in spring of 1971 at the Arnold Arboretum will follow flowering the pattern previously described for 1967. In the main collection flower buds above the present 15-inch snow line would have been killed in the mid-January cold spell, perhaps on the 17th or 19th of January. On those dates the ground level temperaat 66 fell to -16 and -19 at the Arboretum weather station. If no deep cold occurs during diminished snow for the balance of the winter, a ring of blossoms from ground level to 15 inches will be present. Forsythias near the summit of Bussey Hill are located in more favorable microclimates and should flower well. It is quite likely that Forsythias in the Boston suburbs will also conform to this prediction. tures ALFRED J. FORDHAM TABLE 1 Dt~efeMces tewtperatMT'es Differencesin minimumtemperaturesatgfOMKd ground t?t ?ttMtt?KM??t at level and five feet, in February and March, 1967 67 TABLE 2 Some temperatures at varying levels in January, 1971 Key to Forsythias (Modified from Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs) in the flowers of Forsythia the style may be either longer (Note or shorter than the stamens). - A. Branches hollow in the internodes, without pith of any kind; with solid masses of pith only at the nodes; leaves often 3-foliolate or 3-parted on the shoots; flowers 1-3(-6) in each cluster (2-6(-12) at each node) corolla about 2.5 cm. long, calyx about as long as the corolla tube. Branches arching. FlowerF. suspensa ing April-May. AA. Branches with thin, papery lamellae of pith in the internodes, B sometimes with solid masses of pith at the nodes. B. Petioles and lower surface of the veins (and leaves) pubescent C C. Branches arching, calyx as long as the corolla-tube, flowers 1-3 in each cluster, the corolla about 2.5 cm. F. suspensa f. pubescens long CC. Branches erect or spreading, calyx shorter than the D corolla-tube D. Flowers solitary (paired at the nodes), corolla about 1.5 cm. long. Flowering in April F. japonica DD. Flowers 1-3 in each cluster (2-6 at each node) corolla 1.5-2.0 cm. long. Flowering in April F. giraldiana BB. Whole plant glabrous, flowers solitary or several in each cluster (2 several at each node), corolla 2 cm. or more E long E. Pith in solid masses at the nodes, usually with lamellae of pith in the internodes; leaves often 3-parted on the shoots; flowers usually several in each cluster, corolla about 2.5-3.0 cm. or more long, calyx shorter than the corolla tube. Branches arching. Flowering F. x intermedia in April and May (F. suspensa x F. viridissima) .... \" - 68 EE. Pith lamellate throughout nodes and internodes, leaves F generally entire, only exceptionally 3-parted F. Leaves usually entire or with only a few shallow teeth, ovate to ovate-lanceolate; flowers usually solitary (paired at each node), corolla about 2 cm. long, calyx shorter than the corolla-tube, branches erect. * main axis of flowering branches 3-5 diameter. Flowering in April and May . mm. in F. europea mm. * * main axis of the flowering branches 2-3 in diameter. Flowering in April F. giraldiana FF. Leaves serrate, only occasionally nearly entire G G. Leaves elliptic-oblong to lanceolate, cuneate at the base, serrate only above the middle; branches angular, green; flowers 1-3 in a cluster (2-6 at a node), bright yellow with a greenish tinge, corolla 2.0-2.5 cm. long, calyx about half as long as the corolla tube. Branches erect. Flowering in April-May F. viridissima GG. Leaves ovate, usually rounded at the base and serrate nearly to the base; branches round or nearly so, yellowish; flowers solitary (paired at the nodes), amber yellow, corolla 1.5-2.0 cm. long; calyx about half as long as the corolla-tube. Branches erect. FlowerF. ovata ing in March and April Christmas Bird Count at the Arnold Arboretum On January 2, 1971, a group of amateur ornithologists led by Miss Miriam Dickey met at the Arnold Arboretum to participate in the National Audubon Society's annual \"Christmas Count\" of birds. The group covered the Arnold Arboretum with the following results: Blue Jay Brown Creeper Cardinal Cedar Waxwing ........ .... Chickadee Common Crow Goldfinch Gull, Great Black-backed Hawk, Red-Tailed House Sparrow . .. 44 2 4 20 18 26 3 8 1 17 Junco ............... Mockingbird Nuthatch Purple Finch Robin . Song Sparrow Starling . ... _ Sparrow Woodpecker, Downy Woodpecker, Hairy .. Towhee White-throated 18 1 8 1 38 2 29 1 5 9 2 Drawing of Downy Woodpecker by P. Bruns. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Perennials for Low Maintenance Gardening Part II","article_sequence":3,"start_page":70,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24532","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270a76b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":2,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Perennials for Low Maintenance Part II Gardening Dictamnus - Gas Plant, Dittany, Burning-Bush Of all the plants discussed in this article, Dictamnus albus (listed as D. fraxinella in most catalogs) is, along with Peonies, without doubt the most permanent of all perennials in the garden. The best treatment is simply to leave the plants alone, and they will increase in vigor as each year passes. In fact, the best way to ruin a good clump of Dictamnus is to divide it and attempt to reestablish the resulting plants elsewhere. For this reason, it is advisable to begin with young plants of seedling size, preferably started in pots. Even then it may take several seasons before they give the desired effect, but the results will be worth waiting for. Although it will tolerate partial shade, a sunny location with moderately rich soil is probably best for the Gas Plant. Situations which remain wet for any length of time should be avoided, and the plant can be counted upon to withstand moderate periods of drought. Although it is slow to start, a well-grown specimen will take up a lot of room in the border and it is best to leave about two feet in each direction for expansion. Annuals can be used to fill the gaps in the meantime. A well-grown Gas Plant will eventually attain a height of three feet, and is of value as a specimen plant in the background of the small garden or as a middle-of-the-border subject when combined with shrubs. Staking is not required as the stems do not have the tendency of other plants of similar height to fall over. The short period of blossom (about one week during July) has been listed as an objectionable characteristic. Perhaps this would be true if it were not for the handsome pinnate leaves which remain in good condition throughout the season and provide an excellent accent wherever the plant is placed. The name Gas Plant or Burning Bush is derived from the fact that under exactly the right conditions the plant exudes a volatile 70 71 gas, particularly around the flowers, and this can be ignited by a match. The author has yet to encounter \"exactly the right conditions\" under which this can be done. Supposedly they exist during calm sultry evenings while the plant is in bloom. Dictamnus albus has white flowers and those of its variety D. albus var. ruber are a soft rose-pink. Digitalis - Foxglove The Common Foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, is an old time favorite, but it is excluded here because of its biennial character. Plants must be renewed each year from seeds and winter protection is necessary in areas of severe cold. It is true that Foxgloves will, under the right conditions, self-sow in the same manner as Hollyhocks. In a semi-wild garden, this may be a distinct advantage, but in most borders considerable time must be spent pulling out the hundreds of seedlings which come up in the most unwanted places. There are a few perennial species of Digitalis, but they are not particularly showy in the border, and suffer from the same over-promiscuity in their seed sowing activities. Globe Thistle If the reader is unfamiliar with the appearance of Globe Thistles, he should make an attempt to observe them growing in another garden before deciding to plant them in his own. Opinion seems to be divided pretty nearly 50-50 for or against Echinops - - this group. Some people object strongly to the coarse general appearance of the plant, and the harshness of the thistle-like leaves. Others, including those who like to arrange cut flowers, prize the blue globular flower heads which are made up of many spiny bracts and flowers. The thistle-like leaves are white on the undersurfaces and give character to the plant. Aside from this, the author has a distinctly unpleasant recollection of once having to dig and divide a large clump of Echinops. The vigorous fleshy root system penetrates the soil to more than a foot in depth, making this a particularly arduous chore, so it is best to leave Echinops alone as long as the plants maintain their vigor. The task will probably have to be faced, however, every four or five years. There are a number of species and varieties to choose from, but without question the best is the cultivar of E. exaltatus called 'Taplow Blue.' This selection comes from England and has 72 flower heads up to three inches in diameter. To be seen at their best, all varieties of the Globe Thistle should be planted in full sun and in a soil which is somewhat on the lean side. Shade or rich soil conditions encourage them to grow tall and lanky. In general, however, they are quite easy to glistening rich blue grow. Hat Epimedium - Barrenwort, Bishop's This group is well known to a number of advanced gardeners, but has been undeservedly neglected by the majority of the gardening public in this country. Although they will grow well in full sun if the soil is moist, they are best used as ground covers in shady areas where the soil is fairly rich and damp. This would exclude Epimedium from many perennial borders and they are mentioned here mainly because they will grow well at the base of a tree if fertilizer is applied occasionally. The problem of what to plant at the base of the tree is always encountered, and a number of very charming herbaceous borders have been planned around existing small trees such as Crab apples or Magnolias. The pinnate foliage (some varieties have very interesting leaf patterns) is attractive when the plants are not in flower and is made more valuable by its ability to persist into the winter. The foliage should be cut back to the ground in late winter or very early spring to enhance the beauty of the new leaves in spring. New leaves are pale green, tinted with a delicate shade of rose, but in the summer become deeper and often are mottled with purple. The cooler weather of autumn brings out an attractive crimson coloration. Many varieties can be obtained if one is patient enough to sift through a number of catalogs. Unfortunately, where this group is concerned, incorrect names abound in the trade. E. grandiflorum produces the largest flowers of any in the genus. They vary between one and two inches, the outer sepals are red, the inner violet, and the spurred petals are white. E. grandiflorum var. violaceum has pure violet petals. E. pinnatum has small bright yellow flowers with rose-red spurs. Most plants listed in catalogs under this name are probably E. pinnatum var. colchicum which grows a foot tall and blooms later than E. grandiflorum. One of the showiest is E. x rubrum (E. alpinum x E. grandiflorum) which has large, brilliant red flowers flushed with yellow or white. The juvenile foliage is red, a most attractive asset. The author's favorite is E. x youngianum var. niveum, a hy- 73 brid between E. grandiflorum and E. pinnatum var. colchicum. Plants are a bit shorter than those listed above, usually only reaching a height of ten inches. The bronze foliage provides a handsome contrast to the pure white flowers. Eupatorium - Mist-Flower, Hardy Ageratum Only one species in this genus is suited to the perennial border, all others being more suitable when naturalized in wild or woodlands. E. coelestinum is native from New JerFlorida and Texas, and its pale lavender flowers can be sey used in the same manner as the more fickle Asters to provide a contrast to the rich yellow, orange, and bronze of many autumn flowering plants. It resembles Ageratum when in bloom and some people will mistake it for that plant even though it does not have the compact habit of Ageratum. This has been listed in several books as having invasive tendencies, but although it will spread fairly rapidly, the author has not seen a situation where it was out of hand. Best results are obtained when plants are exposed to full sunlight, and perhaps its most serious drawback is that even in sun the two-foot plants may become straggly after a few years and need to be divided. E. coelestinum 'Wayside Variety' was grown at the Arnold Arboretum last year and seems to be somewhat more compact in habit. It is a distinct improvement on the wild form. gardens to Euphorbia - Spurge -- 201420142014201420142014201420142014 Several members of this genus have given it a bad name among gardeners. E. marginata commonly called Snow-on-theMountain is an annual with decidedly weedy and invasive tendencies. E. cyparissias can be a great nuisance if planted in too rich a soil, becoming rampant and soon outgrowing its welcome. This is, however, a good rock garden subject and can be used as a ground cover in very arid places. E. myrsinitesis is another species which may be difficult to keep in bounds. However, E. epithymoides (sometimes seen in catalogs as E. polychroma) is a neat, symmetrical plant for the front of the border. It grows to a height of one-and-a-half to two feet and produces globular umbels of bright chartreuse-yellow bracts from the end of April until early June. As with the rest of this family, flowers are really not the conspicuous feature, and color is produced by the enlarged bracts which surround the true flowers. The foliage remains attractive all summer and turns to a rather handsome dark red in autumn. 74 E. wulfenii is of value for its handsome clusters of yellow bracts in May. It is taller than E. epithymoides and reaches a height of three feet. It is an unusual cut flower, and even more so for its blue-green leaves. All species of Euphorbia do best in well-drained sandy soils and should be considered by anyone who has dry soil conditions. The last two species above are the best and they can be expected to last for many years with very little attention. In fact, all Euphorbias resent being disturbed when well established and it is better to start with young plants than with divisions. Filipendula - Meadow-sweet, Dropwort This genus used to be included with nately, like Astilbe, it can still be found Spiraea, and unfortuby this name in some catalogs. Filipendulas are usually grown for their large feathery panicles of numerous small flowers. Several of the species in common cultivation are quite tall and suitable for the rear of the border, used in combination with shrubs, or as woodland or streamside plantings. F. hexapetala, the Dropwort, seldom exceeds two feet, however, and is an excellent border subject. The fem-like foliage is especially pleasing and can be used to advantage to tone down the leaves of certain coarser plants. The creamy-white flower panicles are produced in June. It is another plant for those who have poor dry soils, as it will succeed in such locations if fertilizer is given from time to time. Occasionally one can find the beautiful double-flowered form E. hexapetala 'Flore-Plena.' This is lower, to fifteen inches tall, and well worth the effort to locate in nurseries. . F. rubra, Queen-of-the-Prairie, is one of the best back-of-theborder plants. It grows from four to six feet tall and produces large terminal clusters of small pink flowers in June and July. Its variety F. rubra var. venusta (Martha Washington Plume in some catalogs) is a much better form with deep pink flowers. F. ulmaria, Queen-of-the-Meadow, is another tall species which will reach four to five feet in height under good conditions. This is a Eurasian species which is now rather widely naturalized in New England. Filipendulas are of added value because they can go for many years without needing to be divided. A possible drawback to the last two species discussed above is that watering is essential during dry periods and these are best planted in moist, fertile soil. 75 Gaillardia Blanket-Flower Gaillardias can cause great disappointment unless they are grown in a very well-drained soil. Even then, permanence is somewhat questionable. Many types sprawl unless staked early, and the best ones are seldom very hardy. Some people are greatly attracted to the bright color of the flowers, others think them too gaudy. Some varieties are advertised to bloom on and on during the summer, and this is true if one is careful to remove dead and fading flower heads faithfully. One member of the Arboretum staff has suggested that these might best be used for colonizing gravel heaps, and although this suggestion might have some merit, it must be said that Gaillardias are best left to those with the time and patience to cater to their specialized needs. For those in this latter category, some of the good varieties to watch for in catalogs are as follows: G. 'Burgundy' deep red, two feet; G. 'Goblin' red and yellow, one foot; G. 'Sun Dance' - red with yellow edges; and G. 'Sun Gold' - yellow, two feet. - - Geranium - Cranesbill These are sometimes confused with Pelargonium (whose common name, unfortunately, is Geranium), a showy group of great value as pot plants and for summer bedding. True Geraniums come from temperate parts of the world. Some (but not all) of the handsome species are hardy as far north as Boston and among them are several which will adapt well to low-maintenance is G. sanguineum, a plant which mound about a foot tall and two feet in diameter and produces rose-purple flowers in profusion from May until early August. The attractive leaves turn bright red in late autumn. G. sanguineum var. album has attractive white flowers and those of the selection G. sanguineum 'Johnson's Blue' are a good bright blue. G. sanguineum var. prostratum (still in most catalogs as G. lancastriense or G. sanguineum var. lancastriense) forms a neat mat of foliage seldom over six inches high with freely borne light pink flowers with red veins. It would be a mistake to plant any of the above in an overly rich soil as they may spread too rapidly and have to be divided after a few years. Although they will withstand light shade, flowering will be more profuse in full sun. Under this latter condition, plants should be able to remain undisturbed for a number of years. Sometimes grasses can invade an old clump to such an extent that it will have to be lifted and divided. plantings. The most commonly planted a - forms 76I Another nearly indestructible hardy species is G. grandiflorum. This species is usually only a foot high and produces large purple-blue flowers with red veins in clusters on fifteen-inch stems from May to July. G. grandiflorum var. alpinum is a smaller plant with larger, nearly true-blue flowers. As with G. sanguineum an overly rich soil encourages excessive spreading tendencies. Geum - Avens Geums have had a bad name among gardeners in the Boston area for some time. Many people have heard glowing reports of the wonderful flower colors but have been dismayed when their newly acquired plants have died during the first winter. A number of beautiful cultivars such as 'Mrs. Bradshaw' and 'Lady Stratheden' are derived from G. chiloense which is reliably hardy only as far north as Long Island. These are the ones which have caused the trouble and they should be avoided in our area. G. coccineum, a species with bright orange-red flowers, is native to Asia Minor and Southern Europe. Breeders have selected hardy forms of this and crossed them with the less hardy G. chiloense to produce a remarkably showy and valuable group of cultivars which are quite hardy in our area and which do not require the biennial divisions necessary to maintain the old selections of G. chiloense. Several of the outstanding newer hybrids to watch out for and try are as follows: G. 'Dolly North' - flowers gold overlaid with orange; G. 'Fire Opal' - flowers rich red with bronzy overtones ; G. 'Princess Juliana' - flowers clear rich orange; G. 'Red Wings' - flowers scarlet; G. 'Wilton Ruby' - flowers ruby-red. These hybrids grow to two-and-a-half feet tall and bloom from May to July. Young plants are slow to start and it may take a year or two for them to become established. Those who have been disappointed with the old cultivars of G. chiloense should be aware of this latter characteristic before making hasty conclusions about the newer ones. Gypsophila - Baby's-breath, Chalk-plant The latter common name given above and the generic name derived from the Greek word which means lime-loving give one of the main clues to success with this group. It is wise to have the soil tested before growing most perennials, and this is particularly so with Gypsophila. If the reaction is lower than 77 pH 6, ground limestone should be applied to bring it up to pH 7 or pH 7.5. One other soil condition is equally as necessary if success is to be achieved. Gypsophilas will not overwinter in moist soggy soils and a well-drained sunny situation is essential. Further care should be taken in choosing a good location because all except the dwarf varieties of Baby's-breath take up a lot of room, and once established the thick fleshy roots resent any disturbance. This may seem a rather long list of requirements for a plant that is included in a list of supposedly maintenance-free garden subjects. These requirements are, however, relatively simple if properly understood; and once established the plants can be expected to last for years if they receive the necessary dose of ground limestone from time to time. Many people who use relatively low-maintenance plants soon discover that mulching not only cuts down on the incidence of certain weeds, but improves the growth response of many plants. Baby's-breath will benefit from this in still another way, as a mulch will help prevent the thick fleshy roots from being heaved in the winter. The mulch, however, should not cover the crown of the plant or rotting may occur before the ground becomes completely frozen. In the coldest of winters in the Boston area, some plants of Gypsophila may be killed and a good mulching may prevent this. The best and probably the easiest to obtain of the cultivars of G. paniculata is the double white G. 'Bristol Fairy.' This is an extremely vigorous plant which can eventually fill up an area in the border four feet wide, with stems three feet high. It has long been known that by proper placement of Gypsophila the large gaps left by the withering of early flowering plants such as Oriental poppies and Dicentra spectabilis can be filled. Other varieties of G. paniculata include G. paniculata 'Perfecta,' a recent introduction from Europe with flowers supposedly twice the size of G. 'Bristol Fairy,' and G. paniculata 'Pink Fairy' a form with fully-double pink flowers. - Helenium - Sneezewood Cultivars of our native H. autumnale have long been considered essential for fall color in the border. The older forms grow from four to six feet tall and must be divided, if not every other year, then every third year, to maintain any semblance whatever of tidiness. Fortunately there are several newer cultivars which are shorter, do not fall over or need to be staked, and can be recommended here. H. 'Bruno' has dark red flowers on two-and-a-half-foot stems; H. 'Moerheim Beauty' has velvety 78 maroon-red flowers on two-and-a-half-foot stems; and H. 'Pumilum Magnificum' has yellow flowers on stems that are only twelve to eighteen inches high. Chrysanthemums were described earlier in this article as too finicky to be included in a low maintenance scheme. The three cultivars named above can be used as a substitute to provide nearly the same effect at the same time with much less effort. They will grow almost anywhere, but do best in a moderately moist soil. Exposure to full sun will help to produce the desired bushy habit. Hemerocallis - Daylily Hybridizers have produced so many cultivars of this nearly perfect plant for the low maintenance garden that probably the greatest problem one will encounter is knowing which varieties to choose. In general the plants are nearly indestructible if placed in a reasonably fertile soil in sun or partial shade, but excessive fertility will lead to rank growth and poor flowering. Although it is often thought that Daylilies can be left to their own devices almost forever, division at infrequent intervals will produce superior plants. One of the biggest chores with Daylilies is the need to remove the unsightly flowering stalks after the flowers have gone by. This can be a task if one has extensive plantings. Professional growers and amateur fanciers are now producing a completely new race of tetraploid hybrids which undoubtedly will be widely popular in the future. Although these can be obtained at present, prices still prohibit widespread use and they must be classed as \"collectors items.\" Gardeners in the Boston area who wish to see these coming attractions of the Daylily world will want to visit the Hemerocallis plantings at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston. It would be extremely difficult to choose the best moderately priced varieties to grow today were it not for the 1970 Popularity Poll published in the December, 1970, issue of The Hemerocallis Journal. Daylily fanciers throughout the country have sent in lists of what they consider the best cultivars, and it is interesting to note that the six which are most popular in the Northeast also appear high up on the list of national favorites. Those especially recommended are as follows: H. 'Frances Fay' - a low-growing variety with flowers of a melon tone (the melon in this case refers to cantaloupe); H. 'Satin Glass' - this is a new break in the \"melon\" color, being towards the pale the top winner in the national creamy side; H. 'Hortensia' - 79 with well-shaped golden yellow flowers, the petals are twisted and ruffled; H. 'Luxury Lace' - has medium sized lavender flowers with a greenish throat; H. 'Cartwheels' with medium-sized golden yellow flowers, which are almost round, a desired quality; H. 'Little Rainbow' - the unusually colored attractive flowers are pale yellow with blendings of pink, lavender, and green. It is somewhat surprising to note that no red-flowered varieties appear on this list. One of the best of these is H. 'Bess Ross' which has good clear red flowers without the brown-red or purple-red overtones present in some varieties. None of the above varieties are tetraploids, and all are easily available at a moderate price. poll - slightly Heuchera - Coral Bells, Alum Root For best results in most locations Heucheras need to be divided every third year, a distinct disadvantage for a very charming group of plants. Although perfectly hardy, they are susceptible to heaving during alternate periods of freezing and thawing, and one should take the extra precaution of applying a mulch in winter. These traits are most unfortunate when considering a list of plants to be grown with a minimum of maintenance, and they cannot receive the high praise in this discussion that they would most certainly deserve elsewhere. Modern hybrids come in a good range of flower colors and the beautifully mottled leaves can be decidedly attractive as well. Some of the good cultivars presently available are derived from Heuchera sanguinea or H. sanguinea x H. micrantha and include the following: H. 'Chartreuse' chartreuse flowers; H. 'Fire Sprite' rose to rose-red flowers; H. 'Freedom' rosepink flowers; H. 'June Bride' - a very good white flower; H. 'Pluie de Feu' - deep pink to almost cherry-red flowers; H. 'Rosamundi' one of the best cultivars with coral-pink flowers; and H. 'White Cloud' - white to creamy-white flowers. - -- Hibiscus Rose Mallow, Hardy Hibiscus The numerous cultivars which have arisen from the selection and crossing of Hibiscus moscheutos and H. palustris are not frequently seen in the Boston area even though most of them are perfectly hardy. This is strange because the equally showy tropical representatives of this genus are featured in many - amateur greenhouses. Some of the newer cultivars display gigantic flowers up to ten and twelve inches across making them the largest-flowered 80I herbaceous ple object when effects perennials that can be grown in this area. Some peothe size and bright colors as being too gaudy but as a single specimen in the mixed border, striking grown to can be achieved. One great drawback is their suscepattack by Japanese beetles. The large leaves become decidedly tattered if such attacks cannot be controlled. Although they will grow well in an ordinary soil if watered during periods of drought, Hardy Hibiscus hybrids do especially well in moist situations and are the perfect answer where conditions are too moist for most other perennials. They attain a height of four to five feet in most situations but die back to the ground during the winter. One problem is that under good conditions, they seed themselves in a copious manner and all volunteers must be discarded if the good named varieties are to be retained. A number of the newer cultivars are presently being grown in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum, and it is hoped that in a few years we will have a good display of these valuable mid-summer flowering plants for visitors to see. Some of the numerous varieties which are easy to obtain are: H. 'Apple blossom' crinkly petals which are light-pink marwith a deeper rose-pink; H. 'Raspberry Rose' - flowers gined deep rose-pink with a bright red throat; H. 'Satan' flowers a brilliant fire-engine red; H. 'Snow White' - a shorter plant (about three-and-a-half feet) with pure white flowers; H. 'Snow Queen' - the white flowers have wide, overlapping, crinkled petals and a deep red throat; H. 'Super Clown' flowers white and pink; H. 'Super Red' - the medium-sized flowers dark red; H. 'Super Rose' brilliant rose flowers up to ten inches in diameter ; H. 'White Beauty' - pure white flowers ten inches in diameter with a red throat. Many other cultivars are on the market and there will undoubtedly be an upswing in interest in this group before long. tibility to - - - - . Hosta - Plaintain-lily If given a proper location as regards both soil and light, this can be another large group to delight the gardener who cannot spend a lot of time pampering his plants. A moderately rich soil with partial shade (preferably the shade of high trees) is about all that Hostas require to develop into majestic, eyecatching specimens. A visit to the Hosta collection in the woods at the Case Estates can be a rewarding experience as most visitors are unaware of the exciting range of variations in this group. This special planting is one of the most extensive collections of Hosta in this part of the country. 81 As with the Daylily, the most demanding seasonal task with Hostas is the removal of the scapes once the flowers have gone by. They not only are unattractive but should not be allowed to go to seed, as certain named varieties do not reproduce true to type and the resulting seedlings can be a distinct nuisance. Nonetheless some of the good cultivars on the market today have arisen as chance seedlings in just this way. For an interesting article on this subject and the development of a number of cultivars see Francis Williams and Her Garden Adventures by Gertrude C. Wister, Arnoldia, Vol. 30, No. 4, pp. 148-154. 1960. There is little doubt that most Hosta cultivars are seen to best advantage if planted singly as specimen plants rather than being massed. This way the handsome radial symmetry of the individual plants can be seen to best advantage. Some of the more vigorous varieties will eventually occupy up to four feet of space in the garden and this must be taken into account at planting time. Some types make excellent ground covers, and when planted for this purpose the symmetrical effect is sacrificed. H. undulata with its white and green wavy leaves has been used extensively for this purpose and is often seen growing in the full sun - a condition not tolerated well by most other varieties. The taxonomy of Hosta is confused and synonyms and inabound. The following is a list of some of the best varieties as they appear in the majority of nursery catalogs. It should be noted here that they fall into two different groups, some grown for the interesting leaves only, and others for their flowers. Plants in this list have been selected to provide H. 'Betsy a period of blossom from late June to September. was hybridized by Frances Williams is grown mainKing' which ly for its rich purple flowers which appear on twenty-inch scapes in August. H. fortunei (often listed as H. glauca) has glaucous, pale green leaves with lavender-blue flowers on spikes two to three feet high in August. A number of worthwhile variations exist and are grown as much for the flowers as for the leaves. H. 'Honeybells' has very fragrant white flowers with violet veining which appear on forty-inch scapes in late August. The leaves are light green. H. 'Royal Standard' has very sweetly scented white flowers on two-foot scapes in August and September. It is grown more for the sweet smelling flowers than for the foliage. H. sieboldiana and its varieties and forms are grown for the remarkable large heavy-textured leaves. It is one of the very best of all the plants for semi-shaded to heavily-shaded conditions. One of the most sought after of all varieties is H. siebolcorrect names 82 diana 'Frances Williams' sometimes called H. sieboldiana 'Yellow Edge' or H. sieboldiana aureo-marginata. This form has lovely round glaucous leaves which are bordered in yellow. H. undulata has white and green wavy leaves and has been much used in foundation plantings and as a ground cover. It blooms in July and forms a plant ten to twelve inches high. H. ventricosa (H. coerulea) is especially valuable for its beautiful dark violet flowers on spikes three-and-a-half feet high, and for its deep green leaves. It blooms in late June and early July. To be continued ROBERT S. HEBB Summary of weather data January 1971. recorded at the Dana Greenhouses, Precipitation Average Daily Temp. 33.1 January 10.3 Salix lucida with Skunk Cabbage. Photo: P. Bruns. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":4,"start_page":84,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24530","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270a36d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":2,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, by W. J. Bean. The present generation of gardeners has grown up with two monumental reference works devoted to trees and shrubs: Rehder's \"Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs,\" a one volume handbook for identification, and Bean's \"Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles,\" a two (or three in later editions) volume compendium of descriptive matter. They are both monuments to the incredible energies of their respective authors. Both works were produced as a response to the large number of new woody plants that were introduced into cultivation from eastern Asia in the last part of the nineteenth and early part of the twentieth centuries. Rehder's \"Manual ...\" was originally published in 1927 and issued in a revised edition by its author in 1940. Bean's \"Trees and Shrubs ...\" was originally published in 1914 in two volumes, went through six editions in the author's lifetime, and was last issued three years after his death, in 1949, as a seventh edition in three volumes, edited from the author's manuscript. Economic exigencies required that the successive editions of Bean be issued with a minimum of alteration to the text of the original volumes, but with the new matter added as a volume. Bean's \"Trees and Shrubs ...\" was always a discursive and descriptive work. It described the forms cultivated in the British Isles, but made no real attempt to indicate diagnostic characters or to provide keys for identification. As such, Bean and Rehder were complimentary texts, for Rehder's \"Manual ...\", despite its cryptic notes on flowering time and hardiness, is essentially a manual for identification. For years there have been rumors that there was to be a new edition of Bean, and at last the first volume of the new edition is here. While in appearance it resembles the old Bean, there is much that is new. The entire text has been reset in a more modern type face. All of the descriptive material has been cast into one alphabet, and nomenclature and synonymy have been supplementary 84 85 brought up to date. Many of the species were known to Bean only as juvenile specimens - the new text brings his observations up to date by the incorporation of data on mature specimens. As much as possible of Bean's original text has been saved; the editing has consisted to a large extent of adding new observations. The new seventh edition of Bean's \"Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles\" seems destined to take its place on the bookshelves of all who have a serious interest in growing trees and shrubs in the temperate zones. The editors are to be congratulated on producing a thoroughly up-to-date work that retains the flavour of the original; and the publisher is to be applauded for a fine job of book production. The reasonable price of about twenty dollars per volume is due to financial assistance from the Royal Horticultural Society and the Nuffield Foundation. We, the public, must be forever grateful to all concerned. G. P. DEW. W. J. Bean, Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, London : John Murray (Publishers) Ltd., 1970. 8 net. Hortulus, by Walahfrid Strabo, translated by Raef Payne The book's white vellum ____ binding and the gold frid Strabo. Hortulus. 1510\/1966 stood volumes on the shelf. I took it down and opened it to one out letters Walahamong the dark of the middle pages: Then my small patch was warmed by winds from the south And the sun's heat. That it should not be washed away, We faced it with planks and raised it in oblong beds A little above the level ground. With a rake I broke the soil up bit by bit, and then Worked in from on top the leaven of rich manure. Some plants we grow from seed, some from old stocks We try to bring back to the youth they knew before. I was in a dry dusty library but suddenly sun was on my face, I smelled the rich spring soil between my the warmth of the scent of manure, and felt damp crumbling fingers. 86I On the left-hand page the poem was in Latin, on the right in English. Each page was delicately imprinted with a pale green block print of a plant. I turned a few pages: You have seen how ivy twines Its leaves round a lofty elm, from the earth's bosom - its supple arms around the whole tree till it finds A way to the very top, and hides all the wrinkled bark With a mantle of green Lapping Who was Walahfrid Strabo? I turned to the front of the book. In the first twelve pages I found an account of this 9th century poet and monk by Wilfrid Blunt. The account of his life tells what is known historically about him, and includes footnotes of further historical information. Many of his writings were of religious subjects including a study of the growth of observances in the Church. His Hortulus seems to have been the only poem of nature that he wrote. Although the poem was written in the ninth century the manuscript lay undiscovered until 1509, when it was found and printed in Vienna in 1510. It has had an appeal to poets and gardeners ever since, and this volume includes a discussion of other manuscripts and editions of the poem which have appeared since medieval days. After reading Walahfrid's life I turned again to the poem, and found, toward the front of the volume, twenty facsimile pages of the ninth century manuscript of the Hortulus, reproduced from La Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana. Even though I have forgotten the little Latin I knew, these pages, written in neat Latin calligraphy, produced the same feeling of excitement and history that I get from turning the crackling pages of an old book. I turned to the beginning of the English translation and began to read: \"Here begins the Book on the Cultivation of Gardens by Strabus (or Strabo). May it find favor.\" I was in a monastery garden, sharing with a 9th century monk the joys and sorrows of watching a garden grow. I rejoiced with him at the arrival of spring: A purer air was now beginning to herald Fine weather. Plants stirred in the zephyr's path Thrusting out from their roots the slender tips Which had long lain hidden in the earth's blind womb, Shunning the frost they hate. Spring smiled In the leaves of the woodland, the lush grass on the slopes And the bright sward of the cheerful meadows. _ --- 87 When water: a dry spell threatened I hurried with him to bring Should a dry spell rob the plants of the moisture they need, My gardening zeal and fear that the slender shoots May die of thirst make me scurry to bring fresh water In brimming buckets. With my own hands I pour it Drop by drop, taking care not to shift the seeds By too sudden or lavish a soaking. Together in the library, surrounded by old books, Walahfrid and I strolled down his garden path. It was a kitchen garden, as most northern European gardens were in the ninth century. Tansy, Betony, Celery; he admired each and gave directions for its use. At the end of his garden stood the rose and the lily, and with words of religious mysticism he compared them to the symbols of the Church: These two flowers, so loved and widely honored, Have throughout the ages stood as symbols Of the Church's greatest treasures; for it plucks the In token of blood shed by the Blessed Martyrs; The lily it wears as a shining sign of its faith. -~ ' rose I closed the book and put it back on the shelf. That evening I turned the hose on my newly planted beds I thought of the monk in his monastery garden. Eleven centuries separate us, but we share the hopes and despairs of gardening. - Some plants we grow from seed, some from old stocks We try to bring back to the youth they knew before. H. R. G. This edition of Hortulus, published by the Hunt Botanical Library, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, is limited to 1500 copies. It can be ordered from Stechert-Hafner Service Agency, Inc., Box 2000, 260 Heights Road, Darien, Connecticut, 06820. The price is $15.00. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23288","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d1708928.jpg","title":"1971-31-2","volume":31,"issue_number":2,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Robert Fortune and the Cultivation of Tea in the United States","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24528","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260896f.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Gardener, William","article_content":"Robert Fortune and the Cultivation in the United States of Tea From 1839 until the Department of Agriculture was constituted in 1862, the Commissioner of Patents in Washington was responsible for organizing government aid and encouragement to American farmers. In the discharge of this duty, the Patents Office drew attention to foreign crops of economic value that might be cultivated in particular areas of the United States. Among such crops tea figured prominently. An experimental tea plantation was privately established at Greenville, S.C., in 1848 and aroused considerable interest. The start of the experiment nearly coincided with the outbreak of the devastating Taiping Rebellion in China and prudent governments might well decide to experiment with tea in their own territories. The government of the United States was one such. The Report of the Commissioner of Patents for the year 1855, on Agriculture,l discussed the advantages of establishing tea as an agricultural crop in some of the southern states and advocated the project as economically sound. It summarized the then current botanical knowledge of the tea plant, and quoted from Robert Fortune's analysis (published in his Three Years' Wanderings =) of the tea plantations that he had visited in China during the years 1843 to 1846. On the 21st July 1857 the Honorable Charles Mason, Commissioner of Patents at the time, wrote to his customary seed suppliers in London, the firm of Charlwood & Cummins of 14 Tavistock Row, Covent Garden, to inquire the probable cost of about ten bushels of tea seed, and \"the expenses that might occur in sending an agent for the purpose of collecting the same.\" 3 The seed merchants stated that they would \"consult Dr. Royle4 and Mr. Fortune,\" and hoped to supply the information in the next mail. They were as good as their word. Fortune, who had returned to England eight months previously, from a visit to China on behalf of the East India Com1 Fig. 1: Robert Fortune, from Plant Hunting in China by E. H. M. Cox. pany, collecting tea seed for the government plantations in the Himalayas, was visiting friends and relations in Scotland. - Within a week the firm had got in touch with him, and on the 17th August they forwarded to Washington a copy of the preliminary letter he had addressed to them from Scotland. \"No one in this country is so competent to give an opinion as Mr. Fortune,\" was their comment on this letter. Fortune had written as follows: Tea seeds are in great demand in India at the present time, and I doubt if a large supply could be obtained from that country. The finer varieties introduced by me from China, certainly could not be spared, and I would not advise the American Government to introduce and propagate inferior kinds. The best way would be to follow the example of the Fig. 2: Trachycarpus fortunei. China. Hemp Palm valuable for its fiber. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1911. ~~a;E3x#& j 4 East India Company and introduce the best kind from China direct. The plan proposed in your letter, viz. \"to send the seeds in tin cases\" would not succeed. From long experience I have found that these seeds, like acorns, chestnuts etc., retain their vitality for a very short time when out of the ground; certainly not one in a thousand would vegetate on reaching America. Any money spent upon an experiment of this kind would only be thrown away. You will find in my Journey to the Tea Countries of China and India, the plan I adopted with good success whilst engaged in introducing the Tea plant to India. If the American Government is determined to give the matter a fair trial and wishes to spend a reasonable sum to insure success I would have no objection to take the business in hand, and from the experience I have here, would most likely bring it to a successful issue. - Three days after sending this letter to the Commissioner of were Patents, Charlwood & Cummins reporting i We have had an interview with Mr. Fortune, and he informs us that he would accept the same terms from you, that he had from the East India Company, which was 500 per annum and all expenses paid, which would amount to about L700 additional : for this he would procure the best varieties of Teas. It would be too late this season as they ripen in October. He should leave this [? sc. country] in March and he would be able to get the seeds down from the North5 of China to the Port of shipment in November or December, and he would arrive in America (several shipments being made by various vessels) during April or May. Thus 20 or 30 (or more) Ward's cases could be sent each containing seeds enough to produce say 2000 plants. This could be effected during the year and Mr. Fortune assures us this way only (that is by the seeds being placed in soil in Ward's cases) is there any chance of success.... Should you therefore entertain the project of sending an agent you can let us know whether we might engage Mr. Fortune, as we know of no other man so capable or experienced to carry out your views in this mat- ter. 6 plan Fortune was engaged; and he proceeded to arrange the broad of itinerary and shipments. Seeds and living plants were to be divided among several vessels, to reduce risk of loss. I 5 Should direct sailings to eastern seaports in the United States be insufficient, the Cape route to Europe could be used, with trans-shipment in the United Kingdom being handled by the U.S. Government agent in London, located in Henrietta Street, now W. 1. After despatching the collections from China, Fortune was to take the 'overland' route through Suez. The quick passage across the Indian Ocean, before the south-west monsoon broke, and a summer crossing of the North Atlantic, would save weeks on the journey from China to Baltimore round Cape Horn or the Cape of Good Hope.7 Fortune left England on the 4th March 1858 on his fourth journey to China. It has attracted singularly little attention at any time. For information regarding it, we are almost entirely dependent on the letters from Charlwood & Cummins already quoted, and from the series of Fortune's letters to the Commissioner of Patents,8 both sets preserved and available only in the National Archives in Washington. Perhaps for this reason, the cardinal importance of the journey, as the occasion of direct introduction of various Chinese ligneous and other species into the United States, has been consistently overlooked; and to place it on record, while giving a full account of the journey, is the principal purpose of this paper. Fortune's reports to Washington do not state precisely where he went in the course of seven or eight months of active collecting. It seems likely that he made straight for his old haunts in Chekiang. The Taipings during 1858 held little more than the Lower Yangtze valley west of the Grand Canal. Pressure on them there had been somewhat relaxed as a consequence of the Anglo-French military operations against the Manchu government in North China. The more considerable operations of 1859-60 were to leave a way open for the rebels to overrun almost the entire province of Kiangsu south of the Yangtze, save for Shanghai itself, and again to extend their raids into Chekiang and Kiangsi. However, 1858 was a year of relative quiet. Fortune expressly states \"the unsettled state of the country does not interfere with my plans in the slightest degree. Everywhere the people receive me kindly and wellcome (sic) me back amongst them.\" He wrote this from Shanghai on the 10th August 1858 as part of his first report to the Commissioner of Patents. Accompanying it were three packets of seed which he thought \"may prove worth cultivation in the U.S.\" Two contained varieties of the Chinese turnip-radish. The larger, and more particularly commended, contained seed of the Brassica chinensis 6I which he had already advocated for English and for Indian use because of the oil expressed from its seeds. He wrote to Mr. Holt that this variety of mustard or rape (reduced under Brassica campestris L., in the Index Florae Sinensis, Part I, p. 46, by Forbes and Hemsley) \"is probably superior to the varieties cultivated in Europe, both in production of and in the value of the oil. The Chinese esteem it highly for burning in lamps, as well as for culinary purposes; the Ningpo ladies use it as a hair-oil.\" Word of a novel, even if possibly somewhat inflammable, dressing for the hair might have seemed welcome to the Patents Office of a generation overly dependent on macassar oil. Scientists at a later time might appreciate that there is a scientific reason hidden in the Chinese esteem for its unprepossessing loose-leafed appearance as a vegetable. It is an excellent source of the anti-scorbutic Vitamin C. As to the main task of the journey, Fortune reports: I have visited various great tea districts, and made my arnatives for large supplies of Tea and other seeds and plants at the proper season. I am now doing the same in the country about Shanghai, & if my health does not fail me, I hope to send you abundant supplies of interesting things during the autumn and winter. I am also employed in getting Wards cases made for their transmission. rangements with the After this letter, he again disappeared from view for nearly four months. He was making the round of the tea-farms that he had visited in the summer, to collect the seed that he had ordered. His transactions of former years, just and liberal, and the respect and liking in which he was held, now brought their material advantage. The seed had been saved for him, it was waiting and ready, and he had only to pick up the supply and go on his way. A quantity such as had taken him three years to procure, in his journeys for the East India Company, he now obtained in one season. Early in December, he was back in Shanghai, ready to start packing his autumn collections, and despatching them in successive shipments. By an ingenious refinement of his former method, he now regulated the time of germination of the tea seeds sown in his glazed Wardian cases. They were not to sprout until late May or early June, when he was due in Washington to see to their replanting. Hence those in the first shipments were covered heavily with earth, to keep them dormant, and those of later shipments were covered lightly, to allow of early quickening. I 7 Fig. 3: Camellia sinensis from Medicinal Plants by Bentley and Trimen, London, 1880. 8 I The first shipment was on the 6th December, five cases in all. One was a box of tea seeds which, his report to Mr. Holt states, were \"packed in earth in the manner recommended by you in one of your earlier letters.\" Fortune evidently did not trust this variation or experiment. He never used it again. For the rest of this shipment, and for all subsequent ones, he reverted to the glazed Wardian cases, in which the seeds were sown thickly in damp earth, to germinate in the salt-excluded equable moisture thus generated. In addition to several plants of the yangmei or Chinese strawberry tree (Myrica nagi Thun. syn. rubra, whose value Fortune rated higher than did the rest of the world), the seeds of two interesting introductions accompanied the tea in the cases of the first consignment. One was the t'ung-oil or wood-oil tree familiar to him from previous visits to China, Aleurites fordii, that he had attempted to promote for Indian acclimatisation. In America, as in India, he was unsuccessful in pressing the need to grow this hardy tree. The importance of the oil to commerce was barely realized in the 1850s. Yet Fortune was only a little too early in his advocacy. Within decades t'ung oil was a substantial item of foreign export from the Yangtze valley; and in 1901 the botanist David Fairchild, in the course of a round-the-world trip organized by the Department of Agriculture, visited Canton and observed the use of the oil as a ship's varnish and an ingredient in caulking material. As a result, he arranged for a supply of seeds to be sent to the U.S., where the tree was re-introduced in 1904, and successfully established thereafter in southern plantations. The Chinese call Aleurites fordii the wu-t'ung tree. Popular part of the folk-lore of the race. They are no more in China than in England or America to distinguish bolikely tanical species; and they frequently confuse them. There is more than one kind of tree called wu-t'ung. Another of them happened to be included in this first shipment. Artistically, though not commercially, it was more important than the t'ungoil tree. Fortune did not mention its botanical name. He merely called the seeds those of the \"oo-dung an ornamental tree.\" Oo-dung is wu-t'ung, in this case Firmiana simplex, a tree of stately height, fine bark, and noble foliage and flower. The yellow flowers, though individually small, create a striking effect through being displayed on compound racemes eighteen inches long and nine inches wide. The seeds are enclosed in long pods that taper to a beak at one end. The leaves (in respect of which the former botanical name Sterculia platanifolia was names are Fig. 4: Boehmeria nivea. China. A valuable textile Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910. fiber plant. more descriptive) have sometimes three and sometimes five lobes. The character wu describes these features of leaf and seed-pod, for it is made up in part of the characters for \"five\" and \"mouth.\" According to the Chinese, Firmiana is the tree in whose the bird of happiness branches the phoenix loves to perch and renewal. Their proverbial rhyme, roughly translated runs: - In gardens where no wu-t'ung grows There is no calling the phoenix to come. 10 If Fortune knew of that saying, he did not mention it to Mr. Holt in commendation of the tree. The visual appeal sufficed. The phoenix tree had been known in England for a hundred years, having been introduced from Japan in 1757; and it was being grown in Kew Gardens by 1789. It flourishes in a Mediterranean climate of dependable summer warmth and sun following a mild winter. Gardens and public places of Virginia and South Carolina (where recently there were numerous very old trees) and New Orleans may have owed some of their beauty to Fortune's shipments (for there were several), notwithstanding the Civil War. There were half-a-dozen more shipments of tea seed planted in Wardian cases, and of miscellaneous seeds and plants that winter, until the last on the 19th February 1859. Apart from a new Thuja and further supplies of Firmiana simplex, the trees were mostly those well-known to Fortune from his discoveries in earlier years. Several of the species had been recommended for trial in America by S. Wells Williams, the missionary, linguist, man of letters, and botanist, in Canton, writing to the American representative in China in 1850.9 The Patents Office was thus already aware of their importance. To receive the products of Fortune's expedition, a five-acre plot in a central position in Washington had been acquired in 1858, and heated greenhouses had been constructed on the site. This plot was called the Government Experimental and Propa* gating Garden.* One of its main purposes, from the outset, was to raise seeds and plants, of whatever provenance, for transmission to localities thought suitable for their exploitation. This work is discussed in the Annual Reports of the Patents Office, and subsequently of the Department of Agriculture. Fortune left Shanghai early in March 1859, well pleased with the kinds and quantities that he had shipped. He had * The United States Experimental and Propagating Garden was set up in 1858 under the aegis of the Patents Office on five acres of land on Missouri Avenue between Four-and-a-Half and Sixth Street. When the Department of Agriculture was separated from the Patent Office the garden was turned over to the new department. The first superintendent under the Department of Agriculture, William Saunders (1822-1900), complained that when he took over in 1862 he did not receive the records of what was growing in the garden. In 1867 the Department of Agriculture moved to a new building erected for it west of the Smithsonian Institution. The grounds around the building were placed under Saunders' charge and were to be developed as an Arboretum. - Eds. -- ,--. -- --'- -- Fig. 5: Abutilon avicennae. China. Cultivated for fiber which is used for making ropes and coarse sacking. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910. a significant selection, and had sent, as the list in the appendix will show, a tried collection of highly ornamental and very useful plants whose value and adaptability he had proved over the years. As for the principal object of his journey, his final report from Shanghai, dated the 19th February 1859, stated that should the season's consignment reach Washington in good condition \"the produce from the tea-seeds alone will render that plant common in every garden in America.\" Enough seed, giving over 32,000 plants,' was flourishing in made 12 the were Propagating coming in Garden that summer, and from potential growers, to enough enquiries justify his enthu- siasm. Travelling by the 'overland' route through Egypt from Suez Alexandria by way of Cairo, Fortune expected to take ship from England to reach Washington late in May. However, in to London he was handed a letter from a new Commissioner of Patents, S. T. Shugart, countermanding the plan to visit America. Fortune's disappointment was severe. His presence was necessary to get the best out of his seedlings. There was the strong desire to complete a horticultural mission. As I have taken a deep interest in the success of this great experiment, it would have afforded me much pleasure to have given you the benefit of my experience in rearing and transporting to proper sites the Tea and other useful productions I have sent you from China. The most difficult part of this mission (namely the procuring and introducing these seeds and plants) being successfully accomplished, it will be a source of deep regret if the experiment should fail from want of that experience which can only be acquired in the country to which these plants are indigenous.\" But for the preservation of a number of Fortune's letters in the National Archives, there would be as little direct record of his employment by the Patents Office, as there is of the reasons for its curtailment reasons which we can only surmise to lie in a reduced appropriation for 1859. Not only is the series of official letters addressed to Fortune absent from the files, the Commissioner's Report on Agriculture for the year 1859 (devoted largely to the inception of the Government Experimental and Propagating Garden) does not disclose, any more than does the Report for 1858, that the \"agent employed to visit China for the purpose of collecting the seeds of the tea-shrub and of other plants\" 12 was Fortune; and in listing various oriental trees and plants recently received, that must have come from Fortune, mis-cites their origin. \"50 plants of the Tung Oil Tree,\" \"Oodung, and other ornamental trees,\" \"Rhus succedanea, wax plant,\" and \"The camphor tree, 21 plants,\" are too close to the lists referred to in Fortune's letters, for their origin to be doubted. Yet in each case they are stated to have come from Japan! Thus, since the outset, confusion and mis-statement have obscured the origin and introduction of several species sent to the United States by Fortune. Only in referring to - 13 unidentified oriental Thuja does the report name him, by \"Mr. Fortune states that, in China, it is the most ornamental of the species he has seen.\" Fortune's extant letters to the Patents Office do not contain this remark (though they record the despatch of a Thuja sp.); but the series is not coman saying: plete. ing of the United States Agricultural Society, writafterwards, had an acid comment to make on the circumstances of the mission. His account of the Introduction The Secretary soon of the Tea Plant 13 opened with the statement \"Twenty-six thousand Tea Plants, either imported or raised from imported seed, have been distributed during the past spring by the Patents Office, and the experiment of acclimatizing this valuable production will doubtless be fully and fairly tried.\" It went on to say that the Commissioner of Patents had engaged Fortune to visit China, to procure plants and seed for the United States, and had terminated his employment when he was in London on his way to Washington; and added, \"It is to be hoped that this dismissal really arose from a desire on the part of the government to economize, and not from the jealous fears of any subordinate official that Mr. Fortune would receive the honors attendant on the successful introduction of the tea plant.\" When Fortune's letter after dismissal reached Washington, there was still another Commissioner of Patents. The new appointee, D. D. Bishop, accepted Fortune's claim for six months' salary in lieu of notice, provided Fortune would answer a detailed questionnaire on the raising of tea. The completed document in the National Archives, headed Interrogatories concerning the culture of the tea plant in China,14 affords an authoritative and concise compendium on the cultivation of tea in China and (Assam excluded) in India as of that date; and it was briefly summarized, for the benefit of would-be growers, in the Commissioner's Report on Agriculture for 1859. If the Civil War was the prime reason for the failure of Fortune's tea experiment, the same political vortex was probably responsible for stifling another plan that his employment had suggested. Proposals for conserving his collections were being prepared in Washington almost before he had arrived in China. One of them might have produced the National Arboretum nearly seventy years earlier than the actual date of its founding, 1927. There was a Botanic Garden in Washington that had been established in 1850, but it was not available to supply the Washington Park System with the large numbers of trees an- 14I nually required tents to ornament the streets and parks. The PaOffice took advantage of the impending arrival of seedlings from China, to propose to the Secretary of the Interior 15 the establishment of nurseries for propagating all forest trees likely to be hardy in the Washington climate, and, as an adjunct or corollary, the establishment of an American arboretum to display every tree and shrub native to North America. The proposal was not then accepted; and when the Department of Agriculture was formed in 1862 many of the functions of the Patents Office were transferred to it including further interest in the suggestion. - WILLIAM GARDENER Dowsings, East Mersea, Nr. Colchester Essex, England Notes 1 ' 1. 2. 3. 4. lst. Session: Senate: Ex. Doc. No. 20. London, John Murray, 1847. Quoted, Charlwood & Cummins to Patents Commr., 10 Aug. 1857. 34th Congress, John Forbes Royle, M.D., F.R.S., (1799-1858). Surgeon, H.E.I.C. Med. Service, Bengal, 1819. Curator, Bot. Gdn. Saharanpur 1823. Ret. to England 1831, thereafter 5. 6. 7. 8. serving H.E.I.C. as Reporter in India Products (i.e. senior advisor on agriculture & forestry). \"Illustrations of the Botany of the Himalayas\" 1834-8. Prof. Mat. Med. King's Coll. London 1837-56. A term which, at this time, covered the provinces between, roughly, southern Fukien and the Yangtze. Charlwood & Cummins to Patents Commr., 20 Aug. 1857. Letter from Fortune to J. Holt, Pat. Commr., 1 March 1858. Dates, and place of origin, of these letters are: i. 1 March 1858, from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London, (in reply to letters of 4th and 8th Feb. 1858, not traceable in Nat. Archives, from Patents Commr.). ii. 18 Aug. 1858, from Shanghai. \" \" iii. 6 Dec. 1858, \" .. ~~ .. iv. 14 ' v. 22 Jan. 1859, \" \" \" \" \" vi. 25 . \" , not traceable in Nat. Archives. vii. 19 Feb. viii. 24 \" \" \" May from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London, Fig. 6. Firmiana simplex. China. Three trees, seventy feet. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1910. 16 (in reply to letter of dismissal of 28 April 1859, not traceable in Nat. Archives). xi. 5 Aug. 1859, from 1 Gilston Rd., Brompton, London, (in reply to letter of 7 July 1859, not traceable in Nat. Archives). 9. Quoted Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1850, pp. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 450-453 (31st Congress, 2d Session: House of Representatives : Ex. Doc. No. 32). Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1859, Experimental & Propagating Garden, p. 2 (36th Congress, lst. Session: Senate: Ex. Doc. No. 11 ). Letter listed Note 8, viii, above. Report of Pat. Commr. on Agriculture for 1858, p. v (35th Congress, 2nd Session: House of Representatives: Ex. Doc. No. 105). Journal of Agriculture, 1859, pp. 166-8. Dated 6th Sept. 1859. Commr. of Patents to Secretary of the Interior, 17 May 1858. Notes II Seeds sent to Washington from China by Robert Fortune, during the winter of 1858\/9, as mentioned in his extant letters listed earlier (Bills of Lading not preserved). FORTUNE'S DESCRIPTIONS REVISED NOMENCLATURE = Brassica sp., \"cultivated in Chekiang for the oil expressed from its seeds.\" Turnip radish called \"Lobba,\" two varieties. Yang Mae Tree (Myrica sp.), \"commonly called an arbutus here, but really a Myrica.\" 11 Brassica chinensis L. campestris L. B. Presumably hung lo-po and pai lo-po, 'red' & 'white' turnip: forms of Raphanus sativus Myrica nagi Thunb. syn. M. rubra Sieb. et Zucc. Tung-oil Tree (Eleococcus olii f era ) . \"Oo-dung\" \"an ornamental tree.\" \" Aleurites fordii Hemsl. Sterculia platanifolia L.f. syn. Firmiana platanif olia ( L.f. ) Schott et Endl. syn. F. simplex W. F. Wight. 17 FORTUNE'S DESCRIPTIONS REVISED NOMENCLATURE Hemp Palm (Chamaerops), \"valuable for its fibre, a very ornamental tree, and much more hardy than any other species of Palm already known.\" Laurus camphora (Camphor The Chusan Palm, Trachycarpus f ortunei H. Wendl. red. T. excelsus H. Wendl. tree) Stillingia sebifera (Tallow tree) \"Both (sc. above) ought to succeed admirably in the United States, and both are not only very useful but very ornamental.\" (Letter of Cinnamomum camphora T. Nees & Eberm. Sapium sebiferum Roxb. 14.12.1858.) (Wax Insect Tree) Buckwheat (Polygonum) \"sent Fraxinus sp. in the Fraxinus chinensis Roxb. Fagapyrum esculentum Moench. hope that it may prove superior to that kind already in cultivation in America.\" Rhamnus chlorophorus Rhamnus utilis \"The two species yield (together, sc. ) the celebrated green dye which has excited a great deal of attention of late years in Europe.\" Chinese Jute \"a valuable fibre.\" Cephalotaxus fortunei \"an ornamental yew.\" This species was introduced by Fortune to England in 1849. Rhamnus tinctorius Waldst. et Kit. Rhamnus davurius Pall. 1 Abutilon avicennae Gaertn. Cephalotaxus fortunei Hook. Abies Kaemp f eri \"a very fine Cedar or Larch.\" new Pseudolarix kaempferi Gord. syn. P. amabilis Rehder. 18I FORTUNE'S DESCRIPTIONS REVISED NOMENCLATURE Fortune discovered this tree in Chekiang and introduced it to England 1853. Coronilla sp. & Trifolium \"Cultivated extensively for manure.\" Thuja sp. \"an Ornamental 1 new Arborvitae.\" Medicago denticulata Willd. (Not positively identified) [Apparently Thuja orientalis L.] ] Ligustrum lucidum Ait. ' Ligustrum lucidum \"a fine Evergreen.\" Amaranthus (with variegated leaves) Cupressus funebris (Funeral Amaranthus oleraceus L. [ ? lividus L.] ] var. Chamaecyparis funebris Endl. Cryptomeriajaponica (L.f.) D. Don. Cypress ) Cryptomeria japonica ( Japan 1 Cedar) Salisburia adiantifolia \"a no1 ble and beautiful tree.\" Ruellia, producing the Indigo of Chekiang. Specimens of the plant from which the fabric called \"grass-cloth\" is Ginkgo biloba L. tinctorium Ait. Boehmeria nivea Gaud. Polygonum prepared. Soap bean tree \"pods used as 2 soap.\" See Note 2. 1 Patent Office Report for 1859 records this species as grown in Governmental Experimental & Propagating Garden that year. 2 The seeds or seed-pods of several species are used in China for soap. Fortune's is likely to be the Caesalpinia sp. (probably C. chinensis Roxb.) that he sent from Central China to the Agricultural & Horticultural Society of India in 1854 and 1855. Gleditsia sinensis Lam. is a possibility. , Fig. 7: Ginkgo biloba and shrine, China. Tree eighty feet. Photo: E. H. Wilson, 1908. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on the History of Tea","article_sequence":2,"start_page":20,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24527","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260856b.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Notes on the History of Tea surprising how incomplete our knowledge is. We are all that we import coffee from tropical America. But where do we obtain our tea? What is tea? From what plant does it come? How long have we been drinking it? All these questions passed through my mind as I read the manuscript of the preceding article. To answer some of my questions, and yours, I gathered together the following notes. The tea of commerce consists of the more or less fermented, rolled and dried immature leaves of Camellia sinensis. There are two botanical varieties of the tea plant. One, var. sinensis, the original chinese tea, is a shrub up to 20 feet tall, native in southern and western Yunnan, spread by cultivation throughout southern and central China, and introduced by cultivation throughout the warm temperate regions of the world. The other, var. assamica, the Assam tea, is a forest tree, 60 feet or more tall, native in the area between Assam and southern China. Var. sinensis is apparently about as hardy as Camellia japonica (the common Camellia). The flowers are white, nodding, fragrant, and produced variously from June to January, but usually in October. The name is derived from the chinese Te. An alternate chinese name seems to be cha, which passed into Hindi and Arabic as chha, anglicized at an early date as Chaw. The United States consumes about 115 million pounds of tea annually. The major tea exporting countries are India, Ceylon, Japan, Indonesia, and the countries of eastern Africa. Pakistan, Formosa and Argentina also export lesser quantities of tea. It is interesting to note that southern Russia produces a tea crop which is consumed domestically. Of course China also produces a large tea crop which is not exported to any extent. Tea was being prepared in China at least as early as the 4th century A. D.; it was taxed as early as 793 (during the T'ang dynasty). Introduced into Japan (as an article of commerce) in the 9th century, it was cultivated there by about 1200 A. D. An Arabian merchant named Soliman travelled to China about 850 A. D. and in an account of his travels described the use of tea in that country. Europeans, however, did not learn aware It is 20 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY VOLUME XXX 1970 PUBLISHED BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS ARNOLDIA INDEX TO VOLUME 30 are Illustrations in bold face. - Abies concolor 'Gables Weeping,' 251 Acer griseum, 26, 210 japonicum & vars, 168 nikoense, 168 palmatum & vars., 169 pensylvanicum, 169 rubrum, 169 Acetaria, A Discourse of Sallets, 115 Acocotli, 129 Acocoxochitl, 131 Acoctoli, 133 Actinidia chinensis, 180-185 adhesives, 62-63 Ailanthus altissima, 170 Air Pollution, 40-44 Akebia quinata, 158 Albizia julibrissin 'Ernest Wilsion,' 252 Alder, Black, 172 Allium, 97 Alpine Gardens, Mt. Rokko, Japan, 19, 20 Amelanchier species, 169 American Gardener, The, 115 American Hemerocallis Society, 9, 19 American Museum of Natural History, 77-79 Amur Cork Tree, 162 Amur River, 163 Andrew's Botanist's Repository, 137 Angelica-Tree, Japanese, 170 Aralia elata, 170 Arboretum Weather Station, 186 Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information, 1, 200 Aronia species, 171 Arsenicals, 44-45 Autumn Color, Trees, 168 Shrubs and Vines, 171 Autumn Flowers, Shrubs, 168 Autumn Fruits, Trees, 170 - Shrubs and Vines, 172 Azalea border, 85 Pinkshell, 171 Aztec gardens, 123-125 Azuma, 163 - Baccharis - halimifolia, 172 Badianus, Juannes, 125 Manuscript, 126 Bagasse: Kraft Ayensee, Barberry, Japanese, 172 - Korean, 172 - 58-59 - Warty, 172 Wintergreen, 172 Barretto, Mrs. Gloria, 19 Basic Books for the Library, don P. Gor- DeWolf, Jr., 107 172 Bayberry, 173 Beautyberry, Japanese, Beech, European, 169 Bee tree, 91 Berberis julianae, 172 koreana, 172 thunbergii, 172 verruculosa, 172 Bergenia cordifolia, 240 Berlin-Dahlen Botanic 166 Betula species, 169 - - Garden, 64 binding leather, 59-60, - Birch, 169 American, 169 Bittersweet, evergreen, 166 Black Haw, 172 172 Bonsai House, 227 Bonsai, Rhododendron indicum, 227 Boston Climatological Data, Summary of, 191 Boston Ivy, 171 Boston Poison Center, 213 Blueberry, Botanical 9-19 - Collecting, Hong Kong, 19-20 . Japan, ii - I - Korea, 19 Botanic Garden 166 - (Berlin-Dahlen), U. at authority for Ilex, Cherry, Sargent, 169 Cheng, Peter, 15 99 (Harvard CamUniver- 166 Botanical Garden bridge), - (City 20 of - sity of Osaka), (University 166 - Bucharest), of Kyoto), 20 of Tokyo), 20 Botanical Institute of Leningrad, 166 Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum (B-P-H), 7 Bridalwreath spiraea, 172 Bromfield, Louis, 100 Brush chipper, 220 Burning Bush, 171 Bussey Institution, 97-98 Buxus, 15 - (University (University Cabot Foundation, 98 Calcium arsenate, 44 Callicarpa japonica, 172 Camellia granthamiana, 10, 11, 12 Can Man Chinese Cork Tree, 163 Chinese Gooseberries, 180 Chionanthus virginicus 'Floyd,' 253 Chokeberry, 171 Chung Chi College, 9-18, 22 Churchyard Yews and Immortality, The, V. Cornish, 140 Cibotium barometz, 13 City University of Osaka, Botanical Garden, 20 Clark, William Smith, 163 Classes, Fall 1970, 197 Spring 1970, cover 3, no. 2 Clematis dioscoreifolia var. robusta, 172 Sweet Autumn, 172 Climate at the Arnold Arboretum, Alfred James Fordham, 186193 Cochineal insect, 134 Cockspur Thorn, 170 - Cocoxochitl, 129, 133 Coffee-Tree, Kentucky, 170 Survive?, 77-79 Cohuanenepilli, Color charts, 83 Conifers, 27 126 Cape gooseberries, 180 Carbaryl (Sevin), 45 Card Index of plants, 81 Care and Preservation of Library Materials, George H. M. Lawrence, 56-66 Carissa grandiflora 'Seminole Queen,' 251 Carya ovata 'Holden,' 251 Case Estates, 92-99, 166 temperature, 193 Case, Miss Louisa, 92 Miss Marion R., 92 Castor-aralia, 171 Cavanilles, Antonio Jose, 122, 135 Celastrus, 98 Cephalanthus occidentalis var. pubescens, 257 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 169 Cercis canadensis, 169 'Royal white,' 252 'Silver Cloud,' 253 Chaenomeles, 97 Change of place for registration - Conservancy Society of Hong Kong, 18 8 Conservation, Hong Kong, 18 Convent of Huaxtepec, 134 Coralberry, Chenault, 173 Cork Tree, Amur, 171 Cork Trees, The, Helen Roca-GarCornus - cia, 162-166 florida, 169, 170 sericea, 26 - 'Flaviramea,' 26 stolonifera 'Isanti', 253 Coronilla varia 'Penngift', 158 Cortes, Hernan, 123, 125 Cotinus obovatus, 171 Cotoneaster, 172 Crabapples, 84, 94, 171 Crab Apples for America, 84 Cranberry Bush, American, 173 European, 173 Crataegus collection, - Mainte- and removal, 84 Crataegus crus-galli, 170 nance lll iii - lavallei, 170 monogyna, 170 nitida, 169, 170 oxycantha, 170 - fortunei 'Coloratus,' 158 radicans var. - - vegeta, 166 199 - - Winged, 171 Evenings with Friends II, - - phaenopyrum, 169 44 praecox, 86 Evodia danielli, 170 - Crook, A. H., 22 Korean, 170 Crop protection, Cytisus Exochorda 'Carol Ann 254 Bianco,' Case Es- Experimental Research, Dahlia, The: An Early History, Paul D. Sorensen, 121-138 Dana Greenhouses, 186 Daphne burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie,' 253 Darrow, George, 19 deCandolle, Alphonse, 136 Department of Public Health, 36 DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr., and Silber, Mark, Yews in Fiction and Fact, 139 DeWolf, Gordon P., Jr., 2 - tates, 97 Fagus grandifolia, sylvatica, 169 - 169 Fall Classes of the Arnold Arboretum ( 1970 ), 197-199 Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, 85, 157 Drawings for Christmas Cards, 195 Feder, Dr. William, 43 Ferns, Hong Kong, 21-22 Film preservation, 63-64 Faxon Basic Books for the Library, 107 What Can We Do About Pollu175- Fires, 84 Flemer, William III, Plant with Nature, 100 Flora Japonica, 145 Flowering Plants of tion ?, 33-55 - Suburban Economics, 179 Hong Kong, The, 22 Dicofol, 45 Dillon, Gordon W., 2 d'lncarville, Father, 180 Dioscorides, 23 Director's Report, Fiscal Year ended June 30, 1970, 201 Disposal of solid wastes, 179 Diospyros virginiana, 170 Distribution of New Plants, 8589 Dogwood, Flowering, 169, Drainage, 103 Draper, Henry, 94 dry mount, 63 Elaeagnus, Autumn, - 170 Flower Shows, 91-92 Fluorescent light, 64 Food for Birds, 116 Fordham, Alfred J., 20, 182 Climate at the Arnold Arboretum, 186-193 and Kennedy, Robert C., International Plant Propagators' Society, Nineteenth Annual Meeting, 117-119 Fortune, Robert, 180 Fothergilla, 171 major, 157 - 172 multiflora, 174 umbellata, 172 Elsholtzia stauntonii, 168 Emmart, Emily, 126 Environmental Pollution, 33-55 Environment, Changes in, 176 - Early New England, 176, 177 Preservation of, 176, 177 Euonymus, 172, 173 - 62 Frances Williams and her Garden Adventures, Gertrude S. Wister, 148-154 Franklinia, 168 alatamaha, 168, 169 Fung, Theresa, 18, 22 Foxing stain, - alatus, 171 Galanthus caucasius, 78 Garden Club of America, visit to the Arnold Arboretum, 243 Gardener's Dictionary, Phillip Miller, 144 iv I Hong Kong, - Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens, The, Nils Hylander, 150 George Robert White Medal, 156 Georgina, 136 Gerard, John, 24 Ginkgo, 169 biloba, 169 Girdling Vines, 91 Gleditsia triacanthos, 170 Goat willow, 141 Golden-rain Tree, 171 Greenstone Pie, 185 Ground Cover plants, 95 Groundsell Bush, 172 Growing Season, 191 Gum, Black, 169 Sweet, 169 Gymnocladus dioica, 170 - 9 Flora of, 22 map, 16-17 Natural History - - Society, 10 Report from, Shiu-Ying Hu, Halesia monticola, 170 Hamamelis, 171 mollis, cover 1, - no. 2 9-22 Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970, Donald Wyman, 81 Hortus Kewensis, 137 Hosta sieboldiana, 148 sieboldiana, 'Frances Williams,' 152 undulata, 149 Hosta plot, 98 Howard, Heman, 83, 138 Howard, Richard A., A Change in Arnoldia, 1 Huango-po, 163 Huaxtepec, 124-125 Hupeh, Western, 163 Hu, Shiu-Ying, Report from Hong - virginiana, 168 Handbook of Hollies, 67-71 Hardiness map, Arboretum, 83 - Kong, 9-22 - Notes on the Genus Ilex Lin- naeus, 67 Harvard University Botanic at Cam- Humidification, library, 65 Hunt Botanical Library, 2 Hurricane of 1938, 82 bridge, - Garden, 166 Hawthorn, English, 170 Glossy, 169, 170 Lavalle, 170 Single Seed, 170 - Hydrangea 'Tokyo Delight,' 20 Hylander, Nils, Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens, The, 150 Washington, 169, 170 Heat, library, 65 Hebb, Robert S., Notes from the Arnold Arboretum, 25-26, 7274, 116, 168-173, 251-260 Helianthus tuberosus, 247 Hemerocallis, 9, 19, 20, 97 minor, 19 - Ichang Gooseberry, Icones et 181 Descriptiones Planta- rum, 135 Ilex - aquifolium, 67-70, 69 change in place of registration authority, 99 crenata, 172 - 97 Hernandez, Francisco, 128 Hibiscus species, 207 Historia Naturalis, 115 History of Botany, 115 Hokkaido, 163 Hollies, 96 Holly, American, 170 Japanese, 172 Longstalk, 170 Holly, Yew and Box, W. Dallimore, 141-142 Holmes, Dr. F. W., 38 Honeylocust, Common, 170 Hemerocallis Society, glabra, 172, 206 International Registration, 99 - Linnaeus, Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu, - 67-71 X meserveae, 68, 69 - nomenclatural opaca, 170 211 rugosa, history, 67 - . - pedunculosa, 156, 170, 206, 67-71, 68 verticillata, 172 Illicium, from Hong Kong, 15 Imperial Garden (St. Petersburg, Russia), 163, 166 - - - v Index to Arnoldia, 200 Industrial Pollution, 33-34, 38, Leather binding, 59-60, 64 Lecture Series \"Meet the Staff\" 41, 43 172 Inks, 60-61 International Plant Propagators' Society, Nineteenth Annual 9 Meeting, 117-119 Registration Authority for cultivated Ilex, 99 Introduction and Distribution of New Plants, 85 Spring 1970, - 90 Inkberry, - Fall, see Evening with Friends, II, 199 Lee, J. B., 19 Legislation: Pollution, 34-37 Lespedeza bicolor, 168 Library collections, 2-8 Library of Congress, 6 Library materials, care ervation and pres- Jack, John George, 163 Jade Jewel, 184 Japanese Cork Tree, 166 Josselyn, John, 24 Judd, William H., 81 Juniperus chinensis 'Sargentii,' 158 of, 56-66 Lightning damage, 222, 223 Ligustrum species, 172 Lilies, 96 Linnaeus collection, 60-61 Liquidambar styraciflua, 169, 171 Liriodendron - Jussieu, Bernard, 180 Kalmia latifolia, 207 Kalopanax pictus, 171 Katsura Tree, 169 Kennedy, Robert C. and Fordham, Alfred J., International Plant Propagators' Society, Nineteenth Annual Meeting, 117-119 Kew, 137 tulipifera, 102 'Ardis', 254 Lonicera henryi, 158 Low Maintenance Garden, 93, 94, 234 Lycium chinense, 158 Lysichiton camtschatense, 20 Lysidice rhodostegia, 15 Macao, 180 ' ' Magnolia grandiflora, X loebneri, 95 - 12 Star, 172 - stellata, 155, 172, 206 Kitamura, S., 19 Kiwi Fruit, 180-185 Upside Down Cake, 185 - Sweetbay, 172 Koelreuteria 19 paniculata, 58-59 171 virginiana, 172 Maidenhair Tree, 169 Malathion, 45 - Malus - Korea, collecting Hemerocallis in, Kraft Aysensee, - x adstringens 'Kelsey', 'Rodney', 255 'Sparkler', 255 `American Beauty', 255 254 Landscape architecture, Wzth Nature see Plant Landscape planting, Ecological requirements, 102 Landscaping, 84 Larch, Golden, 169 Lavalle Cork Tree, 163 Lawrence, George H. M., 2 - Dr. George H. M., Care and Preservation of Library Materials, 56-66 Laws, Pollution, 35-36 Lead arsenate, 44 'Cameron', 255 -'Donald Wyman', 116, 147, 256 'Henrietta Crosby', 94 'Maybride', 256 -'Pink Charming', 258 'Pink Perfection', 256 -'Royal Ruby', 258 sargentii, 167 sieboldi, 147 'Snowcloud', 258 species and cultivars, 171 - - . - - - - - Manglietia fordiana, 12 Manuscripts: preservation of, 57 vi Mao-erh-tao, 181 Nopal Cactus, 16-17 168 134 Map, Hong Kong, Maple, Fullmoon, Japanese, 169 - Norietis, Arturs, 186 Notes from the Arnold Arboretum, 25-26, 72-74, 116, 155158, 168-173, 251-260 - on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus, Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu, 67-71 Nuttall, Zelia, 123 Nyssa sylvatica, 169 - Nikko, 168 Red, 169 82 Striped, 169 Swamp, 169 Map of grounds, - Martinus de la Cruz, 125 Massachusetts Agricultural College, 163 College of Pharmacy, 84 Horticultural Society, 2 - Oak, Black, 169 - Pin, 169 laws, Pollution, 35-36 Maximowicz, C. J., 166 Medicinal plants, Garden of, 84 Mercer Research Fellows, 1970, 234 Merrill, Dr. E. D., 85 Merry, Mrs. Percy L., 97 Metasequoia glyptostroboides, 228 Methoxychlor, 45, 207 9 Meyer, F., 19 Mexican History (Botanical), 122-132 Microclimates, 187 Microfilm, 5, 58 Miller, Phillip, 144 Mint Shrub, 168 Moctezuma, 123-124 Moosewood, 169 Mountain-Ash, European, 169 Korean, 169 Mt. Rocco, Alpine Garden, 19, 20 Mulch display plots, 94, 237 Myrica pensylvanica, 173 - Red, 169 Scarlet, 169 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 84 Orchids, Hong Kong, 15, 19 Origin of Cultivated Plants, The, - 114 Ortega, 137 Over-pollution, 34-36 Oxydendrum arboreum, 169, Ozone, Air pollution, 43 Palmer, Ernest, - 171 83 E. J., 34 Pamphlets, Preservation, 56 Paper preservation treatment, 61-62 Paradisi in Sole Paradisus Terrestris, 115 Paris Green (copper aceto-arsenite), 44 Parrotia, Persian, 169 Particulates: Air Pollution, 4143 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 158, 171 Passiflora, 128 Payne, C. Harman, 137 Pearfruit Cork Tree, 166 Penultimate manuscript, 57 Permanent nursery area, 95 Persimmon, common, 170 Nahuatl, 125 Nandina domestica 'Moyer Red,' 259 Nannyberry, 172 Narcissus, 96 National Science Foundation, 8 Natural Cycle of Growth, 101 Naturalist in Western China, 163 Nepenthes, Hong Kong, 14 New England Rareties Discovered, 24 New mulching materials, 94 New York Botanical Garden, Library, 6 Nomenclatural history of Ilex, 67 Pesticides, 44-46, 50-55, 178, 179 - Safe, 45-46 - Toxicity 50-55 table and hazards, Phellodendron, 162-166 amurense, 162, 164-165, 171 chinense, 162 japonicum, 166 - - - vii - lavallei, 163 piriforme, 166 - Protection of 44 Crops, pesticides, sachalinense, 163 128 in paper Phillip II, pH 62, 65 Pruning Exhibit, 91 Pruning program, 84 Prunus sargentii, 169 Pseudolarix amabilis, 169 4 Purslane, 114 preservation, 58-59, Photo-chemical smog, 43 material: preservation, 57-58 Photoperiodic response, 101 Photographic Picea Pieris Quercus coccinea, 169 - omorika, 72, 73, 206 floribunda, 157, 206 palustris, 169 phellos, 102 rubra var. - maxima, 169 23 Pinus banhsiana 'Uncle Fogey,' 259 flexilis 'Scratch Gravel,' 259 ponderosa 'Twodot Columnar,' 259 strobus, Witches' Broom seedlings on, 219 Planchon, Jules, 180 Plane Tree, 171 Plantago major, 23, 23-24 medicinal uses, 23, 24 Plantain, 23-24 Plant Distribution, 85 Plant Introduction Garden, Chico, Cal., 182 Plant Registration Notes from the Arnold Arboretum, 251260 Plant with Nature, 100 Platanus species, 171 Platycodon, Hong Kong, 15 Pollution? What Can We Do About, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 33-55. Poplar collection, 84 Population, 175 excess, 34-36 Portulaca oleracea, 114 Potassium lactate, leather preservation, 59-60 Precipitation gauges, 192 Preservation of Library Materials, G. Lawrence, 56-66 Pride, Mr. George, 97 Prinsepia sinensis, 94 Privet, 172 Problems in urban pollution, 33 Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries, John F. Reed, 2-8 Pigweed, - - velutina, 169 - - Rabbit damage, 207 Radiational cooling, 189 Rag paper, 59 Raup, Dr. Hugh M., 187 Real Estate Tax, 175-176 Redbud, Eastern, 169 Reed, John F., Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries, 2-8 - - - 2, 56 Rees, Abraham, Cyclopedia (1819), 24 Rehder, Alfred, 183 - Report from Hong Kong, Ying Hu, 9-22 Report of the Director, 201 Rerum Shiu- Medicarum Novae His- paniae Thesaurus, 129 Research, Staff, 1970, 215-217 Reviews, Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town, Edmund - Dorothy Smith Spices, Frederick Rosengarten, Jr., 29-31 Berkeley & The Book of - Can Man Survive? 77-79 The Early Horticulturists, Ronald Webber, 75-77 Making Things Grow, Thalassa Cruso, 28, 29 Man, Nature, and History, W. M. S. Russell, 120 - Orchids, Floyd S. Shuttleworth, Herbert S. Zim, and Gordon W. Dillon, 159 Oxford Book of Food Plants, G. B. Masefield, M. Wallis, and S. G. Harrison, 160 A Photo Guide to the Patterns of Discoloration and Decay in - - - - viii Living - Northern Hardwood Trees, Alex L. Shigo and Edwin vH. Larson, 196 The Quest for Plants, Alice M. Coats, 75-77 Rhododendrons, 84 Rhododendron carolinianum, 157, 206 indicum Bonsai, 227 - - - periclymenoides, 158, 207 prinophyllum, 158, 207 schlippenbachii, 158, 207 vaseyi, 158, 171, 207 - yedoense var. poukhanense, - 86 Rhus - species, 173 aromatica, 158, 171 A Link with the Past, 1. The Plaintain, 23 Weeds: A Link with the Past, 2. Purslane, 114 The Cork Trees, 166 Rosa species, 173 virginiana, 26, 172 rugosa, 171 wichuriana, 158 Rose, 173 - copallina, 171 glabra, 171 typhina, 171 Roca-Garcia, Helen, Weeds: - Shade Trees, Pollution of, 38-39 Short, Charles, 56 Shrub Bush-clover, 168 Silber, Mark and DeWolf, Gordon, Jr., Yews in Fiction and Fact, 139 Silverbell, Mountain, 170 Small Tree Demonstration Plot, 95 Smog, Photo-chemical, 43 Smoke district, Boston & Vicinity, 40-41 Snowberry, 173 Soil, Pollution, 37-40 Sorbus alnifolia, 169 aucuparia & vars., 169 Soot and Fly Ash, Air Pollution, 41 Sorensen, Paul D., The Dahlia: An Early History, 121-138 Sorrel Tree, 169, 171 - Sourwood, 169, 171 Sovasol, 207 Special Collections, Case Estates, 96 - - - - Rugosa, 171 Virginia, 172 Roxbury-Dorchester Beautification Program, 230-233 - Spiraea prunifolia, 172 Stachys grandiflora, 238 Stephanandra incisa 'Crispa,' 158 Stewartia, Korean, 169 koreana, 169 Strandell, Dr. Birger, 60-61 Sutton, Stephanne, Actinidia chinensis, the Kiwi Fruit, 180- Rutaceae, 162 Safe Pesticides, 45 Sakhalin Cork Tree, 163, 166 Salix caprea, 141 Salt Pollution, 38-39 Sand, planting in, 105 Sargent, Charles Sprague, 1, 81, 182 Sassafras, 169 albidum, 169 Sax, Dr. Karl, 85 Sciadopitys verticillata, 157, 206 Scorgie, Dr. Helen, 96 Seed collection, problems of, 87 Serviceberry, 169 Sevin, (Carbaryl), 45, 207 Sewage, 38 - 185 Suburban Economics, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 175 Sulphur Dioxide, 41 Sumac, 173 Fragrant, 171 Shining, 171 Smooth, 171 Staghorn, 171 Sweet-gum, 171 Sweetleaf, Asiatic, 173 Symphoricarpos albus, 173 x chenaultii, 173 - Symplocarpus foetidus, growing in Japan, 20 Symplocos paniculata, 173 Syringa prestoniae, 94 reticulata, 166 - Taxation, 175-176 I Taxes, 37, 39-40, 46 Taxus, 139-147, 173 baccata, 141, 146 - ix setigerum 173 var. aurantiacum, brevifolia, canadensis, 144, 145 cuspidata, 145 var. capitata, 145 - x hunnewelliana Rehder, 143 - x media Rehder, 143 Temperatures at Arnold Arbore- 145 - trilobum, 173 Yellow Linden, 173 Vinca minor, 148 - - - - creeper, 171 Von Siebold, P. F., 145 Virginia tum, 189-193 differences in, 192 gradients, 189 Thesaurus, 129 Thiery de Menonville, Nicolas Joseph, 134 Thouin, Andre, 136 Tokyo, University of, 163 and Trees Shrubs, Charles Sprague Sargent, 166 Tree of Heaven, 170 Trees for your Community, 95 Tree Lilac, 163 Trips to Europe, 87 Trott, L., 15 Tsuga canadensis 'Watnong Star,' 260 Tupelo, Black, 169 - _ - War Years, 84 Water Pollution, 37-40 Water resources, 178 Wayfaring Tree, 172 Walden, or Life in the Woods, 115 s Weather data, Arnold Arboretum, Jan. 1968-Nov. 1969, 26 Dec. 1969-Jan. 1970, 74 - Feb.-Mar. 1970, 119 April-May 1970, 154 Aug.-Sept. 1970, 260 summary 1969-1970, 199 Weather Station, 188 Weeds: A Link with the Past, 1. The Plantain, Helen Roca-Garcia, 23-24 2. Purslane, Helen Roca-Gar- - cia, 114-115 Weevil, white pine, 74 Weston Garden Club, 93 What can we do about pollution?, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 33-55 White Pine Weevil, 74 Witches' Broom seedlings on, 219 Williams, Frances Ropes, 148 Williams, Robert G., 85 Wildenow, Karl, 136 Wilson, Ernest H., 1, 20, 81, 145, 163 Winter in the Arnold Arboretum, 25-26 Winterberry, 172 Wister, Gertrude S., Frances Williams and Her Garden Adventures, 148-154 Wisteria, 98 Witch-hazel, 168, 171 Witches' Broom seedlings on White Pine, 219 Witherod, 173 3 Woo, Ting-Kwok, 9, 12-13 Wyman, Donald, 1, 82, 183, 200 - Union List of Serials, 7 University of Tokyo, Botanical Garden, - 20 U. S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry, 182 Weather Bureau, 186 U. S. National Arboretum, 19 Vaccinium species, 172 Veitch nurseries, 181 Vellum-bound books, 60 Viburnum, 94 cassinoides, 173 dilatatum, 173 xanthocarpum, 172 lantana, 172 lentago, 172 - Linden, 173 - - - - Mapleleaf, 172 opulus, 173 Orange-fruited tea, pruni f olium, 172 173 x Horticulture at the Arboretum, 1936-1970 Mrs. Donald, 93 Yang-tao, 181 Yang-taw, 182 Yew, 173 Yews in Fiction and Fact, Mark - Silber and Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., 139-147 Yu Expedition, 86 Yung, C. T., 18 Zuccarini, J. G., 145 I 21 about tea until the publication of Juan B. Ramusio's edition of Marco Polo's Travels in 1545. It is not certain whether it was the Dutch or the Portuguese who first introduced tea into Europe very early in the 17th century. It was apparently first brought to the attention of the (British) East India Company in 1615. Between 1615 and 1657 small lots of tea appeared in London (imported from Holland) and sold for between 5 and 10 per pound. In 1657 the proprietor of Garroway's Coffee House obtained a large consignment and began offering the prepared beverage for sale. In 1664 the East India Company presented two pounds two ounces of tea to King Charles II, at a cost to them of 40 shillings per pound. By 1677 the demand was so great that the East India Company finally took steps to obtain a regular commercial supply of tea. From 1660 until 1689 the prepared beverage was taxed in England at the rate of 8 pence per gallon. Beginning in 1689 a duty of 5 shillings per pound was levied, plus 5% ad valorem. The taxes were gradually increased, until about 1770 when they totaled 119% of the original value. It may be recalled that at that period the tax on tea figured in certain disturbances in the American colonies. Tea was first known in the West only as dried leaves, and for a considerable period the true tea plant was unknown to western botanists. Apparently the first living tea plant in Europe was owned by one Captain Goff, a director of the East India Company. It is recorded that he grew it in his orangery, and that he would not part with any propagating material. In due course of events his plant died and the species was temporarily lost to cultivation in the West. In 1763 Carl Gustavus Ekeberg, the captain of a Swedish East Indiaman presented Linnaeus with seedlings of tea that he had germinated and grown on a return voyage from China. Living plants were reintroduced into England about 1770, and Thomas Martyn records that they were introduced into Georgia at about the same time. It is also recorded that the younger Michaux planted tea as an ornamental in the gardens of the Middleton Barony, on the Ashley River, about 15 miles from Charleston, S. C., about 1800. Tea was introduced into Brazil in 1810. In an attempt to facilitate commercial production a colony of Chinese were settled in southern Brazil also. By 1850 the Chinese colony had broken up, but by then tea plants were widely distributed in Brazil. About 1835 the (British) East India Company began planta- 22 tion culture of tea in India. It should be noted that by this time the Dutch had plantations in Indonesia which were pro- ducing tea commercially. Dr. Junius Smith, a lawyer who was one of the founders of the British and American Steam Navigation Co., started a tea plantation on his property near Greenville, S.C., in 1848. Unfortunately he died in 1852 and his plantings were neglected. At about the same time a Dr. William Jones, in Riceboro (or McIntosh), Liberty County, Georgia, set out a tea plantation. In 1858 Robert Fortune was commissioned to obtain propagating material of tea, as is described in the preceding article. Fortune sent about 10,000 tea plants which were increased to 30,000 in a short time. Tea seeds were also imported from Brazil. These were distributed in the southeastern states until the war brought an end to this activity. After the war fresh supplies of seed were imported from Japan. In 1867 it was discovered that seed could be obtained domestically from the plants imported in 1858. Between 1868 and 1876 some 5,000 to 20,000 plants were distributed annually. Between 1877 and 1879 more than 100,000 tea plants were distributed. Apparently the plants grew well, but none of the recipients seem to have produced tea commercially. In 1880 the Hon. W. G. Le Duc, United States Commissioner of Agriculture, engaged a Mr. J. Jackson, a British national who had had experience in tea production in India, to set up a model commercial plantation. The property formerly owned by Dr. Jones, in Liberty County, Georgia, was purchased, and his plantings were the source of samples of tea submitted to the Commission that spring. Mr. Jackson also planted more than 20,000 more tea plants that first year. In the United States tea culture was encouraged sporadically by the government for the next thirty years but with little success. After the publication, in 1912, of Bureau of Plant Industry Bulletin No. 234 \"The Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in the United States,\" official governmental encouragement of tea cultivation seems to have ceased. Gordon DeWolf, Jr. Bibliography LeDuc, W. G., Report of the Commissioner of Agriculture. Appendix : 35-45, 1880. Martyn, T., The Gardener's and Botanist's Rivington et al., 1807. Dictionary. London, 23 Mitchell, Geo. F., The Cultivation and Manufacture of Tea in the United States. U.S.D.A., Bureau of Plant Industry Bul- Report letin 234: 1-40, 1912. of the Commissioner of Patents for the Year 1859-Agriculture : 1-22, 1860. Saunders, W., Tea-culture as a Probable American Industry. U.S.D.A. Special Report No. 18: 1-21, 1879. A Revision of the Genus Camellia. London, Royal Horticultural Society, 1958. Watt, G., Dictionary of the Economic Products of India. Calcutta, Government of India Central Printing Office, 1889. Sealy, J. R., reception was held at the Administration Plain for the Sponsors, Patrons and Donors of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, to meet Miss Stephanne Sutton, on the occasion of the publishing of her book, Charles Sprague Sargent and the Arnold Arboretum. Miss Sutton was present to autograph copies of her book while the Friends enjoyed refreshments and examined the dis- ' plays of Sargent memorabilia. Examples of The Silva of North America, The Forest Flora of Japan, Manual of the Trees of North America, all by Sargent, were on display, as well as books by Alfred Rehder, E. H. Wilson, George Russell Shaw, and other contemporaries of Sargent. Also of interest were examples of \"Garden and Forest,\" a journal of horticulture, with articles signed \"C.S.S.\" Another interesting item was a colored map of North America showing natural divisions of North American forests, prepared under the direction of C. S. Sargent. A collection of photographs of remote parts of China and Tibet, by Joseph Rock, Wilson, and others, were displayed, as well as historic photographs of James Arnold, Joseph Rock, E. H. Wilson, and C. S. Sargent and his family. It was an afternoon of homage to Charles Sprague Sargent and of appreciation to Stephanne Sutton for her fine book. a On December 14 Building in Jamaica "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Perennials for Low Maintenance Gardening Part I","article_sequence":3,"start_page":24,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24525","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260816d.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Perennials for Low Maintenance Part I Gardening Herbaceous perennials have a reputation for being difficult to grow. Many of them are, and numerous favorites of long standing such as the Hardy Aster, Carnation, Delphinium, Lupine, Bee Balm, Phlox, and others require time and effort if good results are to be achieved. Some must be divided frequently to maintain robust vigor, others have to be staked or supported, some have serious insect and disease problems, and many simply do not live up to the promise of permanence so frequently heralded in the catalogs. The Arnold Arboretum constantly receives inquiries for lists of dependable, hardy trees, shrubs, and ground covers, but few people seem aware of the relatively long list of perennials that adapt themselves well to shrub borders or foundation plantings. In fact, there are enough of these perennials so that the old style perennial border could easily come back to favor today if emphasis were placed on selecting those varieties which combine the virtues of a long life with relative indifference to neglect. This past autumn the Practical Gardening Class at the Arnold Arboretum selected as a class project the renovation of a part of the Low Maintenance Garden at the Case Estates. For many years this garden has demonstrated that certain slowgrowing shrubs can be combined with herbaceous perennials to make an attractive display. A number of the shrubs had grown large, and we decided to remove some of these to obtain space for displaying more of the perennials desirable in low maintenance schemes. Selection of the best varieties received much attention, and this article is an outcome of that selection. In this discussion a deliberate attempt has been made to enumerate the disadvantages of many favorite garden plants, and this must be done if one is to end up with a list of the easiest types to grow. Catalogs of nurserymen have a decided 24 tendency to emphasize the advantages of all their for after all, nurserymen have to make a living, too. Most popular books on perennials do list the drawbacks involved, but this is frequently lost among lengthy descriptions and cultural formulae. Some of the plants described here have few faults; others will be dismissed in a seemingly harsh manner. Keeping the above objectives in mind, it is hoped that this will not cause undue alarm to that dedicated group of advanced gardeners who take delight in growing the more difficult plants to perfection. I 25 offerings; Achillea Yarrow, Milfoil, Sneezewort This genus of the Daisy family is for the most part easy to grow and possesses the endearing ability to live on in spite of considerable neglect. Almost all adapt well to poor garden soils. In fact, average to poor soil which is somewhat on the dry side is best for them, as rich moist conditions will lead to weak growth and inferior flowers. The ability to withstand drought in open sunny locations and the finely textured, fern-like foliage which remains in good condition throughout the growing season are other points in favor of this group. Perhaps their worst fault is a tendency to spread rapidly by basal shoots, and ample space must be allotted to them. A. ptarmica (Sneezewort) and its various cultivated forms such as A. 'The Pearl,' A. 'Perry's White,' and A. 'Snowball' have definite invasive tendencies and do best when divided every year. For this reason, despite their value as cut flowers, they cannot be recommended here. A. fzlipendulina (Femleaf Yarrow) and its varieties and hybrids are decidedly the best for use in low maintenance type plantings. The author's favorite is a relatively new variety called 'Moonshine' which has a neat, compact habit and is well fitted for the front of the border. It grows to a height of only eighteen to twenty-four inches and staking is not necessary as is sometimes the case with the taller typical form of A. filipendulina. The silvery grey foliage contrasts with the sulphur-yellow flowers, which are borne over a long period of time in flat-topped umbel-like inflorescences. Beware the glowing descriptions of catalogs which describe this and other varieties as \"blooming from June to the very end of September.\" This condition can only be achieved by faithful attention to the removal of the faded flowers. Few indeed are the perennials which are \"ever blooming\" when left to their own devices. A close second to A. 'Moonshine' is A. 'Coronation Gold,' a taller and more robust form also with yellow flowers. A. 'Gold - 26 i Plate' and A. 'Parker's Variety' are occasionally available. They, too, fit into the above description and well-grown specimens often have flower heads up to six inches across. All varieties in this group provide good cut flowers which, if picked early, can be dried for winter arrangements. A. millefolium (Common Yarrow, Milfoil) is widely naturalized in this country and is occasionally grown in medicinal herb gardens, but it is weedy and hardly worth the trouble in the border. The same holds for A. millefolium f. rasea a form with pinkish red flowers. Several improvements have been derived from this, which can be recommended, and we see offered such varieties as A. 'Fire King,' A. 'Cerise Queen,' and A. 'Crimson Beauty' which have flowers ranging from rosy-red to very deep pink. These grow to a height of one and a half feet and form a rather dense mat of growth which is best divided every third year. Apart from this, they require little additional attention. A. ageratifolia and A. tomentosa are sometimes offered in catalogs for use in the front of the border. These are at best rock garden subjects, and of little use elsewhere. Aconitum - Aconite, Monkshood Plants which prefer to be left alone and which at the same time do not outgrow their welcome must be considered valuable. When they also display attractive glossy foliage throughout the season and provide conspicuous blue flowers which are excellent for cutting, they deserve to be widely grown. Attention is focused from time to time on the poisonous nature of the Monkshoods. Although it is true that no portion of the plant should be eaten, it is unlikely that human beings would find occasion to taste either the leaves or the roots of this plant. That excellent ground cover, Lily of the Valley, produces rather conspicuous red fruits which are also poisonous, but this is seldom held against it when planting time comes. Monkshoods are sometimes planted near Delphiniums to provide a similar vertical effect in late August and September after the Delphinium fades. They resent hot summers and do best in partial shade in slightly acid soil rich in humus. The taller types often have to be staked to look their best, so choice of a shorter variety is advisable where maintenance will be minimal. fischeri with violet-blue flowers stands sturdy and erect at and a half to three feet, whereas its variety A. fischeri var. wilsoni towers to six to eight feet and requires support. A. napellus, the English Monkshood, is quite variable with flowers A. two 27 blue to violet and its foliage is more finely divided than the others. It, too, may require support. The best of several cultivars of A. napellus is A. 'Bressingham Spire' and although it is difficult to find, it is in the trade in this country, and well worth the effort to locate. The flowers are a deep violet-blue. The three-foot terminal spikes are followed by several secondary spikes from halfway up the stem. These prolong the flowering period by a few weeks and do not detract from the upright \"Gothic\" form of the plant. As to staking, one well-known English writer states that the stems are \"strong enough to resist a tornado.\" Amsonia - Amsonia Amsonia tabernaemontana is an American plant native from Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. It has been neglected by gardeners and yet it is one of the easiest plants to grow that we have. It is insect and disease free, slow-growing and never invasive, does equally well in moist or dry soils, is easily transplanted, never needs staking, does well in sun or partial shade (perhaps a little better in shade), and the foliage remains in excellent condition throughout the growing season. The tough stems are said to be quite resistant to wind and the plant will thrive in seaside gardens. Perhaps this long list of virtues will pardon Amsonia for not being the showiest plant in the border when in blossom. However, the steel-blue flowers in terminal panicles are most attractive when at their best in May. The plant usually attains a height of three to four feet and a few nurseries list a \"dwarf variety\" of A. tabernaemontana which grows from two to three feet tall. This latter is probably not a variety at all, but another native species, A. ciliata, which is suitable for growing at the front of the herbaceous border. ranging from Anchusa - Alkanet, Bugloss Some plants are best admired in other people's gardens; perhaps this is one. A. azurea the Italian Alkanet blooms for a long period and has true-blue flowers, a color which is always welcome. It is not particular as to soil, provided it is well drained. However, while it requires no staking it is coarse and bristly, and as it grows to a height of five feet, it is suited to the back of the border only. After about the second year the plants invariably start to deteriorate. It also has a habit of seeding in and taking over territory not assigned to it, thus becoming a 28 nuisance in a small garden. A. 'Royal Blue' is a dwarf threefoot cultivar now available in this country. It appears to be a vast improvement and if one must have Alkanet, this is the one to try. It should not require staking, but will have to be divided after the second or third year if it is not to peter out. Anchusa mysotidiflora is listed in many catalogs. This is properly Brunnera macrophylla (see below), a much more worthy garden subject than the true Alkanet. Columbine Unless one can provide excellent drainage, Columbines are apt to be transitory in nature and of no value to those who have little time to continuously replace plants. They should be tried, however, for if they find conditions to their liking they seed in over large areas on their own, and seedlings in any unwanted places are quite easy to control. Many of the fancy long-spurred varieties show a decided tendency to degenerate to all sorts of \"mongrels\" when seeding occurs, but A. 'Copper Queen,' A. 'Crimson Star,' A. 'Snow Queen,' and A. 'Rose Queen' have the reputation for reproducing surprisingly true. Columbines have another bad feature which must be taken into consideration if space is limited. Often they suffer from leaf miners which are difficult to control and when the brief show of flowers is gone, one is left with a not-too-beautiful display of debilitated foliage. There are a large number of species and cultivated strains to choose from. The alpine sorts are difficult and should be avoided by the novice. A. 'Mrs. Scott Elliot' and A. 'McKana's Giants' are old favorites of vigorous growth and fairly easy cul- Aquilegia - ture. Artemisia Artemesia, Wormwood Soft silver or gray foliage can be used in a number of ways in the perennial border, either to provide notes of accent or as contrast to such colors as blue, red, pink, or yellow. Of the plants which possess this characteristic, Dianthus (Pinks and Carnations) are difficult to grow in the Boston area and other places where summers are hot and dry; Santolina is not reliably hardy; Lavandula officinalis, the true Lavender, and its variety L. officinalis var. nana and various hybrids will survive, but in exposed situations they may require winter protection; Stachys olympica and Cerastium tomentosum have excellent gray foliage and are hardy, but both have definite invasive tendencies. One variety of Artemisia is reliably hardy and very suitable - 29 for planting in low maintenance schemes. This is a cultivated form of A. schmidtiana var. nana known as 'Silver Mound.' It forms a rounded, mound-like plant about one foot high and a foot and a half in diameter. One failing is that if planted in too rich a soil, growth is lush and the mound of foliage flops and opens in the middle. It would be best to consider this plant where hot, sunny conditions prevail and soil conditions are relatively poor. A. albula 'Silver King,' and A. albula 'Silver Queen' are frequently offered in catalogs. They form a mass of silver gray leaves on stems two to three feet tall and provide excellent dried leaves for winter arrangements. However, they are disappointingly short lived if not divided annually and they cannot tolerate wet winters. Aster Aster Asters can be given very little attention here, and the Hardy gardener who has a minimum of time is advised to stay away from this group. The well-known Michaelmas daisies of English gardens are all cultivated varieties of our own native New York Aster, A. novi-belgii. Annual spring division is almost a necessity if good shape is desired. So, too, is staking and cutting back in midsummer. Numerous other species and varieties are available and some of the dwarf cultivars are excellent, both for the perennial border and for the rock garden, but they all should be divided every second or third year. - Hardy Astilbe Astilbe Astilbes suffer from the same affliction as the Asters, they need to be transplanted every few years to maintain their vigor. This is unfortunate because the flowers of the modern Astilbe hybrids can be obtained in a number of very pleasing pastel shades. They have become an almost indispensable feature of waterside plantings and thrive where soils are moist and rich. Partial shade is beneficial where moist conditions cannot be relied upon throughout the summer. Astilbes would be my personal choice over Asters, Chrysanthemums, Carnations, or Delphiniums if I could grow only one group of perennials which require extra attention. This is due largely to the attractive feathery panicles of flowers which range in color from purple to red, pink, or white. Some of the best Astilbes offered today are cultivars of A. x arendsii produced by George Arens of Ronsdorf, Germany. They usually - Fig. 8: Low maintenance garden at the Case Estates. Photo. P. Bruns. 31 grow to about two feet tall, but under ideal conditions they may reach three and a half feet. A. 'Federsee' (rosy red) and A. 'Irene Rotseiper' (lilac rose) are of robust growth and better able to withstand dry conditions than most. Other good cultivars are A. 'Etna' (garnet red), A. 'Fire' (intense salmon red), A. 'Garnet' (deep rose), A. 'Red Sentinel' (deep brick-red), A. 'Rheinland' (bright pink), and A. 'Vesuvius' (fiery red). Baptisia - False or Wild Indigo might be phiniums that B. australis (the False Indigo) desirable for those who have difficulties with Deland Lupines. If grown specifically for this purpose it may prove to be a rather poor substitute, but the plant is of value in many other ways. It does not require a rich soil, has no serious insect or disease problems, will live on for a number of years in one spot, and will not become invasive. Although it will tolerate full sun, best results are obtained in partial shade. The indigo-blue flowers are borne in terminal racemes on stems reaching three to four feet. After flowering in May, attractive inflated black pods develop, which are useful in dried arrangements. Baptisia australis is also a member of that group of plants whose foliage remains in good condition all summer. B. tinctoria (the Wild Indigo) has small yellow flowers followed by small black pods. It is better suited for wild areas than flower borders. It has been suggested Brunnera Dwarf Anchusa, Siberian Bugloss Brunnera macrophylla (Syn. Anchusa myosotidiflora) is a very easy plant to grow where conditions are shady and the soil is moist. It is extremely hardy and tolerates much neglect. Of particular value are the branched racemes of tiny true-blue starlike flowers which are darker than those of Forget-me-nots. The plant blossoms during April and May and can be used for a ground cover in shady places. It can also be used individually and in small groupings in the flower border. - Blue Leadwort Ceratostigma Ceratostigma plumbaginoides is most frequently listed in catalogs as Plumbago larpentae. It is a desirable little plant - which produces clusters of light blue flowers mer and early fall. The plant is hardy if it is ditions, rich soil, and excellent drainage. during late sumgiven sunny con- 32 Six to eight inches is its maximum height, and when left undisturbed a single plant will form a clump twelve to eighteen inches across. In the fall the leaves turn to a bronze-green and this color intensifies with cooler weather. Chrysanthemum - Hardy Chrysanthemum, Pyrethrum, Shasta Daisy This very large group of the Daisy family contains a great number of subjects which are nearly indispensable in the herbaceous border, but there are several problems when considering them in a planting designed for a minimum of maintenance. The \"Hardy Mums,\" by far the most widely planted of the group are best if divided every year (or at least every other year). Similarly, Cushion varieties should be divided every other spring. Winter protection is often necessary as the root systems are shallow and subject to heaving during alternate periods of freezing and thawing. Chrysanthemum coccineum (the Painted Daisy or Pyrethrum) and varieties of C. maximum (The Shasta Daisy) must also be divided every second or third year, and not all cultivars are dependable over a wide range of conditions. Whole books have been written which describe the many varieties of Chrysanthemum. This will not be attempted here due to their limited value in the low maintenance garden. ' Cimicifuga- Snakeroot, Bugbane, Cohosh These are rather stately plants five to eight feet tall which, when well established, can be left alone for many years. The small white flowers are produced on long racemes well above the shiny compound leaves. They are best used as single specimens in the herbaceous border but adapt themselves equally well to massing at the edge of a pond or stream. A moist soil with a high organic content will suit them best. Two species are commonly available. C. racemosa (Black Snakeroot or Bugbane) will, under ideal circumstances reach a height of nearly eight feet although it grows from five to six feet under normal conditions. It blooms from late June to early August, the flowering period being prolonged by the production of lateral branches. C. simplex, the Kamchatka Bugbane, reaches a maximum height of three feet and blooms in late September and October. Clematis The - Clematis numerous climbing woody comes to manding when it varieties of Clematis the proper conditions for good are de- growth. 33 This is not so with the herbaceous kinds, but few amateur gardeners know of their value. Although not as showy as the climbers, they bloom over a long period during the summer and, once established, become permanent additions to the garden. They require rich, well drained soil and benefit from occasional applications of lime. Full sun or partial shade is satis- factory. C. integrifolia 'Coerulea' has large porcelain-blue bell-shaped flowers. Although it attains a height of only two feet, the stems have a tendency to flop if not supported. Where this cannot be done, allow plenty of room so that the plant will not crowd its neighbors. When given a moderately moist situation, or if watered during dry spells, it will bloom from June to August. C. recta var. mandshurica is valuable for its white flowers in terminal and axillary clusters during June and July. It is very vigorous and best seen as a single specimen near the back of the border. Again, one should allow ample room for this vigorous grower. C. heracleaefolia var. davidiana (sold as C. davidiana) flowers later than the above; its blue flowers are welcome in August and September. The fragrant tubular flowers are produced in terminal and axillary clusters on stems two and a half to three feet high. The compound foliage has a decidedly coarse appearance and it would be best not to feature this plant in the most prominent part of the border. Coreopsis - Tickseed A few members of this large genus of the Daisy family are excellent for the low maintenance border, but many lack complete hardiness or are best seen naturalized in a wild garden. All are of value for their showy yellow flowers which last well when cut. One of the best is the Thread-Leaf Coreopsis, C. verticillata. It makes dense clumps about two feet tall, and although individual flowers are small, they are freely produced among the finely textured leaves. It blooms from June to September. Another good feature of this plant is the ability to withstand dry soil conditions. C. verticillata 'Golden Shower' is about six inches taller and has larger deeper yellow flowers. C. grandiflora is perhaps the showiest of the group, but too often it behaves as a biennial and for that reason cannot be considered here. C. lanceolata is similar in appearance and of greater value. The showy two-foot plants will withstand much neglect if planted in a sunny location. 34 The best tall species to grow is C. tripteris. It has slightly fragrant flowers one and a half inches across, which are pale yellow with a disk that turns brown or purple. It blooms in August, and although plants may reach six feet at the rear of the border, staking is not required and established clumps need not be disturbed for many years. Delphinium - Delphinium Few plants can approach the modern strains of D. elatum for their bold effect in the border, but this is a decidedly finicky group and cannot be guaranteed as long-lived under normal conditions. One new strain called D. 'Connecticut Yankees' may well be the answer for those who would like to grow the Delphinium but cannot cater to its many whims. These come in an excellent color range, and form well-branched bush-type plants seldom over thirty inches tall and resembling species Delphiniums in habit. These were tried at the Arnold Arboretum for the first time last summer and although they were given almost no attention, excellent results were obtained. Undoubtedly they are more permanent than taller Delphinium hybrids, but we do not know at this point how long they will last under our conditions. Dianthus Pink, Carnation This is another large genus which cannot receive much attention here. Some varieties are not very hardy and the group as a whole is disappointing throughout most of this country where summers are hot and dry. A notable exception is the Cheddar Pink, D. gratianopolitanus, which understandably, is more frequently listed under the synonym D. caesius. This has admirably survived exposed conditions in the Ground Cover Plots at the Case Estates. Its only fault is that it forms such a thick mat that portions die out from time to time and division must be resorted to. Plants form a dense, low mat of foliage with small fringed flowers in shades of pink borne on six-inch stems. D. 'Rose Queen' is an interesting selection with double bright-rose flowers. - Dicentra Bleeding Heart, Lyre Flower, Dutchman's Breeches For permanence the best of this group is D. spectabilis, the Bleeding Heart or Lyre Flower, which is a true aristocrat of the border for the short period when it is in bloom. A well-established plant forms a large clump with arching sprays of pink heart-shaped flowers in late May and June. It prefers a rich - 35 soil with a high organic-matter content and results are always best if light shade can be provided. Specimen plants are preferable to groupings because they take up a lot of room, and the foliage has a tendency to die down in the hot part of the summer, leaving a large gap in the border. This would be unfortunate were it not for the fact that Gypsophila paniculata (Baby's Breath) and its varieties can be used effectively nearby. By the time the Bleeding Heart is ready to disappear Gypsophila is ready to fill in the gaps. An alternative is to use the empty spaces for the planting of annuals. D. spectabilis var. alba is occasionally available. This has a very delicate constitution and is really not worth bothering with. D. eximia is of great value for its long flowering period from May to August. The dissected leaves are grayish blue, remain attractive throughout the growing season, and make a good contrast to the pink flowers. Under normal circumstances it will have to be divided every third or fourth year. D. eximia 'Bountiful' is a relatively new cultivar said to be the result of a cross between D. eximia and D. oregana. Flowers are a deeper pink, almost fuchsia-red. All during the summer a few flowers are produced, but in the autumn it blooms almost as freely again as it did in the spring. D. cucularia, Dutchman's Breeches, requires woodland conditions and is not a fitting subject for the herbaceous border. ' To be continued ROBERT S. HEBB "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weeds, A Link with the Past: Tansy","article_sequence":3,"start_page":37,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24529","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d270a328.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"Weeds: A Link with the Past ' 3. Tansy Tansy (Tanacetum vulgare) is a tall, robust, aromatic plant with cut leaves and deep yellow flowers, which brightens the meadow and stream edges of the Arboretum in July and August. It is a native of Europe, but was observed in North America in 1748 by the botanist and explorer Peter Kalm. Originally tansy was valued as a medicinal plant; a monk named Walahfrid Strabo mentioned it in 840 A.D. in a Latin poem: The doctors use it for the power it has A draught of it clears away as much blood inside As the size of the dose you take of this nourishing brew. John Gerard, in the 16th century, wrote that cakes were made of it in England in the spring, which were called \"Tansies,\" and he commented, \"Which be pleasant in taste and good for the stomacke.\" William Coles reported in The Art of Simpling in 1656, \"Wild Tansy laid to soak in buttermilk for nine days and then applied as a wash to the face has the reputation for making the complexion very faire.\" A cookbook published in 1741, A New and Accurate Treatise of Cookery etc. According to the Politest and most Improved Taste, gives directions for an elaborate pudding called A Tansy. It contrasts markedly with our present-day cholesterol-conscious cooking: Take twenty yolks, and eight whites of eggs, beat them well and strain them into a quart of thick cream; one nutmeg, and three naples-baskets [biscuits ?] grated, as much juice of spinach, with a little Tansy; sweeten it to your palate, then butter a dish well, and set it in an oven fit to bake custards; watch it, and when it is done take it out and turn it on a pye plate; scrape sugar and squeeze orange over it. Garnish the dish with orange and lemon and serve it up. 37 38 many cookbooks of the eighteenth cenbe a synonym for \"pudding.\" In A Collection of tury appears Above Three Hundred Receipts in Cookery, Physick and Surgery for the Use of all Good Wives, Tender Mothers and Careful Nurses by \"Several Hands,\" written in 1749, a recipe is given for a baked pudding containing milk, eggs, spinach juice and \"As much sugar as will make it very sweet.\" It contains no tansy, but is titled, A very good Tansy. Another book of the same period gives directions for making An Apple Tansy which consists of fried apple slices in a sweetened and flavored omelette; and A Gooseberry Tansy which is similar but uses gooseberries. However, the use of the plant as a medicine and a household item continued; it was used to get rid of intestinal worms and to treat gout; it added color and flavor to cheese; and was rubbed into meat to ward off the attacks of the fleshfly. As late as 1819 directions for planting tansy were included in the Practical American Gardener. But our modern tastes do not appreciate the strong honest flavors of the past and tansy is no longer needed by Good Wives, Tender Mothers and Careful Nurses. name The \"Tansy\" in to Helen Roca-Garcia Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses October, November and December 1970. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":39,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24524","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d2608128.jpg","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Wild Flowers of Greece, paintings by Niki Goulandris, text Constantine N. Goulimis, edited by W. T. Stearn. memories of the by Visitors to Greece return to their homes with unforgettable beauty of the architectural treasures of a past era, and enthusiastic over the natural loveliness of the native wild flowers. This handsome volume indicates clearly that the wild flowers are equally appreciated by some local citizens. Constantine N. Goulimis, a successful lawyer, spent the last twenty years of his life collecting specimens of native plants and compiling notes on them. Mrs. Niki A. Goulandris, an extremely talented artist of Athens, has painted many of the specimens Mr. Goulimis gathered. Life-sized reproductions of 103 species are included within this volume. Dr. William T. Steam of the British Museum (Natural History) revised and edited the text; and the volume has been issued as the first publication of the Goulandris Botanical Museum, an institution formed to further studies of the Flora of Greece. Sir George Taylor of the Royal Botanical Gardens, Kew, has written an introduction including a brief historical summary of studies of the plants of Greece and of the collaboration of British botanists with local scholars. The multiple collaboration resulted in a splendid reference volume sure to charm the browser, offer botanical information to the professional botanist, and direct the tourist to the right time and the right place to see the wild flowers of Greece at their best. The decision to prepare a series of illustrated volumes on the flora of Greece was made in 1954. During the next nine years the collector worked closely with the artist to coordinate botanical notes with paintings of living plant materials. The accuracy and beauty of the illustrations reveal that a mutual understanding was achieved. The text was unfinished at the time of Dr. Goulimis' death, and Dr. Stearn explains his role as editor in his preface to the volume. The author decided that formal descriptions were not necessary since the paintings were life size, and as references would be given to standard floras published through 1934. For the new species described from Dr. Goulimis' collections, or published subsequent to 1934, the editor has republished the original description, in Latin, so that Wild Flowers 39 40 of Greece is in a sense an illustrated supplement to the basic botanical description. A paragraph on the distribution of each species offers not only the location and altitude but the flowering period as well. The text accompanying the plates commonly makes reference to monographs or the pertinent comments of other authors. The nomenclature and arrangement of the Flora Europea has been adopted for families already treated. Many of the plants illustrated are in cultivation in Europe and in the United States, and the reference to Gardener's Chronicle and the Botanical Magazine are welcome as these often supply cultural information. In work of this excellent visual appeal the author's opening are often read quickly if at all. In this volume they form a major contribution. This is not only a personal account of some 220 expeditions representing journeys of over 200,000 miles and the ascent of over 70 mountains on the mainland and the islands of Greece, but an excellent phytogeographic account of the area where many of these unusual species occur. Dr. Goulimis calls them \"botanical paradises\" and his enthusiasm is contagious. Greek history and mythology play a role in the origin of plant names and the uses of plants. The author frequently includes such information in the introduction or the commentaries on a statements species. For those individuals interested in the preservation of wild flowers Dr. Goulimis offers pertinent observations on the results of their protection in Greece. The area around Mt. Athos, where 20 endemic species occur, received its initial protection from grazing animals in a ruling of the Emperor of Byzantium, Vassilios the Macedonian, who ruled from 866 to 886 A.D. This may be therefore the world's oldest established wild flower sanctuary. Wild Flowers of Greece is a folio volume not convenient for transport in the field. Perhaps someday the Goulandris Botanical Museum or the distributors will consider a volume of reduced page size which could be enjoyed in the field and used for identification. Goulimis, Constantine N., and Goulandris, Niki A., edited by W. T. Stearn, Wild Flowers of Greece. Kifissia, Greece, The Goulandris Botanical Museum, 1970. Distributed by Academic Press, New York. xxxii + 214 pages, 103 plates in color (unnumbered), folio, index. $40.00. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23286","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d1708127.jpg","title":"1971-31-1","volume":31,"issue_number":1,"year":1971,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Chronological List of Arnoldia Articles, 1941-1969","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24519","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260b328.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":7,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"CHRONOLOGICAL LIST OF ARNOLDIA ARTICLES, 1941-1969 Volume 1, 1941 1 A Simple Change in Name, E. D. Merrill *The White Flowering Rhodora * 1941 Sources for Rare Woody Plants *1941 Sources for Rare Woody Plants, Supplementary List The One-Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Charles Sprague *Winter Foliage Color of Narrowleaved Evergreens *Broad Leaved Evergreens in Good Condition with Green Foliage Throughout the Winter (Oct. *Winter Ghent 1942-April 1943) Injury in the Arnold Arbo- retum, 1942-43 Sargent (anonymous) *Rhododendron Injury *Winter Injury and Serious Pests To Fought Now syriacus, George Graves Nut Growing in the Northeastern Be Hybrid Azaleas are Hardy in England, Bessie Collier Ellery *Crab Apples for Ornamental Fruit *Woody Plants with Yellow or White Fruits Growing in the New Hibiscus States, L. H. MacDaniels *Elms Grown in America Volume 2, 1942 Flowers of the Chinese New Year, Franklin P. Metcalf *Nursery Sources for Nut Trees Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia, Charles F. Jenkins *The Highbush Blueberry *The One Hundred \"Best\" Lilacs The Medicinal Plant Garden of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, Heber W. Youngken Arnold Arboretum *Simple Key to the Pines *Simple Foliage Key to the Hemlocks and Spruces *A Simple Foliage Key to the Firs Volume 4, 1944 Food Plants in the Arnold Arboretum, Ernest J. Palmer *Short Guide to Care of the Garden During War Time *Rhododendron Winter Injury *Spring Displays in the Arnold Arboretum, 1944 *How to Spend an Hour in the Arnold Arboretum Emergency Food Manuals, E. D. Merrill *Autumn Color *Available Rapid Growing Vines for the United States Expeditions to the Alaska Military * Euonymus An Amateur's Observations on Har- diness from Growing Rhododendrons in the Pacific Northwest, Herbert G. Ihrig *Foliage Colors of Woody Plants, Highway 1943-1944, Hugh M. April to September Raup Volume 3, 1943 *Planting Vegetables *The Naming of Horticultural Varieties Titles marked wsth an Volume 5, 1945 *An Early Spring Build Bird Populations with Food Plants, C. Russell Mason asterssk were written by Dr. Donald Wyman 1 *Spring Rushes On *The Park Arboretum-How to Establish One as a Living War Memorial *Report on the Arnold Arboretum Hedge Demonstration Plot *Viburnums for the Northern United States The Glenmore Arboretum at Buffalo Creek, Colorado, Robert E. Moore British Gardens in War Time as Seen by an American Soldier, C. E. Kobuski Volume 6, 1946 *Spring in 1946 Tree Peony, John C. Wister *The Garden Club of America Tours the Arnold Arboretum May 15, 1946 On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America, Alfred Rehder *William H. Judd, Propagator Bamboos for Northern Gardens, Robert A. Young *The Drought *Fruit This Fall *Woody Plants with Interesting Bark in Winter *Spent Hops-An Effective Mulching Material Volume 8, 1948 Metasequoia, Another \"Living Fossil,\" E. D. Merrill *Spring-1948 *Labels in the Arnold Arboretum *Destroy Dead Elm Wood Immedi- ately Trip Through the Arboretum During Lilac Time Blueberry Cages, George O. Clark *Syringa prestoniae *Pruning Rhododendrons *A *New Rare Ornamental Plants Recently Distributed to Comor mercial Nurserymen Arnold Arboretum by the Contemplated Landscape Changes the Arnold Arboretum, Beatrix Farrand Hemlock-The Queen of Conifers, Charles F. Jenkins at Volume 7, 1947 *The Past Year at the Arnold Arboretum Volume 9, 1949 *Sources for a Few New Plants The Azalea Border, Beatrix Farrand *Spring 1949 *Lilacs *The Wisterias *Flower Colors of Hardy Hybrid Rhododendrons Peters Hill, Beatrix Farrand Growing Rhododendrons from Seed, Richard H. Filmore Looking Towards Beach Plum Cul- Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum, Karl Sax The Bussey Institution, Karl Sax *Watch the Elms *Spring in the Arboretum Fifty Years of Gardening in Northern Manitoba, F. L. Skinner *American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform Color Standards *Seed Collection Dates of Woody Plants 2 tivation, George Graves Forest-tree Volume 10, 1950 Breeding Work of the Cabot Foundation, Scott S. Pauley *The Forsythias *The Better Oriental Cherries *The Best of the Crab Apples *A Spring Walk Through the Arnold Arboretum The Control of Plant Development with Maleic Hydrazide, Richard H. Filmore *Order of Bloom Rootstocks for Lilacs, Karl Sax *Killing Woody Plants with Chemicals Dwarf Trees, Karl Sax *Fruiting Habits of Certain Ornamental Plants 1 Volume 11, 1951 of the Best Shrubs for *Forty-Five Massachusetts Gardens *The New Ground Cover Display Plots at the Arnold Arboretum Volume 13, 1953 3 *Some of the Best Vines and Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens *Pruning Ornamental Shrubs and Trees *Layering Plants in Holland *Two Months of Azalea Bloom *For the Record *Seeds of Woody Plants New Methods of Plant Propagation, Lewis Lipp The Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule, Robert G. Williams and Alfred J. Fordham *Metasequoia Brought Up-To-Date *The Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees *Some Shrubs for at Least Two Seasons of Beauty The Effect of Light on Seed Germination, Lewis Lipp *Smaller Street Trees Needed *Air Layering with Polythene Film *Simple Key to the Pines *Five Interesting Trees *Woody Plants Used in Colonial Williamsburg *Elms Grown in America Volume 12, 1952 *Forty-Five of the Best Trees for Massachusetts Gardens Nut Growing in the Northeastern States, L. H. MacDaniels *The Flower Colors of One Hundred Hardy Azaleas *Spring Comes to the Arnold Arboretum Volume 14, 1954 *Japanese Dwarfed Trees *Flowering Displays in the Arnold Arboretum *Some Shrubs and Trees with Colored Foliage Growing in the Arnold Arboretum *Fifty of the Better Ground Covers Propagating Some Rarer Plants from Seed, Robert G. Coggeshall *Some Old Fashioned Roses at the Arnold Arboretum An Education Program at the Arnold Arboretum, Richard A. Howard *Hurricane \"Carol\" in the Arnold Arboretum *Rehabilitation of Trees Injured by Hurricanes of 1954 Polyethylene Plastic-Its Application to the Propagation of Hardwood Cuttings, Roger G. Coggeshall Holly Man Volume 15, 1955 5 A Note on Ligustrum ibolium, *Wilfred Wheeler-The John *Some L. Creech Winter-Killing of Certain Shrubs, As a Result of the 2 Winter of 1951-52 *Autumn Color *The Hunnewell Arboretum 18521952 *Forcing Hardy Wood Plants in the Greenhouse for Early Bloom Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum, Karl Sax *Spring Comes to the Arboretum 3 *The Arboretum Lilacs in their Order of Bloom A Revised Glossary of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural Terms, Clarence E. Kobuski *Potentilla fruticosa, A Common but Little Known Plant *Cotoneasters Christmas Plants in the Boston Area, Richard A. Howard and Carroll E. Wood, Jr. Volume 16, 1956 *An Early Spring? Paste the Poison Ivy, Karl Sax *Eighty Trees for the Small Place *Arboretum Spring Planting Notes *Crab Apples for Ornamental Fruits *New and Rare Ornamental Woody Plants Recently Distributed by the Arnold Arboretum *Acer platanoides 'Crimson King' vs 'Fassen's Black' *The Ground Cover Demonstration Plots (Brought up to Date) Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials, Florence and Donald Wyman . Volume 18, 1958 The Juvenile Characters of Trees and Shrubs, Karl Sax *Two New Mahoberberis Hybrids *A Spring Walk Through the Arnold Arboretum The Meadow, R. A. Howard The Horticultural Herbarium, Clarence E. Kobuski Horticulture on Postage Stamps, Claude Weber *The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum *The Shrub Altheas *Christmas Show of Holiday Decorations *Woody Plants with Interesting Bark in Winter *The New International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants Volume 19, 1959 The Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule, Robert G. Williams *These Are the Forsythias *Crab Apples of Merit The Lilacs of New England, Burdette L. Wagenknecht A Booklet on Lilacs from Russia, Richard A. Howard Propagation and Care of Lilacs, Alfred J. Fordham Plant Collecting in the Southeastern United States, C. E. Wood, Volume 17, 1957 Some Cultivated Relatives of the Camellia, Carroll E. Wood, Jr. *Winter Injury-1957 *The Hedge Demonstration Plot Twenty Years after Planting *Something New Has Been AddedCocoa-shell Mulch *Winter Injury-1957 (Continued) *A New Boxwood Asiatic Maples, Their Propagation from Softwood Cuttings, Jr. *Viburnums Christmas Plants Around the World, Burdette L. Wagenknecht Volume 20, 1960 Rooting Ghent Azaleas Under Plas- Roger Coggeshall *The New Horticultural Color Chart *Broad-leaved Evergreens in the Arnold Arboretum tic, Roger Coggeshall *Plants of Possible Merit? *Magnolias Hardy in the Arnold Arboretum 4 *Shrub Honeysuckles with Pink to Red Flowers Propagation of Woody Plants by Seed, A. J. Fordham *Ilex crenata and Its Varieties *Hurricane \"Donna\" Forsythia 'Karl Sax', Joab L. Thomas *Ornamental Fruits, 1960 The Hillcrest Gardens, Weston, Massachusetts, Richard A. Howard *How to Establish an Arboretum or Botanical Garden 1 Volume 21, 1961 the Registration of Concerning Cultivar Names, Richard A. Howard Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Cornus L., Richard A. Howard The Tree Legumes in the Arnold Arboretum, Burdette L. Wagenknecht Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Gleditsia L., Burdette L. Wagenknecht *The Forsythia Story, *Registration Lists of Cultivar Names of Forsythias *Winter Injury Not Severe Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in the Genus Pieris D. Don, Burdette L. Wagenknecht *The Best Ornamental Spireas Liquidambar, Joab L. Thomas Propagation of Liquidambar styraciflua, Alfred J. Fordham Hurricane \"Donna\" and Its After Effects to a Chatham, Massachusetts, Garden, Harold W. Volume 22, 1962 *The Majestic Beeches *Barberries *The Birches *Hawthorns The Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum, Richard A. Howard Herbaceous Aliens in the Arboretum, Peter S. Green *The Honeysuckles *The Lindens, *The Oaks Volume 23, 1963 *Trial Plot for Street Trees *Results of Trials in the Ground Cover Demonstration Plots Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles, Claude Weber Supplementary Registration List of Cultivar Names in Syringa L.-Registered 1963, John C. Wister *International Plant Registration Leucothoe fontanesiana, Peter S. Green Tsuga canadensis and Its Multitude of Variants, Alfred J. Fordharr Heath and Heather on Cape Cod, Harold W. Copeland *Pruning Ornamental Shrubs and Trees *New Plants Registered *Fruiting of Yews *Tree Trunks Volume 24, 1964 *Registration of Cultivar Names of Fagus L. Copeland The Walter Street \"Berrying\" Ground, Mary Lehmer Labels in the Arnold Arboretum, Heman A. Howard *Black Polyethylene as a Mulch Climbing Hydrangeas and Their Relatives, Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. Registration of Cultivar Names in 5 Ulmus, Peter S. Green The Chinese Bush Cherry-Prunus tomentosa, R. A. Howard and A. I. Baranov Propagation of Prunus tomentosa, Alfred Fordham *Lilies in Their Order of Bloom *The New Hedge Demonstration Plot *Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum Volume 25, 1965 Germination of Woody Legume Seeds with Impermeable Seed Coats, Alfred J. Fordham Alaskan Ornamentals and Fruits, Richard H. Washburn The Olive Family in Cultivation, P. S. Green *A Few Poisonous Plants *The Mock-oranges The Herbarium Introduced, Ste- phanne B. A Home Sutton Arboretum, Nelson Coon *Plants for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps A Check-list of Cultivar Names in Weigela, Richard A. Howard The Name Jasmine, P. S. Green Volume 26, 1966 *Snow Damage *More Tree Trunks *More Plant Registrations *The Hardiest Azaleas Ornamental Madworts (Alyssum) and the Correct Name of the Goldentuft Alyssum, T. R. Volume 27, 1967 Seasonal Rhythm of Development of Woody Plants and Its Importance in Introduction, P. Lapin Plants with Colorful Twigs in Early Spring, Harrison L. Flint How to Have a Good Clipped Hedge, Harrison L. Flint Dwarf Conifers from Witches'Brooms, Alfred J. Fordham Identification of Unknown Plants, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Plant Hardiness Zone Maps, Donald Wyman and Harrison L. Flint Our Disappearing Opportunities, Edward Weeks *More Plant Registrations September Bloom, Harrison L. Flint Seed Dispersal by Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum, Alfred J. Fordham Rooting of Conifer Cuttings, Rolf Jesinger and Richard J. Hopp Volume 28, 1968 Country Cousins, Harrison L. Flint *The New Dwarf Conifer Collection Albizia julibrissin and Its Cultivar 'Ernest Wilson', Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. Propagation of Albizia julibrissin, Alfred J. Fordham Some Horticultural Activities of Dudley Expeditions for New Horticultural L. Creech Seasonal Hardening in Trees and Shrubs, Harrison L. Flint Seasonal Hardening in Trees and Shrubs Useful Even Though Not Winter-hardy, Harrison L. Justin Smith Morrill, Harrison L. Flint Some Ways Plants Notes Plants, John Climb, Lorin I. Nevling, Jr. on Making an Herbarium, Flint Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. *Metasequoia after Twenty Years in Cultivation, *Potentilla fruticosa Varieties in the 6 Arnold Arboretum Volume 29, 1969 *Plant Registration *Some Comparatively New Plants Worthy of Trial Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation, Alfred J. Fordham *Casoron-A New Weed Killer to Protect Woody Plants *Tree Peonies *Seventy-Five Years of Growing Rhododendrons in the Arnold Arboretum The Introduction of Our Hardy Stewartias, Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. *Espaliered Plants *The Mountain-Ashes The European Mistletoe (Viscum album), Heinrich Rohrbach A Check List of Cultivar Names Used in the Genus Lantana, Richard A. Howard *Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials, Florence and Donald Wyman *Hedges for Special Purposes Dr. Donald Wyman, Gordon P. De- Wolf, Jr. 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - A to Dw","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":29,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24520","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260b36d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":7,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUMES 1-29 -distichum, 2 : 36 ; 5 : 2; _7: 25; _8: 10; 12: 46; 21 : 44; 25 : Plate III, Abeliophyllum, 25: 14 Abies nobilis 15 10 -nordmanniana, 3 : 67, Fig. 10 (c), 69, Fig. 12 (b), 71; 19: 70 -pinsapo, 3: 67; 19: 72 glauca, 19: 64 Abies, 3: 66 -alba, 3 : Fig. - (c), 67, 71; 19 : 70 - -glauca, 3 : 67;14: 14 -procera, _3: 68, 71 ; 23: Plate XVII, 130 - amabilis, 3: 70 -balsamea, _3: 67, 70; _15: 63, 71; -pyramidalis, 3 : 74 - - -glauca, -'Glauca 1 3 : 68, 71 - - 'Nana', 28:10 - -, witches'-broom, propagation, 27 : 48 -cephalonica, 3: Fig. 11 (c), 68, 69 witches'-broom, propagation, 27: 48 chensiensis, 3 : 69 - cilicia, _3 : 71; 19 : 72 - - in Hunnewell Arboretum, 12: Plate XVI, 76 - concolor, 3 : 71; 14: Plate VII, 39, 49; 17 : 24, 27 ; 19: 63, Plate XIII, 75; 20: 9 --conica, 20: 9 --violacea, 3 : 71 -firma, 3 : 69; _19: 73 - ; tip of needle, 3: Fig. 11 (b), 68 -fraseri, 3: 67, 70;17: 27; 18 : 66 -, - 19: Plate XIII, 60, 75 -`Andover', 26: 14 Prostrata', _28: - religiosa, 3 : 69 - sachalinensis, 3: 70 -sibirica, 3 : 70 12 -spectabilis, -veitchii, 3 : -venusta, -, 3: 70 70; 19 : 69 72 Plate XIII, 75 Acacia, 19: 70, 3: International 87 Registration Au20: 9 thority, 23 : Acanthopanax henryi, -nana, 20: 9 - -sieboldianus, Acanthus 17: 28 ilicifolius, 19: 2 17 : 52 73 Acer barbinerve, -buergerianum, 14: 2; 17 : 49, 52, 3 55;_24: Plate XI, 103 17 : 20, 26 -campestre, --compactum, 8: 46; 9: 2 -, hedge, 27 : Plate V, 26 -capillipes, 17 : 50, 52 - - - prostrata, 3: 68, 70 70 - - -grandis, 3: -'Compacta', 28: 12 -holophylla, _3: 69 tip of needle, 3: Fig. 11 (a), 68 -homolepis, 3 : 68, Fig. 12 (a), 69; 1_2: 3;1_4: 49;1_9: Plate XIII, 75 -koreana, 3: Fig. 10 (a), 67; 12: 3 ; -, -carpinifolium, 17 : 52 - circinatum, _12: 3; 14 : - - - cissifolium, 1_7: -davidii, 23: -ginnala, 14: 49; 17 : 20, 27, 55 -'Durand Dwarf', 20: 10 hedge, 27 : Plate V, 26 -; 49 49, 50, 53 123, Plate XIII, 126 14: 49; 28: 10 -lasiocarpa, 3: 68, 71; 19: 1 -arizonica, 3: 68, 71 28: 10 --'Compacta', - magnifica, 3 : 71 - 62 -glabrum, 7 : 32 - griseum, 7 : Plate XI, opposite 67; _9: 2; 1_2: 3; 1_4: 49; 17 : Plate XII, 54, 56; 18: Plate XV, 61; 23: - Plate XVI, 123, -mariesii, 3 -nobilis, 3: 68, 71; 19: 63 3: 67 _grosseri hersii, -japonicum aconitifolium, 14: -mandshuricum, 17: 56 -miyabei, 17 : 56 9 129 17 : 56 14 Acer negundo elegans, 14: nikoense, 16: 36 palmatum, 14: 2, 14 14 Aesculus pests, 19 : 6, 7 Agaricus campestris, 4_: Agave, 15: 72, Plate Aglaia odorata, 2: 8 2 78 XIV, 77, - -atropurpureum, 8: 46; 12 : 4; ' -- -- - - - - 14 : 14, 49 `Burgundy Lace', 14: 14 dissectum, 14: 14 - - hessei, 14 : 14 multifidum, 14: 2 ornatum, 14: 14 sanguineum, 14: 14 3 pensylvanicum, _23: 123 - - _ Agropyron repens, 7: 69 Agrostis alba, 22 : 50 Ailanthus altissima, 21: 67 erythrocarpa, 7: 58 fruiting, 10: 82 - _ , Air - layering experiments, materials - - - pests, 19: 4, 7 _ - - platanoides, 11: 71 ; 14: 49; 17: 20,28 -- _ 3 used, 11: Plate XIII, 5 on Malus 'Dorothea', 11: Plate XIV, 60 plants that rooted, 11: 54-57 - -, _ -, - King', 12: 4; _14: 14, 2 49; _15: 18, 52; 1_6: 52 -- `Emerald Queen', 23: 116 erectum, 9 : 2 -- `Fassen's Black', 16 : 18, 52 2 Plate V, 26 -- hedge, 27 : -- 'Crimson -- columnare, 9: 2; 12: 4; 14: 49 - 5 -, plants that failed to root, 11: 7-61 _ _ _with 62 results, 11: 61, 62 Polythene Film, 1_l: 49, rubrum, 14: 14 schwedleri, 14: 14 -rubrum columnare, Ajuga reptans, 14: 22 Akebia, 14: 22 -quinata, _13: 7 Alaska Military Highway, Expeditions to the, 1943-1944, 4: 65-72 Alaskan Ornamentals and 6: 10; --schlesingeri, 47; 9: 2; 12: 4; 14: 10; 14: --monumentale, 6: 10;_8: 47;_9: 2 - tartaricum, 17: 49, 5 3 3 -tegmentosum, 17: 53 - -saccharinum, 8: 49 7:53;_16: 34 49 8: 46, - Fruits, . - Alathon, Albizia, 25: 9-12 11 : 50 _2-l: 24, 25 - julibrissin, 28: XI, 35, 29-40 Plate IX, 31, Plate -triflorum, 16 : 36; _17: 53, 55; 23 : - 123, Plate XI, 124 - -truncatum, 16 : 36 - tschonoskii, 17: 53 Achillea millefolium, 22 Aconitum spp., _26: 72 - - and its cultivar 'Ernest Wilson', 5 28: Plate X, 33,29-35 -, Propagation of, 28: Plate XII, 37, Plate XIII, 39, 36-40 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, _3: 27; _6: : 52 - Acorns, 15: Actea 67 72; _16: 68, 72 66, Plate XX, 8 pachypoda, 26: 36 5: 1 Actinotinus sinensis, _2: - _ 11; _8: 47; _9: 2; 12 : 4;1_6: 36; 18: 15; _21: Plate I, 23, 25; _25: 2 -, close-up of flowers and showing tree itself, 8 : Plate XIV, 49 germination of seed, 25: - -, - Adair, Miss, 2_l: Adonis amurensis, 22 Aegopodium podograria, 13: 11; 14: Aerial Plate I, 4 Alder, Black, 15: 78 Allamanda cathartica, 19: 73 photograph of Hillcrest Gar20: Plate XIII, 59 dens, Allegany pachysandra, 28 : 6 Alnus glutinosa, 16: 20 Alsike Clover, 22 : 50 10 Althaea, 1 : 41-44 American - -, culture of, 1 : -, 42 -, Holly, 14: 68 flowering habits of, 14 : 68 propagation of, 1: 1 45-51 43 American Horticultural Council, - rosea, 22: 54 17: 57, 60 American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform Color Standards, 7 : 41-52 American Smoke Tree, 28: 1, 2 Ammonium sulfamate, 16 : 5 Among the Best Common Vines, -, shrub, 18 : - _ , winter injury of, 1: 42 Alyssum alpestre, 26: 38 - - - atlanticum, 26: 40 bertolonii, _26: 40 borzaeanum, 26 : 40 cuneifolium, _26: 40 13: - 18 - diffusum, _ gemonense, 8: - 26: 40 21 1 Ground Covers, 13 : 19 5 Amoracia rusticana, _22: 55 - lapeyrousianum, 26: 40 - markgrafii, 26: 40 moellendorfianum, 26: 40 montanum, 26: Plate XIII, 39, 42 murale, 26 : Plate XIII, 39, 42 - ovirense, 26: 42 purpureum, 26: 42 - Amorphophallus campanulatus, 4: Plate V, 3 5 Ampelopsis brevipedunculata, _13: - pests, 19: 6, 7 Anacardium occidentale, 35 7 - _4: Plate V, 76 repens, 26: - 42 Anaphalis margaritacea, 15: Anderson, Edgar, 12: 42 - -scardium, 26 : Plate XIV, 41, 44 serpyllifolium, 26: 44 -spinosum, 26: Plate XV, 43, 44 - stribrnyi, 26 : 44 -tortuosum, 26: 44 -, trial plot at Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, 26 : Plate XV, 43 -wulfenianum, 26: 44 Amateur's Observations on Hardiness from Growing Rhododendrons in the Pacific Northwest, 2 : 5 3-56 Amelanchier asiatica, 16 : 20 canadensis, 14: 49 laevis, 12: 6 ; 14 : 49 - -glaucophylla, -, Downy, 17 : Anderson, Larz, collection, 14: 2 .'lndromeda axillaris, 23 : 94, 95 catesbaei, 23: 94 62 17: 62 17-:74 Japanese, -, Mountain, 17 : 74 94 serratifolia, _23: Anemone nemorosa, _5: 84 50 - Anthoxanthum Anthurium odoratum, 22 : Anthracnose, 19: 3, 8 andraeanum, 15: - 83 3 pests, 19: 5, 7 Antigonon, _19: 68 _ leptopus, _19: 68 Antitoxin - cultorum, 15: 82 spp.,4: 6 Amelanchiers, 14: 9 Laboratory, State of 2 Massachusetts, _7: Apples, dwarfing 10: 73-76 understock for, American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, 3: 44 - - - - ---; Committee on Horticultural Varieties, 2: 33 3 American Association for the Advancement of Science, _7: 33 3 American Elm, 11: 41 11 1 Apricot, _2: 4 Aquilegia vulgaris, 5: 84 Aralia elata variegata, 16: 20 Araliaceae of China, 2: 51 1 Aramite, 13 : 83 -bidwillii, Araucaria araucana, 15 : 78 5: 83 Araucaria sp., 19: 76 Arboretum, Arnold, boretum -, see Arnold Ar- Arnold Arboretum, Courses, - Courses -, current plans, 7: 8 see -, Glenmore, _5: 65-76 -, home, 25 : 41-44 Hunnewell, 1852-1952, 12: 6184 -, 43 -or Morton, 2: 50 ; 5 : Plates VIII-IX, botanical garden, definition, 69-71 - - - , how to establish, 20: 6983 -, Park, _5: 25-48 -Spring Planting Notes, 16 : 17-27 Arboreta and Botanical Gardens of North America, 1_9: 58 Arborvitae, _15: Plate XI, 65, 70 20 : -, Deutzia collection, 7: 7 _, drought at the, 7 : 57 -, Euonymus collection, _7: 7 -, fall classes, _8: 44; _13: 68; 14: 34-36; _15: 52; 16: 32; 17: 60; 18: 39; 19: 58; _20: 40; 21: 74; _22: 68;24:88;26: 55;27:72;28: 124; 29 : Supplement following p. - 72 -, fall fruits at the, 7: 58 -, field class, 1 : 36; _12: 44 ; frosts, the mid-May, 4: 27 2014, food plants in the, 4_: 1-7 -Garden Book, 14: 56 -hardiness maps, 27 : 53-56 -herbarium, 1 : 31,32 2 -, history of, 1 : 29-32 an Hour in -, How to Spend 25-28 -, labor and staff of, 7: 1 -, lecture on, 12: 60 -, lecture slides, 19 : 14 1 -, library of, 1 : 31 5 -, American, 17 : 25 -,-Globe, 17-:25 -, Giant, 17 : 25 -'Little -, Spiral, 17: 25 -, Wagner, 17 : 25 -, Ware's, 17 :25 -, Woodward, 17: 25 Arbutus Gem', the, 4: 17 : 25 unedo, 19: 69; IV, 7 26: Plate ; Lilac collection, 7: 6, 7 Arctium jappa, 18: 20 Arctostaphylos manzanita, 9: 43 ; 15 : 83 -uva-ursi, 9: 43; 13: 11; 14: 22; 17: 62 - -, wreath, 16: 64, Plate XXI, 71, - 72 Ardisia crenulata, 19 : 66 Arisaema triphyllum, 26: 75 5 Aristolochia kaempferi,22 : 54 Armillaria mellea, 4: 2 Arnold Arboretum, 9 : 9-12; 17: Plate IX, 34 -administration building, 1: 31-32 - - -, map of roads between Case Estates and, 7: Plate I, opposite p. 4; 18: Plate X, 44 -, mulches, _7: 6, 69-72; _9: 9 -, new equipment, 7: 3 -, new policies, 7: 4 -Open House, 17: 36 -, Open House at the Case Estates, _15: 23; 16: 15; 17 : 36 -, opening of new vistas, 7: 5 -, past year at the, _7: 1-8 -, Philadelphus collection, 7 : 7 - plant breeding, 7: 9-12 -, planting at administration build- -, Azalea collection, 7 : -, 8 -, Barberry collection, 7: 6 -, Chinese collection, 7: 8 ing, 7: 7 -postcards, 18: 40 -publications, 18: 40 -, removal of duplicate shrubs and Contemplated Landscape Changes at the, 6: 45-48 12 trees, -, 7: 5 4 reorganization, 7: \"\"\"\"'''''1.1'''''''''''''''''' ..L ,.,\/ Arnold Arboretum, Ribes 7: 6 collection, - roads, resurfacing of, 7 : 7 -, Spiraea collection, _7: 7 - spray schedule, 13 : 73-77; 19: 69-84 Ash, Green, 'Marshall's seedless', 3 _16: 23 1 -, Mountain, _6: 11 Asiatic Maples, propagation from softwood cuttings, 17 : 45-56 1 Asparagus asparagoides, 15 : 71 1-10 - -, \"New Spray Materials,\" _13: -, Fern, 15 : 70 - - spraying equipment, 9: -, spring classes, 1 : 36;_8: 12, 20; 9 : 4, 12 ; 10 : 8, 24; _l l: 24; 12: 44; 13 : 36;1_4: 12; 1_5: 12; 1_6: 4, 8; _17: 16; _l9: 22;20: 28; 21: 38; 11 1 - plumosus, 15 : 70 - sprengeri, 15 : 70; 19 : 72 Aster, New England, 18 : 20 novae-angliae, 18: 20 - officinalis, 22: 54 2_2: 8, 24; 2_7: 16, _28: 8; 2_9: to vimineus, 18: ratory in Cuba, 20 24 Atkins Garden and Research Labo- the, _12: 45-48 -, - displays the, 4: 21-24 -, - Walk through the, 10: 29-32; -, - Comes in - _7: 4, 14, 22 : 55 5 16 18 : 13-16 Visiting Committee, 7: water 3 - system, 7: 8 plants, removal of, 7: 7 -, Weigela collection, 7 : 7 Arnold Cherry, No. 8240, _7: Plate II, opposite p. 10 Arnoldia, 1: 1, 2 - weed Arnoldia Reviews, see Book Review Aronia arbutifolia, dwarfing understock, 10: 75 Arrangement of herbaria, 28: 90-92 Arrangements, Christmas, 16: Plates XVI-XXI, 61-72; 130, Plate XXXIV, 131 1 Arrowwood, 5: Plate IV, 17; _l7: 22 Arsenate of lead, 13 : 83 3 Artemisia tridentata, 19 : 63 Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Atropa belladonna, Auction, WGBH-TV (Channel 2), 28 : 28 Aurinia petraea, 26: Plate XIV, 41 Autikon Botanikon, 2: 51; 3 : 8 Automatic Mist Sprayer, 13: 66 Autumn-blooming shrubs, 12: 59 Autumn Color, 4_: 37-44; 12: 53-60; 20 : 52 - of autumn-blooming shrubs, 12: ~J -, dull, 4 : 40 29 : - - -, no, _4: 43; _12: 58 7 -, red, 4: 41; 12: 57 reddish to reddish-purple, 4: 42; -, _12: 58 yellow, 4: 42; 12: 58 -, yellowish to bronze, 4: 43 ; 1_2: 58 -, woody plants with, _4: 41; 12: 56-59 5 -, why leaves are red, _4: 39; _12: 55 leaves are yellow, 4 : 38; 12: -, why - Foundation, 23: 3 Artichoke, 14 : 72, Plate XIII, 73 18: Plate III, 19, 20 -, Jerusalem, 77 32 Plate II, 32 graminea, simonii, 6 : 38 Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia, 2: 13-28 Ascelpias physocarpa, 19: 74 syriaca, 4: 4; 14: 74; 18: 20 - Arundinaria, _6: 30, 54 Autumn _6: Available Rapid Growing Vines for the United States, 4: 45-64 foliage, 2: 67 Azalea, 2: 6;_4: -, amoena, 13 : 22; 1_4: 9, 10 32; 17: 75 -, Arnold, _8: 24 - 5 - Bloom, Two Months of, 13 : 29-3 13 3 Azalea Border, The, 9 : 6-7 -, `Fedora', 26: Plate XVII, 49 3 -, fiery red Torch, 8 : Plate VI, 23 -, Flower Color of One Hundred Ballart, Cherry, 19: 77 Bamboo, 5: PlateV, 30 -, Narihira, 6: 38 Bamboos for Northern Gardens, 6: . hybrids, 26: -, Ghent, _8: 24 - -, hybrid hardy in New England, 3 : 37-40 -, rooting under plastic, 20: 1-7 -, Hardiest, The, 26 : 17-32 - hybrids, 26: 22-32 -, Knapp Hill hybrids, 2_2: 30-31; 1 26 : 30-31 1 -, Korean, _6: 11 -, Kurume, 17: 75 - 'Louisa Hunnewell', 12: 72 -, Mollis, 8 : 24 1 -, - hybrids, _26: 31 arnoldianum hybrids, -, obtusum _26: 28 -, - kaempferi hybrids, _26: 28 -, order of bloom, 13: 29 - path on Bussey Hill, 7: Plate IV, opposite p. 26 -, Gable 29-30 Hardy, 12 : 41-44 29-42 group of six species of running, 1 Plate II, 31 6: -, hardiness of, _6: 29 -, the hardy running, 6: 30, 32 Bank planting, seashore in Scot-, a land, 16 : Plate XV, 60 Baranov, A. I., and Howard, R. A., Chinese Bush Cherry, The, Prunus tomentosa, 24: 81-86 9-16 Barberries, Bean's, 2_2: 10 Barberry, -, Black, 17: 62; 22: 12 -, Box, 17: 20 22 : -, Chenault, 1_7: 62; _22: -, Curlleaf, _22: 14 - 10 -, Dainty, 22 : 12 -, Poukhan, 8: 24 -, Royal, 31-32 -, - pests, 19: 4, 5, 6, 7 -, Pinkshell, 6: 9; 8_:21, 22 1 6: 11 - -, Darwin, 22 : 12 -, Dwarf Magellan, 22 : 10 -, Japanese, 17 : 20; _22: 14 -, red-leaved, 17 : 20 - -, Thornless, 17: 20 White-edged,17: 20 2 -, Jasperbells, _22: 12 - -, Korean, 1_7: 20; 22: 12 - -, Rustica Flore Pleno hybrids, 26: -, -, Lolog, 22: 12 -, Magellan, 22 : 10 -, -, Snow, 17: 75 Torch, 9, 11; 8: 21, 22; Plate II, 5 - dwarf, 17: 62 - - 9: -, Mentor, 17 : 20; 22 : 14 2 -, Vuyk hybrids, 26: 32 -, Yerkes-Pryor hybrids, 26: 32 10: -, Paleleaf, 22: 10 -, Rosemary, 22 : 14 Sargent, _17: 64 -, Sheridan Red, 17 : -, Baccharis halimifolia, 82 fruiting, Bacterial blight, Bailey, L. H., 3: 19: 3, 9 50 1 Baker, Mrs. Hannah, 21: 81 Baker, Capt. John, _21:81 Baker, Thomas, 21: 81 18: 63 -, exfoliating, _7 ; 67, 68 -, -, -, 20; _22: 2 -, Wintergreen, 17 : 62; 22 : 12 on trunk, 7: 67; Bark, Cherry-like, gray on 20 17: 64 Warty, 17 : 64; 22: 16 12 Wildfire, 17 : Threespine, Balch bequest, 7 : 4 7: 4 trunk and branches, 7: 64 Balch, John, 7 : 4 Balch, Mrs. Katherine T., 65; 18: -, 62 gray twigs, shrubs with, 7 : 14 Bark, green twigs, plants with, 7 : 64 -, interesting, miscellaneous list of, 2 Bellis perennis, 22: 52 Berberis 'Atropurpurea 10 - Nana', 20: 7 : 68 -, light brown color, conspicuous, shrubs with, 7 : 65 - - beaniana, 22: 10 buxifolia, 22: 10 older branches exfoliating, 18: 63 -, red, or red twigs, plants with, 7: of trunk or - - nana, - 1_7: 62; 2_2: 22 : 10 22: 10 10 62,64 -, white on trunk and branches, 7: - 65; _18: -, -, 62 woody plants with interesting, yellow twigs, shrubs with, 7: 6 5 65 calliantha, - candidula, - X chenaultii, 17 : 62; 22: 10, Plate IV, 13 2 - concinna, 22: 12 - 'Crimson - 7: 61-68; 18: 57-64 Barnes, Miss Mary P., 9: 19 Pygmy', 20: 10 22 : 12 darwinii, gagnepainii, 17: 62; 22: 12, Plate 3 IV, 13 Bartram, John, 17: Bartram, William, 17 : 6 Batchelor, J. Milton, 9 : 56, 63 Bayberry, 15 : 72 Beach Plum award, 9 : 52, 63 - - gilgiana, 17: 20, 27; 22: 12 X gladwynensis 'William Penn', - 5 26 : 15 - 'Globe', 20 : 10 -, cultivation, _9: S 3-64 - julianae, 1_1: - Bean, Screw, 15: 75 Bearberry, 16: 62, 64, 72; 17 : 62 Beardslee koreana,_9: 22: - 12, Plate 3; 17: 62, 63 ; _22: 12 2; 1_l: 3; 17: 20, 27; - III, 11. 12 2 -, Australian, 15: 78, Plate XIV, Nurseries, 21: 38 Beech, American, 17 : 21 ; 22 : 4 2 linearifolia, _22: 2 77 -, Copper, _22: 2 -, Cutleaf European, _22: -, Dawyck, 22: 4 -, European, 19: 21; _22: -, Oak-leaved, 22 : 4 -, Purple, 22: 2 - 'Little Beauty', 20: 10 10 -'Little Gem', X lologensis, 22: 12 X mentorensis, _17: 20, 26; 22: 14 20: - - -, recommended, 22: 22 : 14 10 -, Roundleaf, 22 : 4 -, Weeping, 22 :4 -, wooly aphid, 19: 4 -, The Majestic, 22 : 1-7 Beefwood, 16: 72 Beetle, Elm Leaf, 1 : 39 -, Willow Leaf, _l: 39 Beetles, Mexican Bean, 3: 6 -, Striped Cucumber, _3: 6 - - replicata, sargentiana, 17: 64; _21: 44 - `Sheridan Red', 17 : 20, 28 - X stenophylla, 22 : 14 - thunbergii, 17 : 18, 20, 26; 22: - - 5 14, Plate IV, 13, Plate V, 15 14 : 14; 17 : argenteo-marginata, 20,27 atropurpurea, 14 : 14; 17: 20; - - - - - _22: - 14 - `Erecta', 22: 14 Begonia, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 semperflorens, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 - - - - - `Golden 29 : 9 - - - `Red Bird', _22: 14 'Aurea', 29: 9 'Crimson Pygmy', 22 : 16 - Ring', - - - Bell, Christmas, 19 : 76 Bellflower, European, 22 : 54 15 - - - - 17 : 20, 27; _22: 'Globe', 22: 16 minor, 19 : 20, 26; 22 : erecta, - 16 16 Berberis - 'Little thunbergii nana, 20: 10 Beauty', 14: 14 - - `Thornless', 16: 20; 17: 20, 27; 22: 16 'Variegata', 22 : 16 xanthocarpa, 20: 10 - triacanthophora, 8: 47; 1_7: 64 verruculosa, 17: 64; 22: 16 - vulgaris, 17: 28 'Sheridan Red', 14: 14 Berry, Christmas, 1_9: 76 \"Berrying\" Ground, The Walter - Birch, Canoe, _22: 20 -, Dahurian, 22: 20 -, European, 22 : 20 -, Gray, 17: 20; 22: 22, 23 - leaf miner, 19 : 3, 7 -, River, 2_2: 20 -, - - 3 Birches, The, 22 : 17-23 -, recommended, _22: Sweet, 22 : 20 20 - - Street, 21 : 75-82 Best of the Crab Apples, 10: 25-28; 19: 17-20 Best Ornamental Spireas, The, 21: 51-58 Best small shade trees, _14: 49, 55 Best Vines and Ground Covers, _13: 1-19 Better Oriental Cherries, 17-24 Betts, E. M., 5 : 4 The, _10: Bird food plants, 5 : 5-20 Bird of Paradise Flower, 15: 82 Birds and Animals, Seed by, in the Arnold Arboretum, 27: 73-84 Birthwort, 22: 54 Bishop, Thomas, _21: 80 Bitternut, 1: 54, 55 5 Bittersweet, 22: 55 Black Swallow Wort, 16: 6 Black vine weevil, 19: 5, 9 Black Walnut and horticultural varieties, _l: 50, 52, Plate VI, 53; _2: Dispersal 2 11, 12 Betula - albo-sinensis, 7: 3 3 septentrionalis, 26: Plate VIII, - Blackhaw, 17: 22 Bladdernut, 16: 72 . - 11 I - - davurica, _22: 20 lenta, 14: 49; 22: 20 laciniata, 22 : 20 nigra, 22: 20 ; 23 : Plate - Blandfordia flammea, 19: 76 Blood albumen, _13: 83 Bloom, Order of, 1_0~ 44-56 Blooming dates, 16: 4; 17: 34, 36 -, papyrifera, - pendula, 22-:20 'Fastigiata', 22 : 22, Plate VII, 21 1 - XII, 125 14 : 49; 22: 18, 20 estimated, _7: 28 - of plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum, 5: 22, 23 -, this year, 15: 16 2 Blueberry, 2: 29-32 - 'Gracilis', 22: 'Tristis', _22: - - - - 'Purpurea', 'Scarlet Glory', 29: 'Youngii', 22 : 22 22 22: 22 Cages, 8 : 25-28 28 - - 9 Plate VI, 19 22, 2 culture, reference on, _2: 32 -, construction of cages for, 8: - - - -, Highbush, _2: -, methods of protecting, 8 : VII, 27 -, 29-32 Plate - pests, 19: 3, 7 - platyphylla japonica, 22 : - 22 requirements of, _8: 25 26 - populifolia, 17: 20, 28; _22: 22, 23;_23: Plate XIV, 127; _26: 1 Beauty Bush, Bidens 17: 21 22 szechuanica, 22 : 22 -, sources of information about, 8: frondosa, 18: 5 Bindweed, 22: 55 - varieties, 2 : 30 Bonsai, 14 : 1, 7; 15 : 83 -, art of training dwarf trees, 30 11: 16 Bonsai - at the Arnold Arboretum, Botanical terms, 24: 101-104 Available on Loan, An Exhibition of Photographs of, 25: 28 - House, 22 : 42, 46, Plate XVII, Bottlebrush, 15 : 66, Plate XII, 69 Bottle-grafts, 10: Plate III, 5 Bowen, Isaac, _21: 77, 82 15 : 25-44 45 3 - -, new, 24: Plate X, 103 -, references, 24: 104 Book Review, Die Baume Europas, Ein Taschenbuch fiir Naturfreunde, by Gerd Krussmann, 28: 68 -, Botanical Exploration of the -, The Hookers of Kew, 17851911, by Mea Allen, 27: 91, 92 -, Plant Life of the Pacific World, by Elmer D. Merrill, _5: 64 -, Plants, Animals and Man in the Outer Leeward Islands, West Indies, by David R. Harris, 26: 4647 -, Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States, by H. A. Fowells, Boylston, Dr., _21: 78 Box, common, 17 : 64 -, Korean, 17 : 24, 64 Boxwood, 1_5: 66; 16 : 62, 64, - leaf miner, 19: 4, 7 70 42-44 - psylla, 19 : 4, 7 -, new, 17: Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850, by Susan Delano McKelvey, 16: 28 24 Boynton, Charles Boynton, Frank E., 2 : 22, 24 Boys school at Hillcrest Gardens, 2_0: 53-67 L., 2 : Branches of Shrubs Forced in Greenhouse, 15: 2 Brassica arvensis, 4 : 4 - a oleracea, 5: 82 Bridge, Mrs. Anna, 20: 80 Bridge, Edward, 20:80 British Colour Council, system, 7: 45 Gardens in War Time as Seen by American Soldier, 5 : 77-88 Broadleaved evergreens, 17 : 61-76 - - in Good Condition with Green Foliage throughout the Winter, 3: 21-23 Broom, Butcher's, 1_5: 78, Plate - 26 : 47 Jefferson's Book, by E. M. Betts, 5 : 4 -, Wood and the Trees, Biography of Augustine Henry, by Sheila Pim, 26: 47, 48 -, Weeds of Lawn and Garden, by John M. Fogg, Jr., 5 : 56 -, World of Flowers, The, ed. Her-, Thomas Garden an XIV, 77 bert Reisigle, 26 : 46 Booklet on Lilacs from 5 31-35 Boston Ivy, 16: 5, 6 Boston - -, Scotch, 15: 68; 16: 21 -, Warminster, 6: 11; 16: Russia, 19: 8 1 Park Commission, 7: 8 Department, 7: 7, - Spring Flower Show, 14: - Weather Bureau, Botanic Garden, Harvard University, 7 : 14 or Arboretum, How to Establish, 20 : 69-83 Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 17901850, (Book Review), 16 : 28 - 1 : 38 41 14: 10 Brooms, Broussonetia papyrifera, _23: 123, Plate XIII, 126 Brush chipper in Arnold Arboretum 14 : Plate IX, 47 Brush killer, 16: 6 Buartnut, 2: 12 Buckthorn, -, common, 17 : - 22 Glossy, 17: 22 Buckwheat, False, 15: Build Bird Population 5-20 83 with Food Plants, _5: \"Bulletin of Popular Information,\" 1: 17 1 Bunya-bunya, 15: 78 Bureau of Entomology, U.S.D.A., 7 : 22 Burdock, 18: 20 - Cactus, Crab, 15 : 80 Calendar, Gregorian, 21 : 81, 82 California Lilac, 23 : 83 3 Callistemon 15: 66 International RegistraCallistephus, tion Authority, 23 : 87 Callitris glauca, 76 76 propinqua, 1_9: Calluna vulgaris, 14: 22 Callunas grown at Chatham, Massa- 3 Bussey, Benjamin, 7 : 13 Institution,_2: 37;_7: 4, 12, 13- rigidus, 16 ; 10: 2 - Trust, 7: 19: 13 3 18: 18 - Butter-and-eggs, - 3 Buttercup, 18: 18;_22: 52, 53 22 : 52 2 -, Creeping, Butternut, 1: 52; _2: 12 and Horticultural Varieties, 12: 26-28 Buxus chusetts, cultivars, 25 : 31, 105, palustris, 4: Plate III, 5 Calystegia sepium, 22 : 55 Camellia, 2: 6; 17: 1-12 106 Caltha 1 31 microphylla koreana, 24 11: 4; 17 : 24,26,64 - - - hybrid, 1_7: - -, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 - - - `Newport Blue', _21: 44 - - - `Tide Hill', 17: 65 'Wintergreen', 23: 88 - pests, 19: 4, 5, 7 - sempervirens, 15 : 66; 17: 42, 64, - - japonica, - 2: 6 sasanqua, 19: 74 Campanula persicifolia, 22 : 54 rapunculoides, 22 : 54 Campsis tagliabuana 'Madame Canada -, 65 - arborescens, 17 : 65 - - `Belleville', _23: 116 - albo-marginata, 14: angustifolia, 17: 65 14 Galen', 13 : 7 Blue Grass, 22 : 50 Gardening in Northern Manitoba, 26 : Plate I, 3 William M., 2 : 18, 20 - 7 : 29-40 Hemlock, 'Curlylocks', 17: 65; 21 65 handsworthii, 17: : 44 Canby, - - hedge, 27 : Plate II, 23 - - `Kingsville', 17: 65 'Northern Find', 23: 87 - - - `Northland', 17: 65 5 rotundifolia, _17: 65 suffruticosa, 17 : 42, 65 'Suffruticosa', 29: Plate XXXIX - Candelabras, Christmas, 29 : 128, Plate XXXIII, 129 Cankerworm, 1: 39; 19 : 4, 7, 8, 9 Canton, scene~ ~n, 2: Plate I, 3, Plate II, 5 Beach Plum Growers Association, 9: 63 Capsicum annuum, 15 : 81 - - `Celestial', 15 : 81 - - `Floral Gem', _15 : 81 1 17 : 20, 28 Caragana arborescens, brevifolia, 7 : 3 3 Cape Cod 143 'Tide Hill', 21: 44 'Vardar _17: 42, 44, 65, Plate X, 43 Cabbage maggots, 3: 3 - Valley', - - frutex, - 17 : 20, 28 worms, 3: 6 Cabot Foundation, 7: 4, 16 - -, Forest-Tree Breeding Work of - ' the, 10: 1-8 publication, 10: 39 Cabot, Godfrey L., 10: 1 - -, 34 Carbon bisulfide gas, 13 : 50 Care of the Garden During War Time, Short Guide to, 4: 9-16 Carex caryophyllea, 22: 52 1 hirta, 22: 51 - jubata,_7: mmrirata ~2~ 52 18 Carey, John, Carissa 2 : 17, 18 grandiflora 'Tom Hum145 phreys', 29: 1 Carpinus, 29 : Plate XL, - betulus, 17 : 20, 26 - Case, Miss Marion Roby, 7 : 3; 18: 41; 20 : 53-67 5 Cashew, 4 : Plate V, 3 New Weed Killer to Casoron, A compacta, 8: 47 fastigiata, 2 - caroliniana, 17: 28; _23: Plate - _9: Woody Plants, 29 : -, advantages, _29: 21-22 -, disadvantages, 29: 22 Protect -, use in the Arnold 21-23 3 Arboretum, XII, 125 5 - cordata, 16 : 36, Plate XII, 35 _29: 22-23 Caspia, 15: 80 Castanea and horticultural varieties, 1 1_2: 31 crenata, 1: 56; 2: 10; 12: 3 6 dentata, 2: 1 mollissima, _l: 56;_2: 10; 12: 31 - - X crenata, 2: 10 - - 'Kuling', 16: 20 --'Meiling', 16 : 20 --'Nanking', 16: 20 - - japonica, 1_6: 36, Plate IX, - 35 5 - orientalis, 16: 38 turczaninovii, 16: 38 Carrot, 22: 54 Carya alba, _l: 54; 12 : 30 cordiformis, 1: 54; 12: 30 glabra, 1 : 54; 1_2: 30 1 -, horticultural varieties, 1_2: 30, 31 1 illinoensis, - laciniosa, 1 : 54, Plate VII, 57; 4: 3 6; 12 : 30, Plate XI, 33 1 X illinoensis, 2 : 11 - ovalis, 1 : ~\" - \"~ in - ovata, _l: 54; _2: 11; _4: 6; 12: 30; 23 : Plate XVI, 129 \" - 10; _4: - - _2: 11 - 6 _4:10; _23: 123, Plate XV, -sativa,2: - pumila, - - - - 128 - 1 - pecan, _2: 11 pests, 19: 4, 7 Case Estates, 3: 8; 7: 3-7, 12, 14; 13 : 19; 16 : 9, 53, Map, Plate V, 16 -, experimental areas, 18: 42 - Casuarina equisetifolia, 15: 72; 16: 72; _19: 67, 72 Catalpa pests, 19: 4, 7 Catchfly, Night-Flowering, 18: 18 Cat-of-Nine-Tails, 15: 74 - Cat's Ear, 22: 52 - - -, ground covers, 18 : 42 -, map of the, _15: 24; 18: Plate IX, 43; 23 : Plate III, 8 -, nursery areas, 18: 41 -, nursery permanent, 18: 42 -, Open House at the, 15: 23; 16: 15; _17: 36 -, roads between Arnold Arboretum and Map, 7: Plate I, opposite p. 4; 1_8: Plate X, 44 -, small trees, 18: 42 Case, James B., 3 : 8 ; 7 : 3 -, - -, estate, frost _4: 27 8 -, memorial, _3 : Case, Miss Louisa W., 3: 8; _7: 3; 18: 41; 20: 5 3, 66, 67 - - Cattails, _15: 74; 18: 20 Ceanothus, 23: 83 griseus 'Louis Edmunds', 29: X 'Julia Phelps', 29: 1 pallidus roseus, 16: 38 Cedar apple rust, 19: 2, 7, 8 - 1 -, Incense, - of Lebanon, -, Red, 15: 63, Plate XII, 65; 16: 1 62; 19 : 60, Plate XII, 71 15: 71 16 : 38; _18: 14, 15 5 -, Salt, 19 : 64 - Waxwing, 5 : Plate I, 7 Cedrus 74 - -,White, 15: 72, Plate XI, 65 atlantica, - 16: 38 - - deodora, 6: 54;16: 38; 19: 63, damage, 'Kashmir', 29: 1, 2, 10, Plate I, 11 1 libani, 6: 11 ; 8 : 10; _12: 6; 1_4: 16 : 38; 19: 72; 26: Plate 49; IV, 7 19 Cedrus libani - 'Sargenti', 28: 12 witches'-broom, propagation, 27: 48 3 Celandine, Greater, _22: 53 3 - Lesser, _22: 5 Celastrus, 3: 45 8 angulata, 7 : 5 47, 38; 9: 2 flagellaris, 8; 3 orbiculata, _8: Plate XVI, 53 8 : 48, Plate XVI, 53 3 major, 19: 2, 5, 7 - pests, 5 - scandens, 22 : 55 - species, fruiting, 10: 82, 84, 85 Central Experimental Farm, Ottawa, -, - Chaenomeles, International Registration Authority, 2_3: 87 28 28 - - group, 23 : 28-30 - -japonica, 23: 28 pygmaea, 23 : 29 - lagenaria, 17: 20, 28 -, list of all known cultivar names, 23 : 19-25 pests, 19: 2, 7 speciosa, 23 : 30 - - group, 23 : 30-50 - X superba, 23: 53 3 54-64 - - group, - X vilmoriniana, 23 : 64 group, 23 : 64, 65 - japonica, 23 : alpina, 23 : - - - - - - Canada, 7 : 33 3 23 : Cerastium tomentosum, 14: 22 Ceratopetalum gummiferum, 19: 77 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 7: 28; 12 : 8, Plate VI, 16; 14: 49; 16: - - Cercis, 21: 19 canadensis, 6: - 72; 17: 20, 28 11; 17: 5 8 49 Chamaecyparis, 18 : 1 -, Dropmore Variety, 7: 36 - lawsoniana, 19: 69; _23: Plate XIII, 126 - 'Ellwoodii', 28: 'Filiformis 12 - - alba, 1_2: 8; 14: 7: 42 color comparison of flowers, 15 - - `Flame', 26: 11 1 - - - `Wither's Pink Charm', reniformis 20: 10, 5 'Oklahoma', 26: 15 siliquastrum, germination of seed, 25 : Plate II, 6 2 compacta', 28 : 12 'Forsteckensis', 2_8: 12 'Pygmaea argentea', 28 : 12 nootkatensis 'Compacta glauca', 28 : 12 - obtusa, _l l: Plate IX, 31; 14: 2, 49, Plate I, 3; 24 : Plate X, 103, - - - - - - - Plate XI, 103 - 'Compacta', 2_8: 12 Chaenomeles, 23 : 44 - X californica, _23: 50 3 --group, 23 : 50-53 23 : 27 group, 23 : 27 - - hybrids, 23 : 18 - X clarkiana, 23: 5 3 3 group, 23 : 5 2 -, color study of, 7: 48-52 -, Cultivars of the Genus, 23: 1775 -, orange, 23 : 72; pink, _23: 70- - - - - - - cathayensis, - - - 2 'Contorta', 28 : 12 'Coralliformis', 28 : 'Filicoides', 28: 14 'Kosteri', _28: 14 12-14 - _ - - - - 72 ; red, 23 : 73-75; white, 23 : 69; white-and-pink, 23: 69 - - of undetermined species hybrid group, 23 : 65-68 or 14 'Lycopodioides aurea', 28: 14 'Mariesii', 28: 14 --'Nana', 28: 14 'Nana aurea', 28: 14 'Nana 14 28: 15 'Pygmaea', 5 'Pygmaea aurescens', 28: 15 15 5 `Sanderi', 28: 'Stoneham',28: 15 15 5 - `Lycopodioides', 28: - - _ - - - - gracilis', 28 : - - - - - - - - - - - 'Tempelhof', 28: - - 'Tetragona aurea', 14: 14; 28: 15 5 20 Chamaecyparis pests, 19 : 5, - pisifera, 18: Plate I, 5 - 7 'Boulevard', - 28 : 15 5 - Cherry, False Jerusalem, 1_5: -, Fuji, 10: 21 -, Higan, 10: 21 -, Jerusalem, 15 : 81 81 1 - - 'Compacta variegata', - 28: 15 5 - - `Filifera', 17 : 24, 26 'aurea', 14: 15 'nana', 28: 16 - -, Mazzard, 10: 18 -, Naden, 10: 24 - - `Golden - lutescens, 14 : 15 - - 'Nana', _28: 16 - Mop', -, Oriental, 6 : - -, 28 : 16 12 2 12 : Plate IV, 12 Fugenze, -, Sargent, 10: 17, 20, 21 - tree collection, 18: 16 - - `Plumosa', 17 : 24, 26 - 'Nana aureovariegata', 28: 16 'Nana variegata', 28 : 16 'Plumosa 'Plumosa 'Plumosa 'Plumosa 27 -, Weeping, 10: 22 - Yoshino, 10: 22 Cherry-laurel, Schipka, 17 : 32 74 - - -- S argentea', 14: 1 5 aurea', 14: 15 compressa', 28 : 16 5 flavescens', 14: 15 'Plumosa' hedge, 27 : Plate VI, 14: 2; 17: 28; 18: l, 2, Plate 1, 5; 24: Plate XI,103 'Squarrosa intermedia', 28: 16, Plate VII, 17 Chestnut, 1 : 55, 56 -, American, _2: 10 - -, horticultural varieties, 1_2: 31, -, Chinese, 1 : 56; 2: 10 European, 2: 10 -, Japanese, _l: 56; 2: 10 Chichorium - - 'Squarrosa', - intybus, 4: 4 'Squarrosa minima', 28 : - thyoides, 15 : 72 'Andelyensis', 28: 18 - 16 'Ericoides', 28: 18 Chamaedaphne calyculata, 17 : Chamaedorea elegans, _15: 66 Chamberlin, Jacob, The, 22: 33-48 21 : 65 80, 81 2 Change in Name, A Simple, 1 : 1, Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses, Chickweed, 18: 18 Chicory, _4: Plate 11, 5 Child, Mrs. Anna, 21: 80 Child, Benjamin, 21: 80 Child, Grace, _21: 80 Child, Joshua, _21: 80 Chimonanthus praecox, 2: 8 Chinabells, 2: 4 Chinese Bush Cherry, The, Prunus tomentosa, _24: 81-86 1 - Cherry, 24: 81 Chestnut, 1_6: 72 - - varieties, 16: Plate VI, 19, -Fringetree, 28 : 1, Plate I, 3, Plate II, 4 - Chayote, 4: Plate IV, 33 3 68 20 Check-list of Cultivar Names in Weigela, _25: 49-69 Chelidonium majus, 22 : 5 3 Checkerberry, 15 : Cheng, Wan Chun, 8 : 4 Chenopodium album, _4: 4 Cherries, The Better Oriental, 10: \" 17-24 - -, pests and -, culture, 10 : 10: 18 16: 21 18 propagation, Cherry, Cornelian, - - New Year, Flowers of the, _2: 1-8 -, Lily, 2 : 2 , - - - Scene, _2: Plate III, 7 Witch-hazel, 8 : Plate IV, 10 Chionanthus, 25 : 16 retusus, 28: 1 species, 10: 82 7 : 5 3 ;1_1: 4; 15 : virginicus, Plate V, 21; 2_5: Plate III, 15; 28: 1 Chironia baccifera, 19: 76 - fruiting, - 21 Chloranthus - spicata, 2 : 8 Chlordane powder, 16 : 8 Chloromone, 1_7: 47 Christmas basket of nuts, 29 : Plate XXXIII, 128, 129 - Cactus, 15 : - glaber, 19: 7 3 Christmas - - 3 plants, Japan, 19 : 73 70 -, Scandinavia, 19: -, South America, 19: 68 -, Spain, 19 : 70, 72 - -, Thailand, 1_9: 73 - 80 - candelabras, 29 : Plate XXXIII, corsages, 29: Plate XXXIV, 128- trade, 19: 60 -, United States, _19: 60-72 -, tradition and the 128, 129 - 130, 131 - - Rose, 15 : 82 - show, 1_5: 84; 1_8: 53-56 swags, 29 : Plate XXVIII, 120, - 121 1 - decorations, berried plants, 18: 53 3 evergreens, 18: Plate XIII, 53, - - woody plant materials, 16 : 61-72; 29: 111-13 3 - -, materials prominent in various areas, 1_8: 54 --, show of holiday, 18: 53-56 - 55 5 from decorations, _18: 54 trees, 15: 61, 62, 63 for decorations, 29: Plate XXVII, 119, 128 tree - - wreaths of foliage, cones and - -, \"Fearsome Critters\",16 : 72; 29: Plate XXXV, 130-132, 133 3 floral arrangements, 29 : Plate XXXIV, 130, 131 garlands, 16: 70; 29: Plate XXXII, 126-128 - fruits, _19: 61-68; 29 : Plate XXIV, 113, Plate XXV, 115, Plate XXVI, 117, Plate XXIX, 122, Plate XXX, 123, Plate XXXI, 125, Plate XXXII, 127, Plate XXXV, 133, 124-126 Chrysanthemum, -, 19: 73 International 23 : 87 Registration Au52 66 thority, - greens, - display, kissing ball, 16: 68, 69; 29: 16: 60 Plate XXIV, 1 XXVIII, 121 - 113, 120-124, Plate Cicuta maculata, 18: 20; 26: 72 Cinquefoil, bush, Purdom, 17: 22 -, Three-toothed, 17: 74 Chrysanthemums, 19 : leucanthemum, 22 : Plate XXI, - noveleties, 16 : Plate XVII, 65, 71-72 -, Wineleaf, 17: 74 - Citrus medica - plants, 1_5 : 61-84 -, Africa, 19 : 74 19: 76, 77 - - Around the World, 19 : 59-77 -, Australia and New Zealand, - -, Cladrastis, 21: 19, 20 - lutea, 12: 56, 57 'Rosea', 23: 88 - sarcodoctylus, 2: taitensis, 15 : 81 8 platycarpa, 21: 8: 25-28 20 Belgium, emburg, 19 : Netherlands and Lux70 - sinensis, 2_1: 20 Clark, George O., Blueberry Cages, - -, - - -, -, Germany, 19: Caribbean area, Europe, 19: 68 19 : - 68 Clarke, W. B.,_9: 24, 26-28 15: 61-84 Classes-see Arnold Arboretum, Fall Classes, Spring Classes Clavatia cyathiformis, 4: 2 Cleaning seeds, 13 : 47 Clematis collection, 3 : 24 given Arnold Arboretum 2: 50 - 70 - -, Great Britain, 19: 69 - - in the Boston Area, -, India, _19: 72 - -, Ireland, 19 : 69 - - -, Israel and Lebanon, 19: 72 22 Clematis 'Lady Caroline Neville', 50 26: - Plate XVIII, 62 Colchicum autumnale, 26: 75 Cold storage house, 22 : Plate XVI, - lanuginosa, 2 : montana - paniculata, 12: 59 texensis, 13-:8 13 : 8 rubens, 13 : 8, Plate I, 3 Collecting seeds of woody plants, 1 13 : 41 Collection dates of seed of woody plants, _7: 53-56 Collinia elegans, 15: 66 Colman, Norman Jay, Award, 10: 1 71 42 : 44 - vitalba, Clethra - alnifolia, 17: 29 rosea, 11: 4 - barbinervis, _8: 48 Cleyer, Andrew, 17: 10 Cleyera, 17: 10 - japonica, 17: 10, 12 - Color, Autumn see Autumn Color Chart, New, _17: Plate XIII, 59, - 57-60 - forma tricolor, 17: 12 Climb, Some Ways Plants, 28: 53-67, Plate XVIII, 57, Plate XIX, 59, Plate XX, 61, Plate XXI, 63, Plate XXII, 65, Plate XXIII, 67 Climbers, branch, 28 : 55-58 -, inflorescence, 28 : 58 -, leaf, 28 : 60-62 -, root, Chart, Royal Horticultural, 41-44 12: - -, names - - for, or terms used for,_7: 46 of bark of woody plants, 7 : 61-68 post cards, 14: 10 -Standards, American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform, 7: 41- 28 : 62-64 - 5 -, twiners, 28: 53-55 -, weavers, 28 : 64 5 Climbing Bittersweet, 22 : 55 and Their Relatives, Hydrangeas - 52 standards, reasons for adopting, 41-44 _7: 24 : 17-39 Clon, definition of, 3: Clover, Red, 22 : 50 -, White, 22: 50 Cock's Foot Grass, Cocoa-shell mulch, 10 Colorado Spruce, 5 : Plate XIII, 69 Colored foliage, some shrubs and trees with, 14: 13-19 Colorful twigs in early spring, plants 5 with, 27 : 15 Colors of one hundred hardy Azaleas, The flower, 1_2: 41-44 22 : 50 33, 34 Cocos nucifera, 15 : 79 Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 18 : 65-68; 21 : 1-8 17 : Columnberry, Truehedge, 17: 20 Coggeshall, Roger G., 12: 32; _18: 24, 39 - -, Colutea arborescens, 16: 72 Concerning the Registration of Cultivar Names, _21: 1-8 46; 14: Cones, 16 : 64, 68, 70, 72 - Asiatic Maples, Their Propagation from Softwood Cuttings, 17 : 45-50 and fruits for wreath-making, 16: Plate XVIII, 66 - Congdon, Joseph, W., 2 : 18 - -, - Polyethylene Plastic, Its Applications to the Propagation of Hardwood Cuttings, 14: 57-63 -, Propagating Some Rarer Plants from Seed, 14: 25-28 -, Rooting Ghent Azaleas under Conifer Cuttings, Rooting of, 27: 85-90 Conifers at Dropmore, A list of, 7 : 39 Dwarf, from Witches'-Brooms, - - Plastic, 20: 1-7 _27: 29-50 Conium maculatum, 26 : 73 3 23 6 : 50; 15: 80; -- Constable, James, 2 : Contributions of 1 retum, 2 : 51 17 Cornus alba - the Arnold Arbo- - - Control of Plant Development with Maleic Hydrazide The, 10: 33-37 Convallaria majalis, 14: 22; 22: 54; 26 : 75 Conversion data, Nickerson Color Fan, 17: 60 5 Convolvulus, 22: 55 18: 20 sepium, - - - 'Variegata', 21: 12 'Variegata aurea', _21: vars., 1_4: 15 'Tricolor', 21 : 12 12 - - `Westonbirt', 21: 21: 13 3 12 - alternifolia, - - - - 3 'Albo-marginata', 21: 13 21: 13 3 'Albo-variegata', 3 'Argentea', 14: 15 ; 21: 13 - - 'Coralina', 21: - - 'Ochrocarpa', `Ochroleuca', 13 3 21: 13 3 Coon, Nelson, 41-44 A Home Arboretum, - - 25 : Cooperating Nurserymen, 8: 64; _16: 34, 50, 51 3 Copeland, Harold W., _21: 73 - -, Heath and Heather on Cape Cod, 23 : 103-106 Hurricane \"Donna\" and its after effect to a Chatham, Massachu3 setts, Garden, 21: 67-73 Cork Tree, Amur, 16: 45 5 Corn, hybrids of, 7 : 15 Cornelian Cherry 17 : 20 Cornus alba, 7: 61;18: 57 - - - 3 'Umbraculifera', 21:13 21: 13 3 - - 'Variegata', 21: 'Virescens', 21: - - 13 3 13 3 - amomum, - 3 'Angustifolia', 21 : 13 21: 13 3 -, 3 - - `Aurea', 21 : 13 21: 13 3 'Aurora', 3 'Grandiflorum', 21: 13 21: 13 3 'Grandifolia', 3 - - `Parvifolia', 2_1: 13 - - - - - - - - - 3 `Undulifolia', _21: 13 21 : 'Xanthocarpum', - brachypoda 'Variegata', controversa, - 13 3 21: 13 3 - - - - - - - - 1 'Angustipetala', 2 1: 11 'Argenteo-marginata', 21 : 1 'Atrosanguinea', 21 : 11 'Behnschi', 21: 12 12 - 21 : 11 1 - - 'Fastigiata', 'Variegata', 21: 1: 13 3 21: 14 13 3 - Cultivars Names, 21 : 9-18 - - `Boxwood', 21 : - - `Elata', 21 : 12 - - florida, 52; - 'Elegans', 21: 12 2 'Elegantissima', 21 : 12 'Elegantissima variegata', 12 12 'Froebeli', 21: 12 `Gibbsii', 21: 12 21: 14; 26: 14 :'Alba-plena', 1: 6;121: 14 'Apple Blossom', 2_3: 88 - 6; 2 : 36; 4: 18; 6: 11; - 21: - - - 'Elongata', 21: - - - - - - 'Kesselringii', _21: 'Rosenthalii', 21 : sibirica,_7: 61, 62; _l l : 6; 16: 20, 38; 1_8: 57, 58; 2_l: 12 2 'Elegantissima', 21 : 12 - - - `Variegata', 21: 12 - - `Spaethii', 21: 12 `Spaethii aurea', 21: 12 - 'Gouchaultii', 21 : - - 12 12 12 - - - - - 14 - - `Belmont Pink', 14 'Cherokee Chief', _21: 14; 2_3: 89 'Cherokee Princess', 21: 14; 23: 89 - - `Cloud 9', 23: 89 `Compacti',21: 14 - -, dates of bloom, 10: 11, 12 - - 'De Kalb Red', _21: 14; 23 : 89 - - 'Fastigiata', 16: Plate X, 37, - 'Ascending', 21 : 14 'Aurea variegata', 21: 21: - - - - - - - - - - -- 40; _21: 14 'First Lady', 29: 2 24 Cornus florida _29: 2 - 'Purple Splendor', 14 21 : 14 16: 21; 21: 14 Cornus - 'Gigantea', 21 : 'Hillenmeyer', 'Magnifica', 21: - - --'Moon', - 14 multibracteata, 1 : 'Nana', 21: 14 mas'Albocarpa', 21: 16 'Andrzejowski', 21: 16 - - `Argentea', 21: 16 `Argenteo-marginata', 21: 16 `Argenteo-variegata', 21: 16 - - `Aurea', 16 : 21;21:16 - 6 - - `Aurea-elegantissima', 21: - 16 - - `New 5 Hampshire', 21: 15 5 - - `Pendula', 16: 40; 21: 15 - - `Plena', 1 : 6; _21: 15 `Pluribracteata', 1 : 6; 21 : - - `Prosser', 21: 15 - - - `Crispa', `Elegans-tricolor', 21: 17 'Elegantissima', 21: 17 --'Flava',21: 17 - 21: 17 - - 15 5 - - - - - - - `Prosser - - - - `Rich-Red', 21 : - - `Rose - 'Pygmy', 27: 61 Valley', 'Rosea', 21: 15 15 5 21 : 15 5 Red', 21: 15 5 - - --- - 21: 17 'Luteocarpa', 21: 17 'Marcrocarpa', 21: 17 `Mietzschii', 21: 17 `Nana', 20: 11; 2_l: 17 'Polonica', 21: 17 'Lanceolata', - 'Polonica - - 5 `Rubra', 21: 15 'Rubra', color comparison of flowers, 7: 42 - - `Salicifolia', 21: 15 5 - - - 'Spring Song', 23 : 89 1 'Springtime', 27 : 61 5 --'Super Red', _21: 15 - - 'Sweetwater Red', 2_3 : 5 - - `Variegata', 21: 15 - 'Pyramidalis', 21: 17 - - `Rubra', 2_1: 17 'Sphaerocarpa\" 21 : 17 'Variegata', 21: 17 - minor', 21 : 17 - 'Violacea', 21: - 17 17 'Xanthocarpa', 21 : `Eddiei', 2_1: 21: 17 17 - nuttallii, 89 - - - `Weaver', 2_1: --- 15 5 5 `Weeping', 2_1: 15 `Welchii', 21: 16 - - `Welch's Junior Miss', - - `White Cloud', 2_1: 16 29 : 2 'Winkenwerderi', 2_1: 17 officinalis, 5: 2 -, pests of, 19 : 5, 7 - racemosa, 17: 20, 26; 21: 17 'Slavin's Dwarf', _21: 17 - -, registration list of cultivar names, 9-18 18 - - - `Willsii', 2_1: 16 'Xanthocarpa', 21: - 2_l: 16 - -, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 - - sanguinea _21: 18 'Atrosanguinea', 2_l : 'Mietzschii', 21:18 - - - kousa, 21 : 16 chinensis, 14: 52; 2_1: 16 - 'Milky Way', _21: 'Rubra', 21: 16 - - 16 3 'Variegata', 2_1: 13 'Virdissima', 14 : 15; 21 : - sibirica, 21 : 18 - 18 - - `Coral Beauty', 21 : - - - - - `Speciosa', 21 : 16 `Variegata', 14: 15; 21: 21: 16 stolonifera, 1_6: 21; 21: - 18 18 16 - - - `Viridis', - - - - mas, _15: 14; _17: 20, 26; 2_0: 11; - 'Xanthocarpa', 21: 21 : 16 16 - - 'Angustipetala', 21: 18 'Elata', 21: 18 8 'Elongata', 21: 18 - - - 'Flaviramea', 'Nana', 21:16 'Alba', - - - `Kelseydwarf', _21: - 21: 18 18 21: 18 25 - - `Repens', 21: 18 - - 'Xanthocarpa', 21 : 18 Corsages, Christmas, 16: Plate XXI, 17; 29 : Plate - Cornus stolonifera - - `Pendula', 21: 'Nitida', 21 : 18 18 foveolata, 15: 58 - francheti, 15: 58 frigida, 15: 58 vicarii, 15 : 58 - horizontalis, 14: 22; 15 : 59; 19: Cotoneaster - - - - - - XXXIV, 128-130 28 70 Corylopsis, 4: 18; 7: platypetala, species, 5 : spicata, 8 : 8: 48 - - 2; 15 : 14 10; 1_5: Plate III, 45 - hupehensis, 15: 59 integerrima, 5 : 84 - lucida, 15: 59 - - microphylla, 15: - veitchiana, 21: 44 Corylus americana, 1: 56; 4_: 6; 12: - 59; 1_7: 65 cochleata, 15: 59; 17 : Plate XIV, 63 15: 59 32 - - thymifolia, 57 - avellana, 1: 56; 12: 32 colurna, 1_6: Plate VII, 18, 21, 22 ; 26 : Plate VII, 10 - -, horticultural varieties, 12 : 32- - multiflora, 10: 75; 15 : Plate X, calocarpa, 15 : 59 - pests, 19: 3, -, 5,7 34 - cornuta, 1: 56; prostrate, 15: 54 - 12: 32 12: 32 5 14: 15 purpurea, and horticultural varieties, species 2: 10 Cotinus americanus, 28: 1, 2 - coggygria, 28 : 1, 2 -, fruiting, 10 : 82 5 purpureus, 14: 15 - - `Velvet Cloak', 29 : 2, 3 - obovatus, 28: 1, 2 Cotoneaster adpressa, 15: Plate X, - - maxima, 1: 56; racemiflora soongorica, 15: 59 - salicifolia, 19: 70 floccosa, 15: Plate IX, 55, 59 - simonsii, 15 : 59 - 57, - 58 - apiculata, 15: 58 - bacillaris, 14: 27 -, Bearberry, 17: 65 - 8 praecox, 15: 58 - bullata, - 15 : 58 Courses at the Arnold Arboretum, 14: 33, 34;15: 52; 16: 4, 8; 17: 53-60 Cottage garden, 5 : Plate XVI, 85 Country Cousins, 28 : 1-7 Cotton bolls, 15: Plate XIV, 74, 77 small-leaved, 1_7: 65 tomentosa, 15: 59 with little ornamental vlaue, 15: 60 - zabeli, 15 : 59 miniata, 15: 59 Cotoneasters of varying heights, 15: - -, - - congesta, 15 : 58 floribunda, _15: 58 15: 58 58 16, 60; 18: 39; 19: 58; _20: 40; 22: 8, 24, 68; 24: 88; _27: 72; _28: 8, 124; see also Arnold Arboretum, decora, _15: - dammeri, 1_l: 6; 14: 27; 15: 58; - conspicua, 65 classes - - - Coville, F. C., 2: 29, 30 Cowbane, Spotted, 18: 20 17 : - 'Skogsholmen', 29: dielsiana, _15: 58 elegans, 15 : 58 10 Cowberry, 17 : 75 Cowslip, 4: Plate III, Crab, Manchurian, Crab 10 1 31 2 6: 12 Apples, _3: 23; 4: 22; 6: Annual 11; 14: - disticha, 14: 27 divaricata, 11: 6; 15: - 58 --, bearing, 16 : 32 26 Crab Apples, 17-20 Best of the, 10 : 25-28; Crataegus oxyacantha 'Paulii', - 22: 1 31 - -, - 19 : -, 31 'Plena', _22: Plate IX, 29, 1 'Punicea', 22: 31 for flower, 10: 26, 27 - for fruits, 27, 28; 16: 29-32 10 : - - - - - -, colored foliage, with, -, dates between which fruits are colorful and effective, _3: 42, 1 43; _16: 30, 31 10: 28 1 -, `Dorothea', 16: Plate III, 11 or semi-double flowers, -, double - oxyacantha var., 5 : 80 pedicellata as understock, 10: 75 - pests, 19: 2, 3, 7 - phaenopyrum, 1 31 - 22 : Plate VIII, 27, - - - - 1 'Fastigiata', 22 : 31 pinnatifida major, 22: 1 29, 31 Plate IX, 1 31 19: 18 - - - 10: 28 Peters Hill, 12: 46 flowering -, foliage color, 19: 18, 19 for America, 3: 23, 44, 56 for Ornamental Fruit, 3 : 41- dual purpose, on - - pruinosa, 17: 21, 27; 2_2: 1 - punctata, 22 : 31 2 succulenta, 22 : 32 - - 'Toba', - 22 : 32 - 44 ; 16: 29-32; 19: 18 20-22 - - - - for form, 10 : 28 further trials needed for, 19: 18 15-22 'Vaughn', 29: 3 - viridis, 22 : 3-2 --'Winter King', 29 : X 3 19: - -, lasting fruit, 19 : -, - - of merit, - 2 - wattiana, 2_2 : 3 F. M., 2 : 18 Crayton, Creech, John L., Expeditions for New Horticultural Plants, 26 : 49- - - - - parthenogenetic, 10: 26 -, pink flowers, 19 : 17 -, pink and white flowers, 19: 17 7 -, red to purplish flowers, 19 : 17 -, reddish-purple flowers, _19: 17 -, unique forms, 19: 20 53 3 - Note on 12 : 48 Ligustrum ibolium, 11: 1 71 Crimson King Maple, Crinkle Bush, 15: 80 Cryptomeria japonica, 8 : 10; 14: 2 ; 19 : 74 'Lobbii', 25 : Plate IX, 43 'Vilmoriniana', 28: 18 Cudahy, Mrs. Joseph M., 2: 50 - -, white flowers, 19 : 17 Craggy Gardens, Blue Ridge Parkway, Asheville, N. C., 26 : Plate S XI, 25 - Crataegus sp., 14: - arnoldiana, - 'Autumn - 28 crus-galli, 17 : 21, 26; 22 : 28 X lavallei, 22 : 28 mollis, 22 : 28 monogyna, _17: 21, 26; 22: 28 - - `Biflora', 2_2: 30 - - `Inermis', 11: Plate XIII, 46; coccinoides, 22 : - 2_2: Glory', 52 26 22: 32 Cultivar Names, - Concerning the 1-8 - Registration of, 21: - - - in Cornus, _21: 9-18 in the Genus Chaenomeles, 23: 17-75 5 in Ulmus, Registration of, 24: 41-80 in Weigela, Checklist 49-69 - - of, 25: List - - of 16: Plate - - - 'Stricta', 22 : 30 - X, 36; 22: Fagus, Registration 1-8 of, 30 - 24 : X mordenensis 'Snowbird', 29: 3 nitida, 22: 30 of Liquidambar, 21 : 60-62 of Syringa vulgaris offered for sale, 19: 27, 28 ~7 Cultivated Plants, New International Code of Nomenclature, 18: 65-68 2 relatives of the Camellia, 17 : 1-12 Plate Cunninghamia lanceolata, 2_5: - Damage due to hurricane, 14: 37, 40 - to Dana 3 winter, 1_5 : 13 Greenhouses, 22 : Plate XIV, IX, 43 33-37 18 : Plate Cup Plant, Cupressus, - 3 V, 20, 23 1 19: Plate XII, 71 - arizonica, 19 : 67, 72, 74 macrocarpa, 19: 63;_26: Plate IV, 7; 29 : Plate XL, 145 Dandelion, Fall, 2_2: 52 Daphne cneorum, 17: 65 collina, 7 : 36 - - giraldii, - 7 : 33 mezereum, - sernpervirens, 19: 72 - _5: 84; _7: 36; 26: Plate XX, 66, 67 horizontale, 19: 72 - torulosa, 19: 74 Currant, mountain, 17: 22 - Cuttings, from juvenile plants, - from mature plants, 17: 46 -, two 17:46 tangutica, 7 : 33 Dasylirion sp., 15: 74 2 Data, local climatological, 20 : 52 Date florets, 15: Plate XIV, 74, 77 Datura stramonium, 26 : 73 3 Daucus carota, 22: 54 Day-lily, 22 : 54 Davenport, John, 2 : 17, year old, of Rhododendron 'Gloria Mundi', 20: Plate I, 3 1: Cutworms, garden, Cyathus olla, 4: 2 39, 40; _3: 3 Davidia Cyclamen, Registration Authority, 23: 87 Cydonia japonica, 23 : 17 lagenaria, 23 : 18 8 sinensis, 23 : 18 Cynanchum nigra, 16: 6 Cynara scolymus, 15 : 72 Cypress, Arizona, 19 : 67 Cyrilla racemiflora, 9: 2; 10: Plate - International 18 involucrata, 8: 24; _l l: Davis, Deacon Ezra, _21: 81 - 72 Davis, M. B., 7 : Davis, Sarah, Dawn 122 : -, see 33 81 Redwood, _l l: also 2_l: 28; 28: 113- Metasequoia DDT, _7: 26, 18-23; 13: 52; 14: 8 XI, 47 Cytisus austriacus, - 7: 36 decumbens, - elongatus, hirsutus, - 7 36 7 : 36 _7: 36 1_3: 83 -, wettable powder, 13 : 83 5 Deadly Nightshade, _22: 55 Decaisnea fargesii, _7: 58 Decumaria, 24 : 17, 32 - barbara, 24: 32 -, key to the species of, 24 : - sinensis, 24: 33 concentrate, 32 - leucanthus Schipkaensis, 7: 36 nigricans, 7: 36 praecox, 11; _8: 22, 24, 48; 9: 2; _l l: Plate I, 5, 6 ;_16: 40, 41 - _6: - - - luteus, _l6: - 41 - purpureus, 7: 36; 8: 48, 50; 9: 2; _13: 11; 14: 22 scoparius, 15: 68 1 - -, hardy form, 16: 21 Dactylis glomerata, 22: 50 Dahlia, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 Daisy, English, 22: 52 -_Ox-Fve_ Delphinium, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 - spp., 26: 73 Demonstration and ground cover plots at the Case Estates, Weston, Map, 14: 23, 16: 53-60 plot, small ornamental trees, 16 : Plate IV, 10-14 - -, Ground Covers, 16: 5 3-60 Deptford Pink, 2_2: 54 Desert Spoons, 1_5: Plate XIV, 74, - 77 22~ 52 Destroy dead Elm wood immediatelv. 8: 17-20 28 Deutzia candelabrum 8: 50 Dogwood, Tatarian, 7: 61; - 18: 57; - - 'Contraste', 8: 50 - gracilis, 17: 29 22: -, - 'Magicien', - rosea 8 : 50 -, weeping, 16 : 40 -, complex, 20 : -, double, Plate I, 3 66, 67 twig borer, 19: 5, 7, 9, 56 26 eximea, 8: 50 DeWolf, Dr. Gordon P., Jr., appointed Horticultural Taxonomist, 27: 28 - Doorenbos, Mr. S. G. A., 1_3: Dormancy, 13: 42 34 14: 27; 20: 36 - - Albizia julibrissin and Its Cultivar`Ernest Wilson', 28 : 29-34 Identification of Unknown - in seed 14: 26 Douglas Fir, 15: 63;_17: 24; 26: - Plants, 27: 51, 52 - Dove-tree, 8: 24 Dried , Introduction of Our Hardy Stewartias, 29: 41-48 Notes on fruits, flowers and cones, 72 - - Making an Herbarium, 15 : plant parts, 15: 78 Market, 1 69-111 Dr. Donald Wyman, Supplement 29: 3 pp. following p. 8 Dianthus armeria, 22 : 54 barbatus, 5: 84 28: - - - materials on the Boston 18: Plate XIII, 54, 555 Dropmore hybrids, (Spiraea) needing more trial, 2_l: 58 Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada, 7: 29-40 - - -, InternationalRegistration Authority, 23: 87 caryophyllus, 5: 84 Dicentra spp., 26: 75 5 Dieffenbachia seguine, 26 : 74 Dieldrin, 13: 83 Diervilla lonicera, 13 : 11; 14: 22 Digitalis purpurea, 26: 73 Dill, Fred F., _9: 63 ~ Drought, 7: 57; _17: 61 Dudley, T. R., Ornamental Madworts (Alyssum) and the Correct Name of the Goldentuft Alyssum, 26 : 3 3-45 Dumps, Plants for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and, 25: 45-48 Dutch Elm Diospyros kaki, 2 : 12 virginiana 2 : 12; 23 : - Plate XII, 76 125 - \"Dura-Clear\", _l l: 50, 51 Disease, 17-23; 8: 20 ; _l l: 41, 89 ; 19: 2, 6 -, control of, 7 : 17-28 7_: 17- - Dipsacus fullonum, 15: sylvestris, 15: 76 - - - -, four-point plan to combat it, 8: 20 - Dirca pests, 19: 2, 5, 7 Directional signs, carved wooden, Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, 7: 21 1 _24: 12 - - -, no Disease of Elms, Phloem 7: Plate III, 17-23 Diseases, 19: 2-9 DN or Dinitro, 13: 83 - necrosis, positive practical control for disease fungus or bark beetles, 8: 18 Slurry, 13: 83 1 Dogwood, _4: 23; 6: 11 -, flowering, upright, 16: Plate X, 37,40 18: 57 -, gray, 17: 20 -, Siberian, sanitation as best present method of control, 8: 18, 19 - - -, what one town has done to combat it, _8: 19 Dutchman's Pipe, 22: 54 Dwarf Conifer Collection, The New, 2_8: Plate V, 11, Plate VI, 13, Plate VIII, 9-27 - - -, . :9 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - Dw to Mal","article_sequence":3,"start_page":30,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24521","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260b726.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":7,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Dwarf Conifers from Witches'-Brooms 27 : 29-50 - Trees, 10: 73-78 - -, pruning repotting and water- Elm, Chinese, 17 : 22; 18: Plate XIV, -- 59 5 ing, 11: 34, 3 -, training, _l l : 32; 14: 2-7 5 -, winter protection, 16: 3 Disease, Dutch, see Dutch Elm Disease - leaf beetle, 1: 39; 19: 4, 9 - leaf miner, 19 : 3, 9 - Dwarfed Trees, on, - species, _l l: Plate XVIII, Japanese, _l4: 1-7 Dwarfing rootstocks, trees grafted _10: Plate XV, Plate XVI, 75, new Elms, Asiatic, 1 : -, European, 1 : - Grown in America, 1: 65-80; 11: -- 82 68-70; 1_1: 81-84 70-73; 1_l: 84-86 77 trees, 1 techniques for, 15:11 - understocks, IX, 79 10: 73-77 21: Plate 79-93 - in the Arnold Arboretum, 14: Plate XI, 53 -, keys to, 1: 77-80; 11: 89-93 Early church, sketches, -, native American, 1 : 65-68; 11: 1 79-81 -, - to Early spring, S : Edible wild plants of eastern North America, 3 : 44; 4: 8 Edinburgh Botanic Garden, 7: Education 30 1-3; 16: 1-4 -, Watch Program Arboretum, 14: Effect of light on at the Arnold 33-36 seed germination, 52 ; 17 : 21, -, Autumn, 17 : 21 - _ll: 40 Eighty Trees for the Small Place, 5 16 : 9-15 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 12: 8; 14: the, 7: 17-23 Elscholtzia stauntoni, 12: 59; 26 : Plate XIX, 64 Embossed or record label, 24: 9, 10 Emergency food manuals, 4: 29 English Ivy, 18 : 1, 3 Enkianthus, 2 : 2 campanulatus, _l l : 7 quinqueflorus, 2: 1, 4 Entomology, Bureau of U. _7: 22 Europe and Asia, 73-77; 11: 86-89 both 1: - - 27 S. D. A., umbellata, 17 : 21, 26 Elderberry, native, 16: 48 Electric Council of New England, Epigaea repens,_2: 16, 28;_9: 6 Epimedium grandiflorum, 14: 22 Epiphyllum, 19: 70 Erianthus ravennae, 15 : 80 Erica arborea alpina, 23 : 104, 105 - _23: 1 Ellery, Bessie Collier (Mrs. William), Ghent Hybrid Azaleas are Hardy in New England,_3: 37-40 Elliottia at the Arnold Arboretum, 29: Plate IV, 19 -, multiple shoots of, 29 : Plate IV, 19 -, propagation by root cuttings, 29: --- - carnea, 7 : 36; _15: 14; 19 : 70; 23: 104-106 cinerea, 2 3 : 104, 106 - - X darleyensis, 23: 104, 106 - vagans, 23: 104,106 - 18 -, - - seeds, 29: 18 -, - - stem cuttings, 29: 20 - racemosa and its propagation, 29: 17-20 Ellis, John, 12: 68 Elm Bark Beetle. 19: 2. 6. 9 30 X watsonii, 23 : 104, 106 Ericas grown at Chatham, Mass., 35 5 and varieties of, 105, 23: species 106 Eriobotrya japonica, 19~ 74 Eriocaulon decangulare, 15; 79 Eriogonum, 15, : 83 Espaliered Cotoneaster horizontalis, 29~ Plate XV1_ 57 7 - Espaliered Forsythia, 29: Plate XVII, 59 Mulberry in Holland, 29 : Plate XV, 55 Pear in -, Euonymus europaea atrorubens, 2 : - - - 3 Paris, 29: Plate XIV, 53 45-59 Plants, 29 : A few of the some - - 41,42,46 aucubaefolia, 2: 46 'Globe Form',2: 46 intermedia, 2: 42, 46 nana, 2 : 46 - - designs used in 1 growing, 29: Plate XIII, 51 - - `Red - - `Red - plants Espaliers, for,_29: 52-58 Establish an Arboretum or Botan3 Garden, How to, 20 : 69-83 Eucalyptus, 15: 66, 78; _16: 72; 23: of the best ical 123 3 Cascade', 16: 23 - fortunei, 2: 46, 48; _17: 66 'Berry Hill', 17 : 66 carrierei, 2: Plate IX, 45, 46, 48; 17: 66 colorata, 2: Plate IX, 45, 46, 48; 13: 8; 14: 22; 17: 66 - Cap', 27 : 62 - 15: Plate XII, 66, 69 66 Plate XVII, 130 15: 78 - spp., 26 : Plate VII, 10 -, Spiral, 15 : Plate XII, 69 Eucommia ulmoides, 23: Plate XIV, -, Corkscrew, - - - globulus, 15 : - gunnii, 23: polyanthemos, - 'Dupont', 17 : 66 - - `Gold - Tip', 23: 89 2: gracilis, 14: - Plate IX, 45, 46, 48; - - - - 123, 127 - - 66 Plate IX, 45, 46, 48; 13: 12;14: 24; 16: 64; 17: 66 'Manhattan', 17: 66 15;_17: kewensis, 2: - Euonymus, _2 : alata, 2: Plate VIII, 41-44, 46 aperta, 2 : 46 - 1 41-51 - - minima, 2 : Plate IX, 45, 46, - - clone, 7; 17: 16 : 41 - - 48; _13: 12; 14: 24; 17 : 66 radicans, 2: Plate IX, 45, 46, 48 reticulata,_2: Plate IX, 45, 47 'Silver Queen',_2: Plate IX, 45, 48; 14: 15;_17: Plate XV, 66, 67 vegeta, 2: Plate IX, 45, 47, 48; - - - compacta, 1: 42, 44; 21 2: 46; 11: - - - - 'Compactus' Hedge, 27: Plate III, 24 - - _17: 66 - - americana, _2: Plate VIII, 43, 46, 49 - japonica,_2: 44, 47, 49 64 - hamiltoniana, 2 : 47 - atropurpurea, 2 : 42, 46 'Berry Hill', 21 : 44 bulgarica, 2 : Plate VIII, 43, 44, 46 -, Kew, 16: - kiautschovica, _2: Plate VIII, 43, latifolia, 2 : Plate VIII, 41, 43, maackii,_2: Plate VIII, 43, 44, 47 44 . 44,47 - lanceifolia, 2: 41, 44, 47 - - - bungeana, 2 : 41, 42, 46 semipersistens, 2: 41, 42, 44, - 47 47 46 - - lanceolata,_2: - -, chart of ornamental characteristics, 2 : 46, 47 macroptera, 2: 44, 47 -'Dupont', 21: - 44 europaea, 2: Plate VIII, 41-44, 46; 26: Plate XXI, 66. 69 alba, _2 : 46 - nana,_2: Plate VIII, 43, 47 nikoensis, 2 : Plate VIII, 43, 47 - obovata, 2:42, 47 - -'Manhattan', 21: - aldenhamensis, 2: 42, 46 - - - atropurpurea, 2 :42 1 31 patens, 2 : 44 oxyphylla,_2: 47 - pauciflora, 2 : 47 Euonymus phellomana, 2: - pests, 19: 2, 5,7 - 47 Evergreens in Governor's Garden, 43,47 - sanguinea, 2 : Plate VIII, 41, 43, 44,47 'Sarcosie', 21: 44 - scale,_2: 48;17 : 66; 19: 2, 5, 7, 9 - semenovii, 2: 47 - semiexserta, 2: 47 - shrubs, 2 : 44 Plate IX, 45 - trees, 2: 42 - verrucosa, 2 : 47 - vines, 2: 48 radicans, 2 : 48 acuta, 2 : 48 - sachalinensis, 2 : Plate VIII, 41, - Williamsburg, Va., _l l: - Plate XVII, 78 - Foliage Color of Narrowleaved, 3: 17-20 Winter Evodia danielli, Plate XI, - 12: 8; 14: 52; 16: 39, 41 ; 28 : 2 hupehensis, 16: 41; _28: 2 Exhibit of pruning at 1953 Boston 1 Spring Flower Show, 1_3: 21 Exhibition of of Bonsai Available on Loan, An, 25: 28 Photographs species showing variations in leaves and buds, 2 : Plate VIII, 43, Exocarpos cupressiformis, 19: 77 Exochordia giraldii wilsonii, 28 : Plate III, 2, 5 - korolkowi, 16: 18, 23 racemosa, 28: 2 species, 6 : 10 - yedoensis, 2: Plate VIII, 41, 43, 44,47 - winged, dwarf, 17: IV, 20, 1 21 Expeditions for New Horticultural 21 1 - 3 Plants, 26: 49-53 to the Alaska Military Highway, 13: 555 1943-1944, 4: 65-72 18 : Plate Eupatorium fistulosum, - IV, Experiments in dormancy, - 3 Euphorbia cyparissias, 26: 73 19: 64; 26: pulcherrima, 15: 81; - 74 - - European Mistletoe (Viscum album) The, 29: Plate XXI, 69-72 Pine shoot moth, 19 : 2, 6, 8 - Fagus crenata, 22 : 6 engleriana, 22: 6 grandifolia,_7: 28; _17: 21, 26; 22: 2 ; 23 : Plate XVI, 129 caroliniana, 22 : 6 -, hedge, _27: Plate IV, - - - 25 Eurya, 17: 12 chinensis, 17 : 12 emarginata, 17: 12 - japonica, 17: 12 latifolia variegata, 17 : 12 2 12 marginata, 17 : - ochnacea, 17 : 10 - - - pubescens, 22: -, 6 International Registration Au6 7 - - - - thority, 23: 87 - japonica, 22: 6 longipetiolata, 22 : - lucida,_22: 6 - Evenings 29 : following p. 72 with Friends, Supplement, 37 Evergreen ground covers, _13: 7 Evergreens, Broad-leaved, in the Arnold Arboretum, _17: 61-76 3 -, in good condition, 3 : 21-23 22 -, injured, 3 : -, colored foliage, 2: 65, 66; 3: 1720 - Everett, T. H.,_21: recommended, 22: 6, - orientalis, 22 : 6 - pests, 19 : 4, 7 -, recommended, 22: 2-6 -, not -, Names - Registration List of Cultivar of, 24: 1-8 - - - - sieboldii, 22 : 6 2 species 14: 52 sylvatica, 17 : 21, 26;_22: Plate I, 2,3 - - 'Asplenifolia', 22 : 2 - rlcx~arf \/,~ 1 7 - - atrnnni~Pa 14~ 1 S ~ 22~2 32 Fagus sylvatica atropurpurea, 22 : 6 - - 'Cockleshell', 27 : Plate XX, 62, - Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, The Azalea Border, 9 : 6, 7 - - -, 63 - - crispa, 22 : - - `Cristata', 6 22: 6 2 22 : -- Contemplated Landscape Changes at the Arnold Arbo- -- - dentata, 22: 6 - - 'Fastigiata', XXXVI, - - - `Cuprea', 22: 137 Fatsia japonica, 19: 74 4; _29: Plate retum, 6 : 45-48 -, Peters Hill, 9 : 38-43 - - grandidentata, 22: 6 heterophylla, 22 : 7 4 7 - - incisa, 22 : 7 - - `Laciniata', 22: - - `Latifolia', _22: - - - `Luteo-variegata', 22: 7 macrophylla, 22 : 7 - - `Miltonensis', _26: Plate VIII, - - nigra, 22 : 7 - \"Fearsome Critters\", 16: Plate XXI, 3 71, 72; 29: Plate XXXV, 130-133 Federal Quarantine No. 38, 18: 9 Fermate, 13: 66 Fern, Neptune, 15 : 84 44 Fernald, M. effect of, on time of Fertilization, growth of seedlings of three spec- L.,_3: 11 I - - - - -- - `Quercifolia', 22: 4 - - `Quercoides', 22: 7 - - 'Rivers', 22 : 4 - 'Pendula', 22: Plate II, 4, 5 ; 26: Plate VI, 9 in Hunnewell Arboretum, 12: Plate XIII, 65 purpurea, 22 : 7 purpureo-pendula, 22: 4 - ies, _27: 7 Fertilizer, 15 : 13 Festoons, 16 : 61 Field classes, see Arnold Arboretum Fall Classes, Spring Classes Field 74 of the Better Ground Covers, Fifty _14: 21-24 years of gardening in Northern Manitoba, 7 : 29-40 trips, 21: - Fijian plant studies, 2: Filbert, 1: 56, 58 -, 51 1 riversi, 14: 16 4 22 : 4 4 American, 1: 56 - - `Rohani', _22: 'Roseo-marginata', - -, beaked,_l: 56 -, European, 1 : 56 horticultural varieties, 1 : 56, 58; 3 2: 10;_12: 32, 33 -, Turkish, 16 : Plate VII, 21, 22 -, 'Rotundifolia', _22: - - - - sanguinea, 22 : 7 `Spaethiana', 22: 6 - - 'Tricolor', 22: 7 Fall classes, see Arnold Arboretum - 'Tortuosa', 22:6 Filmore, Richard H.,_7: 2 - - -, Control of Plant Development with Maleic Hydrazide, Fall Classes fruits, 7 : 58 Fan Memorial Institute of - - -, Biology, _8: 4 Fan, Nickerson Color, _17: Plate XIII, 57-60 - _10: 33, 37 Growing Rhododendrons from Seeds,_9: 45-51 1 Fir, Balsam,_15: Plate XI, 63, 65; -, -, conversion data, _17: 60 \"Fantazma\", 15 : 79 Farlow Herbarium, 7: 4 Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, 6 : 23, 48;_7: 1, 5, 7 ; 21 : 37 - 16: 62; 19: 60, 64 Douglas, 15: Plate XI, 63, 65; 19: Plate X,60, 61, 70 -, Fraser,_19: 66 -, Silver, _19: 70 -, Spanish, -, 3 33 19: 72 Subalpine,19: 62 Fir, terminal bud, 3: Fig. 9 (a), 66 -, -, twig, 3:Fig. 8 White, 17: 24 (a), 66 Fire-blight, _19: 3, 7, 8, 9 Firethorn, 16: 48 Firs, simple key to the, 3: Fisher 65 Professorship of Natural History, 2 : 18 Five Interesting Trees, 11: 71-74 Flag, Blue, 22: 50 Flamingo Flower, 15: 82 Flat-headed apple tree borer, 19 : 5, 9 Fogg, John M., Jr.,_5: 56 Foliage, changes in, 2 : 57-68 -, colored, 2 : 59 -, Colors of Narrow-leaved Evergreens, Winter, 3 : 17-20 Woody Plants, April to September, 2 : 57-68 Fontanesia, 25:16 - Food Plants in the Arnold ArboFor theRecord, 13: 37-40 Forcing Hardy Woody Plants, - retum, 4 : 1-7 15: 18: - Flint, 54 --- Dr. Harrison L., appointed to the Arnold Arboretum staff, 26: Fordham, Alfred J., 6: 2; _7: 2; - 24 - Country Cousins, 28 : - 1-6 es'-brooms, - - - How to Have 27 : 17-22 a Good Hedge, in Dwarf Conifers from Witch27: 29-50 Elliotia racemosa and its 17-20 Propagation, 29: - - - - Twigs Early Spring, 27 : 15, 16 Plants with Colorful - - - - - - in Trees Seasonal and Shrubs, 26: 57-60 Seasonal Hardening in Trees and Shrubs Useful Even Hardening - - - - - - Though Not Winter-Hardy, 26: 61-63 - September Bloom, 27: 69, 70 Some Horticultural Activities of Justin Smith Morrill, and Donald Wyman, Plant Hardiness Zone Maps, 27: 53- - - - Germination of Woody Legume Seeds with Impermeable Seed Coats,_25: 1-8 Propagation and Care of Lilacs, 19: 36-45 Propagation of Albizia julibrissin, 28 : 36-40 Propagation of Liquidambar styraciflua, 21: 66 Propagation of Prunus tomentosa, 24: 86-87 28 : 41-52 - - - - - - - 56 Propagation of Woody Plants by Seed, 20: 33-40 Seed Dispersal by Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum, 27 : 73-84 Tsuga canadensis and Its Multitude of Variants, 23: 100-102 Flora Buttons, 15: Plate XIII, 73, 79 Flora of Fukien and Floristic Notes 1 on Southeastern China, 2: 51 Flower buds apparently not injured, - - - 17:14,16 killed, 17: 14 - Colors of One Hundred Hardy Azaleas, The_12: 41-44 - - Flowering displays in the Arnold Arboretum, 14 : 9, 10 shrubs, _10: 29-32, 41-56 1-8 Flowers of the Chinese New Year, 2: and Williams, Robert G., Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule, The, \"New Spray Materials,\" 13: 69-84 Forestiera, 25: 17 Forest-Tree Breeding Work of the Cabot Foundation, 10: 1-8 9 Form, definition Forsythia, 25: 16 - of, 3 : - 34 10;_8: 50;10: 12; 14: 24;15: 10;18: 2; 16;_l3: 19: 12; 21: 37, 39 -'Arnold Giant', 7: 10; 10 : 16; 15: 8; 20: 49, 50; _21: 37, 39 - Forsythia, Arnold Arboretum Seedling No. 22716, 10: 16 'Arnold Dwarf', 7 : - Forsythia intermedia 'Spring Glory', 21 : 36, 41 'Variegata', 14: 16 - - - 'Vitellina', 10: 15;_21: 36, 41 - japonica, 10: 15 - `Beatrix Farrand', _19: 12; _20: 49, -, border, _17: - europa, 13 3 50; _21: 37, 40 21 1 - - saxatilis, 10: 15, 16; 15: 10; 19: Plate I, 13 ; _21: 3 5 - 'Karl Sax', 20: 49-52, Plate XII, 51;_21: 37, 40 - `Lynwood Gold', 19 : 12; 21: 37, 7: - 25; 10: - 15; 19: Plate I, - 'Farrand', 15: 10; 16: 41; 21: 37, - 40 5 giraldiana, 10: 15 42 40 - ovata,_5: 2;_7: 10; 9: 2; 10: 2, 4, 6, 10, 15, Plate I, 5, Plate II, 7; _15: 8; 19: 14, Plate 1, 13; 5 _21: 37; 25: Plate III, 15 - - 20: 49; -'Gloriosa', 21: - 'Golden Bell',_21: 42 - 'Golden Queen', 21: 42 - 'Golden -, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 X europaea, 10: 15 'French's Florence', 27: 62 Sun',_21: 42 intermedia, 10: 9, 10, 15, 16; 15: - 1 10;17: 21, 26;_21: 35-41 'Arnold Dwarf', see Forsythia - 'Robusta', 21: 41 Registration Lists of Cultivar Names of, _21: 39-42 - 'Spring Glory', 10: 16; 19: 12 - Story, The, 21 : 35-38 -, - suspensa, 10: 15, - - atrocaulis, 10: - 16;_21: 41 37 16; 21: 37 - 'Arnold Dwarf' 'Arnold Giant', see Forsythia 'Arnold Giant' -- `Arnolds Brilliant', 21: 40 'Nyman's Variety', 21: - - `Aurea', 21: - 38, 41 - - `Aurea', - 21: 35, 38, 40 see 1 - - `Aureo-variegata', 21: 41 - - `Decipiens', 10: 16;_21: 36, 41 fortunei, 10: 15, 16; 19: 11, Plate I, 13 3 'Fortunei `Fortunei - - 'Beatrix Farrand', 'Beatrix Farrand' Forsythia - Aurea', 10: 14 'Compacta Nana', _21: 40 - - 'Densiflora',10: 13-15;_21: 40 -'Dwarf', 21: 40 'Farrand', see Forsythia 'Far- Nana', 21 : 41 'Pallida', - suspensa - Sax', 20: 49-52, Plate XII, 51;_21: 37, 40 - - `Lynwood', 21: 37, 40 - - 'Lynwood Gold', 19 : 12; 21: - rand' 'Karl sieboldii, 10: 10, 16; 19: Plate I, 13;_21: 35 10: 16; 21: 36, 41 pubescens, 10: 16 - - - viridissima, 10:9, 10, 15, Plate 1 V, 11; 21: 35-38, 41 10: 14, 16; _21: `Bronxensis', - 'Variegata', 21: 1 41 37,40 - 37,41 - - `Nana',_21: 40 - `Mertensiana',_21: 37, 40 - - 5 koreana, 10: 16; _21: 35 - `Primulina',_9: 36, 41 2; 10: 13, 15, 16; 21: - `Spectabilis',_5: 2;_7: 25; 10: 13-15; _15: 8; 16: 42; 19: 12, Plate I, 13; 20: 49; 21: 36, 41 35 -, The, 10: 9-16; _14: 10 -, color comparisons of flowers, 10: 13 -, dwarf varieties, 10: 12 1 `Variegata', 21: 41 Forsythias, 4 : 21;19: 11-14 - Forsythias, introduction into country, 10: 10 -, leaf key, -, notes on 10: 15 species and varieties, 12 10 : 15, 16 -, pruning, 10: 10, -, value, 10 : 12-14 Fortune, Robert, Fruits of ornamental woody plant genera, seeds of which should not be allowed to dry out prior to sowing, 13 : Plate X, 49 - of ornamental woody plant genera requiring no cleaning before shipping, 13 : Plate XI, 53 -, 21: 35 5 Forty-five of the Best Shrubs for Massachusetts Gardens, 1_l: 1-20 Forty-five of the Best Trees for Massachusetts Gardens, 12: 1-20 Foster, William, _9: 63 Fothergilla species, 11: 7; 14: 10 - remaining March 26, 1943, 3 : 15 5 -, sources ornamental, 20: where 52 14- they may be ob- Frame, wire, - 17: 47 Franklin, Benjamin, 17: 6 Franklinia, 17: 6, 8 alatamaha, 12: 59; 17 : 6, Plate II, 7; 2_6: 2 Fraxinus, 25: 17 - tained, _3: 48 - this fall, 7 : 58 -, Viburnum, 20: 52 -, white, _3: 46, 48 -, yellow, 3: 45-48 -, - or white growing in Arnold Arboretum, 3: 45-48 'Fugenzo', Oriental Cherry, 1_2: Plate IV, 12 Functions of an arboretum or botanical garden, 20: 71, 72 angustifolia, 26 : Plate VIII, excelsior, 25: Plate IV, 18 ornus, I 11 - pennsylvanica lanceolata, 7 - pests, 19: 2, 3, 4, Fresh foliage plants, 15: 66 wreath materials, 15: 70 - 25: Plate IV, 18 Fungicide, 16: 23 3 13: 83 Galanthus - Fringe Tree, flowers of the, 15: Plate V, 21 Fruiting Habits of Certain Woody Plants, 10: 81-85 Fruits, artificial, _15: 83 -, Baldwin apples, 20: 52 -, Christmas basket of, 29 : 128, Plate XXXIII, 129 2 -, Cornus florida, 20: 52 -, - kousa, 2_0: 52 -, - - chinensis, 2_0: 52 -, fall, 7: 58 2 -, Ilex verticillata, 20: 52 -, Lowbush Blueberry, 20 : 52 2 -, McIntosh apples, 20: 5 - nivalis, 5: 84 Galax, 2 : 16, 17, 21, 22, 24, - aphylla, 15 : 67 Galeopsis tetrahit, 18:18 26 Garden Club of America, The, Tours the Arnold Arboretum, 6 : 9-12 Gardeners' and Florists' Club of Boston, 6: 28 Gardening in Northern Manitoba, 7: 29-40 Gardens, Best Shrubs for, in Massachusetts, 1_l: 1-20 Gardens, Best Trees for, in Massachusetts, 1_2: 1-20 Gardner, F. E., 1_8: 6 Garlands, making of, 16: 61, 70, Plate XX; Gaultheria - _29: 126-128, Plate - of ornamental woody plant genera, seeds of which should be cleaned before shipping, 13: Plate XXXII, 127 procumbens, 4_: 6; 14: IX, 43 24; 1_5: 68; 17: 66 shallon, 15: 68 36 Gaylussacia brachycera, 17: 66, 67 Genera of Theaceae native to the United States, 17 : Plate I, 5 Gleditsia triacanthos f. inermis, 21: 26, 32 - Genista - tinctoria, _7: 36 Germander, Chamaedrys, - sagittalis, 7 : sylvestris, 7: 36 36 17: 75 Germination of Woody Legume Seeds with Impermeable Seed Coats, 25 : 1-8 Ghent Azaleas, Rooting under Plastic, 20: 1-7 - - - - - `Browni', 21 : 33 3 'Bujotii', 21: 33 Pendula', 21: 33 'Bujotii `Elegantissima', _21: 26, 33 3 `Imperial', 21: 3 21: 33 3 `Majestic', - 'Beatrice', 21: 3 3 - - - - - - - - - - - - 3 'Moraine', 21: 26, 33 3 'Park', 21 : 3 - - - - 'Pendula', _21: 3 33 Hybrid Azaleas are Hardy.in England, 3: 37-40 Gill-over-the-Ground, 22 : 52 Ginkgo biloba, 8 : 1; 1_4: 52 fastigiata, 17: 29 3 Girdling Root, 13 : 23 International RegistraGladiolus, tion Authority, _23: 87 New - - - - - - - - - 3 'Shademaster', _21: 3 'Sieler', 21: 26, 3 3 ----'Skyline', 21: - `Stephens',21: 'Sunburst', 1_6: 33 3 3 23 ; 21: 26, Plate 33 3 - 'Variegata', _21: 34 -, germination of seed, 25: - ~ Glasshouses, Glecoma - 52 21: 25, 26, 31-33 3 Gleditsia, 21 : 32 'Excelsa Pendula', - hederacea, _22: The, 2_2: 38 - 11,6 - - `Millwood', _21: 32 52 'Monosperma', 21:32 at - - 'Moraine', 12 : 8; _l4: Glenmore Arboretum ferox, 21: 32 - Buffalo - - --'Nana', 21: 32 - 21: 32 21: 'S2 horrida, 'Major', 21: 32 - `Nana', Creek, Colorado, The, 5 : 65-76 superba, 26: 75 Glossary, Revised, of the More ComGloriosa mon 'Purpurea', 21: 32 International Registration Au-, thority, 23: 87 Botanical and Horticultural Terms, 15: 25-44 Golden Oak scale, 19: 2, 6, 8 Gordon, James, 17 : 4 - - japonica, - 'Purpurea', - pests, -, 21: 32 21: 19: 5, 7 26, 32 Registration Lists of Cultivar - in, 21: 31-34 - sinensis, 21: 26, 32 Names - --'Nana', 21 : 32 -- 'Major',21: 'Nana 32 pubescens, _l7: 8 Gossypium hirsutum, 15: 74 Grafting dwarf trees, 10: 7 3-77 Grass, Ravenna, 15 : 80 - Gordonia, 1_7: 4, 5 axillaris, 17 : 2 lasianthus, 17 : 6 - -, Sweet Vernal, _22: 22 : 50 - - 'Pendula', 21 : 32 Inermis', 21:32 -, Timothy, 50 _21: 26 -triacanthos, 11: 71; 1 S : 74; 17: 21, 29; 21 : 26, 32, Plate III, 32 - X texana, - -, Velvet, 22: 52 -, White Bent, 22: Gravel Pits and 50 X - - - - 'Calhoun, 21: 32 'Columnaris', 21 : 32 37 aquatica, 21: 26 Dumps, Plants for Screening Junkyards, 25 : 45-48 Graves, George, Hibiscus syriacus, 1: 41-44 -- Looking towards Beach Plum Cultivation, 9: 53-64 - -, Gray, Asa, 2: Plate V, 19 His Quest for Shortia galacifolia, 2: 13-28 Herbarium, _7: 4 - 15: 62, 70 Grove, ColonelWilliam R., _l l: 49 Ground-pine, Growing Rhododendrons from 1 seeds, 9: 45-51 Growth, method of, in Scots Green, Peter S., Herbaceous Aliens in the Arboretum, 2_2: 49-56 - Pine, Leucothoe fontanesiana, 93-99 Name - 23: \" - - - Jasmine, The, 2_3: 71- of woody plants, time of, effect of fertilization, 27 : 6, 7 Gymnocladus dioicus, 21: 27, Plate - 27 : 5 Plate X, 35 - - - - 74 Olive Family in Cultivation, of Cultivar II, 25 - seed, 25: Plate I, 4 The, 25 : 13-27 - Gypsophila repens rosea, 14 : 24 Registration Names in Ulmus, 24: 41-80 Greenhouses, new, 22: 3 3-48, Plate X, 35, Plate XI, 37, Plate XII, 39, Plate XIII, 40, 42, Plate XV, 43 Gregorian calendar, 21: 81, 82 Grevillea robusta, 15: 80 Ground cover bankplanting, seashore, in Scotland, 16 : Plate XV, 60 - Hale, Capt. Jonathan, 21 : 76, 81 Hale, Richard W., 1 : 3, 4 Halesia monticola, 10 : Plate XII, 49; 1_2: 10, Plate IV, 18 12; 14 : 52 - Hall, George R., 9: Hamamelis intermedia (#1173-28- demonstration plots, _l l : Plate - - `Arnold Promise', 23: 111, 114, Plate VI, 112, Plate VII, 113; 29 : 10 B),20: 11 1 VII, 23; 13: 21-24, Plate IV, 13; 5 16: 9, 5 3-60, Plate XIV, 55 --- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - Results of Trials in, 2_3 : 916 for different purposes, 13: 5 for dry soil, 5 for shade, 13 5 less than 6 inches high, 13 : 5 plants in demonstration plots-167 plants listed according to row and plot number, 23 : 1014 already established, 11 : 22-44 and demonstration at Case Estates, Weston, Map of, 14: Plate V, 23 3 at the Case Estates listed, 16: -, - - japonica, _8: 10; 20: 11 - mollis, 8 : 10; 11: 7, Plate V, 17; 1 16 : Plate I, 4; 19: 70; 20: 11 - 13 : - vernalis, 8: 10; _l 1: 7 - virginiana, 12: 59; 19: Hamblin, Stephen, 8_: 20 3 Hansen, Miss Anna, 9 : 63 Hansen, Peter, 9: 63 70 Hardiness map - for the United - notes, Rhododendrons, 2: 53-56 - Zone Maps, Plant, 27 : 53-56 States, 3: 53; 27: 54-555 plots Hardwood cuttings, 1_4: 57-63 propagation, Harris, - F. L., 12: 67 Harvard Biological Laboratories, 7 : 7: 4 - - 14, 16 Botanical Museum, 54-59 - - -, Fifty of the Better, 14: 21-24 -, twenty-three of the best for Massachusetts gardens, 13: 2 which increase rapidly, 1_3 : 5 - Ground Ground-breaking ceremony, 22: - Ivy, 22 : 2 52 Department of Botany, 7 : 4 Forest, _7: 4, 14, 16 Hatfield, T. D., 12: 67 Hawthorn, 14 : 10; 22 : 25-32 -, Dotted, 22: 31-, Downey, 22: 28 - Plate X, 35 5 -, English, 38 17: 21; 22: 30 Hawthorn, Fleshy, 22: 32 1 -, Frosted, 17 : 21; 2_2: 31 22: 30 -, Glossy, - Hemerocallis fulva, 22: 54 -, International Registration Au- thority, 23 : Hemlock, -, -, Green, 2_2: 32 -, Kansas, 22: 28 1_6: 62 -, Arboretum, 6 : 49, 60 ; 23 : 87 15 : 71; 101 -, Large Chinese, -, Lavalle, - 22: 31 1 22: 28 - - leaf miner, 19: 3, 7 of merit, 22: 26-32 Canada, 15: 63, Plate XI, 65; 17: 25, Plate VII, 23; 26: Plate I, 3; 27 : 48, 50, Plate XIX, 49 -, compact, 17 : 25 15 : 80 -, Single Seed, 22 : 28 1 -, Washington, 22: 31 -, Watts, 22: 32 -, Carolma, 17: 25 -, needle of, Fig. I (a), 58 -, Poison, 3: Hazelnuts and Filberts, 2_: 10 Heartnut, 1: 54 - and horticultural varieties, 12 - -, Queen of Conifers, 6: 49-56 - : 30 5 -, Sargent weeping, 18 : 15 Hemlock Hill, rehabilitation of, 6: 48 Heath and Heather on Cape Cod, 23 : 103-106 Hebe, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 Hedera helix, 14 : 24; 17: 68; 18: - Hybrids, 2: 12 Hemlocks and Spruces, Simple 57-64 7 Foliage Key to the, 3_: Hemp-nettle, 18: 18 Henry, 1 Hepatica triloba, 2 : 21 Louis, 6_: - 1; _26: 68, Plate XXI, 69 baltica, 13: 10; 17 : 68 'Rumania', 17: 68 - - '268th Hedge, best plants, 27 : 18-19 demonstration plantings, 27: 22 Demonstration Plot, Report on the A. A., 5: 49-56; 17 : 17-32, - Street', 17: 68 Herbaceous Aliens in the Arboretum, 22 : 49-56 Herbaria and their use, 28 : 69-70, 1 Plate XXIV, 71 Herbarium, Farlow, _7: 4 70-72 -, Gray, -, 7: 4 historical Plate VI, 19 -, Horticultural, 18 : 25-28 -, Introduced, The, 25 : 37-40 -, Notes -, on Making an, 28 : 69-111 1 preparation of specimens for, 28 : background, 28: 6: 12 fertilization and watering, 27 : 20 -. How to Have a Good - experiment, - Clipped, - 27: 17-22 - pruning for best results, 27 : 191 20, Plate I, 21 starting a, 27 : 17-18 Hedges, fair, 17: 27 - for Special Purposes, 29 : 135-146 -, good to excellent, 1_7: 26 -, planted 1963, 24: 97, 98, 100 - 72-90, Plate XXV, 73, Plate XXVI, 75, Plate XXVII, 77, Plate XXVIII, 79, Plate XXIX, 83, Plate XXX, 85, Plate XXXI, 87, Plate XXXII, 1 89, Plate XXXIII, 91 -, poor, 17: 27 Helianthus tuberosus, 4: 7; 18 : Plate III, 19 Helichrysum bracteatum, 15: 76 -- preserving succulent or fleshy plants, 28: 97-98 -, storage containers, 28: 92 -, suggestions for collecting particular kinds of plants, 28 : 93-97 Herbicides, 16 : 5 -, - Helleborus rose, 5: niger, the Christmas- Hibiscus esculentus, 15: 75 -, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 - 82; 19: 86, Plate XVII, 87; 15: 70 rosa-sinensis, - syriacus, 1: 18: 45 41-44; 18: 46 39 Hibiscus syriacus 'Admiral Dewey', 46 - - 18: 46 `Amplissimis', 1_8: - Hickory nut, Red, 1 : -, Shagbark, 1 : 54 -, Shellbark, 1: 54 XIV, 63 - 54 - - - - - - 'Anemonaeflorus', 18 : 48 'Ardens', 18 : 48 'Banner', 18 : 48, Plate XII, 49 - 'Bicolor', 18 : 48 - `Boule de Feu', 18: 48, Plate XI, 47 - 'Celestial Blue', 18: 48 - `Coeruleus', 18 : 48 1 -, color groups of, 18 : 50, 51 - `Comte de Haimont', 18 : 48 'Duc de Brabant', 18: 48 'Elegantissima', 18: 48, Plate XI, 47 -, early varieties of, 1: 43 - 'Hamambo', 18 : 48 - `Jeanne d'Arc', 18: 48 - Highbush Blueberry, The, 2: 29-32 Hillcrest boys and staff, 20: Plate -- Gardens, Weston, Massachusetts, 20: 53-67 Hippophae rhamnoides, 29 14: 16; 17: - History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America, On the, 6 : 13-23 lanatus, 22: 52 Holiday Decorations, 1_8: 53-56 Hollies, 14 : 65-72 -, fertilizer for, 14: 69, 70 -, insects on, 14: 68 -- Holcus - - 'Lady Stanley', 1_8: - - `Leopoldi', 18: 48 'Mauve Queen', 18: 48 - - `Meehani', 18: 40 - - 'Monstrosus', 18 : 50 48 - planting, 14: 66, 68 -, pruning, 14: 69 sexes in, 14: 69 -, -, newer varieties - of, 1 : 43-44 of bloom, 18: 51 1 order 18: 50 - -, Wheeler, 22 : 46 Holly, 14: 65-72; 15: 61, 67; 16: -- transplanting, 14: 70 62 -, -, 'Pulcherrimus', 18: 50 'Ruber Plenus', 18: 50 'Rubis', 18: 50 'Sir Charles de Breton', 1_8: - - 'Snowdrift', 1_8: 50 'Speciosus Plenus', 18 : 50 - - - 'Pompon Rouge', American, 17: 69, 70 -, Clark, 17: 24 68 -, hunting, 1_4: -, -, -, Japanese, 16: 50 23; 24 64; 17: 68, 69 convex-leaved, 17 : Plate VII, - - -, - 47 - variegatus, 14: 16 varieties of,in Arnold Arboretum, 18: 46, 48, 50 `Totus Albus', 18 : 50, Plate XI, - -, longstalk, 1_7: 70 -, Sugeroki, 17 : 70 Hollyhock, 22 : Home -, leaf miner, 19 : 5, 8 -, Yunnan, 16: 42; 17: 70 Holly-grape, Oregon, 16: 62; 54 17: 73 -- 'Woodbridge', 'W. R. Smith', 11 1 18: 50 50 18 : - Hicans, 2 : Hickory hybrids, _2: - nut, 1 : 54-55, Plate VII, 1 11 - -, 1 Hickories, _2: 11 25: 41-44 Honeylocust, `Sunburst', 16: 18 -, common, 17: 21 Honeysuckle, 6: 2, 10 -- Arboretum, A, -, Amur, _22: 64 -, Arnold, _22: 60 - 57 and horticultural varieties, 1: Plate VII, 54-55, 57, 12 : Plate XI, 30-31, 33 40 -, Blue-leaf, 22: -, Box, 22 : 64 64 -, Brown's, _22: -, Coralline, 60 22 : 60 Honeysuckle, Cream, 22 : -, Creeping, 22: 66 -, Dwarf Alps, 22 : 59 -, Everblooming, 22 : 62 -, evergreen, 16: 45 -, Giant, 22: 62 -, Golden, 22: 62 -, Hall's _22: 64 64 Horticultural colour 57-60 - chart, new 17: - herbarium, 18 : 25-28 terms, 1_5: 25-44 on Horticulture 29-38 Postage Stamps, 18: \" -, Henry, 22 : 62 -, Japanese, 1_6: 44 -, Lilac, 22: 66 -, Morrow, 22 : 64 -, Privet, _22: -, 64 Horticulturist, Assistant, 6 : 2 Horvath, M. H., 21 : 36 Hosta sp., 14: 24 How to prune, 14: 47, 48 How to spend an hour in the Arnold Arboretum, 4: 25-28 Howard, Heman, A., 6: 2; 7: 2, 11: _ - Pyrenees, 22: 66 -, Sweet, 22: 60 -, Tatarian, 17: 21 -, Tellman, 22: 67 -, Tibet, 22 : 67 -, Trumpet, 22 : 66 -, Winter, 17: 21; 22 : 62 -, Yellow, 2_2: 62 -, Yunnan, 22 : 67 Honeysuckles, 14: 10; 22: 57-67 -, flowering shrub, 22: 58, 59 -, order of bloom, _22: 59 -, recommended, 22 : 59 - 70 -, shrub, with pink to red flowers, 29-32 Hookers of Kew, 1785-1911, The, by Mea Allen (Book Review), 27: 20 : 91,92 Hopp, Richard J., and R. Jesinger, Rooting of Conifer Cuttings, 27: 85-90 - Hops, spent, _7: Hormones, 5 35 69-72 - Hormodin No. 3, root-inducing, 17: 10 17: 47, 50 Labels in the Arnold Arboretum, 24: 9-12 Howard, Richard A., Booklet on Lilacs from Russia, A, 19 : 31-3 5 Charles Stratton Dana - - -, Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum, The, 22: 3 3-48 - - -, Check-list of Cultivar Names in Weigela, 25 : 49-69 -, Check list of Cultivar Names used in the Genus Lantana, 29 : 73-109 - - -, Concerning the Registration of Cultivar Names, _21: 1-8 - - -, Education Program at the Arnold Arboretum, 14: 3 334 - - -, Hillcrest Gardens, Weston, Massachusetts, The, 20: 5 3-67 -, Meadow, The, 1_8: 17-24 -, Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Cornus L., 21: - -, - - \" - - 46 9-18 Hornbeam, European, _l7: 20 Hornbeams, Oriental, _16: Plate IX, - - -, Horsechestnuts, 14: 5 Horseradish, 2_2: 5 28 -- Horticultural Club of Boston, - colour 6_: 25, chart, American sources for, - 7: 72 \"Howard-Seal,\" 1_l: Hsueh, C. J., 8: 4 Hu, H. H., 8: 4 and A. I. Baranov, Chinese Bush Cherry, The, Prunus tomentosa, 24: 81-86 -, and Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Christmas Plants in the Boston Area, 15 : 61-84 50 -, English, 7 : 42, 44-48 41 Huckleberry, 15: Plate XII, 67, 69 Huckleberry, Box, 17: 66, 67 5 Humulus japonicus, 22: 55 Hunnewell Arboretum, 1852-1952, The, 12 : 61-84 -, tree measurements, 12 : 83, 84 -, trees and shrubs introduced by, 12: 75-83 -, - - -, listed in, 12: 75-83 - -, - - -, originated in, 12: 7583 Hunnewell, H. H., 1 : 31; 12: 62 - Hydrangea peruviana, 24: pests, 19: 6, 7 preslii, 24: 25 - 25 quercifolia, 26: Plate XIX, 64 seemanii, _24: 26 serratifolia, 24: 26 - - Hunnewell, Walter, Sr., 1_2: 66 Hunnewell, Walter, Jr., 12 : 67 Huntington, Henry S., _9: 19 Hupeh Evodia, _28: 2 Hurricane \"Carol,\" 14: 37-40 -, damage, 6: 46; 14: 37, 40 \"Donna,\" 20: 47-48, 52 - steyermarkii, 24: 26 tarapotensis, 24: 26 Hydrangeas and Their Relatives, Climbing, 24: 17-39 Hypericum buckleyi, 13 : 12; 14: 24; 16: 42 1 cistifolium, 17 : 21 - -- - - densiflorum, 17: 29 2 species, 11 : 8 Hypholoma sublateritium, 4: Hypochoeris radicata, 22: 52 - and Its After Effects to a Chatham, Massachusetts, 3 den, 21: 67-73 Gar- Iberis sempervirens, _8: 21, 22 - - 'White Gem', 14 : 12, 24 - tenoreana, 8 : 21 - \"Edna,\"14: 38 - losses, 14: 41-56 Hurricanes, rehabilitation of trees 5 injured by, 14: 41-55 spp., 26: 75 Hyacinthus Hyams, George McQueen,_2: 18 - -, M. E., 2 : 18, 20 Hybrid Azaleas, 13: -, naming, 3 : 12 - 29 21: Identification of Unknown Plants, 27: 51-52 Ihrig, Herbert, Amateur's Observations on Hardiness From Growing Rhododendrons in the Pacific Northwest, An, 2: 53-56 Ilex aquifolium, 15: 67, 19: 64, 69; - -, in cultivation, - 6, 7 Hydrangea, 14 : 10; 24 : 19 - anomala, 24: 19, 20, 22 subsp. petiolaris 24: Plate III, - 21 : 68, 69 aquipernyi, 17 : 68 cornuta, 19: 64 1 - -, fruiting, 10: 81 69 - crenata, 17 : 68, - - - and its varieties, 20: 41-48 18, 20: Plate IV, 21 ; Plate V, 23 - arborescens XIX, 64 - grandiflora 26: - Plate - - 'Compacta', 20: 42 convexa, 9 : 2;11: Plate II, 8, - 9; 17 : Plate VII, 2, 24, 26; Plate X, 41, 43 - 20: - asterolasia, 24: International 24 diplostemona, 24: 24 integrifolia, 24: 24 -, Registration Au76 thority, 24: 87 5 -jelskii, 24: 25 macrophylla, 29: - fortunei, 20: 42 - - `Glass', _17: 69; 20: 42 'Green Island', 17: 69; 20: 42 helleri, 17 : 69; 20: Plate X, 42, - - - - - 43 - - - - - - mathewsii, 24: 25 oerstedii, 24: 25 42 - - - - latifolia 17: 68; 20: Plate X. 'Kingsville', 69; _20: 40 'Kingsville 'Hetzii', 20: 42 17 : 69; 20: 44 Green Cushion', 17: Ilex - crenata major, mariesii, 20: 20: 42 42 Ilex verticillata - microphylla, _l6: 64; 17: 68, 69; 20: 41, 42 - - 'Mountbatten', 20: Plate III, - 'Nana', 29 : 10 5 vomitoria, 19 : 64, Plate XIII, 75 yunnanensis, 8: 50; 16: 42; 17: 70 artifacts, 5 : 76 13, - 12 -, fruiting, 10: 83-84 Impatiens biflora, 18: 18 - rotundifolia, 20: 42 - - 'Stokes', 20: 44 Indian 17: 69 - - varieties, _20: Plate XI, 45; 21: - stokesi Indigofera incarnata alba, 13: 12; 14: 24 - - kirilowii, 13 : 14; 14: 24; 26: Plate XVIII, 62 69 - decidua, 17: 69 - glabra, 8: 42; 17: -, 19: 64 - - compacta, 8 : Plate XIII, 43; 69 Indolebutyric acid, 17 : Indole-3-acetic Inkberry, 17: 69 acid, _17: - 50 47 Insects, International Registration Au- 19: 2-9 thority, 2_3: 87 - laevigata, 15: 67, 78 -, miscellaneous species 2_l: 69 - mollis 2: 24 - opaca 14: 52; 1_5: 67; 1_7: 69, 70; - Institute for Research in Experimental and Applied Botany, 7: 14, 16 Interesting Trees, Five, _l l: 71-74 Internal dormancy, 14: 27 International Code of Botanical No- 68 14: 71 --'Amy', - - `Clark', 17: 24, --'Elizabeth', 14: 19: 67, 21: 3 menclature, 23: 93 Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, New, 18: 46, 65-68; - 26 1 70, 71 - Plant 87 - - 'Emily', - 14 : 72 - 2_3: 85 Registration, 23: 85-92 Registration Authorities, 23 : 85- - -, - `Freeman', 14: 72 1 fruiting, 10: 81 -, male, 14: 69 `Natale', 14: 72 `Perpetual', - - 'St. - - 'St. - varieties, 21: 68 - 14: 72 14: 72 Ann', Mary', 14: 72 Introduction of Woody Plants into North America, History of, 6_: 1323 3 Iris, Blue Flag, 18: 18 -, - International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 pedunculosa, 21: 70 pseudacorus, 18: 18; 22: 49 - 10; to - 14: 52; 17: - - spp., 26: 76 50 - - pests, 19: 5, 8 plants and names 46 rugosa, 17: 70 serrata, 19 : 74 - discard, 20: - -, Swamp, 18: 18 - versicolor, 18: 18; _22: -, Yellow, 22 : 49 -, English, 17 : 68 - - - - - species, fruiting, sugeroki, 17 : 70 varieties worthy of further trial, 20 : 44 verticillata, 67, 7S; 19: 5 : Plate 70 10: 81-83 Japanese beetle, 19: 6, 7, 9 Japanese- ChineseSubregion, - II, 11; 15: - List of Plants Introduced in the Main Botanical Gardens in Moscow from the, _27: 8-14 Japanese dwarf trees, 11: 29-35;14: - 1-7 43 Japanese Flowering Quinces, 14: Hemlock, _28: Plate IV, 6, 7 Hop, 22: 55 Larch, 2_8: 2 - Walnut, 1: 54 Jasmine, The Name, 2_5: 71-74 Jasminum, _25: 19 1 multiflorum, 25: Plate V, 21 69 nudiflorum, _5: 84; 19: - 10 - Juniperus chinensis aurea, 14: 'Aureo-globosa', 14: 16 - - 'Dropmore', 28: 18 - 16 - - - 'Kaizuka', 28: 18 - - `Maney', 20: 11, 12 --'Mathot',28: 18 - - `Old Gold', 28: 18 - - - 1 polyanthum, _25: Plate V, 21 Asa Gray and Jenkins, Charles F., his Quest for Shortia galacifolia, - 'Pfitzeriana argentea', 14: 16 - - `Plumosa aurea', 14: 16; 28: 18 `Plumosa aureovariegata', 28: 18 - - sargenti, 11: 8; 1_3: 14; 14 : 24; 1 20 : 11 - - 'Shoosmith', 28: 18, 19 - communis, 17: 29 'Compressa', 28 : 19 'Effusa', 28: 19 - 13-28 -, Hemlock-the Queen of Conifers, 6: 49-60 Jensen, Holger, 18: 9 2: - - - Jerusalem Artichoke, flowering tuber, 4: Plate II, 5 Jesinger, Rolf, Rooting of Conifer 'Gold 11 1 Beach', 28 : 19; 29: 10, Cuttings, 27 : 16: 72 85-90 Jetbead, Jewett, James R., Beach Plum 3 Award, 9: 52, 63 1 Joe-pye-weed, 18 : Plate IV, 20, 21 Vieno T., Prize, _9: 63 Johnson, Judd, William H., 5 : 3; 6 : 23; _7: 2 - - -, 1888-1946, Propagator at Arnold Arboretum, 6: Plate - - - 'Minima', 28 : 19 'Prostrata', 28: 19 'Repanda', 28: 19 saxatilis, 28: Plate VII, 17, 19 - conferta, 28 : 19 - horizontalis, 13 : 14; 14: Plate IV, - - - 17,24 Juglans, 12: 30 - I, 25-28, 49 -, The William Henry Memorial Fund, 6 : 28 12; 4: 6 30 Plate XI, 'Alpina', 28 : 19-20 douglasi, 14: 16, 17 - - - `Glenmore', 28: 20 - - - - 'Marcellus', 28: 20 cinerea, 2: - - cordiformis and horticultural - - plumosa, 3 : 17; 1_3: 14; 14 : --'Prince of Wales', 29: 3 - - `Watnong', 27 : 62 - - 'Wiltonii', 28: 20 - pests, 19: 2, 3, 4, 8 - 24 ailantifolia, _12: 30 - nigra, 2: 11; 4: 6; 23: - varieties, 12: 124 procumbens, 28: 'Nana', 28: 20 - 20 28: 20 - sabina - tamariscifolia, 5 : Plate - - - lanciniata, 12 16: 42 scopulorum, 1 20: 11 - XIII, 69; - pests, 19: 4, 8 1: 5 - - regia, _2: - - - `Grey Gleam'20: 12 - 11 1 sieboldiana, cordiformis, _1: 54; 2: Juniper, 16: 62 scale, 19 : 2, 4, 8, 9 web-worm, 19: 3, 8 - - _14: 16 28 : 20 - squamata, 'Loderi', 28: 20 'Prostrata', 28: 20 - varieties - - virginiana, 14: 52; 15 : 63; _17: 24, 26; 19: Plate XII, 60 ; 20 : 12 44 Juvenile Characters of Trees and Shrubs, 18: 1-7 - Juniperus virginiana burkii, 14: 16 glauca, 14: 16 Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, Plants for Screening, 25: 45-48 - Kobuski, C. E., Revised Glossary of More Common Botanical Terms, 15: 25-44 on Kodachrome slides Koelreuteria 2 52 - the Arnold 12: 10; 14: - Arboretum, 12: 60 foliage forms, 70,71 - paniculata, 64 some, 18: Plate I, 5 Kalmia - angustifolia, 17: 70 latifolia, 6 : 11; 8: 42; 15 : 71; 17: _ Kolesnikov, L., 19: 31-35 Kolkwitzia `September', 27: - - amabilis, 7 : 9; 17: 21, 26 27 : 62-64 19 : 4, 8 19: 4, 8 - pests, Kalopanax pictus, 8: 52; 9 : 2; - `Bettina', Krussmann, Gerd, 18 : 9 - - leaf spot, -, Die Baume Europas, Ein Taschenbuch fur Naturfreunde, Plate III, 9, 10; 14: 52; 16: _12: (Book Review) 28 : 68 42 Katsura, Japanese,1_6: 72 Katsura-tree, 17: 20 Label, embossed Kentucky Blue Grass, 22 : 50 Kerria japonica aureo-vittata, 14: - Labeling 82,83 and record, 24 : 9, 10 mapping, cost of, 20: or - 16 Ketmie, 1 : 41 Kew Botanic Garden, Labels in the Arnold Arboretum, 8: 13-16; 24: Plate I, 9-12 -----, types of, 8 : Plate V, Key, Christmas 3 _15: 63 -, Lilac, 19 : - tree identification, 1: - 7: 30 14-16; 24: 9-12 -, plastic, 24 : 10 28 Labrador tea, 17 : 72 24 to common to - - Plate XXVIII, 121 1 Thomas Andrew, 18 : 2, 6 Knight, Kobuski, C. E., British Gardens in War Time as Seen by an American Soldier, 5 : 77-88 -, Horticultural Herbarium, The, 18: 25-28 - the Firs, genera of tree Legumes, _21: 30 Hemlocks and Spruces, 3: 57-64 Pines, 3: 49-56; 11: 63-70 Theaceaecultivatedin the United States, 17 : 3, 4 Killing woody plants, 16: 6 with Chemicals, 10 : 61-71 1 54 Kingnut, 1: Kinsey, A. C., 3 : 44 Plate XVI, 63, 68; Kissing ball, 29: Plate XXIV, 112, 120-124; - Elm species, 3: 65 78 - - - - - 1 - alpinum, _8: 52; 28: 21 28 'Fragrans', 21: anagyroides, 21: 28; 26: XXII, 68, 71 alschingeri, 21: 28 - vossi, 1_4: 52 - Laburnum, 21: Plate - - - - -X watereri, 2_l: 19: 4-9 28 20 - - Lacebug, Lactuca -, canadensis, 18 : - spp., 4: 4 Plate XIII, - - - - Lagerstroemia indica, 23 : 123, 126 1_6: Landscape Changes at the Arnold Arboretum, Contemplated, 6: 45- 48 Landscape plants that are frequently winter-injured but return to usefulness in one season, list of, 26: 63 Lanolin emulsion, 16: 5 - Lantana camara, - 2_6: 74 -, a poster, 29 : Plate XXII, 75, Plate XXIII, 77 45 Lantana, Checklist of Cultivar Names Used in the Genus, 29: 73-109 Lapin, P., Seasonal Rhythm of De- Lepidium virginicum, 4 : 4; Lepiota naucina, 4: 2 - 15: 75 - procera, 4: 2 velopment of Woody Plants and Its Importance in Introduction, 27 : 1-14 Larch Case-bearer, 19: 4, 8 -, European, 14: 44 -, Golden, 16 : 48 Larix decidua, 2_8: - - International Registration Authority, 23 : 86 Lespedeza japonica, 12: 59 thunbergii, 12: 59 Leptospermum, 2 pendula, 16: 44 - gmelini japonica, 7 : kaempferi, 28: 2 - 34 Leucothoe axillaris, 23: 93-96, Plate V, opp. p. 97 and L. fontanesiana, differences between, 23 : 97 - catesbaei, 11: 8; 13: 14; 14 : 24; - Lettuce, wild, _18: 20 - laricina, 28 : 2 witches'-broom, propagation, 27 : 48 - leptolepis, 12: 11; 14: 2, 52; 28: - pests, 19 : 4, 8 Larz ese 16 : 72; 17: 72-73; 23: 93, 95, 96 - editorum, 1_5: 68; 23 : 95 fontanesiana, 23 : Plate IV, Plate - - V, 93-99 Anderson Collection of JapanDwarf Trees, The, 1_l: 29-35; - - - `Angusta', 23 : 90 'Angustata', 23 : 99 - cultivars, 2_3: 99 - - 14: 1-7 - - Latex emulsion, 13 : 67 1 Laurel, Mountain, 6 : 11 8: 9 -, winter damage to, Laurus nobilis, 26: Plate VIII, Lavandula - - `Nana', 2_3: 99; 29 : 12 - - `Rainbow', _23: 99 ' - 'Folia Multicolor', 23: 99 'Girard's Rainbow',23 : 97, 99 11 I - - officinalis, 29: \" 'Trivar', 2_3: 97, 99 `Rollissonii', _23: 25 : 20 99 Plate Libocedrus decurrens, 15: - 71 XXXVI, 137 Lavender, Lawrence 22: 53 3 Scientific School, 7 : 13 3 in Holland, 13: 25 Layering plants - Ligustrum, - amurense, 17: 21, 26 ibolium, 21: 48; 17: 21, 26 - Lead arsenate, Leatherleaf, 17 : 65 Lecture Series, \"Meet the Staff,\" 28: 132 slides on the Arnold Arboretum, 19 : 14 Lectures, 21 : 74 Ledum groenlandicum, 17: 72 Legumes, Tree, in the Arnold Arboretum, 2_l: 19-30 Lehmer, Mary, Walter Street \"Berrying\" Ground, The, 21: 75-82 - 13 : 83 - ibota, 17: 21,29 obtusifolium, 12: 48 regelianum, 12 : 48; 17: 21, 26 - ovalifolium, 17 : 21, 26 - marginatum, 14: 16 variegatum, 1_4: 16 19 : 4, 8 17: ' - pests, - - sinense, 21, 26 21, 27 - vicaryi, 8: 52; 14: 16; 16: 44; 17: Leiophyllum buxifolium, 13: 14, 14: 24; 17: 72 Lemon Leaf, _15: 68 -- - vulgare, 17: 21, 26 - - `Lodense', 1_7: 21, 26 - - pyramidale, 8 : 52 Lilac, 6 : 3, 10, 12 and privet incompatibility depicted by overgrowth of the scion, - Leontodon autumnalis, 22: 52 19: Plate V, 41 46 Lilac Booklet from Russia, - borer, 19: 3, 7, 9 - 19 : - 5 31-35 2 Lilacs, propagation and 36-45 -, rootstocks for, care, 19: - -, Chinese, 8: 22; 17: 22; 1_8: collection, 18: 16 -, Common, 15 : 20; 1_7: 22 - -, seed, 19 : 44 10: 57-60 -, softwood cuttings, 19 : 40, 42 -, Cutleaf, -, late, _17: 22 15: Plate IV, 19 atthe Arnold Arboretum, 5: path Plate VI, 35 5 ------incolor,_9: 14, 16 - -, Hungarian, 17: - insects and diseases, 19 : 2, 3, 4, 9 22 Lilies in their order of bloom, 24: 89-95 Lilium, International Registration - - - Authority, 23 : 87 philadelphicum, 18: 20 superbum, 18: Plate IV, 20, Lily, Chinese-lantern, 19: 76 - 21 1 -, Persian, 8 : - 22 -, Wood, 18: 20 registrations, 26: 13, 14 -, sequence of bloom, 15 : 18 - scion own-root development in one year, 19: Plate IV, 39 - after two years, 19: Plate VI, 43 - - - 16: 28 thirty-five-year-old own-root, maintained in condition of selfrenewal by systematic pruning, 19: Plate III, 37 - time, 8: 21-24 - varieties, 23 : 80 -, - Sunday, -, Open House, 1 : 40 22: 69-76 -, Big-leaf, 22: 72 Linden, Lily-of-the-valley, 22: 54 Lime sulphur, _13: 84 Limonium sp., 1_5: 80 8 Linaria vulgaris, 18: 18 Lindane, 13: 84 ' -, Crimean, _22: 70 -, 70 European, Littleleaf, Mongolian, 22 : 72 17: 22; 22: -, Pendant Silver, 22 : -, Silver, 22: 72 - 72 Lilacs, 3 : 23; 4: 2 3 ; 9 : 13-16; 1_4:10 -, best hybrid, listed in their respective groups of popularity, 15: 22 \"Lilacs for America,\" _2: 3 3 ; 15: 17; - Lindera benzoin, fruiting, Lipp, Lewis F., 12: 46 - 10: 83 -- -, Effect of Light on Seed Germination, The, _l l: 40 -, New Methods in Plant Prop- 23 : 77 -, the one hundred 33-35 5 agation, 13 : \"best\", 2: - 61-67 - - -, Note on 14 : 20 Propagating Unit, 59-66 5 -, list of recommended, 9: 14, 15 -, midseason varieties, 16: 22 -, of New England 19: 23-30 5 -, one hundred \"best\", 2 : 3 3-3 -, planting, 19 : 38, 40 -, good early hybrids, 15: 22 - from Russia, booklet, 1_9: 31-3 5 -, graft blight, 1_0: 57 -, grafting, 19 : 44, 45 -, hardwoodcuttings, 19: 42 - in their order of bloom, 1_5: 17-23 3 -, late hybrids, 15: 23 -, layers and division, 1_9: 42, 44 - Liquidambar, 21: Plate VII, formosana, 21: 61 - -, 'Afterglow', 21: 62 - orientalis, 21: Plate 21: 61, 62 - styraciflua, 14 : - - aurea, 14: - - 52; 15 : 76; 16 : 72; VII, Plate VIII, 59-61, 63,65,66 1 16; 21: 61 - - 'Burgundy', 29: 4 'Festival', 29: 4 'Gum Ball', 29 : 4 'Palo Alto', 21: 61; f. pendula, 21: 61 - - 29 : - 4 - - 47 Liquidambar styraciflua, propagation of, 21 : - 66 f. rotundiloba, _21: 62 1 f. suberosa, _21: 61 Liriodendron chinense, 16: 23 - - tulipifera, 23: Plate XII, contorta,16: 24 crispa, 16: 24 fastigiatum, 9 : 2 variegata, 14: 18 Liriope spicata, 14: 24 - 125 borer, _19: 6, 9 - fruits, 15: 74 twig borer, 19 : 5, 9 - Live-for-ever,22: 54 Locust - Lolium perenne, 29 : 50 Long, William P., 7: 7, 8 Longevity of ornamental woody 5 plant seeds, 13: 55 Seed in Storage, _13 : 56 Lonicera alpigena nana, 22: Plate XXII, 59, 65 - X amoena, 20: 30, 32 alba, 1_6: 44; 22: 59 - X amoena 'Arnoldiana', 8: 54; 1_l: 10; 20: 32; 22 : Plate XXI, 60, 63 - X amoena rosea, 20 : 32 2 - 'Arnold Red', 20 : Plate VIII, 29, 1 31 - - - morrowii, 20 : 30; 22 : 64 X tatarica, 20: 30 - nitida, 22 : 64 - notha, 20: 29 - Lonicera 'Hack's Red', 20 : 32 X heckrottii, 22: 62 henryi, 13: 10;14: 24; 22: 62 hildebrandtiana, 22 : 62 japonica aureo-reticulata, 14: 18; 16: 44; 22: 62 - - halliana, _14: 24; _22: 64 repens, 22: 64 - korolkowii,20: 30; 22 : 64 aurora, 32; 22 : 64 29 floribunda, 1_1: 10; zabelii, 20 : 29, 30, 32; _22: 64 - maackii, _22: 64 1 podocarpa, _22: Plate XX, 61 32 maximowiczii, 20: sachalinensis, 8 : 54; 20: 32 - - - - - - - 20: 30, - - _17: - - - - - - 22 : 64 - praecox, 8 : 10 praeflorens, 5: 2 ; 8 : 54 - pileata, - - prostrata, 22: 66 X - bella, 1_l: - 10 - atrorosea, rosea - - - - X candida, _22: 60 20 : 29 ; 22: Plate XX, 60,61 brownii, 22 : 60 Plate 20: 2 32 - - - caprifolium, 22: 60 chrysantha, 22: 60 'Clavey's Dwarf', 20: 12; 22: XX, 61; Plate - purpusii, 21 : 44 pyrenaica, 22 : 66 quinquelocularis translucens, 7 : 58 - 'Redgold', _22: 66 sempervirens, 22 : 66 sulphurea, 22: 66 'Superba', 2_2: 66 - `Sheridan Red', 20: 32 - syringa wolfiii, 22 : 66 syringantha, 20: 29; 22: 66 - tatarica, 16: 44, 45 ; 17 : 18, 21, 27; 20: 29; 2_2: Plate XX, 61, 66, - - - - - - - - - - - 67 - - alba, 22: 67 XXII, 60, 22: 60 65 - angustifolia, 20: 30 - - dioica, 16 : 45 deflexicalyx, - - - 'Dropmore', 22: - - Plate XXI, 60, 63 etrusca 'Superba', 22 : 62 flava, 22 : 62 - - - 'Arnold Red', 1_5: 50; _15: 44, 45; 22: Plate XX, 61, 67 elegans, 20 : 30 67 67 - fragantissima, 8: 44; 22: 62 10; 17 : 21, 26; 21: grandiflora, 22 : 67 - - leroyana, 20: 30; 22: - - lutea, 20: 30; 22: 67 - 'Morden Orange', 22: - - 'Goldflame', 22: 62 - - nana, 22: 67 48 Lonicera tatarica parviflora, 22: 67 Maclura pomifera, W. pulcherrima, - - punicea, 20 : 30 - 16: 44 Macoun, rect 17: 21, 27 30 T., 7 : Cor- Madake, 6: 38 Madworts, Ornamental and the Name of the Goldentuft - - rosea, 20: 30; 22: 67 22: 67 - - sibirica, 16: 45; 20: 29, 30, 32; - Allys- 22: 67 --X sum, 2 : 3 3-48 22: tellmanniana, - - virginalis, - 67 68 Magnolia, 4: 21; 15 : 20: - - thibetica, 20 : 29; 22: 67 acuminata;_8: 21; - buds, 20: Plate V, - 17, 18, 20 21 1 tragophylla, 22 : 67 xylosteum, 20: 12 yunnanensis, 16: 45; 22: 67 Loniceras for pink to red color, sum- conspicua, 20: cylindrica, 20: 20 - cordata, 2 : 22, 24; 20: 17, 19 27 - - mary, 20: 32 Looking towards Beach Plum cultivation, 9 : 53-64 Loosestrife, Purple, 22: 49 18, 22 -, evergreen, 16: 62 - flowers, 17: Plate V, 15 ; 20: Plate 47; 20: denudata, 7 :25;12: Plate XII, 11, VII, 25 - -, Spiked, -, Swamp, 18 : 18: 20 Plate V, 22 Frederick P., 2 : 28 Lord, Lotus, 15: Plate 73, 74 3 Louden, J. C., 18 : Low temperatures, 13: 38 Lowell Holly Reservation, 14: 68 - XIII, 64,67 - 18, 20 grandiflora, 15 : 68; 16: 62; 19: fraseri, X 20: - virginiana, 23 : 87 20: 28 -, International Registration Au- thority -X Lupinus polyphyllus, 5: 84 Lycopodium, 15: 62, 70 annotinum, cernuum, - 15 : 70 3 70; 19: 73 - 15 : 15 : kewensis, 20: 28 - kobus, 7 : 2 5 ; 9 : 11; ~ : Plate XII, 45, 47; 20: 18, 20, 22, 27 borealis, 8 : 54; 9: 2; 20: 27 - - - 'Nana - clavatum, 70 Compacta', 20: 28 - liliflora, - - complanatum, _15: 70 20: 20, 22, gracilis, 20: 27 27 - - 24; 18: 18 Lythrum salicaria, 18: Plate V, 20, 1 22; 22 : Plate XIX,49, 51 Maackia, 21: 20 amurensis, 7: 36; - Lysenko, A. D., Lysimachia nummularia, 1 19 : 31 lucidulum, 15: 70 obscurum, 15 : Plate XIV, 70, nigra, 20: 17, 18, 20 77 13: 16; 14: loebneri, 9: 11, 12; 20: 18, 27 - - `Merrill', 12 : Plate XII, 45, 47; 15 : Plate II, 8, 14; 16 : Plate XI, -X 39 20: Plate - 'Lombardy Rose', 20: 24 macrophylla, 20: 18, 20 - - obovata, - VI, 17, 18, 22, 27 buergeri, chinensis, 21: 20 var. 21: 20 21:20 23,28 - officinalis, 20: 18, biloba, 20: 27 MacDaniels, - - -, L. H., 2 : 9 in the Northeas- Nut growing - parviflora, 20 : 22 - proctoriana, 12: Plate XII, 47; 20: 18,27 - salicifolia, 12 : Plate XII, 47; 20 : 18, 22 tern 40 McKelvey, Mrs. Susan Delano, States, 1: 45-64; 12: 2116: 28 - sieboldii, 49 20: 18, 22 Magnolia slavinii 'Slavin's Snowy', 20: 27 -X Magnolias Hardy in the Arnold Arboretum, 20: 17-28 -- soulangiana, 20: - `Alba', 20 : 22 - 17, 18, 22, 27 Mahoberberis - aquicandidula, 17: \" 20 : 22 'Alexandrina', 20 :22 - - - `Amabilia', 20: 27 22 - - - `Andre Le 20: 24, 28 'Brozzoni', 22 2 - 'Alba Superba', I 72, 73; 18: Plate 11,11 aquisargentii, 72, 73; 18: 17 : Plate XIV, 63, 1 Plate II, 10, 11 - Roy', 2~: hybrids, two new, miethkeana, 17. neuberti, 18: 10 18: 9; 21: - 73;18: 18 : 9-12 12 - - - - --- `Burgundy' 20: - - - `Grace - Mahonia - - - `Candolleana' 20: 27; 21: 44 - - - `George Henry Kern', 20: 27 McDade', 20: 24 'Lennei', 20: 18, 24 'Lennei aquifolium, 11: 10; 17: 73 ; 44 - - 'Compactum',29: Plate III, 12, 15 - - - - --- 20: 28 'Lombardy Rose', 20: 24 'Norbertiana', 20: 28 'Purpurea', 20: 28 'Rubra', 20: 24 Alba', Maidenhair Tree, 8 : Maiden's-tears, 18: 3 repens, 17: 73 1 18 - - - 'Rustica', 20 : 24, 28 'Rustica Rubra', 20: 24 'San Jose', 20: 24 'Speciosa', 20: 24 Maintenance force, Arnold Arboretum, 6: 2 3 Marjoram, 22: 53 Malachodendron, - - - - - - - 17 : 10 Maleic hydrazide, 10: 33-38 -, bibliography, 10: 38 - - - - - - 'Spectabilis', 20: 24, 28 - 'Triumphant', 20: 28 'Verbanica', 20: 24 - species, 14: 52 - - - -, - fifteen different leaves, 20: Plate IV, - 19 effect of, on treated cuttings, 10: Plate IX, 35 Malling rootstocks, 10: 74 Malus arnoldiana, 14 :52; 15: 6 - 'Arrow', 16: 29 atrosanguinea, 14: 52; ~: 7 - baccata l.f : - 29 7 sprengeri diva, 20 : 17 stellata, 5: 2; 7: 25; 8: 10; Q: 11; _l l: 10; 1_2: Plate XII,45, 47; 15 : 8; 16: 45; 20: 17, 18, 20, 22, 24 X kobus, 12: 45 - - `Red', 20: 26 - - - rosea, 20: 26 20: 26 20: 26 - X thompsoniana, 20: 18, 26 - tripetala, 20 : 18, 22, 28 variegata, 20: 28 - - - `Waterlily', - rubra, - virginiana, 12: 11; 20: 17, 18, 26 - columnaris, 8 : 54 mandshurica, 6 : 12, 7: 26 'Barbara Ann',_26: 15; 2_Q: - - `Snowdrift', 23 : 90 -, best for flower, 10 : 26, 27 -, - - form, 10: 28 -, - - fruit, 10: 27, 28 - X 'Blanche Ames', 15: 6 -'Bob White', _9: 2; 16 : 32 collection, 1_8: 15, 16 -, colored foliage, 10 : 28 - `Coralburst', 29 : 4 - 12 - 'Crimson Brilliant', 29: 14: 18 ,-X - australis, 20: 28 watsonii, 20: 18, - 'Dainty', 27 - 4-5 54-56; Plate III, dawsoniana, - wilsonii, 20: 18, - taliensis, 27 20: 28 - `Dorot~ea', 11, 29; 19: 9: 2; 1_6: 29 8: Plate XVII, Magnolias, 12 :Plate XII, 45, 47; 14: 10 so 12: 11; 14: 52; 15: 8; 16: 16 15 5 - 'Dorothy Rowe', 26 : "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index - Mi to Z","article_sequence":4,"start_page":53,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24522","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260b76b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":7,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Michaux, Andre, 2: 13, 14 alba, 2: 8 champaca, 2 : 8 5 Michurin, I. V., 19: 31-35 18 : 12 Miethke, Henry O., Michelia - Morton Arboretum, new dedicated at, 2 : 50 . building 5 : Plate - -, Thornhill Building, VIII, 43 Morton, Joy, 2: 50 Mild winter temperatures, 1_3: 37 3 3 Milkweed, _15: Ming Trees, 15 : 74, 18: 20 83 - species,fruiting, 10: 83 Moscow, main Botanical Garden, Morus Minnesota, University of, 7: Mistletoe, 15 : 61, 71, 16: 70, 19: 69, 72 -, European, 29 : Plate XXI, 69-72 Mite, _19: 7, 8, 9 Miticide. 1_3: 84 Mockernut, 1: 54 collections, 27 : -, - - 1 -, list of plants introduced from the Japanese-Chinese Subregion, Moss, Club, 48, 49 15: 70 27 : 8-14 Mother-of-thyme, 17 : Mountain Ash, 5: - 75 - Plate III, 13; 16: Mockorange, 4: 24; 16: 46 - -, 'Bouquet Blanc', 1_6: Plate XII, - Mountain Ashes, The, 43, 46 - -, Lemoine, upright, 17 : - 21 1 - -, Sweet, - -, 17: 21 1 29 : 61-68 Mountain-laurel, 14 : 10; 1_5: 71; 16: 1 62; 17: 70, 71 Mountain Sorrel, _4: Plate III, 31 1 Black Polyethylene as a, 24: Mulch, 13-16 Virginal,16: 46 Mock-Oranges, The, 25 : Moline Elm, The, Monetary losses, _14: Moneywort, 18: 18 Monstera 29-36 Plate XX, 88 11: 55 5 1 51 -, Cocoa-shell, 17 : 3 3-36 -, Spent Hops, 7: 69-72 Mullein, Giant, _22: 54 Monograph of Azaleas, 2 : 3 deliciosa, Plate IV, 33 1 Moraine Locust, _l l 71 More, Robert E., Glenmore Arboretum at Buffalo Creek, Colorado, 4: Munsell Book of Color, _7: 44 - Color System, 17 : 58 Muscari racemosa, 5 : 84 Myrica pensylvanica, 15: 72 Myrtle, 17: 76 More Morning glory, wild, 18 The, 5: 65-76 Tree Trunks, 26: Name, Jamine, The, 25 : 71-74 5-12 : 20 publishing the horticultural, 3: 12 -, rules for selecting new horticul-, Morrill Act of Congress, 7: 13 3 Smith, homestead and Morrill, Justin plantings today, 28 : Plate XIV, Plate XV, Plate XVI, Plate XVII, 42-47, 49 - 1 variety, 3: 11 the new, 3 : 10 selecting Names, legitimate and illegitimate, 21 : 5, 6 Naming of Horticultural Varieties, -, tural -, of his - - -, plants listed by, on the plan estate grounds, 28 : 46- - 52 Some Horticultural Activities of, 28: 41-52 Morriss, Edward, 21 : 80 Mortier, P., 2 : 54 Morton Arboretum, 2: 50 -, hedge collection, 5 : Plate IX, 43 - 3 The, 3: 9-13 Nandina domestica, 19 : 73, 74 1 Nanking Cherry, 24: 81 -, National Central University at, 8: Narcissus, International Registration Authority, 23 : - spp., 26 : 75 - tazetta, 2 : 2 87 53 Narihiradake, 6: 38 Narrow-leaved Evergreens, Winter Foliage Color of, 3: 17-20 National Academy of Sciences, _l: 40 National Norman Jay Colman Award, 10: 71 1 Noronhia, 25 : 22 Note on Ligustrum ibolium, A, 48 - 12: \" Registration Authority, 21: on 2, 4; 23: 87 Neanthe bella, 1_5: 66 Nelson, Ralph M., 2: 26 Nelumbium Notes propagating unit, 14 : 20 on Making an Herbarium, 28: nelumbo, 15: 74 Nemopanthus mucronata, fruiting, 3 _10: 83 Nepeta hederacea, 14 : 24 Nerine, International Registration listing rare woody plants catalogues, 1 : 7, 22 offering new plants, List of, 9: 2 Nursery Code, Key to, 19 : 30 - 1 69-111 Nurseries in 1941 Nut - Authority, 23: 87 Nerium oleander, 26: 74 Nettle fruits, Spanish, 18: 22 nut trees, _2: 9-12 in the Northeastern Growing States, 1 : 45-64; 2 : 9; 1_2: 21-40 Northeastern States, Cultural Practices, 1: 58-61; 12 : 34-36 sources for - - stinging, 18: 18 Nevling, Lorin I., Climbing Hydran-, - - - - - - -, geas and Their - Relatives, _24: 17-39 ------ -, Some Ways Plants Climb, fertilizers, 1: 61, 36-37 -, harvesting, 1: 63_12: 28: 5 3-66 New and Rare Ornamental - - - - - -, 64; 12: 39 insectand disease - Woody Plants Distributed Arboretum, 8: New - by the Arnold 1 45-64, 16: 33-51 troubles, 1 : 61-62; 12: 37-38 - - - - - -, 7 England Council, 8: 17 Ground Cover Display Plots, The, - - - - - 11: 21-24 Demonstration Plot, The, Plate IX, 99; 97-100 24: Horticultural Color Chart, 17: Plate XIII, 57-60 methods in plant propagation, _l 3: 61-67 plants, 15 : 50-52 recently registered, 23: 114 - - - - - -, summary, 1: 64, 12 : species and varieties, 1: 50-58, 12: 26-34 - 39 Hedge Nut trees, northern nurseries izing in, 2 : 10 - special2:10 -, nursery -, sources for, 2 : 9-12 - varieties and their sources, - Nuts, Hazel, 16: 72 Nyssa sylvatica, 21 1 14: 54, 16 : 72, 21: - - -, - registered, _25: 111-118 Oak, Black, -, - 22: 86 for, 9: 1-4 -, worthy of trial, 29 : 9-16 -, propagating unit, 13: 62 -, spray materials, 1_3:69 - York Botanical Garden, _21: 37 Newton, Howard C., 2 : 37 Nickerson, Dorothy, Miss, 17: 58 Ninebark, 17 : 21 1 -, Illinois, dwarf, 17: 21 Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, New International Code, 18: 65-68 -, sources - Live, 22: 78 -, Canary, 22 : 80 -, Canyon Live, 22 : 80 -, Chestnut, 22: 84 -, Cork, 19 : 72, 22 : Plate XXVIII, 83, 86 -, Engler's, _22: 80 -, English, 17 : Plate VIII, 31, 22: - -, CaliforniaBlack, 22: - 82 84 -, English pyramidal, 17 : 22 54 Oak, Glandbearing, 22: 82 -, Golden English, 22 : 86 Order of bloom, 10 : 41-56 of Azaleas, 1_3 : 29 - -, Holly, -, Holm, -, Interior Live, 22: 86 -, Laurel, 22: 82 -, Lebanon, 22: 82 -, Live, 22: 86 22: 82 _22: 82 2 Spiraeas, 21 : 52 Oriental - Cherries,_4: 22; 10: 10 17-24; 14: 10; 15: 14 - Witch-hazels, 14: -, Oriental, 22 : - Plate XXVIII, 83, 86 2 Ornamental Fruits, 20: 52 Madworts (Alyssum) and The Correct Name of the Goldentuft Alyssum, 2_6: 33-48 - -, Pin, -, Red, 15: 79, 17 2_2: 80 : 22,22: - 84 Planting, town dump, Reading, Mass., 25: Plate X, 47 -, Sawtooth, 22 : -, Scarlet, _22: 80 78 -, plants, fruiting habits, 10: -, Shingle, 17: 22; 22: 82 -, Shumard, 22 : 86 -, Southern Red, 22: 80 -, Spanish, _22: 80 -, Swamp White, _22: 78 -, Turkey, 22: 80 -, Water, - -, -, Willow, 22: Oaks, The, 22: 22: 84 White, 22: Plate XXVII, 78, 81 Osage-orange, 17: 21 3 Osmanthus, _25: 23 X 81-85 for various pur- trees, suggested poses, List of, _7: 24 Ornithogalum arabicum, 1_5: 83 - lacteum, 1_5: 83 officinale, 22 : 54 thyrsoides, 15: 83 umbellatum, 26 : 75 - 84 77-87 Oberea tripunctata, 19: 56 Oberly Memorial Prize, 1: 40 Osmarea, 25: 23 Ostrya virginiana, 23 : Plate XVI, 129 Ostwald's Colour System, 7 : 45 Ottawa Experiment Station, 8 : 29 Our Disappearing 60 Oberthiir et Dauthenay, Repertoire de Couleurs, 7 : 45 Oenothera deltoides, 15: 79 Opportunities, 27: \" perennis, 18 : Okra, 15: Plate XIV, 75, - 20 77 Olea, _25: - 22 Oxydendrum arboreum, 12: Plate V, 13, 14; 14: 54 1 Oxyria digyna, _4: Plate III, 31 19: 2, 7, 8, 9 Oystershell scale, Pachistima 73 19: 72 europaea, Olive Family in Cultivation, The, 25 : 13-27 One Hundred \"Best\" Lilacs, 2 : 335 35 Oosting, Henry J., _2: 25 ODen House at Case Estates, 15 : 23; 16: 15, 17 : 36; 22: 8 Arnold 14: 64; - dioica, 19: 16; 1_4: 24, 17 : 73 - canbyi, 1_3: Plate V, 15, Pachistima myrsinites, 17: 73 pests, 19: 5, 8 Pachsandra pests, 19: 5, 8 - Arboretum, procumbens, 28: 6 terminalis, 13: 16; 14: 24; 17: 73, 74;28: 6 Packing materials prohibited, 13 : 52 - 8 Otaheite, 15 : 81 Orange, Orchard Grass, 22 : 50 15 : 36; 18: 56; 22: 84; 16: 28, 60, 72; 17: Paeonia, see also Peony albiflora, 6: 8 delaveyi, 6: 7 ; 29: 25 -lutea,6: 7; 29: 25 - Orchidaceae, International Registration Authority, 23: 8 SS q ludlowii, _29: 25 5 - moutan, 2: 4 Paeonia suffruticosa, Plate V, 25, 27 - - 'Kamata 2: 1, 4; 6: 5, 6; Plate VI, 29 date, _15: 79 - 29-:'Imachowkow', 29: Plate VI, 29 Fuji', 29 : 15 : 79 5 Pastinaca sativa, 22:55 Patented plants and their names, _21: 10 : 7 Palm, Canary Island - drift, 15 : 79 Pauley, Scott S., Forest-Tree Breeding Work of the Cabot Foundation, 1-8 -, ernbryo, -, emerald leaves, _15: 66 - flowers, 15 : 79 Palmer, Ernest J., 5: 76 - - -, Paulownia tomentosa, 26: Plate V, 8 Pavetta bowkeri, 19: 76 Pea-tree, Russian, 17: -, 20 Siberian 2: 4 tree 17: 20 Food Plants in the Arnold Peach, - Arboretum, _4: 1-7 Parathion, 13 : 84 Paris Museum, 2: 16 Park Arboretum, The, 5: - - -, cost, 5 : 37 -, definition, 5 : 26 - borer, control of, _16: 8 Peaches, dwarfing understock, 10: 76 Pearlbush, 6 : 10; _8: 25-48 22 \"Pearlon,\" - and -, equipment, 5: 39 -, educational costs, 5: 42 functions, 5 : 27 -, how to plant, 5 : 33 -, -, examples, 5:42 Pecan,_1: 5 5 ; _2: Horticultural varieties, 12 : Peony, see also Paeonia -, 'Alice Harding', 6: 7 - 11: 50 11 1 1 31 -, `Argosy', 6: 40 - 7 - - -, `Banquet', _6: 7 -, 'Black Pirate', 6: 7 -, color range of, 6 : 6 -, fertilization of, 6 : 7 - - - - - - -, labor, - 5 : 38 -, map, 5: Plate X, 45 28 -, labeling and mapping, 5 : -, methods of establishing, 5 : -, number of plants, 5: 36 - -, `Festival', _6: 7 -, `Flambeau', 6: 7 -, hardiness of, 6: 7 6 - - - - 39 1 selection of the site, _5 : 31 -, space, amount required, 5 : 36 - - -, ways of initiating interest and action, 5 : 32 -, what to plant, 5: 34 1 -, who is to plan, 5 : 31 Park, Thomas, 19: 57 - planting, 5 : 38 -, propagation, _5: -, -, history of, 6. -, hybrids, 6: 7 -, - - -, `La Lorraine', 6: 7 -, method of purchasing, 6: 6, -, Moutan, 6 : 7 7 - - - - 1 Parker, D. E., 7 :21 Parkman, Francis, 9 : 19 Parrotia persica, 9: 4; 12: 13; 14: 54; -, 'Roman Gold', 6 : 7 -, `Silver Sails', 6: 7 -, Society, American, 6: 8 -, `Souvenir de Maxine Cornu', _6: -, planting of, 6: 6 -, propagation of, 6 : 6 7 - 5 Parsnip, 22: 55 19:70;23:123 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 14: 24 Past Year at the Arnold Arboretum, -, `Surprise', 6: 7 -, Tree, 2: 4; _6: 5-8 Pepper berries, 15 : 75 -, cherry, 15 : 81 -, Christmas, 15 : 81 -, cone, 15: 81 Pepper-grass, 15 : 75 7 : 1-8 Paste the Poison Ivy, 16 : 5-8 Pepper-tree, 15: Plate XIII, 73, Periwinkle, 17 : 76 56 75 Permit for plant introduction, 13: 52 Persian Walnut, 1 : 52, 54; _2: 12 - Philadelphus 'Glacier', 25 : - Plate VIII, 35, 36 - Persimmons, 2: 12 12 -, American, grandiflorus, 8: 56 - -, Oriental, 2 12 Pests frequently destructive in the Arnold Arboretum, 13: 78, 79; 19: 7-9 - _2: - 1 incanus, 25:31 'Innocence', 25: 36 - -, inodorus, _8: 56, 58; _25: 32 International Registration Authority, 23: 87 - - laxus, - -, serious, _1: 39, 40 3 Peters Hill, 9 : 37-43 -, proposed review - -, vegetable, 3 : - -, 25: 32 I - lemoinei 'Avalanche', _l l : 11 'Belle Etoile',_9: Plate I, 3 - - erectus, 17: 21, 27 - `Marjorie', 23: 118 - of, 6 : 46 1 general plan of, 9 : 40, 41 Phalaris arundinacea picta, 14: 24 Phellodendron amurense, 12 : Plate II, 7, 15; 14: 54; 16: 45; 23: 123; - `Miniature Snowflake', _27: 64 - `Minnesota Snowflake', _25: 36 - 'Mont Blanc', 25: 36 - -'Norma',25: 36 - _25: - 83 and winter Phenological groups hardiness, species from Soviet Middle Asia, 27 : 5, 6 -, distribution of species from - IX, 43 species, fruiting, 10: Plate - `Perle Blanche', 25: 36 2 purpurascens, 25: 32 25: 32 schrenkiijackii, X splendens, 8: 58; 9: 4; 1_l: 11; 16 : Plate XII, 43, 46;2_5: 32 -'Virginal', 25: 36 - virginalis, 11: Plate XI, 39; 16: 46 Philodendron spp., 26: 75 3 Phillyrea, _25 : 2 Phlox subulata 'Emerald Cushion', 14: 24 Phoenix canariensis 15 : 79; 19: 67 - dactylifera, 15 : 74, 79 Phoradendron flavescens, 15: 71; 69; 26 : Plate XXI, 69, 75 var. macrophyllum, 19: 63 Photinia arbutifolia, 19: 64 - Japanese-Chinese Subregion in, 27: 3-5 - Philadelphus, 1_5: - 10 25 : Plate VII, 32, 33 3 16: 46; 25: 32 `Argentine', - 'Atlas', 9: 4 23: 118 32 'Aureus', 3 'Avalanche', 25 : Plate VII, 32, 33 `Banniere', 25 : 34 - `Belle Etoile', 9: 4; 25: 34 `Boule d'Argent', 25: 34 'Bouquet Blanc', _16: Plate XII, 43, 46; 25: Plate VIII, 34, 35 'Burford', 25: 34 -'Cole's Glorious', 25 : 34 `Conquete', 25 : 34 1 coronarius, 17 : 21, 26; 25 : 31 aureus, 14: 18 pumilus, 17 : 29 34 - `Erectus', - `Fleur de Neige', 25: 34 -'Frosty Morn', 20: 12; _25: 34 'Girandole', 25 : 36 'Albatre', - - - `Audrey', - 25: - - 19 : 63, - - - Photographs of Bonzai Available on Loan, An Exhibition of, _25: 28 Phyllostachys, 6: 30, 32 aurea, 6 : Plate III, V, 33, 37, 42 aureosulcata, _6: Plate VI, 39, 41 - - - - - bambusoides, 6: 38 - - castiloni, 6: 42 -, hardy bamboos of the genus, - 6: - - - 40 2_S : - nigra forma henonis, 6: muchisasa, _6: 41 sulphurea, 6: 42 - 40 - - - viridi-glaucescens, 6 : 40 s~ Physocarpus intermedius parvifolius, 17 : Picea - 21, 27 Plate - opulifolius, 17 : 18, 21, 27 - - luteus, 1_4: 18 Phytolacca americana, 4: 4; 26: - - - 5 XX, 67, 68, 75 Picconia, 25 : 24 Picea, 3 : 58; 18: - - glauca 'Little Globe', _29: 6 glehni, 3: 63; 9: 42 heterolepis, 8: 6 jezoensis, 3: 62 koyamai, 3: 64 mariana, 3 : 60, 62; 15 : 63; 1_9: doumetii, 3 : 60 - 62 2 - obovata, 3: - Picea Abies, 3:Fig. 4 (b), 37, 60, 61, 18 - omorika,~: Fig. 6, 62; 12: 15; 14: 54; _17: - - `Nana', 28: 23 - orientalis, 63; 17 : 24, aurea, _3 64 - 64; 16: 72; 17 : 24, 26; 19 : Plate XI, 65, 68 - Fig. 7, 64 24, 26 argenteo-spica, 14 : 'Barryi', 28: 22 XX, 63, 64 3: 26 - - `Bennett's Miniature', 27: Plate - - - - - - 'Compacta',28: -- -- - -- 22 22 'Conica', _28: `Crippsii', 28: 22 'Gregoryana', 28: 22 'Highlandia', 28: 22 - pests, 19: 2, 5, 8 Plate XIII, 69 aureo-spicata, 1_4: 'Nana', 28: 23 18 - polita, 3 : Fig. 4 (a), 60, 64 - pungens, _3: Fig. 3, 60, 61; 5_: argentea, 3: 60 bakeri, _3 : 62 glauca, _3 : 60; 17 : 24, 26 'Glauca Procumbens', 28 : 23 3 - - `Globosa', 28: 23 `Hunnewelliana', 2_8: 23 kosteriana, 3 : 62 moerheimii,3: 60 'Pendens', 28: 23 - - vars., 14: 18 - purpurea, _3 : 62; _7: 3 3 ; 16: 24 - rubens, 3 : 64;_9: 42; 15:75 - - - - - - - 'Maxwellii', witches'-brooms, 27 : 46 'Mucronata', 28 : 22 'Ohlendorffii',28: 22 'Pumila', 28: 22 28 : 22 - - - - - `Pygmaea', 28: 22 'Pyramidalis Gracilis', -- - - - - - - - - - - - 28:23 28: Plate VIII, 21, 23 3 'Repens', 3 `Sherwood Gem', 28: 23 'Tabulaeformis', witches'brooms, 27 : 46 vars., _3 : 64 witches'-brooms, 27 : 44, 46 asperata, 3 : 61; 12 : 15 ; 14: 5 4 3 bicolor, 63 'Remontii', - - - - - - - - - schrenkiana, 3: 63 - sitchensis, 3 : 62, 63; 19 : 69 - witches'-brooms, _27: 48 - - - _3: - smithiana, _3 : tonaiensis, - wilsonii, _3: - 63 3 16: 24 - - reflexa,_7: 36 breweriana, 3: 62, 63 - engelmanni, 3: Fig. 5, 61, 62 - glauca, 3 : Fig. 6, Fig. 7, 61-64; 14: 54; 15: 63; 1_8: Plate 1,2, 5; - Pieris floribunda, 48 - 61 - 11: 11; 17: - 74; 21: - 19: - 63 - - 48 'Flame of the Forest', 21: 50 'Forest Flame', 21 : 50 'Elongata', 21: - albertiana, 3 : 63 - - - `Conica', _3 : 60; 18: Plate I, 5 ; 28 : 23 27: 48 - - - - witches'-brooms, densata, 3 : 63 - - `Millstream', _26: 16 - formosa, 21: 48 `Chandleri', 21: 48 --'Jermyns',21: 48 - 'Grandiflora', 21: 48 58 Pieris formosa 'Wakehurst', 21 : 48, 49 -, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 - japonica, 7: 26; 11: 11; 17: 74; 49 `Albo Marginata', 21: 49 - - `Bonsai', 21: 49 - - 'Chandleri', 21: 49 1 - - 'Compact', 21 : 49; 23: 91 - Pine, Lace-bark, _l l: 70; 16: 46; 18: - 1 Plate XV, 61 -- - _21: -, Long-leaf, 15: 71, 83; 1_9: 66 - needle scale,_l9: 2, 8 -, Mugho, 17: 24, 29 -, Pitch, 15 : 75 - -, witches'-broom, 27 : Plate XI, 34, 36 - - - `Crispa', 21: 49 91 - seedlings, _27: 42, 46 1 -, Red, 15: 63; 71 - -, witches'-broom, 27 : Plate XI, - - -, \" - - 'Dorothy Wyckoff', _21: 49; _23: ---- 34, 36 - - -, propagation, 27: - 48 -- `Elegantissima', _21: 1 - - 'Flamingo', _21: 49; 23 : 91 27 : 64 grandiflora 'Purity', - 49 - roses, -, Scotch, 15: 15 : 79 - 71; 17: 24; - - 19: 60, 72 -, - - `Minima', 21: 49 - - 'Nana Compacta', _21 : 50 - - `Pink Bud', _21: 50 - - `Pygmaea', 21: 50 - - `Rosea', 21: 50 rosea `Daisen', 27: 65 rubra `Christmas Cheer', 27: 65 - -, method of growth, 27: Plate X, 34, 35 \" -, Sugar, -, -, 15: 83 -, cones, 15 : 76 Virginia, witches'-broom seedlings, 27 : Plate XVIII, 46, 47 -, White, 15: Plate XI, 63, 65, 71, - - `Variegata', _21: 50 `Variegata Nana', 21: - 76; 17: 24 -, 50 - - `White Cascade', _21: 50; - - `White Rim', 21: 50 -, cones, 27 : Plate XV, 38-41 23: 91 -, -, witches'-broom, 27: Plate IX, Plate XII, Plate XIII, Plate XIV, Plate XV, 30, 33, 37-46 propagation, 27 : Plate XIX, - 1 - - `Whitecaps', 21: 50;23:91 - - X formosa 'Wakehurst', _21: -- 50 - - -, - pests, 19 : 4, 8 -, 46,48,49 - - -, Registration Lists of Cultivar 1: 54 Names, _21: 47-50 seedlings, 27 : Plate XVI, Plate XVII, 38, 42, 44-46 11: - Pignut, Pike, - Radcliffe, 23 : 101 Pines, Simple Key to, 3 : 49-56; 63-70 34 3 Pileostegia, 24: 17, 5 to the species of, 24: -, key - tomentella, 24: 34 viburnoides, 24: 34 Pin Oak, _23: Plate II, 4 3 Pinanona, _4: Plate IV, 33 Pine, 16: 61, 63 -, Australian, 15: 72 - bark aphid, 19 : 4, 8 - Creek, Natural Prairie in Valley of, 4: Plate VII, 69 -, Pinetum, 12: 73 Pinus, 3: 50 albicaulis, 3: 51; 11: 64 aristata, 3 50; 11: 64; 2_0: Plate III, 12, 13; 28: 24 attenuata, 3: 52; _ll: 66 - australis, 15 : 71, 83 ; 19 : 66 - - - - - - 2 ayacahuite, 3 : 52 55 ; 11: 68 banksiana, witches'-broom seedlings, 27 : - Jack, witches'-broom seedlings, XVIII, 42, 46, 47 59 - brutia, 19: Plate XVIII, 42, 46, 47 72 27: Plate Pinus - - 66; _l l: Plate XV, 66, 67, 70; 14: 54; 16: 46; 18: Plate XV, 61; 23: Plate XI, 123, 124 canariensis, 3 : 54; 11: 66; 19: 77 caribaea, 3: 54; 1_l: 68; 19:68 bungeana, 3: 52;_7: Plate XI, Pinus - pinaster, 3 : 56; _l l: 68; 19: 74 pinea, 19: 72; 26: Plate III, 6 - ponderosa, 3 : 52 ; 11: 66; 19: 62; - 23 : Plate - XVII, 130 scopulorum, 3: 54; 11: 68 - pumila, 3 : 51; 11: 64; 28: 24 - radiata, 3 :52; _l l: 66; 19 : 76 - resinosa, _3: 55; _l l: 68; 14: 54; 15 : 63, 74 witches'-broom, 27 : Plate XI, - - cembra, 3: 51; _l l: - 64 68 66 - pungens, 3: 55; 11: 68 - sibirica, 3: 1 51 - cembroides, 3: 54; 11: - parryana, 3 : 52; 11: - clausa, 19: 66 coulteri, 3: 52, 54; 11: 66 - densiflora, 3: 55, 56; 9: 42; _ 34, 36 11: - 68 - propagation, 27 : 48 - rigida, _3: 52; 11: 66; 15: 75; 21: - - -, oculus-draconis, 3 : 54; 11: 68 'Pendula', 28: 24 --umbraculifera, 3: 55; 1_l: 68 - echinata, 3 : 54, 56; _l l: 68; _19: 66 - elliotii, _19: 66 - flexilis, _3: 51; _5 : Plate XIV, 72; 11 : 64 - griffithii,_7: 10; 1_l: 64 - halepensis, 19: 72, 74 - jeffreyi, 11: Plate X, 3 3, 66 ; 14: Plate II, 5 koraiensis, 3 : 51; 11: 64 lambertiana, 3: 51; 11: 64; 15 : 76,83 - 67 - witches'-broom, 27 : Plate XI, - 34, 36 - - - seedlings, 27 : 42, 46 - sabiniana, _3: 54; _l l : 66 - spp. 15: 71, 79 - strobus,_3: 54; 10: 1; 11: 64; 14: 54; 15: 63, 71, 76; 17: 24,26 - - -, - 'Bennett's Contorted', 27: 65 - -, cones, - - - -- - - - - - longifolia, 19: 74 - monticola,_3: - 51, 52; _l l: 64 68 - mugo, 3 : 55 ; 11 : 68 - - - mughus, 17: 24, - compacta, 3 : 5 5 ; 11: mugo, 28 :24 26 - pumilio, 3 : 55; 11: 68; 28: 24 - nigra, 17 : 29 austriaca, 3 : 55; 11: 68 'Hornibrookiana', 27: 46; 28: 2014 2014 - - - `Pendula', 28:24 - - `Pumila', 28: 24 witches'-brooms, _27 : Plate IX, Plate XII, Plate XIII, Plate XIV, Plate XV, 30, 37-46 - - -, propagation, 27 : Plate XIX, 46,48,49 - - -, seedlings, 27 : Plate XVI, Plate XVII, 38, 42, 44-46 sylvestris, 3: 55; 11: 68; 14: 54; 15: 71; 17 : 24, 26; 19: 60; _23: 123 3 - 27 : Plate XV, 41 fastigiata, _3 : 51; _11: 64 nana, 3 : 51; 11: 64 -- 24 - aurea, 3: 55 5 Poiretiana, 3: 5 54; 11: 66 palustris, 3 : - - - - -, - - parviflora, 3: 51; 11: 24: Plate - 64; -- XI, 103 14: 2; - glauca, 3: 51; - patula, _19: 74 11: 64 - 27: 46 method of growth, 27 : Plate X, 5 34, 35 rigensis, 3: 55 watereri, 3 : 5 5 -- 'Beauvronensis', tabulaeformis, 1_1: - 54-56; 8 : 10; - - pests, 19: 2, 4, 6, 8 - peuce, 3 : 51; 11: 6460 11: 68 11: 66; 19: 66 - taeda, 3: 52; Pinus - thunbergii, 3 : 55, 56; 9: 42; Plants, - _ll: 68; 12: 17; - 1_4: 54; 2_l: 67 torreyana, 3: 52; _ll: virginiana, 3 : - 64 5 5 ; 11: 68 witches'-broom seedlings, 27: Plate XVIII, 46, 47 Pinxter flower, 6 : 11 1 Pistacia lentiscus, 19: 72 Pittosporum tobira 'Wheeler', 29 : 6 - - 1 Plane Tree, London, 7: 9; 17: 21 Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum, 7: 9-12; 15 : 5-12 collecting in the southeastern United States, 19: 45, 46 development, control of, 10 : 3337 distribution,_8: 45-64 hardiness zone maps, 27 : 53-56 life of the Pacific world, 5: 64 materials, sources of, 16 : 18 - -, woody, Christmas decorations, 16 : 61-72 propagation, new methods of, 13: 61-67 1 quarantine laws, 13: 51 23: 85-92; 26: 13-16; registration, - New and Rare, Distributed by 1 the Arnold Arboretum, 16 : 3 3-51 of Possible Merit?, 20: 9-16 partially injured, 17 :39-41 Sent to Cooperating Nurserymen with Notes Accompanying Them, _8: 46-64 -, Some Comparatively NewWorthy of Trial, 29 : 9-16 used in Va., prior to 76-78 1750,11: with colorful twigs in early spring, - Williamsburg, - _27: 15, 16 - \" - - - with green twigs, 18: 60 red twigs or red bark, 18 : 58, 60 -, Woody, with Interesting Bark in Winter, 18 : 57-64 Plastic films, properties of, _l l: 50, 1 51 -- - - labels, 24 : - 10 propagating units, acerifolia, 13 : 66 Platanus - 7 17: 21, 27 - - - - - 29 : - 1-8 18 Planting Junipers, 16: Plate VIII, 25 Planting list, 1956, 16: 17, vegetables, 3 : 1-7 Plants, Animals and Man in the Outer Leeward Island, West Indies, (Book Review) 26 : 46 Plants, artificial, 15 : 83 - occidentalis, 7 : 9; 10 : 1; 19 : - orientalis,_7: 9; _10: 1 - pests, 19 : 3, 9 - species, 2 3 : 123 Pleioblastus, 6: 32 Pleurotus ostreatus, _4: 2 - 66 Pliofilm, 11: 49 Plum, Beach, 9: Plate IX, Plate X, 53-64 ; 16 : 46 -, -, `Arrowhead',_9: 58 -, -, `Eastham',_9: 57 -, -, `Hancock', 9: 56, 67 -, -, -, -, ture, - damaged by 13: 39 distributed by the Arnold Arbosnow or low tempera- -, `Premier',_9: -, `Putnam',_9: 1 retum,_8: 9-12; 16: 33-51 - -, `Raribank',_9: -, `Safford', 9 57 57 58 58 57 - - - - - for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, 25: 45-48 with pests in frequently the Arnold Arboretum, 13 : 80 from England, 1: 44 from seed, 14: 25-28 in the meadow, 18 : 22, 24 killed to the ground, 17: 38, 39 -, -, `Snow',_9: 58 -, -, 'Wheeler Selection 62 No. 6.', 9: - plagued - -, Myrobalan, 9: Plums, dwarfing understock, 76 Poa compressa, 22: 50 pratense, 22 : 50 - 10: -- 75, 61 Polyethylene, 11: 50 - as a mulch, black, _24: 13-16 -, black, 24: Plate II, 14 - film, another method of using in propagation of cuttings, 13 : 66 in air layering, 13: 67 plant propagation, 13 : Plate - Plate XII, 68, 69 maki, 15 : 68 Podophyllum peltatum, 26: 68, 75 Poinsettia, 15 : 61, 81 Poison Centers, 26: 65, 66 Poison Ivy, 16: 5, 6 -, vine on Red Maple trees, 16: Plate II, 7 Poisonous foliage, plants in gardens or woods with, 26 : 72-75 5 in gardens or woods fruits, plants with, _26: 66-72 Plants, a Few, 26: 65-75 roots and stems, plants of garden or wood with, 26 : 75 Pokeweed, fruiting top, 4: Plate I, 3 Podocarpus, 15: - macrophylla Poplar, hybrid, 10: Plate 1, 3 Poplars, Alaskan, Montanan and hybrid, 10 : Plate II, 4 Populus alba pyramidalis, 17: 22, 29 canescens, 26: Plate III, 6 - - deltoides, _19: 66 International 87 - -, - Registration Au1 - - - - thority, 23: maximowiczii,_8: 58; 10: nigra italica, 17 : 29 pests, 19: 2, 3 - - - - tremula X tremuloides, 26: Plate III, 6 3 tremuloides, _2 3 : 12 - tristis,_7: 34 Porana paniculata, 19: 68 Portulaca oleracea, 4 Post cards available at Arnold Arboretum, 14: Plate III, 10, 11; 18: 40 - 4: - 29-38 Potassium permanganate, 13: 51 1 Potato blight, 3 : 7 - Postage Stamps, Horticulture on, 18: - XIII, 65 - -, three uses in plant propagation, - plastic, - 13: Plate XII, 63 17: 47, 48 26 Plate XIII, 61 1 25-28 - bugs, 3 : 7 Potentilla fruticosa,_7: 33; 1_l: 12 - -, growing in the Arnold Arboretum, 15: Plate VII, 45-52 -, best of the varieties for landscape planting, 15 : 49 albicans, 15 : 46 beani, _l5 : 46 beesi, _15 : 46 dahurica, 15 : 46 - - farreri, _15 : 48 friedrichseni, _15 : 48 - bags, 14: - - case, - - -, 1_4: - - film, 13 : 62 -, its application to the propaga- propagation with, 14: - - - - tion of hardwood 57-63 cuttings, 14: \" - - Polygamodioecious flowers, 14: Polygonum arifolium, 18 : 18 -- auberti, - 68 - - - - `Gold - 12: reynoutria, 59; 13: 14: 24 - Plate III, 9, 10 66 Drop', _l5: 49 grandiflora, 15 : 48 'Katherine Polystichum acrostochoides, 19: Polytaenia nuttallii, 15: 80 Polythene, 11: 50 1 - bags, _13: 51 1 -, properties of, 11: 50, 51 Poncirus trifoliata, the hardy orange, flowers and fruits of, 1: Plate II, 5 35 - - - - - mandshurica, _15 : 48 micrandra, 15 : 48 Dykes', 15: 49 - - - - - - - - - - - - Poplar, Bolleana, 17: 22 - - parvifolia, 15 : 48 pumila, 15-:48 purdomi, 15 : 48; 17: 22, 29 pyrenaica, 15: 48 49 argentea, 15 : 46 ochroleuca, 15 : 48 nana `Moonlight~l5 : 62 mvama..~ 1-~.7 Potentilla fruticosa rigida, 1_5: 49 tenuiloba, 15 : 49 -, varieties in the Arnold Arboretum, 28 : Plate XXXVIII; Plate 1 XXXIX, 125-131 veitchi, _15: 49 vilmoriniana, _15: 49 tridentata, _17: 74 Powdery mildew, 19: 5, 9 Prairie-parsley, _15: Plate XIII, 73, - Propagation, rooting woody cuttings, 1_0: 33-38 - - - - of Woody Plants 40 by Seed, _20: - 3 3- - - - - - - 80 Pride, George H., appointed Asso1 ciate Horticulturist, 27 : 71 \" Preston, Miss Isabella, 8: 29 Primrose, Desert, 15 : Plate XIII, 73, 79 Propagator, Assistant, 6: 2 Prosopis pubescens, 15 : 75 Pruning, 4: 9; 14: 47 1 after snow damage, 26: 4, 61 - exhibit, 15: Plate I, 2 -, - of, at Boston Spring Flower Show, 195 3, _13: 21 -, girdling root, 23: 109 -, hedges, screens and windbreaks, - 23 : 109,110 -, methods of, _4: -, - 11; 23: 109, 110 12 -, Blackberries, 4 : Evening, 18: 20 Prinsepia, Cherry, 17: 22 sinensis, 2: 44;~: 58;~: 4; 17: Plate VIII, 22, 26, 31; 29: Plate -, - -, -, - -, Blueberries, 4: 12 XXXVIII, 141 1 -, fruit trees, 4: 11 1 -, Grapes, 4_: 11 3 -, - -, hedges, 4: 13 -, - -, lawns, _4: 14 -, -, - -, -, - uniflora, 9: 4 Privet, 16: 44 1 -, Amur, _17: 21 -, California, 17 : 21 -, Chinese, 17 : 21 -, dense, low, 17 : 21 -, European, 17: 21 -, Ibolium, 17: 21 -, Ibota, 17-:21 - Raspberries, 4:12 -, vines in general, 4_: 12 Ornamental Shrubs and Trees, _13: 9 -, reasons for, 4: -, 21-24; _23: 107-110 rejuvenate old shrubs, 23: 109, - 110 Rhododendrons, 8: 37-44 - -, experiments in, 8 : 40, 42 -, time for, 4: 10 -, what to prune, 13 : 21; 23 : -, when to prune, 13: 21; 23 : Prunus americana, 4: 6 ; 9 : 42 - -, Regel, 17: 21 1 -, Vicary, golden, 17 : 21 Procedure in shipping seeds, 13: 52 Propagating bench, polyethylenecovered, 2_0: Plate II, - 108 107 some rarer plants 5 from seed, 25-28 14: - angustifolia, 9 : 62 apetala, 15: 6 avium, _l: 28; 10: 12: - 18 units, plastic, 13 : 66 Propagation and Care of - - - plena, Lilacs, 19: 10: 73-77 - 36-45 bibliography, -, dwarfing understocks, -, - 10: 76 17; 14 : 54 blireiana moseri, 14 : 18 cerasifera atropurpurea, nigra, 14: 18 _14: - 18 - cistena, - -, lilac rootstocks, 1_Q: 57-60 - of Albizia julibrissin, 28 : 36-40 14: 18 - davidiana,_9: 4 glandulosa, 10: 58; 15: 6 - 76 Liquidambar styraciflua, Prunus tomentosa, 24 : 21: 66 - - 86, 87 ~z - \"Hally Jolivette,\"_8: Plate XV, 51, - - of Rhododendrons, 9: 45-52 hortulana,_4: 6;_9: ilicifolia. 62 - 19: 63 Prunus - 1 incisa, 9 : 42; 10: 18, 21 Prunus serrulata - -japonica, 2: nakai, 17: 8; 16: 24 'Ukon', vars., 30 - - 14 10: 22 : 54 'Taki-nioi', 10: - 22 - lantana, _4: 6 - laurocerasus, 19: 64, 69 schipkaensis, 17 : 74; 21: 44 lusitanica, _19: 69 - 'Washino-o', 10: 24 - sieboldii, 10: 24 - - lyoni, 19: 63 Plate IX, Plate - maackii, 29 : Plate II, 12-14 3 - species, 2 3 : 123 spinosa purpurea, 1_4: 18 subhirtella, 7 : 12; 10: 18, 21, 22; - - - - maritima, _4: 6;_9: X, 53-64 - _14: 2; 15: 6 autumnalis, - 7: 25; 10: 21; 19: - 69, 70 - - - `Arrowhead', 9: 58 - -'Eastham', 9: 57 'Hancock', 9: 56, 57 - - - 'Premier', 9: 57; 16: -'Putnam', 9: 58 - 46 - `Thundercloud', tomentosa, 7 'Hally Jolivette', 10: 'Moni-jigari', _10: 22 pendula, 10 : 22 14: 18 22 `Raribank', 9: `Snow', 9: 4 58 58 - - - `Safford', 9:57 6.',_9: 57 - - - - - 'Wheeler Selection No. maximowiczi, 10: 21 - - mume, 2 : - 81-86 'Drilea', 24: 85 'Geneva', 24: 85 `Graebneriana', 24: 84 'Insularis', 24: 84 - : 16; 9: 62; 10: 75, 76; 15 : 11; 17 : 30; 2_4: Plate VIII, - munsoniana, 4 : 6 - 'Newport', 14: 18 nigra, 7: 32;9: 42 nipponica, 10: 21 persica, 2 : 1, 4 - pests, 19: 2-6, 8 - - 'Leucocarpa', 'Orient', 24: 84 85 - - 'Monroe', 24: 85 - - 'Nanking Cherry', 24: 24: 85 - - - - 'Royal Red Leaf Peach', 14: 12 ; 7 : 18, 21; 14 54 - sargentii, 6: 10: 25;_9: 18 42; 10: - 'Columnaris', 21: - `Schubert', 14: 18 Plate IV, 45 - yedoensis,_7: 12;10: 18, 22 perpendens, 10 : 22 Pseudolarix amabilis, 12: 18; 14: - propagation of, 24: 86, 87 `Spaethiana', 24: 84 triflora koreana, 7 : 32 -, - -- - serotina,_9: 42; 26: - serrula, 17, 19, XI, 123, 124 - serrulata,_9: 42; 10: 17, 18 - - 'Amanogawa', 10: 22; 12 : - Plate VII, 10 21 ; 23 : Plate 17 54; _16: 48 Pseudosasa, 6: 32 - japonica, 6: Plate II, 31, 36, 38 Pseudotsuga, 3: 66 menziesii, _15: 63; _19: - Plate X, 60, 61; _23: 92; 26: Plate V, 1, 8 - - `Fugenzo', 12 : Plate IV, 12, 'Gyoiko', 10: 22 'James H. Veitch', 10: 24 - 'Botan-zakura', 10: 22 - - `Compacta', 28: 17 24 - - 'Graceful Grace', --'Little 29 : 6, 7 taxifolia, 3: 66;1_4: 54; 16 : - Jon', 29: 7 72; - - 10: 22 'Kofugen', 10 : 24 'Joi-nioi', - - - - 'Kwanzan', 1_0: 20, 24; _12: 'Shirotae', 10: 24 - 17 - - 'Shogetsu', 10: 24 17 : 24, 26 glauca, _3 : 66 -, terminal bud, 3 : Fig. 9 (b), 66 Psorospermum febrifugum, 19: 74 Ptelea trifoliata aurea, 14 : 18 - 64 Publications and -, recent postcards, 18: 40 1 important,1.: 51 Plate V, 3 5 Pungapung, 4~: Puratized Apple spray, 13: 84 Pyracantha angustifolia, 19: 74 coccinea 'Kazan', 16: 26, 48 16: 48 crenato-serrata, 19: 63 Pyrus japonica, n: 17 maulei,_23.: 18 - Quercus liaotungensis, 22: 82 - libani, - 22: 82 - - lalandei, - - macrocarpa, 22 : Plate XXIX, 85 marilandica, 22 : Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 montana, 22: Plate XXIX, 85, Plate myrsinaefolia, 25: Plate IX, 43 nigra, 22 : 84, Plate XXX, 87 XXX, 87 - - pests,!2.: 2, 3, 5,8 ussuriensis,_7j Plate VII, 33, - 38 - 22: 87 palustris, 14: 54; _15: 79; _17: 22; 84, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, pests, 19 : 2-6, 8, 9 Quimby, W., 2 : Quince, flowering, J_7: -, Japanese, 8: 22 M. 37 20 - phellos, 22: 84 prinus, 22: 84 - robur, 22: Plate - Quack grass,2: 5 Queen Anne's Lace. 22 : 54, 5 Plate XXX, Quercus acutissima, 22 : 78,87 agrifolia,_22_: Plate XXX, 78, 87 alba, 14 : 54;.2.: 78, Plate XXVII, 81, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 22: arkansaiia, Plate XXIX, 85 bicolor.~2: 78, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 - borealis.M: 54;J!2: 80, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 69 - 84, Plate XXIX, 85, XXX, 87; 26: Plate VII, 10 84 84 19; 22: 86 - 'Asplenifolia', 22: - `Atropurpurea', 22: - - - - - - - 'Concordia', 14: `Fastigiata', 17: 22-27; 22: Plate XXVI, 79, 84 'Pendula', 22: 86 - - - - - shumardii, _22: 86 - suber, 19 : 72; 22 : Plate XXVIII, Plate XXX, 83,86, 87; 23: 123, - variegata, 14: 19 2014 caliprinos,_19: - 72 canariensis,.11: 80 87 Plate XXX, 87 80, coccinea, 14: 54;_22_: 80, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 - dentata.~2: Plate XXIX, 85 - cerris,_22: 80, Plate XXX, - chrysolepis,_22: Plate XVII, 130 variabilis, 22: Plate XXVIII, 83, Plate XXIX,85, 86, Plate XXX, 87; 23: 12 3, Plate XIV, 127 - velutina, 22 : Plate XXIX, 85, 86, Plate XXX, 87 - virginiana, 22 : 86, Plate XXX, 87 wislizenii, 22: 86 2014 engleriana,~2: 80 - falcata.~2: 80, Plate XXX, - glandulifera,~2_: 87 garryana, 22: 87 Plate XXX, 87 81, Plate XXIX, Rafinesque, C. S., 2 : 51, _3: Rainfall, 13: 37 - 8 52 Ranunculus acris, _18: 18, 22: - - ilex,~2j 81, Plate XXVII, 82, Plate XXX, 87 bulbosus, 18 : 18, 22: 52 ficaria, 22:Plate XIX, 51, 5 3 - imbricaria,-.2.: 4; IT: 22-26; 22: 82, Plate XXIX, 85, Plate XXX, 87 - spp., 26: 73 Rare Woody Plants, 1941 Sources of, 1: - repens, 22 : 5-18 -, 52 -kellogii,_22: 82 - laurifolia,~2: 82, Plate XXX, 87 nurseries - - -, listing, 1 : 7, 22 supplementary list, 1: 21-28 ~5 18: 18 H. M., 4: 36 Raup, to the Alaska Mili-, Expeditions tary Highway, 1943-1944, 4: 6572 Red-box, 15: 78 Red-cedar, 15 : 63; _17: 24 Redfield, J. H., 2 : 20 Raspberry, wild, ' 28, Rhododendron amoena, 13 : 32; 17: 7 -, Amateur's Observations on Hardiness in the Pacific Northwest, 2 : 53-56 1 - `Anton',_9: 31 - arborescens, 3: Plate VII, - 37-39; 11: 12; 35; 26: Plate IX, 21 - 13: rubescens,_29: 32 Red spider, 19 : 5, 8, 9 Redtop, 22 : 50 Redwood, 15: 75 111-118 arbutifolium, 14 17: 74 - `Arno',_9: - Registered, new plants, 23: - atlanticum, 13 : 34 - Registration, International Plant, 23: 85-92 - lists, Cornus,_21: 9-18 -, Fagus, 24: 1-8 S 'Atrosanguineum', 9: 35 53 augustinii, 2: -'Aurore de Royghem', 3: - 38 30 - - - Gleditsia, 21:31-34 -, Pieris,_21: -, Ulmus, 47-50 24: 41-80 Forsythias, 21: 39-42 - - - of Cultivar Names, Concerning - -'Bella', 9: 32 - `Bicolor',_9: 34 `Boule de Neige', 9: 30 `Britannia',_2: 53 calendulaceum,_3: 37, 38; 9: 45; - 'Baroness Henry `Beaute Celeste', Schroeder',_9: 3: 38 the, 21: 1-8 11: 12;_13: 35 14: 41-55 - Registrations, More Plant, 26 : 13-16; 27 : 61-66 Rehabilitation of trees, 3 Rehder, Alfred, 6: 23 - On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America, 6 : 13-23 3 Retinospora, Plume, 17: 24 -, -, Thread, 17 : 24 sowing seed of,_9: Plate VIII, opp. p. 47 canadense, 1: 3, 4;_7: 36; _13: 32 albiflorum,_l: 3-4 canadensis X japonicum, 12: 72 1 - `Candidissimum',_9: 31 3 'Caractacus', 9 : 33 - `Cardinal', _3: 38 -, - -'Caroline - Gable', 20: 15 5 Revised Glossary of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural XVI, 71-74 - carolinianum, 8 : 38; 17 : Plate Terms, 15: 25-44 Rhamnus - - alternus, _19: 72 cathartica,_17: 22, 26 frangula, 17 : 26 asplenifolia, 20 : 14 - catawbiense,_7: 10; 8: 38, Plate XI, 39, Plate XIII, 43 ; 17: 74 - 1 - - album, 9:31 - caucasicum,_7: 36 coriaceum, 9 : 30 - - columnare, 20: 14 'Tallhedge', 20: 14 - japonica, 16: 26 Rheum rhaponticum,_26: - -'Charles - 'Charles - 5 Bagley',_9: 35 Dickens',_9: 3 5 ;_21: 44 - - 73 3 Rhododendron `Adelbert', 9: 3 3 `Alarich', 9: 3 3 1 31 albrechti, 9 : Plate VII, 44; 13: 30 'Album 9: 31, 29: Plate `Albert',_9: elegans', 36 collection in flower at the base of Hemlock Hill in color, insert,_9: 32 - 'Comte de Flandre',_3: 38 - `Cornell Pink', 20: 14 - chrysanthum,_7: - `Cunningham's White', 21: - 46 VII, - `Album 35 1 grandiflorum', 9: 31 12 : 46 66 dahuricum, 5: 2; 7: 36-;_9: 45; Rhododendron mucronulatum, 5: 2 Rhododendron 'kosterianum', 5 13 :35 5 7 9 : 32 - `Lady Armstrong', laetevirens, 17: 75; 21: 46 - `Lee's 9: 35 -'Louise Hunnewell', 12: 72 - sempervirens, 15 : - `Daisy', 9: 3 3 - 'Daisy Rand', 9: 35 - 14 kurume (Azalea), 17 : 1 -'Delicatissimum', 9: 31 - `Desiderius',_9:33 - Purple', - 'Dr. H. C. - Dresselhuys', -'Duke of York', 9 : 32 - 21: 46 - 'Louise - 'Echse', 9: 34 - `Eva', 9: 34 - `Everestianum',_9: 34 -'Fedora', 27: Plate XVII, `Fee',_9: 35 ferrarae, 2: 6 - 59 - - - ferrugineum, 7: 36 `Flamboyant', 3: 38 21 Gable', 20 : 15 luteum, 3: 37-40 5 -'Mars', 20: 14, 15 38;_15: 68; 17 : maximum 8: 5 'Melton', 9: 35 - `Minerva', 3 : 38 minus_17: 75;_21: 46 molle,_3: 37, 38, 40 - 75 - - 'Mollis' hybrids, 8: 24 - - flavum, 26 : Plate IX, - `Flushing', 9: 32 - fortunei hybrids, 17: 74 - 'First Camille von Rohan', - 'Mrs. C. S. Sargent', - 'Mrs. Milner',_9: 34 - - 9: 34 mucronulatum,_3: 30 37, 40;_7: 26, 3: 38 - gandavense, 3: 37-40; _11: 12; 13: - 34 mucronatum, 13: 30; 15: 14; 17: 3 75; 20: 14; 2 6: Plate X, 23 36;_ll: 14; _13: - 'General - 'General - Grant', 9 : Trauff', 3 24 33 : 38 - `Ghent', 8: myrtifolium, 17 : 75 - `Norma',_9: 3 5 ;21: 46 nudiflorum, 3 : 37;_6: 11;_8: 24; - -'Gloria Mundi',_3: 38 -'Golden Sunset', 29: 14 'Hannah Felix',_9:34 -'Hardiness Notes', 2: 53-56 'Henrietta Sargent', 9: 32; _l l: 46 - - 13: 35 ; 26 : Plate IX, 21 obtusum, 13: 32 amoenum,_8: 24; 13: 32; 17: - 75 - arnoldianum, 13: 32 'Heureuse Surprise',_3: 38 - hirsutum,_7: 36 - 'H. W. - Sargent', 9: 3 5 3 'Ignatius Sargent',_9: 33 6 33-36 - indicum, 2 : -, injury, 1 : -, International 87 Registration Au- thority, 23: 'James - `James - japonicum,l3: 35;_26: Plate IX, 211 'Josephine Klinger', 3: 38 'Julius Caesar', 3: 38 keiskei, 7: 26; 17: 74 Bateman', 9: 32 5 MacIntosh', 9: 35 - - hybrids, 26 : 28 - `Hinodegiri', 13 : 32 5 - japonicum, 3: 37, 38; 17: 75 37, 38, 40; 6 : - kaempferi, 3 : Plate VII, 47; 7: 9 ; 8 : 21, 22;_9: 11, 45; _l3: 32 - - - `Feodora', 26: Plate XVII, 59 hybrids, 26:28, 29 -, order of bloom, 13 : 29 -'Pallas', 3: 38 - 'Parson Gofe',_9: 34 - Path on 27 - Bussey Hill, 7 : Plate IV, - - `Kettledrum', 9:3 3 1 Korean, 6: 11 -, pests, 19: 4-7, 9 - X P.J.M. Hybrid, 29: 14 -, Pinkshell,_6: 9 ; 8 :21, 22 - plan of border, insert, 9 : 6 67 Rhododendron -, ponticum, 7 : 10 Rhododendron Poukhan, - 'Pres. Lincoln', 9 : 32 - propagation, 9: 45-52 -, antibiotic substances, 9: 48, 50 -, chart, 9 : Table I, 49 -, damping-off disease, 9: 46, 48 -, general culture, 9: 51 -, seed collection, soil, sewing and - 8: 24 yedoense 'Yodogawa' 3 Azalea, _13 : Plate VIII, 33 Rhododendrons, 2: 17-24, 28 ; 4 : 23;14: 9, 10; _15: 68; 16: 62 - and Azaleas, 12: 78 - - 1 storage, 9 : 45, 50, 51 of soil,_9: 46, 48 - `Pucelle',_3: 38 5 `Purpureum Elegans', 9: 3 'Purpureum Elegans Grandiflorum',_9: 3 5 ; _21: 46 racemosum, 17: 75 -, rooted cuttings of, 14 : Plate XII, 59 - -, treatment - evergreen, living more than 10 yrs. in the Arnold Arboretum, 29: 36-40 -, Flower Colors of Hardy Hybrid, _9: 29-36 -, Gable hybrids, 26: 29, 30 in New -, Ghent Hybrids England, 3 : 37-40 --, rooting under plastic, 20: 1-7 2 -, growing, from seeds, 9 : 45-52 -, hardiest, 26: 17-32 12: 62 -, hardy at in the Arnold Arboretum, 26: -, Hardy Wellesley, - - -'Rosebud', 20: 15 -roseum,_3: 37;_6: 11; 8: 21, 24; 5 _13: 35 - `Roseum Elegans', 9: 35 5 - `Roseum 46 -, Royal, 6: 11 -, Rustica flore pleno hybrids, 26: - 18-22 in the Hunnewell - - Arboretum, 12 : 72 in the Pacific Northwest, An Amateur's Observations on Hardiness from Sowing, 2: 53-56 1 -, Knap Hill hybrids, 26: 30, 31 1 -, Mollis hybrids, 26 : 31 - pruned in two different ways, 8: Plate XII, 41 -, pruning of, 8: 37-44 -, Seventy-Five Years of Growing in the Arnold Arboretum, 29: 3 3- Superbum', 21: 31, 32 schlippenbachii, 3 : 37, 38, 40; 6: 11;_9: 51; _l l: 14;13: 32 simsii, 2 : 6 smirnowi, 11: 14; 17: 7 5 ; 21: 46 - `Smoky Mountaineer', 26 : Plate XI, 25 - - - - 40 -, - Snow, 17: 75 Plate VI, 21- spp., 2: 1, 6 1 - 'Sultana', 9: 31 -, Torch, 6 : 9, 11 ; 8 : 2 39: Plate II, 5 - vaseyi, 2: 24;_3: - -, Vuyk hybrids, 26: 32 -, winter damage to, 4: 17-20; 8: 9; _12: 46 -, Yerkes-Pryor hybrids, 26 : 32 Rhodora canadensis, 1: 3; 13: 32 White Flowering, 1: 3 Rhodotypos scandens, 16: 72 Rhus aromatica, 13: 16;14 : 24 radicans, 26 : Plate XXII, 70, 71, 74 -, - 37;_6: 22;_9:51; _l l: 14; _1334;_26: of, 4 : 20 9; 8: 21, Plate XII, 27 5 - viscosum, 3: 37, 38; 13: 35 - waterei, 9:31; 17 : 75 , wellesleyanum, 17: 75 - winter injury, 4 : 17-20 - -, care - 3 - yedoense, 26:Plate X, 23 26: Plate XXII, 71, 72, 74 17 : 22, 26 34 Ricinus communis, 26: Plate XXII, - vernix, Ribes diacanthum,_7: alpinum, - - poukhanense, 6: 11; 8: 24; 13 : 68 1 70, 71 Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Robeson, Andrew, 1 : 30 1 Robeson, Mary Allen, 1: 30, 31 Robinia, 21: 21, 22, 24 ambigua 'Bella-rosa', 21: 24 fertilis, 21: 22 hartwigii, 21: 22, 24 - Rooting of Conifer Cuttings, 27: 85-90 - results, preliminary experiments, hard-to root Asiatic Maples, 17: 56 - -, - softwood - hillieri, 16: 26; 21: - 24 ture plants cuttings, from maof Asiatic Maples, seedlings Asiatic forced in greenXIV, holdtii, 21: 24 - 'Idaho', 21 : 24 - hispida, 21: 22 3 17 : 52, 53 - -, - -, young Maples Plate II, 24, - kelseyi, 16: 26; 21: 27 leucantha, 21: 24 -- luxurians, 21 : 22 - 17 : 55 5 10 : 39 - woody cuttings, Rootstocks for Lilacs, 10: Plate - house, margaretta, 21: 24 22 - neo-mexicana, 21: - 22, 24, 22: Plate XXIII,71; 26: Plate II, 5; 70 - pseudoacacia, 15 : 74; 'Annularis', 16: 26; 21: 57-60 -, bibliography, 10 : 60 Rorippa microphylla, 22 : 5 5 nasturtium-aquaticum, 4: 4; 22: - - - 55 5 Rosa - centifolia, - - - - - - 'Decaisneana', 21: - 21: 22 22 22 'Cylindrica', 22 21 1 'Bessoniana', 21: 21: 31 gallica, 8: 20 8: 20; _14: Plate VI, -'Geranium', - 20: 15 5 - 'Erect', 21: 21 `Inermis', 21: 21 - `Dependens', 21: hugonis, 6: 10 -, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 - 'Max - Graf', 14: 20: 1 S 24 26 1 `Microphylla', 21: 21 'Rectissima', 21: 22 moyesii, - 'Semperflorens', 21: 'Umbraculifera', 21: 24 - - 22 21 1 - - `Unifolia',_21: 21 - slavini, 16: 26; 21: viscosa, 21: 24 3 Rock, J. F., 7 : 33 `Geranium', 16: multiflora, _l l : 14 - pests, 19 : 5, 6, 9 - - primula, 6: 10 -'Red Wing', 20: 15 5 17: 30; 29 : Plate XXXVIII, rugosa, - Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass, 4: Plate VI, 69 Rohrbach, Heinrich, European Mistletoe (Viscum album), The, 29 : 69-72 Root system, type of, obtained on cuttings under polyethylene plastic cover, 20 : Plate I, 3 of time of year, temperature, concentration of IBA, _27: Plate XXV, 89 Ghent Azaleas Under Plastic, 20: - 141 virginiana, 16: 6; 17: 22, - 30 alba, 16: 48 wichuraiana, 13: 16; 14: 24 Rose of Sharon, _1: 41 ; 14: 10 - species, 14: 10 - -, Syrian, 1 : 41 -, Virginia, 17: 22 Rooting, effect - Rosebay, 15 :68 Rosemary, 22: , 53 Roses, 4 : -, 24 donation of old-fashioned types, 20 8: -, 1-7 list of old-fashioned at Arnold Arboretum, 14: 29-32 69 Rotenone dust, 13: 50 Royal Agricultural Society - Sargent, Mary Robeson, Fund, 1 : of India, 60 30, 31 _1: 44 Horticultural - Society Colour - 19: 67 Rubus idaeus, 18: 18 Chart, 8 : 31; _12: 41-44; 17: of Great Britain, 7 : 44 4 Sargent Plaque, 7: 1 - Weeping Hemlock, _23: 101 2: 51 1 Sargentia, Sargent's Silva of North America, 7: 52 Plate IX, 60 Roystonia regia, Rumex crispus, 4: Run-away-Robin, 22: 52 Running-cedar, 15: 70 aculeatus, Russian-olive, 17: 21 Rye-grass, 22: 50 Ruscus - Sasa, 6: 30, 32 argenteo-striata, 6 : 34 chrysantha, 6: Plate II, 32 palmata, 6: Plate VI; 34, 36, - 15 : 78; 19: 72 - - - - Sabal St. palmetto, Sage, 22: 533 19: 67 - 24 veitchii, 6: Plate V, 34, - 39 Plate II, III, 31-34 pumila, 6 : senanensis, 6: 36 tessellata, 6: Plate III, 33, 36 variegata, 6 : Plate IV, 34, 35; 14: 37 Johnswort, California, Salal, 15 : 68 Salicaria, Spiked, 22: 49 Salix alba - 1 17 : 21 - forma minor,_6: 36 Sassafras albidum molle, 4 - - 58 pentandra, 17: 22, 26 pests, 19 : 4, 9 - chermesina, 7: pests, 19: 6, 9 : 4 62; _l8: Saunders, A. P., 6 : 7 Sax, Karl, 1: 40; 7: 4, 12, 14; 19: 57; 21: 37 -, - The Bussey Institution, 7: 13- - - purpurea, 17: 30 pendula, 16 : 18, 27 16 - Salt spray, plants uninjured by, 14: - - 44,45 - damage, 14: 41-46 - -, plants killed by, 14 : 46 Samaras, Maple, 16: 72 - water - -, Dwarf Trees, _10: 73-78 -, Paste the Poison Ivy, 16: 5-8 -, Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum,_7: 9-12; _15: 5-12 -, Rootstocks for Lilacs, 10: 57- 60 Sambucus - canadensis, 4 : 19 6; 26: 74 - - aurea, 14 : fructu-lutea, 16: 48 - - maxima,_8: 58 San Jose scale, 19: 2, 7 Sandersonia aurantica, 19: - 76 Saponaria ocymoides, 14: 24 Saran cloth, 13: 67; 17:48 Sargent, Charles Sprague, 1: 29-32; 2: 30, 33, 35;_6: 9, 26, 45, 48, 49, 56, 60;_7: 1, 2, 30, 33, 39, 52 - Scaffolds, the use of, in tree breeding, 10: Plate IV, 6 Schima wallichii, 17: 6 Schinus molle, 15:75 mollis, 19: 6-3, 64 Schizophragma, _24: 17, 26 crassum, 24: - 31 - -, - - - Fund, _1: 31, 32 - - -, One-hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of, 1 : 29-32 70 in the Arnold Arboretum 1 Library, 1904, 1 : Plate I, 31 24: Plate III, 18, Plate IV, 27-29 20; integrifolium, 24: 30 -, key to the species of, 24: 28 Schlumbergera bridgesii, 15: 80 Schmitt, Louis Victor, 5 : 3 ; _7: 2 Schrebera, 25: 24 hydrangeoides, - Schwarten, Mrs. Lazella, Librarian, retires, 27 : 68 Sciadopitys verticillata, _12: Plate I, 5, 18; 14: 54 Scilla sibirica, 22: 54 Scolytus multistriatus, 7 : 18 Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, Plants for, 25: 45-48 shrubs for dry, sandy soils, 25: 46 normal soils, 25: 48 trees for dry, sandy soils, 25: 46 trees for normal soils, 25: 48 Scurfy scale, 19: 2 Sea-lavender, 15 : 80 - Seeds without inhibiting dormancy, 20: 3 3, 34 - Semiarundinaria, 6 : 30, 32 fastuosa, 6: 38 Sentry Ginkgo along Roosevelt Blvd. _l l : Plate XII, 43 September bloom, list of woody plants for, 27 : 69, 70 Sequoia, 19 : 64 sempervirens, 15 : 75; 19 : 63; 23: Plate XV, 128 Sequoiadendron giganteum, 23: - Seasonal - hardening in trees and - shrubs, 26: even though not winter-hardy, 26: 61- 57-60 useful Plate XV, 128 Serrata sinensis, 19: Plate 63 3 - Shagbark Hickory, 2: Shallon, 15: - 10 11 1 Rhythm of Development of Woody Plants and Its Importance in Sheep-laurel, 17 : 70 - XII, 68, 69 Introduction_27: 1-14 Sechium edule, 4: Plate IV, 33 3 Secrest - Shibataea, 6: 32 5 kumasaca, 6: Plate II, IV, 31-35 119 Sedum purpureum, 22: 54 species, 14: 24 Arboretum, 23: ruscifolia, 6 : 34 Shipping seeds, 13 : 50, Short Guide War to 1 51 Seed - dormancy, method of overcoming, 25: 2 collection dates, chronologically, coat Short, Charles Wilkins, _2: Plate VI, 16,22,23 Care of the Garden 13 : 42 - Shortia - - of Woody Plants, 7 : 53-56 Dispersal by Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum, 27: 7384 germination, effect of light on, - during galacifolia, 2: Plate IV, Plate VII, 13-28 -, Time, 4: 9-16 Asa Gray and his Quest for, 2 : 13-28 Shrub Altheas, 18: 45-51 1 - _l l : -, 40 Propagating some Rarer Plants from, 14 : 25-28 -, Propagation of Woody Plants by, 20 : 3 3-40 Seeds of Chionanthus and Viburnum, 20: Plate IX, 37 of Woody Plants, 13: 41-60 that can be stored dry and sown within the year, 13: 54 that can be sown or stratified as - - 24 with pink to red flowers, 20: 29-32 3 rejuvenation, _13: 23 collection, 3: Honeysuckles Shrubs and Trees, 24 - Pruning, 13:21- with Colored Foliage Growing in the Arnold Arboretum, _14: 13-19 - - Vines for American Gardens, - - - - ripe, 13: 54 that should not be allowed to dry out in shipping, 13: 54 to be stratified, 20: 35, 36 with double dormancy, 20: 38 soon as 1 71 -, autumn blooming, 4: 44; 12: 59 - for Massachusetts Gardens, 11: 1- _10: - 20 at Least Two Seasons of Beauty, - Some, 11 : 37-40 -, Some Winterkilling of Certain, 12: 49-52 71 Shrubs with gray - twigs, 18: 60 twigs a conspicuouslight 18 : 62 18 : 62 Solanum pseudo-capsicum 'Cleveland Cherry', _15: 81 brown color, - yellow twigs, withstanding snow and ice for 24 hours, 13 : 39 Siberian Squill, 22: 54 Silene cucubalus, 1_8: 18 -'Patterson', 15 : 81 Some Cultivated Relatives of the Camellia, 17 : 1-12 Horticultural Activities of Justin Smith Morrill, 28 : 41-52 - noctiflora, 18: Silk Oak, 15: 80 1 Silk Tree, 6: 11 - 18 of the Best Vines and Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens, 13 : 1-19 - shrubs and trees with colored Plate V, - 5 - -, hardy, 18: 15 Silphium perfoliatum, 18: - Ways Plants Climb, 28 : 5 3-66 Shrubs Result of the Winter of 195152, _12: 49-52 Sonchus oleraceus, 4_: 4 - foliage, as a 14: 13-19 20,23 Silva of North America, 7 : 52 Silvics of Forest Trees in the United States, Review of, 26 : 47 Simple Foliage Key to the Firs, 3: 1 65-71 to the Hemlocks, 3: 57-64 to the Pines, _3: 49-56; _l l : 63-70 Skinner, F. L., 8: 29 -, Fifty Years of Gardening in Northern Manitoba, 7: 29-40 - Winter-killing of Certain - japonica, 21 1 - Sophora, 21: 20, 21 12: 18; 14: 54; 21 : 20, - - - Sorbus, 29: 61-68 - Skirm, George, 19 : 7: 10 - Slieve Donard Nursery, 21: 37 Small amounts of spray materials, 10 Smaller Street Trees alnifolia, 14: 27; 16: Plate XIII, 47, 48, 23: 123; 29: Plate XVIII, 63; Plate XX, 62, 67 americana, 5 : Plate III, 13; 29: Plate XVIII, 62, 63 3 aria, 29 : Plate XVIII, 63, 64 - 'Aurea', 29: - - `Majestica', Needed, 11: 41- -X arnoldiana, 48 1 Smilax, _15: 71 lanceolata, _15: 72 - laurifolia, 19: 67 -, Wild, 15 : 72 Smith, A. C., 4: 28 Smith, Harrison W., 8_: 4 Snow, 13 : 28 damage, 26: 1-4 Snow, Mrs. Ina S., 9: 57, 63 - 64 29: 64 _29: 64 - aucuparia, 14: 54; 27: Plate XXII, 77; 29 : Plate XVIII, 63, 64 'Asplenifolia', 29 : Plate XVIII, - 63,64 - 'Beissneri', 29 : edulis, 29: 64 64 - - - - - - - 'Fastigiata', 29 : Plate XX, 64, 67 'Pendula', 29: Plate XIX, 64, 65 xanthocarpa, 29: 64 . Snowdrops, 22: 533 Solanum, 2 : 8 - - cashmiriana, 29 : Plate XVIII, 63, 66 aculeatissimum, 15 : - - 75 15 : 81; 19: 69 capsicastrum, dulcamara, 22 : 55; 26 : Plate XX, - - decora, 29 : Plate XVIII, 63; Plate XIX, 65, 66 - discolor, 7 : 58; 29: 66 - folgneri, - 67, 70 - X 29 : 66 hybrida, 29 : Plate XVIII, 63, - pseudo-capsicum, 15 : 81; 26: 75 72 68 Sorbus X - hybrida 'Fastigiata', 29: 68 'Gibsii', 29: 68 - japonica, 14: 28 - pests, 19: 2, 3, 5, 9 3 - rehderiana, 29 : Plate XVIII, 63 - Spiraea menziesii, 21: - X - multiflora, nipponica, 17 rotundifolia, 21 : 57 1 pikoviensis, _21: 51 - prunifolia, _17: 22, 26; 21 : 52, 57 - 1 51 21: 57 : 22, 27 sargentiana, tianshanica, - vilmorinii, 29: Plate XVIII, 63, - 29: 68 29: 68 -'Rosabella', 68 - 21: 58 -'Snow White',21: 58 -'Summer Snow', 21: 58 Sorensen, Dr. Paul A., appointed Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist, 27: 67 Sources for a few new plants, 9: 1-4 - superba, 21: 57 - thunbergii, 17 : 22, 30; 19: 73; 21 : 57 X - compacta, 21: 57 rare woody plants, 1: 5-19, 21- - - 28 trees, 12: 2, 3 ground covers, 13: 2 Spanish Bayonet, 15 : 78 Spath Nurseries, _21: 3 5, 3 6 Spent Hops-An Effective Mulching - vines and 1 21: 51 trichocarpa, 21: 51, 57 - - erecta, 2_1: 5 8 1 - trilobata, 21: 51 vanhouttei, _7: 30; 17: 22, 26 ; 21: - tomentosa, - - Material, - 7: 69-72 Spindle Tree, European, Spiraea albiflora, 21: 54 X 21: 16: 23 54,58 - veitchi, 17: 22, 30; 21 : Plate V, 53, 58 - wilsonii, 21: 58 - arguta, arguta compacta, 21: 54 54 - brachybotrys, 21: bullata, 21: 54 - bumalda, 17 : 30 - billiardii, 21: X 1 51 54 - - - alpina, 21: 58 - - 'Anthony Waterer', 21: 51, 52, 56 Spiraeas, 14: 10; 21: 51-58 Spirea, Bridalwreath, 1_7: 22 -, Nippon, 17: 22 -, Thunberg, 17: 22 -, Vanhoutte, 17 : 22 -, Veitch, 17 : 22 Spireas, The Best Ornamental, 21: 51-58 VI, 54, - - crispa, froebelii, 2_1: 54 - 21: Plate 55 5 Spray materials, 19: 2-6 - -, small amounts of, 19 : -, plastic, 16: 64 15, 16 10 - program in the home garden, 4: - - `Norman', 21: 56 canescens, _51: 56 cantoniensis, 21 : 56 decumbens, 21 : 56 digitata nana, _21: 58 - japonica, 21: 56 alpina, 29 : 14 atrosanguinea, 21: 56 ovalifolia, _21: 56 ruberrima, 21 : 56 1 - latifolia, 21: 51 21: 56, 57 margaritae, - media sericea, 21 : 51 1 - - Schedule of the Arnold Arboretum, _13: 73-77; 19 : 1-16 Spraying, 15: 13- Spring, An Early, 5 : 1-3; 16 : - 1-4 in the - - - - - - Arboretum, _7: 25-28 calendar, 21 : 38 classes, see Arnold Arboretum, comes to - - Spring classes - - - - the Arnold Arboretum, 12: 45-48; 15: 13-16 displays in the Arnold Arboretum, 4: 21-24 '3 3 Spring in 1946, 6 : - 1-4 Stewartia - -, - half-hardy plants, 6_: 3, 4 3 3 - grandiflora, 17: 7: Plate X, 63; 54; 17: 8, 10, 10 12: koreana, 18; - - - - -, shrub collection, 6 : 2, -, vines, _6: 2 notes, 16: 17-27 -, pruning, 6 : 14: XIV, 59 ; 23 : Plate XIV, 123, 127; - 9: 4; 18:-Plate- 9-12 -, 1949, _9: 9-12 - rushes on, 5 : 21-24 walk through the Arnold Arboretum, 10: 29-32, 18: 13-16 Spruce Birds, 15: Plate XIII, 73, 75 -, Black, 15 : 63; _19: 62 -, Colorado, Blue, 17 : 24 - gall aphid, 19: 2, 8 - - planting -, 1948, 8 : _29: Plate XII, 48 malacodendron, _17: 8; 29: VIII, 43 Plate - mite, _19: 5, 7, 9 -, needle of, 3: Fig. 1 (b), 58 -, Norway, 16: 62; 17 : 24; 19: Plate XI, 65, 68 -, witches'-brooms, 27: Plate VIII, 30, 32, 44 -, Oriental, 17: 24 -, Red, 15: Plate XI, 65, 75 -, Serbian, 17: 24 - twig, 3 : Fig. 8 (b), 66 -, White, 15: 63; 19: 63 propagation, 27: 48 Spruces, simple foliage key to Hem-, - -, Squash vine borers, 3 : 7 Stamps, Postage, Horticulture on, 18 : Plate VI, Plate VII, Plate VIII, 29-38 Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue, Scott's, 52 Star 18: 29 and, 3 : 57-64 Spurge, Japanese, 17: 73 locks monadelpha, _17: 10; _29: Plate XI, 47 ovata, 17 : Plate IV, 8, 10, 11; 29: Plate IX, 45 pentagyna, 17 : 8 pseudo-camellia, 17 : Plate III, 9, 10; _29: Plate XI, 47 - serrata, _17: 10 sinensis, 29: Plate X, 46 Stewartias, Introduction of Our Hardy, The, 29 : 41-48 Sticker, _13: 84 Stichwort, 22 : 52 Stratification, 14: 26, 28; 20: 34, 35 Stratifying seeds in plastic, 13: 67 Strawflowers, 1_5: Plate XIII, 73, 76 Street planting, 11: 42 - trees, _l l: 41-48; 14: 49-55 -, size of at planting time, 11: 44 - -, suburban planting, 11: 44 -, trial plot for, 23 : Plate I, 1-7 Strelitzia reginae, 15: 82 Striped cucumber beetles, _3: 6 - - - - - - - Styrax, 21: 62, 64 - japonica, 12: Plate V, 15; _14: obassia, _3: 27 - Stuart, John, 17 : 8 54 Standards of color, uniform, 7: - 4127 Staphylea holocarpa rosea, 16 : Stars, _16: Plate XXI, Stellaria 64 - Star-of-Bethlehem, 15: Flower, 15: Plate XIII, 73, 76 83; 22: 54 71 Plate XIX, graminea, Stephanandra incisa, _26: -- 18: 18; 22: 52 'Crispa', 29: 17: 8 16 Stewartia, officinale, 21: 62 Styrofoam, 13 : 62-66; 16: 70 Sulfur, dusting, 1_3: 84 Sullivant, William S., 2: 18 Sutton, Stephanne B., Herbarium Introduced, The, 25 : 37-40 Symplocos paniculata, 27 : Plate XXI, 75 1 Swags, 29: Plate XXVIII, 120, 121 16: 70 -, making of, Sweetbells, 15 :68 Sweet-gum, 15 : 76; _16: 72 - - blight, 21: 64 Sylva Telluriana, 3 : 74 8 Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus, 17: 30 chenaultii 'Hancock', 20 : 16 foetidus, 26: 74 orbiculatus leucocarpus, 8: 59 Syngonanthus sp., 15 : 76 Synthetic hormones, 13: 61 Syrian Rose, 1_ : 41 - Syringa cultivars, 23 : 80 - `Daphne', 23: 80 -'Dark Night', 26: 13 3 - 'Dawn', - 8: 32 - Syringa, 6 : 3, 10, 12 ; 25 : 'AddieV. .- - Hallockt,~_3: 24 80 - 'Descanso 'Descanso 'Descanso 'Descanso 'Descanso Beauty', 26: Giant', 13 3 - -'Aladdin', 23: 80 `Alexander's Advance', 27 : 66 'Alexander's Aristocrat', 27 : 66 'Alexander's Pink', 27 : 66 -'Alice Stofer', 23: 80 amurensis, 8 : 22, 36; 25 : Plate VI, 25 - - japonica, 7: 12, 30; 8_: 36; 12: Plate VI, 16, 19; 14: 55; 19: 25; 23 : 123 - `Anna Amhoff', 23: 80 - `Anna Nickles', _23: 80 'Ariel', 8: 34 - - - - 'Desdemona', 8: 32 'Directeur Doorenbos', 2_3: 'Director General Van Der Plasche', 23: 81 'Doctor Brethour', 23 : 81 - Princess', 26: 14 Spring', 26: 14 81 3 26 : 13 3 King', 26: 13 1 - 'Doctor Chadwick', _23: 81 - 'Donald Wyman', 8: 34 'Dorcas', 8_: 32 - 'Early Bird', 26: 14 - 'Edgar T. Robinson', 23 : 81 - 'Elinor', 8: 32 - 'Enid', 8: 34 - 'Esta', 23: 81 'Audrey', 8 : 32 1 - `Bellicent', 8_: 31 'Berdeen's Chocolate', 23 : - - 'Evangeline', 8 : 59 'Fantasy', 23: 81 - - 80 -'Bertha - - - 80 -'Betty Opper', 23: 80 80 'Betty Stone', `Bloemenlust', 23: 80 -'Blue Boy', 26 : 13 3 'Blue Mountain', 26 : 13 3 Phair', 23 : _23: 8: 34 'Florence Christine', 23: 81 1 'Forest Kresser Smith', _26: 14 'Francisca', 8 : 34 'Frank Patterson', 23 : 81 1 1 - 'Geraldine Smith', 81 - 'Guild's Pride', 26 : 14 - `Guinevere', 8: 34, 59; 9: 4 - 'Floreal', _23: - - - - 'Burgemeester Loggers', 23 : 'Caliban', 8_: 32 'California Rose', 26: 13 3 'Carlton', 8: 32 'Caroline Foley', 23 : 80 'Charles Hepburn', 8: 34 8: 80 - 'Handel', 32, 60 'Hecla', 8_ 32, 60 'Hedin', 8: 32, 60 - _8: - - - -'Helen -'Helen - Palagge', 23 : Schloen', 23 1 81 81 :1 - - 'Charmian', 3 'Chiffon', _26: 13 chinensis, 8: 22; 15: 10; 17: 22, 26; 19: 29 - 34 saugeana, 8 : 22 80 - 'Chris', 23 : - `Cora - 32 `Lutece' in the Arnold Arboretum, pictured with S. villosa, 8 : Plate X, 3 5 ; 15 : 20 -'Hiawatha', 8: 32; 9: 4 hyacinthiflora, 15 : 20 1 'Ingwersen's Dwarf', _23: 81 - henryi, 8 : - - - `Congo', 8: 22, 59; _9: 13 3 Lyden', 23: 80 -'Inez', 23 : 81 `Coral', 8: 32 75 -, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 Syringa 'Isabella', 8 : 32, 60; 9: 4 1 - `J. Herbert Alexander', 23-:81 R. Koning', 23: 81 - `J. - `Jack Smith', 23: - `jane', 23 : 81 -japonica, - Syringa 'Mrs. Robert M. Gardner', 23 : 82 - 'Mrs. W. E. 3 Marshall', 8: 59; 9: 13 - 81 -'Negro', 1 81 81 1 81 1 - 8: 22 7: 39 -'Nellie Bean', 23: 82 -'Nellie Marie', 23 : 82 - `Jennie C.Jones', 23: 'Nerissa', 8: `Jessica',_8: 34 - 'Jimmy Howarth', 23: -'Nina Baker', 23 : 23: 34, 60 82 - `John's Favorite',_23: 1 John of Monmouth', 23: 81 - josikaea, 8: 24; 17: 22,30; 19: - `Niobe', - `Nocturne', 8: 34 nurseries - `Oake's Double -, 82 offering, 23: 79, 80 20 7: 33 25 - White', 23 : 82 - zabeli, 8 : 34 34 - oblata, dilatata, - 15 : - julianae, 8: -'Octavia', 8: 32, 60 - `Katherina', 8: 32 - `Ken Berdeen', 23: 81 -, Key to the List of Originators, 23 : 78 - 'La Canada', 26: 14 laciniata, 8 : 59 ; 15: 10; 17 : 22, 26; 18: Plate 1,2, 5; 19: 29 - - `Olivia', 8:34 -, origin of, 8 : 29 - `Paulina', 8: 32, 60 -'Pauline - Beck', 23: 8: 82 - 1 'Lavender Lady', 23:81 1 - 'Lewis Maddock',_23: 81 - pekinensis, X persica, 8:22; 11: 16; 19: laciniata,_9: 4 - 36 29 'Louvain', 23: 81 - `Lucelle', 27: 66 - var., 7 : 12 - pests, 19: 2-4, 9 pinetorum, 8: 32 - -'Pink 13 3 Bluet', 23: 82 82 82 - 'Ludwig Spaeth', 8 : 22, 37; 9: 'Lutece', 8: 34 - `Lynette', 8: -'Pinkie', 23: - `Pinkinsun',_23: - 32 `Macrostachya', 8: 37 - `Madame Rosel',23: 81 -'Maiden's Blush', 26: 14 'Margaret Opper', 23: 82 - pinnatifolia, 7 : 12; - `Pom', 27: 66 'Portia', 15: 20; 19 : 29 - -'Prairial', 8: - 8: 32 32 20 `Martine',_23: 'Mary Blanchard', 23: 82 - - `Maud Mist', 23 : 82 - 'Maybelle Farnum', 23 : 82 microphylla, 15: 10; 19: 26 'Miranda', 8: 32, 9: 4 -'Miss Canada', _27: 66 -'Mauve - Notcutt', 23: 82 82 - Eisenhower', 23 : 82 prestoniae, 7: 26;_8: 29-36; 15 : - `Hecla', _8: Plate IX, 3 3 ; 11: 'President Plate VI, 19 60 - -, hybrids, 8 : - - `Isabella', Plate VI, 25 - -, - 11 : Plate VI, 19; 25: -'Miss Kim', 23 : 82 'Mountain Haze', 2 3 : 8 3 - 'Mount Baker', 23: 82 - 'Mrs. Fannie W. Heath',_23: 82 'Mrs. Harry Bickle', 23: 82 'Mrs. J. Herbert Alexander', 27 : 66 - - -'Purple Gem', 23: 82 -, - 16 `Primrose', pubescens, 8: 22, 60 ; 9 : 20: vars., 8: 29-36; _l l : 16 4 - `Redbud', 27: 66 recommended varieties, 8: 32, 34 - - 25 reflexa, 8: Plate VIII, 29, 30; 19: 76 Syringa, registration of cultivars, 23: 77-83; 27: - Syringa vulgaris, cultivars for sale, 19: 27,28 - -, - for sale, blue, 19 : 27 -, - for sale, lilac, 19 : 27 -, - for sale, magenta, 19: 28 -, - for sale, pink, 19: 27 -, - for sale, purple, 19 : 28 -, - for sale, violet, 19 : 27 -, - for sale, white, 19 : 27 varieties, 15 : 22 - `W. T. Lee', 23: 83 - 65, 66 'Rhum von Horstenstein', 9: 13 3 - 'Robert Dunham', 23: 82 - 'Romance', 23 : 82 - -'Romeo', 8: 32 'Rowancroft Pink',_23: 82 -'Royal Purple', 26 : 14 3 `Royalty', 8: 36;23: 83 - - - `Rutilant', 8: 34 - 'St. Joan', 23: 82 'Saint Margaret', 23: -'Sierra Blue', 23 : 83 - `Silvia', 8: 32 - - - 82 - `W. T. - `Westend', 23: 83 Macoun', 8: 32 3 `Snow White', 23: 83 -'White -'White - 'Sobra', 23: 83 3 - 'Spring Dawn', 23: 83 23: 83 3 - 'Spring Glory', Sonnet', 26 : 14 - 'Spring `Sulte', 8: 34 - Spring', 26: 14 3 Surprise', 23: 83 wolfi, 8: 34 -'Yellow Spek', 20: 16 yunnanensis, 19 : 25 ; 20: - 16 Tamarix - `Superba', 27: 66 -, supplementary registration list, 3 23 : 77-83 gallica, 19: 64 pentandra, 17:30 Tanacetum, 15: 79 - vulgare, 18 :Plate V, 20, common, -'Swanee', 8: 34 swegiflexa, 8: 31, 32 sweginzowi, 8: 32; 9: 26 - 'Sylvan Beauty', 26: 14 -'The Bride', 23 : 83 tigerstedtii, 20: 16 - 23 3 Plate V, 20, 25 5 18: Tansy, Taraxacum officinale, 4: 2 Taxodium distichum 'Monarch of Taxus - - 2 'Titania', 8: 32 - `Tom - - 83 tomentella, 8: 32; 19: 26 - 'Two Star General', 23: 83 3 'Ursulla', 8: 32 - Taylor', 23: - - Illinois', 29 : 7 baccata, 19: 72; _23: Plate XV, 123, 128; 26: Plate III,6; 29: Plate XXXVII, 139 'Adpressa Fowle', 29: Plate III, 7, 15, 16 'Nutans', 28: 24 - - - - - `Pygmaea', 28: - 24 121 1 - vulgaris, 6: 12; 8: 22, 29, 36;_9: `Valeria', 8:32 -, varieties divided into color groups, 8: 31, 32, 34, 36 - velutina, 7: 3 3 ;19: 26 excellens, 8: 34 - `Verdugo's Pride', _26: 14 - villosa, 8 : Plate VIII, Plate X, 22, 29, 30, 34, 35; 15: 20; 19: 26 'Voorzitter Buskermolen', 23: 83 3 - stricta, 2 3 : Plate X, vars. 14:19 sexes - canadensis -, clones, - stricta, 17: 30 of, 23 : 120-122 - cuspidata, 17: XXIII, 79 25 - 24, 26;_27: Plate - 'Aurescens', 8: 62; 14 : 19; 28: 'Capitata', 17: 24, 26 - - 13, 15; 17: 22, 26 ; 19: - densa, 16 : 62 expansa, 8: 62 3 fruiting, 10: 83 26 - - - - alba, 19: 26 - - -, aucubaefolia, 14: 19 - - nana, 11: 16; 16: 62; 17: 24, 26 77 Taxus, fruiting of, 23 : 119-122 3 - hedge, 27 : Plate 23 media, _17: 25 hatfieldi, 12 : Plate XVII, 82; 17: 25, 26 hicksi, 17: 25, 26 - pests, 19: 4, 5, 9 - spp., 26 : Plate XXI, 69, 72 Tea family, 17 : 2 Tear-thumb, 18 : 18 Teasel, 15: Plate XIII, 73, 76 -, Fullers', 15 : 76 Technique, wounding, 17 : Plate XI, - - - - 1 51 17 : 13 Tent caterpillar, 19: 3, 8 Ternstroemia, 17:10 gymnanthera, 17: 10, 12 sylvatica, 17: 10 Ternstroem, Christopher, 17: Tetraploid plant, _16: 41 - Temperatures, minimum, 3 : 25, 26; 'Robusta', 17:25, 26 hedge, 27 : Plate VI, 27 - - spiralis, 17 : 25, 26 - - vars., _14: 19 wagneriana, 17: 25, 30 woodwardi, 17 : 25, 30 - 17: 30 28: 25 Junior', 5 Midget', 28 : 25 28: 25 'Holmstrup', --'Little Gem', 17: 25,26 - - 'Malonyana', 28: 25 'Minima', 28: 26 'Ohlendorffi' 28: 26 'Recurva Nana', 28: 26 'Rheingold', 28: 26 - Thuja occidentalis globosa, 'Hetz 'Hetz - - - - - - - orientalis - - 10 - 'Meldensis', 28: 26 - - 'Minima Glauca', 28 : - pests, 19: 4, 5, 9 - plicata, 12: - conspicua, 14: 'Juniperoides', 28: 26 19 26 Teucrium - chamaedrys, 13: polygamum, 18; 14: 24; 17: 75 prostratum, _17: 75 18: 20 Rev. Thalictrum Thayer, Ebenezer, 21 : 76, 77 Thea japonica, 2 : 6 Theaceae, genera of, native to the United States, 17 : Plate I, 5 Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book, 5 26; _19: 62 Thunbergia laevis, 19: 73 Thuiaria cupressina, 15 : 84 Thyme, 22 : 533 5 Thymus serphyllum, 17 : 75 Tilia americana, 22 : Plate XXIV, 22, 19; 14: 55; 17: 25, - 73, 74 - 4 : - - - - ampelophylla, 22: 74 dentata, 22 : 74 'Fastigiata', 9: 4 ; 22 : 70 Thomas, Joab, 19 : 57; 21: 37, 64 1 -, Forsythia 'Karl Sax', 20: 49-51 - - - - amurensis, 22 : 74 - macrophylla, 22: 74 -, Liquidambar, 21: 59-65 Thorn, Cockspur, 17 : 21; 22: 28 Glastonbury, 22: 30 Thornhill, 2 : 50 Through the Arnold Arboretum, 9 : - caroliniana, 22 : 74 chinensis, 22 :74 - cordata, 7 : Plate V, 31; 14: 5 5 ; 17: 22, 26; 22: Plate XXIV, 70, - 73 - 12 - Thuja, 26 - 18: 1 - - - occidentalis, 3 : - ascidiata, 22: 74 cordifolia, 22: 74 17; 15: 70; 17: 25, - - `Greenspire', 23: - - - 'Compacta', 28: 25 'Ellwangeriana Aurea', 28: - - 25 - - 92 29: 7, 8 'Morden', 'Pyramidalis', 22 : 70 'Swedish - -- 'Ericoides', 28: 25 `Filiformis', 28: 25 78 VIII, 114, 115 - Upright', 23: Plate 74 dasystyla, 22 : Tilia X euchlora, 22: Plate XXIV, - Tilia - tomentosa 3 70, 7 - X europaea, 22 : Plate pendula, erecta, 22 : 72 22 : 76 XXIV, 73, - tuan, _22: - 76 74 - X - - -X -X 'Pendula', _22: flaccida, 22 : 74 - pallida, 22: 74 70 flavescens, _22: 74 chinensis, _22: 76 Tilias not recommended, _22: 74 Tilias recommended, 22: 70 Tillandsia recurvata, _19: 64 usneoides, 19: 64 - michauxii, 22: 74 insularis, 22 : 74 - intonsa, _22: 76 - floridana, 22: 74 - `Handsworth', 22 : 72 - henryana, 22: 74 subglabra, 22 : 74 heterophylla, 22 : 74 - Toad-flax, 18: 18 Tomato, spiny, 15: 75 Tomlinson, Bertram, 9: 63 Topiary garden in Hunnewell Arboretum, Town Torrey, John, 2: mental 12 : Plate XIV, 69 18 - - japonica, 22 : 74 - X juranyana, 22 : - dump, Reading, Mass., ornaplanting, 25 : Plate X, 47 Tralon, _l l: 50 Traveller's Tree, 5 : Plate V, 30 Tree Legumes in the Arnold Arboretum, The, 21 : 19-30 76 -, key to the genera, 21 : Tree measurements, 12: 83, - 76 - kiusiana, _22: 76 mandshurica, 22: 76 - maximowicziana, 22 : miqueliana, 22 : 76 X 30 84 - - moltkei, 22: 76 72 - mongolica, 22: - - monticola, 22 : 76 'Mrs. Stensson', 26: 16 - - oliveri, _22: 76 - neglecta, 22 : 76 X - Peonies, 5-8; 29: 25-32 -, Silk, 16 36 -, small, Christmas novelties, 16: Plate XVII, 65, 72 _6: orbicularis, _22: 76 strawberry, 19 : 69 - Trunks, 23 : 123-130 - -, More, _26: 5-12 -, - - - XXIV, 71-73 - paucicostata, pests, 19: 4, 6, 9 petiolaris, 22: Plate XXIII, Plate 22: 76 Trees, among the best common, platyphyllos, 73 - 22: Plate - XXIV, 72 , 19-20 - and shrubs introduced by the Hunnewell Arboretum, 12: 75-83 3 - - -, Juvenile Characters of The, 18: 1-7 12: - - aurea, 22 : 72 -, Best for Massachusetts Gardens, _12: 1-20 S -, best small for shade, 14: 49-5 -, blown over in hurricane, 14: 40 - - - - - begonaefolia, 22 : 76 corallina, 22 : 76 'Fastigiata', 22 : 72 22 : 72 5 pyramidalis, 14: 55 - - 'Laciniata', -, Eighty for the Small Place, 16: - - - - - `Redmond', _22: 74 - - 'Rubra', 22 : 72 tortuosa, _22: 76 vitifolia, 22 : 76 - 9-15 - for American Christmas - Gardens, 11: 74 - XXVII, 119, - decorations, 29: Plate 128 - tomentosa, 5 XXV, 75 22 : Plate XXIV, Plate - - 5 city conditions, 14 : 49-55 the small place, 16: 9-15 S Massachusetts Gardens, Forty- five of the Best, 12: 1-20 79 Trees, Five Interesting, -, 11: 71-74 - Tsuga canadensis macrophylla, 23: - heights, - in your community, 23: 1, 2 - injured by hurricane, 14: 41-56 -, narrow for - -, -, - 14: 49-55 101 narrow upright habit, 16 streets, 11: 48 : 14 - minuta, 6 : 58 - - 'Nana', 28 : 27 `Pendula', 6: Plate XI, 11, 56, - 57; _il: - - ornamental, 7: 24 -, small, demonstration plot, listed, 16: Plate IV, 10-14 -, small, for city streets, _l l: 41-48 -, ornamental flowers, 16: 14 -, ornamental fruits, 16: 14 - `Rockland', 23: 92 'Verkade Petite', 29: 8 'Verkade Recurved', _29: 3: 59; 6: - 18;_23: 101 8 - caroliniana, Plate VIII, - 51, 58; _14: 6 - `Arnold 55; 15: 71; 17: Pyramid', 15: - 25, 26 ; 28 : - -, - outstanding autumn color, plot, to row 16: Plate 27 15 5 street, trial 1 VIII, 50, 51 - according plot, 23: 2-7 that crack easily, more, 7 : 37 108 trees listed and number in - - - 14: 48 -, unusual, a list of some at Drop- 5 unusually pest free, 14: 49-5 5 - with interesting bark,_14: 49-5 5 ornamental flowers, 14: 49-5 5 ornamental fruits, 14: 49-5 Trifolium hybridum, 22 : 50 -, - chinensis, 6: 52 - - diversifolia, 3: 58; 6: Plate IX, 53; 9: 4; 11: Plate IV, 15, 18; 28 : Plate IV, 6, 7 - dumosa, 6: 52 - 'Compacta', 15: 50; 28: fastigiata, 6: 5 9 - formosana, Plate IV, 6: 52 heterophylla, 3: - 7 mertensiana, _3: 59; _6: Plate X, 54, 52 59; 6: 54; 26 : pratense, 22 : 50 - 55 - repens, 22 : 50 Trip Through the Arboretum During Lilac Time, A, 8 : 21-24 Trunks, tree, 23 : 123-130; _26: 5-12 - - pests, 19: 5, 9 sieboldii, 3 : Fig. 2 (b), 58; 6_: yunnanensis, 6_: 52 Tsuga, 3 : - 58 Tucker, Elizabeth, _21: 80 Tucker, Ethelyn, translator of A. Rehder's \"On the history of the introduction of woody plants into 3 North America,\" 6_: 13-23 Fig. 2 (a), (c), 58, 59; _6: 52, 54, 56; 14: 55; 15: 63, 71; 17: 25, 26; 27: Plate XIX, 483: canadensis, 50 ; _28: 6; 29: Plate XXXIX, 143 - - 'Alba Spicata', 6 : 58 and its variants, 23: 100-102 - - - - - atrovirens, _2 3 : 101 'Cinnamomea', 28: 26 'Cole', 28: 26 compacta, 17 : 25, 26; 23 : - 101 Tulip-tree, American, 16 : 24 Tulipa, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 Tupelo, 16: 72 1 Turk's-cap-lily, 18 : Plate IV, 20, 21 5 Twiners, 28 : 53-55 Two Months of Azalea Bloom, 13: - - - 'Dwarf Whitetip', 1 fastigiata, 23 : 101 23: 92 'Greenspray', 5 - - hedge, 27 : Plate IV, 25 - 28: 27 5 29-35 Types of Arboretums, Typha angustifolia, - latifolia, 8 20: 72-74 15: 74 15 : 74; 18: 20 'Jacqueline Verkade', 29: - - - jenkinsii, 6 : 58 Ulex europaeus, 5 : 78 80 Ulmus - alata, 1: 81,90 46 - 65, 67, 78; 11: 79, Ulmus fulva, 1: 65, 66, 80; _l l: 79, -- 80,93 americana, 1: 65, 66, 67, 80; _l l: 79-81, 92; _22: Plate XIII, 71; 24: - glabra, 1 : 72, 76, 78, 80; 87, 89, 92; _24: - - 11: 84, 46 atropurpurea, 1 : 76; 11: 89; 'ascendens', 48 1: - 66; 11: 80; 24: - 24: 49 camperdowni, 1 : 76; 11 : 24: 52 87; - - - - XXI, 80, 90; 24: - 'Augustine', _l l : 80; 24: 49 'columnaris', 1: 66; _11: Plate - crispa, 1 : 77; 11: exoniensis, 1: - 5 3 - - - 89; 24 : 54 76; 11 : 89; 24: -- 'Lake 64 City', 1 : 66 ; 11: 80; 24: - - - - - 'Moline', 71 1 - - - - pendula, 'Princeton', 1: 1: 1: 66; 1_1: 80; 24: 67 66; 11: 80; 24: 69 1: - - - 66; 11: - 80; 24: - - - 57 monstrosa, 1 : 76; 11: 89 24: 67 nana, 1 : 76; 11: 89; 24: 68 pendula, 1: 76; 11: 89; 24: 69, 70 70, 73, 74; 11: - campestris, 86 84, - - purpurea, 1 : 76; 11: 89; 24: 71, 72 - - - carpinifolia, 1: 72, 73, 80; 11: 84, 86, 92; 24: 46 cornubiensis, 1 : 74; 11 : 86; 24: -- - - - hollandica, 1 : 72, 80; _l l: 84, 92; 24 : 46 - - `belgica', 1: 73; 11: 86; 24: 50 -- 53 3 - - - `Klemmer', _1: 7 3 ; _11: 86; 24: 63 1: koopmanni, _ll: 87; 24: 64 - - pendula, 1 : 74; _11: - dampieri, 1: 74; _l l : 87; 24 : 54 1: Plate X, 74, 75; 86 - - 'major', 24: 65 72, 73; 11: 85, 86; - - - `pendula', 1 : 24: - 73; _l l: 86; 24: - - - propendens, 71 1 1: 74; 11: 87; 69, 70 vegeta, 73 ; _l l : 86; 2_4: 77 -, International Registration Authority, 23: 87 - japonica, 1 : 70, 77, 78, 80; 7: 32; 3 1_l: 83, 90, 92, 93 1: - 'superba', 1: 73; 11: 86; 24: 75 - - - - sarniensis, _1: 74; _9: 4; _l l: 87; 3 24:46,73 suberosa, 1 : 74, 78; 11: 87, 90; 24: 75 - umbraculifera, 1: Plate X, 74, 75; 11: 87; 24: 76 24: 76, 77 webbiana, 1: 74; 11: 86; 24: - - - variegata, 1 : 74; 11: 86; 14: 19; - - laciniata, 1: 70, 78; _l l: 83, 92 - laevis, 1: Plate IX, 70, 71, 73, 77, 80; - _ll: 84, 90, 93; 24: 46 87 ~ - - montana, 1: 76; - 11: 79 - - - wredi, 1: 74; 11 : 87; 1_4: 19; 24 : 79,80 crassifolia, _l: 67, 77, 78; 11: 81, - fastigiata, 1: 76; _l 1: 89; 24 : 57 - nitens, 1 : 73; 11: 86 - parvifolia, 1 : 67, 68, 70, 78; 7: Plate X, 63; 8: Plate XVI, ~ 53, 62 ; Plate - - - - 90 X elegantissima, 24: 46, 56 X elegantissima 'Jacqueline Hillier', 27 : 66 foliacea, 1 : 73; 1_l: 86 wheatleyi, 1: 74; 11 : 87; 24: 79 - _l l: 81, 83, 92; 17: 32; 18: XIV, 59; 23: 123 ; 24: 46 - sempervirens, 11: Plate XIX, 85; - - 24 : 74 pedunculata, _1: 72; 11: 84 - pests, 19: 2-6, 9 81 Ulmus 84,90,92 - ploti, 1: 70, 72, 77, 80; 11: Vaccinium 8: 25-28 - -, corymbosum 2 : 29-32; - procera, 1 : 70, 73, 77, 78, 80; 11: horticultural varieties offered - 84, 86, 90, 9 3 ; _24: 46 'aurea,' - by growers, 2 : 32 1 -, northern growers selling, 2: 31 - ovatum, 15 : 67 - vacillans, 4: 6 vitis-idaea, 17: 75 majus, 17 : 75 5 minus, 17: Plate XVI, 71, 75 2: 60, 61 Variegated foliage, - - - 1: 72; 11 : 84; 24: 49 australis, 1: 72;11: 84 ; 24 : 50 marginata, 1: 72; 11: 84; 24: 66 - - myrtifolia, 1: 72; 11: 84; 24: 67,68 purpurascens, 71 1 van - - - - 1: 72; 11: 84; 24: 72; 11: 84; 24: - - - - - houttei, - 1: - Variety, definition of, 3 : 9 - - dates, 3 : 2 information, 3 : 4, - 76 - Vasseur, Louis, 2 : 50; 3 : 24 viminalis, 1 : 72; 11: 84; 24: 77, 78 1: Vegetables, Planting, 3:1-7 5 Veitch Memorial Gold Medal, 5 : 3 ; 6_: 28; 29 : 3 pp. following p. 8 Verbascum thapsus, 22: 54 Verbena hastata, 1_8: Plate V, 20, 23 3 Veronica officinalis, _14: 24 3 Vervain, Blue, _18: Plate V, 20, 23 Vetch, Tufted, 22 : 52 Virburnum acerifolium, 19: 50, 52 - pumila, 68, 81, 83, 92; 14: 32;24:46 70, 78; 7 : 32; 11: Plate X, 50; 17: - racemosa, 1: -, 67; _l l: 81 Registration of Cultivar Names in, 24: 41-80 - rubra, 24: 46 sarniensis, 24: 46 - scabra, 1: 76; 7: 32; 11: 87 - serotina, 1 : 67, 77, 78; _l l: 81, 90 - thomasi, 1: Plate VIII, 67, 69, 77, -X 78; _i l : 81, 90, 92 - Arrowwood, 19: 50 bodnantense, 19: 56 - burkwoodii, _19: 48, 52 -, - X vegata, 24: X viminalis 46, 77 24 : 46, 77, - 78 Umbrella Pine, 8 : 10 Understocks for dwarfing trees, 10: 73-77 United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, 7: \" 19: 48, 52 compacta, 1_9: 56; 20: 16 - cassinoides, 19 : 5 2 ; _27: Plate - carlesii, - carlcephalum, 19: 48, 52 7 : 39 ; - - XXIV, 81 - - nanum, 19: 56 22 U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Md., 12 : 48 -, chart, 5 : 60, 61 chenaultii, 19: 56 -, Chinese, 16: 49 - dentatum, 5 : Plate IV, 16; 17 : 22, - Unsatisfactory ground covers, 87 plants which have proved, 23: 14- 26; 1_9: 50 - - dilatatum, 1_l: 18; 19: 48-50 - 16 Upsala Botanic Garden, 7: 30 - XIX, 61, 62; 9: 4; 19: 50 xanthocarpum, 7: 58; 8: Plate Urtica dioica, Use of auxins 18: 18 in the rooting of woody cuttings, 10: 39 - fragrans, _2: 36; 4: 18; _7: 26; 8_: 10, 62 ; 19: 52, 69 - `Bowles', 19: 56 compactum, 19: 56 nanum, - - Vaccinium - angustifolium, 14: 24 4: 6 - - _19: 56 14: 27 laevifolium, - hupehense, 82 Viburnum, International Registration Authority, 23 : 87 - juddii, 19: 48, 52 lantana, 5 : Plate XI, 59; 17: 32; - Viburnum tomentosum Plate X, 44; 16: 27 - mariesii, - 10: 19: 50 - rugosum, 19: 52 52 lantanoides, 19: 50, -, Leatherleaf, 17 : 76 - lentago, 19: 49, 52 sterile,_5: Plate XII, 62 trilobum, 19: 49, 50 compactum, 19 : 50, 52 - - 'Pink Flowered Form', _19: - veitchii, _19: 50 - wrightii, 19: 50 hessei, 19: 50, 54 - 56 ~ - - - lobophyllum, 14: 27; 16: Plate XIII, 47, 49 - opulus, 19: 49, 50 'Compactum', 19: 50, 52; 29: - Viburnums, 14: 10; _19: -, autumn 47-56 16 - nanum, 17: 32; 19: 52 - - 'Notcutt's 56 Variety', 16: 27; 19: -, -, -, -, -, - - xanthocarpum, 8 : 63; 9: 4; 19: 50 - pests, 19: 5, 9, 56 - plicatum 'Lanarth', 19: 54 - roseum, 5 : Plate XII, 62; 19: 49 for flowers, _19: 47-49 for foliage, 19 : 52 2 for fruits, 19: 50, 52 for habit, 19 : 52 for shade, 19: 52 3 -, landscape use,_5: 63 -, northern U.S., for the, 5: 57-63 -, not recommended, 1_9: 54, 56 -, order of bloom, 19 : 49, 50 color, 5 : 63 3 -, plants attracting birds,_5: -, valued for flowers,_5: 57 Vicia cracca, 22 : 52 Vinca, Annual,4: 57 - 58 - - - - 54 roseum, _19: mariesii, 19 : Plate VII, 49, 51, Plate VIII, 49, 5 3, 54 tomentosum, 19: 49 varieties, 19: 50 - prunifolium, 14: 27; 17 : 22, 19: 52 - --, hedge,_27: Plate III, 24 - - - minor, 14: 24 ; 17 : 76 - - 'Bowles Variety', 17 : 76 Vines, Available Rapid Growing, for the United States, 4: 45-64 26; -, chart, 4: 58-64 - rhytidophyllum, 17 : 72 Plate XV, 57, -, climbing by means of tendrils or twining leaflets, 13: 4 -, clinging, 13: 4 -, for the central United States, 4: rhytidophylloides, 18: 52 - rufidulum, 19: 52 - sargenti, 17 :22, 32; 19 : 49 - 48 - - - flavum, _8: 5 3 ; 19: 50 - setigerum aurantiacum, 8 : Plate XIX,61,63;19: 50 - sieboldii, 11: Plate II, 13, 18; 19: 49, 50, 52 ; 27 : Plate XXIV, 81 reticulatum, 19: 52 -, Snowball, Chinese, _19: 49 -, Snowball, European, 19: 49 -, Snowball, Japanese, 19: 49 - tomentosum, 11: 20 'Lanarth', 16 : 27 - area of southern and southeastern United States, 4: 53 3 -, for colorful fruits, 13 : 4 -, for different purposes, _13: 4 -, for extreme southern part of 4: 56 -, for eastern and northeastern United States, 4 : 47 -, for extreme southern Texas and southern Florida, 4 : 55 5 -, for flowers, _13 : 4 -, for the Great Plains area, 4: 40 5 -, for ground covers, 13 : -, for coastal Florida, - 83 Vines, for the north central United States, 4: 48 -, for the northwest Pacific coast, 4: 50 Walker, E. H., l: 40 Walnut, Black, 1 : Plate VI, 50, 52, 53;_2: 11; 12: Plate X, 26-29; 16: - 42 -, -, -, for southern California, 4: 52 -, for southwest Texas, semi-arid area, 4_: 5 3 frost resistant in San Francisco 1 area, 4 : 51 hardiness note, 13: 7 -, -, Some of the Best, and Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens, _13: 1-19 -, (Some Ways Plants Climb), 28: Plate XVIII, Plate XIX, Plate XX, Plate XXI, Plate XXII, Plate XXIII, 53-67 -, twining, 13 : 4 -, dry soil conditions, -, and horticultural 26-28 Japanese, 1: 54; 12: 30 varieties, 12: -, Persian, 1 :52, 54; 2: 12 -, -, and horticultural varieties, 12: 22,28 Walter, Nathaniel, _21: 78 Walter, Nehemiah, 21: 76, 78 Walter Street \"Berrying\" Ground, The, _21: 75-82 13 : 4 withstanding odorata, Violet, Sweet, Viscum, 19 : 73,74 album, 15: 71; 19: 69; 26: Plate III, 6; 29:69-72 - laxum, 19: 72 Visit the Arboretum in winter, 16: - -, withstanding shade, _13: 22 : 54 22 : 54 4 Viola 60 Visqueen, 11: 50 Vitafilm, _l l : 49 Vitis pests, 19 : 6, 9 Wang, T., 8: 1, 2 Waring Blender, 13: 48 Washburn, Richard H., Alaskan Ornamentals and Fruits, 25 : 9-12 Washington, University of, greenhouse, 5: Plate VII, 41 Washingtonia robusta, 19: 67 5 Watercress, 22: 55 Water Fairy Flower, 2 : 2 Watch the Elms,_7: 17-23 Waxflower, 2: 8 Wayside Gardens, 21 : 36 Weather, 16 : 1 - phenomena, March 1941, 1: 3 3- 34 Weavers, 28 : 64 Weber, Claude, Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles, _23: 17-7 5 Wagenknecht, 21: 28, 50 - - -, Burdette L., _18: 39; Christmas Plants around the Horticulture on Postage Stamps, 18: 29-38 Weed killers, 10 : 61-71; 16 : 5, 6 Weeds of lawn and garden, 5: 56 - -, World, 19: 59-77 - - -, Weeks, Edward, - Lilacs of New England, The, 19 : 23-30 - - -, Registration Lists of Cultivar -- Names in the Genus Pieris, D. Don, 21: 47-50 -, Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Gleditsia, L.,_21: Disappearing Opportunities, _27: 57-60 Weeping Willow, 12 : 45 -, leafing dates, 10: 42; 12: 46 Weevils, _13 : 50 Weigela `Bouquet Rose',_8: 63 - 'Centennial', 27 : 66; 29: 8 -, Check-list of Cultivar Names in, _2 S : 49-69 - Our 31-34 - - -, Legumes in the Arnold Arboretum, The, 21 : 19-30 Tree florida variegata, - 14 : 19 -'Gracieux', 8: 63 84 Weigela `Othello', _9: Weigelas, 14: 10 4 Weld, Lt. Daniel, 21: 80 Weld, Hannah, 21: 80 Weld, Joseph, _21: 76, 80 Weld, Susanna, _21: 80 Weston, Hillcrest Gardens, 67 WGBH-TV (Channel 2) 28 Winter hardiness of species from Soviet Middle Asia, 27 : 5, 6 - - of species introduced from Japanese-Chinese Subregion, 27: - hardy, not, useful even though, - 20: 53- 26: 61-64 - injury, 1: Auction, 28: - 16, 37-41 - 34, 37, 38; 5: 2; _17: 13- in the Arnold Arboretum, - Wheeler, Wilfred M., 7: 13 ; _9: 5 3, 63;_22: 46 -, The Holly Man, 14 : Plate XIV, 65-72 White Flowering Rhodora, 1: 3, 4 White, Miss Elizabeth, 2 : 30; _8: 25 White, Mrs. Wilfrid O.,_9: 63 White fruits, woody plants with, 3 : - 1942-1943, 3: 25-36 in 'Fedora' Azalea, _26: Plate XVII, 59 not - - severe, 21: 43-46 17-20 - -, Rhododendron, _4: flower buds - - to only during win1942- ter, 1942-1943, 3 : 34 -, plants killed to ground in -, weevil, 19: 2, 8 Widdringtonia, 19: 74 1 Wilford, B. W., 7 : 21 Williams, Robert G., 5 : 3; 7: 2 - - -, Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule, 19 : 1-10 - - -, and Alfred J. Fordham, Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule, the New Spray Materials, 13: 69-84 48 - Pine 1943, 3: plants partially injured in 28-30 1942- 43, 3 : 30-34 -, plants uninjured during winter 1942-1943, 3 : 35-36 Winterberry, 5: Plate II, 11; 15: 67, 78 Wintercreeper, 17: 66 Wintergreen, 15: 68; _17: - 66 83 3 Williamsburg, Va., Plants used prior to 1750, _ll: 75 Willow, Laurel, _l7: 22 - -leaf beetle, 1. 39; 19 : 4, 9 Wistar, Caspar, _9: 18 Wister, John C.,_2: 33;_6: 8;_23: -, Supplementary Registration List of Cultivar Names in -- Syringa, L., 23 : 77-83 -, Tree Peony, 6 : 5-8 Wilson, E. H., 6: 46;_7: 34;_9: 10, 11, 5 18;_21: 35 Wilson Pearlbush, 28 : Plate II, 2, 5 Wind damage (hurricane), _14: 46, 47 Winter - -, Purple, 16: 27 Wisteria - - floribunda, 9 : 18 alba,_9: 24 - 'Beni-Fugi',1..: 26 carnea, 9: 26 - - - 3 damage, 15: 13 Foliage Color of Narrow-leaved Evergreens, 3: 17-20 hardening trends, 26: Plate XVI, 58 -- - - - - - - 3 -, hardiness map, 3: 53 modifications of, 27 : 6, 7 - - -, - - of plants of various phenological groups, 27: 4 formosa, 9 : frutescens, 9: macrobotrys, 9 : Plate IV, Plate V, 25, 26; _13: 10 3 macrostachya, 9: 23 1 rosea,_9: 19 ;_13 : 11 violacea plena, 9 : 19 18 - 18 - - `Isai',_9: 17 - `Jako',_9: 26 - 'Kuchi Beni', 9: `Geisha', 9: 27 24 85 Wisteria - - 3 'Kyushaku', 9: 23 24 - `Longissima', 9: 'Longissima alba',_9: 24 macrostachya, 9 : 18 `Mrs. McCullagh', 9: 27 - -, - Murasaki Noda', 9: 27 27 - `Naga Noda', 9: - `Rosecraft',_9: 19 27 - 'Royal Purple', 9: - `Russelliana', 9: 27 'Sekine's Blue', 9: 27 Wood, Carroll, E., Jr., 14: 32 -, Plant Collecting in the Southeastern United States, 19: 45, 46 -, Some Cultivated Relatives of the Camellia, 17: 1-12 and Richard A.Howard, - Wood and the Trees, The, A Biography of Augustine Henry, by Sheila Pim (Book Review) 26: 47 24 Madre',_9: 28 sinensis, 9 : Plate IV, 24 72 - `Ushi Jima', 9: 27 - venusta, 9: 18 violacea, 9: 28 Wisterias, 9 : 17-28 - 'Shiro -'Sierra - Noda',_9-: 18, 20 alba, 9 : - spp., 26 : - Christmas Plants in the Boston Area, _15 : 61-84 Woodbine, Chinese, 22: 67 Wooden display label, 24: 10, 12 Woody cuttings, rooting, 10 : 33-38 Plant Seed Manual, 13: 41 1 - Plants, Blooming Dates of, 56 10: 41- - 1 -, distributed, 8: 9-12; 16 : 33-51 - -, culture of, 9 : 17, 18 -, flower colors of, 9 : 24-28 -, -, -, - fragrance of, 9: 22 - -, -, 3 -, 1 -, twining of,_9: 19, 21 identifications of, 9: 21, 22 introduction of,_9: 18, 19 3 length of clusters, 9: 23 order of bloom,_9: 22 -, History of Introductions into North America,_6: 13-23 3 last year, list of, 1 : 38 -, injured -, killed to the ground, list of, 1: - - 38 -, observed after hurricane, 21: 70-733 - -, propagations of, by seed, 20: 3 3-40 Plate I, 2, Witch-hazel, Chinese,_16: 72 - -, Seeds of, 13: 41-60 - Witches'-brooms, Blueberry, High1 bush, 27 : Plate VII, 31 Plate XV, 41 -, cones,_27: -, dwarf conifers from,_27: 29-50 -, Pitch Pine,_27: Plate XI, 34, 36 - native, 16 : sexes separate, 10: 81-85 -, sources for rare, 1: 5-19, - - - - Plate XIX, 48, 49 -, Red Pine,_27: Plate XI, 34, 36 -, seeds and seedlings, 2 3 : Plate XVI, Plate XVII, Plate XVIII, -, progeny, 27 : 21-28 -, used in Colonial Williamsburg, 11 : 75-78 with autumn color, _4: 41-43; 12: 56, 58 with interesting bark in winter, 7: 61-68; 18 : 57-64 - 42, 43, 45, 47 - -, - Spruce, 27 : Plate VIII, 30, 32, 44 -, White Pine,_27: Plate IX, Plate XII, Plate XIII, Plate XIV, 33, - 37,39,40 Wohlert, A. E., 9 : 23, 26 86 no autumn color, 4 : 43; 58, 59 12 : World of Flowers, by H. Reisigle (Book Review) 26 : 46 Worms, canker, 1: 39 -, cut, _1: 3 9-40 Wreath, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 16: Plate XXI, 71, 72 1 -, Boxwood, 16: Plate XXI, 71 - with Wreath, making of, 16 : Plate 64-69 -, evergreen foliage, making of, 16: cone, XIX, Plate XX, 61, 61-64, White 72 - - -making materials, 18 : plants, 15: 61 53 -, Wyman, Donald, 29 : Supplement Wyman, Donald, and Harrison L. Flint, Plant Hardiness Zone Maps, 27 : S 3-56 Wyman, Florence, 29: 111-133 - 3 Pine, 16: Plate XVI, 63 and Donald Wyman, Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant 111- Materials, 16: 61-72; 29: 133 3 Xanthorhiza simplicissima, 13: Plate VI, 17, 18; 14: 24 - Yarrow, 22 : 52 Yellow Yellow fruits, woody plants with, 3: 47-48 labels, 17 : 33 Yew,16:62,64,72 -, Hatfield, 17: 25 -, Hicks,_17: 25 -, Japanese, 17: 24 - -, dwarf, 17: 24 Yews, fruiting of, 23: 119-122 -, in the Arnold 120-122 120-122 Arboretum, 23: -, in the Secrest Arboretum, 23: -, 228, listed alphabetically according to sex, 23 : 120-122 Yorkshire Fog, 22: 52 Young, Robert A., Bamboos for Northern Gardens, 6: 29-42 Youngken, Heber, W., Medicinal Plant Garden of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, 2: 37-40 Yucca, 15: Plate XIV, 77, 78 - Zelkova serrata, 26: Plate V, 8 sinica, 26: Plate V, 8 87 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23359","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270af6e.jpg","title":"1970-7","volume":30,"issue_number":7,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Director's Report","article_sequence":1,"start_page":201,"end_page":250,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24518","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260af6f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":6,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"oEC 14 The Director's Report ~g~0 THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM DURING THE FISCAL YEAR ENDED JUNE 30, 1970 have been used to describe the events of the It has been a disturbing year a year of student past year. unrest and rebellion, a year of inflation, a year that could not fail to provoke a reappraisal of values. The staff of the Arnold Arboretum, our physical plant, and our activities have not been immune nor isolated from the turmoil. The Arnold Arboretum is many things: to some people it is an oasis of relative peace and quiet, to some a place of horticultural beauty, and to others a place of scientific achievement and contribution. However in this year there have been changes; there have been challenges and difficulties; but there has been progress as well, and opportunity to reflect and plan ahead. I wish to report on many of these activities. The Arnold Arboretum is administratively a part of Harvard University. While it is unique in being privately endowed, dependent on a public interested in its activities for financial support, at the same time the rules of its operation are incorporated with an educational institution of considerable repute for its standards and its procedures. The grounds are also listed in the inventory of park lands held by the Boston Parks and Recreation Department. Today student and public unrest has affected the staff of this institution and we have seen an increased disregard for public or personal property on the grounds; on the other hand, the demands for basic and relevant information have increased during the year. The knowledge of the staff, the reference collections, and the records of what grows where on this earth have become increasingly valuable and have been called upon more frequently than ever in this year of sudden awareness of the environment. Since the establishment of the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 50 years ago the Annual Report of the Director has been published in the October issue as a record of scientific accomplishments and activities of the staff. In the last decade the Many adjectives - 201 202I report has been reprinted and distributed to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. This report now appears in the new format of Arnoldia to acknowledge directly the support of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Reprints will be distributed to scientific organizations associated with us in the study of plant life. The Staff Dr. Donald Wyman, horticulturist for the past 34 years and 8 months, retired officially on August 31, 1970, the anniversary of his first appointment. Dr. Wyman's contributions to the development of the living collections, his editorship of Arnoldia, his books and many articles, his spring and fall classes, and other lectures have helped increase the knowledge of plants grown in New England and have helped define and establish the role of the Arnold Arboretum itself. The President and Fellows of Harvard University approved the recommendation of the Director and the staff that Dr. Wyman receive in retirement the title \"Horticulturist, Emeritus.\" On the occasion of Dr. Wyman's last class on May 29th, the staff invited former staff members and his associates in professional organizations to a luncheon in his honor. Representatives of the Visiting Committee, the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, the Boston Horticultural Club, the American Horticultural Society, and the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboreta were present. The Visiting Committee presented him with a handsome inscribed silver tray. The staff dedicated to him a special publication, \"A Cumulative Index to Arnoldia, Volumes 1-29\"; and presented a symbolic plant to him: Malus 'Donald Wyman.' The members of the ground crew, with Mr. Charles Mackey as spokesman, made their own presentation of a desk set. We are pleased to report that Dr. Wyman will continue to use the offices, library, and collections of the Arnold Arboretum. On July 1, 1970, Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf officially assumed the role of Horticulturist of the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. DeWolf has been horticultural taxonomist for the Arboretum since 1967. His background includes training and associations at the University of Massachusetts, University of Malaya in Singapore, the Bailey Hortorium, the University of Cambridge, England, and the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Mr. Heman Howard, Assistant Horticulturist, selected early retirement to accept a position as Horticulturist at the Heritage Plantation. Mr. Howard who joined the Arboretum staff in 1929 has had a continuous and important role in mapping, labelling, Presentation of gift from Grounds Crew to Dr. Donald Wyman by Charles J. Mackey. Dr. Wyman presenting a corsage to Mrs. Wyman at the luncheon given in his honor. 204 and photographing the living collections. We also lose the services of Mrs. Elsie Howard who has been the head mounter at the Arnold Arboretum. Three staff members completed their term appointments and have assumed new positions. Dr. A. Linn Bogle and Dr. Norton Miller, who have assisted Dr. Carroll Wood on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States project, accepted posts at the University of New Hampshire and the University of North Carolina, respectively. Dr. Paul Sorensen, Horticultural Taxonomist, has joined the faculty of Northern Illinois University. Mr. Victor Marx, a joint appointee with the Gray Herbarium as librarian of the two institutions, accepted an appointment at the University of Oregon libraries and was succeeded by Mr. C. R. Long, in September. Mrs. Alice Miczo, horticultural secretary, resigned and was replaced by Mrs. Rosemary Walsh. Miss Stephanne Sutton, who wrote the biography of Charles Sargent, resigned to devote herself to a new book. She has been appointed an Honorary Research Fellow to permit her to continue her studies of the life of Dr. Joseph Rock, at one time a plant 205 collector for the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. Robert Hebb as herbarium assistant. resigned Staffhonors The Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded Dr. the George Robert White Medal with the citation: Wyman \"for 35 years horticulturist to the Arnold Arboretum, author of many books and innumerable articles, indefatigable teacher and lecturer, energetic holder of executive office at various times in national horticultural organizations, worthy recipient of many of the highest awards in horticulture at home and abroad. It is indeed fitting that in this year of his retirement from the Arboretum, this Society which he served as Trustee for 16 years, until becoming a Vice-President last year, should in making this award recognize him as the virtual embodiment of horticulture in New England.\" This year Mr. Robert Williams, superintendent of buildings and grounds, reached his 25th anniversary with Harvard University. Regretably, student disturbances forced the cancellation of the annual recognition celebration. Community and Professional Service Mr. Robert Hebb as advisor to the Brookline Massachusetts Conservation Committee is helping the town develop a 35-acre tract as a wildlife sanctuary. Mr. George Pride is a member of the Garden and Grounds Committee of Old Sturbridge Village. He has been elected a director of the American Rock Garden Society. Dr. Bernice Schubert was appointed Supervisor of the Harvard University Herbaria building for a three-year term. She was also elected to the council of the Society for Economic Botany. Dr. Richard Howard was elected a Fellow of the Linnaean Society of London and continues as chairman of the Plant Records Center Committee of the American Horticultural Soci- _ ety. Dr. Gordon DeWolf is chairman of the Committee on Vandalism established by Mayor Kevin White and the Boston Parks and Recreation Department of the City of Boston, and consultant to the Cambridge Model Cities program concerned with the planting of trees and the establishment of parks. He is a member of the Library Committee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and reviews books for \"Choice,\" a periodical of the Association of College and Research Libraries devoted to the proper selection of books for college libraries. Dr. Wyman's field class. 206I Horticulture The effects of adverse weather reported for previous years, and severe winter ice storms, coupled with several serious fires due to vandalism were revealed in increasing signs of damage in individual plants and in collections on the grounds in Jamaica Plain. Dr. DeWolf and Mr. Hebb with the cooperation of Mr. Williams and Mr. Fordham undertook the planning of a work program for the continued development of plantings A favorable spring season permitted early on the grounds. access to the grounds and the accomplishment of many initial improvements. The most conspicuous program centered around the area near the Administration Building and the principal entrance to the grounds. A new foundation planting for the Administration Building is in the process of development including seven specimens of Ilex pedunculosa which were moved from the grounds to the front of the building by a commercial contract. [One plant was estimated to weigh three tons, heavier than could be handled by our equipment]. Three large Sciadopitys verticillata filled gaps left by the storm-damaged plants of Magnolia stellata. A mass planting of Pieris floribunda has been established at one side of the Arborway gate and a planting of Rhododendron carolinianum on the other side. Plants of Kalmia latifolia will help screen the fenced-in parking area. A large storm drain was placed from the Administration Building to the Meadow Road which we hope will handle the drainage problem which has long plagued us. The meadow to the left of the Administration Building was regraded by commercial contract; this area will be seeded in the fall and should offer a pleasing vista from the entrance gate. The upper slope of this open area is in the process of development. Several Magnolias and three Picea ormorica have been planted here; Ilex glabra has been planted under the Liriodendrons as a focal point of green for midwinter. The azalea planting along the Meadow Road which was designed to show a sequence of bloom has been uneven in its growth and a test trench revealed a shallow water table and a hard pan of heavy clay. We have removed the top soil, added drainage and fill, and increased the top soil before replacing the plants, hoping to improve the appearance of this area. The area of the three ponds adjacent to the shrub collection also received attention. One pond had been previously cleared and deepened to remove the concentrated growth of aquatic plants. The border planting of small-flowered Vaccinium species dry summers 207 was removed and 80 plants of Rhododendron vaseyi, R. prino- phyllum (R. roseum), and R. periclymenoides (R. nudiflorum) were added to provide a color accent here about the time the in bloom. In the same area a new planting of herbHibiscus species will provide summer color. As plantings at the Overlook Path on Bussey Hill which had been severely damaged by fires in previous years were not recovering properly, additional plants of Rhododendron schlippenbachii, R. prinophyllum, and R. periclymenoides were added to improve the mass color effect. The Kalmia border at the foot of Hemlock Hill has been damaged severely in winter ice storms and dry summers of previous years, and 25 plants of Kalmia latifolia were added to fill in conspicuous gaps. Extensive fire damage to the rockery in June 1969 required the removal of many plants from this collection and partial replanting was completed during the spring. The newly graded road on the Weld-Walter tract was sealed with an oil surface during the spring. The new road has already proved to be an effective fire barrier for the frequent burnings experienced in this area. Along the banks of Weld and Centre Streets some 1100 ground cover plants were set out to serve as a demonstration area for bank planting and roadside areas. These 15 acres were resurveyed and new maps prepared for all plantings within this zone. In 1969 the Arboretum staff, as a matter of policy, stopped using DDT and 2-4-5-T. Safer insecticides are now being used, notably Sevin and Methoxychlor. We have also shifted to Sovasol (apetroleum distillate) as a weed killer and increased the use of heavy applications of wood chips as mulching material. The use of Casoron to control weedy grasses continues but is being reduced. New England is experiencing a severe plague of tent caterpillars at the present time, but the Arboretum collections have escaped the infestation by constant attention and early physical removal and burning of any nests which developed. During the past winter rabbits caused extensive damage in many beds, especially those on Bussey Hill. The collections of Cotoneaster and Fothergilla were particularly hard hit. In the coming winter, control of this damage by the use of a repellant spray will be tried. Increasing vandalism remains a problem. Twenty-five panes of glass in the Administration Building have been broken by stones or bullets and these are being replaced by Lexan, a breakresistant glass substitute. A large bronze plaque was stolen from the entrance gate and six of the bonsai were stolen. Litter has are aceous lilacs 208 become more abundant, and deliberate breaking of beer bottles increased to such a point that during May approximately 10% of the working hours were spent in pickup. To remedy this situation, and in addition because of the aggregation of unkempt individuals on the grounds in the late afternoon hours, we retained the Bums Detective Agency to provide some protection through the early evening hours. A uniformed guard now patrols the grounds in a three wheeled Cushman vehicle which we and mapping the grounds is a continuous activity for the staff. A portion of the grounds is checked every year for the accuracy of the maps and the condition of the plants and labels. (The ground crew prepares duplicate labels during the winter). With the new plantings under way, over 42 sectional maps have had to be redrawn this year. The overgrowth of understock and the development of weed trees from seeds distributed by birds is also a constant problem. The Arnold Arboretum participated in the Spring Flower Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. This year a pruning exhibit was prepared under the direction of Mr. Williams and Mr. Heman Howard which featured whole shrubs painted to show which branches should be removed for proper growth, as well as examples of pruning to remedy other frequent problems. The exhibit won a gold medal as well as first prize It was used, in part, again in a as an educational exhibit. Boston show in June, and was restaged in part within the Administration Building for the groups which visited the Arboretum in the spring. A display of fruiting branches prepared by Mr. Heman Howard at the Fall Harvest Show of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society was awarded an educational certificate and the John S. Ames trophy. A similar display prepared by Mr. Pride and Mr. Smith at the Worcester County Horticultural Society Fall show won a special award. An exhibit of wreath-making materials prepared by Heman Howard was given an Award of Appreciation by the Garden Club Federation at their show at Christmas. Several plants from our bonsai collection were exhibited by Mr. Hebb and Mrs. Derderian at the Bonsai exhibit and workshop of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Finally, the \"Best Specimen of the Show\" ribbon of the American Iris Society was won by Mr. Pride for a stalk of 'Winter Olympics' grown in a display collection at the Case Estates, during the Worcester County Horticultural Society's Iris show. The greenhouses of the Arboretum supervised by Mr. Alfred purchased. Labelling Site preparation for planting of several large specimens of Ilex culosa in front of the Administration Building. pedun- Fordham, the propagator, are used primarily to propagate plants for the living collections and for the research and teaching of the staff. The greenhouses are open to the public one afternoon a week and on special open house days during the year. The Arboretum staff members request seeds or propagating material from other institutions for the collections or for research programs, and in turn try to fill requests from other botanical gardens or individual scientists for materials we grow or can acquire in New England or in areas of staff field work. 210 During the past year the propagator received 85 shipments of seeds of 232 species and varieties from the United States and 22 other countries. Living material such as stems, plants, or roots represented an additional 138 shipments of 524 species and varieties from nine countries. Although most of this material was requested by the staff, a sizeable amount was contributed by persons interested in our work. In response to requests or to distribute material from our collections of new introductions, unusual or rare plants, we sent out 47 shipments of seeds of 110 species and varieties to 10 countries. Living plant material was distributed in 148 shipments of 631 species and varieties to scientists or botanical institutions in 13 countries. The living collections of the Arboretum often contain a single or only a few specimens of a given plant and a regular program is conducted to ensure proper representation of such items within the collection. Last year 373 species and varieties were propagated to prepare replacements for specimens which seemed to be failing or were in insufficient numbers in the collections. To provide the staff with material for taxonomic or analytic work, including studies in cytology and anatomy or simply for herbarium vouchers, the propagation department processed 79 taxa. Another 330 items were processed simply to acquire additional data on dormancy, root development, or response to variation in treatments preceding germination. The greenhouse area and the activities in plant propagation are of interest to many professional visitors or groups. All guided tours of the Arboretum have a stop at the greenhouses and in addition student groups from other universities have regularly scheduled visits. Each year a class open to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum has one or more meetings at the greenhouses on the subject of plant propagation. Mr. Fordham is chairman of the committee on new plant introductions of the International Plant Propagators' Society. At the last annual meeting he presented papers on the propagation of juvenile shoots from root pieces and on the propagation of Acer griseum. He served on a question and answer panel at the 24th American Horticultural Congress and was a speaker at the short courses held in Rhode Island and in Massachusetts, as well as at the eastern regional meeting of the American Rhododendron Society. The grounds of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain are closed to driving on weekends throughout the year but are open to pedestrians. Although few visitors enter the Administration Completed planting of Ilex pedunculosa. Moving to a a new large specimen of Ilex pedunculosa from the Centre Street site at the Administration Building. area 213 Building, we have been aware of frequent attempts to reach us by telephone on weekends; therefore we initiated a program of staff duty on Saturdays and Sundays. The telephone questions ranged from calls related to poisonous plants directed here from the Boston Poison Center through all types of horticultural queries to simple requests for directions. Since these clearly cannot be handled by an answering service it appears desirable to continue staff duty on weekends during the spring. Again this year a bill was filed in the legislature of the Commonwealth to build a major recreational facility within the Arnold Arboretum, this time to consist of formal play areas including a swimming pool. State Senator Oliver Ames and Representative Mrs. Mary Newman were instrumental in opposing these bills. The Herbarium An herbarium is scientific collection of dried plants or representative portions of a plant, arranged in a systematic order so that the specimens are readily available for reference and study. The organization of an herbarium at the Arnold Arboretum was almost simultaneous with the founding of the Arboretum and was intended to be a record of what was growing in Jamaica Plain before plant introductions were begun in 1872. Subsequently, the collection has grown to include the native, introduced, and cultivated plants from all parts of the world. In 1954 the herbarium was divided, the specimens representative of the native floras of the world being housed in Cambridge, and those representing plants under cultivation, particularly ornamentals, continued to be housed in Jamaica Plain. New specimens are obtained in a variety of ways: by individual staff members in the course of their research; by gifts or purchases from collectors, often on special expeditions; or through an extensive exchange program with sister institutions. Properly prepared specimens, with accompanying labels which supply pertinent information, can be expected to last for long periods of time. The specimens can yield large quantities of data by general observation and, with special techniques, details of anatomy and chemistry. Some specimens are an historical record of areas which have been lost to highways, the site of buildings, or agricultural areas. Other specimens demonstrate the range of variation to be found in a plant population, or indicate the range of soil types on which the plant grows, or the extent of geographic distribution of particular plants. a A view in the Dana Greenhouses. 214 Use and Growth of Specimens Collected During the past year 26,974 dried specimens were mounted and added to the herbarium, bringing the total collection to 935,839 sheets. Of this total, 143,365 specimens of cultivated plants are housed in Jamaica Plain. The Arboretum received 22,536 specimens by exchange, gift, or subsidy, for identification, or as the result of staff field work. The largest numbers came from Asia, with the United States ranking second. We distributed to other herbaria 15,607 sheets, primarily duplicate specimens. Thus, the herbarium continues to increase in size and in value. This growth continues to present a problem in Cambridge where materials in the standard steel herbarium cases become ever more crowded. The necessity of housing the specimens in cardboard boxes on top of the steel cases was begun two years ago and at present over 766 boxes, the equivalent of 42 steel cases, are in use. The opportunity for physical expansion of the building is remote and the expedient of cardboard boxes, absolutely undesirable, must be continued. The use of the herbarium by the staff and visitors is continuous and reflects the need and the value of the collections. The number of scholarly visitors increased during the year due primarily to increased activity in the field of systematic botany. We prefer our specimens to be used in place yet we recognize the need for individuals to borrow specimens when they can not visit. We in turn borrow materials from other institutions. During the past year we sent on loan 14,764 specimens, as 161 91 specimens, to 43 United States institutions and 31 in foreign countries. For staff and student use we borrowed 9,129 specimens as 178 loans from 65 institutions, 33 in the United States and 32 abroad. An analysis of these loans revealed that 34 percent were for student use which accounted for 58 percent of the total number of specimens borrowed. This reflects the broad nature of student thesis problems. loans, averaging Fumigation Because herbarium specimens are subject to attack by insects, curatorial procedures involve fumigation of lots of specimens in the course of handling material upon acquisition for loans or transfers, and their storage in steel cases. Occasionally, fumigation of larger amounts of material is required and during the past year the entire Harvard University Herbaria building was fumigated. With the cooperation of the University Department of Buildings and Grounds, a contract was made with the Waltham Chemical Company for the fumigation. The staff was 215 furniture and equipment from the which was then sealed and fumigated; a police guard was maintained to prevent entry. Employees of the Waltham Company then opened the building and began procedures to remove residual fumes by fans and with the air conditioning system. Officials of the company and the University Environmental Health Unit checked the building independently before the building was declared ready for reoccupancy. The fumigation program was accomplished under the direction of Dr. Bernice Schubert. required to remove certain building, Research Four separate floristic studies are being conducted by staff members of the Arboretum. These include studies of the Southeastern United States; the state of Veracruz, in Mexico; the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies; and the Territory of Hong Kong: Dr. Carroll Wood and his associates, with a grant from the National Science Foundation, continued their studies towards a Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States, with portions of the study being published regularly in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Treatments of the families Basellaceae, Cannabidaceae, Portulacaceae, and Ulmaceae along with the tribe Mutisieae of the Compositae were published. Completed and in press are studies of the Acanthaceae, Aizoaceae, Fagaceae, Molluginaceae, and Urticaceae. Dr. Lorin Nevling, Supervisor of the combined herbaria of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium, was awarded a grant by the National Science Foundation to cooperate with botanists of the National University of Mexico to undertake floristic studies of the state of Veracruz. The grant will be administered by the Gray Herbarium. Dr. Arturo Gomez-Pompa, formerly a Mercer Fellow of the Arnold Arboretum, and Dr. Nevling will coordinate this new project. Graduate students of both universities will be involved in the field work as well as the herbarium and library studies. Several innovative techniques employing computer aids are being employed, and special collections of the cultivated plants are being made. Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu has spent the past year as a visitor to the Department of Botany, Chung Chi College in Hong Kong. With the cooperation of the members of that college, field studies in Hong Kong and the New Territories have resulted in the collection of representative plants. Dr. Hu is preparing a new flora of the area which will include keys and descriptions, and will 216 drawings made from fresh materials. Dr. Richard Howard and Miss Dulcie Powell have continued their work on a Flora of the Lesser Antilles of the West Indies. Dr. Howard made a short field trip to Montserrat in February to collect plants. With the cooperation of interested individuals in the area, new and often exciting collections of plants are being received for identification. Final editing of a manuscript dealing with the ferns and fern allies of the area prepared by Mr. George Proctor of the Institute of Jamaica is underway. Other research Miss Powell's studies of the plants introduced by Capt. William Bligh to the West Indies and to Europe was completed and submitted for publication. Additional papers on the mossy or elfin forest on Pico del Oeste in Puerto Rico by Dr. Howard and his collaborators have appeared in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum, and others completing the series are in preparation. Monographic or restricted studies of genera or families of plants involve all of the staff. Dr. Bogle continued his work on the Hamamelidaceae in addition to his studies of the Nyctaginaceae for the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States. A special cooperative study of Geocarpon of the Caryophyllaceae is nearing completion. Dr. DeWolf is studying genera of the Moraceae, especially Ficus and Dorstenia. Dr. Elias is investigaing the foliar nectaries of various genera of the subfamily of the Mimosoideae of the Leguminosae, with particular reference to Inga and Pithecellobium. His studies also include the American genera Calipea and Angostura of the Rutaceae. Dr. Hartley has finished a manuscript on the collections he made in New Guinea as part of a larger phytochemical study of the flora. This material will be submitted for publication jointly with chemists from the CSIRO chemical research laboratory in Melbourne. He is continuing his work on the Malesian-Australasian Rutaceae and with Dr. Perry is examining material of the New Guinea species of Syzygium. Drs. Nevling and Elias have collaborated in palynological studies of the Mimosoid Leguminosae, especially the genus Calliandra where the type of pollen polyads were found to be correlated with an array of morphological features. Dr. Schubert has completed work on two floristic treatments of Desmodium in Africa. be illustrated with Systematic Plant Anatomy The wood collection of the Arnold Arboretum received additional curatorial attention during the year when portions of the 217 placed in plastic bags for easier filing. The uncollections of Guiana woods made by Stahel and catalogued those of A. C. Smith made in the Fiji Islands were classified, and other smaller collections previously retained as separate units for special studies were returned to the general collections and arranged systematically. Microscope slides of North American Woods prepared cooperatively at North Carolina State University were added to the collections, as were slides of wood of China collected by and obtained from Syracuse University. Anatomical studies of the floral nectaries of two species of Marcgravia from Puerto Rico were completed by Dr. Howard and Mrs. Roca-Garcia. This work was reported at the International Botanical Congress and has been published in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum. Considerable progress continues in the studies by Dr. Howard of nodal and petiolar anatomy in a survey of patterns and variations in woody Dicotyledons. During the summer Mrs. Tissa Herat, a graduate student at Occidental College, aided Mrs. Roca-Garcia in this work. A special search was made for other occurrences of the \"split lateral\" trace pattern which appears to be common in the Gesneriaceae and Zygophyllaceae. A paper on this topic has been prepared for publication. The work of Dr. Elias on the vascularization of foliar nectaries in Inga and other genera of the Leguminosae was reported at the meetings of the American Institute of Biological Sciences. Mr. Mario Sousa-Sanchez has worked with seedlings and the development of vascular patterns in successive leaves in his studies of Central American species of Lonchocarpus. were collection Library The library of the Arnold Arboretum is divided between locations in Cambridge and Jamaica Plain in a way similar to the herbarium. That is, the material essential to work in horticulture and forestry is housed in Jamaica Plain while the essentially non-horticultural material is housed in Cambridge. In September Mr. Charles Robert Long was appointed jointly as head librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium to replace Mr. Victor Marx. Miss Jeanne Caldwell was appointed library assistant of the Arnold Arboretum with primary responsibility for the library materials housed in Jamaica Plain. Part-time staff employees have included Mrs. Heidi Duda as cataloguer, Mrs. Yvonne Brown and Mrs. Kathy Bye as library assistants and Mrs. Joan Retsinas as secretary. Student labor is used to shelve, clean, and treat bindings of volumes. 218 A staff library committee to aid the librarian consisting of Dr. L. I. Nevling and Dr. Gordon DeWolf, and Dr. Rolla Tryon of the Gray Herbarium staff, was appointed during the year. The committee will advise the librarian and his staff on the selection of books and the problems faced by the expanding library collection. There is a steady increase in new periodicals, new volumes, new reproductions, and in the costs of materials and services. Careful decisions are necessary to ensure the quality of the library for modern research. We have serious limitations of space in the library areas in Cambridge. Free shelf space is currently estimated at 13%. Professional librarians recommend a minimum of 15% for space in which proper housing of volumes, adjustments to additions and expansion can be accomplished at a minimum of cost. As a temporary measure additional shelving has been purchased which will extend the library stacks into space previously used for study tables. Additional space for shelving is also available in Jamaica Plain. The Arnold Arboretum library receives 498 periodicals which are issued weekly to annually. During the past year we have added 926 volumes and 376 pamphlets, bringing the total library accession to 77.648 titles. We share the purchase of microfilms and microfiche with the Gray Herbarium and with other Harvard libraries so that 138 microfilm reels and 9,187 microfiche are available for study. A survey of the library materials of the Arnold Arboretum during the year has indicated gaps in our holdings of important floras, monographs, and periodicals, and steps have been taken to acquire the missing items. This study revealed the necessity for the development of a shelf list for the library in Jamaica Plain, for the treatment of leather-bound volumes which show signs of ageing, and for the binding of many items within our holdings. For example, at the present time there are 3,027 unbound volumes of periodicals and 1,400 monographs in Cambridge, and 1,343 periodicals in Jamaica Plain. This will necessitate increased expenditures in binding during the next few years. The library receives on a regular basis issues of the Gray Herbarium Index, Index Genericorum, the Torrey Index, and additions are made to the shelf list, author and title cards, and the Rehder Index of cultivated plants. It is estimated that 9,000 cards are filed annually in our current program. Cataloguing of new volumes is handled in part by our own staff, but where catalogue card copy can be obtained from the Witches' Broom seedlings on White Pine (Pinus strobus), all from seed lot germinated in 1964. same 221 Library of Congress or the New York Botanical Garden in duplicate form, this method has also been employed. A new classification of field notes, plant lists, and collectors data has been added to the library during the year to handle these important historical items. The Arboretum also has miscellaneous materials of archival value of former staff members and associates which number around 20,000 items. The volumes on the subject of forestry belonging to the Arnold Arboretum, which had been housed at the Harvard Forest in Petersham since World War II, were returned to Jamaica Plain two years ago. The reclassification of these volumes was completed during the year and the titles are now included in the appropriate catalogues. Work continues on the process of cataloguing the collection of forestry volumes transferred to the Arboretum from the Widener Library. The new format for Arnoldia offers the opportunity of accepting library books for review. A notice of the willingness of the staff to accept volumes for review has been sent to appropriate publishers and it is expected that review volumes may add to our library in several areas where we hesitate to purchase volumes. The library staff will accept the responsibility for many of the reviews or notices of publication while the professional staff will handle the technical volumes. Mr. Long attended the Librarians' and Cataloguers' luncheons held under the auspices of the Widener Library which furnish close contact with the many libraries of Harvard University. A new national organization of librarians of Botanical and Horticultural Libraries was formed during the year with meetings at various centers planned after the initial meeting at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society; Mr. Long serves as chairman of the Secretariat of this group. He is also chairman of the Public Relations Committee of the New England Library Association and chairman of the nominating committee for the Alumni Association of the Simmons College of Library Science. Travel and exploration The XI International Botanical Congress was held in September 1969 on the campus of the University of Washington; Drs. Bogle, Howard, Nevling, Schubert, and Wood attended. Three presented papers in sessions of contributed papers or symposia. Normally, an international meeting abroad is the opportunity to visit botanic gardens, to acquire pictures for teaching pur- Brush Chipper. Wood chips are used for mulch. Lightning damage to a Canadian Hemlock on Bussey Hill. poses, or to consult herbaria and libraries. The west coast of the United States offered a similar opportunity for consultation or visits to the University of Washington Arboretum, the Universities of California, the California Academy of Sciences, or places between the West Coast and Boston. Many foreign scientists en route to and from the Botanical Congress made stops at the Arboretum to use or see our collections. Dr. Schubert and Dr. Sorensen attended the Fourth Mexican Botanical Congress held in Monterey and Saltillo where Dr. Schubert was invited to act as chairman for one session and to present a paper on her work with Mexican species of Dioscorea. ' Mr. George Pride used his vacation to travel around the world visiting botanical gardens, again photographing plants and scenes useful in our education program. He was able to acquire some plant material of potential use in our greenhouses or sufficiently hardy to live outdoors in the Arboretum collections. 224 His stops included the Hawaiian Islands, Australia, New Guinea, the Trobriand Islands, Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Denmark. During the past year Dr. Shiu-Ying Hu has continued field work associated with her project to revise a flora of Hong Kong. Dr. Nevling and Mr. Sousa made independent trips to Mexico for their respective studies of the Flora of Vera Cruz and of the genus Lonchocarpus. Each acquired considerable material basic to his studies. Dr. Howard visited Puerto Rico to continue his periodic observations on the dwarf forest on Pico del Oeste in the Luquillo mountains, and extended his trip for a week of collecting on the summits of the mountains of Montserrat searching for alpine plants on these rarely explored peaks. Dr. Howard also represented the Arnold Arboretum at the festivities associated with the 300th anniversary celebrations of the founding of the Royal Botanic Garden in Edinburgh, Scotland. Following formal meetings, a special group made a study tour of Scottish gardens. Dr. Howard was able to visit the Botanical Garden in Brussels, Belgium, and the Royal Botanical Gardens at Kew, primarily to obtain additional material for his anatomical studies from the greenhouse collections of these institutions. The courtesies extended by the directors of each garden are gratefully acknowledged. Education The professional members of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum, as members of the Faculty of Arts and Sciences and the Department of Biology at Harvard, are available to advise undergraduate and graduate students in special research courses. At intervals they also offer formal courses within the University and participate in the Harvard University Extension Course program. In addition, members of the staff prepare flower show exhibits and conduct tours of the grounds; participate in lecture series and offer special lectures to clubs at the Arboretum or elsewhere; participate in scientific meetings; speak at colleges; and take part in panel discussions or short courses held for horticulture. Mr. Hebb gave an Arboretum-sponsored course in \"Practical Gardening for the Home Owner\" at the Case Estates and a special short course in \"Garden Maintenance\" in Hanover, New Hampshire. Dr. Howard participated in the Cornell University University of New Hampshire Summer Program in Marine Sciences at the Isles of Shoals and taught the systematic sec- 225 Tropical Botany Seminar in cooperation with the Uniof Miami and the Fairchild Tropical Garden in Miami, Florida. He was sponsored by the American Institute of Biological Sciences as a speaker at six colleges and universities in programs associated with Earth Day during the spring. The Association of Tropical Biology sponsored a symposium on Adaptive Aspects of Insular Evolution on the campus of the University of Puerto Rico in Mayaguez. Dr. Howard presented a paper on the alpine plants of the Antilles and then, with Roy Woodbury, led a field trip to the Maricao Forest in Western Puerto Rico followed by one the next day in the Luquillo Mountains in eastern Puerto Rico. Mr. Pride reported on his experiences in plant hunting around the world to the American Rock Garden Society and the Worcester Horticultural Society as well as to several garden clubs. Dr. Nevling and Dr. Schubert and a graduate student, Mr. Rodman, conducted the luncheon seminars in systematic botany held weekly in Cambridge. Dr. Schubert and Dr. Wood gave a seminar designed especially for graduate students preparing their first scientific papers for publication. Dr. Wood and Dr. Howard offered an Arboretum course for the Friends called \"Botany in Boston's Restaurants\" in reality a practical course in the economic botany of foods. Dr. Wood spoke to the botanical staff at Cornell on the relationships of the flora of eastern North America. He took part in a symposium at the International Botanical Congress on \"Some floristic relationships of eastern North America,\" and at Virginia Polytechnic in Blacksburg, Virginia, on the distributional history of the biota of the Southern Appalachians. Dr. Wyman, Mr. Hebb, Mr. Fordham, and Mrs. Derderian all offered individual courses at the Arboretum or the Case Estates for the Friends. The Arboretum staff has also worked with student employees from other colleges in training programs using our facilities. These involved cooperative work-study programs with Antioch College of Yellow Springs, Ohio; Goddard College in Vermont; and Smith College in Northampton, Mass. Also the staff sponsored the winter meeting of the New England section of the American Society of Horticultural Sciences in Cambridge. Eleven staff members served as guides on buses during the annual meeting of the Garden Club of America during their visit to the Arnold Arboretum. The staff offered a prevue showing of an exhibit of Margaret Stones' drawings of Tasmanian plants published as the Endemic Flora of Tasmania; the exhibit was open to the public for two weeks in the lecture room a tion of versity I Class presented at the Dana Greenhouses by elementary techniques of Bonsai. Mrs. Ara Derderian in of the Administration Building. A gift of money by a Friend who wishes to remain anonymous permitted the staff to offer the Arnold Arboretum Achievement Award for Botanical and Horticultural Excellence to a student selected by nomination from schools in the Boston area. The Award in 1970 was made to Mr. Mark Saunders of Jamaica Plain High School who received a selection of books of his choice which would be useful in continuing his education. Mr. Saunders requested that the gift plants offered by the Arboretum as part of the award be given to the Jamaica Plain High School for plantings on the grounds to aid in the class work at the school. Although these are but a few of the many activities of the staff, they are indicative of its role in public education, an important function of a modern arboretum. Bonsai Rhododendron indicum, which was received in March 1966 from Ofuna Botanical Gar- den, Kanagawa-Ken, Japan. Bonsai House. 228 Case Estates The extensive work on the grounds in Jamaica Plain altered the Case Estates' normal planting and transplanting schedule. Small plants propagated in the greenhouses can be set out at the Case Estates to grow to a larger size. Normally planting and transplanting is done in the spring and in the fall. As the plants develop in Weston they are pruned to acquire a satisfactory form and if they flower they are checked for accuracy of identification, and their need is considered for the plantings in Jamaica Plain. In anticipation of the Centennial of the Arnold Arboretum in 1972, the staff has prepared a larger than usual number of special plants for distribution to other botanical gardens, to special groups for possible commemorative plantings, and as gifts to the Friends. Three new areas of land were opened during the spring, two of which were immediately filled with container-grown stock for further growth. All of these trees were staked and have received special attention. A third area which will be used during the next planting season was ploughed and sown to rye grass. Nearly every year we find some material in the nurseries that are surplus to our needs. This material is offered to Harvard's other educational institutions; to the Boston Park Department and to the town of Weston. This year plants were accepted by the Medical School area. Additional plants were given to Wellesley College, the State College at Bridgewater, and to the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Special plants of Metasequoia glyptostroboides were supplied to Franklin Pierce College for instructional use on their grounds. Two truckloads of trees and shrubs were contributed to the Roxbury-Dorchester beautification program as a part of the continued interest of Mrs. Augusta Bailey. Nine selected groups of plants were made available to WGBH-TV Channel 2 for their annual benefit auction ; we are pleased that these plants, most of which are not available through local nurseries, draw high bids. Plants in the display beds of mulching materials had grown beyond desirable size for the educational exhibit and accordingly one-half of the display was renovated. Several kinds of edging strips are being employed to separate areas of mulch materials. (Small shrubs have been used in the mulch beds to emphasize the proper use of mulches. ) The perennial garden, which has been called a low maintenance garden, reached the point where additional maintenance was required. Again, individual shrubs had grown beyond a 229 desirable size for demonstration purposes. Mr. Hebb began a study of the perennial garden with the idea of using the necessary redevelopment as a project for one of next year's class programs. Many plants are scheduled to be removed from the perennial garden and younger plants have been purchased or propagated for fall planting. Herbarium specimens from the rock garden, the greenhouses, and the vegetable and flower gardens on the Case Estates, as well as from the nurseries, were prepared in multiple sets for the Arboretum herbarium and for distribution to other instituare received for special of the Case Estates. The lecture room in the Red School House is made available to such groups as the American Hemerocallis Society, the American Rock Garden Society, or the Worcester County Horticultural Society, when such a meeting is associated with a tour of the grounds or a study of the special plantings. Lecture series and classes open to the Friends are also held in this room, which regrettably cannot accommodate more than forty people. The Harvard University College Teas Association has met in Jamaica Plain during the past two years; this year they requested that their spring meeting be held in Weston. Fortunately, a fine spring day coincided with their scheduled meeting and the event could be held outdoors. When the weather is inclement, the bam, where mechanical equipment is maintained, can be used in lieu of Several garden clubs from the New a large meeting room. states received guided tours of the Case Estates, and England the grounds were used for special meetings by the Harvard Law School and the Harvard Librarians Association. A general Open House for the public was held in May with good attendance. We have noticed that when an Open House is announced in the Boston and suburban papers, visitation increases noticeably on the days before and immediately after the event. Additional plantings have been made in the rock garden area maintained at the Case Estates. Mr. Pride, during a tour around the world, was able to obtain seeds and plants from native locations as well as from other botanic gardens for trial in the Case Estates plantings. Members of the American Rock Garden Society have been particularly generous in supplying unusual plants for this collection. A large selection of species and clones of Sedum and Sempervivum taxa for trial were the gift of the Oakhill Gardens of Dallas, Oregon. a tions. Each year larger number of requests meetings or tours ROXBURY-DORCHESTER BEAUTIFICATION PROGRAM George Pride and Mrs. Augusta Bailey inspecting Seaver Street Roxbury for potential community park. area in Michigan Avenue community garden after four years of hard work. Fence finally installed around Seaver Street area. Beauty spreads to the next corner on Michigan Avenue. One year's effort. Getting children involved in \"Window Park,\" Norwell Street Dorchester. area in Inspecting children's efforts in Norwell Street \"Window Park\" area. 234 Mercer Research Fellows A portion of the income from the bequest of Martha Dana Mercer to the Arnold Arboretum is applied each year to bring scholars to the Arboretum to work with specific staff members and to use the collections of living plants, the herbarium, and the library. Applications for these awards, known as Mercer Research Fellowships, may be submitted at any time and are awarded as funds are available for a few months or for periods not exceeding two years. Candidates may be undergraduates, predoctoral students accepted in the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences, or postdoctoral students. The following persons received Mercer Fellowships for all or part of the last year. Their affiliation and field of interest is indicated: Lucy Dos Passos, Occidental College. Horticultural taxonomy; plants of the Boston Public Garden. Rukmani Herat, Occidental College. Vascular patterns of nodes and petioles. Tissa Herat, Occidental College. The Theaceae and the Flora of Ceylon. Syed M. A. Kazmi, Peshawar University, Pakistan. The Boraginaceae of Pakistan; basic botanical bibliography of Pakistan and adjacent areas. Robert C. Kennedy, University of New Hampshire. Propagation of woody plants by seeds. Madeleine Ly-Tio-Fane, Sugar Research Institute, Mauritius. Botanists and plant introduction via Mauritius. Nancy M. Page, Stanford University. Plant propagation; landscape design. Mario Sousa-Sanchez, University of Mexico. Graduate studies with a thesis on Lonchocarpus (Leguminosae). Margaret H. Stone, Bailey Hortorium. Library and herbarium research. The Friends ' of the Arnold Arboretum The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum is an informal group of people who by annual or occasional gifts support our work. In addition to financial support, we receive from the Friends gifts of books and plants, or artifacts of botanical or horticultural value. During the past year, largely through the efforts of Mr. Pride and Mrs. Pelkus, invitations to join the Friends were sent to the membership of groups with similar or compatible interests. We are pleased that the contributing membership is now over _ A viezu in the low maintenance garden at the Case Estates. 236 of whom are from Massachusetts, with 34 other states and Canada. The gifts of the Friends are used to support horticultural and other work with the living collections in Jamaica Plain and Weston. Gifts are tax deductible within the usual federal regulations. The Arboretum endowment has been built over the years through such gifts and it is these funds which support our every activity. A number of Friends wish their gifts to be accumulated as special gifts to be made during the centennial year 1972 at which time they will be announced. Friends receive a free subscription to Arnoldia and are invited to participate in classes and to attend lectures at special rates. Six special events exclusively for the Friends were held during the past year: ( 1 ) a lecture followed by a tasting of Alsatian wines; (2) gift day when a collection of orchid plants were given to Friends many of whom later attended a Cattleya workshop ; (3) preview visit to the exhibit of paintings of the plants of Tasmania by Margaret Stones; (4) gift day when surplus plants from the Arboretum were distributed; (5) \"Evening with Friends\" and (6) Lecture Series; \"Meet the Staff\" talks by Miss Powell and Messrs. Elias, Hebb, Long, Pride and Wyman. To show our appreciation to the Friends for their support we are continuing to develop our program for them and hope to create a more formal organization before 1972 - our centennial year. 1,100 persons, most representatives from Grants A grant from the National Science Foundation to support the work of Dr. Carroll Wood on the Generic Flora of the Southeastern United States was renewed during the year. Dr. Lorin Nevling also received an NSF grant to work on the flora of Vera Cruz. Grants from the NSF were also in effect during the year to support the field work of Dr. Howard, and the works of Dr. DeWolf on taxonomy of tropical American and African figs. Publications The Journal of the Arnold Arboretum a was begun in 1920 as quarterly publication primarily paid to report the scientific studies to of the staff and the students of the Arboretum. With the first issue in 1970 the Journal began its fifty-first volume and the Harvard Alumni Bulletin tribute this half century by noting: \"The Bulletin, having just reached its 71st birthday, wishes to congratulate another Harvard publication, Mulch display beds at the Case Estates during renovation. the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum which is celebrating its 50th anniversary. Published quarterly, the Journal started as an outlet for the scientific work of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. Now, only five editors later, it enjoys high reputation in the botanical world for the articles it contains, and for editorial excellence.\" With the has been changed in color and of the Golden Larch. Four issues appeared during the year with 33 articles by 36 authors and a total of 605 pages. Dr. Bernice G. Schubert is the editor. new cover a volume the is decorated with drawing Arnoldia Arnoldia, another publication of the staff, also experienced changes during series the year. 1911 as beginning in First issued in several consecutive the Bulletin of Popular Information, a I 239 the title was changed in 1940 to Arnoldia. For 29 years Dr. Donald Wyman served as principal editor and each of the 12 issues during the year considered a single topic of horticultural interest. With his retirement, Dr. Wyman passed on the responsibility of Arnoldia to Miss Stephanne Sutton, who suggested a publication of different format which would contain several appropriate articles on a schedule six times a year. Mr. Christopher Reed redesigned the publication and the photographic covers are now familiar to readers. Each issue will contain approximately 32 pages and the price was increased to a realistic figure of $3.50. We extend our special thanks to Mr. Howard Allgaier of the Botanical Museum who has produced Arnoldia from handset type for many years. The new printer will be the Harvard University Printing Office. The Index The staff collaborated to prepare a cumulative index to the 29 volumes of Arnoldia edited by Dr. Wyman. We are indebted to Mrs. Robert Hebb of the Arboretum staff and Miss Sonia Adrouny, now a graduate student at the University of Massachusetts, for their hard work in preparing the entries. Biography Miss Stephanne Sutton completed the manuscript of her biography of Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director of the Arnold Arboretum. The book will be published by the Harvard University Press in November 1970. Miss Sutton resigned her present position and travel. Fellow. at the end of the fiscal year to be free to write new Her corporation title is Honorary Research The Board of Overseers Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum A part of the supervision that the administration of Harvard University offers the Arnold Arboretum is the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, created by the Board of Overseers. One alumni-elected member of the Board of Overseers is given the assignment of assessing the activities and functions of the Arnold Arboretum and its staff. That individual serves as chairman of a committee which visits the Arboretum in its several locations twice a year. During the past year a fall meeting was held in Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates, and the spring meeting at Jamaica Plain and at Cambridge. Committee members representing horticulture and botany may be familiar in their occupations with commercial horticulture, botanical Stachys grandiflora Case Estates. as part of new planting in mulch display beds at the 241 or publications. One member is usually a resident of the town of Weston, the location of the Case Estates; the chairman of the Boston Department of Parks and Recreation is an official member. Members of the Visiting Committee have aided the Director many times in the past on special problems. The staff is particularly indebted this year to Mrs. Richard Pratt who served as local chairman for the annual meeting of the Garden Club of America held in Boston. The members who attended the meeting toured the Arnold Arboretum, and as souvenirs of their visit were given packets of seeds and copies of publications. Mrs. Pratt arranged for the local members of the Visiting Committee to aid as hostesses during the visit to the Arboretum. She also recruited members of the Garden Club of Chestnut Hill to help finance refreshments for the visiting group and to fill envelopes with seeds stratified in advance for ready germination. The Visiting Committee during the academic year 1969-70 included: gardens, George Putnam, Chairman, Boston, Massachusetts George R. Clark, Vice-Chairman, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Mrs. George L. Batchelder, Jr., Beverly, Massachusetts Mrs. Ralph Bradley, Canton, Massachusetts Frederick D. Brown, Webster, Massachusetts Mrs. Paul C. Cabot, Needham, Massachusetts Joseph Curtis, Commissioner, Boston Parks and Recreation Department Mrs. Dudley B. Dumaine, Weston, Massachusetts William Flemer, III, Princeton, New Jersey Mrs. Julian W. Hill, Wilmington, Delaware Henry B. Hosmer, Boston, Massachusetts Seth L. Kelsey, Greenville, Delaware Russell E. Larson, University Park, Pennsylvania Milford R. Lawrence, Falmouth, Massachusetts Mrs. John E. Lockwood, Bedford, New York Harold E. Moore, Jr., Ithaca, New York R. Henry Norweb, Jr., Mentor, Ohio Mrs. Richard W. Pratt, Chestnut Hill, Massachusetts Mrs. Donald P. Ross, Montchanin, Delaware Francis W. Sargent, Boston, Massachusetts -- George Taylor, Kew, England Mrs. Julian Underwood, South Dartmouth, Massachusetts Mrs. G. Kennard Wakefield, Milton, Massachusetts Nathaniel Whittier, Medfield, Massachusetts Mrs. John G. Williams, Gladwyne, Pennsylvania Bergenia cordifolia Case Estates. as part of new planting in mulch display beds at the 242 Bibliography ofPublished Writings ofthe Staff f 1970 July 1, 1969 - June 30, Anonymous. Bogle, A cumulative index to Arnoldia; Volumes 1-29 (19411969). 87p. Arnold Arb. publ. 1970. A. L. Flower and pseudanthium in Distylium (Hamamelidaceae). XIth International Botanical Congress. Abstracts. p. 17, Aug. 1969. . The genera of Portulacaceae and Basellaceae in the southUnited States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 566-598. Oct. 1969. tBrizicky, G. K. Subgeneric and sectional names: their starting points and early sources. Taxon 18(6): 643-660. 1969. eastern . Derderian, C. E. Wintering bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum. Bonsai 3(4 ) : 12-13. 1970. DeWolf, G. P., Jr. A new species of Ficus from Suriname. Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 478-480. July 1969. The problem of Ficus dicranostyla Mildbr. Kew Bull. 23: . 501-506. 1969. What can we do about pollution? Arnoldia 30: 33-55. March 1970. Partially reprinted in Gourd Seed 31(2): 17. 1970. . Basic books for the library. Arnoldia 30: 107-113. May 1970. [Review of] Man, nature, and history. Arnoldia 30: 120. May 1970. The genus Fittonia (Acanthaceae). Baileya 17(1): 34-37. 1970. . . Elias, . T. S. Menyanthaceae. In: Flora of Panama by R. E. Woodson, Jr. and R. W. Schery. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 29-32. 1969. . . In: Chromosome numbers of Phanerogams. 3. Ann. Missouri Bot. Gard. 56: 472. 1969. The genus of Ulmaceae in the southeastern United States. Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 18-40. 1970. A monograph of the genus Hamelia (Rubiaceae). Dissertation Abstracts 30: 3501. 1970. . Fordham, A. J. Germination of woody legume seeds with impermeable seed coats. Australian Plants 4: 294-295, 327. 1968. Cedrus deodara 'Kashmir' and its propagation by cuttings. Internat. Pl. Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 18: 319-321. 1968. The Deodar Cedar; two new hardier forms. Plants and Gardens 25(2): 33. 1969. Propagation of rhododendrons. Quarterly Bull. of the Am. Rhododendron Soc. 23: 162-165. July 1969. The propagation of Elliottia racemosa. Am. Nurseryman 130(4): 18, 125, 126, 127. Aug. 1969. Gardener's Chronicle 166(19): 14-15. Nov. 1969. Propagation of woody plants by seed. Univ. of Wash. Arb. Bull. 32: 90-92, 101. Winter, 1969. The National Association of Propagating Nurserymen. Plant Propagator. 15(4): 2-10. 1970. . . . . . -- . -.-- - - The visit of the Garden Club of America to the Arnold Arboretum. & R. C. Kennedy. The International Plant Propagators' Society - Nineteenth Annual Meeting. Arnoldia 30: 117-119. May 1970. Acer griseum and its propagation. Trees 30: 8-9. 1970. . . T. G. A revision of the genus Flindersia (Rutaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 481-526. 1969. Additional notes on the Malesian species of Zanthoxylum (Rutaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 423-426. 1970. Hebb, R. S. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 30: 25-26. Hartley, Jan. 1970. -. -. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 30: 72-74. March 1970. Notes from the Arnold Arboretum. Arnoldia 30: 116. May 1970. Howard, R. A. The saccate nectaries of Marcgravia. XIth International Botanical Congress. Abstracts. p. 96. Aug. 1969. A checklist of cultivar names used in the genus Lantana. Arnoldia 29: 73-109. Oct. 1969. . 244 R. J. Wagner & A. B. Wagner. The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico, 9. Chemical studies of colored leaves. Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 556-565. Oct. 1969. The Director's Report. The Arnold Arboretum during the fiscal year ended June 30, 1969. Jour. Arnold Arb. 50: 629649. Oct. 1969. & D. A. Powell. Some useful plants of the West Indies in an historical setting. Herbarist 35: 32-40. 1969. The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico, 10. Notes on two species of Marcgravia. Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 41-55. Jan. 1970. [Review of] The book of spices. Arnoldia 30: 29-31. Jan. 1970. Wanted: information on the distribution of cultivated plants. BioScience 20(2): 79-86. Jan. 1970. Lantana camara - A prize and a peril. Am. Hort. Mag. 49: 31-37. Winter 1970. Hu, S. Y. Explorations for new daylilies in South Korea and Japan - June 10 - June 23, 1969. Hemerocallis Jour. 23(4): 12-30. 1969. Report from Hong Kong. Arnoldia 30: 9-22. Jan. 1970. Notes on the genus Ilex Linnaeus. Arnoldia 30: 67-71. March 1970. Dendrobium in Chinese medicine. Economic Botany 24: 165-174. April 1970. , . . . . . . . . Kennedy, Long, tors' R. C. & A. J. Fordham. The International Plant PropagaNineteenth Annual Meeting. Amoldia 30: 117Society 119. 1970. - . . . . C. R. [Review of] The complete book of growing plants from seed. Libr. Jour. 94(16): 3076. 15 Sept. 1969. [Review of] Seaweed of Cape Cod and the Islands. Libr. Jour. 94(16): 3076. 15 Sept. 1969. [Review of]A world of islands. Libr. Jour. 94(17): 3441. 1 Oct. 1969. Public relations: report on NELA workshop. North Counties Libraries 12(5): 1-7. 1969. Public relations: a resume. NELA Newsletter 1(5): 76-79. 1969. & A. A. . Tappe. A survey of the Framingham public library system. 85p. privately printed. Boston. 1970. [Review of] Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town. The quest for plants. The early horticulturists. Arnoldia 30: 7577. March 1970. [Review of] The country garden. Libr. Jour. 95(7): 1384. 1 April 1970. [Review of] Poso del Mundo. Libr. Jour. 95(7): 1368. 1 April 1970. [Review of] The green thumb book of fruit and vegetable gardening. Libr. Jour. 95(10): 1852. 15 May 1970. [Review of] Succulents and cactus. Libr. Jour. 95(10): 1852. 15 May 1970. [Review of] Evolution and design in the plant kingdom. Libr. Jour. 95 ( 10 ) : 1852. 15 May 1970. . . . . . Liatris spicata at the Case Estates. t 246 Miller, N. G. & D. H. Vitt. Additional Bryophytes from sinkholes 1970. in Alpena County, Michigan, including Orthotrichum pallens new to eastern North America. Michigan Botanist 9(2): 8:-9?. Nevling, L. I., Jr. The ecology of an elfin forest in Puerto Rico, 12. A new species of Gonocalyx (Ericaceae). Jour. Arnold Arb. 51: 221-227. 1970. Powell, D. A. & R. A. Howard. Some useful plants of the West Indies in an historical setting. Herbarist 35: 32-40. 1969. Pride, G. H. [Review of] Making things grow. Arnoldia 30: 28-29. Jan. 1970. . Three 1970. seasons of lilies. Horticulture 48 ( 3 ) : 30-32, 60. March Roca-Garcia, H. Weeds: A link with the past. 1. The plantain. . Arnoldia 30: 23-24. 1970. Weeds: A link with the past. 114-115. 1970. 2. Purslane. Arnoldia 30: Sousa, M. Influencia de las Aves en la Vegetacion de la Laguna del Majahal en Los Tuxtlas, Ver. Bol. Soc. Bot. Mexico 30: 97. 112. 1969. Las Colecciones Botanicas de C. A. Purpus en Mexico. Periodo 1898-1925. Univ. of Cal. Pub. in Bot. 51: 1-36. I-IX. 1969. Sutton, S. B. Das Arnold Arboretum. Garten 1: 13-15. 1970. Credited incorrectly to R. A. Howard by the translator. Wood, C. E. Plumbago auriculata versus P. capensis (Plumbaginaceae). Baileya 16(4): 137-139. 1968. . . Some floristic relationships of eastern North America. XIth International Botanical Congress. Abstracts. p. 242. Aug. 1969. Man's threat to himself. Roanoke College Bulletin 49(6): 1-5. 1970. Wyman, D. The best shrubs for dry or wet soils. Am. Nurseryman 130(3): 12-13, 56-59.1 Aug. 1969. . . . . . Espaliered plants. Arnoldia 29: 49-59. 29 Aug. 1969. Espaliers. Horticulture 47(9): 28-29, 45; Sept. '69. The best plants with colored foliage. Am. Nurseryman 130(5): 12-13, 64-72. 1 Sept. 1969. The mountain-ashes. Arnoldia 29: 61-68. 12 Sept. 1969. The best plants for highways. Am. Nurseryman 130(7) : The best of the dwarf evergreens. Am. 12-13, 110-111. 1 Oct. 1969. . Nurseryman 130(9): 10-11, 46-56. 1 Nov. 1969. & F. D. Wyman. Christmas decorations from woody plant materials. Amoldia 29: 111-132. 14 Nov. 1969. & F. D. Wyman. Christmas decorations from the garden. Horticulture 47(12): 24-25; Dec. 1969. The best trees for narrow streets. Am. Nurseryman 130 ( 11 ) : 10-12, 53-54. 1 Dec. 1969. Hedges for special purposes. Amoldia 29: 135-146. 26 Dec. 1969. . . Summer view of the meadow with Helianthus tuberosus. 249 . -. . Seventy five years of growing rhododendrons in the Arnold Arboretum. Quarterly Bull. of the Am. Rhododendron Soc. 24 ( 1 ) : 24-32. Jan. 1970. The best of the pest-free ornamentals. Am. Nurseryman 131(2) : 14-15, 71-72. 15 Jan. 1970. The flowering dogwood. Horticulture 48(5): 44-45. May 1970. . Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970. Arnoldia Am. . 30: 81-99. 15 May 1970. The complete Metasequoia story. 12-13, 28-36. 15 June 1970. Nurseryman 131 ( 12 ) : RICHARD A. HOWARD, Director Staff of the Arnold Arboretum - Spring 1970 Front row: Dr. Lily M. Perry; Miss Stephanne B. Sutton; Miss Jeanne B. Caldwell; Miss Nancy M. Page; Mrs. Emilie McCarthy; Miss Victoria Bell; Miss Georgette Frazer (Mrs. S. Kaye); Miss Alice W. Kellogg (Mrs. M. T. Hallaran) ; Mrs. Elna D. Grinbergs; Miss Pamela A. Bruns; Mrs. Rosemary Walsh; Mrs. Nancy Dunkly; Miss Dulcie Powell; Dr. Bernice G. Schubert; Mrs. Helen Roca-Garcia. Middle row: Dr. Richard A. Howard; Alfred J. Fordham; Harry Hill; Ralph Benotti; Arturs Ginters; Charles Mackey; Dr. Syed M. A. Kazmi; Dr. A. Linn Bogle; Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. ; Heman A. Howard; Mrs. Mildred Pelkus ; Miss Virginia Savage; Mrs. Winnifred Hebb; Robert S. Hebb; Dr. Lorin I. Nevling; William E. Grime; Willie Casterlow; Vincent Antonovich; Ernest Abolins; Peter Ward; Angus MacNeil; Walter Polesky. Back row: Arturs Norietis; George H. Pride; Thomas M. Kinahan; Dr. Thomas S. Elias; Dr. Carroll E. Wood; Clarence Parker; Daniel Reuben; Joachim Hourihan; Michael Canoso; Scott Vonnegut; Dr. Paul Sorensen; Dr. Thomas G. Hartley; Dr. Norton G. Miller; Carl Joplin; William Schwabe; Robert G. Williams; Maurice Sheehan; Michael Gormley; Henry Goodell; Timothy 0' Leary; Domingo Rivera. Photo: Hutchins Photography, Inc. 250 Staffofthe Arnold Arboretum 1969-1970 Richard Alden Howard, Ph.D., Arnold Professor of Botany, Professor of Dendrology, and Director Karl Sax, S.D., Professor of Botany, Emeritus Alfred Linn Bogle, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Pamela Anne Bruns, B.A., Artist Jeanne B. Caldwell, B.A., Library Assistant Michael Anthony Canoso, M.S., Senior Curatorial Assistant * Constance Elizabeth Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Bonsai Collection Gordon Parker DeWolf, Jr., Ph.D., Horticultural Taxonomist Thomas Sam Elias. Ph.D., Assistant Curator Alfred James Fordham, Propagator William Ed Grime, B.A., Curatorial Assistant * Thomas Gordon Hartley, Ph.D., Associate Curator Robert Stephen Hebb, S.B., Assistant Horticulturist Winnifred Parker Hebb, S.B., Herbarium Assistant Heman Arthur Howard, Assistant Horticulturist Shiu-Ying Hu, Ph.D., Botanist Thomas Matthew Kinahan, Superintendent, Case Estates Charles Robert Long, M.A., Librarian * (Appointed Sept. 1, 1969) Victor Ferenc Marx, M.Libr., Librarian * (Resigned Sept. 1969) Norton George Miller, Ph.D., Assistant Curator Lorin Ives Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Curator and Supervisor of the Herbaria * Dulcie Alicia Powell, M.A., Botanist George Howard Pride, M.A., Associate Horticulturist Helen Roca-Garcia, A.M., Research Assistant Bernice Giduz Schubert, Ph.D., Curator and Editor Paul Davidsen Sorensen, Ph.D., Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist Stephanne Barry Sutton, A.B., Archivist Robert Gerow Williams, B.S., Superintendent Carroll Emory Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Curator Donald Wyman, Ph.D., Horticulturist * Appointed jointly with the Gray Herbarium. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum: Plant Registrations","article_sequence":2,"start_page":251,"end_page":260,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24517","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260ab6b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":6,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Plant Registrations Every so often during the past 9 by the Arnold Arboretum have years new cultivars registered been published in Arnoldia. With the new format for Arnoldia, these will be published annually in the November issue along with the Director's Report. Included in this issue are those cultivars which have been registered between January 1, 1969, and October 1, 1970. All correspondence concerned with more information, plants, or propagating material of these plants, should be directed to the various originators or introducers, not the Arnold Arboretum. Abies concolor 'Gables Weeping' This originated as a seedling in 1951 in the nursery of Joseph B. Gable, Stewartstown, Pa., and was introduced in 1966 by Mr. & Mrs. Donald Smith of the Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N. J. Mr. Smith writes, \"To my knowledge this is the only truly dwarf weeping form of Abies concolor. At 18 years it is 16\" high and 20\" across.\" Carissa grandiflora 'Seminole Queen' A low, compact form of Carissa grandiflora introduced in 1954 by the Seminole Nurseries, 7800 Seminole Blvd., Seminole, Fla. In the words of Mr. Richard C. Johnson of Seminole Nurseries, it \"thrives in all except wet and poorly drained soils. C. 'Seminole Queen' is distinguished by its glossy dark green foliage and has a medium-sized, round leaf. It is self-branching and has a dense, low-growing compact habit of growth.\" Hardy in Zone 10. Carya ovata 'Holden' This has been registered for the Holden Arboretum, Sperry Road, Mentor, Ohio, by Dr. Peter A. Hyypio of the L. H. Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, N. Y. The original plant, which is well over 25 years old, was first noticed in 1966 growing at the corner of Main and Baldwin Sts., Hudson, Ohio. 251 252 In Dr. Hyypio's words, \"The tree has an undivided stem from which rather slender lateral branches arise and grow upward at a rather wide angle. As the limbs lengthen they begin to arc and droop; at their tips almost all twigs curve upward. This unusual pendulous branching habit gives the tree a tall slender conical form which is attractive both in the winter and summer condition.\" Hardy in Zone 4. Cercis canadensis 'Royal White' This originated with the late Mr. Royal Oakes, Bluffs, Scott County, Ill. as a seedling from a native tree in Scott County, Ill. The age of the original plant is unknown, but it first flowered about 1940 and was selected before 1950. It was introduced in 1950 by the Louis Gerardi Nursery, R.F.D. 1, O'Fallon, Ill. Prof. Joseph C. McDaniel of the University of Illinois at Urbana says the plant produces abundant white flowers opening somewhat earlier in the season and slightly larger than C. canadensis alba. The plant is more compact, matures earlier, and the leaves are wider-angled at the base of the blade. Plants are cross-fertile, but incompatible to their own pollen. Although fully hardy at Urbana, Ill., the northern limit is unknown. 253 Cercis canadensis 'Silver Cloud' Mr. Theodore R. Klein, Yellow-Dell Nursery, Crestwood, Ky. selected this plant in 1964 from a row of seedling liners originally from Tennessee. Mr. Klein writes, \"The plant produces few flowers and is principally noteworthy for its decorative foliage. Most leaves on all branches are margined or splashed with silvery white variegation. Plants are less vigorous than typical C. canadensis and the branches are more slender. They seem to do best if planted in light shade and out of strong winds.\" Cornus stolonifera 'Isanti' This is an introduction from the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum, Box 132-1, Route 1, Chaska, Minn. which was first observed in 1963 as a sport on a plant growing at the Cedar Creek Natural History Area, East Bethel, Anoka Co., Minn. Mr. Albert G. Johnson, Research Fellow, University of Minnesota describes the plant as having a dense, compact habit of growth. Branchlets are fine and produce a dense broomy shrub. The growth rate is about half that of normal C. stolonifera. Chionanthus virginicus 'Floyd' This originated as a chance seedling in the Sonnemann Experimental Garden, 605 N. 5th St., Vandalia, Ill., around 1945. It is named for the late W. Floyd Sonnemann by Prof. J. C. McDaniel, Department of Horticulture, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, Ill., who will introduce it in 197172. Prof. McDaniel writes, \"The distinguishing feature is its more dense and upright growth habit. Compared with typical seedlings, this clone has more branching on new growth, branches emerge at an acute angle and grow straighter, producing a shrub taller than broad. It is staminate, with a few perfect flowers in its large panicles.\" Hardy in Zone 4. Daphne burkwoodii 'Carol Mackie' This sport of Daphne burkwoodii originated in the garden of Mrs. Carol Mackie, Far Hills, N. J., in 1962. The original plant is now in the possession of Mr. and Mrs. Donald P. Smith, Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N. J., who introduced it in 1968. Mr. Smith reports that the leaves are green with a clean rim of gold all the way around each leaf. A small plant of this is now in the nursery at the Arnold Arboretum and shows promise of being one of the most interesting new variegated plants we have seen here for some time. Hardy in Zone 5. Albizia julibrissin `Ernest Wilson.' 254 Exochorda 'Carol Ann Bianco' This plant originated in 1959 as the result of a cross between Exochorda macrantha 'The Bride' and E. racemosa made by Mr. Giovannina Bianco, 2220 Woodcrest Dr., Lynchburg, Va. Mr. Bianco writes that the plant is bushier and has larger flowers than either of the parents. It is shorter than either of the parents, and blooms a week later than E. racemosa. Hardy in Zone 5. Liriodendron tulipi f era 'Ardis' ` The original seed from which this plant grew was probably collected from a tree native in southern Illinois and germinated at a state forest nursery. The selection was made by Mr. and Mrs. W. F. Sonnemann, Sonnemann Experimental Garden, 605 N. 5th Street, Vandalia, Ill., in 1957. Prof. J. C. McDaniel, Div. of Ornamental Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana. Ill., has named the plant to honor Mrs. Sonnemann. Prof. McDaniel writes, \"The original seedling tree and those budded from it are handsome miniatures of the species with I\/4 to 1\/3 the normal leaf diameter and tree height to date. Internode length is much reduced and color is normal. No flower buds have formed yet. It is hardy at Vandalia, Illinois and for the first winter at Urbana.\" In a letter dated March 10, 1970, Prof. McDaniel amends his original description by stating, \"L. tulipifera 'Ardis' is not completely nonflowering, as previously suspected. The original tree this winter was discovered to have remnants of two fruits, from flowers borne in 1969.\" Malus X adstringens 'Kelsey' This cultivar originated at the Canadian Department of Agriculture, Research Station, P. O. Box 3001, Morden, Manitoba, Canada. The seed was taken from a plant (M#6011) which originated as a cross between Malus X adstringens 'Almey' and M. X adstringens #5212. The male parent was M. X adstringens #5908. It first flowered in 1966 and was introduced in 1970. Mr. W. A. Cumming, Head of the Ornamentals and Fruit Crops Section of the C.D.A. Research Station writes, \"The flowers are semi-double with 10 to 16 petals. This is the only truly hardy double flowering crabapple which will survive in Zone 3. At Morden in Zone 3b double flowering crabapples including 'Dorothea', 'Katherine', M. ioensis 'Plena', and the recent Ottawa introductions are not hardy.\" 255 Malus X adstringens 'Rodney' Approximately twenty years ago this tree originated at the nursery of Kelley and Kelley, Inc., Long Lake, Minn., as a seedling from Malus 'Hoppa'. The male parent is unknown. It was introduced by Mr. Rodney F. Kelley, who characterizes it as being an extremely vigorous grower and very hardy in Minnesota. The flowers are white, followed by dark red fruit which remain on the plant well into the winter. The thick glossy green leaves remain on the tree long after other trees are bare. Malus X adstringens 'Sparkler' This cultivar was selected in 1947 at the University of Minnesota Fruit Breeding Farm as a seedling from Malus 'Hoppa'. The male parent is unknown. The original plant first flowered in 1945 and is now 28 years old. It was introduced commercially in 1969 and was first described in that year in the University of Minnesota Agricultural Experiment Station, Miscellaneous Report 84. Dr. Robert MacClain, Associate Professor, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minn., reports that the plant reaches a height of 12-15 ft. and has a horizontal branching habit. The two-inch flowers are rose-pink and single. Fruits are dark red, 1\/4 - 1\/2 inch in diameter, and the calyces are deciduous. Leaves are broadly ovate, acuminate. serrate, 11\/2-2 inches long, reddish in the spring and dark green later. It is reported to be hardy in Zone 2 and prefers a well drained, loamy soil and exposure to full sun. Malus 'American Beauty' This first flowered in 1962 at Princeton Nurseries, P. O. Box 191, Princeton, N. J. and was selected in 1963 by Mr. William Flemer, III, of Princeton Nurseries. Seed was taken from Malus 'Katherine' and the male parent was M. 'Almey'. The plant was introduced in 1970 by Princeton Nurseries (Plant Patent #2821). Mr. Flemer describes the plant as having an exceptionally vigorous habit of growth. It blooms annually with large (5 to 5.5 cm.) double flowers which are clear red (Munsell Chart 7.5 RP 4\/11). Foliage is bronze red when young, bronze green at maturity. Hardy in Zone 4. Malus 'Cameron' This cultivar originated at the Central Experimental Farm of the Ottawa Research Station, Canada Department of Agricul- 256 I ture, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, in 1956. Seed was taken from Malus 'Arrow', and the male parent was M. 'Katherine'. It will be introduced commercially in 1973 by the Canadian Ornamental Plant Foundation, c\/o Ross & Robinson, 39 James St. S., Hamilton, Ontario. Dr. D. R. Sampson of the Ottawa Research Station describes the plant as having large (4.5 cm. across) double red flowers (7.5 RP 5\/12). The leaves are lustrous bronze in the spring, turning to dark green in summer. Fruits are small (13.8 mm. diameter) and lustrous purple. It makes a tall-oval shaped specimen with moderate branch angles. This was named in honor of Mr. D. F. Cameron, formerly the ornamental plant breeder for the Canada Department of Agriculture, at Ottawa, who bred 'Maybride', 'Prince Charming', and this cultivar. Malus 'Donald Wyman' As described in Arnoldia: Vol. 30, No. 3, p. 116, May 15, 1970, this tree was named in honor of Dr. Donald Wyman. The original plant was first noticed as a spontaneous seedling on the Arboretum grounds prior to 1950. Flower buds are pink but they open to single, white flowers which are 4.5 cm. across. Under our conditions the tree flowers annually and has consistently produced a heavy crop of glossy, bright red fruits which average 1 cm. in diameter. The tree retains its fruit in good condition well into the winter months when the fruit of nearly every other crabapple in the collection has either dropped, been eaten by the birds, or has turned brown and unattractive. Probably hardier than Zone 4. Malus 'Maybride' This cultivar originated at the Central Experimental Farm of the Ottawa Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario, in 1956. Seed was taken from Malus 'Dorothea', and the male parent was M. 'Makamik'. The large white flowers are 4.8 cm. across and have 17 to 18 petals. It blooms profusely every year at the same time as or a few days later than M. 'Makamik' and M. 'Almey'. The fruit is dull red to yellowish green, 18.7 mm. in diameter, and of little ornamental merit. Hardy in Zone 5a (C.D.A. Map). Malus 'Pink Perfection' This first flowered in 1960 at Princeton Nurseries, P. O. Box 191, Princeton, N. J., and was selected by Mr. William Flemer, III, of Princeton Nurseries. Seed was taken from Malus 'Kath- Cephalanthus occidentalis pubescens. erine' and the male parent was M. 'Almey'. The plant was introduced in 1970 by Princeton Nurseries (Plant Patent #2912). Mr. Flemer describes the plant as having a vigorous oval habit of growth. Flowers are large (5 to 6 cm.), double pink (Mun- 258 sell Chart 10 RP 7.8), and have 15 to 16 petals. The is green and resistant to Apple Scab. Hardy in Zone 4. foliage Malus 'Pink Charming' This plant originated at the Central Experimental Farm of the Ottawa Research Station, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa, Ontario in 1956. Seed was taken from Malus 'Makamik', and the male parent was M. 'Katherine'. This is a late bloomer. Flowers are medium-sized (4cm.), purplish red (7.5 RP 4\/11) and double (12-14 petals). With age, the color fades from the center outward from orchid to white, while the margin remains deep purplish pink (5RP 6\/10). Flowering is profuse and annual. The flowering season begins one week after M. 'Almey' and M. 'Makamik' and extends, at Ottawa, almost into the flowering season of M. ioensis 'Plena'. The fruits which are seldom produced, are dark purple and average 13.1 mm. in diameter. The foliage is bronze and retains its good color during the summer and fall. It is resistant to Apple Scab. Hardy in Zone 5a (C.D.A. Map). Correspondence concerning M. 'Cameron', M. 'Maybride', and M. 'Prince Charming' should be directed to Dr. D. R. Sampson of the Ottawa Research Station. Malus 'Royal Ruby' This cultivar originated fifteen years ago in the Simpson Orchard Co., Inc., 1504 Wheatland Rd., Vincennes, Ind. The seed is from Malus 'Van Eseltine' and the male parent is M. 'Almey'. It was first noted in flower in 1959 and introduced in 1969 by the Cole Nursery Co., Rt. 1, Circleville, Ohio. In describing this plant, Mr. William H. Collins of the Cole Nursery Co. says, \"To our knowledge, this clone has the largest and reddest double flowers of any variety known to this organization. Flowers have been measured on young vigorous 2 and 3 year old plants up to 3 inches in diameter, average size is about 2 inches. Habit is upright. Foliage semi-glossy, scab-free, nearly fruitless but some 1\/2 inch red fruit sets occasionally. Parentage denotes hardiness.\" Malus 'Snowcloud' This first flowered in 1963 at Princeton Nurseries, P. O. Box 191, Princeton, N. J., and was selected in 1964 by Mr. William Flemer, III, of Princeton Nurseries. Seed was taken from Malus 'Katherine' and the male plant was M. 'Almey'. The plant 259 was introduced in 1970 by Princeton Nurseries (Plant Patent $~2913). Mr. Flemer describes the plant as having a strong, vigorous, habit of growth, flowers large (6.5 to 7.5 cm.) and double (13 to 14 petals per flower). The color is white. Foliage is resistant to Apple Scab and fruit production is sparse. Hardy in Zone 4. upright Nandina domestica 'Moyer Red' First observed in 1952 at Moyer's Nursery, Winston, Ore., by the late C. E. Moyer, this cultivar was introduced commercially by Mr. Levi M. Gourley, Dillard Nursery, Dillard, Ore., in 1956. In Mr. Gourley's words, \"The red foliage is much more intense in color, retaining it more consistently through the season, and covering the bush more completely with red than the normal N. domestica. Also, the underfoliage is a deeper green and of more consistent quality than the type.\" Hardy in Zone 7. flexilis 'Scratch Gravel' This is a dense, upright form of P. flexilis which was found in 1963 by Mr. Clayton Berg, Box 845, Helena, Mont. The original plant is believed to be between 50 and 150 years old and is growing at 'Scratch Gravel', Silver City Rd., Lewis & Clark County, Mont. In the words of Mr. Berg this is \"a broadly upright form of unusual density and symmetry. Comparatively speaking it is at least in its present location.\" Hardy in a robust grower Zone 2. Pinus - Pinus ponderosa 'Twodot Columnar' The original plant was found in 1964 by Mr. Clayton Berg, Box 845, Helena, Mont., growing south of U.S. Rte. # 12, Twodot, Montana. It is believed to be between 20 and 30 years old. In Mr. Berg's words, \"This is like any young P. ponderosa in the area except that it is narrower in stature and the side limbs show a definite tendency to more upright initial growth than is normal.\" Hardy in Zone 2. Pinus banhsiana 'Uncle Fogey' This is an introduction from the Minnesota Landscape Arboretum, Box 132-1, Route 1, Chaska, Minn. and was discovered in 1960 at 6513-19th Ave. S., Richfield, Minn. Mr. Albert G. Johnson, Research Fellow, University of Minnesota, describes the plant as having a prostrate habit of growth, 260 being pendulous if grafted high. The leaves and cones are typical in size for P. banksiana. Although this would normally be propagated by grafting, it is reported that seedlings \"come or true\" up to 95% of the time. Tsuga canadensis 'Watnong Star' Hampshire, by found as a chance seedling in the woods of New Mr. Robert Clark, Rochester Parks, Rochester, N. Y., in 1958. The original plant is now in the possession of Mr. and Mrs. Donald P. Smith, of the Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N. J. who introduced it in 1969. In Mr. Smith's words, \"At 11 years this plant is a soft globe 16\" high and 20\" in diameter. The texture is tight, but not stiff. New growth is almost white at the tips, giving the effect of hundreds of small white stars.\" Originated in Zone 5. was This ROBERT S. HEBB Summary of weather data recorded August and September 1970. , at the Dana Greenhouses. Precipitation 6.31 2.59 8 a.m. Average Temp. 69 August September 59.5 A view on Hemlock Hill. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23358","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270af28.jpg","title":"1970-30-6","volume":30,"issue_number":6,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Cork Trees","article_sequence":1,"start_page":162,"end_page":167,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24516","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260ab26.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"The Cork Trees the road which follows the meadow south from the Administration Building is a stand of large trees their green flowers tinged with pink attracting bees in the late spring, the yellow leaves adding a gay note in the fall, and the gnarled Along - in winter. open branches making interesting patterns against the snow The deep green foliage with pinnately compound leaves may suggest walnut trees, but their rough furrowed bark and dark blue-black berries identify them as Asiatic Cork trees or Phellodendrons. These trees belong to the Rutaceae, the family to which the orange and other citrus fruits belong, and like them they have leaves which are aromatic when bruised. The glands which produce these volatile oils can be seen with a magnifying glass as clear dots along the margins of the leaf. The Phellodendron trees are dioecious, having male and female flowers on separate trees and the flowers of both sexes, small and green with varying amounts of pink, are borne on panicles at the ends of the branches. In the flowers of one of the species, Phellodendron chinense, the green petals are noticeably streaked with rose and the densely flowered panicles are quite decorative. Inside the female flower the five united carpels are borne on a short stalk (gynophore) of glandular tissue which produces the nectar. This glandular area also appears beneath the rudimentary carpels in the male flower and in other genera of the family may appear as a disc or ring. In autumn the Phellodendron leaves turn a light clear yellow ; they fall quickly, leaving in the female trees bunches of black fruit hanging from the ends of the branches like small grapes. These fruits have a strong aromatic odor and contain five or six dark seeds. The fruits stay on the trees most of the winter, providing food for starlings, robins, and other birds. The oldest of the Cork trees in the Arnold Arboretum is an Amur Cork tree, Phellodendron amurense, with gnarled and bent trunk, the thick branches spreading from about four feet above the ground. Here and there on the ground are exposed 162 163 of woody root. The light grey bark is thick and although the tree gives the appearance of age, it is age accompanied by strength and grace. This patriarch of the group came as a seed from the Imperial Garden of St. Petersburg, Russia, and was planted here September 14, 1874, two years after the beginning of the Arboretum. Next to it stands another tree which was grafted from a piece of the first tree in November 18, 1882. This species is originally from northareas large flat furrowed, and east area. Asia, and gets its name from the great Amur river of that There are several Chinese cork trees, P. chinense, in the Arboretum collection. In parts of China the bark of this tree is called Huang-po and is used as a general remedy. One of these trees was grown from seed collected by Ernest H. Wilson in 1908 during his travels in China. The seed was from Western Hupeh, and Wilson described the area in his book, A Naturalist in Western Asia: \"In the gorges the main river is joined by numerous lateral streams, branches of which flow through glens of wondrous beauty. These riverlets in winding their way usually fill nearly the entire bed of the glen and are bounded by walls of cliff from 300 to 1000 feet sheer. Waterfalls are numerous and wherever it is possible vegetation is rampant.\" In 1919 Wilson became Assistant to the Director of the Arboretum and later he was made Keeper (his own term) under Oakes Ames. The Arboretum has several examples of the Lavalle Cork tree, P. Lavallei. Two are from seed collected in Azuma, Japan, in 1905, by John George Jack, Assistant Professor of Dendrology at the Arboretum. The third, planted in 1919, is from seed collected by Wilson in Tokyo. Two of the Sakhalin Cork trees (P. sachalinense ) in the Arboretum are grafts made in 1919 of a tree which came from Germany in 1905 and is no longer living. The third Sakhalin Cork tree is a small tree, a comparative newcomer, raised from seed sent from the University of Tokyo in 1952. The name Sakhalin is from the name of an island north of Japan; the species is native there, in Korea, northern Japan, and western China. Another tree of this species which grew for some years in the Arboretum but is no longer living was grown from seed sent by William Smith Clark, president of Massachusetts Agricultural College, from Hokkaido in northern Japan in 1877. Clark went to Japan to establish an agricultural college at Sapporo, and while he was there he sent back seeds of many native trees and shrubs. Among these were the tree lilac (Syrin- 166 ga reticulata), the Sakhalin Cork tree, the evergreen Bittersweet (Euonymus radicans var. vegeta) and others. The Pearfruit Cork tree (Phellodendron piriforme), is from seed received from the Botanical Institute of Leningrad, Russia, and was planted here in 1926. A graft of this tree is in the collection also. The two comparatively small trees of the Japanese Cork tree (Phellodendron japonicum) came as seed from the Botanic Garden, Berlin-Dahlen, Germany, in 1956. However, this species was represented much earlier in Cambridge, Massachusetts, by a tree now dead about which John Singer Sargent wrote in Trees and Shrubs, \"It was raised before 1870 in the Botanic Garden of Harvard University at Cambridge, from seed from the Imperial Garden at St. Petersburg and probably collected by Maximowicz in Japan.\" C. J. Maximowicz was chief botanist at the Imperial Botanic Garden in the nineteenth century. From 1860 to 1864 he travelled in Japan and accumulated a large collection of Japanese plants. In addition to far and romantic places, the Cork collection a large number of anonymous men who collected fruit and seeds and kept careful records, men who planted the seeds or grafted young cuttings on to sturdy rootstocks, men who tended the young plants from germination until they were ready to be put out in the Arboretum. Each individual tree has a number and a filing card, and a record is kept of its growth until it dies. Recently a study was made of Phellodendron seeds. Groups of one hundred seeds were planted under varying conditions to determine the best method of germination. And at the Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, there are several young Cork trees which were started within the past few years at the Arboretum greenhouse as seeds. Some of the seeds came from the Botanical Garden at the University of Bucharest, others came from England, Germany, and Russia. After a year or two at the greenhouse and at the nursery, they were transferred to Weston, where they are now young trees up to seven feet high. In this way the Arboretum is assured of replacements when the present trees grow old and die. represents the work of HELEN ROCA-GARCIA ~ ' Backing: Phellodendron Backing : Phellodendron amurense. Facing: Malus sargentii. Photo: H. Howard. Photo : Photo: H. Howard. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":168,"end_page":174,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24514","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260a728.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":""},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Suburban Economics","article_sequence":3,"start_page":175,"end_page":179,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24515","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260a76d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Suburban Economics f This is being written during the first heat wave of the season in the Boston area. It is being written while much of the East Coast area is suffering the effects of air pollution. It is being written while a shortage of water has resulted in a ban on outside watering in many communities (this in spite of the fact that the first six months of this year had 2.1 inches more rain than the same period last year). It is being written while the Northeast has an enforced decrease in electrical voltage. We are entitled to ask why, in the richest nation on earth, we, the enlightened middle class, must suffer these inconveniences. The answer is, simply, that we are reaping what we have sown. Our population has become too large, too rapidly, for our resources, natural and artificial, to cope with our demands. We have the technology to solve our problems. We can change our sources of energy or change our methods of generating energy to clean up our air. It will be expensive, it will take some years, but we do have the technology to do it. We can clean up our rivers and streams and lakes and ponds. We can enlarge our reservoirs and build larger pipelines to bring the water to our cities. We can increase our supply of electricity. It will be expensive and it will take some years, but we do have the technology to do it. All of our technological capacity will be to no avail, however, if we do not control the size and growth of our population. At present our population is growing too rapidly for our technological capacity to cope with it. Let us take a homely example. In the suburban town in which I live we have just had a proposal for the construction of a 24unit apartment complex. This will, the builders say, bring to the town some $12,000.00 in new real estate tax revenue annually. Let us do the arithmetic and see what really will happen. We are told that about 50% of our tax dollar goes for support of the schools, the other 50% for running the town. If our per student school cost is about $700.00, and the number of students approximates the number of taxable units, then each family (or taxable unit) must be assessed, on average, some $1,400.00 per year. This is, in fact, the approximate assessment on a $30,000.00 property. However, the families living in our 24-unit apartment complex will be paying no real property 175 Facing: Elaeagnus multiflora. Photo: H. Howard. 176I tax, and will have on the average only about $2,000.00 of assessable personal property. At our current rate of about $40.00 per thousand, this will return to the town only about $80.00 per family per year. In other words, each family will cost the town some $1,320.00 per year. For our 24-unit complex this will total some $31,680.00 per year. Real property assessment on the complex we are told will bring in only $12,000.00. Therefore, the complex will cost the town some $19,680.00 annually. If we assume that each $100,000.00 of costs adds $1.00 to the tax rate, then this apartment complex will cost each family in town about $0.20 per thousand of valuation, or $6.00 per year on a $30,000.00 property. Make no mistake. The only people who benefit from an increase in population in your town are the real estate agents, the developers, and the builders. The town does not benefit from them, and you, as a taxpayer, only stand to lose money. At our present level of taxation my town cannot keep up with its responsibilities to its citizens. It cannot afford the new schools that are necessary now. It cannot afford to hire the teachers it needs for best educational conditions. It cannot maintain its roads and streets in good condition. Local sources of water are now being exploited to maximum capacity. It could not afford to buy water elsewhere even if alternative which they are not. And our 24-unit sources were available apartment complex will require at least 6,000 gallons of water - per day. We are told that we must preserve our environment. What is it that we must preserve? When the first settlers arrived in New England they found a countryside characterized by vast stands of white pine. They found sandy coasts with stands of pitch pine. They found rocky hills covered with scrub oaks. They also found forests of white and red oak, and hickory. The pines and scrub oak are maintained in our area by burning. Under natural circumstances they would have been replaced in a few hundred years by oak and hickory. Forest land is able to sustain a relatively small population of animals, including man. Man is an animal of forest edges and adjacent grasslands. The first settlers cleared the forests, burning many of the felled trees. Through the colonial period and after, this clearing continued. One hundred and fifty years ago 80% of southern New England was cleared, or at least cut over. As the land wore out and as population increased, large numbers of farmers left the land, either moving to the cities or moving westward. The fields grew up to trees. Only the most fertile 177 lands within reach of the cities and towns remained in farmland. Beginning in the 1930s even these farms became unprofitable and many of them were abandoned. Again the fields grew up to trees. Today, we are planting subdivisions in these areas. The scrubby woodlots that now blossom with houses were, not too long ago, fields and pastures. What is it that we wish to preserve? Second growth scrub? Farmland? What? The songbirds that we wish to maintain are not creatures of the forest primeval, the climax forest, but are denizens of second growth scrub and woodland margins. So are the deer and the rabbits and the foxes. So, we might add, are the pink lady slippers and the trailing arbutus, the hepaticas and the violets. The fact of the matter is that we do not want to preserve nature in its primeval condition. We desire to preserve an environment that can only be created in nature by \"disasters.\" Under natural conditions such things as hurricanes and forest fires exercise this function. In an agrarian society this is maintained by the farmers. In our society which suppresses natural disasters and agrarian clearing our human environment disappears, going back to forest. Much of southern New England is now unsuitable for human habitation, Dense forest, albeit second growth scrub, covers more than 60% of the land surface. We maintain our dense populations of songbirds and deer by artificial feeding in the wintertime. We lament the disappearance of the pink lady slipper and the trailing arbutus but we suppress the environment in which they can survive. The environment that we live in is not stable. It is not natural for a large population of any organism, Horrco sapiens included, to maintain itself indefinitely without deleterious effects upon other organisms. To maintain a large population of people we must clear land for habitation and industry that would otherwise be in forest or grassland. We must clear additional land to raise crops and to raise cattle. We must maintain unnaturally large populations of food producing organisms and to do this we must ruthlessly exterminate those organisms that would destroy our crops. If we do not do this we will starve. We must remove our wastes and deposit them somewhere else in the environment. If we do not do this we will suffer pestilence. The environment which we create is also suitable for other organisms. Rats and cockroaches share our habitations. Potato bugs, gypsy moths, and rabbits share our gardens. Deer share our orchards. We destroy predators weasels, foxes, bobcats, owls and hawks - which would help to control the vermin and pests because they also threaten (we think) \"our\" - 178 animals and plants. We have built up - an artificial environ- ment to preserve our own lives and, if we are to survive at our present standard of living, we must preserve this arti- ficial environment by artificial means. In the past, when the human population was smaller, our present means of pest control and waste disposal were sufficient for our needs. Today, with a large and rapidly increasing population of humans, yesterday's techniques are not sufficient. We must use pesticides to preserve our crops so that we will not starve. We must use more effective methods of waste disposal so that our excreta does not sterilize our land and water. Simple reduction in the percentage pollution, accompanied by an ever increasing number of individuals will result in a net increase of pollution. If we wish to preserve our artificial environment so that we may survive, we must reduce the size of our population. We are told that we live under the threat of atomic extinction. We are probably much closer to extermination by starvation, or thirst, or pestilence. Quite possibly, the limitation of our water resources will be the factor that first sets a limit on the size of our population. For example, the town of Stoughton has imposed a five-year ban on new building because it does not have sufficient water to support additional population. Many other communities have had to impose a ban on outside water use. In my town we are assured that we have plenty of water, it is just that we cannot pump it fast enough to supply peak demand. Four years ago our town fathers employed an engineering consultant firm to study our water needs. They estimated that by 1986 our town would need to pump 3.4 million gallons of water per day. During the last week our water department has been pumping 3.8 million gallons per day. Over the period 19591965 our water requirements were 1.84 million gallons per day or less. Obviously, something is seriously wrong with our expert study. If other towns are in the same position, and it is fair to suspect that they are, then our water supply situation is critical. If we add to this the serious threat of salt pollution from winter salting of our roads, our problems of water supply are compounded. are - told that the suburbs must accept some of the excess of the core cities. In theory this is an acceptable but in practice it is clear that this will only hasten the thesis arrival of our time of crisis. We must have fewer people, not more. We must limit the size of our population. This past year has seen a number of efforts sponsored by We population 179 citizens groups to improve the quality of the environment. of these movements, however, have not taken into consideration the effects of specific programs on the total problem. For example, we in the Boston area now have a ban on all outdoor burning. As a result, in my town the amount of rubbish taken to our sanitary land fill has increased by 41%. Disposal of solid wastes was already a problem in eastern Massachusetts before the ban on burning was imposed. This will only increase the seriousness of the problem. A second citizen effort has been to ban the use of sprays for street trees in a nearby town. One can confidently predict that within a year or so this town will have a serious problem with birch leaf miner. It will be more difficult and more costly to Many control dutch elm disease. Aphids on lindens will become a serious nuisance. And it is quite possible that the gypsy moth will move in to defoliate all of the trees. This is not a plea for business as usual. It is a plea for reason and moderation. We must develop and utilize pesticides and pesticide techniques that are specific for the pests that trouble us. We must develop strategies and techniques for effective disposal and\/or reuse of solid wastes. We must extend domestic sewer lines to serve all of the properties in our suband build modern sewage treatment facilities that will urbs serve all of our cities and towns. If we started today we could not have these facilities in operation sooner than five years from now. (It would take at least a year for planning and drawing up specifications, the better part of another year for the production of building plans, and at least three years to construct the facilities.) These are the realities of the situation. In the meantime, unless we change our ways overnight, our total population will have increased by at least three per cent, and our volume of waste by an astronomical figure. All of this will cost us money in the form of additional taxes. We must stop our growth. We must change our ways. One last word. It is not the poor who have done this to us. It is the middle class families who can afford $30,000 houses, and who fill those houses with three, five, or ten children. People who insist on having dishwashers and washing machines and dryers and air conditioners and three cars in their garages. In short, we have done it to ourselves. We are the ones who must change our ways. - GORDON P. DE WOLF, JR. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Actinidia chinensis, the Kiwi Fruit","article_sequence":4,"start_page":180,"end_page":185,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24511","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d0708926.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sutton, Stephanne B.","article_content":"Actinidia Chinensis, the Kiwi Fruit Specialty food stores and supermarkets with imagination have recently been featuring something called Kiwi fruit. Food columnists perhaps in desperation for a story have tried it, been agreeably surprised by its taste and texture, and written glowing reports; it seems to be catching on. Kiwi fruits have made occasional appearances in gourmet shops for several years as Chinese gooseberries, Cape gooseberries, and sometimes perish the thought under their correct botanical name, Actinidia chinensis, but it took a fetching epithet like Kiwi fruits to take the housewife's fancy. So far as we know, New Zealand's ambulatory Apteryx with hairy feathers and the fruit named after him have nothing to do with each other. - - - The Arnold Arboretum has a sentimental attachment to Actinidia chinensis by virtue of the plant's association with the late Ernest Henry Wilson. A climbing shrub in the family Actinidiaceae, Actinidia chinensis is, as its specific name suggests, a native of China and does not, as the commercial name could lead one to believe, originate down under. The earliest record for collection of the species belongs to the Jesuit priest, Father d'Incarville, a pupil of the French botanist, Bernard de Jussieu. Around 1741, d'Incarville sent de Jussieu a specimen of A. chinensis which he found in the vicinity of Macao. The latter, however, either did not know what to make of it or somehow overlooked it, because the species was not described until more than a hundred years later when Jules Planchon wrote a brief diagnosis of it based on a collection by Robert Fortune from the Chinese mainland. Fortune's specimen had flowers but no fruit, and Planchon did not say anything about the fruit being edible nor did Fortune remark at all upon this fact in his accounts of his Chinese adventures. This omission is surprising, for Fortune was a keen observer and reporter of strange fruits and flowers. One can only surmise that, in fact, he never saw the fruits either in the marketplace or on the dinner table. The Chinese, however, knew and used Actinidia chinensis fruit as food, and there are references to it in ancient herbals as 180 181 refreshing and thirst quenching. Wilson, on his first expedition for the Veitch nurseries at the turn of the century, was if not the first westerner to taste the fruit the first to record its edibility; its delicate flavor enchanted him.~~2~s - \"A climber called 'Yang-tao' in Hupeh and 'Mao-erh-tao' in Szechuan (Actinidia chinensis) is very abundant from 2500 to 6000 feet altitude. It produces excellent fruit of a roundish or oval shape, 1 inch to 2~\/> inches long, with a thin, brown, often hairy skin, covering a luscious green flesh. This is an excellent dessert fruit, and makes a fine preserve. In 1900 I had the pleasure of introducing this fruit to the foreign residents of Ichang, with whom it found immediate favour, and is now known throughout It is the Yangtsze Valley as the 'Ichang Gooseberry.' a good garden plant; the only drawback is that the flowers are polygamous, and it is necessary to secure the hermaphrodite form to ensure fruit.\" ... 182 Wilson sent seeds back to the Veitch nurseries in England, and the seeds germinated. A. chinensis thrived in its new environment, and in 1906 the Veitches described it enthusiastically as \"a rapid grower, valuable for very handsome foliage, covered with bright red hairs in a young state. The flowers, not yet seen in cultivation, are bright yellow, very handsome, and followed by edible fruits about the size of walnuts with a flavour resembling ripe gooseberries.\" (\"Bright yellow\" seems a bit of an overstatement but, after all, the Veitches had not seen flowers yet.) One remarks that the nursery emphasized the plant as an ornamental rather than as a fruit producer. As far as we can tell from our old accession records, the Arnold Arboretum first received shipments of A. chinensis from the Veitch nurseries in 1905; Wilson subsequently sent a batch of seeds in 1908 during his first expedition under Arboretum auspices. In 1904, however, the U.S. Department of Agriculture Bureau of Plant Industry, which publishes very thorough records, listed the receipt of seeds of an Actinidia sp. called Yang-taw by the Chinese, with a \"fruit said to be very fine, has flavor of gooseberry, fig, and citron\"; this was obviously A. chinensis. Wilson shipped it to the USDA through the American Consul-General in Hankow, and the Bureau of Plant Industry forwarded it to the Plant Introduction Garden in Chico, California, for trial. The practice at the Arboretum was to distribute a portion of seeds or cuttings to selected nurseries and individuals, and one may safely assume this happened with Wilson's 1908 shipment. Hopefully, Actinidia chinensis fared better in other mildthan it did outdoors or in nursery greenhouses er areas at Jamaica Plain. The material which Veitch sent in 1905 died by 1912; the 1908 seed lot expired in 1914. A. chinensis simply could not take New England winters, though other Actinidia species survive them. Meanwhile, the USDA lot at Chico came along very nicely, producing fruit in 1910. The Arnold Arboretum still makes an occasional attempt to cultivate A. chinensis. Last fall Mr. Al Fordham, the propagator, remarked on some growing along the greenhouse fence, but pessimistically predicted it would winter-kill. It did. There is an interesting footnote to the introduction of the plant into Western horticulture. Both Veitch and Sargent measured the species from an ornamental viewpoint. Like crabapples, its fruit production was simply an agreeable factor complimenting its decorative possibilities. Though far from being a - 183 A. chinensis has many desirable qualities. favorable climate it grows vigorously and produces a handsome foliage with creamy white flowers, one and a half to two inches in diameter, rapidly fading to buff yellow. (At no time are they the bright yellow advertised by Veitch.) Due to its the English and Europeans plant it frequently, lusty growth, and it is available in American nurseries. Naturally, the selection of ornamental plants for the home garden is, to a large extent, a question of personal taste. Alfred Rehder thought A. chinensis \"the most beautiful of the Actinidias\" and a good garden plant. By contrast, Dr. Donald Wyman does not get very enthusiastic about it, and he recommends it for someone in a rush for a large climber, perhaps to cover some unsightly object. While the Arnold Arboretum by tradition, and Sargent as its first Director, evaluated A. chinensis as an ornamental, the USDA eyed it as a potential source of fruit. This attitude once led Sargent to make the withering and somewhat unjust remark that Department of Agriculture officials were only interested in what they could eat. Personally, Sargent took a dim view of introducing new food products to the American dinner table and recognized the reluctance of the average person to experiment with exotic tastes. But people may be more adventurous in their dining habits now. For example, after half a century as an abused curiosity, (a situation which one author blames on the use of the old uncomplimentary name, alligator pear) the avocado has come into its own. Kiwi fruits may be gaining popularity and, unlike other food products, their price is descending. Actinidia chinensis fruits, or berries, are ovoid and about the size of an egg. While not particularly appetizing on the exterior, peeled or in section their color is a clear jade green. Many tiny, purple seeds surround the inner core, and they are small enough so that one need not remove them. The fruits resemble melon in texture; in taste, they are sweet and succulent, not at all like the gooseberry, and have been compared to strawberries, blackberries, melons, rhubarb, bananas, and so on, without any general agreement except that most people who have tried them, like them. They are reported to be richer in Vitamin C than spectacular species, In a oranges. The fruit on the market today is not American-grown but comes from New Zealand. (Hence, one presumes, the name Kiwi fruit.) Although the USDA began its trials of A. chinensis about two years earlier than the probable date of introduction of the species into New Zealand, for some reason it caught on as a crop plant there while it never got out of trial gardens in 184 the United States. Despite efforts to convince independent growers of its potential, the Department of Agriculture has failed to stimulate commercial interest. Yet there is ample evidence that A. chinensis grows well in California, north Florida, and the Gulf states. Meanwhile, New Zealand raises and sells several thousand tons of fruit annually. New Zealanders did not begin commercial cultivation of the species until about 1940, many years after it had been introduced. By 1964 they were producing 840 tons of fruit in a single year at the rate of four tons per acre. Out of this crop, 80 tons went as exports to Britain, Australia, Canada, and the United States. Picked before they ripen, the fruits keep very well: eight weeks in common storage and more than four months in cold storage (31-32 degrees F. at 90 per cent relative humidity). The New Zealand growers have been enterprising in developing improved cultivars of A. chinensis with bigger and better fruits. An extra large fruited cultivar with superior flavor, Hayward is used exclusively for export to the United States. This, then, is what we see in the markets. If the American public displays any sign of real interest in the fruits, domestic growers may be encouraged to raise Actinidia chinensis. But, thus far, no one has been that adventurous. further reference see : Schroeder, C. A. and W. A. Fletcher, \"The Chinese Gooseberry ( Actinidia chinensis ) in New Zealand,\" Economic Botany: Vol. 21, No. 1, 81-92. January-March 1963. Menninger, Edwin A., \"Actinidia chinensis; A Promising Fruit and Some Related For Species,\" - The American Horticultural Magazine, Vol. 45, No. 2, 252-256. April 1966. A Potential New Crop for CaliforSmith, Robert L., \"Kiwi nia,\" Lasca Leaves, Vol. 20, No. 1, 8-10. March 1970. STEPHANNE SUTTON 1. Jade Jewel (supplied by The New Zealand Fruit Growers Federation Limited) 12 oz tin pineapple i\/4 cup quick cooking tapioca i\/4 teaspoon salt 1 cup water 3\/4 cup sugar 3 tablespoons lemon juice 3 kiwi fruit Drain the pineapple and reserve both juice and fruit. In a saucepan, put the tapioca, salt, water, and pineapple juice. Cook over low heat with regular stirring until the tapioca is clear. Add sugar. Remove from the 185 heat and add the lemon juice, stirring it in well. Leave to cool. Peel the kiwi fruit and cut into large chunks. When the tapioca mixture is cold, fold the pineapple pieces and kiwi fruit through it. Spoon into dessert glasses and chill. (Serves 6) , 2. Greenstone Pie 1 cooked 7- to 8-inch sweet short pastry pie shell 4 to 6 kiwi fruit 2 egg whites 4 tablespoons sugar Peel the kiwi fruit and cut into quarter-inch rings. Whip the egg whites until stiff, then beat in the sugar gradually to form a thick meringue. Immediately before serving, pile the sliced fruit into the cooked pie shell and cover with the meringue. Place in 400 oven and cook for about 5 minutes to brown the meringue. Serve at once. (Serves 6) 3. Kiwi Fruit Upside Down Cake 2 oz butter . 1\/s cup sugar 1 teaspoon grated lemon rind 3 or 4 kiwi fruit li\/4 cups flour 2 teaspoons baking powder j\/4 teaspoon salt l\/z cup sugar 1 egg j\/z cup milk 2 oz. butter, melted Select an 8-inch round cake tin and in it melt the first measure of butter. Sprinkle with the first measure of sugar and spread over the bottom of the tin so an even layer is formed. Sprinkle with lemon rind. Peel the kiwi fruit and cut in rings 1\/4 inch thick. Place these in a pattern over the bottom of the tin. Sift the flour, baking powder, and salt into a bowl and add the sugar. Beat the egg and blend in the milk, then tip all the liquid into the dry ingredients and stir until completely blended. Pour in the melted butter and mix well. Carefully pour the batter over the fruit and topping in the tin. Bake at 350 for about 45 minutes or until cooked. Remove from the oven and allow cake to stand in the tin for 5 minutes before inverting on a plate. Serve warm or cold with cream. (Serves 6 to 8) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Climate at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":186,"end_page":195,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24513","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a8d260a36f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"Climate at the Arnold Arboretum Climate has been defined as a generalization of weather conditions of a region. Factors such as temperature, pressure, humidity, precipitation, sunshine, cloudiness, and wind throughout the year, averaged over a series of years, comprise the climate. Climate is the principal factor that limits which plants may or may not be grown in a specific region. At the Arnold Arboretum some woody plants cannot tolerate the heat and dryness of summer, but the survival of most plants is determined by various aspects of temperature which involve cold. Some plants which start growth early can be injured by spring frosts. Others may be killed by freezing in autumn before they have properly hardened in preparation for winter. The principal determining factor, however, is severe winter cold. Arboretum Weather Station. Climatological records are significant to botanical institutions that are concerned with living plants. With such data, it becomes possible to compile information which adds to the knowledge concerning the climatic tolerances of plants. Frequently, the exact date when winter injury occurred can be determined. Since August 15, 1962, the Arnold Arboretum has maintained a simple climatological substation in cooperation with the U.S. Weather Bureau. A representative of the Weather Bureau approved a site for the instruments, supervised their installation, and checked the thermometer for accuracy. Daily at 8:00 A.M. observations of temperatures and precipitation covering the previous 24 hours are entered on forms which the Weather Bureau provides. Mr. Artur Norietis, a member of the Dana Greenhouse staff and resident watchman, has been largely responsible for operating the station. Despite the fact that records only apply to a relatively short seven-year period, some interesting data have been accumulated. The equipment consists of a maximum and minimum self-registering thermometer furnished by the Arboretum and an eight-inch nonrecording precipitation gauge provided by the Weather Bureau. Equipment. 186 187 Microclimates. Those familiar with the Arnold Arboretum are aware of the wide variety of topographical features that are present within the bounds of this relatively small 265 acre area. Elevations range from 50 to 233 feet. The terrain is comprised of summits, ridges, valleys, slopes of varying degrees, flat areas, and so on. These features lead to an assortment of exposures which face all points of the compass. With such geographical variation there is also a wide diversity of climatic differences. Some are subtle and others are obvious. These deviations from the overall climatic picture are known as microclimates and can occur within feet and even inches of one and other. In November 1934, Dr. Hugh M. Raup, then a member of the Arboretum staff, chose eight locations in the Arboretum and set up a station at each where temperatures could be recorded. Some of these records remained when Dr. Raup left and from them have been extracted some interesting microclimatic data. Station 1 was positioned at the southwest side of the Administration Building where the land slopes gently toward the meadow and where the station was sheltered from the north, east, and west. Station 2 was situated on flat land in the shrub order. The shrub order is in one of the lowest areas of the Arboretum and the land slopes toward it from all directions, making it an ideal location for a cold pocket. Station 3 was located on Bussey Hill about 50 yards south of the summit and on a crest an ideal position for good - air drainage. A site for Station 4 was chosen on a gentle southeast slope near the Centre Street Path. It was well protected from the north and west by higher elevations and has proven to be one of the most favorable microclimates in the Arboretum. Station 5 was located in the Juniper collection on a small plateau well sheltered from wind by surrounding slopes and hills. It is of interest that many Indian artifacts were found here. This would indicate that an Indian camp site existed there despite the fact that it proved to be one of the Arboretum's coldest microclimates according to the Raup records. Indians lived close to nature and though they had no knowledge of microclimates, they did know that some sites were more suitable to comfort than others. This awareness would be of prime importance to those living through a harsh New England winter under primitive circumstances. Several considerations may well account for their choosing this location. Nearby to 188 The Weather Station in the Dana Greenhouse left. Box for thermometer at right. Nursery. Rain gauge at free-flowing brook and to the north was a is well sheltered from bitter winds of winter avoid the chill factor which can lead to much greater human discomfort than severe cold. Together with these features it seems reasonable to suppose the area at that time was wooded and, therefore, could have a climate which differed somewhat from that shown by the Raup records. Station 6, the most sheltered site of all, was placed on Hemlock Hill. The area then was populated by massive hemlocks, many of which were later lost in the 1938 hurricane. At Station 7 in the isolated Peters Hill area, observations were recorded for about one month when they were discontinued with the notation, \"thermometer stolen.\" Station 8 was near the Arboretum greenhouses which were then located off South Street on property of the Bussey Institution. The site was a small plateau with the land falling away in all directions. The discovery of numerous Indian relics reveals that a camp site also existed here. Although shown by the Raup records to be the most favorable microclimate of all, was a the south spring. The area and they could 189 it was was exposed to the wind from all directions. Again, the area perhaps wooded, a condition that would tend to mitigate The follow- the chill factor associated with winter winds. Interpretation of Some Temperature Gradients. ing examples of temperature gradients have been selected from the Raup records. Each morning during the winter of 1934-35 observations pertaining to the previous night were recorded at about 9:00 A.M. For purpose of illustration, easily interpreted extremes have been chosen and they concern only minima. Table 1 shows low temperatures and wide variation in the gradients. They are typical of calm, clear nights. Under such conditions air loses heat to outer space through radiational cooling. Temperature drop is often greater during winter than at other seasons because the long nights which prevail allow radiational cooling to take place over a maximum period of time. With the absence of wind, cold air drains from the higher elevations and settles in lower areas (frost or cold pockets) leading to wide diversity of minima in the microclimates. These are the nights during which our lowest temperatures occur and they are the most damaging to plants. At such times, the shrub collection usually had the coldest temperature while the area near the greenhouse had the warmest. It is interesting that the temperature stations which showed the greatest extremes were the closest together about 200 yards. However, the topography is such that the same differences would prevail at the edge of the greenhouse plateau and in the flat area below which a distance of about 90 or 100 contains the shrub collection feet with a difference in elevation of 30 feet. - - TABLE 1 Minima Under Clear Conditions, Winds Light to Very Light These to examples are typical of calm, clear nights when heat is lost atmosphere through radiational cooling. In the absence of wind, cold air drains from higher elevations and settles in the low areas. Table 2 shows minimal differences in temperature. Brisk winds led to a mixing and stirring of the atmosphere and therefore minima showed only slight variation at all stations. Under 190 conditions of warmest high winds, Station 8, which usually had the microclimate, often showed lower temperatures due TABLE 2 to its exposed position. Conditions, Estimated Wind Velocity Medium to Brisk Minima Under Clear Brisk winds led to a mixing and stirring of the atmosphere and therefore temperatures were quite similar at all stations. Table 3 illustrates the uniformity that was evident in the minima under cloudy conditions. If calm nights such as these had been clear, there would have been wide variations. However, the cloud blanket intercepted and prevented the radiation of heat from below. In the absence of radiational cooling, there is a pattern of uniformity despite light winds. As would be expected, similar gradients frequently came about during periods of rain and snow. ~ TABLE 3 Minima Under Cloudy Conditions, Estimated Wind Velocity Light to Very Light The cloud cover intercepted and prevented the radiation of heat from below. In the absence of radiational cooling, only slight differences appeared in the minima despite relative calm. TABLE 4 Minimum Temperatures at Arboretum Stations January 1935 Average ' Those responsible for planting the Arboretum in its early years were aware of the more favorable microclimates in the vicinities of Stations 1, 3, 4, and 6 and set out many plants of questionable hardiness in those areas. 191 Factors which Influence the Climate at Boston. In the Annual Summary of Boston Climatological Data (1968), published by the U.S. Department of Commerce, the Boston climate is described as follows: \"Three important influences are responsible for the main features of Boston's climate. First, the latitude (42'N) places the city in the zone of prevailing west to east atmospheric flow in which are encompassed the northward and southward movements of large bodies of air from tropical and polar regions. This results in variety and changeability of the weather elements. Secondly, Boston is situated on or near several tracks frequently followed by systems of low air pressure. The consequent fluctuations from fair to cloudy or stormy conditions reinforce the influence of the first factor, while also assuring a rather dependable precipitation supply. The third factor, Boston's East Coast location, is a moderating factor effecting temperature extremes of winter and summer.\" Boston's official weather station is located at Logan International Airport in East Boston. It is situated seven miles northeast of the Arnold Arboretum. Its climate is modified by proximity to the sea and is quite different from that at the Arnold Arboretum. Temperatures are usually cooler in summer, warmer in winter, and have less range in the extremes. To show these differences data concerning the past three years have been brought together in Table 5. TABLE 5 Comparative Data Of~acial Boston and Arnold Arboretum Weather Stations The growing season is defined as the Growing Season. number of days between the last day of killing frost in the spring and the first day with killing frost in autumn. This time 192I is determined by the last spring and the first fall temperature of 32 degrees F. or lower. Those concerned with gardening realize the considerable yearto-year variation that can occur in length of the growing season. During one year in the Boston area, frost may take place in early September while it might not occur until November in the more favorable microclimates. Note in Table 5 that Boston The eight-inch nonrecording precipitation gauges. Left to right: funnel to be attached at top of gauge, gauge proper, reservoir in which the gauge is set. favored with 47, 56, and 77 more growing three years concerned than the Arboretum. was days during the Importance of Small Differences in Temperature. can casion, small differences in temperature On ocbe of critical im- 193 portance. During a two-day period on December 28 and 29, 1968, precipitation amounting to 1.29 inches was recorded at the Arboretum. freezing point build-up of ice - Temperatures at that time flirted with the 30 to 34 degrees F. There was little if any and no damage occurred in the plant collections. However, at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, 13.5 miles further inland at Weston, conditions were quite different. The temperature there is usually a few degrees colder than at Jamaica Plain. Precipitation which fell as rain in Jamaica Plain became freezing rain at Weston. Enormous weights of ice formed on the branches of trees until they could no longer support the burden and snapped or split. On the other hand, the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain may suffer damage while the Case Estates at Weston may not. On February 9, 1969, snow began to fall at 5 : 30 A.M. The temperature was 31 degrees F. Snow continued through that day, the following night, and finally stopped at 1:00 P.M. on February 10, leaving an accumulation of 15.8 inches temperatures during the period showed a maximum of 32 degrees F. and a minimum of 30 degrees F. The near-freezing temperature resulted in snow that was heavy and moist. Each flake seemed to remain where it fell. Plants became so overburdened with the accumulation of wet snow that damage was devastating. Many trees of weak structure such as magnolias, Douglas firs, and carpinus were broken and split to pieces. A lace-bark pine, which is an especially weak-wooded tree, broke off at ground level. Evergreens, which hold their foliage and therefore have more snow catching surface, were particularly vulnerable. Some junipers were broken in half and some were literally pulled out of the ground by the great weight of the snow. Much of the Arboretum was in shambles. Meanwhile, the temperature at the Case Estates was apparently a bit colder and the snow was drier. It did not cling so did no harm. It is interesting that at this time the temperature along the shore south of Boston was slightly warmer and precipitation was in the form of rain. ALFRED JAMES FORDHAM 194 Faxon Drawings for Christmas The staff of the Arnold Arboretum has selected four of Charles Edward Faxon's botanical drawings, originally published in The Silva of North America, for Christmas cards. The cards and envelopes are available in boxes of 20 (five of each of the four cards) or individually. The drawings are in black and white, printed on heavy card stock. The four illustrations are: 1. Ilex opaca, American Holly 2. Larix occidentalis, Tamarach 3. Thuya occidentalis, White Cedar 4. Pinus ponderosa, Yellow Pine Price: Box of 20 cards (four illustrations) Friends of the Arnold Arboretum* Others - $3.00 $3.50 .20 .25 cards Friends of the Arnold Arboretum* Others Single - Information on how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" be obtained by writing or calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130. Telephone: 524-1717. * can 195 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":6,"start_page":196,"end_page":196,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24512","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070896b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews A Photo Guide to the Patterns of Discoloration and Decay in Living Northern Hardwood Trees, by Alex L. Shigo and Edwin vH. Larson. Judging by its title this ought to be a formidable treatise but it isn't. For the forester for whom it is probably primarily intended, it is a straightforward explanation of what causes defects and discoloration in the wood of commercial forest trees. For the homeowner, the landscape gardener, the town tree warden, it gives an indication of the amount of internal damage caused to a tree by a particular kind of injury. Put another way, it suggests what kind of injury is best treated by removing the tree and what injuries are unlikely to weaken a tree unduly. It provides a visual explanation of the reasons why aborists place such great emphasis on clean flush cuts why branch stubs should not be left on the tree to decay. Injuries by squirrels (yes!), sapsuckers, and porcupines are shown. Fifty-nine reproductions of color photographs show what the inside and outside of the tree looks like with the various injuries. Dr. Shigo's basic tool is the chain saw, which allows longitudinal sections of a tree trunk to be made easily. This is, if you will, the results of tree autopsy. It certainly demonstrates the value of the method. Highly recommended for homeowners interested in the well- being of their trees. G.P.DEW. U.S.D.A. Research ment Station: Paper NE-127. Northeast Forest ExperiUpper Darby, Pennsylvania. 1969. Available on request. 196 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23357","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270ab6e.jpg","title":"1970-5-30","volume":30,"issue_number":5,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Dahlia: An Early History","article_sequence":1,"start_page":121,"end_page":138,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24509","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d0708528.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sorensen, Paul D.","article_content":"The Dahlia: An Early History In 1934 Marshall Howe, of the New York Botanical Garden, compiled a list of Dahlia cultivars containing more than 14,000 names. This number represents an astonishing average of over 100 newly named cultivars during each of the 143 years since 1791, when dahlias were first brought into cultivation in the gardens of Spain following their arrival from Mexico. Today dahlias are among the most familiar and cherished subjects of gardens in all parts of the globe. Interest in the garden dahlia has, in its brief modern history, generated the founding of dahlia societies on both sides of the Atlantic, with memberships in the thousands; produced an industry with annual revenues in the millions of dollars resulting from the sale and exchange of living plants and seeds; spawned horticultural shows designed exclusively around home-grown and professionally grown dahlias on the local, reigonal, national, and even international levels; and created scores of books and hundreds of published articles covering dahlia history, cultivation, and the classification of the garden forms as well as the more formal taxonomy of the wild species. Despite such intense interest and attention, the history of our garden dahlia has been treated in a sketchy and piecemeal manner. At the present time no definitive history exists which spans the entire period for which records are known. Many errors and much fiction lie scattered in the literature of the past and present, relating to the dahlia. Some of these have been picked up and repeated as fact by subsequent authors who have failed to authenticate their information by going to original source materials. Some writers of the past have made sweeping judgments of the validity of certain facts and details of dahlia history while providing not a word of reasoning in support of their conclusions. During the past several years I have been concerned with preparing a treatise on the systematics and classification of the genus Dahlia as a whole, with particular emphasis upon the data from the wild species.l While principally a \"botanical\" project, this effort has involved extensive reading in both the 121 122 botanical literature as well as in that literature otherwise deemed horticultural. Such a survey became necessary because there were times in the past when a careful distinction was not made between the naming and classification of wild and domesticated plants. Thus, I became inadvertently aware of many facts concerning the history of the Dahlia in cultivation. In several instances the sources of some of the errors alluded to above became apparent to me, and some interesting new facts were brought to light, which proved worthwhile in clearing up our view of the origin of Dahlia cultivation. One may, for the sake of convenience, divide Dahlia history arbitrarily into several periods, each of which serves to focus attention upon one or a few major developments: 1) Prehistorical and early historical period (c. 1552-1790) 2) Period of early scientific description ( 1790-1796 ) 3) Early introduction and distribution of first modern cultivars and species (1796-1804) 4 ) Early breeding period (1804-1814) 5) Controlled breeding period (1814-1929) 6) Genetic breeding period (1929-present) 7) Period when nutritional control in cultivation was applied ( ? - present) The present account is devoted to consideration of the first three The first of these, as we shall see, concerns developments which took place in the dahlia's native land, Mexico, while the second and third periods belong to Europe, as do the remaining periods. One must keep in mind that at times the dahlia has had a dual history, one relating primarily to botanical endeavors and the other to horticultural. The above periods emphasize the horticultural side of the genus. Formal Dahlia history begins in the late 18th century in Spain, where Antonio Jose Cavanilles gave the genus its Latin name in commemoration of Andreas Dahl, a Swedish botanist and pupil of Linnaeus. Cavanilles, then a senior member of the staff of the Royal Botanic Garden in Madrid (not its director as often stated 2), had received seeds of Mexican plants.3 Plants grown from these seeds were cultivated in Madrid and comprised the materials upon which Cavanilles based his description of the first \"dahlia,\" Dahlia pinnata. Thus, even from the earliest days of the scientific period of its history, the dahlia was a cultivated plant. As we shall see, the cultivation of dahlias really begins much earlier. At the appropriate time I shall come back to further discussion of Cavanilles' dahlias. periods. 123 Our garden dahlia seems so familiar that few among us are aware of its nativity in Mexico. Most persons learning this for the first time express considerable surprise, usually having thought the dahlia to have originated in Europe (which, in a certain sense, it did, inasmuch as the great majority of our horticultural forms were created through various kinds of plant breeding in Europe by European plantsmen). But all of the species known of the genus are native within the borders of Mexico and adjacent countries of Central America. Long before Cavanilles described the there are now genus, these species twenty-seven known - existed as unmolested members of the flora occupying mostly the great central plateau or highlands of Mexico. Even today one can see them during the months of August and September in profusion along the highways, growing out of cliffs, among boulders, in cultivated fields alongside the milpa or maize which we call corn, and on open slopes of the volcanic mountains. If dahlias grew in New England and behaved here as they do in Mexico, we would surely regard them as weeds. These weeds of Mexico are the progenitors of our garden dahlias, and the early history of these garden plants is closely linked to the history of Mexico, especially that period which passed before and soon after the - 1 Fig. Spanish conquest. . Our interest centers on the Aztecs and Moctezuma.*This young prince gained the throne in 1502 and ruled for eighteen years before his fall when he was made a captive of the Spanish conquerors led by Hernan Cortes in 1520.4 A few extant eyewitness accounts indicate that the Aztecs of this period engaged in horticultural practices. Recently, Zelia Nuttall has written about the gardens of Mexico.v In her review we learn that the construction of gardens was one of the principal activities to which the ruling classes devoted themselves. As in our own society, Aztec gardens were each specialized to fulfill a single purpose. There were gardens for ornamental plants, special familiar Monte- * The name has several variations, including the more zuma. 124 ones for plants which gave off a pleasing fragrance, gardens for medicinal plants, some for cut flowers, orchards, and vegetable gardens. Gardening in Aztec society was an activity conducted solely at the behest and pleasure of the noblemen, the labor being carried on by slaves. Moctezuma himself owned many gardens. Heman Cortes, in a letter to his Emperor, Charles V, describes one of Moctezuma's gardens at Iztapalapa, a town several miles from the capital, Tenochtitlan : \"There are ... very refreshing gardens with many trees and sweet-scented flowers, bathing places of fresh water ... He also has a large orchard ... Toward the wall of the garden are hedges of lattice work made of cane, behind which are all sorts of plantations of trees and aromatic herbs.\" Bernal Diaz, Lieutenant of Cortes, wrote about Iztapalapa saying: \"The garden and orchard are most admirable. I saw and walked about in them and could not satiate myself sufficiently looking at the many trees and enjoying the perfume of each. And there were walks bordered with the roses of this country and flowers and many fruit trees and flowering shrubs.\" The most wonderful of all Moctezuma's gardens was the tropical one at Huaxtepec. It was with the use of this garden that Moctezuma's father instituted an elaborate program of plant introduction. Huaxtepec lay in the tropical valley south of the Valley of Mexico and occupied an elevation 2,000 feet lower, with a climate somewhat ameliorated from that of the capital, which was about 7,400 feet above sea level. It made an ideal place in which to try out the cultivation of introduced plants. Requests were dispatched to all the lords of the empire, especially to those who ruled settlements along the coasts, that they send a selection of plants from their regions for cultivation in Huaxtepec. Great ceremony accompanied the planting of each introduction, which arrived \"balled and burlapped!\" their roots enclosed in earth and the whole wrapped with richly decorated mantles. Priests were summoned to make animal sacrifices for each planting, spilling blood of the offering as well as some drawn from their own ears onto the soil prepared for the plant. Cortes visited the garden in Huaxtepec and reckoned its size at two leagues, or six and one-half miles, in circumference roughly two times the size of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. When he and others in his company saw it \"and promenaded in it for a while they were filled with admiration and said that even in Spain they had never seen a finer kind of pleasure garden.\" It's a pity that precious little remains of this - 125 At Huaxtepec there could be seen, as few aging monarchs of Taxodium, or cypress recently trees, which had been planted in long colonnades. By now even these may be gone. As a natural corollary to developing skills in the horticultural arts, the Aztecs also devoted much effort to the practice of medicine utilizing remedies prepared from plants. In the years following the Spanish conquest of Mexico, which was completed in 1552, many Europeans came to the New World from the monastic schools of Spain and France to teach in the new convents and schools which had been established for the education of the sons of Aztec noblemen. Some of the friars recognized that Aztec medical arts contained many remedies superior to those they had learned in Europe. Some of them endeavored to study the uses of native medicines and to acquire the skills of the Aztecs in their preparation. Others became engaged in learning the Aztec language, Nahuatl, and eventually they contrived a Nahuatl grammar which greatly aided in their grasp of Aztec culture. At the same time the development of a Nahuatl grammar had the result of hastening the instruction of Aztec pupils in their study of Latin and Spanish. With this the stage was set for an important event which relates to our review of dahlia history. horticultural as splendor. a 1925, The Earliest Record of a \"Dahlia\". One of the earliest institutions of learning in the New World dedicated to improving the education of Aztec boys was established in 1536. The college of Santa Cruz was constructed in the native quarter of the ancient city of Mexico at the Convent of Tlaltelulco. It attracted many gifted teachers. An Aztec pupil at the college, given the name Martinus de la Cruz, there learned to write his native Nahuatl and, through his interest in medicine, eventually rose to become \"Physician of the College\" and to give instruction in medicine to other native sons. Also among the Indian boys who distinguished themselves by their ability was a young man from Xochimilco, a place which then, as today, was a horticultural and agricultural center. This young man had been given the name Juannes Badianus. He had mastered Latin sufficiently to be made a \"Reader of Latin\" at the college. Having been reared in the region of the horticulturally important Xochimilco, an area south of the city of Mexico, Juannes Badianus brought to the college an intimate familiarity with the plants cultivated by the Aztecs. Badianus and Martinus the one skilled in the cultivation of plants and fluent in the Latin - Fig. 2: The Cohuanenepilli found in The Badianus Reproduced Manuscript. from the facsimile edition by Emmart. This represents the world's first illustration of a dahlia. the other trained in medical knowledge and practices co-authored an illustrated herbal, considered the first book written about the medicinal plants of the New World, The Badianus Manuscript, An Aztec Herbal of 1552. This important manuscript was written first in Nahuatl by Martinus de la Cruz and then translated into Latin by Juannes Badianus. It lay forgotten and unknown for nearly 400 years until its rediscovery at the Vatican Library in 1931. The fascinating historical events attending the writing of this simple little book have been fully investigated by Emily Emmart and published in her detailed introduction to the facsimile edition of the manuscript.6 The Badianus Manuscript contains what may be taken as the earliest illustration of a Dahlia that has thus far come down to us. We are doubly fortunate that this Dahlia illustration is in full color in the facsimile, assisting greatly in our recognition of the plant (see Fig. 2, reproduced here from Pl. 59 of the facsimile). As will be shown later, nearly 300 years intervene before a colored picture of a Dahlia again appears in botanical literature. The Martinus-Badianus illustration of the dahlia is somewhat contrived and stylized in a manner typifying most of the drawings in their book. Because of this it would be presumptive to assert its correspondence with any of the wild species as we language, - 126 127 ment. know them today. That it is a Dahlia at all is a matter of judgIn The Badianus Manuscript we are shown a picture of a plant with three flowering heads, each producing eight ligulate or ray florets and each borne singly at the end of a branch. The pinnately compound leaves are opposite each other across the stem (though some are shown arranged alternately). Except for the few alternate leaves, the other characteristics displayed are all those one usually associates with the genus Dahlia. It is unfortunate the best known and probably most characteristic feature of the genus, namely the tuberous root, is poorly drawn and rather non-descript. The generalized portrayal of the roots may be a reflection of the emphasis the authors have placed upon the stems as the most important part of the plant. Only the stems are used in the medicinal preparations they describe. One should, perhaps, not search too deeply for any significance in the authors' omission of the tuberous roots. Emmart has pointed out that the manner in which roots are portrayed in the manuscript is intended to convey in symbolic form the respective natural habitats of each plant. Thus the roots of their dahlia are shown penetrating the symbol for rocks or stones, thereby accurately asserting the plant is to be found among the rocks of nearby mountain slopes. The color of the rays as reproduced in the facsimile is of such a tint that one cannot determine whether it represents a shade of purple or a shade of scarlet. The same color appears in the illustrations of other plants throughout the book and is also used by the writers for the lettering of all the names and subtitles. If pressed for a specific determination of this Dahlia, I should likely choose to call it Dahlia coccinea. In so doing I can scarcely avoid taking into consideration that D. coccinea is the most widespread of the species. One finds it particularly abundant on the mountain slopes surrounding the Valley of Mexico. Other species occur in this region as well, but these tend to have more restricted ranges and would be less well known. Regarding medicinal properties, it is worthwhile to note briefly the early uses Aztec physicians found for dahlias as revealed in The Badianus Manuscript. Emmart7 has carefully analyzed the Latin text and offered her own English translation and commentary. Stems of the dahlia, in combination with extracts and ground up seeds of other plants, were used principally in a preparation for the treatment of a disorder called the \"closed urinary meatus.\" According to Martinus de la Cruz, the Aztec's name for the dahlia used in this way was \"Cohuanenepilli,\" 128 which means \"serpent tongue.\" Emmart explains that nothing about a dahila resembles a serpent's tongue, rather the name is a reference to the use of the plant. Other species with this vernacular name were used in the treatment of the same disorder. One such, recognized as a Passiflora and identified by Martinez s as P. jorullensis, bears leaves vaguely suggestive of a snake's forked tongue. These early Aztec herbalists provide us with a record of the medicinal plants of Ancient Mexico but tell us nothing about their cultivation. At best we can only guess that in a culture where medicinal plants were grown in special gardens, as those created by Moctezuma for his court physicians, the dahlia would have been a likely subject. The \"Dahlias\" of Francisco Hernandez. Interestingly, our second historical encounter with a dahlia is in a source similar to that a medical book. By the middle of The Badianus Manuscript of the 16th Century Europeans regularly received reports from the fabulous lands the Spanish had colonized across the Atlantic. Woodcuts of the period reveal the exaggerations of some tales told about the New World. Such excessiveness aroused curiosity among Europeans and undoubtedly hastened further exploration. His interest perhaps awakened by such reports, King Phillip II of Spain commissioned his personal physician, Francisco Hernandez, to travel to Nueva Espana and prepare an account of \"the natural history of the land.\" King Phillip honored Hernandez with the title \"Protomedico of the Indies\" and provided a generous sum of money to support his work. Hernandez sailed from Spain in 1570 with five years allotted him to complete his task. The salient facts of Hernandez' travels have been recorded by Standley,3 where we read that five years were scarcely enough to complete his work. By 1575 he had sixteen folio volumes ready for publication, but he remained in Mexico two more years, continually engaged with the objects of his commission. In September 1577 he returned to Spain hoping to address himself immediately to the problem of publishing his book. Difficulties arose to thwart his efforts, and he died in 1578 without seeing his work in print. Nearly a century elapsed before work again began on publishing the manuscript. Meanwhile, other persons had extracted from it certain portions which they thought important, and these received further attention from students and scholars who added their annotations. When at last the book did appear, - 129 published was in Rome about 1651, one wonders how much of it the work of Hernandez and how much that of others. The title of Hernandez' book is Rerum Medicarum Novae Hispaniae Thesaurus seu Plantarum, Animalium, Mineralium Mexicanorum Historia (happily, often abbreviated simply Thesaurus). It contains the enormous quantity of detailed observations he made as well as the sketches he produced of the landscape, plants, and animals. Considering the magnitude of the task, it was a very complete work for that period, and at times has been called the world's first natural history. Our interest here with Hernandez' Thesaurus is that in it are found sketches of three dahlias, introduced by their vernacular Nahuatl names, acocotli and cocoxochitl, which Safford 10 translates as follows: \"... [the names are] derived from cocotli, signifying the word 'syringa' a hollow-stemmed plant; acocotli literally translated becoming 'water-cane' or 'water-pipe'; cocoxochitl, 'cane-flower' or 'hollow-stem-flower.'\"\" Of particular significance are the characteristics of the dahlias revealed in these sketches. On page 372 of the Thesaurus (redrawn here in Fig. 3) is a dahlia essentially like many contemporary cultivars, in that the capitula or heads are shown with multiple whorls of ligulate florets. Such heads are called, in the terminology of today's horticultural trade, \"double-flowered.\" Wild individuals of Dahlia species do not normally produce such heads but rather produce heads with a uniform single whorl of eight ligulate florets or rays (Fig. 1). Double-flowered forms seem to be extremely common among cultivated genera of Compositae, the plant family to which Dahlia belongs. Strains producing double-flowered heads are usually derived through selection from variants, of which some or all of the tubular shaped disc florets occupying the center of the heads are abnormally modified into florets developing an elongate ray or strap-shaped ligule composed of the fused petals of the corolla. Many of the common cultivated genera of Compositae are known to modern gardeners only in their double-flowered form, but this type is rare among wild populations. During the course of two 8,000mile collecting trips by auto through Mexico and Central America, I visited and collected from hundreds of wild populations of Dahlia species without seeing a single individual bearing double-flowered heads. Moreover, of the more than 2,000 herbarium specimens which I examined for my studies of the genus, the only double-flowered specimens were those of cultivars collected from garden-grown plants, mostly from Europe and the United States. 130 In Hernandez' Thesaurus there appear, in all, three separate illustrations of dahlias. These figures were reproduced by woodcuts, worked from the original sketches made by Hernandez. The quality of the figures varies somewhat. For example, the illustration reproduced here in Fig. 3 has very well drawn heads which show the principal diagnostic features of the dahlia capitulum. First of all the heads show clearly their degree of doubleness, and in this regard they may be compared to many of those produced on our modern cultivars. More importantly, or of more diagnostic value, are the reflexed outer involucral bracts. The position of these bracts is a trait present in well over half the wild species and all of the modem cultivars. These bracts, usually five in number, but ranging within the genus from four to six (rarely to seven or more), surround the capitulum tightly in the young bud. As the buds near anthesis the bracts begin to be reflexed and remain so during the flowering period and later. Ultimately, as the fruits or achenes reach maturity, the inner whorl of bracts subtending the non-functional ovaries of the ligulate florets also become reflexed. When this happens the ripe achenes dislodge and are dispersed short distances by the wind. The leaves on this illustration are not clearly drawn. It is difficult to relate the plant in the figure to any known species of the genus solely on the characteristics of the leaves as they are portrayed. The accompanying description may only be misleading in this respect. Hernandez, in reference to the leaves, writes, \"Folia Aquilegiae.\" On first appearances this would seem to mean the leaves resemble those of Aquilegia, but one ought not assume this too readily as this description was written in 1570 - long before a uniform usage of generic names was in practice. Nor do the leaves in the woodcut resemble those of Aquilegia in the present application of that name. It must be recalled that this woodcut is a \"second-hand\" interpretation of the original sketches which Hernandez made. Indeed, even the description may be the interpretation or annotation of one of the compilers. The reverse problem of identification is true for the two figures which appear on page 31 of the Thesaurus (see Fig. 4). In this pair of woodcuts the leaves are quite clearly drawn, but the characteristics of the double-flowered heads are obscure. Payne,l1 has made it clear he does not believe there are in these or even illustrations sufficient details to assert their specific their generic identity. I would agree that one might justifiably retain some skepticism concerning their relationships to - Fig. 3: A \"double-flowered\" dahlia, called Acocoxochitl. Redrawn from Hernandez' Thesaurus, p. 372. 132I known Dahlia species. However, there are at least three extant species of the genus which bear leaves roughly corresponding to those in the figures. These are Dahlia coccinea, D. pinnata, and D. brevis. Also, in the remarks about the figures the brief description states \"stellatos flores e pallido rubiscentes,\" or \"flowers star-shaped, from pale [i.e. yellow] to red,\" and \"Radix gustu odorata, amara, & acris est,\" or \"the root is sweet-smelling, bitter, and sharp in taste.\" The description of the root is apt and agrees with my own reaction to the taste and odor of the tubers of the more widely distributed species such as Dahlia coccinea. On the other hand, the description of the flowers (meaning head) \"from pale to red,\" may be interpreted in two ways, each of which can relate the description to Dahlia coccinea. First: Hernandez may have been considering the twocolored nature of the heads in which the centrally placed yellow disc florets are surrounded by the red ligulate florets; or he might have been referring to the color of the ligules themselves which, in different individuals, often within the same population, ranges from yellow to scarlet, frequently with parti-colored intermediates. Second: Hernandez mentions the geographic location of the plants he observed. He calls them \"De acocotli Quauhnahuacensi & Tepoztlanensi,\" or \"The acocotli of Cuernavaca and Tepoztlan.\" These cities, located in the present-day State of Morelos and known to have been well-established pueblos in pre-Hispanic times, are 18 kilometers apart and are situated in the midst of rich Dahlia country, where frequently one encounters, from mid- or late July through September, entire hillsides given over to large populations of these striking plants. In the foregoing assessment of the Dahlia sketches which appear in Hernandez' Thesaurus, I have referred to the comparisons one may draw between them and the wild species of the genus. The question remains, were the plants Hernandez observed wild or domesticated? Did he sketch them from spontaneous natural populations or did he use as his subjects individuals found under cultivation in an Aztec garden? In the text accompanying the figures of acocotli Hernandez makes no mention of the cultivation of the plants he sketched. I have found no direct evidence that Hernandez' dahlias were of garden origin. Most authors who have offered summaries of dahlia history state that Hernandez' plants were from an Aztec garden. One early writer came to the conclusion that Hernandez wrote about garden plants; since then all writers have repeated this conclusion without further substantiation. On the other hand, the conclusion that Hernandez described dahlias from Fig. 4. Two double-flowered dahlias, called Acoctoli and Cocoxochitl. Redrawn from Hernandez' Thesaurus, p. 31. has a sound basis. Hernandez may very well have seen his acocotli in an Aztec garden, for it is known he spent the bulk of the time devoted to his writing at the Convent of Huaxtepec where, as described earlier, one of Ancient Mexico's largest and most elaborate gardens was located. When the first double-flowered acocotli was discovered by the pre-Hispanic people of Mexico or Central America, either among the spontaneous plants in the mountains or among offspring of plants the early gardeners had brought into cultivation, it must have been at once treasured and given careful protection. To a people who derived medicine from these plants, the rare occurrence of an abnormal double-flowered form surely aroused enormous interest and was considered a phenomenon of grave significance. Might one not guess that an Aztec apothecary, seeing a doubleflowered dahlia for the first time, would have reasoned its healing powers to be also \"doubled?\" Every society has had its panacea. Remembering that Hernandez was a physician, we note he has taken cognizance of many Aztec remedies. About the use of dahlias he writes, \"[The tuber] when consumed in a weight of one ounce, alleviates stomach pain, dissipates blowing, draws forth urine, invokes perspiration, drives out coldness, strengthens the stomach weak because of the cold, turns aside cholic, opens what has been blocked, and when moved to the swellings, disperses them.\" The \"Aster\" of Thiery de Menonville. Nicolas Joseph Thiery de Menonville served the King of France as a thief. This French botanist and pupil of de Jussieu lived in the colony of Santo Domingo whence he was commissioned to perform a secret service in Mexico in 1777. His mission: to secure living specimens of the jealously guarded cochineal insect and the Nopal cactus on which the insect lived. He was to smuggle these to the French islands in the Caribbean, where it was hoped a dye industry would flourish. Whereas Hernandez was a physician who regarded plants from the viewpoint of their medicinal properties, Thiery de Menonville was a botanist whose orientation was scientific and esthetic. Once in Mexico he traveled from the city of Veracruz to the city of Oaxaca and, in a very interesting written account of his travels, describes the plants and the vegetation he observed, both in the wild and under domestication. He writes of a visit to a local merchant's garden in the mountains where he had gone to observe the Nopal: \"I was struck at once by a double violet aster, as large as those of France, but produced on a shrub resembling, by its pinnate I gardens 134 135 leaves, that of Elder, and which created a very good effect. clear reference to the early cultivation of an \"improved\" plant which roughly describes Dahlia tenuicaulis, a species native to Cerro de San Felipe, which towers over the city of Oaxaca. Some authors have credited Thiery de Menonville with the introduction of dahlia seeds into France,13 but I find this accreditation wholely obscure. The only plant materials he mentions carrying with him on his departure from Oaxaca were cuttings of the Nopal cactus, which he carefully concealed. Thiery de Menonville died in Santo Domingo in 1780 and may never have returned to France. There seems to be no record that dahlias, in fact, reached the Old World until about 1788 or 1789, when an event occurred to awaken Europeans to the ornamental possibilties of the genus. our a ...\" 12 Here is Dahlias Reach Cervantes, Late in the eighteenth century, Vincente associated with a Mexican botanic garden, consigned to Antonio Jose Cavanilles, in Madrid, a shipment of seeds of Mexican plants. Cavanilles, who was then Professor and later Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens of Spain, raised from among these seeds the plants he used to describe the first three species of the genus Dahlia.* He published his finding in six books called Icones et Descriptiones Plantarum. The first volume (1791) contains his drawing and description of Dahlia pinnata.14 The importance of this first scientifically recognized species of the genus Dahlia warrants further comment. The precise origin of Dahlia pinnata is not known. Cavanilles, in his remarks on the nativity of the species, states merely that it grows in Mexico. Knowledge of its origin would be very revealing to us because this early record is also of a doubleflowered form. Could it be this plant was discovered in the wild by Cervantes or someone in his employ? Perhaps Cervantes gathered the seeds from plants cultivated in an Aztec garden. More likely, the seeds were gathered from plants in a botanic garden of Mexico City where the Spanish had undoubtedly assembled many of the wild and domesticated plants of the land during the 200 years of colonial occupation. In a later volume (1796) of his Icones, Cavanilles described and illustrated two additional species of Dahlia, D. rosea and D. coccinea. The flowering heads of both these species as seen in the plates drawn of them bore ligulate florets in a single Europe. a man * It is unlikely tubers could have survived the voyage. 136 whorl.15 The origin of the seeds from which these plants grew is equally as obscure as the origin of the seeds of Dahlia pinnata. They could as well have come from wild populations as from a garden, since their single-flowered heads indicate they had not undergone selection for \"improvement.\" During the latter half of the eighteenth century Europeans developed a great enthusiasm for plants of the New World. Because of Spain's role as a colonial power, botanists and plantsmen of other European countries were eager to maintain correspondence with the Royal Botanic Garden in Madrid, where each returning vessel delivered an increasing and bewildering number of new and unusual plants from the floras of Nueva Hispania. Regular exchanges of plant materials between individuals and institutions were established so that, in a short time, new introductions of plants with particular merit received a wide distribution. As reported in an article by Thouin, Cavanilles sent seeds of his three dahlias to M. Thibaud of France in the year 1802.16 Thibaud conveyed these seeds to the botanists of the Paris Museum of Natural History where they were grown and tested. For his article, believed to be the first ever dealing with the modern procedures for the cultivation of dahlias, Thouin provided the world's first published colored portrait of these plants. This portrait created a great interest in itself, for it was soon reproduced in several other European journals and horticultural magazines, and undoubtedly helped to create further enthusiasm for these new garden plants. Exactly how widely seeds of dahlias were disseminated from Madrid is not fully known. What is known is that dahlia seeds were received at Montpellier, in Berlin, in St. Petersburg, and such as the at Kensington, England. No doubt other places horticultural capitals of Brussels, Leiden, Copenhagen, Edinburgh, and Kew - were not neglected in this distribution. In Montpellier, the French botanist, Alphonse de Candolle, received seeds in 1802 from Cavanilles.l ~ Seeds were also received in Berlin about 1802, and there, in the following year, Willdenow prepared a revision of the genus for the fourth edition of Linnaeus' Species Plantarum. With this revision Willdenow introduced the genus under a new name, that of Georgina, believing that the name Dahlia (Cavanilles, 1791) had already been used for a genus of the Hamamelidaceae described by Thunberg in 1792. This error in dates, and the substitution of the name Georgina for Dahlia, took many years to correct. The name Georgina became firmly established in the literature and horti- 137 culture of the countries east of the Rhine, where even today it persists as a common name for the garden dahlia. For many years it was thought that dahlias were first introduced into Great Britain in 1789 through the auspices of one Lady Bute. Few stopped to consider that the genus had not even been described until 1791. An enthusiastic \"detective\" by the name of C. Harman Payne, of England - about the time of what was thought to be the 100th anniversary of the arrival of dahlias in England - grappled with this problem.18 He studied the events and records of the 18th century and discovered that the error could be traced to an edition of Hortus Kewensis by Aiton (1813), in which the date of introduction was given as 1789. This turned out to be an error of the printer who had transposed the last two digits of 1798. The error had been noted and corrected in a supplement to this work published a few years later, but the correction went unnoticed. Payne also deduced that living plants had not been introduced in 1798; rather, what had been received in England, at Kew, were three herbarium specimens of dahlias. These had been sent to the (by then) Marchioness of Bute by Dr. Ortega, Director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Madrid. The Marchioness in turn gave them to the herbarium at Kew. The first authenticated introduction of living dahlia materials into England occurred in 1803 - and on this date many authors agree. The source of the information is volume 6, plate 408, dated November 1804, of Andrew's Botanist's Repository, where the world's second published colored portrait of a dahlia appears. The accompanying text states that the illustration was made from a plant grown from seeds sent from Madrid the year before to Lady Holland of Holland House, Kensington. The picture is that of Dahlia pinnata. Having placed living dahlias in the hands of plant breeders in the horticultural centers of Europe, the portents of a new floral industry were assured. The results of the flourishing period which followed are some we all still share and enjoy. ' PAUL D. SORENSEN Assistant Professor Northern Illinois University NOTES 1 Sorensen, Paul D., \"Revision of the genus Dahlia (Compositae, Heliantheae - Coreopsidinae),\" Rhodora 71 : 309~16, 1969. 2 Colmeiro, Miguel, Bosquejo Hist6rico y Estadistico del Jardin Botanico de Madrid, Madrid, 1875, p. 79. 138I 3 Cavanilles, Antonio Jose, leones A Short et Descriptiones Plantarum, Preface to vol. 1. 1791. ' McHenry, J. Patrick, (Dolphin), 1970, p. 22. History of Mexico, New York: Doubleday Nuttall, Zelia, \"The Gardens of Ancient Mexico,\" Smithsonian Reports for 1923, 1925, pp. 453-464. Publication 2776. 6 Emmart, Emily W., The Badianus Manuscript, an Aztec Herbal of 1552 (a facsimile edition of the Codex Barberini, Latin 241, Vatican Library), Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Press, 1940, Introduction pp. 1-81. ~ Ibid. pp. 263-264. e Martinez, Maximo, Las Plantas Medicinales de Mexico, Mexico, 1933, p. 372. 9 Standley, Paul C., \"Trees and Shrubs of Mexico.\" Contributions of the U.S. National Herbarium 23 ( 1 ) : 9-19, 1920. 10 Safford, W. E., \"Notes on the genus Dahlia with descriptions of two new species from Guatemala,\" Journal of the Washington Academy 9: 364-373, 1919. introduced into En1916. la Culture du Nopal et de l'Education de la Cochenille dans les Colonies Fran~aises de l'Amerique ; Precede d'un Voyage a Guaxaca, Santo Domingo, Haiti, 1787, p. 132. 13 new facts about these garden favorites,\" Sherff, E. E., \"Dahlias Chicago Natural History Museum Bulletin 22(6): 5-7, 1951; \"The native dahlias of Mexico,\" Bulletin of the Louisiana Society for Horticultural - 11 Payne, C. Harman, \"When was the Dahlia first gland ?\" Gardener's Chronicle Series 3, 60: 143-144, 12 Thiery de Menonville, Nicholas Joseph, Traite de Research 2(2): 62-76, 1962. \"Cavanilles, op. cit. 1: 57, tab. 80, 1791. 15 Cavanilles, op. cit. 3: 33, tab. 265 & 266, 1796. 16 Thouin, Andre, \"Memoire sur la culture des Dahlia,\" Annales du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Paris 3: 420-423, illus., 1804. \"Andre, Edouard, \"Le centenaire du Dahlia,\" Revue Horticole, 61; 523-524,1889. 18 Payne, C. Harman, loc. cit. Mr. Heman A. Howard, Assistant Horticulturist, will resign from the staff on August 31st of this year. Mr. Howard, who came to the Arboretum in 1929, has been responsible for a multitude of duties labeling, mapping, checking, and photographing the plants on the grounds for the past several years. Needless to say, the staff will miss his hard work and good humor. We wish him well in his new position as Horticulturist at the Heritage Plantation, Sandwich, Mass. - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Yews in Fiction and Fact","article_sequence":2,"start_page":139,"end_page":147,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24510","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070856d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Silber, Mark; DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Yews in Fiction and Fact Of vast circumference and gloom profound This solitary Tree! a living thing Produced too slowly ever to decay; Of form and aspect too magnificent To be destroyed. Wordsworth Yew trees first summer the photographer's attention during a of England and Wales.* He was particularly drawn to them when he arrived in the small town of Painswick in Gloucestershire. As one drives into the center of the village, one sees that it is dominated by its churchyard. The church a beautiful, old stone edifice dedicated to St. Mary the Virgin is surrounded by some ninety yew trees, each meticulously trimmed and manicured into free-standing forms, shaping paths and walks throughout the yard. The characteristic deep green, dense foliage of the trees contrasts with the grays of the church and gravestones to create a mood that borders between enchanting and haunting. According to tradition, the Painswick yews are clipped faithfully, on September 8, during the feast of the nativity of Our Lady. On the following Sunday - known locally as \"clipping Sunday\" the parishioners march in procession around the churchyard and join hands, forming a ring around the church. Following that, they gather at the foot of a flight of steps leading to a tower door from which a sermon is preached. caught auto tour - Yews in History and Literature. It is difficult to think of the English countryside without conjuring up some images of old churchyards, resplendent with Taxus baccata. The trees are so abundant in certain areas that they are called the \"Hampshire weed.\" According to some references, the yews are even older than the churchyards themselves and may be the only surviving vestiges of medieval times. is co-author of this article student in Professor Richard Schultes' Economic Botany class at Harvard. Mr. Silber is especially interested in ancient literary references to plants and animals. * Mark Silber, was a professional photographer, a and formerly 139 140 The association of the immortality most churchyard yew with the emblem of probably came into Christian tradition from pagan Britain. The yew is believed to have been but one of many pre-Christian symbols of nature that influenced later religious beliefs. It is easy to understand why the yew was selected for such meaning when one considers that it was, in early times, one of the only evergreen trees in England and Wales. Therefore, its foliage was not only decorative but \"everlasting.\" The yew was probably planted on religious sites and was a survival of pre-Christian tree worshippers. It is perhaps remarkable that it survived the transition from pre-Christian to Christian times, since Christian councils of the sixth and seventh centuries restricted the veneration of trees. In a short and interesting book titled The Churchyard Yews and Immortality, V. Cornish tells of his efforts to arrange the records of distribution and ages of yews found in Great Britain and, to a limited extent, on the Continent. In so doing, Cornish discovered that the distribution of these trees has been partly determined by the soil and rainfall available. In Wales, a country of heavy rainfall, the yews were abundant. Cornish estimates the age of some of these trees as about 900 years. He also recorded local legends which assigned to yews ages of somewhere between one and two thousand years. The traditions are repudiated by certain botanical experts who report that there 141 is no proof that any trees now in existence date back to Druidical times. Although historians do not always agree on the origins of the use of yews in association with religion, it is generally accepted that the early Roman invaders of Britain used the yew in their funeral rites in place of the usual cypress and pine. Like the cypress, the yew was considered as a symbol of the resurrection and of immortality. Yew branches were used to line graves and to blanket caskets. Yew branches were also worn in hats and in buttonholes by mourners. It is also fairly certain that the yew was used by some in place of palms for Palm Sunday celebrations. In the English churchyards of Kent, and in parts of Ireland, yew trees are referred to as palms because of their use in the palm services.l The yew was also used in church decoration along with the male catkins of Salix caprea, the goat willow.= The very fact that yews are so often found in churchyards and graveyards has given rise to numerous superstitions about them. In Dallimore's book, Holly, Yew & Box, he quotes, from R. Turner, one of the more interesting of these stories: ' Ernest H. Wilson, \"The Romance of Our Trees, IV. The Yew,\" The Garden Magazine 30: 213-217 (January 1920). 2 W. Dallimore, Holly, Yew & Box, London: John Lane, The Bodley Head, 1908. Fig. 5: T. baccata in the Painswick, Gloucestershire churchyard, where there are some ninety specimens. Photo: @ Mark Silber. 142 if the Yew be set in a place subject to poysonous vapours, the very branches will draw and imbibe them, hence it is conceived that the judicious in former times planted it in churchyards on the west side, because those places, being fuller of putrefaction and gross oleaginous vapours exhaled out of the graves by the setting sun, and sometimes drawn by those meteors called ignes fatui, divers have been frightened, supposing some dead bodies to walk, ... etc. It was undoubtedly Tennyson lines: to write in his this very superstition that moved Lord poem \"In Memoriam\" the following Old Yew, which graspest at the stones That name the underlying dead, Thy fibres net the dreamless head, Thy roots are wrapt about the bones. In his book Dallimore cited numerous writers and passages from literature that show the association of yews with death and immortality. These writers include Dryden, Virgil, Pliny, John Fletcher, Shakespeare, Wordsworth, Dyer, and Sir Walter Scott. Dallimore also suggests that the poisonous nature of the foliage has probably caused some of the undesirable associations to be made with yews. The toxic qualities were exaggerated in writings to the extent that there are authors who claimed that anyone who lay down to sleep beneath a yew would die. Such would also be the fate of those who were so cursed as to dream of the yew tree. While yews have had their longstanding association with things religious and superstitious, they have also long been associated with matters more specifically utilitarian. For centuries the wood of these trees has been coveted for the purpose of making archers' bows. It was used for the crossbows and long bows that warriors bore in the battles of Cressy and Poitiers. And it is still used in the sportman's bow. An interesting few lines from \"The Song of the Bow,\" by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle, read: The bow was made in England, Of true wood, of yew wood, The wood of English bows. Taxus baccata and Other Species. The genus Taxus, to which the commonly cultivated yews belong, consists of some eight 143 of evergreen, needle-leaved shrubs or trees. The species areas scattered over the North Temperate Zone. Of the eight species, only two and the hybrid between them are commonly cultivated in North America. Three more may be found in the collections of specialists or in botanical gardens. The differences listed in the books between the species do not seem to be very great. It must be admitted that some botanists, in the past, have considered them all to be merely varieties of a single species. However, the technical differences, combined with the differences of habit and habitat, do seem to be sufficient justification for keeping the entities separate. The five species that may be met with in cultivation may be distinguished as follows: species are native to forest Leaves gradually pointed; one persistent at the base of (Zone VI, except scales of the winter buds obtuse, without a keel, the branchlets; mature branchlets greenish T. baccata var. to Zone V) or Leaves abruptly pointed; scales of the winter buds obtuse keeled or not, not persistent at the base of the branchlets pointed, Scales of the winter buds not abruptly pointed, not keeled; leaves 2-11 cm. long, mature branchlets yellowish green (Zone V) T. chinensis Scales of the winter buds Leaves with cm. a abruptly pointed, keeled broad, prominent midrib, 2-3 mm. broad, mature 1.5-2.5 long; branchlets reddish brown (Zone IV) T. cuspidata Leaves with Plant only a slightly raised midrib, 1.5-2 mm. broad generally a low, frequently straggling, shrub; leaves 1.3-2 cm. long; seed broader than long; mature branch(Zone II) T. canadensis a lets green Plant mature tree; leaves 1-2 cm. long; seed longer than broad; branchlets yellowish green (Zone VI) T. brevifolia Taxus X media Rehder (T. cuspidata X T. baccata) is a hybrid that is commonly met with in the nursery trade. It originated about 1900 in the Hunnewell Arboretum in Wellesley, Massachusetts. Various forms are in the trade, but perhaps the most common are two erect forms, T. X media var. hatfieldii Rehder and T. X media var. hicksii Rehder. The technical characters are, in general, intermediate between the parents, except that the mature branchlets are olive green, frequently reddish above. A second hybrid, Taxus X hunnewelliana Rehder (T. cuspi- 144 T. canadensis) is much less commonly seen. This resembles T. cuspidata but generally has narrower, lighter green leaves. In winter the leaves usually take on a reddish cast, as do those of one of its parents, T. canadensis. Though usually of dioecious nature (individual plants being either male or female), yews are found which bear both male and female reproductive organs. The female structures are small and greenish and, until ripe, inconspicuous. The male \"catkins\" are also small, but when pollen is shed they become yellow. The pollen is wind borne and abundantly produced so copious, indeed, that the ground under the plants may be completely discolored by it. The fruit is a nut-like seed partly enclosed in a pinkish or reddish succulent cup. With the exception of the cup, which is apparently only slightly poisonous, all parts of the plant are intensely poisonous to all classes of livestock and to humans. The poisonous principles seem to be two alkaloids and a volatile oil, which is a slowly acting irritant. Children are attracted by the brightly colored, fleshy cup in the fall. In cases where children have ingested the fruit, it is probably wise to induce vomiting or to have the stomach pumped. In any event, a physician should be contacted. The following passage, quoted from Thomas Martyn's edition of Phillip Miller's Gardener's Dictionarz~ (1807), is too touching to pass without sharing with the modern gardening public: - data X A clergyman, who was a curate in Sussex, informed me, that a young lady and her servant, his parishioners, being seized with an ague, were advised to take a decoction of Rue, which they unhappily mistaking for Yew, sent to the church-yard, where a large old tree grew, and gathered a quantity of the leaves, of which they made a decoction, and drank it upon going to bed. The next morning they were both found dead. This was sunday: on the thursday following, the clergyman was called upon to bury them: he performed the office on the servant, but the young lady had so fine a bloom on her countenance, that they entertained hopes of her being in a state of suspended animation, and accordingly tried the experiments usual in such cases, but without success: they determined however not to bury her at that time, but kept her till the ensuing saturday, and even then the corpse remained totally unchanged. What made it more remarkable was, that the accident happened in november, and the weather was of that damp murky kind in which the flesh keeps worst. 145 The name Taxus canadensis was first used by Humphrey Marshall in his sales catalog \"Arbustum Americanum, the American Grove, or an Alphabetical Catalogue of Forest Trees and Shrubs Native of the American United States,\" published at Philadelphia in 1875. The plant had, of course, been known much earlier, but had been treated as a form of Taxus baccata. It is alleged to have been introduced into cultivation in England in 1800, though where, and by whom, seem not to have been recorded. Although by far the hardiest of the yews, it seems to be cultivated relatively seldom. Unlike T. baccata and T. cuspidata, it appears to require some shade to do well. Various gardening authorities suggest that its great value may be as a ground cover under evergreens. Rehder, writing in Bailey's Cyclopedia of Horticulture, says it is a \"Prostrate shrub, with wide-spreading slender branches, rarely more than 3 feet high. Leaves ... assuming in winter usually a reddish tint ... In cultivation it becomes usually a more upright and less straggling shrub.\" In nature it occurs from Newfoundland to Manitoba, southward through New England to western Virginia, through west central Indiana, northern Illinois to northeast Iowa. Taxus brevifolia, named by Thomas Nuttall, is a tree of the forests of the west coast of the American continent, ranging southward from British Columbia to California and eastward to Montana. It was introduced into English gardens in 1854 by William Lobb. It seems to be little cultivated and has the reputation, among gardeners, of being a difficult plant to grow. The name is said to be erroneously applied in the trade to T. cuspidata nana. Taxus cuspidata was named by P. F. von Siebold and J. G. Zuccarini in their great Flora ]aparzica of 1826-70, though it was first described as T. baccata by Thunberg in 1784. It was introduced into cultivation in England by Robert Fortune in 1855. Fortune received it from a Mr. Beale, in Shanghai, who, in turn, had received it from Japan. It was introduced into the United States in 1862 by Dr. George R. Hall. In Japan it occurs naturally in the mountains of the islands of Hokkaido, Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu. In Japan the timber has been used in water tanks, pails, and baths, and it is used for carved trays, chopsticks, clogs, and the bows of the Ainos. In nature this is an erect, broadly conical tree, to fifty feet tall. This form is known in the trade as T. cuspidata var. capitata. Most authorities record that cuttings taken from lateral branches of the capitata variety do not develop a leader and grow instead into spreading shrubs. E. H. Wilson, however, 146I asserted that these \"shrubs\" generally produce a leader after some years and assume the typical tree form. Whatever the case may be, there are now more than a dozen horticultural forms in the trade which do seem to maintain the shrub habit. Indeed, it is possibly the most common yew in cultivation in the United States, where the various forms are often used in foundation plantings. In common with the European T. baccata, it responds well to shearing, making a dense hedge or, if the gardener has the patience, making an excellent plant for topiary work. In addition to all these virtues, it is easy of cultivation and in most situations grows relatively rapidly. T. baccata Linnaeus occurs in nature from latitude 6310' north in Sweden, Norway, Scotland, Estonia, multitudinously throughout Great Britain and France, down to the Mediterranean and the Atlas mountains in Algiers. Toward the east, yew inhabits the plain and the hilly countries to Asia Minor, and up to the Ural mountains in Russia. In the old books several names for the tree occur: Yeugh, Eugh, Iw, Ewe, Yewgh, Ugh, and Yw are designations for the same plant. Yw is said to be the Welsh, and Iw the AngloSaxon. Many years of cultivation of T. baccata give a definite advantage to this evergreen in its use as a garden decoration. Indeed, there are about 100 named forms of the species in cultivation. The leaves are approximately 1-11\/, inches in length and from 1\/16-3\/16 of an inch in width, varying in color from holly-green to an almost black green. One of the most interesting characteristics of the tree is its adaptability to pruning. When pruned to a desired shape, the tree's remaining branches let out new shoots in great numbers to fill out the general composition and empty volume of the tree crown. The yew has been used for ornamental gardening as far back in English history as Tudor times. Not only were the trees used to form hedges, they were also clipped into the forms of animals, birds, and geometric shapes. The art of training and trimming known as topiary art trees gained popularity during the seventeenth century, to die down in the eighteenth. Such gardening tastes have not been regenerated with any comparable enthusiasm since. Some experts estimate that the growth of the trunk, being very slow, does not exceed the rate of one foot in diameter in sixty to seventy years.3 Yews reach diameters of twelve to fifteen feet and a height of up to eighty feet. It has been said that - ~ Sir Herbert Maxwell, \"The Principles and Prospect of British Forestry, XIV,\" The Garden 84 : 258, 1920. 147 some specimens in England are well over 1,000 years old. This longevity is in part due to the peculiar characteristic of yews to grow healthy tissue around decayed, rotten, or hollow core. The wood used in antiquity, especially for bows and arrows, is said to be the finest for this purpose. However, in use for furniture, not only is it difficult to handle and carve, but due the above mentioned characteristics, one never knows whether particular stem is solid or hollow, strong or decayed. And one does not know until the wood is felled. The yew's remarkable ability to survive in spite of the frost-induced decay has been attributed to the old beliefs in the tree's divine protection and association with everlasting life. It is one of the reasons that the yew is so frequently found cultivated in the churchyards and near graves. Having seen them in such locations so often, the photographer can testify to their majestic and hauntto a ing appearance. MARK SILBER GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. Wyman'. Many comments have been received since publication of the description of Malus 'Donald Wyman' in the last issue of this journal. Perhaps the most interesting one came from Mr. Ralph H. Smith, Associate Wildlife Biologist at the Wildlife Research Laboratory in Delmar, New York. Mr. Smith was given propagating material from our specimen a number of years ago. His observations are as follows: \"Perhaps you will be interested in some comments on its performance. We top-grafted it onto volunteer common apple and also budded it onto Malus sieboldi and common apple. It grows vigorously, flowers well every year and fruits even in the years when common, volunteer apple has no fruit. Its bright red, glossy fruit, if undisturbed, persists in good color until late March, and in a shriveled state until the flowers appear in May. The returning robins, catbirds and starlings remove the fruit in April and May. On the hilltops in southwestern Albany County, at 1900 feet, the pine and evening grosbeaks found our tree behind our office building and cleaned it in about a week. 'Profusion' is almost as long lasting in fruit but is not as colorful for so long. Only 'Sissipuk' holds fruit longer, because nothing touches the fruit, so far.\" Malus 'Donald "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Frances Williams and Her Garden Adventures","article_sequence":3,"start_page":148,"end_page":154,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24507","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070bb6b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wister, Gertrude S.","article_content":"Frances Williams and Her Garden Adventures Some plant lovers find adventure in far-away places, on distant mountains and in wild valleys, or in ancient exotic gardens. Others, although they may dream of these alluring spots, are able to find adventure at their doorsteps. Frances Ropes Williams was one of the stay-at-homes, in Winchester, a suburb of Boston. But on her small property of only a third of an acre, shaded by several large trees, she gardened for many years, first in the time she could spare from her growing family, then, when her children were grown, much more intensively. Mrs. Williams was a graduate of the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in landscape architecture, and her studies there, she said, gave her a background in horticulture. (How many landscape architects can say that of their training? ) She was in her middle years when she entered into the concentrated phase of her gardening adventure, and she tackled it with a keen and observant mind, and, apparently, with boundless energy, both physical and mental. Her activities extended on both sides of the doorstep. Not only was she active outdoors. She kept voluminous records, and had a wide correspondence. Since her yard was shady, Mrs. Williams started accumulating plants that would thrive under her conditions. She found that there were many that she could grow well. She enjoyed those with gray leaves and those with white or yellow variegations that added summer interest, as well as many other ground lamiums, artemisias, wild-gingers. Plantainlilies (hostas) flourished under the big trees, and she found pleasure in making groupings of ground covers around them that accentuated their characteristics. A variety of Hosta sieboldiana with yellow-edged leaves, for example, was surrounded by a form of covers - Vinca minor with yellow-edged leaves. Under and around all these were small spring bulbs. Texture, form, and scale and the changes of the seasons all were subjects of her attention, as well as growth behaviors. She found that there were herbs that she could grow in the 148 jI 149 shade and, through her interest in herbs, she became active in the Herb Society of America. She became corresponding secretary and continued serving in this office for many years, finally, in recognition of her devotion, being made Honorary Corresponding Secretary. She also served the Society as curator of its herbarium. In 1952 she received the first Award of Merit given by the Society, and in 1956 the New England Unit of the Society made her an honorary member. It was the genus Hosta, however, that began to occupy more and more of her time and attention. It was in the early 1930's that she began collecting hostas, which proved to be well adapted to the somewhat damp shade of her partial acre. She bought some from local nurseries, and friends in Salem, where she grew up, gave her plants from old gardens. Her interest in the plants grew, so that she looked up nurseries farther away to acquire more kinds. She began photographing plants at different stages of growth, and her recordkeeping grew in importance. Each plant, when she acquired it, received a number. Each photograph bore the record of the number of the plant, its source, and the date the picture was taken. In her notebooks, plants were entered with names, numbers, sources, and other information connected with them. Through forty years she kept up all this information and added to it. She noted growth and bloom habits. She investigated the differences of root structure. The peculiarities of sporting did not escape her attention. In the fall of 1967 she wrote (at the age of 84): \"I have been much interested this fall in the shoots with leaf buds at the ends of some hemerocallis roots. And in the fact that some of my hosta roots have leaf shoots on them, either at the end of the root or as fat little 1\/16-inch buds that grew as perky little plants ...\" At another time she wrote: \"In several cases Hosta undulata (different plants) have sent out shoots that have become what is called Hosta erromena, big leaves, long stems two to three feet, and leaf blades five by ten inches, plants five feet across.\" The validity of this observation was confirmed when H. erromena was reduced to a variety of H. undulata by Maekawa. As the years went by, seedlings began to appear in the garden that were attractive enough to be singled out for increase. At first Mrs. Williams shared these with others designated only by the numbers she had assigned to them. Later she named a number of plants that were introduced by Mrs. Thomas Nesmith of Fairmount Gardens. Unfortunately, plants given away under number were often given Latin names or descriptive designa- 150 by the recipients. Mrs. Williams also shared other hostas, including the offspring of seed she received from the Nikko Botanic Garden in Japan in 1950. tions Her exhibits at the shows of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society won awards, including, in 1953, a bronze medal. Her photographs appeared among those in the study, The Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens, by Nils Hylander (Uppsala, 1954). Her articles appeared in the Brooklyn Botanic Garden's Plants and Gardens, and in other gardening magazines. She also did some hand crossing, and several of the plants that were grown from the seed of the pollinated plants were named and introduced. Hosta Cultivars of Mrs. Williams. In the following list, I use the names used by Mrs. Williams.* They will be understood by those who have a serious interest in hostas, and I do not wish to wander into the maze of Hosta taxonomy, described by Prof. Hylander as a nightmare. Where quotes are used, I am repeating Mrs. Williams' written words. I have included Mrs. Williams' numbers with the cultivar names. 'Beatrice', #1399A. Seedling of H. lancifolia albomarginata, planted 1958. \"May 1962 - one leaf variegated with yellow stripes. 1965 - plant had five variegated leaves.\" 'Beatrice' tends to give variegated seedlings, which make it of great interest to those who like to play with hostas. 'Betsy King', #502. (Introduced 1960) Mrs. Williams thought this to be a decorata-lancifolia hybrid. It starts growth early in the spring like lancifolia, and the flower shape is very like that of decorata. It is light to moderate purple, the color solid outside and solid inside except for six white stripes at the joinings of the perianth segments. The leaf mound is to 14 inches, the scapes reach 20 inches. It is an effective garden plant, neat and well proportioned, the color darker than that of most hostas, blooming in early August. It is one of Mrs. Williams' best. 'Carol', # 1429. A clone with white-edged leaves, a sport cut out of H. f ortunei # 152 in 1967. * The nomenclature of cultivated hostas is somewhat complex. Those who wish to pursue the subject further should consult: Hylander, Nils, \"Genus Hosta in Swedish Gardens,\" Acta Horti Bergani 16: 339-420, 1954. , \"The Genus Hosta,\" journal of the Royal Horticultural Society 1960. 85: Hensen, K. J. W., \"Preliminary Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Hosta Tratt,\" Mededelingen van de Landbouwhogeschool te Wageningen 63 ( 7 ) : 1-12, 1963. 356-366, 151 'Dorothy', #511. (Introduced 1961) Mrs. Williams guessed the parents to be f ortunei and decorata. The leaves are gray underneath, and the shape of decorata, though more cordate. The flowers are like those of H. fortunei. They are light purple outside, striped a little deeper inside. The plant is well proportioned, with 30-inch scapes. The leaves are about 51~, inches wide by 7 inches long. 'Frances Williams', #383. Named by G. W. Robinson, superintendent of the Oxford Botanical Garden ( Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, February 1963). Mrs. Williams picked this out of a batch of H. sieboldiana seedlings at Bristol Nurseries in 1936. It is included with her plants because it was through her efforts that it was singled out, propagated, and introduced into commerce as a special clone. It has been known as H. sieboldiana 'Yellow Edge' and H. sieboldiana aureo-marginata. A large clump is a handsome and effective accent in a shady place. It still commands a good price, as much as nine or ten dollars, after almost thirty-five years. 'Golden Circles', # 1141. Seedling found in 1954 under 'Frances Williams'. Mrs. Williams said the yellow edge was broader; otherwise it, too, is typical H. sieboldiana. 'Green Pie Crust', $f 1290. Seedling found in 1951. The large leaves have neatly ruffled margins. The flowers are pale purple, almost white. The beautifully crimped leaves of this large, handsome plant make it especially choice, and it is sure to be ardently sought after when it becomes better known. 'Green Ripples', #851. (Named 1967-68) Seedling of H. fortunei gigantea $f 128. Mrs. Williams' photograph of $f 128 shows rather wavy foliage. A large plant, the light green leaves with crinkled edges, the flowers very pale. 'Kathleen', #1528. (Named 1968) Seedling. \"Lovely soft pinky flowers similar to H. fortunei, gray leaves.\" 'Louisa', #537. (Introduced some years ago, but not named by Mrs. Williams until 1969.) This charming little hosta found its way into gardens under several designations. Gray and Cole introduced it, calling it Hosta lancifolia albomarginata alba. The white-edged lanceolate leaves are about 41\/> inches long by 11\/, inches wide, making a mound about a foot high. The white flaring flowers on two-foot scapes begin to bloom in midAugust. It has also been called Hosta \"minor alba\" white edge, and F. R. W. #537. It, too, gives interesting seedlings, some variegated, some white-flowered. Combinations of both traits are likely. 'Louisa' is a choice, dainty plant. - 152 Fig. 6: Hosta sieboldiana 'Frances Williams' with Photo: Frances R. Williams. yellow edged leaves. 'Sentinels', #1350. 1954. \"Profuse shiny green 'Sprite', #795. Seedling found about 1946. \"Low, six inches, flower eight inches, leaf thickened. Mosaic?\" This was not introduced, perhaps because of the possible mosaic, or perhaps it lacked the proper attraction. 'Sunlight', # 1142. A sport of 'Frances Williams' with yellowgreen leaves. It is rather weak because of its lack of chlorophyll, with a tendency to brown at the edges. It reverted to green in Mrs. Williams' garden, but still exists in the collection at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. (Introduced 1966) Seedling found in purple flowers, upright flower stalks. Very early leaves like lancifolia.\" Blooms in late August. Mrs. Williams' Crosses. In 1949 Mrs. Williams pollinated a plant of Hosta \"minor alba\" (I use the double quotes and lack of italics to indicate that this well known and widely used name has no botanical standing) with pollen from H. plantaginea. 153 She considered the offspring to be the result of this cross, but I can see no trace of H. plantaginea in the plants that she named and introduced. They may well be hybrids, however. Plants similar to the ones she named often appear in our garden, where many hostas have been growing together for several decades. However, 'Sweet Susan', result of another hand cross, is the unmistakable hybrid it is supposed to be. 'Lavender Lady', $~ 1025. (Introduced 1964) \"Very pale pinky lavender flowers, stalk 11\/.1 to 2 feet.\" Mid-August. 'Purple Profusion', # 1024. (Introduced 1962) \"Dark purple flowers, stalks 30 to 37 inches.\" Leaves a little broader than those of 'Lavender Lady'. Mid-August. 'Slim Polly', #1155. (Introduced 1964) Flowers pale purple, late August. Purplish red in base of petioles. 'Snow Flakes', $~ 1154. (Introduced 1964) White flowers in early August. Taller, alba.\" Flowers slightly with wider leaves than typical \"minor inflated toward base of tube. 'Tinker Bell', #1156. (Introduced 1963?) White flaring g flowers in early August. The leaves are more slender than those of 'Snow Flakes', and the plant is smaller and weaker. 'Sweet Susan', #1383. (Introduced 1966) The only plant resulting from the 1958 cross of H. lanci f olia albomarginata by H. plantaginea. This is an interesting hybrid, as it is such an obvious blend of the two parents in size of leaves, flowers, and seed-pods. The number of well formed capsules is surprising, but there are few seeds. I planted some last fall but had no germination. The flowers of 'Sweet Susan' are somewhat fragrant, their color pale purple, deeper than those of the well known hybrid of H. plantaginea, 'Honeybells'. Mrs. Williams' granddaughter, Susan Williams, did the actual pollen-dabbing of this cross. Another cross made by Mrs. Williams in 1948 involved H. plantaginea and H. decorata. She records but one resulting seedling. 'Pancakes', # 1023. She says of it, \"Squat, dumpy ... leaves flat, oval and round ... lovely gentle purple flowers.\" I have never seen it, and do not know anything more of it than this. Mrs. Williams does not mention any scent. The Moral of a Long Tale. The moral of all this is that Mrs. Williams had a very good time in her little garden. Within the confines of what seems to have been an ordinary suburban housewife's horizons, she found adventure. The moral is further that we owe her some very fine plants, that she loved to share 154 and information with others, and that she kept records! How often in horticulture do we hear the sad refrain, \"He kept no records.\" So anxious was Mrs. Williams to pass on information that in the last years of her life, with her eyesight failing, she wrote out notes on her plants with a felt pen, only a few large words to a page. She gave plants to several institutions as well as to many individuals. She gave seventy-five, all with her numbers, to the Arnold Arboretum, and these can be seen in the hosta collection at the Case Estates in Weston. Her daughter, Miss Constance Williams, writes that her family plans to give a collection to her Alma Mater, M.I.T. The Herb Society will always claim her as its own. After she died in the autumn of 1969 at the age of 86, the Appalachian Mountain Club noted that it had lost a life member. The other societies and organizations to which she belonged must feel poorer without her, but richer for having known her. The American Hosta Society, born in 1968, gave her a citation in the summer of 1969, \"for inspiring others with the love of Hosta.\" But perhaps the loveliest tribute came from one who had long known her through the Herb Society. With deepest feeling she said, \"I never knew her to say an unkind word about plants anyone.\" As for those records, there are boxes and boxes of them. No doubt there is much that will not be preserved. They cover her other plants, not only Hosta. But as far as Hosta goes, there are enthusiasts who will willingly comb them over, gleaning out all that is of permanent value to add to our store of information about Mrs. Williams' plants, and Hosta in general. We shall always be grateful to Frances Williams for her generosity, for the lovely plants she has given us, and for those voluminous records. GERTRUDE S. WISTER Swarthmore, Pa. Summary April and of weather data recorded May 1970. at the Dana Greenhouses, e..o "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":155,"end_page":158,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24508","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070816f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum activities this spring have concentrated upon the renovation and landscaping of several key areas which, for one reason or another, were in need of special attention so that the grounds may be in the best possible condition by 1972, when the Arboretum will celebrate its 100th anniversary. In conjunction with this, certain mass plantings of the more showy spring flowering shrubs, especially azaleas, have been enlarged to provide more color during the time of year when public attendance is highest. This has necessitated the planting of nearly two thousand shrubs of various sizes and represents a temporary departure from the normal spring sequence of moving plants to Jamaica Plain from the growing areas at the Case Estates. For a project of this size, it was necessary that the Arboretum obtain most of the plant material from commercial nursery sources, and it should be noted here, with gratitude, the good will that was shown by all the nurserymen we approached. Nearly all the plants were specially selected and offered at reduced prices for Arboretum use. The planting season started in late April when workmen from a commercial tree company arrived on the grounds to move seven large specimens of the longstalk holly, Ilex pedunculosa, from the Ilex plantings at the Centre Street beds to new positions in front of the Administration Building. The need for evergreen material in the vicinity of the Administration Building and the Jamaica Plain Gate has been realized for some time, and the opportunity to make such plantings came as a result of the disastrous snow and ice storm which occurred in the winter of 1968-69. Among other things, this storm severely damaged several large plants of Magnolia stellata in the border in front of the Administration Building. Two of them were so badly broken that they had to be removed. They were replaced with three specimens of Ilex pedunculosa, approximately 9 feet tall. Three more, of large dimensions, were placed as free standing specimens at the southeast corner of the Administration Building where they serve to soften the rather harsh lines at that corner of the Building. The largest plant is 12 feet high, 10 feet wide, and weighed approximately 21~2 tons. These plants presented a most unusual sight as they moved slowly through the Arboretum, on special equipment, from their old site to the new one. Spring Planting Program. Planting 155 Fig. 7: George Robert White Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, awarded to Dr. Donald Wyman, \"author of many books and innumerable articles, indefatigable teacher and lecturer, energetic holder of executive office at various times in national horticultural organizations, worthy recipient of many of the highest awards in horticulture at home and abroad... the virtual embodiment of horticulture in New England.\" Fig. 8: Ilex pedunculosa en route to its nem home. Photo: P. Bruns. 157 matching planting of three 9 foot specimens of the umbrella pine, Sciadopitys verticillata, was made at the opposite corner of the building. It was particularly fortunate that such large specimens of this handsome and slow-growing conifer could be located, for we are now able to display, in a prominent place, two of the best exotic evergreens which are hardy in this area. Sciadopitys is valued for its dark green leaves which are arranged in whorls and, more particularly, for its very dense habit. Ilex pedunculosa, an Arnold Arboretum introduction from Japan in A 1892, is one of the hardiest of the evergreen hollies and, despite its availability in nurseries, is all too seldom seen in gardens. It forms a large shrub or small, slow-growing tree with dense shiny leaves and glossy red berries which hang downward on stalks nearly an inch long. Much other evergreen material has been used in this area. A bed of Pieris floribunda, the mountain andromeda, was made at the entrance to the driveway near the main gate. Although this plant is fairly common, it deserves the prominent placement allotted to it here as it is perhaps the most attractive and dependable of all the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs for the north. The erect clusters of white flowers, perfect hardiness, evergreen leaves, and prominent flower buds all winter long provide a combination of good attributes difficult to beat in any other plant. on the south side of the main gate, a large of Rhododendron carolinianum, the Carolina rhododendron, has been made. The pale rosy-purple flowers should provide an attractive welcome to vistors who use this gate at lilac time. When these grow a bit larger an especially pleasing effect should be evident in the contrasting flower colors of the rhododendrons and a nearby specimen of Forthergilla major, a relative of the witch-hazels with interesting white flowers in mid-May. Another major project which was started is the renovation of the extensive azalea border which lines one side of the Meadow Road, starting opposite the Administration Building and running nearly to the shrub collection, a length of almost a quarter of a mile. This border was planted in 1949 at the suggestion of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand, who served as a landscape consultant for the Arboretum. The original idea was to display the various species and cultivars of azaleas hardy at the Arboretum according to the sequence in which they blossom, with the earliest flowering species starting diagonally across from the Administration Building and finishing at the other end of the road with the later flowering varieties. Across the road, mass planting 158 Many factors have necessitated the task of renovating the border at this time. It has been found over the years that very poor soil conditions in several places have contributed to the decline of some of the plants. A number of these, in poor condition, were discarded in early spring; others were removed to the nursery for rejuvenation. Soon after this many tons of soil were removed to a depth of about two feet and, after a layer of gravel was laid to provide drainage, better soil was brought from another part of the Arboretum to fill in the holes. Approximately one third of the azalea border has now been replanted and, where possible, the plants have been rearranged according to the proper sequence of blossom. Much work remains to be done at another time, especially the planting of a large number of cultivars which are new to the collection and still in the nurseries A new planting was made around the large pond near the shrub collection. This includes Rhododendron vaseyi, the pinkshell azalea, R. prinophyllum, the roseshell azalea, and R. periclymenoides, the pinxterbloom azalea. These species were selected because they bloom at the same time as the lilacs nearby and should, as they increase in size, reflect nicely into the pond. The last major azalea planting to be undertaken was the placing of 50 Rhododendron schlippenbachii, the royal azalea, next to the older planting on Bussey Hill. The grouping is now situated in such a way as to be visible for some distance along the road which leads to the top of the hill. Finally, two slopes at the Weld Street Tract were planted with ground covers. This is planned to be a demonstration of plants which can be used to cover a dry slope, also to provide an interesting view for motorists traveling along Centre Street or Weld Street. Over a thousand small plants were placed on these two banks. They include the following: Akebia quinata Coronilla varia 'Penngift' Euonymus f ortunei 'Coloratus' Juniperus chinensis 'Sargentii' Juniperus horizontalis 'Douglasii' Lonicera henryi Lycium chinense Parthenocissus quinquefolia Rhus aromatica Rosa wichuraiana Stephanandra incisa'Crispa' ROBERT S. HEBB "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":159,"end_page":160,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24506","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070bb26.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Orchids, by Floyd S. Shuttleworth, Herbert W. Dillon When one of the greatest orchidologists of all time, Oakes Ames, wrote, \"Few genera of plants have played greater havoc with human pride: few genera of plants have so humbled men of science,\" he was thinking of Charles Darwin and John Lindley and their well documented troubles with the orchid genera, Catasetum and Cycnoches. This huge, eccentric family has not only humbled and confused but delighted and entertained perhaps a greater number of people the world over than any other family of plants. There seems to be no end to surprises in the orchid family. It is pleasing to find in this sprightly little book, modestly titled Orchids, a large number of orchids excellently illustrated and carefully described. In addition to Catasetum, Cycnoches, and many other genera, one finds the \"bucket orchids\" like Coryanthes; cucumber orchids; \"blue\" orchids; orchids involved with pseudo-copulation, as in the genus Ophrys ; \"weed\" orchids; and, perhaps one of the most incredible of all, the recently discovered Australian orchid that grows and flowers entirely under the ground. \"This book surveys the great Orchid Family as it illustrates and describes those selected wild forms that best show the family characteristics and diversities. It also attempts to show those species most commonly cultivated and often used in breeding.\" So states the foreword. This promise is well carried out. It is difficult to imagine that any other publication costing as little as $1.25 can possibly bring as much enlightenment and pleasure regarding orchids as this booklet. It deserves to sell by the hundreds of thousands. Vividly depicting the orchid family from an evolutionary standpoint, the book fairly explodes with a multitude of skillfully done color illustrations by Elmer Smith. Mr. Smith confesses that he does not grow orchids. He must have spent a great amount of time in painstaking research in order to produce as remarkable a series of scientifically accurate and aesthetically pleasing studies of the several hundred species that we find here. An enormous quantity of botanical information is tied in nicely with the illustrations. Additional pleasant tidbits are liberally scattered throughout the text. It was a happy collaboration when Gordon Dillon, who edited the American Orchid Society Bulletin for more than twenty-five years, Dr. Herbert Zim, an outstanding authority on science education, and the late Dr. Floyd S. Shuttleworth, of Wisconsin State University, prepared the text for the Golden Nature Guide series. 159 S. Zim, and Gordon 160I It should come as welcome news to the owners of this small volume that the publishers are already at work on a \"coffee table size\" edition, in which much more information can be given and larger reproductions of the excellent plates will be possible. S. Shuttleworth, Herbert S. Zim, and Gordon W. Dillon, Orchids, New York: Golden Press, 1970. $1.25 The Oxford Book of Food Plants, by G. B. Masefield, M. Wallis, and S. G. Harrison; illustrations by B. E. Nicholson. Floyd This is a book written in Great Britain for a British audience. It claims to deal with 420 varieties of food and\/or condiment producing plants. When it treats plants cultivated in Britain (nearly half the text and plates) it seems to be quite good. When it deals with plants unfamiliar in the British Isles it leaves at least occasionally something to be desired. For example, the description of \"sugaring-off\" maple sugar (p. 16) is surely confused. The pecan (p. 29) has 11-17 (not 7) curved (not straight) leaflets very distinct from other caryas and not at all like the illustration. Both the butternut and the American walnut have the basal leaflets much smaller than the others; in the butternut all the leaflets are sessile, while in the American walnut they are stalked. The colors of the carrots (p. 175) and the 'Summer Crookneck' squash (p. 123) seem to be inaccurate. These are only a few small complaints, perhaps, but one cannot feel completely confident about the treatment of plants with which one is unfamiliar if one knows that erroneous statements or illustrations are given for plants with which one is familiar. It is disappointing that this book, with its limited frame of reference, does not inspire more confidence. It is regrettable that the style is so pedestrian. Exciting work is being done on the origins, wanderings, and chemistry of economic plants. Particular economic plants have molded the history of civilizations and influenced the development of whole cultures. One looks in vain for such information here. The value of the book lies in its illustrations, and, despite what has been said above, they appear to be, for the most part, accurate. The colors could have been better, and it is regrettable that they are not. All in all, this book does fill a gap in the popular literature. One must, say, even though without enthusiasm, that it is useful. G. P. DeW. - - G. B. Masefield, M. Wallis, and S. G. Harrison, The Oxford Book of Food Plants, London: Oxford University Press, 1969. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23356","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270ab28.jpg","title":"1970-30-4","volume":30,"issue_number":4,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970","article_sequence":1,"start_page":81,"end_page":99,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24502","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070af6b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Horticulture at the Arnold Arboretum, 1936-1970 The new editors of Arnoldia take real pleasure in dedicating this issue to Dr. Donald Wyman, Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum, who will retire from active service to the Arboretum in August of this year. For most of the past thirty-five years, Dr. Wyman has b~en largely responsible for the care and maintenance of the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. During this period he has also advanced the knowledge and appreciation of hardy woody plants by the horticultural public through his books and through his articles, published in Arnoldia and elsewhere. We observe with satisfaction that he has received many symbols of recognition of his activities from both European and American horticultural societies. Since 1936 Donald Wyman has been intimately associated with Arnoldia, as author and editor. It is only fitting, then, that this issue should contain a condensation of a longer report that he has written as a record of his horticultural activities at Jamaica Plain and at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston. - Ed. After the deaths of Charles Sprague Sargent, in 1927, and Ernest H. Wilson, in 1930, staff interest in horticulture at the Arboretum was at an all time low. For the next several years plantings made under the direction of these two men were considered sacrosanct and were not changed or removed. When the author was appointed Horticulturist in 1935 he found that there was much work to be done. At that time interest seemed to be directed primarily to fields other than popular horticulture. Planting of the grounds as well as the introduction of seeds, plants, and cuttings had continued chiefly because of the interest of William H. Judd (the former propagator), but it had become obvious that space for the display of new materials on the grounds was in short supply. Some of the trees, notably the caryas, had originally been set out to simulate forestry plantings. They had become overcrowded. In some other areas many old trees, in poor condition, had not been removed merely because they had been placed by either Sargent or Wilson. Finally, plants which had been unidentified when set out remained unidentified. Because of the lack of staff interest in the living collection, the card index of plants on the grounds had not been properly 81 82 I a checked for many years. As of what result, there was no true record became obvious that the the grounds thoroughly, an operation which took the full time of two men for nearly two years. When this job was finished, in 1938, the card files were brought up to date. It was then easy to see the large number of duplicate plants of some species which had been planted over the years. Since that time the planting of new plants and removal of old ones has always been carefully integrated through the mapping department, and all files and the master set of maps are kept up-to-date. This entails several closely unified operations done by one individual. These operations are absolutely necessary if the collections are to be kept the best labeled and mapped anywhere in the United States. When the big hurricane of 1938 blew down 1500 trees in the Arboretum, it was obvious, even to the most critical observers, that judicious plants were actually alive. It only way to remedy this was to map ' Fig. 1: Donald at the Wyman Arboretum, 1950. 83 thinning out of old and decrepit specimens could add much to the beauty of the grounds. At this time the Horticulturist took careful steps in this direction. With the increased interest in the grounds on the part of the staff after 1938, another change in planting policy was made. The old method of planting only in botanical sequence or in botanical groups was not followed as rigidly as it had been before. When valued ornamental species or varieties would show off well at a turn of the road, on a bank, or as a focal point at the end of a vista, such planting was done regardless of where the plants entered into the botanical sequence. Good color charts became available at this time. As a result, in the early 1940's, studies were made of the large collections of Syringa, Weigela, Philadelphus, Deutzia, Chaenomeles, Malus, Spiraea, etc., in order to make reasonably certain that the hundreds of varieties in these genera were properly labeled. This was not the easiest thing to do in groups with large numbers of hybrid varieties, but it was done by the Horticulturist and Assistant Horticulturist (Heman Howard), and checkups of these groups in the past two decades have been greatly hastened by the painstaking work done earlier in the 1940's. Many of the plants which had gone unlabeled for many years were excellent specimens. Until his retirement in 1948, Ernest Palmer had the task of collecting herbarium specimens of them, adding the individual plants to the accession records, and identifying those that he could with the assistance of Alfred Rehder. Large numbers of previously unlabeled plants were soon properly tagged and recorded. However, the identification of many other plants is a difficult task that is still to be done. After studying our records, the Weather Bureau temperature records, plant injuries after the severe winters of '34-'35 and '42-'43, and redrawing the Arboretum hardiness map, it became evident that it was a waste of propagating time and display space to continue to plant shrubs, trees, and vines which experience had shown were not completely hardy. Consequently, all Zone VII plants, and many of those hardy in Zone VI especially if they had been repeatedly injured by winter cold were removed from the collections and have not been grown again. This policy was formulated in the mid 1940's. Now, with more nursery space available in Weston, plants in the doubtful category i.e. clones supposedly more hardy than the species can be tried. It is not necessary to give such plants valued display space in the living collections until their hardiness has been proved in the nurseries. - - 84 During the war years of 1941-45 the plantings suffered from lack of attention. Part of the time there was no one in the labeling department, and labeling was almost completely neglected. General maintenance was at an absolute minimum, and little pruning was done, a fact which was especially noticeable in the rhododendrons, which quickly became lanky and overgrown. After the war it was necessary to adopt a heavy pruning program. The rhododendrons were severely reduced in size, but they came back into fairly good form after only a few years. With a developing interest in economic botany, land of the former Bussey grounds at the corner of South Street and the Arborway was assigned, in 1941, to the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy for a display garden of medicinal plants. This plot was maintained until the late 60's when the land was taken by the State for the Blood Laboratory. A crab apple survey was made by the Horticulturist at this time, and Crab Apples for America was first published in 1943. In 1944 an estimated seventy-five fires occurred on the grounds. It was noted that many of these occurred in the fall in the old Crataegus collection on Peters Hill. Here the trees grew close together, mowing was difficult, and the grass, especially under the trees, grew tall. These factors prompted the consideration of removal of the major part of this collection accomplished in 1948-49 by means of a special donation from John S. Ames. The area was then fertilized and plowed, and a special creeping red fescue grass mixture originally used in Rhode Island was sown. This grass stayed green much later in the fall and did not burn as readily as the previous grasses. Also, the crab apple trees which were planted on the hill were spaced so that mowing could be easily accomplished. This operation materially reduced grass fires in this area. In 1954 the crab apple collection was extended across the road from the hill to the area beside the railroad tracks formerly occupied by a collection of poplars. Since poplars are shortlived, susceptible to disease, easily blown over by storms, (and none too ornamental), it was decided to reduce this collection to a minimum and replant the area with crab apples which would be a colorful sight for those many daily commuters on the adjacent railroad. - Landscaping Since 1880, when the grounds were originally laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted, no landscape architect had been responsible 85 for any major planning, although many had tried to obtain permission to become consulting landscape architects. In 1946, near the end of his administration, Dr. E. D. Merrill was prevailed upon to appoint Mrs. Beatrix Farrand as the landscape architect for the Arboretum. It was most unfortunate that, even with her extensive experience, she sometimes failed to comprehend the practical needs of the Arboretum. One of her most successful suggestions was the azalea border along the Meadow Road, planted in 1949. However, when she recommended that the shrub collection be removed and the shrubs planted in small groups in the same area, it became obvious to both Dr. Merrill and Dr. Karl Sax that some of her ideas, if carried out, would cost far too much in day-to-day maintenance. It has always been my strong conviction that landscape planning should be left to those on the staff who have had landscape training and who understand the diverse practical problems of maintaining the plantings. The landscape architect's contribution comes in planning the original lay-out, not in revamping an arboretum such as this after it is tightly planted. In practice, the Horticulturist and the Superintendent (Robert G. Williams) have been responsible for the policies governing the care and placing of the plants since 1940. Prior to this time a \"committee of three\" had been appointed by Dr. Merrill, but it is most difficult for someone without horticultural training to work smoothly in a practical situation. In any event, the \"committee of three\" did not work satisfactorily, so the Horticulturist and the Superintendent took it upon themselves to move and place plants at the proper times. They decided, for example, on a long-range lilac planting plan by which, eventually, the 100 best lilacs would be located between the road and the walk in the lilac collection. Many mediocre to poor varieties have had to be removed in the years since, and the better ones have been placed here and at the base of the bank on the other side of the walk. \"' Introduction and Distribution of New Plants The introduction of new plants into the Arboretum has always been the prime responsibility of the Horticulturist. Each year seed lists sent from botanical gardens and arboreta all over the world are scrutinized for new plants, and requests are sent for seed of those we do not have and which give promise of success under our conditions. Unfortunately the germination of much of the seed received has been most disappointing. The Horticulturist noted, as early as 1939, that a surprisingly small per- Fig. 2: Foreground, Rhododendron yedoense Cytisus praecox. Photo: H. Howard. var. poukhanense; center, sources was viable. Botanic gardens were to blame as well as botanists collecting in the field. Many an institution has not learned that seeds of many plants need special treatment as soon as they are ripe if they are to retain their viability. The practice has been to collect all seed, dry it, and store it until such time as complete shipments could be made. As a result, for example, only 8% of 585 seed packets received from the Yu Expedition in China (1938) had seed which germinated. This represented a great loss to the collector and also to the Arboretum, which had to process all of these seeds. An issue of Arnoldia (vol. 13:41-60, 1953) was written and sent to collectors and certain botanic gardens, explaining the viability of seeds and listing those which should be handled in specific ways to ensure germination. There is still missionary work to be done in this field with many centage of seed obtained from foreign botanic gardens. All too many institutions list seed which will 86 not come true. 87 Seed collected from clones, for example, is unlikely to produce plants like the parent. Much seed collected in botanic gardens will not come true to name because of the great incidence of cross-pollination in large collections of related plants. Much of this seed will produce hybrids, and one must recognize this fact. Also, in some collections, the parent plants are not accurately named. It is extremely important that seedlings resulting from such seed be carefully re-identified as they mature and be withheld from display collections until their identity is certain. Every few years the Horticulturist has requested the latest catalogues from what he considers to be the best nurseries in the country. These have been searched carefully for new plants. The nursery industry is extremely lax in using proper nomenclature, so one must always be on the lookout for synonyms as well as for the nursery which has a penchant for placing new or queer names on old, established varieties. In the past thirtyfour years well over 98% of the nurseries approached have been glad to donate new plants for trial in the Arnold Arboretum. Sometimes it has seemed advisable to request propagation wood only of plants in short supply, since we are well equipped to handle any type of woody plant propagation. The record for three recent years, in which the Horticulturist located nursery sources for species and varieties of woody plants which were not represented in the collections at the time, shows the following: 380 species and varieties 1958-59 480 species and varieties 1959-60 1960-61 586 species and varieties Specific requests were made for all these plants. Correspondence often turns up new plants because many of our correspondents know of our interest and are anxious to report novelties to us as soon as possible. Frequently the Arnold Arboretum combines with other institutions in subsidizing, or partially subsidizing, collecting trips to various parts of the world. These trips may result in collections of seeds as well as specimens for the herbarium. If the seeds or plants we receive from such expeditions are known not to be hardy here, they are given to other botanical gardens in warmer climates. All staff members are always on the lookout for new plants. The Horticulturist has made three trips to Europe, searching in the larger private gardens and botanical gardens for new material or for varieties once grown at Jamaica Plain but lost for some reason or other. The trip in 1951 netted about 500 species 88 and varieties, and the trip in 1965 resulted in the introduction of 930 species and varieties. Many of these were introduced into the United States for the first time. Although such plant introductions often go unrecorded as far as the American horticultural press is concerned, the Arnold Arboretum has a long record of activity in this field. This activity is not being neglected even now when individual \"plant hunting\" in the Orient is largely dormant. There are many pitfalls connected with such a program of plant introduction. All of the plants so introduced do not live. Some plants are in poor condition when they arrive, others prove not to be hardy. The Propagator must exert extreme care to propagate these new acquisitions as soon as possible, so that at least a few have a chance to grow into sturdy specimens. Though not always possible, this is always the objective. It is one of the chief functions of the Arboretum to see to it that worthy new plants which it has introduced are distributed in America and in other parts of the north temperate regions of the world. Propagating material is always available to other scientific institutions if our plants are large enough. It is available to most commercial growers if the plants requested are unavailable elsewhere and if the particular nursery concerned eventually works up its own propagation stock from what we send. Many years ago it was decided that Arnold Arboretum plants would not be used as a stock block for commercial growers who requested the same things year after year. On rare occasions the Arboretum does supply propagation material of commercially grown plants to certain growers who are interested in obtaining \"true-to-name\" plants (i.e. certain varieties of lilacs, crab apples, weigelas, etc.). The amount of propagation material given is usually reasonably small a dozen cuttings may be offered rather than the 1,000 that some commercial growers request. No plants or plant materials are sold. No seed list is published. Rather, the responsibility is on the individual plantsman to request specific things at the right time or to write in advance of seed collecting time. It has been felt that a lengthy seed list would only whet the appetite of lazy growers who figure that checking them is the easiest way to obtain plants. This would create considerable extra work for the hard-pressed Arboretum staff. It is best to rely on the truly interested individual to ask for specific plant items. We also attempt to inform those people who obviously do not know that seed of particular items they have requested is likely to prove to be of hybrid origin and will not yield true-to-name - 89 Most plantsmen know this, but there are many who do Crab apples are a case in point. We dislike to see stock of Malus arnoldiana, for example, offered in a nursery catalogue as coming originally from the Arnold Arboretum, when we know that the original propagating material was seed. Plants are offered by the Arboretum to nurserymen with the understanding that they may be neither patented nor sold. Propagations from these plants, however, can be sold. In our regular program of plant distribution, started in 1941, ten to a dozen species and varieties are offered each year. The Horticulturist writes a paragraph about each, noting its prime ornamental properties, the ease of propagation, and the length of time it takes to produce salable plants. Nurserymen have been selected, throughout this country and Europe, and asked if they wish to participate in the program. They are not urged to take any plants, but to request those that they think might fit well with their customer requirements. Usually three to six plants of a kind are given to the nurserymen. Sometimes, with easily propagated plants, seeds or cuttings are offered. To qualify for this program, the \"Cooperating Nurserymen Program,\" a nurseryman must publish a catalogue and do business on a national scale. One hundred and ninety-six plants have been offered in this program since it was initiated. Most of these species and varieties are now listed in the catalogues of many commercial nurserymen throughout the country. From 1936 until 1945 the nursery area for the Arboretum was a small plot of ground beside the State Laboratory Building on the old Bussey Institution property. There was also an area with a board fence on three sides next to the greenhouse, where some of the less hardy plants were wintered. At one time posts were erected and a lath roof constructed to reduce light intensity in summer. There was also one \"cold pit\" (about 50' X 8') where material could be wintered over. When the Commonwealth \"took\" the major nursery area in 1945, giving only a week's notice for plant removal, an additional nursery was made on the South Street tract, but the area, not properly fenced in, proved to be susceptible to vandalism. In 1942, with the acquisition of the Case Estates in Weston, plenty of nursery space became available. In 1962, when the new Dana Greenhouses were built, a relatively large nursery area was developed adjacent to them. The policy established at this time was to grow on all recently propagated plants for a number of years in the Dana Greenhouse nursery and then to move them out to the Case Estates for further growth. This move is always done in the spring so that the plants have a plants. not. 90 season to become accustomed to the new conditions. The nursery at the old greenhouse on the Bussey land generally held several hundred species and varieties at one time. Today the nurseries at the Case Estates alone may contain as many as 2,000 species and varieties. When it came to making the nursery area at the Dana Greenhouses, we found that the heavy equipment used in the greenhouse construction had compacted the soil to such an extent that the water drainage was impaired. After the original planting in 1962 the nurseries had to be completely redug, the top soil moved away, and twenty inches of gravel put in. A tile drain was laid, the top soil was replaced, and the drainage has been satisfactory ever since. I growing Labor On July 2, 1935, the Arboretum employed fourteen men on the grounds crew and met a payroll of $360.00 for a fifty hour week. In 1969 we had a crew of approximately twelve with a payroll of $1,450.00 for a forty hour week - or 220 man hours per week less than in 1935. In the interim supervisory staff have done everything possible to acquire the best machines, to use the best chemicals for weed killers and spray materials, and to improve general working practices to reduce hand labor. Much has been accomplished in this field. However, one example of maintenance problems is the following: In 1936 the Arboretum was paid to allow horse-drawn equipment to cut hay and remove it. A few years later it was removed in the same manner without payment. A few years later still the Arboretum had to pay to have the hay removed. Finally, a few years following this, we had to cut it ourselves when no one could be found either to buy or take it. After the war we started to cut it several times a year, with tractor-drawn equipment, and to maintain it as it is on today. Even by 1947 there were 1,000 man days less per year spent grounds than in 1931. This had occurred largely because of an extremely tight labor budget which had been cut to the bone during the war years and because of a reduction in the the number of hours in the work week. In 1936 there was little differentiation in labor pay, and men were selected from the crew - at no additional pay - to do specialized jobs such as pruning. After the labor was unionized in 1947, specially trained pruners did the climbing at higher pay. Now it is extremely difficult for us to hire young men for pruning. 91 The \"crew\" has always been a good one. Many a young fellow has stayed only a few years, then left to branch out on his own as a \"landscape contractor.\" In this way, the Arboretum has served as a training center with an educational program. In recent years high school or college boys have been taken on for the three summer months to work both in the Arboretum at Jamaica Plain and in Weston. In both areas the local high schools have sent us good workers. In Weston, particularly, preference is given to local boys. Flower Shows In the past thirty-four years the Arboretum has cooperated with the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in \"showing\" some of Fig. 3: \"Bee Tree\" and \"Girdling Vines.\" Part of Arnold Arboretum exhibit at the 1970 Spring Flower Show. The exhibit won first prize in the educational category and a gold medal. Photo: H. Howard. 92 the plants it grows at also entered the large hibits : 1953 1954 1955 1956 1957 1958 1959 1960 1 1961 1962 1963 1964 1970 Since 1953 of the smaller flower shows. It has spring flower shows with these major exsome Pruning Larz Anderson Collection of Dwarf Plants Ground Cover Plants Propagation Plants Introduced by the Arnold Arboretum A Hobbyist's Rhododendron Garden Bonsai Pruning Cultivated Plants in Their Places of Dwarf Evergreen Plants Seeds and Seed Germination Origin Mulching Pruning the Arboretum has also exhibited in New York, Detroit, Cleveland, Philadelphia, Washington, D.C., Worcester, Massachusetts, and at the Floriade in Rotterdam, Holland, in 1960. The Case Estates The Arnold Arboretum began its horticultural work in Weston in 1942 when Miss Louisa Case gave to Harvard University, for the purposes of the Arnold Arboretum, 59 acres of land on which were a greenhouse, a large barn, and a large house. While no propagation work was done in the greenhouse at this time, a nursery of woody plants was started, and quite a few ornamental trees and shrubs were planted on the grounds. In 1945 Miss Marion R. Case left an adjoining ninety acres, much of which had been used in previous years to grow vegetables and fruits as crops. Somewhat later Miss Louisa Case left forty-one acres more. These combined properties became known as the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. On the two estates there had been a vineyard with several hundred grape varieties; orchards containing 156 apple trees, eight crab apples, five plums, and ten pear trees; 700 varieties of Iris; and several perennial gardens. Many of the shrub plantings had become weedy and overgrown during the war years, and the devastating effects of the 1938 hurricane were still very evident in the wooded areas. It became the task of the Horticulturist to mold these holdings into a valuable horticultural entity for use by the Arnold Arboretum. After considerable thought and discussion it was decided to I 93 make the Case Estates function in three ways for the benefit of the Arnold Arboretum. First: the land was to be used as the major growing-on area for plants eventually to be planted on the grounds at Jamaica Plain. Second: it was to be used for experimentation which would add to our knowledge of ornamental horticulture. Also, new materials for maintenance could be thoroughly tested before they were adopted in the general maintenance program at Jamaica Plain. Third: the grounds should be ornamentally developed with special plantings and demonstration plots of particular interest to suburban home owners, landscape architects, tree wardens, nurserymen, and other plantsmen. It was decided not to plant another arboretum here, but rather to include types of ornamental plantings that would not be made at Jamaica Plain. All these things have been accom- plished. Horticulture at the Case Estates When the two estates were first given to the Arnold Arboretum in 1945 the Iris collection was reduced to plants of 100 of the best varieties. Stock of some 500 varieties was given to the Boston Park Department. Other varieties were donated to various other institutions which were able to make use of them in their landscape plantings. Most of the grapes were removed, and many of the fruit trees were eliminated. Over the years, as more space became necessary for nursery plantings, more of the apple trees have been removed. Land which had been used for vegetable crops was turned into use for woody plant nurseries. The best of the perennials from the several perennial gardens dug and planted in what is now the Low Maintenance Garden. It had been known as the Peony Garden, featuring only peonies, inter-planted with annuals. Mrs. Wyman was most interested in this project and agreed to be responsible for it. She enlisted the aid of the Weston Garden Club, many of whose members were then actively interested in obtaining flowers to decorate the rooms of the several large veterans' hospitals in the vicinity. These garden club members agreed to work in this over-grown garden, in return for the privilege of cutting flowers on special occasions for the hospitals. Over the years literally hundreds of different shrubs, dwarf evergreens, perennials, and bulbs have been planted in the Low Maintenance Garden under Mrs. Wyman's direction. Both Mrs. Wyman and the Horticulturist have spent many hours in were 94 garden, weeding, replacing, and moving plants, and labelthem. The inventory of plants here runs at nearly 200 ing species and varieties at any one time. It must be admitted that, because of its location in a frost pocket, winter losses are often high, and replacements must be made during April before many visitors come to inspect the garden. (Labeling in the future must be done by someone who knows the plants, as the work crew cannot be expected to do it.) Beginning in the late fifties new mulching materials were tried and demonstrated in the Low Maintenance Garden. Later it became expedient to restrict the mulch here to pine needles. In 1966 the Director had a series of mulch display plots laid out in the neighboring field by Henry Draper (then the Superintendent of the Case Estates), demonstrating twenty different kinds of mulching materials. Beginning in 1945, and continuing until 1952, much of the seed propagation and some of the softwood propagation were done in the small greenhouse attached to the barn at 135 Wellesley Street. This did much to relieve the crowded conditions at the old greenhouse on the former Bussey property near the State Antitoxin Laboratory in Jamaica Plain. Planting about the grounds was not neglected. A hedge of hemlock was planted in front of 102 Wellesley Street, and the rhododendron planting there was greatly augmented. Many plants were added at the rear of this property. A line of Malus 'Henrietta Crosby' was planted along the north side of Wellesley Street to conceal the nursery area; across from this a hedge of Prinsepia sinensis and plantings of Viburnum and Syringa prestoniae varieties were placed to screen the fields beyond. One hundred and thirty-eight crab apple trees of seventy-one species and varieties have been set out in the big field bordering Newton Street, making a striking display when in flower and fruit. A most interesting planting of eighty-seven miscellaneous ornamental trees of twenty-nine species and varieties has been made in the same big field. All of these are labeled, and it is interesting to note that more and more people stop in this field to scrutinize these plants. Another planting of crab apples was made along Ash Street, just inside the stone wall, and has been greatly admired by Ash Street residents during the past years. Also, various ornamental plantings have been made around the Case Estate houses. While these plantings conform with the policy established for the Case Estates, most of them have been made with an eye to beautifying the grounds for the townspeople. The Case Estates this 95 are in a conspicuous location in the geographic center of Weston, and these colorful plantings have gone a long way to make this area a decided asset to the community. In 1950 about seventy plots of ground cover plants were laid out near the old cow barn. This planting proved so popular that it was enlarged and now encompasses over 200 plots. It is of interest that nearly all of the original plots are still in existence. In 1951 a small tree demonstration plot was laid out immediately behind the collection of ground covers. At a later date the Boston Edison Company became interested in these trees and contributed over $100.00 for the purchase of additional trees of the varieties listed in \"Trees for Your Community,\" a publication of the New England Electrical Services Council which the Horticulturist helped to write. Fig. 4: Magnolia X loebneri 'Merrill'. Photo: H. Howard. In 1947, with the removal from the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain of the major part of the Berberis and Ribes collections to the Case Estates, the \"permanent\" nursery area was started. Studies had been made in some of the large collections at Jamaica Plain, and it had become obvious that continued planting there was impossible for lack of space. It was decided that the Horticulturist would select some of the mediocre-topoor species and varieties for removal to the Case Estates, leaving only the better ornamental types at Jamaica Plain. At 96 first there were 202 plants in this \"permanent\" nursery. Now there are approximately 1,000 species and varieties in this permanent planting, all labeled, all properly indexed, and all recorded in the master file at Jamaica Plain. Three genera were worked out to show the tremendous amount of prime display area that has been saved by this policy decision: This system reduced the number of plants in the three genera Jamaica Plain from 383 to 87 - a decided improvement. No species, varieties, or clones were discarded; plants of all were kept, the better species and clones for ornamental display were left at Jamaica Plain where they should be, receiving much better care and display space than they formerly had. This policy has been kept over the years as the Horticulturist and Assistant Horticulturist have studied succeeding groups. at Special Collections Between 1951 and 1953 eighty-three plants of thirty-seven species and varieties of hollies were planted in the woods back of the evergreen nursery. This was done because of partial shelter here in the winter and because of increasing vandalism at Jamaica Plain, where it was impossible to keep well-fruited plants of evergreen, red-berried hollies in good condition. Summer watering, a definite spray program, fertilizing, and mulching have resulted in increasingly good crops of fruit in recent years. England branch of the American Daffodil allowed the use of a small space for the planting of varieties of Narcissus. All of the collecting was done by that organization, chiefly by Dr. Helen Scorgie, of Princeton, Mass., with labor supplied by the Arboretum. Now nearly 300 varieties are growing at the Case Estates. During the past few years Dr. Scorgie has been rearranging the collection almost annually, so that the arrangement of the varieties in the beds differs from year to year. In 1963 the Horticulturist became interested in lilies, and a demonstration plot of over 200 of them - later increased to 250 - was planted. For the first few years they were outstandIn 1960 the New was Society 97 ing, but unfortunately a major part of this collection was destroyed by rodents. In 1963, also, the Hosta collection was started, chiefly at the instigation of Mrs. Frances Williams of Winchester. At the present time there are over 100 species and clones growing in this one collection. The Hemerocallis Society wished to cooperate in the planting of a Hemerocallis collection and, since it supplied a large number of plants, the beds were laid out and planted in 1965. The supervisory committee consisted of Mrs. Percy L. Merry of Needham, Mr. George Pride of Worcester (now Associate Horticulturist at the Arboretum), and Mrs. S. P. Shaw of Weston. The beds now contain over 200 varieties, among which are 63 clones from a collection of old-fashioned cultivars given to the Arnold Arboretum about 1950 by Professor Stephen Hamblin, formerly of Harvard University. One of the staff members became interested in the genus Allium, and in 1967 a display bed consisting of 60 species and varieties was planted near the lily collection. All plants were labeled, and they attract much attention from visitors. Many onions are excellent ornamentals, and few gardeners have realized that there are so many species and varieties available today. In 1964 a planting of about 180 Chaenomeles of 130 species, varieties, and cultivars was made in the lower nursery as a result of studies made by staff members responsible for assembling the International Registration List of Chaenomeles published in 1963. Experimental Research The plantings and wooded areas of the Case Estates have been used for various experimental purposes, not the least important of which has been the trial of new weed killers. When a weed killer was studied thoroughly enough so that we understood what it would and would not do, it was used on the plantings in Jamaica Plain if it had proved satisfactory; but, in the course of these experiments, several weed killers proved to be too unreliable to be used on the display plantings and were discarded after the first trials at the Case Estates. Other organizations affiliated with Harvard University have been allowed the use of portions of the Case Estate property at various times. In 1946 an agreement was made between the Arnold Arboretum and the Harvard Graduate School of Design which allowed the landscape department to use a small piece of land bordering the woods, above the former vineyard, which was not immediately adaptable for Arboretum use. The Bussey Fig. 5: Hosta plot at the Case Estates. Photo: D. Wyman. Institution was allowed to use, temporarily, two acres of other land for growing corn, and in 1948 the Cabot Foundation planted seven acres, in the big field bordering Newton Street, with forest trees under special study. Finally, in connection with Dr. Sax's studies of dwarfing techniques and dwarfing rootstocks for apples, a series of experimental plantings were made in 1948, 1952, and 1959. In 1966 an experimental nursery of over 130 different kinds of trees was planted in the large field along Newton Street to allow them to grow to a large size. It was anticipated that they might be needed for planting at Jamaica Plain. Thirty-four wisteria vines were planted on the vine trellis at the Case Estates in the spring of 1946. These had all been propagated asexually from one double-flowered vine. Various pruning and fertilizing practices were carried out on these vines up until 1962, the main object being to note which ones aided flowering. Similarly, other trellises in this general area were utilized with nearly thirty different varieties of Celastrus vines in 98 series of studies to learn more about sex changes and tion methods for producing more fruit on plants of this genus. The field on the east side of Wellesley Street was used for a series of experiments to determine the best pruning and fertilizing practices to aid the growth and color of fruits, flowers, and a I 99 pollina- autumn foliage of some twenty different ornamental shrubs. Each group of plants was asexually propagated from a single plant. Later, these same plants were used in field demonstrations of different methods of pruning. These are only a few of the more evident types of experiments which have been carried out here over the years. In recent years an \"open house\" day each year has done much to increase interest in the plantings. Referring back to the policies established in 1945, we can see that the Arnold Arboretum land at Jamaica Plain and the Case Estates in Weston has been welded into a harmonious unit, of benefit to staff members and of considerable interest to the general public. DONALD WYMAN Holly Society of America and the International Registration Authority for cultivated Ilex (holly) wish to announce a change in the place of the registration authority from the College of Agriculture and Environmental Science, Rutgers, the State University, New Brunswick, New Jersey, with Dr. E. R. Orton, Jr. as registrar, to the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C., The 20002, with Mr. G. K. Eisenbeiss as registrar. All future national and international holly registrations and inquiries are to be sent to Mr. G. K. Eisenbeiss. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant with Nature","article_sequence":2,"start_page":100,"end_page":106,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24504","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070b728.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Plant With Naturel Readers of the works of the late Louis Bromfield will remember that in his series of books about his experience in farming at Malabar he repeatedly stressed farming with nature rather than against nature. Mr. Bromfield was a man who came to agriculture late in life, became tremendously excited by it and in some ways could almost be characterized as an agricultural mystic. Many of the theories that he embraced with such passion did not withstand the proof of careful objective testing in the field. However, his basic reverence for nature resulted in attempts to adjust agricultural practices to conform to the natural way in which the soil or plant behaves, and these attempts have not received the serious attention that they deserve. Scientifically trained agriculturists in particular are put off by the intemperate enthusiasm and broad generalizations that characterize much of his agricultural writing. Still the basic kernel of his thinking is valid. It is cheaper, more efficient and more profitable to farm with nature. It is at best an uphill struggle to try to farm in a way which violates natural ecological principles. Nurserymen are agriculturists too, even those who do nothing but landscape planting and do not own an acre of land in field production. Frequently they are dealing with plant material that is infinitely more exacting in its ecological requirements than the traditional farm crops. Most of these crops have, during the thousands of years they have been cultivated, become wholly artificial creations completely dependent upon man's plowed fields for existence and unable to survive in the wild. No matter what part of the industry in which a nurseryman is engaged, his profits and, indeed, his very survival are dependent upon how well the plants he produces or sells survive and grow. 1 Reprinted man from the December 15, 1969, issue of the American Nurserywith the permission of the editor and the author. 100 101 Natural Cycle of Growth Young men studying at horticultural schools often wonder why they are required to learn so much \"theory,\" when they are really interested in the \"practical\" parts of an education, how to do those operations that obviously and quickly relate to a dollar earned. They resent the seemingly dull theoretical parts of plant physiology and ecology and the apparently \"obvious\" facts describing the natural cycle of plant growth. Yet in our temperate are zone, in which most of the world's nursery operations conducted, the seasons alternate between a period of active growth in the spring and summer and a period of dormancy deepening in the fall to almost complete quiescence in the winter. Complex biochemical changes take place within the plant as it goes through these recurrent cycles. To ignore these natural phenomena in the very practical operations of propagation and transplanting is to court disaster in some operations or at best to do things the hard way with the resulting increased costs and diminished results. Consequently approaching with an eager and open mind these \"theoretical\" questions as to how a plant behaves and why it does so has a most practical application after all. Propagating with Nature For countless years, gardeners idly observed that many kinds of flowers bloomed only at a certain time in the year, and no amount of irrigation or fertilizing would induce them to depart from this pattern. Eventually curious minds began to wonder why this was so, and these investigations led Garner and Allard to formulate the principle in 1920 that such plants behaved this way in response to variations in the length of the daylight at different times in the growing season. This discovery and its refinements have been of the greatest practical value to the florist industry. The photoperiodic response of woody plants is less dramatic than that of many herbaceous plants, but it is there, and adjusting propagating schedules to it will greatly improve results. Indeed, some plants, like certain deciduous azaleas and the so-called French hybrid lilacs, are virtually impossible to root except during their spring cycle of growth, which coincides with the longest days of the year. Transplanting Nature's Way During ing into the early spring, just when woody plants are breakgrowth, is the best time to transplant in the nursery 102 or I plant on a landscape job. However, the ideal part of this best time is of very short duration, often a mere couple of weeks. It is of course impossible to compress enough work into this brief period to support a business for the remaining majority of the year. Therefore it is important to separate trees for example, into groups composed of those which are easy, fairly easy and difficult to transplant. Fortunes have been lost in the landscape contracting business through ignorance or willfulness in insisting on planting the \"difficult\" trees at the wrong time of the year. Two particularly cranky trees are the willow oak (Quercus phellos) and the tulip tree (Liriodendron tulipifera). The tulip tree, a member of the magnolia family, has, like magnolias, fleshy roots, which are slow to regenerate. If transplanted in the late fall or winter, the severed roots will decay back from the cut ends until the next cycle of growth in the spring, and heavy losses will result. to Move at Optimum Time In one well-known landscape contract that featured hundreds of large-caliper tulip trees, they were a total loss, and the contractor was bankrupted by the job. By delaying the execution of this job and working with nature by moving these trees at the optimum time in the spring just as growth was commencing, 100 percent survival could have been achieved, and a handsome profit would have replaced the disaster. The willow oak is very difficult for a quite different reason. It is both thin-barked and extremely twiggy. If moved in the late fall or winter when no root regeneration can occur, the trees simply dry out and perish. If moved in the spring just before or just as new growth is beginning, there is no chance for drying out to proceed very far because new root growth occurs immediately and supplies water to the branches. Thus knowledge of the idiosyncrasies of certain difficult trees and the implications of their growth cycles is of the utmost importance in scheduling nursery operations and landscape contracting. Ecological Requirements Nurserymen and landscape architects often do not pay sufficient attention to the ecological requirements of the plants commonly used in landscape planting and thus attempt to fight nature rather than work with her. Such a course is fraught with disappointment. Either the plants die outright, with costly losses to the contractor, or else they merely survive in a sickly 103 condition which disappoints the owner who expected a beautiful planting and thus cast doubts on the ability of the designer. Many ornamental plants are adaptable to a great variety of growing conditions, and there is usually one in which they look exactly \"right.\" Others, however, have exacting ecological requirements which cannot be ignored. Although they will not thrive in all sites even though they are perfectly hardy in that climatic zone, they are very useful precisely because of their special requirements. With the science of ecology at its present developed state, it should not be possible to find the flagrant violations of nature still to be seen in a few landscape plantings. But there they are the bed of shrunken rhododendrons baking on the south face of a big building, the creeping junipers battling it out with phomopsis blight as a ground cover in the shade of big trees, or the yellow-brown mass of pachysandra struggling to survive on a dry, sunny bank. - The Happy Reverse At the other end of the spectrum, the happy reverse is to be seen, designed by an architect or landscape consultant with an instinctive \"feel\" for plant requirements. His are the results of planting with nature the lush foliaged Rhododendron maximum on the sheltered north face of the building, the mass planting of thriving yuccas on the \"impossible\" dry knoll or the thicket of myrica on the highway bank where salt spray is a problem each winter. On such a job, establishing the plant material is easy, and the results are lasting and beautiful. - Solving Next to Poor Drainage in watering during the first season after plantlosses on landscape jobs result from poor drainage ing, than any other cause. Every elementary botanical textbook says that roots require water and oxygen for survival and growth. Both landscape designers and landscape contractors far more often consider supplying water than air. The reason that drainage is such a problem on so many landscape sites is that the soil has been so frightfully abused during the construction of the buildings or of the facility itself. Bulldozers, trucks and the feet of the workmen themselves cross and recross the area to be planted, often in wet, muddy weather, until not a vestige of granular soil structure remains. Unless generous planting pits are excavated and filled with good soil and under-drainage is supplied (see fig. 6a), neither plant survival nor subsequent growth will be satisfactory. neglect more 104I Fig. 6: Planting in compacted soil. Planting trees in wet areas. c. Planting shrubs in wet areas. d. Sand dune planting. For seashore: Rosa rugosa, Prunus tima, Myrica pensylvanica, Elaeagnus umbellata, etc. a. b. mari- 105 to the landscape contractor is the site with little opportunity to install underlow, planting drainage. Here also nature points the way to a solution, which can be observed in any young maple swamp on really wet ground. The trees will be observed each to be growing on a small projection of soil. The seeds which gave rise to each surviving tree germinated originally on tussocks or other soil projections above the surrounding wet soil. Later when the trees grew older they gradually extended their roots downward and outward into the surrounding soil and successfully invaded and utilized it for growing substrate. This natural method can be used with great success in landscape planting under similar conditions. Beds of shrubs or the soil balls of shade and ornamental trees can be placed partially raised above the grade level (see figs. 6b,c). As in planting at grade level, a saucer-shaped depression must be provided for watering during the first growing season after planting. It goes without saying that species adapted to wet soils must be used for landscaping such sites. Such a partially raised planting will look somewhat peculiar for the first couple of years after planting, but in a surprisingly short period of time the soil of the mounds seems to settle down or level out. Before very long the slight raise which remains from the little hill necessary to establish the planting will be a quite unnoticeable feature of the whole planting. Of still greater wet challenge Nature also problem of Planting in Sand points an intelligent observer in the successfully a planting in extremely establishing the way to porous soils such as found in many areas at the seashore. Wherever a beach plum or another seaside shrub has been uncovered by a shift in the sand dunes or big excavation, the stem of the plant will be found to be enormously long, extending far down for many yards into the sand to where permanent moisture is to be found. When one plants under such sandy conditions the root mass should be set several times deeper than would be normal (see fig. 6d). Often leggy plants which would be unacceptable for regular landscaping can be used for sand dune planting with fine results. sandy Humarc Predation A real problem exists in trying to establish and maintain landscape plantings in areas of heavy pedestrian traffic and dense 106] occupancy, such municipal building grounds and public Here also observation of how nature solves housing projects. these problems is of value to the landscape architect. In desert areas or steppes where woody plant life is hard pressed to survive and animal browsing is a severe adverse factor, successful woody plants are spiny and thorny to ward off potential deas stroyers. The landscape designer must adopt the same solution for plantings of shrubs and small trees so susceptible to vandalism. Where a hedge of Japanese holly will not survive a single growing season, a hedge of Berberis julianae will grow on to a ripe old age. Where a flowering crab apple or cherry will be torn to pieces the first time it blooms, a Washington or cockspur hawthorn will be perfectly secure and provide a fine display of flowand colorful fruits each year. Where a birch would soon lose all its bark, a thorny honey locust will grow untouched to maers turity. In all aspects of the challenging and infinitely rewarding nursery profession, intelligent observation and comprehension of nature's way indicate the easy way and the profitable way to perform nursery and landscape operations. When does a seed ripen? Usually that is the time to sow it. Does it pass through the digestive tracts of birds before it falls to the ground? Then it should be cleaned of pulp before it is sown. Does a plant occur on moist northern exposures in the wild? That is the location it will do best in on the landscape planting. Is the plant a xerophyte under natural conditions? Here is the solution for that dry, sun-baked location. Does a plant thrive at the salt-lashed seashore? It is a possibility for northern highway planting. Is a very desirable tree very difficult to transplant? Landscape planting schedules should be juggled if possible to permit transplanting it at the limited optimal planting time, or else it should be dug and heeled in under special care so the shock of the move has been overcome before it goes to the landscape site. Landscape and nursery transplanting is an unnatural phenomenon for any plant, and it is easiest and safest when natural considerations are working for, rather than against, the nurseryman. WILLIAM FLEMER III Princeton Nurseries Princeton, New Jersey "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Basic Books for the Library","article_sequence":3,"start_page":107,"end_page":113,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24501","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070af26.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"Basic Books for the Library - This is the final article taken from the series of talks presented at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's conference on botanical and horticultural libraries in November 1969. Ed. An institutional library, whether a public, college, or society library, is the place to go when one wants an answer to \"any\" question. There are two basic kinds of library tools needed to answer such questions. One is subject matter materials: books, magazines, and bulletins. Then there are the indices, atlases, dictionaries, encyclopedias, and textbooks that are needed to get at the information in the subject matter materials or to supplement those materials. Because subject matter libraries tend to be weak with regard to supplementary materials, it has seemed useful to compile a list of references. The following titles are, in my experience, the basic references needed to make a subject matter botanical and horticultural library work. Those titles preceded with an asterisk are absolutely essential; there can be no substitutes for them. The other titles on the list are extremely useful, but not absolutely essential. This list does not include purely subject matter books. Dictionaries Brown, R. W. Composition of Scientific Words. Baltimore: Pri- 1954. W. E. Scientific Words, Their Structure and Meaning. *Flood, London: Oldborne, 1960. Perhaps not the most complete, but certainly the best value for the money. *Henderson, I. F., and W. D. Henderson. A Dictionary of Scientific Terms. (7th ed.) Princeton, N.J.: Van Nostrand, 1960. Good for newer terms. Earlier editions are not particularly useful. *Jackson, B. D. A Glossary of Botanic Terms. (4th ed.) London : Duckworth & Co., 1928. The basic work in English. There is a 1949 reprint of this edition. *Schneider, C. K. Illustriertes Handworterbuch der Botanik. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1905. Probably the best onevolume dictionary; illustrated. *Stearn, W. T. Botanical Latin. London: Nelson, 1966. Grammar, glossary, and much else of interest. *Willis, J. C. A Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. (6th ed.) Cambridge: University Press, 1931. Full of useful miscellaneous information. Edition reprinted in 1960. vately printed, 108I Wood, R. S. An Taxonomists. English-Classical Dictionary for the Use of Claremont, Calif.: Pomona College, 1966. modern *Foreign language-English dictionaries for all of the European languages, Latin, and classical Greek. Bibliographies & Nomenclators Arber, A. Herbals, Their Origin and Evolution. (2nd ed.) Cambridge: University Press, 1938. *Bibliography of Agriculture. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1942 +. Title and reference listings of articles in the various fields of agriculture. Coverage of botanical and horticultural titles is probably more extensive than Biological Abstracts, but it is not an abstracting journal. *Biological Abstracts. Philadelphia: Biological Abstracts, 1926 +. Abstracts of biological publications. Useful. Blake, S. F. Guide to Popular Floras. (\"Bibliographical Bulletin,\" No. 23.) Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of Agriculture, 1954. *---, and A. C. Atwood. Geographical Guide to the Floras of the World. 2 vols. (\"U.S. Department of Agriculture Miscellaneous Publications,\" No. 401, 797.) Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1942 (vol. 1), 1961 (vol. 2). Essential. The introduction to the second volume annotated list of reference works which supthis list. plements Blunt, W., and W. T. Stearn. The Art of Botanical Illustration. contains an London: Collins, 1951. Dalla Torre, K. W. and H. Harms. Genera Siphonogamarum & Indexband. Leipzig: Wilhelm Engelmann, 1907, 1908. Useful as a source of information about synonomy of generic names. Essentially replaced by 7th edition of Willis' Dictionary. Edition reprinted in 1958 and 1963. Dunthorne, G. Flower and Fruit Prints of the 18th and Early l9th Centuries. Washington, D.C.: Privately printed, 1938. *Frodin, D. G. Guide to the Standard Floras of the World. Knoxville, Tenn.: Department of Botany, University of Tennessee, 1964. Mimeographed. Useful list of the floras which should be in any botanical or horticultural library. *Jackson, B. D. Index Kewensis plantarum phanerogamarum, 2 vols. & 13 supplements. Oxford: University Press, 18931966+. Essential in a botanical library, very useful in a horticultural library. Lists the places of publication of binomials. 1 109 Lawrence, G. H. M. An Annotated Guide to Reference Works for Advanced Plantsmen. Pittsburgh: Hunt Botanical Li- brary, 1966. Mimeographed. *Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Dictionary Catalog of the Library. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1962. Catalog of the largest American horticultural library. Useful. *Merrill, E. D., and E. H. Walker. A Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany. 2 vols. Jamaica Plain: Arnold Arboretum, Almost absolutely essential. Useful far outside of its stated geographical area. The subject lists at the end are particularly valuable. Nissen, C. Die Botanische Buchillustration. 2 vols. & supplement. Stuttgart: Hiersemann, 1951, 1966. Essential if you are going to do anything with illustrated books. The notes on authors, illustrators, engravers, and publishers are very useful. *Pritzel, G. A. Thesaurus Literaturae Botanicae. (2nd ed.) Leipzig: Brockhaus, 1871. This is the one basic, essential library tool. One simply cannot function without it. Authors and their dates, titles and dates of publication, size, numbers of pages, and miscellaneous notes. Also extensive systematic lists of titles at the back. Reprinted in 1950. *Rehder, A. Bibliography of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs.... Jamaica Plain: Arnold Arboretum, 1949. Very useful, as far as it goes, listing extensive synonomy for accepted names. 1938 (vol. 1); Washington, D.C.: Biological Sciences, 1960 (vol. 2). American Institute of *Smith, R. C., and R. H. Painter. Guide to the Literature of the Zoological Sciences. (7th ed.) Minneapolis: Burgess, 1966. Very useful annotated list of publications of general biological interest. Stafleu, F. A. Taxonomic Literature (\"Regnum Vegetabile,\" No. 52.) Utrecht: Privately printed, 1967. *Stapf, O. Index Londinensis to Illustrations of Flowering Plants, Ferns, and Fern Allies. 6 vols. Oxford: University Press, 1929-1941. *Union List of Serials. (3rd ed.) New York: H. W. Wilson, 1965. Location of periodicals in U.S. libraries. United States Department of Agriculture Library. Botany Subject Index. Boston: G. K. Hall, 1958. A useful subject index, but very incomplete. *Willis, J. C. Dictionary of the Flowering Plants and Ferns. (7th ed., revised by H. K. Airey-Shaw.) Cambridge: University Press, 1966. Essentially an annotated list of generic names. Very useful. 110 *Woodward, B. B., and A. C. Townsend. British Museum (N. H.), Catalogue of the Books, Manuscripts, Maps, and Drawings. 8 vols. London: British Museum, 1903-1940. Basic. One can survive though not very Pritzel. Reprinted in 1964. - happily - if one has Synoptic Works and Dictionaries *Bailey, L. H., ed. The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture. 6 vols. New York: Macmillan, 1914-1917. Still standard, reprinted several times, including a three-volume edition. The keys for identification in vol. 1 are very useful. *---. Manual of Cultivated Plants. (2nd ed.) New York: Macmillan, 1949. The standard work. *---, and E. Z. Bailey, compilers. Hortus Second. New York: Macmillan, 1941. Very useful for common names. Bentham, G., and J. D. Hooker. Genera Plantarum. London: Lovell Reeve, 1862-1883. Useful. Many people consider this to be indispensable; I don't. *Chittenden, F. J., ed. The Royal Horticultural Society Dictionary of Gardening. 4 vols. & 2 supplements. Oxford: University Press, 1951-1969. There are keys for the identification of the species of some genera, as well as lists of cultivars. *Dallimore, W., and A. B. Jackson. Handbook of Coniferae and Ginkgoaceae, ed. S. G. Harrison. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1967. Probably preferable to Kriissmann for those whose native language is English. *Davis, P. H. and J. Cullen. The Identification of Flowering Plant Families. Edinburgh: Oliver & Boyd, 1965. Essentially a set of keys for identification. *DeCandolle, A. P., A. DeCandolle, & C. DeCandolle. Prodromus Systematis Naturalis Regni Vegetabilis. 17 vols. in 20. Paris: Masson, 1824-1873. The latest comprehensive treatment for many groups of dicots. Encke, F., ed. Parey's Blumengartnerei. (2nd ed.) 2 vols. & Index. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1958-1960. Useful for plants cultivated in northern Europe. *Engler, A., and K. Prantl. Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien. (1st ed.) 4 vols. in 24. Wilhelm Engelmann, 1887-1914. If only one work of this kind can be had, this should be it! Particularly valuable for the illustrations. A second and is very edition has been started but is not complete expensive. Reasonably priced copies of the first edition can still be found in the second hand book market. - Ill *Graf, A. B. Exotica 3, Pictorial Cyclopedia of Exotic Plants. Rutherford, N.J.: Roehrs Co., 1968. Useful for identification. The names need to be checked. *Hooker, J. D., ed. Le Maout and Decaisne, A General System of Botany, Descriptive and Analytical... Translated by Mrs. Hooker. London: Longmans Green, 1876. The illustrations are excellent and abundant, and the text is useful. Basic for a teaching library. Hutchinson, J. The Families of Flowering Plants. (2nd ed.) 2 vols. Oxford: University Press, 1959. I prefer Rendle. *Krussmann, G. Handbuch der Laubgeholze. 2 vols. Berlin: Paul Parey, 1959-1962. Useful for cultivated forms. Good line drawings. *---. Die Nadelgeholze. (2nd ed.) Berlin: Paul Parey, 1960-1962. Useful. *Loudon, J. C. Arboretum et Fruticetum Britanicum. (1st ed.) 8 vols. London: Longmans, Orme, Brown, Greene and Longmans, 1838. Full of interesting information. *Miller, P. The Gardener's and Botanist's Dictionary. (9th ed., by T. Martyn.) 2 vols. London: Law & Gilbert, 1807. This is the most useful edition for all save nomenclatural purposes for which the 8th ed. is essential. It has extensive synonomy, as well as much information about economic uses. *Ouden, P. den, and B. K. Boom. Manual of Cultivated Conifers. The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1965. Useful. *Rehder, A. A Manual of Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America. New York: Macmillan, 1954. Standard for the area north of latitude 35. Rendle, A. B. The Classiftcation of Flowering Plants. 2 vols. Cambridge: University Press, 1925, 1930. A good textbook, with a bias toward the British flora. Reprinted in 1963. *Werdermann, E., and H. Melchior. A. Engler's Syllabus der Pflanzenfamilien. (12th ed.) 2 vols. Berlin: Borntrager, 1954 (vol. 1), 1964 (vol. 2). Preferable to either Rendle or to Hutchinson. Written in a German which is not difficult follow. Especially valuable for the bibliographies. Economic Plants *Burkill, I. H. A Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula. 2 vols. London: Crown Agents for the Colonies, 1935. Essential; full of information. Reprinted in 1966. 112 *Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, India. The Wealth of India. Vol. 1+. New Delhi: Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, 1948+. Extremely useful treatment of economic plant material of the tropics and sub-tropics. Particularly valuable because of bibliographies appended to the articles. DeCandolle, A. Origin ofCultivated Plants. (2nd ed. ) London : Kegan Paul, Trench & Co., 1886. The basic work. Reprinted in 1959. *Hedrick, U. P., ed. Sturtevant's Notes on Edible Plants. Albany, N.Y.: State Printer, 1919. A basic work. *Kingsbury, J. M. Poisonous Plants of the United States and Canada. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. : Prentice-Hall, 1964. The standard work. Essential. Watt, J. M., and M. G. Beyer-Brandwijk. The Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa. Edin- burgh : Livingston, 1962. Full of information. far outside the stated geographical limits. Valuable Plant Anatomy *Esau, K. Plant Anatomy. (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley, 1965. A textbook, but just about encyclopedic in scope. *Metcalfe, C. R., and L. Chalk. Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. 2 vols. Oxford: University Press, 1950. Supplements and brings up to date the work of Solereder. *---, and P. B. Tomlinson. Anatomy of the Monocotyledons. Oxford: University Press, 1960+. A series of essentially family anatomical monographs. *Solereder, H. Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Translated by L. A. Boodle and F. E. Fritsch. 2 vols. Oxford: University Press, 1908. The basic work. Textbooks and Miscellaneous References Atlante Internazionale del Touring Club Italiano. ( 5th ed.) Milan: Touring Club Italiano, 1936. In my opinion, this is the best of the older atlases. Many people, however, prefer Haack or Scobel. *Bartholemew, J., ed. The Times Atlas of the World. 5 vols. Edinburgh: Bartholemew, 1955-1959. This is the best general atlas in print. The one volume edition does not open well. Black, C. A. Soil-Plant Relationships. (2nd ed.) New York: Wiley, 1968. ESSA. World Weather Records 1951-1960. Vols. 1-7. Washington, D.C. : Government Printing Office, 1965+. 113 Haack, H. Steiler's Hand-Atlas. ( lOth ed.) Gotha: Justus Perthes, 1930-1931. Hartmann, H. T., and D. E. Kerster. Plant Propagation. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice-Hall, 1968. Johansen, D. A. Plant Microtechnique. New York, McGrawHill, 1940. This is the basic work in print. Zimmermann's work is still useful. Kingsett, C. T. Chemical Encyclopedia. (4th ed.) New York: Van Nostrand, 1928. Lawrence, G. H. M. Taxonomy of Vascular Plants. New York: Macmillan, 1951. Valuable for the annotated lists of recommended books. McLean, R. C., and W. R. I. Cook. Plant Science Formulae. (2nd ed.) London: Macmillan, 1952. Practical Field Ecology. London: George ---, & ---. Allen and Unwin, 1946. An essential \"cookbook\" for anyone planning to do simple ecological surveys. Moldenke, H. N. and A. L. Moldenke. Plants of the Bible. Waltham, Mass.: Chronica Botanica, 1952. Pirone, P. P., B. O. Dodge, and H. W. Rickett. Diseases of Ornamental Plants. (3rd ed.) New York: Ronald Press, 1960. Purvis, M. J., D. C. Collier, and D. Walls. Laboratory Techniques in Botany. ( 2nd ed. ) London : Butterworth's, 1966. *Royal Horticultural Society Color Chart. ( lst or 2nd ed. ) London : Royal Horticultural Society, 1938-1939, 1966. There are other color charts, but this seems to dominate the field. Scobel, A. Andree's Allgemeiner Handatlas. (4th ed. ) Biele- feld & Leipzig: Velhagen and Klasing, 1910. *Strasburger's Textbook of Botany. Rewritten by R. Harder, W. Denffer. Translated from 28th German edition by P. Bell and D. Coombe. London : Longmans, 1965. The best botanical textbook for reference available. *United States Board on Geographic Names. Official Standard Names Gazetteers. Nos. 1-110+. Washington, D.C.: Department of the Interior, 1955-1969+. Indispensable for finding locations of place names and also for the listing of standard maps in the introduction to each part. *Weast, R. C., ed. Handbook of Chemistry and Physics. (48th ed.) Cleveland: Chemical Rubber Co., 1967. Zimmermann, A. Botanical Microtechnique. Translated by J. E. Humphrey. London: A. Constable & Co., 1896. Schumacher, F. Firbas, and D. von GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weeds, A Link with the Past: Purslane","article_sequence":4,"start_page":114,"end_page":120,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24505","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070b76d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"Weeds: A Link with the Past 2. Purslane Purslane, wild portulaca, or pusley (Portulaca oleracea), is a small plant which appears each spring in the Arboretum, growing flat against the ground in the nurseries surrounding the greenhouses. The origin of purslane is buried in prehistory. Alphonse De Candolle, in The Origin of Cultivated Plants, laca oleracea was \"one of the kitchen garden diffused throughout the old world from earliest time,\" and was found in India, Greece, and Persia. Purslane was mentioned in the \"Natural History\" of Pliny as one of the vegetables used by the Romans. Pliny, or Gaius Plinius Secundus, usually referred to as Pliny the Elder, was a Roman living about 23-79 A.D. He compiled an encyclopedia, 114 wrote that Portuplants most widely 115 Historia Naturalis, which dealt with many subjects as they were known at that time, including geography, the fine arts, zoology, and botany. He also included food and food plants among them cabbage, cucumber, turnip, parsnip, and purslane. In the 16th century John Gerard described the use of purslane : \"Rawe Purslane is much used in salads with oile, salt, and vinegar.\" John Parkinson, a writer and herbalist who lived about the same time as Gerard, had a more colorful use for purslane. He wrote that purslane was not only a remedy for a crick in the neck, but also for \"blastings by lightning, or planets, and for burnings by Gunpowder or otherwise.\" This somewhat dramatic information was revealed in a guide to gardening entitled Paradisus in Sole Paradisus Terrestris. Parkinson appears to have been fond of puns, because the title may be translated from the Latin as \"Park in Sun, Park on Earth.\" What was perhaps the first \"Salad Cook Book\" was written in 1699 by John Evelyn, a London gentleman-farmer. Called Acetaria, a Discourse of Sallets, it gave, among other things, instructions for making purslane pickle. In this country one of Bernard McMahon's seed catalogs which was printed in Philadelphia about 1800 listed two kinds of purslane: \"Green Garden Purslane\" and \"Golden Purslane, a variety.\" However, not everyone agreed about the virtues of purslane; in 1821 William Cobbett wrote in The American Gardener, perhaps a little unkindly, that purslane was a \"mischievous weed that Frenchmen and pigs eat when they can get nothing else. Both use it in salad, that is to say, raw.\" Henry Thoreau, in Walden, or Life in the Woods (1854), mentioned the use of purslane: \"I have made a satisfactory dinner on several accounts, simply off a dish of purslane which I gathered in my cornfield, boiled and salted.\" Last summer when I discovered a crop of purslane growing in one of my flower beds, inspired by my reading, I allowed the plants to grow. In a month they became large and sturdy, with succulent triangular leaves and thick juicy stems. I harvested them and boiled them gently just a few minutes until they were barely tender. Drained, salted lightly, and generously buttered, they make a delicious vegetable, more tender than the most delicate young spinach leaves, the stems tasting slightly of acid. Perhaps those of us who raise our own vegetables, struggling with temperamental plants, fertilizing, dusting, and spraying, are overlooking a good vegetable when we pull purslane up by the roots and fling it on the mulch pile. HELEN ROCA-GARCIA - Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Malus 'Donald Wyman' During the past few years staff members have become interested in a crab apple tree which was first noticed on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum as a spontaneous seedling prior to 1950. The reason for our recent interest results from observation of its ability to retain its fruit, in good condition, well into the winter months when the fruit of nearly every other crab apple in the collection has either dropped, been eaten by the birds, or has turned brown and unattractive. Under our conditions the tree flowers annually and has consistently produced a heavy crop of glossy, bright red fruits which average 1 cm. in diameter. As winter progresses the color will fade, but even by the end of March enough red is retained to classify the fruits as having definite ornamental value throughout the entire winter. The tree will also be of interest to those who plant crab apples as a source of food for birds. We have noted during the past two winters that the fruits seem to mature or become palatable to birds at varying times throughout the season. They are not taken all at once as is the case with some of the other crab apples that have persistent fruit; therefore, it may be considered as a source of \"slow-release\" bird food. The buds are pink but they open to single, white flowers which are 4.5 cm. across when fully expanded. During four years in which detailed observations were made, heaviness of flowering was rated from moderately heavy to very heavy. Our specimen is a small tree, sixteen feet tall, of compact growth habit. It may be seen on the SW side of Peters Hill just across the road from the Alnus collection. A tree of this sort will be a valuable addition to the winter landscape, and for this reason we are naming it in honor of Dr. Donald Wyman as a small tribute to his many years of interest in this fine group of ornamental trees. Malus 'Donald Wyman' has been propagated in limited quantity during the past winter and will soon be made available to nurserymen who participate in our Cooperating Nurserymen Program. We hope that, before long, it may become available to the general public. ROBERT S. HEBB 116 117 The International Plant Propagator's Society Nineteenth Annual Meeting The Eastern Region of the International Plant Propagator's Society met for its annual program on December 3, 1969, at the Hotel Commodore in New York City. Meetings of this society move about each year and are held in various parts of the eastern United States. The 1967 meeting, for example, was held in Mobile, Alabama, while that for 1968 took place in Toronto, Canada. To celebrate the society's Twentieth Anniversary, the Eastern and Western regions will gather at middle ground for a combined meeting to be held in September of this year at St. Paul, Minnesota. This will be the first joint session for the two regions, and a delegation from the newly formed region of Great Britain and Ireland also plans to attend. The first day of the meeting was devoted to a tour of the various horticultural organizations in the Long Island area with the initial stop being at Planting Fields Arboretum, Oyster Bay. A few statistics relative to Planting Fields formerly the renowned William Robert Coe Estate show that it is a yearround horticultural center about one hour from New York City by car. Included in its 409 total acres are 160 permanently preserved as an arboretum, 200 devoted to fine woodlands, and five to a synoptic garden which includes over 400 species of woody taxa. In the bulb collection are over 80,000 plants, including 140 varieties of daffodils. A number of service greenhouses are used to raise plants for the 22,000 square foot display houses. When we visited poinsettias were being readied for a Christmas show; at Easter lilies are featured. The next stop was at the Christie Estate located in Muttontown. An outstanding collection of abnormal conifers had been brought together here. On viewing these remarkable specimens one gets the impression that they were planted many years ago. However, this is not the case. L. K. Christie, who met an untimely death several years ago, sought large specimens throughout Long Island and had them moved to the location at great expense. Among these oddities are conifers that are dwarf, slow-growing, pendulous, fastigiate, variegated, etc. The future of this unique collection had been in question since the owner's demise. However, a recent arrangement has been made whereby the Nassau County Park System has agreed to take over. Therefore, it will not be lost to horticulture. During the afternoon we visited two commercial nurseries. At the Johnson Avenue Rare Plant Nursery there was a large collection of unusual plant material. Mr. Joseph Cesarini, the - I proprietor, is a natural born plant collector and displays many rarely seen specimens in his miniature arboretum. Mr. Cesarini certainly does not spend time in wasted motion, for at his establishment are twenty-five large plastic houses of container-grown plants which are managed with only one full-time and two part-time employees. On December 4th we began the first of five formal sessions which were to cover two and one-half days. The emphasis of this opening session was placed on research techniques. The highlight was an excellent talk on the \"Principles of In Vitro Culture,\" given by Toshio Murashige, University of California, Riverside, California. 118 During the second session, devoted to \"Propagation Techniques\" and moderated by Joseph Cesarini, procedures used in the vegetative propagation of plants were discussed. Included among the presentations were papers on production of \"Juvenile Shoots from Root Pieces,\"\"Outdoor Softwood Cutting Propagation,\" \"Softwood Cuttings under Polyethylene Tents,\" and \"A Practical System of Cold Frame Propagation,\" by Mr. P. D. Orum of D. Hill Nursery Company, Dundee, Illinois. Many were interested in the latter because of the relatively inexpensive techniques recommended. Much interest was also indicated in the production of juvenile shoots from root pieces. That presentation dealt with a successful method of propagating several plant species which cannot otherwise be rooted from cuttings. Plant nutrition and growth came in for their share of attention during the second session of the afternoon. In addition to other topics, two papers dealt with regulators which retard growth and their effect on budding and hardiness of rhododendrons. These were particularly interesting because of their importance to those concerned with raising rhododendrons and azaleas. During the morning of December 5th attention was focused the propagation of specific plants. Perhaps a safe statement to make here is that a plant must be difficult to propagate and offer some important asset in order to receive consideration at on this session. Included were discussions on Prunus serotina, Acer griseum, and Hamamelis, and the techniques involved in handling cuttings from white pine witches'-broom seedlings. It is good to note the greater trend toward cooperation among the various groups who are interested in the same plants. An example of this was the paper on \"Mist Propagation\" of black cherry (Prunus serotina). This subject is of great importance to the lumber industry, and the vegetative propagation of specific 119 clones with desirable characteristics is, therefore, significant. Acer griseum is a tremendously appealing plant, and the presentation dealing with its propagation was based on factual information which came about through research. Problems of management and cultural practices are often overlooked at meetings such as these. Not so here, however, for the entire Friday afternoon session was devoted to managerial problems. Such items as cost analysis, schedules, mechanization, water usage, stock scion hardiness relationships, and breeding of woody ornamental plants were covered in considerable detail. The final portion of the afternoon program featured the regularly scheduled presentation of \"New Plant Introductions\" moderated by Alfred J. Fordham. Both the authors feel that \"bull sessions\" are often among the most rewarding parts of these meetings. The evening of December 5th would fit this category, for it was then that the question and answer period was held. A question box is set up at the start of the meetings, and throughout the sessions the participants are urged to contribute questions which are then posed by a moderator and answered from the floor. This part of the program has great appeal, and attendance is always high. It is a rare occasion when someone from this group of specialists cannot furnish an answer to any question. ALFRED J. FORDHAM ROBERT C. KENNEDY Mercer Fellow _ Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses, February February March and March 1970. Precipitation 4.97 3.71 Avg. 8 a.m. Temp. 26.75 33.8 . Editors' Note: In the review on page 77 of our March 15th issue, the American Museum of \"National\" History should, of course, be the American Museum of Natural History. Our apologies to our readers and the institution. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":116,"end_page":119,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24503","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070b36f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum Malus 'Donald Wyman' During the past few years staff members have become interested in a crab apple tree which was first noticed on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum as a spontaneous seedling prior to 1950. The reason for our recent interest results from observation of its ability to retain its fruit, in good condition, well into the winter months when the fruit of nearly every other crab apple in the collection has either dropped, been eaten by the birds, or has turned brown and unattractive. Under our conditions the tree flowers annually and has consistently produced a heavy crop of glossy, bright red fruits which average 1 cm. in diameter. As winter progresses the color will fade, but even by the end of March enough red is retained to classify the fruits as having definite ornamental value throughout the entire winter. The tree will also be of interest to those who plant crab apples as a source of food for birds. We have noted during the past two winters that the fruits seem to mature or become palatable to birds at varying times throughout the season. They are not taken all at once as is the case with some of the other crab apples that have persistent fruit; therefore, it may be considered as a source of \"slow-release\" bird food. The buds are pink but they open to single, white flowers which are 4.5 cm. across when fully expanded. During four years in which detailed observations were made, heaviness of flowering was rated from moderately heavy to very heavy. Our specimen is a small tree, sixteen feet tall, of compact growth habit. It may be seen on the SW side of Peters Hill just across the road from the Alnus collection. A tree of this sort will be a valuable addition to the winter landscape, and for this reason we are naming it in honor of Dr. Donald Wyman as a small tribute to his many years of interest in this fine group of ornamental trees. Malus 'Donald Wyman' has been propagated in limited quantity during the past winter and will soon be made available to nurserymen who participate in our Cooperating Nurserymen Program. We hope that, before long, it may become available to the general public. ROBERT S. HEBB 116 117 The International Plant Propagator's Society Nineteenth Annual Meeting The Eastern Region of the International Plant Propagator's Society met for its annual program on December 3, 1969, at the Hotel Commodore in New York City. Meetings of this society move about each year and are held in various parts of the eastern United States. The 1967 meeting, for example, was held in Mobile, Alabama, while that for 1968 took place in Toronto, Canada. To celebrate the society's Twentieth Anniversary, the Eastern and Western regions will gather at middle ground for a combined meeting to be held in September of this year at St. Paul, Minnesota. This will be the first joint session for the two regions, and a delegation from the newly formed region of Great Britain and Ireland also plans to attend. The first day of the meeting was devoted to a tour of the various horticultural organizations in the Long Island area with the initial stop being at Planting Fields Arboretum, Oyster Bay. A few statistics relative to Planting Fields formerly the renowned William Robert Coe Estate show that it is a yearround horticultural center about one hour from New York City by car. Included in its 409 total acres are 160 permanently preserved as an arboretum, 200 devoted to fine woodlands, and five to a synoptic garden which includes over 400 species of woody taxa. In the bulb collection are over 80,000 plants, including 140 varieties of daffodils. A number of service greenhouses are used to raise plants for the 22,000 square foot display houses. When we visited poinsettias were being readied for a Christmas show; at Easter lilies are featured. The next stop was at the Christie Estate located in Muttontown. An outstanding collection of abnormal conifers had been brought together here. On viewing these remarkable specimens one gets the impression that they were planted many years ago. However, this is not the case. L. K. Christie, who met an untimely death several years ago, sought large specimens throughout Long Island and had them moved to the location at great expense. Among these oddities are conifers that are dwarf, slow-growing, pendulous, fastigiate, variegated, etc. The future of this unique collection had been in question since the owner's demise. However, a recent arrangement has been made whereby the Nassau County Park System has agreed to take over. Therefore, it will not be lost to horticulture. During the afternoon we visited two commercial nurseries. At the Johnson Avenue Rare Plant Nursery there was a large collection of unusual plant material. Mr. Joseph Cesarini, the - I proprietor, is a natural born plant collector and displays many rarely seen specimens in his miniature arboretum. Mr. Cesarini certainly does not spend time in wasted motion, for at his establishment are twenty-five large plastic houses of container-grown plants which are managed with only one full-time and two part-time employees. On December 4th we began the first of five formal sessions which were to cover two and one-half days. The emphasis of this opening session was placed on research techniques. The highlight was an excellent talk on the \"Principles of In Vitro Culture,\" given by Toshio Murashige, University of California, Riverside, California. 118 During the second session, devoted to \"Propagation Techniques\" and moderated by Joseph Cesarini, procedures used in the vegetative propagation of plants were discussed. Included among the presentations were papers on production of \"Juvenile Shoots from Root Pieces,\"\"Outdoor Softwood Cutting Propagation,\" \"Softwood Cuttings under Polyethylene Tents,\" and \"A Practical System of Cold Frame Propagation,\" by Mr. P. D. Orum of D. Hill Nursery Company, Dundee, Illinois. Many were interested in the latter because of the relatively inexpensive techniques recommended. Much interest was also indicated in the production of juvenile shoots from root pieces. That presentation dealt with a successful method of propagating several plant species which cannot otherwise be rooted from cuttings. Plant nutrition and growth came in for their share of attention during the second session of the afternoon. In addition to other topics, two papers dealt with regulators which retard growth and their effect on budding and hardiness of rhododendrons. These were particularly interesting because of their importance to those concerned with raising rhododendrons and azaleas. During the morning of December 5th attention was focused the propagation of specific plants. Perhaps a safe statement to make here is that a plant must be difficult to propagate and offer some important asset in order to receive consideration at on this session. Included were discussions on Prunus serotina, Acer griseum, and Hamamelis, and the techniques involved in handling cuttings from white pine witches'-broom seedlings. It is good to note the greater trend toward cooperation among the various groups who are interested in the same plants. An example of this was the paper on \"Mist Propagation\" of black cherry (Prunus serotina). This subject is of great importance to the lumber industry, and the vegetative propagation of specific 119 clones with desirable characteristics is, therefore, significant. Acer griseum is a tremendously appealing plant, and the presentation dealing with its propagation was based on factual information which came about through research. Problems of management and cultural practices are often overlooked at meetings such as these. Not so here, however, for the entire Friday afternoon session was devoted to managerial problems. Such items as cost analysis, schedules, mechanization, water usage, stock scion hardiness relationships, and breeding of woody ornamental plants were covered in considerable detail. The final portion of the afternoon program featured the regularly scheduled presentation of \"New Plant Introductions\" moderated by Alfred J. Fordham. Both the authors feel that \"bull sessions\" are often among the most rewarding parts of these meetings. The evening of December 5th would fit this category, for it was then that the question and answer period was held. A question box is set up at the start of the meetings, and throughout the sessions the participants are urged to contribute questions which are then posed by a moderator and answered from the floor. This part of the program has great appeal, and attendance is always high. It is a rare occasion when someone from this group of specialists cannot furnish an answer to any question. ALFRED J. FORDHAM ROBERT C. KENNEDY Mercer Fellow _ Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses, February February March and March 1970. Precipitation 4.97 3.71 Avg. 8 a.m. Temp. 26.75 33.8 . Editors' Note: In the review on page 77 of our March 15th issue, the American Museum of \"National\" History should, of course, be the American Museum of Natural History. Our apologies to our readers and the institution. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":6,"start_page":120,"end_page":120,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24500","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070ab6d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Man, Nature, and History, by W. M. S. Russell This volume is the current offering in the Nature and Science Library sponsored by the American Museum of Natural History. The Nature and Science Library is a series of books designed, so the jacket blurb says, for readers of junior high school level. The books are, in fact, eminently readable for adults. The subject matter of the series is natural history in its broadest sense. The individual volumes each treat some particular facet of nature, or man's interaction with nature. Previous volumes have dealt with zoos, archaeology, water, the human body, and premechanical human cultures. Each volume, handsomely designed and copiously illustrated in color, is written by an author with academic or professional competence in the particular field. It is of some interest to note that most of the authors are British. I originally subscribed to the series thinking that the books might be suitable for my children. I find that, in most cases, I am the one who reads each book as it arrives. The current volume is essentially a history of European man and the effect that changing agricultural practices have had on him and on his culture. It begins, at the beginning, in the Near East, and there are excursions onto all of the continents. Famines, pestilence, and wars all find their place in the story, and the final chapter ends on the sober problem of current overpopulation. Why did civilization rise in the dry belt of North Africa, the Near East, and China? Why did it fall? What is the relevance of the legend of Cain and Abel? One explanation is given here and most persuasively. What effect did the kind of plow have on field size and shape and on village planning in western Europe? And why and how did the forest expand and retreat in response to the activities of man in western Europe? What effect has pestilence had on this, and what other effects does it seem to have on human population and civilization? Who knows the role played by Elisha King Root in the clearing of the American frontier? All these questions and many more are not ignored in this little book. The subject is timely, and the book is very much to the point. This volume, and indeed the entire series, is highly recommended to the readers of Arnoldia. G. P. DE W. - W. M. S. Russell. Man, Nature, and History, Nature and Science Library, Garden City, New York: Natural History Press, 1969. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23355","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270a76e.jpg","title":"1970-30-3","volume":30,"issue_number":3,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"What Can We Do About Pollution?","article_sequence":1,"start_page":33,"end_page":55,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24499","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070ab28.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"What Can We Do About Pollution? It is not easy to say anything new about pollution of the environment. It is a bad thing. We all oppose it in theory. Why, then, does it continue? Because, when it comes down to specific generally economic - appear. Someone's self-interest is threatened. Each writer must approach the problem from his own experience and interests. The popular and technical press are now full of facts and figures about pollution. The legislatures and the executives are proposing programs right and left. Pollution can be controlled, here and now. The cost is greatly increased taxation and control of the size of our population. Neither, alone, will help. We must have both. I am appalled by the unsanitary conditions that pollution forces our society to endure. I am aware of local needs and pressures to convert undeveloped land to \"useful\" purposes. I have to admit that some of these needs and pressures are valid. I realize that a balance must be struck between the preservation of open space and the needs of people for places to live. The sub-rural environment that I desire for my children is also desired by others, and so I have to admit that undeveloped land must be made available to others for housing. My concern is that the development of undeveloped land should be orderly and in the best interest of all. Although the Boston-Washington megalopolis is the largest concentration of cities in the world, there is now more \"wild\" land in southern New England than there has been for more than 100 years Massachusetts, Rhode Island, and Connecticut are three of the four most densely populated states in the Union. Despite this, only 9% of the land area is devoted to industry, commerce, or residences; 17% of the land is devoted to agriculture ; 65% of the land is in forest, and the remaining 9% is under water or covered by non-forested wetlands. One hundred and ten years ago 60% of the land area of Massachusetts was cleared and used for agriculture, residences, or industry; 20% was \"waste,\" and only 20% under forest. Wildlife also has increased over the last hundred years, even over the last forty instances, specific pressures - 33 34 years. In 1930 E. J. Palmer recorded that rabbits were rare or lacking in the Arboretum; they are common today. Within this same period the raccoon and opossum have become firmly established in the Boston metropolitan area. This is not to say that all is well. All is not well, and we know it. But there is a larger picture that we must attempt to see. Urbanization and concomitant pollution, as they concern us, are localized in a few river valleys, in the Boston and Narragansett basins, and on the outer edge of the coastal plain from New Haven to New York. Our water resources (brooks, rivers, ponds, marshes, and sea coast) are badly polluted. The air over our larger cities is polluted. The effect of insecticides on wildlife, and on us, is a problem of considerable proportions. But, excepting these special cases, we are in much better shape than we might expect. Our greatest concern should not be Man's effect upon wildlife but, rather, Man's effect upon himself. Nature will survive; Man may not. The problems that we face with regard to environmental pollution are serious. I do not think that overstating any facet of the situation does us any great good. What I would like to do is to present both sides of some environmental questions. I shall offer some comments and recommendations on the general problem. After that I shall deal with the consequences of a few specific problems. all of our pollution problems called over-population. Our population is growing at a rate that is greater than our ability to provide municipal services for it. Generally, every new family in a community costs the town or municipality more for services than it can recover from that family in taxes. Hence, the taxes on all of us must continually increase. In the inevitable competition for funds the schools, rightly, are placed at the top of the list. Unfortunately, sanitation, which bears directly on environmental quality, is almost inevitably given a low General Considerations. are caused by what is Basically, currently priority. Every animal or plant population pollutes its environment with its wastes. Under natural conditions, the total environment is able to accommodate the natural rate of pollution, converting wastes to useful nutrients. If any single species increases out of balance with the total environment, the population of that species is reduced, either by starvation, disease, or by strangulation in its own waste. In the case of human population, the problem of waste dis- 35 is now acute, as are the problems of starvation and disIt is doubtful that we can find money enough to construct waste disposal facilities fast enough to prevent further environmental deterioration. Indeed, we shall be lucky to keep pace with increasing population. Even if we could construct facilities fast enough, it is even more doubtful that trained personnel to operate them would be available. Like it or not, these are the problems we face. We cannot leave these problems and migrate to the frontier. We must stand where we are and fight this battle on this ground. posal ease. In Massachusetts, and in the country as a whole, the rights of the individual are correctly given prime protection by the courts. Unfortunately, these rights include the right to befoul our own property. Only when danger to the life or property of others can be clearly demonstrated will the courts be prevailed upon to act restrictively. If the amenity of open or underdeveloped land is to be securely protected and preserved, it must be accomplished by public or private ownership. We cannot, by law, impose our individual standards of amenity upon others. Many laws and programs have been passed by the various legislative bodies to protect society from the abuses of individuals. Pollution, however, continues only slightly abated. Why? In Massachusetts, and probably in many other states, we do not need radically new legislation or programs. The problem in this state, and I believe in most other states, is that the present laws The laws are not obeyed are neither obeyed nor enforced. because the legislatures have not voted sufficient money to provide the trained manpower necessary to enforce them. Towns 36 if they choose to attempt to obey the personnel to enforce them. Further, the towns and municipalities have found that state agencies either will not challenge them or, if challenge occurs, the judicial process can be dragged out so as to make the challenge nearly meaningless. The single answer, then, is money: money on both the state and local levels to enforce compliance with the laws. Until manpower is available, legislation is futile. It ap- and municipalities, even laws, do not have the pears that we will not have sufficient money for this task until the size of the population is stabilized. The problem is as simple as that. It is dangerous to wait, however; we must face the situation in its current context. First, local government must be pressured to obey the laws with the exercise of police action by the state. Qualified engineers and other technicians must be prevailed upon to serve, gratis, on the appropriate town or municipal boards. The general population must be prevailed upon to learn the laws and to report problems as they arise. People must demand that local government act promptly to rectify the problems. Second, in the absence of appropriate local response the appropriate state agency usually the state Department of must be pressured to provide police action. Public Health In general, the state Department of Public Health is the primary agency charged with maintenance of environmental quality. In Massachusetts the Department has developed a series of miniUnmum standards for the protection of the environment. fortunately, in Massachusetts the state pay scale is too low for the Department to hold the qualified personnel it needs. Also, the table of staffing provided by the legislature does not permit enough people for effective enforcement activities. The current work load of the present staff is such that a citizen's complaint must wait an average of three weeks before it can receive even a preliminary investigation. Resolution of that complaint may take three months or longer. The situation is intolerable. Local complaints arise from the inability of local boards of health to deal with their own problems. The engineers employed by communities are not, in general, qualified to deal with public health problems. This problem is compounded by the lack of knowledge of the local boards of the long-term consequences of environmental deterioration or, to be blunt, of the results of deviation from the requirements of the sanitary code. Tactically, environmental problems should be handled as follows : (1) Determine the exact circumstances of the particular case, including the presumed deviations from local or state laws. - 37 (2) Contact the local board of health (in writing, by certified mail) detailing the problem and requesting an answer, in writing, by a given date. (3) If satisfaction is not forthcoming from the local board, contact the district state sanitary engineer, in writing, (again, by certified mail) enclosing a copy of the letter sent to the local board, and request an answer by a given date. (4) If need be, contact the head of the state Department of Public Health (also by certified mail) enclosing copies of all relevant correspondence. It is important to remember that, given the pressure of increasing population, development of undeveloped land cannot be stopped. It can only be regulated and directed into acceptable directions. In the long run land can only be preserved in its natural state by public or private ownership. The nature conservancy or local land trusts can accomplish this. Further, we have to accept the fact that any method of preserving land in its natural state will cost money. If sufficient public employees are to be engaged to protect the environment, the money must come from some source. Either taxes will have to be raised or some other activity will have to be curtailed. Perhaps roads will suffer, or perhaps we will have to do without a new municipal building or a sports stadium. This is the choice that the public has to make. I am not particularly hopeful that local communities will solve their own problems by their own choice. Most people are not concerned with anything other than their own personal problems. By and large local officials will not act in the public as distinct from their own private, financial, or presinterest unless there is the threat of police action from interests tige the state. The vast majority of the population will oppose the additional taxation that is necessary for pollution control. It is up to the state legislatures and executives to provide legislation and money to enforce that legislation for the public good. To date we have seen plenty of legislation but very little money for its implementation and enforcement. - Pollution occur in one, of Soil and Water. A particular level of pollution can or both, of two ways: a low level of pollution by a large number of sources, or a relatively high level of pollution by a few sources. It is easy to see the high level of pollution produced by an industrial establishment and equally easy to think that if only industrial pollution could be stopped our prob- lems would end. However, the situation is not so clear-cut. Of course, industrial plants should curb their pollution of the en- 38 vironment. Yet if all industrial pollution were eliminated, our job would be only half done. At least 50% of soil, water, and probably air pollution is produced by the individual home owner. At least half of the surplus nutrients that now befoul our lakes and rivers originate from the effluence of the sewage disposal facilities of individual home owners, the fertilizers they apply to their lawns and gardens, and farms. There is no question that industrial pollution can and should be controlled, but what of the balance? The home owner's dry well, cesspool, or septic tank is simply not an acceptable solution to the problems of household waste disposal. The ground water in many of our suburban communities is already hopelessly contaminated with bacteria and chemicals. The only satisfactory solution is for all homes to be connected to a public sewer system, and for the wastes to be treated in a modern, efficient sewage disposal plant. Again, we are faced with the problem of money. Sewers are expensive to lay. Efficient sewage treatment plants are expensive to build, maintain, and staff. They seldom occupy a high place in the budget priorities of towns and municipalities. In the long run increased taxes are the only answer. Federal grants are not free. They are all paid for with taxes, yours and mine. If the problem of sewage disposal is not enough, another one is forcing itself upon our consciousness: common table salt sodium chloride pollution. The use of salt is one of the most effective and economical techniques for clearing roads of snow and ice in winter. One frequent, observable result of this practice is the death of grasses and herbaceous vegetation along the sides of roads that have been salted during the previous winter. In addition, we may note the decline in vigor, or even death, of some roadside trees. The obvious line of reasoning is: (1) salt is used to clear snow and ice from the road; (2) we have used salt in the past to kill weeds and grass in driveways and paths; (3) salt has killed the roadside grasses and herbs; (4) salt is killing the trees. Unfortunately, like so many obvious lines of reasoning, this one is only partially valid. Statements (1) and (2) are obviously true, statement (3) probably follows, but statement (4) is questionable as a generalization, though probably true in individual cases. I can do no better than to quote from a talk by Dr. F. W. Holmes of the Shade Tree Laboratories of the University of Massachusetts: \"Obviously a great many factors that are present along a road can harm a tree. Salt is only one of them. Others include fill, compaction of soil, absence of topsoil, limited surface area for air and water to - 39 reach the roots, pavement over the roots, all the usual insects and infectious diseases (especially diseased root systems), natural drought, artificial droughts from alteration of the water table by drainage systems, increased numbers of injuries through artificial transplantings of trees (through automobile accidents and vandalism) cutting of roots in ditches for the sake of various installations, gas leaking into the soil, electrical injuries, herbicides and other chemicals and air pollution fumes; to lump it all in a single phrase, all the ills of civilization. After a decade of diagnostic work in Massachusetts, I am strongly inclined to say that 'civilization' is the most serious disease agent affecting shade trees, not standing second even to the famous Dutch elm disease! When we are faced with a tree which has undergone all of these site injuries, and which may therefore be especially subject to all those diseases and insect pests that preferentially attack weakened or wounded trees, then how are we to judge to what extent salt has played a detrimental role?\" Salt is definitely a factor in the decline in vigor and death of some roadside trees. The relationship may be direct, as in the case of species such as the sugar maple in which salt may be absorbed by the tree in lethal quantities; or it may be indirect, since it appears that salt-treated soils are low in soluble nutrients, and the tree may be literally starving. The problem of what to do about roadside trees is easy to handle. Saltintolerant species should be replaced with salt-tolerant trees. Roadside soils should have a regular program of fertilization. Since salt is very quickly leached through the upper levels of the soil, its effects on roadside vegetation are temporary. It reaches subsoil water tables quickly and gets into ponds and streams. In Massachusetts we are now beginning to have problems, which will undoubtedly continue and intensify, with salt contamination of domestic wells and water supplies. In addition, we will have to cope with salt contaminating streams and lakes, destroying fish and other wildlife, and polluting public water supplies. The problem of the selective killing of roadside vegetation is one that we can live with, but I am not sure that we can live with polluted reservoirs. At present there is no economical method for removing common salt from water. It can only be diluted with unpolluted water to an acceptable level of palatability. With our present population growth and the resulting pressure on water supplies, it is questionable how long this technique will serve us. If we stop using salt to clear the roads, we will need to compensate with a vast capital expenditure for mechanical equipment to 40 and remove snow and to spread sand. Operating expenses will also rise, not only for drivers and mechanics, but also for personnel to clear the sand from roadsides and gutters at the end of the winter. Are we willing to accept more taxation for unpolluted water? plow Air Pollution. Many, perhaps most, metropolitan areas have problems with air pollution. Boston is no exception. That our problems are not greater is due in part to nature the lay of the land and the prevailing winds - and in part to a long history of legislation aimed at air quality control in our metropolitan area. However, inadequate funding has prevented the State Department of Public Health from employing a sufficient number of qualified engineers to assess the conditions to formulate adequate regulations promptly, and to enforce the regulations once they are established as law. The situation can, perhaps, be best described by quoting from a special report to the Massachusetts legislature prepared by the department, and submitted in September of 1968. \"Legislative authority for control of air pollution in the Commonwealth [of Massachusetts] by a responsible public agency was first established in 1869 at the time of the creation of the State Board of Health. Air pollution control was included in its environmental sanitation program. By the turn of the century certain aspects of air pollution control were recognized to be of a regional nature and the Legislature, in 1901, enacted a General Law to control the emission of dark smoke from sources other than locomotives and brick kilns However, 'special-interest' amendments to exclude public utility corporation, woodburning plants, and pottery kilns reduced the effectiveness of this law, and brought about the formation of a citizens' committee for smoke abatement to protest to the legislature.... The Committee's efforts were rewarded when, as a result of its persuasion, the Boston Chamber of Commerce filed a petition to the General Court, titled 'An Act to Provide for the Abatement of Smoke in the City of Boston and Vicinity,' which became Chapter 651 of the Acts of 1910.\" \"... It provided for a 'smoke district' comprising the cities of Boston, Cambridge, Somerville, Everett, Chelsea, and the town of Brookline, and encompassing an area of 66 square miles with a population of almost one million.... Enlargement of the 'smoke district' to include 29 cities and towns with a population of over 1,800,000 within an area of 290 square miles, took place in 1928.... In 1960, new legislation ... - 41 enacted which replaced the 'smoke district' with a Metropolitan Air Pollution Control District ... , comprising Boston and 29 contiguous cities and towns with an area of 320 square miles and a population of over two million people.... The Department of Public Health, under this law, was given authority to regula~e all sources of atmospheric pollution within the District. In the Rules and Regulations subsequently adopted in 1961, 'atmospheric pollution' was defined as 'the presence in the ambient air space of one or more air contaminants or combinations thereof in such quantities and of such duration as to (a) cause a nuisance; (b) be injurious or, on the basis of current information, be potentially injurious to human or animal life, to vegetation, or to property; or (c) unreasonably interfere with the comfortable enjoyment of life and property or the conduct of business.' \"A good air use management program should strive to keep in balance its efforts to reduce air contamination and its sufferance of reasonable use of its air (as a resource) to receive (and transport away) certain wastes resulting from man's individual and collective activities. Such use, however, must be in a manner compatible with, but to an extent no greater than, the capability of the ambient (outdoor) air to tolerate such use without undue detriment to man and his environment of concern. Expensive air pollution control measures for the preservation of pristine purity of air, for preservation reasons alone, and where lack of such would produce no significant hazard to man or to those elements in the environment for which man has a real concern is, per se, a waste of a valuable resource....\" Two categories of pollution which have concerned the Metropolitan Air Pollution Control District have been \"particulates,\" i.e., those particles such as soot and flyash which settle rather rapidly out of the air, and those particles which are so small as to settle very slowly, but cause soiling, odors, and reduced visibility ; and sulphur dioxide, which causes sensory and respiratory irritation, corrosion of metal, stone and painted surfaces, and was \" vegetation damage. \"Particulate air contaminants result principally from combustion for the production of heat, power and the destruction of wastes; from industrial (or commercial) processes involving abrasion, fuming, and loss of process materials; from abrasive phenomena such as automobile tire and brake wear; and by natural weathering, wind effects, pollen production and evaporation-condensation.... Particulates may be emitted from combustion processes as a result of gaseous suspension of ash, un- Fig. 1: Boston's Prudential building disappears in Photos: P. Bruns. smog. burned carbon, and carbonaceous compounds. The amounts vary depending on (1) the amount of ash in the fuel (up to 25% in refuse, 5-15% in coal and 0.5% in oil ...); (2) the nature of the combustion process ... ; ( 3 ) the efficiency of the process; and (4) the nature and efficiency of air cleaning equipment utilized.... The 'natural background' of such suspended particulate material in New England averages about thirty micrograms per cubic meter ( 30~, g\/M3). This level is the result principally from pollen-scattering, wind-disturbance of soil, other 42 43 natural phenomena, weathering of surfaces, evaporation of sea spray, and forest fires....\" On the fringes of the Metropolitan Boston area total particulates average 50~, g\/M3. Close to the city center the average concentration rises to 60~, g\/M3. In the central core the average concentration is approximately 85w g\/M3, with a winter average in South Boston of 128~, g\/M3. Reports of sulphur dioxide levels are available for the inner portion of the Metropolitan area. These average more than .03 parts of sulphur dioxide per million parts of air, a level which has been determined as being injurious to some vegetation. Apart from particulates and sulphur dioxide, the atmospheric pollutant that is currently receiving much attention is so-called photo-chemical smog, a complex mixture of substances caused by the action of sunlight on the chemicals emitted as exhaust gases by automobiles. This is alleged to be the principal problem in and around Los Angeles and to be causing injury and death to pine forests on the mountain slopes some 40-60 miles from that city. Much has been written about the dangers of photochemical smog, and much damage has been attributed to it in other parts of the country. One has to say, in all honesty, that relatively few hard facts are available. Some damage to vegetation has been blamed on photo-chemical smog in the Boston area and, undoubtedly, some damage has taken place, but there is a notable absence of information about exactly how much smog produces what kind of damage on which plants. We are lacking measurements of pollution levels that would indicate that smog could have produced the damage reported. I, for one, have not seen any damage in the Boston area that could be unequivocally attributed to smog - drought, yes; salt, yes; but smog, no. On the other hand, Dr. William Feder, of the Waltham Field Station of the University of Massachusetts, has reported that ozone (one of the components of photo-chemical smog) is a problem in this area. He has said \"... The sensitive tobacco plant used [as an indicator] will react to about 21\/2 to 5 parts per million of ozone in the ambient air. These same tobacco plants will react to 2-3 ppm of ozone and 0.2 ppm of sulphur dioxide to give another type of leaf reaction. Comparison of plant damage and meter reading information seems to indicate that during a summer like the summer of 1967 total oxidant in and around the Boston area may reach as high as 15-20 parts per hundred million (i.e., .15-.2 parts per million) for as long as 4-5 hours on a sunny day. This amount of oxidant is enough to injure marigold, petunia, and the very sensitive tobacco 44 This is, however, probably not sufficient to damage most and shrubs. What does concern all of us is what effect long-continued exposure to low levels of these pollutants will have both on vegetation and on humans. At present, this kind of information is not available. plant.\" trees Pesticides. The pesticide controversy, like so many other controversies, is a battle fought on false premises. The agricultural chemical industry pictures itself as a knight in white armor fighting valiantly to provide food for mankind while picturing the anti-pesticide forces as trolls, fighting to deny mankind its daily bread. The conservationists see the picture just the other way. In reality, very few people would deny that agricultural production must be increased. Increased agricultural production is dependent, among other things, upon protection of crops from injury or destruction by insects and other vermin. In the present state of our knowledge protection must be based on protection by chemical agents. Biological protective agents or strategies have been developed in the past for some pests and are now being studied for others. However, effective, widespread protection by biological agents lies sometime in the future. Since we must protect our crops now, the quarrel resolves itself into a choice of chemicals for present use. Many chemical pesticides are presently available. Some of them are extremely toxic to all life forms. Some have short lifespans in the environment. Others are persistent in the environment and have already been demonstrated to have deleterious effects on various species of wildlife. In the past only two criteria seem to have influenced our use of pesticides: their effectiveness as pesticides and, to a lesser extent, their immediate toxicity to man. The agricultural chemical companies have a heavy investment in particular chemicals which are economically advantageous for them to produce. They also resent being made the culprits of environmental deterioration. They feel that they have played the game by the rules and they dislike having the rules changed to their disadvantage. The pesticide problem, lest we forget, is not new. Before the Second World War great reliance was placed upon the use of pesticides containing arsenic, such as lead arsenate, Paris Green (copper aceto-arsenite), and calcium arsenate. In the 1940's and early 1950's it became apparent that agriculture was in . 45 trouble. Following many years of heavy applications of arsenical sprays, compounds of arsenic had accumulated in the soil. The presence of these compounds reduced the yields of many crops that had been protected from insect attack. Further, it was found that some crops were accumulating arsenic to the amount of 14 ppm of their dry weight. Since arsenic and lead are both accumulated to lethal levels in the human body, and since the lethal dose for an adult is on the order one half to one teaspoonful, the inherent danger was very real. A radical change of insecticides was necessary, and the synthetic organic insecticides seemed an obvious answer. We were so relieved to have the arsenical problem solved that we chose to ignore the plain warnings that we had, even then, about the intrinsic dangers of the synthetics. Now, with the advantage of hindsight, we are only too ready to blame industry for doing exactly what we asked it to do fifteen or twenty years ago. What we should do, at present, is determine what is safe and economical and concentrate on them. Arsenicals in any form, in my opinion, ought to be banned. That includes the arsenical rodent poisons and herbicides. We do not have to repeat here all that has been written of the ecological tragedies caused by modern synthetic insecticides. There is only one point to make. Among the vast number of chemical pesticides in commerce there are a few that are economically effective and relatively safe ecologically. (See Appendix, page 50.) We should concentrate on using them. It is within the capacity of the industry to produce other similar pesticides. We should stop the noise and get on with the business of producing food. In general, the following pesticides are environmentally safe for use by the home owner or home gardener: - Malathion Methoxychlor Carbaryl (Sevin) Aphids, caterpillars, beetles, leaf hoppers, leaf miners, plant bugs, scale and mealy bug, springtails, thrips, white fly, cutworms. Caterpillars, spittle bugs, apple maggot, codling moth, Japanese beetle, plum curculio, tent caterpillar. Beetles, rose chafer, periodic cicada, pickleworm, squash vine borer, stink bug, bagworm, fall canker worm, codling moth, mites. For household insects Malathion will control those listed below. Care must be exercised not to contaminate foodstuffs or eating or cooking utensils. Dicofol grasshoppers. Spider mites, cyclamen 46 Ants Bedbugs Cockroaches Fleas (dust dogs and cats with 5% carbaryl powder) Flies (pyrethrum + piperonyl butoxide is even safer) Silverfish and firebrats Spiders cats with 5% carbaryl powder) it is intensely poisonous to man, and the fumes are Although irritating, nicotine is effective against aphids, thrips and other soft-bodied insects and is safe environmentally. Dormant oil is effective against scale insects when applied during the winter. Summer oil sprays are useful against scale during the growing season. Pyrethrum and Rotenone are effective against many soft-bodied insects. Lime-sulphur, in strong solution, is effective against scale when applied in the winter. In the summer a weaker solution is used as a fungicide. Ticks (dust dogs and Summary. The problem of pollution control, then, can be summed up as follows: ( 1 ) we can dramatically reduce the present levels of pollution with present technology; (2) this increased of money is increased taxation; (4) beyond money, some activities, i.e., snow removal and pest control, may be considerably less effective than they are at present; (5) if industry and municipalities and private citizens rigorously control their pollution, much increased taxation can be avoided. I believe that we must control pollution for our own survival and that we must accept increased taxation and reduced efficiency to pay for it. I also believe that, in the long run, we can save ourselves a great deal of taxation and grief by controlling the size of our population. This is the price that we must pay for our survival as a free society. We must control the size of our population and we must reduce our present level of environmental pollution if we are to survive. Or, put another way, will you settle for your pocketbook and your present amenities now, or will you sacrifice some of these so that your children and grandchildren can live in the kind of society that can reduction in pollution be obtained only by greatly expenditure of money; (3) the only source you enjoy? GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. 47 Bibliography Air Quality Criteria for Sulfur Oxides, U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, 10-1 to 10-22, 1969. Bear, F. E., \"Toxic Elements in Soils,\" Yearbook of Agriculture 1957, 165-171, 1957. Boswell, V. R., \"Residues, Soils and Plants,\" Yearbook of Agriculture 1952, 284-296, 1952. D. E. H., Pesticide Index, ed. 4, State College, Pa.: College Frear, Science Publishers, 1969. , S. Friedman, and T. De Martino, Pesticide Handbooh Entoma, ed. 21, State College, Pa.: College Science Pub- lishers, 1969. Gates, C. D., and C. Riordan, \"A Preliminary Study of Nutrient Inputs into Cayuga and Seneca Lakes,\" Cornell Plantations 23 (4): 59-62, 1967-68. Heggestad, H. E., \"Diseases of Crops and Ornamental Plants Incited by Air Pollutants,\" Phytopathology 58: 10891097, 1968. Hepting, G. H., \"Diseases of Forest and Tree Crops Caused by Air Pollutants,\" Phytopathology 58: 1098-1101, 1968. Hibben, C. R., \"Ozone Toxicity to Sugar Maple,\" Phytopathology 59: 1423-1428, 1969. Holmes, F. W., \"Effects of Use of Snow Control Chemicals on Street Trees,\" New Jersey Federation of Shade Tree Commissions, 39th Annual Meeting, 1964, 38-45, 1964. 712-718, , \"Salt Injury to Trees,\" Phytopathology 51: 1961. and J. H. Baker, \"Salt Injury to Trees II,\" Phytopathology 56: 633-634, 1966. Hough, W. S., and A. F. Mason, Spraying, Dusting and Fumigating of Plants, ed. 2, New York: Macmillan, 1951. Kotheimer, J., C. Niblett, and A. E. Rich, \"Salt Injury to Trees, II,\" Forest Notes, Spring 1965, 2 unnumbered pages. Lacasse, N. L., and W. J. Moroz, eds. Handbook of Effects Assessment Vegetation Damage, Center for Air Environment Studies, State College, Pa., Pennsylvania State Uni, versity, 1969. Metcalf, C. L., and W. P. Flint, Destructive and Useful Insects, ed. 2, New York: McGraw-Hill, 1939. Nebiker, J. H., \"The Technology of Pollution Abatement,\" The Massachusetts Heritage 7(3) : 4 unnumbered pages, 1969. 48 Pesticide Information Manual, Northeastern Regional Pesticide Coordinators, 1966. Rich, A. E., \"Effects of De-icing Chemicals on Woody Plants,\" mimeographed, 3 pages, undated. (From University of New Hampshire Experiment Station.) , and N. L. Lacasse, \"Salt Injury to Roadside Trees,\" Forest Notes, Winter 1963-64, 2 unnumbered pages. Sinclair, W. A., \"Polluted Air: Potent New Selective Forests,\" Journal of Forestry 67(5): 305-309, Smith, D. M., \"Adapting Forestry to Megalopolitan New England,\" The Massachusetts Heritage Force in 1969. Southern 7(2) : 4 unnumbered pages, 1969. Special Report on the Investigation and Study of Air Quality in the Metropolitan (Boston) Air Pollution Control District, 1965-1966, Bureau of Environmental Sanitation, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, 1968. State Sanitary Code, Article XI, Minimum Requirements for the Disposal of Sanitary Sewage in Unsewered Areas, Massachusetts Department of Public Health, 1966. \"Suggested Guide for the Use of Insecticides to Control Insects Affecting Groups, Livestock, Households, Stored Products, Forests and Forest Products, 1967,\" Agriculture Handbook No. 331, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1967. Westing, A. H., \"Plants and Salt in the Roadside Environment,\" Phytopathology 59: 1174-1181, 1969. t Appendix. The following table (pp. 50-55) has been compiled from a number of notably Agriculture Handbook 331 and the Pesticide Information Manual. It is intended to give some idea of the hazards to man and to the environment that are inherent in some of the insecticides in use today. LD~ is the amount of chemical in micrograms of chemical per kilogram of body weight needed to kill one half of a population of laboratory animals. As such it is a rough indication of toxicity to humans. The smaller the sources, number, the more lethal the substance. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Care and Preservation of Library Materials","article_sequence":2,"start_page":56,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24496","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070a326.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lawrence, George H. M.","article_content":"Care and Preservation of Library Materials This is the second in the series of talks presented at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society's conference on botanical and horticultural libraries in November 1969. Since Dr. Lawrence spohe from informal notes, the article is an edited version of the transcript prepared from a tape recordEd. ing of his lecture. - Conservation practices have to be recognized and put into effect within the modest limitations of space and staff. I do not want people to think that library records and materials are primarily books because, when you get into almost any library that we represent here, they go into at least five categories. I mention books, which are more or less obvious, and I separate pamphlets. John Reed talked about the small, ephemeral, peripheral publications that from a historical and archival standpoint are very important, yet they have always been shoved aside. They get into the pamphlet boxes and they are the dust-catchers. They get beaten up. Often they do not even get catalogued. Yet they may be the only publication on the subject. They may be the first publication. I think of Charles Short, in Lexington, Kentucky, who published twenty-five or thirty papers as separate, private publications. He intended them to go into a periodical that was being published at Transylvania University but the periodical went bust. He had the papers written so he published them himself over a period of about five years. Each was published independently and sent around gratuitously to his friends. Today they are rare. They are not in good condition. Because he paid for them himself, they were economically published and printed the medical on poor paper. But they are reports of the botany of that area that you will not find and ethnobotany botany anywhere else. Pamphlets are important and, while from a librarian's standpoint they are books, they are subject to different conservation practices. Not only do they often have to be treated chemically to preserve them, to sanitize them, to get rid of the mildew, but they have to be put into some kind of a binding. They should be bound to open completely flat so that - 56 57 may make facsimile reproductions of them. What we at the Hunt Botanical Library do, for example, is to mount these small publications with an acceptable adhesive on a stub about 3\/4 inch wide of a heavy Permalife stock, and hinge it into a pamphlet binder. A manuscript is any material that is not printed: typescript, holograph, or letters. In systematic botany we have the problem of identifying handwritten notes on botanical specimens, especially when the writer did not initial them or sign them. In this country there are a half a dozen large collections of representative handwriting of botanists. There is a very fine collection at the British Museum of Natural History, assembled for this purpose. There is the matter of seeking, acquiring, and then taking care of the manuscripts of authors. John Hutchinson, a man now 88 years old, is still publishing and very active. When I wrote him three or four years ago for the manuscript of one of his books, he said he would be glad to give it to me. It arrived just as clean and nice as you could ask except for the printer's marks. I wrote back and said: \"Dr. Hutchinson, this isn't the manuscript I want. I recall that you told me that, when you first submitted your manuscript, the publisher told you to cut it by a third because it was too long. That is the manuscript I want because I want to know what you left out and what you where you had to trim.\" Hutchinfelt was not so important son said, \"Oh, I threw that one away. Who cares about that?\" It is not the final but the penultimate manuscript that you are seeking. Conservation of this type of material is in a class by itself. Then we have another area which I am afraid is where liand I must quickly disclaim being a librarian brarians are not doing an adequate job. This is with collections of photographic material. Sadly enough, too often they are neglected because of lack of funds or because there is no one on the staff with the interest to care for them. From a historical standpoint, a wealth of material can be found in photographic prints. A great many photographs are now deteriorating because someone did not wash all the hypo out. If only their negatives had been saved, we might have had another source from which to reconstitute them. True, you can take a faded, deteriorated print and produce a fair print from it, but it costs money. This applies also to the photographs we get today. Do not think that because they come from a commercial photographer they necessarily are going to last. we - 58 Color transparencies, you may say, are hopeless; you cannot them anyway. But there are conservation practices that can be used to preserve them. Back in 1939 we made a set of some 200 Kodachromes of macroscopic dissections of the insides of flowers. They were made in duplicate. One set was put in boxes, sealed, and put in cold storage refrigeration chambers at a temperature of about 30F. About every five years that set was opened and examined. When looked at last year no deterioration was discernible. We have heard about the limitations of the life of microfilm, conditions which also apply to microfische. More recently we have had to contend with the preservation of tape recordings, because the science of oral history is becoming increasingly important. Within four to five years, with normal tension on the tape, you may get an echo on cassette recordings. Therefore, they should be transferred to the archivally accepted mylar tape 1.5 mils thick. We all know the limitations of paper and that the acid problems of paper are very real. But sometimes we forget that it is not just the paper of the book or the letter, but it is the paper in which paper materials are placed, bound, or filed. For example, in our library we have gone over to using Permalife paper stock for file folders and envelopes, because the folders obtained from most commercial companies have a pH varying from 4.7 to 5.5. (A pH of 7.0 is neutral; anything below that is acid.) These same acid papers will pick up chemicals from the atmosphere and, in combination with moisture, the pH will become lower over a period of, say, 25 years. We are switching over to Permalife papers which have, as you know, a pH of 8 to 8.2, and there are enough residual alkaloids that act as buffers against atmospheric chemicals and will hold the pH to about 7.0 for a period of 300 years or more. It is important that your file folders be as permanent as possible. The same thing applies to envelopes. We recently received from the Smithsonian Institution files of correspondence of botanists that were in the ordinary Government franked envelopes, so highly acid that you could take a pile of them and snap it in half. There is a paper available for wrapping packages of archival records to give them the best protection. It is called Bagasse and is known also in the paper trade as Kraft Ayensee paper. Ordinary wrapping paper, cheap envelopes, and ordinary file folders are made from wood pulp, and one material in the wood pulp that causes damage is lignin, an inherent anatomical part of the wood, which is not removed in the papermaking process. save 59 lignin It breaks down to form one of the paper damaging acids. It is that makes newspaper turn yellow after 48 hours of exposure to sunlight. However, the Bagasse paper is made in the Gulf area from sugar cane, which is a grass. Any paper made from a grass has no lignin in it. When available, it usually costs no more than the cheap, lignin-loaded, kraft wrapping paper. We use Bagasse paper for wrapping anything. It has a pH of 8.2 and flexibility. It does not discolor or get brittle, and it is not going to add any acids to whatever is wrapped in it. The same consideration applies when you mat your prints. We file our watercolors, drawings, and prints matted - if they are large enough to have a mat. If not, we put a piece of pure cellulose acetate over the front of a piece of mat board and make an envelope in which the prints and drawings are individually stored. We are very particular to ensure that the materials we use have an acceptable longevity. We use a mat material, available in several thicknesses, tints, and surfaces, that is 100% rag with a pH of 6.8. Do not be deceived by papers identified as rag paper. In early times rag papers were made from linen fiber, non-wood with no lignin. The name \"rag\" then meant that they used rags that had not been dyed or chemically bleached with chlorides. Today you have paper that is identified as \"rag,\" but that identification is virtually meaningless. By contrast, some wood pulp papers, properly made and treated, are better than \"rag\" paper that is up to four times as costly. Most of today's so-called rag paper is of cotton fiber, from rags that invariably have been dyed. It has had various chemical treatments. So, when you read the watermark of a paper identifying it as of such and such rag content, or as having a given percentage of cotton fiber, the real test is whether or not the fiber means anything. It may mean greater strength but, even so, it can be very dangerous paper to use. Binding leather may be good or bad depending on how it was tanned and dyed. English calfskins made before the 1930's were mostly improperly tanned. The residual acids and processing chemicals caused it to deteriorate. This is why in so many calfskin volumes you pick them up and then have a devil of the a time getting the reddish powder off your clothing leather has rotted beyond recall. Any leather binding of today will absorb injurious gases from the atmosphere, no matter how fine the skin may have been when it was put on the volume. For this reason, when you treat a leather binding it is well to treat it first with a deacidifying agent, such as a 7% aqueous - 60 solution of potassium lactate. This will not deacidify the material itself, but it will counteract the acids which have come into the leather since the book was bound. After this has dried, apply the leather dressing that is your favorite. You do not use the same leather dressings on vellum or parchment that you use on other leathers. If you do anything, the recommendation is to use a bland soap, such as Ivory, and to sponge the binding with a minimum of water to remove all the residual surface dirt. Then use something like a saddle soap for dressing. Do not apply excessive amounts of neats-foot oil, lanolin, or the usual leather dressings. The big problem with vellum is its hypersensitivity to humidity changes. You have had vellum-bound books on your shelves whose covers have curled outwards. The reason for this is that the vellum, sensitive to humidity changes, will shrink and curl the boards. Usually, the inside of the board is covered only with paper. What is normally done to counteract this is to bind the inside of the cover with vellum. Then you have a counteracting situation and the side board remains flat. An alternative, and one we use, is to put such bindings in slip cases; the case will hold the sides from curling. But, if you have great fluctuations in humidity, you may put a book into the case and, after a sudden drop of humidity, may not be able to get it out again. Inks also present problems in record preservation. In our work we have had considerable experience within the last year and a half in preserving newspapers. Some years ago I began \"cultivating\" a physician in Stockholm who had a collection of Linnaeus items, and we wished to have his library. He was a sixth generation descendant of Linnaeus and, for reasons of national pride, he wanted the collection to stay in Sweden. This was understandable. Some of you may know of the great Waller collection of medical books and medical history. Dr. Waller, also a Swede, had collected perhaps the second finest private collection of medical works anywhere. On his death he gave it to the University of Uppsala but had a two-volume catalogue prepared while it was still in his home. Today those books are in the same boxes, in the Library's basement, that they were in when taken from his home. Dr. Birger Strandell, the man who owned the Linnaeus collection, knew about this and he foresaw that the same thing could happen to his collection. I think this fear was one of the motivating forces that caused him to relinquish them to America. In the course of the negotiations for the Linnaeus collection, he would say, \"Now 61 don't can forget, I have six cartons of cuttings that go with it.\" I remember my grandmother's clippings out of the newspapers, and when I thought about those six cartons of cuttings, I am afraid I was a little bit scornful of them. When they came with the collection to Pittsburgh, we made a catalogue of the collection. There remained the six cartons of cuttings. When all else was done, we began to process them and found that there were between five and six thousand clippings in that collection, tied up in bundles, year by year. We have now processed about six thousand and, out of that number - believe it or not less than twenty lacked the identifying name of the newspaper and the date of publication! It has proved to be a fabulous collection, dating back into the early 1800's and ending in 1967, just before he brought it to this country. These cuttings are now in forty-eight 11\" X 14\" looseleaf albums, having cellulose acetate envelope-type leaves. The black sheet inside each acetate envelope was removed and deacidified. A sheet of white Permalife paper was placed on each side of the black sheet, the latter being punched to fit the multi-ring album. The cuttings were mounted by \"tacking\" corners with 3M Magic Mending tape. All were arranged chronologically. When text of the clipping was on both sides, we would xerox the second side on Permalife paper, mounting it in its proper place to provide continuous copy. The paper of a majority of these cuttings had deteriorated. We know that from about 1870 on all newsprint is full of acid. The cuttings had to be treated. I have been criticized for the treatment used on these cuttings because the process is not 100 percent reversible. As we all know, one of the fundamental precepts to any records conservation work is that anything added to or done with a document or a book must be reversible. This ensures that, if it is a bad technique, you can undo it and at least return the material to the poor condition it was in before you touched it. We deacidified these cuttings with a relatively It new process that has not been widely publicized to date. involves the application of a solution of 95% ethyl alcohol and solution of commercial 8% magnesium methylate in a 4% methanol. We atomize it, spray it on, diluting with ethanol when spraying it. To that solution we add 4% of soluble nylon. (When nylon is used, application is by brush or dipping.) This impregnates the cellulose fibers. It does not increase the folding strength of the paper but it does give a sizing to the paper and penetrates the interstices between the fibers as well as the that is, fibers themselves. It increases the tensile strength - 62 the tear strength so that these acid-damaged clippings, now becoming fragmentary, are conserved and will remain so indefinitely. The process is not wholly reversible. I may, after I am below ground, be damned for it, but we have found no tests that indicate that it is dangerous or deleterious to paper - materials. The matter of pigments, particularly of hand-colored plates, is a very difficult one, and I am not going to go into details here, but I can say that there are more complicated techniques available for cleaning and deacidifying them. If you have a print that is badly foxed foxing is due to a fungus whose spores are common in the earth's atmosphere - you can deacidify your materials, eliminate the fungus spores in them, and raise the pH to a level where the spores will not germinate. You can then bleach the plate very carefully to remove most or all of the foxing stains. I am not recommending bleaching at this time as a washing technique, because we know that for rare books you think many times before you do it. But if you have prints (not original art work) you can clean them up and then reinforce them by lamination on the back. There are techniques whereby you cover with a brush the colored material the paints and the pigments - on a watercolor and then immerse it in an aqueous solution to clean up the paper, removing the protective coating later. These things can be done, but the material must be sufficiently important to justify the cost. The subject of adhesives is one that we all should be very conscious of, and be concerned about. We have a rule in our library once in a while I find it violated that there shall be no rubber cement in the library. No rubber cement. I do not care what the label says about its permanence; there is not any such thing for any such product now on the market. It is not permanent. We have had paintings for which we paid very good sums of money that have come, unbeknownst to us, mounted or tacked with a gob of rubber cement. Then, four or five years later, that little brown stain comes right through the paper. No solvent or bleach has been devised that will We all know that rubber cement has a limited remove it. longevity five, maybe ten, years and then all adhesive quality is gone. We received from the Smithsonian Institution a collection of 600 or 700 drawings by a famous botanical artist, with all the floral dissections \"pasted\" on with rubber cement. When they arrived all the dissections had fallen down to the bottom of every envelope. We had to consult reproductions of them in the original publications to determine which - - - - 63 ones went with what and get the dissections with the right plate. All of this because rubber cement isn't worth a damn. It is a heinous material to have around. It ruins preservable materials in many ways. So stay away from rubber cement in any form. For the same reason, stay away from ordinary so-called Scotch tape. The 3M Magic Mending Tape does have a reasonably long life, is not known to stain materials, and is to be recommended for making minor repairs to leaves of books or other materials not expected to have the longevity of archival records. Use any adhesive that retains those qualities, that can be removed at any future time, and which is known to be free of properties damaging to the bonded materials during the period it is in use. Common flour paste, often known as library paste, remains one of the best for bonding paper materials. It is, perhaps, best to select a commercial product from a supplier of book binding materials, choosing it on the basis of desired consistency, drying-rate, and strength. When greater strength is required of an adhesive than is to be had from a flour paste, then choose an archivally acceptable polyvinylacetate adhesive (known in the trade as a PVA adhesive). The Barrows Research Laboratory made a study of PVA adhesives in 1967 and found only one then on the market that has an acceptable degree of longevity, completely satisfactory for the equivalent of 300 years of aging, with no breakdown and no acid-producing disintegration. It is made by the Southern Adhesives Corporation (4105 Castlewood Road, Richmond, Va.), and sold under the name Longlife Bookbinding PVA Adhesive. Now there is also a British-made product available domestically from Process Materials Corporation (329 Veterans Blvd., Carlstadt, N.J.) and sold under the name of Promatco Adhesive No. A-1023. It is a water-dilutable emulsion, having a basic consistency of molasses. This extra \"body\" or consistency is an advantage for many users. For mounting prints or drawings on an acceptable board, one may use the dry-mount method as for photographs, an adhesive liquid or paste, or best of all, one may hinge them. The dry-mount method involves an overall application of heat to melt a paraffin-impregnated tissue into the surfaces of both print and mount board. Adequate adhesion demands that the heat be just right not too high or too low - or the bonding will not hold long. It is an archivally accepted process. The use of liquid or semiliquid adhesives requires a combination of speed and skill to avoid wrinkles. Next, as to photographic films, the subject of film base and - 64 negative emulsions has taught us that the old nitrate base of film is not only explosive, but has a relatively short life. We know that there is no such thing today as a permanent film. If you talk to people at the Library of Congress, concerned with the large collections of motion picture films, you will learn that they plan to remake prints about every 35 years because, not only is there the question of the life of the film base itself but, in the case of movies, there is shrinkage so it may not fit the projector sprockets; or when you put the film in it will break when you try to project it. There is no form of longevity, even within our generation. Now as to the agents that are responsible for the deterioration of our library records: man, of course, is the primary one; man, by his decision to use cheap stuff to begin with; man, in the way he handles things. There is something to be said concerning whom you permit to handle your rare books. Recognizing the fallibility of man, we have in our library a rule that everything in it belongs to the University; the question that gets to me time and time again is, who can use these books? We say, anyone can use them who has the competency to do so. That does not necessarily mean that all librarians can handle them. Ultraviolet light is very damaging, as we know, to many li- brary materials, particularly to pigments in leathers, prints, and paintings. As a rule of thumb, a print gallery that is illuminated by fluorescent light, unprotected by any filter, is using a light source that is eight times as damaging to paintings and bindings as is a gallery illuminated with tungsten lamps. There are counteracting filters; Rohm and Haas makes one that is reasonably effective. But fluorescent lighting sometimes is used because architects say that it will cut down the heat. I would rather counter the heat with air conditioning than to try to eliminate this large output of ultraviolet light. For example, in 1962 we had acquired the library of the great 18th century French scientist, Michel Adanson. I thought it would be nice to have all the books and manuscripts that had to be boxed done in bright green leather. Within two years after this was done the leather of those once beautiful boxes became a dull olivegreen yellow. Leather dyes in greens and purples just do not hold fast under ultraviolet light, even of the normal intensity we have in our library stacks. Fluorescent light, when lighting colored materials, is to be recognized and treated as a serious villain. When you have exhibit material in cases illuminated by fluorescent light, if you are not using filters to restrict the 65 ultraviolet every day. portion of its spectrum, please, please, turn the pages Air, with its chemical pollutants, is always working against why we have papers that are impregnated with buffer materials to counteract the acidity generated from sulfurous gases in the air. Books may be printed on perfectly good paper, paper with an acceptable pH of 6 or 6.5 that, after 25 years begins to deteriorate just from pollutants in the air. Heat, moisture, air conditioning, and humidification are of utmost importance to a library. If you must make a choice between temperature and humidity control, take off your coat and suffer the heat but have controlled humidification. Of the two, the control of humidity is more critical to the preservation and conservation of all kinds of library materials. It is our experience that if you can control the percentage of relative humidity within limits of 45 to 55 the year round, this is fine. Remember also that air conditioning equipment with built-in humidification provisions and controls is a mechanical device. It must have what the engineers call \"down-time\" for service and replacement of worn parts. If you have a downtime of 24 hours and a simultaneous drop or surge of outdoor humidity, you can still create havoc with your collections. Mildew is a factor in conserving of library materials. It is a fungus that thrives at a relative humidity range of 65% and above. For some institutions, particularly those along the eastern seaboard, dehumidification of library spaces in the summertime may be of greater importance than any other environmental control. Forget about the temperature, but keep that humidity constantly below 60% because mildew spores are always in the air and, when in an environment of 65% or above for three hours, they begin to germinate. No chemical that will inhibit or prevent the germination of mildew spores is known that will remain an active fungicide in the material for more than a year. Thymol is a good inhibitor. A 5% solution of thymol in alcohol applied to the outside of a volume will kill the mildew spores that are there and it will deter their germination for a period of eight or ten months. The proverbial rodents and insects are something to watch for. We have in our library an installation permitting fumigation under vacuum. Such a system is essential to an active conservation program. You may not have silverfish running around, or you may, yet their eggs may be there. You may have a collection loaded with mildew spores or other fungi that need to be killed. If you have a flood situation, this moisture and us, and this is 66 the temperature immediately become optimum for germination of mildew spores and, apart from drying the materials properly and salvaging what you have, there is a responsibility first to kill those fungus spores by fumigation. This survey treats only some of the problems we face as custodians of library materials. The technical aspects of restoring materials are subjects only for the skilled specialist. No librarian or library assistant should attempt to take major corrective measures on his own. To do so can cause greater damage - even loss of precious materials. The important thing is to know the areas of risk, the destructive agents, and where to turn when help is needed. Conservation of these materials, as opposed to restoration, means rejection of impermanent papers of any kind, of damaging adhesives, and avoidance of undue exposure of materials to ultraviolet light. Give humidity control a higher priority than air conditioning. Take a personal responsibility for the treasures in your charge so they may be available to tomorrow's scholars. - GEORGE H. M. LAWRENCE Director, Hunt Botanical Library "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus","article_sequence":3,"start_page":67,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24498","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070a76f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"Notes on the Genus Ilex Linnaeus The American Horticultural Society and the Holly Society of America are going to publish a revised edition of the Handbook of Hollies. For the revision of the chapter on Eastern Asian Hollies, I found it necessary to publish the following notes in advance. Name Change Since the publication of the Handbook of Hollies in 1957, a species of Ilex has been introduced into the United States of America under the name Ilex insignis Hook. f., first by Mrs. F. Leighton Meserve from Sikkim, and again by Dr. F. G. Meyer from gardens and nurseries of England. These materials have been used in holly hybridization in America. Since Hooker's specific epithet is a later homonym, its use should be discontinued. The correct name is Ilex nobilis Gumbleton, which is not listed in the Index Kewensis. The nomenclatural history of this species is as follows: Ilex nobilis Gumbleton, Gard. Chron. III. 1: 177. 1887. Ilex insignis Hook, f., Fl. Brit. Ind. 1: 599. 1875, non Ilex insignis Heer, Fl. Foss. Alask. 37. t. X. 1869. Ilex kingiana Cockerell in Torreya 11: 264. 1911. In a short article on \"Hardiness of Ilex nobilis or insignis,\" Gumbleton gave the origin of the plant: \"a native of the Darjeeling hills.\" He also characterized it as having 'leaves from 10 to 11 inches long, of a rich deep shade of green, and deeply toothed along the edges.\" Regarding hardiness he said, \"when grafted on a stock of common holly ... it becomes almost, if not perfectly hardy.\" A New Hybrid Recently tried to several members of the American Holly Society have produce hollies of distinct horticultural merits by hybridizing species from widely separated phytogeographical regions. In the United States National Arboretum, Mr. William Kosar has produced many interesting new hybrids. In St. James, Long Island, New York, Mrs. F. Leighton Meserve has had wonderful results in hybridizing Asiatic species with the English 67 69 I know, only two clones of the Meserve products are in the market. These have been distributed by Jackson & Perkins Co. since 1964. For inclusion of this hybrid in the revised edition of the Handbook of Hollies, it is necessary to name and describe it properly. as Holly, Ilex aquifolium one L. So far selected from hybrid population Ilex X meserveae (1. rugosa F. Schmidt X I. aquifolium L.), S. Y. Hu, hyb. nov. Frutex ramosus, 1-2 m. altus; ramulis erectis vel patentibus, hornotinis sparse puberulis; foliis ovatis vel ellipticis, 1.8-5 cm. longis, 0.7-3 cm. latis, margine spinoso-dentatis, basi rotundatis, acutis vel obtusis, apice acutis et spinosis, coriaceis, costa media et nervis lateralibus supra impresso-insculptis; inflorescentiis fasciculatis, axillaribus; floribus 4-meris; fructibus rubris, globosis, 8 mm. diametro; pyrenis 4, subsemiellipsoideis, 4 mm. longis, dorso 2.5 mm. latis, lignescentibus durescentibusque. Specimens examined (all deposited in the Arnold Arboretum); Group A. F, hybrids of I. rugosa ( I ) X I. aqui f olium (I) : S. Y. Hu 7792, a compact shrub 1.5 m. high; leaves ovate, spinose; flowers white (May 4, 1964 ) , fruit red (Dec. 31, 1964); nursery name 'Blue Girl' (Type, AA) (Plant Patent 2434)1. S. Y. Hu 7793, a selection from the same hybridization, nursery name 'Blue Girl 2'; endosperm of fertile seeds white like coconut meat. S. Y. Hu 7794, a compact shrub, ca. 1 m. high; leaves ovate, deep green, spinose, the nerves insculped above; flowers white, fragrant (May 4, 1964); nursery name 'Blue Boy' (Plant Patent 2435)2. S. Y. Hu 7796, a staminate plant with elliptic leaves, 5-8 spines on each side. S. Y. Hu 7797, a staminate plant with ovate spinose leaves; nursery name 'Yellow Boy'. S. Y. Hu 7798, American Nurseryman 120 American Nurseryman 120 (7): 109, 1964. ( 7 ) : 106-107, 1964. Fig. 2: Habit sketch of the seed parent, Ilex rugosa F. Schmidt, showing the crenulate serrate leaves, few-flowered inflorescences, and conspicuously impressed veins (S. Y. Hu 7810). Scale: Xl. b. Habit sketch of the pollen parent, I. aquifolium L., showing the oblong sinuate spinose leaves, many flowered inflorescences, and rather inconspicuous mid-ribs and lateral nerves (S. Y. Hu 7811). Scale: Xl. c. Habit sketch of Ilex x meserveae S. Y. Hu, showing the spinose leaves, abundant flowers, and conspicuously impressed veins (S. Y. Hu 7792). Scale: Xl. d. A fruit of Ilex x meserveae. Scale: X3. a. 70 a staminate plant with ovate spinose leaves 3-3.5 cm. long, 1.72.3 cm. wide, base rotundate; nursery # 4-53. S. Y. Hu 7799, a staminate plant with small elliptic leaves 2-3 cm. long, 1.21.6 cm. wide; nursery # 1-57. Group B. F, hybrids I. rugosa (I) X I. aquif olium ( II ) : S. Y. Hu 7795, compact shrubs with elliptic strongly spinose leaves; nursery numbers M-3 for the staminate plant, F-1 for pistillate plant. S. Y. Hu 7800, a very compact staminate plant with small elliptic spinose leaves, 1.8-3 cm. long, 0.7-1.5 cm. wide, acute at the base; nursery # 2-57. S. Y. Hu 7802, a pistillate plant with rather large elliptic spinose leaves 3-4.5 cm. long, 1.3-2.3 cm. wide, green with purplish tint; fruits abundant, pyrenes all fertile; nursery # F-1. S. Y. Hu 7803, a pistillate plant with elliptic spinose leaves 2.5-3.5 cm. long, 1.3-2 cm. wide, base acute or obtuse; fruits sometimes in cymose clusters, nursery # F-2. S. Y. Hu 7804, a staminate plant with weakly spinose elliptic leaves 3.5-4.5 cm. long, 1.41.9 cm. wide, approaching the shape and spines of the leaves of I. ciliospinosa Loes.; nursery # M-5. S. Y. Hu 7805, containing two branches, one a staminate plant and the other a pistillate plant, both with rather large elliptic leaves, strongly spinose, 3-5 cm. long, 1.7-2.5 cm. wide; nursery numbers F-2 for the pistillate plant and M-4 for the staminate plant. Group C. F, hybrid of I. rugosa (II) XI. aqui f olium ( I ) : S. Y. Hu 7801, a very compact staminate plant with elliptic or oblong spinose leaves 2.5-3 cm. long, 1.1-1.8 cm. wide, base acute or obtuse; nursery # 2-58. Group D. F, hybrids of I. rugosa (1) X I. aquifolium (III): S. Y. Hu 7806, a pistillate plant with elliptic weakly spinose leaves rather loosely arranged on the stem, 3-4.5 cm. long, 1.3-2 cm. wide, base acute, rarely obtuse, approaching the appearance of I. ciliospinosa Loes.; fruiting pedicels rather long, almost equal to the diameter of the fruit in length. S. Y. Hu 7807, vigorously growing pistillate plant shy of flowering and with rather large elliptic spinose leaves, 5-5.3 cm. long, 1.8-2.3 cm. wide, obtuse at the base, 5-10 spines on each side. Group E. F, hybrid of I. rugosa (II) X I. aquif olium (II): S. Y. Hu 7808, a staminate plant with elliptic leaves strongly spinose, 3-4 cm. long, 1.1-1.6 cm. wide, base obtuse or acute; nursery # 1-58. Group F. Parent plants: S. Y. Hu 7809, Ilex rugosa F. Schmidt (1), a low shrub 1\/2 m. high, top flat, with elliptic or ovate-elliptic crenulate-serrate leaves (Fig. 2a), glabrous stem and pedicels; said to be introduced from Japan by the Arnold Arboretum, 6 plants went to the Westbury Rose Company, Long Island, New York. Paul D. Vossberg, Propagator of the Company gave Mrs. F. L. Meserve one plant which became the mother 71 of many of her hybrids. S. Y. Hu 7810, the flowering stage of the same plant. S. Y. Hu 7811, a staminate plant of Ilex aquif olium L. ( I ) , small tree 3 m. high, with purplish puberulent branchlets, pilose peduncles and pedicels, ciliate calyx lobes; oblong sinuate strongly spinose leaves (Fig. 2b). S. Y. Hu 7812, a staminate plant of I. aqui f olium L. (III) with puberulent branchlets, rather large elliptic or rarely obovate leaves 5-8 cm. long, 2-4.3 cm. wide, strongly spinose with 4-9 spines on each side. From the material cited above, it is apparent that Ilex X meserveae includes many F, hybrids made between I. rugosa and I. aquifolium which have rather small spinose leaves, fasciculate puberulent inflorescences, ciliate calyx lobes, and red globose fruits with 4 woody pyrenes each. For the seed parent, the hybridizer used two plants of I. rugosa which she called 'Long Island' = (I), and 'Arnold Arboretum' = (II), and for the pollen parent she used three plants of I. aquifolium which she called 'Lawrence White' = (I), 'Fisher's Island' = (II), and 'Goliath' = (III). All the plants of the F, generation acquire the characters of low stature and the impressed nerves on the upper leaf-surface from the seed parent, and the characters of spinose leaves, puberulent stems and inflorescences, and abundance of flowers from the pollen parent. There are two distinct leaf-forms, i.e., plants with ovate leaves and plants with elliptic leaves. The clones in the market, I. meserveae 'Blue Girl' (Plant Patent 2434) and I. meserveae 'Blue Boy' (Plant Patent 2435) both have ovate leaves. SHIU-YING Hu "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":72,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24497","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d070a36b.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum One of the most satisfactory and remarkable of the conifers which are hardy at the Arnold Arboretum is the Serbian spruce, Picea omorika. The Arboretum introduced this tree into cultivation in the United States as long ago as 1881 and, despite its availability in nurseries today, it is still not planted as frequently as it should be. The outstanding feature of the Serbian spruce is its narrow and nearly columnar habit of growth. Well grown specimens can be easily recognized from a considerable distance and stand out from all other trees in the landscape in much the same manner as the less desirable Lombardy poplar. Young plants have a pyramidal shape not unlike many other conifers, but they grow fairly rapidly and taper more and more with age until the spire-like habit of the older tree is reached. A distinctly graceful touch is added by the position assumed by branches on various parts of the tree. The lower branches are pendulous with upward arching tips, those in the middle are more nearly horizontal, and the shorter topmost branches point in an upward direction. A close examination will reveal several other interesting features. The needles are flat in cross section, not four-sided as the needles of most other spruces. Further, they are a deep glossy-green above and whitish below. This pleasing contrast is easily seen as the branches move in the wind. To extend the list of virtues which the Serbian spruce possesses, one must add that it is extremely hardy and can be expected to thrive where temperatures reach -10F. or lower. A modern plant in every sense of the word, it will tolerate a con- siderable amount of atmospheric pollution and grow wide range of soil conditions, even near the sea. on a fairly Fig. 3: Picea omorika at the Arnold Arboretum. Photo: P. Bruns. 72 74 Young plants have been reported to suffer occasionally from attacks of the white pine weevil, an insect which causes serious damage by boring into the terminal shoots. Although this a difficult problem to control, it has not stopped us from planting white pines and should not be that important a factor in limiting the desirability of the Serbian spruce. Careful consideration should be given to the placement of Picea omorika in the landscape. It is best seen as a single specimen or as a group planting in the distance. It is a mistake to place it too close to other large plants because shading will eventually cause the loss of lower branches. This should also be taken into account when making a group planting and, where possible, a minimum space of twelve to fifteen feet between plants is desirable. Several excellent specimens of the Serbian spruce may be seen in the Arboretum at the top of the slope occupied by the conifer collection in Kent Field. Six of our plants are over eighty years old, and fifty to sixty feet in height. ROBERT S. HEBB Summary of weather data recorded at the Dana Greenhouses, December 1969 and January 1970. Editors' note: We regret that, in our anxiety to produce an error-free issue in January, we left Mr. Fordham's name off the staff list. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":5,"start_page":75,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24495","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060896d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles and Dorothy Smith Berkeley Town, by Edmund Berkeley The Quest for Plants, by Alice M. Coats The Early Horticulturists, by Ronald Webber The past decade was one of the most productive of this century in horticultural publishing as witnessed by the scores of titles from both sides of the Atlantic. The history of horticulture has come in for special attention during this period. In the last months of 1969 two titles appeared which should be of very great interest to the American horticultural audience. The third, though published in 1968, merits attention here. The first of these is the biography of a Scottish naturalist and doctor, Dr. Alexander Garden, who practiced medicine in Charleston between 1752 and 1782. As he had supposed as a youth, Dr. Garden found ample opportunity to flourish in the New World. After thirty years' residence he had accumulated a town house and plantation, twenty-five household slaves, and debts due him of nearly sixty-five thousand pounds sterling. In addition to family duties, a heavy medical practice, and the burdens of Establishment status, Dr. Garden managed to collect and send specimens to Linnaeus, Gronovius, and Ellis. He maintained a lively correspondence with these men and with Bartram and Collinson. Since he was a Loyalist, Dr. Garden He was not to was banished from South Carolina in 1782. return to America or to his beloved Otranto, the plantation celebrated in George Ogilvie's \"The Planter.\" The relationship between Dr. Garden and his son, along with his origins in Scotland - both of which have been mythologized (see U. P. Hedrick's A History of Horticulture in America) - have been clarified in this book. A convincing case is made here that, if allowed to remain, Dr. Garden might have contributed much toward the foundation of learning in the South. His scholarship and intimate familiarity with the Linnean system could have 75 76 meant much to the fledgling studies of the natural history of the New World. Already acclaimed for their biography of John Clayton, Edmund and Dorothy Berkeley have done more than add another carefully researched and engaging story to American history, for they have snatched from almost total obscurity an American naturalist long ago given his due by Linnaeus and his eighteenth century contemporaries. Dr. Garden, whose burial place is still unknown, is commemorated by the genus Gardenia. With admirable tenacity, Alice Coats has produced a work, encyclopedic in scope, which should find a wide readership among horticulturists in the United States. The concern here is with plant collectors who were professional gardeners but, fortunately for the value of the book, gardeners who botanized are included. The author divides the world into ten areas and proceeds chronologically to give capsule histories, both personal and professional, of one hundred and seventy-two collectors and their significant introductions. Of particular interest to American gardeners will be those New World collectors from Tradescant II through Lyon in the east of North America, to Fremont through Jeffrey in the west. The incredibly bad luck and physical discomforts of many of these explorers are difficult to imagine in our day of partial technological control over nature. There are twenty-six excellently reproduced illustrations from original portraits, engravings, and maps. The six-page bibliography is excellent, although periodical citations have been omitted. There are both person and plant indices. The latter contains over a thousand plant names which include many of the favorites of garden and greenhouse today. Every gardener can use this work to enhance his knowledge by sharing the experiences of the discoverers. Less exhaustive and weighted toward commercial gardening, the short history by Ronald Webber presents vignettes of thirteen horticulturists of England from the seventeenth through the nineteenth centuries. Readers will be delighted with the story of the development of such firms as Rochford's in the Lea Valley; the success of Robert Smith, an outstanding market gardener; Thomas Smith, who introduced the intensive cultivation techniques termed \"French gardening\" to England; Wills and Segar, the flower supplier to the Court. The introductory chapter is devoted to an essay on English horticulture to 1900. Here we learn of the development of the greenhouse and of the influence of Dutch, Flemish, and Walloon emigrants of the eighteenth century on the course of English horticulture. 77 All three of these works are remarkably free from gross or errors. All the authors are to be congratulated on the of their works in three neglected areas. Serious gardeners and the public at large will want to consult each while winter-time still abounds. C. R. L. trifling quality - Edmund Berkeley and Dorothy Smith Berkeley, Dr. Alexander Garden of Charles Town, Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1969. $10.00. Alice M. Coats, The Quest for Plants, London: Studio Vista, 1969. 84\/. Ronald Webber, The Early Horticulturists, Newton Abbot: David & Charles, 1968. 40\/. The powers-that-be at the American Museum of National His- tory in New York decided to celebrate the institution's centennial, 1869-1969, with the theme \"Can Man Survive?\" and a show of the same name. The decision is thought-provoking, as is the somewhat circumstantial and recent arrival of a moon rock which is on display nearby, in cunning juxtaposition. The moon rock, by the way, is very pretty. \"Can Man Survive?\" launches a multi-media attack on pollution, over-population, and other evils of modern and, particularly, urban civilization. Because of the special character of the show, the Museum built a temporary exhibition area in the huge main hall off the Eighth Avenue entrance. The performance goes on inside this ungainly structure, and it is really very well done. One progresses through a series of spaces, sees films which are continuous, informative, and brief enough to fend off boredom or physical fatigue. There are also slides projected onto interesting forms, \"Pop\" style industrial sculptures, and occasional things to read. Most people were observed to neglect the latter because the light is variously dim or confusing. The last section of the show, devoted to air pollution, is wonderfully effective. Slides of garbage, spewing chimneys, traffic jams, and other offensive scenes flash on and off in controlled chaos; 79 there is a full-scale model of the rear end of a New York bus; the pungent odor of hydrogen-sulfide fills the air. (Iam, frankly, mystified as to how they managed to isolate the odor in a single area.) The exit is dramatic and, like the end of a Hitchcock movie, should not be spoiled for those who have not yet seen the show. \"Can Man Survive?\" surveys the problems of air and water pollution, food and population, and upsets in what is left of our natural environment. While the content of the show may seem elementary to those familiar with the current literature, it is well to remember that most people do not realize that these are problems. The Museum has found a compelling, appropriate form in which to publicize them, and this show will undoubtedly win sympathy for cleaner air, purer water, and birth control. My single objection to the presentation is that the Museum has found it necessary to charge ad admission fee of $1.00 for non-member adults (50 for children). This is a great pity because the cost excludes a number of people who simply cannot afford it. Many New York children take profitable refuge in the Museum on cold afternoons and would find much to amuse and educate them in this show. Minor compensation: the moon rock is free. In a brochure which accompanies the show, Gardner Stout, President of the Museum, writes: \"That man will survive is likely. When the chips are down, he is astonishingly adaptable, cunningly expert. But the concept of survival by itself is a minimal and chilling one. Survival can be appallingly rudimentary. Our concern is with the quality of survival, and our hope is that this exhibit will nourish in all of us a sense of selfevaluation, of self-perspective, and primarily a sense of the good life.\" If you are in New York, see \"Can Man Survive?\" It will be there through 1970. S. S. Fig. 4: Galanthus caucasius. Photo: P. Bruns. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23354","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270a728.jpg","title":"1970-30-2","volume":30,"issue_number":2,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Change in Arnoldia","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":1,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24489","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060bb28.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"A Change in Arnoldia In 1943 the one-word title Arnoldia was adopted for this publication which for twenty-nine years had been called the Bulletin of Popular Information. This issue is the first since then with other changes. The first Bulletin is now a real collector's item. It appeared on May 2, 1911, with a title that bothered librarians: \"Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Bulletin of Popular Information No. 1.\" Charles Sargent, the Director, explained his intention \"... to issue from time to time from the Arboretum bulletins of popular information in which attention will be called to the flowering of important plants and other matters connected with them.\" Copies were mailed without charge to anyone who desired to receive them. The unsigned articles were written by Professor Sargent. The New Series, with numbered volumes and an annual index, began in 1915. A note in 1916 stated: \"Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning ...\" The telephone number had but three digits. Series Three came out a month after Sargent's death, in April 1927, on coated paper permitting the first use of photographs. The articles were signed \"E.H.W.\" for Ernest Henry Wilson. A subscription rate was established. There is evidence of the tragedy that took the life of \"Chinese\" Wilson: an article dated September 15th, 1930, bears his initials for the last time. In 1933 Series Four introduced a new format. Donald Wyman joined the staff in 1935. The first of many articles by the Horticulturist for the Arnold Arboretum was \"Tree Troubles,\" issued in March 1936. Inside our new 1970 cover, we plan to have contributions from several authors and a variety of articles for our readers. Notes on the plantings, notices of staff activities, and programs or classes will be listed; book reviews will be more frequent. Arnoldia will appear six times a year at regular intervals. To reduce the necessary subsidy we must increase the price to $3.50 to subscribers, but Friends of the Arnold Arboretum will continue to receive Arnoldia free of charge. - RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries","article_sequence":2,"start_page":2,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24489","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060bb28.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Reed, John F.","article_content":"Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries The first conference on botanical and horticultural libraries was held in Horticultural Hall, Boston, on Thursday, November 13, 1969. Sponsored by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and organized by the Society's Library Committee, the Conference was conceived as an opportunity to discuss problems of interest to libraries in the field. Forty persons attended, representing more than twenty institutions. The first speaker was Mr. John F. Reed, Curator of the Library of the New York Botanical Garden, who addressed himself to the \"Problems of Horticultural and Botanical Libraries.\" Dr. George H. M. Lawrence, Director of the Hunt Botanical Library of the Carnegie-Mellon University, followed with a discussion entitled \"Care and Preservation of Library Materials.\" The afternoon session began with an analysis of a library's \"Bibliographic Responsibilities to the Plant Sciences\" by Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr. In \"Where Do We Go From Here?\" Mr. Gordon W. Dillon, Executive Secretary of the American Orchid Society, suggested several ways to continue the discussions with a series of conferences. Following a questio~z and answer period the group, in an informal business session, accepted the invitation of the Hunt Botanical Library to hold a second conference, in Pittsburgh, on April 24-25, 1970. It is planned to reproduce the edited texts of the major presentations at the conference in this issue and in succeeding numbers of Arnoldia. - Ed. To preface my remarks, I would like first to define my concept of the primary roles of the major botanico-horticultural libraries. To me, they represent research-resource libraries of inestimable value which are deeply involved in collecting, preserving, and providing access to the bulk of the world's literature dealing with the various aspects of plant science pure and applied. Specifically, their responsibilities fall into three main categories : ( 1 ) to preserve, conserve, and protect their collections; (2) to develop, complete, and expand their collections to meet the needs of both present and future users; (3) to provide service and accessibility to this literature and knowledge about this literature to their users. - 2 3 The collections held in these libraries are, in truth, national It is important that we who are concerned with these libraries recognize that our responsibilities exceed the bounds of our individual institutions. In my discussion I am forced to adopt a shotgun approach that will touch briefly upon scattered problems in these areas of responsibility before going on to what I consider to be the major problems facing our libraries today. I think I should also say at this point that these problems are not unique to botanico-horticultural libraries. Although they may be more urgent for us than for libraries in other scientific disciplines, they are very similar to the problems faced by most academic research libraries. When one speaks of a librarian's custodial duties many people immediately conjure up an image of a stuffy, intransigent guardian who jealously watches over the library stacks, suspicious of anyone who wants to read or, worse yet, borrow a book, and who is really happy only when every book is in its proper place on the library shelves. When I speak of custodial duties I am referring to the positive and constructive activities which are part of the maintenance of collections having intrinsic archival and historical value. One of these major responsibilities is the ever-present task of physical maintenance, preservation, and conservation of the publications and other library materials in the library collection. The ravages of time - use and the chemical deterioration of are matters of constant and inpaper and binding materials creasing concern, especially in libraries that attach archival importance to their collections. A closely related problem needing much greater recognition, attention, and action in library circles today concerns the production of modern publications at high standards of quality of materials and workmanship. Failure of librarians to concern themselves with present publication practices and to put forth the problems that poor production standards create for research libraries will compound the difficulties of preservation in the future. Technology has developed long-life pH neutral papers that can be manufactured and sold at costs approximating those of lesser quality, more rapidly deteriorating papers. We must urge publishers to adopt the use of these papers in their production of periodicals and monographs. It is disturbing to see how rapidly issues of some of the outstanding scientific journals published in this country, as well as abroad, begin to discolor and become brittle. It is hard to believe that those responsible for resources. - - 4 these publications consider their work to be of such ephemeral importance. Physical format and design of periodicals and other publications is still another area of great concern to librarians today, particularly the tendency to reduce the width of inner margins. Inner margins of one inch or 3\/4 inch usually allow adequate space for libraries to bind these items either by machine oversewing or preferably, in archival collections, by smythe or bench sewing. When, usually in the name of economy, inner margins are reduced to one-half inch or less, as in the case of such substantial journals as Planta, Excerpta Botanica and the Gardener's Chronicle to name only a few, the binding of the volume by libraries becomes much more difficult. If such volumes are machine oversewn, there is often no inner margin left at all; even with smythe sewing the text often runs into the groove of the binding making the volume difficult to read or photocopy. Librarians must be aware of the quality of both materials and that go into the publications they acquire for their for they make a great investment in purchasing and libraries, maintaining these materials. When publishing and production standards fall below those that will allow libraries to maintain usable archival collections, then those concerned with libraries must make their voices heard. Collection development presents many challenges to practicing libraries today. Because of the increasing numbers of publications produced each year and the even more rapidly increasing costs of books and periodicals, library purchasing budgets must be substantially increased each year just to allow libraries to hold ground in their particular areas of specialization. At the same time, librarians and others involved with the selection of books, journals, and other materials for their collections, must exercise increased selectivity in allocating their available resources. A similar problem is faced by libraries trying to fill gaps in their holdings or involved in large-scale development of collections of older literature. In these areas, increasing costs are compounded by increasing competition for this literature, especially from the developing small college and university libraries. The most economical answer to large-scale development of collections of older literature, at least on an individual institution basis, is the purchase of this material in microforms microfiche, microfilm or microcard. That such microforms are relatively inexpensive and require little storage space is very workmanship 5 attractive. Unfortunately, there is one major drawback to the use of these materials: readers confronted with the prospect of having to use microforms will go out of their way, often to considerable personal expense, to avoid their use. The development of relatively inexpensive reading-printing equipment which produces usable, inexpensive hard copy for consultation and reference should be of great assistance in helping libraries overcome much of the resistance to the use of microforms. Aside from the archival value of microforms, the greatest value I see in them in research-resource libraries such as ours, is in the interlibrary loan and photocopying programs that we provide. By maintaining microform duplicates of rare, valuable, and fragile materials, explicitly for the production of photocopies for interlibrary loan and in-house photocopy demands, libraries can save tremendously on the wear and tear on original materials while still providing access to them. The greatest problem facing any group of libraries today, be they related geographically or by their subject specialization, is their willingness to investigate, identify, and implement programs that lead to standardization, cooperation, and shared utilization of their resources and activities. One of the most obvious areas for this coordination is current acquisition and collection development. I am sure that this group willingly concedes the impossibility and impracticality of any library even to attempt to collect all of the world's literature dealing with the plant sciences. Instead, individually, our approach has been, and continues to be, one of maintaining more or less comprehensive collections in our particular areas of specialization and smaller representative collections in those areas of our secondary interests. Although there must be a high . of overlap throughout our collections, we must look the bounds of our own institutions and begin to think in terms of the total information needs of the plant scientist, and we must try to assure, on a collective basis, the comprehensive collection of the plant science literature. Coordination of general acquisition responsibilities must be degree beyond a general and freely functioning cooperation libraries in sharing and distributing their unique holdamong ings. Such a \"network\" approach to library resource development has been recognized and developed on a regional basis particularly in state library systems. I believe a similar approach can be taken on a subject basis, although difficulties arising from lack of geographical proximity are sure to be present. As I have already mentioned, in the libraries represented at accompanied by - 6 meeting there is a considerable overlap in our current acquisitions programs, probably collectively greater than 50%. Among selected libraries in this group, the overlap in purchases may exceed 90%. With such a high percentage of duplication in current acquisitions, we have an ideal opportunity to share in some way the production of cataloging data and thereby to reduce our individual cataloging costs. It has been my experience at The New York Botanical Garden that the cost of descriptive and subject cataloging to American Library Association and Library of Congress standards is often higher than the cost of acquiring the publication itself, particularly when printed Library of Congress cards are unavailable within a reasonable period of time. We have learned through experience that approximately 40% of our Library of Congress card orders for newly published monographs and serials are unfilled after six months. Most of this material consists of publications in foreign languages and analytics of serials sets, the material for which original cataloging is most costly to prepare. Much costly duplicate original cataloging could be eliminated if we could agree to certain standards for descriptive and subject cataloging and devise a way in which to distribute cataloging copy to cooperating institutions for their individual production of catalog cards. Better yet, with further standardization of card format, we could possibly develop a centralized card reproduction center that could supply cards to our individual libraries. Closely related to the cataloging of new published works is the production of cataloging data for our older literature collections. Several libraries are contemplating or have begun the awesome task of recataloging their collections to modern standards. The New York Botanical Garden is one of those institutions that has undertaken this massive task one that we estimate will require 15 man-years of professional cataloging time. This indeed is a costly undertaking. To date, our experience indicates that we can obtain LC printed cards for slightly less than one-half of the items which we must process in this project. The load of original cataloging that our recataloging staff must perform is terrific. To me it is foolish and wasteful for other institutions to duplicate this work. I would like to see some method developed to pool and share such data with other libraries embarking on similar endeavors so that needless duplication and expense could be avoided. By pooling or exchanging such information we could, at the same a union catalog time, develop a very useful bibliographic tool of our collective holdings. This would be particularly valuable - this 7 many of our libraries are poorly represented in The National Union Catalog. Another area where I would like to see a coordinated approach is the preservation of archival sets of ephemeral and secondary publications. I am thinking specifically of seed catalogs and popular gardening and horticultural magazines, many of which are printed on such low grade paper that they rapidly deteriorate even with little or no use. Two good examples of such publications are the journals Popular Gardening and Amateur Gardening, issues of which less than a decade old have so deteriorated that they can no longer be bound. Assuming that archival sets of such publications should be maintained, would it not be practical for one or two institutions to assume the responsibility of conservation and preservation while the remaining libraries, interested in having ready access to these publications, could depend upon microfilm copies? If such coordination is desirable, we could pool our collective sets of such publications to make up complete sets with the best preserved copies of each issue. This sort of coordination of effort must come about if original documents are to be adequately preserved. Many publications of this nature have already reached an advanced state of decay, and their complete loss is imminent. A valuable bibliographic tool which could be developed through botanico-horticultural library cooperation is a union list of botanico-horticultural periodicals based on the exhaustive compilation B-P-H Botanico-Periodicum-Huntianum prepared at the Hunt Botanical Library last year. Such a list would have two major values: the first, to provide readily accessible and upto-date knowledge of the periodical holdings of cooperating liinformation that is very incompletely available in the braries Union List of Serials; the second, to supply us with a knowledge information of the important gaps in our collective holdings that would be very valuable in a coordinated collection developas - program. There are two other areas of potential cooperative endeavor which I would like to mention briefly. One is the possible pooling of the various publication exchange activities presently carried out independently by a number of our libraries. At its simplest it could involve only the interchange of exchange lists and information ; but at a more highly organized level it could take the form of a centralized exchange office providing service to sort of a Botanico-Horticultural Farminga group of libraries ton Plan. The other proposal for coordination involves interlibrary loan responsibilities which we all have to greater or - ment 8 lesser degrees, not just among ourselves, but with the larger library community. Coordination of such activities might take the form of designating one or two of our institutions with the primary responsibility for meeting the bulk of interlibrary loan service, while the remaining institutions serve to supplement the resources of these primary lenders. One of the first questions that arises after such a spell of idealizing is very realistic who will pay for such cooperative programs? The answer must be correspondingly realistic we will! Not as additional expenses over and above those we already find difficult to bear but, hopefully, from the resources saved by not having to perform each of these tasks individually. With consolidation and specialization of effort in such functions as collection development, cataloging, and interlibrary loan, there should be corresponding economies. A less definite, but posssible, outcome of activities of coordination and cooperation is that by working together we might better qualify for the grant dollar. A recent issue of College and Research Libraries News (no. 9, Oct. 1969) reported that the - - National Science Foundation's Office of Science Information Service has stated that its resources are \"being concentrated on developing information systems in basic disciplines which take advantage of the available technology.\" Coordinated and cooperative endeavors such as those I have outlined today are certainly a humble beginning, but they could eventually develop into much more sophisticated programs. JOHN F. REED Curator of the Library, New York Botanical Garden "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Report from Hong Kong","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24493","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060856f.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hu, Shiu-ying","article_content":"Report from Hong Kong Shiu-Ying Hu, Botanist at the Arnold Arboretum, has made three trips Hong Kong since January 1968. Her first stay was from March through June 1968; after a summer in the United States, she returned there for the academic year 1968-69; she left Boston again this past September for her third visit. In return for financial support for her living expenses and field work, Dr. Hu has taught a class in Taxonomy of Angiosperms at Chung Chi College, a part of the Chinese University of Hong Kong. The Chinese University is a federation of three colleges in which the principal language of instruction is Chinese. The Chung Chi campus is located near to Dr. Sha Tin in the New Territories. Dr. Hu has also made extensive herbarium collections of native plants. This report summarizes her activities during her second trip, including her short stops in Korea and Japan where she investigated species of daylilies under the sponsorship of the American Ed. Hemerocallis Society - Field work and botanical collections. People who have read or heard about Hong Kong from reports of tourists who visited the congested shopping areas, or from missionaries who discussed the conditions of refugee life, have the impression that Hong Kong is a small piece of land overcrowded with buildings and people. This is an untrue picture. Actually, 95% of the land area controlled by the Hong Kong government is wilderness. It is true that certain historical collecting sites, such as Captain Champion's Happy Valley, are crowded with apartment buildings, but the vast area is still botanically unexplored. A map issued in 1968 by the Crown Lands & Survey Office of Hong Kong indicates that the built-up areas are limited to the north side of Hong Kong proper (Victoria Island), Kowloon Peninsula, and very small areas in the New Territories. The primary reason for the lack of development in Hong Kong is water supply. Now the Jubilee Reservoir, the Tai Lam Chung Reservoir, and the Kowloon Reservoir have been built in the New Territories, and Plover Cove has been converted into a fresh water lake. These will provide water for a population shift to the New Territories. The huge Shek Pik Reservoir is on Lantau Island, the largest island in the Hong Kong area. (See map, p. 16-17.) When I left Hong Kong in June 1968, my collecting record ended with number 5551. During the summer T. K. Woo col9 10 specimens. On my return to Chung Chi College in September, I began my collections with number 5572; when I left this June (1969), the last number was 7791. During this period I collected approximately 2250 sets of specimens. Field work in the tropics is strenuous but always exiciting. The combination of available water and good roads makes Hong Kong a plant collector's paradise in southeast Asia. The most memorable of my trips were (1) the visit to the type tree of Camellia granthamiana Sealy behind the Jubilee Reservoir, on Tai Mo Shan, and (2) the rediscovery of Manglietia fordiana Oliver on Ma On Shan. When Sealy described Camellia granthamiana, he remarked, \"It was ... a shock to find that a specimen collected in the New Territory ... in October 1955 represented a new and very distinct species of Camellia especially as it is a striking plant with white flowers 51\/2 inches across and handsome, shining bullate leaves. How such a plant can have remained undiscovered until now is a mystery, ...\"i To find the cause of the mystery, to see the plant, and to collect some specimens for our herbaria, I participated in a field trip with the Hong Kong Natural History Society on November 4th, 1968. The area is remote from any path. There was only one man in the group who knew the exact locality of the tree. It is no mystery that the species remained hidden so long in this wilderness ! The interesting thing about the occurrence of the species is that, after extensive field work and a thorough survey of the adjoining area, no other C. granthamiana was found. So, up ... - lected twenty sets of 1 Sealy quoted from a letter from R. E. Dean, Superintendent of the Gardens Division, Hong Kong, as follows: \"You will be interested to know that only one plant, a small tree about 10 ft. high, has so far been found. It is growing in partial shade, on the edge of a wooded ravine, in company with Ilex rotunda (20 feet tall), Caesalpinia spp. (climbing), Adina spp. (5-6 feet tall), and grass about 5 feet tall. It is a multibranched tree, with a base diameter of a little over 12 inches. There is strong reason to believe that it was cut to within a foot or so of the ground a long time ago. \"Its age is difficult to determine, but it is probably between fifty and seventy years. No other similar plants have been found growing within a radius of a hundred yards of this particular specimen \"The area concerned is very remote, and is served only by a narrow track; it is a good one and a half hours' hike from the road. In the ordinary course of events it is certain that the spot is hardly ever visited, except by an occasional forester or villager; the forester who told us about it had no particular business in the area and came upon it quite by chance. It is quite likely that it has hitherto been passed off as a Gordonia.\" ( Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society, LXXXI: 181-182, April 1956.) ... 12 the present, the species is known only from the type plant. The species was described on the basis of two herbarium specimens ; they are both in the herbarium of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. The specimens which I collected are from the type plant and have both flowers and fruit. (Fig. 1, p. 11) Manglietia fordiana Oliver was described from a specimen collected on Victoria Island and it was known from the type tree only. Our herbarium has no specimen of this species. Oliver remarked that M. fordiana was the first record of the genus from China. In the 1930's Dandy described over a dozen species of the genus from China, Thailand, and Indochina. Later H. H. Hu and his associates described another half dozen species from the Chinese provinces of Yunnan and Szechuan. However, M. fordiana has only been recorded from Hong Kong. During the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong the area was very short of fuel, and M. fordiana, together with other plants, was cut for firewood. On the afternoon of May 11, 1969, when my assistant T. K. Woo and I were looking for a shortcut to return to Chung Chi College from the top of Ma On Shan, I suddenly spotted a tree with deep green leaves and large white flowers on the other side of a deep gorge. Ting Kwok suggested that we wait until another trip to collect it, but I insisted on seeing if I had found another tree of Camellia granthamiana. When we saw the tree up close, I thought it was a Magnolia because the luster of its leaves and the size of the flowers remind one of Magnolia grandiflora; but it is more beautiful because the anthers are a brilliant red. Returning to the laboratory, I keyed the specimen out to be Manglietia fordiana. Mr. H. C. Tang told me that M. f ordiana had not been found anywhere except at Victoria Peak, and that the tree was lost in the war. Consequently, I convinced the horticulturist and landscape designer of the Chinese University of the importance and beauty of this species, and he sent three of his men to air-layer thirty plants for planting in the new University campus and for distribution. In November 1968 and February 1969 I made two collecting trips to Lantau, the largest island in the area; it is about one and two-thirds larger than Victoria Island. It has a very complicated geological formation, with granite, porphyry, marine silt, syenite, alluvial deposits, and sandstone all occurring in an area of less than fifty square miles. Until recently, the people of the island lived only on small alluvial plains where agriculture was possible. Not long ago, however, roads were built, and a very large reservoir was constructed at Shek Pik. Comfortable modern buildings with very reasonable rates have been built by the Methodist Mission and the YMCA. Buses and vans transport to 13 people areas across the island. These facilities help a botanist reach that have never been botanized. All the students in my class in the Taxonomy of Angiosperms went along on the February trip. We worked for three solid days in various localities on Lantau Island. Before we went, two student volunteers did research on the geographical conditions of the island, including the population, towns, roads, transportation facilities, and vegetation. Their reports were mimeographed and distributed to their fellow students. The seventeen students were divided into four field groups: (1) covering the cultivated areas and the market place, emphasizing the economic plants; (2) covering the mid-high altitudes; (3) speed climbers who collected high altitude specimens; and (4) covering the seashore and cliff plants. We chose three centers: at the eastern end of the island for the first day, at the southwestern end for the second day, and the peak on the northern side for the third day. The students were very enthusiastic about the work. They began the day with the whistle at 6 : 00 a.m. and ended it when they finished writing their field notes and pressing their material. My collection ran up to 170 numbers. The high altitude group collected much more than I did because there were three students in addition to T. K. Woo. The other groups collected fewer specimens. Some of the material collected by the high altitude group was indeed interesting. T. K. Woo built a charcoal heater, but that was insufficient for drying our specimens. The Biology Department at Chung Chi College built a very good drying case which is normally adequate for quick drying. This time, however, there were too many specimens, and not all of them were properly dried. Chung Chi College keeps one specimen of each collection; the rest are for the Arnold Arboretum. It should be noted here that Ting Kwok Woo is the gardener of the Biology Department. He is one of the victims of the political upheaval in China. When he was twelve he was told, \"You are the son of a landlord. You have no right to an education.\" He was sent to work on a farm where he nearly starved. He told me that he was so hungry that he ate the thick rhizome of Cibotium barometz. When he became older, he escaped by crossing the barbed wire fence. He is now twenty-one and works during the day while attending night school for a middle school diploma; at present, he is in the second form of junior high school. He is very good at climbing and collecting. He can climb a tree like a monkey. I was indeed fortunate to have him as an assistant on some of my field trips. The biology students at Chung Chi College carry very heavy loads. They have five or six laboratories every week. Many of Fig. 2: Chung Chi campus, looking towards Building on left is servants' quarters. Photo. S. Y. Hu. Ma On Shan. them have to tutor special high school pupils to earn some spending money. For these reasons, the biology majors have not organized as many field trips as the geography majors. I made some of my best collecting trips with geography majors or with the staff of the Geography Department. The outstanding ones were (1) the trip to Ping Chau, (2) the Castle Peak hike, (3) the Pak Sin Ling climb, and (4) the Dragon Pool, Plover Cove collection. Ping Chau is outside Mirs Bay and about one and a half miles from mainland China. It can be reached only by a large fishing boat. Normally, the coast and the possible danger prevent students from going there to study the special geological formations and vegetation of the island. In order to lower the cost for the students, the organizer gathered sixty-four people for the trip, and one of them weighed 300 pounds! On our return we were stopped by a police boat, and the owner of the boat was arrested because his boat was licensed for only thirty-five people. I had a very good collection from that island, which had never been botanized before. The Castle Peak hike introduced me to a completely different vegetation. On this trip I made my only collections of Nepenthes 15 It was a long day, and we did not return to the midnight. Pak Sin Ling is a mountain chain with eight peaks. Two of the five students on this trip were track stars. The group planned to cover all eight peaks. They ate and drank very little. The climbing was rather strenuous for me, and my collecting must have delayed the students. They did not climb all the peaks because, by three o'clock, we saw eight fires starting from various directions. We were afraid of being trapped by the fire, so we decided to change our direction and turned south. Dragon Pool, inland from Plover Cove, is indeed a collector's paradise. In this area I collected a specimen of the monotypic genus, Lysidice rhodostegia Hance. This species has never been reported previously from Hong Kong. I also collected Buxus, and Platycodon. until college Illicium, and several orchids which I have not seen elsewhere. On this trip, as on several others, Peter Cheung, a geography who is interested in plants, was my guide. Dr. L. Trott teaches a course in ecology in the Biology Department. He generally has each of his students choose a special project. He specializes in oceanography, but his students may select any subject that interests them. Last year there was one student working on the vegetation of Dog Stomach Valley; one, working on the ecology of fresh water fish, needed to know the vegetation surrounding the pond; one explored the vegetation of a small railway tunnel; another studied the vegetation of an estuary. These students all guided me to collect specimens which, otherwise, I would have had little opportunity to collect. The most interesting studies concerned the vegetation of the estuary and the railway tunnel. I have a complete collection of the mangrove vegetation. Dr. Trott has two boats by which he takes students to shores and islands. He was very kind and cooperative in allowing me to make collecting trips with his students. Thanks to him, I have a very good collection of plants from Central Island, a very small, uninhabited island in the middle of Tolo Harbour. Teaching and lecturing. Biology majors who wish to obtain a British-recognized B.A. degree must take and pass a diploma examination in the Taxonomy of Angiosperms. At Chung Chi College this course consists of two lectures and a three-hour laboratory for two fourteen-week semesters. My class had seventeen people, all in their junior year. The competition for a college education begins at the kindergarten level; children starting kindergarten and first grade must take entrance examinations. All the way through school, they are trained to memorize and major 18 to take and pass examinations; otherwise, they have to stop school at any level. So all my students acquired the ability to perform well on examinations. They also appreciated the method and effort of a teacher who wanted to open their eyes to the structure, beauty, and variations in form of the plants around them, and to the significance of structures in the evolution and classification of plants. I had excellent students and I enjoyed teaching them. However, since I had not taught since 1946 when I came to Harvard for graduate work, I was out of practice and took time for preparation. My three years at Lingnan University as a teaching fellow and my experience in teaching plant taxonomy at West China University contributed to the success of my teaching here. In January 1969 President C. T. Yung located financial aid to pay the salary of an artist, Teresa Fung. He has also provided a fund for building a drier which helped a great deal in drying the material I collected. The college had one wooden herbarium case before 1968. Now it has seven metal cases for the old collections and its set of my collections. On May 30, 1969, an Australian firm fumigated the herbarium with methyl bromide. Meetings and conferences. In October 1968 my friend, Mrs. A. T. Roy, came to ask me a favor. She explained to me that some outstanding citizens of Hong Kong who were interested in conservation had asked her to participate in a meeting to be held at the British Council. Since she had a previous engagement for that day, she asked if I could take her place; she felt that my knowledge of the plants of Hong Kong would be of special value in this group. At the gathering I met about a dozen people who were college professors, bankers, businessmen, and a few ladies of society. Subsequently, I was asked to attend monthly meetings to discuss the problems of organizing a Conservancy Society of Hong Kong. This organization was legally established in February 1969. Hong Kong University organized an international Conference on the Conservation of the Country Side in March 1969. Speakers were invited from England, the United States, and many southeast Asian countries. I participated in the opening tea given by the Governor, all the excursion trips, many lectures, the closing banquet, and I contributed a paper on the Natural Forest of Hong Kong. At the meetings one encountered the small number of British who control agriculture, forestry, fisheries, planning for land utilization, etc., for Hong Kong. There were, by contrast, very few Chinese participants. Because of this conference, I was able to see many places that I would not have 19 seen otherwise. I collected many interesting plants on the excursion trips. My collecting outfit and my activities attracted ture people, including some newsmen. Consequently, my picappeared in several English and Chinese newspapers. The publicity had a snowball effect. In April and May telephone calls from owners of gardens began to accumulate, and I received invitations to visit many people. Two gardens were of special interest to me. Mrs. Gloria Barretto and her sixteen-yearold son have a beautiful garden on a large hill-top, seaside estate where they have a collection of ninety different kinds of native Hong Kong orchids. She called to tell me when they were in bloom and arranged to show me her garden to see them. The other person I enjoyed visiting was an old fellow who has nine children and a garden of bonsai. He allowed me to take small plant samples. He had many exhibits in the Hong Kong Flower Show last spring. Visits to Korea and Japan. On the request of Dr. George Darmany row, Chairman of the Scientific Committee of the American Hemerocallis Society, with the financial assistance of that Society, and with the approval of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum, I stopped in Korea and Japan on my return trip to investigate species of Hemerocallis. I have prepared a report on my activities during these two weeks for the Committee, but there are several items which are also of interest to the Arnold Arboretum. The time I had was much too short to go into the field to see the wild Hemerocallis. In Korea Dr. T. B. Lee,, a former student of the Arnold Arboretum and now a professor in the College of Agriculture at the National University of Korea in Suwon, and I took a taxi for field work for a day and a half. This was a very costly procedure. I spent a half day examining and determining the Hemerocallis material he collected. In return, he gave me duplicates for our herbarium. In Korea I saw H. minor growing in its natural habitat and sent some live material, through the American Embassy Air Service, to Dr. F. Meyer at the National Arboretum. I collected herbarium specimens for the Arnold Arboretum. In Japan I stopped at Kyushu for two days and worked in the field. I brought back five living plants for the Arnold Arboretum collection of Hemerocallis at the Case Estates in Weston. I went to Kyoto and met Professor S. Kitamura, a wonderful administrator and a good botanist. He introduced me to two botanists who accompanied me to the alpine garden at Mt. Rokko and to the botanical gardens at the City University of Osaka and at 20 I spent a day in his herbarium examining all the Hemerocallis and making sketches of the types and isotypes. I obtained nine live plants and accompanying herbarium material from the Mt. Rokko Alpine Garden; I obtained eighteen more from the Botanical Garden at the City University of Osaka. The Rokko plants are all Japanese species; the Osaka plants are of special value. One of these, H. exaltata, was raised from plants transplanted from the type locality. Five others were raised from seed obtained from China (Peking) through exchange. One, H. fulva, was introduced to Japan from Nepal. The University of Kyoto Botanical Garden has a small triploid H. fulva var. pauciflora, the type plant of the variety. I obtained a live plant for the Arnold Arboretum collection. Altogether, I was able to bring back thirty live plants, and I hope that from these the Arboretum will have some good daylily material to offer American gardeners. In the alpine garden I saw American Symplocarpus foetidus growing side by side with the Japanese Lysichiton camtschatense. The latter makes a very beautiful rosette, and I thought it would be interesting to have some plants for our meadow at Jamaica Plain. I obtained two small ones which I sent to Mr. Fordham. In Tokyo I worked in the herbaria of the National Museum and of the Botanical Institute of Tokyo University. Makino, Nakai, Ohwi, and Hara deposited their type specimens of Hemerocallis in these herbaria. I examined all the material and took pictures of the types of H. coreana, H. exilis, H. littorea, H. micranthus, H. pedicellata, H. sulphurea, and H. yezoensis. My camera was loaded with color film, so the pictures are slides. The photographs and my herbarium specimens will aid our understanding of the original descriptions by Japanese botanists. In the Botanical Garden at the University of Tokyo I saw a Hydrangea with a ball-shaped habit, about 1.5 meters in diameter, covered with shiny, green leaves, and flat panicles of blue flowers surrounded by pink bracts. I have not seen such a beautiful Hydrangea anywhere though I have covered most of the trails that E. H. Wilson traveled in Western China. I learned that this cultivar has not been named yet. I was permitted to make cuttings for the Arboretum, and I sent them to Mr. Fordham under the name Hydrangea 'Tokyo Delight'. In retrospect. Looking back over my life and work from March 1968 to June 1969, I can conclude with pride that I have been busy and productive. I made four trips over the Pacific and brought back over 2700 herbarium specimens with duplicates, and thirty live plants for the Arnold Arboretum. The 500 odd Kyoto University. Fig. 3: Lunch time on a field tnp. The man eating his lunch organized a party to look for salamanders - at 1,000 ft. altitude. Photo: S. Y. Hu. numbers of specimens collected in the spring of 1968 were identified that summer. The Herbarium Secretary typed the labels, and about 2000 duplicate specimens were distributed. I worked on identifying the 2200 new collections last summer. In comparing my collections with the named specimens in the combined herbaria, I found that most of them are valuable additions, either of new phases of development or because they represent new records for the area. My first trip served as an exploration of the problems and possibilities of preparing a modern flora of Hong Kong. During my second trip I made extensive botanical investigations of Hong Kong and the New Territories. From the accompanying map one can see the areas which I covered in the spring of 1968, the fall of 1968, and the spring of 1969. Although, to a tourist, Hong Kong is a small, congested shopping area, to a botanist who wants to investigate its vegetation and botanical resources, it is big, wild, and fascinating. On my numerous trips I have retraced my steps only on two occasions, and then in different seasons. In every locality I visited, there were new things to see and to collect. Some of the material is very localized and hard to find. I have been puzzled about one problem: the ferns. I examined all the fern collections in the Hong Kong Herbarium in the spring of 1968 and I prepared a key. From this work I formed a good idea of the ferns of Hong Kong. On my trips I tried to collect all the fern species, but I found less than a quarter of the number that was in the herbarium. Naturally, I wonder what 22 has are happened or to the ferns in the past one three others? four the species which are common, but where hundred years. There are the can Regarding preparation of an illustrated flora, I report progress in three directions: ( 1 ) The collection and identification of specimens form a broad and sound foundation for the flora. (2) By helping a student who is interested in the medicinal plants of Hong Kong, I have accumulated a great deal of information on the economic uses of plants. With my help, Lee Fung Oi has collected over 300 samples from herbalists and has recorded their medicinal properties and methods of use. After I identified her material, the samples were stored in envelopes, with her original notes, in the herbarium of Chung Chi College. All this information will be incorporated into the flora as notes. (3) About 300 illustrations were drawn, each representing one genus. Teresa Fung, the seventeen-year-old artist, is very skillful. My only regret is that I could not spend more time with her to help her with detailed structures and with developing her ability to the fullest extent. The preparation of lecture notes and the care of specimens were more urgent than the supervision of her work. When I could not show her the details of certain genera, I had to ask her to make habit sketches. Consequently, there are many illustrations which I did not allow her to ink because I wanted to make corrections and additions. Looking towards the future. At a time when the biological sciences swing strongly to cellular and molecular study, to some people it seems out of fashion to talk about a flora of Hong Kong. However, the preparation of a modern illustrated flora has a place actually, an importance in botanical research. That the people of Hong Kong feel the need of such a flora has been well expressed by the encouragement and support given to my work by Dr. C. T. Yung, President of Chung Chi College. Actually, a cry for an illustrated flora of Hong Kong was made by the residents forty years ago. In 1928, A. H. Crook, Headmaster of Queen's College, Hong Kong, published some illustrated, popular articles on Hong Kong plants. In 1930, he reprinted these articles in book form and called it The Flowering Plants of Hong Kong (Ranunculaceae to Meliaceae). In a book review in the Hong Kong Naturalist, the reviewer wrote: \"It is to be hoped that some one can be found to complete a work so admirably started. There is no doubt that an illustrated ... flora of this Colony is badly wanted. If Mr. Crook's work could be brought to a successful conclusion it would fill a long felt want.\" SHIU-YING Hu - - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Weeds, A Link with the Past: The Plaintain","article_sequence":5,"start_page":23,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24494","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d0608928.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Roca-Garcia, Helen","article_content":"1. The Plantain of the common weeds found in the Arnold Arboretum known as useful plants, worthy of full-page engravings in the old herbals, the medical books of ancient and medieval times. Most of them are species of European or Asiatic origin; their histories can be traced back to a period when there were no books, word of their efficacy as remedies or charms spreading from place to place by wandering merchants and soldiers returning from foreign lands. Plantain or pigweed (Plantago major), one of the commonest of weeds, has a long and colorful history. One of the first to mention it was Dioscorides, writing in the first century A.D. Dioscorides was a Greek physician who traveled widely and described many plants new for that time. He prescribed the leaves Many were once 23 24 of the plantain for the treatment of dogbite and recommended that the leaves be chewed to alleviate toothache. Plantain was mentioned in the tenth century in a Saxon manuscript, the Leechbook of Bald, where, called by its Saxon name \"waybroad,\" it was described as one of the magic herbs which occupied a prominent place in Saxon herb lore. In the late 1500's John Gerard, a barber-surgeon and wellknown horticulturist, listed plantain in his Herball or General Historie of Plantes, stating, \"the juice dropped in the eies cooles the heat and inflammation thereof.\" Plantain was so commonly used in the time of Shakespeare that it found its way into one of his plays: Romeo: Your plantain leaf is excellent for that. Benvoleo: For what, I pray thee? Romeo: For your broken shin. ( Romeo and Juliet, Act I, Scene II) Fifty years after the landing of the pilgrims John Josselyn, a British visitor to America, reported in his New England Rareties Discovered that the plantain, unknown in the Western Hemisphere before Europeans arrived, had already become common, and had been given a name by the Indians meaning \"Englishman's foot\" or \"white man's foot,\" because it became established wherever Englishmen set foot. Longfellow used this common name for the plant in his poem Hiawatha, speaking of the English settlers: Wheresoe'er they tread, beneath them Springs a flower unknown among us, Springs the white man's foot in blossom. Plantain was still being used medicinally in the nineteenth century. Plantain seeds, being mucilaginous, were used in pulmonary diseases, according to the Cyclopedia or Universial Dictionary of Arts, Science, and Literature, of Abraham Rees, printed in 1819. As recently as 1899 the Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia listed a medical use for the plantain: \"The leaf is bound upon inflamed surfaces with a soothing effect.\" Thus the plantain, which gardeners do their best to eradicate, comes down to us from the past, not only as a useful and respected plant, but also as quite a literary one. HELEN ROCA-GARCIA "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24491","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d0608126.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hebb, Robert S.","article_content":"Notes from the Arnold Arboretum A walk a through the Arboretum on a mild day in winter can be rewarding experience but, judging from the number of visitors we see at this time of year, few people are aware of this. Possibly the cold weather is responsible for such a seasonal lack of interest in plants, but it is more probable that we judge the beauty of a plant too much in terms of the flowers it produces, of the fruit it bears, or of its fall color. It is true that climate places rather severe restrictions upon the types of plants that can be grown in this area. In comparison with milder parts of the country, we certainly cannot boast a long list of broad-leaved evergreens to brighten a dreary landscape. Smaller still would be a list of those plants which retain conspicuous attractive fruits or berries throughout the winter, and even smaller would be a list of flowers that could be seen in the few mild interludes between winter blasts. What, then, does the Arboretum have to offer during nearly six months of the year when leaves are gone from the trees? Mainly, there is a chance to see many things which are either hidden or unnoticed at other times. The true character of the shape and habit of growth of individual trees can be fully appreciated. The Phellodendrons along the Meadow Road present a remarkable picture with their wide, arching, ascending, corky branches supporting a delicate tracery of twigs posed against the blue winter sky. Further along the road ancient oaks in the natural woods somberly proclaim the grace and dignity which only age can impart. The picture is repeated in various ways throughout the Arboretum, and particularly good examples of diversity of form may be found among the lindens, maples, elms, oaks, and especially the conifers. It is difficult to imagine a lovelier view in any garden than that of the Pinetum after a heavy fall of snow. Another favorite winter scene is that of the American Beeches on the bank of Bussey Brook opposite Hemlock Hill. Surrounded on three sides by dark conifers, the silver-gray trunks and branches literally glow in the sunlight and present a striking 25 26 example of the use of color in the winter landscape. Near the three ponds at the far end of the Meadow Road are extensive plantings of Cornus sericea and C. sericea 'Flaviramea'. Stems of the former are red; those of the latter, bright yellow. This pleasing contrast is enhanced by the dull red twigs of the Virginia Rose, Rosa virginiana, planted as a low informal hedge in the foreground. Scattered throughout the Arboretum are noteworthy trees which, for one reason or another, have interesting bark characteristics. Some are brightly colored, some are striped, others exfoliate. The magnificent specimen of the Paperbark Maple, Acer griseum, on Bussey Hill should not be missed. The peeling cinnamon-brown bark which glows in the low rays of the winter sun provides about as much as any photographer could demand. A walk past the shrub beds by the Centre Street wall will reveal a number of broad-leaved evergreens which are hardy at the Arboretum, and the dwarf conifers on the slope below the bonsai house deserve a visit to see the variations in color which these plants exhibit in winter. ROBERT S. HEBB _ Summary of weather data recorded January 1968-November 1969 at the Dana Greenhouses, ' ~~; hn:; ' Fig. 4, opposite: Arnold Arboretum, conifers in winter. Photo: P. Bruns. ' ~.' -~% '* sr >) t i, "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":7,"start_page":28,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24490","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060bb6d.jpg","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Arnoldia Reviews .t:. Making Things Grow, by Thalassa Cruso Unquestionably, this book will be enormously popular. Few gardening books, in my memory, have had the advance and continuing publicity given to Making Things Grow. The inevitable popularity of this book makes one wish it had been more carefully prepared. Praise or criticism must fall on Miss Cruso's shoulders. No editor's name is given. No credits are given. There is no bibliography. The proofreading of the manuscript leaves much to be desired. A book reviewer is not supposed to hunt for errors, I am told, but when the errors jump at you from the pages, it is another matter. \"Polydody\" and \"Rohea\" occur more than once in the book. Other misspellings, like \"zygocatus,\" \"abutilion,\" \"pulcherria,\" and \"bilfurcatum,\" show up too frequently. And something called an \"aeomema\" is most puzzling; she probably means \"aeonium.\" Miss Cruso's ability to raise one's hackles while watching some of her TV shows has not diminished in this book. About as fast as she deflates old myths, she creates new ones. It is hard to accept such statements as \"little plants must have each others' company to thrive;\" or when speaking of ferns, \"unlike any other plant making use of photosynthesis, they never bloom and set seed;\" \"pot soil remains in good condition only when it has active roots at work inside;\" \"flowering plants ... need a drop by night of from 5 to 8 degrees if they are to continue opening their buds;\" \"roots will not stir into new growth unless they feel the pressure of earth against them;\" or \"sage, which is a close cousin both of lantana and salvia, ...\" One could go on quoting more of these flatly stated, very questionable pronouncements, but the above will suffice. It is strange, also, to read of lavish praise given to the use of bone meal in soil mixes. In the introduction, Thalassa Cruso states her two reasons for writing the book: \"to convince would-be gardeners that making things grow indoors is not too complicated for them to manage, 28 29 and to bring gardening back for the gardenless gardener.\" The chapters on \"neglectable\" plants and indoor lighting are extremely well done and certainly by themselves would bring about these two desired ends. Too many people approach the problems of using artificial lighting for indoor plants with great trepidation. Miss Cruso quite thoroughly allays their fears. The chapter on neglectable plants leaves one with no arguments for not growing some sort of house plants. of humor and a flair for the dramatic add to the of the book. But occasionally the drama gets a bit out of hand. Both on TV and in the book \"potting back\" a plant and the necessary chopping away of some of the roots becomes more a performance worthy of the Grand Guignol than a routine sense A wry pleasures gardening procedure. The drawings done by one error seems to a mislabelling Grambs Miller are adequate, and only have crept in regarding them. On page 116 of azaleas occurs. This is probably not the artist's to cactus fault. One last request, Miss Cruso: please stop referring \"leaves.\" Those things are really modified stems. Thalassa Cruso, Making Knopf, Inc., 1969. $6.95 G. P. Things Grow, New York: Alfred A. The Book of Spices, Rosengarten, Jr. Books on spices have been written by herbalists, botanists, historians, geographers, and cooks, but this uniquely beautiful, accurate, and readable volume has been written by a man who has grown, processed, and marketed spices and who clearly loves his wares. After identifying \"What Are Spices,\" he treats the reader to a fascinating \"Brief History of Spices\" that melds the ancient and modern histories of these products of commerce. Thirty-five concise treatments of individual spices follow, identifying the plant botanically, the part of it which is used, its range in nature, and its use, culture, and processing. With each prospectus are a few welcome recipes, for who has not a littleused box of spice on the shelf and yearns for the recipe which by Frederick 30 will demonstrate most effectively the characteristic of that single spice. The author suggests that the first authentic, if fragmentary, records of the use of spices may be associated with the age of the pyramids in Egypt, nearly 4,000 years ago, where onions and garlic are depicted being fed to laborers to protect their health. Uses do not change; how very frequently today one smells onions and garlic still being used as a food, a spice, or according to some - a sure cure for a cold. Another early use of spices, and perhaps the precursor of the pickling process, was for embalming, yet only in recent years have we proven the germicidal properties of many spice oils. Spicy odors improved the air in a period when sanitation was not what we know today, and the plain starchy foods of the period tasted better when spices were added. The claim that spices were aphrodisiacs was as prevalent then as now. Whatever the basic reason for the use of spices, history shows us that spices were desired by slaves and kings, by churches and governments, and that they were attained by fair means and foul. Botanical gardens were established in many tropical areas to grow plants from stolen spices. One shares the anguish of a botanist who reported that the spice trees he grew from carefully imported seeds were all male plants incapable of producing the needed and valuable fruit. Commercial fortunes were made, and many lives lost, in the cultivation and trade of spices. New areas of the world were explored for safe routes for trade or new sources of the plant products that modern man buys without peril in the supermarket. The author has selected appropriate facts and presents them well. Mr. Rosengarten has drawn information from many sources. One almost turns a page quickly to see who is quoted next, for Shakespeare precedes Chaucer or follows Keats. Reports from the Grete Herbal or Culpepper may be as appropriate in this text as a quotation from the Bible, or a table from the USDA or the Commonwealth Secretariat. So, too, with the illustrations in this 2 handsome book. A crude drawing from a manuscript dated 512 A.D., a woodcut from the 16th century, an illustration from Curtis's Botanical Magazine, or a sensitive contemporary photograph of a very self-conscious little girl holding her dog near an herb grown in Guatemala are examples of illustrations well chosen and clearly appropriate to the subject. Special attention should be paid to the botanical plates reproduced from early German works completely unknown to botanists I have questioned. These are models of technical excellence of color repro- 31 duction; the captions a are translated. An appendix consists of few tables of supply and demand statistics, a short glossary, and a useful bibliography. Even the two indices, one to recipes and one to general subject matter, merit a compliment. I do not know the relative roles of the author or the publisher in this production. Certainly both are to be commended, and I recommend this useful, interesting, and beautiful book. Frederick Pa.: Rosengarten, Jr., The Book of Spices, Wynnewood, Livingston Publishing Co., 1969. 489 pages, 330 illustra- tions, 73 color plates. $20.00. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23352","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270a328.jpg","title":"1970-30-1","volume":30,"issue_number":1,"year":1970,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Registrations","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24481","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060a726.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . &~E3x# ; - ~. A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 M A RCH 7, 1969 NUMBER I . VE RI r ~ _ PLANT REGISTRATIONS often during the past 8 years new cultivars which have been registered by the Arnold > rboretum have been published in Arnoldia. (See Arnoldia, Vol. 21 : 9-18 ; 31-34 ; 39-42 ; 47-50. Vol. 23 : 17-7 5 ; 77-83 ; 85-92 ; 11 1-1 18. Vol. 24: 1-8 ; 41-80. Vol. 26 : 13-16. Vol. 2 7 : 16-66). Included in this issue are those which have been registered between August 25, 1967 and January 1, 1969. All correspondence concerned with more information, plants or propagating material of these plants should be directed to the various originators or introducers, not the Arnold Arboretum. EVERY so Carissa grandiflora 'Tom Humphreys' variegated form of Carissa grand~lora, this was first observed in 1962 at the Humphreys Nursery, North Miami, Florida, by Ralph L. Thurston who says that the leaves show a \"white to yellowish variegation, the blooms white, four petaled, 1~'~ across. The fruit is elliptic, 1\" long, 4~~ wide, variegated, bud reddish pink at maturity. The fruit is edible. Estimated growth habit 3~ high, 3~ wide, growing well in all soils in well drained areas in the sun or in the shade.\" It is hardy A in Zone 9. Ceanothus - griseus 'Louis Edmunds' Name published with description : \"A new cultivar : Ceanothus griseus 'Louis Edmunds',\" Jour. of the California Horticultural Society 18 (2), 28-30, April 1957, by Maunsell van Rensselaer. Ceanothus X 'Julia Phelps' Name published with description: \"A New Ceanothus\" probably a cross between C. roweanus and C. impressus, Jour. of the California Horticultural Society 13: ~1~ p. 20, January 1952 by Maunsell van Rensselaer. Cedrus deodara 'Kashmir' This originated in the nursery of Dr. J. Franklin Styer, Concordville, Penn. about 1929. According to Dr. Styer it is \"the only plant of 200 set in nursery rows in 1930 which survived the winter of 1933-34 when temperatures dropped , suddenly to 25 degrees below zero. Standing alone, it also survived the similar winter of 1936-37.\" Alfred Fordham of the Arnold Arboretum notes that propagations from this clone have proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum since 1961. It was introduced commercially by Dr. Styer in 1950 and apparently resembles the species in every way except that it is considerably more hardy. Cornus florida `First Lady' was first discovered at the Boyd Nursery Co., Inc. of McMinnThis cultivar in their nurseries in 19~ i . It flowered first in 1967. In registerville, Tennessee ing it, Dr. Robert D. MacDonald, formerly director of the University of Tenn. Arboretum, writes : \"The distinctive feature of this plant is its brilliant green and golden foliage. The central portion of the leaves ranges from a moderate yellow-green (5 GY 5\/6 of the Nickerson Color Fan) to a strong yellow-green (5 GY 6\/8). The margin of the leaves is a vivid yellow (5Y 8\/12); this vivid yellow coloration is not of a constant width but suffused irregularly along leaf veins towards and into the center of the leaves. This vivid coloration is present from the time the leaves appear in the spring until October when the green portions turn an attractive maroon and green and the yellow portions become suffused with pink.\" Originated in Hardiness Zone 6. Cornus florida Purple Splendor' seedling originating in a block of 250,000 seedlings at the Boyd Nursery Co., Inc., McMmnville, Tennessee and first observed in 1966. Dr. Robert D. DIacDonald, former director of the University of Tenn. Arboretum, in registering the name writes: \"This plant is characterized by having foliage which is a waxy deep maroon to red-purple suffused over a light green background. This feature is present from the time the leaves appear in the spring g and remains throughout the growing season.'' Originated in Hardiness Zone 6. Cornus florida `~-elch's Junior Miss' Found as a plant in the wild in 1957by Clarence H. Welch, Wilmer, Alabama, 36587, in North Mobile County. A trademark was applied for in 1967and it was introduced in 1968. \"It is characterized by deep red bracts with white base and small white tips. The red fades to a pink in 10 days to 2 weeks. Prolific bloomer. Another chance Lower set of opposite bracts are aboutlarger than the upper set. Second pair of bracts are attached abov e and overlap the first pair. New growth in full sun is copper colored changing to deep green at maturity.\" It is hardy at Auburn, Alabama, but its hardiness north of this spot is not known. Cotinus coggygria 'Velvet Cloak' This originated at the Newport Nursery Co., Newport, Michigan and was found by Henry Kleine, Route 2, Box 5, Horse Shoe, N.C. 28742 prior to 196`? when it was about 10 years old. It is being introduced by the Cole Nursery Co., Route 1, Circleville, Ohio, 43113 in the spring of 1969. According to Wm. H. Collins of the Cole Nursery Co. it is valued because of its ability to retain its dark purple foliage color through the growing season longer than other purple ] ~2~ leaved varieties observed. Individual leaves are uniformly colored without marginal discoloration. The fruits are \"fawn colored\" and not purple. The plant is as hardy as the species. Crataegus X mordenensis 'Snow bird' A second generation open pollinated seedling of Crataegus X mordenensis `Toba' originating at the Canada Dept. of Agriculture Research Station at Morden, Manitoba, Canada in 1952, first discovered in 1961 and commercially introduced in 1968. It is a tree or large shrub, distinct because of double white flowers with no trace of pink, leaves mostly entire approaching those of Crataegus succu- lenta which was the pollen parent of C. X mordenensis 'Toba'. It has an upright growth habit and rounded bright crimson frmts about I cm. in diameter. It is hardy in the lower half of Zone 2. Crataegus X 'Vaughn' Originating approximately15 years ago in the New Augusta Nursery of Henry Schnitzms (deceased) 5195 W. 59th St., Indianapolis, Ind., and introduced in '68-'69 by the Simpson Orchard Co., Vincennes, Indiana 47591. In the words of Robert C. Simpson, this is \"probably a cross, C. phaenopyrum X crus galli? and was first selected from a group of C. phaenopyrum seedlings. The fruit is similar to that of C. viridis except more glossy and more nearly cherry red, the former being orange red. Leaves resemble those of C. viridis but are more glossy, darker green and may show brilliant red fall color. Young branches are brownish, not silvery white. Tree has thorns like those of C. crus-galli, 3~~ in length, sharp and curved. Vigorous. Although hardiness limits are yet unknown it widely adaptable.\" viridis 'Winter King' Although this was first introduced in 1955 by the Simpson Orchard Company, 1504 Wheatland Rd., Vincennes, Indiana 47591, it has not been registered until now. It was selected in 1949 by Robert C. Simpson at Frickton, Indiana because it differs from other seedlings of this species \"in abundance of fruits at an early age and comparatively few thorns. It fruits heavily, with persistent red fruits ~~~ in diameter, showy throughout the winter; having silver bark and glossy, rustresistant foliage. It is known to be hardy much beyond native habitat (Zone 4) and is widely adapted to soils.\" Juniperus horizontalis 'Prince of Wales' Collected in the wild near High River, Alberta in 1931 this was first propagated by the Canada Dept. of Agriculture Research Station, Morden, Manitoba appears Crataegus in 1931 with commercial introduction in 1967. In the words of Mr. W.A. Cum- \"very procumbent, forming a dense both acicular and scale like, bright green in height, foliage color, younger foliage with a bluish tinge caused by a waxy bloom. Exposed foliage tinged purplish-brown in the winter months.\" It is hardy in Zone 2. ming, Director of the Morden Station, it is inches in mat 4-6 Liquidambar styraciflua 'Burgundy' First observed in 1951 by Dlaunsell Van Rensselaer of the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation, Saratoga, California. It was introduced commercially by the Foundation in 1962. Its trademark number is 43,002, dated January 18, 1963. Maunsell Van Rensselaer states : \"This variety is noteworthy because of its attractive deep green leaves which turn to a burgundy color in November or December (m Saratoga, California) and remain on the tree, fully colored, into January.\" It is hardy in Zone .5. Liquidambar styraciflua 'Festival' This cultivar originated at Saratoga, California and was first observed in 1960 by Maunsell Van Rensselaer of the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation which introduced it in 1964. It has the trademark 43,765 dated April 21, 1964. Hardy in Zone 5. In the words of Maunsell Van Rensselaer: \"The variety 'Festival' is a handsome tree with a tall, narrow crown. In the autumn it bears a profusion of golden leaves touched with shades of apricot or peach.\" Liquidambar styraciflua 'Gum Ball' Originated at McMinnville, Tennessee and was discovered by Hiram B. Stubblefield, Rte. 2, McMinnville and introduced by the Forest Nursery Co. of McMinnville in 1965. In the words of Dr. Robert D. MacDonald, formerly director of the University of Tennessee Arboretum, \"this plant is a bush-like, slow growing form of sweetgum which is characterized by a proliferation of small, erect stems which originate from a central root collar.\" Liquidambar styraciflua 'Palo Alto' George Hood and M. Van Rensselaer of the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation, Saratoga, California, are listed as first observing this cultivar in 1954. It was introduced commercially by the Foundation in 1956, is hardy in Zone 5 and has been described by J. W. Stephenson : \"Liquidambar styraciflua `Palo Alto'.\" Jour. of the California Horticultural Society 24 Malus (1) January, 1963. 'Coralburst' (Pat. applied for) A seedling of Malus 'Van Eseltine' originating about 15 years ago and discovered by Henry H. Ross in Gardenview Horticultural Park in Strongsville, Ohio. This was introduced by the Cole Nursery Co., Rt. #1, Circleville, Ohio 43113 in the fall of 1968. In the words of Wm. H. Collins of the Cole Nursery Co., this is \"not similar to any Malus presently known by the introducer. Characteristic features include : (1) compact, slow-growing small trees of upright spreading habit, (2) sturdy branches and twigs bearing very small dark green leaves, tightly spaced along the branches. Small double, rose-pink flowers, produced in quantity on bearing age wood. It is believed to be hardy wherever standard varieties of crab apples are hardy.\" Fruits when produced are small, yellow or russet-colored. Malus 'Dainty' seedling of the A ten year old \"Rosybloom\" group of crab apples, selected by W. L. Kerr of the Forestry Farm Park, Sutherland, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada. In Mr. Kerr's words, \"The original tree has multiple stems and is now approximately 4 feet high and 6 feet wide. The type of growth is quite pendulous with slender branches and rather small narrow leaves. The bloom is rather small and mauve pink in color. Leaves turn a bronzy red in the fall and in 1963 are quite persistent. This variety appears to grow taller when budded on other stocks. It is reported hardy in northern Saskatchewan.\" It was grown from the same batch of seed as Malus Royalty'. Malus sieboldii `Fuji' Roland M. Jefferson of the U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. selected this in 1961 from plants propagated in 1941 at the U. S. Plant Introduction Station, Glenn Dale, Maryland. This is a double white-flowered variety, described (with photographs) by Roland M. Jefferson in the American Horticultural Magazine 47 (1) pages 22-25, V6'mter, 1968. Malus 'Ellen Gerhart' A seedlmg of 1YI. zumi calocarpa with the male parent M. 'Van Eseltine', this originated in the Simpson Orchard Co. Nursery, 1504 Wheatland Rd., Vincennes, Indiana 47591, about 1955. It first flowered in 1958. Robert C. Simpson notes that it has \"scab resistant foliage, is a tree of medium size with foliage like that of M. ~umi, of good color. The blossoms are pale pink, single and semi-double. It makes an outstanding display of glossy, brilliant red fruits ~-~ inches in diameter, somewhat flattened with distinctive conelike prominent calyx scar of rusty or golden color which adds attractiveness. Fruit colors late and remains attractive much later than most crab apples-long after the leaves have dropped, and persists until eaten by birds.\" `Indian Magic' Originating about 1955 as a seedling of M. zumi calocarpa in the nursery of the Simpson Orchard Co., Vincennes, Indiana 47591 this crab apple first flowered in 1958 and will be introduced commercially by the Simpson Orchard Co. in 1969. The male parent was M. 'Almey'. In the words of Robert C. Simpson who originated it, this is a \"tree of medium size, rounded form, with foliage like that of M. zumi, and is scab resistant. It has good fall color, rose red flowers, fruit small, elongated, tapering and glossy bright red at first, late in the fall changing to golden orange and remaining attractive very late in the fall long after the foliage drops, persistent all winter with a hard glossy brown coatmg. Outstanding for fall fruit display. \" It should be very hardy. Malus Malus 'Pink Cascade' This was a ~6 year old seedling in 1946, selected by W. L. Kerr of the Forestry Farm Park, Sutherland, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada from the \"Rosybloom\" seedlings at the Morden, Manitoba Experiment Station, the male parent being unknown. It will be introduced in 1969 by the Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa. According to Mr. S.R. Sjulin of the Inter-State Nurseries, \"the original tree is 14 feet tall and 6-7 feet wide. The branches hang down perpendicularly. In the spring it blooms very freely, light pink. In late summer the fruits, approximately ~ inch m diameter, bright red, retain this color for many weeks. The distinguishing characteristic of this tree is the narrow width and perpendicular branches.\" Malus 'Silver Moon' Received as an unknown seedling from an unknown source by the Simpson Orchard Co., 1504 Wheatland Rd., Vincennes, Indiana 47591, about 1948 and first noted in flower in 1950 by Robert C. Simpson, and introduced commercially by him in '68-'69. In his words it is a \"compact upright tree, with many spurs or small twigs. Foliage dense, very disease resistant. Blossoms pure white produced in abundance on young trees. Blooms after all crab apples (except native species and varieties) and when in nearly full leaf. Fruit small, cherry red, ornamental except hidden by the new growth.\" It should prove very hardy and be widely adaptable. Malus 'White Candle' According to Robert C. Simpson, president of the Simpson Orchard Co., Inc., 1504 Wheatland Rd., Vincennes, Indiana, this originated at his nursery about 15 years ago and was first noted in flower in 1959. The seed is from Malus 'Van Eseltine' and the male parent is M. 'Almey'. It is \"stocky, spur type branching with few lateral branches. Heavy, glossy leaves resembling 'Van Eseltine', retaining good green color later than most crab apples. Blooms well but sets few fruits. Blossoms open pale pink and soon change to white, large (22-B inches) double, in bottle brush fashion.\" It is as hardy as other crab apples and will be introduced by Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa in 1969. Picea glauca 'Little Globe' A dwarf evergreen originating as a witches broom at the Waterford Works of Wayne, N.J., was first noticed by Verkades Nurseries of Wayne, N.J. in 1959. \"It is a tight-growing globe form of Picea glauca with an average growth of about 1~ inches annually. It has multiple buds on its branches and is very outstanding with its light green growth in the spring and as the new growth hardens, the light green will turn to a bluish gray.\" John Verkade writes that the original witches broom was destroyed by a forest fire some years ago. Pittosporum tobira 'Wheeler' seedling in 1951 in Wheeler's Central Georgia Nurseries (Rte. 5, Macon, Georgia 31201~, Carl Wheeler sowed the seed and introduced the plant in 1968. It is a \"dwarf, attractively compact form of Pittosporum tobira. Its dark green foliage is set closely on many short branches. Its spread is about 12 times its height.\" No mention is made of its ultimate height. Pseudotsuga menziesii 'Graceful Grace' Mr. Roy Smeltzer, R.D. #3, Red Lion, Penn., discovered this tree about 14 years ago growing in an abandoned seedling planting of Pseudotsuga at SpringA chance ~~J ] vale, tree Penn. In 1967 this tree was 6 feet tall and others in the same Christmas planting were 10-12 feet tall. In 1967it was purchased by Albert Ziegler, Landscape Supt., Masonic Homes, Elizabethtown, Penn. where it is now growing. \"It is narrow, compact, graceful and seems to be dwarf.\" Pseudotsuga menziesii 'Little Jon' A ten year old seedling found in a Christmas tree plantation near Wrightsville, Penn., December 1967, by Albert Ziegler, Landscape Superintendent, Masonic Homes, Elizabethtown, Penn. He states, \"At time of discovery plant was 18 inches tall compared to 6 to 8 foot trees planted in a Christmas tree plantation about 10 years previous.\" The picture included with his registration blank shows a small dense, pyramidal plant and he states it is supposedly as hardy as the species. Taxodium distichum 'Monarch of Illinois' Earl Cully of the Cully Nursery, R. R. #5, Jacksonville, Illinois 62650, found this 1 ~?0-140 year old specimen in Pittsfield, Illinois in 1962. Earl Cully writes: \"This tree differs greatly in form from all the other bald cypress I have observed here in Illinois and through the south and southeastern parts of the United States. It is rounded in form with very wide-spreading branches growing at almost right angles to the main trunk. This tree has a limb spread of 65 feet and a height of 85-90 feet. At well over 100 years it is still in perfect physical condition. It has never shown any evidence of leaf scorch during hot summer part of Zone 4. Fowle' For over 30 years the Fowle Nursery (now non-existent), Newburyport, Mass., displayed an excellent compact, hardy form of T. baccata 'Adpressa'. During the last decade the Weston Nurseries of Hopkinton, Massachusetts has been selling this variety in increasing numbers. It is named 'Adpressa Fowle' by Donald Wyman in honor of Herbert Fowle (deceased) of Fowle's Nurseries in Newburyport, Massachusetts who originally realized the value of this plant and first propagated it for sale. It originated on the Frederic S. Moseley estate in Newburyport, Massachusetts. The original plant is now in the Arnold Arboretum by the greenhouse parking area. This is a dwarf, fruiting clone, now 6 feet high and 12 feet wide. The growth is dense and compact, needles are small and dark green, and it has proved more hardy than other plants of T. baccata 'Adpressa' tried at the Arnold Arboretum. It is hardy in Zone 5, possibly Zone 4 and grows well in full sun without winter protection. The name has been accepted by the national registration authority for Taxus, Dr. Ray Keen; Dept. of Horticulture, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas. weather.\" It is hardy in Zone 5 and the lower Taxus baccata 'Adpressa Tilia cordata 'Morden' A seedling received by the Research Station, Canada Dept. of Agriculture, Box 3001, Morden, Manitoba, Canada from the Sheridan Nursery Co., Etobicoke, C~~ ] Ordinarily Tilia cordata is of questionable hardiness in only survivor of a large lot of seedlings is apparently much hardier than most. The original tree is now 30 feet tall with a symmetrical, dense, pyramidal to ovoid crown. It will be introduced shortly through the Ontario, Canada in Morden, Manitoba 1954. but this Canadian Ornamental Plant Foundation. 'Jacqueline Verkade' Another dwarf hemlock originating as a seedling in Verkade's Nursery (223 Willow Avenue, Pompton Lakes, N.J.) first observed in 1961 when 3 years old. \"This hemlock has an average growth of 2to ~ inch annually. It has a perfect conical dwarf form, is very dense, with dark green foliage all year.\" A 10 year old plant is 52inches tall and 6 inches wide and will grow in full sunlight with- Tsuga canadensis out burning in summer or winter. Tsuga canadensis 'Verkade Petite' Found as a seedling in Verkades Nurseries, 223 Willow Ave., Pompton Lakes, N.J. in 1955 when about 3 years old, this is characterized by annual growth of 6 approximately ~ inch and in the spring is a mass of light green foliage. At 16 of age it is2 inches high and 32inches across with an irregular globe form. It years should be grown in the shade, and is only recommended for the miniature garden. Tsuga canadensis 'Verkade Recurved' Originating at New Foundland, N.J. in 1952, this was first observed in 1962 and later introduced by the Verkade Nurseries, 262 Black Oak Ridge Road, Wayne, N.J. According to John Verkade, this cultivar has an irregular growth of about 2-3 inches annually. The original plant is 16 inches tall, 12 inches wide at the base and is pyramidal in habit. It was originally given to the Verkades Nurseries as a misformed plant. It often grows with recurved needles on its branches, not resembling those of Tsuga canadensis according to John Verkade. ',\" = ' DONALD WYMAN ,< ',- Correction : Weigela 'Centennial' originated at the Experimental Farm, Morden, Manitoba, Canada, and not at Ottawa, Canada as noted in Arnoldia ~7(8~ ; 66; 1967. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Comparatively New Plants Worthy of Trial","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24483","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060ab6f.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA \/ A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 E1 APRIL 4, 1969 NUMBER 2 SOME COMPARATIVELY NEW PLANTS WORTHY OF TRIAL Berberis thunbergii 'Aurea' 7~ Zones 4-5 Yellow Japanese Barberry Although the Morton Arboretum obtained this plant in 1935 from the Framingham Nurseries (Mass.) it did not become well known until a few years ago when two wholesale nurseries began growing (and selling) over 20,000 plants a year. Hence it is \"new\" to some, old to others. The leaves are a very bright yellow from spring to summer. It has all the sturdy attributes of the Japanese Barberry and if grown in very light shade, the foliage remains a good yellow throughout the entire growing season. Berberis thunbergii atropurpurea 'Golden Ring' 7~ Zones 4-5 A variety of the red-leaved Japanese barberry with a thin yellow line around the margin of the leaf, the line later changing to green at the end of the season. This is a most mteresting plant originally obtained by the Holden Arboretum from Holland a few years ago and now being offered by at least one commercial nursery in the eastern U.S. Betula pendula 'Scarlet Glory' 60~ Zone 2 Betula pendula purpurea (with purple leaves) has been grown in the Arnold Arboretum off and on since 188`L but never caused much interest. Now a form has recently been advertised as a \"new\" tree and named 'Scarlet Glory', differing from the white barked Betula pendula only in that the new leaves are purplish red when they appear in the spring. These turn reddish green in the summer and red in the fall. A similar form has recently been named Purple Splendor', with purplish leaves. These two forms would br~ng colorful interest to a collection of green leaved birches and are unique but it should be pointed out that similar forms have been grown (without publicity) for a long time. 19] Cedrus deodara 'Kashmir' 150~ Zone 5 Described in Arnoldia 29 : No. I ; 1969, this is a fine tree which can apparently be added to those grown in hardiness Zone .5. Graceful, like the species, with pendulous branchlets and bluish green color it is certainly worthy of further trial in New England. Mr. Fordham, propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, propagates it easily (88%) by cuttings taken in October, placed under polyethylene plastic with a bottom temperature of 75 F. and lifted in four months time. Cotoneaster dammeri 'Skogsholmen' 2~ Zone 5 A new variety originating in a German nursery about 1957 is showing excellent promise of becoming a fine ground cover, growing well in full sun or partial shade. It bears profuse small white flowers in mid-June but apparently none too many bright red fruits about the size of those of C. horizontalis. A two year old plant may be 3 feet across. Hamamelis intermedia 'Arnold Promise' 20~ Zone 4 this witch-hazel originated as a seedling in the Arnold Arboretum in 1928, it was not named and introduced to the trade until 1963. It is a hybrid of H. mollis and H. japonica, the female parent being one of E. H. V6'ilson's introductions of H. mollis from the Orient. It has been growing beside the Administration Building in the Arboretum for over 30 years, and blooms consistently in mid-March each year. It is vase-shaped and the original plant is only 15~ tall. The flowers are a brilliant yellow, usually borne in clusters of three and each individual flower is as much as 1~ ~ in diameter. It is best propagated by cuttings taken in June, but these cuttings are not repotted when rooted but left in their rooting flats and given a three month cold period (at about 41 F.) after they are rooted, i.e., December-March. Then they are repotted and carried on in the greenhouse. Mr. Fordham, the propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, has had difficulty bringing them through the winter period unless they are handled this way. This quirk in their propagation sequence probably explams why 'Arnold Promise' is extremely difficult to find commercially at present. Although Ilex verticillata 'Nana' 3~~ Zone 3 Dwarf Winterbury Apparently an excellent dwarf, this was found by the Hampden Nurseries of Hampden, Massachusetts before 1960. It is a fruiting form, bearing profuse fruits, if male plants of the species are in the near vicinity, and bearing them while only 15-18 inches tall. It grows well in light well drained soil, and in poor soils of course it grows more slowly. Its characteristics, other than height and early fruiting, are similar to those of the taller growing species. Juniperus communis Gold Beach' This is an 18~~ Zone 4 common excellent low, dwarf form of the juniper, probably originat- [ 10] PLATE I Cedrus deodara 'Kashmir', the original plant at the Styer Nursery. Photograph supplied by Dr. J. Franklin Styer. Concordville, Pa. and taken in 1955. the Pacific coast slightly before 1960. It is flat, dense and spreading, and early spring the new growth on the tips of the branches is colored a bright yellow, making the plant conspicuous at this time. Later in the growing season, ing on in the these tips turn a nornal green. Leucothoe fontanesiana `Nana' 2~ Zone 4 Dwarf Drooping Leucothoe The original selection, probably made in the Hillier Nurseries, Winchester, England, now 30 years old is 15-23 inches tall but 6 feet across. A 7 year old plant in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum is 18 inches tall and 3 feet across. This is an excellent low evergreen for acid soils. It has leaves only about half the size as those of the species and the plant itself is less than half as tall. It can be used in many situations certainly in many foundation plantings where the species (which grows 6 feet tall) gets ungainly. - Mahonia aquifolium 'Compactum' 3~ Zone 5 Compact Oregon Holly-grape low form of the Oregon holly-grape was introduced by the Wells of Mount Vernon, Washington before 1961. It is dense and compact tn Nursery habit, apparently slightly hardier than the species because it does not lose its foliage in winter nearly as much as does the species. The compound leaves have 5-9 leaflets, each 1-3 inches long. The new young foliage is bronze colored in the early spring. It is an excellent plant for the foundation planting about a house. This new Malus 'Barbara Ann' 25~ Zone 4 This is an open-pollinated seedling of Malus 'Dorothea', the seed collected in the Arnold Arboretum in 1953. It was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1966 and will probably grow 25' tall, whereas its parent, 'Dorothea', has only grown 10-12~ tall in 25 years. 'Barbara Ann' is named after my younger daughter. 'Barbara Ann' is annual bearing, with deep purplish pink flowers 1~-2~~ diameter, bearing 12-15 petals. The fruits are dark reddish purple, about ~~~ in in diameter with reddish pulp. Since the young leaves and inner wood are also reddish it is probable that the male parent of this clone was one of several varieties of M. purpurea. The tree itself seems to be rather open in its branching. It is probably one of the best of the double-flowering ornamental crab apples and certainly is worthy of wide trials. Prunus maackii 45~ was Zone 2 Amur Chokecherry Although this it has not been grown commercially in America until not particularly outstanding, being small in 2-3 inch introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1818 recently. The flowers are long racemes in mid-May, [ 12] PLATE II Prunus maaekii, a native of Korea and Manchuria, with decorative, light brown exfoliating bark. but the bark is striking. It is brownish yellow, peeling off like that of paper birch, and gives a great deal of colorful interest to the tree in winter for this character alone. Native to Korea and Manchuria, it is hardy in Zone 2, and it is fast growing and vigorous, rounded in habit with dense branching. Rhododendron arborescens rubescens 9~ Zone 4 Pink Sweet Azalea This has all the good characteristics of the late blooming Sweet Azalea, but the flowers are pink. The plant was collected in the wild in the southeastern United States by Mr. C.D. Beadle, and sent to the Arnold Arboretum in 1962 by the Biltmore Estate, Asheville, North Carolina. Rhododendron 'Golden Sunset' One of the deciduous Exbury Hybrid Azaleas with strong reddish orange flowers in late May, each flower being as much as 4 inches in diameter when fully spread out. Many of the Exbury Hybrid Azaleas fade quickly in the hot sun of late May and early June, but these do not. Thus they might be considered among the best of this very distinguished group. 6~ Zone 5 RhododendronXP.J.M. Hybrid A cross R. carolinianum origiMassachusetts in 1943. About 30 Nurseries, Hopkinton, nating clones were selected from the original cross but the differences among them were so slight that no attempt was made to name them individually. \"P.J.M.\" are the initials of the owner of the nursery, Peter John Mezitt now deceased. The flowers are a vivid bright lavender pink and bloom in April. They are small, on the order of those of R. carolinianum but a cluster is borne on the tip of every single branch. The foliage is better than that of R. carolinianum in that it does not curl up in extreme cold and turns a rich purple in the late fall and winter. In fact the more I see of this the better I like it. Flowers appear at a time when little else is in bloom except forsythia. However, it is the foliage which is particularly ornamental, especially in the winter. Cut branches are valued in arrangements at any time of year, and if forced indoors the flower color is almost white. between Rhododendron dahuricum sempervirens and at the Weston Spiraea japonica alpina 10~~ Zones 4-5 Japanese Alpine Spirea Introduced about 1958, this Japanese native is a low, mounded, dense little plant bearing clusters of small pink flowers in July blooming for several weeks. The small lance shaped leaves are only ~-2 inches long. It is a tidy plant increasing readily and might be used as a specimen or for massing in sunny situations. [ 14 ] PLATE III Upper: Mahonia aquifolium 'Compactum', a dwarf holly-grape not over three feet tall. Lower: Taxus baccata `Adpressa Fowle'. This is the original plant (over 30 years old) growing in the Arnold Arboretum and given by Harry W. Fowle of Newburyport. Mass. in honor of his uncle, Herbert J. Fowle, after whom it was named. Stephanandra incisa 'Crispa' 18~~ Zone 4 Found about 1930 in the nursery of A.M. Jensen, Holmstrup, Denmark and introduced there about 1949. It was first introduced into the United States by the Gulf Stream Nurseries, Wacheprague, Va. a few years before 1957. This is a low growing, mounded form of Stephanandra incisa that roots readily where its branchlets touch the ground, also sending up new plantlets from underground stems. Apparently an excellent plant for bank or rocky areas where a cover is needed over irregular rock-strewn ground. Taxus baccata 'Adpressa in zone Fowle' 20~ Zones 4-5 Arnoldia, No. I, 1969, this plant is certainly worth 5 and possibly 4. It is similar in most respects to plants of T. baccata 'Adpressa', having small dark green needles only about ~ of an inch long, but is definitely more hardy than any other plants of this clone we have grown here at the Arnold Arboretum. Because of its dark green foliage, fine texture and especially because of its hardiness, it is recommended in this group of new plants. Already mentioned in hardiness growing Viburnum opulus 'Compactum' 5~ Zone 3 Compact European Cranberrybush A dwarf variety of the 12-foot Viburnum opulus, this is much better for ornamental use, not only because of its smaller size, but also because it flowers and fruits profusely, even while young. The Arnold Arboretum received its first plants from the Hillier Nursery, Winchester, England, January 30, 1957. These did very poorly in the greenhouse for some reason or other but by the first of April, 10 cuttings were taken from the original plants before they died. Mr. Fordham, the propagator, frequently does this with recently introduced new plants, just on the chance that the newly rooted cuttings will live when the introduced plants may not. This is one time when this practice paid off. Now we have vigorous, dense, heavily fruited 5-foot plants that are living examples of this excellent ornamental variety. It is being propagated in large numbers by a leading wholesale nursery and should be available from many sources. DONALD WYMAN [ 16] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Elliottia racemosa and Its Propagation","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24477","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15e856b.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 APRIL 1 1, 1969 NUMBER 3 EI ELLIOTTIA RACEMOSA AND ITS PROPAGATION Georgia Plume, is a monotypic small tree or large shrub Georgia. A review of the literature concerning it reveals a history of frustration and disappointment. Despite the fact that it was discovered 160 or more years ago, and, despite the fact that its impressive ornamental characteristics have been often described, it is still exceedingly rare in cultivation. It has been reported as having lost its ability to produce seeds, being difficult to transplant (even in areas where it is native) and for having failed in most propagational efforts. For a time Elliottia was considered lost. Elliottia was discovered in Waynesboro, Georgia by Steven Elliott who was in the process of preparing his \"Sketch of the Botany of South Carolina and Georgia. \" Other stands were later found in the same region and across the Savannah River in South Carolina. Mr. P.J. Berckmans, of Augusta, Georgia, moved several plants to his nursery and from these succeeded in propagating a few by using root cuttings. Through cutting of the woods and clearing of land for agriculture, the original stands of Elliottia disappeared. Dr. Charles S. Sargent wrote, \"The range near Augusta is now entirely barren of Elliottia. Unless another locality is found, I should not be surprised if the species is preserved only on P.J. Berckmans' grounds.\" Dr. Asa Gray also visited the region and wrote, \"Not a vestige of Elliottia (in Columbia county) remains. A small patch is said to exist in Edgefield county, South Carolina, but all efforts to find it have failed.\" Fortunately the threat of extinction no longer exists for a number of stands have been found more recently both in the area of the original find and also down into Central Georgia. Two attempts were made to establish Elliottia at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey, England. The first in 1894, consisting of a few plants donated by Mr. Berckmans, resulted in failure while the second in 1902, from the same donor, led to the establishment of two specimens. J. Robert Seeley, writing in Bartonia (1938), spoke of one remaining plant at Kew Gardens being the only native to the state of Elliottia racemosa, the ~ 1~ ~ ] representative of its species in Britain and poss~bly in Europe as well. He also noted that every effort to propagate Elliottia at Kew had failed. Propagation of Elliottia racemosa In 1962, while visiting blr. Henry Hohman of Kingsville Nursery, Kingsville, we viewed his two plants of Elliottia and discussed its propagation. A month or so later the smaller of the two, a fine 8 foot specimen, arrived at the Arnold Arboretum from Mr. Hohman with his suggestion that we work out methods for its propagation. While at Kingsmlle Nursery, we discussed the use of root cuttings in the propagation of Elliottia. When Mr. Hohman dug the plant he did not fill the resulting crater but let it remain. He thought that the severed roots left in the crater wall might produce shoots. This worked well, and in 1963, eighteen plants were harvested from within the crater. Mr. Hohman's plant has prospered at the Arnold Arboretum and it flowers profusely each year (Plate IV). It should be added that Elliottia has not proven hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Our accession records show that all prior efforts to establish it have ended with the notation, \"winter killed.\" Alfred Rehder in his Manual qf Trees nncl Slrrrcbs considered Elliottia to be a Zone 7 plant. Therefore, our specimen is lifted each autumn and placed in a cold storage unit. Maryland, Propagation by seeds capsules appear on our Elliottia, while in other years there They, however, have always been devoid of sound seeds. In October of 196z, several fruit capsules matured on Mr. Hohman's remaining plant and he sent them on to us. By carefully picking them apart, we obtained 11 plump seeds which appeared viable. These were sown without pretreatment. By March of 1964, they had all decomposed. In June of 196~., several capsules were received from Miss Claremont H. Lee of Savannah, Georgia. Some were light brown in color while others were of darker hue. This would indicate those light in color to be from the 1963 fruit are none. Some years fruit weathered to be from the previous year. The seeds were from the capsules and some appeared well filled and sound. carefully separated Cut tests were not made for those seemingly viable were so few. The seeds were divided into two lots-- Lot #was sown without pretreatment, while Lot #2 was provided with a two month period of cold stratification at 40 degrees. One seedling germinated in Lot1. When Lot ~R was sown, one seedling also appeared. After five months m the greenhouse, no further germination took place so Lot #? (which still contained sound seeds) was placed in our winter cold storage unit for three months. The temperature there is maintained at about 34 degrees. It was then returned to the greenhouse and after a lapse of three months, three more seedlings appeared. This behavior leads one to suspect that F,lliottia seeds might be doubly-dormant or two-year seeds. However, the sample was far too small for this to be other than a suspicion. crop while those more J [ 18 PLATE IV Upper: Multiple shoots which arise from root pieces of Elliottia. They are physiologically juvenile and root readily. Lower: Elhottia at the Arnold Arboretum - it flowers profusely each year in August. Propagation by cuttings Repeated attempts were made to root stem cuttings of Elliottia using an assortroot-inducing substances and a variety of timings. Success was mediocre. The next effort was to test whether or not root pieces would produce multiple shoots. Shoots that arise from roots are physiologically juvenile and will usually root despite the fact that stem cuttings from the same plant will not. With this fact in mind, root sections about `~-s~~ in diameter and about 4 to 5 inches long were taken from the plant when it was dormant. They were placed horizontally about -~inch deep in flats of sandy soil. This was done on the 24th of March and by the 19th of May multiple shoots began to appear. The pressure of spring work was such that cuttings were not taken from the roots until July l4th. By this time they were firm and woody (Plate IV). ment of a The first crop of cuttings were divided into two lots. Lot #1 was treated with product containing 3 mg of IBA in a gram of talc with Thiram added. Lot #2 was treated with a similar formulation but containing 8 mg of IBA. In each case all cuttings rooted. The root pieces were left in place and continued to produce shoots for over a year. The largest root pieces that we could get from our plant were only about '~-~ of an inch in diameter and these produced well. It seems reasonable to suppose that, if root sections of larger diameter were used, the crop of shoots could be vastly increased. Root cuttings have not presented survival problems and all have prospered. If propagators set root pieces horizontally in flats, as described above, and gather the easily rooted shoots as they appear, there seems no reason why this beautiful subject should not become commonly established in cultivation. Plants from this project have been furnished to some European Botanic Gardens which have been anxious to acquire Elliottia and it is the intention of the Arnold Arboretum to continue this distribution. : . ALFRED J. FORDHAM ] (20~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Casoron - A New Weed Killer to Protect Woody Plants","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24474","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15e8128.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 APRIL 18, 1969 NUMBER 4 CASORON-A NEW WEED KILLER TO PROTECT WOODY PLANTS MOST difficult and costly problem experienced in the Arnold Arboretum keeping of weeds and grass- especially quack grass (.4go~yron repens) -from encroaching around the bases of newly planted trees and shrubs. Such weeds and grasses compete with the roots of the young plants for nutrients and especially for soil moisture. Hoeing or machine cultivation around hundreds of individual trees and shrubs distributed over 265 acres is just not practical. Many weed killers have been tried, some with only fair success and others with injurious effects to the plants. Mulching has, of course, been practiced but sooner or later weeds and especially quack grass, grow in the mulches. Now it looks as if a comparatively new material, Casoron, is the chemical weed killer most suitable for this specific purpose. Casoron is a dichlobenil (2, 6-dichlorobenzonitrile) pre-emergence selective herbicide. Casoron G-4 (i.e. 4~o granular), the form that we use, is granular, and is spread with a small hand duster (Smith Pestmaster Midget hand duster with extension tubes, costing about$10.50). In all our trials it has been used at about the rate of 1 oz. per 20 square feet. It is a root killer, especially effective for controlling such broad leaved perennial weeds as quack grass, Artemisia, Canada thistle, curly dock, fescue, leafy spurge, orchard grass, timothy, wild artichoke, wild aster, yellow rocket and wild carrot. It also controls many (if not most) of the common annual weeds with which we have to deal in the Arnold Arboretum. A is the Advantages 1. Casoron G-4 is granular and is easily distributed by a small hand operated duster. 2. applied in November or even December just before or just after the ground freezes at a time when outdoor labor is not at a premium for other It is ~ 2i ~ ] things. 3. It should always be applied when temperatures are low. Much of its effectiveness is lost by volatization if applied in warm weather. Only 1 oz. per 20 sq. ft. is used (under conditions in the Arnold Arboretum), making very small amounts to handle. A 50 Ib. bag goes a long way! can 4. It be are stance, of this 5. If not spread through the branches of a low plant like a juniper for innecessarily just on the perimeter of its branches. The advantages obvious ! in the late applied Arnold 6. Arboretum) fall, the effects (under the conditions existent in the last until September. - According to the manufacturer, it has no cumulative effects in the soil, unless it is incorporated into the soil. The best means of application is to the surface of the soil from November 15-February 15. dangerous to the 7. With reasonable care, it is not operator. Disadvantages 1. It should not be stored for any 2. It should not be length of time nor stored exposed to the air. applied to dahlias or tuberous rooted plants and has been reported injurious to hydrangeas, firs, and hemlocks, Ilex crenata, I. rotunda and 1. vomitoria. come 3. It should not in contact with skin or eyes nor should one breathe the dust. 4. The smallest size package available at this time of writing is a 50 lb. bag. 5. Effectiveness is reduced if the ground is cultivated before on application. package for other thoroughly read the label precautionary procedures. - One should the outside of the Use in the Arnold Arboretum Our experience with Casoron G-4 started in the fall of 1966 when it was apto a bank of junipers by the greenhouses where there was always serious trouble with quack grass in the planting. The Casoron G-4 was spread (1 oz. to 20 sq. ft.) in December over quack grass and junipers and then two inches of wood chips was applied as a mulch about the plants. This eliminated the quack grass and other weeds in 1967 and we again applied the Casoron G-4 in the fall of '67 and '68. Because the control of weeds and grasses in this area was so good, it was applied experimentally to other collections (especially the entire juniper collection) and many other individual plants, with equally good results. One collection which has always given trouble is the Chaenomeles at the Case plied ] [ 22 Estates, where some 200 plants are growing. Many methods have been tried to control the weeds and grass coming up in these multi-stemmed thorny plantsnone with perfect results. Casoron G-4 applied in the fall of 196 at the rate of I oz. per plant (an area of about 20 square feet about the plant) merely broadcast on top of the ground with dead and living weeds present. This eliminated all weeds and grass in these plants until the first of October 1968. This was so successful, in a trying situation where vicious weeds could not be controlled before without hand pulling, that trial applications have been made in many of the collections in the Arnold Arboretum. It must be noted, however, that our experience and recommendations are only for woody plants, and that our best results have come from late November or December applications! Casoron G-4 has been applied at the rate of I oz. per 20 square ft. about the plants in late November or December when the weather is cold, to species in the following genera without any injury. This resulted in good control of grasses and broad leaved weeds in and about the plants during the following growing period. Control lasted until late summer or even into early fall. It should be emphasized, however, that sometimes only one or two plants of a species were tried, that amounts and time of applications were always as noted above. Acanthopanax Acer Alyssum Azalea Berberis Betula Buxus Iberis Hex laevigata Ilex verticillata Hex montana Quercus Rhamnus Ribes Indigofera Juniperus K err~a Kolkwitzia Larix Caragana Carpinus Ceanothus Chaenomeles Robinia Rosa Salix Sambucus Sorbaria \" Spiraea Lespedeza Ligustrum Lonicera Chamaecyparis Cornus Cotoneaster Staphylea Stephanandra Symphoricarpos Syringa Taxus mucronatus Lycium Malus Crataegus Deutzia Nemopanthus Orixa Thuja Tilia Elaeagnus Euonymus Fagus Forsythia Gleditsia Hibiscus syriacus Philadelphus Physocarpus Picea Pinus Potentilla . Tripterygium Ulmus Viburnum Weigela Zanthoxylum Hypericum Prinsepia Pseudotsuga [ 23 ] 1969 Spring Classes of the Arnold Arboretum FIELD CLASS IN ORNAMENTAL PLANTS DR. DONALD WYMAN ' The month of May is the peak of the flowering period' for most of the trees and shrubs in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Field classes will ~ permit observation of ~most plants as they come into flower. Discussions will include an evaluation of many plants with suggestions on their availability, culture, and proper use. There will be ample opportunity for questions. In case of rain, the meetings will be held indoors. Five classes: Fridays, 10 to 1 L A. M. May 2-30 \"THE SPRING GARDEN\" LECTURE SERIES A series of talks vard University. by some members of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum of Har- Time: 6:00 to 7:30 P.M., Wednesday evenings, April 30 to May 28, 1969. Place: The Red Schoolhouse, 188 Wellesley Street, Weston, Mass. The group will meet here but the classes will involve visiting various parts of the Case Estates as a kind of outdoor class room, depending upon the topic of the evening. Please park 30: cars in the area indicated near the barn. April May May Spring Pruning Practices Mr. Robert G. Williams, Superintendent, Arnold Arboretum 7: Spring \"Bulbs\": Their kinds and uses in the spring garden George H. Pride, Associate Horticulturist Propagation Pointers for Spring Alfred J. Fordham, Propagator Herbaceous Perenmals : A practical approach to baceous perennial garden Robert S. Hebb, Assistant Horticulturist 14: May 21 : establishing an her- May 28: Some of our Best Ground Covers Dr. Donald Wyman, Horticulturist Each of the above two series of talks requires a registration fee of Friends of the Arnold Arboretum.* A $10.00 fee for others. * $5.00 for Information or on by writing calling how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" can be obtained the Arnold Arboretum, The Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Ma. 02130- Tel. 5~14-1717. [ 24 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Peonies","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24487","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060b36b.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 MAY 9, 1969 5 NUMBER ~ VE I TREE PEONIES have been cultivated for centuries in China and Japan but have in America until recently. Now, more is known about their simple culture and several American specialists offer hundreds of named varieties for sale. In fact, the first tree peonies were known to European gardeners as cultivated plants in 1844 for it was not until 1910 that Purdom first found them wild in China. peonies TREE proved popular -~not Paeonia suffruticosa is the major species, a slow-growing shrub, cultivated in China since 724 A.D. and probably before that. It is known as the Moutan Peony, with solitary flowers colored white, rose or red, and about 4 to 10 inches or more in diameter. It is a shrub about 6 feet tall, hardy in Zone 5 and native to northwestern China. Paeonia lutea, another woody species is about 5 feet tall with fragrant yellow flowers 2 to 3 inches in diameter, fern-like foliage, and introduced from China into Europe about 1886. It is not quite as hardy as P. sv\"~'rulicosa but has been used in hybridizing and has been responsible for the introduction of the yellow color into many of the hybrid varieties we have today. Paeonia lutea ludlowii was collected for the first time in 1936 in Tibet, by Ludlow and Sherriff. This is more hardy than the species, grows about 8 feet tall, with yellow flowers up to 4~ inches in diameter, often four to a stem. It flowers three weeks earlier than the species and has stems that are stiffer than those of the species. It is this variety which opens up great possibilities for new, hardier varieties when crossed with some of the older P. sv,~ruticosa cultivars. Paeonia delavayi, the Maroon Tree Peony, is also native to China and was first sent to Europe about 1884. It is a sub-shrub, about 3 feet tall, with maroon colored flowers about 8~ to 4 inches in diameter, and hardy in Zone 5. It is this ~z~~ ] which has brought the dark maroon colors to some of the cultivars available today. The flowers of the species are not very ornamental and its value is chiefly for hybridization purposes. Sir Frederick C. Stern published his monograph, \"A Study of the Genus Paeonia,\" in 1946 and those interested in the correct terminology of the 33 species and 14 botanical varieties into which he has divided this genus should refer to this publication. The four woody species mentioned above are certainly distinct, but the named horticultural varieties have been hopelessly mixed in gardens and nurseries over the centuries. It is hoped that American growers will not add to the confusion of names by attempting to rename the hundreds of varieties they are now offering. Of the many herbaceous species, the easiest to grow are P. emodi, lactiflora (syn, albv,flora), o,~cinalis and tenuifolia. Tree peonies have been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for almost three quarters of a century. Some years they were outstanding in flower, but in 1961 it was decided to make a new display bed for these plants and to prepare the beds in the best possible fashion. This was done and has resulted in an everincreasing display of colorful blooms during late May and early June of each year. Last year the display was magnificent. This was undoubtedly due to the careful steps taken in the soil preparation, and in the subsequent care the plants received. In the first place, the soil was prepared to a depth of eighteen inches. Sufficient ground limestone was worked into o the soil to give it a reaction of about pH 7.0. Also, a generous amount of 10-10-10 commercial fertilizer was worked into the soil before the shrubs were placed. The plants were set deeply as they should be if young grafted plants are used and it is advisable for the scions to root. If planted at the depth of the graft union, the scion does not have an opportunity to root, and the chances are the plant may die an early death. On the other hand, if the plant is placed in the soil several inches below the graft union, the scion will have a chance eventually to root, and when it does, the entire plant stands a much better chance of a long life. The deep soil preparation, addition of ground limestone (since our soil is acid with a pH of 5.5) and the deep planting, all aided in making good growth possible. However, several other things were necessary, also. The plot selected was in the semi-shade where full sunshine strikes the plants about half the day. The plants were watered well the first year, mulched with wood chips (not manure) and care was given the collection in controlling the botrytis blight, which can be destructive on peonies. Once well established in a suitable location, with care given to control disease infestation, tree peonies can live to a great age, increasing in size and the num- living ber of flowers produced each across year. One is about 4~ tall and 8~ and has century-old plant in Lima, Pennsylvania produced over 100 flowers every year for the last 15 years. ] [ 26 PLATE V Top: Close-up of flower, Paeonia .w,tj'rutieoaa. Bottom: This tree peony growing at the Tyler Arboretum in Lima, Pa. is said to be 100 years old. It has been said that there is no serious problem in growing tree peonies if they healthy plants in a suitable situation. However, there is a wilt disease, causing an occasional twig to wilt here and there, and when this is noticed, the offending part should be cut out and burned immediately. There is also the fungus disease, botrytis blight, that occasionally appears in some plantings. Spraying with Fermate or Bordeaux easily controls this disease if applied in the early spring. The first application is made when the foliage is about half grown and the young shoots are evident. Two more applications can be applied at two week intervals, if needed. Occasionally the carpenter bee will lay its eggs in the cut end of a twig or branch. The young worm hatches and can eat its way down the center of the stem all the way to the root, where it can cause some injury. There is little that can be done to control this insect except to refrain from breaking the stems off, or if they are, insert a thumbtack in the cut end of the branch remaining on the plant and thus prevent the mature insect from laying her eggs there. Mostly the pests are not serious and tree peonies can be kept m good growth with very little are attention. rejuvenate their plants when they are too the ground in the early fall, proold or older. The next spring, they send up sturdy shoots from the base and make excellent compact plants. Since there are several hundred tree peony varieties available from specialists Some growers have learned how to or unshapely. They vided they are four years leggy are merely cut to in this country (over 440 from one nurseryman), excellent varieties can be obtained, hence it is probably inadvisable to grow new plants from seeds, although there is always the chance that something new and better will be produced this way. Varieties are best propagated asexually, and the easiest method for doing this is by simple plant division. All the stems can be cut off several inches above the ground in the fall, the plant dug and divided in such a way that several buds or eyes are on each division. These are then planted in the ground at least 6\" below the surface of the soil. Stem layers are possible but take several years to root. Air layers in which polethylene film is used, have proved successful. Many are grafted, using a scion having one or two buds and the root stock of the herbaceous peony, P. lactiflora (syn. alb~,flora). This plant is then set deep in the soil so that the scion will have an opportunity to root. When it does, the root stock can be cut off. If no roots are formed on the scion, the resulting plant may not be long lived, certainly not as long as it would be if it were growing on the roots of the scion. The following 59 tree peonies are those that bloomed in our collection in 1968. The size of the flowers, number of petals and even the color of individual blossoms is not always constant but the figures give some indication of what the flowers were. The rating (asterisks before the name) is merely indicative of the rating one individual gave this group on the one day they were observed. Per- [ 28] PLATE VI Paeonia suffruticosa 'Kamata Fuji' with light purple flowers. This flower had 60 petals. Bottom: Paeonia suffruticosa 'lma-chowkow', one of the better white flowering varieties growing in the Arnold Arboretum collection. Top: sonal preferences always enter into such ratings but they are given here merely to show what one observer thought of the plants when they were at their best in 1968. New Jersey, is to be sincerely thanked for giving the Arnold Arboretum 47 of the following 59 varieties. These exhibition specimens were moved and brought to the Arnold Arboretum by him in the Fall of 1961 and some in 1962. It was these valued gifts which gave us the incentive to make a complete new display plot for these beautiful plants. Note: William T. Gottelli, of South Orange, Commercial growers United States are: William featuring varieties of tree peonies in the northeastern Gratwick, Pavilion, New York Saunders, Clinton, IvT.Y. 13323 Miss Silvia Louis Smirnow, 85 Linden Lane, Brookville, Long Island, N.Y. Glen Head 11545 P.O., (93 varieties illustrated in color in his recent catalogue) Marinus Vander Pol, 757Washington Rte. 6, Fairhaven, Mass. 02719 Street, For a more detailed discussion of tree peonies and their varieties American Horticultural see : Wister, John C. \"The Peonies\" Washington D.C. 1955. ' Society, DONALD WYMAN ~30~ ] [ 31 ] [32] ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seventy-Five Years of Growing Rhododendrons in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24482","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060a76b.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . --a ' A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 . I E \" MAY 30, 1969 NUMBER 6 SEVENTY FIVE YEARS OF GROWING RHODODENDRONS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM H. H. HUNNEWELL of Wellesley started buying and planting large rhododendrons on his estate in Wellesley, in 1856. He became so enthusiastic about these plants that he staged the first Rhododendron Show on the Boston Common in 18 7 3. Later, it was he who urged Professor Sargent to plant these beautiful shrubs m the Arnold Arboretum. At the present time over 550 species, varieties and clones of the genus Rhododendron are being grown in the Arnold Arboretum. There have been more, in the past, species and varieties which have been tried but have not succeeded over the years. Over 1S0 species and varieties of this genus have been introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum. Even during the ten-year period from 19521962 at least 30 species and vane ties were introduced, so it is still a fascinating group with which to work, with new varieties appearing constantly. In the many years we have grown these colorful plants, hardiness has been a very important factor. Hundreds have been grown and failed to survive our rugged winters, where average annual minimum temperatures go to -5 or -10 F. each winter. This is low enough to kill the flower buds on many of the more tender o species and varieties and every few winters, temperatures mll fall as low as -10 to -20 F., low enough to kill the flower buds of many more. At first (in the late 1890's and early 1900's) the plants grown in the Arnold Arboretum were a few of the native American species especially those of the eastern seaboard, plus the varieties and hybrids popular in Europe at the time. Then, as the results of the expeditions of E. H. Wilson (and a few earlier trips to Japan by Professor Sargent) Asiatic species and hybrids were introduced, many of which proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. In 1917, Ernest H. Wilson published a list of what he termed were the \"Iron Clad\" rhododendrons, meaning those which had been planted in the Arnold Arboretum and were able to survive many winters successfully. It consisted of: MR. numbers of azaleas and [333 ] 'Henrietta Sargent' 'Atrosanguineum' 'Charles Dickens' `Purpureum Grandiflorum' 'H. W. Sargent' `Purpureum Elegans' `Caractacus' 'Everestianum' Album Elegans' Roseum Elegans' Album Grand~florum' Lady Armstrong' catawbiense album Mrs. Charles Sargent' Ten years later he dropped `H. W. Sargent' and `Caractacus' from this list and merely talked about the \"Dozen Iron Clads\". Today, this group of a dozen R. catawbiense hybrids is as good as it ever was, even though there must be several thousand evergreen rhododendrons being grown, many of them in the United States. Some have performed well for half a century, others are new and little is known about the limits of their hardiness. Some can be grown only in the South, others in the Pacific Northwest but it is interesting to note that some of the species and varieties have been growing in New England at the Arnold Arboretum since 1891 and the original plants are still alive! The evergreen rhododendron collection of the Arnold Arboretum is in a protected valley where continuous wind does not reach them and where they are shaded at least half of the day from the western sun. Some of the plants now growing in the Arnold Arboretum are still the originals first brought over to America from Europe. One of the first importations was from the Waterer Nursery in Woking, Surrey, England, in 1886, and another large shipment of introductions was received from T.J. Seidel, Saxony, Germany, in 1908. The following list of evergreen rhododendrons is of those which have had individual specimens growing 10 years or more in the Arnold Arboretum. The figure to the right of the name is the age of the oldest plant m each species or variety, but does not necessarily indicate when the plant was first grown in the Arboretum. For instance, Rhododendron 'H.W. Sargent' in the following list has the number 16 to the right of the name indicating our oldest living plant is that age. However, this variety was first grown in the Arboretum in 1886 and these plants lived until 1939 when they had to be replaced. Some of these rhododendrons are of course less hardy than others. Some mnters, when the temperature may reach -150 F. or lower, the flower buds of many will be injured, and the winter burning of foliage can occur on almost any rhododendron when conditions are right. However, it is of interest to know that during the last fifty years the temperature has reached -26 F. at least once ( 1934) and -180 F. several times, so that some of these rhododendrons have been able to survive rather low temperatures. Flower colors are given by general name and figure designations in parentheses according to the Nickerson Color Fan of the American Horticultural Society. In the description of the flower truss-size, the first figure is the height of the truss, the second figure is the width at the base. Corolla color markings on the inside [ 34 ] ?' w M cc A O 12 5 v O J3 'b O -~ ~ ru M) G o ., HL M r. 5 .!t -0 9 L ~~ C O. m H G ~ b0 _N W s 3 _~ ~ G 'b O G N O O M of the corolla have been given in many cases because sometimes this is the best means of distinguishing one variety from another. In fact, detailed color information and truss measurements of some of these varieties is not available in books on rhododendrons and has been made directly from the plants growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, so it should have some value. The truss measurements will vary with soil and weather conditions, and those recorded here are on the small side because measurements were taken during a dry year. Also, it is a well known fact that flower truss size, like the size of carnation or rose flowers, will be greater when proportionately fewer trusses are allowed to develop. No attempt whatsoever was made to reduce the number of flower clusters produced on the plants in this collection. Evergreen Rhododendrons living (Figure to the right more than 10 years in the Arnold Arboretum of the name is the age of the oldest plant.) Xarbutifolium 60; flowers magenta (3 RP 6.3\/10); flowers only an inch in diameter with brown spots on the inside of the corolla; truss small. brachycarpum 32; flowers cream to pink ; truss 4~~ X 4~~; corolla markings spotted green or brownish yellow. carolinianum 58; flowers mauve but vary from white to pink; truss 3~~X 3~~, compact, rounded. carolinianum album 50; flowers white; truss 3~~ X 8~~, compact, rounded. catawbiense 90; flowers cyclamen purple (2 RP 7\/6); truss 4~~~X62~~; corolla markings yellowish, few. catawbiense album 59; flowers white. catawbiense compactum 44; flowers cyclamen purple (2 RP i \/6). catawbiense grandiflorum 27; flowers mauve. caucasicum 60; flowers creamy white to pale rose; truss 3~~~ X 5~~ loose and rounded; corolla markings chartreuse green (2.5 GY 8.5\/6); style and stigma reddish ; sometimes subject to some winter damage. caucasicum 'Jacksonii' 31; flowers rosy pink with deeper pink stripe on out- side of petal. discolor 22; flowers white to pale pink; truss loose; corolla markings yellow. fargesii 16; flowers white, pink, rose; truss loose, flat-topped ; corolla markings red. Xfortunei hybrids 39; flowers white to deep pink ; (A few years ago the Arnold Arboretum was testing 80 clones in this hybrid group, many of them thoroughly hardy. More recently the less ornamental clones have been discarded together with the ones not thoroughly hardy. Some have been named like 'Ben nlosely', 'Elizabeth Poore', 'Scintillation', 'Tom Everett', 'Roslyn' and 'Westbury'. All these seem to be hardy in normal winters in protected places in the Boston area and would be worthy of further trial.) keiskei 29; flowers lemon yellow; occasionally subject to some winter damage. Xlaetvirens 83; flowers moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP 7\/8). maximum 42; flowers pink to white; truss 42~~X5~~, compact; corolla markings spotted with greenish yellow. maximum album 42; flowers colored white. ~3~J] maximum superbum 17; flowers deep pink. metternichii 46; flowers white to rose colored. micranthum 60; flowers white ; truss 2\" ; terminal containing as many as 50 small flowers. minus 89; flowers rose colored to white, somewhat similar to those of Rhododendron carolinianum. Xmorelianum 50; flowers light reddish purple ( 10 P 6\/ 1 1 ) ; truss 4~\" X 6\" ; dense and pyramidal; corolla markings brownish: stamens and pistil pinkish. Xmyrtifolium 17; flowers moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP 7\/8) ; truss 12\"X 1~\"; open; no corolla markings. oreodoxa 12; flowers white to lavender pink to rose colored; few flowers to a truss. Xpraecox 13; flowers bright rose purple; there temperatures on this species this year. 32; flowers deep may be winter injury from low in very praevernum severe purplish red (10 RP 2\/6) ; possible injury X 5\", winters. smirnowii 51; flowers rosy red with a frilled margin; truss 4\" open; styles red; filaments pink; corolla markings brownish. loose and ungernii 34; flowers white to pale pink. Xwatereri 60; flowers pale to deep rose pink; truss 5\" ~C ram~dal ; corolla markings brownish. xwellesleyanum 46; flowers white, slightly tinged pink. VARIETIES 6\" ; dense and py- 'Adalbert' 60; flowers strong reddish purple (2.5 RP 5\/14); truss 4\"X5~\" dense and rounded ; corolla markings a deep purplish red (10 RP 2\/6); pistil and stamens pinkish ; margin of petals slightly frilled and almost identical with those of 'Echse' except for the color of stamens and pistil. 'Alaric' 60; flowers a strong reddish purple (3. o RP 5\/ 13) ; truss 3~\" X 5\" dense and rounded ; corolla markings few but pronounced deep purplish red ( 10 RP 2; 6) ; stigma nearly black, styles and stamens purplish. 'Albert' 60; flowers strong purplish pink (7.5 RP 7.8\/8); truss 3~\"X6\" dense and round : corolla markings brownish. 'Album Elegans 78; flowers pale purplish pink (7.5 RP 9\/4); truss 5\" X 6\", dense and pyramidal; corolla markings primrose yellow ( 1 GY 9\/8) ; style pink. 'Album Grandiflorum' 83; flowers white; truss 4\" X 5\" dense and pyramidal ; corolla markings greenish yellow and mostly inconspicuous; stigma red; mar- gins of petals slightly frilled. 4~\" X 5\" dense and pyramidal ; and filaments pink ; corolla markings are dark red and few. 'America' 18; flowers deep purplish red ( 10 RP 3.5 j 12) ; truss 32\" X 6\" ; corolla markings dark red spots; red filaments. 'Amphion' 18; flowers strong reddish purple (3.5 RP 5\/13) to a white center; truss 4~\" X 6~\", rather loose. 'Anton' 60; flowers mauve (7.5 P 6.5\/8) ; truss 4~\" X 6\" dense and pyramidal ; corolla markings greenish to brownish ; stamens and pistil pinkish; petals style slightly frilled. 'Album Splendens' 54; flowers white. 'Alexander Dancer' 16; flowers magenta; truss [337 ] rose purple (7.5 P 7.5\/5) to white; truss 4~~X6~~ dense corolla markings dark purple and prominent. 'Atrosanguineum' 73; flowers red; truss 2~~~ X 4~~~, loose, rounded; corolla markings dark purple; pistil and stamens dark purple. 'Bella' 60; flowers light purplish pink (2 RP 8\/6) fading considerably; truss 8~~ X 5~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings strong orange yellow; stamens and pistil pinkish ; petals frilled. 'Ben Mosley' 13; flowers strong reddish purple (2. 5 RP 5\/10); truss 4~~~X5~~~ dense and rounded ; corolla marking reddish ; usually 6 petals in the corolla and slightly frilled. 'Bicolor' 78; flowers deep purplish pink; truss 4~~ X.5~~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings deep purplish red; stamens and pistil pink. 'Boudoir' 15; flowers moderate purplish red (4. 5 RP 5\/10); corolla markings darker. 'Boule de Neige' 60; flowers pure white; truss 4~~ X 6~~ compact and rounded; corolla markings chartreuse green (2.5 GY 8.5\/6); petals slightly frilled. 'Boursault' 12; flowers strong reddish purple (9 P 4.5\/12) ; truss 3~~~ X 5~~ dense and rounded ; style and filaments pink ; corolla markings yellow-brown. 'Candidissimum' 54; flowers strong purplish pink to white (5 RP 7.8\/8); truss ~.~~ X 6~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings citron green, few and incon- 'Arno' 60; flowers and pyramidal; spicuous. 'Caractacus' mens 51; flowers magenta (3.5 RP 5\/13); truss 4~~X5~~ dense and sta- rounded ; corolla markings red. 'Charles citron green and not conspicuous ; pistil and (4 RP 6\/14); truss 5~~X52~~ corolla markings citron green; pistil and stamens pink. 'Charles Dickens' 73; flowers crimson red loose to dense and rounded ; corolla markings dark purphsh red (10 RP 2\/6); stamens dark red. 'Comte de Gomer' 63; flowers white edged crimson. 'Coriaceum' 78; flowers white ; corolla markings green. 'Cunningham's White' 42; flowers white. 'Daisy' 61; flowers deep purphsh pink (2.5 RP 6\/10); truss 8~~X42~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings brilhant yellow (5 Y 9\/10); stigma red; style pinkish ; petals slightly frilled. 'Daisy Rand' 14; flowers strong reddish purple (2.5 RP 5\/12); truss 3~~X4~~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings deep purplish red (10 RP 2\/6); stigma black, style whitish and a few stamens purplish. 'Delicatissimum' 52; flowers strong purplish pink (5 RP 7.8\/8); 4~~X5~~ loose to dense and rounded ; corolla markings a pronounced greenish yellow; stigma red. 'Desiderius' 61; flowers deep purplish pink (2.5 RP 6\/11); corolla markings brilliant yellow green (2.5 GY 9\/8). Dr. H. C. Dresselhuys' 11; flowers strong purplish red (8.5 RP 4.4 j 12) ; truss 5~~ X 6~~ and rather loose. 'Duke of York' 54; flowers light purplish pink (2 RP 8\/6) to white; truss 5~~~ X iloose and rounded; corolla markings brilliant yellow green (2.5 GY 9\/8); 7 petals usually in each corolla. Bagley' 58; flowers deep purplish pink dense and pyramidal; [ 38 ] 'Echse' and 'Eva' 60; flowers strong reddish purple (2.5 RP 5\/14); truss 5~~X5~~~ dense pyramidal; corolla markings deep purplish red (10 RP 2\/6 and pro- nounced ; stigma deep red ; style and stamens white. 60; flowers moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP 7\/8); truss dense and rounded ; corolla markings citron green ; stigma red ; style and stamens pink ; edge of petals frilled. 'Everestianum' 14; flowers moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP 7\/8); truss 4~~~X 6\" dense and pyramidal ; corolla markings greenish to brown ; pistil and stamens pinkish; petals slightly frilled. 'Fee' 60; flowers deep purplish pink (2 RP 6\/10); truss 32~~ X42~~ dense and rounded ; corolla markings are a pronounced purple ; stamens and pistil pinkish. 'Flushing' 57; flowers magenta (3.5 RP 5.2\/13); truss 4~~X6~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings deep purphsh red (10 RP 2\/6); stigma and style red ; stamens purplish. 'General Grant' markings deep purplish red (10 stamens purple, styles lighter. 13; flowers magenta RP (3.5 RP 5\/13); truss 3~~ X4~~~; corolla 2.5\/10) and few; stigma nearly black; 'Gomer Waterer' 16; flowers magenta (2.5 RP 7.3\/6) to white; truss 4\" X6\" dense and rounded ; corolla markings yellow-brown. 'Hannah Felix' 60; flowers strong reddish purple (2. 5 RP 5\/14) ; truss 3~~ X4~~~ dense and rounded ; corolla markings a pronounced beet-root purple (5 RP 2.5\/10); stigma red, style and stamens reddish; corolla color almost uniform color except under the markings where it is whitish. 'Henrietta Sargent' 77; deep purplish pink (4 RP 6.5\/12); truss 4~~X6~~ dense and rounded; corolla marking brown to greenish; stigma red, style pink. ~2 'H. W. Sargent' 16; deep purplish pink to strong purplish red (4 RP 4.5\/ 12 to 8 RP 4.2\/14); truss 3~~X4~~~ corolla markings deep purplish red (10 RP 2\/6); pistil and stamens deep purplish red. 'Ignatius Sargent' 56; flowers moderate purplish red (6 RP 4\/14); truss 32~~ X 5~~ dense and rounded ; corolla markings brown and pronounced : stigma nearly 'James Bateman' black; styles red; petals slightly frilled. 73; flowers deep purplish pink (4 RP 6.5\/12); truss 4~~X6~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings deep purplish red (10 RP 2\/6); stigma red, style pink. 'Kettledrum' 13; flowers strong reddish purple (1.5 RP 5\/14); truss 3~~X4~~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings citron green ( 10 Y 7\/8) ; pistil and stamens reddish. 'Lady Armstrong' 53; flowers deep purplish pink dense and (5 RP 6\/13); truss 5\" X52~~ pyramidal; corolla markings ruby red (7.5 RP 2.5\/12) and few; stigma red ; style pinkish near tip. 'Lady Gray Egerton' 14; flowers pale lilac. 'Lee's Dark Purple' 13; flowers strong purple (7.5 P 5\/10); truss 42~~ X6~~ dense and rounded ; corolla markings brownish and conspicuous; pistil and stamens red ; one of the darkest purple of any of the varieties. 'Luciferum' 12; flowers light reddish purple (9 P 6\/8) with a white center; truss 3~~~X5~~ open and rounded; corolla markings greenish yellow; petals frilled. [ 39 ] 'Madame de Bruin' 13; flowers bright red. 'Melton' 73; flowers strong reddish purple (3 RP 5\/10); truss and rounded; corolla markings maroon (5 R 2\/6); stigma black 3~~~ XS~~ ; dense stamens and style whitish. Sargent' 52; flowers deep purplish pink (2. 5 RP 6\/10); truss 4~~~ X6\" dense and rounded ; corolla markings greenish ; pistil and stamens strong reddish purple; petals frilled. 'Mrs. Harry Ingersoll' 78; flowers strong reddish purple (3 RP 5\/18) ; truss 4~~X5~~ dense and pyramidal; corolla markings citron green (10 Y 7\/8); stigma whitish; stamens purplish. A whitish condition of the petals underneath the markings gives a unique color. 'Mrs. P. den Ouden' 19; flowers strong purplish red (8.5 RP 4.4\/12) ; truss 4~~ X 6~~ and dense. 'Norma' 78; flowers strong reddish purple (3.5 RP 4\/15); truss 4~~ XS~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings greenish ; pistil and stamens purplish. 'Parson's Gloriosum' 15; flowers light purplish pink (2.5 RP 8\/6); truss 4~~ X6~~ rather loose. 'Parson's Grandiflorum' 78; flowers moderate purple (4.5 RP 5\/10); truss 5~~ X4~~ dense and pyramidal ; style and filaments pink, corolla markings yellowgreen and few. 'Parson's Rubrum' 27; flowers red. 'P.J.M. Hybrids' 14; flowers deep reddish purple. 'President Lincoln' 16; flowers light purplish pink (5 RP 8~4 to 2 RP 8\/16); truss 4~~~ X 5~~ dense and rounded ; corolla markings brownish ; stamens and 'Mrs. C. S. pistil pmkish. 'Professor F. Bettex' 14; flowers strong purplish red (10 RP 3.5\/12). 'Promethius' 63; strong purplish pink (5 RP 7.8\/8); truss 3~~X4~~ dense and round ; corolla markings white to yellow. 'Pulcherrimum' 55; flowers strong reddish purple (3 RP 5\/14). 'Purpureum Elegans' 78; light purple (4 P 6\/8 to 9 P 4.5\/1~); truss 4~~X6~~ dense and rounded; corolla markings citron green (10 Y 7\/8) and prominent; pistil reddish; stamens pinkish. ~~ 6\/9) ; truss 4~~ X I dense and rounded; corolla markings citron green (10 Y 7\/8); pistil and stamens reddish. 'Roseum Elegans' 27; light reddish purple (9 P 6\/8); truss 4~~ XS~~~ dense and slightly pyramidal; corolla markings brilliant yellow green (2.5 GY 8\/8) and few ; center of flower white. 'Roseum Superbum' 54; flowers strong pink (I0 RP 7.5\/10) truss 3~~~X6~~ and loose. 'Sultana' 63; flowers pale purplish pink (7.5 RP 9\/14) ; truss 4~~X6~~ dense and pyramidal; corolla markings (7.5 YR 7.3\/8); anthers purplish. 'Viola' 12; flowers porcelain white. DONALD WYMAN 'Purpureum Grandiflorum' 83; flowers light purple (7 P [ 40 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Introduction of Our Hardy Stewartias","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24485","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060af6d.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' E 1 THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 A publication OF VOLUME 29 JUNE 13, 1969 NUMBER i THE INTRODUCTION OF OUR HARDY STEWARTIAS Stewartias are large shrubs or small trees with relatively large white flowers in early summer. Their value in the decoration of the average suburban garden has been frequently overlooked. They are all valuable for their disease and insect resistance, their white flowers produced in early- to mid-July, and some of them have the added attractions of colorful autumn foliage and decorative bark patterns in the fall and winter. The genus Stewartia contains about nine species, of which five are reliably hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. Of these, one is worth cultivating for almost THE -~. any excuse. The genus Sfezeartia was established by Linnaeus to accommodate a plant which grows on the coastal plain of the southeast United States from Virginia southward. The plant first flowered in cultivation in England, in 1742. The next year an illustration was made of the plant by George Ehret, one of the most famous and talented of botanical illustrators. A copy of this illustration was sent to Linnaeus who published an engraving of it with his description of the genus in 1846 (Plate VIII). About two years later another copy of the same illustration was published by Mark Catesby in his Natural History qf Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands. This was Stewartia Malacodendron, a plant of stream banks in rich deciduous woods of the coastal plain from Virginia to Louisiana. Coker and Totten (Trees qf'the Southeastern States) record that it is frequently associated with Beech. This, the Silky Stewartia, is from personal experience, not easy to grow, and apparently not hardy north of Long Island. Loudon, in the Arborelum et Fruticetum Britannicum (Vol. 1, p. 318, 1838) comments that it was uncommon in British Gardens in his time, and that the price of a nursery-grown plant was 5 shillings in London or 50 cents in New York. The second species, in order of discovery, was the Mountain Stewartia (.Stezcartia ovata) (Plate IX). This plant is a shrub or small tree very similar in general appearance to the Silky Stewartias, but differing in floral details and [ 41 ] in the Piedmont and mountain region of the Southeast. When first introduced into cultivation or who first discovered it is uncertain. It was originally confused with the Silky Stewartia. It is certain that flowering plants were growing at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in 1785. And it is also certain that William Bartram saw it in Oconee County, South Carolina, in 17 7 6. This species is hardier, and apparently easier to grow, than the Silky Stewartia. At least it does well in the Arnold Arboretum! It was not until the 1860's, and the opening up of Japan, that the next species of Stewartia appeared, and it appears to have been first cultivated in the Occident in New York. Thomas Hogg, the younger, was born in London, England, on the 6th of February 1820. His father was in charge of the greenhouse of William Kent, Esq., who was reputed to have, at that time, the largest private collection of plants in England. In 1822, the elder Thomas Hogg moved to New York and set up a nursery business, which was continued after his death in 1855 by his two sons Thomas Jr., and James. In 1862 Thomas Hogg, Jr. received an appointment as a United States Marshal under which he spent the following eight years in Japan. In 1869 or 1870he resigned his post and returned to the United States, but went back to Japan in 1873 to spend two years as a member of the Japanese Customs Service. During this entire period (1862-1875) he sent many Japanese plants to his brother in New York. It was Thomas Hogg who sent Stewartia Pseudocamellia (Plate XI), to New York about 1866. In contrast to our two native species which are shrubs, S. Pseudocamellia is recorded as being a tree up to 50 feet tall and with a trunk sometimes two feet in diameter. Although the plants at the Arnold Arboretum, received in 1879, are now, after 89 years, bushes only about 10-12feet tall, they appear to be stump sprouts, probably reflecting damage in the 1938 hurricane. The flowers, which are somewhat more cup-shaped than our native species, are about 2~-3 inches across, somewhat smaller than our two native species, which have flowers 32-4 inches across. The particular value of this species, at the time it was introduced, lay in its hardiness (it is hardy in Boston), the autumn color of its leaves (purplish), and its bark, which scales off in large thin flakes, like Sycamore, having a light and dark grayish mottled appearance. E. H. Wilson collected Stewartia sinensis in Western Hupeh, China, in 1901. The Veitch nursery firm in England introduced the species to cultivation. The bark, like the last, is scaly. Our plant grown under this name (Plate X) was started in 1936 from seed obtained from the Lu-Shan Arboretum in China. The plant grows well under our conditions and is now about 12 feet tall. As yet our plant has not shown the character of exfoliating bark. Stewartia monadelpha (Plate XI) is somewhat of an enigma. It is alleged to have been introduced into cultivation in 1903. But it may be that this reference was to Wilson's Stewarlia sinensis, which was first sold by Ve~tch as Stewartia growing naturally it was monadelpha. [ 42 ] PLATE VIII Stewartia Malacodendron L. Flowering twig X~. Reproduced from an engraving of an illustration by George Ehret, published in the \"Acta\" of the Royal Academy of Sciences. Uppsala. 1741-1746. [ 43] In any event, we Nanking in 1934. Our obtained seed from Sun Yat-Sen Memorial University in plant is about 15 feet tall with rather good exfoliating which is perhaps our finest from a tree on the slopes of Chiri-san in Stewartia. E. H. Wilson collected seed the province of South Keisko, in southern Korea, on November 14, 191 i. The seed was sown at the Arnold Arboretum in January of 1918. Plants from this seed did not flower until 192 i . Two years later (July 1929) Wilson wrote of it : gray and white bark. Finally, there is Stewartia koreana (Plate XII), Stewartia koreana is again in blossom near the old White Pine trees on Bussey Hill. It is flowering much more freely than last year and its distinctive characters are more obvious. The flower is fringed, pure white, from 3~ to 4 inches in diameter, flat and saucer-like with the ovary and stamens rich yellow. The leaves are ovate-elliptic, shining bright green with impressed veins and rounded base. It is a more cheery looking plant than its close relative, the Japanese Steuartia pseudocamellia, which has dull green leaves, longer and narrow at the base, less prominently impressed veins and flowers more cupped. The Korean Stewartia is showing remarkable vigor; it has suffered no winter injury and as the tree matures will doubtless bloom as freely as any of its tribe. Over the years, enthusiasm about Steu~artia koreana has increased. In 1956 Dr. Wyman included Stesartia koreana as one of his \"Eighty Trees for the Small Place.\" He had earlier noted that the plant was of value in the garden in the winter on account of its mottled dark and light brown bark, a mottling caused by the exfoliation of large flakes of the outer bark. In addition, the leaves do, at least in some years, possess an orange or red autumn color. This is, beyond doubt, the choicest of the Stewartias. It is also one of the finest of our large shrubs or small trees. There can be no doubt but that it will become increasingly popularith the gardening public. GORDON P. DEV~'o~F, JR. ] [ 44 PLATE IX Stewartia X ~; c, (Cav.) Weatherby. a, flowering twig X ~; b, fruiting twig longitudinal section of flower X 1; d, longitudinal section of fruit ovata X 1; e, cross section of fruit X 1. C~~J ] PLATE X Stewartia ainenaia Rehder & Wilson. a, flowering twig X ~; b, fruiting twig X ~; c, longitudinal section of flower X 1; d, longitudinal section of fruit X 1; e, cross section of fruit X 1. ~4s~ ] PLATE XI (1) Stewartia pseudocamellia Maxim. a, flowering twig X ~; fruiting twig X ~; c, longitudinal section of floccer X I ; d, longitudinal section of fruit X 1; e, cross section of fruit X l. X (2) ~; c. Stewartia monadelpha Sieb. & Zucc. a, flowering twig X ~; b, fruiting twig longitudinal section of fruit X 1; d. cross section of fruit X 1. PLATE XII Ste2oartia koreana Rehder. a, flowering twig X ~; b, fruiting twig X ~; c, longitudinal section of stamens and petals X 1; d, carpels and sepals with corolla and stamens removed X 1; e, longitudinal section of fruit X 1; f, cross section of fruit X 1; g, seed X 2. [ 48 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Espaliered Plants","article_sequence":8,"start_page":49,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24478","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15e896f.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ~ - A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 EI AUGUST 29, 196J ESPALIERED PLANTS NUMBER H old fashioned art of growing espaliered plants is very definitely coming back into favor again. Only recently it seems this type of pruning was frowned upon, for it was too time-consuming. However, the gardener with more and more time on his hands often wants to produce something out of the ordinary, especially in smaller gardens-something that shows off a blank space on a wall or fence to good advantage. Because of this desire, more gardeners are becoming interested in learning how espaliered plants can be grown. When the plot of ground is narrow, against a wall or fence, this method of growing shrubs and trees is certainly decorative and conserves space. Vines grow too fast for the low wall, and often require much care to keep them in good form. Take the space in front of a garage with a foot or so of ground, but a wall ten to fifteen feet high-this is the ideal place where espaliered plants come into their own. Certainly, they do not grow so vigorously that they hide the wall, but the forms into which the plants can be trained augment the interest of the planting THE -~- materially. We have such a wall along the low building that is our cold storage house at the Arnold Arboretum. The wall is made of painted cement blocks, with about eighteen inches of soil in front of it and bordered by a paved road. Obviously, it is impossible to plant shrubs in this small area. Espaliered plants have proven most interesting here, not only because the foliage breaks the monotony of the wall but also because of the different designs into which these various plants have been trained. In selecting plants for this purpose, certain ones have proved themselves more amenable than others. Japanese yew, firethorn, forsythia, flowering dogwood, rockspray (Cotoneaster horisontalis), mock-orange, flowering crabapples and of course the fruits like apple, pear and peach-all are worthy subjects for trial. Beside the fruits, best grown on dwarfing understock, Pyracantha species have proved most popular and suitable to this type of pruning. ] [ 49 One should study the wall space available, the method by which the plants to be held firmly to the wall, and finally the design or form into which the plants will be trained. It is most important to have all this figured out in advance. Young plants three or four feet tall are usually the best ones to start with, for the root system of these need not be reduced to fit into the available space, and one can begin more easily with young and pliable twigs to create the design which has been selected. The designs are of several major patterns. A fan shape is probably the easiest with three or four straight branches emanating from the base. The Japanese yew is especially satisfactory for this. Any yew, but preferably an upright growing variety, can be planted and reduced to three or four main branches arranged in a fan shape. It should be important to select a fruiting plant (not a male or staminate plant which never bears fruit) for when the small red fruits cover these branches m the fall the plant has a unique interest. Also this plant can be espaliered against a cedar or chestnut sapling fence, with excellent results. Pruning of this particular plant is merely done in the form of snipping or shearing to keep the four main branches no wider than four to six inches. If plenty of space is available and if one design is good, additional leaders can be allowed to form after the original main branches have grown four or five feet high. The horticulturists of the past centuries have done interesting things with espaliered fruit trees. Mount Vernon, Virginia is only one place of many in this country where espaliered fruits can still be seen, but in Europe the art is still widely practiced. Some plants have been trained in a horizontal cordon- merely a low trunk a few inches tall and then a horizontal branch on either side. Starting with this simple design the ramifications are many. The single upright trunk of this can be allowed to grow vertically with additional horizontal branches allowed. Or the simple horizontal branches can be trained to the vertical after they have been allowed to grow ~n the horizontal for a certain length. Also the popular gridiron form is another often used. Another interesting method is to develop from the original simple horizontal cordon a series of evenly spaced upright branches. Even more difficult for the individual who wants to try his hand at this, is to start with something like forsythia - because it is easily pliable and grows fast. Three or four main branches could be allowed, but each trained in a pleasingly larger and larger arc. Here too, the side shoots should be kept trimmed or pinched so that they will all be short. In the case of forsythia, it is essential that as much pruning or shearing as possible be done while the plant is actively growing before the end of June so that the flower buds will have plenty of time to form for next year's bloom. The rockspray (Cotoneaster horizontalis) produces flat sprays even when these rest normally on the ground. When advantage is taken of this unique method of growth by training them against the wall, a very interesting design results. It is probably best to try to grow espaliered plants on walls facing the north are ~~o) ] A few of the designs PLATE XIII which are used in growing espaliers. subject to absorbing too much heat that some burning might result. Holes can be bored into the concrete, stone or wood walls and large brass or copper hooks inserted to hold the twigs rigidly in place. Preferably these should be of lead, for this material will bend slightly with the increase of branch girth, whereas stiff brass or copper hooks, if not large enough, can completely girdle and eventually kill a branch. Bending or turning the young twigs is a technique requiring minute care for the twigs must not be broken. Also they must be held rigidly in place. This type of training is best done in the spring while the twigs are young and flexible. Pruning or \"touching up\" with the shears is a frequent operation, the object being to prevent unwanted twigs from growing and to allow desired twigs to grow just far enough so they can be forced into the chosen pattern. Pruning should be done only when the design or form is thoroughly kept in mind, for in every form there are only a few places where growth should be allowed-and many places where increased vegetative growth is not desired and must be eliminated when it occurs. At least two nurseries feature espaliered plants, namely, the U.S. Espalier Company of Sherwood, Oregon, and Henry Leuthardt of Port Chester, N.Y. There may be others. Of course, it takes time to train such plants for sale. The plants in the following list include ones that have been used a long time as espaliers as well as some new ones well worth trying. Coarse leaved plants do not adapt themselves well to this type of display, nor do overly fast growing species which require much more pruning than slower growing varieties. or east. South or west on unusually warm winter facing walls days, so may be Some of the best plants for Espaliers: Abelia sp. can be tried in short, low designs, valued for long flowering to season and good foliage. the fan Acanthopanax sieboldianus - this should lend itself well design, es- pecially suited for shaded places. Caragana arborescens - I have never seen this espaliered but undoubtedly it has been used. The tendency is to have many flower clusters close to the main branch and this makes an excellent espalier in flower. Fruit and autumn color are not outstanding. species and varieties are Ceanothus - many used for this purpose in southern California. Chaenomeles - since these bloom on the previous year's wood, necessary pruning should be done as soon after the flower blooms as possible. 'Phyllis Moore' with double deep pink flowers is one of the better varieties to use. [552 ] ro 0 S 0 0 0 0 .. m .0 -tl a 0 a ., yC a, C od 0 o E~ d = m v ~ a~ n! a. ~ 0 ~ 0 E o x d a i) :5 c s 4i a x Cornus florida - this species has opposite branches and is well adapted to several cordon shaped designs as far as branching and foliage is concerned, but may be rather disappointing from the flower standpoint, merely because the flo~ers are borne on the upper surface of the horizontal branches. Since side branchlets are pruned to a minimum for espaliers, flowering may not be profuse unless the pendulous branched variety is used. Cornus kousa - branching habits as above. Probably not good from a flowering standpcnt. Cornus main an mas - because this blooms so early in the spring on buds close to the branches, it might be considered one of the better of the dogwoods as espalier. However, do as much pruning as possible immediately after flow- ering before flower buds for next year are formed. Cotoneaster horizontalis - one of the best plants for espalier training. This plant naturally grows with many small horizontal branches all in one plane, and on a wall it fans out equally well on both sides into one flat, beautifully arranged spray. If a central leader is trained, it can grow to some height. In Belgium I saw a plant growing to the top of a three story building. Of course it flowers and fruits well, but in the North it might be used on the north wall or in a partially shaded position where it will not be subject to burning in the winter. Euonymus fortunei vegeta - although this is it is amenable to a \"semi-shrub\" as or a an fruits are so shearing and outstanding that it should be easy to train is well worth a trial. clinging vine, espalier. The Forsythia - all forsythias grow so fast that pruning them as espaliers can be difficult unless done often. We have had good success with F. intermedia spectabilis trained merely as 4 concentric arching stems but pruning or shearing should be done early before summer, to give the flower buds plenty of time to develop for flowers the following year. New shoots from the base must be eliminated frequently. Because of its fast growth it is probable that forsythia should be confined to simple sweeping designs entailing 8 or 4 stems only, and not those incorporating right angles. warmer Fuschia - much used in the parts of California. turns. see no Jasminum - can be used in long curved designs without short right angle never seen Lycium halimifolium - I have reason this used as an espalier but it would not respond to the same treatment as forsythia. The added interest of the small red fruits intermittently throughout the summer should give it considerable ornamental interest. why Magnolia grandiflora - frequently used this has coarse as a foliage and hence is not ideal for complete wall cover (when sheared) espalier purposes. ] [ 54 i, \"e \" .~ x ~ x '\" :e c E ~ w c ~ 0 ap :e ~ 0 a ~ ro # c W ,~ E~ o ~x c~ 0 a 0 0 , CQ C ro ,., h O ro \" -; a A c. h ~_ ' E Malus - fruits general and apples and pears in particular have long been esdesigns have been used. Good old fashioned exhibits of espaliered fruits are in the vegetable gardens at Mt. Vernon (Va.) and Williamsburg, Va. To obtain sizable fruits, considerable pruning as well as spraying are in paliered, ' many variety of apple can be used but if it is dwarf understock (blallmg #3, #7, or #9) the chances are results will be better. The Eley flowering crabapple, Whitney crabapple and Dolgo crabapple all have been used. In fact there is no reason why small fruiting (i.e., strictly ornamental) forms can not be used and these require far less spraying and pruning than the larger commercial fruiting varieties. It is these, and pears that are worked into various cordon designs and the branches can be trained into right angle turns. necessary. Almost any commercial on grafted Morus alba - fast growing tree, this has been espaliered because of the small The sexes are usually separate and if fruits are desired one should be certain to have a fruiting clone. Because of its vigorous habit it does require considerable and constant pruning to keep it within bounds. The interesting leaves give it additional value when properly espaliered, and designs can be the same as those for apples and pears. a berry-like fruits. Philadelphus coronarius - trained the same way and for the same reasons as forsythias. Photinia villosa - because of small foliage and bright colored fruits this should make a workable espalier. as an Poncirus trifoliata - the interesting small but bitter \" it a good selection in late April. oranges of this plant make espalier. The small, single white flowers are borne - Prinsepia sinensis - unfortunately . a rare plant in American nurseries, this is extremely hardy, is one of the earliest shrubs to show leaves in the spring, and bears bright red fruits in the late summer. It probably is best grown in simple fan shaped or arching designs. Prunus triloba - because of its conspicuous double pink flowers, this makes a striking espalier in flower. The blooms are borne close to the main stem making it very good when trained in this way. Prunus sp. - several other cherries have been espaliered, especially the fruiting attracted to the fruits that they do not last very long. Because of this, cherries might be overlooked as modern espalier plants because there are so many other better things available. Apricots, nectarines and peaches are all plants which have been espaliered for centuries. They need considerable care for the pruning must be done just right in order to obtain the fruit spurs that bear the flowers and eventually the fruits. Dwarfing understock has yielded plants that are slower growing and hence more detypes, but birds are so ~~s~ ] G G ~ e E c '~5 a a ce c . a . v ~ v a u a > ~ to 0 e f t H~ w~ c O a N 0 ~_r' G a 0 &B aj ~ . ~ '3 . t 0 0 0 0 0 sirable as espaliers. If time and patience in pruning are too time consuming, would certainly be better off to use some of the purely ornamental plants rather than commercial fruit varieties. one Pyracantha as sp. - these are probably the most popular of all ornamental plants espaliers, for they flower and fruit profusely, and can be forced into growing in almost any design. The red fruits are conspicuous, but the yellow fruited forms are truly unique. They can be grown two and three stories high. Pyrus sp. - these are widely espahered in Europe, especially in the commercial orchards of France. The leaves do have a glossy, ornamental character and the foliage turns brilliant red in the fall. Dwarfing understock aids in slowing down the growth. They are used in designs having right angles, especially those with branches trained as uprights and horizontals. Rhamnus frangula columnaris 'Tallhedge' - a new columnar growing shrub which should be well adapted to growing as an espalier. The glossy leaves, small flowers and bright colored fruits are certainly ornamental enough. Particular care should be taken in cutting out unwanted shoots from the base. Tamarix sp. - frequently used as a wall plant and flowers are probably best adapted to fan the intricate designs used for fruits. or or espalier, its feathery foliage simple arching designs, not Taxus sp. - making valued espaliers, especially the upright growing types. It is probable that fan type designs are best. Female or fruiting forms should be used for the fruits add materially to the ornamental interest. Viburnum sp. - few of these grow tall num enough to make large espaliers but Viburdentatum, lentago, prunifolium, rufululum, sieboldii and tinus are species which might be tried. Of course, the smaller foliage types (V. dentatum, lentago, tinus) are probably best but all those mentioned might be tried to see how adaptable they would prove. These then it would seem a might have ~\" merely some suggestions, all of which have not been tried but that the individual who knows plant growth and how to prune fascinating time trying them as espaliered plants. are DONALD WYMAN [ 58 ] PLATE XVII Forsythia grows very fast when grown as spring make it outstanding. an espalier but its profuse flowers in early (~9J ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Mountain-Ashes","article_sequence":9,"start_page":61,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24486","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060b326.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"i ~ ARNOLDIA ~ A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 ~# EI ~ , . SEPTEMBER 1~, 1969 THE MOUNTAIN-ASHES NUMBER 9 _ the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum but not all of them are of outstanding ornamental interest. Only about two dozen are being grown in American nurseries and some of these are recent introductions from Holland, mostly hybrids, with coined names made to appeal to the imagination of the plant buying public. European gardeners, however, think more highly of this group for some 64 different species and varieties can be found by searching European nursery catalogues. In fact, one English nursery firm recently listed 45. These plants, ranging in height from 5' to 60~ are native throughout the northern temperate regions of the world. They are chiefly valued for their clusters of bright colored ornamental fruits in the fall. The genus Sorbus belongs to the rose family hence their fruits are small pomes. Their creamy white flower clusters in the spring, somewhat similar to those of Viburnum lentago, and the autumn foliage coloration of some, add to their effectiveness. In parts of America, Sorbus species are susceptible to attacks of red spider, fire blight and borers. Since they are also weak-wooded and can split easily in ice or wind storms, these factors are important in decreasing their popularity in certain sections of America. Sorbus species have alternate, mostly pinnately compound leaves although a few have simple leaves. In the following list, those with simple leaves are S. alnifolia, aria, and folgneri, with S. hybrida partly pinnate toward the base of the leaf and entire towards the end. The flowers appearing in May are small, white and produced in large flat clusters like those of some viburnums or Queen Anne's lace. The brilliantly colored white, pink, red and yellow fruits are borne in 8-5~~ clusters with the individual fruits ~-~~~ in diameter. This group of trees is used for specimens and in some areas as street trees, but one should be certain that borers are not a serious hazard in areas where they are THERE -t- are 100 species and varieties of Sorbus growing in the collections or to be used in large numbers, especially as street trees. The Korean mountain-ash (S. alnifolia) and the Kashmir mountain-ash (S. ] [ 61 \" have about the largest individual flowers of any, between 4\" and 1\" in diameter. The latter has flower buds tinged pale pink but the flowers soon fade to creamy white. The Korean mountain-ash should be singled out again because of its gray bark, similar to that of the European beech, for it is of considerable interest throughout the entire winter. Sorbus hybrida, folgneri and aria have leaves that are white tomentose underneath, so much so as to be of considerable ornamental value. Some of the varieties are of fastigiate habit, and while fastigiate trees are young and under 20~ in height, such plants make excellent specimens. However, these do not grow old gracefully, for the taller and wider they get, the more easily they break up in wind, snow and ice storms. Hence these fastigiate forms should be considered of service only while young. Several species are widely native throughout Europe and the fruits of some have been used there to make jellies and preserves for centuries. All in all, the mountain-ash is not one of our best ornamental trees. Certainly its disease and insect pests are sufficiently numerous to prevent it from being used widely as a street tree. As an ornamental planted here and there in the full sun where it does best, it can be a colorful spot of color in the fall landscape. _ cashmiriana) Recommended Species and Varieties Note: All of these alnifolia plants are growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Zone 5 Korea Korean mountain-ash 60~ This is the best of the Sorbus species-certainlyit has performed that way in the Arnold Arboretum. The flowers are profuse ; individual flowers being as much as ~\" in diameter. The excellent scarlet to orange fruits are ~-~~~ long, and the autumn color is orange to scarlet. The leaves are simple-not compound. The smooth, dark gray bark gives much the same effect as bark of the European beech and the whole tree is vigorous and pyramidal to oval in general outline. Apparently it is not as susceptible to borers as are most of the other species. americana 80' Zone 2 tree with Northeastern North America American mountain-ash A small, sometimes shrubby vigorous European mountain-ash tinguished from its American white pubescent while those only slightly pubescent. It is listed here because it is native over a wide area of the eastern United States, but S. decora is often considered the better of these two natives. Both have pinnately compound leaves with about 11-17 leaflets. bright red fruit. The taller, more in America and can usually be discounterparts because its winter buds are densely of the American mountain-ashes are glabrous or is used more C~z~] PLATE XVIII hybrida; L. S. aucuparia; 3. S. ahaifolia; 4. S. aria. Lower: 1..sorbus aucuparia; Q. S. aucuparia 'Asplenifolia'; 3. S. cashmiriana; 4. S. decora; 5. S. vilmorinii; 6. S. rehderiana; 7. S. americana. Upper: 1. Sorbus aria 45~ Zone 5 Europe White beam A European native, widely planted there, with simple leaves 2-4~~ long, usually very tomentose underneath. The scarlet red fruits are ~-~~~m diameter and are specked with brownish dots. It is very characteristic of the chalk soils of Great Britain, but does fairly well in our more acid soils. In America, it is perhaps better known for some of its varieties : 'Aurea' (syn. chrysophylla) with yellow foliage. 'Majestica' (syn. decaisneana) with red fruits as much as ~~~ in diameter. The leaves of this variety can be 7\" long and they are also covered with the white, downy pubescence which adds so much to the attractiveness of the species in areas where soot and dust are not a problem. If the leaves and fruit of this variety are considered too coarse, then the species might be substituted. XSorbus arnoldiana A cross 40~ Zone 5 Arnold mountain-ash in the Arnold Arboretum in (S. is a discolorXS. aucuparia) originating same habit as S. aucuparia with pinnately of 11-17leaflets, but its outstanding ornamental charcompound leaves composed acteristic is its profusee light pink fruits, about the size of those of S. aucuparia. 190i, this vigorous species of the Europe European mountain-ash Called the rowan tree, this has been a popular ornamental in America since colonial times and is definitely a taller tree than its American relative, S. americana. It has even become naturalized in Alaska. The leaves are pinnately compound with 9-15 leaflets and the bright red fruits, 4~~ in diameter, are borne in large showy clusters. The autumn color of the foliage is reddish. It has been used widely in America as the understock on which other species and varieties of Sorbus are budded and grafted. Varieties sometimes seen in America are : 'Asplenifolia'-a very graceful tree with doubly serrate leaflets. `Beissneri'-another graceful variety with lobed leaflets. The leaf petioles and branchlets are bright red. aucuparia variety moravica named for the edulis-with fruit larger than that of the species and sometimes known as the area where it is native in northern Austria. This fruit is edible and has been much used for preserves in Austria and northern 45~ Zone 2 Germany. `Fastigiata'-it is true that the species is more or less erect anyway, but this variety is certainly so, especially while young. As noted previously such heavily fruited trees do not grow old gracefully and do not keep their upright habit indefinitely. There comes a time after 15-20 years when the branches begin to widen out and the variety eventually takes on the habit of the species. Hence it should be used for its fastigiate habit only while young. `Pendula'-with pendulous branches. xanthocarpa-fruits yellow, not red to orange. ] [ 64 PLATE XIX Upper: Fruits of Sorbus decora. the Showy mountain-ash. Lower: Sorbus aucuparia 'Pendula' growing in a hotel court at Aulanko, Finland. cashmiriana 20~ was Zone 4 Himalayas Cashmir mountain-ash introduced to America for trial by the Arnold Arboretum in consider it merely a variety of S. tianshanica. However, the Cashmir mountain-ash is appearing hardier. The flower buds are blush pink; the flowers open tinged pink, the only one in our collection with such beautiful flowers, each one of which is ~~~ in diameter. The leaves are pinnately compound with 15-19 leaflets. The fruits are large, ~ ~ in diameter, colored white with pink tinge on pink or red fruit stalks, making the plants most ornamental. A shrubby tree well worthy of trial wherever mountain-ashes are grown. This species 1949, although some decora 30~ Zone 2 Northeastern North America Showy mountain-ash One of the best of the native Sorbus species, with larger fruits (~~~~ than the americana, and pinnately compound leaves containing 11-17 leaflets. It is a shrubby tree, but the large, bright red berries, make it an excellent ornamental for the colder parts of the country. We have several trees of what George Jackman and Sons Nursery of England sent us as a S. decora 'Nana' which apparently has outstanding ornamental characteristics. The leaves are much darker green than those of S. aucuparia and the fruits are a darker red. As a tree, it grows with a single trunk, very narrow indeed. One specimen that is only 12 years old is about 10~ tall but a single upright column of foliage not over 3~ wide. Sorbus aucuparia 'Fastigiata' on the other hand, grows with several main leaders from the base and has a much wider habit. Regardless of what species this tree eventually turns out to be, this particular variety is the most narrow of any Sorbus plants I have ever seen. native S. discolor 30~ Zone 5 China Snowberry mountain-ash The white fruits, ~~~ in diameter, have been variously described as \"yellow\" \"pink\". The fruits on the Arnold Arboretum trees have always been white, and even though they may vary they make a most colorful display in the fall of the year. The leaves are pinnately compound with 11-15 leaflets. or folgneri 24~ Zone 5 Central China Folgner mountain-ash Because it is a tree, but still smaller than most others in this group, this should be noted as a desirable type. The fruits are red, about ~~~ long, the leaves are simple, ovate and finely serrate-about 2-3~~~ long, dark green above and white woolly beneath making a good color contrast. It may be that red spider and lace fly, which can infest Sorbus foliage, do not do much injury to this species because of this woolly pubescence. ~ss~ ] '\" C: . 0 E 0 OS v 0 x ..<: a C . : o ~~ w : # 'T.i .. .~ <: M ax a. . ,~ . H d Y .U t !::J U \" d ..c O U 4y. a XSorbus hybrida 36~ Zone 4 Oakleaf mountain-ash This is thought to be a natural hybrid of S. intermedia and S. aucuparia, often found wild in central Europe. It is mentioned here because it has been planted in America and its peculiarly shaped leaves are always of interest. The leaves on flowering branches are often simple, but other leaves, 3-6\" long are usually pinnate or cut nearly to the midrib at the base, then lobed and toothed at the apex. The lower surface is also gray-pubescent; the fruits being 2j5~~ long and bright red. 'Fastigiata' has a more upright habit than does the species. 'Gibsii' is similar to the species except that the fruit is a really beautiful red. It might be used in place of the species merely because plants of this clone are more uniform than those of the hybrid species. sargentiana The flowers 30~ Zone 6 China Sargent mountain-ash pinnately compound leaves are 8-1`?~~ long with i-11 leaflets. The white are borne on woolly flower stalks and the rounded, scarlet fruits are about in diameter. The long leaves and woolly stalked flower clusters are its chief 1 \/5~~ claims to fame, although the young shoots are also white woolly at first. tianshanica Shrub to 15~ Zone 5 Turkestan This shrub or small tree is listed here merely because of its potential use in small gardens. The flowers are nearly ~~~ in diameter and with those of S. alnifolia and cashmiriana about the largest of the Sorbus group. Each fruit cluster is 3-5~~ across. The bright red fruit ~~~ in diameter and the dark green lustrous, pinnately compound leaves with 9-15 leaflets go to make this small plant useful in certain restricted areas. vilmorinii 18~ Zone 5 China Vilmorin mountain-ash - Often a shrub, about as wide as high, with bright red fruits ~~~ in diameter, that may turn to nearly white as they mature. Bean states it is \"one of the best\". The leaves, pinnately compound and only 3-5~~~ long are neatly divided with as many as 31 leaflets making this the Sorbus species with the smallest leaves. A large number of hybrids have recently appeared on the market, many introduced from Holland, with appealing names such as 'Apricot Queen', 'Carpet of Gold', 'Maidenblush', 'Old Pink', 'Pink Coral', 'Red Tip' and 'Scarlet King'. These have been selected from large numbers of hybrid seedlings for their colorful fruits. ... DONALD WYMAN ] [ 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The European Mistletoe (Viscum album)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24484","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060af28.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rohrbach, Heinrich","article_content":"ARNOLDIA _ .. A publication , E1 ' ,,;. of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 SEPTEMBER 26, 1969 THE EUROPEAN MISTLETOE o NUMBER 10 (Piscum album) EVER growing dark-green The were since my boyhood in Germany I have been fascinated by the mistletoes on various host trees. The yellowish-green bushes-on the bluish on a Scotch pines, on the Black Forest firs, trasting with the plant on which they grew, made the deciduous trees-con- lasting impression. European mistletoe has been admired since ancient times. The ancients mystified by it. The Greeks attributed certain powers to it in the hands of Hermes; the Romans associated it with Mercury and Aeneas. In Nordic mythology, Odin used the twig; Balder, the sun god, was killed with a twig used as an arrow in the hands of Hotherus; and, since then, the mistletoe twig has been used at the time of the awakening sun as a symbol of new life- much appreciated in Great Britain. After the early establishment of the Christian Church its use was allowed during the winter festival of Christmastime, incorporating it-as well as holly and other plants from earlier religious tradition of decoration-into the rites commemorating the birth of Christ. Even now the mistletoe branch hangs over the door of many an Anglo-Saxon on New Year's day. In Europe the beautiful, white, glistemng berries are the specialty of the mistletoe thrushes. These birds distribute the seeds as they try to brush off the sticky berries from their beaks on the branches of other trees. This is a hit-ormiss affair, because the seed, although it may germinate, has been known since ancient times to grow usually on the same species of host plant on which the mother plant grew. Mistletoe from Pinus sylvestris will grow only on P. sylvestris; from .46ies alba (pectinata), only on A. alba. On the deciduous trees there are also different races known-on Malus, on Acer pseudoplatanus, on Populus, on Tilia cordata. Until the early l9th century, no trees from other continents were present in European gardens to which mistletoe could spread. Since then, however, many plants from Asia and America, have been introduced into European gardens, and it has become possible for mistletoe on deciduous hosts, where there were [ 69 ] other own-host plants nearby in the parks, to be spread by the birds to nearby partially related trees. Since the European mistletoe is very hardy- known in the mythology of Celts, Druids, Germans, and Vikings alike, finding its way into the customs pertaining to the winter solstice and Christmas- I wanted to try to grow the plant here in America. Viscum album and the American mistletoe, (Phoradendron,flavescens~, belong to the family Loranthaceae, which consists of half-parasitic plants. The American mistletoe does not grow north of Maryland and New Jersey or west of Indiana and Missouri. The limit is along the Mississippi River south of St. Louis, near Festus, Missouri. Therefore I could not grow it at my former home in Pennsylvania nor in New England. My conscience bothered me some when I considered bringing the European mistletoe to America for experimentation, as we have enough parasites in the United States. I remembered the experiences with chestnut blight, Japanese beetles, gypsy moths, and others. But many years of research gave me the answer to this problem. We do not have the specific bird species here that are known to distribute the berries. The plant grows so slowly that my 15-year-old seedlings are only 8-10 o inches tall. The mistletoe, as a half-parasite, takes only minerals and water from the host plants, since it has chlorophyll for its own assimilation process. The common host plants of the European mistletoe (in Europe) are not native to America. If it grows on American plants, it does not become a pest, but rather no a beautiful asset. I tried germinating seeds as early as 1923, without success. Correspondence with botanical authorities in Berlin, Vienna, Innsbruck and Frankfurt, resulted in the information that the seed loses its viability in the dark very quickly. It has to be kept in the light. Then I found that seeds from Europe by air arrive in America soon enough, but less than 1 per cent germinate. The continental climate here, with extremes of temperature in summer and winter, is just not conducive to their good germination and growth. The flowers are dioecious. So far my plants have not produced berries. It takes a long time and much patience in waiting for them to appear. Where the native host trees were few, the thrushes, in flying to nearby American trees in the parks and botanical gardens in Germany, distributed the berries to some American trees. Thus, apparently, over the centuries, adaptation took place, resulting in the spreading of the European mistletoe to non-European trees. The mistletoe grows on Acer saccharinum, the silver maple, on Juglans nigra, the black walnut, and on Robinia pseudoacacia, the black locust-a marvelous sight in winter. The mistletoe from apples spread on one American pin oak, Quercus palustris, in the public park in Badhomberg. Also, in France, tourists can admire the dense clusters of evergreen branches in the Canada poplars growing along the Seine River between Paris and Versailles. So, over the cen- becomes ~ ~o ~ ] Botany in Boston's Restaurants _ ~ Lecturers: Dr. Richard A. Howard, Director of the Arnold Arboretum Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Associate Curator Boston offers a variety of restaurants serving \"foreign foods\". We have ch~ ~ t~ five of them to introduce you to the plants and plant products that are used in making exotic dishes. After an introductory session at the Schoolhouse on i I~r Case Estates in Weston to become familiar with some botanical hors d'oeuvrr. we will meet and eat at a different restaurant every other ueek. A menu a~ <i directions will be supplied in advance. At each meeting, the raw materials and, \"r herbarium specimens of the botanical components of the meal will be the sub,j` (t of \"scholarly\" discussions. Recipes will be available at some meetings. A final dinner will be prepared by some of the Arboretum staff to offer tropical pl~nt t materials not readily available in most restaurants. This course is open only to \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\"* and must be limited to 22 individuals. Registration is for the entire course only. If you cann`~t;E3x#& t attend a meeting you may send a substitute. The registration fee of $45.00 co~` i s the meals, taxes and gratuities only. We regret we cannot serve alcoholic be~ ~~ages of the country at this price. If, however, you are interested, we can ofl` n a post-course meeting to discuss and taste various wines at an additional fee. October 30, meet at the Schoolhouse, 133 Wellesley Street, an introductory talk and botanical hors d'oeuvres. November 6, 20, December 4, 18, and ton restaurants Weston, at 7 : :a0 P. M. for January featuring Chinese, Italian, Syrian, 8 we meet in various BoFrench and Scandinavian foods. Meeting time-6 :00 P.M. meet at the January 22, Caribbean dinner Schoolhouse, featuring tropical foods. 133 Wellesley Street, Weston for a Reservations for this series should be accompanied by payment of $45.00 for each person registering. Please make check payable to the Arnold Arboretuv` of Harvard University. * Information or on how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" can by writing 52~.-1717. calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA. be obtainrd 02130. Tel : Evenings with Friends A series of talks by members of the organization known as the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\".* In this group numbering nearly 900 members there are many fine speakers with extremely interesting subjects. We will hear from five \"Friends\" who will speak on five very different topics. All talks will be illustrated. Time: October 21 to November 18, 1969. Refreshments will be served at 7 :30 P. M. Programs will start at 8:00 promptly. Tuesday evenings, Place: The Schoolhouse, 133 Wellesley Street, Weston, Mass. Please park in the area indicated near the barn. Famous Gardens of Japan. Mr. and Mrs. David Milliken The Millikens have visited Japan three times and have taken many excellent pictures of outstanding gardens there, mostly near Tokyo and Kyoto. A talk for travelers, photographers and October21 : gardeners. October 28 : Bonsai for Beginners. Mrs. Ara Derderian Derderian, Honorary Curator of the Arnold Arboretum Bonsai Collection, will discuss how bonsai are trained and maintained. Special emphasis will be placed on the Arnold Arboretum's remarkable collection of these increasingly popular plants. November 4 : Mrs. Big City Beautification. Mrs. Augusta Bailey Mrs. Bailey is president of the Roxbury-Dorchester Community Beautification Programs, Inc. She has had seven years of experience here in this type of work, some rewarding and some depressing but the work goes on. Some of the Arnold Arboretum staff are involved to an extent in this work and a progress report will be of great interest. Problems of November 11 : The Spruce Bog, an Essay on Ecology and The Embryonic Development of Fish. Mr. Joseph Durden Don't let the titles frighten you. These are remarkably well done color sound films. The film on fish has won awards at film festivals in Budapest, Venice, Berlin and Padua. November I8: A Walk in My Own Yard. Mrs. Richard Pratt Mrs. Pratt is an expert photographer. She presents studies of common things of the garden and yard. Flowers, both wild and cultivated, and insects are some of her subjects. This will be a fitting conclusion to this unusual series of talks. Limited space makes it necessary to restrict the size of this group to no more than 30 members. Registration fee for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum $5.00; others $10.00. Any member of the immediate family of a \"Friend\" may register for these meetings but a registration fee must be paid for each member. * writing Information on how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" can be obtained by or calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, MA. 02130. Tel.: 5~14-1? 17. aj U w C > F. N 2' U C . U cc 6G ,~O r. C +~ wE 0 H .C. d a c 0 v 1~ N ~a r S n< 0 w ~ J3 H a few American trees growing in Europe. To grow the European mistletoe, the seed must be pressed on the bark (it does not have to be imbedded). The seed germinates and sends a small stem with a suction cup into the bark the first year. In the second year the bark grows around this, and the little seedling appears. The seeds will germinate on any surface-a piece of wood or a piece of glass-but only on their host plants will they get enough nourishment through the bark to develop. Even if a seed from the Scotch pine mistletoe germinates on a linden or an apple, it will usually die after a few months. Some chemical reaction prevents further growth. No one turies it has been distributed to has found the reason. The American mistletoe, growing in the southeastern United States, grows only on species of deciduous trees. It must have taken a few hundred years for the European mistletoe which grows on Acer pseudoplatanus to spread to the American silver maple, to the black walnut, and to the black locust. However, this did occur in Badenweiler near Freiburg in the foothills of the Black Forest and on locusts in Hannover, Germany. I have been growing a plant of European mistletoe on a silver maple tree for 15 years. This spring this tree was donated to the Arnold Arboretum and planted in the holly collection in the woods at its Case Estates in Weston. I also have donated two others growing on European lindens to the Arboretum, hoping that, with all the resources there, the Arboretum will keep alive the study of this very interesting plant. HEINRICH ROHRBACH .~ \" ` ' ' owner of: Heatherfels Nursery Andover, Massachusetts Formerly Recently moved to Baden-Baden, Germany. f~2J ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Check List of Cultivar Names Used in the Genus Lantana","article_sequence":11,"start_page":73,"end_page":109,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24473","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15ebb6f.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA 0153 1 VE A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 OCTOBER 10, 1969 NUMBER 11 A CHECK LIST OF CULTIVAR NAMES USED IN THE GENUS LANTANA Lantana from tropical America has been in cultivation in for over 200 years. During this time the plant has been so popular that several hundred selections were made, named and sold by nurserymen and breeders. The selections were commonly used as bedding plants, for dwarf borders, in hanging baskets, and, less frequently, as specimen plants. A premium was placed on such characteristics as dwarfness, THE GENUS temperate areas the nature of a change of color, display of the inflorescolor or variegation in the leaves. As an attractive deep ornamental, the plant was transported to nearly every tropical country during the colonial period and in many, unfortunately, the plant escaped from cultivation to become a noxious weed. By 1900 Lantana had lost favor as an ornamental and only in the recent decades have nurserymen begun again to select, name, and offer for sale named cultivars. The original material introduced to gardens of Europe probably came from Brazil. With subsequent exploration and introductions from Mexico and the West Indies a diversified stock for breeding purposes became available to horticulturists. Prince Johan Moritz of Nassau travelled in Brazil 1636 - 44 and had in his company the artist Frans Post, who painted in oils no fewer than 555 pictures of plants and animals of interest to the Prince or the physician who accompanied them. The collection of paintings was presented to Prince Friedrich Wilhelm, and in 1858 it was in the Royal Library in Berlin. During the 19th century the collection was broken up and distributed to many art museums. An anonymous article, possibly by Karl Koch and G. A. Fintelman, in the German garden periodical Wochen- constancy of color cences, and or [73]] schrift fiir Gartnerei und Pflanzenkunde reported that among the Post paintings was a flowering shrub called \"camara\" by the Spanish colonists. This was of particular interest for the leaves were used to make an infusion taken internally as medicine or used as a bath. Several species of Lantana have a similar use today. Prior to 1753 when Linnaeus established the genus as accepted today, botanists had also called the plants Camara. It was noted that the flowers of the Brazilian plant changed color; and plants with red flowers, one with white, and a third with yellow flowers were mentioned. It was apparently from this expedition that the first plants of Lantana reached Holland and were cultivated. Prof. Paul Hermann reported that one Lantana was under cultivation at the Botanical Garden in Leiden in 1687, and a later director, Herman Boerhaave, listed four forms in 1710. John Commelyn also depicted such a plant in the garden at Amsterdam at about the same time. Sir Hans Sloane listed no fewer than fifty-four species of Lantana after his trips to the West Indies in 1688. Philip Miller mentioned Lantana for the first time in the 6th edition of his Gardener's Dictionary in 1752. He described six taxa saying, \"All these sorts grow wild in the island of Jamaica from whence I have received these seeds several times.\" In the abridged version, the 5th edition published in 1763, nine types were mentioned including one sent by Dr. Houston from Vera Cruz and another received from William Aiton in Hortus Kewensis (2: 350-353. 1789) listed ten species cultivated at Kew and noted that Lantana camara from the West Indies had been cultivated at the Royal Garden, Hampton Court, in 1691, and L. aculeata in 1692. Johann Dillen described four kinds of Lantana, two with yellow and red flowers and two with all yellow flowers, under cultivation at Eltham before 1732. The parentage of the Lantana cultivated in Europe at the beginning of the 19th century, then, was a variety of taxa from several areas in the New World. The early horticulturists propagated these plants from cuttings and by seed and occasionally the crosses are indicated. The name \"Lantana hybrida\" has been used many times to indicate a single plant or a group of plants from which selections were made. The species Lantana camara and Lantana montevidensis ( as L. sellowiana ) were cited as the parents. More recently the name Lantana callowiana has been designated by the Monrovia Nursery, Azusa, California, as \"an entirely new species produced from the hybridization of Lantana camara and Lantana sellowiana, retaining only the finer characteristics of each.\" The name was first used in their 1952-1953 catalogue (p. 44) as Lantana callowiana aurea 'Goldrush' ( Patent Pending ) and again the following year (Cat. p. 43. 1953-54) as Lantana callowiana 'Goldrush' (Plant Pat. No. 1211). The hybrid was later used as one parent for cultivars 'Confetti', 'Cream Carpet', 'Dwarf Pink', 'Spreading Sunset', Sunshine', and 'Sunburst'. Lantana 'Goldrush Improved' is a \"selected clone of L. 'Goldrush' that showed an improved form over the orig- Campechy in Mexico. 'Spreading [74]] PLATE XXII A poster distributed by the Department of Agriculture in Rhodesia, (Zambia) pleading for the extermination of Lantana camara. [75]] used in ornamental horticulture. The staff of the Arnold Arboretum already has compiled such listings for woody genera well represented in our own collections and has indicated in earlier issues of Arnoldia on Cornus, Ulmus, Forsythia, Fagus and Chaenomeles the difficulties involved in this work even for well known temperate genera. The genus Lantana was selected as a project to determine the kinds of bibliographic and nomenclatural problems that would be encountered in working with a tropical group. Unexpectedly it became apparent that the bulk of the cultivar names were suggested in temperate areas of both the northern and southern hemispheres where breeding and selection took place. To make the work of greatest value the bibliographic reference and the author, although not required by the Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, are given as completely as possible when supplied in the original source document. In the following list we record the earliest use of cultivar names known to us even though, in the majority of cases, we suspect that the reference may not be the earliest use of the name by a particular firm. Often older catalogues of the firm are not available and complete series of such catalogues are indeed rarities. When the earliest reference did not include any words of description or identification, a citation is also given for the earliest available reference which does. Frequently review articles, listing the selections or introductions of a new cultivar by an individual, often a nurseryman, were the sources of names. Careful searching of the older nursery catalogues now available only in Europe might produce earlier uses of such names. The descriptive information available on the cultivars of Lantana is mostly brief and is frequently confusing. Selections of Lantana may have inflorescences of varying shapes - flat vs. curved or globular - yet this distinction is a matter of the age of the inflorescence. Colors are important in the choice of special varieties, yet individual flowers vary in color with age and maturity. The descriptions may refer to colors which \"become\" a different hue. Reference is also often made to the fact that individual flowers have a petal tone which differs from that of the orifice of the corolla tube. It is often impossible to determine if the author means that the outer portion of the flower is a different color than the center of that flower or if he means the marginal flowers of the globular inflorescence are different names plant.\" Lantana 'Tangerine' was derived by selfing the hybrid 'Goldrush'. Recently Khoshoo and Mahal have studied the breeding systems of a selected group of cultivars in India. (Curr. Sci. 8: 201-203. 1967). They have found the ploidy level of cultivars of Lantana camara to vary from 2X to 5X. Further they noted male sterile cultivars; cultivars of low seed fertility and frequent apomixis both facultative and obligate. It is scarcely surprising, therefore, that variation is frequent and that with vegetative propagation individual variations can be perpetuated and, these, unfortunately, have been named as cultivars. The present study was begun in response to a recent appeal from the International Society of Horticultural Sciences for compilations of cultivar inal [76]] oj 0 nn ~ ~ -c c ~ ~ 0 U o~ ...-: U aa ~U 1::r,~C&\".: . 'C #x3 ;: B . ~ ~w ~~ ow :::: .:f3Z >< bO.S C .,~, c~ ~ ~H y b0 bO.~ S U c~ ,'~(,' w ~ OC E pa oU :::S p.., ~ oU O0 U m ,~ x 3~ \"'C~ ~w a~ cIj .d N o0 .~ ~z U 0~ ~ ~ C3 a center of the infloresthe descriptions recorded to specific plants today would be futile. In a few cases we have determined that the plant offered as a cultivar is different from that originally described under the same name. When two nurserymen can be associated with cultivars of the same name but of different descriptions or dates of publication, both names and references are cited. Names for cultivars have been proposed in the common European languages, but the spellings of the names have varied with translation or erroneous transliteration when the plant is introduced or referred to in a different country. With only a few exceptions, the cultivar names in the following list are not applied to species or hybrid groups. The genus Lantana is not an easy one to consider taxonomically. Dr. Harold Moldenke, who has studied the genus Lantana and family Verbenaceae for many years, wrote, \"You cannot depend on the accuracy of identification on the labels of plant specimens marked 'Lantana camara' in herbaria. I have found that a large percentage of such material is actually L. moritziana (mostly South American), L. glandulosissima ( mostly Mexican and Central American ), L. scorta ( mostly Mexican), L. horrida (mostly Texan), L. arida (mostly West Indian), L. gutinosa (mostly southern South American) etc. etc.\" There is no key available to distinguish these species, and descriptions of the individual cultivars rarely indicate the critical characters needed for assignment to in color from that of the cence. young flowers in bud in the Any attempt to apply species. The vast commerce tion, there is no apparent need to rename the invalid homonymic cultivar. A very few commercial synonyms were indicated by the originator of the name in cases of introduction in a foreign country. Cultivar names which should be maintained are printed in large and small capital letters. Cultivar names which should be rejected as misspellings, erroneous transliterations, or later homonyms are given in roman type. A. Clavean majority of the names in the following list are not offered in today. Where names conflict in description or date of publica- Misspelling of 'A. Claveau'. 'A. CLAVEAU' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 83. 1892). Dwarf; umbels with marginal deep rose flowers, the central ones dark. - 'A. CooK' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Sons, White Marsh, Md. Cat. p. 12. 1902). Published without description. Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 34. 193435 describes the cultivar as a dwarf with claret and yellow flowers. `AssE LAUTIER' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. & 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. 'ABBE TaouvE' (G. Flowers yellow. Brunning Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. 1896). f7al] Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Canary dark center. Probably misspelling of 'Adolphe Hivas'. 'ADOLPHE HIVAS' (La Belg. Hort. 18: 147. 1868). Illustrated as having outer flowers pink with a dark eye and the central flowers yellow. Adolphe Hwas (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited without description by A. Petot. Possibly the earliest use and correct spelling of 'Adolphe Hivas'. Adolphe Hwass (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 138. 1869). Bright canary yellow, golden center. Possible misspelling of 'Adolphe Hivas'. `AEao' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Dwarf; flowers pure white. A Bruant selection. 'ALBA GRANDIFLORA' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 61. 1857). Published without description but attributed to M. Henry Jacotot, Dijon, Fr. First description as large umbels of white flowers appears in Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858. 'ALBA LUTEA GRANDIFLORA' ( Chate, Horticulteur Franc. p. 300. 1866). Flowers white with a yellow eye. A Randatler selection. Alba Magna (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without de- Adolphe Avis (C. E. yellow flowers with scription. Alba Magna (Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 33. Undated, prob. 1865). Credited to Demay 1862. 'ALBA NANA' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 138. 1869). Very dwarf; flowers white. 'ALBA PERFECTA' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Pure white. 'ALBA VIOLACEA' (Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas, p. 38. Undated, The largest flowers of the species, \"L. sellowiana,\" deep violet with center. Selection of M. Chauviere. 'ALBIN' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). nowers white, the central ones clear yellow. prob. 1865). a large white Semi-dwarf, compact, marginal 'ALBINOS' (Saget, Le selection. Jardin 20: 277. 1906 ) . White flowered semi-dwarf. A Bruant `ALBO-PURPUREA' (Desf. Cat. Hort. Paris, ed. 3: 392. white turning violet-purple. 1829). Flowers and fruit 'ALHAMBRA' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 13. 1913). Flowers in large trusses, a delicate shade of creamy white with sulphur yellow center. 'AMABALIS' (Leonard Fille, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 85. 1895). Dwarf plant; flowers yellow and buff. (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Dwarf, compact, umbels and large, marginal flowers rose and yellow passing to a bright uniform rose. A Bruant selection. 'AMETHYSTINA' (Flore des Jardins 2: 172. 1859). Stated to be under cultivation in German botanical gardens. 'AMI PECHEUR' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). A form of L. camara with very large flowers. [79]] `AMELIA' flowers 'AMIEL' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Umbels large, flowers brick orange with yellow center. Semi-dwarf. A Bruant selection. 'ANNA Tm.r.icH' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103. p. 40. 1887). Dwarf plant with fiery red flowers. 'ANNEI' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 33. Undated, prob. 1865). Light yellow flowers bordered with white. Credited to Chate, 1863. 'ANTON HUMANN' ( Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Golden flowers passing to violet. `APOGEE' ( Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Golden and yellow. A Bruant selection. `APOLLON' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1875). Carmine yellow flowers veering to crimson. A Ferrand selection. Apollon (Revue Hort. 1879: 8. 1879). Published without description. Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896 describes this cultivar as a dwarf, the flowers rose with the center golden. A Bruant selection. `AQUILON' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Flowers white. Archimede (Wochenschrift, Garten-Nachrichten 3: 12. 1858). Flowers white with a golden eye. Plants offered by Crousse. 'ARCHIMEDES' ( Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Flowers white and golden. 'ARETHUSA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 33. Undated, prob. 1865). Large corymbs of clear rose flowers. Credited to Boucharlat 1859. 'ARGUS' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1875). Dwarf; flowers clear yellow passing to copper-rose. A Lemoine selection. `ARLEQUIN' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 178. p. 11. 1911). Leaves with streaks of yellow. A Rivoire selection. 'AscANio' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Dwarf; flowers golden yellow, with a butter colored eye. 'ATROPURPUREA' ( Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 300. 1866). Flowers small, of the deepest color. A selection by Chate. 'AUGUSTE MIELLEZ' (Wm. Clibran & Sons, Cheshire, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Light shaded. 'AUGUSTINE WILHELM' (Wm. Clibran & Sons, Cheshire, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Flowers white and orange. `AUREA-SUPERBA' (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Published without description. Aurora Spelling variant of 'Aurore'. Aurora Boreale Spelling variant of 'Aurore Boreale'. 'AURORE' (Leomine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 109. p. 39. 1888). Strong umbels the flowers large, golden. 'AURORE BOREALE' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1876-77). Dwarf plant; the flowers chrome yellow and constant. 'AVALANCE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Semi-dwarf; flowers pure white. A Bruant selection. - - ~80~] 'BANQUISE' (Rudolph, Revue Hort. II. tion. 1: 115. A Bruant selection. 'BARNARII' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1901). White flowered, compact. A. Petot without 1861). Cited by descrip- 'BARON voN JUNGENFELD' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). An attractive orange color in bud, later yellow and eventually white. Similar to 'Boule de Neige'. 'BAYARD' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 91. p. 36. 1882). Bright red variegated with gold. A Bruant selection. `BE' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 100. 1923). Dwarf, color of Siena earth, center of gold. A Camille selection. Bengale (Rudolph, Revue Hort. II. 1: 115. 1901). Rose colored. Plants not surpassing 15-20 cm.; abundant rose flowers emerging from elongated foliage. Adaptable for borders and mosaics. A Bruant selection. Probably the same as `Bengali'. 'BENGALI' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). Dwarf, very floriferous, flowers pure rose. A Bruant selection. `BENOIT' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Brick red and golden yellow. A Louis selection. 'BERNESIANA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 39. Undated, prob. 1865). Long branched form of \"L. sellowiana\" with lilac-violet flowers having a small white center. Selection of M. Chauviere. `BIDA' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Dwarf, very erect, abundantly flowering, deep rose, center flowers coppery yellow forming a beautiful contrast. A Bruant selection. `BIENCOURT' (Corliss Bros. Inc. Nurs., Gloucester, Mass., Cat. p. 43. 1937). Orchid color, one of the best. 'BiJou' (Gard. Chron. 2nd Ser. 14: 369. 1880). Pure yellow. Credited to \"H.D.\" in Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34, 1881, without description. Bijou (Andre, Revue Hort. 1893: 427. 1893). Deep golden rose. 'BLANC' (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 150. 1961). Dwarf plants with pale yellow flowers passing into white. 'BOB' ( Ehrentraut, Mollers Deut. Gartz. 1893: 322. 1893). Published without description. Andre in Revue Hort. 1893: 427. 1893 describes a cultivar with the same name as a `BOBECHE' `BONITO' tion. \"very bright red, very floriferous\". (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). Rose colored. A Bruant selection. (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Golden red. A Bruant selec(Wochenschrift 41: rosy red. 324. 'BONNARDI' 1858). A prolific bloomer, the golden flowers `BOUDDHA' becoming (Rudolph, Revue Hort. red. A Bruant selection. golden II. 1 : 115. 1901). Very dwarf, compact flowers Cat. 130. p. 37. `BOULE BLANCHE' (Lemoine & plant, white flowered. Fils, Nancy, Fr., 1895). Vigorous [ 81] 'BOULE DE NEIGE' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). A peculiar form with white flowers in a circle and the middle ones orange. Boule de Neige (Horticulteur Franc. p. 66. 1861). Flowers pure white. A selection of Boucharlat. 'BOULE D'OR' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Yellow. A Bruant selection. 'BOUQUET BLANC' (Louis inches tion. Van Houtte, Ghent, straw high, free flowering, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1876-77). Twelve yellow passing into white. A Lemoine selec1896). Orange A Bournardi (G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. and red. Probable misspelling of 'Bonnardi'. 'BRILLIANT' (Nancy, Fr., Cat. p. 40. Crousse selection. 1883). Published without description. 'BRILLANTISSIMA' Lantanas. p. 34. Undated, prob. 1865). the central ones yellow passing to scarlet, the marginal ones salmon. Credited to Ferrand, 1863. ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Large flowered, California (Gard. Chron. 2nd. Ser. 18: 74. flowering. yellow. A Lemoine selection. 1882). Pale yellow, close habit, Cat. p. 80. free 'CALIFORNIE' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., 1881). Pure chrome 'CALYPSO' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. rose, yellow before opening. 1900). Very dwarf, flowers ruddy 'CAMELEON' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 153. p. 31. 1882). Very large flowered yellow and red passing to deep velvety red. 'CAMILLE BRIOLET' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 269. 1857). Very floriferous, white passing to rose-lilac, the center yellow. Selection of M. Bernieau, Orleans. Fr. Camus - Spelling variant of 'Comus'. `CnNnm' (Bruant, Revue l'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Illustrated in color, flowers yellow with golden eye. 'CANARINE' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 181. p. 59. 1886). Jonquil yellow. 'CAPRICE' (Berkery Inc., New York, N.Y., Cat. p. 9. 1957). Published without description. 'CAUVIN' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 32. 1871). Dwarf; rose car- yellow to violet rose. `CERES' ( Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 300. 1866). Small mine with white centers. A selection by H. Demay. London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. flowered, 36. Ceres (E. G. Henderson & Sons, and red changing to cerise. 1869). Yellow Chaudon, some 'CHANTECLER' flowers yellow (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921 ) . the at center. 'CHARLES BALTET' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 151. 1858). Flowers large, salmon colored. Flowers do not change color. A selection of M. Bernieau, Orleans, Fr. [82]] 'CHARLOTTE HEZnRn' without (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Published description. Eng., seen 'CHELSEA GEM' (Cannells' Floral Guide, Kent, the richest and brightest colored flowers yet and amber.\" p. 60. 1906). \"Producing in this family, rich crimson 'CHERRY PIE' on (Natural Resources plant escaping cultivation and encroachflowers, bluish-black fruit. ing `CHRISTINE' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Cat. p. 44. 1953-4 ) . Orange pink. 'CHRUSALLIS' ( Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 40. 1908). 'CHRYSANTHA' ( Schmoger ex Neubert, Deutsch. Mag. Gart.-Blumenk. p. 98. 1857). Without description. `CrrxYSOS' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). Dwarf, compact, Printer, Lusaka, Rhodesia). Vigorous all areas. Board, Brochure 7m-J705 7-59, Government Yellow and red yellow or deep golden. A Bruant selection. 'Chursos (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896). Dwarf, compact, robust, the flowers change from yellow to deep golden. Probably the same as 'Chrysos'. 'CICERON' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Dwarf; vivid gold or copper. Cicerone Spelling variant of Ciceron. - flowers 'CINNA' ( Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 21: 257. 1897). Clear valerian rose, flowers very large, plant dwarf. A Bruant selection. Jr. & Sons, White Marsh, Md. Cat. p. 20. 1913). golden center. Possibly the same as 'Ciceron'. `CLAIRON' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 206. 1909). Plant compact spheres, garnished with large flowers, beautiful clear copper red flowers with `CISERON' (Richard Vincent, Madder red with the center orange. deep rose, dwarf. forming A Bruant selection. 'CLAVEAUX' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Yellow or golden passing to `CLEOPATRE' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 34. 1863). Flowers very large, rose with center yellow or golden. `CLIO' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Opens gold but changes to lovely rosy purple. 'CLOTILDA' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Pink with yellow center. Coccinea tion. (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without descrip- `COCCINEA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 34. Undated, prob. 1865). Small flowers, orange passing to crimson, the marginal ones golden. A Ferrand selection, 1863. `COLIBRI' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883 ) . Published without description. A Bruant selection. Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 181. p. 58. 1886 reports flowers a beautiful clear red, compact plant, well branched and flowering profusely until late in the season. [83]] Compacta (Pucci, Bull. R. Soc. Tosc. Ort. 29: 315. 1904). Published without description. Salmeron in Setos clases y especies utilizables, Madrid 85: 132. 1964, reports this the most satisfactory for hedges. Probably the same as \"Compactum'. 'COMPACTUM' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 34. Undated, prob. 1865). Medium-sized flowers, the marginal ones buff yellow, the central ones mahogany passing to violet-purple. 'COMTE DE CLAPIERS' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Very large flowered; flowers begin as rose-red, become violet and finally light orange. 'COMTESSE DE BENEVAL' (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 3: 523. 1888). Open yellow changes to pale rosy pink. 'COMTESSE DE BIENCO' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 167. 1878). Bright rose and orange, with yellow center. 'COMTESSE DE BIENCOURT' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Opens yellow, changes to pale rosy pink. See also Ctesse de Biencourt. Comtesse de Brencourt Spelling variant of Comtesse de Biencourt. `CoMUS' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Dwarf, bright orange, overlaid with rose tones, center flowers yellow or golden. 'CONCILIATION' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Dark rose and bright yellow. - 'CONFETTI' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958-9). Graceful, vigorous spreading branches, massed with yellow, pink, and purple flowers. Patent no. 1478. Parentage L. 'Christine' X L. 'Gold Rush'. 'CONQUEROR' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 18. 1863). Flowers very large, yellow tones passing to very bright red orange. Chate fils, in Horticulteur Franc. p. 298. 1866 credits this selection to Ferrand. 'CONSOLATION' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. Canary, golden center, changing to dark rosy salmon. 1869). 'COQUETTE' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 18. 1863). Large flowered, clear yellow passing to coccine red, very bright. 'CORA' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 91. p. 36. 1882). Published without description. `CORBEILLE D'ARGENT' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Dwarf, pure white. 'CORBEILLE D'OR' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1875). Very dwarf, clear yellow flowers darker towards the center. A Hans selection. Corbeille d'Or (Bruant, Revue 1'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Dwarf. Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 113. p. 38. 1896 report the plant to be very dwarf, large flowered, these yellow ochre in color. `CORNE D'OR' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 206. 1909). Very dwarf; robust, covered with golden yellow flowers. A Bruant selection. `CORYMBOSA' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. ~s4~] Countess de Biencourt - Spelling variant of Comtesse de Biencourt. Craig Spelling 'Craigi'. 'CRAIGI' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Son, White Marsh, Md., Cat. p. 16. 1917). Bright orange fading to crimson. Craigie Spelling variant of 'Craigi'. 'CREAM' (Fruitland, Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 36. 1937-8). Medium height, - variant of \".. - flowers cream. 'CREAM CARPET' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958-9). Rich green leaves on spreading branches; cream color flowers with light yellow throat. Patent no. 1841. Hybrid cross of 'Gold Rush' and a \"dwarf white\". 'CREPUSCULE' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Deep golden yellow, large flowers. `CRicai' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Dwarf, compact but robust, flowers violet rose with golden yellow flowers in center. A Bruant selection. 'CROCEA' (D. Hay & Son, New Zealand, Cat. p. 34. 1897). Orange scarlet. 'CROCEA SUPEPBA' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Larger flowered than parent plant. Crusallis (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Dwarf, brilliant canary yellow flowers. Possibly the same as 'Chrusallis'. Ctesse de Biencourt (Bruant, Revue l'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Semi-dwarf. See Comtesse de Biencourt. `CURASSAVICA' ( Loise-Chauviere, Fr., Cat. p. 93. 1875). Published without de1921). Semi-dwarf; delicate scription. `CURTIS' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, rose color. `CYBELE' Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. ( Andre, Revue Hort. 1893: 427. 1893). Deep lilac-rose flowers with 1900). Semi-dwarf; beautiful rose yellow center. 'CYCLISTE' (Rivoire, flowers. 'DAME D'HONNEUR' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 132. 1867). Flowers very large, deep yellow and wine-rose, abundantly bordered with yellow; compact form. Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. Delicata tion. (Breek's Nurs., Lexington, Mass., Cat. p. 152. 1931). Without descrip- Delicatissima. This name is difficult to place. Gouault, Revue Hort. 1852: 461. 1852, gives cultural direction but no description. An article in Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858 praises the plant and refers to the violet umbels of flowers. Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 39. Undated, prob. 1865, describes the flowers as clear violet and white at the center and reports it to be a Chauviere selection of \"L. sellowiana\". E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng. Cat. 138, p. 36. 1869 report this to be a bedding plant of trailing habit with pink-lilac flowers. Delicatissima Superba without description. (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot [ 85] Delicitissima Spelling variant of Delicatissima. `DELIRE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Dwarf, flowers bright capucine red with the center orange when mature. `DIADEME' (H. Cannel & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Rose with yellow - Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Deep yellow passing to clear amber. `DiMm' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 69. 1897). Semi-dwarf, robust, heavy flowering, flowers yellow fading to a gooseberry red. `DISCOLOR' (Wochenschrift, Garten-Nachrichten 3: 12. 1858). Gold flowers fading to cochineal red. A Crousse selection. 'DISTINCTION' passing to pale rose. 'DIAMANT' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., center (W. Rollisson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 225. 1871). Rich orange-yellow fading to rose. `DJELMA' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., with Cat. p. 105. deep yellow eye. (Bruant, Revue 1'Hort. 1900). Dwarf, flowers canary yellow 1858). Large flowered form with 5: 8. `Doc~uR DEMANGE' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. flowers sulfur yellow. `Doc~ua NOIRE' description. Belg. 1879). Published without 'DocTEuR SICARD' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 104. 1856). Without description. Offered as Dr. Sicard by E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng. Cat. 138, p. 36. 1869 and described as orange or copper shades. 'DoM CALMET' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Clear lilac flowers with red centers; dwarf, free flowering. A Bruant selection. 'DOMINATION' rand ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. Large corymbs of large flowers, salmon with the selection, 1863. 34. Undated, prob. 1865). central ones golden. A Fer- `DOMREMY' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Large flowered, flowers creamy white with yellow centers. 'DON CALMET' - Although this name is a spelling variant of 'Dom Calmet' in some descriptions, Nicholson, Dict. Gard. p. 234. 1887 and G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. 1896 report a plant with pink flowers the center changing to peach and yellow. `DONIANA' bright cerise. (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues p. 18. 1863). Flowers very large, compact growth, flowers yellow passing to a very 'DRAP D'OR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103. p. 39. 1886). Dwarf with golden yellow flowers. A plant exhibited by Veitch was awarded an AM by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1897 (Proe. Roy. Hort. Soc. 22: cxlvii. 1897). 'DwARF BEAUTY' bronze. (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 47. 1941-2). OrangeNo refer- 'DWARF BRONZE' (Attributed to Coates Nurs., San ence can be located. Jose, Calif., 1957). [86]] 'DWARF BUCKEYE' (Geo. J. Ball Co., West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959). Red shading to yellow. Dwarf Cream (Checklist of Woody Ornamental Plants of California, p. 34. 1963). No nursery reference available. `DWARF GOLD' (Aldridge Nurs., Van Ormy, Texas, 1958). Published without de- scription. 'DWARF ORANGE' (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 35. 1934-5). Orange and yellow. `DWARF ORANGE RED' (Checklist of Woody Ornamental Plants of California, p. 34. 1963). No nursery reference available. 'DWARF PINK' (Monrovia Nurs., Monrovia, Calif., Cat. p. 13. 1936-7). Plant reaching 2-3 feet; bright pink flowers. 'DWARF YELLOW' (Monrovia Nurs., Monrovia, Calif., Cat. p. 13. 1936-7). Clear yellow flowers. 'DWARF WHITE' (P. Henderson & Co., New York, N.Y., Cat. p. 101. 1946). New compact pure white. Spelling variant of 'Emile Bayard'. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Described only as 'ECLAT' (H. \"fine for pegging down as an edging.\" 'ECLATANTE' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Very large and bright flowers. `EGERIE' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Dwarf, large flowered, bright yellow passing to brilliant rose. 'ELDORADO' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Bushy to one foot tall, free flowering, pure white with yellow center. A Lemoine selection. `ELEGANTISSIMA' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 18. 1863). Flowers large, white with golden yellow centers passing to clear lilac with vivid violet centers. Chate fils (Horticulteur Franc. p. 298. 1866) credited this selection to Ferrand. `ELIZABETH' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Rose to orange. `EMILE BAYARD' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Semi-dwarf, flowers deep red orange. A Bruant selection. 'EMPEREUR DES FRAN~AIS' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Scarlet and orange flowers. `ENCHANTEUR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 115. p. 32. 1890). Straw colored flowers passing to rose-violet. 'EOLE' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Reported as new in 1898. Dwarf, large flowers of a stock red, the flowers of the center yellow, passing to rose. 'ESCARBOUCLE' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Large flowers, yellow changing to deep orange. Possibly a Lemoine introduction for the cultivar is mentioned without description in Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881. `ESMERALDA' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 167. 1878). Rose, lilac, and yellow flowers. E. Bayard - f s7l 'EspoiR LEMOINE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 119, p. 32. 1890). Flowers large, deep yellow passing into orange; plant dwarf. 'ETOILE' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Clear rose and saffron flowers passing into a lively rose color with the center purple-rose. A Lemoine selection. 'ETOILE DE FRANCE' (Bruant, Revue l'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Semi-dwarf. 'ETOILE DE PROVENCE' (Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 34. Undated, prob. 1865). Flowers yellow-orange passing to red-orange and vermillion. A Ferrand selection, 1862. 'ETOILE DU MATIN' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Red flowers with yellow at the center of the umbell. A Ferrand selection. 'ETOILE DU NORD' (Revue l'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Semi-dwarf. A Bruant selection. `EUGENE BOURCIER' ( Chate, Horticulteur A Franc. p. 299. yellow passing to red purple. 'EUGENIA' (E. G. Henderson & Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Very dwarf, flowers bright rose and white. 'F. GIRAUDEAu' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Umbels with golden flowers in the center and rose colored flowers at the margins; dwarf. A Bruant selection. F. Girvaudeau Spelling variation in American catalogues of 'F. Giraudeau'. F. Givaudeau (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 18. Spring 1895). Possible spelling variation of 'F. Giraudeau'; however, the flowers are described as cream and pink. 'F. MONFEK' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Purplish crimson and yellow. 'FABIOLA' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 34. 1863). Large flowered, pure white surrounded by a delicate pink. The descriptions of a cultivar by this name given by E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138, p. 36. 1869 and by Nicholson in the Dictionary of Gardening, p. 234. 1887 referred to flowers rose, yellow and orange. 'FARANDOLE' (Rudolph, Revue Hort. II. 1: 115. 1901). Very dwarf and compact, covered with golden yellow flowers. A Bruant selection. 'FARMAN' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Plant semi-dwarf, very floriferous, umbels separated from foliage, brilliant capucine flowers with the center a warm orange also becoming capucine red. A Bruant selection. - Jacotot selection. Sons, London, Eng., 1866). Flowers pale 'FAUST' (Wm. Clibran & Son, Cheshire, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Yellow fading to vermillion. 'FAVORi' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103. p. 40. 1887). Plant floriferous and vigorous forming a beautiful bush; flowers clear sulfur yellow fading to white. `FAVORITA' (Nicholson, Dict. Gard. p. 234. 1887). Yellow flowers changing to dark brown, shaded purple. `FAVOURITE' (Wm. Rollisson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 225. 1871). Yellow merging into purplish crimson. fssl] Ferandii Spelling variant of 'Ferrandis'. Ferrand (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited - by A. Petot without descrip- tion. Ferrandi Spelling variant of 'Ferrandis'. `FERRANDIS' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 35. Undated, prob. 1865). Flowers very large, yellow bordered with rose vermillion passing to brilliant crimson. A Ferrand selection, 1863. 'FESTON RosE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1905). Dwarf plant covered with rose colored flowers mixed at the center with white flowers with a rose colored eye. A Bruant selection cited in Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 157. p. 14. 1904 but without description. 'FEU DE Jo~' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896). Extremely floriferous with bright capucine red flowers mixed with golden yellow ones. 'FEU FOLLET' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Dwarf plant with reddish yellow flowers. `FIGARO' (Card. Chron. 2nd Ser. 14: 369. 1880). A Lemoine selection described as a dwarf plant with yellow flowers changing to orange brown. `FILLIONI' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Free blooming plant with rose flowers and a yellow center. `FILLONIANA' (Wochenschrift 41: 324. 1858). Orange flowers becoming carmine red. 'FLAMBEAU' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). A semidwarf with scarlet and orange flowers. 'FLAVA LILACINA' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Flowers changing from golden to violet then red and finally white. 'FLEUR D'OR' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). Yellow flowered, dwarf. A Bruant selection. 'FLORA' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Flowers are described as orange and pink. G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia Cat. p. 31. 1896 report flowers red, pink, and yellow for a plant of the same name. - 'FLORENTINA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 35. Undated, prob. 1865). Marginal flowers snow white, the central ones yellow. A Chate selection, 1863. Records at the Massachusetts Horticultural Society indicate this Florida Yellow cultivar name was used in ephemeral lists of the Goochland Nurs., Pembroke, Fla. The manager of the company indicated in correspondence that the name was applied to plants selected from the wild in Florida around 1950 but no longer retained in cultivation. `FOURNAISE' (Card. Chron. 3rd Ser. 21: 257. 1897). Flowers and corymbs large, fiery nasturtium red. A Bruant selection. Used by American nurseries for Fracine Lemoine Francine `FRANCINE LEMOINE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103. p. 40. 1887). Plant forming a small bush, flowers rose lilac. FRAN~OIS Fas~ (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Dwarf, flowers bright rose, the center ones yellow. A Bruant selection. - ~ss~] `FRAN~OIS Maitcxi' (W. Rollisson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 225. 1871 ) . Plant extremely free flowering, flowers small, umbels numerous, flowers chrome yellow, changing to bright velvety crimson. `FRnNCUS' (Garnier, Revue Hort. II. 6: 233. 1906). Plant compact, pyramidal, with rigid foliage; flowers abundant, capucine red at the edges, golden yellow in the center. A Bruant selection. 'FREMY' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Salmon yellow and bright red. 'FucATA' (Lindley in Edwards Bot. Reg. p. 798. 1824). Grown from seeds from Brazil introduced by George Don in 1823. Flowers rose colored fading to pale rose. 'FULGENS' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. and orange. 'FULGENS MUTABILIS' out 1880). Flowers yellow Cited (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). ' by A. Petot with- description. (Pucci, Bull. - 'FULVIA' Fuscata R. Soc. Tosc. Ort. 29: 315. 1904). Published without de- scription. Misspelling of 'Fucata'. Franc. 2nd Ser. 3: 173. `GEANT' (Horticulteur 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. 'GIRALDA' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., scription. Cat. 181. p. 59. 1886). Published without de- Gisell - A cultivar name with this spelling was awarded an FCC in 1881 by the Royal Horticultural Society. Probably the same as 'Gisille'. Giselle (Nicholson, Dict. Gard. Centr. Suppl. 1901). Without description. 'GISILLE' (Gard. Chron. 2nd Ser. 18: 74. 1882). Lilac and rose but opening pale lemon. Selected by Lemoine. 'GLOBE D'OR' mauve tinted with (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Dwarf variety with deep yellow flowers. 'GLOIRE DE S. MARTIN' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 97. p. 37. 1884). Published without description. 'GLOIRE DES MAZARGUES' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Rose, orange and lilac flowers. 'GLORIA MUNDi' a (Wochenschrift 41: fiery saffron color. (Criadero de 325. 1858). Golden yellow flowers becoming 'GOESCHKE' Arboles, Chile, Cat. p. 215. 1902). Orange color with ' yellow. Gogal - Spelling variant of 'Gogol' 'GOGOL' ( Rudolphe, Revue Hort. II. red, the center ones orange. 1: 115. 1901). Plants A Bruant selection. dwarf, flowers bright Saffron 'GOLCONDA' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, to dull orange; flowers large. Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). changing [90]] Golconde - Spelling variation used by 1883. Name used without description. Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 'GOLD COIN' (Checklist of Woody Ornamental Plants of Calif., p. 34. 1963). No source available. 'GOLD MOUND' (Barrington Greenhouses, Atco, N.J., Cat. 1950). Published without description. (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 47. 'GOLDEN KING' 1941-2). Dwarf, 1941-2). Low golden yellow. `GoLnEn MOUND' (Wilson Bros., Roachdale, Ind., growing; produces mound of golden yellow flowers. 'GOLDEN PILLAR' (Geo. J. Ball, West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 47. Cat. p. 81. 1959). Bright gold, upright. 'GOLDEN PLUME' flowers. (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 47. 1941-42). Pink 'GOLDEN QUEEN' (Storrs & Harrison Co., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. p. 76. Spring 1933). Rich, solid golden yellow. `GOLDRUSH' (Monrovia Nurs. Co., Azusa, Calif., Cat. p. 44. 1952-3). Cross of Lantana camara X L. sellowiana. Trailing growth habit; foliage deep forest green; flowers bright yellow. 11 Patent no. 1211. 'GOLDRUSH IMPROVED' (Monrovia Nurs. Co., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958-9). \"All the exquisite beauty and grace of Lantana 'Goldrush' with added vigor and hardiness.\" `GOLDSONNE' (Maatsche in Pareys Blumengartnerei 2: 422. 1960). Lemon yellow. 'GOLEONDRA' (James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, Eng., Cat. p. 56. 1906). Pink and purple. (H. Kemp, Australia, Cat. p. 19. 1923). Old Gold. 'GOLIATH' (G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. 1896). Orange 'GOL GOL' and red. (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Published description. 'GRAFTY' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Center flowers buff colored, marginal ones rose. 'GRAND PAVILION' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Large white and lilac flowers. 'GRAND SULTAN' (Olmsted, Coville & Kelsey, Stand. Pl. Names, p. 258. 1924). Published without description. Although listed concurrently in several nursery catalogues no description could be located. 'GRANDlFLORA' (Wildpret Bros., Tenerife, Cat. 1921). Selection of \"L. hybrida.\" 'GRANDIFLORA VARIABILIS' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. `GPAPPE D'OR' (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 3: 523. 1888). Very dwarf, exceedingly freely flowering, hue of gold. [ 91 ] 'GRACILIS' without 'GRENADIER' `GRISELLE' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., in age Cat. 181. p. 59. 1886). Published without description. Chron. 2nd Ser. 14: 369. 1880). Lemoine selection. Opening becoming reddish orange. Grisette (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 3: 522. 1888). Lilac and mauve opening pale lemon. A Lemoine selection. Probably the same as 'Gisille'. 'GusTAVE THOMAS' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Rose and orange. 'HARKETT's PERFECTION' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 19. 1890). Foliage variegated with yellow; flowers lilac. Harkett's Perfection (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 35. 1934-5). \"Tall, pink and cream\". `HEBE' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). Flowers rose. A Bruant selection. 'HECTOR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 109. p. 39. 1888). Very dwarf; large umbells of saffron yellow flowers. `HELVIA' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Plant semi-dwarf, compact; flowers very large, the center ones canary yellow, the outer ones pure white. A Bruant selection. 'HENNER' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Dwarf; center flowers golden yellow, marginal ones very bright rose. A Bruant selection. 'HEROINE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Flowers large changing to chocolate. 'HESARD' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Published without description. 'HuGuE Low' (Horticulteur Franc, p. 66. 1861). Flowers bright red. A Boucharlat selection. Hybrida A horticultural name used many times without description. A cultivar with this name was awarded an AM by the Royal Horticultural Society in 1897. (Proc. Roy. Hort. Soc. 22: cxlvii. 1897). No description given. Hybrida Nana (Thompson & Morgan, Ipswich, Eng., Cat. p. 44. 1925). \"Fine mixture, colors very brilliant.\" 'HYGIE' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Golden fading to violet orange. 'IGNIS' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 153. p. 31. 1882). Compact; flowers bright red marbled. 'ILLUMINE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Dwarf, tufted, robust plants with marginal flowers brilliant capucine red and the center ones yellow, all becoming capucine. `IMA' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Ivory white and clear canary yellow. A Bruant selection. See 'Yma'. `IMPERATRICE EUGENE' (Wm. Clibran & Son, Cheshire, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Pure white. `IMPERATRICE EUGENIA ALBA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 36. Undated, prob. 1865). A Chate selection of 1864 of Imperatrice Eugenie (Boucharlat) with snow white flowers. (Gard. deep yellow [92] ] `IMPERATRICE EUGENIE' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 300. 1866 reports this to be a selection of Boucharlat of 1859 with small, clear rose flowers with large white center and one not to be confused with another variety of the same name introduced by Hans. A reference to the Hans selection has not been located. 'INCENDIE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). Low plant; large flowers fiery red. A Rozain selection. Incomparable (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. 'INCOMPARABLE' tion. (Revue I'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Semi-dwarf. A Bruant selec- 'INNOCENCE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. and changes to white, dwarf. 1881). Opens pale yellow of American nur- Iolande Iolando - spelling variant of 'Iolandra' in several catalogues series. - Spelling variant of 'Iolandra'. `IOLANDRA' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Semi-dwarf; flowers white. Plants by this name offered by Fruitland Nursery, Augusta, Ga., (Cat. p. 35. 1934-5) are described as semi-trailing, flowers yellow and orange. `IRENE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. flowers very large, milky white. `IRIS' (Lemoine, 1904). Compact plants; umbells and Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Dwarf; center flowers sulfur yellow, marginal flowers gooseberry red. A Bruant selection. 'JACOB SCHULTZ' This name has been used alone and as a commercial synonym of Grand Sultan. Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 28. 1903 offer an early description as \"red and yellow\". Other nurseries describe the flowers as \"opening yellow and turning an interesting ox-blood red.\" 'JACQUE MINOT' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Fine large flowers yellow and red passing to violet. 'JANINA' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 40. 1908). Semi-dwarf; floriferous ; umbells with rose flowers on the margin, silvery rose flowers in the center. Jannia Spelling variant of Janina used in American nursery catalogues. 'JANUS' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Deep yellow, changing to rosy purple, compact. 'JAUNE D'OR' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 23. 1902). Flowers cream and pink. 'JAVOI' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 18. Spring 1895). White. `Jnvoz-rE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Dwarf and compact; large marginal flowers pure white, center flowers bright yellow. 'JEAN BART' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). 'JEAN D'OR' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 19. 1890). Orange - and carmine. [93]] D'ARC' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Lilac and orange. `JOUBERT' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Semi-dwarf; large flowers, pure white. 'JEANNE `JOYAU' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., red on margin, the center ones Cat. 115. p. 32. 1890 ) . Dwarf; flowers golden. A Bruant selection. gooseberry 1913). 'JUAN D'OR' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Sons, White Medium height, flowers pink and cream. Marsh, Md., Cat. p. 21. `JUDITFI' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 109. p. 39. 1888). Plant very low, not exceeding 10 cm., yellow orange flowers passing to senna red. 'JULES CESmR' (La Belg. Hort. 18: 146. 1868). Illustrated as orange flowers with red eyes. 'JULIUS CAESAR' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Scarlet and yellow. Cesar Henderson - Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Messrs. rose Julius Spelling variant. A as indicated in the Proc. plant with this Roy. Eng., Cat. name was xxx. exhibited 1870. Hort. Soc. 2: p. 87. by 'KANOR' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, with center flowers golden yellow. 1901). Clear sulfur 'KERMESINA' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Noted as an \"improper name\". Middle flowers red-violet, not carmine, while the marginal flowers are golden. 'KING OF Tf~ RED' (Hasslach, Fr., Cat. p. 19. 1913). Published without description. (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 69. 1897). Compact plant with small leaves; flowers very abundant, deep rose. 'L'ABBE BOURGEOIS' (Lombardo Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Pub`KOSIKI' lished without description. `L'AssE TowxE' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 104. 1856). Flowers very large, orangered border with bright carmin passing to deep carmin. A selection of Rendatler. 'LADY OLIVIA' (Corliss Bros., Ipswich, Mass., Cat. p. 54. 1950). Published without description. Geo. J. Ball, West Chicago, Ill. Cat. p. 81. 1959 describes the flowers as yellow shading to pink. (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., In 'LA FIANCEE' flowers. description. subsequent catalogues Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Published without described as very dwarf with pure white 'LA MANULA' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, flowers with pretty rose-pink center. Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Light yellow 'LAMERTINE' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. clear yellow, the center ones deep yellow. 1890). Marginal flowers 'LA NEIGE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Very dwarf; free blooming, snow white flowers. La Pleur d'Or and Lapleur d'Or Spelling variants of La Pluie d'Or used in American nursery catalogues. - [94]] La Pluie d'Or (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 37. Jan-Mar. 1900). Published without description. Bailey, Cyclop. Amer. Hort. 883. 1901 reports golden yellow flowers. Probably the same as 'Pluie d'Or'. `L'AVENIR' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 36. Undated, prob. 1865). The largest flowers of the genus, canary yellow passing to a flesh rose color. A Ferrand selection. 'LE GRENADIER' (James Veitch & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 20. 1869). Pale lemon changing to red. 'LE Lis' (Gard. Chron. 2nd Ser. 18: 74. 1882). Pale yellow changing to white. A Lemoine selection. 'LE Nnm' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 46. 1861). Very dwarf; flowers bright amaranth. Selection by M. Rendatler. LE Nnirr ( Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 299. 1866). Flowers rose carmine passing to crimson, the center paler. A variety of 'Fulgens mutabilis' selected by Rendatler. 'LEO DEX' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 23. 1902). Opens orange scarlet and changes to dark crimson. 'LE PACTOLE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 115. p. 32. 1890). Dwarf; flowers deep golden yellow. 'LE PATRIOTE' ' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Large flowers, brilliant yellow color with bright scarlet center. Later citations suggest this to be a Lemoine selection. `L'ESPEftANCE' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 132. 1867). Flowers large, golden at the center, purple passing to wine red. 'LE SPHYNX' (Rudolph, Revue Hort. II. 1: 115. 1901). Compact, multiflorous, flowers white. 'LE STYX' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Red passing to crimson purple. This is suggested as a Lemoine selection in Gard. Chron. 18: 74. 1882. 'LE SUPERBE' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Yellow passing to pure white. VAINQUEUR' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Flowers of rich bright red color changing to dark red. 'LEVIATHAN' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Canary yellow 'LE passing to saffron yellow. 'LILACINA' (Desf., Cat. Hort. Par. ed. 3: 392. 1829). Corolla lilac, drupes violet. No source stated. 'LILACINA SUPERBA' ( SchmBger & Schiile ex Neubert, Deutsch. Mag. Gart.-Blumenk. p. 98. 1857). Without description. `LILIPUTIEN' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Dwarf, golden flowers becoming velvety scarlet. `L'IMPERATRICE' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 36. Undated, prob. 1865). Marginal flowers soft rose, the central ones white. A delicate dwarf variety probably a selection of L. odorata. Credited to Hans, 1861. [95]] 'LINA ETTINGER' (E. G. Henderson & Orange, buff and yellow. Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). `LINNE' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Canary yellow and rose. `LIVRE D'OR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103. p. 40. 1887). Dwarf of 15-20 cm. abundant yellow flowers passing to rose. 'Louis BENOIT' (W. Rollisson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 225. 1871). Flowers chrome yellow changing to purplish amaranth. Louis Benoist Spelling variant used by Bruant in Revue I'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879. 'Louis MARLIO' ( Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 206. 1909). Robust plant, dwarf or semi-dwarf; very floriferous, flowers canary yellow with white margins. 'Louis ROEMPLER' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Dwarf; crimson and orange flowers. 'LouisE' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 181. p. 59. 1886). Published without de- scription. 'LUMINAIS' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). Yellow. A Bruant selection. `LUMINARIE' (Rudolph, Revue Hort. II. 1: 115. 1901). Dwarf; flowers yellow. A Bruant selection. `LUMINEUX' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 206. 1909). Plant semi-dwarf; robust, floriferous; large umbells of red and orange flowers with a few yellow flowers at the center. A Bruant selection. 'L'UNIQUE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Semidwarf ; flowers violet passing to plum colored. 'LUTEA SUPERBA' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 61. 1857). Without description. A selection of Henry Jacotot, Dijon, Fr., in Horticulteur Franc. p. 66. 1861. The flowers are described as canary yellow. `Lu~v' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896). Dwarf, central flowers orange, the marginal ones canary yellow. 'LYRE' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Sons, White Marsh, Md., Cat. p. 22. 1913). Published without description. Listed by Fruitland Nursery, Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 35. 1929-30 as large flowering, pure white with yellow center. `LYSIS' ( Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909 ) . Clear rose color; dwarf. 'M.* BEBE' (Bruant, Vienne, Fr., Cat. 153. p. 31. 1882). Dwarf; flowers mixed brick red and orange. 'M. BOUCHARLAT' (Card. Chron. 2nd Ser. 18: 74. 1882). Flowers pale orangered. A Lemoine selection. Probably indentical with 'Madame Boucharlat.' 'M. BOUCHARLAT AirrE' logues. 1863). Large flowered; compact form, to violet-lilac with deeper centers. 'M. BUTINI DE LA RivE' without description. are ( Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement flowers aux Cata- golden yellow, passing A. Petot (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by or Names which can not be determined listed here. See appropriate title for as Madame, Monsieur, others. _ Mademoiselle [96]] center darker. 'M. ROEMPLER' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 132. 1867). Flowers very large, blackish red with golden yellow center. 'M. ROUGIER-CHAUVIERE' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues. p. 18. 1863). Flowers very large, yellow orange bordered with red passing to scarlet red. 'M. SCHMIDT' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 19. 1890). Flowers a brilliant yellow passing into purple vermillion. (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 6: 483. 1906). Very dwarf, selection from 'Farandole'; leaves very dark; flowers golden yellow. 'M. RENDATLER' ( Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, 1863). Flowers very large, golden with rose tinge and salmon, those in the 'M. POIRET' 'M. VICTOR LEMOINE' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues, p. 18. 1863). Flowers very large, golden yellow passing to copper with shades of vermillion. 'MAC-MAHON' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Flowers reddish brown passing to reddish black. A Sellier selection. 'MADAME BOUCHARLAT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers dark red and orange. 'MADAME BRUANT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers orange and yellow. Free bloomer, semi-dwarf. 'MADAME CALLIATH' (Wm. Clibran & Son, Altrincham, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Light buff yellow. 'MADAME CARLOTTE' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Orange red with yellow center. 'MADAME DE LA PLACE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Canary yellow with fiery center. 'MADAME DUFOY' (La Belg. Hort. 18: 147. 1868). Illustrated as yellow flowers with golden eye. E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 reports the plant to have semi-double flowers pale yellow and rose. A plant was exhibited in 1870 (Proc. Roy. Hort. Soc. 2: xxx. 1870). 'MADAME ESCARPIT' (Beurrier, Lyon-Monplaisir, Fr., Cat. p. 30. 1908 ) . Published without description. 'MADAME HENRY JOCOTOT' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. 'MADAME HOSTE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers golden yellow and rose fading to purple. 'MADAME LEON BERNIEAU' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 269. 1857). Flowers clear vermillion. A selection of M. Bernieau, Orleans, Fr. 'MADAME MOREL' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858; Wochenschrift Garten-Nachrichten 3: 12. 1858). Golden white with golden eye, all becoming rose. A Crouse selection. 'MADAME PELE' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 151. 1858). Flowers golden, center pale yellow, the marginal flowers purple. A selection of M. Bemieau, Orleans, Fr. [97]] 'MADAME RONDEL' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. description. - 1861). Cited by A. Petot without 'MADAME TIIIBAUD' (Wm. Clibran & Son, Altrincham, Eng., Cat. p. 51. Orange scarlet. Madame Thibaut Spelling variant of 'Mademe Thibaud' 'MADEMOISELLE (as MLLE.) LILI' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 91. p. 36. Very dwarf; flowers bright rose. 'MAGENTA KING' (Nicholson, Dict. Gard. 234. 1887). Purplish-scarlet. 'MAGENTA QUEEN' (H. Kemp, Australia, Cat. p. 19. 1923). Red and ' 1881). 1881). changing to magenta. yellow, 'MAGICIEN' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 123. p. 4. 1893). Dwarf; sulfur colored flowers turning rose-purple. 'MAGNUM' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers violet rose, golden yellow in the center. 'MANNUS' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Dwarf; flowers large, fiery red. 'MARCELLA' ( Chate Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 36. Undated, prob. 1865). Large flowers, yellow passing to a clear lilac. A Chate selection, 1864. `MARQUIS DE LA PLACE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Published without description. `MARQUIS DE ST. LAPORTA' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). \"Self bronze\". Different from all lantanas in this respect. `MARQUIS DE SAPORTA' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Cat. 1885). Flowers different shades of red. 'MARTHA' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 124. p. 36. 1893). Semi-dwarf; flowers rose-orange. 'MATADOR' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). Yellow rose passing to golden rose. A Rozain selection. `MELLISSIFOLIA' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Sons, White March, Md., Cat. p. 22. 1913). Dwarf, compact plant with flowers sulfur yellow and tender rose. Mellissipolia Misspelling in several catalogues of American nurseries. 'MER JAUNE' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Semi-dwarf; flowers - large, golden yellow. Juan Misspelling in catalogues of several American nurseries Jaune Mere Jaune Misspelling in catalogues of several American nurseries Jaune. Mer - for Mer for Mer 'MERVEILLE' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Yellow white passing to pure white. `METALLA' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 36. Undated, prob. 1865). Deep yellow flowers passing to a coppery red-orange. Selected by Chate, 1864. Meteor - Spelling variation of Meteore. `METEORE' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, flowers passing to rose-violet. Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Pale yellow fssl] 'MICHAEL SCHMIDT' (Standardized Plant Names, p. 258. 1924). Published without description. The only other use of this name appears to be Geo. J. Ball, Co. West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959 where the flowers are described as \"red shading to yellow\". `Micm;r` GERnsn' ( Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Yellow rose colored flowers. `MIRACLE' (Mottet in Dict. Prat. d'Hort. becoming salmon-copper in color. `MINE D'OR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Dwarf, very deep pure yellow. Minnie Basil - Spelling variant of 'Minnie Basle' 'MINNIE BASLE' (G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. 1896). Lilac Jard. 3: 87. 1895). Flowers citron yellow becoming orange. `MIRIFIQUE' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. flowers a `MIRIVAL' rose saffron. 'MIRLIFLORE' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Dwarf plant, flowers a golden rose with a coppery eye. `Misco' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). White, semi-dwarf. A Bruant selection. 'MITRAILLE' in 40. 1908). Compact plant, sparkling brilliant capucine red with yellow flowers at the center. (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921 ) . Flowers an imperial ( Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). Plant pyramidal flowers a golden capucine. `MONFECK' (C. E. Allen Nurs., Brattleboro, Vt., Cat. p. 20. 1880). Compact plant flowers crimson. 'MoNS. BOUCHARLAT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Flowers vivid red with violet center. A Lemoine selection. shape; 'MoNS. ESCARPIT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 ) . Yellow and violet-purple. 'MoNS. FELix ALIBERT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Yellow changing to violet-purple. 'MoNS. LAGRANGE' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Pale yellow flowers with golden centers. `Morrs. LE COMTE DE FALLOY' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Yellow with orange center passing to bishop's purple. 'MoNS. ROUGIER' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Crimson, scarlet and yellow. `Morrs. SCHMITT' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Orange changing to crimson-scarlet. (Bruant, `MONT BLANC' in color. Revue I'Hort. Belg. 5: 8. 1879). Semi-dwarf; illustrated `MULTICOLOR' (Lemaire, Fl. des Serres 3: 239. 1847 ) . Grown from seeds received from Mexico by Vendermaelen of Brussels. Flowers bicolorous, subtended by large rose crimson bracts. Offered by Van Houtte. [99]] 'MULTIFLORA' (Otto & Dietr. Allg. Gartenz. 9: 370. 1841). Published without description. Stated to be of a strong golden color becoming cochenille red in Wochenschrift, Garten-Nachrichten 3: 12. 1858). 'MULTIFLORA EXCELSA' (Neubert, Deutsch. Mag. Gart.-Blumenk. p. 97. 1857). Published without description. 'MUSE' (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 21: 257. 1897). Very large flowered, wavy butter yellow with the center a shining yellow, later fading to a sunset with an edge of rose. MUTABILIS (Weigel, Physiogr. Salsk. Handl. 1: 16. 1776). Reference not available. MUTABILIS (Bot. Mag. t. 3110. 1831). Described by W. J. Hooker as Lantana nivea var. mutabilis. Flowers open yellow with orange and become all pink. margins, `NAIADE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 127. p. 36. 1894). White flowers each with a chrome yellow center. 'NANA' (Thompson & Morgan, Ipswich, Eng. Offered prior to 1932. No description available currently). 'NANA COMPACTA' (Park's Flower Book, p. 39. 1932). No description beyond height being 1 foot. 'NAPOLEON III' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858 ) . Golden turning scarlet. 'NE PLUS ULTRA' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 and James Veitch & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 20. 1869). Flowers purple and yellow. Exhibited by Messrs. Henderson in 1870 (Proc. Roy. Hort. Soc. 2: xxx. 1870). Ne Plus Ultra (Card. Chron. 3rd Ser. 46: 213. pink. Possibly the same as 'Nec-plus-ultra.' 1909). Yellow changing to bright 'NEC-PLUS-ULTRA' (Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 37. Undated, prob. 1865). Flowers yellow passing to a deep crimson red. Credited to Rendatler, 1864. Neige (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). White. Possibly the same as 'La Neige'. 'NELLY AVRIL' ( Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 16. 1914). Center flowers crimson, border flowers carmine rose. 'NINUS' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881). Light canary color. NIVEA Described as a species by Ventenat ( Jard. Malm. 1, pl. 8. 1803) and treated as a variety by L. H. Bailey (Cyclop. Am. Hort. 2: 883. 1900). Many American nurseries treat this taxon as a cultivar. Flowers are white. 'NOBLESSE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 130. p. 37. 1895). Flowers rose. 'Novus' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 40. 1908). Dwarf, flowers large, center flowers bright yellow, marginal ones clear yellow almost white. `NuEE RosE' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Dwarf; flowers silvery rose. 'NYMPHE' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906 ) . Flowers white. A Bruant selection. 'OCTAVIANo' (Wochenschrift 41: 325, 1858). Flowers rose-violet. 'ONDINE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 112. p. 38. 1889). Semi-dwarf; flowers large, pure white. yool `Oita' (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Sons, White Marsh, Md., Cat. p. 22. 1921 ) . Flowers pure white. Orange (Checklist of woody Ornamental plants of Calif. p. 34. 1963). No source or description cited. Orange-red (Plant Buyers and source can not be Guide p. 167. 1958). Published without checked. description com- 'ORESCO' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 55. 1909). Deep yellow. 'ORIO' ( Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 66. 1905). Plant semi-dwarf; white. 'OTHELLO' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 109. p. 39. 1888). Dwarf; flowers sulfur color passing to straw colored. `PAILETTE D'OR' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 133. p. 38. 1896). Dwarf; flowers chrome yellow. `PAPILLON' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 112. p. 38. 1889). Compact, very dwarf plant with delicate rose colored flowers. 'PASCALINE HENAULT' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 269. 1857). Strong umbels of pale yellow flowers passing to clear violet. A selection of M. Bemieau, Orleans, Fr. 'PELOPIDAS' pact, the umbels and flowers large, bright yellow. Orio (Richard Vincent, Jr. & Son, White Marsh, Md., Cat. p. 16. 1917). Pure white. 'PHOEBUS' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Flowers gamboge yellow passing to rose; dwarf. 'PHOSPHORE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881 ) . Published without description. H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 80. 1881 describe the plant as bushy, the flowers a deep yellow. The Lemoine plant was awarded an FCC in 1882 by the Royal Hort. Society. `PICTAVI' (Gamier, Rev. Hort. 1906: 233. 1906). Credited to Bruant. The plant was obtained by crossing the Lantanas of commerce with \"L. sellowiana.\" The umbells are relatively large, outer flowers orange with shades of rose and the inner flowers a rose-Valerian color. Subsequent descriptions often reverse these colors. Pink Beauty (Standardized Plant Names, p. 322. 1942). Published without description or reference. 'PINK FROLIC' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958-59). \"Bright and gay as a frolicking lamb, with its abundance of pink and yellow flowers, etc.\" Pat. 1843. Parentage 'Dwarf Pink' X 'Goldrush'. `PLICATA' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, son (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. `PEPITA' ( Crouse, Nancy, Fr., Cat. p. 40. 1883). Published without description. 'PERLE POITEVINE' (Andre, Revue Hort. 1893: 427. 1893). Flowers very pure flowers. Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Large crim- [ 101] `PLUIE D'OR' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Dwarf; flowers deep yellow. (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg. Cat. p. 55. 1877). Medium dwarf; flowers deep yellow, constant. Poiret See 'M. Poiret'. `PRETENTTON' (William Bull. New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Robust growing variety, large heads of creamy white flowers, the center brilliant yellow changing to a rich carmine surrounded with amaranth. 'PRINCE DE GALLES' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Very large, flowers bronzy yellow with large bright red center. _ - `PRINCESSE CLOTILDE' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. `PFUNCESSE Lomsn' (W. Rollisson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. p. 225. 1871). Yellow ground tint merging to rosy crimson. `PRINCESSE MATHILDE' ( Crouse, Nancy, Fr., Cat. p. 41. 1883). Published without description. (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat., p. 69. 1897 ) . Semi-dwarf; flowers and large, capucine orange with center flowers yellow and orange. `PROTEE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Semi-dwarf; flowers orange 'PROF. RAoux' umbels changing to shades of red. description. `PULCHERRIMA' ( Pucci, Bull. R. Soc. Tosc. Ort. 29: 315. 1904 ) . Published without 'PURPLE PRINCE' (Khoshoo & Mahal, Curr. Sci. 36: 201. 1967). Listed as being under cultivation in Indian botanic gardens. Cytological data given. `PURPUREA' (Homemann, Hort. Hafn. 2: 583. 1815). Introduced in 1805. Flowers purple. `PURPURIN' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Semidwarf ; flowers salmon, yellow and crimson. 'PYROPHORE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 115. p. 32. 1890). Semi-dwarf; flowers bright red. 'QUEEN VICTORIA' (La Belg. Hort. 1868: 33. 1868). Published without description. Mottet, Dict. Pract. d'Hort. Jard. 3: 87. 1895 reports the flowers as white. 'RADIATION' ( Rozain-Boucharlat, Rh6ne, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Semi-dwarf; flowers brilliant capucine red, the center ones yellow-orange. 'RAMADOR' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rh6ne, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Very compact, umbels large, flowers capucine red and orange. Raphael (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. 'RAPHAEL' 'RAYON ers DE (E. pact plant, G. Henderson & Sons, London, flowers rose and purple. Eng., Cat. 138. p. Cat. p. 88. 36. 1869). Com- deep SOLEIL' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, yellow passing into violet-rose. Belg., 1876-77). Flow- 'RAYON D'OR' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 205. 1909). Yellow flowered. [102]] 'RED CAP' (Khoshoo & Mahal, Curr. Sci. 36: 201. 1967). Listed as being under cultivation in Indian botanic gardens. Cytological data given. 'RED SCHMIDT' (Weston Nurs., Hopkinton, Mass., p. 86. 1962). Orange red. `REINE DES FLEURS' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Flowers yellow and vivid red. 'REMBRANDT' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896). Copper orange and red. 'RENE FAIER' (Grignan, Revue Hort. II. 9: 206. 1909). Dwarf or semi-dwarf; flowers golden rose with orange centers and central flowers citron colored. 'REVE D'OR' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 121. p. 38. 1892). Dwarf, flowers large, bright yellow. A Bruant selection. 'REVE PoiTEmN' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 156. 1904). Very dwarf; flowers a bright silvery red with butter colored flowers in the center. `REVEIL' (Gard. Chron. 2nd Ser. 14: 369. 1880). Flowers bright deep yellow not changing. Reveil (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Flowers white with yellow center. 'REVEILLE' (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 3: 523. 1888). Flowers deep yellow. A Lemoine selection. 'ROBINSON' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Robust plant, flowers orange and crimson. `ROEMPLER' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers crimson and orange. 'Roi DES POURPRES' (Vilmorin-Andrieux Cie., Paris, Fr., Supplement aux Catalogues. p. 18. 1863). Flowers large; yellow purple passing to purple. Roi des Pourpres ( Chate fils Horticulteur Franc. p. 299. 1866). Flowers median, yellow purple passing to purple-violet. A Ferrand selection. `ROI DES ROUGES' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 ) . Flowers scarlet and orange. 'ROLL' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Uniformly colored red with deeper eye. Dwarf. Rongier-Chauviere (Pucci, Bull. R. Soc. Tosc. Ort. 29: 315. 1904). Published without description. Probably misspelling of Rougier-Chauviere. `ROQUELAURE' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, rose large, yellow bright red. mixed with passing Belg., Cat. p. 132. 1867). Flowers very to deep amaranth, the center flowers 'RosA MUNDI' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). White and rose colored flowers. `ROSE D'AMOUR' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 37. Undated, prob. 1865). Flowers with rose tints, often deeper forming flat topped inflorescence. Credited to Ferrand, 1862. Rose Poitevin (Beurrier, Lyon-Monplaisir, Fr., Cat. p. 30. 1908). Published without description. Possibly the same as 'Reve Poitevin'. 'ROSE QUEEN' (Standardized Plant Names, p. 258. 1924 ) . Published without de- scription. [ 103] `ROSEA' (Florence, Italy, Botanical Garden seed list, 1841). Without description. 'ROSEA ELEGANS' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). White flowers becoming golden. 'ROSEA NANA' (La Belg. Hort. 1868). Published without description. `ROTUNDIFOLIA' (Index of Curtis Bot. Mag. p. 138. 1956). Name change of Lantana nivea var. mutabils. Rougier-Chauviere (Lescuyer, Horticulteur Franc. p. 232. 1865 with colored plate). Center flowers bright yellow, the marginal ones darker violet. A selection of Ferrand, Marseille, Fr. Possibly the same as 'M. Rougier-Chauviere'. Rougier-Chauviete - Spelling variant. 'RUTILANT' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 36. 1883). Very dwarf, pure yellow. A Bruant selection. Salfatare - Misspelling of 'Solfatare'. `SALVIAEFOLIA' (James Veitch & Sons, Chelsea, Eng., Cat. p. 56. 1906). Violet and mauve. 'SANGUINEA' ( Medic. in Act. Acad. Theod. Palat. iii Phys. 229. 1775). Flowers yellow turning blood red. Sanguinea (H. Kemp, Australia, Cat. p. 19. 1923). Flowers red and orange. 'SAPHO' (Cie Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Flowers white, lightly sulfur tinted. `ScIILOSZ ORTENBURG' (Maatsch in Pareys Blumengartnerei 2: 442. 1960). Brickred with salmon-yellow. Schmidt Spelling variant of 'M. Schmidt'. Schmidt Red - Spelling variant of 'Red Schmidt'. Selloi (Baumann, Haut-Rhine, Fr., Cat. p. 24. 1846). Published without description. Probably the same as'Sellowii'. 'SELLOWII' (Baumann, Haut-Rhine, Fr., Cat. p. 12. 1838). Published without description. E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138, p. 36. 1869 describe this cultivar as rosy purple flowers with white eyes; trailing habit. - 'SELLOWII GRANDIFLORA' ( Horticulteur Franc., p. 66. 1861). `SEMILLANT' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., marbled and sprinkled and often bordered with pure white; flowers rusty red. A Crousse selection. 'SEMI PLENA' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 46. 1861). Flowers double, golden yellow passing into carmine nuance aurore. A Rendatler selection. 'SENORA' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, valerian rose. Cat. p. 55. bright lilac. 1877). Young leaves Flowers Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Dwarf; flowers bright 'SENSATION' (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. p. 47. 1941-42). Flowers pink. `SERAPHIN' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 115. p. 32. 1890). Flowers large, yellow edged with white. Seraphine 'SILVER plant, creamy white flowers. Spelling variant used in American nursery catalogues. MOUND' (Geo. J. Ball, Co., West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959). Trailing - [ 104] `SILVER Ptrrx' 5'. (Monrovia Nurs. Co., Monrovia, Calif. Cat. p. 9. 1930-31). Height 'SMERALDA' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Flowers rose, lilac and yellow. 'SNOWBALL' (State Nurs. & Seed Co., Helena, Mont., Cat. p. 15. 1923). Pure white flowers. Name used in botanical garden listing which can not be validated. Snowflake 'SNOW QUEEN' (Standardized Plant Names. p. 258. 1924). Published without - description. 'SNOW WHITE' (Geo. J. Ball Co., West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959). Flowers white. 'SOLA MIA' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Dwarf plant, flowers pure white. 'SOLEIL D'OR' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Dwarf plant, flowers golden yellow. 'SOLEIL LEVANT' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 89. 1875). Dwarf, compact; flowers yellow gilt bordered with white, passing to rose. 'SOLFATARE' ( Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 300. 1866). Medium flowers, bright yellow lightly margined with white. A selection by Rendatler. Solfaterre (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869). Golden yellow flowers with straw colored margins. Probably the same as 'Solfatare'. 'SOUTHERN' Although listed in Plant Buyers Guide, 5th ed. p. 159. 1949, no catalogues are available to verify the reference. Geo. J. Ball Co., West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959 describes this cultivar as \"yellow shading to buff\". `SOUVENIR DE PEKIN' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 37. Undated, prob. 1865). Flowers pale yellow passing to a purple-violet. Credited to Ferrand, 1862. `SOUVENIR D'UN AMI' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Vigorous plant with large fringed flowers, these rich carmine crimson changing to violet amaranth. 'SPECTABILIS' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). With large white and purple flowers. 'SPREADING SUNSET' 59). Bright green leaves, Parentage 'Goldrush' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958spreading branches, orange-red flowers. Pat. 1477. X 'Radiation'. 'SPREADING SUNSHINE' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Whole Cat. p. 66. 196162). Dark green leaves, sunshine yellow flowers. Parentage 'Goldrush' X 'Dwarf Yellow'. 'STAHL' (Gard. Chron. 3rd Ser. 21: 257. 1897). Large orange flowers turning red. `STUBEL' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 63. 1905). Dwarf, flowers sulfur-rose mixed and yellow. 'SUNBURST' (Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif., Wholesale Cat. p. 49. 1958-59). Deep green foliage and golden yellow flowers. Pat. 1842. Parentage 'Christine' X 'Goldrush'. ~ios~] `SUNSET' (Listed in Standardized Plant Names. p. 322. 1942). Geo. J. Ball, Co., West Chicago, Ill., Cat. p. 81. 1959. Without description. 'SURPASSE FILLONI' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. (Wochenschrift 41: 325. `SURPASSE L'ABBE TouvRE' 1858). Flowers bright red becoming a deep carmine. 'SURPRISE' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Immense round fringed trusses of bright yellow flowers changing to rich red with dark red center. 'SYLPHE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 133. p. 38. 1896). Semi-dwarf; flowers white. 'SYLVANA' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rhone, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Compact plant; flowers rose, with marginal ones yellow with orange center. Sylvaphana Spelling variant of Sylvaplana. `SYLVAPLANA' (Rozain Boucharlat, Rh6ne, Fr., Cat. p. 66. 1905). Marginal flowers rose, the center ones straw-white. Tabrola ( G. Brunning & Sons, Victoria, Australia, Cat. p. 31. 1896). Flowers rose and yellow. Spelling error for cv. Fabiola as used by Henderson. 'TANABICOLOR-FoRMOSA' (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Published without description. 'TANGERINE' (Monrovia Nurs. Co., Azusa, Calif. Cat. p. 66. 1961-2). Low spreading form with flowers tangerine color. Parentage 'Goldrush' selfed. - 'TANTALE' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. 1921). Marginal flowers capucine red, the central ones golden yellow. 'TAPIS DE NEIGE' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906). Dwarf, white flowered. A Bruant selection. 'TARTASIN' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 77. 1896). Flowers brick orange the central ones yellow. Teethy's - Misspelling 'TENTATION' 'Tethys' seen in American nursery catalogues. (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 37. 1883 ) . Published without de- of scription. 'TETHYS' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 105. 1900). Dwarf; flowers canary yellow with brilliant yellow eye. `Txnis' (H. Cannell & Sons, Kent, Eng., Cat. p. 87. 1901). Flowers a soft rose color with the central ones fawn. `THESIANS' (Couault, Revue Hort. 1852: 461. 1852). Used in aromatique baths to replace Melissa and Mentha. Without description. `THEMISTOCLE' ( Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Flowers mostly orange-red starting orange and passing to rose. A Crousse selection. `Tm;onoa FROEBEL' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Similar to `1'Abbe Touvre' but with a fiery color. `THEODULE BERNIEAU' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 270. 1857). Dwarf; flowers sulfur yellow, deeper yellow at the center. A selection of M. Bernieau, Orleans, Fr. [ 106 ] 'THETES' (Wm. Clibran & Son, Altrincham, Eng., Cat. p. 51. 1881). Flowers yellow, orange, and scarlet. Thetis Spelling variant used in English catalogues for the earlier 'Thetes'. D'OR' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 88. 1876-7). Medium `TOISON sized; flowers deep chrome yellow, constant. A Lemoine selection. `ToNI PoucE' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Wochenschrift Garten-Nachrichten - 3: 12. 1858. Flowers golden passing to violet. Tom Pouce ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 39. much branched plant with flowers deep violet and white at the center. A selection of M. Chauviere from \"L. sellowiana.\" `TRARUC' (Ch. Molin, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 67. 1897). Dwarf; flowers with tones of golden buff. 'TRAILING LAVENDER' (Aldridge Nurs., Van Ormy, Texas, 1961). Without further Undated, prob. 1865). Large description. `TRIANON' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 167. 1878). Red flowers with yellow ones on border. 'TRIOMPHE' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas. p. 37. Undated, prob. 1865). Semidwarf. Marginal flowers rose salmon, the central ones deep orange passing to a bright rose. A Demay selection, 1863. L'EXPOSITION' (Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858). Flowers bright golden becoming carmine red. `TRIOMPHE DE MARSEILLE' (Louis Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. p. 132. 1867). Border flowers white becoming rose, the central one golden becoming rose `TRIOMPFIE DE purple. `TRIOMPFIE Fr. DES MASSIFS' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 270. floriferous; flowers delicate red vermillion. A selection of M. Bemieau, Orleans, 1857). Large leaves; very `TRIOMPHE DU COMMERCE' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Large fringed flowers of a bronzy yellow color with t red eyes changing to lilac-violet with crimson eye. Triomphe du Commerce (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88. p. 34. 1881). Flowers pale lilac pink deepening to violet. Triomphe du Commire - Spelling variant. bright 'TRIUMPH' (E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 ) . Rosy purple and orange. Triumph de l'Exposition Spelling variant of 'Triomphe de l'Exposition'. `TUBIFLORA' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 151. 1858). Flowers large, in umbels of 10 cm. circumference; citron yellow passing to chamois. A selection of M. Bernieau, - Orleans, Fr. 'TZIGANE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 133. p. 38. passing into an intense yellow. intense 1896). Flowers grayish 'ULTIMA' (Ch. Molin, passing into an Lyon, Fr., yellow. Cat. p. 156. 1904). Flowers greenish yellow [ 107 ] Cat. p. 105. 1900). Golden yellow and red flowers. `VARIEGATA' (Pucci, Bull. R. Soc. Tosc. Ort. 29: 315. 1904). Published without 'VAINQUEUR' (Rivoire, Lyon, Fr., description. 'VENUSTA' (William Bull, New Plant Merchant, London, Eng., Cat. p. 160. 1879). Large flowers of rich deep golden yellow with bright red eye. Robust. Ver Luisant ( Nicholson, Dict. Gard. 234. 1887). Brilliant yellow. 'VER LUISANTE' (Card. Chron. 2nd Ser. 18: 74. 1882). Orange red with bright orange eye deepening in age. A Lemoine selection. 'VERSICOLOR' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 37. Jan.-Mar. 1900). Flowers orange and violet. 'VESTALE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 133. p. 38. 1896). Dwarf; flowers clear rose. 'VESUVE' (Lemoine, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 94. p. 37. 1883 ) . Low plant; flowers bright red mixed with gold. Viador Spelling variant of `Viator'. - 'VIATOR' (Rozain-Boucharlat, Rh6ne, Fr., Cat. p. 62. 1905). Compact plant; flowers a mixture of golden rose tones and pale yellow. `VICTOIRE' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. Described by E. G. Henderson & Sons, London, Eng., Cat. 138. p. 36. 1869 as having flowers pure white with rich lemon eye. Victor Lemoide Spelling error for 'Victor Lemoine'. 'VICTOR LEMOINE' ( Chate fils, Horticulteur Franc. p. 299. 1866). Flowers very large, golden yellow passing to vermillion copper, very bright. A Ferrand selec- tion. Victoria Victorie - - Spelling variant of 'Victoire'. Spelling variant of 'Victoire'. 'VIOLACEA' (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Published without description. 'VIOLET KING' (Standardized Plant Names, p. 322. 1942). Listed without description or reference. `VIRGILIE' (Lombardo, Arbust. & Arbustil. Pas. Publ. 151. 1961). Published without description. `VIRGINAL' (Cie. Sahut, Herault, Fr., Cat. 126. p. 73. 1890). Flowers pure white. 'VISION' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906 ) . Flowers rose. A Bruant selection. 'VOLCAN' ( Chate, Cult. Pratique Lantanas, p. 37. Undated, prob. 1865). Most beautiful plant with large flowers a marbled yellow passing to a copper red. Credited to Ferrand, 1862. 'WEEPING' (Good & Reese Co., Springfield, Ohio, Cat. p. 30. Jan.-Mar. 1899). Listed without description. Storrs & Harrison Co., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. p. 54. Fall 1935 describe this cultivar as having numerous compact umbels of bright rosy lilac. A rapid-growing, semi-trailing plant. [ 108] 'WILHELM ScHULE' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 104. 1856). Large flowered, deep rose, canary yellow at the center passing to golden. A selection of Rendatler. 'WILLIAMS RoLLISSON' (Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot without description. out 'XANTHINA SUPERBA' ( Horticulteur Franc. p. 173. 1861). Cited by A. Petot withdescription. 'YMA' (Saget, Le Jardin 20: 277. 1906 ) . Semi-dwarf; flowers yellow. `You:vcm' (Neubert, Deutsch. Mag. Gart.-Blumenk. p. 97. 1857). Published without description. Stated to be a constant flowering plant with light orange colored flowers in Wochenschrift 41: 325. 1858. `YvoR' (Rivoire, Pere & Fils, Lyon, Fr., Cat. p. 23. of gold; central flowers yellow. 1921). Rose-violet with tints RICHARD A. HOWARD ~los~] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials","article_sequence":12,"start_page":111,"end_page":133,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24475","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15e816d.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Florence; Wyman, Donald","article_content":". _ ~= ARNOLDIA ~ EI A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 NOVEMBER 14, 1969 Nua~rs~e 12 CHRISTMAS DECORATIONS FROM WOODY PLANT MATERIALS* Christmas time, every home becomes a workshop of vigorous activity, and it may well be that the most fun in preparation can be in those homes where the making of the decorations is a family project. There are many types of decorations which can be made from plants and literally hundreds of different kinds of plant materials are available. In an issue of Arnoldia (Arnoldia 15 : 6184, 1955), some of these plant materials were described. Finding the materials and using ingenuity in arranging them into festive ornaments can well supply interest for the entire family. This certainly has been true in our family, fora few years ago we merely made a wreath or two from white pine; but now our interest has grown to include all sorts of evergreen wreaths, cone wreaths, garlands, swags, stars, festoons, \"arrangements,\" kissing balls, etc. In fact, ingenuity has added a very important ingredient to the fun of this family project. True, it is usually the lady of the house who has the time to study and experiment at home, to go to all sorts of \"classes,\" to exchange ideas with her friends who are similarly interested; but it must be admitted that enthusiasm and \"know how\" thus acquired can be passed on to others. Such has been the case with us, at least. If there be a mere glimmer of interest in the mind of anyone, this procedure can be recommended for trial. And here are a very few of the possibilities that might be considered. NEAR -*- Wreaths Made from Foliage Wreaths of evergreen foliage, one kind or another, are the easiest to make, and once the technique is understood, it can be easily adapted to any type of material. First and foremost are the frames. Beginners may start with a single Note: Much of the bulletin is taken from Arnoldia 16: 61-72. 1956. by the same authIt was soon out-of-print and so many requests were received for it, that it is here presented again in up-dated and enlarged form. All wreaths and other arrangements by Florence D. Wyman. ors. * [ 111] hanger can suffice), or two branches tied together circle; experienced hand at wreath making will tell you that it is much easier to start with a ready-made wire frame of two circles of wire, available commercially from most florists or florists supply houses, expressly for wreathmaking purposes. Also, one should have a spool of green enamelled No. 26 wire wire a (No. 9, even a rebent coat in but the for wrapping the cut evergreen twigs to the frame. No matter what the material, young shoots are cut about four to six inches long for the smaller wreaths, longer for larger wreaths. The end of the roll of No. 26 wire is attached firmly to the frame and then gradually worked tightly around the bases of these shoots as they are put in place, two or three at a time in the front and one large dense one in the back of the wire frame. It is necessary only to wind the base of these twigs to the frame, but this should be done in one direction only, and done carefully and well. The next small bundle of twigs is so placed as to cover the bases of those last wired on, and so on around the entire circle. It can take a lot of material for a large wreath, so one had better practice with the normal 14 inch wreath frame at first. There are many evergreen plant materials from which wreaths can be made. To find the most popular we asked several people what they liked and invariably it was the material used at their respective homes when they were children. Christmas is an important time for youngsters, and makes a greater and more lasting impression on us than we might expect. There is now available a far greater diversity of plant material at our disposal than there was fifty years ago when only those plants native to the area were used at Christmas. Now, plants grown commonly in our gardens are native to the West Coast (Douglas-fir), the Orient (yews and Chamaecypans), or Europe (boxwood) so the intelligent gardener thus has many plants from which to choose those for use in his decorations. Experimenting with them at Christmas can prove a most interesting and satisfying family, have been making wreaths and Christmas decorations for many years, but we use only the material grown in the gardens in our area. Special decorations for the wreaths may be bought, but the greens are always grown locally. The following are some of the materials we have used in making wreaths, listed in the sequence as we prefer them: our project. We, in tree native to the Pacific Coast but making excellent ornamental in the East. It has been used satisfactorily as a Christmas tree, but of course lacks the desired fragrance of the balsam fir. We like it best for wreath making because of its soft, delicate foliage and because young shoots usually have several side branches, hence it \"makes up\" quickly. (See Plate XXV) It is much easier to collect enough of these shoots for a wreath than it is Taxus cuspidata that is grown with single shoots a foot long. Also, the foliage does not Douglas-fir. A splendid pyramidal an [ 112] PLATE XXIV Top: The start of a white pine wreath. Bottom: (left) Kissing ball started by inserting sharpened branchlets of boxwood into styrofoam ball. (right) Finished ball. drop, indoors or out-of-doors, during the 2-8 week Christmas period, and some of the trees have foliage a delightful grayish color that adds materially to their beauty. -, White Pine. This is second in our preference for wreath making since it is easily available all over New England. Small branched shoots only 6 inches long are easily collected, and this type of pruning insures thicker and more compact foliage the following year. Hence it is readily available, easily collected and works into a splendid soft textured wreath. (See Plate XXIV) Yew. This is commonly available and might be at the top of the list. How- ever, there is a very important difference among yews in their habit of growth. It is the dense compact growing forms like T. cuspidata `Densa' or 'Nana' that have 6~~ shoots with the desirable side branches that \"make up\" quickly in wreath form. Many varieties of yew have long 8-10~~ shoots without side branches, and cutting individual unbranched shoots-sufficient for a wreathcan be a long and arduous task, enough to dampen the ardour of all but the most enthusiastic. Hence in using yew, look for the right forms and save pruning the hedge until wreath-making time arrives. (See Plate XXV) are making wreaths but gardeners in New England fortunate as their Virginia friends in having large amounts of this fine plant. Cut branches seem to dry indoors, but experience has shown that boxwood wreaths can be freshened considerably by a quick spraying with water twice a week, or an actual soaking in water if there are no ornaments to be harmed. A wreath of boxwood on the front door has a richness of character all its own. not as Boxwood. This is excellent for Holly. Very prickly amount of to work with, holly to be cut at Christmas. In many but fortunate is the gardener with a large areas the birds take most of the fruits before December. The wreaths of holly are very prickly to make and it takes much experience and much holly. If these are not in order, the holly might best be used as separate shoots or in arrangements. Chamaecyparis. This is placed here in the list because it just happens we have a few old trees near us. We tried this material a few years ago for the first time-with excellent results. There are several varieties of ChamaecyParisPis~f'era, but the one with the best foliage for wreaths is probably the variety 'Plumosa', with light feathery branchlets often of a grayish green color. This material in a wreath will dry quickly, especially indoors, but it does not spoil the effectiveness of the wreath if it is not handled. A very delicate and graceful wreath making material. (See Plate XXV) [ 114] PLATE XXV Top: Taxus cuspidata wreath on left decorated with pine cones and fruits of Albizia, Big~aonia and Aesculus. Douglas-fir wreath on ri~ht. Bottom: Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Plumosa' wreath on which is superimposed a cone wreath. Mountain-laurel. Common but coarse when made into wreaths, giving quite the opposite effect from Chamaecyparis. Where mountain-laurel is plentiful, long ropes of it are available at Christmas. We never used it in wreaths until this past year. One afternoon in early December the wreath-making member of this team noticed an especially well grown plant in the front of her home, cut a few small branches and on inspecting them carefully indoors realized that because of the large amount of rain this past year these plants had grown unusually well without leaf blemishes of any sort. She immediately went out for more material, made her wreath and weathered a long tirade from the other author who merely grows the plants, since he thought the plants had been ruined. (Actually, on later inspection he could not find where they had been cut!) However, we both now admit that our mountain-laurel does not produce such lush growth every year, so it is only during the wet years, when growth is good, that it should be used in wreath making. Fir. Large quantities of balsam fir wreaths are made commercially from the lower branches of Christmas trees cut for the market, or from misformed trees that cannot be sold. They are produced in Vermont, New Hampshire and Maine, and shipped by truck, sometimes a month before Christmas. These wreaths will not last long in heated rooms where they quickly drop their needles, but if used out-of-doors, they may last through the Christmas period. In buying them, the trick is not to purchase too early, wreaths that have been made too soon. Spruce. It is easy to put spruce wreaths at this low point on a preferred list, especially those made of Norway or black spruce. Spruce needles do drop very quickly in a heated room. But have you ever seen a wreath made of blue spruce? If you have, we feel certain you tried to buy it, especially if it were tastefully decorated with the right kind of cones and red ribbon. Such wreaths are very beautiful and are only for use out-of-doors. Most people value their trees of blue spruce too much to cut them for wreath making. areas where there is much native red-cedar, these have been used making although they are very prickly to work with. Some of the stiffer junipers in ornamental plantings like Pfitzer juniper have some merit also, but certainly not the little low, very pliable ground covers like J. hori2onfalis. Juniper. In in wreath Hemlock. Wreaths of hemlock are occasionally made, but they can never be used indoors for the needles fall very quickly, and even out-of-doors they may shatter before the Christmas period is over. It is best to refrain from making or buying wreaths made of hemlock. Other materials like rhododendron and Magnolia grandiflora (both of which make coarsely textured funeral-type wreaths), bearberry and Oregon hollygrape, [ l1u] '\"0 G '\" O 60 '. U .0 a~ ro a a b 0 0 a .B U N 'S. C7 'j C. s '\" Y > O ;;. OIJ ~C a ~bU d~ a~ C . ~ 3 V .... a~ a 0 U 'Z7 U m O e CL . a U . : ~ a O to U 6 4 04 _~ \"~ 0 b have been used in parts of the country where these materials are plentiful. All these are not the only materials used, but we have found them (in the order listed) the most beautiful and satisfying as well as the most practical. Spraying with a clear plastic spray (now commonly available in small pressure cans) can give a sheen to any of these cut greens and can prove helpful in preserving them properly indoors. It is a simple matter to spray the finished product (away from fire) and it dries almost immediately. Pine, boxwood and yew wreaths will last throughout the Christmas period, indoors or out. A simple wreath of any of these materials is beautiful enough in itself when tied with a large red ribbon. However, many prefer to use the evergreen wreath merely as the base on which to attach all sorts of fruits, berries, cones or painted objects. It is here that an artistic hand and good taste will prove most helpful. Usually a simple evergreen wreath is greatly improved with a bow of bright red ribbon on the lower right hand side. Such bows for normal wreaths (see Plate XXV) are made of ribbon 4~~ wide. For outdoor use, the ribbon material might be waterproof. Actually tying a bow is not necessary unless it can be done tastefully. Merely fold the ribbon in several large loops, wire the center together and then wire the bow on the wreath. Finally, before the wreath is hung, use the scissors to cut back any small leaves or twigs in the center which mar the perfect circle for one should always be certain the center is round. As wreath makers become more experienced they sometimes add cones and fruits to the evergreen wreath. In Plate XXV, a yew wreath was tastefully decorated with cones of various sizes, Albizia pods, trumpet creeper pods and horsechestnut fruits. Each one of these has a 1 ~~~ #30 gauge wire attached to it by which it can be held tightly (but inconspicuously) in place on the wreath. In this particular instance, the addition of a ribbon also, would probably be superfluous. Sometimes a simple evergreen wreath is used as a background for a cone wreath. In Plate XXV, one can see the Chamaecyparis pis;f'era wreath and the cone wreath (complete in itself) has merely been wired tightly to the foliage wreath. One augments the other. In Plate XXVI, a Douglas-fir wreath is the background, making a beautiful combination for hanging over the mantle above the fireplace in our living room. Mention should be made of Rosa multiflora fruits which can be worked very well into wreath form (Plate XXXV). The fruits of this Japanese rose are very small, frequently remain in good condition all winter on the plants out-of-doors. However, they should be removed from the plant in October, just about the time they turn red, carefully cut so they will make up into little bunches of fruits with stems 4-5~~ long. The wreath should be made at once, while the stems are pliable, for if the stems dry out, they cannot be easily bent and worked into wreath form. A simple wreath of red Japanese rose fruits is beautiful in itself (with red or green ribbon) but some people like to spray such wreaths with gold paint, believing that this makes them even more beautiful. Certainly the spraying of such [ lIS] c ..... ~ ro U a~ O 0 U J\"rCx&~3# ;) .5 ~ N H = ::: A1 o ~., Q w O ... O 0 ir w +~ A o 'b cc~ .., o 3~ O 1~ rr O0g 0 ~ro o &3E3x# ; ro V ...-== 1 G ro O w m O '\" C > s ... <) ~.5-= ~ ro . >: .S W ~~ a ern Eo< :; ., .... 0 > -C aw 0, a: C ... :;-' .fi .S t^' 4~ ... OJ V7 J: c wc o # g S f ~ 8,.0 ;.A, ro F~ x OJ 3 ~o ~ ro <) ... '\" x o '\" ;: .;!; 0 ~OJ ~ a, ... .. ., ,. 0.-\"- 0 ~ =5~j c c ~ O .~ =a ~ ~ 8 t~ m .;; c OJ c~ ro r.f.I 3 .~ ~ a wreath takes only a few minutes, but we think the natural red colored fruits need no artificial improvement. Our suggestion would be to use the wreath in its natural color the first year, then put it away in a tightly closed polyethylene bag with a few crystals of paradichlorobenzene (to keep it bug-proof) then spray it with gold the second year, using a moss green velvet ribbon. Swags A swag is merely a group of evergreen branches, tied together in a pleasing form. They are frequently hung on doors in lieu of wreaths. Note that there should be a stiff piece of wood about 1~~~X 10~~ in the back of the swag to which these branches should be firmly wired. Thus they are held in place and the wood should be long and wide enough to do the job, but small enough to be hidden by the branches. Once the knack has been acquired of arranging the branches artistically together, these too, can be trimmed with bows of red ribbon, or a few carefully selected cones or dried fruits. The one illustrated in Plate XXVIII was made from red pine, but white pine, Scotch pine and other materials can be used if branches with the proper curvature are available. Kissing Balls In medieval times, the \"kissing ball\" provided a very important part of the Christmas festivities. It was not made until Christmas Eve, when the entire family joined in. At first it was a large thing made of three barrel hoops tied together vertically, and then one was attached to these in a horizontal position to hold them in place. Around these hoops were wrapped slender branches of boxwood, and also bright colored pieces of paper or metal. Sometimes they were dipped in water when they were finished and then sprinkled with flour to give them a real wintry cast. Then they were hung in a prominent place, sometimes outside, and left hanging until Twelfth Night. It was up to all the men and boys to catch the matrons and maids under the ball and kiss them soundly. Naturally these balls were a source of much interest and fun throughout the entire Christmas period. During these early times, castles afforded spacious halls where such large balls could be easily hung. Today, with our modern homes, the kissing balls have been considerably reduced in size. However, if hung in the proper place, there is no need for them to be any less effective now than they were then. The balls are simply made by starting with a ball of styrofoam which is available from any florists' supply house. This is about the size of a baseball and is a light plastic material in which it is easy to force sharpened twigs (see Plate XXIV). If styroform balls are not available, a similar-sized ball is made by squeezing out moist sphagnum moss and tying string tightly around it in such a way as to hold it in a round shape. A sturdy wire is placed through the ball and attached so that it can be hung. [ 120 ] '0' .cU a! ca0 l '^ W m Cd Bs Us i U . G1 G C1~ 47 ^GL ~ U _O .A bD wro C. ~ O a! ~ w N .. m ru w O B a~ .~ ro a S o~ s a~ . v o I~Y ~~,\/ Ffl ,~ . ~-\"O WO r~i ,b O @ U e ~ ro a R na .Q x x e~ U ~; a '~ .. y a a t~o ~ ~.~ a bc . ai w a ~' o a~ ~ co ro 3 ro c, w oa a~ . ro m^ Eo cd `n .~ c o 0 CU a 3 'na a, ~ .~ m O~a~ o ~ ~N~~ I:! a ~~~. ~ a,,~ s.s~~' ~ ~o ~~ aU a ~ I q o ~a g o m N _e~ ; y~ ~~ o p3 ~ p _? w~. O ~a ~ ]8~.s ~ .~ o : ;: ~ ,~ 3 ~Q....~g .., 0 ~ ~ :N O ~E-<~2~e> en ... C O O a J5 ~ .~ O 8~~~~ C <:w . . 1 ~ 'EI~,~e,'O ,.~,x E''b\" ~o c:o~, C ~ ~.~\",@ ' t~ '\" ~ . c \"0 ~ ra ~ c~; Q.,::;1;J~ ;.. :j .~ ~ ~ ~O ~~ ~ . .c: ~ ~.. ..... ~ ~ fi ~ ~N!::~...~ N o a .N ;:! E a- <:I ~ \"\" ;:~ ;.. C),~.\" ~ '\" ~ '\"I:! \" S y N dc~ g .- ~ a> . @ ~ Ui:C~t:f ~8~ ~ .~ ~ N .~ 5 .N ~ ~J. ' ~~a~ -S g ;: O~~ fi U 'N '\" oa,~m'~..o~' ~~'~ fi o'L, u ;: N V N ai.N ~~ :: \"I:! ~ a fi 00~ ~~ ~ ~ t:f : C1'~e~ ] ~ s ~ ~ ~ E G 'C 11 N H Iz ro y c A li U G xS r O U ro < aa CLI > ro 1~ d a 1~ W Y ~ N .~'r _U ,H a C L 1~ Y a G At on first, Five- it is advisable to hang this unadorned ball at eye level, so that working it will be easy. or six-inch pieces of boxwood are cut from any vigorous plant, the stems sharpened a bit with a knife, and the pieces stuck in uniformly around the entire ball. It is important to keep in mind the fact that the finished ball will look much better if the pieces used are a uniform length. If this cannot be done, merely cutting off the longer ends after the pieces are all in place, will help. Boxwood dries rather quickly, so it might be advisable to spray some plastic material on the finished product to keep the foliage in a fresh appearing condition for as long as possible. Or, it can be freshened considerably once or twice a week by syringing with water or actually soaking in water for a few minutes. Then it can be hung as is, or for good measure, with a small piece of mistletoe underneath, so that there will be no misunderstanding regarding its purpose! Kissing balls can also be made from two wire hoops, about 10~~ in diameter. These are wired firmly together (see Plate XXVIII) then the wire is covered by wrapping Floratape around it. This material colored brown or green is a type of waxed tape that is available m small rolls about an inch wide and is much used in covering wires on cones and fruits used in Christmas decorations. To these wire hoops are then attached cones and dried fruits, tastefully selected and attached (by wire) to the hoops. Such kissing balls are very beautiful, can have a sprig of mistletoe attached at the bottom, and can, if necessary, be used from year to year. Cone Wreaths To make cone wreaths, one must have an artistic touch and a remarkable of patience. Time and experience not only in the making of the actual wreath but in collecting the cones are necessary. It is not a project conceived a few days before Christmas and then executed. Rather, it is a project which one apparently keeps in the back of her mind wherever she goes-for a full year or more, since all sorts of cones and dried fruits are needed. The male members of this particular family have been talked into gathering cones in the woods of Mt. Desert Island, on the campus of Smith College, in some of the outlying areas around Williamsburg, Virginia, and in many places in between. Automobile trips are never run on schedule to any place, when there is a cone-hunter along. Catalogues are searched for certain species; friends are inveigled into bringing back special types from trips to the far parts of the country, for variety in sizes and shapes of the cones and fruits is of the utmost importance. With a large and varied supply of cones on hand, one goes to work. First, evenings are spent wiring the cones so they can be attached. Twelve-inch lengths of No. 22 wire are used for the larger cones and they must be wired to the frame with two wires, one on either side of each cone, to prevent their being shaken out of place. Small cones like those of hemlock, can be wired with No. 30 wire, amount [ 124] 0 U !E ro '\" m ~ W y~ '\" ..c ~ :>< :>< ~ _W a1 i~ a ~7 W Yn a 8 H~ :>< a :>< ~ o :\" I~Y ~ W ,o r ~..~ ~ 0 W CL 11w ~ W V N U Fv .o ~ .~ 8 8 W ~ ~ i~ W L '\" tp Y 'r' o .C G W f C7 :: 'O ~a cc ~L a' W bI: ., .... N ., a\" ~ yL y W t J ~ ..... o 0 a ~, ~z z~ a g ~; a! being wred together in groups of a dozen or so. Acorns-these problems! When green, cups and fruit remain nicely together, but as soon as they start to dry out, they part company. They can be wired together so the wire is unnoticed-but what a time-consuming job this proves to be. The youngsters of the house can do it, but if they insist on payment for time spent, costs go up quickly. It isn't long before this job reverts to the lady carrying the enthusiasm for the whole project. The electric drill is used for boring one hole through the center of the cup or base, and a hole straight across the lower base of the acorn itself. If this is done properly, with the smallest drill, the acorn can be wired to the cup (No. 30 wire) with only the two ends of the wire coming through the base of the cup, in evidence. These ends are easily tied together in a knot, thus preventing movement of the acorn from the cup. Acorns, too, especially the smaller types like those of the pin oak and red oak, are often wired in clusters to simulate grapes. Larger acorns like those of the mossy-cup oak are used in small groups, but wired similarly. One of the methods of making a \"base\" on the three-dimensional frame for the cones, is to attach a double row of white pine cones entirely around the frame (see Plate XXXII). The larger cones, some of which have been cut in half to simulate rosettes or flowers, or turned upside down, are next attached. Standard practice seems to be to start with 3, 5 or 7 properly-balanced, equidistant main accent points. Then, the smaller materials are worked in pleasing groups around many of them are the these main focal points. Good taste, patience, and experience are primary assets in making beautiful cone wreaths. (Plate XXX shows a finished wreath and Plate XXIX shows all the kinds of materials used in its making.) Note the three cone wreaths in Plate XXXI. These are attached to the wire frame in a manner totally different from those in the cone wreath, Plate XXX. It takes more artistic ability to make a wreath of this type, but the end result is worth the long hours spent in practice to acquire the ability of applying the right selection of cones and dried fruits in the right way. In studying the largest of the wreaths in this picture, it is obvious that balance has been an important factor in placing the cones properly. Also, the proper selection of the right kinds of materials is just as important. In making cone wreaths it is obvious that much preparation must be made in advance, in collecting the materials, wiring them properly and covering the wires with Floratape. Considerable experience is necessary to make the final product one of character and beauty. All cone-made objects can be stored from year to year if placed in tightly closed polyethylene bags in which are a few crystals of paradichlorobenzene to keep out the bugs. Garlands After can one graduate has had experience in making foliage wreaths and cone wreaths, to the garland-making class, for it is here that one needs the one ex- [ 126 ] \" e w '\" \" 3 a~ 0 V ~ a~ 0 u .J w ro . a~ c 0 0 ro u ~a 00 \" c O V Y n~ CL V ~ I^n y' >C ...: 3 W w o a. E-<'\"08 S Cd \" xv F,F~1.oCG~ nO~ y0 ao \"..0: ~'r y ~ W .,, 3 ~ ... C7 710 60 ..0:..... .c 0 ~ B m aoV ...'\" o r~. a ro . a ~, '\"0 f:i) w :, ... ... \" c~ '\" ~ o perience of all that was learned in making the cone wreaths. Since most fireplaces differ in proportion, there is no standard measurement for these festoons of cones and fruits. Usually, a frame of plywood is cut out the exact size and shape wanted. Then the major groupings are arranged on this and wired around narrow frame ; or better still, a hole is bored through the frame, the wires inserted, pulled tightly and bent over, and then stapled with one of the special wood staplers now available. Not a simple or easy undertaking, yet the end result can be a thing of artistic beauty which can remain to adorn the living room long after the Christmas period, and be used time and again at Christmas. the Miscellaneous Objects There are many interesting objects which can be made from the left-overs of wreath-making. The small tree (Plate XXVII) is made by inserting a dowel in some plaster of Paris in a painted tin can, and wiring on the branches of yew left over from making the larger wreaths. Ornamental boxwood trees (Plate XXVII) are made by attaching a styrofoam ball to the dowel, sharpening the small twigs of boxwood and inserting them into the ball, adding fruits or cones for tasteful decoration. The basket of nuts (Plate XXXIII) turned out to be a gem which we use time and again for tasteful display not only at Christmas but at many other times of the year. At first the basket was merely a receptacle for left overs from cone wreath-making, but it would not stay tastefully arranged, for every time it was moved the contents shifted position. Then a styrofoam ball covered with sheet moss was pressed into the center of the basket and the contents were wired in place-resulting in an object of permanent beauty. The candelabra are beautiful enough but one of the authors doesn't want anything to do with them merely because he cannot properly solder the wires together. These must be sturdy and solidly held together or else they will move and cause everything to be out of position. The arrangement of cones and fruits takes a technique of another kind, but someone else will have to solder or weld the next ones we try. Corsages Corsages are actually miniature arrangements and anyone who can arrange flowers can make these. The ones made for Christmas gifts from cones and dried fruits are carefully constructed in accordance with the fundamentals of balance and proportion. In Plate XXXIV, one notes that ribbons (often velvet and of different colors) have been used. Atlantic cedar or Deodar cedar cones (the tops only), were used in some as the major points of interest. Hemlock cones, acorns, dried fruits of the Japanese dogwood and alder catkins were used, but these are only a few of many, many things that might be selected. We usually have a green velvet covered board (about 18~~ X 18~~) standing in the conservatory where [ 128 ] PLATE XXXIII Top: Candelabras. Bottom: Basket of fruits (all wired in place) consisting of fruits of red oak, mossycup oak, umbrella-pine, redwood, dove-tree, beefwood, bristle cone pine, Atlantic cedar and white spruce. attached not primarily for display, but as gifts to our drop during the Christmas period. One lady who received one nine years ago has brought it out each Christmas since, to be worn on her coat. It is ready to wear merely by adding a new ribbon. These are small gifts but certainly have lasting value. are two dozen of these friends who in Arrangements . This is a lengthy topic with many embellishments which need not be discussed here-every flower arranger knows the problems. However, we do wish to make the point that in the gardens about the home, and in the foundation planting, plants should be used which can be cut for arrangements at Christmas. Such arrangements can last for weeks, and if properly cut need not mar the plants from which they were taken. Some that should be considered in this category are: Berberis-evergreen barberries sempervirens-Boxwood Cytisus species-brooms Euonymus fortunei vars. Galax aphylla-galax Hedera helix-English ivy Ilex-evergreen holly species Juniperus species Buxus Kalmia latifolia-mountain-laurel Leucothoe species Mahonia aquifolia-Oregon holly-grape Pieris floribunda-mountain andromeda Pieris japonica-Japanese andromeda Pinus sp.-pines Prunus laurocerasus-cherry-laurel Pseudotsuga menziesii-Douglas-fir Rhododendron species, especially R. arbutifolium, laetvirens, carolinianum, catawbiense hybrids and R. 'P.J.M.' Sciadopitys verticillata-Japanese umbrella pine Taxus sp. & vars.-yews Pachysandra terminalis-Japanese spurge Tsuga sp.-hemlocks \"Fearsome Critters\" \"Fearsome Critters\" shown in Plate XXXV offer a lot of fun in the and the display of plenty of ingenuity, especially by the youngsters. Those in the cut were made by our fourteen-year-old son, John, who was watchThe making an ing his mother make some cone wreaths. When she left her materials to attend afternoon meeting, he confiscated a few cones and seeds, took a walk out-ofdoors in search of a few other things, appropriated a few of his father's pipe cleaners, and in no time at all, surprised himself and everyone else with his strikingly humorous results. The short squat figure on the left was made with a cone of Scotch pine, two cone scales from a Jeffrey pine, a red oak acorn for a head, and two small fruits of the jetbead (Rhodotypos scandens) for eyes, held in place either by glue or pins. The six-legged monster in the rear was from a cone of a Norway spruce (Picea abies), a Chinese chestnut for a head, the leafy bract from the fruit of a linden for horns, small hazel nuts for eyes, and the expanded fruit capsules of the native witch hazel for a mouth. The \"small fry\" in front were made from the fruits of the beefwood (Casuarina [ 130 ] c~ a~ o ~a F4 ro ~ c o~ S o ~ !0 l ~i co Gs % o a 'E '*' o o p a~ ~ ~ o ~, g .c . ~ aa u ~[ ro~ w Pr .a = o O o , o~ 3~ ~ OO H U o j ~, ~ .oa Cd ~ h '~ ~ o y Sa~ ~ U .N ~C U F ~. O O Y '~ W W ~~ r s G7 Oy M~ '3 s . G b !B <: h O Cd .L' O L _~ w~ (~7 < a~~ ~! a~ equisetifolia) and the fruits of the Japanese Katsura-tree (Cercidiphyllum japonicum) for ears, held together with one pin and two dabs of glue. The medium-sized critter in the rear has a tail of the fruit cluster of the drooping leucothoe (Leucothoe fontanesiana), the body of a pine cone, ears of maple samaras, a head of the fruit ball of the sweet gum (Liquidambar styraciflua) and eyes of the fruits from the tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica). The last creature on the right has the cone of the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) for a body, apparently no tail at all, a eucalyptus fruit for a head, and two eyes of the fruits of bladdernut (Colutea arborescens). If the idea is acquired, this can lead to an interesting walk about the grounds or through the woods in search for materials which, once found, can be worked quickly into many an entertaining object. FLORENCE AND DONALD V`~S'MAN [ 132] PLATE XXXV Top: Fruits \"Fearsome multiflora which have been sprayed with gold. Bottom: Critters\". For description see pages 130 and 132. of Rosa "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hedges for Special Purposes","article_sequence":13,"start_page":135,"end_page":146,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24479","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060a328.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ` ~ A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 ` I E DECEMBER 26, 1969 HEDGES FOR SPECIAL PURPOSES NUMBER 18 3 can be used for hedges, but one should always select best suited to fulfill the purpose for which the hedge is planted. Sometimes they are used merely to mark a property line, walk or drive. Other times they are used as barriers, to keep children in or animals out. It may be they are selected to serve both purposes at once. Then there are the screens to mask objectionable views or to give privacy or screens that serve as windbreaks. Plants suitable for one purpose may be unsuitable for another. Hedges should be dense and compact, easily sheared and quick to recuperate after shearing. Plants with medium to small leaves are best. The globe form of the Norway maple, as one example, is certainly dense and of the right habit for a hedge but the leaves are large and coarse. Serviceable in some situations it would not be a good choice for a hedge in the front of a home on a high priced suburban lot. There are plants among those in the following list that make good flowering hedges. Occasionally there is need for these-a line of plants, placed close together, which are allowed to grow informally to show off their flowers. These plants may be allowed to grow in this fashion for several years without pruning or shearing, then may be cut to the ground and started all over again. Such a plant is Rosa virginiana. As a formally clipped hedge it has little to offer when compared with much better ones for this purpose, like privets and barberries. However, it increases by underground stolons and the upright shoots tend to remain the same height, at least for three or four years. During this period, it flowers and fruits profusely, and, if in the right place, such as between a paved street and sidewalk, it looks well. In the fall the foliage is red and orange, the fruits are red and all winter long the young red twigs are colorful. To keep it in vigorous growing condition, it can be cut to the ground in the very early spring every third or fourth year, and if done early enough MANY those trees and shrubs [ 135] there will be sufficient time for it to produce some flowers the same year. The following year it will be thicker than ever. The Hedge Demonstration Plot at the Arnold Arboretum was started in 1936, then a major part of it was moved to its new location near the Dana greenhouses in 1962-63. A listing of the hedges and a plan of their arrangement was published in Arnoldia 24 : #11, December 4, 1964. This is, in general, correct now, with a few additions which have been added since. This collection is regularly pruned and is labeled so that visitors can see exactly what these 94 different types look like at any time of year. There are many other plants that can be used in hedges and a suggested list of over 180 is given here. The numbers refer to the particular purposes for which each species or variety might be grown as a hedge. If one is interested only in thorny, barrier hedges, merely select those from the list with a 3. If a list of evergreen hedges is wanted, select those with 1, and so on. The plants used for making hedges have been divided into the following groups according to what each one is best suited for: keep their leaves most of the winter in those where they are normally used. regions 2. Dense: Plants in this group grow dense foliage with a minimum amount of care. These naturally make the best hedges. 3. Thorny: Either stems or leaves thorny, making good barrier hedges. 4. Low: Can be grown as very low hedges with a minimum amount of clipping. 5. Flowering: Because of profuse flowers, these plants can be grown as informal flowering hedges with trimming once a year (or even once every other year). 6. Colored Fruits: Trimming removes the majority of the flowers and fruits, yet the plants in this group have so many bright colored fruits that with the right trimming, some fruits will remain to give color and interest. 7. For Poor Growing Conditions: Some hedges must be planted where growing conditions are difficult and plants in this group may succeed where others would fail. 8. Narrow, Columnar and Upright: Naturally growing this way, not all make good hedges for the terminal growth is so strong that often it is difficult to force lateral branches at the ground level. 9. For Trying Situations in the Midwest: A special group found to be best suited to the extreme heat, cold and drought conditions of the Midwest. 10. Windbreaks and Screens: A special group of tall-growing vigorous plants, many of which are not suited for low, clipped hedges but which will grow rapidly into a windbreak or screen and can be kept clipped or unclipped. 11. For the Coldest Parts of the United States and Southern Canada: These plants should be used in the coldest parts of the country where most of the other plants listed may be injured by the extreme cold. 1. Evergreen: Plants in this group [ 136 ] ro c ~ b s c c 0 a h 4) ~~ V ~v~ O < ~3 L H -o a c '3 V u I ~l ,~ x ~ -S AS' 'O s jO m m p Q ~A rS V u ~~ O c~ A x i~ c t \"a .C M ro # C V e~ s F. S~ O S C ~.~a s# x x a !<! l ~ o a t -c a4 a~ y a ro .c x U '~ ~ _~ % I .. ~. a~ W bD 12. For Southern Gardens: The farther south one plants can be used. Most of those listed in this group is an goes, the more kinds of are not reliably hardy north of Philadelphia. (Tsuga caroliniana 5' 120' 9' 25' 20' 90' 90' 20' 120' 20' 9' 12' 18' 4' exception.) Abelia grandiflora 5, 12 Abies concolor 1, 2 Zone 5 4 5 Glossy Abelia White Fir Five-leaved Aralia Acanthopanax sieboldianus 2, 3, 7 Acer campestre 2 \" \" 5-6 2 ginnala 2, 10 platanoides 10 \" \" \" \" 'Columnare' 8, 10 2 'Globosum' \" rubrum 'Columnare' 8, 10, 11 Hedge Maple Amur Maple 3 Norway Maple 3 Columnar Norway Maple 3 Globe Norway Maple 3 Columnar Red Maple 3 3 4 \" saccharum 'Temple's Upright' 8,10,11 120' \" saccharum 'Globosum' 2 Aronia arbutifolia 6 Baccharis halimifolia 2, 7 Berberis buxifolia nana 1, 2, 3, 4 chenaultii 1, 2, 3 \" Globe Sugar Maple 4 5 5 5 7 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 Red Chokeberry Groundsel-bush Dwarf Magellen Barberry Chenault Barberry Cutleaf Barberry Darwin Barberry Wildfire Barberry Wintergreen Barberry Korean Barberry Mentor Barberry Rosemary Barberry Japanese Barberry Red Japanese Barberry - \" circumserrata 2, 3, 6 6' 10' 6' 6' 6' \" \" darwinii 1, 3, 12 gilgiana 2, 3, 6 3 julianae 1, 2, 6 koreana 2, 3, mentorensis 2, 3, 6, 7 \" \" \" 7' \" \" ,\" \" \" \" 9' stenophylla 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 12 7' thunbergii 2, 3, 5, 6, 7 atropurpurea 2,3,5,6,77' \" `Erecta' 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 7' \" 'Crimson Pygmy' 2, 3, 4, 5, 6,7 2' 'Erecta' 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 'Globe' 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 \" `Minor' 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 7' 4' 4' _ 5 5 \" \" 5 5 5 3-4 5 \" verruculosa 1, 2, 3 Betula populifolia 2 Buxus \" \" \" 4' 30' 4' 4' 4 1,2,4 4 microphylla japonica 1, 2, \" Truehedge Columnberry Globe Japanese Barberry Littleleaf Japanese Barberry Warty Barberry Gray Birch Japanese Boxwood Korean Boxwood koreana 5 5 5 2 5 sempervirens and vars. 1, 2 'Suffruticosa' 1, 2, 4 arborescens 7, 9, 10, 11 Caragana \" \" 20' Common Boxwood Dwarf Boxwood Siberian Pea-tree 3' 18' 60' Carpinus betulus 2, 8, 10 European Hornbeam ] [ 138 PLATE XXXVII Zaxus baccata trimmed in two ways. Upper: Formally pruned hedges used as dressing rooms on the outdoor stage at \"Bodnant\", northern Wales. Lower: These plants at Kells, Ireland are said to be over 200 years old and always sheared in this form. zone Carpinus \" betulus \" 'Fastigiata' 2, 8, 10 60' 20' 3' 6' 150' 9' 9' 24' 'Globosa' 2, 10 Chaenomeles japonica 2, 3, 4, 5 7 lagenaria 2, 3, 5, pisifera and vars. 1, 2 Chamaecyparis Clethra alnifolia 1, 5, 7 Cornus alba 6, 11 mas 2, 6 racemosa 2, 6, 7 Cotoneaster lucida 4, 6 Crataegus crus-galli 2, 3 3 monogyna 2, 3 oxyacantha 2, 6 phaenopyrum 2, 3, 'Lobbii' 1, 2, 8, 12 Cryptomeria japonica Cupressus macrocarpa 1, 2, 12 \" \" \" \" \" \" Fastigiate European Hornbeam European Hornbeam 4 Japanese Quince 4 Flowering Quince 3 Sawara False Cypress 5 5 Globe 3 2 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 Summersweet Siberian Dogwood 15' 9' 36' 30' 15' 30' Cornelian-cherry Gray Dogwood Hedge Cotoneaster Cockspur Thorn Single Seed Hawthorn English Hawthorn Washington Hawthorn Monterey Cypress Slender Deutzia 150' 75' 3-6' 20' 12' 5-6 7 4 2 2 gracilis Elaeagnus angustifolia 3, 7, 9 \" Deutzia 5 Russian-olive commutata 11 \" alata 'Compacta' 2, 4, fortunei radicans 1, 4 \" 6 5' 1' 4' 15' \" `Vegeta' 1, japonica 1, 2, 12 Fagus grandifolia 2, 10 sylvatica 'Fastigiata' 2, 8, 10 Feijoa sellowiana 1, 6, 12 Forsythia intermedia 'Spectabilis' 5 Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata 11 Fuchsia magellanica 5 \" \" \"` 6 4, Silverberry Dwarf Winged Spindle-tree 5 Wintercreeper 5 Evergreen Bittersweet 8 Evergreen Euonymus 3 3 4 8 5 2 90' 90' 18' 9' 60' American Beech Fastigiate European Beech Pineapple Guava Showy Border Forsythia Green Ash Common 3' 135' 30' 15' 30' 3' 12' 6 4 Gleditsia triacanthos 3 Hibiscus rosa-sinensis 1, 5, 12 5 syriacus \" Magellan Fuchsia Honey-locust Chinese Hibiscus 9 5 Shrub Althea Sea-buckthorn Hills-of-snow Hippophae rhamnoides 3, 6, 7 Hydrangea arborescens grandiflora 5 macrophylla 5, 12 Ilex aquifolium 1, 3, 6, 12 cornuta 'Burfordi' 1, 3, 6, 12 \" 3 4 5-6 6 7 6 5 70' 9' 20' 8' 1, 2, 12 \" crenata 'Convexa' 1, 2, 12 vars. \" crenata and Hydrangea English Holly Burford Chinese Holly Japanese Holly Convex-leaved Japanese Holly Yaupon House 6 \" opaca `Clark' 1, 2, 3, 45' 25' 5 7 \" vomitoria 2, 6, 12 ] [ 140 PLATE XXXVIII at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, Mass. Lower: Rosa rugosa informal flowering hedge in the Botanic Garden at Uppsala, Sweden. Upper: Prinsepia sinensis informal flowering hedge zone 3-60' Juniperus chinensis and vars. 1, 2, 6 scopulorum and vars. 1,2,6,8,10 36' virginiana and vars. 1,2,6,8,10,11 90' 21' Lagerstroemia indica 5, 12 \" \" 4 5 2 7 5 Chinese Juniper Western Redcedar Eastern Redcedar Crape-myrtle True Lavender Amur Privet Ibolium Privet Lavandula ofTicinahs 4, 5 3' 15' 12' Ligustrum \" amurense 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 3 4 ibolium 2, 4, 5, 6, 7 9-18' japonicum 1, 2, 4, 6, 7,10,12 lucidum 1, 2, 4, 6, 10, 12 30' obtusifolium'Regelianum' 2,4,5,6 5' ovalifolium 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 12 15' 6 12' vicaryi 2, 4, 5, vars. 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 15' vulgare Lonicera fragrantissima 2, 5, 6 6' maackii 2, 6, 10 15' nitida 2, 4, 12 6' 12 1' pileata 2, 4, tatarica 2, 5, 6, 7, 9 9' 'Nana' 2, 4, 5, 6, 4' 7 Maclura pomifera 2, 3, 7, 9, 10 60' Mahonia aquifolium 1, 3, 5, 6 6' 'Compactum' 1,3,4,5,6 3' Michelia fuscata 1, 6, 12 15' \" \" \" \" 7 7 3 5 5 Japanese Privet Glossy Privet Regel Privet \" \" \" California Privet Vicary Golden Privet 4 Common Privet 5 Winter Honeysuckle 2 Amur Honeysuckle 7 \" Box Honeysuckle Privet \" 6 3 3 5 5 Honeysuckle \" \" \" Tatarian Honeysuckle Dwarf Tatarian Honeysuckle \" \" 5 7-8 4 6 8-9 7 7-8 Osage-orange Oregon Holly-grape Compact Oregon Holly-grape Banana-shrub Morus alba 10, 12 Myrica cerifera 1, 6, 12 Myrtus communis 1, 2, 5, 12 Nandina domestica 1, 5, 6, 12 Nerium oleander 1, 5, 12 Osmanthus ilicifolius 1, 5, 12 45' 36' 5-10' 8' 20' 18' 12 White Mulberry Wax-myrtle Myrtle Nandina Oleander 1, 2, 4, Pernettya Philadelphus coronarius 5, 7 mucronata \" \" lemoinei 'Avalanche' 2, 5 'Erectus' 2, 5, 6 9 6 Holly Osmanthus 1~' 6-7 Chilean Pernettya 9' 4 Sweet Mock-orange 4' 5 Avalanche Mock-orange 4' 5 Erect Mock-orange 4' 4 Physocarpus intermedms parvifolius 2, opulifolius 7, 11 \" \" \" Dwarf Illinois Ninebark 9' 2 2 2 Eastern Ninebark Dwarf Eastern Ninebark , 'Nanus' 2, 4, 7, 11 3' Picea abies and vars. 1, 2, 10 1-150' 90' glauca 1, 2, 9, 10, 11 \" \" \" 2 2 4 'Conica' 1, 2, 4 omorika 1, 2, 10 2 orientalis 1, \" 15' 90' 150' \" 4 Norway Spruce White Spruce Dwarf Alberta Spruce Serbian Spruce Oriental Spruce [ 1 ~z ~] PLATE XXXIX Upper: liu,rus sem~erx~irens `Su$ruticosa' in a formal design at Mt. Vernon. B'a. Lower: 2'suga cazzadensis makes one of the best evergreen hedges usable for many purposes. zone Picea pungens and vars. 1, 2, 9, 11 Pinus mugo vars. 1, 2, 4 \" \" 3-100' 2 2 2-15' Colorado Spruce Mugo Pine Austrian Pine Red Pine 1 90' 4 nigra 75' 2 resinosa 1, 10, 11 strobus 1, 2, 10 100-150' 3 10' 8 Pittosporum tobira 1, 2, 12 Poncirus trifoliata 3, 7, 12 35' 5-6 90' 3 Populus alba 'Pyramidalis' 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 berolinensis 10, 11 2 75' 90' 3 nigra 'Italica' 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 simonii 7, 9, 10, 11 50' 2 tremuloides 10, 11 90' 1 Potentilla fruticosa 1, 4, 5 4' 2 10' 2 Prinsepia sinensis 2,3, 5, 11 Prunus laurocerasus and vars. 1, 2,10, 12 18' 6-7 \" \" \" \" \" \" Eastern White Pine lusitanica 12 Pseudotsuga menziesii 1, 2, 9, 10 Pyracantha coccinea 'Lalandii' 2, 3, 5, 6,12 Quercus ilex 1, 2, 10, 12 imbricaria 2, 10 \" Japanese Pittosporum Hardy-orange Bolleana Poplar Berlin Poplar Lombardy Poplar Simon Poplar Quaking Aspen Bush Cinquefoil Cherry Prinsepia Cherry-laurel 6-60' 7 Portugal-laurel 300' 4-6 Douglas-fir 6' 6 9 5 4 5 5 Laland Firethorn 60' 75' 75' 50' Holly Oak Shingle Oak Pin Oak palustris 10 phellos 2, 10 robur 'Fastigiata' 8, 10 virginiana 1, 2, 10, 12 Raphiolepis umbellata 1, 12 \" \" \" \" \" Willow Oak 75' 60' 6' Pyramidal English Oak Live Oak 7 7 2 2 Rhamnus cathartica 2, 6, 10, 11 18' frangula 'Columnaris' 2,6,8,10,11 18' Rhododendron obtusum 'Amoenum' 1, 4, 5 3' Ribes alpinum (staminate Rosa multiflora 2, 3, 5, 6 Yeddo-hawthorn Common Buckthorn Tallhedge Buckthorn Alpine Currant Japanese Rose Rugosa Rose Prairie Rose 6 2 5 2 4 3 2 form) 2, 4, 9,11 7~' 10' 6' 15' \" \" rugosa 2, 3, 5, 6, 11 6 setigera 3, 5, virginiana 3, 5, 6, 11 \" 6' 75' 6' 7' 5-6' 5 Virginia Rose White Willow Salix alba 11 Severinea buxifolia 1, 12 Shepherdia canadensis 2, 6, 7, 9, 11 8 2 4 4 4 4 4 Spiraea arguta 5 japonica alpina 4, prunifolia plena 5 thunbergii 5 \" \" \" 18' Box-orange Buffalo-berry Garland Spirea Alpine Spirea Russet Chinese 9' 5' Bridalwreath Spirea \" vanhouttei 2, 5 6' Thunberg Spirea Vanhoutte Spirea [ 144] PLATE XL macrocarpa. the Monterey Cypress, makes a fine hedge at \"Crarae'' on Loch Fyne in Scotland. Lower: Carpinus or Hornbeam hedges, are used a great deal in England. Th~s one is at Hampton Court just north of Kew Upper: Cupressus Gardens. zone - ~~ , ~ Stephanandra incisa 'Crispa' 2, 4, Syringa chinensis 5 josikaea 2, 5, 10, 11 \" \" 7 3' 4 5 2 5 5 2 5' 12' 6' ' Chinese Lilac Hungarian Lilac Cutleaf Lilac Persian Lilac Late Lilac laciniata 5 , 6' persica 5, 9, 10 villosa 2, 5, 10, 11 9' 9-20' vulgaris 5, 9, 10, 11 Tamarix odessana 5, 12 6' 15' parviflora 5, 12 15' pentandra 5, 12 Taxus baccata and vars. 1, 2, 6, 12 6-60' \" 'Erecta' 1, 2, 6, 8, 12 20' 30' \" `Fastigiata' 1, 2, 6, 8, 12 6 6' \" `Repandens' 1, 2, 4, canadensis 'Stricta' 1, 4, 6 30' 3-50' cuspidata 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 6 10' 'Nana' 1, 2, 4, media 'Hicksii' 1, 2, 4, 6, 8 40' 60' Thuja occidentalis 1, 2, 8, 10 'Douglasi Pyramidalis' 1, 2, 8, 10 60' \". 2 15' 'Globosa' 1, 4 4' 'Pumila' 1, 2, 60' robusta 1, 2, 10 orientalis and vars. 1, 2, 10, 12 50' 180' plicata 1, 2, 8, 10 Tilia cordata 2, 10 90' canadensis 1, 2, 10 90' Tsuga caroliniana 1, 2, 10, 12 75' 75' Ulmus pumila 2, 7, 9, 10, 11 \" \" \" 3 4 4 Common Lilac Odessa Tamarix Small-flowered Tamarix Five Stamen Tamarix \" ~ \" 3-4 6 6 6 5 English Yew Broom Yew \" \" \" Upright English Yew Spreading English Yew Irish Yew \" 6 4 \" Japanese Yew Dwarf Japanese Yew Hicks Yew .\" \" 4 4 2 2 2 2 2 6 5 \" American Arborvitae \" \" Douglas Arborvitae Globe Arborvitae Little Gem Arborvitae Ware Arborvitae Oriental Arbovitae Giant Arborvitae Little-leaf Linden \" ~. \" \" \" \" \" 3 3 4 4 Canada Hemlock Carolina Hemlock Siberian Elm Arrow-wood \" Viburnum dentatum 6 \" ' 15' '~ 2 3 \" 'B. fE lantana lentago 2, 6, 11 4 `Nanum' 2, prunifolium 1, 2, 6, 10 \" 6 2, 15' 30' \" 6 opulus'Compactum' 2, 5, 7' 2' \" Wayfaring-tree Nannyberry 3 Compact European Cranberry-bush 3 Dwarf European Cranberry-bush 2 3 \" 15' 10-20' Black Haw \" , \" tinus 1, 12 trilobum `Compactum' 2, 5, 6,11 7-8 Laurustinus 2 7' Compact American Cranberry-bush DONALD WYMAN [ 146 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXIX","article_sequence":14,"start_page":147,"end_page":149,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24480","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d060a36d.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA tus 1 VE A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 MARCH 7, 1969 SUPPLEMENT DR. DONALD WYMAN Dr. Donald Wyman, since 1935 Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, has been awarded a Veitch Memorial Medal, in gold, by the Royal Horticultural Society of London, England. This is the highest award the Society can bestow on a foreign national. The Veitch Medals have been awarded annually since 1923 by the Royal Horticultural Society under the terms of the Veitch Memorial Trust to \"... those who have helped in the advancement and improvement of the science and practice of horticulture ... \". When Dr. Wyman came to the Arnold Arboretum in 1935 he already had to his credit some thirty-five publications dealing with horticultural matters. In the succeeding 34 years he has published some 1000 articles, and five books, dealing with hardy woody plants. Few contemporary horticulturists have done more to advance and improve the science and practice of horticulture as it is reflected in the popular use of hardy woody plants in North America. as a means of comVeitch (1815-1869), the founder of James the famous British nursery firm. The object of the trust was to improve horticultural standards by recognizing outstanding contributions to the advancement and improvement of horticultural science and practice. The form of recognition is generally the award of a medal in either gold or silver. Originally the Trust was administered by an independent board of Trustees, but in 1923 the Trust and trustees were transferred to the Council of the Royal Horticultural Society. Generally, two to seven horticulturists each year are chosen to receive a Veitch Memorial Medal, in gold. In the forty-six years that the Royal Horticultural Society has been making the awards, only about ten North American horticulturists have been selected for recognition. Interestingly, three of the medalists have been connected with the Arnold Arboretum: E. H. Wilson, plant explorer and horticultural writer; W. H. Judd, propagator; and Donald Wyman, horticulturist and horticultural writer. was The Veitch Memorial Trust established in 1870 memoration of the activities of Dr. nized. Wyman's activities on behalf of horticulture have been widely recogAmong the offices he has held in horticultural organizations are: American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboretums, President, 19401945 ; American Society for Horticultural Science, Vice-President, 1952-53; Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Trustee since 1953; American Horticultural Council, Secretary-Treasurer, 1955-61; American Horticultural Society, Vice-president, 1960-61, President, 1961-62, Director, 1939-55; 196265 ; 1967 - date. In addition, among the honors and awards which he has received are: Norman J. Coleman Award of the American Association of Nurserymen, 1949 and 1951; Distinguished Service Award, New York Horticultural Society, 1960; Certificate of Merit, National Council of State Garden Clubs, 1963; Medal of Honor, Garden Club of America, 1965; and the Silver Alder Leaf, Scandinavian Horticultural Congress, 1965. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. C\/O C\/O ? U s T w o~ 0 a~ C';I .3 \"0 c C';I on ~ 0 C';I S 3 >1 ct 0 ~: a Ca "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Donald Wyman","article_sequence":15,"start_page":150,"end_page":152,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24476","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15e8526.jpg","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUTi OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 29 MARCH 7, 1969 SurrLEacewr DR. DONALD WYMAN Dr. Donald Wyman, since 1935 Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, has been awarded a Veitch Memorial Medal, in gold, by the Royal Horticultural Society of London, England. This is the highest award the S~, ~ , ~ , ,a foreign national. The Veitch Medals have been awarded annually since 1923 by the Royal Horticultural Society under the terms of the Veitch :~(emorial Trust to \"... those who have helped in the advancement and improvement of the science and practice of horticulture... \". '. When Dr. Wyman came to the Arnold Arboretum in 1935 he already had to his credit some thirty-five publications dealing with horticultural matters. In the succeeding 34 years he has published some 1000 articles, and five books, dealing with hardy woody plants. Few contemporary horticulturists have done more to advance and improve the science and practice of horticulture as it is reflected in the popular use of hardy woody plants in North America. The Veitch ~femorial Trust was established in 1870 as a means of commemoration of the activities of James Veitch ( 1815-1869 ), the founder of the famous British nursery firm. The object of the trust was to improve horticultural standards by recognizing outstanding contributions to the advancement and improvement of horticultural science and practice. The form of recognition is generally the award of a medal in either gold or silver. Originally the Trust was administered by an independent board of Trustees, but in 1923 the Trust and trustees were transferred to the Council of the Royal Horticultural Society. Generally, two to seven horticulturists each year are chosen to receive a Veitch ~Icnlot'i<lI Btedal, in gold. In the forty-six years that the Royal Horticultural Society has been making the awards, only about ten North American horticulturists have been selected for recognition. Interestingly, three of the meclalists have been connected with the Arnold Arboretum: E. II. Wilson, plant explorer ancl horticultural writer; W. H. Judd, propagator; and Donald Wyman, horticulturist and horticultural writer. Dr. Among the offices he has held in horticultural organizations are: American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboretums, President, 19401945 ; American Society for Horticultural Science, Vice-President, 1952-53; Massachusetts Horticultural Socicty, Trustee since 1953; American Horticultural Council, Secretary-Treasurer, 1955-61; American Horticultural Society, Vice-president, 1960-61, President, 1961-62, Director, 1939-55; 196265 ; 1967 - date. In addition, among the honors and awards which he has received are: Norman J. Coleman Award of the American Association of Nurserymen, 1949 and 1951; Distinguished Service Award, New York Horticultural Society, 1960; Certificate of Werit, National Council of State Garden Clubs, 1963; Medal of Honor, Garden Club of America, 1965; and the Silver Alder Leaf, Scandinavian Horticultural Congress, 1965. nized. GORDON P. DEWOLF, Wyman's activities on behalf of horticulture have been widely recog- JR. M t4 r U 'T3 0 G~ :c c c~ r 5 x C4 C E 'T3 C L.' 0 Q L. "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23470","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e8928.jpg","title":"1969-20","volume":29,"issue_number":null,"year":1969,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Country Cousins","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24459","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14e8528.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":". ARNOLDIA EI A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 APRIL 12, 1968 NUMBER 1 COUNTRY COUSINS the horticultural world, a continuous effort ~s bemg made to select the \"best\" trees and shrubs for ornamental use. In the process, many other plants are relegated to secondary status and then are often ignored by the hor- IN ticultural public. Later on, a few may show traits that were not obvious at first - and so bid for reconsideration. In other cases, one species has become entrenched in horticultural usage-and for this reason alone continues to overshadow later introductions. An occasional looking back through the lists of little-used plants can be expected to turn up a few that have been overshadowed by better-known relatives, but that have character of their own-and potential usefulness. Chionanthus retusus Chinese Fringetree is fairly well landscape plant in our area. Its oriental less used, probably because its flowers and Our native (southeastern U. S. ) fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus) though are known, even not widely used is even as a relative, Chionanthus retnsus, inflorescences smaller. But the overall effect of C. retusus in bloom is almost as spectacular as that of C. virginicus (Plate I). In addition, it can be grown with minimal pruning, while C. virginicus requires heavy pruning every few years to maintain good form. The largest specimen of C. retusus m the Arnold Arboretum is about 20 feet tall and resembles a miniature American elm in outline. This and its interesting furrowed bark keep this tree interesting during the winter months (Plates I and II). Both species of Chionanthus are hardy in Boston, and C. virginicus is hardy in Zone 4 as well. The hardiness of C. retusus in areas colder than Boston is not yet fully known. Cotinus obovatus (Cotinus americanus) American Smoke Tree common In this case, the American native is the less familiar of two species. The more smoke tree, Cotinus coggygria (still listed as Rhus cotinus in some books), is a native of Asia and southern eastern interest Europe. Cotinus obo~~atus, native to the southU.S., is the taller growing of the two species (up to 30 feet) and is of primarily for its sometimes-bright reddish-orange fall foliage. In the Arnold Arboretum it is displayed effectively in combination with C. and members of the related sumacs (Rhus species). Evodia hupehensis coggygria Hupeh Evodia The Korean evodia (Evodia daniellii) has been used in recent years as a small and is of special interest to beekeepers. The lesser known Hupeh evodia (E. hupehensis), native to central China, is a larger tree, up to 50 feet in height. Both species have clusters of creamy white flowers in early August, followed by equally showy clusters of fruits, which open in autumn to disclose small shiny black seeds. Fruits of E. daniellii are creamy-buff to pink, while those of E. hupehensis are dark reddish. Both species have smooth silvery-gray bark not unlike that of beech. Unfortunately both tend to be rather weak-wooded and short-lived. Their hardiness in areas colder than Boston is not yet known. garden tree, Exochorda giraldii wilsonii Wilson Pearlbush The common pearlbush (Exochorda racemosa) was introduced into the United States from eastern China in 1849. This is still the only species of Exochorda that is at all common in the nursery trade, even though several other species and varieties have been introduced from Asia since. In Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs, Alfred Rehder singled out Exochorda giraldii wilsonii, a Wilson introduction from northwestern China in 1907, as being more handsome than the more common E. racemosa (Plate III). It is more floriferous than the latter species and has larger flowers as well. Rehder rated E. giraldii wilsonii as hardy in Zone 5, making it appear that it is somewhat less hardy than E. racemosa. This may or may not be true. Hardiness zone ratings of some of the less common species are necessarily conservative, for lack of opportunity to observe them in colder places than Boston. If the Wilson pearlbush in time wins greater acceptance as a landscape shrub, the extent of its hardiness will become better known. ~ Larix kaempferi (Larix leptolepis) Japanese Larch The Arnold Arboretum larch collection includes 8 species, but only the Amerilarch (Larix laricina) and the European larch (L. decidua) have been very widely used in this country as ornamental trees. In Trees for American Gardens, Donald Wyman has pointed out that the Japanese larch (correct name L. kaempferi but also known as L. leptolePis) is the most ornamental of the larches. It is also the most vigorous, and is being favored increasingly as a forest tree for timber production. Larix kaempf'eri holds its needles later into the fall than L. decidua and L. laricina, and is not so winter hardy as these species - but still hardy enough (Zone 4) for all but the coldest parts of New England. can PLATE I The Chinese fringetree (Chaonanthus retusus) is interesting in winter (top) for its growth habit and furrowed bark, and in summer (bottom) for its masses of small white flowers. PLATE II The Chinese fringetree's furrowed bark keeps it interesting in all seasons of the year. 4 y3&#x C;I ~ 0 H N ~r CO '\"C G 0<1 ~ w Y '\" an m a .<:: 0<1 U CL 57 ~\"'. w O m a~ 0 8 0 W8 E a~ a~ '~ 0 '~ ~~ S-& ~.;: 1:B~ W -o ~= m # A V ~.... a a~ rA U '\" G ~U G~ ~ m O '~' a Y ... ~L ~ ... o~ <II Pachysandra procumbens of - Allegany Pachysandra Without question, Japanese spurge (Pachysandra ferminalis) is the best species Pachysandra for ground cover use in fact one of the best of all ground cover plants. Still, our native (southeastern U.S.) member of this genus, Pachysandra procumbens, can be useful and interesting. This species is not evergreen, as is P. terminalis. It is less successful as a quick, aggressive ground cover because it does not spread as vigorously. But its modest vigor can be an asset in certain small-scale situations, and it gains added interest when it sends up its spikes of whitish flowers just before leafing out in late spring. Like its Japanese relative, Pachysandra procumbens should be used only in shaded locations, and it should be used where reasonable amounts of soil moisture are available. Tsuga diversifolia Japanese Hemlock Our native (eastern U.S.) hemlocks, the Canada hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) and the Carolina hemlock (T. caroliniana) are both widely used and are excellent ornamental trees. The Arboretum collection includes species native to the northwestern United States, China, and Japan. The smallest of these, except for dwarf forms, is the Japanese hemlock (Tsuga diversifolia) - a rather shrubby, dense, pyramidal tree with horizontal branching (Plate IV). Its needles are crowded on the twigs and radiate in many directions, showing the prominent white stomatal lines on the undersides. This tree may turn out to be winter hardy in areas colder than Boston. If it receives the increased use it deserves, the limits of its hardiness will eventually be better known than at present. HARRISON L. FLINT PLATE IV These two trees of ,lapanese hemlock (Tsuga diversifolia) in the Arnold Arboretum (top) show the dense, shrubby form typical of this species. The needles are crowded on the twigs and radiate in many directions, showing the prominent hite stomatal lines underneath (bottom). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Classes at the Arnold Arboretum, 1968","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24469","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eb328.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1968 Spring Classes Field Class in Ornamental Plants at the Arnold Arboretum Dr. Donald Wyman The month of May is the peak of the flowering period for most of the trees and shrubs in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Field classes will permit observation of most plants as they come into flower. Discussions will include an evaluation of many plants with suggestions on their availability, culture, and proper use. There will be ample opportunity for questions. In case of rain, the meetings will be held indoors. Five classes: Fridays, 10 to 12 A.M., May 3 to 31, at Jamaica Plain. Mr. Beginning Botany for Gardeners George H. Pride A course directed to gardeners who desire more knowledge on the structure and activities of the cultivated plant. This is a review of elementary biology, and a chance to become familiar with new ideas on how plants grow and function. Plant specimens and kodachromes will be used in lectures and demonstrations. Some walking at each meeting among the diverse plantings and in the woods. Five classes: Estates, 135 Wednesdays, 2 to4 P.M., May Wellesley Street, Weston. and I to 29, at the barn of the Case Hybridization The Breeding of Ornamental Plants Dr. Owen M. Rogers and practices of plant breeding are explained, with lectures, some class practice in making \"crosses\". Will include study of flower structure as related to plant breeding, demonstration of preparation of slides for chromosome counts, review of elementary principles of genetics, and sufficient practice to permit you to try making hybrids with your own garden flowers this spring. Dr. Rogers is a Mercer Research Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum, currently on leave from the University of New Hampshire. principles demonstrations, and Five classes: Tuesdays, 7:30 to 9:30 P.M., April 23 to May ~1, on Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. Enter through the gate at the Dana Centre Street. Registration Fee for each series of classes is $5.00 for members of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum, with priority of enrollment. Registration for nonmembers is $10.00, subject to space being available in specific classes. For further information call 524-1717. Information on membership in the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum can also be obtained at this number. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New Dwarf Conifer Collection","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24470","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eb36d.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 VE 1 new APRIL 26, 196H THE NEW DWARF CONIFER COLLECTION NUMBERS 2-3 dwarf conifer collection opposite the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses in the Arnold Arboretum. For several years we have been collecting these from all over this country and Europe and propagating them in preparation for this new planting, which augments the old collection of over 50 different kinds that have been growing beside the Chamaecyparis collection for nearly 80 years. Dwarf conifers originate as witches'-brooms, as chance seedlings in cultivation and in the wild, and as sports or variations in the branches of established specimens. European nurserymen have been much more interested in these variations in the past, the reason why so many have been named and originally introduced there, especially in Holland and Germany. Many grow so slowly that the price which must be asked for plants has made American nurserymen shy away from growing them. However, with smaller gardens and smaller houses, there is now an increasing interest in these dwarf shrubs and a few American nurserymen are beginning to grow them. The 1 18 kinds of dwarf conifers mentioned here are not the only ones, nor are they necessarily \"the best,\" but all are growing in this new collection. Welch notes in his recent book Dwarf Con;f'ers that nearly 1000 different kinds are living in various collections throughout the world at present. New varieties will be added to our collection from time to time so that this will be an ever-changing one. In connection with this, the Arboretum visitor might also ~nspect the juniper bank at the side of the evergreen nursery by the greenhouses, where more than 30 low-growing junipers are established, all of which might be considered to have some value as ground covers. Visitors will notice that a few other evergreens, not in the followmg list, are growing in the dwarf beds. Some of these are not true dwarfs and some have come to the Arboretum with doubtful names, which later may be changed. 1966 and 1967 in the APPROXIMATELY during 150 different varieties of dwarf evergreens were planted 9 A serious effort has been made to display these dwarf plants under their correct names. No group of ornamental woody plants is more mixed than these m the identification process here, one of our staff members found that the same plant (obtained from different sources) was listed under six different names. One of the reasons is that many of these varieties are not stable, but their foliage and habit are reverting or changing constantly as new growth is produced. As these twigs are cut for asexual propagation they too may result in unstable plants, or they may produce stable, uniform growth for many years. Plantsmen unfamiliar with the variability of such plants often place all kinds of new names on them, thus making the over-all picture most confusing. Then too, if these reversions are not cut out promptly, the original plant may take on a completely new habit. Tsuga caroliniana `Compacta' originated in the Arnold Arboretum in 188~ and later was described as one of the nicest dwarfs in the collection. But sixty years later, a careful inspection of the original \"dwarf\" showed little difference between its growth and that of the species. For those interested in obtaining more information about dwarf conifers, the following references are suggested : Den Ouden, P. and B. K. Boom. Manual qf Cultivated Confers. Martinus Nijhoff, The Hague, 1965. Hillier, H. G. Dwarf Con~f'ers. The Alpine Garden Society and The Scottish Rock Garden Club, London and Penicuik, Midlothian, Scotland, 1964. Hornibrook, ~iurray. Dzc~arf and Slo~-Grozcing Conifers. ~nd ed., Country Life Ltd., London (Charles Scribners's Sons, New York). 1939. Welch, W. J. D..arf Coyers. Charles T. Branford Co., Newton, Mass., 1966. The dwarf conifers in the following list will be found in this new collection by the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses. Merely to show how long some of these dwarfs have been known, dates have been placed on the same line as the name, referring to the date introduced, the date originated, or the date when first reference apparently was made to the plant concerned. It is interesting that the majority are of European origin and that some have been known for a century. Abies balsamea 'Nana' 1866 This is a rounded shrub with dense branches. A. koreana - prostrate form 28 years One Propagated plant, from lateral branches of ~bies koreana in the Arnold Arboretum. old, still has procumbent branches. about 1927 A.lasiocarpa 'Compacta' Raised in shrub, Boskoop, Holland, this is a dwarf, broadly at one time termed A. arizonica compacta. 10 conical, densely branched en :. U a~ x ..c ai ~ a 0 en G O R M a 0 ~ ..0 G 0 .u v v 0 G 0 o U '\" U&0#x3C;1 ~ ..'t: a a .~ ~ =~. a.~ a =' ~... 0 .. ... G N . (0\"0 \"d mo 0 = <I Ij '\"C ;< (O~ (0 'o ~ ~ W N Q) 'b ~ B~ n O G o r -= c 0 a a~ I r\"'. C7 ~ cd c -= = c ~ ! ~C o p w 0 p Ca ~e~ = iIJ m A. procera 'Glauca Prostrata' 1928 First appearing in Hillier's Nursery catalog (England) under the name of A. nobilis glauca prostrata. The plant has more or less greenish-blue foliage. A. grandis 'Compacta' This low form of the before 1891 grand fir is very rare now. Cedrus libani'Sargentii' before 1919 Often incorrectly labeled C. libani pendula sargentii, our plant was obtained from Mr. T. A. Havemeyer, Long Island, New York. It is now about 4 feet tall with a 12-foot spread, a slow-growing, horizontally branched, flat specimen. Chamaecyparis lawsoniana A in 'Ellwoodii' before 1929 dense, upright, almost columnar evergreen originating as a chance seedling England. It has since become extremely popular because of its narrow habit and glaucous foliage, growing about 9 feet high but only a foot in diameter. It may be subjected to some winter burning in Zone 5 unless given protection. C. lawsoniana `Filiformis Compacta' before 1891 more common dwarf, globular shrub is similar to that of the Claamaec~Paris pisifera 'Filifera' although it is not as hardy and smaller and more blue-green in color. C. lawsoniana 'Forsteckensis' The foliage of this the leaves are before 1891 This excellent plant seldom grows over 2 feet tall. It is upright branches, originating at Forsteck in Germany. C. lawsoniana rounded in habit with `Pygmaea Argentea' before 1891 Originally raised in the Backhouse & Son Nursery in England, this is a dwarf, slow growing, globose plant with erect branchlets. Much of the foliage is dark green but the tips of the branchlets are pale creamy white. Unfortunately these burn and turn brownish in direct summer sun. C. nootkatensis 'Compacta Glauca' A about 1909 glaucous form dwarf, of `Compacta', rounded in habit and very compact. before 1875 C. obtusa 'Compacta' This rare, conical shrub has short branches and dense green foliage. C. obtusa 'Contorta' introduced 1945 Raised from seed of C. obtusa `Nana Gracilis' by the Den Ouden Nursery of Boskoop, Holland. This is slow growing, conical in shape, seldom over 6 feet tall with dense, twisted foliage. Not very attractive. C. obtusa `Coralliformis' before 1903 Sometimes incorrectly labeled C. obtusa torulosa, this is a dwarf shrub to 6 feet, with very dense, glossy green foliage. The twigs are somewhat twisted and ]2 0 n .a ~ 1~ ro v u 0 ~ m a~ v a 0 W .. ro v a u .C ~3 ro u u E E Wv E\" ,a Par ',G^, d rc a m a M a . u S o +~ Ow U u ~b yc G F~ , ' W~ V W ! ' o. U c .o o c. 47 .^.: 3 0 c 3 I G1 ~ vz Cr # . r, ro F~1 V1 Fr _47 cd Y G 9 reddish. An unusual plant often with monstrous C. obtusa lycopodioides coralliformis. C. obtusa 'Filicoides' branches, formerly listed as before 1860 A vigorous plant, sometimes a small tree but it can be pruned as a shrub. The flat fernlike sprays of foliage are typical. It was sent to Holland from Japan by Dr. von Siebold. The foliage is somewhat similar to that of the more common Thuja occidentalis `Spiral~s'. about 1915 C. obtusa 'Kosteri' A very attractive, dwarf, pyramidal 3~ feet tall, with ascending branches but curved tips, and light green foliage. Each spray of the plant is slightly twisted. It is best grown with a central leader. This plant originated in the nurseries of M. Koster & Son, Boskoop, Holland. shrub about C. obtusa 'Lycopodioides' 1861 Introduced from Japan by Dr. von Siebold, this is a globose shrub about 6 feet tall with ascending, often cockscomb-like branchlets. The large, irregular growth makes this a curious plant, not necessarily a good ornamental. C. obtusa 'Lycopodioides Aurea' about 1890 Introduced from Japan into Germany, this is similar to 'Lycopodioides' except that it is slower in growth and the young foliage is pale yellow. C. obtusa 'Mariesii' before 1891 Formerly listed as C. obtusa nana albovariegata, this very attractive dwarf grows into a conical bush about 3 feet high. It has fine yellowish to white variegated foliage which turns to yellowish green in winter. C. obtusa 'Nana' about 1860 The variety 'Nana Gracilis' is a more vigorous plant with lustrous dark green foliage, while 'Nana' has dull green foliage. It grows about 3 feet high and is globular and dense. This is another old Japanese form introduced into Leiden, Holland, from Japan by Dr. von Siebold. C. obtusa `Nana Aurea' A more about 1867 vigorous dwarf than 'Nana', growing about 6 feet tall, with golden yellow variegated foliage. It was first introduced from Japan by the Veitch Nursery of England. The golden yellow color is produced only in the sunin the shade it is merely yellowish green. C. obtusa 'Nana Gracilis' before 1891 An excellent ornamental conical shrub, maturing at about 8 feet high, formas C. obtusa nana compacta. It has a broad pyramidal habit and is one of the most common of all C. obtusa varieties. erly listed 14 C. obtusa `Pygmaea' 1861 Introduced into England from Japan by Robert F'ortune, this is a broad dwarf, about 2 feet tall but considerably wider. The sprays are slightly fan shaped, one above the other. It is glossy green during the summer and only slightly bronze during the winter. C. obtusa `Pygmaea Aurescens' about 1939 Similar to 'Pygmaea' (from which it originated as a sport in a Dutch nursery) except that during the winter the foliage is a decided copper-bronze color. C. obtusa `Sanderi' This first 1894 appeared in Germany nile form, none too hardy, and much lower. The summer becomes purplish in color. C. obtusum 'Stoneham' Juniperus sanderi. It is a dwarf, juvemay grow to 6 feet tall, although usually it is color of the foliage is sea-green, but ~n winter it as listed before 1964 miniature C. obtusa growing dwarf with branches in tiers likea first offered by Hillier & Son, England. A slow C. obtusa 'Tempelhof' -- `Nana', - before 1964 A compact, broadly rounded dwarf to about7 feet tall with fan shaped foliage, either green or brownish-tinted in the winter. Originated in Boskoop, Holland. C. obtusa 'Tetragona Aurea' about 1870 If well grown, this beautiful dwarf conifer is one of the best. It was introduced into England from Japan and apparently varies according to which branchlets are propagated, for some plants may be 15 feet tall, others just as old may be only a few inches high. The foliage is a fine glossy yellow in the full sun, but in even a little shade, it is merely a yellowish green. In deep shade it is a rich glossy green. There is a question as to whether 'Tetragona' is merely this plant grown ~n the shade where the foliage does not turn yellow. C. pisifera 'Aurea Nana' 1909 globe shaped conical, foliage. Actually it might c,~paris pis;f'era 'Aurea'. A to slow-growing dwarf shrub with a rich golden yellow be considered a dense form of the common Chamaeabout 1934 C. pisifera 'Boulevard' Incorrectly termed C. pisifera squarrosa cyano-z~iridis, this plant was first introduced by the Boulevard Nurseries of Rhode Island. It may not be a true dwarf, but while young it functions as such and is especially colorful in winter. C. pisifera 'Compacta Variegata' This is a 1939 sport from across. foliage, sometimes whitish in Cliamaecyparis pisifera `Compacta' with light yellowish flecks or splashes. It is a bush about4- feet tall 1.5 and 6 feet C. pisifera `Filifera Nana' before 1904 A deep green, dwarf, bushy evergreen, with threadlike branchlets similar to those of 'Filifera', introduced by the Hesse Nurseries of Germany. At 25 years of age, one plant was 26 inches tall and 36 inches across. C. pisifera 'Golden Mop' This is a name 1966 a given (a tree type), fera with lower, mop-lIke yellow to more dense form of C. pisifera 'Filifera Aurea' foliage. Sometimes termed C. pi.r~'ern fcli- aurea nana. C. pisifera 'Nana' A before 1891 small, tightly branched, dense dwarf. A 40-year-old plant is only about 2 feet tall and 4 feet across. The top is flat, the branchlets fan-shaped, and the foliage a dark bluish green. Sometimes the looser branchlets have been propagated, resulting in larger plants called 'Compacta'. `Nana' is one of the smallest of the dwarf conifers. C. pisifera'Nana Aureovariegata' This is sun. a known since 1874 form of `Nana', the Unfortunately branches 'Nana foliage having a golden sheen, especially in full sometimes revert to green and must be removed. known since 1867 C. pisifera Variegata' Similar to 'Nana' but the foliage has a yellowish white variegation. Unfortunately this also occasionally reverts, with branches of green foliage which should be removed. C. pisifera `Plumosa Compressa' before 1928 conifer, probably being grown under several names, slow growing, reaching aboutfeet in height with densely set branches bearing mosslike foliage. The leaves vary in color from light yellow to bluish green. Yellow is seen most on older foliage. It is probably a sport of 'Squarrosa' and originated ~n the Koster Bros. Nursery of Boskoop, Holland. One of the several names under which we received this plant was C. pis~'era plumosa flavescens aurea A variable dwarf compacta nana! Intermedia' 1923 C. pisifera 'Squarrosa A variable dwarf form with bluish foliage, about 6 feet tall if the longer loose branches that occasionally form are cut off. If not it develops into a tree of indefinite form. C. pisifera 'Squarrosa Minima' 1923 This is similar to 'Squarrosa Intermedia' but is slower growing, more dense, and more dwarf. It may grow to about 30 inches tall, but often reverts with foliage similar to 'Squarrosa Intermedia', so it must be pruned occasionally to keep it in correct form. 16 PLATE VII communis saxatilis (top), native to various parts of northern Europe, Asia, and North America. Chamaecyparis pisifera `Squarrosa lntermedia' (bottom), a form that continually reverts to several different types of growth. Juniperus C. thyoides 'Andelyensis' Originally raised in France, this plant about 1850 bluish green foliage and slightly branched, pyramidal plant, rather slow growing. C. thyoides 'Ericoides' is conical and about 9 feet tall, with fan-shaped sprays. It is an attractive, closely 1840 France, this is a dwarf with juvenile foliage and conical habit. In summer it is grayish green but in the fall it turns violet-brown. The foliage can be burned by exposure to winter winds. Originated in Cryptomeria japonica There are 'Vilmoriniana' about 1890 only dwarf varieties of this species but this one from Japan is the this collection at present. Very slow in growth (to about 30 inches tall), it is globular in shape and very neat in appearance. A popular dwarf where hardy. many one in Juniperus chinensis `Dropmore' A dwarf 1938 seedling form sent by F. L. Skinner, Manitoba, Canada. 1928 J. chinensis `Kaizuka' First introduced by the Yokohama Nursery in Japan, this has also been listed J. chi~reusis torulosa or J. shepparrlii torulosa. It is not a true dwarf, but when young makes a narrow, erect, small tree with central trunk. The foliage is bright green, borne in mop-like clusters. The plant has proved a popular ornamental in California. as J. chinensis 'Mathot' 1940 With the flat, wide habit of a Pfitzer juniper, from which koop, Holland, but more dense. J. chinensis 'Old Gold' it originated in Bos- introduced about 1958 are in This is also like a Pfitzer juniper but its leaves compact. It was a sport of `Yfitzer~ana Aurea' Boskoop, Holland. J. chinensis 'Plumosa Aurea' bronze-gold and it is very the Grootendorst Nursery, before 1885 This popular, irregularly branched shrub has been offered under many names, often called the gold dust juniper because the leaves are variegated with yellow. It can grow to 15 feet or more, but is often lower in height. J. chinensis `Plumosa Aureovariegata' 1873 Seldom more golden yellow foliage. than 2 feet tall, this is a true dwarf, with short branchlets and It has been known under various names. about 1930 in a J. chinensis 'Shoosmith' This dwarf shrub, originated Pennsylvania 18 nursery, is globular to pyrami- dal in habit and very compact. Den Ouden notes that it looks like in growth habit. J. a boxwood communis `Compressa' A tight 3-foot spire of dense, light to 1855 green foliage, this is it is a very garden plant. It stands out remarkably wherever burning by high winds. grown, popular rock but is subject J. communis `Effusa' introduced about 1944 Very similar to 'Repanda' and hard to land. Seldom over a foot tall. J. communis 'Gold Beach' distinguish from it. Originated in Hol- before 1960 This excellent dwarf form with green foliage probably originated on the West Coast, and is flat, dense, and spreading. Our oldest plant is about 5 inches tall and 2 feet across. J. communis 'Minima' It has been noted by P. Den Ouden that this variety has probably been cultivated by Dutch nurserymen for a century. It is very dwarf, not much over a foot tall, with spreading branches. It is sometimes termed J. communis prostraia, and is probably a clone of J. communis saxatilis. J. communis 'Prostrata' about 1894 Found in Germany, this is a dwarf, prostrate shrub making a good ground cover, growing to be a foot tall and 6 feet across. The foliage turns brownish in the fall. J. communis `Repanda' 1934 A prostrate shrub that can be used as a ground cover because it stays so flat on the ground while it is young. Eventually not over 4 feet tall, with soft dark green foliage, it is similar to 'Effusa'. J. communis saxatilis This variety is found in parts of northern Europe, Asia, and North America, and has been variously listed under such names as sibirica, ~zontana, nana, alpina. It is a dense, slow growing, procumbent, gray-green ground cover, not much over 1 ~ feet tall. J. conferta 1915 Native to Japan and known as the shore juniper, introduced to America by the Arnold Arboretum. A good ground cover, not over 1 foot tall, especially valued for planting in sandy soils at the seashore when other junipers cannot be grown successfully. J. horizontalis 'Alpina' known since 1838 not over A dwarf, vigorous, creeping juniper, 2 feet tall at maturity, with 19 bluish to grayish green foliage that changes to purplish in the fall. 1932 J. horizontalis 'Glenmore' About the lowest and slowest growing variety of this species, with creeping branches held just above the ground and branchlets upright. Dark green in color, this was found in Wyoming. J. horizontalis 'Marcellus' before 1960 A prostrate juniper, with flat excellent plant. J. horizontalis 'Wiltonii' plumy sprays of a blue-green color, making an 1914 Sometimes listed as 'Blue Rug', this is an excellent creeping variety with intense, silvery blue foliage, found by J. C. Van Heiningen of the South V~'ilton Nurseries in Connecticut. It grows slowly, is most colorful, and makes a splendid J. specimen. procumbens This creeping native to the mountains of was 1843 juniper, Japan, den, Holland, by Dr. von Siebold. Low, spreading, steel blue, ~t may eventually grow as high as 2 or 3 feet but by then may be 20 feet in diameter. Often used as a ground cover, but not one of the best junipers for this purpose. J. first sent to Lei- procumbens 'Nana' about 1922 Introduced from Japan by the D. Hill Nursery Co. of Dundee, Illinois, it is smaller than the species, slower growing, and a better ornamental. J. sabina tamariscifolia known since 1789 low specimen plant from southern Europe, eventupopular ground 2 to 3 feet tall and 6 feet across. The main branches are horially becoming zontal but the small branchlets are erect. A cover or J. squamata about 1836 or before A variable species producing several clones, this is native to Central Asia and is not a very useful ornamental. It makes a low, prostrate shrub, with ascending branches, the tips of all the branchlets being slightly pendulous. J. squamata 'Loderi' about 1925 narrow, Raised in England by Sir Edmund Loder, this is dwarf (about 4 feet tall), and dense, somewhat similar to Juniperus communis 'Compressa' but sl~ghtly larger. J. squamata 'Prostrata' 1904 A prostrate form of the species raised by seed collected by E. H. Wilson in China. Murray Hornibrook in Ireland from 20 Part of the new Abies, .luredperus, (top-center and bottom). PLATE VIII dwarf conifer collection at the Arnold Arboretum, showing forms of Picea, Pin,~es and L'huja (top), and including Picea abie,v `Kepens' Picea abies 'Barryi' 1891 This ~s conical in habit, eventually 6 to feet tall, with erect branches. It grows P. abies vigorously. 'Compacta' in known in Europe since 1864 This also is conical P. abies 'Conica' habit, but broad and compact, with shining green foliage. Europe green; since 1855 rare. known in Conical in P. abies habit, broad at the base, and needles a shining 'Crippsii' known in Europe since 1896 on A slow growing, conical dwarf evergreen, with branches crowded trunk. Rare in cultivation. P. abies the main 'Gregoryana' known in Europe since 1862 widely planted dwarf evergreen with a round broad habit. It may not grow over 3 feet tall, but old plants are several times that in diameter. It is noted as one A of the slowest growing of all forms of Picea abies. P. abies 'Highlandia' about 1923 Originated in Highland Park, Rochester, N.Y., with a low, dome-like habit, spreading somewhat with age. The fohage is a dark bluish-green. P. abies 'Mucronata' about 1835 Found ~n France, it is broadly conical and very dense in habit. The main branches curve upward, making it easily recognizable. It grows vigorously and may even reach 30 feet in height. P. abies `Ohlendorffii' about 1845 but dense and wide at the base and with very small needles, more like those of Picea orienlalis than P. abies. It may be 6 feet tall by 4 feet across Pyramidal, after 30 years. P. abies `Pumila' Originated in Spaeth's Nursery, Germany. known in Europe since 1874 bush with lower branches procumbent and the upper ones erect. The needles are uniform, not irregular from twig to twig as in 'Clanbrassiliana'. The whole plant looks rather flat, even though ~t may reach a height of 4 feet at maturity. A low-spreading P. abies 'Pygmaea' It is a This very (with 'Clanbrassiliana') popular today. P. abies is known in Europe since 1838 or before of the oldest forms of Picea abies we have variety, conical but slightly rounded at the top, and is one compact and slow growing. 'Pyramidalis Gracilis' referred to as listed in 1891 Sometimes incorrectly dwarf, rounded, and compact. P. abies gracilis, this uncommon variety 22 P. abies `Remontii' known in Europe since 1874 This is another is commonly dense, conical shrub, reaching about 6 to 9 feet in height. It grown, and one of the larger dwarf varieties of P. abie.e. known in P. abies 'Repens' Europe since 1898 Rather flat in habit and slightly mounded at the top, this seldom grows over 1~ feet high but is several times this in width. It is a popular dwarf conifer. P. abies 'Sherwood Gem' about 1948 This plant, originating in Oregon at the Sherwood Nurseries, Gresham, forms a dense, flattened globe and matures at 2 feet in height with a 4-foot diameter. 1904 P. glauca 'Conica' glauca albertiana conica, this was found in southwest Alberta, Canada, by Prof. Rehder and J. G. Jack of the Arnold Arboretum. Dense, definitely pyramidal, with light green foliage, old specimens may be 9 feet high. A very popular plant and widely used. At one time termed P. P. omorika 'Nana' about 1930 About 4 feet high but broader at the base, this globose to conical shrub has horizontal branches and glaucous foliage. It originated in Boskoop, Holland. P. orientalis 'Nana' This rare dwarf is globular in habit, slow growing, and seldom tall. It could easily be taken for a variety of Picea abies. P. over 3 feet pungens'Glauca Procumbens' about 1910 is Originating in inches tall but Boskoop, Holland, this procumbent shrub 4 feet in diameter, with glaucous foliage. only about 20 P. pungens `Globosa' 1937 was shrub, 3 feet tall, with glaucous foliage. This seedling lot in Boskoop, Holland. A rounded P. selected from a pungens'Hunnewelliana' before 1932 A slow growing, densely pyramidal tree with light blue foliage which might be considered a dwarf only while young. At 32 years of age it can be 15 feet tall. It originated in Massachusetts. P. pungens'Pendens' about 1910 This is Alfred Rehder's name for a procumbent sport of the upright, pyramidal P. pungens 'Kosteri'. Popularly called the Koster weeping blue spruce, it has also been called 'Glauca Procumbens' or 'Kosteriana' or 'Glauca Prostrate' because of the bluish white foliage. The main branches are procumbent to pendulous and the plant makes a picturesque, almost horizontally branched specimen. 23 Pinus aristata A tall species native to the southwestern United States, but in the East it grows slowly and can be considered a striking dwarf tree for many years. The glaucous foliage, interesting horizontal branching habit, and slow growth make this tree a desired asset in the eastern garden. P. densiflora `Pendula' known since 1890 An untidy plant that may be either sirable ornamental. P. mugo mugo pendulous or prostrate. It is not a de- One of several dwarf forms of this species, this widely used plant is shrub, often cone-shaped and symmetrical, sometimes prostrate. P. mugo a broad pumilio to Subglobose P. ovoid, usually a prostrate shrub without a definite leader. before 1932 nigra 'Hornibrookiana' as a witches'-broom on an Austrian pine in Rochester, N.Y., this Originating is a low, compact bush with lustrous, dark green needles. P. pumila introduced 1817 Native to northeastern Siber~a, this is seldom over 9 feet tall and is closely related to Pinus cembra. Both have five needles in each bundle. Sometimes termed P. oeutbra pumila, it is usually a prostrate shrub about i feet in diameter. P. strobus 'Pendula' known since 1866 Not a true dwarf, but because of its pendulous and irregularly grown branches, this tree certainly makes a picturesque specimen until it grows too tall. P. strobus `Pumila' known since 1875 A an dwarf, globular bush, this shrub has twigs that elongate only about 1~5 of inch annually. known since 1891 Pseudotsuga menziesii `Compacta' This is a conical compact bush. about 1910 Taxus baccata `Nutans' A miniature form of the English yew, which at thirty years of age is 3 feet tall and ~~ feet in diameter. Small, open, flat-topped, without a central leader, and with very small needles about 4inch long. First introduced by P. Den Ouden & Sons, Boskoop, Holland. T. baccata `Pygmaea' 1910 A dwarf conical shrub, that about only ~inch long are foot high and as broad, with small needles dark green. First raised in Boskoop, Holland. very a 24 ~ T. cuspidata `Aurescens' 1919 low, almost vase-shaped form of the Japanese yew with the foliage of the year's growth colored deep yellow that, after the first year, gradually turns green. Introduced by the Arnold Arboretum from Japan. Plants `?0 years old are only I foot tall but 3 feet in diameter. A current Thuja occidentalis `Compacta' known since 1855 A dwarf evergreen sometimes incorrectly termed dumosrr or pygmnen, this is about 32 inches tall, with bluish green foliage and somewhat conical habit. T. occidentalis'Ellwangeriana Aurea' before 1895 This originated at the Spaeth Nurseries in Germany, as a sport of `Ellwangeriana'. It is a slow growing dwarf with golden yellow fohage, somewhat resembling `Rheingold', ovoid when young but as it matures it grows pyramidal and may reach 9 to 10 feet in height. T. occidentalis 'Ericoides' known since 1867 This dwarf is a compact rounded shrub about 3 to 4 feet tall, with juvenile foliage that is quite different from the mature arborvitae foliage. It is yellowish green in summer but turns purphsh in the fall and brown in the winter. T. occidentalis 'Filiformis' known since 1901 - Commonly called the threadleaf arborvitae because of its long threadlike branchlets, somewhat similar to those of Chamaecyparis pi.s~f'era `Fihfera'. It is globular in habit and about4 feet tall. Unfortunately the leaves turn brownish in winter. T. occidentalis `Hetz Junior' about 1930 6 An 18-year-old plant of this variety is 3 feet tall, dense, and with juvenile foliage. This selection Nursery Company of Fairview, Pennsylvania. T. occidentalis 'Hetz feet across, pyramidal and made was by the Fairview about 1930 Midget' Selected by the Fairview tremely slow growth. It is 1 to 1 inches tall. T. occidentalis a Nursery Company, Fairview, Pa., this makes exglobe-shaped and 10-year-old plants are scarcely before 1950 'Holmstrup' slow growing Merely compact, pyramidal, and recommended for hedges. T. occidentalis form, originating in Denmark 'Malonyana' before 1913 Originating can in Hungary, this is a dense, compact, columnar be considered in this dwarf group while young. form, but only 25 T. occidentalis 'Minima' known in Europe since 1865 This is a pyramidal slow growing, stunted in habit. form, about 3 to 4 feet tall, rather open and T. occidentalis 'Ohlendorffii' before 1887 A popular variety and common in cultivation (sometimes referred to as spaethii), this is a very curious dwarf, bearing small, upr~ght, whip-cord branches of juvenile foliage with adult, scale-like leaves. Introduced by a German nurseryman, it is slow growing, clump-like, and 4 feet tall, and varies considerably depending on the type of growth from which it is propagated. T. occidentalis 'Recurva Nana' before 1867 Originating in Europe, this The ends of the branchlets T. occidentalis 'Rheingold' A pyramidal, compact dwarf may grow to 6 feet tall. are slightly recurved, making it most attractive. before 1902 a German nursery, this has popular, yellow fohage. 1'hirty-year-old plants are only 6 feet tall and about golden 4~ feet in diameter. Similar to `Ellwangeriana Aurea' except that`ftheingold' retains a goodly amount of juvenile foliage. Both are colorful garden specimens. T. orientalis old-fashioned variety, originating in 'Juniperoides' known in Great Britain since 1850 A form with juvenile foliage which does not vary, it is nar but rounded on top, with grayish foliage. T. orientalis 'Meldensis' dwarf, slightly colum1850 Originating in France, this is a rounded bush about 3 feet tall and 20 inches in diameter at 20 years of age. The green, plish in the fall and winter. T. orientalis 'Minima Glauca' mostly juvenile foliage known in turns pur- Europe since 1891 A beautiful, dense, globe to oval-shaped in evergreen with semi-juvenile foliage turning yellowish to brown the winter, this is 3~ feet tall and 2~ feet in diameter after 30 years of growth. 1929 Tsuga canadensis 'Cinnamomea' Two and is globeplants of this dwarf were found in Vermont. It grows slowly shaped and broader than high. Each branch tip is slightly pendulous. before 1928 ? T. canadensis 'Cole' A beautiful little prostrate dwarf, regarded by Mr. Gotelli (South Orange, N.J.) a few years ago as the best and smallest of all his Tsuga canadensis var~ants. His best plant measured 6 inches high and 40 inches wide. It originated near Boston, Mass. 26 T. canadensis 'Dwarf Whitetip' about 1890 This dwarf, conical shrub probably originated in New England. The young branchlets have tip foliage that is white in the spring but fades by late summer. T. canadensis 'Nana' known since 1855 This is ~n a slow growing shrub usually about 3 feet tall, although D~r. Hillier England has a 30-year-old plant 9 feet tall and 11feet in diameter. It is slightly more dense than the species. T. caroliniana 'Compacta' 1882 This plant, found in a batch of seedlings in the Arnold Arboretum made a beautiful low dense dwarf for many years, but 60 years later it looked very much like the species. Hence it should be considered dwarf only while young. DONALD WYMAN 27 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"WGBH - TV (Channel 2) Auction","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24471","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eb726.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"WGBH - TV (Channel 2) AUCTION Like most educational television stations in this country, WGBH-TV (Cam- bridge, Mass.) has found it difficult to meet operating expenses each year. As a partial solution to this problem, the station held an auction in 1966, in which merchandise donated by local concerns was auctioned \"on the air\", proceeds going to the station. It was repeated in 1967, and in both years proved to be highly successful and entertaining. This year the Arnold Arboretum will participate by donating a number of interesting ornamental plants. Colored pictures of these plants (listed below) will be shown dur~ng the auction and in advance publicity. Please watch the auction, to be held during the first week of June, if you can and tell your friends about our contribution to its success. Cedrus libani stenocarpa Cedar of Lebanon Chamaecyparis nootkatensis `Compacta Glauca'Nootka False-Cypress Davidia involucrata vilmoriniana Franklinia alatamaha Halesia monticola 'Rosea' Dove Tree Benjamin Franklin Tree Pink Silverbell Juniperus communis 'Suecica' Kalmia latifolia 'Rubra' Spire Juniper Deep Pink Mountain Laurel Metasequoia glyptostroboides Picea abies 'Conica' Dawn Redwood Sciadopitys verticillata Stewartia koreana Taxus media Japanese Umbrella Pine Korean Stewartia Columnar Yew `Flushing' 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Albizia julibrissin and Its Cultivar 'Ernest Wilson'","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24457","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14ebb6b.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 t~IA~' 1;, 1968 NUMBERS 4-5 W VE RI ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN AND ITS CULTIVAR 'ERNEST V~ILSON' Albizia julibrissin, commonly called silk tree or mimosa, is a small tree that produces an abundance of p~nk, powder puff-l~ke flowers from June or July until September. It grows naturally from Japan to the Caspian Sea. It is commonly cultivated, and frequently has escaped from cultivation, in warm temperate areas of the world. In the southeastern United States it is frequently seen from V~'ashington, D.C. southward. The fact that certain clones are hardy at the Arnold Arboretum is less well known. Because information about Albizia julibrissin is scattered in the horticultural literature, it has seemed useful to summarize it here. The silk tree is reported to have been introduced into cultivation in Italy, brought from Constantinople by the Cavaliere Filippo Albizzi in 1 i 49. From this material Antonio Durazzini described <~lbixia julibrissin in the Magazzino 1'oscani in 1 i i 2. Somewhat earlier, in 1745, it had been introduced into England by one Richard Bateman, Esq. The earliest records of the cultivation of the silk tree in America that I have been able to find are in a plant list dated 1814, entitled Catalogue qf Trees, Shrubs and Herbaceous Plants... Cultivated and for Sale at Bartram's Botanical Garden... 1 and in a book entitled The Practical American Gardener published anonymously in Baltimore in 1819. In the first volume of Torrey and Gray's Flora qf ~orth America, issued between 1838 and 1848, Albizia julibrissin is listed (as Acacia julibrissin) with the comment \"In gardens and yards, Louisiana, Prof. Carpenter ! cultivated and somewhat naturalized. \" Today, it is commonly seen cultivated as a yard or lawn tree throughout the Southeast. Not uncommonly it is found persisting around old house sites, in hedgerows, along roadsides, and around dumps. About 1864, seeds were received at the Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle 1 \"Bartram's Botanical Garden\" is the Bartram homestead where John and William Bartram cultivated plants found on their journeys and sent to them by foreign and domestic correspondents It is now part of the City of Philadelphia Park System. 29 an unspecified North American source. Seedlings were grown and E. A. Carriere described and illustrated one of the seedlings as _~lbisia 18i I, rosea (Revue Horticole, vol. 42, p. 490). This publication was the basis for the name Albizia julibrissin var. rosea (Carriere) Dlouillefort (Traite des Arbres et .4rbrisseaux, Vol. 1, p. 686, 1894), and Albizia julibrissin forma rosea (Carriere) Rehder (Bibliography qf Cultivafed Trees and Shrubs, p. 351, 1949). In 1875 Louis Van Houtte, the editor of Flore des Serres... published an illustration (nearly identical with Carriere's except that it is a mirror image) and said that the plant should be called Acacia Nemu. Under this name, or as Albizia Nemu, the tree was spread in cultivation around France. It was generally considered to be a hardy form of the Albizia julibrissin that had been growing m French gardens as far north as Lyon at least as early as 1849. Because Albiziajulibrissin is a valuable small tree for summer flowering, there have been a number of attempts to introduce the plant into the Arnold Arboretum. In 1889 a plant called Acacia 1`'emu was obtained from the S. B. Parsons Nursery in Flushing, N.Y. Since Parsons is known to have introduced plants from abroad, this may well have been a plant of the true Albizia rosea. In any event, it did not survive at the Arnold Arboretum. In 1921 seed was obtained from an unspecified area in China, but the seedlings did not survive. In 1918 E. H. Wilson collected seeds in Seoul, Korea from a tree of dlbi~fa julibrissin cultivated in a hotel courtyard. Wilson did not see the species in the wild in central Korea (around Seoul), so this particular tree must be considered to be a cultivated selection from the wild forms, whose northern limit of natural occurrence seems to be in the southern parts of the Korean peninsula, or around Port Arthur in Manchuria. In writing of this tree in 1929 (Arnold Arboretum, Bulletin qf Popular I~f'ormation, 3rd Series, Vol. 3, p. 58), Wilson said : \"The origin of the plant in the Arboretum affords a good illustration of the importance of obtaining for northern gardens types which grow in the coolest regions they can withstand. The particular tree was raised from seeds collected in the garden of the Chosen Hotel at Seoul, Korea, by E. H. Wilson in 1918. It grows wild in the southern parts of the Korean peninsula but appears quite at home in the more severe climate of the central region. A few seeds only were collected and seedling plants were set out in the Arboretum when about four years old ; several were killed the first winter but one came through with but slight injury and since that time has not suffered in the least. From its behavior during the last seven or eight years there seems reason to believe that this Korean type will prove a useful and valuable addition to gardens. It has a long flowering season, continuing in blossom throughout August. Albizzia is a member of a tropical tribe of the great family Leguminosae and it is astonishing that this tree should be able to withstand New England winters. Apparently it is happy in fully exposed situations, where good drainage and a sandy loam prevail.\" Wilson, and apparently Rehder, identified this plant with Carriere's Albizia in in Paris from 30 PLATE IX The single plant of Albizia julibrissin remaining in the Arnold Arboretum from seeds introduced from the Lu Shan Arboretum, Hupeh. China in 1935 shows the upright growth habit that is predominant in this species. because of its hardiness. Apparently they did not give much flower color. In the Korean plant, the stamens are pink in the upper half but whitish below, quite different from the concolorous pink of the plates of Carriere and Van Houtte. Albizia rosea appears to be a name properly considered as belonging to a clonal or pure line selection from the population of .~lbiwia julibrissin growing in the southeastern United States about 1864. In other words it is best treated as a cultivar. It appears that only a single plant originally existed of Carriere's Albizia rosea, so all plants of the hardy Albizia rosea (or A. 1~'enau) are pure line descendants of the single plant. It is certain that only a single plant survived of Wilson's collection from Korea. Finally, only a single plant survives in the Arnold Arboretum from an introduction of seed from the Lu Shan Arboretum, Hupeh, China, in 1935. The latter two hardy clones are planted only about 150 feet apart in the Arnold Arboretum. Seeds from these plants cannot be guaranteed to be the result of self pollination. Therefore, only vegetatively propagated material of `Ernest Wilson' can be guaranteed true to name. Carriere's ,4lbi,:ia rosea and the Arnold Arboretum seedling from Lu Shan seed are similar in habit to each other and to the common form of silk tree found throughout the southeastern United States. That is, they develop one or more trunks 1~ to 4 feet tall, at which height the trunk breaks up into a series of ascending, then widely spreading, branches (Plate IX). Wilson's Korean plant, d however, differs in producing several widely spreading branches from about ground level (Plate X). Our limited experience suggests that this growth character is inherited by the seedling progeny. It is proposed here that the plant grown from Wilson's seed, and its vegetative progeny, can be treated as a distinct cultivar, to be named `Ernest Wilson'. This cultivar is distinguished from all others in the species by both habit and hardiness. The type specimen for this name is the plant in the Arnold Arboretum, accession number 13381, raised from seed of E. H. Wilson's collection number 11245, collected in Seoul, Korea, in 1918. AlbiQia julibrissin grew and flourished without disease in the southeastern United States for more than one hundred years. Indeed, it was widely recommended for yard planting, smce it grows quickly and flowers while quite small. But in 1935 a wilt disease caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. perniciosum (Hepting) Toole, was reported around Tryon, North Carolina. This disease spread rapidly through the Southeast. It was reported to have reached New York by the 1950's. It also had been reported from Russia in 1920 and Argentina in 1943. For susceptible trees, the disease is invariably fatal. But the U.S. Department of Agriculture has selected and distributed two disease resistant clones for southern conditions : 'Tryon' with dark pink flowers and 'Charlotte' with light pink flowers. In a single trial, these have not proved hardy at the Arnold Arboretum. So far as we know, the hardy strains of silk tree at the Arnold Arboretum have not been rosea, presumably weight to the matter of 32 PLATE X ALbizia julibrissin 'Ernest Wilson' differs from the species in g~owth habit in that it produces widely spreading branches at about ground level and remains wider than tall to maturity. The original plant. shown in wnnter (top) and in summer (bottom) will become 50 years old in 1969. tested for disease resistance-nor do we know if the wilt organism has sufficient cold tolerance to survive a New England winter. The great value of .4\/biuia julibrissin and the cultivar 'Ernest Wilson' reside in their long season of abundant bloom. Beginning in late June or early July, and continuing until late September in Boston, the trees are almost continuously covered with the showy p~nk and white, powder puff-like inflorescences. GoHUON P. Dr:Vfoi.r~, Je. 34 PLATE XI Flowers of Albizia juli6risxin expand from early July through much of September. Fully open flowers and unopened buds are found together on the plant during most of this long blooming season. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation of Albizia julibrissin","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24466","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eab26.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"PROPAGATION OF ALBIZIA JULIBRISSIN dispersal of Albisia julibri.ssin seeds take place during late fall and into Pods, which develop in clusters, are firmly attached to the tree and require high winds to tear them loose, with the result that they can be found lodged against obstacles some distance from the mother plant. This method of distribution allows wide latitude in time of pod collection, quite unlike many fruits which must be harvested immediately when ripe. The suspended clusters of pods can be gathered quickly, a handful at a time. Blooms from which the pods develop open from early July to mid-September. Because of this long flo~ering period, seeds in various stages of development will be found at the time of collection. Those which arose from flowers early in the season will be plump and Natural winter. ripe while others from late flowers will be Seed immature. Longevity When pods of Albizia julibrissin have reached maturity and are about to change from green to straw-color, the coats of the seeds within consist of thin, soft membranes. At this stage they offer no barrier to germination and seedlings appear shortly after the seeds are sown. But as ripening continues, the seeds are reduced to about one-third their original weight and develop flinty-hard waterimpermeable coats. When sealed from moisture in this way, respiration takes place at such a low rate that viability is retained for a remarkably long time when conditions are unfavorable to germination. In 1964 a few seeds from one of our own herbarium specimens that had been prepared in 1897 were treated with hot water, and one germinated after having been kept for 67 years under the dry conditions of an herbarium. Inducing Germination coats that sown, Germination of Albizia julibrissin seeds is hindered retard the entry of water. If seeds are not only by impervious seed pre-treated before being germination can can occur ment be done by mechanical erratically over a period of many years. Pretreatscarification, acid scarification, or hot water quantities, seeds of a can treatment. be held between the fingers and scraped along the upper edge small, sharp, three-cornered file laid a table top. When seeds are being processed in large volume, their coats can on be abraded in scarifying equipment designed for this purpose. Mechanical scarification. In small 36 0 b .~ B u ~a '\" vCx&0 # 3 ;1 '\"C v D <II -= ~ >. 5_W7 y <II 0 'e a1 .... bIJ h1 W F~1 ' y_ ~e Co a, -~-' .. O ~ F1 ~i O 3L G V 'b V 0 e 3#& x3E; \",..c '\" '\" 3 ..... , . = Q n 0 O '~ C o0 J bIJ - .N .H a ~_ N '>; ~ W i~ '\" '\" ::s <II Vw ,.GJ7 GTI V O \"\" of placing the seeds concentrated sulfuric acid over them glass carefully pouring until they are covered. After a set period of time, the seeds are rinsed very thoroughly in running water for several minutes and then sown. When the germination requirements of Albizia julibrissin seeds were being investigated at the Arnold Arboretum several years ago, sulfuric acid treatments of ~hour, 1 hour, and 2 hours produced similar results, the longer treatments being neither beneficial nor detrimental. Each produced uniform germination in about 10 days. iu a Sulfuric acid treatment. Sulfuric acid treatment consists container and can be modified enough to permit germinathe seeds in a container and pouring water heated to a temperaby placing ture of about 190 F. over them (Plate XI). It is important that the volume of water be at least 5 or 6 times the volume of seeds, for too small a quantity would cool before it had the desired effect. Seeds are left in the water overnight and then sown at once. A somewhat less effective method is to sow the seeds and pour boiling water over the seed pan or flat. In our tests hot water and acid treatments produced similar results, but with hot water the precautions necessary when working with acid were avoided. Hot water treatment. Seed coats tion _. Vegetative Propagation By1966 the Arnold Arboretum's 47-year-old type specimen of Albisia julibrissin Ernest Wilson' showed signs of senescence and its propagation became necessary, In order to perpetuate the clone, asexual or vegetative propagations had to be made. Seedling propagants would have been unsatisfactory, for seedlings are genetic individuals and therefore could have characteristics differing from those of the parent plant. They might, for example, lack the inherent hardiness that is the principle attribute of this clone. Albiziajulibrissin does not propagate from ordinary stem cuttings but can be reproduced from root cuttings taken in late winter or early spring. Commercial practice is to take root pieces in spring and line them out in nursery To propagate A. julibrissin 'Ernest Wilson', root pieces about 2inch in diameter and 3 inches long were placed vertically in pots using a loose medium composed of sand and peat moss. This was done on March 11 and by May 23 shoots began to appear. In most cases multiple shoots developed. As propagators know, shoots that arise from roots are physiologically juvenile, even though the parent plant may have lost its juvenility years earlier. These will frequently root despite the fact that stem cuttings from the same plant will not. With this in mind, the excess shoots were removed and inserted as cuttings. In eleven days all were well rooted. This success led to an experimental project intended to test the feasibility of producing juvenile shoots from roots in quantity. Root sections of larger size were placed horizontally in flats of sandy soil. This nursery rows. 38 PLATE XIII Root sections of Albizia julibrissin placed horizontally in sandy soil give rise to juvenile shoots (top) that can be removed and will root quickly. If left attached to the root pieces, these shoots will root in place (bottom). procedure worked well - three root pieces, one inch in diameter and from 5 to 1Z inches long, led to a crop of 52 shoots (Plate XII). After the first shoots were removed, the root pieces were returned to the flat and a second but smaller crop developed. These were left in place and eventually produced roots of their own while still attached to the root piece. Use of large root sections to produce rootable cuttings provides a method by which desirable Albisia julibrissin clones can be propagated quickly. Included among these would be cultivars selected for resistance to the mimosa wilt disease that has been troublesome in recent years. in the South ALFRED J. FORDHAM 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Horticultural Activities of Justin Smith Morrill","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24467","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eab6b.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"_ ARNOLDIA THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 A publication OF VE 1 VOLUME 28 JUNE 7, IJ6H SOME HORTICULTURAL ACTIVITIES OF JUSTIN SMITH MORRILL NUMBER 6 S. MORRILL is best known as the founder of the land-grant uniin the United States, through his authorship in Congress of the Land Grant Act of 1862. The immense significance of this act, which laid the foundation for the growth of our state university system, has overshadowed many of his activities, among them adaptability trials of a variety of trees and shrubs at his home in Strafford, Vermont. The trials were very small by comparison with many present efforts, but were done before the establishment of any public arboretums in the United States, and at a time when relatively few private landholders in this country were doing this sort of thing. Because of this early information (however limited) that they provide about adaptability of certain species, and the light that they shed on Morrill's personality and interests, the available facts on Alorrill's horticultural activities are presented here. Justin Smith Morrill was born in Strafford, Vermont in 1810. Fifteen years later his formal education ended, for financial reasons, and he went to work as a clerk in the general store in Strafford. Biographers have suggested that his disappointment at having to leave school so early may have intensified his interest in books and educat~on-a preoccupation, as it turned out, with great significance for the future of higher education in the United States. Nine years after starting to work in the store, he became part-owner of it. After 14 more years he had accumulated enough wealth to enable him to sell his interest in the store and retire from business. With the expanded leisure time now available to him, he was able to become more active in local affairs, including politics. This activity culminated in his being persuaded to run for election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 185~. He was elected and spent the next 44 years m Congress: 12 in the House of Representatives and 32 more in the Senate. Morrill's activities while in Congress have been well documented in the Congressional Record, his own writings, a biographical address by George W. Atherton, entitled The JUSTIN versity system 41 Legislative Career of Justin S. Morrill\"1 and the biography The Life and Public Services qf Justin Smith Morrill by William Belmont Parker (Houghton-Mifflin, Boston and New York, 1924). At the time of his first \"retirement\" in 1848 he started to build his homestead in Strafford. Morrill was a serious student of architecture and landscape architecture, as evidenced by his collection of books on these subjects 2, and he personally prepared the plans for his house and supervised its construction. Upon its completion in 1851, he prepared a plan of the grounds surrounding it s and assembled lists of plants for trial. Both the plan and the selection of plants appear to have been influenced strongly by the book The Villa Gardener, by J. C. Loudon (Wm. S. Orr & Co., London, 1850)-Morrill's copy bears notes in his handwriting. From similar notes in another of his gardening books, Cottage Residences by A. J. Downing (Wiley and Putnam, New York and London, 1844), we can guess that his first plantings were made in the fall of 1852. In this same book is a list of plants that Morrill planned to obtain for planting in the spring of 1853. He also prepared a larger list of plants in the margins of the plan of his grounds and showed the locations of some of these plants on the property. Apparently this was a master list of plants that he planned to add to the grounds as he was able to. Unfortunately, we know which of the plants on this list were actually planted on his grounds only from the earlier-mentioned planting lists and by seeing those that remain there today. Morrill's election to the U.S. House of Representatives in 1854 apparently interrupted his planting program after only a year or two of activity, and it seems likely that it never was resumed. At least there was no evidence that it was continued in the systematic fashion in which it had been started. The Homestead and Plantings Today After Morrill's death in 1898, the homestead remained in the Morrill family for 40 years, then was owned by others for the next 24 years. In 1962, the centennial year after the signing of the Land Grant Act, the homestead was purchased by the Justin Smith Morrill Foundation, Inc. and was designated a Registered National Historic Landmark by the National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior. By that time both building and grounds had undergone considerable deterioration. Essential repairs to the roof and structural timbers 1 Delivered at New Haven, Connecticut, November 14, 1900, at the request of the Executive Committee of the American Association of Agricultural Colleges and Experiment Stations. Text published by J. Horace McFarland Co. to the Justin Smith Morrill Memorial Library shelved there. 'j Morrill's plan of his home grounds is now on loan to the Wilbur Library of the University of Vermont, and is displayed in its Special Collections Room. 2This collection was presented by Morrill now in Strafford, Vermont, and is 41 PLATE XIV The Justin S. Morrill home in Strafford, Vermont, as it and in its immediate surroundings in 1967 (bottom). appeared around 1920 (top), undertaken immediately, and further restoration is proceeding slowly as are available. It has not yet been possible to restore the grounds to anything resembling their original condition (Plates XIV, XV), and it may never be, but the few plant species apparently surviving from Morrill's plantings are in no immediate danger. Some of the more interesting specimens presently on the grounds are : were funds Magnolia kobus (Plate XVI). trees, to a was This one tree has been badly crowded by larger broken almost to the height of about 18 feet. years ago but has returned It flowers and fruits only sparsely, because it ~s ground 30 or more growing in the shade of much larger trees. aquifolium (Plate XVII). This forms a low thicket some 15 feet across, apparently the result of spreading of a single plant. It flowers well and shows little sign of winter damage, probably because it is usually covered by snow during the winter and is growing in a partly-shaded site. Mahonia Pinus nigra (Plate XV). This is a 60-foot tree, with a trunk 27 inches in diameter at eye-level. It has developed a picturesque habit with a tendency to be flat-topped. Syringa persica alba. This height. The is a graceful shrub, very old, yet not over 6 feet in Thuja occiderrlalis. There are large specimens on the grounds, obviously planted. largest was planted at one of four corners of a garden house, long since gone. This tree has five trunks averaging 12 inches in diameter at eye level. The bole, where all trunks have joined, measures between 3 and 4 feet in diameter. Even though this species is native to the area, specimens of this size are almost never seen in the wild. All of these but the native Thuja occidentalis are rarely cultivated in this part of Vermont, but all except Magnolia kobus would have been available to Morrill m 1850. This species was introduced into the L,'.S. in 1865, so the tree must have been planted later in Morrill's life or afterward. This explains its absence in Morrill's planting lists. In addition, several large specimens of native species of .~cer, Fraxinus, Larix, Picea and Pinus remain on the grounds. Some were undoubtedly planted there by Morrill. Without greater financial support than the Justin Smith Morrill Foundation has yet been able to muster (for all the dedication of its trustees and members) restoration of the house itself will proceed slowly. Any restoration of the grounds must come about more slowly still. If and when improvements on the grounds are possible, it will be most important that they are carried out with great care. The few remaining plant specimens that can (with reasonable confidence) be 44 PLATE XV Barns and shops on the Morrill property as they appeared in 1967 (top). Overhanging branch against the sky at right is from a tree of Piveus nigra. probably planted by Morrill. This tree is shown (bottom, left) growinx close to a large specimen of Thuja orcidentalis beside the Morrill home. traced back to Morrill could be lost or damaged in the process, breaking the last tangible links with this side of the Dlorrill personality. Meanwhile these remaining specimens appear to be holding their own against nature, as they have done for many years. They await plant-interested visitors to the Justin Smith Morrill Homestead. Plants Listed by Justin S. Morrill on the Plan of His Estate Grounds KEY * to ** Plants that appear to have been actually planted by Morrill (not exclude others that may have been planted without record). Plants that can necessarily be found on the Morrill property so, today (not necessarily the some same ones planted by Morrill but probably Names as except for of the native species). Trees and shrubs noted by J.S.M. on plan (probable identity) **Abies balsamea Acer Fir Balsam - Abies balsamifera negundo Ash-leaved Negundo Acer platanoides **Acer saccharum or Norway Maple A. rubrum Maple Horse Chestnut *Aesculus hippocastanum *Alnus glutinosa Artemisia abrotanum Berberis macracantha *Berberis vulgaris Berberis vulgaris var. European Alder Southern Wood Violet Fruited Barberry Barberry - Berberis vulgaris atropurpurea Barberry, Purple Leaved - Berberis vulgaris Madeira Vine Sweet Scented Shrub-Calycanthus florida Scarlet Trumpet Flower Pea Tree, Boussingaultia sp. Calycanthus floridus *Campsis radicans Bignonia radicans Caragana microphylla *Castanea sativa Altagana Spanish Chestnut - Castanea visca Japan Quince - Pyrus japonica Yellow Bladder Senna-Colutea arborescens *Chaenomeles japonica Colutea arborescens Convolvulus japonicus Cornus florida Calistegia pubescens Cornus florida 46 PLATE XVI I Tree of Magxxolia kobux growing Strafford, in the shade of larger trees on the Morrill Vermont. It flowers and fruits only sparsely, for lack of adequate property in sunlight. Cornus sanguinea Cotinus Cornus sanguinea - Bloody twig Dogwood Venetian Fringe Tree - Rhus cotinus coggygria sp. Crataegus Crataegus rigida coccinea Crataegus chrysocarpa var. phoenicea Crataegus Crataegus crus-galli var. pyracanthi- Crataegus crus-galli pyracanthifolia folia Crataegus eriocarpa Crataegus eriocarpa *Crataegus oxyacantha Crataegus oxyacantha var. aurea Hawthorn - Crataegus oxyacantha aurea Crataegus oxyacantha *Crataegus oxyacantha var. rosea-plena Hawthorn - double pink Crataegus oxyacantha cv. Crataegus Double Scarlet Crataegus Double White Crataegus ovalifolia Scotch Broom Pink Mezereum Deutzia scabra Crataegus oxyacantha Crataegus prunifolia Cytisus scoparius Daphne mezereum cv. Deutzia scabra Euonymus americanus *Euonymus americanus Strawberry Tree - Euonymus americanus Euonymus americana Purple Beech Forsythia viridissima Ash - Fraxinus americana *Fagus sylvatica 'Atropunicea' Forsythia viridissima **Fraxinus americana Fraxinus excelsior *Fraxinus excelsior `Pendula' European Ash Weeping Ash Ginkgo Tree Three-thorned Acacia *Ginkgo biloba Gleditsia triacanthos *Halesia carolina Silver Bell Tree - Halesia tetraptera *Hibiscus syriacus or A lthaea officinalis Althea Ind~gofera sp. Indigo Shrub Jasmine Swedish Juniper Red Cedar Mountain Laurel - Kalmia latifolia Jasminum sp. *Juniperus communis var. suecica Junzperus virginiana Kalmia latifolia Kerria japonica Japan Globe Flower - Kerria japonica 48 PLATE XVII Mahonia aquifolium growing in a mass toward the front of the Morrill property. It appears to have grown from a single plant, likely planted there by Morrill himself. Koelreuteria paniculata Japan Koelreuteria - Koelreuteria paniculata Scotch Laburnum *Laburnum alpinum *Larix decidua **Larix laricina European Larch Larch - Pinus micro or Ligustrum lucidum Ligustrum vulgare *Lonicera flava L. japonicum Privet, Evergreen Privet, Common Yellow Trumpet Honeysuckle - Lonicera flava fraseri var. *Lonicera sempervirens Lonicera sp. Lonicera tatarica Evergreen Honeysuckle Honeysuckle Upright Honeysuckle (red tart.) Magnolia virginiana **Mahonia Swamp Magnolia - Magnolia glauca Holly-leaved Mahonia Mahonia fascicularis aquifolium *Mahonia pinnata Parthenocissus quinquefolia Parthenocissus tricuspidata Virginia Creeper American Ivy **Philadelphus coronarzus Syringa, Common-Philadelphus coronarius Syringa, Large Flowering - Philadelphus grandiflora Norway Spruce *Philadelphus grandiflorus **Picea abies **Picea glauca or P. rubens Spruce Austrian Pine **Pinus nigra **Pinus strobus *Pinus wallichiana (P. *Platanus acerifolia Weymouth (White) Pine - Pinus strobus griffithii) Bhutan (Lofty) Pine English Sycamore Silver Leaf Poplar (white) - Populus alba *Populus alba Populus nigra italica *Prunus glandulosa *Prunus serotina *Prunus sp. Prunus sp. Lombardy Poplar Almond, Double Flowering-Amygdalus pumila pendula Weeping Cherry Double Flowering Cherry Perfumed Cherry Scarlet Oak *Quercus coccinea Quercus lyrata Overcup Oak 50 *Quercus robur **Rhamnus cathartica English Royal Oak Buckthorn (Hedge) Rhododendron nudiflorum *Rhododendron viscosum *Rhus typhina Ribes aureum Pink Azalea-Azalea nudiflora Swamp Pink Azalea Sumac-Rhus typhina aureum Missouri Currant - Ribes Ribes gordonianum Ribes sanguineum Robinia hispida *Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa moschata *Salix sp. *Salix Beaton's Currant - Ribes Beatonii Red Flowering Currant - Ribes sanguinea Rose Acacia Honey Locust - Robinia pseudoacacia Musk Rose Comerville or Cornwall Willow? (not fully legible) babylonica Napoleon Weeping Willow Rose-mary Leaved Willow *Salix repens rosmarinifolia Sophora japonica *Sorbus americana *Sorbus aucuparia Sophora japonica Mountain Ash - Pyrus aucuparia European Mountain Ash Spirea lanceolata Spirea (Col. Bissell) Spirea reevesii Spiraea alba Spiraea sp. or cv. Spiraea cantoniensis Spiraea media Spiraea prunifolia Spiraea salicifolia Spiraea salicifolia Spiraea sibiraea Spiraea tomentosa or Spirea daurica Spirea prunifolia plena Spirea salicifolia S. rubra ~ Spirea salicifolia rubra Spirea levigata Spirea tomentosa racemosa Symphoricarpos albus Snowdrop - Symphora Lilac, Charles X Lilac, Josikea *Syringa 'Charles X' *Syringa josikaea Syringa persica **Syringa persica var. alba Syringa sp. or cv. Lilac, Persian Purple-Syringa persica Lilac, Persian White - Syringa persica Lilac, Blue 51 **Syringa vulgaris Tamarix Lilac (common) Syringa vulgaris African Tamarisk africans Taxus baccata Taxus baccata English Yew 'Fastigiata' Irish Yew **Thuja occidentalis Thuja orientalis Tilza sp. Arbor Vitae - Thuja occidental is Chinese Arborvitae European Linden Hemlock-Abies canadensis **Tsuga **Ulmus canadensas ameracana var. roseum or Elm-Ulmus americana Snow Ball - Viburnum * Viburnum opulus opulus roseum *Viburnum trilobum V. opulus Cranberry Tree Weigela rosea Weigela rosea Wisteria sinensis Yucca filamentosa Garden roses Wistaria (Chinese) Yucca filamentosa 49 cultivars: 40 hybrid perpetual, 5 hybrid damask, and 4 climbing roses. Miscellaneous ornamentals (number of kinds) Fruits, berries, and nuts (number of kinds) HARRISON L. FLINT 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Ways Plants Climb","article_sequence":8,"start_page":53,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24468","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15eaf6f.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nevling Jr., Lorin I.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication VE 1 of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 .I U LY 1 l, 1 y6R SOME WAYS PLANTS CLIMB 1 UMBER i plants often show adaptations that facilitate their climbing. These involve easily observed modifications of different plant parts, accompanied by internal modifications, particularly in the details of stem anatomy. In this note we shall consider only the external modifications. For convenience in discussing them, climbing plants can be grouped in five general classes : I ) twiners, in which the main stem twines about a supporting agent; 2) branch climbers, having the side branches variously modified; 3) inflorescence climbers, with part or all of the inflorescence converted into climbing organs; 4) leaf climbers, with all or portions of the leaf modified; and 5) root climbers, in which special roots for climbing have been developed. These five classes will be discussed and illustrated by listing some examples suitable for growing in the greenhouse or out-of-doors. The lists include the scientific name of each plant, the name of the family to which it belongs, and a common name when available. C LI M BING Twiners Plants move. One simple plant a movement is or ing is stem tip, which describes circle called circumnutation), is a generally overlooked as it cannot easily be observed. The magnitude of this movement may be measured in parts of a millimeter (about 1\/25 of an inch) to as much as a meter (almost 40 inches). The circular movement of the stem tip is caused by differential elongation of plant cells, which in turn is controlled by differential distribution of plant hormones. For example, if the cells on one side of a stem elongate more than those on the opposite side, the stem bends in the direction of the side with less elongation. This type of movement is similar to that which causes plants to bend toward light in a darkened room. The time required for the stem tip to complete a revolution varies from a half hour to a day or more, so that observation at regular intervals will (technically performed by the actively growellipse in the air. This phenomenon relatively basic act of plant growth, but 53 the progress of this phenomenon. A simple way to do this is to collar loosely around an actively growing shoot (a morning-glory place paper is a good subject). Place a light directly above the pot containing the plant, so that the stem apex throws a shadow on the paper collar. Mark the position of the shadow on the paper collar with a pencil and make a note of the time. As the shoot apex moves, the shadow moves, and a time sequence can be established. The twining habit, I believe, results from an exaggeration of the basic movement of circumnutation. It is relatively easy to understand how a plant with considerable apical movement twines- it merely has to have its free movement interrupted by an object smaller in diameter than the radius of its growing circle. Approximately half of all twiners have developed the supplementary mechanism of a sensitive stem (that is, there is a positive reaction to a contact stimulus) which increases differential cellular elongation and enhances the twining process. Other adaptations that facilitate twining are all geared to the reduction of weight of the stem tip. These include thin stems, strong apical dominance with little or no development of side branches, and delayed expansion of the leaf blade. Shoots that combine all of these features and circumnutate at a rapid rate are often called \"searcher shoots,\" and their function is self-evident. Much has been made of the direction in which plants twine, i.e. left vs righthanded or clockwise vs counter-clockwise. There is some common belief that the direction of twining is dependent on whether a particular plant is grown in the southern or northern hemisphere. Actually, few plants can be relied upon to maintain a definite twining direction, and most reverse direction from time to time. One notable exception is found in some species of Dioscorea (the true yams) in which the direction of twining is consistent enough to be helpful in the classification of members of the group. In the following plant lists, herbaceous and woody twiners are listed separately. Care must be exercised in the placement of woody twiners in an outdoor situation, as the more robust ones such as Celastrus can cause severe damage or death to trees. Obviously, these powerful twiners should be grown on strong trellises or poles. one allow to see a Herbaceous Twiners: 54 * Suitable only for greenhouse use in our northern climate. Some of these tropical species may be grown as annuals out-of-doors. $ Although Japanese honeysuckle generally grows within bounds in more northern areas it has become a dangerous weed in thc south and be taken to see that it does not get out of hand. Branch Climbers care must The use of branches as climbing devices seems to be a more sophisticated method than simple twining. A complete range of modification can be found from 55 branches borne at right angles to the main stem, to those that have become hooklike structures, to those developing tendrils. In some plants these modifications occur spontaneously, but in others stimulation by contact ~s required. Oddly, this category of climber is most often associated with plant groups possessing opposite leaves. Tendrils are slender, wire-like climbing organs which are highly sensitive to contact stimuli. The following remarks apply in general regardless of the origin of the tendrils (which can be modified stems, leaves, or inflorescences), as they all behave in essentially the same way. Tendrils circumnutate just as stem tips do, and they seem to be under a similar hormonal control. Most frequently the young tendril extends beyond the circumnutating stem tip and revolves independentlyof it. This double movement does not present d~fficulties to the plants, but when circumnutation of the tendril continues after that of the main axis has ceased, a new regime must be established; either the tendril curtails its c~rcumscription by one half and straightens to pass the stem, or the main stem is engaged by ~t. On engagement the stem usually is released by the tendril and circumnutation is resumed (the mechanism for this action is not understood). Tendrils are extremely sensitive and are able to detect very small degrees of resistance to their free movement. The sensitivity of the tendril to touch may be general or restricted to very precise areas, depending on the species. The time span in which a tendril is active varies with the species and may be as long as a month. If not stimulated witl~in its active period ~t often withers. In the family Cucurbitaceae (gourds, cucumbers, squashes, etc.) tendrils are more highly specialized than m most other groups. In addition to the twining action already described, they have developed a secondary modification to increase their holdmg eHic~ency. After a tendnl has twined about its support and ~s securely fastened it begins a double coiling action from a central point on the tendril. The structure furmed resembles a spring and seems to function in the same manner. Branch Climbers (variously reflexed branches) : Branch Climbers (tendrils of branch origin): 36 PLATE XVIII commonly grown woody twiner valued for its colorful fruits in autumn. (Bottom) Congea tomentosa (Verbenaceae), a typical non-sensitive branch climber. Its special modifications are stems with long internodes and well developed opposite branches borne at right angles to the main stem. (Top) Celastrus orba~ulafus, a Branch Climbers (tendrils of branch origin): (cont.) Inflorescence Climbers Employing all or part of an inflorescence as a climbing mechanism is efficient only in terms of climbing, since flower production must necessarily be curtailed. In many species belonging to this class of climbers, flower production is completely suppressed, making it difficult sometimes to separate this class from the preceding one. In these instances precise determination requires detailed anatomical and developmental studies. Functionally the inflorescence climbers employ techniques similar to those described for the branch climbers. The modification of the inflorescence is most commonly in the form of either a tendril or a reflexed hook. Inflorescence Climbers Scientific name Family Common name Bougaiuoillea spectabilis* Inflorescence parts converted to with age. Nyctaginaceae simple reflexed hooks which become woody Coral Vine Antigonou leptopus* Polygonaceae Tip of inflorescence converted into tendrils. Sapindaceae Cardiospermum halicacabum* Balloon-vine Lower portion of inflorescence base converted to watch spring-like tendril. * Cissus spp.* Vitaceae Entire inflorescence converted to twining tendrils. Ivy Treebine, Grape Ivy Parthenocissus quinquPfolia Vitaceae Virginia Creeper Whole inflorescences converted to branched tendrils with sucker-discs at tips. Parthenocissus As tricuspidata preceding species. or a Vitaceae Boston Ivy ~'a,ssi,flora spp.* (Plate XIX) Entire inflorescence Passifloraceae to portion of it converted Passion Flowers tendril. * Paulliuia spp.* Sapindaceae Lower portion of inflorescence converted to tendril. * Securidaca spp.* Easter-vine Polygalaceae All parts of inflorescence sensitive and tendril-like in action but tendrils. no special 58 PLATE XIX (Top) Dalbrrgda tendrtl-lil~e sp. structures. (Leguminosae), a climber with lateral branches modified into (Bottom) A passion flower, Pass~,~lora coccinea, climbing by are simple, sensitive tendrils which highly modified inflorescences. Leaf Climbers Some of the most highly evolved climbing mechanisms are found among the leaf climbers. This category may be subdivided on the basis of the part of the leaf modified: 1) the entire leaf, ~L) the petiole and stipules, 8) the midrib, and 4) the apex. The modifications (Plate XX) are often so unique that in some instances comments within the plant lists are again necessary. Entire Leaf Modified: Scientific name Family Common name Liliaceae Asparagus plumosus Entire leaf converted to horny reflexed hook. Anisostichus capreolata* Compound leaves converted into Crossvine Bignoniaceae compound twining tendrils. Doxanthus ungui.s-cati* Bignoniaceae Has opposite compound leaves each composed of three leaflets. Leaflets of one leaf of each pair converted into three hooks (appearing like bird's feet). When tips of the hooks secure a hold they produce additional tissue and grow into the irregularities of the substrate surface. Rubus cissoides Rosaceae Leaf blade becomes very much reduced with three main veins developing many retrorse thorns. Ruscus androgynu.s* Ent~re leaf converted into Petiole and a Liliaceae reflexed hook. Climbing Butcher's Broom Stipule Modifications: Clemali.s spp. Ranunculaceae Leaves are divided into leaflets and the petiolule of each leaflet is sensitive and somewhat tendril-like. (~uisquali.s indica* Combretaceae Rangoon Creeper As leaf matures, the petiole reflexes and becomes hook-like. The hook is persistent and becomes woody long after the leaf blade is shed. Rhodochiton volubile* Combination Scrophulariaceae twiner and stem twiner. petiole Smilax A pair of Liliaceae Greenbrier hispida tendrils found near the junction of blade and petiole. twining Tropaeolum majus Tropaeolaceae 60 Nasturtium Petiole sensitive and tendril-like. PLATE XX .' Diagram of various mc difications of leaf parts to form climbing organs, a, Calarnus sp. (Palmae) frond apex modified into retrorse hooks. b, Gloriosarotiwchildiana (Liliaceae) leaf apex modified into tendril. c, Asparagus plumosus (Liliaceae) entire leaf converted into reflexed hook. d, Vepenthes sp. (Nepenthaceae) mid~ibactsastendrilduringdevelopment. e, Tropaeolum sp. (Tropaeolaceae) petiole sens~tme and twining. f, S~nilax sp. (Liliaceae) stipults modified into teudrils. g, stylized drawing of unmodified leaf. Midrib Modified: Ne~enthes As leaf spp. a Nepenthaceae Climbing Pitcher-plant develops blade is formed. The tip continues growth and becomes a sensitive tmning tendril. Further growth produces an elaborate and characteristic pitcher at the apex of the tendril. Apex Modified (tendrils): Root Climbers flowering plant families that have climbing memroot-climbers among them. Since roots used in climbing have their origin in stems rather than in other roots, they are called \"adventitious\" roots. They may be restricted to the nodes (points of leaf attachment), or may arise anywhere along the climbing shoot. Usually adventitious roots arise only on the side of the shoot towards the surface being climbed, where the humidity may be slightly higher and the light less intense. Specialized climbing roots are short in length and life duration. They have an increased sensitivity to contact stimuli and an accompanying loss of positive geotropism. Very often the shoot that gives rise to adventitious roots is restricted to the function of climbing and the side branches from it perform the photosynthetic and reproductive functions. In this case the climbing shoot often bears leaves of smaller size and sometimes different shape from those of the lateral branches. The incorrect terms \"juvenile shoots\" and \"adult shoots\" are often applied in these instances to differentiate the two types of shoots. Climbing shoots of some length climb either in a very open spiral or the shoots are noticeably zig-zag to make full use of mechanical advantage inherent in such a system. bers include some At least 30 percent of all the 62 0 . ro a~ Fv > CI D F ..c v :e B w 0 4~ ro vCx&0 # 3 ;1 m c 8 a~ a~ ..c en v S a~ m ~ro as z :zl a E E o a\" o. ~ 3 0 '\" a~ e .J w 0<1 ~ Q ~ 0<1 f 'J 0S;C3x#& 1 . O v O ;: en w 1;::\"0 c = ~l g 1~ .C 1:B <II > 1:B \" Y ,r ~ 6 ';jj A sixth class of climbers may be needed to include a number of plants that climb but in which an obvious adaptative mechanism is not present. These plants sometimes are called \"weavers.\" A good example is the climbing roses where the only adaptation seems to be the production of long canes with thorns. As non-climbing roses also possess thorns there is a legitimate question of whether or not the thorns are evolved specifically as a climbing adaptation. The term weavers implies that these plants climb by forming a large mass of inter-twined branches. Such plants usually are planted in conjunction with a trellis or other support. Finally, place in a there are a few plants that are often mistaken for climbers. Some species of Clusia and Ficus fall into this category. Seed germination often takes or axil of a leaf (palms are particularly favored habitats) above ground level. As the seedling develops (Plate XXIII), specialized roots hold it to the substrate while others grow toward and eventually reach to the ground and provide the water and minerals necessary to insure continued growth. As the seedling develops in size the substrate tree may be destroyed and as its decomposition takes place the former climber (which by this time may be quite large) becomes free-standing. tree crotch sometimes high 64 L CC y uL o y i, tC y c ~ a _D L ro roao ,~ 0 '- :J ,L U v _ v yL 3 !C .c ro L -3~ 4 a~ U 0 0 N0y0 o ~ I 0 2 v O ' rr ,U. AI y 1^Ailn ~ .y. Wc^ n ~ ;~ ~u ra a~ ~ a~ rt, ~ y c~ d o ~ ~ L ac a~ Ns ~ ~ ro :J 3 ro ~ L ~ L J ~-S OL S O 2 O~ C U ~1 B ~! g o0 O ,~ J y ~c a7 ~i yC g U ~ro C7 O ~ especially rewarding for the gardener, for their potential interest solely to the flowering period. In addition, they can be employed to brighten difficult-to-handle locations such as walls, fences, and tree trunks. Some of them are a bit particular about exposure, soil, etc., and consultation with one of the excellent available reference books will prove helpful. Many plant and seed catalogs also offer useful cultural directions. The plants listed above are only a sampling of the climbers available; others will no doubt come to mind displaying additional climbing mechanisms or variations on those previously mentioned. One or more of these climbers deserves a favored spot in your garden or greenhouse. Climbers are is not limited LORIN I. NEVLING, JR. - REFERENCES Bean, W.J. Wall Shrubs and Hardy Climbers. Putnam, London. 1947. -. A Little Book 1989. Hottes, A.C. Climbers and Ground Covers. A.T. De La Mare Co., New York. qf Climbing Plants. A.T. De La Mare Co., New York. 1924. 1959. Howard, F. Landscaping with Vines. Macmillan Co., New York. Jenkins, D.H. Vines for Every Garden. Doubleday, Doran & Co., Inc., Garden City, N. Y. 1937. McCollom, W.C. Vines and Hou to Gro;e Them. Doubleday, Page City, N.Y. 1911. New Delhi. 1960. & Co., Garden Pal, B. P. Beautiful Climbers qf India. Indian Council of Agricultural Research, Pearce, S. A. Climbing and Trailing Plants. W. H. & L. Collingridge Ltd., London ; Tranatlantic Arts, Inc., New York. 195 i. Perkins, H O. Espaliers and Vines for the Home Gardener. Van Nostrand Co., Inc. Princeton. 1964. Terres, J.K. Songbirds in Iour Garrlen. Crowell Co., New York. 1953. Wyman, 1949. D. Shrubs and 1'ines for American Gardens. D~acmillan Co., New York. 66 PLATE XXIII Not a climbing plant but one which has germinated on the palm plant and has formed horizontal holding roots and vertical nourishin~ roots which have reached the ground. The vertical roots eventually become stem-like. Clusia rosea (Guttiferae). "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":9,"start_page":68,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24458","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14e816f.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Krussmann, Gerd, Die Biiume Euro~as, ein Taschenbuch fur 2Vaturfreunde. Verlag Paul Parey, Berlin und Hamburg, Germany, 1968. 140 S. mit 379 Abb. im Text u. auf 80 Tafeln, davon 8 farbig und 114 Areal- karten. Ln. DM 24, - For those who read German, this is an excellent little book by the director of the botanical gardens in Dortmund-Brunninghausen, Germany, who is also the author of that authoritative publication Handbuch der Laub Geholze. The author is thoroughly familiar with the subject about which he writes, having worked with plants throughout his adult life, and having traveled extensively in Europe and the British Isles. He is an excellent photographer and has a talent for sketching and making leaf prints. Every time I have been on a trip with him he has energetically been taking notes and photographing plants in order to increase his knowledge and to be better able to augment his numerous articles and books. Approximately 180 trees are described with drawings or black and white leaf prints of the leaves (sometimes the fruits also) of every one. Also included are 108 small scale maps of Europe showing the distribution of the majority. Some 197 black and white pictures are included showing habits or close-ups of fruit or flower of many. Common names are given in German, French, Italian and English. All this is in a small book, 4 1\/2 X 7 ~~ 16 inches, suitable fur carrying in one's pocket in the field. It should be excellent for aiding in field identifications. A serviceable little book by one who has worked with ornamental plants all his life, it is hoped that some day this might be translated into English and so enlarge the group in America who can use it. Published May 27, 1968. DONALD WYMAN 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes on Making an Herbarium","article_sequence":10,"start_page":69,"end_page":111,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24464","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15ea728.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA too A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 VE I AUGUST 16, 1968 NOTES ON MAKING AN HERBARIUM NuMSEas 8-9 FROM TIME TO TIME the Arnold Arboretum receives inquiries from people who either want to send plant material for identification or to prepare a reference collection for their own use. While many discussions of the techniques and accompanying problems can be found in the botanical literature, few are readily available in this country for the layman. For this reason these notes have been prepared. For those who desire more detail about specific groups of plants, or about specific problems or specific techniques, an Appendix and Bibliography will be found at the end of the text. Let it be said at the outset that the best (but far from the most convenient) way to preserve plant material for study is to place the material in jars of preserving fluid. Such a collection, however, is not an herbarium. Liquid preservation has several disadvantages: 1) It is bulky; 2) the liquid tends to evaporate through the best-sealed lid, and in time must be replaced with fresh liquid; 3) to use the specimens for comparison, they must be removed from the jars and spread out in a pan of the liquid; 4) because of the fragility of glass containers it is not easy to transport specimens so preserved or to send them through the mails for identification or study. For special purposes, such as class teaching or preserving material in its natural shape for illustration, liquid preservation can scarcely be improved upon. But for most purposes of reference and identification, drying the plant material under pressure and mounting it on sheets of paper is more convenient and economical. Herbaria and Their Use An herbarium specimen is a pressed and dried plant or portion of a plant, accompanied by notes stating at the very least where it grew, when it was collected, and by whom. It is evidence that a particular plant, exhibiting particular charac- 69 teristics, grew in a tified, some it exemplifies particular place at a particular time. Incidentally, when idenmore or less completely the characteristics of the particular pressed and dried plant specimens arranged in order that facilitates examination of all of the material of a parsystematic ticular taxon. The aim of an herbarium is to accumulate in one place all possible information about the habits, habitats, variations and uses of all the plants with which it may be concerned. An herbarium may be concerned with a particular local area, such as a township, county, or state, or it may attempt to cover a nation, a continent or the world. It may attempt to accumulate all information available about a single taxon, such as a species, or about a few taxa, such as those included in a genus or a family, or it may attempt to contain information about all of the kinds of plants. It may deal with cultivated plants, wild plants, or both. However big or small it may be, it is a repository of information and a research tool of considerable value. The usefulness of an herbarium or of an isolated herbarium specimen is determined by, and dependent upon, the completeness of the actual specimen ( s ) and the notes which accompany it ( them ) . Making an herbarium is the only economical way in which examples of many different kinds of plants, growing naturally in many different places, differing in their environmental requirements, and going through their life cycles at different rates, can be brought together at one time and in one place so that a student can compare simultaneously many different plants at any given stage of their life Such a situation is essential for identification of plants and for the produccycle. tion of written works that will allow subsequent students to identify other plants without the labor of comparing them with all of the material that was used for the original identification. Historical in the ' taxon1 of which it is a member. An herbarium is a collection of Background . Sometime in the 1530's Luca Ghini, who was at that time Professor of Botany University of Bologna, Italy, discovered that plants dried under pressure and pasted on sheets of paper could be preserved almost indefinitely and could be transported easily. It is on record that he had a collection of some 300 sheets so prepared. Unfortunately, it appears that this collection no longer exists. Several of Ghini's students and colleagues recognized the value of this technique and the collections of at least two of them survive. Andrea Cesalpini, the author of De Plantis Libri XVI, which is the basis for our consideration of flowers and fruits as the prime structures on which to base identification and classification, formed about 1563 a collection of some 768 specimens of Italian plants. This collection - Taxon, pl. taxa, is a neutral and\/or inclusive term devised to signify a taxonomic group rank, i.e. variety, species, genus, etc. In the present example, a second collection might represent a different variety of the species, or a different species in the same genus, or perhaps a different species in a different genus. The term taxon allows for any or all of any of these 1 possibilities. 70 w \" b 0 .$ 0<1 13 >-. > ..c: <IS b \" a 0 U U N ~U GL H H G a, O C^'. J 'b .-< <IS .-< '\" N Q,' ~U i~'. I N26; &#x P~ Ow 0160 U C7 OFC W U N U Qj N m U O z \" ;J 0 a 13 ~ N x c 71 at the Instituto Botanico of the University of Florence. Ulisse who succeeded Ghini as Professor of Botany at Bologna and who Aldrovandi, taught a number of the most prominent botanists of the next generation, attempted to form an herbarium that was world-wide in scope. About 4,368 specimens of this collection are preserved at the Instituto Orto Botanico in Bologna. The herbarium technique proved so useful that it was quickly adopted by botanists throughout Europe. Arber (10) records that more than 20 collections formed or begun before 1600 are still extant in various European herbaria. Originally, the individual sheets with plants mounted on them were bound and treated as books. Aldrovandi's herbarium, for example, is preserved as 17 bound volumes. This was the general technique until about 1700. Linnaeus (17071778) did not use this technique, preferring to keep the sheets separate and storing them (probably in cases) horizontally. Stearn (182) thinks that Linnaeus' example and teaching led to the spread of this technique which is the one generally used today. Binding the single sheets into books had the disadvantage of making any changes or additions to that part of the collection difficult if not practically impossible. This led to the use of portfolios, in which several unattached sheets could be kept in a book-like fashion, a compromise between bound volumes and single sheets filed in cases. The advantage of portfolios was that they could be stored on shelves like books. The disadvantages were that the specimens were joggled every time the portfolios were moved and could be severely damaged by crushing if shelved too tightly. There was also always the risk of insect infestation, unless the specimens were poisoned a messy and unpleasant, if not risky, business. However, as late as 1833, Asa Gray was selling bound volumes of mounted and sedge specimens entitled North American Graminae and Cyperaceae. grass And even today biological supply houses sell portfolios in which to keep herbarium specimens. Old techniques die is still preserved - single - slowly. Preparation of Specimens for the Herbarium What to Collect The herbaria of the world contain many scrappy specimens. It is not necessary to collect more scrappy specimens. As nearly as possible, an herbarium specimen with its accompanying notes should give a representation of the whole plant. Herbs and small shrubs up to 2 ft.-3 ft. tall should be collected entire (Plate XXV). Lateral branches may be trimmed off, if necessary, as may also some of the remaining leaves, to reduce bulk. The specimen should represent all parts of the root system (the plant should be dug, not pulled), as well as rhizomes, stolons, or tubers, if any (Plate XXVI), basal leaves, cauline (stem) leaves, any leaves or bracts in the inflorescence, and of course flowers and\/or fruits. Large shrubs and trees should be represented by a twig or small branch bearing three or more adjacent leaves, or at least leaf bases, so as to show their arrangement (Plate XXVII). It should, of course, bear flowers and\/or fruits. If it is not possible to press the flowers or fruits while attached to the stem, then an explicit Collecting - 72 PLATE XXV the folded newspaper in which it florescence bent to fit the folded paper. Specimen on was pressed. Note rhizome, and in- 73 statement as to how they are attached should be made in the notes which accompany the specimens. Particular attention should be paid to different forms and sizes of leaves on the same plant. Shade-grown leaves and leaves on sucker shoots of trees or shiubs are frequently different in size or shape or texhwe from the leaves on twigs bearing flowers and\/or fruits. Such variations should be collected and explicitly noted. Material without flowers or fruits should be collected only if it has some unusual value or significance (See Appendix). Some plants have distinct male and female flowers. In some cases flowers of both sexes may be found in a single inflorescence (poinsettia) or, at least, on the same plant (Indian corn ) . This is termed monoecism. In other cases, individual plants will produce flowers of only one sex (e.g. willows ) . This is termed dioecism. In all these cases, it is important to collect both male and female flowers. Each specimen should be composed of material to fit within the dimensions of a standard herbarium sheet, 11;2 x 16;2 in. When collecting small herbs, several should be collected, so as to fill a folded sheet of newspaper, and later a standard herbarium sheet. A larger herb or shrub may have its main axis variously bent into a \"V\", \"N\", or even an \"M\" to fit a fold of paper (Plate XXV ) . The bent stem may be held in place during drying by slipping a small piece of cardboard with a slit in the middle over the bend in the stem (Fig. 1). Alternately, 16 in. FIGURE 1 sections of axis with leaves or other appendages may be pressed in sequential folds of paper forming a series of specimens which should be numbered serially (185a, 185b, 185c, etc. ) (Plate XXVI ) . If leaves are too large to be pressed flat, they may be folded or split lengthwise just off center so that the portion of leaf 74 JS aj x s '5y <u a .. c~. e? a 0 ~ a a 0 0 a r 0 ~ aj 5C ~ to N ~b t-) ~ <U ~ ~ UOW H U ~\". i'. C7 N N U \" 3 -5 H F N N !U Oa cti N Oa U f'., _~ a~ O N E !D ,\" .'3 .f~ c6 E ao 75 pressed includes both the leaf apex and the leaf base, and the entire petiole. possible the leaf or leaves should be arranged so that both surfaces will which is If show (Plate XXVII). Flowers that open for only a short time or that shed their petals readily are best put directly into a field press as they are collected, and then kept under pressure until dry. Flowers composed of very thin tissues may become attached to the pressing paper and be almost impossible to remove when dry without breaking or tearing. Such flowers should be placed between a fold of tissue paper, or a piece of tissue paper and a piece of waxed paper or polyethylene film. Bulky structures such as large fruits may be placed whole in a cloth bag with a numbered tag and dried entire (Fig. 2a ) . It is wise, however, to press a thin median cross section (Fig. 2b) and a median longitudinal section (Fig. 2c) to FIGURE 2 demonstrate the size and preserve fleshy - structures in Special material care separate should be and that the notes with the rest of the specimen give reference to any parts. Additional notes about specific groups of plants will be found in - shape of the structure. It is preferable, if possible, to liquid. Dry fruits may be stored in cardboard boxes. taken that the specimen number always accompanies such the Appendix. one to be In general, each collection should consist of at least two specimens kept by the collector in his own herbarium, and the other ( s ) to be used for exchange with other collectors or herbaria, or to send to a specialist for identification. Collecting - How to Collect Collecting equipment is bulky and awkward to transport. For best results, plant collecting should not be combined with other activities: psychologically, because one can do only one job well at a time; physically, because the results dq not warrant the expenditure of energy if collecting is only desultory; factually in passing do not have the notes on habit, habitat, etc. that are necessary to make this kind of specimen most useful. Howfunction. When this is ever, there are times when collecting must be a the case, the field press method, described below, is the best. If a field press is because specimens snatched location, secondary 76 PLATE XXVII Aesculus parLif~ora flowering twig, showing arrangement of leaves: one leaf turned show upper surface, one leaf removed (note petiole base) to reduce bulk. to 77 not available, then a book or magazine, as large as possible, printed on unglazed paper may be used. The specimens should be placed one to a page and copious notes taken, for the value of such snippets and scraps is in direct proportion to the amount of information which accompanies them. There are, in general, two techniques of collecting one utilizes a collecting box or vasculum, the other uses the so-called field press. A vasculum is an oblong metal box with a hinged and fastenable door occupying most of one side. It should be provided with a handle and with eyelets so that a carrying strap may be used. A vasculum about 8 x 8 x 24 in. is about the right size. Vascula sold by supply houses are generally smaller and far too expensive. A metalsmith can easily produce an acceptable article from lightweight sheet steel or aluminum (Fig. 3). - Ficu~ 3 It may be circular, elliptical or rectangular in cross section. The vasculum should be painted white, both to reflect the heat of the sun and so keep the interior cool, and to make it more conspicuous when set down on the ground. A large heavyweight polyethylene bag may be used as a substitute for a vasculum and some collectors use a large canvas sack. Plant material is collected directly into the vasculum and carried back to the base of operations, where it is sorted and put into the drying press. Care must be taken to insure that the vasculum does not or the become too hot specimens will be cooked. - FIGURE 4 78 ro b y g \"o3 ..c ro c '\" ~. c~ U ro O ~ _~ -:; ~' g .f, .U c~ ,S y :3 \" ro '\"t:i= g NS 9 o s\" 8n S O ~:Q~ O U >-..c: :x: .....-< - ... cG ~ &S2#x 6; ,~, -....:i3#& x C; ;:!-< :l; - ..c '\" >, C. Nc0 \"\" ro N3 ~cC N J 3 ro r. U 'n C. i~ = c \"\" o ~\".p~ ^f. CO vi w-:l; N .~., .....;.::1 \" P~ \"S. \"\" U 7 fs.i w O O T N ..~'H N w S N > '\"t:i 'O ,~ C N o ;:; ,~ ~r 79 A field press consists of two lightweight press frames, hinged along one side two short straps and at least one strap around the body of the press to keep it closed and apply some pressure to the contents ( Fig. 4a). It may be carried under the arm or it may be fitted with a handle or a carrying strap so that it may be carried in the hand or slung over the shoulder. The frames may be of thin, weatherproof 34-inch plywood, treated hardboard, or corrugated cardboard or strawboard covered with some waterproof material. The press is filled with folded unglazed paper (Fig. 4b) and the specimens are inserted directly into the folds in the field. On returning to the base, the folded papers with their enclosed plants are put directly into the drying press. With either technique, a note-book of some sort should be carried into the field and notes taken on the spot when collections are made. It is not safe to trust to memory. Every collector should number all the collections he makes, beginning with number one for the first one. For any given collection the data in the field note-book should include at least the number of the collection, the date, the precise location sufficiently detailed so that someone else could find the place and any information about the plant itself that will not show in the pressed specimen. Many people find a pad of printed or mimeographed \"field labels\" with spaces to be filled in very useful (Plate XXVIII). These are especially advisable for the non-professional taxonomist. Particularly when using the vasculum, it is advisable to correlate notes and specimens by attaching a numbered tag-label to the specimen, the number corresponding to the number assigned in the notes. Each collection from a particular individual or colony of individuals made at a particular time receives the same number. This number should be written in lead or wax pencil on each folded sheet that holds a specimen from that particular individual or colony. Each collector should maintain a single series of collection numbers throughout his lifetime. Such numbers serve to correlate duplicates of the collections that may be filed in different herbaria. Whatever the identification of the individual collection may be and whatever changes may be made from time to time in that identification, the collector's name and number serve to identify the particular collection for all time. with - - Drying Specimens plant specimen is placed in the fold of a sheet of unglazed paper about 18 in. which has been folded to give a sheet of 12 x 18 in. This may be newspaper, or it may be unprinted stock specially purchased for the purpose. This folded paper with the included plant specimen is placed between two sheets of blotting paper or other thick absorbent paper several sheets of newspaper will do (Fig. 5 ) . In American practice, the \"sandwich\" of collecting paper and blotters is then placed between two 12 x 18 in. sheets of corrugated cardboard or cor24 x - The aluminum (often called ventilators) in which the corrugations run the short direction. All these sheets are placed between two wooden frames and pressed tightly together by two straps. The filled frames are then placed over a gentle source of heat in such a way that the warm, dry air passes through the ventilators (Fig. 6 ) . During drying, the water in the specimen passes by diffusion into the dry paper, then the blotting paper, then to the dry air passing through the rugated 80 corrugations and is carried off. The specimen decreases in volume as it dries, and it will shrivel unless the press is regularly tightened during drying. If constant pressure is maintained, the decrease in thickness in the specimen will be accompanied by a similar, regular decrease in length and breadth, resulting in a flat, mens, mens relatively undistorted mummy of the original. Of course, the sandwiches of specipapers and corrugated ventilators may be piled together within one set of press frames to any practical size. In general, however, 25-30 individual speciwith blotters and ventilators make a bundle of sufficient size. FIGURE 5 In British and older American practice, ventilation is not used but the wet absorbent papers are regularly changed for dry ones until the specimens are dry. This is a laborious and time-consuming technique and does not seem to yield results superior to the previous method. Ficu~ 6 FIGURE 7 For bulky material, a sheet of polyurethane foam (available in thickness between % in. and 1 in.) may be substituted for one of the blotters. This will fit itself to the specimen and help to prevent shrivelling of parts due to inadequate or unequally The ably. distributed pressure ( Fig. 7 ) . of heat and the method of holding the press over it vary considerIn the most elaborate modern installations a closed cupboard or case is fitted source 81 with a heat source at the bottom (an electric heating unit or steam pipes), shelves of expanded metal mesh are arranged about 24 in. apart, and an exhaust fan is fitted at the top. The presses are placed on the shelves, with the corrugations running vertically. A simple home installation consists of a wooden box without top or bottom and with the two long sides 18 in. apart in outside measurement ( Fig. 8 ) . The inside of the box may be painted with aluminum paint. The box is raised from the floor about 1',2 in. to allow for ventilation and some heat source such as a series of incandescent lightbulbs or a small electric heater (preferably with a fan), is set in- FIGURE 8 side. The presses are set on edge on top of the box with the vertically. Such a box and heat source can be constructed so is not recommended that the heat source be a naked flame. corrugations running as to be portable. It Mounting Specimens Two considerations govern the storage of botanical specimens once they are dried. The first is their usefulness as objects of record or study. The second is their preservation for the future. To an extent these two functions are incompatible so the storage methods adopted must involve a compromise between them. For maximum ease of study, the dried specimen lying loose in the paper in which it was pressed and dried is best. But dried specimens are extremely brittle and when they are kept loose in the folded pressing papers they are easily damaged by handling. Also, the flimsiness and fragility of the individual sheets of paper make the specimens awkward to consult. The object of \"mounting\" botanical specimens is to give them a firm physical support that will allow a reasonable amount of handling with a minimum of damage. The kind of paper on which specimens are mounted and the methods used to attach them to the paper are governed by cost, effectiveness, and personal prejudice. Mounting Paper a Paper used for mounting specimens should be of 100% rag content. So far as botanist is concerned, an herbarium specimen is a piece of scientific information 82 0 E '.0 r a 4) w cu 4) 'S z b ~ S ~ m !~' -~ x ~~ v H ~~ CL, ~:3 ~5 S aj N N ~\"'. O vi a) .fl _~ ~3 N x 83 preserved for all time. Papers made from wood pulp or mixtures of wood and rags tend to deteriorate, yellow, soften, and tear sometimes within a pulp matter of a few months. The thickness or weight of the paper to be used depends upon the amount of use the specimens will have, the amount of space available and money available. Where money or space is a prime consideration, the lightest paper that can be used safely is so-called 36 pound stock. Paper of this weight is not very stiff. Consequently the specimens must be glued or fastened over their entire area in order to reinforce the paper. So-called 56 pound stock is a heavier, stiffer paper which should be used wherever the specimens are likely to get much use. Because it is stiffer, the specimens are better protected and need not be so tightly and completely fastened to the paper. The size of the paper on which the specimens are mounted varies considerably. In the United States and in most herbaria in the Western Hemisphere, the standard size is 16'~ x 11'2in. Linnaeus mounted his specimens on sheets of paper about 12'2 x 8 in. The sheets in the herbarium of the British Museum (Natural History) are about 1732 x 11'2 in. At the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, the sheets are about 16'2 x 10:z in. Some continental European herbaria use the size 17 x 11~ in., others use sheets 19'2 x 13~i in. Leningrad uses 1514 x llllhs in. (74) and Copenhagen uses 15'4 x 811nc in. While the size of the sheet is obviously not important per se that the larger sheets allow larger and more complete specimens), all comexcept mercially available herbarium paper in the United States is pre-cut to the standard size of 16'2 x 11'2in. Also, commercially available cabinets and boxes are made to hold this size paper. Thus, economics dictate the size of the paper on which the specimens are mounted and, indirectly, the size of the specimens collected. - to be Mounting Labels Almost every botanist has very strong if not violent opinions about the size, shape and typography of herbarium labels. Actually the form of the label is not important the thing that is important is that the label should be so designed and of such a size that all the information from the field label can be transcribed onto it. Traditionally, collectors have supplied little information beyond laconic notes on date and locality with their specimens. This could be readily transcribed on small labels, for many years labels as small as 2 x 4 in. were used. Even relatively today, labels larger than 3'.z x 4'2 in. are not common (Plate XXIX). Over the past 75 years we have come to realize that we need to know much more about our plants. In most areas it seems to have been the foresters who have led the way in designing field labels that provide space for abundant information. Herbarium botanists have tended to be conservative in this matter, and to reject large labels and field labels as aesthetically or professionally offensive. Gradually tradition is changing and petite labels are now being abandoned for practical labels. Perhaps the best solution is the one used at Brussels where a field-type label, 438 x 634 in., is printed on good quality paper and used as the - herbarium label. 84 a a c 3 5 s Ei * Cl~ s~ a~ *~4 W U ~~ to C~0 U o F~ r H C~ U ~ (L) LL m U i a .8 0.t bp !-n C. 85 Laying-Out on \" Before mounting commences, the dried specimen and its label should be laid the mounting paper. The label should be placed in the lower right-hand corner where it will be attached (it may be glued to the sheet at this stage). The specimen is moved about until one finds the position where it is best displayed. It is in this position that it should be attached. Specimens should be so arranged that bulky portions do not all come at one general position on the sheets. This allows the sheets to lie more evenly in the cabinet. Detached pieces of the specimen: leaves, flowers, seeds, small fruits, etc., should be placed in small envelopes (such as coin envelopes) or folded paper packets (Fig. 9), which are then pasted to the sheet. Ficu~ 9 practical to lay out several specimens at one time so that several mountings proceed more rapidly. Great care should be taken at this stage (and all others) that specimens and labels are not inadvertently mixed. Experience, a severe teacher, has taught us that it is not wise to mount more than one collection on a single sheet of paper. Each collection is basically a single piece of information. As such, it stands by itself. Addition of a second collection to the same sheet can lead to confusion. In the first place, the second collection may not represent the same taxon as the first. Even experienced taxonomists have made this kind of mistake! Secondly, with a minimum of two specimens and two labels there is the possibility of confusion as to which label represents which It is may collection. This is not a theoretical problem but one which arises again and dealing with old herbaria in which this practice was followed. again when Attaching Specimens to Mounting Paper 1. Sewing or taping. Specimens may be attached to the herbarium sheets by passing a heavy cotton or linen thread, about the weight of \"carpet thread\" around the stems and through the paper. The ends of the thread are tied on the reverse side of the sheet and a sheet of paper or cloth tape is pasted over the knot and loose ends. Alternately, or additionally, narrow ',e '4 in. wide strips of gummed white cloth tape may be pasted across the surface of the specimen to hold it in 86 J':J 0<1 = 0 :::: '\" o.^ w.~ ~~~ S'SS CJ ~~ o c y . O, a\"' p~O ..c:,..S .,G~n 0 ~. .. U ~ % G - CL w ..c: O 'Cx \" 0.0- ;: U ~H U ~r O~~~ r: cC +U. ~ ,SS w O C~ ,~f,'_~t7 C\" ::Cx&# 3 ;: ~ A\"' 3 r~n U _c~E '\" W ~ ;:~::; .n ..`~. b0 +~bD ~ ^ ~3 c~C v y~ _ :C v, y p~ U ~ ~'\"~..0161 ~~O 0<1 _ hp ~ o o. ~ ~ '~ ..s ~ # O a =a = '\"0 ~B~ E os U os U ~~ J C~ c5' w b0 o ~N 3 O N 4~ U O cn~ O = Q) A. G ~ O. s N +T. Ns~~ .S .S'\" M US * = a ~~ ~\"' .s ~~ :g .8 .=~ \"~.~~o =o c; .: E C r-. C ^Q)= a,) O 0 w rJ) w o C~ ~ ~o~~ Nvr ~ N :C Ga &X:;E3x# v~ U .^-, ^ 2 87 place (Plate XXX). \"Scotch\" tape or similar materials should not be used as they deteriorate quickly and are difficult and messy to remove from the specimen when (as inevitably happens with these materials) it must be 2. remounted. Gluing with a glass plate. (Plates XXXI, XXXII). In this may be a sheet of double-strength window glass cut to the size of the herbarium sheet) is covered with a thin layer of glue. The glue should be applied to the plate with a paint brush (Plate XXXI ) . Linnaeus used \"Fish Glue\" to fasten his a specimens to the paper. This glue (a by-product of the fish-packing industry) is liquid at ordinary temperatures, and was used extensively until the 2nd World War (LePage's Liquid Glue ) . More recently synthetic, water-soluble, white glue (such as \"Elmer's Glueall\") has been used. After the surface of the plate has been covered with glue, the specimen is laid on the glued surface, right side up (Plate XXXII, top ) . It is immediately removed (gently) and laid on the mounting sheet, glued side to the paper. The label is treated in the same way and placed in the lower, righthand corner of the paper. The specimen is then covered with a piece of waxed paper, over which is placed a blotter, and the whole is placed under a weighted board the size of the herbarium paper (Plate XXXII, bottom ) . Some institutions use a bag of dry sand as a weight. Several specimens, each with its waxed paper and blotter, may be piled one on top of another. The mounted specimens are left overnight to dry. 3. Mounting with plastic glue. This method is either used alone or in conjunction with the glass plate method. In recent years a plastic glue of a special formula has been used increasingly (12, 160). It may be obtained commercially from Carolina Biological Supply Company (See Appendix). The plastic glue is dispensed from some sort of a small container usually a plastic dispenser such as is used for catsup or mustard in restaurants. \"Gun\" type oil cans may be used - but great care must be taken that the glue does not harden in the spout (Plate XXXIII, top ) . The specimen is laid out on a paper and thin strips of plastic cement are applied over the stems and leaves (Plate XXXIII, top). Metal washers or heavy nails may be used to weight down portions of the specimen that do not lie flat on the paper (Plate XXXIII, bottom). When the glue has hardened one has a plastic strip holding the specimen to the sheet in the same way that a cloth tape would. Both ends of the strip must be in contact with the paper. After plastic glue has been applied, it must be allowed to harden in the air for 3 to 4 hours or overnight. To save space, the mounted specimens can be laid on sheets of cardboard (cardboard ventilators are excellent) and stacked, using small pieces of wood at each corner for spacers (Plate XXXIII, bottom). The plastic cement technique has the great advantage that the whole specimen is not attached to the paper over its entire surface. Therefore, flowers or leaves can be detached easily for study. The stiffest, heavyweight glass plate (which technique, a 88 PLATE XXXII specimens with a glass plate. (Top) Placing the specimen on the Mounting (Bottom) The glued specimen on mounting paper, about to be glue-covered plate. placed under pressure while drying. - botanical 89] paper (56 pounds) should be used for this technique. In addition to making the specimen more readily available for study, this technique allows for very rapid mounting. In many cases, as many specimens can be mounted in an hour as can be done in a day by the other techniques. Preservation of Specimens Dried specimens are quite attractive to larvae of various beetles. In many herbaria specimens are kept in airtight steel cases. The specimens are fumigated before they are put in the cases and a little paradichlorobenzene (moth repellent) is kept in each case as a repellent. In the home, the specimens may be kept in a tight cardboard or wooden box, and a stick or ring of paradichlorobenzene, such as is sold to repel moths in closets, placed in the box. It has been found that when the temperature of the air-hardened plastic glue rises above 90F., the fumes of paradichlorobenzene will cause the plastic to soften and become viscid. The change is reversible and the glue solidifies again as the temperature of the glue goes below 90F. This would indicate that mounted specimens ought not to be stored in boxes or closed containers that are exposed to the summer sun - nor stored in an attic or other area subject to excessively high temperatures. Under normal temperature conditions tolerable to human beings this problem should not arise. Until fairly recently it was standard practice in many herbaria to \"poison\" all specimens by dipping them before mounting in a 2% solution of mercuric chloride (corrosive sublimate) in 95% ethyl alcohol. This solution is intensely poisonous and is not recommended. If an insect infestation is found in the specimens, the specimens should be placed in an airtight box or large polyethylene bag heavily dusted with paradichlorobenzene crystals, and left for about two weeks. Arrangement of Herbaria must - After the plants have been mounted on herbarium sheets, some arrangement be devised so that an individual sheet and the information that it provides can be easily located again. The standard practice, which works very well, is to place all of the specimens of one particular kind of plant, species or variety, in a folder of good quality, lightwight paper. The fold is placed on the left-hand side and the name of the species, and variety if applicable, is written in the lower right-hand corner. All species of one genus of plants are placed in a folder of heavy manila paper. The fold is again placed on the left-hand side and the name of the genus is written in the lower left-hand corner. All of the genus folders belonging to one plant family are kept together. For example, the genus Rhododendron consists of a large number of species: Rhododendron maximum, Rhododendron catawbiense, Rhododendron calendulaceum (frequently called Azalea calendulacea ) , etc., and a large number of cultivated varieties ( cultivars ) such as 'Old Port,' 'Cunningham's White', etc. All of these forms can conveniently be filed in one alphabetical sequence within the genus folder. Rhododendron is a 90 PLATE XXXIII Mounting botanical specimens with plastic glue. (Top) The glue being applied with a gun-type oil can. (Bottom) The specimen weighted down to the mounting paper while the glue dries. Note the wooden blocks at each corner (see text for explanation). 91 member of family of plants, the Ericaceae, which includes the blueberries the heaths (Erica and Calhena), and many more. The folders congenera also can be conveniently filed alphabetically. Finally, the various plant families can be arranged alphabetically. This alphabetical arrangement is not the method used in the great herbaria, in which the plant families are generally arranged according to some system of presumed relationship of the plants, but it is a convenient arrangement. a (Vaccinium) taining these Storage Containers A small number of specimens can be stored in portfolios or in cardboard boxes appropriate size. However, when more than a few hundred specimens are involved, one should consider the purchase of a proper herbarium case. These are made of wood, composition board, or sheet metal. They contain a series of compartments, about 5in. high x 12:4 in. wide x 16~ in. deep, into which the genus folders are inserted, and the whole case is closed by an airtight door (Plate of XXIV). They have the advantages that they mens are compact and protect the speci- from dust and dirt and insect infestation. 92 , APPENDIX The following notes on methods for collecting and pressing special groups of have been assembled from a number of sources. The list is particularly indebted to lists published by van Steenis (183) and by Fogg (67). Notes included in the manual by Fosberg and Sachet (73) have also been consulted. plants Suggestions for Collecting Particular Kinds of Plants an herbarium specimen should attempt to record, as the exact appearance of the entire plant. On the field label closely possible, or in the field notes should be noted anything that will not show in the dried specimen, i.e. flower color or fragrance, color of leaves, the presence of a waxy \"bloom\" on the surface of fruits, etc. In the case of any plant that cannot be preserved entire, a sketch or photograph which will show the branching pattern is very useful. It is recognized that it is not always possible to obtain a specimen with flowers or fruits particularly when dealing with horticultural material for which identification is needed. In this case, it is very important to supply with the specimen as much additional information as is possible. This should include: 1) the place from which the plant was obtained, 2) the place where the plant is growing, 3) the use to which the plant is being put (hedge, shrubbery, specimen tree, herbaceous border, summer bedding, house plant) 4) what the plant is supposed to do or what the flowers or other ornamental parts are supposed to be like, 5) if possible, a photograph of the plant. Even with all of this it is not always possible to identify the plant but the chances are that some part of the information or the specimen will allow a fairly confident identification to be made. In general, except for special purposes, as indicated above, a specimen without flowers or fruit is difficult, if not impossible, to identify. The following list, compiled from several sources, indicates items to be kept in mind when collecting various kinds of plants. In all cases, it is assumed that the basic specimen will be one that is in flower or fruit. As mentioned as earlier, Acanthaceae - Flowers often detach are easily after collecting. Fruits are im- portant. Agrimonia - - Underground parts - useful. coats. Allium Underground parts leaves are flat or rounded. Amaranthaceae Ripe fruits essential, especially the bulb are Note if the almost essential. Amaryllidaceae Amelanchier habit - - Do not forget underground parts. (and leaves) from the same Flowers and fruits or plant. Note (erect - stoloniferous ) . Annonaceae Fruiting precociously material alone is of little value. Flowers may open and then grow considerably before and during anthesis. 93 Araceae Fruiting material alone of little value. Flowers, inflorescences, and underground parts of great value. Cf. Nicolson, D.N. in Fosberg and Sachet - (73). Araliaceae alone is - Both flowers and fruits should be collected. - Asclepiadaceae not Fruit should be collected to use. of much - supplement the flowers, important. are but fruit Balanophoraceae Balsaminaceae Sometimes dioecious. Tuber surface is - Fruit is desirable. Flowers very agglutinate on drying under pressure. Preservation of flowers and fruits in liquid is desirable. Notes on flower color and markings very valuable. dency to fragile and have a ten- Bamboos Flowers and fruits seldom found but very much desired. Should be accompanied by a complete intemode at medium height of culm, including a complete culm sheath (with tip). Cf. McClure, F. A. in Fosberg and Sachet ( 73 ) . Begoniaceae Ripe fruit desirable. Male and female flowers essential. - Betula - Fruiting - catkins essential. Bark collection or notes on bark desirable. Burseraceae Fruit important. Cactaceae Photographs almost essential. Some flowers should be detached, and dried separately. Stems may be split, the \"flesh\" scooped out, and split, the outer \"rind\" dried. Cross section of the stem to show arrangement of ribs. Handle with heavy leather gloves and use extreme care. Stems may be dipped into boiling water to kill the tissues and to remove the waxy coating which will allow more rapid drying. Campanulaceae Shape of the corolla is essential - corolla may be split and spread out, or a sketch made on the field label, or both. Capparidaceae Fruiting material is of limited usefulness. Flowers may open precociously and then grow considerably before and during anthesis. Caprifoliaceae Ripe fruit desirable. - - - Casuarinaceae - - Dioecious or monoecious. Male and female flowers and ripe fruit desirable. Color and Celtis - shape of ripe fruit desirable. Leaves from adventitious shoots and leaves from mature twigs; Coccoloba male and female inflorescences and fruits all desirable for accurate identification. Color of petals and anthers should be noted. Flowers may Commelinaceae be pressed by placing them between a sheet of waxed paper and a sheet of tissue paper. Alternatively flowers should be preserved in liquid. Compositae Flowering heads should be pressed so that some show the upper, others the lower surface of the head. Note the color of the rays and the disk florets. Ripe fruits, basal leaves when produced, median cauline leaves, and underground parts are all highly desirable. Some flowers should be split open and dried flat. Ripe fruit Convolvulaceae desirable. - - 94 Cornus - Note color of branchlets and mature fruit. Note color of branchlets. pith of Crataegus Cruciferae - Flowers and fruit from the same tree. Note color of anthers. - Ripe - fruit desirable. Cucurbitaceae Dioecious or monoecious. Flowers of both sexes and ripe fruit desirable. Cyperaceae Ripe fruit and underground parts desirable. Very young inflorescences alone of little value. Dahlia Median leaves, branches from flowering portions, and notes on ray color needed. Dilleniaceae Ripe fruits desirable. - Dioscoreaceae - Male and female inflorescences, also axillary bulbils. Underground parts and base of aerial stem. Mature fruits if possible. Notes on direction of twining of stems, i.e. clockwise or counterclockwise. Dipterocarpaceae - Ripe fruits desirable. - Ebenaceae - Dioecious. Male and female flowers desired with calyx attached. also - ripe fruits Elaeocarpaceae Ripe fruits desirable. Epacridaceae Ripe fruits desirable. - -- -- --_ Ericaceae but Useless without flowers Check for waxy \"bloom\" on fleshy fruits. - ripe fruits desirable in addition. Euphorbiaceae - - Dioecious or monoecious - - male and female flowers needed. Ripe fruits also desirable. Sap may cause severe dermatitis. Fagaceae Male and female flowers and ripe fruits. Fraxinus Ferns - fruit Pteridophyta May be dioecious. nearly essential. see - Both male and female flowers desirable - ripe fruit Gesneriaceae Gnetaceae desired. Gramineae Fruits desirable in addition to flowers. or Dioecious monoecious. Male and female flowers and ripe Underground parts and stolons. Inflorescences should not be too young. Stalks should be pressed to show leaf sheaths and ligules. Iridaceae Press flowers between a sheet of waxed paper and a sheet of tissue paper. Fruits are almost essential. If large enough, some flowers should be split open and pressed flat. Labiatae Base of aerial stem and underground parts essential. Mature nutlets desirable. - Leguminosae Liliaceae - - Flowers and fruits essential. most Underground parts - desirable. Fruits alone useless. Loranthaceae Malvaceae - Fruits alone useless. Note host plant. Flowers and fruits desirable. 95 Melastomataceae - Flowers and fruits desired. Petals may Menispermaceae Dioecious. Male and female flowers if materials desirable. - drop very quickly. possible. Fruiting Moraceae - Frequently desirable. - dioecious. Fruits desirable. Musaceae - Collect axis of inflorescence. whole Ripe fruits desirable. plant - Photograph of Myristicaceae Dioecious. Ripe fruits desirable. Myrtaceae Fruits very much desired. Nepenthaceae - Flowers not very important. Pitchers not at base of aerial stem on essential - pitchers of full grown cauline leaves essential. Nymphaeaceae -Ripe fruit desired. Note if leaves are floating the water or - surface of erect. Orchidaceae Note color of flowers and markings. Preserve flowers in if possible. Fruits useless by themselves. Orobanchaceae Palmae - liquid Ripe fruits L. H. desirable. Note host - plant if possible. The Palm Herbarium ... Gentes Herbarum P. B. in Fosberg and Sachet ( 73 ) . Pandanaceae Dioecious. Male plants rare. Ripe fruit more desirable than flowers. Stem diameter and leaf tips important. Habit sketch or photograph most desirable. cf. Bailey, 7(2): 151-180, 1946. Tomlinson, - Piperaceae - Fruit. Polemoniaceae - Some flowers should be parts most desirable. split and pressed flat. Underground Polygonaceae - Fruits essential. Pteridophyta Spore-bearing fronds - should be collected attached to the rootboth should be stalk. Sterile fronds may be different from fertile fronds collected. Scales and hairs on the fronds and on the rhizome or rootstalk entire petiole should be collected, also a section are important. Tree ferns of the stem showing the leaf scars or leaf bases. Quercus Leaves and mature fruits desirable. Flowering material of little value. - Collect underground parts. Fruits very Ranunculaceae Note color of mature fruit. Ribes - important. Rosaceae Rosa - - Fruits needed. Note habit of collected different. Rubiaceae - along with the plant. Sterile twigs flowering from shoots vigorous new - the leaves are shoots should be likely to be Fruits very much to be desired. canes arching or not, rooting at the tip or not. Collect Rubus Note habit sections of vegetative shoots as well as flowering shoots, to show differences - in leaves. 96 Salix Dioecious. Mature male and female catkins and lected from the same plants essential. Sapindaceae Fruits desirable. - leafy material col- ' Sapotaceae Fruits desirable. Schrophulariceae Some flowers should be split and pressed flat. Note corolla color and markings. Note appendages (if present) on petals. Flowers of some genera drop very quickly. Many forms blacken on drying. Smilax If specimen is from a lateral axis, note if main axis is smooth or prickly, particularly at the base. Note fruit color. Solanaceae -Some flowers should be split and pressed flat. Fruits are desir- - able. Styracaceae nectaries, - Fruits are desirable. Sympetalae split open - Collect extra flowers of tubular-flowered forms. Some should be and pressed flat to show attachment of stamens and styles, glands, etc. - (Plate XXXIV). Symplocaceae Umbelliferae desirable. Vaccinium of plant. - - Ripe fruits desired. Ripe fruits essential. Note color. Basal leaves and underground parts glaucous. very Flowers and fruit essential. Note if fruit is Note habit Viburnum - Ripe fruit desirable. Zingiberaceae in liquid. - Underground parts most desirable. Inflorescences should be Preserving Succulent or Fleshy Plants Many woody plants growing in dry regions by the sea, or in the tropics, have rather stiff, thick leaves, which dry very slowly in the press. In many cases the slowness in drying is caused by a thick waxy coating on the surfaces of the leaf. Immersing such specimens in boiling water for about 30 seconds or until the leaves become limp will materially increase the speed of drying. Notes should be made on the original appearance of the plant. Plants with thick, succulent stems, such as cacti and the succulent Euphorbias, may require more drastic treatment. The stems can be cut lengthwise and any soft material scraped out. Here again, immersion in boiling water will likely help. When handling cacti it is advisable to wear heavy leather gloves. If worse comes to worst, spines can be removed from the fingers by pulling carefully with a pair of tweezers. Care should be taken that the tip is not broken off in the flesh. The tiny, hairlike spines of cacti (glochids) can be removed by running one's fingers through one's hair. This seems rather improbable, but it works! Care must be taken when handling members of the Euphorbiaceae. The juice of many is extremely caustic. It may cause a severe dermatitis on the skin, or blindness if it gets into the eyes. 97 should be floated out in a pan of water. A sheet of good writing paper, can be slid into the water under them and then raised, lifting the plant out on the paper. This should be covered with a sheet of waxed paper and put in the press. Filmy water-plants as paper, such Miscellaneous Notes Preserving Fluid The standard botanical preserving fluid is Formol-Acetic-Alcohol made by m~ing: Commercial Formalin 5 parts 5 parts Glacial (Pure) Acetic Acid 90 parts 50% Alcohol _ (FAA), For field or work, 70% alcohol alone will do. This may be denatured ethyl alcohol rubbing alcohol (iso-propyl alcohol) such as can be readily obtained in drugor stores of all containers supermarkets. Great care should be taken holding preserving fluid are tight. to make sure that the covers 98 PLATE XXXIV Solandra laartwegii, showing aestrvation of the flower slit and spread out to show stamens. Note also the bud, corolla, and the detached calyx showing lobing. 99 BIBLIOGRAPHY There is no pretense that the list of titles below constitutes anything like a complete bibliography of the published articles that deal with the art of collecting and mounting plants for study. It consists primarily of those articles which have come to the compiler's attention, with emphasis on the American literature. For the European literature, the reader is referred to the bibliographies in van Steenis (183) and Rehder (155). Also, with the exception of a few incidental references, the list deals almost exclusively with the vascular plants. 1. Anon. 1915. Suggestions national forests. U. S. Dept. Agr., for the collection of range plant specimens in Forest Service, Unnumbered Leaflet, 4 pp. 2. Anon. 1925. Instructions for National Forest range plant work. U. S. Agr., Forest Service, Unnumbered Circular, 4 pp. Dept. 3. Anon. 1944. A field collector's manual in natural Smithsonian Institution, Publ. 3766, 118 pp. 4. Anon. 1956. New history. protectors for herbarium specimens. Carolina Tips 19(4) :13 5. Anon. 1957. Liquid adhesive for herbarium mounts. Carolina Tips 20(9) :35. 6. Anon. 1960. Methods in use at the commonwealth mycological institute. Herb. I. M. I. Handbook, Commonwealth Mycological Institute, Kew, 103 pp. 7. Anon. 1965. Instructions for collectors, No. 10, Plants, 6th ed. British Museum (N. H. ) , Dept. of Botany, 72 pp. 8. Anon. 1965. Notes Carolina on the preparation Tips 19(2) :5-6. of herbarium specimens. 9. Anon. Undated. Notes on plant-collecting. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, 4 pp. 10. Arber, A. 1938. Herbals, their origin and Press, Cambridge, pp. 138-143. 11. 12. evolution, 2nd ed., University economic Archer, W. plants. , A. 1945. U. S. Dept. 1950. Rhodora 52 ( 624 )298-299. 13. , 1952. Aerosol for controlling herbarium pests. Science 116 Collecting data and specimens for study of Agr. Misc. Publ. 568, 52 pp. New plastic aid in mounting herbarium specimens. (3009) :233-234. 14. W. 1854. On a mode of giving permanent flexibility to brittle specimens in botany and zoology. Am. Jour. Sci. and Arts (2nd Ser.) 18:100-102. 15. Bailey, L. H. 1946. The palm herbarium .... Gent. Herb. 7(2) :151-180. Bailey, J. 100 16. 17. work. Preston & Rounds, Co., Providence, R. I. 142 pp. 18. , 1904. Collecting plants for identification. Am. Bot. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. Bailey, W. W. 1881. The botanical collector's handbook. George A. Bates, Salem, Mass. 139 pp. -, 1899. Botanizing-A guide to field-collecting 7 ( 1 ) :9-11. and herbarium Baker, Baker, G. E. 1949. Freezing Science 109 (2838) :525. laboratory materials for plant science. H. G. 1958. The origin of the vasculum. Proc. Bot. Soc. Br. Isles 3 ( 1 ) :41-43. Balfour, J. burgh Ballard, 1938(9):397-399. Beal, W. J., et al. 1886. Arrangement of herbaria. Bot. Gaz. 11(4,5) :98, 120-121 Beauvisage, G. 1904. Conseils aux voyageurs pour les recoltes d'enchantillons botaniques de plantes utiles, medicinales, alimentaires ou industrielles. Assoc. Fr. l'Advancem. des Sci. (Bot.) Grenoble 1904:724-731. H. 1854. Classbook of botany, Adam & Charles Black, Edinpp. 107''r1086. F. 1938. Herbarium specimens and gas poisoning. Kew Bull. 25. Benedict, H. M. 1913. A demonstration herbarium. Plant World 16(8):231-233. 26. Benson, L. 1939. Notes 27. on taxonomic techniques. Torreya 39(3) :73-75. , 1957. Plant classification. D. C. Heath & Co., pp. 380-400. 28. , 1962. Plant taxonomy: methods and principles, Ronald Press, New York, 494 pp. 29. Ber, V. G. 1963. Protection of botanical collections from insect pests II. (in Russian). Bot. Zhur. 48:384-395. 30. Biswas, K. 1944-45. The herbarium. Sci. and Culture 10:151-154. 31. Blake, S. F. 1919. Directions for preparation of plant specimens for identification. U. S. Bur. Pl. Ind., Office Econ. and Syst. Bot. Circ. 1, 2 pp. 32. 33. 34. , Dept. , 1920. Directions for Agr. Circ. 76, 8 pp. collecting flowering plants specimens. Rhodora and ferns. U. S. 1935. Better herbarium 37(433):19. Blumer, J. C. 1907. A simple plan for collectors of ecological sets of plants. Plant World 10(2) :40-42. 35. Booke, R. V. 1955. Drying plant materials for winter bouquets. Plants and Gardens 11 ( 3 ) :225-227. 36. Buchholz, J. T. 1931. A practical drier for botanical specimens. Trans. Ill. Acad. 24(2) :103-107. 37. Burtt Davy, J. and Chalk, L. 1927. The collection and preparation of herbarium and timber specimens. Imp. For. Inst., Univ. Oxford, 22 pp. 101 38. 39. Camp, W. H. 1946. On the herbarium specimens. Bull. of artificial heat in the Torrey Club 73 ( 3 ) :235-243. use preparation of deCandolle, A. P. 1834. Instruction Bibliotheque 40. practique sur les collections botaniques. Universelle des Sciences, Belles-Lettres, et Arts, Ser. 1, reprint only. 56:169-191. Seen in Castellanos, Ciferri, A. 1928. Instrucciones para formar herbarios parana. Mus. Escolar Central, 12 pp. 41. 42. 43. 44. R. 1929. The use of paradichlorobenzene in the conservation of herbaria. Science 70 ( 1810 ) : 240. Clemens, F. E. 1904. Studies 4:329-355. Museum Formation and succession herbaria. Nebr. Univ. Williams Park Clute, W. N. 1904. The making of an herbarium. (Providence, R. I. ) , Bulletin 4, 18 pp. Roger Cody, Coley, A. W. J. 1966. New herbarium equipment. Pl. Res. Inst., Research Branch; Canada Dept. Agr., 7 pp. 45. 46. 47. 48. M. and Stokes, Co., New York, 197 pp. Collins, J. F. 1910. The use of corrugated paper boards in drying plants. Rhodora 12 ( 144 ) :221-224. , 1932. Better herbarium specimens. Rhodora 34 ( 408 ) :247-249. Corner, E. J. H. 1938. Brief note on the use of monkeys for plant collecting. Chron. Bot. 4 ( 3 ) :259 .... Weatherby, C. A. 1915. Wild flower preservation, Frederick 49. Cosson, E. 1871. Instructions sur les observations et les collections botaBull. Soc. Bot. Fr. 18:66-73, 81-91, 111-122. niques 50. 51. Coville, Cowan, illustrating objects F. V. 1895. Directions for collecting specimens and information the aboriginal uses of plants. U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 39J:3-8. R. S. 1947. A mirror device for .... studying lower surface of small Science 105 ( 2734 ) :555-556. on 52. Curtis, A. H. 1901. 81-87. Hints herborizing. Plant World 4(4,5) :61-66, Ferdinand 53. Dammer, U. 1891. Handbuch fur Enke, Stuttgart, 342 pp. pflanzensammler. Verlag 54. Dayton, W. A. 1931. research. U. S. Glossary Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. of botanical terms commonly used in range 110, 40 pp. 55. Deane, W. 1895. Notes from my herbarium. III. How I mount Bot. Gaz. 20:345-348. plants. 56. Derr, H. B. and Lane, C. H. 1914. Collection and preservation of plant material for use in the study of agriculture. U. S. Dept. Agr. Farmers' Bulletin 586, 24 pp. 57. DeWolf, G. P., Jr. 1967. Identification 27(4-5):51-52. 102 of unknown plants. Amoldia 58. Dieterle, J. V. A. 1960. Sandbags Rhodora 62(743) :322-324. 59. as a technical aid in mounting plants. Eaton, S. 1892. How to collect and preserve plants and sea-weeds. Hinds and Noble, New York, 32 pp. 60. Englemann, G., et. al. 1886. How to collect certain plants. Bot. Gaz. 11(6):135-150 61. Fassett, N. C. 1949. Herbarium technique. Rhodora 51(603):59-60. 62. , 1952. Uses of cellulose acetate in the herbarium. Rhodora en 54(647):286-288. 63. , Uso de la aceto-celulosa 9:89-90. el herbario. Ciencia e Investigacion Fernald, M. L. 1945. Injury to herbarium specimens by extreme heat. Rhodora 47(560) :258-260. 65. Fessenden, G. R. 1949. Preservation of agricultural specimens in plastics. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. Publ. 679, 78 pp. 66. Flint, J. M. 1881. Memoranda for collectors of drugs for the materia medica section of the National Museum. Proc. U. S. Natl. Mus. 4 (App. 8):1-2. 64. 67. 68. - Fogg, J. M., Jr. 1940. Suggestions for collectors. Rhodora 42(497) :145-157. Font Quer, P. 1917. Instructions per a la recolleccio, preparacio, i vacio de les plantes. Musei Barcinonensis Scientiarum Naturalium Ser. Bot. I, 45 pp. conser- Opera, 69. Fosberg, , F. R. 1939. Plant collecting manual for field anthropologists. American Fiber-Velope Mfg. Co., Philadelphia, 22 pp. 1946. The herbarium. Sci. Month. 63:429-434. in 70. 71. 72. , 1947. Formaldehyde 251. -, plant collecting. as an Science 106 ( 2750 ) : 250El 1960. Plant for tropical herbaria. Regnum 132 pp. 74. Franks, J. W. 1965. A guide to herbarium practice. The Museum Assoc. Handbook for Museum Curators, Part E, Sect. 3, 34 pp. 73. 67 ( 4 ) :125-139. and Sachet, M. H. 1965. Manual Palacio collecting anthropological field method. Vegetabile 39, 75. Gates, B. N. 1950. An electrical drier for herbarium 76. specimens. Rhodora 52(618) :129-134, Pl. 1162. Gates, F. C. 1935. Paradichlorobenzene, Science 81(2105):438-439. an effective herbarium insecticide. 77. 78. Gentry, H. S. 1952. The belt plant press. on Bull. Torrey Club 79:84-88. Gleason, H. A. 1933. 35 (410) :41-43. Annotations herbarium sheets. Rhodora 103 79. and 80. 81. Smith, A. C. 1930. Methods of preserving and arranging herspecimens. Jour. N. Y. Bot. Gard. 31(365):112-125. Grassl, C. O. 1937. Visualizing our herbaria. Museums Jour. 36(9) :373barium 384. A. 1879. Gray's botanical text-book, 6th ed., Vol. I, Structural Botany. American Book Co., New York, pp. 370-384. 82. Griffiths, D. 1906. Preparation of specimens of Opuntia. Plant World Gray, 83. 9(11):278-285. Guillaumin, A. 1942. Formulaire technique du botaniste, preparateur et voyageur. Guides Techniques du Naturaliste, Vol. III (Savoir en Histoire Naturelle, Vol. 10), Paul Lechevalier, Paris, 139 pp. 84. Haasis, F. W. 1939. Transparent mounts for field herbaria. Madrono fumes. Turtox 5(4):121-122. 85. Harrington, News H. D. 1947. Preserving plants flowers in formaldehyde Turtox News 25(12) :238. 86.. 1950. Preserving by freezing. of 28 ( 2 ) :51. 87. 88. 89. 90. Harrington, H. D. and Durrell, L. W. 1957. How to Books, Denver, 203 pp. Hitchcock, A. S. 1900. Collecting 3(10):148-151. , identify plants. Sage Plant World & sets plants for exchange. 1925. Methods of Sons, New York, 216 pp. , descriptive systematic botany. John Wiley 1931. Field work for the local botanist. Publ. by the author, WashD. C., 58 pp. 91. , and Chase, A. 1909. Directions for preparing herbarium specimens of grasses. U. S. Dept. Agr., Bur. PI. Ind., Doc. 442, 4 pp. ington, 92. 93. Hodge, W. H. 1947. The use of alcohol in plant collecting. Rhodora museum herbaria. Museums Assoc. of the U. K., 16 pp. 94. Hooker, J. D. 1871, 1886. Botany. In Herschel, J.F.W. (Ed.) A manual of scientific enquiry, prepared for the use of officers in Her Majesty's navy (4th and 5th editions), John Murray (4th ed.), Eyre and Spottiswoode (5th ed.), London. ... 49(584):207-210. Holmes, E. M. 1899. The arrangement of 95. Hooker, W. J. 1849, 1851, 1859. Botany. In Herschel, J.F.W. (Ed.) A manual of scientific enquiry, prepared for the use of officers in Her Majesty's navy ... (1st, 2nd, and 3rd editions), John Murray, London. 96. Horr, W. H. 1947. A rapid plant drier. Trans. Kansas Acad. 50 ( 2 ) :191193. 97. Howard, R. A. 1947. The use of DDT in the mens. Rhodora 49 ( 587 ) :286-288. preparation of botanical speci- 104 98. Jackson, Jenne, H. S. 1921. A convenient laboratory plant press. Proc. Ind. Acad. 1920:183-186. Reprinted in N. Y. State Museum Bull. 266:99-101, 1925. 99. 100. 101. Gertrude. 1968. A portable forced air 17(2):184-185. plant dryer. Taxon 102. Trans. N. Z. Inst. 27:318-327. 103. Knowlton, F. H. 1891. Directions for U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 39B:3-46. Johnson, A. G. 1948. Effect of formaldehyde on Picea and Tsuga herbarium specimens. Science 107(2777) :294. Johnston, I. M. 1939. Preparation of botanical specimens for the herbarium. Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, Jamaica Plain, Mass., 33 pp. Reprinted in reduced format by Cambosco Scientific Co. Spanish trans. published by Inst. Miguel Lillo, Tucuman, Argentina, 1941. Kirk, J. 1895. The preparation and preservation of botanical specimens. collecting of the recent and fossil plants. 104. Kobuski, C. E. 1955. A revised horticultural terms. Amoldia glossary more common botanical and 15(5-7) :25-44. 105. 1958. The horticultural herbarium. Arnoldia 18 ( 5 ) :25-28. 106.. et al. 1958. Report of the committee for recommendations on desirable procedures in herbarium practice and ethics. Brittonia 10 ( 2 ) :9395. 107. Kuhlmann, New M. 1947. Como herborizar material arboreo. Instituto de Bo- tanica, Sec. da Agricultura, Estado de Sao Paulo, Sao Paulo, 39 pp. 108. Lawrence, G. H. M. 1951. Taxonomy of vascular plants, Macmillan Co., York, pp. 234-262. 109. 110. 111. 112. Lindley, J. 1839. An introduction to botany (3rd ed. ) Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans, London, pp. 537-543, Little, E. L. 1952. Preparing specimens of Picea and Tsuga. Rhodora 54(645):232-234. (2nd ed.). 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DEWOLF, JR. 111 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia after Twenty Years in Cultivation","article_sequence":11,"start_page":113,"end_page":123,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24463","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15ea36f.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 EI SEPTEMBER 20, 1968 i NUMBERS l0-11 METASEQUOIA AFTER TWENTY YEARS IN CULTIVATION years have passed since the Arnold Arboretum first introduced -t- Metasequoia glyPtostroboides to cultivation. Various articles have been written about it, plants have been propagated sexually and asexually and distributed widely since. Many individuals in the northern hemispheres who have planted it have been most interested in its speed of growth. There are trees now growing in cultivation that are 60 feet tall, grown from the first seed distributed in 1948, but records are lacking concerning its fruiting habits in cultmation since that time. In order to help fill the gap with information on the speed of growth and fruiting habits of this tree in cultivation, we have written to many individuals in this country, Great Britain, Holland, Germany and Russia to determine what we can, TWENTY and the information collected to date is meagre indeed. What little that we have learned about it is included in this bulletin, and it is hoped that others who read this will send in additional information that will be of assistance to everyone growing the tree. Metasequoia glyptostroboides is a member of the Pine Family, closely allied to genus Taxodium. It bears small deciduous needles, about to 1~ inches long that quickly drop in the fall after a severe freeze. These are borne on short branch lets which are also deciduous. It bears small female cones about an inch long and ~inch wide. These have been observed on many of the older cultivated trees. The staminate or male cones are formed in the late summer at the ends of some of the twigs, and like those of many coniferous plants, open to disperse their pollen in the early spring. The accompanying sketches of male and female cones illustrate these. The tree was originally found near ~Van-hsien, Szechuan, China. In 1948 it was reported that less than 1,000 trees, large and small, were still in the area and that the peasants were still cutting down the trees and using the wood for interior finishing purposes. In nearby Chungking, the lowest winter temperatures are reported to be about 32 F., with highest summer temperatures of 111 F. 113 period is from December to March with lowest recordings about 82 38 F. Apparently there is a frost-free period from Apr~l through November, giving a long growing penod, with an average -t8 inches of rain well distributed throughout the year. The winter to in areas with much lower winwhere the tree is perfectly hardy Arboretum, the winter temperatures usually go to zero or -100 F. and sometimes lower. The tree has been growing in Wisconsin as well as at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, Massachusetts, in areas with an occasional -30 F. without apparent serious injury. More important than winter cold is the length of growing season, and the time of late spring freezes and early fall freezes. Melasequoia glyptostroboides was found in an area of a long growing season. It starts to grow early in the spring and frequently its growth is not fully matured until mid or late fall. Observations have been made in the Arnold Arboretum showing that when the tree is planted in low spots, late spring freezes (or early fall freezes) can kill much of the tender growth. This has also been noted in England, especially in areas with late spring frosts in late May or early June. Metasequoia does continue to elongate in late summer and early fall, unless its growth has been retarded by summer drought. Hence it would be expected that growth would be best in those areas with a combination of plenty of rain fall and a long growing period. However, Professor Oliver Diller of the Secrest Arboretum reports plants growing in Sweden only 200 miles from the Arctic Circle. The University of Washington Arboretum in Seattle, reported that during the precipitous November freeze of 1953 which they called \"early\", some of their trees 15-20 feet tall, were completely killed especially in areas of poor air drainage. Others on higher ground apparently were not injured seriously. Another fact that has been proved many times both in America and Europe is that the dawn redwood grows best in areas with a generous supply of moisture throughout the year. It does not grow well in wet soils, nor in sandy dry soil situations, for trees originally planted in dry soil, when moved to normally moist soil, have markedly improved in growth. Rabbits, mice and deer have been reported as feedmg on the bark, and Japanese beetles, w here plent~ful, can be a pest on the foliage dunng the early summer. However, trees are growing in cultivation now ter temperatures. In the Arnold Flowering In all our and Fruiting Characteristics correspondence only one institution has reported observing male living cultivated specimens. Female cones have been produced on many some only 3 feet tall. When trees approach 15-20 years of age, cones are trees, produced, sometimes only a few, sometimes many as in the case of a tree in the Botanic Gardens of the University of California. Wayne L. Hansis, the manager of the Gardens, reported \"hundreds\" on one tree and Carleton Goff of Barrington, Rhode Island reported 200 cones on his largest tree in 1966, but no cones in cones on 114 PLATE XXXV Branch showing: male cone buds on right hand branchlet; 3 female cone buds on upper end of main branch; 2 vegetative buds on lower end of main branch-natural size. b. Female cone bud, X 3. c. Male cone bud, X 3. d. Vegetative bud, X 3. e. Unopened green female cone. X ~. f. Female cone open for seed dispersal, X ~. g. Cross section of female cone, X ~. h. Fertile scale bearing ovules. X l~. Metasequoia glyptostroboides. a. 1967. None of the seeds was viable. Apparently Metasequoia may be alternate bearing, like so many other trees and shrubs, but some reports show that a few trees produce a few cones on large trees every year. Female cones have been sighted by many and \"seeds\" have been sown by some (collected from cultivated plants). To date, however, as far as we can determine only six seeds have resulted in living seedlings in America-two at the USDA Forest Service in Berkeley, California, and four at Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, N.J. Dr. Stanley L. Krugman, of the Institute of Forest Genetics, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture Service, Berkeley, California, wrote that very few male cones were seen on their trees in 1967but in 1968, a sufficient number were collected to supply a small amount of pollen for some controlled pollinations. Broekhu~zen and Zwart reported in November 196 i , that \"As yet Metasequoia did not produce fertile seed in Europe.\" However, a most interesting letter from the Batumi Botanical Garden in Batumi, Russia indicates that this botanical garden has had fruiting plants since 1964, and that in 1967 seeds distributed from their own trees had 25-80% germination. The concensus of opinion in most other areas is that the seed is not viable because it has not been properly fertilized. Apparently then, male cones are not produced as early in the life of these trees as are the female, or if they are produced as early, the climate is such that they may be subject to winter injury. More observations along this line are needed to clear up this point. The observations here recorded have been made by many individuals, some trained in the study of plants, others untramed. When an individual reports that no fruits have been borne on his trees, he may be correct or he may have been simply unobserving. Many individuals reporting fruits did not take the trouble to ascertain whether or not the seeds were viable, and those sowing seed collected from the fruits may have cared for them properly or improperly. Admittedly we are saddled with these observations, good and bad, and offer them here for what they are worth. The drawing on page 115 is of interest to show the young male cone. This was made from a specimen collected by C.T. Hwa in the vicinity of Wan-hsien, Szechuan, China during September-October 1947. These are present on the tree all winter, opening in the early spring to shed their pollen. They are subjected to winter cold which, in some areas may cause injury-the reason why many trees have not yet produced pollen on cultivated plants. The male cones are probably borne high up in the tree and the author will welcome correspondence with anyone who can find them on plants this fall. One should observe this carefully, using field glasses on the higher trees. Apparently, if our many observers are correct, some 20 year old trees may still not be old enough to produce male cones. Further careful observations on this point are greatly needed. 116 PLATE XXXVI Metasequoia glgptoytroboidea in the Arnold Arboretum grown from seed sown July 1948. When transplanted to this spot in the nursery, Spring 1951, it was at the height pointed to by the young lady. During the 1951 growing season it grew 4'4\", doubling its height in this better soil in the one season. 118 PLATE XXXVII trees in America. Upper left: 20 year old tree at Wmterthur. Delaware, 58' tall in 1967. Upper right: 19 year old tree of Carleton Goff. Barrington, R.I., photographed in November 1966. The tree was 50' tall in 1967. Lower left: a ZO year old tree growing in the open in the Arnold Arboretum, showing a wide pyramidal habit. It is 30' Metasequoia tall and ~4' wide. Lower tum, Washington, D.C., right: the original 'National' growing in the National Arborephotographed in 1968, measured 46'6\" when 20 years old. Possible Use for Paper Pulp and Lumber Professor Oliver Diller of the Secrest Arboretum, Wooster, Ohio reports the following from the Champion Papers Company of Knightsbridge, Hamilton, Ohio : the dawn redwood sample sent \"did appear to react very similarly to our present as far as pulping source of long fiber (in making paper pulp) southern pine and bleaching are concerned. The pulp was somewhat stronger than what we normally experience with southern pine.\" Apparently, then it may have some potentials as a source of fiber for the paper industry, primarily because of the possibility of its yielding a very strong pulp. No information is available on the pulping qualities of dawn redwood from the U. S. D. A. Forest Products Laboratory in Madison, Wisconsin. The U.S. Forest Products Laboratory has found the wood of dawn redwood to be too light in weight, too weak, limber and soft to have economic value as a solid wood product. Its bending strength, crushing strength and hardness are only about two thirds those of second growth California redwood. This, according to the Forest Products Laboratory is in agreement with findings published sometime ago by the National Central University Forestry Institute in China. Many modern species yield wood far superior for lumber, plywood, furniture and other solid wood products. Apparently then, this tree holds little promise of bringing a new era in timber growing although the possibilities for its use in paper pulp might be investigated further. - Some of the taller Metasequoias in Cultivation The following trees were measured in 196 i ; only the tallest tree at a single location is listed. Trees noted as 19-20 years old were undoubtedly grown from the first seed lot introduced from China by the Arnold Arboretum. Measurements for some of the English trees were supplied by Dlr. A. F. Mitchell of the Forestry Commission Research Station, V~'recclesham, England and this data is greatly appreciated. Mr. Mitchell has been measuring the taller trees of this species in England for several years and supplied measurements of other 30-40 foot trees (8) but since the measurements were taken prior to 1967, they are not included here. Other measurements have been taken at the author's request, by various individuals responsible for growing the trees in question. It would have been more accurate if all measurements had been taken carefully by one individual, but such is not the case. We have the records of many other trees but those offered below are sufficient to show how this species has been growing in cultivation since 1948. Some of the taller Metasequoias in Cultivation as of January 1, 1968 120 121 122 BIBLIOGRAPHY Just a few references are given here for those interested in further the interesting articles written about this tree since 1948. I . Broekhuizen, J.T. M. and F. N. Zwart. Een pursuing Meta- Bijdrage tot de Kennis Van sequoia glyptostroboides. Communication stitute of #10, pp. 439-463. Nov. 1967. In- Forestry Research, Division of Silviculture, Agricultural University, 20 excellent Wageningen, Holland. (This includes 2. references.) Chaney, Ralph W. A revision of fossil Sequoia and Taxodium in western North America based on the recent discovery of Metasequoia. Trans. Am. Phil. Soc. 40 (3) 169-263; 1950. De 3. ~'os, Francis. Metasequoia glyptostroboides 'National'. Am. Hort. Mag. 42 4. (3) 174-177. July 1963. Florin, R. Botaniska notiser, ( 1 ) 1952 ( 1-29). (This contains a complete story bibliography on subject of 13 ~ titles from 18countries in 14 different languages, all but 5 published after 1948.) and 5. Hu, H. H. How Metasequoia, the Jour. N.Y. Bot. Gard. 49: \"Living 201-20i. Fossil\" was discovered in China. 1948. (585) September 6. Li, Hiu-Lin. The Discovery and Cultivation of Metasequoia. Morris Arb. Bull. 8 (4) 49-53. Sept. 195 i . 7. Merrill, E.D. Metasequoia-another \"Living Fossil.\" Arnoldia March 5, 1948. A.F'. The 8: ( 1) 1-8. 8. Mitchell, growth of Metasequoia. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 89 (11) 468-469; Nov. 9. 196~.. Wyman, D. Metasequoia brought up to date. Arnoldia 27, 1951. 11: (3) 25-28. April 123 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fall Courses of the Arnold Arboretum, 1968","article_sequence":12,"start_page":124,"end_page":124,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24460","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14e856d.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1968 FALL COURSES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of Woody Plants by Seeds Instructor: Alfred J. Fordham A discussion of methods used to collect, clean, and pretreat seeds to prepare them for germination. Seeds to take home will be provided from the Arboretum collection. Suitable footgear should be worn, as part of the session will involve walking around the grounds. Propagation o'clock. September 27, 1968 Free-but open only to * Friends of the Arnold Arboretum. Meet at the Dana Greenhouse. Friday morning 10-12 ' Instructor: Dr. Paul D. Sorenson A series of informal talks and discussions about cultivated and native plants. The Case Estates in Weston will serve as an outdoor laboratory as long as weather conditions permit. The purposes are to familiarize one with our many decorative plants, their names, how to identify them, their use, and their cultivation. While no single text will be used, students will be introduced to certain sources in botanical literature which deal with plant families in general and more specifically with individual plants studied. Suitable footgear for walking is recommended. Parking is available near barn at 135 Wellesley Street. All classes will meet first in the Little Red Schoolhouse at 133 Wellesley Street. Plants in Autumn at the Case Estates 5 sessions October 2 to Wednesday afternoons 2-4 o'clock. fee for * Friends of the Arnold Arboretum $2.50; others $5.00 Registration 30 Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman Informal outdoor talks and field trips on the Arboretum grounds under the supervision of Dr. Wyman and the horticultural staff make up the Fall Field Class. Different plant groups are studied on each trip. The class sessions will consider the berried trees and shrubs, autumn color, the evergreens, and similar topics. Opportunities are afforded for questions and answers relating to the identification and culture of ornamental plants as seen in the Arboretum or as suitable for culture in New England. In case of rain or cold weather, meetings are held indoors. Fall Field Course in Ornamental Plants 4 sessions. Friday mornings 10-12 o'clock. Registration fee for * Friends of the Arnold Arboretum $2.50; October 4 to 25 others $5.00 Meet the Staff- A series of talks retum of by members of the staff of the Arnold Arbo- Tuesday The Red Harvard University. evenings, 8 o'clock. Schoolhouse, 133 Wellesley Street, October 29 to December 3 Weston. Watch for the listing of very interesting talks that will be given these evenings. The next Arnoldia will give full details. * Information on how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" can be obtained by writing or calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Mass. 02130. 124 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Potentialla fruticosa Varieties in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":13,"start_page":125,"end_page":131,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24465","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d15ea76d.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA VE I A publication of THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY .Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130 VOLUME 28 OCTOBER 18, 1968 Nut~re 12 2 POTENTILLA FRUTICOSA VARIETIES IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM named varieties or cultivars of Potentilla collections of the Arnold Arboretum. The species itself is native over both northern hemispheres. It has only been during the past few decades that the ornamental qualities of this species have begun to be appreciated, probably the reason why so many cultivars have been named. Alfred Rehder considered these mostly varieties of one species but H. L.J. Rhodes (\"The Cultivated Shrubby Potentillas\" Baileya 2 : 89-96, 1934) and ~Vray M. Bowden (Cytotaxonomy of Potentilla fruticosa, allied species and cultivars, Journal of Arnold Arboretum 38: 381-388, 19~?) have spht these up into several species and hybrids. As far as this particular issue of Arnoldia is concerned, the plants will all be treated as varieties and cultivars of the one species, merely because that is the way we have received them from nurseries and botanical gardens throughout America and Europe as well. The bush cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa) is one of the few woody plants native over both northern hemispheres. It can be found as a low mat of dense woody growth on top of the Olympic Mountains in Washington or high up in the Himalayas, and as three-foot shrubs in Michigan, as well as in Great Britain, Europe and China. Today, with our interest centered on planting small properties, such small shrubs should be of considerable value. Not only are these plants valued from the standpoint of their height, but they also are in that admirable class which do not have any serious insect or disease troubles. The entire group is of interest for several months in the summer when few woody shrubs produce blooms, for their small bright yellow or white flowers begin to appear in July and are in evidence throughout the summer and well into the fall. Several varieties have originated in English gardens, some have been introduced from China and the Himalayan region, and some have originated in AT THE present time there are 46 fruticosa growing in the nurseries and America. 125 These are not outstanding ornamental plants. They are not in the same ornamental class with roses or azaleas, but they are of value because of their interest in the summer, their low dense habit of growth, and their lack of persistent insect and disease pests. Plantsmen are usually anxious to grow shrubs and trees which require no care, and the varieties of this species are certainly in this category. One plant has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for 60 years, and never has required any spraying. All of the 46 varieties grown in our collections are not sufficiently different to warrant growing them in landscape plantings, for some are so similar that it is impossible for the gardener to tell them apart unless they are observed growing side by side. First and foremost these are sun demanding plants which will not grow well in shaded situations. In order to flower profusely they must have a situation in the full sun. They seem to grow in any normal soil. Poor dry soil situations will result in slower less vigorous growth, but they do not require large amounts of moisture. The leaves are small and compound, usually with 3-7 leaflets, the single flowers having five petals are aboutof an inch in diameter, some varieties having white flowers but most being a creamy white to deep yellow. The fruits are dried capsules which unfortunately can remain on the plant for several years and so give it a rather untidy appearance. This can be alleviated by light pruning in the fall after the flowering period is over. The varieties of Polentillafruticosa are not susceptible to severe insect or disease pests. The species is easily propagated by seeds, and the varieties are easily propagated by soft-wood cuttings. As noted previously, these are not conspicuous landscape plants but their small size, dense habit, length of bloom, hardiness and ease of cultivation make them of increasing interest in small gardens where summer interest is desired. The year: following notes were made from the plants in the Arnold Arboretum this The varieties and cultivars started to bloom in late for flowers June 6th, then again July 17th and again sidered best in flower were : May and were first scored August l5th. Those con- Those considered second best in flower were : 126 .S ~ a: B 0 m a b c a~ 3 0 ar 3 0 ~, ' ., ' DC w ;~, cc SC .s ~~ > w3 E '' 0a G, > ~a ~s ~o w .> ? G. t~ U 0 8 m O Z~ Those outstanding in foliage are: The tallest in our collection to date are: The remainder are, at the present time, 3~ tall or lower. It should be pointed out that many of these plants are still young and their ultimate height and spread will not be known for some years to come. However, 'Beesii' seems to be as low the name as any, and in fact it has been listed in European catalogues under 'Nana Argentea'. are: Varieties with the lowest habit 128 r .~ G G o. <II H 0 0 L OIl U O G 8 O m x W p ~ 'S <II ~ '\" k O wy < v, ~ .G ai ',3 m O 0 3 ~ ~3 '\" a~ ~4 OIl :b_\"' 0 > N ' ... ...:: N OIl '\" N' N ba <\/:,: .^, M O ~' C '~ ..c :: \" :::..c o a O t N ~ e Co ~ O bt Co following nurseries during The notes were made from plants in the Arnold Arboretum or its 1968. 130 DONALD WYMAN Arnold Arboretum Harvard University 131 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"\"Meet the Staff\" Lecture Series","article_sequence":14,"start_page":132,"end_page":132,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24462","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14e896b.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"\"MEET THE STAFF\" LECTURE SERIES A series of talks Harvard by University. some members of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum of Time: 8 P. M., Tuesday evenings: October 29 to December 3, 1968 Place: The Red School October 29: House, 138 Wellesley Street, Weston, Mass. Birds, Bats and Botany: The Story of Pollination Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Curator November 5: Identification of Horticultural Plants Gordon P. DeWolfe, Ph.D., Horticultural Taxonomist November 12: Climbing Plants, Stranglers and Whoa-Vines Lorin I. Nevling, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Curator of the Herbaria and Supervisor November 19: The True Yams, Their History and Uses Bernice G. Schubert, Ph. D., Associate Curator November 26: Exploring for Wild Dahlias in Mexico and Central America Paul D. Sorensen, Ph.D., Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist December 3 : Around The World in 90 Days - Botanically Speaking Richard A. Howard, Ph.D., Director, Arnold Arboretum promptly. Please park Refreshments will be served at 7 :30 and the lecture will begin at 8 :00 P. M. at the areas mdicated behind the barn. The above series of talks for \"Meet $5.00 for Friends of the Arnold * Arboretum*; The Staff\" requires a registration fee of $10.00 fee for others. Information on how to become or be obtained by writing 02130. a \"Fr~end of the Arnold Arboretum\" can calling the Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, l~ass. 132 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXVIII","article_sequence":15,"start_page":133,"end_page":136,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24461","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14e8926.jpg","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXVIII Illustrations are in bold face type. Abies - koreana, 10 0 - - 'Nana Gracilis', 14 4 - 2 grandis 'Compacta', 12 o lasiocarpa 'Compacta', 10 procera 'Glauca Prostrata', - - - - 1'2 2 - - - balsamea 'Nana', 10 o - - Albizia julibrissin, 29-40 ; Plate 31 ; Plate XI, 35 - IX, - - - - 'Pygmaea', 15 Pygmaea Aurescens', 3 Sanderi', 15 3? ` Stoneham', l;i 3 Tempelhof, 15 3 ` Tetragona Aurea', 15 15 5 Boulevard', 15 ` Compacta Variegata', 15 'Ernest 33 Wilson', 29-40 ; Plate - pisifera ` Aurea Nana', - X, - and its Cultivar 'Ernest Wilson', 29-35 ; Plate IX, 31 ; Plate 15 3 - - X, 33 - - - `Filifera Nana', 16 'Golden Mop', 16 6 Propagation of, 36-40 ; Plate - - `lTana~, 16 16 6 XII, 37; Plate XIII, 39 Allegany pachysandra, 6 American Smoke Tree, 1-2 Arnoldia Reviews, 68 Auction, WGBH-TV (Channel Cedrus libani 12 = - - - `Nana Aureovariegata', - - `Nana Variegata', 16 6 'Plumosa Compressa', 16 6 - - `Squarrosa intermedia', 16; 2), 28 - Plate VII, 17 i i 'Sargentii', 12 2 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana `Ellwoodii' 'Filiformis Compacta', 12 e 'Squarrosa Minima', - thvo~des 'Andelyensis', 8 `Ericoides', 18 - 16 6 18 8 - - Chinese fringetree, I ; Plate I, 3 ; - - `Forsteckensis', 12 2 - - - nootkatensis 12 e 'Pygmaea Argentea', 12 `Compacta Glauca', Plate II, 4 Chionanthus retusus, 1 - virginicus, Plate Plate Plate I Climb, Some e 'Compacta', 12 12 e 'Contorta', 4 'Coralliformis', 12-14 14 4 'Filicoides', 4 'Kosteri', 14 4 `Lycopodioides', 14 'Lycopodioides Aurea', 4 'Mariesii', 14 4 14 'Nana', Ways Plants, 53-67 ; - obtusa - - - - - - - - - 14 4 - - - - XVIII, 5 i ; Plate XIX, 59: XX, 61 ; Plate XXI, 63; i XXII, 65; Plate XXIII, 6 Climbers, Branch, 55-58 , Inflorescence, 58 -, Leaf, 60-62 -, Root, 6`?--64 Twiners, 53-55 Weavers, 64 Cotinus americanus, 1-2 - - `Nana Aurea', 14 4 133 Cotinus coggygria, 1-2 obovatus, Country Cousins, 1-7 - 1-2 I Gold', = _ 'Plumosa Aurea', 18 8 2014 2014 - 'Old 18 S 18 8 `Plumosa Aureovariegata', Cryptomeria japonica 'Vilmoriniana', 18 8 'Shoosmith', 'Gold Beach', 18-19 19 9 - communis - Die Baume Europas, Ein Taschenbuch fur Naturfreunde ; Krussmann, 'Compressa', 9 'Effusa', 19 19 19 9 - - Gerd, 68 - - Dwarf Conifer Collection, The New, - - 9-27; Plate V, 1 1 ; Plate VI, 13 ; Plate VIII, 21 1 Evodia daniellii, 2 - - - 'Minima', 'Prostrata', 'Repanda', 19 9 19 9 19 9 - - 7 saxatilis, I 9 ; Plate V I I , 17 - conferta, - hupehensis, III, .i 2 - horizontalis - Exochorda giraldii wilsonii, 2 ; Plate - racemosa, 2 - - - - 'Alpina', Glenmore', 20 `Marcellus', 20 `Wiltonii', 20 `10 19-20 Fall Courses of the Arnold Arbore- - procumbens, - tum, 1968, 1 69-111 124 on - 'Nana', 20 Herbarium, Notes Making an, - sabina - tamariscifolia, 20 20 - squamata, - Arrangement of Herbaria, Herbaria and Their Use, 90-92 - 69-70 ; - `Loderi', 20 'Prostrata', 20 I Plate XXI~', 71 Historical Background, i 0-i l Krussmann, Gerd, Die Baume Europas, Ern Taschenbuch fur Naturfreunde, 68 - Preparation Plate of Specimens, 72-90 ; XXV, 73; Plate XXVI, Plate XXVII, 77; Plate i~; XXVIII, 79; Plate XXIX, 83; Plate XXX, 85; Plate XXXI, 87; Plate XXXII, 89; Plate XXXIII, 911 Preserving Succulent or Fleshy Plants, 9 i -98 Storage Containers, 92 Suggestions for Collecting Particular Kinds of Plants, 93-97 i Hupeh Evodia, 2 Japanese Hemlock, 6; Plate IV, 7 Japanese Larch, 2 8 Juniperus chmensis 'Dropmore', 18 - - - decidua, 2 kaempferi, 2 laricina, 2 leptolepis, 2 Lecture Series, \"Meet 132 Larix the Staff\", Series, \"Meet the Staff\", 132 Lecture Metasequoia after Twenty Years in Cultivation, 113-123 Flowering and Fruiting Characteristics, 114-116; Plate XXXV, 3 115 Growth Rates, 1 1 7 -1 19 ; Plate XXXVI, 117 : Plate XXXVII, 119 9 8 'Kaizuka', 18 18 8 'Mathot', Possible Use for Paper Pulp and 134 Lumber, 1~?0 1 ~0 - nigra 'Hornibrookiana', 24 ~4 24 Some of the Taller Metasequoias in - pumila, strobus - Cultivation, - Some of the Taller Metasequoias in Cultivation as of January 1, 1968, 1~0-1`?~ - 'Pendula', 'Pumila', 24 Potentilla fruticosa varieties in the Arnold Arboretum, 1 ~?5-131 ; Morrill, Justin Smith, Some Horticultural Activities of, 41-5~? Homestead and Plantings Today, 42-46, Plate XIV, 43; Plate XV, 45; Plate XVI, 47 ; Plate XVII, 49 Plants Listed by Justm S. Morrill on Plate XXXVIII, 1 z7 ; Plate XXXIX, 129 Pseudotsuga menziesii 'Compacta', 24 Spring Classes at the Arnold Arbore- tum, 1968, 8 - the Plan of His Estate 6 Grounds, 46-52 Pachysandra procumbens, - terminahs, - 6 Picea abies - - - - - - - - - - - Barryi', 22 Compacta', l2 'Conica', ~~? `Crippsii', l2 Gregoryana', 22 'Highlandia', 22 `Mncronata', ~z `Ohlendorffii', 22 ` Pum~la', ~~? 'Nutans', 24 'Pygmaea', 24 - cuspidata `Aurescens', 25 Thuja occidentalis 'Compacta', 25 Ellwangeriana Aurea', l5 'Ericoides', 25 `F~liformis', l5 Taxus baccata - 'Hetz Junior', 25 - - `Hetz Midget', 25 -- - - - - Holmstrup', Malonyana', `Minima', 26 `Ohlendorffii, 25 25 26 26 - - `Recurva Nana', - - - - - - - - - `pygmaea', 22 'Pyramidalis Gracilis', 'Remontii', 23 23 - ~?l - 'Rheingold', 26 orientalis 'Juniperoides', 'Meldensis', 26 - 26 - - 'Repens', 23 ; Plate VIII, 21 i 'Minima Glauca', Tsuga canadensis, 6 - 26 - - 'Sherwood Gem', glauca 'Conica', 23 - 'Cinnamomea', 'Cole', 26 'Nana',27 6 26 - - 'Nana', 23 orientalis 'Nana', 23 omorika pungens - - - 'Dwarf Whitetip', 27 - - - 'Glauca Procumbens', 23 23 - carohniana, - - - - - `Globosa', 23 `Hunnewelliana', 'Pendens', 23 - 'Compacta', 27 - - Pinus aristata, ~4 densiflora 'Pendula', 24 mugo mugo, 24 pumilio, 24 - - diversifolia, 6; Plate IV, 7 Vines (Some Ways Plants Climb), 53-67; Plate XVIII, 57 ; Plate XIX, 59; Plate XX, 61 ; Plate XXI, 63; Plate XXII, 65; Plate - XXIII, 135 67 Climbers, Branch, 55-58 -, Inflorescence, 58 -, Leaf, 60-6l -, -, -, Twiners, Weavers, 53-55 64 4~'GBH-'r~' Wilson Root, 62-64 (Channel 2) Auction, 28 Pearlbush, 2 ; Plate II I, 5 136 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23501","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060b36e.jpg","title":"1968-28","volume":28,"issue_number":null,"year":1968,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seasonal Rhythm of Development of Woody Plnats and It's Importance in Introduction","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24452","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eaf6b.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lapin, P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA II A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 % MARCH 24, 1967 NUMBERS 1-2 SEASONAL RHYTHM OF DEVELOPMENT OF WOODY PLANTS I AND ITS IMPORTANCE IN INTRODUCTION' most important obstacle to introduction of a wide variety of forest and ornamental trees and shrubs in temperate climates has been the poor winterhardiness of many species. At present, the collections of the Main Botanical Gardens in Moscow include more than 2330 kinds of trees and shrubs. These represent 247genera and70 plant families. Of these, only about 51 ~o have shown good winter-hardiness; the rest have suffered some degree of injury. Therefore, one of the principal objectives of our experimental work is to determine which plants are winter resistant and the best ways of increasing the hardiness of the others. Winter and frost resistance of woody plants is a complicated phenomenon. It depends upon the ecological characteristics of a species, variety or biotype ; it varies within populations and ~t changes considerably during the development of the individual plant with age and during the yearly seasonal developmental cycle. Moreover, the seasonal variation in frost resistance within a single woody plant is often greater than the differences in frost resistance among plants of different species. For example, Prof. I. Tumanovhas found that plants of Betula 2oubescens are damaged by temperatures lower than 23 F. while in active growth, but after complete winter hardening they can withstand -319 F. in test chambers for long periods of time. These data suggest the value of investigating the seasonal development of THE I This paper was presented by the author at the XVII International Horticultural Congress, August 15-20, 1966, at the University of Maryland. College Park, Maryland, under the title \"Seasonal Rhythm of the Development of Arboreal Plants and its Importance for Introduction\" . 2 Member of Correspondence, Institute of Plant Physiology, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow. Prof. Tumanov has been an internationally recognized researcher in the field of frost hardiness for many years. hardiness in woody plants. Such investigations would help to solve the problem of acclimatizing these plants and increasing their frost resistance. In the development of woody plants, changes with age and seasonal changes occur in combination. The latter are repeated rhythmically year after year during the lifetime of the plant. Changes in seasonal development appeared during the process of evolution, as plants adapted themselves to sharp climatic changes occurring over most of the world. In most cases, frost resistance of woody plants also increases with age, from the juvenile stage to maturity. This increase is seen as a trend over the years, during which the rhythmical seasonal changes described earlier are also occurring. Most investigators distinguish four important periods in the yearly cycle of development of woody plants: shoot growth, differentiation of organs, internal dormancy or rest, and environmentally induced dormancy. A strict seasonal rhythm is observed in the change of these periods. This rhythm is a specific property of the species and is controlled by the internal system of self-regulation of the organism. This system, in turn, is regulated by the signals of rhythmically changing environmental factors, such as length of day, air temperature, and soil moisture. So the rhythm of seasonal development may to a certain degree depend upon the weather of the current and previous year. Research data show that seasonal rhythms are found in all principal phases of morphogenesis and in all physiological, biochemical and biophysical processes of metabolism. In the seasonal rhythm of development, frost resistance of woody plants is sharply increased when growth and differentiation of organs are completed, before the period of internal dormancy. According to Prof. I. Tumanov's findings, this increase in frost resistance is accomplished in three stages : entry into the period of dormancy, phase I of hardening, with low temperatures above freezing, and phase II of hardening, with temperatures below freezing. Changes that take place during hardening include accumulation of protective substances (sugar), formation of growth inhibitors, change in the submicroscopic structure of protoplasm, change in the cell water supply resulting in the formation of ice only in the intercellular spaces, and increase in the permeability of the protoplasm and its resistance to desiccation. Modern physiological findings on the nature of frost resistance suggest that successful introduction and acclimatization of woody plants can be achieved partly by selecting forms having favorable rhythms of seasonal development, and partly through the use of different methods of regulation of these rhythms. We have used these approaches in studying the large collection of introduced trees and shrubs gathered at the Dendrology Department of the Main Botanical Gardens. A large number of species, represented by many specimens of different origins, can be studied only by the method of elementary analysis of the initial material to find species, forms and individuals with favorable rhythms of seasonal develop- ment. gical observations Considering this, comparative study proved quite valuable. of data from very thorough phenolo- Study of Species of the Japanese-Chinese Subregion The method described was tested at the Dendrology Department by analyzing plants from different botanical-geographic regions, to reveal resistant species within genera and to determine the extent of variations within species. For example, the method was used to analyze plants of our collection introduced from the Japanese-Chinese subregion. These plants are of various floral types and differ considerably in their seasonal rhythms of growth and development. Plants of 323 species, botanically verified, were chosen for investigation. They are listed at the end of this paper. These plants were divided into four groups depending on the time of beginning and end of annual vegetative growth : Group EE - 133 species with early beginning and early end of growth (147 days from bud swelling to general defoliation). EL - 147 species with early beginning and late end of growth ( l68 to Group 183 days from bud swelling to general defoliation). Group LE - 14 species with late beginning and early end of growth ( 130 to 150 days from bud swelling to general defoliation). Group LL - 29 species with late beginning and late end of growth ( I ~to 176 days from bud swelling to general defoliation). to 160 Species stated as starting growth early showed marked bud swelling before April 27, and shoots started to grow between May I and May 20. Species stated as ending growth early stopped growing between July 1 and July 10 and began to defoliate generally before October 3. Late start and late end of growth are then designated as when these phases occur later than the times stated. Plants whose shoot development is stopped by low temperatures were usually included in the latter category. groups have essential differences in winter hardi- Plants ness belonging to these four (Table I). Plants of Group EE are very winter hardy under Moscow conditions. Most of the plants native to the subtropical subregions fall into Group EL and are less winter hardy. In Group LE, winter hardiness of the plants was higher with late but natural finishing of growth than when shoot growth was stopped by low temperatures. An overwhelming majority of the plants in Group LL have very poor winter hardiness. Seventy-three percent of the plants in Group EE and only 3~0 of plants in Group LL were fully winter hardy. If a plant passes through the whole developmental cycle, it can be adapted successfully. Although some of the tested plants have not yet reached maturity, 67% of them bear fruit. This is certainly enough to compare data of flowering and fruit bearing in plants of different phenological groups (Table II). Data in 3 C~) 0 x c~ w < U C7 O ~ O z w T !~! c. ~ 0 x ~ > .4 4. E4 ~ 0 ~ ~ z <! b ~ M I . a ;z4 g~ 0 ~ co -d i E ~f ~ ~m bt ~ 'b `n o g F. E O~. ? 8 I b c C # V 0. -c i' P4 z A x ) 'S _ E v, 4~ ~= `~ '\" < 3C mi w H z 3 m E a~ y G p, 1 w o EE ~ ce ~ a o a~ ee I 'O t,p O,nO w O oCE E ~EO frO~ 6t C nr~ ca ^O I E ~' g o ~6 o w O ~ ~ 4) a 4 G~ VJ ce c~ ~ e< 'O .a ~ ~ S -\" ~ '\" = < ~~ o b~p N ~ a ~ 0 o 'K a~ ~4-~ 4) -C ~ a! g ~-< CL \" E ~ ~ ~o E 4) E ~~~ 3 3 I S -~ ~ ~ g ~ E z~~~,c~HH E c i) 4) Z S~ Q~~ > ~ ~~5~ this table are very significant. Most of the species in Group EE (i8,o~ pass through the whole developmental cycle in Moscow, while only 1 i ~o of the plants in Group LL do so. There are several reasons for the ability or failure of species in the different groups to flower and bear fruit. In Group EE, plants failing to fruit are mostly young and immature, but some are of dioecious species with no female specimens present. Four or five of the fruit-bearing species in Group LL are subshrubs wintering under snow. Flowering species fail to bear fruit when flowers or young fruit are damaged by frost. The example cited shows that this method of selection, with proper study of phenological data, makes it possible to foresee differences in rhythms of growth processes, to make preliminary evaluation of introduced plants in a short time, and to group plants according to differences in growth, development, winter hardiness, and other biological characters that help to predict the possibilities of introducing these plants. Study of Species of Soviet Middle Asia The same method of investigation was used to analyze 95 woody plant species of Soviet Middle Asia. Ninety-four percent of the plants in Group EE were fully winter hardy or only slightly damaged by frost and 94% bore fruit regularly. Plants in Group LL were damaged by frost more or less severely. This same method was used to study a complex of introduced species of Loreicera and intraspecies groups of Quercus robur, in both cases with effective results. This method allows only preliminary evaluation of plant species. As mentioned earlier, winter hardiness and frost resistance are among the most complicated phenomena in plants. They depend on so many factors that it is sometimes very TABLE II DISTRIBUTION OF FRUIT-BEARING, ONLY FLOWERING AND NON-FLOVfERING SPECIES IN PHENOLOGICAL GROUPS 5 difficult to take them all into account. But the simplicity and value of this method are enough to repay the effort of making observations and analyzing data. From these data it is possible to conclude that woody plants with a relatively early beginning and end of growth have the most favorable type of seasonal development for introduction into the temperate climate of the European part of the USSR, and very likely in any other area experiencing similar temperatures. By this method, resistant forms and ecotypes within species can be selected according to the duration of the growth period, and winter-hardiness of species w~thm genera can be predicted. The method also can be applied for evaluation of plants available for introduction from various botanical and geographic regions. Modification of Winter Hardiness These results point out the directions that future investigations to increase the frost resistance of introduced plants should take. Through application of physiologically active substances, modification of photoper~od, and various agrotechnics, experiments should be conducted to stimulate growth processes in spring and to inhibit shoot growth in late summer. This would allow normal lignification of tissues, formation of buds, differentiation of bud organs, and entry into internal dormancy at the beginning of autumn, and hardening of plants could then follow. Application of gibberellin in spring and inhibitors and defoliants in late summer have been reported to be useful for this purpose. Agrotechnical methods designed for shifting vegetative growth to earlier dates were tested in the Dendrology Department of the Mam Botanical Gardens. When complete mineral fertilizer (containing nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium) was added to the soil in which seedlings of Morus alba were growing, growth was quickened considerably and subsequent lignification of shoots was increased sevenfold. In experiments on the effects of different fertilizers on growth of 2 year old woody seedlings, we have found that the quality of root nutrition influences both the amount of growth made and the time when it occurs. Various combinations of fertilizers were used. In certain cases, vegetative growth occurred earlier as a result of treatment. Results of one such experiment are given in Table III. Fertilization, especially a combination of mineral fertilizers and farmyard manure, favorably influenced the time of growth of the seedlings. Growth was stimulated and completed at earlier dates, thus favoring hardening to withstand winter. Using plants from warm regions, we studied the ~nfluence of different fertilizers added to the soil in combination with foliar applications containing phosphorus, potassium, copper, and boron, as well as a short-day treatment, upon growth and ability to stand winter. Short-day treatment during the second half of summer, in combination with organic and mineral fertilizers, has resulted in greater winter hardiness. The heights of healthy stems of Robinia Pseudoacacia, Catalpa bignonioides, and Ailan- TABLE III EFFECT OF FERTILIZATION ON TIME OF GROWTH OF SEEDLINGS OF THREE SPECIES Percentage of annual height growth occurring before July 20 * Metric tons. One metric ton equals 2204.6 lbs. thus altissima after winter were, respectively, 7 i ~o, 8 i ~o, and 333lo greater than those of untreated seedlings. We have already obtained positive results in our detailed investigations of intraspecific diversity of woody plants in our collection, and in selection and introduction of resistant forms. Until now we have been able to induce fruiting and to germinate seeds of 726 species of trees and shrubs. Included in these are many plants from areas of warm climate, such as Catalpa bignonioides, C. speciosa, Carpinus betulus, Chaenomeles japonica, C. maulei, Paeonia, Cotoneaster horizontalis, Lonicera periclymenum var. belgica, Taxus baccata, and others. Plants that have already borne fruit include Pyracantha coccinea, Mespilus germanica, Laburnum anagyroides, Cornus mas, Hamamelis virginiana, Taxus canadensis, and others. Selecting woody plants on the basis of their rhythms of seasonal development, in combination with other methods, in the future will help to solve problems of introduction and acclimatization of plants. List of Plants Introduced from the Japanese-Chinese Botanical, Geographic in the Main Botanical Gardens in Moscow (Summarized in Tables I and II) Subregion * [Names given are those in current use in the Soviet Union, and do not necessarily agree with those in Rehder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. For the convenience of readers accustomed to the latter treatment, where generic names differ, the name accepted by Rehder (in parentheses) precedes the generic name used here. This should not be construed to mean that the parenthetical generic name can simply be inserted into the binomial as it stands. To find the equivalent binomial accepted by Rehder, refer the full binomial given to Rehder's Bibliogyaphy of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs.-EDITOR.] ] 8 9 10 11 12 13 Acknowledgements The author acknowledges the work of Dr. L. Plotnikova, Dendrology Department, Main Botanical Gardens, Moscow, who made the observations and collected the data in this study. P. LAPIN Main Botanical Gardens Moscow, U. S. S. R. 14 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants with Colorful Twigs in Early Spring","article_sequence":2,"start_page":15,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24450","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eab6d.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"PLANTS WITH COLORFUL TWIGS IN EARLY SPRING none-too-gentle reminder that March is still a Color in the winter landscape is a subtle thing England. and comes largely from evergreens and the colored twigs of some deciduous shrubs and trees. As plant metabolic processes accelerate in early spring, the already colorful twigs of some plants become even brighter. The following shrubs and trees are outstanding for their stem color in winter and early spring: This year's weather has been a winter month in New 15 Vigorous growth is important for best development of stem color in most of these plants. One of the simplest ways of maintaining a high state of vigor is to prune heavily. All of the shrubs listed can be pruned almost to the ground occasionally, some more often than others. Plants like Kerria, Forsythia viridissima, and most species of Rosa should be pruned this severely only once in 3 to 5 years, while any willow kept as a shrub will probably require severe pruning at least every 2 or 3 years. The dogwoods with colorful twigs are also best when pruned severely every 2 or 3 years, or even annually. HARRISON L. FLINT 1967 Spring Classes Field Class, Jamaica Plain at the Arnold Arboretum Friday Mornings, 10 a.m.-noon April 28-May 26 Informal outdoor talks and field trips on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica will be directed by Dr. Donald Wyman and the Arboretum's horticultural staff. This is a continuation of the class which has been offered for many years and in which the various plants are studied as they come into bloom. In case of rain, meetings are held indoors. Those attending will meet at the Administration Building, Jamaica Plain entrance. There will be five sessions on Friday mornings. Registration fee w~2.00 Plain, Mass., Field Class, Case Estates, Weston Wednesday 2:30-4:30 April 26-May 24 p.m. There will be five informal field classes on the Case Estates in Weston, led by Dr. Gordon DeWolf. Emphasis will be placed on the means of recognizing the spring flowering plants, both wild and cultivated. Classes will meet at the parking area near the Barn at 135 Wellesley Street. In case of rain, meetings will be held indoors. A hand lens or magnifying glass is desirable equipment. Registration fee $2.00 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Classes at the Arnold Arboretum, 1967","article_sequence":3,"start_page":16,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24455","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eb76d.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Vigorous growth is important for best development of stem color in most of these plants. One of the simplest ways of maintaining a high state of vigor is to prune heavily. All of the shrubs listed can be pruned almost to the ground occasionally, some more often than others. Plants like Kerria, Forsythia viridissima, and most species of Rosa should be pruned this severely only once in 3 to 5 years, while any willow kept as a shrub will probably require severe pruning at least every 2 or 3 years. The dogwoods with colorful twigs are also best when pruned severely every 2 or 3 years, or even annually. HARRISON L. FLINT 1967 Spring Classes Field Class, Jamaica Plain at the Arnold Arboretum Friday Mornings, 10 a.m.-noon April 28-May 26 Informal outdoor talks and field trips on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica will be directed by Dr. Donald Wyman and the Arboretum's horticultural staff. This is a continuation of the class which has been offered for many years and in which the various plants are studied as they come into bloom. In case of rain, meetings are held indoors. Those attending will meet at the Administration Building, Jamaica Plain entrance. There will be five sessions on Friday mornings. Registration fee w~2.00 Plain, Mass., Field Class, Case Estates, Weston Wednesday 2:30-4:30 April 26-May 24 p.m. There will be five informal field classes on the Case Estates in Weston, led by Dr. Gordon DeWolf. Emphasis will be placed on the means of recognizing the spring flowering plants, both wild and cultivated. Classes will meet at the parking area near the Barn at 135 Wellesley Street. In case of rain, meetings will be held indoors. A hand lens or magnifying glass is desirable equipment. Registration fee $2.00 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How to Have a Good Clipped Hedge","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24442","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170816b.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPUI,AR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 i MAY 1 `~, 196 i HOW TO HAVE A GOOD CLIPPED HEDGE NUMBER 8 decide whether you really want a hedge. Remember that a clipped a low-maintenance planting. Remember too that it is formal in and at its best m a relatively formal setting-in other situations an ineffect, formal hedge or shrub border may accomplish as much and be more in harmony with its surroundings. F IRST, hedge -M. is not _ _ __ _ _ - Starting a Hedge Before starting a new hedge, decide what you want it to accomplish. Will its purpose be to gain privacy or to block an undesirable view? Or do you want to use it for a low divider and leave a good view over it? Perhaps it will serve as a barrier as well as a screen. If so, selection of plants will be restricted to those that will make a strong dense framework, and those with thorns or prickles. Consider also the amount of space available. Some plants require a base width equal to their height for good results. If your hedge must be six feet tall, can you spare a 6-foot width of ground for it? If not, limit your selection of plants to those of upright habit that will form a tall but narrow wall or, as an alternative, build a fence. Many of the columnar forms of trees and shrubs can be used in such a situation. Remember though, that many plants with this habit tend to become open at the base and are kept full only by careful maintenance. Many kinds of plants can be used for hedges, but not all. Ask yourself these questions : 1. Do I need an evergreen hedge? Many evergreen plants make good hedges that function as well in winter as they do in summer. Deciduous hedges grow faster, reach useful size more quickly, and usually require more frequent pruning. They are usually less expensive initially than evergreen hedges. 2. some are Will the plant I select make full, bushy grou~th? Most woody shrubs will, but weak hedge plants, especially growing in shade. Some parts of even 17 the best-shaped hedge must grow in considerable shade from upper branchesbut should still remain bushy. Some shrubs are excellent when allowed to grow informally but lose their character when sheared, so make dismal formal hedges. Take time to look at hedges in your area and see which kinds of plants are performing best. 3. How much do I want to spend for plants ? Some of the best deciduous hedges have been started with plants under one foot tall. When this is done, pruning can be started close to the ground and you have control over the entire framework of the plants. This is the way to make a hedge hug the ground. Evergreen hedges can be started with small plants, too, but this means waiting an extra 5 years or more for the hedge to reach useful size. The following lists include only a few of the plants that have made successful clipped hedges in reasonably good cultural situations. Many other species are excellent choices in certain situations. Still others that are of secondary value may still prove useful in problem situations. When problem situations exist, you'll want to consult the lists of hedge plants for special situations in Dr. Wyman's book* on shrubs and vines. A Few of the Best Plants for Clipped Hedges * Wyman, Donald. Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens. Macmillan, New York, 1949. 18 Pruning cause a Hedge a Pruning really very hedge is an art, but also was a science. - the science of pruning ignored which is Many hedges are failures beunfortunate, because it's simple: 1. Prune tween the heavily when planting a hedge. This will help to establish balance be- tops of the plants and the root systems that have been reduced in digging. It will also promote low branching. Deciduous plants should be pruned more heavily than evergreens at planting. 19 and often, once the hedge is established and growing, to avoid a \"chopped\" look. Prune deciduous hedges 2 to 4 times each summer, even more often in a few cases. Most evergreen hedges need to be pruned only once, in June. In a few cases, a second shearing in late July or early August is 2. Shear lightly necessary. summer. This may result in a \"new haircut\" look all make no more new growth after July. In some cases, winter, plants late pruning will stimulate late growth and can lead to winter injury. As a general rule, shear for the last time before night temperatures begin to fall into the 40's with any frequency. This means by August 1 in much of northern New England and by August 15 or 20 in most of southern New England. Plants that complete growth in mid-summer should not be pruned after June. These include lilacs, crab apples, maples, deciduous species of EuonJmus, and others. 3. Don't shear too as late in many wider at the broad base. Never prune a hedge in a vase shape top than at the base. This is probably the most common single cause of failure. Ideally, keep the base even wider than the top. This allows the lower parts maximum exposure to sun (see Plate I). 4. Shear to a - Fertilization and Watering It seems paradoxical that we would want to stimulate vigorous growth in a hedge and then cut it off. But, up to a point, that is precisely the objective. A hedge that is allowed to lose vigor can be sheared very little and is difficult to repair if it is damaged. But this does not mean that a hedge must be kept extremely vigorous. If too vigorous, a hedge plant, like any other, can be injured by cold in early winter, but a plant in poor vigor can also be prone to winter injury. So moderation is the rule here, as in most other garden activities. Pruning itself tends to maintain vigor, but occasional fertilization is usually necessary in addition. Probably the easiest way to fertilize a hedge is to spread lawn fertilizer up to 6 inches from the base of it when the lawn is being fertilized in April. If the lawn receives a second application in June, it doesn't need to be applied close to the hedge. For most hedges, 2 to 3 lbs. of a 10-10-10 or 8-6-4 fertilizer (or similar) for each 100 square feet of ground covered is ample for one year. In a reasonably fertile garden soil, this amount in alternate years should be enough. Regular watering of an established hedge is not necessary, but occasional soaking during drought periods is a good idea where restrictions on water use don't prevent it. The same rules that apply to watering a lawn hold here also. Never sprinkle - always soak to a depth of at least 6 inches. Then wait until the soil begins to dry before watering again. Watering lightly every evening is one of the surest ways to damage a hedge-or a lawn. 20 PLATE I For best results, hedges should be pruned with the sides sloping inward (A) so that the entire outer surface is exposed to sunlight. Shearing with vertical sides (B) gives fair exposure to light and most hedges treated this way can be kept in fair condition. If a hedge is pruned with sides sloping outward (C), the lower branches will be in the shade most of the time, and the hedge will gradually become defoliated to~ard the base. 21 Hedge Demonstration Plantings Before making a final selection of hedge plants, you may want to look at examples of hedges in your area. One of the best ways of doing this is to visit a hedge demonstration planting. Such plantings are not available in every area or even every state, but there are quite a few scattered over the U.S. and Canada. The oldest hedge demonstration plantings in North America are those at the Central Experimental Farm, Canada Department of Agriculture, Ottawa. A few of the hedges there were planted before 1900 and are still in excellent condition. The Arnold Arboretum hedge demonstration plantings were started in 1936 on the old Bussey Institution grounds on South Street. When the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses were constructed in 1962, the area containing the old greenhouse and hedge plantings was abandoned. At that time 35 of the hedges were moved to a new area near the new greenhouses, and more than 55 new hedges were started in the same area (Arnoldia, vol. 24, no. 11). This new hedge planting was started just prior to the beginning of the1963-1966 drought, and many of the plants have been slow in becoming established as good examples of clipped hedges. The current relative abundance of moisture should bode well for their future condition. Other extensive hedge plantings in the northeastern U.S. and adjacent Canada include those at Cornell University's Test Gardens and at the Montreal Botanical Garden. The Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, has had extensive hedge plantings for many years and hedge demonstrations have been started in several other places in the U.S. and Canada in recent years. HARRISON L. FLINT 22 PLATE II Two of the finest evergreen hedge plants are the yew (Taxus spp.) and common box (liuxuasempervarens). The closely sheared yew hedge in Hamilton, Mass. (top) is well used to enclose a formal annual flower garden. The common boxwood, used in this very old hedge in James River, Virginia (bottom) requires a minimum of pruning because of its slow growth and bush habit. Boxwood hedges of this size are seldom found in most of New England, but may become more common with the proliferation of \"hardy\" cultivars. 23 PLATE III Two of the finest deciduous shrubs for hedge use are Black Haw (Viburnum prunifolium) (top) and Dwarf Winged Euonymus (Euonymus alatus `Compactus') (bottom). Black Haw left unpruned will eventually reach a height of 12to15 ft., but it grows rather slowly and can be kept as a hedge below eye level without difliculty. Its lustrous foliage turns a good red in autumn. Dwarf Winged Euonymus is not a true dwarf, but does grow considerably more slowly than the species (Euonymus alatus) and has equally good flame-red autumn foliage. A word of caution: the cultivar 'Compactus' is not so hardy as the species, and is damaged in some winters in parts of Zone 4. PLATE IV Two native tree species, Canada Hemlock (7suga eanadenais) (top) and American Beech ( Fagus grandifolia) (bottom), are among the finest plants for tall hedges, but can be kept below eye level for many years with heavy pruning. Canada Hemlock recovers from shearing quickly and is almost foolproof as a hedge, except near the ocean or in extremely exposed situations. Even in the most formal outline, it retains its airy texture, American Beech is often slow starting, but once well-established grows reasonably fast and is well worth waiting for. 25 PLATE V There are few plants that cannot be used successfully for fact is borne out by this reasonably good hedge (top) of making a hedge. This Norway Maple (Aeer platanoides). Two better maples for hedge use are shown in the bottom photo. The Hedge Maple (AePr campestre) (left) has been widely used in Europe for this purpose and IS hardy in Zone .5. The Amur Maple (Acer ginnala) (right) is almost as good a hedge plant as the Hedge Maple. It is hardy in Zone 3 (northern Maine, for instance), and even colder areas, and its foliage turns brilliant scarlet in autumn. 26 PLATE VI False-cypress (Chamaerypari.v pi.wifera) and American Arbor-vitae (7hvja occidentalix) are among the most successful fast-growing evergreens for hedge use. Because of this they are often used in preference to better but slower-growing plants. The Plume Sawara False-cypress (Chamaecyparis pisifera 'Plumosa') (top) is one of the best varieties for hedge use, as it is extremely bushy in growth habit. This and other varieties may winter-burn somewhat in Zone 4 and colder. The Ware Arbor-vitae (7huja occidentalis 'Robusta') (bottom) is one of the best cultivars for a medium-size hedge. For a tall hedge, the cultivar 'Douglasii Pyramidalis' is superior, as it is more upright in form. Ordinary wild seedlings of 7'huja occidentalis can be used successfully in a hedge, but usually require more attention to pruning than the better cultivars. Sawara "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Gordon P. DeWolf, Jr., Appointed Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24437","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170b36b.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"DR. GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR., APPOINTED HORTICULTURAL TAXONOMIST AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Dr. Gordon P. De~'~'olf, Jr. was appointed Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum effective March 15, 1967. Dr. DeW olf is a native of Chelmsford, Massachusetts and received the B. Sc. degree from the University of Massachusetts, M.Sc. degrees from Tulane University and the University of Malaya in Singapore, and the Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge (England). His study at the University of Malaya (1952-53) was supported by a Fulbright Grant. During undergraduate and graduate study, Dr. DeWolf also worked at the International Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Costa Rica, in the Harvard University Herbaria, and as a graduate research assistant at Tulane. He has been employed as a Research Associate at the Bailey Hortorium of Cornell University, and as Senior Scientific Officer at the Colonial Office in London, working at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. From 1961 until this year, Dr. DeWolf was Associate Professor and then Professor of Botany at Georgia Southern College. Dr. DeWolf is married and has three children. He has had the honor of being elected a Fellow of the Linnean Society of London and is a member of several national and international botanical societies. He is the author of numerous scientific articles over the past several years. At the Arnold Arboretum he will be working on problems of horticultural taxonomy and nomenclature, and continuing his current research efforts in studying relationships ~n the genera Ficus and Donstenia in Africa and the American Hemisphere. 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dwarf Conifers from Witches' - Brooms","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24439","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170bb28.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA '\" A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR IBTFORMATIOB of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 JUNE 23, 1967 DV~'ARF CONIFERS FROM 4~ITCHES'-BROOMS S NUMBERS 4-5 term u~itches'-broom translates directly from the German word Hexenbesen. Both parts of the German compound word are found in English as hex, meaning to bewitch, and besom, a bundle of twigs (usually of birch) bound together to form the age-old do-it-yourself sweepmg implement still used by people in rural Europe. Plate VII shows a witches'-broom development commonly found on highbush blueberry in New England. It bears a strong resemblance to a broom. In this instance the thread-like mycelium of a rust fungus has invaded the stem and stimulated mass development of latent buds. It seems only natural that medieval Europeans would call these peculiar growths witches'-brooms, for they were accustomed to brooms made from bundles of twigs and were inclined to relate anything mysterious and unexplainable to witchcraft. Many superstitions were associated with witches'-brooms and they played an important part in medieval folklore. A library search by the author for mformation in English folklore proved fruitless, but Dr. Richard S. Meriam, Professor Emeritus in the Harvard Business School, kindly volunteered to search the German literature at Harvard's Widener Library and found the following. The German word Hexenbesen is now used to define only witches'-brooms and mistletoe, but in the past it was applied to other woody growths as well. It was once one of several words used to describe such abnormalities-they were also called witches'-nests (Hexennester) mares'-nests (Mahrnester), and thunderbrooms (Donnerbesen). Witches not only caused these formations-they also used them as nests and resting places during their travels. They were also used by elves, hobgoblins and other evil and oppressive spirits. Among them were the mares (Mahre), who were thought to sit on the chests of sleeping persons and bring on bad dreams-the origin of our word nightmare. We cannot be sure that all the tales apply solely to witches'-brooms as we know them, for some other unusual growths may have been involved. A special use of the witches'-broom, of course, was for the witch to mount it and ride through the air. The ancient belief in THE English -t. 29 witches'-brooms and thunderbrooms ascribed magical protective and healing powers to them. They protected against sickness and lightning and, curiously enough, against witchcraft itself. In Silesia, a witches'-broom of birch hung in a pigpen protected the animals from the work of witches and disease. Modern scientific literature abounds with references concerning the investigation of witches'-brooms. They have been found on many species of woody and non-woody plants, and have been shown to result from the stimuli of feeding mites and insects and parasites such as fungi, bacteria, viruses, and one of the higher plants-dwarf mistletoe (Arceuthobium Pusillvm). Plate VIII shows a spruce tree with numerous witches'-brooms-in this case they are symptoms of infection. In some areas all trees of a given species bear such developments, and some stunted specimens are comprised entirely of brooms. Many people are familiar with the brooms that appear so commonly on trees of hackberry (Celtis occidentalis). These are thought to be induced by mites in association with a fungus. Despite the abundance of literature on witches'-brooms in general, few references relate to those that have arisen in the absence of causal organisms, presumably through \"bud sports\" or mutations. This paper, however, deals with these brooms that appear to be of genetic origin. Such witches'-brooms are relatively common when one has developed an eye for spotting them. During a recent trip to Cape Cod to collect scions of one broom, three other isolated specimens were found. The following Sunday a tour through southeastern Massachusetts led to the discovery of six more. When seeking brooms, a wide and careful search has always been made in the area where one was found, to see if others might be present. In these searches, two brooms have never been found on a single pme tree, and in only one instance has a second been seen within 100 feet of the first. Usually they are many miles apart. This, and the fact that they are free of excessive dead parts would tend to support the belief that they are not caused by organisms. A large number of dictionaries, encyclopedias, and technical publications checked by the author have defined witches'-brooms as developments arising through the action of causal organisms. In the event that brooms such as those discussed in this paper prove to be free of such agents, a new term to define them may well be needed. To bring superstitions up to date it should be noted that witches'-brooms were found in eleven cemeteries and correspondents have mentioned brooms as occurring in seven others. Development of Witches'-brooms from Single Buds Plate IX shows a witches'-broom collected from a local eastern white pine How it came about can best be explained by describing how pine trees of this type grow. With the advent of spring, the cluster of buds located at the tips of the previous year's growth become active and develop into new (Pinus strobus). 30 PLATE VII Witches'-broom development commonly found on highbush blueberry. A spruce tree with infection. numerous PLATE VIII witches'-brooms-in this case they are symptoms of 32 I) u i3. x 0 0 OIl '\" v bc a ..<:: u 3 0 M 0 a~ a m u v '\" .~ ,;!: c u 8 __ _ c, 0 > ro :- W F~ o a \"a n p,, ~\" ~. a '\" . ' o3 GU7 G b4 iii m x u o :;:bj; yG A .~ 0.~ a ~a Fro L C ~ ,- a~ w 0 O wO O G O o bD r. '\", I) y ~ ~3 , J\"'r 33 shoots. During their elongation period such new growths are commonly termed \"candles''. The time of this activity depends upon location and season-last year in the Boston area it commenced about May 1 and in a scant three weeks the new set of buds had formed. Plate X (inset) shows a terminal shoot of Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris) with a cluster of winter buds. When growth takes place the central bud will develop into a terminal or leading shoot, while those surrounding it will develop into lateral or side shoots. In preparation for the next annual growth cycle, each \"candle\" will again terminate in a cluster of buds. Plate X (left) illustrates how successive terminal growths of a young Scots pine have led to elongation of the trunk and side branches while lateral growths have formed branches in whorls. Thus each year's growth adds to the framework of the tree, leading to an increase in height, breadth and density. The result of such development is shown in the structure of an ailing and partly defoliated roadside pine (Plate X, right). Returning to Plate IX, we find a clear-cut illustration of how this particular development is traceable to growth changes that have taken place within the growing point of a single bud. At (A) is a whorl of six normal lateral branches together with a normal leading shoot that terminated its growth and set buds at (B). Leaves on these normal branches measured from 2! to 3~ inches in length. The following year a new set of six branches arose at (B), together with a terminal shoot. One of the lateral buds underwent changes that gave rise to the broom. The other five lateral branches were positioned beneath the broom where through the years they were too deeply shaded to survive, and their scars are just discernible at (B). The terminal shoot (C), normal in character, had enough light to continue as a spindling growth. It has developed to about pencil thickness while in the same period the broom has become a dense, multibranched, globose mass, 26 inches wide and 23 inches tall, with a basal stem 1 ~inches thick. Its leaves, borne on short, thicker-than-normal shoots, measure~:~to I inch in length. Examples The broom a of Witches'-brooms Arising from Single Buds red pine (Pinus resinosa) shown in Plate XI (top) is the lone branch whorl that came into being many years ago. Its leaves are darker in color than those of normal branches on the tree on which it is borne, and it presents an appearance of thrift. Although all other members of the whorl have perished, the broom has managed to survive and prosper. Plate XI (bottom) shows a broom on pitch pine (Pinus rigida). It is positioned about four feet above ground m the remains of a whorl of branches. Although its host and other trees in the area reflect the impoverished, sandy Cape Cod soil in which they grow, the broom is darker green in color and appears healthy and vigorous. It has been under observation for six years and during the past growing season produced a few pistillate conelets for the first time. on survivor in 34 Ls ** ~s 'a : .~ ~, x M ~~ o ~ o o~ s ~a~ t! .c ~' o .^ .G aa a~ -s -c 's ~Ji U `~ c o vv E E~ w a~ y vwo s ~- > ~' M ~= '0 .a v m r\"., ~ N '~ ~-Ss~s SC ~ C7 E Lt-S ~-a:-_ < N !! ra ... &< 5 R O ~ i, O L 3 Lw ~h # u ~ ~~ ~ o f' i, N .c 3 'd ' 1~ .. c ~a # c ~, ^ s m o I EL~ L o ,., w E a~ a o ^^ ~ ~ ~ c? -s 4) ~ o ~~~ ~ u ro S a~ Q) o0 o n - ,d = ' PLATE XI (Top) Broom on many years ago. pine is the lone survivor in a branch whorl that came into being (Bottom) Broom on pitch pine positioned in the remains of a whorl of red branches. 36 i E m Y L ro v G O O GL O .= Y O d ~ 8 0 c c ro f E. II) v L U 'w v .. ;~ ~...... g Hw d a~ <I a~ w 0 x c a r a~ en .~ S 0aa c~ 3s 1~ o ~ro v _B U .... en o a~ a~ W O i~ N3&#x C;I C o &'\"I;C3x# en ro '\" G! L s ::: ~y n_ ..~. ^~ i~ ~ro e U o o '\" G. L ro <: _~ :c 3~ A broom situated about ;of the way up the trunk of a sixty foot white pine in Plate XII. It is clear that this, too, originated from a lateral bud, for it is located in the remams of a whorl of branches. This and some others so positioned resemble independent trees attached to the host plants. Plate XIII shows a massive witches'-broom comprising the entire crown of a white pine approximately 50 feet tall. Although witches'-brooms may be found on any part of a plant (where parasites invade or where growth changes take place within a bud), terminal brooms are more prominent and therefore more readily discovered. Because of this crowning position they can sometimes be spotted against the far distant skyline. Others, located on lower parts of trees, can be found more easily in winter when deciduous trees are bare than in summer when they may be obscured by woodland foliage. tree is shown Dwarf Seedlings in Nature from a Pine Witches'-broom Plate XIV shows a terminal witches'-broom on eastern white pine (Pinus strolocated in the Berkshire Hills of Western Massachusetts. What appears to be two trees is actually one that divides into two parts four feet above the ground. The broom, terminating one leader, is about 10 feet tall and 10 feet wide. Its clean growth shows no evidence of causal agents. It is of special interest because it has borne viable seeds that have given rise to numerous dwarf plants. The tree is situated at the edge of a clearance fifty yards wide cut through woods to accommodate high-tension electric lines. As a result of the unnatural opening in the woods, seeds shed from the broom have had a better chance of developing into plants than would have been the case in undisturbed woodland where slow- bus) growing plants are at a serious competitive disadvantage. Cones from the broom showed a diversity of subnormal sizes, when compared with normal white pine cones (Plate XV). Those from the normal tree (left) measured from 4~ to 5~ inches in length, while the ones produced on the witches'-broom (right) varied from 14 to 3~ inches, most being less than 22 inches long. White pine cones have five clearly defined sets of spirally arranged cone-scales fixed to a central axis. Though not always clearly defined, this same arrangement was found in cones from the witches'-brooms. However, the number of scales present varied enormously. Scales on 25 witches'-broom cones were counted and the number ranged from 20 to 50, while normal cones bore between 68 and 80. In the witches'-broom cones, there was no relationship between cone length and scale number-the shortest had 25 scales, while the longest had only 21. However, seed size did vary, the small cones containing proportionately small seeds. Through the years, more than 250 pines exhibiting genetic dwarfism have arisen in the vicinity of the broom-bearing tree, some as far distant as one-quarter mile. Seeds collected from this broom were germinated at the Arnold Arboretum and 48% of the seedlings showed dwarfism (1198-63, Table I). 38 A massive witches'-broom mately 50 feet tall. comprising PLATE XIII the entire crown of a white pine tree approxi- PLATE XIV A terminal witches'-broom numerous dwarf plants. on eastern white pine. Its seeds have given rise to 40 PLATE XV Cones from a witches'-broom (r~ght) showing the dw ers~ty ot subnormat pared with normal white pine cones (left). sizes as com- 41 TABLEI OBSERVATIONS-SEEDS AND SEEDLINGS FROM WITCHES'-BROOMS 42 (Top) A selected (Bottom) Seedlings PLATE XVI white pine witches'-broom sampling of from the same lot one year later. seedlings (1198-63, Table I). professional plant collector discovered the broom and the abnormal seedlings seedlings bore leaves about normal in size while others had leaves less than one mch long. The discovery of these abnormal pines illustrates one method by which dwarf conifers may originate spontaneously under A in October 1962. Some natural conditions. Seedlings in from Witches'-broom Seeds In 193;3, two discussions of seedlings from fruiting witches'-brooms appeared the German scientific literature. In the first, von Tubeuflreported on his experiments in 1907 and 1930 with seeds from witches'-brooms of Norway Spruce (Picea abies). Two seedling lots in 1930 led to populations in which 27.7% and 38.5~0 of the seedlings showed the \"bush-like\" growth of witches'-brooms. In the second paper, Liese\" discussed witches'-broom seedlings of pines and believed that the brooms originated from bud mutations. A number of seedling populations presently under observation at the Arnold Arboretum (Table I) tend to support this conclusion, for in a portion of each, abnormal characteristics are transmitted to the progeny. A number of fruiting white pine witches'-brooms have been observed by the author during the past five years. Each had only female conelets, but bore them heavily every year, in contrast to the usual fruiting habit of white pine, in which lean and lush years occur. In years when cones have been scarce on trees in an area, weevils have concentrated on the more abundant cones of the brooms and have destroyed many seeds. Cones from these brooms did not open as white pine cones normally do, and each scale had to be pried open separately to extract the seeds. Such tedious procedure is compensated for by the increased latitude in time when seeds can be collected-in the Boston area, cones of white pine open and disperse their seeds in late August, but some witches'-broom cones still contained seeds when collected many weeks later. Plate XVI (top) shows a selected sampling of white pine witches'-broom seedlings (1198-63, Table I). The seeds were collected on September 20, 1963, placed in cold stratification for 3 months, sown on December 20, and had germinated by January 3, 1964. Differences in the seedlings became readily apparent as soon as they had passed the cotyledon stage. Those considered normal (52~0) developed central stems, while the other 48lo produced lateral branches in the cotyledon area, were slow growing, and lacked central leaders. Adult leaf bundles had appeared on the dwarfs when this picture was made in July 1964, while the normal seedlings (center plant) still bore juvenile foliage. Plate XVI (bottom) pictures seedlings from the same lot one year later. At this stage the normal 1K. von Tubeuf, \"Das Problem der Hexenbesen,\" Zeitschrift fur P,~la~ezenkrarekheiten und Pflanzenschutz (1933). zJ. Liese, \"Vererbung der Hexenbesenbildung bei der Kiefer,\" Zeitschrift fur Forstund Jagdzcesen (Berlin, 1933). 44 r 3 ~ 0 ~ a 'F > .o w a 3 b ro a~ m L Y L 0 9L C Y L1, ~ 1~1 C L Hb a~ a. ~ $ a c ~ S H -t Ci ~ 'b G7 ~S ~ a~ ~? 3 S a CK _o C_ bG C C# y 1 a < r M seedlings had continued upward growth while the dwarfs were globe-shaped. All other witches'-broom seedling lots of eastern white pine behaved similarly. Plate XVII shows another white pine seedling lot (199-64) in a nursery bed. Normal plants and globe-shaped dwarfs of variable growth rate are present. The characteristics of a group of jack pine (Pinus banksiana) witches'-broom seedlings (~?00-64) are described in Table I and shown in Plate XVIII (top). All have central trunks, but about half have short internodes resulting in midget plants with crowded branches. In some, lateral growth has exceeded upright growth, resulting in plants broader than tall. A group of witches'-broom seedlings of Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana) ( I 12~?64), described in Table I, is shown in Plate XVIII (bottom). All have central trunks and failed to show abnormality until about 4 inches tall. At this stage some leading shoots grew horizontally and later became pendulous. Still others bent over near ground level and became prostrate. A seedling population of Pinus rigida (158-64~ behaved in a manner similar to P. virginiana-no distinct differences appeared until about a year and a half had elapsed. At that time the abnormal seedlings (36%) showed varying growth rates and some were prostrate. Second Generation Witches'-broom Seedlings In April 1965, two seed lots of jack pine (Pinus banksiana) were received from Mr. Albert G. Johnson, Associate Scientist, Department of Horticultural Science, University of Minnesota. He had collected seeds earlier from a jack pine witches'broom at Gordon, Wisconsin, and from these had raised plants to fruiting size. Of four seedlings surviving in 1965, one was dwarfed and resembled the parent broom in form and leaf character. The other three were normal in form. Two lots of seeds sent to the Arnold Arboretum in 1965 consisted of 50 seeds (102565) from the dwarf form and 50 seeds (1026-65) from one of the normal trees. The character of seedlings grown from these two lots is given in Table I. Progeny of Witches'-brooms Propagated Vegetatively A number of plants propagated vegetatively from witches'-brooms are under observation at the Arnold Arboretum. Table II lists them and summarizes their present condition and characteristics. Plate XIX (top) shows a dwarf multi-branched white pine of witches'-broom origin (315-63~ propagated by grafting in March 1963 and photographed in April 1967. It is now 12 inches tall and 19 inches broad. Some well known dwarf conifers that originated as vegetative propagation of witches'-brooms, and the dates when they first appearcd in the literature, are: Picea abies 'Maxwellii' (1874), P. nigra 'Horn ibrookiana' (1932~, P. sylvestris 'Beauvronensis' (1891), P. abies 'Tabulaeformis' (1890). These have maintained their characteristics through propagation and repropagation-they have withstood the test of time. It is probable that others will soon appear in the literature, for in the last 46 PLATE XVIII (Top) A group of pine witches'-broom jack pine witches'-broom seedlings. (Bottom) A seedlings. group of Virginia TABLE II PROGENY OF WITCHES'-BROOMS PROPAGATED VEGETATIVELY 48 PLATE XIX (Top) Dwarf multi-branched white pines of witches'-broom origin, propagated by grafting. (Bottom) Canada hemlock of witches'-broom origin propagated by grafting. Although over 150 Canada hemlock variants are present in the Arnold Arboretum this one appears to be distinct. few years interest in witches'-broom propagation has expanded enormously. A propagation of Canada hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) by grafting (80-64) is shown in Plate XIX (bottom). Although more than 150 Canada hemlock variants are present in the Arnold Arboretum, this one appears at present to be distinct from others in the collection. Horticultural Significance of Witches'-broom Progeny Increasing interest in dwarf and slow-growing conifers has given added significance to dwarf plants of witches'-broom origin. Those propagated vegetatively have retained characteristics of the brooms from which they originated, thereby leading to slow-growing' forms with year-round interest. They are suitable for use in dwarf conifer collections, rock gardens, foundation designs, and situations where plants requiring little or no maintenance are desired. Seedlings from fruiting witches'-brooms have produced large numbers of dwarf and abnormal plants, including forms of prostrate habit suitable for planting over rocks and walls. Still other seedlings characterized by central stems, horizontal leaders, and short internodes quickly develop into miniature plants presenting an appearance of age, making them ideal subjects for bonsai. As time passes, this increased interest in propagating plants from witches'brooms will doubtless add greatly to the list of dwarf and unusual plants presently available for horticultural use. If perchance a reader has knowledge of a fruiting witches'-broom of any conifer, a contribution of its seeds would be welcomed by the Arnold Arboretum to further this study. ALFRED J. FORDHAM 50 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Identifications of Unknown Plants","article_sequence":7,"start_page":51,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24443","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170856f.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"DeWolf Jr., Gordon P.","article_content":"IDENTIFICATION OF UNKNOWN PLANTS One of the functions of the Arnold Arboretum staff is identification of unknown plants for the public. Since the accuracy and completeness of an identification depends not only upon the competence of the person making it but also upon the adequacy of the sample provided, some suggestions on preparing samples for identification are offered here. In plant identification, as in any scientific effort, the more information we have about the problem, the more likely we are to obtain a satisfactory solution. Frequently we receive a snippet of twig, perhaps2 or 3 inches long, with a few leaves-and we are then asked to provide an accurate and complete identification. With luck, some staff member will be able to recognize it on sight to its species -and if it is unusually distinctive, to its variety. But it is almost impossible to identify such a scrap to its cultivar (horticultural variety). There are about 250,000 different plant species in the world. In the United States and Canada there are probably about 20,000 species of plants in cultivation (and many cultivars of some of these). About 5,000 of these species are common in cultivation. An individual botanist or horticulturist can recognize at sight up to 3- or 4,000 species. In addition, he can recognize many more plants to their genus or family, and then determine the name of the individual plant with the help of plant keys. The point is that no one, no matter how studious, can be expected to identify at sight all of the 5,000 or so common garden plants, not to mention all of the others not usually found in cultivation. Identification of unknown plants at an institution like the Arnold Arboretum ought to be a two-way street. The questioner ought to find out the name of the plant that he is interested in (and he often also wants to know where to obtain the plant and how to grow it). But the identifier ought to get something, toohe wants to learn something about the habits of the plant-its growth, its hardiness, its usefulness, or the nuisance that it may cause. He would also like to have a specimen of the plant to keep, to tie all this information together for future reference. What Should Be Sent When You Want to Know the Name of 1 .A a Plant? piece of the plant. Send a twig or small branch, at least 6 to 1inches long, preferably with leaves. When possible include flowers and\/or fruits. Sometimes it is impossible to obtain a complete specimen of a plant. If neither flowers nor fruit are available, send a good sample of leaves and t~erig. If leaves are twig gone but interesting fruits remain, send them-but be to which they are attached. sure to include the 51 2. Notes on the plant. Send information on the habit or shape of the plant; where it is growing; its flower and\/or fruit color; fragrance of its leaves or flowers, if any; whether or not the fruits or leaves have been used for food or flavoring, and if so, a description of their flavor ; and the source from which the plant was originally obtained. A sample form for recording this information is shown below. 3. A color photograph, when possible. A clear, sharp color photo of the fruit or more conspicuous features of the help in making an plant, e. g. flowers, identification, especially if only a overall an shape, incomplete sample will often is available. This may be essential if you want How Should You cultivar identified. Prepare and Send a Sample for Identification? In either of these two ways : 1. Fresh specimens. Place the sample in a plastic bag and seal tightly. Do not add water-the moisture in the sample will be enough to keep it fresh-excess water hastens decomposition. Place the bag in a strong cardboard box, or press between two sheets of cardboard, as suggested for dry specimens (below). specimens. Place the sample between or 2. Dried newspaper and press under 2 the sample (in a board and tie or 5 to 10 folded sheets of dry books for several days. Then place single folded sheet of newspaper) between 2 sheets of cardtape securely to prevent damage from bending. 3 large GORDON P. DEWOLF, JR. 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Hardiness Zone Maps","article_sequence":8,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24449","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eab28.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald; Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard Uni~-ersity VOLUME 27 JUNE 30, 1967 PLANT HARDINESS ZONE MAPS NUMBER 6 hardiness zone maps have been a valuable aid to those interested in the adaptability of plants to specific climatic areas. Most are isotherm maps of geographical regions, based upon average annual minimum temperatures experienced at certain weather stations over some period of years. Many hardiness zone maps are available some cover small areas such as individual states, while others encompass entire countries. Unfortunately, many do not agree in their numbering schemes - so zone numbers assigned to individual plant species cannot be used in referring to all of the existing maps. In most cases they can be related only to the map used in assigning them. The two most widely used in this country are the Arnold Arboretum hardiness map and the Plant Hardiness Zone Map prepared by the Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. PLANT predicting - Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Maps The original map prepared at the Arnold Arboretum was published in the first edition ( 192 i ) of Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrub.s by Alfred Rehder. In this map, the United States and southern Canada (except for southern Florida) were divided into 8 zones characterized by 5 F. differences in lowest monthly mean temperature. A few years map was was as was first based later, the prototype of the present Arnold Arboretum hardiness prepared by Donald Wyman. It included the entire United States and published in his book Hedges, Screens and Yt'indbreaks in 1938. This map on of Agriculture, in 1936. A modification appeared in the second edition of Rehder's Manual ~f' Cultivated Trees and Shrubs in 1940. In that book, the southernmost part of the United States was not included and much of Canada was added, in keeping with the Manual's scope. published average annual minimum in the Atlas qf .American temperatures for the years 1895 to 1935, Agriculture, U.S. Dept. 53 The Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Zone Map in use since 1949 includes the (except for Alaska and Hawaii) and southern Canada. This was first published in Wyman's Shrubs and Vines for .Jmerican Gardens, and republished in his books Trees for American Gardens (1951and 1965), The Arnold Arboretum Garden Book ( 1954), Ground Cover Plants ( 1936), and The Saturclay Morning Gardener ( 196~~). entire United States 1967 Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map The Arnold Arboretum map has just been revised and appears in its latest I form in the center fold of this publicat~on.l Thrs 1967map differs from the previous version only in that hardmess zone lines have been re-drawn to conform to more recent weather data. The zone numbering system is unchanged - so zone numbers applied to specific plants in Rehder's manual and other publications by the Arnold Arboretum staff can be used with the new map just as well as with its predecessor. Plant Hardiness Zone Map, U.S. Department of Agriculture issued in 1960 as Miscellaneous Publication No. 814 of the Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture. It Agricultural contains uniform zones of 10 F., and sub-zones of 5 F. Since the Arnold Arboretum map uses zones of different ranges (5, 10,or 15 F.), discrepancies between the two are inevitable. Unfortunately for the casual user, these inconsistencies are small enough to be overlooked, and in several instances, writers have erroneously applied the hardiness zone designations of Rehder to the U. S. D. A. map. Table I shows the relationship between the two numbering systems. This map was Local Hardiness Zone Maps More detailed plant hardiness zone maps have been prepared for certain states and localities. The total area covered by such maps is still rather small. Fortunately some detailed maps use the same zone numbering system as the larger, more general maps. A good example is a recently prepared hardiness zone map of the state of Vermont.' This map uses the same zone numbering system as the U.S. Department of Agriculture map, but is based upon a larger number of weather stations in Vermont, so zone lines have been drawn in more detail than m the larger map. As more areas are mapped in greater detail in this way, hardiness zone maps will become increasingly useful. Additional copies of this map are available from the Arnold Arboretum postpaid. 2 Hopp, R.J. and R.E. Lautzenheiser. 1966. Extreme winter temperatures University of Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 648, 19 pp. at 10~ each, in Vermont. 54 TABLE I Canadian Plant Hardiness Map The Canadian Plant Hardiness Map, released this year by the Canada DepartAgriculture, covers all but the far northern parts of Canada. This map represents a new approach in that it is an attempt to describe hardiness zones m terms of the whole complex of environmental factors that contnbute to severity of climate, rather than in terms of a single factor such as average annual min~mum temperature. To as great an extent as possible, actual observations of plant adaptability have played a part in describing hardiness zones. Direct comparisons between this map and those prepared in the United States are not valid, because of the different criteria used in describing hardiness zones. ment of 55 The Future It appears that the business of preparing hardiness zone maps and assigning plants to their proper zones is still in the experimental stage. Hopefully, we may eventually see wide adoption of a single hardiness zone map for the United States, for North America, or even for the northern hemisphere. If this is some day accomplished, the problem of assigning realistic zone numbers to specific plants will still remain. The ability to match plants with zones over wide regions will be the ultimate test of any map, and many more careful observations will have to be made before this can be done with most of our present trees and shrubs. Meanwhile the existing maps will continue to be useful. But to use them most effectively we must recognize their differences and use published zone references only with the right map. DONALD WYMAN HARRISON L. FLINT 56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Our Disappearing Opportunities","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24448","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14ea76f.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weeks, Edward","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , - A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University , VOLUME 27 JULY 28, 1967 OUR DISAPPEARING NUMBER 7 OPPORTUNITIES1 Ladies and Gentlemen : I welcome the opportunity of being the first speaker in this Parkland Conferand my theme which I shall keep coming back to is this : that the character and beauty which we strive to preserve in this city and Commonwealth too often have disappeared before we citizens ever knew that it was threatened. The American elm is a New England character. It used to shade the oldest house ; its wine-glass silhouette is a landmark in any meadow; its branches make a summer cloister of famous streets in Salem, or Williamstown, and with the lilac bush it is the last guardian of the deserted farm. Rightly it is called the Patriot Tree, for under its boughs treaties were signed with the Indians, Washington took command of his Army; George Whitefield, the evangelist, preached to thousands on Boston Common ; and under it came the rushing embrace of the home-comings after Appomattox. The sight of an old elm makes you feel younger ence _ and, for the moment, surer that good things last. A century ago in the Atlantic the \"Autocrat of the Breakfast Table,\" Dr. Oliver Wendell Holmes, sent out a call for someone to do the biography and the photographs of the oldest elms in New England, and in time the book appeared with superb plates by Henry Brooks, and the text by Lorin L. Dame. This big folio entitled Typical Elms and Other Trees qf Massachusettsis a rarity today. Every tree in it was more than a century and a half old, and what beauties they were: elm, oak, ash, tupelo, and the great chestnuts which Thoreau used to measure with two-and-a-half spreads of his arms. Chief among them was the elm, known as the Great Tree; it was planted in the Common about 1640, and it suffered from its first major cavity a hundred years later; a tree dentist in 1 740 1 An address presented at the Parkland Conference, sponsored by the Trustees of Reservations, in Boston, May 24, 1967. 2 Boston: Little, Brown, and Company. 1890. 57 cleaned out the rot, filled the cavity with clay, and other substances,\" and then bandaged it - yes, bandaged it - with canvas. The big beauty lived on until February, 1876, for a total of 236 years, and when the winter gales finally destroyed it Bostonians rushed to the spot and took home slabs and cuttings for table-tops and chairs. The Dutch elm disease was not man made, nor was the blight which exterminated our chestnuts, but the fact that one of these splendid species is now extinct and the other dangerously threatened should make us more intent to preserve the good trees we have. But has it? Not that I can see. The elms at the southern extremity of the Boston Common are diseased and dying; they should be cut down and healthy ones planted in their place. In the Public Garden we have lost many of the rare trees planted there by Frederick Law Olmstead ; the replacements are commonplace willows. On Commonwealth Avenue we should have a second growth to preserve the magnificence of the Mall when the elms there go. Whose responsibility is it to care for the life of our trees? The beauty of our heritage and the skill with which we are planning for tomorrow make Boston one of the four most visually-exciting cities in the U.S., the other three being San Francisco, New York, and Washington. Let me signalize the things which have made this so, beginning with the Park Street Church, the most beautiful single building in the center of town, and the one which continually attracts the eye. Next, Saint-Gaudens's monument in memory of Colonel Robert Gould Shaw, unquestionably the finest of all our city monuments. The Boston Common, the most vital and historic city Park in the nation, and across from it the Public Garden at this moment with its regiments of tulips and fruit trees in blossom in its prime. The Bulfinch State House, and close by the whole splendid monument of Beacon Hill. Then the North End, so different with a warmth and style all its own, as is well seen on North Square; it is the oldest part of our city to be in continual residence, and we must thank the Bostonians of Italian heritage for giving it the good restaurants, the friendliness, and safe streets, full of children, which are its character today. Go to the Arnold Arboretum when the azaleas and lilacs are ready ; go some late afternoon to the Fenway for the vitality of the gardens and the vista of the Museum; and if you love trees as I do, seek out those two giant elms on Branch Street which must have been planted when the Mt. Vernon proprietors were building Federalist Boston, and which are, I believe, the two oldest elms in the at any time of night or day to the Charles River Basin, the most modern concept in our city and one that has not yet been destroyed satisfying by the automobile. High rise of glass and concrete can be built anywhere; it is these things I speak of which rank Boston with the three other cities I cited. And how do we city today. Finally, go compare? 58 How are we keeping things up? Look at the Park Street Church, for instance. Not long ago the ugly rumor reach~I! me that the proprieters of the church were considering the possibility of an eight-floor office building erected so close to the church that it would cover the rear portion. This is one of those disappearing acts that could happen before any of us were the wiser, and what a shame it would be! Or consider the Shaw Monument directly facing the State House, the Monument which should have such significance in our struggle for civil rights, the Monument which more tourists look at than any other in the city. For fourteen months it has remained in disgraceful condition, the figures streaked and defaced, the sword in Colonel Shaw's hand twisted and broken away by vandals. The same apes have torn the sword from Washington's monument in the Garden, and nobody gives a damn ! I fail to understand why Boston takes such little pride in its best things why it is not the responsibility of someone to restore our elegance. Our streets, whether in the Back Bay or on Beacon Hill, are so filthy with papers and beer cans that I should be ashamed to compare them with the residential streets Mayor John Lindsay has cleaned up in New York. As for the pollution of our nearest water, you only have to smell the Charles to know how foully we compare with Washington in that respect. The beauty of Boston Harbor was once known from here to Shanghai. If that shambles can be restored by Mr. Pei and Edward Logue,' we shall be deeply in their debt. But what about the canopy overhead? By any measurement our air ranks Boston as one of the ten dirtiest cities in the nation. Isn't it a luxury to talk about preserving the beauty and character of the city when the air we breathe, the milk and water we drink, the land we love is as polluted as it is in this Commonwealth ? The problem of pollution nation-wide is appalling, and the worst thing about it is that it is all man-madc, made right here in the U.S. We are all to blame. The pollution from our automobile exhausts and factory chimneys, the industrial waste which fouls up our streams, the accumulated lethal acids which run off the land into our ponds and lakes, for these we have only ourselves to blame. It sometimes seems to me as if our scientists worked in hermetically sealed cells intent on one-half of an equation and never counting the cost. Having perfected pesticides which could be dusted on our crops and DDT sprays which might bring momentary protection to our trees, it seems never to have occurred to chemists that what they were pouring over the land and forest could not be dissolved by water and would grow more lethal in its poisoning as it passed through each living organism. One wonders if the sludge now accumulating in Lake Erie will grow to the point where even ice-breakers can no longer pene- trate it. The best we can do about pollution locally is to join up into teams of vigilantes J. 3 Respectively, Mr. I. M. Pei of I. M. Pei and Associates, Architects, and Logue, Development Administrator, Boston Redevelopment Authority. 59 Mr. Edward objectives in mind : to clean up and protect the neighborhood for which responsible, and to set aside in our own domain more of the open places and wet lands, more of the woods, and what the English call the \"green lungs'' which our grandchildren must have in the future. This was the original and driving purpose of the Trustees of Reservations ; it is something that the community can do better than the state, and indeed, better than Washington, unless of course the project proves to be as large as the Cape Cod National Seashore Park. I think we should celebrate those communities which are taking the initiative. I think that in January the Governor ought to cite each community which has carried to completion a major project in Conservation. High on any list at this with two we are the town of Dennis which at a recent town meeting voted with which to purchase 1700 acres adjoining the town; 1700 acres of beach, uplands, and salt marsh taken out of reach of hit-and-run contractors, to be enjoyed in perpetuity by the people. Where can you do better than that? I think the towns of Lincoln and Concord should be cited for their vigilance in zoning, for protection of their trees, and taking such pride in the health of their marshes and wetlands. I think we should cite Bedford for the long, patient work they have done in cleaning up their share of the Concord River. Credit should go to Sudbury for its unique Garden-in-the-Woods, and for those who have built up the quarter of a million dollars which will fortify it for the future. And to Salem great credit for preserving the glory of Chestnut Street. Now coming back to Boston, wouldn't ~t be wonderful if the powers that be in the State House could be persuaded to invest in the depollution of just one famous Massachusetts river? It might be the Charles ; it might be the Concord ; it might be as ambitious an undertakmg as the Merrimack. The Commonwealth of Pennsylvania was not afraid to clean up, to depollute miles and miles of the upper reaches of the Schuylkill. Why should we sit on our hands? A famous Canadian and a bold conservationist, Roderick Haig-Brown, has proposed that all existing pollution of air, land, or water should be taxed in proportion to the demand it makes upon the resource. \"All pollution,\" he says, \"is the use of public property for private profit. It can be most accurately measured at its source and it should be taxed.\" Well, why not? Too often the attitude of the authorities is how much pollution can we get by with short of causing a disaster; how much of the cost of industry or settlement can we shove forward to be paid by the next generation. But if we had a pollution tax that could be graduated so as to insure the maximum elimination over a period of years, what a God-send it would be. EDWARD V~'EEKS, Editor Atlantic Monthly Press moment would be $65~?,000 - 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"More Plant Registrations","article_sequence":10,"start_page":61,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24445","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170896d.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the A rnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 % AUGUST 25, 1967 MORE PLANT REGISTRATIONS NUMBER 8 Arnold Arboretum has been appointed the International Registration for several woody plant genera and the National Registration Authority for certain other genera (,9rnoldia, `'ol. 23, No. ~, May 31, 1963). At the last International Horticultural Congress the Arnold Arboretum was also duly appointed the International Registration Authority for Weigela. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania is the International Registration Authority for Syri~rga. Plants that have been registered by these two registration authorities since the last listing in .4rnoldia on April 29, 1966 (Vol. 26, No. 3) are included in this list. The most recent publication dealing with plant registration in general, both in America and abroad, is American Association qf Botanical Gardens aud Arboretums (~unrterly Neusletler No. 6~ (pp. 1-44), October 1965. THE -t- Authority Cornus florida `Pygmy' A chance seedling found in Winchester, Tennessee about 195 ~ and introduced by Leon Hawkersmith & Sons Nursery of Winchester. It has been noted briefly in their catalogue of 1962 and the catalogue of the Tennessee Valley Nursery in \" 196.5. In the words of Leon Hawkersmith, 'Pygmy' is a dwarf white dogwood which was found at Riverside Nursery. At eight years of age, the plant is approximately four feet high. It produces an abundance of small 1~ inch white bracts which overlap.\" Cornus florida 'Springtime' The parent tree was noted in Spring Grove Cemetery in 1957by Mr. E. C. Kern of Wyoming, Ohio, who introduced it in 1960. \"This cultivar sets bloom buds at an early age, has \"flowers\" up to five inches in diameter, has a widespreading growth habit. The side branches over-grow the central leader. In the fall, the undersides of the leaves turn a distinctive purplish color.\" 61 Euonymus A europaeus 'Red Cap' seedling, first observed in 1952 in a lot of seedlings of Euonymus europaeus from an isolated plant at the North Platte Experiment Station of the University of Nebraska at North Platte, Nebraska. The originator and introducer is listed as the University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Nebraska. The plant was selected in 1956 and commercially introduced in 1967. It is not patented. Professor Glenn Viehmeyer of the North Platte Experiment Station states that it \"fruits more heavily and the fruits have a deeper color than the norm of the species. It is hardy throughout Nebraska and South Dakota,\" Zones 3 and 4, and will grow on \"all except waterlogged soils.\" Fagus sylvatica 'Cockleshell' A sport of Fagus syloatica 'Rotundifolia' first observed by Messrs. Hillier & Sons in the Eastleigh Nursery in Southampton, England in 1959. It was first article by C. R. Lancaster in the Gardeners Chronicle of October (Vol. 160, No. 1 i, p. 13~. It bears small rounded leaves only about 26, half the size of those of 'Rotundifolia' and it differs further from 'Rotundifolia' \"in its more compact habit, the leaves smaller, neater and more congested on the short, spur-like branches.\" Its present height is 10-12 ft., and it resembles a Lombardy Poplar in habit. described in 1966 an Forsythia ovata `French's Florence' A 5-foot shrub originating as a seedling of Forsythia ovata, from seeds originally obtained from the Arnold Arboretum in the 1920's, at French's Nursery, West Lebanon, N.H., and first noticed by Florence K. French. It first flowered in 1930 and was commercially introduced in 19~.0. In the words of Mr. Kendall W. French, the introducer, it \"has small flower buds and smaller, lighter flowers in West high. It has flowered every year smce 1930 in years when flower buds of other plants of F. Lebanon, N. H. \", onnta were winter-killed. This would be in the warmer parts of Hardiness Zone 3. than F. oaata and grows about 5 feet even Juniperus horizontalis `V'atnong' Watnong Nursery, Morris Plains, N.J. sent in this form of the Horizontal Juniper for registration. It is a seedling originating about 1955, and apparently first fruited in 1962, when it was selected. The Watnong Nursery has had it in commercial propagation since 1963. \"It is a female form that berries well. A vigorous grower with richer winter and summer color than other J. laorizontali.s forms. It forms a smooth carpet, never over 4 inches tall.\" It has been grown successfully in Zones 4 through 8. DIr. Donald P. Smith of Kalmia latifolia 'Bettina' Arboretum, Wash62 A mountain-laurel first observed in bloom at the National PLATE XX (Top) Fagus sylvatica `Cockleshell' bears small rounded leaves only about half the size of those of F. sylvatica 'Rotundifolia', and grows more compactly than the latter. (Bottom) Picea abies 'Bennett's Miniature' originated as a densely compact, pyramidal witches'-broom about 30 inches tall at the top of a 10-foot tree of Picea abies. 1950's, and named, described and registered by Dr. T. R. Botanist of that institution and named after Dr. Dudley's wife. In the words of Dr. Dudley, the \"flowers are campanulate-urceolate, deep purplish pink (7.5RP 6~1?on Nickerson Color Fan)-never open widely-inflorescences dense, bearing up to 100 flowers each.\" It will be fully described in the July 1967 issue of American Horticulture Magazine. ington, D C., in the Dudley, Research Koelreuteria paniculata 'September' unknown origin, approximately 25 years old, originated at BloomIndiana where it was discovered in 1960 by Indiana University and regisington, tered by Prof. J. C. McDaniel of the University of Illinois. It was introduced commercially in 1967. Prof. McDaniel notes: \"Flowering occurs consistently about 2 months later than in typical K. paniculata, or in late August to early September in Bloomington, Indiana and at Washington, D.C.\" The original tree is the most westerly of 3 trees southwest of the President's House at InA seedling of diana University. Philadelphus 'Miniature Snowflake' A shrub and sport of Philadelphus `Minnesota Snowflake', first observed about 1954 and propagated in 1956. It originated in the J. V. Bailey Nurseries, St. Paul, Minn., and was introduced by this firm. It \"attains height and width of about 2 feet. It has unusually clean and glossy foliage and very fragrant double white flowers similar to those of 'Minnesota Snowflake'. Hardy in St. Paul in Zone 4.\" Apparently it grows best in good loam but is quite adaptable. 'Bennett's Miniature' A dwarf variety of the Norway Spruce, discovered at Princeton, W. Virginia in 1964 and introduced by Wm. M. Bennett of Christiansburg, Virginia. The original is a densely compact, pyramidal witches'-broom about 30 inches tall at the top of a 10-foot tree of Picea abies and apparently over 20 years old. Mr. Bennett writes \"The annual growth averages approximately one half inch. The leaves are about 4inch in length, compact, and dark green m color. The overall effect is much tighter and more compact than any other dwarf or miniature Norway Spruce I have seen. Difficult to root but it has been grafted successfully for Picea abies the past two years.\" Pieris japonica grandiflora `Purity' K. Wada of Hakoneya Nurseries, P.O. Box 295, Yokohama, Japan, writes in the Journal qf the Royal Horticultural Society (Vol. 92, pp. ~6-28, 196 7 ) : \"It is doubtful whether this plant belongs to P. japonica or P. taiwanensis. The origin of Purity' is a mystery. It is very probable that it is a very important natural sport. It has very large pure white flowers, so large and so heavy that they weigh down the trusses which otherwise would be held upright.\" 64 Pieris japonica rosea 'Daisen' This has been described by K. Wada in the Journal qf the Royal Horticultural Society (Vol. 92, pp. R6-28, 1961 ) as Pieris japonica rosea Daisen Form. It is not clear whether he intended this as a cultivar since no quotes were included in the text, but if he did, to conform to the rules set up in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants ( 1961 ) the name should be Pieris japonica rosea 'Daisen'. K. Wada writes \"In Mount Daisen (Japan) a plant with deep pink coloured flowers was found and this plant has flowers that are almost red at opening, and becoming pink until they fade. The flowers are deeper pink in colour when the plant is kept in a cool place, without much strong direct sunshine. Under full sun the flowers fade. This Daisen form makes a very well shaped plant with plenty of beautiful leaves.\" It is not clear if this is in cultivation. japonica rubra 'Christmas Cheer' This has been described by K. Wada in the Journal qf the Royal Horticultural Society (Vol. 9~?, pp. ~6-28, 196 i ) : \"In our batch of seedlings from openpollinated seeds of the Pink Pieris gathered from different sources, a very deep rose or almost red flower was obtained. This has been named P. japonica rubra 'Christmas Cheer'. From the appearance of this outstanding cultivar, 1', japonica shows promise of reviving its old fame. This new form is so striking and so outstanding and rivals in beauty the modern greenhouse plants. It blooms earlier than regular P. japonica, in the earlier part of March, at the same time as Rhododendron mucronulatum or Cyclamen coum, and its flowers are highly frost-resisiant. As it blooms so early the flowers are often covered with snow but they come through without suffering. It blooms extremely freely at the nursery stage. Moreover, the flowers are deep rose and give highlights to wnnter gardens. As a pot plant it is splendid and compares favourably with pot-growazaleas. In florist shops many of the Lily-of-the-Valley-like trusses, attractive deep rose in colour, cannot fail to attract the general public. No doubt, this new Pieris is a grand addition to the spring pot-grown plants as well as to garden plants.\" Pieris 'Bennett's Contorted' A clone of Pinus strobus originated at Blacksburg, ~'a. and noted in 1966, found by Wm. M. Bennett of Christiansburg, Virginia. It is about 10 years old. Mr. Bennett has compared it with P. strobus `Contorta', 'Prostrata' and 'Pendula' and he states it is different from all three. The contorted branching structure appears to result from a 180 change in directional growth from vertical to completely pendulous in alternate years. Staking is not required. Pinus strobus ~ - Syringa The in the pp. following lilac names have been listed as registered by Dr. John C. April 1967issue of .4rboretum and Botanical Garden Bulletin (Vol. 1, 19-20), the last 5 being merely listed with no description: 65 Wister No. ~, a private garden Selly Park, Birmingham, England. It was introduced by Hillier & Sons, Winchester, England. Mr. C. Roy Lancaster of that firm notes that it is \"a small tree or suckering shrub with densely hairy twigs and small neat leaves. The young shoots are olive green, tinged with brown on the exposed surface conspicuously brown pubescent. The buds are minute, 1-2 mm., ovate, pale brown. The leaves are elliptic to oblong-elliptic, acuminate; rounded at the base, doubly serrate, sessile or nearly so (petioles 1 mm.), 25-27 mm. long X Ulmus X elegantissima 'Jacqueline Hillier' A seedling elm of unknown origin first observed in 1965 in in 15-16 mm. across. The upper surface is dark green, scabrid with short hairs. Lower surface paler and scabrid.\" It was growing originally on a heavy clay soil, but like the species is adaptable to chalk soils, definitely hardy in the British Isles. Weigela 'Centennial' Probably a clone of Weigela florida, this is a seedling of Weigela 'Dropmore Pink' probably crossed with l~'. 'Profusion'. It originated at the Experimental Farm in Ottawa, Canada about 1953 and first flowered in 1955. It was named by W. A. Cumming, Research Officer, Ornamental Horticulture, Experimental Farm, Research Branch, Canada Department of Agriculture, Morden, Manitoba, and will be released for commercial propagation by that organization in 1967. According to Mr. Cumming it is \"hardier than all popular cultivars tested at Morden with the exception of `Dropmore Pink' from which it may be distinguished by its deeper erythrite red flowers.\" It is listed as hardy in Zone 3 of the Arnold Arboretum Hardiness Map, and will tolerate slightly alkaline soils at least to a p H of 7.5. A few other plants which were named several years ago have been recently registered (June 1967) by M. Van Rensselaer, Director, Saratoga Horticultural Foundation, Saratoga, California. Description of each can be found in the Journal qf the California Horticultural Society, in the references mentioned : DONALD WYMAN 66 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Paul D. Sorensen Appointed Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist at Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":11,"start_page":67,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24438","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170b76f.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"DR. PAUL D. SORENSEN APPOINTED ASSISTANT HORTICULTURAL TAXONOMIST AT ARNOLD ARBORETUM Dr. Paul D. Sorensen was appointed Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist at the Arnold Arboretum effective July 1, 1967. He received his B.A. degree from the University of Iowa in 1962 with a major in French but specialized in plant taxonomy for his M.S. in Botany in 1966 and his Ph.D. degree in 1967. He has taught botany and especially plant taxonomy as an assistant ~n several courses within the University of Iowa, the Extension Service in Adult Education and during the summer sessions. He also served as an assistant curator in the herbarium of the University of Iowa from 1964 to 196 i . During the summers of 1965 and 1966 he assisted Dr. T. E. Melchert in a botanical foray in Mexico and Guatemala with the special goal of collecting information on wild species of Dahlia and their contribution to this genus of cultivated plants. His thesis was on the systematics of the genus Dahlia and he brings much of this research material to Jamaica Plain for further studies of this important group of plants. Through the areas of Iowa and Wisconsin the preservation of natural areas receives much more attention than do the problems of conservation in New England. Dr. Sorensen has an active interest in the use of natural areas as \"lw~ng museums\" and his interest in local floras can be associated with his earlier studies on the native vegetation of Iowa and Wisconsin. Dr. Sorensen is a member of the International Association of Plant Taxonomists, the American Society of Plant Taxonomists, the American Institute of Biological Sciences, the Society of Sigma Xi, the Botanical Society of America, the Iowa Academy of Science and the Nature Conservancv. Dr. and Mrs. Sorensen and their three children will live in Jamaica Plain. 67 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mrs. Lazella Schwarten Retires as Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":12,"start_page":68,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24446","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14ea326.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"MRS. LAZELLA SCHWARTEN RETIRES AS LIBRARIAN OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Mrs. Lazella Schwarten retired July 1, 1967as Librarian of the Arnold Arboa post she had held since 1944. Mrs. Schwarten was invited to join the Arnold Arboretum staff by Dr. E. D. Merrill in 1944. She had begun her professional career in 1931 at the New York Botanical Garden where she had also worked with Dr. Merrill. While at New York, Mrs. Schwarten began work she was to continue throughout her appointments at Harvard, which served to relate closely the libraries and efforts of the two institutions in contributions of value to the botanical field. Working with Dr. Harold Rickett at New York, Mrs. Schwarten began the compilation of a standard list of abbreviations of botanical titles. This was published in 1947in the Bulletin qf the Torrey Botanical Club. An appendix was compiled and issued in 1961 and together these works are fundamental in the proper uniform and convenient citation of botanical periodicals and are used throughout the world. Beginning in 1947, Mrs. Schwarten also served as compiler or co-compiler of the Index to American Botanical Literature which is issued in the Bulletin ~f the Torrey Botanical Club. During the organization and development of the American Society of Plant Taxonomists, Dlrs. Schwarten worked closely with the late Dr. Wendell Camp in placing this important index to botanical literature in the hands of American taxonomists. She serves still as a collaborating compiler of this valuable tool which can be prepared only in a comprehensive library such as that of the New York Botanical Garden or of the botanical institutions at Harvard. In 1958, :l~rs. Schwarten was asked to head the combined libraries of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium in Cambridge. She has been responsible for the major task of combining the libraries in Cambridge, and of organizing a library for horticultural research and reference in Jamaica Plain. These two libraries, combined, are considered among the most complete in the Western hemisphere and certainly the most readily usable to botanists. A particular feature of these hbraries developed by Mrs. Schwarten, with the influence of Professor Alfred Rehder strongly evident, is the extensive section of monographs and pamphlets classified according to families in the same sequence as retum, the herbarium. No bald statement of factual information communicates the role of Mrs. Schwarten as a person. In her years of service as Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum, she dispensed a vast amount of helpful information to students, staff and to visitors seeking her help. In fact, her most characteristic expression May I help you\" was truly and sincerely an invitation to say \"yes\". She was a friend to everyone who came to her for help. The library of the Arnold Arboretum will forever bear her mark. 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"September Bloom","article_sequence":13,"start_page":69,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24454","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eb728.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 SEPTEMBER 8, 1967 SEPTEMBER BLOOM There comes a NUMBER 9 time between mid-summer flowers and autumn leaves when color in trees and shrubs is hard to find. In New England this time is September. careful selection of plants can add a reasonable amount of color to the even at this \"quiet\" season. A list of trees and shrubs with colorful fruits in September would be a long one, dominated by members of such rosaceous genera as Cotoneaster, Crataegus, Malus and Sorbus but also including species of Berberis, Cornus, Euonymus, Ilex, 1'Vlagnolia, Prinsepia, Rhus, Viburnum, and others. A list of plants with colorful flowers in September is much shorter, and appears below. Careful selection of plants from this list, supplemented with late-flowering herbaceous annuals and perennials, can insure that your garden will remain in bloom in September, as well as in earlier months of summer. BUT landscape Ornamental Woody Plants Commonly Blooming in September 69 HARRISON L. FLINT 70 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Mr. Victor F. Marx Appointed Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium","article_sequence":14,"start_page":71,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24447","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14ea36b.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"MR. VICTOR F. MARX APPOINTED LIBRARIAN OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND THE GRAY HERBARIUM Mr. Victor F. Marx was given a joint appointment as Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium on July 1, 1967. Mr. Marx studied at the College of Horticulture and Viticulture in Budapest, Hungary. He combines horticultural and librarian skills through his B.S.A. and M.S.A. in Agr~culture from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, and his Master of Librarianship from the University of Washington in Seattle. While pursuing graduate studies, Mr. Marx worked as a laboratory instructor in horticulture and as a research assistant at the Botanical Gardens of the University of British Columbia. Just previous to joining the staff of the Arnold Arboretum he was Instructor of Librar~anship and Head of the Acquisitions Department in Bouillon Library of Central Washington State College in Ellensburg, Washington. Mr. Marx is a member of the American Library Association, Special Libraries Association, American Association of University Professors and Beta Phi Mu, International Library Science Honor Fraternity. Mr. Marx is married. Mrs. Marx is also a librarian and a graduate of the University of British Columbia School of Librarianship. GEORGE H. PRIDE APPOINTED ASSOCIATE HORTICULTURIST AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Mr. George H. Pride was appointed Associate Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum effective July 1, 1967. Mr. Pride received both the A.B. degree in Biology and the Di.A. degree in Botany from Clark University ~n Worcester, Massachusetts. He has been an instructor in the Public School System of Worcester from 1937 to 1967, teaching Botany, Zoology and General Biology; Lecturer in Botany in the Evening College of Clark University m 1962; and Botanist at the Worcester Natural History Museum for several years. Mr. Pride has extensive field experience with both horticultural and purely botanical material. He has collected in the Gaspe Peninsula for the herbarium of Clark University. Part of a collecting trip to Haiti was spent with Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey. He has explored the countryside of England, Scotland and Wales for both botanical and horticultural material. With Dr. David Potter, formerly of Clark University, he has done an intensive survey of the flora of Central Dlassachusetts and is now writing a book on the wild flowers of this state. He is a member of many botanical and horticultural societies. He has served as horticultural show judge, trustee and editor of publications for several of these societies. He is the author of several articles of popular and scientific interest on botanical and horticultural subjects in national and regional publications. Mr. Pride is active as a hybridizer of iris, lilies and daylilies. He is the recipient of many awards and medals from the Worcester County Horticultural Society and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for horticultural exhibits during a period of over forty years. He has received the Eugene Parsons Memorial Award for Horticultural Achievement, and the Achievement Medal from the American Hemerocallis Society. 71 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"George H. Pride Appointed Associate Horticulturalist at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":15,"start_page":71,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24441","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d1708126.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"MR. VICTOR F. MARX APPOINTED LIBRARIAN OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM AND THE GRAY HERBARIUM Mr. Victor F. Marx was given a joint appointment as Librarian of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium on July 1, 1967. Mr. Marx studied at the College of Horticulture and Viticulture in Budapest, Hungary. He combines horticultural and librarian skills through his B.S.A. and M.S.A. in Agr~culture from the University of British Columbia, Vancouver, and his Master of Librarianship from the University of Washington in Seattle. While pursuing graduate studies, Mr. Marx worked as a laboratory instructor in horticulture and as a research assistant at the Botanical Gardens of the University of British Columbia. Just previous to joining the staff of the Arnold Arboretum he was Instructor of Librar~anship and Head of the Acquisitions Department in Bouillon Library of Central Washington State College in Ellensburg, Washington. Mr. Marx is a member of the American Library Association, Special Libraries Association, American Association of University Professors and Beta Phi Mu, International Library Science Honor Fraternity. Mr. Marx is married. Mrs. Marx is also a librarian and a graduate of the University of British Columbia School of Librarianship. GEORGE H. PRIDE APPOINTED ASSOCIATE HORTICULTURIST AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Mr. George H. Pride was appointed Associate Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum effective July 1, 1967. Mr. Pride received both the A.B. degree in Biology and the Di.A. degree in Botany from Clark University ~n Worcester, Massachusetts. He has been an instructor in the Public School System of Worcester from 1937 to 1967, teaching Botany, Zoology and General Biology; Lecturer in Botany in the Evening College of Clark University m 1962; and Botanist at the Worcester Natural History Museum for several years. Mr. Pride has extensive field experience with both horticultural and purely botanical material. He has collected in the Gaspe Peninsula for the herbarium of Clark University. Part of a collecting trip to Haiti was spent with Dr. Liberty Hyde Bailey. He has explored the countryside of England, Scotland and Wales for both botanical and horticultural material. With Dr. David Potter, formerly of Clark University, he has done an intensive survey of the flora of Central Dlassachusetts and is now writing a book on the wild flowers of this state. He is a member of many botanical and horticultural societies. He has served as horticultural show judge, trustee and editor of publications for several of these societies. He is the author of several articles of popular and scientific interest on botanical and horticultural subjects in national and regional publications. Mr. Pride is active as a hybridizer of iris, lilies and daylilies. He is the recipient of many awards and medals from the Worcester County Horticultural Society and the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for horticultural exhibits during a period of over forty years. He has received the Eugene Parsons Memorial Award for Horticultural Achievement, and the Achievement Medal from the American Hemerocallis Society. 71 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fall Courses at the Arnold Arboretum, 1967","article_sequence":16,"start_page":72,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24440","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170bb6d.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1967 Fall Courses of the Arnold Arboretum \"Walk-Talks\" at the Case Estates, Weston Instructor: Mr. George H. Pride A series of walks around the grounds of the Case Estates in Weston with informal discussions of botanical and horticultural points of interest encountered. The objectives are to make one more aware of plants in the fall, to find enjoyment in the diversity of plant material and to understand better what plants are and what they do and, to a certain extent, how they do it. Plant families will be studied informally in their seasonal condition. Footwear suitable for woodland walking is recommended. Parking is available near the barn at 135 Wellesley Street. All classes start at this location. In case of rain classes will be held indoors at 133 Wellesley Street. 5 sessions, Wednesday afternoons, 2-4, September 27 to October 25. Registration Fee for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum* - $2.50 ; $5.00 for others. Collecting and Treating Seeds of Woody Plants Instructor: Mr. Alfred J. Fordham Do you save seeds to grow your own plants? Mr. Fordham, propagator at the Arboretum, will discuss the methods and problems of collecting and storing seeds and fruits and the methods of pre-treatment to insure proper germination. 4~'ear proper footgear for brief walks around the area near the Dana Greenhouses during part of the time. 1 meeting, Thursday morning, 10-12, September open 28. Class limited to 25. Free; but only to Friends of the Arnold Arboretum.* Meet at Dana Greenhouses. Fall Field Course in Ornamental Plants Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman Informal outdoor talks and field trips on the Arboretum grounds under the supervision of Dr. Wyman and the horticultural staff make up the Fall Field Class. Different plant groups are studied on each trip. The class sessions will consider the berried trees and shrubs, autumn color, the evergreens, and similar topics. Opportunities are afforded for questions and answers relating to the identification and culture of ornamental plants as seen in the Arboretum or as suitable for culture in New England. In case of rain or cold weather, meetings are held indoors. 5 sessions. Friday mornings, 10-12, September 29 to October 27. Registration Fee for Friends of the Arnold Arboretum* -L. 50 ; ~5.00 for others. * Information or on writing calling the how to become a \"Friend of the Arnold Arboretum\" can be obtained Arnold Arboretum, Arborway, Jamaica Plain, Mass. O~L130. by 72 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seed Dispersal by Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":17,"start_page":73,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24453","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eb36f.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VocuME 27 DECEMBER 8, 1967 NUMBERS 10-11 I SEED DISPERSAL BY BIRDS AND ANIMALS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM nature's scheme of things, many remarkable methods have been evolved for of seeds. Study of these methods is fascinating indeed, and sometimes essential to those involved in collecting seeds for propagation. To understand these methods allows one to collect seeds after they are properly developed for propagational purposes, but before they are lost through natural agencies of dispersal. For the past seven years, notes have been made concerning birds and animals that gather fruits and seeds in the Arnold Arboretum. This has not been a concentrated study, but more a matter of jotting down notes in pass~ng, and it deals only with woody plants. Although the seeds of some woody plants are dispersed in late spring and throughout the summer, most do not ripen until autumn, rightly considered the time of fulfillment in nature-a season of natural abundance. As ripening occurs, changes come about in the appearance and character of fruits and many plants become dispensers of food. Fleshy fruits containing seeds dependent for dispersal upon animals and birds change to a wide variety of colors attractive to those responsible for their distribution. The pulp furnishes food to the bird or animal, which in turn carries the seeds about in its digestive system until they are ejected in its droppings-and thus are scattered about the countryside. Migratory birds may carry seeds far away from their point of origin. In late summer, when the nesting season has passed and birds have reared their young, some species congregate in multitudes. These flocks roam the countryside, feeding on fruits and seeds as they ripen. In the Arboretum, trees and shrubs that are heavily laden with fruit can be virtually stripped clean after one visit from such flocks. Removal is often so thorough that large trees bearing countless thousands of fruits one day can be divested by the next-to an extent where it becomes a task to locate one or two fruits. Fleshy fruits of cherries (Prunus species), spicebush (Lindera benzoin), vibur- IN dispersal 73 nums, and the like must often be collected just prior to their final color changes. At this point the seeds will have developed enough to be viable but the fruits will not have reached the stage where they would appeal to their earners. Since autumn is a season of plenty, birds can exercise preferences. Some favorites are Asiatic sweetleaf (Symplocos paniculata), sassafras (Sassqf'ras albidum), dogwoods (Cornus species), blueberries (G'accinium species), and magnolias. These plants must be watched closely to collect the fruits before they are taken. Woody Plants Whose Fruits Have Been Observed Being Taken By Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum Acer maple (Acer rubrum) is ready for natural dispersal about the first week in Squirrels and chipmunks have been observed cutting down branch tips bearing fruits and then going to the ground to eat them. Sugar maple (Acer saccharum) normally disperses its fruits about mid-September, but in the Arboretum the fruits are taken by squirrels and chipmunks before they can be detached and dispersed by the wind. In one large heavily-laden tree near the Dana Greenhouses, six chipmunks and two squirrels were once seen taking fruits at the same time. In a matter of days, they had removed all of them. Red June. Aesculus Most horsechestnut and buckeye fruits are ripe about the last week in September at the Arnold Arboretum, and are taken and buried by squirrels-the normal method of dispersal for this group. The squirrels sometimes carry horsechestnuts great distances to soil suitable for easy burying. It is not uncommon to find numbers of horsechestnut seedlings coming up in the Dana Greenhouse nursery, although the closest trees are several hundred yards away. Amelanchier Shadblow serviceberry (Amelanchier canadensis) ripens toward the end of June and catbirds, robins, one cardinal and chipmunks have been seen taking its fruits. Betula Juncos were noted eating birch seeds from the snow along Meadow Road in December, 1963. Caragana Caragana seeds ripen in mid-July and dispersal is by propulsion. As the pod dries, tensions are built up in the pod walls. When these tensions become great enough, the pod ruptures and the two halves spring into spirals, hurling the seeds in all directions away from the plant. On hot sunny days, a sharp snapping sound can be heard-this announces that the seed must be harvested promptly before it is lost. At this time, pigeons and robins search the ground for seeds that have been shed. 74 E 0 0 b 0 s K JS c b ~5 0 x ~ >t 3 ~ _U S d c M 'S N R 0 a 0 ~ w B m U i~ w O y r~ d a Y .d a u a E~ Chaenomeles In the Arnold Arboretum, rats have been seen biting fruits to get the large number of seeds they contain. through flowering quince Chamaecyparis mid-January, 1965, chickadees and siskins were seen cypress cones while one over-wintering towhee was on the feeding on seeds that had fallen. In Chionanthus feeding from falseground, apparently Chinese frmgetree (Chionanlhus retusus) is ready for collection about the first of October, and robms, starlings and pigeons have been recorded as eating the fruits. Cornus Many species of dogwood are favorites of birds. Fruits of a number of species ripen erratically and birds make daily visitations to collect those that are prime. Giant dogwood (Cornns controversa) has been noted as bearing ripe fruits from August 8 through September 7, while Korean dogwood (Cornus coreana) ripens erratically from August through October. Robins, starlings, catbirds, and grackles have been observed taking these fruits. Flowering dogwood (Cornus,florida) is a great favorite-it ripens about mid-September and disappears quickly. In 1964, a prolific year for this species, all the fruits had been taken by October 1. Robins, grackles, starlings, and catbirds, together with chipmunks, have been listed as taking flowering dogwood fruits. Japanese dogwood (Cornus kousa) is of interest for it appears to be ignored by the birds. Chipmunks, however, remove the seeds from the large strawberry-like fruits and leave the plants with their cheek pouches bulging. This defeats natural dispersal, for chipmunks store the seeds in their larders where there is no possible chance for reproduction. Japanese dogwood in its native habitat must have some other carrier, possibly a large animal such as a deer, that takes these fruits and distributes the seeds as nature intended. Cotoneaster Some years ago, during captivity and some came the height of the parakeet craze, many escaped from to the Arnold Arboretum. The cotoneasters attracted these birds in autumn, and sometimes several would be seen at a time, slitting crushing the hard seeds with their powerful beaks. Parakeets are gregarious birds and it is interesting that they were frequently seen flying with starlings. One for some odd reason became lead bird for a starling flock. He perhaps was more properly attired for this position than were his hosts. Chipmunks also work the cotoneasters and this year took all the fruits from four plants in front of the Dana Greenhouses, starting in early July when the fruits were green and undeveloped and a cut test showed the seed contents to be small and open the fruits and milky. 76 PLATE XXII Two genera that supply large quantities of bird food are Malus and Sorbus. (Top) 3falus sargentii, the Sargent crabapple. ( Bottom) .~orbus aueuparia, the European mountain-ash. Ehretia Heliotrope ehretia (Ehretia thyr.s~ora) fruits ripen erratically through the month of September and birds visit regularly to take those that are ready. Chickadees, house sparrows, and one unidentified sparrow have taken its fruits. Elaeagnus Cherry elaeagnus (Elaeagnus mult~ora) is recorded as ripening erratically through the month of July, with starlings taking its fruits. Autumn elaeagnus (Elaeagnus umbellata) ripens from September I through early October. It is taken by starlings, robins, and catbirds. Evodia The shiny black seeds of evodia are ready for collection in late and starlings come to feed when the capsules open. Fraxinus September, The fruits of American ash (Fraxinus americana) remain fixed to the trees through the winter. Red-winged blackbirds have been recorded as taking the fruits in late October, and chickadees have been seen feeding on them during the winter. Gleditsia During the winter, crows perch in honeylocust trees (Gleditsia triacanthos) and pull off the pods. Then holding them between their feet, they tear them apart and eat the seeds. The usual method of dispersal is by wind. The pods, which are firmly affixed to the tree, are torn off by high winds during winter and carried some distance away. Sometimes they can be seen being propelled by wind over frozen snow and can be found lodged against obstacles some distance from the parent plant. Kalopanax Castor aralia (Kalopanax Pictus) produces heavy crops of fruits in alternate do not years in the Arnold Arboretum. Its fruits ripen at once and birds make daily visits to collect those that are when the fruits are the six trees located in different parts of the Arboretum. In season, found on these trees every day. prime. Starlings, robins, and pigeons come to feed ready. This tree is a favorite with pigeons and they seek out they can be Ligustrum Only pigeons and starlings are have been observed Lonicera collecting privet fruits, which ripe about mid-October. Most honeysuckles have wide latitude in ripening time. Some berries will be prime while others are still green. Fruits are taken by robins, starlings and pigeons. Pigeons sometimes descend on these plants in such numbers that the branches are bent to the ground by their weight. 78 '\" \" a ro c OIl '\" c 0 00 eo a .~ x oj a OIl b U vi b0 C i 60 G b =' U rr .., o W~ .....c a, d' o a .~ o '\" o bIJ ::: 00 , B62x#&o; '.. p~ ] ,- .~ ~ d U 00 \" \" ~~ I a' U O.g ::: ... ~ W K ..... 3~ \"'~ o ~ \" bIJ '\" a~ c \":\" ::: S :S a~ h E ,~ n, OIl \" E~ Lonicera remain on quinquelocularis transluscens produces into winter. because the plant they lack attractive color. Its berries are whitish translucent fruits which not taken by birds, no doubt Magnolia Magnolia seeds, another favorite of the birds, ripen and are ready for collection about mid-September. Dispersal of these seeds is most interesting. They are contained in chambers within colorful cones. At ripening, the chambers open and the seeds emerge and dangle on slender cords called suspensors. In this way they are available to birds while still on the tree, and have been seen being taken by robins and starlings. Those that fall from the trees are eaten by rodents, and dispersal is thereby defeated. Squirrels have also been seen taking these seeds. . Malus The crabapple collection in the Arnold Arboretum unquestionably provides food for birds, over a longer period of time, than any other genus. This extensive collection includes 96 species and 191 cultivars. Fruits of some crabapples are soft and ready to be taken by birds in mid-September, e.g. tea crabapples (Malus hupehensis), midget crabapple (M. micromalus) and Sargent crabapple (M. sargentii). Others go on into winter in a firm condition and are not soft enough until they have been frozen. Still others for some reason pass through the winter and spring without being taken, and remain on the trees as mummified fruits after the new leaves have unfurled. Those that are ready in autumn have been taken by cedar waxwings, cowbirds, robins, flickers, bluejays, and starlings. Starling flocks sometimes have comprised hundreds of birds. The chipmunks that have inhabited the Arboretum m ever-increasing numbers during the past few years also work the autumn crabapples. During the cold winter months, when snow covers the ground and there is a dearth of food for birds, the crabapple collection really comes to the fore. Flocks of robins, sometimes comprising 40 or 50 birds, are not an uncommon sight in the crabapple collection during winter. Some authorities have suggested that these robins nest further north and have migrated only this far south for the winter. Large flocks of cedar waxwings also take advantage of the winter crabapples. Other birds noted in winter are starlings and purple finches, and in years when evening and pine grosbeaks invade the region they can be found in the Arboretum's crabapple collection. Many winter birds peck through the pulp of crabapples and eat the seeds. In the process, the pulp falls to the ground and is eaten by pigeons, pheasants and rabbits. more Morus Birds are very fond of mulberries, which ripen about mid-June. Our records show that thrashers, catbirds, robins, and rosebreasted grosbeaks have eaten mulberries. 80 PLATE XXIV Viburnum fruits ripen erratically and birds make daily visits to those that are prime. ( rop) Fruits of Siebold viburnum ( G'. sirboldii ) turn from red to black as they ripen in late August, and are taken quickly when this color change occurs. (Bottom) Withe-rod ( V. cassinoades) fruits pass through several colors during ripening: green, yellowish, reddish, and blue-black. They are taken at the last color stage. Nyssa Black tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) is the only tupelo hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. Plants of this species are usually dioecious, and fruiting trees bear heavy crops each year. These blue-black fruits are a favorite of the birds, and when they are prime the fact is announced by the chattering of robins, starlings, catbirds, bluejays and waxwings, as they completely strip large trees in a few days. Squirrels and chipmunks also take black tupelo fruits. Parthenocissus Boston ivy (Parthenocissus tricuspidata) fruits well each year and its berries are ripe about mid-October. Starlings and robins have been noted eating its fruits. Phellodendron Starlings and robins have been seen taking the fruits of cork trees. In the last few years, the fruits of all but the Chinese cork tree (Phellodendron chinense) have been gone long before winter. This species, however, retains its firm fruits into mid-winter. During this time starlings and crows perch on its branches to feed. In 1964a pair of mourning doves was seen feeding beneath a Chinese corktree in the Arboretum from early March on into mid-May. During the early part of this period snow would sometimes fall and cover the ground. However, each time the snow melted the pair would return. Some years ago a large volunteer corktree appeared in a patch of natural woods at the Arboretum. It fruited well, and during the winter furnished a continuous food supply to a solitary mockingbird. In late February, an exceptionally large flock of roving cedar waxwings found the tree and spent several days devouring its fruits. The unfortunate mockingbird, its source of food eliminated, disappeared. Prunus The cherries are favored by many kinds of birds, but our records only show those seen working Sargent cherry (Prunus sargentii). Catbirds, starlings, robins, cedar waxwings, and pigeons descend in numbers when its fruits are ripe. Chipmunks have also been seen leaving these trees with cheek pouches filled. Pyracantha Firethorn fruits ripen in early September and robins, starlings and chipmunks. its fruits have been taken by Chipmunks, in removing fruits from the espaliered plants on the Dana Greenhouse cold storage building, do so in a systematic manner. They start at the bottom of a branch and progress upward leaving the sections where they have worked completely barren. Quercus Bluejays are the only birds seen taking 82 acorns. Squirrels and chipmunks, however, are busy in the oak collection during September and October and frequently collect acorns before they have developed enough for propagation purposes. Rhamnus Robins, starlings, Arnold Arboretum. and pigeons have been Rhus seen taking buckthorn fruits in the Our only observation concerning Rhus is that of Sambucus a flicker eating berries of poison ivy (R. radicans). We have no record of which birds take our elderberries, but we do know that they disappear immediately when ripe. Along route US 1 in 4~'estwood, Massachusetts, hundreds of starlings were seen for several days eating fruits from an extensive mass of American elderberry plants (S. canadensis). Sassafras birds, and it is difficult to collect ripe seeds before they are taken. The fruits are borne on bright red stalks resembling golf tees. We lack records of which particular birds take them, but a check of this species at the Arboretum and in natural woods has shown that the fruits have all disappeared by mid-September, leaving only the colorful red stalks. Sassafras (Sassafras albidum) is another favorite of - Sophora its Japanese pagoda tree (Sophora jnponicn) flowers late, its fruits develop late, and pods remain on the trees into winter, when squirrels and starlings have been eating the seeds. Sorbus on seen Large flocks of starlings and robins descend autumn and the ripe fruits quickly disappear. Symplocos the mountain ash trees in early Asiatic sweetleaf (Symplocos paniculata) with its beautiful display of intense blue fruits is another favorite of birds, including starlings, robins, and catbirds. Its fruits ripen about mid-September and can disappear in a day in the Arboretum, so when seeds are needed for propagation the seeds must be gathered before they are fully ripe Taxus In mid-October when yew (Taxus species) fruits are ripe, a host of birds appear. Our records show that starlings, cedar waxwings, robins, and bluejays, as well as squirrels, come to feed. Tsuga About mid-October when the cones of Canada hemlock (T. canadensis) open to release their seeds, many birds come to feed. Those noted in the Arboretum are juncos, goldfinches, white throated sparrows, bluejays, chickadees and siskins. 83 Vaccinium are fond of blueberries. During a recent Meader, formerly of the University of New Hampshire, I remarked on the variety of birds invading his commercial blueberry planting. His comment was: \"The only things that don't eat blueberries are fish, and the only reason they don't is that they can't get at them.\" In the Arnold Arboretum, robins, flickers, starlings, bluejays, chickadees, towees, cedar Many species of birds and animals visit to the home of Prof. Elwin M. waxwings and thrashers have eaten blueberries. Viburnum Many Viburnum species produce fruits that ripen erratically over a span of time and birds make daily visitations to take those that are ready. Seeds of these species must be collected before they are fully ripe. Catbirds, robins, starlings, thrashers, chipmunks, and squirrels have been noted taking fruits of Viburnum species. Fruits of Sargent cranberrybush (Viburnum sargentii) have a disagreeable odor and perhaps are distasteful, for they are usually ignored by birds. Pheasants, however, have been seen feeding on them in mid-winter, perhaps in desperation. The Arnold Arboretum as a Sanctuary The Arnold Arboretum provides a sanctuary for birds and other small wildlife a garden of fruit-producing woody plants surrounded by a highly urbanized area. Birds that come in autumn find few enemies and stay to feed on the continuing progression of ripening fruits. They move about the grounds devouring all that is edible. The starling, an introduced alien, is the most abundant bird found in the Arboretum, as evidenced by its frequent appearance in the above list. It collects in large flocks whose numbers far surpass those of all other birds combined, presenting a serious problem in the Arboretum. Starlings are largely responsible for disappearance of ornamental fruits before they can be enjoyed by visitors or collected for propagation or distribution to other institutions. The vast population of chipmunks and squirrels are also a nuisance, for they often take fruits before the seeds are developed enough for propagation. It is interesting that in the suburbs such plants as mountain-ash and pyracantha often hang heavy with fruit into winter, while these plants in the Arboretum are usually stripped by October. During a recent field trip to Long Island (October 11-14), countless flowering dogwoods (Cornus florida) were seen bearing crops of untouched fruits while this year's crop at the Arboretum was gone by midSeptember. Plants of Asiatic Sweetleaf (Symplocos paniculata) were seen hanging heavily with soft ripe fruits-a condition never seen in the Arboretum, for here these are taken by birds before they ripen fully. -it is ALFRED J. FORDHAM 84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rooting of Conifer Cuttings","article_sequence":18,"start_page":85,"end_page":90,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24451","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d14eaf26.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jesinger, Rolf; Hopp, Richard J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 27 DECEMBER 29, 1967 ROOTING OF CONIFER 1 CUTTINGS NUMBER 12 e (Seedage is the most common means of propagating most conifer species, but when cultivars or forms of distinct character are to be propagated, vegetative means usually must be resorted to. Propagation by cuttings has been highly successful in some cases. In others, propagators have had to resort to the more difficult and costly process of grafting in order to insure success. The study described here was an attempt to gain fuller understanding of the environmental requirements for successful cutting propagation of several conifer species and cultivars, selected to represent both easy- and difficult-to-root types. This study constituted a part of the graduate study requirements of the senior author. The following is an edited translation by the same authors of their article \"Einfluss der Jahreszeit auf die Stecklingsvermehrung von Koniferen\" which appeared in the German horticultural journal GARTEN~'ELT, Vol. 67, No. 15, pp. 309-311, 1967. -EDITOR.) Procedures Cuttings of ten different conifers (see Table I) were taken at approximately bimonthly intervals : in December, February, April, June, August, and October. The same stock plants were used throughout in order to eliminate genetic variations. In most cases a single stock plant provided all the cutting material. (The ages of the stock plants were not specifically discussed in this article. As a matter of interest, all stock plants were at least 15 years of age except those of Juniperus horizontalis 'Glomerata' which were between 5 and 10 years old. Those of Abies concolor, Juniperus virginiana, and Tsuga canadensis were at least 25 years old.-EDITOR.) Cuttings were treated with the rooting hormone indolebutyric acid (IBA) in talc at 4 different concentrations. A fungicide (Captan 50W) had Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station Journal Series Paper No. 194. 2 Jesinger, Rolf. The influence of various treatments on the rooting of cuttings conifers throughout the year. M.S. Thesis, University of Vermont, Burlington, 1967. I of certain Vermont. 85 been added to the preparation. Then the cuttings were inserted in a greenhouse bench in a mixture of equal parts by volume of coarse perlite and peat moss. Thermostatically controlled heatmg cables kept the temperature of the rooting medium at about 68 F. for half of the cuttings, and at about 79 F. for the other half. Each rooting temperature was replicated 4 times in the greenhouse bench, to allow proper statistical treatment of the results. At each sampling date, 40 cuttings of each species or cultivar were made and assigned to each treatment combination (temperature-IBA concentration). Thus the study involved a total of 1280 cuttings of each conifer. The air temperature in the greenhouse during the day normally reached about i 3 F., but during the summer months occasionally went as high as 860 F., even with the use of an evaporative air-cooling system. Intermittent mist was regulated by a Mist-A-Matic controller. This device controls mist applications in relation to rate of evaporation of water from a counterbalanced screen in the misted area. The time required for root formation is known to vary among different species of conifers. In this study, the time needed for cuttings taken m December to root was compared. The times required for at least 50~0 of the cuttings of the following 5 conifers to show root formation were : Cuttings of Picea glauca `Conica' were removed after 13 weeks, Pinus mugo after 14 weeks, and Tsuga canadensis after 18 weeks. Only a small percentage of the cuttings of these 3 species showed roots, but it appeared that no further root formation could be expected. Picea pungens glauca and Juniperus virginiana were always left in the cutting bench for 15 weeks but showed relatively little rooting throughout the year. Results The time of year when cuttings medium, and hormone cuttings of the various tant taken, the temperature of the rooting played differential roles in the rooting of conifer species. Time of year was the single most imporwere concentration factor. All cuttings of Juniperus chinensis `Hetzii' rooted when taken in June. Good rooting was also obtained at both rooting temperatures on cuttings taken in April, August, and October. Similarly, cuttings of Juniperus horizontalis 'Glomerata' rooted best in June, August, and October. With both of these junipers, rooting of cuttings taken in the remaining months was improved at the higher temperature of the rooting medium. Juniperus chinensis `Pfitzeriana' averaged nearly 90lo rooting in April, while 86 TABLEI OPTIMUM TREATMENTS FOR ROOTING CUTTINGS OF TEN CONIFERS (Arranged According to Ease of Rooting) 87 the most successful treatment resulted in 70% to 80~o rooting at other times of the year. As with the previously described junipers, the higher temperature of the rooting medium gave better results than the lower. Higher IBA concentrations, in general, increased rooting at the lower temperature. Picea glauca `Comca', too, in several cases rooted better at the higher temperature. However, only cuttings taken in April gave rooting percentages as high as 80% to 90'0. Propagation at other times of the year did not appear to be economical. Thuja occidenlali.s 'Globosa' rooted successfully throughout the year, with a peak of almost 100~o rooting in April. Surprisingly, under our conditions rooting was suppressed when the cuttings were taken in October. This might have been overcome had the cuttings been left a longer time in the propagating bench. The higher rooting temperature almost doubled the rooting percentages over those for the lower temperature in October. In contrast to the previously described conifer species, best results with Tsuga canadensis and Abies concolor were obtained when the temperature of the rooting medium was kept at 68 F. Rooting as high as 70% occurred on Tsuga canadensis in February and at a slightly lower percentage in April, with the 2.0% hormone concentration. Abies concolor is generally propagated by seed, but there is great interest in vegetative propagation of individual plants that are especially desirable because of color or growth habit. They could be propagated by grafting, but cuttings would be preferable if a rooting percentage of at least 50% could be obtained, In this study, this percentage was reached or surpassed in December, February, and October. Pinus mugo generally showed only small rooting percentages. Relatively good results were obtained when new shoot tips were used as propagating material in June. Detailed results for 3 of these species are shown in Plate XXV. Discussion This brief description of our results indicates that these conifers can be propagated successfully by cuttings at one time of the year or another. The best results varied not only with the time of year but also with the temperature of the rooting medium. Increasing the IBA concentration above 0.8~o in most cases did not result in greater rooting. The maximum rooting percentage for each species, together with the conditions under which it was obtained, is shown in Table I. For comparison, the average rooting percentage for each species is included in the table, considering all treatments and all times of the year. So far, we have limited our discussion to rooting percentages but, in general, the higher rooting percentages were accompanied by more and larger roots per cutting. 88 PLATE XXV Effect of time of year, temperature of the rooting medium, and concentration of indolebutyric acid (IB,A ) on rooting of cuttings of three conifers. Additional factors, of course, affect the rooting of cuttings to varying degrees. Nutritional status of the stock plant, rest period, juvenility, and environmental factors all play important parts. These factors were not specifically included in this study. (NoTE : For the benefit of the European reader, the German article concluded with a discussion of the geographical location, temperature, and light conditions of Burlington, Vermont, where the investigation was carried out, as compared with Hamburg, Germany.) 3 ROLF JESINGER RICHARD J. Hopp University of Vermont 1 Burlington, Vermont 05401 3 Present Address: Rohm and Haas Company, Philadelphia, Pa. 19105. 90 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":19,"start_page":91,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24436","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170b326.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Hopp, Richard J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS Allen, Mea, 196i, 2i3 It was The Hookers pp. qf Kew, 1785-1911, Michael Joseph Ltd., London, high time that someone wrote a good popular biography of Kew's illusHookers, and Mea Allen has done it. Quite possibly some potential biograwere scared off by Leonard Huxley's excellent Life and Letters qf Sir J. D. phers Hooker, for the younger Hooker was a gifted correspondent, and the record of his writings was complete enough to compose- mostly in his own words-what trious is still the liveliest and best account of his life. W. B. Turrill's 1963 effort on Sir Joseph's behalf was, to say the least, a disappointment. Meanwhile, the elder Hooker, Sir William Jackson, has been comparatively neglected and treated offhandedly as the famous father of a more famous son. Miss Allen decided to handle both Hookers, as a team, in one volume. Considering the size and scope of their achievements she has done a remarkable job, for there are chapters in her biography that could justifiably be expanded to entire books. Because her control over the material and subject matter is judicious, she creates a well-balanced, fast-moving, and often entertaining personal history. Sir William obviously presented the author with research problems. She has painstakingly investigated obscure sources to piece together the story of his youth : from the time he collected a rare little moss through his association with Dawson Turner (his future father-in-law), his introduction to Sir Joseph Banks, his voyage to Iceland, his years as a teacher at Glasgow, his arrival at Kew, and his subsequent efforts to build that institution into one of the greatest botanical gardens of all times. There are moments when one wishes that Miss Allen either could or would indulge us with greater detail, but that might upset the balance of things. Joseph, devoted to his father, followed in his footsteps and surpassed his achievements as a scientist. No one can describe his voyage to the Antarctic with the Ross expedition or his adventures in the Himalayas better than he did himself in letters and journals, but Miss Allen has done well with shorter accounts, for she has a gift of selecting the right amount of detail to keep the story alive even though it is abbreviated. Hooker's friendship with Darwin, his involvement with the Origin qf Species, his desperate battles with the Government to save Kew, are also told this way. Personal and family matters run through the narrative, and the association between father and son is in constant focus even when Sir William is but a ghost. If there is a negative criticism to be made it is that, since the Hooker family - 91 nieces, nephews and various in-laws keep cropping up in the hard put to identify them. Miss Allen tried to remedy the problem by supplying a genealogical chart in the back, but in so short a book some of the lesser characters could be omitted. The author did a great deal of scholarly research, and the more serious readers may wish that she had given a was a large one, text and the reader is complete set of references for their use. But the casual reader, for whom the book was evidently written, will probably not miss them. The Hookers qf Kew is an excellent brief account of the long, productive lives of two of England's greatest botanists. Lovers of Kew, science, history, and exploration should welcome and enjoy it. S. S. 92 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXVII","article_sequence":20,"start_page":93,"end_page":96,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24444","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d1708928.jpg","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXVII Illustrations are in bold face type Abies - balsamea, witches'-broom, 48 propagation, propagation, - 'Red Cap', 62 Fagus grandifolia, hedge, Plate IV, - europaeus ?b cephalonica, witches'-broom, 48 - sylvatica 'Cockleshell', 62 ; Plate Acer campestre, - hedge, Plate V, 26 ginnala, hedge, Plate V, 26 platanoides, hedge, Plate V, 26 Birds and Animals, Seed Dispersal by, in the Arnold Arboretum, 7384 XX, 63 Flint, Harr~son L., articles by, 15- 16, 17-27, 53-56, 69-70 Fordham, Alfred J., articles by, 50, 73-84 29- Forsythia 62 ovata 'French's Florence', Book review : The Hookers qf Kew 178~-1911 by Mea Allen, 91-92 Buxus sempervirens, hedge, Plate Growth, method of, in Scots pine, Plate X, 35 Growth of woody plants, time of, effect of fertilization, 6, 7 Hardiness Zone Maps, Plant, 53-56 Hedge, How to Have a Good Clipped, 17-22 - 11, 23 Cedrus libani, witches'-broom, propa- gation, 48 Chamaecyparis pisifera hedge, Plate VI, 27 Colorful 'Plumosa' Twigs in Early Spring, Plants 15 5 -, Best Plants, -, 18-19 with, Conifer Cuttings, Rooting of, 85-90 Conifers, Dwarf, from Witches'Brooms, 29-50 Cornus florida - Demonstration Plantings, 22 -, Fert~l~zation and Watering, 20 Pygmy', 61 61 1 'Springtime', 28 -, Pruning for Best Results, 19-20 ; I Plate I, 21 -, Starting a Hedge, 17-18 Hemlock, Canada, 48; Plate XIX, 49; 50 Hookers qf Kew, 1785-1911, The, by Mea Allen (Book Review), 91-92 Hopp, Richard J., article by, 85-90 Identification of Unknown Plants, 5]-52 DeWolf, Dr. Gordon P., Jr., Appointed Horticultural Taxonomist, -, -, article by, 51-52 Dwarf Conifers from Witches'- Brooms, 29-50 Fertilization, effect of, on time of growth of seedlings of three species, 7 Euonymus alatus 'Compactus', hedge, Plate III, 24 93 Japanese-Chinese Subregion, list of plants introduced in the Main Botanical Gardens in Moscow from the, 8-14 Jesinger, Rolf, article by, 85-90 Juniperus horizontalis `4~'atnong', 62 Kalmia latifolia 'Bettina', 62-64 Koelreuteria pamculata 'September', 64 - - rosea 'Daisen', 65 65 - - rubra 'Christmas Cheer', Pine, Jack, witches'-broom seedi lings, 4l, 46 ; Plate XVIII, 47 Pine, Pitch, witches'-broom, 34 ; Larix Lapin, laricina, witches'-broom, gation, 48 + P., article by, I-14 propa. - Plate XI, 36 - --, seedlings, 42, 36 46 7 XXII, i Maps, Plant Hardiness Zone, 53-56 -, -, Arnold Arboretum, ~3-54 -, -, Canadian, ~~ -, -, relationship between Arnold Arboretum and USDA Maps, 55 4 -, -, U.S.D.A., 54 Victor F., Appointed Librarian, Marx, Malus sargentii, Plate Pine, Red, witches'-broom, 34 ; Plate XI, -, -, -, propagation, 48 Pine, Scots, method of growth, Plate X, 3.5 34 ; Pine, Virginia, witches'-broom seedlings, 46; Plate XVIII, 47 Pine, White, cones, 38 ; Plate XV, 41 1 -, -, 71 Moscow, collections, -, -, Main Botanical 1 Garden, witches'-brooms, 30, 38-46: list of plants introduced from Plate IX, 33 ; Plate X I I, 37 ; Plate XIII, 39; Plate XIV, 40; Plate the Our 60 Japanese-Chinese Subregion, 57- XV, 41 8-14 -, --, -, propagation, 46, 48; seedlings, 38, 42, 44-46 ; 45 Disappearing Opportunities, and winter from Soviet Plate XIX, 49 -, -, -, Phenological groups hardiness, species Middle Asia, :i-6 Plate XVI, 43; Plate XVII, Pinus banksiana, witches'-broom - Phenological groups, distribution of species from Japanese-Chinese Subregion in, Philadelphus 'Miniature Snowflake', 3-5 - seedlings, 4`?, 46; Plate XVIII, 47 nigra ` Hornibrookiana', 46 resinosa, witches'-broom, 34 ; Plate XI, 36 - --, -, - propagation, 48 64 rigida, witches'-broom, 34 ; Plate Picea - abies, witches'-brooms, 44 - XI, 36 'Bennett's Miniature', 64 ; Plate XX, 63 - -, -, strobus -, - 'Maxwellii', witches'-brooms, 'Tabulaeformis', witches'- - seedlings, 42, 46 `Bennett's Contorted', 1 cones, Plate XV, 41 65 46 - - -, witches'-brooms, 30, 38-46 ; - brooms, 46 glauca 'Conica', witches'-brooms, 48 - Plate IX, 33 ; Plate XII, 37 ; Plate XIII, 39; Plate XIV, 40; Plate XV, 411 -, --, propagation, 46 ; 48 ; seedlings, 38, 42, 44-46, - rubens, witches'-brooms, 48 Pieris japonica grandiflora 'Purity', 64 94 Plate XIX, 49 -, -, Plate XVI, 43; Plate XVII, 4;i Pinus sylvestris 'Beauvronensis', 46 Pinus sylvestris, method of growth, 34; Plate X, 35 - -, -, propagation, 48 Sutton, S., book review by, 91-92 5 Symplocos paniculata, Plate XXI,75 Syringa, registration of cultivars, 6.5-66 virginiana, witches'-broom seedlings, 46; Plate X~'III, 47 Pride, George H., Appointed Asso1 ciate Horticulturist, i Registrat~ons, More Plant, 61-66 Rooting of Conifer Cuttings, 85-90 -, optimum treatments for, 87 --, effect of time of year, temperature, concentration of IBA, Plate der's `Alexander's Advance', 'AlexanAristocrat', 'Alexander's Pink', 'Miss Canada', 'Lucelle', `~9rs. J. Herbert Alexander', `Pom', 'Itedbud', 'Superba', Taxus 66 cuspidata, f'late XXII I, ~9 -, hedge, Plate 23 Thuja occidentalis 'Robusta', hedge, Plate XXV, 89 Schwarten, Mrs. Lazella, Librarian, Retires, 68 Seasonal Rhythm of Development of Woody Plants and Its Importance in Introduction, 1-14 Seed Dispersal by Birds and Animals in the Arnold Arboretum, 73-84 Acer, Aesculus, Amelanchier, Betula, Caragana, 74: Chaenomeles, Chamaecyparis, Chionanthus, Cornus, Cotoneaster, 76; Ehretia, Elaeagnus, Evodia, Fraxinus, Gleditsia, Kalopanax, Ligustrum, Lonicera, 78; Magnolia, Malus, Morus, 80 ; Nyssa, Parthenocissus, Phellodendron, Prunus, Py racantha, 82 ; Quercus, 82-83; Rhamnus, Rhus, Sambucus, Sassafras, Sophora, Sorbus, Symplocos, Taxus, Tsuga, 83 ; Vaccinium, Viburnum, 84 September bloom, list of woody plants for, 69-70 i Sorbus aucuparia, Plate XXII, 77 Sorensen, Dr. Paul D., Appointed 2014201420142014 VI, 49 27 i Tsuga canadensis, 48, 50; Plate XIX, - -, hedge, Plate Il', ~?S UlmusXelegantissima `Jacquel~ne Hillier', 66 Viburnum cassinoides, Plate XXIV, 1 81 - 201420142014 - prunifolium, hedge, Plate III, 24 1 sieboldii, Plate XXIV, 81 Weeks, Edward, address by, 5i-60 Weigela 'Centennial', 66 Winter hardiness, modification of, 6-7 Winter hardiness of plants of various phenological groups, 4 Winter hardiness, species from Soviet 6 Middle Asia, 5-6 Winter hardiness, species introduced from Japanese-Chinese Subregion, 3-~ Witches'-Brooms, Dwarf Conifers from, 29-50 -, Blueberry, Highbush, Plate VII, 1 31 -, cones, -, Pitch Plate XV, 41 1 Assistant Horticultural Taxonoi mist, 67 Spruce, witches'-brooms, 30; Plate VIII, 32 ; 44 ~ Pine, 34 ; Plate XI, 36 -, progeny, 48 ; Plate XIX, 49 -, Red Pine, 34 ; Plate XI, 36 -, seeds and seedlings, 4? ; Plate 95 XVI, 43 ; Plate XVII, 45; XVIII, 47 -, -, Plate Spruce, 30, 44; Plate VIII, 32 White Pine, Plate IX, 33 ; Plate XII, 37 ; Plate XIII39; Plate XIV, 40 Wyman, Donald, articles by, 53-56, 61-66 96 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23494","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060a728.jpg","title":"1967-27","volume":27,"issue_number":null,"year":1967,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Snow Damage","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24433","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170ab6f.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA - a ~ VE 1 FEBRUARY 11, 1966 , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 NUMBER 1 SNOW DAMAGE ~NOW over heavy and ton area, storms during the past few in the eastern weeks have on deposited large amounts of snow and wide areas part of the United States. Some of this has trees been very wet snow, causes a which, when it falls shrubs, and freezes, is very great deal of bending and breaking of branches. In the Bos- this condition is serious in many gardens because there has not been a thawing trend, and the snow and ice are still on the branches of many plants in large amounts. There is still opportunity for additional storms to bring more of the same. The branches of some trees and shrubs will withstand a great amount of bending and still not break. The tendency is for the Gray Birch (Betula popul~f'olia) to take heavy snows without serious injury. Plants 20~ tall have been bent to the ground in heavy snow and ice storms and still recovered without breaking. On the other hand, there are some weak-wooded trees that are among the first to break up in a heavy wet snow, among these being the Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii). This tree normally grows with wide-spreading, sometimes horizontal branches, and older trees have branches that are just not strong enough to hold the weight of a heavy wet snowfall. The Canada Hemlock seems to be pliable enough so that the branches do not break up nearly as readily as do those of the Douglas-fir. During the past few weeks this has been shown time and again when these two trees were growing side by side and subject to the same amounts of snow and wind. Willows, Red and Silver Maples and sometimes lindens will be among the first trees to show breakage. This is to be expected because these are notoriously weak-wooded trees. In the Arnold Arboretum a few of the dogwoods (Cornus jlorida) have been broken by the past storms. These grow with a horizontal branching habit and if the growth has been slow, that is, if side branches are close together as they frequently are, a heavy deposit of wet snow will not sift through but will build up on the branches and break them. During a storm with heavy wet snow that is starting to weigh down the branches it is advisable to knock it off gently. Certainly every opportunity should be taken after the snow has stopped fallmg to do this, before it freezes to ice. Once it freezes to ice and increased winds begin to blow, damage can be serious. One should take a bamboo pole, broom or rake and gently knock or pull the snow off the laden branches. Care should be taken not to pull down on them hard sometimes this is just enough additional weight to cause them to break. There is always the danger that in shaking off the snow, additional branches will be broken by the individual who is in a hurry and does not do the job carefully. This should be guarded against. - If it is an ice storm, with rain water freezing on the limbs immediately, there nothing that can be done to prevent breakage. In fact, one can do more harm than good in trying to knock ice off limbs of trees and shrubs. But with snow, before it freezes into ice, one can usually save a great many branches from breaking by carefully knocking it off. Once branches on shrubs have been bent to the ground and become covered with much snow, there is probably not much to be done especially if the branches have been frozen into the snow on the ground. Trying to alleviate this situation usually causes more damage than if the plants were let alone. It is advisable to assess the problem carefully. If a small Weeping Hemlock is loaded with snow to such an extent that the branches may break, it certainly is better to spend time and effort on that plant than a lilac, the branches of which can break off and be readily and quickly replaced by other branches in a season or two. An important branch on a Weeping Hemlock may be irreplaceable. The Yew hedge or the Japanese Barberry or Privet hedge can easily grow new is rosea branches if broken. The rare tree like a Franklinia alatamaha should be given every immediate attention. or Albizia julibrissin One should take note of the weather, and the first day when there is a good thawing period, additional snow might be knocked off to prevent accumulation on the branches from another storm. This is being written after two heavy snowstorms with many branches still heavily weighted with snow, and unfortunately another heavy storm is being forecast at the moment. There has been no thaw since the wet snow froze to ice on most of the plants ; hence, there is little that can be done at the moment to prevent additional breakage in a wet snow. One can only hope that the snow that does come will be powdery and \"dry\", and will create no damage as far as weighting down branches is concerned. There is a great deal to be learned about pruning by carefully studying the breaks that have occurred during heavy wet snows. Invariably some of the breaks will show weak crotches, dead or diseased wood that has weakened a branch ; and other breaks may be the result of poor pruning practices. Steps should be taken to repair such conditions on other plants and thus alleviate further damage. i L ~ ~3 &B . a ~3 0 c 5c O x O .n c ~. \" ..' o 3 o x~ U .. c o ~w roL a .bD O U B L 0 o C 0 0. gva c E . hc E.I G C arob b~ '** ~ 0 L~ s N0C 60 cd O ~a 0.i C B a~ ~ ~=a .C .C +a m Us s y o 3U L g ~L > L ~ro~ t. h~J C C 3 a~ x `~ E ~ ~rox ce ce bE ,b o U ~a x o c c ...~ ~ bt a Op ~w o U~w~ w ~< o ~` 9 PRUNING all danger from additional snow and ice storms has passed, one can collect the broken branches and saw off the remaining stubs. This should be done carefully and thoroughly, so that no stubs are left on trunks or large branches. Many of the breaks are not \"clean\" ; that is, a branch will break half way through and be left hanging. There is nothing that can be done with such a branch except to remove it, but first it should be cut (not pulled) from the stub, then the stub sawed off flush with the trunk or larger branch. A curved pruning saw is excellent for this with the first cut made only part way through on the under side of the stub, to prevent the bark from peeling off as it might if only one cut was made from the top. Some plants with weak crotches will undoubtedly split. If the split is not too long-possibly up to a foot-these might be repaired, especially if the branch is thick enough to take bolts with nuts countersunk in the trunk at both ends. In no case should such a break be \"repaired\" by binding the two pieces together with wire as this strangles the branch and markedly restrains the normal up and down movement of plant nutrients in the trunk. When main stems of vigorous shrubs like lilacs, mock-oranges, privets and honeysuckles are broken, the stubs remaining might just as well be cut off a few inches above the ground in an attempt to force other branches to grow from the bottom. It is advisable to paint all cuts an inch or two in diameter and larger, with some good asphaltum tree paint, thus preventing disease spores from gaining entrance to the growing tissue. soon as As begin to DONALD WYMAN 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"More Tree Trunks","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24429","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170a328.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA VE 1 A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPUI,AR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 APRIL 15, 1966 MORE TREE TRUNKS NUMBER 2 pictured in Arnoldia 23: #I1-12, 1963. Here photographed in Europe during the spring of 1965. Some of these trees have important histories all ihe~r own. They are growing in England, Scotland, Ireland, France, Denmark, Germany and Finland. THE -t- trunks of 28 trees 22 more, were are DONALD WYMAN Robinia paeudoacacia, England in 1761. Locust, planted PLATE II in the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, PLATE III (Upper left) Populus tremula X tremuloides with Mistletoe on trunk ( I iscuna album), Denmark. (Upper right) Populus canescens, Gray Poplar. (Lower left) laxus baccata, English Yew, 300 years old, 4 feet in trunk diameter, Ireland. (Lower right) Pinus pinea, Italian Stone Pine at Kew, over 100 years old. 6 PLATE IV (Upper left) l'suga heterophylla. Western Hemlock, \"Bodnant\", Wales. (Upper ri~ht) Cedrus libani, Cedar of Lebanon, 6 feet in diameter, Woking, England. (Lower left) Cupressus macrocarpa, Monterey Cypress, in Ireland, 7 feet in diameter, 100 years old. (Lower right) Arbutus unedo, Strawberry Tree, \"Bodnant\",Wales. 7 PLATE V Zelkavaserrata. Japanese Zelkova, Dublin.Ireland. (Upper right) Zelkoua sinica, Chinese Zelkova, Dublin, Ireland. (Lower left) Pauloivnia tomentosa, Royal Paulownia, Ireland. (Lower right) Pseudotsuga menziesii, Douglasfir, at Dawyck, Scotland. Tree is 130 3 ears old, girth 14 feet, 8 inches. (Upper left) 8_ PLATE VI Fagus sglnaLira `Yendula', Weeping European Beech. Said to be the largest in Europe, about 50 feet high with a spread of 165 feet, over 200 years old. Growing on the grounds of the Knaphill Nursery, Woking, England. 9- PLATE VII well over 6 feet in diameter, estimated to be 1000 years old. Windsor, Great Park, England. (Upper right) Prwuus serotin,a, Black or Rum Cherry, Finland. (Lower left) Eucaly~tus sp. Hillier's Nursery, Winchester, England. (Lower right) Corylus colur~ea, Turkish Filbert, 14 inches in diameter, Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh, Scotland. (Upper left) Quer~us robur, English Oak, 10 PLATE VIII (Upper left) H'raxdnus angustafolia (understock) graft union, Kew. (Upper right) l'agus sglvatica `Miltonensis' grafted on F, a,yhatica, graft union, Kew. (Lower left) Laurus nobilis, Laurel trained for exhibition, Essen Botanic Gardens, Germany. (Lower right) Betula albo-sinensis septentrionalis, in Fznland. 1 11 1966 Spring Pro~ram o~ the Arnold Arboretum FIELD CLASSES Friday mornings, April 29-May 27 10 A.M.-12 Noon Jamaica Plain Administration Building Dr. Donald Wyman will conduct outdoor talks and field trips on the Arboretum grounds. There is plenty of opportunity for questions relating to the identification and culture of these woody plants and an effort is made to inspect all groups as they come into bloom. In case of rain, meetings are held indoors. Meet at the Administration Building, Jamaica Plain gate. , Fee $2.00 Spring Classes at the Case Estates, Weston May 4-2~ and June 1 Dr. Thomas and weedy Wednesdays, 2-4 P.M. Hartley will conduct the classes and consider the native, cultivated plants that make up our spring flora. Techniques of recognition, identification, planting and maintenance will be offered but your questions may direct most of the discussion. Meetings will be held rain or shine. Meet at the parking area near the Barn, 135 Wellesley Street, Weston. ~ Fee $2.00 ~ _ '. Open House at the Case Estates on Sunday, May 8. Staff will be the grounds to answer questions from 10 A.M. 15-21. to 4 P.M. Lilac week at the Arnold Arboretum May The Dana Greenbouse area will be open to visitors Sunday May 22 from 9 A.M. to 5 P. M. A chance to visit the collections of hedge plants, bonsai and dwarf conifers and the greenhouses. At the Arnold Arboretum a driving gates are closed weekends during May. Enjoy car-free walk. 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"More Plant Registrations","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24428","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160896f.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA VE I A continuation of' the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 APRIL 29, 1966 NUMBER 3 MORE PLANT REGISTRATIONS Arnold Arboretum has been appointed the International Registration for several woody plant genera (Arnoldia 23: No. 5, May 31, 1963) and also the National Registration Authority for certain other genera. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation of Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania is the International Registration Authority for Syringa. Plants that have been recently registered by these two registration authorities since 1963 are included in this issue of Arnoldia. THE Authority Lilac Registrations cultivars have been offered for 1966 Registration. (Note: following used here conform to those used in \"Lilacs for America\" published by Symbols the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation, Swarthmore College, SwarthThe new more, Pennsylvania, 1953.) By Descanso Gardens, La Canada, California. Mark J. Anthony, Superintendent. Crosses made by John Sobeck 1955. These are crosses between 'Lavender Lady' of Lammerts and some of W. B. Clarke's early hybrids. 'Lavender Lady' is S. vulgaris X laciniata F2. The symbol VL is used to denote the parentage. A. 13 B. By F. L. Skinner, Skinner's Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. S V 'Maiden's Blush' MD X oblata dilatata X nulgaris hybrid) Clear pink. Flowers medium sized in large clusters usually several panicles at end of each branch. Very floriferous and fragrant. Bush about 5 feet tall. Quite compact, leaves like S. oblata dilatata hybrids but smaller. The symbol MD has been given. As far as we have information this is the first time this cross has been made. It is a remarkable achievement. 'Royal Purple' EH-D (vulgaris variety X S. oblata dilatata hybrid) Buds very dark almost black, flowers medium size, very fragrant. (S. microphylla superba D ~'II I Propagating stock has been sent to Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa which will distribute these varieties of Mr. Skinner's in the United States. JOHN C. WISTER Plants Recently Registered by the Arnold Arboretum 'Andover' Probably a long isolated end product of lower branch layering, first observed at Andover, New York in 1957 by W. A. Smith of Lyndonville, New York and later named by Bernard IIarkness of 5 Castle Park, Rochester, New York. The original plant, a dwarf, had a spread of 15 feet, with the original trunk no longer present. Other similar plants have also been found in the woods in the Andover region. The foliage of the original is no different morphologically from Abies balsamea, but apparently these are the result of layered lower branches of many past years. It is of little value as a ground cover for it grows too slowly. It may Abies balsamea be of interest to the collector of dwarf conifers. This can (and should) be propagated by cuttings. Additional information may be found in the American Association of Botanical Gardens Newsletter for April 1959. 14 Berberis X gladwynensis `~'illiam Penn' of the Originated from seed of Berberis X gladuynensi.s~, sown by ~lrs. Mary G. Henry Henry Foundation, Gladwynne, Pennsylvania ; and first flowered in 1960. Evergreen foliage with leaves similar to but smaller than those of B. julianae. To be introduced in 1966 by J. Franklin Styer, Concordv~lle, Pa. Issued Plant Patent ~2212. Registered by J. Franklin Styer Nurs., December 27, 1965. Cercis canadensis Flame' A seedling of unknown origin found in the wild at Ft. Adams, Mississippi by Mr. Anderson Gratz about 1905 and introduced by the Louis Gerardi Nursery of O'Fallon, Illinois in 1965. \"It has a more nearly erect branching habit than the usual seedling C. canadensis. The flowers open relatively later. Its flowers are large for the species, bearing frequently multiple, non-functional pistils, several anthers and about 20 petals per flower. The flowers open m campanulate form with color typical of the species.\" Registered by Prof. J. C. McDaniel, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois. June 30, 1964. 'Oklahoma' seedling of unknown parentage originating in the Arbuckle Mountains, Murray County, Oklahoma discovered by Otis Warren of Warren and Son Nursery, Oklahoma City, Oklahoma, in the spring of 1964. Introduced by the same nursery in 1965. \"Leaves closely spaced, thick and lustrous, resembles Cercis reniformis, bloom is a red-purple over the entire flower, and it blooms heavily at an early age.\" Found in Zone 6. Registered by Otis Warren November 12, 1964. Cercis reniformis A Malus seed taken from Malus 'Dorothea' and grown by Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum. The plant was about 11years old when its flowers were first noted in 1957. The flowers are 1~-2'~ in diameter, double with 12-15 petals, a purplish pink (7.5 RP 6\/ 12~ fading to a strong purphsh pink (7.5 RP 7\/10) on the Nickerson Color Fan. The leaves are reddish throughout the growing season and the purplish fruits are ~~~ in diameter. Named by Donald Wyman of the Arnold Arboretum for his younger daughter (Barbara Ann), sister of Dorothea Wyman, after whom M. 'Dorothea' was named. RegisA crab Barbara Ann' apple grown from tered July 17, Malus 1964. 'Dorothy Rowe' single to semi-double flowered crab apple, named by Arie den Boer of Des Moines, Iowa, grown as a seedling from seed of Malus speclabilis riversii, and first bloomed in 1962 at the age of 7 years. The flowers are white to cream colored, with many yellow stamens and shiny bright red fruit about an inch in diameter. Named after Mrs. Dorothy S. Rowe, 4500 Muchmore Rd., Cincinnati, Ohio. Registered May 6, 1964. A 15 Malus 'Guiding Star' Originated by Arie den Boer of Des Moines, Iowa, and introduced by Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio in 1963 has \"artistically shaped double flowers growing in clusters of 5 or more. Pink in bud, pure white when opened, very fragrant. Fruit is small and yellow. The tree is quite narrow, almost pyramidal.\" Registered by Paul N. Ellerbroch, Des Moines Water Works, August 7, 1964. Malus 'Henry Kohankie' Originated at the Kohankie Nurseries, Painesville, Ohio in 1943 and introduced by Henry J. Kohankie in 1946. It was one of several variants grown from several pounds of Malus sieboldii seed imported from Japan in 1938. \"The fruit is elliptic-oblong, ~.5-3.5 cm. long, 2-3 cm. wide, bright red, the flesh pale orange, in pendant clusters of 2-4, very effective in late autumn, persisting all winter.\" Hardy in Zone 5. Registered by George W. Parmelee, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan, March 23, 1965. Malus 'Spring Snow' Parkside, Saskatchewan, Canada by Mr. A. J. Porter, first propaat the age of 24-25 years, to be introduced by the Inter-State Nurseries of Hamburg, Iowa in 1967. Patent applied for. \"This selection blooms of which it is a seedling. It seems to but does not set fruit. Similar to Originated gated in 1963 at 'Dolgo' bloom more Hardy 1965. heavily and the flowers are slightly larger than Dolgo' flowers.\" in Zone 2. Registered by L. R. Sjulin, Inter-State Nurs., November 17, Pieris floribunda 'Millstream' Originated from seed sown in 1947 by H. Lincoln Foster, Millstream Gardens, Falk Village, Connecticut and selected in 1955. It is slow in growth of \"com- stoloniferous than the species, easy transplant.\" Registered by H. Lincoln Foster, June 15, 1963. pact growth habit, small foliage; more to 'Mrs. Stensson' Originated in the wild in Poland about 1905, first noted in 1955 by Prof. Kobenza (deceased), apparently Tilia platyphyllos X to~ne~ttosa. \"Tree at 40 feet high with compact, firm foliage of broad pyramidal habit. Branches of dark raspberry color, tomentose when young, glabrous when older. Leaves ~~-4~~ long, abruptly acuminate. Leaves tomentose in spring on both sides. Flowers creamy yellow, very fragrant. The leaves keep green and remain on the tree late in the fall.\" Named after Mrs. J. Stensson, Landscape Architect of Oakville, Ontario, Canada, who brought the scions from Europe. To be distributed by the Woodland Nurseries, Cooksville, Ontario, Canada. Registered by Mrs. J. Vilhelm Stensson, April 20, 1965. Tilia DONALD WYMAN 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hardiest Azaleas","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24434","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170af28.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ED A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR IN FORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 1 VE MAY 27, 1966 THE HARDIEST AZALEAS NUMBERS 4-7 four thousand species and varieties of azaleas have been catalogued as being grown in America and even this number is increasing. It is obviously impossible for one individual to be familiar with the characteristics of each one of this large number of plants spread over a growing area of thousands of square miles. Consequently, this discussion will be limited to those azaleas which have proved hardy in the Arnold Arboretum at Boston, Massachusetts, an area in Zone 5 with expected winter minimum temperatures going to -10 F. Azaleas are among those nursery grown plants which are frequently sold in hardiness zones where they are not hardy. People who are unfamiliar with hardiness limitations become fascinated with the \"Indian\" and Kurume hybrids of the South and are continually trying to grow them in the North. In general, the azalea groups which are not hardy in the Arnold Arboretum mclude the \"Indian\", Kurume, Bobbink & Atkins Macrantha, Glenn Dale, Occidentale, Pericat, Rutherford, Satsuki and probably the Yerkes hybrids. Also lacking in hardiness would be R. alabamense, canescens, indicum, obtusum, occidentale, simsi and several others less well known. Since this is a listing of the hardiest azaleas, mention should be made of the native Rhodora (R. canadense) which used to be in a separate genus by itself (Rhodora), but is now grouped with Rhododendron. This is truly the hardiest of the azaleas, being native far up North in Labrador, in Zone 2. The next hardiest species (Zone 3) are nudiflorum, roseum and viscosum; with arborescens, mucronulatum, schlippenbachii and vaseyi being hardy in Zone 4. It will also be of interest to note the sequence in which these azaleas usually bloom in the Arnold Arboretum. It is as follows: OVER Mid-April R. mucronulatum Early May R. mucronatum ' 17 Azaleas Hardy in the Arnold Arboretum Zone 5 albrechtii 4~~ a rare Japan Albrecht Azalea a This is but very beautiful azalea with flowers colored uniform rose color, without the lilac color common to so many others. It blooms in mid-May before the leaves are fully developed and the foliage turns yellow in the fall. arborescens 9~ Zone 4 Penna. to Georgia Sweet Azalea extremely fragrant, white flowered variety blooming in mid-June after the are fully developed. The long, gracefully arching stamens are purplish, adding to the colorful interest of this plant when in bloom. The autumn color is a dark glossy red. An leaves arborescens rubescens - with the species in mid-June when atlanticum pink flowers. This they both flower. makes a beautiful addition to 1~~ Zone 6 Del. to S. Carolina Coast Azalea Barely existing in a protected spot in the Arnold Arboretum, this is always recommended as one of the few azaleas with stoloniferous growth. Its very fragrant white flowers, flushed crimson, appear in late May and the plant is used in naturalistic plantings. However, it is much more at home farther south where the climate is warmer. calendulaceum 9-15~ Zone 5 Southeastern U.S. Flame Azalea Everyone who has visited the Great Smoky Mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee is familiar with this orange flowered azalea blooming in early June. 18 It is the most showy of our native azaleas and one of the very few which can be seriously effecting the lasting qualities of the flowers. Many of the Asiatic azaleas fade markedly when planted out in full sunshine. This species sometimes can keep its flowers in good condition for two weeks in such a situation. The flowers vary from light yellow to orange, and occasionally one finds a plant with scarlet flowers. Most of the plants in the wild are usually deep yellow to light orange. grown in full sunshine without calendulaceum aurantiacum - flowers orange to scarlet calendulaceum calendulaceum croceum - flowers light yellow 'Smoky Mountaineer' a ,., batch of Rhododendron calendulaceum seedlings growin 1941. It is probably a hybrid of R. calendulaceum and I have noted it in bloom for the past twenty-three years with considerable interest because of the strong, reddish-orange color of the flowers (9. R 5\/I1 of the Nickerson Color Fan and earlier noted as Mandarin Red (1 i \/1) of the Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart). The flowers are generally similar to those of R. calendulaceum in size and shape, and appear at the same time. They are of a uniform color, without a yellow blotch on the inside of the corolla. Like most R. calendulaceum plants, it keeps its color well in the sun and does not fade. It scems to be unique among R. calendulaceum seedlings. Plants have been distributed under the Arnold Arboretum No. 22690 to over 50 cooperating individuals or organizations in the spring of 1958 for trial. Reports received from those areas where this species does well have been enthusiastic, so that the name 'Smoky Mountaineer' has been given this plant, to be registered with the International Rhododendron Authority. This was selected from ing in the Arnold Arboretum canadense 3~ Zone 2 N.E. North America Rhodora are a common rose-purple flowers of this azalea appear before the leaves in mid-May and sight in the bogs and moist places of southwestern Canada and New England in early spring. It is not an outstanding ornamental as an individual plant but is best massed and used in moist places for naturalistic plantings. The canadense albiflorum - with white flowers japonicum in 6~ Zone 5 Japan Japanese Azalea Although the large, conspicuous flowers of this species are two to three inches diameter, they have a bad odor. Hence, it is not an azalea to use in the close proximity of the house or sitting areas. Its vigorous habit and profuse orange-red to brick-red flowers have made it valuable to the hybridizer. 19 mucronatum 6-9' Zone 6 Japan Snow Azalea The white, fragrant flowers of this plant are excellent. They appear in early May, and the plant is frequently known, incorrectly as R. ledifolia alba. The foliage is evergreen in Pennsylvania, but here in New England it is not completely evergreen, nor is it completely hardy except in a very protected place. Where it can be grown, it is often spoken of as the only evergreen azalea this far north. There are one or two varieties of this species barely existing in the Arnold Arboretum, but should not be considered for general planting here. The comparatively new variety 'Delaware Valley V~'hite', a seedling of R. mucronatum, may be slightly more hardy than the species. China, Korea, Japan Korean Rhododendron Rosy-purple flowers of this hardy azalea are among the first to appear in the spring, usually in mid-April. In Seattle, it may bloom the latter part of January. However, the early blooming flowers can be killed sometimes by late frosts, so here at least it might best be planted with a northern exposure. mucronulatum mucronulatum to many 6r Zone 4 'Cornell none flowers containing Pink' - This is a truly excellent variery with soft pink of the rosy-purple color of the species so objectionable people. 6r Zone 3 Eastern U.S. Pinxterbloom nudiflorum A common referred to as plant \"Wild Honeysuckle\" are in the fields and woods of the eastern United States often it has light pink and white flowers in late half grown. The flowers are odorless. May at a time when the leaves obtusum kaempferi 5-lOr Zone 5 Japan Torch Azalea The flowers of the Torch Azalea have been considered the most vividly colored of all Japanese introductions made by the Arnold Arboretum. The flowers are profusely borne-fiery red, before the leaves. It does better in partial shade for in full sun the flowers quickly fade. It is just hardy this far north, and even here an occasional severe winter may kill the flower buds. roseum 9r Zone 3 Northeastern North America Roseshell Azalea Both are found of this are fra- Similar to R. growing together grant, those uudi,florum except that the flowers are bright pink. in the same places in the wild but the flowers of R. nud~orum are not. 15r Zone 4 schlippenbachii The appear in Korea, Japan Royal Azalea pink flowers of this excellent shrub are often 3 inches in diameter and mid-May just before the leaves. They have about the largest flowers of any azalea species hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. An added point of interest is the yellow, orange and crimson autumn color of the foliage every fall. 20 PLATE IX Above: Rhododendron flavum from Europe; R. japonicum from Japan; X. raudiflorum from North America (left to right). Below: Rhododendron avborescevrs growing well at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. vaseyi 6-9' Zone 4 to have North Carolina Pinkshell Azalea Another of the few azaleas light red autumn foliage, this pink flowersoil situations, although it will grow and flower well ing azalea does best in moist in drier soils. It is one of the very best of the native azaleas, blooming in midMay before the leaves are fully developed. viscosum 9-12~ Zone 3 Eastern United States Often considered the last of the azaleas to bloom in grant, white flowered shrub is usually found growing in Swamp Azalea New England, this fraswampy areas. It is especially valued for its late blooming flowers. any viscosum rubescens - with pink flowers. This makes an excellent addition to clump of the white blooming species in late June when they flower. yedoense 5~ Zone 5 Korea, Japan Yodogawa Azalea Not reliably hardy every year in the Arnold Arboretum, this cyclamen-purple double flowered azalea is conspicuous in mid-May. It does very well in Philadelphia and even lower New York, but in New England it is sometimes injured by winter cold. is a lower growing, single flowered variety, with flowers of the same difficult-to-use cyclamen purple color as the species. It is always unfortunate to observe it planted against a red brick wall, for the color of the flowers and the brick do not go well together. yedoense poukhanense - This Hybrids Note: those marked with an asterisk (*) are as ornamentals. Zone 4 judged to be among the best XR. gandavense 6-10~ Hybrids Ghent Azaleas This is a bright flowered group of hardy azaleas blooming in late May, some of which have proved hardy as far north as central Maine where the winter temperatures reach consistent lows of -20 F. They are crosses of several species and hybrids, starting back as far as 1810, with R. calendulaceum, nud~orum, flavum and viscosum all mixed up in their parentage. Of some 90 named varieties, the following 62 are growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum: *Altaclarensis' - tall and orange blotch 'Ariel' - flowers upright in habit, flowers late, single, white with an 'Aurore de with a late, single, white with a yellow blotch Rooighen' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, violet red yellow blotch, L~~~ in diameter 22 PLATE X Above: l~hododendron yedoense, the Todogawa Azalea, Morris Arboretum, Philadelphia, Pa. Below: ~~hododendron mucronatum at Planting Fields, Uyster Bay. Long Island, New York. 'Barthole Lazzari' - tall and upright in in habit, flowers late, double, orange- yellow, *'Beaute Celeste' - tall orange red 1~~ in diameter and upright habit, late bloom, flowers late, single, in *'Bijou des Amateurs' - tall and upright with habit, flowers late, single, red yellow blotch *'Bijou de Gentbrugge' - flowers late, double, white, flushed with pink *'Bouquet de Flore' - tall and upright in habit, flowers late, single, 2~~ in diameter, dark rose, white stripes, yellow blotch *`Charlemagne' - upright in habit, flowers 2~~ in diameter, single, marigoldorange with yellow blotch red, single with blotch of orange *'Coccinea Grandiflora' - flowers orange yellow 'Coccinea Major' - flowers blood red *'Coccinea Speciosa' - flowers single, tangerine in orange red mth orange blotch orange in *'Compte de Flandre' - tall, upright habit, flowers late, single, 2~~ diameter, 'Crimson *'Corneille' - flowers double, pink, late bloom King' - flowers deep crimson 'Cuprea Ardens' - flowers orange red with orange blotch 'Cuprea Pulchella' - flowers orange red *`Cymodocee' - flowers single, 2~~~ in diameter, a uniform salmon red, blooms late upright in habit; blooms late, flowers single, 2~~~ in diameter, blotched yellow pale yellow 'Decus Hortonum' - flowers s~ngle, 2~~ in diameter, an excellent pink with an orange yellow blotch `Delicata' - flowers single, flushed salmon with an orange blotch *'Dr. Chas. Baumann' - flowers single, carmine with yellow blotch and frilled, *'Daviesi' - tall to white ' blooms late `Electa' - flowers orange line s~ngle, scarlet and orange, large yellow flare with small *'Emma' - flowers single, *`Flamboyant' - tall and blooms late 'Flora' - tall and pink with orange yellow blotch upright in habit; flowers single, reddish salmon orange, upright in habit; flowers single, 1~~~ in diameter, orange red 'General Chasse' - flowers scarlet 'General Trauff' - flowers light violet 24 rose shaded with orange PLATE XI Above: Craggy Gardens on the Blue Ridge Parkway, Asheville, N.C. This is the habitat of R. cataecbiense. Some of the plants are ~100 years old. In this same general area R. cale~zdulaceum is native. Both these species bloom here between the middle and the end of June. Below: Rhododendron 'Smoky Mountaineer', probably an R. calendulaceum hybrid. *`Gloria Mundi' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, frilled, diameter, late mid-season bloom, orange with saffron yellow blotch *'Graf Alred *'Graf von `?~-~~ in von Niepperg' - flowers salmon spotted with yellow, edged red Meran' - tall and upright in habit, late mid-season bloom, flowers double, red single, yellow flushed apricot, yellow blotch *'Heroine Plena' - flowers double, white flushed with pink *'Heureuse Surprise' - tall and upright in habit; blooms late, flowers single, 'Guelder Rose' - flowers diameter, white shaded rose *'Hollandia' - flowers double, orange with yellow, early mid-season bloom 'Ignaea Nova' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, 2~~~ in diameter, orange red with yellowish orange blotch ; blooms late *'Joseph Baumann' - flowers red with yellowish orange blotch, blooms late 'Josephine Klinger' - tall and upright in habit; flowers single, I.`~-~~~ in diameter, salmon pink, blooms late 'Laelia' - flowers pink and orange *'Louis Hellebuyck' - flowers dark rose with white stripes, yellow blotch, blooms late-probably the same as 'Bouquet de Flore' *'Minerva' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, 2~ ~ in diameter, light salmon orange, flushed yellow, blooms late *'Madame Gustave Guillemot' - flowers red, Z~ ~ in diameter, fringed 'Mrs. Harry White' - floweas white, suffused violet red, blooms late *`Nancy Waterer' - flowers large golden yellow, late mid-season bloom *'Narcissiflora' - tall upright in habit, flowers double, 14~~ in diameter, sulfur yellow, sweet scented 'Nosegay' - flowers single, pink 'Oscar I' - flowers salmon rose paling to center of flower, orange blotch *'Pallas' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, ~4~~ in diameter, flushed orange red, with orange yellow blotch, early mid-season bloom *'Prince Henri de Pays-Bas' - tall and upright in habit; blooms late, flowers single, 2~'~ in diameter, yellow orange and orange red 'Pucella' - flowers deep purplish rose with bronze blotch, single in l~ ~ 'Queen ers of England' - flowers deep rose, orange blotch *'Raphael de Smet' - tall and upright double, 1~~~ *`Rembrandt' - in habit; late mid-season bloom, flowdiameter, pale rose tall and upright in habit; flowers single, 1~~~ in diameter, dull m violet red, blooms late *`Roi des Feux' - tall and upright in habit, flowers single, red, 2~~ in diame- ter, blooms late 26 PLATE XII Rhododendron vaseyi in the Arnold Arboretum. *'Sang de Gentbrugge' - tall and upright in habit; blooms late, flowers single, 1 ~rr in diameter, orange red 'Taylor's Red' - flowers red 'Unique' - tall and upright in habit; late mid-season bloom; flowers single, diameter, yellowish orange light salmon, deeper stripes, yellow blotch, blooms late 'Volcano' - flowers unusual scarlet red ; tight balls of flowers *'Vulcan' flowers orange red blotched with yellowish orange 'Willem III' - tall and upright in habit, early mid-season bloom ; flowers single, 2~~~ in diameter, orange red with yellowish orange blotch 'Versicolor' - flowers R. obtusum arnoldianum 2r~ in Hybrids These originated in the Arnold Arboretum about 1910 as chance seedlingsbetween 1~. obtusum amoenurrr and kaempferi, but are more hardy than R. obtusum amoenum. None of them have proved popular because of the violet tinge to the violet red flowers. crosses `Briarclifle' - flowers violet red, single, l~~r 'Cardinalis' 1.~-rr~ Dexter'sPink' l~~r \" .. in diameter \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Early Dawn' \" 'Mello-Glo' 'Mossieanum' R. obtusum \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 1 ~~~ \" lrr \" \" \" \" kaempferi Hybrids These are crosses of R. oblusum kaempferi and an azalea clone called `D9a1vatica'. The hybrids are slightly more hardy than the Kurume azaleas. Of some 20 clones, the only ones alive now in the Arnold Arboretum are: 'Carmen' - flowers single, 2~rr in diameter, red 'Charlotte' - flowers dark orange red *'Cleopatra - flowers bright pink, single, 2~rr in diameter `Favorite' - fluwers deep pink, fringed 'Fedora' - Howers single and deep pink 'Gretchen' - flowers single, reddish violet with a darker blotch 'H. Whitelegg' - flowers deep rosy red 'Lakme' -flowers pale red `Lllac Time' - flowers bright lilac 'Norma' - flowers single, 2~rr in diameter, violet red with lighter throat darker blotch and 'Orange Beauty' - flowers bright orange *'Othello' - flowers single, 2\" in diameter, red and considered better than 6Hinodegiri' 28 Willy' - flowers bright pink `Zampa' -flowers violet red These are just barely hardy in Boston and certainly are not reliably hardy every year. Gable Hybrids Stewartstown, Pennsylby Gable, most of them being azaleas with purple or purplish colored flowers, because he used R. yedoense poukhanense in much of his hybridizing work. He also used R. obtusum varieties as well, especially kaempferi, but other species were also used by him too. Many of these crosses have proved hardy in Boston, but because of the purple flowers of many, they have not been too well accepted in New England, even though they are hardy. They do not retain their foliage completely throughout the winter acting in this respect as R. yedoense poukhanense does by dropping all but a very few of the tip leaves by mid-winter. Of 47 clones accredited to Gable, the following 23 are growing in the Arnold were These mostly originated by Joseph B. Gable of vania, beginning in 1927. Nearly 50 clones have been named ' Arboretum: *'Big Joe' - flowers single, ~1~~ in diameter, mallow purple-a vigorous grow- ing variety Boudoir' - flowers single-violet red, 1~~~ in diameter 'Caroline Gable' - flowers 1~~~ in diameter, hose in hose, red or neyron rose in color, with darker blotch *'Claret' - flowers single, 1~~~ in diameter, dark red, dwarf *'Elizabeth Gable' - a spreading shrub with single red flowers, 2~~~ in diameter, with darker blotch 'Ethelwyn' - flowers single, pink. others This variety is not as hardy as some of the in Herbert' - flowers hose in hose, reddish violet with darker blotch, 1~~~ diameter, plant of medium height but spreading Kathleen' - flowers clear pink 'La Lumiere' - flowers single, violet red (claret rose) and 1~~~ in diameter. is similar to 'Cherokee'. *'Louise Gable' - flowers semi-double, salmon pink, 2,~-~~~ in diameter 6Marjorie' - flowers a bright orchid color *'Mary Dalton' - flowers hose in hose, orange red, 14~~ in diameter *'Mildred Mae' - flowers reddish violet (orchid purple), single. The plant compact in habit of growth. `Miriam' - flowers single, violet red (neyron rose), 1~~~ in diameter `Nadine' - flowers a light clear pink 'Old Faithful' - flowers single, reddish violet with darker blotch, ~4~~ diameter It is in 29 'Purple Splendour' - flowers are a deep purple color hose in hose, similar to those of 'Herbert' *'Rosebud' - flowers are double (1petals), 1~~~ in diameter and a soft rose color. This makes a low, dense shrub. *'Rose Greeley' - a spreading low, dense shrub, with flowers hose in hose, 2~~~ in diameter, fragrant and white 'Shell' - flowers a light shell pink `Springtime' - a tall shrub with single violet red flowers l~~ in diameter *' Stewartstoniana' - flowers a bright clear red and the winter foliage colors a wine-red *'Watermelon' - flowers pink '. Knap Hill Hybrids These were mostly introduced in England after World War II and are various of R. molle, calendulaceum, occidentale X molle and arborescens. Two of these species, R. molle and occidentale are not reliably hardy in the Arnold Arboretum, and so it might be expected that some of these hybrids might be unsatisfactory also if grown as far north as Boston. Over 145 varieties have been listed, originating at four or five places-Waterer's Knap Hill Nursery, the Goldsworth Old Nursery (Slocock), Lionel de Rothchild's Estate at Exbury-all in England, and some have come from the Ilam Estate in Christchurch, New Zealand. It is quite a group of large flowered, beautiful azaleas and when one sees the color of some of the varieties ~t is easy to agree that for color combinations in the flowers this group contains some of the best ornamental azaleas there are available today. However, some are just not reliably hardy as far north as Boston. Others are. One can not say that the entire group survive winter temperatures of -10 to -20 F. One thing I have noticed is that many of these varieties have such large flowers that they wilt appreciably in the hot sun of late May and early June so it might be advisable to plant them where they obtain some high shade. The flowers of some varieties are four inches in diameter. As yet these azaleas have not been given a complete trial at the Arnold Arboretum. Only 21 varieties are being grown at present, all of which have come through the last two winters in a wind swept nursey fairly well. However, some other varieties have died out completely and even some of those listed below have been partially injured by the winter. Hence more complete trials with more varieties are needed to determine which varieties are reliably hardy here, but it is safe to assume that all the Knap Hill or Exbury hybrids are not hardy in this latitude. Those that are growing are: crosses `Aurora' - flowers rose salmon pink with an orange flare, often blushed and striped 30 `Balzac' - flowers a good red with flame markings on the upper petals ; fragrant 'Bazaar' - flowers brick red *'Brazil' - flowers rather small with a slightly frilled edge, bright tangerine red, darkening with age 'Coronation' - flowers salmon pink *`Debutante' - flowers 4\" in diameter, carmine pink with an orange blotch, often pink striped *`E~senhower' - flowers fire red with orange blotch 'Exbury White' - flowers white with orange yellow blotch 'Firecracker' - habit stiffly upright and young foliage bronze, flowers a currant red rich orange flowers flushed *`Gibraltar' - large frinted orange red, bud a deep crimson buds, flowers a brilliant orange overlaid with lines down each petal pinkish flush, deeper *'Glowing Embers' - flowers orange red with an orange blotch 'Golden Eye' - flowers deep vermillion with a bold orange blotch spreading over most of the top petals ; foliage tinted bronze 'Golden Horn' - flowers large, deep golden yellow fading to ivory, tipped and flushed rose *'Golden Sunset' - flowers yellow with an orange blotch, 3\" in diameter 'Kathleen' - flowers pale salmon with an orange blotch, burning easily in full sunshine `Lady Rosebery' - flowers small, dull scarlet with a dull suffused orange blotch Marion Merriman' - flower trusses of 18-30 flowers, chrome yellow flushed Indian yellow with a large cadmium orange blotch Pink Ruffles' - flowers pink, orange blotch *`Rocket' - flowers reddish apricot, orange blotch *'Sun Chariot' - flowers golden yellow, 3~\" in diameter orange carmen a , . `Ginger' - deep - , Mollis Hybrids It is apparent from the record that Boston is just not the place for these hybrids to grow. Of the 140 or more clones over 50 have been tried at the Arnold Arboretum over the years and of these 50 only 1are now alive-mostly young plants recently obtained within the last few years. It is not fair to assess these few. Because of lack of hardiness, greater susceptibility to mildew and borers, graft union troubles and possibly other ailments, this group of hybrids is not reliable in this area. Although they may be classed as hardy in Zone 5, they apparently do not grow well here, possibly for reasons other than hardiness. Rustica Flore Pleno Hybrids These are crosses between double, Ghent hybrids and Mollis hybrids, possibly 31 also crossed with R. japonicum, mostly introduced from Belgium over sixty years ago. All have double flowers. We have grown most of the 11 clones, but the ones now alive are : 'Aida' - double flowers, pale in diameter rose with darker margins on upper petals; 1~~~ *'Byron' - double flowers, white, 24~~ in diameter *'Milton' - double flowers, white to blush pink, 2~~~ in diameter, fragrant `Norma' - double flowers, reddish orange, 1~~~ in diameter *`Phidias' - double flowers, light orange yellow, 1~~~ in diameter 'Phebe' - double flowers-sulfur yellow, 2~~ in diameter Yerkes-Pryor Hybrids The parents of these hybrids include the Kurume azaleas and sometimes R. obtusum kaempferi. They are the work of two men in the United States Department of Agriculture who at first were interested in obtaining evergreen azaleas for florists. Th~rty or more clones have been named and are still being tried out in various places, but it was expected that these would only be hardy in the where Kurumes can be grown. However, it is of interest to note that the three varieties-`Eureka' (hose in hose and lavender pink); 'Polar Bear' (hose in hose and white); and 'Guy Yerkes' (hose in hose and salmon pink) have been able to withstand the last three winters out-of-doors in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum. It will be interesting to see what happens to these plants when temperatures go below -50 F. as they sometimes will. same area Vuyk Hybrids Introduced by the Vuyk van Nes Nursery of Boskoop, Holland, these hybrids about 1921. The objective was to make hardy evergreen azaleas. Most of the dozen hybrids have been tried at the Arnold Arboretum but all except 'Palestrina' (which has been called 'Wilhelmina Vuyk' incorrectly) and `Vuyk's Scarlet' (a deep cherry red) have died. These clones have done fairly well although they still can not be listed as dependably hardy evergreens year in and year out, in this climate. The white flowers of 'Palestrina' are ~~~~ in diameter and are conspicuous against the green foliage when they open in mid to late May. The 158 azaleas listed in this article are only an extremely small percentage of the 4000 supposedly being grown in America today. These are the hardiest of the group but there are others which might also have been included. Growers in the northern part of the United States would do well to look this group over first before they include other varieties for selling in areas where the winters are comparative with those at Boston, Massachusetts. originated DONALD WYMAN 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ornamental Madworts (Alyssum) and the Correct Name of the Goldentuft Alyssum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24430","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170a36d.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Dudley, T. R.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA VE 1 A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 JUNE 17, 1966 NUMBERS 6-7 ORNAMENTAL MADWORTS (ALYSSUM) AND THE CORRECT NAME OF THE GOLDENTUFT ALYSSUM of the standard horticultural reference works list the \"Madworts\" as of annuals, biennials, perennials or subshrubs in the family Cruciferae, which with the exception of a few species, including the goldentuft madwort, are not widely cultivated. The purposes of this article are twofold. First, to inform interested gardeners, horticulturists and plantsmen that this exception, with a number of cultivars, does not belong to the genus Alyssum, but because of certain critical and technical characters, should be placed in the genus Aurinia of the same family. The second goal is to emphasize that many species of the \"true\" .~lyssum are notable ornamentals and merit greater popularity and cul- MANY agroup tivation. one hundred and ninety Linnaeus in 1753 and based on A. montanum, a widespread European species which is cultivated to a limited extent only. However, as medicinal and ornamental garden plants the genus was known in cultivation as early as 1650. The name Alyssum is of Greek derivation : a meaning not, and lyssa alluding to madness, rage or hydrophobia. Accordingly, the names Madwort and Alyssum both refer to the plant's reputation as an officinal herb. An infusion concocted from the leaves and flowers was reputed to have been administered as a specific antidote against madness or the bite of a rabid dog. Some sources have suggested the use of alyssum tea as a sedative for allaying anger. Mr. H.W. Shimer, author of Origin and Sign~cance of Plant l~ames (1943), has indicated that alyssum was used by the Greeks as a remedy for hiccoughs. There is some evidence that a weedy annual native throughout southern and central Europe and naturalized in some areas of North America ( A. alyssoides, often incorrectly known as A. calycinum), was the plant called \"Heal-bite\" or \"Heal Dog\" and originally responsible for the common epithet of \"D~adwort\". Although \"Alyssum sa,ratile\", a native of Turkey, and central and southwestern species) The genus Alyssum was described (now containing approximately by 33 Europe, extending north to Poland and east to the Caucasus, has been known in cultivation many years prior to its description by Linnaeus in1753, it was not until 1814 that the French botanist Desvaux, after a comparative study, concluded that it stood quite apart from, and was only remotely allied to, the other species of Alyssum known at that time. Accordingly, he assigned \"Alyssum saxatile\" to a new genus which he called Aurinia, and the botanical name became Aurinia saxatilis. At the same time, Desvaux transferred the sweet alyssum to Lobularia, another new genus, making it Lobularia maritima. Whereas the name Lobularia ~naritima for this popular ornamental annual has become widely accepted by plantsmen, the designation Aurinia saxatilis has not. Approximately twenty years after Desvaux's application of Aurinia, the German botanist K. Koch accepted the evaluation of its distinction from Alyssum, but not at generic rank. He established Aurinia as an anomalous section within Alyssum, having little natural affinity with the other six cognate sections. Although Aurinia is composed of a relatively homogeneous group of seven species only remote relationships may be traced with the other sections which show clear lines of affinity amongst themselves. Aurinia certainly appears to be more closely allied to Berteroa or Alyssoides (previously known as Vesicaria) than to Alyssum. Unfortunately, Koch's appraisal of Aurinia as a section within Alyssum has been generally followed up to the present time, with the exception of several Russian Floras in which generic separation has been maintained. The delimitation of genera in this family, the Cruciferae, is notoriously d~fficult, mainly because of its morphological unity and overall naturalness. Due to this, the determination and delimitation of genera is dependent on different combinations of numerous and often very technical details. Aurinia may thus be distinguished from Alyssum by the following diagnostic differences. AURINIA: densely tufted basal rosettes of more or less erect leaves rarely shorter than two inches and usually three to six inches long, and provided with sinuate or dentate, or pinnatifid margins (like an oak leaf); fleshy and swollen bases, of the long and always deeply grooved petioles of the rosette leaves, long persistent (five years or more) on the indurated caudices; cauline leaves (leaves of the flowering stem) one half or less the length of the rosette leaves, and sparse; flowering stems often appearing leafless or scapose shortly after anthesis; fleshy bracts tightly adpressed to and folded around developing inflorescence ; flower buds globose, as broad as long; calyx cup-shaped, the sepals spreading more or less horizontally at anthesis; stigmas conspicuously bilobed, especially when immature. The contrasting characters of Alyssum are: laxer rosettes (never tufted) of sterile shoots with more or less spreadmg or appressed leaves, rarely longer than one inch and usually less, and provided with entire margins; all leaf petioles terete or slightly flattened (never grooved), gradually attenuate and without long persistent swollen bases; cauline leaves more or less equal in size to leaves of sterile shoots; flowering stems foliate during growing sesson ; inflorescence bracts 34 spreading or deflexed, never adpressed ; flower buds oblong and elliptic, generally twice as long as broad; calyx elongate, the sepals erect at anthesis; stigmas globose, never conspicuously bilobed. It is hoped that the morphological details listed above will clarify the taxonomic distinction of Aurinia from Alyssum, and that future technical and popular botanical and horticultural literature, as well as seedsmen and nurserymen who stock and distribute Alyssum saxatile\", will accept and adhere to the resurrection of the genus Aurinia, and refer to the \"Goldentuft Madwort\" as AURINIA SAXATILIS. Another aspect of this is that a number of cultivars pertaining to \"Alyssum saxatile\" have been described with Latin names, but in accordance with the 1961 International Code qf Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (Article 16) such names must be altered to agree in gender with the Latin generic name, with the result that \"Alyssum saxatile\" 'Citrinum', `Compactum', 'Compactum Plenum', 'Luteum', 'Plenum', 'Sulphureum', 'Variegatum', etc. must become Aurinia saxatilis 'Citrina', 'Compacta', 'Compacta Plena', 'Lutea', 'Plena', 'Sulphurea', 'Variegata', etc. Commercial plantsmen, as well as private gardeners, are often disturbed, even irritated, by the apparently numerous name changes which the botanical and horticultural taxonomists attempt to impose on widely cultivated plants. Alyssum forcefully illustrates this problem. The incorrect naming of many of the cultivated species may be due to the taxonomic and nomenclatural difficulty of the genus, to the perpetuation of errors in identification, and to the contamination of seed. Aurinia saxatilis, which has been known and cultivated as \"Alyssum saxatile\" for over two centuries illustrates how reappraisals are made by taxonomists. Any such evaluation is subject to varying amounts of criticism, of course ; however, the estimate of natural relationships and affinities implicit within biological classifications is always, or should be, formulated after a careful analysis of all pertinent and available facts (such as morphology, chromosome number, breeding mechanisms, distributional ranges, etc.). Nomenclatural name changes, in contrast to those dependent on taxonomic judgements, are somewhat more clear-cut, dictated as they are by the International Codes of Botanical and Horticultural Nomenclature. This type of name change in Alyssum is exemplified, among many, by the highly decorative, tall- growing, perennial species known commercially as \"A. argenteum\". Correctly this plant should be called A. murale, because of the name priority of an earlier described A. argenteum, which unquestionably is distinct from the plant known m cultivation. The history of this confusion is easy to trace. In 1790 F. Vitman described a widespread species, native to central, southern and eastern Europe, and throughout most of the Levant, and named it A. argenteum. Nine years later, in 1799, Graf von Waldstein and P. Kitaibel described a plant, originally collected in Transylvania, and called it A. murale. After several years of confusion 35 it was recognized that Vitman's A. argenteum and Waldstein & Kitaibel's A. murale were conspecific and represented the same species. Consequently, since different epithets may not be used for the same species, one has to be chosen as correct. According to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature the oldest valid name should be used. A. argenteum (1790), being published before A. murale ( 1799), would have priority but for the fact that Carlo Allioni, in 1774, had already described a rare species endemic to the Piedmont region of Italy as A. argenteum. Because of this, Vitman's A. argenteum (1790) is itself a later use of the same epithet, a homonym, and his application of the name cannot be used. So, although the species is widespread and commonly cultivated by this name, it must become A. murale (1799) by the use of the later epithet of Waldstein & Kitaibel, with Allioni's rare species taking priority for the name A. argenteum (1774). The incorrect naming of cultivated alyssums through misidentification is a problem. It is estimated that 50% of the seeds or plants offered in commercial catalogues and through botanic garden seed lists are, for various reasons, incorrectly named. Likewise, the use of taxonomically or nomenclaturally incorrect names is very evident in many of the standard and popular horticultural rcferences. The following are a few examples of errors of generic and specific recognition commonly met with among cultivated alyssums. serious The category of misidentification is further complicated by different sources ofering seeds or plants of several distinct species under the same name. For example, \"Alyssum rostrntum\" in the trade usually is either A. montanum or A. repens, but never the true annual A. rostratum, which has little ornamental promise. 36 The inclusion of some names in horticultural literature is highly dubious, due probably to the misidentification of herbarium specimens. Species such as A. persicam, A. floribundum, A. troodii, A. idaeum, among many others, are frequently listed as being cultivated, but they are very rare even on their natural environment, and it is extremely doubtful if they have ever been introduced into cultivation. A. persicum from the Iranian plains would be a very desirable ornamental, however, it has been collected only twice, both collections without seed ! Occasionally, names are treated as synonyms in reference works when actually they are applicable to taxonomically distinct species. A. di,~'usum is often incorrectly called a synonym of A. montareum; fl. bertolonii of A. argenteum; and A. atlanticum of A. montanum. A number of encyclopedic horticultural references incorporate the genus \"Ptilotrichum\" containing several species. This genus should not be recognized as a distinct group for the components previously assigned to it have been transferred to other genera in the Cruciferae, including _~lyssum. One such plant is \"Ptilotrichum spinosum\", which is Alyssum spinosum. While investigating the taxonomy of Turkish and European Alyssum, I became very impressed by their immense ornamental potential as rock garden plants, bedding and edging plants, ground covers, bank plantings etc., and the lack of any significant popularity in the United States, although some enthusiasm is sponsored by the American Rock Garden Society. Many more species and clones are available in Europe, possibly due to a greater emphasis in rock gardening. With the idea of initiating more interest in this neglected group of ornamentals, a trial plot of over thirty types, resulting from approximately one hundred different lots of seed, was established in 1964 at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. This trial plot or \"Alyssetum\", as it was nicknamed, was also initiated to fulfill the following additional goals. 1, To test the hardiness of predominantly southern European and Anatolian species in the New England climate. It has long been assumed that Alyssum (and other groups, as well) from these areas would not survive the northeastern climate. The results, however, were very heartening, and an estimated 85% to 90% of the trial plants survived the winter of 1964-1965. 2, To evaluate the ornamental potential of a number of different species and clones. 3, To compare and evaluate the morphological variation and taxonomic criteria of cultivated material with that of wild origin. 4, To test the identity of seed offered from numerous sources. From the ornamental viewpoint the trial plot was indeed highly satisfactory (Plate XV). The perennials were the most interesting horticulturally, and some species (such as Alyssum scnrdicum), planted in June, actually began to flower sporadically in September of the same year. The blooming season of these plants is long compared with many other perennial groups. In the spring of 1965 some of the procumbent species began to flower as early as mid-April, and flowering was extended through August by the taller subshrubs. Although the predominate flower color in the genus is yellow, with hues from very pale to deep orange yel- 37 violet-pink flowered types. Foliage color offers a green to ashy-gray, and a number of the cushion-formmg species are silvery and somewhat shiny in appearance. Most of the perennial alyssums have a desirable winter rosette phase that remains green throughout the dormant season. The habit ranges from very prostrate creepers or trailers, often forming plants only three or four inches in height and diameter, to dense cushion-forming types in which these dimensions are approximately two feet; under optimum conditions they may become three or four feet in the erect subshrubs. Finally, a few species native to the Near East have very attractive large samaroid and pendulous fruits which rustle in a breeze, similar to those of Honesty or Lunaria. The alyssums are easily propagated from seed or cuttings. Seed, which may be viable for as long as five years, may be sown in the open in April or May, or started inside in March; and the young plants then transplanted after frost danger has passed. If a wider area is to be covered, the broadcasting and raking of the seed into the soil would be effective. Alternatively, cuttings taken in the spring from young shoots will root readily in about two weeks if maintained unlow, there are a few white and great deal of interest, ranging from deep der humid conditions and sheltered from direct sunlight. A sunny location with well-drained, light or sandy, and neutral or slightly basic soil is advantageous for the best flowering. Some species, however, such as .~lyssum repens, which in its natural environment is often found along river banks, will thrive with less sun and in a richer loamy soil. As a rule, however, a mineral, sandy or gravelly, well-drained soil is more conducive to flowering than a heavy organic soil. This feature makes the alyssums particularly desirable for use on banks and slopes, and being plants primarily from Mediterranean regions, once established, they will naturally survive fairly extensive periods with a minimum of moisture. If it is thought, after flowering, that the spikes of fruit are unattractive, the plant may be sheared. This shearing will promote the spread of the plant, initiate a denser winter rosette stage, and often induce a second flush of flowers. None of the plants grown at the Case Estates during the past two years was apparently susceptible to insect or disease infestatians. The following is a descriptive list of a few of the more desirable perennials which are available commercially* or through such agencies as the American Rock Garden Society. Alyssum alpestre: Procumbent and mounded, woody inches base, two to three obovate-oblong, whitish-silvery and very dense on yellow, profuse, in short simple racemes; fruits elliptic, white, pubescent. April-June. Central and western Alps. Recommended for scree and rock gardens. at the tall; evergreen leaves slender stems; flowers pale * Harry E. Saier, Dimondale, Michigan; American Perennial Gardens, Garden City, Michigan; Tucker and Sons Perennial Gardens, Bellev~lle, Michigan; Thompson and Morgan, Ltd., Ipswich, England; Correvon Fils, Geneva, Switzerland. 38 Upper; Alyssum montanum, June 1, PLATE XIII 1965. Lower: Alyssum murale, June 5, 1965. Alyssum atlanticum: to twelve inches tall; less imbricated along stout distinguished by stricter and stiffer flowering stems; grayish or silvery foliage and stems ; shorter and more crowded racemes; larger, deeper yellow flowers. May-July. Southern and eastern Spain, and North Africa. Dense caespitose subshrub, four or evergreen leaves spathulate or lanceolate, more stems. Often confused with .4. montanum, but Alyssum bertolonii: Subshrub, up to .~. twelve inches tall, flowering stems ascenddiffering with lower surface of leaves serpyllifolium, ing. Similar and deeper yellow flowers ; glabrous or silvery-white, upper greenish ; larger sparsely pubescent fruits. June-August. Italy and the western Balkans. (Often cultivated as A. argenteum or A. murale. ) to but Alyssum borzaeanum: Erect or ascending, six to fifteen inches tall, woody at the base; dense basal rosette of ashy or white-tomentose obovate to orbicular leaves ; flowers bright yellow, in large multibranched, terminal corymbs ; fruits small, orbicular and with sparse indumentum. June-August. Black Sea coast of Bulgaria, Romania, and rarely, western Turkey. Alyssum cuneifolium: Caespitose, mound-forming, dense two to six inches tall; very white, rosettes of sterile shoots; flowering stems lax and tortuose, somewhat trailing; flowers very large and bright yellow; fruits elliptic, densely gray pubescent. Late May-August. Southern European mountains. silvery, or (Often grown as .4. coredensatum or A. idaeum. ) or Alyssum diffusum: Diffuse and sprawling with long trailing, prostrate pro- cumbent sterile shoots; flowering stems four to ten inches long, at first ascending then lax. Similar to .4. rrronlanurn, but differing with greener, narrower and always acute leaves; paler colored flowers; and usually smaller fruits. AprilJune. Mountains of Italy, southwestern Alps, Pyrenees, and northern Spain. Alyssum lapeyrousianum: Stout subshrub with inches and coarse flowering stems fifteen leaves. Similar to rl. spinosum, but differing by laxer, tall, silvery spineless branches; white flowers twice as large; elongate and lax inflorescences ; and larger fruits. June-August. Eastern Pyrenees and eastern Spain. (Occasionally cultivated as \"Ptilotrichum'' or Alyssum peyrousianum, and Alyssum pyrenaicum. ) in dense corymbs. Similar to A. murale, but having delicate appearance and smaller, glabrous fruits. May-July. Albania Alyssum markgrafii: Erect, twelve inches tall; leaves narrowly linear or spathu- late ; flowers bright yellow, a more and Jugoslavia. two to six inches tall and Alyssum moellendorfianum: Dwarf and caespitose, wide; orbicular-ovate leaves, very silvery 40 on both sides; yellow flowers in short Upper: Alyssum scarclicum, April 10. 1965. PLATE XIV Lower: Aurizzfia petraea. June 3, 1965. dense racemes; fruits orbicular and silvery. Late slavia (Bosnia). One of the finest. May-July. Western Jugo- Alyssum Dense, mat-forming, two to ten inches tall, with procumtrailing sterile shoots, and ascending or spreading flowering stems; evergreen leaves obovate-oblong, predominately ashy-white; flowers very fragrant, usually bright yellow, but sometimes pale, simple, or sparingly branched, dense corymbs; fruits white pubescent. The lowland form, subsp. gmelinii, of sandy substrates in eastern Europe, with stiff and longer flowering stems is more desirable perhaps because of a denser growth habit. April-August. Very variable, most of Europe, except in the northern and southwestern regions. montanum: bent and Alyssum murale: Subshrub with crowded and erect flowering stems up to two feet tall, subtended by dense and spreading rosettes of evergreen sterile shoots ; oblong-spathulate to linear-oblanceolate leaves, greenish above and silvery or white below ; flowers deep golden yellow in widely spreading, strongly branched flattish corymbs; fruits orbicular and flat, often undulated, indumentum vanable. June-September. Very variable. Southeastern and central Europe, and throughout the Levant. (Widely cultivated as A. argenteum, and occasionally as .4. chalcidicum.) A very attractive, long flowering and long-lived, species suitable for permanent perennial plantings or as a ground cover. Alyssum ovirense: Procumbent inches in or prostrate trailer attaining a maximum of six and diameter; fleshy leaves obovate-spathulate or orbicular, height obtuse, silvery; flowers golden, in large loose corymbs; fruits obovate and sparsely pubescent. June-August. Southeastern Alps and western Jugoslavia. (Often incorrectly called A. zemlfenianum. ) Alyssum purpureum: Dwarf, caespitose and densely conferted, one to four inches often forming large mats ; leaves very slender and silvery-white; flowers tall, purple; fruits oblong and sharply pointed, with dense, ashy or white, tomentose indumentum. Late April-July. Southern and southeastern Spain. (Some sources list this as \"Ptilotrichum\" purpureum.) Ideal for edging purposes. repens: Diffuse trailer with ascending and erect flowering stems up to two feet tall, woody at the base; leaves greenish, oblong-obovate to lanceo- Alyssum late, acute; large orange-yellow flowers m long racemes; fruits orbicular or obovate, and pubescent. Subspecies trichostachyum from the Balkans, Crimea, Turkey and the Caucasus is the tallest form with stout and erect flowering stems more or less densely covered with long spreading strigose hairs; subspecies transsiluanicum from Romania and northern Greece is intermediate, with slender tortuose flowering stems, shorter racemes, and smaller fruits. May-July. Very variable. Southeastern and east-central Europe, extending into Turkey and Caucasia. (Occasionally confused with A. montanum, but easily distinguished by the strigose, spreading hairs on the pedicels.) 42 PLATE XV Upper: Alyssum s~inosuna, May 20, Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, 1965. Lower: View of 1965. Alyssum trial plot at the May l0, Alyssum scardicum: Diffuse, with trailing ashy-gray stems, forming up to ten inches tall and a loose mat feet. Similar to A. wulfenianum but differing by narrower leaves; larger, deeper colored flowers, in dense clusters, which greatly elongate in fruit; and smaller fruits, with more or less dense indumentum. April-June. Albania, Bulgaria and Jugoslavia. spreading to one or two Alyssum serpyllifolium: Procumbent or erect, up to twelve inches tall, with dense basal rosettes of erect, evergreen, sterile shoots from a strongly branched woody stock; leaves spathulate, folded, whitish or silvery on both sides; flowers pale yellow in compact clusters; fruits elliptic and silvery. June-August. Southern France, Spain, Portugal and North Africa. (Much of the A. serpyllifolium offered commercially represents the annual A. alyssoide.s; also cultivated erroneously as A. alpestre.) Alyssum spinosum: Cushion-forming, rounded shrub with interlacing, white or silvery spiny branches, attaining a maximum of two or three feet in diameter and height; leaves oblong-oblanceolate to lanceolate, whitish-silvery ; flowers fragrant, white, in compact, umbellate clusters; fruits obovate and glabrous. July. Cultivar 'Roseum' is of dwarfer habit with violet flowers fading pinkish. Southern France, eastern and southern Spain, and North Africa. May- Alyssum stribrnyi: Spreading and woody two feet in at the base, up to ten inches tall and and stems very silvery; petals very large, bright width; foliage orange-yellow; fruits oblong-orbicular and densely canescent. May-June. The eastern Balkans and European Turkey. (Often cultivated as A. mildeanum.) tortuosum: Procumbent to Alyssum ascending, three to fifteen inches tall, rarely up to two feet; base woody with few erect, and grayish, sterile shoots; flowering stems twisted or tortuose, often lax at maturity ; leaves narrowly oblan- lanceolate, grayish green ; bright yellow flowers in wide, strongly branched, corymbs; fruits small and gray pubescent. June-August. Central, eastern and southeastern Europe, extending to Turkey, Caucasia and as far ceolate to east as the Altai. Alyssum wulfenianum: Procumbent, with ascending flowering stems, up to ten inches tall; dense, basal rosettes, of grayish or whitish sterile shoots; leaves of flowering stems greenish, oblanceolate and acute; fruits large, sparsely pubescent. Confused with <4. ovirense, but differing by smaller, paler flowers in short corymbs; leaves which are always acute and greenish ; and larger fruits. June-July. Southeastern Alps. A large number of additional species, which are of equal or even more ornamental value, should be brought into cultivation. Among many, some of these are Alyssum idaeum, A. lassiticum and A. syolzacoticum from Crete ; A. akamasicum and A. troodi from Cyprus ; .4. lanceolatum and d. persicum from Persia and Afghan- 44 istan; A. doerfleri, A. euboeum, A. handelii, A. heldreichii, A. smolikanum and A. taygeleum from Greece ; and A. aizoides, A. argyrophyllum, A. caespitosum, A. caricum~ A. cassium, A. floribundum, A. paphlagonicum, A. peltarioides and A. praecox from Turkey (the a current center of diversity of the genus). The introduction of even few of these species would greatly enrich horticulture by increasing the number of long-blooming, and versatile, perennials currently available. T. R. DUDLEY, Research Botanist U. S. National Arboretum (formerly Asst. Horticultural Taxonomist, Arnold Arboretum) 45 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arnoldia Reviews","article_sequence":6,"start_page":46,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24424","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d1608128.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA REVIEWS As space permits in individual issues of Arnoldia, staff members of the Arnold Arboretum will, through short reviews, call to the attention of its readers new books, reprints and miscellaneous publications in horticulture, botany, and forestry thought to be of special interest. In addition, there will be listed annually those new books sent to the editor during the year which may have an appeal to a more restricted audience. Publications for review should be sent to the Editor, Arnoldia Reviews, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130. The World of Flowers. Edited 240 pages, 52 plates in maps. 1965. $12.50. color, by Herbert Reisigl, Viking Press, New York. 46 plates in monochrome, plus text figures and Originally published in German in 1964 as \"Blumenparadiese der Welt,\" particularly welcome, for it makes available to the Englisha series of accurate and interesting descriptive essays on the native reading public floras, cultivated plants, and gardens in many areas of the world. Capable and distinguished botanists and horticulturists are the authors, including Reisigl on the Mediterranean area, Rycroft on South Africa, Steiner on the Philippines, Nikolayenko on Moscow, and Ehrendorfer on the desert of North America. The illustrations are of extremely high quality, representing some of the best color work currently available in books on flowers. A diversity of plants of wide interest is shown in photographs ranging from habit to minute detail. The editor has contributed several pages of descriptive botanical notes to supplement the this translation is information given in the captions. Only on the last chapter, descriptions of botanical gardens and parks, is there room for criticism, for these are uneven in treatment. The editor explains that \"some of the questionnaires sent out have not been returned or have not been filled in completely.\" Plants, Animals and Man in the Outer Leeward Island, West Indies. An ecological study of Antigua, Barbuda and Anguilla. David R. Harris. University of California, Publications in Geography, #18. 164 pages, 18 plates. 1965. $5.00 paper bound. Although issued as an ecological study and a publication in geography, this work combines botany and history in a unique and valuable contribution. The author proposes that the introduction of man and his subsequent introduction of plants and animals have created the present unfortunate biological imbalance of these Caribbean Islands. An intriguing story develops as the author unweaves 46 the present by tracing the past through the successive stages of the aboriginal times, the period of the explorers and buccaneers, and the early-, mid-, and latecolonial times, ending in 1960. The future is predicted with optimism. Appendices giving common and scientific names and the family classification of the numerous plants mentioned are valuable indeed for the visitor to these islands, for such lists are not available elsewhere. A bibliography lists published and un- published sources. Silvics of Forest Trees of the United States. H. A. Fowells. Agriculture Handbook No. 271, Forest Service, U. S. Dept. Agriculture. 760 pages, numerous maps, photos, drawings. 1965. ~4.25 paper bound. Silvics is the science considering the life and behavior of forest trees. This handsome and inexpensive government publication treats 40 genera and about 1 ~?5 species of the most important native trees of the United States. The treatment of each species gives the scientific name and many common names, and information on its value and its distribution. There follow generally three sections on the habitat conditions, the life history, and the races and hybr~ds, with subsections dealing with climate, soils and topography, associated trees and shrubs, reproduction and early growth, and the stages to maturity. Literature citations often number over 100 titles for each species. Photographs in detail, from habit to fertile branches, are of excellent quality, and the distribution maps are remarkably clear. There are appendices and indices of scientific and common names, and maps and charts of related information. This book, available from the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Office, should be in personal libraries as a companion volume for the Yearbook of Agriculture \"Trees.\" R. A. H. The Wood and the Trees: A pages, illus., Macdonald & No one Biography of Augustine Henry. Sheila Co., London, 1966. Pim. 256 a who reads Sheila Pim's biography of Augustine Henry will doubt for author is an accomplished writer. She handles a massive amount of material in a skillful manner, and treats us to a wholly readable book. Henry is best remembered in scientific circles as a collector of Chinese plants, and as co-author, with H.J. Elwes, of The Trees qf Great Britain and Ireland, the British counterpart of Sargent's Silva. Henry himself was not a very colorful Miss Pim characterizes him as a likable anti-hero but he was always figure on the fringe of dramatic situations, and he had interesting friends with whom he engaged in lively correspondence. From 1881 to 1900 he was in China working in the Chinese Customs Service; curiosity and boredom lured him into the field, and he collected remarkable sets of specimens in unexplored regions. His moment that the - 47 finds provided one source of inspiration for the great collectors who followed, and when E. H. Wilson made his first trip to China he headed straight to Henry's headquarters at Szemao. Henry left China for good in 1900 and returned to England. After some research at Kew and a year studying forestry in France, he accepted Elwes' inmtation to collaborate on The Trees. Later Henry held a post at Cambridge, and in his last years, from 1913 to 1930, he occupied the Chair of Forestry at the College of Science in Dublin. Henry's appointment in China coincided with the Boxer Rebellion and an era of excitement in Chinese politics; he was in London in the days of the Fabian Society - and a good friend of Mrs. G. B. Shaw; and, of course, he was an Irishman in Ireland during the time of the \"Troubles.\" As presented, this all makes very good reading, and Henry had a lot to say about history-in-the-making in his letters. But, since he is mostly an observer, he seems lost among the various intrigues. Miss Pim conscientiously follows his scientific career in scattered paragraphs, but by the time we get to the Irish Rebellion we are far less interested in Henry than in Ireland. The book is well documented, and a list of horticulturally interesting plants collected in China by Henry supplements the text. Miss Pim can probably not be blamed for repeating the popular misconception that Wilson directed the Arnold Arboretum after Sargent's death. It is a small point but, in due respect to Oakes Ames, it is the duty of the <4rnoldia reviewer to mention it. S. S. 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Expeditions for New Horticultural Plants","article_sequence":7,"start_page":49,"end_page":53,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24426","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d1608526.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Creech, John L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA VE I A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 SEPTEMBER z3, lsss NUMBER s * PLANTS* EXPEDITIONS FOR NEW HORTICULTURAL HE centers of origin of cultivated economic plants relate to the centers of our earliest civilizations. The dissemination of these plants to their regions of greatest economic impact relates to man's success in political domination of new frontiers. This does not necessarily apply to ornamental plants. While most of these were collected as by-products of more profitable ventures, the willingness to find room for ornamentals on long sea voyages reflects man's desire to beautify his surroundings. Thus Japanese emissaries to the great courts of China saw to the introduction of azaleas into China in the 7th Century AD and brought back to their own land the peony, flowering apricot, and chrysanthemum. The physicians and scholars employed in the English, Dutch, and Portuguese trading companies introduced into Europe the wealth of Chinese and Japanese gardens. More than 60 plant explorers are said to have contributed to our abundance of garden plants during the last four centuries. Not only do many of these plants still grace our gardens unchanged from the time of their initial introduction, but they often carry the names of their original discoverers. In the United States, garden plants have been introduced from abroad since Colonial times. As settled community life followed the pioneering days and as homes replaced homesteads, the best of the ornamental plants, shade trees, and flowering shrubs were quickly dispersed in the rapidly developing nation. As early as 1 S l7, all U. S. consuls were requested by the President to send rare seeds and plants to Washington for distribution. I regret to say that ornamentals were not among the plants desired. The introduction of ornamental plants was left to the initiative of private individuals for many years to come. The source materials of our ornamental horticulture had always been European, although many of the species are actually native to the Orient. But with the opening of Japan by Perry in 1854, a new and direct source of plants was provided. T JL * Presented at the 17th International Congress, August 18, 1966. 49 ~ George R. Hall, a physician turned trader during the years before Perry's expedition, made shipments of ornamental plants from Japan to Boston, Mass., in 1861. By wardian case and a perilous ocean voyage, a great array of bamboos, cherries, conifers, magnolias, maples, and the lilies, Lilium auratum and L. speciosum, first arrived on our shores. Robert Fortune, the famous British explorer, had become acquainted with Hall's garden in Yokohama and had deposited there many of his own collections made as he travelled the road from Kyushu to Tokyo. It was in Hall's Yokohama garden that Fortune found plants of the male form of Aucuba japonica for which he had searched diligently. His objective was to introduce male and female plants into England as a means of obtaining a winterhardy evergreen \"covered with a profusion of crimson berries nearly as large as olives.\" He hoped that Aucuba would achieve the position of \"the most hardy and useful exotic evergreen we possess.\" Both Hall and Fortune departed Japan for their respective homelands, arriving there in 1862, each with wardian cases full of plants that probably resulted from a sharing of the proceeds of their individual collections in the newly opened Empire of Japan. Hall deposited most of his material with Parson's Nursery at Flushing, N. Y. This early plant collector is honored by names of a number of ornamental plants, including Malus Halliana, Lonicerajaponica var. Halliana, and Hall's Amaryllis (Lycoris squamigera), which he first introduced into cultivation. The Arnold Arboretum, representative of the several private institutions enin the introduction of ornamentals, began its collecting program when Prof. C. S. Sargent explored the West Indies in 1885. He also travelled to Japan and collected many Japanese plants including one of the most important azaleas, Rhododendron Kaempferi. E. H. Wilson, possibly our most famous explurer from America, placed ornamental collecting on a serious level. It is estimated that he contributed more than a thousand species previously unknown in cultivation. But he is best remembered for the collections of Kurume azaleas that he sent to the Arnold Arboretum. These are the most widely grown of our garden azaleas. In 1898, a newly formed office of plant introduction in the U.S. Department of Agriculture began to make its name known. While the Department's interests were chiefly economic plants, ornamentals could scarcely be overlooked. David Fairchild, champion of plant exploration in the U.S. Department of Agriculture, was responsible for the introduction of many Japanese economic and ornamental plants in our country. He arrived in Japan on April 26, 1902, but according to his notes too late to see the flowering cherries in bloom as he had desired. However, he traveled the length of Japan, sampling the curious edibles with enthusiasm. The margins of his field map of Japan are annotated with notes on interesting plant localities. During this journey he noted the extensive use of Zoysia japonica as a lawn grass and sent the first Zoysia introductions (P.I. 91999300) to the United States, along with a collection of 18 bamboos and 30 varieties of flowering cherries. To David Fairchild we owe recognition not only for gaged 50 own collections but also for his continued encouragement of the Department's plant exploration program, resulting in the vast contributions to American agriculture by Department explorers. These many plant introductions were widely distributed and the original introductions can be found today in many small towns. In the 1920's Joseph J. Rock was the most active American collector. He roamed the great Snow Range on the China-Burma border in search of rhododendrons, lilies, and primulas. Between 1920 and 1924, he sent home scores of rhododendron species. Many of these are being used today in breeding programs. Unfortunately, a great number of Rock's collections that might be equally useful have been lost simply because of lack of a sustained program for maintaining his introductions. Rock continued collecting in China until 1934. His journeys took him into remote regions such as the land of the 'r~bbu tribes, never before entered by a white person. The Arnold Arboretum sent Dr. Edgar Anderson to the Balkans in 1934 to collect ornamentals among other plants. There he collected seed of a privet in the dry, barren hills near Sarajevo, Yugoslavia. The seed was sent to the USDA and assigned P.I. No. 107630. Plants were widely distributed in 1937. After only two years, observers in several rigorous climates including Cheyenne and Sherican, Wyoming, and Sioux Falls, South Dakota, reported on the superior hardiness performance of this privet. Because of its sustained excellent hardiness rating during regional trials in the 1950's and its superiority over Amur River North privet, this introduction was named 'Cheyenne' by the USDA in 1965. In this instance the collector deliberately selected his material from an area of severe cold and subsequent trials bore out the validity of his selection. A second contribution from this expedition where hardiness was used as a criterion is the boxwood named 'Vardar Valley', also considered hardier than commonly grown varieties. Public support for collecting ornamentals gradually diminished during the depression years. We relied largely on collections by missionaries, travelling officials, and correspondence. The Second World War entirely disrupted the work of ornamental exploration. By 1950, the USDA had launched into an aggressive program of exploration to replenish our reservoir of breeding stocks and meet the demands of a new generation of plant breeders. Only one USDA exploration, that which I undertook in 1955 to Japan and the Ryuku Islands, emphasizcd ornamentals. Due to the stringent quarantine rules that were enforced, the opportunities for collecting under private auspices had almost disappeared. The responsibility for providing promising new ornamentals to an increasing interested public had to be assumed by the Federal Government. In 1956, through the efforts of Dr. Russell J. Seibert, Director of Longwood Gardens, the Agricultural Research Service and Longwood Gardens instituted a cooperative ornamental plant exploration program. For the first time, public and private institutions were joining - his forces to further this common need in American horticulture. 51 The basic concepts of collecting under the ARS-Longwood program are: to explore in those regions of the world where normal exchanges of plants and seeds cannot be effected ; to procure new breeding stocks from centers of origin of our already important ornamentals; and to survey botanic gardens and foreign centers of ornamental plant culture for improved varieties that otherwise might not be made available to the gardening public. In carrying out this program, the needs of plant breeders, nurserymen, botanic gardens, arboretums, display gardens, city foresters, and conservation specialists are considered. All of these needs have the ultimate objective of providing better plants for the American gardening public. It is through evaluation, distribution, and public education that the objectives of this program will be achieved. This is the only long-range program of ornamental plant exploration active in the United States, or, for that matter, in any country. Since this turning point in 1956, we have undertaken 10 explorations. These have included Japan (2), Europe (2), Brazil, Australia, Nepal, Northern India and Sikkim, the USSR, and currently, collecting in South Korea. As a result of the ARS-Longwood explorations, over 7,000 lots of plants and seeds have been inventoried as plant introductions. These materials have initially been shared by the New Crops Research Branch, the U.S. National Arboretum, and Longwood Gardens. The New Crops Research Branch has assumed the responsibility for preliminary evaluation, selection for elite types, and distribution of materials to State Experiment Stations, nurserymen, and private research institutes. The National Arboretum services the needs of sister arboretums and botanic gardens. Longwood Gardens also distributes plants on a limited exchange basis but best serves the public by giving previews of plants for the future m their displays of outstanding introductions. Plant distribution and testing is a continuous process. However, the Glenn Dale Plant Introduction Station sent out 847 accessions for general evaluation during the 10-year period ending in June 1966. This totals over 42,000 plants sent to cooperators. The largest general distribution of introductions to be made since the beginning of the program took place in 1965 and included plants from Japan, Europe, Nepal, and the USSR. Other distributions are made to specific breeders who require a broad range of breeding stocks, such as azaleas and camellias. Among others who are supporting ornamental expeditions, mention should be made of the Louisiana Society for Horticultural Research. In 1954 and 1958, the late Ira Nelson, University of Southwestern Louisiana, undertook two collecting trips to Central and South America. In 1961, this Society supported a collecting trip to Mexico by Dr. S. Solymosy. These explorations have as their objectives the introduction of worthwhile perennial and bulbous plants for Louisiana gardens. Plants collected are also made available freely to others who are interested in evaluating new garden plants. 52 Although direct exploration is the most rewarding means of introducing new ornamentals, international exchange wherever permitted by quarantine regulations, is an important source of plants. Many arboretums have wished to add new conifer varieties to their collections. However, these are largely prohibited from entry. The Arnold Arboretum has, over the last several years, acted as a coordinating agency to consolidate the requests of arboretums. In cooperation with the New Crops Research Branch, it introduces through quarantine at Glenn Dale, Maryland, a limited number of plants each year. When these are released from quarantine, the requesting arboretum eventually propagates additional plants for other arboretums. Thus a steady flow of new ornamentals, that might normally not gain entrance to the United States, is maintained. There are still areas to explore. Many trails of earlier collectors need to be retraced. A new array of germ plasm for more adaptable, disease resistant ornamentals provided for the enjoyment of man in his gardens throughout the world. We need ornamental plants in our everyday lives. Plant exploration is the first step in this direction. JOHN L. CREECH U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, _ _ Crops Research Division, Beltsville, Maryland 53 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dr. Harrison Flint Appointed to the Arnold Arboretum Staff","article_sequence":8,"start_page":54,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24425","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160816d.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"~..r \" j.~ V < DR. HARRISON L. FLINT APPOINTED TO THE ~ ARNOLD ARBORETUM STAFF s, r. Dr. Harrison L. Flint was appointed Associate Horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University on July 1, 1966. Dr. Flint, a native of Vermont, received his B.S. from Cornell University, an M.S. from Michigan State University and a Ph. D. from Cornell after serving two years in the U. S. Army. In 1958, he was appointed Assistant Professor of Horticulture at the University of Rhode Island where he taught the subject of plant propagation and nursery management. His research interests then were in the fields of mineral nutrition, plant propagation and the cold tolerances of woody ornamental plants. From 1962 to 1966 he was Associate Horticulturist at the University of Vermont and concerned with extension programs for commercial nurserymen, greenhouse operators and amateur groups interested in community beautification. Again in Vermont, his research concerned the hardiness of woody ornamental plants and while tests led to the selection of hardy clones, his studies sought the reasons for hardiness in the physiological processes related to growth and nutrition. Dr. Flint is married and has four children. He is a member of Pi Alpha Xi, Phi Kappa Phi, Sigma Xi, and Phi Sigma, honorary scholastic fraternities. As an active member of several national horticultural societies, he has written scientific articles for professional journals and popular articles for other horticultural magazines and papers. His work at the Arnold Arboretum will continue his investigations in the factors controlling plant hardiness, the selection of desirable ornamental woody plants and the teaching of horticultural subjects to Harvard students and as part of our educational program. 54 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fall Field Classes of the Arnold Arboretum, 1966","article_sequence":9,"start_page":55,"end_page":55,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24427","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160856b.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1966 Fall Field Classes of the Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain, Fridays 10 A.M.-12 Noon, Sept. 30-Oct. 28. Registration $Q Informal talks or field trips on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum under the of Dr. Donald Wyman. This is a continuation of a classhich has been offered for many years and in which the various plants are observed for the fruits and autumn colors. Meetings are indoors in case of rain. leadership Case Estates, Weston, Wednesdays 2 :30-4 :30, Sept. 28-Oct. 26. Registration $Q Dr. Carroll Wood will conduct informal discussions about the plants and the plantings, including the native vegetation, on the Case Estates. Meet and park near the barn, 135 Wellesley Street. Meetings will be held rain or shine. 55 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seasonal Hardening in Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":10,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24431","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170a726.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Flint, Harrison L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA tB E 1n A continuation of' the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University ~trLLME ~6 NOVEMBER li8, lyti6 NUMBER 9 SEASONAL HARDENING IN TREES AND SHRUBS EACH autumn, and foliage one of Nature's most remarkable performances takes goes unnoticed. We are quite familiar with the autumnal colors in many deciduous trees and shrubs, but unaware of placechange in more even dramatic internal changes that are proceeding at the same time and afterward in the same plants, and evergreens as well. These internal changes, collectively called hardening, enable many plants to withstand sub-zero temperatures during the winter, even though the same plants would be killed by temperatures just a few degrees below freezing in summer. For example, controlled freez~ng tests have shown that stems of common lilac (Syringa vulgaris I,. ) would be damaged severely by a freeze into the low 20's in mid-August. By late October, they will withstand temperatures close to zero, and by December, temperatures of -200 F. and lower will not injure them. In spring the reverse process, dehardening, is brought on by rising temperatures. Stems of common lilacs, to follow the same illustration, will not be injured when exposed to temperatures far below zero in February. By mid-April they will be sensitive to temperatures as low as zero, and by mid-May they will be as tender as they were in the previous summer. The differences in winter hardiness that we can see among species of woody plants can be explained in part by the fact that different species harden to different degrees in winter, and harden and deharden at different rates. Plate XVI shows the approximate minimum temperatures that have been recorded in Boston (Logan Airport) and the hardening and dehardening trends of four hypothetical plant species, which we will call A, B, C, and D. Species A (Plate XVI) begins to harden early in autumn, hardens quickly, and is slow to deharden in the spring. The line representmg its hardening trend falls below the minimum temperature line at all points and so it is not prone to injury. If all plants behaved in this way, there would be no need to discuss winter hardiness as a practical concern. If we were to measure seasonal changes in 57 PLATE XVI Seasonal hardening trends (broken lines) of four hypothetical species, compared with approximate record low temperatures at Logan Airport, Boston, Massachusetts (solid lines). 58 PLATE XVII Bark splitting in 'Fedora', one of the Kaempferi hybrid azaleas. This type of injury is suffered by some azaleas and other young plants when a warm autnmn is followed by an early hard freeze. Pulling mulch away from plants in late summer allows the ground to cool in early autumn. This practice favors earlier hardening of the lower stem and reduces the chances of bark-splitting. (Photo courtesy of Dr. John Havis, University of Massachusetts) 59 hardiness in as our native trees, we would expect them to behave in about the same way species A. Species B starts to harden in early fall but does not have the capac~ty to harden to the same extent as species A in mid-winter. This is the way we would expect some of the landscape plants used in the southern United States to behave in reason for their failure here. C has the capacity to harden eventually, but it does not harden rapidly Species enough to escape the first hard freezes of late autumn. If cold weather is unusually late, this hypothetical species may escape damage, and by mid-winter it may have had time to harden enough so that it survives the rest of the winter without injury. But in a normal season it may be killed before the end of November. Some of the less hardy azaleas behave in this way (see Plate XVII) and we suspect that many other plants do also, especially when they are young and vigorous. Species D differs from species C in that it runs into trouble in spring rather than in fall, because it dehardens too rapidly and is injured by cold snaps in late winter or spring. Peach trees and raspberry canes suffer this kind of damage in the colder areas of New England. Too-rapid dehardening may be caused by early breaking of internal dormancy or rest, the ability to begin growing at relatively low temperatures, or both of these factors. It is easy to talk about hypothetical species and to sort them into neat groupings. Real species are not so simple-the weaknesses of two or more hypothetical species may appear together in a single plant. For example, even though we know that many real plants resemble the relatively hardy species A, we're not sure that the more tender plant species have only a single weak point. Some may even combine all the weaknesses of species B, C and D. Complicating things further, the vulnerability of a species depends upon the climate in which it is growing as well as its ability to harden. Thus a particular species presumably may be vulnerable at one season in one location and at a different season in another location having a different cooling trend. And still further, the rate of hardening and the time when it starts will be influenced by our area, and is the the climate in which the plant is growing. All this does not mean that it is hopeless to expect to learn much about susceptible points in the hardening cycles of different species. But it does mean that information gained at one location is not necessarily valid at another. Seasonal hardening and dehardening trends have been studied in only a few species, most of them evergreens. Clearly, there is much work to be done before the points of vulnerability of a wide range of species is known. When this has been accomplished we may be able to attack the practical problem of adaptmg more kinds of trees and shrubs to the colder parts of the north temperate zone on a far less empirical basis than is possible today. HARRISON L. FLINT 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seasonal Hardening in Trees and Shrubs Useful Even Though Not Winter-hardy","article_sequence":11,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24432","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d170a76b.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 26 tus I VE NOVEMBER 25, 1966 NUMBER 10 SEASONAL HARDENING IN TREES AND SHRUBS USEFUL EVEN THOUGH NOT WINTER-HARDY the title appears to be a contradiction in terms. But not when realize that a plant doesn't need to be fully hardy to be useful-referring to those plants whose tops are commonly winter-killed all or part of the way to the ground, but that grow back and flower in one season. Some of the plants listed are killed to the ground each winter in most of New England. Others are injured this severely only in certain winters. Some commonly escape damage in the warmer parts of New England, but are injured to varying degrees in the colder parts. One thing that most of them have in common is the ability to grow rapidly and to initiate, develop, and mature their flowers-all in one growing season. Two exceptions, Hydrangea quercifolia and Stephanandra incisa, do not flower on current season's growth, but are included here because of their value for foliage effect. Pruning: Because of the frequent winter damage, pruning becomes especially important. For species that usually kill to the ground level or near it, such as Vite.r agnus-castu.s and Buddleia dnvidii, pruning simply ~nvolves cutting off the dead tops each spring. For species that may be killed to ground level in some years and only partially in others, such as Elsholtsia stauntonii and Hydrangea arborescens grandiflorn, the functional height of the plant depends upon the severity of past winters. Probably the simplest way to prune such plants is to cut them back to about s~x inches from the ground each spring, even though this may mean removing considerable live wood in some years. When this is done, the functional height of the plant remains more or less constant and its usefulness is enhanced. For species that are killed back only partially in the colder parts of Zone 5, such as Caryopleris, Hibiscus syriacus and Tamarix odessana, pruning close to the ground is not necessary or even desirable, except occasionally for rejuvenation. However, since flowers are borne on current growth, maximum bloom can be A T nrst glance, we 61 PLATE XVIII the ornamental vines that can be killed to the ground and still return to usefulness in one season are certain species and hybrids of Clematis and Silver Fleece Vtne (Polygonum aubertii). The clemat~s hybrid illustrated is `Lady Caroline Neville'. Bottom: Kirilow Indigo (Indigofera kirilowii) is a fine large-scale ground or bank cover. It forms a dense mat of underground stems and, when killed back severely in winter, recovers quickly during the next summer. Top: Among obtained by ~s fairly drastic pruning, which results in vigorous new growth. This particularly true of Caryopteris, Hibiscus syriacus, and Tamarix odessana. that are Landscape plants frequently winter-injured in one season but return to usefulness * For see a partial list of Clematis species and cultivars that bloom on current season's gro~ th, Wyman, D. Shrubs and line8for ~meracun Gardens, New York. The Macmillan Co. 1949. HARRISON L. FLINT 63 ~ro s w 0 ~e <D.S'S -C' 6C p x ,o O b11 ~ ~ ~, N +~ '\" a a~ B 'v ~=~s\" ~ a _~ sa ~ .a,~`' % o i'! S ~B S T3 ~ O pV G ~ .a o '~'c~ \"S g eO O \" ~o F ~x&# 26; U ~ 'S ~ O ~ 4) ~ T: ~ N i. Cy '.7 a~.~ ~ O~ ~ a1 S y C ~a U w a ~4).B . o ~ ro B ~.F' w -S C. e c~ G . ~, .~~~g # :o N &SO Pn w L c O w~ u~ 0o~ ~ -S'O-~o pn 3 \" o m 5 pp .~cC y~jl ,~ C I ~ ~ -s -~ Oc~ND, W . .'~N)I a~ o 64 `.\/-n g J\".. E c~ . ~ O ro ~ ~~o a, c H o .N'~BG ^~~m ro o "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Few Poisonous Plants","article_sequence":12,"start_page":65,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24423","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160bb6f.jpg","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR IB I'OR~I<1'I'IOB of the :~rnold Arboretum, Har~'ard University ~'o~.uate 26 DFCE~IBEIi 30, 1966 A FEW POISONOUS PLANTS ~UMBERS 11-1? I fall the staff at the Arboretum is besieged with questions about poiThe questions are answered to the best of our ability but they mvariably come down to questions of identification. Physicians are the ones to consult for treatment, but frequently they find it necessary to have someone else ~dent~fy the plants that cause the trouble in the first place. In the book, Poisonou.s Planf.s qf flre C'nited Slnle.s and Canadn, by John BI. Kingsbury, over 700 plants that have been known to be poisonous to man or animals are mentioned. iBlost ~ardeners know a few poisonous plants. In this issue of Arreolrlia some of the more common ones are listed. Usually, one does not go to the garden and eat miscellaneous foliage. Even youngsters are more attracted to bright colored fruits than foliage of plants. In the reference works, the term \"poisonous\" usually means poisonous to man or animals, and many more animals than humans have been poisoned by eating the foliage of plants. One of the prime rules is to avoid any white fruits, both in the northern part of the country and in the Tropics. The Federal Government has set up a \"Pesticide Information Center\" in each state, usually in the land-grant college. In ~Iassachusetts ~t is located at the University of Massachusetts, Amherst, with Prof. Ellsworth H. Wheeler, the Project Leader. Also, Poison Centers have been established about the country, mostly in hospitals where medical aid can be given and where advice on treatment for poisoned individuals can be given to the medical profession and the layman alike. These have been sponsored by a division of the Federal Public Health Service. These centers are the places to call for advice in cases of possible poisoning from insecticides or plants. In ~Iassachusetts there are seven Poison Centers : BEV' BEDFOItD: BOSTON: Poison Control Center Poison Information Center (WYman 6-6711, Ext. 275) (BEacon 2-2120) St. Luke's Hospital Children's Medical Center 101 Page Street 300 Longwood Avenue E~'E1~I plants. sonous 65 FALL RIVER: Poison Control Center (OSborne 9-6+05, or OS Union Hospital 300 Hanover Street Sf ttlBGFIELD: Poison Control Center 4-5789) (STate 8-i 8? 1 ) ~Ierct- Hospital 28;i Carew Street Poison Control Center WORCESTER: Poison Control Center (STate R-~.5 S 1 ) 6-1.55 1 ) Springfield Hospital 759 Chestnut Street Poison Control Center (SWnft 9-; 09+, or !'Leasant ~t'orcester City Hospital ~Jacques Street (STate :i-1~~41) V'esson ~lemorial I~0 Hyh Street Hospital In the following list are some plants that might be found m or near gardens this area. The plants under discussion have been divided into four groups, those growing in the garden or woods with poisonous fruits, foliage or roots, and also those with poisonous parts commonly used as house plants in the northern l: mted States. Certainly all the poisonous plants are not included. Nor does the absence of a plant from the list mean that its fruit or foliage is not poisonous. Those mentioned here have been known to be poisonous to humans. People with small children, most of whom are experimentally minded, would do well to note these plants and keep small children from them. rn PLANTS IN GARDEN OR WOODS WITH POISONOUS FRUITS Actea pachypoda 1 1\/2' Zone 3 White Baneberry or Cohosh Ol;lahocna, with compound leaves ; flowers Georgia and small white terminal clusters durmg sprmg and erect clusters of wtate berries on red stalks m summer and fall. Frequently seen in the woods in this area. The fruits of tlns are extremely poisonous. It is often listed incorrectly as 9clea nlGn. '1'he red fruits of .loea ro6ra are An herbaceous perennial native from southeastern Canada to m also poisonous. Daphne A low mezereum 3' Zone 4 February Daphne gardens and occaThe small, lilac to rosy-pink flowers are very sionally fragrant, appearing in early April before the leaves, and the scarlet red berries are borne up and down the stem ~n June. It is the berries which are most poisonous. shrub, native to Europe area. but common in American naturalized in this Euonymus but europaeus 21' Zone 3 Spindle Tree This species and no cases have probably others in this genus have proved poisonous in Europe, apparently been reported in North America. The leaves are GG ~ PLATE XX l. W lsnunt du&:trnlra. ;~. Deadly Nightshade. 2. Daphne rnezereum. February Daphne. Artea pacAypocla. White baneberry, Cohosh. 4. 1'hylolarva arnericctua. Pokeweed. opposite and the red fruit capsules split open and reveal bright fleshy orange covered seeds inside. This and other species of Euonymus are popular garden plants but it would be wise to prevent children from eating the fruits which start to color in early fall. Hedera helix Vine Zone 5 English Ivy A common house and garden plant but considered poisonous since the days of l'lmy-. However, it is chiefly the berries that would attract children, blue-black in umbels but formed in the very late fall on mature vines with mature foliage (see Plate XXI). The berries are aboutinch in diameter. Apparently no cases of poisoning have been reported in America but they have been in Europe. Laburnum anagyroides 30' Zone 5 Golden-chain This has been considered the second most poisonous tree in Great Britain (the first rs 7a.rus baccala, the English Tew). 'I'he Golden-chain u easrly recognized for its alternate compound leaves with 3 leaflets and its yellow pea-like flowers borne in pendulous clusters about 6-18 inches long in late ~lay somewhat similar to those of Wisteria. The fruit is a pod containing up to 8 seeds apparent during summer and fall and it is these that are poisonous. Other species probably have poisonous properties. Menispermum canadense Vine Zone 4 Common Moonseed Not very common but this is a twining vine native to the eastern [.`nited States and a vicious weed wherever it gets started in a garden. The leaves are somewhat like those of English Ivy, and the black berries nre ~inch across looking somewhat like small grapes in the Full. The fruits can be sev erely poisonous. Phytolacca americana 4-12' Zone 4 Pokeweed This common American perennial crops up as a weed at some time or other in almost every garden in the northeastern United States. It is herbaceous, dying down to the ground in the fall. The root is the most toxic part. The black berries are attractme and have been used for making pies, but on the other hand when eaten raw by humans they may have been responsible for severe poisoning. The young shoots have been cooked and eaten like asparagus, especially if the cooking water is changed. The leaves are alternate, entire and ovate; the small white or purplish flowers are borne in terminal racemes and are bisexual. The fruit is a 10-seeded, juicy, purple berry. All considered, it would be advisable to prevent children from eating the fruits. Podophyllum peltatum 1 1\/2' Zone 3 Mayapple, Mandrake Native in the woods from Quebec to Florida and Texas, this is often an interesting wild flower planted in the wild garden. It has large peltate, palmately lobed leaves, solitary waxy white flowers 2 inches wide in spring, and yellowish, 68 ~ PLATE XXI Ofonispermum canadense, Common Moonseed. ~. Hedera heli.r (mature foliage). English Ivy. 3. ~uonymus europaeus. Spindle Tree..4. Taaws sp., Yew species. 5. 1'horadendro~a jtauescens. American blistletoe. 1. fleshy, berry-like fruits if several of the fruits Ricinus communis 2 inches wide. The root is are eaten they 15' can cause the chief poisonous part, but diarrhea. Annual to Castor-bean the Often called the Castor-oil Plant, this is native Tropics where ~t can grow into a tree 40 feet tall having palmate leaves with 5-11 lobes as much as 3 feet wide. The monoecious flowers are small but are borne in 2-foot panicles and the fruit is one inch long covered with soft brown spines. The seed, looking something like a bean, is deadly poisonous to humans. Often planted as an annual in New England gardens for the tropical effect of its foliage. Robinia A pseudoacacia 75' Zone 3 Black Locust tree native to the eastern United States with alternate compound leaflets opposite and in 3-10 pairs ; clusters of white pea-l~ke flowleaves, ers appear in June and fruits are dry pods. Horses, cattle and sheep have been poisoned from eating the fruits, suckers or bark and children have been poisoned by eating the seeds or mner bark. common entire Solanum dulcamara Vine Zone 4 Deadly Nightshade entire leaves sometimes lobed at the apparently widely distributed by birds, with alternate, base, 1~-~. inches long; the flowers are violet colored and star-like, produced in clusters; the fruits are fleshy scarlet berries about ~ inch wide. Flowers are borne from June-August ; fruit from August-October. Native to Europe and North Africa, ~t is now widely naturalized m the eastern United States. Cattle, horses and sheep have been killed from eating the vegetative parts and children have definitely been poisoned by eatmg the bright red fruits. It should always be tt~orouehly eradicated from the garden This is a weedy vine wherever it appears. Rhus radicans Vine Zone 3 Poison Ivy Sometimes termed !'o.ricorlenrlron rnrlicnns, or I~hus loa~icorlenrlron, this is the Poison Ivy- so widely distributed in the Northeast, and leaves, fruit, stems and even smoke from the burning twigs are extremely toxic causing a serious skin rash to many leaves have 3 leaflets up to 10 inches long with the margins either entire, toothed or lobed and glossy or dull on the upper surface. The small flowers are greenish white in the early sprmg and the berry-like, white, waxy fruits persist into the winter and are borne in erect axillary clusters. Native from British Columbia to Nova Scotia, south to Florida, T'eaas and Mexico, it climbs by attaching itself to tree trunks, walls, etc. or rambles over the ground m a dense mass up to 1~ feet high. It should be given a wide berth by everyone, and certainly children should be warned against collecting the berries. The people. compound 70 ' PLATE XXII verni.u, Poison Sumac. 2. Rhue radieans, Poison Ivy. roides. Golden-chain. 4. Ricinua communie, Castor-bean. I. Rhus 3. Laburnum anagy- Rhus vernix 15' Zone 3 Poison Sumac Sometimes termed To.ricodemlron uerni.r and natme from Quebec to Florida, this is a ranging shrub with alternate, pinnately compound leaves, bearing i-13 3 leaflets, the leaf margins entire. The small greenish flowers are in pendulous clusters nearly 8 inches long and the white fruits are small. (:suallt- found in swamps, it should be given a wide berth at all times because contact with any of the parts causes a serious skin rash to many people. Taxus spp. 2-30' Zones 4-6 Yews The English Yew (Taxus baccala) Great Britain. Other Yew species are probably just pidala, the Japanese Yew, and T. canrrclensis, the Canada 1-ew, are wdely planted in Bew England gardens. The sexes are separate and the pistillate plants are the ones which bear the bright scarlet fruit rn the fall. The red flesh covers a hard seed ; and although the flesh is not poisonous, the seed is extremely poisonous. Chewing seeds has proven fatal to animals and humans. The foliage is even more toxic and of course it is thrs that proves so poisonous to cattle, sheep and has been noted as in the most poisonous plant as poisonous and !', cus- horses. There are probably more problems with children eating these berries in this area than any other, except possrbly Pokeweed. Chewing these seeds and then swallowing can cause serious poisoning. Zones 4-5 Wisteria spp. Vines Wisteria ~L'rsterras are twmng vines widely planted for their colorful, pendulous clusof pea-like flowers in late Dlay and June. The pods are 4-6 inches long and flat, containing several seeds and it is these which have been known to be poisonous to children when eaten. They ripen in the late summer and early fall. ters PLANTS IN GARDEN OR WOODS WITH POISONOUS FOLIAGE previously, few humans go to the garden or woods and nibble quanfoliage indiscriminately. 'l'I~e plants listed here are poisonous mostly to animals, but may prove poisonous to humans also rf the foliage is eaten in any As noted tities of quantity. Aconitum spp. Aconite, Monkshood are common Several species garden plants and the records country are not common, but it of poisoning in this should be remembered that these plants are potentially poisonous. Cicuta maculata 6' Zone 3 aromatic Water-hemlock The leaves of this perennial Florida, are 2-3 times herb, native from Kew Brunswick to pinnate,5 inches long and the small white flowers are 72 borne in terminal umbels. It is sometimes used in the wild or bog garden, and usually found in marshy places. It has caused a great deal of livestock losses in the United States. Roots and seeds are the most poisonous parts. Children are sometimes severely poisoned by eating the root. is Conium maculatum 4-8' Biennial Poison Hemlock dissected leaves sometimes 4-5 times (opposite) compound, with a large parsnip-like root. Small white flowers are borne in umbels and it resembles the V'ild Carrot or Queen Ann's Lace (Daucus corolra), but the stem and leaves of the latter are distinctly hairy. Native to Europe, it has become naturalized in many areas of the United States. Humans and all types of livestock are susceptible to poisoning by thrs plant, and its poisonous properties have been known since Greek and Roman times. The foliage rs sometimes mistaken for parsley and the seed for amse. V'ith Datura stramonium 1-5' Annual Jimsonweed, Angel's Trumpet Vative to the Tropics but a naturalized garden weed m the northeastern United States, tlas has ovate leaves 8 inches long with acute lobes and upright white to violet colored trumpet-shaped flowers 4 inches long. 7 he fruit is prickly and 2 rnches wide. All kinds of animals, including ostriches, have been killed from eating the foliage of this plant. Children have been poisoned by eating the seeds or sucking the nectar from the large flowers. Delphinium spp. are Larkspur the most Some of these species western states. The poisonous. fulrage of most important cattle poisoning pl.mts in our species should be regarded as potentially Biennial Digitalis purpurea 4' Foxglove plant are one of the sources for a heart stimulant, digitahs, ingested in large amounts, they can prove fatal. This IS a common garden biennial, sometimes a perennial, with tubular droopmg purple l flowers m the summer, more or less spotted, on a one-sided spike often feet long. The leaces of this and rf the leaves are Cypress Spurge spreadmg, linear-leaved perennial with small flowers in many rayed umbels with the bracts yellowish, this has proved fatal to cattle when ingested in large amounts. It has been used rn the garden as a fast spreading ground cover. Euphorbia cyparrissias A fast 1' Zone 4 Ranunculus spp. Buttercups Foliage Rheum eaten in large amounts has poisoned cattle. Zone 2 Rhubarb rhaponticum 1 1\/2-6' It is interesting to note that the leaves of this common garden food plant are poisonous. The leaf stalks or petioles are commonly eaten, but the leaves when eaten by humans have caused severe poisoning. 73 Rhus radicans, Rhus vernix foliage of Poison Ivy and Poison Sumac causes serious skin rashes on many people. These plants should be given a wide berth and eradicated immediately as soon as they appear in the garden. See Fruits. The Sambucus canadensis 12' Zone 3 American Elder shrub native to the eastern United States with opposite compound flat clusters of small white flowers 6-8\" across in late June followed leaves, large by small blue or black berries which have been used in making jams, pies and wines. Eating uncooked berries may produce nausea in humans, and children are reported to have been poisoned by makmg blow guns from the pithy stems. A common Apparently such poisoning Symplocarpus foetidus The fresh leaves which a is not serious 3' are nor common. Zone 3 Skunk-cabbage contain sometimes as much as 3 feet long and a foot wde which is apparently destroyed when they are dried, heated or bo~led. Animals have been poisoned by eating the foliage but one taste of the raw, uncooked acrid leaves is enough to prevent humans from eating more. toxic principle HOUSE PLANTS USED AS SUCH IN THE NORTHERN U.S.A. Dieffenbachia seguine 6' Zone 10 Dumb Cane a This tropical plant is sometimes used in greenhouses or homes ~n this area as foliage plant because of very large, thick, variously spotted leaves. However, it has long been known that to take a bite out of the stalk of th~s plant causes a throat irritation resulting in the loss of speech for several days or more, and such irritation might cause a swellmc of the tongue, and clogging of the windp~pe. Euphorbia pulcherrima 10' Zone 9 Poinsettia to everyone, grown are This is the popular greenhouse and house out-of-doors in the South. The milky sap is supposed to be poisonous if eaten. Lantana camara plant familiar a skin irritant and the leaves 4' Zone 10 Common Lantana A house plant in the North, with opposite leaves and flat axillary clusters of tubular flowers, yellow to pink at first but maturing to orange or bright red. The fruit is greenish-blue or black, a fleshy, one-seeded drupe aboutinch wide. The foliage has caused considerable livestock poisoning in Florida and California where the plant is grown out-of-doors but children have been poisoned by eating the fruit. Nerium oleander 6-20' Zone 9 Oleander A popular garden evergreen in the South and frequently grown in tubs in greenhouses in the North, moved out-of-doors during the summer. It is valued 74 for its evergreen linear leaves and its large clusters of conspicuous flowers. It has been known as poisonous since classical times. Philodendron spp. pink and white Mostly vines Zone 10 ~Ian~- of these species irritant principle, eating the foliage. are common house plants. The leaves may contain an and supposedly have been responsible for the death of cats It would be well to prevent children from eating the leaves. Phoradendron flavescens 1 1\/2' Zones 6-7 American Mistletoe A common household decorative plant at Christmas with small white berries borne in clusters. This is a parasitic shrub in the South but large quantities of cut branches are shipped north in the fall of every year. Both children and adults have been severely poisoned from eating the fruits. The I'iscurn album, is also considered poisonous. Solanum European Mistletoe, Jerusalem-cherry pseudo-capsicum 4' Zone 8(?) This is a popular greenhouse plant used a great deal at Christmas for the bright red rounded fruits, ~ rnch in diameter and remaining on the plant for a long time. Although no serious experiences with this have been recently documented, the fruits have long been suggested as poisonous. To be safe, it would be wise to prevent children from eating them. Foliage of other common garden or woods plants such as Rhododendron, llountwn-laurel, Lamb-kill, Chokecherry (1'runus rirgiulnna~, Indian Poke or False I-lellebore ( I'eralruru uiride) and Yreris species have been poisonous to livestock especially when eaten in large amounts. PLANTS OF GARDEN OR WOODS WITH POISONOUS ROOTS AND STEMS Arisaema triphyllum Jack-in-the-pulpit Autumn Crocus Colchicum autumnale Convallaria majalis Dicentra spp. Gloriosa superba Lily-of-the-Valley Bleeding-heart and Dutchman's Breeches Hyacinthus spp. Glory-lily Hyacinth Iris, Flags Narcissus, Daffodil Star-of-Bethlehem Pokeweed May-apple, Mandrake DONALD W~1'BIAN Iris spp. Narcissus spp. Ornithogalum umbellatum Phytolacca americana Podophyllum peltatum 75 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23331","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0708125.jpg","title":"1966-26","volume":26,"issue_number":null,"year":1966,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Germination of Woody Legume Seeds with Impermeable Seed Coats","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24415","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160a76d.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~LJ APRIL 2, 1965 NUMBER I GERMINATION OF WOODY LEGUME SEEDS WITH IMPERMEABLE SEED COATS in the chain of events that lead to seed germination is the imbibition of water. Many types of seeds will germinate as soon as they are provided with a favorable environment of moisture, air and warmth. Other sound seeds are prevented from doing so by various barriers such as the inability of water to penetrate seed coats, internal physiological conditions, or a combination of these factors (Arnoldia, 20 (6): 33-40. 1960). Germination of many seeds is retarded only by impermeable coats which hinder the admission of water. If these coats are not subjected to pretreatment, germination can be erratic and prolonged, sometimes extending over a period of many years. Some examples of impermeability of seed coats to water are indicated by the following tests now in progress at the Arnold Arboretum (Plate I, upper half). In April 1963, three hundred seeds of Gynrnocladus dioicus, Kentucky Coffee Tree, were immersed in a tray of water which was kept at room temperature and changed periodically. Each week the seeds were examined, those which germinated were removed, and the fact recorded. In the first ten days thirteen seeds swelled, produced radicles and were removed. These, no doubt, had fissures in their seed coats at the outset. Twenty-one months later in January 1965, three more seeds imbibed water and extended their rad~cles; up to March 15, 1965 nothing further has happened. As it now appears, this test can go on indefinitely, possibly for a decade or more; only one per-cent germination has taken place during the past twenty-one months. In December 1963, one thousand seeds of Gleditsia triacanthos, Honey-Locust, were also submerged in water in order to record the germination. In the first thirteen days twenty seeds had germinated and the occurrence was recorded. During 1964, fifteen germinated and so far this year (to March 15) none has done so. The duration of this experiment could also continue for many years. In nature, dispersal of honey-locust seeds takes place in winter. Pods which are firmly FOREMOST -~ 1 attached to the tree require high winds to tear them loose with the result that they can be found lodged against obstacles considerable distances from the parent plant. During winter, crows can be seen tearing pods from the tree, holdmg them between their feet and ripping them apart to eat the seeds. It is quite probable that the seed coats of any which pass through the birds' digestive tract will be prepared for germination by the grinding action of the gizzard plus the effect of digestive acids. When seeds with impermeable coats reach maturity, the seed coats, which will provide protection for the contents, start undergoing changes in structure. Seeds of Albisia julibrissin rosea were collected in autumn when the pods were turning from green to buff color, indicating ripeness. At this stage the coats consisted of a thm, soft membrane. Fifty seeds weighing 5. 1 grams were placed in dry storage, during which changes took place involving the seed coat structure and a reduction in weight and size. Within a week or two the seeds were much smaller, had stony-hard, water-impermeable coats and their weight had diminished to I . 7grams. Seeds which nature has furnished with these water-tight protective encasements have the ability to retain viability for remarkably long spans of time when conditions unfavorable to germination exist. When locked up in this manner respiration takes place at such a low rate that life can continue for extended periods. The term macrobiotic has been used to define seeds capable of remaining alive for fifteen years or more. Albi~ia julibrissi7r furnishes a good example of a plant which produces macrobiotic seeds. Last year, 1964, a few were taken from one of our own herbarium specimens that had been prepared in 1897. These were treated with hot water, as described below, and one germinated after being kept for sixty-seven years under the driest possible conditions-that of an herbarium. Another example of extended vitality is provided by seeds of the same species collected in China in 1793 and stored in a box at the British Museum of Natural History in London. As a result of an air-raid in 1940, they were soaked by water during a fire and were reported to have germinated after 147 years of dry storage. How much longer these particular seeds might have sustained life will never be known. However, long range testing programs for such seeds have been established whereby future generations will have accurately recorded material with which to compile such data. One set of trials, involving seeds stored at the Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden, Claremont, California, is planned with a series of tests that will not terminate until the year 2307. Methods of Overcoming Seed Coat Dormancy To obtain prompt germination of seeds characterized only by seed coat dora rapid means of effecting the entry of water is necessary. Several procedures will accomplish this. mancy, 2 Mechanical treatment Large seeds, in small quantities, can be perforated with a knife, file or any performs the job. Seeds large enough to hold between the fingers can prepared for the entry of water by scraping them along the uppermost of a three-cornered file placed on a bench. Several brisk strokes are usually edge sufficient to cut through the seed coat if the file is sharp. Seeds too small to hold, or those handled in volume, can be treated with one of the methods next described or by mechanical scarification. Specially designed equipment is made for users who process large quantities, but individuals, or organizations such as the Arnold Arboretum, do not normally handle seeds in sufficient amounts to warrant the employment of such aids. tool that be easily Hot water treatment Treatment with hot water involves placing the seeds in a container and pourwater heated to a temperature of about 190-200 F. over them. The seeds are then left in the water overnight. In amount, the water should be at least five or six times the volume of the seeds, and this is important, as too small a quantity can cool before it has the desired effect. On being removed from the water, the seeds are sown at once, without being allowed to dry out. A second, but less effective method, is to sow the seeds and pour boiling water over the seed-pan or seed-flat. In the case of the fifty seeds of Albizia julibrissin rosea described above, which were collected, weighed and kept in dry storage, the seeds were treated with hot water one afternoon and by the following morning had resumed their original size, weighed 5.42 grams, and were ready for germination. ing Concentrated sulphuric acid treatment Some seeds with coats not responsive to hot water treatment can quickly be germinated after a more drastic measure-immersion in concentrated sulphuric acid, (HZSOQ). This highly corrosive substance, when employed for this purpose, accomplishes m hours, or portions thereof, a process that could require months or years if the seed coats were not treated. Sulphuric acid treatment, when dealing with small amounts of seeds, consists of placing the dry seeds in a glass container and carefully pouring acid over them until they are covered. Sulphuric acid is a viscous substance of high surface tension which acts superficially on seed coats without penetration. In fact when trials were carried out on an unfamiliar subject suspected of having an impermeable seed-coat, periods of acid treatment as long as one and one-half hours have been given seeds which later proved to be water permeable. Despite such mistreatment, however, the seeds were not destroyed but germinated when sown. The acid did not have the ability to penetrate the seed coat, although water did. As acid treatment progresses gummy by-products of corrosion will fuse the 3 PLATE I (Upper) at Gymnocladus dioicus and Gleditsia triacanthos immersed in trays of water room temperature. (Lower) Germinated seed of Albizia julibrissin rosea after treatment Seed of with hot water. seeds into a cohered mass which must be separated from time to time to insure that all seeds are acted upon uniformly. Cautious prodding and careful stirring with a glass rod will accomplish this. The length of treatment varies greatly, depending upon the subject, the objective being to corrode away sufficient seed coat to permit the entry of water without exposing the interior to destruction by the acid. Observations can be made during treatment by removing a few seeds, rinsing them and examining the seed coat to see how much of it has been eaten away. When treating large batches it is advisable to run a few trial lots to determine proper timing before processmg the main bulk. An important point which must be considered hen using sulphuric acid is the effect of temperature. Higher temperatures accelerate the rate of action while lower ones retard it. Acid treatments at the Arnold Arboretum are usually performed in the winter when room temperature is maintained at approximately 70 F. On completion of the treatment, seeds are placed in a sieve and washed thoroughly in running water for several minutes to remove all the acid. Now they are ready for the next step, which involves either immediate sowing or cold stratification. We do not employ a neutrilizer after the use of acid and have never noticed detrimental effects for not having done so. A few years ago we conducted trials with seeds of Albi~ia julibrissin rosea. Concentrated sulphuric acid treatments were run at room temperature, for half an hour, one hour and two hours. Each test resulted in general germination after ten days, the longer treatments being neither beneficial nor detrimental. Immersion in hot water was also tried and this proved to be the simplest method of germinating A. julibrissin rosea. It too produced general germination in ten days with time saved, and the precautions involved, when working with acid, avoided (Plate I, lower half). This test, however, shows that it is not necessary for timing to be exact when using acid on this particular subject. Although it is always wise to strive for precision, acid treatment has a degree of latitude that makes it a relatively easy tool to use. Similar tests have been carried out on Black Locust, Robinia pseudoacacia, and here too, hot water proved to be more effective. After being processed, as shown in the following table, the seeds were placed in trays of water so that the percentage which had imbibed water could be observed and recorded : Treatment Imbibition Control, placed in tap water Hot water ( 190 F.) Acid for one half hour Acid for one hour Acid for two hours 2% 93 0l0 14 ~o 210l0 33% The figures for two separate trials were roughly the same. However, because there can be variation from tree to tree and year to year it should be mentioned 5 PLATE II Germinated seed of Gleditsia triacanthosafter treatment with concentrated sulphuric acid. (Lower) Trays sown with seed of Cercis siliquastrnm; on the left, seed treated only with hot water; on the right, seed treated with hot water followed by cold stratification. (Upper) that the seeds used for both trials came from the same tree in the same year. In other cases acid proved more effective than hot water. Seeds of Gleditsia triacanthos, Honey-Locust, required relatively long periods of acid pretreatment to effect a rapid, general germination (Plate II, upper half). The results are shown in the following table: Treatment Germination without pretreatment 5'0 in hot water (1900 F.) as described 29% in sulphuric acid for 1~ hours 62% in sulphuric acid for 2~ hours 98% sown Control, Steeped Steeped Steeped Similarly, in the case of a shrubby legume, Cytisus nigricans, the Spike Broom, seeds treated with hot water and sown, remained in the greenhouse for fourteen months. They were removed from the seed-pan and treated with sulphuric acid, after which a general germination took place in ten days. Precautions when handling sulphuric acid Precautions to be taken when handling sulphuric acid cannot be over emphasized. It need not be feared, but should be handled with the greatest respect, for it becomes safe to use only when adequate precautions are observed. Each year millions of tons of this highly essential industrial chemical are transported about the country in tank-cars and tank-trucks. It is used extensively by chemists, industrial workers and students and with care others can do the same. In our treatments, small though they are, the workman performing the task dons protective equipment consisting of glasses, neoprene gloves and an apron. The work is done adjacent to running water and nearby is a shower that could be reached in a few seconds if its use became necessary, for, despite precautions, accidents are always possible. To minimize the chance of breakage, our supply of acid, in a one gallon glass container, is imbedded in a five gallon can of perlite stored in an out-of-the-way location. When treatments have been completed, the acid which has been used is poured into a glass bottle. In a few days extraneous substances caused by corrosion settle to the bottom and the clear acid is then poured off for reuse. Cold stratification woody legumes are in the category known as doubly dormant, seeds, and require two stages of pretreatment before general germination takes place. After water has penetrated the seed coats, and broken the first dormancy, a period of cold is necessary to overcome physiological barriers within the seed that prevent germination. Stratification is the term commonly used to define treatment of seeds by combinations of time and temperature; in or Some seeds of two year this case, cold stratification. 7 At the Arnold Arboretum, pretreatment of seeds requiring stratification is done by enclosing them in polyethylene bags. Polyethylene film has the property of being air permeable yet vapor proof; with the result that oxygen is available to the contents by diffusion, together with the moist environment which is essential for stratification to be effective. Stratifying media may consist either of sand combination of half sand and half peat moss. The medium to be used is dampened, and emphasis should be placed on the word dampened, for wet soggy material could exclude sufficient oxygen. In proportion the medium should not exceed two or three times the volume of seeds. This too is important, for at sowing time the entire content of the bag is sown and too large an amount would result in some seeds lyng at unfavorable depths. The seeds are distributed throughout the medium and placed in the bag which is twisted at the mouth and or a made vapor tight with a rubber band. Bags of seeds needing pretreatment by cold are placed, for the required time, in a refrigerator set at about 40 F., but any temperature at which a household refrigerator is normally set would be satisfactory. After the required period of stratification the contents of the bag are sown and rapid germination should follow. Woody legume seeds characterized by double dormancy are found in Cladrasiis lutea, and in Cerci.s canadensis, C. chinensis, C. gri,~thii and G'. siliquastrum. Plate II, lower half, demonstrates the importance of cold stratification, after water has been imbibed, before general germination can take place. In this example Cercis siliquastrum, Judas Tree, seeds were divided into two equal lots and treated with hot water. That on the left of the figure was sown without further attention while the other was provided with a cold period at 40 F. The latter produced a complete germination in twenty-one days while, after eight months, only ten seedlings appeared in the first lot. One cannot generalize when considering seed dormancies ; species differ even within the same genus. In Cladrastis, for example, we find that C. lutea, American Yellowwood, requires cold stratification after water has permeated the seed coat, while C. ~lalycarpa, Japanese Yellowwood, produces a 98 ~o germination m seven days when sown after its coat is modified with sulphuric acid. To find entirely different germinational behavior among species of the same genus is not uncommon, and even between seeds of different provenance within the same species. To sum up, one may say that woody legume seeds often possess impermeable seed coats which require treatment before germination can take place. This may be provided, as explained, by scarification or by exposing them to hot water or concentrated sulphuric acid. Even then some seeds possess an internal dormancy which can only be broken by cold stratification after mechanical treatment, or the use of hot water or acid. ALFRED J. FORDHAM 8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Alaskan Ornamentals and Fruits","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24413","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160a36f.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Washburn, Richard H.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~J MAY ~L1, 19F)~ 2 NUMBER ALASKAN ORNAMENTALS AND FRUITS Alaska is still considered by many to be a land of ice and snow, frost free period in the more populated areas of the state is similar to many areas of the continental United States. It ranges from about 95 to 100 days in the Tanana Valley to 1 10 in the Matanuska Valley, and much longer in south-east Alaska, whose climate is similar to coastal Washington. Vegetable gardening is successful as far north as the foothills of the Brooks Range well north of the Arctic Circle. The day length in the Cook Inlet area, which is the most heavily populated area of the state, varies from about 5 hours and 20 minutes in late December to 19 hours and 20 minutes in June. The extremes are much greater further north, as in Fairbanks, where a baseball game is always played on June 21 at midnight. Due to a favorable rainfall-evaporation ratio, and the fact that most of the precipitation comes in the growing season, it is possible to produce a wide range of crops with a desert-type precipitation of 14.5 inches in the llatanuska Valley and two inches less in the Fairbanks area. Some parts of south-east Alaska have in excess of 195 inches some years. Alaska is generally characterized by cool evening temperatures although during the day they may reach almost 100 F. in the interior. The long photoperiod and low evening temperature are credited for the production of cabbages eighing 50 lbs. and delphiniums 10 ft. high. Flower colors are considered to be more intense than in the \"south 48\"-the rest of the United States-under these favorable conditions. The temperature extremes in the Matanuska Valley are about 85 F. in summer and -37 F. in winter, neither of which are reached very often. In the northern interior they may range from 100 to -750 F. In the more populated areas there is considerable interest in landscaping and the utilization of woody materials adapted to the conditions in Alaska. Most newcomers to the state will not believe that they cannot grow the same evergreens, trees and shrubs that they cultivated before they came to Alaska, and they spend a lot of money learning the hard way. Many of the best adapted materials are considered too poor in quality to be grown in the \"south 48\" and are usually not available from stateside sources. Other difficulties are the use of ALTHOUGH the 9 hardy ern scions on non-hardy rootstocks, and the selection of a strains from the southare instead of northern parts of noticeable in Rosa and ulalus. plant's range. These problems especially Ornamental Trees and Shrubs TANANA VALLEY. This is the coldest of the much interest in ornamentals. The following of trees, shrubs and roses : populated are areas found to be in which there is adapted varieties Trees (In addition to the native birch, poplar, larch and spruce) Acer negundo Prunus padus Malus baccata (no named varieties or hybrids Sorbus americana have been found to be hardy in this area) L'lmus japonica Shrubs Caragana arborescens C. pygmaea Cotoneasler lucida Juniperus horisontalis selections Potenlilla fruticosa Roses Rosa rugosa Prunus japonica sorb~'olia Spiraea media var. sericea Syringa villosa, and hybrids Sorbaria Yiburnum trilobum `Butterball' and ley other types of R. spiuosissima `Hansa' `Therese Bugnet' MATANUSKA VALLEY-ANCHORAGE ARE4. Those listed above for the Tanana Valas well as the following. Those designated with an asterisk require special sites and protection : Trees *Abies balsamea Befula Pinus aristala pendula `Dalecarlica' *P. contorta var. lat~'olia *Crataegus chlorosarca C. rivularis C. ,succulenta Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata Larix decidua L, sibirica lVlalus - see below under Crabapples P. mugo Populus \"Griffin Poplar\" Populus \"Northwest Poplar\" Prunus maackii P. virginiana P. virginiana var. demissa Sorbus americana Sorbus scopulina Ulmus pumila *Picea pungens *P. sitchensis Crabapples `Altnev' `Anaros' `Dauphin' ` Dolgo' ` Haralson' 10 `Makamik' `Osman' 'Robin' 'Rudolph' 'Silvia' Crabapples (cont.) *'Heyer 12' 'Hopa' `Jacques' Shrubs Acer ginnala A. gldbrum var. douglasii Amelanchier alnifolia Berberis koreana Strathmore' `Sutherland' and others Physocarpus monogynus Caragana frutex *C. frutex 'Globosa' C. jubata C. microphylla Cotoneaster intergerrima C. melanocarpn *Juniperus scopulorum Lonicera coerulea L. korolkowii L. korolkowii var. zabelii L, spinosa var. albertii L. xylosteum 'Claveyi' *Philadelphus lewisii Roses *Prunus besseyi *P. fruticosa *P, triloba *Rhododendron schlippenbachii *R. species and hybrids Ribes alpinum Spiraea billiardii S. trichocarpa .S. trilobata Symphoricarpos orbiculatus *Syringa X chinensis S. X henryi S. josikaea *S. vulgaris, French Viburnum lantana V. lentago hybrids *Rosa foetida var. bicolor R. laxa R. rubrifolia R. woodsii R. spinosissima var. ` ~lvsham' Belle Poitevine' 'Betty Bland' 'Betty Bugnet' 'Blanc Double d'Coubert' 'Dr. Merkeley' Hansen Hedge Rose *`Harr~son's Yellow' altaica \"double form\" Helen Bland' 'Mrs. Mina Lindell' 'Ruth' 'Tetonkaha' ` Wasagaming , Bush Fruits Many of the cultivated raspberries are suited to both the Tanana Valley and the Cook Inlet area. `Latham' and 'Chief' are among the commonest varieties. The cultivated gooseberries and currants are not quite hardy enough for the interior, but varieties such as 'Pixwell' and 'Red Lake', and a number of black currants, do well further south in Matanuska Valley and Anchorage area. The Kenai peninsula appears to be one of the best localities for small fruits. None of the cultivated blueberries appear to be hardy anywhere in the northern part of the state although native species are widely distributed. Amelanchier aln;f'olia makes a very satisfactory substitute. The only adapted strawberry widely available is known as the Sitka Hybrid'. Most of the stateside varieties are not quite hardy enough to survive consistently. 11 1 Annual Flowers Most of the annuals, except those with a high temperature requirement, do well when set out as transplants. Some of the larger zinnias are the only common annuals not widely grown. Calendulas, poppies, s~eet-peas and nasturtiums are among the few that are seeded out of doors. The disease, aster yellows, is unknown, so far, so the asters are especially fine with no treatment of any kind except the addition of water and fertilizer. Perennials Although Alaska is probably most famous for its long-lived 8 to 10foot delphiniums many others do well, though they do not reach the extreme height of these giants. Some of those which are well known elsewhere are columbine, pyrethrum, monkshood, trollius, centaurea, shasta daisy, day lilies, peonies (including Japanese varieties), rudbeckia, oriental poppy, campanulas, Siberian iris and many lilies. Tulips and daffodils do well from Matanuska Valley to the south. Hazards to Production of Ornamentals and Fruits Even in the hardiest woody materials more problems are found in a winter of heavy snowfall than in a mild one with practically no snow. When the snows pile up in the mountains the moose descend to the valleys and eat the terminals on many of the well-adapted shrubs and trees. Among their favorites are the poplars, birches and, especially, the apples. But they seldom prune in a desirable manner; they may stand up on their hind legs and break down the center of a tall tree just to get the tender terminal growth. Unfortunately, this winter also, the mice were active under the snow, so that some six-foot trees were entirely debarked from the ground level to the tip of their branches. After no trouble for eight years it looks as though we shall have to go back to hardware cloth and poisoned grain. Porcupines seem to confine their feeding to raspberry canes. Insects and disease are not very serious, compared to the problems they cause with ornamentals in other areas. A number of vector aphids and leafhoppers are here, but not enough inoculum, so far, to produce recognizable symptoms of disease. Aphids on birches are among the few insect problems which are consistently treated. The production of ornamentals that are adapted to propagation by layering, from seed is no different than elsewhere. Our short cool growing season, however, involves considerable trial and error in order to get the correct conditions for grafting or for success with cuttings, especially softwood cuttings. The high cost of electricity and fuel may make indoor propagation prohibitive. From the few trials we have made it appears that, although cuttings may root out of doors, ~t may be necessary to bring them inside, under shelter, for the first winter. R1CHARD H. ~'ASHBI-RN Vfashburn Farm Nursery Palmer, Alaska or hardwood cuttmgs 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Olive Family in Cultivation","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24421","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160b726.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 25 JUNE 11, 19F)5 THE OLIVE FAMILY IN CULTIVATION NUMBERS 3-4 interested in plants have some idea of what constia and are aware that in biological classifications they are grouped together into genera, but it is not so generally known that related genera are brought together to constitute families. The olive, Olea europaea, is the species europaea in the genus Olea, which, together with several closely related genera, make up the family Oleaceae (the suffix - aceae indicating that it is a family). Quite a number of families are readily recognizable, for example, the orchid, grass and daisy families but others are much more diverse in appearance and include plants which would not, at first, be thought of as being related. Such a family is the Oleaceae, containing the lilac, ash, fringe-tree, Forsythia, Osmanthus and jasmine, to mention a few of the constituent genera. How big is this family and how is it characterized? The total number of species can only be estimated since much research yet remains to be done, not only m reviewing those species described during the last 200 years, but in examining new material gathered on expeditions to little-known areas of the world, especially in the tropics. One may safely say, however, that altogether there are between 400 and 500 species. The number of genera is even more a matter of opinion but 22 is the most likely figure, which, taken together with the species number, shows that the Oleaceae is relatively small compared with most of the families of flowering plants. Yet it contains many important horticultural plants and few are superficially so diverse, containing, as it does, the colorful lilac, the ash with its mconspicuous wind-pollinated flowers, the bright yellow Forsythia, and the starry jasmine. What is it that holds it together? The answer to this is found in the structure of the flowers ; experience has shown that related plants can vary widely in their vegetative parts but the characters of the flower are much more stable and, in classification, a surer guide to relationships. In the Oleaceae there is a basic and unique pattern of four sepals on the outside, then four petals, usually joined together, two stamens joined to the petals and then, at the very center, MOST people tutes species who are 13 an ovary with two chambers, each containing two ovules. This is the basic plan and the different exceptions may be looked upon as \"variations on a theme\". Although vegetative characters are often unreliable in classification it is worth noting that the olive family is characterized by being woody rather than herbaceous, and having opposite leaves. In size the members may range from small, spreading shrubs, not more than one foot high, to tall forest trees. In addition, some of them are climbers, the best known being the jasmines, and climbing members in tropical rain forests can become very large indeed. Opposite leaves are found throughout the family, with the sole exception of a small, distinctive and closely related group of eight species of Jasminum in which they are borne alternately. The Oleaceae is not the only family to possess opposite leaves of course, but this character can nevertheless prove a useful point of recognition. A remarkable trait in the Oleaceae is the development of adaptations that favor cross and not self-pollination. In many genera the flowers are completely unisexual but in others some plants of a species have hermaphrodite flowers while others have those which are functionally only male or female and have e~ther abortive ovaries or stamens. Other genera, for example Jasminum, Forsythia and Abeliophyllum, are what are known as heterosty lous, that is, some indimduals bear flowers in which all the styles are long while in other individuals they are all short. In the former, the two stigmatic arms are borne at the mouth of the petal tube, with the stamens at a lower level within ; while those of the latter exhibit the reverse condition, the style is short and the stamens are borne at the mouth of the petal tube. Along with this arrangement goes the inability of flowof one style length to be fertilized by pollen from others of the same type. In order to set seed, long styled flowers must receive pollen from those with a short style and vice versa. This means, in the case of cultivated plants, that ~f only one clone is grown, however much it is propagated, fruit will never, or only very rarely, be produced. A noteworthy character which recurs frequently throughout the family, and helps to make it one of the most important from the horticultural point of view, is the production of fragrant flowers. Lilac and jasmine jump straight to mind, but Osmanthus is equally outstanding (and in fact, rts botanical name means 'fragrant flower'). Such flowers also occur in other genera and even the privets ers are powerfully, if not very sweetly, scented. Abeliophyllum This genus contains a single species, Abeliophyllvm distichum, a native of central Korea. It was introduced into cultivation in America, through the Arnold Arboretum, by means of seed received from Korea in 1924 and forms a shrub with slender, arching branches. It is one of the first plants to flower in the spring and produces a profusion of white blossoms, somewhat smaller but shaped very like those of Forsythia (Plate III, upper). In fact, some people have called it the 14 PLATE III (Upper) Flowering branch of o2ata, the smallest flowered Chionanthus v~irginicus. Abeliophyllum distichum on the left and Forsythia species, on the right. (Lower) Flowering branch of white-forsythia, a name which is apt in some respects but could be very misleading. In order to flower well, it requires a sunny position and in the Boston area is quite hardy, but as the flower buds are borne naked throughout the winter, it should not be planted where it will suffer from the severest conditions or where early autumnal frosts are likely to affect the developing buds on unripened wood. One of the plants at the Arboretum has a tendency to produce pink flowers which, however, fade somewhat on opening. With judicious breeding and selection it might be possible for this color to be deepened and in that way extend the color range of our earliest flowering shrubs. Chionanthus This small genus of three or four species contains the fringe-tree, Chionanthas a good example of a native North American plant prized in cultivation. Each year in late spring a healthy plant will cover itself with a profusion of delicate flowers giving the shrub the appearance of being covered with fringes of fine white lace (Plate III, lower). The botanical name means \"snowflower\", an allusion to the abundant white flowers like showers and drifts of snow. C. virginicu,s has a natural range from Florida to Texas, north to New Jersey, Pennsylvania, West Virginia, southern Ohio, southern Missouri and Oklahoma. Although normally seen as a large shrub it can grow into a small tree about 30 feet high and in the opinion of many is one of the most outstanding flowering woody plants. In addition, an east Asian species, Chionanthus retusus, is also known in cultivation. Not always so floriferous perhaps, and with slightly shorter petals, it flowers a little later than C. virginicus and, as a handsome plant in its own right, is well worth growing in any collection. virginicus, Fontanesia closely related species in this genus, Fontnnesia phillyreoides, Turkey, and F. fortunei, from China. Neither are grown for their flowers, and for this reason perhaps are not widely known in cultivation, but they do produce handsome, much-branched, graceful shrubs with bright green foliage and are very suitable for background planting. The flowers have small greenishwhite petals, which are followed, if cross pollinated, by a profusion of singleseeded, winged frmts, oval in shape and about~-~ to ;of an inch long. There are two very a native of Forsythia Few spring-flowering plants are as well known as the universally admired Forsythia with its golden yellow somewhat bell-like flowers, from which is derived the rather contrived \"common\" name, golden-bells (Plate IlI, upper). Forsythia flowers before the leaves are on the trees, when everyone is longing for signs of spring and end to the drabness of the last few weeks of winter. The species, all of them from eastern Asia, except for one, F. europaea, which is found wild only in Albania. They are easily propaan genus contains about seven 1~ gated from cuttings or by layering, and, partly for this spread in cultivation. For a reason, are now wide- full account of the introduction and development of the members of this should refer to the article by Dr. Donald Wyman, \"The Forsythia Story\", published in an Arnoldia written four years ago (Vol. 21 : 35-38. 1961~. Sufficient to say here that Forsythia suspensa var. sieboldii was first introduced to Holland from Japan in 1833 and from the start proved a popular plant. Later, the famous Spath Nurseries in Germany produced a hybrid of this species with F, viridissima which was called F. X intermedia. Numerous cultivars of this hybrid have been selected and are now widely planted, but more recently, by means of further hybridization and careful cytological treatment, several newer cultivated varieties have been developed. Some, like 'Arnold Giant' and 'Karl Sax' are polyploid and have particularly large, deep-colored flowers, others are diploid and include 'Pallida' and 'Primulina' with flowers which are pale yellow, while others like Arnold Dwarf', form low growing shrubs most suitable as a ground covers or bank plants. genus, one Forestiera A New World genus of perhaps twenty species of somewhat privet-like shrubs of little ornamental value, but occasionally grown in botanic gardens and other large collections. Most of the species are tropical or warm temperate, but three are hardier than the others and can survive, but do not thrive very well, in the Boston area: Forestiera acuminata, F. neo-mexicana and F. 2oubescens. The flowers have no petals and are somewhat inconspicuous, with the sexes separate. The fruit is a dark purple drupe, like a very small plum, ~ inch long or less. Fraxinus This is certainly one of the most important genera in the family, if only for the timber trees it contains. Of the genera characteristic of temperate regions, this is the largest in number of species. In distribution it ranges throughout the Northern Hemisphere and extends southward into the tropics where, in Asia, it reaches as far as Java, and in the New World several species are found in Mexico and the West Indies. Characterized in particular by the combination of their arborescent habit and pinnate leaves, the species exhibit a great range in floral types. In the so-called flowering or manna ash, Fraxinus ornus, a native of south Europe and southwest Asia, and a few other related species, the flowers possess both petals and sepals and are reminiscent of those of Chionanthus (Plate IV, upper). In other species there are sepals only, without petals, and in yet others not even any sepals. In addition to this, the flowers are very often unisexual. In consequence of these facts the flowers of most ashes are inconspicuous and often consist of nothing more than naked ovaries, or naked stamens, grouped together in wind-pollinated inflorescencies which are usually produced before the leaves (Plate IV, lower). 17 (Upper) Flowering Fraxi~xus e.rcelsior. PLATE IV branch of Fraxinus ornus. (Lower) Flowering branch of F. ornus and the even fringe-like, white petaloid flowers ought small, handsome flowering trees. samaras, to hardier species from North China, F. bungeana, with their to be more widely grown as relatively One of the best known characteristics of the ashes is their winged-fruits, or give them their technical name. They look so different from either the capsules or the olive-like drupes of other well known members of the family, that, combined with their pinnate leaves and often imperfect flowers that lack petals and even sepals, many people have doubted that they should be classified in the same family. However, to judge from the series of forms in the genus as a whole, the flowers have become apetalous by reduction from the typical basic pattern for the family. Pinnate leaves, the other obvious difference from most Oleaceae are also found in a few other genera, for example Syringa and Jasminum, while the winged-fruit or samara is also characteristic of Fontanesia and Abeliophyllum. In addition, a few ashes are noteworthy in having simple leaves, for example, Fraxinus anomala of the southwest U. S. A. and the cultivar 'Diversifola' of the European ash, F. excelsior. r Jasminum Containing 200 or more species, this is the largest genus in the family. It is mainly composed of tropical climbers with starlike flowers that possess more than the typical four petals (Plate V, left). None of them are native to the New World and the main center is tropical Asia, both mainland Asia and the islands of the East Indies. However, a few species are found in warm temperate regions and have been cultivated for several centuries. The best known, perhaps, is the sweet scented, white jasmine, Jasminum o~cinale, a native of the Himalayas and southwest China. Closely related, and also possessing pinnate leaves, is J. grand~orum, the Spanish jasmine, which is less hardy but, as its Latin name implies, tends to have larger flowers. This is the species cultivated commercially in the south of France and from the flowers of which the perfume, Oil of Jasmine, is extracted. Another species with pinnate leaves, somewhat intermediate in hardiness between these two, is the Chinese J. polyanthum which makes a wonderful climber with pendulous branches loaded with sweet-scented flowers when grown in the south, or in a cool conservatory, and, even when relatively small, can make a handsome pot plant (Plate V, right). The hardiest member of the genus, is the winter jasmine, Jasminum nudiflorum, which has opposite, trifoliate leaves and is particularly well known for its bright yellow flowers which appear during mild spells throughout the winter, in areas that are not too cold. It can even survive and flower in the spring at the Arnold Arboretum, when grown against a building or in similar favorable locations. Very closely related to this species is the primrose jasmine, J. mesnyi (J, primulinum), which in northern regions has to be treated as a plant for the conservatory or cool greenhouse. When grown as a \"standard\" it can be outstanding with wide arching and weeping branches covered with large, yellow flowers. 19 Another group of yellow flowered species contains a number of fairly hardy plants, although none of them are hardy enough for New England. They are characterized by the possession of alternate leaves, the only such examples in the family. The best known of these is the Italian jasmine, Jasminum humile, but there is one unusual species which should be singled out for special mention. This is J. parkeri, very suitable for cultivation either under glass as a pot plant in an alpine house, or outside as a rock garden subject where the frosts are not It is a diminutive species, native of a limited area in the eastern Himalayas, and only grows about a foot high. It forms a low mound which spreads and arches over rocks, etc. and has minute pinnate leaves. In the summer it bears small, clear yellow flowers about ~ inch across, dotted about on the dark green cushion. One species, Jasminum 6eesianum, is a weak climber and can be used as a ground cover. It has dull red flowers which, however, are not very prominent, but a hybrid of this species with J. grand~orum has given us J. X stephauense a climber with pink flowers. Apart from these, and the yellow flowered species mentioned above, all others in the genus have white flowers, usually more or less starlike, and almost invariably sweetly fragrant. Except for cultivation under glass, they can only be grown in areas where there is no risk of frost. The most famous example is the Arabian jasmine, J. sambac, which has been grown and prized for centuries in the Orient. The dried flowers are used for scenting tea in China and, in other parts of the world, the fragrant buds are made up into wreaths and leis. This is presumably the species whose Arabic name is Yasmin, the origin of \"jasmine\" and its Latin form Jasminum. One of the most spectacular of the species in cultivation is Jasminum rex, a native of Siam, with large flowers each 2-3 inches in diameter. The broad petals are pure white but the bud and outer surface of the corolla tube is flushed with dark red. Unfortunately these very showy flowers are without fragrance but the opportunities are wide in the fields of hybridization and breeding; nearly every Jasminmn whose chromosome number has been counted so far has been found to possess the same somatic number (2n=26). too severe. Ligustrum are important garden plants, not so much for their flowers, which invaribly white or cream colored, usually very strongly and almost overwhelming scented with a characteristic sweet but slightly fetid fragrance, but more for their value as hedge plants or for forming a dense evergreen background. The commonest species is Ligustrum ovalifolium and is, perhaps, the most widely used of all hedge plants. It grows quickly and densely, takes easily from cuttings, and stands any amount of trimming with hedgecutters or shears, but it is a \"greedy\" plant, with numerous fibrous roots near the soil surface and other plants often do not do well when grown close to a privet hedge. In New Engare The privets 20 \"i: 0 0 \"\" ' .:; 4: a 0 OS c. tt G v 3 0 m E CfJ -& W co ~::, E~ ~ a >Z' a~ ~ ;;; S ~ ~ !! 0 ..c U C cE .a 6U C7 . oBoa ~ os ~c w ,c a~ c o ~7 3 ~ ~- m throughout land this species is deciduous but in slightly milder climates it remains evergreen the year. In fact the genus is generally evergreen and some of the more tender species are particularly valuable farther south because of their thick, glossy leaves. For example, L. lucidum and L. japonicum, which will stand very little frost, are best seen in such climates as those of southern California and the southeasternmost states. The fruit of Ligustrum is a small, fleshy drupe or \"berry''. Often, as in the English privet, L. 2mlgare, it is black and lustrous and an added attraction in the autumn, but one species, L. sempervirens, a native of western China, is noteworthy in falling between this genus and Syringa. In the latter, the fruits are dry dehiscent capsules and, technically, this is the only constant difference between the two genera, but in L. sempervirens, the soft fruit finally dehisces by means of two valves. In the past this species has been in cultivation but whether it is still to be found in any garden or collection is doubtful. It has died out in at least one botanic garden where it was cultivated a couple of decades or so ago. Noronhia This Madagascan genus is included in this account because of one of the spe- cies, Noronhia emarginata, which is widely, if sporadically, cultivated in tropical regions. It is met with occasionally as a garden tree in Hawaii and Florida and produces smallish but thick, waxy, yellow, fragrant flowers followed by drupes are purple when ripe, about inch long, and said to be edible. It has very thick, leathery leaves and has been recommended for planting in windswept areas where it is claimed to be resistant to damage by salt spray. which Olea This is perhaps the most important genus from the economic point of view, beof the best known species, Olea europaea, the source of olives and olive oil. It has been in cultivation in the Mediterranean region for centuries and is one of the domesticated plants with an unknown wild origin. One or two species which produce small, inedible fruits and are native in the Sahara area, Abyssinia, and Madeira, have been claimed at various times to be the progenitors. The \"wild\" olive of the Mediterranean is almost certainly a cultivated olive gone wild, rather than the original species from which it has been developed. Unable to stand much frost, Olea europaea is adapted to a Mediterranean climate and in the U. S. grows best in parts of California where, with its somber evergreen foliage, it is of great value as a shade tree, quite apart from its imporcause as the source of olives. There are perhaps 30 species in this genus, distributed throughout Africa and from southern Asia extending to eastern Australia, New Caledonia and the New Hebrides. Although an occasional species may be grown as a botanical novelty, none of them, apart from the true olive, are in general cultivation. tance 22 Osmanthus Closely related green shrubs with to the previous genus, Osmanthus is noted as containing ever- delightfully fragrant flowers. The leaves in some species, e.g. O. heterophyllus (O. aqu~'olium and O. ilic;folius), are very like those of holly but they are always borne opposite one another on the stems, not alternate as in the genus Ilex of the family Aquifoliaceae, the true hollies. One species, Osmanfhus fragrans, has been prized by the Chinese for centuries and the flowers (as with those of some species of Jasminum) are used for flavoring tea. The fruit is very like that of an olive and the main difference between the two genera rests in the technical character that the petals overlap in the bud in Osmaufhus but are arranged edge to edge in the flowerbuds of Olea. None of the species are hardy in New England, outside Cape Cod, but for the southeastern, southern and western states there are several species that are worth growing. They are among the best evergreens because of their glossy, deep green foliage, but in addition they bear a profusion of fragrant white, cream, or, in one case, orange blossoms. O.smanihus heteroPhyllus is a native in Japan and Formosa and has been in cultivation long enough for several forms with variegated foliage to appear: variants with white or yellow margins or streaks, and one with a dark purple coloration. In areas where the winters are not so severe as those in New England, one of the most outstanding early spring flowering shrubs is Osmanthus delavayi (sometimes placed in a separate genus SiPhonosmanthus, mainly distinguished by the possession of tubular flowers). In March or early April it covers itself with pure white, sweetly scented blossoms which, although individually not very large, are usually borne in such profusion, and contrast so strongly with the small holly-like evergreen leaves, that the plant is an asset to any garden. The native American devilwood, Osmanthus americanus, which grows in the coastal plain from southernmost West Virginia to Louisiana is sometimes found in collections, but, as a garden plant, is not as valuable as the Asiatic species. X Osmarea Some years ago a hybrid between Osmanthus delavayi and Phillyrea decora was produced at the nursery of Burkwood and Skipwith in England. This hybrid was named X Osmarea burkwoodii (the generic name being an abbreviated compound of the generic names of the parent species). It has considerable value as an evergreen shrub with white fragrant flowers borne in the spring and because it grows quickly, exhibiting hybrid vigor, is of great value in the same areas where the genus Osmanthus can be grown. Phillyrea Another genus very close to Olea and Osmeanthus, and differing from the latter in the technical characteristics of its fruit, Phillyrea is confined in the wild to the Mediterranean region, except for one species from the Turkish-Georgian border 23 the Black Sea. This last species, P. decora (P. i~ilmoriniana~ is perhaps the most horticulturally valuable in the genus. It forms a low shrub with thick green leaves very reminiscent of the quite unrelated cherry-laurel, Prunus laurocerasus, of the rose family. The fruits are like small dark plums but the creamy white flowers are of no particular merit. The flowers of the other species of this genus, however, are rather inconspicuous with greenish-white petals but the plants have great value as evergreen shrubs suitable for dryish areas with a Mediterranean climate, such as parts of southern California, most similar to their natural habitat. area near Picconia Little need be said of this genus which contains two species, one from the Canary Islands, Picconia excelaa, and the other from the Azores, P. azorica, but the former is grown occasionally as a good evergreen shrub or small tree in warm temperate or sub-tropical gardens. These species have frequently been placed in the genus 11'olelaea which, however, is confined to Australia and differs in minor characters of the inflorescence. Schrebera little grown genus, this time of sub-tropical and tropical one Asiatic and one South American species. The leaves are characteristically trifoliate or pinnate but simple-leaved species occur and the flowers somewhat resemble those of a small jasmine, but with a colored \"eye\", they are said to be sweetly fragrant and are followed by large woody capsules somewhat like those of .Syringa, but larger and much woodier. Similarlv, this is a regions, mainly from Africa, but with Syringa The lilacs are one of the best known and best loved of all flowering shrubs and are not to be confused with the unrelated genus Philadelphus which is often called syringa as a\"common\" name. The genus is not a large one but contains about `?8 species, most of them native of temperate Asia, two from southeast Europe. The best known species is the European Syringa vulgaris and several hundred cultivars with white, pink, lilac, purple or bluish flowers, single or double, have been bred and selected (and even very pale yellow flowers in cv. 'Primrose'). This development took place mamly in France in the latter half of the last century and the first decades of the present. The Arnold Arboretum is justly proud of its large collection of nearly 500 varieties and species and the New England climate seems to suit them very well. Not everyone, however, realizes that there are other types of lilac. Some of the best of these are quite distinctive. The earliest species to flower, Syringa pinnatifolia, has little horticultural value with its small white flowers, but it is of botanical interest because of its relatively diminutive pinnate leaves. Following closely after this, however, is the north Chinese and Korean Syringa oblata, a but with 24 PLATE VI (Upper) Inflorescence of Syringa amurensis. of Syringa X prestoniae 'Isabella'. (Lower) Inflorescence species very closely related to the European S. vulgaris, and with similar attractive, lilac colored flowers with a sweet scent. One of the most charming and distinctive species to follow is S. laciniata, so-called because of its variable, divided deep lilac flowers borne in dense masses on the straight more or less upright branching twigs it makes a fine show and never fails to invoke comment and praise. It has been suggested that it is one of the parents of the Persian lilac, the other being the very rare Syringa ~f'ghanica, the only species not yet known in cultivation and native in a limited area of eastern Afghanistan and western Pakistan. The Persian lilac, S. X persica, came into cultivation in Europe along the old trade routes from the Orient and like the so-called Chinese lilac, S. X chinensis, has probably been in cultivation for centuries. The majority of the species are Asiatic and some flower a little later than the common lilac. In an attempt to extend the flowering season and produce new hardy plants, Dr. Isabella Preston of the Dominion Experimental Farm, Ottawa, crossed Syringa re,flexa with S. villosa in 1920 and produced a whole new race of seedlings which came to be called the 1'restoniae hybrids or S. X prestoniae. As well as flowering later, the flower shape of these hybrids is somewhat different from that of the common lilac. The petal tube is more slender and the color ~s pink or mauve but without the exact sweet fragrance of the common lilac (Plate VI, upper). Quite extensive hybridization has taken place within the genus since then and, when growing lilacs today, one is not restricted to the varieties of the common species, most beautiful and sweet-scented though they are. leaves. With The last species of lilac to flower are quite distinct from the others and at first to the genus Syringa at all (in fact some botanists have placed them in a separate genus, Ligustrinn). Bas~cally, however, they differ only in their cream-colored flowers and the length of the petal tube. This group, with S. amurensis and S. pekinensis, lies somewhat between the lilacs and the privets. The fruit is undoubtedly that of a lilac but the flowers look more like those of a privet and possess the same strong scent (Plate VI, lower). might not be thought to belong Summary Some families, notably the rose family, the Rosaceae, and the heather family, the Ericaceae (and the orchids, for cultivation under glass), may have supplied a larger number of genera of important horticultural plants, but, for its size, the Oleaceae is particularly noteworthy. As has been said the basic floral pattern of four joined petals, two stamens and an ovary of two chambers is general throughout the family but the occasional exceptions add interest. In Chionanthus the petals are divided nearly to the base (and in the related and large tropical genus Linociera these divisions actually reach the base and the petals are held in pairs by the stalk of the stamen). In other genera there are no petals at all, for example, most species of Fraxinus and Forestiera. In Jasminum, however, the number of petals has increased so that 7, 26 8, or 9 lobes are the usual number. The leaves may be simple, more or less divided to the base or completely trifoliate or pinnate, and, as has been mentioned, the fruit types exhibit considerable diversity. For perhaps the majority of species, the fruit is an olive-like drupe, although usually somewhat smaller than the cultivated olive. But there are dry dehiscent capsules in Forsythia and Syringa, to mention two, and winged samaras in Fraxinus, Abeliophyllum and Fontanesia. From the horticultural point of view, the members of this family are most notable as flowering shrubs which produce a profusion of yellow, white, pink or lilac flowers famed, in so many cases, for their fragrance. P. S. GREEN 27 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Exhibition of Photographs of Bonsai Available on Loan","article_sequence":4,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24414","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160a728.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"AN EXHIBITION OF PHOTOGRAPHS OF BONSAI AVAILABLE ON LOAN The Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees was presented to the Arnold Arboretum as a memorial to his friend, Charles Sprague Sargent, the first Director of the Arboretum (see Arnoldia 24: 101-104. 1964~. This collection of twenty-seven specimens, ranging in age from fifty-six to two hundred and twentysix years and in height from one to four feet, is on seasonal exhibition out-ofdoors in a special lath shelter adjacent to the Dana Greenhouses of the Arboretum. During the winter, the collection resides in a temperature-controlled house in reduced light. In the past, selected specimens have been forced into flower, leaf or spring condition for the early, major horticultural shows and transported to Boston, Detroit, New York and Washington. Although this has enabled many people to see this outstanding collection, it has also had its effect on the specimens themselves, and caused concern among the staff responsible for their care. To protect the Bonsai, yet enable enthusiasts to enjoy these magnificent examples, Mr. Heman Howard has photographed the collection, and a selection of mounted prints is now available on loan. A total of twenty-six prints, each eleven by fourteen inches, is mounted on standard mounting board with an overall dimension of sixteen by twenty inches. All prints have tabs on the back and can be hung on walls or wire, and each is sturdy enough for self-support on an easel. On the front of each print is lettered the botanical name, the common name and the age of the plant. On the back is additional data on the dimensions of the specimen. Prints of Bonsai of .4cer, Chamaecyparis, Cr,yptomeria, Pinus and Prunus species are included. The special housing given the plants in summer and winter at the Arnold Arboretum is pictured. Four prints show the Bonsai on exhibition at flower shows in Boston and Detroit. The collection of photographs will be loaned at a fee of ten dollars for an exhibition period of one week. The prints are mailed in a custom-built and padded shipping case. Mailing should be by parcel post, insured for two hundred dollars. Requests for the loan of this collection should be directed to the Horticultural Secretary, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02130. 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Mock-oranges","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24419","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160b328.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~Jr JUNE 18, 1965 THE MOCK-ORANGES NUMBER 5 are about fifty species and varieties of Philadelphus being grown in the commercial nurseries of the United States, so there is a wealth of material from which to select ornamental plants. The collection at the Arnold Arboretum contams over one hundred species and varieties. They all have white flowers, their fruits are dried capsules and not very interesting, and the autumn color is not especially outstanding, being yellow or yellowish. In other words, they are chiefly of value during the short period when they are in bloom; but they are all grown easily in almost any normal soil, and are mostly free from injurious insect and disease pests-reason enough why they have proved popular over the years. Some plants in this group have special merit. Philadelphus coronarius, for instance, is excellent for planting in dry soil situations. Many of the hybrids have extremely fragrant flowers, and some of the plants, like P. laxus and P. X splendens, have branches which face the ground well all around and make fairly good foliage specimens throughout the length of time they retain their leaves. On the other hand, the flowers of many of the species are not fragrant, and some plants, like Philadelphus delavayi and P. X monstrosus reach heights of fifteen feet or more; they are frequently just too tall and vigorous for the small garden. There are better shrubs of this height with mteresting flowers, better autumn color, and fruits in the fall (like some of the viburnums), so, if tall shrubs are desired, it is not the mock-oranges which should have first consideration. THERE -~- Hybrids It is particularly noteworthy how many of the hybrid mock-oranges originated in the nurseries of Lemoine and Son in Nancy, France. Victor Lemoine, born in l 828, worked in several places while a young man, one of them being the famous estate of Louis Van Houtte in Ghent, Belgium. In 1850, he established his own nursery at Nancy, and entered into a long period of plant hybridization. He, 29 deutzias, weigelas, mock-oranges, lilacs, plants, herbaceous as well as woody. Of the twenty-one hybrid mock-oranges in the following list, seventeen were originated and introduced by the Lemoines, all between I 894 and 1927. Because good clones are available, it is probably not advisable to grow Philadelphus X cymosus, P. X lemoinei and P. X virginalis as such, for many plants of these hybrids, especially if grown from seed, are inferior to the named clones successors and his in later years, originated many of the best and other groups of which should be grown instead. The first major cross the Lemoines made was in 1884, using Philadelphus coronarius and P. microphyllus as the parents. The progeny was named P. X lemoinei and some of the resultant clones have proved better ornamentals than either parent. Another hybrid, made in ]903, was P. X lemoinei crossed with the tall growing and large flowered P. grand~orus. The resulting clones were grouped under the name P. X ~ymosus but, as a rule, most of them are more tender than many of the others. The third cross, which resulted in more double flowered varieties than the other two, was one in which Philadelphus X lemoinei and probably P. X nivalis 'Plenus' were used. The latter is itself a hybrid between P. pubescens and P. coronurius, so that, as might have been expected when these two were crossed, many interesting segregates resulted. The resulting offspring were grouped under the name P. X 2~irginalis and include larger flowered and more vigorous clones than most of those resulting from the other crosses. As a group, mock-oranges start to bloom by the end of May with Philadelphus schrenkii jackii, which is first. The majority flower during the first three weeks of June, with the peak of bloom about the middle of the month. The last species, P. incanus, blooms in the Arnold Arboretum about the last week of June. Some of the newer cultivars like Frosty Morn' and `Minnesota Snowflake' are reported to be hardy to -30 F. (Zone 8), P. coronarius and P. laxus and 'Mont Blanc' are hardy in Zone 4 and the rest are hardy in Zone 5. There are, of course, other mock-oranges suitable for warmer areas, but of the hardier species and varieties, these are the best ornamentals. Habit These shrubs vary considerably in habit and range in height from 4 to 12 feet. Avalanche', for instance, has pleasingly arching branches and is only 4 feet tall. `Erectus', about the same height, is rigidly upright, which might be desirable in some locations. Others, like inodorus, P, laxus, P. X splendens and 'Mont Blanc', are definitely mound-like, making them ideal specimens in many Philadelphus situations. hand, the habit of several of the Philadelphus X virginalis clones is not pleasing; they are ruggedly upright and produce few lateral branches at the base. It is usually advisable to use such plants in the rear of the shrub border, with smaller plants in the foreground to hide this somewhat unsightly trait. On the other (especially `~'~rginal') 30 Flowers Fragrance is an important factor, for this is one of the reasons these plants have proved so popular over the years. Some, like Philadelphus iuodorus and P. X splendens are practically scentless. The native P. microphyllus, not included in the following list because of its lack of hardiness, is one of the most fragrant, and the reason why the P. X lenroinei clones (of which it is one parent) are generally so sweetly scented. 'Avalanche', 'Conquete', 'Cole's Glorious', 'Frosty Morn', 'Innocence', and 'Virginal' are among the most fragrant. P. coronarius should also be included here, but, unfortunately, it has too frequently been grown from seed collected from miscellaneous mixed plantings, so that many inferior strains are listed at present. The true, old-fashioned P. coronarius is extremely fragrant. The double flowered varieties, of course, retain their petals longer than those with single flowers, and so are valued. `Albatre', `Argentine', 'Boule d'Argent', Frosty Morn', 'Girandole', 'Glacier', 'Minnesota Snowflake' and 'Virginal' are the best of these. Some, however, are highly variable and when grown under some circumstances may produce many single flowers. Because of variations due to growth conditions, it is difficult to select one variety as the best of this group. The plant that is grown well, with the best soil, light, and water conditions, is usually the one with the best double flowers. Of the twenty-nine mock-oranges in the following list, nineteen have single flowers, but these vary considerably in size. Some, like Avalanche' and 'Bouquet Blanc' have flowers which are only one inch across while those on others, like 'Banniere' and 'Belle Etoile', may be as large as z4 inches in diameter, especially if they are grown under optimum conditions. For northern gardeners the following twenty-nine selections are the best of the hundred grown in the Arnold Arboretum. \"&; . The Better P. coronarius Species and Hybrids 9 ft. high Zone 4 Southern Europe Sweet Mock-orange Single flowers, 1 ~r~ m diameter, and very fragrant. It is this species which has been the most popular in the past but unfortunately it has been so frequently reproduced by seed that in nurseries it is now badly adulterated by inferior types. The true plant should have very fragrant flowers and it should grow well in dry situations. P. incanus 9 ft. high 5 Zone China Gray Mock-orange Single flowers, I~rr in diameter, with only a slight fragrance. It is one of the last of all mock-oranges to come into bloom, usually m late June, and is recommended here chiefly because it extends the flowering season. 31 P. inodorus 9 ft. high Zone 3 Southeastern U.S. Scentless Mock-orange mock- orange with Single flowers, 2\" in diameter, and only slightly fragrant. It is the only glossy green leaves, making a fine ornamental specimen. 6 ft. Georgia Drooping Mock-orange Single flowers, 1~\" in diameter, with only slight fragrance. Blooming in early June, this is one species with branches facing the ground on all sides, making a good foliage specimen. P. purpurascens 12 P. laxus high Zone 4. ft. high Zone 5 China a Single flowers, 1~\" fragrant. P. schrenkii ~n diameter; 8 ft. each flower with Purple-cup Mock-orange purple calyx, and very Zone 5 Korea Jack Mock-orange high Single flowers, I\" in diameter, flowermg in late May ; the first of all the mockoranges to bloom. It is because of its early flowers that this mock-orange is jackii recommended. P. X splendens 8 ft. high Zone 5 (possibly P. grandi,florus X gordonianas~ Single flowers, 1~\" Plants are in well branched diameter, fragrant, and with bright yellow stamens. on all sides and make good foliage specimens. Horticultural Varieties ' 'Albatre' (P. X virginalis) in 5 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in good habit 4 1914 Double flowers, 1 ~-~\" diameter, slightly fragrant, and ft. of (Plate in VII, upper). (P. X 'Argentine' virginalis) 4 high Zone 5 Introduced + 1914 as by Lemoine 32 Double flowers, 2\" in diameter, sometimes with flowers are very fragrant. 'Aureus' many as petals. The (P. coronarius) 5 ft. high Zone 4 The foliage turning first appears colored a bright yellow early in the spring, later to almost normal green by mid-summer. It originated before I8; 8. 'Avalanche' (P. X lemoinei) 4 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in 1896 Smgle flowers I\" in diameter, and one of the most fragrant of all oranges. It has a pleasing, arching habit (Plate VII, lower). 32 the mock- PLATE VII (Upper) Philadelphus `Albatre', habit. (Lower) Philadelphus 'Avalanche', habit. 'Banniere' (P. X cymosus) 7 ft. high 5 Zone Introduced by Lemoine in 190i Semi-double flowers, 1~-2~~~ in diameter, and fragrant. The bush is rather straggly, but this is the first of these hybrids to bloom. 'Belle Etoile' (P. X lemoinei) in 6 ft. high Zones 5-6 an Introduced by Lemoine in 192~ Single flowers, ~~'~ `Boule d'Argent' diameter, fragrant and with arching habit. Introduced in 1894 an (P. X in lemoinei) 5 ft. high Zone 5 by Lemoine Double flowers, 2\" diameter, and slightly fragrant; excellent variety. 'Bouquet Blanc' (P. X virginalis) 6 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced in 1903 by Lemoine over entire Single to slightly double flowers, 1~~ in diameter, but well distributed plant. In shape it is well rounded (Plate VIII, upper). the 'Burford' (P. X virginalis) (P. X 9 ft. high Zone 5 Originated in England in 1921 1 Single to semi-double flowers, 24\"-2~~~ virginalis X in diameter. 6 ft, 'Cole's Glorious' 'Rosace') high Zone 5 flowers, 2\" Introduced by Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio in 1940, this has in diameter, and very fragrant. single 'Conquete' (P. X cymosus) 6 ft. high one Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in 1903 Flowers single, 2\" in the mock-oranges. 'Erectus' diameter; 4 of the very best and most fragrant of all (P. X lemoinei) ft. high 5 Zone Introduced by Lemoine in 1894 Flowers single, 14'~ in diameter, and very fragrant. This has not grown too well in the Arnold Arboretum, but the habit is definitely erect, and in areas where it is hardy it should prove an interesting plant. 'Fleur de Neige' (P. X lemoinei) diameter, high 4 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in 1916 6 Flowers single, 1~-~~ in 4 and very fragrant. 'Frosty Morn' 10, 1953, ft. Zone 3 Originated by Guy D. Bush, Minneapolis, Minn., and patented (#1174) March it has very fragrant, double flowers, and has been noted as withstanding the \"coldest Minnesota winters without damage from freezing back\". An excellent mock-orange for cold areas. 34 PLATE VIII (Upper) Philadelphus 'Bouquet Blanc', flowering branch. (Lower) Philadelphus 'Glacier', flowering branch. 'Girandole' (P. X lemoinei) in 4 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in 1916 6 Flowers 'Glacier' double, 1~~~ X diameter, and fragrant. 4 1914 virginalis) 5 ft. high Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in Flowers double, 14~~ in diameter, and fragrant. (P. (P. X 'Innocence' lemoinei) 8 ft. high Flowers most single, 1~~~ in diameter, fragrant of all the mock-oranges. Introduced by Lemoine in 1927 and with 8-10 in a cluster. It is one of the Zone 5 'Minnesota Snowflake' (P. X virginalis) 6 ft. high Zone 3 Guy D. Bush, Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1935, and patented 1942. It is said to be hardy to -30 F. Flowers double, 1:~~~ in diameter, with 3-7 flowers in each cluster and fragrant. Clothed with branches well to the ground, it makes an excellent specimen for northern gardens. Introduced by (#538) August 11, 'Mont Blanc' (P. X lemoinei) in 4 ft. high Zone 4 Introduced by Lemome in 1896 Flowers varieties. 'Norma' single, 1~~~ X diameter, 6 and very fragrant. It is one of the hardier (P. cymosus) ft. high Zone 5 4 Introduced by Lemoine in 1914 Flowers single, 14~~ X in diameter and fragrant. high one 'Perle Blanche' (P. cymosus) in 6 ft. Zone 5 Introduced by Lemoine in 1900 Flowers single, I~~~ diameter, and 9 ft. of the most fragrant. by Lemoine in 1907 i 'Virginal' (P. X virginalis) high Zone 5 Introduced Flowers double, 2\" in diameter, and very fragrant. The one drawback of this variety is that older plants tend to produce few leaves and branches near the base. DONALD WYMAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Herbarium Introduced","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24418","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160af6f.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sutton, Stephanne B.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 25 JULY 9, 1965 THE NUMBER 6 HERBARIUM INTRODUCED Arnoldia readers must realize that many people have never heard the that fewer still know its meaning, and that even fewer have ever been inside a herbarium building. In fact, an astonishing number of well-meaning but misguided garden lovers harken back to high school Latin and imagine \"herbarium\" to be another word for a place to pick rosemary, mint leaves or medicinal herbs. A quick look at Webster's dictionary must give them embarrassing second thoughts, and set them to wondering about \"acollection of dried plants, usually mounted and classified.\" Beyond this, of course, is the important fact that the herbarium is a key reference tool of the botanist and plant EVEN word \"herbarium,\" grower. Since the beginning of recorded time, and probably long before that, men have been preoccupied with arranging their knowledge of natural phenomena in a systematic order. This constant effort for order goes beyond men's innate appreciation of things rational; more pragmatic is the realization that nature is rendered more useful through scientific study, comprehension and classification. More known quantities can be made more readily available to more people for more purposes. Any discussion of flora-be it professional or amateur-necessarily involves the scientifically given names of plants; and it follows logically that the herbarium is thus essential to all aspects of plant study, whether it is care, growing, propagation, ecology, geographical distribution, or whatever. For, after all, one must know what the plant is! The herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum is divided into two sections: the cultivated material, numbering more than 100,000 specimens, is located in Jamaica Plain for immediate accesibility to the collections of living material in the Arboretum itself. This horticultural division contains voucher specimens not only of the plants cultivated in the Arboretum but also of plants grown in arboreta, botanical gardens, city parks and back yards in the United States and throughout the world. The non-cultivated, or wild material, numbering 700,000 specimens 37 more, is housed in the Harvard University Herbarium Building in Cambridge, combined with the herbaceous collections of the Gray Herbarium, m easy reach of Harvard's botany students and botanically interested faculty members whose studies are more apt to deal with wild plants than with cultivated. Although this separation is made for the sake of convenience, the two sections are frequently used together, as when comparing a cultivated species with its wild progenitors, or in gathering complete information about a plant. When it is collected, the plant specimen is dried in a press. This ensures that it is flattened and so occupies less space in subsequent storage, and that the leaves, in particular, neither curl up nor wrinkle but retain their original outline and almost their natural size. When dried, these specimens are mounted by fastening them with a special plastic glue on heavy stock herbarium paper; an accompanying label is also attached on the sheet. This label should give all the pertinent data observed by the collector: date of collection, location, habit, appearance of the inflorescence and\/or fruit if present, fragrance, etc., and, in the case of cultivated material, the source of the plant. The amount and value of this information depends, of course, on the plant itself as well as on the experience and abilities of the collector, and the number of observations he has been able to make of the plant. The identity of the specimen is then checked and, if it came from the Arboretum, this also constitutes a check on the identity of the living plant on the grounds, a matter which is particularly important in the case of new accessions. Where necessary the mounted specimen is annotated with its identity and then filed in its proper nook in the herbarium cases-determined at the Arnold Arboretum by its family, genus, species, and finally geographic origin. Once in the case, this named specimen is available to other experts who may be able to add data to that already given, or to interested people who may want to ident~fy or inform themselves about a particular plant or group of plants. Furthermore, as long as the specimen is kept dry and free from injurious insects (the kind that eat stored food and other products), it will last for centuries, as have thousands of specimens already in the older herbaria. If, while visiting a garden, you were to admire an unfamiliar plant and consider adding it to your own garden, you would, naturally, want to know something more about it. Since gardening books, even at their best, are, needfully, selected lists with selected information, it would be well worth the trouble to gather a small specimen of leaves, flowers and\/or fruit, and have the identification checked in a herbarium, for the scientific name of the plant is most important. A rose by any other name is likely to smell quite different! but proper scientific identification gives confidence of acquiring an identical plant from a nursery. A horticulturally or botanically informed person is usually able to place a plant in its proper family almost immediately ; he may also know the generic identity offhand, but unless the plant is commonly well known or belongs to a genus of which he has made thorough study, further refinement of the name must usually or 38 be completed through a check of herbarium specimens, pletely a plant is described or illustrated there is no for no matter how com1 substitute for an actual specimen. Where garden plants are involved, it may be difficult to supply precise nomenclature due to the large number of hybrids and cultivars that are developed by amateur or professional breeders who sometimes fail to register new cultivar names-or who are ignorant of those already registered, and duplicate themthus ensuring a certain amount of confusion. The lilac collection of the Arnold Arboretum is elaborate testimony to the range of variation which can be developed from a single species (in this case, Syringa vulgaris, from which over 300 different cultivars have been derived), and were these names not registered, voucher specimens of many conserved in the herbarium, for example, and Kodachrame slides available to show color, lilac lovers would have far more difficulty than they do now in obtaining desired lilac plants for their gardens. If the expert is able to match your specimen against one in the herbarium, which is already accurately named, he can then refer to the library where a monographer may already have saved him the effort of shuflling through more sheets and making detailed, time-consuming observations; and, with luck, one of the horticultural books will list your plant and offer experienced advice on raising it. Besides the pleasure of learning about the plant, you will be able to ask a nurseryman for it by its proper name instead of trying the `well-it-had- pretty-little-yellow-flowers' technique. At the Arboretum, herbarium specimens are made from the plantings on the grounds both at Jamaica Plain and Weston. It is the aim that the new accessions be gathered as soon as they are ample enough to yield adequate specimens, and the staff makes collections at all significant stages of development; especially foliage, flowers and fruit; notes and photographs are also taken to record color and form. In the case of hybrids or cultivars raised at the Arboretum, specimens of the original parents are made, if possible, with a view to providing complete records to aid propagators, nurserymen and taxonomists. In addition, duplicate material is gathered and sent on an exchange basis to other institutions for their herbaria. This exchange is important too, for by its means material which has passed through the hands of experts in particular groups and who may be working at an arboretum or botanic garden in another country, are added to the herbarium with the experts' opinions and annotations attached. Or sets of material of a particular genus may be received from a garden which grows an especially complete, authoritative and specialized collection of those plants. Occasionally, too, a difference in usage of a botanical name from one country to another comes to light. This difference can then be investigated and corrected, for, after all, Latin is used for scientific names so that they can be truly international in character. To this same end, the naming of plants is carefully governed by the International Code of 39 Botanical Nomenclature and its counterpart for cultivated plants which are fully even in these days of international hostility and competition. The use of the herbarium in ascertaining the identity of a plant for horticultural purposes, or to satisfy curiosity, is familiar to many home gardeners (although, judging from some of the leaf fragments we occasionally find enclosed in letters, there are numerous people who expect the botanist or horticulturist to name a plant off the top of his head even when given unsubstantial material). Behind the scenes, however, the taxonomists are working with anatomists, cytologists, ecologists, paleobotanists, nurserymen, propagators, as well as with scientists in other fields. Drug companies extracting chemicals from plants want to know the name of a certain specimen and where it grows; hospitals and mothers call describing a berry eaten by a small child, and asking if it is toxic; the Federal Government's Atomic Energy Commission is conducting experiments testing the reaction of different plants to radiation; Dr. Richard A. Howard, Director of the Arboretum, has developed and cooperated in \"survival\" programs aimed at keeping soldiers alive in uncivilized areas by teaching them to live off the local vegetation-and not eat the poisonous plants in error; city planners need street trees that will thrive within specified limits; entymologists seek the identification of plants visited by particular insect species. For these problems, and many more, the internationally accepted nomenclature of a plant is a necessary ingredient of the study. The herbarium, obscured by the showy display of the ground plantings, the greenhouse area, and the bonsai, plays an important, if undercover, role in scientific and horticultural routine of the Arnold Arboretum although it is usually the least appreciated unit. But if botanical and horticultural study is to progress, ~t must do so with the aid of a well-organized herbarium. To this end, the Arboretum is making a concentrated effort to increase the scope and number of its collections, soliciting cultivated material from all parts of the world, and adding material from its own new accessions. international, STEPHANNE B. Si,'TTON See also: Kobuski, Clarence E., \"The Horticultural Herbarium,\" Arnoldia, 1958. 18: 25-18, June, 40. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Home Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24412","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25e896b.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coon, Nelson","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~J A OCTOBER 8, 196~ NUMBER 7 HOME ARBORETUM map of the climatic zones * of the United States the island of 111artha's Vineyard, off the coast of Cape Cod, is reas Zone 7 one should not be surprised, perhaps, that the trees, seen on a garded recent visit to the small private arboretum of Stanley R. Leaming, should be thriving so well. On the mainland, Zone 7 touches the northern part of South Carolina, and it is possible that the little mid-island valley in which the plants are growing is climatically like the even more favorable Zone 8. Yet it is not the condition or variety of trees which impresses one, as much as what can be done by an enthusiastic amateur in establishing a miniature arboretum in such a place. Miniature is the right adjective, too, for the area is possibly three acres in extent and with its dense, almost jungle-like planting, lies in Middle Road on the Island. But here are grown many trees uncommon in the north and choice in any place. Mr. Stanley R. Leaming is, by profession, a piano-tuner and for nearly fifty years has travelled back and forth dealing with island-dampened pianos, in the summer on Dlartha's Vineyard and Nantucket in the north and, during the winter, in South Carolina in the south. And always there have been trees and islands, for in the south his home is on Edisto Island, where, in a plantation-like setting, he has another much larger arboretum that gro~cs plants of the warmer Zone 9 : plants like camellias, the less hardy magnolias and even HEN that one notices on a species of Citrus. As will be seen from the photographs in Plate IX, taken during the summer of 1965 in his northern arboretum, the trees became unexpectedly crowded as they grew. Mr. Leaming has said that he wishes he had realized that the young plants would grow so big when they were put in thirty-five years ago. Spacing is always of primary importance and it is hard, even for an expert, to imagine a little seedling grown into a forest giant. It is difficult to estimate just how large * Plant Hardiness Zone Map, U.S. Dept. Agric. 41 Misc. Publ. 814. 1960. distances were that Mr. Leaming used, but one might guess they about 20 feet. In any case it is a thrill to pass so quickly from the prosaic growth of scrub-oak and pine by the island road into a setting where a 30-foot Taxorlium distichum flourishes next to several clumps of bamboo. Nearby, too, is a huge tropicallooking Kalopana.c pictus and one looks up to see a crowded 40-foot specimen of Metasequoia glyptostroboides reaching up to find the sun. As in any attempt to grow rare plants together in such a setting, there have been failures, and the remains of some are still in place, feebly trying to struggle against the climate and surroundings. I will not attempt to list them, but three in particular come to mind : Cephalotaxus harringlonia var. drupacea, Juniperus commuuis cv. 'Suecica' and Pinus aristata. Among the evergreens there are some fine specimens, for example: Abies procera f. glauca (.~bies nobilis f. glanca, planted about 1983 and now around 55 ft. high and 24 ins. in diameter at 4 ft.), Chamaecyparis la~esoniana (a fine example about 40 ft. high), Cryptomeria japonica cv. 'Lobbii' (about 40 ft. high, Plate IX) and Cupressus ari~onica (a Zone 7 plant, estimated to be 20 ft. in height). Other conifers worthy of note, some better than others, but all mature, are: Abies homolepis, A. nordmanniana, A. sachalinensis, Cuuniughamia lanceolata (Zone i , Plate IX), Libocedrus decurrens, Picea sitchensis, Pinus parv~ora f, glauca, and L'huja occidentalis cv. 'Ellwangeriana' (a fine specimen about 12 ft, high). But it is not only evergreens that fill this minuscule arboretum, for there are a number of notable deciduous trees as well. Amongst them the following are worthy of mention : Cudrania tricuspidata, a Zone 7 plant in the same family as the mulberry and said to be suitable food for silk worms. Evodia laupehensis. Liquidambar formosana, the East Asian relative of the sweet-gum, possibly hardy for Zone 7, and a good specimen, doing well in this location. Alaackia amurensis. Paulounia, species unknown, but about 40 ft. high. Phellodendron species, about 40 ft. high. The two different trees named by Mr. Leaming as P. amurense (Plate IX) and P, chinense. Populus X canadensis cv. 'Aurea' (P. 'Van Geertii', the name used by Mr. the planting were Leaming). Pterocarya X rehderiana (P. fraxinifolia X stenoptera), estimated to have a height and spread of 50 ft., this tree was given to Mr. Leaming in 1929 as a 3-inch seedling by Mr. Rehder with whom he was well acquainted and who, it seems, was one of the motive powers behind this arboretum venture. Quercus myrsinaefolia (growing under the name (~. acuta), this Japanese oak has formed a delightful small tree, or large shrub, 10-12 ft. high (Plate IX). Sali.r japonica?, about 6 ft. high and shrub-like. 42 PLATE IX (Top left) Crytomeria japo~aica cv. 'Lobbii'. (Top right) Cunninghanaia lanceolata. (Bottom left) Phellodendron amurense. (Bottom right) Quercus myrsinaefolia. a fine specimen of the oak-leaved mounbetter known. The distinction between what is a tree and a shrub is often a difficult thing, even for a plantsman, for, as above, some trees may be like large shrubs and some shrubs, when fully grown, may be tree-like in proportions. But the following selection of outstanding specimens may be roughly classified as shrubs, including several clumps of bamboo with the genus and species unknown : Cornus kou,ra, a very large specimen which, in a shaded spot, with its \"feet\" almost in water, blooms continuously from June to September. Davidia inuolucrata, only 5 ft. high after ~?0 years and not yet blossomed. Eucommia ulmoide.s. Halesia monlicola. Populus alba cv. `Nivea', almost 10 ft. high with foliage which is \"~ hiterthan-white. \" Prunus .serrulrrta. Rhus chinensis. It is understood that these grounds are to be sold and one can only- hope that if this happens they w~ll fall into the hands of a person who is, like the present owner, a lover of trees. NELSON COON Sorbus X tain ash, thuringiaca (S. querc~'olia), a plant which should be ' paper, NOTE: The author wishes to acknowledge assistance given in preparing this by Mrs. Julian Hill of North Tisbury. Mrs. Hill, a vice-president of the American Horticultural Society, has an extensive and growing arboretum on Martha's Vineyard, described in the July 196-4 ~ssue of the .~merican Horticultural lVlagasine. 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps","article_sequence":8,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24417","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160ab6b.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR IBFORJiATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 25 NOVEMBER 19, 1965 PLANTS FOR SCREENING JUNKYARDS, GRAVEL PITS AND DUMPS NUMBER 8 is a phrase which, fortunately, is being given much Three million dollars have just been appropriated by Congress for control of outdoor advertismg and a like amount has been appropriated for \"controlling junkyards along the highways.\" This is the very thing for which many a civic-minded group has been fighting during the past decade. It would not be amiss to take a hard look at some of our town dumps, and state-owned gravel pits also, with the idea of planting trees and shrubs to screen them from public attention now. \"MAKE America Beautiful\" view. Public-spirited groups could well be active in planting, for it would add materially to the appearance of the countryside, especially as viewed by the passing motorist. Along the major highways around Boston's perimeter, several dumps, which are conspicuously unshielded, come to mind. This is a cond~ton too often repeated in many commumties throughout the country. The sites of these depositories have undoubtedly been selected because the land is poor or unwanted. Also, it is impractical to expect that, if a highly ornamental planting were made in such places, it would be maintained. The realistic approach is to admit that these areas are necessary, that they cannot be moved at this point, and that no individual or group will give the time lawns, or care for extensive flower beds and ornate plantings, or money to mow year in and year out. However, there might be those interested enough to make an initial planting of rugged, fast-growing trees and shrubs ; that is, plants which, once established, have a good record for taking care of themselves without much additional attention. True, such plants might not be the best ornamentals available, but the chances are that the soil would not be the best either. This bulletin is being written with the hope that some action by some group, somewhere, may be taken in hiding these places from public view with plantings of comparatively inexpensive screens of \"low maintenance\" trees and shrubs. These plants, should be given the best possible attention at planting time, with good soil, water and mulching. It is particularly necessary that the plants ~3 be checked and watered carefully during the first two years of the planting, even period~cally, where needed. 4rrangements and funds for doing this should be the responsibility qf'the Planning organisatzon and funds should be provided for this at the start qf the project. Many a good, well-conceived planting has failed because this was not done at the start. Of the plants suggested in the following lists, the fastest growing trees are the poplars, willows, elms and the Douglas-fir, in that order. Of the shrubs, the fastest growing are the Forsythia, Japanese Tree Lilac, Sweet Mock-orange and Japanese Rose. In addition, and probably the fastest growing of all the shrubs suggested here for making a quick screen is the new Rhamnus frangula 'Columnaris', the Tallhedge Buckthorn. Using plants 2-3 feet high, a 12-foot hedge can result in five years in good soil. Plants should be placed 3-4 feet apart to make a solid screen. They bear berries (red, turning black) throughout the summer and are most attractive to birds. The ability of this plant to grow well and fast, its freedom from serious pests, its narrow and very dense habit (not much over 4 feet wide), its glossy foliage, and the ease with which it is transplanted, all combine to make it an ideal, quick-growing screen, well suited to shield dumps and gravel pits from the public view. SCREENING TREES FOR DRY, SANDY SOILS * = Evergreen E= Easy to move B = Must be moved carefully with a ball of soil Acer negundo Ailanthus altissima Betula populifolia Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata Maclura pomifera *Pinus banksiana Populus alba Sassafras albidum Box-Elder Tree of Heaven Gray Birch Green Ash Osage-orange Jack Pine White Poplar Sassafras Sophora japonica Ulmus pumila Japanese Pagoda Tree Siberian Elm Ht. 60' 60' 30' 60' 60' 75' 90' 60' 75' 75' Hardiness Zone 2 4 3-4 2 5 2 3 4 4 4 E E B E B E B E SCREENING SHRUBS FOR DRY AND SANDY SOILS Hardinesy Ht. Zone Acer ginnala 20' 2 Amur Maple Berberis thunbergii 4 7' Japanese Barberry 18' 2 Siberian Pea-tree Caragana arborescens 4' 2 Sweet Fern Comptonia peregrina Russian Olive 20' 2 Elaeagnus angustifolia Hamamelis virginiana a 4 Common Witch-hazel 15' Common Juniper 3-30' 2 *Juniperus communis 10-90' 2 Red-cedar *Juniperus virginiana 10' 4 Kolkwitzia amabilis Beauty-bush 15' 3 Amur Privet Ligustrum amurense 5' 4 Common Matrimony-vine Lycium halimifolium 2 9' Myrica pensylvanica Bayberry 2 9' Eastern Ninebark Physocarpus opulifolius E E B B E B B E E E B E 46 yw .a A a, C7 p a L F Um ro # C 'O ~ p o O ~ w > 0 Y ~ .t: W_ \" @ VJ m _V p Q a ~ G ~ a~ y~~x Ew\" E o C7 ~ ~~G ~ a~' ~, m ~r ~ Or N \"ji~ 5 3'S O U 1a. C-'U,c~5r o < .b a & ~a ~ .. c .~ a s s~ U s~ 0 'S C ~~ 0 5#&ox3E; ax N O ;' r\".. O __ , L_C LV1 L, O ~a 470 'w Screening Shrubs (cont.) Prunus maritima Rhamnus frangula Rhus aromatica Rhus copallina Rhus glabra Rhus typhina Rosa rugosa Viburnum lentago - Beach Plum Alder Buckthorn Fragrant Sumac Shining Sumac Smooth Sumac Staghorn Sumac Rugosa Rose Nannyberry 6' 18' 3' 30' 9-15' 30' 6' 30' 3 2 3 4 2 3 2 2 B E B B B E SCREENING TREES FOR NORMAL SOILS Hardiness Ht. Zone 90' 3 Norway Maple Northern Catalpa 90' 4 i60-100' 4 Katsura Tree Chinese Juniper 60' 4 White Mulberry 45' 4 2 150' Norway Spruce 100' 2 Colorado Spruce 2 Red Pine 75' :100-150' 3 Eastern White Pine 90' 2 Lombardy Poplar :100-300' 4-6 Douglas-fir 4 Red Oak 75' Pin Oak 4 75' 2 Golden Weeping Willow 75' 30' 6 Babylon Weeping Willow Wisconsin or Niobe Weeping Willow 40' r 4 40' 4 Thurlow Weeping Willow 2 American Arbor-vitae 60' 3 Little-leaf Linden 90' Canada Hemlock 90' 3 Chinese Elm 50' 5 Blackhaw 15' 3 Siebold Viburnum 30' 4 Acer platanoides Catalpa speciosa Cercidiphyllum japonicum *Juniperus chinensis E E B B B B B E B Morus alba *Picea abies *Picea pungens *Pinus resinosa *Pinus strobus ' Populus nigra 'Italica' *Pseudotsuga menziesii Quercus borealis Quercus palustris Salix Salix Salix Salix alba 'Tristis' babylonica X blanda X elegantissima *Thuja occidentalis Tilia cordata E E E E B B *Tsuga canadensis Ulmus parvifolia Viburnum prunifolium Viburnum sieboldii B B SCREENING SHRUBS FOR NORMAL SOILS Ht. 24' 9' 15' 9' 12' 10' 15' 6' 30' 15' 12' 9' 20' 50' Hardiness Zo~ae 4 E 5 E 4 E 4 E 2 E B 5 4 E 4 E 4 E 5 E 2 E 2 E 3 E 4 B Cornus mas Forsythia X intermedia Lonicera maackii podocarpa Philadelphus coronarius Rhamnus frangula `Columnaris' Rosa multiflora Rosa setigera Spiraea X vanhouttei Syringa amurensis japonica Syringa X chinensis Syringa josikaea Syringa X prestoniae Syringa vulgaris Taxus cuspidata Cornelian Cherry Border Forsythia Amur Honeysuckle var. Sweet Mock-orange Tallhedge Buckthorn Japanese Rose Prairie Rose Vanhoutte Spiraea Japanese Tree Lilac Chinese Lilac Hungarian Lilac Preston Lilac Common Lilac Japanese Yew DONALD WYMAN 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Check-list of Cultivar Names in Weigela","article_sequence":9,"start_page":49,"end_page":69,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24411","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25e8926.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold VOLUME 25 Arboretum, Harvard University 17, 1965 NUMBERS 9-11 1 DECEMBER A CHECK-LIST OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN WEIGELA IN 1929 L. H. BAILEY CONSIDERED \"The Case of Diervilla and Weigela\" (Gent. Herb. 2: 39-54. 1929) and concluded that the two genera were truly distinct morphologically and geographically, as well as horticulturally. His review of the history of these two genera is complete and need not be repeated. A third taxon at the generic level, Calyptrostigma, was also recognized by Bailey as containing \"at least two species in Eastern Asia...\" and \"little known in cultivation, as they are usually rather difficult to grow.\" Nakai (Jour. Jap. Bot. 12: 1-17. 1936) did not agree with Bailey and combined Weigela and Diervilla and proposed two new genera. He published the genus Weigelastrum to contain Diervilla maximowiczii and he substituted the name Macrodiervilla for the illegitimate Calyptrostigma which Bailey had accepted under different rules of nomenclature. Rehder ( Jour. Arnold Arb. 20: 429-431. 1939) reduced both of Nakai's genera to sectional rank and accepted Bailey's recognition of Weigela and Diervilla. Rehder's treatment is followed by most American horticulturists, although some nurserymen still list species and varieties of Weigela under the name Diervilla, or under both names, and often indiscriminately. The situation is confused in modern treatments from Europe. In England, Bean's Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles recognizes only Diervilla and this is also the treatment given in the Royal Horticultural Society's Dictionary of f Gardening. Victor Chaudun who prepared the pertinent treatment for the new edition of Le Bon Jardinier also considers Diervilla the proper name, crediting it incorrectly to Adanson however, and not to Miller, and noting, also incorrectly, \"Weigelia (et non Weigela).\" In the second edition of Parey's Blumengartnerei (ed. 2, 1958-61) and in his Handbuch der Laubgeholze ( 1959-62 ) Kru'ssmann recognizes both Diervilla and Weigela for Germany. 49 Many of the authors who separate the genera Diervilla and Weigela employ in keys the useful but unconvincing characteristics of bilabiate versus regular corollas and yellow versus white, rose, scarlet or green colors for these genera respectively. Considering only these distinctions, other authors, as noted above, combine the genera under the name Diervilla. Bailey has made the case for the separation much more convincingly and his article is worth more serious consideration. In the preparation of this check-list of cultivar names of Weigela Thunb., the treatment followed is that given by Rehder in his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs and documented in his Bibliography ofCultivated Trees and Shrubs. Rehder recognizes in these treatments the many hybrids between species, a fact established much earlier by Carriere when he published the category \"Hybrid Group.\" More recently Janina Poszwinska in an article on the progeny analysis of some Weigela crosses (Arboretum Kornickie Rocznik 6: 143-167. 1961) shows the free crossability of species in the three sections UTSUGIA, CALYSPHYRUM, and WEIGELASTRUM. Rehder has suggested the further crossing of hybrids between species and of back-crossing before the selection of some of the named cultivars. In the check-list which follows no attempt has been made to associate the cultivar with a species beyond the reference given by the original author. According to the Code ofNomenclature for Cultivated Plants (Article 18), cultivar names are transferred without change when the botanical name is changed. Many of the cultivar names in the check-list have been published only under the name Diervilla but from the descriptions these taxa are clearly referable to Weigela. There is no provision in the rules of nomenclature for indicating such bibliographic or taxonomic change. The names of the cultivated plants in the check-list which follows have been obtained from many sources, including nursery catalogues and horticultural magazines. The taxa grown by botanical gardens and arboreta in the United States and in Europe are also included if their names were supplied to me by their staff members or included in their publications. The names encountered include many misspellings, poor or erroneous translations, and commercial synonyms. These a names have been given in the list, often without reference to the source, to per- spellings maintained in error. This compilation is called a check-list deliberately, to indicate several differences from the registration lists published previously in Arnoldia for other genera. A monographic study of Weigela has not been attempted in the preparation of this list. The comprehensive work of two colleagues in Europe to this end is known and their work may clarify some of the problems encountered in the present task. It is hoped that the bibliographic citations, particularly for American mit the correction of names or literature, will be of value to their studies. In the list which follows, no attempt has been made to evaluate the plants. supplied by the original author or when nearly contemporary with the original publication. The bibliographic procedure of the earlier registration lists (Quart. Newsl. Am. Assoc. Gard. Arb. 64: 9-11. 1965) has been followed in this publication. An attempt is made to supply the Descriptive phrases are given when 50 name of an author or a bibliographic applied to plants developed citation for all cultivar names or names in cultivation. In some cases it is clear that older references do exist but where exact references were not available or could not be checked, the name may be credited to a more recent author. Cultivar names which are clearly acceptable and represent plants which can be identified are given in LARGE and SMALL CAPITAL LETTERS. Other names in the list can not be identified with a plant, are homonyms from which a single name must be selected by a future worker or, are to be rejected. An asterisk ( ) following a name indicates that a plant is grown under that name by at least one botanical garden or arboretum which supplied information for this list, or has been offered recently under the name in the publications of a commercial nursery. No attempt has been made to check the accuracy of identity of such listings or the availability of such cultivated plants. Information on the location of authentic, named clones representing cultivars in this list is desired. Any corrections or additions to the list or the bibliography given will be appreciated. 'A. Carriere'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 190-1, Probably a spelling variation of 'Abel Carriere'. p. 49. 1880-81). 'A. Lavallee' _ 'LAVALLEI'. 'ABEL CARRIERE'(Lemoine 1876 ex Kriissman Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 571. 1962). The Lemoine reference cannot be located. Kriissman describes the plant as large flowered, free, bright rose carmine red, corolla throat flecked with gold; buds purple-carmine. 'Alba'\"(Van Houtte, Ghent, Cat. 121, p. 42. 1868). Described as \"amabilis rosea\" coraeensis `Alba'. 'Alba'( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1861: 331, plate. 1861). Described by Carriere as Weigelia alba Hort. and referred to W. rosea alba. A distinctive, very floriferous shrub, everblooming, with flowers a glazed or faience white with the long narrow tube slightly orange or rose carmine. Leaves sinuate and undulate on the margin, often crisped. Flowers so rarely truly white that Carriere proposed the name 'Mutabilis' to replace 'Alba'. Treated by Rehder as W. florida f. alba (Carr.) Rehd. 'Alba' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1877: 300. 1877). Vigorous shrub, leaves relatively narrow, finely dentate and serrate, apex long acuminate; flower buds yellow-pink opening to a pure white. Grown from seed of 1874 and flowered in 1876-7. More hardy than \"W. Nivea Sieb.\", the only other pure white flowered Weigela, which is delicate and requires special soils. 'Alba' (Zabel in Beissner et al. Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 466. 1903). Published without description as D[iervilla] hortensis alba. Currently referred to W. hortensis f. albiflora. 'Alba' (Several botanical gardens list \"W. japonica alba\" for which no published reference has been found). 'Aldenham Glow'. Plants so listed by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, were received from Vicary Gibbs in 1926. No validating reference has been found. = Belg., 51-= 'Alphonse Lavallee' ( Pepinieres Minier, Angers, Fr., Cat. p. 51, Autumn 1960). Published without description. A probable spelling variation for 'LAVALLEI'. 'Andenken an Frau van Houtte' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). Commercial synonym of 'Memoire de Mme. Van Houtte'. 'Andreas Leroy' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). Flowers medium sized, rose with rose-white spots; buds dark rose. Possibly the same as 'MONSIEUR ANDRE LEROY'. 'Angustifolia' (Froebel in Beissner et al. Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 465. 1903). Cited under D[iervilla] florida but without description. `ANDRE THOUIN'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 91, p. 26. 1882). Described as a hybrid of W. coraeensis and W. florida. Flowers medium sized, narrow tubed, brownish-red outside, pale purple inside. misspelling of `ANDRE THOUIN'. 'Anmutige' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A commercial synonym for 'GRACIEUX' published as W. praecox Anmutige. 'Arborescens' (Hort. ex Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 1: 274. 1889). Referred by Rehder to W. floribunda f. grandiflora. 'Argenteo-marginata Variegata' (Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1932). Without further description. `ARLEQuIN' (Anon. in Revue Hort. 1879: 300. 1879). Milky white flowers with lilac or darker flowers in same or different inflorescences. Long lasting. Published as W. hortensis arlequin. 'Atropurpurea' (Beardslee Nurs., Perry, Ohio, Wholesale Price List, p. 4. 1961). Given as W. florida atropurpurea, a source of `Jnvn RED'. 'Atrosanguinea' (Daisy Hill Nurs., Newry, Irel., Cat. 101, p. 123, undated). Flowers bright crimson inside, deep rose outside. \"Very good and free.\" 'Andre Thourin'. A common 'AuG. WILHELM'*(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. well opened, widely bell-shaped, red-orange. 1881 ) . Flowers 'AUG. WILHELM'. 'Aurea'. A name commonly used in European gardens, often as \"florida aurea.\" No valid publication has been discovered. 'Aureo Marginata' (Daisy Hill Nurs., Newry, Ire., Cat. 101, p. 123, undated). Published as W. amabilis aureo marginata and reported to have \"leaves beautifully bordered with yellow.\" 'AVALANCHE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 173, p. viii. 1909). Flowers in panicles, remaining pure white until they fall; plant vigorous and very floriferous. `AVANT-GARDE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 164. p. viii. 1906). 'Augusta' (Dieck, Zoschen, Ger., Cat. Suppl. p. 9. 1887). Published without description. 'Auguste Wilhelm' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Preisverz. 19081909, p. 55). Published without description. Probable spelling variation of 52 -] Flowers extending to a brilliant rose. Leaves hidden by the profusion of flowers. 'Avante Guarde'. A spelling variation for 'AVANT-GARDE'. 'BALLET'\"(Broertjes, Jaarb., Proef. Boomk., Boskoop, Netherl. p. 70. 1958). A cross of W. 'Boskoop Glory' and W. 'Newport Red'. Medium high shrub with dark pinkish-red flowers. A full description was published by Schneider in 1963 (Nederl. Dendr. Ver. Jaarb. 22: 70). `BAYARD'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 124, p. 29. 1893). A name published without description. `BERANGER'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. 1881). A mediumsized shrub with dark brownish-red flowers, purple margined within and the throat yellow spotted. Similar to Rhododendron ponticum in color according spotted with cream, enormous large in horizontal clusters, well open, showing marbled pink throat to Lemoine. 'Bezaubernde' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A commercial synonym of 'SEDUCTION' offered as W. praecox Bezaubernde. `Bicolor' (Daisy Hill Nurs., Newry, Irel., Cat. 101, p. 123, undated). Offered as W. corensis bicolor with rose and creamy white flowers on the same bush. `BicoLOa' (Parsons & Sons Co., Flushing, N. Y., Descr. Cat. p. 12. 1884). Offered as W. middendorffiana bicolor. The lower lip of the corolla marked and dotted with purple. Not too hardy. 'BiFOaMis' ( Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. Gen. 43, p. 145. A plant producing at one time large flowers of a deep-rose color and small or medium-sized flowers of pale-rose color often striped. 1880). A commercial 'Blutenmonat' (Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). synonym of 'FLOREAL' offered as W. praecox Bliitenmonat. 'Boquet' (Bonnell Nurs., Renton, Washington, Cat. p. 19. 1946). Deep rosepink flowers. Probably the same as 'Bouquet Rose' of Lemoine. `BosxooP GLORY' (F. J. Grootendorst and Sons Nurs., Boskoop, Netherl., Wholesale Price List (U. S. ed.), p. 38. pink in color. An entirely new color. 'Boule Rose' (Horton Nurs., Painesville, Published without description. 1954-5). Large flowers, salmon Price List Ohio, 1955-56, p. 173). x. 'BOUQUET ROSE'(Lemoine & Flowers large, well open, satin rose, with straw-colored spots flowers by the 5th of May. Listed under W. praecox. 'BRIGHTNESS' (Watsons Nurs., Dublin, Irel., Fruit Trees and 1937). \"Crimson flowered, a dwarf Eva Rathke.\" Fils., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 143, p. on 1899). the throat; Cat. p. 42. Shrubs, 'Bris de Mai'(Greenbrier Farms, Norfolk, Virginia, Cat. p. 39. 1943). A small shrub with very red flowers. Blooms all summer. Plant Introduction .# 135263. 'Bristol'. A name used by many U. S. nurseries for `BRISTOL RusY'. 53 'BRISTOL RusY'(Alex Cummings, Bristol, Conn. Plant Patent #492. 1941). \"Hybrids of W. rosea and W. 'Eva Rathke'. Color of Eva Rathke but habit more erect and more vigorous and hardier.\" 'BRISTOL SNOWFLAKE' (Bristol Nurs., Bristol, Conn., Spring Cat., last cover, 1961). Flowers goblet shaped, gleaming white, almost everblooming from June and July until well into the fall. To 8 feet tall at maturity. Hardy in Iowa and Vermont. \"A seedling of the superb Bristol Ruby.\" `BmssoN FLEUSi' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 179, p. 6. pact panicles, flowers large, rosy to carmine mauve, throat 1911). Com- spotted with yellow. 'BuRFORD' (Treasure & Sons, Treasures of Tenbury Wells, Engl. Undated catalogue probably 1959, p. 18). A free flowering variety with delicate, fragrant, rose-pink flowers. \"Found on the property when the present owner bought it.\" `CAMELEON' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection made by M. Billiard of Fontenay-aux-Roses. Abundant flowering, flowers at first pure white then becoming deep rose; leaves long acuminate at the apex. `Cameleonflora' ( Pep. F. Delaunay, Angers, Fr., Cat. p. 19. 1913-14). Published without description. `CnNmnn'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1879: 130, plate. selection made by Thibault and Keteleer. Flowers white. 1879). W. candida. A moderately large, pure `Candidissima'.# Attributed reference seen. to A. Waterer Nurs., Woking, Engl. 1887. No 'Cardinal Red' (Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 571. 1962). Published without description and reported as a commercial synonym in the U. S. for 'NEWPORT RED'. No supporting U. S. reference available. `CnaMiNEn' as (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. carminea without as a W. 212. 1875) describes the buds hybrida description. 136 M, p. 43. 1870-71). Given Carriere (Revue Hort. 1875: livid black, a little grayish, of a red- purple wine color on all parts. `CARRIERE' Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. Gen. p. 146. flowers white, passing into rose and late flowering. Certainly different from modern descriptions of 'Abel Carriere' which has been suggested as the correct name. (Baudriller, 1880). Described as 'Carreri'. A frequent misspelling in U. S. nursery which cultivar is intended. 'Chamacloes'. A misspelling, Chamaeleon or Cameleon. catalogues but it is not clear primarily in Dutch nursery catalogues, for 'Chamaeleon'. A spelling variation of 'Cameleon'. Perry, Ohio, Wholesale 54 Price 'CHECKERBOARD' (Beardslee Nurs., List, p. 11. at 1964). A mutation of W. candida, with clear-white and the same time. Selected in 1956 and registered in 1964. clear-pink flowers 'Coceinea' W. rosea ( Dieck, ZBschen, Germ., coccinea Cat. Nat.-Arb. p. 34. 1885). Listed as description. A spelling variation in nursery catalogues for `CONQUETE'. `Cocquette'. 'CONGO'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 104, p. viii. 1886). Floriferous, flowers large, purple chamoise. `CONQUERANT'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 158, p. viii. 1904). Flowers extremely large, perfectly formed, red to darker wine color, throat and exterior carmine. Plants with heavy foliage. Variety of W. praecox. `CONQUETE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 134, p. x, 1896). Largest flowers known in Weigela, not less than 47 mm. long, deep rose. 'Conterieri'. A misspelling of 'COUTURIER'. 'Coquet' ( Anon. in Royal Hort. Soc. Proc. 27: xxi. 1902-3). Published without description in a listing of plants shown by Messrs. Robert Veitch of Exeter. Hort., without 'Couquet Rose'. A probable misuse of 'BOUQUET RosE'. = `CouTUaiEx' (Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. Gen. p. 146. 1880). Selection of Weigela hybrida. Flowers white changing to rose. Late flowering. Probably MADAME COUTURIER. 'Crimson Hybrid' ( Plant Buyer's Guide, cannot be located and distributor has 5th ed. p. 258. 1949). Cited catalogue no record of origin of plant or of name. 'DAME BLANCHE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 152, p. viii. 1902). A vigorous plant with very large flowers, ivory white with yellow throat. 'Dannewitz' ( Timm & Co., Elmshorn, Germ., Cat. p. 226. 1955-56). Published without description. No description is available. longer offered by the company and no later 'DAUBENTON' erous (Lemoine flowers crimson outside. plant, & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 104, p. large, deep yellow lacking any 17. 1886). A florifred inside but red 3. Juss~u' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 90, p. yellow inside, the lobes pale rose, the exterior carmine. 'Deboisi'. A misspelling of 'DESBOISII'. 'DE 1882). Flowers `DESSOism' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1861: 332. 1861). More vigorous than `Groenewegenii'and more ramified with the leaves larger and softer. Flowers but once. Corolla wide mouthed, deep red almost carmine. (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 118, p. 28. 1891). Flowers very large, blood-red-purple. `DIDEROT'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 103, p. 34. 1886). Enormous flowers, brilliant red in color. 'DESCARTES' `Disantha' ( Krussmann, Deutsch. Baumsch. 10: 12. 1958 ) . Published without description. 'Docteur Baillon' = Dr. Baillon. 55 'Downie' (Pep. F. Delaunay, Angers, Fr., Cat. p. 19. 1913-4). Published without description. 'DR. BAILLON' ~( Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). Published without description. 'Dr. Baillou'. Misspelling of 'Dr. Baillon'. 'DR. Bur.LmRn' ~( Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 1009. A cross of \"D. florida and D. japonica.\" 1914). Flowers - carmine. 'DROPMORE PiNx' (F. L. Skinner, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada Registered A.A.N. 1951). Characterized by extreme hardiness. Selected from seedlings of imported Manchurian seed. 'Dropmoreana'. Misuse of 'Dropmore Pink' by several U. S. nurseries. black of the outside. 'Edouard Andre'. A spelling variation of 'ED. ANDRE'. (Daisy Hill Nurs., Newry, Irel., Cat. 101, p. 124, undated). \"Rose, good.\" Probably the same as 'P. Duchartre'. 'E. Andre'. Variation in spelling of 'Ed. Andre' used by U. S. nurseries. 'ED. ArrnRE' * (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). Published without a description. Lemoine (Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. 1881) describes the taxon as a hybrid of W. arborea and W. 'Lavallei' having flowers purple brown inside, the stamens white contrasting with the brown 'Duchartie' of `CoNQuEanNT' given as W. praecox Eroberer. `EsPEanNCE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 164, p. viii. 1906). Numerous panicles of very large flowers, pale white, rose tinted and rose-salmon outside, buds salmon, pale. One of the earliest to bloom. 'Eva Katke'. A misspelling of 'EvA RATHKE'. 'EvA RnTaxE' (Rathke in Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 122, p. 17. Flowers large, erect, red crimson. Cited as Weigela hybrida. `Evn SuPREME' ~(Broertjes, spelling variation of 'ED. ANDRE'. 'Elisabeth'. Variation in spelling for 'Elizabeth' used by German nurseries. 'Elizabeth' ( Spath Baumsch., Berlin, Germ., Hauptkat. 89, p. 118. 1892). Published without description except for phrases \"sehr schbn, wenig bekannt.\" `EMILE GALLE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. 1881). Flowers medium sized, carmine purple, brilliant. 'Emile Gallet'. Variation in spelling for 'EMILE GALLE'. 'Eroberer' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A commercial synonym 'Eduard Andree'. A 1892). Jaarb. Proef. Boomk., Boskoop, Netherl., p. 70. 1958). Growth vigorous, tlowers bright red. An improved 'Eva Rathke'. Schneider 22: 70 ) . 'ExcELSA' lished as published a full description in 1963 (Nederl. Dendr. Ver. Jaarb. ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1873: 279. 1873). Vigorous shrub to 3 m. tall, scarcely branched, heavy flowering, rose tinged violet, deep rose. Pub- Weigela excelsa. 56 'Extus Coccinea' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 170 QQ, p. 57. 1876-77). Reference not available for checking. 'Fairy'. An incorrect translation by U. S. nurseries for `FEERm'. `FEERm'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 199, bis, p. 6. 1926). Upright trusses of large rose-pink flowers which hide the foliage. Correct translation of this name is 'fairy art' or `enchantment'.. Misspelling by U. S. nurseries for `FEERm'. 'Ferri'. Misspelling by U. S. nurseries for 'FEERIE'. `FIESTA'(Broertjes, Jaarb. Proef. Boomk., Boskoop, Netherl., p. 70. 1958). A cross of 'Eva Rathke' and 'Newport Red'. Growth moderate, a lax shrub; flowering copious with shining uniform-red flowers. Schneider published a full description in 1963 (Nederl. Dend. Ver. Jaarb. 22: 70). 'Ferieri'. 'Flavo-fusca' published not (Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Cat. Nat. Arb., p. 33. 1885). A selection D. japonica floribunda fdavo-fusca Hort. Flowers are greenish, beautiful but interesting. Probably the same as `Fusca-flavo' of Van as Houtte. 'FLEUR DE MAI' ( Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 143, p. x. 1899). Clusters of flowers close together, buds purple, open corolla marbled purple rose outside, salmon rose inside. 'Flor de Mai'. Misspelling by U. S. nurseries for 'FLEUR DE MAI'. `FLOREAL'(Lemoine & flowering, flowers very reflexed, mauve petals, mouth carmine-wine color. Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 149, p. viii. 1901). Early large, produced in large bunches, delicate rose with A selection of W. praecox. `Floribunda'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1874: 350. 1874). Compact shrub of medium vigor, leaves oval cordate, strongly nerved, tomentose, heavily flowered, flesh colored, tubular. Description accompanied by a colored plate. Described as Weigela floribunda. Although subsequently used by many nurseries as a cultivated variety, this is clearly W. floribunda (Sieb. & Zucc. ) Koch. 'Floribunda Grandiflora'. Name incorrectly used as a cultivar. See 'GRANDIFLORA'. 'Folia Aurea Media Picta' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 215 D, p. 48. 188586). A novelty cited as \" f ol. aur. medio pictis.\" 'Folia Variegata' (Van Houtte, FI. Serres 12: 15. 1857). Published as \"fol. var.\" Plants raised from seed by Dr. Desbois of Van Houtte Nurseries. A pyramid in shape, one meter tall. Not a single leaf uncolored. 'Folia Aurea' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Preisverz. 1908-09, p. 55). Published without description. 'FOLIA PuRruREA' (Hillier & Sons, Winchester, Engl., Trees and Shrubs Cat. 39T p. 73, 1930). A slow growing compact shrub with bronze-purple foliage and purple flowers. `FRAQcxEUR'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 158, p. 26. 1904). Irregular flowers with white edges, the exterior rose, the throat cream. Selection of W. praecox. 57 `Frischfarbige' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A synonym for `FI~AicI-IEUa' published as W. praecox Frischfarbige. 'Frau Lemoine' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A synonym of 'MADAME LEMOINE'. 'Frau Teillier' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. synonym of 'MADAME TELLIER'. commercial commercial 1921). A commercial 233. 1921). A commercial synonym of 'LE PRINTEMPS'. 'Fusco-flava' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 142 Q, p. 17. 1872-73). Published as W. rosea floribunda fusco-flava without additional description. `Friihlingsbliitte' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, `GAVAaNI' (Lemoine a & carmine with Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 97, p. 26. 1884). Flowers red beautiful form. 'Giganteaeflora' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Preisverz. 1908-1909, p. 55). Published as Diervilla hortensis giganteaeflora without further description. Hesse Preisliste of 1928-29, p. 106, describes the flowers as translucent, dull carmine. 'Giganteaeflora Gratissima' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Preisverz. as Diervilla hortensis giganteaeflora gratissima without further description. 1908-1909, p. 55). Cited 'Gigantifolia' (Plant Buyer's Guide, 6th edition p. 295. 1958, credits this name to F. Delaunay Nurs., Angers, Fr., but the name is apparently a misspelling of 'Gigantiflora'. 'Gigantiflora'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 170 QQ, p. 57. 1876-77). Published without further description. `GIRONDIN'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 185, p. 6. 1913). Horizontal panicles of numerous flowers, carmine with brighter red throat. The outside and the buds are a warmer carmine. 'GLOIRE DES BosQuETS' * (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, Large racemes of large flowers, rose purple with yellow center. p. 24. 1881 ) . misspelling of 'GLOIRE DES BosQUETS'. `GLORIEUJi' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 158, p. viii. 1904). A selection of W. praecox which flowers early with numerous flowers of good shape. Lacquered mauve colored with deeper reves. 'Golden' (Lovett's Nurs., Little Silver, New Jersey, Cat. 1947, p. 22). \"Most desirable variety.\" 'GOLDEN HosN' ( J. Waterer, Sons, & Crisp, Twyford, England, Cat. 1928-29, p. 43). A new seedling raised at the Bagshot Nursery with an \"elegant yellow Casquet'. A 'Gloire des horn.\" 'GORDONIANUS' (Lovett's Nurs., Little Silver, New Jersey, Trade List p. 11. 1926). Originally published without description but listed in the Spring Catalogue of 1927, page 7, as \"pink flowered.\" `GRACIEUX'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 158. p. viii. 1904). A selec58 tion of W. praecox. Flowers salmon in color. Plants erect, large, round, the throat sulfur-yellow, extremely floriferous. the buds 'GRACILIFLORA' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1875: 211. 1875). Plant of medium vigor with diverging branches. Buds wine colored, flowers rose to clear violet. A short flowering period. Published as Weigela graciliflora. 'GRACILIS' (B. Ruys, Koninklijke Handels-Cat. p. 16. 1945~6). Kweekerij Moerheim, Dedemsvaart, Netherl., Large pink flowered. `GRANDIFLORA'(Briot, Revue Hort. 1867: 268. 1867). Published as W. arborea grandiflora noting its special characteristics. A vigorous, woody growth, large leaves with finely dentate edges, flowers sulfur-white, passing to pale rose wine. Flowers within a calyciform involucre of linear bracts to 15 mm. in length. Origin unknown. 'Grandiflora Alba'(Dippel, Hand. Laubh. 1: 274. 1889). White flowered. `GRANDIFLORA FLORE-ALBA' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 92, p. 11. 1882). A variety introduced from Japan with pure white flowers. 'GRANDIFLORA SULFUREA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Haupt-Cat. p. 33, 1885). Flowers golden. 'Gratissima'*(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. as W. hortensis gratissima without further description. 1881). Published 'Greenway'. A common misspelling by U. S. nurseries for 'Groenewegenii'. 'GROENEWEGENII' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1861: 332. 1861). Plants reported to be less ramified than W. amabilis with stems larger, leaves shiny and flowers deeper in color. Kriissman (Handb. Laubgeh. 571. 1962) credits this name to \"Van Houtte 1859\" a reference not available. 'Groenewegiana'. A misspelling of 'Groenewegenii'. 'Groenowegenei' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1875: 131. 1875). Carriere remarks the plant was dedicated to a Dutch horticulturist, M. Groenowegen. The correct spelling cannot be determined at the present time. 'Gustav Maillot'. A misspelling of 'GUSTAVE MALET'. 'Gustav Mallet'. A misspelling of 'GUSTAVE MALET'. 'Gustav Mallot'. A misspelling of 'GUSTAVE MALET'. -- 'GUSTAVE MALET'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868 : 240. 1868). A selection from W. rosea by M. Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Plants exceedingly floriferous; flowers long, tubular, deep red, the petals wide spreading. 'Gustave Mallet'. A 'Gustave Mallot'. misspelling of GUSTAVE MALET'. A misspelling of 'GUSTAVE MALET'. A commercial synonym in the U. S. for `ARLE~UIN'. 'Henderson'. A commercial synonym in the U. S. for `HENDERSONII'. 'Henderson's Pink'. A commercial synonym in the U. S. for `HENDERSONII'. 'Harlequin'. `HENDERSONII'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 136 M, p. 43. 1870-71). Listed without description. Bonard (Hort. Fr. 1870: 49. 1870) describes 59 the plant as having by Lemoine. beautiful rose-colored flowers and being offered for sale Stems erect, 'Heroine' (Lemoine & Fils, flowers large, pale rose. Nancy, Fr., Cat. 134, p. x. 1896). Revue Hort. 1875: 211. 1875). A group made by artificial fertilization between W. rosea and W. multiflora by Lemoine which includes 'Hendersoni', 'Lowi', 'Lavallei', 'Kermesina', 'Carminea', and 'Lemoinei'. Weigela hybrida Jager in Jager & Beiss. Ziergeh. Gart. & Park. 2nd ed. p. 422. 1884, is given as \"nomen omnes formas hybridas amplectens.\" `IDEAL' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 199 bis, p. 6. 1926). A beautiful May flowering shrub. Flowers medium sized, carmine rose inside, bright carmine outside. Kriissmann (Handb. Laubgeh. 571. 1962) attributed this name to \"Lemoine 1896.\" The reference is not available. Hybrid Group ( Carriere, `Incarnata' ~ (Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. Gen. p. 146. 1880). Published without description. `Intermedia' ( R. B. Parsons & Co., Given without description. Flushing, N. Y., Amer., Cat. p. 13. 1873). 'Isolene'. A misspelling of 'ISOLINE'. 'Isolinae' (Van Houtte, Fl. Serres, 14: plate 1445. 1861). The the illustration in contrast to `Isoline' used in the text. spelling used on 'ISOLINE'(Van Houtte, Fl. Serres 14: 142. 1861). Flowers white, throat pale yellow with a large spot of gold on the lower surface. Description also gives a reference to Van Houtte, Catalogue 87 which is not available. In 1875 Carriere (Revue Hort. 1875: 129) considered this a variety of W. mutabilis. 'J. Wittwer' lished without a description. 'JAVA RED'\"(Beardslee Nurs., - (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). Pub- Perry, Ohio, Wholesale Price List 1957). Originally given without a description. The catalogue of 1961, page 4, cites the plant as a selection of \"Weigela florida atropurpurea easily grown, redleaved Weigela with clear flower clusters.\" Registered 1964. pink 'JEAN MACE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 90, p. 4. 1882). Flowers large, purple, buds purple-crimson-black. The deepest color of all Weigelas - but one of the least floriferous. 'John Standish' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Published without a description. Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). 'John Wither' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 25. 1881). Given without a description. 'Juvenal' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 124, p. 29. 1893). Published without description. 'KERMESINA' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 136 M, 43. 1870-71). Published without a description but described by Carriere in 1875 (Revue Hort. p. 211 ) . 'Kongo'. Misspelling of 'CONGO'. 60: 'Kosteri Variegata' (Grootendorst, De Boomkweikerij Jg. 5: 11. 1949). Attributed to C. de Vos in 1885. A reference which cannot be located. 'Kosteriana' * ( Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 152 AA, p. 30. 1873-74). Published without description. `Kos~amrrn FOLIA VnRiECnTA'(Neubert, Deutsch. 1871: 343. 1871). One of the most beautiful of the 'Kosteriana Mag. Gart. Blumenk. Variegata' (Waterer, Knap Hill 1881-82). Published without description. gold-flecked Weigelas. Nurs., Woking, Engl., Cat. p. 37. 'La Perce'. A misuse of 'PERLE'. 'La Perle'. A misuse of 'PERLE'. `LACEPEDE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 104, p. 18. 1886). Flowers large open, rose fuchsia in color, buds crimson. 'LAVALLEI'*(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 130, p. 233. 1869-70). Originally published without a description. In 1870 Lescuyer (Hort. Fr., p. 145. 1870) reported that Lemoine announced \"Diervilla (Weigelia) hybrida Lavallei\" with parentage of W. arborea grandiflora with flowers white and yellow and W. multi flora with flowers purple wine in color. Lemoine catalogues of that year are not available. 'LE PaiN~Mrs' ~( Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 149, p. viii. 1901). Flowers numerous, flesh-rose edged with pink. 'Leicester Castle' (Anon. Proc. Roy. Hort. Soc. 79: 64. 1954). Plant of Weigela exhibited under this name by the City of Leicester Parks Department. Published without further description. 'Lemoinei' (Van Houtte, Ghent, lished without a description. 'Longifolia Folia Arb. Suppl. 1, p. 9. 1887). Referred to Diervilla rosea but without further description. 'Looymansii' (Kriissmann, Deutsch. Baumsch. 10: 12. 1958). Published without description. 'LOOYMANSII AUREA'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 170 QQ, p. 57. 187677). A fine novelty with golden-yellow leaves surrounded with a slender edging of a fine carmine red, very constant. Numerous and magnificent bouquets of beautiful rose flowers. 'Lowei'. Misspelling of `Lowu'. 'Lowi' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 136 M, p. 43. 1870-71). Published without description but of questionable relationship to 'Lowii'. `LOWII' (Lescuyer, Hort. Fr. 1870: pl. 8. 1870). The origin of this plant is attributed to Lemoine as a hybrid of W. rosea and W. multiflora. It was published as Weigela lourii. Flower buds purple crimson, open flowers dragon-blood red. 'Lutea'. All references to Weigela 'Lutea' are properly Diervilla lutea. * Belg., Cat. 136 M, p. 43. 1870-71). PubProbably the same as 'MONSIEUR LEMOINE'. Argenteo-marginata' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Cat. Nat.- 61~ 'Lutea-marginata'. A variation in spelling of 'Luteo-marginata'. 'Luteo-marginata' (Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 1009. 1914) = 'Folia Variegata'. 'Madame1 Abel Carriere'. A misuse of 'MADAME CARRiERE' by U. S. nurseries. 'Madame Ballard'. A misspelling of 'MADAME BILLIARD'. 'MADAME BiLLiARn' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection of W. rosea made by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Branches erect, flowers excessively large, pure white turning rose. 'MADAME CARRiERE' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1869: 300. 1869). Flowering branches short, leaves small, slightly warped, pale green, paler below, flowers large, rose-flesh colored and very pale, lobes twisted. Selected from seedling of W. rosea by Billiard of Fontenay-aux-Roses. 'Madame Coulturier'. A misspelling of 'MADAME COUTURIER'. 'MADAME COUTURIER'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A late flowering variety with numerous white flowers which turn rose. Selected by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. 'Madame Dauvasse'. An error for MONSIEUR DAUVASSE. 'MADAME LEMOiNE' ( Spath Baumsch., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 69, p. 120. 188788). Flowers a bright rose becoming darker in age. An earlier reference to \"Cat. 31\" cannot be checked. 'Madame Tailler'. A misspelling of 'MADAME TELLiER' by U. S. nurseries. 'Madame Teillier'. A misspelling of 'MADAME TELLIER' by German nurseries. 'MADAME TELLIER'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection from W. rosea made by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Erect stems, leaves very pubescent below, folded in development, undulate at the margins; flowers large, blood red. 'Madame van Houtte'(Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Haupt-Cat. Suppl. 1, p. 9. 1887). Published without description. 'Maibliite' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, p. 233. 1921). A commercial synonym for 'FLEUR DE MAI' given as \"W. praecox Maiblute.\" 'Majestic'. Misspelling or commercial synonym of `MAJESTUEUX'. flushed with carmine in the throat. 'Marc Tellier'. A misuse by Rehder (Man. Cult. Trees & Shrubs 852. 1927) of 'MADAME TELLIER'. 'Marginata Alba' ( Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. Gen. p. 146. 1880). Cited as Weigela rosea. 'Memoire de Mme. Van Houtte' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 97, p. 27. 1884). Published without description. 1 Mad., Madam, and Mme. are misspelling of 'MAJESTUEUX'. 'MAJESTUEUX\"(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 203 bis, p. 5. 1930). A splendid new sort with tall, upright branches producing a wealth of large, well-expanded and erect flowers in the first week of May; flowers rose-pink 'Majestieux'. A regarded as variant spellings of Madame. 62 'Merveille' ( Pepinieres Minier, lished without description. Angers, Fr., Cat. Autumn 1960, p. 51). Pub- 'MESSAGER'\"(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 179, p. 6. 1911). Flowers large, erect, lobes rounded, rose of China in color with throat solid carmine. `Metelerkampi' (Koch, Dendr. 2: 42. 'MONSIEUR2 ANDRE LEROY' 1872). Published without description. ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1869: 300. 1869). Excesleaves dark green, corolla tube rosea. sively flowering, vigorous, Fontenay-aux-Roses. 'Monsieur than corolla tube. A selection of W. outside, flesh colored inside with spot of yellow, calyx lobes subulate, longer Grown from seed long, open, rose by Billiard of Bayard'. Regarded as a variation of 'BAYARD'. 'MONSIEUR DAuvESSE' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection of W. rosea made by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Extra heavily flowered, branches short, erect, flowers flesh colored not changing with age and long lasting. 'MONSIEUR LEMOINE'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection of W. rosea by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Flowers pale flesh colored becoming rose and finally a deep wine red. Characterized by flowers from white to deep red on one branch. `MONSTRUOSA' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1878: 47. the small leaves thick and folded, tomentose and Published as Weigela monstruosa. 'Mont Blanc'. A 1878). Flowers bright red, disposed in irregular verticils. misspelling of `MONT-BLANC'. 'MONT-BLANC' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 140, p. x. 1898). Extremely vigorous, flowers very large, pure white. The best of the white-flowered forms in cultivation. 'MONTESQUIEU' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., red fuchsia, buds crimson. 'Mt. Blanc'. A misuse of `MONT-BLANC' Cat. 103, p. 34. 1886). Flowers by U. S. nurseries. `MULTIFLORA'(Carriere, Revue Hort. 1875: 210. 1875). A small compact shrub, inflorescence densely flowered and also compact, buds deep red. 'MUTABILIS' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1861: 331 and plate. 1861). Listed both as W. alba and W. rosea alba with 'Mutabilis' suggested as a new name since few flowers are pure white. In 1875 Carriere (Revue Hort. 1875: 129) used the name \"W. mutabilis, var. Isoline.\" 'Nana 1921, p. 55). Published without further 'Nana Aurea' ( Baudriller, Gennes Published without description. Argenteo-variegata' (Den Ouden & Sons Nurs., Boskoop, Netherl., Cat. p. 146. Cat. description. 1880). (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., 'NANA FOLIA VnaiECnTn' (Van Houtte, Fl. Serres 14: 143. 1861). Derivative of W. rosea. A small compact plant with flat but colorful leaves. a M. or Mons. as an occasional prefix spelling is treated as Monsieur. 63- 'NANA VARIEGATA'*(Baudriller, Gennes 1880). A small shrub remaining in a (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. 43, p. 146. ball, leaves margined with yellow. 'New Port Red'. A misuse of 'NEWPORT RED'. 'Newport'. A misuse of 'NEWPORT RED'. 'NEWPORT RED' ( B. Ruys, Royal Moerheim Nurs., Dedemsvaart, Netherl., Wholesale Cat. 1946-47, p. 16). Splendid red-colored flowers for better growing plant than 'Eva Rathke'. Best regarded as a commercial synonym of 'VANICEK'. 'Nikoensis' (Frost afs without description. Skovfrohandel, Borkop, Denm., Cat. 1959). Published 'Nivalis' (Agri. Univ. Bot. Gard. & Belmonte Arb., Wageningen, Netherl., Seedlist 1957, p. 3). Published without description. 'Nivea' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1877: 300. 1877). Refers to \"W. Nivea Sieb.\" a reference which cannot be located. 'Nivea' ( Jager & Beiss. abundant flowers. Ziergeh. Gart. & Park. 571. 1865). Pure-white, very `Nivea' * (Carriere, Revue Hort. 1875: 130. 1875). A dwarf shrub, buds a little fleshy, flowers pure white, flowering midway and long lasting. 'Nivea Aurea' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Haupt-Kat. Suppl. 1, p. 9. 1887). Cited as W. hortensis f. without further description. 'Nivea Blanc' as ( Pep. F. Delaunay, Angers, Fr., Cat. p. 19. 1913-14). Published Wegelia hortensis nivea blanc without further description. 'Nivea Folia Marginalis' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Haupt-Kat., p. 33. 1885). Cited as D. hortensis f. without further description. 1882). Flowers 'OTHELLO'\"(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 91, p. 26. narrow, carmine veined, sulfur yellow in center. 'P. Duchartre'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). Published without description. Kriissmann (Handb. Laubgeh. 572. 1962) attributes this cultivar to Lemoine, 1876, a reference I have not been able to verify. 'PASCAL' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 118, p. 28. 1891). Flowers of medium size, erect, red tinted with crimson. 'PAVILLON BLANC'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 149, p. 26. Flowers large, white-flesh colored, clusters large. A form of W. rosea. 1901). 'Pecheur Fils'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Published without description. Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). 'PERLE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 152, p. viii. 1902). Vigorous, flowers large in hemispheric corymbs of 10-12 flowers, pale cream with rose edges, the mouth clear yellow. 'Pink Fairy'. A reference in Plant Buyer's Guide, 6th ed. p. 295. 1958. Cannot be verified. Probably a misuse of FEEIUE. 64 `Prachtblute' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, p. 233. 1921). A commercial synonym of 'GLORIEUX' cited as W. praecox Prachtbliite. 'President Duchartre' ( Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. p. 146. 1880). Clear amaranthe, flowers large, open, erect; stems straight. Perhaps the same as 'P. Duchartre' of Van Houtte and Lemoine. 'PROCUMBENS' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1879: 60. 1879). A prostrate plant for rock gardens. Flowers rose, the mouth white on the inside. Published as Weigela procumbens. 'PROFUSION'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 189, p. 16. 1915). Diervilla japonica crossed with an early flowering type produced these seeds. Plants with clusters of 20 flowers, these horizontal, carmine red. 'PURPURATA' (Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 121, p. 42. 1867-8). Published without description. Carriere (Revue Hort. 1875: 131. 1875) published and described W. arborea purpurata. Vigorous, leaves large, oval-cordate, villous ; flowers large, deep red in all parts, outside and inside. `Purpurea' ( Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. p. 146. 1880). Published without description. 'Purple Leaved'. Best regarded as a commercial synonym used in the U. S. for 'PURPURATA'. 'Richesse'. A was name found in several applied to 191, p. 18. 1918). misapplied to Weigela by several U. S. Nurseries and gardens. The name can be traced back to Lemoine where it a cultivar of Hydrangea (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1931; 'Robusta'. A name used in the Plant Buyers Index, 3rd. ed. p. 182. however, the reference given cannot be verified. 'Rosa Strauss' synonym for p. 233. 1921). A commercial 'BOUQUET RosE' given as W. praecox Rosa Strauss. 'ROSABELLA' (Broertjes, Jaarb. Proef. Boomk., Boskoop, Netherl., p. 70. 1958). Growth stout and lax, flowering copious, flowers pink. A cross of 'Eva ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, Rathke' and 'Newport Red'. Schneider (Nederl. Dendr. Ver. Jaarb. 22: 70). published a full description in 1963 (Jung Seed Co., Randolph, Wisc., Cat. p. 16. 1960). Published withdescription. 'Rose Mallot'. Used by many U. S. nurseries for `GUSTAVE MALET'. out 'Rosalie' 'Rosea'. The species W. rosea Lindl. has been referred to the synonymy of W. florida, however \"rosea\" is commonly used in current literature as a cultivar name with or without a specific designation. 'Rosea Folia Purpurea' (Chenault et fils, Orleans, Fr., Cat. p. 18. 1919-20). Variety with purple foliage; numerous flowers of a pure rose color. Probably same as 'Purpurea'. 65: 'Rosea Multiflora' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1930, p. 320. 1930). Horticultural origin. Flowers bright rose with white-spotted margin. 'Rosea Nana Variegata' (Van Houtte ex Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, p. 233. 1921). Small shrub with uniform golden to white-edged leaves. Flowers medium sized, bright rose. 'Rosea Purpurea' (Homestead Nurs., Boskoop, Netherl., Cat., 1954). Published without description. 'Rosea Purpurescens' (Bonnell Nurs., Seattle, Washington, Cat. 13, p. 20. 1956). Dwarf shrub to 3 feet tall, compact and bushy with profusion of pink flowers in early summer and purplish foliage all season. 'Rosea Sieboldi Variegata' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Haupt-Kat. p. 102. 1929-30). Flowers bright red, plant with beautiful white-spotted leaves. 'Rubra' * (Carriere, Revue Hort. 1864: 278. 1864). Published without description. 'Rubra Aureo-Marginata' (Hesse, Baumsch., Weener-Ems., Germ., Haupt-Kat. p. 102. 1929-30). Leaves distinctly yellow edged. 'Rubra Flava' ( Clibrans Ltd., Altringham, Engl., Cat. 1935). Published without further description. 'Rubra Folia Marginata' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germ., Haupt-Cat. p. 33. Cited under W. hortensis without further description. 'RUFA' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1876: 400. leaves a deep russet-iron color becoming 1885). 1876). A seedling plant with young greenish red. 'Sanguinea' (Daisy Hill Nurs., Newry, Irel., Cat. 101, p. 124, undated). Cited as \"corensis sanguinea,\" very bright red, dwarf, free habit, good. 'SATURN'\"(Waterer, Sons & Crisp, Ltd., Bagshot, Engl. Cat. 1892-93). Large, open flowers of a bright carmine red, deeper than 'Eva Rathke'. 'Saturne'. A misspelling of 'SATURN'. 'Schmuck der Gebiische' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A com- mercial synonym of `GLOIRE DES BOSQUETS'. 'Schneelawine' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A commercial synonym of 'AVALANCHE'. `SEDUCTION'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 170, p. viii. 1908). Very floriferous plants, flowers carmine red. 'Siebold Silver Edge'. A commercial synonym in the U. S. for 'Siebold Varie- gata'. 'Siebold Variegata'(Van Houtte, Published without description. 'Sieboldi Ghent, Belg., Cat. 180 A, p. 54. 1878-79). Alba-marginata' (Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 483. 1900) = 'Siebold Variegata'. 'Sieboldii'. Misuse of 'Siebold Variegata' by French nurseries. 'Sieboldii Folia Argenteo-marginata' (Baudriller, Gennes (Maine-et-Loire), Fr., Cat. p. 146. 1880) = 'Siebold Variegata'. 'Silver-edge'. A commercial synonym in the U. S. for 'Siebold Variegata'. ss ~] 'Simmondsii'. A misspelling of SYMONDSII'. 'Sinica'. A misuse of Weigela japonica var. sinica. Angers, Fr., Cat. p. 19. 'Souvenir de Billiard' ( Pep. F. Delaunay, Published without description. 1913-14). 'Souvenir de Van Houtte' (Anon., Gard. Chron. III. 15: 752. 1894). Plant with large, open rose-colored flowers. Probably equal to 'Memoire de Mme. Van Houtte' of Lemoine. B. Parsons & Co., Flushing, New York, Descr. Cat. p. 14. 1873). Published without description. 'Splendens' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1853: 310. 1853, and Fl. Serres 8: 292. 1853). A taxon of Diervilla not of Weigela as often reported. `SPRINCTIME' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Garden Aristocrats 11: 15. 1944). Introduced as Le Printemps but proved to be distinct. Very handsome, vigorous, erect shrub with flowers rose on the outside, flesh colored within the corolla, lobes nearly white. 'Spectabilis' (R. 'Steltzner'. A misuse in U. S. of `Stelzneri'. 'Stelzeneri'. A misspelling series for 'Stelzneri'. originated by Carriere and repeated by many nur- 'Stelzneri'(Van Houtte, Fl. Serres 14: 142. 1861). The reference to Van Houtte Catalogue 87 cannot be checked. Buds blood-red, flowers expanding, red-purple in color, large, well rounded, the most floriferous of the Weigelas. `STRIATA' (Van Houtte, Fl. Serres 14: 143. 1861). Corolla streaked with white and spotted with blood-red. 'Stricta' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1864: 278. 1864). A misspelling of W. 'STRIATA' subsequently used by many nurseries. 'STYRIACA' (Klenert Cat. 1908, according to Moelers Deutsch. Gartner-Zeit. 296. 1912). Fast growing plants with numerous trusses of carmine-colored flowers. 'SYMONDSII'''(Parsons & Sons Co., Flushing, New York, Descr. Cat. p. 52, not dated but possibly 1887). Rose and white flowers, distinct and beautiful. Published as Weigela rosea Symondsii. _ 'Syriaca'. A common misspelling of 'STYRIACA'. 'Sulphurea' (Zabel in Beissner et al., Hand. `GRANDIFLORA SULPHUREA'. Laubh.-Benenn. 465. 1903) = 'Superba' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 128, p. 15. 1894). Published without a description as W. arborea superba. 'TALL RED' (Woodcock Nurs., Ridgefield, Connecticut, Cat. p. 29. 1961). Plants reaching six or eight feet; flowers garnet red. 'TENIERS' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 97, p. 27. 1884). Very large, well-opened flowers of a wine-red color. 'Van Houtte'. Misuse of 'VAN HOUTTEI'. 67 - 'VAN HOUTTEI'(Van Houtte, Fl. Serres 14: 143. 1861). Flowers carmine colored washed with rose, the large mouth pure white, the interior lilac violet. Published as Weigela Van Houttei. 'Vanhouttei'. A misuse of `VAN HOUT~rEI'. `VANICEK'. Taxon registered with the American Association of Nurserymen in 1949 by V. A. Vanicek as the originator and introducer. Developed in Newport, Rhode Island, 1920. \"More upright than 'E. Rathke', hardier, flowers larger, lighter red color and flowers on the young wood.\" See 'NEWPORT RED'. Vaniceki'(Cherry Hill Nurs., Newburyport, Mass., Cat. p. 38. 1939). Vigorous grower, red, flowers over a long period. An improved 'Eva Rathke'. 'Vanicek's Ruby-Red' (Coles Nurs., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. Spring 1943). Finest new red, extremely prolific. 'Vaniczeks Red'. A misspelling in many European nursery catalogues for 'VANICEK'. 'VARIABILIS' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1876: 340. 1876). A seedling of W. hortensis noted for the diversity of flowers which open white and become deep rosered. Published as Weigela uariabilis. 'Variegata' (A. Waterer, Knap Given var. as Hill Nurs., W. amabilis variegata without further description. as Woking, Engl., Cat. p. 55. W. 1870). 'Variegata' (Bean, variegata. a flowers Trees & Shrubs Brit. Is. 1: 490. 1914). Given A good variegated shrub, leaves edged with & Sons as florida pale yellow; deep rose. Nurs., Winchester, Given W. praecox variegata. rose-colored flowers with 'Variegata' (Hillier 1939-40). W. deep-golden edging; 'Variegata Nana' ( Bean, florida var. Engl., Wartime Cat. p. 14. Foliage variegated green with yellow at the throat. 1914). Given as Trees & Shrubs Brit. Is. 1: 490. variegata A forma nana. Dwarf with leaves several white and flowers very edged with creamy to plants in 'Variegata Purpurea'. No publication or reference has been encountered. pale rose. name applied European gardens. `VENOSA' (Carriere, Revue Hort. 1868: 240. 1868). A selection of W. rosea made by Billiard, Fontenay-aux-Roses. Plants vigorous, flowers numerous, deep rose outside, less so inside but streaked with white on both surfaces. Published as Weigela venosa. 'VENOSA VARIEGATA'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 88, p. 24. An interesting new variety with leaves streaked with white. 1881). 'Venus'. Cited in the Plant Buyer's Guide, 5th ed., p. 258, 1949. However, the reference is erroneous. 'Venusta' W. florida (Bunge) DC. var. venusta (Rehd.) Nakai. = `Verschafelti'. Misspelling of Verschaffeltii. 'Verschaffeltii'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Published without description. 68: Cat. 170 QQ, p. 57. 1876-77). `Versicolor'(Van Houtte, Ghent, Belg., Cat. 117, p. 13. 1867). Given as \"arborescens versicolor\" without description. 'Versicolor Folia Argenteo-marginata' (Chenault & Son, Orleans, France, Gen. Cat. p. 22. 1912-13). Leaves margined with white. 'Versicolor Folia Marginata' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 130, p. 30. 1895). Given as \"amabilis versicolor foliis marginatis\" without further description. `VESTALE'(Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 182, p. 5. 1912). One of the best of the early flowering forms, flowers presented horizontally, pale cream colored and these do not discolor. `Viger'. Petit The catalogue of 1932-33 a description. foliage is of variegated green. 'VOLTAIRE' (Lemoine & Fils, Nancy, Fr., Cat. 90, p. 4. 1882). Flowers very large, tube swollen, red-purple inside, wine-red, wide mouthed, yellow on A USDA plant introduction PI 137017 from Pepinieres Boccard, Saconner, Geneva, Switzerland. No other published record available. `Vmns VARIEGATA' (Hesse Baumsch., Weener-Ems, Germ., Haupt-Kat. p. 55. 1908-09). Published without the states the lower part of the corolla outside. 'Vorlaufer' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 233. 1921). A commercial synonym for `AVANT-GARDE' given as \"praecox Vorlaufer.\" `WATERER'S RUBY' (Waterer, Sons & Crisp, Ltd., Bagshot, Engl., Rhododendron et al. Cat. 1928-29, p. 43). New improvement on 'Eva Rathke', rich ruby-red trumpets. Raised at Bagshot, England. 1921). 1921). A commercial A commercial 'Weisse Dame' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 234. synonym for 'DAME BLANCHE' of Lemoine. 'Weisse Flagge' ( Spath, Spath-buch 1720-1920, 234. synonym of `PAVILLON BLANC' of Lemoine. 'Wilsonii' (Rich & Sons, Nurs., Hillsboro, Oregon, Cat. out 1948). Published withRicHnRn A. How.~xn description. 69 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Name Jasmine","article_sequence":10,"start_page":71,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24420","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160b36d.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"~ ARNOLDIA A continuation of the OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University BULLETIN VOLUME 25 DECEMBER 31, 1965 THE NAME JASMINE NoMaEe 12 2 FEW plant but names have become so widely used as jasmine: rose perhaps, and lily, with such extensions as primrose and calla-lily, and possibly a few others, probably no other name which is predominantly tropical in its associations. According to the authorities, it traces its origin from the Arabic and Persian \"Yasmin\" or \"Yasaman\", so we may assume that the plant first known by this name was probably the Arabian jasmine, or to give it its botanical name as well, Jasminum Sambac. Native to tropical Asia, it has been cultivated there for cen- long ago. The epithet Sambac for the species. The spelling most commonly met with is jasmine, but almost as common is ,jessamine, with gessamine and jasmin as variations, and, even, jessamy and jeshamy, not to mention those in other languages. The genus Jasminum, to use the variant which is correct in botanical Latin, contains about 200 different species and is mostly tropical in distribution. However, a few species can stand a limited amount of frost. J. o,~scinnle, the poet's jasmine which, incidentally, in the matter of botanical nomenclature, is the type species for the genus, is perhaps the best known, with its profusion of sweetly fragrant white flowers in summer. Closely related is the tropical and subtropical J. grand~orum, the Spanish or Catalonian jasmine, and one may speculate that its association with that part of the world is due to its having been introduced to cultivation in the West by the Moors. Be that as it may, it is cultivated commercially in the south of France, and elsewhere, for the production of oil of jasmine, the basis or constituent of so many perfumes, an extract from the freshly picked flowers. In India, oil of jasmine is also obtained from J. mult3florum and J. Sambac, while in southern China the flowers of this latter species are used for flavoring tea, the well known and fragrant jasmine tea. Today, J. Sambac is even grown on a small commercial scale in Hawaii, where the unopened flower buds are gathered for fragrant leis. The Hawaiian name is pikake, the peacock flower, is itself an turies, and must have been introduced to Persia name ancient Indian 71 named because of the fondness of Princess Kaiulani for both the flower and white peacocks. But the name jasmine is not confined to plants of the botanical genus Ja.sminnm. Perhaps the two other plants with this name which are best known are the Carolina-jasmine (in this case more usually written jessamine) Gelsemium sempernirens, and the Cape-jasmine or Gardenia. Carolina-jasmine is native to the southeastern U.S.A., and belongs to another botanical family, the Loganiaceae. It occurs in woods and thickets and is a twining, high-climbing, shrubby plant which produces deliciously fragrant yellow flowers in the spring. Nor is its association with the name jasmine confined to its common name, for the Latin generic name Gelsemium is itself derived from the Italian name for the true jasmine, so gelsomino. Gardenia jasminoides clearly carries an allusion to the jasmine in its specific epithet, which means \"jasmine-like\", however the genus Gardenia, widespread in the tropics of the Old World, is not related. The Cape-jasmine is a native of South China and not South Africa as the name suggests, a good example of how the earliest plants introduced direct from China, round the Cape of Good Hope, long before the Suez Canal was cut, were often attributed to the area of the Cape (while the converse, where South African plants were attributed to the Far East, also occurs). The name Gardenia commemorates Dr. Alexander Garden (1 i 30-1791), a native of South Carolina who took his medical degree in Scotland, and was a professor at King's College, New York, the forerunner of Columbia University. Not hardy in areas subject to frost, it is nevertheless widely grown as a conservatory plant, and cherished for the sweet fragrance of its flowers. In fact, as with Gelsemium, it is the scented flowers which have brought the name jasmine into use. find the early botanist Cesalpino referring to the French lilac as Jeseminum caeruleum Arabum, and quite early on, lilac and mock-orange came to be called jasmine, but although the names of these two plants are still confused, at least in English speaking countries they have almost lost the general association with jasmine, except that on rare occasions one may still find the Persian lilac referred to as the Persian jasmine (a full circle of confusion, considering that jasmine was originally a Persian name anyway). Often, when a change in the botanical name of a plant has caused annoyance, one may hear it suggested that common names are better and more stable, but they may be too stable. The case of these three different plants is a good example. The mock-oranges are often called syringas while the lilac bears Syringa as its botanically correct generic name. A mix-up that goes back to the earliest use of the name syringa and shows how the usage of names persists over centuries; Syringa has not been applied to mock-oranges in learned works since the l8th century. A surprising number of plants in the periwinkle family, the Apocynaceae, bear the name jasmine. Crepe-jasmine is the name most usually given to the double In 1583 we ~2 form of Ervatamia divaricala (or, as it used to be called, Tabernaemontana* coronaria~, shrub which is commonly grown in the tropics and bears white, crepe-like flowers which are sweetly fragrant at mght. Better known, perhaps, as it is also grown more frequently under glass in temperate regions, is Trachelospermum jasminoides, the Chinese-star-jasmine or Confederate-jasmine, a climber with opposite leaves and pure white fragrant flowers, a native of southern China. In tropical areas throughout the world it is also grown in the open and, judging from the number of specimens one encounters with the botanical name Jasminum attached to them, must often be confused with the true jasmines. That common names can be confusing is again borne out by those given to this species, for the name Confederate jasmine is also given to Jasminum nitidum and star jasmine (although without the epithet Chinese) is the common name for J. multiflorum. Perhaps the best known of the plants in this family to which the name jasmine ~s sometimes applied is the frangipani or temple tree, Plumeria acuminata. It is native to tropical America but now planted throughout the tropics of the world, and famed for its sweet scent. Because it develops into a small tree and bears beautiful fragrant flowers it has also been called the tree-jasmine, while its sister species, the red frangipani, P. rubra, is occasionally referred to as the red-jasmine. Within this family, and less well known perhaps, are the Chilean-jasmine, Mandevilla sunveolens, a native of Argentina, and the poison-jasmine or bushman's poison, Acokanthera venenata of South Africa, both with fragrant white flowers. Species of the genus Cestrum from the American tropics are often called jessamines. The day-blooming jessamine is C. diurnum,and the night-blooming jessamine, C. nocturnum, because one is sweetly scented by day and the other by night. However, the name night-jasmine has also been given to another plant, this time a native of India, Nyctanthes arbor-tristis, best known as the tree-ofsorrow. But neither of these should be confused with the jasmin-nightshade, Solanum jasminoides, for the common name here is a translation of the Latin and refers, not to any scent the flowers produce, but to its chmbing habit and the profusion of white, somewhat jasmine-like, flowers it produces. No attempt is being made to list every plant recorded in the literature, to which the name jasmine has become attached. It is almost endless, especially if one considers usage in French, German, Spanish and other languages too, but four further unusual examples may be of interest. Orange-jasmine is a name given to a species of Murraya, M. paniculata, a member of the orange family from tropical Asia with flowers which, in scent, resemble a jasmine, rather than orangea * There is, of course, no end to the ramifications that can be followed up when one is con- sidering the usages and meanings of names, whether common or botanical, but it is worth digressing for a moment, perhaps, to consider this rather unwieldy but euphonius name 7'aberzzaenaonta~aa. It has its origin in the days when scholars regularly latinized their names and Jakob Theodor of Bergzabern (c. 1520-1590), physician and early botanical author of Heidelberg, took his name from that of his town when latinized, i.e. Tabernaemontanus. Later the genus was named in his honor. 73 blossom. Jasmine-tobacco is apparently used on occasion for lVicotiana alala var. grandiflora (N. c~'cne) and blue-jasmine is the sweet scented, blue flowered, Clematis crispa, native in the southeastern U.S.A. Lastly, the rock-jasmine bears no resemblance to the true jasmine apart from the particular odor of its flowers. The rock-jasmines comprise the herbaceous genus Androsace, and are native to high mountain areas throughout the northern hemisphere. One of the best known species is A. Chamaejasme, whose epithet means \"dwarf\" or'`ground jasmine\". Finally, mention may be made of a few botanical names which mcorporate the name jasmine. Jasminanthus is a later synonym for the sweetly fragrant and very popular Stephanotis; Jasminochyla, in the periwinkle family, is a small genus closely related to Landolphia and, in the same family, Jasminonerium is a synonym of Carissa; Jasminoides is a synonym of Lycium, the matrimony vines, many of which are sometimes called false jasmine, especially in France ; while a small genus of cacti, endemic to the remote Galapagos Islands, has been named Jasminocereus. Such a diverse array of plants have come to be associated with the name jasmine, and, although it appears that the majority have tropical or subtropical associations and many are climbers, one may say that their general and most outstanding characteristic is the sweet, deliciously fragrant, scent produced by their flowers. P. S. GREEN ~ssssssaas In anticipation of its approaching 100th anmversary, the Arnold Arboretum is preparing a biography of Charles Sprague Sargent, the first director, and a history of the Arnold Arboretum. ~'e would be grateful to readers who can suggest sources of letters written by Professor Sargent, or of material pertinent to the development of the Arboretum. Kindly address replies to Miss Stephanne Sutton, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts 02180. 74 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXV","article_sequence":11,"start_page":75,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24416","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d160ab26.jpg","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXV Illustrations are in bold face type. Abeliophyllum, 15 4 14 Gravel Pits and Abeliophyllum distichum, Plate III, Alaskan Ornamentals and Fruits, 9-12 ~2 Dumps, Plants for Screemng Junkyards, 45-48 4 Gymnocladus dioicus, seed, Plate I, Herbarium Introduced, The, 37-40 Home Arboretum, A, 41-44 4 Jasmine, The Name, 71-i lbizia julibrissin rosea, germination of seed, Plate I, 4 Bonsai Available on Loan, An Exhibition of Photographs of, 28 Jasminum, 19 ercis siliquastrum, germination of seed, Plate II, 6 Check-list of Cultivar Names in We~- gela, 49-69 Chionanthus, 16 5 Chionanthus virginicus, Plate III, l;i Cryptomeria japonica 'Lobbii', Plate IX, 43 Cultivar Names in list of, 49-69 43 Weigela, Check- 1 V, 21 V, 211 Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, Plants for Screening, 45-48 Ligustrum, 20 Mock-Oranges, The, ~9-36 4 Name Jasmine, The, i t-i 22 Norohnia, Olea, 22 Olive Family in Cultivat~on, The, Jasminum multiflorum, Plate Jasminum polyanthum, Plate Cunninghamia lanceolata, Plate IX, 13-2i Ornamental Planting, Town Dump, Reading, Mass., Plate X, 47 , Dumps, Plants for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and, 45-48 Exhibition of Photographs of Bonsai Available on Loan, An, 28 Fontanesia, 16 Forestiera, 17 Forsythia, 16 .5 Forsythia ovata, I'late III, 15 I Fraxinus, 17 Fraxinus excelsior, Plate IV, 18 s Fraxinus ornus, Plate IV, 18 8 Germination of Woody Legume Seeds with Impermeable Seed Coats, 1-8 Gleditsia triacanthos, germination of seed, Plate II, 6; seed, Plate I, 4 Osmanthus, X 23 23 Osmarea, 43 Phellodendron amurense, Plate IX, Philadelphus 'Albatre', 32; Plate VII, - 33 32 'Argentine', 'Aureus', 32 'Banniere', - 'Avalanche', 32; Plate VII, 33 34 - - - 'Belle Etoile', 34 'Boule d'Argent', 35 34 - 'Bouquet Blanc', 34; Plate VIII, -- 'Burford', 34 75 Philadelphus 'Cole's Glorious', - 34 Picconia, 24 Plants for Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, 45-48 Quercus myrsinaefolia, Plate IX, 43 'Conquete', coronarius, 34 311 - - 'Erectus', 34 - - 'Fleur de Neige', 34 'Frosty Morn', 34 - 'Girandole', 'Innocence', 36 35 - - 'Glacier', 36; Plate VIII, 1 incanus, 31 36 - - Schrebera, 24 Screening Junkyards, Gravel Pits and Dumps, Plants for, 45-48 - Shrubs for Dry, Sandy Soils, 46 Normal Soils, 48 - Trees for Dry, Sandy Soils, 46 - - - - - inodorus, 32 laxus, 32 'Minnesota Snowflake', 'Mont Blanc', 36 - - - Seed Coat 36 Normal Soils, 48 Dormancy, Methods of 2 Overcoming, Syringa, 24 - - 'Norma', 36 36 - 'Perle Blanche', purpurascens, 32 - amurensis, Plate VI, 25 X prestoniae 'Isabella', Plate VI, 25 - - - schrenkii jackii, 32 X splendens, 32 Town Dump, Reading, Mass., Ornamental Planting, Plate X, 47 - 'Virginal', 36 Weigela, Check-list of Cultivar Names in, on Phillyrea, 23 Photographs of Bonsai Available Loan, An Exhibition of, 28 49-69 76 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23522","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd070b728.jpg","title":"1965-25","volume":25,"issue_number":null,"year":1965,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration of Cultivar Names of Fagus L.","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24407","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25ebb6b.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 24 FEBRUARY 28, 1964 NUMBER 1 REGISTRATION LIST OF CULTIVAR NAMES OF FAGUS L. Fagus sylvatica only are listed, since no cultivars of the other have been found. species 3 Group Names: It has become expedient to adopt the provisrons of Article 13 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, which states that \"4~'ithin a species or interspecific hybridhrch includes many cultivars (varieties), assemblages of similar cultivars (varieties) may be designated as groups\" as, for example, Fagus sylvatica Atropunicea Group 'Cuprea'. Two group names have been proposed, \"Atropunicea Group\" and \"Variegata Group\". Some of the cultivars in these groups are so similar it is most difficult to tell them apart, yet they rate individual cultivar names. Accepted cultivar names are in large and small capitals. Synonyms are listed in roman type. Plants starred with an asterisk (*) are known to be in cultivation in the United States at the present time. THE -t- cultivars of seven - 'Albo-marginata' (\"E.S.\", Gard. Chron. III. 26: ~3~.. 1899). \"A variegated form. The silvery variegation is generally prominent on the margin of the leaf, but some leaves have blotches and streaks of the same color\" = `Ar.eo-vnarFCATn' Variegata Group. `ALBO-VARIEGATA'* Variegata Group (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 10; . 1770). Leaves variegated with white. `ANSOecH~r'* Atropunicea Group (Schwenn, Dlitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 13: 198. 1904). With lance-shaped, dark purple leaves, 1-2 cm. broad, and of weak growth. Originated about 1891. `Ae~onTn' (Schwerin, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 28: 16?. 1919). Similar to `ToeTUOSn' but with an extraordinary tangled appearance and supposed to be no longer in cultivation. `AacFNTFO-rrneMOen-rn' Variegata Group (Sp~th Cat. 104: 93. 1899). The leaves are \"soft white, powdered and mottled.\" _1~ ] 1899~= `ALBU-vARIEGATA' Variegata Group. `AsPLENIrOLIA'* (Duchartre in Jacques & Herineq, Man. Gen. Pl. 4: ~?3 7 . 1 859). Leaves narrow, linear, in various shapes. `riTROPUNICEA'* Atropunicea Group (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 10 7 . 1770). Leaves red to reddish purple. Atropunicea Group-This group name is here adopted to include cultivars with reddish or purplish foliage, for differences in characteristics among some of these cultivars are not marked. It includes the following cultivars : 'ANSORGEI', ATROPUNIfEA', `ATROI'URPUREA GLOBOSA', `ATROYURPUREA MACROPHYLLA', `BROCKLESBY', `CUPREA', 'INTERRUPTA PU12PUREA', 'NORWEGIENSIS', 'PURPUREA', 13: 41. Argenteo-variegata' (Jouin, Jardin `PURPUREO-PENDULA', 'REYGERLOO', `RIVERSII~, 'ROHANII', 'SPAETHIANA', `SWAT MAGRET'. and Gartenflora 4: 93. 1855). With leaves \"dark red\"= 6ATROPUNICEA' Atropunicea Group. `ATROPURPUREA GLOBOSA' Atropunicea Group (A. Dervaes, Moller's Deutsch. Gart.-Zeit. 42: 287. 1927). A small, rounded variety with reddish leaves, similar in habit to Acer platanoides `Gl,onosum'. `ATRUYURPUREA MACROPHYLLA'* Atropunicea Group (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 661. 1864). Similar to other purple beeches, but with slightly larger leaves. 'Atropurpurea Pendula' (Jager in Jager & Beiss., Ziergeh. Gart. & Park. 2nd ed. 155. 1884). The leaves are a dark red and the branches are pendulous= `PURPUREO-PENDULA' Atropunicea Group. 'Atropurpurea Rohanii' (Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gt. Brit. Irel. 1: 8. 1906~= `RoHANn' Atropunicea Group. 'Atropurpurea Tricolor' (Hort. ex Pynaert, Revue Hort. Belg. 12: 145. 1886) _ `TRIC,oLOR' Variegata Group. 'Atro-rubens' (Du Roi ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1950. 1838). \"The leaves when half developed are a cherry red, and when fully matured at mid-summer are of so dark a purple as to appear almost black\" _ `PuRPUREA' Atropunicea Group. 'Aurea' (Hort. ex Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 62. 1903)= `ZLATIA' Variegata Group. 'Aurea Spaethii' (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 2, 717. 190~L~ _ `ZLATIA' Variegata Group. `AuREO-PENDULA'* Variegata Group (Van der Bom, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 20: 4L3. 1911). Originated in 1900 on a green-leaved plant. The leaves are pendulous and golden green; during the summer the color gradually turns green. 'Atropurpurea' (Regel, 'Aureo-variegata' (\"E. S.\", Gard. Chron. III, 26: leaves, splashed and streaked with golden yellow\" gata Group. 434. 1899~. \"Bright green ='LUTEO-VARIEGATA' Varie- 2 ] `BoRNVH;NS~S'* (Bean, Garden London in Borny, France, this is a weeping 55: 267. 1899). Originating before 1870 beech with upright trunk, broadly columnar habit and branches \"symmetrically pendulous\", differing from `PENDrLA' because of its more fastigiate habit. `BRO< slightly `CASTANAEFOLIA'* (Bean, Garden London 55: KLESRV' Atropunicea Group other purple beeches but with (Jouin, Jardin 13: 41. larger leaves. 1899). Very similar to 267. 1899). \"One of the cut leaved forms. A proportion of the leaf is divided into narrow, regular segments, almost reaching the midrib, other leaves are merely coarsely toothed.'' = 'Circinata' (Hort. ex Kriissmann, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 52: 115. 1939) ` GRANDIDENTAT~1'. `CooHI.EATA'* (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 659. 1864). A dwarf form with compact growth and cone-shaped habit. 'Comptoniaefolia' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 661. 1864) ` ASPLENIF1)LIA'. `CoNCLOUIERATA' (Jouin, Jardin 13: 42. 1899). A dwarf bush of rounded form, = leaves small and contorted. 'Crispa' (Hort. = ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1952. 1838). \"A monstrosity with the leaves small and almost sessile, and crowded into small dense tufts\" 'CRISTATA'. `CRISTATA'* (Dumont de Courset, Bot. Cult. 6: 415. 1811). Slow growing, leaves on the twig ends, as a rule, but in a triangular shape and deformed. `CDCVI.LATA' (Koch, Dendr. II, 2: 19. 1873). With smaller leaves than the species and with curled leaf margins. `CaPREA'* Atropunicea Group (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brlt. 3: 1951. 1838). \"Young leaves and shoots of a paler colour than those of the purple beech.... in a state of repose, and on a dark cloudy day, it can hardly be distmguished from the common green-leaved beech.\" 'Cupreata' (Hort. ex Krussmann, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 52: 117. 1939) ='CUPREA' Atropunicea Group. `DAww Kn'* (Hesse Cat., 1913-14: 120. 1913). A fastigiate beech on the estate of the late Mr. F. R. S. Balfour of Dawyck, Scotland. 'FASTIGIATA'* (Simon-Louis ex Koch, Dendr. 11,2: 17. 1873). A narrow columnar form. DE 'FAux VESH:r'* (Meyer, F. G., PI. Explor. ARS 34-32, 111. 1963). \"When upon a standard, plants develop horizontally spreadmg branches from the crown, these with somewhat pendulous tips.\" Probably identical with F. sylvatica `TuRTVOSA' found in the Forests of Verzy, France, for hundreds of years. grafted GRANDIDENTATA'* (Hort. ex Kirchner, Petzold & Kirchner, 1864). \"Leaves coarsely toothed, branches slender.\" Arb. Muscav. 662. `Hartigii' (Schneider, Illus. Handb. Laubh. 1: 154. 1904). \"Golden yellow 3] `STRIATA' Variegata Group. 'Hepatica' (Ambros~, Fl. Tirolo. Dlerid. 2: 59. 1857). \"Foliage chiefly liver colored on the outer branches exposed to the sun\"=`ATaonurvrcFa' Atropunicea Group. `Heterophylla' (Lodd. ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1951. 18:38)=`LACINIAT9'. `HuarzorvTn~.rs'* (Hort. ex Hesse Cat., 1932-33: 66. 1932). \"A new form, valuable landscape growth form with completely horizontal growing branches.\" The parent plant is at the Botanic Garden of Munich, Germany. Ilicifolia' (Hort. ex Kriissmann, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 52: 116. 1939) ` Lacmrs~rn'. 'Incisa' (Hort. ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1951. 1838). \"Leaves variously cut, sometimes in narrow shreds, so as to resemble ferns\"= ` LACINIATA'. `INTERRUPT4'* (van Hoey Smith, Deutsche Baumschule 7: 265; fig. 154. 1955). Selection made by van Hoey Smith at Rotterdam. Peculiarly cut up leaf, almost appearing compound, and of most irregular form. `IN'1'N;RRUYTA PURPUREA'* Atropunicea Group (Meyer, F. G., Pl. Explor. ARS 34-32. 11 I. 1963). \"Similar to `INTF:eaoYTn' except the leaves are purplish.\" `Krhc' (Elwes in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gt. Brit. Irel. 1: 20. 1906). A famous beech at Knole Park in Sevenoaks, England, which in 1905 had \"the largest girth of any beech I know standing in England. \" At five feet above the ground the girth was thirty feet. This may not have been propagated. 'LACINIATA'* (Vignet in Schmidt, Samml. Phys.-Oekon. Aufs. 1: 173. t. 1. 1 795). Leaves deeply cut or lobed. 'LATIFOLIA'* (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 662. 1864). With large leaves, 3-6 inches long and 2-4 inches wrde. `LUTEO-VARIEGATA' Variegata Group (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 107. 1770). Leaves variegated with yellow. 'MacrophylIa' (Hort. ex Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 52. 1892). \"Leaves large and broad\" = ` Ls~rrr~o~,rn'. 'Marmorata, (Schneider, Illus. Hand. Laubh. 1: 154. 1904). \"Abnormal white variegation\"=`ARGENTEO-VARrP:GATA' Variegata Group. `Mrr.TONErvsr,' (Henry, Garden London 1: 267. 1899). Originated at Milton Park, Northamptonshire, England. \"A weepmg beech with erect trunk and branches horizontal and pendulous.\" 'Milton Variety' (Jouin, Jardin 13: 41. 1899~= `MILTONENSI9'. `MonsTeoaa' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 662. 1864). Smaller habit than wild plants, with monstrous leaves, very dark green on upper surface and pubescent beneath. `NaNO-PENnu~s' (Domin, Vereinss. Forst-, Jagd., & Naturk. 57: 12-25. 1867). A dwarf pendulous form. bands showing between the nerves\" of the leaves = = . 4] 'Nigra' (Hort. 'Nigra ex Listed without Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. description. Probably a synonym of `PUerCREA'. 61. 1903). Atro- Pendula' (deVos, Woordenboek 46. 186i)=`PURPLREO-PENDULA' punicea Group. Nm~:~' Variegata Group (llasse, Revue Hort. IV. 1: 369. 1852). Weak growing, leaves white to streaked white, branchlets red ; probably never more than a shrub because of weak growth. Probably not now in cultivation. 'Norwegica' (Kriissmann, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 52: 118. wec~r;NSis' Atropunicea Group. `NOR1YFGIENS1S'* Atropunicea Group (Hillier Cat. ~34T: 22. leaves, but not so dark as those of 'SWAT MnceF~'. 1939)=`NoK1923). Purple `Pacxs-F~ws'* (Simon-Louis, Cat,1868-69, name only; Schelle in Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 1903). Similar to F. sylvatica `ToaTUOSn', if not identical. `P9m.'s Goc.n-MnectNEn' Variegata Group (Anon., Proc. Hort. Soc. London 27: 92. 1902). \"Free growing, pale green leaves irregularly margined with yellow. \" `PENUri.a'* (Lodd. ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1952. 1838). First listed in 1836, the branches are \"beautifully pendant, and even the last six feet of the top bend down.\" The larger limbs are usually horizontally spreading. 'PRINCE GEORGE OF CuETe' inches wide, \"an unusually large-leaved up to 7 inches long and Sent to Kew in 1898 by the gardener of the King of Denmark. (Bean, Trees & Shrubs ~~ Brit. Is. 1: 552. 1914). Leaves form.\" `PI:RPURI~:A'* Atropunicea Group (Aiton, Hort. Kew. 3: 362. 1789). \"With foliblackish red.\" Loudon (Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1952. 1838) stated that all the age purple-leaved beeches in Europe have come from one tree found in the woods in Germany in the middle of the eighteenth century. 'Purpurea Colorata' (Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 1903). Listed without description as a synonym of 'Purpurea'='PURPURFA' Atropuni- cea Group. `PueruRFa LnTirw.m' A name which has been used since 1903 (Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 1903), but apparently never described. It is supposed to be the name most used in Europe to designate grafted purple beech (as compared to seedlings). 'Purpurea Macrophylla' (Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 1903)=`A~reortartaEn MncaorHV~Ln' Atropunicea Group. 'Purpurea Major' (Hort. ex Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 62. 1903). Listed without description. Is probably the same as `ATeort-eruaEn Mn< eorHS~tLn' Atropunicea Group. 'PURPUREA METALLICA NIGRA' (Hort. Walter ex Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. 1903). Listed without description. 'Purpurea Norwegiensis' (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 2, 717. 1902). Listed without description. ='NORWEGIENSIS' Atropunicea Group. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 'Purpurea Pendula' (Jager & Beiss., Ziergeh. Gart. & Park. `?2~. PrREO-PENDULA' Atropunicea Group. ex 1865)=`P~R2: 52. 'PURPUREA PENDULA NANA' (Hort Listed without description. PURPUREA PENDVLa NovA' (Hort. Listed without description. Dippel, Handb. Laubh. Dippel, 1892). ex Handb. Laubh. 2: 52. Laubh. 2: 51. 1892). 'Purpurea Loo' Reygerloo' (Dippel, Handb. Atropunicea Group. Pendula et 1892)=`REVCER62. `PuRPrREA PENDULA VEltA' (Schelle, Beissner 1903). Listed without description. al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 'Purpurea Roseo-marginata' (Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gt. Brit. Irel. 1: 8. 1906)=`RosFO-MaRrINATn' Variegata Group. `PuRPCrREU-PENDULA'* Atropunicea Group (Jager in Jager & Beiss., Ziergeh. Gart. & Park. 225. 1865). A pendulous form with purple leaves. `PvRAMIDALIS' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 662. 1864). An upright pyramidal form. `PYRAMIDALIS PURPLREA' (Bean, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3, 30 ( . 1925). Listed without description. `(zIoEFN' (Elwes in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gt. Brit. Irel. 1: `?0. 1906). A famous beech at Knole Park in Sevenoaks, England, 100 feet high, 130 foot spread with 662. a trunk 21 feet in circumference. This may not have been Cat. ex Kirchner in Petzold & With oak-li'ze leaves. ex Schelle, description. propagated. `QUERCIFOL1A'* (Booth 1864). Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 62. 'QUERCINA' (Hort. Listed without Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 1903). `(~lvERCOIDE~' (Persoon, Trans. Linn. Soc. Lond. 5: 233, t. 11. 1800). \"The bark of the trunk and larger branches is entirely formed like that of an oak.\" A tree in Reinhaussen, Germany, was dying in 1800. `REMiLLVENSIS' (Simon-Louis Cat. 1868-69, name only; Jouin, Jardin 13: 41. 1899). A low, compact, tightly growing tree with slightly arching and drooping branches and umbrella-like shape. `RETROFLExA' (Hort. ex Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 51. 1892). Rounded crown, branches at first upright, then hanging pendulous to the ground. 'REYGERLOO'* Atropunicea group (Krussmann, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 52: 117. 1939). A red-leaved variety with pendulous branches. `RIVERSII'* Atropunicea Group (Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. 2: 570. 1900). \"Very dark purple leaves and compact habit.\" This is said to have been selected by the British nurseryman Thomas Rivers prior to 1900. `RoHANII'* Atropunicea Group (Koerber, Fromme's Oester.-Ungar. Gartenk. 19: 1 Marz. 1894). \"With purple leaves similar in general shape to those of . `LACINIATA'.\" 6 `R03E0-MARGINATA'* Variegata Group (Cripps, Gard. Chron. III. 3: 7 79. 1888). \"Leaves purple with an irregular light pink border.\" `Ro~r~NDIFOLIA'* (Jackman, Hlbberd's Gard. D9ag. 37: 339. 1894). With small, rounded leaves ~-1~inches long, about the smallest orbicular leaves of any of the clones of Fagus sylvatica. Apparently this originated at Brookwood, Knap Hill, Woking, England, in 18 7and was put into commerce later by Jackman Nursery of Woking, England. It was listed as \"new\" without description in Jackman's Cat. 26. 1878. Rotundifolia ~Iinor' (Jurissen ex Spath Cat. 79: 9. 39: 795. 1890). 1914). Listed without deListed without de- SCrlption. _ `ROTUNDIFOL1A'. `R~ BRA' (Anon. in Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. scription. 'Salicifolia' (Hort. ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1951. 1838). \"Leaves variously cut, sometimes in narrow shreds so as to resemble ferns. \"= AspLENiFOLiA'. 'Sanguinea' (Persoon, Syn. Pl. 2: 571. 1807) \"foliage blackish-red\"=`ATxoE~INICeA' Atropunicea Group. `Sf'.ARTHIANA'* Atropunicea Group (Spath, Spath-buch 1 7 20-1920. 230. 1920). Leaves red with the under surface a distinct blackish red. `S'I'ItIAT~1' Variegata Group (Bose, Allg. Forst- Jagd-Zeit. 27: 46. 18p 1 ). Normal growth and normal leaves at first green, then with bright yellow-green stripes along the main veins. `SmcuxDATA' (Murr, Deutsch. Bot. Monatsschr. 18: 194. 1900). With \"clearly heart shaped leaves.\" 'Suentelensis' (Hort. ex Schelle, Beissner et al., Hand. Laubh.-Benenn. 61. 1903). Listed without description. ='TORTUOSA'. 'Suntalensis' (Hort. ex Beissner, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 6: 84. 1897). A dwarf beech. _ `ToxTUOSA'. SWAT MAGRET'* Atropunicea Group (Spath, Spath-buch 1 7 20-1920. 230. 1920). Introduced about 1895, this is a red-leaved beech with the leaves opening 810 days earlier than those of 'ATROPUNICEA'. Also, these leaves hold their black-red color longer in the fall. Revue Hort. 1861: 84. 1861). \"Dwarf and spreading form, with twisted and contorted branches, pendulous at the tips.'' Plants of this have been known to be in the forests of Verzy, France, for hundreds of years, and some are still growing there. The first one brought into cultivation should have the cultivar name `ToRTUOSA'. Other named cultivars have been obtained from the same source. `ToxT~osA'* (Pepin, `Ta~coLOx'* Variegata Group (Simon-Louis ex Koch, Dendr. 2 (2): 18. 1873). \"Leaves nearly white, spotted green with a pink margin.\" 'Undulata' (Hort. Simon-Louis ex Jouin, Jardin 13: 42. 1899)=`Co('HLEATA'. 'VARIEGATA'* (Duchartre in Jacques & Herincq, Man. Gen. Pl. 4: 237. 1857). Leaves particolored with white and yellow, interspersed with some streaks of red and purple. Many variegated plants have been found in the wild. Variegata Group - This group name is taken to include all those cultivars with leaves variegated with any color of white, yellow, pink or varying shades of green. These cultivars include the following: `ALRO-vARIEGAT~', 'ARGENTEOMARMORATA', `AUREO-PENDULA', `LUTEO-VARIEGATA' `NIVEA', `YAL`L'S GOLDMARGINED', `ROSEO-MARGINATA', 'STRIATA', `TRICOL`1R', `VARIEGAT4', `VIRIDIVARIEGATA' and ` ZLATIA'. 'Versicolor' (Kuntze, Taschen-Fl. Leipzig. 239. 186i~=`ATRGPUNICEA' Atropunicea Group. 'VIRIDI-VARIEGATA' Variegata Group (Lombarts Cat. 1935-36: I ~. 193~). \"Dark green leaves with light green spots.\" `ZLATIA'* Variegata Group (Spath Cat. 88: 89. 1891 ; Goeze, Gard. Chron. III. 12: 669. 1892). Leaves at first yellow, later turning green at maturity. DONALD WYMAN 8~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Labels in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24403","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eb36f.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Heman A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ~............~ A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 24 APRIL 10, 1964 LABELS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM '.~CMBER 2 received at the Arnold Arboretum for inthe labels used on the thousands of trees and shrubs growing here. Dlany types are available and those found satisfactory in one place may not prove to be the same elsewhere. Labels in the Arnold Arboretum must be : l. Low in cost 2. Easily made constantly REQUESTS regarding being formation are 3. Sturdy Since thousand of labels must be made every year by our own crew during the winter months and unfortunately become exposed to occasional vandalism, it is easily seen that they should meet those three prime requisites. Other kinds have been tried over the years, but the types described here have proved satisfactory after many years under our conditions. Embossed or Record Label Every plant of sufficient size to be placed in the collections has a label showing number, scientific name, the type of material which was originally received (whether plant, cutting, graft or seed), place of origin and sometimes the date, although this is also indicated by the record number. These are made on ~-inch zinc tape (no. 018 gauge) purchased from Alles Corporation, 225 Msgr. O'Brien Highway, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Each carton contains six 100-foot rolls and currently a carton costs $17.50. These labels are made on a Graphotype embossing press (Addressograph Model 63I0, priced in 1962 at $1900). This press is electrically operated, having a keyboard similar to a standard typewriter. Another embossing press used by the Arnold Arboretum is the hand operated Model T-40 \"Tapewnter\" (Roovers, Inc., Duryea, Pennsylvania, priced in 196~ at $735). This machine can emboss its record from one to five lines. either of these machines by our own men during the wina branch by means of no. 18 gauge copper wire and will last as long as the wire. Recently some labels were removed which must have been on the plants for twenty years and were still in perfect condition. Thousands of these are made each year since some are inadvertently removed in pruning, others are\"lost\" in the center of shrubs and still others occasionally break off and fall after slapping against the tree trunks. Labels are made on ter months. This label is attached to Plastic Labels few of the protected areas about the greenhouse and in the plant beds at the Case Estates in Weston we are starting to use the lam~nated plastic labels. These certainly look well for the first few years, but their long-term durability under New England weather conditions is not yet known. These are made of layers of white and black plastic. The router bit of the engraving machine used for cutting out the letters merely cuts through the layer of black plastic on tup, thus exposing the white underneath (Plate I). The engraving machine is made by the Green Instrument Company, 295 Vassar Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts (Model 106, with accessories, costing about ~~25 in 196?). The plastic material varies in size and thickness to meet specific requirements. The labels are placed in aluminum holders stuck in the ground. In a Wooden Display Label These are made of white pine strips 8~ inches long, 1~ inches wide and ~ inch thick, planed on all four sides. Pressure paint sprayers are used to apply the paint. DuPont \"Dulux Outside White\" is used, the first coat thinned somewhat, the second with as little thinning as possible. Special racks have been made to accommodate as many as 2000 labels at one time while being sprayed. The printing of the labels is done from carefully prepared lists which include the scientific and common names of the plant and its habitat, set up as they are to appear on the label. The rubber type used (from R. A. Stewart Company, 80 Duane Street, New York, New York) is set up in special holders made to conform to the size of the label. Three sizes of type are used: nos. 105, 851and 998. A special long-lasting ink (Special Black no. 5~.c 5479) is obtained from the Interchemical Company, 175Albany Street, Cambridge, Massachusetts, and the fluid for cleaning the ink from the rubber type is\"Fedroid\" made by the James H. Matthews Company, 375 Broadway, Boston. The ink is applied to the type by a rubber roller and the type holder and label are pressed tightly together with a small binding press borrowed from the hbrary. We have found it expedient to make twice the number of labels currently needed. The extras go into a file for future use. When the ink is thoroughly dry a coat of DuPont \"Clear Varnish\" RAK-190 is sprayed on the printed side of the label. This improves the appearance of the label and extends its usefulness several years. Finally, two small holes are drilled 10 ] .0 ~ ro b <I) N K 1) _~~ r c .. 0 U +~ 'C bD 'C 'a. m ~' U L O <I) .aD . c~. W ... ... ;.:I.; s~ L a1;3#& x C I) .D <I) .- x o ~~ ~...J <I) @ E~ ,r U '_'. Ua a ;.:I~m \"\" '\" H~b d C 6 ~3 A .. oe Cd -E...J w 'TJ U .. ii U r~ L . +~ o C ~, <I) y~ ~ O 0 Cd \" ... L CA ....~ C .'~ m .- iy r~ G ;b c~. N C C~0 0 O .. i' CC _F....~ i~~ ~1 id, .4~I:: U end of the label and it is strung with no. 16 gauge copper wire for hangthe plant. We find that with this treatment these wooden labels will reing main on the plants in good condition for approximately ten years. in one on Metal Display Labels These are of two types (Plate I), one with two holes is put on a metal stand placed before a low shrub and the other, with four horizontal slits, is nailed to a tree trunk with galvanized nails. The nails are placed as close together as the slits allow and, when driven into the tree trunk, at least one inch of the nail should protrude so that there is room for growth as the tree mcreases in girth. Both metal display labels are made of cold rolled steel; in the case of the trunk label, 20 gauge metal cut 4~ inches by 6~ inches ; in the case of the stand label, we use 18 gauge metal cut 4 inches by 6~-~ inches. Both types of unpainted plates are made for us by W. T. von Schoppe, 35 Otis St. , Watertown, Mass. They are first washed with DuPont \"Prep-Sol'' no. 3919to remove the oily film from the metal, then wiped thoroughly dry and sprayed with one priming coat of DuPont \"Preparakote Gray\" followed by two coats of DuPont \"Dulux Yellow\" no. 93-24441, the paint being thinned only enough to allow smooth spray applications. In most cases \"Vari-Temp Reducer\" no. T3864 is satisfactory, but if spraying is done in a cold room, then lieducer no. T8508 is used. The labels are then printed in the same manner as the wooden labels and finally sprayed with a coat of DuPont \"Clear Varnish\" RAK 190. Carved Wooden Directional Signs placed about the Arboretum to show visitors the paths leading to the Signs main collections and to the exit gates. These are made of first quality cypress planks, 30 inches long, 12 inches wide and2 inches thick, but of course other are woods might also be used. They are carved on a regular drill press, using a 5\/16mch router bit ground to make a V cut. At first these signs were coated with linseed oil, but it was found that after several years the wood darkened materially, making the letters difficult to read from a distance. To avoid this, a dark shingle stain is now used and the letters are painted with a bright yellow weather proof paint which lasts for several years. It is necessary, of course, to keep a complete set of maps showing the location of the plants growing in the various areas and to check them from time to time for missing labels. Some collections, such as the lilacs, are reviewed every year, while otheas are done every three years. These, then, are the labels and methods of making them at present in use in the Arnold Arboretum. HEMAN A. HOWARD 12 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Black Polyethylene as a Mulch","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24398","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25ea76f.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 24 A PRIL 1 i , ~]964 BLACK POLYETHYLENE AS A D~ULCH NUMBER 3 Arnold Arboretum exhibited ~?~ different kinds of mulching materials in New England Flower Show at Boston this spring, an educational exhibit which caused much favorable comment. Experiments and experience both have shown that in Massachusetts almost any material which can be used as a mulch results in better plant growth than where no mulching ~s used. There are many kinds of materials available, but one should consider several important points in making selections. For instance, the appearance and suitability of the material is important. A mulch should be neat in appearance; it should not blow away in a high wind or wash away in a rain storm ; it should not contain harmful materials to be leached out into the soil and cause damage to the plants. A mulch should be easily applied and not too heavy to handle. Spent hops have been used in the Arboretum with good success, but the material as it comes from the brewery is 87percent water and so is heavy to handle. Cocoa shells have been used also, but this is dry as a bone and very light when it is obtained. Crushed gray stone may be used as a mulch and it looks well, but it is heavy to handle and must be removed when the soil is to be worked, since it does not disintegrate. Maple leaves, when applied as a deep mulch, have a tendency to pack tightly and thus reduce the amount of air which is so necessary ~n the upper layers of soil where the feeding roots are located. The cost and availability of a mulch are, of course, important. Ground redwood bark and ground sugar cane (bagasse) may be excellent mulching materials in areas where they are easily available locally, but shipping costs to the New England area make these rather costly when compared with others. Finally, the length of time the mulch is serviceable is important. Some may last only a year or two, while others may remain in good condition for four years or longer, if undisturbed. When planting trees and shrubs in sod, the area where the soil was disturbed THE the 13 ] - w H Q a in the planting process is quickly overgrown with grass. This may look well can as be bad for the young plant since the (and\/or weeds) will compete w ith the plant in its struggle vigorous growing grass for nourishment and moisture from the upper few inches of the soil. If a mulch is applied in a ring around the tree, grass and weeds are reduced or eliminated and more nourishment and moisture become available for the young plant. Aftera few years, if the tree is well established, it can compete favorably with the grass, but those first few years are very important in the success or failure of that young plant. Polyethylene film is an ideal material for all kinds of horticultural uses. In fact, we could hardly do without it today. The use of black polyethylene as a mulching material has been widely and successfully tried with vegetables, pineapples and certain flower crops. It is now easy to use black polyethylene when planting trees and woody shrubs merely because an enterprising company in New Jersey has begun to manufacture and merchandise it in large or small quantities in a form easily used by anyone. Five years ago we placed black polyethylene squares around some plants at the Case Estates in Weston, merely to see whether it would prove a satisfactory mulch. Cornus mas, Viburnum dilatatum, a few crab apples and some grape vines were selected as the subjects for trial. Some of the plants were only about four feet tall at the time and had been struggling along in the same situation for three years, having a most difficult time because the soil in theses areas is gravelly and extremely dry. They wilted occasionally unless watered during the hot summer, an indication that they would not grow well, or possibly live long in those situations, unless something were done, Four-foot squares of black polyethylene were placed around them in 1958 and the plants have thrived ever since. Black polyethylene as a mulching material aids in the conservation of soil moisture about the plant. Holes are punched at a few places to allow the water to drain through. Of course no weeds or grass grow underneath. Also, one of the important properties of any polyethylene film is that most gases can diffuse through it normally, but water vapor cannot. Hence this does not cut off normal soil aeration as do many thickly applied mulches, and definitely conserves soil moisture by preventing water evaporation from the soil covered by the polyethylene. The Gerling Plastics Company (a department of Monsanto Chemical Company ) of Kenilworth, New Jersey, started manufacturing these squares in 1961 (available from Eastern States Farmers Exchange outlets), although black polyethylene far as the lawn is concerned, but it Plate I f . Left: Sketch showing the roll of perforated black polyethylene squares and method of \"digging in\" the corners when laid about the base of the plants. Right: The black polyethylene was laid about the base of this Grr~ms naa.q 5 years ago when this plant was 3 feet tall. The polyethylene is in good condition with a few leaves and twigs on top, and grass which has overgrown slightly from the edge, but it saved this plant from dying in very poor, dry soil. The plant is now 8 feet tall. l.i ~ ] previously been available in rolls. These squares are marketed in rolls with perforations at three- or four-foot intervals so that they may be eas~ly torn from the roll, square by square. There is also a perforation line to the center of the square so that this can be opened and fitted around the tree trunk and they are being used in large numbers in planting young fruit orchards of various kinds had dig the four corners of the film square into the grass sod, merely by lifting piece of sod, placing the corner underneath and the sod fall back into place. This is better than placing stones on the letting corners. Also, it is advisable to punch a few holes with a nail or an ice pick m the depressions, merely to insure that ram water will leak through to the soil a about the country. We have found it advisable to underneath. Black polyethylene (of 2 mil. thickness) thus placed has lasted for five years about the few shrubs and trees at the Case Estates and is still in serviceable condition. One must be careful that the film is not cut with the lawn mower, but other than that, this mulch needs no attention whatsoever. One square may cost six to twenty cents (depending on the size and thickness of the film), which is httle enough when one considers the fact that the plant has a far better chance of survival and may sometimes grow twice as much in one year because of the mulch. Placing a layer of black polyethylene film on the soil as a mulch around a tree or shrub at planting time is the surest and most inexpensive way of obtaining good growth during the first five critical years that follow. DONALD WS'MAN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Climbing Hydrangeas and Their Relatives","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24400","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eab6d.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Nevling Jr., Lorin I.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~4 JUNE 12, 1964 NUMBERS 4-5 CLIMBING HYDRANGEAS AND THEIR RELATIVES family Saxifragaceae, the majority climbing species, which are found in four genera, Hydrangea Linnaeus (hereafter abbreviated as L.), Schizophragma Siebold & Zuccarini, Decumaria L., and Pileostegia Hooker & Thomson, utilize the same method of climbing, i.e., attachment to a supporting substrate by means of fine rootlets arising directly from the upright stems (a method of climbing similar to that of poison ivy, Rhus toxicodendron L. ). In nature, climbing is accomplished on tree trunks, which implies that the plants are adapted, of necessity, to growing under conditions of low light intensity. This combination of peculiar characteristics enhances the horticultural possibilities of these plants by permitting the growth of fine specimens on shaded walls or trees. The beauty of the foliage of plants grown under such conditions (not to mention the relative freedom from insect damage) is reason enough to warrant the serious consideration of the homeowner. Moreover, in many of the species, showy inflorescences add to the beauty of the plants to such a degree that one wonders why they have not been more widely grown. The family Saxifragaceae has yielded many plants with extensive horticultural uses. Certain genera, such as Astilbe Buchanan-Hamilton, Deutzia Thunberg, Heuchera L., Hydrangea L., Philadelphus L., and Ribes L., have found particular favor because of their great variety and the relative ease with which they may be grown. The Saxifragaceae includes not only the ornamental genera mentioned THE climbing being relatively -Mshrubs, species of the habit is rare in the All the above but also about 70others. The family is distinguished from related families (Rosaceae, Crassulaceae, Cunomaceae) on the basis of technical characteristics such as the leaves usually lacking stipules, the relatively few stamens and pistils (primarily two carpels), and the abundant endosperm in the seed. These characters may seem to be relatively esoteric to the layman ; that they appear so to some taxonomists as well is reflected in various taxonomic schemes designed to divide the family into a series 17 of smaller families, in order to obtain greater morphological cohesiveness in each. The outstanding example of this viewpoint is that of Hutchinson who divided the family into eleven: Baueraceae, Donatiaceae, Eremosynaceae, Escalloniaceae, Francoaceae, Grossulariaceae, Hydrangeaceae, Philadelphaceae, Pterostemonaceae, Saxifragaceae, and Vahliaceae. It is not my intention to discuss the merits of this alternate and extreme system but to maintain the family m the broad sense and to discuss the climbing species in particular. Botanists, regardless of field of specialization, tend to study and discuss natural groups of plants, such as families, genera, or closely related species. There is no question that this is the most satisfactory approach, both for the botanist and the layman. In this paper, I prefer to discuss only those species of Saxifragaceae which have in common the scandent habit. Such grouping by growth form may be considered unnatural or artificial, but the similarity of possible horticultural application has prompted me to present these plants as a group. The names used are those currently accepted, and for each I have added the original hterature citation. Synonyms and their equivalents are treated in a name-finding list at the end of the paper. Those interested in the intricacies of the nomenclature are referred to the recent studies cited in the bibliography. PLATE III Figs. 1-4. Hydrangea anomala subspecies pE~Liolaris. I, Sterile flower showing petal-like development of the four calyx lobes, X 1. ~, Top view of capsule, X 7. 3, Side view of capsule, X7. 4, Seed, XT. Figs. 5-7. ~rhizoplzragnza hydrazzgeaides. 5, Sterile flower showing petal-like development of a single calyx lobe, X 1. 6, Side view of capsule, X 7. 7, Seed, X 7. 18 ] KEY a. TO THE IDENTIFICATION OF CLIVII31NG GENERA a. Inflorescences with fertile flowers and with or without showy sterile flowers, the sterile flowers with 4 calyx lobes much enlarged and petal-like, the fertile flowers with 2-4 or rarely 5, completely free, recurved styles; fruit opening by a terminal pore between the styles........... I. Hydrangea Inflorescences with fertile flowers and with or without showy sterile flowers, the sterile flowers with 1 calyx lobe enlarged and petal-like, the fertile flowers with the styles erect and fused; fruit opening by the disintegration of tissue between the conspicuous ribs. b. Leaves deciduous; fertile flowers with free petals; sterile flowers either present or absent. c. Fertile flowers with 8-10 stamens, 4 or 5 petals; sterile flowers (usually present) with 1 calyx lobe enlarged and petal-like... II. Schizophragma c. Fertile flowers with 20-30 stamens, 7-10 petals; sterile flowers never III. Decumaria present............. b. Leaves persistent, the plants evergreen; fertile flowers with fused petals IV. Pileostegia which fall off together as a cap (calyptra); sterile flowers absent. I. HYDRANGEA L. is derived from Greek hydor, water, and angeion, vessel allusion to the shape of the mature capsules. This genus has container, been the subject of a lifetime study by the noted horticulturist Haworth-Booth and of a scientific monograph (1957) by Dr. Elizabeth McClintock. The following treatment is based largely on McClintock's study which readers are urged to consult if more detailed information is desired. She recognizes the genus as being composed of two sections, Hv DRANGEA and CORNIDIA, containing eleven and twelve species respectively. The horticulturally important species are all members of Sect. HiDRANGE~. The scandent species, however, have one representative in Sect. HYDRANGEA and twelve in Sect. CORNIDIA. Therefore, a total of thirteen species are climbing, or at least have this potentiality under suitable conditions, and so are of particular interest. The name Hydrangea an or KEY a. TO THE SECTIONS a. Leaves deciduous; immature inflorescences usually not enclosed by bracts; petals (in fertile flowers) free or (in our species) connate (fused) and falling together as a cap...................... Sect. Hydrangea Leaves persistent; immature inflorescences always enclosed by bracts; petals (in fertile flowers) free and falling separately............ Sect. Cornidia SECTION HYDRANGEA Only one species of this section, Hydrangea anomala D. Don, is scandent. In addition, it also has fused petals which fall together as a cap and ~cinged seeds. These technical characteristics distinguish it from all other species of the genus. McClintock has treated H. anomala as being composed of two subspecies, although previous authors have recognized these as two distinct species. She points out, 19 ] quite correctly, that the variation within the species is slight and that only a single character, in conjunction wlth geographic distribution, can be used to separate the two subspecies. Of the two, subspecies petiolaris seems more hardy, but there is no other significant horticultural difference between them. My later comments apply equally to both subspecies. 1. Hydrangea anomala D. Don, Prodromus Florae Nepalensis. KEY TO THE `111. 1815. SUBSI'R('IRS a. a. Stamens 9-15; plants of the Himalaya and western and central China. la. H. anomala subsp. anomala Stamens 15-20; plants of Japan, Formosa, and associated islands. lb. H. anomala subsp. petiolaris (Siebold & Zuccarini) McClintock, Journal of the Arnold Arboretum 37: 373. 1956. This species, known as the \"climbing hydrangea,\" was introduced into hort~culture in the United States in 1865 by Mr. Thomas Hogg, who was consul to Japan, and together with his brother James, operated a nursery in New York. In addition to their own nursery, these gentlemen distributed seed to Parson's Nursery of Flushing, New York. The introductions were made under the incorrect name .Schisophragma hydrangeoides which led to the mistaken belief that the Arnold Arboretum (rather than Messrs. Hogg) was responsible for the first introduction of Hydrangea anomala. In 18 i 6, the Arboretum received seed from Japan (presumably subspecies petiolaris) and has grown the species since that time. According to Haworth-Booth, Hydrangea anomala subsp. anomala was introduced into Great Britain in 1839, with subsp. peliolaris following in about 1878. To the best of my knowledge, subspecies anomala was introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum in 1923. Our plant flowered in 1961and 1964 and remains relatively small. The dark-green glossy leaves of Hydrangea anomala unfold in the spring, becoming fully expanded prior to those of other deciduous climbers (such as Partlrenocissus Planchon or ('amp.sis Loureiro). The leaves, m general, are heartshaped, smooth, long-petiolate, and with serrate margins. The density of the leaves seems to vary from plant to plant, depending on the immediate growing conditions. Lateral branches tend to grow at right angles from the main climbing shoots, their length being irregular but seldom exceeding three feet, forming an uneven leafy pattern which is unobtainable with standard climbers such as Parthenocissus tricuspidata (Siebold & Zuccarini) Planchon and Hedera helis L. The lateral branches bear terminal inflorescences which open in June, coming into full bloom before the other hydrangeas hardy in our area. The inflorescences, usually six inches or more in diameter, are composed of several hundred small fertile flowers surrounded by a corona of a dozen or more sterile ones. The latter, are white and borne on long pedicels which accentuate their peripheral position. When compounded by several hundred inflorescences the results are more than ~0 ~ Tree-grown specimen period. of Hydrangea PLATE IV anomala subspecies ~etiolaris during flowering gratifying. The calyx lobes of the sterile flowers are much enlarged, being ~to ~ inches long and nearly as broad, rounded in outline. The white color is retained long after the fertile flowers have passed, creating the impression of an extraordinarily long blooming period. The fruit, technically a capsule, is small (about ~ inch long), opening by a pore formed at the base of the spreading styles. The number of styles varies in this species from two to three in individual flowers : the majority have two styles, although the larger tend to be 3-stylar. The significance of this variation is not understood. The fruits are not attractive, nor is there any notable leaf coloration During the winter, the stems and lateral branches are interesting because of their growth pattern and the yellowish-orange bark which peels irregularly into large, thin flakes. Plants of this species are found in nature, not only as powerful tree climbers, but also as scramblers in shaded rocky ravines. Their diverse horticultural applications are based, at least in part, on their adaptation to these environments. The species may be used effectively as a ground cover in difficult places, such as rock-piles or rocky outcrops, even in shaded areas. Likewise, it does very well on stone fences or brick walls, although the rate of growth is retarded in such places ; but it is most vigorous and spectacular when grown as a tree climber. Several precautions should be taken when growing the plant as a climber. In a wall situation, particularly on a building, it should be grown on a shaded side. The actual exposure depends on the area, but in the vicinity of Boston it does best with a northerly or northeasterly exposure. If grown in a southern exposure it may be damaged by the winter sun and do very poorly. One should keep in mind that the entire inflorescence is shed as a single unit, usually in early winter, and may present a problem in cleaning up. Planting it against a wall behind existing plantings, such as Rhododendron L. and Enkianthus Loureiro, should, therefore be avoided. Hydrangea anomala climbs, as mentioned previously, by means of secondary rootlets which penetrate the substrate, causing damage apparently no greater than that of other woody climbers. Haworth-Booth suggests growing the species in conjunctionwith Tropaeolum speciosum Poeppig& Endlicher, a spectacular climbing \"Nasturtium\" with orange-red flowers, an excellent suggestion which applies, unfortunately, only to warm climates or, perhaps, a large greenhouse. An excellent example of wall-grown Hydrangea anomala, raised from seed in 1892, may be seen on the northeast corner of the Administration Building in Jamaica Plain. A tree-grown specimen should be started on a mature tree, for growth will become more vigorous with time. Branches eventually will encircle the tree, although not girdle it, and may even reach the crown of very large specimens. When tree and Hydrangea are mature the inflorescences will cover the tree trunk and large secondary branches at flowering time. During the height of flowering, the fertile flowers are worked heavily by honey bees, welcome to some but not to others. A in the fall. [ 22 PLATE V of inflorescences of Hydrangea anomala subspecies petiolaris. Note dissimilarity between the central fertile and peripheral sterile flowers. Close-up fine tree-grown specimen may be seen at 380 South St., adjacent to the Arboretum grounds, in Jamaica Plain. The future possibilities for this plant rest, I believe, simply in growmg it more w~dely. It is obtainable from many nurserymen, who should not hesitate to recommend it. New introductions probably are in order, even though a large part of the natural range (mainland China) is not open to us at present, for one finds, in the herbarium, specimens with very large sterile flowers (up to 2 inches or more in diameter), with flowers with deckled edges instead of smooth ones, and with orange-green to pinkish flowers. All or any of these var~ations would be welcome additions to horticulture. Occasionally, a plant with 5-lobed sterile flowers is found, but the condition seems unstable, and 4-lobed flowers may occur on the same plant. A haploid chromosome number of 18 has been reported by Sax ( 1931 ) from cultivated material of Hydrangea anomala subsp. petiolaris. This is consistent with reports of other members of the genus, excepting the more spectacular clones of H. paniculata Siebold, such as `Pee Gee' which have a haploid number of 36. The beauty of this cultivar ~s due to the increased number of sterile flowers, suggesting that interesting results might be obtained by raising the chromosomal level of H. anomala. 23 the horn-like recurved styles in part, by the development of large bracts which enclose the immature inflorescence. These bracts often are colored and add to the general interest of the group. All the plants are evergreen in their native habitat, and all are climbers under proper conditions. Any or all of them could be used in gardens as climbers, either for themselves or as potential breeding stock. In the latter category, it should be noted that hybrids between species are relatively rare in Hydrangea and up to now no chromosome counts have been reported for members of this section of the genus. Results of a proper breeding program, even though difficult to obtain, could be well worth to the effort. Haworth-Booth has pointed out that it should be possible \" a red-flowered, evergreen, self-clinging climber hardy enough for fairly produce general use on shaded walls.\" The tropics and the temperate regions of the Southern Hemisphere have contributed extraordinarily few plants to the horticulture of the North Temperate Zone. The reasons for this may be obvious for tropical plants, but are much less so for plants originating in the Temperate Zone of the Southern Hemisphere. Indeed, the situation is a real puzzle which probably does not have any simple The name CueNtmn, derived from cornu, refers to in the mature fruit. This section is characterized, ... biological explanation. All the members of Sect. CORNIDIA are native to the tropics of the South Temperate Zone. I have listed the species (according to McClintock's classification) alphabetically, together with the characters which may be of horticultural importance. 2. Hydrangea asterolasia Diels, Notizblatt des Botanischen Gartens und Mu- seums zu Berlin-Dahlem. 15: 370. 1941. Native in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, and Ecuador at elevations of 3600i ~00 feet; shrubs or climbers ; fertile flowers white ; sterile flowers present, about 1 inch in diameter, white; bract color unknown. I have seen no material referable to this species. 3. Hydrangea diplostemona (Donnell Smith) Standley, Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 18: 160. 1928. Native in Costa Rica and Colombia, at altitudes of 1800-4500 feet: shrubs or climbers; fertile flowers pink to rose; sterile flowers absent or rarely present; bracts green. is This species is poorly known at this time, but the general disadvantageous from a horticultural point of view. 4. lack of sterile flowers Hydrangea integrifolia Hayata, Journal of the Faculty of Science, Univerof Tokyo. 22: 131. 1906. sity Native in the Philippine Islands and Formosa at high altitudes; strong climbers ; fertile flowers white; sterile flowers many, about 1 ~inches in diameter; bracts large, but color undetermined. - 24 There is the plants marked seasonal fluctuation in stem elongation in this species, and might be deciduous under more arduous climatic conditions. It is, however, worthy of further investigation for ornamental use. McClintock has placed it in Sect. CORNIDIA, but I suspect that its proper relationship is with Sect. HYDRANGEA, specifically near H. involucrata Siebold. a 5. Hydrangea jelskii Szyszylowicz, Rozprawy Akademija Umiejetnosciwydzial Matematyczno-Przyrodniczy II. 9: 215. 1895. Native in Ecuador and Peru at an altitude of about 6000 feet; climbers; fertile flowers white; presence or absence of sterile flowers unknown; bract color unknown. Known 6. only from two collections, both well past their prime. et du Hydrangea mathewsii Briquet, Annuaire du Conservatoire 20: 413. 1919. Jardin botaniques de Geneve. Native in northern Peru ; climbers ; fertile flowers white; sterile flowers absent ; bract color unknown. Known only from two collections, but because of lack of sterile flowers apparently unworthy of serious consideration as an ornamental plant. 7. Hydrangea oerstedii Briquet, Annuaire de Conservatoire et du Jardin bo- tan~ques de Geneve. 20: 407. 1919. Native in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru at altitudes of feet; shrubs to strong climbers ; fertile flowers pink to dark magenta; sterile flowers numerous, ~-1~ inches in diameter, pink to dark magenta; bract color pink, becoming greenish with age. This seems to be the most promising species, of Sect. CORNIDIA, in terms of show~ness and should be tried in a southern garden. 3600-9000 Hydrangea peruviana Moricand in De Candolle, Prodromus. 4: 14. 1830. Native of Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru, usually at altitudes of 3600-9600 feet; shrubs or climbers; fertile flowers pmk ; sterile flow ers few to many, ~-1 inch in diameter, pink ; bracts pink, becoming greenish with age. This plant is very closely related to the preceding species, Hydrangea oer.slerlii, and, according to McClintock, the two perhaps may represent forms of a dimorphic species. In my opinion, they may be conspecific, with a tendency toward d~oecism (male and female flowers on separate plants) such as one finds in the Hawaiian genus Broussaisia Guadichaud. This might prove to be a very valuable ornamental species because of its colorful sterile flowers. 8. 9. Hydrangea preslii Briquet, Annuaire du Conservatoire et du Jardin botaniat altitudes of ques Geneve. 20: 409. 1919. Native in Costa Rica, Panama, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru ZJ feet; shrubs or climbers ; fertile flowers pink to wine-red; sterile flowabsent; bract color unknown. This species has large inflorescences but always lacks sterile flowers. It might be useful as a stock for breeding towards a large inflorescence. 300-7500 ers 10. Hydrangea seemannii Riley, Kew Bulletin. 1924: ~?Oi. 19`?4. Native of the Sierra Madre of Durango, Mexico, at altitudes of 6000-7800 feet; strong climbers; fertile flowers white; sterile flowers relatively few, about 1~inches in diameter and assumed to be white; bract color unknown. This species is known from only a few collections, and its horticultural value cannot yet be judged. 1 1. Hydrangea serratifolia (Hooker u Arnott) Philippi f., Plantarum Vascularium Chilensium. 97. 1881. Native in Chile and Argentina at altitudes of 2400-4500 feet; shrubs or robust climbers : fertile flowers white; sterile flowers generally absent but about 1 inch in diameter when present; bract color unknown. This southernmost Hydrangea normally is exposed to the coldest environment of any species of this section. It would seem to be the logical choice of the whole section to grow, and is being cultivated, in Great Britain. Introduced there by H. F. Comber (Comber p6.~) in 19? i , it is grown on walls, particularly with a southern exposure, where the temperature may reach 15 F. for short periods, unfortunately, it generally lacks sterile Howers in its large compound ~nflorescences. Accordmg to a personal communication from Edinburgh, the Comber material is unisexual. 1 ~. Hydrangea steyermarkii Standley, Publications of the Field Museum, Botanical Series. 22: 233. 1940. Native in Guatemala at an altitude of 4500-9000 feet; climbers; flowering material unknown. Known only from juvenile plants and one mature fruiting specimen. Hydrangea tarapotensis Briquet, Annuaire du Conservatoire et du Jardin botaniques de Geneve. 20: 415. 1919. Native ~n Colomb~a, Peru, and Bohvia at altitudes of 2400-4500 feet; shrubs or climbers; fertile flowers creamy white; sterile flowers absent; bract color 13. unknown. tivation Closely related to Hydrangea serratifolia as it is probably less hardy. II. SCHIZOPHRAGMA but less likely to be successful in cul- Siebold ~- Zuccarini a The name Schizophragma is derived from Greek schizo, to divide, and phragma fence or screen, in allusion to the skeleton-like mature capsules. Unhke cap- 26] PLATE VI Wall-grown specimen of Schizophragma \/:y<~?'am<\/eo~e~ during flowering period. the Saxifragaceae, these open, not by an apical pore, but by disof the tissue between the calyx ribs. This adaptation apparently is a integration consequence of the development of fused styles which prevented the normal dehiscence mechanism. Capsules of this type are characteristic of Schizophragma, Decumaria, and Pileostegia. All of the plants of Schi~ophragma, which I am treating as three species in this paper, are climbers similar to Hydrangea anomala. All are deciduous, and in two species there is an interesting development of a single calyx lobe of each sterile flower into an enlarged petaloid structure. This is equivalent to one of the four enlarged calyx lobes of Hydrangea or the single enlarged lobes of Mussaenda L., Pseudomussaenda w'ernham, and several other genera of the family Rubiaceae. As in Hydrangea, the sterile flowers are the primary source of beauty of the plants. in sules most of a. KEY TO THE SPECIES OF SCHIZOPHRAGMA Sterile flowers present. b. Leaves coarsely dentate; plants of Japan and Korea... 1. S. hydrangeoides b. Leaves entire to sparingly dentate: plants of China, Tibet, and Burma. 2. S. integrifolium 3. S. crassum a. Sterile flowers absent; plants of Burma and China...... 1. Schizophragma hydrangeoides Siebold & Zuccarini, Florae Japonicae. 60. tab. ~6. 1835. At the time of the introduction of Schizophragma hydrangeoides into horticulture, it was so often confused with Hydrangea anomala that it is not definitely known when it did come into cultivation. In The Garden I 8 ithere is an illustration, but it is hard to be certain whether this was prepared from life. A plant definitely flowered in Great Britain in 1905, but this seems a very late date. Plants of Schizophragma and Hydrangea were sometimes illustrated together under the latter name, although a few observant growers indicated that two varieties might be represented. In retrospect, it is not difficult to imagine how this confusion came about, for the plants are superficially alike. What is puzzling is the long delay in correcting the error, for casual examination of fertile flowers should have been sufficient, the styles being free in Hydrangea but fused in Schizophragma. In addition, the mature capsules are quite distinctive. Known to occur naturally in Japan and Korea, Schizophragma hydrangeoides commonly is found as a tree climber, although it also occurs on rocks and sandstone cliffs. Its uses are therefore similar to those noted previously for Hydrangea anomala, with the same precautions applicable. It seems to be more difficult to find a location in which the plants will thrive than for the Hydrangea. Our best plant at the Arboretum is grown on the northeast-facing wall of the Administration Building, where it is perfectly hardy. The light-green leaves opening early in the spring, although not as early as those of Hydrangea anomala, are quite attractive. They are ovate to heart-shaped 28 ~ ] .. ~.9 ~n,~,~,, 4$.;,aP\"'~'aF ' yp~,;e~,y~ ``- ~\" ~ .r L'~ t. ~4.-~`: ~ ..~~-s~.. ~ . .;. ~r ~. . ~ w *-~; .,~ , t .~`'' .. ,~ ~~~~ h~< ~~,~ _ e. ~ I 7 .,.~ vr, .., J\" \" s P ad t o ~ .F . ~ PLATE VII Close-up of inflorescence of .~~hizar~hragmra hydrauyeoides. Note striking dissimilarity between the central fertile flowers and peripheral sterile ones. outline, with a coarsely dentate margin, and are somewhat reminiscent of the cottonwood leaf. Under proper conditions, the leaf blade may become six inches long and broad. The lateral branches usually grow at right angles to the main climbing shoots and seldom exceed three feet in length. The foliage is oriented towards the light and forms an interesting mosaic. Insect damage appears to be minimal. The lateral branches also bear the terminal inflorescences, which open in July and August. Seldom exceeding six inches in diameter, each inflorescence is composed of several hundred small fertile flowers and up to a dozen sterile flowers. As in the hydrangeas, the sterile flowers are arranged about the periphery of the ~nflorescence and are borne on long pedicels. A single calyx lobe of each sterile in 29 flower is enlarged and petaloid. Curiously, the lobe which develops is the one oriented away from the central axis of the inflorescence. In Schizophragma hydrangeoides, it is ovate or sometimes lanceolate, -~ to 4 inches long, ~ to 3 inches broad, and white. None of the flowers are shed, and, as a result, the blooming period appears to be quite long. The entire inflorescence is either dropped in early mnter or retained as long as the following winter. In this respect, S. hydrangeoides is a cleaner plant than Hydrangea anomala. There is no fall coloration, nor are the small laterally dehiscing capsules attractive. The tight bark is dull gray m color and not particularly interesting. On the basis of herbarium material from wild sources, the species seems to be relatively uniform with very little geographic variation. New selections would have to be made on the basis of individual plants which might have desirable characteristics; for additional introductions, on a broad scale, should not be expected to yield more spectacular plants than those which we now have. A haploid chromosome number of 14 had been reported by Sax ( 1931 ) and others for Schizophragma hydrangeoides. On the basis of chromosome number only, two possibly fruitful experiments are suggested. One would be to raise the chromosome level in hopes of obtaining a greater percentage of more robust sterile flowers. The second is to attempt to cross this species with Decumaria barbara, of the southeastern United States, to obtain information regarding the relationship of the two genera. 2. Schizophragma integrifolium Oliver, Hooker's Icones Plantarum. 20: lab. 1890. 1931e. This species, Schizophragma zntegr~folium, was introduced into cultivation ~n Great Britain in 1901from seed collected the previous year by E. H. Wilson ~n Hupeh, China. Wilson was also responsible for bringing it into cultivation in this country via the Arnold Arboretum in 1909. The Arboretum's material, collected in Szechuan, presumably has been lost since. This species is not available commercially in this country at present. A voucher specimen (Wilson 1068) deposited in the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum substantiates the identification and the introduction. Schizophragma integrifolium has not been grown widely here, perhaps because it is less hardy than S. hydrangeoides. It has, however, as an ornamental plant an extraordinary potential which has not yet been realized. Known in the wild from Formosa, central and south China, Schizophragma integrifolium is found generally at high elevations. It sometimes takes the form of a free-standing shrub but most often clambers or climbs over, or up, steep rocky places or trees. The climbing mechanism, again, is by adventitious roots arising from the main climbing stems. The uses and precautions given for Hydrangea anomala apply also to this plant. The growth form of this species is essentially the same as that of Schizophragma hydrangeoides. While S. hydrangeoides is marked by little variability, S. infegr;f'o- 30 lium is extremely variable serration of the shape, The in a number of important characteristics such as size, margin, and pubescence of the leaves; size of inflores- size and shape of sterile flowers. light green leaves, darker above than beneath, range in shape from ovate to broadly elliptic. Leaf size varies from 22 to 8 inches in length, and I~ to 5 inches in breadth. The margin may be entire, minutely denticulate, or sinuatedentate. The leaf undersurface varies from glabrous to densely woolly or felted. The lateral branches bear terminal inflorescences which, with a few exceptions, are much more showy than those of Schizophragma lrydrangeoirles. The inflores- cence ; and inches in diameter but may be up to a full foot across. There are several hundred fertile flowers with a dozen or so sterile flowers arranged about the perrphery. A single calyx lobe of each sterile flower is enlarged. It varies from ovate to broadly elliptic in shape, isto 84 inches long, '~~, to 2 inches broad, and yellow to cream or white in color. All flowers are retained on the inflorescence, with the entire structure being shed in early winter to late spring. There is little fall coloration and the small capsules are unattractive. The bark rs an uninteresting dull gray color. Some readers may realize that the varieties which Rehder described in this species are swamped in the welter of variability which I have mentioned very briefly. On the basis of the material now available, I believe that these varieties lack any distinct biological basis. The varieties must have appeared more distinct to Rehder as he had very few specimens. It is interesting to note that the type specimen of each of his varieties represents almost the extreme expression of a particular variable character. My general remarks concerning this species may have misled some into believing that this is just another species similar to Schizophragma hydrangeoides. This is not my intent, for Sclri~ophragma inlegr~olium is the most spectacular of all the species considered here. It has not been grown much in this country because it ~s tender and does not over-winter well. It is a magnificent plant that should be introduced into our warmer areas. At this time, it is impossible to make additional selections from native plants, but if it were, the prime area for source material would be Szechuan Province, in western China. The plants in this particular province show tremendous variability in all characteristics and would be a breeder's delight. However, all of the material in cultivation in Europe, is not the result of a single introduction, so that a breeding program could be devised and based on available materials. A diploid chromosome number of 72has been reported by Hamel (1958) for S. integrifolium, a number which is especially interesting in light of the diploid count of 28 for cences are at least six Schizophragma hydrangeoides. 3. Schizophragma crassum Akademie der Wissenschaften, Klasse. 59: ~4 i . 191~?. Handel-Mazzetti, Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen Wien, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche 31] This species is native in southwestern China and Burma and is readily distinguished from others of the genus by the lack of sterile flowers. It is, however, strikingly similar in gross morphological characters to Schisophrag~na infegrfohum and may represent only another extreme in variation of that diverse species. This is a question which I hope to clarify in the near future. To the best of my knowledge, it has never been in cultivation nor, because of the lack of sterile flowers, does there seem to be any future for it. III. UECUMARIA L. . The name Decumaria, is derived from Latin decimarius, relating to tenths, an allusion to the often 10-parted flowers. Today, such a derivation may seem tenuous, but the classification of Linnaeus was based upon his so-called \"sexual system\" which system rested primarily on the number of parts in the flower. The species of this genus are woody deciduous climbers having fertile flowers with i-10 petals, and 20-30 stamens, and lacking sterile flowers. Only two species are known, one from the southeastern United States, the other from China. KEI a. TO THE SPECIES OF DECUMARIA a. Leaves deciduous; leaf blade ovate to elliptic, 1~-4~ inches long, 1-3k inches broad, the apex acute, abruptly short-acuminate, or rarely obtuse; stigma borne on a well-developed stylar column; plants of the southeastern United States........................... 1. D. barbara Leaves persistent or semipersistent; leaf blade elliptic to oblanceolate, 1~-2~ inches long, ~-1 inch broad, the apex obtuse; stigma subsessile; plants of 2. D. sinensis China....................... 1. Decumaria barbara L. Species Plantarum ed. 2. 1663. 1763. This species has a tangled background of considerable interest, but I am not prepared to explain fully all of the more interesting aspects. It w as described by Linnaeus in l 163, from a specimen grown in the botanic garden at Uppsala, Sweden. Linnaeus was the first to apply a binomial name to the plant, although it was known from earlier works in which it was believed to be a Clusia (family Guttiferae). Linnaeus apparently lost track of, or never knew the origin of this particular material, for his specific epithet barbara indicates the native origin as the Barbary Coast. He says \"Habifat an in Africa?\" Thus, it joins a host of other plant species first described from material in cultivation, and l~ke so many of them there is some doubt about its original source. Rehder gives the date of introduction into cultivation in this country, as 1785. This species, Decumaria barbara, is found as a tree climber and rock climber in very moist habitats in Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, Tennessee, Florida, Georgia, North and South Carolina, and Virginia where it is sometimes known as \"wood vamp.\" The inflorescences of fragrant, white, fertile flowers are relatively small (generally about three inches in diameter). The flowering period \" 32 ~ lasts several weeks; with the time of flowering, varying geographicallv, from April 1 through early June. In this country, these plants have been cultivated primarily as a greenhouse curiosity. There is no question that they are not as showy as either Hydrangea anomala or Schizophragma hydrangeoides. I have no information, however, concerning their heat tolerance, and they may prove unsatisfactory in the south. The use of Decumaria barbara may also be restricted in the south because of its high water requirements. If these can be met, however, the plants are handsome enough to warrant growing them. If, however, these same plants are grown farther north the water requirement is not critical. Plants of D. barbara grown out of doors in this area have not proven winter hardy, but new selections from Georgia (particularly Lumpkin, Rabum, and Habersham counties) might be sturdier. Sax (1931) has recorded a meiotic chromosome number of 14 for this species. Two interesting experiments listed under Schizophragma hydrangeoides are also applicable here. Oliver, Hooker's Icones Plantarum. 18: tab.l7lzl. 1888. Native in Honan, Hupeh, and Szechuan provinces of China, this species is similar to the preceding but has shorter and narrower persistent leaves. The plants tend to be less robust and so have denser fohage than D. barbara. As in the latter species, the small inflorescences lack sterile flowers, a character partially offset by its evergreen or semi-deciduous nature. This characteristic would be of some importance in considering the species for cultivation in our southern 2. Decumaria sinensis states. ' This species is grown out of doors as a wall climber in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where it seems to be perfectly hardy. It is also grown in other gardens of western Europe, flowering in late May. The Arboretum grew this species as a pit-house plant. Our plants, the first introduction in the United States, were grown from seed collected by Wilson in China, in 1908. So far as I know this species is no longer available in this country. many years ago, IV. PILEOSTEGIA Hooker f. ~- L'hom.son Pileostegia is derived from pilos, meaning cap, and slegnus, meaning together, probably in allusion to the petals, which are fused mto a caplike structure. This petal cap falls as a unit when the fertile flowers open. The plants are evergreen with elliptic, leathery leaves with petioles very much shorter than the leaf blades. The resulting leaf mosaic is unlike that formed by the plants described previously. The relatively large inflorescences are composed entirely of fertile flowers and, therefore, not as showy as they might be. Except for minor differences in size and shape, the fruiting capsules are of the same type as in Schizophragma and Decumaria. The drawn name 33 The evergreen nature of these plants may limit their use in cold-temperate such as ours, but they could be extremely useful in our warmer climates. I believe the water requirements would prove to be less difficult to meet than those of our native Decumaria barbara. areas KEY a. TO THE SPECIES OF YILEOSTEGIA a. Lower leaf surface smooth (glabrous); plants of India, China, Formosa, Hong Kong, and the Ryukyu Archipelago................ 1. P. viburnoides Lower leaf surface with rust-colored stellate hairs; plants of southeastern China.............................. 2. P. tomentella 1. viburnoides Hooker f. & Thomson, Journal of the Linnean of London. Botany. 2: 57, 58, 76, tab. ~. 1858. Society Tree and rock climbers of relatively small stature, native to India, China Pileostegia (Anhwei, Chekiang, Fukien, Hunan, Hupeh, Kiangsi, Kwangsl, Kwantung, Kweichow, Szechuan, and Yunnan provinces), Formosa, Hong Kong, and reported from the Ryukyu Archipelago. The leaves are elliptic In shape, glabrous, dark-green above, and light-green beneath. The margin is entire or sometimes slightly serrate. It is of interest that the plant described to establish the genus was thought at first, to be a holly (Ilex) because of the leaf shape. Some years later, the reverse confusion occurred when a plant from Mexico described as a Pileostegia, later had to be transferred to Ile.r. The fertile white flowers are borne on huge inflorescences (up to seven inches long, and eleven inches in diameter) !1 The floral odor is described either as \"fragrant\" or \"ill smelling.\" The flowering period, in the native habitats, seems to be in August. This species was introduced into cultivation by E. H. Wilson, in 1908. At present it is grown as an ornamental in western Europe and in southern California where it is employed as a wall climber. It is not available commercially in this country. 2. Pileostegia emie des tomentella Handel-Mazzetti, Anzeiger der Kaiserlichen AkadWissenschaften, Wien, Mathematisch-Naturwissenschaftliche Klasse. 59: 55. 1922. Tree and rock climbers, of small stature, occurring wild in Fukien, Hainan, Kiangsi, Kwangsi, and Kwangtung provinces of China. The oblong or elliptic leaves are somewhat bicolorous because of the rust-colored, stellate hairs on the lower surface. The fertile, fragrant, white Howers are borne on large inflorescences (to eight inches long and eleven inches in diameter) in September and October. The small fruiting capsules generally are yellow, although I have seen report of black. This plant has tremendous possibilities as an ornamental because of the interesting evergreen leaves and very large inflorescences. The most advantageous characteristic, however, the late flowering period, would greatly improve its poone 34 ~ ] tent~al. It seems to be limited m Its cold tolerance and may be satisfactory under warm conditions. I do not believe it is available at the present. only Acknowledgements I wish to thank my fellow staff members of the Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbarium for their interest, encouragement, and helpful suggestions during the course of this preliminary study. Special thanks are due P. S. Green, B. G. Schubert, C. E. Wood, Jr., and D. Wyman for the critical reading of the manuscript and the resulting improvements. The line illustration is the careful work of Miss E. Carroll. Name Finding List Names in bold face type are names accepted here as correct and used in the text Names in italics are considered synonyms and each is followed by its accepted equivalent. Names of authorities appear in roman type. Generic names are abbreviated (D.=Decu- maria ; H.=Hydrangea; P.=Pileostegia; S.=Schizophragma). Cornidia integerrima Hooker & Arnott=H. serratifolia peruviana (Moricand) Small=H. peruviana serratifolia Hooker radiata Oersted=H. oerstedii & Arnott=H. serratifolia umbellata Ruiz & Pavon=H. preslii _ Decumaria barbara L. forsythia Michaux=D. barbara prostrata Loddiges ex Loudon=D. barbara radicans Moench=D. barbara sarmentosa Bosc=D. barbara scandens (Walter) Salisbury =D. barbara sinensis Oliver t , Forsythia scandens Walter=D. barbara Gilibertia diplostemona Donnell Smith=H. diplostemona Hydrangea altissima Wallich=H. anomala subsp. anomala anomala D. Don subsp. anomala anomala D. Don subsp. petiolaris (Siebold & Zuccarini) McClintock antioquiensis Engler=H. tarapotensis asterolasia Diels bangii Engler=H. tarapotensis subsp. petiolaris briquetii Engler=H. preslii caucana Engler=H. peruviana cordifolia Siebold & Zuccarini = H. anomala subsp. petiolaris cuneatifolia Elmer=H. integrifolia diplostemona (Donnell Smith) Standley bracteata Siebold & Zuccarini = H. anomala ~ 35 durifolia Briquet=H. oerstedii ecuadorensis Briquet=H. preslii epiphytica Morton ex Haworth-Booth=H. asterolasia glabra Hayata=H. anomala subsp. petiolaris glandulosa Elmer=H. integrifolia goudotii Briquet=H. oerstedii integra Hayata=H. integrifolia inornata Standley=H. diplostemona integerrima (Hooker & Arnott) Engler=H. serratifolia integrifolia Hayata jelskii Szyszylowicz lehmannii Engler=H. peruviana mathewsii Briquet oerstedii Briquet panamensis Standley=H. peruviana peruviana Moricand petiolaris Siebold & Zuccarini=H. anomala subsp. petiolaris petiolaris Siebold & Zuccarini y. bracteata (Siebold & Zuccarini) Franchet & Savatier= H. anomala subsp. petiolaris petiolaris Siebold & Zuccarini \/3, cordifolia (Siebold & Zuccarini) Franchet & Savatier= H. anomala subsp. petiolaris petiolaris Siebold & Zuccarini var. cordifolia Maximowicz forma formosana Miyushima H. anomala subsp. petiolaris petiolaris Siebold & Zuccarini a. ovalifolia Franchet & Savatier -- H. anomala subsp. petiolaris platyphylla Briquet=H. oerstedii preslii Briquet scandens Maximowicz=H. anomala subsp. petiolaris scandens Poeppig=H. serratifolia scandens Maximowicz \/3, cordtfolia Maximowicz=H. anomala subsp. petiolaris scandens Maximowicz a. petiolaris Maximowicz=H. anomala subsp. petiolaris schlimia Briquet=H. oerstedii seemannii Riley serratifolia (Hooker & Arnott) Philippi f. sprucei Briquet=H. diplostemona steyermarkii Standley taquetii Leveille=S. hydrangeoides tarapotensis Briquet tilaefolia Leveille=H, anomala subsp. petiolaris trianae Briquet=H. peruviana umbellata (Ruiz & Pavon) Briquet=H. preslii volubilis Hort. ex Rehder=H, anomala subsp. petiolaris weberbaueri Engler=H. peruviana . ?ileostegia obtusifolia (Hu) Hu=D. sinensis tomentella Handel-Mazzetti urceolata Hayata=P. viburnoides viburnoides Hooker f. & Thomson viburnoides Hooker f. & Thomson var. parviflora Oliver ex Maximowicz=P. viburnoides ~ 36 Sarcostyles peruviana Presl=H. preslii Schizophragma crassum crassum Handel-Mazzetti Handel-Mazzetti var. elliptica Anthony=S. crassum fauriei Hayata=S. integrifolium hydrangeoides Siebold & Zuccarini hydrangeoides Siebold & Zuccarini var. formosa Nakai = S. hydrangeoides hydrangeoides Siebold & Zuccarini var. integrifolium Franchet=S. integrifolium hypoglaucum Rehder=S. integrifolium integrifolium Oliver antegrifolium Oliver var. dentaculatum Rehder=S. integrifolium antegrifolium Oliver var. fauriei Hayata = S. integrifolium integrifolium Oliver var. glaucescens Rehder=S. integrifolium integrifolium Oliver var. minus Rehder=S. integrifolium antegrifolium Oliver var. molle Rehder=S. integrifolium obtusifolium Hu=D. sinensis tomentellum (Handel-Mazzetti) Stapf=P. tomentella viburnoides (Hooker f. & Thomson) Stapf=P. viburnoides SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY ANnFesuN, E. Hydrangea petiolaris and Schizophragma hydrangeoides. Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum. IV. 1: 53-56. 1933. ANONSMOUS. 54. 1922. Schizophragma hydrangeoides and Decumaria barbara. Ibid. II. 8: BOEHMER, L. The climbing Hydrangea. Gardener's Monthly. 21: R91. 18,'9. B~RxFT~~, G. W. Anatomical studies within the genus Hydrangea. Proceedings of the Indiana Academy of Science. 41: 83-95. 1932. BoaT~~, B. L. Hydrangea integerrima. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. and text. 19~ 1. ~ 168: tab. 1~3 C~,vTF, W. N. The meaning of plant names-XXV. can Botanist. 32: 11-18. 1926. Saxifragaceae. The Ameri- FosuFec, F. R. Taxonomy of the Hawaiian genus Brou.s.sasia. Occasional Papers of the Bern~ce P. Bishop Museum. 15: 49-60. 1939. HAMEL, J. L. Notes Preliminaires a 1'etude caryologiquedes Saxifragacees: VI. Les Chromosomes somatiques des Kirengeshoma palmata Yamabe, Deinanthe coerulea Stapf et Schizophragma integrifolium (Franch.) Oliv. Bulletin du Museum National d'Histoire Naturelle -. (Paris). II. 23: 651-654. 19:i1. pp. 118- 313. Contribution of I,'Etude Paris, 1953. Cyto-Taxinomique des Saxifragacees, 37] HATFIELD, J. D. Schizophragma hydrangeoides. Horticulture. 4: ~81. 1906. HAYATA, B. Flora Montana Formosae. Journal of the Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo. 25(19) : 1-260. 1908. HENDERSUN, P. The climbing hydrangea- Schizophragma hydrangeoitles. Gardener's Monthly. 21: ?, 3. 1879. -. The climbing hydrangea. Ibitl. 54. 1879. trees HOGG, T. History of Sciadopitys, and other Japan Ibid..53, 3-1. I 8 i 9. HrTCHrnrsoN, J. Contributions towards a phylogenetic classification of flowering plants: VI. A. The genera of Hydrangeaceae. Kew Bulletin. 1927: 10010~. 19`1i. -. The Families of Flowering Plants, ed. 2. 1: pp. 510, Oxford, 1959. MAEKAWA, F. Reduction in chromosomes and major polyploidy, their bearing on plant evolution. Journal of the Faculty of Science, University of Tokyo. III. 8. 377-398. 1963. b~cCL~NTUCK, E. The cultivated hydrangeas. Baile3~a. . 4: 163-l I5. 1956. Hydrangeas. A The National Horticultural the genus Magazine. 36: R i 0-2 i 9. 195 i . . monograph of Academy of Sciences. l9ti. Hydrarrgea. Proceedings of the California 29: 147-~?56. 1957. pp. 996. New RFHnFa, A. Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs. Ed. 2, York, SARGENT, C. S. The climbing Hydrangea. Gardener's Dlonthly. SAX, K. Chromosome numbers in the ligneous Arnold Arboretum. 12: 198-205. 1931. 21: 2. 18 ~ 9. Saxifragaceae. Journal Magazine. 159: tab. of the SH;nw, J. 19;3fi. R. Decumaria sinerrsi.r. Curtis's Botanical 91,~9. 43: Sor.vmusv, S. L. Climbing Hydrangeas. b5. 196~. American Horticultural D9agazme. S~rnnN, O. Schi~ophragma 8991. 19~4. integrifolia. Curtis's Botanical Magazine. 149: tab. ..Schizophragma viburnoide.s. Ibid. W. The climbing ~Ol. 18i9. 155: tab. 9R62. 1982. hydrangea (fichi~ophragma hydrangeoides). 38 The Garden. 15: 1 WARD, L. F. Decumaria barbara. The Botanical Gazette. 7: 99, 100. 1882. H. Plant novelties from China. Horticulture. 11: 257, 2~8, 1910. Arnold WILSI)N, E. -. Schizophragma hydrangeoides. Bulletin of Popular Information. D. Shrubs and Vines for American Arboretum. III. 2: 59, 60. 1928. WYMAN, -. Gardens, pp. 4~.2. New York, 1649. Ground Cover Plants, pp. 175. New York. 1956. LOHIN I. NEVLING, JR. e3~~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration of Cultivar Names in Ulmus","article_sequence":5,"start_page":41,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24406","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25ebb26.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard VOLUME 24 University NUMBERS 6-8 JULY 24, 1964 REGISTRATION OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN ULMUS P. S. GREEN THE COMPILATION OF A LIST OF CULTIVAR names -- -- in Ulmus has proved more than might at first have been expected. One of the primary reasons for this is that within the genus there is no unanimity of opinion over the delimitation of species or the extent of spontaneous hybridization. However, several species have been in cultivation for centuries and, within these, numerous varieties have arisen. This contrasts with the situation in Fagus, the subject of the most recent registration list to be published (Arnoldia 24 ( 1 ) : 1-8. 1964) where only one species was involved and where there were no problems of specific identity; in Uhnus the identity of cultivars is often masked by confused synonymy at the specific level. The list of names which follows is primarily bibliographic in nature, giving reference to the first place of publication that has been discovered for each name. Ideally, perhaps, its formation should have gone hand in hand with attempts to find and study authentic material of each clone so that correct specific identities could have been ascertained and many questions of synonymy resolved. However, it was never intended that the compilation should be accompanied by a taxonomic revision of the genus Ulmus, and it must be stressed that the list, as published, is almost completely based on the literature and not on the plants themselves. That it may be dangerous to include taxonomic opinions in a purely bibliographic list of names is illustrated by the misleading attempts to include synonymy in the first volumes and supplements of the Index Kewensis. Nevertheless, in drawing up this list of names in Ulmus, evidence of synonymy and specific identity has often come to hand and it would be wrong not to mention it for the benefit of other workers. It should be understood, however, that such information is given complex [ 41 1 as a guide and is only very occasionally based on the sure evidence of authentic material. In a few cases there appear to be conflicting opinions as to the correct species to which a particular clone belongs, but, fortunately, with the names of cultivars all that is essential is the name of the genus followed by that of the clone, e.g. Ulmus 'Acutifolia' (or elm 'Acutifolia'), to take the first name in the list below. In this way, therefore, the few examples of conflicting identities cited in the text that follows may be referred to as Ulmus 'Argenteomarginata', U. 'Christine Buisman', U. 'Klemmer' and U. 'Lombartsii', or, where the species is uncertain because of juvenile or other atypical foliage, as Ulmus solely 'Myrtifolia' and U. 'Nana'. Where reliable information on identity or synonymy is given it is often attributable to two correspondents to whom I would like to express my most sincere and grateful thanks. Dr. R. Melville, of the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, has given me much help and has kindly looked over an early draft of the registration list. In many cases he has examined material in the Nicholson Herbarium at Kew and has personal knowledge of the living trees. Much of the evidence of his help will be seen here and there in the list, in the comments after various names. To Mr. H. M. Heijbroek, of the Stichting Bosbouwproefstation 'De Dorschkamp', Baarn, Netherlands, I am likewise greatly indebted. To him I also sent an early draft of the list and from him received many wise comments, several additional names and much information concerning the elms of the Netherlands and adjoining regions. Though this list would have been considerably poorer without the help of Mr. Heijbroek and Dr. Melville, any mistakes, errors, and omissions are attributable to me and the responsibility for the opinions expressed is mine alone. I should also like to take the opportunity to thank numerous nurserymen and other correspondents who have cooperated and helped with information about the origin of various cultivars and the publication of their names, together with the provision, in many cases, of living plants or specimens. These correspondents are too numerous to mention personally but the nurseries they represent are often cited in the list which follows and my appreciative thanks is expressed to them all. The taxonomy of Ulmus is far from simple and there is no general unanimity over the correct botanical names. Dr. Melville, of Kew, has studied the genus for in Britain, where the situation appears to be most complex, many years, especially and a number of papers have presented some of the conclusions he has reached. However, these conclusions are still being debated by other botanists and the resultant lack of agreement, while it does not affect the names of cultivars, does mean that the nomenclature of the species to which they may be attributed is unstable. In an attempt to overcome this difficulty I have endeavored, wherever a name used by Melville is different from that given by Rehder in his Manual of Cultivated Trees ~a Shrubs (ed. 2, 1940) to give both names as equivalent synonyms. In this way it is hoped that cultivars can be placed in their botanical species correctly, whether the more revolutionary classification of Melville is followed or the widely known arrangement as published by Rehder. Because of the frequent difficulty in ascertaining positively the species to 42 which a cultivar should be arrange the names in one assigned, it has been deemed advisable in this list to single alphabetical series. Previous registration lists in this journal (with the exception of that of Fagus) have listed the published species alphabetically with the appropriate cultivars arranged under each specific name. In the list which follows the specific identity, or suggested identity, is given (in italic type) at the end of the paragraph which follows each accepted name. Such accepted names are printed in LARGE and SMALL CAPITALS, while are listed in Roman synonyms type, followed after the bibliographic reference, by an indication of the name to which it is believed it should be applied. In the majority of cases only a single reference is given after each name: that of the first printed publication of the name that has been discovered; but where this was not accompanied by a description, the first reference is followed in the list by a second, where the first description was provided. Most of the names indicating in the list are in Latin form, governable by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, but more recently, and in a relatively few cases, some of these Latin names have been formally proposed at the rank of cultivar; where this has also been done, additional reference is given to the first such publication. It has been the experience of colleagues compiling registration lists of cultivars that each new list raises problems which have not previously been apparent. This elm list is no exception and a point which has first arisen with this list is the realization that the word \"hybrid\" is unsuitable as part of a cultivar name. Article 21 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (1961) makes it inadmissible to include the words \"variety\" and \"form\" in new cultivar names. To this article should be added the word \"hybrid\" (see 'Broadleaf Hybrid' in the list below) and a proposal to this effect has been made to the Secretary of the International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants, for consideration when amendments to the Code are next discussed. In addition to this, it has seemed to me, that as cultivar names may correctly be associated with generic names and in either Latin or a modern language, it is inadvisable to include the actual name of the genus in any new name. The name 'Huntingdon Elm' was formally proposed in 1961 but when cited as \"elm 'Huntingdon Elm'we have a mild tautonym; the word \"Huntingdon\" alone would have been preferable. It is doubtful whether a formal proposal for the amendment of the Code is necessary to guard against this, for Article 21a may possibly be interpreted as preventing such tautonymy, even though it is clear that the intention of the article was to outlaw the inclusion of names of other genera in those of a cultivar. Another point which has arisen in the compilation of this list is the problem of Latin names proposed in the ablative case. The International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants has a starting date earlier than that of the Botanical Code: that of the sixth edition of Philip Miller's The Gardeners Dictionary, 1752. Several names (e.g. eleganter variegato) have been taken from that work for inclusion in this list but the nomenclature is not binomial and the names take the form of descriptive phrases. However, the use of the ablative case in Latin names did not end with the establishment of binomial nomenclature, but, 43 especially for varieties based on leaf color, continued throughout the 19th century. In this list the liberty has been taken to make these names agree grammatically with the generic name Ulmvs. Authority is given in the Code for Cultivated Plants (Art. 16) to correct names in Latin form which are not in accordance with the Rules and Recommendations of the Botanical Code and although the case of names in the ablative is not cited, the article is considered as granting authority for such changes. It has several times proved difficult to decide what actually constitutes a name intended for what is today called a cultivar. Ulmus 'Modiolina' was referred to as \"1'orme tortillard\" by Duhamel du Monceau as early as 1804 (Traite Arb. Arbust. ed. 2. 2: 144). Should 'Tortillard', therefore, have been listed below, or is it Duhamel's descriptive \"common\" name, comparable to the name \"Fernleaf Elm\" ( Ulmus 'Crispa')? Similar in some ways are the numerous specimen trees which have been given individual names from time to time, usually based on those of the places or family estates in which they were growing, but often named for their historic associations. This is particularly true of several fine examples of U. americana in the eastern U.S.A. but it is believed that because they have been propagated clonally, only two have warranted inclusion in this list ('Markham' and 'Washington'). It is interesting to note that these two are not distinguished by any special morphological characteristics and that they are distinct solely by virtue of the place where they were originally growing. In contrast to this there are almost certainly a number of cultivars which have never been named. This was pointed out to me by Mr. Heijbroek, for elms have been propagated and grown as roadside trees in the Netherlands and Flanders for many centuries. Many of these clones have received names which have been published, e.g. 'Klemmer' and 'Malines', but there are others as yet unnamed and unlisted. In one case, that of 'Schuurhoek', one of these nameless clones has been retaken into cultivation relatively recently and named. Decisions about the synonymy of the many cultivars distinguished by their leaf variation or habit of growth have been very difficult to reach. It is possible that at different times more than one clone has been known by the same name and during the last two hundred years or so very similar sports may have arisen more than once in each species. Any information which will help clarify the identity of these plants will be most welcome. According to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, a particular name can be correct for only one cultivar, and, if it has been given to more than one, the other usages must be treated as synonyms. In the list that follows it will be readily seen that certain names have been used over and over again for different clones (for example 'Pendula' has been proposed eight times). Fortunately the Code for Cultivated Plants does not bind one rigidly to a rule of priority, as does the Botanical Code, and by the selection of a later well known name it has often been possible to reduce the duplication of acceptable names. However, in other cases this has proved impossible. The obvious way out would be to propose new names to replace the duplicates, but there is a chance that some of the clones no longer exist and such names would then be superfluous. [ 44 It is believed that it would be wrong, in a to propose new names, either because the bibliographic compilation such as this, plants may no longer be in cultivation anywhere or because the study of living material may yet show that some of duplicate names are in fact synonyms of others which are unambiguous. For the the present at least all that is necessary for precision is the citation of the name of the species as well as that of the genus. Whenever possible in this registration list alternative names have been chosen to reduce synonymy but in the following eight cases this has proved impracticable. 'Argenteo-variegata' is a well known name in Ulmus procera, but amongst other plants it has also been used as the name for a white-variegated form which is probably assignable to U. X viminalis, yet is possibly no longer in cultivation. 'Aurea' is also known as the name for a cultivar of U. procera, and is one of the relatively few that have been formally proposed as such at this rank, but it clashes with a variety of U. americana which has no synonym and may not be in cultivation today. 'Aureo-variegata' has been used for clones in three different species ( U. X hollandica, U. laevis and U. X viminalis) and for all three there are no published synonyms. With the name 'Pendula' the duplication has been reduced in most cases by taking up synonyms, but in both U. carpinifolia and U. pumila, 'Pendula' has been formally proposed as a cultivar name and in neither case is there a known synonym. Similarly there are no known alternatives for 'Pyramidalis' of either Audibert or Gibbs, although the identity of the former is somewhat dubious. In 'Rugosa' two authorities and references are listed below but there is possible doubt about their distinctness, the published descriptions being hardly diagnostic. Lastly, in 'Variegata', although the name has been proposed some seven different times, five of them are disposed of as synonyms of other names, but of the two which remain, one is little known and perhaps misidentified as to species in this list, whilst the other may well have been used at different times for more than one clone of U. carpinifolia. Many names have been considered for inclusion and rejected on the grounds that either the botanical rank of varietas is most appropriate or because the plants have never been in cultivation. All authorities list Ulmus pumila L. var. arborea Litvinov ( U. pinnato-ramosa Dieck) as a botanical variety yet it is possible that, in modem terms, it does not warrant recognition at this rank but is a variant of U. pumila maintained and known only in cultivation, and therefore best treated as a cultivar. There is a widespread misunderstanding that all cultivars must have arisen in cultivation. It is agreed that this is true in the vast majority of cases, but all that is required for recognition as a cultivar is that the plant be under cultivation, unsuitable for treatment at any of the taxonomic ranks under the Botanical Code, yet in need of a distinctive name. Finally, some comment should be made about the inclusion of the epithets fungosa and suberosa in the list. The development of corky wings on branches is a juvenile character which has appeared in different individual plants of Ulmus carpinifolia and other related elms. There is no doubt that the name suberosa has been applied to cultivated clones, but not always to the same one. As a name it should be dropped from use, except perhaps at the botanical rank of forma, yet even there it is hardly appropriate. The corky wings may be exhibited 45]] by sucker shoots throughout the life of the plant yet they are still primarily a juvenile character and as such are comparable with the Retinospora-forms of conifers. A list of this size and type can hardly be compiled without some errors and misinterpretations, and for this reason any comments, corrections or additions will be gratefully received. It is hoped, however, that this registration list will help towards nomenclatural stability for the numerous cultivated varieties and at the very least, will aid in preventing future duplication. BOTANICAL NAMES AND THEIR AUTHORITIES REFERRED TO IN THE REGISTRATION LIST Ulmus americana L. angustifolia (Weston) Weston var. cornubiensis (Weston) Melville (U. carpinifolia Gled. var. cornubiensis (Weston) Rehder) U. carpinifolia Gleditsch U. X elegantissima Horwood (U. glabra Huds. X plotii Druce) U. glabra Hudson U. X hollandica Miller ( U. carpinifolia Gled. X glabra Huds. X plotii Druce ) U. U. laevis Pallas parvifolia Jacquin U. procera Salisbury U. pumila L. U. rubra Muhlenberg U. X sarniensis U. (Loudon) Bancroft ( U. angustifolia ( West. ) West. X hollandica Mill. ) ( U. carpinifolia Gled. forma U. X sarniensis ( Loud. ) Rehd. ) vegeta (Loud.) Lindley ( U. carpinifolia Gled. X glabra Huds. ) ( U. X hollandica Mill. var. vegeta (Loud.) Rehd.) U. X viminalis Loddiges (U. carpinifolia Gled. X plotii Druce) ( U. procera Salisb. var. viminalis (Lodd.) Rehd.) REGISTRATION LIST OF CULTIVARS IN ULMUS ~ACUTIFOLIA~ (Masters, Hort. Duroverni 66. 1831, as U. campestris acutifolia, without description; Mottet in Nicholson & Mottet, Diet. Prat. Hort. 5: 383. 1898. Described as having the leaves of mature trees narrower and the branches more pendulous. U. procera. 46 `Adiantifolia' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 563. 1864, adiantifolia Hort., name in synonymy) = 'CRISPA'. 'ALATA' as U. (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 566. 1864, as \"U. montana alata,\" without description). Possibly a juvenile form of U. carpinifolia, (see under & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 559. 1864, as U. fulva Hort. var. alba Hort., without description). A specimen in Herb. Nicholson at Kew has been identified by Dr. Melville as a rather broad leaved U. X vegeta (that is U. X hollandica var. vegeta sensu Rehder). as suberosa ) . 'ALBA' (Kirchner in Petzold 'Alba' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 286. 1958, Mistake for sarniensis aurea 'DICKSONII'. = U. carpinifolia sarniensis alba ) . `ALBO-DENTATA' phylla foliis albo-dentatis, Cat. 43, p. 117. 1880, as U. microwithout description). Called the small-leaved elm with silver teeth. Later described as a small tree, the leaves with white margins and spots. U. carpinifolia. (Baudriller, Angers, France, `ALBO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 315. 1770, as U. varieg. ) . Described as having leaves striped with white. U. glabra glabra. var. albo- 'Albo-variegata' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 315. 1770, as U. hollandica var. albovarieg.) = 'ELEGANTO-VARIEGATA'. `ALxsuTx' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 81, as U. scabra forma von Alksuth Hort.). Described as having acute-rounded leaves with a number of, sometimes almost thread-like, teeth. Possibly U. carpinifolia. 'AMPLIFOLIA' var. Comite Best. Bestr. Iepenz. 10: 9. 1932, as U. foliacea Received from Hesse's Nurseries, Weener, Germany, and said to have very short internodes with crowded leaves. U. carpini- (Meded. amplifolia [not seen] ) . folia. `ANDROSSOWII' U. cent leaves. Used as a street tree in Samarkand in 1913. According to LozinaLozinskaia (in Sokolov, Trees & Shrubs in the U.S.S.R. [in Russian] 2: 506. 1951) unknown in the wild and apparently a hybrid between U. densa and (Litvinov in Sched. Herb. Fl. Ross. 8: 23, no. 2445. t. 2. 1922, as Androssowi). Described as having a very dense spherical crown and pubes- U. pumila. var. `ANGUSTIFOLIA' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 315. 1770, as U. hollandica f olia ) . Described as having narrow leaves. U. X hollandica. angusti- 'ANSALONI' (Ansaloni Nurseries, Bologna, Italy, Cat. 1935, p. 23, as \"Olmo Siberiano Ansaloni\"). Said to have been introduced from the Far East about 1930 and to be a quick growing variant with a compact crown which holds its leaves well into the autumn. U. pumila. 'Antarctica' antarctica (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Hort.) = 'VIMINALIS'. 47 Muscav. 551. 1864, as U. * 'Antarctica Aurea' var. (Hartwig, aurea Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 391. as a 1892, as U. campestris antarctica A.M.). Described golden-colored 'Antarctica', = the U. campestris `Antarctica', _ pendulous as 'AUREA'. 'Antarctica Pendula' var. antarctica (Hartwig, Ill. pendula Hort.). Geholzb. ed. 2. 391. 1892, Described as 'VIMINALIS'? Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3. 275. 1925, as U. viminargentea, without description). = 'VIMINALIS MARGINATA'. 'Argenteo-maculata' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 1817, p. 23, as U. campes- 'Argentea' (Bean, alis var. tris var. argenteo-maculata, without description U. procera 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'? = ). Referred to as the striped elm. 'ARGENTEO-MARGINATA' 1879, as U. (Deegen in Deutsch. Mag. Gart. Blumenk. 1879: 60. pl. campestris elegans argenteo-marginatis). Described as having the leaves bordered with U. X hollandica. white, and in a later reference, as rather strongly rough, below, measuring 6-8 by 3-4 cm. U. carpinifolia or, possibly, weakly hairy 'Argenteo-marmorata' (Schelle 1903, as in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 83. U. campestris argenteo-marmorata Hort., without description) 'MARMORATA'. 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 314. 1770, as U. campestris argenteo-var.; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). Said to have originated in England by 1677 and to have leaves striped and spotted with white. U. procera. 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 314. 1770, as U. campestris var. angustifolia argenteo-var.). Described as the silver-striped, narrow-roughleaved Elm. Probably a cultivar of U. X viminalis ( U. carpinifolia X plotii, 'VIMINALIs that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder) and then possibly MARGINATA'. = 'Argenteo-variegata' (Bean, U. nitens var. Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3. 273. 1925, U. as argenteo-variegata, without description ) as carpinifolia argenteo- 'VARIEGATA'. 'Argenteo-variegata' (Weston, Fl. Angl. 46. 1775, variegata) U. glabra `ALBO-VARIEGATA'. 'Argenteo-variegata' (Weston, Fl. Angl. 46. 1775, variegata) = 'ELEGANTO-VARIEGATA'. = U. U. glabra var. as belgica var. argenteo- 'ASCENDENS' ( Slavin, Am. Midl. Nat. 12: 225. 1931, as a form). Lateral branches small and fastigiate, forming a narrow oval head. Name given originally to a tree growing, in 1927, in Seneca Park, Rochester, New York. U. americana. `ASPERA' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. without description). Possibly U. procera. 35, as U. stricta aspera, [ 48 8 'Asplenifolia' (Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. (4): 1881. 1902, as U. asplenif olia Hort., in synonymy) = 'CRISPA'. `ATROruRruREA' ( Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 55, p. 2. 1882, as U. montana atropurpurea; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 157. 1959, as a cv.). Said to have dark purple, folded leaves, and to have originated in Germany about 1881. U. glabra. 'AUGUSTINE' (Proc. Am. Assoc. Nurserymen 174. 1951 [Woody Plant Register No. 267] ). Originated by selection at Bloomington, Illinois, in 1927. Described elsewhere as differing most strikingly in its fastigiate habit, more vigorous growth, stouter twigs and larger, more deeply toothed leaves. U. americana. 'Augustine Ascending' (Weston in Horticulture, II. 30: 448. 1952) = 'AUGUSTINE'. `AuREA' (Temple ex Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. (4): 1880. 1902, as a var.). Described as having yellow foliage and originally found in Vermont by F. L. Temple. U. americana. `AUREA' (Morren in Belg. Hort. 16: 356. t. 19. 1866, as U. campestris var. aurea; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). Described as having golden-yellow leaves, occasionally approaching bronze, branchlets drooping. Originated by Mr. Egide Rosseels at Loewen in Belgium about the middle of the last sensu century. U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis Rehder). ( Hillier and Sons, Winchester, England, Cat. Autumn 1914 - Spring 1915, 'DICKSONII'. p. 24, as U. campestris sarniensis aurea). Dickson's Golden Elm 'Aurea Roezlii' (James Dickson, Chester, England, Cat. 340, p. 38. 1887, as U. campestris aurea Roezlii). Probably an error for aurea Rosseelsii 'Ros'Aurea' = = SEELSII'. `AUREO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Described aureo-varieg.). hollandica. as Bot. Univ. 1: 315. 1770, as U. hollandica var. having leaves variegated with yellow. U. X `AUREO-VARIEGATA' ( Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 87. 1903, as U. effusa f. aureo-variegata Hort., without description; Henry in Elwes & Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1853. 1913). Described as having leaves spotted Henry, with yellow. U. laevis. 'Aureo-variegata' (Weston, = Bot. Univ. 1: 314. 1770, as U. campestris aureo-var. ) 'FOLIA AUREA'. 'AUREO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 315. 1770, as LI. campestris var. angustifolia aureo-varieg. ) . Described as the gold-striped narrow-rough-leaved Elm. Probably a cultivar of U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder). Fl. 'Aureo-variegata' (Weston, = Angl. 46. 1775, as U. glabra var. aureo-variegata) 'LUTEO-VARIEGATA'. 49 ] -AURESCENS p. 12, (Uieck, Neuheiten-Utterten, Nat.-Arb. Goschen, Germany, ltSy4-y5, pinnato-ramosa f. aurescens). Described as having the leaves of emergent shoots yellowish. Originated in the National Arboretum, Zoschen, near as U. Merseburg, Germany. U. pumila. `AUSTPALIS' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, as U. montana var. australis Hort.). Described as having \"rather small leaves and a more pendulous habit of growth than the species\". U. glabra. 'Bataviana' (Simon-Louis, Metz, France, Cat. 1869, as U. campestris bataviana, without description) = 'BELGICA'. 'Batavina' (Koch, Dendr. 2 ( 1 ) : 414. 1872, as U. batavina) = 'BELGICA'. `BEA SCHWARZ' (J. C. Went in Ned. Staatscourant, 4 Nov. 1948, no. 214 [not seen] and in Meded. Comite Best. Bestr. Iepenz. 44: 6. 1949 [not seen]; Krussmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). A selection raised by the elm disease committee in the Netherlands from French its resistance to Dutch Elm Disease, issued in 1948, and said to be slightly hardier than 'Christine Buisman'. Earlier referred to as \"Clone no. 62.\" U. X hollandica. seed, about 1945, for 'BEAVERLODGE' (Rept. llth Annual Meeting of the West Canadian Society for Horticulture 1955 [not seen] ). Selected in 1925 as a seedling from the Experimental Station, Morden, Manitoba, for its hardiness and vigor with an upright, moderately spreading head. Introduced by the Experimental Farm, Research Branch, Canada Dept. of Agriculture, Beaverlodge, in 1954. U. americana. `BEEBE'S WEEPING' (Meehan in Garden & Forest 2: 286. 1889, as \"Beebe's Weeping Elm\" and U. f ulva pendula). Described as having branches which are thick and cord-like but curve over as they grow, much as those in the Weeping Willow. Propagated by grafting from a tree growing wild near Galena, Illinois, collected by Mr. E. Beebe. U. americana. `BELGICA' mann as U. belgica, without description; Kruss2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). As an epithet under the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature belgica is an obligate synonym of U. X hollandica but as the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants is independent of the Botanical Code the name is here maintained as a cultivar for the clone widely grown and known as such in the Netherlands. U. X hollandica. (Weston, Fl. Angl. 46. 1775, in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 'BERARDII' (Simon-Louis, Metz, France, Cat. 1869, p. 96. fig. 7. 1869, as U. Berardii ; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 539. 1962, as a cv.). Raised in the nursery of Messrs. Simon-Louis, near Metz, in 1863. A bushy tree with slender upright branches. Judging from dried speciments of this plant it is possibly a form of U. pumila. 'BETULAEFOLIA' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, 1838, as Cat. 1836 var. [not seen]; Loudon, Arb. Described as Frut. Brit. 3: 1376. U. campestris [ 50] betulaefolia). having \"leaves somewhat resembling those of the common birch,\" and again as \"a tree of pyramidal habit with ascending branches and elliptic to ellipticoblong leaves 4-8 cm. long, narrowed toward the unequal base.\" Probably U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder) to which, according to Dr. Melville, the tree growing under this name at Kew may be attributed. 'Betulinoides' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, U. carpinifolia 'BETULAEFOLIA'. = Haupt-Cat. Nachtrag I, 1887, p. 28) as 'Betuloides' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 553. 1864, suberosa betuloides Hort., name in synonymy) = 'BETULAEFOLIA'. `BILTII' U. en Zoon, de Bilt, Netherlands, Cat. 1921-22, as U. camp[not seen] ). Selected by Bernard Groenewegen in his nursery at de Bilt, possibly from French seedlings. Said to have a compact, pyramidal crown, (Groenewegen estris Bilti unlike the Cornish Elm, with dark green, nearly round, and crowded leaves. Tips of young shoots with a purplish-bronze tinge, contrasting with the yellowish-green young leaves. U. carpinifolia. not 'Biltil' (Pierre Lombarts, Royal Nurseries, Zundert, Netherlands, Cat. 1959-60, p. 83). Error for `BILTII'. 'Bitchuiense' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949). Mistake for Viburnum - bitchiuense. 'Boulevard' (Rosehill Gardens, Kansas, Missouri, Cat. 'ROSEHILL'. = Spring 1960 [not seen]) 'Brea' (Keeline-Wilcox 'DRAKE'. = Nursery, Brea, California, Cat. Winter 1952 [not seen]) 'Broadleaf Hybrid' (E. L. Kammerer in Bull. Pop. Inf. Morton Arb. 36 (5): 25. 1961). Found in a nursery row in 1938 or 1939 at the Neosho Nurseries, Neosho, Missouri, who state that it is a bud sport of U. pumila and not a hybrid as the name suggests. = 'GREEN KING'. 'Bubyriana' (Litvinov in Sched. Herb. Fl. Ross. 8: 23, no. 2444. t. 2. 1922, as U. densa var. Bubyriana). Described from a cultivated tree in Samarkand, Turkestan. Mentioned by Lozina-Lozinskaia (in Sokolov, Trees & Shrubs in the U.S.S.R. [in Russian] 2: 505. 1951) under U. densa, as a cultivated form, but by larmolenko (in Komarov, Fl. U.S.S.R. 5: 369. 1936) as a cultivated form closer to U. campestris umbraculifera than U. densa. Furthermore Litvinov (in Sched. Herb. Fl. Ross. 6: 163, no. 1991. 1908) states that he believes the plant to called \"Narwan\" in Persia, and which in 1922 he called var. bubyriana be the same as the \"Narband\" of Trautvetter which is the latter's var. umbraculifera. = 'UMBRACULIFERA'. 'Buisman' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 285. 1958, without TINE BUISMAN'. description) = 'CHRIS- 51 ] 'Burejaecticum' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949). Mistake for Viburnum bure~aeticum. 'Bush' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, as U. glabra Bush, without description) = 'NANA'. 'Buxifolia' (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 135. 1896, as U. buxi- folia Hort., description) = 'Camperdown' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, down) = `CAMPERDOWNII'. in synonymy, without 'MYRTIFOLIA'. as U. glabra Camper- `CAMPERDOWNII' (Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Amer. Hort. (4): 1881. 1902, as U. in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, camperdownii as a cv. ) . The Camperdown Elm. Described as \"having branches and branchlets pendulous, forming a globose head, in marked contrast to the flat stifflooking crown of var. pendula.\" Originated at Camperdown House, near Dundee, Scotland, about 1850. A nothomorph of U. X vegeta (that is, U. X hollandica var. vegeta sensu Rehder) with close similarity to U. glabra. Hort.; Kriissmann `CEBENNENSIS' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. Arb. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. campestris var. cebennensis, without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838). The Cevennes Elm. \"Its habit is spreading like that of U. montana vulgaris but it appears of much less vigorous growth.\" U. glabra. 'CHINKOTA' (South Dakota Farm & Home Research 7: 14. 1955, but named previously by the South Dakota Farm Forestry Council). A line selected at South Dakota State Experiment Station from 'Harbin Strain' for its early ripening habit and tendency to remain dormant until after severe spring frosts are passed; distributed by the Station as certified seed. Said by some to be the same as 'Dropmore'. U. pumila. 'CHRISTINE BUISMAN' (Meded. Comite Best. Bestr. Iepenz. 26: 1. 1938 [not seen] and J. C. Went in Phytopath. Zeits. 11 (2): 188. 1938 [not seen]; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv.). A selection made by Dr. Christine Buisman at the Phytopathology Laboratory \"Willie Commelin Scholten,\" Baarn, Netherlands, from plants grown from seed collected in Madrid, Spain, in 1928. Released to growers after her death in 1937, and referred to in earlier reports as \"no. 24.\" Resistant to Dutch elm disease. Attributed by Dr. Melville to U. X hollandica and by others to U. carpinifolia. 'Cicestria' J. Mackie, Norwich, Cat. 1812, p. 59, as U. campestris var. description) = 'VEGETA'. `CINEREA' ( Andre Leroy Nurseries, Angers, France, Cat. 1856, p. 70, as U. cinerea, without description; Planchon in De Candolle, Prodr. 17: 160. 1873). Said to have branches which are \"stunted and tortuous, the upper ascending, the lower more or less pendulous. Leaves crowded and similar to those of var. fastigiata from which var. cinerea appears to differ only in not being fastigate in habit.\" (W. A. & cicestria, without The tree of this cultivar at Kew is U. X hollandica. 52 'Cinerea' (Kirchner name in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. 'NIGRA'. Muscav. 565. 1864, U. as U. cinerea Hort., in synonymy) = 'Clemmeri' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, without description) = 'KLEMMER'. as campestris var. Clemmeri, 'Cochleata' (C. de Vos, Handboek 204. 1887 [not 'COLORANS' var. seen]) = 'CUCULLATA'. (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 559. 1864, as U. effusa colorans). Described as turning a beautiful scarlet red in the autumn, not U. laevis. golden. 'COLUMNARIS' ( Rehder in Jour. Arnold Arb. 3: 42. 1921, as a form). Described as a columnar form discovered by Mr. John Dunbar inside a garden wall at Conesus Lake, New York. U. americana. 'COMMELIN' as a (Bosbouwproefstation a Baarn ex Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, to Dutch Elm Disease and was selected for this at the Phytopathology Laboratory \"Willie Commelin Scholten\" at Baarn, Netherlands. Derived from a cross between U. X vegeta and a selected French seedling of U. carpinifolia, made in 1940, at the Laboratory of Genetics, Wageningen; it differs from 'Vegeta' in the narrower habit, the darker gray branches, the duller and brown branchlets, the smaller leaves, the smaller number of veins ( 9-12 ) and the pilose undersides of the leaves. U. X vegeta (that is, U. X hollandica var. vegeta sensu Rehder)...,.. cv.). This cultivar has fair resistance `CoNCnvAEFOLIA' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1378. 1838, as U. campestris var. concavae f olia Hort. ) . Described as resembling var. cucullata. U. carpinifolia. 'COOLSHADE' (Sarcoxie Nurseries, Sarcoxie, Missouri, Cat. 1951, p. 6). Originated in 1946 from the parent tree growing in the Sarcoxie Nurseries, and said to be of rapid, stocky growth with a compact top resistant to breakage under ice and snow and foliage a much darker green. Said to be a hybrid of U. pumila X rubra. 'Cornubiensis' ([Weston] Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv.). The Cornish Elm. More correctly placed in the botanical rank of variety: U. angustifolia (Weston) Weston var. cornubiensis (Weston) Melville ( U. carpinifolia Gled. var. cornubiensis ( Weston ) Rehder). 'CORNUBIENSIS PARVIFOLIA' (Boulger in Gard. Chron. II. 12: 298. 1879, as U. campestris cornubiensis parvifolia, without description). Probably U. angusti- folia. `CORNUTA' (David in Revue Hort. II. 4: 102. 1845, as U. campestris cornuta; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 157. 1959, as a cv. ) . The large leaves have two long projections or lobes on the shoulders or apex. U. glabra. `CORYLIFOLIA' (Host, Fl. Austr. 1: 329. 1827, as U. corylifolia). Described as having broad-ovate, scabrid leaves, doubly toothed with broad, obtuse teeth. 53 Later as having \"leaves 8 X6 cm., rather crowded, usually slightly rough and similar to scabra [glabra] but according to the texture, position and fruits, belonging to glabra [carpinifolia].\" U. glabra. 'Corylifolia' (Zapelowicz, Conspec. Fl. Galic. 2: 98. 1908, as U. montana var. corylifolia, not U. corylifolia Host) = 'CORNUTA'. 'CORYLIFOLIA PURPUREA' (Pynaert in Tijdschr. Boomteelt. [Bull. Arb. Flor. Cult. Potag.] 1879: 57. 1879, as U. campestris corylifolia purpurea). Described as having large purplish leaves resembling those of a Hazel in shape. Raised from seed of 'Purpurea'. U. glabra. (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 135. 1896, as U. campestris var. cretensis Hort., without description). 'CRISPA' (Willdenow, Enum. PI. Hort. Berol. 295. 1809, as U. crispa; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 536. 1962, as a cv.). The Fernleaf Elm. Leaves narrow, incisely serrate with twisted and incurved teeth; of slow growth. U. glabra. `CRETENSIS' 'Crispa Aria' ( Maxwell ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 18: 91. 1895, as U. montana var. crispa aria, without description). Error for 'CRISPA AUREA'? 'CRISPA AUREA' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 86. 1903, as U. montana crispa aurea Hort., without description; Schneider, Illus. Handb. Laubh. 1: 217. 1904). Described as \"like f. crispa but with more or less golden leaves.\" U. glabra. 'Crispa Incisa' (Koch, Dendr. 2 ( 1 ) : 416. 1872, as U. crispa incisa, name in synonymy) = 'EXONIENSIS'. 'CUCULLATA' (Loddiges, Hackney, England, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. campestris cucullata, without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1378. 1838, as U. campestris var. cucullata). \"Has the leaves curiously curved, something like a hood.\" U. carpinifolia. 'Cucullata Folia Variegata' (C. de Vos, Woordenbook 135. 1867, as U. americana 'CUCULLATA VARIEGATA'. cucullata fol. var. ) 'CUCULLATA VARIEGATA' ( Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 82. 1903, as U. campestris concavifolia cucullata variegata Hort., without description). U. carpinifolia. 'Dampier' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 1285. 1958, as U. carpinifolia Dampier, without description) = 'DAMPIERI'. 'DAMPIERI' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 389. 1863, as U. campestris var. nuda subvar. fastigiata Dampieri Hort. Vilv.; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as as cv.). Described as a narrow pyramidal tree, leaves crowded on short branchlets, broadly ovate, deeply and doubly toothed with crenately serrate teeth. Specimens in the Kew herbarium from cultivation have been determined by Dr. Melville as U. X hollandica. 54] = Dampieri 1884, as Aurea' (Wrede ex U. montana var. Jager & Beissner, Ziergeh. Gart. Dampieri aurea) = 'WREDEI'. & Park. ed. 2. 403. 'DAUVESSEI' montana in Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 139. 1896, as U. Dauvessei Hort., without description; Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1874. 1913; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). Described as having branches ascending, forming a broad pyramidal tree. Leaves smaller and thinner in texture than U. glabra, rarely exceeding 4 in. long and 2\/ in. wide, with petioles up to \/ in. long. U. X (Nicholson var. hollandica. 'Dauvessi' ( Lavallee, Arb. Hort., without 'Decumbens' Segrez. 235. 1877, description) = 'DAUVESSEI'. in as U. campestris var. _ Dauvessi (Masters, Hort. Duroverni 67. 1831, as var. decumbens, without de- scription, name 'De Dumont' 'DUMONT'. synonymy) = (Plant Buyer's Guide, `HORIZONTALIS'. ed. 6. 286. 1958, without description) = 'DENSA' (Litvinov in Sched. Herb. Fl. Ross. 6: 163, no. 1991. t.1, 2. 1908, as U. densa). Maintained at specific rank by Lozina-Lozinskaia (in Sokolov, Trees & Shrubs in the U.S.S.R. [in Russian] 2: 504. 1951) and by Mulkidjanian (in Takhtajan, Fl. Armenia [in Russian] 4: 341. 1962) but stated to be unknown in the wild and maintained in cultivation solely by budding on U. carpinifolia. In Armenia there are said to be two forms; the typical one with a few main branches which are much branched in the upper part, with dense foliage of thicker and darker leaves and almost sterile. The other much branched from the place of the graft but on the whole with a less dense more uniformly developed crown, the leaves less leathery and lighter and with fruit produced almost every year. Probably the former is Litvinov's U. densa var. bubyriana, despite the use of the word \"typical\" above. Ulmus densa was treated by Rehder (Bibl. Cult. Trees & Shrubs, 142. 1949) as a synonym of U. carpinifolia var. umbraculifera, which var. bubyriana almost certainly is. 'DICKSONII' (Dickson ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 32: cxix. 1907, without description; Dickson's Nurseries, Chester, England, Cat. 667, p. 31. 1909-10, as U. campestris cornubiensis Dicksonii ) . Described as being free and upright in growth, the foliage a clear glowing gold, very constant, and retained till late in the autumn. Originated in Dickson's Nurseries about 1900. U. X sarniensis (that is U. carpinifolia var. sarniensis sensu Rehder ) . `DrJxwEL' (Van 't Westeinde, Holland, Cat. 27, p. 28. 1957-58 [not seen]). Said to resemble 'Schuurhoek' closely, have slightly larger and lighter leaves, and be more difficult to propagate from cuttings. Original tree free from frostcracks. U. carpinifolia. 'DRAKE' (Monrovia Nursery, Azusa, California, Cat. 1952-53 [1 July 1952, not seen]). Described as having \"rich evergreen foliage on sweeping branches which grow more upright than the regular evergreen elm.\" U. parvifolia. 55 ] `DOVAEI' (Andre Described as a Leroy Nurseries, Angers, France, vigorous tree, well shaped, Cat. 1868, p. 82, as U. Dovaei). proper for avenues. U. glabra. as `Dowei' ( Baudriller, Angers, France, Cat. 43, p. 117. 1880, description) = 'DOVAEI'. 'DROPMORE' (1953 U. Dowei, without Report of the Great Plains Section of the Amer. Soc. for Horticultural Science [not seen]). A name proposed to replace 'Harbin Strain', 'Harbin', 'Manchu', and 'Chinkota', on the assumption that these are all the same line, and to remove the confusion of several names for the same cultivar. U. pumila. `DUMONT' (Anon. in Rev. Hort. Belg. 18: 12. 1892, as l'Orme Dumont). Described as very vigorous, having a straight trunk and a narrow, regularly formed, pyramidal crown. The leaves being somewhat smaller than in 'Belgica'. Discovered by a gardener on the estate of M. Dumont at Toumay in Belgium about 1865. U. X hollandica. 'Dumontii' (Mottet in Nicholson & Mottet, Dict. Prat. Hort. 5: 383. 1898, as U. campestris var. Dumontii; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 537. 1962, as a cV. ) _ 'DUMONT'. Argenteo-variegata' (Goeschke, Bunte Geholze 46. 1900, as campestris elegans foliis argenteo variegatis Hort. ) . Described as having beautiful gray-green foliage with a broad silver margin, and the tip of the shoot pink. = 'TRICOLOR'. 'Elegantissima' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 556. 1864, as U. suberosa elegantissima Hort., in synonymy, not U. X elegantissima Horwood, 'Elegans U. Folia 1933) = U. X 'Uimin4llS `VARIEGATA'. 'Elegantissima Variegata' (Miller, Gard. Dict. ed. 6. Ulmus no. 6. 1752, as U. minor, folio angusto scabro, elegantissime variegato ) . Described as having beautiful striped leaves. U. procera 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'? 'Eleganto-variegata' (Miller, Gard. Diet. ed. 6. Ulmus no. 7. 1752, as U. folio glabro, eleganter variegato) U. carpinifolia `VARIEGATA'. = = 'ELEGANTO-VARIEGATA' (Miller, Gard. Dict. ed. 6. Ulmus no. major Hollandica, angustis dr magis acuminatis samarris, folio 9. 1752, as U. eleganter variegato ) . hollandica. `ERECTA' var. Described as latissimo scabro, the Dutch Elm with striped leaves. U. X (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1396. 1838, as U. (campestris) suberosa erecta). \"Has a tall narrow head, resembling the Cornish Elm; but differing from that tree in having much broader leaves, and a corky bark.\" U. carpinifolia. U. 'Erubescens' (Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gr. pedunculata var. erubescens) _ 'RUBESCENS'. 6 56 Brit. Irel. 7: 1853. 1913, as `ESCAILLARD' (Andre Leroy Nurseries, Angers, France, Cat. 1849, p. 28, as Ulmus \"elm\" escaillard, without description; Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, as U. campestris var. Escaillardi, without description). U. glabra. 'ETRUSCA' var. (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 139. 1896, as U. montana etrusca Hort., without been identified by Dr. description). The tree with this name at Kew has Melville as of hybrid origin, U. glabra X plotii ( U. X as elegantissima ) . 'Evergreen' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, without description) = 'SEMPERVIRENS'. U. parvifolia Evergreen, 'EXHIBITION' (Patmore Nurseries, Brandon, Manitoba, Cat. 1952 [not seen]). A selection made by Patmore Nurseries from seed gathered near Brandon in Manitoba and propagated clonally by grafting. Upright in habit, it develops a narrow vase-shaped head with branches densely covered with small twigs. U. americana. 'EXONIENSIS' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. exoniensis, without description; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv. ) . The Ford or Exeter Elm. Said to have strictly upright branches forming a narrow columnar head, leaves small, broadly obovate, coarsely and deeply serrate, wrinkled above and often twisted. Raised at Exeter, England, by Mr. Ford. U. glabra. 'Fastigiata' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as fastigiata) U. angustifolia var. cornubiensis (U. carpinifolia = U. suberosa var. cornu- biensis). 'Fastigiata' (Loudon, Hort.). Described habit of growth\" = Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1399. 1838, as U. montana var. as having \"peculiarly twisted leaves and a very `EXONIENSIS'. name fastigiata fastigiate 'Fastigiata' (Charles 60, p. 33). Latin = Fiore Nurseries, Prairie View, Illinois, Wholesale Cat. 1959- proposed aurea after 1 Jan. 1959 and therefore illegitimate. 1896, as `FIOREI'. 'Fastigiata Aurea' U. montana var. (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 141. fastigiata Hort., without description) _ 'WREDEI'. 'FASTIGIATA MACROPHYLLA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra fastigiata macrophylla Hort., without description; Hartwig, Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 393. 1892). Described as a beautiful pyramidal form with large leaves. U. glabra. 'Fastigiata 1903, as Plumosa' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 85. without U. montana f. fastigiata plumosa Hort., description). as 'EXONIENSIS'. 'FASTIGIATA STRICTA' (Bean, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3. 273. 1925, U. montana var. fastigiata stricta Hort., without description). U. glabra. 7 57 `FASTIGIATA VARIEGATA' (Baudriller, U. montana Angers, France, Cat. 43, p. 117. 1880, as fastigiata variegata, description). Referred to as the varieExeter elm. U. glabra. gated, pyramidal, without `FIOREI' (Charles Fiore Nurseries, Prairie View, Illinois, Wholesale Cat. Described as a budded elm of narrow form with heavy foliage, dense and smooth bark. U. americana. `FIRMA' (Schneider, Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 217. 1904, as U. scabra f. Said to have leaves like the species but with a firmer texture. U. glabra. 1948). growth, firma ) . `FJERRESTAD' (Meded. Comite Sweden. Best. Bestr. Iepenz. 13: 9. 1933, as U. hollandica [not seen], without description). The clone was received from \"Fjerrestad\" 'FLAVA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. scabra f. flava, without description). U. glabra. Nachtrag I, 1887, p. 28, as U. 'FOLIA ALBO-PUNCTATA' (C. de Vos, Woordenboek 135. 1867, as U. campestris fol. albo punctatis). With leaves dotted with white, not flecked. Probably carpinifolia. `Folia Argentea' (Baudriller, Angers, France, Cat. 43, p. 116. 1880, as U. campestris foliis argenteis). Described as having leaves which are very beautifully and constantly variegated, and resist the bleaching of sunlight. Possibly U. carpinifolia 'VARIEGATA'. 'Folia Argenteo-marginata' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 557. 1864, as U. campestris var. foliis argenteo-marginatis) . This variety was placed by de Vos ( Handboek 203. 1887) in synonymy with 'Tricolor' but the leaves are generally described as bordered with white alone. = 'ARGENTEO-MAR= U. GINATA'. 'Folia Argenteo-marmorata' f. fol. argenteo-marmoratis 'MARMORATA' ? = (Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 25. 1892, as U. campestris ) . Described as having leaves streaked with white. in Petzold & = 'Folia Argenteo-variegata' (Kirchner as Kirchner, Arb. 1864, U. campestris var. foliis argenteo-variegatis Hort.). Muscav. 554. Described as having foliis the leaves streaked with white. U. procera `ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'. 'Folia Aurea' aureis (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1378. 1838, as U. campestris var. Hort. ) . Described as having the leaves variegated with yellow. U. procera. `Folia Aurea' (Huberty in Bull. Soc. Centr. For. Belg. 11: 427. 1904, as U. campestris foliis aureis) = 'LOUIS vAN HOUTTE'. `FOLIA AUREA VARIEGATA' ( Jager, Ziergh. Gart. & Park. 548. 1865, as U. americana var. fol. aur. varieg. ) . Described as having leaves variegated with yellow. U. americana. [58] 'Folia U. Aureo-variegata' (Baudriller, Angers, France, Cat. 43, p. 116. 1880, as campestris lati f olia foliis aureo-variegatis) = 'LATIFOLIA AUREO-VARIEGATA'. 'Folia Flavescens' (Miller, Gard. Diet. ed. 6. Ulmus no. 8. 1752, as U. minor, foliis flavescentibus). Described as the yellow-leaved Elm. = `Loms vnrr Houz-rE'? 'Folia Maculata' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, description) = fol. maculatis, without Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. campestris U. procera `ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'? 'Folia Marginata' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. U. campestris var. nuda subvar. foliis marginatis) Belg. = 1862: 389. 1863, as 'ARGENTEO-MARGINATA'. 'Folia Picturata' (Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 25. 1892, as U. campestris f. f ol. picturatis). Described as having the leaves spotted with white. = 'PICTURATA'. 'Folia Punctata' (Dieck, Zoschen, viminalis fol. punctatis, name in Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra synonymy) = `PULVERULENTA'. 'Folia Purpurea' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, as U. campestris var. foliis purpureis, without description) U. carpinifolia ( ? ) `PuaPUx~A'. 'FOLIA RHOMBOIDEA' (Morren in Jour. Agric. Prat. Belg. 4: 509, 511. 1851, as = U. campestris lati f olia, foliis rhomboideis ) . Trond, Belgium and estate at St. to be like distinguished by the rhomboid shape 'Folia Rotundata' (Morren in Jour. Agric. U. Said to be growing in the Pitteurs foliis rotundatis ( `Pitteurs' ) but of the leaf. U. X hollandica. Prat. Belg. 4: 509, 511. 1851, as campestris lati f olia, foliis rotundatis) = `PI~URS'. 'FOLIA RUBRA' (Louis de Smet, Ghent, Belgium, Cat. 10, p. 59. 1877, as U. campestris foliis rubris). Later described as having small leaves with a reddish green tinge. Probably U. carpinifolia. 'Folia Variegata' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 4: 2587. 1838, as U. americana var. foliis variegatis Hort., without description) _ 'FOLIA AUREA VARIEGATA'. `FOLIA VARIEGATA' var. Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 392. 1892, as U. pedunculata as having leaves beautifully marked with marbled and streaked variegations. U. laevis. (Hartwig, foliis variegatis Hort. ) . Described 'Folia Variegata' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1820, p. 39, as U. campestris var., without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1376. 1838). Described as having leaves striped with white. = 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'. 'Folia Variegata' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. campestris f ol. variegatis, without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1395. 1838, as U. ( campestris ) suberosa var. foliis variegatis ) . Described as being exactly like U. suberosa except in its variegation. U. carpinifolia `VAR~GATA'. 'Folia Variegata' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. major fol. f ol. = varie~atis, without description) _ `ELEGANTO-VARIEGATA'. [ 59 'Folia Variegata' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra viminalis fol. variegatis, name in synonymy) = 'VIMINALIS MARGINATA'. 'Folia Variegata' (C. = [not seen] ) de Vos, Handboek, 1887, 'FASTIGIATA VARIEGATA'. as U. plumosa foliis variegatis `FOLIA VARIEGATA PENDULA' (C. de Vos, Woordenboek 137. 1867, as U. suberosa fol. var. pendula). Described as a weak growing tree, of unsatisfactory duration but otherwise beautiful. Possibly U. X hollandica. 'Fordii' 'FULVA' (Loudon, synonymy) = fulva Hort., Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1399. 1839, 'EXONIENSIS'. as U. Fordii Hort., name in (Meded. Comite Best. without Bestr. Iepenz. 10: 9. 1932, as U. hollandica var. description [not seen]). Received from Hesse's Nurseries, as Weener, Germany. U. X hollandica. fungosa (Aiton, without Hort. Kew. 1: 319. 1789, under suberosa. U. campestris var. fungosa). U. See 'GAUJARDII' (Silva Tarouca, description). var. Unsere Freil.-Laubgeh. 366. U. X hollandica. U. X 1913, as Gaujardii, as 'Gigantea' (Kirchner montana in Petzold & = gigantea Hort.) Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 564. 1864, hollandica `MAJOR'. 3: 424. U. 'Glabra' (Walpers, Ann. Bot. 'PENDULA'. `GLOSOSA' Syst. 1852, as a var.) = U. americana ( Spath, Berlin, Germany. Cat. 89, p. 57. 1892-1893, as U. campestris globosa Behnsch). Described as having an uninterrupted, very dense, strongly branched, globose crown with firm, coriaceous, shining leaves; said to be quite different from 'Umbraculifera'. Probably U. carpinifolia. 'Gracilis' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 551. 1864, as U. gracilis Hort., name in synonymy) = 'VIMINALIS'. 'Gracilis' ( Krussmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 534. 1962, as a cv.) = 'UMBRACULIFERA GRACILIS'. 'Gracilis Aurea' (Schelle, in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 86. 1903, as U. montana viminalis gracilis aurea Hort., without description) = 'PULVERULENTA'. 'Gracilis Monstrosa' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, gracilis monstrosa, without description) = as U. campestris var. U. X sarniensis 'MICROPHYLLA PENDULA'. 'Grandidentata' (Dumortier, Fl. tata ) _ 'CORNUTA'. 'GREEN KING' Belg. 25. 1827, as U. corylacea var. grandidenCat. (Henry Field Seed & Nursery Co., Shenandoah, Iowa, Spring 0 [ 60 1960, as a registered trade mark, ) . Stated distributed as Field's new hybrid elm, but Described as of particularly rapid growth. to see be of hybrid origin, and first under 'Broadleaf Hybrid'. 'HAMBURG' (Interstate Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa, Cat. Spring 1948, p. 34, as Hamburg Elm). Said to be a hybrid of U. americana and U. pumila. Described as a hardy, very rapid grower and stronger in branching than U. pumila. in the Plumfield Nurseries, Fremont, Nebraska, in a bed of seedlings Originated raised from seed of U. pumila from Tekamah, Nebraska, and selected by Mr. Lloyd Moffet, about 1932. Has also been sold as the \"Hybrid Chinese Elm.\" 'Hamburg Hybrid' (Interstate Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa, Cat. Spring, 1949, p. 34, as Hamburg Hybrid Elm) = 'HAMBURG'. 'Harbin' (Skinner's Nursery Ltd., Manitoba, Cat. 1954, p. 20) = 'DROP MORE'. 'Harbin Strain' (Skinner's Nursery Ltd., Manitoba, Cat. 1951, p. 23). A hardy line raised by Dr. F. L. Skinner from seed collected by Mr. Ptitsin from near Harbin, Manchuria, quite hardy in Manitoba and described as fast growing, with small neat foliage. = 'DROPMORE'. `HAARLEMENSIS' (Springer in Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 21: 366. 1912, as U. campestris haarlemensis). Described as having a not very rapid growth, forming an unbroken, broad pyramidal crown; the leaves glossy dark green and remaining on the tree for two or three weeks longer in the autumn. It was selected from amongst seedlings of U. X hollandica. U. X hollandica. 'HERTFORDENSis ANGUSTIFOLIA' (Boulger in Gard. Chron. II. 12: 298. 1879, as U. campestris hertfordensis angustifolia ?, without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1396. 1838, as U. (campestris) suberosa var., \"the narrow-leaved Hertfordshire Elm\"). Probably U. carpinifolia. `HERTFORDENSIS LATIFOLIA' (Boulger in Gard. Chron. II. 12: 298. 1879, as U. campestris hertfordensis latifolia?; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1396. 1838, as U. (campestris) suberosa var., \"the broad-leaved Hertfordshire Elm\"). Probably U. carpinifolia. 'HILLIERI' (Hillier & Sons, Winchester, England, Cat. 38T, p. 52. 1928, as U. hillieri Hort.). Described as a very graceful, slow growing, small, weeping tree with small leaves and slender branches which U. X hollandica. 'Hoersholm' (Kriissmann, Handb. SHOLMIENSIS'. turn crimson in the autumn. Laubgeh. 2: 534. 1962, as a cv. ) _ 'HoER- `Hoersholmi' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 285. 'HOERSHOLMIENSIS'. 1958, without description) = `HoERSHOLMIENSIS' ( Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 242, p. 69. 1928-29). A tree with upright habit and quick growth through many years, leaves clear green, I 1 61 lanceolate or nated in the narrowly obovate, acuminate, H~rsholm Planteskole mark, probably about 1885, = base cuneate. Said to have origibetween Copenhagen and Helsingr, Denfrom seed of unknown origin. U. carpinifolia. 'Hoersholmensis' (Meded. Comite Best. Bestr. 'HOERSHOLMIENSIS'. Iepenz. 13: 10. 1933 [not seen]) `HOLGERI' (Holger Jensen ex Spath-Buch 1720-1920, 230. 1921). Described as of very strong growth, straight and sturdy with beautiful dark green leaves. Originated in Sweden. U. glabra. 'HOLMSTRUPII' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 286. 1958, without description). Selected from amongst seedlings of 'Hoersholmiensis' in Asger M. Jensen's Nursery, Holmstrup, Denmark about 1930, because of its strong quick-growing, upright stem and branches, bearing small leaves and making it suitable for planting in avenues. 'HORIZONTALIS' U. carpini f olia. , (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, as U. horizontalis Hort., name in synonymy). Branches horizontally spreading and, when grafted, forming a low flat top with pendulous branches. Originated early in the 19th century as a seedling in a nursery at Perth, Scotland. A tree of this cultivar was selfed by Melville at Kew (personal communication); it segregated for the pendulous habit but remained true to species. U. glabra. as var. 'Horsholmii' (Melville in Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond. Bot. 53: 88, 90. 1946, horsholmii Hort. ) _ 'HOERSHOLMIENSIS'. 'Huntingdon' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, as U. hollandica Huntingdon, without description) = 'VEGETA'. 'Huntingdon Elm' (Richens in Forestry 34: 63. 1961). Formally proposed by Richens as a cultivar name but known by this as a common name to many previous authors 28 ) _ 'VEGETA'. = 'VEGETA'. p. 'Huntingdonensis' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. Nachtrag I, 1887, 'Huntingdonii' (Rehder in Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. (6): 3411. 1917, as U. Huntingdonii Hort., in synonymy, without description) _ 'VEGETA'. `HuNNysuNII' (Moss, Cambr. Brit. Fl. 2: 90. 1914, as U. nitens var. hunnybuni Moss). Described as a taller tree than var. sowerbyi, with the lower branches spreading at right angles, the upper less tortuous; leaves even more asymmetrical at the base, more acuminate; and said to be often planted. U. carpinifolia. 'IMPROVED CooLSHAnE' (Sarcoxie Nurseries, Sarcoxie, Missouri, U. S. Plant Pat. No. 1747, July 1958). Originated at the Sarcoxie Nurseries. Said to be of rapid growth giving a quick shade without an unsightly whippy top, with a noncrotching central trunk and branches resistant to breaking. Said to be a hybrid of U. pumila X rubra. 62 'INCISA' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1406. 1838, as U. americana var. incisa H.S.). Described as having \"leaves somewhat more deeply serrated and rather smaller\". Possibly now extinct. U. americana. `INCISA' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 389. 1863, as U. campestris var. nuda subvar. incisa Hort. Vilv. ) . Described as having the leaves irregularly sinuate-incised with long pointed teeth. Possibly U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder). `INSULARIS' (Nilsson in Lustgarden 30: 127. 1949, as f. insularis ) . Described as having the crown rounded elongate-ovoid, branches dense, suberect. U. glabra. 'Intermedia' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 567. intermedia Hort., name in synonymy) = 'CORNUTA'. 1864, as U. 'Jersey' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 286. 1958, as U. procera Jersey, without description) = 'SARNIENSIS'. 'KANSAS HYBRID' (Kansas Nursery Co., Salina, Kansas, Retail Cat. Spring 1961, p. 52). A selected seedling of U. pumila showing hybrid characteristics, raised by the Kansas Nursery Co. in the late 1920's and maintained by grafting. Described as having an upright branching habit and dark green, shining leaves as large as U. americana, but of fast growth and cold and drought resistant. `KIMLEY' (Sheridan Nurseries, Sheridan, Ontario, Cat. 1957, p. 47). From a found near Oshawa, Ontario, of fine pendulous habit. U. americana. large 'Klehm' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, as U. americana Klehm) = tree 'KLEHMII'. 'KLEHMII' (Naperville Nurseries, Naperville, Illinois, Cat. 270, p. 6. 1929). Described as being of a shapely form. The original grafts taken from a tree in Arlington Heights, Illinois, by Mr. Charles Klehm; selected for its fine vaseshaped appearance. U. americana. 'Klemeri' (Spath, Berlin, 'KLEMMER'. = Germany, Cat. 104, p. 134. 1899-1900, as U. Klemeri) 'KLEMMER' mer ; Forest. 41. 1891, as l'orme champetre klemLaubgeh. 2: 537. 1962, as a cv.). Said to be a rapid growing, tall tree with ascending branches forming at first a narrow pyramidal head which widens later, with plenty of root-suckers and some epicormic shoots. Susceptible to frost cracks. The timber is reddish and strong but liable to warp. Possibly attributable to U. carpinifolia, but probably U. X hollandica. 'KLEMMER BLANC' (Feneau in Bull. Soc. Centr. For. Belg. 9: 162. 1902). Said to be intermediate between 'Klemmer' and 'Belgica'. The leaves are smaller (Gillekens, Elem. Arb. Kriissmann, Handb. than 'Klemmer' and the trees have no root-suckers or frost cracks. The timber is white and softer than 'Klemmer'. U. X hollandica. 'Klemmer Rouge' (Feneau in Bull. Soc. Centr. For. 'KLEMMER'. 63 Belg. 9: 162. 1902). = ] Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 62, p. 6. 101. 1885, as Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 534. 1962, as a cv. ) . Described as a form resembling U. carpinifolia var. umbraculi f era with small ovate leaves but with an ovoid head if grafted high, shrubby and stoloniferous if propagated by cuttings. U. carpinifolia. 'LACINIATA' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 390. 1863, as U. campestris var. nuda subvar. microphylla laciniata Hort. Vilv.). Described as having laciniate leaves 3 to 5 cm. long. U. carpinifolia. 'LAKE CITY' (Wyman in Trees Magazine 3 (4): 13. 1940; 4 ( 1 ) : 17. 1941). Said to be upright in habit, wide at the top and narrow at the base. U. ex `KOOPMANNII' (Lauche U. Koopmanni; Kriissmann, americana. 'LANUGINOSA' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 236. 1877, without description). U. carpinifolia. 'LATIFOLIA' as U. suberosa var. lanuginosa, Cat. 1817, p. 23, as U. campestris var. Described as having broader leaves than the species which expand lati f olia ) . very early in the spring. Possibly the same as 'Belgica' but also called 'Malines' by Gillekens ( ~lem. Arb. Forest. 38. 1891). (Audibert, Tonelle, France, 'LATIFOLIA AUREA' as U. glabra var. ( Schelle latifolia in Beissner et aurea al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 84. 1903, Hort. Croux, without description). U. glabra. 'LATIFOLIA AUREO-VARIECATA' (Neubert in Deutsch. Mag. Gart. Blumenk. 1871: 343. 1871, as U. campestris latifolia aureo-variegata ) . Described as a beautiful new variety with colored ornamental leaves. U. glabra. 'LATIFOLIA NIGRICANS' (Pynaert in Tijdschr. Boomteelt. [Bull. Arb. Flor. Cult. Potag.] 1879: 58. 1879, as U. campestris latifolia nigricans). Described as very vigorous, the leaves being large and of a dark tint. Raised from seed of 'Purpurea'. U. glabra. 'Libero-rubra' (Planchon in De Candolle, Prodr. 17: 160. 1873, rubro, without description) = 'RUBRA' `LITTLEFORD' as U. libere- ( Sherman Nursery, Charles City, Iowa, Wholesale Cat. Spring 1957, p. 5). Described as upright branching, rather narrow vase-shaped, Grafts taken from U. americana. as a foliage larger and somewhat heavier than usual. in original tree var.) = Hinsdale, Illinois, about 1915; first marketed 1927. 'Littlefordii' ( Bailey & `LITTLEFORD'. 'Lobata' Bailey, Hortus Second, 746, 747. 1941, 1899, as (Waisbecker in Oesterr. lobata) = 'CORNUTA. Bot. Zeitschr. 49: 67. U. montana f. 'Lombartii' (Floralia 41 (39): 615. [not seen]) = `LOMBARTSII'. 1920, 64 as U. suberosa pendula Lombartii 'LOMBARTSII' (Lombarts, Zundert, Netherlands, Cat. 1921-22, p. 25 as U. suberosa pendula Lombartsi [not seen]). A graceful tree with pendulous branches covered with corky wings. As the tree ages the wings become less prominent. Originated in the Lombarts Nurseries, Zundert, Netherlands, about 1910. Possibly U. carpinifolia or U. X hollandica. `Loms VAN HouTTE' (Deegen in Ill. Monatsch. Gartenb. 5: 103. 1886; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv.). Said to have leaves entirely yellow, retaining this color throughout the summer, and to have been cultivated in Belgium about 1863. From specimens, this appears to be U. procera. 'Ludwig van Houtte' ( Spath-Buch 1720-1920, with 229. 1921), error for 'Louis VAN HOUTTE'. 'LUTEO-VARIEGATA' (Weston, Bot. varieg. ) . Leaves variegated Univ. 1: 315. 1770, yellow. U. glabra. as U. glabra luteo- 'LUTESCENS' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 81, as U. campestris lutescens; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 157. 1959, as a cv. ) . Described at first as having gold-bronze foliage and later as having yellow leaves at least in the spring. U. U. glabra. ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 237. 1877, without description). Later the largest leaves and being of very strong growth. 'MACROPHYLLA' described as having glabra. `Macrophylla' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra macrophylla Hort., not U. campestris var. macrophylla Spach, 1841) = `PITTEURS'. 'MACROPHYLLA AUREA' (Bean, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3. 273. 1925, as U. montana var. macrophylla aurea, without description). U. X hollandica. `Macrophylla ( Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 116, p. 125. 1904-05, as macrophylla aurea). Described as a very vigorous growing form with young shoots golden. U. X hollandica 'MACROPHYLLA AUREA'? 'Macrophylla Fastigiata' ( Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 141. 1896, as U. montana var. macrophylla fastigiata Hort., without description) _ U. americana = Aurea' 'MAJOR'? 'MACULATA' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. scabra maculata ) . Described as spotted. U. glabra. 'MAJOR' (Smith in Sowerby, English Botany 36: t. 2542. 1814, as U. major; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 537. 1962, as a cv. ) . A nothomorph of U. X hollandica widely planted in Britain. Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. as 'Major' (Loudon, 1838, as U. montana more var. major Masters). Described having an \"upright and rapid growth with few branches, a approaching `SUPERBA'. the habit of the Scotch elm but of tapering form.\" = 5 [ 65 'Malines' ( Gillekens, ~lem. Arb. Forest. 38. 1891, as orme de Malines). Said to have originated about 1750 in Malines, or district; widely planted in Belgium. = `LATIFOLIA'. `MANCHil' (Stewarts Nurseries, Sutherland, Saskatchewan, Cat. 1951 [not seen]). A hardy strain raised by Mr. H. D. Stewart from seed collected by Mr. Ptitsin from near Harbin, Manchuria, and quite hardy in Saskachewan. U. pumila. 'Marginata' (Krussmann, GINATA'. Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 539. 1962) = 'VIMINALIS MAR- `MARIJNE' (C. de Vos, Handboek 205. 1887, as a Dutch name for U. sativa [not seen]). Without description and possibly a corruption of the French 'Malines'. 'MARKHAM' (Peattie, A Natural History of Trees of Eastern and Central North America 240. 1950). A clone taken from an outstanding tree growing naturally at Avon, New York, which is now dead. As well as great size the original tree apparently possessed an extreme pendulous branching habit. U. americana. 'MARMORATA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 81, as as U. campestris The variegated Probably U. carpinifolia. 'MICROPHYLLA' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. stricta microphylla, without description). The specimen of this cultivar in Herb. Nicholson at Kew has been identified by Dr. Melville as U. X hollandica with leaf shape approaching U. carpinifolia. 'Microphylla Albo-dentata' (Dippel, Hand. Laubh. 2: 25. 1892, as U. campestris f. microphylla albo-dentatis) = 'ALBO-DENTATA'. 'Microphylla Folia Marginata' (Hartwig, Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 391. 1892, as U. campestris var. microphylla foliis marginatis Hort.). Described as the margined small-leaved elm. = 'ARGENTEO-MARGINATA'? 'Microphylla Pendula' (Hartwig & Rumpler, Ill. Geholzb. 580. 1875, as U. campestris var. microphylla pendula Hort., in synonymy) = 'VIMINALIS'. was marmorata Hort.). Described tree in Destedter Park original beautifully variegated said to have produced with white. massive suckers. 'MICROPHYLLA PENDULA' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 561. 1864, as U. microphylla pendula Hort.). The tree growing under this name at Kew, is, according to Dr. Melville, a nothomorph of U. X sarniensis (that is U. carpinifolia f. sarniensis sensu Rehder). 'MICROPHYLLA RUBRA' (C. de Vos, Handboek 203. 1887, as U. campestris microphylla rubra, without description [not seen] ). Said to be slightly different from U. campestris microphylla purpurea. 'MINNEAPOLIS PARK' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 6. 285. 1958, without description). A selection made by the Minneapolis Park Department as being particularly fitted for boulevard plantings. U. americana. 66] ] 'Minneapolis Park Board' (Sherman Nursery, Spring 1960) = 'MINNEAPOLIS PARK'. Charles City, Iowa, Wholesale Cat., 'MINOR' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, as U. montana var. minor Masters). Described as having a \"more branching and spreading habit, of lower growth, with more twiggy shoots and these more densely clothed with leaves.\" U. glabra. 'MODIOLINA' (Dumont de Courset, Bot. Cult. 3: 700. 1802, as U. campestris var. modiolina). \"L'orme tortillard.\" Described as a pyramidal form of medium height with small leaves and crowded branches and by later authors as having twisted and crowded branches and gnarled stems. The Kew tree under this name has been identified by Dr. Melville as U. X hollandica. `MOLINE' (Plant Buyer's Index, ed. 2. supplement, 1928). Originated as a wild seedling transplanted to Moline, Illinois, in 1903 and propagated from 1916; a tree, when fully grown rather open, the main trunk older branches eventually horizontal. U. americana. narrow upright but the 'Molinensis' 'MOLINE'. (Bailey & Bailey, Hortus Second 746. 1941, as var. molinensis) = 'MONSTROSA' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, as U. campestris var. monstrosa, without description; Hartwig, Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 394. 1892, as U. scabra var. monstrosa Hort.; Krussmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 536. 1962, as a cv.). Described as a compact shrub; branchlets often fasciated, leaves 5-8 cm. long, partly pitcher shaped at the base and on a slender stalk to 2.5 cm. long. U. glabra. 'Monument' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, without description) = `MONUMENTALIS'. as U. procera Monument, `MONUMENTALIS' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 554. 1864, as U. campestris var. monumentalis Rinz). Said to be a columnar tree, with a few upright main branches and numerous short twigs bearing dense crowded dark green leaves which was propagated by Rinz at Frankfurt from a sucker of \"U. suberosa.\" Possibly U. carpinifolia but placed by some as a synonym of 'SARNIENSIS'. `MORDEN' (Patmore Nurseries, Brandon, Manitoba, Cat. 1948 [not seen]). Selected in 1939 by the Dominion Experimental Farm, Morden, Manitoba, as being able to withstand severe ice-storms without breakage; hardy, fast growing, large and strong, but rather coarse. U. americana. `MUSCAVIENSIS' (Schneider, Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 219. 1904, as U. dippeliana f. muscaviensis). Described as being larger than U. glabra viminalis, leaves measuring about 9 X5 cm. U. X hollandica. 'MYRTIFOLIA' (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 135. 1896, as U. 7 ~ 67 var. myrti f olia Hort., without description; Rehder in Jour. Arnold Arb. 20: 87. 1939; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 540. 1962, as a cv.). Leaves ovate or rhombic-ovate to oblong-ovate, 2-3 (-5 ) cm. long, with nearly simple teeth, loosely pilose on both sides; fruit obovate, 12-15 mm. long. The specimen under this name in Herb. Nicholson at Kew has been identified by Dr. Melville as having small-leaved, juvenile-type foliage and probably being U. carpinifolia X plotii or U. X hollandica. campestris 'Myrtifolia Purpurea' (Louis de Smet, Ghent, Belgium, Cat. 10, p. 59. 1877, as U. myrtifolia purpurea) = `PURPURASCENS'. 'NANA' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1836 [not seen] ; Loudon, Arb. Frut. 1378, & 4: 2586. 1838, as U. campestris var. nana Hort.; Krussmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 536. 1962, as a cv.). The Bush Elm. Described as a very distinct variety not growing above 2 feet in 10-12 years. Species uncertain, the Kew bush is said by Dr. Melville to be U. carpinifolia X glabra or possibly U. X hollandica. Brit. 3: 'NEMORALIS' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 84. 1903, as U. campestris f. nemoralis Hort., without description ) . Possibly U. carpinifolia. (Loddiges ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, as U. montana var. nigra). The Black Irish Elm. Said to have particularly deep green leaves. U. glabra. 'NIGRESCENS' (Pynaert in Tijdschr. Boomteelt. [Bull. Arb. Flor. Cult. Potag.] 1879: 57. 1879, as U. campestris betulaefolia nigrescens ) . Described as having leaves like a birch and of a darker more persistent color than 'Purpurea'. Probably U. carpinifolia but said to have been raised from seed of 'Purpurea'. 'Nigrescens' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 87. 1903, as U. americana f. nigrescens Dieck, name only) = 'NIGRICANS'. `NIGRICANS' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 80). Selected from seedlings raised at the Zoschener Baumschule, distinguished by the deep dark'NIGRA' green color of the leaves. U. americana. 'Nigricans' (Bailey & Bailey, Hortus 625. 1930, my) = `NIGRESCENS'. 'OBLONGATA' as as U. nigricans, name in synony- (Koch, broad Dendr. having a oblong 2 (1) : 415. 1872, as U. oblongata Hort.). Described leaf without noticeable apical teeth. U. glabra. as 'Ohioensis' (Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 141. 1896, ohioensis Hort., in synonymy, without description) = 'ExoNIENSIS'. 'Ontariensis' U. my) = (Koch, Dendr. 2 ( 1 ) : 416. 1872, 'EXONIENSIS'. as U. ontariensis, as name in synony- 'ORNATA' ( Carriere, Revue Hort. 1858: 554. Described from Toulouse and characterized 1858, as U. communis ornata ) . are having leaves which not 8 [ 68 by insects whilst those of the common type are. Through the kindness of Mlle. Y. de Ferre it is understood that two individual trees still exist in the original locality, still show resistance to insect attack, and are probably two of the plants referred to by Carriere. They prove to be U. laevis, of which plantings had been made at that locality in the 18th century, and not U. glabra (U. communis) which had been planted to replace most of the U. laevis. eaten 'Oxfortii' in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 389. 1863, as U. camnuda subvar. fastigiata oxfortii Hort. Vilv. ) . Described as a pypestris 'SARramidal tree with the leaves not lying against the branches. Possibly NIENSIS'. (Wesmael var. = 'Oxoniensis' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. suberosa oxoniensis, without description; Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 389. 1863, as U. campestris var. nuda subvar. fastigiata oxoniensis Hort. Vilv.). Described as a pyramidal tree with the leaves perceptibly lying towards the branches. Possibly an error for 'Exoniensis'. (Koch, Dendr. 2 (1) : 417. 1872, name in synonymy ) _ 'HORIZONTALIS'. 'PENDENS' (Rehder in Jour. Arnold Arb. 26: 473. 1945, as U. parvifolia f. pendens). Described as having long, loosely pendulous branches. Originated in 'Parasol' California before 1930 from seed of the typical plant received from China. parvifolia. pendula (Aiton, a vase-shaped U. Hort. Kew. 1: 320. 1789, as U. americana var. pendula). Has habit but with branches pendulous at their ends. This habit is of the natural variation of U. americana and would seem to warrant no part higher botanical rank than forma. It is doubtful if the original clone cultivated in Britain in 1752 still exists. It was later confused with a pendulous variant of U. glabra. _ 'PENDULA' (Masters, Hort. Duroverni 66. 1831, as U. campestris pendula, without description; Krussmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 537. 1962, as a cv.) = `SMITHII'. 'Pendula' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, without 'Pendula' pendula, description) = (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, gartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. as Cat. 2, p. 53. `PROPENDENS'. Cat. 1836 1831-32, as U. suberosa [not seen]; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Kriissmann in U. montana as a var. pendula; Parey's Blumen- 1958, cv.) = `HORIZONTALIS'. 'PENDULA' Krussmann, Handb. in Revue Hort. II. 4: 101. 1845, as U. campestris pendula; Laubgeh. 2: 540. 1962, as a cv. ) . Described as having small leaves with equal teeth and pendulous branches. U. pumila. (David 'Pendula' ( Kirchner in Petzold & don 1838, as U. montana var. 'PENDULA' Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 565. 1864, not of Lou- pendula) = 'CAMPERDOWNII'. (C. de Vos, Handboek 20. 1887, as U. sativa pendula [not seen]); Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv.). Described as having slender Boom, 9 69 branches and having been grown in die back in hard winters. U. carpinifolia. may pendulous 'Pendula' scribed not U. Belgium in 1863. Young twigs (Meehan, Garden & Forest 2: 286. 1889, as U. fulva pendula). Deas being a weeping elm and correctly identified as U. americana and rubra (U. fulva). = `BEEBE'S WEEPING'. Camperdownii' (Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1867. U. montana var. pendula camperdowni Hort.) = 'CAMPERDOWNII'. 'PENDULA MACROPHYLLA' (Maxwell ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 18: 91. 1895, as U. montana var. pendula macrophylla, without description ) . U. glabra. 1913, as Tendula 'Pendula Nova' U. montana (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. in Muscav. 565. 1864, as synonymy) = pendula & Riimpler, Ill. Geholzb. 583. 1875, as U. mon(Hartwig tana var. pendula variegata Hort. ) . Described as a form of 'Pendula' with beautiful white-variegated leaves. U. glabra. 'Pendulina' (Sinclair in Donn, Hort. Cantab. ed. 12. 110. 1831, as U. pendulina, without description) = 'HORIZONTALIS'? nova Hort., name `CAMPERDOWNII'. 'PENDULA VARIEGATA' `PICTiJRATA' (Simon-Louis, Metz, France, Cat. 1880, p. 66, as U. Cripps). Said to differ little from 'Variegata' but with larger leaves. U. picturata Probably carpinifolia. `PiTTEUSS' (Morren in Jour. Agric. Prat. Belg. 1: 114, fig. 1848, as L'Orme Pitteurs, & Belg. Hort. 2: 133. 1852). Described as a tall tree, with very large (20 cm. long X 18-19 cm. broad) convex rounded leaves, a little attenuate at the apex and with prominent nerves. Said to have originated in the Pitteurs estate at St. Trond, Belgium. U. X hollandica. 'Pitteursii' (Wesmael pestris 1958, var. as a in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 382. 1863, as U. camPitteursii Mor.; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. cv.) = 'PITTEURS'. 'Pitteursii Pendula' (C. de Vos, Handboek, Supplement 16. 1890, as U. Pitteursii pendula [not seen]). According to Mr. Heijbroek the material under this name obtained Zelkova. by de Vos proved to be identifiable with U. verschaffeltii, which is a `PLANEREOIDES' ( Carriere in Revue Hort. 1875: 287, fig. 48. 1875, as U. planereoides). Described as having leaves like Planera. Possibly U. carpinifolia. 'PLANIFOLIA' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1377. 1838, as U. campestris var. planifolia Hort. ) . Described as \"a handsome small tree, closely resembling U. campestris var. parvi f olia\" ( i.e. U. parvifolia Jacq. ) . Species uncertain and probably now extinct. as Tlumosa' (C. de Vos, Woordenboek 136. 1867, 70 U. plumosa) = 'EXONIENSIS'. 'Praestans' (Beterams in Mitt. Deut. Dendr. Ges. 20: 250. 1911, ' as U. praestans) `MAJoR'. 'Primus' (Sarcoxie Nurseries, Sarcoxie, Missouri, U. S. Plant Patent No. 1747, July 1958, as 'Improved Coolshade variety Primus') = 'IMPROVED COOLSHADE'. 'PRINCETON' (Princeton Nurseries, New Jersey, Cat. 1934, p. 107). Originally = selected in 1922 vigorous growth to by Princeton Nurseries for the large healthy foliage, usually habit and resistance to Elm Leaf Beetle. Vase type similar 'Moline' but with a slightly more spreading top. U. americana. 'PROPENDENS' (Schneider, Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 220. 1904, as U. glabra var. suberosa f. propendens; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 535. 1962, as a cv. ) . Described as \"a form of var. suberosa with pendulous branches.\" U. carpini- folia. 'Propendens U. procera Lombarts' (Lombarts, Zundert, Netherlands, Cat. 1955-56, p. 85, 'propendens Lombarts'). = 'LOMBARTSII'. as `PULVERULENTA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra viminalis pulverulenta Hort., without description; Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 30. 1892). Described as having the leaves streaked with white and yellow. U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder). `PUMILA' not U. (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1823, p. 35, as U. montana pumila, pumila L., without description). Species unknown and probably extinct. = ' 'Punctata' (Simon-Louis Nurseries, Metz, France, Cat. 1886-87, p. 60, as U. campestris punctata ) . Described as having spotted leaves. U. carpinifolia `VARIE-. GATA'? 'PUNCTATA' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 87. 1903, as U. effusa f. punctata Hort., without description; Schneider, Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 213. 1904). Described as having leaves flecked with white. U. laevis. 'PUNCTATA' 'Punctata' (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 87. 1903, as as U. ( ellipticaP ) punctata Hort., ( Schelle without description). Species doubtful. U. in Beissner et al., Laubh.-Benenn. 83. 1903, campestris I. punctata Hort., without description). = 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'. 'Purple Leaf' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, as U. procera Purple Leaf, without description) = 'PURPUREA'. `PURPURASCENS' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 236. 1877, as U. campestris var. purpurascens, without description; Schneider, Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 220. 1904; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 540. 1962, as a cv.). Said to have leaves about 1 inch long tinged with purple or purplish when young, dark green later, and normally remaining a shrub. Possibly U. carpinifolia. `PuRruaEn' (Wesmael pestris var. in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 390. 1863, as U. campurpurea Hort. Vilv.; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1 71 as a cv. ) . Described as having the leaves tinged with dark purpleunfolding and reddish-green later. Cultivated in Belgium by 1863. Probably U. carpinifolia. 'Purpurea Corylifolia' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra purpurea corylifolia Hort., without description) = 'CORYLIFOLIA 1: 519. 1958, brown when PURPUREA'. 'Purpurea Nigricans' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, as U. scabra purpurea nigricans Hort., without description) _ `LATTFOLIA NIGRICANS'. 'PYRAMIDALIS' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. campestris pyramidalis. Referred to as pyramidal. Possibly U. carpinifolia. 'Pyramidalis' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 387. 1863, as U. americana var. pyramidalis Hort.) = 'PYRAMIDATA'. 'Pyramidalis' (C. de Vos, Woordenboek 137. 1867, as U. pyramidalis) - U. angustifolia var. cornubiensis ( U. carpinifolia var. cornubiensis ) . 'Pyramidalis' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 237. 1877, as U. montana var. pyramidalis, without description) = 'DAMPIERI'. 'Pyramidalis' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 236. 1877, as U. suberosa var. pyramidalis, without description) = `SARNrENSIS'. 'PYRAMIDALIS' (Gibbs in Gard. Chron. III. 71: 227. 1922, as U. campestris pyramidalis). A pyramidal tree originating from a sport at Aldenham about 1890. U. procera. `PYRAMIDALIS BERTINII' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 236. 1877, as U. cam~P.stris pyramidalis Bertini, without description). Possibly U. carpinifolia. var. 'PYRAMIDALIS FIOREI' ( Charles Fiore Nurseries, Prairie View, Illinois, Cat. Spring 1957, p. 27). Described as being strictly pyramidal in form, selected from a plant in nursery grounds at Prairie View about 1950. U. pumila. ( Baudriller, Angers, France, Cat. 43, p. 116. 1880, as U. americana pyramidata). Described as pyramidal. U. americana. 'QUEEN CITY' (Sheridan Nurseries, Sheridan, Ontario, Cat. 1949, p. 34). Selected about 1944, the original tree growing on the Lake Shore Blvd., Toronto; a very symmetrical vase-shaped, densely branched tree, the lateral branches spreading horizontally, and with a rather smooth bark. U. americana. 'RAMULOSA' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1405. 1838, as U. (montana) glabra var. ramulosa Booth, without description). U. glabra. 'Replicata' (Masters, Hort. Duroverni 67. 1831, as var. replicata, name in synonymy, without description) = 'EXONIENSIS'. `ROSEHILL' (Willis Nursery Co., Ottawa, Kansas, Cat. Fall 1958 - Spring 1959, p. 18. 1958). A hybrid of U. pumila and U. rubra. A selection made in 1951 2 [ 72 'PYRAMIDATA' and described as growing a little more slowly than 'Willis' but carrying a heavier crown for the height, also that it branches well and has very attractive foliage. Raised by Rose Hill Nurseries, Kansas City, Missouri. `Rosscelsii' U. (Schelle var. in Beissner et campestris al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 83. 1903, as U. X viminalis Rosscelsii Hort.). Mistake for Rosseelsii. = 'AUREA'. `Rosseelsii' = (Koch, Dendr. 2 ( 1 ) : 412. U. X viminalis 'AuREA'. 1872, as U. Rosseelsii, name in synonymy) 'ROTUNDIFOLIA' (Mottet in Nicholson & Mottet, Dict. Prat. Hort. 5: 383. 1898, as U. campestris var. rotundifolia Hort.). Described as having leaves rounded, oval or suborbicular. Possibly U. carpinifolia. 'Rubescens' (Schwerin in Mitt. Deut. Dendr. Ges. 20: 423. 1911, as U. effusa rubescens). Described as having leaves which turn a beautiful blood-red in the U. laevis 'COLORANS'? (U. campestris var. rubescens Herder in autumn. Gartenflora 20: 347. 1871, is possibly an earlier publication of this cultivar = under the `RuRRA' name of another species). Cat. 1869, p. 97, as U. campestris rubra; 2: 536. 1962, as a cv.). Distinguished by the inner bark of young branchlets deep red. U, glabra. 'RUEPPELLII' ( Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 73, p. 124. 1888-1889, as U. campestris Rueppelli; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 535. 1962, as a cv. ) . Described (Simon-Louis, Metz, France, Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. as a pyramidal tree forming a globose or with a distinct stem and numerous ovoid crown. U. carpinifolia. ascending branches `RUFA' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. Nachtrag 1. 1887, p. 28, as U. campestris f. rufa, without description). Possibly U. carpinifolia. `RucosA' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 1817, p. 23, as U. campestris var. rugosa, without description; Hartwig & Riimpler, Ill. Geholzb. 583. 1875, as U. montana var. rugosa Hort.). Described as having very hard, roughly harsh, somewhat folded leaves, and as being pramidal and thick bushy. U. glabra. `RucosA' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1398. 1838, as U. montana var. rugosa Masters). Described as having \"dark reddish-brown bark, cracking into short regular pieces, very like Acer campestris; a tree of spreading growth and moderate size.\" Possibly different from the previous cultivar. U. glabra. 'Rugosa U. rugosa Pendula' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 566. 1864, pendula Hort., name in synonymy) = 'PROPENDENS'. as `SARNiENSis' (Loddiges, Hackney, London, Cat. 1836 [not seen]; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv. ) . The Jersey, Guernsey or Wheatley Elm. Usually treated as a variety of U. carpinifolia; Dr. Melville believes it is more correctly considered as a hybrid between U. angustifolia and U. X hollandica, for which the botanical name would be U. X sarniensis (Loud.) Bancroft. However the original clone may still be called cultivar 'Sarniensis'. 73 'SCAMPSTONIENSIS' ( Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 560. 1864, as U. glabra var. Scampstoniensis Loud. ) . The Scampston Elm. Originated at Scampston Hall, Yorkshire, England, before 1810. A quick growing, weeping form possibly no longer in existence. Probably a form of U. X hollandica. 'Scampstoniensis Pendula' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 560. 1864, as U. Scampstoniensis pendula). Said to be of a very beautiful weeping U. glabra 'PENDULA'? habit but scarcely different from U. montana pendula = `SCHUUPHOEK' (Van 't Westeinde, Holland, Cat. 27, p. 28. 1957-58 [not seen]). An old, nameless clone growing in several places around Goes, Holland, retaken into cultivation and named by Van 't Westeinde. Of high growth, the trunk being covered with not-too-heavy branches over its whole length, and resistant to exposure. U. carpinifolia. `SEMPERVIRENS' (Bailey & Bailey, Hortus Second 747. 1941). Said to be an evergreen form of the Chinese Elm, but can be deciduous or evergreen depending upon the climate. U. parvifolia. `SERICEA' out ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 236. 1877, description). Possibly U. carpinifolia. (Koch, as U. campestris var. sericea, with- 'SERPENTINA' Dendr. 2 ( 1 ) : 417. 1872, as U. serpentina, name in synonyHandb. Laubgeh. 2: 536. 1962, as a cv. ) . Given by Koch as a my ; Kriissmann, synonym of 'Pendula'. Plants ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1964-Registration of Cultivar Names in Ulmus"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration of Cultivar Names in Ulmus","article_sequence":5,"start_page":41,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24406","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25ebb26.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"with this name at Kew have been identified by Dr. Melville as Ulmus glabra introgressed by U. carpinifolia and distinct from 'Camperdownii'. It is said to have more pronounced zig-zag twigs. `Siber-Ansaloni' 'ANSALONI'. (Ansaloni Nurseries, Bologna, Italy, Cat. 1946-47, p. 28) = 'Siberica' ( Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 237. 1877, as U. sibirica Hort., in synonymy, without description) U. pumila 'PENDULA'. = `SMITHII' in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1868. t.412, fig. 24. U. Smithii). The Downton Elm, first named as such by Sabine (ex Knight in Trans. Hort. Soc. Lond. 5: 146. 1824, as the Downton Ehn ) . Raised in 1810 in Smith's Nursery at Worcester from seed obtained from a tree in Nottinghamshire. Some seedlings were purchased by Mr. Knight of Downton Castle of which one turned out to be pendulous. It has the habit of ascending branches but pendulous branchlets. U. X hollandica. (Henry 1913, as 'SOWERBYI' (Moss, Cambr. Brit. Fl. 2: 90. 1914, as U. nitens var. sowerbyi Moss). Described as a smaller tree than var. Hunnybunii, the branches shorter and the upper ones very tortuous; leaves smaller and acute; often planted. U. carpini- folia. 'SPECTABILIS'. Appeared about 1915 in Pallesens Nursery, Kolding, Denmark. Selected for its extremely rapid growth in the first two or so years but this characteristic lessened as the plants grew older, and it seems to have dropped out of cultivation. U. glabra. 74 ~ 'STAR' ( Plumfield Nurseries, Fremont, Nebraska, Wholesale Cat. 1957 [not seen]). Selected about 1945, as grafts from a local tree of compact growth and much branched, globe-shaped head. U. americana. (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. campestris striata). Possibly a typographic error `S~uCTA'. `STRICTA' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 1817, p. 23, as U. campestris var. stricta). Described as of very rigid growth. A specimen under this name in = 'Striata' Herb. Nicholson at Kew has been identified by Dr. Melville as U. X viminalis. suberosa (Moench, Verz. Baume Weissenst. 136. 1785, as U. suberosa). Said to differ chiefly in the corky-winged branches but this is a juvenile character which occurs here and there in otherwise unrelated populations of U. carpinifolia and related elms and is inapplicable, along with fungosa, and possibly alata, as the name of a clone or cultivar. 'Suberosa Alata' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 556. 1864, as U. campestris var. suberosa alata Hort. ) . Described as having corky pendulous branches 'PROPENDENS'? = 'Suberosa Pendula' (Audibert, Tonelle, France, Cat. 1831-32, p. 53, as U. suberosa pendula, without description; Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 69, p. 9. 1887, as U. campestris suberosa pendula Hort. ) _ 'PROPENDENS'. `SusEROSn ToRZ-vosw' as U. ( Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 84. 1903, (?) suberosa tortuosa Hort., without description). U. campestris var. ~ carpini f olia? `SusEROSa VARIEGATA' (Hartwig & Rumpler, Ill. Geholzb. 579. 1875, as U. pestris var. suberosa variegata Hort. ) . Described as having leaves with very white streaks. Possibly a cultivar of U. carpinifolia or U. X viminalis, see comments under U. carpinifolia'Variegata'. cam- 'Sublaciniatus' (Mathieu, Fl. Gen. Belg. 1: 480. 1853, as sublaciniatus) = 'CRISPA'. `SuPERRn' (Morren in Jour. Agric. Prat. Belg. 1: 411. 1848, U. as campestris U. montana var. var. superba; Kriissmann, Masters Handb. Nursery to as near Master's (but not that of Smith). U. X hollandica. 'Superba' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 237. 1877, in synonymy) = 'CORNUTA'. referred Laubgeh. 2: 537. 1962, as a cv.). Raised in Canterbury, probably early in the 19th century, and Canterbury seedling; later known by the epithet major as U. montana U. var. superba, name 'Tabletop' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. description) = 'HORIZONTALIS'. 5. 253. 1949, as glabra Tabletop, without 'TILIAEFOLIA' (Host, Fl. Austr. 1: 329. 1827, as U. tiliae f olia ) . Said to be a form with ovate leaves, rounded or subcordate, and usually not strongly oblique at the base. U. glabra. 75 ~ 'TOMENTOSA' (Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 566. 1864, as U. tomentosa Hort. ) . Later described as having the undersides of leaves with thick, soft, hairs giving a pronounced gray-green appearance. U. glabra. 'ToRTuosA' (Host, Fl. Austr. 1: 330. 1827, as U. tortuosa). Described a trunk and branches which zig-zag. U. carpinifolia. as having `TRICOLOR' (C. de Vos, Woordenboek 137. 1867, as U. suberosa tricolor). Described as beautifully silver-variegated, the leaves near the top of growing branches colored red, but not a vigorous grower. U. X hollandica. `Tricuspis' (Koch, 'Tridens' (Hartig, 'CORNUTA'. 'Triserrata' rata Dendr. 2 (1) : 415. 1872, Vollst. as U. tricuspis Hort.) = 460. `CORNUTA'. Naturg. Forstl. Culturpfl. 1850, as U. tridens) _ as ( Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Hort.) = 'CORNUTA'. 33: 28. Muscav. 567. U. 1864, U. triser- 'Turkestanica' (Regel in Gartenflora description) = 'UMBRACULIFERA'. var. 1884, as turkestanica, without 'UMBRACULIFERA' ris a (Trautvetter in Act. Hort. Petrop. 2: 590. 1873, as U. campestumbraculi f era; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv. ) . A tree with dense globose head, introduced to European gardens from Persia [?], before 1878. U. U. carpinifolia. 'UMBRACULIFERA GRACILIS' as ( Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 100, p. 121. 1897-98, umbraculifera gracilis). Described as a form of var. umbraculicampestris fera forming a long oval and not a globose crown, also with slenderer, more crowded branches and smaller leaves. Originated in as a shoot from 'Umbraculifera'. U. carpinifolia. Spath's nursery in Berlin, as 'Urnii' out (Siebenthaler Co., Dayton, Ohio, Cat. 122, p. 15. 1931, U. urni, with- description). = See 'Vase'. 'Urticaefolia' (Audibert, folia `CBISrA'. Tonelle, France, Cat. 2, p. 53. 1831-32, as U. urticae- 'URTICAEFOLIA' (Jacques in Revue Hort. 2: 128. 1832, as in U. urticae f olia ) . Described as having deeply toothed leaves, the teeth unequal and very pointed Raised as a chance seedling by Jacques in 1830, now probably lost from cultivation. U. laevis. 'Van Houttei' HOUTTE'. `VARIECATA' (Schelle in Beissner et U. montana lutescens van Houttei al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. Hort., without description) ~ 86. 1903, as = `Loms VAN (Dumont de Courset, Bot. Cult. 3: 700. 1802, as U. campestris var. glabra variegata; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as a cv. ) . Described as having leaves spotted with white, especially near the margins. Said to have been [76 Variegated forms arise frequently and several clones may have been known under this name, most of them U. carpinifolia, but variegated forms of U. X vegeta have also been known by this name. cultivated in France in 1772. 'Variegata' (Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1405. 1838, as variegata). Described as having variegated leaves. GATA' ? U. = (montana) glabra U. var. glabra `ALBO-VARIE- 'Variegata' (Wesmael pestris var. having in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 390. 1863, as U. camnuda subvar. microphylla variegata Hort. Vilv.). Described as `VARIEGATA'. the leaves spotted with white. U. carpinifolia, possibly = `VARiEGATA' (Wesmael in Bull. Fed. Soc. Hort. Belg. 1862: 387. 1863, as U. americana var. variegata Hort.). Described as having leaves spotted with white. U. americana. 'Variegata' (Lee ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 6: cxxix. 1880, as U. campestris variegata). Described as having leaves like those of Ficus Parcellii, i.e., marked I. with a creamy-white mosaic. Probably 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'. 'Variegata' (Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 25. 1892, as U. campestris var. variegata = Hort.) = 'ARGENTEO-VARIEGATA'. _ _ _- Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs, ed. 3. 272. 1925, as U. major variegata, without description) = 'ELEGANTO-VARIEGATA'. 'VARIEGATA NoVA' ( Nicholson, Kew Hand-List Trees & Shrubs 2: 137. 1896, as U. campestris var. variegata nova Hort., without description; Henry in Elwes & Henry, Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1895. 1913). Said to bear \"leaves which are 'Variegata' (Bean, var. often much reduced in size and entirely whitish. Occasionally branches are produced bearing leaves of normal size with the variegation confined to the margin and one or two branches with green leaves.\" Possibly U. carpinifolia. 'Vase' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. The & name description). U. americana. for a 5. 253. 1949, as U. americana Vase, without growth form neither clonal nor a true cultivar. 'Vaseyi\" (Bailey (which see). Bailey, Hortus Second 747. 1941, as U. vaseyi) _ 'Vase' 'VEGETA' (Lindley in Donn, Hort. Cantab. ed. 10. 193. 1823, without description; Kriissmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv. ) . The Huntingdon or Chichester Elm, said to have originated at Wood & Ingrams Nursery at Huntingdon, in England, about the middle of the 18th century. Considered by Dr. Melville as a hybrid of U. carpinifolia X glabra for which it is the earliest epithet, but treated by Rehder and others as a variety of the hybrid U. X hollandica. The widespread clone may be known as Ulmus `Vegeta' in either case. 'VIMINALIS' (Masters, Hort. Durovemi 66. 1831, as U. without description; Boom, Ned. Dendr. 1: 158. 1959, as campestris viminalis, a cv.). Described as 77] tree with ascending branches but pendulous branchlets, slightly pubescent while young; leaves obovate to narrow-elliptic, 2-6 cm. long, acuminate, incised doubly serrate, scabrous above, slightly pubescent beneath. Said to have been raised by Mr. Masters in 1817. Usually treated as a variety of U. procera but according to Dr. Melville this is of hybrid origin: U. carpinifolia X plotii, and is the correct epithet for this hybrid, as U. X viminalis. However the original clone may still be known as Ulmus 'Viminalis'. a 'Viminalis Argentea' (Hillier, Winchester, England, Cat. 2P, p. 100. 1938, as U. viminalis argentea). Described as having leaves variegated with silver. U. X viminalis (that is U. procera var. viminalis sensu Rehder). 'Viminalis Aurea' as (Henry in Elwes & Henry, = Trees Gr. Brit. Irel. 7: 1907. 1913, as U. X viminalis `AUREA'. campestris var. viminalis aurea ) 'Viminalis Gracilis' (Dieck, Zoschen, Germany, Haupt-Cat. 1885, p. 82, U. U. scabra viminalis gracilis Hort., without description) = 'VIMINALIS'. 'VIMINALIS MARGINATA' ( Kirchner in Petzold & Kirchner, Arb. Muscav. 556. 1864, as U. campestris var. viminalis marginata Hort.). Said to be a form of `Viminalis' with the leaves variegated with creamy white near the margin. 'Viminalis Marmorata' 1903, as ( Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 85. U. montana viminalis marmorata Hort., without description) = 'PULas VERULENTA'. 'Viminalis Pendula' (Masters in Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 13: 90. 1891, pendula, without description) = 'VIMINALIS'. U. viminalis 'Viminalis Pulverulenta' (Hartwig, Ill. Geholzb. ed. 2. 394. 1892, as L'. scabra var. viminalis pulverulenta Hort. ) . Described as the pulverulent `Viminalis'. _ 'PULVERULENTA'. 'VIMINALIS STRICTA' (Boulger in Gard. Chron. II. 12: 298. 1879, viminalis stricta Loudon, without description). as U. campestris 'Viminalis as Superba' ( Schelle U. campestris = tion) in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 85. 1903, viminalis superba Hort., name in synonymy, without descrip'VIMINALIS MARGINATA'. Variegata' (Lee ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 18: 90. 1895, as U. viminalis variegata, without description) = 'VIMINALIS MARGINATA'. 'VIRENS' (Masters, Hort. Duroverni 66. 1831, as U. virens, without description; Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1376. 1838, as U. campestris var. virens). The Kidbrook Elm. Described is red and the tree of a 'Viminalis being almost evergreen in a mild winter; spreading habit. U. X hollandica. as the bark `VIRGATA' (Pepin in Revue Hort. 1865: 347. 1865, as U. campestris virgata and U. virgata). Described as having slender, erect branches giving the tree a fastigiate shape. Planted before 1789 near Nangis, Seine-et-Mame. U. carpini- folia. 78] ] 'Virginalis' (Lavallee, Arb. Segrez. 235. 1877, as U. campestris var. virginalis, name in synonymy) = 'VIMINALIS'. `VlscosA' (Loddiges, Hackney, England, Cat. 1836 ex Loudon, Arb. Frut. Brit. 3: 1378. 1838, as U. viscosa). Leaves rather large and dark green, with some anthocyanin pigment. An early specimen in Herb. Dumortier named U. viscosa Audibert has been identified by Dr. Melville as U. X hollandica. 'WASHINGTON' (Anon. ex Dame, Typical Elms & Other Trees of Mass. 25. 1890; Jack, Bull. Pop. Inf. Arnold Arb. III. 5: 69. 1931, as the \"Washington Elm\"). Not distinguished morphologically but clonally propagated and distributed from the tree (now dead) under which George Washington is reputed to have taken command of the Colonial Troops at Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1775. U. americana. 'WEBBIANA' tris (Lee ex Simon-Louis, Metz, France, Cat. 1869, p. 97, as U. campesWebbiana; Kriissmann, Handb. Laubgeh. 2: 535. 1962, as a cv.). Said to be a form of the Cornish Elm with leaves folded longitudinally, and to have been raised in Lee's nursery about 1868, but possibly to be placed with U. X hollandica along with 'Viscosa'. 'Wendworthii' U. (Schelle in Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Benenn. 84. 1903, as campestris Wendworthii Hort., without description) - 'WENTWORTHII PENDULA'. 'Wentworthiensis' (Spath, Berlin, Germany, Cat. 143, p. 135. 1910-11, as U. campestris wentworthiensis) = 'WENTWORTHII PENDULA'. 'Wentworthii' (Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 2: 24. 1892, as U. campestris Wentworthii) _ `WENTWORTHII PENDULA'. 'WENTWORTHII PENDULA' (C. de Vos, Handboek, Supplement, 16. 1890, as U. Wentworthii pendula [not seen] ). De Vos suggests it belongs in U. X hollandica but the Kew tree under this name has been identified by Dr. Melville as vegeta. 'Wheatley' (Plant Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 253. 1949, U. X as U. procera Wheatley, description) = 'SARNIENSIS'. 'Wheatleyi' ( Simon-Louis, Metz, France, without Cat. 1869, p. 98 [not seen]) = 'SARNIENSIS'. 'WILLIS' Cat. Fall 1958-Spring 1959, p. 18. and U. rubra, although at first thought 1958). Probably hybrid pumila to be U. americana X U. pumila. A selection made by Mr. Minnick of Kansas City and first referred to as \"Hybrid.\" Described as having a smooth gray bark on young trees, large leaves resembling those of U. americana, and as being of (Willis Nursery Co., Ottawa, Kansas, a of U. very var. `WREDEI' rapid growth. ( Jiihlke in Hamburg Gart.- & Blumenzeit. 33: 485. 1877, as U. Dampieri Wredei; Krussmann in Parey's Blumengartn. ed. 2. 1: 519. 1958, as a cv.). 79] ] Described as a yellowish-leaved variant of 'Dampieri'. Originated in 1875 at the Arboretum at Alt-Geltow, near Potsdam, Germany. It may be a chimaera as it often develops green twigs which are identical with 'Dampieri'. The Kew tree of this name has been identified by Dr. Melville as U. X hollandica. 'Wreedi Aurea' 'WREDEI'. = (Leach ex Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 16: lxi. 1893, as U. Wreedi aurea) `YPREAU' ( Poederle, Man. Arb. For. Belg. 266. 1772, as l'Orme Ypreau ) . Also called l'orme-teille, Orme-tilleul and lindolm, each translatable as the Tilia-like elm. Formerly much planted in the region of Ypres in Belgium. This name has since become the subject of much confusion, involving two elms, a poplar, and a willow (see Huberty in Bull. Soc. Centr. For. Belg. 11: 571. 1904). U. X hollandica. [ so : ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1964-Registration of Cultivar Names in Ulmus"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Chinese Bush Cherry - Prunus tomentosa","article_sequence":6,"start_page":81,"end_page":86,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24408","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25e816f.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.; Baranov, A. I.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VorurtE 24 SF;PTEMBER 18, 1964 NumBEe 9 THE CHINESE BUSH CHERRY-PRUA'US TOMENTOSA FOR -*- century northeastern China has served as an experimental garden from which visiting explorers have selected ornamental flowering and fruiting over a for use in North America. One plant well known in the gardens of north China has been tried in North America but not in other temperate areas. Even in the United States it has dropped from serious consideration, yet ~t does deserve plants a re-examination. The Chinese bush cherry, Prunus lomentosa, has a natural distribution from Korea through northern and western China and Tibet into the northern Himalayan portion of India. Long ago it was introduced into Japan and it was from one plant in Japan that Thunberg described the species as the downy cherry. Being both hardy and useful, its cultivation was increased until today it occurs through the whole of the Russian Far East including Amurland and Transbaikaliai, into northern Kazakhstan and the mountainous regions of western China. In Manchuria Prunus tomentosa has escaped from cultivation into the Liaotung Peninsula and it is found spontaneous along roads in the area surrounding Kirin or east of Harbin. The Chinese have called this plant ying-t~ao (cherry), while in Manchuria it is known as the Shanghai cherry, in Amurland as the \"ando cherry.\" Around Peking it is the \"mountain cherry\" while the introduced plants have been named Manchu cherry, Nanking cherry, Chinese bush cherry or Chinese dwarf cherry in the U.S. and in Canada. The Russian horticulturist Skvortzov cherry\" as the most appropriate name but Woeikoff preferred a direct translation of its scientific name and used downy cherry.\" In the northern parts of Asia Prunus tomentosa is an important fruiting shrub. It tolerates cold and dry climates in areas where the winters are long and snowless and the temperatures regularly reached 31F below zero. Grown near or in the protection of houses, the plant is long-lived and fruitful. Generally it is a vigorous twiggy shrub which becomes wider than tall in outline and averages 5-6 ft. in height. The dark reddish black bark is lustrous and the young branches suggested Chinese (si= and leaves densely soft tomentose pubescent. The flower buds open before the leaves, are white or pink with a red calyx, and are borne in clusters on bright red pedicels. The regular habit of annual flowering coupled with its dependable profusion of blossoms makes Prunus tomentosa a conspicuous and a desirable ornamental shrub. The flowers are followed by fruits which are equally abundant, generally globose but rarely oblong in outline. In wild plants one quarter to one half inch is the average fruit size but strains have been reported with fruits to one tnch in diameter. In Asia the plants are valued for the abundance of fruit, sweet yet tart, brilliant in color, maturing in July and with moderate keeping qualities. As a cultivated plant it does best on well drained soils which are slightly acid and in locations which are protected. Frost damage is common to this plant in Asia when it is grown in wet areas and poor results can be expected in alkaline locations. It is, however, the most tolerant of drought of all the cherries. The first introduction of this species to the United States is credited to the Arnold Arboretum in 1882 when Bretschneider sent seeds collected in the area of Peking to Charles Sargent. The United States Department of Agriculture records of plant introductions list 49 introductions of Prunus tomentosa and its varieties between 1903 (39201~ and 1953 (207515~, the latest listing available. Thirty-three of these introductions were from outside North America,e.g., Tokyo, China, Chinese Turkestan, Italy, Manchuria, Korea, India and Afghanistan. In addition, there have been introductions by arboreta, state departments of agriculture, and private nurserymen in the U.S. and in Canada which are not recorded in the USDA hsts. Considering these many introductions, the present record of the distribution of Pruna~s tomentosa in cultivation in the LT. S. is incomplete. A check of five major herbaria reveals specimens only from plants cultivated in the New England states, New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio, Illinois, Georgia and California. The species is also offered only by nurserymen in these same states, yet unsubstantiated distribution records in various pubhcations cite Iowa, Minnesota, the Dakotas and Montana as areas of cultivation. In Canada the species has been grown in Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec and Labrador, but recent information supplied by F. L. Skinner and W. A. Cumming indicates that only selected strains are to be recommended for such areas as Saskatchewan and Alberta. The work of these men indicates that seedlings from stock obtained in northern Manchuria are more suitable for Canadian horticulture than plants originating from farther south in Asia. After its first introductions, the Chinese bush cherry seemed assured of a real place in American horticulture. It was praised in many horticultural magazines by many writers and in 1931 H. Lloyd Haupt, editor of the National Nurseryman, devoted editorial comment and most of the text of the issue of January 15th to the praise of this species. Haupt was so sure of the future of Prunus tomentosa that he noted the many introductions and suggested, \"Just who is going to take the final credit is hard to say.'' 82 -= PLATE VIII Top: 1'runus Lo~nentoaa, fruiting branch. Bottom: 1'runva tomentoaa in flower. The horticultural uses of Prunus tomentosa are numerous and varied. In the Boston area it is one of the earliest flowering cherries, blooming at the end of April. The plants grow well as specimen plants or in a group. Although records are available of plants 30 to 50 years of age in Manchuria, the experience in the Boston area indicates the plant has outlived its attractiveness in 20 or 25 years. A Wilson introduction of 1907 is still alive in our collections and propagations from the original Bretschneider introduction are maintained. The oldest single specimen is in Highland Park, Rochester, New York, and is a plant obtained from the Arnold Arboretum in I 892. In 1931 Haupt reported this plant as 8 feet tall and 25 feet in diameter and Harkness (Plants and Gardens 19: 13. 1963) indicated the correct size is today 10 by 12 feet. He also suggested its longevity and vigor may have been aided by the fact that it has never borne fruit. Prunus tomentosa is grown as a hedge plant in Manchuria and is used also as a wind break. At the Arnold Arboretum hedge test plots, Prunus iomentosa has not proven successful when subjected to pruning twice a year. Gerling's illustration (Plants and Gardens 19: 33. 1963) of the Nanking Cherry as an upright branching certainly the result of pruning. Although varieties of Prunus tomentosa have been described often on botanical characteristics, some of these must be considered as cultivars. tree is minor Prunus tomentosa 'Graebneriana'. Described by Koehne (Plantae Wilsonae 2 : 26879. 1912) as a botanical variety but based on material cultivated near the botanical garden of Berlin Dahlem. Prunus tomentosa 'Insularis'. Described as a variety by Koehne (l.c.) who cited material from Japan and material from cultivated plants in Korea. Hedrick (The Cherries of New York 22. 1915) cited this variety as in cultivation in Japan. Prunus tomentosa 'Spaethiana'. Koehne states this new variety was cultivated in European gardens but the only specimen cited was a Thompson collection, a sterile species in the Herb. Ind. Or. of Hooker and Thompson from Kashmir. The remaining varieties described by Koehne are based on wild specimens collected in China. Rehder described Prunus tomentosa forma leucocarpa (Jour. Arnold Arb. 20 : 99. 1939) and Kriissman (Handbuch der Laub Geholze 2 : 277. 1961 ) has recognized this as cultivar 'Leucocarpa'. The holotype of Rehder's form was taken from a plant in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum donated by Harlan P. Kelsey. Mr. Seth Kelsey has checked the records available and reports the plant was one of a dozen white fruited forms grown from seed obtained directly from Manchuria in 1930. Professor G. L. Slate has indicated that light fruited seedlings are not rare and, in fact, of 148 seeds planted he had 64 germinate, among g which were 7 albinos (Proc. Am. Soc. Hort. Sci. 28: 112-113. 1931). Prunus tomentosa 'Leucocarpa' is no longer offered commercially. 84] There have been many attempts to improve the Chinese bush cherry by breeding and selection. Rehder (Bibliogr. Cult. Trees & Shrubs 331. 1949) listed some of the hybrids reported involving P. tomentosa. K. Yashiroda reported from Japan on \"Prunus tomentosa and its improvement\" (Gard. Chron. 3rd ser. 88: 109. 1930) and concluded \"happily, it is a self-fertile cherry.\" Slate (I.c.), in an article entitled \"Self-unfruitfulness in Prunus tomentosa\" clearly demonstrated that the majority of strains of this species are mstead self-sterile and that less than 6 per cent of open pollinated seedlings were satisfactory as orramental or fruit-producing plants. Professor Slate was able to select strains for habit and for fruit size. The two best strains were named and distributed as \"Geneva\" and \"Monroe\" along with several numbered strains. The selections were also distributed by the New York State Fruit Testing Cooperative Association. Regrettably, these names were never published. The plants received of these selections by the Arnold Arboretum grew, and herbarium specimens were made recording these cultivar names and numbers. The Dominion Experimental Station, Dlorden, Manitoba, Canada (Results of Experiments 1931-1937 : 55. 1938) named a selection of Prunus tomentosa as the Drilea Cherry. Prunus tomentosa 'Drilea' was described as \"a seedling of a pale yellow Nanking Cherry that has stood up productively on the dry leas during seasons when most of its kin suffered. Bush upright and spreading, vigorous, annual bearer, fruit round, from ~ to ~inch across, bright red, flesh firm, tender, sweet or sprightly, pit small, jam. \" season mid-July, quality good as dessert, canned, jelly reported the development of three new varieties of Horticulturist 74: 28. 1946) given designation as Nanking Cherry (Minnesota Minnesota No. 41 \"Large roundish fruit, requires a pollinizer,\" Minnesota No. 63 \"Very vigorous, large oval fruit, self fertile,\" and Minnesota No. 64 \"Similar to No. 63.\" In 1949 (Minnesota Horticulturist 77: 37. 1949) the selection Minnesota No. 63 was named 'Orient' and its origin noted to be self-pollinated seed from a self fertile stram of Nanking Cherry obtained in 1925 from O. M. Jensen of Albert Lea, Minnesota. The description is general and unique only for the self fertile characteristic. In 1957 P. tomentosa `Orient' was described again by Alderman, Wilcox and Weir (Minn. Agr. Station Bulletin 441 : ]2. 1957). Prunus 'Orient' was distributed in 1949 and the largest plants had reached a height of seven feet as a bush or small tree. Not one of these cultivars can be located by name in modern nursery catalogues. Prunus tomentosa deserves another trial and additional horticultural consideration. The specimens grown at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum are truly y handsome shrubs in flower, in foliage and in fruit. The pink flowered strains appeal to more people than do the white flowered forms. The moderate sized fruits are tasty eaten out of hand and make one of the most brilliantly colored jellies. Although the plants are susceptible to peach borer and brown rot fungus, both In 1946, W. H. Alderman 85] afHict~ons can be controlled without difficulty. The species is used as an indicator plant for index~ng certain viruses, but this sensitivity does not impair its life or its beauty. R. A. HOWARU A. I. BARANOV Propagation of Prunus tomentosa Collection, cleaning and storage of seeds. are sufficiently mature in the last week of June be harvested. Once fully ripe, the fruits are enticing to birds and to men, and the crop disappears quickly. Ripe fruits are placed in a small amount of water to allow the pulp to separate from the endocarp generally referred to as the \"seed.\" Finally, cleaning can be done by hand with the aid of a sieve or a strong jet of water. Although it is not good practice to hold seeds of Prunus in dry storage for long periods, experimental lots of Prunus tomentosa germinated without loss of viability after storage in an unsealed polyethylene bag in a heated room for 21 months. A second lot stored under comparable conditions but in a cloth bag for 45 months produced a 52 per cent The fruits of Prunus tomentosa in the Arnold Arboretum and can germination. The natural treatment. Seeds aged. cent tomentosa seeds can be broken down by cold without cold treatment have not germinated unless well A three month treatment of cold stratification will produce about 98 per sown sown dormancy of Prunus germination. in the fall out of doors spring. The seeds, howwith wire mesh. Artificial ever, protected stratification can be accomplished by placmg the seeds in a medium of equal parts sand and peat moss. This, in a plastic bag tightly sealed to be vapor proof, can be placed ~n a refrigerator at 40 degrees for 3 months. The contents of the bag can then be sown and full germination will occur within a week of sowing. In the Boston area fruits collected in June are stored dry until February, then subjected to cold stratification and sowed directly in mid-May. A stratification beginning in December allows planting in flats in greenhouses in March for transplanting to field locations during the summer. Seeds germinate in the are attractive to rodents and must be Cuttings. area Prunus tomentosa rooted readily from softwood cuttings taken in the Boston in mid-June. A root-inducing substance should then be used and the cutting placed in a polyethylene chamber or under mist. 86 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation of Prunus tomentosa","article_sequence":7,"start_page":86,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24405","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eb76d.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"afHict~ons can be controlled without difficulty. The species is used as an indicator plant for index~ng certain viruses, but this sensitivity does not impair its life or its beauty. R. A. HOWARU A. I. BARANOV Propagation of Prunus tomentosa Collection, cleaning and storage of seeds. are sufficiently mature in the last week of June be harvested. Once fully ripe, the fruits are enticing to birds and to men, and the crop disappears quickly. Ripe fruits are placed in a small amount of water to allow the pulp to separate from the endocarp generally referred to as the \"seed.\" Finally, cleaning can be done by hand with the aid of a sieve or a strong jet of water. Although it is not good practice to hold seeds of Prunus in dry storage for long periods, experimental lots of Prunus tomentosa germinated without loss of viability after storage in an unsealed polyethylene bag in a heated room for 21 months. A second lot stored under comparable conditions but in a cloth bag for 45 months produced a 52 per cent The fruits of Prunus tomentosa in the Arnold Arboretum and can germination. The natural treatment. Seeds aged. cent tomentosa seeds can be broken down by cold without cold treatment have not germinated unless well A three month treatment of cold stratification will produce about 98 per sown sown dormancy of Prunus germination. in the fall out of doors spring. The seeds, howwith wire mesh. Artificial ever, protected stratification can be accomplished by placmg the seeds in a medium of equal parts sand and peat moss. This, in a plastic bag tightly sealed to be vapor proof, can be placed ~n a refrigerator at 40 degrees for 3 months. The contents of the bag can then be sown and full germination will occur within a week of sowing. In the Boston area fruits collected in June are stored dry until February, then subjected to cold stratification and sowed directly in mid-May. A stratification beginning in December allows planting in flats in greenhouses in March for transplanting to field locations during the summer. Seeds germinate in the are attractive to rodents and must be Cuttings. area Prunus tomentosa rooted readily from softwood cuttings taken in the Boston in mid-June. A root-inducing substance should then be used and the cutting placed in a polyethylene chamber or under mist. 86 clones is best accomplished in late July or August understock. Prunus tomentosa seedlings have been used experimentally as a dwarfing rootstock for peaches and plums (Arnoldia 10: 76. 1950) and as an easily transplanted root system for clones of the beach plum Prunus maritima. ALFRED FORDHAM Bud-grafting. Bud grafting of selected as using the species 87] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fall Program of the Arnold Arboretum, 1964","article_sequence":8,"start_page":88,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24401","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eaf26.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"1964 FALL PROGRAM OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Field Classes Friday mornings, Oct. 2-30 Fall 10 a.m.-12 noon Jamaica Plain Administration Building attractive fruits may be counted upon to extend the garden seaThe fall field classes, conducted by Dr. Donald Wyman, will consider these plants, in addition to those perennial favorites, the evergreens. Opportunities are afforded for questions relating to the identification or culture and care of plants hardy in New England. In case of inclement weather, the meetings are held indoors. Fee $2.00 son. foliage and Tuesday afternoons, i Sept. 29-Oct. 27 2 p.m. Case Estates Weston The class, led by Dr. Mary Sanders, will become acquainted with the special plantings in Weston, such as ground covers, trees for small areas, late lilies, and the low maintenance garden, as well as with the natural areas. Identification of trees and shrubs in winter and techniques of plant breeding will also be considered. The group will meet at the Barn, 135 Wellesley St., Weston, rain or shine. Fee :~2.00 Plant Propagation (short course) Instruction in the major phases of plant propagation will be given by Mr. Alfred J. Fordham in an irregular schedule planned so that each may be dealt with m proper season. Emphasis will be placed on methods whereby the student can successfully reproduce woody plants at home using simple, inexpensive and readily y available equipment. Propagational material will be furnished by the Arboretum. In some cases it will be taken home for treatment while in other instances greenhouse space will be provided. Meetings are scheduled on Saturday mornings and Thursday evenings in October, February, April and June. The first session will be held at Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses, 1050 Centre Street, Jamaica Plain, on Saturday, October 3, 1964, at 9 :30 a.m. A full schedule will be furnished at that time. A sharp knife is needed and casual clothing will be in order. Class size will be limited to 20 participants. Fee$10.00 88 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lilies in Their Order of Bloom","article_sequence":9,"start_page":89,"end_page":95,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24404","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eb728.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 24 NOVEMBER 6, 1964 NurteEx 10 LILIES IN THEIR ORDER OF BLOOM Demonstration Plots of the Arnold Arboretum were started in the as the result of a cooperative effort between the New England Lily Group of the North American Lily Society and the Arnold Arboretum. At present there are 2.50 species and varieties of lilies growing in these plots and the majority of them have bloomed in 1963 and again m 1964. During the blooming periods careful weekly notes were taken each year. Since I have had little previous experience in growing lilies, some of the information noted was elementary, especially to the experienced lily grower. However, the best way to become acquainted with any plant is to make frequent observations and take profuse notes, THE Lily196~, fall of we did. The following table is of value because it shows the sequence in which this large collection of lilies has bloomed under the conditions at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum where they are planted. The date of emergence (not given in the following table, but it was April 20-June 1 for almost all of them this year), the height of the tallest stalk, the number of flowers and the size of the flowers on the stalk are all characteristics varying with the age of the bulb, the amount of available water and soil fertility, but it has been interesting, in learnmg about lily growth, to note such information during the past two years. Since these lilies are growing in beds adjacent to one another on the same piece of ground, the blooming dates, as well as the number of days of bloom, are comparable. The other notes are given merely\"for the record.\" It was deemed advisable to list the lilies as they come into bloom by weekly intervals. The column listing the number of days the flowers remain in good condition contains some interesting figures for comparison. Color comparisons are always difficult. The most prominent color in the newly opened flower was compared with the American Horticultural Society's color fan. Most flowers fade as they mature and lilies are no exception. The colors noted are those in the flower the first day it opened. Precise color descriptions cannot which 89] be listed in a table of this type, since one flower may be of several colors-more pronounced toward the center of the corolla, fading to lighter colors towards the edges of the petals; hence these notes are to be considered as only a general indication of flower color. In the column on flower size, the first figure is the overall diameter of the flower; the second figure is the depth of the corolla. The \"type of flower\" has been generally indicated thus: E - Flower erect on stalk, either bowl-shaped (b) short if corolla is under 5~~ or starry-shaped (s). (s) Trumpet-shaped, long; long (I) if 5~~ or over in length. H - Flowers held horizontally on the stalk. This is an excellent trait and makes for a good display. N - Flowers nodding on stalk, either pendulous (p) or bell-shaped, or with the flower widely open and petals reflexed (r). TIt is hoped that growers who do not see their favorites in this list will send them to the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. for further trial. Lilies in their Order of Bloom Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum Notes taken June-September 1964 90 ] 91 9Z 93] [ 94 :] 95 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New Hedge Demonstration Plot","article_sequence":10,"start_page":97,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24409","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25e8528.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University BULLETIN VOLUME 24 DECEMBER 4, 1964 THE NEW HEDGE DEMONSTRATION PLOT NUMBER 11 I of the old Hedge Demonstration Plot of the Arnold in Arnoldia 17: 17-32, April 1 ~, 195 i . Most of those hedges had been growing on the site by the Bussey Building since 1936. However, when the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses were erected in 1962, a hedge demonstration site was prepared in this newly developed greenhouse area. Some of the hedges were moved to the new site, the old one being abandoned. The hedges which were moved are marked with asterisks in the following list. The majority of the hedges for the new site were made from plants bought or given to the Arnold Arboretum in 1962 or 1963 specifically for this purpose. Most were plants 12-5~ tall. Nearly all of the deciduous ones among these were cut to within a few inches of the ground as soon as they were planted in hedge formations and the few older deciduous hedges which were moved from the old site were treated similarly. The evergreen hedges, of course, were not pruned back so severely when they were transplanted. The measurements here given were taken in November 1964, after two full growing seasons. The peculiar plan for this new site was made necessary because of an underground drain. This is flanked on either side by a right of way reserved by the City of Boston to allow for possible alterations of the drain at some future time. ACOMPLETE study Arboretum published was Hedges planted 1963 = Moved from old Hedge Collection. The plants in 1963. lI.\/r remainder \"'If\" were planted .. as young \"-,, . 97; 98 ~ ] PLATE IX The new Hedge Demonstration Plot at the Arnold Arboretum, photographed Nov. 17, 1964. DONALD WYMAN 100] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bonsai at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":11,"start_page":101,"end_page":104,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24399","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eab28.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~4 DECEMBER 18, 1964 BONSAI AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM NUMBER l~l Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees presented to the Arboretum as a memorial to his friend, Charles Sprague Sargent,\" is an explanatory statement quoted from the carved inscription displayed with these intriguing plants. This group of dwarfed trees was given to the Arboretum in the fall of 1937. The plants have been on public display in a specially erected shade house ever since. Brought to this country at a time when strict plant quarantines were not in force, these plants were imported with so~l around the roots in their original Japanese containers. The Arboretum welcomes the opportunity of being able to display these striking examples of Japanese horticulture. The honorable Larz Anderson became interested in Japanese horticulture as early as 1907 and built a particularly attractive Japanese garden on his estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. Somewhat later he became interested in dwarf trees and m 1913 he brought back from Japan a splendid collection of them, which he acquired while serving as Ambassador Extraordinary from the United States to Japan (1912-1913). These he placed on display in his own garden where they were carefully tended for twenty-five years by different Japanese gardeners. When he died, his wife presented the collection to the Arnold Arboretum. In 196~? this fine collection was moved to a specially built lath house in front of the new Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses. Here the plants are given the necessary shade and the pots in which they are growing, all originals from Japan, are displayed to good advantage. There is overhead irrigation so that on hot days the atmosphere about the plants can be moist. They are taken into a cold house for the winter months, so that the plants and the pots will not freeze, and then returned to their display house in early May. There are twenty-seven specimens, ranging in age from 56 to 226 years. Pruning and other care is given by our own work crew. This collection has been shown at one time or another ~n most of the major flower shows of the East, but because of its great value (as well as the great weight of some of the pots !) it ~s < < T HE Arnold . 101] Ero.., Eo< ., .. Cd ..c; 0. o.c b ~ .;!: y ro c~ .., c Q '~ @ 1~ wG Fv G o 3` .a Q 0 \" 't7 on..c; oa :: 3 G o .~ \" E S - < 0o ~~ N ~, .n -o < C E ~Q C ., ... g 0 a~ :::;:::; 0 I WU ~ <! E~ .. $ ~~ o ..... ~ 0 ,.....<:: :: a .ri Ga 0 0 o &.. #x3C;- on y a~ c. a~ F Cd a 0 sa :! ..,\"\" ~<~ ~ .c . 'c ~U r. ~' .~ ~ y G < ~N w CO O 00 F w s~ GJ ~\"' <i::..c; w_ :: B G N Cd '\" m N F. CL O 0 G < Q _-___ PLATE XI Upper left: Acer buergerianum; 6.5 years old. Lower left: Pinus parviflora; 110 years old. Upper right: Chamaecyparia piaifera squarrosa; 75 years old. Lower right: Chamaecyparis obtusa; 130 years old. not expected that the collection will again leave the Recently there has been a surge of interest in Bonsai. In more who wish to learn about the art some of the more Arnold Arboretum. order to assist those recent books on the sub- ,ject are listed here. Brooklyn Botanic Garden's publication, Plants and Gardens, Vol. 9, No. 3, 1953, entitled, \"Dwarfed Potted Plants as the Japanese Grow them.\" Chidamian, Claude. \"Bonsai. Miniature Trees\" D. ton, N.J. 96 pp. 19~.~. Van Nostrand Co., Prince- Kawamota, Toshio and Joseph Y. Kurihara. \"Bonsai-Saikei\" Nippon Saikei Co., Tokyo, Japan. 361 pp., ill. 1963. Yashiroda, Kan. \"Bonsa~\" Charles T. Branford Co., Newton, Mass. 166 pp., ill. 1960. Yoshimura, Yugo Trees and Japan. and Giovanna M. Halford. \"The Chas. E. Tuttle & Co., 220 pp. 1957. Landscapes\" Japaaese Art of Miniature Rutland, Vt., and Tokyo, DONALD WYMAN lo.~ ~] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXIV","article_sequence":12,"start_page":105,"end_page":106,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24402","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25eaf6b.jpg","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXIV Illustrations Acer are in bold face type. buergerianum, Plate XI, Baranov, A.I., 86 101-104 103 - preslii, 25 26 - seemannii, Bonsai at the Arnold - Arboretum, X, 103 - - serratifolia, 26 ste~ ermarku, 26 tarapotensis, 26 house, new, Plate - - references, Plate 104 Chamaecyparis obtusa, Plate X, 103 ; - Hydrangeas Climbing, and Their 1 i-39 Relatives, 3 XI, 103 pisifera squarrosa, Plate XI, 103 ; ' Labels in the Arnold Arboretum, 912, Plate I, 111 Chinese Bush Cherry, The - Prunus 6 tomentosa, 81-86 - cherry, tion - 81 1 m Cultivar Names Ulmus, RegistraList \/ \/ I Lilies in Their Order of Bloom, 89-95 Manchu cherry, 81 1 Metal Display Labels, 12 2 Mulch, Black Polyethylene as a, 1316 6 of, of 41-80 Fagus L., Registration 32 Nanking cherry, 81 1 of, 1--8 Decumaria, 1 i , - New Hedge Demonstration Plot, The, 9 7 -100, Plate IX, 99 barbara, sinensis, 32 33 , - Species of, 3~? ~' Directional Signs, Carved Wooden, 12 o Embossed or Record Label, 9, 10 Fagus L., Reg~stration List of Cultivar names of, 1-8 Hedges Planted 1963, 97, 98, 100 Hydrangea, 19 - anomala, 19, 20, 22 -, Key to the - Pileostegia, 17, 53 -, Key to the Species of, tomentella, 34 viburnoides, 34 - 34 Pinus parviflora, Plate XI, 103 Plastic Labels, 10 o Polyethylene as a Mulch, Black, 16 6 -, 13- 4 Black, Plate II,14 - subsp. petiolaris, Plate III, 18, 20 ; Plate IV, 21 ; Plate V, 23 - I. i Prunus tomentosa, 81-86 ; Plate VIII, 83 - asterolasia, 24 diplostemona, 24 integrifolia, 24 - jelskii, 25 oerstedii, ~?.5 mathewsii, l5 - ' - - - - - - 'Drilea', 85 'Geneva', 85 'Graebneriana', 'Insularis', 84 84 - - - - - - peruv~ana, 15 - -- 'Leucocarpa', 84 'Orient', 85 'Monroe', 85 'Nanking Cherry', 85 105 Prunus tomentosa, Propagation i 86, 87 - of, - 1 crassum, 31 - 'Spaethiana', 84 Plate IV, hydrangeoides, Plate III, 18, 20 ; 27, 28, 29 Registration of Cultivar Ulmus, 41-80 - Names in - -, List of Cultivar Names of 26 Fagus integrifolium, 30 Key to the Species of, 28 Ulmus, Registration of Cultivar Names in, 41-80 L., 1-8 Schizophragma, 17, Wooden Display Label, 10, 12 2 106 - "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23451","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170896e.jpg","title":"1964-24","volume":24,"issue_number":null,"year":1964,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Trial Plot for Street Trees","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24395","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24e896d.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 ' JANUARY 18, 1963 TRIAL PLOT FOR STREET TREES NuMe~;a 1 DI~ RING planted the spring of 1951 a trial plot of eighty small ornamental trees was on the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston (see .9rnoldia 16: (B~ 9-1.5, 1906~. A few of these were not happy in their location and promptly died, or did so poorly as to warrant their removal. A few new varieties were added to the original group, but for the most part these trees have been growing there s~nce the trial plot was first laid out. The collection has been of special interest to home owners in the suburban areas of Boston, who naturally are interested in small ornamental trees. It has also been of considerable interest to the tree wardens of various towns throughout New England, for here one may see many of the best small trees growing side by side, so that comparisons can be easily made. Recently this plot has been of interest to the Electric Council of New England, a group of utility companies which provide various electric services for the public in addition to stringing electric lines for these services. When the right kinds of trees are planted properly in the right places along the streets and highways, there need be but little competition between the trees and the wires. Today these companies are employing arborists to help the public in this very type of intelligent planting. As an outgrowth of this new interest on the part of the electric companies, a booklet was published in 1960 by the Electric Council of New England. This is entitled, \"Trees in Your Community,\" and 1.50,000 copies have already been distributed throughout the New England area. A few copies are still available and may be obtained from the local member electric companies of the Electric Council of New England. While the booklet was in process of preparation the Arnold Arboretum was asked to make suggestions as to the trees which should appear in the final list. After the booklet was published and widely distributed, Mr. George Wignot of the Boston Edison Company requested the Arboretum to consider the possibility of adding to our Trial Plot of Street Trees those mentioned in the booklet which [1 ] already growing in this plot. Stimulated by this interest on the part of the Boston Edison Company and aided in acquiring some of the trees which we did not have, we enlarged this trial plot so that with the exception of four, it now includes all of the trees recommended in the booklet. Those four will be added as soon as they can be obtained. Some of the trees growing in this plot since 19~1 are now excellent specimens ; those just planted last fall need a year or two of growth to demonstrate their true worth. In any event, the following list indicates the trees now growing in the trial plot. They include all but four of those in the booklet, \"Trees in Your Community,\" plus seventy others which have merit under certain specific conditions. Three-fourths of them are under thirty-five feet in height, excellent subjects either as ornamentals on the small lot or as street trees. All in all, 109 species and varieties of trees are now growing in this Trial Plot. Since these are among the best deciduous trees available for ornamental planting, every home owner and tree warden might gain much information by visiting this plot at some time during the year. On page 8 of this bulletin there is a map showing the location of the Trial Plot for Street Trees, on the grounds of the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum inWeston. This Plot in Weston is off Wellesley Street which runs between Routes 20 and 30. Rows are numbered from the road bordering this plot, the first numbers being at the southeast or Wellesley Street end of the rows. Were not *= Trees ~=Trees X= under 2.5 feet tall at maturity. over 35 feet tall at maturity. -. Hybrid. z~] 00 a, ci ~ < E II> v ~ uO ea :i8 c 0 .8_c a 0 Fn 1~ II> 0 h ..c b_ O C Fn H II> ..c M~ ox&I # 3E; a~~ x W NN S $ ~a ~ S0 4i `~ n ,c Ux ~`ma~ E ~o ' .~ :> a~ o~c :~ ,~, ' '\" II> 'G m c~.'\" v rS v~ 7r c m W0 ~ CL'G ~U I > _O ~\" G C C\" w 'O O C '\" S b L +~ \" F GI c ro 0 G II> s F '\" y G A '\" ~ .'t G, '\" G 3 G 0\/) .v F w w G '\" v r II> ;;. 4~ ., ~0 = <'; WG H ~ s OI ,~ m Y II> cd '\" ro :u a ? 0 '\" ,C ~o .~ du a~ .. c xa a o~ Ga '\" <iU 0 0 \" .... ~. ~ .... [6: DONALD V~'YMAN N cn ~ ~ o~ ~ rr . W ,~S' ~p N s G~ ~-g.M' OG. f7 ~-~t V (~D CrJ N g-~S ~0 P? `C CT ~ ~j~.\"' `a C~1 y .b o 0 ., 0 y ~3~~~~g fl ~ C o~ t~o ocWn \"b ~J7 ~ d \" m o \"'~ \"d m. \", ~-, M r; ~. ~ \"J' i '~ ~ j r\/ no. O_ ~a;J?~SGW. ~ ~k\"W o ~. ,z1 ~ N m W ~~~.c~c~~c.. 'n r: w ~' a. ~ o ~C ' ~ oS- m ~~ ~ ro ;n ., S c~s '2: '' 00 ~o r '~ ' ~ E ~ ~ \"G zw o a ~ ' ~C~7 p W c~c ~ o a. ~~ .~ a. .P ~~ ,o : `C N !L~ N ~i! U7 ~.N. a. Pt _,- 0 . G Q, ~,. ~ ~ & 0a ~T;C* 3 S' No- a- \" ~ a.:X .n p= 3 P> (~ 'P O~-~! (n ~ O CD ~ cD f~y ^.\"3D'v: f C7 S~ ~ O~.Cn \".' c~pO`yN J . 0 N ~ N G. O'~9Lt-~ 3~s'?S 0 n~ ~ o .y ~ ~' s 0 ~~sr~ ft N o mo w w ~~ =o,o' d. N p 3~~~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Results of Trials in the Gound Cover Demonstration Plots","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24392","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24e816b.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 FEBRUARY 22, 1963 RESULTS OF TRIALS IN THE GROUND COVER DEMONSTRATION PLOTS NumsEe 2 Ground Cover Demonstration Plots on the Arnold Arboretum's Case Estates in Weston, Massachusetts, were first laid out in 1950. Then, only about fifty different kinds of plants were tried, but as time went on, there was so much interest shown in these plantings that they were increased considerably. New ones are being added every year, and unfortunately, there are always some which do not do well and die as a result of severe winters. It is impossible to publish a list that is complete for any length of time, since numerous changes are constantly being made. There are at least 165 different kinds of plants being grown in these plots now, and most of these are listed in this bulletin according to row number and position in the row. Row 1 is nearest to the high stone wall, and the plants are numbered from the Wellesley Street end, the first plant in each row being the closest to \/71HE i Wellesley Street. The plots are in an open former cow pasture, mostly in the full sun, although the first row along the taller stone wall does receive shade about half the time. Otherwise, these plants are all given approximately the same care, with only a few being covered in the winter with pine boughs. Late fall and winter are not the best times of the year to see these plots. Rather a visit might best be made in late spring after many of the plants have made a major amount of growth and while many of them are still in flower. This list is published now so that the arm-chair gardener who makes plans during the winter for next spring's gardening activities, can become acquainted with the fact that this demonstration plot exists and is open to the public at all times. All the plots are labeled with the common and scientific name of each plant. It is here that one might come when in doubt as to just which ground cover to select for a certain area. 9 J GROUND COVER DEMONSTRATION PLOTS, CASE ESTATES (As of January 1, 196~) h=herbaceous, usually dead above the ground every winter e=evergreen *=these have foliage proved good ground covers in these trials 10 ] 11 _J 12~ [ 13] (These have not Unsatisfactory Ground Covers proved successful in the Trial Plots of the Arnold at the Case Estates during the last ten years.) Arboretum Acaena buchananii - died the second year. Ajuga genevensis rosea - beautiful in flower, Ajuga reptans 'Variegata' - exeellent for ~?-3 must be removed but does not spread well. species seeds in and years ; then the by hand. years. Alyssum saxatile - poor as ground cover. Arabis alpina - must be replaced every few Arenaria montana - dead 1960. Arenaria stricta - poor, clump-like growth. spread well, plants in texture. year, poor as a Arenaria maritima - 1951 - died out before 1962. Armeria montana - does not a few years. Artemisia stelleriana - too show dead spots in center after coarse Asperula Asperula hirta - removed after odorata - died m one 3 years. Situation too ground cover. dry and hot. moist soil. .Athvrium filix-femina - only satisfactory in shade and Aubretia deltoides hendersonii - died in 2 years. Campanula carpatica - planting must be replaced frequently. Carex morrowii - not completely hardy. Ceratostigma plumbaginoides - starts growth very late in the spring. Coronilla varia - eventually died. Corydalis lutea - could not become properly established. Cotoneaster humifusa (dammeri) - not reliably hardy. Cytisus decumbens - has not proved a vigorous spreader under our conditions. Cytisus purpureus - ungainly. Dianthus deltoides - grass easily seeds between plants. Dianthus plumarius - grass easily seeds between plants. Dicentra eximia - does not spread satisfactorily. 14 Draba sibirica - must be replanted every 3 years. Duchesnea indica - large spots die every other year. Euonymus fortunei radicans - very susceptible to scale. Euonymus fortunei 'Kewensis' - very susceptible to scale, not for large areas. Euonymus fortunei 'Minima' - very susceptible to scale, not for large areas. Euonymus fortunei `Silver Queen' - spreads very little; individual plants die. Euonymus obovatus - untidy appearance. Filipendula hexapetala flore-pleno - does not spread satisfactorily. Fragaria vesca americana - dies every few years in this location. Gaultheria procumbens - only satisfactory in moist acid soil in shade. Gaultheria shallon - not hardy. Geranium sanguineum - good only in moist soil and shade. Genista tinctoria plena - muat be replaced frequently. Helianthemum nummularium - not reliably hardy. Heuchera sanguinea - does not spread satisfactorily. Hypericum buckleyi - makes an excellent mat-like growth, but does not root readily ; hence spot killing occurs if ice settles on it in winter for long periods. Hypericum calycinum - not hardy. Hypericum repens - not hardy. Hyssopus officinalis - poor growth. Iberis - several species showed ungainly growth, making poor ground covers. Iris cristata - excellent until iris borer takes its toll. Lamium maculatum - dies after a few years. 'Nana' - grows in clumps. Leiophyllum buxifolium - does not spread well. Liriope spicata - excellent until grass seeds in after 3-4 years. Lysimachia nummularia - excellent until grass seeds in after 3-4 Mazus reptans - parts die periodically. Mentha piperita - too ungainly for a neat groundcover. Mitchella repans - not for dry soils in full sun. Nepeta hederacea variegata - requires full shade and moisture. Nepeta mussinii - too coarse. Pachysandra procumbens - grows in slowly expanding clumps. Parthenocissus quinquefoha - ungainly. Lavendula officinalis Phlox divaricata canadensis - died within 5 years. years. 15 ] Phlox stolonifera Phlox subulata - replaced in ten years. 3-4 years or satisfactory for until grass seeds in. Polemonium reptans - has always performed poorly. Primula polyanthus - requires shade and mo~sture. grandiflora - dead Prunella vulgaris - dead in Prunella Pulmonaria officinal~s - dies ~n 4 years. .5 years. repeatedly. sufficiently vigorous. The Ranunculus repens - double-flowered vanety is not single-flowered species might be satisfactory. Rosa 'Max Graf' - too coarse in growth. growth. Rosa Paulu - too coarse ~n growth. in Rubus laciniatus - too Santolina coarse chamaecyparissus - not reliably hardy. Saponaria ocymoides - not satisfactory. Sarcocca hookeriana - not reliably hardy. Satureja alpina - poor growth in 3 years. Satureja montana - poor under existing conditions. Saxifraga marginata - died within 2 years. Stachys olympica - died within 1 year. Teucrium chamaedrys - growth and hardiness are erratic. Teucrium chamaedrys 'Prostrata' - grows in clumps, does not spread. Thymus serpyllum - good for small spots only, not large areas. Tussilago farfara - very poor as a ground cover, since it dies to ground by mer. Our planting eventually died completely after about 10 years. Veronica chamaedrys - clump-like growth. Veronica filiformis - died within 2 years. Veronica officinalis - has not performed satisfactorily under Vinca minor Viola our sum- conditions. 'Multiplex' - a weak grower. 'Jersey Gem' - died within 2 years. DONALD WYMAN 16 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24384","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eaf28.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weber, Claude","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard VOLUME 23 APRIL 5, 1963 University NUMBER 3 CULTIVARS IN THE GENUS CHAENOMELES CLAUDE WEBER plants commonly known as Japanese Flowering Quinces, or Japonicas. They are shrubs with bright and showy flowers, blooming normally in the early spring, before the leaves come out, at a time when few other flowers are available in the garden. For this reason, the Flowering Quinces have been popular ever since the first species was introduced to European gardens at the end of the eighteenth century. Before its introduction into Europe, the botanist Thunberg had seen a Flowering Quince growing in Japan. He thought it was a new kind of pear tree, and described it, in 1784, as Pyrus japonica. A few years later, in 1796, Sir Joseph Banks, director of the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, introduced the first Japanese Quince into England, assuming it was Thunberg's species. In 1807, Persoon recognized that because of its numerous seeds this species did not belong to the genus Pyrus, but rather to Cydonia, the common Quince. The plant therefore became known as Cydonia japonica (Thunb.) Pers. In 1822 Lindley established the genus Chaenomeles, distinguishing it from Cydonia primarily by the character of the fruits. Subsequent observations and studies have confirmed Lindley's opinion, yet some nurserymen still continue to list the species of Chaenomeles under Cydonia. Chaenomeles possesses reniform stipules; short, entire, glandless sepals erect at anthesis; stamens in two rows; completely fused carpels; and styles fused at the base forming a column. Cydonia has linear stipules; foliaceous and serrate sepals bordered with glands; stamens in one row; carpels fused by the adaxial side only; and styles free or coalescent by the pubescence only. About 1870, the Messrs. Maule, nurserymen in Bristol, England, introduced a [ 17] GENUS or THE CHAENOMELES includes the second species of Flowering Quince from Japan, which Masters described as Pyrus maulei. Years later, however, botanists discovered that this species was the real Pyrus japonica of Thunberg. It is a dwarf plant with small crenate leaves and flowers salmon-orange in color. Its correct name is Chaenomeles japonica (Thunb.) Lindl. ex Spach, and Chaenomeles `Maulei' is a cultivar representing the strain introduced by the Maules into Europe. The species which was first introduced to Europe by Banks is native in China. Banks found it in Japan where it was under cultivation. This plant is an upright shrub with serrate leaves and normally red flowers, quite different indeed from Thunberg's plant. In 1815, Loiseleur Deslongchamps became aware of the existence of two kinds of shrubs under the name of Pyrus (Cydonia) japonica. He proposed a new name for the Chinese plant, Cydonia lagenaria. Unfortunately, in his description of the species, he included Thunberg's Pyrus japonica as a synonym. As a result, Cydonia lagenaria is a superfluous name according to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature. The correct name for what is commonly known in cultivation as C. lagenaria is Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai based on Sweet's Cydonia speciosa. The third species included in the genus Chaenomeles is C. cathayensis (Hemsley) Schneider. Its introduction from China to Europe passed unnoticed because, like C. japonica, it arrived incorrectly identified. At the time of its introduction it was thought to be Cydonia sinensis (DuMont de Courset) Thouin. Chaenomeles cathayensis is a shrub with straight, erect branches with numerous strong thorns, long, serrate leaves, and white flowers suffused with pink. Cydonia sinensis is a tree, absolutely thornless, with round, glandular leaves and pink flowers. In 1901, when the identity of the introduction was established and it was described as C. cathayensis, it had been growing for some twenty years at the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew. Research, mostly on herbarium specimens, suggested that C. cathayensis was only a variety of C. speciosa. Subsequent observations and studies of living material, however, confirmed the initial consideration that C. cathayensis is sufficiently distinct from C. speciosa to merit specific status. Chaenomeles as C. chinensis fused at the base. The change in spelling of the specific epithet and the assumption that the styles are fused are incorrect. The proper position of this species, therefore, is in Cydonia. The genus Chaenomeles now includes three species, C. cathayensis, C. japonica, and C. speciosa. Hybrids have been developed among them in every combination. Chaenomeles X superba (Frahm) Rehder is a chance hybrid between C. japonica and C. speciosa. This hybrid appeared naturally in different nurseries about 1898, but was considered at the time to be only a variety of C. maulei. The next hybrids, produced artificially, are the famous \"Cathayensis Hybrids.\" Chaenomeles cathayensis X speciosa was raised by De Vilmorin, in France, and named C. hybrida vedrariensis. This is now considered to be the first cultivar in the VILMORINIANA group. W. B. Clarke, of San Jose, California, crossed C. japonica with C. cathayensis. The result of this cross gave rise to the first cultivar, 'Cynthia', in the Cydonia sinensis was transferred by Koehne to Koehne, because he thought that the styles were 18]] sis, CLARKIANA group. Clarke also crossed C. X superba 'Corallina' with C. cathayenproducing what is called the CALIFORNICA group in which all three species are involved. The genetic recombination and the segregation of characters in the first and second generation of this latter cross supply the basis for many of the cultivars developed by Clarke. Some of these hybrids have backcrossed to the parental species causing some of the confusion which makes it difficult to determine to which species or hybrid group a given cultivar belongs. The compilation of the material which follows was begun at the Arnold Arboretum under the program of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, authorized by the American Horticultural Society and the International Committee of Plant Registration. At the XVIth International Horticultural Congress held in Belgium in 1962, the Arnold Arboretum was designated as the International Registration Authority for the genus Chaenomeles, and this list is, therefore, offered as an International Registration list of cultivars. The lists presented in the following pages are fully explained at the beginning of each of them. It is sufficient to say here that the first comprises an alphabetical arrangement of all names which have been applied to Japanese Quinces and the species or hybrid group of which each is a member; the second is an arrangement of cultivar names under the species or hybrid group to which each belongs; and the third is a grouping of names of living cultivars by their color classes. Further information and corrections, as well as any additions to these lists, will be greatly appreciated. I wish to express here my sincere thanks to the numerous persons who have contributed information, fresh material, or herbarium specimens. Without their whole-hearted help, the completion of this study would have been impossible. I. ,- LIST OF ALL KNOWN CULTIVAR NAMES This list is applied to a compilation (in alphabetical order) of all names, which have been Japanese Quince, including those illegitimate according either to the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature or to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. Included also are those names still unpublished but currently in use in botanical gardens. Each cultivar name is followed by the name (in parentheses) of the species or hybrid group to which the cultivar belongs (this name is printed in SMALL CAPITALS ) . A question mark (?) indicates that the species or hybrid group could not be verified because of lack of material. Cultivar names which are synonyms are indicated by italic type in accordance with a recent ruling for registration lists. An asterisk ( ) preceding a cultivar name indicates that the cultivar is currently grown in the United States and available from nurseries, botanical gardens, and arboreta. A dagger ( ~ ) preceding a cultivar name indicates that the cultivar is thought to be extinct. `Abricot' (X SUPERBA ) `Afterglow' (X SUPERBA) `Afterglow' (X VILMORINIANA) `Akebono' ( ? ) `Alarm' (SPECIOSA) 'Alba' (JAPONICA) 19] 'Alba' (SPECIOSA) 'Alba' (SPECIOSA) 'Alba' (X SUPERBA) 'Alba Candida' (sPECIOSA) `Alba Cincta' (SPECIOSA) ~`Alba Cincta Plena' (prob. SPECIOSA) `Alba Cintra' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Alba Cintra Plena' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Alba Floribunda' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Alba Grandiflora' (SPECIOSA) t'Alba Grandiflora Carrieri' ( SPECIOSA ) * 'Alba Grandiflora Plena' (SPECIOSA) t'Alba Odorans' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Alba Picta' (SPECIOSA) 'Alba Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Alba Punctata Rosea' (sPECIOSA) 'Alba Rosea' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Alba Semiplena' (sPECIOSA) t 'Atrococcinea Semi-plena' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" \" 'Atropurpurea' (SPECIOSA) 'Atrosanguinea' (SPECIOSA) 'Atrosanguinea' (SPECIOSA) 'Atrosanguinea' (X SUPERBA) 'Atrosanguinea Flore Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Atrosanguinea Plena' (SPECIOSA) t `Aurantiaca' (SPECIOSA) t `Aurantiaca Semiplena' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Aurea' ( JAPONICA ) \" \" ~ `Alba Simplex' (prob. sPECIOSA ) t'Alba Variegata' (prob. SPECIOSA ) `Albicans' (SPECIOSA) 'Albiflora' ( SPECIOSA ) ~ `Albipicta' ( SPECIOSA ) `Albo-cincta' (SPECIOSA) y `Albo-lineata' (?) t'Albo-picta' (sPECIOSA) Var. 'Albo-rosea' ( SPECIOSA ) alpina (JAPONICA) `Alpina' (JAPONICA) `Alpina' (JAPONICA) `Allrina Naranja' (X SUPERBA) \" 'Aurea' (SPECIOSA) 'Aurora' (SPECIOSA) 'Aurora' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Azalea' (prob. X SUPERBA ) 'Baltzii' (SPECIOSA) 'Benibotan' (?) \" 'Benichidori' (X SUPERBA) \" 'Blood Red' (SPECIOSA) `Blush' (SPECIOSA) 'Blush Japan' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Bonfire' (SPECIOSA) 'Boule de Feu' (SPECIOSA) 'Boule de Feu' (X SUPERBA) ~ 'Boule de Fue' (X SUPERBA) `Brillant' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Brilliant' (SPECIOSA) t'Bugeauti' (SPECIOSA) 'Bunyardii' (X SUPERBA) \" 'California' (X CALIFORNICA ) 'Andenken an Carl Ramcke' (X Ernst Finken' SUPERBA) 'Californica' (X CALIFORNICA ) 'Camellia-Bloemige' (SPECIOSA) 'Camelliaefolia' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Andenken 'Andenken an (X SUPERBA) an Karl Ramcke' (X SUPERBA) 'Angustifolia' (SPECIOSA) 'Apple Blossom' (SPECIOSA) `Apple Blossom Pink' (SPECIOSA) `A?J1'iCOt' ( X SUPERBA) t 'Argentea' (?) `Arthur Colby' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Camelliflora' (SPECIOSA) 'Cameo' (X SUPERBA) 'Candicans' (SPECIOSA) 'Candida' (SPECIOSA) 'Candidissima' (SPECIOSA) \" `Candidissimum' (SPECIOSA) 'Cardinal' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Cardinalis' (SPECIOSA) `Cardinal Red' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Carmine 'Arthur Hill' (JAPONICA) j~ 'Atrocaulis' (?) 'Atrococcinea' (sPECIOSA) `Atrococcinea Flore Pleno' Queen' (?) `Carnea' (sPECIOSA) ~ `Carnea Plena' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" Var. (SPECIOSA) *' cathayensis (CATHAYENSIS) `Charming' ( X SUPERBA) 'Chosan' (X SUPERBA) 'Atrococcinea Plena' (SPECIOSA) 20] 'Choshan' (X SUPERBA) `Choshun' (?) 'Early Orange' (X SUPERBA ) 'Eburnea (SPECIOSA) t'Citri-pomma' (SPECIOSA) CALIFORNICA) o `ClarkGiant' ( X CALIFORNICA) 'Clarke's Giant Red' (X 'Clayden' (?) 'Coccinea' (SPECIOSA) `Coccinea Erecta' (SPECIOSA) `Coccinea Plena' (SPECIOSA) `Cole's Red' (X SUPERBA) 'Ecarlate' (X SUPERBA) 'Echo' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Eclarate' (X SUPERBA) *'Elly Mossel' (X SUPERBA) t'Emilie Soutzo' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Enchantment' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Enchantress' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Ernst Finken' (X SUPERBA) 'Etna' (X SUPERBA ) \" \" 'Colette' (X SUPERBA) 'Columbia' (X SUPERBA) ' 'Contorta' (SPECIOSA) \" t `EX111S' ( SPECIOSA ) (SPECIOSA) `EugenioideS' (sPECIOSA) 'Euphrosyne' 'Coquelicot' (X SUPERBA) 'Coral Beauty' (X SUPERBA) 'Coral Glow' (X SUPERBA) 'Corallina' (X SUPERBA) 'Coral Red' (?) 'Coral Sea' (X SUPERBA) `Crimson and Gold' (X SUPERBA) `Crimson and Red' (X SUPERBA) 'Crimson Beauty' (X SUPERBA) 'Crimson King' (X SUPERBA) o 'Crippsi' (?) `Cynthia' (X CLARKIANA) 'Dark Crimson' ( SPECIOSA ) *'Dawn' (X CALIFORNICA) o 'Eximia' (SPECIOSA) 'Extus' (SPECIOSA) 'Extus Acumineus' (X SUPERBA) `E~ilS Coccinea' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet Carlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet Charlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet Charlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet Charlot' (SPECIOSA) 'Falconnet Charlot' (SPECIOSA) 'Falcon net Scarlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Fascination' (X SUPERBA) t 'Fastigiata' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Deep Pink' (SPECIOSA) `Deep Red' ( X CALIFORNICA) `Deep Salmon' (?) o 'Della Robbia' (X SUPERBA) o 'Dixie Scarlet' (?) `Doctor Bang's Pink' (sPECIOSA) \" 'Fire' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Fireball' (SPECIOSA) 'Fire Dance' (X SUPERBA) 'Fire DanC81'' ( X SUPERBA ) `Flamingo' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Flora Carnea' (SPECIOSA) 'Dolichocarpa' (prob. sPECIOSA) '* 'Dorothy Rowe' ( JAPONICA ) ~ 'Double Flowering' (SPECIOSA) 'Double Orange' (X SUPERBA) 'Flore AllJO' ( SPECIOSA ) t'Flore Albo Fructu Odorata' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Flore Albo Inermis' (sPECIOSA) 'Flore Albo Pleno' (sPECIOSA) 'Flore Albo Semipleno' (sPECIOSA) 'Flore Atrosanguinea' ( sPECIOSA ) ~ `Flore Aurantiaca' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore Carnea' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Flore COCCinEO' (SPECIOSA) ~ 'Flore Kermesino' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore Plena Rosea' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore PlBnO' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Flore Pleno' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore Purpurea' (SPECIOSA) `Double Red' (X SUPERBA) 'Double Scarlet' (sPECIOSA) `Double Vermilion' (X SUPERBA) 'Dr. Bang's Pink' (SPECIOSA) 'Dwarf Coral' (X SUPERBA ) 'Dwarf Orange Red' (?) 'DwarfPoppy' ( JAPONICA ) 'Dwarf Poppy Red' (JAPONICA) 'Dwarf Red' (SPECIOSA) 'Dwarf Scarlet' (?) 'Early Apple Blossom' (X SUPERBA) [21 'Flore Rosea Plena' (SPECIOSA) t'Flore Roseo' (SPECIOSA) 'Flore Rubra' (SPECIOSA) t'Flore Rubro Aurantiaca' (sPECIOSA) 'Flore Rubro Pleno' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Hi-no-Tsukasa' (X SUPERBA) t 'Histrix' (prob. SPECIOSA) `Hollandia' (X SUPERBA) 1 'Hybrida' (X VILMORINIANA) j~ `Ignea' (prob. SPECIOSA) '~' `IgnlS' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" 'High Noon' (X SUPERBA ) t'Flore Semi-pleno' (SPECIOSA) `Floribunda' (SPECIOSA) 'Floribus Puniceis' (SPECIOSA) ~ 'Floribus ROSeiS' (SPECIOSA) 'Foliis Rubris' (X SUPERBA) '~ `FO111S Variegatis' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Fructa Odoratissima' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Fructico Alba' (X SUPERBA) ~ `FrttCtZCO Odoratissima' (SPECIOSA) 'Fructo Alba' (X SUPERBA) 'Fructu Alba' (X SUPERBA) t 'Fructu Odoratissimo' (SPECIOSA) 'Fruitlandi' (X SUPERBA) ~ 'Gandavensis' (SPECIOSA) 'Gaujardii' (SPECIOSA) Var. genuina (SPECIOSA) 'George Landis' (X SUPERBA) t 'Gigantea' (SPECIOSA) `Glowing-Ember' (X SUPERBA) 'Grandiflora' (SPECIOSA) t'Grandiflora' (SPECIOSA) 'Grandiflora' (X SUPERBA) 'Grandiflora Alba Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Grandiflora Perfecta' (X SUPERBA) 'Grandiflora Perfecta' ( X SUPERBA ) 'Grandiflora Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Grandiflora Rosea' (SPECIOSA) 'Grandiflora Rosea' (X SUPERBA) 'Grandiflora Roseo-semiplena' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Grandiflora Rubra' (SPECIOSA) 'Grandiflora Semiplena' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Grenade' (X SUPERBA) 'Hakugyoku' (?) 'Hanazono' (sPECIOSA) 'Harlequin' (X SUPERBA) 'Hever Castle' (X SUPERBA) 'Hibotan' (?) 'Imbricata' (SPECIOSA) 'Incende' (X SUPERBA) 'Incendie' (X SUPERBA ) 'Incendie' (X SUPERBA) 'Indian Chief' (X SUPERBA ) ~ `Inermis' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Jane Taudevin' (X SUPERBA) \" * \" \" `~a~7an Blush' ( SPECIOSA ) `Japanese Scarlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Japan Scarlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Japan White' (SPECIOSA) Var. japonica (JAPONICA) 'Jet Trail' (X SUPERBA) 'Jimmy's Choice' (sPECIOSA) 'Juliet' (X SUPERBA) 'Kan-Toyo-Nishiki' (SPECIOSA) 'Karl Ramcke' ( X SUPERBA) 'Kermesiana Semi-plena' ( SPECIOSA t `Kermesina' (prob. SPECIOSA) `Kermesina Semiplena' (SPECIOSA) \" ) \" 'Kimpo' (?) `Kinjishi' (X SUPERBA) \" \" \" \" 'Kinshi' (X SUPERBA ) 'Knap Hill' ( X SUPERBA) 'Knap Hill Radiance' (sPECIOSA) 'Knap Hill Scarlet' (X SUPERBA) 'Knap Hill Seedlings' (prob. X SUPERBA) \" 'Knap Hill Variety' (X SUPERBA) 'Kokko' (prob. SPECIOSA) `Kokuko' (proh. SPECIOSA) 'Koshi-no-Homare' (?) 'Koshi-no-Yuki' (?) ~ `Lady Emily Swartz' (prob. 'Kogyoku (?) SPECIOSA) been used widely and loosely in the horticultural literature the genus Chaenomeles. Many of the plants named as Chaenomeles hybrida are not hybrids. Any attempt to establish the priority of use of this epithet together with an attempt to supply new names for later synonyms would create a great deal of confusion. The rules of nomenclature of cultivated plants seek to establish stability of \"cultivar\" names and for this reason the epithet hybrida is regarded only as descriptive. 1 The epithet \"hybrida\" has concerning [22]] \" Var. \" 'Leichtlinii' (X SUPERBA) 'Leonard's Variety' (SPECIOSA) 'Leonard's Velvety' (SPECIOSA) 'Lewalliensis' (?) 'Limoni' (SPECIOSA) 'Lutea Viridis' lagenaria (SPECIOSA) o 'Natorp's Hybrid' (?) o o ~ `Lutea' (SPECIOSA) -~ `Lutea Macrantha' (SPECIOSA) 'Navel' (SPECIOSA) 'New Red Sensational' ( X SUPERBA ) 'Nicoline' (X SUPERBA) 'Nishikichidon' (X SUPERBA ) 'Nivalis' (SPECIOSA) 'Nivalis Major' (SPECIOSA) (SPECIOSA) ~ `Macrantha' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Macrocarpa' (SPECIOSA) 'Maerloosii' (SPECIOSA) 'Maillardii' (SPECIOSA) 'Mallardii' (CATHAYENSIS) `Mallardii' (SPECIOSA) 'Mallardii' (SPECIOSA) 'Mallarot' (SPECIOSA) 'Mallordi' (SPECIOSA) 'Mallordu' (SPECIOSA) 'Mandarin' (X SUPERBA) 'Margaret Adams' (X SUPERBA) 'Marmorata' (SPECIOSA) 'Masterpiece' (X CALIFORNICA) ~ `Nivea' (SPECIOSA) 'Nivea Coccinea' (SPECIOSA) 'Nivea Extus Coccinea' (SPECIOSA) 'Nivea Intus Kermesina' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" ' ~ `Orange' (prob. X SUPERBA) 'Orange Beauty' (JAPONICA) `Orange Red' (?) t'Orange Scarlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Ormond Crimson' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Ormond Scarlet' (prob. SPECIOSA) o o ~ 'Otto Froebel' (X SUPERBA) 'Pacific Red' (SPECIOSA) \" ~ \" \" \" \" 'Maulei' (JAPONICA) 'Maulei Seedlings' (prob. JAPONICA) 'Mawlei' (JAPONICA) 'Millardi' (SPECIOSA) 'Minerva' (X CLARKIANA) 'Moerheimii' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerloesei' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerloesi' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerloosei' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerloosii' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerlosii' (SPECIOSA) 'Moerlozi' (SPECIOSA) 'Moorlosii' (SPECIOSA) 'Papeleui' (SPECIOSA) t'Pedunculata' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Pendula' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Perfecta' ( X SUPERBA) o o 'Perfecta' (X SUPERBA) 'Permesina Semiplena' (SPECIOSA) 'Phylis Moore' (SPECIOSA) 'Phyllis Moore' (sPECIOSA) o ~ o 'Momijiyama' (prob. X SUPERBA) t'Monstruosa' (SPECIOSA) `Moulei (JAPONICA) `MountEverest' (X VILMORINIANA) 'Mount Shasta' (X SUPERBA) 'Mt. Everest' (X VILMORINIANA) 'Mt. Shasta' ( X SUPERBA) 'Multiflora' (SPECIOSA) \" \" \" \" 'Pink' (SPECIOSA) 'Pink' (?) `Pink Beauty' (X CALIFORNICA) o 'Pink Lady' (X SUPERBA) 'Pink Perfection' (?) o 'Pink Princess' (X SUPERBA) 'Pigmaea' ( JAPONICA ) `Pigmaea' ( JAPONICA ) `Pi~111l1ni' (JAPONICA) 'Pinkstripe' (SPECIOSA) j~ `Piri f ormis' (prob. SPECIOSA ) 'Plena' (JAPONICA) 'Plena' ( SPECIOSA ) `Porcelain Rose' (X SUPERBA) 'Port Eliot' (?) j~ 'Princeps' (SPECIOSA) `Nana' t `Na1lll' (JAPONICA) ( SPECIOSA ) t'Princesse Emile SOnt7a' (SPECIOSA) t `Princesse Emilie' (SPECIOSA) j~ 'Princesse Emilie Soutzo' (SPECIOSA) o o '~ `Narla Compacta' ( SPECIOSA ) `Naranja' (X SUPERBA ) 'Nasturtium' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Purity' (?) `Purpurea' (SPECIOSA) [23]] 'Pygmaea' (JAPONICA) 'Pygmaea Alba' (JAPONICA) 'Pygmy' (JAPONICA) t 'Pyriformis' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Rakuyo' (prob. X SUPERBA ) Var. pygmaea (JAPONICA) t'Rubro-aurantiaca' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Rubro Plena' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Rubro-sanguinea Plena' (SPECIOSA) \" *'Ruby Glow' (X SUPERBA ) 'Russell's Red' (sPECIOSA) ~ `Salicifolia' (prob. SPECIOSA) `Salmon' (X SUPERBA) 'Salmonea' (?) 'Salmon Queen' (?) 'Sammlinge von Andenken Ramcke' (X SUPERBA ) `Red' (SPECIOSA) `Red Chief' (X SUPERBA) 'Red Flowers' ( X SUPERBA) 'Red Ripples' (SPECIOSA) 'Red Ruffles' (SPECIOSA) 'Red Sprite' (SPECIOSA) 'Red Upright' (sPECIOSA) 'Renny Mossel' (X SUPERBA) 'Riccartonii' (?) 'Rinho' (SPECIOSA) 'Rosalba' (SPECIOSA) an Karl 'Sanguinea' (X SUPEIRBA) 'Sanguinea Flore Pleno' (sPECIOSA) 'Sanguinea Multiflora' (sPECIOSA) 'Sanguinea Plena' (sPECIOSA) t `Sanguinea Plena Multiflora' \" (SPECIOSA) ~ `Rosea' (SPECIOSA) 'Rosea' (SPECIOSA) *'Rosea' (X SUPERBA ) 'Rosea Flora Pleno' (SPECIOSA) 'Rosea Flora Plena' ( sPECIOSA ) # 'Rosea Grandiflora ( sPECIOSA ) 'Rosea Grandiflora' ( X SUPERBA) 'Rosea Grandiflora Semiplena' 'Sanguinea Semiplena' (sPECIOSA) 'San Jose' (prob. X CALIFORNICA) 'Sargentiana' ( JAPONICA ) 'Sargentii' (JAPONICA) fi `Sarmentosa' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" \" 'Scarlet' (SPECIOSA) 'Scarlet' (X SUPERBA) 'Scarlet and Gold' (X SUPERBA) (SPECIOSA) ~' 'Rosea Plena' (sPECIOSA) 'Rosea Semiplena' (sPECIOSA) # 'Rosemary' (X CALIFORNICA ) `Semi-alba-pleno' ( sPECIOSA ) ~ `Semi-plena' ( sPECIOSA ) ~ `Semipleno' (SPECIOSA) 'Semperflorens' ( X suPERBA) \" 'Rosepink' (sPECIOSA) `Rosepink' (SPECIOSA) (X 'Rosy Morn'(?) CALIFORNICA) 'Rosy Red' 'Rowallana' (X SUPERBA) 'Rowallane' (X SUPERBA) 'Rowallane Seedling' (X SUPERBA) 'Rowallane Variety' ( X SUPERBA) \" 'Sensational New Red' ( X SUPERBA) t 'Serotina' (SPECIOSA) \" 'Rowalling Seedling' (X SUPERBA) 'Roxana Foster' (X 'Rubra' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Shasta' (?) 'Shell Pink' (X SUPERBA ) 'Shinonome' (X SUPERBA ) 'Shirabotan' (X SUPERBA ) 'Shirabotau' ( X SUPERBA ) 'Shirobotan' ( X SUPERBA ) 'Shirataum' (SPECIOSA) SUPERBA) ~ 'Rubra-aurantiaca' (SPECIOSA) 'Shokko'(?) ~ `Simikenriana' (SPECIOSA) `Si?nOn' (SPECIOSA) '~ `Rubra Aurantiaca Duplex Nova' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Rubra Grandiflora' (SPECIOSA) 'Rubra Plena' (SPECIOSA) 'Rubra Pleno' (sPECIOSA) '~ `Rubra Semiplena' (sPECIOSA) 'Rubriflora' (sPECIOSA) 'Rubrifolia' (X SUPERBA) 'Simonii' (SPECIOSA) 'Simoni Rubra' (SPECIOSA) 'Simonis' (SPECIOSA) \" `SirnorESii' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Simplex Alba' (prob. SPECIOSA) \" 'Single White' (?) \" ~ ~ `Sinica' (?) 'Snow' (SPECIOSA) [24]] \" 'Snowbird' (?) 'Snow Queen' 'Snow White' \" t'Splendens' (prob. sPECIOSA) 'Spring Fashion' (X SUPERBA) \" (sPECIOSA) (SPECIOSA) `Spitfire' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Stanford Red' (X SUPERBA) 'Starlight' (SPECIOSA) ~ `Striata' ( SPECIOSA ) `S~LllplL1.lrea' (SPECIOSA) `Sulphurea Aurea' (SPECIOSA) 'Sulphurea Perfecta' (SPECIOSA) `S1l?lrtSe' (X SUPERBA) 'Sunset' (X SUPERBA) 'Sunset Glory' (X CALIFORNICA) 'Sunset Glow' (X CALIFORNICA) `Sunset Gold' (X CALIFORNICA) # `Superba' (X SUPERBA) 'Sweet Glow' (X CALIFORNICA) \" `Umbicillata' (SPECIOSA) 'Umbicillata Rosea' (SPECIOSA) 'Umbilicata' (SPECIOSA) \" Umbilicata Macrocarpa' (SPECIOSA) t 'Umbilicata Nana' (SPECIOSA) 'Umbilicata Rosea' ( SPECIOSA ) ~' 'Umbilisata' (SPECIOSA) 'Umbilitica' (SPECIOSA) ~ \" ' ~ ~ t 'Variabilis Tricolor' (sPECIOSA) t 'Variegata' ( SPECIOSA ) '~ `Variegatis' (SPECIOSA) 'Vedrariensis' (X VILMORINIANA) ' `Verboom's Vermili0n' ( X SUPERBA) 'Upright' (SPECIOSA) 'Upright Pink' (prob. sPECIOSA) 'Upright Red' (sPECIOSA) 'Upright Spitfire' (sPECIOSA) 'Upright White' ( prob. sPECIOSA ) 'Van Aerschodti' (prob. sPECIOSA) \" \" `Taioh-Nishiki' `Tani-no-Yuki' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Taiojishi' (JAPONICA) 'Tall Large Flowering Salmon' (?) (sPECIOSA) `Taroyishi' (SPECIOSA) 'Tatsugashira' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Tattagawa' (?) 'Vermilion' (X SUPERBA) 'Vermilion D011lJ1e' (X SUPERBA) `Versicolor' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Versicolor Lutea' (SPECIOSA) ~ 'Versicolor Lutescens' (SPECIOSA) '~ `Versicolor Plena' ( prob. SPECIOSA ) # 'Temmei' (?) t'Terra Cotta' (?) 'Texas Pink' (sPECIOSA) 'Texas Scarlet' (X SUPERBA) t 'Thornless Crimson' (?) `Thornless Pink' (X SUPERBA) \" 'Tiochisi' (prob. JAPONICA) ~ 'Tortuosa' ( SPECIOSA ) 'Tortuosa' (X SUPERBA) '~ `Versicolor Semiplena' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Vesuvius' (X SUPERBA) 'Wakaba' (X SUPERBA) \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 'Toyo-Nishiki' (sPECIOSA) 'Toyonishiki' (sPECIOSA) 'Trichogyna' ( sPECIOSA ) 'Tricolor' 'Tsukasi' Var. 'White' (SPECIOSA) 'White' (SPECIOSA) 'White Upright' (prob. SPECIOSA ) 'White P1'llit' (X SUPERBA) 'Willis Strain' ( X SUPERBA) Var. iUilS011ii (CATAAYENSIS) 'Winter Cheer' (prob. X SUPERBA) 'Winter Flowering' (?) Star' (JAPONICA) 'Woking (?) 'Tsukasa-Botan' (?) (?) typica ( JAPONICA) 'Ulidia' (X SUPERBA) ~ `Umbato' (?) 'Umbellata' (sPECIOSA) \" \" 'Yaegaki' (X SUPERBA) '~ `Yellow' ( SPECIOSA ) `Yokuku' (?) 'Yuga' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Yuyo' (prob. SPECIOSA) 'Zabelii' (?) 'Zansetsu' (?) ' 'Umbellicata' (SPECIOSA) 'Umbellicata Rosea' (SPECIOSA) `Zoge' ( JAPONICA ) 25 ~] II. LIST OF SPECIES AND HYBRID GROUPS WITH THEIR INCLUDED CULTIVARS This second list is comprised of the names of species, varieties and hybrid groups (which, when appearing for the first time are indicated by boldface type; however, the hybrid groups, when cited in the discussion, are indicated by LARGE and SMALL capitals) together with the cultivars included under each, in alphabetical order; the cultivar names which are maintained are indicated by LARGE and SMALL capitals. Botanical synonyms and polynomials, which were latinized cultivar names, are indicated by italics. The earliest bibliographic reference is given for each cultivar; if two references are cited the first refers to the earliest mention of the name, the second to the place of publication of the description. In order to keep this list within reasonable limits, the transfer of cultivars or varieties from one species to another is not included. Synonymy is given when necessary to prevent further confusion. A short description of each cultivar is also provided, based on living plants whenever possible or compiled from descriptions published previously. It was also found necessary to supplement the references to each species or hybrid group with a short \"horticultural\" description, since the intrinsic value of the cultivars and their uses in horticulture pertain to both the general aspect of the shrub and the color of the flowers. Many difficulties were encountered during this study. Some, especially those due to the instability of the nomenclature in Japanese Quinces, were time consuming. Each name had to be sought in books and nursery catalogues under at least two genera, Cydonia and Chaenomeles. The controversy over the application of the specific epithet \"japonica\" induced me to consider any cultivar or varietal name in Chaenomeles as a member of an undetermined species or hybrid group. Consequently, each cultivar had to be examined in order to prepare LIST II. The information obtained was organized under the following categories, given here in order of decreasing importance: 1, observations on living plants; 2, studies of herbarium specimens; 3, compilation of nomenclatural synonyms ; 4, descriptions of cultivars; 5, records of parentage; 6, dates of origin. All the evidence was evaluated according to the following characters present in the three types, \"cathayensis,\" \"japonica,\" and \"speciosa\": appearance of the shrub; pubescence or warting of the twigs; serration, size, and shape of the leaves; color, size, and shape of the flowers; appearance, size, and shape of the fruits. The results determined whether or not a given cultivar was of hybrid origin. Some of the conclusions were contrary to the general opinions often accepted by horticulturists and given in nursery catalogues. Another difficulty arose in deciding whether or not a given name represents a definite and stable clone reproduced vegetatively, or only a variable unstable population such as a color selection in a batch of seedlings. Since there was no way of determining to which category some of the names belong, the situation is stated for each case according to the evidence. The botanical varieties are [26_ also included since most of them were described from gardens and are, in fact, or were introduced to cultivation after being described from the \"wild.\" An additional problem encountered was the variation in spelling. For instance Chaenomeles 'Moerloosei', named for the Belgian horticulturist Moerloose, is found in nursery catalogues under 'Maerloosii', 'Moerheimii', 'Moerlozi', etc. It is hoped that the list of orthographic variations will help nurserymen to correct and coordinate their files and rectify the impression that they have a score of different entities. By careful study it has been possible to verify the fact that such cultivars as 'Cardinal' and 'Cardinalis', 'Choshan' and 'Choshun', 'Shasta' and 'Mount Shasta', 'Variegata' and 'Variegatis', etc., are not variations in spelling within one species, but apply to entirely different plants. cultivars, Chaenomeles cathayensis ( Hemsl. ) Schneid. Ill. Handb. Laubh. 1: 730. 1906. Cydonia cathayensis Hemsl. in Hook. Icon. 27: pl. 2657 & 2658. 1901. LECTOTYPE : Hupeh, A. Henry 5263 (Herb. Kew.; ISOLECTOTYPE, Gray Herbarium), Henry 1916 (SYNTYPE, Herb. Kew., not seen). Shrubs reaching 10 feet or more, easily trained to form numerous a few, straight, erect, stiff, strongly armed with small spurs. tree. Young Branches shoots pubescent or glabrescent, those of the second year completely glabrous. Leaves elliptic to lanceolate, when young commonly covered by a thick fulvous tomentum on the under surface, sharply serrate with the serration terminating in an awn-like Flowers white to pink. Mostly cultivated for the abundant ovoid fruits up to tip. 15 or even 20 cm. long, which ripen late. The fruits are used in China for medicinal purposes, and local varieties are assumed to exist there in cultivation. Although C. cathayensis has been found in the wild in China, and in southern Tibet up to an altitude of 9500 feet, it is not hardy north of Zone VI. Var. cathayensis (Chaenomeles lagenaria var. cathayensis Rehder in Sargent, 1915) = Pl. Wilson. 2: 297. C. cathayensis. 'Mallardii' (Cydonia mallardii Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 41: cxxxii. 1915. Corrected anonymously to Pyrus japonica var. wilsonii in Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 41: f. 122. 1915-16) C. cathayensis. = Var. wilsonii (Chaenomeles lagenaria var. wilsonii Rehder in Sargent, Pl. Wilson. 2: 298. 1915) C. cathayensis. This variety was distinguished by Rehder from C. lagenaria var. cathayensis by \"the dense fulvous tomentum of the under side of its leaves.\" This character, however, does not appear in plants reproduced by seeds, and is neither correlated with any geographical or ecological distribution, nor with other morphological characters of wild plants. Glabrous or pubescent leaves seem to appear at random in young plants, therefore a varietal rank is not justified. = 27] Chaenomeles 1834. Var. japonica ( Thunb. ) Lindl. ex Spach, Hist. Nat. Veg. Phan. 2: 159. japonica. Thunb. Fl. Pyrus japonica Chaenomeles Jap. 207. 1784. HOLO~PE: Japan, Thunberg, s.n. ( Herb. Upsala). ( Pyrt~s japon2ca Thunb. ) Lindl. Trans. Linn. Soc. 13: 96. 1822 (as Choenomeles). Dwarf shrub about 3-4 feet high. Branches widely spreading with short, slender shoots covered with a short, scabrous tomentum; those of the second year verruculose. Leaves obovate to spathulate, glabrous even when young, coarsely crenate. Flowers small, usually salmon to orange. Fruits similar in shape spines. Young to gnarled apples, small, to 4 cm. ripening early. extremely fragrant fruits are used for making jelly. This species is wild in Japan, usually growing at low altitudes. It is the hardiest species in the genus. 'Alba' (C. maulei var. alba Nakai, Jap. Jour. Bot. 4: 329. 1929) = `ZocE'. Since the name 'Alba' is preoccupied by a member of the SUPERBA group, we propose to call this cultivar 'Zoge' which means ivory in Japanese. Var. alpina (C. japonica var. alpina Maxim., Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 19: The its parts. The type of this variety was collected on the mountains of the Island of specimen Kyushu, Japan. This name should not be applied to a cultivar. 168. 1873 ) . Smaller than C. japonica var. japonica in all maulei 'Alpina' (Cydonia originally = var. 1900) = 'SARGENTII'. The material from seeds other than C. alpina Kyushu. var. brought by Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Am. Hort. 1: 427. in cultivation under this name was grown Sargent from one of the Japanese islands Gatt. Pomac. 28. 'Alpina' (Chaenomeles alpina Koehne, japonica pl. 2, f. 23 a-c. 1890) japonica. 'ARTHUR HILL' (Hill Nurs., Dundee, Ill. Wholesale Trade List 1961). Flowers Selection no. 7 of Dr. A. Colby of the University of Illinois. Named for Arthur Hill, father of the present manager of the Hill salmon-pink, single. Nursery, 1961. 'AUREA' (Wayside Gard., Mentor, Ohio, Cat. 1942 ) . Flowers orange, suffused with rosy red, single. Selection of Wayside Gardens, before 1942. `DOROTIIY RowE' (formerly 'Pygmaea alba' a name not acceptable according to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants). Flowers small, white tinted with pink and lemon, single. Selection of Dubois Nursery, Cincinnati, Ohio, before 1960. Named for Mrs. Dorothy S. Rowe who founded the Stanley M. Rowe Arboretum where this cultivar is growing. This is a new cultivar previously undescribed. 'Dwarf Poppy' RED'. (Arb. Wageningen, Neth., Seed List 1960) = 'DWARF POPPY 'DWARF Poppy RED' (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without description). Flowers large for a C. japonica, flat open, \"poppy-red,\" single. 28] Selection of W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California, probably Kluis Nursery, Boskoop, Netherlands, around 1946. 'Maulei' no. 330, sent to (Pyrus maulei Mast. Gard. Chron. II. 1: 756, f. 159. 1874). Flowers salmon-pink to orange, single. Named for Messrs. Maule, nurserymen at Bristol, England, who introduced it from Japan in 1869. The strain of C. japonica introduced by the Maules from Japanese gardens differs from the alpine strain introduced by Sargent in growing slightly taller and in having a heavier fruit production. 'Maulei Seedlings' ( Slocock Nurs., Woking, Engl., Cat. 1958-59). Flowers orange-flame. Probably not a clone, but only selected seedlings of C. 'Mawlei' japonica `MAULEI'. (C. japonica Mawlei Buyssens Nurs., Uccle, Belg., Cat. 1933, without description) = 'Nana' `MAULEI'. 'Moulei' (Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, 'MAULEI'. Belg., Cat. 1896, without description) = (cult. at 'ORANGE BEAUTY' Flowers orange, = the Univ. of Connecticut, Storrs, Conn. ) _ `PIGMANI'. (Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without description). single; Dutch selection, before 1954. San 'Pigmaea' (Clarke Nurs., 'SARGENTII'. Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1935) List 'Pigmaea' (C. lagenaria Pigmaea, Light 1958) = 'PIGMANI'. 'PIGMANI' Flowers Tree Nurs., Richland, Mich., Price Guide 93. 1958, without description). unisexual. Selected in Kallay Nursery, Painesville, Ohio, in 1954, under the name of 'Pigmaea'. 'PLENA' (C. maulei f. plena Iwata, Jour. Agr. Sci. [Setagaya], 5(4): 36. 1960). Flowers double; flower color and origin unknown, before 1960. In Japanese (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's red-orange, single, often gardens. Var. pygmaea (C. japonica var. y pygmaea Maxim. Bull. Acad. Sci. Petersb. 19: 168. 1873 ) . Branches often subterranean. The type specimen of this variety collected around Yokohama, Japan. The name should not be applied to cultivar. It is not a synonym of C. japonica var. alpina Maxim. 'Pygmaea' (C. japonica pygmaea Chenault Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1910-11) 'SARGENTII'. was a = 'Pygmaea name for We propose to (cult. at the Stanley M. Rowe Arb., Cincinnati, Ohio). This acceptable according to the International Code of Nomenclature Cultivated Plants which prohibits new names of cultivars in a Latin form. alba' is not name it `DOROTHY RowE'. 'Pygmy' (Linn County Nurs., Center Point, Iowa, Cat. 1960) = 'SARGENTII'. 'Sargentiana' (cult. at the Wageningen Arb., Wageningen, Neth.) = 'SARGENTII'. `SARGENTII' (Cydonia sargenti Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. no. 143: ix. 1899). Shrub more dwarf than the typical form of the species; flowers 29] Arnold salmon-pink to Arboretum; introduced by him from Japan orange, single. Named for C. S. Sargent, first director of the in 1892. 'TAIOJISHI' (E. orange, Japan, L. Kammerer, Bull. Morton Arb. 29(5): 22. 1954). Flowers Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, Numazu-shi, before 1939. Taiojishi means Great King Lion. single. 'Tiochisi' (cult. at the Univ. of Minn., St. Paul, Minn.) = `TAIOJISIII'. 'Tricolor' (C. japonica tricolor Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1887, without description, ibid., Descr. Cat. no. 39 [prob. 1889], with description). Leaves pink and white variegated; flowers salmon-pink. Origin unknown, before 1887. Var. typica (Cydonia japonica var. typica Makino, = Bot. Mag. Tokyo 22: 63. 1908) japonica var. japonica. `ZocE' (formerly 'Alba', a name retained for another cultivar). Flowers creamywhite, single. In Japanese gardens. This cultivar was illustrated in Iwasaki, Honzo Dzufu 60, fol. 10 recto. 1919 (as C. japonica f.). Zoge, meaning ivory, is an C. allusion to the color of the flowers. Chaenomeles speciosa (Sweet) Nakai, Jap. Jour. Bot. 4: 331. 1929. Cydonia speciosa This species is typified by plate no. 692 (not 629) of the Bot. Mag. 18 (1803). The plate represents a flowered branch surmounted by a young shoot. The flowers are borne on long peduncles, a normal development in warm weather. The illustration was drawn in August as indicated in the text. The specimen represented has abnormal, semidouble, and male flowers only. Shrubs usually 6 feet, occasionally up to 10 feet high. Branches numerous, erect to spreading, spiny. Young shoots glabrous or slightly pubescent; those of the second year glabrous. Leaves ovate to oblong, glabrous, or when young slightly pubescent on the veins of the under surface, sharply serrate. Flowers normally red, but also white or pink; similar variation among wild specimens. Fruits very variable in shape, size, and time of ripening. The fruits ripen well indoors and can be used for making jelly. This species is found wild in China at various altitudes. The shrub is hardy, but north of Zone V the flower buds have a tendency to freeze above snow line. 'ALARM' Sweet, Hort. Suburb. London 113. 1818. (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. f. 1959). Flowers Chance New Zealand. Introduced before 1959. deep red, single. seedling about 1935, in a garden in Wanganui, by Harrison Nurseries, Palmerston North, N. Z., 'Alba' ( Pyrus japonica alba Lodd. Bot. Cab. 6: 541, pl. 1821) = `CANDIDISSIMA'. 'Alba' (Cydonia japonica alba Spath, Spath-Buch, 220. 1930) = 'NIVALIS'. 'Alba candida' ( Dickinson Nurs., Chatenay, Fr., Cat. 1889-90, without description) 'CANDIDA'. 'ALBA CINCTA' (C. japonica alba cincta Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Ben., 181. 1903, without description). Flowers white with a pink margin, single; = 30] fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Belgium, before 1861. Probably selection of Louis van Houtte, Ghent, descrip- 'ALBA CINCTA PLENA' (Barbier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1896, without tion). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1896. 'Alba cintra' 'Alba cintra (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1955: 212. 1955) = 'ALBA CINCTA'. plena' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without 'ALBA CINCTA PLENA'. description) = 'ALBA FLORIBUNDA' (C. japonica alba floribunda Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1889: 496. 1889). Flowers white tinted with pink, single, very numerous. English cultivar, introduced before 1889. 'ALBA GRANDIFLORA' (Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1876: 410. pl. 1876). Shrub almost spineless; flowers pure white, large, single. Raised from seed by Carriere in Paris, France, in 1869. 1886, with description). Flowers large, white tinted with pink, semidouble. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1872. 'Alba odorans' (Anonymous, Jour. Hort. Prat. Belg. 14: 265. 1856-57, without description) = 'FLORE ALBO FRUCTV ODORATA'. 'ALBA PICTA' (C. japonica alba picta Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887). Flowers white tinted with rose-pink, single. Selection of Ludwig Spath, Hort. 1886: 182. (C. japonica alba grandiflora Carrierei Morel, Rev. 1909 ) _ 'ALBA GRANDIFLORA'. 'ALBA GRABDIFLORA PLENA' (Cydonia j(l'JOnICCl alba grandiflora plena Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description; Carriere, Rev. 'Alba grandiflora Carrierei' Hort. 1909: 277. before 1887. 'Alba plena' PLENA'. (Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886) = 'ALBA rosea GRANDIFLORA 'Alba punctata rosea' (C. japonica alba punctata Fr., Cat. 1897) = 'ALBA ROSEA'. Letellier Nurs., Caen, 'ALBA RosEA' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 126. 1942, without description). Flowers white, outer side rose-pink, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of Ludwig Spath, Berlin, Germany, before 1897, under the name 'Albo-rosea'. 'ALBA SEMIPLENA' (Cydonia japonica alba semiplena Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886, with description). Flowers white tinted with pink, semidouble; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1873. 'ALBA SIMPLEX' (C. japonica alba simplex Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1873). Flowers white, single. Probably selection of Parsons Nurseries, before 1873. 'Alba Cat. variegata' (C. japonica alba variegata Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., 1886-87, without description; ibid., Cat. 1900-01, with description) = (Vollert Nurs., Liibeck, Germ., : 31] Cat. `VARIEGATA'. 'Albicans' 1899-1900) = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. 'Albiflora' (Cydonia speciosa var.R albiflora Guimpel et. al., Abbild. Fremd. Holzg. 1: 88. 1825) = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. 'Albipicta' (C. japonica albipicta Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1930) 'ALBA PICTA'. 'Albo-cincta' (Cydonia japonica albo-cincta Van Houtte, Flore des Serres 14: 23. pl. 1403. 1861) = 'ALBA CINCTA'. The name used in the title is 'Albocineta', while the name under the plate is 'Rosalba'. 'Albo-picta' (C. japonica albo-picta Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., = Cat. 1915-16) 'ALBA PICTA'. 'Albo-rosea' (Cydonia japonica albo-rosea Muth, Gartenw. 7: 113. 1902) 'ALBA ROSEA'. `ANGUSTIFOLIA' (Chaenomeles angustifolia Koidzumi, Jour. Coll. Sci. Tokyo 34(2): 97. 1913). Leaves very narrow, up to 7 cm. long, 15 mm. broad; flowers white, single; fruits ovoid. Described as a \"species\" by Koidzumi, it proves from the study of herbarium specimens to be only a cultivar of C. speciosa. In Japanese gardens. `APPLE BLOSSOM' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1937: 11. 1937). Flowers white, tinted with pink and lemon, single or often semidouble ; fruits ovoid or apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of the Leonard Nursery, Piqua, Ohio, before 1932. It is not a synonym of `MOERLOOSEI'. 'Apple Blossom Pink' (Leonard Nurs., BLOSSOM'. Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1932) = 'APPLE `ATROCOCCINEA' (C. japonica atrococcinea Morel, Rev. Hort. 1909: 277. 1909 ) . Flowers red, single; fruits ovoid or apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1909. 'Atrococcinea flore pleno' 'ATROCOCCINEA PLENA'. `ATROCOCCINEA PLENA' (Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, Belg., Cat. 1893) = (Cydonia japonica atrococcinea plena Van Houtte Nurs., description; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1890, with description). Flowers red, semidouble; fruits small, apple shaped, ribbed, umbilicate. Probably selection of Louis van Houtte, before Ghent, Belg., 1869. Cat. 1869, without `ATROCOCCINEA SEMI-PLENA' (C. japonica atrococcinea semi-plena SimonLouis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1886-87, without description; ibid., Cat. 190001, with description). Flowers red, semidouble. Probably selection of Simon-Louis Nursery, before 1886. 'Atropurpurea' (Goldring, Garden 40: 'ATROSANGUINEA' (Cydonia japonica 3: 107. berg, Belgium, before 1856. 'Atrosanguinea' (C. X superba 1961: 95. 1891) = `ATROSANGUINEA'. var. atrosanguinea Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 1856). Flowers \"blood-red,\" single. Selection of Moerloose, Lede127. It is not var. a synonym of 'SIMONII'. atrosanguinea Wyman, Am. Nurs. 1961) = 'SIMONII'. May 1, = 32 )] 'Atrosanguinea = flore plena' (Bay State Nurs., N. 'ATROSANGUINEA PLENA'. no. Abington, Mass., Cat. 1899) 'ATROSANGUINEA PLENA' Zurich, Switz., Cat. 1886: 182. tion of Otto = Froebel, before 1880. Similar to 'SIMONII'. 'Aurantiaca' (C. japonica aurantiaca Prince Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 'FLORE RUBRO AURANTIACA'. (Cydonia japonica atrosanguinea plena Froebel Nurs., 90. 1880, without description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886, with description). Flowers bright red, semidouble. Selec1856) `AURANTIACA SEMIPLENA' (Cydonia japonica var. aurantiaca semiplena Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: 107. 1856). Flowers small, orange-red, semidouble. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1856. 'Aurea' (C. japonica = aurea scription) 'SULPHUREA PERFECTA'. Parsons, Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1873, without de- 'AURORA' (C. japonica aurora Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868). Flowers rose-pink suffused with yellow, single; fruits large, orange shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1868. `BALTZII' ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887). Flowers rosy red, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Ludwig Spath, introduced 1885. Named for Mr. Baltz, former head gardener of Spath Nurseries. 'BLOOD RED' (Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1933). Flowers deep \"bloodred,\" single; fruits large, apple to orange shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1933. It is not a synonym of `RUBRA GRANDIFLORA' from which it differs by the 'Blush' (Ellwanger & DISSIMA'. consistently broader leaves. Barry Nurs., Rochester, N. Y., Barry Nurs., Rochester, Cat. N. 1870) = 'CANDI- 'Blush Japan' (Ellwanger & `CANDIDISSIMA'. Y., Cat. 1867) = 'BONFIRE' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1935). Flowers rose-pink, single; fruits large, ovoid, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1935. 'Boule de Feu' out (Princeton Nurs., Princeton, Aubert BALL'. description; ibid., N. J., Retail Price List 1941, withWholesale Price List 1946, with description) = 'FIRE- `Brillant' (Hemeray 'BRILLIANT' unknown, before 1939. 'BUGEAUTI' rose-pink Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1956) = 'BRILLIANT'. Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1939). Flowers varying from (Leonard to rosy red, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicus pointed. Origin (C. japonica Bugeauti Anonymous, hand-written cat. of Arboretum Segrezianum, Segrez, Fr., 1877, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, probably a French cultivar, before 1877. at 'Camellia-Bloemige' (cult. 'CAMELLIIFLORA'. 'Camelliaefolia' the Villa Taranto Gard., Pallanza, It.) = (Nicholson, Kew Hand List, ed. 2. 323. 1902, without de- [ 33 : This list gives as a synonym Pyrus japonica of plate 692 in the Botanical Magazine. Since this plate typifies Chaenomeles speciosa, the cultivar 'Camelliaefolia' C. speciosa var. speciosa. scription). = `CAMELLmFLORA' and origin unknown, before 1910. 'CANDICANS' (Pyrus japonica candicans Nicholson, 1894, without description; Hesse ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1910-11). Flower color Shrub of medium height; unknown, before 1894. 'CANDIDA' (C. pure white, 1868. Kew Hand List, ed. 1. 193. Nurs., Weener-Ems, Germ., Cat. 1903-04). buds pinkish; flowers creamy white, single. Origin Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. japonica candida Lebas, 1868). Flowers before single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, 'CANDIDISSIMA' (Defosse-Thuillier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1874, without description ; Andorra Nurs., Philadelphia, Pa., Cat. 1906, with description). Flowers white tinted with pink, single. The name 'CANDIDISSIMA' has replaced older names applied to the same cultivar. Already known in Europe in 1813. Probably introduced from Japanese gardens. 'CANDIDISSIMUM' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without description) = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. `CARDINALIS' (C. japonica var. cardinalis Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: sub pl. 107. 1856). Flowers bright red, single or semidouble; fruits apple shaped, umbilicus pointed. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, around 1855. 'Cardinalis' which originated as a chance seedling in Europe, has been elevated to the rank of species by Nakai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 32: (145). 1918. This \"species\" was based on the figure published by Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1872: 331, f. 1. 1872, and maintained because the plant was thought to grow wild in China and on one of the Japanese islands. This latter information from a native collector proved to be erroneous, and, although Japanese authors continue to treat it as a species, it is, in fact, a cultivar of garden origin. 'CARNEA' ( C. japonica carnea Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868). Flowers white tinted with pink, single; fruits orange shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1868. 'CARNEA PLENA' (Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 38-39, prob. Flowers \"flesh\" colored, double. Origin unknown, before 1887. `CITRIPOMA' Hort. 1876: 1887-89). (Cydonia citripoma [Chaenomeles citrdponima] Carriere, Rev. 330, pl. 1876). Flowers rosy red, single; fruits large, ovoid, ribbed, calyx accrescent. Raised from seed by Carriere in Paris, France, in 1869. 'COCCINEA' (Cydonia japonica var. coccinea Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: 107. 1856 ) . Flowers bright red, single. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, around 1855. 'Coccinea erecta' (Princeton Nurs., Princeton, N. J., Cat. 1934) = 'COCCINEA'. 'Coccinea plena' (C. japonica coccinea 1960) = `ATROCOCCINEA PLENA'. plena Minier Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. [34]] 'CONTORTA' ( C. superba contorta Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 9: 18. 1942). Branches and spines tortuous; flowers white tinted with pink; fruits apple shaped or slightly ovoid, calyx accrescent. This cultivar was imported from Japan by Toichi Domoto Nursery, Haywood, California, about 1929. At the International Flower Show in New York in March, 1936, it was awarded a Silver Medal. `CONTORTA', in Japan, is called'RINHO' which is a sport of 'TATSUGASHIRA'. 'Dark Crimson' (C. japonica Dark Crimson, N. Y., Cat. 1867) = 'ATROSANGUINEA'. 'DEEP PINK' Ellwanger & Barry Nurs., Rochester, (cult. at the Nurs., Nashville, Tenn., fruits apple shaped, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., from Jones since 1950). Flowers small, \"deep pink,\" single; umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1950. 'DOCTOR BANG'S PINK' (cult. at the Mich. State Univ., East Lansing, Mich., and at the Univ. of Minn., St. Paul, Minn. ) . Flowers salmon-pink, single; fruits small, orbicular, umbilicus wide and protuberant. Selection of Interstate Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa. Named for Dr. Bang of Hamburg, Iowa, in whose garden it was found, before 1955. 'DOLICHOCARPA' (C. japonica dolichocarpa Depken, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 22: 321, f. 1913). No flower color indicated; fruits pear shaped. The original shrub was raised from seed in Oberneuland, Germany, before 1913. 'Double Flowering' (Ellwanger & 'RUBRA SEMIPLENA'. 'Double Scarlet' 'Dr. Barry Nurs., Rochester, Cat. N. Y., Cat. 1867) = (Strong Nurs., Brighton, Mass., Bang's Pink' (cult. at the Mich. State the Univ. of Minn., St. Paul, Minn.) = 'DOCTOR BANG'S PINK'. According to a recommendation of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, names beginning with abbreviations should be avoided. 1872) = 'RUBRA PLENA'. Univ., East Lansing, Mich., and at 'DWARF RED' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 77: lxxxiv. 1952, without description). Flowers coral-red, single. Selection of Lady Cranborne, Hatfield, England, before 1952. 'EBURNEA' ( Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1872: 331. f. 4. 1872 ) . Flowers small, pure white, single. Carriere wrote \"Japanese species (?) introduced by the late Siebold.\" On this information, Nakai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 32: 146. 1918, based Chaenomeles eburnea ( Carr. ) Nakai. Since the species does not occur wild in Japan, he gave as its origin China, with a question mark. This plant does not occur in China either, and is only a garden form differing from the typical form of the species in its white flowers, glabrous styles, and narrower leaves. It should be considered a cultivar. 'ECHO' ( H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 55. 1961). Flowers claret-rose and rosy red, single. Selection no. 12 of Dr. A. Colby of the University of Illinois, introduced 1961. 'Emilie Soutzo' (Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1895) = `PRINCESSE EMILIE SOUTZO'. 'Eugenioides' (C. eugenioides Koidzumi, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 29: 160. 1915). This \"species\" of Koidzumi is cited by Nakai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 32: 146. 1918, [35]] as a 5(4): 38. 1960, cites it in the synonymy of C. cardinalis Carriere, which has red, often semidouble flowers, very different from 'Eugenioides' with white, synonym of the cultivar 'Alba rosea'. Iwata, flowers. It is Jour. Agr. Sci. [Setagaya] cultivar = pink-tinted, single 'ALBA ROSEA'. `EUPHROSYNE' probably better treated as a (Cheal Nurs., Crawley, Engl., Cat. 1931-32). Flowers pure white, single. Selection of the Cheal Nursery, before 1931. 'EXILIS' (Cydonia japonica exilis Siebold, Jaarb. Kon. Ned. Maatsch. 1844: 27. 1844, without 1843. description). Introduced by P. F. von Siebold from Japan, in 'EXIMIA' (Cydonia japonica eximia Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1890, with description). Flowers pink to rosy red; fruits orange shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1880. Similar to 'UMBILICATA'. 'Extus' (Duncan & Davies Nurs., New Plymouth, N. Z., Cat. 1926) = 'NIVEA EXTUS COCCINEA'. 'Extus coccinea' (C. japonica var. extus coccinea Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1872: 331, f. 3. 1872). This Belgian variety selected before 1867 under the name of 'NIVEA ExTUS COCCINEA' was redescribed and illustrated by Carriere who named it 'Extus coccinea'. From Carriere's description, Nakai, Jap. Jour. Bot. 4: 330. 1929, elevated it to the rank of species it has been maintained by Japanese authors until now, chiefly on the basis of the character of the woolly styles. 'Extus coccinea' is a cultivar which appeared in Belgium in a batch of seedlings, and should correctly be called 'NIVEA ExTOS COCCINEA'. where Cat. 'Falconnet' (Falconnet Nurs., CHARLET'. Thoissey, Fr., 1960) = 'FALCONNET 'Falconnet Carlet' (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954) = 'FALCONNET CHARLET'. 'FALCONNET CHARLET' (Barbier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1915, without description ; Duncan & Daires, New Plymouth, N. Z., Cat. 1926, with description). Flowers pink tinted with rose-pink, semidouble; fruits large, apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Falconnet Nursery, Thoissey, France, before 1900. This is not a synonym of 'CAMEO', or of `ROSEA PLENA'. 'Falconnet Charlet' (Kohankie Nurs., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. 1938) = 'NIVALIS'. 'Falconnet Charlot' (Jackman Nurs., CONNET CHARLET'. ,. 'Falconnet Charlot' 'NIVALIS'. Woking, Engl., Cat. 1936-37) = 'FALCat. (Kohankie Nurs., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. 1945-46) = 'Falconnet Scarlet' CHARLET'. (Delaunay Nurs., Angers, Fr., 1959-60) = 'FALCONNET 'FASTIGIATA' (C. japonica fastigiata A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873). Branches fastigiate. Color of the flowers and origin unknown, before 1873. 'FIREBALL' (formerly 'Boule de Feu', a name retained for another cultivar. Cult. at the Planting Fields Arb., Oyster Bay, L.I., N. Y., from Princeton 36 - J.). Flowers flame-red, semidouble; fruits large, apple upper depression very broad, terminating in a narrow tip. This cultivar was confused with `BOULE DE FEU' which belongs to the SUPERBA group and possesses single flowers. We propose to translate this French name to 'Fireball', its English equivalent. May have originated in England, before 1940. Nurs., Princeton, N. shaped, 'Flora carnea' 'Flore albo' = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. (Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1911-12) = 'CARNEA'. (Cydonia japonica flore albo Loudon, Arb. & Frut. Brit., 932. 1838) 'FLORE ALBO FRUCTU ODORATA' (Cydonia japonica flore albo fructu odorata Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53). Flowers white tinted with pink, single; fruits very fragrant. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1852. 'FLORE ALBO INERMIS' (Cydonia japonica flore albo inermis Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53). Shrubs spineless; flowers white tinted with pink, single. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1852. 'Flore albo pleno' (Cydonia japonica flore albo pleno L. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1872) = 'ALBA GRANDIFLORA PLENA'. Fr., Cat. 1873) = 'ALBA SEMIPLENA'. 'Flore albo semipleno' (C. japonica flore albo semipleno A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, 'Flore Cat. 1852-53) = 'CARNEA'. 'Flore coccineo' (Cydonia japonica flore coccineo Belg., Cat. 1852-53) = 'COCCINEA'. atrosanguinea' (Cydonia japonica flore atrosanguinea Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53) = 'ATROSANGUINEA'. 'Flore aurantiaca' ( Cydonia japonica flore aurantiaca Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1856-57) = 'FLORE RUBRO AURANTIACA'. Flore cameo' (Cydonia japonica flore carneo Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, 'Flore kermesino' (Cydonia japonica flore kermesino Cat. 1887) = 'KERMESINA SEMIPLENA'. 'Flore Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., plena' (C. japonica flore plena Waterer's Nurs., Twyford, Engl., Cat. 1938-39) = 'ROSEA PLENA'. 'Flore plena rosea' (C. japonica flore plena rosea Hillier Nurs., Winchester, Engl., Cat. 1942) = 'ROSEA PLENA'. 'Flore Cat. 'Flore Hillier Nurs., Winchester, Engl., 1930) = 'ROSEA PLENA'. 'Flore purpurea' (C. japonica flore purpurea Weisse Nurs., Kamenz, Germ., Cat. 1895) = `ATROSANGUINEA'. 'Flore rosea plena' (C. lagenaria flore rosea plena Sheridan Nurs., Clarkson, Can., Cat. 1961) = 'ROSEA PLENA'. 'FLORE RosEO' (Cydonia japonica flore roseo Siebold, Jaarb. Kon. Ned. Maatsch. Cat. pleno' (Cydonia japonica flore pleno 1851, without description) = 'RUBRA pleno' (Cydonia japonica flore pleno Waterer's Nurs., PLENA'. Woking, Engl., [ 37 1844: 27. 1844, without description; 1852-53, with description). Flowers P. F. von Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. pink, single. Introduced from Japan Siebold, Jaarb. Kon. Ned. Maatsch. by Siebold, in 1830. 'Flore rubro' 1844: 27. (Cydonia japonica flore 1844) = 'RUBRA'. rubro Brit., 932. 1838) = `RUBRA SEMIPLENA'. 'Floribunda' (C. lagenaria floribunda Bean, Kew Hand List, ed. 3. 139. 1925) = (Cydonia japonica flore rubro aurantiaca Papeleu Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53). Flowers orange-scarlet, single. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1852. 'Flore rubro pleno' (Cydonia japonica flore rubro pleno Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53) = 'RUBRA PLENA'. 'Flore semi-pleno' (Cydonia japonica flore semi-pleno Loudon, Alb. & Frut. 'FLORE RUBRO AURANTIACA' Nurs., 'ALBA FLORIBUNDA'. puniceis' (Cydonia japonica var.R floribus puniceis Siebold, Syn. Pl. Regn. Jap. 12: 67. 1830) = 'RUBRA'. 'Floribus roseis' (Cydonia japonica var. floribus roseis Siebold, Syn. Pl. Oecon. Univ. Regn. Jap. 12: 67. 1830) = 'FLORE RosEO'. 'FOLIIS VARIECATIS' (C. japonica foliis variegatis A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873), leaves \"variegated.\" Flower color and origin unknown, before Oecon. Univ. a 'Floribus 1873. 'Fructa odoratissima' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. ALBO FRUCTU ODORATA'. 1942 ) _ 'FLORE 'Fructico odoratissima' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1955: 212. 'FLORE ALBO FRUCTU ODORATA'. 1955) = 'Fructu odoratissimo' (Cydonia japonica fructu odoratissimo Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: 107. 1856) = 'FLORE ALBO FRUCTU ODORATA'. `GANDAVENSIS' (C. 13: 44. 1878, without a japonica gandavensis Anonymous [list probably Belgium. Belgian of C. Baltet], Garden Flower color and origin unknown, description). cultivar, before 1878. Named for the city of Ghent in `GAUJARDII' ( Cydonia japonica Gaujardii Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 7: 260. f. 1. 1860 ) . Flowers salmon- to coral-pink, single; fruits small, apple shaped, slightly ribbed, upper depression ending in a narrow tip. Selection of Moerloose, before 1860. Named for Mr. Rome Gaujard, horticulturist at Chateauroux, France. genuina (Chaenomeles japonica var. genuina Maxim. Bull. Acad. Sci. St. 1873) C. speciosa. 'GIGANTEA' (C. japonica gigantea Prince Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1856). Shrub vigorous; flowers light scarlet-red, single. Origin unknown, before 1856. 'GRANDIFLORA' (Cydonia japonica grandiflora Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Var, a Petersb. 19: 168. = Cat. 1869, without with description; Parsons Nurs., Flushing, description). large, white tinted with pink 38] Flowers N. Y., Cat. and lemon, 1879, single or before 1869. = slightly semidouble; fruits large, ovoid, calyx accrescent. Origin unknown, Cat. 'Grandiflora' (C. japonica 'ALBA GRANDIFLORA'. 'Grandiflora grandiflora Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., 1893 ) 1891) = 'ALBA plena' (C. japonica grandiflora plena Goldring, GRANDIFLORA PLENA'. Garden 40: 127. 'Grandiflora rosea' 'Grandiflora Fr., Cat. 1913, without description) = `ROSEA GRANDIFLORA'. (Cydonia japonica grandiflora rosea L. Leroy Nurs., Angers, 107. 1856) = 'RUBRA GRANDIFLORA'. 'Grandiflora semiplena' (C. lagenaria grandiflora semiplena Colby, Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 21: 184. 1929) = `ROSEA SEMIPLENA'. 'HANAZONO' (Cydonia japonica Hanazono, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers red, single; fruits ovoid or apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Hanazono means flower garden. `HISTRIx' (C. japonica histrix Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1886-87, without description; ibid., Cat. 1900-01, with description). Flowers soft pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1886. `IcNEA' (C. japonica ignea Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1886-87, without description; ibid., Cat. 1900-01, with description). Flowers \"fire-red,\" single. Origin unknown, before 1886. , Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1915-16) = 'ROSEA SEMIPLENA'. 'Grandiflora rubra' (Cydonia japonica grandiflora rubra Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: roseo-semiplena' (C. japonica grandiflora roseo-semiplena Spath 'Ignis' (C. japonica ignis Letellier Nurs., Caen, Fr., 'Imbricata' Cat. 1897) = `IGNEA'. Hort. Prat. ( Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Inermis' (Cydonia japonica inermis Anonymous, 265. 1857) = 'FLORE ALBO INERMIS'. Jour. Belg. 14: 'Japan Blush' (Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1840) = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. 'JAPANESE SCARLET' (C. japOniCa Japanese Scarlet, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1934: 15. 1934). Flowers pink and rose-pink, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1934. 'Japan Scarlet' (Cydonia japonica Japan Scarlet, Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1840) = 'RUBRA'. 'Japan White' (California Nurs., Niles, Calif., Cat. 1888, without ibid., Cat. 1897, with description) = 'CANDIDISSIMA'. description; 'JIMMY'S (Anonymous, Am. Nurs. July 1, 1960: 48. 1960, without a spreading and twisting habit of growth; flowers large, white shading to rose-pink and rosy red, single. Selection of James J. Kelley, name). Shrub with New Canaan, Connecticut, not available 1940 taken on June 15, 1960. CHOICE' yet in the trade. Plant patent no. `KAN-TOYO-NISHIKI' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap. \"Jap. 39] Gard. Treasures\" same Kan-Toyo-Nishiki means mid-winter Toyo-Nishiki, this cultivar being a winter-flowering form of `TOYO-NISHIKI'. 'Kermesiana semi-plena' (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947) = 'KERMESINA SEMIPLENA'. 1941). Winter bloomer; flowers white, white-and-pink, pink or red, on the branch, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. 'KERMESINA' (C. japonica kermesina Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1915-16 ) . Flowers \"carmine\" red, single. Origin unknown; Ludwig Spath says \"Hort.,\" before 1915. 'KERMESINA SEMIPLENA' ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1890). Flowers salmon to rose-pink, semidouble; fruits small, ovoid, slightly ribbed, umbilicate. Selection of Ludwig Spath, before 1887. 'KNAP HILL RADIANCE' (C. lagenaria Knap Hill Radiance, Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 73: 353. 1948). Flowers large, geranium-red, single. Selection of Knap Hill Nursery, before 1948. Award of Merit from the Royal Horticultural Society on April 6, 1948. 'KoKKo' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers dark red, single or semidouble. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Kokko means national glory. 'KoKUKO' (Cydonia japonica Kokuko, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). This name was corrected by the Hakoneya Nurseries to 'KOKKO'. 'LADY EMILY SWARTZ' Parsons (cult. N. at the Arnold Arb., in Nurs., unknown, before Var. lagenaria 64. 1908) = Flushing, 1884. Y., 1884, R now Jamaica Plain, Mass., from dead). Flower color and origin Bot. (Cydonia japonica var. Chaenomeles speciosa. 'Leonard's Variety' (Wyman, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 97. 1961) = 'LEONARD'S VELVETY'. 'LEONARD'S VELVETY' (Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1932). Flowers large, \"velvety\" red, single; fruits obovoid, slightly ribbed, umbilicus terminated in a narrow tip. Selection of Leonard Nursery, introduced 1932. `LIMONI' (cult. at the Nat. Arb., Washington, D. C.). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1960. From examination of sterile material, it does not seem to be a synonym of `SIMONII'. `LUTEA' (Cydonia japonica lutea Prince Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1844). Flowers creamy yellow, single. Origin unknown, before 1844. 'LUTEA MACRANTHA' (C. japonica lutea macrantha Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1869, without description; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1890, with description). Flowers large, creamy yellow, single. Origin unknown, before 1869. 'LUTEA VIxInIS' (C. japonica lutea viridis Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1869, without description; A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873, with description). Flowers greenish white turning pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1869. lagenaria Makino, ~Iag. Tokyo 22: 40 ~1 'MACRANTHA' (C. japonica macrantha Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1886description; ibid., Cat. 1900-01, with description). Flowers large, red, single. Origin unknown, before 1886. `MACROCARPA' ( Cydonia japonica macrocarpa Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1856-57, without description; Anonymous, Jour. Hort. Prat. Belg. 14: 87, without 1857, with description). Flowers rosy red, single; fruits medium, apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1852. 'Maerloosii' (C. japonica Maerloosii Parsons, Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1873) = 265. `MOERLOOSEI'. 'Maillardii' (C. japonica Maillardii Prince Nurs., without description) = 'MALLARDII'. `MALLARDII' (Courtin, Ill. Gart. Zeit. 1: 208, pl. the center, white on the edges, single. Selected er at Sarthe, France, before 1857. Flushing, 1857 ) . N. Y., Cat. 1860, Flowers by Mallard, amateur rose-pink in garden- 'Mallardii' (Beckett, Garden 71: 262. 1907). Flowers creamy white, single. This is the 'Mallardii' offered by European nurserymen now, and grown in arboreta in the United States. The first 'Mallardii' still being in cultivation, a second should not be grown under the same name. We propose to call it 'MALLAROT', a name used by Delaunay Nurseries for the same cultivar. 'MALLAROT' (formerly 'Mallardii', a name retained for another cultivar). Flowers creamy white, single. Origin unknown, before 1907. 'Mallordi' (Hesse Nurs., Weener-Ems, Germ., Cat. 1903-04) = `MALLARDII'. 'Mallordu' (name in 'MALLARDII'. = an unpublished list of Dr. H. R. Kemmerer, Univ. of Ill. ) 'MARMORATA' (C. japonica marmorata Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887). Flowers white-and-pink \"marbled,\" single; fruits apple shaped. Selection of Ludwig Spath, before 1887. 'Millardi' (Duncan & Davies Nurs., New 'MALLARDII'. Plymouth, N. Z., Cat. 1926) = 'Moerheimii' (C. 1941, without japonica Moerheimii Faulkner, Gard. description) = 'MOERLOOSEI'. 'Moerloesi' (C. lagenaria Moerloesi Anonymous, Jour. Roy. 1957) = 'MOERLOOSEI'. description; Osborn, Chron. III. 109: 245. Gard. Chron. III. 111: 225. 1942, with Hort. Soc. 82: 308. `MOERLOOSEI' (Cydonia japonica Moerloosei Grignan, Rev. Hort. 1903: 20. 1903). Flowers white striped rose-pink, single; fruits more or less ovoid. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1856. Named by A. Papeleu 'Moerloosii' for Moerloose, horticulturist who originated many cultivars in Chaenomeles. The name 'Moerloosii' was later corrected to 'Moerloosei'. Award of Merit of the Royal Horticultural Society in 1957. 'Moerloosii' (Cydonia 'MOERLOOSEI'. 'Moerlosii' japonica Moerloosii Lemaire, Ill. Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. Hort. 3: 107. 1856) = (Carriere, 1886) = `MOERLOOSEI'. 41]] 'Moerlozi' (C. japonica Moerlozi California Nurs., `MOERLOOSEI'. = Niles, Calif., Cat. 1908-09) 'Moorlosii' ( Mouillefert, Traite Arb. & Arbriss. 1: 540. 1892) = 'MOERLOOSEI'. `MONSTRUOSA' (C. japonica monstruosa A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1873. 'Multiflora' (Barbier Nurs., 'ATROCOCCINEA'. 'Nana' CATA Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1896, without description) = Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: 107. 1856) = 'UMBILI- (Cydonia japonica NANA'. nana compacta' (C. japonica nana compacta Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., 1867, without description) = 'UMBILICATA NANA'. 'Navel' (Manning, Pl. Buyer's Index 1926, without description) = 'UMBILICATA'. Cat. 'Nana `NIVALIS' description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886, with description). Flowers pure white, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1881. (C. japonica nivalis Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1881, without 'Nivalis major' (Bunyard, Planters' Handbook 86. 1908) = 'NIVALIS'. `NIVEA' (A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873). Flowers pure white, single. Origin unknown, before 1873. 'Nivea coccinea' (C. japonica nivea coccinea L. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1876, without description; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1931-32, with description) = 'NIVEA ExTUS COCCINEA'. `NIVEA ExTUS COCCINEA' (Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1867, without description; Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868, with description). Flowers white with deep pink outer petals, single. Belgian cultivar, selected before 1867. `NIVEA INTUS KERMESINA' ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887). Flowers white flecked with rose-pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1887. Scarlet' (C. japonica Orange Scarlet, Ellwanger & Barry Nurs., Rochester, N. Y., Cat. 1867) = 'FLORE RUBRA AURANTIACA'. 'ORMOND CRIMSON' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. 1959 ) . Flowers deep red, double. Selection of the Ormond Plant Farm, Ormond, Australia, before 1959. Named for its place of origin. This is a seedling of 'FALCONNET CHARLET'. 'Orange 'ORMOND SCARLET' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. 1959). Flowers scarlet-red, double. Selection of the Ormond Plant Farm, Ormond, Australia, before 1959. Named for its place of origin. This is a seedling of 'FALCONNET CHARLET'. 'PACIFIC RED' (C. lagenaria Pacific Red, Natorp Nurs., Cincinnati, Ohio, Cat. 1956). Flowers pink to red, single; fruits orange shaped, umbilicate. Selection of the Natorp Nursery, before 1956. 'PAPELEUI' (Cydonia japonica Papeleui Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 7: 260. f. 2. 1860). Flowers creamy yellow bordered pink, single; fruits orange shaped, umbili- 42] Belgian selection named for Adolf Papeleu, horticulturist at Ledeberg, Belgium, who introduced most of Moerloose's selections, 1860. 'PEDUNCULATA' (C. japonica pedunculata Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1877: 192. f. 34. 1877). Flowers rosy red, single; fruits pear shaped, umbilicate, \"borne on a peduncle about 15 mm. long.\" The long peduncle, a character relatively cate. common to a flowers. 'PENDULA' 1: 427. great many cultivars, indicates that the fruit came from var. summer 1900). Branches slender and pendulous. Flower color and origin unknown, before 1900. 'Permesina semi-plena' (Cult. at Longwood Gard., Kennett Square, Pa., and at the Nat. Arb., Washington, D. C.) = 'KERMESINA SEMIPLENA'. 'PHYLIS MOORE' (Cydonia japonica Phylis Moore, Anonymous, Gard. Chron. III. 91: 1. pl. 1932). Flowers pink and rose-pink, semidouble, fruits ovoid, strongly ribbed, umbilicate. Selection of the Knap Hill Nursery, before 1930. Named for Lady Moore, wife of Sir Frederick Moore, Director, Glasnevin Botanic Garden, Ireland. Moore' MOORE'. (Cydonia japonica pendula Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Am. Hort. 'Phyllis (Kriissmann, Deutsche Baumsch. 4(4) : 88. 1952) = 'PHYLIS J., Cat. 1938) = 'ROSEA SEMIPLENA'. 'Pinkstripe' (C. lagenaria Pinkstripe, Anonymous, PI. Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 59. 1949) = 'MOERLOOSEI'. 'Piriformis' (C. japonica piriformis Mouillefert, Traite Arb. 1892) = 'PYRIFORMIS'. 'Plena' (Cydonia japonica 'RUBRA PLENA'. & Arbriss. 1: 540. 'Pink' (Princeton Nurs., Princeton, N. plena Prince Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1844) = `PRINCEPS' synonym of `CARDINALIS'. 'Princess Emile Sontza' (C. japonica Princesse Emile Sontza, Ellwanger & Barry Nurs., Rochester, N. Y., Cat. 1867) = 'PRINCESSE EMILIE SouTZO'. not a before 1867. This is ( Cydonia japonica princeps Veitch Nurs., Kingston Hill, Engl., Cat. 1867-68). Flowers deep scarlet-red, single. Probably an English cultivar, 'Princesse Emilie' (C. japonica Princesse Emilie, Parsons Nurs., Cat. 1873) = 'PRINCESSE EMILIE SOUTZO'. Flushing, N. Y., 'PRINCESSE EMILIE SouTZo' (Cydonia japonica Princesse Emilie Soutzo, Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 7: 260. 1860). Flowers dark red, single. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1860. Named for the Moldavian Princess, Emilie Soutzo. 'Purpurea' (C. japonica purpurea Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1886-87, without description; ibid., Cat. 1900-01, with description) = 'ATROSANGUINEA'. `PYRIFORMIS' (C. lagenaria pyriformis Camus, Arb., Arbust. & Arbriss. Orn. 39. 1923 ) . Flower color unknown; fruits pear shaped. Origin unknown, before 1892. The name was spelled at first 'Piriformis', then corrected to 'Pyriformis'. 43 ~1 'Red' (C. japonica red, Parsons Nurs., description) = 'RUBRA'. Flushing, N. Y., Cat. 1875, without Price List 'Red Ripples' (Stribbling Nurs., 'RED RUFFLES'. Merced, Calif., Wholesale 1958) _ 'RED RUFFLES' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List 1951). Branches almost spineless; flowers red, single; fruits ovoid, umbilicate. Selection of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1951. Plant patent no. 941 taken on May 16, 1950. Named 'RED RUFFLES' because the overlapping petals produce a \"ruffled\" effect. The name is registered.2 'RED SPBm-E' (H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 55. 1961 ) . Shrubs compact; flowers rosy red, single. Selection no. 18 of Dr. A. Colby, University of Illinois, introduced 1961. 'Red Upright' (Burwell Nurs., Columbus, Ohio, no. Price List var. 1961) = 'RuBRA'. 12. 1930-34. In the 'RINHO' (Ishii, Engei Shokubutsu Zufu 6, United States it is called `CoNTOBTA'. 1136, 'Rosalba' 1861) = 'ALBA CINCTA'. The while in the title the 'Rosea' (Cydonia japonica given rosalba Van Houtte, Flore Serres 14: pl. 1403. name appearing under the plate is 'Rosalba' name is 'Albo-cincta'. (C. japonica var. y rosea 1847) = 'FLORE ROSEO'. 'Rosea' out Roemer, Fam. Nat. Reg. Veg. Syn. Mon., 219. 'UMBILICATA'. (Pyrus japonica rosea Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat., 1849, withdescription; Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868, with description) = lagenaria rosea flora pleno Hillier Nurs., Winchester, = `ROSEA PLENA'. 'Rosea flore plena' (C. japonica rosea flore plena Waterer's Nurs., Twyford, Engl., Cat. 1950-51) RosEA PLENA'. `ROSEA GBANDIFLOBA' (C. japonica rosea grandiflora Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1869, without description; Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1934: 15. 1934, with description). Flowers white, white-and-pink with lemon to rose-pink, single; fruits apple shaped, slightly ribbed, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1869. 'Rosea grandiflora semiplena' ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1889) ='ROSEA = 'Rosea flora pleno' (C. Engl., Cat. 1958-59) SEMIPLENA'. a number of years the American Association of Nurserymen performed the the names of cultivars proposed by American horticulturists. Each cultivar so registered was assigned a number which is often cited in publications as \"AAN no. -. ' In 1958 the Arnold Arboretum assumed this function doing so on behalf of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, designated as the National Registration Authority for special groups of woody cultivated plants by the American Horticultural Society. While so designated the Arnold Arboretum will accept for purposes of registration the names proposed for cultivars in taxa not already assigned to other National or International Registration Authorities. Cultivar names which are to be registered are not assigned numbers but are indicated as \"registered\" and are recorded in lists published at irregular intervals in issues of ARNOLDIA. a For service of registering 44 - `ROSEA PLENA' (Cydonia japonica rosea plena Anonymous [list of C. Baltet], Garden 13: 144. 1878, without description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886, with description). Flowers pink to coral-pink, semidouble; fruits ovoid, ribbed. Selection of Otto Froebel, Zurich, Switzerland, before 1878. This is not a synonym of 'FALCONNET CHARLET'. `ROSEA SEMIPLENA' (Cydonia japonica rosea semiplena Anonymous [list of C. Baltet], Garden 13: 144. 1878, without description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886, with description). Flowers bright pink, semidouble. Origin unknown, before 1876. 'Rosepink' (C. japonica rosepink, 'UMBILICATA'. = Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1934) = 'Rosepink' (Cydonia japonica rosepink, Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, 'MARMORATA'. Cat. 1937) (C. japonica rubra L. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1872). Flowers bright red, single. This is probably the original form of Chaenomeles speciosa, imported by Banks in 1796, from Japanese gardens. The first name given to this cultivar, `Rubriflora', has been replaced by 'RUBRA'. 'Rubra aurantiaca' (Cydonia japonica rubra aurantiaca Anonymous, Jour. Hort. Prat. Belg. 14: 265. 1857) = 'FLORE RUBRO AURANTIACA'. 'Rubra aurantiaca duplex nova' (Anonymous, Jour. Hort. Prat. Belg. 14: 265. 1857) = `AURANTIACA SEMIPLENA'. 'RUBRA GRANDIFLORA' (C. japonica rubra grandiflora Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1867, without description; Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868, with description). Flowers large, deep crimson-red, single; fruits apple or orange shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1857, under the name `Grandiflora rubra'. This is not a synonym of 'BLOOD RED'. 'RUBRA PLENA' 39. 'RUBRA' (C. lagenaria rubra plena Camus, Arb., Arbust. & Arbriss. 1923 ) . Flowers red, double. Origin unknown, before 1844. Orn. Cat. 'Rubra 1856) = 'RUBRA PLENA'. pleno' (Cydonia japonica rubra pleno Prince Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., 'RUBRA SEMIPLENA' (Cydonia japonica rubra semiplena Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. no. 90. 1881, without description; Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Descr. Cat. no. 38-39 [prob. 1887-89], with description). Flowers red, semidouble. Origin unknown, before 1887. (Cydonia speciosa var. rubriflora Guimpel et al., Abbild. Fremd. 88, pl. 70. 1825) = 'RUBRA'. 'Rubro-aurantiaca' (Cydonia japonica rubro-aurantiaca Lemaire, Ill. Hort. 3: a `Rubriflora' Holzg. 107. 1: 1856) = 'AURANTIACA SEMIPLENA'. 'Rubro 1846) = 'RUBRA PLENA'. Hort. 1903: 20. plena' ( Pyrus japonica rubro plena Parsons 1903) = 'SANGUINEA PLENA'. Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Cat. Rev. 'Rubro-sanguinea plena' (Cydonia japonica rubro-sanguinea plena Grignan, 45] `RUSSELL'S RED' (cult. at the Tudor House, Ripley, Engl., from Richmond Nurs., Windlesham, Engl.). Flowers bright scarlet-red, single. Selection of L. R. Russell, Windlesham, England, before 1961. Named for the Russell Nursery. 'SALICIFOLIA' (C. japonica salicifolia Verschaffelt Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1876-77, without description). before 1876. description; Letellier Nurs., Caen, Fr., Cat. 1897, with With \"willow-like leaves.\" Flower color and origin unknown, Cat. 'Sanguinea flore pleno' (Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, Belg., description; Sheridan Nurs., Clarkson, Can., Cat. 1941, 'SANGUINEA PLENA'. 1893, without with description) = 'Sanguinea multiflora' (Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886) = 'SANGUINEA PLENA MULTIFLORA'. 'Sanguinea plena' (Cydonia japonica sanguinea plena Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description; ibid., Cat. no. 124. 1899, with description). Flowers rosy red, semidouble. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1880. 'SANGUINEA PLENA MULTIFLORA' (Cydonia japonica sanguinea plena multiflora Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description ) . Flowers numerous, \"blood-red,\" single. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1880. 'SANGUINEA SEMIPLENA' (C. japonica sanguinea semiplena Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1910-11). Flowers scarlet-red, semidouble; fruits small, apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown; Ludwig Spath says \"HOlt.,\" before 1905. 'SARMENTOSA' 182. and description). Cultivated at the Forest Academy of Munich, Germany, since 1869. Probably a German cultivar. Flower color 1903, without (C. japonica sarmentosa Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Ben. origin unknown, before 1869. 'Scarlet' (C. japonica scarlet, 1867) = `RUBRA'. Ellwanger & Barry Nurs., Rochester, & N. Y., Cat. 'Semi-alba-pleno' (C. japonica semi-alba-pleno Ellwanger Rochester, N. Y., Cat. 1886) = 'ALBA SEMIPLENA'. Barry Nurs., 'Semi-plena' (C. japonica semi-plena Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1869, without description; Simon-Louis Nurs., Metz, Fr., Cat. 1900-01, with description) = 'RUBRA SEMIPLENA'. 'Semipleno' (C. japonica semipleno Vollert Nurs., Lubeck, Germ., Cat. 18991900, without description) = 'RUBRA SEMIPLENA'. 'SEROTINA' (C. japonica serotina Andre, Rev. Hort. 1894: 424. f. 155, 156. 1894). Flowers red, blooming in summer, arranged in corymbs, single; fruits borne on long peduncles. The shrub bearing these few flowers and fruits in the garden of Mr. Morel, horticulturist at Lyon-Vaise, France, in 1893 should not have been named as a new variety. Summer flowers disposed in corymbs, and fruits with long peduncles appear each year on most cultivars when heat and humidity are sufficient. This is a seasonal form rather than a cultivar. 46 ] 'SHIRATAUM' (Taranto Gard., Pallanza, It., List of Seeds 1956-57). Leaves narrow; flowers white, single. This cultivar came originally from K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries. 'SIMIRENKIANA' (C. japonica Simirenkiana Simirenko, Rev. Hort. 1888: 518. 1888). Leaves white; flowers pale red, single. L. Simirenko noted in his garden at Gorodistsche, Russia, for about 20 years, a branch of Chaenomeles speciosa (as C. japonica) abnormally deprived of chlorophyll. Wishing to propagate a shrub with completely white leaves, he grafted the branch on normal understock. Before waiting long enough for a failure, since a plant without chlorophyll can not synthesize food, Simirenko gave it his own name. This = \"variety\" has not been heard of since. 'Simon' (Anonymous, Pl. 'SIMONII'. Buyer's Guide, ed. 5. 59. 1949, without description) `SIMONII' (C. japonica Simonii Andre, Rev. Hort. 1883: 275. 1883). Flowers small, dark crimson-red, often with green marks, semidouble; fruits small, irregularly ovoid, ribbed, calyx accrescent. Due to its slow growth and semihorizontal habit, `SIMONII' has been recommended as a dwarf for rock gardens, and assigned to the SUPERBA group. It reaches 5 feet in height and belongs to C. speciosa in spite of its small leaves. This cultivar was raised from seed of `ATROSANGUINEA' before 1882, and named for the Simon-Louis Nursery, Metz, France, where it originated. This is not a synonym of 'ATROSANGUINEA', or of 'RUBRA'. Similar to 'ATROSANGUINEA PLENA'. 'Simoni rubra' (C. japonica Simoni rubra Letellier Nurs., Caen, Fr., Cat. 190910) 'SIMONII'. = 'Simonis' (C. japonica simonis Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, without description) = 'SIMONII'. Belg., Cat. 1893, 'Simplex alba' (C. japonica simplex alba Parsons Nurs., Flushing, N. Y., Descr. Cat. no. 38-39 [prob. 1887-89] = 'ALBA SIMPLEX'. 'SNOW' ( Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 12: 12. 1945 ) . Flowers large, white, single; fruits apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection no. DN-10 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1945. The name is registered. 'SNOW QUEEN' (Hillier Nurs., Winchester, Engl., Cat. 1942). Flowers white, single. Origin unknown, before 1942. 'Snow White' (C. lagenaria Snow White, Light Tree Nurs., Richland, Mich., Price List 1958, without description) = 'SNOW'. 'SPITFIRE' (Anonymous, Am. Nurs. May 15, 1949). Shrubs with a columnar growth; flowers crimson-red, single; fruits apple shaped, ribbed, umbilicate. Selection of the Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio, introduced 1949. Plant patent no. 830 taken on March 29, 1949. 'SPLENDENS' (C. japonica splendens Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, Belg., Cat. 1893, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1893. 'STARLIGHT' (H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 10 & 53. f. 1961). Flowers white, sometimes reverting to pink or red, single. Selection no. 17 of Dr. A. Colby of the University of Illinois, introduced 1961. [ 47] tion) = 'SULPHUREA PERFECTA'. 'Sulphurea aurea' (Dickinson Nurs., Chatenay, Fr., Cat. 1904-05, without de- (C. japonica striata A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1873. 'Sulphurea' (C. laponica sulphurea Desfosse-Thuillier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1874, without description; Goldring, Garden 40: 127. 1891, with descrip- `STRIATA' scription) = 'SULPHUREA PERFECTA'. 'SULPHUREA PERFECTA' (C. japonica sulphurea perfecta Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1867, without description; Lebas, Rev. Hort. 1868: 320. 1868, with description). Flowers yellowish white, single. Probably selection of Louis van Houtte, before 1867. `TAIOH-NISHIKI' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers cinnabar-red, single or double; fruits large, ovoid, umbilicate. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. TaiohNishiki means emperor adorned with brocade. `TANI-NO-YUKI' (Cydonia japonica Tani-no-Yuki, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers bright red with a white base, single; fruits apple shaped, ribbed, umbilicate. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Tani-no-Yuki means snow in the valley. 'Taroyishi' (cult. at the Ida Cason 'TAIOH-NISHIKI'. Callaway Gard., Pine Mountains, Ga. ) _ `TATSUCnsHIRA' (Ishii, Engei Shokubutsu Zufu 6, no. 1136, var. 11. 1930-34). Branches creeping on the ground, very spiny; leaves willow-like; flowers orange-red, single; fruits small, orange shaped. In Japanese gardens. Tatsugashira means dragon's head. 'TEXAS PINK' 1957. = (Willis Nurs., Ottawa, Kans., fruits orange Price List 1957-58). Flowers before rose-pink, single; shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, 'Tortuosa' (C. eugenioides var. tortuosa Nakai, Bot. Mag. Tokyo 37: 72. 1923) `CONTORTA'. The name 'Tortuosa', used by Nakai for a Japanese cultivar originally named 'Rinho', has been replaced by the widely used name of 'Contorta'. The name 'Tortuosa' is retained for another cultivar belonging to the SUPERBA group. `ToYO-NISHIxI' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers white, white-and-pink, pink or red on the same branch, single; fruits large, apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Toyo-Nishiki is the name of a Japanese wrestler. 'Toyonishiki' (E. L. Kammerer, Morton Arb. Bull. 29(5): 20. 1954 ) _ 'TOYO-NISHIKI'. trichogyna (Chaenomeles trichogyna Nakai, = C. speciosa. Nakai, as be considered European gardens lected in Korea. Bot. Mag. Tokyo 30: 23. 1916) 32: 146. 1918, says that \"it is to the alternate name\" of 'Cardinalis' which originated in while C. trichogyna was described from a specimen colBot. Mag. Tokyo 48 'Umbellata' (C. lagenaria umbellata 37) = 'UMBILICATA'. Jackman Nurs., Woking, Engl., Cat. 1936Cat. 'Umbellicata' (C. japonica umbellicata 1928) = 'UMBILICATA'. Kelways Nurs., Langport, Engl., 'Umbellicata rosea' (C. japonica umbellicata rosea Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1867, without description) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Umbicillata' ( Cydonia japonica umbicillata Prince Nurs., 1856) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Umbicillata rosea' (C. japonica umbicillata Cat. 1860) = 'UMBILICATA'. rosea Flushing, N. Y., Cat. N. Prince Nurs., Flushing, Y., 'UMBILICATA' (Cydonia japonica var. umbilicata Sieb. & De Vriese, Jaarb. Kon. Ned. Maatsch. 1848: 17. pl. opp. 50. 1848 ) . Flowers rosy red, single; fruits apple shaped, \"umbilicate.\" Introduced by P. F. von Siebold from Japan, before 1847. 'Umbilicata macrocarpa' (Cydonia japonica umbilicata macrocarpa Papeleu Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53) = 'MACROCARPA'. `UrzBILICATA NANA' (Cydonia japonica umbilicata nana Papeleu Nurs., Ledeberg, Belg., Cat. 1852-53). Shrubs dwarf, almost spineless; flowers orangered, single. Selection of Moerloose, Ledeberg, Belgium, before 1852. 'Umbilisata' (Kluis & Koning Nurs., Boskoop, Neth., Cat. 1912, without descripNurs., tion) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Umbilitica' (Kelways Nurs., Langport, Engl., Cat. 1940) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Unbilicata rosea' (Bunyard, The Planters' Handbook, 86, 1908) = 'UMBILICATA'. 'Upright' (Adam Nurs., Westfield, Mass., Cat. 1957) = 'RUBRA'. 'UPRIGHT PINK' (Burr Nurs., Manchester, Conn., Cat. 1958-59, without description). Flowers pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1958. 'Upright Red' (Burr Nurs., Manchester, Conn., Cat. 1958-59, without description) = 'RUBRA'. 'Upright Spitfire' (Wayside Gard., Mentor, Ohio, Cat. 1950) = 'SPITFIRE'. 'Upright White' (Burr Nurs., Manchester, Conn., Cat. 1958-59, without description) = 'WHITE UPRIGHT'. 'VAN AERSCHODTI' (Van Geert Nurs., Anvers, Belg., Cat. 1893, without description ) . Flower color and origin unknown, before 1893. 'Variabilis tricolor' (A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1873, without description) = 'VARIEGATA'. 'VARIEGATA' (Cydonia japonica variegata Van Houtte Nurs., Ghent, Belg., Cat. 1869, wthout description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1869. 'Variegatis' (C. japonica variegatis Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Ben. 1903: 182. 1903, without description) = `FoLIIS VARIEGATIS'. 'VERSICOLOR' (C. j","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1963-Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24384","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eaf28.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weber, Claude","article_content":"aponica versicolor Osborn Nurs., Fulham, Engl., Cat. 1870, without description; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887, with descrip- [49]] tion). Flowers white and two shades of pink, single; fruits ovoid, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1870. 'Versicolor lutea' (C. japonica versicolor lutea Van der Bom Nurs., Oudenbosh, Neth., Cat. 1907, without description) = `VERSICOLOR LUTESCENS'. 'VERSICOLOR LUTESCENS' (C. japonica versicolor lutescens A. Leroy Nurs., Angers, Fr., Cat. 1865, without description; ibid., Cat. 1873, with description). Flowers salmon-pink suffused with orange-red, single; fruits irregularly obovoid, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1865. 'VERSICOLOR PLENA' (Cydonia japonica versicolor plena Anonymous [list of C. Baltet], Garden 13: 144. 1878, without description; Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1886: 182. 1886, with description). Flowers flesh- to rose-pink, semidouble. Probably a French cultivar, before 1878. 'VERSICOLOR SEMIPLENA' (Cydonia japonica versicolor semiplena Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. 90. 1880, without description; ibid., Cat. no. 124. 1899, with description). Flowers white-and-pink, semidouble. Selection of Otto Froebel, before 1880. 'White' (Strong Nurs., Brighton, Mass., Cat. 1874) = `CANDmISSIMA'. 'White' (C. lagenaria white, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1937: 12. 1937) = 'NIVALIS'. 'WHITE UPRIGHT' (Natorp Nurs., Cincinnati, Ohio, Cat. 1956, without description). Flowers white, single. Origin unknown, before 1956. 'Yellow' (C. japonica yellow, Hoyt Nurs., New Canaan, Conn., Cat. 1897) = 'LUTEA'. 'Yuga' (name in an unpublished list of Dr. H. R. Kemmerer, Univ, of Ill.) = 'YuYO'. 'YuYo' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers terra cotta with cinnabar suffusion, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Yuyo means serenity. Aristocrats 7: 13. 1940. CALIFORNICA group. Shrubs usually 6 feet high. Branches stiff, erect as in C. cathayensis, but more numerous, strongly armed with spurs. Young shoots sparsely pubescent; those of the second year with a few warts. Leaves lanceolate, often showing a light fulvous tomentum on the under surface when young, the serration of the Chaenomeles X californica Clarke, Garden (C. cathayensis X superba). margins or intermediate between that of the parents. Flowers large, usually pink rosy red, or often showing a blend of the two. Fruits medium to large, ovoid, apple or orange shaped. Not hardy north of Zone VI, like one of its parents, C. cathayensis.3 3 According to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants \"a collective epithet in Latin form must be published with a Latin diagnosis and in combination with a generic name.\" We provide here the Latin diagnosis to complete Clarke's English description, and designate a lectotype chosen from among one of the four cultivars, 'Enchantress', 'Masterpiece', 'Rosemary', and 'Sunset Glow', first cited by Clarke in 1940, as included in his new group CALIFORNICA. [ 50 pedalis altus. Rami erecti, rigidi, spinis validis ornati. leviter pubescentes, demum sparse verrucosae. Folia lanceolata, juvenilia Virgae saepe subtus leviter fulveo-tomentosa; serratura foliorum inter parentes. Flores magni, punicei vel roseo-rubri. Fructus ovoideus, pomoideus vel aurantiformis. LECTOTYPE: 'Rosemary', cult. under no. 2180-41 at the Univ. of Washington Arb., Seattle, Wash., coll. J. A. Witt, April 22, 1961 (Herb. Arnold Arb. ) . The first cultivars of this group were initially selected in 1938 by the late Walter B. Clarke from the cross of C. cathayensis X superba 'Corallina' and were offered by him for sale in 1939, under \"Cathayensis hybrids.\" Clarke changed the name in 1940 to Chaenomeles californica. Frutex, usque ad 6 `Aa~ua Cor.sY' (H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 54. 1961). Flowers rosy red, single; fruits pomegranate shaped. Selection no. 9 of Dr. Arthur Colby of the University of Illinois; introduced 1961. Named for him by Messrs. Kemmerer and McDaniel. This is probably the product of a backcross of C. X californica to C. speciosa. 'Aurora' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1953) = 'DAWN'. The name 'Aurora' has already been applied to an older cultivar of C. speciosa which is still widely cultivated. We propose to call Clarke's 'Aurora' by the name of 'Dawn', the English translation of the word 'Aurora'. 'CALIFORNIA' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1948). Flowers pink and rose-pink, single; fruits orange shaped. Selection no. 327 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1948. The name is registered. `Californica' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 13. 1940). No. 327 = 'CALIFORNIA'. 'Californica' is the name of the hybrid group and does not apply to any cultivar in particular. 'CARDINAL' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1947). Flowers crimson-red, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DR-53, introduced 1947. This is a seedling of 'ROSEMARY'. The name is registered. 'Cardinal Red' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's Guide 93. 1958) = 'CARDINAL'. `CLnRxE's GIANT RED' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1956). Branches straggling, low in habit for a member of the CALIFORNICA group, almost spineless; flowers very large, rosy red, single; fruits orange shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1956. Named for the Clarke Nursery, San Jose, California. This is probably a tetraploid. 'Clarks' Giant' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's Guide 93. 1958) = `CLARKE'S GIANT RED'. 'DAWN' (formerly 'Aurora', a name retained for another cultivar). Flowers soft pink and carmine-rose, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California, probably no. E92-4, introduced in 1953 under the name 'Aurora'. 'DEEP RED' (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without description). Flowers \"deep red,\" single; fruits large, apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California, sent to Kluis Nursery, Boskoop, Netherlands, around 1946. 51 (Bonnell Nurs., Seattle, Wash., Cat. 1948) = 'ROSEMARY'. 'Enchantment' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. 1959) = 'Deep Salmon' 'ENCHANTRESS'. 'ENCHANTRESS' (C. X californica Enchantress, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 14. 1940). Flowers light and dark pink, single; fruits ovoid to pear shaped, umbilicate. Award of Merit of the Royal Horticultural Society on April 13, 1943. The name is registered. 'FIRE' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 11: 14. 1944). Flowers bright red, single; fruits ovoid. Selection no. 319 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1944. Award of Merit of the California Horticultural Society. The name is registered. 'FLAMINGO' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 11: 14. 1944). Flowers small, rose-pink, single; fruits ovoid, calyx slightly accrescent. Selection no. DR-51 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1944. The name is registered. 'MASTERPIECE' (C. X californica Masterpiece, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 14. 1940). Flowers rose-pink, single; fruits large, ovoid. Selection no. 332 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1940. The name is registered. 'NASTURTIUM' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951). Flowers large, \"nasturtium\" red, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. L 70\/30, introduced 1951. Award of Merit of the California Horticultural Society in 1950. The name is registered. 'Orange Red' (Bonnell Nurs., Seattle, Wash., Cat. 1948) = 'SUNSET GLOW'. 'PINK BEAUTY' (C. X californica Pink Beauty, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 8: 15. 1941). Flowers light and dark pink, single; fruits orange shaped. Selection of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1941. The name is registered. 'ROSEMARY' (C. X californica Rosemary, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 14. 1940). Flowers pink to rose, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection no. 310 of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1940. The name is registered. Price List 'RosY MORN' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale 1951). Flowers soft pink, single; fruits apple shaped, tion of W. B. Clarke, probably no. L 70\/57, introduced registered. This is probably the product of a backcross to C. X superba. May 1, umbilicate. Selec1951. The name is of C. X californica 'SAN JosE' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose., Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1948). Flowers rosy red, single. Selection no. 317 of W. B. Clarke, introduced by G. R. Jackman, Woking, England, before 1948. Named for its place of origin. The name is registered. 88. 'Sunset Glory' GLO~'V'. (Kriissmann, Deutsche Baumsch. 4 ( 4 ) : 1952) = 'SUNSET 'SUNSET GLOW' (C. X californica Sunset Glow, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 14. 1940). Flowers rose-pink to rosy red, single. Selection no. 314 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1940. The name is registered. 52 ] 'Sunset Gold' 'Sweet Glow' (cult. at the Univ. of Wash., Seattle, Wash.) = 'SUNSET GLOW'. (Bonnell Nurs., Seattle, Wash., Cat. 1944) = `SuNSEm GLOW'. Chaenomeles X clarkiana (new hybrid group). ( C. cathayensis X japonica ) . CLnaxmNn group. Shrubs of low growth, maximum size unknown. Branches erect-spreading, covered with spines more numerous and longer than in C. japonica, more slender than in C. cathayensis. Young shoots pubescent; those of the second year slightly verruculose. Leaves and serration intermediate in shape and size between the two parents (small and narrow in 'CYNTHIA', large and broad in 'MINERVA'). Flowers large, pink to rosy red. Fruits medium sized, apple to orange shaped. Not hardy north of Zone VI. humilis, statura maxima ignota. Rami erecto-patentes, spinis elongatis, numerosis ornati. Virgae pubescentes, demum sparse verrucosae. Forma et serratura foliorum inter parentes. Flores magni, inter puniceum et roseorubrum. Fructus pomoideus vel aurantiformis. HOLOTYPE : 'Minerva', cult. under no. 239-59, at Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, Frutex angustis, Royal England, Arnold Arb.). This hybrid group is named for the late Walter B. Clarke, nurseryman in California, who produced the hybrids. In 1945, he selected from this complex two cultivars, calling them \"Miniature Cathayensis hybrids.\" 'CYNTHIA' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 14: 10. 1947). Flowers pink and rosy red, single; fruits orange shaped, upper depression terminating in a narrow tip. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. E.87-12, introduced in 1947. The name is registered. 'MINERVA' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951). Flowers pink to rosy red, single; fruits apple shaped, irregularly ribbed. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. E.87-10, introduced in 1951. The name is registered under no. 108 at the Association of American Nurserymen. coll. H. 1705161, May 9, 1961 ( Herb. Chaenomeles X superba (Frahm) Rehder, Jour. Arnold Arb. 2: 58. 1920. Cydonia maulei var. superba Frahm, Gartenw. 2: 214. 1898. (C. japonica X Branches numerous, erect-spreading, with with short and scabrous tomentum; those of the second year verruculose. The amount of the tomentum is very variable, and when barely present may indicate a backcross to C. speciosa. Leaves intermediate in shape, size, and serration between the parents, but usually more like C. japonica. Flowers medium sized, white, pink, orange, or red. Fruits mostly apple shaped, larger than those of C. japonica and ripening at a somewhat later date.4 ` C. X superba (Frahm) Rehder was validly published without a Latin diagnosis or indication of a type specimen, requirements which became mandatory from 1935 and 1958, respectively. To allow comparison to be made between the different hybrid groups, we provide the Latin diagnosis and designate a lectotype. speciosa). SUPERBA group. Shrubs usually up to 4-5 feet high. slender spines. Young shoots covered 53 Frutex, normaliter usque ad 4-5 pedes altus. Rami numerosi, erectopatentes, ~pinis gracilibus ornati. Virgae scabroso-tomentosae, demum verrucosae. Forma =oliorum inter parentes, sed fere ad C. ~aponicam vergens. Flores magni, albi, ~unicei, May 3, C. X aurantiaci vel rubri. Fructus normaliter no. pomoideus. as a NEOTYPE: 'Superba', :ult. under 5108, 1921 (Herb. the Arnold Arboretum, Arnold Arb. ) . at Jamaica Plain, Mass., was coll. A. R., hybrid, but rather as a described as such in 1898 ~y Frahm. Rehder regarded the cultivar 'SUPERBA' as the type of this hybrid ~roup. According to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 'SUPERBA' also is to be regarded as the first cultivar in this complex, in ~pite of the fact that `KNAr HILL SCARLET', another member of the SUPERBA ~roup, originated seven years earlier. superba was not originally recognized of C. japonica (as Cydonia maulei) and rariety `ARRICOT' (Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1908). Flowers orange, semidouble. Selection of Victor Lemoine, introduced 1908. 'Afterglow' (C. X californica Afterglow, Wyman, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 95. 1961) `ALBA' 124. = C. X superba. maulei alba Froebel Nurs., Zurich, Switz., Cat. no. Branches decumbent; flowers creamy white, single; fruits 1899). apple shaped or irregularly ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of Otto Froebel, introduced 1899. (Cydonia japonica 'Alpina naranja' (C. japonica alpina naran~a Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 6: 12. 1939, without description; California Nurs., Niles, Calif., Cat. 1943, with description) = 'NARANJA'. 'Andenken an Carl Ramcke' (C. X superba Andenken an Carl Ramcke, Kriissmann, Handb. Laubh. 1: 306. 1960) = ANDENKEN AN KARL RAMCKE'. 'Andenken an Ernest Finken' 'ERNST FINKEN'. (cult. by Darthuizer Nurs., Boskoop, Neth. ) _ 'ANDENKEN AN KARL RAMCKE' ( Timm Nurs., Elmshorn, Germ., Cat. 1949-50). Flowers cinnabar-red, single. Cross made by Karl Ramcke in Hamburg, in 1924. Introduced by Timm Nursery, and named for the late Karl Ramcke, before 1949. 'Apricot' (C. lagenaria Apricot, name Krussmann, Laubh., 72. 1937). The French 'Abricot' has been translated into German and maulei English = 'ABRICOT'. 'Atrosanguinea' (Cydonia japonica Switz., Cat. no. atrosanguinea Froebel Nurs., Zurich, 'OTTO FROEBEL'. The name 'Atrosanguinea' is preoccupied by that of an older cultivar of C. speciosa, still in cultivation. According to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants this later 'Atrosanguinea' must be renamed. We propose to call it 'Otto Froebel' for its originator. 124. 1899) = (Anonymous, Am. Nurs. Aug. 15, 1950: 52. 1950). Flowers \"azalea\" pink, single. Selection no. DC-12 of W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California. Plant patent no. 940, taken on May 9, 1950. The name is registered. `BENICHIDORI' (Cydonia japonica Benichidori, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, 54] `AZALEA' Jap., \"Jap. 'BOULE to DE Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers \"crimson\"-red, sin~le. Selecbefore 1936. Benichidori means tion of K. Wada, crimson zig-zag. Hakoneya Nurseries, Cat. 1916-17). Flowers salmonfruits small, irregularly apple shaped, narrowly umbilicate. This is the product of a cross made in the Barbier Nursery, Orleans, France, between `BnLTZm' and 'MAULEI', before 1913. FEU' (Turbat Nurs., Orleans, Fr., coral-pink, single; 'Boule de Fue' FEU'. (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947) = 'BOULE DE `BuNYnRDm' (Pyrus japonica Bunyardii Bunyard, The Planters' Handbook 86. 1908). Flowers salmon-pink, single. Selection of George Bunyard, Maidstone, England, introduced in 1907. This is the product of a cross between `MAULEI' and 'UMBILICATA' (as 'Rosea'). 'CAMEO' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1956). Branches almost spineless; flowers salmon- to coral-pink, double; fruits irregularly orange shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, introduced 1956. 'CHARMING' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951). Branches almost spineless; flowers pink to vermilion; fruits irregularly apple shaped. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-13, introduced in 1950. 'Chosan' ( Krussmann, Handb. Laubh. 1: 306. 'Choshan' which is a synonym of 'YAECAKi'. 1960). This is a misspelling for 'Choshan' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Soc. 75: lxxii. 1950) = 'YAEGAKI'. An unnamed Japanese Quince imported from Japan by J. 0. Sherrard, Newbury, England, was so appealing to him that he tried to find out its name through a Japanese nursery who thought it was 'Choshun' misspelled 'Choshan'. With its small apricot double flowers, it does not correspond to 'Choshun' which has large terra cotta-red, single flowers. `COLE'S RED' (C. lagenaria Cole's Red, Cole Nurs., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. 1941). Flowers bright scarlet-red, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of D. B. Cole, introduced in 1941. Named for the Cole Nursery at Painesville, Ohio. 'COLETTE' (C. japonica Colette, Hemeray-Aubert Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1955). Flowers salmon- to coral-pink, single. Selection of the HemerayAubert Nurseries, introduced in 1950. 'COLUMBIA' (Barbier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1896, with description of the fruits only; Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1904-05, with description of the flowers). Flowers pink to rosy red, single, often unisexual, mostly female; fruits less than 2 inches in diameter (Barbier says 8 to 10 inches; Turbat Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1910-11 says 15 to 30 inches in circumference), irregularly apple shaped, umbilicate. Ludwig Spath says \"American variety,\" which can not be the case in spite of its name. 'COLUMBIA' appeared in American nursery catalogues about 40 years after it was common in European nurseries. Origin unknown, before 1896. [55]] 'COQUELICOT' (Delaunay Nurs., Angers, Fr., tinged 1958. with rose-pink, single. Cat. 1958-59). Flowers orange, French cultivar of unknown origin, before 'CORAL BEAUTY' (C. X superba Coral Beauty, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1949). Branches almost spineless; flowers salmon- to coral-pink, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-16, introduced 1949. This is a seedling of 'CANDIDA'. The name is registered. 'Coral Glow' Aristocrats 'CORALLINA' (C. japonica X speciosa, introduced 1934. This cultivar has been crossed with C. cathayensis, producing as a result most of the cultivars of the C. CALIFORNICA group. shaped. Selected (Leonard Nurs., Piqua, Ohio, Cat. 1934) = 'CORALLINA'. japonica corallina Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. 1934: 15. 1934). Flowers orange, single; fruits small, apple by W. B. Clarke in the seedlings resulting from a cross of 'CORAL SEA' (C. X superba Coral Sea, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 10: 15. 1943). Flowers salmon- to coral-pink, single; fruits orange shaped, upper depression terminating in a narrow tip. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-6, introduced 1943. This is a seedling of 'CANDIDA'. The name is registered. 'CRIMSON AND GOLD' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 6: 12. 1939). Shrubs dwarf and spreading; flowers dark crimson-red, single, early; fruits apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. 301, introduced 1939. `CRIMSON AND GOLD' is the product of a cross between C. X superba 'Naranja' (as C. japonica alpina Naranja) and C. X superba 'Sanguinea' (as C. lagenaria sanguinea). It is named for the contrasting colors of the \"crimson\" petals with the \"golden\" stamens. The name is registered. 'Crimson and Red' (Cult. at the 'CRIMSON AND GOLD'. 'CRIMSON BEAUTY' Landbouwhogeschool, Wageningen, Neth.) = (Milton Nurs., Milton, Ore., or \"crimson,\" single of the Milton Cat. 1943). Flowers bright semidouble; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection Nursery, around 1935. 'Crimson 1958) = 'CRIMSON BEAUTY'. 'DELLA RossIA' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 15: 13. 1948). Branches almost spineless; flowers creamy white to pink, single. Selection no. DN-4 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1945. The name is 'Double King' (Littlefield-Wyman Nurs., Abington, Mass., \"Gard. Treasures\" before 1942. `DouRLE VERMILION' (Clarke Nurs., San registered. Orange' (Cult. at the Arnold Arb., Jamaica Plain, Mass., from Toichi Domoto Nurs., Hayward, Calif., since 1942) = 'SUNSET'. 'DOUBLE RED' (Wyman, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 96. 1961). Flowers red, semidouble ; fruits apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of Toichi Domoto, Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1936: 8. ~ss~] apple shaped, `DWARF CORAL' 1936). Shrubs, slow growing; flowers \"vermilion,\" \"semidouble\"; fruits small, umbilicate. Origin unknown, before 1936. tion). Flowers orange, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California, sent to Kluis Nursery, Boskoop, Netherlands, around 1946. 'EARLY APPLE BLOSSOM' (C. X superba Early Apple Blossom, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1940). Flowers soft and deep (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without descrip- pink, single, registered. female only; fruits irregularly apple shaped, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. 343, introduced 1940. The name is 'EARLY ORANGE' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 9: 18. Flowers \"orange,\" semidouble, \"early.\" Selection no. 334 of W. B. introduced 1942. The name is registered. 1942). Clarke, `ECARLATE' (Barbier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1913-14). Flowers \"scarlet\"-red, single. This is the product of a cross made in Barbier Nursery, between 'BALTzii' and `MAULEI', before 1913. 'Eclarate' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without 'ECARLATE'. = description) 'ELLY MossEL' (C. lagenaria Elly Mossel, Ruys Nurs., Dedemsvaart, Neth., Cat. 1953-54). Flowers large, bright scarlet-red, flat open, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of J. Mossel, Boskoop, Netherlands, introduced in 1950. 'ERNST FINKEN' (C. X superba Ernst Finken, Ruys Nurs., Boskoop, Neth., Cat. 1959-60). Flowers fiery red, single; fruits apple shaped, calyx persistent. Selection of H. Finken, Rodenkirchen bei Koln, Germany, introduced in 1952. `ETNA' (C. lagenaria Etna, Ruys Nurs., Dedemsvaart, Neth., Cat. 1953-54). Flowers scarlet-red, flat open, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of K. Verboom, Boskoop, Netherlands, introduced in 1953. This is a seedling of 'SIMONII' pollinated by an unknown C. X superba. As a result of the backcrossing of a member of the SUPERBA group to C. speciosa, the leaves are more like those of C. speciosa. 'ExTUs ACUMINEUS' (cult. at Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, Engl.). Known to us from sterile shrubs only. Flower color and origin unknown, before 1959. 'FASCINATION' (Anonymous, Proefstation Boomkw., Boskoop List, 1958, without description). Flowers scarlet-red, single; fruits irregularly apple shaped, or ovoid, umbilicate, or calyx accrescent. Selection of J. Mossel, Boskoop, Netherlands, introduced 1954. `FIRE DANCE' (C. lagenaria Fire Dance, Deutsche Baumsch. 5(7): 188. 1953). Flowers red, single; fruits apple or pear shaped, umbilicate. Selection of K. Verboom, Boskoop, Netherlands; introduced in 1953. This is a seedling of `SIMONII' pollinated by an unknown C. X superba. It received a First Class Certificate in the Netherlands. 'Fire Dancer' (cult. at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, Engl. ) _ 'FIRE DANCE'. [57= `FOLIIS RuBRIS' (C. japonica foliis rubris Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1887 ) . Flowers sallow coral-pink, single; fruits ovoid, umbilicate. Origin unknown, probably selection of Ludwig Spath, before 1887. This cultivar was named 'Foliis rubris' because of the brown-reddish color of its young shoots and leaves. This character, found also in most of the other cultivars, disappears when the leaves mature. 'FRUCTIco ALBA' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1955: 212. 1955, without description). Flowers white tinted with pink, single; fruits obovoid, calyx accrescent. Origin unknown, before 1942. The fruits which should be white, according to the cultivar name, are not paler than in many other cultivars. 'Fructo alba' (Wister, Swarthmore PI. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without description) = 'FRUCTICO ALBA'. 'Fructu alba' (Colby, Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 21: 181. 1929) = `FRUCTICO ALBA'. 'FRUITLANDI' (Fruitland Nurs., Augusta, Ga., Cat. 1959-60). Flowers pink, single. Chance seedling selected by Fruitland Nurseries, introduced 1959. Named for its place of origin. 'GEORGE LANDIS' (cult. at the George Landis Arb., Esperance, N. Y.). Flowers sallow orange-red, single; fruits large, bright orange, apple shaped, umbilicate. This cultivar was brought by George Landis, for whom it is named, from a garden at Troy, New York, in 1946. This is a new cultivar previously undescribed and its name is registered. 'GLOWING-EMBER' (C. lagenaria Glowing-Ember, Cat. 1955). Flowers bright orange-red, single; cate. Selection of Willis Nursery, introduced in Strain', changed in 1955 to 'Glowing-Ember'. 'Grandiflora' (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., ROSEA'. Willis Nurs., Ottawa, Kans., fruits apple shaped, umbili1954 under the name 'Willis Cat. 1947) = `GRANDIFLORA (Cydonia maulei grandiflora perfecta St. Olbrich, Gartenw. 4: 270. 1900). Flowers cinnabar-red, single or slightly semidouble. Selection of Froebel Nursery, Zurich, Switzerland, introduced in 1900. 'Grandiflora perfecta' (C. japonica grandiflora perfecta Colby, Trans. Ill. Acad. Sci. 21: 183. 1929) = 'PERFECTA'. `GRANDIFLORA ROSEA' (Cydonia maulei grandiflora rosea St. Olbrich, Gartenw. 4: 270. 1900). Flowers creamy yellow to soft pink, single. Selection of Otto Froebel, Zurich, Switzerland, introduced in 1900. 'GRENADE' (Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1908). Flowers red-orange, single to semidouble; fruits small, globular, umbilicate. Selection of Victor Lemoine, introduced in 1908. 'HARLEQUIN' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1949). Flowers bicolored, Chinese coral inside, rose-pink outside, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. E.92\/6, introduced in 1949. 'HEVER CASTLE' (C. japonica Hever Castle, Hillier Nurs., Winchester, Engl., Cat. 1959). Flowers shrimp-pink, single. Selected by a gardener of Hever Castle, home of the Astors, in Kent, England, and introduced by Hillier Nursery, before 1940. Named for its place of origin. [58]] `GRANDIFLORA PERFECTA' 'HIGH NooN' (H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 54. 1961). Flowers pink and rosy red, semidouble. Selection no. 5 of Dr. A. Colby of the University of Illinois, introduced 1961. `HI-NO-TsuICASA' umbrella. ( Cydonia japonica Hi-no-Tsukasa, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazushi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers scarlet-red, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Hi-no-Tsukasa means scarlet 188. 1953). Flowers scarlet-red, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of K. Verboom, Boskoop, Netherlands, introduced in 1953. This is a seedling of `SIMONII' pollinated by an unknown C. X superba. `HOLLANDIA' (C. lagenaria Hollandia, Krussmann, Deutsche Baumsch. 5(7) : 'Incende' (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947) = 'INCENDIE'. 'INCENDIE' (Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1913-14). Flowers scarlet-red, semidouble; fruits small, irregularly apple shaped, umbilicus large and pointed. Selection of Victor Lemoine, introduced in 1912. The name is 'Incendie' registered. (Wyman, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961 : 97. 1961) = 'KNAP HILL SCARLET'. 'INDIAN CHIEF' (Willis Nurs., Ottawa, Kans., Wholesale Price List 1957-58). Shrubs, very compact; flowers scarlet-red, single; fruits irregularly apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Willis Nursery, introduced in 1957. 'JANE TAUDEVIN' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 82: 19. 1957, without description). Flowers small, bright red, single. Selection of C. H. Taudevin, Raby Nurseries, Willaston-in-Wirral, England, before 1955. 'JET TRAIL' (Phytotektor, Winchester, Tenn., Wholesale Price List 1961-62). Low growing shrubs; flowers pure white, flat open, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of Harvey M. Templeton, Phytotektor, introduced in 1961. This is a white sport of 'TEXAS SCARLET' which appeared in 1959. The name is registered. 'JULIET' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1940). Flowers salmon- to coral-pink, single; fruits ovoid, umbilicate. Selection no. 325 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1940. Named for the late Mrs. Juliet Scannavino who found it particularly \"charming.\" 'Karl Ramke' (in an unpublished list of the Bailey Hortorium, from John Connon Nurs., Waterdown, Can.) = 'ANDENKEN at AN KARL RAMCKE'. 'KINJISHI' (cult. shi, Jap., 'Kinshi' since Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1939. Kinjishi means golden lion. (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941 ) _ `KINJISHI'. 'Knap Hill' (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947) _ 'KNAP HILL SCARLET'. the Morton Arb., Lisle, Ill., from Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu1939). Flowers red-orange, double. Selection of K. Wada, 'KNAP HILL SCARLET' (C. japonica Knap Hill Scarlet, Goldring, Garden 40: 127. 1891, without description; Becket, Garden 71: 262. 1907, with description). Flowers large, red-orange, single; fruits small, strongly ribbed, umbilicate. [59]] Selection of A. Waterer, Hill Nursery. Woking, England, before 1891. Named for Knap `KNAP HILL SEEDLINGS' (C. japonica Knap Hill Seedlings, Knap Hill Nurs., Woking, Engl., Cat. 1937). Flowers in several shades of scarlet and pink. This is not a clone, but seedlings of `KNAP HILL SCARLET' selected at the Knap Hill Nursery, before 1937. 'Knap Hill HILL SCARLET'. Variety' (Waterer's Nurs., Twyford, Engl., Cat. 1928-29) = 'KNAP `LEICHTLINII' (C. japonica Leichtlinii Bean, Kew Hand List, ed. 3. 140. 1925, without description). Flowers bright red, single. Origin unknown. Probably named for Max Leichtlin, Baden-Baden, who presented a specimen of Chaenomeles X superba to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, about 1890. Germany, 'MANDARIN' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1947). Flowers orange, single; fruits ovoid or obovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection no. DC-7 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1947. Named for the color, mandarin-red, of its flowers. The name is registered. 'MARGARET ADAMS' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1949 ) . Flowers soft coral-pink, single; fruits apple shaped. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-24, introduced in 1949. The name is regis- tered. 'MOMIJIYAMA' (Cydonia japonica Momijiyama, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers orange-scarlet, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Momijiyama means Maple Mountain. `MOUNT SHASTA' ' _ (see 'Mt. Shasta'). Flowers large, white-and-pink tinted with lavender, single. Selected by W. B. Clarke in 1949, introduced in 1951. The name is registered. 'Mt. Shasta' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951) 'MOUNT SHASTA'. According to a recommendation in the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, cultivar names should not begin with an abbreviation. = `NARANJA' (Clarke Nurs., Flowers sallow orange cent. Origin unknown, before 1934. `NICOLINE' (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without description; Grotendorst Nurs., Boskoop, Neth., Cat. 1960-61, with description). Flowers large, crimson-red, single to semidouble; fruits ovoid, slightly ribbed, umbilicate. Selection of Dr. S. G. A. Doorenbos, president of the International Dendrology Union, The Hague, Netherlands, introduced in 1956. This is a seedling of `INCENDIE' pollinated by `ROWALLANE' (as `Rowallane Seedling') and according to Dr. Doorenbos, proves to be identical with 'ULIDIA'. 'N ISHIKICHIDON' (C. lagenaria Nishikichidon, E. L. Kammerer, Bull. Morton Arb. 29(5): 22. pl. 1954). Shrubs dwarf; flowers red-orange, semidouble; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, ~so~] San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 1934: 15. 1934). tinged with rosy red, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accres- brocade. 'ORANGE' Numazu-shi, Japan, introduced before 1939. Nishikichidon means dull (Lemoine Nurs., Nancy, Fr., Cat. 1908). Flowers red-\"orange,\" semidouble. Selection of Victor Lemoine, introduced in 1908. 'OTTO FROEBEL' (formerly 'Atrosanguinea', a name retained for another cultivar). Flowers blood-red, single. Selection of Otto Froebel, for whom it is named, introduced in 1899 under the name 'Atrosanguinea'. According to Froebel, it is not a synonym of `SUPERBA' from which it differs by brighter flowers. 'Perfecta' (C. X superba f. perfecta 'GRANDIFLORA PERFECTA'. Rehder, Jour. Arnold Arb. 2: 59. 1920) = 'PERFECTA' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1935 ) . Flowers creamy white tinged with pink, lemon, and green, to rose-pink, single; fruits small, apple shaped, umbilicate. Origin unknown, but cultivated at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., since 1905. Obtained from Spath Nursery, Berlin, Germany. This is the shrub grown nearly everywhere under the name 'Perfecta', in spite of the fact that Rehder's 'Perfecta' has red, single to semidouble flowers. We propose to keep the name 'PERFECTA' for this cultivar with white-and-pink flowers and to call the red one 'GRANDIFLORA PERFECTA' as it was originally named. 'PINK LADY' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Nov. 15, 1946). Flowers pink to rose, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-11, introduced in 1946. The name is registered. 'Pink Princess' 'PORCELAIN Flowers small, (Corliss Nurs., Gloucester, Mass., Cat. 1957) = 'PINK LADY'. RosE' (cult. at the U.S. Plant Introd. Station, Glenn Dale, Md.). shaped, new white-and-pink with a lemon touch, semidouble; fruits apple umbilicate. Origin Glenn Dale, Maryland, before 1960. This is a cultivar previously undescribed. `RAxuYO' (Cydonia japonica Rakuyo, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers vermilion-orange, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Rakuyo means fall of leaves. `RED CHIEF' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1953). Flowers rosy red, double; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1953. 'Red Flowers' (Wyman, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 95. 1961 ) _ `VERMILION'. 'Renny Mossel' (name from Dr. I. C. Dorsman, director Proefstation Boomkwerij, Boskoop, Neth.) = `FASCINATION'. 'Rosea' (C. X superba f. rosea Rehder, Jour. Arnold Arb. 2: 59. 1920) 'GRANDIFLORA ROSEA'. 'Rosea ROSEA'. grandiflora' (cult. at the Holden Arb., Mentor, Ohio ) _ `GRANDIFLORA 1942: 127. 'Rowallana' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes, 61 1942) _ 'ROWALLANE'. 1956) = 'ROWALLANE'. 'Rowalling Seedling' (Donard Nurs., Newcastle, N. Ireland, \"Good Gard. Pl.\" 1960-61) = 'ROWALLANE'. 'ROXANA FOSTER' (Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951). Flowers red-orange, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DN-95, introduced by the Thomas Bell Foster Nurseries, Houston, Texas, in Soc. 81: 476. 1951. Named for Mrs. Roxana is (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 83: 481. 1958). Flowers large, bright red, single; fruits apple shaped or ovoid, dry calyx persisting. Chance seedling selected by H. Armytage Moore, at Rowallane, Northern Ireland, about 1920. Named for its place of origin. 'Rowallane Seedling' (C. japonica Rowallane Seedling, Hillier Nurs., Winchester, Engl., Cat. 1947-48) = 'ROWALLANE'. 'Rowallane Variety' (C. lagenaria Rowallane Variety, Slinger, Jour. Roy. Hort. 'ROWALLANE' Foster, mother of Thomas B. Foster. The registered. ( Spath Nurs., Berlin, Germ., Cat. 1910-11) = `FOLIIS RUBRIS'. 'RUBY GLOw' (C. X superba Ruby Glow, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1947). Flowers red, single; fruits large, ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. E.88-15, introduced in name 'Rubrifolia' 1947. This must be a backcross of C. X superba to C. speciosa. The name registered. 'SALMON' (Sunningdale Nurs., Windlesham, Engl., Cat. 1936). red, single. Origin unknown, before 1936. `SAMMLINGE Cat. a is Flowers salmon- VON 1955-56). before 1955. 'SANGUlNEA' (C. japonica sanguinea Beissner et al., Handb. Laubh.-Ben. 182. 1903, without description; Bobbink & Atkins Nurs., East Rutherford, N. J., Cat. 1934, with description). Flowers dark red, single. Origin unknown, before 1903. 'SCARLET' ( C. maulei scarlet, Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947). Flowers rosy red, single. Origin unknown, before 1947. 'Scarlet and Gold' (Sunningdale Nurs., Windlesham, Engl., Cat. 1961) = 'CRIMSON AND GOLD'. 'Semperflorens' (Hesse Nurs., Weener-Ems, Germ., Cat. 1908-09, without description; Turbat Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1910-11, with description) = 'COLUMBIA'. This cultivar was said by Hermann Hesse, in whose nursery it was selected in 1901, to be blooming a second time during the year, hence its name. It is in no way different from 'COLUMBIA'. 'Sensational New Red' (Cole Nurs., Painesville, Ohio, Cat. 1942) = 'COLE'S RED'. 'Shell Pink' (cult. at the Monrovia Nurs., Azusa, Calif.) = 'CHARMING'. `SHINONOME' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). seedling ANDENKEN AN KARL RAMCKE' (Timm Nurs., Elmshorn, Germ., Flowers cinnabar-red, single. The name indicates that it is of 'ANDENKEN AN KARL RAMCKE'. Selection of Timm Nurseries, 62] Flowers salmon-pink with a red suffusion, single; fruits large, orange shaped, umbilicate. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1939. Shinonome means girl of Shino, a town usually spelled Shinjo, in Japan. `SHIRABOTAN' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers pure white, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Shirabotan means white button. 'Shirabotau' (Taranto Gard., Pallanza, It., List of Seeds 1956-57) = `SHIRABOTAN'. 'Shirobotan' \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" (Cydonia japonica Shirobotan, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., 1936), corrected in 1941 to `SHIRABOTAN'. 'SPRING FASHION' (H. R. Kemmerer & J. C. McDaniel, Am. Nurs. May 1, 1961: 54. 1961). Flowers white and rose-pink with a lemon touch, single. Selection no. 10 of Dr. A. Colby of the University of Illinois, introduced in 1961. 'STANFORD RED' (C. X superba Stanford Red, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, 1940). Flowers tomato-red, flat open, single; fruits small, ovoid. Selection no. 340 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1940. The name is registered. Award of Merit of the California Horticultural Society, in 1945. `Sunrise' (Gauntlet Nurs., SCARLET'. Chiddingfold, Engl., Cat. 1930) = 'KNAP HILL 'SUNSET' (Anonymous, Am. Nurs. Aug. 1, 1946: 41. 1946). Flowers red-orange, often unisexual, semidouble; fruits apple shaped, calyx persisting. Selection of Toichi Domoto, Hayward, California, before 1942. Plant patent no. 700, taken on June 25, 1946. (C. maulei var. superba Frahm, Gartenw. 2: 214. 1898). Flowers scarlet-red, single or slightly semidouble; fruits apple shaped, deeply umbilicate. Origin unknown, probably a German cultivar, before 1898. 'TEXAS SCARLET' (C. X superba Texas Scarlet, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List May 1, 1951). Branches spreading, almost spineless; flowers large, watermelon-red, flat open, single; fruits apple shaped, calyx persisting. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. DC-125, introduced and named by Thomas Bell Foster Nurseries, Houston, Texas, before 1951. The name `SUPERBA' is registered. 'Thornless Pink' (Stribbling Nurs., Merced, Calif., Wholesale Price List 1958, without description) = `PINK LADY'. 'ToRTuosA' (C. maulei var. tortuosa Nakai, Jap. Jour. Bot. 4: 329. 1929). Branches and spines tortuous. Flower color and origin unknown, before 1929. `ULmA' (C. maulei Ulidia, Donard Nurs., Newcastle, N. Ireland, \"Good Gard. PI.\" 1960-61). Flowers large, crimson-red, single; fruits ovoid, strongly ribbed. Selection of Slieve Donard Nursery about 1945, introduced about 1955. This is a seedling of 'ROWALLANE' and according to Dr. S. G. A. Doorenbos, The Hague, Netherlands, is identical with his 'NICOLINE'. 'Verboom's Vermilion' (Krussmann, Deutsche Baumsch. 5(7): 188. 1953) = 'ETNA'. 63 'VERMILION' (Barbier Nurs., Orleans, Fr., Cat. 1913-14). Flowers orange, single; fruits apple shaped, umbilicate. Selection of Barbier Nurseries, introduced in 1913. This is the product of a cross between 'BALTZIi' and 'MAULEI'. 'Vermilion Double' VERMILION'. (Kingsville Nurs., Kingsville, Md., Cat. 1947) = 'DOUBLE 'VESUVIUS' (cult at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, Engl.). Flowers large, scarlet-red, single; fruits apple shaped, narrowly umbilicate. Selection of K. Verboom, Boskoop, introduced in 1953. This is a seedling of `SIMONII' pollinated by an unknown C. X superba. The leaves of this backcross look more like those of C. speciosa. 'WAKABA' (Cydonia japonica Wakaba, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers terra cotta-red, semidouble. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Wakaba means verdant leaves. 'White Fruit' (cult. 'FRUCTICO ALBA'. 'Willis Strain' EMBER'. at the Morton Arb., Lisle, Ill.; Cat. plant now dead) = (Willis Nurs., Ottawa, Kans., 1953-54) = `GLOWING- 'WINTER CHEER' (C. lagenaria Winter Cheer, Lord, Shrubs & Trees Austr. Gard. 258. 1948). Shrub blooming especially in mid-winter; flowers orangescarlet, single. Australian cultivar of unknown origin, before 1948. `YAECAICI' (Cydonia japonica Yaegaki, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers orange-apricot, semidouble. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Yaegaki means double fence. Chaenomeles X vilmoriniana (new hybrid group). erect as (C. cathayensis X speciosa). Shrubs about 7-8 feet VILMORINIANA group. high. Branches stiff, in C. cathayensis, but more numerous, armed with spurs or strong spines. Young shoots glabrous or sparsely those of the second year completely smooth. Leaves elliptic to ovate, when young with a light fulvous tomentum on the under surface, sharply serrate, with the serration usually terminating in an awn-like tip. Flowers large, white, suffused with pink as in C. cathayensis. Fruits few, ovoid, approximately 8 cm. long, ripening late. Frutex, usque ad 7-8 pedes altus. Rami erecti, numerosi, spinis validis omati. Virgae glabrae vel leviter pubescentes, demum omnino leves. Folia elliptica vel ovata, acute serrata, juvenilia subtus leviter fulvo-tomentosa; apex serraturae acriformis. Flores magni, albi, puniceo suffusi. Fructus ovoideus. HOLOTYPE: 'Afterglow', cult. at National Arboretum, Washington, D. C., coll. R. M. Jefferson, April 24, 1962 (Herb. Arnold Arb.). Not hardy north of Zone VI. This hybrid group is named for the late Philippe de Vilmorin, Verrieres-Ie-Buisson, France, who, in 1921, made the cross from which the first cultivar of this group was raised. pubescent; 64] 'AFTERGLOW' San Jose, Calif., Wholesale Price List Dec. 1, and narrow; flowers white turning rose-pink with a long touch of lavender, semidouble; fruits ovoid, slightly ribbed, calyx accrescent. Selection of W. B. Clarke, probably no. E.90-2, introduced in 1947. Clarke says that \"it is a seedling of 'Mount Everest' which it resembles in most ways except that it has double flowers.\" Plant Patent no. 847 taken on June 14, 1949. The name is registered. (Clarke Nurs., 1947). Leaves `HYBRIDA' (C. X japonica] Lemoine Nurs., hybrida [C. cathayensis X speciosa, Nancy, Fr., Cat. no. as C. lagenaria cathayensis 202. 1928, without descrip- tion) = 'VEDRARIENSIS'. 'MOUNT EVEREST' (C. X californica Mount Everest, Clarke Nurs., San Jose, Calif., Gard. Aristocrats 7: 14. 1940). Leaves long and narrow; flowers large, white turning rose-pink with a touch of lemon and lavender, single; fruits ovoid, calyx accrescent. Selection no. 355 of W. B. Clarke, introduced in 1940. The name is registered. 88. 'Mt. Everest' EVEREST'. ( Kru'ssmann, Deutsche Baumsch. 4 ( 4 ) : 1952) ='MOUNT Cat. no. `VEDRARIENSIS' 204. 1930, without (C. hybrida vedrariensis tinted with pink, Lemoine Nurs., Leaves short and description). single; fruits obovoid. Cross made by Verrieres-le-Buisson, France, in pollen of C. speciosa (as C. japonica). Intnoduced by CULTIVARS OF broad; flowers white Philippe de Vilmorin, 1921, by pollinating C. cathayensis with Victor Nancy, Fr., Lemoine, 1929. UNDETERMINED SPECIES OR HYBRID GROUP `AICEBONO' Flowers (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). pale pink with stripes of a deeper color, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Akebono means dawn. 1909). `ALSO-LINEATA' (C. japonica albo-lineata Morel, Rev. Hort. 1909: 277. Branches decumbent; flowers rose-pink bordered with white, single. unknown, before 1909. Origin 1933, 'ARGENTEA' (C. without japonica argentea Buyssens Nurs., Uccle, Belg., before 1933. Cat. description). Origin unknown, 'ATROCAULIS' (C. japonica atrocaulis Waterer's Nurs., Twyford, Engl., Cat. 1930). Flowers bright crimson-scarlet-red, single. Origin unknown, before 1930. 'BENIBOTAN' (Cydonia japonica Benibotan, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers bright red, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Benibotan means crimson button. QUEEN' (Sunningdale Nurs., Windlesham, Engl., Cat. 1936). Flowers single. Origin unknown, before 1936. 'CHOSHUN' (Cydonia japonica Choshun, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers terra cotta-red, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Choshun means enlistment. 'CLAYDEN' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 72: lxx. 1947, without descrip[ 65 'CARMINE \"carmine,\" tion). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1947. Exhibited by Miss E. Clayden, Parkstone, England. 'CORAL RED' (Sunningdale Nurs., Windlesham, Engl., Cat. 1936, without description). Flowers \"coral-red,\" single. Origin unknown, before 1936. `Carrrsr' (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1942. `Drxn; SCARLET' (Hastings Seeds, Atlanta, Ga., Cat. 1962). Flowers \"scarlet\"red, single. Selection of Harvey M. Templeton, Phytotektor, Winchester, Tennessee, introduced by Hastings Seeds, 1962. 'DWARF ORANGE RED' (W. Allan Nurs., Summerville, S. C., Cat. 1960, without description). Flowers \"orange-red,\" single. This may not be a clone, but selected seedlings only. Since Walter Allan is now dead, and his nursery sold, the origin of his selections will remain unknown. 'DWARF SCARLET' (W. Allan Nurs., description). Flowers \"scarlet\"-red, Summerville, S. C., Cat. 1960, without single. See `DWARF ORANGE RED'. 'HAKUGYOKU' (Cydonia japonica Hakugyoku, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers pure white, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Hakugyoku means white jewel. 'HIBOTAN' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers large, scarlet-red, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Hibotan means scarlet button. `KIMPO' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers pale yellow, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Kimpo means golden waves. 'KOGYOKU' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941 ) . Flowers large, vermilion-red, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Kogyoku means ruby. `KOSHI-NO-HOMARE' (Cydonia japonica Koshi-no-Homare, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers vermilion-red, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Koshi-noreign of the prince. `Kosar-no-Ym' (Cydonia japonica `Koshi-no-Yuki, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazushi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers large, white, single or Homare means Nurseries, before 1941. honor in the semidouble. Selection of K. Wada, no-Yuki means snow pioneer. Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Koshi- 'LEWALLIENSIS' (cult. at the Nat. Arb., Washington, D. C.). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1960. This name was probably derived from a confusion with Chaenomeles japonica var. maulei Lawallee, Arb. Segrez. 110. 1877. Cat. 1956). Flowers before 1956. `NATORP'S HYBRID' (C. lagenaria Natorp's Hybrid, Natorp Nurs., Cincinnati, Ohio, light red, single. Selection of Natorp Nursery, 'PINK PERFECTION' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. 1959). Branches erect, flowers clear pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1959. ~ss_ 'PORT ELIOT' (cult. at the Tudor House, Ripley, Engl., from Flowers tangerine-orange, single. Origin unknown, before 1962. Cornwall). 'PURITY' (Anonymous, Am. Nurs. Aug. 1, 1946: 41. 1946). Branches erect; flowers pure white, double. Selection of Toichi Domoto, Hayward, California, before 1946. Plant Patent no. 701, taken on June 25, 1946, under the name of 'Shasta', changed to 'Purity'. `RICCARTONII' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South. Hem. 87. 1959). Flowers deep red, single. New Zealand cultivar, the original shrub still to be seen at Deans Bush, Riccarton, N. Z. Named for its place of origin, before 1959. 'Rosy RED' Flowers rosy red, single. Selection of W. B. Clarke, to Kluis Nursery, Boskoop, Netherlands, about 1946. (Anonymous, Jaarb. Boskoop 1954: 116. 1954, without description). probably no. 326, sent 'SALMONEA' (Bruno, Rev. Hort. 1890: 212. 1890, without description; Hodgins Nurs., Essendon, Australia, Cat. without date, probably 1925, with description). Flowers clear salmon to rose-pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1890. 'Salmon RED'. 'Shasta' Queen' (Sunningdale Nurs., Windlesham, Engl., (Plant Patent no. 701, taken name Cat. 1961) = 'Rosy by Toichi Domoto, nurseryman, Hayward, changed to 'PURITY'. 'SHOKKO' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers large, crimson-red, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Shokko means candle light. Calif., June 25, 1946 ) , 'SINGLE WHITE' description). 'SINICA' (W. Allan Nurs., Summerville, S. C., Cat. 1953-54, without Flowers white, single. See 'DWARF ORANGE RED'. Trees & Shrubs 1: 453. 1914). Flowers deep red, double. before 1914. Cat. ~ (Bean, Origin unknown, 'SNOWBIRD' single. Origin unknown, (Weston Nurs., Hopkinton, Mass., before 1958. 1958). Flowers white, 'TALL LARGE FLOWERING SALMON' (W. Allan Nurs., Summerville, S. C., Cat. 1960, without description). Flowers salmon, single. See 'DWARF ORANGE RED.' `TATTAGAWA' Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers deep brownish pink shaded yellow toward the base, single. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Tattagawa is the name of a Japanese river. (Cydonia japonica Tattagawa, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. `TEMMEI' (Cydonia japonica Temmei, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers crimson-red, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Temmei is the name of a district in Japan, which means destiny. 'TERRA COTTA' scription). (Wister, Swarthmore Pl. Notes 1942: 128. 1942, without deFlower color and origin unknown, before 1942. 67] 'THORNLESS CRIMSON' Md., now tion of Glenn Dale, before 1960. 'TSUKASA-BoTAN' (Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1941). Flowers yellowish salmon, double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1941. Tsukasa-Botan means king's button. 'Tsukasi' ( cult. at the Univ. of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minn.) = 'TSUKASA-BOTAN'. (cult. at the U.S. Plant Introd. Station, Glenn Dale, dead). Branches spineless; flowers crimson-red, single. Selec- 'Umbato' 1947. In Japanese and Chinese gardens. 'WINTER FLOwEamc' (Duncan & Davies Nurs., New Plymouth, N. Z., Cat. 1926 ) . Flowers bright red, single. Selection of Duncan & Davies Nursery, introduced in 1926. 'WOKING STAR' (cult. at the Tudor House, Ripley, Engl.). Flowers pink, single. Origin unknown, before 1962. 'YoKUKU' (Harrison, Handb. Trees & Shrubs South Hem. 87. 1959). Flowers pure white, single. Japanese cultivar of unknown origin, before 1959. \"Yokuku\" may be a misspelling for \"Yokkyu\" which means desire. 'ZABELII' (Univ. V. Babes, Din Cluj, Romania, Seed List 1960, without description). Flower color and origin unknown, before 1960. Named for Hermann Zabel, Superintendent of the Forest Academy of Munich, Germany. 'ZANSETSU' (Cydonia japonica Zansetsu, Hakoneya Nurs., Numazu-shi, Jap., \"Jap. Gard. Treasures\" 1936). Flowers creamy white, single to double. Selection of K. Wada, Hakoneya Nurseries, before 1936. Zansetsu means 1847). Flowers red, single; fruits apple shaped. Origin unknown, before (Cydonia umbato Roemer, Fam. Nat. Reg. Veg. Syn. Mon. 3: 218. lingering snow. III. CULTIVARS LISTED ACCORDING TO COLOR CLASS the horticulturist or the amateur gardener who may find the list of formidable, this third list is added. This is an attempt to classify the living cultivars by color according to the Nickerson color fan distributed by the American Horticultural Council. It was possible to compare drawings of flowers of a single shrub with other drawings made at different dates. The conclusion from these studies is that the colors may change in intensity from year to year, or season to season. In this list the predominating color, or the range of color, is given. Within each of the five color classes the cultivars are further classified by color characteristics and then airanged according to their predominant single, semidouble, or double flower character which also may vary somewhat according to the season. A double dagger ($) preceding the name indicates that the plant has been found outstanding in regard to flowers and vegetative characters, and may be recommended for cultivation. This evaluation was based on observations made in arboreta in the eastern and midwestem United States and in several European botanical gardens.5 It should be noted To guide over 550 names ' Since the Arnold Arboretum is gathering as complete as possible a living collection of Chaenomeles, it will be possible in the future to rate accurately many cultivars which are now being \"tested.\" ~ss~ ] that cultivars and Zone VI. hybrids of Chaenomeles cathayensis are not hardy north of CLASS I. White FLOWERS PURE WHITE, SINGLE. .*r 'Candida' 'Angustifolia' 'Ebumea' 'Shirataum' 'Single White' $ `Snow' 'Snowbird' 'Snow 'Euphrosyne' 'Hakugyoku' 'Jet Trail' 'Nivalis' 'Nivea' FLOWERS Queen' 'Starlight' 'White Upright' 'Yokuku' SEMIDOUBLE. 'Shirabotan' PURE WHITE, 'Koshi-no-Yuki' 'Purity' FLOWERS CREAMY WHITE OR YELLOWISH, SINGLE. 'Alba' 'Mallarot' 'Sulphurea 'Zoge' FLOWERS Perfecta' YELLOWISH, SEMIDOUBLE. CREAMY WHITE OR 'Zansetsu' FLOWERS CREAMY WHITE OR YELLOWISH, DOUBLE. 'Kimpo' CLASS II. White-and-Pink The proportion of white and pink varies in individual flowers depending on the amount of light and heat they receive at anthesis, and on their maturity. Occasional flowers of the cultivars listed below are pure white or completely pink. FLOWERS WHITE-AND-PINK WITHOUT YELLOW, SINGLE. ~ 'Alba Cincta', white, bordered deep pink 10RP 6\/12. 'Alba Floribunda', white and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Alba Rosea', white, outer side rose-pink. `Carnea', white, outer side pale pink. 'Contorta', white tinted with strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. 'Fructico Alba', white tinted with moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5. `Jimmy's Choice', white and moderate yellowish pink 7.5R 8\/6 to strong purplish red 7.5RP 5\/12. 'Kan-Toyo-Nishiki', white and moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5 to strong purplish pink 7.5RP 7\/10. 69 `Mallardii', deep pink in the center with white edges. $ `Marmorata', white and strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. $ `Moerloosei', white and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. $ `Mount Shasta', white and pale pink 2.5R 9\/3, tinted with lavender. 'Nivea Extus Coccinea', white, outer side pink. $ 'Toyo-Nishiki', white and moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5 to strong purplish pink 7.5RP 7\/10. 'Vedrariensis', white tinted with pink. 'Versicolor', white and moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5 6\/12. FLOWERS WHITE-AND-PINK WITHOUT to deep purplish pink 7.5RP YELLOW, SEMIDOUBLE. 'Afterglow', white tinted with pink, turning soft rose. 'Alba Grandiflora Plena', white and pale pink 2.5R 9\/3. $ `Alba Semiplena', white to deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. FLOWERS WHITE-AND-PINK WITH A LEMON TOUCH, SINGLE. 'Apple Blossom', white and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Candicans', \"pinkish tinged creamy yellow.\" 'Candidissima', white and pale pink 2.5R 9\/3. 'Della Robbia', creamy white turning pink. 'Dorothy Rowe', white and moderate pink 10RP 8\/5. 'Grandiflora', white to strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. 'Grandiflora Rosea', \"creamy yellow to soft pink.\" 'Lutea Viridis', white and greenish yellow turning moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5. $ `Mount Everest', white tinted with pale pink 2.5R 9\/3, lemon and lavender. 'Papeleui', creamy white and pink. 'Perfecta', creamy white to deep pink 10RP 6\/12. 'Rosea Grandiflora', white to moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5. 'Spring Fashion', white turning deep pink 10RP 6\/12. FLOWERS WHITE-AND-PINK WITH A LEMON TOUCH, SEMIDOUBLE. 'Porcelain Rose', white and moderate pink lORP 8\/5 to deep pink 10RP 6\/12. CLASS III. Pink FLOWERS PINK TO ROSE, SINGLE. 'Akebono', \"pale pink with stripes of a deeper color.\" 'Bonfire', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8 to strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'California', deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Carmine Queen', \"carmine.\" 'Columbia', moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5 to deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Cynthia', moderate pink 5R 8\/6 and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. [ 70 'Dawn', \"soft pink and carmine-rose.\" 'Deep Pink', deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Early Apple Blossom', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. $ `Echo', moderate pink 5R 8\/6 and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. $ `Enchantress', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8 to deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Flamingo', deep pink 10RP 6\/12 to strong purplish red 10RP 5\/12. 'Fruitlandi', moderate pink 5R 8\/6 and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Gaujardii', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. 'Japanese Scarlet', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8 and strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Masterpiece', deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Minerva', strong pink 2.5R 7\/8. 'Pacific Red', pink to red. $ `Pink Beauty', deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Pink Lady', strong purplish pink 7.5RP 7\/10 to strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Pink Perfection', \"clear pink.\" $ `Rosemary', deep pink 2.5R 7\/8. $ `Rosy Morn', moderate pink 2.5R 8\/5. 'Sunset Glow', moderate pink 5R 8\/6 and strong purplish red lORP 5\/12. 'Texas Pink', strong purplish pink 7.5RP 7\/10. 'Upright Pink', \"pink.\" ' ' _ 'Woking Star', \"pink.\" FLOWERS PINK TO ROSE, SEM>DOUBLE. 'Falconnet Charlet', moderate pink 5R 8\/6 and strong purplish pink 7.5RP 7\/10. ~ `Phylis Moore', deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Rosea Semiplena', \"bright pink.\" FLOWERS SALMON- TO CORAL-PINK, SINGLE. 'Arthur Hill', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9. 'Aurora', \"rose suffused with yellow.\" 'Azalea', moderate yellowish pink 7.5R 8\/6 to vivid red 5R 'Boule de Feu', deep yellowish pink 5R 6\/11. 5\/13. 'Bunyardii', \"salmon-pink.\" $ `Charming', deep yellowish pink 5F 6\/11. $ 'Colette', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9 and deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Coral Beauty', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9. 'Coral Sea', strong yellowish pink 1OR 7\/9 and deep yellowish pink 'Doctor Bang's Pink', \"salmon pink.\" 'Foliis Rubris', deep yellowish pink 5R 6\/11. 'Harlequin', deep yellowish pink 5R 6\/11 and rose-pink. 'Hever Castle', strong yellowish pink lOR 7\/9. [771] 5R 6\/11. 'Juliet', moderate yellowish pink 7.5R 8\/6. ,*. `Margaret Adams', deep yellowish pink 5R 6\/11. `Maulei', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9 to strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Naranja', strong yellowish pink lOR 7\/9 and strong purplish pink 7.5RP 5\/12. 'Nasturtium', strong yellowish pink 1OR 7\/9 to strong reddish orange 1OR 6\/12. 'Salmonea', \"clear salmon to rose-pink.\" 'Sargentii', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9 to strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Shinonome', light yellowish pink 7.5R 9\/3 suffused with deep pink 2.5R 6\/11. 'Tall Large Flowering Salmon', \"salmon.\" 'Tattagawa', \"deep brownish pink shaded yellow at the base.\" 'Tricolor', strong yellowish pink 5R 7\/9. 'Versicolor Lutescens', moderate yellowish pink 7.5R 8\/6 and strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9. FLOWERS SALMON- TO CORAL-PINK, SEMIDOUBLE. $ `High Noon', strong yellowish pink 5R 7\/9 and strong red 2.5R 5\/12. $ 'Kermesina Semiplena', strong yellowish pink 5R 7\/9 to vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Rosea Plena', deep yellowish pink 5R 6\/11. FLOWERS SALMON- TO CORAL-PINK, DOUBLE. $ `Cameo', strong yellowish pink 7.5R 7\/9. 'Tsukasa-Botan', \"yellowish salmon.\" CLASS IV. Orange FLOWERS TRUE ORANGE, SINGLE. 'Aurea', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12. t 'Coquelicot', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12 suffused with deep purplish pink 7.5RP 6\/12. $ 'Corallina', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12. 'Dwarf Coral', \"orange.\" 'Dwarf Poppy Red', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12. 'Mandarin', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12. 'Port 'Orange Beauty', \"orange.\" Eliot', \"tangerine-orange.\" 'Taiojishi', strong orange 2.5YR 7\/10. SEMIDOUBLE. 'Vermilion', strong reddish orange 7.5R 6\/12. FLOWERS ORANGE, orange.\" 'Early Orange', \"orange with a suggestion 'Yaegaki', light orange 5YR 8\/7. 72 ] 'Abricot', \"reddish of coral.\" CLASS V. Red FLOWERS SCARLET-RED, SINGLE. 'Andenken an Karl Ramcke', 'Choshun', \"terra cotta.\" \"light cinnabar.\" $ 'Coral Red', \"coral-red.\" 'Dixie Scarlet', \"scarlet.\" 'Dwarf Orange Red', \"orange-red.\" 'Dwarf Red', \"coral-red.\" 'Dwarf Scarlet', \"scarlet.\" 'Ecarlate', \"scarlet.\" `Elly Mossel', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13 to dark reddish orange 7.5R 4\/11. 'Etna', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Fascination', \"deep scarlet-red.\" 'George Landis', \"sallow orange-red.\" $ `Glowing-Ember', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Grandiflora Perfecta', \"cinnabar red.\" 'Grenade', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Hibotan', \"bright scarlet.\" t 'Hi-no-Tsukasa', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13 to strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Indian Chief', \"scarlet.\" 'Kogyoku', $ \"vermilion.\" $ 'Knap Hill Scarlet', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Momijiyama', \"orange-scarlet.\" 'Pigmani', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Rakyuo', \"vermilion orange.\" 'Roxana Foster', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 'Russell's Red', \"bright scarlet.\" 'Salmon', \"salmon-red.\" `Sammlinge von Andenken an Karl Ramcke', \"cinnabar.\" 'Tatsugashira', \"orange-red.\" 'Winter Cheer', \"orange-scarlet.\" 'Yuyo', \"pale terra cotta with cinnabar suffusion.\" FLOWERS SCARLET-RED, SEMIDOUBLE. 'Double Vermilion', \"vermilion.\" 'Fireball', \"flame-red.\" 'Incendie', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 7.5R 'Nishikichidon', strong reddish orange 5\/13. 'Orange', \"light red-orange.\" 'Sunset', strong reddish orange 7.5R 5\/13. 73] 'Taioh-Nishiki', vivid red 5R 5\/13 and dark reddish orange 7.5R 4\/11. 'Wakaba', \"pale terra cotta.\" FLOWERS SCARLET-RED, DOUBLE. cotta.\" 'Koshi-no-Homare', \"bright vermilion-red.\" 'Ormond Scarlet', \"scarlet.\" 'Kinjishi', \"deep terra FLOWERS CRIMSON-RED, SINGLE. 'Alarm', \"deep red.\" , $ `Arthur Colby', strong purplish red 'Atrococcinea', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 1ORP 5\/12. \"blood-red.\" red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Baltzii', strong 'Benibotan', \"bright red.\" 'Benichidori', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Blood Red', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Brilliant', strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Cardinal', strong red 2.5R 5\/12 to moderate red 2.5R 4\/10. 'Cardinalis', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Clarke's Giant Red', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Coccinea', \"bright red.\" $ `Cole's Red', vivid red 5R 5\/13. $ 'Crimson and Gold', strong red 5R 4\/12 to dark red 5R 3\/7. 'Crimson Beauty', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Deep Red', \"deep red.\" 'Ernst Finken', \"fiery red.\" 'Eximia', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. ~ `Fire', moderate red 2.5R 4\/10. 'Fire Dance', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Hanazono', strong red 5R 4\/12. $ `Hollandia', strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Jane Taudevin', \"bright red.\" 'Knap Hill Radiance', vivid red 5R 5\/13. $ `Leichtlinii', vivid red 5R 5\/13. $ `Leonard's Velvety', strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Macrocarpa', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Natorp's Hybrid', \"light red.\" 'Nicoline', \"crimson.\" 'Otto Froebel', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Red RufHes', moderate red 2.5R 4\/10. 'Red Sprite', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Atrosanguinea', , , _ ' ' [74~1 `Riccartonii', \"deep red.\" 'Rosy Red', \"rosy-red.\" t'Rowallane', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Rubra', moderate red 2.5R 4\/10. 'Rubra Grandiflora', strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Ruby Glow', moderate red 2.5R 4\/10. 'Sanguinea', \"crimson.\" 'San Jose', \"deep rose.\" `Spitfire', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Stanford Red', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Superba', strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Tani-no-Yuki', \"bright red with a white base.\" 'Texas Scarlet', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Ulidia', vivid red 5R 5\/13 to strong red 5R 4\/12. t 'Umbilicata', strong purplish red 10RP 5\/12. $ `Vesuvius', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Winter Flowering', \"bright red.\" FLOWERS CRIMSON-RED, SEMIDOUBLE. 'Atrococcinea Plena', vivid red 5R 5\/13. 'Atrosanguinea Plena', \"bright red.\" 'Double Red', strong red 2.5R 5\/12. 'Kokko', \"bright dark red.\" 'Rubra Plena', \"red.\" ' 'Sanguinea Plena', \"rosy-red.\" 'Sanguinea Semiplena', vivid red t'Simonii', strong red 5R 4\/12 DOUBLE. to 5R 5\/13. dark red 5R 3\/7. FLOWERS CRIMSON-RED, 'Ormond Crimson', \"deep red.\" t 'Red Chief, strong red 5R 4\/12. 'Shokko', \"fiery crimson.\" 'Temmei', \"intense crimson.\" [ 75] ","distinct_key":"arnoldia-1963-Cultivars in the Genus Chaenomeles"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Supplementary Registration List of Cultivar Names in Syringa L.- Registered 1963","article_sequence":4,"start_page":77,"end_page":83,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24393","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24e856f.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wister, John C.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 APRIL 12, 1963 NUMBER 4 SUPPLEMENTARY REGISTRATION LIST OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN SYRINGA L. - Registered 1963 (Introduced, or named since publication of 1953 edition of \"Lilacs for America.\") more Explanatory Note: The Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation, SwarthCollege, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, was designated the International Registration Authority in 1958 by the Fifteenth International Horticultural Congress (Nice, France) as a result of the publication, \"L~lacs for America'' published in 1941 and revised and reissued in 1953. Additional lilacs have been registered 1953 and this list brings the 1953 list up to date. The format followed in this supplementary Registration List conforms in general to that used in \"Lilacs for America\" published in 1953 by the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. since Explanation of Abbreviations and Symbols S- Single flowers III D - Double flowers Flower Colors I White II Violet VI Magenta Bluish VII IV Lilac V Pinkish Purple If there are no parentheses with two or three capital letters to the immediate right of the name, the variety (cultivar) is a form of Syringa vulgaris. Cultivars of other species or hybrids have parenthesis ( ) with two or three capital letters as follows : EH-D EH-G PR VL dilatataXvulgaris~ giraldii X vulgaris) Prestoniae (S.villosaXrgfle.ca) (S.vulgarisXlaciniata) Early Hybrid (S.oblata Early Hybrid (S. oblata Name of Originator and Date of Introduction, if introduced, are in the parentheses after the name. Parentage is given in the second parentheses when known. .77]] Key Alexander Berdeen Boice to List of Originators or Introducers J. Herbert Alexander, Dahliatown Nurseries, Kenneth D~iddleboro, Mass. Castle Clarke Eaton Berdeen, Kennbunk, Maine. Boice, Friendly Acres, Salt Point, New York. Miss Minerva S. Castle, liowancroft Gardens, D~eadowvale, OnMrs. Van Ness tario, Canada. Clarke Mark Nursery, San Jose, California (Successor to ~;'. B. Clarke 1876-1953). Eaton, Lilac Land, Glen Head, N.Y. (Successor to T. A. Havemeyer). Ellesmere Ellesmere Nurseries, Brooklm, Ontario, Canada. J. Schloen. Gardner Gardner Nursery, Horicon, Wisconsin. Gardner 1891-195~1.) T. A. (Successor to Edward J. Havemeyer Lammerts Havemeyer (1868-1936), Glen Head, New York. Dr. Walter E. Lammerts, Descanso Gardens, Livermore, California. W. R. Leslie Leslie, formerly of Dominion Agricultural Experiment North Sta- tion, Morden, ~lamtoba, Canada. Lyden Meader Mrs. Cora Lyden (Mrs. John J. Lyden), Professor E. H. Meader, University of New N.H. Monmouth, Maine. Hampshire, Durham, Professor, Nelson Notcutt Dr. Caspar I. Nelson, River Falls, Wisconsin, former North Dakota Agricultural College. E. G. Notcutt Nursery, Woodbridge, Suffolk, England. Oliemans Patterson Phair Piet Proefstation Rankin Rowancroft Schloen Skinner Stone Topsvoort Yeager Brothers, Aalsmeer, Holland. Mrs. Frank Patterson, Scarborough, Ontario, Canada. Philip D. Phair, Presque Isle, Maine. Gebroeder Piet Nurseries, Aalsmeer, Holland. Proefstation v.d. Bloemisterij, Aalsmeer, Holland. Dr. John Paul Rankin, Elyria, Ohio. Rowancroft Gardens, Meadowvale, Ontario, Canada. J. Schloen, Ellesmere Nurseries, Brooklin, Ontario, Canada. F. L. Skinner Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. Mrs. Betty Stone, 2253 Nanking Road, Ashland, Ohio. Topsvoort Nursery, Aalsmeer, Holland. D. Eveleens Maarse. Professor A. F. Yeager, d'cd. Former Professor, University of New Hampshire, Durham, N.H. Oliemans 78 : Revision of List of Nurseries offering Comprehensive Collections of Lilacs The 1953 Edition of \"Lilacs for America'' listed 38 nurseries. Eleven of these offered less than 25 varieties ; twenty offered `?5-50 varieties ; seven offered over 50 varieties. By 1962 fourteen of the 88 nurseries had discontinued operations, or cally reduced the number of varieties offered. The following nurseries are now offering good selections of varieties: United States * Denotes nurseries not listed in 1953 drasti- * J. Herbert Alexander, Middleboro, Mass. Brand Peony Farm, Faribault, Minn. Bryant Nurseries, Princeton, I11. Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury, Mass. Chr~stensen Nursery Co., Belmont, Calif. Clarke Nursery, San Corliss F & F Farr Jose, Calif. Mass. Brothers, Gloucester, Nursery, Holmdel, N.J. Gardner, Horicon, Beaver Wis. Des Nursery, Weiser Park, Pa. Avenue, Moines, Iowa Edw. J. Clyde Heard, Inter-State Ilgenfritz Nursery Co., Monroe, Nurseries, Hamburg, Mich. Iowa Jackson and Perkins, Newark, N.Y. Kingsville Nursery, Kingsville, Lovetts' Md. Nursery, Little Silver, N.J. (wholesale) Perkins-de Wilde Co., Shiloh, N.J. (wholesale) Princeton Nursery, Princeton, N.J. Siebenthaler Nursery, (wholesale) N.Y. Dayton, Ohio Strawberry Towson Hill Nursery, Rhinebeck, Nursery, Cockeysville, Md. Minn. Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio Wedge Nursery, Albert Lea, 79 Canada (Plants * can be imported under special permit only) Ellesmere Nursery, Brooklin, Ontario McConnell Nursery, Port Burwell, Ontario * Rowancroft Gardens, Meadowvale, Ontar~o Sheridan Nursery, Skinner's Clarkson, Ontario Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba Thirteen of these nurseries offered less than 25 varieties : six offered 25-50 varieties; nine offered over 50 varieties. LILAC VARIETIES Named or Introduced since Publication of 1953 Edition of \"Lilacs for America\" SI S IV SV 'Addie V. Hallock' (Boice) S. uillosa 'Alice Stofer' (Rankm) 'Aladdin' (Leslie?) hybrid 1958 - Alexander SI 'Anna Amhoff'(PR) (Yeager 1961) (F2 seedling of 'Royalty') S IV 'Anna Nickles' (Stone) 'Berdeen's Chocolate' (Berdeen) 'Bertha Phair' S VI D VII DV (Phair about 1950-56) (Seedling of 'Paul Thirion') S IV SI S II 'Betty Opper' (Rankin) 'Betty Stone' (Stone) 'Bloemenlust' (Piet 1956) 'Burgemeester Loggers' (Topsvoort 1961 ) (`Marechal Foch'X'Ambassadeur') 'Caroline Foley' (Rankin) 'Cora Lyden' (Lyden) 'Chris' (Berdeen) . S VI DV S VII 'Daphne' (syn. of S. microphylla superba) 80 S IV S VI 'Directeur Doorenbos' Van 'Director General (Topsvoort 19~~) ('Excellent' X 'Johan Mansing') Der Plassche' (Topsvoort 1961)('C.L.Baardse'X 'Excellent') S VII 'Doctor Brethour' (Patterson - Ellesmere 1961) 'Doctor Chadwick' (EH-D) (Skinner) S III D IV 'Edgar T. Robinson' (Lyden) D IV D VI 'Esta' (Rankin) 'Fantasy' (EH-G) (Clarke 196~?) `Florence Christine' (Stone) 'Frank Patterson' (Patterson - Ellesmere 1961) 'Geraldine Smith' (Rankin) S VII SI SI 'Helen Palagge' (Rankin) 'Helen Schloen' (Patterson - Ellesmere 1962) S VII SI D V' 4Ingwersen's Dwarf' (form 'Inez' (Rankin) 'J. R. of S. velutina) 'J. Herbert Alexander' (PR) (Lyden) (Seedling of 'James MacFarlane') Koning' (Topsvoort 1955) S IV S IV D IV DI I 'Jack Smith' (Rankin) 'Jane' (Rankin) 'Jennie C. Jones' (Rankin) 'Jimmy Howarth' (Patterson - Ellesmere 1961) of S VII 'John's Favorite' (Lyden) (sport 'Charles X') 'John of Monmouth' (Lyden) DI 'Ken Berdeen' (Lyden) 'Lavender Lady' (VL) (Lammerts) (S. vulgarisXlaciniata F2) (Bred southern for S VII California) S IV S II S IV 'Lewis Maddock' (Rankin) 'Louvain' (EH-D) (Skinner 1962) 'Madame Rosel' (Topsvoort) 81 S IV SI S It SI 'Margaret Opper' (Rankin) 'Martine' (Proefstation 1954) (Yeager 19~8) (Open pollinated seedling of 'Congo') 'Maud Notcutt' (Topsvoort - Notcutt 19.~ i ) ( `Excellent' X `G.J. Baardse') 'Mary Blanchard' 'Mauve Mist' (Havemeyer - Eaton) S VII 'Maybelle 'Royalty') biniana Farnum' (PR) (Yeager-Alexander 1961) (F2 seedling of 'Miss Kim' (Yeager 1954-Alexander 1961) (Dwarf selection of S. paii- Nakai) SI 'Mount Baker' (EH-D) (Skinner 1961) `Jlrs. Fannie W. Heath' (Nelson) 'Mrs. Harry Bickle' (Rowancroft catalog #1undated) `Mrs. S VI S VII S IV SI DI Robert M. Gardner' (Gardner) 'Nellie Marie' (Lyden) 'Nellie Bean' (PR) (Yeager - Alexander 1961 ) (F`? seedling of `Royalty') 'Nina Baker' (Rankm) New 'Niobe' (Proefstation 1958) 'Oake's Double 4~'hite' (Meader found ma Hampshire garden) S IV DV 'Pauline Beck' (Rankin) 'President Eisenhower' (Lyden 1960) 'Pink Bluet' (Rankin) SV SV 'Pinkinsun' (Rankin) 'Pinkie' (Rankin) . SV S VII 'Purple Gem' (EH-G) (Clarke 1962) S IVRobert Dunham' (Rankin) 'Romance' (Havemeyer - Eaton) 'Rowancroft DI DI Pink' (EH-G?) (Castle 1953) 'Saint Joan' (Castle 1958) 'Saint Margaret' (Castle 1953) 8.~ _ DI D IV S III SV 'Snow White' (Oliemans 1958) 'Sobra' (Rankin) SV SI D VII D IV 'Spring Dawn' (EH-G) (Clarke 1960) 'Spring Glory' (EH-G) (Clarke 1958) 'Spring Glory' (Proefstation 1957) 'The Bride' (EH-D) (Skinner 1961 ) 'Tom Taylor' (EH-D) (Skinner) Patent applied for. 'Two Star General' (Rankin) 'Voorzitter Buskermolen' (Proefstation 1954) 'W.T. Lee' (Schloen - Ellesmere 1961) 'Westend' (Proefstation 1956) S II S III I SI SI 'White Surprise' (Castle 1953) in 19.53 Note 1: Correction. 'ROYALTY' is PR (S. prestoniae). It was wrongly listed as JF (S. josiflexa) on pages 41 and 48 of \"Lilacs for America.\" Note Q: 'Mountain Haze' and 'Sierra Blue' raised and named by Lammerts and introduced as Lilacs are not varieties of Syringa but are varieties of Ceanothus popularly called \"California Lilac. \" JOHN C. WISTFR Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania 83 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Inernational Plant Registration","article_sequence":5,"start_page":85,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24388","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eb76f.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR I~TFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 MAY 31, 1963 NUMBER 5 INTERNATIONAL PLANT REGISTRATION CONCERTED effort is being made by all botanical and horticultural organizations throughout the world to bring order to the naming of new cultivars (clones or cultivated varieties) of plants. An International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants was originally drawn up by a special committee representing g international and botanical interests and the first edit~on was pubhshed in 1953. Since then it has been the responsibility of a special commission of the International Union of Biological Sciences and the latest edition was published in 1961 1 (R. A. Howard in Arnoldia 21 : 1-8. 1961 ). The code has now been in use for several years. It was slightly modified by the International Horticultural Con- A gress in 1962. Many organizations and individuals both in America and in Europe are working national and international registration lists, these to comprise names of all cultivars published in accordance with the Rules of Nomenclature. It is hoped that m the years to come, this Code and the registration lists which are prepared and published under the authority of the International Horticultural Congresses on will be the foundation governing the naming of all new cultivated varieties of to name new cultivated plants are urged to obtain a copy of the Code from the American Horticultural Society, 1600 Bladensburg Road, N.E., Washington 2, D.C., and to obtain proper registration blanks from the Registration Authority concerned. The International Registration Authorities which have been appointed to date are listed here, with the genera they are to register in parentheses. An asterisk after the name of a genus indicates that an international registration list has been published. Persons wishing to register new cultivar names in any of these genera should correspond directly with the organization listed for the particular genus. plants. All those who are about l. American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboretums, Mr. Fred B. Widmoyer, Sec.-Treas., Dept. of Horticulture, New Mexico State University, University Park, N.M. Responsible for assigning genera or groups of 85] 2. woody plants not already assigned to organizations which would serve as National Registration Authorities in the United States. The American Begonia Society, 3628 Revere Ave., Los Angeles 39, Calif. (Begonia) 3. The American Gloxinia Society (subject to agreement with the American Gesneria Society), c\/o Paul Arnold, 26 Hotchkiss St., Binghamton, N.Y. (Gesneriaceae - excluding Saintpaulia) American Hibiscus Society, Box 144, Eagle Lake, Florida. (Hibiscus - cultropical and subtropical species only) The American Iris Society, 223i Tower Grove Blvd., St. Louis 10, Mo. 5. (Iri.s - excluding bulbous irises) 6. The American Plant Life Society, Box 150, La Jolla, Calif. (Nerine) 7. American Rose Society, 4048 Roselea Place, Columbus 1~., Ohio. (Rosa) 8. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. (Chaenomeles,* Cornus,* Fagus, 4. tivars of Forsytlria,* Gledit.ria,* Malus,* Philadelphus, Pieris,* Dlmus.) 9. 10. 1 1. 12. The Hemerocallis Society of America, c~o Mr. Wilmer B. Flory, 1538 Dleadlawn Ave., Loganport, Ind. (Hemerocallis) Herrenhausen Institut fiir Zierpflanzen, Hannover-Herrenhausen, Germany (Callistephus; Begonia semperflorens group - subject to agreement with the American Begonia Society) The Holly Society of America, Bergner Mansion, Baltimore 16, Md. (Ilex*) International Camellia Society, Bodnant Gardens, Tal-y-carn, Denbighshire, No. Wales. U.S. contact: American Camelha Society, P.O. Box 465, Tifton, Georgia. 13. 14. (Camellia) 15. 16. Poplar Commission, Viale delle Terme de Caracalla, Rome, Italy. (Populus - forestry cultivars only) Koninklijke Algemene Vereniging voor Bloembollencultuur, 45 ~Villrelruinastraat, Haarlem, Holland. (Tulipa; hardy bulbous and tuberous-rooted plants excluding Dahlia, Gladiolus, Lilium and Narcissus) Laboratorium voor Tuinbouwplantenteelt, Wageningen, Netherlands. (CyInternational clamen*) 17. 18. Morris Arboretum, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia 18, Pa. (Magnolia) The National Chrysanthemum Society, 83 Chesterfield Road, Barnet, Herts., England. (Chrysanthemum - perennials only) The Royal Horticultural Society, Vincent Square, London, S.W. 1, England. (Delphinium* - perennials only; Lilium;* Narcissus;* Orchidaceae; Rhododenclron* - including azaleas. U.S. contact for Rhododendron: Dr. Henry T. Skinner, U.S. National Arboretum, Washington 25, D.C. 19. Royal New Zealand Institute of Horticulture, P.O. Box 450, Wellington, N.Z. (Hebe - woody Veronicas; Leptospermum) 20. Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation (Dr. John C. Wister), Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pa. (Syringa*) 21. La Societe National d'Horticulture France, 84, rue de Grevelle, Paris VII, France. (Acacia; Dianthus ; Hydrangea; Matthiola) 22. U.S. National Arboretum (Dr. Donald Egolf), Washington 25, D.C. (hi- burnum) 86] The ber in following is a summary of the genera or groups assigned to date. parentheses indicates the Registration Authority responsible. Hemerocallis Hibiscus The num- Acacia (21 ) Begonia (2) Begonia Society) ( 10) Begonia semperflorens group (subject to agreement with American Callistephus (10) Camellia ( 1 `?) (perennials only) Chaenomeles* (8) Chrysanthemum (17) Cornus* (8) Cyclamen* (15) Delphinium* (perennials only) (18) Dianthus (~1) Fagus (8) Forsythia* (8) Gesneriaceae (excluding Saintpaulia) (3) Gleditsia* (8) Hebe (woody Veronicas) (19) Hardy bulbous and tuberous-rooting plants excluding Dahlia, Gladiolus, Lilium and Narcissus (14) (9) (tropical and subtropical species only) (4) Hydrangea (`? 1 ) Ilex* (1) Iris (excluding bulbous irises) (5) Leptospermum ( 19) Lilium* ( 18) Magnolia (16) Malus* (ornamental species) (8) Matthiola (21) Narcissus* (18) Nerine (6) Orchidaceae (18) Philadelphus (8) Pieris* (8) Populus (forestry cultivars only) (13) Rhododendron* (includ. azaleas) ( 18~ Rosa ( i ) Syringa* (?0~ Tulipa (14) Ulmus (8) Viburnum (22) The Arnold Arboretum has been appointed the International Registration Authority for several woody plant genera. They are Chaenomeles, Cornus, Fagus, Forsythia, Gleditsia, Malus, Philadelphus, Pieris and Ulmus. Under the auspices of the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, the Arnold Arboretum has also been appointed pro tem. the National Registration Authority for certain other genera of woody plants which have not been assigned to other organizations. Some of the new plants which have recently been registered by the Arnold Arboretum since January 1, 1960, are here listed, together with short descriptions. The information in quotation marks has been taken directly from the registration records. sempervirens 'Northern Find' This plant originated at St. Joseph's Hospital, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, and was first propagated by the Woodland Nurseries of Cooksville, Ontario, in 1939. The originator is not known, but the plant was introduced commercially about 19~~. In the words of Mr. Leslie Hancock, \"It is a nicely rounded bush, Buxus 87 capable of growing over many years to considerable height, with a semi-open branching habit. The leaves are oblong-oval, 1-1+~~ long, convex, with glaucous bloom on young foliage with an occasional small branch of silver-var~egated foliage. It will apparently be normal-appearing at -15 to -30 F.\" This has not been widely distributed as yet, but is becoming more and more popular in this section of Ontario, Canada. Buxus microphylla koreana `Vfmtergreen' This clone originated about 1940 m the Scarff Nurseries of New Carlisle, Ohio, was selected in 1950 and introduced m 1960 by that nursery. In the words of Howard N. Scarff, \"This plant has shown remarkable ability to retain good green color all through the winter. Even in the extreme cold of our 1958-59 winter, this plant held its color.\" George Landis' of Esperance, New York, growing at the This was found by George home of Mrs. Hodgk~ns of New York, in 1946. It was taken to the George Landis Arboretum where it had smgle, sallow orange-red flow ers. Mr. Fred Lape, Director of the George Landis Arboretum, made the following notes : \"Extremely large bright orange fruit, and heavily fruiting, even though the blossoming may be lean.\" Chaenomeles X superba Troy, Landis 'Jet Trail' white-flowered sport of 'Texas Scarlet' first observed in 1959 by Harvey M. Templeton of Phytotektor, Winchester, Tennessee, in his nursery and introduced by him in 1961. It is a low-growing shrub with \"large, single, pure white flowers with no touch of any color.\" Chaenomeles X superba This ~s a Cladrastis lutea 'Rosea' growing on the grounds of the Perkins InstiWatertown, Massachusetts, for many years. The flowers are with golden yellow bases. Professor Nelson Coon of the Institute sent scions pink, on several occasions to the Arnold Arboretum and to Mr. Robert Marshall of Brimfield Gardens, Wethersfield, Connecticut. It was in the catalogue of this nursery that the name was first listed. It was first described by Dr. Burdette L. Wagenknecht in Arnoldia 21, page 20, March I i, 1961. A splendid tree of this has been tute for the Blind in Blossom' Originating Hoyt's Sons Co. Nurseries of New Canaan, Connecticut, several years prior to 1962 and introduced under the name 'Apple Blossom' by Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio, in 196?. \"The blossoms are produced in great abundance, color is an apple blossom pink shading to blush white in the center.\" Cornus florida at Apple 88] 'Cherokee Chief' Issued Plant Patent 1710 in 1958, this was assigned to I. Hawkersmith, V~'inchester, Tennessee. The plant is described as having bracts \"beautiful deep red, new growth a bright red. \" Cornus florida Cornus florida 'Cherokee Princess' Listed in the Tennessee Valley Nursery Catalogue, Winchester, Tennessee, in the fall of 1959 as being a selection of the white flowering dogwood. Cornus florida 'Cloud 9' Observed first about 1951 and propagated a year later, this originated at the Chase Nurseries of Chase, Alabama. It was issued Plant Patent #z 1 1 ~ on December 26, 1961. It is described as \"An extremely precocious bloomer. Exceptionally free-flowering, with more spreading habit of growth than Cornus,florida. The bracts are oval to round, overlapping, to give bloom a disc effect, rather than a cross effect.\" Cornus florida De Kalb Red' pink dogwood, first observed in 1946 and propagated in 1947 ; originating at the De Kalb Nurseries, Norristown, Pennsylvania, and patented by Eugene Muller, Plant Patent ~965, July 18, 1950. This is a \"semidwarf in size, foliage a deep green, deep crimson in fall color with wavy margins. The bracts are a deep, rich, heavy wine-red color.\" A sport of the common Cornus florida 'Spring Song' Sons Co. Nurseries of New Canaan, Connecticut, several introduced under the name, 'Spring Song' by Wayside years prior Gardens, Mentor, Ohio, in 1962. \"Outstanding specimens-gorgeous rose-red .... superb vibrant show of color.\" Originating at Hoyt's to 1962 and 'Sweetwater Red' seedling first flowering in 1940, originating at Sweetwater, Tennessee, and selected in 1954 by the Howell Nurseries of Knoxville, Tennessee, which is listed as both originator and introducer. It was first commercially introduced in 1961. \"The bloom is a distinct red, new growth in Spring is red; leaves in the fall are a distinct crimson color. The growth habits are similar to those of the White Dogwood and the trees develop uniformly; the blossoms retain the crimCornus florida A son color and do not fade as previous introductions have done.\" Euonymus fortunei 'Gold Tip' A sport of Euonymus fortunei 'Sarcoxie' first observed by Leslie Hancock 1959 on in plants of the Woodland Nurseries, Cooksville, Ontario, Canada. It will not be introduced until 1964. In the words of Mr. Hancock, the \"young growth 89 ~ ] is to strongly golden variegated, a about semi-evergreen as the season 40% golden. This variegation slowly turns advances.\" In most other respects it should prove similar to its parent Euonymus fortunei `Sarcoxie'. Malus 'Radiant' An open pollinated seedling of Malus 'Hopa' selected by the late Dr. L. E. Longley of the Department of Horticulture of the University of Minnesota, St. Paul, Minnesota, about 1940. Introduced by the Department of Horticulture in 1957\"the tree is compact and upright in growth habit with sturdy, wide-angled crotches. The new foliage in the spring and early summer has a bright reddish cast contrasting nicely with the green of the older foliage. The flower buds are deep red, opening to deep pink, single flowers of medium size. The flowers are produced annually. The fruits are small, bright red, about ~~~ in diameter and reach their peak of color in early September. They retain their bright color until heavy freezes in late October.\" `Snowdr~ft' seedling of unknown parentage first observed in 1955 and introduced by the Cole Nursery Company of Painesville, Ohio. \"Red buds. Glistening pure white Howers of excellent substance. Annual heavy blooming. Small (about 4~~ dia.) fruit of yellow color with rosy blush. Extremely floriferous. Vigorous upright growth. Heavy textured, clear green foliage. Highly disease resistant.\" Malus baccata A Malus Vanguard' at the first flowering in 1944 and grown from seed of University of Minnesota where it was selected by Dr. L.E. `Hopa' Longley of the Department of Horticulture and introduced by the Department of Horticulture in 1963. It was first designated, \"11 AA.\" \"The tree is upright in habit of growth with narrow crotches. There is a tendency for the top to spread out shghtly after several successive crops of fruit, thus producing a vase shaped tree at maturity. The young foliage has a reddish cast, but soon turns a bright green. Flowers are produced in great profusion, even on young trees, often in the nursery row. The Hower buds are large and deep pink in color, opening to 11 large, showy single flowers of a bright rosy pink color. The bright red fruits (~~~ in dia. ) reach their full color about September 1 and remain on the tree throughA twenty-two-year-old seedling Malus out the fall and winter months.\" 'White Angel' Possibly a seedling of M, sieboldii, first observed in 1955, introduced and registered by Louis M. Beno of Beno's Nursery, Youngstown, Ohio, in 1962. \"Glistening white flowers approximately one inch in diameter, borne in clusters of 5 or 6 on huge, delphinium-like spikes extending out in all directions, two or three feet from the main part of the plant in mid-May. The bright scarlet-red fruits Malus ~ 90 --~ - - ~ l' --'---~------t-- - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ are 2~~ entire in diameter, profusely borne and hold plant a pendulous appearance.\" until spring. The fruit gives the seedling, this first flowered in 1958 where it originated garden of Mr. Russell Bettes of Princeton, New Jersey. It was mtroduced commercially in 1959 by John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., of Neshanic Station, New Jersey. It is noted in the description of this plant that the \"new growth is shorter, the plant is more compact and forms a very nice compact plant with a minimum of pruning.\" in Pieris japonica 'Compact' A ten- to twelve-year-old the Pieris japonica was 'Dorothy Wyckoff' selected in 1953 at Millburn, New Jersey, and Edward S. Wyckoff of Bedminster, New Jersey, is credited with selecting it. Kingsville Nurseries of Kingsville, Maryland, and John Vermeulen & Son, Inc. of Neshanic Station, New Jersey, jointly introduced it in 1960. It has a compact habit of growth with \"leaves very rich dark green in summer, turning a handsome reddish green in the winter. The flower buds during winter are deep dark red, and in spring when beginning to swell are red to very dark pink, and when the flowers open they are a fine true pink, not pale to white.\" ~ This Pieris japonica 'Flamingo' First observed in March 1953, by Mr. A. B. Lambert, 5120 S.E. 28th Avenue, Portland 2, Oregon, in the Lambert Nurseries of the same address, it will probably be introduced by that nursery shortly and may be patented. In the words of Mr. Lambert, it has \"deep pink panicles which do not fade, the panicle size about 11cm. The florets are 9 mm. long by 7 mm. wide and the leaf is slightly rounder than that of Pierisjaponica. The new growth is bronzy red.\" Mr. Lambert also stated that it should be hardy in Zone 7 or to about 10 above zero, F. Pieris japonica `Whitecaps' Milltown, New Jersey, this plant was first noted in 1957by Mr. Ernest G. Christ. John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., of Neshanic Station, New Jersey, will be the introducer. \"It has exceptionally long flower clusters and in its location the blooms last for about six weeks. The color of the flowers is pure white and they are more outstanding than those on other plants of the same species.\" Originating at japonica 'White Cascade' This cultivar of the Japanese Andromeda, originated as a seedling in the nurseries of John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., Neshanic Station, New Jersey, in 1953 and was selected in 1957 and named by Raymond P. Korbobo, 13 Oak Drive, Middlesex, New Jersey. In the words of Mr. Korbobo, it has \"Perfectly clear white Pieris 91 flowers ; full flower clusters ; fully clothed with foliage all around : flowers stay clear white for five weeks; produces heavy flower set each year.\" Pseudotsuga menziesii 'Marshall' An excellent, densely pyramidal form of the Douglas-fir, this was collected with a batch of Uouglas-fir seedlings in Colorado about 1930 or 1931 by the Marshall Nurseries of Arlington, Nebraska. The original seedling grew slowly at first, but after it became 12or 15 feet high, it developed rapidly enough to have the promise of a prime landscape plant. It is becoming increasingly popular with gardener and nurseryman alike. Tilia cordata `Greenspire' A twelve-year-old seedling which first flowered in 1956, this originated in the Princeton Nurseries of Princeton, New Jersey. It was introduced commercially in 1961 by the Princeton Nurserymen's Research Associates and the name was published in the Fall, 1961, catalogue of the Princeton Nurseries. It was patented (#`?086) on September .5, 1961. It is \"exceptionally straight and upright ~n habit of growth ; with branches placed radially around the trunk and forming an upright narrow-oval head without the need of special pruning or staking. It has rapid growth, strong crotches and ~s resistant to wind damage.\" Tsuga canadensis `Greenspray' A seedling mutation of 7suga canadensis first observed in 194z by Henry J. Hohman in the Kingsville Nurseries of Kingsville, Maryland, this seedling was estimated to be about twenty years old. It has \"spray-like growths that overlap each growth beneath ; the center is open and shows plainly the development of each growth made, which ~s unlike the mounded forms of dwarf hemlocks. The effect is a development of green sprays.\" Tsuga canadensis 'Rockland' This seedling originated at Valley Cottage, Rockland County, New York, and discovered in 19~2 when it was about fourteen years old. Herman Brandt of Valley Cottage is listed as the discoverer and Robert ~'. Pugh of Spring Valley, as the introducer. This is \"a vigorous compact growing hemlock whose rapid speed of growth is comparable with the growth of the species and which has a deeper green color throughout the whole growing season. \" It also has \"a habit of developing numerous branchlets on the sides of current growth with a resultant heavier, denser and very compact type of growth, with approximately 2 to 3 times as many leaves per unit of stem as in the species.\" was DONALD WYMAN 92] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Leucothoe fontanesiana","article_sequence":6,"start_page":93,"end_page":99,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24389","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ebb28.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 AUGUST 2, 1963 NUMBER 6 LEL,'COTHOF: FONTANESIANA of this article is the valuable broad-leaved evergreen known as Leucothoe. In it two or three diverse aspects are discussed, each significant in different ways to plantsmen. Firstly, the nomenclatural difficulties and complexities which have led to changes in the botanical name of the plant are explained ; secondly, the characters are enumerated by which it may be distinguished from its most closely related species ; next the value of the plants are considered from the point of view of horticulture; and finally various cultivated varieties are discussed, listed and described. THE subject Drooping Changes of Name find themselves under attack when the well knownn garden plant is changed. It is easy to sympathize objections of horticulturists and others, whether they be professional nurserymen or amateur gardeners, but it is not always appreciated that changes are made for definite reasons and not just for the \"fun\" of it. There are three main reasons why names change : ( 1 ) because of an earlier name which, by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature, has to be taken into use; (2) because of a change in a plant's classification; or (3) because of an error in identification by which subsequent workers have been misled. All three reasons are well illustrated by the case of the Drooping Leucothoe, generally known as LencothoP catesbaei, but, as we shall see, more correctly called L. fontanesiana. There are two species of Drooping Leucothoe native in the southeast of the United States : Leucothoe axillaris, a plant of the coastal plains from southern Virginia to easternmost Louisiana, and L. fontanesiana (L. catesbaei of gardeners and others) which is a hardier mountain plant confined to Virginia, North and South Carolina, Georgia and Tennessee. They are very closely related and to a greater or lesser extent overlap in all their distinguishing characters (see Green Only too often taxonomic botanists name scientific ~ith the of a 93= press). In fact they have frequently been misidentified one as the other. Leucothoe axillaris was introduced into cultivation in Britain as long ago as 1765 according to Aiton (Hortus Kewensis 2: 69, 1789) but L. fontanesiana is not mentioned. In the second edition of this work, compiled by Aiton's son, it is stated to have been introduced in 1'793 by the famous nursery firm of Loddiges but there is some doubt about this for in Gordon, Dermer & Edmond's Catalogue of Trees, Shrubs, Plants, Flower Roots, Seeds, etc., which was possibly put out ~n 1 i 82, one of their plants is listed as Andromeda axillaris and another as A. serrat~'olia. However, they are both of them incompletely described and the first valid description of either appeared in l i 83, the following year, when the famous French naturalist Jean-Baptiste A. P. Monet, Chevalier de Lamarck (1744-1829), most noted for his theory on the inheritance of acquired characters usually known as Lamarckism and in whose honor the generic names Monetia, Markea and Lamarckia were given, described Andromeda axillaris. Vf hatever the true facts about the first introduction may be it is interesting to note that these plants were first known in a genus different from that used for them today..~ndromeda, as a genus, was established in 1753 by the famous 18th century classifier and namer of plants and animals, Carl Linnaeus, and gradually more and more species were described and included until it was apparent that the genus contained too heterogeneous a collection of species. Many segregates were split off to form the now well known genera Phyllodoce, Enkianthus, Cassiope, Zenobia, Pieris, Lyonia, Chamaedaphne and O,rydemlru~n, many species of which were first described as .4ndromeda. Leucollroe was a similar \"split\" and like several of those just mentioned was first described * by David Don in the Edinburgh New Philosophical Journal of 183~ (17: 159).* There is no doubt that Don was correct in splitting up Andromeda but one can imagine the complaints made by gardeners of his day when the plant which they all knew as Andromeda axillaris had to become Leucoihoe axillaris. This then is an example of a name change due, in this case, to a change in classification. In 1788, five years after Lamarck's description was published, Thomas Walter, who had been born in Hampshire, England, about 1740 and who settled in North America, published his Flora Caroliniana in which he described a plant Andromeda catesbaei, naming ~t after the earlier botanist and field naturalist of the southeast, in Castanea 28: in Out of interest Don named all these genera after classical figures: Cassiope or Cassiopeia the wife of Cepheus and the mother of Andromeda; Zenobia was queen and heroine of a Palmyra in the third century A.D.; Pieris was one of the Muses and associated with Pieria in Thessaly; Leucothoe was the daughter of Orchamus, King of Baby lonia, and said to have been changed by Apollo into a sweet-scented shrub. The name of Cassandra, daughter ot Priam and Hecuba and loved by Apollo, was proposed as a name for one of the segregates that had earlier, if unknown to Don, been previously called Chamaeclayola~an. One of these genera, Yhylloclwr, proposed by another botanist, R.A.Salisbury (1961-1829), was similarly named after a sea nymph and Andromeda, the original name proposed by Linnaeus, was the daughter of Cepheus and Cassiope and married Perseus. was * _ 94 ~ ] PLATE IV Leucothoe fontanesiana Mark Catesby ( 1682-1 i 49, and who, from 1 i 31 to 1 i 43, had published his pioneer Natural History of Carolina, Florida and the Bahama Islands). This name was then used by botanists for the hardier mountain plant. In fact Asa Gray in the second edition of his Manual of Botany, published in 1856, transferred the name to Leucotlrol so that it became Leucothoe catesbaei (Walt.) Gray (incidentally the abbreviation \"Walt.\" shows that Walter was the originator of the epithet catesbaei in another circumscription, and that \"Gray\" was the author who combined ~t as a species in LeucoIhoT). Under the name L. catesbaei the plant has been widely known ever since both as a native of the southern Appalach~ans and as a valuable garden plant. However when the remaining fragment of 4~'alter's original specimen, the type specimen as it is called, was examined (as was done by Dr. Bernice G. Schubert m 1946 when she photographed and studied the Walter Herbarium at the British Museum in connection with the production of the 8th edition of Gray's Manual, \"largely rewritten and expanded\" by the late Professor Fernald) it was found to be the coastal plant, L. nxillaris. 1'h~s fact had been suspected earlier, but as soon as it became definitely established V~'alter's epithet, cntesbaei, had to be applied to L. a.rillnris as a later synonym and could no longer be used for the mountain plant. In the years between ~'alter's description in 1788 and Fernald and Schubert's statement of their discovery in 1948 (Rhodora 50: 218) several other names had been applied to this plant. Fernald and Schubert considered each one that they knew of and found that for various reasons none of them could be used. A new name was therefore proposed, Leucolhoe editorum Fern. & Schub.* This name was taken up in the 8th edition of Gray's Manual published in 1950 and in the New Britton & Brown, Illustrated Flora, wntten by Gleason and published in 19~2 so that the field botanists and naturalists who use these standard works soon found that they had a new name for the plant they had always known as L. catesbaei, a name that had had to be replaced in this case because of an early misidentification of V~'alter's original Fernald and Schubert thought they had considered all the that had been applied to the species, H. Sleumer, publishing taxonomic studies on Leucothoe in the German periodical Botanischer Jahrbiicher (78: 438), pointed out m 1959 that the epithet fontanesiana had already been proposed for this species by the German botanist Steudel in his Nomenclator Botanicus (ed. 2. 1: 88. 1840) and, by the International Code of Botanical Nomenclature wh~ch governs the application of the scientific names of plants, was validly published, although in the genus Andromeda. This name of course is much earlier than that names * It is perhaps of incidental interest that the epithet editorum constitutes an intentional botanical pun and helps to prove that taxonomists are not always without humor when proposing scientific names. In the Sth edition of Gray's Manual of Botany its meaning is given as \"of highlands\", but the authors of this name were themselves the editors of this edition of Gray's Manual, and it may also be interpreted as \"of the editors\"! plant. However, although 95 - of Fernald and Schubert and ples m the Code it must take is one of the main prrne~Steudel's name fontane.sirrua (w hich inprecedence. cidentally commemorates the French botanist Rene Louiche Desfontaines (17501833) was therefore transferred by Sleumer to Leucothoe and the correct name for the species became Leucothoi fontanesiana (Steud. ) Sleum. Although not widely known this name has already been taken into use, yet in only two references that I know of so far, one dealing with wild and the other with cultivated plants : it is used by Wood in his re~ ision of the genera of the Ericaceae in the southeastern United States (Jour. Arnold Arb. 42: 39. 1961 ) and by Kriissmann m hrs Handbuch der L.aubgehiilze (2: .52. 1960). Nevertheless it constitutes a further and unfortunate name change caused this time by the discovery of an earlier and validly publrahe<1 name which by the International Code must take priority and stand as priority of publication as correct. h;very one with sense is dismayed at changes in the names of well known plants and the change from Leucolhoi~ catesbaei to L. fontnrresinnn rs such a change. But if the Code of Nomenclature, worked out over the years and agreed to internationally is to mean anything, one must abide by its consequences. One of the Code's main aims, iromcal as it may seem, is to promote nomenclatural stability and it is for this reason that the principle of priority is considered so important. However the Code is only man-made and there are already exceptions to this principle m the conservation of widely used generic names (1Bomina Generica Conservanda) and several attempts have been made either to conser~e well known specific names which are otherwise being upset by the priority of an obscure name or to reject names which would upset a later and well known one. Attempts, by amendments to the Code, to prevent names well known to non-taxonomists from drsplacement by others w hrch are obscure are not ended and it will be interesting to note the outcome, at the next International Botanical Congress in Edinburgh in 1961., of the various investigations that are being made to define and discover the true size of the problem. Leucothoe fontanesiana and L. axillaris Although Leucotlzoc rr.rillaris was possibly introduced rnto cultivation before L. fontaue.sinrra, and, growing in the coastal plain it is to be expected that it was the first of the two to be discovered and the one most readily available, it is neither so widely known nor so valuable in horticulture today. Both species are in cultivation and as they are closely related they are not easily distinguished. In fact it is perhaps doubtful whether they merit specific separation. This possibility and the characters by which the two may be distinguished are discussed in a paper to be pubhshed shortly in Castanea. It is sufficient here to hst in a table the characters which were found most useful and reliable for identification. As will be seen the most valuable characters are those of leaf apex and shape, these are shown in Plate V. sepal 96 TABLE. Differences between Leucothoe axillaris and L. fontanesiana measurements * In order to obtain measurements from comparable leaves, for each specimen studied were taken from the seventh leaf from the top of a mature shoot. Horticultural Value rs an excellent and hardy evergreen shrub of low stature. dark lustrous green wth a tendency to turn bronze in the aubranches, which arise nearer the ground, grow to about 3 ft. and have a tendency to arch and droop slightly towards the top. Under these arching stems the waxy white flowers hang down in racemes of up to about 3 in. long during May or early June. The plants increase their area by underground stems and the species is well suited as an evergreen ground cover as long as one does not require one of lower stature. Under very favorable conditions the shoots may rise in height to four or more feet but the plant can be kept short by cutting to the ground every few years at the end of the growing season. In its wild state the species occupies wet rocky ground often in shad~- wooded situations and frequently on the banks of streams. From this it may be safely assumed that it will flourish in damp situations in the garden and can also stand a considerable degree of shade. It will grow in full sun as well but with a chance of damage to the evergreen leaves in winter. The leaves are remarkably tough, and because of this, cut shoots have a high decorative value for they are longer lasting than those of many similar plants and are especially useful where foliage is required in winter arrangements. Of the various cultivars, as cultivated varieties are termed, `G~rard's Rainbow' and 'Tnvar', when well grown are said to be outstanding plants. The naturally shiny dark green leaves are spotted and streaked with yellow, red and pink. The effect can be cheerful and colorful and quite different from the impression of sickliness which unfortunately goes with many of the poorer types of variegated plant. Leuootlroi,fuulanesiana are a The leaves tumn. The 97 ~ PLATE V (Upper) Range of leaf apex types in Leucothoe axillaris and L fontanesiana. : A-D, L. axillaris; (C&)E-F, L. fontanesiana. (Approximately half natural size). (Lower) Outlines of siana (B). a single typical sepal of L. axillaris (A) and L. fontane- l.eucothot a.rillaris is very similar to L. fontanesiana in its horticultural value. The slightly- shorter leaves are perhaps a little less attractive but the general habit is of the same type, with graceful arching shoots. Its native habitat is also very similar: swampy banks and wooded creek sides. However, although the Arboretum has had plants growing for a year or two it is doubtful, in view of its native distribution, from the mild coastal plain as opposed to the cooler Southern Appalachian mountains, whether it is as hardy as L. fontanesiana. Obser~ations on this point over a number of years in different localities of New England and other parts would help to prove the matter. Both species are easily propagated. Whole plants may be divided but cuttings can be rooted without difficulty. S~milarlv they are easily raised from seed and it is true to say that this simplicity of propagation adds considerably to their horticultural value. Cultivars Although Leucotlroc,fontanesiana exhibits considerable variational range m the wild, no botanical varieties have been described. However, until the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants was drawn up and the category of cultivar established, horticultural varieties were treated nomenclaturally under the botanical code. Because of this, one or two varieties recognized in cultivation were named in what are today considered strictly botanical ranks. In 1903 Zabel (in Beissner, Schelle & Zabel, Handbuch der Laubhiilz-Benennung 389) published the name,f. angustata Hort. but mthout description, yet his use of \"Hort.~~ (short for \"hortorum\"-of gardens) indicated that the plant had already been known by this oa~ne previous to his publication. Then in 1914 Bean gave similar publication to another name which had been used in horticultural circles, var. rollissonii Hort ( Bean, Trees & Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles 2: 19. 191 ~ ), and gave a description :\"a variety with smaller, narrower leaves, 1 to 4 in. long, ~ to.'~-~m. w~de\". It is possible that these two variants are the same plant but from the point of view of valid publication under the botanic code, only var. rollissonii Hort. ex Bean has a description. Because of this I borrowed herbarium material of this variety from the Royal Botanic Gardens at Kew, where Bean worked, and I should like to take the opportunity here to express my thanks to the Director for this loan. The specimen sent, w hilst it cannot be called the nomenclatural type, may nevertheless be taken as an authentic representation of Bean's plant. It was collected in September 1931 and upon examination shows, as might be expected, a relatively small and narrow leaved plant. On comparison with the extensive range of specimens from wild material in the combined Arnold Arboretum and Gray Herbaria it is found to fall into the general range of sar~ation of the species and certainly, from the botanical point of view, does not merit recogniton at the rank of variety. In so far as it is propagated by cuttings and is maintained for its narrow-leaved character it should be treated as a cultivar. _988 ] In examining the literature a relating to Leucothoe fontanesiana I have come across number of names applicable to cultivars and it may seem convenient to bring them together and enumerate them here, although little attempt has been made to discover the earliest place of publication of these names, and, partially for this reason and partially because the other species of Leucothoe have not been mcluded, this list is hardly to be considered as a complete registration list of cultivars. 'Angusta' (Zabel in Beissner, Schelle & Zabel, Handb. Laub.-Benenn. 389. 1903, as Andromeda angusta Hort., in synonymy) _ `Angustata'. `Angustata' (Zabel, ibid. as Leucothoe catesbaei f. angustata Hort.). Vfhether this ~s the same as `Rollissonii' is difficult to say but certainly they must be very close. A specimen in the cultivated herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum bearing the name as used by Zabel above and gathered in the Vilmorin collection at Les Barres, France in 1910 appears exactly the same, yet another, collected by Zabel in 1886 and 188 from a plant growing m Hanover obtamed in 1885 from van Houtte's nursery at Ghent, Belgium, where it had been growing under the name Andromeda angusta, appears much more like the typical plant with larger and broader leaves, but perhaps this was a misidentification. 'Foha Multicolor' (Dolton in Horticulture II. 38: 349. 1960) ='Girard's Rainbow' or 'Trivar'. 'Girard's Rainbow' (Registered with the American Association of Nurserymen no. 539, 195i). Originated as a seedling in Girard Nurseries, Geneva, Ohio, in 19+9 and described as having foliage which \"takes on many colors during the growing period. New shoots are bright red turning to pink, then to yellow, green and copper variations\". `Nana', described as a dwarf form of the species. 'Rambow' =`Girard's Rainbow'. 'Rollissonii' (Zabel in Beissner, Schelle & Zabel, Handb. Laub.-Benenn. 389. 1903, as Andromeda rollissonii Hort., name only, in synonymy under Leucothoe catesbaei, without description; Bean, Trees & Shrubs Brit Is. 2: 19. 1914 as L. catesbaei var. rollisonii Hort.). Described as a variety with small and narrow leaves 2 to 4 in. long, ~to4 in. wide. Although Bean spelled the name with a single \"s\" the plant was named either after the brothers George and William Rollisson (who died in 18 iand 18 i ~ respectively) or their father, William Rolhsson, who founded the nursery firm of that name at Tootin near London. The name is also incorrectly spelled as 'Rollinsonii' in Chittenden's Dictionary of Gardening 3: 1 I 59. 19~ I . 'Trivar' (Registered with the American Association of Nurserymen, no. 521, 195 i ). Originated as a seedling in de Wilde's Rhodo-Lake Nurseries, Bridgeton, New Jersey in 1947and described as having \"variegated foliage, flecked red, cream and yellow on green, becoming more intense as the season advances towards fall when maximum coloration is evident\". PETER S. GREEN 99 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tsuga canadensis and Its Multitude of Variants","article_sequence":7,"start_page":100,"end_page":102,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24396","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d25ea326.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"TSUGA CANADENSIS AND ITS MULTITUDE OF VARIANTS Tsuga canadensis,*or as it is commonly known, the Canadian, or Eastern Hemlock, has a natural habitat which ranges from Nova Scotia eastward to Minnesota and Illinois, and southward along the mountains to Georgia and Alabama. Not only does it make a superb specimen when grown as an individual in ornamental landscape planting, but it responds well to severe pruning, making it possible to keep it within bounds when used as part of a foundation design. No other narrow-leaved evergreen has produced such a diversity of forms and, with the increasing interest in dwarf conifers, together with the growth in popularity of horticulture, especially of small and dwarf trees for small properties, the many variants are sought, named and propagated. Seedlings of Canadian hemlock produce a multitude of variants differing from the normal plant, and many genetic forms have been discovered in the woods by chance while others have been found through planned searches and there is no doubt that more people are walking and camping in the woods today than ever before. Any dwarf or slow-growing variation of a tree located in a natural habitat, is at a serious competitive disadvantage as it would tend to be overgrown or shaded out by other woodland plants, resulting in a very poor survival rate. Canadian hemlock however, has the ability to persist in dense shade, and slow growing forms, therefore, have a better chance of succeeding ecologically where abnormal forms of other subjects might perish. Tsuga canadensis is commonly raised from seeds by nurserymen, and still other abnormal forms have appeared and been selected from beds of seedlings or from nursery rows. When one considers the common practice of choosing the best and most vigorous plants in a seedling lot and casting out the runts, one often wonders how many dwarf, pygmy * or other abnormal types have been discarded. How the name L'axcga came to denote hemlock was amusingly related in, \"The Hemlock Arboretum Bulletin No. 3\" and is quoted as follows: \"In the beginning of scientific botanical practice the hemlock was included with the pines. It was labeled l'iraus ~anadensis by Linnaeus in 1763. Michaux, the French botanist, in 1796 grouped it with the firs and named it Abies iauadenais, while later scientists included it with the spruces and called it Pi~ea nanadeusis. It was the celebrated Austrian botanist, Stephan Ladislaus Endlicher ( I ti04-1849) who in 1847 used the name \"l:vuga\" which is the Japanese name for the hemlock, as a section in his genus Pinus. Later Elie Abel Carriere (18161896), a famous French botanist, in 1855, classified all the hemlocks into a separate group under the generic name 2yuga. Thus this important section of our North American conifers bears a Japanese name, given it by an Austrian, confirmed by a Frenchman and now accepted by scientists generally.\" 100 Some idea of the extent of variation in Canadian hemlock is brought out by the fact that in recent years the Arnold Arboretum has received plants or propagating material of fifty-two named and twenty-nine unnamed k~nds. The twenty-nine unnamed plants were discoveries considered worthy, by the donors, of perpetuation at a botanical institution. At the Hemlock Arboretum in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, the late Mr. Charles F. Jenkins, the owner, attempted to assemble all the various forms of Canadian hemlock. His collection is reputed to have contained one hundred and ninety specimens when he passed away and the project was discontinued. Mr. Radcliffe Pike, Department of Horticulture, University of New Hampshire, who has been interested in hemlock variations for many years, told me that he suspects at least one abnormal hemlock could be located in every New Hampshire town. Early in the eighteenth century, Tsuga canadensis was introduced to Europe where its beauty and desirability were well appreciated, leading to its widespread cultivation. Our Arnold Arboretum records show that variants have been returned to the United States from several European countries. A search of the Arnold Arboretum's records also reveals that even in the 1880's Canadian hemlock variants were being received. Some were named and others, as is the case with many received today, bore notations such as \"dense form\", \"dense pyramidal\" or \"variety\". Among those named at that time were Tsuga canadensis microphylla, I'. c. atroairens, L'. c. fasligiala, L'. c. macroplrylla, T. c. compacta and T. c. pendula, the latter being the famous Sargent Weeping Hemlock or Tsuga canadensis 'Pendula', m the latest usage. The Sargent Weeping Hemlock is one of the earliest and most beautiful variants ever found and one of the most widely grown in the temperate regions of the world. The find, comprising four plants, was made prior to 18 iby General Joseph Howland near the summit of Mount Fishkill at Beacon, New York. The plants must have been relatively small in size for at that time they ~ere moved down from the mountain and distributed. Two remained in cultivation in the Beacon area and two were sent to the Boston region, one to Mr. H. H. Hunnewell of Wellesley, Massachusetts and the other to Professor Charles Sprague Sargent of Brookline, Massachusetts, who later became Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Hunnewell's plant failed to survive but Professor Sargent's still exists and has developed into a superb specimen about twenty-eight feet in diameter and approximately seven feet tall. When \"Holm Lea\", the Charles Sprague Sargent Estate was subdivided in 19~8, the portion of property containing the Sargent Hemlock was acquired by Mrs. Roger Ernst who has deep regard for the tree and provides it with every necessary attention. Those wishing to do so may view this magnificent specimen growing near the edge of the street at 170 Sargent Road, Brookline, Massachusetts. The fact that Professor Charles Sprague Sargent had so many plants named for him leads to the supposition that the Sargent Weeping Hemlock is also in this category. However, this is not the 101 General Howland named it in honor of his New York neighbor, Henry of Professor Sargent. in a subject exhibiting such wide natural variation, a great many of the forms are extremely similar, for although discovered and collected from widely separated locations, many specimens appear identical. Some, which resemble one another, can be grouped as dense and shrubby, fastigiate, fountain-like, small-leaved or weeping. It would be difficult if not impossible to find characteristics distinct enough to distinguish between those within similar groups and identify them exactly, should labels ever be lost or interchanged. A common question asked when visitors to the Arboretum first view these variants is, \"How were they developed ?\" The answer is that they occur spontaneously. However, considering the frequency and apparent ease with which the forms arise ~t is doubtful whether any possible good can come of continuing to name new variants unless they are particularly different or unusual. case, as Winthrop Sargent, cousin As would be suspected A~.reFn J. FoenHnnt lUz "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Heath and Heather on Cape Cod","article_sequence":8,"start_page":103,"end_page":106,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24386","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eb326.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Copeland, Harold W.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University BULLETIN VOLUME 23 AUGUST 23, 1963 HEATH AND HEATHER ON CAPE COD NUMBER 7 70 varieties of heath (Erica) and heather (Calluna) without protection on our grounds at Chatham, Cape Cod. This is Hardiness Zone 6 where limits of average annual minimum temperature are -50 F to 50 F. These plants are growing on land sloping right down to the salt water, and seem to thrive with their eastern exposure. There is no windbreak of any kind between these plants and the open Atlantic Ocean. AT growing successfully we present have some Charm in Variety As indicated in lists to follow, there is the widest imaginable variation in height, plant form, color of both foliage and flower, and blooming season. Herein, lies the very special charm of this plant group, which of course is an ericaceous one, requiring acid soil. Some varieties are but four inches high, others range to five feet. Some are dwarf pincushions, some low and bushy, or low creeping, others loose and upright. There are plants closely resembling club moss, others have the appearance of tree-like clusters of coral. Apparently there are many differences in the green foliage, including hues of silver, gray, gold and blue ; there are light, medium and dark greens, there are plants having yellow or gold foliage turning bright copper in winter. The tips of the branches of one are even a vivid pink. Flowers vary widely in color depending on the variety and range from white, pale pink, rosy pink, bright pink, coral and crimson to rosy red, ruby, blood red, cherry, purple, lilac and mauve. One of the most satisfying and remarkable traits is the long blooming season of a single plant. For example, our Erica carnea `Sprmgwood White' showed white buds January 8, was completely covered in snow four times during the winter, but as the snow receded, there was the plant half covered with white flowers on March 20, and in mid-.4pr~l a solid white mat. 103 Flowers remain into early June. Blooms on some summer-flowering varieties are similarly long-lived. Outstanding Varieties in Our Chatham Garden In any group of plants it is always difficult to name preferences, since all have their own individual character. However, since these have performed at Chatham for several years I am listing some of our favorites here, together with the reason why we think they have especially outstanding ornamental value. Calluna vulgaris varieties :- Aurea' - yellow-gold foliage, becoming deep red ~n winter. County Wicklow' - double shell pink flowers, vigorous grower. Foxii Nana' - low, moss-like pincushion habit. `H. E. Beale' - long spikes of silvery pink rosettes of flowers. `J. H. Hamilton' - choice coral pink -superlative in color. `Mair's Variety' - one of the best white-flowered varieties. 'Mrs. Pat' - new shoots in spring are a vivid pink. `Mrs. Ronald Gray' - prostrate ground cover - found on the edge of a North Devon cliff, exposed to Atlantic gales. \"V~'isely it decided some thousands of years ago that a recumbent position gave the best chance of survival. \" It has lilac pink flowers and is a great favorite of ours. Searlei Aurea' - yellow foliage, white flowers. 'Sister Anne' - crinkled mossy tuft of a plant curiosity, yet attractive. Erica species and vanet~es :arborea alpina - a tree heath tree. Grows to carnea \" with downy, silky foliage - a feathery, light green, miniature Christmas 5 feet high. in winter - very \" \" \" \" \" \" 'King George' -blooms 'Springwood ~'hite ,\" , hardy -crimson flowers. \" \" - white flowers. \" `. `ivellii - red flowers. \"\"` V , ~nter Beauty' deep pink flowers. cinerea `Atrorubens' - ruby red flowers. 'Golden Drop' - copper to gold foliage turning red in winter. X darleyensis - blooms in winter - vigorous and hardy - rose lilac flowers. X watsonii `Dawn' - blooms all summer - deep rose flowers. vagans Lyonesse' - most attractive plant - ivory white flowers. `Mrs. D. F. Maxwell' - a most attractive plant - cherry-colored flowers. 'St. Keverne' - a most attractive plant - pink flowers. \" , \" \" \" \" \" 6 \" \" [ 104 Inclusive List of Varieties Grown at Chatham, Mass. Flower Color and Calluna vulgaris 'Alba' 'Alba Plena' Height 18 in. 18 in. 24 in. 18 in. 18 in. 12 in. 24 in. 9 in. 18 in. 4 in. 4 in. 18 in. 24 in. 9 in. 6 in. 24 in. 8 in. 4 in. 9 in. 6 in. 12 in. Blooming Time Remarks 'Alportii' 'Aurea' white, July-Sept. double white, July-Sept. crimson, Aug.-Sept. purple, Aug.-Oct. double shell pink, Aug.-Oct. foliage gold in summer rusty red in winter 'County Wicklow' 'Cuprea' 'Elegantissima' 'Else Foye' 'Flore Pleno' 'Foxii Floribunda' 'Foxii Nana' 'Hammondii Aurea' 'H. E. Beale' purple, Aug.-Oct. lilac, Oct.-Dec. double white, July-Oct. pink and lilac, Aug.-Oct. pink mauve, Aug.-Oct. purple, Aug.-Sept. Aug.-Oct. silvery pink, Aug.-Oct. foliage gold m summer copper in winter a round mat pincushion type shoots are bright yellow considered by some the a new `J. H. Hamilton' 'Kuphaldtii' 'Mair's Variety' 'Mrs. Pat' 'Mrs. Ronald Gray' 'Mullion' 'Nana Compacta' 'Pilosa' 'Plena Multiplex' best of the heathers double coral pink, Aug.-Oct. best of the pinks a rosy purple, July-Sept. growth resembles turban white, July-Sept. light purple, July-Sept. reddish, July-Sept. deep pink, Aug.-Sept. pink, July-Sept. white, July-Sept. double pink, Aug.-Oct. purple, Aug.-Sept. white, July-Sept. deep pink, Aug.-Oct. crimson, July-Sept. white, Aug.-Oct. pink, Aug.-Sept. rosy crimson, Aug.-Sept. pink, Aug.-Oct. lavender, July-Sept. foliage is a vivid pink in spring flattest growing of all pincushion type 'Pygmaea' 'Rigida' 'Roma' 'Rubra' 'Searlei Aurea' 'Sister Anne' 'Tib' 'Tom Thumb' 'Tomentosa' Erica arborea carnea \" 18 in. 5 in. 12 in. 9 in. 24 in. 12 in. 6 in. 12 in. 6 in. 10 in. yellow foliage resembles a miniature Japanese conifer alpina 5 ft. 8 in. 6 in. 8 in. 12 in. ashen white, March, April \" 'Carnea' 'Gracilis' `C. J. Backhouse' \" 'King George' pink, Jan.-April rich pink, Dec.-March soft pink, March, April crimson, Jan.-May resembles a miniature Christmas tree the entire E. carnea group is very hardy and mostly winter blooming 103 Erica carnea \" Height 'Ruby Glow' Flower Color and Blooming Time Remarks 8 in. 8 in. 'Sherwoodii' 'Springwood Pink' 8 in. \" 'Springwood White' 8 in. 8 in. `Vmellii' \" 5 m. 'Winter Beauty' 9 in. ciliaris 12 in. 'Stoborough' cinerea 'Alba' 9 in. 6 in. 'Atrorubens' 6 in. 'Atrosanguinea' 4 in. 'Golden Drop' \" \" \" \" \" \" ruby, March, April deep pink, Feb.-April bright pink, Jan.-May white, Jan.-May blood red, Jan.-May pink, Jan.-May rosy red, July-Oct. white, July-Oct. white, July-Aug. ruby red, July-Aug. blood red, June-Aug. pink, June, July June, July foliage gold ter in summer red and copper in win- \" 'Golden Hue' 12 in. actually a foliage plant, similar to above but more golden and taller 9 in. 4 in. 12 in. 12 in. 18 in. X darleyensis 'Arthur Johnson' 18 in. 'George Rendall' 12 in. 8 in. mackiana 'Plena' 4 ft. terminalis (E. stricta) 9 in. tetralix alba 9 in. 12 in. vagans 'Lyonesse' 'Mrs. D. F. Maxwell' 12 in. 12 in. 'Nana' 12 in. 'St. Keverne' 9 in. X watsonii 12 in. 'Dawn' 8 in. X williamsii \" \" \" \" 'G. Ford' 'Mrs. Dill' 'P. S. Patrick' 'Violacea' \" \" \" \" \" \" \" carmine, June, July bright pink, June-Aug. purple, June, July lilac, June, July lavender pink, Jan.-May pmk, Jan.-April purple, Jan.-April deep rose, May-Aug. pale rose, July-Oct. rosy pink, June-Aug. white, June-Aug. white, July-Oct. cherry, July-Oct. white, July-Oct. deep pink, July-Oct. rosy crimson, July-Oct. rose, June-Oct. rosy pink, July-Sept. a tree heath group E. vagans varieties are favorites because of hardiness and excellent habit, as a foliage and flower to Erica Bruckenthalia spiculifolia Daboecia cantabrica 6 in. light pink, June, July pink, July-Sept. closely related and Calluna 'Praegerae' 12 in. closely related to Erica and Calluna HARI)I,D W. COI'EI,AND Chatham, Mass. Having heathers seen in Mr. Copeland's garden early this month, especially his excellent full bloom, I asked him to write this for .-Irnoldia.-EmTOe 106 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pruning Ornamental Shrubs and Trees","article_sequence":9,"start_page":107,"end_page":110,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24391","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24e8126.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 OCTOBER 11, 1963 NUMBER 8 PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES is one of the times of year when gardeners consider pruning their trees and shrubs. There are special reasons for pruning and this issue of Arnoldia is devoted to some of these factors to be considered in any kind of pruning. A little knowledge of what to prune and how to do it goes a very long way in assisting plants to grow into well balanced specimens which prove an asset in any garden. Conversely, the indiscriminate hacking of shrubs and trees at definite heights is the quickest means by which otherwise beautiful plantings are made unsightly. When pruning is contemplated it might be well to pause a few moments and carefully consider why it is to be done, for many a tree or shrub can grow to be a perfect specimen with no pruning whatsoever, In other words, there are times T HIS when contemplated pruning will be found to be totally unnecessary. WHEN TO PRUNE as the growth of the plant is concerned, pruning can be done almost except in the early summer, but if done then, the new growth may not have sufficient time to mature before winter and killing may result. However, as far as our interest in the ornamental qualities of plants is concerned, shrubs are divided into two groups, those that bloom in the early spring like Daphne, Forsythia and Lilac, which might be pruned after they flower in order to obtain the full benefit of their flower in the current year; and secondly, plants which bloom on the current year's wood like Hydrangea and Rose of Sharon which can be As far any time pruned in the late winter are year. Trees ception of at this time, before the leaves or early spring and still be expected to bloom the same usually pruned in the late winter and early spring (with the exthose that \"bleed\" profusely like the Birch, Maple, Yellow-wood) for appear, it is much easier to see which branches should be removed, and also it gives the tree the entire spring and summer to form new growth. However, they can be pruned anytime except the \"bleeders\" as noted above. 10T ~] WHAT TO PRUNE 1. roots Dead, broken are or diseased branches. 2. Broken roots and one-third of the branches at transplanting time. Some dug. A good general rule is to remove about one third of the total linear branch length when the plant is moved by thinning out weak or damaged branches and correcting structural defects. This compensates for the loss of roots which have been cut in the transplanting operation, and always results in more vigorous plants at the end of the first year. This is hard for the home owner to do, since the new plant looks smaller than the original specimen purchased from the nursery, but it is always better for the plant in the end. When plants are to be moved from their native place in the woods, it ~s advisable to root prune ~merely forcing a spade into the ground in a wide circle about the plant) one year in advance, to force the production of many roots close to the base so the transplanting operation will be easier. Nursery grown plants are usually root pruned periodically. 3. Young trees should be pruned early. Timely corrective pruning saves trouble later. If the tree is one that normally has a single trunk, see that only one straight trunk develops and cut out any others that try to grow. Occasionally several branches grow out from the trunk at the same place and these will always make weak crotches. All but one should be removed. A Dogwood can grow with many leaders from the base. L:nless most of these are removed at once, the plant will be a bush (and a poor one at that) and never a fine tree. Sometimes young shrubs should be \"headed back'' a bit to force them to grow more branches from the base. A Forsythia, for instance, with just one leader would never become an interesting shrub. In other words, know how the tree or shrub will develop at maturity, and help it in early life by selecting the proper leaders, removing always cut when a plant ~s the others if necessary. 4. Correct structural defects. Never allow two equally vigorous leaders to develop on exactly opposite sides of the same trunk. This will always be a \"weak'' crotch, susceptible to splitting as the tree grows older. It may spoil the symmetry of the entire tree when this happens. 5. Cut suckers from the bases of grafted or budded plants. Many plants used in gardens such as roses, crab apples, lilacs and fruit trees, are either grafted or budded on another kind of understock. Usually, this is never more than a foot or so from the ground. Hence, all suckers developing below this point should be removed as soon as they are observed for if allowed to develop they will not only spoil the symmetry of the plant and sap the strength of the variety wanted, but will develop into an entirely different and usually undesirable plant. Excellent examples are often seen of this in roses which have been grafted on understock of Rosa ~nulti,flora. This species is extremely vigorous and if a few shoots are allowed to grow from the understock, it may not be long before this unwanted part of the plant completely smothers the rose variety which was budded or grafted 108 when two kinds of blossoms or leaves are seen on one plant, Cut out understock suckers as soon as they develop. 6. Rejuvenate old shrubs. A ~9ock-orange, Privet, Lilac, Spirea, or many another shrub may grow too tall and become open and ungainly at the base. Most shrubs can be rejuvenated in one of two ways : either by cutting the entire shrub to 6\" above the ground in the early spring and allowing it to develop as a new plant; or by thinning out the old wood, cutting some of the older branches off near the ground and allowing new ones to form, then repeating the process with a few more of the older branches the second and third years. Lilacs are often treated thus, for in this way they produce a few blooms each year of the change, while when they are cut to the ground they do not bloom for two or three years. Forsythia, as an example, when cut to the ground late ~n the winter of one year, can bloom with a few flowers the next. The second year it should be covered with bloom. 7. Hedges, screens and windbreaks. These should be pruned with the objective of increasing their density, for if a tmg is cut back a few inches, it frequently sends out more than one new shoot to take the place of the one removed. This growth habit of plants can be utilized to force them to grow more densely. 8. Certain limbs for utility purposes. The lower limbs of street trees, or hmbs that interfere with a certain view, walk, vindow or wire, must sometimes be removed. 9. Girdling root. Close observation of the base of poor growing trees often discloses a girdling root, that is a root partly on the surface of the soil or just beneath, that is growing in such a way as to choke or constrict the trunk of the tree or a larger root. Such girdling roots can do real harm and usually should be cut as near as possible to the trunk of the tree or at least at the point where they are doing the damage. These then, are the reasons for pruning. Be certain the reason for pruning is understood before it is done, for it is always a dwarfing process, and there are some plants that never need any. Study the situation and have a good reason for all pruning. on it. Frequently, reason. this is the HOW TO PRUNE 1. Make all cuts clean with sharp tools. over or 2. Never leave any stubs. A short stub may never heal source for infection. Make all cuts back to a bud, branch and is always a main trunk. The removal of a large limb should be done in 3 cuts. First, an undercut is made by up one fourth or one third through the limb about a foot from the trunk of the tree. Then the uppercut is started one to two inches beyond the first cut sawing away from the trunk on the top of the branch and sawed down until the limb falls. As the two cuts near each other and the limb begins to sag, its weight will break the wood at the center and the limb will jump clear without stripping and 109= tearing the bark down the tree trunk. Finally the stump is removed by a cut flush with the trunk of the tree. 3. Paint all cuts over 1 to 2\" in diameter with a protective paint. 4. Disinfect tools after each cut on diseased plants. A satisfactory disinfectant to have in a suitable can for this purpose is alcohol. .5. Shrub rejuvenation. Thin out the older branches over a period of a few years or cut the shrub to within a few inches of the ground in late winter or early spring. The obvious exception to this would be weak growing shrubs or those which have been budded or grafted. Never cut any shrub off at a horizontal line several feet above the ground. This is an artificial practice, outmoded for many years, and always results in unslghtly specimens. Thin out here and there, cut one branch back hard and another not nearly as much and thin out from the base, simultaneously. In this way, an old plant can be reduced in size, still look natural and will produce new growth at different places from the ground on up to the top. 6. Shear hedges wider at the base than the top. Both evergreen and deciduous hedges should be sheared in such a way that they are wider at the base than the top, thus allowing the important lower branches plenty of room, light and air. If the hedge is pruned narrower at the base than the top, the lower branches will often die from lack of light. Once these lower branches die on an evergreen hedge, it is practically impossible to force any new ones to grow in the same place. Deciduous hedges, on the other hand, are mostly vigorous growing plants, and when they become open at the base, the entire hedge can be cut to within a few inches of the ground in the early spring and will quickly start a new vigorous growth from the ground, thus forming a new hedge in a few year's time. Pruning need not be difficult. It is important, however, that one understand exactly why the contemplated pruning is necessary and can vizualize the probable results. Even yews can be heavily pruned and old plants rejuvenated by the expert gardener who has previously studied what to do, and when to do it. Rhododendrons are more difficult to prune properly, but for those who are interested, there is a full discussion of this on pages 1~?8-13-t of \"The Arnold Arboretum Garden Book\" by Donald Wyman, published by D. Van Nostrand Co., Inc., Princeton, N.J., 1954. Certain it is that time and effort can be saved if one carefully considers all these factors before adopting a policy of indiscriminate pruning. DONALD WYMAN 110 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New Plants Registered","article_sequence":10,"start_page":111,"end_page":118,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24390","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ebb6d.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2S OCTOBER ~J, 19F)~ NEW PLANTS REGISTERED Hamamelis intermedia NUMBER 9 'Arnold Promise' to be the true harbmgers of spring. The Japanese and the Chinese H. mollis, together with the American H. vernalis, all bloom early in the spring, sometimes in early March for the two exotic species, and sometimes even on warm days in January for H. vernalis. However, the Japanese witch-hazel has not proved an outstanding plant in bloom because the flowers are not profusely borne and are mixed in color with some red, which detracts from the brilliance of the color display in early spring. On the other hand, the Chinese witch-hazel, long noted as a good and fragrant bloom~ng plant, has proved disappointing many years in the Arnold Arboretum because the flower buds have been killed by cold winters. Hamamelis intermedia was named by Alfred Rehder in 19L5 from plants grown from seed collected in the Arnold Arboretum in 1928, from a plant of H. mollis growing in the Arboretum. There were several lots of seedlings and many plants representing each lot. As these seedlings grew, it became obvious that they were not true H. mollis, but were hybrids between this species and H. ja~onica, with characteristics ranging between these two species. One of these seedlings was planted beside the Administration Building where it has been observed from the library and herbarium at all times of year. Such a plant becomes an old friend, known for its performance, counted on because it has been there a long time, and not considered \"unusual\" for those reasons by those who use the building WITCH-HAZELS Hamamelis ja~onica ' seem continuously. However, for the past several years early spring visitors have remarked about the unusual size and quality of the flowers on this plant, and its consistently good performance. Several visitors who are widely travelled have noted that it stands out from all the other spring-blooming witch-hazels they have seen. Consequently it seems high time that the plant is named. 111 \"iJ v. . '\" 1: '\" 'S hc \" 1I 0;i~ 0 '8 0 :o ~c &t 10i1~4 ; \" <iU \" a - ''* w-~S ~ag M 0 : ., .t \"\" I 1 0 c .... '\" ~ : 'Z '\" ' *14 Close-up PLATE VII of flowers, Hamamelis intermedia `Arnold Promise'. Hamamelis intermedia 'Arnold Promise' is the name which it has been given and under which it has been registered by the Arnold Arboretum. It grows vigorously, the original thirty-five-year-old plant now being 18feet tall and `?0 feet broad. The clear, bright yellow flowers are borne usually in threes and appear in early March, although in a warm February some may open during that month. They are about 1~~~ across and are profusely produced, a consistent characteristic of this clone. Mr. Alfred Fordham, propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, has had difficulty in bringing rooted cuttings over the first winter until he worked out a procedure whereby cuttings were placed in flats in June and rooted, but not repotted. Still in the original rooting flats, they were placed in the cold storage pit house m the fall, kept dormant there until March, and then removed to the greenhouse and repotted for the first time. Plants handled in this way started to grow as soon as they were brought into the greenhouse and have made a fine growth of I `?~~ to 18~~ during the first year. It is hoped that this vigorously growing witch-hazel will find popularity in the gardens of those individuals who like to have an early blooming shrub as a cheering promise to winter-weary people, that \"spring is just around the corner.\" Named and registered September 18, 1963. Tilia cordata 'Swedish Upright' The Littleleaf Linden, Tilia cordata, is an excellent tree especially for city conditions. It seems to grow better in trying situations than most other trees. Young plants may be dense and compact, but as trees of this species mature, they grow broader at the base, taking on a tightly pyramidal form. The tree now named 'Swedish Upright' by the Arnold Arboretum is defimtely columnar in habit, and so worthy of special recognition. In 1906 Alfred Rehder was in Europe, visiting botanical gardens and herbaria in his search for information to complete his Bradley Bibliography and it was probably while he was in Sweden that he saw a columnar Littleleaf Linden. Scions from this tree were later sent to the Arnold Arboretum and were grafted. One of these, now a tree on Peter's Hill in the Arnold Arboretum, is 35~ tall, but with a spread of only 5'. What is most important, however, and this can be seen on a close examination of the picture, is the fact that the lateral branches are at right angles to the trunk, more or less regularly produced, while the lower branches dip gracefully toward the ground. This narrowly upright habit, and especially the short side branches, some of which droop gracefully at the base, are what make this tree outstanding among the Lindens. Named and registered by the Arnold Arboretum on September 18, 1963. , Other New Plants Recently Registered at In addition to the 26 tum plants briefly noted as registered 5, May 31, 1963) are the following: directly from registration applications). 23 : (Arnoldia (quotations the Arnold Arboreare taken 11~ lil%a cordata 'Swedish Upright' PLATE VIII on Peter's Hill in the Arnold Arboretum. Acer as the originator of this clone and A. McGill & Son of Fairview, Oregon, is the introducer, in 1963. It was first observed in 1959 as a one-year seedling, has \"a distinct dark green leaf with heavy characteristics. Very straight and vigorous growth in the nursery and older trees seem inclined toward upright branching.\" Registration received September platanoides 'Emerald Queen' John H. '.l~clntyre of Gresham, Oregon, is noted 5, 1963. sempervirens 'Belleville' \"The original plant, now 7'4\" tall by 8'6\" in diameter, has maintained a dense globular shape. The young foliage is blue-green, later changing to a rich medium green which it maintains throughout the winter. The foliage is remarkably resistant to winter injury. Seven-year-old plants, though completely exposed, showed no damage after the severe winter of962-63, in contrast to all other box. Perfectly hardy at Belleville, Illinois, and at Kennett Square, Pa.\" Dr. R. J. Seibert of Longwood Gardens, Kennett Square, Pennsylvania, named it, but the original plant was obtained by Mrs. Erwin V'. Seibert from the late Mr. Nick Bassler, a nurseryman near Belleville, Illinois, in 1931. The plant is still growing one-half mile south of Scott Air Force Base on Route 2, Belleville, Illinois. Registration received August 21, 1963. Buxus Chaenomeles 'Cherry Red' Unknown as to origin, this plant will be introduced by the Inter-State Nurseries, Inc., of Hamburg, Iowa, in the spring of 1966. \"This variety has been grown at Hamburg for at least ~0 years. We have many varieties of quince here and this 'Cherry Red' is entirely distinct from any we have here or any we have seen at other places. The bloom is a bright cherry red, almost a flame color. The plant is somewhat upright but spreading at the top as it gets older. It has very fine foliage, practically to the ground. It is almost thornless and blooms regularly. It proves entirely hardy here.\" So writes Mr. F. R. Sjulin of the Inter-State Nurseries, Inc., Hamburg, Iowa, on the Registration form dated August 12, 1963. Malus `Garry' was formerly referred to as \"M.R. ~453\" by the Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, Experimental Farm at Morden, Manitoba, where it originated and first flowered as a seedling in 1935. The female parent was M. pumila nied:wetzkJana and the male parent was probably DT. baccata. It is noted by Mr. W. A. Cumming, Head of the Ornamental Section at the Morden Experimental Farm as being of \"upright habit, slender circling branches and with persistent small bright red fruits,\" otherwise it has the general flower characteristics of the other so-called \"Rosybloom\" crab apples. It was introduced by the station in 1962. Registration received May 18, 1963. This 116 -] PLATE IX Original plant of Metasequoia glyptostroboidea `~ational~ U.S. National Arboretum in Washington, D.C. shown growing at the Malus 'Selkirk' Another of the \"Rosybloom\" crab apples originating at the Morden Experimental Farm of the Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, and first flowering in 1939, this was introduced in 196`?. It was formerly numbered \"M. R. 4~ i .\" Seed was taken from a tree of 11Z. baccala and was apparently the result of a cross with M. pumila nied~rz~efskJanv. It is a \"strong growing, rounded tree; bright rose, flat-faced flowers, mostly clustered at the ends of the branches giving a garlanded effect; bright scarlet fruits in early August.\" Registration received May 13, 1963. Metasequoia glyptostroboides 'National' A selection from many tum. seedlings ington, D.C., from seed collected grown by the National Arboretum in Washin China and distributed by the Arnold Arbore- This was first observed m 19.i8 as differing from nearly ?00 other seedlings, being \"one of several narrow-pyramidal and compact types. In all other respects this cultivar is similar to other fast-growing seedlings of this species.\" Registration received June 5, 1963. Philadelphus A cross `Audrep' grand~orus the Canada and P. lemoinei, this was originated and first Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, Experimental Farm at Morden, Manitoba. \"It is hardy in the southern part of Zone ? and is registered because of its upright, compact habit, floriferousness and hardiness.\" Registration received May 13, 1963. between P. introduced (1962) by Philadelphus 'Marjorie' The Canada Department of Agriculture, Research Branch, Experimental Farm at Dlorden, Manitoba, introduced this seedling in 1962. It first flowered in 1942 and is a seedling of P. grand~oru.s with P. leuisii listed as the pollen parent. It is listed as perfectly hardy in the southern part of Zone 2, with \"arching branches and floriferousness.\" Registration received May 13, 1963. DONALD WYMAN 118 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fruiting of Yews","article_sequence":11,"start_page":119,"end_page":122,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24385","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eaf6d.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harv ard University VOLUME 23 NOVEMBER 29, 1963 FRUITING OF YEWS NUMBER ~O YEWS generally staminate pistillate are dioecious but a occasionally certain subject. boretum and To initiate such were flowers. Unfortunately little is study, all the yew plants growing plants will bear both published on this in the Arnold Ar- fall, together with many in the Secrest Arboretum of the Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station at Wooster, Ohio. It is carefully observed this not very difficult to differentiate between the male and female flower buds at this time of year. The following, then, is a record of how these individual plants w ~I1 flower in 196L. It is hoped that these same plants will be rechecked several times . of determiningwhether any change their sex. The numerals appearing after certain plants in this list are the Arnold Arboretum accession numbers for those plants now growing in the Arboretum collections or nurseries. Those without record numbers were observed in the Secrest Arboretum. Most of the varieties in the Arnold Arboretum were also observed in the Secrest Arboretum and in most cases the sex of the plants was identical. Of course, when yews are grown from seed, seedlings of both sexes result. When propagated asexually by cuttings, the cuttings should be of the same sex as the parent plant. It is unfortunate that in the past many commercial growers have raised seedlings from clones and then applied the same clonal name to the seedlings. This has resulted in much confusion and undoubtedly it is the reason why some clones are now showing some sexual var~ance. We welcome correspondence with those who have information differing from that listed here, as well as with those individuals who may have kept annual notes on individual plant bloom. With some 1~?0 different yews being offered by American nurserymen and with new ones being named each year, the nomenclature is considerably confused and in many cases the same plant is being offered under several different names. This list will be of value to the amateur gardener since both male and female clones are necessary if the female plants are to produce fruit. as a means in the future 119 Sexes of Taxus Clones All tum or plants have been observed in October 1963, either in the Arnold Arborein the Secrest Arboretum. The record numbers refer to the plants in the Arnold Arboretum. (f=female or fruiting; m=male ~ - or pollen bearing.) 1 7 399 B f Taxus baccata ~?89Z f 1315-30 f 543-32 f 'Variegata' var. - 1329 f 336-3~ f 935-34 f - - - -- - - 370-35 A, Bf 3 7 1-3~ f f 372-35 D, E f `l91-44 26-39 B, C m 'Adpressa' 18 7 z5 B, C f 764-58 f Stncta' 694-36 B 'Adpressa 'Aurea' 13393 f - - - 546-32 f canadensis `Str~cta' 898-36 f chinensis 654-39 m cuspidata13470Bf 1 7 404 A, C, F., F, G m 17404 D f 1765?A, B 20374 m ~~087 f 393-43 f 254-55 f 526-59 m m m m - - - - - - - Cheshuntensis' 801-37 m ` Columnar~s' 8?0-58 m 'Dovastoniana' 530-32 f 2672 B - - - 'Elegantissima' 'Erecta' f 806-37f 1 1331 B m 1174-50 1048-.i3 m m 'Aristocrat' 'Aurescens' f B4-.5~ f 10334 m - - - - 681-33 f - - 768-33 - m - - `Ericoides' 11 14-38 f -- - f i 25--tf 'Bobbink' f 'Bulkii' 7 4-59 m 'Columnaris' 40-52 'Densa' SzlB f ~714 A, C expansa 1339? m m f 'Linearis' 1197-~8 B - - `Lutea'1030-38 f - m - - 973-49 f l~ss-5z f - - - - - 'Mioun' 1081-59 m m - - 7`?7-41A, B m 'Intermedia' 25-52 m 'Jeffrey's Pyramidal' 1 7 'Nana' 5`?17 m 5`?17-1 C f 21260 A, C f 22466 f 7968 A, B m 3-58 f - - - - - - 'Neidpathensis' 1031-38 `I~i~ra' 16~.00 m ` Uverev nderi' 365-41 m 'Pendula' 11 1`?-`18 m. m - - 816-56 - - - 'Nana Compacta' 397-58 'Repandens' 3560 f 5z19 f 1113-28 f - Af 397-58 B m 529-59 m m `Pay ne's Spreading' - - - - stricta `?09-53 f - - 'Prostrata' 95 7-49 B, C, 'Robusta' 473-48 m D [1~0 PLATE X This excellent specimen of the Irish Yew the arboretum of the Agricultural School at (Ta.rus baceata stracta) was photographed in 1951. in Wageningen. Netherlands, Taxus cuspidata 'Thayerae' 1 76.53 C, E, G, H, I, J, L, NI,'~, T, U, AA, CC, DD, EE, FF, II f - 'Thompson' 1031-60 f X - hunnewelliana 1 i 6-1~? C f 10760 B m 17648 f 17644 B f 19110 f X - media 38-52 m 10762 B m 1126i m 1 i 6~.3 A, B m 17646 f 17647 B f X - - 'Adams'512-56 m X - - 'Andorra' 20-60 f X - - 'Amherst' m X - - 'Anderson' 30`?-38 A f 302-38 B m X - - 'Berrvhill' 414-;i8 f X -- - 'Brevicata' 31-52 A, B m - 'Halloran' 511-56 f 'Hatfieldii' 17648 A, B, C m 1i649 B, C m X - - 'Helleri' 1090-59 m X-X-X-X-X-- 'Henryi' 207-53 111-59 m m m 'Hetz' f 'Hetzalh' f, (both at Se- crest) X - - 'Hicksii' 8036 A, D f 10711m 31 i-33 B f `Hillii' 22-60 m ;c X - - 'Hiti' 759-58 m X`Hoo~endorn' f -- ' X-X-- 'Hoytii' 'Hummeri' 99-60 m 108-59 m X - - `Kallay' 172-58(2 pl. f and 2 pl. m) X - - 'Kelseyi' 555-37 B f X - - 'Kelsey's Upright' 468-48 f X-X-- X-`C - X - X-X-X X X X X X X X ------ ---- 'Brownii' m 'Brownhelm' f 'Cedar Hill' 991-49 m 'Chadwick' 1 ~ i 9-60 f 'Cliftonii' 69-50 f 105-59 f `Lodi' `Dloon' m `Microphylla' X-X-`l - - 934-39 f 36-52 f m 'Natorp' f 'Newport' 1014-55 469-63 f 35-52 f 466-48 m X - - 'Ovata' X-X-m 'Cole' f f 'Compacta' 'Costich' 27-60 m `Dens~formis' 210-53 m 'Devermannii' 366-56 f `Donewell' f 'Drulia' f 'Dutweiler' 735-36 A, B 30-52 f 939-55 m 'Pilaris' 'Pilaris Grandiflora' 471-48 X -- X-m X-~ 'Erecta' 766-60 (pl. m; X X X X X -- - `Sebian' 26-60 m 'Sentinalis' 468-48 f - ` Stovekenm' 39-52 m - 'Stricta Viridis' 4 i 0-48 - 'Taunton' 990-49 m - 'Totem' f -- var. m 36-5? f pls, f) 497-52 m m >< - X-- 'Fastigiata' 'Flemer' f X-X-- 'Flushing' 'Green 500-60 f Mountain' 709-60 X-X - - 'Ward' 692-42 A, B f 28-52 f 1049-53 f 'Vermeulen' 864-59 f (Note: both male and female flower buds were observed on the same )C - - 'Wilsonii' 652-61 m plant) 122 DONALD WYMAN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Trunks","article_sequence":12,"start_page":123,"end_page":130,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24394","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24e8928.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 23 DECEMBER ~S, 1963 TREE TRUNKS NL:MBERS 11-~z THIS -M- beauty is the time of year when the trunks of certain trees have a prominent all their own. Although we plant trees for many purposes, we ap- most during the five months of the when deciduous trees are leafless. Their outline and branching habits, as year well as the color, texture and form of the trunks, are their outstanding ornamental assets in winter and many are selected for plantmg with these factors prrmarrlv in mind. The twenty-eight shown in this issue of .~rnoldia are not necessarily the best but each has a distinctive character, which frequently becomes more apparent as the tree matures. The Eucalyptus is, of course, a native of Australia. Castanea sativa, Quercus suber and Taxus baccafa are native of Europe..4cer davidii, .4. griseum, A. triflorum, Broussonetia paPyrqf'era, Eucom7nia ulmoides, Lagerstroemia indica, Pinus bungeana, Prunus serrula, Quercus variabilis and Stewartia koreana are natives of western Asia. The remaming fourteen illustrated are natives of North preciate the ornamental value of the trunks America. There are many other trees, the trunks of which are outstanding in winter. Among the most striking are: .9cer pensylvanicum (Striped Maple), Betula papyrifera (Canoe Birch), Cladrastis lutea (Yellow-wood), Parrotia persica (Persian Parrotia), Phellodendron amurense (Amur Cork Tree), Pinus sylvestris (Scotch Pine), Platanus species (Plane Trees), Populus tremuloides (Trembling Aspen), Prunus species (Cherries), Sorbus aln~f'olia (Korean Mountain-ash), 'Syringa amurensis japonica (Japanese Tree Lilac) and l7lmu.s parv~'olia (Chinese Elm). Though certain of the trees illustrated here are not hardy in the northeastern part of the United States, most of them will be recognized quickly by individuals who have studied trees and their characteristics. The photographs were taken either by Mr. Heman Howard of the Arboretum staff, or by the author. DONALD WYMAN 123 ~-~_ - ----- PLATE XI (Upper left) Prunus serrula. (Upper right) Acer triflorum-Threeflower Maple. (Lower left) Pinus bmageana-Lace-bark Pine on the old Sargent estate, Brookline, Mass. (Lower right) .lnglans nigra-Black Walnut at Williamsburg, Va., 200 vears old. PLATE XII (Upper left) Carpi~ares caroliniana-American Hornbeam. (Upper right) Diospyros z~irgi~aiana-Common Persimmon. (Lower left) Liriodendron tulipifera-Tulip Tree, James River, Va , 400 years old. (Lower right) Betula nigra-River Birch. PLATE XIII Not completely hardy in the northeastern United States. (Upper left) Acer dacidii-Uavid Maple. (Upper right) Lagerstroemia indica -Crape-myrtle. (Lower left) Chamaeeyparis laxasoniana-Lawson False Cypress. (Lower right) Tiron~sonetda pupyrifera-Common Yaper-mulberry, Williamsburg, Va. PLATE XIV (Upper left) ~~luereus v~aria6ilis-Oriental Oak. (Upper right) Tuconnmia ulmoides. (Lower left) SLe2carGia korea~a-Iiorean Stewartia. (Lower right) Betula populifolia-GraS Bireh. PLATE XV Not completely hardy in the northeastern United States. (Upper left) Ta.rus bacnata-English Yew, Williamsburg, Va., over 200 years old. (Upper right) Caatauea aatira-European Chestnut, lioyal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. (Lower left) Sequoiadendron giganteuna-The General Sherman Tree, Sequoia National Park, Calif. (Lower right) ~eyuoia aey~ervirens-Hedwood, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England. PLATE XVI (Upper left) Carya ovata-Shagbark hickory. (Upper right) Acvr grisevcmPaperbark Maple. (Lower left) Ostryavirginiana-Hop Hornbeam. (Lowerright hag~~s grauclifolia-American Beech. PLATE XVII (Upper left) l;uvctlyptus gunnii-Loch Fyne, Scotland. (Upper right) Abies prorwrn-Noble Fir, Loch Fyne, Scotland. (Lower left) I'iuus pwmleroso-Ponderosa Pine. (Lower right) ~~uvrrus suLer-Cork Oak, Cornwall, England. Eucalyptus and Cork Oak are not hardy in the northeastern United States.) (The "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXIII","article_sequence":13,"start_page":131,"end_page":135,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24387","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24eb36b.jpg","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXIII Illustrations Abies procera, Plate are in bold face type XVII, 130 Ceanothus, 83 Chaenomeles X californica, 50 - Acacia - International Registration Authority, 87 Acer davidii, I ~3 ; Plate XIII, 1 ?6 griseum, 1~8; Plate XVI, 129 - X - group, 50-53 cathayensis, 27 - - group, li - - - pensylvanicum, platanoides 'Emerald fl,ueen',1 + triflorum, 128; Plate XI, 1?~. Andromeda axillaris, 94, 95 113 - - X clarkiana, ~ - 58 16 6 - 3 group, 53 Cultivars in the -, - catesbae~, 94 serratifoha, 94 Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural i Foundation, 77 International Registration Begonia - Genus, l i-i~ Cultivars listed According to Color -, Class : White, 69 ; ~'hite-and-Pmk, 69; Pink, 70-72; Orange,72; Red, 73-75 -, Cultivars of Undetermined or - i Authority, 87 semperflorens - International Registration Authority, 87 Betula nigra, Plate XII, I?.~ populifolia, Plate XIV, 1`1i - Species Hybrid Group, 65-68 International Registration Authority, 87 -- japonica, 28 - - group, ZS-~0 var. var. - - Broussonetia papyrifera, 1?3; - - alpma, ZS japonica, 28 pygmaea, 19 Plate XIII, 126 Buxus microphylla koreana - - var. `V'mter- -, List 19-2~ of all known Cultivar 30 '.Vames, green', 88 6 - sempervirens `Belleville', 116 `Borthern Fmd', 8; California Lilac, 83 Callistephus - International Registration Authority, 87 i Callunas grown at Chatham, Dlass., 31, Cultivars, 105, 106 Camellia - International Registration i Authority, 87 Carpinus caroliniana, Plate XII, 125 Carya ovata, Plate XVI, 119 Castanea sativa, 123; Plate XV, I ?8 8 Cathayensis Hybrids, 18 -- - speciosa, - -X - group, 30-50 superba, 53 group, :i~-6~ vilmorimana, 6~. - u ,~ - - X - group, 64, 65 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, l'late XIII, 1 ~?6 Chrysanthemum - International Registration Authority, 87 i Cladrastis lutea 'Rosea', 88 Close-up of flowers, Hamamelis intermedia, 'Arnold Promise', Plate 131 VII, 118 Copeland, Harold ~V., 106 Cornus - International Registration i Authority, 87 - florida 'Apple Blossom', 88 - - - - - 'Cherokee Chief', 89 'Cherokee Princess', 89 'Cloud 9', 89 'De Kalb Red', 89 Gladiolus - International Registration Authority, 8 i Gleditsia - International Registration i Authority, 8 Ground Cover Demonstration Plots, Results of Trials in, 9 Ground Cover Plants in Demonstration Plots - 167 plants listed according to row and plot number, 10-14 - - `Spring Song', 89 'Sweetwater Red', 89 Cyclamen - International Registration i Authority, 87 i Cydonia japonica, 17 R lagenaria, 1 - i ' Hamamelis intermedia 'Arnold 4 Promiae', 1 1 1 ; Plate V I, 1 1 _~ ;1 I Heath and Heather on Cape Cod, )08 Hebe - International Registration Authority, 87 -- sinensis, 18 Dahlia - International Registration i Authority, 87 International RegistraDelphinium tion Authonty, 87 i Dianthus - International Registration i Authonty, 87 Diospyros virginiana, Plate XII, 125 Electric Council of B'ew England, 1 Erica arborea alpina, 104, 105 - Hemerocallis - International Registration Authority, 87 i i Hemlock Arboretum, 101 Hibiscus - International Registration i Authority, 87 International IteystraHydrangea tion Authority, 8; Ilex - International Registration Authority, 8 ~ International Code of Botanical Ivo- carnea, 104-106 cinerea, menclature, 106 93 - 104, 106 - `c darleyensis, 104, watsonii, lOk, 10~, 106 - X 106 International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, 85 International Plant Registration, 8592 - vagans, Ericas grown at Chatham, Mass., species and varieties, 105, 106 1 R3 3~ International Registration Authorities 85 Eucalyptus, International Registration Authority, 19 - gunnii, Plate XVII, 130 Eucommia ulmoides, 1 23 ; Plate i XIV, 12 Euonymus fortunei 'Gold Tip', 89 Fagus - International Registration i Authority, 87 grandifolia, Plate XVI, 129 Forsythia -International Registration i :luthorrty, 8 Iris - International Registration i Authority, 87 Juglans nigra, Plate XI, 124 -- Lagerstroemia indica, 123 ; Plate XIII, 126 Leptospermum - International Registration Authority, 86 Leucothoe axillaris, 93, 94, 96; 131 Plate ~', opp. p. 97 --and L.fontanesiana-Differences between, 9 ~ catesbaei, 93, 95, 96 - editorum, 95 - fontanesiana, 93, 94 ; Plate IV, opp. p. 94; Plate V, opp. p. 97 - i Authority, 87 ~. Recently Registered, 114 Registered, I II Orchidaceae - International Registration .-luthor~tc, 8; Ostrya virginiana, Plate XVI, 129 New Plants New Plants Parrotia persica, 123 Phellodendron amurense, 128 'Angusta', 90 'Angustata', 99 cultivars, 99 'Folia Multicolor', 99 `G~rard's Rainbow', 97, 99 -- - Philadelphus - International Registration Authority, 87 - - - 'Audrey', 'Marjorie', 118 8 118 8 - - - - - - - - - - - 'Nana', 99 `Rainbow', 99 `Rollissonn', 99 `Trar', 97, 99 Registration i Authority, 87 - japonica 'Compact', 911 `Dorothy W yckoff', 91 - Pieris - International Lilac Varieties, 80 \"Lilacs for America\", 77 i Lilium - International Registration Authority, 8; Liriodendron tulipifera, Plate XII, 125 'Flamingo', 911 'Whitecaps', 91J `White Cascade', 101 - - 911 Pike, Radcliffe, Pin Oak, Plate II, 4 Pinus bungeana, 123; Plate - XI, 130 12~. :~Iagnolm - International Registration Authority, 8 ~ Malus baccata - ponderosa, Plate X~'II, - sylvestns, 123 3 `Snowdrift', 87 i 90 'Garry', Authority, 116 - International Registration Platanus species, 123 Populus - International .~luthor~t~-, 87 Registration Populus tremuloides, - 128 -- - - `Radiant', 90 8 `Selkirk', 118 baccata 'Snowdrift', 'Vanguard', 90 90 Pruning - Girdling Root, 109 Hedges, Screens and Wind- 90 - breaks, 109, 110 How to Prune, 109,1 o 10 - `V6'hite Angel', - Map of Case Estates, Plate III, tion 8 Matthiola - International Registra- - Authority, 8a - Metasequoia glyptostroboides 8 'National', Plate IX, 1 1 i ; 1 18 Narcissus - International Registration Authority, 87 i National Registration Authority, 87 Nerine - International Registration - Ornamental Shrubs and Trees, o 107-110 Rejuvenate Old Shrubs, 109, 110 What to Prune, 108 When to Prune, 107 4 Prunus serrula, 123 ; Plate XI, 1 ~?4 - species, 123 I - Pseudotsuga menziesii i Pyrus japonica, 17 8 maulei, 18 'Marshall', 92 133 Quercus suber, 123; Plate XV I I,180 i variabilis, 123; Plate XIV, 127 Rhododendron - International Regis- tration i Authority, 8 Rosa - International Authority, 87 Registration 101 -- `Frank Patterson', 811 -- `Geraldine Smith', 811 'Helen Palagge', 811 'Helen Schloen', 811 'Ingwersen's Dwarf', - 811 'Inez', - i 81 Sargent V~'eepm~; Hemlock, Secrest Arboretum, 119 - International Reg~strat~on 81 1 Sequoiadendron giganteum, Plate - X~', Sorbus 127 1 ?8 1 28 - Sequoia sempervirens, Plate XV, - i Authority, 87 'J. Herbert Alexander', 'J. R. Koning', 81 'Jack Smith', 811 alnifol~a, 123 - `Jane', i 81 Stewartia koreana, 123; Plate XIV, Street Trees, Trial Plot for, I : Plate 1, Syringa cultivars - `Addie V. Hallock', 80 'Alice Stofer', 80 3 - 'Aladdin', amurensis 80 Jones', 81i 'Jimmy Howarth', 81I 'John's Favorite', 811 1 'John of Monmouth', 81 'Ken Berdeen', 811 -, Key to the List of Originators,78 - `Lavender Lady', 81I - `Lewis Maddock' 811 C. - -- ` Jennie - - - - - - japomca, 'Anna Amhoff', 80 'Anna Nickles', 80 80 80 80 123 - `Louvain' 81 1 1 81 - `Vladame Rosel', - 'Berdeen's Chocolate' 80 'Bertha Phair', - - `Dlargaret Opper', - `Martme', 82 'Mary Blanchard', - 8? 81 - - 'Betty Opper' 'Betty Stone', 'Bloemenlust', - 80 80 - 'Burgemeester Loggers'. - - `Carolme Foley' 80 - `Cora Lyden' 80 - - - `Chris',' 80 - `Daphne', - - 80 81 - 'Directeur Doorenbos', - `l)irector General Van Plassche' 81i - - Der - - - 'Doctor Brethour', R1 'Doctor Chadwck', 81I 'Edgar T. Robinson', 81 - 'Maud Notcutt', 82 `~Iauve Jlist', 8?> `Maybelle Farnum', S2 `~liss Kim', 82 3 'Mountain Haze', 8 'Mount Baker', 8`I `Jlrs. Fannie W. Heath', 82 'Mrs. Harry Bickle', 82#& x3E; `Mrs. Robert :11. Gardner', 82 'Nellie Marie', 8?#& x3E; 'Nellie Bean', 8`I 'Nina Baker', 8? - `N~obe', 82 - - 'Esta', 8~ - Nurseries offering, 79-80 'Oake's Double White', 82 - 'Fantasy', 81 81 - - Florence Christine', - `Naulme Beck', 82 'President E~senhower', 82 134 Syringa cultivars - 'Pink Bluet', - 82 - - 2 'Pinkinsun', 8 `Pinl~~e', 82 'Purple Gem', 82 - 'Robert Dunham', 8-2 - 'Romance', 82 8 2 Trunks, 123-130 \"Trees in Your Community\", I, 2 Trees, Street, Trial Plot - 108 trees listed according to row and number in plot, 2-7 Tsuga canadensis and its variants, 100-102 - Tree - Rowancroft Pmh', - 'Royalty', 83 -- `St. Joan', 81 - ` Samt Margaret', 82 - `Sierra Blue', 83 - `Snow White', 83 - - atrovirens, compacta, 101 i 101 i 101 1 - - fastigiata, - - - - 2 'Greenspray', 9 'Rockland', 9z - `Sobra', 83 - ` Spring Dawn', - `Spring Glory', - - - macrophylla, 101 i 83 83 - - 'Pendula', 101 Supplementary Registration List, i i-83 'The Bride', 83 'Tom Taylor', 83 3 'Two Star General', 83 'Voorzitter Buskermolen', - - - 83 - - ` W.T.I,ee', 83 'Westend', 83 'White Surprise', - - 83 128 Tul~pa -Internat~onal Registration i Author~ty, 8 Ulmus - International Registration i Authority, 87 parvifolia, 12,i i Unsatisfactory Ground Covers - 87 plants wh~ch have proved unsatis+ factory, 11 Viburnum - International Registration Authority, 8? I - Taxus - baccata, 123 ; Plate XV, stricta, Plate X, 12li sexes - Clones, of, 120-I 1 ~ -, fruiting of, T~l~a cordata - 119-1 2lx&# 3E; 92 Wister, John C., 8;3 9 Yews, fruitmg of,1 19 Yews in Arnold Arboretum, - in Secrest Arboretum, 1 - 120-122 20-122 'Greenspire', Upright', 'Swedish I 15 j I1-t; Plate ~?28, listed alphabetically according to sex, I 20-1 1n VIII, 1 e'3J "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23398","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eaf28.jpg","title":"1963-23","volume":23,"issue_number":null,"year":1963,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Majestic Beeches","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24381","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ea726.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR I~TFORD~ATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 22 MARCH 16, 1962 THE MAJESTIC BEECHES NUMBER I beeches are among the most majestic of our ornamental shade trees. need space in which to grow - plenty of space, for with room all about them their beautiful outlines are truly superb. As a group they are tall, often wide-spreading trees. They are fibrous rooted so that their feeding roots are very close to the soil surface, hence it is difficult or impossible to get good growth from other plants beneath the spread of their branches. Actually, they are set off to best advantage if their branches are allowed to sweep the ground on all sides, and this is especially true of the pendulous branched forms. There are about eight species hardy in the eastern United States. Three of these native of China (F. engleriana, lucida, longipetiolafa), two native of Japan (F. crenata, japonica) and one native of eastern Europe and Asia Minor (F. orientalis) have little to offer as ornamentals when compared with the two commonly grown species F. grand~'olia and F. sylvatica. As a rule the American Beech is an upright growing tree, considerably taller than it is wide. On the other hand, the European Beech and many of its varieties are almost as wide-spreading as they are tall. They both have gray bark, that of the American Beech being considerably lighter. Both can be sheared and used in hedges tall or small. The most famous of these hedges, made of the English Beech, is one near Stobehill Castle in Scotland. Planted in 1 i 46, this hedge\" is now 85 feet tall and still in pretty good condition. The two species should not be confused as their leaves are quite distinct. The leaves of the European Beech are not as sharply toothed as those of the American Beech, and it does not sprout profusely from the base of the trunk as does the American Beech. There are no truly ornamental varieties of the American Beech but several of the European Beech. None of these, however, are suited for street tree planting because they are so large and each one needs plenty of space in which to grow properly. THE They Fagus - Recommended grandifolia Natme over a 90~ wide Zone 3 area Eastern North America American Beech of North America and an excellent ornamental, it does conditions. The light gray bark is outstanding and the city yellowish bronze autumn color is familiar to many. This species is differentiated from F. sylvatica in that the leaves have 9-14 pairs of veins and are markedly bristly or serrate all along the leaf margin, while the English Beech has only 5-9 pairs of veins and is only partially dentate along the leaf margins. The American Beech also suckers considerably more at the base. not do well under sylvatica 90~ Zone 4 Central and Southern Europe European Beech An excellent ornamental tree with several fine varieties. The bark is slightly darker gray than that of the American Beech. This is unquestionably one of the best of the large ornamental shade trees. Many beeches m Europe have grown to tremendous size, one reported in England to be 100 feet tall with a trunk girth of 21 feet. It has been known and appreciated as an ornamental for centuries, one of the reasons why so many good ornamental varieties have been discovered. this has fine-textured foliage with the leaves finely similar to those of var. 'Laciniata' except that sometimes they are almost linear. The common name of Fernleaf Beech accurately describes Its feathery sylvatica 'Asplenifolia' - divided, foliage and texture. in in sylvatica atropunicea-this beech has originated at several places possibly in this country also, accounting for the slight variation of leaves and cupren, even Europe foliage habit. It has been offered under the names of rinersii, sauguiziea and spaethiana, among others. It is unfortunate that some nurserymen grow Purple Beech from seed, selecting the best and giving them \"smtable\" names. It would be much better if they were propagated asexually so that only the best forms would be perpetuated. W. J. Bean reports that the Purple Beech is not of garden origin, has been observed growing naturally in at least three places. One of these was a location in Switzerland where it was noted as growing in 1680. There were three trees, the survivors of a group of five which, according to the legend, had sprung up after five brothers had killed themselves. Since this variety does come partially true from seed, it is no wonder that several variations have sprung up, some brighter or deeper purple than others.. color, shape alropurpurea, nigra, purpurea, sylvatica 'Cuprea' originated with George Loddegis in Great Britain about 1886, is actually a form of atropunicea with young foliage a lighter reddish bronze, giving rise to the common name Copper Beech. - z)] ~ ~ '\" 63 M -c M S to ~'~ ....t ., ~~ 5: to ~ sylvatica `Fastigiata' years ago, this is the Dawy-ck Beech, originating in Scotland nearly fifty definitely fastigiate in habit - one of the best trees with this - general habit. this Cutleaf European Beech has narrow leaves often regularly lobed. It differs from the var. 'Asplenifolia' in deeply It grows into a wide-spreading, more regularly shaped leaves. having wide, beautiful specimen of fine texture. sylvatica 'Laciniata' - cut to almost the popular Weeping Beech, of which there are many exsylvatica 'Pendula' cellent specimens in this country and abroad, has several variations, some more - wide-spreading than others. Only the best of these forms should be propagated asexually. It makes its finest appearance where its branches can sweep the ground. sylvatica purpureo-pendula with pendulous branches and purple leaves - the Weepmg Purple leaves Beech. - sylvatica `Quercifolia' narrow with oak-like and irregularly toothed. foliage - the Oak-leaved Beech with sylvatica 'Rivers' is a purple-leaved form originating in the Enghsh nursery of Thomas Rivers before 1869, and has proved one of the most popular over the years. The young foliage is reddish but turns a deep purplish later and remains that color throughout the summer. The tree is densely compact and symmetrical -an excellent specimen. sylvatica 'Rohani' with purple leaves ciniata.' very similar in shape to those of var. 'La- sylvatica 'Roseo-marginata' purple leaves with an irregular light pink border. This tree, of course, lacks its full complement of chlorophyll; hence it is more difficult to grow than the others. In full sun the delicately colored leaf margin may burn to brown, so it should be grown in a slightly shaded situation. At best it can only be considered of interest while small. - sylvatica 'Rotundifolia' - the ftoundleaf Beech, originating in V~'ok~ng, England, about18 i `?, is one of the best of all these varieties. The leaves are rounded, only ~-1~ inches ~n diameter. The tree in the Arnold Arboretum has been growing since 1903 and is now 50 feet tall, with a branch spread of 42 feet. The branches are horizontal but turned upward at the end, making a dense, beautifully branched pyramidal tree. This particular tree has the trait of holding its leaf buds shut until nearly two weeks after those of all other F. sylrnfica varieties are fully open. This variety should be grown a great deal more than it is. 4] ea '3 <-< ~ S &< H ~s !i a_>~>. '2014< M w x sylvatica 'Spaethiana' is the most recent addition to this group of forms, originating in the Spaeth Nurseries of Germany a few years ago. The Dutch nurserymen offering this summer. entire for us form claim that it keeps its deep purple color throughout the The Arnold Arboretum has only one small plant, so it is too soon to say whether it makes an ornamental superior to the variety eltropunicea itself. the Arnold Arboretum flat top similar in general outline to that of Tsuga canadensis pendula. Because of its very slow growth and unique picturesque habit, there is not a great demand for this plant. sylvatica `Tortuosa'-the seventy-five-year-old tree in is 18 feet tall and about 36 feet in diameter with a Fagus - Not recommended crenata - branching is very open, not good for this reason. Tree in Arnold Arboretum is 2 feet in trunk diameter and 50 feet tall. no engleriana - better an ornamental than the native American Beech. in most grand;f'olia caroliniana - similar grand;f'olia pxbescens japonica an respects to species. similar in most respects to species. of Betula lenta. upright branched tree, with leaves the same size and shape as those Nothing especially unusual about it. no longipetiolnfa lucida - makes better than recommended species. a poor ornamental. orientalis ever, seems although fine specimen in the Arnold Arboretum with a 2~ foot trunk. Howthe leaves are slightly larger than those of Fagus sylvatica it to be more open and has no greater ornamental value. a sieboldii - synonym for F. crenata. sylvatica atropurpurea - synonym for F. sylvatica atropunicea. s;rylaatica albo variegata sylvatica 'Cristata' somewhat curled an or poor foliage. variety, slow growing, leaves clustered and unattractive contorted. sylvatica crispa - synonym for F. sylvatica 'Cristata.' in sylvatica dentata - received by the Arnold Arboretum from Holland tree of this name 1903, but it turned out to be F. sylvatica 'Laciniata.' a sylvatica grandidentata Arboretum smce has been growing in the Arnold 1912. sylvatica heterophylla - synonym for F. sylvatica 'Laciniata.' sylvatica incisa - synonym for F. s,ylvatica 'Laciniata.' large, nearly entire ; actually foliage. no sylvatica `Latifolia' - leaves broad and ornamental than the species. better an sylvatica 'Luteo-variegata' - poor colored sylvatica ~nacrophylla sylvatica nigra sylvatica synonym for F. sylvatica 'Latifolia.' synonym for F. sylvatica atropunicea. purpurea - synonym for F. sylvatica atropunicea. sylvatica - 'Quercoides' - differs sylvatica sanguinea - little from recommended varieties. differs little from recommended varieties. sylvatica 'Tricolor' - leaves with white variegations, pink margin. This does not look well except possibly for a short time in the spring when the leaves unfold. In the full sun, the leaves tend to burn and turn brown, especially along the pink margin. If grown at all it should be planted in partial shade. DONALD WYMAN 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Program of the Arnold Arboretum, 1962","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24375","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270816d.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"~962 Spring ~~~rog~ravv~ of the ' Arnold Arboretum FIELD CLASSES Spring Field Class in Ornamental Plants Arnold Arboretum ministration at Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman Jamaica Plain. The class will meet in front of the Ad- Building (inside the Jamaica Plain Gate) at 10 A.M. for a two-hour period. Dr. Donald Wyman will lead the class in a study of the trees and shrubs growing in the Arboretum, as they come into flower. In case of rain the meetings will be held indoors. Five meetings. Field Friday mornings, 10:00-12:00, April 27-May ~~. Fee ~~?.00 Botany I Instructor: Mr. Peter Green Case Estates at Weston. The class will meet by the large barn at 185 V~'ellesin Weston at 2 P.M, for a two-hour period. Mr. Peter Green of the Arnold Arboretum staff will conduct the classes in a study of the cultivated and native plant materials growing on this hundred-acre tract. The group will meet rain or shine. ley Street Five meetings. Tuesday afternoons, 2:00-4:00, May 8-June 5. Fee $2.00 Registration for the two field classes should be made in advance by mail or by phone. Applications should be addressed to Mrs. T. P. Walsh, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. OPEN Case Estates in Weston HOUSE Sunday, May 13th Staff members of the Arnold Arboretum will be about the grounds from 10 A. M. until 5 P. M. to explain the plantings and to answer questions pertaining to them. The Shrub and Perennial Garden, Ground Cover Plots, Small Ornamental Tree Plots, native wooded areas and experimental plantings are all worthy of a v~s~t at this time of year. OPEN Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain HOUSE Sunday, May 20th Lilac Sunday is the best time of year to see the thousands of trees and shrubs in the Arboretum when many are at the peak of their bloom. Of special interest will be the new Dana Greenhouses, the new Bonsai house and the surrounding plantings. Staff members will be on the grounds from 10 A. M. until 5 P. M. to discuss questions concerning the plants with those interested. Parking will be permitted along the Meadow Road, but no driving will be permitted through the grounds. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Barberries","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24370","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270b36d.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 \" . MARCH 30, 1962 NUMBER 2 ~\" i, BARBERRIES most nurserymen know, \"Quarantine 38\" and its numerous revisions govern the interstate shipment of barberries (as well as Nlnhonia and ll~Tahoberberis). In the fifth revision of the list of rust-resistant species and varieties (made July 15, 1959) some 64 barberry species and varieties were listed as being rustresistant, and not all these are worthy ornamentals. Only about two dozen of these were listed as being in the trade in the last issue of the Plant Buyer's Guide. Because of quarantine restrictions, it is useless to grow any of the barberries susceptible to the black stem rust disease. Rehder notes that there are 175 species in Europe, Central Asia, South America and a few in North America, so the Plant Quarantine #38 (and the susceptibility of certain barberries to the black stem rust of wheat) has done a lot to reduce the number of barberries it is possible to grow for sale and interstate shipment in the United States. Barberries are either deciduous or evergreen shrubs grown for their flowers, fruits, foliage and habit. Because most have thorns, they make excellent barrier plants and so are widely used in hedges. It should not be forgotten, however, that because of their other good characteristics they also make fine specimens. Certain types like B. 6~oreann and gilgiana are excellent substitutes for the rust-carrying 13. vulgaris. There are nineteen states where eradication programs are being carried out, A namely, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Kansas, Michigan, Minnesota, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Dakota, Virginia, Washington, West Virginia, ~'isconsin and V~'yoming. Each year more than 600 nurseries and dealers are inspected and issued certificates permitting interstate shipment of rust-free barberries. During the past few years very few susceptible plants have been found in these establishments. The principal problem is the hybrid or off-type bush resulting from impure seed. This is especially true in the eastern states where Berberis vulgaris is found in abundance. The U.S. Department of Agriculture is domg an excellent job in trying to eradicate all the rust-carrying barberries from all commercial growing sources in the United States. Less than 55,000 square miles of an original 1,064,084 remain infested or potentially infested with rust-spreadmg barberries in the nineteen states engaged in eradication. In states outside this area, the approved nurseries (some 600) and their environs have been cleared of all rust-susceptible plants as a part of eligibility for certification. Since all the rust-free barberries are not outstanding ornamentals, I will list only the 28 in the group which are. All others not mentioned should be considered for discarding. Actually, the barberries listed in Quarantine 38 include most of the best of the entire group. The Japanese barberry and its many excellent varieties are included, as well as some of the best of the evergreen types. It is a fortunate coincidence that this particular quarantine has worked out this way. The following, then, are the best of the rust-free barberries, and they are diversified enough to provide plenty of variation in height, hardiness, foliage, texture and color, as well as variations in fruit color and plant habit, to fill almost any landscape need. Recommended Berberis Barberry Deciduous, producing 10-~?0 flowers together in a panicle, fruit ~ inches long, egg-shaped, bright purple, apparently fruiting better when 3 to 4 plants are grown together. beanniana buxifolia 8~ Zone 6 W. China Bean's 9~ Zones 5-6 Chile An evergreen, native in the area about the Straits of yellow flowers and dark purple fruits. buxifolia nana-a Magellan Barberry Magellan, with orange calliantha dwarf compact form under 2 feet tall. Dwarf 3~ Zone 7 S. E. Tibet Magellan Barberry A low evergreen shrub with fruits slightly egg-shaped, blue-black in color and covered with a gray bloom, and very conspicuously grayish white beneath. candidula 2~ Zone 5 China Paleleaf A low evergreen shrub with of the spines. Purplish fruit. arching branches, leaves produced in the Barberry angles Barberry Xchenaultii An evergreen 4~ Zone 5 to be (verruculosaXgagnepainii) one Chenault of the best of the evergreen barberries in the Arnold Arboretum because of its vigorous growth and good condition of its foliage all winter long. Our older plants are still under four feet tall. The sparsely produced fruit is dark bluish. promising 10 ~] s s 0 x J .. ~ ., ~ wo 0 H~ p1 < v~ U ~) S .0 bL 5 C. G7 B _O w Himalayas Dainty Barberry Deciduous to half evergreen, not hardy in Boston. The leaves are white beneath and the red fruits are 2-~~nches long and solitary. This is recommended only because of its low habit; otherwise it is not especially outstanding. concinna 3r Zone 6 darwinii 6-lOr Zone 7 Chile A lustrous dark-leaved evergreen with racemes of 15-25 dish flowers in each raceme. The fruit is dark purple and the leaves areinches to I~ inches long. In England this is so popular it is considered one of the best of all the evergreen shrubs. Good as specimen or en masse. Barberry golden yellow to red- Darwin gagnepainii 6r Zone 5 '. China Black Barberry With evergreen leaves 1~-4 inches long, having spines on the margins. The fruit is black and covered with a grayish bloom. Not especially outstanding, but its foliage and habit provide variation in the winter. gilgiana -an lOr Zone 5 N. China Wildfire Barberry Deciduous shrub with pendulous clusters of yellow flowers and bright red fruits excellent substitute for Berberis nulgari.s. In the fall the foliage turns a vivid scarlet. This is superior to 13. circumserrala because of its longer clusters of flowers, and seems to be more dense than the Korean barberry. Wintergreen Barberry Evergreen, with a dense upright habit, this is more hardy and, I think, a better ornamental than B. sargenliann. It grows vigorously, has bluish-black fruits and spiny leaves up to 3 inches long. It is a taller growing shrub than B. chenaullii and has been widely used. julianae koreana 6r Zone 5 C. China Sr 5 Zone Korea Another excellent deciduous substitute for the old branches. This species has pendulous clusters of rounded fruits that remain on the plant a long time as well as a very deep red autumn color. This species and B. gilgiana are excellent deciduous barberries, making rt unnecessary to grow the e more common B. vulgaris which is susceptible to the black stem rust of wheat. linearifolia Barberry B. vulgaris with arching Korean l~r Zone 7 Chile Jasperbells Barberry A low evergreen with 3-7 orange to crimson flowers in a cluster. The fruit is dark blue to black. Recommended especially for its low size, but only for growing in the warmer parts of the country. Xlologenesis A natural 5r Zones 7-8 (darzcinTi X hnear;f'olin~ Lolog Barberry hybrid, intermediate betwean the parents but with flowers larger 12J .1 ~ . . w 4 i R) 1 u m t H^ SS s \" E~ ~ ~F o !~ -S 04 ~~ 0 ro ro a E c U N N F~ L W 0.) & ~ 'B itl than those of the Darwin Barberry. Comparatively new in America (it was found in 1917), it makes a splendid ornamental evergreen in the warmer parts of the country. Xmentorensis i~ Zone 5 (julianaeXthunbergii) Mentor Barberry Originated in 19`1~. by Dlr. Horvath of Mentor, Ohio. It is semi-evergreen and shows many characteristics of both parents. This is an excellent substitute for the more tender evergreen barberries in the North, for it has withstood temperatures as low as -~?0 F. in Ohio without injury. Then, too, it has a deservedly good reputation in the Midwest for withstanding hot, dry summers better than any other barberry. Our plant is now 7 feet tall and 1~? feet across. replicata -t~ Zone 7 S.E. China 1-2 Curlleaf inches Barberry borne m An evergreen with red to clusters of 8-3. purple-black fruits; leaves long xstenophylla 9~ Zone 6 (darwinii X e~npetr;f'olia) Rosemary Barberry Originating before1 H6~., this narrow-leaved evergreen now has many forms. It produces a wealth of golden yellow flowers in the spring, each about ~ inch in diameter. These are followed by black berries. It is especially valued south of Washington where it develops mto a very graceful specimen. It is often used in England in hedges, and in the Pacific Northwest. Some of the varieties, like gracilis, are actually dwarf, growing only 3-4 feet tall, while one named Nana Compacta' is only about I foot tall. thunbergii 7~ Zone 5 The most serviceable of all even though it is usually last throughout the winter and scarlet autumn color are all well known assets. Not so well known, perhaps, are some excellent varieties: specimen, which Japanese Barberry the barberries and an excellent hedge plant and common. Its excellent yellow flowers, red fruits Japan atropurpurea - with reddish leaves throughout the season. . atropurpurea 'Erecta' - discovered in the summer of 19~ I in a block of two-year seedlings in the Marshall Nurseries, Arlington, Nebraska. It is of upright habit, apparently a sport of B. thunbergii atropurpurea. atropurpurea 'Red Bird' - this was selected as a single plant from a block of B. thunbergii atropurpurea in the ~'~llis Nursery Co., Ottawa, Kansas, prior to 1959. A note by the introducer states that it is characterized by its brilliant color and dense habit of growth, being larger in size than 'Crimson Pygmy' and being typical of the standard B. thunbergii atropurpurea in general habit, but of a much better color. The leaves are larger than those of atropurpurea. 14 - b v C C C. C '\" .a > '\" G '\" N III > 6 O a~ III O p ro O C w '\" y M .9 .. !> ~ a~ CL. S C \/>I) J5 w ro 0 w '\" t>. o :> '\" F ~ .. t m 'Crimson Pygmy' - this plant originated in Holland prior to 1952 when we first obtained a specimen from V'ayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio. It is also being of 'Little Gem,' 'Little Beauty,' and B. thunbergii atrowell as 'Crimson Pygmy,' the last name being supposedly \"agreed upon\" by several nurserymen growing it. However, once a plant is distributed under one name, it is most difficult to rename it and expect everyone to follow suit, especially if the proper rules of nomenclature in naming new cultivars have not been followed in the first place. In any event, plants 8 years old are only 2 feet high and 3 feet broad. The foliage is red to reddish if grown in the full sun. The young foliage has a brighter red color when it first appears than does the mature foliage. This makes an excellent spot of color in the sunny foundation planting, or it can be well used as a most colorful low hedge. sold under the names purpurea nana as - thunbergii 'Erecta' - Plant patent #110, 1936 - Introduced by the Cole Nursery Company-, Painesville, Ohio, and now commonly grown in nurseries. Our 28year-old plant is5 feet tall, 10 feet across, yet all the branch lets are definitely upright. 'Globe' - this plant we received under the name of Berberis thunbergii nnna from the Hill Top Nurseries, Casstown, Ohio. It was patented August 4, 1936 (#l89) and called 'Globe' barberry. It is still offered by that nursery. Our plant is dense and globose in habit, 27inches tall and 4 feet in diameter. It is green-leaved, definitely not the small-leaved variety thunbergii minor. a minor - truly excellent plant with smaller in habit of more species. Dense and rounded B. leaves, flowers and fruits than the growth, it is in every way a miniature than it is. rs ~ 4 thunbergii across and should be used far 'Thornless' - feet and merely a novelty, without thorns. Our specimen globe-like a fine specimen. - feet tall, 6 'Variegata' chance (Plant patent 867 ; August 30, 1949) - originating before 194i as a seedling among 20,000 plants of B. thunbergii in the nurseries of Alex Toth, Madison, Ohio, this is unusual for its variegated foliage. The lea~es are predominantly green with spots, splotches or dots of white, light gray and yellow. Otherwise the flowers and fruits are similar to those of the species. 4r Zone 5 W. China verruculosa Warty Barberry Evergreen with spiny leaves, justly valued for its low, compact habit and its lustrous dark green leaves which are white on the under side. The black fruit is covered with a grayish bloom. , DONALD WYMAN 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Birches","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24377","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270856b.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~~ J APRIL 1~, 196~ NUMBER 3 THE BIRCHES birches have long been popular ornamental trees in America, chiefly in the northern United States and Canada. Several are native Americans, but many species have been introduced from Europe and Asia. In general, they are graceful trees, the most popular being those with white bark on trunks and larger branches. Some of the others are very serviceable, either because they will grow well in wet soil or because they will exist as well as any other trees, or better, in dry, poor so~ls. Many of the exotic species and varieties, although they may be interesting botanically, have little in addition to offer as ornamentals when compared with those recommended. In general, the birches are rather short-lived and are difficult to transplant, so that to insure success they should be balled and wrapped in burlap. They might best be moved in the spring. Arborists know that they are pers~stent \"bleeders,\" and that pruning is best done at almost any time of year except in the spring when the sap is running. Large branches seem to break readily under heavy coats of ice and snow, yet some, like the Gray Birch, have trunks that are extremely pliable. I have seen plants of this species 20-30 feet tall, covered with ice and bending down to, or touching, the ground. Yet the additional weight had come so gradually that after the ice had melted, the trunks eventually returned to their normal upright position. Most of the birches have bright yellow autumn color. The flowers are unisexual, with both male and female flowers on the same tree. The maturing of the catkins in the early spring and blown pollen in the air are two of the first signs of plant activity. Those familiar with the woods know that the birch is one of the few woods which will burn when it is \"living\" or \"green,\" making this tree a welcome source of fuel when the woodsman is in a hurry to start his campfire. Birches are susceptible to at least two serious insect pests which, if not properly controlled, can mar their effective use as ornamentals. The first is the bronze THE li ~J birch borer, a small, flat-headed grub about a half inch to an inch long which eats just under the bark and, if present in numbers, can kill the tree. Betula pendula is especially susceptible to this insect. I have seen mature trees in the Cleveland area which had to be removed because this insect had killed the tops of the specimens and done the damage before control measures were taken. Betula papyrifera is supposed to be much less susceptible to the inroads of this insect. The control, spraying with DDT or Dieldrin in late May and twice more at two-week intervals, is a chore which is sometimes overlooked. When this happens, and especially rf the tree is B. pendula and growing in poor soil, attacks from the insect may soon follow. The other insect which is most troublesome in New England, at least, is the birch leaf miner, a small insect which eats its way between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf. If and when this happens, there is little that can be done. The leaf is marred for the rest of the season. Spraying with Lindane and Malathion is effective, if done about the first of May and when followed at 10-day intervals with two additional sprays. The second brood of insects appears about July 1, when another spraying (followed by still another on July 10) should be given. With these hazards in mind, many a grower will not want to have a large number of birches. The list of fourteen here recommended is far too many for any one grower, but these are the better ones. Of those recommended, 13. papyr~era, pendula and populifolia and their varieties and platyphylla and its varieties have white bark. Those of us living in the northern United States and Canada have learned to appreciate the native Canoe Birch best of all. It does not have the graceful form or branching habits of B. pendula and its varieties, but when one has to consider the inroads of the bronze birch borer, it may well be that the Canoe Birch is the safer of the two species to plant. The Gray Birch is a men because does it have as clear a white bark as does the Canoe Birch. Betula platyplrylla is the Asiatic counterpart of the Canoe Birch in :lmerrca and the European Birch in Europe. Actually, it might be the first to eliminate from this short list of recommended wh~te-trunked much smaller tree and is valued it is not by landscape it grows in clumps, although nearly as tall, nor trees. The native American River Birch (B. nigra), the Sweet Birch (B. lenta) and the Dahurian Brrch of northeastern Asia are the other birch species recommended which do not have white bark, but nevertheless have ornamental values of their own. The River Birch is chiefly valued as a tree for wet soils-otherwise, it need not be used. The Sweet Birch is an excellent ornamental from the standpoint of foliage, general shape, and the vigor with which rt grows. The Dahurian Birch has an interesting bark formation, but if not deemed desirable, this might be another of these recommended species to omit. 1gJ Betula PLATE VI pendula tristis Although usually associated with northern plantings, both Betula nigra and B. pendula have been noted as doing well in California. The Yellow Birch (B. lutea) is native down the eastern coast into Florida. So this graceful, colorful group of trees does have merit over a wide area, the main point being that they do have problems of growth which should be thoroughly studied and understood before any number are grown or planted on a large scale. Birches Recommended davurica 60' Zone 4 Northeastern Asia Dahurian Birch Somewhat similar to the River Birch but, in the Arnold Arboretum at least, this is doing well on a dry, gravelly soil ; hence it can be used as a substitute for the River Birch in dry situations where that species will not grow. The bark is reddish brown, curling and exfoliating in regular pieces an inch or so square. lenta i ~~ Zone 3 Eastern United States Sweet Birch A densely pyramidal tree, maturity. The golden yellow at least while young, but rather round-topped at autumn color, its habit and its ability to grow in rugged terrain are its outstanding characteristics. The cherry-hke an bark is dark and interesting, and the bark of young twigs has lenta laciniata now aromatic flavor. of plants with living specimens is 90~ Zone 4 cut leaves have been unknown. found, but the whereabouts River Birch nigra Eastern United States A pyramidal tree w liile young, with reddish brown exfoliating bark. Typically found along stream beds and in lowlands where the roots can easily penetrate to water. In fact, the trees in nature often have their roots in water standing for several weeks in the spring, It is not a long-lived tree, often has poor crotches and need be considered only for use in wet soil situations where other trees might not do well. papyrifera 90~ 2 Zone Central and northeastern N. A. Canoe Birch This tree is familiar to everyone and is the most popular of all the birches for ornamental use. It is a larger-growing tree than the European White Birch, having a trunk which is larger and more clear of markings than most of its European relatives. It has proved itself less susceptible to disastrous attacks of the bronze birch borer; hence it has added merit as a valued ornamental. A number of botanical varieties have been named. Some are merely geographical varieties, but as far as I can tell, none is superior to the species as an ornamental tree. pendula A Europe and Asia Minor European Birch pyramidal, short-lived tree, very popular in Europe and planted profusely 60' Zone 2 - zo PLATE VII Betula Peiaduta fastigiata for many years here in America, as well. It is pyramidal in habit, with a whitebarked trunk and older branches and very graceful, slightly pendulous lateral branches. Formerly termed B. nerrucosa or B. alba, it will be found in many American catalogues still listed under the latter name. The lea~ es are smaller and more triangular than those of B. papJrifera and the bark is not as clear as that of our native Canoe Birch. It also is short-lived, although many beautiful trees of the species or one of its varieties can be seen. There are even some in southern California. Unfortunately, the bronze birch borer seems to attack this more frequently than it does other birches and many a tree, just as it reaches a good size, has been known to be attacked high on the trunk so that the top is completely killed, thus spoiling it as an ornamental specimen. pendula 'Fastigiata' - columnar, dense and beautiful while pendula 'Gracilis' - similar This is the to the young. variety `Tristis,' but with leaves deeply cut. popular Cutleaf European Birch, gracefully pendulous in habit. pendula 'Purpurea' - the Purple Birch, supposedly with purple leaves, but I have never seen a good specimen. pendula 'Tristis' - the Slender European Birch, with slender, pendulous branches and rounded, regular head. a , pendula 'Youngii' - Young's Birch, the tree with an irregularly branched habit, marked than those of the conspicuously pendulous branches being variety `Tristis.' more 60~ Zone 4 platyphylla japonica Japan This tree has an interesting pattern of ruffled white bark. platyphylla szechuanica 60' 5 Zone Western China The white bark peels off in paper-thin sheets. This is from the high mountains of extreme western China and is probably the best form of this species. It is like our native Canoe Birch but the twigs are a polished red-brown and the thick, blue-green leaves remain on longer in the fall than those of most other birches. The variety ka~rctschatica may be hardy as far north as Zone 2. populifolia grows in 30' 4 Zone Northeastern North America Gray Birch Commonly known, grown and planted, this is another short-lived birch which clumps, seldom appearing as a single-trunked tree. It is a plant for poor soils, with white bark spotted with blackish marks where branches have been and is popular for planting in small gardens where the taller-growing Canoe Birch would be out of place. Although it is short-lived, the trunk seems to have great 22 ~ resilience, often bending to the ground under burdens of snow and ice and then springing upright once the weight has been removed. In burned-over areas it is one of the first trees to reappear, especially on poor, rocky soils, and forms an excellent nursing cover for seedlings of more valuable timber trees. DONALD WYMAN ERRATA In the issue of March 30, 1962 (Arnoldia 2l: 16, the following should have been listed thus: 2) on barberries, pages 14 and thunbergii atropurpurea thunbergii atropurpurea 'Erecta' thunbergii atropurpurea 'Red Bird' ' thunbergii 'Crimson Pygmy' thunbergii 'Globe' thunbergii minor thunbergii 'Thornless' thunbergii 'Variegata' _ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Program of the Arnold Arboretum, 1962","article_sequence":5,"start_page":24,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24376","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d2708526.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":". ~ 962 Spring Z~iog~raw of t~ie Arnold Arboretum FIELD CLASSES Spring Field Class in Ornamental Plants Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman Arnold Arboretum at Jamaica Plain. The class will meet in front of the Administration Building (inside the Jamaica Plain Gate) at 10 A.M. for a two-hour period. Dr. Donald Wyman will lead the class in a study of the trees and shrubs growing in the Arboretum, as they come into flower. In case of rain the meetings will be held indoors. Five meetings. Field Friday mornings, 10:00-12:00, April 27-May 25. Fee $2.00 Botany I Instructor: Mr. Peter Green ley Street Case Estates at Weston. The class will meet by the large barn at 135 Wellesin Weston at 2 Y.M. for a two-hour period. Mr. Peter Green of the Arnold Arboretum staff will conduct the classes in a study of the cultivated and native plant materials growing on this hundred-acre tract. The group will meet rain or shine. Five meetings. Tuesday afternoons, 2:00-4:00, May 8-June 5. Fee $2.00 Registration for the two field classes should be made in advance by mail or by phone. Applications should be addressed to Mrs. T. P. Walsh, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hawthorns","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24372","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270b76b.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 22 APRIL 27, 1962 NUMBER 4 HAWTHORNS is really difficult for anyone who knows the hawthorns and their many troublesome pests to recommend them. They are mostly small trees, with white flowers, a few varieties have pink to red flowers, and usually red fruits. A large number of them are natives of North America, and most of these of course are the ones that have conspicuously red autumn color. They are dense in habit, mostly with vicious thorns, and so no one looks forward to the prospect of having to prune them. At one time, the Arnold Arboretum had over 500 species and varieties in its collection. They were a major interest of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, and he has written much about them. However, as time went on, and newer plants became available for ornamental planting and possibly newer insects became more numerous it became clearly evident that the majority in this great collection would not prove to be prime ornamental plants to be sought after for garden planting. Many botamsts have studied this group, making new species and regrouping old ones, so that names have been changed during the past fifty years. Many species show strikingly similar characteristics and are hard to tell apart one from the other. It is of interest to note that only 28 species and varieties of this great group of trees have been thought of sufficient ornamental value to be offered for sale currently by American nurserymen issuing catalogues. Of these 28, ten species and varieties have been listed by only one nursery so ~t ~s clear that there are not too many hawthorns popular today. Of course there are many of the native species that are practically identical ~f their use in the landscape ~s considered. Unquestionably some of the local native species are just as good m their areas as those species and varieties in the follow ing list. Here again, it is presumptuous for one individual to attempt to \"cut down\" the imposing list available in this country, but it is done rather relentlessly, to bring before American growers a few that might be designated out- IT standing. 25] Species and varieties doing well locally in the range of their habitat are naturally among the easiest to establish. Such plants, where they are used well and serve a purpose, should not be discarded. sheared and have been used in large clipped one example and has been widely used for this purpose in the past. Here again, however, hawthorns can not be recommended for this purpose in many areas because of serious pest problems. Fireblight takes its toll on many an old plant, some years more heavily than others. Juniper rust and hawthorn blight are other diseases often troublesome. Lace bug, mites, leaf miners, woolly hawthorn aphid, cottony maple scale, Lecanium scale, scurfy scale, leaf skeletonizers, tent caterpillars, western tussock moth, Japanese beetle, various borers - these are only some of those listed as Many of the species can be hedges. The Cockspur Thorn is troublesome to hawthorns. Then too, many are difficult to transplant, and certainly they are difficult to handle and propagate in the nursery. All these things considered, one should thmk several times before using hawthorns on a large scale. On the credit side, they will thrive in poor soils, they will grow almost equally well in alkaline and acid soils, they are dense in habit and often picturesque because of their wide-spreading and horizontal branches. They have colorful interest in the spring and fall and some of them retain their fruit all winter. If the foliage goes unmarred m the summer, many species present a glossy foliage that has merit in its own right. A close examination of the two dozen listed will show that there are some with unusually good red or pink flowers, others are outstanding for their habits of growth, still others have yellow to orange fruits. Even two dozen hawthorns seems too many of this questionable group but I felt that all unique forms should be included as well as some with red flowers and yellow fruits. Then too, some are listed because they are suitable for special areas about the country. If these things were not considered, I would list only six, namely, Crataegus crus-galli, lavallei, nitida, oxyacantha 'Paulii,' phaenopyru~n and succulenta. So, for those who care little for the group, these are the best six, and for those who see merit in them the list of twenty-six is one from which selections can be made. Hawthorns of Merit arnoldiana 39~ Zone 4 (Eastern North America) Arnold Hawthorn This is a handsome small tree with single white flowers about ~~~ in diameter and bright crimson fruit about ~ ~ long. This ripens in the middle of August while the leaves are still green and drops in early September. It is one of the most conspicuous for its early fruits, also being one of the earliest of the American species to flower (early May). If late summer fruits are not desirable, then other species might be selected. , Z6 ~ ] PLATE VIII An excellent specimen of Crataegus phaenopyrum showing its dense habit. coccinoides A 21~ Zone 5 (Central United States) Kansas Hawthorn densely branched, broad, round-topped small tree with good foliage as well good fruits. The flowers are about ~\" in diameter and the dark red fruit is about the same size, the foliage turns orange to scarlet in the fall. This plant is especially desirable in the area where it is native. as crus-galli 36' Zone 4 (Quebec to N. Carolina and Kansas) Cockspur Thorn This is one of the most popular of the native American hawthorns, and justly It is native over a wide area of the northeastern United States. The flowers are ~'~ in diameter, the fruit is bright red and about ~\" in diameter, remaining on the plant a greater part of the winter. The leaves are glossy, but the variety 'Splendens' has leaves that are even more glossy than the species. The foliage turns a good orange to scarlet in the fall. It withstands shearing well, and has been used in making hedges, especially because of its dense twiggy growth and sturdy thorns. Its horizontal branching habit and flat top are frequently conspicuous in the landscape. so. Xlavallei 21~ Zone 4 (C. crus-galliX~ubescens) Lavalle Hawthorn With conspicuous flowers and showy fruits this is an excellent hawthorn, having been listed for some time under the synonym of C. carrerei. The leaves turn a bronzy red late in the fall. The fruits are a brick red, ~\" in diameter and remain on the tree a greater part of the winter, the chief reason for its ornamental use. mollis 30' Zone 4 (Eastern United States) Downy Hawthorn With red fruits about I\" in diameter, this is one of the larger fruiting hawthorns, and so might even be considered coarse in some situations because of this. The flowers are 1\"in diameter and the leaves are larger than those of many of the hawthorns. It is a handsome small tree in foliage, but because of the large size of leaves and fruits it may be a bit coarse, even though the fruit usually ripens to a good red in late August while the leaves are still green. monogyna 30' Zone 4 (Europe to Western Asia) Single Seed Hawthorn Because of the many native American species of hawthorns available in this country, th~s European species is mostly valued here for its many varieties. The flowers of the species are merely single w hite, about ~~' in diameter and the fruit is red only about ~\" in diameter. The leaves do not turn color in the fall. The tree is densely branched, round headed, and in England has been used in clipped hedges all over the island. 28J i PLATE IX Upper: The foliage and slightly pear-shaped fruits of Crataegus pinnatifida major. Lower: The double-flowered variety of the popular English Hawthorn, Crataegus oxtgaeantha 'Plena.' monogyna `Biflora' Zone 6 Glastonbury Thorn In mild winters this frequently blooms in England at Christmas time thus livan old legend. However, our winters are so cold in America that seldom does this have an opportunity to bloom then. Since it has no other particular ornamental merit, it might only be grown in America in those areas that are sufficiently mild so that it does stand a chance of blooming in mid-winter. However, this is only a secondary or token bloommg, the main bloom being in the ing out spring. monogyna `Inermis' Zone 4 a A thornless variety with dense upright branches and a globose round head like large mushroom. This has possibilities for street tree work, not so much because it lacks thorns, but because of this unique form. monogyna'Stricta' Zone 4 A columnar form, very dense and upright in habit, the tree at the Arnold Arboretum at one time was 30' tall and 8' wide. Fire blight reduced the height later. This is more narrow than C. phaenopyrum fastigiata, more dense also, but probably also more susceptible to fire blight. nitida 30' Zone 4 (Illinois to Arkansas) Glossy Hawthorn in the Arnold Arboretum for many years, this is of the three or four best native American hawthorns, especially because of the fact that the red to orange fruits remain on the plant a greater part of the winter. The lustrous leaves are 2-3\" long and the flowers are profusely borne. The fruit about ~'' in diameter, ripens about the end of October. The autumn color is an outstanding orange to red. one Performing extremely well oxyacantha 15' Zone 4 (Europe and N. Africa) English Hawthorn A very popular hawthorn in Great Britain and Europe where it has been grown and cherished for centuries, the several varieties may have white, pink or deep red flowers, either single or double. The flowers, ,~\" in diameter, are profusely borne in late May from whence it gets its name May Tree\" so popular in English literature and are followed by scarlet fruits ~~'-:~~~ in diameter. Like other hawthorns, it is thorny, with a densely round habit, often with the branches touching the ground. The foliage does not turn color in the fall. Some of the more popular varieties: aurea - fruits yellow. _ 30J 'Paulii' - flowers double and bright scarlet, one of the most outstanding and conspicuous in flower of all these varieties. 'Plena' - double white flowers. 'Punicea' - sometimes found listed as 'Splendens,' with dark red single flowers. to phaenopyrum 30' Zone 4 (Virginia Alabama) Washington Hawthorn To my way of thinking, this is the best of all the hawthorns, and if only one to be grown, this would be it. This plant has good flowers, excellent frmts, glossy foliage and a brilliant scarlet autumn color, as well as a habit of growth that is well suited to many purposes. This seems to have all the requisites of a good plant. The white flowers, appearing in mid-June are about ~~~ in diameter and appear in many-flowered clusters. The bright scarlet fruits are only about ~~~ in diameter, but appear in large clusters and remain on the tree a greater part of the winter. The orange to scarlet autumn color is always meritorious and the usually dense habit of this species makes it well suited for planting in the central strip of highways to reduce the headlight glare of automobiles. One of the last species to bloom, it is unquestionably one of the best. were phaenopyrum 'Fastigiata' With all the good points of the species pinnatifida major 18~ Zone(B as well as a generally columnar habit. E Asia) Large Chinese Hawthorn This is one of the most handsome of the Asiatic species with the leaves often divided right down to the midrib of the blade. The fruit is somewhat pear-shaped, deep shining red in color and about one inch in diameter. It has been established in China for a long time because the fruits are edible. It blooms and fruits reliably well every year. pruinosa 11' Zone 4 (Ontario to Va. to I11.) Frosted Hawthorn With large white flowers with rose colored anthers in late May, red to orange fruits ~~~ in diameter in the fall, and with bluish green foliage, this native hawthorn makes quite a display, especially when in fruit. punctata 30' Zone 4 (Quebec to Ga. and I11. ) Dotted Hawthorn The dotted fruits are among the largest of any of the native American hawthorns. Usually the tree ~s round or flat topped, sometimes it may grow to be twice as broad as ~t is h~gh. It has a picturesque appearance because of the wide spreadmg horizontal branches. The fruit is red, about I\" long, and there is a particularly conspicuous yellow fruiting form - aurea. ~31 succulenta 15r Zone 3 (Quebec to Mass. and I11.) Fleshy Hawthorn The hardiest of those to be mentioned in this selected list, this tree is also one of the smallest. The bright scarlet fruits are lustrous, ripening toward the end of October. Professor Sargent thought very kindly of this native American and claimed that it ought to be listed among the six best American hawthorns. viridis 36r Zone 4 (Central and SE United States) Green Hawthorn With white flowers in small 2~r clusters the end of May and bright red 4~r fruits the fall and winter, this round headed, spreading branched tree should be chiefly valued for planting within that large area where it is native. in wattiana 21~ Zone 5 (Central Asia) Watts Hawthorn Perhaps one of the most beautiful of the yellow fruited hawthorns this has half inch wide fruits maturing in August that are a rich orange to translucent yellow. The flower clusters are 3\" m diameter. 'Toba' Zone 3 Actually a hybrid (C. succulentaXoxyrrcantlra 'Paulii') introduced by the DoExperiment Station of Morden, Manitoba, about 1950. The flowers are double, fragrant, and deep rose, the fruits are red and about ~r~ in diameter, the leaves are glossy. Its chief claim to fame is probably the fact that it is more hardy than forms of C. oxyacantha which it resembles in general habit. minion 'Autumn Glory' Zone 5 Another hybrid, 15-18r tall, with white flowers and brilliant red fruits first coloring late in the summer, then remaining on the tree well into the winter. DONALD V~~I'MAN 3Zl "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24378","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270896f.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME `Z2 MAY I I, 196~ NUMBERS 5-6 THE CHARLES STRATTON DANA GREENHOUSES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM March of 1962 the staff of the Arnold Arboretum accepted and occupied a new set of greenhouses. Modern in design, construction, and function these greenhouses provide excellent new facilities for the Arboretum staff for work in plant propagation and for the study of living plants. In the very early years of the Arnold Arboretum, the growth of seeds and the vegetative propagation of plants for the developing collection was implemented in the Harvard Botanic Gardens in Cambridge. The time required to commute and the d~fficulty of transportation led Mr. Jackson Dawson, the first superm- IN tendent and propagator, to build what he described as a \"tiny unpretentious greenhouse\" at the rear of his house at 1090 Centre Street, in Jamaica Plain. This modest unit, supplemented by a pit house and cold frames, contained for nearly a decade the plants propagated for the Arboretum collections and for distribution to other gardens. It was inevitable that this limited facility would be outgrown, and, in 1917, a modern greenhouse was built on a small corner lot between Prince Street and Orchard Street and separated from the Arboretum by the Arborway. It was again a limited area and proved to be even more restricted and isolated as the traffic increased on the Arborway and that street was widened. Dawson's successor, William Judd, for 33 years the propagator on the Arboretum staff, reported in his dairy for June 13, 1927, that this property had been sold and that he must move his plants by May 1, 1928. Under the guidance of Oakes Ames, then supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum, a new location was chosen adjacent to the greenhouses of the Bussey Institution, on Bussey Institution land which did not belong to the Arboretum, overlooking the shrub collection of the Arboretum. The greenhouse area was occupied in the summer of 1928, and, in 1929, an additional greenhouse was added. This familiar pair of greenhouses with a small, white, frame headhouse served the Arboretum from 1928 through the . 33 ~] past winter. Finally another move seemed inevitable when successive bills were filed in the State Legislature during the past decade to acquire the Bussey land by eminent domain proceedings. The continuous threats to our greenhouse operations required the selection of an area offering greater stability, larger nursery areas, and a new and modern building. Fortunately, a timely bequest and some available land suitably located led to the present new development. While the majority of the land occupied by the Arnold Arboretum is owned by the City of Boston and rented in perpetuity, the four and one-half acre site chosen for the Dana greenhouses is owned by Harvard College for the Arnold Arboretum. This property, at 10.i0 Centre Street, adjoins the main collections near the plantings of lilacs. Its accessibility for visitors, staff, and equipment, both from the Arboretum and from a major highway, makes it a most convenient location. The construction of the new greenhouses at this time was made possible through the income of the Mercer Trust, established from the residuary estate of Dlrs. William R. Mercer. Mrs. Mercer, nee Martha Dana, was a native of Boston and the daughter of Charles Stratton Dana and Marie Grogan Dana. She died at Doylestown, Pennsylvania, February 21, 1960, and her will provided that the income of her estate be divided equally between the Arnold Arboretum, the Boston Symphony Orchestra, and the Boston Museum of Fine Arts. It was Mrs. Mercer's wish that the use of her bequest honor her father and his lasting interest m the Arnold Arboretum. This has been done in naming the new greenhouses the Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. A plaque inside the front hall indicates that construction was made possible through the generosity of his daughter, Dlartha Dana Mercer. The income from the Mercer Trust is also used to award Dlercer Fellowships in horticulture and botany, thus honoring BIrs. Mercer, too. Research space in the Dana Greenhouses is available for holders of these fellowships. With the approval of the President and Fellows of Harvard College, who are the trustees of the Arnold Arboretum, the firm of Griswold, Boyden, Wyldeand Ames was engaged as architects. When final drawings were approved, the specifications were placed for competitive bids and the construction contract was awarded to Bond Brothers, Inc., of Everett, Massachusetts. Ground was broken on May 12, 1961, by President Nathan iBI. Pusey, of Harvard, in the presence of members of the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum, the architects, the contractor, and members of the Arboretum staff. Work on the greenhouses continued through the fall, and the cold storage house was occupied m November 1961, and the greenhouses in March 1962. The Charles Stratton Dana Greenhouses comprise a main building with three attached glasshouses, a cold storage house, a bonsai house, a permanent shade house, nursery and plant beds. The four and one-half acre plot of land has been fenced so that the gates can be locked and the buildings and nursery areas guarded in a manner not possible previously. Special plantings have been made 3~ PLATE X (Top): Plaque located in entrance to the main building. (Bottom): Mr. Nathan M. Pusey, President, Harvard University, breaks ground for the Dana Greenhouses on May l~L, 1961 with members of the Overseers Committee to visit the Arnold Arboretum, architects, contractors, and members of the Arboretum staff present. buildings in such a manner as to accentuate the displays showing how plant materials can be used. around the The Main nursery areas with Building tradition the main building to which the glasshouses are attached bears the of the \"headhouse.\" This common name hardly does justice to the modern work area and research facilities now available to the Arboretum staff. The first floor and full basement are 36x 1 1feet and are topped by a centered second floor apartment 22x68 feet. V'orking space for the propagating staff occupies the central area of the first floor and the full length of the rear of the building. At the two ends are smaller rooms, one a modern laboratory for cytological or morphological research, the other a conference room with blackboard and screen which can be used as a small lecture room. Skylights in the roof supplement the fluorescent lighting in the research laboratory and the work areas. Storage space, such as walk-in rooms, cupboards, and open shelving, is abundant in all areas. An acid-resistant black \"vulcathane\" covers the 400 square feet of work surface and potting benches. The walls of the work area are of glazed tile for easy cleaning. Stainless steel sinks and drainboards are used in the laboratory. A small lunchroom area adjoins complete locker facilities for the staff. Soil for use in the work area is placed in hoppers located outside the building and so designed that the soil is available inside the building through openings under the work benches. There are two walk-in cold-storage rooms on the first floor. One room 1 1 x 7 ; feet can be maintained at temperatures between ~8 and -t0 F. This will be used for temporary storage of cuttings, for seed storage, and for seed-dormancy research. The second room is 8x7 feet, with temperatures controlled between 35 and -20 F. This room will be used for experiments determining plant hardiness, inception of flowering, and foliage variation experiments. Either room can be readily converted to constant environment chambers if such physiological work is required. As with the first floor, the full basement is dominated by work or storage areas for plant propagation. A passageway the full length of the building ~s designed for plant beds which can be illuminated by fluorescent lighting, or portions of it can be used for storage. Two small rooms are designed for enclosed storage and open areas at either end of the basement for storage on exposed shelving. The basement can be reached by two stairwells inside the building as well as by a delivery well on the west end. An electric lift, a type of dumb waiter, allows the easy transport of a small wheelbarrow, bales of peat moss and similar supplies between the basement and the first floor work area. The building is heated by two oil fueled furnaces and forced hot water. The furnaces can be run either interchangeably or together. Thirty-five thermostats control the supply of heat to the greenhouses and various parts of the building. An auxiliary electric generator capable of producing 15 kilowatts is operated on fuel oil from the main storage tanks and a storage battery. If the main line vol- By name 36 (Top): North looking south of storage house. PLATE XI side of the main building and the greenhouses. (Bottom): View the main building, the glasshouses, the shade house and the cold of its normal load the auxiliary generator operates automatically. This emergency electric supply will operate both the cold rooms and the furnaces in case of power failure, ensuring protection for the plants in the greenhouses as well as any low-temperature experiments in progress. The second floor of the main building contains a modern two bedroom apartment. The back wall of the living room area consists of floor to ceiling glass panels which open onto a large deck area surrounding the apartment on three sides. The apartment will be occupied by a staff member generally responsible for the greenhouse area during non-working hours. The entire area is easily observed from this apartment, and a battery of eight searchlights can be used at night to illuminate the area. An electric system of alarms is located in the apartment, and will serve notice of heat, power, or refrigeration failure in any part of the building. Stained redwood siding is used on the front of the main building. Aluminum casements are on all doors and windows and bronze screens add protection. Exterior maintenance costs should be moderate. tage drops below 70% The Glasshouses Three all-aluminum glasshouses, supplied by the Lord and Burnham Company, are attached to the main building. These are of the \"Century\" class and each is 1 i x51 feet, with eaves 6 feet high. House \"A\" is designed for research projects which may require different environmental conditions. Each section of this house may be maintamed at different conditions of temperature, light, and humidity. Two of the sections have 153 square feet of bench space each, with a walk on either side of a central bench. The third section has a central area without benching to allow the growth of plants to a height of ten feet. House \"B\" is a single unit without divisions and with a central walk. An experimental bench plan utilizing peninsulas offers ~82 square feet of bench space. The peninsulas and side walks off the central aisle are arranged so all areas can be reached by an average-sized person. House \"B\" has 15% more bench space than House \"C\" because of this bench arrangement. House \"C\" has one partition dividing it into two areas, each with 248 square feet of bench space. An area has been reserved for a fourth greenhouse designed to be comparable to house \"A\" when this additional space is required. All sections of the greenhouse area have automatic heat controls and automatic ventilation. All benches are built of \"Transite,\" a mixture of asbestos and cement. Suitable wiring and 88 electric outlets will allow the use of electric heating cables on the benches and accessory lights or additional types of electric research instruments. The walks in the greenhouses are at the same level as the floor of the main building and exterior sidewalks. Wheelbarrows, carts and similar vehicles can be moved easily in or out. Redwood slat shades will be used on the greenhouses. [ 38 ] PLATE XII work area. (Bottom): Propagation aork area at rear of main building. Shown on left all is the electric lift to the basement, storage room, propagation work area, and two refrigeration rooms. Greenhouses are on the right. (Top): Propagation ~ '\" a H ~ e 0 0 \"C c: to a 0 ~r eo i:a :>, F Fn .D _~ U Fn f1 r1 to '\" w~ w 0 WcC ~a 8 0 '\" U ...:I .D ..J e 0 0 '\" C 'L7 r~. N cE w U '\" ., C \"C C C < h g ..w aw c: C U '\" !:E b; O '\" +> 8 w r7 c~ O w E u 0 .. b 0 c -~ ~ x >M ~ .. ~ 4L) ~~ .~ 0 w~ 0 H~ v d~ s a~ a~ ~ ~ c M a D ~! 0 3 F ~ ~T1 Plant Beds and Nurseries The are plant beds and nursery areas are on the same level as the greenhouses and easily accessible from bordering roads. They should be the most practical units of this kind that the Arboretum has ever had. A shade house 30x I 05 feet is located between the greenhouses and the cold storage house. Concrete frames mark the edges of this area. A permanent pipe frame supports not only the saran cloth but an overhead irrigation system as well. Saran cloth, woven of a plastic fiber, can be rolled over the pipe frame when required and removed for storage during the remainder of the year. Parallel to the greenhouses, occupying the place of the fourth greenhouse, are three concrete-framed nursery beds. Adjacent to the main building to the east and west are additional blocks of land totaling approximately an acre to be used as space for additional nursery plantings. The Cold Storage House A building of concrete blocks and reinforced concrete insulated with two-inch slabs of \"Styrofoam\" has been built into the north side of a hill and will serve as a cold pit storage area. The building, 15x 100 feet, is divided into two compartments. The east end is for winter storage of the bonsai plants. The west end occupying three-fourths of the building is for the storage of dormant plants, cuttings, scions and stock plants in flats or pots. Twelve hundred and twenty-five square feet of shelving is provided for such storage. One side of this area is clear for heeling plants into the soil. The cold storage house is built with electric heaters, as well as refrigeration units. The temperature in the area reserved for the bonsai collections will be maintained just above freezing. The temperature in the larger area can be fluctuated or maintained steady. The main objective of this experimental storage unit is to hold dormant woody plants from mid-October to mid-May and to prevent vegetative growth. When used in conjunction with the walk-in cold chambers of the main building, these refrigeration units will allow experimental work on hardiness and vegetative dormancy of the plants grown at the Arboretum. The Bonsai House In front of the main building, a hexagonal display house has been constructed for the collection of Japanese dwarfed trees given to the Arboretum by Mrs. Larz Anderson of Brookline, in memory of her husband. The attractive house is made of redwood slats, 2. l5 inches wide and set 3.75inches apart. The building is 9 feet long on each side and approximately 18 feet in diameter. The plants will be displayed on raised concrete benches and will be readily visible from inside or out. A walk with a railing completely surrounding the bonsai house serves for viewing the plants when the doors are locked and also gives a vista over the adjacent plantings. Overhead sprinklers facilitate the care of these interesting 42 ] '\" '\" 0 C N y C~ `o 0 r~ L bC x U \" n :!J 0 v '\" C7 a 0 >\"'\": YC ~ W en a~ a~ 0 L '\" '\" '\" . ~ wv '\" m '\" ..c: '\" c c o la 30 i~ ~7 w a s 3 O '\" C '\" c ~. ~... o8 Y ,, \" ` _(d o C C '\"C .S a ` a o~ C Y c ~ 'a o ~ ..J.;; m .J ai 03 m 0 x ~ bG m ct 0 ~ ~\"~ 1O 0 U -C ~.4 ab a~ ~~ -t~ 04 0 a 0 ? HI (Top): PLATE XVII View inside the Bonsai house. (Bottom): The Bonsai house. plants. Since the bonsai ter, The care was area must be moved to the cold storage house for the wintaken to assure that these heavy plants could be handled easily. between the two locations is level. The Grounds The construction of a new greenhouse on ample land of clear title not only will further the practical and scientific work in plant propagation and horticultural research but will also afford an opportunity for attractive landscaping of a building and the development of new collections of horticultural interest. Mr. Seth Kelsey of East Boxford, a member of the Committee to Visit the Arnold Arboretum has worked with the staff in designing these new plantings. Furthermore, he has on his own initiative invited various nurseries to contribute many of the plants needed for these plantings. As a result of his interest and effort, we gratefully acknowledge the contributions of over 1300 plants by eight Massachusetts nurseries: Adams Nursery, Westfield; Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury ; Corliss Brothers Nursery, Ipswich ; Jackson Brothers Nursery, Norton ; Kelsey-Highlands Nursery, Boxford; Littlefield-~yman Nurseries, Abington; Weston Nurseries, Hopkinton, and Wyman's Garden Center, Inc., Framingham. The large plants these nurseries have donated will make many of the demonstration areas of practical value in the very near future. Many additional plants propagated by the Arboretum staff will be placed ~n their proper locations but will require a longer period to reach maturity and to be of demonstrative value. One of the potentially attractive plantings is a collection of 28 cultivars of American holly. This selection was offered to the Arnold Arboretum by Wilfrid Wheeler in the fall of 1961. He personally selected the plants, which represent the last of a long series of generous gifts he has made to our plantings. Regrettably, Wilfrid Wheeler died on Christmas Day 1961, but his wishes were carried by his sons, Wilfrid, Jr., Richard, and Charles. The Wheeler hollies are interplanted with flowering dogwood and white pine and are located on a slope immediately inside the Arboretum gate in the greenhouse area. On the slopes flanking the cold storage house will be bank plantings of low or prostrate junipers. A demonstration area of various types of plants suitable for bank planting will be located along the Centre Street bank below the greenhouses. Plants suitable for espaliered growth are planted on the front wall of the cold storage house. Suitable ground-cover plants will be used in many flat areas. Genetically dwarf evergreens, mainly conifers, will form a bank planting below the bonsai house, accentuating the artificially dwarfed plants in the house. Finally, in the flat area north of the greenhouses the Arboretum collection of hedges will be planted. The present collection, of limited value for demonstration purposes because of its location on Bussey Institution property, will be moved when possible and new hedges added or used as replacements. The planting plan allows space for approximately 100 types of hedge planting. out 46 area ~s surrounded by a chain-link fence. It will be open to the regular hours, but the buildmgs, plantings, and nursery areas will be public protected adequately for the first time in recent years. The development of this new area of the Arboretum offering new plantings to The entire at the visitors and new facilities for horticultural research to the staff has been the work of many people. The generosity of Mrs. William Dana Mercer as one of the Friends of the Arnold Arboretum made the construction possible. The development of the area was aided by the use of the annual gifts and of the plants contributed by other Friends. These gifts from loyal supporters of the work of the staff of the Arnold Arboretum are acknowledged with gratitude. RICHARD A. HOWARD 47 ~ ~Fq a; 's . r c x $$ C~ ~c . 00 . o~ g o U <= ~: ' U U b .~ a~ to ~ r. ox o Q yU ~GO OO '\" ~ ..c: . ~ ::: U .;vW ~ .r U ~ ~d F '\" .w -4ci ` ;;:::: ~ 000 0 E d ..x ea o , p, y z ~ o bn ., w:~x ~ # E-< to'\"'\" 1~1 A1 ~ ' 04 \/~ a a4~ 0 i.~'\"ao > CO o 4. c ..~\" ~ ,~', Ga ,b_W 0,. :, ~,~ 0o ~.~7 0 x ~o';:r0c~= ~ .`~ o y c~' x ~' a~ ..... CQ CCx&# 3 ;= oU N d~ '~ O ~ . rn ..! 'b0., Cx G' . O G C 'a~7~ ag.B~ ~. J r.n ~ . ~ Gr '~.n~..m G O. -. ~ C~ G~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Herbaceous Aliens in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":49,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24373","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270bb6f.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Green, Peter S.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~L~Z MAY 25, 1962 HERBACEOUS ALIENS IN THE ARBORETUM NUMBER 7 England plants are to be found growing wild in the Arboshrubs, of course, in the various areas of woodland, but also numerous herbaceous plants. In fact, over 300 native herbs were recorded in the lists of the spontaneous flora compiled by the late E. J. Palmer and published in the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum during 1930, 1936 and 1947. In addition, however, there are a surprising number of alien plants, many of which have entered into the natural vegetational communities and now survive and reproduce themselves alongside the native species. The aliens include numerous weeds, plants of disturbed soil and other man-made habitats, but it is not the intention in this particular article to discuss the weeds, but rather to comment upon some of the more attractive or noteworthy herbaceous plants that have come to New England and the Arboretum from abroad. Perhaps the two most spectacular such herbs are to be seen in the Meadow, the low-lying marshy area near the Administration Building, where one may see the Yellow Iris (Iris pseudacorus) and the Purple Loosestrife or Spiked Salicaria (Lythrum salicaria, Plate XIX). The former comes into flower first, in June and July, and carries its handsome yellow flowers three or four feet above the wet marshy ground ; the latter starts later, in July, but blooms throughout the height of summer, marking the Meadow with wonderful splashes of purple and looking so much at home. It is so familiar in many similar marshy spots in New England that there is every excuse for the common mistake of thinkmg it a North American native. When it first came from Europe is not known, but it must have been MANY ; retum native New trees and here for many generations for it was mentioned as an established alien in Floras century ago. Somewhat aggressive perhaps, like many colonists towards the endemic native population, it has settled in, made a home for itself and become quite naturalized. Close examination of the flowers reveals a point of interest : there are three different types, depending upon the lengths of the stamens and style, and any one plant displays only one kind. In each flower the stamens over a 49 arranged in two groups of five which may be long, medium or short, as may also be the length of style. On any one plant there may be flowers with a long style, five stamens of medium and five of short length, flowers with a medium length style and long and short stamens, or flowers with a short style and stamens which are medium and long. The great Charles Darwin in particular investigated these flowers, making numerous, patient experiments which showed that the three types are bound up with their mechanism for pollination. Along with each type of style and stamen arrangement goes a different size of pollen grain and the papillate cells on the surface of the stigmata are also of different sizes according to the length of the style. The pollen grains from the longest stamens and the papillae of the longest styles are the largest whilst those from the shortest are the smallest. Seed is set only if pollen is received on the stigmatic surface from stamens of the same corresponding length as the style. In other words, cross pollination must take place and these three flower-types constitute, as the geneticists say, an out-breeding mechanism. One final curious point which does not appear to be concerned with the actual mechanism of pollination, but is nevertheless of interest, is the fact that the pollen borne by the long stamens is green in color whilst that from the medium and short is yellow. The only likely explanation for this that I have come across is that it is a protective device against are pollen-eating insects. Returning to the Yellow Iris which grows in the Meadow and about the margins of the ponds, along with the native wild Blue Flag, Iris versicolor. It is interesting to note that it is thought to be the original Fleur-de-lis, the emblem down the centuries of the French Royal family and still used, for example, in the flag of Quebec Province. It is not suggested that readers are in the habit of having their faces bruised but they may be glad to know of an ancient recipe for a cure given by John Gerard in his famous Herbal published in 1597 : \"The root of the common Floure-de-luce cleane washed, and stamped with a few drops of Rose-water, and laid plaisterwise upon the face of man or woman, doth in two daies at the most take away the blacknesse or blewnesse of any stroke or bruse.\" One never knows when such information might come in useful. Passing from the marshy area known as the Meadow to the nearby grassy meadowland it is remarkable how alien is its composition. The principle constituents are the grasses: Sweet Vernal Grass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), Timothy (Phleum pratense), Meadow Foxtail (Alopecurus pratensis), Orchard or Cock's Foot Grass (Dactylis glomerata), Rye-Grass (Lolium perenne), Canada Blue Grass (Poa compressa), Kentucky Blue Grass (Poa pratense), and White Bent or Redtop (Agrostis alba), and the last two, whilst also natives of Europe, are the only species with any possible claim to nativity in New England. Nor is the similarity of the meadow to those of Britain and Western Europe confined to the pasture grasses, for along with them we find several clovers: Red, White and Alsike (Trifolium pratense, T. repens and T. hybridum) to mention the most important, JO PLATE XIX (Top) Purple Loosestrife, Lythrum salicaria. (Bottom) Ranu~zcutus fi~aria. (Photographs by Heman Howard) Lesser Celandine, all components of the best pasture-land and now introduced from Europe the world over: to North and South America, Australia and New Zealand, the most famous areas for raising sheep and cattle. Without doubt these clovers were originally introduced by the early settlers and farmers in New England for exactly the same reasons as the grasses and, in the case of the Arboretum it is no coincidence either for much of it was established on the grounds of the old Bussey Farm. The weeds of the typical English pasture are present too, the weedy Velvet Grass, or Yorkshire Fog as it is called in parts of Britain (Holcus lanatus), the Yarrow (Achillea millefolium), Stitchwort (Stellaria graminea) and Tufted Vetch (Vicia cracca), as well as the Buttercups (Ranunculus acris and R. bulbosus) and, where the soil is heavy or moist, the Creeping Buttercup (Ranunculus repens), an irrepressible weed when it gets into cultivated plots on heavy, damp soil. Along with buttercups one might expect daisies, and they are here, but not the common English daisy (Bellis perennis) which is not hardy enough to become naturalized in grassland and lawns in the Boston area. It occurs further south and is said to grow in a few milder spots in Rhode Island and Connecticut, or conversely it survives in Vermont where the snow covering is complete and deep enough to protect it throughout the winter from the severe sub-zero temperatures. The daisy found in the Arboretum meadows is the Ox-Eye or Wild Marguerite (Chrysanthemum leucanthemum), the wild European relative of the very different chrysanthemums of the horticulturalists. However, it does not flower in the spring with the first flush of buttercups as might the English daisy but appears as spring gives place to summer. Another summer flowering member of the daisy family which appears in the grassland of the Arboretum is Cat's Ear (Hypochoeris radicata) and, as the summer draws towards its end, the Fall Dandelion (Leontodon autumnalis). An unusual form of this latter can be found scattered throughout the grounds; it develops pale, greenish-yellow flower heads which are smaller than normal and do not bear proper, flat, ray florets. What exactly causes this form is not known as far as I am aware, but it has been named forma ochroleuca. However, one is left wondering whether it arises from insect attack or disease, or whether it is just an inherited teratology. A few careful observations might throw a lot of light on the phenomenon. Possibly coming into the category of meadow weeds come the three alien sedges found in the Arboretum, Carex caryophyllea, C. hirta and C. muricata. It is difficult to visualize how these inconspicuous and often overlooked sedges could have been introduced into New England other than along with the other meadow plants. None of the three are weeds in the usual sense but to a greater or lesser extent each does occur in meadow land in Europe, where they are native. Not so conspicuous as many other herbaceous plants is the Ground Ivy, Gillover-the-Ground, or Run-away-Robin (Glechoma hederacea) which is to be found in one or two places covering quite large areas in amongst the grass and other plants. As its common name suggests, it creeps along the ground, but it bears 52 Ivy, being a member of the Mint family, and like most family (Thyme, Sage, Marjoram, Lavender and Rosemary, to mention a few) the leaves give off a characteristic odor when bruised ; although in the case of Ground Ivy it is not a particularly attractive scent. In the majority of flowering plants both male and female organs, the stamens and pistils, are found together in the same flower, a condition known as hermaphrodite. In some plants, however, the sexes are separate, but occasionally the situation is slightly more complex and this is the condition in Ground Ivy. To use a technical term, it is gynodoecious ; that is to say, some plants produce flowers which have both functional stamens and ovary (are hermaphodite) whilst other plants are male sterile and only enclose a functional ovary. Stamens are usually present but they are small and abortive and contain no viable pollen. Close examination soon shows that the male sterile flowers are slightly smaller than the hermaphrodite but it is possible, although much less common, to get somewhat intermediate conditions as well where one, two or even three of the normal complement of four stamens are functional, and in these cases the corolla size is also intermediate. Furthermore, these intermediate flowers can occur on plants along with others which are fully developed or which are completely male sterile. It is particularly no relationship to the members of this interesting therefore that in the two latest standard works for the identification of plants of New England and other northeastern areas, the 8th edition of Gray's Manual of Botany, revised by the late Professor Fernald, and the new Britton and Brown Illustrated Flora of Northeastern United States and Adjacent Canada by H. A. Gleason, a variety is described based upon the small size of the flowers (var. micrantha Moricand m Gray's Manual and var. Zonrv~orn (Benth. ) Druce in Britton and Brown). This variety needs investigation in the case of the North American plants, for as there is no mention in either work of gynodioecism, one suspects that it has no claim to recognition as such and that they are really just names that have been given for the male sterile condition. In Britain, where Ground Ivy is a native component of hedgerows, light woods, etc., one investigation of plants over an area near Warwick I made with others showed that the two extreme types were found in approximately equal numbers, but according to the books mentioned above the variety micrantha is usually more common in northeastern United States than the larger flowered form. This too is worthy of investigation, for certainly the male sterile plant is present in the Arboretum. A bright spring flower to be seen here and there is the Lesser Celandine (Ranunculus ficaria, Plate XIX), a kind of Buttercup, which bears its shiny yellow flowers only three or four inches above the ground and set off by a background of dark glossy leaves. It should not be confused with the Greater Celandine, Chelidonium majus, a taller, almost weedy perennial, also found in the Arboretum, but related to the Poppy and producing four-petalled yellow flowers and a bright orange or yellow juice when the stem or leaf is broken. Ranunculus ficaria is of interest in the Arboretum, or in northeastern North America for that matter, in 53 that it appears that it is only the sexually sterile, tetraploid plant w hich has been introduced. In Britain, where it is native and has been investigated, there are two main types, a fertile variety which has 16 chromosomes and a sterile one with 32, and the most obvious difference between them is that the former sets plenty of good seed whereas the latter hardly, if ever, produces any seed at all. Instead it reproduces by the production of bulbils, or little tubers about the size of a grain of wheat, in the axils of the foliage leaves and has in consequence been given the name var. bulb~'era. The whole plant dies down early in the summer so that the bulbils are scattered onto the surface of the soil around the parent plant, or are accidentally dispersed in some other way, and eventually give rise to new plants. If one wishes to see the bulbils, look at the base of the leafstalks as the plants finish flowering, for it is then as the leaves die down that they develop quite rapidly to their full size. One suspects that this plant was first introduced for its bright cheerful spring flowers ; the larger flowered var. grandiflorus which is similarly and intentionally grown as a garden plant in Britain, being a native of the Mediterranean area, is probably too tender to survive the winter in the Boston area. Many of the more spectacular herbaceous aliens are escapes from cultivation. Not escapes from intentional cultivation by the Arboretum, but in at least one place there are remains of the foundations of a dwelling house. Snowdrops and Siberian Squill (Scilla sibirica) have obviously been garden flowers, the latter having spread from a garden on South Street so that behind the main planting of Forsythias there is now a large sward of it under the trees, vivid blue in April. Near-by, but flowering later in the year, there are a number of plants of Star-ofBethlehem (Ornithogalum o,~cinale), also an old fashioned garden plant and found in other parts of the Arboretum as well. Other escapes from cultivation found here and there are the Day-Lily (Hemerocallis fulna), whose exact country of origin is not really known but which almost certainly came from East Asia, the Sweet Violet (Viola odorata), the Lily-of the-Valley (Convallaria majalis), the European Bellflower (Campanula rapunculoides), the related C. per.sic;f'olia, and Li~ efor-Ever (Sedum purpureum). Perhaps in this class belong the Hollyhock (Althaea rosea) and the Giant Dl ullein (Verbascum thapsus) which have almost become weeds and which soon seem to appear on almost any open area and waste ground. The latter especially is a striking plant at all stages of its growth, first with its large gray-green rosette of leaves, almost the texture of felt, and then in the second year it produces straight upright spikes .i or 6 feet tall with scattered clear-yellow flowers. In this group comes the Deptford Pink ( Dianthus armeria) which has found a home in open woods and dry banks and the extraordinary Birthwort or Dutchman's Pipe (Aristolochia kaempf'eri), native of Japan, growing near the Administration Building and possibly elsewhere. Another group of plants escaped from cultivation were not originally grown in New England for their flowers but as food plants and one or two of these are to be found in the Arboretum. The carrot (Daucus carota) or Queen Anne's Lace, [ 54 its flowers are called in New England, is almost certainly in this class, as is also the parsnip (Pastinaca sativa), although not as common in meadows and wasteland as the carrot. Asparagus o~cinalis grows near the remains of the foundations of the old Bussey House and elsewhere, and along with the Horseradish (Amoracia rusticana) probably comes into this category. Related to this last is the Watercress which has several times been recorded by streams and pond margins in the Arboretum but does not seem to be present today. Each one of the specimens of it that I have examined from the Arboretum has turned out to be the tetraploid species Rorippa microphylla and not the more widespread diploid R. nasturtiumaquaticum. Both were almost certainly introduced into the New V6'orld, but the former is almost confined to the northeast and is not the one usually grown in Europe as a commercial source of watercress for salads. Earlier in this article it was said that there was no intention of discussing weeds, but where one draws the line in classifying a plant as a weed varies very much upon the circumstances and context. There are a few plants with weedy tendencies which are not always weeds in their immediate situation in the Arboretum. Mullein has been mentioned but another is the Bindweed (Convolvulus or Calystegia sepium). The situation here though is extremely complex. Alien stock from Europe has undoubtedly been introduced but there are native varieties which differ only slightly ; in addition, more than one species has perhaps been introduced. Furthermore, it seems probable that the different stocks hybridize and taxonomically the whole problem of the Bindweeds is very confused. Even within the Arboretum they are variable, but an examination throughout the whole of New England, or better still northeastern United States and adjacent Canada, employing modern experimental techniques, is called for to elucidate the problems. From East Asia came the Japanese Hop (Hnmulus japonicus) a rank herbaceous vine, almost a shrub, growing vigorously in the South Street area. Another plant on the border line between a herb and a shrub is the Vfoody Nightshade or Bittersweet (Solanum dulcamara), which can become a near-weed but prefers, if possible, to have its roots in damp soil. The name Nightshade indicates its relationship to the Deadly Nightshade (Atropa belladonna) but although it is poisonous, this relative of the tomato and potato is not as poisonous as the Deadly Nightshade which fortunately has not been recorded as an alien from New England. The other common name, Bittersweet, points a very good lesson in the advantages of using Latin names and the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who shun and despise them in preference for the common or folk names. In one State, I understand, when legislature to protect and conserve the attractive Climbing Bittersweet (Celastrus scandens), a totally unrelated plant, was being prepared, someone looked up the name Bittersweet and found in the reference book they used that its Latin name was listed as Solanum dulcamara ; the result in that State has been that this rather undesirable poisonous alien is now protected by law. Whilst most of the introduced herbs of the Arboretum have been discussed, as r 55 ] there are still a number which have not been mentioned ; sufficient has been said perhaps to draw attention to the fact that although only woody plants are intentionally cultivated there are still many that are herbaceous which are well worthy of attention. PETER S. GREEN 56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Honeysuckles","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24379","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ea328.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 22 SEPTEMBER 14, 1962 THE HONEYSUCKLES NUMBERS 8-9 constitute a sturdy group of shrubs and vines, some of which can be grown in every state of the union. As a group they are not susceptible to severe disease troubles, but some of the vines are very susceptible to infestations of plant lice. Aside from this, these plants, within their hardiness hmits, are THESE As a easily grown and will care. usually produce a wealth of foliage, flower and fruit with very little seem they thrive in full sunshine, although there are a few species which partial shade. Also, it may well be that some of the species do better in limestone soils than in acid soils. For instance, we have always may had a difficult time in transplanting small plants of Lonicera korolkowii floribunda. Some of the honeysuckle vines native to Europe may also be in this category. American nurseries list about 60 honeysuckles; the Arnold Arboretum is currently growing about 118. At least 240 species and varieties were considered in making up the following recommended list of 51 species and varieties. This is far group to do better in considered that some seventeen of this recommended thus in a separate ornamental category from the shrubs. However, a large number of the honeysuckle shrubs are either similar or have httle to recommend them as ornamentals. Few have autumn color. Their chief ornamental value is their flowers, their colorful fruits, their ability to grow under various conditions, and sometimes their habit of growth. The hardiest in the recommended list are L. sempervirens, L. tatarica and L. chrysantha, all hardy in Zone 3. In fact, the Tatarian honeysuckle is almost as common in the colder northern gardens as is the lilac. It was brought into cultivation about 17~2 from southern Russia and shows a great variation in its offspring, both as to flowers and fruits. In fact, it has become naturalized in some parts of the eastern United States, for the birds readily distribute the seeds. Nurserymen would do well to stop the practice of propagating honeysuckles from seed for anything other than plant breeding purposes because they hybridize too many, yet it must be are number are vines and 57] excellent varieties of the Tatarian honeysuckle that have to be grown asexually in order to produce similar plants. Another case is that of the Morrow honeysuckle, which is a rounded bush with grayish-green leaves and an excellent ornamental. It has been propagated to such an extent by seed that most of the plants offered by commercial growers now are not true L. morrowii, but hybrids of this species and L. talarica, with a corresponding decided upright habit in growth. Fruits of the honeysuckles range in color from bright red and yellow to dark blue and black and some are whitish and translucent (L. quinquelocularis). They are most attractive to the birds. The early flowering species, like fragrantissima and standishii, of course bear early fruits in the late spring. These, together with the fruits of a few early flowering shrubs such as Daphne mezereum, come so early that they are avidly sought by birds, one of the reasons why they do not remain long enough to give color to the shrub. On the other hand, the Tatarian honeysuckle, and others like it, bear their fruits in late June and some remain colorful for many weeks. There is a species, L. maackii, which is the last of all to bear colorful fruits. These are bright red and begin to color in late September. The leaves of this species remain on the plants well into November, so the bright, colorful, profusely borne berries, with a background of green leaves, do much to liven up the shrub border at a time when most other deciduous plants have already dropped their leaves. With these exceptions, most of the shrubby honeysuckles bear their fruits in the summer. so readily. There are some Flowering Shrub Honeysuckles Pink and Red A recent study I made of some of the pink- and red-flowering shrub honeysuckles finally settled the perennial question of just which is the darkest redflowering bush honeysuckle. Without question the answer is 'Arnold Red.' Grow~ng in close proximity to each other are all the contenders, L. tatarica sibirica, L. korolkozeii, Nabelii, 'Sheridan Red,' `Hack's Red' and `Arnold Red.' In our soils, 'Arnold Red' is the darkest. Here is the way they might be listed, from the lightest pink to the darkest red, with color comparisons from the Nickerson Color Fan: Very Pale Pink (almost white) *L. tatarica, which varies L. bella rosea, L. notha; and its variety floribunda. Pale Pink considerably, L. korolkowii (2.:i R 9\/3) L. tatarica varieties *rosea, *punicea angust;f'olia, * and *elegans; L. amoena and its variety *'Arnoldiana.' Petals striped Deep Pink and White varieties L. * tatarica, lutea, *sibirica and leroyana. 58 Best in the ~roup. Moderate Purplish Pink (2.5 RP 6\/10) * L. korolkowii aurora Deep Purplish Pink (7.5RP 6\/12) * L. bella atrorosea, 'Sheridan Red,'6Hack's Red,' L. amoena rosea (5 RP 6\/ 10). Strong Purplish (7.5 RP 4\/11) * L. korolkowii ~abelii; L. masimouic~ii and its variety sachalinensis. Red Deep Purplish Red (10 RP 3\/10) Order of Bloom *'Arnold Red' (Recommended Honeysuckles) Mid-April Early May Mid-May fragrantissima pileata alpigena bella and vars. chrysantha and vars. claveyi or 'Clavey's Dwarf' syringantha thibetica 'Arnold Red' 'Dropmore' Late May amoena and vars. korolkowii morrowii tatarica 'Morden aurora var. maackii and Orange' Early June Mid-June Late June etrusca korolkowii brownii japonica halliana henryi heckrottii Mid-July sempervirens and Recommended vars. Honeysuckles alpigena nana 3~ Zone 5 Central Europe so Dwarf Alps Honeysuckle reason. One of the few dwarf honeysuckles and deep red, but very small. Xamoena alba of value for this Flowers 9~ Rounded, twiggy bush with Zone 5 (tatarica white flowers. X korolkowii) 59 5 Xamoena'arnoldiana' 9' Zone (tataricaXkorolkou~ii) Arnold Honeysuckle The flowers are flushed pink, ~-~~~ in diameter and more narrow than those of the other members of this species. Also, the leaves are more narrow, giving the plant a more delicate appearance. Xbella candida 6~ Zone 4 - (morrowiixtatarica) the variety in the trade termed L. bella albida is a synonym. Hybrid vigor is apparent in these var~eties, for they are all probably fast growing and most floriferous. With pure white flowers Xbella rosea- similar to the above, but with flowers a very light pink. Undoubtedly this is badly confused in the trade with var. atrorosea, which actually has deep pink flowers. Xbrownii Vine Zone 5 (sempervirensXhirsuta) sempervirens, but Brown's Honeysuckle and A vine, somewhat similar to L. not in America. Several varieties apparently popular in Europe, (fuchsioides, plantierensis, punicea orange-red. Sweet Zone 5 youngii) differ chiefly in flower color which varies from scarlet to caprifolium A Twining shrub vine with beautiful Europe Honeysuckle twining whorls, produced up to fragrant yellowish-white flowers 2~~ long in from June onwards. The fruit is orange and the vine will twine Zone 3 20~. 12~ chrysantha China, Japan Coralline Honeysuckle Flowers are a pale yellow, in pairs in May and June. The fruits are a bright coral red. Retained in this recommended list for its hardiness and its height. years prior to 195~ at Clavey's Ravinia Nurseries, Deerfield, I11. It has been widely distributed, as the plant is good as a low, thick, quick-growing hedge needing little shearing. Mature plants are said to be 6 feet tall, but most of the plants I have seen are only half this height. The flowers are white, smaller than those of L. tatarica and not at all showy. `Clavey's Dwarf'-This originated several deflexicalyx a 9~ Zone .5 China is Flowers, in pairs, yellow during early May and profusely borne. The fruit bright orange-red. X`Dropmore'-a hybrid of L. bella raised by F. L. Skinner of Dropmore, Mani- toba, Canada, with pure white flowers. It grows 6-8 feet tall with a pendulous, graceful habit, blooms and fruits freely and is thoroughly hardy at Dropmore, making it hardy in Zone 3. Our plant is 8 feet tall and 12 feet in diameter. [so: 0 a 3 w a A .'\" > L >. U d '\" N ~ 0 !>c; :5 d V ~ _C C 1 ~'\"O \/~\/V C M ~0 .. '\" a~4, C '_L~ I V No CI O a ~U C v ; : g ab m Q C !:B e !:B L ... .~Q .~ :: NJ Q V LL C ~~ i~ v d . ... f. C\" p :p ~ & ~4 Ce -S! r N ~.! iw C d c. ~ pd: etrusca 'Superba' Vine Zone 7 Southern Europe Cream Honeysuckle The flower clusters of this variety are larger than those of the species and also the plant is more vigorous. In some areas ~t is half evergreen, in others dec~duous, a climber with reddish-purple shoots, yellowish, fragrant flowers 2 inches long and trumpet-shaped, suffused with red and produced in the middle of the summer. Zone 5 Yellow Honeysuckle Vine Southeastern United States The fragrant, orange-yellow trumpet-shaped flowers are produced in one to three whorls per stalk. It twines only slightly, but ~s considered to be the handsomest of our native honeysuckles. flava fragrantissima 6~ Zone 5 China Winter Honeysuckle Blooming in mid-April with very fragrant flowers, this is a common favorite, half evergreen in the South. One of the few honeysuckles to bear flowers on the previous year's growth, it is one of the first of this genus to bear red fruits in late May. These are quickly eaten by the birds. It has a poor, open habit of growth, but this can be controlled with proper pruning. Xheckrottii Vine-like Zone 5 Origin unknown Everblooming Honeysuckle This has often been considered one of the best of the climbing honeysuckles. It flowers in June with pink (outside) and yellow (inside) corolla, blooming throughout the summer. The buds are actually carmine and as they open the yellow inside the corolla lends a beautiful second color to the combination. The Willis Nursery of Ottawa, Kansas, has called this species 'Goldflame,' a name which has increased its sales markedly. `Goldflame'-see L. heckrottii. henryi The flowers Vi~ta are Zone 4 to China Henry Honeysuckle yellowish purplish red, the fruits black. This is a halfvine without the run-away vigor of Hall's Honeysuckle and thus makes evergreen an excellent, controllable ground cover. hildebrandtiana Vine, climbs 60-80' Zone9 Burma-China Giant Honeysuckle The fragrant flowers are creamy white, changing to rich orange, in pairs 3~-6~~ long. It has the largest flowers, fruits and leaves of all the climbing honeysuckles and is evergreen, but is hardy only in the deep South. japonica Not as aureo-reticulata Vine Zone 4 Eastern Asia Golden Honeysuckle vigorous as Hall's Honeysuckle, the leaves have a pleasing yellow netted marking, giving rise to the common name. It colors best in the full sun. ~ s2 Upper: Lonicera amoena PLATE XXI `Arnoldiana.' Lower: Lonicera 'Dropmore.' japonica halliana tion - Twining vine Zone 4 eastern Asia areas Hall's Honeysuckle Actually a weed and a nuisance in many commonly known to all growers. so where it has escaped cultivaare japonica repens-not sometimes lobed -a vigorous as Hall's Honeysuckle, the lower leaves similar to it. neater plant, otherwise Honeysuckle As far asI can tell, this species and its variety floribunda are inseparably mixed in the trade. The variety is supposed to be the better of the two in flower, but our specimens of them are definitely similar. They do have a gray-green foliage which makes them desirable in the landscape. korolkowii korolkowii aurora- 12' Zone 5 Turkestan Blue-leaf flowers (2.5 profusely. RI' 6~10 much the better variety, with moderately purplish-pink Nickerson Color Fan) up to 3\" in diameter. This blooms ~ korolkowii zabelii-has flowers a darker red than all honeysuckles except `ArnAmur old Red' which maackii ~s the darkest. Zone 2 15~ Manchuria, Korea Honeysuckle The chances nurseries. The are that this species and its variety podocarpa are badly mixed in species is much hardier and has larger flowers, while the variety is more widespreading. The Amur Honeysuckle is one of the tallest and hardiest of all the honeysuckles. The flowers appear in early June and the red fruits remain on the plant until November, as do the leaves. morrowii A 6~ Zone 3 Japan Morrow Honeysuckle wide, rounded, dense bush with gray-green leaves, white flowers maturing to yellow and dark red fruits. The true species is desirable, but it has been grown from seed so much that the real plant is extremely difficult to find anywhere. Most plants being offered under this name now are upright hybrids (morroz~iiX talarica) and are decidedly mediocre as ornamentals. nitida 6~ Zone 7 Central and Western China Box Honeysuckle With creamy white, fragrant flowers which are none too profuse, and blue this twiggy shrub is a small-leaved evergreen (leaves about ~\" long) and is excellent for clipped hedges. It withstands salt water spray ell. fruits, pileata 4~ 5 Zone China Privet Honeysuckle Deciduous or evergreen low shrub, flowers have little beauty and though the fruit is translucent, it is usually sparsely borne. Does well at the seashore. Ap- [ 64 ] PLATE XXII Upper: Lonicera `Clavey's Dwarf.' Lower: Lonicera alpigena nana. parently some young plants tend to be more evergreen than older ones, withstanding shade. Prostrate shrub Zone 5 prostrata W. China Creeping Honeysuckle E. H. Wilson said this was especially useful in bank planting or ground cover. The flowers are pale yellow, have no fragrance and the reddish fruits are eggshaped. Nothing to commend it except its habit, with branches flat on the ground and the plant making a low, hemispherical mass of foliage. pyrenaica 2-3~ Zone 5 S. E. Europe Pyrenees Honeysuckle hardy in the Arnold Arboreare pinkish to white and the This plant is an interesting dwarf not thoroughly tum. Of value only because of its size. The flowers fruits, united at the base, are red. `Redgold'-see L. tellmanniana. sempervirens Vine Zone 3 Eastern United States Trumpet Honeysuckle The orange, scarlet or yellow flowers of this straggly vine make it most conspicuous. The trumpet-shaped flowers are 2~~ long, but are not fragrant. Occas~onally it becomes infested with plant lice, but it is the hardiest of all the hone3 suckle vines and as such, has merit. sempervirens sulphurea-with yellow flowers. sempervirens `Superba'-with bright scarlet flowers. It is highly probable that this variety is bemg offered under several names. 'Magnifica,' 'Dreer's Ever- blooming,' 'Red Coral,' 'Red Trumpet' and 'Rubra' are offered in various parts probably all traceable to a selection made by Dreer's of Phila30 or 40 years ago, a variety that blooms almost continuously in delphia, Pa., of the country, the summer when grown in full sunshine. syringantha 6~ Zone 4 N. W. China Lilac Honeysuckle With lilac-colored, very fragrant flowers which are not always abundantly borne. It has a mound-like, sprawling habit of growth and red fruit. Mr. H.G. Hillier (England) has selected a seedling which he states has slightly larger flowers than the species and he has given it the varietal name `Grandiflora.' syringa wolfii 4~ Of more prostrate habit than the species and carmine flowers. tatarica producing especially fragrant Tatarian 9' Zone 3 Southern Russia Dogwood An or upright, vigorous shrub with pink to white, very fragrant flowers and red yellow fruits. One of the most dependable and hardy of ornamental shrubs. 66] at Many selections have been made, but unfortunately most show a leggy condition the base as the plants mature. A few of the worthy varieties are: alba-flowers pure white. 'Arnold Red'-darkest red flowers of any shrub honeysuckle, large red fruits. grandiflora-with large white flowers, sometimes called `Bride.' leroyana - dwarf variety 8~ tall, flowers few, pmk and white stripes, 1~~~ in diameter, valued for its low height. lutea- fruits yellow, flowers with pink stripes in center of petals, edges white. The flowers of varieties punicea and elegans are similar, but because of the bright yellow fruits, lutea is selected as the best of this group. 'Morden Orange' - very pale pink flowers ; fruits orange. Originated at the Canada Experiment Farm, Morden, Manitoba, Canada, but not deemed worthy of introduction by them. Introduced by a United States nursery. nana- plants 3~ high, pink flowers. parviflora- one of the best varieties for white flowers. rosea- flowers rosy pink outside, light pink inside. sibirica-flowers with deep pink stripes in center of petals and white margins, leaves larger than those of species. virginalis-rosy pink flower buds and flowers; the largest flowers of any L. tatarica variety. xtellmanniana Vine Zone 5 (tragophyllaxsempervirens) Tellman Honeysuckle A deciduous climbing vine, with flowers in terminal heads of 6-12 flowers in each cluster. They are 2 inches long and I inch across, a beautiful yellow, the buds having a touch of red. (Commonly cnlled 'Redgold' by ~'ilhs Nursery Co., Ottawa, Kansas, this was a mere replacing of the species common name.) thibetica 4' are Zone 4 lilac-colored and a Vf. China Tibet Honeysuckle The flowers especially fragrant, the fruits a deciduous, low-spreading shrub, side of leaves is covered with sometimes with felt of China pale are red. It is a width of 6-10 feet. Under gray hairs. tragophylla 5 Zone Chinese Woodbine A climbing shrub with bright yellow flowers in large terminal heads of 10-20 flowers in each head. They are not fragrant and the plant does best in semishade. This apparently does best in limestone soils, like many another Lonicera. yunnanensis Low creeper with Zone Twining shrub flowers. yellow 7 China Yunnan Honeysuckle DONALD WYMAN ] ~s~~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Classes at the Arnold Arboretum, Fall, 1962","article_sequence":10,"start_page":68,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24371","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270b726.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Classes at the Arnold Arboretum Fall, 1962 Instructor: Dr. Donald Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants Wyman Dr. Donald Wyman will lead five trips around the collections of the Arnold Arboretum on successive Fridays beginning September 28 at 10 a.m. All trips will start at the Administration Building, where the meetings will be held in case of rain. These trips will consider trees and shrubs in their fall condition. Berried plants, trees and shrubs for fall color, broadleaved evergreens, and conebearing plants will receive special attention. Five meetings. Friday mornings, 10 :00-12 :00 Sept. ~~8-Oct. 26. Field Botany Fee ~~.00 Instructor: Dr. R. A. Howard Dr. Howard will lead a series of walks around the grounds of the Case Estates an informal discussion of the botanical points of interest. Special attention may be gnen to the recognition of fruit types and families of flowering plants in Fall and Winter condition. One class will be devoted to recognition of woody plants in leafless winter condition with the aid of botanical keys. Footwear suitable for walking in woodlands is recommended. Cars may be parked near the barn at 135 Wellesley Street. All classes will begin at that location and in case of bad weather may be held at the\"summer house.'' in Weston with Five meetings. Plant Wednesday afternoons, 2-4, Oct. 3-31. Fee $2.00 Propagation Instructor: Mr. A. J. Fordham The methods of increasing plants by seeds, cuttings and grafting and the proper handling of such propagants comprise this course. The class will meet at the Dana Greenhouses, 1050 Centre Street, Jamaica Plain. Ten meetings are scheduled on Saturday mornings and Thursday evenings in September, October, February, Apr~l, June and July, with the first at 9:30 a.m. on Saturday, September 22. A full schedule will be distributed at that time. This irregular schedule allows a meeting at the proper time for a particular type of horticultural work. An apron and a very sharp pocket knife will be needed. The plants propagated will become the property of the student. The class will be limited to 15 with priority going to those who have not taken this course before. First meeting, people Saturday, Sept. 22, 9:30 a.m. Fee $15.00 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Lindens","article_sequence":11,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24380","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ea36d.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 22 OCTOBER 5, 1962 THE LINDENS NUMBER 10 THIS although is an important group of shade trees, are chiefly but of value for their too foliage, their flowers most fragrant, none conspicuous. Only about 14 are being offered by American nurseries, 35 are being grown in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Lindens are important trees, both as specimens and as street and avenue trees. They are used in formal gardens in Europe where they are sheared, but little of this is seen in America, where life moves at such a pace that there is little time in anybody's book for shearing them. Plantsmen should know that the American species, and most of the Asiatic as well are not nearly as good tree specimens as are some of the European species. The American trees, like Tilia americana are too large leaved and hence are coarse in texture when compared with the smaller leaved European types. Also, the American types (especially T. americana) and to some extent the Asiatic types, do not look well in the late summer. Their leaves turn brownish very early. The European lindens on the other hand, retain their leaves in good green condition late in the autumn and sometimes turn yellow before they drop. A word should be said about the common linden T. europaea or T. vulgaris. Years ago this was widely planted in Europe and Britain, but it is not as good an ornamental as some of the other species. It should not be recommended. Mature trees are continually throwing up suckers at the base which must be cut off, and it seems to be the species most susceptible to severe infestations of plant lice. Two of the smaller Asiatic lindens (chinensis and mongolica) might be tried experimentally because of their smaller heights (45 and 30 feet respectively). These are rare in America, are not even needed if larger trees will suffice, or if the slow growing T. cordata would be adaptable for a particular situation. As for the rest of the recommended types, they vary in habit, some being fasa tigiate, some narrowly pyramidal but more are densely pyramidal in habit-a form by which a member of this genus can usually be told at great distances. 69 The flowers, as all know, are extremely fragrant and are borne profusion at the end of June. They are most attractive to bees in the - greatest honey made from them is excellent. V~'ood of the linden is used for drawing boards, sounding boards on pianos. In early times many centuries ago, the inner bark fiber was used for making paper, and even today in parts of Europe the \"bast\" fibers are used in making mats, coarse cloth and occasionally shoes. The leaves have been collected (in Europe) and fed (dry or fresh) to cattle. Linden oil distilled from the flower is used in perfumes. In the past, Americans have planted the native species (T. americana heterophylla, carolininnn;floridana, neglecta, monticola), but with the excellent performance of the European species and their hybrids, and the long lasting qualities of their foliage, the native American species have been relegated to the background, and justifiably so. Sixteen lindens might be considered sufficiently important ornamentals to plant and grow commercially. Forty have been relegated to the list of \"not recommended\" types. It must be admitted that the American and Asiatic types have been downgraded largely on their performance in the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. If, in other parts of the country, they do better than the European species or their hybrids, the author would certainly like to know it. Tilias Recommended americana 'Fastigiata' 90' Z2 - leaves than some of the European value because of its habit. cordata forms, form with larger but nevertheless with some ornamental a narrow pyramidal 90' Z3 Europe for Littleleaf European Linden Leaves as 11\"-3\" long, slow growing, but one of the best and It is especially well adapted planting in urban areas. high in cultivation as it is in its natural habitat. Hardy in Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. I hardiest of lindens, usually seen only half even at F. L. Skinner's cordata'Pyramidalis' X euchlora - with a widely pyramidal habit. Crimean Linden 60' Z(cordataXdasystyla) The leaves of this hybrid are a bright glossy green, The branches are only slightly pendulous but it makes street tree. X europaea 'Pendula' being an about 2\"-4\" long. excellent specimen or specimen of this tree, From the description, with branches slightly pendulous. I have not seen a do I know where there is one in the United States. however, it might be worthy of a trial. - nor 1701 ] ts 0 m I3~ d \"It a c ,:: c .i ~ V d ~ ..c: O w ... \"0 C to ~r _m bt G c: ~... '~ ai > 5 E U a~ ... = OJ a, ~ e '\" OJ .. w . 0 '\"C b G i~ C n _~ ~ Cw &;::,\";x# 26 ' . .~ k ;: '\" AC i~ Y .. ;: _~ Y Fyj ~ i; U E-< mongolica 30r Z4 China Mongolian Linden With leaves l~rr-3rr long, this small leaved, small tree is very graceful with reddish young branchlets, and merits further trial as an important small shade tree. petiolaris i 5r Z5 S. E. Europe and western Asia Pendant Silver Linden This is another linden that should be planted far more than it is, with pendulous branches and leaves 2rr-~~rr long on petioles that make it possible for the leaves to flutter in the slightest breeze. Closely resembling T. lo~nenlosa but more graceful, and under surface of the leaves not so downy. platyphyllos 1 `?Or Z3 Europe Big-leaf Linden This has the largest leaves of any of the European lindens (2rr-5rr) and so might be considered slightly coarse in texture, but it is a better ornamental than L'. europaea (vulgaris). aurea - platyphyllos with young twigs and branches - yellow. platyphyllos 'Fastigiata' platyphyllos 'Laciniata' er narrowly pyramidal with in habit of growth. - irregularly lobed leaves and a considerably small- tree than the species. platyphyllos 'Rubra' nurseries listed tomentosa as T. with young twigs red. There is a variety in European platyphyllos corallina, but this is a synonym of 'Rubra.' - 90r Z5 S.E. Europe and V~'. Asia Silver Linden So named because of the dense white pubescence on the under surface of the leaves that give the whole tree a whitish appearance especially when there is even a slight breeze. Possibly not a tree for planting in areas where there is much smoke or dust in the air since minute particles will adhere to the under surface of the leaves. In the open, however, it makes an excellent specimen. tomentosa erecta supposedly an erect form. However, the species itself is stiff when young and since our plants are only two feet tall we have not observed this variety long enough to know whether it will retain this erect habit at maturity. - clone of T. cordala, obtained as scions from the Royal BotaniKew, England in 1952. The one year twigs are a beautiful light Small trees with vigorous growth are most outstanding in the winyellow green. ter. Originated in the Handsworth Nursery near Sheffield, England, according to Mr. Campbell of Kew. 'Handsworth' - a cal Gardens at L I 72 ] V N s g O ~ H d _O m O H \/Y % m C~ L i O V ~ sN _O d V V ~ g > v v Y c~ O~ 'S Qr W a o~ U. ~- a~ 'Redmond' - this variety of T. euchlora from the midwest was introduced by the Plumfield Nurseries of Fremont, Nebraska, in 1927. It was named in honor of C. M. Redmond who discovered the original tree growing in his garden in Fremont, Nebraska, in the early 1920's. The parent tree is now nearly 50 feet tall, densely pyramidal in habit, adapted to growing well in many situations. Tilias Not Recommended B=inferior americana - leaves too or no better than recommended types large (3\" X 6\"), color poor in late August. too large, color poor in late August. dentata - leaves dentate, too large, color poor ~n late August. macrophylla - leaves too large, color poor in late August. ampelophylla - leaves lobed, a amurensis - B caroliniana - B chinensis more native American - poor foliage. possibilities. information needed concerning the ornamental cordata ascidiata - B \" cordifolia - differs very little from the specres. dasystyla - B xeuropaea - the common linden widely planted and recommended by E. H. Wilson probably before he noted the good points of some of the other lindens. This suckers badly at the base, always requiring some attention. Also it has, in my experience at least, been the linden most susceptible to serious infestations of plant lice. It also drops its leaves earlier than some of the others. It might be well to consider T. cordata, euchlora and even platyphyllos before selecting this one. Xeuropaea pallida - leaves poor pale green and larger than those of species. some Xflaccida - B - hybrid (platyphyllosxamericana) objectionable characteristics. a retains of T. nmericana's of T. xflavescens - B - this is hybrid cordataxamericana and retains some americana's objectionable characteristics. floridana - B a native American - poor foliage. long. foliage. foliage. henryana - B - leaves up to 5rr long. henryana subglabra - B - leaves up to 5rr heterophylla - B \" a native American - poor michauxii - B - native American - poor a insularis - B - native American. 74J y .0 .C M 4~, ~E U Cr ~ F. N B 60 C~ 0 ro 0 c~, a ro o 0 a >Sx&# 3E; x ~C ~ v 01) = W .c E _\" ~~ 0 a~ a~ ~C S e e ~ 0 0 .. .. ro c F 4) .C~r i~ ' O m _O .9 ~4 intonsa - B - leaves 8~~-6~~ long - hence leaves too large. in Au- japonica - B gust is poor. resembling T. cordata but leaves slightly larger and color Xjuranyana (tomentosaXcordata) parently it is not in cultivation. this tree should have good foliage, but ap- kiusiana - Zone 7 mandshurica - B - leaves 4~~-8~~ long as too large. ~ maximowicziana - B - leaves 4~~--i long - too large. large and , miqueliana - B - foliage Xmoltkei - B - not as good European species. coarse (americanaxpetiolaris) long, \" \" \" \" leaves too coarse (4~~-7~~). August. \" .. monticola - B - leaves 4~~-8~~ too texture, poor color in \" neglecta - B - .....` oliveri - B Xorbicularis (petiolarisxeuchlora) it is recommended or rejected. - more information is needed about this before information is needed about this paucicostata - native of northern China before it is recommended or rejected. more platyphyllos corallina \" (syn. for platyphyllos rubra). var. vitifolia - B \" begonaefolia - from Kew - probably identical with 7'. laciniata or possibly dasystyla. tortuosa - B - the platyphyllos to the name, but it is not twigs are slightly irregularly borne, giving rise sufficiently different from the species to warrant it being tuan - grown commercially. information needed concerning its ornamental tomentosa pendala=petiolaris more leaves 8~~-5~~ long - possibilities. tuan chinensis - differs little from species. DONALD WYMAN ~s ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Oaks","article_sequence":12,"start_page":77,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24382","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d24ea76b.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 22 DECEMBER 14, 1962 THE OAKS oaks constitute one of the most important groups of trees in the world, -t- both as timber trees and as ornamentals. They are native throughout the northern temperate regions of the world and in tropical Asia, being just as important in Europe and in certain parts of Asia as they are in North America. Thirty-five oaks are recommended here for growing in the United States as ornamentals. Seventy species and varieties are in cultivation in the Arnold Arboretum and American nurserymen offer about forty. In selecting the following thirty-five recommended oaks, nearly 150 were omitted as being insufficiently ornamental. The oaks in general are large trees, the alternate-leaved foliage of many being rather large and coarse. The best examples of small leaves (and of the finest foliage texture, as well), might be Quercus phellos, Q. palustris, (~. ilex and Q. libani. Of the thirty-five listed here, six are native to As~a, ten to Europe and the remaining nineteen are native to North America. There are only five in the following list which have mature heights under sixty feet. These are Quercus acutissima, (,~. glandul~'era, Q. engleriana, (,t. liaotungensis and Q. libani. Of these, the first two mature at about forty-five feet and the others at about thirty feet. This is one of the reasons these smaller trees, not grown widely in America at the present time, are recommended for trial. It is interesting to note that of those recommended in the following list, ten are hardy only in Hardiness Zone 7 (the southern United States) or in warmer parts of the country. There are seven of the recommended oaks with evergreen leaves and of course these are for growing only m the South. They are Quercus agr~f'olia, Q. chrr~.solepis, R. engleriana, Q. ilex, Q. suber, Q. virginiana and Q. wislizenii. Those species native to America are especially noted for their excellent red autumn color, although all do not necessarily turn red. For instance, Quercus imbricaria turns a rich yellow-bronze. Those native to Europe, like many other European plants, usually have no special autumn color, the leaves sometimes dropping before turning brown. NUMBERS 11-12 THE - - 77 being long-lived and growing to a great size. The folfrom records kept by the American Forestry Association lowing which has listed \"400 Big Tree Champions\" growing in the United States. are as The oaks noted measurements are All in all, there are many excellent ornamental trees among the oaks and plantsmen would do well to choose from the following list those trees which will grow well under local conditions. Oaks Recommended Q. acutissima 45' Zone 6 China, Korea, Japan Sawtooth Oak The Sawtooth Oak is an excellent, wide-spreading tree with glossy foliage resembling that of the chestnut. The tree usually grows as broad as it does high ; hence plenty of space should be allowed for its full development. Q. agrifotia an 90~ Zone 9 California California Live Oak This roundheaded, evergreen tree with holly-like foliage is chiefly of value as ornamental in the hills and valleys of the California coast where it is native. Q. alba 90~ Zone 4 Eastern United States White Oak The broad, round head, spreading branches and purplish-red autumn color of this tree make it an excellent specimen in the open. Slow in growth, its open branching system usually makes the passage of electric wires through the tree a simple matter. Q. bicolor 60' Zone 3 Eastern and Central North America Swamp White Oak 78 PLATE XXVI Quereus robur 'fastigiata.' This splendid specimen Pennsylvania State University. is growing on the campus of the This species is similar to Quercus moist to wet soils. alba, but has coarser leaves. It does well in Q. borealis This tree, often 75' Zone 4 Northeastern and Central North America Red Oak incorrectly listed as Quercus rubra, is commonly grown throughUnited States where it is hardy. It can be transplanted easily and is one of the fastest growing of the oaks. In shape it is pyramidal when young, generally becoming rounded with age, and has excellent red autumn color. The variety ma.~ima is practically identical for ornamental purposes at least, differing slightly from the species in that it has larger fruit and a slightly more out much of the southern range. Q. canariensis 90' Zone 7 Spain and North Africa Canary Oak A handsome deciduous tree with leaves which frequently remain on the tree until Christmas, this has not been widely used in America, but its good performance in Europe would seem to recommend its trial here. Q. cerris This 90' Zone 6 Southern Europe and Western Asia Turkey Oak tree has fine texture, the leaves ranging in length from of the faster growing oaks, but in this country does not do well north of southern New England. broadly pyramidal one 2 to 4 inches. It is Q. chrysolepis 60' Zone 7 Pacific Coast Canyon Live Oak An evergreen oak, among the most beautiful of those native to California, this has a wide-spreading head and branches which are often pendulous. Q. coccinea i ~' Zone 4 Eastern and Central United States Scarlet Oak This lustrous-leaved tree, more open in habit than either the Pin or the Red Oaks, has been planted profusely. The autumn color is a brilliant scarlet. Unfortunately, it is difficult to transplant and in the midwest the Shumard Oak is taking its place. 30' Zone i Central and West China Q. engleriana Engler's Oak Because of its small size and evergreen foliage, this might be worthy of trial wherever larger evergreen oaks thrive. The leathery leaves are 3 to 7 inches long. Q. falcata 75' Zone 5 New Jersey to Florida and Missouri Spanish Oak or Southern Red Oak The branches of this tree form an open, round-topped head with dark green, deeply cut leaves. The autumn color is dull orange to brown. Because it is a native, it has been used to some extent in landscape work. 80 PLATE XXVII Above: Quercus ile.r at Kew Gardens, London, England. Below: ~luerevs alba, the native White Oak. Q. glandulifera ~5~ tree 5 Zone Japan, Korea and China Glandbearing Oak with open branching habit and lustrous green leaves A small, shapely color until late fall. which retain their Europe Holly or Holm Oak Roundheaded, with broad, spreading branches, this evergreen oak has been popular for centuries in southern Europe. The small, often holly-like leaves, although varying somewhat in size, are generally 1~ to 3 inches long and the tree takes shearing well. It does best in areas near the seashore where there is a high degree of atmospheric moisture. Q. ilex Zone 9 60' Southern Q. imbricaria i 5~ Zone 5 Central United States to those of mountain laurel, though somewhat longer, and have a russet fall color. The Shingle Oak makes an excellent windbreak and can be sheared to grow as a clipped hedge. There are many excellent reasons why it should be used much more in landscape work than it is at present. A round-topped, rather open tree when mature, but young, this excellent deciduous native tree is not grown much at one of the very best of the oaks. Its lustrous leaves are similar in Shingle Oak nicely pyramidal while present. It is shape Q. kellogii 90~ Zone 7 Oregon to California California Black Oak This is a dense roundheaded tree with stoutly spreading branches and with leaves similar to those of the Red Oak. This long-lived tree is used only on the Pacific Coast, where it does well in dry, sandy or gravelly soils. Q. laurifolia 60~ Zone i Virginia to Florida and Louisiana Laurel Oak The semi-evergreen, lustrous leaves of this species are mostly entire, 2 to 5~inches long, with some slightly lobed. It is often used as a street tree in the southeastern United States. The variety `Darlington' is sometimes listed as being more dense and compact and as retaining its leaves longer than the species. Q. liaotungensis 30~ Zone 5 Northeastern Asia Closely related to Quercus mongolica, this tree has foliage somewhat similar to that of Q. robur. A fifty-year-old specimen in the Arnold Arboretum is only about 30 feet tall, but has a nicely arched habit, with branches facing the ground on all sides. , Q. libani 30~ Zone 5 Syria and Asia Minor Lebanon Oak handsome, deciduous or half evergreen small tree are long, narrow, regularly toothed, about 2 to 4 inches in length and look from a distance like those of a willow. This, and Quercus phellos have the smallest leaves of any of the oaks growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Quercus libani is used extensively in England and does well there. The leaves of this ~zJ ~i to 0 :3c v 0 '\" .~ i a ~ a p 9 m a w \"\" a r~. a CI ... ~Eo< E~ ~ 0 Xz W cn 1; a~ os a, ~ x 0 U x y i m ;:s ~ h O~ W O x C C H w 4) a Q. nigra A conical to i 5r Zone 6 Delaware to Florida Water Oak Quercus velutina. It moist to wet sites. round-topped tree with small leaves 2 to 6 inches long, similar to is easily transplanted and is frequently used in the South on ; 5r Zone 4 Central and Mideastern United States Pin Oak Q. palustris One of the most beautiful of the oaks, this tree has a definitely dense and pyramidal habit, with low or drooping branches. Widely used as a specimen because of its graceful habit and brilliant red autumn color, when used in street tree plantings it should be placed far enough from the curb to prevent the drooping branches from obstructing traffic. It is at its best with the branches touching the ground on all sides. Q. phellos 90' 5 Zone Eastern Seaboard and Gulf States Willow Oak The Willow Oak is an excellent specimen or street tree having slender branches. It has a fine texture, with leaves 2 to 5~inches long, pointed at both ends like those of a willow and turning a dull yellow in the autumn. Q. prinus 90' 4 Zone Eastern United States Chestnut Oak Although this tree has a compact, round top and better foliage than Quercus muhlerrbergii, it does not have especially outstanding autumn color. It is useful in dry, rocky soils where better oaks will not grow well. Q. robur ; 5r-1 ~Or Zone 5 Europe English Oak A member of the White Oak group, this tree has an open, broad head with a short trunk and leaves 2 to 4 inches long and up to 2~ inches wide, with no autumn color. It is widely planted in Europe, but is not entirely satisfactory in the United States as far north as Boston where cold winters often seriously in,jure the plant. This fact was noted by Professor C. S. Sargent many years ago and certainly it has been true during the past twenty-five years also. However, it is long-lived in England, for there are some trees now living in Windsor Great Park which Sir Eric Savill estimates are over 1000 years old. Q. robur 'Fastigiata' - The Pyramidal English Oak, definitely upright and columnar in habit, has a shape similar to that of a Lombardy Poplar. Nearly 80% of the seedlings retain the upright habit of the parent tree. Q. robur ture with 'Asplenifolia' deeply This is called the Fern-leaved Oak and has lobed leaves. a fine tex- Q. robur 'Atropurpurea' - though such specimens appear to This tree is purported to have dark purple leaves, albe very rare in America. The tree in the Arnold 84] 3 J V = u h !!i d 1 3 F GG ce0 o N~ No M I% , i O iO O -a~ 3~ 'i ~ro G ? h _U _~ 1 O i _N .~1 p t Ej Va i g o'~ .P ~~~ O < F ~ ~i 'U e y G~ O C !~ O e S~ s~~ s .1 WV ro vb o r. 8 a v o~ Arboretum has faintly purplish green from that of the species. leaves, the color differing only slightly Q. robur 'Concordia' - This is the Golden English Oak, a weak grower, somescorching badly in very hot sun. The leaves are a bright yellow, especially in the early spring. An excellent specimen of this formerly grew near Highland Park in Rochester, New York, but small plants tried on several occasions in the Arnold Arboretum have invariably succumbed to winter killing and heavy sun scorch. times Q. robur `Pendula' - This is pears to be rare a form in the United States. Since reported to have pendulous branches. It applants of this variety apparently vary as orna- considerably, mentals. it is likely 120' that the poorer clones would have little value Q. shumardii Zone 5 Central and Southern United States Shumard Oak a Throughout Oak. its native habitat this tree makes good substitute for the Scarlet Q. suber 60' an Zone 7 Southern Europe, Northern Africa Cork Oak evergreen, roundheaded tree with massive branches, this plant requires full sun and semi-arid soil conditions in areas where the winter temperatures never drop below zero Fahrenheit. This tree is the source of cork for com- Usually merce and many are being planted experimentally 5 Zone in the southern United States. Q. variabilis i ~~ China, Korea and Japan Oriental Oak The foliage of this tree is dull green in color and of a size and shape resembling that of Castanea crenata. The interesting bark, only about z inch thick, is corky and very ornamental, showing off especially well in winter. Q. velutina100~-1 ~0~ 5 Zone Eastern and Central United States Black Oak One of the largest of the northern American oaks, this tree has lustrous green leaves which turn red in the fall. There is usually a deep tap root, making larger trees difficult to transplant. It is not a good tree for the small place. a Q. virginiana 60' Zonei Southeastern United States Live Oak A tree with massive trunk and branches, the spread of which is twice that of the height, this is evergreen in the far South aud deciduous in the northern limits of its habitat. Zone 7 California to New Mexico Interior Live Oak with glossy leaves and slow The Interior Live Oak is another evergreen oak growth. It is of use ornamentally only near the valleys of the southern California coastal region where it is native. DONALD ~ YMAN Q. wislizenii i 0~ 86 '~ a !S~ 8 ~~ ' <B' * s e . ~ o N xa o s~is ~ % R -s~~ .s\"'~ a~ ~ \" '~ m c ~d y S :J .N ~ C 1^v J'' C '. c~. ~ `~ O~ .~ ~ ~i w ~ .N ~,~1 y O ~D ~ U W .C C~E .' .o O ~ ~s p1 ~ y t~\" H C .o OO td .d Co y ~- ~.N t; '~ U O 8 ~7 -S.'s.~ G .o ~' ~ w ~ ~ Oi ~ ~.7 ~ i y' m '~ .o ~ I( .r a ~' ~' .oU ct .~-n 3 .N ~ .o ! ~ .~~ ~~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXII","article_sequence":13,"start_page":89,"end_page":95,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24374","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d2708128.jpg","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXII Illustrations Achillea millefolium, 52 are in bold face type. -, Agrostis alba, Alsike Clover, 50 50 Weeping, 4 Beeches, The Majestic, 1-7 Bellflower, European, 54 Berberis Althaea rosea, 54 Amoracia rusticana, 55 Anthoxanthum odoratum, 50 Aristolochia kaempferi, 54 thunbergii atropurpurea, 14 4 - - - `Erecta', 14 4 14 4 Asparagus officinalis, 54 Atropa belladonna, ~:i o Barberry, Bean's, 10 12 -, Black, -, Chenault, 10 4 , Curlleaf, 14 12 , Dainty, e -, Darwin, 12 -, Dwarf Magellan, 10 + -, Japanese, 14 e -, Jasperbells, 12 --, Korean, , Lolo~, 12 -, 'Red Bird', o -- beaniana, 10 10 o - buxifolia, - o nana,10 10 o 10 o - I - calliantha, candidula, - X chenaultii, 10; Plate I V, ~2 - concinna, 12 - darwinii, 12 - gagnepainii, 12; Plate IV, 13 13 S - gilgiana, - julianae, - 12 12 e 12 e koreana, Plate III, 1 1 ; 12 e - lmeanfolia, X lologensis, 12 e 12 Magellan, 10 -, Mentor, 14 -, Paleleaf, 10 -, Rosemary, 14 -, Warty, 16 -, V~'ildfire, 12 e -, W intergreen, 12 6 Barberries, 9-16 Beech, American, 2 -, Copper, 2 -, Cutleaf European, -, Dawyck, 4 -, European, 2 -, Oak-leaved, 4 -, Purple, 2 -, Roundleaf, 4 - X mentorensis, 14 - Recommended, 10 + - replicata, 14 Xstenophylla, 14 -, - thunbergii, 14; Plate V, - 15 5 'Crimson Pygmy, 16 6 - - - - 'Erecta', 'Globe', minor, 16 6 16 6 16 6 - - - - 'Thornless', 16 6 16 6 4 - - 'Variegata', 6 verruculosa, 16 13 ~3 -, Plate IV, Bellis perennis, 52 Betula davurica, 20 lenta, 20 - 89 Betula lenta - laciniata, 20 20 nigra, 20 - papyrifera, 18, pendula, - - 20 22 - - `Fastigiata', Plate VII, 21 - Gracilis', 'Purpurea', ` V oungii', 22 22 22 majus, 53 Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, Climbing Bittersweet, .i5 clo~ er, red, 50 -, white, 50 Cock's Foot Grass, 50 XVI, 44 Chelidonium 52 Cold Storage House, The, -12 ; Plate - - `Tristis', Plate ~'I, 19, - 22 - - - platyphylla japonica, szechuanica, 22 populifolia, 2~?, ?3 - 22 - Bindweed, Birch, Canoe, 20 -, Dahur~an, 20 -, European, 20 Gray, 22, 23 -, Itmer, 20 --, Sweet, 20 Birches Recommended, -, The, 1;-23 4 Birthwort, .~ 55 - - majalis, 54 Convolvulus, 55 Crataegus arnoldiana, 26 coccinoides, 28 crus-galli, 28 'Autumn Glory,' 32 X lavallei, 28 mollis, 28 - Convallaria - - monogyna, 28 30 - - 20 - - 'Biflora', 'Inermis', 30 'Stricta', 30 30 31 1 31 1 - - nitida, 30 oxyacantha, - Bittersweet, 5.~ Bonsai House, The, 42 ; Plate XVI1, 4~; 46 - `Pauln', - - 'Plena', Plate IX, 29; - - 'Punicea', 1 31 31 1 Buttercup, .53 -, Creeping, 52 Buttercups, :i2 Caly-steg~a sepium, 55 Campanula persicifolia, rapunculoides, 54 Canada Blue Grass, 50 Carex cary-ophyllea, 52 hirta, 52 - - phaenopyrum, Plate VIII, 2 i , - 'Fastigiata', 1 31 1 31 1 31 - pinnatifida major, Plate IX, 29; 31 1 54 - pruinosa, - punctata, - succulenta, 32 32 32 - `Toba', - viridis, muricata, 54 52 wattiana, 32 Carrot, Cat's Ear, 52 Celandine, Greater, -, Lesser, 53 53 Dactylis glomerata, Daisy, English, .52 -, Ox-Eye, 52 Dandelion, Fall, 52 Greenhouses, 50 Celastrus scandens, 55 Charles Stratton Dana Dana Greenhouses, Plate Daucus carota, 54 XIV, 41 I The, 33-48 Day-hly, 54 _90~ ] Deadly Nightshade, Deptford P~nk, 54 Dianthus armeria, 54 ~3 I - - - 'Roseo-marginata', Rotundifolia', 4 sanguinea, 7 4 - - i Dogwood, Tatarian, 66, 67 Dutchman's Pipe, 54 - - - - - - - - Fagus crenata, 6 engleriana, 6 grandifoha, 2 caroliniana, 6 pubescens, 6 - - - `Spaethiana', ` Tortuosa', 6 Tricolor', 7 6 - - japonica, 6 longipetiolata, 6 - lucida, 6 -, Not Recommended, 6, 7 - orientalis, 6 -, Recommended, 2-6 siebold~i, 6 - Classes, Fall, 68 Spring, 8, 24 Flag, Blue, 50 Gill-over-the-Ground, 52 Glasshouses, The, 38 Glechoma hederacea, 52 Grass, Sweet Vernal, 50 -, Timothy, 50 -, Velvet, 52 -, V~'hite Bent, 50 - F~eld -, - - sylvatica, 2 ; Plate I, 3 - albo variegata, 6 Greenhouses, new, 33-48 ; Plate X, 35, Plate XI, 37; Plate XII, 39; Plate XIII, 40; 42; Plate XV, 43 Ground - - 2 'Asplenifolia', Ivy, 52 - - - - - - atropurpurea, 6 atropunicea, 2 crispa, 6 Ground-breaking Ceremony, Plate - - - - 'Cristata', 6 ` Cuprea', `? dentata, 6 4 - - - - Fastigiata', incisa, 7 - - - - grandidentata, 6 7 heteropylla, ; - - - - - - - - ` Laciniata', 4 'Latifolia', 7 Luteo-variegata', 7 macrophylla, ! X, 35 Hawthorn, ~fi --, Dotted, 311 -, Downy, 28 -, English, 30 -, Fleshy, 32 --, Frosted, 311 -, Glossy, 30 -, Green, 32 -, Kansas, 28 -, I,arge Chinese, 7 28 31 - - nigra, 7 5 - - `Pendula', 4; Plate II, ~ 7 purpurea, - - - - - purpureo-pendula, 4 - - - - - - - - - ` Quercifolia', ` Quercoides', Rivers', 4 Rohani', 4 4 -, Lavalle, -, Single Seed, 28 1 -, Washington, 31 32 -, Watts, Hawthorns, 25 of Merit, 26-32 Hemerocallis fulva, 54 Herbaceous Aliens in the 49-56 7 Arboretum, Holcus lanatus, 52 91 Hollies, Wheeler, 46 Hollyhock, 54 Honeysuckle, Amur, 64 -, Arnold, 60 -, Blue-leaf, 64 -, Box, 64 -, Brown's, 60 -, Coralline, 60 -, Cream, 64 -, Creeping, 66 Dwarf Alps, 59 -, Everblooming, 6? -, Giant, 62 -, Golden, 62 Lily-of-the-Valley, 54 1 Linden, Big-leaf, 72 70 -, Crimean, -, Littleleaf European, -, Mongolian, 7~ 2 -, Pendant Silver, 72 72 -, Silver, Lindens, The, 69-76 Live-for-Ever, ~4 70 Lolium perenne, 50 Lonicera alpigena nana, 59; Plate XXII, 65 - Xamoena alba, 59 - -, Hall's 64 - X amoena 'Arnoldiana', 60 ; Plate XXI, 63 -, Henry, 62 -, Lilac, 66 -, Morrow, 64 -, Privet, 64 -, Pyrenees, 66 -, Sweet, 60 7 -, Tellman, 67 -, Tibet, 67 -, Trumpet, 66 -, Wmter, 62 - X bella candida, 60 X bella rosea, 60 ; Plate XX, 61 1 __ y -- brownii, 60 60 60 caprifolium, chrysantha, - `Clavey's Dwarf', 60 ; Plate XX, 61 ; Plate XXII, 6.~ - deflexicalyx, 'Dropmore', 60 - 60 ; 1'late 62 XXI, 63 - etrusca 'Superba', 62 62 _-, Y ellow, 62 -, Yunnan, 67 - -- flava, 62 fragrantissima, Honeysuckles, Flowering Shrub, 58, 59 - `Goldflame', -, Order -, Recommended, 59 -, The, 57-67 Horseradish, 55 Humulus japonicus, 55 Hypochoeris radicata, 52 Iris pseudacorus, 49 versicolor, 50 -, Y ellow, 49 Japanese Hop, 55 Kentucky Blue Grass, 50 Lavender, 58 Leontodon autumnalis, 52 - of Bloom, 59 Xheckrottii, 62 - henryi, 62 hildebrandtiana, 62 - japonica aureo-reticulata, halliana, 64 - 62 - - - - repens, 64 64 aurora, 64 zabelii, 64 - korolkowii, - - - - maacki~, 64 podocarpa, Plate XX, - morrowii, 64 - nitida, 64 - 61 1 - pileata, 92 64 Lonicera prostrata, 66 - -, English, -, 84 pyrenaica, 66 66 66 66 - 'Redgold', - - sempervirens, - sulphurea, - 'Superba', 66 66 - syringa wolfii, syringantha, - 66 7 tatarica, Plate XX, 61 ; 66, 67 alba, 67 i - - 'Arnold Red', Plate XX, 61 ; 67 - - - -- grandiflora, 67 7 leroyana, 67 lutea, 67 'Morden Orange', 67 7 nana, 67 - - Glandbearing, 82 -, Golden English, 86 , Ho113, 82 , Holm, 82 -, Interior Live, 86 -, Laurel, 82 -, Lebanon, 82 -, Live, 86 -, Oriental, Plate XXVIII, 83, -, Pin, 84 Red, 80 -, Sawtooth, 78 -, Scarlet, 80 -, Shingle, 82 -, Shumard, 86 -, Southern Red, 80 86 - - parviflora, rosea, 67 67 -, Spanish, 80 - - - - - - s~bir~ca, 67 X tellmanniana, 67 -, Swamp White, -, 1'urkeV, 80 -, Water, 84 -, 78 - - virginalis, 67 i - thibetica, 67 - tragophylla, 67 7 t9 - 7 y unnanens~s, 6 Loosestrife, Purple, 51 White,78 ; Plate XXVII, -, Willow, 84 Oaks Recommended, 78-87 -, The, 77-87, Open House, 8 Orchard Grass, 50 81 1 Lythrum salicaria, 49 ; Plate XIX, Ornithogalum officinale, 53 52 54 Majoram, Meadow -, Parsnip, 50 34 55 Marguerite, VV~ld, Foxtail, Pastinaca sativa, 55 Poa compressa, 50 - Mercer, Martha Dana, Mrs. William pratense, 50 55 R., 34 Queen Anne's Lace, 54, 87 Mullein, Giant, Oak, Black, 86 -, 54 Quercus acutissima, 7 8 ; Plate XXX, 82 - California Black, 8 78 Live, -, Canary, 80 -, Canyon Live, 80 -, Chestnut, 84 -, Cork, Plate XXVIII, 83, -, Engler's, 80 -, - - - - 86 - agrifolia, 78; Plate XXX, 87 alba, 78 ; Plates XXVII, 81 ; XXIX, 85; XXX, 87 arkansana, Plate XXIX, 85 bicolor, 78; Plates XXIX, 85; i XXX, 87 borealis, 80; Plates XXIX, 85; 93 i XXX, 8 Quercus canariensis, - 80 - i cerris, 80; Plate XXX, 87 Plate XXX, 87 i chrysolepis, 80 ; Plates XXIX, 85; coccinea, 80; XXX, - 8 i 85 80 dentata, Plate XXIX, velutina, Plate XXIX, 85 ; 86 ; 7 XXX, 8 7 virginiana, 86 ; Plate XXX, 8 wislizenii, 86 Ranunculus acris, 52 - bulbosus, 52 ficaria, Plate XIX, 51 : 53 - - engleriana, - - - - i falcata, 80 ; Plate XXX, 87 Plate XXX, 8 i garryana, glandulifera, 82; Plate XXIX, 85 imbricaria, 82 ; Plates XXIX, 85; - repens, 5 ~ Redtop, 50 Robinia pseudoacacia, Plate I 71 XXIII, - XXX, 87 - ilex, 81 ; Plates XXVII, 8?; i XXX, 8 kellogii, 82 82 - - i laurifolia, 82 ; Plate XXX, 87 Rorippa microphylla, 55 nasturtium-aquaticum, Rosemary, 53 Run-away-Robin, 5`! Rye-Grass, 50 3 Sage, 53 Salicaria, Spiked, 49 Scilla sibirica, .i4 Sedum purpureum, 54 Siberian Squ~ll, 54 55 - - liaotungensis, libani, 82 macrocarpa, - - - Plate XXIX, 85 marilandica, Plates XXIX, 85 ; i XXX, 8 montana, Plates XXIX, 85 ; XXX, 87 - - i nigra, 84; Plate XXX, 87 Plates XXIX, 85 ; palustris, 84 ; xxx, - s~ 84 84 phellos, prinus, Snowdrops, .53 Solanum dulcamara, 55 Star-of-Bethlehem, 5~. Stellar~a graminea, 52 Stitchwort, 52 Thorn, Cockspur, 18 -, Glastonbury, 30 Thyme, 53 Tilia americana, Plate -- - robur, 84; Plates XXIX, 85; XXIV, 73; 74 4 ampelophylla, 74 dentata, 74 XXX, 87 - - - 'Asplenifolia', `Atropurpurea', `Concordia', 86 'Pendula, 86 86 84 84 - - 'Fastigiata', 70 - - 4 macrophylla, 74 - 4 arnurensis, 74 4 carolimana, 74 - - 'Fastigiata', Plate XXVI, 79 ; - 84 - - chmensis, 74 8 cordata, 7 0 ; Plate XXIV, 73 - - shumardii, - - - - suber, Plate XXVIII, 83; 86; Plate XXX, 87 i Plates XXVI II ; 83 ; variabilis, i XXIX, 85; 86; XXX, 87 - - 4 ascidiata, 74 cordifolia, 74 - - `Pyramidalis', 74 70 - dasystyla, - 3 X euchlora, 70 ; Plate XXIV, 73 9~ ~ ] 4 TiliaXeuropaea, Plate XXIV,73; 74 - - - begonaefolia, 6 corallina, 76 6 76 X- pall~da, k 74 - - - X- 'Pendula', 0 70 - - - 4 X flacc~da, 74 4 X flavescens, 74 4 floridana, i 2 `Fastigiata', 7 -- ` Laciniata', 72 'Rubra', 72 - tortuosa, 76 - 'Handsworth', - 2 72 - - vit~folia, - - - - - 4 henryana, 74 subglabra, 74 heterophylla, 74 michauxii, 74 4 msularis, 74 - - `ftedmond', - 6 76 74 ( - tomentosa, 7 R ; Plates XXIV, 75 ; XXV, 75 - erecta, 72 - pendula, 76 - mtonsa, 76 6 - japonica, 76 X juranyana, - 6 - tuan, 76 6 76 I ' 6 chmensis, 76 Tilias Not Recommended, 74 - - kiusiana, 76 6 mandshurica, 76 - I Trifolium - 0 Recommended, 70 hybridum, 50 6 maximowicziana, 76 pratense, 50 1 XXIII, 71 miqueliana, 76 6 - X moltkei, 76 2 mongolica, i 6 monticola, 76 6 - ne~lecta, 76 6 - olweri, 76 Xorbicularis,76 - repens, 50 Ulmus americana, Plate Verbascum thapsus, Vetch, Tufted, 52 54 Vic~a cracca, 52 Viola odorata. 54 - paucicostata, 76 - petiolaris, 72 ; Plates XXIII, i 1 ; - XXIV,73 - 3 platyphyllos, i 2 ; Plate XXIV, i 2 - - aurea, i I Violet, Sweet, 54 Watercress, 55 Wheeler, W lfrid, 46 Woodbine, Chinese, 67 Yarrow, 52 Yorkshire Fog, 52 95 ~J "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23485","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ebb6e.jpg","title":"1962-22","volume":22,"issue_number":null,"year":1962,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Concerning the Registration of Cultuvar Names","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24355","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260b76d.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA Ei A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 21 JANUARY 20, 1961 NUMBER I CONCERNING THE REGISTRATION OF CULTIVAR NAMES International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants is an attempt a precise, stable and internationally acceptable system for the naming of plants under cultivation. The Code was drawn up by a special commission of the International Union of Biological Sciences in 1958 and has received general acceptance. One provision of this special code is the recognition of cultivar names (fancy names), for \"an assemblage of cultivated individuals which are distinguished by any characters (morphological, physiological, cytological, chemical or others) significant for the purposes of agriculture, forestry, or horticulture, and which, when reproduced (sexually or asexually), retain their distinguishing features.\" Such taxa have usually been considered as varieties or forms in the past. The Code now requires that after January 1, 1959, such fancy names must have a definite structure, be markedly different from the scientific name of a Latin forma, they should be distinguished in print by single quotation marks or the abbreviation \"cv.\" and follow prescribed rules of botanical and horticultural priority regarding their use and publication. Thus firm rules are now established to be followed in the naming of new varieties of cultivated plants. An Appendix to the Code recommends the compilation and publication by interested groups of lists of cultivar names in categories of cultivated plants which are of significance to horticulture, forestry or agriculture. Such lists, when compiled, will form the basis for future registration of distinctive cultivated plants under equally distinctive names. The lists should enable one to determine the validity of existing names which are to be regarded as cultivar names, establish the uniqueness or identity of plants with cultivar names and clearly indicate names which have been used previously within a genus and therefore may not be used again. Only a few such lists exist and none has been compiled in the United States since the adoption of the Code for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants by the Botanical and Horticultural Congresses. THE to prepare The Arnold Arboretum staff, under the sponsorship of the American Association of Botanic Gardens and Arboretums has been designated for a two year period as the National Registration Authority for all groups of woody ornamental plants not otherwise represented by special societies. Staff members are engaged in preparing lists of cultivar names for genera or species of interest to them. Furthermore, the staff is accepting for National Registration plant names submitted by nurserymen and others in groups for which no registration lists exist. For such groups a rapid though admittedly preliminary survey of existing names is made and a list compiled. At irregular intervals future issues of Arnoldia will include the lists of cultivar names prepared by staff members and others for various genera of ornamental woody plants. The purpose of this article is to point out for other compilers some of the problems encountered in the preparation of such lists and to the general reader the proper use and value of such lists. Procedure for the compilation of registration lists For groups not represented by societies the preparation of a list of ALL cultiinvolve considerable bibliographic work and can be a serious chalto the horticultural taxonomist. Only rarely have we found a monographer lenge or specialist with even a partial list already prepared. For most groups it is necessary to start at the beginning for the Code calls for the application of the principle of priority, the retroactive application of the rules, and a starting place in Philip Miller's Gardener's Dictionary, ed. 6, 1752, if no later list has been var names can accepted. The basic reference we have found most useful is Alfred Rehder's Bibliography of Cultivated Plants. The Arnold Arboretum maintains the card file of references on which this work was based. This file which contains many cultivar references that Rehder did not include in his publication, has been kept current, as far as possible, particularly with woody ornamental plants. The staff of the Arnold Arboretum will assist any compiler of cultivar lists with the references available in this file. The Royal Horticultural Society's Dictionary of Gardening, and Bean's Trees and Shrubs of the British Isles have proved to be of great value in this work. Among other modern treatments the work of Boom of Wageningen (e.g., Ned. Dendr., Benaming, Geschiedenis, etc.) and Kriissman's Handbuch der Laubgeholze, being published in parts, contain lists of cultivars recognized and in many cases described for the first time. For names used in American horticulture the editions of Hortus are useful. Current offerings of American nurserymen can be found in the several editions of Plant Buyers Guide although it must be acknowledged that all these names are without description or bibliographic reference, and extensive correspondence is necessary to determine the origin of many names. We appreciate the interest and cooperation we have received from the nurserymen whom we have contacted. According to the suggestions of the Code, registration lists should include the 2 of all the cultivars currently in cultivation, giving for each name the particulars required in the registration of a new cultivar, e.g., the names of the owner of the parental stock, the originator and the individual who described the plant; the year of registration of the parentage of the plant; any particulars regarding the testing of the cultivar or any awards it may have received as well as a description of the plant. Further, the registration authority is requested to include all the cultivars, which, although no longer cultivated are of historical importance as ancestors of existing cultivars, and finally, all known synonymy of the group. No existing registration list of cultivar names contains this information in full. Our goal in preparing lists is based on a taxonomic interest and will to the best of our ability : names 1. List all of the cultivar names which can be properly assigned where a to the genus. can 2. Indicate the earliest bibliographic reference description be found. 3. Signify the validity of the reference according to the Code of Nomenclature. possible. currently in cultivation in botanical 4. Indicate synonymy where 5. Note which cultivars are gardens or available 6. through briefly commercial sources. Indicate cultivar. the distinguishing characteristics used in describing the 7. Record the date and place of origin of the cultivar when possible. be suggested that for easiest reference two separate lists be prepared, one to alphabetical list of all the names properly considered as cultivars whether so described originally or not, and a second list to place the cultivars in the proper species or other category where possible, recording at the same time the bibliographic reference and other data mentioned above. The first list of cultivar names will allow a quick decision by the originator of a new plant who wishes It is an to register it, whether or not the name has been used before. The second list will be of greatest use for diagnostic and other taxonomic purposes. What names should go into a list The definition of a cultivar under the code is broad. Basically it is any plant under cultivation which can be distinguished morphologically, physiologically, chemically, or cytologically and be propagated to retain its distinctive features. Color, hardiness, taste, or chromosome numbers may be used as the basis of distinctiveness yet we know that color forms may depend on soil or other environ- 3 factors; hardiness may be a matter of microclimates; chromosome counts subject to error and while some can be checked many cannot, and chemical difference as expressed in odor or taste may vary with the environment. Nevermental are theless a name submitted for registration and based on one of these tenuous characteristics must be accepted and considered. The case of older cultivar names is no different. The horticultural judgment of a worker in the 18th century must also be accepted since the rules are retroactive. The Registration Authority is not responsible for the decision of whether the cultivar is new or different, only whether or not the name submitted is legitimate under the Code. The customer is always right\" and a name submitted in proper form must be accepted. A horticultural taxonomist working as a registration authority can and should express his judgment. The Code currently suggests that \"testing\" of cultivars be employed and the particulars reported. Unless the Registration Authority expresses an opinion in print the way is clear for repeated description of the same cultivar with only a change of name. The equation of older cultivars with plants bearing more modern names is difficult, but it is often possible and should be attempted. The bibliographic reference Cultivar names in registration lists are not required to carry the names of the original author or the author of any transfer for cultivar names in existence before January 1, 1959. There are advantages and disadvantages to this practice. It is already evident that taxa now recognized as cultivars were previously described as botanical varieties or forms. If the transfer of these names to a cultivar status was to be regarded as a distinction and bear the authors name the way would be open for the change of literally thousands of names of cultivated plants. The disadvantage is equally clear. Without the authors name the place of publication of the basionym and its description or typification remains obscure. We intend to offer where possible the oldest reference available containing the epithet now used as a cultivar name which also describes the plant. If the place of publication of the transfer of this basionym to cultivar status is known this will be retained in the files of the Registration Authority but will not be published. If the Code is changed in the future these references will be at hand. For cultivar names registered after January 1, 1959, the Code makes no specific suggestions regarding the form of publication of registration lists but calls for information on the describer and data on the characteristics of the plant. At a recent meeting of an international committee on plant registration and nomenclature it was decided that registration is publication for purposes of priority. The question of how such names are to be cited in technical horticultural literature remains unanswered. There are additional problems involving the questions of valid publication and authorship. The Code indicates in Articles 24-27 the requirements for publication. To be validly published the cultivar name is to be in a publication multi- 4 plied by any mechanical or graphical process and distributed to the public. Since January 1, 1959, the publication must be dated, at least to the year. It can be in any language. Only handwritten material, even though mechanically reproduced and newspapers are excluded. Therefore in the preparation of the registration lists of cultivar names ALL nursery catalogues prior to January 1, 1959 must be considered and since that date the majority of catalogues which are dated to the year. This presents a tremendous task to the compiler who must attempt to procure or survey catalogues from all countries in order to have an International Registration List based on the principle of priority recognized by the Code. Rehder and other horticultural taxonomists have accepted nursery lists, even price lists as the source of cultivar names. These references must be re-examined by the compiler of registration lists. Names which are commonly known with the following abbreviation \"hort.\" have often been validly described by Rehder and Bailey in familiar horticultural encyclopedias but equally validly described under the present rules at an earlier date in nursery catalogues. The amount of bibliographic research required to do a careful job in the preparation of either a National or International Registration list under the present rules must not be under-estimated. An additional difficulty comes in the encounter and acceptance of names described by anonymous authors in uncredited publications. \"Spath\" is commonly cited as the authority for names used in catalogues through several generations of Spath ownership of a nursery. Whether or not a particular Spath actually published the description of a new cultivar is as difficult to determine as the author of a current catalogue of an existing nursery. A cultivar name validly described and published only a few years ago in the catalogue of an imaginary and authorless Johnny Jump Up Garden Center must be considered and listed. It appears that anonymous authorship should be accepted if a useable reference to the place of publication of a cultivar name can be cited. Legitimate and illegitimate names A cultivar name is legitimate if it conforms with the provisions of the Code. The cultivar name theoretically can be rejected if it is illegitimate by not conforming to the Code. Three examples of categories to be termed illegitimate names have been found in the preliminay registration work which we have done. A name can be considered illegitimate under the Code if it does not carry a description upon publication. For names created since January 1, 1959 the rejection of invalid names appears simple unless one considers the possibility of the same name being validly published elsewhere. It is not unusual to find names widely used in books on horticulture, handlists of botanical gardens and even in scientific publications which have not been legitimately published. We suggest that all of these names be included in the registration lists but designated as nomina nuda, thereby calling attention to the name. It is hoped the users of registration lists will call attention as to places of valid publication for such names they are encountered. A second category of illegitimate names are those transfers of true botanical varieties or forms to cultivar status. In several groups which have been studied recently modern authors have listed as cultivars native wild plants which are not known in cultivation. We do not believe that every plant in cultivation deserves a cultivar name nor do we subscribe to the hypothesis of a typical cultivar with segregated cultivars appropriately named. The third category of illegitimate cultivar names encountered are those which are validly published since January 1, 1959 but do not conform to the rules. The rules of horticultural nomenclature are new and errors will be made. It appears desirable to be lenient until the rules are well known by suggesting changes to current authors and listing the illegitimate name as such in a registration list designating as well the legitimate substitute. Duplication of cultivar same names The Code suggests in Article 19 that \"within a genus or hybrid genus the cultivar name must not be used more than once without permission from the official registration authority, if such exists, and only when one or more of the following conditions obtain : a. the cultivars belong to subdivisions of a genus which are so markedly different as to provide wholly different groups; b. the first cultivar is no longer known to be in cultivation.\" Therefore with no registration authority for most genera of woody ornamental plants a cultivar name cannot be used a second time in a genus. From January 1, 1959 onwards this presents no real difficulty for newly described cultivars. However, the wisdom of allowing the repetition of a name when a plant is thought to be out of cultivation is questionable for two reasons : botanical gardens tend to maintam varieties long after they have passed from commercial favor, and the difficulty of citation when names must bear \"sensu\" citations of equal status. Prior to 1959 many duplications of cultivar names exist in such descriptive names as variegata, fastigiala, pendula, rubra, etc. The current rules do not permit the modern usage of names in latin form. They do provide for the change of a name when an earlier name is an exact duplicate (Recommendation 33A). We have no intention of implementing this option and will continue to recognize duplicate names within one genus fully expecting that future horticultural congresses will accept committee recommendations to apply the no-duplication rule at the specific level. The Registration lists which we publish will contain many duplicate names and often several repetitions of a name within the genus but not within the species. Some hybrids in cultivation proximity Botanical gardens and arboreta maintain collections of species which by their to one another and their genetic relationship may cross spontaneously 6 by a horticulturist. In the genus Cornus for example there are five described by Rehder which originated in botanical gardens and for which hybrids the parent species are suggested. Rehder considered these hybrids as species and so described them. The plants are not outstanding in quality and no breeder has seen fit to duplicate the cross. However, the plants have been propagated vegetatively and distributed to other arboreta. These plants fit the description of a cultivar in its broadest sense, i.e., they originated in cultivation and in fact are known only in cultivation. It does not seem appropriate to include such examples in a list of cultivar names at the present time. The Code provides a means of handling such taxa as \"groups\" or \"grex\" if the cross is repeated with different results or if selections are made from variations resulting from mutations or sexual propagation of the original plants. It is obvious that many \"species\" in other genera must be handled in this manner with the cultivar name following the group name as suggested in Article 13. or be crossed Patented plants and their names American registration authorities are faced with another problem regarding culthar names published in the medium of the plant patent act. Currently a plant patent may be issued to either a named or unnamed plant or even to one designated by a number. We have records of many patented plants which the originator chose not to distribute. One case has come to our attention where a nursery distributed a plant under one fancy (cultivar) name which was validly described and published in their catalogue but they subsequently patented the plant under a different cultivar name. Plants are available today from commercial sources under both cultivar names. According to the Code and its regulations regarding priority of names the patented name should be rejected. Business practices being what they are the use of the patented name will continue, illegitimate or not. Registration lists should contain all designations included in the registry of plant patents. The typification of cultivars When accepting a name for registration it has been our practice to request an herbarium specimen to be considered as the type specimen of the cultivar, and plant material for propagation or testing within our area. If the herbarium specimen cannot be supplied one of the propagants is designated as the plant from which a type specimen is to be collected. We state that future propagants of these plants will not be distributed without the consent of the person registering the plant. We recognize there are many inadequacies to type specimens of cultivars when the cultivar is based on characteristics not adequately preserved such as color, odor, hardiness or chromosome number. Nevertheless the herbarium specimen is better than no specimen at all for future taxonomic work which may involve the assignment of a plant to the proper genus or species. We have been fortunate to receive excellent cooperation in our requests for herbarium specimens 7 suggest all registration authorities make such requests. The Arnold Arbowilling to accept such specimens for permanent deposit in Its herbarium of cultivated plant specimens and will furnish such material on loan to other and we retum is qualified scholars. Summary The , a list of cultivar names for any genus of ornamental plants bibliographic problem of great magnitude. There are obstacles in following literally the Code for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants which suggest that some changes should be made in the Code by future Horticultural and Botanical Congresses. The Registration lists to be of greatest value should be as complete as possible, not only in the cultivar names included but in the data supplied for each entry. There is a place in this work for the expression of taxonomic judgment and the efforts of horticultural taxonomists in the preparation of such lists is solicited. It is important to note, however, that the registrar will depend on the cooperation of the nurserymen and those persons who introduce and name plants in cultivation. The product produced, a registration list of cultivar names, will be a major contribution to the clarification of our knowledge of a group of cultivated plants and will be of benefit to the plant breeder, the commercial grower and the amateur as well as the professional horticulturist. compilation of represents ~mtially a RICHARD A. HOWARD "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Cornus L.","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24361","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d2608926.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University 1 VOLUME 21 JANUARY 27, 1961 NUMBER 2 REGISTRATION LISTS OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN CORNUS L. used in compiling the list of names applied to cultivars in a have been discussed in a previous article (Arnoldia, XXI, No. I), in which some of the problems encountered were also indicated. Two lists are given in this treatment of cultivar names in Cornus. The first is an alphabetical listing of the older names applied to cultivated plants as well as the more recent easily recognizable cultivar names. Each name is followed by the parenthetical reference to the species involved. The asterisk indicates that the cultivar is currently grown in the United States and is available under that name from commercial sources or from botanical gardens or arboreta. According to the rules of nomenclature for cultivated plants, these cultivar names cannot be used again in the genus. The second list gives the species and their associated cultivars in alphabetical sequence, with the earliest bibliographic reference for the cultivar. Most of these taxa have been described as botanical varieties or forms. No attempt has been made to indicate whether or where these botanical taxa have received new status as cultivars, since the rules make no provision for author citation of such changes. However, many of the references cited are for earlier basionyms than those given m Rehder's \"Bibliography of Cultivated Plants. \" Many of the epithets are designated as illegitimate,\" being nomina rruda, or being used incorrectly as cultivars when the names are based on native plants. For the purposes of registering cultivar names, even the illegitimate use of an epithet precludes its use for any other cultivar within the genus. A brief phrase follows each reference in the second list to indicate the principal characteristics used originally to define or distinguish the cultivar. It should be noted that the hybrid species Cornus arnoldiana Rehd., C. dubia Rehd., C. ~lunbarii Rehd., C. horseJi Rehd., and C. slavinii Rehd., although described from plants in cultivation, are not mcluded in this list as cultivars. In the future if selections are made from these hybrid species and named as cultivars, or THE principles genus - if the cross is repeated with different results, then the hybrid parent species should be considered as a group, in accordance with Articles 13 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. It is obvious that in an initial effort to compile a registration list some errors will be made and others maintained. If older references are available to some of the people using this list, the author will appreciate receiving any additions and\/or corrections. As additional epithets are received for registration in Cornus, supplementary lists as well as corrections will be published in future issues of Arnoldia. Alphabetical List 10 Alphabetical List (cont.) Bibliographic List Cornus alba Linnaeus, Mant. Pl. 40. I i 6 i . Hort. 1 : 378. `Angust~petala'=C. stolongf'era `Angust~petala.' 'Argenteo-marginata' (Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Am. scribed as 1900), dwarf, de- having \"leaves edged in white.\" `Atrosangmnea' (Bean in R. H. S. Dict. Gard. 2: 546. 1951), a with brilliant crimson stems. 11 I Behnschi' (St. Olbrich, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 7: 96. 1898), originated at Zurich, Switzerland; leaves purplish, marbeled. 'Bowood' (Wyman, Amer. Nurseryman 111(9): 110. 1960~, illegit. as a nomen nudum. `Elata' = C. stolonifera `Elata.' 'Elegans' (Spath, Cat. 87. 1913-16), originated at Spath nursery; described as having \"variegated foliage.\" 'Elegantissima' (Bay State Nurs. Cat. 1906, Massachusetts)='Argenteomarginata.' Elegantissima variegata' (Hort. ex Rehder in Ba~ley, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 2: 8:i3. 1914), illegit. in syn. of `Argenteo-marg~nata.' `Elongata' = C. stolonifera `Elongata.' 'Froebeli' (Bean, Trees & Shrubs 1 : 384. 1914)=`Gouchaulti.' 'Gibbsii' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 34: ccxl. 1909), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Exhibited by Vicary Gibbs, Elstree, England 1908. Gouchaulti' (Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1888: 519. 1888) France. \"Beautifully streaked with yellow and red or various hues.\" 'Kesselringi' (E. Wolf, Izv. Leningr. Leisn. Inst. 15: 238. 1907), described as having the dark leaves and stems of C. Hessei. Originated as seedlings of C. alba sibirica at St. Petersburg, Russia. 'Rosenthalii' (Schwerin, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 5: 38, 77. 1896), originated in Vienna. Described as having broad yellow or gold margins to the leaves. Sibirica' (Loddiges red with a ex Loudon, Arb. Brit. 2: 1012. 1838), shoots \"orange bloom.\" 'Sibirica elegantissima' (Bunyard, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 18: 86. 1895), originated at Maidstone, England. Described as \"silvery leafed.\" 'Sibirica variegata' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 18: 69. 1895)= Gartenb. 4 : 20. 1885), originated at the Spath arboretum in I 884. Distinguished by the young leaves being bronze in color and at maturity being golden margined or mostly yellow-gold in color. `Spaethn aurea' (Halloway, Arb. Bull. 19: 120. 1956). Growing at Plainfield, New Jersey ; described as having yellow-edged leaves. 'Tricolor' (Bean, loc. cit.)=`Gouchaulti.' 'Variegata' (Wolf, Izv. Leningr. Leisn. Inst. 15: `?28. 1907) _ `Argenteo- ` A rg enteo-marginata.' 'Spaethii' (Spath, I11. Dlonatsh. marginata.' 'Variegata (Anonymous, Pl. Buyers Guide 1938). Illegit. as a nomen ` Argenteo-margmata.' 6Westonbirt' (Hillier Nurs. Cat. 1950, Winchester, England). Stems coral red ; aurea' nudum= original selection made at Westonbirt, England. 12 Cornus alternifolia Linnaeus f., Suppl. Pl. 135. 1 7 81. `Albo-marginata' (Hesse ex Schelle in Beissner et al Handb. Laubh. Ben. 365. 1903), illegit. as a nomen nudum='Argentea.' `Albo-variegata' (Hort. ex Schelle, ibid.), illegit. as a nomen nudum=`Argentea.' 'Argentea' (Rehder scribed as in Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Am. Hort. having \"white marked foliage.\" 1 : 159. 1 : 377. 1900), de- 'Corallina' (Aiton, Hortus Kewensis 1789), described as being \"red twigged. \" 'Ochrocarpa' (Rehder, 5 Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 1907 : 75. 1907), \"pale muddy yellow fruit\" ; originated at Seneca Park, Rochester, New York, 190 7 . `Ochroleuca' (Rehder in Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 2: 853. 1914)=`Ochrocarpa.' 'Umbraculifera' (Dieck., Haupt. Kat. Zoschen 31. 1885), characterized as having the branches in conspicuous tiers. Originated at Zoschen Bot. Gard., Zoschen, Prussia. 'Variegata' (Waracek, Gartenwelt 19: 58. 1915)='Argentea.' 'Virescens' (Aiton, Hortus Kewensis I : 159. 1789), branches green Cultivated Cornus since in color. 1760 by James Gordon, England. Dict. ed. 9, C. no. 5. 1768. Kew Hand-list Trees, 2nd ed. 413. amomum Miller, Gard. 'Angustifolia' (Nichols., a nomen 1902), illegit. as nudum. `Grandiflorum (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. 'Grandifolia' (Nichols., loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. `Parvifolia' (Nichols., loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. `Undulifolia' (Nichols., loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum; Koehne, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 12: 48. 1903. Leaf margin undulate. Originated in the Spath Arboretum, Germany. 'Xanthocarpum' (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Cornus 'Aurea' ramea.' Cornus (Moons Nurs. Cat. 1913, Morrisville, Pa.)=C. stolonifera `Flavi- 'Aurora' (Rose Hill sfolonifera `Flaviramea.' Nurs. Cat. Spr. 1956, Minneapolis, D9inn.)=C. Cornus brachypoda =C. controversa ` Cornus controversa 'Variegata' (Paul, Variegata.' Hemsley, Trees & Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 16: clxix. 1893) Kew Bull. 1909: 331. 1909. `Var~egata' (Bean, Shrubs, 1 : 387. 1914). Characterized as having 13~] narrow, lanceolate leaves with irregular origmated in England prior to 1893. yellowish white border. Apparently Cornus 'Fastigiata' (Anonymous, nudum. Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 43 : 419. 1919), illegit. as a nomen Cornus flor~da Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 117. 1753. 'Alba plena' (Halloway, Gard. Club. Am. Bull. ata.' 38: 17. 1950)='Pluribracte- 'Ascending' (Scanlon, Registered terized gree by having a 1952, Am. Assoc. Nurserymen ~365), characstrong central leader with branches emerging at 30 de- angle. 'Aurea variegata' (Brimfield as a nomen Nurs. Cat. 1958, ~'ethersfield, Conn.), ~llegit. nudum. 'Belmont Pink' (Wyman, loc. cit., possibly Hicks Nurs. Cat. 19~?0, Westbury, L.I., New York), bracts pale pink. 'Cherokee Chief' (Plant Patent 1710, 1958. I. Hawkersmith, 4~'inchester, Tenn.), described as having bracts \"beautiful deep red, new growth a bright red.\" 'Cherokee Princess' (Tenn. Valley Nurs. Cat. Fall 1959, Winchester, Tenn.). a selection of the white-flowering dogwood. `Compacti' (Plant Patent 1387, 1958. Alex. Toth, Madison, Ohio) as Cornus `compacti.' Characterized as a \"dwarf form\" and considered by the Holden Arboretum as \"C. florida nana.\" 'De Kalb Red' (Plant Patent 965, 1950. Eugene Muller, Norristown, Pa. Registered 1960, J. H. Kirsh, De Kalb Nurseries Inc., Norristown, Pa.). Characterized as having a semi-dwarf habit and deep, rich, heavy, wine-red bracts. 'Fastigiata' (Wyman, Registered scribed 1910. as 1949, Am. Assoc. Nurserymen #174), dehaving an upright branching habit. Originated Arnold Arboretum Amer. Nurseryman III (9): 110. 1960), supposed to larger bracts, the inflorescence and bracts to 6~~ across; plant from the Phipps Estate, Long Island, N.Y., around 1932. 'Hillenmeyer' (Tenn. Valley Nurs. Cat. Fall 1959-Spr. 1960, Winchester, Tenn.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. 'Magnifica' (Wyman, loc. cit.), described as having \"full rounded bracts, 4~~ from tip to tip\"; originated on the Phipps Estate, Long Island, N.Y., 'Gigantea' (Wyman, have around 1926. 'Moon' (Howell Nurs. Cat. 1942, Konxville, Tenn.), described as an \"unusually large floriferous strain.\" 'Nana' (Lipp, Arb. Leaves 2: l3. 1960), \"A five to six foot mounded tree.'' Received as C. 'compacti' q.v. 14 'New Hampshire' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyers Guide 1958, illegit. as a nomen nudum; Wyman, loc. cit. ), distinguished by its hardiness in a northern location ; selected from native material m New Hampshire. 'Pendula' (Jager (?), Weiner, Illustr. Garten-zeit. 12 : 508-51 1. 188 i ), characterized by its pendant branches ; selected from material received in Vienna from New Jersey. 'Plena' (Tenn. Valley Nurs. Cat. Fall 1959-Spr. 1960), illegit. as a nomen nudum, ='Pluribracteata.' Arn. Arb. 7 : 243. 1926), large bracts 6-8 with additional smaller bracts ; flowers more or less completely aborted ; originated in Orange County, North Carolina, before 1914. Prosser' (Kruss., loc. cit.)='Prosser Red.' Described by Kriissman as having carmine red bracts. Plants received from Hess Nursery, Wayne, N.J. 'Prosser Red' (Halloway, Arb. Bull. 19: 120. 1956). The earliest use of the name but with an inadequate description; e.g., \"good color but slow establishing.\" All material originally from the Prosser property near the Fairgrounds, Knoxville, Tenn. First discovered in the wild about the time of the First World War. 'Rich-Red' (Weston Nurs. Cat. 1960, Hopkinton, Mass.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Rosea' (Carriere & Andre, Rev. Hort. 1891 : 369. 1891~, characterized by rose-colored bracts, described in France from material received from Flushing, N.Y. 'Rose Valley' (F. & F. Nurs., Cat. Autumn 1945, Holmdel, N.J.), characterized by having light pink bracts. 'Rubra' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1 : 73. 1770; Kruss., loc. cit.). This name should not be used as a cultivar. Although Weston described it on the basis of cultivated material, the plant is known in the wild from pre-Linnean references as well as from modern observations and has been treated as Cornus ,florida forma rubra (Weston) Palmer & Steyermark. `Sal~cifolia' (Kammerer. Morton Arb. Bull. Pop. Inform. 25: 18. 1950), distinct in having \"narrow willowlike leaves\" ; apparently originated at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois. Super Red' (Hillenmeyer Nurs. Cat. Spr. 1960, Lexington, Kentucky), distinct as a \"better red.\" 'Variegata' (Westbury Rose Nurs. Cat. Fall 194i, Westbury, L.I., New York, characterized by its\"variegated leaves.\" 'Weaver' (Glen St. Marys Nurs. Cat. 1941, Glen St. Marys, Florida), described as being stronger and having \"bronze foliage with larger and more numerous blooms\" ; distinct as being hardy in Florida; selected from the wild. `~'eeping' (Meehan, Gard. Monthly ~3: `?~9. 1881), illegitimate. Original Pluribracteata' (Rehder, Jour. publication was descriptive only; = 6Pendula.' 15 Welchii' (Cole Nurs. Cat. 198 i , Painesville, Ohio), described as having \"leaves green, creamy-white and pink.\" 'White Cloud' (Wayside Nurs. Cat. 1946, Mentor, Ohio). Distinct in having bronze foliage. `V~'illsii' (Kruss., Deutsch. Baumsch. 1955: 220. 1955), leaves irregularly white-edged and somewhat wrinkled; probably the same as 'Welchii.' 'Xanthocarpa' (Rehder, basis of the Jour. Arnold Arb. 2: 179. 19~ 1 ). Distinct in on the yellow fruit. Described from material collected 1919. ex Saluda, North Carolina Cornus kousa 1873. m (Buerger Miquel) Hance, Jour. Linn. Soc. Lond. Bot. 13 : 105. `Chinensis' (Authors). Illegitimate. This is a recognizable botanical variety with a geographic range and should not be considered a cultivar. 'Milky Way' (Wayside Gardens Cat. 1961: 100. 1961). \"An outstanding specimen\" selected from the \"better forms\" of C. kousa chinensis. 'Rubra' (Blackburn, Popular Gard. 3: 66. 1952). Selected by J. Hohman about 1940. 'Speciosa' (Pl. Buyers Guide 1958). Illegitimate as a nomen nudum. 'Variegata' (Wyman, loc. cit.), described as having variegated foliage; at the Arnold Arboretum grown at from cuttings obtained from a cultivated plant Westwood, Mass. 1948. `Viridis' (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Vfyman's citation was based on a plant in the Arnold Arboretum which is scarcely worth a description. It was grown from seeds received from Locust Valley, N.Y., in 1923. `Xanthocarpa' (Kriiss. Handb. Laubgeh 1 : 345. 1960), distinguished by the yellow fruit. Plant originated in the Netherlands. Cornus mas Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 117. 1753. 'Alba' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1: 73. 1770), white-fruited form. 'Albocarpa' (Schneider, III. Handb. Laubh. 2: 4.51. 1909)='Alba.' 'Andrzejowski' (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegitimate. Not a cultivated plant. 'Argentea' (Brimfield Nurs. Cat. 1954, Wethersfield, Conn.), illegitimate as a nomen nudum ; ='Variegata.' Argenteo-marginata' (Schneider, loc. cit. ~_ `Variegata.' 'Argenteo-variegata' (Kirchn., Arb. Muskau 420. 1864), distinct in having leaves with a broad white edge; origin 'Aurea' (Anonymous, Jour. Roy. Hort. nomen unknown. Soc. 18: I~. 1895), illegit. as a nudum. 'Aureo-elegantissima' (Moore, Flor. & Pomol. 1877 : 109. 1877), described as having the early leaves golden-edged, but these become flushed with carmine on maturity. Originated in 1869 at the Isleworthy Nursery, Hammersmith, England. 16 'Crispa' (Dippel, leaves. Laubh. Ill. ~?46. 1893), characterized by having crisped 'Elegans-tricolor' (Kammerer, Mort. Arb. Bull. Pop. Inform. 13: 18. 1938), illegit. as nomen nudum; _ `Aureo-elegantissima.' 'Elegantissima' (Nichols. I11. Dict. Gard. 1 : 379. 1884~ _ `Aureo-elegantissima.' `Flava' (Weston, Bot. Univ. 1 : 73. 1770), distinct in its yellow fruits. 'Lanceolata' (Groenland, Rev. Hort. 1862: 386. 1862), characterized by its narrow leaves; originated in France. 'Lanceolata albo-marginata' (Kirchn., Arb. Muskau 421. 1864), distinct in having narrow leaves which have a narrow, whitish border. Origin unknown. 'Luteocarpa' (Schneider ex Wangerin, Engl. Pflanzenreich IV. 229 : 79. 1910) = ` Flava.' 'Macrocarpa' (Dippel, Handb. Laubh. 3: ~?45. 1893=`Flava.' `Mietzschii,' see C. sanguinea `Mietzschii.' 'Nana' (Carriere, Rev. Hort. 1879: 300. 1879), described as a \"spherical bush\"; originating in France. `Polonica' (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegitimate; not a cultivated plant. `Polonica minor' (Wyman, loc. cit.), illegitimate; not a cultivated plant. `Pyramidalis' (Dippel, loc. cit.), distinct in its upright, only slightly spreadmg habit. Bot. Univ. I ; 73. 1770), fruit a deep red color. 'Sphaerocarpa' (Krilss., loc. cit.), illegitimate; not a cultivated plant. `Variegata' (Loudon, Arb. Brit. 2: 1015. 1838), described as having `Rubra' (Weston, the \"leaves edged in yellow or white.\" 'Violacea' (Jager, Ziergeholze 1 7 4. 1865). Characterized by having blue fruits. 'Xanthocarpa' (Bean, Cultivated in Moscow Botanic Garden in 1865. Trees & Shrubs I : 391. 1914), fruit low ; probably the same as `Flava.' a clear bright yel- Cornus nuttallii Audubon, Birds Am. 4: t. 467. 1837. 'Eddiei' (Certificate of Registration, Canadian Hort. Council, June 1925; Vrughtman, Deutsch. Baumsch. 9: 197. 1957, distinct in having foliage variegated with white. Selected from the wild in 1923. `Winkenwerderi' (Metzger, Arb. Bull. 9: 31. 1946), illegitimate as a nomen nudum. Cornus Slavin's N.Y., Lamarck, Encycl. Meth. Bot. 2: 116. 1766. Dwarf' (Harkness, Am. Rock Gard. Soc. Bull. 12: 15. scribed as a dwarf less than 30~~ high. Grown from seed sown at racemosa 1954), de- Rochester, in 1918. 17 Cornus sanguinea Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 171. 1753. Aldenham House Garden Surplus Pl. 5. 1915), original reference unavailable. Described by Rehder as having branches of a deep red color. 'Mietzschii' (Schwerin, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 5: 77. 1896, based on C. mas mietzschii Schwerin, Gartenfl. 1894: 556. 1894~, distinct in having leaves marbled with white, gray or green streaks. Originated in Germany. 'Variegata' (Weston, Bot. L'niv. 1 : 73. 1770), described as having variegated leaves. 'Viridissima' (Dieck. Haupt. Kat. Zoschen 31. 1885). A variety with greenish branches. 'Atrosanguinea' (Gibbs, Cornus sibirica, see C. alba 'sibirica.' 'Coral Beauty' (Wayside Nurs. Cat. 1957, Mentor, Ohio), nym for C. alba `Westonbirt.' a commercial syno- Cornus stolonifera Michaux, Fl. Bor. Amer. 1 : 92. 1803. `Angust~petala' (E. Wolf, Izv. Leningr. Leisn. Inst. 15: 228. 1907). Selected at Leningrad around 1900 from plants grown from seed received from North America. Distinguished by the smaller corolla with sharply pointed petals and the smaller endocarp. 'Elata' (Koehne, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 12: 39. 1903), plant with green stems, leaves 5-6-nerved, upper leaf surface dull, fruit blue. Originated in the Spath Arboretum. Elongata' (Koehne, ibid.), plant with green stems, the leaves 2.5times longer than broad or longer. Originated in the Spath Arboretum in 1892. 'Flaviramea' (Spath ex Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. Am. Hort. 1: 377. 1900), branches yellow. `Kelseyi' (Kelsey-Highlands Nurs. Cat. 1939, E. Boxford, Mass.), low-growing plant of dense foliage. `Kelseydwarf' (Standardized Pl. Names 1942, nomen nudum ; DZorton Arb. Bull. Pop. Inform. 2 i : 20. 1952) _ `Kelsey i.' 'Nana' (Pl. Buyer's Guide 1958), illegit. as a nomen nudum= `Kelseyi.' 'Nitida' (Koehne, loc. cit.), oldest stems green. Originated in Germany. 'Pendula' (Elliot in Bailey, Stand. Cycl. Hort. 2: 852. 1914), described as a low shrub with pendulous branches. 'Repens' (Wyman, loc. cit). Originally described as a wild plant and not yet known In cultivation. Cornus 'Xanthocarpa' (Halloway, florida `Xanthocarpa.' Gard. Club. Amer. Bull. 38 : 17. 1950) = C. RICHARD A. HOWARD 18 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Tree Legumes in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":19,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24366","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270ab26.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wagenknecht, Burdette L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA _ I> A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University MARCH 17, 1961 NUMBER 3 THE TREE LEGUMES IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM trees VOLUME 21 1 and shrubs in the Arnold Arboretum include, insofar as possible, of all the woody plants known to be hardy in the Boston area. Many of these plants not only enhance the beauty of the garden, but are arranged in family or generic collections for greater ease in conducting scientific or horticultural studies. Several of these areas have become of special interest to visitors. The legumes seldom attract the casual visitor, who is lured to the garden by the breathtaking beauties of the lilacs and the Oriental cherries, but it offers much to those with time enough to examine it carefully. Located in the loop formed by the Meadow Road as it meanders down to the ponds and then turns to climb past the forsythias and the lilacs, this area contains seven genera and approximately forty-four species, varieties or cultivars. THE specimens Cercis In the spring the first of this group to flower and the one best known to Arboretum visitors is the red-bud or Judas tree, Cercis canadensis. The showy magenta flowers appear in umbel-like clusters along the bare branches. Often flower clusters can be found arising from buds on the trunk and from the base of the tree, as well. When the foliage appears, it, too, is very attractive. The simple, heartshaped leaves are easily distinguished from the compound leaves generally associated with the legumes. Although the specific epithet indicates that this plant is native in Canada, it occurs there only in southern Ontario near the Great Lakes, but is more frequently found in the southeastern section of the United States as far north as Connecticut and reaching westward into southern V'~sconsin. Cladrastis In this collection the genus Cladrastis is represented by three species, all of which produce panicled racemes of white flowers during the early summer. The Cladrastis takes its name from the Greek klndos, a branch, and thraustos, fragile, 19 are bent even slightly they break under the strain. The of this genus is C. luleu, the yellow-wood, a native of the area widely grown encompassed by Kentucky, Tennessee and North Carolina, which attains an average height of thirty feet. The pendulous panicles of this species, often sixteen inches long, consist of fragrant, pea-like white flowers. In addition to its showy flowers, the tree has clear yellow foliage m the fall while the light gray trunk gives it an attractive appearance in winter. One cultivar, known as 'Rosea,' has originated in the species. This is a tree growing on the grounds of the Perkins Institute for the Blmd in Watertown, Massachusetts, which has pink flowers with golden yellow bases. No specimens of this selection are grown in the Arboretum at present, but as soon as the plants in the nursery reach the proper size, they will be added to the collection. Cladraslis sinensis and C'. plalycarpa represent the east Asian members of the genus. Mature trees of the Asiatic species can be distinguished from the native by their upright inflorescences. The Arboretum's only specimen of C. s~inensis is quite a recent, and as yet immature, addition to the group, but will soon contribute much-branched panicles of pinkish-white flowers to the summer scene. The flowers of C. plafycarpa are not nearly so attractive as those of C. lulea, for they are neither so large nor so numerous and the brownish-green calyx covers a portion of the corolla, but they appear in late June or early July when few trees are in bloom. since when the branchlets most Maackia The Maackia, named for the Russian naturalist Robert Maack, is less well known and less frequently planted than Clndraslis. All natives of As~a, the Maackias produce white flowers which are borne in dense, upright racemes, several of which usually unite to form a terminal panicle, and while the ~nflorescences and the individual flowers are smaller than those of Clndrn.slis, their flowering in late July or early August makes them a welcome addition to the garden. Of the two species in the Arboretum collection, M. ckinensis, a native of central China, has 11-18 leaflets on each leaf and three-quarter-inch-long flowers, while lVl. amurensis, a native of Manchur~a, has i-11 leaflets, with flowers half an inch long. Maackia amurensis var. bueggeri, differing from the species in having more obtuse leaflets which are pubescent on the under side, is also found in the collection. Sophora of the most beautiful of all the leguminous trees. The is somewhat obscure, but it appears to have been taken from the Arabic Sophira, the name for a tree bearing pea-shaped flowers. Neither the common name, Japanese pagoda tree, nor the scientific name is accurate in designating the area in which the plant is native, since it comes from China and Korea. One of the specimens growing in the Arboretum collection is the picturesque e Pendula,' having stiff, drooping branches. The flowering period of late August Sophora japonica is one origin of the generic name 20 early September is the most valuable attribute of Sophora japonica, although should not discount the dense, deep green foliage which remains on the tree until late in the fall, forming an interesting contrast with the yellow Maackias and the neighboring Nyssa sylvatica, its flaming reflection igniting the nearby pond. The pea-like flowers, white or on occasion slightly pinkish, are borne in loose terminal panicles. This species does not have the distressing attribute of producing nectar containing an insecticidal agent, as does some members of this genus. During their flowering season the ground around those plants producing this substance is littered with dead and dying bees. The fruit produced is a pod unlike those of other legumes, being constricted between the seeds and thus giving the effect of a chain of beads. and one The Robinia The Robinia, named for the French herbalists Jean and Vespasien Robin, has the largest representation of any genus in the legume collection. The taxonomy of this group is very much confused because some of the early botanists failed to recognize the large number of hybrids which exist both in nature and in cultivation. In some cases more than one specific name has been applied to the selection from a hybrid swarm. All species within this genus have some ornamental value; most are cultivated for their showy, often fragrant flowers and some for their growth habit or foliage. The white-to-pink-to-magenta flowers appear in early June. - - Some excellent specimens of Robinia pseudoacacia, the black locust, are in the Arboretum collection. A native from Pennsylvania to Georgia and westward to Iowa, Missouri and Oklahoma, this is the species most commonly found in gardens. It has become naturalized in many more northern areas, being found now as far north as southern Canada. Glabrous seed pods and branches distinguish this from other members of the genus. Many variations have arisen in this species and these have been propagated by cuttings or grafts and widely distributed to the nursery trade. The typical form is a tree up to 80 feet tall, having compound leaves with 7-19 leaflets and bearing white flowers. Twelve selections from this species are grown in the Arboretum collection. Robiniapseudoacacia'Microphylla'differs from the typical form in having smaller, leaflets which give the plant an airy delicacy. The selection or cultivar Robinia pseudoacacia 'Unifolia' occasionally has only one, but generally 2-7 leaflets on each leaf. These leaflets are larger than those of the typical form. Other selections with the same leaf variation but having in addition a variation in habit are R. pseudoacacia 'Dependens' with pendulous branchlets and R. pseudoacacia 'Erect,' a columnar form. A number of plants have been selected which lack stipular spines. Robinia pseudoacacia 'Inermis' differs from the typical form only in lacking stipular spines while R. pseudoacacia 'Umbraculifera' is an unarmed selection whose branches narrower 21 form a dense, subglobose head. The tree in the Arboretum collection is small and planted so that it will have its globose head near the ground. Usually these plants are seen in formal gardens or on narrow streets as grafts on high trunks of the typical form. The selection rarely produces flowers, being grown only for its interesting shape. Robinia pseudoacacia 'Bessoniana' closely resembles the preceding selection, but differs in having more slender branches and a less dense, ovoid head. A number of plants have been selected and grown because of the interesting patterns formed by their branches and foliage. The densely covered branches of Robinia pseudoacacia `Annularis' have contorted branchlets and leaves. This growth pattern results in a reduced branch spread and a narrow crown. Robinia pseudoacacia 'Rectissima' is a fastigiate form with stifliy ascending branches. Robinia pseudoacacia 'Cylindrica' produces short, lateral, ascending branches which cause the tree to have a narrow crown. Several selections have been made because of flower characteristics. Robinia psem3oacacia 'Semperflorens' is characterized by the sporadic production of flowers throughout the summer. Rose colored flowers distinguish R. pseuoacacia 'Decaisneana' from other members of the species. Robinia hispida is represented in the collection by several plants. The species is a small tree or shrub growing to a height of 10 feet, having hispid stems, branches and peduncles and with profuse rose-colored to pale purple flowers, many of which are nearly an inch long. Spreading rapidly by root sprouts, this species can be a problem to keep under control. Closely related to Robinia hispida is R. fertilis. Both occur in much the same area of southeastern United States. In fact, R. fertilis is considered by some to be a variety of R. hispida. The distinction usually made between the plants is that R. hispida has leaflets which are suborbicular to oval, rounded at the apex, and glabrous, while the leaflets of R. fertilis are elliptic-ovate to oblong-ovate, acute to obtusish, and slightly pubescent beneath. Robinia neo-mexicana, the New Mexico locust, is a small tree which may occasionally grow to a height of 25 feet. This is a common, often abundant species of the canyons and coniferous forests from southern Colorado to southern Nevada, western Texas, New Mexico, Arizona and northern Mexico. It is distinguished from the other species in the collection by the presence of numerous short hairs on the branches and leaflets which cause them to have a grayish appearance. There are no specimens in the Arboretum collection labeled `Robinia luxurians,' although it is cited as a parent of some of hybrid selections, but according to Kearney and Peebles' Flora of Arizona, which covers the area in which Robinia neo-mexicana and Robinia luxurians are native, the latter is considered \"a scarcely worthwhile variety\" of R. neo-mexicana. Two small trees approximately seven feet tall represent Robinia hartwigii. The 22 Al6izia julibrissin flowering branch. var. rosea. PLATE I Above: Habit of flowering tree. Below: Close-up of pale pinkish-purple and appear after most of the other species have flowering. It may be distinguished from other small-tree species by its branches, peduncles, and petioles, which are covered with short hairs and in addition bear stalked glands. Robinia leucantha is represented in the collection by a small tree approximately 8 feet tall. There is a distinct possibility that this species result from hybridization between some of the species which occur in Georgia where this plant was discovered. Its outstandmg characteristics are its glabrous leaves and branchlets and its white flowers. Further study is needed to show the relationship of this plant to others ~n the genus. Many species of Robinia have been found to hybridize readily with other members of the genus in gardens and in the wild. Some of these hybrids have characflowers ceased are teristics which make them desirable from a horticultural point of view. Unfortubotanists have often failed to realize just how readily these species hybridize nately and with insufficient evidence, have described new species. The following are all reputed hybrids and are listed under the formula of the hybrid. more between Robinia pseudoacacia and R. hispida has produced than any other. Robinia kelseyii has been accepted as a dishybrid species tinct species by a number of botanists but appears to be a selection from the above cross. It is intermediate between the two parental species in such respects as habit, color of flowers and vestiture of leaves and twigs. Robinia margarelta is presumed to have originated from such a cross and resembles R. pseudoacacia, though it differs in having pinkish flowers, slightly glandular rachi, pedicels and calyx, and a rather rough pod. Robinia 'Idaho,' which flowers two or three weeks later than most trees in the collection, is a selection from the hybrid population and is notable for its very bright purplish-pink flowers. The cross between Robinia kelseyii (R. pseudoacacia X R. hispida) and R. pseudoacacia is a type of hybrid known as a backcross. Two plants in the collection represent selections from this hybridization. Robinia slavinii is a small tree which has rosy-pink flowers and shows some pubescence on the branchlets and petioles. Robinia hilleri is a selection made by Hillier & Sons, w'mchester, England. The tree in the collection is 15 feet tall and produces lilac-pink flowers. Robinia holdtii is a hybrid of R. neo-mexicana (R. luxurians)XR. pseudoacacia. The tree in the collection is 12 feet tall, and bears pinkish flowers which are borne in somewhat less dense racemes than those of the previous hybrids. Robinia ambigua `Bella-rosea' is a selection from the hybridization of R. pseudoacacia with R. viscosa. The selection is notable for its larger and more deeply colored flowers. cross I Albizia I The correct spelling of this generic name is Albizea not \"Albizzia\" as in general usage. Article 73 of the International Code of Nomenclature states, \"The original spelling of a Perhaps the 24 An exotic which has its origin in the area stretching from Persia to central China is the Albizia, named for the Italian nobleman F. degl~ Albizzi. Albizia julibrissin var. ro.rea, the silk tree, is an exceptionally hardy clone which is able to survive the rigorous New England climate prevailing in the Arboretum. This species is the sole representative of the subfamily Mimosoidea, which contains such interesting genera as Mimosa and .4~acia, both of which are well known to travelers in the American tropics. The leaves of the Albizia are finely bipinnately divided and have a definite fern-like appearance. The folding of the leaflets at night in so-called \"sleep movements\" is also distinctive. The tree is among the last in this area to come into leaf in late spring and because of this, trees have been presumed dead and destroyed by gardeners not acquainted with its habits. The deep pink or reddish staminal filaments of what would otherwise be inconspicuous flowers, resemble dainty fans held up above the dehcate, deep green foliage. These appear in early July and continue until early September. Only the variety rosea is hardy in the Boston area. Care should be taken, also, against introducing to this area plants grown in the South since there is a blight prevalent among southern plantings which has done much harm. Trees of this species are very fast-growing, often reaching a height of 20 feet and a spread of 30 feet. Gymnocladus and Gleditsia The remaining genera in the Arboretum collection are considered primarily as shade trees. Gymnocladus dioicus, the Kentucky coffee-tree, dominates the lower portion of the collection. As is true of all members of this species, its branches appear fluted because of the gray outer bark which splits and rolls back. This character can be easily recognized even in the dead of winter. The flowers, opening in mid-June, are regular, approximately half an inch in diameter and, being greenish-white, do not contrast sufficiently with the foliage to attract much attention. The fruit is a short, broad pod containing a thick pulp in which the seeds are embedded. Gymnocladus dioicus is native to the area bounded by New York State and Pennsylvania in the east, Minnesota and Nebraska in the west, and Oklahoma and Tennessee in the south. The common name comes from the attempt by the early settlers in Kentucky and Tennessee to use the beans as a coffee substitute. The attempt was not completely successful and was abandoned as soon as coffee became readily available. The diseases affecting some of the genera long used as shade and street trees have been the means of arousing interest in various species of Gleditzia. The only epithet must be retained. except that typographic orthographic errors should be corrected.\" The name was spelled uniformly in the original publication (Duraz., Mag. Tosc 3 (4): 10, 11, 13, illus. 1772) as Albizia even though Durazzini states that the name honors \"II Sig. Cavalier Filippo degl 'Albizzi.\" For further study see E. Little, Amer. Midl. Nat. name or 33: 510. 1945. 25 species widelygrown and the one from which a large number of selections have been made is G. triacanlhos, the hone5- locust. The typical form of the species is represented m the collection by mature trees approximately 60 feet tall It is easily recognized by the large, much-branched thorns borne on the trunk and main branches. These are rigid and sharp enough to puncture an automobile tire. The flowers are small and inconspicuous, adding little to the desirability of the tree. The fruits are often more than 10 inches long and remain on the tree until blown off by the strong mid-winter winds. These pods, tobogganning over the snow rn January or February, may be carried considerable distances from the parent tree. It would appear from the description of the typical form that the poor qualities of this tree more than outwergh its virtues as a disease-free, robust shade tree. However, there exists m nature a population (Gleditsia triacanthos forma inermis) without thorns. Although trees of this form are of a more slender habit when young, they eventually grow to be much like the typical form in height. It is from this G. triacanthos forma inermis population that the many widely advertised cultivars have been selected. Some are excellent shade trees and are to be highly recommended. The selections cited here are those present m the Arboretum collection and are not to be considered superior or inferior to any selections not mentioned. Gleditsia 'Elegantissima,' the oldest in date of origin of these selections, is unarmed and of a dense, bushy habit. Another selection here is G. `D~oraine,' a patented plant which does not bear fruit. This plant flowered heavily this spring, but since they were all staminae or male flowers, no fruits could be formed. This has less dense foliage than the typical form, giving the plant an attractive, lacy appearance. Gleditsia 'Seiler' is another of the sterile forms but the Arboretum specimen has not reached sufficient size to indicate the growth habit. Gletlitsia 'Sunburst' was selected because the terminal leaflets on each branchlet remain a bright yellow throughout the summer. The specimen in the collection is not particularly attractive, but this may be due to any one of several reasons. Probably one should match the environment of a flourishing specimen if one wished to plant this selection in his grounds. The hybrid species Gleditsia X texana is a hybrid of G. triacanthosX G. aquatica and can be distinguished from the preceding species by its straight pods and from the following species by the number of leaflets, which generally exceed twenty per leaf. This tree bears thorns similar to G. triacanthos. Two Asiatic species, Gleditsia japonica and G. sinensis, are also represented. Both species bear spines and pods and in general resemble G. triacanthos, althogh they never reach the height of that species. Gleditzia sinensis is distinguished from other members of the genus in the collection by its terete spines and flat pods. Gleditsia japonica has twisted pods and flattened spines and is distinguished from the honey locust by its obtuse leaflets and glabrous ovary. 26 PLATE II Above: Gymnocladus dioicus. Leaf and fruit on 1-mch grid. Below: InHorescence of Robinia kelseyi. Laburnum The out description of tree legumes in the Arboretum would be incomplete with- mention of Laburnum. None of this genus are planted in the basic collection, but several may be found in other parts of the Arboretum. Laburnum some alpinum, the Scotch laburnum, can be distinguished from other members of the genus by its glabrous leaves and branchlets. A form known as L, alpinum 'Fragrans' has been selected for its fragrant flowers. Laburnum anagyroides ~s distinguished by its pubescent leaves and branchlets, while L. anagyroides var. alsclzingeri has silky leaflets which are bluish-gray beneath. The flowers are borne on nearly upright racemes. A hybrid of L. alpinum and L. anagyroides is L. X u~atereri, commonly called the golden chain tree. In most characters it is intermediate between the parent species. An excellent specimen is growing near the road just below the crest of Bussey Hill. BURDETTE L. WAGENKNECHT 28 PLATE III Gleditsia triacanthos. Above: Habit of mature trees. Below: Foliage and fruit 1-inch grid. on 30 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in the Gleditsia L.","article_sequence":4,"start_page":31,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24363","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270a36f.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wagenknecht, Burdette L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA I) A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University t VOLUME 21 1 MARCH 24, 1961 NUMBER 4 REGISTRATION LISTS OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN GLEDITSIA L. followed in compiling the lists of names applied to cultivars Gleditzia L. are those of Professor R. A. Howard in \"Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in Cornus,\" Arnoldia 21 : No. 2, 1961. The presence of an asterisk following a cultivar name in the alphabetical list indicates a cultivar presently being grown in North America. The words \"nomen nudum\" indicate cultivar names which have not been described and for that reason are illegitimate. Additions and corrections to the list accompanied by a reference to a valid publication or by application for registration will be welcomed. All information of this nature should be addressed to the author. THE procedures in Alphabetical List 31 Bibliographic List Gleditsia 'Excelsa Pendula' (C. de Vos, Handb. Boom. Heest. ed. 2; triacanthos 486. 1887.)=G. Gleditsia ferox 'Bujotii.' Desfontaines, Hist. Arb. Arbris 2: 247. 1809. 'Nana' (Rehder in Bailey, Cyclo. Am. Hort. 2: 650. 1900). =G.triacanthos 'Nana.' G. horrida Gordon, Dermer & men nudum. Edmonds, as nomen Cat. Trees, Shrubs Pl. 14. 1782. No- 'Purpurea' (loc. cit.) illegit. Gleditsia horrida nudum?=G. japonica 'Purpurea.' 1834). , Prodr. Stirp. Chap. Allert. 323. 1797. and Sons, Hackney, England, Catalogue, Illegit. as a nomen nudum. =G. sinensis `Major.' 'Nana' (Loudon, Arb. Brit. II : 654. 1838). =G. triacanthos 'Nana.' Salisbury, 'Major' (Conrad Loddiges Gleditsia Lugd. -Bat. 3: 54. 1867. Am. Hort. 2: 650. 1900). \"Lfts. broadly 'Purpurea' (Rehder Bailey, Cycl. oval to oblong-oval, obtuse or emarginate, ~-1~ in. on the pinnate, smaller on the bipmnate leaves.\" japonica Miquel in in Ann. Mus. Bot. Gleditsia sinensis Lamarck, Encycl. Meth. Bot. 2: 465. 1788. 'Major' (Loudon, Arb. Brit. II : 654. 1838), \"seems scarcely to differ from the species. \" Nana' (Loudon, loc. cit.)=G. triacanthos `Nana.' 'Nana Inermis' (Beissner, Schelle ~ Zabel, Handb. Laubholz-Ben. 254. 1903). =G. triacanthos `Nana.' `Pendula' (Kew Handlist of Trees & Shrubs, 2nd ed. 203. 1902), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Gleditsia triacanthos Linnaeus, Sp. Pl. 1056. 1753. `Calhoun' (Sunnyridge Nursery, Swarthmore, Pa., Catalogue, 1948). Selected for its heavy production of fruits to be used as fodder. 'Columnaris' (Schwerin, Deutsche Dendro. Gesell. 22: 322. 1913), \"of beautiful columnar growth.\" Millwood' (Sunnyridge Nursery, Swarthmore, Pa., Cat. 1942). Selected for superior fruiting, grown as a source of stock feed. `Monosperma' (Beissner, Schelle & Zabel, Handbuch der Laubholzbenennung 255. 1903), illegit. as a nomen nudum. Not. G. monosperma Walter. Gleditsia tnacanthos L. f. inermis Laubh.-Ben. 255. 1903. (L.) Beissner, 32 Schelle & Zabel, Hanb. 'Beatrice' (Inter-State Nurseries, Hamburg, Iowa, Catalogue Spring 1955), \"amajestic tree and more like the American Elm in form than any other tree with which we are acquainted, seeds very sparingly and is thornless.\" 'Browni' (William Flemmer III, Princeton, N.J., Plant Patent 1514, September 11, 1956). in Rev. Hort. ser. ,Bujotii' (Newmann 2, `Bujotti Pendula' (Rehder in Bailey, Cycl. 'Elegantissima' (Grosdemange in Rev. Hort. n. ser. 5 : 512, t. 199. 1905, as G. inerm~s elegantissima), \"unarmed and of dense bushy habit; leaflets smaller. \" 4: 205. 1845). \"Weeping habit.\" Am. Hort. 2:650. 1900)=`Bujotii.' 'Imperial' (Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio, Registered Mar. 20, 1957, Plant Patent May 21, 1957). \"A strong, sturdy, straight trunk, very evenly spaced wide spreading branches, and very strong crotches. Leaves are graceful and feathery in appearance, with dark green color above and below.\" 'Majestic' (Cole Nursery Co., Pamesvilie, Ohio, Registered Mar. 20, 1957, Plant Patent, Dec. 11, 1956). \"Strong, sturdy straight trunk, with compact growth habit and moderate rate of growth. Foliage remains green and in good condition at least ten days longer than the common honeylocust and other varieties tested.\" 'Moraine' (The Siebenthaler Co., 3001 Catalpa Dr., Dayton, Ohio, Plant 836, May 17, 1949. Registered June 21, 19~ 1 , Trademark 541, 1 1 1 ~. \"Thornless, seedless, desirably shaped tree, rapid growing, dark green foliage, disease resistant.\" 'Park' (Marshall Nurseries Catalogue, Arlington, Nebraska, Catalogue 1958). \"Has not produced thorns or legumes in 17years of observation.\" 'Pendula' (Talou in Hortic. Franc. 1859: 156. 18.~9~=`Bujotti.' 'Shademaster' (William Flemer III, Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, New Jersey, Plant Patent 1515, Sept. 11, 1956). Upright form. 'Sieler' (Linn County Nurseries, Center Pomt, Iowa, Catalogue 1949). \"Large, widespreading trees, almost completely seedless.\" 'Stephens' (Marshall Nurseries, Arlington, Nebraska, Catalogue 1940~. Thornless and seedless. 'Skyline' (Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio, Catalogue 1955, Registered, March 20, 1957, Plant Patent July 16, 1957). \"A strong, sturdy, straight trunk with well spaced and uniformly arranged branches, said branches emerging from the trunk at a wide angle, but quickly turning upward to give a pyramidal shape to the tree.\" 'Sunburst' (Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio, Registered Oct. 12, 1953, Plant Patent 1313, Nov. 2, 1954). \"A thornless honey locust distinguished by the bright golden-yellow color of young leaves, giving the tree the appearance of being entirely golden in color: and by its relatively slow, compact habit of growth.\" 33 'Variegata' (Kew as a nomen Handlist of Trees and nudum= ` Bujotii.' Shrubs, 2nd ed. 203. 1902~, illegit. BURDETTE L. WAGENKNECHT 84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Forsythia Story","article_sequence":5,"start_page":35,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24365","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270a76d.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ~ll 1 APRIL 7, 1961 THE FORSYTHIA STORY NUMBER 5 Forsythia suslnensa sieboldii was the first forsythia introduced into Europe from Orient, going to Holland in 1833. Unquestionably it was popular. Here was a new plant with brilliant yellow blossoms each spring, always dependable. It was soon learned that in good soil it would have more blossoms than in poor soil, but even when the growing conditions were difficult, it would grow into an interestmg, green-leaved bush which was not susceptible to serious inroads from the insect or disease pests. As time went on, and more horticulturally-minded individuals visited the Orient, other species were introduced. Forsythia viridissima was brought from the Orient by Robert Fortune in 1844. It is of interest to note that other species have not contributed much to the beautiful cultivars we grow today. The European Forsythia of Albania is not outstanding and was not even discovered\" until 1897. Two years later it was introduced into England. China is the habitat of both For.sythia suspensa and F. viridissima, as well as F. giraldiana, which was not introduced until 1914. Korea is the homeland of Forsythia ovata (introduced to America by F~. H. Wilson of the Arnold Arboretum in 1918), as well as F. viridissima koreana (mtroduced in 1917) and F. japonica sasatilis (introduced in 1924). Although most of these have probably been grown in Japan for centuries, F. japonica ~s the only species native to that country. None is native in North America. So the two introduced species growing in Europe by 1850 (suapensa and viridissima) can be considered to be the \"ancestors\" of the many cultivars we are growing today. Undoubtedly these two species were grown side by side in several places and, of course, eventually had the opportunity to hybridize. Then the great Spath Nurseries in Berlin, Germany, became interested in growing seedlings. The seeds were collected from plants which obviously had an opportunity to hybridize, and in 1885 the hybrid species Forsythia intermedia was 3~ were made by Spath in this group and several introduced. These were more upright and vigorous in growth than was the arching F. suspensa, and several of the new hybrids produced larger and more profuse flowers. Also, some clones were selected because they had lighter (or darker) yellow flowers than had been noted before. Because these plants grew rapidly and were easily propagated by cuttings, they were widely distributed, and some have been popular ever since. The parade of \"new\" varieties started in 1899 with the introduction of 'Vitellina' by the Spath Nurseries. It will be noted that this ~s not one of the best for ornamental purposes in modern gardens (Arnoldia 19: 11-14, 1959). This was quickly followed by the introduction of 'Densiflora' by Spath in 1899, long a popular plant. Now it is superseded by others. Two years later 'Decipiens,' a poor-flowered clone of Forsyllria su.s~roensa, originated at Spath's, but it never were described. Seedling selections proved popular. However, in 1906 this same nursery introduced Forsythia intermedia 'Spectabilis' which was extremely popular right from the start, and has been so to the present time. For a profuse display of deep golden yellow flowers, this is the that any new cultivar has to beat when it comes to critical comparisons. Never before had any forsythia produced as many flowers or such deep-colored flowers as did this new hybrid selection. Another selection of F. sus~ensa named 'Pallida' appeared in Germany in 1906 and merited some attention at the time because the flowers were a much lighter color than those of the more popular one 'Spectabilis.' During the ensuing years, these forsythias were, of course, being grown in the United States, and in the Arnold Arboretum an attempt was made to grow them all. There, about 1912, a new seedling was found and later named 'Primulina.' This was another cross between Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima and was appropriately named because of its pale yellow flowers. Many liked it, especially those who did not prefer the strikingly brazen yellow of 'Spectabilis.' In Mentor, Ohio, a suburb of Cleveland, a gardener of some note by the name of M. H. Horvath had been experimenting with plants for several years, growing new seedlings, selecting some and discarding others. In his garden there was a plant of 'Primulina' which he watched carefully from year to year. In 1930 he noted that one branch consistently produced larger flowers than those on the rest of the bush, and they were certainly more densely arranged. Cuttings of this were taken, producing plants that were superior to 'Primulina' and about 1942 this was introduced to the trade by Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio, as 'Spring Glory,' a plant that has been one of the most popular of all forsythias ever since. The Forsythia story continued on the other side of the Atlantic, in a beautiful garden called Lynwood in northern Ireland, where the owner, Miss Adair, was growing, among other things, a plant of Forsythia 'Spectabilis.' Miss Adair noted that a branch of this plant had flowers that were more open 36 and better distributed along the stem than were those of the rest of the plant. Cuttings were taken and grown by the Slieve Donard Nursery of Newcastle, Ireland, and named 'Lynwood' about 1935 in honor of the estate where it originated. Unfortunately, in the early years it was not properly described, and somehow or other, by 1949 when it had reached America, where supersalesmen are sometimes overly anxious to coin new plant names, the name was changed to 'Lynwood Gold.' The plants are the same. This cultivar is known all over England as 'Lynwood,' and in America as 'Lynwood Gold.' It, too, is one of the most popular forsythias at the present time. Coming back to America, the New York Botanical Garden enters the story, for slightly before 1939 an extremely dwarf forsythia was found there. This was named Forsythia viridissima 'Bronxensis' by T. H. Everett in 194 i . It was early to bloom, but difficult to propagate and grow properly, an unfortunae characteristic, since all forsythias are commonly considered easy to grow. At the same time Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum became interested in the Forsythia clan and started treating some plants with colchicine and hybridizing others. Many seedlings were grown; a few have been named. Arnold Giant' was produced by treating a seedling of Forsythia intermedia with colchicine. The resulting plant was a tetraploid, but it was unfortunate that it was ever named and released. Although vigorous, it proved too rigidly upright and was hard to propagate by cuttings. Two years later, in 1941, a very dwarf forsythia was produced as a cross between F. intermedia and F. japonica. This roots extremely easily, makes an excellent plant for banks and is now widely available. It was named 'Arnold Dwarf.' More crossing and experimenting on the part of Dr. Sax and his students and careful examination of earlier seedlings brought to light another seedling, a cross between Arnold Giant' and Forsythia ovata. This was a tr~ploid, first called 'Farrand' by Dr. Sax and later changed to 'Beatrix Farrand' at the request of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand, for whom it was named. This produces dense clusters of flowers, is upright and dense in habit, slightly darker in flower than 'Spectabilis' under some conditions, and now widely popular. During these years, several seedlings were sent out for trial by the Arboretum and one, which was a cross between Arnold Giant' and an unknown forsythia, proved to be a tetraploid and was noted as being hardier in the mid-west. This was named 'Karl Sax' by Dr. J. L. Thomas of the Arnold Arboretum for Dr. Sax, who originated it. The Swiss nursery firm of Mertens and Nussbaumer named 'Mertensiana' in 1949, but it has not proved a very desirable ornamental. A variegated form of Forsythisia viridissima originated in England some time before 1951 and a more ornamental cultivar of F. suspensa atrocaulis was selected and named 'Nyman's Variety' in 1954, in honor of the beautiful estate in the south of England where it originated. Undoubtedly yellow-leaved plants have appeared in the past, most of them 37 when exposed to full sunlight, but the one which has been named F. intermedia 'Aurea' (1958) was found in a garden near the Beardslee Nurseries of Perry, Ohio. And so it is seen how two species mtroduced into Europe from the Orient before 1850 started a colorful procession of cultivars. Many individuals, in widely separated places, have been responsible for the selections. Others yet unknown may have tried crosses without striking results. Certain it is, however, that although several species have been introduced from the Orient since 1900, it is chiefly Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima from China which have been largely suffering severely responsible for the best of the forsythias _ grown today. DONALD WYMAN SPRING CALENDAR April 13. Lecture-\"The Garden Islands, Building, 8 p.m. Dr. Richard Howard the West Indies.\" Administration April 19. Lecture -\"Plants and People in Finland.\" Administration Building, 8 p.m. Mr. Peter Tigerstedt, Mercer Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum and Director, Mustila Arboretum, Finland. April 26. Lecture-\"Plants and People in Ceylon.\" Administration Building, 8 p.m. Mr. D. Jayaweera. Rockefeller Fellow at the Arnold Arboretum and Director, Royal Botanic Garden, Ceylon. April 28. First of five Friday meetings of the Spring Field Class. 10 the Administration Building. Dr. Donald Wyman a.m. at May 2. First of five Tuesday meetings of the Field Botany Class.2 p.m. Barn, Case Estates, Weston. Dr. Lorin Nevling at the May 3. Lecture-\"The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh.\" Administration Building, 8 p.m. Mr. Peter Green May 13. Lecture-demonstration. Building. Mr. Robert Williams May 14. \"Pruning.\" 2 p.m. at the Administration Open House, The Case Estates, Weston. 10 a.m to 5 p.m. The Staff May 21-27. Lilac Week at the Arnold Arboretum. All programs will be free of charge. 38 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration List of Cultivar Names of Forsythias","article_sequence":6,"start_page":39,"end_page":42,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24360","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260856d.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University REGISTRATION LISTS OF CULTIVAR NAMES OF FORSYTHIAS Alphabetical List Bibliographic List intermedia (suspensaXviridissima) (Zabel in Gartenfl. 34: 35. 1885). 'Arnold Dwarf' (Sax, Arnoldia 7 :10. 1947). (intermedia Xjaponica) Originated Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, D9ass., 1941 ; dwarf, branches rooting where they touch soil, poor, pale greenish-yellow flowers, few; excellent ground cover. 'Arnold Giant' (Sax, Arnoldia 7: 10. 194 i ). A colchicine-induced tetraploid 39 (by treating a tum 1939. Leaves seedling of F. intermedia). Originated in the Arnold Arborethicker, larger than species; plant stiff and difficult to nomen propagate. `Arnolds Brilliant' (Tingle Nurs. Cat., Pittsville, Md., 1959). Illegit. nudum. `Aurea' (Beardslee Nurs., Perry, Ohio, Cat. 19.58). \"Golden leaved Forsythia with pale yellow flowers, found by us in a flowering shrub border.\" 'Beatrix Farrand' (Wyman, Arnoldia 19: 12. 1959). 'Arnold Giant'Xovata, originated by Dr. Karl Sax, Arnold Arboretum in 1944. Flowers often ~-~-~~ diameter and sometimes darker than those of F. intermedia 'Spectabilis.' A triploid, upright, dense habit, heavy bloom. 'Compacta Nana' (Anonymous, Plant Buyer's Guide, Oak Park Nurseries, Inc., East Patchogue, L.I., New York, 1958). Illegit. nomen nudum=intermedia 'Nana.' Densiflora' (Koehne) Schelle in Beissner, et al., Handb. Laubh.-Ben 413. 1903. Introduced by Spath Nurseries, Berlm, Germany, 1899; profuse flower production. 'Dwarf (Siebenthaler Nurs. Cat., Dayton, Ohio. 1951 ). Illegit. as a nomen nudnm;=intermediaNana.' 'Farrand' (Sax, Arnoldia 15: 10. 1955 ; Sax ex Wyman, Arnoldia 16: 14. 1956). Changed at the request of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand to 'Beatrix Farrand' in 1959;='Beatrix Farrand.' 'Karl Sax' (J. L. Thomas. Arnoldia 20: 49. 1960). 'Arnold Giant' X ?. A tetraploid originated by Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum, 1944. Similar in most ways ornamentally to 'Beatrix Farrand' except that it is reported hardier in the midwestern United States. 'Lynwood' (G. E. Peterson, Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 82: 127. 1957). Originated as a sport on F. intermedia 'Spectabilis' in the garden of Miss Adair, Lynwood, Cookstown, Co. Tyrone, Northern Ireland, in 1935. Introduced by Slieve Donard Nurs. Co., Newcastle, Co. Down, Ireland. Flowers more open and better distributed along branches than those of F. intermedia 'Spectabilis.' 'Lynwood Gold' (Wayside Garden Cat., Mentor, Ohio, 1949). A commercial synonym = `Lynwood.' 'Mertensiana' (Mertens & Nussbaumer ex Krussm. in Deutsche Baumschule 2: 298. 1950). Originated in nursery of Mertens and Nussbaumer, Zurich, Switzerland, in 1949. \"Low, compact, leaves monstrous, variable. Distintinguished by deformed leaves and crowded flowers.\" 'Nana' (Wyman, Nat. Hort. Mag. 40: 194. 1961). Low dwarf, with simple, lobed and sometimes compound leaves; lamellate pith between the nodes, solid pith at the nodes ; slow to bloom ; poor, greenish-yellow flowers. A twenty-year-old plant was only 5~ tall and 8~ wide. Originated in midwestern United States. 40 'Primulina' [Rehder, Mitt. Deutsch. Dendr. Ges. 1912 (21 ) : 193. 1913~. A chance seedling in the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., prior to 1912, with light-colored primrose yellow flowers. 'Spectabilis' (Koehne in Gartenflora 55: 227. 1906). Originated in Spath Nurseries, Berlin, Germany, 1906; noted for its profuse and large, dark yellow flowers. 'Spring Glory' (Wayside Gardens Cat., Mentor, Ohio, 1942). A branch sport of F. intermedia 'Primulina' found in garden of D1. H. Horvath, Mentor, Ohio, about 1930. Introduced by Wayside Gardens about 1942. Larger and more profuse flowers than those of F. intermedia 'Primulina.' 'Vitellina' (Koehne in Spath Nurs. Cat., Berlin, Germany, 1899). Introduced by the Spath Nurseries in 1899; noted for having the smallest flowers of this general group of hybrids. ovata 'Robusta' (Krussmann, Die Laubgeholze, p. 155. 1951). \"Vigorous growing form of F. ovata with primrose yellow flowers; or hybrid?\" ' suspensa (Thun. Vahl, Enum. Pl. 1 : 39. 1804). 'Aurea' (Anonymous, PI. Buyer's Guide, 1958). Illegit. nomen nudum='Variegata.' 'Aureo-variegata' (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). _ `Variegata.' `Dec~piens' (Koehne, Gartenflora 55:205. 1906). Originated in Spath Nurseries, Germany, 1905; flowers single, other cultivars of this species. not nearly as conspicuous as those of 'Fortunei Nana' (Siebenthaler Nurs., Dayton, Ohio, Cat. 1938). Illegit. nomen nudnm=F. intermedia 'Nana.' 'Nyman's Variety' (Krussmann, Die Laubgeholze 155, 19~ 1 ). Branches bronzecolored, closely resembles F. suspensa atrocaulis, bush erect, profuse flowers of ivory yellow. 'Pallida' (Koehne, Gartenflora 55: 206. 1906). Flowers a very pale, washedout yellow. Penn. State variegated leaves.\" `Variegata' (Butz; yellow viridissima Ag. Coll. Rep. 1899-1900 : 376. 1901 ). \"With (Lindley, Jour. Hort. Soc., London 1 : 226. 1849). 'Bronxensis' (T. H. Everett, Gard. Chron. Am.51 : 296. 1947). Extremely dwarf variety, flowers freely; originated New York Bot. Gard. 1939. 'Variegata' (Dic. of Gard. ; Royal Hort. Soc. 2 : 830. 1951). A \"golden variegated form.\" 41 Other hybrid& (?) 'Golden Queen' (Anonymous, Pl. Buyer's Guide, 1958). . Illegit. nomen nudum. 'Gloriosa' (Brimfield Gardens Nurs., Wethersfield, Conn., Cat. 1956). Listed as \"pale yellow flowers.\" Illegit. nomen nudum. 'Goldcn Belle' (Anonymous, PI. Buyer's Guide, 1958). Illegit. nomen nudum. Undoubtedly confused with the sometimes used general common name of Forsythia. 'Golden Sun' (L. Kammerer, Morton Arb. Bull. Pop. Inf. 34: 25. 1959). Illegit. nomen nudum. - DONALD WYMAN 42 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Injury Not Severe","article_sequence":7,"start_page":43,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24368","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270af6f.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA RI A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME R.1 i 1 APRIL ~1, 1961 NUMBER 7 WINTER INJURY NOT SEVERE Aspring continues to unfold, every gardener becomes increasingly interested is in determining how winter cold has affected his plants. Plant hardiness the end product of several varyng situations and conditions, only one of which is minimum temperature. Last winter was not a truly severe one, as New England winters go, but there were some conditions which have resulted in the injury of some woody plants. Which ones? Let us first take a look at what happened according to the U.S. Weather Bureau at Boston. November of 1960 was unusually mild, the mildest in seven years, with a slight decrease in precipitation. However, winter came suddenly on December l2th with the heaviest December snowstorm on record-13 3 inches in the city of Boston, considerably more elsewhere. It was truly a \"severe blizzard,\" even in the language of the Weather Bureau, tyng traffic in knots, but doing practically no damage to plants. Fortunately for many a low plant, this blanket of snow lasted a long time and was eventually followed by another blizzard January 19-20 and still a third heavy snowstorm on February 4th. All in all, snow-coverwise, it was a good winter. The trouble, so far as the plants were concerned, came in the form of freezing temperatures that lasted for an unusually long period. Using the words of the Weather Bureau, \"At 5 p.m. on the 18th (of January) the mercury sank below the freezing mark for the rest of the month. This 13-day spell was the longest enduring period of sub-freezing temperature in 43 years.\" February contributed another 4 days to this cold spell (the Weather Bureau worked it out on a basis of 39~ hours of continuous below-freezing weather). The all-time record was for 406 hours in 1918. At no time this last winter did the \"official\" minimum low go below -4 F., and, in fact, there were only two days when the official figures were below zero, but in the early morning hours of several 43 days, my thermometer read -15 F. in Weston, and Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler reported -210 F. on Cape Cod. Recapitulating, Boston did not have an unusually cold winter with severe minimum temperatures ; we were fortunate in having an adequate snow cover for most of the winter. There was very little frost in the ground even in February, because that first blizzard came before the ground had been thoroughly frozen. However, we did have a record-breaking period of below-freezing weather. Now is the time to study the plants as they began to leaf out and flower this spring and determine what a long, though not a severe, cold spell can do. (It might be interesting to compare these notes with those in Arnoldia, Vol. 17, No. 3, April 5, 1957, for here injury was reported due to extremely low temperatures.) The following notes were taken in the Arnold Arboretum on March 29th, and it may well be that by the time this is printed and read, the information contained here will not be news. Broad-leaved Evergreens There has been practically no major injury to the leaves of most of the broadleaved and narrow-leaved evergreens. Ilex crenala varieties, 1. pedunculosa, I. yunnanensis, 1. opaca, most of the Buxus sempervirens and B. microphylla varieties, Berberis verruculosa, B. julianae, B. chenaultii and Lonicera henryi are all in perfect leaf condition. Exceptions are the following: Berberis sargentiana - all leaves killed, proving again that this is not a good evergreen for this area. Buxus 'Curly Locks' - 25% of the leaves were injured. \" 'Newport Blue' - 50% of the leaves killed. \" 'Tide Hill' - all the leaves killed on two small plants. Euonymus 'Berry Hill' - 25% of the leaves killed. However, E. 'Dupont' and 'Manhattan' are uninjured and `Sarcoxie,' growing with the same exposure as 'Berry Hill,' is in perfect condition - proving that this is one of the hardier of the new varieties. Mahonia aquifolium - a few of the top leaves burned. Prunus laurocerasus schipkaensis - only the top leaves and twigs were killed. Flower Buds of Deciduous Plants Killed , Abeliophyllum distichum - 90lo killed. Chaenomeles - The flower buds of many varieties exposed above the snow line have been killed. Exceptions seem to be those of `Marmorata' and 'Simonii.' Corylopsis veitchiana (but those of C. pauciflora and spicata were not injured). Lonicera fragrantissima 66 \" .. purpusii Magnolia soulangiana 'Candolleana' (but other Rhododendron varieties not harmed). 'Charles Dickens' 44 PLATE IV Prunus sargentii `Columnaris' Rhododendron \" 'Cunningham's 'Dr. H. C. White' some rhododendrons that had minus flower buds killed in the severe winter of 1957-58 were not injured this past winter; for example, R. laetvirens, R. smirno~re~ii, R. 'Henrietta Sargent,' 'Norma,'`Purpureum Grandiflorum' and 'Roseum Superbum.' \" Dresselhuys' some injury. However, to know that Those interested in the spring displays in the Arnold Arboretum will be none of the following had flower bud injury : Cornus florida glad Cytisus praecox Davidia involucrata Malus species and varieties, most of which are seldom injured. Pieris floribunda and P. japonica (but considerable flower bud injury above the snow line at the Case Estates, Weston). Prunus - none of the cherries seem to be injured. Rhododendrons and azaleas (including R. obtusum kaempferi). Viburnum burkwoodii and V. carlcephalum. ' All in all, it has been a normal winter. At this time (March 29) it is difficult whether the spring bloom is retarded or advanced. Up to this time, Hamamelis species and Daphne rraeNerurn have bloomed on schedule. Many people are interested in knowing whether the spring is \"early\" or \"late.\" One way we have of comparing the season with others, at this time, is to note when a certain willow tree, observed from this office window, has first shown a definite green color-giving a clear comparison of \"early\" and \"late\" to say springs : DONALD WYMAN Note: This was proofread on April 13, after days of cold, some rain and considerable snow. There is nothing like New England weather! Cornus mas is not even m bloom yet-~t should have been ten days ago. 46 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Registration Lists of Cultivar Names in the Genus Pieris D. Don","article_sequence":8,"start_page":47,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24362","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260896b.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wagenknecht, Burdette L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA RI A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University 1 VOLUME 21 APRIL 28, 1J61 REGISTRATION LISTS OF CULTIVAR NAMES IN THE GENUS PIERIS D. DON NUMBER 8 followed in compiling the lists of names applied to cultivars those followed in previous registration lists published in this The presence of an asterisk following a cultivar name in the alphabetical journal. list indicates a cultivar presently being grown in North America. The words \"nomen nudum\" indicate cultivar names which have not been described and for that reason considered illegitimate. Additions and corrections to the list accompanied by a reference to a valid publication or by application for registration will be welcomed. All information of this nature should be addressed to the author. THE procedures -tin Pieris are Alphabetical List Albo Marginata (japonica) Bonsai (japonica)* Chandleri (formosa var. forrestii) Chandleri (japonica) Compacta (japonica)* Compact (japonica)* Crispa (japonica)* Dorothy Wyckoff (japonica)* Elegantissima (japonica) Elongata (floribunda) (,japonicaXformosa var. forrestii 'Wakehurst') (japonica)* Forest Flame (japonicaXformosa var. forrestii 'Wakehurst')* Grandiflora (floribunda) Jermyns (formosa var. forrestii) Flame of the Forest Flamingo 47 Alphabetical List (cont.) Minima (japonica) Nana compacta (,japonica) Pink Bud (japonica)* Pygmaea (japonica)* Rosea (japonica) Variegata (japonica)* Variegata Nana (japonica) Wakehurst (formosa var. forrestii) , _ Whitecaps (japonica)* White Cascade (japonica)* White Rim (japonica) Bibliographic Pieris floribunda List (Pursh) Bentham & Hooker f., Genera Plantarum 2: 588. 1876. 'Elongata' (Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 63: 295. 1938). Described as \"quite distinct from the type are plant. The time of flowering is some weeks later, the and the panicles longer.\" `Grandiflora' (Herm. A. Hesse, Weener, Hanover, Germany, Preisliste 1927~ 28: 72. 1927). Originally appearing as an undescribed catalogue name this selection has not been listed since 1930. Competing with a later generally established cultivar name which has been widely described this name is rejected as a nomen nudum and under the provisions of Article 31 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. Grandiflora' (Hillier & Sons, Winchester, England, Catalogue of Trees and Shrubs 49T: 78. 1949). Selected by Messrs. D. Steward and Son, Ltd., Ferndown, Dorset, England. Selected from seed first sown in 1934 or 1935. First flowered in 1938. Described as, \"Notable for its unusually long flower racemes. \" flowers larger Pieris formosa (Wall.) D. Don var forrestii (Harrow) Airy-Shaw, Bot. Mag. 157: t. 9371. 1934. 'Chandleri' (R. E. Harrison, Handbook of Trees and Shrubs for the Southern Hemisphere 251. 1959. = P. japonica 'Chandleri' - Hort. Soc. 84: 377. 1959). \"This form has reticulate, lustrous leaves about 321 inches long and 1 inch wide and carries loose, terminal panicles of flowers consisting of about 6 racemes 4-j inches long. The rachis and sepals are deeply tinted with red and are emphasized by the pendent, urceolate, white corollas.\" 'Wakehurst' (Jour. Roy. Hort. Soc. 82 : 309. 1957). \"It differs from the type in that the leaves are relatively short and broad. Somewhat clustered at the ends of the shoots, the dark green leaves are elliptic-oblong, acuminate, 'Jermyns' (Jour. Roy. 48 finely serrulate, glabrous, from 2 to 4 inches long, and ~inch wide. The deep red colour of the young foliage sets off the pure glistening white of the flowers most handsomely. The flowers are carried m terminal spreading panicles, 5 inches long and broad, and are urn-shaped, bluntly lobed and -.,~~ inch across. \" Pieris japonica (Thunb.) G. Don, Gen. Hist. D~chlam. Pl. 3: 832. 1834. 'Albo Marginata' (Maximowicz in Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 18 : 49. 1873). Although clearly the earliest name applied to the variegated selection of this species no description accompanied the publication of the name. No manual has used this name for the past fifty years, all authors taking up the validly described name `Var~egata.' The name 'Albo Marginata' is rejected as a nomen nudum and under the provisions of Article 31 of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. = `Variegata' 'Bonsai' (Alpenglow Gardens, New Westminster, Brit. Columbia, Canada, Catalogue 1957). \"Very dwarf with leaves and flowers similar to P. ja~onica.\" `Chandler~' (Como Nurseries, The Basin, Victoria, Australia, Catalogue 1954). \"In this form, the young foliage, on unfolding is a beautiful pink salmon, changing to a glossy cream, and finally white, before passing off to deep green.\" Compacta' (Westbury Rose Co., Inc., Long Island, New York, Spring Catalogue 1949). \"A compact plant, six feet tall and very dense in growth with foliage averaging one-half the size of neighboring plants.\" Compact' (Registered by Peter Vermeulen, Neshanic Station, 196 I ). A compact plant with foliage of normal size. New Jersey, Rehder in Jour. Arnold Arboretum 27 : 173. 1946). \"Leaves undulate crispate.\" strongly 'Dorothy Wyckoff' (Registered by Henry J. Hohman, Kingsville, Maryland 1960). \"Growth habit, compact; leaves very rich dark green in summer, turning a handsome reddish-green in winter. The flower buds during winter are deep, dark-red, and in spring when beginning to swell are red to very dark pink, and when flowers open they are a fine true pink, not pale to white. \" 'Elegantissima' (A. D. Webster, Hardy Ornamental Flowering Trees and Shrubs 86. 1893). ='Variegata' 'Flamingo' (Registered by Lambert Gardens, 5120 S.E. 28th Ave., Portland 2, Oregon 1961 ). \"Deep pink panicles which do not fade. Panicle sizeI cm. Florets 9 mm. long by 7 mm. wide. Leaf slightly rounder than Pieris jaPonica. New growth bronzy-red.\" 'Minima' (H. Lincoln Foster, Norfolk, Conn., in Amer. Rock Gard. Soc. Bull. 7 : 96. 1949). \"4 inches tall and 3 inches wide after four growing seasons.\" No longer m cultivation. 'Crispa' (A. 49 'Nana Compacta' (Herm. A. Hesse, V~'eener, Hanover, Germany, Preisliste 1951\/52: 42. 1951 ). ='Pygmaea' 'Pink Bud' (John Vermeulen & Son, Neshanic Station, New Jersey, Catalogue 1960: 17. 1960). Buds and newly opened flowers pink. 'Pygmaea' (Max~mowicz in Bull. Acad. Sci. St. Petersb. 18 : 49. 18 i 2~. Dwarf form, \"the leaves long. The flowers size. \" are are small, linear-lanceolate, crenate, usually ~-1 inch mostly in simple racemes, and of ordinary form and 'Rosea' (I,. N. Roberson Company, 1539 East 103rd Street, Seattle 55, Washington, Catalogue 1952). Flowers pale pink. No longer perpetuated by the introducer. 'Rosea' (Plant Buyer's Guide tion first 6th edition: 218. 1958). An undescribed selec- appearing in a 1958 handwritten supplement to the catalogue of Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Maryland. No longer offered for sale. Rejected as a later homonym of P. japonica 'Rosea' L. N. Roberson, Portland, Oregon 1952. as Rev. Hort. 1881 : 328. 1881). Described leaves with white margins and apices. 'Variegata Nana' (Otto & Sons, Boskoop, Netherlands, Catalogue 'Variegata'(Carriere in bearing 1954). ='Variegata' 'Whitecaps' (Registered by Peter Vermeulen, Neshanic Station, 1961). \"It has exceptionally long flower clusters and in its New Jersey, location the blooms last for about six weeks. The color of the flowers is pure white and they are more outstanding than those on other plants of the same species nearby.'' 'White Cascade' (Registered by Raymond P. Korbobo, Middlesex, New Jersey, 1961). \" Perfectly clear white flowers ; full flower clusters ; fully clothed with fohage all around; flowers stay white for 5 weeks; produces heavy flower set each year.\" 'White Rim' (Mayfair Nurseries, Bergenfield, New Jersey, Catalogue 1948). _ `Variegata' Pieris japonica Don X P. formosa var. forrestii 'Wakehurst' 'Flame of the Forest' (Sunningdale Nurseries, Windlesham, Surrey, England, Catalogue 1952). ='Forest Flame' 'Forest Flame' (Sunningdale Nurseries, Windlesham, Surrey, England, Catalogue 1959). Combines the hardiness of P. japonica with the foliage characteristics of P. japonica var. forrestii 'Wakehurst.' N~me changed from 'Flame of the Forest' to conform to the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants. BURDETTE L. WAGENKNECHT 50 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Best Ornamental Spireas","article_sequence":9,"start_page":51,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24364","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270a728.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA I A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 21 1 MAY 26, 1961 NUMBER 9 * SPIREAS THE BEST ORNAMENTAL as a group, are not a very important part of the garden picture. A few have been extremely popular, and at least one may have been over planted in the past. Of the many species and varieties, 84 are growing in the Arnold Arboretum and only half that number are offered by American nurseries. In the recommended hst are only 28 species and varieties which I think are SPIREAS, landscape planting, a too large number made necesspread of nearly three months in the time of bloom. Also these recommended range in height from 1 to 12feet, so that actually there are none too many for specific purposes. sary because there is a worthy of consideration for There are several native to North America but these have not been selected as worthy landscape plants. Spiraea latifolia is the hardiest of all (Zone l~ and grows about four feet tall with white to pink flowers in pyramidal spikes, but it is only planted in the coldest regions (if at all) where other plants are not hardy. Spiraea tomentosa, the native Hardhack Spirea of the eastern United States, is a weedy, three foot high shrub with poor foliage, possibly looking well in old cow pastures where it is native but suited for little else than in naturalistic plantings. It is listed by only a few United States nurseries. The majority of those recommended are hardy in either Zone 4 or 5. Other than those already mentioned, it is highly probable that most spireas would suffer winter injury and hence require much renewal pruning if tried in colder areas, although there may be a few exceptions. For instance, F. L Skinner of Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada, lists Spiraea bumalda `Anthony Waterer,' billiardi, media sericea, menziesi, pikoviersis, trichocarpa and trilobata. As a group they are valued chiefly for their flowers. None have ornamental * Spirea is the correct spelling of the name. scientific This article is from a common name, but Spiraea is correct for the generic recent series by the author, appearing in the American Nurseryman. 51 fruits. Only a few like S. prunifolia and thunbergii are may have autumn color worth as mentioning. Concerning the time of bloom, they in the vicinity of Boston, Mass. listed below in groups they bloom Most growers know that spireas purposes. Those that bloom on the can previous year's growth be divided into two groups for pruning (i e., the early flower- ing ones) should be pruned before they flower. In fact, if this is done in the very early spring this is one of the ways to increase the size of the flower clusters of such species as bumalda, japonica and margaritae. Other species blooming on the year's growth are aibiflora, bullata and canescens. (All the others in the recommended list bloom on the previous year's growth.) As a group the spireas are thought of as having small, creamy white flowers in flat clusters or pyramidal spikes. Mention must be made of four species with pink flowers (brachybotrys, bullata, margaritae and superba) and two species ~ith deep pink and almost red flowers-bumalda and japonica. 'Anthony Waterer' is perhaps the most popular of all low red flowered spireas, but bumalda crispa has flowers practically the same color and much better foliage. Both are about two feet tall, while the japonica varieties are about twice that height. These are undoubtedly mixed up or misnamed in the trade. The variety with the darkest red flowers of all the spireas is S. japonica atrosanguinea. The variety ruberrima has lighter colored flowers but they are still an excellent deep current height and habit of these spireas. The decumbens and bullata which are 1 ~ inches and 15 inches tall respectively-suitable only for planting in limited situations. Spiraea alb~ora is only 18 inches high and the bumalda varieties about two feet. The tallest of the recommended spireas is S. veitchii-about 12 feet high. There must be a lot of planting room available to put in such a plant requiring an area of at least 225 square feet, where better shrubs like viburnums or rhododendrons would give much longer ornamental interest. mention should be made of pink. Finally, lowest ones are 52 s 41 s 'w S S >v~ S~ o H d ~ ~ 4) o 0 .~ U 1~ s > s _F~ M Cd It must be admitted that species like S. arguta and vanhouttei have a gracefully habit which is difficult to improve upon, especially when the branches are covered with flowers. Spireas are easily propagated by cuttings, grow fast and so make saleable plants in a short time. They have no serious insect or disease pests, can be harshly pruned and recover quickly, and so have been used as cheap landscape \"fillers\" in many situations. As they mature they frequently require renewal pruning. The discerning plantsman will not grow many spireas, and the more valuable the garden space available, the fewer are the spireas that should be considered for it. arching Recommended Spireas albiflora l~~ Z4 as Japan Japanese White Spirea This species is in many nurseries S. japonica alba which is actually a synonym. It is a fine July-blooming, low, white spirea, which can be used to excellent advantage with the pink to red flowering S. japonica which is taller. It is also good to use in combination with S. bumalda. Xarguta ~-6~ (thunbergii X mult~ora) Garland Spirea Originating before 1884, this is the most free flowering of the early spireas blooming in mid-May. The white flowers are borne in small umbels on arching branches, making it excellent for specimen planting. compacta-The plant in the Arnold Arboretum is still pretty small but it looks as if it might have merit for ornamental planting. x brachybotrys 8r Z4 summer (canescensXdouglasii) One of the best of the taller flowers in panicles 1~-3 inches bullata blooming spireas with small, bright pink long. Blooms in late June. Japan as a 15~r Z5 Flowers deep rosy pink, July and August-only valued 1r Z5 dwarf shrub. Xbumalda crispa (jaPonicaXalb~ora~ in flat clusters sometimes as much as 6 inches in diamecolor as those of 'Anthony V~'aterer.' This is of particular interest because of its leaves that are slightly twisted or crinkled, making it an excellent specimen for its foliage as well as its bright flowers. Bright crimson flowers same ter, the Xbumalda froebelii 3~ Z5 (ja~onicaXalb~ora) Froebel Spirea With bright crimson flowers this is a popular plant among many U.S. nurserybecause the secondary growth is sufficiently tall and vigorous to cover the dead flower heads produced in early to mid-July. men 54 PLATE VI Spiraea bumalda crispa Xbumalda `Anthony Waterer' 2r Z5 A very low, crimson flowered spirea, popular since 1890 when it originated. The young foliage is tinged pink as it first appears in the early spring. The flowers first appear in late June. IOrr tall, compact and very rare. The foliage is brown 'Norman' raspberry purple in the fall and the flowers are rosy pink. Note: There are one or two other low 'mound like' spireas being offered in the trade, none of which I have yet seen but which may belong here. One is listed as S. bumalda alpina with pink flowers and another is listed as S. digitata nana with raspberry red flowers. The plant is reportedly only4 inches tall and is supposed to come Xbumalda a turning from Siberia. canescens 6-lOr in Z7 Hrmalayas 2 inches in Hoary Spirea Blooming the upper side of cantoniensis July with clusters of white flowers gracefully arching branches. 3r Z6 termed S. diameter, borne on China and Japan Reeve's Spirea reevesiana, this is often considered even a betpopular S. vanhouttei, although the latter is more In parts of California it keeps its foliage a greater part of the year. The hardy. small, rounded white flower clusters are only 1-2rr in diameter and appear in late May. Sometimes incorrectly ter ornamental than the very decumbens Ir Z5 Southern Europe Of special interest for rockeries, this low European, white extremely difficult to find in American nurseries at present. flowering spirea is japonica 4~ Z5 Japan Japanese Spirea forcing pale to A handsome Japanese spirea but its height is sometimes against it, people to use the lower S. bumalda varieties. However, the flowers are deep pink, sometimes white, appearing in mid-June. japonica atrosanguinea Mikado Spirea This has the deepest red flowers of any spirea, the flat flower clusters often being 4-5rr in diameter. ' japonica ovalifolia-flowers white. japonica ruberrima-flowers Xmargaritae ~r a deeper pink than those of the species. Z4 (japonicaXsuperba~ 56 Margarita Spirea plant is thinned out With flat clusters of rosy pink flowers in late June. If the in the late winter and the few remaining shoots cut back to about one foot, it should be covered with blooms by late June, the blooms being from 3-6 inches ~n diameter. It may bloom a second or even a third time during the summer. Xmultiflora An excellent 5' Z4 (crenata X hypericifolia) Snow Garland Spirea hybrid originating before1 884 with long slightly arched branches covered with small white flower clusters in Mav. This does very well indeed in the Dakotas, apparently better than in New England. Sometimes incorrectly listed as S. mult~ora arguta. nipponica rotundifolia i~ Z4 Japan Big Nippon Spirea With bluish green foliage, this shrub is rather stiff and not as graceful as others. The small clusters of white flowers are numerous, appearing in late May. It has larger leaves and flowers than the species, hence is recommended. prunifolia 9~ Z4 Japan and China Bridalwreath The small double white, button sized flowers in mid-May are this plant's popular feature. However, it is one of the very few spireas which has red to orange autumn color in the fall. The single flowered variety, simpliciss~lora, does not make nearly as good an ornamental. There is no such variety as plena or floreplena. This double flowered plant was the first to be found by botanists in the Orient (1843) and was given the specific name prun~'olia. When the single flowered form was found later, it was given the varietal name. Usually the sequence is just reversed. Xsuperba 3~ Z4 (albi,floraXcorymbosa~ (light rose) China Striped Spirea and its low Only valued thunbergii because of its late June flowers height. 5~ Z4 Japan and Thunberg Spirea Single white flowers in early May, this is usually the first of the spireas to bloom. The leaves are small and pointed, the plant is graceful and finely branched and the foliage may turn orange in the fall under some conditions. However, it does better in the Middle Atlantic States and the South than in New England where it tends to be killed back somewhat by winter cold or where late spring frosts injure the early blossoms. thunbergii compacta-I have have merit. not seen this plant but if correctly Korea named it should trichocarpa ters than 6~ Z5 Korean Spirea clus- Somewhat similar to ~S. nipponica and its varieties but it has S. vanhouttei and blooms shortly afterwards. larger flower 57 trichocarpa erecta-according to F. L. Skinner this is more compact, than the species; flowers and flowering habit are similar. Xvanhouttei more dwarf 6r Z4 (cantoniensis X trilobato) Vanhoutte Spirea Originating before 1868, this has become the most popular of all the spireas. It blooms in late May. Its arching habit is one of its best assets. veitchii 1`?r 5 Z Central and West China Veitch Spirea The tallest of the spireas with flat white flower clusters about 2 inches in diameter during mid-June. wilsonii ir Z5 Central and Western China In general this looks like S. vanhouttei but blooms Spirea slightly later-in early June. Wilson Dropmore Hybrids needing more trial The following three hybrids have originated at the Dropmore Nurseries of F. L. Skinner, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. Presumably they are hardy there in extremely low winter temperatures. 6Rosabella' (S. belulifolia hybrid) 12-15r tall with flat panicles of pink flowers throughout the summer, 22r tall; flower clusters terminal and 6rr in diameter. They are a washed pink, not a good color. 'Snow White' (S. trichocarpa X trilobala) The foliage is larger and a paler green and the individual flowers are slightly larger than those of S. vanhouttei which it closely resembles. However, 'Snow White' is quite hardy at Dropmore and S. vanhouttei ~s not. Snow' (S. betulifolia X media) ~r tall, with flat panicles of white flowers the end of June and blooming until the end of August. starting Other spireas needing further study are listed in the trade bumalda alpirru-``low cushion type with pink flowers.\" as : 'Summer digitata nana-\"with raspberry and from Siberia. \" red flowers, the plant being only 4 inches tall DONALD WYMAN 58 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Liquidambar","article_sequence":10,"start_page":59,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24359","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d2608528.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 21 JUNE 23, IJ6I NUMBER 10 THE -M- LIQUIDAMBAR sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua L.), also a known as redgum or star- leaved gum, is very common tree in the forests of southeastern United States, extending as far north as southeastern Connecticut. Under favorable conditions sweetgum develops into a large tree, 80-100 feet tall and with a trunk 2-4 feet in diameter. The largest specimen on record * at the present time is 1 12 2 feet tall and 16 feet 6 inches in diameter. There are several aspects of the sweetgum which are both interesting and ornamental at various seasons of the year, making it a rather popular tree for cultivation. The trunk is usually long and straight, often with a buttressed base; the latter being especially prevalent in wet, swampy habitats. The bark is dark and deeply furrowed, and the branches are often winged with corky ridges. While the tree is young and growing vigorously it has a long, regular, conical-shaped crown, giving the tree a growth form somewhat resembling that of a conifer. After most of the height growth is obtained, however, the crown begins to spread and becomes more oval or rounded in shape. The leaves are star-shaped, usually with 5-7 points, and with finely-toothed margms (Plate VII). At maturity the leaves are smooth, bright green and shinmg, and contain a pleasantly-scented essential oil which is given off when the leaves are bruised or crushed. In the fall, sweetgum leaves show a great deal of variation in their coloring. Typically they turn a deep red or crimson, but at different times they will exhibit a range m color from pale yellow to deep blue-violet. The flowers of sweetgum, though inconspicuous and often unobserved, are interesting in many respects. In the southern states they appear in March and April, whereas in New England they usually appear in late April or May. The male and female flowers are separate, although both occur on the same tree. The male flowers are in terminal racemes 2-3 inches long, and consist of small, sphe* American Forests 19~6, 4:39. 59 roid heads of stamens surrounded by hairy bracts. The female flowers occur in solitary heads composed of numerous pistils with two broad, curved stigma lobes. The female flowers often develop small, non-functional stamens also, indicating that the sweetgum probably evolved from a form which had bisexual flowers. The heads of female flowers develop into the familiar \"sweetgum balls\" which are actually compound fruits composed of many small capsules (Plate VIII). The capsules have two short beaks, and are subtended by small, pointed scales. The fruits mature in September, but usually remain on the tree throughout the winter. The seeds are described in detail below under propagation. Habit and Tolerance The American sweetgum is a typical southern bottomland species, and prefers rich, moist, well-drained, alluvial soils. It is especially abundant in the Mississippi Delta region, where it is the most common and widely distributed single tree species. Found on a great variety of sites in this region, sweetgum is tolerant of many different soil types, but does not do well on poorly drained, clay soils. Throughout its life sweetgum is very intolerant of shade. Under the dense canopy of the bottomland forests few sweetgum seedlings are ever encountered. Although seedlings often develop in the more open pine forests on drier sites, they seldom reach maturity. Usually seedlings develop only in clearings or open areas in the forest. Abandoned fields are quickly iwaded by sweetgum, and here it is often found in dense, even-aged stands. Seldom does one encounter an \"over-topped\" sweetgum tree, for it dies quickly if shaded. For this reason sweetgum is usually a dominant or canopy tree. The root system varies considerably in different habitats. Generally the trees in bottomlands have a fairly large taproot, with extensive, well-developed lateral branches. On hillsides and in drier regions the root system is much deeper, with a very large taproot. In very wet swampland the tree does not develop a taproot at all, the root system as a whole being very shallow and spreading, with many small, profusely-branching lateral roots. Species, Forms and Cultivars of Liquidambar Sweetgum is a member of the witch hazel family (Hamamelidaceae) and is not related to the blackgum or tupelo (Ayssa) as is commonly believed. Other members of this family which are in cultivation include the witchhazel (Hn7rramelis), bottlebrush (Fothergilla), and winterhazel (Corylopsis). ~'ithin the Hamamelidaceae Liquidambar is quite different from the other genera, however, and some botanists have suggested that perhaps it should be placed in a separate family. Members of this genus differ not only in structure but also m chromosome number. Most members of the Hamamelidaceae have 12 pairs of chromosomes or a multiple of 1 ~?, whereas Liquidambar has 15 pairs of chromosomes. In addition to the American sweetgum there are two Asiatic species of Liquidambnr which are occasionally cultivated in some areas of the United States. 60 Liquidambar formosana Hance, a native of southern China and Formosa, is distinguished by its three-lobed leaves. The lobes are serrate and usually broadly ovate with acute or acuminate tips. The fruiting heads of Liquidambar formosana are also distinct, having slender, persistent styles and elongate, awl-shaped scales surrounding the capsules. The second Asiatic species, Liquidambar orientalis Mill. is native to Asia Minor. It is distinguished from other species of Liquidambar by its deeply incised leaves which somewhat resemble those of the Japanese maple. The fruiting head of Liquidambar orientalis is similar to the American species, having short beaks and scales. In addition to the above species, the following forms and cultivars of Liquidambar have been selected and introduced into cultivation. Liquidambar styraciflua f. rotundiloba Rehd. This form has leaves with short, rounded lobes and only faintly serrulate margins, in contrast to the pointed lobes and distinctly serrate margins found on leaves of the normal species. The tree was found near Pinehurst, North Carolina by Mr. R. E. Wicker. Liquidambar styraciflua f. ~endula Rehd. This form has a straight trunk which over at the very top, and pendulous branches of uniform size that turn abruptly downward, giving the tree a somewhat columnar appearance. The overall shape will probably become more rounded in older trees, however, as is generally true of the species. This form was discovered in 1935 near Hatton, Arkansas by Miss Sara W. Crawford. bends Liquidambar styraciflua f. suberosa Schwerin. This form was described in 1933 as having branches with unusually thick, corky wings. It differs very little from the normal species, however, which likewise usually has thick corky wings, and is thus hardly worth distinguishing. Liquidambor styraciflua 'Palo Alto.' This is the first, and to my knowledge the only cultivar that has been selected from the American sweetgum. It was introduced into cultivation by the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation in California. The cultivar is described as a well proportioned, pyramidal tree with rich green leaves which turn a bright orange-red in autumn. The distinctive characteristic of this tree is its autumn coloration which is not only exceptionally brilliant, but also uniform over the entire tree. According to Dr. Maunsell Van Rensselaer, Director of the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation, Liquidambar `Palo Alto' has become very popular in California and is being specified by landscape architects and park superintendents in many parts of the state. I have been unable to locate any information on the introduction of this plant. It is a yellow variegated form which retains origin its yellow coloration throughout the growing season. The variegation is not uniform, however, which probably accounts for its lack of popularity as a cultivated Liquidambar styraciflua aurea. or plant. E> 1 Liquidambar formosana `Afterglow.' Another selection from the Saratoga Horticultural Foundation, this is the first cultivar to be named in the Chinese species. The three-lobed leaves are described as downy and violet-red while young, turning to delicate shades of old rose in autumn. Styrax The name sweetgum is derived from the tree's gum-like exudate, usually termed styrax, but often erroneously called storax. This product has a long and somewhat confused history. At an early date it was confused with a similar product derived from a different Asiatic plant, Slyrax q~ccinale. The terms styrax and storax (both of which were derived from the same Greek word) were used interchangeably in referring to these two substances. In order to clarify the situation a convention was adopted by some of the earlier writers of Materia Medica to use the term styrax to refer to the resin of Liquidambar, and the term storax to refer to the resin of Styrax q~cinale. It is unfortunate that the terms were not reversed at that time, for the convention and the resulting confusion have been retained to the present time. The original styrax, and that which has been of most importance commercially, was derived from Liquidambar orienlali.s, the species native to Asia Minor. The product of the American sweetgum is almost identical to that of the Asiatic species, however, and has been used commercially to a small extent. A small amount of styrax is also derived from the third species, Liquidambar formosana, but this is primarily for local use and has never been of much importance com- mercially. The sweetgum trees develop this resin as a response to injury. When the trunk of a tree is injured in some manner, such as by a cut or a bruise, a series of small canals is formed in the inner bark near the injured area. These canals are formed by a pulling apart of some of the cells. Specialized cells then develop along the margins of the canals and secrete the resin which flows through the canals to the wounded area. It has been suggested that this resin secretion serves a useful purpose in the healing of the tree's wounds, but the manner in which it functions in this respect has not been verified. Possibly it is a means of preventing insects or fungi from invading an injured area. The use of styrax has declined considerably in recent years, but historically styrax ranks high among medicinal plant products. The early history of its use is now quite vague and it is not known just how long this product has been in use. It likely predates the birth of Christ, for there are authenticated records as early as the seventh century A. D. describing a pharmaceutical preparation by the name of \"Zygia\" which was composed primarily of styrax. Practically all of the writers on Materia Medica have a few words to say about the use of styrax. It was once an important constituent in many of the pharmaceutical preparations and 'all purpose drugs\" used by the early physicians. It was also used in fumigatories, incenses, and perfumes. The residue remaining after pressing the inner bark was 62 _ '\" . -.; o~ c \" cE .....~ U d<: aa o '\",~ .~ '\" s ~ E~ `~ E ::; ~i . F y ~, O ~.: ~F v, O ..<::\":: t) NN .;: ~, .: .\" E ro 00 0 F ' N Z.'~C O I~ O .1+u E~ .. ~ '\" w 1~ C1 `~ si~ \"';\"..c ; ll.~iE ~ iE ~~~ ,. w i~ N .;:-<-.; , O ^C .~ ~U V N ~' X \" c<:> a~ ~ U ,.d +' p O w 00 s O U~U U ~G tcs '\" w~ t.-. U a~~ 8 k Y a ~ ~Na ~ ea w '~ ' used in churches as an incense. The resin itself was eaten in the pure used as a salve or balm, or adulterated in a multitude of different ways. form, Some of the magical properties attributed to the resin were, in some instances, associated with the entire tree. In one of the old volumes of Chinese Materia Medica, Pen Ts'ao Kang Mu (1595) gives one of the most all-inclusive lists of ailments that were treated with styrax and other parts of the sweetgum tree. He said that styrax is used chiefly to cure swellings, toothache, scales, boils, ulcer, cancerous growth, and internal hemorrhage. He also states that it will help in healing cuts and wounds, especially those of the muscles, and that it helps circulation. The bark, he says, is used to cure dropsy, diabetes, dysentery, cholera, and colds. Preparations made from the roots and leaves were said to cure boils, ulcer and cancer; and preparations from the fruits were said to prevent the plague, clear the eyes, stop spasms, cure backaches, and general aching of the body. Styrax was not considered to be quite such a cure-all in other Materia Medica of the sixteenth century, but it was certainly regarded as an important drug for several hundred years. Between the seventeenth and twentieth centuries the list of cures slowly diminished, and by the beginning of the present century the only ailment remainmg on the list was ulcer. There is a patent medicine on the market even today by the name of \"Storaxol\" (containing styrax) which is used in the treatment of ulcers. Other than this, styrax is presently used as a balm and flavoring in a few pharmaceutical preparations ; it is used in the preparation of certain adhesives, and to a small extent in the perfume and tobacco industries. commonly Sweetgum blight In recent years sweetgum trees over rather wide areas have been affected by a disorder referred to as sweetgum blight Affected trees are characterized by dieback of the upper branches and leaders, eventually leading to the death of the tree in severe cases. The U.S. Forest Service* has made considerable effort to discover an organism or transmissible virus which is associated with this blight, but none has been found. Instead, it is now thought that environmental factors alone are responsible for the blight. The disorder was found to be most common in areas that are subject to extreme fluctuations in the amount of available water. This included both dry hillsides and low, poorly drained soils. In moist, but well-drained areas, where sweetgum reaches its best natural development, the occurrence of blight is very low, and in some areas non-existent. Thus the sweetgum blight is apparently quite different from the chestnut blight or the Dutch elm disease. The latter diseases pose a serious threat of extinction to certain species, whereas the sweetgum blight serves merely as a striking illustration of the ecological limitations of this species. ,IOAB L. TIIOMAS *Toole, E. R. Sweetgum Blight. L1.S. Dept. Agri. Forest Service, Forest Pest Leaflet 37. April 1959. 64 Fruits and seeds of Liquidambar styraciflua. PLATE VIII Each division of the scale represents 1\/L cm. PROPAGATION OF LIQUIDAMBAR STYRACIFLUA must be collected before dehiscence occurs or the seeds will be lost by natural distribution. This occurrence will vary with location and season. Observation at the Arnold Arboretum in 1960 revealed that fruits gathered during the last week in September were intact, while those collected after the first week in October had shed their seeds. When the collected fruits are provided with a warm dry location, the capsules will open to release the seeds in a week or two. Small quantities of fruit stored in a paper bag can be shaken to separate the seeds from the fruits after dehiscence has taken place. Relative sizes of fruits and seeds make cleaning by two screenings a simple process. First, a screen of large mesh such as one-half inch can be used to separate the sound and abortive seeds from the fruits. Second, a screen with ten squares to the inch will retain the sound seeds but permit the small abortive seeds, which always seem to be present in large amounts, to pass Collection, Cleaning and Storage of Seeds The round, spiny, aggregate fruit of Liquidambar styraciflua through. Plate VIII depicts fruiting heads of Liquidambar styraciflua which comprise an aggregation of capsules, about 3 cm. in diameter together with the long slender peduncles on which they are borne. Also shown in this Plate are the winged seeds with dimensions of approximately 8 mm. long by 2.5mm. wide. The wing, which aids in wind dispersal extends past the seed for a distance of about 2 mm. Seed Germination Seeds of Liquidambar styrac~lua to be sown out-of-doors in the spring can be stored dry until time for stratification. Either two or three months prior to sowing, the seeds are placed in a polyethylene bag with a medium composed of equal parts moist sand and peat moss. In proportion, the medium should be two or three times the volume of seeds. The bag is made vapor tight by twisting the mouth and binding it with a rubber band. It is then placed in a refrigerator set at about 41for the two or three months stratification period. At sowing time the entire contents of the bag are sown. With seeds processed indoors, the same course of action would be followed, but with the stratification period planned to provide germination and seedling growth in the lengthening days of late winter. When treated by this method, using either a two or three months stratification period, general germination occurs in about eighteen days. Cuttings in 6 Liguidambar styraciflua will root from cuttings in high percentages ~hen made early July using half-ripe summer wood. Ray E. Halward (Plant Propagator (2) : 5. 1960), reports rooting of 90~c when cuttings were taken at this season. Bud Grafting bud grafts readily. The varieties may be propagated by this method using the species as understock. To accomplish this, two-year-old seedling understocks are field planted in early spring while dormant. In the Massachusetts area these would be ready for shield budding in August. Liquidambar styraciflua ALFRED J. FORDHAM 66 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hurricane \"Donna\" and Its After Effects to a Chatham, Massachusetts, Garden","article_sequence":11,"start_page":67,"end_page":73,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24357","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260bb6b.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Copeland, Harold W.","article_content":", ARNOLDIA RI A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME ll i SEPTEMBER 8, 1961 NUMBER 11 I HURRICANE \"DONNA\" AND ITS AFTER EFFECTS TO A CHATHAM, MASSACHUSETTS, GARDEN have 8 acres here in Chatham, originally covered with native shrubs and and later cleared in some portions to allow for planting other material. The land slopes from a hill down to a salt water inlet; beyond is Stage Harbour and the open Atlantic. The southwest hurricane winds of \"Donna\" on Monday, September 1 R, 1960, had an unobstructed path to our property direct from the ocean ; there is absolutely no cover between. Wind damage was surprisingly slight; it was much more in evidence in the Middleboro, Bridgewater and Brockton areas. However, large limbs broke off on Ailanthus altissima and several tall trees of Pinus rigida. Another Ailanthus altissima was uprooted and many terminal twigs of Pinus rigida were strewn on the ground. The other hurricanes experienced here, beginning with the hurricane of 1938, were accompanied by deluges of rain. This meant that although salt water spray was deposited on the foliage, the wash-off resulting from the heavy rains prevented any noticeable salt spray damage on this property. Hurricane \"Donna,\" however, brought to Chatham a scant 20 inches of rain. Consequently, when the winds ceased, our windows on the southwest side of the house had the appearance of having been white-washed. Some plants showed no ill effects whatever from this salt bath. We have 650 plants of Pinus thunbergii, most of them from 1 ~1 to 16 feet tall, and not a needle turned color. The only exceptions were the 10 trees which are variants from the type and the greater the variation from type, the more needles that were browned. Following the hurricane, many trees and shrubs whose leaves were 100'0 browned put out new leaves all over. This was natural in view of the later fall rains and the warm temperatures which we enjoy on Cape Cod in September, October and November. Forsythia and one or two other shrubs even put out a few scattered flowers. Walking over the property in January, I was encouraged to see in general good leaf and flower buds on most plants. WE trees V 67 Holly Notes Interesting Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler of Falmouth and Mr. Louis H. Carter of East Orleans, have compared notes with me on the hardiness of hollies in the Cape Cod area. A surprising number of them can be grown and with an expectancy of complete hardiness, although some survive better at Chatham than they do at Falmouth. Damage was greater there this past winter, not so much because of any vagaries of Hurricane \"Donna,\" but because the winter temperatures there were lower (down to -1~?F.) than at Chatham (+5F.). Ilex opaca showed a general die-back of 1-3~~, whereas with 1. aqufolium, presumed to be less hardy, many varieties went through unscathed in my plantings and even though the leaves may have shown a very slight injury, the twigs were in perfect condition, plump up to the end, in May 1961. The Ilex aqufolium varieties were badly injured at Falmouth. Some were killed outright, some were killed to the snow line, while others, at best, required severe pruning. The Chatham planting apparently had more salt spray than those at Falmouth. It seems a fair conclusion that I. aquifolium will come through a complete salt bath successfully when the following winter's lowest temperature is 5 F. or higher and the soil is good, but severe loss can be expected when salt spray is followed by winter temperatures of much below zero or when plants are growing in extremely poor, sandy soil. Mr. Wilfrid Wheeler of Falmouth took holly cuttings early in 1961 from plants which had been exposed to Hurricane \"Donna\" and later observed that never in his long career did he have such difficulty in obtaining rooted cuttings, for only 60% of Ilex aqu~'olium cuttings rooted, in comparison with other years. Of 1. opaca cuttmgs, some rooted normally, while others rooted only 1~~o as well as they had done in other years. Given good soil and proper culture, it is evident that in an area with Chatham's temperatures a wide selection of Ilex species and varieties can be successfully grown, even to the accompaniment of a thorough salt bath. The varieties of llex in the following lists have been thoroughly hardy at Chatham, year after year, without any winter damage. The varieties of Ilex opaca growing at Chatham are : 68 The following are Ilex aquifolium varieties which are growing so successfully here and in Orleans. The asterisks (*) indicate those varieties which, through the years, have also proved hardy at Falmouth: Also 17 other seedlings unnamed. un- For those plants of Ilex that were damaged this year for the first time, doubtedly due to salt spray injury, see page i 1. Ilex crenata. we All named clones of the species 1. crenala (Japanese holly) that have tested thrive well. These include compacta, co~`aexa, 'Glass,' 'Green Cushion,' 'Helleri,' 'Hetzii,' Howardi,'`Longfellow,' major, microphylla maculata, oleqfera, 'Stokes' and `T l' (1'ingle). Miscellaneous species. Other species proved perfectly hardy are cornuta (Chinese holly), varieties `Burford,' 'National,' 'Rotunda,' and eleven seedlings and cuttings without names; glabra (the native Inkberry), peclunculosa, pernyi in four different forms, its variety veitchii, i~erticillala and the hybrid aquipern~i - (aquifolium X pernyi). General Comments Here are some general observations as a result of closely examining the plants invariably same subjected to this salt spray bath in September, 1960: If a tree or shrub were in poor condition from whatever cause, it suffered greater damage from salt spray than did healthy specimens of the species. Shrubs attempting an existence in what is largely Cape Cod sand were usually hurt more than the same species growing in good soil. Fortunately, our own soil is excellent and our material came through better than that of people whose soil 69 The damage was much more extensive in Falmouth than in Chatham. Because of this, apparently low temperatures in the winter also contributed to the injury, for Falmouth's low reading in the winter 1960-1961 was -15 F., while Chatham's was -f-~ F. Many of our shrubs showing 1-1~?~~ dieback were a total loss in Falmouth. is chiefly sand. List of Woody Plants Observed Explanation of symbols: Bold Face-Although some may have had the leaves partly or wholly burned w ith salt spray right after \"Donna,\" these plants showed no injury nine months later. *-Sli~ht salt browning of foliage after hurricane ; not serious. +-Leaves of entire shrub or tree browned immediately after hurricane. If inches or feet are noted after the name, it indicates that the twigs died back just that much in the nine months after the hurricane. Abelia grandiflora 1-8~ (slightlymore * than usual) Abies balsamea, few stems 6~~ * Acer palmatum atropurpureum 3-4~ + Alb~zzia julibrissin rosea, one died ; another 6~~-1~ * Amelanchier canadensis Calluna LL LL LC vulgaris, ?3 varieties * * vulgaris aurea pygmaea Arctostaphylos Uva-Ursi Aronia arbutifolia \" LL rubrum * \" 'J.H. Hamilton' * Carya illinoensis, 4\" t Caryopteris incana, 8-12\" Celastrus scandens, 3-6\" Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 6\"-(?' t LL melanocarpa, ~?-4~ Cercis canadens~s ~ (died) lagenaria `Apple Blos- Berberis 16 thunbergii $ atropurpureum, Chaenomeles som' few twigs, ~-4~ Berberis triacanthophora, most twigs, 3-6~~ Berberis verruculosa, few twigs, 1-3~~ Berberis thunbergii 'Crimson Pygmy' Chionanthus virginiana, 3-6\" t Clematis virginiana, normal dieback only Clethra alnifolia Cornus alternifolia, most shoH ed 6- Betula papyrifera, one, no damage; another 10 feet away, ~?2~ Buxus microphylla compacta \" microphylla `Curly Locks' \" IS\", some even 3'; a few died. native Have about 30 which were here.$ Cornus florida, those in open area died ; those protected by screen of pines, no damage ; those surrounded by shrubs died above line of shrubs. t Cornus kousa, 6-18\" $ LL sempervirens are (some people com- whose plants plete loss) \" in sand had Buxus sempervirens rotundifolia \" sempervirens, variegated sempervirens 'Vardar Valley' normal dieback mas, LL 3-6' '~F' .\/. paniculata, I 8\" v ind side; lee no Callicarpa japon~ca, only side damage :j: Cornus stolonifera flaviramea 70 Cotoneaster \" apiculata divaricata * floribunda, 4-l2rr foveolata, some twigs, \" \" * ~,rr Fothergilla major, 3' wind side$ alatamaha, one died in the open ; one protected by pines 1-3~~ $ ~ Gleditsia triacanthos inermis, 6-8~~ Franklima Halesia monticola Cotoneaster some in franchetii, l8rr wind side, more protected spot unhorizontalis, lrr wind side* perpusilla microphylla buxifolia Hypericum 'Hidcote,' normal dieback \" harmed Cotoneaster \" * 'Sun Gold,' \" \" Ilex aquifolium (24 varieties) Cotoneaster horizontalis (A Ilex friend in Orleans hado-ft. plants really hurt out of a total of seedling Cotoneaster \" 200.) aquipernyi cornuta \" multiflora, 4rr * racemiflora, 3-6rr wardii; protected, some no * \" stems where \" more Sr ; damage * \" crenata compacta \" \" convexa \" \" \" Crataegus oxyacantha paulii phaenopyrum Cytisus kewensis \" \" microphylla maculata oleafera \" \" glabra some praecox \" opaca (37varieties), 2-3,~~ few stems 5rr one none * \" praecox alba, purgans Ilex pedunculosa, 3-6~~ * \" scoparius andreanus, \" pernyi veitchii \" crenata 'Glass' stem only died Cytisus scoparms var., large, old plants died ; healthy young stock, 6-24rr Davidia Deutzia \" aquifolium 'Good Luck' \" crenata 'Green Cushion' \" \" \" involucrata$ gracilis, 8-6rr$ on 'Helleri' 'Hetzii' \" Elaeagnus umbellata, 6-24rr wind \" opaca 'Howard' side $ Enkianthus campanulatus, 3r wmd \" crenata `Longfellow' 'Major' \" \" side+ Erica \" \" \" \" (25 varieties) \" `T 1' 'Stokes' Euonymus alatus, \" 4rr$ \" pernyi europaeus, 6-l2rr; 1 died fortunei kewensis fortunei vegeta Exochorda grandiflora wilsonii,4-l2rr$ Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, some stems l2rr; some plants undamaged* Forsythia `Beatr~x Farrand,' 6rr-3r * \" Forsythia viridissima 'Bronxensis' \" Juglans cinera, died$ Juniperus virginiana-probably 200 on the place-remarkable variation in results of trees side by side ; one wholly undamaged, the next showing complete browning on wind side; actual dieback abont 4-6~~ Kalmia latifolia, few twigs, 6~~ * Koelreuteria ' Spring Glory,' some stems some paniculata 12rr ; plants undamaged * Kolkwitzia amabilis, 6-l l~~$ 71 Laburnum vossii Lespedeza bicolor Ligustrum obtusifolium regelianum, 3-6rr, a few 2r * Lonicera \" exposed. Needles totally browned on entire southwest side of plants Pinus by Jan. 9, 1961 thunbergii japonica halliana tatarica, some undamaged ; Paulownia \" tomentosa ~ t \" Potentilla fruiticosa 'Lemon Drop' others zr 'Moonlight' ** \" Magnolia virginiana \" soulangiana$ \" \" 'Mt. Everest' \" 'Primrose \" `Alba Superba,' Beauty' Potentilla fruiticosa 'Klondike' Prunus (peach and cherry)$ \" pink Magnolia loebneri 'Merrill' soulangiana `Rustica Superba' Malus baccata seedling \" \" (flowering peaches), died Prunus caroliniana, few stems 8~~ Prunus maritima 'Oekonomierat Echtermeyer,' sargentii sargentii 'Hopa' .. l2rr ~ Malus prunifolia rinki \" (seedling) \" Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 6~~ on wind side on badly exposed trees; needles browned on entire southwest totally side of plants by Jan. 9, 1961. Protected tree wholly unharmed. Pyracantha coccinea lalandi, a \" few Morus alba, 6-24rr $ * Myrica carolinensis Nandina domestica slightly hurt Quercus coccinea, \" some stems 12~~ t palustris $ rubra, some Oxydendrum arboreum, 6-86rr$ Pachysandra terminalis Parthenocissus quinquefolia Quercus pedunculata \" \" stems 12~~ t Philadelphus 'Belle Etoile,' 12-l8rr Minnesota Snowflake,' \" 6-l8rr Photinia villosa Picea abies, few stems 8-l4rr \" velutina Rhododendron carolinianum (protected spot) Rho. dauricum sempervirens (azalea) * Rho. \" \" fortunei, molle a few stems 8~~ Pieris \" canadensis, few stems 8-l4rr * japonica, few twigs 3rr Pinus banksiana, few twigs 4rr * resinosa, few terminals dead, but chiefly unharmed * Pinus r~gida, some undamaged, others nearby l2rr, some worse * Pinus strobus, exposed trees dead or nearly so, needles totally browned on entire southwest side of plants by Jan. 9, 1961 Pinus sylvestris, many large limbs and some whole trees dead where fully mucronatum, some branches 12~~ wind side; perfectly OK on lee side: some plants no damage Rho. obtusum \" \" seedling wind side; some plants Rho. satsuki seedling \" \" arnoldianum, 12~~ no damage schlippenbachii viscosum \" yedoensis poukhanensis `BrilliancyXsatsuki' \" \" Stewartstonian' Rosa floribunda, 24~~ compared to normal dieback of F,-12~~ 72 Rosa \" \" \" \" hugonis spinosissima a virginiana rugosa 'Agnes' \" dred on the place; those partially protected show no damage; those in open, range from 3-6~~ dieback `Blanc Double de Com- bert' Ifubus `Indian to dead on wind side Vaccinium vitis-idaea majus and to completely * summer,' all canes died canes ground minus Viburnum \" \" carlcephalum carlesii Rubus `Latham,' ~of died to ground ; remainder 6-~?4~~ dieback Salix alba vitellina, twigs 6-18~~ cassinoides, completely \" caprea, 6-1 ?~~ Sorbus aucuparia, some twigs 4~~$ Spiraea b~llardii, ~~ Spiraea thunbergii compacta \" trilobata, 4-6~~ Styrax japonica, ll~~+ Symphoricarpos chenaultii dead on wind side; badly hurt on lee side. The worst hit of our 17 i Viburnum varieties. V. setigerum was next. t Viburnum on the dentatum, several hundred place. Of those fully ex- Symplocos paniculata, 11~~$ Syringa persica, 3~~$ \" 6 \" alba, velutina 3\" \" \" \" \" \" \" posed, some are dead and on the wind side most are dead or nearly so. Of those somewhat protected by other shrubs, some are unhurt and others have 4-1 2~~ dieback.$ Viburnum dilatatum, ~-6~~ $ ~ \" \" \" vulgaris 'Leon Gambetta' 'Montaigne' 'Mme. Lemoine' \" `Chas. Joly' \" `Souvenir de Lud'Pres. Grevy' \" `Sensation' \" `Adelaide Dunbar' 'Blue Hyacinth' \" \" xanthocarpum tomentosum opulus plicatum wig Spaeth' Syringa vulgaris \" \" \" prunifolium,few stems 4~ +~ t pubescens, several hundred on the place. Of those fully exposed, \" \" some are dead and most are dead or nearly dead on wind side. Of those somewhat protected by other shrubs some are unhurt and others have 4-12~~ dieback. seedling Syringa vulgaris 'Esther Staley' seedling Taxus baccata repens \" Viburnum rhytidophylloides \" \" cuspidata showed Taxus \" \" (only damage) nana 2 plants rhytidophyllum sargentii, 4-6~~ on wind cuspidata sidet Viburnum setigerum, \" media hatfieldii hicksii 6-1R~~ t ~ sieboldii \" Tsuga canadensis, burns badly with only normal winter winds unless completely protected. Ulex europaeus, 2 -3~ (normally 18~~~ Ulmus americana, 6~~-3~ Vaccinium corymbosum, several hun- \" trilobum, 6- 12~~ ~t wrightii, 3-6~~ ; a few 1 ~~~ + on some Weigela, branches \" 1-`Z~ t ~ florida variegata HAROLD W, COPELAND Chatham, Mass. ~3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fall Program of the Arnold Arboretum, 1961","article_sequence":12,"start_page":74,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24356","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260bb26.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":", 1961 Fall Program of the Arnold Arboretum . FIELD TRIPS \" Friday morning trips at Jamaica Plain Dr. Donald Wyman will lead five trips around the collections of the Arnold Arboretum on successive Fridays beginning September 29 at 10 a.m. All trips will start at the Administration Building, where the meetings will be held in case of rain. These trips will consider trees and shrubs in their fall condition. Berried plants, trees, and shrubs for fall color, broadleaved evergreens, and cone-bearing plants will receive special attention. Tuesday afternoon trips at the Case Estates in Weston Dr. Carroll Wood will conduct five trips around the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum on successive Tuesdays beginning September 26 at 2:30 p.m. The group will meet at the Barn, 135 Wellesley Street in Weston. Footwear suitable for walking in the woods is recommended. Both cultivated and native plants will be considered as they are encountered in an informal consideration of this interesting area in the suburbs. LECTURES A series of five popular talks by the Arboretum staff and visiting scientists on their work or their interests will be offered on V~'ednesdav evenmgs. The lectures will be given in the Administration Building at the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, with all talks beginning promptly at 8 p.m. October 4. The Collection and Treatment of Seeds. Mr. Fordham Do you save seeds to grow your own plants? Mr. Fordham, propagator at the Arboretum, will discus the methods and pitfalls of collecting and storing seeds and fruits and the proper methods of getting them to germinate. October 11. A Botanist Looks at Hawaii. Dr. Howard Dr. Howard has visited Hawaii not as a tourist, but as a botanist looking at agricultural, horticultural, and forestry problems. Kodachrome slides illustrate this talk. October 18. Preparing Your Garden for the Winter. Mr. Williams The Superintendent of the Arnold Arboretum will discuss some of the pracn tical steps which may be taken to lessen thewinter damage to plants grown in the Boston area. October 25. Dr. Nevling Specimens and Botanical Research. which form the herThe preparation and use of dried botanical specimens barium of the Arnold Arboretum, form the basis of much of the work of the staff. Amateur naturalists, tourists, or teachers will gain from this discussion of the preparation and use of dried specimens for botanical research. Dried Mediterranean Gardens. November 1. Mrs. Weber The Mediterranean can be a geographic area or a type of environment. Mrs. Weber is from Geneva, and she will discuss and illustrate with kodachrome slides the gardens of the area and many of the plants which grow so well there. All programs are open to the public without charge. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Walter Street \"Berrying\" Ground","article_sequence":13,"start_page":75,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24367","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d270ab6b.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lehmer, Mary","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 21 i OCTOBER ~7, 19F)1 THE WALTER STREET NUMBER 12 e \"BERRYING\" GROUND the turn of the 18th Century the town of Roxbury was growing rapidly. Out by Jamaica Pond, along the Dedham Road, the section called \"Jamaica End\" was filling up with thriving farms. By 1702, Joseph Weld and forty-four other men felt that the community was large enough to support a church of its own. Until this time they had been parishioners of the Roxbury town church on Meeting House Hill-a long, weary way from Jamaica Pond, especially on cold winter nights. On account of the distance, and, as they said, \"The great travail and time in going and coming,\" they petitioned to be allowed to establish a second parish, with a meeting-house nearer home. The petition was ignored. In the records that remain to us, the next five years are shrouded in silence, but by 1711 it was clear what the men of Jamaica End had been up to. They had built a meeting-house and started a parish, and were now suing for pardon and recognition by the General Court and Town Assembly. The church they thus established surreptitiously was on Walter Street (then part of the Dedham Road), and the remains of their parish cemetery are now part of the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum. AT Revolutionary Soldiers Buried Here The little cemetery, now reduced to thirteen stones and a crypt, can be found the far side of the Peter's Hill Road, nearly opposite the dirt road leading to the crest of the hill. Originally the area was somewhat larger. As late as 1903, according to the records of the Cemetery Department (which held jurisdiction of it until the land came to the Arboretum in 1923), it covered 34,800 square feet. At this time about 300 square feet were taken from the grounds in order to widen Walter Street and in the subsequent excavating for the street, the remains of twenty-eight bodies were found. These were said to have been soldiers killed in the Revolution. Supposedly, they were reinterred, but there is no sign of them on 75 for a commemorative marker erected by the Sons of the American Revolution. Perhaps they were put in the underground crypt, which appears to be of later date than the original stones. Although the church was gone by the time of the Revolution, there is good reason to think that the convenient facilities of a burying ground by the side of the road might have been utilized by the Continental Army. During the battle of Dorchester Heights and the accompanying Siege of Boston, the Dedham Road was the lifeline of the Army, connecting the active forces with their arms and supplies stored in Dedham. Today one soldier's grave remains -that of Capt. Jonathan Hale, of Glastonbury, Connecticut, who died March 7, 1776, at the age of 56, three days after the decisive battle. Capt. Hale's present stone is a modern replacement, telling us only that he was a member of Wolcott's Regiment of Militia, but the original stone, which remained well into the last century, was more detailed. It is also known that after the war was over, the bodies of soldiers who had been buried in various parts of Jamaica Plain were gathered together and reinterred in the Walter Street Cemetery. Aside from these interesting but purely fortuitous soldiers, the occupants of the cemetery were members of the Second Parish Church of Roxbury (now the First Parish Church of West Roxbury), which stood near the corner of Walter and South Streets from 1712, when the General Court formerly recogmzed the fait accompli of its existence, until 17 7 3, when it moved to its present location. today except Land Provided by Weld Family Since about 1640, the tract of land which is now the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum had been the property of the Weld family, so it is not surprising that Joseph Weld, the prime mover for the new parish, should have provided the plot of land for the church and the cemetery. Unfortunately, in 1712, just as the new parish was about to be recognized, Joseph Weld died and was therefore unable to enjoy the results of his labor and generosity. It would be satisfactory to know, at least, that he was buried in the new burying-ground, but of this there is no record. Until the 19th Century very little ritual surrounded the disposal of the dead. Cemeteries were exactly what they were called, \"berrying-grounds,\" and few records of burial were kept by the church. As far as the grounds and plantings were concerned, the cemetery looks today much as it did in its prime. First Pastor Ordained On November 2, 1712, Nehemiah Walter, the pastor of the First Parish, formally gathered the congregation (now numbering eighteen), and they duly ordained their own pastor, the Reverend Ebenezer Thayer of Boston, on November 26. By the first of the year 1 7 13, the parish was well under way. The first communion was in January, the first baptism in February-and thereafter baptisms made up a large part of the church records. In the first year there were eleven; in the second year, twenty-two. 76 days the congregation did not sit in church by family groups. Men side, women and girls on the other. Overhead, m the gallery, were the boys, watched over by one or more \"tything-men,\" members of a special committee \"to take care of ye boys and to prevent their playing or making any disturbance in ye meeting house.\" Although many churches made do with one or two, the Second Parish immediately appointed four tything-men, a number which was soon increased to six. It may have been a small parish, but apparently it was a lively one up in the gallery. A similarly cryptic notation in the year 1733 makes one wonder what had been going on downstairs. Among the measures which the parish passed to cope with its maintenance problems, there appears the regulation that those who sat by the windows should mend all the broken glass. Maintenance was a constantly recurring problem. We are not told what the church looked like. It was probably, like most churches of the time, a fairly rude structure, possibly thatched, and almost certainly without the steeple and belfry with which our imaginations automatically equip New England meeting-houses. The cemetery lay to the north of the church and the parsonage to the south, at the junction of Walter and South Streets. Before the streets were named, when Walter Street was still only part of Dedham Road, this corner was identified as \"Cookson's Corner.\" Roxbury, with its streams, ponds and wooded hills, was a very beautiful place to live and already becoming known for the salubrity of its climate. Certainly, if the gravestones remaining in the cemetery are a valid sampling of the total population, long life was the rule. Of the twelve civilian stones, only two record In those on one sat \" the deaths of persons under the age of 60. The average of the other ten is somewhat over 75; two were in their eighties; one was ninety-five. We would consider these respectably venerable today. The Reverend Mr. Thayer kept his records meticulously, in a small, neat hand, and in as terse and unemotional a style as can be imagined. It is, therefore, the more surprising to come across one entry, dated September 24, 1723, in which we can detect a generous glow of very human exasperation. \"Isaac Bowen,\" the Reverend Mr. Thayer writes, \"Having in several respects given great offence to the church and obstinately refusing to make the satisfaction the Brethern insisted upon, tho strongly urged thereto was, after Two Months waiting upon him, this day suspended from their Communion till he should give a Christian satisfaction for his miscarriages, pursuant to their own vote.\" To our eternal frustration, Mr. Thayer neglects to mention what, exactly, Mr. Bowen had done to cause such general consternation. Although today we find the occasional note of discord interesting for the breath of life it brings to dead records, on the whole there is every indication that the life of the little parish was serene and prosperous. Mr. Thayer's neat records continue in this vein until the time of his death in March of 1733. ' 77 Nathaniel Walter Called to the Pastorate In January of 1784 the parish elected for its new pastor Nathaniel Walter, son of the Nehemiah Walter who had originally consecrated the church, and grandson of Increase Mather. His ordination in July of that year was a noteworthy event for which the congregation raised the sum of 45 to defray expenses. Lunch and dinner for all at a local tavern alternated with the examination of the candidate in the morning and the service in the afternoon. The Reverend Mr. Walter, like his famous ancestor, was an energetic man and active in the life of the community. His popularity may be recognized in the naming of Walter Street. One story is often told to illustrate the intrepidity with which he embraced new ideas. In the \"great small-pox time\" of 1751, when Dr. Boylston was advocating innoculation in the face of lively public disapproval, Mr. Walter had himself innoculated. As he was recovering in the home of Dr. Boylston, some aroused member of the opposition threw a grenade into his room through an open window. Fortunately, the fuse of the grenade immediately went out and Mr. Walter was spared to continue his pastoral duties. It ~s interesting to note that at the time of the small-pox several children described as \"of Boston\" were baptized in the Walter Street church. Presumably these had been sent to Roxbury to escape the pestilence. In the meantime, Roxbury had continued to grow, and the meeting-house to deteriorate. In 1 i 66 it was voted to build a new building, but nothing was done. In 1769 the Third Parish of Roxbury was estabhshed, the church being built where the First Church of Jamaica Plain now stands, in Monument Square. This was, of course, rather close to the Walter Street meeting-house, which lost some of its adherents to the new parish. These people felt it proper to take with them some of the Second Parish plate, which the Second Parish resisted. There was further dispute over the parish boundaries. All these factors no doubt led to the decision, reached in March of 1773, to pull down the Second Parish meeting-house and use the good parts toward a new building \"at the west end of Roxbury, towards Dedham.\" This resolution was immediately put into action, and by June a committee of fifteen had, by themselves, accomplished the task. Although occasional individuals were later interred in the old burying-ground, its period of regular function in the community had ended. Interesting Headstones Remain Today when we visit the little plot, our attention is attracted by the archaic quality of the stones, the quaint phraseology of the epitaphs, and the way the decorations gradually change from the grim death's-heads of the earliest years to quite cheerful little cherubs as the century progressed. The last stone, erected in 1812, is replete with urn, weeping willows and sentimental verse in full-blown romantic tradition : 78 PLATE IX typical early church, taken from page 447 of Francis Samuel Drake's book, \"The Town of Roxbury,\" published in 1R78. Lower: Marker in the old burying ground on Peter's Hill commemorating the soldiers of the American Revoa Upper: Sketch of lution who were buried here. \"While the dear dust she leaves hehind, Sleep in thy bosom, sacred tomb....\" the last two lines being illegible. By a coincidence, the stone with the earliest date commemorates the only other young person buried here-Mrs. Anna Bridge, who died at the age of 30. The date on the stone, 1722, is apparently a stone-cutter's error. Mrs. Bridge did not die until 1729, and in fact, did not marry Mr. Edward Bridge until November 7, 17`?8. Previously she had been Mrs. Anna Child, of Brookline, a young widow. The Bridge estate was at the corner of May and Centre Streets and remained without a mistress for thirty years before Edward remarried. The oldest stone, therefore, is the double one for Grace and Benjamin Child, husband and wife, who died just over a year apart, in their sixties. Nearby is the stone of Benjamin's brother, Joshua, and we know that as late as 18 7the stone of his wife, Elizabeth, was also there. These two couples were apparently very close in life as well as in death. Not only were the husbands brothers, a year apart in age and baptized on the same day, but the wives were sisters, the daughters of one Edward Morriss. Each couple had twelve children, most of whom survived to maturity,'and as Joshua and Benjamin were themselves part of a large family, it is not surprising that the name Child was a common one at the time in Roxbury, Brookline and Boston. The family estate was near the Brookline border, on the right going up Pond Street, and originally consisted of a house and barn and 80 acres \"conveniently adjoining to ye sd housing.\" Another early stone is that of Thomas Bishop, who died in 1727 at the age of eighty-two. Little can be found about this man. We can assume that he was prosperous, as he presented a silver cup to the church in 1721. He was, of course, 65 when the Second Parish was established and so unlikely to figure prominently in the records. Lt. Daniel Weld was a son of the Joseph Weld who founded the church. As a very young man he married a girl named Susanna and was the father of a daughter at 16. This infant was baptized Hannah in 1713, the third child to be baptized in the new church. Shortly thereafter Susanna must have died, for in 1720 Daniel was married again, this time to Elizabeth Tucker, and subsequently became the father of nine children, only two of whom (twins) failed to survive to adulthood. He lived on the Weld estate where the Arboretum now stands, and was buried in 1761 at the relatively early age of 6~, the last person (according to the stones which remain) to be buried on Walter Street before the church was moved. Elizabeth lived to be 83, and was probably buried in West Roxbury. Daniel's mother is also buried on Walter Street, under the name of Mrs. Sarah Chamberlin. Seven years after Joseph Weld's death, Sarah married Jacob Chamberlin and apparently was buried with the Chamberlins instead of the Welds. There is a considerable body of evidence that Sarah's daughter, also 80 Sarah, had married Jacob's son Jacob, so that the Welds and the Chamberlins were doubly allied. Far offby themselves are the small and crumbling stones of Deacon Ezra Davis and his wife Sarah. These two were both brought back to Walter Street after the church had moved, presumably to be buried with the rest of their family, since in 1787 several other stones bearing the name of Davis still remained. This family, abounding in deacons, was very prominent and active in the church from the beginning. Deacon Ezra and his wife lived in a farmhouse on the corner of the Weld estate about where the railroad underpass is now. Another family which continued to use the old cemetery was the Bakers. Mrs. Hannah Baker, who died in 1776at the age of 95, was interred in the family plot near her husband, Thomas, who had died previously at the age of 83. She was born Hannah Park, of Newton, and the two were married in 1 i 22 in Watertown. Their house and Thomas' wheelwright shop were on Centre Street near Boylston Street, and there they raised three sons. Capt. John Baker was apparently more prosperous, with a large farm near the Brookline border, where he raised six children. Weare not told in what capacity he received his title of Captain, but of course all the commissioned men buried in the Walter Street cemetery, with the exception of Capt. Hale and the anonymous soldiers, were pre-Revolutionary. With these Bakers, John and Hannah, we find the first real departures from the old skull motif in headstone decoration. Hannah's stone has what appears to be a bow-knot and John's, although it has the usual cheerful later variation of the conventional skull and wings, is further embellished with a short poem: Life This was a is uncertain. Death is sure. Sin is the wound. Christ is the cure.\" time of change in many ways, ecclesiastical and social as well as With the countryside about to take up arms against the British, many political. of the older members of the Second Parish were still \"up in arms\" over the changes which had recently been introduced in the singing of hymns in church. Before this time hymns had been sung responsively, one verse at a time being read aloud by a deacon and then sung in unison by the congregation. The new method eliminated the reading by the deacon, and was extremely unpopular at first. At much the same time the public confession of sins in the aisle was also abandoned. It is possible that many of the older people were more upset by such trifling innovations than by the Revolution itself. Gregorian Calendar Changes Dates widespread and significant change which probably upset no one, is illustrated in the old burying-ground. From the Twelfth Century graphically until England accepted the Gregorian Calendar in 1752, the New Year had been One very 81 celebrated on March 25th, causing the dates from January 1 st through March 24th to belong to what we would consider the previous year. Apparently the discrepancy caused some contemporary uneasiness, for about 1670 the custom began of hyphenating the two years during January, February and the early part of March. Many of the stones in the Walter Street Cemetery are dated in this fashion, and when we read a date recorded as 1729\/30 we can remember that for our purposes the later year serves. It is surprising what a strong sense one has of knowing the people from readmg the old records, bare and factual though they be. Except possibly in the case of Isaac Bowen (and even there it is purely conjecture), we find little evidence of the stern, dogmatic Puritans so beloved by later writers. Some of these there may have been, but Jamaica Plain appears to have been settled by a hard-working, practical crowd, trying to be good, but slipping with monotonous regularity from the straight and narrow, only to be forgiven and brought back into the fold. They were people with a nice appreciation of the value of a pound and a healthy awareness of the good things of life, restrained from the excesses of many frontier towns by domesticity and a steady striving for decency and orderliness. MARY LEHMER Albuquerque, New Mexico formerly on the Staff, Arnold Arboretum 82 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XXI","article_sequence":14,"start_page":83,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24358","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260816f.jpg","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XXI Illustrations are in bold face type. Abeliophyllum distichum, Adair, Miss, 36 Ailanthus altissima, 67 Albizia, 24, 25 Albizia 44 Cornus Registration List Names, 9-18 - of Cultivar julibrissin var. rosea, Plate I, 23, 25 Baker, Capt. John, 811 -, Mrs. Hannah, 81 -, Thomas, 81 Beardslee Nurseries, 38 Berberis sargentiana, 44 \"Berrying\" Ground, The V~~alter 5 Street, i Best Ornamental Spireas, The, 5 1-58 Bishop, Thomas, 80 Bowen, Isaac, 77, 82 8 Boylston, Dr., 78 Bridge, Mrs. Anna, 80 -, Edward, 80 Buxus 'Curly Locks,' 44 'Newport Blue,' 44 'Tide Hill,' 44 Calendar, Gregorian, 8 I , 82 Cercis, 19 Chaenomeles, 44 Chamberlin, Jacob, 80, 81 Child, Mrs. Anna, 80 -, Benjamin, 80 -, Grace, 80 -, Joshua, 80 0 Cladrastis, 19, 20 platycarpa, 20 - `Angustipetala,' 11I 'Argenteo-margmata,' 11 - - `Atrosanguinea,' 111 ~ ` Behnsch~,' 1 12 2 `Bowood,' ~ 'Elata,' 1 - - `Elegans,' 12 ~? - - ` Elegantissima,' 12 - - `Elegantissima variegata,' 'Elongata,' 12 `Froebel~,' 12 ~ 'Gibbsii,' 1 'Gouchaulti,' 12 'Kesselringi,' 12 'Rosenthalii,' 12 9 Sibirica,' 12 alba - - - - - - - 12 `? - - > - - - - - - - - - - 'Sibirica elegantissima,' 'Sibirica variegata,' 12 ~ 1 - ~)~ - - ` Spaethi~,' 1? ~2 'Spaethii aurea,' 12 12 'Tricolor,' - - `Var~egata,' 12 `? 'Variegata aurea,' I 12 `4Vestonbirt,' -- - - - - - alternifolia, - 13 - - -- - - - sinensis, 20 - - Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated - - Plants, 1-8 3 73 - - Copeland, Harold W., - - 'Albo-marginata,' 13 'Albo-variegata,' 13 'Argentea,' 13 3 'Coralina,' 13 'Ochrocarpa,' 13 'Ochroleuca,' 13 'Umbraculifera,' 13 3 'Variegata,' 13 13 `V~rescens,' 83 Cornusamomum, 2014 2014 -- 13 3 13 - - 'Angustlfolia,' - - `~Veeping,' 15 'Welchii,' 16 'White Cloud,' 16 2014 3 'Aurea,' 13 3 Grandinorum,' 13 tS 'Grandlfolia,' 13 3 'Parvlfolia,' 13 3 2014 'Undu]ifot)a,' 13 3 'Xanthocarpum,' 13 'Aurora,' 13 2014 brachypoda 'Variegata,' 2014 - - - - - - 'Willsii, 16 `Xanthocarpa,' 16 16 - kousa, - 2014 2014 - 13 3 controversa, 2014 2014 13 tS 13 3 - 'Variegata,' 4 'Fastigiata,' 14 2014 2014 2014 2014 - 'Chinensis,' 16 'Milky Way,' 16 'Rubra,' 16 - - `Speciosa,' 16 'Variegata, 16 `Viridis,' 16 `Xanthocarpa,' 16 - - - - - 4 florida, 14 'Alba plena,' - mas, 16 14 4 14 'Ascending,' 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 'Aurea variegata,' 14 4 'Belmont Pink,' 14 4 'Cherokee Chief,' 14 4 'Cherokee Princess,' 14 20142014 Compact!,' 14 4 14 4 20142014 'De Kalb Red,' 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 ~* 2014 4 Fastigiata,' 14 4 'Gigaiitea,' 14 H[]Ienmeyer,' 4 'MagniHca,' 14 'Moon,' 14 Nana,' 14 14 2014 2014 'New Hampshire,' 15 2014 2014 'Pendula,' 'Plena,' 15 1.5 3J 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 2014 'Pluribracteata,' 'Prosser,' 15 'Prosser Red,' 15 5 15 j ' 'Alba,' 16 'Albocarpa,' 16 'Andrzejowski,' 16 6 'Argentea,' 16 - - `Argenteo-marginata,' 16 - - ` Argenteo-variegata,' 16 6 - - `Aurea,' 1 - - `Aureo-elegantissima,' 16 7 'Crispa,' 17 - - `Elegans-tricolor,' 17 7 'Elegantissima,' 17 - - `Flava,' 17 'Lanceolata,' 17 7 ` Lanceolata albo-marginata,' 1 7 Luteocarpa,' 17 'Macrocarpa,' 17 I 'Mietzschii,' 17 7 'Nana,' 1 - - `Yolonica,' 17 - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - 2014 2014 - - `Yolonica minor,' 17 7 2014 2014 2014 2014 'Rich-Red,' .I Rosea,' 15 15 - - -- - 2014 2014 'Rose Y alley,' 15 3J 15 j - - 2014 2014 20142014 Sahofoha,' 15 'Variegata,' 2014 2014 j 2014 'Rnbra,' 15 'Sahclfi)ha,' - - - - Super Red,' 15 .I -- - `Yyramidalis,' 17 7 'Rubra,' 17 7 'Sphaerocarpa,' 17 7 Variegata,' 17 7 'Violacea,' 17 7 'Xanthocarpa,' 17 'Eddiei,' 17 15 .5 7 - nuttallii, 17 - 2014 2014 Weaver,' 15 3J 84 Cornus nuttallii - racemosa, - 'Winkenwerderi,' 17 7 17 i 18 8 - `Golden Bell,' - `Golden Sun,' - 4`L 42 'Slavin's Dwarf,' 1 7 ; - - sanguinea, - - - - - - - - 'Atrosanguinea,' 8 `Mietzschi~,' 18 3 'Variegata,' 13 s `Viridissima,' 18 18 8 - intermedia, 35-41t 'Arnold Dwarf,' 37, 39 'Arnold Giant,' 37, 39 - `Vitellina,' 36 40 40 40 -- `Arnolds Brilliant,' - - 'Aurea,' 35, 38, - 8 - sibirica, 18 'Coral Beauty,' S stolonifera, 18 - - - `Beatrtx Farrand,' 37, 'Compacta Nana,' 40 18 S - - - - - - - - - - 8 'Angustipetala,' 18 8 'Elata,' 18 8 'Elongata,' 18 8 'Flaviramea,' 18 8 'Kelseyi,' 18 8 'Kelseydwarf,' 18 8 `Nana,' 18 S 'Nitida,' 18 8 'Pendula,' 18 `Repens,' 18 8 Xanthocarpa,' 18 - - - ` Denstflora,' 36, 40 -- `Dwarf,' 40 `Farrand,' 37, 40 - -- - - - ` Karl Sax,' 37, 40 - - - - `Lynwood,' 37, 40 'Lynwood Gold,' 37, 40 'Mertensiana,' 37, 40 - - `Nana,' 40 'Primulina,' 36, 41 'Spectabilis,' 36, 41 'Spring Glory,' 36, 41 `Vttellina,' 41i - - - - - - - japonica saxatilis, ovata, 37 - 35 Corylopsis veitchiana, 44 Cultivar Names,Concerning the Registration of, 1 8 Cultivars of Liquidambar, 60-6~? Davis, Deacon Ezra, 811 1 -, Sarah, 81 9 Early Church, sketch, Plate IX, 79 Dropmore Hybr~ds (Spiraea) needing more trial, 58 Euonymus 'Berry Hill,' 44 - - - 'Robusta,' 41 i Registration of, 39-42 - Story , The, 35-38 - Lists of Cultivar Names i - suspensa, 41 - - - - - 'Aurea,' 35, 36, 38, 41 'Aureo-variegata,' 41i 'Decipiens,' 36, 411 'Fortunei Nana,' 41 'Nyman's Variety,' 37, 41 - - - `Dupont,' 44 'Manhattan,' 44 `Sarcosie,' 44 - - - - 'Pallida,' sieboldii, 36, 35 41 - - Everett, H.T., 37 Fall program of the Arnold Arboretum, 1961, 74 4 Field Trips, 74 i Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, 37 - - 'Variegata,' 41 i -~ - - tridissima, 35-38, 41 'Bronxensis,' 37, 41 koreana, 35 -- - `Variegata,' 41 Forsythia 'Golden Queen,' - 42 'Gloriosa,' 42 Fortune, Robert, Gleditsia, 25, 26, 85 35 31-33 Gleditsia 'Excelsa Pendula,' 32 3L 27 I - ferox, - 'Nana,' 3~l3#& x E; 32 , - horrida, -- , Purpurea,' `Ma,jor,' 32 32 ' - - 'Nana,' 32 - japonica, -- 32 Hale, Capt. Jonathan, 76, 81 Horvath, M.H., 36 Hurricane \"Donna\" and its after effects to a Chatham, Massachusetts, Garden, 67-73 Hybrids in cultivation, 6, 7 Ilex aquifohum, 68, 69 - crenata vars., 69 -, `Purpurea,' 26, 32 26, 32 -, Registration Lists of Culti~ar miscellaneous species, 69 - Names in, 31-34 sinensis, -- - opaca, 68 - vars., 68 `Major,' 32 'Nana,' 32 Nana Inermis,' 32 Key 30 to the Genera of Tree Legumes, -- - - `Pendula,' 32 Laburnum, 28 - alpinum, l8 - - X texana, 26 'Fragrans,' 28 - - triacanthos, 26 ; Plate III, 29 ; - 32 - -- - - 'Calhoun,' 32 'Columnaris,' 32 'Millwood,' 32 `Monosperma,' 32 anagyroides, var. alschingeri, 28 - 28 - - X aquatica, 26 triacanthos f. inermis, 26, 3Z - - X watereri, 28 4 Lectures, 74 Lehmer, Mary, 75-82 Liquidambar, 59; Plate - VII, 63; 66 formosana, 61, - 62 62 - - -- - - `Beatrice,' 33 `Browni,' 33 'Bujotii,' 33 'Bujotti Pendula,' 33 `Elegantissima,' 26, 33 `Imperial,' 33 `Majestic,' 33 'Moraine,' 26, 33 `Park,' 33 `Pendula,' 33 `Shademaster,' 33 'Sieler,' 26, 33 - - `Stephens,' 33 `Skylme,' 33 'Sunburst,' ~?6, 33 `Variegata,' 33 -- 'Afterglow,' - orientalis, 61, - 62 66 Liquidambar styraciflua, 59-61, Plate VII, 63; Plate VIII, 65; - - - aurea, 61 - - - - - - - - - - - - 'Palo Alto,' 61 pendula, 61 -, Propagation of, 66 - - f. rotundiloba, 62 - - f. suberosa, 61 Lonicera fragrantissima, 44 - f. - - - - purpusii, 44 - - Lynwood, 36, Maackia, 20 - 37 20 - amurensis, - - - - - Gregorian Calendar, 81 , 82 Gymnocladus dioicus, 25; Plate II, I 86 bueggeri, 20 chinensis, ~0 Magnolia soulangiana 'Candolleana,' var. 44 Mahonia aquifolium, 44 Marker in burying ground, Peter's 9 Hill, Plate IX, 79 I 'White Rim,' ~0 japonica X P.formosa Wakehurst,' - .50 0 -, Mather, Increase, 78 Mertens and Nussbaumer, Miscellaneous species 37 69 (Ilex), Morriss, Edward, 80 Names, legitimate and illegitimate, 5, 6 National Registration Authority, 2, 4 New York Botanical Garden, 37 - Registration Lists of Cultivar Names, 47-50 7 Pmus rigida, 6 thunbergii, 67 Propagation of Liquidambar styraciflua, 66 Prunus laurocerasus sch~pkaensis, 44 sargentii 'Columnaris,' Plate Prunus Nyssa sylvatica, 1 ll Order of bloom of Spiraeas, 5? Patented plants and their names, 7 Pieris - floribunda, 48 48 50 'Elongata,' 'Grandiflora,'48 - `Flame of the Forest,' - `Forest Flame,' S0 - formosa, 48 - - - 'Chandleri,' 48 'Jermyns,' 48 'Wakehurst,' 48, +9 IV, 45 Registration of Cultivar Names, Concerning the, 1-8 8 - Lists, Cornus, 9-18 39-4z -, Forsythias, -, Gledits~a, 31-34 -, Pieris, 47-50 Rhododendron 'Charles Dickens,' 44 'Cunningham's White,' 46 Dr. H.C. Dresselhuys,' 46 'Henrietta Sargent,' 46 laetvirens, 46 - - - - - - japonica, 49 'Albo Marginata,' - - minus, 46 49 - - - 'Bonsai,' 49 'Chandleri,' 49 'Compacta,' 49 `Compact,' 49 `Crispa,' 49 - - `Dorothy Wyckoff,' 'Elegantissima,' 49 'Flamingo,' 49 `Minima,' 49 - - 'Norma,' 46 'Purpureum Grandiflorum,' 46 - - 'Roseum Superbum,' 46 smirnowii, 46 Robma, ~1, 22, 24 - ambigua `Bella-rosea,' 24 - 49 - - - - - - - ` Nana Compacta,' - - `Pmk Bud,' 50 - S0 - fertilis, 22 hartwigii, 22, hillieri, 24 holdtii, 24 hispida, 22 24 - 'Idaho,' 24 - - `Pygmaea,' S0 `Rosea,' S0 ` Variegata,' S0 'Variegata Nana,' `V~'hitecaps,' 50 - Robinia kelseyi, 24 ; Plate - I I, ~27 leucantha, luxurians, 24 22 - - 50 - - - - - White Cascade,' 50 - margaretta, 24 neo-mexicana, 22 pseudoacacia, 22, 24 87 Robinia - pseudoacacia 'Annularis,' 22 22 - menziesi, X .51 1 - - - - `Bessoniana,' `Cylindr~ca,' 22 `Deca~sneana,' 22 `Dependens,' 21 `Erect,' 21i Inermis,' 21i - - `Microphylla,' 21i Rectissima,' 22 - - - - - - i multiflora, 57 nipponica rotundifolia, pikoviens~s, 511 i prumfolia, 52, 57 57 i - - - 'Rosabella,' 58 - - - - - - - - 'Semperflorens,' 22 21 i - 'Snow White,' 58 'Summer Snow,' 58 X superba, 57 i thunbergii, 57 - - - - - Umbraculifera,' 'Unifolia,' 21i 24 24 - compacta, 57 51 1 - tomentosa, - - slavinii, - viscosa, i - trichocarpa, 5 1 , 57 - 8 erecta, 58 i Sax, Dr. Karl, 37 Slieve Donard Nursery, 37 i Sophora, 20, 21 - japonica, 20, 21i Spath Nurseries, 35, Spiraea albiflora, 54 - X arguta, 54 compacta, 54 - 36 - billiardi, 511 - X brachybotrys, 54 - bullata, 54 - bumalda alpina, 58 6 `Anthony Waterer,' 51, 5t2, 56 -- Spiraea bumalda crispa, 54; Plate VI, 55 - froebelii, 54 56 - - `Norman,' - canescens, 56 - cantoniensis, 56 trilobata, 51J vanhouttei, 54, 58 Spiraea veitchii, Plate V, .i3 ; 58 wilsonii, 58 8 Spireas, The Best Ornamental, 51-58 Spring Calendar, 38 Styrax, 62, 64 officinale, 62 Sweetgum bhght, 64 i Thayer, Rev. Ebenezer, 76, 77 Thomas, Dr. J.L., 37, 64 Tree Legumes in the Arnold Arboretum, The, 19-30 -, Key to the Genera, 30 Tucker, Elizabeth, 80 Wagenknecht, Burdette L., 28, 50 8 Walter, Nathaniel, 78 8 78 -, Nehemiah, 76, - Street \"Berrying\" Ground, The, - -X - - - decumbens, 56 digitata nana, 58 - japonica, 56 - i5-82 atrosangu~nea, 56 - - oval~folia, ruberrima, 51 56 56 - - - latifolia, - X margaritae, 56, 57 - media sericea, 51i Wayside Gardens, 36 Weld, Lt. Dan~el, 80 -, Hannah, 80 -, Joseph,76, 80 -, Susanna, 80 Wilson, E.H., 35 Winter Injury not Severe, 43-46 Woody Plants Observed After Hurri3 cane, 70-73 88 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23477","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eab6e.jpg","title":"1961-21","volume":21,"issue_number":null,"year":1961,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rooting Ghent Azaleas Under Plastic","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24351","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260af26.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coggeshall, Roger","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 . JANUARY 15, 1960 NuMaEe 1 ROOTING GHENT AZALEAS UNDER PLASTIC azaleas have long been admired for their spectacular blooms in late The group, however, has never risen to prominence in this country, chiefly because of the difficulties encountered in propagating these plants asexually. They must be asexually propagated to maintain the desirable characteristics of the many varieties; none of the Ghent azaleas can be reproduced true to name from seeds. Attempts were made in 1951 to propagate some varieties from softwood cuttings. The results were highly discouraging. Not only did a large percentage of the cuttings fail to root, but the few that did root failed to survive the first winter. Most Ghent azalea varieties are propagated by layering in European nurseries. The introduction of polyethylene plastic has changed these discouraging results. Softwood cuttings of Ghent azalea varieties are now rooted successfully, with GHENT May. vigorous resulting growth. Rooting Procedure The cuttings are rooted under wire frames covered with a polyethylene plastic. The frames are constructed of turkey wire, No. 9 gauge, with 2x4-inch squares. (Note illustration shown.) The wire is bent to allow a 10-~nch distance from the surface of the medium to the inside top of the wire. Frames are four feet long, with the width determined by the width of the bench used. After the cuttings have been placed in the medium, they are flooded in with water and the frames are placed over them. The medium is never pounded. After this, the ends and sides of the frames are covered completely with sheets of 2mil. polyethylene plastic. This same type of structure can be used equally well over flats of cuttings. Whatever kind of structure is used, the plastic must be completely sealed. A mixture of one-third sand, one-third peat and one-third ground Styrofoam has proved to be the best rooting medium. The cuttings not only root more heavily, but also combination is produce a uniform root system. The type of peat optional. The Arboretum has used many kinds and used in this has found no great difference in results among them. This rooting mixture is heated by a lead-covered cable, thermostatically controlled. The thermostat is set to turn on the current at 72 degrees F., but only at night, since in the daytime there is sufficient heat beneath the polyethylene plastic. The everyday temperature outside the greenhouse is high and the heat builds up accordingly. On many days the median temperature is 85 to 95 degrees F., a factor which aids in the successful rooting of Ghent azaleas. Timing Before the introduction of polyethylene plastic, it was necessary to wait until the new growth had set a terminal bud and had begun to harden off before the cutting material could be collected, because the softer, more succulent cuttings would wilt. Now, however, by use of polyethylene covers to maintain conditions of high relative humidity, it is possible to collect the cutting material from soft, succulent growth. Prior to the use of polyethylene plastic covers, cuttings of Ghent azaleas were not collected until late July or early August, when growth had matured to a point at which it could be kept from wilting under open bench conditions. This was accomplished by shading the cuttings with newspaper or cheesecloth and syringing them manually at least once every hour. The procedure, however, did not give good results. The cuttings rooted poorly, since they were taken so late in the season, and the few that did root, died during the first winter. (See Table I.) Now it is possible to collect the cutting material in late May or early June. Collected at this time, the cuttings not only root faster, but also root more heavily, because of the soft growth used. (See Table II.) Once the cuttings are rooted, every attempt is made to stimulate new vegetative growth. This helps in the successful overwintering of Ghent azaleas and can be accomplished successfully by using artificial lights. Artificial Lights After the potting operation, the azaleas are placed on an open bench under a single row of 100-watt incandescent lights. The lights are spaced two feet apart in the row and 15 inches above the level of the bench; the benches themselves are 32 inches wide. The lights are operated in the following manner: At 5 p.m. the lights are turned on and left on all night until 8 a.m. One can eliminate the overlap of artificial light and normal daylight by using a time clock. The plants are kept under the row of lights for approximately two months. During this period, the terminal buds break dormancy and produce two to eight inches of new growth. This new growth is then hardened off, and the cuttings are overwintered in a cold pit, where the temperature is 35 to 40 degrees F. ' PLATE I Upper: Type of root system obtained on cuttings under Lower: Two-year-old cuttings of a polyethylene plastic variety 'Gloria Mundi.' cover. Cutting Procedure The cutting material is collected in late May or early June, whenever the new growth is two or three inches long - long enough to make a cutting. Cuttings are placed immediately in polyethylene plastic bags, which contain a small quantity of moistened sphagnum, and stored in a refrigerator at 40 degrees F. until they are used, sometimes five to seven days. One prepares the cuttings for rooting by stripping the leaves from the bottom inch and making a fresh cut at the basal end. Once the basal end has been recut, the cutting is dipped first into water and then into the hormone powder, Hormodin No. 3. Whether or not wounding is advisable depends upon the condition of the cutting material. When soft, succulent material is used, the value of wounding is questionable. However, when firmer cutting material is collected in July and August, a wound is definitely beneficial. Once treated with Hormodin No. 3, the cuttings are placed in the sand, peat and Styrofoam medium, where they take from two to three months to root. When rooted, they are potted into 22-inch standard pots and placed on a bench under artificial lights. Conclusions 1. The asexual propagation of Ghent azaleas is definitely feasible when polyare ethylene plastic is used. to be over- 2. The use of artificial lights is a necessity if these varieties wintered successfully in commercial quantities. 3. The use of a wound on soft, succulent cuttings is not necessary. 4. A medium of duces a alone. more sand, peat and Styrofoam, mixed in thirds by volume, prouniform root system than a half-and-half mixture of sand and peat ROGER COGGESHALL Note:-This article appeared in The American Nurseryman for June I, 1958. Many have shown a marked interest in the subject, so it is reprinted here with the permission of the publisher and the author, who wrote the article while still propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. 4 PLATE II Polyethylene-covered Propagating Bench. Upper: With wire supports. Lower: Completely sealed. Table I.-Rooting Results Obtained with Open-Bench Type of Propagation. 1 The cuttings wilted and died due 2 All roots to insufficient humidity. many cases the rooted cuttings failed to grow the were alive, but the tops were dead. following spring. In the 6 Table II.-Results Obtained with Polyethylene Plastic Cases. in Lots 1, 2 and 3 had approximately the same size root system. The root systems in Lot 4 were very poor. z The cuttings were taken too late in the year. Heavier and faster rooting would have been obtained if the cuttmgs had been taken earlier. 3 These cuttings were taken at the optimum time. 4The rooted cuttings had very large root systems (3~~ in diameter). The cuttings were left in the medium too long. I The cuttings 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plants of Possible Merit?","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24349","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260ab28.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 - ~'IARCH 18, 1960 NUMBER 2 PLANTS OF POSSIBLE MERIT? Arnold Arboretum is continually introducing new or rare plants from all over the North Temperate Zone. Some of these are new to America ; some are new to the collections in the Arnold Arboretum or have been overlooked for a period of years. It might be of interest to glance through the following hsting of a very few, all of which are currently growing in the collections. Usually, it takes years before certain woody plants become common and popular, due to many varying circumstances. Some of the following list may continue to be grown in this and in other arboretums, as botanical specimens of little popular interest; however, others do have ornamental possibilities. This list is offered as an indication of what one can find in the Arnold Arboretum with a little browsing among the many collections. THE Abies concolor conica This is a dense growing, pyramidal form of Abies concolor, selected by B. H. Slavin of the Rochester Parks, Rochester, New York, prior to 1932 when it was described as being i I feet high and 8 feet broad. Plants in the Arnold Arboretum are much smaller, but being a variety of Abies concolor, it is thoroughly hardy and able to withstand city growing conditions remarkably well. It should be available in the trade by now. Our plants were obtained from the Bay State Nurseries of North Abington, Mass., a few years ago. Acanthopanax henryi nana A low, dwarf variety of Acanthopana.c lzenryi we obtained from the Kornik Gardens and Arboretum in Kornik, Poland, in 1939, supposedly the first introduction of this plant to the United States. Our plant is now 36 inches high and 42 inches in diameter. Only of merit for its low and slow growth. The thorny, upright branches and the absence of bright flowers, fruit, and autumn color, will limit its usefulness in garden plantings. Acer ginnala 'Durand Dwarf' . This arose as a bud mutation on a plant in Durand-Eastman Park, Rochester, New York, prior to 1955. Propagations from this sport are making low, wide, shrubby-type maples. Our plants have been growing here only two years, but are nearly 2 feet tall and as much across. Having the same brilliant autumn color as the species and supposedly being free of insect and disease pests, this should make a nice shrubby, mounded plant of special merit for fall color. Berberis thunbergii 'Globe' This plant we received under the name of Berberis thunbergii nana from the Hill Top Nurseries, Casstown, Ohio. It was patented August 4, 1936, (#189) and called \"Globe\" barberry, and is still offered by that nursery. Our plant is dense and globose in habit,27 inches tall and4 feet in diameter. It is green-leaved, definitely not the small-leaved variety, minor. It is surprising to me that it has not been popular in the intervening years. Because of its dense, rounded form, it should make an excellent low hedge which would not require shearing. Berberis thunbergii xanthocarpa plants were obtained from the Rochester Parks of Rochester, New They are similar to the species in every way except that the fruits are yellow and are sparsely borne. Three of these plants are growing together in the planting adjacent to the Larz Anderson Dwarf Conifer Collection by the greenhouses. I have never seen profuse fruits produced, and the autumn color is not a brilliant scarlet, but decidedly yellowish. It will not make a very popular These four York, in 1932. ornamental shrub. Berberis thunbergii 'Atropurpurea Nana' This plant originated in Holland prior to 195~? when we first obtained a specifrom Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio. It is also being sold under the name of 'Little Gem,' 'Little Beauty,' and `Crimson Pygmy,' the last name men several nurserymen growing it. However, name, it is most difficult to rename it and plant to follow suit, especially if the proper rules of nomenclature in expect everyone naming new cultivars have not been followed in the first place. being supposedly once a \"agreed upon\" by is distributed under one In any event, plants 8 years old are only 2 feet high and 3 feet broad. The foliage is red to reddish-if grown in the full sun. The young foliage has a brighter red color when it first appears than does the mature foliage. This makes an excellent spot of color in the sunny foundation planting, or it can be well used as a most colorful low hedge. Cercis canadensis `4~'ither's Pink Charm' This redbud we obtained from the Kingsville 10 Nurseries of Kingsville, ~Id., in 1956. It has bloomed several times for flowers us (mid-May) and the flower buds and soft pink. They do not have the purplish pink color of the common wild plants. For those people who do not like the flower color of the species, this variety might have merit. are a Cornus mas nana Originally introduced into the United States in 1925 in the form of grafts from Gardens, England, by the Arnold Arboretum. There are few shrubs as sturdily reliable for all types of plantings as is Cornus mas. Its only fault, if it should be called a fault, is that it grows too large, hence this variety should prove worth watching. The original plants died, but now we have many young plants one year old, recently propagated from another importation from Kew Gardens in England. Kew ' Hamamelis intermedia (#1173-28-B) In 1928, Wdliam Judd, then propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, collected seed from a plant of Hamamelis mollis which, in turn, had been grown from seed collected in China in 1905 by E. H. Wilson. This Chinese plant was growing in close proximity to Hamamelis japorrica and apparently pollen from the Japanese species on the pistils of the flowers of the Chinese species resulted in a cross named by Alfred Rehder, Hamamelis intermedia, in 1944. A number of seedlings were grown, some with reddish flowers, some inferior to both species. The clone which has proved best as an ornamental is our number 1 1 7 3-28-B. This is hardier than H. mollis and considerably more floriferous than H. japonica. The plant just coming into bloom March 1 of this year is growing by the Administration Building where it has produced profuse yellow flowers each spring. It is 12 feet tall by 15 feet in diameter, with a generally vase-shaped habit. If other growers like it after satisfactory trial, it might well be deserving of a clonal name. Juniperus scopulorum `Grey Gleam' Originated as a chance seedling at Wheatbridge, Colorado, and selected by Scott Wilmore of Wilmore Nurseries, Wheatbridge, Colorado, in 1944. It was issued Plant Patent #848 in 1949. This has a distinct grey foliage color, supposedly more pronounced in the winter than are some of the other J. scopulorum varieties. This is also hardy in Zone 3, and warrants attention because of better winter color than many other J. scopulorum varieties. Juniperus chinensis A ` Maney' in 1935 and introduced in 1947. Our 6 seedling of J. chinensis sargentii originating at Iowa State College, selected plant, about 12 years old, is 4 feet tall and feet across, a female with a few fruits. It is shrubby and flat-topped, with good I 11 bluish-green foliage brownish. in the winter at a time when most J. airgininna _ varieties are Juniperus chinensis Mountbatten' A seedling of J. chinen.sis originating at Sheridan, Ontario, Canada, and introduced by the Sheridan Nurseries of Sheridan, Ontario, Canada, in 1948. Hardy in Zone 3. Our plant, about 10 years old, is 9 feet tall and 3 feet wide at the base, very dense and pyramidal, with close-growing shoots, all vertical. It is a fruiting plant with bluish-green foliage in mid-winter, at a time when most J. virginiana varieties are displaying brownish foliage. Leucothoe catesbaei 'Girard's Rainbow' clone from among 30,000 seedlings by Girard's Bros. Nursery, about 1950. The foliage is variegated several shades of pink and Geneva, Ohio, yellow, deep red, copper, and orange, as well as green. According to Peter h:. Girard, the plant has gone through all the winters without injury. 'e have grown this since 195 i . The plants seem to color better if grown in full sun than in the shade, and there seems to be a slight variation in color from winter to winter. Variegated evergreens are exceptionally difficult to use properly in the garden scheme, and this one is no exception. For those who like variegated plants, this might be an excellent one for trial. Selected as a Lonicera `Clavev's Dwarf' originated several years prior to 19~5 at Clavey's Ravinia Nurseries in Deerfield, Illinois. Since that time, it has been widely distributed. We have been growing it since 1955, and our oldest plant is now 3 feet tall and 3 feet in diameter. It appears to be closely allied to Lonicera .~ylosteum. It is excellent as Mature plants are a low, thick, quick-growing hedge requiring little shearing. said to grow as tall as 6 feet. Being a honeysuckle, it has the added advantage This of being little troubled with insect and disease pests. Philadelphus This 'Frosty Morn' plant was patented (#11 i 4) on March 10, 1953, by Guy D. Bush of Minneapolis, Minnesota. The flowers are double and fragrant, appearing in midJune, and it is one of the few mock-oranges hardy in Zone 3. In Minnesota, it has been noted as withstanding \"the coldest Minnesota winters without damage from freezmg back.\" It grows about 4 feet tall and is certainly among the best for cold ' areas. Pinus aristata This is a native 43 feet tall and sometimes pine of the Southwestern United States, a standard tree up to a prostrate shrub. However, ~n the eastern United 1'~ ~-~ n I \" ~x ;:!~ g c ' ~~ ~~ ~ '\"-cm ce: ^ ~- ~ ~\" m o `., c *' b ~U \" \" aw ~ ~ c .- ... O :a o 0 ~, E c a, ~ .., ~a ., .... o ~ ~o 0) '\" .............. O ro ro .~ t-. g 0 L M~~~ ~C ro ,C & 3.-~ C \"C C ~ 1 ~ C <~. ::; ~ +~.O s c0 0 C~7 ~ ~ \" .s. GL Q~. +~C~.pC p.~ ~ om A.I w v.0 g ... '\" ro gu 3 y :c .;!! c ~~~ 4. ~ -s 0.. '\" 0) a~ W a~ .5~> ~.c~ ..... U~ S oj Ir i~ 5~~ C U oj l~ ^ o .D Y G 0) 0) O \"'- cc.D ~ S Lp\" co0 +oJ - +~ :~ ~ ~ . ~~ l: ~ ~ Mw ro .~ .G ~ ro .~ .. 'E'i:-c - it grows extremely slowly, one tree in the Perennial and Shrub Garden at the Case Estates in Weston being only about 4 feet tall at the age of 16 years. States, It does not conform to any particular pattern of growth, but grows in a very picturesque fashion, with short, bluish-green needles closely bunched together, remaining on the plant for many years. It is of interest to note that old trees, dwarfed and reduced by age and droughts in Arizona, have been estimated to be 4,000 years old. Small white dots of resin are needles. In the East at least, this can be considered Rhamnus frangula customarily a borne on the most picturesque dwarf. asplenifolia This shrub has been grown off and on in the Arnold Arboretum since 1893 when first obtained it from H. Zabel of Munden, Hanover, Germany. This plant has never proved popular, possibly because it has been thought difficult to propagate, but softwood cuttings taken in mid-June have resulted in 80 percent rooting. The very narrow leaves (giving rise to the varietal name) make the entire plant appear fine textured. Because of its few insects and diseases, and because of its ease of growth in any normal soil, it would seem that this variety might be used considerably more than it is. we Rhamnus frangula columnare A seedling of Rhamnus frangula discovered in 1936 by A. E. Luedy of Bedford, Ohio, and patented (#1388) in 19.55. It is being called \"Tallhedge\" by the Cole Nursery Compauy of Painesvile, Ohio, which is propagating it heavily. It is claimed that this plant grows only 82to four feet wide, but 12 to 15 feet tall. It need not be sheared, but submits to shearing very well, indeed. Hedges I have seen of this on the campus of Pennsylvania State University look very well. The variety has dark, glossy, green leaves and fruit of changing colors, similar to the species. Rhododendron mucronulatum 'Cornell Pink' Rhododendron mucronulatum in all respects except for its flowers which pink, while those of the species are an orchid purple. Originating in a batch of seedlings at Cornell University slightly before 1952, this azalea has excellent possibilities for those who dislike the purplish color of the flowers of the species. The Arnold Arboretum distributed this to many arboretums and commercial growers in October 1958. We have been growing it in the Arnold Arboretum since 195`?, where it flowers in late April. Similar to are a true soft Rhododendron 'Mars' This rhododendron is not new by any means, but it certainly is worthy of a trial by those who like red-flowered rhododendrons. It is a Rhododendron gri\"~'cthianum hybrid, originated by Waterer Sons & Crzsp in England before 18 i 5. The 14 flowers are a true deep red, a clearer red than any of the evergreen rhododendrons we are growing at this time, appearing in early June. There is a question concerning its hardiness in the Boston area. Plants we are growing are only a few years old. Protecting the plants in winter and planting them in very protected places will help, certainly. It should succeed on Cape Cod, Long Island, and from there, south. It definitely should not be considered as hardy as many of the Rhododendron catawbiense hybrids, but for gardeners of an experimental nature who like red colors, this might be a very worth-while plant to try in protected situations. Rhododendron Rosebud' one was town, Pennsylvania. It of several originated by Joseph B. Gable of Stewartsnamed in 1938, being a cross between 'Caroline Gable' and 'Louise Gable,' has flowers that are 14 inches in diameter, hose-inhose, and a strong purplish-pink color, flowering in early June. The name `Rosebud' is truly well chosen for this plant. Our plants are still small although we have been growing this variety since 1952. In a situation where it obtains some protection from too much winter sun and high winds, this plant should prove a This small azalea is most pleasing variety. moyesii 'Geranium' Rosa moyesii with single, deep-red flowers 2 inches in diameter, The species is native in western Chma and just hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. This form originated at the Wisley Gardens of the Royal Horticultural Society of England prior to 1950. It is more compact in habit than is the species. The fruits are flask shaped, 2 inches long and a rich orange-scarlet color, hanging on the branches in clusters of from 3 to 6. Some of the English nurserymen have stopped growing the species in preference to this variety. The Arnold Arboretum introduced this into the United States in 195~ and is propagating this form for distribution. A selection of Rosa during mid-June. Rosa pteracantha 'Red Wing' a This is selection from a cross of R. hugonisXomeiensis pteracantha made in Germany slightly before 1938. The flowers are single and pale yellow, 14 inches in diameter, appearing in early June; and the thorns on young growth are large, wide at the base, and brilliant red. It was introduced into the United States from Holland by the Arnold Arboretum in 195],its chief ornamental characteristic being its large and very conspicuous bright red thorns. Easily budded or grafted on R. multiflora, it is extremely hazardous to handle and the chances are that even though the Arnold Arboretum distributed it to commercial growers in 1958, they will not handle it in large amounts. 15 Symphoricarpos chenaultii `Hancock' Originating in the Woodland Nursery, Cooksville, Ontario, Canada, about 1940 and named for Mr. Leslie Hancock, owner of the nursery. It is lower in height than S. orbiculatus, being only about 2 feet high (even though a single plant may grow as much as 12 feet across) and makes a much better ground cover because it spreads rapidly by underground stems. Our plants have been killed back during the past winters by low temperatures, but it may have been that these plants were still pretty small and not thoroughly established. This shrub might well deserve further trial, for I have seen it used to splendid advantage as a ground cover on a steep bank in central Pennsylvania. Syringa tigerstedtii The Arnold Arboretum originally introduced this species to the United States as seed from Hortus Botanicus, Bergianus, Stockholm, Sweden. It resembles S, yunnanensis and is a privet-looking plant with flowers not the least ornamental. Apparently perfectly hardy under our conditions, it has no ornamental value, whatsoever. in 1949 Syringa Primrose' Originated in Holland prior to 1949 and patented (~1108) in 1952, this was 'Yellow Spek' after Jan Spek of Boskoop, Holland. Later, when it was patented in the United States, the name was changed to 'Primrose.' The Arnold Arboretum has been growing it since 1951. At first it appeared that the flowers were merely a \"creamy white,\" but in the last few years, it must be admitted that the flower color is a pale yellow and when the plant is covered with flowers in May, it does stand out from all the many other lilacs in bloom first called at that time. Viburnum carlesii compacta There may be three forms of this variety in the trade, but observations up to the present time seem to point to the fact that Mr. C. Hoogendoorn's selection is best, This originated several years ago in his nursery at Newport, Rhode Island. It is slower growing than the species and has dark green, shiny leaves. The size, color and fragrance of the flowers are identical with those of the species, but because of its dwarf, compact habit, it may have merit. DONALD WYMAN 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Magnolias Hardy in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24347","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260a36b.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"` ARNOLDIA ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 APRIL 22, 1960 NUMBERS 3-4 MAGNOLIAS HARDY IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM be grown in all but the coldest sections of the United States. Fortysix species and varieties are currently being grown in the Arnold Arboretum, but there are a few more that will prove hardy, too. They are valued chiefly because of their large and showy flowers, which start to appear at the end of April, with some plants still in bloom by early summer. Few have much to offer as far as can THE magnolias comprise that our most conspicuous flowering trees. There are some autumn color is concerned, but all have bright red and interesting fruits during late summer and early fall. Some of these interesting trees are native to North America, indeed some like Magnolia acuminata and M. virginiana are native to the state of Massachusetts. Those with colored flowers are mostly native in the Orient, except M. cordata which has canary yellow flowers. It should also be noted that there are quite a few excellent species native or hardy in the South that are not hardy in New England. Some of the most beautiful of all, namely M. sargentiana robusta and M. sprengeri diva, are natives of Asia, but not hardy in the North. When one has once observed the large, delicate, rose-colored flowers of these species, one does not soon forget them. In height, magnolias range from large shrubs or small shrubby trees to standard trees maturing 90~ tall. The tallest in the Arnold Arboretum are the two splendid specimens of M. acuminata in front of the Administration Building. This species, as well as M. obovata, will eventually grow to 90' high. The smallest is M. liliflora nigra which is actually a shrub of 9' but never has been hardy for more than a few years at a time for us here. Among the lowest would be the extensive M. soulangiana clan, which contains the many varieties to be discussed later. In the eastern United States, M. stellata seldom grows over 20' tall, although I have seen it at \"Bodnant\" in Wales close to 40~ high. 17 Admittedly, the foliage of most of the magnolias is coarse. The exceptions are probably M. salicifolia and M. stellata with leaves 1 ~-4~~ long. On the other hand, there are several species which may have leaves l l~~ long or even longer, namely M. fraseri, macrophylla, obovata, officinalis and tripetala. On occasion, M. macrophylla will have the largest leaves of all, sometimes nearly 3~ long. Foliage such as this greatly restricts the usefulness of the species, for, in a windy spot, the leaves are ripped and torn and thus can look disreputable for a great part of the season. On the other hand, when used properly in protected places, such trees create tropically exotic effects which can not be created in any other way. The blooming period in the Arnold Arboretum extends from late April until early summer, depending on the species. Some years the M. soulangiana varieties make an attempt to bloom a second time in the late summer, but usually, when this occurs after a very wet summer, only a few flowers are produced. Because the flowers are so large, and come so late in the season, they frequently make a great impression on the gardener. The order in which the species in the Arnold Arboretum bloom, is as follows: Late April-denudata, salicifolia, stellata, kobus, loebneri, proctoriana Early blay-soulangiana and many varieties M id-M ay-fraseri Late May-acuminata, cordata, liliflora nigra, soulangiana lennei, tripetala, watsonii, virginiana Early June-obovata, Mid-June-wilsonii sieboldii Early July-macrophylla It is interesting to note, that in the warmer parts of the southern United States some magnolias will bloom as early as February, and M. wilsonii has been known bloom in August. The major number of magnolias in the Arnold Arboretum have white to creamy white flowers. The exceptions to this are M. cordata with creamy yellow flowers, liliflora nigra with very dark purplish-red flowers, soulangiana with its many varieties with pinkish to purplish flowers, stellala rubra with reddish flowers and uatsonii with pinkish flowers. In the following list of recommended magnolias, those in hardiness Zone 6, namely M. liliflora nigra, sieboldii, thompsoniana and udlsonii are not thoroughly hardy in Boston, for they have died out several times in the Arnold Arboretum (which is Zone 5) and no large plants are in the collections now. However, they should prove fairly hardy in Rhode Island and the warmer parts of Connecticut. to Recommended Magnolias Cucumber Tree acuminata 90~ Zone 4 New York to Arkansas A age. The small flowers pyramidal tree, becoming spreading at maturity, chiefly of value for its foliare greenish yellow and none too conspicuous, appearing 18 =s ?~ <c ~ !! s fi ~^ o 0 U 1 fi -!~ fi '~ U ~ ~ U c Gn e 3 '8 c ~! O , O Iy4 ~ a` ~. ., ~ w~ ~ S~ tS ~ -5 m ~# > I i~ @ a.._ 0~ ~) C C ~~ k ~o S' ~y ~ -a after the leaves are fully developed in late spring. The leaves are 5-1inches long. This is often used as understock in grafting other magnolias. There is a magnificent old specimen on the Hunnewell Estate in Wellesley, and two younger pyramidal trees in front of the Administration Building in the Arnold Arboretum. cordata 30r A smaller tree Yellow Cucumber Tree Georgia than M. acumirrala, sometimes shrub-like, this has 4-inch canary 5 Zone yellow flowers, much better than those of AT. acuminata. The lea~ es are 3-5 inches long. This might be used as the substitute for M. acurninata on the small place. denudata 43r 6 Zone 5 China Yulan this tree produces beautiful creamy white, frainches in diameter in early May before the 4-6 inch leaves appear. An excellent tree, one of the best of the magnolias, it blooms at the same time (late April) as M. stellata. Formerly termed M. conspicua grant, flowers Fraser Magnolia Virginia to Georgia The leaves are large, 8-15 inches long, and the milky white, fragrant flowers are about 8-10 inches in diameter, produced in May and June when the plant is in leaf. Because of large coarse foliage and flowers, this plant is difficult to use properly in the small garden. fraseri liliflora 45' Zone 5 nigra 9r Zone 6 China Purple Lily Magnolia This variety has darker reddish-purple flowers than does the species, the flo~-ers being 4-5 inches long and larger than those of M. liliflora. This is the hardiest of the 11~T. liliflora varieties, but does not seem to last indefinitely in the vigorous climate of Boston, Massachusetts. It is actually a bush, not a tree. The flowers appear over a period of several weeks starting in late May or early June, usually with the leaves. X loebneri 'Merrill' 50r Zone 4 (stellata X kobus) This cross was made in the Arnold Arboretum in 1939 and the resulting hybrid is a vigorous growing tree, the original seedling now being over 25 feet in height with a sturdy trunk. It blooms before the leaves appear, at the same time as M. kobus and stellata (late Aprrl) with larger white flowers (often 15 petals) than either species, and may start to bloom when only five years old. One of the best and most vigorous of the early white flowering magnolias. macrophylla ~.Or Zone 5 Kentucky to Arkansas Bigleaf Magnolia This has the largest leaves and flowers of any of the hardy magnolias (in fact larger leaves than any hardy native tree in North America), and because of this should not be used in any planting exposed to winds where the leaves can be easily ripped and torn. The leaves are 1~-~?5 inches and sometimes up to 36 inches long, as much as i-1~? inches wide. The creamy white, fragrant flowers 20 \"S T o 2 .,I% :n N a ' a a s 'i O~ w p Y dC#Jfix& 3 ; ~ ,a a '[ . ~ 'a 0 x 0, ='s 'aBo fi o, o 0 'o 3~ c c~ j d % a @ W .~ a ~~ .a ,~ .~N .a ~og .c S o g ~~ a t .o 3~ o~ -~ w o.V. ~ ~4 S ~ .~ ~S~ .N ~7 b ~ - 3' I _o v a ~ g ~ ~i ~ C~ ^' C1 C ~ o e '3 * 0 ~v G3 may be 8-14 inches in developed. obovata It should be used with extreme care, diameter, appearing in early July after the leaves are fully chiefly for exotic or tropical effects. 5 Zone Whiteleaf Japanese Magnolia Japan Although flowering after the leaves have developed in early June, the creamy white, strongly scented flowers, 8 inches in diameter, are most conspicuous. excellent 40 foot specimen of this species at the rear of the AdminisThe leaves 8-18 inches long and half as wide, are bluish white on the under side. This is better for garden use than the native M. tripetala which has flowers of a disagreeable odor. Still, it is a coarsely leaved tree, not good for wind swept situations, but most useful in creating exotic effects. 90~ There is an tration Building. salicifolia 30~ 5 Zone Japan Anise Magnolia The aromatic odor of the leaves when crushed is what gives this densely branched, pyramidal magnolia its common name. The leaves are narrow, 1~-4 inches long; the flowers white, 3 inches in diameter before the leaves appear in late April or early May. A good foliage tree as well as a good ornamental in flower. sieboldii (parviflora) 30~ Zone 6 Japan, Korea Oyama Magnolia Small white waxy flowers 3-4 inches in diameter, with the center a mass of magenta purple stamens, and distinctly fragrant, are borne on this small tree in May or later. The leaves are 3~ inches long. The plant is not long lived (25 years), but the branches root readily wherever they touch moist ground. Xsoulangiana A cross 15~ ZoneS (denudntaXlil;flora) Saucer Dlagnolia made by one of Napoleon's retired soldiers, about 1820. Undoubtedly many other crosses of these two species have been made since, most of the plants being large shrubs or small trees with vari-colored, large cup-shaped flov ers, blooming just after M. stellata, kobus, salicifolia and denudata, but just before M. lil~ora. It is best to select the better of the named clones for asexual propagation. Varieties of M. soulangiana `Alba' (syn. `Superba,' 'Alba Superba'~introduced Flowers 1867 Belgium. is very white, outside of petals colored very by Louis Van Houtte, light purplish. The tree compact. 'Alexandrina' introduced 1831, Paris, France. Flowers flushed rose purple outside, inside of petals pure white. One of the larger and earlier flowering varieties. 'Andre LeRoy' introduced 1900, Barbier, Orleans, France. Flowers are dark pink to purplish on the outside (color close to that of 'Verbanica'). The petals are white inside and the flowers are decidedly cup-shaped. 'Burgundy' introduced 1930 by W. B. Clarke, San Jose, California. Flowers are the deep purple color of Burgundy wine, appearing earlier than those of most other varieties. 22 ....c ILI 0 w ,, I .. '=! 04 E -al ~ ~14 -z' ~ flowers the M. 'Brozzoni' introduced 1900, Barbier, are 10 inches across making this soulangiana group. rose, but all in all it is considered one of the best of the white flowered varieties. 'Grace McDade' introduced 1945, C. McDade, Semmes, Alabama. Flowers white with pink at the base of the 'Lennei' introduced 185~?, Orleans, France. When wide open the of the largest flowered varieties of The outside of the petals are tinged a pale purplish one are purplish magenta flowers of has more petals. originated in Florence, Italy. This has the darkest this group (not as dark as M. liliflora nigra). `Rustica' red in the flowers in the Semmes Nurseries, Crichton, Alabama, a few with small flowers and a smaller habit than most M. soulangiana varieyears ago ties. It is slow in growth. The variety sold under the name \"Late Soulangiana\" is similar in every way, although this supposedly came from England. We have not yet had the opportunity to observe either of these in growth. 'Lombardy Rose' introduced before 195! by C. McDade, Semmes, Alabama. Lower surface of the petal is dark rose, upper surface white. This is a seedling of M. soulangiana lennei with flowers continuing to bloom for several weeks. 'Rustica' (syn. 'Rubra' or 'Rustica Rubra') introduced about 1893, Boskoop, Holland. Flowers are more rose red than those of `Lennei' but they are somewhat similar, being 52inches in diameter. The inside of the petal is white but the general effect is more red than `Lennei.' 'San Jose' originated about 1938, San Jose, California. Flowers are larger than many other varieties, rosy purple, and fragrant, and the plant is vigorous growing. This blooms earlier than most other M. soulangiana varieties and is said to be deeper colored than most, with the exception of `Lennei.' 'Speciosa' introduced before 1830 in France. The flowers are almost white, 6 inches in diameter, very close to 'Alba' but just a trifle more color than 'Brozzoni.' It is important because it is the last of this group to bloom. Upright, tall and fast growing. 'Verbanica' - Flowers outside a clear rose pink, inside white. This blooms late, making a beautiful effect when most of the other varieties are dropping their petals. Its one drawback is that it is slow growing. 'Liliputin' originated Star Magnolia Japan Double, white fragrant flowers, 3 inches or more in diameter, and appearing in late April before the leaves. The flowers contain 1 ~?-15 narrow petals. One of the hardiest of the Asiatic magnolias, usually more of a tall shrub than a tree, it makes an excellent and very popular ornamental specimen. We have grown many seedlings of M, stellata, as have others, and it must be said that many of the seedlings are inferior plants, growing much more like M. kobus and the flowers have fewer petals as well. Hence this species, if it is a species, should not be grown from seed but from cuttings taken from a good clone. stellata (halleana) ~0~ Zone 5 24 ,j ~ ':! 0 U O R,. _~ :g \"':! .N V C .~ ~ g O O 0 :: FC~ G Fn ~7 H H ~.. !o- # C~ ~ a .....c a. d ~ 0 N \"'< . 0 a E~ ..c tn 0 w v v~ ~ a 0 'o oj ~ ~ rosea - Pink Star Magnolia Flower buds pink, flowers usually white. This is mostly disappointing in flower, since by the time the flowers are fully open they have faded completely white. stellata stellata rubra - Red Star Dlagnolia Flowers purplish rose, imported from Japan about 19~~. There is another form of this which was raised in Boskoop, Holland, by Messers Kluis, before 1948. The flower color was noted as being fuchsia purple 28\/3 in the Royal Horticultural Colour Chart. It is said to have been a chance seedling in a batch of M. stellata. I have not yet seen this in flower, but J. H. Johnstone notes that the flower color is vastly superior to that of M. stellata rosea. There are several other seedlings of M. stellata with purportedly\"red\" flowers which may well merit further trial. Mr. K. Sawada of the Overlook Nurseries, Mobile, Alabama raised one in 1946 and calls it `lied.' The flowers are 3-4 inches in diameter with 10-16 petals. The outside of the petals is a dark purplish red, the inside is white, but he says that when the tree is in bloom the general appearance is of more red than some that are being sold under the varietal name of rubra. The Arnold Arboretum is growing these forms together, and sometime will be able to say just which is best. Since the early flowering magnolias, in the North at least, all have white flowers, a premium should be placed on the best of these with colored flowers. stellata 'Waterlily' Originated at Greenbrier Farms, Inc., Norfolk, Virginia, prior to 1939. It is more upright, bushy and twiggy than uT. stellata. The flower buds are pink, the flowers eventually white and are slightly larger, with more narrow petals. It has always been assumed to be a cross of M. slellata X soulnngiana but it looks very much like M. stellata. Mr. Paul Vossberg writes that 1,000 seedlings of 'Waterlily' were grown on Long Island and not one showed any traces of M. soulnnginna or its parents lYl. lil~lora and M. denudata. X thompsoniana shrub Zone 6 (tripetala X virganiana) Thompson Magnolia about 1808, this hybrid has leaves 4-10 inches long, glaucous beneath and otherwise similar to those of M. virginiana. The creamy white flow- Originating ers are 4~-6 they are more have been diameter, hence larger than those of M. virginiana and globular as well, appearing in late June and July after the leaves fully developed. inches in Sweet Bay Alagnolia A native shrub or tree from Massachusetts to Florida, one of the most fragrant of all the magnolias, with 3-5 inch leaves, whitish on the underside and white, waxy, very fragrant flowers in late June and July. In the far South the leaves are evergreen, but the plant is deciduous in the North, and more shrubby. virginiana (glauc~a) 60' 5 Zone Eastern U. S. 26 `! watsonii 30~ Zone 3 (obovata X sieboldii) V~'atson Magnolia First known in France in 1889, but originally from Japan. This small tree has leaves 4-8 inches long and fragrant, saucer-shaped flowers that are pink with a ring of prominent crimson stamens in the center. It has larger flowers and leaves than M sieboldii, a closely similar magnolia. The flowers are borne in late June and July after the leaves have been fully developed. wilsonii A a 24\/ Zone 6 W. China in Wilson Magnolia magnolia very easy to grow, second crop of white, They are 8~--4 inches in diameter with leaves are 4-6 inches long. blooming normally mid-June, but often with saucer-shaped, fragrant and pendulous flowers in August. a ring of red stamens in the center. The Magnolias which might be Considered Mediocre cylindrica - extremely rare, as Ornamentals closely related to M. kobus. kobus borealisthe hardiest of the Asiatic magnolias,but not free-blooming. Sometimes it takes 22 years before the first flowers are produced. The species is frequently used as understock on which other magnolias are grafted. as liliflora - flowers not \" large as those of M. not liliflora nigra. desirable a gracilis - smaller than species, as plant. is the best at \"loebneri - (stellata X kobus). present. Select named clones only. 'Merrill' officinalis - Zone 6 with large leaves (14-21 inches) and flowers but M. obovata is hardier and has better foliage. officinalis biloba a (6-8 inches), variety merely with notched leaves. and kobus. proctoriana - poor flowers, blooms with M. stellata 'Merrill' has slavinii 'Slavin's Snowy' - larger flowers. soulangiana \" use the better named clones. 'Amabilis' - differs little from other varieties. `Candolleana' - differs little from other varieties. \" \" 'George Henry Kern' - Plant Patent have as #820 - large flowers with us, this does not as some of the other varieties. \" Highland Park #2636 ; AA 885 - flowers brownish. 27 soulangiana 'Lennei \" Alba' - mediocre flowers. 'Norbertiana' - mediocre flowers. purpurea - \" probably a name applied to mediocre seedlings. \" 'Spectabilis' - 'Brozzoni' is better. \" `Triumphant' - resembles `Rustica,' not rated outstanding by W. B. Clarke Co., San Jose, California, which has discontinued it. tripetala - M. obovata has better flowers. \" variegata - poor variegated foliage. species. virginiana australis - differs little from the w'_~~-~ii taliensis - differs little from the species. Magnolias Needing More Trial kobus 'Nana Compacta' (?) - originated in the old Kohankie Nursery of Painesville, Ohio, before 19:i0. A slow growing, compact plant with flowers as yet unknown. grandifloraXvirginiana - several hybrids now being grown at the National Arboretum deserve further trial. as a seedling Gardens, Kew, England, X kewensis (salicifolia X kobus) - originated at the Royal Botanic in 1938 and first flow- ered in 1951. The flowers are pure white and the leaves are 4-5 inches long. DONALD WYMAN Still Time to Register for the Following Spring Classes Spring Field Classes in Ornamental Plants Instructor : Dr. Donald Wyman Six meetings, Friday mornings, 10-12, April 29-June 3. Fee: $2.00 Contrib. de I'horticulture francaise aux jardins americains Cinq asences. Vendredi apres-midi 2-4 Instructrice: Madame C. Weber h, 29 avril au 27Mai. Prix: ~10.00 Field Botany II Five meetings. Instructor : Dr. Burdette Tuesday afternoons, 2-4, May Reminder 3-31. Wagenknecht Fee: $2.00 Arnoldia Subscriptions for 1960 not paid by May 1 will be discontinued. 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Shrub Honeysuckles with Pint to Red Flowers","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24352","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260af6b.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 JUNE 3, t960 5 NUMBER ~ SHRUB HONEYSUCKLES WITH PINK TO RED FLOWERS the shrub collection in the Arnold Arboretum during of this year, many visitors noticed a very deep-red-flowered bush honeysuckle named 'Arnold Red.' This was the deepest-red-flowered one of the entire group. Past correspondence with plantsmen has repeatedly brought up the question concerning just which is the deepest-red-flowered form. At one time, it was considered to be Lonicera tatarica sibirica, later L. korolkouii zabelii; but now with these and others growing side-by-side in the same soil and exposure here at the Arboretum, it seems that, under our conditions at least, Lonicera Arnold Red' has the deepest red flowers. An interesting review is made here of some of the better bush honeysuckles with pale pink to red flowers in the spring. Those with pure white flowers are always valued ; the vines with red or yellow flowers are outstanding ornamentals ; and some of the shrubs like L. syringantha and L. thibetica with lilac flowers are also much used. Here is a brief discussion of the bush honeysuckles with pink to red flowers growing in the Arnold Arboretum, listed in the order of deepening color from very pale pink to strong purplish red as measured with the Nickerson Color Fan. WALKING through mid-May T Very Pale Pink Lonicera bella rosea is listed in the catalogues and it is undoubtedly mixed with others of this hybrid species. The true variety rosea has flowers which open a very pale pink, almost white; unfortunately, they have the poor habit of fading quickly to yellowish in a day or two, before the rest of the pink flower buds on the same branchlet have opened. The flowers are small, being only about onehalf inch in diameter ; consequently, this does not merit wide use. Lonicera notha is not much better although the flowers are slightly larger. Lonicera tatarica, being grown widely from seed and hybridizing a great deal, will vary considerably but can be considered as having good, very pale pink to white flowers. 29 Both L. korolkowii and its variety are probably mixed in the trade but both apparently have very pale pink flowers and do not make the display that the deeper pink variety aurora does. Pale Pink (2.5 R 9\/3 Nickerson Color Fan) Varieties in this group include L. tatarica rosea and punicea. We obtained the latter from E. H. Hillier & Sons in England in 1939. Both are good varieties, the flowers of rosea being ~inch in diameter and those of punicea being one inch in diameter. The color is more or less uniform through the flowers. There is a third variety of L. tatarica named elegans which we obtained years ago from the Morton Arboretum, which has flowers identical in size and color with those of punicea. This was named nearly a century ago and was listed by some German nurseries in the 1890's. Two others in this group should be mentioned : L. amoena and its variety arnoldiana. Both have flower buds a pale pink. As they open, the flowers of the variety arnoldiana turn almost white. These are large, 14 inch in diameter, and the leaves of the plant are very narrow and grayish-green. The flower buds of L. amoena are the same color, but the flowers open to a very pale pink and are only4 inch in diameter. The leaves are wider (up to ~ inch) but are also a grayish-green color. The species is the more vigorous; the Arnold honeysuckle is much more delicate and of a finer texture. _ Petals Striped Deep Pink and White The over-all effect of the flowers in this group is deep pink, but on close exon the petal margin is seen. Lonicera tatarica angustifolia is one variety, but the flowers are only about ~ inch in diameter, so this might be overlooked. Lonicera tatarica lutea, on the other hand, has slightly larger flowers and, of course, bright yellow fruits, hence it has more ornamental value. Lonicera tatarica sibirica has flowers ~ inch in diameter with a tinge of white on the margin of the petals, so that actually, nearly one half of the petal surface is white to light pink. This lightens up the flowers considerably, and although the actual color of the stripes in the petals is a strong purplish red, the effect of the flowers over-all is only a deep pink. Hence, for landscape use, the flower color is much lighter than that of either L. korolkowii zabelii or 'Arnold Red.' In 1941, Mr. E. C. Hilborn of the Northwest Nursery Company, Valley City, North Dakota, sent a hybrid (morroreii ~ tatarica) with flowers about the same color but larger. It is of interest to note that the true L. morrowii (flowers white to yellow) with a densely-rounded habit is very difficult to locate because it was hybridized so freely with L. tatarica and has been grown consistently from seed. L. tatarica leroyana has flowers 14 inches in diameter, striped a moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP 7~8) with white petal margins, but blooms sparingly and so can be overlooked as far as flowers are concerned. amination the white 30 PLATE VIII Lonicera 'Arnold Red' in the Arnold Arboretum grows rapidly and makes branched shrub full of deep purplish red flowers every spring, followed by fruits in the summer and fall. denselybright red a Moderate Lonicera korolkoze~ii aurora is Purplish Pink (`?.5 RP 6j l0~ better than either the species or the variety floriin bunda, for it has deeper pink and slightly larger flowers (up to 4inch Deep Purplish Pink diameter). (7.5 RP 6~12) Lonicera bella atrorosea is the clone of this hybrid species to use for its deep pink flower color. Without a question, it is mixed in the trade with L. bella rosea, but rosea is the lighter of the two, so light that one sometimes does not notice the pink color. Sheridan Red' originated in the Sheridan Nurseries of Ontario, Canada, a few years ago, but was discontinued later because it was not as dark as L. tatarica sibirica. `Hack's Red' originating in the Hack Nursery near Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, is slightly darker (7.5 RP 5\/12) but is not the darkest red. Still another in this deep purplish pink group (5 RP 6\/ 10) is L. amoena rosea. It is a well-rounded shrub, dense in habit, with deep pink flowers, making this a good shrub for its habit, but the flowers quickly fade yellowish. Strong Purplish Red (7.5 RP 4i 1 1 ~ Lonicera korolkozcii zabelii has flowers a darker red than any mentioned so far, these flowers beinginch in diameter with narrow petals. It is widely grown now in nurseries and gives a darker effect in full flower because the color is uniformly distributed over all the petals. Lonicera maximo~~ic~ii and its variety sachalinensis also have strong purplish red flowers, but they are so small (~ inch) that ornamentally they have no value. Deep Purplish Red ( 10 RP 8\/ 10) Arnold Red' is without question the darkest red of all the shrub honeysuckles that are growing together on our soil. This originated as a chance seedling at the Arnold Arboretum, first blooming in 1947 at the Case Estates. (Arnoldia 16 : 4445, 1956) It was distributed to commercial growers in October 1954. The flowers are one inch in diameter and the dark red fruits are about ~ inch in diameter. When in full bloom, it is a handsome plant. Like other varieties of the Tatarian honeysuckle, pruning of older plants is often necessary in order to maintain a neat appearance. Summary So, after checking all these shrubs m flower, the best of the Loniceras for pink to red color as they bloomed in the Arnold Arboretum this year, were: L. tatarica varieties rosea, ~unicea, elegans Pale pink L. amoena and variety arnoldiana Pale pink L. tatarica varieties lutea, sibirica Petals striped pink and white L. korolkox~ii aurora Moderate purplish pink L. bella atrorosea Deep purplish pink L. korolkoze~ii ~abelii Strong purplish red L. tatarica 'Arnold Red' Deep purplish red-darkest of all ' DONALD WYMAN 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation of Woody Plants by Seed","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24350","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260ab6d.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 SEPTEMBER 16, 1960 Nu~s~R 6 PROPAGATION OF WOODY PLANTS BY SEED nature's most common method of plant reproduction, provides a means which an amateur can propagate many woody plants. Facilities needed are simple and inexpensive. By the use of polyethylene plastic bags, seeds requiring periods of pretreatment can be handled in an almost carefree manner. Germination is defined as: \"The process of the development of a seed into a perfect plant.\" Before this takes place conditions must be favorable and the seed must be ready to germinate. Many kinds of seed germinate on being provided with conditions such as moisture, air and warmth. Other kinds of sound seed refuse to germinate when given these favorable conditions. Such seeds are not prepared to develop and are termed dormant. This word stems from the Latin word dormio which means to slumber or sleep. Until the inhibiting conditions of dormancy are overcome, the seed is prevented from development. Dormancies are protective adaptations which prevent germination at times unfavorable to seedling survival. If these safeguards did not exist and germination occurred during a warm spell in winter, the seedlings would perish in a subsequent cold period. This situation, together with others, is prevented by these natural inhibitors. Nature has furnished these protections to insure continuance of the species. ~EED, by Immediate Germination after Many woody plant seeds have no inhibiting factors and having been sown. Among these are: Seeds Without will germinate shortly Inhibiting Dormancy Clethra (summersweet) Deutzia Diervilla Enkianthus Buddleia sp. Calluna (heather) Catalpa Cercidiphyllum (katsura tree) 33 Erica (heath) . Philadelphus (mock orange) Pieris (andromeda) Potentilla (cinquefoil) Rhododendron and Azalea) Hypericum (St. John's wort) Kalmia (mountain-laurel) Kolkowitzia (beauty bush) Leucothoe Oxydendrum arboreum (sourwood) Phellodendron (cork tree) Spiraea (bridal wreath) Weigela After cleaning, seeds in this group are stored dry until sowing time. When handled indoors or in a greenhouse they are best sown in late winter or early spring so that they will germinate and grow with the lengthening days. Complex Dormancy others are complex. Germination of most woody retarded by seed coats which are impervious to water. is relatively simple to overcome. To obtain prompt and uniform germination the entry of water becomes necessary. Several procedures will accomplish this. Large type legume seeds, handled in small quantities, can be perforated with a file or sharp kmfe. Smaller type seeds or large seeds handled in volume can be treated with hot water or sulphuric acid. Sulphuric acid treatments are not recommended for amateurs because of the hazards involved. Accidental spatterings of sulphuric acid could be destructive, if not disastrous. Hot water provides a simple, safe and effective means of obtaining rapid germination. Seed is placed in a container; water at about 200 degrees F. is poured over the seed and allowed to cool. Permitting it to remain in the water over night before sowing is advantageous. The amount of water should be about five times the volume of seed. On being removed, the seed must be sown at once. If permitted to dry before sowing, the dormancy can recur. Should this happen, the process would have to be repeated. The second method is to sow the seed in a can, flat, or other container and pour boiling water over it. In the event that an insufficient number of seeds germinate, the seedlings which have developed may be removed and the ungerminated balance retreated with hot water. A second treatment will usually stimu- Some dormancies are simple, legumes, for example, is A dormancy of this kind late further germination. Stratification Many seeds have internal conditions which inhibit germination. Often this is caused by an immature embryo, which is not ripe although the seed appears mature. Exposure to a period of cold overcomes this dormancy. In nature, such seed would germinate in the spring after being provided with cold by the winter. A period of artificial cold works equally well. Stratification is the term commonly used to define this procedure. This word is derived from the practice of placing 34 seed between strata, of medium for storage or pretreatment. It is now interpreted any process used to facilitate the germination of dormant seeds which require pretreatment by time and temperature. This cold stratification is layers, or as accomplished by placing the seed in a refrigerator at about 40 degrees F. for the required time. Forty degrees is a recommended temperature, but this has latitude. ~'ithin reason, whatever temperature the household refrigerator is set for should be effective. Freezing is unnecessary and seed should not be placed in the freezing unit. The container for these seeds should be a polyethylene plastic bag. Polyethylene has the property of allowing air to pass through it, but is vaporproof. A medium composed of one-half sand and one-half peat moss is suitable. This is mixed together and dampened. Dampened is stressed as it must be moist but not wet. In proportion, the medium should be two or three times the volume of the seed. Advantages in keeping the bulk small will be obvious at sowing time as the entire contents of the bag is sown. Twisting the top of the bag and binding it with a rubber band makes it vapor-proof for the period of cold stratification. If properly sealed it can be left until time for sowing, be this a month or a year. The following list shows some plants whose seeds respond to this type of stratification, together with recommended periods of time: Seeds to be Stratified 35 These recommendations cover most species in the genera listed. In the maples and mountain ashes, for example, there are some exceptions that will not respond to this treatment. Many of the conifers will germinate when sown without pretreatment, but do so erratically. Cold stratification tends to stabilize this condition and provide a uniform stand of seedlings. This can be important as many conifer seedlings are susceptible to damping-off diseases. When induced to germinate quickly and in unison, they can be potted or boxed in a matter of days. By quickly separating them the spread of these diseases is minimized. Double Dormancy Still other seeds have conditions of double dormancy. They require warm, fluctuating temperatures followed by a cold period to be prepared for germination. Dormancies of this kind are caused by reasons such as hard seed coats and immature embryos. The endosperm (food storage tissue) can also be responsible for this. Due to the length of time required for gcrmination, they are called twoyear seed. In nature, after being shed in autumn, such seed would go through the first winter without benefit from the cold because water had not penetrated the seed coat. Through the following summer the seed coat decomposes and permits the entry of water. Consequently, the second winter can provide the cold requirement. With the advent of favorable conditions in spring, the seed, thus prepared, can germinate. Some plants produce seed in a given seed crop which germinate each year fora period of years. Apparently variations in structure cause some of them to require more seasonal cycles than others to overcome inhibitors. This again is a survival adaptation. Should the flora of an area be destroyed, there would be dormant seed remaining which wonld germinate and furnish replacements. Some examples of these two-year seeds, together with suggested pretreatment, are as follows : 36 PLATE IX These seeds of Chionanthus and Viburnum have been exposed to a period of warm stratification and roots have developed. They are now ready for tbe second requirement consisting of a 3-month cold treatment. If this is not provided to ripen the shoot bud, they will never go beyond this stage. Seeds with Double Dormancy * These have a dormancy in the shoot bud after seed germination. Pretreatment of seeds in this group must be done in two stages. They are mixed with medium and placed in polyethylene plastic bags as previously described. For warm stratification they should be provided with a location where the temperature will fluctuate. In some controlled experiments temperatures varying between 68 degrees at night and 86 degrees in the daytime have been used to provide this. Again there is latitude. Bags of seed placed on a greenhouse bench where the temperature ranged between 60 and 100 degrees have produced good results. Any location such as a window sill or similar situation where the day and night temperature varies would be suitable. A place in full sun, however, could result in a build up of high heat which would be detrimental. After the period of warm stratification has been completed, the bag is placed in a refrigerator for its cold requirement. Keeping track of this is easily done by labeling each bag and marking on a calendar the dates they are due to be moved. Those preceded by an asterisk (p. 38) have a dormancy in the shoot-bud. Toward the end of warm stratification, roots will appear. These signify that the seed is ready for the second or cold stage of stratification. It is well to check this as the time required might vary in different species and with different seed lots. By carefully lifting the bag and looking for roots in the part which faces downward, this is done. Roots travel down and will be found spreading in the bottom of the bag. When it appears that most of the seeds have produced roots, the bag can be moved to the refrigerator. If this is not done, the root will continue to grow until food stored in the seed is expended. When this happens, the seed will die. The period of cold must be provided to condition the shoot-bud or the seedling will never develop. Plate IX shows examples of seed in this class. Warm treatment has been completed and roots are down. They are now ready for the second treatment consisting of a three-month cold period. 38 Method of Sowing Containers for sowing seeds in these different categories may be greenhouse flats, tin cans with drain holes or any suitable container. Tin cans make very satisfactory containers and the supply is inexhaustible. Size of the can will be determined by the amount of seed to be sown. A small soup can would be adequate for small amounts of seed, while a standard coffee can would accommodate larger quantities. The container is prepared by putting an inch or more of broken flower pots, stone, or some such coarse material in the bottom. Sphagnum moss, leaves or such is put over this to prevent the soil from filling the spaces and blocking drainage. Drainage is very essential. Loose-textured potting soil is added, firmed and leveled to fill the can within an inch of the top. A topping of milled or screened sphagnum moss about one-half mch deep, completes preparation for the sowing of fine seeds, such as rhododendron, spiraea and mountain-laurel. The container is now placed in a vessel with water deep enough to be above the material used for drainage. Capillary action will conduct water upward, wetting the contents. It is well to do this a day in advance of sowing as sphagnum moss wets slowly. Fine type seed is sifted over the layer of sphagnum and is left uncovered. Crevices in the uneven surface catch and hold the seed in place. Judgment must be used in sowing as it is a common error to sow too thickly. Larger-type non-dormant seed is distributed over the surface and covered with sphagnum. The rule of thumb recommendation being to cover two or three times as deep as the seed diameter. A favorable time for sowing seed which has no dormancy is late winter or early spring so it will germinate and grow with the lengthening days. In sowing seed which has been stratified by the plastic bag method, the entire sown and topped with about one-quarter inch of sphagnum. Again this is planned so that one-half inch of space remains at the top when the job is finished. This half inch of space provides for watering. contents is containers are now placed in polyethylene bags, closed at the top inverted and tucked underneath. Water should not be needed until the seed has germinated and the bag removed, but it is well to check this occasionally. After germination, the plastic cover must be removed as the seedlings become too succulent when grown in this close atmosphere. Rather than remove this at once, it must be removed in stages for lengthening periods each day, fur several days, to harden off the seedlings. They are now ready for the care required in good management of seedlings. It is not customary to raise hybrids or varieties from seed unless it is known what their performance will be. Usually they do not provide plants with characteristics similar to the parent. Those which are grown because of deviations from normal, such as weeping forms or those with unusual fruit or flower color, often reproduce a percentage of offspring true to type. Examples would be Sargent's Completed or 39 weeping hemlock and the pink-flowered mountain laurel which are reputed to about 90lo true from seed. However, many years would elapse before they were ready for segregation. When raising mountain-laurel in commercial work, it would be of advantage to gather seed from only the deepest colored specimens. Premium prices would be justified at time of sale for those with superior flower come eolor. Plate IX shows Viburnum sargenlii flaaum a variety which has yellow fruit. Ordinarily a variety such as this does not duplicate the parent, and therefore would not be grown from seed. In this instance, those with yellow fruit can be separated from those with red by the pigmentation in the petioles while the plants are small. Although it is not customary to raise hybrids and varieties from seed, many new plants occur in this way. One with curiosity and adequate growing space would find interest in raising these to see the outcome. A. J. FORDHAM Classes at the Arnold Arboretum Fall Program, 1960 Instructor: Dr. Joab Thomas 8. Economic Botany Six meetings. Tuesday evenings,:30-9:30, Oct. 4-Nov. Fee $10.00 Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman Fee $2.00 Five meetmgs. Friday mornings, 10-1 Z, Sept. 30-Oct. 28. * Field Botany I Instructor: Dr. Richard Howard Five meetings. Plant Tuesday afternoons, 2-4, Sept. 27-Oct. 25. Fee $2.00 Propagation$ on Instructor: Mr. Alfred Fordham Ten meetings, the first Saturday, Sept. 24, 9:30 a.m. Fee 1~2.5.00 Plant Structures Six meetings. Instructor: Dr. Burdette Wagenknecht Fee ~10.00 to Thursday evenings, 7:30-9:30, Oct. 6-Nov. 10. Miss Stella Applications will be accepted now for all classes, and should be addressed Whitehouse, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. * Class meets at the Barn, 135 Wellesley Street, Weston, Mass. Class meets at the Arboretum Greenhouse on South Street, Jamaica ~ Mass. Plain, 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ilex Crenata and Its Varieties","article_sequence":6,"start_page":41,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24345","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070896d.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 SEPTEMBER 23, 1960 ILEX CRENATA AND ITS VARIETIES - NUMBER 7 . was introduced into cultivation in the United States in and has in all types of ornamental plantings. Its small, evergreen leaves and the dense, twiggy character of its branching give it qualities that make it useful as a specimen, a background planting or a hedge, since it withstands shearing very well indeed. American nurserymen have grown it from cuttings for a long time and have found that when seed is planted, numerous variations arise. In fact, there are so many now that if one studies the nursery catalogues carefully, one will find some 40 names purporting to be different varieties of this useful species and one nurseryman is known to have as many as 200 selected seedlings. In order to assist those interested in making a selection among these plants, this issue of Arnoldia is devoted to a cursory study of the varieties. Some are so new that definite information concerning their performance ~s not available, and will not be for several years. Because many people are interested m the lowergrowing types of shrubs, especially those which require no special care or spraying to combat insects and diseases, this is a group well worth noting. Forty years ago there were only the species, the variety microphylla, and possibly one or two others available in the trade. Now there are forty names being listed, the most recent being one named `Glossy' offered in an advertisement in the August 1, 1960, issue of the American A-urseryman. Certainly all are not outstanding ornamentals; some are not worthy of planting, and some of the names listed are merely synonyms of older, recognized varieties, or are so similar that from the standpoint of their use in the landscape, there is no appreciable difference. holly THE Japanese proved popular 1864 Recommended Varieties convexa: A variety introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1919 and hardier than the species. Until the peculiar wmter or 1958-59, this had not 41 suffered much injury, but during that winter it was badly killed over a wide area of the northern United States. Even at that, I think it is still an extremely worthy specimen, with small, convex leaves and rather widespreading habit, flat on top. Our forty-year-old plant is 9 feet high and 24 feet across. It will withstand clipping and makes an excellent substitute for box in the North. helleri: Origmating in Newport, Rhode Island, in 1925, this variety is very dwarf and compact. In fact, it is so compact and rounded in habit that it looks as if it had been sheared. Our 26-year-old plant is only 4 feet tall and 5 feet across, a splendidly moulded specimen. The leaves are about one-half an inch long. This was probably the first of the dwarf compact types of Japanese holly to be widely grown by nurseries in the United States. so popular that apparently it is offered in the trade under several such as fortunei, major and rotundifolia. Actually these are all synonyms which should be dropped in favor of latifolia. The plant has rather large leaves for an Ilex crenata variety, they being about 1~ inches long and ~-~inches wide and a glossy green. It is vigorous in growth, sometimes reaching a height of 20 feet. latifolia: This is names mariesii: This is a dwarf variety with the small leaves bunched near the ends of the twigs and growing less than an inch a year. Sometimes it is listed as var. nummularia, tivation. but it is rather difficult to find commercially and thus is rare in cul- in habit with small leaves ~-~ inches long, this has been in cultivation in America for fifty years or more and has proved to be the hardiest of the older varieties. How its hardiness compares with that of the many newer varieties remains to be seen. Certainly it is as hardy as convexa and it is hardier than the species. microphylla: Low 'Compacta': Dense and compact in habit, with leaves about 2 inch long, our three-year-old plant is 3 inches high but 12 inches across. `Glass': A male clone of Ilex crenata microphylla differing only slightly in that the leaves are slightly smaller. It is compact and upright while young but can become rather open with age. 'Green Island': Our eleven-year-old plant is loose and open (3 feet tall and 6 feet across), not nearly so compact as older plants of helleri and 'Stokes.' It was discovered in 1935 and introduced (Plant Patent #817) in 1949 by the Styer's Nursery of Concordville, Pa. It is said to be more rapid growing than either helleri or 'Kingsville.' 'Hetzi': A dwarf clone of Ilex crenata convexa originating in the Fairview Evergreen Nurseries of Fairview, Pennsylvania, and proving rather popular. 42 (Above) two plants PLATE X lle.r crenata laelleri. (Below) llex cre~eata of Ilex crenata latifolia. co~vexa as a low hedge between 'Kingsville': A dwarf clone of Ile.r 191~?. The crenata longifolia discovered in Maryland in Nurseries of Kingsville, Maryland, purchased this plant in Kingsville 1926 and later introduced it. Mr. Henry Hohman has the original plant which is now 4 feet tall and 7 feet across, with leaves ~ inch long. The plant has a low, rounded habit and is flat on top. It has not been known to bear fruit. It appears to be quite hardy, having withstood winter temperatures of -15 F. without injury. 'Kingsville Green Cushion': A very dwarf clone with spreading habit. A 10year-old plant was noted as being only 8 inches tall and 32 inches across. It makes a solid, cushion-like mass. The leaves are similar to those of Ilex crenata helleri, but the plant is much more dwarf and compact. plant was originally selected from a batch of seedlings by Warren Butler, Pennsylvania, and was issued Plant Patent #887 in 1949. Our ]2-year-old plant is 3 feet tall and 4 feet across, flat-topped and not quite so globose as is the variety helleri, but it is slightly hardier. This is a male clone. 'Stokes': This Stokes of Varieties Worthy of Further Trial 'Canton' * 'Changsha' * 'Chengtu' * 'Foster No. 1'-A selection of Mr. E. be very low, compact and spreading. E. Foster, Bessemer, Alabama, said as as to being slightly faster and more com\"extremely hardy,\" according to advertisement of Gerard K. Klyn Nursery, Mentor, Ohio. 'Green Thumb'-A dwarf female clone selected by John Vermeulen & Son, Inc., Neshanic Station, New Jersey, in 1950 and introduced in 1956. `Howard'-A possible hybrid. in 1960. Noted `Glossy'-First introduced pact in growth than com~e.ra. Also noted 'Kunming'* 'Maxwell'-A possible hybrid. 'Morris Dwarf'-A clone of Ilex leaves ~-:~ inches long. crenata microphylla with very dwarf habit and 'Nanking' * 'Peking' * 'Red Lion'-Said to be similar to the variety helleri. 'T-one' 2014A low-growing, small-leaved variety selected by the Tingle Nursery of Pittsville, Maryland, said to be very compact. 'Shanghai' * 'Willow Leaf'-A clone of Ilex * 'Yunnan' * crenata longjf'olia. vania. Of are seedlings named by the Styer's Nursery of Concordville, Pennsylthese, J. F. Styer thinks that 'Chengtu,' 'Peking, and 'Yunnan' will eventually prove best after the full trial period. These 44 on '\" ss e ....; '\" ~ e ....; ..; ~ a ~ ~oo &3#ICx# 3 ; & x E; ~x y 00 \". U b MM, G7 \" ~\"\" f1 ~G I \"\"O g (;1;:1 <1>. <: i-< U ~ ~.... 0 on aVg En . &o&3#x C;I #x3E; IG~7 .V ,N . v~ . . \", U .'N _~ -. _~ ~=;:: U N _~ i ~ ~ \".. U on N i~ . F' .N U 8 '\" '\" <J da o '\" U ~'\" ~U U , Plants and Names to Discard crenata fortunei-Synonym \" \" for Ilex crenata latifolia. \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" grandifolia-Probably synonymous with Ilex crenata latifolia. long~f'olia-Lanceolate leaves. luteo-variegata-Leaves variegated, probably similar to Ilex crenata variegata macrophylla-Probably synonymous with Ilex crenata latifolia. major-Synonym for Ilex crenata latifolia. paludosa-Onlyfor use in swampy places. radicans-Leaves coarse when compared to those of other varieties. rotx~ndifolia-Synonym for Ilex crenata latifolia. variegata-Leaves variegated. 'Buxifolia'-Originated and named at Tom Dodd Nurseries, Semmes, Alabama, a few years ago, not particularly outstanding and unfortunately named 'Buxifolia,' which name in its varietal form has been determined a synonym for convexa. \" 'Lindleyana'-Originated Carolina. Of dense in the growth, rather but differs little from other Lindley Nurseries, Greensboro, North good selections. poor grower, \" `Longfellow'-Leaves sembles Ilex crenata large, male clone, microphylla. closely re- \" 'Oleafera'-Not superior to recommended varieties. \" \" 'Tennyson'-Closely resembles Ilex crenata latifolia, buta \"ragged\"grower Uprite'-Not outstanding, subject to chlorosis, somewhat similar to var. latifolia. \" `Vaseyi'-Closely resembles var. latifolia but foliage loose and open. DONALD WYMAN 46 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hurricane \"Donna\" null","article_sequence":7,"start_page":47,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24344","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d0708928.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Hurricane 'Donna' came to the Arnold Arboretum on Monday, September 12, preceded considerable radio warning. The 3.64 inches of rain dumped on the Arboreby tum were very much appreciated. The winds were not. Although two gusts of 140 miles per hour were registered at the Blue Hills Observatory in Milton, only a few miles in a direct line from the Arboretum, it is most fortunate that damage to trees in the Arboretum was not serious. Altogether, 39 trees were blown down. Of these, 23 were pulled back into position, staked, pruned, watered and mulched immediately. Two were propagated immediately. Fourteen were varieties duplicated elsewhere in the collections. Less than twenty-four hours after the winds stopped, the trees which were salvageable had been pulled back into place or were propagated. Sixty loads of brush have been picked up and hauled away, representing the branches that were broken. As is usual after such storms, injury could be found in the weak-wooded trees (Cladrastis lulea, Acer saccharinum, UlmusPumila~, especially if they happen to be growing where the gusts of wind were worst. The hickories and locusts showed considerable splitting (especially in poor crotches) and close observation of almost every large branch broken from other trees showed a weakened or decayed situation which had long existed. Apparently there was much thrashing around of the smaller branches in the oaks, evidenced by many small twigs about one foot 'Donna' long on the ground. Steps taken after any such storm should be prompt if the trees are to be saved. First, those that are down or leaning (if the roots are not all broken) should be pulled back into position immediately and securely staked before the exposed roots have an opportunity to dry out. If the essentials of pruning are not well understood, one can learn a great deal by carefully studying each broken branch to determine why it was broken. It may be due to the vagaries of the unpredictable wind, but more often it is due to decay that has been allowed to creep into the trunk or to a weakened crotch which should have been properly pruned years ago. Occasionally, as in the case of several 55-year-old Phellodendron lavallei trees, it is due to old age - the branches have grown so far out from the trunk that they are very heavy and will not withstand the whipping effects of an unusually strong wind. Broken branches should all be cut off smoothly and cleanly, the wood painted at once with some good tree paint, of which there are several on the market. Trees that were blown over and obviously had roots broken in the process might well be pruned, sometimes heavily (to compensate for the loss of roots), when they are pulled back properly into place and staked. Occasionally trees that are split may be kept alive if bolted together properly. Such trees should 47 be repaired by wrapping wire completely and tightly around the branches trunks. The quicker such repairs can be made to the trees after a storm, the better are the chances for survival. never or ' Co~CCttOMS: Corrections: - In the last issue of Arnoldia there are three errors in the printed copy, due entirely to the editor and not the author. Page 34: The heading Complex Dormancy should read, Seed Coat Dormancy Page 35: Clematis stratification time should read, \"3 months.\" Page 38 : In the table of seeds with double dormancy, the following comment should be added after the last item (Viburnum) in the column: (This applies to many but not all the Page 38: Beneath the Viburnums.) a following \"*These have table, delete the words, \"after seed germination\" dormancy in the shoot bud.\" D.W. 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forsythia 'Karl Sax'","article_sequence":8,"start_page":49,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24342","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070816b.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Thomas, Joab L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University OCTOBER ~1, 1960 FORSYTHIA VOLUME 20 NUMBER S 'KARL SAX' years ago tetraploid Forsythia was produced by treating a seedof F. intermedia spectabilis with a colchicine emulsion. The colchicine acts as a poison and disrupts normal cell division, but permits chromosome division temporarily. In this manner the chromosomes in a cell can divide without a subsequent division of the cell itself, so that after such a division a cell will have twice the normal number of chromosomes. By producing tetraploid cells in the growing point of a young plant, one can occasionally obtam entire plants which have twice the normal number of chromosomes. The tetraploid Forsythia, developed in this manner, has thicker leaves, larger and darker flowers, and is more erect in growth habit than the original species, F. intermedia spectabilis. This plant, which was given the cultivar name `Arnold Giant,' was awarded the Lindley Medal by the Royal Horticultural Society in 19~~, but has not proved to be very popular in this country. In 1944 Professor Karl Sax crossed Forsythia `Arnold Giant' with nearby diploids, including F. ovata and F. intermedia spectabilis in order to obtain triploids. Several progeny were obtained from this cross and two were selected as superior types. One of these, under the number 6445-6, was named in honor of Mrs. Beatrix Farrand. It has extremely large flowers which tend to be somewhat pendulous and are a lighter yellow than those of 'Arnold Giant.' It is a very vigorous plant but has never become very popular due to the long, robust canes which it produces, giving the plant an ungraceful appearance. The second selection (6445-13) differs from 'Arnold Giant' and 'Beatrix Farrand' in several respects, and is here described as a new cultivar, Forsythia 'Karl Sax,' in honor of Professor Karl Sax who was responsible for originating the plant. Forsythia 'Karl Sax' is a moderately compact shrub, 2-3 meters tall. The branches tend to be somewhat robust, but they are not so rigidly erect as those of Arnold Giant' or 'Beatrix Farrand,' giving this shrub a more graceful habit. TV'ENTY -M- ling a 49 is short-styled and flowers profusely, with large flowers up to 4.5 cm. The flowers are deep yellow, darker and more golden than those of 'Beatrix Farrand,' but still brilliant. The fruit is 1-1.5 cm. broad and up to 2.5 cm. long, very similar to the fruit of 'Arnold Giant.' The opposite leaves are ovate, 7-10 cm. long, 3.:i-4.~ cm. broad (occasionally up to 12 cm. long, 6 cm. broad in shaded leaves). The leaves are strongly toothed along the margin and are a dull, dark green above, lighter beneath. As in all polyploid forsythias, the leaves are noticeably thickened and somewhat rigid. Probably one of the more desirable features of this new shrub is its extreme hardiness. Reports from nurserymen in the Midwest, where the past winter was unusually severe, indicate that Forsythia 'Karl Sax' came through better than any of the other forsythias. It is said to be particularly good where late spring frosts destroy the bloom of many forsythias. One disadvantage of the polyploid forsythias is that they tend to be rather difficult to propagate by means of cuttings. However, Mr. H. L. Greenwood of Interstate Nurseries has written that their results in propagating Forsythia 'Karl Sax' have shown that softwood cuttings in cold frames do very well, although hardwood cuttings in the open field do poorly. Genetically, the origin of this new Forsythia is still something of a mystery. In contrast to the other progeny of 'Arnold Giant,' this plant has proved to be quite fertile. Cytological examination has revealed that Forsythia`Karl Sax' has the same chromosome number as 'Arnold Giant,' and is therefore, a tetraploidnot a triploid as is the case with Beatrix Farrand.' Since forsythias are normally self-sterile, it was surprising to learn that a lone tretraploid plant could give rise to tetraploid progeny, with only diploid plants available to serve as the pollen parent. It could have originated from the fertilization by an unreduced pollen grain from a diploid plant, but unreduced pollen grains are very rare in Forsylhzcc. The other possible explanation is that this plant originated from a self-pollination of Arnold Giant.' In a self-sterile group one would not expect this, unless tetraploidy has induced some degree of self-sterility. This is known to have occurred in other self-sterile plant groups and it is certainly possible that this is what has occurred in Forsythia. Preliminary tests have been conducted to determine the degree of self-compatibility in both 'Arnold Giant' and 'Karl Sax,' by placing bags over some of the branches to prevent cross-pollination. So many bags and labels were lost, however, that the results were inconclusive. Possibly later experiments can be more carefully guarded and will give more conclusive evidence on the breeding behavior of polyploid forsythias and on the origin of this interesting plant. The plant across. .TOAB L. THOMAS 50 (Above) Close-up of 'Karl Sax' as PLATE XII flowers of Forsythia `Karl Sax.' it is growing in the Arnold Arboretum. (Below) Forsythia "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ornamental Fruits, 1960","article_sequence":9,"start_page":52,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24348","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260a76f.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Ornamental Fruits, 1960 Autumn color in the Arnold Arboretum is good this year. Hurricane \"Donna\" not dry out much of the fohage here, and of course the Arboretum is sufficiently inland so that salt water, picked up by the winds, did not have any serious effect on the foliage as it did to a great extent along the shore of southern New did many of the viburnums have few if any fruits, probably due to poor weather conditions when the flowers were open last spring. The same is true of the apple crop in this area - the McIntosh which is the favorite variety England. Unfortunately, and widely grown, has produced extremely few apples. Some of the later-blooming varieties such as the Baldwin, have fared better. Incidentally, Baldwin is one of the few apple varieties which can produce a commercial crop without cross polli- very well indeed, as did Cornus,florida. Winterberry (Ile,r verticillata) is literally loaded with fruit, and many of the early flowering oriental crab apples are also well laden with fruits. On the other hand, the Lowbush Blueberry produced very few fruits in this area. This can all be traced directly to weather conditions during the flowering period. A look at the \"Local Climatological Data\" received from the U.S. Weather Bureau shows that there was some rain on every day but four from May 8-24, and the rain was well distributed over each twenty-four-hour period, showing that the weather was damp and moist much of the time. It was also cold a greater poor weather for fertilization to take place. Plants such as the early flowering crab apples, which are fruiting well, flowered before the cold rainy weather set in, or after it was over (Cornus kousa and its variety chinensis, Ilex verticillata all of which flowered in June when the weather was warmer and sunny). Those plants not fruiting well (McIntosh apples, many of the viburnums, Lowbush Blueberry, etc.) flowered when weather conditions were poor for pollination. nation ; McIntosh practically requires it. Cornus kousa and its variety have fruited part of the time - very DONALD WYMAN 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hillcrest Gardens, Weston, Massachusetts","article_sequence":10,"start_page":53,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24353","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260b36f.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 THE HILLCREST DECEMBER 23, ]960 . NUMBERS 9-10 o GARDENS, WESTON, MASSACHUSETTS thirty-three years, from 1911 until 1944, Miss Marian Roby Case conducted a practical school of agriculture and gardening on her estate in Weston for children of Weston and the surrounding towns. The activities of the school, with the exception of the last two years, as well as the development of the farm and bits of Miss Case's own philosophy, are recorded in the annual \"green books,''1 which thus comprise a history of the estate and a record of the land's use. The year 1960 marks the fiftieth anniversary of this farm, now known as the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. The following brief history is intended as a tribute to Miss Case and a summary of a remarkable philanthropic enterprise. Marian Roby Case (1864-1944~ was the daughter of James Brown Case (1826190 i ~, originally of Providence, Rhode Island, and Laura Lucretia Williams Case (1833-1918), the daughter of Moses Williams of Roxbury, Massachusetts. Prior to 1909 the Case family spent the winters in their home at 468 Beacon Street, Boston, and the summers m Weston. James Case purchased the General Darby property in the geographic center of town, dismantled the existing frame house and built the well-known Case house. It was the third dwelling to stand on the property and today houses the kindergarten and offices of the Weston School FOR system. four children in the Case family, all girls: Louisa (186~?-1946~, (1856-1919), Mabel (18~8-1883~, and Marian. Mabel died in early and Caroline was the only one to marry. maturity Following the death of her parents, Louisa inherited the Case house on Wellesley Street and lived there until 1942. Her sister Marian Roby inherited a small tract of land lying between V~'ellesley and Ash Streets and east of '.~ ewton Street. On this land, to become the original section of Hillcrest Gardens, was located There Caroline were 1 Bibliographic Data 318-320. 1960. on the Hillcrest Gardens Books. 1911-1941. Jour. Arnold Arb. 41: 53 the Dorgan House, occupied by a gardener and dismantled in 1935. In the spring of 1909 twenty-three acres of land adjacent to the Case family property came on the market. Miss Case bought this land, including the Barker House, later known as the Williams House or the Sentinels (101 Wellesley Street) on Memorial Day, of that year. A red barn next to the house was torn down and the first rose garden was established on the filled-in cellar. These properties surrounded a small 0 amount of land on which was the Cooper House (10~? Wellesley Street). In 1910 renamed it Appletree Cottage for a famous set Miss Case bought this property, of apple trees surrounding it, and made the house her home. The entire property was known as Hillcrest Farm, although the origin of the name cannot be determined from available records. In the first Hillcrest Farm booklet, published by Miss Case in 191 1, she wrote: \"Hillerest is an experimental farm where we wish to work up the scientific side of agriculture as well as to employ boys of the town through their long summer vacation.\" The land was called Hillcrest Farms until the eleventh summer (1920), when the name was changed to Hillcrest Gardens. Miss Case attributed the change of name to the influence of Charles Sargent and John Jack of the Arnold Arboretum. It is interesting to note that Miss Case's interest in horticulture and the development of Hillcrest Gardens never exceeded her desire to contribute to the boys who worked on the land, and, in fact, all children interested in nature. In horticultural activities Miss Case was extremely active and used the developing gardens to this end. In the winters she frequently travelled the Mediterranean, partly for her health and partly for the horticultural interest of the area. She established many contacts in Italy, Sicily, Greece and Egypt, where she not only collected seeds herself but she had seeds of potentially useful ornamentals sent to Weston for trial. In 1924 Miss Case became a fellow of the Royal Horticultural Society and received seeds from the Kew Gardens and similar sources. She was a life member of the Botanical Society of South Africa and received many y packets of seeds from that area. Hillcrest Gardens became the first spot in New England to try many South African herbaceous plants as garden annuals. In addition, Mr. Chittenden, director of the Royal Horticultural Society gardens at Wisley, was a personal friend and sent her some of the best plants grown at these gardens. In New England her influence in horticulture extended to many areas. One of her most important roles came about as a result of her active participation in the Massachusetts Horticultural Society. Miss Case joined the Society with a life membership in 191 1. In 1921 she was elected a trustee and so served for over a decade. She also served actively as chairman of the Childrens Gardens Committee. She established the Hillcrest Medals for children's gardens and these were awarded from 1918 to 1933. In 192i, thirty-seven bronze medals were awarded to children who prepared outstanding gardens or exhibits. Other special awards or functions of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society bore the Hillcrest name, 54 as a silver cup for the best collection of iris and the Hillcrest Gardens sumlectures sponsored by Miss Case. In 1926 Professor Sargent, on behalf of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, awarded a gold medal to Miss Case with the citation, \"Since 1910, Miss Case has financed and energetically conducted a vocational gardening school for boys between the ages of nine and eighteen. Equipped with this knowledge in the art and practice of raising first-class flowers, fruits and vegetables and taught to appreciate the book of Nature, these boys go forth worthy, capable and practical. Miss Case'sdeep love of Nature has found expression in this most useful work and in her the art of garden craft has a staunch and generous friend.\" Miss Case was very proud of the award and its citation and it is only surprising that she did not mention the Centennial Gold Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society awarded to her in 1930 for her educational work within the Society. Horticulture Magazine, now a publication of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, began publication in 1920 as a weekly, privately published journal with Edward Farrington as its editor. It came under the sponsorship of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in August 1923, and continued as a semi-monthly periodical. Apparently this magazine proved a financial burden to the Society and was the subject of much discussion at the meetings of the trustees. Professor Sargent and Miss Case were its strongest defenders, firmly anticipating its present success. Quietly, but not without official notice, Miss Case contributed generous financial support to meet its deficits. Miss Case regularly contributed articles and short horticultural observations, thirty alone in 1920, and sent many copies to her friends and correspondents abroad to make the publication more widely known internationally. Miss Case was in close association with the Arnold Arboretum and the Botanic Gardens of Harvard University. She received many plants from the Arboretum for trial in Weston and today some of the outstanding specimens of plants introduced to American Horticulture by E. H. Wilson of the Arboretum staff are growing on the Case Estates. Miss Case was appointed a member of the Overseers Committee to visit the Harvard Botanic Garden in 1921, and in 1924 she sponsored a private viewing of these gardens. Tea was served and over 4000 invitations were sent, of which 3000 were accepted. Elsewhere in the Boston area the Benevolent Fruit and Flower Mission received her support with regular contributions of cut flowers and plants. Miss Case was an active member of the ~'oman's National Farm and Garden Association and served in many of its offices, including that of president in 19~? i28 when this national organization met at Hillcrest. In Weston her generosity found many avenues of expression. She was an active member of the First Parish Church, Unitarian, and many benefits were held at Hillcrest Gardens for this parish. In the same manner she supported the Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. Likewise the local school system re- such mer 55 ceived her attention. She offered prizes for the best essays written on topics which she suggested. Prizes were offered from 19~?I until 193z. In the latter year forty-two prizes were awarded (generally books of poetry) in grades seven through twelve. She was an active participant in the Weston and Wayland Grange and for at least one year (19~?9) was president of the Wayland Garden Club. The school at Hillcrest Gardens received her constant attention. She personally selected the boys and watched their work and development, keeping in touch with them even after they had left Hillcrest. As one student wrute in1913, \"It seems to be a settled policy with Miss Case that when a boy has entered the work here and as long as he continues here that he is never out of her reach.\" Miss Case personally selected many of the leaders from among the boys, encouraged the development of others and disciplmed those who needed it. 1)urmg the school term she met with the boys in study periods to watch their work and regularly took a period each week to read to them from the works of challenging authors. No summer was complete unless Miss Case read to the boys S~ll's \"Opportunity,\" Longfellow's \"Fiftieth Birthday of Aggassiz,\" Lowell's \"Vision of Sir Launfal\" and ~'ordsworth's \"Happy Warrior.\" Others of her favorite readmgs included Van Loon's \"The Story of Mankind\" and \"The Americanization of Edward Bok.\" Although there was no lack of applicants from whom Miss Case might select boysfor her school, she reported on at least one occasion that her \"chief trouble has been to find a man to take charge, who liking boys knew something about agriculture or a man wide in farm knowledge who would have patience with the boys.\" Three men of her choosing, Thomas Park, Jack Williams and Dennis Crowley, were largely responsible for the signal success of Hillcrest as a school for boys. Each summer began with having pictures taken of the hoy s. These pictures hung on the wall of the clubhouse throughout the summer. One y ear Miss Case wrote, \"One boy coming into my studio to have his picture taken asked me if I thought he had grown since last summer. I was able to tell him I thought he had grown in everything that makes a boy worth while.\" Today many of these same graduates a number of whom still live in Weston, speak with pride and pleasure of the influence of Miss Case and Hillcrest on their vouthful years. Since Hillcrest was a truck farm, it operated in competition with other farmers in the area. But the income from the produce grown at Hillcrest never equalled the cost of the school and Miss Case's many horticultural philantropies. The wages paid to the boys were low and perhaps for this reason Miss Case feared criticism. In several of the \"green books\" she questioned the appreciation of the townspeople in Weston for her efforts. In 1917she wrote, \"Sometimes I wonder if the good people of Weston who buy these vegetables at low market prices 56 doors, ever stop to wonder who pays for raising them and the berries, plums, apples and peaches which three times a week are sent around town.\" There follows a bit of homely philosophy in which she musingly writes of herself in the third person, \"She can have boys trained to teach other boys to grow food for the people. Is she willing to pay the cost? She needs the interest and appreciation of her neighbors.\" This appreciation came shortly after the publication of the booklet in the form of a petition signed by sixty-four of her neighbors. It read, \"The accompanying petition will, I hope, assure you how greatly Weston people appreciate Hillcrest Farm. We the undersigned desire to express our appreciation of the service rendered to the townspeople during the past by Hillcrest Farm and to request that its products will continue to be distributed in Weston.\" The boys, however, needed no encouragement to express their appreciation. They wanted to work successive summers and one v~ as finally told, after twelve years, that he should seek employment elsewhere for his own benefit. The following year, however, he returned to be in charge of the boys. Another reported, \"The selling of the produce brings the boys in contact with delivered to their the customers and is very instructive to them. It is one branch of the farm work which gives the boys a good business training and also helps them to develop patience and tact as they meet so many different kinds of customers.\" The Land and its Buildings The land comprising the Hillcrest Gardens was purchased by Miss Case in five pieces, supplementing her original inheritance of land. The first purchase in 1909 was twenty-three acres and included the Williams house. About 1910 Appletree Cottage was purchased and in 1912 an additional forty-six acres known as the Milton lot was added. This included the Milton house and garage and an old gray barn, later dismantled. In 1916-17 the five acres between Wellesley Street and Ash Street known as Crosslots were purchased from the Hastings family and brought under cultivation. Apparently the Hastings House at 131 Wellesley Street was included in this purchase. The final purchase, another five acres between 13 and 163 Wellesley Street, contained a pine woods and a large swamp and was purchased to screen Hillcrest from the real estate development along Chestnut Street. The first summer at Hillcrest was spent clearing the rather poor farm lands of rock and pruning the neglected apple and peach trees. Large boulders were hauled to one side and used to make two outstanding examples of the wall builders' art. The large, freestanding wall, ten feet high, six feet thick and 200 feet long is the longest of its kind known in New England. The inspiration for such a wall came when Miss Case, on a visit to Tokyo was deeply impressed with a vista \"where pines towered over grey stone walls,\" as they were to do at Hillcrest. The clubhouse, now 1 33 Wellesley Street, was under construction as a private residence in Crosslots when purchased by Miss Case in 1914 and moved to its 57 a \"yellow barn.\" A bell cupulo was added constructed. The second floor of the clubhouse was partitioned to accommodate a toilet and a darkroom for the boys' use. The first floor was used as a display and sales area for produce and the second floor, with its dias, served as a study hall and classroom. During the many benefit open houses held at Hillcrest, the veranda was used for serving lunches and teas, and as a platform for instrumental or choral groups. Another item constructed from native stone was the large incinerator built in 1924 to the rear of 13 Wellesley Street. Brush and debris from the farm was burned in this massive structure to secure ashes for fertilizer. The large yellow barn at 135 Wellesley Street was started on the 18th of April, 1927, and was dedicated in the late summer with a reception for the National Farm and Garden Association and later with the Labor Day exercises. The barn, designed by Samuel W. Mead of Weston, and constructed by William Kellar, was an outstanding structure for its time. The cold rooms for storage of fruits and vegetables and the special facilities for storage of manure were advances in design. Throughout her travels, Miss Case accumulated figures or objects of art for inclusion in the garden. A few of these remain, such as the Italian bird tiles built into the cellar window of an old barn and now seen next to 133 Wellesley Street. Some were commissioned by Miss Case, such as the painting representing Demeter and Triptolemus by Alberti Angeli of Florence, Italy, which was hung on the wall of the clubhouse. A special stone settee with a wrought iron back bearing a design of two Hillcrest boys in uniform and an oval spray of roses and pansies, as well as an iron chain of 250 links can still be seen next to 101 Wellesley Street near the ground cover display. Two concrete benches, copies of an original built by Russell G. Crook of Lincoln in 19~? 1 , feature Puck playing with a goat and some Byzantine birds. One of these benches is in the perennial garden and the other is between the yews near 101 Wellesley Street. present location, formerly the site of and in 19~the large veranda was The Farm and the Gardens beginning, Miss Case maintained high standards based on her broad gardens in many parts of the world. The Hillcrest farm and gardens, she felt, must be outstanding in every way and she would tolerate no lesser aim. The original land purchase consisted of neglected agricultural land. Subsequent purchases, increasing the land area to 100 acres, added not only more agricultural land, but also a forest and a swamp. By 1917 approximately twenty-five acres were under cultivation and in 1930 there were forty acres of crops and gardens. Every year, as a result of her many contacts and memberships, Miss Case received new seeds or plants for trial. These were carefully tended and regular reports were sent to official sources when these were required. The first introductions mentioned were three rows of espaliered fruit trees im- From the knowledge of 58 ~ro .C G +~ cE Oy o bD N C N .c a a :; a~ c UU s. y Q,) .c s~ m c .c ' -c h . a~ ~ P, v ,: v; Uq :8 ~ f >::....~ i~ L, N Vi . \"- 's . 0 ~ \"'i U U ~D H1 ~ N ro' M2S~ ,.. CI) 'S .s; H,,~~~ :~~.o ~ a. ~ ... ~ E~ oo~ \" '\" \"q::- >:: 0 ~ ro -- ..8 -B .c cd s-s~ ~-;; c c >: c E .C~''O W dO v ~ A G Q) a ,z73&~E#x ;: o.N \"'; . cd o C_ O .~ a~ G .C . b1 '\" o ~UF O ~CL U S~~ ported garden from England interest in native herbaceous in 1910 and grown on trellises near the big stone wall. An plants culminated in the development of a woods and special attention was given to the selection of seed from the best of the New England wild flowers or berried plants such as blueberries and blackberries. These selections were distributed in exchange for seeds from other sources. produce was custom grown. When townspeople expressed interest particular fruit or vegetable or in a certain variety, Miss Case often obtained these seeds or plants and the produce was soon supplied. Many grape varieties were reserved for special customers. The old apple and peach trees on the original land formed the first produce offered for sale, but expansion was rapid. In 1914, 800 grape plants were purchased and the famous vineyard of forty varieties became productive in 1916. Wild blueberries were picked from the land and the best plants were dug and brought under cultivation. In the early years Miss Case offered a prize to the boy who found the first plant producing blueberries the size of a dime. Such a plant was not found at Hillcrest, so the prize was offered to all members of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and in 1931 was finally awarded to Mr. Albert C. Burrage. Anticipating a market among the people of Italian descent, Miss Case introduced plants of European dandelions. In 1918, partly due to the wartime need to produce foodstuffs, Hillcrest had sixty varieties of vegetables under cultivation. Notwithstanding this effort to produce vegetables in quantity, the school proudly maintained its high standards of quality, as is attested by the many awards received for its fruits and vegetables. Ninety-seven awards and votes of thanks were received from the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1920 and fifty-two awards were received at the Weston Much of the in a grange fair in 1922. Hillcrest Gardens used the latest methods of cultivation and followed closely the agricultural developments of the day. Both surface and overhead irrigation was used, the Skinner overhead system being tried there for the first time in Massachusetts. The animals of the farm supplied manure, but chemical fertilizers and sprays were also employed generously. The original horses and plows gave way to the first Fordson tractor in the Weston area in 1920 and that to the Rototiller and Farmall tractors in 1933. Originally the produce was sold to residents of Weston but deliveries to Waltham and Boston proved even more profitable. A bicycle express provided delivery service in Weston in 1911 while the Hillcrest team and wagon carried produce to greater distanccs. A Ford truck replaced the horse and wagon in 1913. Byrthe year 1918, produce was sold at the farm, though deliveries were still made twice a week to Waltham and Boston and three times a week in Weston. However, in 1920 Miss Case noted that it was no longer necessary to make commercial deliveries, for merchants were willing to come to the farm for the fruits and vegetables. In 1921 a Hillcrest teahouse and market was started in a yellow barn 60 the village smithy in Weston center. A woman was hired to run the teahouse with the help of the boys from Hillcrest, who also operated the stand. The teahouse and market operated until 1933. After that all produce for Weston was sold directly to a local market. To Mr. John Wister, who came to Hillcrest as a lecturer to the boys, and to Mr. Arthur Williams, belong the credit for the horticultural developments at Hillcrest Gardens. After Mr. Wister's first visit he sent to Miss Case a number of Iris versicolor varieties for the swampy areas at Hillcrest. In 1923 Mr. Wister spent most of the summer planning the roads and paths, the special woods gardens and a test garden for the American Iris Society. He also made a catalogue of all the ornamental trees and shrubs under cultivation and suggested that a peony garden be established. Thus, in 1924 between 500 and 600 iris cultivars were planted in approved form next to Appletree Cottage and in 1915 an old potato patch was replantcd to peonies. The woods garden was established the following year and the spring garden in 1931. By 1934 the iris garden, having outgrown the existing beds, was replanted with over 700 cultivars. Mr. Williams and his family came to Hillcrest in 1922 and his deft touch with plants, together with his constant search for better cultural methods produced the outstanding horticultural specimens for which Hillcrest became known. Hillcrest Gardens flourished in the 1930's, but on the afternoon and early evening of September 21, 1938, a disastrous hurricane swept through the area. Much damage was done to the fine specimen trees on the grounds, many of which stood alone without the protection of mass plantings. In the orchards seventyfour large apple trees and twenty-nine other fruit trees were destroyed. The woodlands behind the gardens were severely hit and the Sentinels, those famous pines standing guard behind the high stone wall, were toppled. In the forest 2500 pines, some exceeding three feet but all averaging at least eighteen inches in diameter were felled, as were 500 oaks and 250 maples. Many trees and shrubs in the garden were hauled erect and staked into position but many others were lost. During the winter months the woods were cleared and logs salvaged from the tangle which nature had created. The government established a saw mill in Wayland and by team, truck and tractors, logs from Hillcrest were hauled to the mill. The resulting 130,000 board feet gave ample evidence of the hurrinear cane's destruction. The Boys at Hillcrest During the first summer at Hillcrest in 1910, six boys were hired to help on the farm. This number was increased to eight the second summer and to eighteen in 1912. Twenty was the maximum number enrolled in the school. Origmally, Miss Case planned to divide the boys into two groups according to age, a younger group which would work mornings only and an older group to work all day. Work began at Hillcrest in the middle of June, after the close of the public schools and at a time when the strawberry crop was ready to be picked. During 61 the early years the boys were all photographed individually and, foreshadowing the group health plan later to cover all Hillcrest employees; all received a physical examination from Dr. Wood, a family physician of Weston. In 1911 each boy was supplied with two khaki \"uniforms,\" consisting of a Norfolk jacket with the Hillcrest emblem on the left sleeve, the Hillcrest hat and a tie. By 193the uniform had changed to two green sweaters, one for dress, each with a gold felt shield bearing the name \"Hillcrest\" in green letters, and a green tie. At the first assembly of the season Miss Case presented each boy with a diary in which to make daily entries of the weather and of his activities. Pencils and notebooks were also supplied for his drawings and observation papers and the notes to be taken for the required Labor Day paper. Then Miss Case outlined what was expected of the boys in diligent work habits on the farm and in their studies. For the first several years the boys worked from eight in the morning until noon and from one to four-thirty in the afternoon with two half-hour recesses and on Saturdays from eight until noon. A one-hour lecture was given on alternate Mondays and the boys prepared a program of entertainment for themselves on the intervening weeks. On ~'ednesdays there was a study hour of drawing or reading and on Fridays Miss Case read or heard the boys read or speak. Eventually the educational aspects became more significant under the guidance of the various men in charge of the school. For the greater part of its existence, the school consisted of one hour a day for drawing, reading or study, with a program featuring a guest lecturer one full afternoon each week and an earned outing on Saturday afternoons. The younger boysdrew leaves, the older ones flowers and whole plants. At one time the younger boys studied agriculture and farming, the middle group studied botany from Gray's \"How Plants Grow\" and the older boys studied from Bailey's \"Nursery Book.\" Bird identification was an important part of their education and one boy made a list of sixty-five different birds observed at Hillcrest in the summer of 1918. Elocution lessons were offered at times under the direction of a Mr. Gifford of the Emerson College of Oratory, who gave the boys regular \"vocal calisthenics.\" Observation papers were required and the best were published in the green books. Discipline was strict, enforced by the teachers and by Miss Case herself. A system of demerits was imposed for infraction of rules and the boys with most demerits were threatened with being dismissed or with being ineligible for employment the following year, yet no boy was ever guilty of sufficient infractions for either of these punishments. On the other hand, good work was rewarded with Miss Case's praise and prizes of photographs, books or money. The chores for the boys were varied. The clubhouse must be kept clean; the vegetables and fruits must be picked and washed for market and peddled from door to door; the donkey needed care; the barn must be swept and the vegetable and flower garden must be weeded. The outings during the year were eagerly anticipated, reported upon and long 62 s ~a o w xo O ~~ s s 0 _ \" p -~- c ~~ ~~ C ~s ~ro 3 ao O ~y ~e .c U \"d pGW ~y 'i. C 'b c CA s vi N ~s a\". o' P,~ f7 ~ ~O ~ ~ !~ (ic~ ~' O(~c~o (~ w ~ U \"~ ~ a m ~ ~~ z~ cB Gr .v.~ rU, ~i ~ ~ cm ~ - ~ ~\"\" ox s ~, s ~ 4) P~ W z: ~ ~U., ~' z i' a~ o a a a !~ td U S ~c~ c~ .~ ~j~ a ~ ~~a~o~ > ..' O c ~ ~ E~ ac U ~ `' U ..c +~ao~ ~ o a ~' .-,U'~~ o ~ CG ~ x ~i ,. ~S~ N JESS 0 ~eaE-~c 0.Co A~ ~en~ 0g 0.vW Ww m\"~ C 'C c c~ 0 0'. -~ o X~P ce U S ~ ~, b0 _. O L d~ U sS~oj~sg y N \"C ^C y :J v7 y E' ~ ~ cG ~xh s o x 0 G ed remembered. When the first motor car was bought, a ride to Concord, Salem, Sharon (Moose Hill Sanctuary), the Navy Yard, Franklin Park, Waltham Field Station, Benson Animal Farm, East Boston Airport, Walden Pond, the Proctor estate, or even a trip to Boston to see Buffalo Bill, rewarded the boys, yet combined education with pleasure. An annual all-day picnic was also held for all of the boys. The favorite spot was Paragon Park at Nantasket, but one trip to Hampton Beach was timed so that the boys could see an eclipse of the sun. Extra activities found their way into the program as well. Eager to march in the parade celebrating Weston's 250th anniversary, the boys formed a marching unit complete with drums made of cheese boxes with paper-and-curtain heads. Later Miss Case bought six snare drums, a base drum, eight fifes and a pair of cymbals for the unit, so impressed was she with their efforts. During the period e of the First World War, patriotism became the motivating force at Hillcrest. The boys collected money from door to door to have a plaque placed in front of the library during an appropriate ceremony. The need for growing and conserving food was impressed on the farm boys, who labored long and hard to grow good crops. One kitchen on the farm was devoted to canning. Jars were solicited and finally purchased by the carload and during 191over 900 jars of fruits and vegetables were preserved to meet an anticipated food shortage in the winter. Since vegetable seeds were difficult to obtain, the Hillcrest boys saved seed from their crops in 1918 for the following season and made available the surplus to others. For these and similar efforts the boys received wages. In 1911 Miss Case thought that one dollar a week for the younger boys and twenty dollars a month for the boys working full days was appropriate. By 1925 the standard was ten dollars a month, increasing five dollars each month for each year's service to a maximum of twenty-five dollars. In addition, the boys received produce from the farm. Few there were who went home empty-handed. Only during the depression year of 1933 did Miss Case find it difficult to finance the farm. This was reflected by more stringent rules of behavior and a decrease in the maximum wage to twenty dollars. While most of the boys were from Weston in the early years of the school, boys were accepted from adjacent towns and a few came even greater distances. Miss Case insisted that applications come from the boys and not from their parents. Most boys commuted to the farm every day but a few boarded at Hillcrest. For this they were charged $8.50 a week while earning ~10.00 a month. Obviously there were parents who recognized the value of this unique training ground and were anxious to give this opportunity to their sons. Yet rarely did the farm meet its expenses. Hillcrest and its school proved to be one of Miss Case's many charities. Perhaps one of the best known activities of Hillcrest Gardens was the summer lectures, generally held on Wednesday afternoons. The clubhouse was swept and an attractive display of flowers, fruits and vegetables were offered for sale on the 64 first floor. The local papers and the magazine Horticulture announced the speakwho were outstanding men in science or in publtc life. Special groups from settlement houses, the Perkins Institute, the garden clubs or churches and schools were often invited. These lectures, six each summer, were offered from l9ll, when the speakers were William F. Denton (butterflies), F. W. Barret (bees), B. F. DlcDaniel (soils), Wilfrid Wheeler (apples), ~i'. G. Kendall (grapes) and John T. Bichols (birds) until 19~1 when the speakers were the Reverend nltles Hanson, Jr. (English composition), E. D. Merrill (Romance of Plant Names), Harold S. Tiffany (Propagation of plants), the Reverend 4~'aitsill H. Sharp (Meaning of German occupation in Europe), Charles F. 4~'hitne3 (Lore of North American Indians), Lawrence B. Fletcher (public reservations), A. B. Stout (The Plant Breeders Work), Edmund iBIezttt (Edible and ornamental berries) and Ernest Little (Use of chemtstry on the farm). During these thirty years, 115 men, including college presidents, outstanding scientists and former Htllcrest bo~ s, appeared on the lecture programs. Remunerations up to1 OO plus expenses made the trip worthwhile for the speakers and indicate Miss Case's generosity and interest. As she expressed it, \"In order that we may keep in touch with the best work that is being done in agriculture and also interest the boys in nature, we have had lectures through the summer by specialists.\" A favorite speaker, Dr. A. B. Stout of the New York Botanical Garden appeared on the program fifteen times. Close runners-up in the popularity contest were John Wister (Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation) and E. H. Wilson (Arnold Arboretum). Such outstanding scientists as Glover Allen, Charles Brues, M. L. Fernald, Richard Fisher, Marshall Howe, John Jack, B. Y. Morrison, Robert Cushman Dlurphy, Harris Rey nolds, Harold St. John, Clark Thayer and C. A. Weatherbv ,jotned propagators and poet,, ministers and English teachers on the Hillcrest lecture platform. The summers ended on Labor Day with annual exercises. To these the parents and neighbors were mated. The boymarched up the stairs to the second floor of the clubhouse led by the oldest or the most outstanding boys carrying the American flag and the Hillcrest flag and singing America. The American flag was presented to Miss Case who held it while the audience joined in the singing. 'I'his was followed by the pledge of allegiance. The Hillcrest school song was sung and the program introduced by Miss Case. She announced the names of the judges who would decide on the best papers to be read by the boys and the prizes to be awarded for work during the year. Each boy then read his paper and when all were done Miss Case presented first the Hillcrest pin to those boys completing with distinction their first year at Hillcrest and then the Semper Paratus pin bearing the motto of the school, to the boys of three or more summers. Then the prizes were awarded for the best papers read that day and finally the prizes for work during the year; for the best work m the field, in the study hour, the best report of the lectures, the best drawings, observation papers, the ers 65 wild flower collection and the bird list. During one year fifteen of the eighteen on the farm received prizes. In such a manner Miss Case won the hearts of the boys. Following the exercises the boys returned home. A few worked on the farm on Saturdays into the fall and for several winters Miss Case had Saturday or vacation work or classes for the boys who wished to attend. Classes in woodworking and weaving were offered at one time and during the First World V~'ar, a class in first aid. During the winter Miss Case usually travelled to the Mediterranean. She found time, however, to edit the reports of the boys and to publish the annual green book, to order seeds and to plan the gardens, to correspond with former Hillcrest boys and to select the ones for the coming summer. boys The End and a New Beginning During 1939, the thirtieth anniversary year of Hillcrest, Miss Case was seriously ill. The summer followed its usual course with twenty boys employed on the farm, fourteen of them having worked previous years. The Labor Day exercises were special, however, for all former Hillcrest boys were invited to return fora reunion or to send greetings. The group gathered at noon for a luncheon, the birthday cake, and special speakers. Dr. E. D. Merrill spoke, as did Thomas Dooley. A roll call of former Hillcrest boys, with responses,was followed by a talk by John Wister on the future of Hillcrest. Mr. Wister considered the possibilities of continuing Hillcrest to meet the goals which Miss Case had established in 1909 and maintained to that day. He dismissed the suggestion that the land become a park for the town of Weston or even a part of the Boston Metropolitan Park System. Instead, he expressed the hope that some organization such as the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, Harvard College, Wellesley College, or perhaps the state university at Amherst might be able to continue to do the \"research work in various fields connected with flower gardens.\" Mr. Wister, recognizing the improbability of continuing the school, pointed out that \"We cannot lay down exact programs for the future. All Miss Case can do is to express her wish that her present work should continue. She and all of us must trust to the intelligence and good faith of the person and organizations who may take over the work here. If they follow the spirit of the founder, there will be many years of usefulness ahead for these gardens started in 1909 by Miss Marian Roby Case.\" Mr. Wister's talk is published in the green book of 1939. Hillcrest Gardens and School operated through 1942. On July 4, 1944, Marian Case died. Having determined that the Massachusetts Horticultural Society did not feel capable of operating the estate, she bequeathed the property to Harvard University for the purpose of the Arnold Arboretum. In this decision, her sister Louisa's influence is shown. Louisa Case was interested in maintaining the family property intact. In 1942 she gave to Harvard 66 University $50,000 and some fifty-nine acres of the original Case property, including her residence in Weston, as a memorial to her father, James B. Case. Perhaps the family relationship to President Lowell influenced her in this direction. Perhaps, too, Marian Case felt inclined to follow her sister's lead since, having been on the Visiting Committee for the Arnold Arboretum, she knew something of its needs. In any case, both bequeathed their properties to Harvard University, with endowments to maintain the land. The two pieces of property, nearly 200 acres, were accepted by Harvard Uniwere called the Case EsArnold Arboretum. Almost immediately Harvard University was approached to release a portion of the Case lands to the town of Weston for the purpose of new school construction. Miss Louisa Case, who outlived her sister Marian, was consulted and by agreement, to avoid eminent domain suit, Harvard sold to the town 43 acres, including the original Case mansion, a barn and extensive ranges of greenhouses. In 1957 the town again required land for a program of school construction, and this time, by an eminent domain suit, another 32.5 acres, mostly land bequeathed by Louisa Case, were lost to Arboretum purposes. The current use of the remaining 110 acres has been described in other versity for the purposes of the Arnold Arboretum and tates of the issues of Arnoldia ( 16 : 9-16, 53-39, 1956; 18 : 41-44, 1958). The land is used principally as nursery and testing areas for the new plant introductions of the Arnold Arboretum. The Case Estates, offering both room for the growth of such plants and more rigorous environmental conditions than those prevailing in Jamaica Plain, serve this purpose admirably. Many acres, as well as smaller, casual plantings, are devoted to species of less ornamental value and are grown there permanently so that records of the species may be maintained for future taxonomic studies and for breeding programs. Many other acres of land have been devoted to long-range growth studies of trees. The wooded areas serve as natural zones of vegetation for use of classes. Special display plantings of ground cover plants, shrubs for perennial gardens and small street trees have been established. Large areas have been landscaped for the enjoyment of visitors. The Case Estates remain open to the public, even as did Hillcrest Gardens, but there could be no Hillcrest School without the vibrant personality of a Miss Marian Case. A few high school students are employed each summer and college students, carrying on graduate research programs, continue Miss Case's goal of scientific leadership in the fields of agriculture and horticulture. Hillcrest Gar0 dens established a standard of excellence in the years of its existence from 1910 1944 which we hope the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum may through successfully maintain. RICHARD A. HOWARD 67 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How to Establish an Arboretum or Botanical Garden","article_sequence":11,"start_page":69,"end_page":83,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24343","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070856f.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 20 DECEMBER 30, 1960 NUHB~RS 11-12 2 HOW TO ESTABLISH AN ARBORETUM OR BOTANICAL GARDEN are received from time to time by the principal arboreand botanical of the country for information concerning how to start an arboretum. Such inquiries clearly indicate that the arboretum idea is definitely being considered in widely separated parts of the country. Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, long ago realized the need for arboretums or maintained plant collections strategically located in the various climatic zones of North America. Many new arboretums were established during his lifetime. Such institutions are not competitive but cooperative, and today there is a great need for more of them. Botanical gardens on the other hand, are much older in this country and abroad. It is obvious that there is an ever growing desire on the part of the public to have named collections of plants, both native and exotic, for observation as well as for study and enjoyment in places where they can best be seen and appreciated. An arboretum should be carefully planned, well financed, and competently administered. This article is devoted to some of the ways and means of establishing and maintaining a satisfactory arboretum or botanical garden, many of the suggestions here offered resulting from observing the successful development of various institutions in widely separated parts of the country. NUMEROUS requests gardens tums considered in the following ample growing and effective display of all the different kinds of worthy ornamental trees, shrubs, vines and other plants which can be grown in a given area, their maintenance, proper labeling, and study. It does not necessarily have to include all the plants that can be grown in a region, nor does it necessarily have to include formal beds or borders of annuals and perennials. An arboretum differs from a botanical garden in that the emphasis is placed on or Definition:-An arboretum is an botanical garden, as discussion, area set aside for the 69 woody plants in the arboretum, whereas in the botanical garden emphasis placed on the growing of any particular kind of plant, but all are grown. Large rock gardens and expensively operated rose gardens are types frequently found in an arboretum or botanical garden but these are not essential the growing of is not parts of either. a serious effort has been made to of many kinds of labeled plants not only for the extensive collection plant purpose of display but also for critical examination and scientific study. Many parks are planted without the labeling of any plants and with the use of only a small number of locally available plant species. Some parks, it is true, contain a certain number of labeled plants, as for example, the Boston Public Garden; Roger Williams Park in Providence, Rhode Island; Fairmont Park in Philadelphia ; and others throughout the country, but no consistent effort is cr.ade in most of them to label and keep labeled all the different kinds of plants grown. Both a park and an arboretum or botanical garden can be used for recreational purposes ; but the arboretum or botanical garden go beyond the park in that they become highly educational to many of their visitors, demonstrating by means of labeled specimens what good species are available for planting in a given area or can be grown indoors. The purpose of any arboretum, be it large or small, is to grow (and to keep labeled) the best of the ornamental woody plants which will thrive in a given locality. Many other objectives may be considered, such as the actual introduction of new plants into cultivation, actual exploration of remote regions, the growing of all types of woody plants hardy in the area, scientific investigations of various kinds including plant breeding and hybridization, the maintenance of a large herbarium and library, and laboratories of various types-these may be legitimate functions of an arboretum, depending on the funds available, and the qualifications of the members of its staff. Botanical gardens may have even wider functions for their aims are wider, including as they do representatives of the whole plant kingdom from the tropics to the Arctic, grown outside or under glass. However, small communities should not be deterred by these weighty and often expensive objectives for they may be omitted altogether where funds for the maintenance of such gardens are unavailable. If an arboretum effectively demonstrates \"the best\" of the woody plants hardy in its area, this alone will make it a most valuable asset in the community it serves. The botanical garden need not cover a large area. It can be effective on a few acres with a few display greenhouses and display a representative collection of plants from all over the world. Charles Sprague Sargent used to say that in order to start an arboretum it was necessary to have a thousand acres of land with at least a million dollars endowment : yet he started an arboretum with only 125 acres of land and $100,000 endowment, and in the early years of the Arnold Arboretum he had only one Both differ from an a park in that in the former > 70 third of the income of that modest endowment for annual expenditure. There is still the need for large arboretums placed in different regions representing different climatic conditions where all the woody plants hardy in an area may be grown and which are well endowed for scientific investigations. This is undoubtedly what Professor Sargent had in mind, for the Arnold Arboretum was, and is, that kind of an institution. But times are changing. With the extensive garden club movement and increased tendency away from urban dwelling, more and more people are becoming interested in the growing of plants. A new conception of an arboretum is coming into being. This is very well expressed in the plantings of the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation at Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. It is adaptable to communities smaller than Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, New York, St. Louis or Seattle. It is feasible where funds are lacking to finance expensive scientific investigations, but where there is a definite need to grow and demonstrate to the public \"the best\" plants hardy in a particular area. It is readily seen that this idea is a flexible one for the actual size of the arboretum or botanical garden may vary considerably. The idea is based on the theory that the same old varieties of plants may be superseded by new and better varieties. There are new varieties of cars, of refrigerating devices, of clothes and women's hats, and there are new varieties of plants as well. In the display gardens the \"old\" varieties are grown side by side with the \"new,\" both often being available to the plant-buying public. But with the best varieties only being displayed, interest and variety in private and municipal planting will be greatly stimulated. With this conception in mind, the committee responsible for planning an arboretum or botanical garden should be so constituted as to give the best advice possible for its usefulness and adaptation to the community. Functions of a an Arboretum or lishing display garden broached. Some of the should be more Botanical Garden:-The purposes of estabcarefully considered before the plan is publicly a important functions of such garden might be : 1) home To grow owners only a few of may become \"the best\" plants hardy in the area in order that acquainted with their names, their ornamental charac- teristics and the proper methods of culture. 2) To show a complete selection of all that is considered the best from an ornamental standpoint among the woody plants (if an arboretum, or among the perennials, annuals, bulbs as well, if a botanical garden) that it is possible to be grown in the area. 3) the To serve as a means source of introducing from which they may come. new plants into the area, regardless of 4) To disseminate knowledge of plants 71 to the public. This would include in- clude information on culture, pruning, fertilizing and possibly a continual study under local conditions of just what varieties are \"the best\" including cooperation with schools, garden clubs and other orgamzations. ' 5) To test the hardiness of untried varieties. 6) To provide a laboratory for students of botany, horticulture and nature study. 7) To increase the productivity, economic importance and beauty of an area, by intelligent and interesting planting, and by introducing plants not grown there before. 8) To provide recreational stimulus to the public by means of walks, drives and beautiful displays, flower shows, etc., and to stimulate the pleasure of learning to know new plants which might be adapted to planting on private property. Each of these functions should be studied individually with view to the best incommunity. One of the first decisions to be made is whether the present park system satisfies the needs and desires of the people or whether its scope should be enlarged. Would the people be interested in a garden of woody plants only, or should an expensive display greenhouse for showing material in the winter be included? It is important to consider that an arboretum will always be less expensive to operate even if it includes a large variety of woody plants. On the other hand there are some communities where plant displays in large conservatories fill a real need in the winter. If this is the local situation and funds are available, the construction of display greenhouses filled with exotics must be considered. If the community is small, the effective functions of the display garden will be largely display. If the community is large and funds are available, the functions may also include scientific investigations, especially if there is an institution of higher learning with which the arboretum may be connected. How far this may be extended will depend upon the community, its nearness to other large institutions, the availability of funds, and on leaders in the municipality. terests of the Methods of Establishing an Arboretum or Botanical Garden:-The first arboretums and botanical gardens started as private gardens when individuals became interested in assembling collections of plants. John Bartram has the credit of establishing the first large collection of trees and shrubs in this country when he established his garden in 1728 at Kingsessing on the banks of the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia. Since that time, many private collections have been established at one time or another but many of them have passed out of existence after the death of the original owners. Today there are a few private arboretums worthy of the name. Among them would be the one started by Mr. H. H. Hunnewell in Wellesley, Massachusetss, in 1852, and devoted mainly to coni- 72. fers; and that of Mr. Stanley Rowe of Cincinnati, Ohio, which now contains 3000 different kinds of woody plants. A local community can have an arboretum as a result of cooperative effort by local organizations. The Berkshire Garden Center at Stockbridge, Massachusetts, is just such an example. Funds are raised by local committees of enthusiasts to produce and maintain the type of arboretum wanted by a majority of the community-in this case showing some of the better ornamental plants that can be used in planting home grounds in the area. The government operated arboretum is exemplified by the Dominion Arboretum adjacent to the Experimental Farm in Ottawa, Canada. This is 73years old and contains about 3300 species and varieties of woody plants. It is owned and operated by the Canadian government. Our own National Arboretum at Washington, D.C. has been developed by government funds. Even national government budgets are frequently the playthings of legislators, and the future of an arboretum under government jurisdiction, though safer than a private arboretum, may still suffer much from a fluctuating annual budget. An arboretum is sometimes part of the park department of the city. Such is the case with Highland Park and Durand-Eastman Park in Rochester, New York. The 484 acres constituting Durand-Eastman Park were originally a gift to the city, made by Dr. Henry S. Durand and George Eastman, but maintenance operations are carried out exclusively by the city Park Department, support being from city taxes. The advantages are obvious, for the park personnel is usually well equipped to maintain a collection of trees and shrubs. However, disadvantages are often evident. In many a park department the annual budget is subject to devious manipulations by politicians who may have no interest in park plantings and in all too many cities in this country the park department budget is the first to suffer reductions when city expenditures are cut. The best method of establishing an arboretum or botanical garden is to provide a properly safeguarded restricted endozc~rcent, the income from which may be used only for specified purposes. The endowment should be sufficiently large to provide a reasonably ample annual income, for only in this way can permanence be assured. It will be necessary for the Planning Committee to estimate the annual expenses in advance. Many arboretums today are being operated wholly or in part by income from endowments. The endowment is not sufficient in some instances to cover all expenses and additional funds are necessary from the tax budget or from private sources in order to make it possible to attain the ends desired. When the income from an endowment must be augmented by annual popular subscriptions or by annual grants from the city park department, many difficulties arise. This is, in general, a most unsatisfactory way of operating an arboretum, for projects started one year when funds may be ample may have to be curtailed or even discontinued in another year. Success is most assured when an ample endowment is possible. various 73 Usually a board of directors is formed to oversee the administration of funds privately endowed institutions. Such is the case with the Morton Arboretum at Lisle, near Chicago, and with Longwood Gardens at Kennett Square, Pa. Frequently it has been found advisable to associate the arboretum (with its endowment) with an institution of higher learning. Such is the case with the Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University), Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation (Swarthin Morris Arboretum (University of Pennsylvania), each one of which endowment. The Arboretum of the University of Washington (Seattle) is connected with the University with most of its maintenance funds coming from state appropriations. This source is supplemented by membership fees, and an attempt is now being made to secure a restricted endowment. The association with a university is ideal for it tends to add permanence to the arboretum ; sound and intelligent advice on arboretum problems are always available from university staff members, and the arboretum can serve as an ideal outof-doors laboratory to augment classroom instruction. It is also true that the facilities offered bv an arboretum would be used more as a result of this association than might otherwise be the case. When budgetary items are reasonably fixed from year to year, the work of an arboretum can proceed unhindered by extraneous circumstances. The main object in establishing an arboretum is to make it permanent, to provide for a permanently debendable source of income, and thus insure its usefulness to be continuously available to the greatest number of people. There is no better way to insure this than to provide an ample endowment at the beginning. more College), own has its plan can be made, a site must be decided and the size of the area to be developed should be determined in relation upon, to the sources and amount of available funds. The site could well be a local spot of beauty, of historical significance, or an existing part of a park if suitable. It will take intelligent discussion and sound advice to decide on the site, for the general plan and the functions of the arboretum also must be considered simultaneously. Arrangements should be made for alternatives in case the amount of money originally hoped for is not eventually forthcoming. A very important factor is accessibility. Who is to Plan:-Almost any enthusiastic temporary group may be responsible for initiating public interest in the new arboretum, but a planning committee responsible for preparing definite plans associated with a campaign for raising funds should be carefully selected. The planning committee could well include an experienced landscape architect; a representative from the park department who would know about future park plans; a banker; a person well versed in the values of real estate; prominent nurserymen ; and representatives from prominent civic organizations who would represent the desire of the people to have an arbo- Selection of the Site:-Before the 74 similar in size A representative from an active arboretum, contemplated, might well be called in for consultation. committees move more slowly than small ones, but somehow all interests Large should either be represented or heard prior to the time the actual site is decided upon and the plan is completed. retum and the will to work for to the one one. idea of Ways of Initiating Interest and Action:-It is an arboretum in any community lacking a one. simple matter to propose the Except in strictly urban owners are interested in planting their properties so as to make them beautiful and enjoyable for as much of the year as possible. In strictly urban areas the people always desire to get into the open for rest and relaxation. Consequently, people in general are receptive to the idea and do not begin to \"hedge\" until the time comes for asking for increased taxes or donations for endowment areas, most home or for annual support. arboretum. The are well equipped to assist in a campaign for an club movement is fortunately firmly imbedded in almost garden every community. Nature clubs, bird clubs, forestry associations, conservationist groups and other organizations by their very nature should be interested in the idea and their members afford an excellent basis for enthusiastic support. Schools, parent-teachers organizations, Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs, women's organizations, church groups, town park departments, all should be thoroughly canvassed and Many community organizations their support enlisted. Horticultural experts could give illustrated lectures to show the kinds of plants which might be grown. Local landscape architects could have a field day in discussing possibilities. Staff members from existing arboretums could come and show what has been done in other communities, and discuss frankly the possibilities of a local arboretum. Costs could be discussed by committees representing various organizations. When opinion becomes fairly crystallized, some group could offer a sum to be used for the preparation of a definite plan. This was done in Seattle with excellent results. It was felt by those in charge that a topographic map of the Seattle Arboretum site was necessary, showing the two-foot contour lines. Such a map was prepared by the State W.E.R.A. at a cost of ~5,465.00. Then the Garden Club of Seattle raised $3,000.00 and under its auspices a plan was drawn by a prominent firm of landscape architects. By the time the plan drawing stage is reached, public opinion should be fairly well crystallized in the form of a planning committee or \"Arboretum Committee\" which would have the authority to work with the individuals drawing the plan. It is always advisable to have a well conceived plan on paper, regardless of what the local situation may be. The man or men eventually to be in charge of an arboretum do not just begin to plant trees and shrubs. Roads must be constructed, paths provided for pedestrians, a certain amount of grading done, certain plants placed in situations where they will grow best, a propagating unit 75 intelligently placed, water pipes laid where they will do the most good, drainage provided for in certain instances-in short, a thousand and one things should be thought of before the actual planting is started. In some instances the soil of the arboretum site may be very poor, and arrangements must be made to grow cover crops on it for several years (this was done on the site of the National Arboretum in Washington), thus preparing the soil over a period of time before any trees or shrubs are planted. V~'ater, in the form of a running brook or pond, can be used to excellent advantage if properly planned for, whereas without planning, such a feature might easily become a liability. Trained horticulturists experienced in arboretum objectives and various professional landscape architects are familiar with these phases of the project. Thus if carefully considered plans are prepared in advance, much money can be saved, and many disappointments avoided by doing the right thing at the right time in the right manner. How to Plant:-The actual placing of the different groups of trees and shrubs should be done according to a carefully conceived plan in which the individual needs of the plants are harmonized with the requirement of good landscape design and in which the best interests of the public are also considered. Some of the arboretums have been laid out so that the plantings follow a definite botanical sequence of families and genera. This is not necessary or essential in most arboretums. It is advisable to keep all the plants in a certain genus together if possible, and to so place the important genera that they are easily seen from roads and paths. All projected plantings should be critically considered from the standpoint of landscape design. Azaleas and rhododendrons, if used, should be given a situation with acid soil where they have some protection from winter winds. Lilacs should be so placed that people can easily walk among them and observe them closely as well as from a distance. A collection of hickory or walnut trees, for instance, might be placed in an out-of-the-way spot, where they can be seen from a distance. Colorful displays that have particular seasonal interest should be easily accessible and where they can be seen from many vantage points. Some plants hke wet soils, some do better in dry soils. Each group should be placed where it will grow best. Special attention should be given to displays of seasonal interest. Lilacs, for instance, are of interest only in the spring and might well be grown near the viburnum collection, which is of interest chiefly in the fall. The oriental crab apples, on the other hand, have seasonal interest both spring and fall and hence might be in a spot by themselves. Certain azaleas and the flowering dogwood bloom at the same time and might be planted adjacent to one another. A bank of red roses that will bloom in late June might be planted near the collection of mock oranges to give it additional color interest when its white flowers appear. Evergreen trees are would call for the frequently kept by themselves, but intelligent planting placing of a few deciduous trees in such a collection, especially 76 - those wh~ch color vividly in the fall, to lend color and variety. And in or near plantings of deciduous trees it is usually desirable to place a certain number of selected evergreens. It may be advisable from a maintenance standpoint to grow many shrub groups together in long beds with grass walks between them. Planted in this manner the shrubs are easily observed closely. A large number can be studied with comparatively little effort, and direct comparisons made. Roses, and representatives of such genera as Weigela, Spiraea, Deutzia, Philadelphus, Chaenomeles, and several other genera come in this group that can be so treated. Such a collection, though of little landscape interest, has a great deal of interest to the public at all times of year. The\"shrub collection\" at the Arnold Arboretum contains 800 different kinds of shrubs in parallel beds. It might well be one of the features in any arboretum, placed easily accessible to the main entrance, where people with little time can spend it to best advantage. It is also a most economical method of growing such a large number of shrubs, for machine cultivation can be easily practiced. What to Plant:-What constitutes \"the best\" and who is competent to judge which are \"the best\" is always a debatablc question. There are in existence several large collections of woody plants in this country and attempts are continually bemg made to make reliable lists of \"the best\" ornamentals in each group (genus or species). Such available lists could be utilized at the start. Let me explain more fully how this might be done, using the collections at the Arnold Arboretum as an example. At the present time there are approximately 6000 different species and horticultural varieties of woody plants being grown in the Arnold Arboretum. Certain groups are larger than others. Thus in these collections there are 96 viburnums, 107 mock oranges, 159 maples,270crab apples, and 574lilacs. Taking the lilacs for closer scrutiny, there are approximately 400 varieties of Syringa vulgaris alone, of which 32 have white flowers ! Certainly all do not have outstanding ornamental value. In fact, it is extremely difficult to tell some of the varieties from others. It would be difficult to locate nursery sources for all, and certamly many have been discarded by commercial growers as being unsatisfactory. This large collection of lilacs has its place as a laboratory for scientific study (Mrs. Susan D. McKelvey did much of the work for her monograph on lilacs in this collection) but many of the varieties could be eliminated if scientific study were not one of the functions of this arboretum. The collections would be much more ornamental if the number of varieties were reduced, for then massed plantings of a single lilac variety could be made in space now occupied by twenty different varieties, for the ornamental effect of a massed planting is always greater, especially to the casual observer. In a small arboretum, a collection of 50 or even 25 varieties of lilacs might be 77 satisfactory-only those being selected for planting which are considered to be the most ornamental and representative of the entire group. Just as many plants could be used as in our large collection if space were available, but far fewer varieties. The same principle could be used in selecting \"the best\" in the other groups of plants. The advice of local plantsmen will prove invaluable at the start when considering such points. The Number of Plants :-The number of plants selected at the beginning will with the part of the country in which the arboretum is located, with its vary size, financial resources, and its propagating facilities. A few examples will illustrate this point. In making a preliminary report of proposed plantings for the Cornell University Arboretum, now called \"Cornell Plantations,\" there were approximately 2,000 species and varieties of woody plants listed as worthy of trial at the beginning. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation of Swarthmore College listed approximately 2,800 species and varieties of ~oody plants that were being grown there in 1942. The 6,000 species and varieties now growing in the Arnold Arboretum might be reduced as much as one half or even more if only the most ornamental were to be selected. These figures are, of course, very general but they give some idea of the number of plants worthy for first consideration. The American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums has published three inclusive studies, one on lilacs, one on crab apples, and a third on maples, showing the tremendous number of varieties being grown in this country and oflering suggestions for short lists of the best. Such lists should be consulted. The smaller the arboretum, the fewer the number of specimens of any one variety which should be grown. The first places to investigate as possible sources for plant materials would be the local nurseries. Nurseries at a distance may be able to supply many varieties unavailable locally. It will, of course, be found that some species are unobtainable from commercial sources. Then it is necessary to provide for a propagating unit and grow wanted varieties from cuttings or by grafting, where the propagating material is supplied by other arboretums, private individuals, or in some instances where seed is collected in native habitats primarily for this purpose. The smaller the plants when purchased, the lower the initial expenditure. The larger the plants at the start, the more quickly an initial display can be made for the public to enjoy. The factors here involved are obviously important ones and should be carefully weighed by the local planning committee. Space Required :-This, too, varies with the arboretum, its funds available for maintenance, and its functions in the community. Should size, much space be given over to massed plantings of single varieties? Massed plantings of azaleas, lilacs and crab apples are most ornamental and can be extremely effective, whereas massed plantings of maple trees, for instance, take up much The Amount of 78 no more space and have little ornamental effect. The enforcing of a rigid rule that than two or three plants of any one variety can be planted might be to defeat the purposes of an arboretum in the eyes of the public. The enough more Arnold Arboretum proper covers an area of 265 acres, yet there is little room for additional planting, even though nearly half the present area is woodland. This wooded area is considered absolutely essential in setting off the man-made plantings to good advantage, and to serve as an added source of beauty and interest to visitors. Viburnums alone take 30,000 square feet (190 plants), elms take up about 5~ acres (170trees), while the lindens are given 3 acres for 58 trees. Three and a half acres constitute what is known as the shrub collection-long beds of miscellaneous shrubs with grass walks between, in which about 800 different species and varieties are grown. Almost a third of this is taken by the grass walks. Such a shrub collection affords an excellent means of teaching the public a great deal in a small area, but affords no opportunity for gorgeous displays of massed plant materials. Another way of approaching a decision on the amount of space necessary would be to take the figure of 2,000 species and varieties as a starting point (the number suggested as the starting point for consideration by Cornell Plantations). If two plants of each of these were planted in long nursery rows, the distance between plants averaging 20 feet, they would take about 37 acres. Would such a planting in nursery rows have aesthetic value and be of interest to the public? Of course not! On the other hand, the proverbial\"thousand acres\" might prov e too much for practical purposes. Here is another opportunity for intelligent planning by the Arboretum Committee, and an opportunity where practical plantsmen and landscape architects can lend invaluable assistance. Costs:-The maintenance of plants in an arboretum need not be expensive. Spraying, pruning, planting, should not be curtailed in any one year. If spraying and pruning be omitted two or more successive years because of lack of funds, the plantings quickly show neglect and it may take several years to bring some of the plants back into vigorous growth. A fluctuating budget does not allow for intelligent annual operation, one of the best arguments against trying to operate too extensively on the basis of funds solicited annually. The actual amount of money necessary to operate a small arboretum varies with the size of the arboretum, the labor situation, equipment, the objectives and the extent of its formal plantings. A good park administrator who knows park maintenance costs in the locality where an arboretum is to be established can give excellent advice regarding such costs. However, certain things are known. Lilacs, crab apples, quinces, and many other groups are very susceptible to infestations of scale and should be treated annually with a dormant spray to control this pest. They necd a certam amount of renewal pruning every few years, without which periodic care they will very quickly turn into unattractive specimens which have 79 little ornamental value. No collections of these particular kinds of plants should be contemplated unless they can be cared for properly each year. As an example of the cost for maintaining one group of plants, there are approximately 700 lilac plants in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Spraying these with a dormant oil spray takes two men about a half day, and about 600 gallons of spray mixture. Three good pruners spend an average of two weeks in this collection each year, keeping it in excellent condition. The cutting off of flower clusters is a time-consuming operation but should be done for the benefit of the next season's display. Although we cannot do this completely every year, if done properly (as it should be) it would take four men at least two weeks. This will give some idea of how to approach the problem of prospective costs in each of the large collections contemplated. Viburnums need practically no spraying and very little annual pruning. Elms must be sprayed in this area for elm leaf beetle and the bark beetle. Canker worm, gypsy moth, willow leaf beetle, Japanese beetle-all attack many kinds of plants and must be controlled in various parts of the country. In 1959, 400 man hours were spent in spraying the various collections in the Arnold Arboretum for specific insect and disease control. Pruning, also cannot be definitely estimated. Young plants, pruned properly at transplanting time, may require no pruning for several years. On the other hand, in an established arboretum with many kinds of mature trees, a wind, snow or ice storm may cause immense damage. The hurricane of 1938 cost the Arnold Arboretum in pruning and the removal of fallen or badly damaged trees and shrubs about ~6,500 above the budget provided. This did not include the irreparable loss of old established specimens. During a recent winter, one fourteeninch snowstorm with very heavy snow broke so many branches that it took approximately seventy-five man-days to repair this damage alone. expensive in any park or arboretum. It can be the amount of grass cutting and leaf raking which is by all grass areas are carefully cut with a lawn mower once a expensive operation. In the arboretum or botanical garden certain areas are given over to the growth of deciduous trees and conifers the grass need only be cut but a few times each season, providing a few walks are open through these collections. In the shrub collection, which many people visit at all seasons of the year, the walks should be closely cut, as well as certain small areas along the main walks and near main entrance gates. Grass cutting is an essential annual operation to reduce the fire menace and must be provided for. Tractor-drawn rotary mowers are ideal for keeping grass under control at minimum Labor:-This item controlled somewhat done. In some parks week. This is a very is the most expense. Hoeing by hand takes considerable time. The cost of this operation can be reduced by the use of mechanical equipment in the larger beds, and may be reduced 80 still further by the use of some of the new weed killers now available. The Arnold Arboretum employs nine laborers with occasional additions during spring and summer, a superintendent with his assistant, for the maintenance of the growing collections, as well as a propagator, his assistant, and a man in charge of labeling and mapping. These are not maximum requirements, probably might be termed the minimum labor requirements for an arboretum the size and age of the Arnold Arboretum. The National Arboretum with 450 acres has 32 men on the grounds crew. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation with an area of about 300 acres has seven on the grounds crew. to Equipment:-The more standardized mechanical equipment that can be utilized good advantage, the less will be the expenditures for labor. Minimum equipment for a 200-300 acre arboretum might be: Tractor (with rotary mower, plow, harrow, etc.) Sprayer with tank capacity of at least 300 gallons At least 2 power one ton and a half truck lawn mowers mowers 2 heavy duty rotary Rototiller or small motorized cultivator Gasoline chain saw The best available hand saws, pruners, pole saws, etc., for the type of work contemplated Propagation:-Every arboretum large or small should have its own propagating plants grown will be rare, they will not be available from commercial sources as plants, hence the arboretum will have to propagate many species from seeds, cuttings\" or grafts. There are decided advantages in having a nursery well stocked with materials, for plants so grown are easier to dig and move. They should be correctly named, for if they are allowed to grow to sufficient size in the nursery, they can be properly identified before being transplanted. Larger specimens can be handled this way than would be advisable with purchased specimens. The actual size of the greenhouse will depend on the location of the arboretum, its size, and the amount of material to be propagated. At the beginning a great deal of propagating will be needed to provide material for contemplated plantings. Many of the older arboretums are concerned merely with replacements unit. Since many of the and material which is new to the collections. It is amazing what a large amount of material can be propagated and grown to planting size in a well organized space. The Arnold Arboretum has been operating for 35 years with only two greenhouses 50~x18~. A recent reassessment of its space needs showed that though it needed an additional greenhouse for experimental use, it still could carry on with normal propagation procedures with 81 houses. Many a smaller arboretum has considerably less greenhouse and a few have more. space, A pit house is essential in the North to aid in wintering over young stock and propagation materials. In the South, lath houses are essential, the number depending on the size of the whole arboretum undertaking. In the Arnold Arboretum we have found that saran cloth shade houses are ideally suited for growing ericaceous and other broad leaved evergreens during the hot summer months. We have five houses varying in size, approximately 100~x30~. Frames are also essential for wintering young plants. Nursery space will vary but the young arboretum which is doing a lot of plant propagation will need several acres at least. It goes without saying that an experienced plant propagator must be employed. Sometimes he can work alone, sometimes he may need assistance, but in order to keep accurate records and to produce good plants, he should be thoroughly trained and experienced. If he is of this type, he will know the approximate size of the nursery and plant bed space needed, as well as the type of greenhouse only two space required. Labeling and Mapping:-A most essential function of an arboretum is to keep the plants properly labeled. In order to maintain correct labeling it is essential that the plantings be accurately mapped. An active young man who is really interested in this work-and it takes a great deal of walking !-should be able to keep maps and labels up-to-date, providing he has some seasonal assistance. In the winter some of the labor force could paint and even print labels. In the summer, one or tN o high school boys might be hired to help with the mapping if this were necessary. Mapping with the alidade and tape is sufficiently accurate. We have found that maps approximately 2~x2~~ ona scale of 1~~=20~ are practicable, but a few enlargements are necessary on a scale of 1 ~~= 10~. It took nearly a year for two men to map all the plants in the 265 acres in the Arnold Arboretum, but once accomplished, the maps are easily kept up-to-date with a minimum expenditure of time. If plants are not accurately and clearly labeled, the arboretum loses its educational function completely. Labels will disappear, often being appropriated by certam types of visitors, and others will become defaced. Thus a careful mapping of a collection makes relabeling of individual plants simple and accurate, for the critical and sometimes time-consuming matter of reidentification is eliminated. A display label should be clearly visible on every plant except in instances where a large number of a single variety are used in mass planting. On the label, as a minimum, should appear the common name, the scientific name, and the geographic origin of the species. In the Arnold Arboretum we have a small record label made of embossed zinc tape which is attached to every plant when it is planted in the collections. This remains on the plant indefinitely, and contains the accession number of the plant, 82 its scientific name, the origin of the plant, and the date of its accession. These cost about five cents per label just for the materials. A large wooden or metal display label cost about plant that is large enough to carry one. These cents per label for the materials including the twenty labor of printing) and will remain on the plant in good condition about five years. is attached to each to thirty (not Certainly a plant worth placing thirty-five cents. in an arboretum is worth two labels at a cost of Educational Costs :-If a community is large enough, the director or superintendent of the arboretum might be a man who could direct the work in the arboretum and at the same time give lectures to local groups concerning the plant materials in the arboretum and their proper use. He could write articles for local pubhcation, conduct groups through the arboretum, and work with local groups for the general education of the public in better appreciation of the plants and their maintenance. The services of such a man are almost a \"must\" for the arboretum or botanical garden since a certain amount of educational publicity contributes materially toward a better utilization and appreciation of the arbore- by the residents of a community. It would serve no purpose to give the actual operating expenses of any arboretum, since methods vary, functions of the arboretum vary, and wages vary. Each expense item should be understood before studying actual maintenance costs. The figures and facts given, however, should serve to help with the general plans of any Arboretum Committee. They should be interpreted by men familiar with maintenance work who at the same time are familiar with the proposed functum tions of the arboretum under consideration. For those who are interested in knowing where American arboretums and botanical gardens are, \"The Arboretums and Botanical Gardens of North America\" is a seventy page booklet published by the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., in 1959. It is available for ~1.50 postpaid. One hundred and nine arboretums are described so that with this as a reference, those wishing to start an arboretum could contact any of these that might have policies and a size similar to that and wanted by the organizational group. Such institutions are always glad willing to help with information and suggestions when a new garden is DONALD WYMAN contemplated. 83 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XX","article_sequence":12,"start_page":85,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24346","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8a9d260a326.jpg","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XX Illustrations Abies - are in bold face type. 36 concolor, conica, nana, 9 9 -, Double, an 9 Establish 9 Acanthopanax henryi, - Acer ginnala 'Durand Dwarf,' 10 Aerial photograph of Hillcrest Gardens, Plate XIII, 59 Arboretum or botanical garden, Definition, 69- i 1 Arnold Arboretum, Fall Classes, 40 - - Garden, Forsythia 'Arnold Giant,' 49, 'Beatrix Farrand,' 49, 50 intermedia spectabilis, 49 Arboretum or Botanical How to, 69-83 50 . Forsythia 'Karl Sax,' 49-52, Plate 1 XII, 51 - ovata, 49 - Spring Classes, 28 Color, 52 Azaleas, Ghent, rooting under plastic, 1-7 Berberis Atropurpurea Nana,' 10 0 'Crimson Pygmy,' 10 - -, Autumn - 'Globe,' 10 'Little Beauty,' 10 0 'Little Gem,' 10 o 0 thunbergii nana, 10 o xanthocarpa, 10 Boys School at Hillcrest Gardens, - Fruits, Baldwin apples, 52 -, Cornus florida, 5l -, - kousa, 52 -, - - chinensis, 52 -, Ilex verticillata, 52 -, Lowbush Blueberry, 52 -, McIntosh apples, 52 -, Ornamental, 1960, 52 -, Viburnum, 52 Functions of an Arboretum or Botanical Garden, 71, 72 Ghent Azaleas, Rooting Under Plastic, 1-7 Hamamelis intermedia (#1 l i 3-28-B~, ] 11 - - - - 53-67 Case, Louisa, 53, 66, 67 -, Marian Roby, 53-67 Cercis canadensis 'Wither's Pink 1 Charm,' 10, 11 Classes, Fall, Arnold Arboretum, 40 -, Spring, Arnold Arboretum, 28 Coggeshall, R., 1-7 Cornus mas, 11 1 - ~ - japonica, 1 1 mollis, I I XIV, 63 Hillcrest Boys and Staff, The, Plate nana, 1 1 Cuttings, two-year-old, of variety 'Gloria Mundi,' Plate I, 4 Data, Local Climatological, 52 Hillcrest Gardens, Weston, Massachusetts, The, 53-67 Honeysuckles, Shrub, with Pink to Red Flowers, 29-32 Hurricane \"Donna,\" 47, 52 Ilex crenata and its Varieties, 41-48 - `Compacta,' 42 Dormancy, Complex, 34 Ilex crenata convexa, 41, Plate X, 43 85 Ilex crenata - fortunei, 42 42 - 'Glass,' - - - 'Green Island,' 42 - notha, 29 'Sheridan Red,' syringantha, 29 tatarica, - 32 Ilex crenata helleri, - 42, Plate X, 43 - 29 - - `Hetzi,' 42 ' `Kingsville,' 44 `Kingsville Green Cushion,' 44 X, 43 3 - - - - Ilex crenata latifolia, 42, Plate - - - angustifolia, elegans, 30 leroyana, 30 lutea, 30 punicea, 30 30 - - major, 42 mariesii, 42 microphylla, 41, - - - - rosea, 30 > _ 42 - - - rotundifolia, 42 45 - sibirica, 29, 30, thibetica, 29 - 32 ~ - - 'Stokes,' 44 - xylosteum, mary, 32 12 2 . Ilex crenata - varieties, Plate XI, Loniceras for Pink to Red Color, Sum20 - plants and names to discard, 46 varieties worthy of further trial, 44 Magnolia acuminata, 17, 18, Ilex crenata 'Mountbatten,' 12, Plate 3 III, 13 - `Alba,' 22 - 'Alba Superba,' 2`? Juniperus - chinensis 11 'Maney,' I1 11, 12 2 - sargentii, - 'Alexandrina,' 'Amabilis,' 27 22 - 1 scopulorum, 11 'Grey Gleam,' - - 'Andre LeRoy,' 22 - `Brozzoni,' 24 21 i ., - virginiana, 12 2 Magnolia buds, Plate V, - 3 Labeling and Mapping, Cost of, 82, 83 Leucothoe catesbaei 'Girard's Rain- `Burgundy,' 'Candolleana,' 20 22 27 19 . bow,' - e 12 Lonicera amoena, 30, 32 conspicua, - cordata, 17, 18, - arnoldiana, rosea, 32 1 31 32 - - cylindrica, denudata, 18, 27 22 2.5 - Lonicera 'Arnold Red,' 29, Plate VIII, - - bella atrorosea, 32 rosea, 29 12 2 32 Magnolia flowers, Plate V I I, - fraseri, 18, 20 - `George Henry Kern,' 27 - `Clavey's Dwarf,' - `Hack's Red,' korolkowii, 30 - - `Grace McDade,' 24 grandiflora X virginiana, 28 i - Highland Park #2636, 27 - ' - - 30, 32 zabelii, 29, 30, 32 maximowiczii, 32 aurora, - , X kewensis, 28 i - kobus, 18, 20, 22, 27 borealis, 27 - \"Late Soulangiana,\" - 24 .. . - sachalinensis, 30 32 ' - `Lennei,' 24 - morrowii, - ' Xtatarica, 30 - `Lennei Alba,' 28 - liliflora, 20, 22, 27 ' 86 Magnolia liliflora gracilis, 27 - - nigra, 17, 18, 24 20 - - Liliputin,' - - `~ loebneri, 18, 2 7 24 i X watsonii, 18, R i wilsonii, 18, `? taliensis, 28 Magnolias Hardy in the Arnold Arbo. - . - `Lombardy Rose,' - macrophwlla, 18, 20 - `lTana Compacta,' 28 retum, 17-28 Method of sowing Philadelphus 28 (seeds), 39, 40 'Frosty Morn,' 12 I I I, 13 3 `Vorbertiana,' 28 Pinus aristata, 1 ~, Plate Magnolia obovata, 17, 18, 22, Plate VI, 23 officinalis, I 8, 27 7 biloba, 27 parviflora, 22 - Plants of Possible Merit?, 9-16 6 Propagating bench, polyethylenecovered, completely sealed, Plate 11, 5 proctoriana, 18, 27 ' Propagating bench, polyethylenecovered, with wire supports, Plate - `Red,' 26 -- `Rubra,' 24 'Rustica,' 24 - II, 5 Propagation of Woody Plants by Seed, 33-40 - `Rustica Rubra,' 24 salicifolia, 18, 22 - `San Jose,' 24 sieboldii, 18, 22 -- `Slavin's Snowy,' 27 7 soulangiana, 17, 18, 27 8 lennei, 18 - Rhamnus -- frangula asplenifolia, 4 columnare, 14 14 4 - - \"Tallhedge,\" 14 15 5 - Rhododendron - - 'Caroline Gable,' 4 'Cornell Pink,' 14 'Louise Gable,' 15 - - - 'Mars,' 14, 15 14 4 -- -- purpurea, 28 - mucronulatum, Magnolia species-fifteen different leaves, Plate IV, 19 - - 'Rosebud,' .5 15 on 'Speciosa,' 24 'Spectabilis,' 28 7 sprengeri diva, 17 stellata, 17, 18, 20, 22, - Root system, type of, obtained cuttings under polyethylene - plastic cover, Plate I, 3 Rooting Ghent Azaleas Under Plas24 - tic, 1-7 Rosa - - rosea, 26 'Geranium,' 1~ 15 5 ' - - rubra, 26 moyesii, - 'Superba,' - 22 26 , 'Red Wing,' 15 - Xthompsoniana, 18, - tripetala, 18, 22, 28 - Seeds of Chionanthus and Viburnum, - variegata, 28 - - - Triumphant,' 28 'Verbanica,' 22, 24 - - - Plate IX, 37 i to be stratified, 35, 36 with double dormancy, 38 without inhibiting dormancy, 33, t. 34 - virginiana, 17, 18, 26 - australis, ' 28 26 Shrub - `Waterlil~-,' Honeysuckles with Flowers, 29-32 Pink to Red 87 Stratification, 34, 35 Symphoricarpos chenaultii 'Hancock' 16 - yunnanensis, 16 6 - - 6 Syringa `Primrose,' 16 tigerstedtii, 16 'Yellow Spek,'16 Types of Arboretums, 72-74 Viburnum carlesii compacta, 16 6 Weston-Hillcrest Gardens, 53-67 Woody Plants, Propagation of, by Seed, 33-40 88 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23497","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060ab6e.jpg","title":"1960-20","volume":20,"issue_number":null,"year":1960,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":10,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24336","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070b326.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 MARCH 6, 1J5J NUMBERS 1-2 THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM SPRAY SCHEDULE THE continuing war against the insect and disease enemies of over 6,000 kinds of woody plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum, the battle lines have flexed and the battle methods and ammunition in the form of spray formulas are continually being modified. These changes have resulted not only from increased knowledge and experience with the spray materials, the introduction of new spray materials, and the timing of spray applications, but also with the desire to control other insects. Sanitation by removal of dead plants and parts of plants which may serve as a breeding area for insect and disease organisms, is an important adjunct in the control of the pests of plants. The ability of plants in good health and vigor to resist insect and disease attacks in many cases is well known; consequently, we try to keep our plants growing vigorously, thus helping in the battle against insects and diseases. Information for this spray schedule has been collected from many sources, especially the Cornell University Departments of Entomology and Plant Pathology and the Shade Tree Laboratories of the Waltham Field Station of the University of Massachusetts. We have used most of the sprays in our pest-control program ; a few we consider experimental until more results can be noted. Not all sprays s each year and those used are not applied to all listed host plants each are applied time ; rather, we try to spray to control a specific pest as the need occurs. This listing is not presented as necessarily the best sprays for control of these pests, but it is a record of what we use to meet our insect and disease problems. The notes given are important. Special attention is called to those cases where a repetition of the spray is required. To succeed in the continuing battle against insect and disease attacks on plants, three things are essential: ( 1 ) Apply the right spray. (z~ Apply it properly. (3) Apply it at the proper time. Failure to meet any one of these prerequisites materially reduces the effectiveness of the spray. IN 0) N 0) r~ I W a A w x U M ~.4 d R~' a< M ~ E W CC 0 m W d Ca a O z x 4 J .J PESTS FREQUENTLY DESTRUCTIVE IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Host Acer Aesculus Amelanchier Pest Cankerworm Spray May 15-25 Date Japanese beetle July 10-15 (with repeat) June 1-10 (with repeat) July 10-15 (with repeat) Lacebug Japanese beetle Lacebug Mite or \"Red Spider\" Azalea bark scale Ampelopsis Azalea (Rhododendron) May 15-25 (with repeat) May 15-25 July 10-15 (with repeat) May 15-25 (with repeat) ) ) Betula Buxus Birch leaf miner Boxwood leaf miner Boxwood psylla Mite or \"Red Spider\" May 15-25 May 15-25 (with repeat) May 15-25 ) Mealybugs Carya Catalpa Celastrus Chaenomeles Cankerworm Cankerworm May 15-25 March Euonymus scale Oystershell scale San Jose scale ) ) 1-April 20; June 1-10 1-April 20 March Chamaecyparis Cornus Cotoneaster Spruce mite or \"Red Spider\" May 15-25 June 10-Aug. 15 (with repeat) Dogwood twig borer Fire-blight Lacebug Oystershell scale San Jose scale Cedar apple rust Fire-blight Leaf miner May 1-10 (with repeat) June 1-10 \" \" . Crataegus ;I )i March 1-April 20 JI May 1-10 (with repeat) May 10-15 March March Dirca Euonymus scale Euonymus scale Beech wooly Lilac borer Cankerworm 1-April 20; June 1-April 20; June 1-10 1-10 Euonymus Fagus Fraxinus aphid May 15-25 (with repeat) March 1-April 20 May 1-10 (with repeat) May 15-25 Oystershell scale Gleditsia Mite or \"Red Spider\" May 15-25 Hydrangea Japanese beetle July 10-15 (with repeat) 7 Host Ilex Pest Spray Date June 1-10 (with repeat) Holly leaf miner Cankerworm Cedar apple rust Juniper scale Juglans Juniperus May 15-25 March 1-April 20 March 1-April 20; May 15-25 (with repeat) Juniper web-worm Kalmia Larix May 1-10 Kalmia leaf spot Larch csse-bearer May 15-25 (with repeat) May 15-25 Ligustrum Malus Mealybugs May 15-25 (with repeat) ) ) March Oystershell scale Cedar apple rust 1-April 20 Fire-blight Tent caterpillar Mite or \"Red Spider\" Flat-headed apple tree borer May 1-10 (with repeat) May 1-10 May 15-25 June 1-10 (with repeat) July 10-15 Metasequoia Pachistima Japanese beetle Euonymus scale (with repeat) June 1-10 (with repeat) June 1-10 (with repeat) Pachysandra Picea Euonymus scale Spruce gall aphid Spruce mite or \"Red Spider\" May March I-April 20 15-25 15-25 Pieris Pinus Lacebug Pine needle scale White pine weevil European pine shoot moth Pine bark aphid Anthracnose May (with repeat) March 1-April 20 April 15-30 5 April 15-30; June 25-July May 15-25 (with repeat) Platanus May 1-10 Populus Prunus Oystershell scale Oystershell scale Tent caterpillar Mite or \"Red Spider\" Cankerworm Peach tree borer Oystershell scale Fire-blight Mite or \"Red Spider\" Golden oak scale Anthracnose March I-April 20 ) ) May May March 1-April 20 1-10 15-25 July 10-15 (with repeat) March 1-April 20 May 1-10 (with repeat) May 15-25 March 1-April 20; July 15-25 May 1-10 Pyrus _ Quercus Host ----- Pest Mite or \"Red Spider\" Cankerworm Locust twig borer Locust borer Spray ) ) Date Quercus May 15-25 Robinia May 25-June 30 (with repeat) Aug. 10-Sept.30 (with repeat) May 15-25 (with repeat) July 10-15 (with repeat) June 1-10 (with repeat) Rosa Powdery mildew Japanese beetle Flat-headed apple tree borer Rosa rugosa Rhododendron Lacebug Azalea bark scale Willow-leaf beetle May 15-25 (with repeat) July 10-15 (with repeat) May 15-25 March 1-April 20 May 1-10 (with repeat) June 1-10 (with repeat) Salix Sorbus Oystershell scale Fire-blight Flat-headed apple tree borer Sassafras Japanese beetle Euonymus scale Oystershell scale Lilac borer July 10-15 (with repeat) ) ) ) March Syringa 1-April 20 May 1-10 (with repeat) Bacterial blight Cankerworm Taxus ) May 15-25 May 15-25 (with repeat) June 20-30 May 15-25 May 15-25 (with repeat) ) ) May 15-25 Mealybugs Black vine weevil Thuja Tilia Spruce mite or \"Red Spider\" Jumper scale Cankerworm Mite or \"Red Spider\" Japanese beetle Black vine weevil Elm bark beetle Elm leaf miner Elm leaf beetle Mite or \"Red Spider\" Cankerworm July 10-15 (with repeat) June 20-30 Tsuga Ulmus April 15-30; June 25-July ) ) ) ) May 15-25 5 Viburnum Vitis Dogwood twig borer Japanese beetle June 10-Aug. 15 (with repeat) July 10-15 (with repeat) 9 Small Amounts of Spray Materials Estimating small amounts of spray materials from the amounts suggested in this schedule can be done in the following way : Use one level tablespoonful of a wettable powder to a gallon of water where the formula calls for one pound of the wettable powder to a hundred gallons of water; or use one level teaspoonful of liquid material per gallon where the formula calls for a pint of the liquid to a hundred gallons of water; or a level tablespoonful of liquid material per gallon where the formula calls for three pints per 100 gallons. ROBERT G. WILLIAMS _ ~ REMINDER Arnoldia Subscriptions are now due and all notices were mailed in January. Those who have not yet sent in their 1959 subscriptions, please do so at once (price $2.00), mailing it to \"Arnoldia,\" Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. Please make checks payable to Harvard University. Subscriptions for 1959 not paid by April 1 will be discontinued. 10 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"These Are the Forsythias","article_sequence":2,"start_page":11,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24338","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070b76f.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 APRIL 3, 1959 THESE ARE THE FORSYTHIAS NUMBER 3 flowers. All but three are vigorous growing shrubs for their bright early-spring flowers. Some twentynine species, varieties, and cultivars are being offered by American nurserymen. All but two of these are grown in the Arnold Arboretum, in addition to a few others. The busy plantsman need only be interested in seven or eight of them, although the \"collector\" or the individual who is striving for unusual effects may be interested in others. A study of this group over the years at the Arnold Arboretum, has indicated that the following are the best for general landscape use. Forsythia suspensa sieboldii: This is the first forsythia to be introduced into European and American gardens; in Holland, in 1833 ; in England, about twenty years later; and in America, probably shortly thereafter. It is the form with the long, graceful, often procumbent branches that is sometimes seen planted at the edge of a wall where the long stems have an opportunity to hang down vertically for several feet. The stems root easily wherever they touch moist soil; the flowers are a brilliant yellow (Nickerson Color Fan 5Y 9~13 and about 1 ~ inches in diameter. F. suspensa fortunei: Professor Charles S. Sargent said that the Arnold Arboretum first introduced this to American gardens about 1878. This is the form with gracefully arching branches, more upright in habit than Siebold's forsythia, and because it has been so popular so long, it is the form of F. suspensa which everyone has come to associate with this genus. The flowers are the same color as those of Siebold's, only slightly larger. There are other varieties of this species being grown in the Arnold Arboretum and being offered for sale by American nurseymen. All have the gracefullyarching, sometimes often procumbent, branching of these two. F. suspensa varieties do not produce as many nor as large flowers as do the F. intermedia varieties. During the fifty and more years they have been grown, other varieties are taking yellow ALL forsythias chiefly planted that are have 11 1 the place of these in many plantings, but the two mentioned could well be retained, especially for their habit. Many a gardener prefers these two for the very fact that they are more graceful and do not have such a mass of clustered flowers the others. F. intermedia in the as originated spectabilis: Commonly called the showy-border forsythia, this great Spaeth Nurseries of Berlin, in 1906 ; it was introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1908. It is still one of the most popular of all, with flowers that are as vivid a yellow as the Beatrix Farrand' only recently introduced. Being an F. intermedia variety, it is more upright and sturdy than F. suspensa, the flowers are larger (about 1~ inches) and are produced in greater quantity and in clusters. Some consider the color display is almost a \"brassy\" yellow, yet there are many who prefer it for just this reason. It is a darker yellow than the F. su.spensa varieties (vivid yellow, 2.~~ 8.~j 13 of the Nickerson Color Fan) and with 'Beatrix Farrand,' can be classed as having the darkest yellow flowers of the entire group. 'Beatrix Farrand': This is a cross between a colchicine-induced tretraploid and F. ovata, being a triploid, originating in the Arnold Arboretum in 19~9 as a result of the plant-breeding work of Dr. Karl Sax. The flowers are often as much as 2~ inches in diameter and, in certain situations, are slightly darker than those of F. intermedia spectabilis. It is upright and dense in habit, produces heavy bloom, and is becoming popular for its vivid yellow, conspicuous flowers. 'Lynwood Gold': This was originally found as a branch sport of F. intermedia spectabilis in a garden in Cookstown, County Tyrone, Ireland, and was introduced by the Donard Nursery of Newcastle, County Down, Ireland. It was introduced into America in 1953 by the Gulf Stream Nursery of Wachapreague, Virginia, and is considered an improvement over F. interme~lia spectabilis in that its flowers are more open and seem to be better distributed along the stem, that is, not so bunched. It, too, is a brilliant yellow, only minutely lighter in shade than F. intermedia spectabilis, is upright in habit, possibly a little stiff, but still most beautiful in flower. 'Spring Glory': A branch sport of another of the Arnold Arboretum's introductions (F. intermedia primulina), this was found in the garden of Mr. H. H. Horvath, Mentor, Ohio, about 1930, and was introduced by the Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio, about 1942. This and its parent, the primrose forsythia, have flowers that are a lighter yellow than the others, without being the objectionable greenish yellow of 'Arnold Dwarf.' It is an improvement over the once popular primrose forsythia, in that it has larger flowers (about two inches in diameter) and more of them, hence making a much better display. Because of this, it may well replace the primrose forsythia in general landscape use. 'Arnold Dwarf': Resulting as a cross between F. intermedia and F. japonica made by Dr. Karl Sax in the Arnold Arboretum in 1941, this should never be planted for its flowers which are small and greenish yellow, and are produced 1~ PLATE I Top: Left F. japonica saxatilis Center: Left F. ovata Bottom: Left F. intermedia spectabilis Right F. Right F. Right F. suspensa fortunei suspensa sieboldii europaea or Note the heavy clusters of flowers in some species and few clustered flowers in others, the former making the more conspicuous display. single sparsely. In fact, plants may be five or six years old before they produce any flowers at all. As a woody ground cover it is excellent, chiefly because of the fact that its procumbent branches root readily wherever they touch moist soil. A six-year-old plant may be only two to three feet tall but nearly seven feet across, and as it grows older, it may grow a few feet taller. However, if desired, this taller growth can be removed easily with brush scythe or pruning shears. Its ability to remain comparatively low and to spread regardless of the slope on which it is planted, are its chief merits. F. ovata: This should not be considered as one of the best forsythias in Hardiness Zone 5 or in warmer areas, since the flowers are small and often are produced erratically. However, in slightly colder areas, where the flower buds of the above-mentioned forsythias are known to be killed by winter cold, this might be tried, if a forsythia must be planted. Hence, its uses are limited greatly, but it is worth mentioning. In the collection at the Arnold Arboretum, it flowers about ten days before most of the other forsythias. E. H. Wilson first sent seeds to the Arnold Arboretum in 1917, collected from native plants in the Diamond Mountains in Korea. The original plant is still growing well. Other forsythias growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are: F. europaea; giraldiana; intermedia and its varieties densiflora, \" dwarf,\" primulina, and vitellinn; japonica saxatilis; ovata X ezcropaea; suspensa and its varieties atrocaulis, decipiens, and pallida; viridissima and its varieties bronxensis and koreana; and Arnold Giant.' An important policy ever since the Arnold Arboretum was established, has been to grow all the species, varieties, and cultivars possible of just such a group as the forsythias so that the better types are there for all to see, growing side by side with those that are less desirable. With such a collection, the Arnold Arboretum is in an excellent position to do breeding work, make scientific studies and to offer propagating material to others who want it for the same reasons. Most of the forsythias should be in full bloom by mid-April, so that visitors to the Arnold Arboretum at that time might well make their own selections. DONALD WYMAN LECTURE SLIDES ON THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Arnold Arboretum has a series of about 1 15 colored slides (35 millimeter) which may be rented for $5.00, for giving lectures to interested groups. The slides are accompanied by a list giving a brief description of each. An accompanying booklet entitled \"Through the Arnold Arboretum\" furnishes the individual giving the lecture with much valuable information concerning the Arnold Arboretum. Anyone interested in renting these slides should write to the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass., well in advance of the date when they are to be used, so that they can be reserved and mailed by the proper time. depicting \"America's Greatest Garden,\" 14 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Crab Apples of Merit","article_sequence":3,"start_page":15,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24332","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070a76b.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 APRIL 24, 1959 CRAB APPLES OF MERIT NUMBER 4 use, because they are outstanding in the spring when they in bloom and again in the fall when they are in fruit. American nurserymen THE landscape for 140 oriental crab apples are the best of the small ornamental flowering trees are are growing species and varieties to sell, and 250 different kinds are growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Each year we make specific notes about these trees, recording those that apparently bloom and fruit well every year, those that are definitely alternate in bearing, and those that are outstanding ornamentally for several specific reasons. The accompanying lists of some 60 species and varieties are those which can be considered among the best, if not the best, for ornamental purposes. It is impossible to report all the good and bad points about these trees in a few pages. Suffice it to say here, since more detailed information concerning them is available in other publications, that these hsts might be scanned carefully for specific purposes. Not everyone wants a pink flowering crab apple, and there are some who want any kind as long as the fruits remain on the trees well into the winter and are suitable for bird food. Most of the crab apples native to the United States have green fruits, and although they may be beautiful for the few days they are in flower, they have httle ornamental value in the fall. Also, the majority of these are susceptible to the disfiguring disease known as cedar apple rust, especially prevalent in areas where junipers and crab apples grow in the near vicinity. Because of this, only one or two of the native crab apples have been recommended. Then there are those which may be beautiful in both flower and fruit, but which are notoriously alternate bearing. Only a few of these have been recommended, and these merely because their ornamental characteristics have been so outstanding that many want to grow them anyway. Very few of the varieties with large fruits have been recommended. It has 15 been suggested that a crab apple has fruits up to two inches in diameter; those producing fruits larger than this are considered apples. However, even fruits one and one-half inches in diameter are almost too large, because these are susceptible to insect injury which mars and distorts the fruit, making it most unsightly. In order to prevent this, the trees must be sprayed, sometimes several times, in order to control the insects. It would seem advisable, then, to plant crab apples with much smaller fruits ; those that will not have to be sprayed so often for this purpose, and which have fruits small enough so that they will either be eaten by the birds or will not clutter the ground when they fall. Because of this, very few of the larger-fruiting crab apples are recommended here. There are always those plantsmen who wish a beautiful flowering tree and who also wish to make jellies from the large fruits. There are many good varieties for this purpose, and they are available from nurseries. The point to remember, however, is that in order to produce satisfactory and usable fruit, they must be sprayed properly. The old-fashioned purple crab apple (Malus purpurea) has been planted widely in the past, but its flowers fade to a very poor washed-out purple color after being open only a few days. Many new varieties are now available which are much better than this species, having darker flowers and some of them do not fade too much. However, when grown in different locations or on different soils, or under different climatic conditions, the flower colors of some of these newer varieties do change. A conscious effort was made here to segregate those with red to reddish flowers, from the group with reddish-purple flowers, but this is not a hard and fast line of demarcation by any manner of means. There will be considerable purple in the flowers of the latter group and some in the other group as well, the amount more or less depending on growing conditions and weather. Of those listed with double or semi-double flowers, the only one with outstanding fruit is 'Dorothea. ' 'Henry F. du Pont,' and the M. purpurea varieties have purplish-red fruits, and the fruits of others are not very ornamental. Many of the hybrids derived from M. purpurea have foliage that is markedly reddish green throughout the growing season. One of the best of these is 'Red Silver,' the under surface of its leaves being slightly grayish and the upper surface reddish. A few species and varieties will sometimes have a marked autumn color to their foliage, although this is not always true every year, in every grouping covers those with different forms or habits. Mostly, the oriental crab apples are small, rounded trees, but a few like M. baccata, are standard trees up to fifty feet or more in height. There are some that are definitely upright and even columnar in habit, although the columnar types will not retain this habit at maturity. As these trees grow older, heavier and heavier crops of fruits are borne on the branches so that they are bent downwards, eventually so far that they do not recover completely. Pendulous types, too, are listed ; and low forms, of which M. sargentii is the lowest. 16 situation. The last varieties will be found some excellent ornamental speciOf course, these are not the only ones available from commercial sources, but for those contemplating only a few trees, selections might well be confined to the following: mens. Among the following THE BEST OF THE CRAB APPLES White Flowers baccata and vars. sargentii 'Beauty' robusta robusta spectabilis albi-plena 'Tanner' percisifolia Pink Flowers 'Dorothea' coronaria nieuwlandiana Prince Georges' scheideckeri , 'Evelyn' halliana parkmanii ioensis ioensis spectabilis riversii `Van Eseltine' plena 'Nova' 'William Sim' Pink and White Flowers arnoldiana baccata gracilis 'Katherine' robusta erecta 'Flame' floribunda sargentii rosea Red to Reddish Flowers `Adams' 'Oekonomierat Echtermeyer' purpurea `Almey' atrosanguinea aldenhamensis purpurea lemoinei 'Baskatong' 'Crimson Brilliant' 'Henrietta Crosby' 'Radiant' Red Splendor' 4Sissipuk' 4Strathmore' 'Hopa' Reddish-Purple Flowers 'Henry F. du `Jay Darling' 'Liset' Pont' `Nlakamik' `Patricia' purpurea eleyi 1~ Double Number in or Semi-Double Flowers is the parenthesis approximate number of petals. coronaria nieuwlandiana (13-27) Crimson 'Dorothea' (16~ halliana parkmanii (15) Brilliant' SD `Katherine' (20) 'Prince Georges' (b3-61 ) purpurea aldenhamensis SD purpurea lemoinei SD scheideckeri ( 10) hartwigii SD 'Henry ioensis ioensis F. du Pont' SD plena (about 33) 'Nova' (18-35) spectabilis albi-plena ( 15) spectabilis riversii (9-20) 'Van Eseltine' ( I 5) Ornamental Fruits R = red Y = yellow robusta robusta 0 = orange 'Almey' baccata and vars. 'Beauty' 'Dolgo' 'Dorothea' 'Flame' 'Marshall Oyama' 'Radiant' 'Red Jade' R R & Y R & Y R Y R Y & R R R R & Y R percisifolia `Rosseau' sieboldii arborescens toringoides toringoides macrocarpa 'William Sim' 'Winter Gold' zumi calocarpa R Y-R R & Y R & Y R Y R-O Lasting Fruit baccata jackii 'Bob White' robusta percisifolia sargentii 'Makamik' 'Ormiston Roy' 'Red Jade' `Tanner' 'Winter Gold' zumi calocarpa Foliage Color These crab apples usually have a marked reddish-green foliage color through much of the spring and summer. Patricia' purpurea and vars. 6Baskatong' 'Crimson Brilliant' 'Evelyn' `Hopa' 'Liset' 'Makamik' 'Oekonomierat Echtermeyer' . 'Red Silver' 'Red Splendor' 'Rosseau' 'Sissipuk' 'Strathmore' 18 PLATE II Vlalus 'Katherine' has pink-and-white double flowers. baccata dawsoniana 'Evelyn' ioensis 'Prince Georges' 'Rosseau' 'Strathmore' zumi plena Unique calocarpa Forms `Adams' - upright baccata columnaris - columnar 'Oekonomierat Echtermeyer' - pendulous 'Red Jade' - pendulous robusta erecta - columnar gracilis - graceful foliage 'Beauty' - upright brevipes - low hartwigii - upright, globe-shaped hupehensis - fan-shaped 'Marshall Oyama' - upright baccata Further trials are sargentii - low sargentii rosea - low 'Strathmore' - upright 'Van Eseltine' - upright needed for the following varieties: 'Blanche Ames'-An Arnold Arboretum seedling of M. spectabilis riversii with semi-double pink and white flowers, 1`~-s inches diameter; yellow fruitsinch diameter, but they fall very soon. Graceful growth habit. Originated in 1939, introduced in 1947. 'Burton's Yellow Fruited'-Apparently only offered by have no one nursery in 1957, we information concerning this variety. from the `Butterball'-Plant received 1957, and has not University of Washington Arboretum in yet bloomed. are `Chestnut'-Introduced by the sota about 1949. The fruits as an Fruit Breeding Farm of the University of Minneabout 2 inches in diameter-too large for use ornamental. 'Ferrill's Crimson'-Offered by Ferrill's Nursery, Salem, Oregon; originated before 1953; somewhat similar to 'Red Silver.' 'Gladwyne'-A seedling recently 'Gwendolyn'-Originated by selected by Mrs. Norman J. Henry of Glad- wyne, Pa. Our small trees have not yet flowered. A. F. den Boer, Des Moines, Iowa, 1936, introduced in 1944; a seedling of lVlalus,floribunda; flowers single and pink, bright red fruits nearly one inch in diameter. Our small trees have not yet flowered. Golden Hornet'-First distributed by John Waterer & Sons, Bagshot, Surrey, England. It is said to be a natural cross between M. sieboldii calocarpa and M. prun;f'olia coccinea, originated prior to 1949. 20 `Goldfinch'-Probably 1920, but not an M. baccala seedling originated in Philadelphia about introduced until about 1953. We have no records of this except that the flowers are single and white, fruits small and yellow. ioensis 'Plena Nana'-Discovered, probably as a sport, in nurseries of A. McGill Son, Fairview, Oregon, prior to 1955. Leaves and flowers are identical with those of M. ioensis plena, but habit is more of a bush. Six-year plant is about 6 feet high and 4 feet across. & `Klehm'-Somewhat mixed up in the trade, the plants I have seen are forms of M. coronaria, said to have double flowers. Sometimes listed as M. ioensis 'Klehm.' Fruits are greenish. More growth information is needed. 'Lady llgen'-New America from variety with medium to large yellow fruits, introduced Europe by the Montreal Botanic Garden, 19~ 1. cross to 'Mary Potter'-An Arnold Arboretum atrosanguinea made in 1939, introduced open-pollinated seed. in between M. sargentii roxea and M. 1947 ; tends to breed true from 'Mount Arbor Special'-Introduced about 1938 by the Mt. Arbor Nurseries of Shenandoah, Iowa; a cross between 'Hopa' and 'Red Silver' with reddishpurple foliage said to be a brighter color than that of other varieties. `Northland'-Originated Breeding as a cross (McIntosh apple X 'Dolgo') at the Fruit Farm of the University of Minnesota in 1926 (selected in 1938 as their No. 1423), named in 1957 ; hardy in northern Minnesota, fruits red, 1~ inches long, resembling those of 'Dolgo' in shape, ripening in mid-August; good for jellies. The fruit is pretty large for a strictly ornamental crab apple, although excellent for a \"general purpose\" crab. 'Pillar of Fire'-Not new; this Nurseries, Geneva, N.Y. is the variety 'Strathmore,' renamed by Stern's 'Pink Besuty'-Originated before 1947 at the Government Experiment Station, Morden, Manitoba, Canada, as its No. 451. Seems to have few faults, but fruits drop by September I. Flowers are single, pink; fruits are bright red, maturing in mid-August. Robert C. Simpson, Simpson Orchard Co., Vincennes, Indiana, named it before 1958. `Pixie'-Originated by at A. F. den Boer, Des Moines, Iowa, introduced 1948 ; single pink flowers, red fruits, semi-pendulous branching. The plant we have the Arnold Arboretum is small and has not yet flowered. as an 'Prairie Rose'-Originated at the University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, open-pollinated seedling of M. ioensi.s; has double flowers and is thought more scab-resistant than Bechtel's crab apple. 21 to be Pretty Marjorie'-A new tum in 1958; has not variety from Holland received in the Arnold Arboreyet bloomed. `Professor Sprenger'-Originated prior to 1950 as a clone of M. zumi selected by S. G. A. Doorenbos, The Hague, Holland ; the fruit is said to be orange and remains on the tree until January. We do not yet have this in our collection. purpurea S. G. A. Doorenbos, The Hague, flowers similar to M. purpurea eleyi but slightly deeper and a Holland, 1952; very dense, compact habit. Fruits are purplish-red. Rock 'Eleyi Compacta'-Introduced by 'Rainbow'-Offered by Big variety but five standard Nursery, Big Rock, Illinois, actually on not a new varieties budded 'Hopa' understock. `Seafoam'-A seedling selection of M. 'Oekonomierat Echtermeyer,' made in named in 1952 by A. F. den Boer, Des Moines, Iowa, with apparently 1939, a pendulous habit. selection of M. atrosanguinea, made before 195by E. H. Scanlon of Olmsted Falls, Ohio; said not to fade in flower as badly as the `Shakespeare'-A species. `Sunburst'-Not N.Y. new; this is 'Hopa' renamed by Stern's Nurseries, Geneva, is 'Upton Pyne'-Recently with large introduced from fruit streaked pink. England, this actually an apple, 'Valley City'-Several seedlings originating at Northwest Nursery Co., Valley City, N. D. ; selected as substitutes for the purple-leaved plum. Some question as to sufficiently outstanding merit for propagation in the East. with white flowers and `Van Houttei'-Offered by R. C. Notcutt, Ltd., Woodbridge, Suffolk, England, yellow fruits. Introduced into America in 1958. DONALD W YMAN Still time to register for the following Field Class: Spring Classes: Jamaica Plain - Dr. Donald Wyman noon April 24-May 29, Friday mornings Natural 10-12 $2.00 - History of Non-Flowering Plants: Case Estates, Weston 2-4 p.m. Mr. G. S. Torrey April 29-May 27, Wednesday afternoons Field Botany: $10.00 $2.00 Case Estates, Weston - Dr. R. A. Howard m. May 5-June 2, Tuesday afternoons 2-4 p. ~ 22 -. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Lilacs of New England","article_sequence":4,"start_page":23,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24337","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070b36b.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wagenknecht, Burdette L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR I~1FORDfATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Har~-ard Uni~-ersit~ ~'OLUME 19 BIAY 8, IJJ~J THE LILACS OF NEW ENGLAND NUMBER ~ 5 stnl;inelc shown by the great number of which come to view the Arboretum's collectron of these plants each spring. It has been estimated that on a clear day at the peal: of flowering in the latter half of Jlay, crowds in excess of fifty thousand view this colorful spectacle. The numerous requests for identification of specimens and for information regarding the availability- of cultivars in New England are other manifestations of this interest. It is in hope of aiding this latter group that this paper is being prepared. BIw study of nursery catalogues and lists of offerings supplied by nurserymen has shown that 88 kinds of lrlacs are offered for sale in New England. In the preparation of the lists and keys, the identification of the nurserymen offering these plants for sale is assumed to be correct. Names of cultivars which could not be verified from the checking of such authoritative works as Dlrs. iBIclielvey's \"The Lilacs\" and \"Lilacs for Arneric:r,\" or for which the nurserymen oH'erint,= it for sale could not offer satrsficctory clarification of place and time of origin, are not wcluded. The scientific names used in this article are taken from Il;ehder's \"Brbliu~ra~>ly of Cultivatecl 'I'rees and Shrub~.\" Synonyms used by catalogues THE public people interest in lilacs is most are cited m the text describing the plants. Those who wislr to know to wluit species the specimens growng in their collection belong, may find the key to be of use. No key could be made that wuuld separate all of the culttvars found in ,SJrin~a rufgari,e, so they are classified according to color and the presence of single or double flowers. The system of color classification is the same as that used in \"Lilacs for America.\" In cases where there is a difference in the color given by the nurseryman and \"Lilacs for America,\" the latter is followed. One should be aware that flower color may vary with the type of soil in which the plant is grown and with the age of the plant. Lilacs which were judged as members of the one hundred best by a poll in \"Lilacs for America\" are tndicated by an asterisk. Not all members of this group 23 were selected by a unanimous vote. Personal likes and dislikes need to be taken into consideration in the selection of plants for one's own situation. Examination of flowering specimens before purchasing is to be recommended whenever possible. Each lilac name found in this list is followed by a code number or series of numbers to indicating New England nurseries offering this plant for sale. In order identify the nursery offering the plant for sale, consult the list of nurseries at Key the end of the article. A. Corolla-tube not or little longer than calyx; anthers exserted on slender filaments; 1. S. amurensis var. japonica flowers white .................. AA. Corolla-tube much longer than calyx; anthers subsessile. B. Panicles from terminal buds, leafy at base (sometimes lateral in No. 7). 2. S. yunnanensis C. Leaves papillose, glaucous and glabrous beneath CC. Leaves not papillose, green to glaucescent and usually pilose at least along the midrib. D. Corolla-tube funnelform gradually widened above the middle, lobes more or less upright; anthers below the mouth. E. Panicles upright; anthers not reaching the mouth.... 3. S. josikaea EE. Panicles pendulous or nodding, dense; anthers reaching the mouth. 4. S. reftexa DD. Corolla-tube cylindric or nearly so, lobes spreading. E. Anthers reaching the mouth; infl. with 2 pairs of leaves, leaves cuneate at base. F. Leaves pilose along the veins beneath or nearly glabrous, glauces5. S. villosa cent, inflorescence compact..... 6. S. tomentella FF. Leaves soft pubescent beneath, infl. loose.... EE. Anthers below the mouth; inflorescence with 1 pair of small leaves or none, often with lateral panicles below; leaves rounded or broad cuneate at base............. 7. S sweginzowii BB. Panicles from lateral buds; terminal bud usually wanting. C. Leaves pubescent at least on midrib beneath; anthers usually violet or bluish gray; corolla about 6 mm. across. D. Anthers inserted slightly below the mouth, equaling 1,2 to 1\/3 of the tube; brts. usually short-pubescent.... 8. S. velutina DD. Anthers inserted above the middle of the tube, much below the mouth 9. S microphylla equaling 1;4 or 1 5 of the tube... CC. Leaves glabrous, or if pubescent, broad-ovate and truncate or subcordate at base. DD. Leaves entire or 3-9 lobed in No. 14; corolla about 1 cm. across; flowering branches without terminal bud. E. Leaves broad-ovate or ovate, subcordate to abruptly broad-cuneate at base; infl. large. 10. S. vulgaris var. vulgaris F. Flowers purple......... 11. S. vulgaris var. alba FF. Flowers white......... EE. Leaves oblong-ovate to oblong-lanceolate, cuneate. F. Leaves always entire, 4-7 cm. long; inflo. large and loose. 12. S. chinensis FF. Leaves 2-4 cm. long; infl. 5-8 cm. long. G. Leaves unlobed............. 13. S. persica GG. Leaves 3-9 lobes............. 14. S. laciniata DD. Leaves pinnate, with 7-9 leaflets; infl. 3-7 cm. long; flowering branches usually with terminal bud developing into a leafy shoot. 15. S. pinnatifolia .... 24 Syringa amuren.si.s (Rupr.) Rupr. var. japonica (Maxim.~ Franch. & Sav. A native of Japan, this plant was introduced into cultivation in 1876. The value of this species is in its white flowers which appear approximately three weeks later than the flowers of the common lilac. This species may be grown either as a shrub or as a small tree. V-hen grown as a tree, it reaches heights in excess of thirty feet. ~~hen grown with this habit, the cherrylike bark is quite attractive. Caution should be exercised in the placement of this plant because some people find the odor of the flowers to be disagreeable. This variety has been considered to be a distinct species by some workers and, as a result, is offered by several nurseries under the name S. japonira Decaisne. This plant is offered for sale by- the following nurseries: CI, C~', C3, C+, DI1, ~I3, ~14, DI9, VI10, BI11, ~I I?, M]3, BI1 ~, N3. 1. 2. S. yunrranensis Franchet This species was introduced into cultivation from Yunnan Province, China in 1906. One of the less shovcy- species, rt is of value because of its late flowenng. Its flowering period bridges the gap between the common lrlac and the previous species. S. Junuarrens~is `Itosea,' a pink Hovcerine form, is offered for sale by C5. ' ;3. S. josikae Jacquin f. ex Reichenbach The Hungarian Lilac was introduced into cultivation from Hungary about 1830. The flowers of this species are lrlac-ciolet. It flowers at the same time as S. Jrrnnanensis, but is slightly more showy. Nurseries offering S. josi~~aea for sale are: C~., M3, iBI~., ~I11, DI12. .1. josikaea has been hybridrzed with other species m the development of nevc groups of cultivars. S. ~'o.t'~'nM hybridixed with S. villosa gives rise to the hybnd complex known as S. ~, henryi. A cultivar selected from this cross is S. X lrenr~i `Lutece.' This cultivar is offered under the name .~;~rrng `Henry Lutece' by n15. The hybridization of S. joxi6vrerr with S. re,fle.ra y ves rise to the hybrid complex S. ~ jo.v~le.uu. `ltoyalty,' a purple, sin~le-Hovcered cultrcar, has been selected from this 4..1'. hybrid and rs offered for sale bv B~?. re,~le.ra Sclrnerder Originally discovered in Central China, tills species was introduced into cultivation about I RS_r. Flovcerin~ at the same time as the preceding two species, this rs a distinct and handsome plant wth flowers in long, pendulous panicles. None of the nurseries m the New England region offer this species for sale, although it is attractive and hardy. A hybrid with .S. ri\/lo.s resulted in the development of the complex S. ;! preslonae, the source of the Prestonae lrybrids. The only cultivar of this hybrid swarm offered for sale here rs `Isabella,' a single flowered, pink form. This cultrcar is sold by N`?. Hybndization of S. re,~e.ra with .S. lomenlella has produced the cultivar S. rrfle.ra `Pallens,' offered for sale by C1. 2.'5 5. S. rillo.sa ~'ahl Introduced into cultivation in 1882 from North China, this species is to be recommended for its dense habit and its late and profuse flowering. The flowers may vary in color from rose-lilac to white. The following nurseries offer this species for sale : C2, C~., ~l 10, ~I 1 1, ~I f 2, JI 1 ~. fi..S. tomentella Bur. and Franch. V'ilson writes in his \"Aristocrats of the Garden\": \"I saw th~s plant for the first time on July 5, 1908, on the frontier of eastern Tibet at an altitude of nine thousand feet, andI thought then that I had never before seen such a handsome species of lilac. It had foot-high, broad panicles of pink to rosy-lrlac colored flowers and on other bushes they were whrte. The plants were from eight to eighteen feet high, much-branched yet compact in habit, and the wealth of flower clusters made it conspicuous from afar.\" Cnfortunately, this species has not done well in our collections. One of its shortcomings a its lack of fragrance. The species is offered for sale by Cl. i. S. s:;egin~o:,ii Koehne .C Loneelsh This lilac was introduced into cultivation in 18~from northwest China. One of the later flowering species, it is not often cultivated. A cultivnr of the hybrid between this species and .S. tonreulella is the single, pink Homered .1, s:;eain_ouii `Albida.' This cultivar is offered for sale by BI 1 ~?. 8. S. relulinn liornar Introduced into cultivation in 1902 from North Chma and Korea, this species found rn catalogues under a synonym, S. palibinirmrn '.~al:ai. The latter name ss incorrect and should not be used. An unusuallc late Hwverm`~, pale lilac, sm;,Tle fl`>svered cultivar of this species ~s `~Im~ Ivm.' 'I'Isis cultivar also is of mterest hec:m~e of its dwarf li:rlot and red culoration of tl~e leaves m the autumn. The cultmar is oH~ered for sale by ~1~1, B2. is usually 9..1. ntiuroplrJllrr IOeI, A native of North China, this shrub was introduced into cultm:rtson rn 1910. '1'lris plant is of' mterest because of its small leaves. A cultivar `5uperba' with smgle, pink flowers is offered by the following nurseries: C1, C5, ~15. nulgnri.s L. var. nuleari.s In cultivation since 15G3, the common lilac, a native of southeast Europe, is offered for sale by the followin~ nurseries : C2, C3, C~N, Cti, B1 I , D12, ~14, ~I3, DIO, BI 8, M9,~I 10, DI 1 1, D112, ~l 13, DI 1 ~., ~I f 5 , iBI I G, 1~ t , l~ 2, It I , ~' I . 10. S. rulgnri.s L. var. rrlbrr V-eston flowering variety is offered by the following nurseries : C3, C4, C6, I iBI1, iBI8, DI+,M6, M8, M9, DI l0, BI t I, DI12, ~I13, DI1~., 1113, U 16, R1, ~'1.1 1. S. The white 26 common No species of shrub has produced so many cultivars as has Syringa vulgaris, the lilac. These cultivars have arisen from sports, natural and artificial crosses within the species, and by selection, but not from the crossing of this species with any other. ~Iany of these variants were first developed in France, which has led to the term \"French Hybrid\" being Cultivars of .S. used for many of these cultivars. tmlgari.s WHITE offered for sale Double Single ~? Candeur BI6, BI i *Jan ~'anTol C?, C6, ~I6, ~I11, BIl.i, ~I16, 1~1I 3 *Marie Leerape C?, ~I1, ~I6, BI I 1, ~113 ~Ille. Fernande ~'~ger nl ll *Jlme. Florent Stepman iil-~, ~19, ~113 *Jlont. Blanc D12, ~I16 I Primrose (yellow~ Cl, n111 *~'estale C 1 1 , DI ; , DI9, ~I 18, B? *Edith Cavell n14, ~11II *Ellen Willmot C5, C6, nI l, ~I3, DI6, 2 DI11, ~I15, IW General Sheridan M9 Dlme. Abel Chatenav DI15 5 *Dlme. Casimir 1, nIl3, DI16 6 *~Ime. Lemoine C4, C5, nI2, DIB, ~I~., Yerier.n76,DI1 M6, 1BI8, 1I11, iB91~?, iBII8, DI15, BI16, N2, RI, VI Princess Clementine 11118 3 VIOLET Dlaximowicz Di 1 1 *~larechal Lannes DI11I BLUE *Ambassadeur DIa ~? Bleuatre ~ll., ~II1, ~I12 `Z *Firnuiment AI3, ~l ii, U I I , Dl I *~Ime. Clmrles Soucl~et Ctt *President Lincoln C`?, ~I1, ~12, DI~, ~18, !~, ~I11, ~I12, ~Il;i, B`1 Hugo Koster C~1, DI t 1, DI 11 *Ami Schott C1I ~ *Duc De ~lassa DI1 1'res~dentGrey-C~?,C~, C6, 111k, ~Ifi 111~, J111, DII?, DI13, BI1~, K1, ~' I *1'resident ~'iger ~Il, ~l l3 3 LILAC *Jacc~ues Callot iBI.i *Alphonse Lavallee C4, C3, A15, N2 *Leon Gambetta ~I 1, Dl~ Dlicl~ael l3uchner C`?, C-t, C~, 11I4, 6 ~11,i, ~IIf President Carnot ~1~. President Fallieres C2, Al l , William Robinson C2, ~16 PINK ~1~, t~l 1 ~ *Lucie Baltet C6, DI-1, D1 S, 3 ~I 1 I , ~I l *~lacrostachya n14, 3 ~I6, D18, DI 1 1, DI 13 *Belle De Nancy C~, C6, D13, iB18, D1~3, D115, N2, R1, VI 71 ] Single Double *Jean *Jules *Katherine Havermeyer C2, ~I1, n12, ~I4, bI6, ~IS, DI13, AI14, DI15, Dlace C2 Ferry BI13 6 B116 ~Iarc ~lichel~ Bl5 *llme. Antoine Buchner ~Iontaigne ~I? 4 Jll, bIl4 ~ i *V'aldecl;-Rousseau BI~., ~I 16, 111 MAGENTA Charles X C~, C6, 11I 1, ~I3, ~I+, ~18, D111, DI16, B? I Colbert ~I11 *Congo C4, BI1, BI~?, 1~I3, iBI~, ~I6, 62 ~I9, VI11, JI13, DI16, N? Dlorel C2, C4, nI6 *BIme. F. *Reaumur C`Z, C t, 1~I ~ *gi,m ~'on Horstenstein C~., Dlk *iBIrs. Edward Harding C~?, C5, ~'1 *I'aul Thirion BI13, Dll~, N2 3 *President Poincaire C~Z, C~1., C~, ~I1; PURPLE *Diderot C2 *Ludwie Spaeth C2, C-l, ~I1, bI t, BI~, bI6, 11IS, DIJ, BI 12, ~I ~ 3, 11I t b, 11116, N`_', ltl 5 Philemon Df 5 Sensation D113 3 *~'olcan C-4, 1I 1 1 , ~I 1 , *:ldelaide Dunbar C5, BI 1, A115, 11116 *Cliarles Joly C2, C5, C6, ~I1, n13, llk, n18, D19, BI11, ~I12, BI13, ~116, ~Ili, ~2, ltl, ~'1l *Jlonce 111~1, ~l~ 6 *l'aul Huriot D1 ~, ~I16 form the dilatata hybrids. Css'o cultivars of thrs group ~fembers of this complex flower early best lilaes. are members of the one hundred l3otls are sold in New England. Howered form B'. `1'oc:rlrontas, is a purple, is a magenta, clouble Hybrids between S'. e~rrlgrrris and S. oLlalrr dilalnfrr in the season. `l;vangeline' sincle flowered form sold by Is?. form the Giraldii hybrids. Hybrids between S. t~rrlgari.e and S. oblaln pirulrlii the season. An asterisk indicates plants Members of this complex Hower early in listed as among the one hundred best lilacs. Clark's Giant ~Esther Staley Pmk Spray Purple Glory Summer Skies Sunset Single Single Smgle Single Single Double e Blue Blagenta Pink C~., ~I I1 C~., ~I 11 1 ~Ill 1 ~f 1 1I11I ] DII1 Purple Magenta ~Iagenta 28 12. S. chinensis lt'illd. Much confusion has occurred in the identification of the place of origin of this hybrid species. tt'ildenow's specific epithet shows that he thought the plant had originated in China. It appears, however, that this plant originated in the Botanic Garden in Rouen, France about 1 i i i . The parents of this hybrid species are S. X persica and S. vulgaris. S. X chinensis differs from .S. rolgari.r in that it does not develop the stiff upright habit found in the latter, and in the failure to form the heavy branches found in the common lilac. Several nurseries sell this plant under a synonymous name, S. rothmogensis Poir..C Turp. S. X chinensis is sold by the following nurseries: C3, C3, DII, DI6, ~IB, DI9, JI I 0, ~I 1 I , I 12, Jl I 3, BI I 6, R I , Il z. ' 13. S. X persica L This species is of particular taxonomic interest. Lrnnaeus did not recognize the hybrid origin of this plant and described it as a species. This view was concurred aath by most taxonomists until quite recent times. BIchelcey held this view in her monumental work The I,ilac.\" 1'here were some dissenters who were of the opinion that tlms plant was of hybrid origin. However, these workers were not able to agree upon the parents. Cyto~enetrc work has supported Rehder's opinion that the parents of this hybrid species were .S. ~f'glrnuica and S. Irrcinia(a. This plant is extremely shwvy, bearing pale lilac flowers at the same time as the common hlac. It differs from the common lilac in its smaller size. S. chinensis was introduced into cultivation about 1614. Burseries offering rt for sale are: C3, C~, iBI 1, Jlti, ~IB, DIcJ, bI 10, iBI I 1, VI 12, DI I 3, R I , It2. The white flowered form, S. chiuen.sis forma nlba (1t'eston) t'oss., is offered for sale bv DI I. 1+..S. Irrcininlcr Bliller. China, this plant was introduced into cultivation before 1620. It resembles S. clriuena~is closely, clrH~ering from rt in its darker Hower color and laciniate leaves. It was long thought to be a variety of .S. X chinensis. The discovery of the plant breeding true in the wld, disproves this theory. Cultivated for much the same reason as S. ; clrinensis and for its unique laciniate leaves. It is offered for sale by CI. A native of' 15..S. pinncrltf'olia Hemsl. A native of western China, this plant was introduced into cultivation in 190~.. The white flowers are not conspicuous, thus the plant is usually cultivated for its mteresting pinnately compound leaves. As one of the first species to flower, it serves to start the season of lilac flowering. It is offered for sale by C1. 29 ] Key to Nursery Code COVBECTICUT C 1. Brimfield Gardens Nursery, Wethersfield C2. The Hoyt Nurseries, New Canaan C3. E D. Robinson Sales Agency, V'allingford Ck. The Peter Cascio Nursery, V'est Hartford C5. White Flower Farm, Litchfield C6. C. R. Burr& Co., Inc., BIanchester MASSACHUSETTS ~I I. Adams DI2. JIB. iB1~.. ~15. DI6. DIi. DIR. M9. iBI10. 11I11. D112. DI18. ~L14:, iBI15. ~I16. nI I i. Nursery, Inc., V-estfield Nurseries, ~Iiddleboro Littlefield-V-yman Nurseries, Inc., Abington Heatherfells Nursery, Andover Cary Bros. Nursery, Shrewsbury The Framingham Landscape Co., Framingham Centre Edward Halloran, Inc., Newton Highlands Bigelow Nurseries, Northboro 'yman's Garden Center, Inc., Framingnam Kelsey-Highlands Nursery, East Boxford Weston Nurseries, Inc., North Abington Bay State Nurseries, Inc., North Abington Cherry Hill Nurseries, 1'hurlows and Stranger, Inc., V'est Newbuw Hampden Nurseries, Inc., Somer Itoad, Hampden Corliss Bros., Inc., Gloucester Marinus ~'an der Nol, Fairhaven Eastern Nurseries, Holliston Dahliatow-n NEW HAMPSHIRE N 1. N2. N3. IW eter 'ild Flower Gardens, I;xeter Landscape Clinic Nursery, Somersworth Colprit's Bursery ~'C Seed Farm, I)over RHODE ISLAND ltl. LL?. VERMONT Forest Hills Nurseries, Inc., Cranston 10 C. Hoogendoorn, Newport ~'I. Putney Nursery, Putney r BURUE'rTh: L. -AGENKnECHT 30 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Booklet on Lilacs from Russia","article_sequence":5,"start_page":31,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24330","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070a36d.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 MAY 22, 1959 A BOOKLET ON LILACS FROM RUSSIA NUMBERS 6-7 pavilion at the World's Fair in Brussels, Belgium, in 1958 large display of books published in languages other than Russian. one of the many books offered for sale in English proved to be of horticulOnly tural interest and that, titled \"Lilac,\"* was offered for fifteen cents. It was obvious that this pamphlet of 40 pages with a colored illustration on the cover and 13 text-figures and plates was a subsidized publication. Leafing through a copy I noted a seemingly amusing account of \"Michurinist\" methods of plant breeding culminating in the development of many new cultivars. Several of these THE featured Russian a are described and illustrated and their names should be recorded as new cultivars of Syringa vulgaris. Recently our library received an unsolicited copy of the same pamphlet directly from Russia. The booklet, therefore, must be judged not as a souvenir item offered for sale at a World's Fair but as a treatise on the culture and breeding of lilacs. It is, as well, a confused bit of propaganda for the Michurin-Lysenko school of biological thought and practise. I know of no other single booklet which points out as well the current difference of theory and practise in horticulture and genetics between these sciences in the free world and in the Soviet Union. The author is described in the publisher's note as L. Kolesnikov, an amateur floriculturist with 30 years of experience in hybridization and the winner of the Stalin Prize for breeding more than 300 new strains of lilacs. The first half of the booklet describes the biological features, species and kinds of lilacs. The second half the breeding of native lilacs. The plants considered are grown in the vicinity of Moscow. Throughout the booklet the author gives credit to the principles stated by I. V. Michunn and A. D. Lysenko. It is difficult to determine from the translation * Lilac, L. Kolesnikov. Foreign Languages Publishing House, Moscow 1955. 31 whether this represents a sincere belief in the principles and practises described only lip service to a state-directed theory of biology. Many of the tenets proposed have double meanings which are at odds with Michurinist principles and frequently it seems the author, or the translator, has his tongue in cheek. For culture of lilacs the author recommends a sunny location with adequate drainage. Lilacs do best, he says, in well fertilized soils. He credits Michurin with the idea that \"worn out soil and lack of due care will weaken the plant and cause its degeneration, retarding the growth of the shrub and its flower-shoots, florets and panicles deteriorating in size with a change to the worse in their colour.\" Liming, he suggests, may be necessary in acid soils. The best fertilizer is well rotted stable dung although \"peat-night-soil and other composts\" or chemical fertilizers may be added. Manganese and boron are stated to be minor elements necessary for growth and for improved flower color. Kolesnikov found lilacs easily propagated by seed, grafts, root suckers, cuttings and layering. The best stocks he reports are Syringa josikaea and S. vulgaris, particularly the violet-flowered forms raised from seed. Several types of grafting are suggested but he notes that \"one must bear in mind Michurin's indication of the strong mutual influence between graft and stock. This practically infers that the eye or scion should be taken from the older strains with a firmly established character. Such strains are much better proof against the influence of the stock.\" This is based, of course, on the unsupported Michurinist idea that both the scion and the stock could have their heredity modified by grafting and that the more vigorous strain would not only dominate but influence the heredity of the other as well. Kolesnikov reports that scions in his area may be taken in the fall and stored until spring. He believes he obtains a greater success in grafting if the scion was a little withered when grafted for \"this guarantees better nourishment for the graft and its better union with the stock.\" Culturally most of the plants were grown to a single stem by careful pruning and Kolesmkov speaks with pride of having grafted 24 different varieties on one stock plant. The color cover illustration is of this plant in flower. o Kolesnikov also reports a technique of \"twig grafting\" where branches 1-10 inches long are taken with a bit of the main stem as a heel and the whole used as a scion. It seems important that these branchlets be taken in the fall and allowed to over-winter either beneath the plant in the field or in cold storage. The branchlets must not be watered and the buds are allowed to shrivel. According to him, grafting can be done with these in the spring from the time the sap begins to flow until the end of the flowering period. If flower buds are on the branchlets the graft will flower the first year. These cultural principles are considerably different from those used either at the Arnold Arboretum or in any part of this country. Our own practises in propagating and caring for lilacs will be discussed by Mr. Fordham in this same issue or 3Z of Arnoldia. Perhaps some of Kolesnikov's methods should be tried for comparison of results. In his discussion of breeding new lilacs Kolesnikov reports he took up lilac breeding in 1919 and by 1923 had 100 species and strains in his collection. In his early work he gathered seeds from the best shrubs which had been pollinated by insects and selected the most attractive progeny and rejected the worst. While this method has produced results in the past and may be used by the \"florist beginner\" Kolesnikov cryptically reports \"in the present level of Soviet science this may not be the principle course to choose.\" Sometime after 19~?3, Kolesnikov was introduced to Michurinist teachings and he resolved then to start breeding new native kinds of lilacs. He states, \"I found a plant breeder needs much more than the mere desire to breed new varieties. He must first of all be well-read in the science of selection. As for myself, I continually felt how much I lacked such knowledge. So I got down to a thorough study of Timiryazev, Michurin, Lysenko and their followers. The work of the founders of Soviet agrobiology became my everyday friends and advisors. And to them, I still turn today when unable to solve some problems and always find a clear and adequate scientific explanation.\" Kolesnikov is less than able in presenting a clear explanation for the reader. He states, \"Michurin biology, having worked out methods of controlling plantdevelopment, of producing purposeful changes in the nature of vegetable organisms, offers us the only true means of remodeling plants. \"There are three main stages in the process of Michurinist selection all of them inseparably bound. The first is disjointing the plant's heredity, the next rearing the plant thus acted on, and the last, artificial selection, which secures the desired characters and properties. Michurinist plant-selectors achieve their aims by means of sexual and vegetative hybridization, subjecting plant organisms to deliberately modified environments. Mutually complimentary, these methods combine in logical unity.\" Kolesnikov has proceeded along the principles which, one must suppose, are clear to him. His techniques of emasculating the flower, collectmg the pollen and protecting the pollinated pistil are standard and sound. However, he soon confuses the reader by suggesting variations which he has tried. Michurinist plant breeding leaves nothing to chance, so Kolesnikov explains enigmatically, ` `In natural pollination, self-or insect-made, the pollen sets on the stigma, which starts the complex process known as fertilization. But the method used by Michurinist science in developing new plant-forms is artificial pollination effected between plants chosen for crossing.\" The author reports further that \"in theory as in practise I. V. Michurin proved that the habits and characters of plants depend as much on the actual conditions of their life as on predisposition inherited from their parents and ancestors.\" While Michurin has maintained that the transmission of hereditary characters depended on the comparative vigor of the 33 goes one step further in trying to equalize this by ex\"I sometimes first endeavor to establish a closer affinity between the plaining two plants by grafting one on the other. They flower side by side and long before crossing are already closer related as parts of one plant. After this crossing itself takes less time than usual.\" While Kolesnikov pays lip service to \"purposeful crossing\" he also admits \"I also resort to pollenizing with a mixture of pollen from several of the best strains. Such practise, as testified by science, is of general biological benefit to the flower.\" All of this is in contrast to another of Kolesnikov's principles for he states \"Michurin has pointed to the danger of the stock, often a wilding, having a bad effect on the hybrid embryo germinating m the mother plant. For this reason I always choose my parent pairs from owntwo parents Kolesnikov root strains.\" examples of his purposeful rearing of the hybrids Kolesnikov implies adherence to Lysenko's basic theory of plant development by which a change in the plant's characteristics can be made in a definite direction by creating specific conditions at a particular moment in the development of the organism. Kolesnikov believes that \"at its earlier stage a young hybrid ~s extremely pliant and easily succumbs to the influence of its surroundings.\" While the majority of his hybrid seedlings are carefully nurtured \"a certain number are put in worse conditions to inure them to hardships which the selector intends them to encounter in the future.\" He states \"the plant selector is able to change its heredity in the manner he wants by exposing it to appropriate conditions of soil, nutrition, temperaAs ture, etc.\" Even after the heredity of the line is altered, in Kolesnikov's eye, by these applied environmental influences, the experimenter is not through. He describes one step in increasing the fertility of a double strain of lilacs by reducing the doubleness through starvation, a process we have never observed even in the most neglected lilacs of old New England farms. Kolesnikov reports \"It is known, for example, that the more double the flower the fewer and feebler are its stamens pistil, which is naturally a great hinderance to artificial pollination. My remedy is to sustain them for a year in severe conditions, having shortened their roots and transplanted them into less nutritive soil.\" The flowers, he reports, become less double and more fertile and can be crossed, and, by rearing their progeny in excellent surroundings, \"these seedlings again restored their ancestor's doubleness or even surpassed them.\" If the seedlings of a cross were not successful they were not discarded as they might have been m Kolesnikov's pre-Michurin day s, for he states,\"I never forget that the first flowering may not bring out all their merits. Many of them may yet be successfully improved or modified if given appropriate conditions. In such cases I often resort to D9~churin's method, grafting the hybrid's heads with a strain I consider will weaken or strengthen this or that feature.\" Kolesnikov concludes his booklet with the statement, \"Michurinist biology and the weaker its 34 equips the selector and originator of of new varieties with a sure and powerful means With a profound knowledge of Michurinist methods and remodeling plants. properly applying them, the experimental florist will certainly win success in the noble and exciting art of developing new strains of flowering and ornamental plants. \" \"Lilac\" by Kolesnikov is indeed a sad commentary on the state of plant genetics and plant breeding in the Soviet Union. Nearly every quotation given in this paper is subject to correction on the most simple elements of botanical and horticultural science. Doctrines such as Kolesnikov expresses might have been acceptable 200 years ago. They are not today. I sincerely hope that an American who bought a copy of the Lilac booklet at Brussels or who has received one since will recognize it as a ludicrous parody whether or not the author so intended it to be. The following cultivars of Syringa are described and those with an asterisk are also illustrated: 'Alexi Maresiev'*, `Dream'*, `Ivan Michurin', Jambul', 'Leonid Leonov'*, 'Morning in Moscow', 'Olimpiada Kolesnikova'*, 'Polina Osipenko', `S. M. Kirov', `Zoya Kosmodemyanskaya'. As will be noted from the \"techniques\" and \"principles\" quoted above, their parentage is presumably quite unknown. RICHARD A. HOWARD 35 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagation and Care of Lilacs","article_sequence":6,"start_page":36,"end_page":45,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24335","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070af6d.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"PROPAGATION AND CARE OF LILACS and persistent under adverse conditions, will respond culture. They thrive in a wide variety of soils in a pH range of 6.0 to 7.5 with preference for a well drained situation and full sun. They will not, however, tolerate wet locations. In a remote section of the Arnold Arboretum there are two clumps of lilacs growing in a shallow pocket of rocky soil atop a pudding-stone ledge. Nearby are the remains of an old well, indicating that a dwelling existed at this location. It seems reasonable to suppose that these lilacs were planted by the occupants before the property was acquired by the Arboretum. If this assumption is correct, these plants have persisted under conditions of extreme adversity for over eighty years without attention. Plate III depicts a thirty-five-year-old own-root lilac. By a program of systematic pruning, this multi-stemmed specimen is kept in a condition of constant self renewal. Each year or so a few of the older stems are removed to ground level and the new shoots are thinned and spaced to furnish future replacements. Should an occasional stem succumb to borers, which affect only the larger stems, the loss is of no great consequence. However, in the case of single-stem grafted plants it could result in complete loss. Another aspect of this pruning system is that better flower color and size are maintained. Lilac plants when permitted to attain large dimensions show a reduction in size of the flower and a lessening of its color intensity. For obvious reasons this method of lilac care is feasible only with specimens growing on their own roots. A good practice is to remove flower clusters after they have finished blooming. The nutritive materials which otherwise go into the formation of unwanted seed are thereby conserved for the plant. Lilacs which are not permitted to form seed, also flower more profusely the fol- LLACS, though rugged admirably good to lowing year. Plate IV shows a grafted plant of Syringa vulgaris `Paul Thirion.' In one year this scion has developed sufficient roots to permit removal of the privet understock. Plate V illustrates the incompatibility of lilac and privet by vigorous overgrowth of the scion. This one-year-old graft was planted with the union at ground level, giving the scion no opportunity to initiate its own roots. In a few years, 36 PLATE III Thirty-five-year-old program of own-root lilac maintained in a condition of self renewal by a systematic pruning. plants in this condition are inclined to are pearance. These symptoms display stunted growth and a starved apusually followed by failure resulting from incom- patibility of root own-root stock and scion. a two-year-old Syringa su~eg~e.ra which has reached a point of development where the privet rootstock (indicated by arrow) is of no further consequence. In transplanting, it could be removed, but if disregarded, would undoubtedly perish of its own accord. Plate VI shows INSECTS AND DISEASES This information appears in Arnoldia, Volume 19, Nos. I-2, March 6, 1959. PLANTING Planting of lilacs is best done in spring or fall while the plants are dormant. Fall has some advantage over spring, as root activity which occurs then establishes the plant for a good unchecked start with spring's arrival. However, container-grown and small plants will thrive if carefully moved with a ball of earth anytime throughout the summer and are given adequate aftercare. As with all planting of trees and shrubs, the preparation of the hole to receive the plant cannot be overemphasized. A hole several times larger and deeper than the root system should be a minimum requirement. Careful preparation of the backfill is important, as once done, it becomes a permanent medium, out of sight, out of mind, and not changed again. Organic matter, such as rotted manure or compost, generously mixed with good soil provides a friable moisture-retaining medium that, with systematic fertilization and water, will serve the plant indefinitely. An effort should be made to maintain the previous root level, easily determined by locating the line of demarcation on the lower stems, which indicates the parts previously above and below ground in the nursery. Planting too deep or too shallow will retard growth while the plant forms new roots at its own most favorable level. A most satisfactory way to backfill is to bring well-firmed soil up to a depth equal to the lower level of the roots, place the plant in the hole with roots outspread in a natural manner, fill it with water and slowly add the prepared soil mixture. This method completely compacts soil around the roots, eliminating all possible air pockets without the root damage often involved as a result of firming by foot. Finally, a ring of earth around the outside edge of the hole forms a saucer which catches and prevents water from escaping. Mulching might be of benefit the first year while the plant is becoming established, but after that its value is dubious, as lilacs form superficial roots which would grow in the mulch, forming, in time, a troublesome water-shedding mound elevated above the sur- rounding terrain. If the root system has been reduced excessively in the digging process, some reduction of the top becomes necessary in an effort to balance top to root. An 38 A4 a D A O b .s 'C G D ro x a U 1-4 pq ~ ,o u WV a~ &< .5 -c V_ l'r m O O 1~ 0 V O ro d c. important point to be considered when arriving at this balance is the fact that excessive pruning reduces any plant's digestive and respiratory facilities, often to the point of serious retardation. SOFTWOOD CUTTINGS Softwood cuttings are perhaps the most satisfactory way of increasing lilacs. With some exceptions, they are ready for potting in about seven weeks, producing own-root plants not subject to the complications often encountered with grafts. With the advent of mist systems and moisture retaining plastic case coverings, collection of lilac cuttings no longer requires the critical timing once necessary. Propagators previously determined \"proper time\" by flexing the cutting between their fingers; the rule-of-thumb method being to take material when the wood reached a point where it snapped instead of collapsing when sharply bent. Through trial and error, cuttings at this stage of lignification were found to root best. However, with modern facilities this time has been advanced and we now succeed with softer material taken when it reaches sufficient size to make a cutting. We have found, however, that wood taken too late will sit in the propagating for weeks on end, rooting in mediocre percentages or petering out entirely. In selecting lilac cuttings, vigorous shoots with long internodes are avoided and only normal growth is chosen. An effort is made to gather the cuttings early in the morning before much transpiration has taken place and the wood is in its freshest and most turgid condition. Material collected in this manner and placed in closed bags, shielded from the sun, will be in prime condition. In the event that insertion cannot be made on the day of collection, the closed bags may be stored in a refrigerator at about t0 F. for several days without deterioration. At the Arnold Arboretum cases are used composed of 2 mil. polyethelene plastic film supported on a framework of welded joint wire of 2x4 inch mesh, known as turkey or utility wire. Bottom heat is maintained at 75 F. by electric heating units. Shading is accomplished by roll type shades on the greenhouse, supplemented at midday for about two months, when the sun is at its highest, with additional shading of saran cloth hung two feet over the propagating case. This shading is timed to reduce the build-up of trapped heat in the cases with the cases least reduction of light intensity. Treatment of softwood lilac cuttings is in the following manner: An oblique cut is made slightly below the nodes and the bottom pair of leaves are removed. If the tip is soft and rubbery, this too is nipped off, as it might decompose in the case inviting fungus infection. Cutting bases are dipped in Hormodin #3, which is composed of 8 milligrams of indolebutyric acid to 1 gram of talc, and are then tapped to remove any surplus. The medium to receive these is washed sand purchased from a local gravel pit. Though finer in particle size and not as sharp as we would prefer, it serves the purpose. Cuttings are inserted to a depth of about one and one half inches in rows, spaced so as not to touch one another. A very 40 x a a~ ro ro r a ~a a c a 0 0 0 o .~ ro x U U a O J'. M~ Ey 5~ ~ O0 .a ro N O C~t0 I A .a ro M -SE3x#& ; a; w ~ U w 9 ** ro =< :C O 5 G > > 0a E -e i~ 'i-s Y ~ O U, U m O thorough soaking at this stitutes the initial time compacts the medium around the cuttings and con- the placed polyethelene Success with this method of airtight. cuttings, making certain that they propagation depends completely on how well the cuttings are covered, as air leaks on dry days can reduce the necessary high humidity, causing failure. On cloudy, humid days all coverings are removed as routine procedure and the watering. Finally, the covers are over are checked for fallen leaves and dead cuttings, which are removed as a sanitary measure. Should the day remain close and humid, the coverings are left off all day. Before again covering the cuttings at night, a spray application of 50% \"Captan\" at the rate of two teaspoons to the gallon of water is made. An inspection every few days reveals whether or not the medium is drying out, fungus infection is occurring, or insects have hatched from unnoticed egg masses which may have entered the case on cuttings. When properly timed, treated, and handled, the lilacs are ready for potting in about seven weeks. After potting or boxing, material rooted under these humid cases are conditions must be converted to greenhouse atmosphere in a gradual manner. This is accomplished by again covering them with polyethelene film. On cloudy, humid days it can be completely removed, and after several such days occur in succession, the transition will be complete. Otherwise, uncovering at night and covering in the morning, gradually increasing the uncovered period, will accomplish this very necessary conditioning. HARDWOOD CUTTINGS be rooted from winter cuttings, but so slowly and in such small perthat this method seems unworthy of consideration. centages Lilacs can LAYERS AND DIVISIONS These methods which are applied to a limited extent commercially provide a means by which an amateur can increase his lilacs. On observing lilacs, many plants can be seen with sections that can be separated from the parent plant with a spade. Divisions of this kind, can, with a minimum of attention, become flowering specimens in a few years. Layering is performed by bending a branch down into a small trench about 3 or 4 inches deep and securing it about 12 to 15 inches back from the tip with a forked stick, bent wire or any means that will hold it in place. Shaving the rind from the under side for a distance of several inches at the point where it is pegged, will stimulate cell activity and aid in inducing roots. Next, the soil is replaced, the tip is bent upright and preferably staked. Should the soil be of too heavy a texture, a medium composed of two parts sand, one part peat and one part soil is substituted. If done in the early spring and kept moist, the layer might have a root system adequate to permit severance from the mother plant after one grow- simple 42 ai U C ^a p O Q U R O D a a~ . i ~ a~ ~ 3 +~ \" a~ a ;; ce m '\" a x a~ ~ ro ro ~ .....~ r '\" ;:; '\" v o *' a &ro;3#x ~~ ~, E ro \" C '\" 'O():; fl a. s~ a, o ...~~ ~ ~ o '~ w :~ ?B ..... '\" ~a V 8 D ..~ .: v ^ :3 ~a 8 Q V \"i ... o .. w~ t! :S o ' C ' a :;1 ~ +~ g a, O B 'U O N ... ... <: ing season, but it is more apt to require two. This can be easily determined by carefully removing enough earth to observe the size of the root system. SEED Seeds have a dormant condition that can be overcome by a period of cold stratification. This is accomplished by storage in a refrigerator at approximately 40 F. for one to three months in a polyethelene bag with a slightly moistened medium of sand and peat, or by fall sowing out-of-doors. We favor the former method, as it obviates the necessity of having to furnish protection from the destructive action of vermin. Species lilacs will come true from seed if they are not grown in the proximity of others where cross pollination might occur. Cultivars will not produce true types from seed. GRAFTING lilac propagation, we approach grafting in an attempt to obtain specimens free of the troubles which often beset grafted plants. Understocks are considered as temporary, to function only until the scion has developed a root system sufficient for its own support. Bud grafting has the disadvantage of buds being placed high on the stock, making it extremely difficult, if not impossible, to plant deep enough to induce the scion to initiate its own roots. We do this, on occasion, as a temporary measure to carry material received too late in the season for cuttings, but only with the intention of repropagating, preferably by cuttings, as soon as possible. This temporary storage of material can be done on any lilac or privet available in the nursery. Use of Syringa vulgaris as a rootstock meets with immediate objection because of its treachery. Most lilacs by nature spread vigorously from suckers and this understock could, unless carefully watched, easily outgrow the scion without ever being noticed. In the climate of Boston, Ligustrum ovalfolium qualifies as suitable understock for this method of producing own-root lilacs. The past winter in this area was one of persistently low temperatures, without snow cover, causing abnormally deep frost and extensive damage to plants. However, on digging several hundred lilacs grafted on L. ovalifolium this spring, no injury to the stock was observed. One-year-old rooted hardwood cuttings of L. ovalifolium are obtained from nurseries which mass produce them at a cost making it more practical to purchase than to raise them. Storage is achieved by heeling in out-of-doors in a deep frame, cold enough to keep them dormant yet warm enough to prevent freezing of the ground, so they will be readily available when needed. Scions may be collected anytime throughout the winter as they are to be used, or can be stored m tightly-closed polyethelene bags with a small amount of slightly-moistened sphagnum moss at about 40 F. in a refrigerator. Scions are our As with all own-root 44 maintained in a condition as fresh as possible; this method preserves them for many months in a state comparable to newly cut material. A whip-and-tongue graft is made using a scion about 6 or 7 inches long and an understock perhaps 1~ inches in length. Rootstocks are kept short to facihtate the deep planting imperative with this method. Completed grafts are bound with rubber budding bands and then are placed deep enough to conceal the union in a moistened medium such as sphagnum moss, peat moss or sawdust. This procedure, known as callusing, can be controlled with a variance of temperature. Should a fast knitting of the union be desired, a temperature of i 0 F. would create it in ten days. Grafts made early in the season can be callused slowly at lower temperatures. For example, grafts done in January would require about eight weeks to knit at 40 F. Once callused, they are kept cold enough to prevent further development until planting time. In spring, when the ground warms up and the nursery becomes workable, the soil is prepared with a rotary hoe set at its greatest depth to facilitate deep planting. Budding bands are removed and the grafted plants set m rows spaced a foot apart with unions buried to a depth of about four inches. As with softwood lilac cuttings, grafts too will show variable results. Many grafted sclons form roots quickly, some do so slowly and others resist. ALFRED J. FORDHAM PLANT COLLECTING IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES Dr. Kenneth A. Wilson and the writer have recently returned from a monthlong, 4000-mile trip involving collecting and field studies in connection with work toward a flora of the southeastern United States. In the course of this travel, areas in Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South and North Carolina were visited, herbarium specimens and specimens preserved in alcohol were collected, and a number of living plants were sent to the Arnold Arboretum to be added to the numerous southern plants in the living collections. Among the plants collected for trial are clones of Liriodendron, Calycanlhus, Philadelphus, Malus, Amelauchier, Robinia, Lonicera, and Dierailld, mostly from northeastern Alabama, an area of particular interest to plant geographers. Lying as it does at the southern end of the Appalachian system in an area of moderate climates and with a diversity of habitats, this region has an accumulation of a number of interesting and rare plants. Without trial it is often quite impossible to predict whether or 45 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Collecting in the Southeastern United States","article_sequence":7,"start_page":45,"end_page":46,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24334","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070af28.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wood Jr., Carroll E.","article_content":"maintained in a condition as fresh as possible; this method preserves them for many months in a state comparable to newly cut material. A whip-and-tongue graft is made using a scion about 6 or 7 inches long and an understock perhaps 1~ inches in length. Rootstocks are kept short to facihtate the deep planting imperative with this method. Completed grafts are bound with rubber budding bands and then are placed deep enough to conceal the union in a moistened medium such as sphagnum moss, peat moss or sawdust. This procedure, known as callusing, can be controlled with a variance of temperature. Should a fast knitting of the union be desired, a temperature of i 0 F. would create it in ten days. Grafts made early in the season can be callused slowly at lower temperatures. For example, grafts done in January would require about eight weeks to knit at 40 F. Once callused, they are kept cold enough to prevent further development until planting time. In spring, when the ground warms up and the nursery becomes workable, the soil is prepared with a rotary hoe set at its greatest depth to facilitate deep planting. Budding bands are removed and the grafted plants set m rows spaced a foot apart with unions buried to a depth of about four inches. As with softwood lilac cuttings, grafts too will show variable results. Many grafted sclons form roots quickly, some do so slowly and others resist. ALFRED J. FORDHAM PLANT COLLECTING IN THE SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES Dr. Kenneth A. Wilson and the writer have recently returned from a monthlong, 4000-mile trip involving collecting and field studies in connection with work toward a flora of the southeastern United States. In the course of this travel, areas in Tennessee, Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South and North Carolina were visited, herbarium specimens and specimens preserved in alcohol were collected, and a number of living plants were sent to the Arnold Arboretum to be added to the numerous southern plants in the living collections. Among the plants collected for trial are clones of Liriodendron, Calycanlhus, Philadelphus, Malus, Amelauchier, Robinia, Lonicera, and Dierailld, mostly from northeastern Alabama, an area of particular interest to plant geographers. Lying as it does at the southern end of the Appalachian system in an area of moderate climates and with a diversity of habitats, this region has an accumulation of a number of interesting and rare plants. Without trial it is often quite impossible to predict whether or 45 given species will be hardy in more northern climates, and sometimes surprising results are obtained. (Thus, Franklinia alatamaha, known only from a single locality on the coastal plain of Georgia and now extinct there, thrives as far north as eastern New England, and Neviusia alabamensis, long known only from a restricted area ~n Alabama but now recorded from Arkansas, is perfectly hardy in gardens in the Boston area.) Like prophets, native plants are often without honor in their own lands. Almost everywhere, the exotic, the unfamiliar, will be grown in preference to beautiful, but familiar, plants native to a given region. To a considerable extent this attitude is still seen in the eastern United States, although, happily, more and more recognition is being given to some of the excellent trees and shrubs which flourish so well within the wide range of climates found in this broad area. Thus, although one has yet to see much evidence of the enthusiasm of the English for our native species of Solidago (goldenrod), it is hopeful to see the handsome evergreen species of Myrica gradually coming into use in the South, and such plants as Phlox subulata, P. divaricata, Cornus floridn, and Cercis canadensis are grown almost everywhere in the East. Other native trees and shrubs are becoming more and more important horticulturally, and, through the efforts of individuals such as Mrs. J. Norman Henry, of Gladwyne, Pennsylvania, who has assembled from the wild an exceedingly fine collection of native American plants, many excellent ornamental plants are gradually drawing the attention they deserve in the country of their origin. Among the native trees, mostly from more southern climates but now familiar in New England gardens, are Oxydendrum, Liquidambar, Halesia carolina and H. monticola, Cladrastis lutea, Robinia viscosa, and Catalpa speciosa and C. bignonioides. Shrubs include Calycarrthus, Fothergilla, Hydrangea, Robinia not a S'te~eartia ovata, Franklinia (this is a tree in more moderate climates~, Rhododendron carolinianum, R. catawbiense, and an increasing number of the deciduous rhododendrons (R. calendulaceum, R. nud~orum, R. atlanticum, etc.), Leucothoe editorum (L, catesbaei), Pieris floribunda, and others. Species of Viburnum, Cornus, Ilex, Vaccinium, Robinia, Calycanthus, Magnolia, Rhododendron, Amelunchier, Malus and Aesculus, among others, deserve to be more widely recognized. Further exploration, especially in the southern Appalachians and adjacent areas will undoubtedly yield many excellent selections to be added to the list. hispida, C. E. Woon, JR. 46 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Viburnums","article_sequence":8,"start_page":47,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24340","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070bb6d.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 SEPTEMBER 25, 1959 NUMBERS 8-9 VIBURNUMS growing in the collections would think there might be a bewildering number of these excellent plants from which to choose specimens for landscape planting. Actually there are only about 30 which are sufficiently ornamental and hardy to be considered worth while for planting in Hardiness Zones 4 and 5. If one were to put a premium on red- or yellow-fruiting forms, there are only three yellow-fruited viburnums and ten of the red-fruited sorts; although there are several of the blue-to-black fruiting viburnums, the fruits of which turn red at some time during the maturing process. So, with a comparatively small number from which to choose, one might take a close look at these plants and the reasons for growing them as ornamentals, for they are outstanding in any garden where they are given the space to be W 1TH some 96 species and varieties of viburnums V and nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum, one properly displayed. In order that the critical reader will know which types have been considered in this study, the species and varieties that are being grown in this country at present will be mentioned, with the reasons why some species, native and exotic, have not been deemed worthy of more consideration. It might be said, in this respect, that someone must decide, in any such study, which plants make the best ornamentals ; and when a single individual does this (the author, in this case), there is obviously plenty of opportunity for disagreement by others. Be that as it may, the following selections will certainly give food for much thought and may be the basis on which others can make their own selections for their own purposes. For Flowers There are three general types of flowers among the viburnums: One bears a flat cluster several inches in diameter, made up of hundreds of small individual, perfect flowers that are usually creamy white in color. The snowballs are those 47 with rounded clusters of all sterile flowers that do not bear fruits. Fmally, there those plants with flat clusters made up of all fertile flowers in the center of the cluster, but surrounded with large sterile or ray flowers on the perimeter. These are not necessarily the most conspicuous either, for when a plant of Viburnum dilatatum is literally covered with clusters of all fertile flowers, it is just as conspicuous in the landscape as is one of the snowballs. The viburnums usually flower well every year, although they may not bear heavy crops of fruit annually. In the first place, wind and insects must be operating at the time the pollen is ripe ; and, if during this period the weather is cold or rainy, little pollination occurs and hence fruiting will be sparse. The gardener usually loses sight of this fact by the time fall comes and the fruits are then conspicuously absent. Some species (V. dilatatum is certainly one) should be planted in groups of several seed-grown plants to insure proper cross-pollination and hence good fruiting. In many cases of isolated specimen plants, poor fruiting may be traced to lack of sufficient pollen of the right type. Undoubtedly, there is a certain amount of cross-pollination among the species, but certain species are not as good pollinizers as others. Until more is known specifically, it is best to plant several seedgrown plants together or at least on the same property. Four of the earlier-blooming viburnums should be considered together, since they are competing with each other for prime space in the early spring garden. Viburnum carlesii is the old-fashioned favorite that is hard to discontinue as it is so fragrant and so many people have come to like it. However, the fact remains that this is frequently susceptible to a disease which can kill mature plants quickly, even after many years of normal growth. It is the most fragrant of the four. Viburnum burkwoodii originated in the nursery of Burkwood and Skipworth, Kingston-on-Thames, England, in 1924, as a hybrid (V. carlesiixulile). The flowers are fragrant, but not as fragrant as those of V. carlesii, and the leaves are smaller and more glossy. In certain parts of California it is proving evergreen, but in the Arboretum it is entirely deciduous. ~'e started growing a plant between the greenhouses in 1931 and it is now nine feet high. Other plants in the collections are proving perfectly hardy. The habit of growth is somewhat open, not dense and compact. Viburnum juddii originated at the Arnold Arboretum in 1920 as a hybrid (V. carlesiiXbitchiuense) and is proving popular, having better foliage than V. carlesii but not quite as fragrant flowers, and being more dense in habit than V. bitchiuense. Viburnum carlcephalum is proving very popular in this foursome. Originating in the nursery of Burkwood and Skipworth in 1932, it has been in America only a few years (but long enough to become patented). It is a cross between V. carlesii and the Chinese snowball, V. macrocephalum, which is not reliably hardy in New England. However, this hybrid is hardy, apparently, and makes a very dense are 48 shrub with foliage quite similar to that of V. carlesii. The flower clusters are rounded, often up to five inches in diameter, fragrant, but not as fragrant as those of V. carlesii. The flower buds are pinkish, but the flowers open pure white. As far as we have seen, none of these last three mentioned species has proved susceptible to the graft blight disease, and any one of them, especially V. carlce~halum, might be selected as an early-floweringsubstitute for V. carlesii. At least three viburnums have flat clusters of all perfect flowers wh~ch are borne profusely and make quite a display each year. They are V. dilatatum, lentago and sieboldii. Others, like V. dentatum, are also meritorious, but none surpasses those mentioned. In the group bearing flat clusters of fertile flowers surrounded with large, sterile ray flowers could be V. opulus, sargentii, trilobum, and V. plicatum varieties tomentosum, mariesii and roseum. All of these are good for other reasons as well as for their flowers. Viburnum plicatum roseum has sterile flowers on the outside of the cluster which open white at first; then, under certain soil or climatic conditions, gradually fade to a deep and very conspicuous pink. This color can vary in intensity (on the same plant)-probably depending on changing soil or even climatic conditions. In other words, we have not found it to be reliably pink every blooming season. There are only three snowballs : The Chinese snowball, the largest, is not reliably hardy here. The European snowball (V. opulus roseum) frequently becomes so infested with plant lice that it is not worth the effort of growing. The least hardy-but the best-the Japanese snowball, V. plicatum (formerly V. tomentosum sterile), is the only one worth grow ing in the North. This is commonly available from nursery sources, and there is even a variety offered by the Wyommg Nurseries of Cincinnati, Ohio, which bears pink sterile flowers instead of white. Whether or not this color holds when the plants are grown in all soils, I do not know, but from color pictures I have seen, this clone must have merit. The Order of Bloom This is the sequence in which the viburnum species bloom in the Arnold Arboretum: Early to Mid-April fragrans Mid-May bitchiuense Early May buddleifolium burkwoodn carlesii juddii lantana veitchii Late May betul~folium burejaeticum furcatum lantanoides (alnifolium) rhytidophylloides schensianum 49 Late May (cont.) bracteatum urceolatum carlcephalum erosum wrightii wrightii hessei , lentago macrocephalum opulus opulus roseum orientale Early June cassinoides dentatum dilatatum plicatum (tomentosum sterile) plicatum mariesii plicatum tomentosum rafinesquianum rhytidophyllum rufidulum hupehense lobophyllum prunifolium ovatifolium scabrellum sargentii setigerum aurantiacum sieboldii trilobum Mid-June acerifolium bracteatum molle ' pubescens For Fruits previously noted, there are three yellow-fruited forms, V. opulus xanthocarsargentii flavum and dilatatum xanthocarpum. All are good, the first two being g somewhat similar in the size of individual fruits and fruit clusters, and, in fact, the general habit of the shrubs themselves. Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum has smaller fruits but in much larger, flatter clusters. Red-fruiting forms include V. lantanoides, dilafalum, opulus and its variety compactum ; sieboldii, trilobum and its variety compactum; wrightii and its variety hessei. One other species, V. setigerum aurantiacum, has been considerably written about As pum, in the past for its in the Arnold open and orange fruit. However, in all the many years it has been grown Arboretum, it has not made a good specimen plant, being very base. True, the fruits are colorful for the short period they but it does not seem advisable to recommend this because of its conspicuous, poor growth habit. Really blue fruits are borne by the arrowwood, V. dentatum. The black-fruited species are V. acerifolium and lantana. There are others like V. sieboldii, plicatum varieties, and veitchii, in which the fruits are black at maturity, but in ripening, they go through a stage when they are red and at that time, are most interesting. Truly black fruits can not be seen very far, but red fruits can, and so these we value especially during this ripening period. Usually, with V. sieboldii and some of the others, the fruits are red for some time, and as soon as they turn black, sometimes just before, they are taken by the birds. are leggy at the 50 &i) c x 0 cc ~ co G N .c 0 0 Y CJ N U k d N a_u w S v I a 6 :t~ ~o ~ o H~ ~ < -S B c .a;'. p,~ .. S v .. cc ~ a !! s s a E g z 'a, s S ~ Finally, there is a group with fruit at maturity a blue-black, but in ripening these will go through a most colorful change from green to yellow to red to blueblack-sometimes with all these colors apparent in one cluster at the same time. These would be f'. cassinoides, lentago, prunifolium and ryfidulum; all of them are excellent. The early-flowering species-V. burkwoodii, carlcephalum, carlesii, juddii and rh~lidophylloides have not fruited very well in the Arboretum. This may be due to inclement weather at the time the pollen is ripe or the lack of other pollinizing plants in the near vicinity. It is also due to the fact that these fruits are black ; are usually hidden well under the new growth ; and because they ripen so early in the summer, when few other plants have ripened fruits, the birds eat them before they are noticed. In any event, these are not recommended primarily for their fruits. For Shade Viburnum acerifolium, lantanoides (alufolium) and cassinoides are the best for shaded situations; in fact, the first two must have a cool, moist, shaded situation or they can not be grown at all. If such a place is not available, these two should not be tried. For Foliage Siebold's viburnum is the best of all for foliage alone. Its large, dark-green, deeply-rugose leaves appear in clusters on the branches so that there are open spaces without foliage, lending a most pleasing aspect to the plant as a whole. Then, the long leaves of V. rhyticlophylloides (formerly 1~. lantanaphyllum) are also good, possibly the 'Willow Wood Seedling' being the best clone of this hybrid species. The wayfaring tree, V. lantana, is not grown much any more, but its variety rugosum is a very good form, with rugose, slightly glossy, dark-green leaves that have none of the light green color of the species. Other viburnums also have handsome foliage, but those just mentioned might be considered the best for this purpose. For Habit can be grown with a single trunk and will eventually grow much as thirty feet tall. These would be V. lentago, prvnZf'olium (which incidentally is about the best for a vivid scarlet autumn color), ryfidulum and sieboldii. One variety, V. sieboldii reticulatum, is supposcd to be lower in habit, but our plant is yet too small to assess it properly. The lowest form is V. opulus nanum, seldom exceeding two feet in height, even though it may grow five feet across. It has never flowered in our collections, and normally can not be expected to flower. There are also dwarf forms of V. fragrans which do not flower with us but make low, compact plants. Shrubs about five or six feet tall would be G'. opulus oompactum and V. trilobum compactum, but I am not at all certain that these two differ. They are dense in habit and branching, Some viburnums as into small trees JZ PLATE VIII b'iburnum plicatum roseum. The petals of the large sterile flowers on the perimeter of each cluster open white, but some years they gradually fade to an excellent pink. and do flower and fruit. Viburnum wrightii hessei is also lower in growth than the species. Most of the other viburnums are shrubs six to twelve feet tall. In discussing viburnums for habit, the varieties of l~. plicatum certainly should be mentioned, for mariesii, 2olicatu~n 'Lanarth' and roseum all have a horizontal branching habit, bearing their flat clusters of flowers and fruits on the upper side of each branch, making the plants stand out from most other shrubs one sees in landscape plantings. I have seen old plants of V. plicatum mariesii in Ireland about seven feet tall, but they were over fifteen feet in spread, easily twice as wide as tall. Not Recommended Those species and varieties already discussed are among the best of the large group that is hardy here in the North. Merely for the record, to show other species and varieties either not hardy or which are grown but not found superior as ornamentals to those already mentioned, the following list is offered : NH=Not hardy in the Arnold Arboretum Differs httle from the species A B Fair, but other recommended viburnums ornamentals Has httle ornamental value C = = = + are as good or superior as acerifolium glabrescens acerifolium ovatum betulifolium bitchiuense bracteatum buddleifolium burejaeticum burkwoodii 'Park Farm Hybrid' calvum cinnamomifolium cordifolium A A B C C B C A erubescens erubescens B gracillipes A foetidum NH NH \" ceanothoides \" rectangulatum fragrans \" album \" candidissimum furcatum corylifolium cotinifolium cylindricum dasyanthum davidii dentatum deamii dentatum pubescens ellipticum erosum erosum taquetii NH NH NH B B NH NH NH A A B B A grandiflorum harryanum henryi hillieri 'Winton' hupehense ichangense jackii japonicum kansuense lantana \" discolor \" macrophyllum NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH NH B B B NH C B A A 54 (Bottom) PLATE IX 1'aburxtunx rarlcrphalum. rhe new Fraerant Snowball. Vaburxxum sieboldii. The flowers are small, but are borne profusely every year. (Top) lantana variegatum lantanoides praecox lentago sphaerocarpum lobophyllum macrocephalum \" keteleeri molle leiophyllum mongolicum nudum nudum angustifolium odoratissimum \" opulus roseum orientale ovatifolium phlebotrichum plicatum lanceolatum parvifolium \" propinquum C A A B NH NH B A B NH NH NH B C B NH A A NH propinquum lanceolatum rafinesquianum \" affine rhytidocarpum rhytidophyllum variegatum \" sargentii calvescens scabrellum schensianum \" setigerum \" surantiacum suspensum sympodiale tinus urceolatum utile wilsonii wrightii eglandulosum NH C C NH B C B A NH C B B NH B NH C NH NH A A note should be made of a few others that have not yet been fully tried and hence can not be properly assessed at this time. They are V. bodnatense which may not prove reliably hardy here; V. carlesii compacta; V. cassinoides nanum which should be an excellent shrub but for some reason or other has died out repeatedly in the Arboretum collections ; V. chenaultii which is supposed to be a \"glorified\" Burkwood's viburnum; V. fragrans `Bowles' and compactum, the latter probably being similar to V. fragrans nanum; V, opulus 'Notcutt's Variety' and V. trilobum 'Pink Flowered Form' of the Gellatly Nut Nursery in West Bank, British Columbia. In closing, the only serious viburnum pest we have encountered should be the dogwood twig borer (Oberea tripunctata). This borer, about mentioned three-fourths of an inch long, eats its way down the center of the twigs and branches into the very roots of the plant itself. Control is effected by using DDT (~0~o wettable DDT, 3 to 4 pounds to 100 gallons of water), spraying on the older rough bark of branches, trunks and twigs, where the insect lays its eggs. In the vicinity of Boston, the first spray should be applied about June 10 followed by one in mid-July and again by one in mid-August. - DONALD WYMAN .56 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Staff","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":57,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24339","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070bb28.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"THE STAFF The Arnold Arboretum has lost the services of two long-time staff members with the retirement of Professor Karl Sax and Mr. Thomas Park, during the summer. Professor Karl Sax came to Harvard in 1928 and has held a number of joint on the staffs of the Department of Biology, the Bussey Institution and the Arnold Arboretum. He served as acting director of the Arboretum from 1946 to 1941 and as director from 1947 until 1954. His significant cytological work may not be familiar to readers of Arnoldia, but his recent publications on the breeding of ornamental shrubs and trees and the production of dwarf trees by bark inversion and other techniques have been printed in this periodical. Dr. Sax will serve as Visiting Professor of Botany at Yale University during the next year, and has already been awarded a Guggenheim Fellowship for work in Oxford, England, the following year. appointments _ Mr. Thomas Park has been superintendent of the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston since 1945 when the property was bequeathed to the Arboretum. However, Tom spent his youth on the Case Estates, and has had over fifty years of work with the plants and the soil of the Case Estates. He will continue his interests in horticulture, for he will live on the grounds of the Case Estates for a while and will be available when we need his advice as a consultant. The appointment of Dr. Joab Thomas as cyto-taxonomist was announced by the President and Fellows beginning July 1, 1959. Dr. Thomas received the degree of Doctor of Philosophy from Harvard for work centering on the Cyrillaceae. He will continue the interests of Dr. Sax, developing work on the taxonomy and cytology of woody ornamental plants. 57 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Plants Around the World","article_sequence":10,"start_page":59,"end_page":77,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24331","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070a726.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wagenknecht, Burdette L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 19 DECEMBER 11, 1959 NUMBERS 10-12 CHRISTMAS PLANTS AROUND THE WORLD of using decorated trees in religious celebrations extends into The old Germanic priests hung lights on the sacred trees beneath which they offered sacrifices. Wherever they travelled, the Roman legions decorated pine trees with little masks of Bacchus in the festival of Saturnalia. European legend attributes the origin of Christmas trees to an eighth-century Englishman, St. Boniface, a missionary in Germany. Before a crowd of barbarians one Christmas Eve, he cut down a sacred oak beneath which they had made human sacrifices. A young fir tree which had remained undamaged by the fall was presented to the people with the explanation, \"This little tree, a young child of the forest, shall be your holy tree tonight.\" The holy tree it has remained. Legend also has it that Martin Luther was the first to use lights as part of the decorations for Christmas. The earliest authentic record of Christmas trees as we know them today is in a manuscript in which a Strassburg merchant wrote in 1605, \"At Christmas, they set up fir trees in the parlours at Strassburg and hang thereon roses cut out of many coloured paper, apples, wafers, goldfoil, sweets, etc.\" Most historians are in agreement with the St. Boniface legend that the first Christmas tree was a fir. The custom originated in the beech belt of central Europe where a single green fir in the defoliated brown beech forest becomes strikingly symbolic. It is from this area that the practice of using a tree as a part of the Christmas celebration spread throughout the Christian areas of the world. The trees of the new areas were usually conifers closely resembling the fir of central Europe. As the custom spread mto areas where plants of this type were not available, often the substituted trees were neither closely related, nor similar in appearance to the fir. In many areas, shrubs or herbaceous plants were also used for making Christmas wreaths and other decorations. In the preparation of this summary of the plants now used in Christmas celebrations throughout the world, inquiries were sent to many countries to ascertain THE practice antiquity. 59 onl~ the principal plants used in Christmas decorations but also those which dominant in the landscape at the holiday season. The following is a resume of the answers returned from more than forty individuals representing twenty-one countries, as well as material gathered from various other sources. not are The United States The New England areas will be discussed only with reference to the range of of certain plants as decorative material. This area has previously been covered in detail by Drs. Howard and Wood in their publication, \"Christmas Plants in the Boston Area,\" Arnoldia 1 ~ : 61-84. 19~~. Perhaps a few statements about the widespread use of Christmas trees in the United States will give some indication of the size of the Christmas tree industry. The United States Department of Agriculture Information Bulletin No. 94, \"Christmas trees, the Tradition and the Trade,\" reports that 25,369,223 trees were sold in one year during the early nineteen fifties. In contrast with this, the 1923 report indicated a total sale of approximately 5,000,000, a gain of more than 500 percent in about thirty years. In the western half of the United States and Canada the most frequently used Christmas tree is the Douglas fir, Pseudotsuga mensiesii. According to the United States Department of Agriculture report mentioned above, more than seven million specimens were sold. This is an especially desirable tree because it has a full, symmetrical shape, retains its fragrant, nonprickly needles throughout the holiday season and though bound in bundles for shipping, quickly regains its desirable shape when ready for use. In the northeastern areas of the United States and in southeastern Canada the traditional tree is the balsam fir, Abies balsamea. In addition to having all the desirable attributes of the preceding species, this tree is especially desirable to many, because, in this species more than in most, the twigs resemble crosses. That is, the tiny twigs are at right angles to the branches from which they arise. Slightly more than six million individuals of this species were commercially harvested according to the government report cited above. Throughout the eastern half of the United States, and especially in the southeast, the Christmas tree used often is the red-cedar, Juniperus virginiana. Native or naturalized in a large number of habitats over the eastern half of the country, many plants of this species are gathered by individuals from the forest as a substitute for the firs and spruces offered commercially. The small, scale-like needles of this species give an entirely different aspect to this tree when compared with the firs, spruces and pines. The prickly needles detract from the desirability of this plant which usually sells for a lower price than other species offered for sale. In Pennsylvania and the eastern Great Lakes region the tree most often used is the Scots pine, Pinus s,~lvestris. If one considers Europe as well as North America, one finds this to be the species of pine most commonly used as a Christmas use 60 s Y a ~, a~ . <: .... a G m x t) a~ F N 8 ~ U c~ co b 0 m a a D o 8 8 W ~ '~ .. d~ a a~ w F t; '\" .a ~..!!isn 0 .~ an .~ . ro '\" va \"Gw G = v ca ,~~, .... m s G O C c .U ' S ~. i ~ \"ci2~x <:; . .., ~:I: .,~ ~ \"- ~ Since this species was introduced from Europe, all specimens produced commercially come from planted stock. If given enough space to allow for proper growth, it becomes a shapely tree. It responds well to pruning and shearing which, when properly done, produces a very dense tree. The characteristic rather orange-colored bark which may appear on plants of Christmas-tree size adds to tree. its attractiveness. The four previously discussed species account for approximately seventy percent of the trees commereially produced for this purpose. Not identified in any of the correspondence submitted for this report is the remaining member of the first five trees in commercial production, the black spruce, Picea mariana. This omission is quite readily explained. The very small needles make the spray-painting of this species especially successful; thus many specimens are sold as very gaudily painted trees. The black spruce is a very slow-growing tree; so slow, in fact, that it often produces cones before reaching a salable size, the only tree listed which generally does so. Most of the plants produced commercially are grown in the swampy regions of Minnesota. Of more interest than the trees grown in large commercial quantities are those which are sold in limited numbers. These are trees which may be in commercial production but have not been grown in sufficient quantities to appear over the entire country, or trees whose ecological requirements are such that they will not respond to the commercial growers' agricultural practices. In the northwestern portion of the United States and adjacent Canada many large forests of conifers are found. Most of these species are utilized, either through a commercial outlet or by individuals who cut their own trees. The Douglas fir is native here and is often cut from the forest rather than purchased from a dealer. The most desirable tree in this area is the Rocky Mountain or subalpine fir, Abies lasiocarpa. In addition to the desirable characters found in the balsam and Douglas firs, the subalpine fir is most attractive because of the striking contrast between the blue-green needles and the ashy-gray branchlets. Difficult to acquire, it commands a higher price when offered for sale and makes what is to many people the most beautiful tree of all. Those who wish a much less expensive and correspondingly much less desirable tree use the ponderosa pine, Pinus ponderosa. Common in many areas, it is probably more often cut from the forest than purchased. Decorative materials in this area are similar to those found in the remainder of the country, with some use made of the species which occur locally. Branches of the ponderosa pine are used as sprays for fireplace mantles and front doors. The usual practice is to gather fallen cones to attach to the branch when displayed. Most wreaths and sprays are made from the giant western cedar or arbor-vitae, Thuja plica\/a. The to plant dominating the landscape at the Christmas season varies from place place in this section. In the prairies the most conspicuous plant other than the 62 grasses is the big sagebrush, Artemisia tridentata. In the mountains below five thousand feet in altitude, the Douglas fir, ponderosa pine, western larch, and lodgepole pine dominate the scene. Above five thousand feet, the most conspicuous trees are the subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce. On the coastal side of the mountain ranges several cultivated broadleaf evergreens appear conspicuously. Fruiting specimens of various Mahonia, Buxus and holly species appear commonly. One also finds the mountain ash and the cotoneasters to be very attractive because of their fruits. The most common Christmas trees at the University of Alaska are the Douglas fir and balsam fir, both of which are imported. The native species most often used is the white spruce, Picea glauca. This is rather undesirable since this, as well as other spruces, tends to loose its needles more readily than do the two imported species. If cut early in the fall, the tree is rarely in good condition for use at the holiday season due to needle loss. If cut during the early part of December the temperatures are often an minus forty degrees Fahrenheit, freezing the tree and making it so brittle that it is not at all unusual to lose all the branches when felling it. At this latitude the vegetation is almost non-existent during the Christmas season, with only the white and black spruces and the tamarack to be seen in the countryside. In California the situation parallels that found in the northwest. The Douglas fir is native and used more often than any other species. However, several others are used, either because they are more attractive or because they are available at lower cost. Most species of pine and juniper fall into the latter category. A tree often sought for and commanding a higher price is the white fir, Abies concolor. The large, soft needles found on this tree make it very decorative. Another desirable native is the Noble fir, Abies nobilis. The out-of-doors living Christmas tree decorated with colored lights is often the deodara cedar, Cedrus deodara. Plants producing material for decorative uses are numerous here. Wreaths are usually made from the coast redwood, Sequoia semPerairens or holly leaf cherry, Prunus ilicifolia. Coming into wider use is the large-leafed hybrid of the latter with the Catalina cherry, P. lyoni. The inhabitants of this area are fortunate to have many plants grown in the area producing fruits at this time of year which can be used in decorative arrangements. The one used most often is the toyon, Photinia arbutifolia. This plant is so popular at this time of year that it is also widely known as the Christmas-berry. Other fruits used here are those of various species of cotoneasters, of the firethorn, 1'yracantha crenato-serrata, and of the pepper-tree, Shinus mollis. The latter is often grown as a street tree. Plants considered decorative because of their foliage are mistletoe, Phoradendron flavescens var. macroPhyllum, and various species of cypress, mostly Cupressus macrocarpa. Many pods and cones are often used and often these are gilded, silvered or colored in various ways. In the coastal areas, particularly in southern California, poin- 63 are used. Citrus fruits are sometimes used, especially in the fashioning of Della Robia wreaths which are often backed by the leaves of Magnolia grandiflora or perhaps English laurel, Prunus laurocerasus. Magnolia leaves and fruits, usually dried, sprayed or painted, are often used in decorations. The English holly, Ilex aquifolium, is found only occasionally. The commercial source of this plant is the Pacific northwest. The plant is so expensive it is never freely used in decorations, being more often worn as a corsage. Northern California is dominated by the various gymnosperms located along the coast and in the mountains. The endemic Sequoia along the coast is among the most attractive. In the southern parts of the state one finds many exotic plants, such as various species of palms which line the boulevards, the Schinus mollis mentioned above, and the eucalyptus which is commonly found throughout this region. Among the plants which are striking for their red fruits are the Christmas-berry, Photinia arbutifolia, various species of Cotoneaster, Pyracantha and, on rare settias, Euphorbia ~ulcherrima, and eucalyptus leaves, buds and capsules occasions, Crataegus. The variation of local tastes is perhaps best illustrated by the reports gathered from Louisiana and Texas. Probably the tree most commonly sold in this general area is the Douglas fir. In New Orleans, however, the balsam fir was reported to be the tree most commonly sold; in San Antonio the blue noble fir, Abies nobilis var. glauca, was the biggest seller. It should be pointed out that these reports are from commercial sources. Many people cut their own trees, however, which in Louisiana and eastern Texas are most likely to be the red-cedar or, in some cases, the native pines. In western Texas other species of juniper are utilized. A most unusual plant used for this purpose is the salt cedar, Tamarix gallica. An angiospermous plant bearing a profusion of pink or white flowers in the summer, it resembles in foliage and habit some of the scale-needled genera of the gymnosperms. It is an introduced, arborescent weed growing in great abundance along the watercourses and in saline areas throughout much of the southwest. This plant is used by many of the Latin Americans in southern Texas. Properly decorated and with perhaps a few branches added to make it more dense, this is an attractive and inexpensive tree. Decorative materials in this area are similar to those in other regions of the United States. The three hollies, Ilex cornuta, 1. decidua and l. vomitoria are commonly used, the latter species being used more often than the first two. Pyracantha species, poinsettias, and chrysanthemums are used in many homes. Not widely practiced is the old custom of dipping wet plants of Tillandsia usneoides, the Spanish moss, and T. recurvata, the ball moss, in flour and using them when dry as snow drapes and snow balls. Horticultural plants of interest at this time of year are the poinsettias which are grown out of doors, often reaching a height of six feet. These plants are somewhat of a risk to use since in San Antonio they may freeze as often as one : 64] m ~U N a x 0 G a c JS i0 a ~ S j3 e cc U U 3~ g W ro r~ f-) .S P~ c, bD p, O f\" 'C . O n r z~ ~I ~c o ~U cc . o ,~ W ,o, v c ~ +s e i! ~x season. A plant which is being recommended the San Antonio nurserymen as the coming plant for Christmas display is by Ardesia crenulata, a small, slow-growing shrub with glossy, dark evergreen leaves and clusters of crimson berries which are retained all winter. Among the trees which are noteworthy at this time of year are the various species of junipers, pines and the oaks, some of which retain their leaves throughout the winter. Many trees are parasitized with mistletoe which is quite prominent at this time of year. Along the streams and in some drier areas the mesquite is common. Late-flowering species of rabbit-brush, Chrysothamnus, may still bear fruits at this time of year. In the northern plains nearly all the trees used are imported. The most commonly imported tree is the Douglas fir. Some spruce and pine are used in small quantities. The colorful Colorado blue spruce is sometimes imported here, as it is in other areas. This tree makes a spectacular showing, particularly if it is a good bright blue, and commands a higher price than do other trees commercially available. The only native tree which is used to any extent is the red-cedar. Most of these are obtained from pastures and woodlands by individuals cutting trees for their own use. Decorative material in this area is of imported greenery, usually arbor-vitae or ponderosa pine from the Rocky Mountains, with a small amount of mistletoe and holly imported from the South. The Christmas fern, Polystichum acrostochoides, is used as decorative material in areas where it can be collected easily. Little commercial use of the plant is found. The area is a barren one in winter. The only relief from the monotony of the grasslands and fields is furnished by the large, gaunt cottonwoods, Populus deltoides, and the white-branched sycamore, Platanus occidentalis. In the southeast, the red-cedar mentioned above is the tree most often sold commercially. A large numbcr of gymnosperms are native to this area and are cut and sold in commercial quantities. Many other trees are cut by individuals from the forest rather than purchased. A most attractive tree native to the Appalachian Mountains of western North Carolina, eastern Tennessee, and southwestern Virginia is the Fraser fir, Abies fraseri. In the area in which it is native it is much sought after. It is a tree which the United States Department of Agriculture has suggested as being suitable for cultivation as a commercial source for Christmas trees. It is possible, therefore, that the use of this tree may become more widespread, particularly in the southeast. Several species of pine are also used. Among these are Pinus echinata, the short-leaf pine, P. taeda, the loblolly pine, P. elliottii, Elliott's pine and P. clausa, the sand pine. The use of these species is closely linked to their lower sale price. One of the pines which does make a very interesting and attractive tree is the longleaf pine, Pinus australis. The character of this tree which makes it so desirable is the radiation from a common point of the 10- to 20-inch needles in a star-like or rosette pattern year in two before the Christmas 66 along the branches. A rather unusual Christmas tree for this area is the Arizona cypress, Cupressus arisonica, which has blue-green, scale-like needles and a dense growth habit. This native of the southwest grows slowly under the conditions existing in its native habitat and is in some danger of being eradicated. In the northeast this species is rarely seen and then only in sprays and wreaths. However, it is now being produced commercially in some quantity on Christmas tree farms in South Carolina. The milder winters of the southeastern and southern portions of the United States make possible the growth of many broadleaved evergreen species which are not hardy farther north. Although not gymnosperms and differing from them in nearly all characters except the retention of leaves throughout the winter, some are used as Christmas trees. One species used for this purpose is the American holly, Ilex opaca. The leaves of the native bull bay, Magnolia grandiflora, are often used in the manufacture of wreaths, but the use of it as a Christmas tree is rare enough that a description of its use may be of some interest. Small trees (preferably pot-grown for this purpose) are treated with one of the compounds used to remove the dull surface film from the leaves and make them shiny. Fruits of this species are dipped in shellac, dusted with metallic powder or any of the colored powders of this type and allowed to dry. The fruits are then fitted with hangers and placed on the tree in the same manner as are glass ornaments on traditional trees. Strings of popcorn complete the decoration. The southeast is fortunate in having many of the plants which are used for decorative material either as native or as introduced plants which survive in this mild climate. Smilax laurifolia, several species of holly, various glossy-leaved evergreen species of privet and Magnolia gran~l~ora are used as sources of foliage materials. In much of the area mistletoe is native and can be collected rather than purchased. The various pines, in particular the longleaf pine, are used in the construction of wreaths and sprays. Swags and sprays are sometimes made from the Australian pine, Casuarina equiselifolia, as well. Although actually an angiosperm, the branchlets of the latter resemble the needles of the pine and the cone-like fruits produced by this species heightens this resemblance. Berried fruits commonly seen in this area are borne by species of Pyracantha, Cotoneaster and Ardisia. Plants found to be in flower at this time of year include various species of camellias and flowering quinces. Sabal palmetto ~s a native to the Gulf Coast area and is very prominent at the holiday season. The royal palm Roystonia regia, though native to Florida, appears quite exotic to the visitor from the more northern areas. Cultivated palms include Washingtonia robusta and Phoenix canariensis. Many species of oaks in this area are evergreen and are usually known as live oaks because of this characteristic. The livmg Christmas tree with the greatest limb spread is a 300-year-old live oak with a spread of 115 feet. Growing in Hilton Park in Wilmington, North Carolina, this tree displays seven thousand lights and bears six tons of Spanish moss. 67 Caribbean Area In the Caribbean region the Christmas trees are usually species of pine. The principal one used is Pinus caribaea, the Caribbean pine. Various firs and spruces are also imported for some of the more wealthy residents. The Douglas firs produced in Montana are sold as far south as Puerto Rico. Several species of angioare used here. One so used is the Australian pine mentioned above. Another is a broadleaved angiosperm of the genus Randia which is used in Puerto Rico. The special advantage of this plant is that it bears white fruits at Christmas and thus is already partly decorated. Flowering plants are an integral part of the holiday scene in this subtropical and tropical region. Here the poinsettia, often used as a hedge, spreads its flaming beauty free from the danger of frost damage. Two flowering plants which have wide acceptance at this season are Porana pamiculala and Antigonon leptopus. The first species is a member of the convolvulus family. A relative of the morning glory, it is a vigorous, evergreen woody climber covered with a profusion of tiny, fragrant white flowers borne in panicles at the top of each branchlet. The leaves are large, heartshaped and densely pubescent beneath. Several common names have been applied to this plant. In Trinidad it is known as corallila; in Florida as the snow-creeper or the Christmas vine. The latter name is not appropriate in Florida since normally it flowers long before Christmas and bears only the unsightly fruits at this time. Antigonon is a member of the buckwheat family known as coral-vine in Florida and as corallita in the West Indies. A rapidly growing climber clinging by tendrils, the plant is valued because of its large racemes of rose-pink flowers borne freely throughout the flowering season. sperms South America The practice of using Christmas trees has not been widely adopted in South America and at present is confined to some of the immigrant populations there. Most of these people use artificial trees. It is possible that the use of Christmas trees will become more widespread in the future. At least, the commercial houses in the larger cities now use them in their seasonal decorations. Europe most common Christmas tree is the Norway spruce, This species has been introduced into the United States and is widely cultivated, but constitutes only about two per cent of the total commercial production of Christmas trees. It is dense, symmetrical and has good color and fragrance, but it has a tendency to drop its needles when subjected to high indoor temperatures. The cooler temperatures maintained in European homes prolong the beauty of the tree and this probably accounts for its greater popularity. Throughout Europe the Picea abies. 68 Great Britain The Christmas trees of Great Britain are most often the Norway spruce and the Scots pine. Other species may be used as they are locally available. The customs of Christmas in Great Britain are more familiar to us than those of any other country. The Yule log and the plum pudding are traditions well known to all. The decorative materials are also widely known, although the familiar common names may refer to quite different plants. For example, mistletoe is widely used but it is somewhat surprising to find that the mistletoe of Great Britain and Europe is Viscum album while in America it is Phoradendron ,flavescens. Both are members of the Loranthaceae, however. The former has flowers in terminal clusters, with anthers adnate to the perianth lobes and anthers opening by pores; the latter has flowers in spikes, with the anthers free from the perianth lobes and opening by slits. In most other characters they resemble one another and the American substitution is a logical one. Other foliage plants used in wreaths, sprays and corsages are English holly, Ilex aquifolium, cherry laurel, Prunus laurocerasus, and Portugal laurel, P. lusilanica. A practice still found in certain areas of Great Britain and Europe is that of bringing indoors potted cherry or hawthorn trees so that they may flower at Christmas. In England a popular superstition is connected with St. Joseph of Arimathea, whose staff put forth leaves when he planted it in the earth at Glastonbury and by tradition thereafter flowered at Christmas. At the time of the last revision of the calendar the traditionalists who opposed the change used this plant as a proof that the revision was wrong. Since that time the tree has bloomed from the old Christmas to the new, thus supporting both views. Ireland In addition to the Norway spruce, the Irish use Picea sitchensis, the Sitka spruce, introduced from the West Coast of the United States. The traditional decorative plants in Ireland are the holly, the mistletoe and the poinsettia. Other plants which are commonly encountered are Solanum cvpsicastrum, the Jerusalem cherry, the English ivy and various azaleas, all of which are grown in pots. Trees and shrubs in flower during the holiday season include Prunus subhirtella The flowering of var. autumnali,s, Viburnum fragrans and Jasminum nudiflorum. at this time of year at latitudes much farther north than Boston is these plants a reflection of the milder winters produced as a result of the influence of the Gulf Stream. Trees and shrubs which are conspicuous because of the fruits are the strawberry tree, flrbutus unedo, which bears red fruits and white flowers at this season, and various species of 1'erneltya, whose red fruits are most attractive. In addition to the pines, firs and yews whose foliage is particularly prominent at this time, one is especially conscious of the English holly in the country districts and of the various color forms of Chamaecyparis lausonianv in the gardens. [ 69 Belgium, ern Netherlands and Luxemburg The region which includes Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxemburg and northFrance is one in which the Norway spruce is most widely used. The white and Colorado spruces are sometimes substituted, but these are somewhat rare and, according to my correspondents, much more expensive. The decorative materials used are typical of most European areas. Sprays usually consist of cone-bearing branches of Abies nordmanniana, the Nordmann fir, tied with colored ribbons. Fruiting branches of English holly, the black alder or winter berry, Ilex verticillata, Cotoneaster salic~'olia and C. horizontalis are also used in the decorative scheme. An unusual note is the use of flowering branches of Hamamelis mollis, the witch hazel. Various lichens and mosses are used as garlands in place of the lycopodias and selaginellas used in the eastern United States. Woody plants usually in flower are Prunus subhirtella var. autumnalis, Parrotia persica, Hamamelis virginiana, H. mollis and Erica carnea. Fruiting plants of note are the pyracanthas, cotoneasters and hollies. Germany The Christmas trees of Germany are of the same species as those listed for the area. Most of the decorative material is identical except for the use of .4cneia foliage and the cone-bearing branches of Douglas fir used in sprays. preceding Scandinavia Tne Norwegians and Swedes have used Christmas trees for little over one hundred years. The Scots pine was first used, but has been largely replaced by the Norway spruce. Other species of spruce or fir which are locally available are also used. In this area of large, coniferous forests the symbolism of an evergreen tree is not so marked as it is in the beech belt. The holly is occasionally used to make a Christmas tree, as it is in the southeastern United States. Decorative material is usually holly, with an occasional spruce or fir bough used as a spray. Old Norwegian Christmas traditions usually did not include green decorations. In a few places green branches were hung over doors and windows, but such traditions were less widespread than those concerned with the use of sheaves of grain. Potted plants used at this time of year include the Christmas rose, Heleborus niger, the poinsett~a, here sometimes called the Christmas star, and the Christmas cactus, Epiphyllum truncatum. Spain In Spain the use of Christmas trees began even more recently than it did in the Scandinavian countries, but has already had considerable effect upon the flora of the country. The first plant used was the silver fir, Abies alba. Unre- 70 PLATE XII Cones and foliage of Juniperus virginiana, the red cedar. (Below) Cones and foliage of a species of Cupressus. This genus is used often as a source of Christmas trees in the Middle East and Africa. (Above) stricted cutting of this tree brought destruction to the few woods of the species that existed in the country. The trees currently in use are the Scots pine, English yew, Taxus baccata, and the cultivated Spanish fir, .~bies pinsapo. English holly is used for decorative material here, as it is in most European areas. The mistletoe in Spain is Viscum laxum, a different species, though the same genus, from that used in northern Europe. Ruscus aculeatus, the butcher's broom, a weed in various parts of the Mediterranean region, is used in some homes for decorative purposes. No information is available as to whether in Spain it is dyed bright shades of red, pink or green, as is done in the United States. Forests in Spain and Portugal are quite restricted as compared with the large forests of northern Europe. Two broadleaved evergreens are very commonly seen, the economically important cork oak, Quercus suber, and the olive, Olea europaea. The latter is widely cultivated throughout the Mediterranean region. In Barcelona the Spanish fir is cultivated in sufficient quantities to be a prominent part of the scene. Asia Israel and Lebanon The areas in which the Christian religion had its beginnings are now under the control of governments whose official religions are not Christian. However, some Christians live in these areas and they use decorative materials in celebration of this religious holiday. In Jerusalem the trees commonly used are Cupres.sus sempervirens var. horizontale, the Arizona cypress, Cupressus arizonica, and the Aleppo pine, Pinus halapensis. In Lebanon the stone pine, Pinus pinea, the evergreen cypress, Cupressus sempervirens, the Brutian pine, Pinus brutia, and the Cilician fir, Abies cilicica, are also used when available. Surprisingly, the Cedar of Lebanon, Cedrus libani, is not used for this purpose. It would seem that the Biblical connotations of this plant should have caused this to be one of the more symbolically desirable trees. Little decorative material is cited from Lebanon. The only plant specifically mentioned is mistletoe, probably a different one from that used in northern Europe. In Jerusalem many plants are at their best at this season. I.Yparagus sprengeri and various species of cotoneasters are used for their red fruits. The cone-like fruits of the Australian pine, Casuarina equiset~'olia and the acorns of Quercus caliprinos are commonly used in arrangements. Foliage material of Acacia, laurel, evergreen privets, myrtle, the pistacio, Pistaoia lentiscus, rosemary, Rhamnus alternus, and several species of pittosporum offer a wide variety of leaf size, shape and texture. India from a Catholic college and a Hindu university indicate that the pracof using Christmas trees has not been adopted by the Christians of India. tice Replies ~ 72 This may be due to the lack of trees suitable for the purpose in the areas contacted. However, decorative materials are used in the celebration of the holiday. Several native species of Viscum are used as mistletoe and in the southern part of Bombay State one of the ground pines, Lycopodium cernuum, is a traditional decorative material. Holly is not native to this area but a good substitute is Acanthus ilic~'olius, whose leaves are remarkably like those of holly. The use of this plant is restricted, since it occurs abundantly only in mangrove swamps near the sea. The environment in this area is quite different from those previously described and the vegetation is an expression of that difference. More conspicuous than the occasional conifers are such woody plants as Olea dioica (a member of the same genus as the olive previously ment~oned), the clockvine, Thunbergia laevis, and the allamanda, Allamanda catlrarlica, all of which flower at this time. Thailand - The southeastern asiatic country of Thailand with its temples and oriental pagentry is one in which the use of Christmas trees might not be expected. However, both indigenous and exotic species of trees are used for this purpose. Several species of the genus Araucaria, the monkey puzzle trees, are native and are used as they are locally available. The introduced angiospermous Casuarina equisetifolia and C. junghuhniana are more commonly used than any other trees. Flowers used in Christmas decorations are very much different from those in use in Europe or North America. Some mentioned in particular were orchids, gerberas and roses. The poinsettia is grown out-of-doors here and is very large and showy at this time of year. In this tropical area it is extremely difficult to name one or more plants as being characteristic of the landscape. Most of the trees and shrubs are not in flower at this season and thus the individual plants tend to be lost in the masses of foliage. Japan The Christmas tree custom is well established in the Christian population of Japan. The tree used more than any other is the Momi fir, Abies firma. Other conifers are used when available. The Norway spruce is cultivated in this country and is used in limited quantities. Decorative materials are varied and plentiful in this country, and when arranged with the traditional skill of the Japanese, result in a movingly beautiful display. Nandina domestica is justly popular for the decorative effects of its clumps of erect, reedlike stems, large, fernlike leaves which become red in winter and its clusters of bright scarlet fruits. Chloranthus glaber is used for its shiny leaves. The chrysanthemum, national flower of Japan, is used in bouquets at this time, as well as for other celebrations during the year. Poinsettia is grown out-of-doors and is most attractive. Spiraea thunbergii may still be in flower on the southern islands 73 of the chain and when available is also carnations. Branches of Ilex serrata is rare. are used, as are sprays of tulips, irises and use of the widely, Potted plants, generally cyclamens, cineraria, primulas European holly and orchids are also in demand. Among the more prominent trees and shrubs are the wild and cultivated plants of Ilex serrata which display red berries, cultivated plants of Camellia sasanqua, Eriobotrya japonica, the loquat, in fruit at this time, Pyracantha angust~f'olia, conspicuous in fruit and widely used as a hedge, Fatsia japonica and the Nandina domestica mentioned above. Africa used quite but the The use of Christmas trees on the continent of Africa is limited to the southern half where the population contains large numbers of Dutch and English colonists whose ancestors brought the custom with them. The conifers native to this area are members of the genus Widdringtonia. These species are not used, however, and so Christmas in South Africa is generally celebrated with introduced trees. In Rhodesia Cupressus arizonica, the Arizona cypress, and C. torulosa from China are most often used, though Pinus patula from Mexico and P, halepensis from southern Europe and western Asia, as well as Cryptomeria japonica from Japan are also used to a lesser extent. In the Cape Provinces Pinus pinaster, a native of the Mediterranean area, is the most commonly used tree, while the inhabitants of Transvaal use Pinus longifolia and Cedrus deodara, natives of the Himalayas. As was the case in India, some substitutions are made for typical English plants. Psorospermum febr'~f'agum, a member of the family Guttiferae, is used in place of holly, while several indigenous species of Viscum are substituted for V. album, the mistletoe of northern Europe. The reversal of the seasons in the Southern Hemisphere causes Christmas to fall in early summer at the height of the growing season. Flowers, plentiful at this time, form the basis for most Christmas decorations and include dahlias, zinnias, asters, gladioli, roses, chrysanthemums and various so-called daisies. Often the fronds of several Asparagus species are used with paper streamers about the walls of a room or are made to trail down the center of dining tables. A somewhat unusual decorative plant is Asclepias physocarpa. Quite weedy in growth, its large, inflated pods which appear in December are used in flower arrangements. In recent years the more progressive florists have exhibited these pale green, slightly prickly pods in their window displays where they are quite striking, especially when partially sprayed with silver and used in Christmas bouquets. The soft papery pods of this species grow to about two and one-half inches in diameter and are nearly spherical in shape. The plant is called wild cotton because the seed pod opens to reveal seeds attached to a mass of silky white hairs. One of the peculiarities of the Southern Hemisphere is found in the linking of certain plants in flower at this time with the celebration of Christmas. One of 4 74 PLATE XIII Various species of fir showin~ the cross-like arrangement of the terminal and lateral branchlets. Top row: Abies bulsaneea and t1. concolor. Bottom row: A. veitchii, lower surface; upper surface; and A. homolepis. (Belrno) Ile.r vomitoria. A native holly of the Southern Coastal Plain, used locally as a source of decorative material. (Above) the most widely grown plants connected with the season is Hydrangea macrophylla, known throughout the region as Christmas flowers. This choice may seem odd to the inhabitants of the Northern Hemisphere accustomed to seeing this plant flower in August. Pavel\/a bowkeri is known widely in South Africa as the Christmas bush. This plant is a dainty, evergreen shrub which grows to a height of from three to six feet. In December and January it bears attractive, rounded heads of pure white flowers, each head measuring from three to four inches in diameter. The heads consist of a compact cluster of small, long-tubed floc~ers opening into four starry, pointed petals. Their decorative value is enhanced by the delicate white styles which protrude from each flower. The oval, tapering leaves are a deep glossy green and measure about two to three inches in length. The shrub is closely related to Ixora and is a member of the Rubiaceae. It occurs as a native in all provinces except the southwestern cape. Sandersonia aurantica is known as Christmas bells or as the Chinese-lantern lily. As indicated by the second common name, this plant is a member of the lily family and is closely related to Gloriosa and Littonia. Each attractive, clear orange flower is over one inch long and one-half inch in diameter. It is puffed mto the shape of a bell and is slightly constricted at the mouth where it is flushed with yellow. Each single flower hangs down gracefully from a curved, wiry flower stalk. It is in some danger of eradication due to depradations of thoughtless collectors. While the previous plant is known as Christmas bells, Blan~f'ordia flammea is known as the Christmas bell. It is also a member of the lily family bearing clusters of yellowtipped, red bells, on three-foot stems. Chironia baccifera, a member of the Gentian family, is known as the Christmas berry. This plant is an evergreen perennial growing to a height of about eighteen inches, forming a rounded mass of thin green upright stalks, bearing narrow, rather fleshy leaves. In November and December the small bushes are covered with bright pink, star-shaped flowers which are followed immediately by scarlet berries about the size of peas. In addition to the plants listed above which are prominent, the rainy season brings other tropical and sub-tropical trees and shrubs to full flower. Among the more showy are bougainvilleas, the flamboyant, the frangipanni, acacias and bauhinias. The traditional temperate zone festivities are superimposed upon completely different climatic conditions, tending to give an artificial complexion to the holidays. Australia and New Zealand of Australia and New Zealand brought with them the adapted them to the conditions they found in the new homes. Here also, Christmas is a midsummer holiday. In many areas of Australia the Christmas tree is a species of ,4uraucnria planted in a tub, to be decorated and displayed out-of-doors. The native Callitris glauca and C. propinqua are used as cut trees when available. Pinu.e radiala, introduced from Mexico, The English settlers customs of their native land and 76 and P. canariensis of the Canary Islands are also used. Perhaps the most exotic plant used is Exocarpos cupressiformis, the cherry ballart, a member of the sandalwood family. Although an angiosperm, this tree has foliage resembling a cypress or, more closely, a Callitris. The fruit is a berrylike seed borne at the tip of the branch on a red stalk. The fruit and the stalk serve as built-in decorations in the same manner as the Randia fruits do in Puerto Rico. Here the practice of linking certain flowering plants with Christmas is carried a step further than it is in Africa. In Australia and New Zealand each state has its own Christmas tree or shrub, a plant which is in spectacular flower at this time of year. One of the most colorful is Ceratopetalum gummiferum, the Christmas tree of New South Wales. This is usually ten to fifteen feet tall, occasionally reaching heights of forty feet or more. The orange flowers, borne in very large clusters, are picked on Christmas day. The Christmas tree of New Zealand is Metrosideros excelsa, a member of the Myrtaceae, to which Eucalyptus and Caliandra, the powder puff tree belong. Covered with red inflorescences whose showiness is due to the colorful stamens, it is the most spectacular plant to be seen in New Zealand at this time of year. The difference in season is well illustrated by the problems which arise in the use of holly. All holly used in decorations is used for the foliage since the fruits which were so attractive with us are at their best in the month of June. It would seem that the early celebrants of Christmas in western Europe have handed down some very durable traditions. Wherever they have migrated, and indeed, throughout the Christian world, they have celebrated Christmas with the fir, the holly and the mistletoe, and where these are not to be had, other green trees and other red berries or flowers carry on the theme of Christmas. BURDETTE L. WAGENKNECHT 77 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XIX","article_sequence":11,"start_page":79,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24333","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d070ab6f.jpg","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XIX Illustrations are in bold face type. Abies - alba, 70 Abies balsamea, 60; Plate l cilicica, 72 XIII, 75 ' Abies concolor, 63; Plate 3 firma, 73 - 5 XIII, 75 fraseri, 66 \/ ; Abies homolepis, Plate lasiocarpa, 62 - XIII, 75 - nobilis, 63 glauca, 64 0 nordmanniana, 70 - - pinsapo, 72 Abies veitchii, Plate XIII, 75 Acacia, 70, 72 Acanthus ilicifolius, 73 8 Acer pest, 4, 7 Aesculus pest, 6, 7 Allamanda cathartica, 73 Amelanchier pest, 5, 7 Ampelopsis pest, 6, 7 Azalea pests, 4, 5, 6, 7 Bacterial blight, 3, 9 7 Ballart, cherry, 77 Beech wooly aphid, 4, 7 Bell, Christmas, 76 Bells, Christmas, 76 Berry, Christmas, 76 Best of the Crab Apples, 17-20 7 Betula pest, 3, Birch leaf miner, 3, 7 Buxus pests, 4, 5, 7 Black vine weevil, 5, 9 Blandfordia flammea, 76 Booklet on Lilacs from Russia, 81-85 Boxwood leaf miner, 4, 7 psylla, 4, 7 Callitris glauca, 76 6 propinqua, 76 Camellia sasanqua, 74 _ - - - - Anthracnose, 3, Antigonon, 68 leptopus, 68 \"Arboretums and Botanical Gardens of North America,\" 58 Arbutus unedo, 69 Ardesia crenulata, 66 4 Arnold Arboretum, Lecture Slides, 14 58 -, Fall Classes, -, Spray Schedule, 1-10 -, Spring Classes, 22 Artemisia tridentata, 63 Asclepias physocarpa, 74 Asparagus sprengeri, 72 8 - Cankerworm, 4, 7, 8, Carya pest, 4, 7 Casuarina 9 I equisetifolia, 67, Catalpa pest, 4, 7 Cedar apple rust, 2, 7, 8 Cedar, red, 60; Plate XII, -, salt, 64 Cedrus deodara, 63, 74 2 libani, 72 - 72 1 71 Celastrus pest, 2, 5, 7 Ceratopetalum gummiferum, 77 Chaenomeles pests, 2, 7 - Chamaecyparis lawsoniana, - 69 Auraucaria, 76 Azalea bark scale, 6, 7, 9 pest, 5, 7 6 Chironia baccifera, 76 Chloranthus glaber, 73 Christmas Plants, Africa, 74 < [ 79 Christmas Plants Around the World, 59-77 - -, Australia and New Zealand, 76-77 - -, Belgium, Netherlands, and Luxemburg, 70 -, Caribbean Area, 68 - -, white flowers, 17 7 Crataegus pests, 2, 3, 7 Cryptomeria japonica, 74 Cultivars of Syringa vulgaris offered for sale, 27-28 Cupressus, Plate XII, 71 - arizonica, 67, 72, 74 macrocarpa, 63 `Z sempervirens, 7 - - -, Europe, --, Germany, 70 -, Great Britain, 69 -, India, 72 -, Ireland, 69 ~? -, Israel and Lebanon, 72 73 -, ,Japan, -, Scandinavia, 70 -, South America, 68 Spain, 70, 72 -, Thailand, 73 -, United States, 60-67 - -, the Tradition and the Trade, - 68 -- - - horizontale, - torulosa, 74 Cypress, Arizona, Dirca pest, 2, 5, 7 z 72 67 7 - - - - - Diseases, 2-9 Dogwood twig borer, 5, 7, 9, Dutch elm disease, 2, 6 Elm bark beetle, 2, 6, 9 leaf beetle, 4, 9 leaf miner, 3, 9 Epiphyllum truncatum, 70 Erica carnea, 70 0 56 60 Chrysanthemum, Chrysothamnus, 66 Classes, Fall, Arnold Arboretum, 58 -, Spring, Arnold Arboretum, 22 Cornus pest, 5, 7 0 Cotoneaster horizontalis, 70 7 pests, 3, 5, 0 salicifolia, 70 Crab Apples, Best of the, 17-20 - -, double or semi-double flowers, - 8 73 18 8 -, foliage color, 18-19 -, further trials needed for, 20-22 8 -, lasting fruit, 18 - - of Merit, 15-22 8 -, ornamental fruits, 18 and white flowers, 17 7 -, pink 17 7 -, pink flowers, 7 -, red to reddish flowers,17 1 7 -, reddish-purple flowers, 20 -, unique forms, - - - - - -- - 4 Eriobotryaa japonica, 74 Euonymus pest, 2, 5, 7 scale, 2, 5, 7, 9 Euphorbia pulcherrima, 64 European pine shoot moth, 2, 6, 8 Exocarpos cupressiformis, 77 Fagus pest, 4, 7 4 Fatsia japonica, 74 64 Fir, balsam, 60, Fir, Douglas, 60; Plate X, 61; 70 -, Fraser, 66 0 -, silver, 70 -, Spanish, 72 -, subalpine, 62 Fire-blight, 3, 7, 8, 9 Flat-headed apple tree borer, 5, 9 ~ Forsythia Arnold Dwarf,' 12 'Beatrix Farrand,' 12 S Forsythia europaea, Plate I, 13 - - - Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, 12; Plate I, 13 80 Forsythia japonica saxatilis, Plate 3 I, 13 - 'Lynwood Gold,' 12 2 Lacebug, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 case-bearer, 4, 8 8 Larix pest, 4, Larch Lecture Slides on Forsythia ovata, Plate I, 13 ; - 14 4 the Arnold Arbo8 'Spring Glory,' suspensa e 12 retum, Lilac and 14 Forsythia Forsythia fortunei, 1 1 ; Ligustrum pest, 4, Plate I, 18 3 suspensa sieboldii, 1 1 ; Plate I, 13 I -, These are the, 11-14 Fraxinus pest, 2, 8, 4, 7 Gleditsia pest, 5, 7 Golden oak scale, 2, 6, 8 0 Hamamelis mollis, 70 virginiana, 70 Hawthorn leaf miner, 3, 7 Heleborus niger, 70 Holly leaf miner, 5, 8 6 Hydrangea macrophylla, 76 pest, 6, 7 Ilex aquifolium, 64, 69 - privet incompatibility depicted by overgrowth of the scion, Plate V, 41 booklet from Russia, 31-35 - - borer, 3, i , insects and 9 - diseases, 2, 3, 4, 9 Lilac scion own-root development in one year, Plate IV, 39 Lilac scion own-root development after two years, Plate VI, 43 Lilac, thirty-five-year-old own-root, maintained in condition of selfrenewal by systematic pruning, - Plate III, 37 - cornuta, 64 64 - decidua, - - 7 opaca, 67 pest, 5, 8 - serrata, 74 0 verticillata, 70 -- Ilex vomitoria, 64; Plate Insects, ?-9 XIII, 75 Lilacs, grafting, 44, 45 -, hardwood cuttings, 42 -, layers and division, 42, 44 - of New England, 23-30 -, planting, 38, 40 -, Propagation and Care, 36-45 -, seed, 44 -, softwood cuttings, 40, 42 6 Lily, Chinese-lantern, 76 Locust borer, 6, 9 - Japanese beetle, 6, 7, 9 Jasminum nudiflorum, 69 Juglans pest, 4, 8 Juniper scale, 2, 4, 8, 9 web-worm, 3, 8 Juniperus pests, 2, 3, 4, 8 - twig borer, 5, 9 3 Lycopodium cernuum, 73 A.D., 31 Lysenko, Magnolia grandiflora, 64, 67 Malus - Juniperus virginiana, 60; Plate XII, 1 71 Kalmia leaf spot, 4, 8 - 6 'Dorothea,' 16 'Henry F. du Pont,' 8 16 6 16 Malus 'Katherine,' Plate II, 19 -- pests, 2, 3, 5, pest, 4, 8 - `Red Silver,' - Key, lilac, 24 -, Nursery Code, 30 Kolesnikov, L., 31-35 81 sargentii, 18 8 Mealybugs, 4, 7, 8, 9 Metasequoia pests, 6, 8 Metrosideros excelsa, 77 Michurin, I. V., 31-35 Mistletoe, 69, 72 - patula, 74 - pests, 2, 4, 6, 8 Mite, 7, 8, 9 Nandina domestica, 73, 74 Nursery Code, Key to, 30 Oak, cork, 72 Oberea tripunctata, 56 Olea dioica, 73 - - pinaster, 74 pinea, 72 - - - 2 europaea, 72 Oystershell scale, 2, 7, 8, Pachistima pest, 5, 8 9 ponderosa, 62 radiata, 76 sylvestris, 60 taeda, 66 Pistacia lentiscus, 72 `? Plant Collecting in the Southeastern United States, 45-46 Platanus occidentalis, 66 pest, 3, 9 66 Pachysandra pest, 5, Park, Thomas, 57 8 - Parrotia persica, 70 0 Pavetta bowkeri, 76 Peach tree borer, 6, 8 Pests frequently destructive in the Arnold Arboretum, 7 --9 Phoenix canariensis, 67 7 Phoradendron flavescens, 69 - Polystichum acrostochoides, Populus deltoides, 66 - pest, 2, 8 Porana paniculata, 68 36-45 Powdery mildew, 5, 9 Propagation and Care of Lilacs, Prunus - macrophyllum, 63 Photinia arbutifolia, 63, 64 Picea abies, Plate XI, 65; 68 - - ilicifolia, laurocerasus, 64, lusitanica, 69 lyoni, 63 63 69 -- pests, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, - 8 glauca, 63 - - mariana, 62 - pests, 2, 5, 8 sitchensis, 69 8 4, autumnalis, 69, 70 Pseudotsuga menziesii, 60 ; Plate X, 61 1 4 Psorospermum febrifugum, 74 4 Pyracantha angustifolia, 74 - subhirtella Pieris pest, aphid, 4, 8 longleaf, 66 -, - needle scale, 2, 8 -, Scots, 60, 72 Pinus australis, 66 Pine bark - . crenato-serrata, 63 Pyrus pests, 2, 3, 5, 8 pests, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 Quercus caliprinos, 72 - suber, 72 - brutia, 72 7 canariensis, 77 caribaea, 68 - - - - - clausa, 66 echinata, 66 elliottii, 66 halepensis, 72, 74 4 longifolia, 74 Red spider, 5, 8, 9 Rhamnus alternus, 72 Rhododendron pests, 4, 6, 9 Robinia pests, 5, 6, 9 Rosa pests, 5, 6, 9 - pest, 5, 9 Roystonia regia, 67 rugosa Ruscus aculeatus, 72 ~ 82 Sabal palmetto, 9 Salix pest, 4, 67 i -----, - _-~ _- 6 Sandersonia aurantica, 76 San Jose scale, 2, 7 Sassafras pest, 6, 9 i Sax, Karl, 57 -~ - -, - pink, 27 purple, 28 ~,iolet, 2; white, 27 - , 5 yunnanensis, 25 X persica, 29 Schinus, mollis, 63, 61. Scurfy scale, 2 Sequoia, endemis, 6t sempervirens, 63 Small Amounts of Spray 119aterials, Smilax laur~folia, 67 i Solanum capsicastrum, 69 - Tamarix gallica, 64 Taxus baccata, 72 , - pests, 4, 5, 9 Tent ' 10 o Sorbus pests, 2, 3, ;i, 9 3 Spiraea thunbergii, 73 caterpillar, 3, 8 i Thomas, Joab, 57 Thuja pests, 4, 5, 9 - plicata, 62 8 Thunbergia laevis, 73 Tilia pests, 4, 5, 6, 9 Tillandsia recurvata, 64 Spray Materials, -- -, 2-6 Small Amounts of, 10 o The Arnold Arboretum, - Schedule, 1-10 usneoides, 64 Tree, strawberry, Tsuga pest, 5, 9 - 69 ~ Spruce, black, gall aphid, 2, - 62 Ulmus pests, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 8 . Viburnum -, - - mite, ~, i , --, 9 acerifolium, 50, arrowwood, 50 56 52 white, 63 bodnantense, Spruce, Norway, Plate - - - - Syringa chinensis, 29 josikaea, 25 laciniata, 29 microphylla, 26 pests, 2, 3, 4, amurensis XI, 65 ; japonica, 25 68 burkwoodii, 48, 52 carlcephalum, 48, 52 - carlesii, 48, 52 - I * - - compacta, 56 .5~e t' , b, - cassinoides, - -- - 9 - nanum, 56 chenaultii, 56 50 - pinnatifolia, reflexa, 25 29 - dentatum, - - - sweginzowii, 26 - - - - - tomentella, 26 velutina, 26 villosa, 26 vulgaris, 26 alba, 26 - d~latatum, 48, 49, xanthocarpum, - fragrans, 52, 69 - 50 50 'Bowles,' 56 56 - - compactum, - - nanum, 56 2 juddii, 48, 52 - sale, 2 i -28 -----, blue, 2i - - - - -, lilac, 2? - cultivars for - lantana, - 50 i ' - rugosum, 52 52 - - - - -, magenta, 28 lantanoides, 50, - lentago, 49, 52 - 83 Viburnum - opulus, 49, 50 52 - compactum, 50, nanum, 52 setigerum aurantiacum, sieboldii, 49, 50, 52 - 50 - - 'Notcutt's Variety,' roseum, 49 S6 - - - - xanthocarpum, 9 50 - pest, 5, reticulatum, 52 -, snowball, Chinese, 49 --, -, European, 49 -, -, Japanese, 49 - trilobum `Pmk Flowered Form,' - - plicatum 'Lanarth,' 54 56 plicatum mariesii, 49 ; Plate VII, 51 ; 54 Viburnum plicatum roseum, 49 ; Plate VIII, 53 ; 54 Viburnum - tomentosum, 49 - - varieties, 56 50 - pest, - prunifolium, 52 rhytidophylloides, - rufidulum, 52 - trilobum, 49, 50 - 52 Viburnums, 4 i-56 -, for flowers, 47-49 -, - foliage, 52 -, - fruits, 50, 52 -, - habit, 52-54 -, - shade, 52 -, not recommended, 54, 56 -, Order of Bloom, 49-50 Viscum, 73, 74 album, 69 2 - laxum, i - .; , compactum, 50, 52 Vitis pest, 6, 9 - veitchii, 50 - wrightii, 50 hessei, 50, sargentii, 49 - 54 - - flavum, 50 I Washingtonia robusta, 67 White pine weevil, 2, 8 Widdringtonia, 74 Willow-leaf beetle, 4, 9 84 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23491","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e896e.jpg","title":"1959-19","volume":19,"issue_number":null,"year":1959,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Juvenile Characters of Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24323","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060bb6f.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 s FEBRUARY 28, 1958 NUMBER I THE JUVENILE CHARACTERS OF TREES AND SHRUBS the stages of embryand old age. They do not produce flowers while in the juvenile stage, and even after attaining sexual maturity they may pass through a period of adolescence before settling down to reproduction. Maturity, accompamed by heavy fruitmg, usually results in the spreading posture of middle age. Trees and shrubs do, however, continue reproduction into old age and often fruit heavily as they near the end of their life span. The juvenile stage often differs from the mature form in morphological as well as physiological characters. An outstanding example is the English Ivy, Hedera helix. The seedlings have lobed leaves on a trailing stem with aerial roots and produce no flowers, while the adult form has a more compact erect form of branching, no aerial roots, entire leaves and produces flowers. Cuttings from the juvenile form produce juvemle forms while cuttings from the adult form produce compact bush-like forms. In Pecan seedlings the leaves are entire, while the adult form has compound leaves. In some varieties of ornamental apples the seedlings have tr~-lobed leaves as juveniles, but entire leaves at maturity. In some species juvenile forms may persist throughout the life of the tree. The outstanding examples are the Retinisporas, the juvenile forms of Chamaecyparis and Thuja. These permanent juvenile forms are so unlike the typical forms that they were classed under a new genus, Retinispora, by the early botanists. Because of their feathery foliage they are highly prized as ornamentals. Most of the juvenile forms are dwarfs, but Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa is nearly as large as the normal species. The juvenile form is propagated by grafting or by cuttings. The adult and juvenile branchlets, taken from adjacent trees which were planted in the Arnold Arboretum more than 60 years ago, are shown in figures I and 2. The juvenile forms of Chamaecyparis and Thuja are readily propagated by cuttings, whereas the adult forms are more difficult to root. Occasionally a normal cycle during through TREESdifferentiation, juvenile development, maturity onic pass and shrubs their life 1 1 juvenile form and these juvenile branches root more readily than do cuttings from the adult tree. Transitions of the juvenile to the adult form in some branches commonly occur in many Retmisporas as the tree becomes older, but in C. pis;fera squarrosa the juvenile form is maintained completely, even in trees more than 60 years old. The juvenile varieties rarely set seed. Permanent juvenile forms are also found in Picea. In 1904 Professor J. G. Jack of the Arnold Arboretum staff collected seedlings of Picea glauca near Banff in Alberta, Canada. These were planted in the Arnold Arboretum and one of them proved to be a dwarf type and was given the varietal name conica. It was propagated vegetatively and widely distributed as an ornamental. Eight of these trees were planted in the Arnold Arboretum collection of dwarf conifers in 19~1. They are now beautiful compact trees less than 10 feet tall and have never produced cones. Branchlets of the normal Picea glnnca and of the dwarf variety conica are shown in figures 3 and 4. The juvenile forms of certain shrubs have more attractive foliage and growth habits than do the adult specimens. An excellent example is found in the Chinese Lilac, Syringa laciniata. The young seedlings have compact lobed leaves closely spaced on the branch, while the mature shrub has more widely spaced, partially lobed or entire leaves, as is shown in figures5 and 6. Vfe have tried to maintain the juvenile form of Syringa laciniata by selection of seedlings and by grafting juvenile forms on other rootstocks, but without success. If permanent juvenile forms were obtained it is probable that they would not flower, but a permanent juvenile form of this lilac would be of value for its ornamental foliage. The 'Arnold Dwarf' Forsythia possesses several juvenile traits. The slender drooping branches root easily in contact with the soil and it is late in flowering. The original seedling did not flower until it was eight years old and cuttings, even from flowering specimens, are slow to flower. Trees propagated from buds or scions of young seedling trees are slower to produce fruit than those propagated from mature fruiting trees. In our experiments the genetic variability of seedlings was controlled by using apomictic seedlings of a Sargent apple hybrid. Trees from buds of branches of the fruiting hybrids fruited in four years, while trees from buds of the young apomictic seedlings.did not fruit until six years old. The earlier flowering of the bud progeny of mature branches is attributed to a flowering hormone which is present in the fruiting branches but which is not present in the young apomictic seedling. Apparently the hormone is transmitted through the bud, but not through the seed of the mature tree. The long juvenile period in tree seedlings is a great handicap in breeding fruit and ornamental trees. According to Knight, pear seedlings do not usually fruit until twelve to eighteen years old, and apple seedlings seldom fruit before five to twelve years. Knight did not believe that there was any method of shortening g tree will revert to the :2 ~ the juvenile stage. In 1806 he wrote as follows : \"When young trees have sprung from the seed, a certain period must elapse before they become capable of bearing fruit, and this period, I believe, cannot be shortened by any means.\" J. C. Louden, however, believed that seedlings could be induced to fruit earlier if grafted onto fruiting trees. This method, still widely used by horticulturists and foresters, was described by Louden in 1842 as follows: \"A seedling apple, if grafted the second year on the extremities of a full-grown apple tree, or even on the stock or young tree of five or six year's growth, will show flowers the third or fourth year; whereas, had it remained on its own root, it would probably not have come into flower for ten or twenty years.\" The grafting of young seedlmgs on the branches of mature fruiting trees might be expected to induce earlier fruiting since the fruiting hormone of the mature tree might be expected to pass into the seedling scion and hasten fruiting. Although this is a common technique among tree breeders there is no conclusive published evidence to support the idea that this method will promote earlier fruiting. Several forest tree breeders have stated that seedling conifers grafted on branches of mature trees will produce cones in several years, but the evidence has not yet been published. The controversy still continues. Kemmer of Germany is the leading advocate of shortening the juvenile stage by checking the growth of the seedling. This he does by root-pruning, girdling, or grafting the seedling apple on dwarfing rootstocks. Another German experimental horticulturist, Fritsche, found little if any shortening of the juvenile stage by checking the growth of the young seedling. In our experiments with ornamental apples we have been able to curtail the growth of the seedlmgs by tying knots in the stems, but the treatment does not induce earlier flowering. There is evidence that the ,juvenile form of English Ivy produces a substance that will induce jwenility in the adult type. A juvenile scion grafted on an adult type induced the adult plant to develop some juvenile leaves. Frank and Renner in Germany grew juvenile and adult forms together in a nutrient solution and some of the adult shoots reverted to the juvenile stage. More recently, Robbins of the New York Botanical Garden induced juvenile shoots on adult plants of English Ivy by treating the mature plant with g~bberellic acid. Whether the gibberellic acid acts directly or mdirectly as a juvemle inducing agent is not known. It has long been known that cuttings taken from young seedlmgs root more readily than do cuttings from the tops of mature trees. This behavior was first described by the German botanist Goebel in 1900. An extensive test made by Gardner at the University of Maryland in 1929 showed that cuttings from oneyear-old seedlings of apples, pears, cherries, elms, locusts, pines and spruce rooted easily but that rooting abil~t~ declined rapidly with the age of the seedling. Cuttings from mature trees rooted with difficulty. Similar results have been found by other horticulturists. :3 ] DESCRIPTION OF FIGURES ON PLATE I Figure I. Chamaecyparis pisifera, the Sawara False Cypress. Branchlets from a tree planted in the Arnold Arboretum in 1891, showing the foliage of the normal mature tree. This tree produces abundant seeds. Chamaecyparis pisyf'era squarrosa, the juvenile form of C. pis;f'era. Branchlets from a tree planted in the Arnold Arboretum in 1894, showing the juvenile foliage. The tree, although about the same age and nearly as large as the normal species, has rarely, if ever, producd seeds. glauca, the White Spruce. Branchlet from a tree planted in the Arnold Arboretum in 18 i 4. Figure 2. Figure Figure 3. Picea 4. Picea glauca conica, a dwarf form of White Spruce. Branchlet from a tree planted in the Arnold Arboretum in 1922. These trees have never produced cones. 5. Figure Syringa laciniata. A terminal branch of a three-year-old partially lobed or entire leaves. seedling showing the mature, Figure 6. Syringa laciniata. A branch from the base of the juvenile leaves. same seedling, showing the typical Figure 7. Malus hybrid. Leaves from the upper branches of a mature fruiting tree. The leaves are entire or only slightly lobed. The young seedlings had tri-lobed leaves. 8. Malus Figure hybrid. Leaves from a sucker shoot which developed from the base of the same tree. These tri-lobed leaves are of the juvenile type, showing that the juvenile trait is retained at the base of the tree. \" 4- PLATE I Some juvenile foliage forms. It has also long a been known that the base of the tree remains in the juvenile hundred and fifty years ago Thomas Andrew Knight in England took scions from basal suckers and from the fruiting branches of an old seedling pear tree and grafted them on pear seedlings. The scions from the basal shoots produced trees which were more thorny and fruited later than those from scions from fruiting branches. An outstanding example has been described in a recent letter from F. E. Gardner as follows: \"We have in Florida many old seedling orange trees, some over a hundred years old. Cuttings from the tops of these trees of course root with great difficulty and have long since outgrown any juvenile characters such as thorniness. We frequently get, however, sprouts from adventitious buds appearing from the roots or from low on the trunk. These revert to their juvenile character and are very thorny and will root from cuttings with considerable ease.\" The ease of rooting of stump sprouts of the Honey-locust has been described by Stoutemyer and others at the Iowa Experiment Station. Cuttings from stump sprouts rooted readily, but it was very difficult to get any roots from cuttings taken from the terminal branches of the mature tree. The retention of the juvenile stage at the base of the tree is well shown by the sucker shoots from the base of a Sargent apple hybrid. As a seedling the hybrid has tri-lobed leaves, like the Sargent parent, but as the tree develops to maturity the leaves become entire. If, however, a sucker shoot develops from the base of the mature tree, the leaves are of the juvenile type, as is shown in figures 7 and 8. The seedling tree can be kept in the juvenile stage by cutting it back to the ground each year. This behavior of young apple seedlings was first described by Fritsche in Germany in 1948 and has been confirmed by Blair and his associates at the Central Experiment Farm in Ottawa. This technique could be of value in breeding ornamental and fruit trees for propagation by cuttings. The hybrid seedlings could be tested for ornamental or fruit value, and the desired types selected could then be cut back to the ground level and readily propagated by cuttings. On the other hand, budding or grafting with buds or scions from the fruiting hybrid would hasten flowering and fruiting of the progeny. Ease of propagation, delay m fruiting, and, in some cases, enhanced ornamental characters of leaf and growth habit, are associated with the juvenile stage of trees and shrubs. These relationships are of theoretical interest and of practical value to the horticulturist. KARL SAX stage even in mature tree. Bearly one Ei ~ _ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Two New Mahoberberis Hybrids","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24327","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060856b.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 AYRIL 11, 1958 NUMBER 2 TWO NEW MAHOBERBERIS HYBRIDS Mahoberberis hybrids have been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1948 when they were first obtained from Sweden. These are decidedly different, one from the other, but apparently both have possibilities as ornamental broad-leaved evergreens in those northern areas where Mahonia aqufolium proves hardy. They have been growing out-of-doors during most of this period, without special winter protection. They have neither flowered nor fruited, but appear sufficiently interestmg for their foliage alone, to be a welcome addition to the all-too-small group of broad-leaved evergreens suitable for northern planting. It must be said that one of the parents, Malzonia aquifolizzm, though twig hardy in many northern gardens, does have foliage injury in late winter, especially if in the full winter sun, and such may also be the case with these two new grown hybrids. It is recommended that both of these be planted in situations where they have some winter shade. After further trials in various parts of the country, we will know more about their hardiness limits than we do at present. Mr. Holger Jensen of Ramlosa, Sweden, noticed these first in 1943 as new hybrid seedlings and reported them m a Swedish publication, but did not describe them, and in 1948 sent over two small plants of each to the Arnold Arboretum for trial. In 1950, Mr. Gert Krussmann, Curator of the DortmundBriinninghausen Botanical Gardens in Germany, preva~led upon Mr. Jensen to send him photographs and a few twigs from the hybrids, and it was from these that Mr. Krussmann prepared the first foliage sketches and description of these plants, published in his Deutsclte Baumschule (Vol. 2: 1 ~, pp. 300-301, 310) for T4V0 new (Federal Quarantine that time. 8 Department of Agriculture passed rigid regulations in 1918 the shipment of certam plants including 38) concerning Mahonia, IYlahoberberis, and Berberi.s, wh~ch were known to carry the serious black stem rust of wheat, and these restrictions have been added to repeatedly December 1950. The United States No. since Lengthy experimentation on the part of the 4~'heat Rust Labo- 9] ratory, Plant Pest Control Branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, has resulted in its releasing certain species which are sufficiently resistant to the disease to be safe for interstate shipment. Since these two new Mahoberberis species showed promise of becoming good evergreen ornamental specimens for planting in northern gardens, the Vfheat Rust Laboratories were asked in 1953 whether they It were was susceptible or immune. until the fall of 1956 that final word was received by the Arboretum that these species were resistant, and hence could be propagated and shipped interstate with a permit. Consequently, they were then propagated and are scheduled for release this spring under special permit to a dozen firms who have agreed to cooperate in the Arboretum's program of introducing new plants. A ten-year period between the time of actual introduction into the country and release for commercial propagation is lengthy, indeed. Considering this time lapse, one can easily become envious of those who breed annuals, for with these fastgrowing plants, thousands of seeds can be available in a few years' time for gennot distribution. so the Mahoberberis. Neither of these two plants has flowered nor fruited in the Arnold Arboretum up to this time. They are reproduced entirely from cuttings taken in the early fall. Mahoberberis aquicandidula is the more difficult of the two to root, and at the same time, is the less attractive of the two, probably because it does not have as large or as many leaves, nor does it grow as dense. The first cross between Berberis and Mahonia was Mahoberberis neuberti which erous Not in France in 1850. This is a rather dull-leaved specimen, is susceptible to the black stem rust of wheat, and hence is not allowed free shipment in America. For all intents and purposes, as far as ornamental shrubs are concerned, we can do without it. As far as is known, M. aquisargenti and M. aquicandidula were the next crosses described (1950) ; and more recently, a third has been reported to have originated on the Pacific Coast, M. miethkeana, described in 1954. Mahoberberis aquicandidula.-The plants we imported originally are still only two feet tall and are supposed to be a cross between Mahonia aquifolium and Berberis candidula. The leaves are arranged alternately on the stem ; they are simple and an inch to an inch and a half in length, with approximately three to five sharp prickles on each side of the leaf and a very few weak stipular thorns about one-quarter inch long. The leaf texture is leathery, glossy and evergreen, and the petiole in most cases is very short, about an eighth of an inch in length. There is not nearly as much variation in the leaves of this plant as there is in originated aqziisargenti. Mahoberberis aquisargenti.-These plants, reputedly a cross between Mahonia aquifolium and Berberis sargentiana, are not over three feet in height, but appear those of M. to be much more vigorous and upright of the two species and make the better landscape specimens, primarily because of their more dense habit of branching. These branches are decidedly upright and the leaf margins are very spiny, although the branches are practically devoid of stipular thorns. These plants bear 10 PLATE II (Top: left) ~Ylahoberberis aquicandidula; (right) lVTahoberberis aquisargenti. (Bottom) Mahoberberis aquisargenti (7 years old). compound leaves on older wood, usually with a major terminal leaflet about three inches long, and two basal leaflets about half that size or even less. Then there are simple leaves about the same size and general shape as the terminal leaflet in the compound leaves; others that are shorter and wider; and still others, especially on young vigorous shoots, only about two inches long but with five or six very pronounced spines on each leaf margin. In the fall, the leaves take on a bronze color and keep this most of the winter, although it must be admitted that if the plant has full sun in the winter, the leaves may become brown by February. Consequently, some winter shade should prove helpful. Spines on the younger leaves are nearly four times the length of those on the compound leaves and may be as much as one-half inch long. This great variation in leaf size and form, certainly shows the influence of both parents, but all leaves are glossy with a leathery texture and are evergreen a greater part of the winter if given some shade. These plants have been growing in our nurseries at the Case Estates in Weston for the past five years. They are growing with rhododendrons, azaleas, and other young evergreens in a small area surrounded on the exposed sides by a tall evergreen windbreak. It must be admitted that one of these years when the temperature went to -~0 F. the leaves were browned somewhat and dropped. However, smaller plants set out in the frames seem to come through the winters in fine condition with no protection other than a few pine boughs. As for hardiness, we have found that Berberis sargentiana is the more tender of the two parents. It has been killed back several winters recently and almost killed out completely. It has been listed by Rehder as hardy in Zone VI and many plants listed in this zone are not reliably hardy in the Arboretum. Mahonia aqu~'olium, on the other hand, is able to do well in this area except in the most exposed places where winter winds and sun can be expected to burn the foliage. Mahoberberis miethkeana was first described by L. W. Melander and G. W. Eade in 1954 (The ~1 ational Horticultural Magazine, 33 : 4, pp. 2~ i-~60). Henry O. Miethke, the proprietier of a nursery near Tacoma, Washington, stated that he had found it in 1940, growing in a group of l~lahonia aquifoliunz seedlings. This hybrid also was found resistant to the black stem rust of wheat by the Plant Pest Control Branch of the Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture. The Arnold Arboretum was able to obtain a small specimen of this plant through the efforts of Brian O. Mulligan, Director of the University of Washington Arboretum, on July 14, 1954. Since that time, it has been growing in the same location in our nurseries with the other two Mnhoberberis and is proving surprisingly similar to M. aquisargenti. However, M. miethlceanr~ has produced a few small, yellowish to cream-colored flowers, and small black fruits apparently devoid of viable seed ; but we have yet to find flowers or fruits on the two new hybrid species, although their failure to bloom could well be due to the heavy cutting the original plants ha~e been subjected to for propagation purposes. some DONALD W~MAN 12 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Spring Walk Through the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24317","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060ab6b.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA 'S I ,1 A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University MAY 16, 1958 VOLUME 18 8 NUMBER 3 A SPRING WALK THROUGH THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University is fast approaching its best of other plants are vying Azaleas, crab apples, lilacs, and with each other to attract attention. The spring was a most peculiar one-at first, with retarded blooming dates, but later, because of several days of warm weather, the bloommg of many species was advanced so that today the season is just about THE today. hundreds on time.\" The Arnold Arboretum, established in 1872, has long been outstanding in the introduction of new plants from all parts of the world. Many of its introductions are now common in nurseries throughout the land. At present there are approximately 6,000 different species and varieties of woody plants growing within its borders. The famous garden of woody plants, the library and the herbarium, each one of which has earned world renown in its own field, all constitute the Arnold Arboretum; and these are supplemented by the greenhouse laboratories. The first color to be noted as one enters the Jamaica Plain gate and passes the Administration Building, is a planting of various azaleas beside the road. Beyond the azalea border a walk through the woods is most invigorating for here are hundreds of the torch azalea (Rhodorlenrlron oblusu~n kaempferi) one of the many outstanding ornamental plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced to this country. V'alking through the famous collection of over 100 different kinds of and the columnar form of the red maple are prominent. To the average visitor the maples are merely a group of common trees, but on close examination one is surprised at the large number which have been collected from other parts of the world and which can be grown m this climate. The maple collection merely exemphfies what is true of many other groups of plants, namely that many species and varieties are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, not all maples, the sentry maple with outstanding ornamental value but with some of considerable mer~t that have been grown and offered for sale by commercial nurseries. l 13 Leaving the maples, one comes into the shrub collection, containing nearly 800 different kinds of shrubs, growing in long lines where they can be readily cared for and where each group of plants is kept growing fairly close together. This affords an excellent opportunity for comparing the different species and varieties in a genus. The better honeysuckles, quinces, spireas, currants and rose species will be found growing here. Special attention might be given the yellow roses shortly to be in bloom. Rosa primula is first to bloom, closely followed by R. hugonis. Many of the quinces are still in flower and it is interesting to note the wide diversity of flower sizes and colors among these old-fashioned favorites. Some of the currants (Ribes sp.) and spireas are also in full bloom. Walking past the bank of sprawling forsythias (containing 30 species and varieties) it is interesting to know that there are 450 different lilacs in the collection beyond. The beautybush on the left of the road above the lilacs is one of the many plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into cultivation. It is just now coming into flower. Before 191~? it was indeed rare in nurseries although it had been growing continuously in the Arboretum since 1907. Now it is available from almost every nursery in the country. Incidentally, the short yellow wooden labels visible on many of the plants as one walks around the grounds, indicate that those species and varieties were first introduced into American horticultural use by the Arnold Arboretum. On the right of the road where it turns up Bussey Hill, is the viburnum collection, some of the plants are now in flower. These serviceable shrubs cannot be recommended too often for they are of value when in flower as well as when their bright colored fruits and brilliant autumn foliage is on display in the fall. Ascending Bussey Hill, past the EnonJmus collection on the left, there are some Prunus species and varieties, some beach plums (Prunus maritima); and on the right the magnificent oak collection. At the top of Bussey Hill one can look across to Hemlock Hill, now showing material damage from the results of three hurricanes. In 1938, winds of over 125 miles per hour velocity felled more than 300 mighty hemlocks, many of which were growing sturdily when George Washington was President of the United States. Many young hemlocks have since been planted, but the blowing over of so many trees on this rocky hill has seriously effected the water-holding capacity of the soil and hence the growth of the remaining mature trees is materially retarded. Coming down from the top of Bussey Hill, one can walk across an open area and under the large old pines at the end of the path. Many plants have been growing on Bussey Hill, mostly the Asiatic introductions of E. H. Wilson. Some were so overgrown that it has been imperative to replant or replace many of them. Before leaving this area, one should pause a moment under the cedars of Lebanon, fifty-year-old trees originally coming to the Arboretum as seeds in 1902 from their northernmost limits in the Anti-Taurus Mountains of Turkey, just north of Syria. Many times this species had been tried, only to succumb in New England's 1~ but this strain has proved hardy for more than five decades, withstanding temperatures of ~?0 below zero. Close examination will show some of the peculiar cones still remaimng on the trees. It takes two years for them to mature. The native pinxterflower (Rhododendron uzal~orum) as well as its close relative R. roseum with darker pink flowers, is on the left of the path as one walks back to the road. The brilliant scarlet azalea seen throughout the woods and so gorgeous at the end of this walk under the century-old pines is the torch azalea from Japan (R. obtusum kaem~f'eri) often referred to by Professor Sargent as the most brilliantly colored of all the Arnold Arboretum introductions. The mauve colored azalea is the Korean azalea (R. yedoense poukhanense) another Arboretum mtroduction. Note how well it goes with the pale lemon yellow flowers of the Warminster broom close by. Stopping for a few moments at Azalea Path on the way down Bussey Hill, hundreds of azaleas can be seen in full bloom. The first along the path is the royal azalea from Japan (Rhododendron schli~~enbachi) which is one of those rare azaleas the foliage of which is blessed with autumn color in the fall. Across from this is the hardy form of the silk tree (Albizziajulibrissin rosea) which the Arboretum introduced from Korea in 1918, and this specimen was grown from the origmal importation of seeds. The trees that are so common in the southern United States are not so hardy in New England, but this form is. The foliage is very delicate and the interesting, thread-like flowers, begin to appear about the middle of July and continue until September. A really unusual tree for this part s' of the country. back to the Bussey Hill road and down the hill, one passes the oaks, Walking the mountain ashes, the rockery with several interesting small plants, the hornbeams, and beyond them but mostly unseen from the road, the junipers and yews. Dogwoods (Cornzzs florirla) and redbud (Ceroi.s canadensis) are evident everywhere and are loaded with flowers this year. Only one or two of the rhododendrons are in flower now, yet the Arboretum has over 200 representatives of the genus Rhododendron growing within its borders. The famous bank of mountam laurel will not bloom for at least another two or three weeks. The hill to the right of the road harbors most of the pinetum where hundreds of evergreens from many parts of the world display their dependable green foliage year m and year out. Pines alone are represented by over 60 different species and varieties. The graceful Sargent weeping hemlock to the left of the road has been growing there since 1881. Plants were originally found growing on an estate along the Hudson River of upper New York. This is a splendid specimen and is another living example of what peculiar forms Mother Nature sometimes climate, creates. Continuing through the gates and one comes over across to the oldest collection of ornamental crab 250 species and varieties of the Bussey Street to the Peters Hill apples in the country. genus Malus are being grown side by area, Here side. ] _15] The trees range in height from the low Sargent crab apple (7-8 feet) to the tall Mandshurian crab which is a standard tree of over 50 feet in height. The peak of the flowering of these interesting and usefully ornamental trees is in the first weeks of May, but some are still in flower. To appreciate them fully, one should return to their myriads of small brilliant fruits during the late summer and fall. Time being at a premium, one rushes on past the pinetum once more, being certain to gain a view down Bussey Brook of the splendid native stand of American beeches, and on to the gorgeous planting of a thousand of the torch azaleas on South Street bank, through the propagating units of the Arboretum, glancing at a few of the experimental beds where many interesting experiments are being carried out by Arboretum staff members. There may be only a minute to pause at the unique collection of dwarf evergreen trees, originally imported from Japan many years ago by Larz Anderson and presented to the Arboretum by Dirs. Anderson. Some of these are well over 150 years old. The hedge collection of over 100 different kinds of clipped hedges is always open to close inspection for those who want to choose just the right hedge material for the right place. Before finally leaving the Arboretum, one should enter the Forest Hills gate where the majority of visitors first come, walk among the oriental cherry trees (now past bloom for several weeks), and continue to the top of the famous l~lac collection, where one cannot but help gain inspiration from walking among these beautiful plants. Plant breeders and home owners for nearly two centuries have been contributing new varieties, and here in the collection, a studied attempt has been made during the past years to grow at least one specimen of every variety which can be obtained. At present there are 450 species and varieties here and well over a hundred others in the Arboretum nurseries. They commence to bloom about the first week in May with some varieties coming into bloom for a six-week period thereafter. At this time, by far the most numerous are the varieties of the common lilac (S. t~ulgaris) of which there are over 300 varieties being grown here. The early lilac, the late lilac, the littleleaf lilac that blooms a second time in the fall, the tree lilac and the Preston lilac-all are here and growing well. If lilacs are one's chief interest, this collection ~s the place to study them. Even the amateur is enthusiastic, for this large collection is living proof of the great efforts which have gone into the breeding and selection of the plants by hundreds of people throughout the north temperate zone. There is no better way to finish one's May visit to the Arboretum than to linger among the lilacs, and absorb to the full their fragrance and beauty. , DONALD WYMAN ARNOLDIA SUBSCRIPTIONS Those who have not paid their 1958 subscriptions ($2.00) to Arnoldia should do so at once, if they wish to continue receiving it. Make checks payable to Harvard University and send to \"Arnoldia,\" Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. (NOTE: This does not apply to \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum.\") 1 (i "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Meadow","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24324","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d0608128.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University . VOLUME 18 JUNE 6, 1958 THE MEADOW NUMBER 4 should have plants whose flowers or foliage will color from to the last days of autumn. Nature has created such a garden in the meadow which stretches for several acres in front of the Administration Building of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. The meadow provides a background for the beauty of the introduced shrubs and trees at its periphery during the floral season of spring and early summer, but during midsummer to autumn, when the landscape is predominantly green, it stands out as one of the most attractive areas within the grounds of the Arboretum. The maps of 1870, which were used by Olmstead and Sargent to plan the future Arnold Arboretum, show the present meadow to have been a swamp, crossed by a meandering stream. Drainage was poor and in wet seasons flooding occurred, producing a pond several acres in extent. Parts of the meadow, with the area where the linden collection is now located, comprised \"Gore's Meadow,\" a property mentioned in the oldest record of Roxbury landholding, the \"Ancient Transcript\" of 1654. This meadow was an excellent source of hay for the early settlers and the land was divided and re-divided many times. A line across the meadow represents one border of the Bussey farm, the land on which the Arboretum was originally founded. During the first two decades of the Arboretum's history the meadow was a marsh or pond, depending on the season, and created many problems. In 1890 the meadow road was constructed and border plantings along the road were established, thereby limiting the meadow in one direction. The Arborway, completed in 1895, defined another side, but there was no adequate drainage system until 1900. The willow collection near the Arborway, which forms one border of the present meadow, was started about 1908 and the several large bald cypress trees planted in 1938 indicate that this area continues to be moist. In fact, in certain places the base consists of peat thirty feet deep, so that walking in the area must generally be restricted to the established paths. The AWELL-PLANNED garden lend early spring : 17 meadow is mowed only in the late autumn or early spring while the ground is frozen. The first flowers to appear in the meadow are those of the skunk cabbage, a welcome harbinger of spring in spite of its name. This member of the aroid family reveals a purplish-brown pointed hood enclosing a ball-shaped cluster of creamcolored flowers. They appear in late March, and by early April many areas of the meadow are dotted with these chocolate-colored cones and tightly wrapped clusters of leaves which unfold later. The characteristic odor resembling that of skunk is not evident at first, but becomes strong as the leaves begin to expand. For the next two months the large leaves of the skunk cabbage are conspicuous among the plants in the meadow. Along the path paralleling the meadow road seedlings of the jewel-weed (Impatiens b~lora), countless in number, attract the attention of the visitor. These plants, which will reach three feet in height and will flower in late August, are represented in the middle of April by small plants of two flat seed-leaves, grayishgreen in color and growing so closely together that they form a blanket over the ground. By the middle of May other plants in varying tones of green add to the development of the meadow. Two buttercups (Ranunculus acris and R. bulbosus), show dark green leaves which shortly contrast with the brilliance of their shiny golden flowers. A chickweed (Stellaria graminea) with grayish-green leaves climbs delicately through other growth, its deeply cleft petals making the flowers look hke ten-pointed white stars, earning the plant its other common name of little starwort. The leaves of native irises, like glossy green swords, point upwards and by Memorial Day these plants have reached their peak of bloom, the larger yellow-flowered swamp iris (Iris pseudacorus) being more conspicuous than the blue-flowered Iris versicolor, commonly called the blue flag. June is the month of green in the meadow as the less showy plants come into flower. Several sedges develop the inflorescences which become conspicuous only in September as they turn brown. Two bladder campions, Silene cucubalus, called maiden's-tears, and the night-flowering catchfly (Silene noctiflora), bloom briefly, their white petals extending slightly beyond the green-veined, inflated calyx. The earliest flowers of the toad-flax or butter-and-eggs (Linaria vulgaris), looking like miniature snapdragons, begin a blooming season which will last until frost and the mat-like moneywort (Lysimachia nummularia) flowers brilliantly, acting as a naturalized ground cover. The blackberries grow rapidly and the lower leaflet surfaces of the wild raspberry (Rubus idaeus) flash white in the wind. Another spiny, climbing herb is the tear-thumb (Polygonum ar~'olium) with small, sharp, stem-borne barbs pointed backwards. This vine twines through the other growth while the hemp-nettle (Galeopsis tetrahit), a member of the mint family, crowds in among the swamp growth and is quickly recognized as a mimic of the less common but more vicious stinging nettle ( Urtica dioica). [18:] PLATE III The meadow, looking toward the Administration Building from the willow (Top) collection. (Bottom) Helianthus tuberosus-Jerusalem artichoke. For two weeks in July the meadow is dominated by the spectacular spiked loose-strife (Lythrum salicaria). In recent years this native of Europe, with its profusion of fuchsia-colored flowers, has become naturalized and has spread rapidly in similar locations throughout southern New England. So colorful and conspicuous is this wild flower that many seed companies now offer seeds of this species for backyard gardens. July also finds two lilies in flower in the meadow, the upright cup-shaped flowers of the wood lily (Lilium philadelphicum) and the more abundant turk's-cap-lrly with the appropriate scientific name Lilium superbum. Although the latter is native to New England, it seems probable that it was introduced to this meadow. August is the month of mixed colors and rivals September as the most colorful. Eight-foot-tall specimens of the cup-plant (Silphiunz perfoliatum), whose leaf bases join around the stem so tightly that they occasionally collect water, dominate in height the smaller, six-foot-tall Jerusalem artichoke (Helianllrus tuberosu.s), with its sunflower-like blossoms and edible tubers. Of still lesser stature are the goldenrods, giving vivid evidence to the appropriateness of the name, while white, pink and blue flowers blend their colors into the mass of bloom. The spotted cowbane (Cicuta maculata) with lace-like leaves and umbels of white flowers ; the rosepurple, fading to pink flower clusters of the Joe-pye-weed (Eupalorium fistulosum), equally well recognized by the whorls of three to five leaves along the stem and the delicate blue spikes of the vervain (l~erbena haslrzla) form the larger masses of color. Smaller points of interest in color and form are the brilliant yellow buttons of the tansy (Tanacelzzm vulgare), whose leaves when crushed have a characteristic pungent scent, and pale lilac flowers (yellow when young) of the tall wild lettuce (Lactuca canadensis) included in an involucre of green bracts, each tipped with rose. Flashes of white lasting only a short time identify the bindweed flowers, a wild morning glory (Conz~oluulus sepium). The rounded burr-like heads of the burdock (Arctium lappa) show fuchsia-colored flowers in a nest of hooked bracts. The fern-like leaves of the tall meadow rue (L'halictru~n polygamum) in fruit in August, the clear lemon-yellow petals of the tall evening primrose (Oenothera perennis), the darkening browns of the cat-tails (Typha lalifolia) coming into maturity and the curiously shaped orange- and spotted-flowers of the jewel weed complete a short list of conspicuous plants. In September the yellows give way to blues, purples and whites as the brilliance of the Jerusalem artichoke, the cup-plant and the goldenrods are replaced by many asters, from the large flowers of the deep purple New England aster (Aster novae-angliae) to the delicate clusters of tiny pure white flowers of Aster vimineus. A frost in late September or early October turns the joe-pye-weed brown but accentuates the hidden colors in the leaves and stems of other plants in the meadow. Milkweed (Asclepias syriaca) pods open and the seeds blow out; the tall wild lettuce, the Canada thistle and the goldenrods cast smaller parachutes to the -zo-= PLATE IV (Top) Eupatorium ftstulosum-Toe-pye-weed. (Bottom) Lilium superbum-Turk's-cap-lily. wind. Spanish nettle fruits (Bidens frondosa) and those of the burdock are now ripe and brush off on one's clothing. Jewel weed fruits, small sausages of green, are fully ripe and explode at the slightest touch. As the days grow colder and the plants lose their leaves, migratory birds begin to frequent the meadow in large numbers. The ripening fruits draw these hungry visitors, some of which stay until the first snow covers the meadow. Throughout the years various plans have been suggested fora more efficient use of the meadow acres. A large artificial pond, more adequate drainage to allow an extension of the shrub collection and, most recently, a parking area are a few of the suggestions which invariably are considered and then rejected as being unable to compete with the natural beauty which blends so well with the introduced plantings in the Arnold Arboretum. Conspicuous Plants in the Meadow April Symplocarpus foetidus May Ranunculus acris Ranunculus bulbosus Tall buttercup Bulb buttercup Skunk cabbage June Iris pseudacorus Iris versicolor Onoclea sensibilis Silene cucubalus Silene noctiflora Stellaria graminea Yellow flag Slender blue flag Sensitive fern Bladder campion , Night-flowermg catchfly Little starwort Marsh fern Thelypteris palustris July Asclep~as syriaca Galeopsis tetrahit Lilium philadelphicum Lilium superbum Linaria vulgaris Lysimachia nummularia Lythrum salicaria Rubus idaeus Urtica dioica Common milkweed Hemp nettle Wood-lily Turk's-cap-lily Toadflax ' Moneywort Spiked loosestrife ~'ild raspberry Stinging nettle Spotted cowbane 'B ' August Cicuta maculata Cirsium lanceolatum i Bull-thistle w'~Id morning Fireweed Convolvulus sepium Erechtites hieracifolia glory , ~22_] PLATE V (Top left) Lythrum salicaria-Swamp loosestrife. (Top right) Silphium perfoliatum-Cup plant. (Bottom left) Verbena hastata- Blue vervain. (Bottom right) Tanacetum vulgare-Common tansy. (All photographs by Heman Howard.) Eupatorium fistulosum Impatiens biflora Mentha arvensis Oenothera perennis Potentilla monspeliensis Sambucus canadensis Joe-pye-weed Spotted jewelweed . Field mint Silphium perfoliatum Solidago canadensis Solidago graminifoha Solidago juncea Solidago serotina Spiraea latifolia Verbena hastata Verbena urticaefolia _ Evening primrose Cinquefoil American elderberry Cup-plant Canada goldenrod Grass-leaf goldenrod Plume goldenrod Giant goldenrod Meadowsweet Blue vervain White vervain - \" September lappa Asclepias syriaca Aster laevis Aster novae-angliae Aster paniculatus Aster puniceus Aster vimineus Bidens frondosa Helianthus tuberosus Lactuca canadensis Lactuca spicata Tanacetum vulgare Thalictrum polygamum Typha latifolia ' Arctium Burdock Milkweed Smooth aster New England aster Panicled aster Swamp aster , Small white aster \" Beggar's-ticks Jerusalem artichoke Canadian wild lettuce Blue wild lettuce Common tansy Tall meadow-rue Common cattail R. A. HOWARD .r, ~ An Arboretum Appointment Mr. Alfred J. Fordham has been appointed propagator at the Arnold ArboreRoger G. Coggeshall who resigned to accept a position with the Cherry Hill Nursery at Newburyport, Massachusetts. Mr. Fordham has been on the Arboretum staff since 1929. Working first as assistant to the well-known propagator William H. Judd, Mr. Fordham also received training as an exchange student at the Royal Botanic Garden in Kew, England. Followingwar service as a first sergeant in the mfantr3-, Mr. Fordham returned to the Arnold Arboretum as assistant superintendent of buildings and grounds. ~Vearepleased to have him back in the work of plant propagation and in charge of our greenhouses. Mr. Coggeshall and Mr. Fordham will continue to share the responsibilities for the plant propagation classes taught at the Arnold Arboretum. tum to succeed Mr. 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Horticultural Herbarium","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24322","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060b76b.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kobuski, Clarence E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 JUNE 27, IJSH THE HORTICULTURAL * HERBARIUM NUMBER 5 commercial growers, as well as to the laymen who buy their plants, corscientific names are most important. The nurseryman must be certain of his product to maintain both his integrity and his business while the layman, with less at stake, may be motivated by a desire to have complete and correctly identified collections. Daily, the larger botanical and horticultural institutions are called upon to name cultivated plants. A few years ago when, for the most part, only wellknown species or varieties were involved, this was hardly a problem. Today, however, when hybrids and cultivars are in vogue, plant identification has become a difficult, time-consuming and unfortunately often a hopeless chore. It may be impossible to give a true name to the specimen of a hybrid or cultivar unless one has ample and complete material of the plant and sufficient additional material TO -t- rect available for comparison. The Arnold Arboretum now has a separate horticultural herbarium of approximately 100,000 mounted specimens. This herbarium is composed of specimens gathered from its own extensive living collections, as well as of material cultivated in other botanical or private gardens throughout the world. It is one of the largest of its kmd. The material for this herbarium has been accumulated over a period of time extending into the last century. Even so, many modern introductions, hybrids and cultivars, are lacking among the vouchers of our herbarium, as is no doubt the case with many another such institution. For the complete record of a taxon, specimens should be collected from the same plant during various times of the year so as to include flowers, fruit and * A paper presented at the XVth International Horticultural Congress held at Nice, France, April 10-18, 1958. 2~ plant happens to be of a woody nature, it is desirable collected in winter to show clearly the winter buds and also have specimens other branchlet characteristics. Often adventitious shoots or other special parts are also required. In the systematic collection of material from any garden, it is desirable to prepare beforehand a book, small m size so as to be carried easily, in which to record the names of the species found in the collection and the institution's accession numbers assigned to them. The collector then records his specimens at the time of collection, indicating whether the plant is in flowering or fruiting stage, etc. This method is very helpful when maintained over a period of time, since the collector can see at a glance those phases of development which are represented in the herbarium, as well as those which should be added. This is the method which has been employed in the collecting of material in the Arnold Arboretum. No specific records have been kept of material acquired in exchange from other institutions. It is good practice to collect at a single time several specimens of the same plant. The duplicates can be used for exchange purposes, since many botanical gardens, the Arnold Arboretum among them, are anxious to have specimens of cultivated woody plants in exchange or for spontaneous material. Besides the name of the taxon, the date of collection and the garden number, any data which might be helpful in identification, such as the size and stature of the plant, the color of the flower or other individual characteristics, should be recorded in the notes. The garden accession number associates an herbarium specimen with a living plant. These notes should be transferred to a label which is fastened to the sheet on which the dried specimen is mounted. When finally mounted, the specimen is filed with related taxa in a systematic arrangement. In the case of a hybrid or a cultivar the procedure is slightly more involved. When man-induced, besides the voucher of the hybrid itself, specimens of both parents should be collected, when possible. Specimens of other progeny of the cross might be collected also to show any variations within the hybrid. Only recently has the importance of preserving voncher specimens of hybrids been impressed upon the geneticist. While these records are of the utmost importance mature leaves. to When the in validating a new hybrid, many geneticists today continue to disregard this immust be portant phase of their work. By international agreement, the parentage known before hybrids of many groups can be considered for registration of new cultivated varieties. A suggestion might be directed also to the cytologist. When recording a chromosome count, a voucher specimen suitable for reidentification should be made. If such cytological work is done in a botanic garden or arboretum, the accession number of the plant should be recorded also. Today only a small percentage of existing chromosome counts can be traced to specific plants. Without vouchers or reliable data, chromosome counts are likely to be worse than useless. 26 Cultivars are the most difficult of all to preserve as an aid to identification. So color in the flower is the important feature of identification. As far as I no feasible method has been evolved whereby true color can be preserved in a dried specimen. Here accurate notes, along with a color name from an official color chart, should be included on the record. Even then a true identification is very difficult, especially when variation in the color pattern is found within the flower. In the case of a cultivar, I feel that its registration should not be acceptable unless a well-preserved specimen is made along with a characteristic diagnosis and a color photograph or slide. In studying some recent reports and records of botanical gardens, I was impressed by the fact that most of the institutions record the possession of a library, even though the numbers of books may be small, but few list the presence of an herbarium. A check on reports from ninety botanical gardens (The Arboretums and Botanical Gardens izz North America, Wyman, Chronica Botanica Press) of varying sizes in the United States shows that only approximately ten institutions have an accompanying herbarium of cultivated plants. Of these, only two, the Arnold Arboretum with approximately 100,000 specimens and the Rancho Santa Ana at Claremont, California, with 30,000 specimens, record a number of any considerable size. The other few institutions which mention the herbarium at all refer to their collections as \"Garden Herbarium,\" meamng, one may assume, only plants cultivated in that individual garden. Some of the larger gardens, especially those connected with institutions, probably possess cultivated herbaria of a size much larger than recorded. I am certain that in some of the large general herbaria there are many specimens of cultivated plants filed along with the spontaneous collections. If the cultivated specimens were withdrawn into a single series, these institutions would find that they possess horticultural herbaria of considerable size. Until the horticultural specimens are segregated into a single series, an institution cannot begin to realize its full potentialities for identifying horticultural material. To separate an horticultural herbarium to make space for the horticultural material is, of course, a task of major proportions. The horticultural herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, which occupies close to one hundred cases, was shifted in just this manner. One thing which we discovered in making this shift was that we possessed more than twice as many horticultural specimens as we had originally estimated. A second discovery, which we had hoped would occur, was that identifications can now be made with greater ease. Formerly, when identifying a specimen of the genus Rosa, for instance, it was necessary to work with material dispersed in ten or eleven cases. Now, the material is confined to two cases, making it a much simpler procedure. The accurate identification of horticultural material is the foremost reason for often, know, ] 27 the establishing of an horticultural herbarium. The staff working in such an herbarium is always willing to serve horticulture and horticulturists by rendering such service. The horticulturists, nurserymen, cytologists and geneticists, in turn, could help the herbarium staff, their science and themselves by preparing complete and ample specimens of plants sent for identification and in particular of new cultivars and hybrids and by depositing their vouchers in horticultural herbaria which serve the public. CLARENCE E. KOBUSKI ] _28~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Horticulture on Postage Stamps","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24319","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060b328.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Weber, Claude","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 8 SEPTEMBER 19, 1958 HORTICULTURE ON POSTAGE STAMPS NUMBERS 6-7 of the fact that the United States has issued very few stamps illustratflowers of horticultural origin or of the native flora, the professional or amateur gardener may find a wealth of interest in philately with which to pass his leisure hours. There are over 2000 different stamps issued throughout the whole world in which botanical portraits are used either to depict the beauty of certain species, or they are used as a basic design, often in stylized manner, to supplement other commemorative events or expression of thoughts. Almost every phase of botany may be found on stamps : Portraits of famous botanists, samples of plants native to a certain area, national flowers, various fruits, as well as a large number of species of horticultural origin. Since many of the stamp collectors specialize in assembling topical collections, my intention is to describe here some of the stamps which pay tribute to famous botanists or botanical events and those which deal with ornamental horticulture. In this paper the numbers given in parentheses refer to Scott's \"Standard Postage Stamp Catalogue,\" a standard reference work for philately available at most libraries and stamp dealers. An asterisk indicates that the stamp has been issued in full color, while the double dagger refers to stamps illustrated in the accompanying plates. Within each group the plants shown on the stamps are listed in the order of the families in I N spite ing the system of Engler and Prantl. Historical Three stamps of Sweden (z94~, 296, 298) honor \"The Father of Botanical \"Species Plantarum\" established the binomial nomenclature. The French botanist Auguste SaintHilaire spent six years, a century ago, exploring various parts of Brazil which resulted in the publication of the first Brazilian flora. He is commemorated in Brazil (758) on the centenary of his death. Another stamp (Brazil 616~) repreScience,\" Carl von Linne, who, in his monumental work 29 -] greatest Brazilian botanist Jose Barbosa Rodrigues whose \"Sertum Palmarum\" and\"Genera et Species Orchidacearum Novarum\" are fundamental textbooks of South American botany. On March 15, 1958, a stamp honoring Gardening and Horticulture was released in Ithaca, New York (U.S. 3~) to commemorate the one hundredth anniversary of the birth of Liberty Hyde Bailey, one of the most famous horticulturists, whose eloquent pen has enriched the horticultural literature with nearly seventy volumes. This stamp represents an emblematic figure holding a horn of plenty surrounded by flowers, vegetables, fruits and shrubs. Botanical events have also been commemorated by stamp issues. In January 1935 the first South American Botanical Congress was held in Rio de Janeiro and on this occasion a stamp (Brazil t77~) illustrating Doxantha unguis-cati was released. In 1944 a sheet with twenty-five designs portraying flora and fauna of Chile celebrated the centenary of the publication of the first volume of Claudio Gay's Natural History of Chile (Chile 2~4-~?~~~). In November 1946 the Fourth National Exhibition of Orchids took place in Rio de Janeiro and at that time a stylized Cattleya flower was used (Brazil 6.51~) to announce this event to the world. sents the Cultivated Monocotyledons The majority of the stamps about which I wish to write are those of horticultural origin. In the Monocotyledonae, the calla lily, Zantedeschia aethiopica, al9 ways appears with the coat of arms of Ascension ( 10 to 21 ) and St. Helena (79 to 99). The climbing spider lily, Gloriosa simplex (Belgian Congo 280*, South West Africa 247) and Aloe mitr~'ormis (South Africa 162*, 163*, 197*) are also natives of Africa. Hemerocallis middendo~i, one of our cultivated day lilies, grows wild on the mountains of Eastern Asia (Japan 572). The true lilies are well represented, too; Liliuna bulb;f'erum ssp. croceum with orange flowers ~s distributed throughout the Alps of Central Europe and the Carpathian Mountains (Romania 19a7, 20 b*, $, Switzerland B 168*) as is Lilium martagon (Poland 1957, 60 gr.*, Switzerland B 139*). The former prefers sunny rock faces where it is relatively inaccess~ble, while the latter, which is more common, grows ui exposed woods or alpine meadows. The lladonna lily, Lilium candidum, native to the Middle East (Israel 67*, Turkey1 15 7 *) is cultivated for its beauty (San Marino 396) and is considered to be the symbol of purity. For this reason, it is usually carried in the hands of angels or saints (Vatican City 87). The Japanese l~ly, Lilium japonicum, comes from Japan (554), as does the Easter Lily, Lilium longiflorum var. eximium, which is very popular in the United States for its beauty (Bermuda 143, 145). Stylized lilies appear on several coats of arms. Nowadays it is supposed that the \"fleur de lis\" was originally an iris flower. The tulips, Tulipa gesneriana (Finland B 54, Germany 19~ 7 , LO pf., Hungary 976*, Luxembourg 300*, Netherlands B 57, B 240*, B 263*) and its cultivar the parrot or dragon tuhp, Tulipa gesneriaun var. drnconlin (Luxembourg 303*,$, San Marino 337*) as well as the 30 PLATE VI Carl von Linnaeus; Jose Barbosa Rodrigues ~lud row: Doxantha unguis-cati; stylized Cattleya ; Chapialia (Loxodon) clulensis, in honor of Claudio Gay's Natural History of Chile. 3rd row: Lilium bulbiferum; Tulipa gesneriana var. dracontia; Convallaria majalis. 4th row: Gladiolus sp.; Narcissus pseudonarcissus var. bi<olor; Cattleya sp. Top row: hyacinth, Hyacinthus orientalis (Netherlands B 249*, Luxembourg 802*) enjoy a widespread popularity e~ erywhere, but we may look upon the Netherlands as the center of cultivation in spite of the fact that they are native to the Middle East. The lily of the valley, Convallaria majalis, is distributed in woods from Western Europe to Asia (Hungary 975*$, Japan 393, San Marino 195 i, 51*). The snowdrop, Galanthus nivalis, also European, is not frequent in the wild state, though it appears in nearly every garden (Romania 1112*). Two exotic crinum lilies, Crinum bulbispermum (Timor ~?69*) and Crinum scabrum (Italian Somaliland R00*) are not too well known to amateur gardeners. The narcissus, Narcissus poeticus, (San Marino 336*, Switzerland B 159*) and the daffodil, 1B-arcissus pseudonarcissus (Luxembourg 301*, Romania 1 13*) of European origin, are planted everywhere in temperate regions. The horticultural form, Narcissus pseudonarcissus var. bicolor, is represented on a stamp of the Netherlands (B 2~ 1 *$). The century plant, Agave americana, native to tropical America, is so widely distributed in the gardens of the Mediterranean region that it has become a real feature of the landscape and serves now as an advertisement for a mild climate (France 724, 776, Russia I 162, Spanish Morocco B 36, Tunisia Q I to Q 10). With the snowdrop, the first flower to bloom when the snow melts, is the crocus, Crocus vernus. It occurs profusely on alpine slopes (Germany B 131, Switzerland 303, B 153*) but it is also cultivated very widely, since it appears in (Luxembourg 311*). Among the dozens of cultivated Iris species, only a few appear on stamps : Iris germanica (Netherlands B 253*), Iris pallida (San Marino 341*) and as a design, a part of a traditional Japanese iris garden (Japan 609$). The Gladiolus of gardens is of horticultural origin representing crosses between several species (San Marino 401*$). Several orchids appear on stamps, especially from tropical regions. From Colombia we have a large series of species: Masdevallia chimaera (580), Masdevallia nycterina (546, 583), Cattleya douiana var. aurea (548, 584), Cattleya labiala var. trianei(551, 58R), Odonloglossumcrispum(549, 581), Miltonia ve.rillaria (547, 585); from Costa Rica (184*) and British Honduras (155), Cattleya skinneri; from Venezuela (590), Cattleya violacea; from Brazil (477, 652*), Honduras (C 136) and Formosa ( 1958, 0.40$) other cattleyas and from Ecuador (602) an Oncidium. The national flower of Guatemala (293, C 189*) is Lycaste virginalis called the \"White Nun Orchid.\"Other orchids which are not cultivated are shown by Malaya and countries in Europe, Africa and Asia. A stylized orchid appears on the crest of Manchukuo, now a part of China. Two others ~Paphiopedilum insigne (Belgium 432) and Cattleya gaskeliana var. alba (San Marino 1957, 4 1*) ], are well known every hue of the rainbow greenhouse plants. Cultivated Dicotyledons and ~ts cultivars are, with roses, one The carnation, Dianlhus caryophyllus, of .)] Top row: 2nd row: 3rd row: 4th row: PLATE VII Adonis vernalis; Anemone coronaria; Rosa `Michele Meilland.' Pelargonium hybrid; Hibiscus rosa-sinensis; Viola odorata. Passiflora coerulea; Rhododendron obtusum; Primula auriculata. Jasminum officinale var. grandiflorum; Allamanda cathartica; Antirrhinum majus. flowers (U.S. 737, Dominican Republic 358 to 361, PorSan Marino 340*, Turkey 1154*). The Indian water lotus, 641, tugal Nelumbium nuc~era, is planted in ponds of botanical gardens or greenhouses the most popular of cut 638 to (Macao 378*). The blue columbine, Aquilegia coerulea, is the state flower of Colorado (U.S. 1001). This species, a member of the buttercup family, played a basic role in the development of the garden columbines. Two other spring flowers from Europe belonging to the buttercup family are the marsh marigold, Caltha palustris (Netherlands B 239*) and the Christmas rose, Helleborus niger (Netherlands B 61*). The first is found in marshes of temperate Europe and extends even into the subalpine zone where it often blooms a second time in autumn. The second is limited to the open woods of the southern Alps. The pheasant's eye, Adonis vernalis, occurs in Central Europe as a species of the steppes (Hungary 908*, Yugoslavia 432*t). Two pasque flowers belonging to the alpine flora, Pulsatilla alpina ssp. sulphurea (Switzerland B 188*) and the rarely cultivated Pulsatilla vernalis (Germany B 124, Finland B 102), also represent this family. The Anemone coronaria, commonly sold as a cut flower (Luxembourg 310*, Netherlands B 252*, San Marino 403*t), comes from the Middle East (Israel 64*, 73*). But the best known and most widely appreciated of all flowers is certainly the rose. It is a typical horticultural product obtained by numerous crossings of wild species of the genus Rosa and improved by selection through the centuries (Austria 388, 389, Cuba RA 26 to RA 29, Czechoslovakia 1957, 60 h.*, Israel 79*, Saar 229, San Marino 344*, C 84*, C 85*, C 87*, Switzerland B 252, Turkey 1156*, Vatican City 87, 209 to 211). Two recent stamps of Luxembourg, with perfect design and exact colors, show two varieties of roses which are among the most popular ones in Europe: \"Souvenir of Claudius Pernet\" (311*) and \"Michele Meilland\" (313*~). In Bulgaria roses are cultivated for their essence which forms the base for numerous perfumes. The Japanese apricot, Prunus mume (Macao 380*), and the Higan cherry tree, Prunus subhirtella (Japan 269, 370), are the most favored ornamental cherry trees in springtime in the Far East. The Scotch broom, Cytisus scoparius, a member of the legume family introduced from Western Europe (Netherlands B 58*), is now naturalized in some parts of the United States. The wattle, Acacia (Australia 170), the caballero, Poinciana pulcherrima (Timor 261), the flame tree, Delonix regia (Italian Somaliland 201*, Timor 263*), and the coral-tree, Erythrina cristagalli (Uruguay 605*, 608*, 610*, 615*, 616*, 618*), are all native to warmer countries and can be cultivated only in the southern parts of the United States. Another plant of horticultural derivation is the geranium which is the result of crossings between different species of Pelargonium of South African origin (Hungary 909*t, Liechtenstein 170, San Marino 343*). The poinsettia, Euphorbia pulcherrima, is the most popular flower at Christmas time (Cuba 469*-470*). It is native in southern Mexico and Central America. From Madagascar comes l 34 PLATE VIII Top row: 2nd row: 3rd row: Montserrat. 4th row: Iris garden, Campanula persicifolia; Tagetes patula; Chrysauthcmum morifolmm. Cupressus sempervirens; Phoenix canariensis; BamLusa culgaris. Royal Botanic Garden, Jamaica; Botanic Garden, Brazil; Botanic Station, Japan; Le Grand Trianon, France; Exotic Garden, Monaco. dragon-claw or crown-of- thorns, Euphorbia milii, which is another spurge with striking red bracts (Macao 374*). Different species of hibiscus are used in various countries as ornamentals with the mahoe, Hibiscus tiliaceus, a tall shrub or tree (Jamaica 163) and the rose-of-China, Hibiscus rosa-sinensis (Curacao B 22*, B 25*+) being the most common ones. The rose mallow, Hibi.scus trionum, an annual from China, is the national flower of Korea (92, 109, 213 to 215). The florist violet, Viola odorata, from Europe, is prized in gardens for its delicate aroma (Austria B 235*$, Romania 1113*). The pansy, Viola tricolor var. hortensis, is a horticultural derivative of a common plant of European wheat fields (Poland 689*, San Marino 400*). The most commonly cultivated passion-flower, Passi,flora coerulea, is a native of Brazil (Uruguay 608*, 616*$). Among the numerous species of begonias, Begonia tuberhybrida is certainly the most appreciated due to its variation in shapes and colors, attributable to its horticultural origin (Belgium 430). Two widely planted rhododendrons from Japan, Rhododendron obtusum (Belgium the and Rhododendron indicum (Macao 373*), appear also on stamps. The auricula, Primula auricula, grows in the cracks of calcareous rocks in the Alps of Central Europe (Germany B 125, Switzerland B 167*t). In its wild state the color is always yellow, as is also the cowslip, Primula veris (Bulgaria 839, Hungary 978*), the oxlip, Primula elatior (San Marino 395*), Primula elatior var. carpathica (Romania 1957, 1.55 1*) and the primrose, Primula vulgaris (Austria B 238*), all native to Europe. A much-admired houseplant during the winter is the cyclamen, Cyclamen persicum (San Marino C 82*, C 86*, 342*), a native of the Middle East which has been improved by cultivation. A few jasmines are also represented : Jasminum o,~cinale var, grandiflorum, widely distributed throughout Asia (Tangier 1956, 5 c.*$), Jasminum sambac (Indonesia 401) and Jasminum pubescens, the national flower of the Philippines (530*); the latter two are from India. The allamanda, Allamanda cathartica (Timor 265*$) and the frangipani, Plumeria rubra var. acut~'olia (Timor 264*) are members of the dogbane family, cultivated in the subtropical countries and in greenhouses. The periwinkle, Vinca minor, has been introduced into our gardens from the woods of Europe (Belgium B 470*). The oleander, Nerium oleander, is another member of this family (Curacao B 24*, Portugal RA 3, San Marino 338*). It grows wild along the streams in southern Europe and northern Africa. A bush called the cup-and-saucer plant, Holmskioldia sanguinea, is a native of the Himalayas and is cultivated in warm countries (Jamaica 166). The snapdragon, Antirrhinum majus, comes from the Mediterranean region and has been improved by cultivation (Netherlands B 23*, Romania 1114*~). The purple foxglove, Digitalis purpurea, is very common in Europe in clearings on primitive soil (Belgium B 487*). The maquilishuat, Tabebuia pentaphylla, is a tall tree of tropical America (Salvador 581*). A bluebell, Campanula persicifolia, is shown in its natural color as it occurs when native in the open woods of Europe (Hungary 910*~). The zinnia, Zinnia elegans (Saar 229), and the marigold, Tagetes patula (Netherlands B 249*t), are 413~ 36 garden flowers of Mexican introduction. The oxeye daisy, Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, is common in the meadows of the eastern United States where it two has been introduced from Eurasia (Netherlands B 241*, San Marino 394*). The cyanus, is another weed of the same origin, abundant in the European wheatfields (Hungary 974*, Israel 63*, Netherlands B 59*, B ~?4R*, San Marino 399*). Cultivation, however, has extended its range of colors to almost all hues of the rainbow. The florists' chrysanthemum, Chrysanthemum morifolium, is one of the most ancient cultivated flowers and it has been improved for thousands of years in China (Macao 3 7 9*.j ) and Japan (533, 53 ~), where it is regarded as the national flower. Chrysanthemum closes the present list of cultivated flowers on stamps. However, new sets concerning botany appear almost monthly. There are other stamps which can be an interesting part of a collection concerning horticulture. Flower arrangement is represented in a bouquet of European mixed flowers (Sweden 484, 485) and in a bouquet of Japanese May flowers (Japan 381 ). Some of the flowers mentioned were in vases. Others, not dealt with here, are set in garlands or stylized on coats of arms. These represent symbols which would extend the subject too far for this paper. cornflower, Centaurea Ornamental Trees Some ornamental trees are also depicted on stamps. The giant sequoia, Sequoiadendron giganteum, from California, has been introduced in parks with temperate mild climate (France 1957, 65 f.). The cypress, Cupressus sempervirens, is a feature of the Mediterranean region (Russia 667, 669, 672, 675, 676). Very often it is planted in cemeteries because of its straight, dark line, symbolizing sorrow and peace (French Morocco CB 28$). The bamboo, Bambusa vulgari.s, is cultivated in warm countries where its rapid growth is amazing. A bamboo walk is pictured on a stamp of Jamaica (126$). Besides bamboos, every garden in a mild climate possesses palm trees. The phoenix, Phoenir canariensis (France 573$, 776, Gibraltar 110, Monaco B 25, Vatican City 24 to 27), and the fan palm, Chamaerops humilis ( Russia 1312), both of African origin, are commonly grown in gardens around the Mediterranean. The Italian poplar, Populus nigra var. italica, is an ancient mutation of the black poplar. Only male specimens exist and these are propagated by cuttings. They are planted along roads or canals where their peculiar fastigiate shape is appropriate for this purpose (Andorra 124 to 127, Cyprus 148, France 719, Liberia79, Switzerland B 155). The plane tree, which is also grown along roads, is an artificial hybrid between Platanus occidentalis of the United States and Platanus orientalis of southeast Europe and western Asia (Switzerland 238, U.S. 934, Russia 1586), but its shape is not so appropriate as that of the poplar. Its main advantages are that it tolerates repeated trimming and withstands tar dusts. Gardens and Parks The trees planted along entrance roads often characterize certain gardens il- 37] lustrated on stamps. The Botanic Station of Dlontserrat (95, 98, 100, 104$), the Botanical Garden of Georgetown (British Guiana 222, 229), the Botanical Gardens of Rio de Janeiro (Brazil 4ti ), and the Royal Botanic Garden, Hope (Jamaica 168$), all display palm trees. Oddly enough, all of the botanical gardens represented on stamps are situated in the West Indies or South America, while much better known gardens such as the Kew Gardens in London, Le Jardin des Plantes in Paris, the Botanical Garden at Buitenzorg in Java or the Arnold Arboretum have never been depicted on stamps. Other public gardens or parks occur and show the different styles in landscapmg in various countries and climates. Tropical gardens are ~llustrated with the Victoria Park in Kingstown (St. Vincent 14.iA, 148, 160, 164, I i 4), La Mar Park in Lima (Peru C 16, C 17), Queen's Park (Trinidad 38, 55) and Memorial Park in Savannah (Trinidad 41, 53). Mediterranean vegetation is represented by a few stamps of Monaco with the Public Gardens ( 1 1 i , 130), the Palace Gardens (B 19), the Cactus Gardens (~?38$), wholly devoted to succulents. Russia features gardens in the Crimea, among them the Dzerzinski Rest House for Workers (672), gardens at Alupha (674), Crimean gardens (676), gardens at Suklumi (1052, 1053, 1163), a tree-lined walk at Sochi ( 1313) and a formal garden at the same place (1314). The last-mentioned shows the transition from more or less natural-looking parks to very elaborate gardens. This old-fashioned type of garden contributed, among other things, to the glory of the Moslems. The Europe Park in Constantinople (Mesopotamia N 38) and the Garden of Namazi Hospital in Teheran (Persia 114~?) are examples. Later on, this sophisticated type of garden was carried to extreme by the French. The flowers more or less disappeared, their place being taken by trimmed bushes used in hedges like low walls or even contorted into unusual shapes to resemble statues. The French type of garden represented the most artificial period of horticulture. It corresponds in style to the classic architecture of castles (Villandry Castle in Indre et Loire 729, Grand Trianon at Versailles 784~, Valen~ay Castle in Indre 1957, 25 f.), but would not complement the small modern cottages. With modern developments in horticultural technology and landscape architecture, more and more plants, both native and exotic, are being brought into extensive cultivation. These will undoubtedly enrich the botanical aspect of philately, and thus enliven the leisure hours of those interested. CLAUDE WEBER 38 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24321","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060b726.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 SEPTEMBER 26, 1958 NUMBER 8 THE CASE ESTATES OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM in Weston, about 13 miles from the Arnold Arboretum, the Case Estates have been serving the Arboretum as nursery growing areas and as experimental areas since 1942, when the first land was given by Miss Louisa Case. At this time, Miss Case gave 57acres to Harvard University for the use of the Arboretum together with $50,000, as a memorial to her father, James B. Case. A few years later, her sister, Miss Marion Roby Case, left 90 acres with buildings, on an adjoining property ; and still later, in 1946, when Miss Louisa Case died, she left another 41 acres, both gifts accompanied by sizable endowments. SITUATED About 1945, while Miss Louisa Case was still alive, approximately 44 acres of the original gift (with buildings) were sold to the Town of Weston for school purposes. In 1958, the Town of Weston acquired by eminent-domain proceedings, another 31 acres for school purposes, leaving approximately 113 acres (see map) which now constitute the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum. This area has served as a valuable addition to our various operations and has been visited by many ; but in order to present its present functions to the public, a brief review is given here together with the current map and directions for reaching these holdings. Nursery Areas There are approximately 2,500 species and varieties of plants being gro~n in the nurseries, all carrying the name under which we originally received them. They are being tested for hardmess and will be checked for their true identity. Some are replacements for old plants in the Arboretum, many are new to its collections, and some are new introductions to America. Ericaceous materials and recent introductions from abroad are being grown in three saran-cloth-covered houses with overhead irrigation, After the first year or two of trial, these plants are placed in the regular nursery rows without any special winter protection. If they pass this test and are deemed varieties needed for display at the Arboretum, they eventually are planted in Jamaica Plain. 41 ] Experimental Areas There are approximately 80 clones of the Rhododendron forlunei hybrids, prithose originated by Charles O. Dexter of Sandwich, Massachusetts, growing in one of the saran houses for trial and comparison. A large field with mature shrubs is used for some very interesting trials and comparisons in pruning. The Perennial and Small Shrub Garden is an interesting area where mulches are used to reduce maintenance and small shrubs are planted among the bulbs and perennials to relieve the problem of planting annuals. Other departments of Harvard University have been permitted the use of small plots of land for various experimental purposes. Various experiments on pruning, mulching, application of weed killers, and the like are continually being carried out here in order to make the operations at the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain more effective. marily Permanent Nursery Land has been set aside for varieties which for one reason nursery, made up chiefly of shrub another are not considered as being among the \"best\" of the group, but which must be kept for observation and as a source of propagating material. Approximately 800 are planted in long rows, all labeled. Planting such \"secondary\" specimens in this way does not detract in any way from the value of the Arboretum and does allow for more space and valued care being given to the outstanding varieties at Jamaica Plain. a \"permanent\" or Ground Covers Over 1 ~0 ground-cover plants are displayed in six-foot plots, all clearly labeled and easily observed at any time of year. There is an increasing interest in these plantings which include most of the best of the ground covers and some that are of value only under special conditions. (See Arnoldia 16: 53-60, Nov. 16, 1956.) Small Trees trees are planted in this plot, all clearly labeled and of great insmall property owner or the individual who must select small trees for street-tree planting. All can be seen in the Arnold Arboretum in widelydispersed plantings, but here they are brought together in one place for close study and observation. (See Arnoldia: 16: 9-16, April 26, 1956~. Other plantings have been made, especially one of some outstanding crab apple varieties in the big field bordering Newton St. Although small at the moment, these trees will be of ever-increasing beauty and interest as they grow older. Plantings of Rhododendron fortunei varieties are planned for the near future, also, and a collection of beach plum varieties and a dwarf apple orchard have been growing for several years. The grounds to these plantings are always open and although motor cars are prohibited from driving about the narrow roads, most areas are easily accessible by foot from the path and visitors are always welcome. Eighty small terest for the DONALD VV1'MAN 42 ~ ... Wa s w b x 0 <K w c 0 w a. c ~ ~ ft <t a x m a 0 0 S c c > H B C~1 o a, I \"0 or tob 5' X '2014t w 9 w n w a E!. 5' w a a. tr ~ C~ w fD t~1 rt w m rt m 5' C N 0 a "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Shrub Altheas","article_sequence":8,"start_page":45,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24326","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d0608526.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 OCTOBER 24, 1958 THE SHRUB ALTHEAS NUMBER 9 old-fashioned shrub, Hibiscus .s~riacus, has been grown in America since Colonial times and was grown in England two hundred years before then. When first discovered in Syria, it was thought to be a native of that area (hence its specific name); but as has happened with several other plants (the Persian lilac, for one), the shrubby althea was later found to be a native of China and northern India, actually being introduced into Syria, and probably being brought over the old trade route from China into that country. In any event, this hardy species has had a long history. Many varieties have come and gone over the years, but we still see it used in many a northern garden. There are some thirty varieties now growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum; some of these are old-fashioned varieties, others have just recently been introduced from Europe. Many more are being grown in American nurseries, but as will be shown later, there is a great similarity among the varieties and all can be segregated in a few major color groups as far as flowers are concerned. Although not considered outstanding ornamental shrubs, they do have a place in the garden under certain conditions, and so a short review of the group and some cultural suggestions are here in order. As many a gardener knows, there are several herbaceous species native to North America, but each of the two woody species (Hibiscus syriacus and H. rosa.siuen.sis) contains many varieties that are popular garden plants, H. syriacus in the colder portions of the country and H. rosa-sinensis in the subtropical portions. Young plants of H. syriacus seem to prove less hardy the first wmter or two, and so winter protection for these is in order during this period. Old, established plants are perfectly hardy in Zone 5. They need good soil, not too dry, and full sun m order to bloom their best. The flowers of the shrub altheas appear in late summer and early fall. Doubleflowered varieties do not have fruits; semi-double varieties may have only a few THE -t- C~~: varieties bear a fruit which eventually is a dry seeds. Its late flowers as well as its ability to grow in gardens near the seashore are its chief claims for space in gardens-otherwise it has little ornamental merit. It has no autumn color and its leaves are among the last to appear in the spring. In fact, newly-placed plants may be so tardy in producing leaves the first season that harried gardeners remove them as \"dead\" when actually they are not. It must also be said that in a wet season like we have just had, many of the flowers will rot in the bud. There are two methods of growing them. The first is to practically leave them alone with little pruning. The flowers will then be profuse but small. The other method, used frequently in Europe, is to cut back the previous year's growth heavily in the spring, to about two or three buds. This makes work and an unsightly plant for awhile, but, because the flowers are borne on the current year's vegetative growth, much larger flowers are obtained. The varieties listed in this bulletin are all grown in the Arnold Arboretum and with the exception of two, were observed in bloom this year. The stamens of the varieties marked \"semi-double\" are aborted, not fully-developed petals; while those marked \"double\" have the stamens developed into petal-like structures almost the same length as normal petals. The diameter of the flowers was measured on our plants this year, but this varies materially depending on size of the plant, amount pruned, and soil conditions. The color notations listed have been made from the new Nickerson Color Fan (Arnoldia, Vol. 17, No. 10, Sept. ~0, 19~ i ). The names delegated to these varieties over the years are everything but accurate, according to our modern standards. To prevent the misuse of latinized horticultural names in the future, ~t is suggested that individuals contemplating naming new varieties of cultivated plants obtain a copy of the \"International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants\" recently formulated and adopted by the International Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants of the International Union of Biological Sciences. This ~s available for fifty cents from the office of the Secretary of the American Horticultural Council, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. Efforts are being made by all plant organizations here and abroad to name new horticultural varieties in the future in accordance with these universally-adopted rules and thus eliminate such glaring inadequacies in names as appear in the following list. or none at all; and single-flowered capsule containing many Varieties of Hibiscus syriacus in the Arnold Arboretum (In a most varieties except those specifically noted, the bases of the petals is colored deep purplish red (7.5 RP 3\/9) more or less pronounced according to variety.) Admiral Dewey Amplissimus D, ~?~~~ diam., D, 3~~ diam., strong purplish red 2.5 RP 4\/10, practically identical with 'Pompon Rouge' and 'Ruber Plenus.' pure white. 46 w v \"0 D a 0 u 1 a a 0 A *a e m c m aa W E .I ~ o 0 Hu 11 d~ ~ .\" A'' a ~ < a 0 E vl G _~ X cz E 0 0 B U g 5 U ~_ x ~ Anemonaeflorus Ardens Banner D, white with dark-red center-no flowers in 1958. SD, 3~~ diam., light purple 7.5 cal with P 6\/8, named before 1873. D, 2~~ diam., base of petal bright red, practically identiPulcherrimus.' Bicolor SD, 22~~ diam., white to and because it is pale purplish pink 2.5 RP 9\/2, color, it differs from lighter in over-all ` Elegantissima.' Boule de Feu D, 22~~ diam., moderate purplish red 4 RP 4j 10, named before 1856. Celestial Blue S, 3~~~ diam., light violet 10 PB 6\/8, reddish at base of petal with long streaks of color reaching half way to end. Named before 188 i . This and 'Coelestis' are synonymous. SD, 1~~ diam., light purple5 P Coeruleus Comte de Haimont 6\/7. SD, 32~~ diam., white with blush pink blotches, practically the same as 'Lady Stanley' except that the petals are narrow and not rounded. Duc de Brabant D, ~4~~ diam., deep purplish pink5 RP 6\/10. The outside petals are the more colored, inside petals whiter, and because of this, varies slightly from Pompon Rouge.' Named before 18 i ~. SD, 3~~ diam., pale purplish pink 2.5 RP 9\/2, with deep pink blotches and red streaks from petal base reaching three-fourths to end of petal. Named before 1861. S, 3~~ diam., pale pink with reddish stripes or blotches extending half way to end of petals. Deeper color than 'Lady Stanley.' SD, ~?.~~~ diam., tion pure white. Named in 1894. Elegantissima Hamabo Jeanne d'Arc Lady Stanley ' SD, 3~~~ diam., chiefly white with a small blush pink secon each petal and red lines reaching half way up petal from base. The plant grows with a tall and very narrow habit. This and `Leopoldi' are practically identical. SD, ~~~~ diam., color identical ley.' S, mauve-no Leopoldi Mauve Queen with that of 'Lady Stan- flowers in 1958. 48 diam., we variety Monstrosus moderate purple5 P 5\/9. This is the only have, the leaves of which are variegated yellow. a 5 RP 3~~~ diam., white with center 4\/10. Named in 18 i 3. moderate purplish red Pompon Rouge Pulcherrimus D, 2~~~ diam. See 'Amplissimus.' with D, 2~~ diam., white, practically identical 'Banner.' Ruber Plenus 2~~~ diam., Amplissimus.' D, S, 3~~ diam., as a moderate purplish red 5 RP 5\/10. See Rubis S, clear, pink-no flowers in 1958. Named before 1899. Snowdrift pure white. Named before 1911 and listed \"pure and improved 'Totus Albus'.\" identical with Sir Charles de Breton SD, 3~~ diam., 1886. 'Ardens.' 4 RP Named before Speciosus Plenus SD, 3~~ diam., deep purplish pink right habit. S, 6~10. Very up- Totus Albus 3~~~ diam., pure white. Named before 1855. Woodbridge W. R. Smith S, 3~~ diam., strong reddish purple 2.5 RP 5\/10. S, 8~~-4~~ diam., named in 1916 for the Director of the U.S. Botanic Garden in Washington, D.C. For general landscape effect, the following varieties and many others now being offered by American nurserymen can be divided into seven color classes at the most. It is obvious, especially since these are only a few of the varieties now available in America, that, as with lilacs and many other groups of plants, too many horticultural varieties are being offered. Only the best should be grown. Those marked with an \"~\" certainly appeared to be among the best as they bloomed in the Arboretum this year. White Single Semi-double Double Snowdrift, #Totus Albus, Monstrosus (white , with purphsh red center) Jeanne d'Arc #Admiral Dewey, Banner, Pulcherrimus, Anemonaeflorus (white with dark red center) ~o White to Pink Single Semi-double W. R. Smith #Bicolor, Elegantissima, ~~Lady Stanley, Leopoldi, Haimont Comte de Deep Pink Semi-double Double Speciosus Plenus #Duc de Brabant Pink to Red Single Single Double #Hamabo Red #Woodbridge Amplissimus, #Boule de Feu, Pompon Rouge, Purple Ruber Plenus Semi-double Ardens, #Sir Charles de Breton Blue Single Semi-double The #Celestial Blue #Coeruleus is also of interest: following Order of Bloom F:arl~~ late (Full, August) Celestial Blue, Leopoldi, Monstrosus, Charles de Breton Pulcherrimus, Sir Mid-Season (Full, mid-September) (Full, Admiral Dewey, Amplissimus, Banner, Comte de Haimont, Elegantissima, Lady Stanley, Pompon Rouge, Totus Albus, W. R. Smith Late Ardens, Boule de Feu, Coeruleus, Jeanne d'Arc, Hamabo, Meehani early October) DONALD WYMAN 51] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Show of Holiday Decorations","article_sequence":9,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24318","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060af6f.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VoLUME 18 NOVEMBER 28, 1958 CHRISTMAS SHOW OF HOLIDAY DECORATIONS NUMBER 10 have been many requests for another display of materials used in Christmas decorations, which the Arnold Arboretum has offered several times during the past few years. Consequently, a display will be offered again this December from Tuesday, December 9 through Friday, December 19 (except Saturday and Sunday). The show will be in the large lecture hall in the Administration Building just inside the Jamaica Plain entrance and will be open from 9.00 A.M. to 5 r.M. There is ample parking space inside the gate in front of the Administration Building. All materials will be properly labeled with scientific and common names and information about many of the plants will be included. Much interest has been shown in this display of materials in other years, and it is hoped that those interested will avail themselves of this opportunity to visit this show during the above hours. It will be divided into the following major displays : THERE -M- Evergreens and berried plants grown in this area.-Nearly fifty narrow- leaved and broad-leaved evergreens will be displayed, all hardy m this area and obtained from the collections in the Arboretum. Included will be the more popular types of firs, pines, and spruces, as well as some of the broad-leaved types of rhododendrons, hollies, holly-grape, and the like. So many different kinds of decorations are available at the Christmas season that it is helpful to note the many plants that can be grown in the home planting and hence be available for decorations to make the home bright and colorful at Christmas. In fact, it is definitely not amiss to keep this fact m mind when planting the home grounds, so that meritorious plants can be selected for beauty on the grounds the entire year, with the thought in mind that a few well-chosen branches or clipped ends, can be used indoors for decorations at Christmas. Some years the fruits of certain plants can be used ; but in other years, either because of poor fruiting or the voracious appetite of the bird population, few fruits :i3 ) ] are left on the plants out-of-doors. The last time this show was offered, over twenty varieties of berried shrubs and trees were shown. This has been a good fruiting many as year, but at the time this is being written, it is impossible to say how types of berried materials will be in good condition for the show. Certainly, as many possible will be collected. Christmas-tree decorations made from horticultural materials.-As in other years, a Christmas tree will be decorated with various seed pods and fruits from grown in the area as well as a few that have been shipped to the Boston market. To many, the old-fashioned Christmas tree decorated with tinsel and various colored glass objects is a cherished memory from childhood and these are the only type of decorations to be considered. To others of the modern generation, electric lights are sufficient to give the right effect; and to others, the most recent trend seems to be the spraying of various types of plastic materials on plants the tree. However, to the horticulturally-minded, it is interesting to note the effect that be gained with the proper use of certain types of horticultural materials. These, in turn, suggest others that might also be used and a whole new series can of decorations can thus be utilized. entitled will be Dried materials available on the Boston market.-In an issue of Arnoldia \"Christmas Plants in the Boston Area\" (Arnoldia 1 ~ : pp. 61-84, Dec. 16, 195;i), nearly a hundred materials were described briefly, and many of these on display are are in this show. Some of these are natives or are grown in the area, but many countries. All shipped in from other parts of the United States and foreign available, and since the study was made in the markets, it is these materials which are appearing in all types of Christmas decorations. Such a display can be educational, to say the least, and considerable effort has been spent on assembling these materials for proper display. Materials prominent in Christmas decorations in various areas.-An innovation in the show this year will be a display of plants and horticultural materials prominent in different major areas of the United States. Considerable time is being spent by Dr. Burdette L. Wagenknecht, the Assistant Horticultural Taxonomist, to ascertain just what plants are prominent in these areas throughout the entire United States. Here in New England, for instance, we are accustomed to the use of the Balsam fir as a Christmas tree, but what is proving most popular in the Southeast, or in California, or in the Pacific Northwest? For those who have not spent a Christmas period away from the New England area, this display should prove of interest m illustrating native and exotic plant materials that are utilized in decorations in other parts of this great country. a Wreath-making materials.-As many deal of activity among gardeners during home owner knows, there early December in making is a great own their 54] PLATE XIII Some evergreens and dried materials which are used in Christmas decorations in the New England area. wreaths. Materials for this purpose are frequently on the home grounds or can be easily found in New England forests. Cones from all sorts of evergreens, dried fruits from many a popular ornamental tree, and other kinds of materials are pressed into service. The novice may find it difficult to make the first wreath, but with a little practice, better and better work can easily be done. Actually, it is not long before making Christmas decorations becomes a family project. In \"Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials\" (Arnoldia 16: pp. 61-72, Nov. 30, 1956) many kinds of Christmas decorations were described with specific directions concerning how to make them. Many cones, acorns, dried fruits, and pods are easily available, which can be used for special decorations on wreaths and other objects. Evergreens for wreath making, too, are diversified. Balsam fir and hemlock wreaths are only of value for a short time out-of-doors before the needles fall. In the house, white pine, Douglas-fir, Japanese yew, and laurel are excellent materials, not only for their beautiful foliage, but for the comparatively long time they are serviceable. Such materials, with suitable accessories, will be on display, as well as a few unique arrangements for making the Christmas decorations as a whole, varied and interesting. DONALD WYMAN ** ** CHRISTMAS SHOW OF HOLIDAY DECORATIONS Administration Building Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain (Jamaica Plain Gate off Arborway) Tuesday, Dec. 9-Friday, Dec. 19 a.m. (exclusive of Saturday to 5.00 p.m. and Sunday) 9.00 There is ample parking space inside the Jamaica Plain Gate, which is the first (on the right) as one comes along the Arborway from Boston. The Administration Building is also within three blocks of the \"Monument\" stop on the Subway-Arborway car line. gate 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Woody Plants with Interesting Bark in Winter","article_sequence":10,"start_page":57,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24328","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060896f.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 DECEMBER 5, 1958 I NUMBER 11 WOODY PLANTS WITH INTERESTING BARK IN WINTER the Arnold Arboretum in the dead of winter will disclose a some of them new to many gardeners. The lists appended to this issue of Arnoldia are the results of just such a trip. Some of the plants are commonly known ; others, possibly unusual in gardens, should very definitely be noted as potential colorful contributors to winter gardens. The more color in the winter landscape, the more in- ATRIP through number of plants with interesting bark characteristics, teresting the garden. general characteristics of a tree's bark come with old age, and valued specifically for these characteristics. However, shrubs with colored twigs frequently can be forced to grow brighter-colored twigs for winter display if a few simple maintenance items are practiced. Cornus alba, the Tatarian dogwood, is known to have red one-year twigs. The color will not be pronounced on an old plant which has been growing in poor soil for some length of time, and the one-year growth may be only two or three inches in length. This is not conducive to a colorful display. If the same plant is heavily pruned in the early spring, possibly even cut to the ground, then it will send out vigorous young shoots wh~ch will color nicely by winter. Applying a nitrogenous fertilizer will also help in the production of colorful bark. In fact, any practice which aids the rapid vegetative growth of the shoots, will aid in the coloration The color and mature trees are of the bark of the twigs. Varieties might well be selected which are known to be vividly colored. The best of all the shrubby dogwoods for colored winter twigs is Cornus alba sibirica, the Siberian dogwood with twigs a brilliant red, and when the plant is forced into vigorous growth during the growing season, there is not a woody plant with bark more prominently colored in winter. Sunshine plays an important part in the coloration of some twigs, just as it does in promoting more intensive color in the fall foliage. Some of the blueberries, for al may have green to greenish one-year twigs when they are grown in the shade, but in the sunshine their one-year twigs turn a bright red. This is especially true of such plants as Cornus alba sibirica and Salix alba chermesina, both of which can produce twigs of brilliant color. The older these plants become, the less brilliant this color, merely because the one-year twigs become smaller and more dispersed throughout the plant. When the plant is young, or when it has been pruned heavily, then the one-year shoots are confined to a smaller space, and make a much more brilliant display. The following list of shrubs and trees include about 150 plants which have instance, colored bark retum. or colored twigs in winter, and all are growing in the Arnold Arbo- Certainly there are sufficient to make possible an interesting selection for winter garden. The seventy plants listed with an asterisk (*) have bark more any interesting than the others and might be given preference wherever possible. Of course, there are other plants of interest for their bark characteristics in winter, but the ones listed are some of the more important. or Plants with Red Twigs but Red Bark over such a wide area that unnoticeable from a distance Acer Acer sieboldianum Ceanothus pallidus rosea-dull red *Cornus alba *Cornus alba sibirica - bright red, bark more colorful than any other Cornus amomum Cornus arnoldiana Cornus australis Cornus glabrata Cornus obliqua Cornus pubescens *Cornus stolonifera *Cornus stolonifera coloradensis - young twigs dull red Cornus walteri young twigs dark red *Gaylussacia baccata-twigs of current year's growth red Gaylussacia frondosa-twigs of current year's growth red Hydrangea petiolaris young twigs a shiny reddish brown Leucothoe racemosa-twigs of current year's growth red *Pinus sylvestris bark of upper branches and trunk red *Rosa acicularis-young twigs dark red *Rosa canina - young twigs dark red Rosa centifolia-young twigs dull red *Rosa coriifolia cinerea--young twigs glossy red *Rosa kochiana twigs bright red, one of best - dispersed Acer palmatum pseudo-sieboldianum T~'igs red, mostly Acer sieboldianum the color is \/ }... dogwood . - _ j8 . tc c '\" '\" L c G ~ y . _ p '\" '\" o L ~ s ... '\" ~7 :d '\" _L ro W o C. '\" bn b c .~ .~ s +~ a~ ~ r >S :5 .D ~ wc o 0 .' a'\" ~ C. aj rn ~~s Q) L '\" cC '\" 0- r, L n W +~ O O _m 23=~ m m ~ m :: o!3 a::.. ~,00 ;~ ~ -3 m .P a ~ ~C :~s~: ,rN g c~ ~ E, ~o WAo ... ...:I;o0161- Pr '\"a'\"S d 0- '\" ; m v~ ' ) v ~a ~ '\" '\" ao '\" ..c L ... E 00 '\" bL't 3 a c U ~ , . i x o~ d . . '\" . '\" 'O . c '\" '\" \" ~ .o. '\" E,3C&#x ;: J ? .e ' i ~ ~ OO \"~ .'~'\" O I \"ii L A, t::! I I ~ vFc' y~....#3tdL ! +& ;zx3E; ~ :J...c:: I-I..cL W Rosa luciae young twigs dull reddish purple Rosa multiflora -young twigs dull red Rosa pomifera --young twigs glossy red *Rosa setigera twigs bright red, one of best Rosa spaldingii -young twigs glossy red *Rosa virginiana twigs bright red, one of best *Salix alba chermesina -vigorous young branches *Vaccinium corymbosum -twigs of current year's *Viburnum opulus nanum - younger twigs red - - bright red growth red a Shrubs with Gray Twigs colorful contrast in the sufficiently prominent to afford a Acanthopanax sieboldianus-all twigs gray Aesculus parviflora are (These winter) Aralia sp. *Buddleia alternifolia-young twigs *Clethra alnifolia *Cornus racemosa gray, older branches light brown *Elaeagnus umbellata gray *Ilex decidua - both young and old twigs *Lonicera morrowii -all twigs gray Lonicera tatarica -all twigs gray Lycium chinense Myrica pensylvanica *Nellia sinensis-all twigs gray - *Prinsepia Spiraea sp. -all twigs gray cana Viburnum opulus Viburnum sargentii Viburnum trilobum Plants with Green Twigs Coronilla emeroides Coronilla emerus - but not a good color *Cytisus *Cytisus *Cytisus praecox scoparius supinus . Genista radiata *Jasminum nudiflorum *Kerria japonica *Poncirus trifoliata - twigs, older branches *Rosa wichuraiana Salix blanda-twigs green to brown green 60 x '\" ..c i 'x ~.S E '\" '\" c ,c o x :E s ? \"\"' :.= w :; ... a~ 00 C .C a a~ c 3~ o\" ..c<; VJ W 0 OJ v ......I:J '\" cL o ..... HoE ά ~ O'~~~ . J ex x~ '\" U a, ~ v y F. r~ ;:: \"'. c G1 x y \". . ~ iN i ~~ m g 0:: <>Q. I y .., it: 1,1: b ax Sophora japonica -twigs Smilax sp. green but not a good color Shrubs with Yellow Twigs *Cornus stolonifera flaviramea Kerria japonica aureo-vittata-twigs predominantly yellow, but some pure green, some striped yellow and green *Salix alba tristis *Salix alba vitellina *Zenobia pulverulenta -young twigs light yellowish brown. Probably this would be a prominent color if the plant were cut to the ground occasionally Shrubs with Twigs a Conspicuous Light Brown Color *Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Deutzia sp. *Hydrangea Bark of Trunk and Branches arborescens Philadelphus lemoinei vars. Gray bark on upper trunk Celtis occidentalis -- gray bark on upper trunk *Cladrastis lutea *Acer rubrum *Acer saccharinum *Amelanchier sp. Celtis bungeana Celtis laevigata-gray Crataegus-many species Euonymus sachalinensis-dark Euonymus maackii *Fagus -all species gray bark the bark of the upper trunk and branches Malus micromalus Quercus borealis - bark of young trunk and branches Quercus velutina - bark of young trunk and branches *Sorbus sp. light gray bark *Magnolia-several species-especially - *Ulmus carpinifolia Ulmus hollandica superba-bark of young trunk and branches Ulmus laciniata nikoensis-bark light gray Bark of Trunk and Branches White light gray *Betula coerulea *Betula coerulea-grandis *Betula japonica *Betula maximowicziana 62 *Betula papyrifera (best) *Betula populifolia *Betula pendula *Betula utilis Bark of Trunk Cherry-like , (sometimes exfoliating) Betula lutea-bark of older trunks yellowish brown *Prunus sargentii *Prunus serrula-bright red, one of best! *Prunus schmittii-very glossy, red Prunus many other species of course, but above are standing Syringa amurensis japonica ' - some of the most out- Bark of Trunk or Older Branches Exfoliating, Either Shredding Off in Long Strips or Flaking Off in Regular or Irregular Patches *Acer griseum -one Acer triflorum of best, light brown color Betula davurica - purplish brown bark, very good and peculiarly interesting in that the bark peels or flakes off in regular strips an inch or so square Betula lutea - bark of older trunks yellowish, cherry-like, exfoliating Betula nigra-dark, blackish, plated bark on older trunks, often chipping off wh~te-barked species Betula Clethra acummata - older bark brown, exposed young bark gray Cornus officinalis Deutzia glabrata - peculiar exfoliating bark, light brown new bark, dark brown old bark Euonymus sanguinea - dark gray exfoliating bark, irregularly colored patches remaining on older stems *Hicoria ovata- stiff older bark flaking off *Hypericum arnoldianum-peeling and a lustrous reddish brown bark shredding off in long strips *Kolkwitzia amabil~s *Lonicera ferdinand~ - bark shredding off in long strips Lonicera iberica-bark shredding off in long strips *Parrotia persica-bark flaking, older bark red brown - ' Physocarpus sp.-shredding bark * Platanus acerifolia greenish underbark on some specimens and not on others, flaking off in irregular patches * Platanus occidentalis - white underbark, gray outerbark flaking off in irregular patches *Pinus bungeana-bark flaking off in irregular patches, underbark almost white Rosa roxburghii-bark shredding off in long strips *Stewart~a koreana - mottled bark and of the best! Older bark brown, younger bark light brown - Stewart~a pseudo-camellia - also mottled but not as ornamental as S. koreana 63 *Ulmus parvifolia-mottled bark, flaking off this is a in irregular patches. Apparently seem clonal characteristic, for some trees do not to have it Miscellaneous Acer capillipes- green striped bark *Acer pensylvanicum green and striped bark bark green to light brown Ceanothus americanus Decaisnea fargesii gray to yellow old and young twigs *Euonymus alata-corky wings on twigs and older branches *Phellodendron amurense-bark corky on mature trees Prunus triloba--bark of older branches a pronounced black Quercus montana - corky bark on mature trees Rubus occidentalis-twigs whitish to pinkish Salix fragilis-bark of young branches yellow brown *Salix purpurea twigs reddish purple Ulmus alata-corky wings on twigs Zelkova serrata-corky ridges on bark of twigs and small branches - ' ' DONALD WYMAN 64] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants","article_sequence":11,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24325","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060816d.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 18 DECEMBER 26, 1958 NUMBER 12 THE NEW INTERNATIONAL CODE OF NOMENCLATURE FOR CULTIVATED PLANTS those who are interested in the naming of new horticultural varieties of should certainly obtain a copy of this new code. It was published by The International Union of Biological Sciences, Utrecht, Netherlands, in 1958, and is available in the United States only from the Secretary of the American Horticultural Council, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass., for fifty cents, postpaid. It has been widely adopted already and it is hoped will be the set of rules which will be followed universally in the naming of new horticultural varieties. To give Arnoldia subscribers a little background, the Preface to this code is here reproduced for their information: ALL plants \"In the introduction Plants, published in to the International Code qf Nomenclature for Cultivated 1953, Mr. V~'. T. Stearn gave a scholarly history of codes for the naming of cultivated plants from their beginnings in 1847. \"The 1953 Code was formulated and adopted by The International Botanical Congress Committee for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants and the International Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature and Registration at the Thirteenth International Horticultural Congress, London, September 1952. Though the Code had been drawn up primarily by those interested in horticulture, agriculturists and foresters welcomed it as a basis for the naming of their crops, and the problem arose of finding a suitable body, on which agriculturists, foresters and horticulturists could all be represented, to take responsibility for future editions. \"At the Fourteenth International Horticultural Congress held at Scheveningen in 1955, it was agreed to ask the International Union of Biological Sciences whether the Commission for the Nomenclature of Cultivated Plants which they had set up under their Division of Botany could undertake this work. The Union readily agreed, and it was decided that the Commission should be enlarged to twenty- G~ (with power to co-opt), consisting of approximately equal numbers representing agriculture, forestry and horticulture. The existing Chairman (Dr. Roger de Vilmorin) was confirmed in office, and the remaining members were appointed by the Union; those representing agriculture and forestry after consulfour members Agriculture Organization of the United Nations and the International Union of Forest Research Organizations respectively and those representing horticulture on the nomination of the Fourteenth International Horticultural Congress. The Commission now consists of the following members : tation with the Food and Chairman: Dr. R. DE VILMORIN, Services scientifiques Vilmorin-Andrieux, Verrieres-le-Buisson (S. & 0.), France. Rapporteur: Mr. J. S. L. GILMOUR, University Botanic Garden, Cambridge, England. Secretary: Dr. H. R. FLETCHER, Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, 4, Scotland. Commission Members Agricultural Representatives: Dr. J. W. GREGOR - Scottish Plant Breeding Station, 'Pentlandfield, Roslin, Midlothian, Scotland. Mr. F. R. HuRNF - National Institute of Agricultural Botany, Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, England. Dr. P. S. HUDSON - Commonwealth Bureau of Plant Breeding and Genetics, Cambridge, England. Dr. JORGE LEON - Plant Industry Department, Inter-American Institute for Costa Rica. Swedish State Seed voor Agricultural Science, Turrialba, Dr. G. I~Trr.ssoN-LFrssNEe Sweden. Dr. F. E. NIJDAM Stichting - Testing Station, Stockholm 19, Nude 66, Plantenveredeling, Wageningen, Netherlands. Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi, India. Dr. P. B. PAL Mr. T. A. RUSSELL Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Richmond, Surrey, England. Institute of Plant Industry, Herzenstreet 44, Leningrad, Dr. E. N. SINSKAYA U. S. S. R. Field Crops Research Branch, U. S. Department of AgriculDr. M. G. ~'Erss ture, Beltsville, Maryland, U.S.A. - Forestry Representatives: Dr. R. D. JOHNSTON Forest Botanist, Forestry and Timber Bureau, Canberra, Australia. Bundesanstalt fur Forst- und Holzwirtschaft, 24a SchmalenDr. W. LANGNER beck uber Ahrensberg, Germany. - _66~ ] Dr. E. L. LITTLE JR, - Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Station, Allce Holt ~'ash- ington 25, DC., U.S.A. Mr. J. D. MATTHEWS - Forest Research Lodge,~'recclesham, Farnham, Surrey, England. Dr. MASATAKA OEaM~sA omenguro, - Government Forest Experiment Station, 4-770Shim- Meguro-Ku, Tokyo, Japan. M. J. POURTET - Ecole Nationale des Eaux et France. Forets, 14 Rue Girardet, Nancy, Horticultural Representatives: Dr. B. K. BooM - Instituut voor ~'eredelina van Tuinbouwgewassen, Postbus 7, Wagenmgen, Netherlands. Dr. H. R. FLETCHER Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, 4, Scotland. Mr. J. S. L. GIL~IOCR - University Botanic Garden, Cambridge, England. Dr. N. HvLANnER - Institute of Systematic Botany, University of Uppsala, Uppsala 1, Sweden. Dr. G. H. M. LAWRENCE - Bailey Hortorium, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, U.S.A. Dr. R. MAATSCH Hochschule fur Gartenbau und Landeskultur, Burgweg 11, - - Hannover-Herrenhausen, Germany. Mr. J. M. S. POTTER - National Fruit Trials, Brogdale Farm, Faversham, Kent, England. Dr. A. THORSRUD Institut for Blomsterdyrking, Norges Landbruksheiskole, Vollebekk, Norway. - \"There is an Executive Committee consisting of the three officers and an Editorial Committee with the following membership : H. R. FLETCHER, J. S. L. GILMOPR, G. H. M. LAWRENCE, E. L. LITTLE JR., G. NILSSON-LEISSNER, R. DE VILMORIN. Commission held its first meeting at the University of Utrecht from 1956, when it considered proposals, received from many organizations and individuals, for the modification of the 1953 Code to improve it generally and to render it equally applicable to agriculture, forestry and horticulture. As a result of this meeting, a first draft for a new Code was widely circulated for comment during 1957. The resultmg proposals were considered at a second meeting of the Commission held in London from 4-6 December 1957, and the text now published has been prepared by the Editorial Committee on the basis of decisions taken at that meeting. The Code becomes effective from the date of its publication, and is submitted for endorsement for horticulture to the Fifteenth International Horticultural Congress to be held at Nice in April 1958, for agriculture to the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, and for forestry to the International Union of Forest Research Organizations. new The 21-23 November [ 67 \"The present Code is considerably shorter than its predecessor, and, it is hoped, logically arranged and simpler to use, though certain articles, of concern mainly to registration authorities and those naming new cultivars, must necessarily be somewhat technical. There are no alterations in the basic principles of the 19~8 Code, but there are several major changes which will, the Commission hopes, make the new Code more acceptable to users. The following are, perhaps, more the most important: of only those in Roman characters) may be used cultivar, though there is a strong recommendation to or add a translation m - English, French, German, Russian or Spanish. use \"(2) It is made clear that a cultivar name, to be legitimate under the Code, must, from I January 19~9 onwards, be published uith a description, but that before this date, a description is not necessary. \"(3) It is laid down that, while 'cultivar' is the technical, international term for what in English is known as a 'variety' ('Sorte' in German, 'sort' m Scandinavian languages, etc.), anyone is free, without violating the Code, to use his own national term if he so wishes; and this is emphasised by placing 'variety' in brackets after 'cultivar' throughout the Code. The term 'cultivar', however, is rapidly gaining favour in many groups of cultivated plants, as a convenient and unambiguous word for general use. \"(4) A broader view has been taken of the use of 'commercial synonyms'. The Commission fully realises that, if the Code is to be generally accepted, account must be taken of all reasonable commercial practices in the crops concerned. \"(5) Registration of names by official registration authorities is treated much more fully, and recommendations to such authorities, approved by the Fourteenth International Horticultural Congress, are included as Appendix I. The Commission attaches great importance to registration as a means for stabilizing names, and hopes that authorities will be set up as rapidly as possible to cover all the major cultivated crops. \"(6) The problems arising from re-selected cultivars have been clarified, and the term 'strain' and its eqmvalents have been excluded from the Code. \"(7) It is clearly indicated which articles are retroactive, and which apply only to the future. \"The Commission is confident that the Code will be widely used all over the world and wishes to encourage the publication of authorized translations and versions adapted to particular crops. As stated on the back of the title page, permission for all such translations and adaptations must be obtained through the publishers, the International Union of Biological Sciences, who will consult the \"(1~ Any language (instead description of a new - for the Commission on each application.\" This Code was endorsed by the Fifteenth International Horticultural Congress held at Nice, France, in April 1958. DONALD WYMAN 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XVIII","article_sequence":12,"start_page":69,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24320","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060b36d.jpg","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XVIII Illustrations Acer are in bold face type griseum, Plate XV, 611 3 julibrissin rosea, 13 Altheas, Shrub, 45-51I Albizzia Chamaecyparis pisifera 1, 2 ; Plate I, 5 squarrosa, Chickweed, Cherry 53 tree 18 Arctium 20 lappa, 20 Artichoke, Jerusalem, Plate II I, 19; Arnold Arboretum, Fall - 6 collection, 16 Christmas decorations, berried plants, Classes, 39 - postcards, 40 publications, 40 Asclepias syriaca, 20 Aster, New England, 20 novae-angliae, 20 -, - --, Christmas decorations, evergreens, 5 53; Plate XIII, 55 - -, materials prominent in various areas, 54 - Show of Holiday 56 Decorations, 53- - vimineus, - 20 Bark of trunk and branches gray, 62 - Christmas-tree decorations, 54 Cicuta maculata, 20 white, 62 cherry-like, 63 - Coggeshall, Roger G., exfoliating 35 - - - or older branches Convolvulus sepium, 20 Cornus alba, 57 63 i i - frondosa, 22 Burdock, 20 Butter-and-eggs, 18 8 Buttercups, 18 Case Estates, experimental -, ground covers, 42 - Bidens sibirica, 57, Cowbane, spotted, - 58 20 Cup plant, 20; Plate V, i Dogwood, Siberian, 57 -, Tatanan, 57 areas, 42 23 Dried materials on the Boston mar- - 1 -, nursery areas, 41 -, -, permanent, 42 Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, 41-44; Plate IX, 43 ket, 5~.; Plate XIII, 55 Elm, Chinese, Plate XIV, 59 English ivy, 1, 3 Eupatorium fistulosum, 20; Plate , small trees, 42 Case, Miss Louisa, 411 Case, Miss Marion Roby, 411 -, ' Catchfly, night-flowering, Cat-tails, 20 Cedar of Lebanon, 14, 15 3 Chamaecyparis, 1 18 8 IV, 21I Quarantine No. 38, 9 Fordham, Alfred J., 24 Forsythia Arnold Dwarf,' 2 8 Galeopsis tetrahit, 18 Gardner, F. E., 6 Hedera helix, I Helianthus tuberosus, Plate II I, 19 ; Federal 20 Chamaecyparis pisifera, Plate I, 5 69 ~ ] Hemlock, Sargent weeping, 15 Hemp-nettle, 18 Herbanum, Horticultural, 25-28 Hibiscus Admiral Dewey,' 46 - Horticulture on Postage Stamps, 29-38; Plate VI, 31 ; Plate VII, 3:3 ; Plate VIII, 35 Impatiens biflora, 18 8 - 'Ardens,' 48 'Amplissimus,' 46 'Anemonaeflorus,' International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated I'lants, l~ew, 46; 48 65-68 Hibiscus 'Banner,' 48 ; Plate - XI I, 49 'Bicolor,' 48 - 8 Iris, blue flag, 18 8 pseudacorus, 18 8 swamp, 18 Hibiscus 'Boule de Feu,' Plate 47; 48 - XI, - 'Celestial Blue,' 48 - 'Coeruleus,' 48 8 versicolor, 18 Jensen, Holger, 9 Joe-pye-weed, 20; Plate 1 V, - 21 - - 'Comte de Haimont,' 'Duc de Brabant,' 48 47 ; 48 48 48 48 Hibiscus 'Elegantissima,' Plate X I , Juvenile Characters of Trees and Shrubs, 1-7 Juvenile foliage forms, some, Plate - 'Hamambo,' - 'Jeanne d'Arc,' - - 'Lady Stanley,' 'Leopoldi,' 48 'Mauve Queen,' 48 - 48 - - 'Meehani,' 40 'Monstrosus,' 50 - I, 5 Knight, Thomas Andrew, 2, Krussmann, Gert, 9 Lactuca canadensis, 20 Lettuce, wild, 20 Lilac, Chinese, 2 6 collection, 16 Lilium philadelphicum, 20 6 - - 'Pompon Rouge,' 50 'Pulcherrimus,' 50 rosa-sinensis, 45 - - 'Ruber Plenus,' 50 - 'Rubis,' 50 50 - 'Sir Charles de Breton,' superbum, 20; Plate IV, wood, 20 Ltly, Ltnarta vulgaris,18 8 Loosestrtfe, spiked, 20 Loosestrife, swamp, Plate V, 22 Louden, J. C., 3 Lilium 21 i - - 'Snowdrift,' 50 'Speciosus Plenus,' syriacus, 45 Lysimachia nummularia, 50 18 8 - Lythrum salicaria, 20 ; Plate V, 22 Mahoberberis aquicandidula, 10 ; Plate Arbo- - - - -, color groups of, 50, 511 -, order of bloom, 51I -, Varieties of, in Arnold II, 11 1 Mahoberberis aquisargenti, 10 ; I'late II, 11 1 retum, 46, 48, 50 Hibiscus 'Totus Albus,' Plate Xl, 4i; - 50 50 - 'Woodbridge,' 'W. R. Smith,' 50 Horticultural Herbarium, 25-28 Hybrids, Two New, 9-12 miethkeana, 12 o neuberti, 10 Mahonia aquifolium, 9 8 Maiden's-tears, 18 Malus collection, 15, 16 70 Malus hybrid, Plate I, 5 Case Estates, Plate Map,~ 4~. IX, 43 Map, roads between Arnold Arbore- - tum and Case Estates, Plate X, - twigs a conspicuous light brown color, 62 yellow twigs, 62 Silene cucubalus, 18 R 18 8 noctiflora, - - 1 Maple, paper bark, Plate XV, 61 Meadow, The, 1 ~-2~.: Plate III, 19 - Silk tree, 23 hardy, 15 3 Silphium perfoliatum, 20; Plate ~', rue, 20 ~Iiethke, Henry 0., Milkweed, 20 Moneywort, 18 :l~orning glory, wild, ?0 Nettle fruits, Spanish, 22 12 Spring through the Arnold Arboretum, 13-16 Walk Stamps, Postage, Horticulture on, ~3~J-38; Plate VI, 31 ; Plate VII, 33; Plate VIII, 35 Standard Postage Stamp 8 -, stinging, 18 Catalogue, Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants, New International Code, 65-68 Oenothera perennis, 20 Scott's, 29 Stellaria graminea, 18 8 Stewartia koreana, Plate XIV, 59 Picea, Picea glauca, 2 ; Plate I, 5 :i Picea glauca conica, Plate I, Pine, lace bark, Plate XV, 61 1 Pinus bungeana, Plate XV, 61 Plants in the meadow, 22, ?~. with green twigs, 60 red twigs or red bark, 58, 2 - 5 Syringa laciniata, 2 ; Plate I, ~ Tanacetum vulgare, 20; Plate V, Tansy, common, 20; Plate V, 23 23 Tear-thumb, Thalictrum 18 20 polygamum, 18 R Thuja,1 Toad-flax, 60 Turk's-cap-lily, 20; Plate IV, Trees and ters 21 - Woody, Interesting Winter, 57-64 8 I'olpgonum arifolium, 18 20 Primrose, evening, R Ranunculus acris, 1 - with Bark in Shrubs, of, 1-7 Typha latifolia, 20 Ulmus R Grtica dioica, 18 Juvenile Charac- parvifolia, Plate XIV, 59 8 bulbosus, 18 8 wild, 18 Raspberry, 8 Rubus idaeus, 18 Salix alba chermesina, 1 Shrub Altheas, 4o-J Verbena hastata, 20; Plate V, 23 23 Vervain, blue, 10; Plate V, 58 Shrubs with gray twigs, 60 Wagenknecht, Burdette L., 39 Woody Plants with Interesting in Winter, 57-64 Wreath-making materials, 53 Bark I1 _ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23309","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d15e816a.jpg","title":"1958-18","volume":18,"issue_number":null,"year":1958,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Cultivated Relatives of the Camellia","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24310","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15e856d.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wood Jr., Carroll E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 i c MARCH 15, 19o i NUMBERS 1-l SOME CULTIVATED RELATIVES OF THE CAMELLIA in Camellia, with its large and handsome flowers, and numerous cultivated forms,~ has often tended to obscure other members of the Tea Family (Theaceae) in cultivation. Four interesting and highly ornamental species are native to the southeastern United States and other Asiatic members of the family are also in cultivation. The Tea Family is primarily its distribution, with about 30 genera and some 500 species in the warmer parts of the Old and New World. A few species extend into cooler areas and it is primarily these which are cultivated in the United States, although more tender representatives are being grown in the milder climates of the West Coast and in the Southeastern States. The deciduousleaved genera Franklinia and .Steuarfia are far hardier than most, however, and some species grow well even north of Boston. If any generalization as to the cultivation of members of the Theaceae is permissible it would seem to be that most of these plants require acid soils and treatment similar to that accorded rhododendrons. Certainly some, as Frauklinia and Gordonirr lasiarethus, mll not grow at all without these conditions. ~'arious early failures with the plants in England probably stem from lack of knowledge of this factor. Notes on specimens collected in Asia are few, but habitats and associates all suggest that Theaceae seldom occupy calcareous areas. The notes which follow are an attempt to draw together some of the scattered information about those groups which are reported to be under cultivation in the United States at the present time. Some of these are currently misidentified in the nursery trade and for many there do not seem to be good modern records concerning the areas in which they are cultivated, their hardiness, or special cul- THE leaves, evergreen great interest shown tropical in One Florida nursery alone lists some 3 i5 eultivars ! 1~ ] ture. Further information along these lines, or the presence of other species in the United States, will be most appreciated additrons to this preliminary report. We are also anxious to add documenting herbarium specimens of cultivated Theaceae to the Arboretum's collections. Dr. C. E. Kobuski, Curator of the Arnold Arboretum and the Gray Herbarium, and a specialist on the classification of the family, is willing to identify members of the Theaceae, with the esception of Camellia. I should like especially to express my appreciation to Dr. Kobuski for his kind and generous aid in the preparation of this paper. In addition, much of the information included here is drawn from his excellent series of monographic studies of this complex and variable family. The accompanying plate was drawn by Dlrs. Dorothy Dlarsh in connection with work on the plants of the southeastern United States. The members of the Tea Family are trees or shrubs with simple, alternate, usually evergreen leaves which lack stipules. The flowers are often showy and are regular in their floral symmetry. The sepals and petals are normally five, but there are usually two or more bracts beneath the sepals and, in some groups (e.g. Gordonia axillaris and Camellia~, the spirally arranged bracts grade into the sepals and these into petals. Extra petals are sometimes present (as in some Stewartias) and \"double\" forms of Camellia provide excellent examples ot' the conversion of stamens into extra petals. The sepals are overlapping in the bud in a characteristic fashion, with two sepals completely outside the others, two completely inside, and one with one edge inside and one outside. The petals are usually joined at their bases and the numerous stamens are attached to the petals, so that both fall together. The stamens are often in groups at the base of each petal or their filaments may be united at their bases to form a ring. The fruits and seeds are frequently characteristic and provide good bases for the classification of the group, a matter which is frustrating to one who would use the flowering state for identification. However, many of the characteristics of the fruit may be determined from the examination of the pistil: the number of styles (1-5), the number of cells (locules or compartments) within the o~arv (I-3-4-0), and the number of ovules (1-man~-), the shape of the ovary, etc. The following key attempts to use as many flowering and fruiting characteristics as possible to enable identification of the eight genera in the United States. It should be noted that only plants known to be cultivated out-of-doors have been included and that the key may not work for other species of some of the genera. Camellia enthusiasts may be disappointed to find no mention of their favorite genus beyond the key. They will immediately agree, however, that theirs is a complex group of cultivated plants far beyond the scope of this article and the author will even more readily admit the group to be far beyond his knowledge. . 7] Key A. Fruit to Genera of Theaceae Cultivated in the United States\" a regularly dehiscent capsule : flowers an inch or more in diameter, usu. ally large and showy ; stamens very numerous, the anthers versatile (except in Sclaim~a); ovary ,i-celled (or 3-celled in Camellia), usually pubescent. CA:~IELLI A tribe. B. Seeds conspicuously winged, either at one end or marginally ; capsule loculicidally dehiscent, with a persistent central axis ; sepals suborbicular, persistent at least mto young fruit. C. \" Capsule elongate, ovoid to elliptic : seeds usually 4 or more per locule, with a pronounced oblong wing at the upper end.... 1. Gordonia. Capsule globose or subglobose; seeds usually 3 per locule, kidney-shaped, with a conspicuous, thin, marginal wing........ ?. Sohima. wingless (or in I sp. of Stewartia with a capsule with or without a persistent central deciduous. narrow, thinner C. B. Seeds margin); or axis: sepals persistent D. Ovary usually 3-celled ; seeds large, plump, tending to be spherical, but angled through mutual pressure, 1-3 in each cell; capsule loculicidal, with a persistent central axis; petals red to white or yellow. Camellia (meluding Thea). white. D. Ovary 5-celled; E. seeds 1-10 in each cell of the capsule; petals Capsule globose, dehiscing loculicidally from above and septicidally from below, wtth a persistent central axis : sepals suborbicular, dehiscent at or soon after anthesis; stamens in5 conspicuous clusters, the filaments free to the base.......... 3. Franklinia. E. Capsule dehiscing loculicidally from above only, a central axis absent, sepals ovate to oblong-ovate, persistent into fruit; filaments of stamens united toward the base in a ring....... 4. Slewartia. A. Fruit fleshy, berry-like, not regularly dehiscent; flowers less than I inch in diameter; anthers basifixed ; ovary ?-3-celled, glabrous ; leaves evergreen. TERNSTROEMIA Tribe. F. Flowers leaves perfect; (in ours) stamens about ~?5-60: flowers entire. more thaninch wide; G. Leaves - spirally arranged, clustered near the tips of the branches ; ovary 2-celled, each cell with 2-5 ovules; fruit red, few-seeded; stamens about 60, the anthers glabrous.......... ~. Ternstroemia. z The terms used here are all included in Dr. Kobuski's \"A Revised Glossar~of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural Terms,\" Arnoldia 15: (5-i) G. Leaves alternate, more or less 2-ranked; ovary 2-3-celled, with numerous ovules in each cell : fruit black, mans--seeded ; stamens about `13, the anthers hispid................. 6. CleyPrrr. F. Flowers unisexual; staminate and ers ' pistillate flowers on different plants ; flowsmall, aboutinch high ; styles 3-parted ; ovules and seeds numerous ; stamens 10-l.i, the anthers glabrous; fruit a small, black berry. i . Furya. nurseryman at Ellis, I ; ; 1 . (Named in honor of James Gordon, 1 i `?8-1 ; 91 , a D9ile-l;nd, near London,\"to whom the science of Botany is highly and whose merit is universally known for his great knowledge in the indebted, 1. Gordonia cultivation of exotic plants.\") A genus of about 30 species, one in the southeastern l:.S. and the others in the warmer parts of southeastern Asia. Our native species, G. lasianthus, is a very distinctive species with handsome, fragrant, white flowers. The bases of the stamens are united to form conspicuous fleshy pads which are united in a ring. The plant is native from eastern North Carolina, south to the region of Lake Okeechobee, Florida, and west along the Gulf of Dlexico to Blississippi, always in acid, peaty soils of non-allw ial branch- and creek-swamps, \"pocosins,'' hammocks, \"bays,\" sand-hill bogs, etc. Flowering from July and August, the plant is a handsome tree, sometimes cultivated. It was first grown in England about I i68 and was described from living specimens, as well as from herbarium specimens sent by Alexander Garden from Charleston, S.C. It is hardy as far north as Philadelphia, where it flowers and fruits in the garden of ~7rs. J. Norman Henry, at Gladwyne. l:nder favorable conditions in the wild the plant may reach 75feet in height and more than `10 inches in durmeter. Like many of its relatives, however, it may flower when a small shrub. PLATE I. Genera of Theaceae native to the United States. 1-7. Frunklinia alatamaha. Fruiting branch prior to flowering, bearing fruit of two preceding years, X 1\/6; 2. Bud, showing outermost sepal and two bracteoles, t. Petal with group of stamens attached, X'L\/3; o. Pistil, X1; 6. Old fruit from which seeds have been shed, XI; 7. Seed, X2. 8-13. Gordozzia lasianthua. 8. Tip of flowering branch, X 1\/3; 9. Bud with four bracteoles, X2\/3; 10. Petal with stamens attached, X2\/3 (note fleshy pad composed of united bases of stamens); 11. Calyx and pistil, the outermost sepal removed, X I; 1~L. Fruit from which seeds have been shed, X1; 13. Winged seed, X. 11-17. Stewartia ovafa var, graodiflora. 1-1: Flowering branch, 6-'7-petaled form, XI\/3; IS. Flower, 5-petaled form, X 1\/3; 16. Loculicidal capsule, partly opened, with persistent calyx, X1; 17. Seed, X2. (Plate drawn by Mrs. Dorothy Marsh, 1956. Figs. 1, 6, 7, Iz from cultivated plants at the Henry Foundation for Botanical Research, Gladwyne, Pa. Figs. 8-lfrom materials collected by Drs. R. B. Channell and H. F. L. Rock in Bladen County, N.C.; Fig. 13 from a herbarium specimen from Brunswick Co., N.C. Remaining figures from plants in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain.) 1. [ 4 :1 PLATE I The Asiatic members of the genus, which have sessile flowers, in contrast with tend to grade into sepals and sepals into petals, are plants of tropical and subtropical southeastern Asia. Gorclonia asillaris, a very handsome shrub or tree, is cultivated at least on the California coast, and may be grown as a tender shrub in the Deep South. (Tordoniu is interesting as a formerly widespread genus now restricted to the southeastern United States and southeastern Asia. Fossil Gordonias are known from Europe and the western United States. ours, and in whrcl~ the bracts 2. Schima Blume, to 182.i. (:~ume not explained.) monographer the genus consists of a single highly variable species, olliclrii, with nine subspecies which occur in the Bonin Islands, the Liu-Kiu Islands, southern China, northern Burma, eastern India, Dlalay-a, and the East Indies, at altitudes from I,i feet to 10,000 feet above sea.level. The tree may grow to be 1.i0 feet tall and four feet in diameter. The fragrant white According the latest flowers up to more than two inches in diameter are very similar in appearance to those of Gordonia and are peduncled like those of G. Insianlhus. As in other Theaceae, the flowers are in the axils of leaves or, in this species, bracts, representing reduced leaves, near the tips of the branches. This reduction in leaf-size may give the appearance of a short raceme, but a strange raceme, in that it may later grow one~etativel~-..Schi~na is reported to be in cultivation in southern California, but I havseen no specimens and do not know to what subspecies these plants belong. The wide altitudinal range of the species suggests that it might be possible to select hardier forms of this handsome evergreen tree. .Vrlrimn and Gordnnirr are similar in general structure but are easily distin`cuished by their very different fruits and seeds. Marshall, I i 8,i. (Vamed as a compliment to Ben,jamin Franklin, phrlosupher and statesman, 1 i 06-1 i 90. ~ Only a single species, F. alcrln~nalra, and this now known only in cultmatiun. It was formerly known only from an area of two or three acres of \"sand-hill bog\" or \"branch-sv,-amp\" at the edge of sandhills near Fort Barrington, on the Altamaha (then spelled \".-llatamah.c\"~ River, in blcIntosh County, Georgia, where it was first seen by John Bartram and his son, William, on October 1, 1 i 65. The species was last seen at this spot by Moses il9arshall, a nephew of Humphr~Marshall, in 1 ; 90. It has not been found again in the wild in spite of repeated searches dating from about 1881. Franklinin has been cultivated in England since about 1 i i l, however, and it is known that, in 1' i i , ~'illiam Bartram collected at Fort Barrington ripe seeds from which were grown plants which flowered in four years at Philadelphia. Most of the plants in cultivation in the United States are thought to be descendants of a plant rescued by the :lleehans of I'h~ladelphia from Bartram's then neglected garden some years before it was taken w er by the 3. Franklinia American U on the part of Humphry and ~loses ~larshall to orders for Frare~~linin plants placed by- a London firm in 178and 1 i 89 may Hll lar~,Te well have played a fatal part in the extmction of the colony at Fort Barrington. As a cultivated plant the large, white, rose-scented flowers with their conspicuous orange stamens are usually produced from July (or, in the North, from late August or September) until frost. According to Bartram, howe~ er, at Fort Barrington the plant flowered from \"April until] the autumn when it ceases flowering, whilst the seed of the Howers of the preceding year are ripening,\" and at Thonrasville, Georgia, it is reported to flower in April and May. The plant is further valued for its brilliant crimson autumn coloratron. In spite of its extremely limited area on the coastal plain of Georgia, the plant is hardy as far north as Boston, flourishing in acid soils which are a prerequisite to its cultivation. At the Arnold Arboretum it is grown as a many-stemmed shrub, around the base of which soil may be placed in winter as added root protection, for it sometimes dies back in severe winters. Propagation was formerly by layering but plants now are readily produced by cuttings. It has been suggested that the plant is nearly sterile to its own pollen and that seeds from self-pollinated plants do not germinate. More information is needed on this matter, however, for at least some seedlings have been raised in modern times. Although known for many years first as Cxordooia pabesoens and later as Gorrlonia \"nhrrmalrn,\" Fraukliia is abundantly distinct from all members of (~ortlonia in fruit-shape and unique dehiscence, wingless seeds, and membranous and deciduous leaves. It is a remarkable plant which survi~ es today only in cultivation, a f<rte not shared by many other rare and interesting native plants which may yet be facing total extinction. city of Philadelphia. Attempts ' 4. Stewartia Linnaeus, 1 ; 5~.. (Named for John Stuart, 1 ; 13-1 i 9~?, third Earl of Bute, who was distinguished in his day as a botanist. ) A genus of about six or seven species of eastern Asia and the southeastern United States. These are all handsome and showy deciduous shrubs or small trees worthy of far greater popularity. Their conspicuous white flowers coming as they do in midsummer are especially welcome and the attractive bark of several species is an additional interesting feature. Several species (notably S. oorrtrr and S. korearra) have good autumn color. Two species are native in the southeastern United States : S. ~nnlrrcode~rrlron is primarily on the Coastal Plain and in the Piedmont from Virginia to Louisiana, and with an outlying station in Arkansas; S. ovnla (S. pentagyna) is primarily a plant of the southern Appalachians in Kentucky, Tennessee, North Carolina, Georgia and Alabama. This latter species is by far the hardier of the two and is a very handsome tall shrub. Stewartia malncodenclron has stamens with purple filaments, while f. ot~ata includes plants with white filaments or with deep purple [ 8] PLATE III Both flowers and bark of ~fe2nartia pxendo-canaellin are ornamental. '1'his tree, in the Arnold Arboretum, dates from 1891. The trunk is now 37 inches in circumference at the narrowest part visible here. filaments. Some strains of this latter purple-filamented form, var. granrliflora, have from six to eight petals and are especially handsome. Of the eastern Asiatic species, those in cultivation include at least S. pseudoenmellia, .S. koreana (a plant doubtfully distinct from the preceding species, and given varietal status by Bean), S. serrairr, S. monndelpha and .S. sinensis. All of these have white flowers with white stamen-filaments. .Ste.~artia ovntn has sometimes been separated as the genus Mnlnchodendron on the basis of its five distinct styles (in the others united into a single style), but it is obviously so closely related to the other species that all should be included in a single genus. Stewartias are propagated either by seeds or softwood cuttings. Seedlings in rigorous climates (as Boston) need to be carried through at least the first several winters in the cold pit. filius, 1 781. (Named for Christopher Ternstroem Swedish naturalist and student of Linnaeus, who died in the East ( 1 7 03-I 7 46), Indies where he had gone to botanize, especially charged by Linnaeus (senior) with bringing back, among other things, a tea plant in a pot, or at least some seeds of it, and some live goldfish for the Queen of Sweden.) A large genus in the tropics of both hemispheres, with numerous species in both areas. In the warmer areas of the United States at least two, T. sylvatica, of Jlexico (States of ~'eracruz, ~Iexico, Guerrero, and Hidalgo), and T. gymnanthera, a native of Japan and China, are cultivated. Ternstroemia gymnanthera does well at least as far north as North Carolina ; L'. syluntica is in cultivation in southern California. Both are exotic in appearance with stiffish evergreen leaves clustered near the tips of the branches. The flowers, which are rather inconspicuous, are followed by red, berry-like fruits about ~ inch long. Ternstroemia gymnanthera is often found passing as Cleyera japonica, while the plant which should bear that name is often called Eurya oclmacea, a synonym. ~. Ternstroemia Linnaeus a (Named for Andrew Clever, a ph~-sician and botDirector of Commerce from 1683-1688.) anist, and Dutch Sixteen species in the West Indies and Central America and, in the Old World, a single widespread, polymorphic species, (~. japonica, which ranges from Japan and Korea to southern and western China and India. Cleyera japonica, a shrub or small tree (up to 40 feet in its native haunts) with elliptic to elliptic-obovate or obovate leaves, usually cuneate at the base and with entire margins, is cultivated in the warmer parts of the United States and at least as far north as central North Carolina in the East, and Oregon m the West. In contrast to the species of Ternstroemia, the leaves are not clustered at the tips of the branches, but are definitely alternate, giving the plant quite a different appearance. The small, white flowers are fragrant ; the mature fruit is black. A handsome variegated 6. Cleyera Thunberg, 1783. 10 -= PLATE IV This plant of .sGrrnarfia onata, collected near H~ghlands, I~.C., m 19~15, and cultmated at the Arnold Arboretum, shows the genetic instability of some Camellia cultivars. The stamen-filaments of flowers on different branches vary from hite to light purple and occasional half-and-half flowers are found. green, variegated with golden yellow and scarshould be a handsome foliage plant. C\"leyera jnponico let near the margins,\" and is known as \"Sakaki\" in Japan, where it grows wild in mountainous districts and where it is planted around homes and Shinto shrines. The plant has sacred connotations there and, according to Siebold and Zuccarini, was thought by the Buddhist priests to be closely related to the \"Sara tree\" under which Buddha died. There has been considerable confusion in the application of the name Cleyera, although it clearly applies to the plant to which it is here attached. Ternstroemia gy~nnanthera, a very different plant, is most frequently found mas- form, tricolor, has leaves\"bright querading as Cleyera. 7. Eurya Thunberg, 1 i 83. (Name of uncertain derivation.) A genus of about 55 species of evergreen shrubs and trees widely distributed in the eastern hemisphere. Apparently three species are sometimes cultivated in the warmer parts of the United States. The most common of these is Eurya japonica, native to Japan, the adjacent northern Liu-Kiu Islands, Korea and Quelpaert Island. This plant with 2-ranked foliage and coriaceous leaves with undulate-serrate margins is completely glabrous, even to the terminal bud, in contrast to ~. marginata and E. chinensis, both of which are more or less hair~- on the younger branchlets, at least. F.urya clairaeusis, of China and Formosa, has obovate leaves which are bluntly acuminate at the apex and cuneate at the base while E, emarginata, native to Japan, Korea, the Liu-Kiu Islands, and China, is similar but with heavier, leathery leaves which are always rounded-emarginate e at the apex, rather than bluntly acuminate, and usually with revolute margins. The group is horticulturally interesting only for the evergreen leaves 1-2 inches long. The flowers are only about 4 inch long and are inconspicuous in the axils of the leaves. The plants are unisexual, as in the hollies. The fruits are dark blue or black and are inconspicuous. The flowers of F,. jnponica are reported as having an unpleasant odor. In horticultural literature references to \"Eurya latifolia aariegata\" apply to Cleyera japouica forma tricolor, a handsome foliage plant. CARROLL E. WOOD, JR. 12 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Injury - 1957","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24314","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060a728.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 % APRIL 5, 19J% WINTER INJURY-1957 ~- NUMBER 3 not seriously injurious to the woody plants in the Arnold A cursory examination of the many trees and shrubs growing here on March 28 seems to show that few plants have been injured. Certainly, there is little browning of evergreen foliage, and winter ice storms have not been so serious as to cause much breaking of branches. However, there was one day (January 15) during which the minimum temperature in the Arnold Arboretum went to at least -12 F. (this was at the greenhouse which is not the coldest spot in the Arboretum by any means) and stayed there nearly the entire day. The day before was also cold, being about -100 F. On only ten other days between the first of December and the end of February did the minimum temperature go below 10 F., and then it did not go below 3 F. All in all, any damage to flower buds probably can be traced directly to the one low cold spell of January 15. It is not very often that one can pin point the cause of winter injury so specifically. Regardless of what this cold spell has done in other parts of New England (temperatures of -220 F. were recorded at the Case Estates in Weston), we know now that there are some plants in the Arnold Arboretum the flower buds of which have been killed. There was at least a foot of snow on the ground at the time, so that lower branches of forsythias, apricots, etc., and many ground covers were not injured by the cold. Gardeners in the New England area may be interested in checking some of the plants in the accompanying lists to note whether or not injury has been done in their own gardens. It will be of interest to compare notes with us concerning the early flowering shrubs, the flower buds of which are apparently uninjured. If any Arnoldia readers find, as their plants come into bloom this month, that there is injury other than reported here, traceable to the low cold, we would appreciate it if they would write to us about it, at the same time noting the minimum low temperature recorded for January 15 in their area. (V~'ithout this temperature LAST Arboretum. winter was 13~ ] not be useful.) Plants in these two lists normally bloom in the Arnold Arboretum during April (with a few noted exceptions), and, from the earliness of Daphne mezereum, which has been in full bloom for nearly two weeks, it looks as if this might be an early spring - at least it is proving so notation, the record would at present. Flower Buds Killed or Partly Killed (Unless otherwise mentioned, the flower buds apparently are mostly killed.) Corylopsis spicata-75~0 of flower buds killed Corylopsis veitchiana-85~o of flower buds killed Euonymus sanguinea-all foliage buds killed Forsythia intermedia spectabilis-varying injury, some in protected places, with only 15 ~o killed Lonicera fragrantissima some all flower buds killed, Lonicera purpusi Lonicera standishi Lonicera stand~shi lancifolia Magnolia soulangeana-a few flower buds on some varieties, especially 1VI. soulangeana verbanica, are killed Pieris japonica Prunus domestica flore plena '\" Prunus domestica plantieri-50~0 of flower buds killed Prunus fenzliana Prunus persica (normally blooms in May) Prunus subhirtella autumnalis Rhododendrons (do not bloom in April, but there vas injury to some of the flo~er buds of the following): Rho. laetvirens Damage only slight : Rho. \"Delicatissimum\" Rho. minus Rho. \"Fchse\" Rho. smirnowi Rho. \"Flushing\" Rho. watereri Rho. \"Cunningham's White\" Itho. \"Yurpureum Grandiflorum\" Rho. \"D7rs. C. S. Sargent\" Rho. \"Norma\" Rho. \"Sultana\" Itho. \"Viola\" Viburnum fragrans- i ~ % of flower buds killed Flower Buds Apparently Not ,, Injured ' Abeliophyllum distichum Acer rubrum Chaenomeles lagenaria (blooms in May) Cornus officinalis Cornus mas Prinsepia sinensis Prunus apetala Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus Prunus cerasifera vars. Corylopsis pauciflora Daphne mezereum Daphne mezereum alba Dirca palustris Erica carnea cyclamina gracilis hillieri incisa (but covered by snow during cold spell) Euonymus macroptera Euonymus sachalinensis Forsythia ovata Hamamelis intermedia Hamamelis japonica Hamamelis mollis Hamamelis vernalis Lindera benzoin Lonicera praeflorens Magnolia denudata Magnolia kobus juddi mandshurica sargenti subhirtella tomentosa triloba yedoensis \"Hally Jolivette\" (blooms in May) Rhododendron carolinianum in (blooms in May) (blooms Rhododendron maximum Magnolia Magnolia Magnolia Magnolia proctoriana salicifolia stellata June) Rhododendron mucronulatum \"Merrill\" Spiraea prunifolia Spiraea thunbergi (blooms in May) in Mahonia aquifolium (blooms in Malus baccata mandshurica Pieris floribunda May) Ulmus americana Viburnum rhytidophyllum (blooms May) DONALD WYMAN FINAL NOTICE OF TWO ARBORETUM SPRING CLASSES There is still time to register for two classes at the Arnold Arboretum this spring. Application for registration should be addressed to ~liss Martha Burow, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. Symposia on Cultivated Plants : 23 Thursday evenings, 7-9 Fee $10.00 The Arboretum staff members will be present to lead a series of discussions on the identification, culture, use, propagation, and care of magnolias, forsythias, flowering cherries and crab apples, lilacs, and azaleas. April 25-May Spring Field Class in Ornamental Plants: Friday mornings, 10-12 e Fee $2.00 April 26-May 31 Informal walks through the Arboretum collections with discussions about the plants as they come into bloom. This is a continuation of the class which has been so popular at the Arboretum for many years. 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hedge Demonstration Plot Twenty Years after Planting","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24312","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15e896b.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 I APRIL 12, 1957 THE HEDGE DEMONSTRATION PLOT Twenty Years after Planting the Arnold Arboretum was planted in 1936, source of practical information to thousands of visitors. Some of the hedges are in excellent condition, and have been so s~nce the time they were planted. Others have done well for a few years while they were young, and then showed signs of poor growth with few branches at the base, thus giving rise to poor and unsightly hedges. Since 82 of the original I 15hedges are still alive and growing, it would seem that this might be an opportune time to take stock of this collection and note exactly what has occurred here during the past twenty years. All told, there have been 133 different kinds of plants grown as hedges in this plot. Space has been the limiting factor from the beginning. Consequently, it has not been possible to grow all the kinds of plants that might be grown as hedges, but most of the more common types have been grown and enough of the littleused types to make the following lists of interest. Most of the deciduous plants were about three feet tall when they were obtained for planting, although the evergreens and tree types were slightly taller. The deciduous plants were cut to within six inches of the ground immediately after planting -a standard practice if one desires dense, bushy plants well branched from the base. Commercial nurseries today offer plants specifically for hedge-making, plants which have been carefully pruned in the nursery row so that they are dense and ideally suited for hedge-making without such initial drastic pruning. No special care was given in watering them after they had once become established. Pruning was carefully super~ ised and all have been sheared in about the same general form, wider at the base than at the top. The policy has been to prune them all thoroughly once a year, usually at the end of the growing season NUMBERS 4-5 HE hedge and demonstration plot at a since that time has been continuous , 17 : or early July. Some of the more vigorous sorts have been given a quick pruning in the early fall, just a removal of over-vigorous shoots or a shearing of some small growth to make the whole more symmetrical. Various types of shears have been used including electrical shearing devices, but the various men who have done the job usually have come back to the oldfashioned hedge shears, claiming that these are easiest to handle in the long run. The object has been to keep all the hedges well restrained so that a man standing on the ground would have no trouble in reaching the top with his shears. If a deciduous hedge became too vigorous or overgrown to be sheared this way, it was cut back severely or cut to the ground and started over again. Evergreen hedges were not so treated, since they do not respond to such rigorous treatment. Fertilizing was seldom practiced-it only makes the hedge grow faster and creates more pruning work. Special spraying for insect and disease control was in late June second not necessary except in one or two instances. Trimmed grass walks were maintained about all the hedges, and occasionally hand weeding was necessary to keep some of the unsightly weeds properly restrained. Otherwise, this plot received special care. following lists, it will be noted that the hedges have been rated from to \"excellent.\" An \"excellent\" hedge is one that is dense and well \"poor\" sheathed with branches to the base of the ground, showing a uniform growth of branches and foliage throughout. Such hedges would be Fuonymu.s alata compacta and many of the evergreens. If properly sheared, these should keep this good habit year after year. Deciduous hedges, on the other hand, tend to grow faster than the evergreens and so may require more severe shearing one year than another. Because of this, they may appear a little \"thin'' the year of the heavier pruning, but eventually they will grow into good form. There are, however, a number of vigorously-growing upright shrubs like Lonicera tatarica and Physocarpus opulifolius, which tend to produce few branches at the base. These are often open at the base because of this type of growth, and there is little that can be done about it, although they may be dense and well branched at the top. If a hedge is desired to keep out small animals, such plants should not be used unless a low piece of meshed wire is erected along the base of the plants at planting time. A large proportion of those hedges rated as \"fair\" no In the in this category. Some have been rated as \"poor\" and the reasons given, while others have been so poor that they have had to be removed. The following table shows the heights and widths of hedges in 1945 and now. It is interesting to note that Berberis thunbergi, for instance, has been maintained at exactly the same general height and width for twelve years. This means, of course, that one year it may have been allowed to grow a few inches more than another, then later it was cut back more severely; but all in all, over a period of years, its general height remains the same. Proper shearing, therefore, can result in maintaining these hedges for a period of years at a desired are height. - 18 ] PLATE VI (hpper) (Lower) Part of the Part of the hedge demonstration plot in summer. hedge demonstration plot in winter. PLANTS WHICH HAVE MADE GOOD TO EXCELLENT HEDGES Deciduous Acer campestre Berberis mentorensis Ligustrum vulgare \"Lodense\" - - thunbergi - minor Carpinus betulus Cornus mas fragrantissima Philadelphus coronarius Prinsepia sinense Quercus imbricaria Rhamnus cathart~ca Lonicera Crataegus crus-galli - monogyna - Elaeagnus Euonymus alata compacta Fagus grandifolia sylvatica Forsythia intermedia Kolkwitzia amabilis umbellata ' frangula alpinum Salix pentandra Spiraea prunifolia - Ribes - vanhouttei chinensis Syringa - laciniata Ligustrum - ibolium - amurense vulgaris Tilia cordata Viburnum dentatum - - obtusifolium regelianum ovalifolium virarvi prunifolium - Evergreen - microphylla Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera plumosa - Buxus koreana Taxus cuspidata - \"capitata\" nana - - Ilex crenata - convexa - media hatfieldi - opaca \"Clark\" f - hicksi a Juniperus virginiana Picea abies - Thuja occidentalis \"Little Gem\" - . omorika orientalis pungens robusta - - Pinus - glauca mugho mughus . spiralis - plicata - Tsuga canadensis - strobus compacta - sylvestris Pseudotsuga - caroliniana taxifolia 26] PLANTS WHICH HAVE MADE ONLY FAIR HEDGES Acer ginnala Berberis - Not sufficiently dense gilgiana Too vigorously upright; few branches at base Too vigorously upright; few branches at base Not koreana - thunbergi argenteo-marginata - sufficiently vigorous in growth - erecta Too vigorously upright; few branches at base Our -- - \"Thornless\" hedge not as good as the species Cornus racemosa all from ground ; needs a wide strip in which to become dense enough for a suitable low hedge Single branches Crataegus pruinosa Too Not Not coarse for low e hedge Elaeagnus angustifolia Ligustrum sinense sufficiently dense as dense as other privets Lonicera tatarica Dlaclura Too vigorously upright; few branches at base Not Too pomifera lemoinei erectus satisfactory for low hedge - Philadelphus vigorously upright Physocarpus intermedius parvifolius - Few branches at base opulifolius Toovigorously upright; few branches at base Foliage entirely Foliage entirely I'latanus acerifolia too too coarse for low hedge Quercus palustris - coarse for low hedge branches at base robur fastigiata Too vigorously upright; no Spiraea nipponica Toovigorously upright; few branches at base PLANTS WHICH HAVE MADE POOR HEDGES (Some of these have been removed ; others are still growing in Hedge Demonstration Plot at the Arnold Arboretum) . the Abies concolor Rated as only mediocre in 1945 and as poor now, these plants apparently cannot withstand annual shearing in this climate and look well. Abies fraseri ' Very open at the base; not vigorous enough in this area to be sheared periodicall~-. Remo~~ed 194i. 27] Acanthopanax sieboldianus for city condithis hedge was excellent the first few years tions, after planting, yet was decidedly mediocre in 1945 and practically died out by 1957. Supposedly making a good hedge Acer platanoides Plants extremely open at base, branching coarse and open, leaves coarse, making an extremely poor clipped hedge in the lower sized groups. Berberis vulgaris Berberis Betula \"Sheridan Red\" This, like several other shrubs, grows so vigorously upright that the base of the plant is open and devoid of lateral branches, making it a poor plant for hedges. See note under \"Berberis vulgaris.\" Listed as populifolia only mediocre in 1945 and as poor in 1957, this hedge is not dense but open, making this species undesirable for hedge purposes. Caragana arborescens This hedge has been a disappointment here, for it has been among the best (and hardiest) at the Ottawa Experimental Station in Canada s~nce I 889. However, there it is growing in a heavy soil and here in the Arnold Arboretum, the soil is light and gravelly. As grown here, it was only mediocre in 1945 and is listed as decidedly poor now, open at the base. Caragana frutex Little lateral growth at the base of the plants. It has been noted that this plant has made a good hedge at Ottawa, Canada. Possibly this species also does better in heavy soils. Did not withstand annual shearing well after 1945 when it was rated as good. Apparently, as it grows older, it cannot be restrained properly. Rated as Carpinus caroliniana i Cercidiphyllum japonicum in 195 i . plants hedge. Chaenomeles poor in 1945, this is still decidedly poor It grows so vigorously upright that are open at the base, thus making a poor lagenaria Rated as poor in 1945 and still these plants have not made as many others. not as poor in a 1957, as good hedge Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa Did shearing well after subjected to much heavier shearing than previously. Removed. withstand annual it was 1945, wnen ] [ 28 Clethra alnifolia ~xa Plants are very open and devoid of branches at the base. Removed. This hedge was growing in a very poor, dry soil which was probably the cause of its poor growth. Normally, this plant thrives in moist situations and then becomes much more dense in over-all habit. Stems died back after each winter. Removed. Plants have too rapid an upright growth, leaving bases entirely devoid of lateral branches. Re- Deutzia gracilis Ginkgo biloba fastigiata moved. Gleditsia triacanthos a Much too open to compete with other plants as small hedge. So rated in 1945 and again in 195I. Hippophae rhamnoides Poor in a growth more in general, but might m humid climate and grow better alkaline soil. Removed. Hypericum densiflorum Juniperus I Apparently killed and weeds. out by competition of grass communis Did not withstand annual shearing well. Parts of plants died after shearing. Removed. Base of Ligustrum ibota Lonicera korolkowi floribunda f - plants open. _ Poor and weak was was growth in general. This hedge replanted three different times and finally removed as too difficult to establish. as a Philadelphus coronarius pumilus Pinus mugo Does not grow Removed. symmetrically low plant. Plants became quickly infested with scale and all died shortly. The scale has been completely controlled on the smaller growing Pinus mugo nt uglr u.s. Pinus nigra Open at the base, not dense. Removed. Populus alba pyramidalis Too vigorous in terminal growth. These plants have no branches at the bases, hence they have little value in hedge-making. Populus nigra italica Potentilla fruticosa no Plants make too rapid an upright growth with lateral growth at base. Removed. Plants open at base, purdomi making a poor hedge. f 29 Prunus japonica nakai Plants made poor growth in general. Removed. For the first ten years, this was one of the best hedges, but then the plants started to die and finally all had to be removed. Prunus tomentosa Rosa rugosa This should make one of the best hedges, especially for seashore gardens. However, our plants were early infected with a stem borer which we could not control at that time, and as a result all plants were removed. Not Rosa virginiana not compare sufficiently dense for a clipped hedge. Does favorably with others for this purare pose. Salix purpurea Plants too open in general habit to form a good hedge. Removed. Spiraea bumalda Spiraea thunbergi Open at the base. May have been crowded out with competition from grass. Removed. Rated as a good hedge in 1945 (planted 1936~, these plants since that time have been susceptible to some die-back and to poor growth. ' Spiraea veitchi Little lateral growth at the base of the plants, making Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus Plants Syringa josikaea an open hedge. well to annual did not Removed. respond shearing. For some unknown reason, this has proved to be a consistently poor grower in our plot. It should be a vigorously-growing shrub. Tamarix pentandra Plants were too open in general habit. Most of the plants winterkilled badly and all had to be removed. These sun. Taxus canadensis stricta plants would have grown much better if planted in some shade rather than in the full Removed. Thuja occidentalis globosa Thuja occidentalis wagneriana Thuja occidentalis woodwardi None of these hedges grow old gracefully.\" As young plants, they may prove satisfactory for a few years, but they do not have a central trunk or leader and gradually grow with several weak leaders. In the winter during the past few years, snow and ice have lodged in the branches and 30] PLATE VIII (Upper) Prinsepia sinensis hedge, very graceful when unclipped forfew years. This hedge is now formally sheared annually. (Lower) The fastigiate English oak makes only a fair, tall hedge, for it grows so vigorously upright that there are wide openings at the ground level, devoid of branches. actually have broken them, making large, open spots devoid of foliage. Hence, these plants are not considered good for hedges of long life, and should be avoided. Ulmus Ulmus parvifolia pumila Plants open These at base were making a poor hedge. never plants poor to begin with and overcame this poor start. Eventually they were removed. Viburnum lantana Poor 1945 growth in general; (planted in 1936) and rated as a poor hedge in removed two years later. Viburnum opulus nanum plants died within three years. These in poor soil, but this variety has been difficult to keep in a vigorous growing condition even in good soil in the viburnum collecwere Nine of ten growing tion at the Arboretum. Viburnum sargenti Plants open at base, foliage rather coarse, mak- ing a poor hedge. DONALD WYMAN 32] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Something New Has Been Added - Cocoa-shell Mulch","article_sequence":4,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24311","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15e8926.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 % May 3, 195 NUMBER 6 SOMETHING NEW HAS BEEN ADDED COCOA-SHELL MULCH spring will notice that there is a material around many of the trees and shrubs on the grounds and along the long lines of shrubs in the shrub collection adjacent to the Forest Hills Gate. This material is the shells of the cocoa bean which is being used as a trial. It has several advantages but some disadvantages, as well. It is too soon for us to know its general effect on the plants so that recommendations for its use at this time would be premature. In the first place, we were able to obtain it this winter at no expense but the hauling-rather an asset to the Arboretum ! Secondly, it does not burn vigorously nor does it blow much in the wind. Any mulch on soils in this area is usually better than none, and it does aid materially in conserving soil moisture, a very important factor in drought periods. It comes dry from the factory, is easily applied and contains a considerable amount of nitrogen. The spent hops which we were using for so many years is now unavailable to us, the chief reason why so much of the cocoa-shell mulch has been applied this winter. There are apparent disadvantages. When first applied and moist, especially in hot weather, it will heat to such an extent that if it is applied to depths of six inches at the base of young plants, the high temperature can kill the young stems. This is the reason why it is being kept in the Arboretum at a distance of a foot or so from the plant stems. As it begins to disintegrate, it becomes mouldy and extremely shppery, actually dangerous for one to walk on. Then, as it dries off on the surface during dry periods, it can cake on the top to such an extent that there may be danger of insufficient air filtering through to the roots of surface rooted plants like rhododendrons and azaleas. We have not used it extensively on the ericaceous plants. A high concentration of potash salts can be leached out of the VISITORS brown mulching in the Arnold Arboretum this ~ 33 cause some plant injury. Also, if applied to a flower border, for certainly would not be the nicest material to dig in with the hands. Test applications of this material have been used on experimental plants at the Case Estates in Weston, to ascertain at what depths it may be injurious to vigorous growing shrubs. Applied as it has been in the Arboretum, seldom over four ~nches deep and well away from the base of the plants, it is hoped that only good results will be obtained, but it must be emphasized that there may be injury to some plants from a high accumulation of potash salts. Visitors can check these results for themselves throughout the spring and summer merely by observing the reactions of the plants so treated. mulch and may it instance, YELLOW LABELS Another addition to the plantings of the Arboretum this spring is a new, small yellow label marked \"Introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum.\" Nearly 1,800 of these have been placed on the shrubs and trees about the grounds and the job is not yet completed. This label signifies that the plant on which it appears was first brought into the United States by the Arboretum. Lest there be some who might be overly critical, it must be noted here that this label will appear on some plants native to North America: but, though somewhat ambiguous in this case, the label signifies that this native American plant was first brought into cultivation by the Arboretum. So, one now can begin to see at a glance the hundreds of plants the Arboretum takes credit for introducing. BLOOMING DATES The season has been a confusing one. Many shrubs bloomed earlier than northen there followed a cold spell in early April which placed blooming dates back on schedule. This, in turn, was followed by very warm, dry weather for several weeks, which is now forcing most plants into very early bloom again. Last year, the season was very retarded, with few lilacs m bloom until the end of May. This year, they will bloom a full week earlier than their usual time, which is about the third week of May. To give some idea of the earliness of spring g in past years, the willow tree across the brook from the Administration Building turned green on the following dates : mal, ~ 1950-April 28 1951-April 8 19~1-April 19 1953-April 5 1954-April 15 I 9fl F, Some of the blooming dates for May are estimated 5 (at this time!) to be: Week of May Oriental Flowering Crab Apples Oriental Quinces Early Lilacs (Syringa oblata and varieties) Week of May 12 Royal Azalea Korean Azalea Redbud Fothergilla species V~'eigela-early varieties Common Lilac and its many varieties Flowermg Dogwood Week of May 19 Chinese Lilac and varieties Pinxterbloom (as well as Rhododendron Rhododendron \"Boule de Neige\" and rosea) \"Mont Blanc\" Hawthorns-many Shrubby Honeysuckles-many Primrose Rose Viburnums-several SUNDAY, MAY 12, IS OPEN HOUSE AT THE CASE ESTATES For all those who would like to become more familiar with the plantings on the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, this is an excellent opportunity. Staff members will be stationed about the grounds from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m., to give directions and to answer questions concerning the plants. The Case Estates are situated in the center of the Town of Weston adjacent to the public school buildings on Wellesley Street. Of particular interest will be the Ground Cover Demonstration Plots, with well over 150 different plants; the Small Tree Demonstration Plots, with about 80 different small trees suitable for the small garden ; the Small-Shrub and Perennial Garden; the new Pruning Demonstration Plots, Dwarf Apple Trial Plots, and the many hundreds of plants growing In the nurseries. The Case Estates are easily accessible on Wellesley Street, Weston, from Routes 9, 20, and 30. SUNDAY, MAY 19, IS OPEN HOUSE IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Staff members will also be strategically located about the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum on Sunday, May 19, to give directions and to answer questions from 10 a.m. to 5 p.m. Originally, when this date was set, it was hoped the lllacs would be in full bloom, but unusually warm weather will force a majority of them into bloom a week sooner. However, there are always hundreds of plants in bloom at this time of year, so that a visit is a real experience for anyone interested in plants. Parking will be permitted on this day only, inside the Arboretum from the Centre Street Gate (entrance from Route I ) to the South Street Gate. Parking is also possible immediately outside the grounds. The Arboretum is in Jamaica Plain at the junction of Centre Street (Route 1) and the Arborway (Routes 3, 28, and 138). DONALD WyIVIAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Injury - 1957 (Continued)","article_sequence":5,"start_page":37,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24315","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060a76d.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 7 June 21, 1957 WINTER INJURY-1957 NUMBER 7 (Continued) _ can now be written concerning the extreme cold of last and the amount of damage it did to the woody plants in the Arnold Arboretum. Listed already in an earlier issue of 4rnoldia (Vol. 17, No. 3 ; April 5, 19,i 7 ) are those plants the flower buds of which were killed. Then it was too early to determine the amount of actual killing of woody stems, but now, most plants have normally produced their leaves so that actual killing of woody stems can be noted definitely. THE chapter January final might be made of the vagaries of the weather this spring: the followed by very cold temperatures ; followed again by warm weather and drought; and again followed by a cold, wet spell the week of May 12. Plants bloomed in spurts, but it was this last cold spell that held many of the lilac blossoms in bloom for almost two full weeks, so that it could be said they were in good condition and fully in flov er on May 20, the aB erage date they are expected to bloom normally. All in all, by June 1, the blooming season was about \"on warm Brief mention start schedule.'' Some of the shrubs and small trees, though not severely injured to a noticeable extent, were rather slow in producing leaves, which when they did appear were at first rather small and stunted. This did not seriously hurt such plants, although on many of them the flower buds also were killed, while those branches which were below the snow line produced normal flowers and leaves at the normal time. The majority of plants which had stems and branches killed this year were not listed as hardy in Zone 4, some not even hardy in the warmer Zone 5. Consequently, one could have predicted in adv ance many of the plants which actually were injured as a result of this very low temperature of -12 F. or possibly lower. Those in the following lists all were injured to some extent in the past winter in the Arnold Arboretum : 37] Plants Killed to the Ground During (or which were so badly injured they to the Winter of 1956-57 had to be pruned to the ground rejuvenate them properly) Height (feet) 4 Name Amorpha brachycarpa Amorpha canescens 4 Baccharis halimifolia 5 1 Berberis buxifolia Berberis nana julianae (Shrub Collection vars. only) 6 Buddleia davidi 5 Callicarpa Ceanothus sp. ; roseus pallidus 2 6 ,~ Clerodendron trichotomum Cotoneaster glabrata . 5 6 - Dipelta floribunda Desmodium dilleni Deutzia - all in Shrub Collection either to except Deutzia lemoinei compacta, 2~, which were uninjured Elsholtzia stauntoni Grewia biloba ground or to snow line, 4', and DeutNia gracilis, 4-8 5 4~ in Shrub Helwingia japonica (plant Hydrangea quercifolia Hydrangea Hypericum serrata ascyron Collection, only) 6 8 8 4 Hypericum galioides Hypericum patulum and vars. 8 8 8 2 Hypericum 'Hidcote' Hypericum 'Sun Gold' 38 ] Indigofera amblyantha Indigofera Indigofera incarnata alba , . 2 kirilowi 1-~ 6-7 ' Ilex cornuta Jamesia amencana I Kolkwitzia (Shrub Collection, only) all species , 7 ,5-g Lespedeza, Ligustrum ovalifolium Ligustrum Lonicera sinense 8 .. quinquelocularis '7 5 ~ Lonicera standishi lancifolia Rhododendron mucronatum album Sorbaria sp. 6 Stephanandra Weigela tanakae 6 g g coraeensis ~Ve~gela hortensis Weyela j~pumca ~'isteria sinensis Vltex inc~sa sinioa 4 to plrua (nearly ground) - 4 Zanthoxylum schmifolmo 12 e Zanthoxylum simulans Plants 7 Partially Injured During the Winter of 1956-57 Name Abelia Height (feet) Amount qf injury , engleriana julibrissin rosea 3 13 3? 4 Slightly injured Badly injured Alb~zzia Berberis beaniana 75~o injured 39] Berberis ~ julianae , 5 75~o injured (Center Street planting not injured much) 10% injured _ s Cercis chinensis 6 Cornus florida rubra 10 o 8 , Flower buds and branches injured Corylopsis veitchiana Badly injured No flowers Davidia involucrata ' 20 10 o Dipelta floribunda Hovenia dulcis 50~o injured Killed to about 6'; 4-6~~ in diameter branches and some smaller ones, too. Another plant only ~?Oolo killed. 30 Ilex cornuta Ilex decidua Ilex montana Itea 8-10 0 6 75~o injured Badly injured Killed nearly to 8 5 ground , virginica 50 % injured 25% injured ~5~o injured 50% injured l5~o injured 75% injured 75~o injured 75,o injured Kerria Kerria japonica aureo-vittata 4 4 japonica picta Lindera praecox Lonicera floribunda 15 5 5 6 Lonicera involucrata serotina Lonicera quinquelocularis translucens rosea 12 e Lonicera standishi Neillia sinensis 7 5 6 '75~o injured All flower buds killed Rhododendron discolor Rhododendron obtusum Rosa kaempferi 6 Major part of flower buds killed laevigata 5 5 4 750,o injured ' Rosa luciae 50lo injured 50-75% injured Spiraea japonica vars. 40 Stephanandra Styrax incisa 6 8 6 5 6 I5lo injured Slightly injured americana Weigela florida 50~o injured i5% injured 25~o injured Weigela florida 'nana variegata' Weigela vanicecki Weigela venusta 6 6 6 6 ' 25~o injured , Weigela 'Bristol Ruby' 25% injured 75 % injured '75% injured Weigela 'Conquerant' Weigela 'Esperance' Weigela 'Gratissima' Weigela 'Lavelli' Weigela 'Newport Red' 6 6 7:ilo injured i5% injured 25% injured 6 _41~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A New Boxwood","article_sequence":6,"start_page":42,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24306","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15ebb26.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"A NEW BOXWOOD The Arnold Arboretum has been interested in growing many clones of Buxus which have supposedly proved hardy in the colder sections of the northern United States. Some of these have proved more hardy than others, but most of them are just not reliably hardy in the cold winters w hich can kill them back severely. is grown in many a New England garden (even the more Although tender Buxus sempervirens suffruticosa can be found), these are grown only in gardens that are well protected from high winter winds and winter cold. In exposed situations, most of the Buxus clan suffers in New England. When Dr. Edgar Anderson was on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum in 1935, he visited the northern Balkans in search of plants that might prove of interest to American gardeners. He was especially interested in a low, wide-spreading plant of Buxus sempervirens, not only because of its habit, but also because of its apparent hardiness, since it was growing in a section of Yugoslavia in the Vardar Valley with dry, hot summers, cold and sunny winters, and late spring cold waves. He collected cuttings and sent them to the Arboretum where they were rooted. Later they were planted out on the grounds and in the nurseries for a long trial period. It did not seem advisable to become enthusiastic about this plant until it had become thoroughly tried in America. Eight plants were grown to size over a period of many years. Several of these were sent outside the Arboretum for trial elsewhere. Cuttings were sent to at least one commercial nursery which, in turn, rooted them and propagated more, selling the resulting plants. Enthusiastic responses have come from several of these sources so that now it is thought wise to name this plant Buxus semperi~irens Vardar Valley' and to start propagating it for a wide distribution. Buxus sempervirens 'Vardar Valley' rs a clone of the specres, collected in the native habitat of Buxus sempervirens in the Balkans. Cuttings, rooted in 193~, have grown into plants that are now four feet across, with a fairly uniform flat top, but only two feet high, This habit is of outstanding importance, for it is low enough to be covered or partially covered by snow in the winter, or else it is an easy matter to protect the plant in other ways when necessary. It is unlike other varieties of Buxussemperuirens m havrng this low, flat-topped shape. Apparently, it is as hardy as any clone we have yet tried. In January of 1957, the temperature dropped to -~3 F. at Weston, and although there was some snow on the ground, the top of the plant was not covered nor was it injured. A large plant in the Arboretum has not shown any marked winter injury. Reports from others in Cleveland, show that it has withstood temperatures of -200 F. there, and we know that it has withstood similar temperatures in Boston. The foliage sempervirens boxwood 42 a glossy, dark green, similar to that of the species, while new young foliage is first bluish green. The plant given this name is No. 352-35 now growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum and photographed in this issue of Arooldia. Herbarium specimens have been deposited m the herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum. The cultivar name 'Vardar Valley' is being used for this taxon under the provisions of paragraph iii of Article C. 3, Section B of the International Code of Nomenclature for Cultivated Plants (Edition edited by Wm. T. Stearn, 1953~. l3uLUS sem~ervirens 'Vardar Valley' would be assigned to the typical variety on the basis of material we have grown at the Arnold Arboretum. Dr. Anderson states, however, that the natural populations of this plant in the area where it was collected showed a significant range of variation in size and form. Buxus 'Vardar Valley' was selected in the field as distinctive for horticultural purposes. It has retained these characteristics of horticultural value when grown at the Arnold Arboretum. It is now being propagated vegetatively and \"maintained in cultivation\" as a clone. Because of its dwarf, flat-topped habit and because of its demonstrated hardiness, Bu.rus sem~ervzrens 'Vardar Valley' can well have a long and prosperous future in American gardens of the North. is DONALD WYMAN Note: Unfortunately, this boxwood is not yet ready for distribution from the Arnold Arboretum. It is available from one commercial source, and in a few years will be from others, we hope. No propagation material of this plant is available from the Arboretum this year. 44 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Asiatic Maples, Their Propagation from Softwood Cuttings","article_sequence":7,"start_page":45,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24307","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15ebb6b.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coggeshall, Roger","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 7 JULY 1 ~, 1957 ASIATIC NUMBERS 8-9 MAPLES, THEIR PROPAGATION FROM SOFT4iOOD CUTTINGS the trend of architecture today is to lower and more compact buildings in both the industrial and residential fields, attention has been focused on trees which at maturity reach a height of only eighteen to thirty feet. The tower~ng elm, maple or oak which were most frequently planted a generation ago tend to give a one-sided appearance to ranch-type houses or the modern one-story factories. In addition to this, there are two relatively new problems to be met; that of the hurricanes of recent years which destroyed many large trees and caused heavy damage to utilities from falling trees and limbs and the high mortality ~INCE our native elms due to Dutch Elm Disease. Smaller trees would be in scale with new factories and homes. They would be below utility lines at maturity thus c ecreasing considerably the damage to these lines by acts of nature and they would lessen tremendously the maintenance costs of street tree plantings. They would also be much easier to keep disease- and insect-free. As interest increased in the use of smaller trees for landscaping and street tree planting, a comparable interest grew in the methods by which these plants could among be propagated. One of the largest groups of \"small\" trees is a group of plants known as the Asiatic Maples. Though not all maples indigenous to Asia are small, there are a goodly number which at maturity are only eighteen to thirty feet tall. This is quite small when compared with the height of our native Norway, Sugar and Silver Maples, which range from 70 to 120 feet. In considering the propagation of Asiatic Maples one would assume that the easiest and cheapest way to reproduce these plants would be from seed. This conclusion is certainly true and when seed is available the plants should be prop- 45] from seed. However, many of the maples mentioned herein are found only specimen plants in botanical gardens and arboretums, certainly not enough plants to supply the quantity of seed necessary for commercial propagation. In addition to the limitations of a small number of available stock plants, those that are available do not produce a crop of seed every year. Many times two to five years will elapse between good seed years. It was felt, therefore, that while seed propagation remained a cheap and successful method for reproducing these plants, if a seed supply was available, another method should be found which would be more reliable on an annual basis. With this idea in mind, experimental work was conducted on the rooting of Asiatic Maples from softwood cuttings. The procedure employed and the results obtained were as follows : Cutting material was collected, in most cases, from mature plants, 19 to 39 years old, growing in the Arboretum's collections (see Table I). However, in order to obtain a rooting comparison between the cuttings collected from mature plants and cuttings collected from young plants, material was also taken from young seedlings varying in age from two to eight years. It is a known fact that in some instances cuttings taken from juvenile plants root much more readily than the same type qf cuttings taken from mature plants. This statement holds true even when the cuttings collected from both types of stock plants are handled in an identical manner. In the rooting of softwood cuttings of Asiatic Maples the age of the stock plant has a very definite effect upon the rooting results. The older the stock plant, the less successful rooting will be. In addition to collecting the cutting material from plants of varying ages, cutting material was also collected at different times throughout the growing season, especially during the early spring months. This latter operation was carried out in order to determine what effect, if any, timing had upon the rooting of these cuttings. In three instances the cutting material was collected as soon as there was enough new growth on the stock plants to make a cutting (see Table I). The cutting material was made up exclusively into tip cuttings. In no instance were the soft terminal leaves pinched out. The cuttings varied from two to five inches in length and contained anywhere from four to six leaves. Once the material had been made up into the proper type of cuttings, the latter were treated with a variety of root-inducing hormones to determine which hormone, if any, was beneficial to rooting. All of the root-inducing hormones used in this experiment were in powder form and were applied by dipping only the basal end of the individual cutting into the dry powder; the ends of the cuttings were dipped into water prior to being dipped into the hormone powder. In spite of the various kmds of propagating material used and the different times throughout the growing season when the cutting material was collected, one hormone concentration consistently gave good rootmg results. This was indolebutyric acid in talc at a concentration of 0.8 mg.\/gm., agated as 4o ] which is the same concentration as the commercial powder Hormodin ~3. A number of other hormone concentrations were tried. Some proved too strong, such as the one and two percent concentrations of indolebutyric acid in talc, and the green liquid hormone \"Chloromone\"; others proved too weak, such as the talc preparations of indole-3-acetic acid. For this reason, the only results shown in Tables I and II are those obtained with Hormodin #3. One other point should be stressed here in connection with the root-inducing hormones and that is the practice of wounding. In two instances (see Table I), wounding was employed with very favorable results. As is often the case with material which is hard to root, the practice of wounding definitely stimulates rooting. This is due to the fact that the hormone powder is brought into contact with a greater area of the cambium layer on the wounded surface. By exposing a greater area of the cambium layer to the hormone powder, the callusing action is speeded up and rooting stimulated. Wounding was accomplished by removing a small piece of bark and wood from one side of the cutting, at the basal end (see Plate XI). This piece of wood is approximately three-quarters to one inch in length and one-sixteenth to oneeighth of an inch in thickness. The actual cut is not deep, being just deep enough to expose the cambium layer. In both instances where wounding was employed in conjunction with the rooting hormone Hormodin j~3, the results were significant enough to lead one to think that perhaps all of the different kinds of Asiatic Maples in this experiment might have benefited from such a treatment. The answer to this lies in the experimental work scheduled for the spring and summer of 1957. Following the treatment with different hormone concentrations, plus a wound in two instances, the cuttings were inserted into a medium of coarse sand. This operation was done in two locations. The first was in a six-inch-deep cutting bench where the bottom heat was supplied by a lead cable thermostatically controlled and the second was in a standard greenhouse flat measuring three inches deep, twelve inches across and twenty-four inches in length. Once filled with cuttings, these flats were placed on a greenhouse bench where the bottom heat was supplied by hot water pipes. The heat was retained beneath the cuttings by using polyethylene plastic to enclose the bottom of the benches. The cuttings were then flooded with water and a light wire frame constructed of \"turkey wire\" was placed over them. These wire frames measured eight inches above the surface of the medium. The \"turkey wire\" is a number nine gauge and can be purchased in four foot rolls. The individual wire squares are two by four inches. Bought in this size, the wire can be cut and bent into any desired shape or size. After the wire frames were placed in position over the cuttings, they were covered with sheets of polyethylene plastic in such a manner that the individual sheets overlapped. If the plastic is placed in this way, there is no need of applying adhesives to hold the sheets together. With a large overlap, the individual 47 sheets of plastic stick together quite readily after they have once been moistened. Once covered, the cuttings require little further attention. Due to the fact that polyethylene plastic retains water vapor while allowing air to pass through, though at a very slow rate, the medium requires no additional watering for a period of from three to five weeks. Naturally, the hotter it is the more rapidly the medium will dry out. However, the plastic will trap heat, especially during the hot summer months, and this is its biggest disadvantage. For this reason the shading conditions must be watched very closely. In general, during the summer weather, the lath shading covering the greenhouses is sufficient to hold the temperature below ninety degrees under the polyethylene plastic. However, when the days are exceptionally hot, ninety degrees and over outside, additional shading is required to keep the cuttmgs from burning. This shading is provided by placing one layer of Saran cloth, of a thickness that allows 52 percent of the available light to pass through, directly on the plastic cases themselves. This additional shading is provided only from noon to five o'clock. Once rooted, the cuttings were potted in 22-inch standard pots. The potting mixture was of a very light texture, consisting entirely of decayed leaves and weeds from a compost pile. Following th~s, the cuttings were placed on an open greenhouse bench where they were again covered with \"turkey wire\" frames. During the ensuing 7- to 10-day period, the plastic was taken off a little each day dependmg upon the weather, so that by the end of this time the plastic had been entirely removed. The wire frames were also removed at this time. This step is extra, one which most nurserymen do not carry out. However, I feel that it is more than worth the extra time involved not only because of the high survival percentages obtained with our newly-potted cuttings, but also because many of the rooted cuttings handled in the above manner will break into growth once they have become estabhshed. This is especially true of cuttings taken in the early spring months (see Table I). After the potted cuttings have been hardened off they remain on the greenhouse benches until the early fall, at which time they are moved either into a pit house or mto cold frames. The pit house is unheated and the potted cuttings are over-wintered on open benches, three in a tier on each side of the house. If the potted plants are over-wintered in cold frames, they are plunged in sawdust to prevent them from heaving and drying out too fast. The potted cuttings remain m these structures until the following spring, at which time they are planted directly into open nursery rows. Table I lists the results obtained with softwood cuttings taken from mature plants nineteen to thirty-nine years old which are growing in the Arboretum's collections. In reviewng these results, it is interesting to note that the practice of wounding was very beneficial in the two mstances it was tried (see Acer capillipes and Acer cissifolium). In these two ~nstances, rooting was much hea~ ~er on the wounded cuttmgs than on the cuttings which had been treated with the rooting hormone only. ] ;48] Another observation from Table I based on the rooting comparison between cuttings made in May-June with those made in July-August indicates that most of the cuttings were taken too late in the season for maximum rooting results. Where soft, immature wood was used, rooting results were very good. This point is emphasized by the results obtained with Acer cissifolium and Acer tataricum (see Table I). In these two cases the cuttings were made in May. Not only did they root extremely fast and fairly well, but they also went on to grow durrng the same season. tant This ability of the cuttings to grow following rooting is one of the most imporfactors in the use of polyethylene plastic for the propagation of softwood cuttings. Not only does the plastic, with its unique properties, create conditions suitable for the rooting of very soft, immature cuttings, but it also creates the conditions necessary to stimulate the newly-rooted cuttings into vegetative growth. Handled in this manner, the cuttings in most cnses, will be larger than a seedling of the same species at the end of the first growing season. Table II shows the rooting results obtained with soft, immature cuttings taken from young seedlings which were forced in the greenhouse. As mentioned previously, these cuttings were taken in order to obtain a rooting comparison between cuttings taken from young stock plants two to eight years of age and those taken from old stock plants nineteen to thirty-nine years of age. The results shown in Table II clearly indicate that while cuttings taken from older plants root fairly well, especially in some instances, the rooting results obtained with cuttings taken from forced young seedlings are far superior. I have never been one to put much stress on the percentage obtained in rooting cuttings since I feel that we do not root sufficiently large quantities of cutting material to quote percentages, but I do feel that if the rooting results indicated in Table II for a specific plant are compared with the rooting results indicated in Table I for the same plant, it is easy to see that the age of the stock plant has a great deal of effect upon the rootmg results..9cer buergerinuum is a good example of this. In addition to the favorable rooting results obtained with softwood cuttings taken from forced young seedlings, these small rooted cuttings will grow anywhere from four to fifteen inches the same season in which they are rooted. Of course, it is not commercially feasible to force young seedlings into growth during the early spring months in order to make softwood cuttings from this forced growth. However, it is certainly feasible to make softwood cuttings from these same seedlings out-of-doors during the months of May and June and obtam similar rooting results. The only differences will be in the amount of vegetative growth which these rooted cuttings will make during the summer. Although they will grow, the growth will not be so great as when the cuttings are rooted during the months of March and April in the greenhouse. We have not yet been able to root succes.yf'ully all of the Asiatic Maples which we have tried, due to a variety of reasons. First and foremost is the inability to 49] plants. The stock plants which we have worked with in these instances are relatively old (fifteen to thirty-five years); consequently, cutting material collected from these plants roots very poorly, if at all. In addition to this, in some experiments the quantity of cutting material employed has been too small to give us significant results. Last of all is the fact that the timing in the collection of these cuttings was not correct. Many times the cuttings were made from half-ripened or fully ripened wood during the months of July, August and September and for this reason they did not root. Table III lists the Asiatic Maples tried only on a limited scale and the results obtain young stock obtained. Summary supply of seed is lacking, the propagation of Asiatic Maples from softwood cuttings is quite feasible. The procedure mentioned herein is certainly more expensive and time-consuming than growing these same plants from seed. However, the expense is offset, in part at least, by the fact that one does not have to wait until every second, third or fourth year in order to obtain a good supply of seed ; and secondly by the fact that taken early enough in the season, a softwood cutting will, in most cases, outgrow a seedling during the first growing season. The advantage of making softwood cuttings from young plants is easily seen when the rooting results of Table II are compared with those of Table I. While in every case the softwood cuttings taken from the younger stock plants rooted better, there were two cases where the cuttings taken from older stock plants rooted fairly well. I refer to the results obtained with Acer cissifolium and Acer capillipes. It also should not be overlooked here that, in both of these cases, the cuttings were wounded. Just what effect wounding would have had upon the rooting results obtained with the other maples attempted is highly speculative. However, there is no doubt that in the two instances where it was employed, rooting was stimulated. In all of these experiments the use of manufactured rooting hormones was varied and extensive, but in most instances, the best rooting results were obtained with the commercial preparation Hormodin #3 (0.8percent indolebutyric acid in If a talc). preceding pages describe one technique by which Asiatic Maples may be propagated. This method will not replace or supersede the propagation of these plants by seed, but it can and should be used to reproduce them on a more regular schedule. The last and probably most important factor in favor of propagating these plants from softwood cuttings is the fact that for many of them there is no commercial supply qf seed available anywhere. The ROGER COGGESHALL PLATE XII Photograph taken three months (Acer graseum. See Table III. ) after cutting was potted. Medium: Sand. 55 56 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New Horticultural Color Chart","article_sequence":8,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24313","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d060a36f.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 SEPTEMBER 20, 1957 THE NEW HORTICULTURAL COLOR CHART o NUMBER 10 come for American Horticulture to adopt some uniform which color can be accurately measured and uniformly judged and described the country over. Many industries have done this. Horticulture seems to be far behind.... Those of us who are constantly studying plants realize better than most, the necessity for having an accurate standard by which we can compare the colors of flowers, foliage and fruit, and afterwards to describe those colors in uniform terms understood by other individuals who have not seen < THE standard by time has the plants themselves.\" This statement appeared in Arnoldia in 1941 and is just as true today. It was written in an article describing the Royal Horticultural Colour Chart, and it was hoped at that time that this would be the chart which would become accepted in America. However, with no organization to champion this chart in America, with its comparatively high price, and with practically no American publicity and hence its unavailability, it has not become widely used. The American Horticultural Council became interested in this color problem in 1949, and since that time has been studying various charts and possibilities for publishing charts in the hope that finally it would be able to have an accurate chart that would prove satisfactory for all horticultural needs, and at the same time stay within the limits of a moderate price. The Nickerson Color Fan, just published and now available to horticulturists through the American Horticultural Council's Office at the Arnold Arboretum, is just such an accurate but reasonably-priced chart. It folds into a booklet 7ynches long by I inches wide, which fits easily in any pocket or handbag. It contains 262 colors of 40 hues. It is available for $5.00 postpaid, is sponsored by America's outstanding color foundation, and can well become the standard for all American horticultural interests. Included with this color chart is a twelve-page booklet explaining the use of J7 this fan in detail. Printed in small letters on each color, is the popular color name and its numerical designation in the Munsell color system, which is fast becoming accepted as standard by many industries and societies dealing with color systems in America. The chart uses simple color names that have been selected as standard by the Inter-Society Color Council and the National Bureau of Standards. The numerical color system may seem a little complex at first, but as one uses this chart and becomes familiar with it, this system is the means for estimating the value of colors which may not appear in the chart but do appear in the flowers or fruits being studied. With practice, the notation may be used to express as fine a color difference as the eye can see. As knowledge is gained of the principles upon which the Munsell system of notation is based, visual jugdements of the amount and direction of the departure of the samples from the scale colors can be made and recorded by reference to the notations on the scales. There should be no difficulty for observers with normal color vision to agree regularly on the nearest hue and value, and within reasonable limits, on the closest chroma. It is this factor of one's being able to estimate colors accurately according to this numerical system which makes the chart so valuable. There is a great disparity in color terminology, especially in horticultural circles. For instance, Cercis canadensis has been described by various authors as having flowers that are\"pink flower bud, deep red calyx,\" pink to purplish,\" \"rose \"pink to purplish pink,\" \"reddish purple or pink,\"\"red,\" \"rosy pink,\" or \"bright pink to purple.\" By the use of this chart it will be noted that they should be described as being a moderate purplish pink (2.5 RP i l i ). In this way, although the common general color name is given, so is the accurate Munsell number which refers to a particular color hue, color value (lightness of color) and chroma or saturation of color. About such a particular determination there can be no question. When one reads such a description, he can refer directly to the color chart and determine the exact color being described to his own satisfaction. The Nickerson Color Fan can be opened up into the form of a complete wheel. If wanted, a form is obtainable on which all of the leaves can be pasted to form the complete color wheel. This type of chart is necessary frequently in studying complementary colors for flower arrangements. However, the ease with which the fan can be folded and carried in the pocket makes it of inestimable use as a reference in the field as well as indoors. The American Horticultural Council asked Miss Dorothy Nickerson to discuss color and color charts at one of its first meetings in 1949. Since that time, Miss Nickerson, who is Color Technologist in the United States Department of Agriculture in Washington, has become intensely interested in horticultural needs for a standard chart. Bemg a trustee of the Munsell Color Foundation, she was able to bring the need for such a chart before the Munsell Foundation. This is a private, non-profit foundation, owning the Munsell Company, established to further research in color. The chief tasks laid down for the ~lunsell Color Company by JH )] PLATE XIII The Nickerson Color Fan, a new horticultural color chart. the Foundation are to develop and supply accurately-controlled color standards near cost and to supply literature for describing the Dlunsell System and its application. Plans call for the publishing at some later date of three additional fans: one low chroma fan of ten hues, a moderate chroma fan of twenty hues, and a fan of near whites. However, these will probably not be available for at some time. The American Horticultural Council was given a grant last year by the Longwood Foundation, to be used specifically for this color fan. Because of this grant, these fans are now available from the American Horticultural Council. The Munsell Color Company has given the Council the distribution rights to all horticulturists and horticultural organizations in America (except the American Orchid Society). Horticultural organizations wishing to sell the fans to their own members can order in large amounts at special discount rates from the American Horticultural Council Secretary's office. To all others, the price is $5.00, postpaid. For those who have used the Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart, there is included with every Nickerson Color Fan a table of conversion data, so that notations made from the Royal Horticultural Society's Color Chart can be quickly converted to the Munsell notations used on this new color fan. This, then, is an accurate means of determining colors indoors and out. It is readily available, practical to use, and considering the number of colors, comparatively inexpensive. This new color chart, it is hoped, will quickly become a common reference tool in American Horticulture. DONALD WYMAN ~ A Reminder of Fall Classea at the Arnold Arboretum Three classes will be offered this fall at the Arnold Arboretum. All classes are informal and are open to anyone interested in plants and gardening. Application for registration should be addressed to Miss Martha Burow, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. ' British Botanical and Ornamental Gardens 5 sessions. Instructor: Dr. Jarrett Nov. 6-Dec. 4. Fee Wednesday afternoons, 2:30-4:30, ~10.00 Wyman Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants 6 sessions. Instructor: Dr. I. Friday mornings, 10-12, Sept. 27-Nov. Wednesdays, Oct. 9 :30-1 I Fee $2.00 Plant Propagation I 2-Nov. 6. Instructor: 6 sessions. Mr. Coggeshall Fee ~ 10.00 (morning session, :30) (evening session, 7-9) Because of unforeseen circumstances, Dr. Howard's class in Ornamental and Economic Plants in Florida and the West Indies\" will have to be cancelled. [ 60 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Broad-leaved Evergreens in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":61,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24308","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15e816f.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 17 7 DECEMBER 27, 1957 NUMBERS 11-12 BROAD-LEAVED EVERGREENS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM their own. All year long they have been growing, but often they are outshone in the garden during spring and summer by the deciduous flowering trees and shrubs which frequently bring bright colors into the plantings. When winter winds and winter cold remove all the leaves from these deciduous plants, the broad-leaved evergreens assist in keepmg the garden green and \"alive\" throughout the long, winter months. New England is a difficult place in which to grow these plants, but it is surprising how many can be grown here with a little effort. In the Arnold Arboretum are well over a hundred species and varieties (not counting the many varieties of the broad-leaved, evergreen rhododendrons). It is true that during some winters the leaves of some are burned, either by exposure to sun in the late winter months or exposure to high, drying winds in late winter and early spring. However, with a little forethought in locating these plants in the proper place, many of them can be expected to appear at their best throughout the trying cold winter. Temperatures here in the winter are erratic, to say the least. Last winter, for instance, the lowest was in the neighborhood of -20 F., while in January, the highest was about 58F. Droughts also can work much harm to the evergreens, regardless of whether they come in winter or in summer. Last summer, for instance, with only four inches of rain in four months, the evergreens stood a chance of much winter injury. Happily, enough rain came in the latter part of October and November, so there is a likelihood that they will go into the winter with sufficient moisture about their roots, although it is difficult to foretell whether the extensive drought before that time will result in noticeable damage next spring. The plants listed in the following pages are some of the broad-leaved evergreens growing in the Arnold Arboretum. The list will be of interest to many as one from which suggestions can be taken for planting under certain types of conditions. NOW is the time of the year when the broad-leaved evergreens truly come into - ] 61 ~ Downy Andromeda Not particularly meritorious as an ornamental, but extremely hardy. Native throughout the entire Northeastern Area from Labrador to New Jersey, this plant with its small brownish leaves, white on the undersurface, is best used in swampy Andromeda glaucophylla 1~-2~ Zone 2 situations. Arctostaphylos uva-ursi An excellent 6~~-1~ Zone 2 for Bearberry an Americovered with dark green leaves about the size of those of boxwood. In the fall, they turn a rich bronze that holds for the rest of the winter. Rather slow growing, the bearberry produces bright red berries in the fall, grows in acid soils, and often clambers over rocks. I have seen the bears in the Canadian Rockies eating the fruits with much apparent relish. It should be remembered that this is hard to transplant, especially from the wild, so that plants grown in pots are best relied upon for original planting. Although it withstands shade, it will thrive in full sun, and is frequently seen in the high mountains of the Northwest as well as along the sandy hills of the eastern seashore areas. ground cover especially dry, sandy soils, this also is stems are can native from coast to coast. The creeping Berberis buxifolia nana 18~~ Zone 5 Dwarf Magellan Barberry One of the very few plants from South America growing in the Arboretum, this small, evergreen barberry is not rehably hardy here, but makes a dense mass of foliage where it survives. Berberis chenaulti 6~ Zone 4 Chenault Barberry This hybrid of two excellent evergreen barberries (B. verruculosaugagnepaini) certainly has hybrid vigor and is easily one of the most vigorous growing of the evergreen barberries. Unfortunately, commercial growers have not propagated it to any great extent, but if and when they do, it will quickly become extremely popular with the public. The long, narrow, spiny leaves that are grayish green m color, the vigorous shoot growth and pale blue fruits as well as the small yellow flowers, all go to make it an excellent plant. Seldom have we seen it injured from winter burning in the Arboretum. Barberry bushy evergreen from China, introduced into this country by the Arnold Arboretum, does well in the gardens of New England as well as those of California. It needs good soil to produce the best foliage. The narrow, evergreen leaves Berberis gagnepaini This are 6~ Zone 5 Black sometimes as much as four inches 6~ one long. Zone 5 Berberis julianae Of very dense habit this is of the hardiest evergreen barberries and Wintergreen Barberry usually . ~ 62 -S s S c 0 0 \"t7 aj > '5 a CU U Uw '-O O F. m s U .9 j., ~ *S t; a \" C7 S ~* 3 -o ~ CS t) M ~~~ CH L' S~ o w o _~ d o! _, O u G N _~ o Nu c V & & ?5 O -e y ~~ ~ s -a g N hO O O O +~ -~ W -c bD y ~M .^, strong grower, although B. chenaulti seems to be slightly all these evergreen barberries, it is extremely thorny. a more vigorous. Like Berberis sargentiana 6~ Zone 6 Sargent Barberry This used to be a popular favorite in this group, but during the past few years, it has not performed as well as other evergreen barberries. One of the reasons is that it is not quite as hardy as the others. Farther south it may well grow into a vigorous, six-foot shrub, but it does not do too well here in New England. Berberis triacanthophora 4~ Zone 5 Threespine Barberry Another of the hardy, evergreen barberries, E. H. Wilson, who introduced this from Central China in 1907, considered this the most hardy of all the Chinese species. The long spines are most conspicuous and very effective, but it does not have the dense growth of B. julianae and B. chenaulti. Berberis verruculosa 4~ Zone 5 Warty Barberry The warty barberry is one of the best, with its low, compact habit and its glossy green leaves which are white on the underside, making it decidedly ornamental. Although it can grow to four feet in height, most plants in this area are much less. It must be said that the yellow flowers and bluish fruits of all these evergreen barberries, add to their beauty and ornamental usefulness. Buxus microphylla koreana was 4' Zone 5 Korean Box as This variety widely recommended, especially by E. H. Wilson, the hard- iest of all boxwoods. This may be true, but it certainly is not the most ornamental, especially in the winter. The small leaves frequently turn brownish in the fall and stay that way all winter. Now that Ilex crenata convexa is known to be as hardy, certainly is more vigorous growing, and especially since it keeps the dark green color of its leaves all winter, this hardy and better-looking substitute has often been used in place of the Korean box. Korean box should not replace the English box wherever that excellent plant is hardy ; rather, it should only be used on the northern limits of its English relative, if it seems desirable. Recently, a variety of Buxus microphylla originated on Long Island and has since been named 'Tide Hill.' Plants of this are apparently very low, for the original in western New York, when it was measured in 1954, was 5 feet across but only 15 inches tall at the age of about 20 years. Buxus sempervirens 10~ Zone 5 Common Box The popular English box is widely grown in America wherever it proves hardy. It has its troubles, but there is nothing quite like this species for excellent dark green, aromatic foliage, dense growth, and a splendid ability to withstand all types of shearing. Although it has been tried in all sorts of places in New Eng- 64 varieties of opinion is that Buxus sempervirens and its many standard just not reliably hardy in New England's rigorous climate. Old New England sea captains brought back plants to this area, as did some of the early settlers, but usually they all eventually suffer winter injury. However, there is still enough doubt in the minds of some experimentally- land, the concensus are minded individuals to induce them to grow different clones (either imported or raised from seed) in an attempt to find an English box plant that is truly hardy throughout New England. Several possibilities have appeared. To prove the hardy character of some of these newcomers, the Arnold Arboretum is growing some of the standard varieties of B. sempervirens like angustifolia, arborescens, handsworthi, rolund~f'olia and sz~'ruticosa. In extremely cold winters, these are injured. Some of the newer varieties are `Curlylocks,' 'Kingsville,' 'Northland,' 4Inglis' and Vardar Valley.' The variety `Inglis' originated in central Michigan where it has withstood winter temperatures of -200 F. each year for many years, without injury. The variety Vardar Valley,' recently described in Arnoldia, comes from a cold part of the Balkans, its native habitat, and has performed well here since 1935, when cuttings from the original plant were first introduced. Chamaedaphne calyculata This native l ~-l~ Zone 2 Leatherleaf plant is not a good ornamental eBergreen, for it does not produce too many leaves, and in the winter, these are brownish. It is best used in moist situations, but is hardy well up north into Zone 2. Cotoneaster dammeri 1~ Zone 5 Bearberry Cotoneaster One of the few, low, distinct evergreen cotoneasters, this has a prostrate, trailing habit. It makes an excellent slow-growing ground cover and is well adapted for use in the rockery. Cotoneaster microphylla 3~ Zone 5 Small-leaved Cotoneaster The small-leaved cotoneaster is another evergreen with leaves about one-half inch long and less than that ~n some of the varieties. It can build itself up into a tangled mass of branches one or two feet high and as'much as 15 feet in diameter. It has the smallest leaves of any cotoneaster and so is valued in rock gardens and for a foliage mat in the foreground of the shrub border. Daphne The cneorum 6~~ Zone 4 Rose Daphne daphne, seldom over six inches tall, is conspicuous in any garden when it is in full flower. There is always the argument as to whether it does best in acid or alkaline soils; it has done well in both. As a matter of fact, all members of this genus are sometimes extremely difficult to cultivate and may suddenly die after several years of apparent perfect growth. A cool moist condition about the roots and some winter protection in the North are suggested to insure good growth. rose 65 Euonymus fortunei 4~~ some 5 Zone Wintercreeper excellent broad-leaved evergreens, but they are all susceptible to infestation of the Euonymus scale, and so, in areas where this can be a real pest, it might be well to overlook these plants for planting in the garden. All are clinging vines, but a few are semi-shrubby. The variety vegeta is one example, for it can grow into a procumbent shrub four feet tall. This is one of the varieties that bears fruit orange capsules which crack open to display bright orange fleshy fruits inside that are most ornamental. This variety was first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 18 i 6, and has proved very popular ever since. Another shrubby form is the variety carrierei which has leaves that are longer and more pointed.than those of the variety vegeta, and not as leathery. This form, too, can produce fruits. Old plants of this, and in fact, other forms of this species as well, frequently \"sport\" ; that is, branches are found here and there about the plant with foliage entirely different from the real specimen. It is not unusual to find three or four variants growing on the same plant. The variety colorata is a fast-growing (for Euonymus) ground cover, with branches running flat along the surface of the ground. The leaves of this variety turn a rich purplish red in the fall and retain this color most of the winter; an excellent type for planting on banks or to grow over the top of large rocks. Two small-leaved varieties and still in the broad-leaved evergreen class are minima and keuensis, the latter with leaves slightly smaller, usually about onequarter inch across. These are both extremely slow-growing forms, good only for planting in the foreground of the rockery or on the foundation of buildings where they can be easily observed. Two other varieties have variegated foliage-'Silver Queen' and gracilis. The leaves are variegated with a creamy white and are most prominent. There is not too much difference between these forms, although the leaves of 'Silver Queen' have pure white variegations, while in those of gracilis the color may be white, it should be remembered at the start that - The wintercreeper clan contains creamy white, or even a pale pink. There are some new varieties of this species appearing in the nurseries, upright forms that are used for edging or very low hedges. These include 'Berry Hill,' `Dupont,' 'Manhattan,' and others. Being varieties of E. fortunei, they are all included in this group of broad-leaved evergreens. Gaultheria procumbens 8~~ Zone 3 Wintergreen This low native is seldom planted in gardens except in areas where naturalwoods conditions are simulated. It requires very acid soil, moisture, and considerable shade to thrive. Gaylussacia brachycera If it were 18~~ Zone 5 of this Box Huckleberry one not for the extremely slow growth plant, it would be of [ 66 ] PLATE XV Top: I'iburnum Bottom: rhytidophyllum. Euonymus 'Silver Queen.' the most popular of all evergreens. It is rarely found native in America, has been \"lost\" several times, and has the distinction of possibly being one of the oldest plants in North America. It spreads by underground rootstalks, and it is estimated that one stand in central Pennsylvania covering an area of 300 acres is all one plant, possibly as much as 5,000 years old. It is most difficult to propagate from seed and nursery stock is extremely limited. The leaves are small but very lustrous, and apparently are not injured here in New England by very cold winters, possibly because our plants are so low that they are covered with snow a greater part of the winter. Hedera helix 6~~-8~~ is in the same (clinging vine) in New Zone 5 as England category English ivy boxwood, namely that neither is reliably hardy, but some gardeners are able to bring plants through winters in such excellent condition that many another gardener tries to do likewise. As a result, with this species, also, there is great interest in trying out new so-called \"hardy\" varieties. A few years ago, the hardiest was supposed to be the variety baltica, which is growing to the third story on the north side of our brick administration building. However, even in this protected place, occasionally this is badly defoliated by severe winter temperatures. More recently, new varieties have appeared. The one originating in New York and named by the New York Botanical Garden, '268th Street,' is being tried side-by-side with 'Rumania' which was named by the Missouri Botanic Garden and is said to be hardy in the Midwest. It probably will take some years to make certain which is the most hardy under our conditions here in New England, but as yet, none has shown serious winter injury, although none of these newer forms has reached the great size of our baltica, hence none is as \"exposed.\" The Ilex is the English Ivy English aquipernyi 6~ Zone 6 Since neither of the parents of this hybrid are completely hardy in the Arnold one would expect this to be tender also, and such is probably the case with the seven-year-old plant we have. It is now about five feet tall, with glossy green leaves, but it has suffered some winter burning of the foliage in the Arboretum, last few winters. ~ Ilex crenata Z0~ Zone 6 Japanese Holly The Japanese holly is a most useful plant, either as a specimen, massed, or used in hedges where it is closely sheared. It has a number of varieties. A few years ago it was noted that the \"hardiest\" variety was the little-leaved microphylla, but whether because of over-all milder climate or some other reason, other types also seem to be doing very well. We have a plant of the species about seven feet tall and one of the variety latifolia almost as large, as well as a seven-foot specimen of microphylla. 68 ~ The variety out convexa is to me the hardiest form here in New England, and with- question, the best and hardiest substitute for boxwood. Arboretum visitors are well acquainted wtth the splendid old specimen along the Centre Street Path in the Arboretum, the original plant sent over by E. H. Wilson from Japan in 1919. The wide, vase-shaped habit, the excellent dark green leaves, and even the small black fruits in the fall, all go to make this one of the best of the broadleaved evergreens for New England gardens. Admittedly, the flowers are inconspicuous, but it is not susceptible to any serious insect or disease pest, nor is it particular as to soil. There are now growing in the collections or the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum, some 25 varieties of Ilex crenata, some excellent plants, some of doubtful origin. Most are too small to tell much about their final habit, form, and hardiness ; others have been thriving here for many years. A 23-year-old plant of 1. crenata helleri is a dense, compact, rounded mass of leaves about one-half inch long. It is 31 feet tall but 6 feet in diameter. An 8-year-old plant of 'Green Island' is definitely flat-topped, with coarser leaves over an inch long, more open growth, wide spreading, 2 feet tall and 7 feet across. A 9-year-old plant of stokesi is compact, but showing a definite tendency to produce many upright shoots, l2feet tall, 5 feet across, and leaves about one-half inch in diameter. The variety 'Glass' is merely a selection of the variety microphylla, and it is difficult to tell these two apart. Many of the others are dwarf types, and it is hoped that they will prove hardy, some being outstanding enough to merit continued garden use. 'Kingsville' and `Kingsmlle Green Cushion' both are excellent types, and if grown in situations where they will not burn in the winter, merit the considered attention of those who like dwarf evergreen plants. Ilex glabra common 21~ Zone 3 A native in the Eastern United States and Canada, this is a Inkberry depend- able, broad-leaved evergreen that does not necessarily have to be grown in swampy places. The dark, lustrous leaves, one to two inches long, are excellent all winter. The fruits are black, hence not conspicuous, and the plant normally grows with many stems directly from the base. Although it can grow as high as 20 feet, it is normally found in gardens considerably under 8 feet. If it grows too rank, it can easily be cut down to the ground and it will grow back very quickly in a more bushy condition. There is a variety being offered in the trade which we have been growing since 1953, called co~npacta. After four years of growth, this is about two feet high and consequently looks as if it might have real possibilities as a dwarf plant. Other than height, its characteristics are the same as those of the species, except that the leaves are less than half the size of those of the species. Ilex opaca 45~ is near Zone :i American Although Boston the northern limit of the native American Holly holly, it 69] can be considered as a possibility for planting from here southwards. There are magnificent native stands on Cape Cod and in southern Rhode Island. There are, of course, many varieties available in the Eastern United States. Most are susceptible to infestations of ~the leaf miner which must be controlled. Normally, it grows best in acid soil. As is true with all members of the genus 1lex, the sexes are separate; both should be planted on the same property to insure fruiting unless there are male trees growing in the near vicinity, when only the certainly pistillate Ilex form need be planted. 80~ Zone 5 pedunculosa Longstalk Holly This evergreen holly should be much better known. Young plants start to bear fruits when under five years old. The lustrous evergreen leaves are one to three inches long and the fruits are often as large as those of the English holly. This is a tree, not fast growing, since seven-year-old plants are usually under six feet tall, but nevertheless they are ornamental and well worth including among the valuable broad-leaved evergreens for this area. Ilex rugosa rare 2~ in (?) Zone 3 Au extremely America, this is a low prostrate shrub which can plant as a ground cover. The leaves are not over two inches long and the fruit be used is a red berry, but there are not many fruiting plants available in America today. It is very hardy, well up into Zone 3, and might well be used more. Ilex sugeroki 2~-3~ 5 Zone Sugeroki Holly Not many of these plants are available, either, and little can be said of the performance of this species m the Arboretum, since we have had it only for a few years. Pistillate plants produce red fruits, an excellent ornamental characteristic. Ilex yunnanensis 12~ Zone 7 Yunnan Holly The leaves of this species are about the size and shape of boxwood leaves and the fruits on the pistillate plants are bright red. However, although there has been a six-foot plant in the Arboretum for many years, it cannot be considered completely hardy in Boston; rather, it would best be used in Zone i or possibly Zone 6. Its neat, pyramidal habit of growth makes it an excellent ornamental. Kalmia angustifolia Of value only in acid-soil 8~ areas, as a Zone 2 Sheeplaurel are pecially about 2~ ornamental except inches long. especially plant for naturalizing, with Zone 4 those that in wet soil. Not es- evergreen leaves Kalmia latifolia 30' Mountain-laurel a A lovely area in native American evergreen, commonly grown in acid soils over the Eastern United States. Much used in foundation planting, it can wide be [~o=] Top: Yaccinium vitis-idaea PLATE XVI minus growing in foreground around the rock. Bottom: Rhododendron carolinianum in the Arnold Arboretum. restrained from growing to its maximum height by proper pruning in the very early spring. The deep-pink flowered form is most conspicuous, but it is extremely difficult to obtain from commercial sources. Ledum groenlandicum 3~ Zone 2 Labrador Tea Even though this is an extremely hardy evergreen, it is not a particularly ornamental type and can best be used only in peaty, boggy soils where few other plants will grow. Leiophyllum buxifolium 18~~ Zone 5 Box The box sandmyrtle is a small evergreen best used in clumps, and be included in plantings of Erica or Calluna to provide variation. Leucothoe catesbaei Sandmyrtle might well Drooping Leucothoe If properly grown, this can well be one of the most serviceable and popular of broad-leaved evergreens. In its native habitat it can grow six feet tall, but in New England it grows entirely too open at the base to reach this height effectively. Rather, it should either be heavily pruned or else cut right down to the ground every few years so that the clumps grow no taller than about three feet. When grown in this way, it is always ornamental. The arching branches with their pendulous clusters of waxy white flowers in mid-spring are outstanding. The lustrous leaves are beautiful throughout the summer and they take on a rich bronze color in the fall and winter. When grown in a slightly protected place, with a small amount of shade, and if pruned as suggested, the drooping leucothoe can be one of the most beautiful evergreens out-of-doors, and will supply unlimited shoots for \"arrangements\" indoors, especially in the fall and winter months. Mahoberberis aquicandidula Mahoberberis aquisargenti Mahoberberis miethkeana 6~ Zone 4 4~ 5~ 5~ (?) (?) (?) Zone 4 (?) Zone 4 (?) Zone4 ( ?) These three new hybrids are doing very well in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum. The first two were imported from Sweden in 1948 by the Arnold Arboretum, and the third supposedly originated in the Miethka Nursery near Tacoma, Washington prior to 1948. It was not until June 1956 that they were judged resistant to the black stem rust of wheat by the Plant Pest Control Branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, but now they can be propagated and shipped interstate. None of these three species has flowered in the Arboretum nurseries, but all look as if they were going to prove hardy in this area. The glossy, prickly leaves, dense habit of upright growth and apparent ability to retain their foliage in good condition throughout the winter, should make them valued ornamental evergreens. Mahoberberis aquicandidula is more difficult to propagate than M. aqni- 72] sargenti, and less interesting in the winter because of its smaller leaves and less vigorous growth. Mahoberberis miethkeana is very similar in foliage and habit, if aquisargenti. These three hybrids will be closely watched and compared during the next few winters to note differences in hardiness, since they are growing out-of-doors, together, under identical conditions of soil, moisture, not identical to M. and exposure. Zone 5 3', rarely 6' Oregon Holly-grape aquifoluim Some gardeners may have had difficulty with this plant retaining its leaves in good condition throughout the winter in New England. It is true that if given too much direct winter sun or planted in too exposed a position, the leaves may turn brownish, but if given some winter shade and planted in a protected situation, the Oregon holly-grape should be thoroughly evergreen. When plants are grown from seed, some forms may occur without lustrous leaves, but once the shiny-leaved forms are located, they should be propagated asexually, for the beautiful, dark leaves are one of its most important ornamental assets. This is another broad-leaved evergreen which, like Leucothoe catesbaei, should not be Mahonia allowed to grow too tall, especially in New England. It is best kept under 3 feet in height. The bright-yellow flowers m mid-spring and light-blue, grape-like fruits in the early summer, add greatly to its effectiveness as a garden plant. Mahonia repena 10~~ Zone 5 Creeping Mahonia but it does not have the Merely a lower growing Mahonia lustrous leaves of the other species. Pachistima (under one foot), canbyi 12 Zone 5 Canby Pachistima One of the evergreen ground covers of merit is this native of Eastern North America. The small leaves, good texture, low, dense growth, and bronze winter color of the leaves, all go to make it a plant that can be featured in the rockery or in the foreground of ericaceous plantings. Pachistima myrsinites 18\" Zone 5 Myrtle Pachistima This is the Western counterpart of the Canby pachistima. A relative newcomer to the Arboretum plantings (from the mountains of Colorado), it is too soon to report its growth in this area, although previous experience has shown that it is hardy here. Japanese Pachysandra Japanese Spurge Japanese spurge still remains the best evergreen ground cover for shaded situations. Commonly grown in countless gardens throughout the United States, its many good points are well known. The variegated variety does not grow nearly as well in most situations as does the species. Pachysandra terminalis 6\" Zone 4 ] ~3 ~ Pieris floribunda 6~ Zone 4 Mountain Andromeda Professor Sargent used to say that this was one of the very best of the broadleaved evergreens because it would grow so well in many situations. The upright panicles of small white flowers in late April, the dull evergreen foliage, and its ability to grow in acid and alkaline soils, make it a most serviceable evergreen. Zone 5 9~ Japanese Andromeda japonica Even better, although not quite so hardy, is the Japanese andromeda, for the lustrous leaves of this species are much to be desired. Also, the flower clusters Pieris slightly larger and pendulous, so that the entire plant is more ornamental than the native species. Both are good in gardens, especially in foundation plantings about the base of the house where they will withstand more alkaline soil conditions than many another ericaceous plant. are Potentilla tridentata ~-12~~ 2 Zone Wineleaf Three-toothed Cinquefoil Cinquefoil A very hardy ground cover, this low evergreen is found on the top of the White Mountains in New England, growing in extremely poor, rocky soil. As an evergreen ground cover it is excellent, since it quickly grows into a low, rounded mass of foliage in good soil and seems to withstand the rigorous winters very well indeed. as a Why it has not cover proved in more or small tablished soon be noted. ground rockery popular is hard to say. Once esgarden proper, its true value will Prunus laurocerasus Whether or not this is still true, is difficult to other varieties, especially zabeliana, with equally say, since we have been trying good results for several years. The vigorous, vase-shaped habit of the Schipka cherry-laurel, its long, glossy, evergreen leaves, and the excellent condition in which cut branches can be kept for lengthy periods in arrangements indoors, go to make this a truly excellent ornamental, one that might well be used far more than it is. However, it will burn in some of the most severe winters, hence it should be used in slightly protected, often partially-shaded situations. Once it is known to a garden-minded \"arranger,\" it will always have an important place For many years, iest and best for New 18' Zone 5 schipkaensis Schipka Cherry-laurel of the cherry-laurel was supposed to be the hardthis variety England. in the garden. Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone 5 5 4 5 5 - Rhododendron arbutifolium Rhododendron carolinianum 4~ 6~ 6-18~ Rhododendron catawbiense Rhododendron fortunei hybrids 1~~ 8' Rhododendron keiski ;, - Carolina Rhododendron Catawba Rhododendron Fortune Rhododendron Hybrids Keisk Rhododendron . T4 Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron Rhododendron laetvirens maximum minus myrtifolium racemosum smirnowi watereri wellesleyanum 4~ 12-36~ 9~ 4~ 2-6' 6-18~ 6~ 6~ Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone Zone 4 3 5 5 5 4 5 4 Wilson Rhododendron Rosebay Rhododendron Piedmont Rhododendron Myrtle Rhododendron Mayflower Rhododendron Smirnow Rhododendron Waterer Rhododendron Wellesley Rhododendron These are some of the evergreen rhododendrons growing well in the Arnold Arboretum. There are many varieties of these species, and hybrids as well. It should be mentioned that R. keiski is apparently none too hardy, but it is the only yellow-flowering species growing here at present. All need acid soil, much humus and moist soil conditions to do their best. Gardeners know that slightly shaded situations are sometimes conducive to best growth and certainly less winter injury. Rhododendron obtusum amoenum Rhododendron obtusum japonicum Rhododendron mucronatum 3~ 3~ 6~ Zone 5 or 6 Zone 5 or 6 Zone 5 or 6 Amoena Azalea Kurume Azalea Snow Azalea These are the only so-called \"evergreen\" azaleas which survive in the Arnold Arboretum, and sometimes these will be badly injured in severe winters. Consequently, they cannot be recommended as thoroughly hardy for this area. Teucrium A neat chamaedrys 10~~ Zone 5 Chamaedrys Germander plant, usually thought of as a \"sub-shrub,\" this native of Central and Europe has uses in the garden, sometimes as a low-bordering hedge, very easily pruned ; other times, as a ground cover or as a low evergreen in front of taller growing shrubs. There is a variety prostratum which is lower in growth. When the tops are injured by exposure or cold winters, they can easily be sheared off just above the ground level and so will easily make a dense mass of foliage. Southern Thymus serpyllum In 1~~ Zone 3 Mother-of-thyme Creeping Thyme speaking of evergreens, this diminutive plant certainly must be mentioned. Very popular and widely used, it is the lowest of the evergreen ground covers. Vaccinium vitis-idaea 1~ 5 Zone Cowberry This species and its two varieties mnjus and minus are included in this list of broad-leaved evergreens. The last mentioned, mountain cranberry as it is often called, ~s the hardiest, but it should only be used in cool moist mountainous areas where acid soils are prevalent. Hot, dry summers are conducive to its early failure. _ Vinca minor 6~~ Zone 4 Periwinkle, Myrtle Some consider this a better ground cover than even the Japanese spurge because it will grow equally well in sun or shade. Some years it is not completely evergreen, losing its leaves in very late winter, but with some protection it can be classed as a most valuable evergreen ground cover. Several varieties are available, with variegated foliage or flowers white or double. 'Bowles' variety tends to grow in one clump, rather than as a trailing vine along the surface of the ground. Viburnum rhytidophyllum 9~ 5 Zone Leatherleaf Viburnum In southern Ohio and warmer parts of the country, there are several evergreen viburnums, but here in the Arnold Arboretum, although we are trying to grow others, the only one making a semblance of retaining its leaves throughout the winter is this species. The long leaves are a lustrous dark green and rugose, sometimes as much as six inches long. Slightly shaded situations in New England may assist in bringing it through the winter in good condition. _ . DONALD WYMAN ] : 76 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XVII","article_sequence":10,"start_page":77,"end_page":83,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24309","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15e8528.jpg","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XVII Illustrations Abies - are in bold face type concolor, 24, 27 28 fraseri, 27 Acanthopanax sieboldianus, Acer barbinerve, 52 I 56 - buergerianum, 49, 52, campestre, 20, 26 55 - capillipes, 50, 52 carpinifolium, 52 cissifolium, 49, 50, 53 ginnala, 20, 27, 55 Acer griseum, Plate XII, 54; grosseri hersi, 56 mandshuricum, 56 miyabei, 56 platanoides, 20, 28 -- Classes, 60 Spring Classes, 16 Open House, 36 Arrowwood, 22 Asiatic Maples, Propagation from Softwood Cuttings, 45-56 5 Azalea, Amoena, 5 5 i -, Kurume, - Fall - - -, snow, 75 62 - Barberry, black, -, box, -, 20 - - tataricum, 49, 53 tegmentosum, 53 tr~florum, 53, 55 - tschonoski, 60 53 American Horticultural Council, 57, Anderson, Edgar, 42 Andromeda, downy, 62 glaucophylla, 62 4 -, Japanese, 7 - Chenault, 62 -, Korean, 20 -, Japanese, 20 -, -, red-leaved, 20 -, Thornless, 20 -, white-edged, 20 -, Magellan, dwarf, 62 -, Mentor, 20 -, Sargent, 64 -, Sheridan Red, 20 Barberry, threespine, 64 - -, warty, -, 64 20 -, wildfire, -, 4 mountain, i wintergreen, 62 Bartram, John, 6 Arborvitae, American, 25 5 globe, 25 5 -, giant, 25 -, Little Gem, 25 -, spiral, 25 -, V6'agner, 25 --, VVare's, 25 -, VGoodward, 25 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 62 Arnold Arboretum, Plate IX, - --, -, Vfilliam, 6 Bearberry, 62 Berberis buxifolia nana, 62 - chenaulti, 62 - - gagnepaini, 62 i gilgiana, 20, 2 - - julianae, 62, koreana, 20, 63 2 i 26 - 34 - mentorensis, 20, sargentiana, 64 I~ J Berberis - - 'Sheridan Red,' 20, 28 thunbergi, 18, 20, 26 i argenteo-marginata, 20, 2 - - - - - - - atropurpurea, 20 l erecta, 20, 27 minor, 20, 26 'Thornless,' 20, 27 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 20, 28 Cercis canadensis, 58 Chaenomeles lagenaria, 20, 28 Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera, 24, plumosa, 24, 26 - 26 squarrosa, 28 - triacanthophora, 64 verruculosa, 64 vulgaris, 28 1 Beech, American, 21 -, European, 21 Betula populifolia, 20, 28 Birch, gray, 20 Blackhaw, 22 - -, Box, common, 64 Korean, 24, 64 Boxwood, new, 42-44 6 Broad-leaved evergreens, 61-i Chamaedaphne calyculata, 4 Cherry-laurel, Schipka, 74 Chloromone, 47 Cinquefoil, bush, Purdom, -, three-toothed, 74 --, wineleaf, 74 Clethra alnifolia, 29 0 Clever, Andrew, 10 Cleyera, 10 japonica, 10, 12 forma tricolor, 122 - 65 22 Color Chart, New, XIII, 59 57-60; Plate -, - Buckthorn, common, 22 glossy, 22 Bush, beauty, 21 Buxus microphylla koreana, 24,?6,64 - - -, hybrid, 24 'Tide Hill,' 65 sempervirens, 42, 64, 65 - Columnberry-, truehedge, 20 Conversion data, Nickerson color fan, 60 Cornelian-cherry, - 20 Cornus mas, 20, 26 racemosa, 20, 26 angustifoha, arborescens, 65 65 Cotoneaster, bearberry, dammeri, 65 - 65 - - microphylla, 65 - - 'Curlylocks,' handsworthi, 65 65 65 6,i - - Cotoneaster microphylla cochleata, Plate XIV, 63 - - - - `Kingsmlle,' 'Northland,' - - - - rotundifolia, 65 suffruticosa, 42, small-leaved, 65 Cowberry, 75 Crataegus crus-galli, 21, -, 26 65 Buxus sempervirens 'Vardar Valley' 42, 44 ; Plate X, 43; 65 28 21, 26 pruinosa, 21, 27 Cultivated Relatives of the Camellia, - monogyna, - Camellia, 1-12 Caragana frutex, 20, - I-lo - arborescens, 20, 28 Carpinus betulus, 20, 26 caroliniana, 28 Case Estates, Open House, Currant, mountain, 22 Cuttings, juvenile plants, -, mature plants, 46 Daphne cneorum, 65 36 . 46 Deutzia gracilis, 29 78 Dogwood, gray, 20 Douglas-fir, 24 1 Drought, 61 i Elaeagnus angustifolia, 21, 27 1 -, autumn, 21 umbellata, 2 I , 26 - Franklin, Benjamin, 8 Franklinia, 6, 6 Franklinia alatamaha, 6; Plate I I, 7 Gaultheria procumbens, 66 Gaylussac~a brachycera, 66, Elm, Chinese, 22 Euonymus alata compacta, - fortunei, 66 'Berry Hill,' 66 - 67 Genera of Theaceae Native to the United States, Plate I, ~ 5 21 1 - - carrierei, colorata, 66 66 66 - - 'Dupont,' gracilis, kewensis, - - 66 66 66 - - - - 'Manhattan,' minima, 66 Euonymus fortunei 'Silver Queen,' - - 66; Plate XV, 67 vegeta, 66 - 5 Germander, Chamaedrys, i Ginkgo biloba fastigiata, 29 Gleditsia triacanthos, 21, 29 Gordon, James, ~. Gordonia, 4, 5 axillaris, 2 lasianthus, 6 pubescens, 8 Hawthorn, English, 2I1 -, frosted, 211 Hedera helix, 68 baltica, 68 - - - - - - - `Rumania,' 68 - scale, -, winged, dwarf, 2 Eurya, 12 2 chinensis, 12 12 2 japonica, 66 - - - '268th Street,'68 21 1 i ' Hedge Demonstration Plot, I i -81; Plate VI, 19 9 Hedges, Plate VII, ~?3; Plate VIII, ,311 - 2 emarginata, 12 1 marginata, `? latifolia variegata,12 2 - o ochnacea, 10 6 Evergreens, broad-leaved, 61-76 Fagus grandifolia, 21, 26 sylvatica, 21, 26 Fan, Nickerson Color, 5i-60; Plate XIII, 59 --, conversion data, 60 F~r, white, 2-i Flower buds apparently not injured, - i Hedges, fair, 2 Hedges, good to excellent, 26 i Hedges, poor, 27 Hemlock, Canada, Plate VII, 23 ; - -, 25 compact, 25 , -, Carolina, 25 Hippophae rhamnoides, 29 0 Holly, American, 69, i - -, -, Clark, 24 69 Japanese, 68, Holly, Japanese, convex-leaved, Plate VII, 23; 24 14, - 16 ti - killed, 14 Forsythia, border, intermedia, 21, Frame, wire, 47 21 1 26 longstalk, i0 Sugeroki,0 0 -, Yunnan, 70 3 Holly-grape, Oregon,8 1 Honeylocust, common, 21 -, --, [ 79 ] Honeysuckle, Tatarian, l -, winter, 1 21 1 . Leatherleaf, Ledum 6~ Hormodin No. 3, 47, 50 2 groenlandicum, ', Leiophyllum buxifolium, 72 - Hormones, root-inducing, Hornbeam, European, ZO 7 Huckleberry, box, 66, 67 21 Hypericum cistifolium, 1 densiflorum, 29 Ilex aquipernyi, 68 crenata, 68, 69 46 3 Leucothoe catesbaei, 7 2, 73 - - Ligustrum amurense, 21, ibolium, 21 , 26 ibota, 21, 29 obtusifolium 26 - - regelianum, 21, ovalifolium, 21, 26 sinense, 21, 27 vicaryi, 21, 26 vulgare, 21, 26 'Lodense,' 21, - 26 - - Ilex crenata convexa, Plate VII, 22 ; - ~?4, - 26 - 'Glass,' 69 69 - 26 - - 'Green Island,' helleri, 69 69 Lilac, Chinese, 22 -- - - - `Kingsv~lle,' 'Kingsville Green Cushion,' 69 latifolia, microphylla, 68, 68 69 -, common, 22 -, cutleaf, 22 -, - - - - - - stokesi, 69 69 - - glabra, - - Hungarian, 22 Linden, European, littleleaf, 22 Lonicera fragrantissima, 21, 26 korolkowi floribunda, 29 7 tatarica, 18, 21 , 2 Maclura compacta, 69, 70 69 pomifera, 21, 27 7 - opaca, - Magnolia flowers, Plate V, 15 ?6 'Clark,' 24, 70 pedunculosa, rugosa, 70 - - sugeroki, 70 yunnanensis, 70 acid, 47 Indolebutyric acid, 50 Inkberry, 69 Ivy, English, 68 Juniperus communis, 29 virginiana, 24, 26 - -- Mahoberberis aquicandidula, 72, 73 Mahoberberis aquisargenti, 72, 73 ; Plate XIV, 63 3 miethkeana, 7 3 Mahonia aquifolium, 73 3 - repens, 7 Indole-3-acetic - Kalmia - angustifolia, 1 7 0 70 latifoha, 7 0, Katsura-tree, 10 Malachodendron, 10 Maple, Amur, 20 -, hedge, 20 -, Norway, 20 Marsh, Dorothy, Mrs., 2 Marshall, Humphry, 6, 8 -, Moses, 6, 8 Mockorange, Lemoine, upright, -, 21 Key to Theaceae Cultivated in the United States, 3-4 Kolkwitzia amabilis,21, 26 Labels, yellow, Labrador tea, 34 R 7 sweet, 21 5 Mother-of thyme, 75 Mountain-laurel, 70, 71 Mulch, Cocoa-shell, 33-36 Munsell Color System, 58 , ] [ 80 Myrtle, 76 Nickerson, Dorothy, Miss, Populus 58 - alba pyramidalis, 22, 29 29 29 nigra italica, New Horticultural Color Chart, 5I60 ; Plate XIII, 59 -, Potentilla fruticosa -- purdomi, 22, 22 Ninebark, 21 Illinois, dwarf, pyramidal, 22 4 tridentata, i Prinsepia, cherry, 21 31 Prinsepia sinensis, 22, 26; Plate Oak, English, Plate VIII, - -, 22 -, Pin, -, shingle, 22 Osage-orange, 21 - Pachistima canbyi, 73 8 myrsinites, 73 -- 4 Pachysandra terminalis, 73, 74 Pea-tree, Russian, 20 -, Siberian, 20 6 Periwinkle, 76 Philadelphus coronarius, 21, 26 pumilus, 29 - VIII, 31 Privet, Amur, 21 1 -, California, 21 -, Chinese, 21 -, dense, low, 21i i -, European, 21 -, Ibolium, 211 1 -,Ibota, 21 -, Regel, 21I -, Vicary, golden, 21 Prunus japonica nakai, 30 laurocerasus schipkaensis, - 74 - tomentosa, 30 - lemoinei erectus, 21, 27 Physocarpus intermedius parvifolius, 21, 27 opulifolius, 18, 21, 27 Picea abies, 24, 26 - - j j - - - omorika, 24, 26 orientalis, 24, 26 pungens - glauca, 24, 26 4 floribunda, 7 japonica, 74 Pine, mugho, 24, 29 -, scotch, 24 -, wh~te, 24 Pinus mugo mughus, 24, -- P~er~s - Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 24, 26 Quercus imbricaria, 22, 26 palustris, 22 robur fastigiata, 22, 27 Quince, flowering, 20 Red-cedar, 24 Retmospora, plume, 24 --, thread, 24 Rhamnus cathartica, 22, 26 frangula, 22, 26 4 Rhododendron arbutifolium, 74 Rhododendron carolinianum, Plate 26 - nigra, 29 - - - strobus, 24, 26 sylvestris, 24, 26 - j ' - XVI, il; i4 4 catawbiense, 74 fortunei hybrids, 74 4 keiski, 74 5 laetvirens, 7~ maximum, 75 minus, 75 mucronatum, 75 Plants killed to the ground, 38-39 Plants partially injured, 39-41 Plane tree, London, 21 Platanus acerifolia, 21, 27 - \/ - II ! - - Polyethylene plastic, 47, Poplar, Bolleana, 22 48 i - I 81 - myrtifohum, 75 obtusum amoenum, i 5 japonicum, i ~ - . 5 Rhododendron racemosum, 75 - - - 5 smirnowi,5 5 i watereri, - - - wellesleyanum, 75 - grandiflora, 10 koreana, 8, 10 malacodendron, monadelpha, 10 8 `S, 8 Ribes alpinum, 22, 26 Rosa rugosa, 30 - Stewartia ovata, 8, 10 ; Plate - IV, I1 virginiana, 22, 30 Rose, Virginia, 22 Stewartia Rooting results, preliminary experiments, hard-to-root Asiatic maples, 56 -, softwood cuttings, from mature plants of Asiatic maples, ~2-~3 - pentagyna, pseudo-camellia, Plate III 10 9; serrata, 10 30 - -, - -, young seedling Asiatic maples forced in greenhouse, 55 Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart, 60 Russian-olive, 211 St. Johnswort, California, Salix - - Stuart, John, 8 Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus, Syringa chinensis, 22, 26 - josikaea, 22, 30 laciniata, 22, 26 vulgaris, 22, 26 Tamarix pentandra, 30 - Taxus canadensis stricta, 30 - cuspidata, 24, - 26 21 1 - 'capitata,' nana, 24, R6 26 pentandra, 22, 26 - - 24, purpurea, 30 Saran cloth, 48 Schima wallichii, 6 0 Serrata sinensis, 10 - - media, 25 hatfieldi, 25, 26 hicksi, 25, 26 Tea family, 2 - Sheep-laurel,70 Spiraea bumalda, - 30 26 nipponica, 2Z, 27 Technique, Wounding, Plate XI, Temperature, minimum, 13 Ternstroem, Christopher, 10 51 prunifolia, 22, Ternstroemia, -- 10 thunbergi, 22, vanhouttei, 22, 26 veitchi, 22, 30 Spirea, bridalwreath, 22 -, Nippon, 22 -, Thunberg, 22 -, Vanhoutte, 22 - 30 - gy mnanthera, 10, 12 sylvat~ca, 10 5 Teucrium chamaedrys, 75 5 prostratum, 75 Genera of, native Theaceae, United States, Plate I, 5 - to the -, Veitch, Spruce, Colorado, blue, -, Norway, 24 22 -, 24 - oriental, 24 -, Serbian, 24 Spurge, Japanese, 73 Stewartia, 8 - Thorn, cockspur, 21 Thuja occidentalis, 25, 26 globosa, 30 'Little Gem,' 25, 26 robusta, 25, 26 - - spiralis, 25, 26 - - - - wagneriana, 25, 30 woodwardi, 25, 30 r 82 - Thuja plicata, 25, 26 Thymus serpyllum, 75 Tilia cordata, 22, 26 Tsuga canadensis, 25, 26 - - - opulus nanum, 32 prunifolium, 22, 26 Viburnum rhytidophyllum, Plate XV, 6 i ; 76 - compacta, 25, 26 caroliniana, 25, 26 - sargenti, 22, - 32 Vinca minor, 76 : - - parvifolia, 32 pumila, 32 Vaccinium vitis-idaea, majus, 75 - Ulmus 5 75 ' Vaccinium vitis-idaea minus, Plate XVI, 71 ; 7.~ dentatum, 22, - lantana, 32 6 -, leatherleaf, 76 Viburnum j 26 . - 6 'Bowles variety,' 76 Willow, laurel, 22 Wintercreeper, 66 Wintergreen, 66 Winter Injury, 19~7, 13-16; 3i-44 Yew, Hatfield, 25 -, Hicks, 25 -, Japanese, 24 --, dwarf, 24 - . 83 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23478","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eaf28.jpg","title":"1957-17","volume":17,"issue_number":null,"year":1957,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Early Spring?","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24294","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14e8928.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA t:~ A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 6 MARCH 2, 1956 AN EARLY SPRING? of us who live in New England should learn not to forecast the weather willing to be involved in all sorts of difficulties. We have just passed through a six-month period that will probably go into the records as one of the most variable in years (as well as one of the most difficult for forecasters !) Even before the disastrous hurricane that brought more rain to New England than it had ever experienced before in such a short period, the month of July was noted as within 0.3 degrees of being the hottest of all times. With 4.28 inches of rain, the precipitation was already above normal, and in August, with the tropical hurricane, the total precipitation was officially 17.09 inches, nearly 14 inches above normal. Even August was slightly hotter than normal. September was a relatively temperate month with temperatures and prec~pitation about normal although we can easily remember several hurricane alarms. The normal temperatures of October were accompanied by precipitation which was 4.15 inches above the average for this month. November was colder than usual with another 2. 19 inches of rain above the norm, while the snowfall on the l9th20th was the heaviest recorded for so early in the season since 1894. The noteworthy point here was that none of the daily maximum temperatures during November exceeded 60 F., and since 18 ithere were only three other Novembers this cold. December was the coldest December in 38 years while precipitation was 2.34 inches below normal. Another feature of this month's weather was the maximum sunshine, 73percent of the total possible. Usually, winter months are on the dark side. Because of these vagaries, if vagaries they be, plants in this area have certainly had plenty of moisture for the past six months, and went into the mnter in an excellent condition regarding growth and soil moisture. Beginning m November there wasn't any question about ~t ; wmter, and a fairly cold one, had set in. It NUMBER 1 THOSE unless we are cold for at least two full months, hence the lack of snow cover on the was not detrimental to the plants during that period. Briefly, woody plants went into the winter in good condition after plenty of late summer growth, went quicklyintoa dormant per~od,and were kept there by continued cold temperatures. Temperatures have been on the warm side for January and February. V~-eekends recently have been consistent with light rain or drizzle. Snow has appeared once or twice, but apparently the elements are only half-hearted about it, for it quickly thaws and disappears. We in New England have read of winter floods in California; unprecedented November \"freezes\" which have killed millions of dollars worth of ornamental woody plants in the Pacific Northwest; and most recently of the extreme cold weather in Europe. Mr. H. G. Hillier of Winchester, England, wrote only last week that his plants were frozen solidly in the soil, a most unprecedented occurrence in his nursery at this time of year. We know it all will end some time, but how soon? Now (February 14) snowdrops have been in bloom in front of the Administration Building in the Arboretum since February 6, and the Chinese witch-hazel normally blooming in mid-March, is in full bloom today. There have been some warm days this month, and these early flowering plants are prone to bloom as soon as the weather warms up a bit, once they have had their proper dormant stayed ground period. It should be said that as far as can be told now, there has been little winter of any kind to woody plants in the Arnold Arboretum. Although it is yet too soon to tell definitely whether rhododendrons have been burned, (or will be, for much damage can be done in March), it looks at this point as if they have not. Nor have any other evergreens displayed any serious winter burning up to this point. Winter burning, of course, is brought about when high winds or warm sunshine cause excessive transpiration from the leaves, while the roots and soil about them remain solidly frozen. Just now a visitor came in the office and reported that the flower buds of the red maples were \"swelling'' and they must really be, if he could see them from the ground. So, with these harbingers of a spring which is certainly on the way today (but may not be tomorrow !), the approximate blooming dates of some other woody plants are here given for this area, so that anyone who is interested can try his hand at forecasting an \"early\" or a \"late\" spring. damage * Note-This bit of optimistic writing was done February 14. During the next ten days we received a blizzard leaving nine inches of snow on the ground and near zero temperatures many of the nights. All of which goes to prove, you can never tell-m :Vew Enaland! Dates on which plants were noted to be in full bloom in the Arnold Arboretum * The plants thus noted for 1941 bloomed about the rest bloomed about on time. _ one week later than normal ; DONALD WYMAN REMINDER OF SPRING CLASSES This is a second reminder to those subscribers living in the Boston area, about two classes in the Arboretum's educational program starting this month. Plant Propagation (Instructor: Mr. Roger Coggeshall) Starting : Wednesday, March 14 Breeding Plant (Instructor: Dr. Karl Sax) Starting: Tuesday, March 20 particulars, write immediately to Dr. Carroll Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. For full E. ~'ood, Jr., Arnold 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Paste the Poison Ivy","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24303","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eb36f.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 APRIL 13, 1956 PASTE THE POISON IVY NUMBER 2 eradication of poison ivy is not an easy task under the most favorable conditions, but it is even more difficult when the ivy is growing among ornamental vines or ground cover plants, in hedges, or climbing up small trees and shrubs. Under these conditions the ivy cannot be sprayed with weed killers without killing the ornamental plants. For most people the destruction of poison ivy by pulling it out of the ground is a hazardous operation. I tried this method about twenty years ago. The plants were dormant; I wore leather gloves and washed my hands thoroughly with strong laundry soap after the job was done, but I was so badly infected about the face that I could hardly open my eyes for nearly a week. It is also difficult to pull out all of the roots, especially if they are interlaced with the roots of adjacent ornamental vines and shrubs, and the remaining roots will often send up new shoots. Poison ivy can be killed with the non-selective herbicides, such as ammonium sulfamate, or with ?,4-D and 2,4,5-T' which does not kill the grass. The ivy can be sprayed with any of these weed killers, but all or most of the nearby plants will also be killed. The non-selective weed killers can be painted on the stems and on larger mnes or the dry crystals can be put in frills cut in the base of the trunk, but there is still some danger of killing adjacent plants. The fumes from ?,4-D are even more hazardous to neighboring ornamental and crop plants. About five years ago my wife, who is on the grounds committee of the Friends of the Peter Bent Brigham Hospital, asked me how she could get rid of a large poison ivy vine growing on the wall of one of the buildings, which was covered with Boston ivy. The poison ivy plant could not be sprayed without killing the Boston ivy, and it was too large to be pulled out by the roots. We needed a weed killer which would be effective when applied to the stem of the vine, but one which would not injure the adjacent ornamental vines. We first tried a mixture of ~,4-D in a lanolin emulsion. The material was tested THE J for fume drift placing tomato by painting the greasy mixture on a pole stuck in the ground potted tomato plant within a foot from the pole for a day. plant was uninjured, although extremely sensitive to 2,4-D fumes. a young and The We then felt that it was safe to try the weed killer emulsion on the poison ivy hospital. The base of the stem was nearly two inches in diameter, and the bark was thick. In order to permit the weed killer to enter the stem more readily, a thin strip of bark was cut from one side of the base of the stem for a distance of about one foot. The emulsion was then brushed on the cut stem. Within several weeks the poison ivy was dead, the Boston ivy uninjured. The emulsion weed killer was later modified, using a commercial weed killer containing equal parts of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. One part of the concentrated (35,0 2,4-D; 3~010 2,4,5-T~ brush killer was mixed with nine parts of a greasy carrier. In addition to lanolin we have used waxes, heavy lubricating grease and even e vegetable fats, such as Crisco. Any carrier is satisfactory if it mixes well with the brush killer, is viscous enough to stick on the stem in hot weather, and thin enough so that it can be painted on the stem with a small brush. If the poison ivy stems are small, the emulsion can be painted directly on the bark, but if the stem is thicker than about a third of an inch, a thin strip of bark should be removed along one side of the stem, or longitudinal slits made in the bark, to permit the weed killer to enter the stem. The weed killer must enter the bark and be carried down to the roots to be effective. It can also be absorbed by the leaves, but it is a tedious job to smear the leaves with the greasy mixture. The weed killer is most effective if applied early in the summer, when the vines are growing vigorously, but it is effective at any time during the growing season. We have used this weed killer on poison ivy vines growing up young pine trees, along stone walls and among ornamental shrubs. It can also be used to kill almost any weed tree or vine. During the past summer we tried it on a heterogeneous lot of young trees, shrubs and vines which were growing in a hedge of Rosa virginiana in the Arnold Arboretum. In this rose hedge, which was nearly 400 feet long, were more than 100 seedlings of weed plants ranging in size from vine at the four to six feet tall. Among them were I apples, 21 cherries, 17 barberries, 16 6 bittersweets, was made by 15 grapes, 22 maples, 20 oaks and 6 black swallow worts. The test two of our summer helpers, Edward Dowgialo and Robert Newman of the Jamaica Plain Agricultural High School. The weed killer was applied in mid-July. By the middle of August most of the weed trees were dead, with no injury whatever to the rose bushes. A few maples had survived, but they may have been missed in the treatment. Unfortunately one of our worst weeds, the black swallow wort (Cynanchum nigra), was not killed or injured, even though the slender stem was split lengthwise and the emulsion was forced into the slits. This type of brush killer can easily be prepared, or may now be bought from dealers in horticultural supplies. If large quantities are needed it can be made more cheaply by buying the necessary ingredients and mixing them at home. PLATE II poison ivy v~ne about 8 feet tall growing on the left side of this red maple, is surrounded by a EuonymuY ground cover. On June ~l7 a thin strip of bark was cut from one side of the ivy stem for about a foot above the ground. The stem was then painted with \"Ivy Kill.\" By July ?7 the poison iBy vine was completely killed, with no injury to A either the maple tree or to the Euo~zymus ground cover. The commercial preparation is packed in a small jar, complete with a small brush and two long plastic bags to cover the hands and arms and prevent contact with the leaves and stems of the poison ivy plants. It would also be advisable to slip a transparent plastic bag over the head to protect the face. If the plastic bags are to be used again they should be washed thoroughly. CONTROL OF PEACH BORERS For the past ten years we have been testing dwarfing rootstocks for peaches Bussey Institution. By budding peaches on the Nanking Cherry (Prunus tomentosa) it is now possible to grow dwarf peach trees which will bear fruit at an early age, and at maturity will produce about 100 large peaches on a tree only six or seven feet tall. Peach trees need little care except for the control of peach tree borers. The borers enter the bark near the base of the trunk and seriously injure or kill the tree in a short time. The borers can be easily controlled by a single application of a greasy insecticide about the middle of June, before the eggs are laid. This insecticide ~s made by mixing one part of concentrated (40-50%) DDT or chlordane powder with nine parts of heavy grease. The soil is pulled away from the base of the tree to a depth of several inches and the trunk of the tree is smeared with a thin layer of the greasy insecticide up to a height of about a foot above the ground. The soil that was pulled away from the base of the tree is then replaced. Another species of peach borer attacks the upper trunk and crotches of the trees. It is not as prevalent as the common borer, but if present it can be controlled by smearing the entire trunk and the base of the branches with the greasy insecticide. The greasy carrier holds the DDT or chlordane in place and the insecticide l;ills any eggs which are laid and start to develop on the trunk of the tree. A single application will last an entire season. KARL SAX at the REMINDER OF SPRING CLASSES two This is a second reminder to those subscribers living in the Boston area, about classes in the Arboretum's educational program starting this month. Principles and Practice in Plant Identification II (Instructor: Dr. Richard Howard) Starting: Tuesday, April 24 ' Spring Field Class in Ornamental Plants (Instructor: Dr. Donald Wyman) Starting: Friday, April 27 For full particulars, write immediately to Dr. Carroll E. V'ood, Jr., Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, nlassachusetts. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Eighty Trees for the Small Place","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24299","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eab28.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 APRIL 27, I95F) EIGHTY TREES FOR THE SMALL PLACE Demonstration Plot opened at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, Massachusetts) NUMBER 3 (New of 19~1 a demonstration plot of small ornamental trees the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, about thirteen miles from Jamaica Plain. It does take time for small trees to begin to show the true habit for which they are valued, and the trees in this plot are no exception. Five years have gone by since the majority were planted, with some varieties being added each year until now there are about e~ghty different kinds of trees growing in this one plot. It is high time that home owners in this area knew of the existence of this trial demonstration. The plot is situated adjacent the Ground Covers, at the junction of Wellesley Street and Newton Street in the heart of Weston. It is open to the public at all times, and all the trees are clearly labeled. They have been planted merely in rows, the idea being that here is to be displayed a good selection of the most outstanding small ornamental trees for planting small streets or small home properties. Three fourths of them are under 3~ feet in height, and the remainder can be kept this high by pruning. All these trees are represented in the main collections of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, but in this Demonstration Plot they are all being grown together in one small, easily-accessible area, where they can be compared quickly, one with the other. The field is bordered by a woods on one side and by the high school football field on the other. No special attention is given the trees once they become adjusted to the situation, except normal correctional pruning. The following list is given for the benefit of those who would like to visit this plot and find individual trees. Rows are numbered from the road bordering the playing field, first numbers being closest to the old cow barn adjacent. It might also be mentioned at this point that there are now 150 different kinds of ground- DURING spring was planted on the 9 covering plants in the plots nearby, so a trip to the Case Estates most interesting plants might prove very worth while. to observe these Ornamental Small Trees in Demonstration Plot ~ \" Location Row -Number in Row ~Acer ginnala ~- griseum - miyabei *- mono ~- palmatum *- platanoides - erectum - columnare *- *- rubrum \"Armstrong Upright\" **- columnare saccharum monumentale truncatum - tataricum ~- Albizzia julibrissin rosea Betula pendula fastigiata Carpinus betulus fastigiata caroliniana pyramidalis - maple Paperbark maple Miyabe maple Mono maple Japanese maple Column Norway maple Erect Norway maple \"Armstrong Upright\" maple Columnar red maple Sentry maple Tatarian maple Purpleblow maple Hardy silk tree Pyramidal white birch Pyramid European hornbeam Pyramid American hornbeam Heartleaf hornbeam Amur II II II II II III III v III III III V II 1 3 11 1 e 1~ 4 5 6 6 16 8 9 4 5 15 ]3 R 14 4 *- cordata . *- japonica *Cercidiphyllum japonicum Chionanthus - Japanese hornbeam Katsura tree Chinese fringetree retusus virginicus a Cornus florida - fastigiata - rubra ~- kousa chinensis ~- mas - var. Crataegus crus-galli flava monogyna inermis stricta - Fringetree Flowering dogwood Upright flowering dogwood Red flowering dogwood Chinese dogwood Cornelian cherry Cockspur thorn ' - Yellow hawthorn Thornless hawthorn III III III 1V IV III II II II III II II IV III III v 10 0 11 1 2 3 ]2 2 10 0 9 i 7 7 6 2 10 0 0 19 9 2 3 1 - Pyramidal singleseed hawthorn Glossy hawthorn Washington hawthorn III IV II III III v IV 8 13 14 - nitida - , phaenopyrum fastigiata - Pyramidal Washington hawthorn Dotted hawthorn Russian olive Korean evodia 1 5 4 - punctata ~Elaeagnus angustifolia +Evodia danielli 10 PLATE III One of the newer crab apples, llTalus \"Dorothea,\" blooms heavily even when the tree is only a few years old. The flowers are double, a light pink color, followed by bright yellow fruits which remain on the tree all winter, making this an excellent specimen for the small home garden. Ornamental Small Trees in Demonstration Plot (Contazaued) IV V III V V IV II II IV IV I I I I I I I I I I I I I I I 1I III V 5 1 *Evodia hupehensis Franklinia alatamaha Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Gleditsia triacanthos elegantissima Halesia carolina Koelreuteria paniculata Laburnum alpinum - Hupeh evodia Franklma Sentry ginkgo Bushy honey-locust Carolina silverbell Golden-rain tree Scotch laburnum 15 j 6 12 2 17 7 14 4 1~ 9 anagyroides semperflorens *Magnolia loebneri ~- stellata rosea ~bZalus \"Almey\" ~- arnoldiana .j - \"Brilhant\" *- \"Case Seedhng\" +- \"Dorothea\" ~- floribunda hillieri +- hupehensis rosea (?) ~- \"Jay Darling\" $- \"Katherine\" ~- \"Oekonomierat Echtermeyer\" ~- \"Pink V~'eeper\" ~- prunifolia rinki *- pumila niedzwetzl:yana +- purpurea ~- - eleyi .~ Morus australis *Populus alba pyramidalis *- simoni goldenchain Lobner magnolia Pink star magnolia \"Almey'' crab apple Arnold crab apple \"Brilliant\" crab apple \"Case Seedling\" crab apple \" Dorothea\" crab apple Hillier crab apple Autumn 8 13 3 0 1~ = 11 1 4 6 1~ 10 0 3 1 2 9 4 1~ I \"Jay Darling\" \"Katherine\" crab apple crab apple crab Chinese Pearleaf crab Red-vein crab apple Purple crab apple Eley crab apple \"Pink Weeper\" apple apple fastigidta Japanese mulberry Bolleana poplar Pyramidal Simon poplar Veitch Pissard plum \"Fugenzo\" oriental cherry \"Gyoiko'' oriental cherry \" Ojochin\" oriental cherry 8 16 6 18 8 4 14 19 9 10 0 6 11 1 3 16 6 $Prunus cerasifera veitchi\" \"atropurpurea IV V IV ~r V $ Prunus \"Fugenzu\" ~- \"Gvoiko\" $- \"Ojochin\" *- sargenti -- columnaris - serrula -- Columnar Sargent cherry Sargent cherry *- \"Schubert\" *- y edoensis *Quercus robur fastigiata ~Robinia pseudoacacia bessoniana Sorbus arnoldiana - \"Schubert\" chokecherry Yoshino cherry Pyramidal English oak Besson black locust Arnold mountain-ash Upright mountain-ash Snowberr~~ mountain-ash Korean stewartia III V V V 8 4 9 aucuparia fastigiata discolor *Stewartia koreana - III V IV IV V IV 17 I 7 1~ 14 4 ll 7 11 1 12 S j3 ~ a 0 b c c 0 S S ~ ro ~ W 0 d 4) a ~a a d t O 1.1 'b b_ ~S \" ~Y ~~_.H ~ ,s a W +~ W a1 r O O f f. o~ _~ F o 'S Q ga g ~~ SS E~ I .. c Ca ~i CL a~ ~ n ' E c o O oo c. C N N t. Ornamental Small Trees in Demonstration Plot (Conti~auecl) I II IV IV IV 5 18 8 e 19 13 3 Syringa amurensis *Ulmus americana \"Augustine\" *parvifolia ~Viburnum prunifolium Amur lilac Augustine\" Chinese elm Black-haw elm ~ * Trees lower than 24 feet in height. over Trees which eventually may grow 33 feet no height by 24 proper pruning. (Those with tall, but can be kept at this marginal marks are usually between and ~5 feet tall at maturity.) Upright Habit Trees with Narrow, Acer - platanoides erecta columnare rubrum \"Armstrong Upright\" saccharum monumentale Betula pendula fastigiata Carpinus betulus fastigiata caroliniana pyramidalis Cornus florida fastigiata - - Crataegus phaenopyrum fastigiata Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Populus alba pyramidalis simoni fastigiata Quercus - Prunus sargenti columnaris robur fastigiata Sorbus aucuparia fastigiata Ulmus americana \"Augustine\" Crataegus monogyna stricta Time Small Trees with Ornamental Flowers Albizzia julibrissin rosea Chionanthus species Cornus florida vars. Cornus kousa chinensis Cornus mas Summer Early June Crataegus species t:vodia species Franklinia alatamaha Halesia carolina Koelreutena paniculata Laburnum species Mid-May Early June Early April Late May August September Mid-May Mid-June Late May Late April Magnolia species Malus sp. and vars. Prunus cerasifera \"atropurpurea veitchi'' Prunus \"Fugenzo,\" \"Gyoiko,\" and \"Ojoehin\" Prunus sargenti Prunus \"Shubert\" Prunus yedoensis Sorbus species Stewartia koreana ' May April Early May Late April Mid-May Late April Late May Early July Mid-June Late May Late Syringa amurensis Viburnum prunifolium 14 Small Trees with Ornamental Fruits Color Chionanthus species Cornus species Crataegus species F vod~a species Halesia carolina Koelreuteria paniculata Dla~nolia spec~es Dlalus species and vars. Sorbus species Viburnum prunifolium Small Trees with , Blue Red Red Red to glossy black Greenish Greenish Red Red and yellow Orange to red Red, green, blue Color Outstanding Autumn Color Acer - ginnala palmatum platanoides vars. - - rubrum vars. saccharum monumentale tataricum - pendula fastigiata Cercidiphyllum japonicum ' Betula Red Red Yellow Red Yellow to red Red Yellow Yellow to scarlet Chionanthus species Cornus florida - Bright yellow Scarlet Red Scarlet to orange Yellow Red Orange to red Deep red DONALD WYMAN kousa, mas Crataegus phaenopyrum Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Prunus sargenti Sorbus species Viburnum prun~folium CASE ESTATES - OPEN HOUSE Sunday, May 6, All interested 1956 (10 A. M. - 5 P. M.) 16) on are invited to visit the Case Estates in Weston (see map, page this day, when staff members will be present to conduct visitors about the grounds."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Arborerum Spring Planting Notes","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24295","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14e896d.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA _ A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University .~Z.41~ 4, 1956 NUMBERS 4-5 VOLUME 16 ARBORETUM SPRING PLANTING NOTES on year after year, unheralded many extremely interesting plants will eventually grow into the public's notice. Young plants are necessarily pruned very heavily when they are transplanted to the grounds here, so that frequently several years elapse before such plants eventually reach any real size and become noticeable to the horticultural-minded visitor. However, a close scrutiny of any year's planting list will show many an old variety being replaced in young form (making it possible to remove diseased or damaged specimens), and many new plants being placed that have never been in the Arboretum collections before. Some are probably new to any American planting. Brief information concerning a few of the trees and shrubs planted out this spring will be of interest m this respect. It should be pointed out that to reach planting size, these plants ha~e been growing in the nurseries of the Arnold Arboretum anywhere from one to sixteen years. Some must be tested for hardiness before they are planted in the permanent collections ; others must be checked when they flower to make certain they are named correctly. So, although they may be noted in the following pages as \"new\" to the permanent collections, they have all been growing in the Arbore- S PRING planting at the Arnold Arboretum goes and unsung, yet for several years. only part of a lengthy testing program for new plants which is going on continually, year after year. May a promising \"new\" introduction fails to meet the hardiness test and must be discarded or sent to arboretums in warmer climes. Others are not sufficiently outstanding to warrant space in the permanent collections; and far too many arrive here misnamed. Often, propagation material of new plants is practically non-existent, for it is extremely hazardous to cut such young specimens further, at least until they grow several years. This 1956 planting list is a normal one for the Arboretum, so a few statistics concerning it might be considered : tum nurseries This is 17 1956 PLANTING LIST Number of different species and varieties (all woody) 208 Number of species and varieties new to the Arnold Arboretum (never before planted here, according to the records) 49 Number of species and varieties possibly new to American 17 i plantings ................... .................... SOURCES Propagated directly from Arnold Arboretum plants ... Imported from outside the United States Propagated (or obtained as plants) from plants in American gardens, other arboretum, and nurseries ....... ....... 65 53 90 from these figures that three-fourths of the \"new\" plants have another been growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Some, like Salia~ purpurea pendula, died out years before and have only now been replaced. Others, like the CorJlus colurna, are being replaced merely as a precautionary measure. In another case (Exochorda korolkowi) the old Arboretum plant had to be removed because of space limitations and new plants had to be propagated from it as replacements. Many another plant, like the \"Sunburst\" honeylocust, is being planted on the grounds for the first time. By far the most exciting plants are the 25 percent which have never before been grown here. Some of these are the first American introductions. If they turn out to be worthy ornamental specimens, they are propagated and distributed to commercial growers, but this does take time. It is also of interest to note that 25 percent of the plants come from outside the United States. A complete listing of these plants, their sources, and the reasons why they were propagated would be too lengthy for this bulletin; so twenty-eight will be discussed briefly to show where they come from and why they were obtained. It can be seen at one time or Acer platanoides \"Fassen's Black\" This plant has been growing in our nurseries since March 1954 and is extremely difficult to differentiate from \"Crimson King,\" which was introduced into America about 1946 and has been grown by us ever since. Both are much superior to the old-fashioned Schwedler's maple, for they keep the purplish red color of the foliage through the entire summer. Mr. Herman J. Grootendorst of Boskoop, Holland, has claimed that there are minute differences between these two. \"Fassen's Black\" is supposed to have originated at Tips Nursery, Herck-de-Stad in Belgium, from a Norway maple seedling, but the origin of the seedling is in doubt. In fact, it may even have come from Orleans, France, where\"Crimson King\" originated in the nursery of Barbier & C~e, and so may have the same origin as 18 the \"Crimson King\" seedling. Mr. Fassen (a nurseryman of Tegglen, Holland) received his seedling before World War II with the right to name it, and in fact, the original plant he received is supposed to still be alive in Holland. I doubt whether there is sufficient difference between the two clones to warrent growing both, but they can be observed now in the Arboretum, for those who wish to make their own comparisons. Alnus glutinosa This species has been grown off and on in the Arboretum since 189 i , but in 1950 an effort was made to try to obtain seed from a very hardy strain. Consequently, some was obtained from Helsinki, Finland. It is yet too soon to know definitely whether this is hardier than other forms we have here now. Aralia elata variegata This aralia is noted for the broad, creamy-white variegations on the margin of the leaves. Apparently, it is an old favorite in England (from where we imported it in 19:i3) first introduced there in 1865, but it may not have been in America. Certainly, it was never before in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Berberis thunbergi \"Thornless\" This shrub (Plant Patent No. our a Missouri, in 1952. It has all the except fewer thorns. In thornless, but does produce from Stark Brothers, Louisiana, of the regular Japanese barberry, good points experience, the plant has not proved completely few weak thorns. ,a 40) was received grown by the United orchard of 400 seedlings in 1938) m its hunt for Chinese chestnut clones that are the best of this species for growing in America as substitutes for the American chestnut. Two other clones have been released, \"Kuling\" and \"Meiling,\" and we have been growing them all in our nurseries since 1950. These trees produced nuts (in Maryland) at the rate of 75 to 100 pounds per ten-year-old tree, on trees selected because of their good habit and high yield. Nuts from these trees are large and good tasting, even Castanea mollissima \"Nanking\" This is a clone selected from several hundred seedlings as an States Department of Agriculture (and planted out from five-year-old trees. Amelanchier asiatica This is a rare member of the Amelanchier genus which grew in the Arboretum from 1881 to 1946 when our plants died. We were fortunate in being able to obtain a few scions from Henry Kohankie and Son of Yainesville, Ohio, who originally obtained his stock from the Arnold Arboretum many years ago. Cornus alba sibirica A shrub commonly listed by most American nurseries, but unfortunately much mixed with other stock throughout the country, even the plants in the Arbore- 20 were untrue to name. Consequently, plants and cuttings with this name were obtained by the Arboretum in 19~0 from six different European sources. After several years' growth in the nursery, it turned out that plants from one source were true to name, havmg the bright red winter twigs that are much more colorful than those of the species or the native C. stolonifera. These plants came from the Grootendorst Nurseries of Boskoop, Holland. Since then, they have been propagated by the Arboretum and distributed to commercial growers as being the true Cornus alba sibirica, and now these are added to the permanent collections tum at Jamaica Plain. Cornus florida magnifica flowering dogwood grows naturally over a wide area of the eastern United States, and during the past years, some clones have been noticed and propagated asexually. This one, obtained from the Westbury Rose Company of Westbury, Long Island, was selected as having extra large flowering bracts. The Cornus mas aurea The cornelian cherry is a common landscape plant in America, offered by most of the large nurserymen. It grows well and vigorously and is susceptible to few pests. This variety with yellow leaves does not grow as well as the species, and probably will not make as desirable a landscape plant. In 1950, it was obtained from Hillier and Sons of Winchester, England, the first time it has ever been in the collections of the Arboretum, and this may be the first importation into America. Corylus colurna The Turkish filbert is one of the best tree filberts for ornamental planting, with a good habit and good foliage, apparently doing well in dry soils and perfectly hardy in the Boston area. It may grow as high as 75feet with the male catkin~ being of interest in the very early spring. The tree of this species growing in the Arboretum smce 1907showed signs of failing a few years ago when a large limb was broken off by a storm and disease took hold in the trunk. Grafts were taken from it in 1951, but since that time the original tree has apparently recovered. This young one has been planted to make doubly certain that such an excellent plant will be retained in the collections. Cytisus scoparius (hardy form) Commonly seen naturalized on Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard, and throughout Virginia, the Scotch broom has not proved completely hardy in the Arnold Arboretum where severe winters have killed it to the ground and sometimes killed it completely. This clone, supposedly much hardier, is planted out for trial. It was obtained from the mountainous area of central Germany by Heinrich Rohrback of the Heatherfells Nursery, Andover, Massachusetts, when he made a trip to 11 PLATE VII Corylus colurna-the Turkish filbert, makes a fine pyramidal shade tree, doing well in dry situations where maples sometimes drop their leaves because of lack of water. Germany a few that time in our years prior to ]9.50. Certainly, it has withstood the winters since nurseries, in fine condition. Euonymus The europaea \"Red Cascade\" European spindle tree does vary when grown from seed. This clone was recently selected from a lot of seedlings grown m the George Jackman and Son Nursery of Woking, England, because of the very bright red and profuse fruits. We obtained cuttings in 19.5?, but the plants have not yet fruited. They are too large to grow any longer in the nursery, so they are being planted in the Euonymus collection. We are relying on the experience of the men in this fine, old, English nursery, in making this selection as being worthwhile. Exochorda korolkowi A few years ago (1952) it became necessary to remove a very fine old plant of this species from the shrub collection because it was too large for the space allotted to it. In fact, it was too large to be moved with the equipment we had at the time; consequently, seed was collected, sown, and when the plants were definitely showing signs of strong continued growth, the old plant was removed. Three young and vigorous seedlings now are being planted to take its place at another spot in the Arboretum where they will have plenty of space in which to grow. Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata-\"Marshall's Seedless Green Ash\" The green ash is a vigorous, fast-growing tree, often considered a weed in gardens because of the fact that the seed is promiscuously blown everywhere; and even small seedlmgs are so deep-rooted that they are hard to pull out. This clone is welcomed merely to point out the fact that Dlr. Vernon Marshall of the Marshall Nurseries, Arlington, Nebraska, is one nurseryman who has recognized the fact that asexual propagation of the staminate tree is an excellent means of circumventing this promiscuous seed-sowing habit. Gleditsia triacanthos inermis \"Sunburst\" In 1934, in a we obtained this interesting plant which has since been patented was (no. 1813) by the Cole Nursery Company of E'ainesville, Ohio, where it found seedling block in 19 t~ i . It has all the good points of any thornless honeylocust and being a male plant it does not produce the objectionable long pods. Most important, of course, is the fact that the leaves on the outer 8 to 10 inches of the branches are yellow and hold this color throughout most of the growing season. An excellent addition to the list of trees for city use. Liriodendron chinense This tree will probably not prove hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. It was first tried in 1908, grown from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in V~'est Hupeh Prov- 23 ince, China. These plants had all died by 1919. Again it was tried from Chinese seed in 1933, and these plants all died by 1941. Another lot of seed from H. H. Chung collected in Hupeh Province, had died by 1946, and a final lot of plants (seed from Lushan Botanic Garden in 1947~ did very poorly and died by 1952. The plants set out this year were grown from seed from the Lushan Botanic Garden in 19~1. The plants grow vigorously during the summer in the nursery, but are not sufficiently hardy to withstand our winters. Seeds of this last seed lot have been sent to several institutions further south where the tree should prove more hardy than it does in Boston. Liriodendron tulipfera contorta There are few varieties of the native American tulip-tree. Years ago a correspondent in Ireland wrote of a contorted-leafed tulip poplar growing on an estate a few scions to the Slieve Donard Nursery of Newcastle, County Down, Ireland, for grafting. The Arboretum received the plants in 1949, but only one survived so they had to be repropagated here in 1951. Now a nice plant about five feet tall is being set out this spring, varying from the species by having leaves that are slightly wavy in general outline. This may be the same as a variety grown here from 189~ to 1912 from the B~ltrnore estate in Ashemlle, North Carolina, termed var. cri.spa, but no description of the foliage appeared on the record of this particular plant. there and sent Malus \"Red River\" at the Arboretum are over 200 species and the varieties available in North America. One varieties, try which we did not have until 1950 was this variety, \"Red River,\" a cross made by Dr. A. F. Yeager (when he was at the South Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station) before 1938 between \"Dolgo\" and the \"Delicious\" apple. The fruit of \"Red River\" is edible, a bright red, about two inches in diameter. Scions we obtained from Mr. A. F. Den Boer of Des Moines, Iowa, from the excellent collection of which he has charge. In the collection of crab since we apples to grow all Picea tonaiensis A new species, with small plants looking somewhat similar to Picea purpurea. We obtained the seed in 1940 from Takenoshi N. Nakai, a Japanese botanist, who collected it from the very tree in North Korea he used in describing the species. It has grown this long in the nurseries merely because we wished to be certain it was of value for transplanting to the permanent collections. This is undoubtedly its first importation into America. Prunus japonica have had from time to time in the past, but invariably the short-lived. In 195 1, two plants were received from the ManPlant Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. Mr. F. L. Skinner, we This species plants itoba appear to be Hardy are the proprietor, has sent us many an interesting shrub in the past, and hardy with him, certainly should be hardy here. - plants that ,. Pyracantha \"Kazan\" Pyrncantlra coccinea lalnndi used to be reputedly the hardiest form of Pyracanlha for growing in the North, and has proved hardy through all but the most severe of Boston's winters. \" Kazan, \" we obtained from Mr. S. G. A. Doorenbos, Director of Parks, The Hague, Holland, in 1951. It is supposed to be more hardy than other forms of P. coccinea and is being widely offered in European nurseries. Plants of \"Kazan\" have not been seriously injured in our nurseries during the five years we have been growing them, but it must be admitted, that of nearly a hundred seedlings of P. coccinea lalandi, there were nearly twenty that did not suffer any winter injury when grown under the same conditions. So, this variety is still on trial for hardiness. Others in North America have reported that in southern Canada it is the most hardy of the forms tried there, and one nurseryman in central Ohio has been selling it several years now as one of the best. Rhamnus japonica Japanese Rhamnus (direct from its native habitat) died in the Arboreshortly after 1923. In an attempt to obtain the true plant once again, seeds were imported from the Botanical Institute of Forest Science, University of 'I'okyo, Japan, in 1952. Healthy specimens are being planted this spring, grown from this seed, to once more represent this species direct from its native habitat. The last tum Robinia \"hillieri\" A cross between R. kelseyi and R. pseudoacacia, raised in the nurseries of Hillier and Sons, Winchester, England, this is a small tree with lilac-pink flowers. Robinia \"slnvini\" raised in the Parks of Rochester, New York, has the same parentage. We obtained two grafted plants from Hillier in 1953, probably the first importation into America. Rosa moyesi \"Geranium\" crimson flowers. The moyesi which is more bushy than the species and has bottle-shaped red fruits are somewhat similar, but brighter this clone is supposed to make a better landscape plant than the species. We obtained it from George Jackman and Son of Woking, England, early in 1952. Because of special United States Department of Agriculture Plant Quarantine restrictions, this had to be grown in a \"post-quarantine nursery,\" or a few rows of nursery set aside only for growing restricted imported nursery stock, so that Government inspectors could periodically study it fora two-year period. During this time, it cannot be moved or repropagated, but if reported free of all disease and insect pests, then it can be released after the two-year period. Many another A selected form of Rosa plant has been grown in the Arboretum nurseries under such restrictions, one of 26 the reasons why it takes the collections. Salix purpurea so long to obtain suitable specimens of some things for pendula branched form of the purple willow used to grow in the Arboprior 1910, but died and was not replaced until it was located growing in 4Z'atson's Nurseries, Ltd., of Dublin, Ireland, in 1952. In Europe, this is grafted high on standards, making a mass of pendulous branches from one trunk, but such plants are finding less and less favor in American gardens. It is not a very outstanding plant, possibly one of the reasons why it was overlooked for so many years; nevertheless, with modern transportation methods what they are today, it was a simple matter to have a few hardwood cuttings sent over by air. In fact, the most difficult problems now are not the transportation or the wrapping of plant materials for shipment, but the precise steps that must be taken in plant inspection both in Europe before the plants are shipped, and in inspection and fumigation in the United States after the plants are received. The pendulous to retum Staphylea holocarpa rosea In 1908, there was one plant of this variety in the Arboretum grown from seed collected by E. H. Wilson in China, which later died during or slightly after the very cold winter of 1918. When a rare plant is killed suddenly, it often becomes extremely difficult to replace, as is the case with this plant. The Arboretum had sent propagating material to Hillier's Nursery in England while the plant was alive, and it was from this source that we obtained another plant in 1951, and so returned to the Arboretum a variety that had been missing since 1910. This history value. is more since bladdernuts in interesting than are the ornamental characteristics of the plant, general are vigorous growing shrubs with little ornamental Variety\" Viburnum opulus \"Notcutt's first obtained in 1988 from the R. C. :~lotcutt, Ltd. Nurseries of Woodbridge, Suffolk, England It is a vigorous growing P. opulus, and has performed well here asa young plant. It was to make a larger planting of this good variety that it was propagated. was This Viburnum tomentosum \"Lanarth\" Three plants of this variety were obtained from George Jackman and Son Nurseries, Woking, England, in 19~~. The variety is supposed to be similar, but somewhat more narrow in habit than the variety mariesi which has proved one of the best of the viburnums here in the Arnold Arboretum. The new plants are still too young to determine whether or not they have superior ornamental qualities to mariesi. Consequently, both will be grown in the main viburnum collection for further study. DONALD WYMAN 27 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lilac Sunday - Open House","article_sequence":5,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24301","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eaf26.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Lilac Sunday - Open House Sunday, May 20 should see the lilac collection at peak bloom and on this Lilac Sunday the Arboretum staff will also hold \"Open House.\" Staff members will be on the grounds from 10:00 A.M. to 5:00 P. M. to answer questions regarding the plants of the lilac collection and the collections of shrubs, vines, dwarf fruit trees and hedges, as well as the Larz Anderson collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees. In addition, various items of mechanical equipment used to care for the grounds will be demonstrated. These will include a brush chipper, Blitzer mowers, sprayers and planters. During the Open House the meadow road from the Forest Hills to the Arborway Gates and beyond the lilacs will be closed to automobile traffic. Parking will be permitted from the Conifer collection to the Viburnum collection near Bussey Hill. The Bussey Street, South Street and Centre Street gates will be open. Parking will also be permitted on the paved areas of the Bussey Institution on South Street. Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850 The Director of the Arnold Arboretum is pleased to announce the publication of a new book by Mrs. Susan Delano McKelvey, research associate of the Arnold Arboretum and long a member of the Committee to visit the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. McKelvey's earlier writings on Lilacs, Yuccas and the history of the Arboretum are familiar to readers of Arnoldia. Her latest book represents the culmination of long and meticulous research in checking the routes and the collections of botanists who assisted in \"opening the V~est.'' The names of Lewis and Clark, Nuttall, Douglas, Coulter, Leavenworth, Audubon and Fremont are a few of the more important collectors considered, although some are remembered more in history for companion accomplishments. Excellent maps by Dr. Erwin Raisz translate historical fact in graphic clarity. Footnotes are frequent and offer many anecdotes of charm and poignancy. Mrs. McKelvey has made a real contribution to the available knowledge of the western United States. \"Botanical Exploration\" is a large book, in large octavo size and is nearly 1 ~?00 pages long with 9 text maps and two in a pocket. The price is $25.00. Orders may be addressed to the Librarian, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. ) c~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850","article_sequence":6,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24296","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15ea326.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Lilac Sunday - Open House Sunday, May 20 should see the lilac collection at peak bloom and on this Lilac Sunday the Arboretum staff will also hold \"Open House.\" Staff members will be on the grounds from 10:00 A.M. to 5:00 P. M. to answer questions regarding the plants of the lilac collection and the collections of shrubs, vines, dwarf fruit trees and hedges, as well as the Larz Anderson collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees. In addition, various items of mechanical equipment used to care for the grounds will be demonstrated. These will include a brush chipper, Blitzer mowers, sprayers and planters. During the Open House the meadow road from the Forest Hills to the Arborway Gates and beyond the lilacs will be closed to automobile traffic. Parking will be permitted from the Conifer collection to the Viburnum collection near Bussey Hill. The Bussey Street, South Street and Centre Street gates will be open. Parking will also be permitted on the paved areas of the Bussey Institution on South Street. Botanical Exploration of the Trans-Mississippi West, 1790-1850 The Director of the Arnold Arboretum is pleased to announce the publication of a new book by Mrs. Susan Delano McKelvey, research associate of the Arnold Arboretum and long a member of the Committee to visit the Arnold Arboretum. Mrs. McKelvey's earlier writings on Lilacs, Yuccas and the history of the Arboretum are familiar to readers of Arnoldia. Her latest book represents the culmination of long and meticulous research in checking the routes and the collections of botanists who assisted in \"opening the V~est.'' The names of Lewis and Clark, Nuttall, Douglas, Coulter, Leavenworth, Audubon and Fremont are a few of the more important collectors considered, although some are remembered more in history for companion accomplishments. Excellent maps by Dr. Erwin Raisz translate historical fact in graphic clarity. Footnotes are frequent and offer many anecdotes of charm and poignancy. Mrs. McKelvey has made a real contribution to the available knowledge of the western United States. \"Botanical Exploration\" is a large book, in large octavo size and is nearly 1 ~?00 pages long with 9 text maps and two in a pocket. The price is $25.00. Orders may be addressed to the Librarian, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. ) c~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Crab Apples for Ornamental Fruits","article_sequence":7,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24298","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15ea76f.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 SEPTEMBER 14, 1956 CRAB APPLES FOR ORNAMENTAL FRUITS oriental crab apples are certainly among the best of the small trees for small gardens, and even when large numbers are massed in park plantings and on large estates, they make excellent ornamental trees, both m the spring and in the fall when they fruit. The native crab apples, on the other hand, although they may be beautiful in flower, do not have colorful fruits, most of them having merely green fruits that are of no ornamental value. So, it is the oriental types and their many hybrid varieties that we must look to for br~ght fall color. New varieties are appearing almost every year, for these trees are easily grown from seeds and may fruit within five years' time. The experienced plantsman knows, however, that such seedlings rarely have the beauty and the outstanding ornamental characters of some of the currently-named clones. In fact, a new seedling is up against pretty stiff competition to produce flowers and fruits that surpass some of the currently-named modern varieties, since there are approximately 1~?~ species and varieties being offered for sale by American nurserymen, and an additional 13.i being grown in the arboretums and botanical gardens throughout the United States and Canada. A new element is now being looked for in recent crab-apple seedlings, namely, their ability to bear flowers and fruits annually instead of every other year. There are some excellent varieties which are dependable in this respect, so that any new ones introduced from now on, should have this most desirable quality. Among the best of the crab apples for ornamental fruits (of those with this annualbearing quality) are \"Arrow,\" Malus baccatca and several of its varieties, dnwsoniana, \"Dorothea,\" ,floribunda, \"blakamik,\" purpurea aldenhamensis, purpurea lemoinei, and ,siebolrli. \"Ormiston Roy\" and \"Red Jade\" also appear to have this desirable trait, but neither has been tried for a sufficient number ofears to prove this without a doubt. Certainly, some that alternate in one area have been known to be annual bearers in another area, so that soil and climate may well have a bearing on this quality, too. NUMBER 6 THE -M- ~!) DATES BETWEEN WHICH FRUITS ARE COLORFUL Most of these dates have been recorded for the plants as they grow in the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., these dates will naturally vary from year to year, and vary in different locations, but the chart can be used as an indication of how some varieties may hold their fruits longer than others. A few additional dates have been supplied by originators of new varieties. plantsman professes to be little interested in this annual bearing characteristic, especially if he likes the form of the tree or the color and size of its flowers. However, since there are so many varieties being grown today, I feel certain that new introductions must have this annual-bearing habit to merit attention today, in this highly competitive field. The crab apple varieties on the enclosed table are listed according to the length of time their fruits remain colorful. This may easily vary from year to year, depending on whether the season is \"early\" or \"Iate.\" The same is true of the blooming times of the flowers. The length of time they remain effectively colored on the tree may vary somewhat also, depending on the kind of weather during that period. Consequently, the records should be taken merely as an indication of what can be expected in a normal season. It has been pro~ed time and time again that varieties like \"Bob White\" and M. xu~ni calocarpa will retain their fruit much longer than most of the other varieties. This table was originally prepared for and published in \"Crab Apples for America,\" published by the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums in September 1955. Dlany a DONALD W YMAN A REMINDER OF FALL CLASSES AT THE ARBORETUM Four classes will be offered this fall in the continuing educational program at the Arnold Arboretum. All classes are informal and are open to anyone interested in plants and gardening. Full particulars may be obtained by writing to Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. Botany in Boston (Instructor: Dr. Richard A. Howard) Starting Wednesday, October 17 Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants (Instructor: . Dr. Donald Wyman) Starting Propagation I Friday, September 28 ' Plant (Instructor: Mr. Roger Coggeshall) Starting Wednesday, October 3 Principles and Practice in Plant Identification I (Instructor: Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr.) Starting Tuesday, October 2 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New and Rare Ornamental Woody Plants Recently Distributed by the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":33,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24302","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eaf6b.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 OCTOBER 12, I9~6 NUMBERS 7-9 NEW AND RARE ORNAMENTAL WOODY PLANTS RECENTLY DISTRIBUTED BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of the functions of the Arnold Arboretum always has been to distribute or rare ornamentals of high quality to the commercial propagators and so make them available to the plant-buying public. Many gardeners in the northern United States may not have had the opportunity to realize that the Arnold Arboretum has been doing this since it was established in 18 i 2. Propagating material of plants not available in the trade in the form of seeds, cuttings, scions and budwood is frequently given commercial nurserymen who request specific items. Fifteen years ago a special program for the distribution of new or rare plants was started, and over a hundred species and varieties of new or rare ornamental woody plants have been distributed to commercial sources as a result. It is always easy to lose sight of the fact that new plants are being made available ' to commercial sources (especially when no extensive advertising accompanies the program !). In 19L1 a general program of propagation was started at the Arnold Arboretum in which particular new or rare ornamental woody plants were specifically grown for the nurseryman. Our experience had shown (see ARNOLDIA, Series 4, Vol. VIII, No. 3, May 1940) that seeds, buds, cuttings and scions when given to nurserymen frequently \"failed\" for several reasons. As a result, rare specimens in the Arboretum were being heavily cut in order to provide commercial growers with propagating material. Too often young plants propagated by nurserymen from such material, easily obtained, were quickly sold or forgotten, and requests were repeatedly made to the Arnold Arboretum for more propagating material. As a result of years of experience, it was decided to actually grow plants here in the Arboretum, and to offer these to the commercial growers under the agreement with the Arboretum that such plants could neither be sold nor patented, but could be used for propagating purposes by the nursereyman receiving them. ONE new 33 These plants are sent only to those nurserymen requesting them specifically, since it is reasonable to expect that all commercial propagators are not interested in all types of woody plant materials. either new or rare in American The plants listed in this issue of Arnoldia are those distributed under this program for 1949-19~~, inclusive. Those distributed for the years 1941-1948 are listed in Arnoldia 8: 9-12, Dec. 3, 1948. Fourteen of those here described have been introduced by the Arnold Arboretum for the first time anywhere, and an additional eight of them have been introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum for the first time. They have been sent to one or more commercial propagators as plants and the recipient nurserymen are noted in the following pages. Gardeners who are interested in obtaining any of the following plants should write the nurserymen receiving them. Plants sent out in 1954 and 1955 would not yet be available from the nurserymen since there has not been sufficient time for such plants to have been propagated'and grown for sale. The following list of plants and the probable sources from which they may be purchased, will serve as a finding list, we hope, for those adventurous gardeners who may wish to acquire some of this material. are The plants noted in this issue of Arnoldia gardens and are certainly worthy of greater use. Plants sent to ' ' with notes cooperating nurserymen accompanying them * first introduced ** first introduced in the United States into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum. Arboretum. who have re- anywhere by the Arnold numbers refer to \"List of Cooperating Nurserymen\" ceived the plant for propagating purposes. (page 50), rubrum schlesingeri .i0~~-In the Arnold Arboretum since 1888 Distributed: 19.i 1 - 1 , 6, I, 8, 9, 10, 13, 14, 15, 17, 19, 21, ~?2, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, 3~, 36, 39, 41, 42 The original grafts were obtained from a tree on the property of n9r. B. Schlesinger of Brookline, b9ass. The tree is identical with the common red maple except that the foliage turns color in the fall anywhere from two to four weeks before the color changes in the foliage of the species. At one time we thought this characteristic might be due to soil conditions or the location where the tree was growing, consequently, scions from this variety were grafted on seedling red maples, but both the scion and the understock were allowed to grow. In the fall, it was clearly evident that the variety schlesingeri would produce autumn color several weeks before the seedling understock on which it was growing, regardless of where it was planted. **Acer 34 PLATE IX large-growing Oriental hornbeams that may have merit as dense shade trees, although they are often difficult to transplant. (Above) G'arpinvs japonica. (Below) Carpinus cordata. Two **Acer In the Arnold Arboretum since 1923 triflorum 24' Distributed: 19~3- 9, 13, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 36, 41, 42 This small maple is a native of Korea and Manchuria. Closely related to A. uikoense it may be an ad,lition to that group of shade trees for the small place. truncatum ~?4~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 1 Distributed : 19:i3-9, 13, 19, 20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 27, 28, 31, 34, 35, 86,41 First introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1905 from northern China, this is another small tree which has proved fairly hardy ever since. Another small and interesting shade tree of possible merit where it will prove suitable. *Acer **Albizzia julibrissin 36' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1918 8 rosea Redistributed: 19~0-2, 3, 6, 10, li, 18, 19, 22, 25, 26, 28, 3`1, 33, 34, 35, 38, 39, 42, This 45 form of the silk tree has been distributed by the Arnold Aiboretum on many occasions since it was first introduced by E. H. Wilson from Korea in 1918. It is unfortunate that extremely few nurserymen in the northern part of the country are offering it, for it is a truly beautiful tree, with wide spreading branches, very delicate foliage, and pale pink flowers appearing a greater part of the summer. Grown extensively throughout the South, those plants are not hardy in the North, but this is, even as far north as Boston. It ~s one of the idosyncracies of growing this plant, that it must be well protected from bitter winter cold the first few winters, when it is prone to die back somewhat, but, once established, it will grow vigorously in good soil, often increasing 6'-8' a year. hardy In the Arnold Arboretum since 1886 Carpinus cordata 45' Distributed: 19.i0- 1 i , 19, 20, 21, 22, 25, 26, 32, 34, 39, 42 1952-4, 7, 15, 19, 20, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 84, 39, 41, 42 1953-9, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 28, 31, 34, 3~, 36, 41, 42 In the past few years the Arboretum has distributed four of the Carpinus clan, merely because these are small trees and may have merit on the small property or along streets in some areas. This species is a native of western China, with handsome foliage. 45' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1892 41 **Carpinus japonica Distributed : 19:i2-(seeds only) 4, 9, 19, 20, 21, 25, 32, 34, 39, 41 19~3-1, 9, 10, 18, 20, 21, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39, A native of Japan this is another small tree and seems to be the only one of the four here mentioned available commercially in the United States at this time. 36 .- '\" '\"' ;:; ~ o .~ :b'r'~`~o og s ~a ~ 0 ~ ro ''s s G~ 5c ., O G1, ~a 5 W ~ r L Y L .... L ;;..~ >. e .~ CC In the Arnold Arboretum since 1885 Carpinus orientalis 15~ Distributed: 1953-1, 9, 10, 15, 19, ~0, 21. 25, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 36, 3 i , 39, 41, 42 Often only a shrub or a very small tree, this is a native of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. Because of its very small size and the fact that all Carpinus species are difficult to transplant, this species may not piove as popular as some of the taller growmg hornbeams. **Carpinus turczaninovi 15' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 41 Distributed : 1953 - 1, 9, 10, 18, 19, l0, l 1, 15, 26, 18, 31, ;ll, 34, 35, 36, 37, 39, 41, The last of the four Carpinus here mentioned, this was first introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum from western China and Korea. Although these Carpinus species do make small, compact trees, it is doubtful if they will prove popular with nurserymen for they are notably slow in growth and are difficult to transplant. Such traits make saleable trees expensive and hence not too popular with the buying public. Ceanothus pallidus roseus 2' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1889 Distributed: 1950-38 This interesting hybrid has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for many years. Growing only about 2' tall, the pink Howers are interesting when they appear in late June, but the red fruit capsules which remam colorful for many weeks, are its chief point of interest. Like most of the other Ceanothus species, it will do well m dry soils. 110~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1903 libani (hardy strain) Redistributed : 1951 -(seed only) 21, 32 The Cedar of Lebanon had been tried in the North many times prior to the turn of the century, but as a result of many attempts in the New England area, it failed to prove hardy over winter. In 1903, Professor Sargent, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, sent a special expedition to the uppermost parts of the Taurus Mountains where this tree was native in Asia blinor, believing that seed collected from trees growing normally in the coldest areas of their habitat, might prove hardier in America. Seeds collected on that expedition were sent to the Arnold Arboretum, and resulted in sturdy trees that have proved hardy under New England conditions ever since. This species has been of ornamental value in those northern gardens where the other two members of the genus (C. atlantica and C. deodara) will not live over winter. Cornus alba sibirica **Cedrus 9' Brought in from Europe plant 38 in 1950 to re-establish true 5 Distributed: 1955-1, 6, 10, 12, 19, ~'3, 24, 25, ~6, 2i, 31, 34, 38, 45 PLATE XI The large white flowers of the new ~l7agnolia loebneri \"~Vlerrill.\" (Below) The flower buds of I;vodia danielli appear in late summer and are followed by red fruit capsules which open up, disclosing shiny black seeds. ( above) \" This is an old, popular favorite, but a few years ago Dr. John V~'ister, Directhe Arthur Hoyt Scott Arboretum at Swarthmore College, pointed out the fact that plants of this name were badly mixed in the American trade. The Arnold Arboretum checked this and found the same thing to be true. Hence, several plants were imported from various sources in Europe, tested in the nurseries of the Arboretum for a few years, and finally this clone was selected as being the true plant, with vividly red stems in the winter, especially when they are heavily pruned every few years. This clone was offered to the commercial growers only if they wanted it, i.e., as a means of introducing the true plant back into the American trade. tor of florida fastigiata 40' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1910 0 Distributed: 19~4-!, 15, 16, 17, 20, ~?4, 25, 26, 30, 31, 3~, 39, 40, 41, 44 There are few forms of the flowering dogwood with growth habits different from that of the species, the weeping dogwood (Cornus,florida pendula) being one commercially available. The fastigiate form has been growing in the Arboretum for almost half a century. There are undoubtedly other fastigiate forms to be found throughout the country, but this one was determined as interesting enough to be propagated and distributed primarily for its form. 4 In the Arnold Arboretum since 1914 Crataegus monogyna inermis 20~ Distributed: 195.5-9, 12, 18, 19, 20, 23, 24, ~?5, 16, 27, 33, 34 This variety was first described as originating in Europe in the 1890's. Although it has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for forty years, apparently no *Cornus available in this country where it can be bought. Very slow in growth, 12~ tall and practically thornless. Their outstanding ornamental characteristic is the fact that the branches form a densely rounded head, adaptable as a small street tree in locations where a hawthorn will prove acceptable. The flowers are single and white, the fruits are ~~~ long, elongated and dark red. It is easily propagated by budding and grafting. Probably this variety was also introduced into America first by the Arnold Arboretum. sources are our f.0-year-old plants are only In the Arnold Arboretum since 1924 praecox 6' Redisdributed: 19~0-38 Repeatedly sent out by the Arnold Arboretum since 1940, when it was only offered by two or three nurseries in the United States. It is indeed a satisfaction to find this excellent ornamental becoming more easily available to the gardening public. It is being offered by well over a dozen nurseries now, valued for its lemon yellow pea like flowers, dense green stems all winter long, and its ability to grow in very poor dry soils. Usually the Arboretum does not actively propagate plants for distribution when they are offered by more than three or four nurseries, but in this case, additional plants were available at this time. Cytisus 40 In the Arnold Arboretum since 1945 Distributed: 1954-8, 9, 17, 20, 24, 25, 26, 34, 39, 40, 43, 44 This is a smaller edition of C. praecox, our ten-year-old plant, being 3~ tall and about 4~ across. The flowers are slightly darker yellow. Like all Cytisus, it is very easy to propagate from cuttings, and older plants are difficult to move. The plantsman would do best by buying potted plants and placing them immediately in their permanent spot in the garden. Like the V~'arminster broom, the stems are green all winter and give it an effect akin to an evergreen. praecox luteus *Cytisus 4~ alata clone 8~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 Distributed: 19.i4 - i , 17, 18, 20, 24, 25, 26, 29, 31, 34, 39, 4 I , 45 This plant has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 when it was first introduced by the Arboretum as a seed from Korea. It is now 8~ tall and 1 i~ across. Its only value rests in the fact that it is a low but very wide spreading form of E. alatus, with all the other attributes of the species. *Euonymus danielli 25~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 Distributed: 1952-4, 6, 7, 9, 10, 13, 15, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 34, 35, 1 39, 41 This tree is the smaller of the two species, growing about 25r tall and being fairly weak wooded. However, the flowers are borne in large clusters the last part of the summer, being somewhat like those of a large and loose Viburnum cluster and these are followed by red fruit capsules which eventually split open and disclose shiny black seeds. For late flower and early fall fruit color, these species may have merit, as well as for the fact that they are vigorous, growing rapidly from seed, and the flowers are most attractive to bees. **Evodia In the Arnold Arboretum since 1908 Distributed: 1952-4, 7, 9, 10, 15, 19, 24, 25, ~34, 39, 41 This has become listed by at least three nurseries during the past few years, but, because it was first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum it also was distributed for further trial. It grows to approximately 60~ in height, and has the same merits and weaknesses of E. danielli. *Evodia hupehensis 60r **Forsythia \"Farrand\" The artificial 8r Originated in the Arnold Arboretum 1939 Distributed: 1952-6, I, 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 2I, 28, 32, 39, 41, 42 doubling of chromosomes has been a promising technique in producing new varietes of forsythia. In 1939, Dr. Karl Sax and his students, treated F. intermedia s~rectabilis with colchicine and produced a tetraploid plant. This was pollinated with pollen from nearby species, including F. onaia, and gave rise to several dozen triploids. Several of these had exceptionally large flowers-up to 41 2~rr in diameter-and flowered freely. One was selected for propagation and named \"Farrand\" by Dr. Sax. The flowers are not quite as dark yellow as those of H'. intermedia spectrrbilis, but they are slightly larger, a full `?r~ across. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1889 buckleyi lOrr Distributed :1950-38 This native ground cover of the southeastern United States, was first valued as an ornamental by Professor Sargent who gives credit to the Arnold Arboretum for first uitroducing ~t into cultivation. It is a low deciduous shrub, not over lOr' tall. A single plant will quickly grow into a round mass of foliage with procumbent stems along the ground, several feet long. The bright yellow flowers appear in mid-June and are an inch in diameter, and although the procumbent stems do not root very much as they lay on the ground, nevertheless they do cover the soil most effectively. **Hypericum *Ilex yunnanensis 12r 1 In the Arnold Arboretum since 1901 Distributed: 1932-2, 4, i , 14, 15, 20, 21, 22, 24, 32, 33, 35, 36, 39, 41 The Yunnan holly is another of the Arboretum's introductions, and is just now being listed by one or two nurserymen, although it has been growing here since 1901. This is the evergreen holly with small, box-like leaves and bright red fruits in the fall. Its neat, pyramidal habit, and its ability to produce fruits even when grown in the greenhouse as a pot plant, may enhance its popularity when more people become acquainted with it. Juglans nigra laciniata 150r Distributed: 1954-24, 39, on In the Arnold Arboretum since 1941 1 40 Apparently not listed by Rehder, Gray or Bailey in their monumental works woody plants, this variety was first spotted as a seedling in the Dlilton State Nurseries, Milton, Pa., in 1926. Few people plant the black walnut now as an ornamental, but this is just one of many obscure examples, of where a rare seedling has almost been wiped out by lack of interest and has been saved by one or two plantsmen for posterity. The finely cut leaves make this variety much more desirable as an ornamental than the species. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1892 42 *Kalopanax pictus 90r Redistributed : 19~ 1--(seeds only) 9, 25, 32, 1952-2, 4, 6, 15, 19, 20, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 36, 39, 41, 42 Still only listed by one nursery (as far as can be determined) this fine tree first introduced into America by the Arboretum in 1892, has been distnbuted many times, this last in the form of generous quantities of seed. The seed takes two years to germinate, one of the reasons why many a plant grower becomes overly impatient and passes it up. It is a tree of tropical appearance, with 5-lobed \" 41 PLATE XII The hybrid mock-orange \"Bouquet Blanc\" has flowers distributed uniformly over the entire plant. (Below) Philadelphus splendens is one of the few mock-oranges which can be used as a specimen with branches sweeping the ground. (Above) are leaves sometimes 14~~ across. Thorns are present on young plants, and the flowers akin to those of aralias. This plant can also be propagated by root cuttings. 100~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1883 Distributed: 1934-20, 24, 26, 28, 39, 41, 45 This is the pendulous form of the European larch, making a very beautiful specimen, but of course, susceptible to the common larch pests. Larix decidua pendula Ligustrum vicaryi 12~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1936 Distributed: 19~0-1, 2, 3, 6, 14, 16, 1 i , 21, 22, 25, 26, 2 i , 28, 33, 36, 37, 39, 42, 45 This excellent plant, a hybrid of L. oval~'olium aureum and L. vulgare, probably originated in the garden of Vicary Gibbs of Aldenham, England. It is of particular merit because of its golden yellow foliage throughout the entire growing season, especially when it is grown in the full sun. For this it is superior to some privets with variegated leaf margins which may become unsightly at certain times of year. The leaves of this plant remain on until well into November, and retain their yellow color, providing they are grown in full sun. In shade or partial shade, they tend to take on a much more green color. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1949 Lonicera amoena alba 9' Distributed: 1954-i, 18, 20, 25, 26, 34, 39, 40, 41 The species is a hybrid of L. tatarica and L. korolkowi with small grayish green leaves, and a dense mounded form. This variety has white flowers and red fruits, being valued chiefly for its densely mounded form which shows off much better than the stiffly upright form of L. tatarica. It was probably introduced into America by the nlorton Arboretum of Lisle, Illinois, prior to 1949, but apparently no commercial nurseries are listing it in their catalogues at the present time. 3 japonica aureo-reticulata Vine In the Arnold Arboretum since 1883 Distributed : 19~0-38 This variety of the Japanese honeysuckle has leaves that are veined or netted with yellow, thus making it a rather conspicuous landscape specimen, but it is a shy bloomer and does not grow nearly as fast as the species. The Chinese name for this plant means \"Gold and Silver flower,\" singularly appropriate. Lonicera **Lonicera tatarica \"Arnold Red\" 9~ Originated in the Arnold Arboretum in 1947 Distributed: 1954-6, 7, 9, 10, 15, 17, 18, 20, 25, 31, 32, 34, 39, 41, 44, This originated est red flowers (1~~ in as a 45 seedling of Lonicera tatarica pulcherrima and has the dark- diameter) of any Lonicera tatarica variety, even darker than 44 those of L. tatarica sibirica. The fruits are often as much as g~~ in diameter. In other characteristics and in its habit of growth, it is similar to L. tatarica. Although only released in 1954 this should become available shortly for it is very easily propagated. Unless dark red flowers or large fruits are wanted, it has no special merit over the species. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1949 Twining shrub 1 Distributed : 1949 - `? A low evergreen honeysuckle, native in southwestern China, which probably is not hardy in the northern United States, but still is worthy of a trial in the warmer sections. It resembles somewhat the native American L. dioica, except that it is evergreen. Lonicera yunnanensis **Magnolia loebneri \"Merrill\" Distributed: 19~0-38 1951-38 50~ Originated in the Arnold Arboretum in 1939 1955--`?, 9, 10, 12, 14, 19, `?0, `?4, 26, `?8, 29, 30, 31, 3t, 35, 43, 44 This excellent ornamental tree is a cross between M, stellata and M. kobus made by Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum. Five years after the seed was planted the plant bloomed, which is rather unusual since one of its parents (M. kobus) is often black-listed because it does not flower until it is nearly twenty years old. The flowers of Magnolia \"Merrill\" have about as many petals as those of M. stellata ( 15 plus) but the petals are slightly larger and the flowers are also slightly fragrant. What makes this new magnolia of real value is the fact that it is a vigorous growing tree, the original plant being over 25' tall now. Magnolia stellata grows very slowly, forty-year-old plants in front of the Arboretum Administration Building being only about 18~ tall. So, as a vigorous growing tree with a single trunk and a bearer of flowers when it is very young, this tree has merit. *Phellodendron 4 amurense (male) 45' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1874 Distributed: 19~4-8, 25, 26, 39, 41 The Amur cork tree was first introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum in 1874, and this very tree is still alive today. It is a fast growing, wide spreading tree, with a rather loose, open top, excellent for producing light shade. The bark is deeply furrowed and looks somewhat like cork, but it is not sufficiently thick to be commercially of value. The reason some people are not enthusiastic about this tree is because of the fact that the sexes are separate and the fruiting plants produce large grape-like clusters of fruit that can be a nuisance on the lawn. To overcome this bad characteristic, the Arboretum distributed trees which were known to be staminate or male (non fruit producers) and at the same time distributed plenty of seed so the commercial growers could grow their 45 own hoped understock that such on which they could graft the male plant. In doing this, non-fruiting trees would become more popular. it was Philadelphus \"Argentine\" 4' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1914 4 Distributed : 1952 - 1, ~?, 6, 10, 1 I , 13, 16, 19, 20, 22, 25, 26, 32, 35, 42 This is one of the largest flowered of the P. virginalis clones, having double flowers at least 2\" in diameter. It originated in the famous French nurseries of Victor Lemoine slightly before 1914, and grows about 4' tall. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1905 Philadelphus \"Bouquet Blanc\" 6~ Distributed: 19~2-6, 11, 14, 20, 22, 24, 25, 26, 32, 3~, 39 A taller clone of the Virginal mock-orange, this will grow about 6' high, with single flowers an inch in diameter, and a mound-like habit, bearing its flowers evenly distributed about the entire plant. Not all of the mock-oranges have this very desirable trait. l In the Arnold Arboretum since 1921 Philadelphus splendens 9' Redistributed: 1952-2, 6, 7, 9, 10, 1 1, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22, 24, 26, 32, 35, 39, 41 Still only listed by one nursery, this excellent single flowered Philadelphus has been distributed many times by the Arnold Arboretum because of the fact that it is one of the few which face the ground well on all sides and so can be used as a specimen plant. Many another mock-orange is leggy at the base and must be placed at the rear of the shrub collection to hide its unattractive habit. Pinus bungeana 70~ ,In the Arnold Arboretum since 18r9 Distributed: 1952-10, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 22, 24, 25, 26, 28, 32, 34, 35, 39, 41, 42 The Lace-bark pine is a native of northwestern China and was supposedly introduced into America about the middle of the last century. The dense, very dark green foliage is of great ornamental value m itself, but the plant is also blessed with a characteristic exfoliating bark making it almost white in patches. It also has the desirable habit of holding its leaves about five years, which is considerably longer than most pines and is the reason for its dense foliage appearance. This fine tree is still extremely difficult to locate in nursery catalogues, and might be termed one of the best of the conifers for specimen planting. Prunus maritima \"Premier\" 6' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1942 Distributed: 1950-14, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 25, 32, 34, 39, 42, 45 This beach plum variety was one of several found in New England and named by the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture. \"Premier\" came from a plant found on Plum 46 c ~, b~ o is ~e E tu E F `~ U W H M m o o ..s 'a ~S 3 o wo 8 CO ~E c S ^ +~ E a t; jg > **f G O ~, a E m # .. e~ X .. \" ~ ox o~ U a. ~s!I V ur a~ 5~~ ~~ O U~ m 'a WOW ~ w H~ s G7 ~ ~0 a'~., _O6G 'S 'D W O -a F N O a~ O .C ir N dH .O&J,~t0 E E O# vO Wy a G below Newburyport, Massachusetts. The original plant when found shrub -4~ high and 20' across with fruits nearly an inch ~n diameter. 'I'his can not be termed \"the best\" of all the beach plum varieties, but certainly it ~s among those well worthy of cultivation. Island, just was a In the Arnold Arboretum since 1891 1 2 I , 25, 32 19~`?-18, 19, 24, 2~, 32, 3~, 39, ~kl The Golden larch of China is one of the most beautiful of exotic trees hardy in the North. Originally found by Robert Fortune as an ornamental pot-plant in China, eleven years later he found it growing in a monastary garden. It is not for the small garden since a tree 80~ tall will be just as broad. Its beautiful golden yellow autumn color makes it very worth while, and the unique cones, appearing on the upper sides of the branches are of great interest throughout the fall. It has no serious insect or disease pests, but is deciduous, not evergreen. Pseudolarix amabilis 120~ Distributed : 19~ I -(seed only) In the Arnold Arboretum since 19~ I Pyracantha coccinea \"Kazan\" 6' Distributed: 19~~-2, 7, 12, 13, 18, 19, 20, 23, 25, 26, 2 i , 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 36 At least one nursery has been offering this variety of the firethorn in recent years. It is the winters gated Rosa have been and distributed for hardiness trials in the northern part of the United States. supposed to be more hardy than P. coccinea lalandi, but unfortunately during the past few years have not been sufficiently cold so that we unable to make a good comparison. However, this variety was propa- In the Arnold Arboretum since 1939 virginiana alba 6' Distributed : 1930-6, I ~., 16, 17, 18, 19, `10, 21, 22, 25, 26, 32, 34, 42, 45 A white flowered form of the native and wide spread Virginia rose, this was given the Arboretum by Mr. V1'ill C. Curtis, of Sudbury, Mass., who has made a most rewarding hobby of collecting white flowering varieties of many of our ornamental plants. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1945 Sambucus canadensis fructu-lutea 12~ Distributed: 1950-14, 16, II, 20, 21, 25, 26, 32, 3~1, 39, 42, 45 Merely the yellow fruiting form of the native elderberry. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1892 alnifolia 60~ Distributed: 19~3-1, 9, 10, 18, 20, 11, 26, 28, 31, 32, 34, 35, 37, 39, 41 Another one of the really forgotten or overlooked ornamental trees, this plant was first introduced into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum in 1892, being a native of Japan, central China and Korea. The tree produces profuse flat flower **Sorbus 48 clusters, made up of very small white 8owers, appearing in late May. In the fall the fruits appear a bright orange, and the autumn color of the foliage is a brilliant scarlet, especially when the tree is planted with a western exposure. The bark of the trunk is light gray, very similar to that of the American beech, and so makes this tree of much interest throughout the entire year. In the Arnold Arboretum we have found that this species is not nearly as susceptible to attacks from borers as are many of the other mountain-ash. It is well worth growing as a vigorous and very large specimen. orange to *Viburnum lobophyllum l~~ In the Arnold Arboretum since I91 i Distributed: 195~1-2, 4, 6, 9, 10, ll, 18, 14, l.i, 16, 18,19, 20, 21,22, 24, 25, 28, 32, 34, 35, 36, 39, 41 19.i4- 9, 1 i, 2~, 26, 28, 30, 31, 32, 34, 40, 41, 44 lists this most desirable Chinese viburnum. The crop of round, shining red berries, sets this plant apart from most of its relatives every fall, although it is somewhat similar in general effectiveness to the European highbush cranberry and Sargent's viburnum. Only profuse one nurseryman now DONALD WYMAN 49 List of Cooperating Nurserymen , - (Those nurserymen receiving the plants listed from the Arnold Arboretum have been listed according to number under each plant) 1. 2. 3. 4. Adams Nursery, Inc., Westfield, Mass. Nursery, Neshaminy, Bucks Co., Pa. Abington, Mass. Alanwold Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, Calif. Bay State Nurseries, North 5. 6. Beardslee Nurseries, Blackmore Bobbink and Atkins C. R. Burr & Road, Perry, Ohio Co., East Rutherford, N.J. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Co., Manchester, Conn. > W. B. Clarke & Co., P. O. Box 343, San Jose, Calif. Cole Nursery Co., Paines~ille, Ohio. Gardens, La Canada, Calif. Semmes, Alabama & Cottage Gardens, 2707W. St. Joseph St., Lansing, M~cH. Descanso Tom Dodd Nurseries, Inc., 13. 14. Henry Field Seed Fruitland R. L. Gardner Nursery Co., Shenandoah, Iowa Nurseries, Augusta, Ga. Nursery, Rt. 7, Box 266A, Yakima, Wash. 15. 16. Glen St. Mary Nurseries, Glen St. Mary, Fla. Hicks 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Nurseries, Westbury, Long Island, N.Y. Jackson & Perkins Co., Newark, N.Y. Harlan P. Kelsey, Inc., & Son East Boxford, Mass. Md. Horton Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Henry Kohankie Koster (now Nurseries), Painesville, Iowa Ohio Nursery, Bridgeton, N.J. 23. 24. 2~. 26. Lake's Shenandoah Nurseries, Shenandoah, Point, Iowa Le Blanc Gardens, Kent, Wash. Linn County Nursery, Center Littlefield-Wyman Nursery, Abington, Mass. Mt. Arbor 27. Nurseries, Shenandoah, Iowa 50] 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. W. A. Natorp Co., 4400 T. G. Owen & Reading Rd., Cincinnati 29, Ohio Son, Inc., P. O. Box 946, Columbus, Miss. Perkins de Wilde Nurseries, Shiloh, N.J. Pine-Croft Nurseries, Princeton Nurseries, Exeter, 141 N. H. Princeton, N.J. S. E. 65th Sherwood Nursery Co., Ave., Portland 16, Ore. Ohio The Siebenthaler Co., 3001 Catalpa Drive, Dayton 5, Texas Upper Bank Nurseries, Inc., Media, Pa. Verhalen Nursery Co., Scottsville, 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. Verkade's Nurseries, New London, Conn. Mass. Conn. Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio Weston Nurseries, Weston, White Flower Wood-Howell Farm, Litchfield, Nurseries, Inc., ~11Lee Highway, Bristol, Va. Foreign Nurseries 42. 43. 44. Hillier & Sons, Winchester, England England Nurseries, Boskoop, Plant Holland Jackman & Sons Nurseries, Woking, den Ouden Manitoba 45. Hardy Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada 51 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Acer Platanoides 'Crimson King' vs. 'Fassen's Black'","article_sequence":9,"start_page":52,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24293","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14e856f.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"Acer platanoides \"Crimson King\" vs. \"Fassen's Black\" In the May 4, 1956 issue of ARNOLDIA, a statement was made to the general effect that the Norway Maple variety \"Crimson King\" and Fassen's Black\" were so similar that there was not the need for growing them both in America, implying that since the former was well established in the trade and had been widely advertised and accepted generally as a good tree, that there was no need of growing the newer more recently introduced (but not patented) \"Fassen's Black.\" The statement concerning the similarity of these two varieties was based on my own observations of plants sent me by the man who holds the patent on \"Crimson King\" so that I would have expected that the stock he sent us of \"Fassen's Black\" was definitely true to name. These plants were grown in our own nursery and observed over a period of several years. However, observations based on only half a dozen plants can be wrong, and apparently were in this case, for several nurserymen who have grown large blocks of both varieties, have written that there very definitely is a difference between these two varieties. In their op~nion, \"Fassen's Black\" maple does not keep its red foliage color throughout the summer as does the \"Crimson Kmg\" maple. Rather, the color of the leaves of \"Fassen's Black\" takes on a greenish cast in late summer. Also, \"Fassen's Black\" does not grow as rapidly in caliper and in size as does \"Crimson King,\" and the leaves are smaller as well. One nurseryman even goes so far as to report that \"Fassen's Black\" is more prone to attacks from the maple leaf hopper. These men, who have grown large numbers of both varieties, certainly should be qualified to report on these differences. All of which adds up to the fact that Acer platanoides \"Crimson King\" is an excellent ornamental maple, keeping its color throughout the growing season. Acer 2olatanoide.r \"Fassen's Black\" is not identical and can be considered ornamentally inferior, hence might well be dropped from further commercial propagation as just another inferior variety. DONALD V~ YMAN 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Ground Cover Demonstration Plots (Brought up to Date)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":53,"end_page":59,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24304","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eb728.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University NOVEMBER 16, 1956 THE GROUND COVER DE11ION:~TRATION PLOTS VOLUME 16 NUMBER 10 (Brought up to date) on the Arnold Arboretum's Case first laid out in 1950. Then, only about fifty different kinds of plants were tried, but as time went on, there was so much interest shown in these plantings that they were increased considerably. New ones are being added every year, and unfortunately, there are always some which do not do well and die as a result of severe winters. It is impossible to publish a list that is complete for any length of time, since numerous changes THF~ Estates Ground Cover Demonstration Plots in Weston, Massachusetts, vcere constantly being made. There are at least1 50 different kinds of plants being grown in these plots now, and most of these are listed in this bulletin according to row number and position in the row. Row I is nearest to the high stone wall, and the plants are numbered from the Wellesley Street end, the first plant in each row being the closest to Wellesley Street. The plots are in an open former cow pasture, mostly in the full sun, although the first row along the taller stone wall does receive shade about half the time. Otherwise, these plants are all given approximately the same care, with only a few being covered in the winter with pine boughs. Late fall and winter are not the best times of the year to see these plots. Rather a visit might best be made in late spring after many of the plants have made a major amount of growth and while many of them are still in flower. This list is published now so that the arm-chair gardener who makes plans during the winter for next spring's gardening activities, can become acquainted with the fact that this demonstration plot exists and is open to the public at all times. All the plots are labeled with the common and the scientific name of each plant. It is here that one might come when in doubt as to just which ground cover to select for a certain area. are 53 GROUND COVERS AT THE CASE ESTATES (E=Ecergreen; h=herbaceous) PO51 ROW TION NUM IN SCIENTIFIC NAME COMMON NAME BER ROW h Achillea millefolium Achillea tomentosa rosea nana Pink Common Yarrow Dwarf Woolly Yarrow Bishop's Goutweed IV 18 23 10 E h h V III III IV IV IV Aegopcdium podograria Aegopodium podograria variegata Ajuga reptans Ajuga reptans - white veins Ajuga genevensis rosea Akebia quinata Alyssum petraeum E h Arabis alpina E h Arabis alpina flore-pleno E Arctostaphylos uva-ursi h Arenaria montana E E E Arenaria stricta Silveredge Bishops's Goutweed Carpet Bugle Carpet Bugle Redleaf Carpet Bugle Fiveleaf Akebia 19 3 4 2 18 III IV III IV III Goldentuft Alyssum Alpine Rockcress 9 3 5 6 Alpine Rockcress Bearberry Mountain Sandwort Rock Sandwort VI III IV II 5 16 23 11 11 12 h Armeria maritima Artemisia Common Thrift Purse Sagebrush British Columbia Wild purchiana Asarum caudatum h h h h Ginger I 1 E Asarum europaeum Astilbe japomca Athyrium felix-femina Campanula carpatica Campanula rapunculoides Cerastium tomentosum Chaenomeles japonica European Wild Ginger Japanese Astilbe Ladyfern Carpathian Bellflower Creeping Bellflower Snow-in-Summer VI 1 IV VI III 2 16 1 1 24 E h h h h h alpina Chrysanthemum majus tanacetoides Convallaria majalis Coreopsis auriculata nana Coronilla varia VII 24 Alpine Quince Rayless Costmary Chrysanthemum VI 6 1 13 Lily-of-the-Valley Eared Coreopsis II 18 Crown Vetch V V 24 1 Cotoneaster adpressa Cotoneaster apiculata Cotoneaster horizontalis Creeping Cotoneaster Cranberry Cotoneaster Rock Cotoneaster V IV 2 17 4 Cytisus h purpureus Purple Broom Maiden Pink \" V III III Dianthus deltoides Dicentra eximia Diervilla lonicera Diervilla rivularis _ 13 15 Diervilla sessilifolia - Fringed Bleedingheart Dwarf Bush Honeysuckle Georgia Bush Honeysuckle Southern Bush Honeysuckle 54 VII 6 VII 7 VII 8 0 .~ v r .~ 0 C. c 0 il ~~ 0 a 0 > 0 4 = W a~ ~' Ca a~ o, U *0 c 0 0 C'7 u L w O Gr a. h h Duchesnea species Epimedium grandiflorum Erica carnea E E E E E h E E h h Euonymus fortunei colorata Euonymus fortunei kewensis Euonymus fortunei minima Euonymus fortunei radicans Euonymus obovata Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" Fragaria vesca americana Galax aphylla Galium vernum Strawberry Longspur Epimedium Spring Heath Purpleaf Wintercreeper Euonymus Kew Wmtercreeper Euonymus Baby Wintercreeper Euonymus Common Wintercreeper Running Euonymus Alpine Strawberry Galax Yellow Bedstraw Mock II 14 7 6 I II IV V IV III IV VII VI 1 14 16 13 14 15 4 23 14 9 VI 1 E h h Gaultheria procumbens Gaylusaccia brachycera Genista pilosa Geranium sanguineum Gypsophila repens rosea Hedera helix Helianthemum nummularium Checkerberry Wintergreen Box Huckleberry Silky-leaf Woadwaxen Blood Red Geranium 17 7 1 IV III 1 II 23 16 21 14 4 E E h Rosy Creeping Gypsophila English Ivy Sunrose III V VI V E h h h h h h Hemerocallis fulva \"Kwanso variegata\" Tawny Day-l~ly Heuchera sanguinea Coral Bells 19 Hosta decorata Hosta lancifolia Hosta lancifolia Hosta undulata Hosta undulata univittata albo-marginata E E Hydrangea petiolaris Hypericum buckleyi Hyssopus officinalis rubra Iberis sempervirens Iberis sempervirens \"White Gem\" Indigofera incarnata alba Indigofera kirilowi h Iris cristata alba 1 8 Plantain-lily Blue Plantain-lily 1 2 1 1 Variegated Blue Plantain-lily 1 6 Wavy-leaved Plantain-lily 5 Variety of Wavy-leaved Plantain-lily 1 1 15 Climbing Hydrangea II 8 Blueridge St. Johnswort Red Hyssop III 9 III 23 Evergreen Candytuft \"White Gem\" Evergreen Candytuft III 22 White Chinese Indigo VII 9 Kirilow Indigo VII 10 Blunt White Crested Iris VI V V V IV IV 1 19 6 5 7 24 E E E E h - Juniperus chinensis sargenti Juniperus horizontalis douglasi Juniperus hor~zontalis plumosa Juniperus sabina tamariscifolia Lamium album Lamium Sargent Juniper Waukegan Juniper Andorra Juniper Tamarix Savin Juniper White Deadnettle 10 19 15 h E E galeobdolon Leiophyllum buxifolium Leucothoe catesbaei _ Archangel Deadnettle Box Sandmyrtle Drooping Leucothoe 36 V Liriope spicata Lonicera henryi Lonicera japonica aureo-reticulata Lonicera japonica halliana Lonicera japonica repens Lysimachia clethroides Lysimachia nummularia E Mahonia aquifolium h Mazus reptans Mentha genrihs Mentha piperita E E h Creeping Liriope Henry Honeysuckle Yellownet Japanese Honeysuckle Hall's Honeysuckle Clethra Loosestrife II 15 VII 3 V 9 VII 2 V 8 III II 12 13 13 Moneywort Oregon Holly-grape Red Mint VI III II VI 1 9 11 12 22 h h h E h E E h Peppermint Mentha citrata Bergamot Mint Myrica pensylvanica Bayberry Ground Ivy Nepeta hederacea Nepeta hederacea variegata Variegated Ground Ivy Persian Nepeta Nepeta mussini Pachistima canbyi Canby Pachistima Pachysandra procumbens Allegany Pachysandra Pachysandra terminalis Japanese Pachysandra Pachysandra terminalis variegata Variegated Japanese Pachysandra Parthenocissus quinquefolia st. pauli St. Paul Virginia Creeper Parthenocissus tricuspidata minutifolia Small Japanese Creeper Phalaris arundinacea picta Ribbon Grass Phlox divaricata canadensis Canada Sweet William VII 25 I 21 I 22 II 9 III 5 1 4 1 3 I 25 I 26 I 27 IV 25 V 11 IV II 20 20 19 21 Phlox stolonifera Phlox subulata Phlox subulata \"Emerald Cushion\" h Creeping Phlox Moss-pink Moss-pink \"Emerald Cushion\" Fern Bamboo IV IV III Pleioblastus distichus Polemonium reptans Polygonum affine VII 1 h h Polygonum bistorta Polygonum cuspidatum compactum Potentilla tridentata Pulmonaria angustifolia Pulmonaria officinalis Ranunculus repens Rhus aromatica serotma Rosa \"Max Graf\" Rosa rugosa repens alba Rosa w~churaiana E h h h Creeping Polemonium Himalayan Fleeceflower European Bistort Dwarf Polygonum Wineleaf Cinquefoil Cowslip Lungwort Common Lungwort Creeping Buttercup Late Fragrant Sumac var. of Rugosa Rose Memorial Rose Cutleaf Blackberry Corsican Pearlwort VI 3 25 12 I 28 IV VI VI 12 11 15 VI VII 11 V 17 V 18 VII 12 III 4 II 5 Rubus laciniatus Sagina subulata 58 Salix tristis E E h Sanguisorba minor Santolina chamaecyparissus Sedum acre roseum Dwarf Pussy Willow Small Burnet VII 13 VI II 16 24 22 23 21 22 22 10 E E h h Cypress Lavender-cotton Goldmoss Stonecrop Baltic Stonecrop IV 8 II II II Sedum album Sedum balticum Sedum ellacombianum E h Sedum spurmm Two-row Stonecrop V IV 1 II VI II 1 h h h E Stachys grandiflora Tanacetum vulgare crispum Teucrium chamaedrys Teucrium chamaedrys prostratum Thymus lanicauhs Thymus lanuginosis Tiarella cordifolia Big Betony Curlyleaf Common Tansy Chamaedrys Germander Dwarf Germander VI 7 17 10 h h E h Creeping Woolly-stem Thyme Woolly Mother-of-Thyme Allegany Foamflower II 4 10 Common Coltsfoot Tussilago farfara Vaccinium angustifolium laevifolium Smoothleaf Lowbush Blueberry Shore Cowberry Vaccinium vitis-idea majus Vancouvena hexandra Veronica mcana III 7 18 III 8 VI 20 h E E E h h h Veronica chamaedrys Veronica officinalis Vinca minor Viola Woolly Speedwell Germander Speedwell Drug Speedwell Common Periwinkle II 2 V V 2 12 IV 6 septentrionalis (white flowers) Ontario Violet Yellow Root Xanthorhiza simplicissima VI 8 VII 5 DONALD WYMAN 39 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials","article_sequence":11,"start_page":61,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24297","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15ea36b.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Florence; Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 16 NOVEMBER 30, IJ56 NUMBERS I~-I2 CHRISTMAS DECORATIONS FROM WOODY YLANT MATERIALS Christmas time, every home becomes a workshop of vigorous activity, it may well be that the most fun in preparation can be in those homes where the making of the decorations is a family project. There are many types NEAR and of decorations which be made from plants and literally hundreds of different available. In an issue of Arnoldia last year (Arnoldia 15: 61-84, 1955), over 100 kinds of plant materials were described as being in use in the Boston area alone. Finding the materials and using ingenuity in arranging them into festive ornaments can well supply interest for the entire family. This certainly has been true in our family, for a few years ago we merely made a wreath or two from white pine; but now our interest has grown to include all sorts of evergreen wreaths, cone wreaths, garlands, swags, stars, festoons, \"arrangements,\" kissing balls, etc. In fact, ingenuity has added a very important ingredient to the fun of this family project. True, it is usually the lady of the house who has the time to study and experiment at home, to go to all sorts of \"classes,\" to exchange ideas with her friends who are similarly interested; but it must be admitted that enthusiasm and \"know how'' thus acquired can be passed on to others. Such has been the case with us, at least. If there be a mere glimmer of interest in the mind of any one, this procedure can be recommended for trial. And here are a very few of the possibilities that might be considered. can kinds of plant materials are Wreaths Made From Foliage Wreaths of evergreen foliage, one kind or another, are the easiest to make, and once the technique is understood, it can be easily adapted to any type of material. First and foremost are the frames. Beginners may start with a single wire ( No. 9, even a rebent coat hanger can suffice), or two branches tied together in a circle; but the experienced hand at wreath making will tell you that it is much easier to start with a ready-made wire frame of two circles of wire, avail- 61 able a commercially expressly for wreath-making purposes. Also, one should have spool of green enamelled No. ~?~ wire for wrapping the cut evergreen twigs to are fir, pine, Norway spruce, red-cedar, juniper, yew, hemlock, but this last should be avoided by all means, since the needles fall quickly after the twigs have been cut. Mountain-laurel, evergreen magnolia (uT. grancliflora), rhododendron, holly, bearberry, Oregon hollygrape, and many other things are also used. In the Boston area, thousands of wreaths of balsam fir are sold. These are made from the lower, discarded branches of balsam firs cut for the Christmas-tree market, and also from defective trees which cannot be sold as trees. The wreaths are produced in large quantities in the areas of Vermont, New Hampshire, and Maine, where these trees are grown for the Christmas trade, and shipped by truck. In buying them, the trick is not to purchase too early, wreaths that have been made too soon. Fortunate is he who has a stand of young white pine seedlings (i.e., any plantboxwood, and even the frame. Wreaths made of balsam are near the ground), for white pine affords excellent wreath do the young shoots of yew. The shearing of a long yew hedge material ; might well be let go until the Christmas period when the young shoots would afford the best possible material for Christmas wreaths. Especially is this true of the shorter branches and slower-growing Taxus cuspidata rlensa and var. nana, since six-inch shoots of these usually have several small side branches and \"make individual, unbranched yew shootsup\" quickly into wreath sufficient for a wreath-can be a long and arduous task, enough to dampen the ardour of all but the most enthusiastic. Boxwood, too, is excellent. Gardeners in New England usually are not as fortunate as their Virginia friends in having large amounts of this excellent plant, but it makes excellent wreaths. Holly, of course, also has been used, although it is prickly to handle. Bo matterwhat the material, young shoots are cut about four to six inches long for the smaller wreaths, longer for larger wreaths. The end of the roll of No. 26 wire is attached firmly to the frame and then gradually worked tightly around the bases of these shoots as they are put in place, two or three at a time in the front and one large dense one in the back of the wire frame. It is necessary only to wind the base of these twigs to the frame, but this should be done carefully and well. The next small bundle of twigs is so placed as to cover the bases of those last wired on, and so on around the entire circle. It can take a lot of material for a large wreath, so one had better practice with the normal 1~.-inch ing where branches so material. Cutting size at first. tied with simple wreath of boxwood, pine or yew, is beautiful enough in itself when a large red (waterproof) ribbon. However, many prefer to use this as the base on which to attach all sorts of fruits, berries, cones, or painted merely objects. It is here that an artistic hand and good taste will prove helpful. A (i v To~: serting PLATE XVI The start of a white pine wreath. Rottom: Left-kissing ball started by insharpened branchlets of boxwood into styrofoam ball. Reght-Finished ball. Cut branches of boxwood seem to dry noticeably indoors. Experience has shown that wreaths of boxwood can be \"freshened\" considerably by a quick syringing with water twice a week, or an actual soaking in water if there are no ornaments to be harmed. Moisture in the atmosphere out-of-doors is sufficient to keep most cut greens (except hemlock and balsam fir which have been cut too soon) in goodappearing condition through the Christmas period. Spraying with a clear plastic spray (now commonly available in small pressure cans) can give a sheen to any of these cut greens and can prove helpful in preservmg them properly indoors. It is a simple matter to spray the finished product (away from fire) and it dries almost immediately. Pine, boxwood, and yew wreaths will last throughout the Christmas period satisfactorily indoors or out, but fir wreaths will soon drop their needles indoors, although if purchased shortly after trimmed from the original trees, they will last out-of-doors several weeks. Strikmgly interesting small wreaths for the guest room door can be made around an ordinary jar rubber (see Plate XXI). Here bearberry (Arctostaphylos uoa-ursi) is cut in pieces three to four inches long and tied on the jar rmg in the same manner as is done for larger wreaths. Other small-leaved evergreens l~ke the Kew euonymus (Enonymus fortunei kewensis), little-leaf Japanese holly (Ile.r crenata microphylla), and the clippings and left-overs from boxwood and yew wreaths can be used similarly. Cone Wreaths In this category, one must have an artistic touch and a remarkable amount of patience. Time and experience not only in the making of the actual wreath, but in collecting the cones, are necessary ! It is not a project conceived a few days before Christmas and then executed. Rather, it is a project which one apparently keeps in the back of her mind wherever she goes-for a full year or more, since all sorts of cones and dried fruits are needed. We have been talked into gathering cones in the woods of D~t. Desert Island, on the campus of Smith College, in some of the outlying areas around V~-~ll~amsburg, Virginia, and in many a place ~n between. Automobile trips are never run on schedule to any place, when there is a cone-hunter along. Catalogues are searched for certain species; friends are inveigled into bringing back special types from trips to the far parts of the country, for variety in sizes and shapes of the cones and fruits is of the utmost importance. (For suggestions in this respect, see ,4ruoldia 1 ~ : 61-84, 19~~, \"Christmas Plants in the Boston Area. \") ) With a large and varied supply of cones on hand, one goes to work. First, evenings are spent wiring the cones so they can be attached. Twelve-inch lengths of No. 22 wire are used for the larger cones and they must be wired to the frame with two wires, one on either side of each cone, to prevent their being shaken out of place. Small cones like those of hemlock, can be wired with No. 30 wire, 64 being wired together m groups of a dozen or so. Acorns-these problems! When green, cups and fruits remain nicely tugether, but as soon as they start to dry out, they part company. They can be wired together so the wire is unnoticed-but what a time-consuming job this proves to be. The youngsters of the house can do it, but if they insist on payment for time spent, costs go up quickly. It isn't long before this job reverts to the lady carrying the enthusiasm for the whole project. The electric drill is used for boring one hole through the center of the cup or base, and a hole straight across the lower base of the acorn itself. If this is done properly, with the smallest drill, the acorn can be wired tu the cup (No. 30 ~mre) with only the two ends of the wire coming through the base of the cup, in evidence. These ends are easily tied tugether in a knot, thus preventing movement of the acorn from the cup. Acorns, too, especially the smaller types like those of the pm oak and red oak, are often wired in clusters to simulate grapes. Larger acorns like those of the mossy-cup oak are used in small groups, but wired similarly. One of the methods of making a \"base\" on the three-dimensional frame for the cones, is to attach a double row of white pine cones entirely around the frame (see Plate XX). The larger cones, some of which have been cut in half to simulate rosettes or flowers, or turned upside down, are next attached. Standard practice seems to be to start with three properly-balanced, equidistant main accent points. Then, the smaller materials are worked in pleasing groups around these are many of them the main focal points. Good taste, patience, and experience cone are primary assets in wreaths. (Plate XIX shows a finished wreath and Plate making beautiful shows all the kinds uf materials used rn Its making.) XVIII \"Kissing Balls\" In medieval times, the kissing ball\" provided a very important part of the Christmas festivities. It was not made until Christmas Eve, when the entire family joined in. At first it was a large thing, made of three barrel hoops tied together vertically, and then one was attached to these in a horizontal position to hold them in place. Around these hoops were wrapped slender branches of boxwood, and also bright colored pieces of paper or metal. Sometimes they were dipped in water when they were finished and then sprinkled with flour, to give them a real wintery cast. Then they were hung in a prominent place, sometimes outside, and left hanging until Twelfth Night. It was up to all the men and boys to catch the matrons and maids under the ball and kiss them soundly. Naturally, these balls were a source of much interest and fun throughout the entire Christmas period. During these early times, castles afforded spacious halls where such large balls could be easily hung. Today, with our modern homes, the kissing balls have been considerably reduced in size. However, if hung in the proper place, there is no need for them to be any less effective now than they were then. The balls are simply made by starting with a ball of styrofoam which is available from any florists' supply house. This is about the size of a baseball and is a light plastic material in which it is easy to force sharpened twigs (see Plate N~'I). If styrofoam balls are not available, a similar-sized ball is made by squeezing out moist sphagnum moss and tyinrr string tightly around it in such a way as to hold it in a round shape. A sturdy wire is placed through the ball and attached so that it can be hung. At first, it is advisable to hang this unadorned ball at about the eye leB el, so that working on it will be easy. Five- or six-inch pieces of boxwood are cut from anyi~orous plant, the stems sharpened a bit with a knife, and the pieces stuck in uniformly around the entire ball. It is important to keep in mind the fact that the finished ball will look much better if the pieces used are a uniform length. If this cannot be done, merely cutting off the longer ends after the pieces are all in place, will help. Boxwood dries rather quickly-, so it might be advisable to spray some plastic or wax coatmg material on the finished product to keep the foliage in a fresh appearing condition for as long as possible. Or, it can be freshened considerably once or twice a week by syringing with water or actually soaking in water for a few minutes. Then it can be hung as is, or for good measure, with a small piece of mistletoe underneath, so that there w~ll be no misunderstanding as to what it is, on the part of our modern youngsters. , Garlands making foliage wreaths and cone wreaths, one the garland-making class, for it is here that one needs the experience of all that was learned in making the cone wreaths. Since most fireplaces differ in proportion, there is no standard measurement for these festoons of cones and fruits. Usually, a frame of plywood is cut out the exact size and shape wanted. Then the major groupings are arranged on this and wired around the narrow frame; or better still, a hole is bored through the frame, the wires inserted, pulled tightly and bent over, and then stapled with one of the special wood staplers now available. Not a simple or easy undertaking, yet the end result can be a thing of artistic beauty which can remain to adorn the living room long after the Christmas period. After one has had experience in to can graduate ' Swags A swag is merely a group of evergreen branches, tied together in a pleasing form. They are frequently hung on doors in lieu of wreaths. Once the knack has been acquired of arranging the branches artistically together, these, too, can be trimmed at the base with ribbon and a few carefully selected cones and fruits. %0 PLATE XXI . 7~p~ \"Fearsome Critters.\" For description, see page 7~. Bottom. Center-Star made of Ilem erenata conve:ra stuck into styrofoam attached to a plywood cutout. Upper Lcft-Small boxwood wreath started on a rubber jar ring. I'pper right-Finished wreath of Arctostaphylos uua-ursi uired on a rubber jar ring. Lozrer l~ft and rightCorsages for gift wrapping. Novelties There are many, many interesting objects, corsages, and \" arrangements ., which can be made with the leftovers from v, reath-making. The small wreath made on a jar rubber (Plate XXI) is from the foliage of bearberry (.4rctostnply~los ut~a-ursi). The small tree (Plate XVII) is made by inserting a dowel in some plaster of Paris in a painted tin can, and wiring on the branches of yew left over from making larger wreaths. \" \"Fearsome Critters\" The \"Fearsome Critters\" shown in Plate XXI offer a lot of fun in the making and the display of plenty of ingenuity, especially by the youngsters. Those in the cut were made by our fourteen-year-old son John who was interestedly watching his mother make some cone wreaths. When she left her materials to attend an afternoon meeting, he confiscated a few cones and seeds, took a walk out-ofdoors in search of a few other things, appropriated a few of his father's pipe cleaners, and in no time at all, surprised himself and everyone else with his strikingly humorous results. o The short, squat figure on the left was made with a cone of a Scotch pine, two a red-oak acorn for a head, and two small fruits cone scales from a Jeffrey pine, of the jetbead (Rhodotypos scandens) for eyes, held in place either by glue or pins. The six-legged monster in the rear was from a cone of a Norway spruce (Picea abies), a Chinese chestnut for a head, the leafy bract from the fruit of a linden for horns, small hazel nuts for eyes, and the expanded fruit capsules of the native witch hazel for a mouth. The \"small fry\" in front were made from the fruits of the beefwood (Casaurina equisetjf'olia) and the fruits of the Japanese Katsura tree (Cercidiph,qllum japonicum) for ears, held together with one pine and two dabs of glue. The medium-sized critter in the rear has a tail of the fruit cluster of the drooping leucothoe (Leucothoe catesbaei), the body of a pine cone, ears of maple samaras, a head of the fruit ball of the sweet gum (Liquidambar slyraciflua) and eyes of the fruits from the tupelo (V;ys.sa sylvntica). The last creature on the right has the cone of the Douglas fir (Pseudoisuga ta.r;f'olia) for a body, apparently no tail at all, a eucalyptus fruit for a head, and two eyes of the fruits of bladdernut (Colutea nrborescens). If the idea is acquired, this can lead to an interesting walk about the grounds or through the woods in search for materials which, once found, can be worked quickly into many an entertaining object. FLORENCE AND DONALD WI MAN Visit the Arnold Arboretum Christmas green Exhibit, December 4-21 (Weekdays 9-5, exclusive of Saturdays) 72 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XVI","article_sequence":12,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24300","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d15eab6d.jpg","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLL;D9E XVI Illustrations Acer nikoense, 36 - are in bold face type platanoides \"Crimson King,\" 18, .52 - platanoides \"Fassen's Black,\" 18, ;i 2 tum, 9, 53 ; Map, Plate V, 16 Case Estates, Open House, 15 Carpinus cordata, 36; Plate IX, 3.i Carpinus japonica, 36; Plate IX, 8~ - orientalis, 38 38 20 - rubrum - schlesingeri, - triflorum, 36 3~ - turczaninovi, - Castanea mollissima - truncatum, 36 Acorns, 68,72 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 36 Alnus glutinosa, 20 Amelanchier asiatica, 20 Ammonium sulfamate, .5 Aralia elata variegata, 20 Arboretum Spring Planting Notes, li-2i 1- \"Kuling,\" \"Meiling,\" 20 \"Nanking,\" 20 Casuarina equisetifolia, 72 2 Ceanothus pallidus roseus, 38 Cedar of Lebanon, 38 - Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 64, 72 ; 1 wreath, Plate XXI, 71 Ash, Green, \"Marshall's seedless,\" 23 Cedar, red, 62 Cedrus atlantica, 38 deodara, 38 libani, 38 Cercid~phyllum japonicum, Cherry, cornelian, 21l 1 Chinese chestnut, i - . 2 72 ' , Chinese chestnut varieties, 20 ; Plate Bank planting, seashore in Scotland, VI, 19 9 Plate X`', 60 Bearberry, 62, 64, 72 2 Beefwood, 72 Berberis thunbergi \"Thornless,\" Black swallow wort, 6 2 Bladdernut, 72 ' i 20 Blooming dates, 4 Boston ivy, 5, 6 Botanical Exploration of the Trans- Christmas Decorations from Woody Plant Materials, 61-\"r 2 ~ Christmas novelties, Plate XVII, 65 ; Plate XXI, 71 ; making of,2 Colutea arborescens, 72 Cones, 61, 68, 70,72 Cones and Fruits for Wreath-making, Plate XVIII, 66 Cooperating Nurserymen, - 34 Nlississipp~ ~'est, 1700-18~0, 0 Boxwood, 62, 64, 70 Broom, Scotch, 21 Broom, V~'arminster, 41 Brush killer, 6 ?8 -, l~st of, 50 Cork tree, Amur, 4,~ Cornus alba sibirica, 20, 38 Cornus florida fastigiata, 40 ; Plate i X, 37 - Case Estates of the Arnold Arbore- magnifica,1 73 Cornus florida -- mas - pendula, 21 I 40 . Firethorn, Forsythia - 48 -. I aurea, 21 \"Farrand,\" 41 I -. stolonifera, Corsages, Plate XXI, 711 Corylus colurna, IS, 21 ; Plate VII, ao 2 intermedia spectabilis, 42 Fraxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata, 23 Garlands, 61 ; making of, 70; Plate XX, 69 Chlordane powder, 8 Gleditsia triacanthos inermis \"Sun- Crab Apple \"Dorothea,\" Plate III, 1 1 Crab Apples, annual bearing, 32 - burst,\" 23 Ground Cover Bank Planting, Sea- dates between which fruits 1 30, 31 are colorful, - shore, in Scotland, Plate Ground Covers at the Case XV, 60 Estates, Plots, for ornamental frmts, 19-32 listed, .ik-59 Crataegus monogyna inermis, 40 ; Plate X, 36 Ground Cover Demonstration Cynanchum nigra, 6 Cytisus praecox, 40, luteus, 41 - scoparius (hardy DDT, 8 - 9, 53-60; Plate XIV, 55 Hamamelis mollis, Plate I, 41 1 62 3 form), 21 ! Demonstration 5;3-60 ; Plots, listed, 54-59 Ground Cover, Demonstration plot, small ornamental trees, 9 ; listed, 10-14 ; Plate IV, 13 Dogwood, flowering, upright, 40 ; Plate X, 37 i -, Hemlock, 5 Herbicides, 62 Holly, Holly-grape, Oregon, 62 Holly, Japanese, 64 -, Yunnan, 42 8 Honeylocust, \"Sunburst,\" 18 Honeysuckle, evergreen, 45 -, Japanese, 44 Hornbeams, Oriental, Plate IX, Hypericum buckleyi, 42 Ilex crenata convexa 35 weeping, 40 Elderberry, native, 2 Eucalyptus, i star, Plate 64 48 - XXI, - 1 71 crenata microphylla, 42 Euonymus alata clone, 41 europaea \"Red Cascade,\" fortunei kewensis, 64 -, Kew, 64 - 23 danielli, 41 ; Plate XI, 39 1 hupehensis, 41 Exochorda korolkowi, I8, 23 Fall Classes at the Arboretum, 32 \"Fearsome Critters,\" making of, i 1 ; 1 Plate XXI, 71 Evodia - Festoons, 61 1 22 Filbert, Turkish, 21 ; Plate VII, yunnanensis, 2 Jetbead, 72 62 Juniper, Kalopanax pictus, 42 l Katsura, Japanese, 72 6 Killing woody plants, \"Kissing Balls,\" 68; making of, 70; Plate XVI, 63 Juglans nigra laciniata, 42 \" Lanolin emulsion, 5 \" Larix decidua pendula, 44 Larch, European, 44 -, ' w - F~r, balsam, 62 golden, 48 74 2 Leucothoe catesbaei, 72 -, Ligustrum vicaryi, 44 Lilac Sunday-Open House, 2 Linden, 72 2 Liquidambar styraciflua, 72 Liriodendron chinense, 23 28 - tulipfera contorta, - 24 crispa, 24 Lonicera - - alba, 44 dioica, 4:i japonica aureo-reticulata, amoena 44 ~nrginal, 46 Mountain-ash, 48, 49 Mountain-laurel, 62 MeKelvey-, Mrs. Susan Delano, 28 '_~ew and Rare Ornamental Woody Plants Distributed by the Arnold Arboretum, ;t3-51I z Nuts, hazel, 72 Nyssa sylvatica, 72 Paste the Poison Ivy, 5-8 Peach tree borers, control of, 8 . - tatarica, 44, - 45 45 ' l'hellodendron amurense, 45 - - \"Arnold Red,\" 44, pulcherrima, 44 Philadelphus\"Argentine,'' - 46 \"Bouquet Blanc,\" 46 : Plate XII, 48 - - sibirica, 45 yunnanensis, 45 - - Magnolia, evergreen, grandiflora, 62 - 62 - splendens, 46; virginalis, 46 purpurea, 24 tonaiensis, 24 Plate XII, 43 Picea abies,72 `1 - kobus, 39 45 .\" - loebneri \"Merrill,\" 45; Plate Xl, - - stellata, 45 29 . -, Malus - \"Arrow,\" baccata, 29 \"Bob White,\" 32 - dawsoniana, floribunda, 29 11 - \"Dorothea,\" 29, Plate III, 29 29 Pine, 61, 62, 63 lace-bark, 46 Ymus bungeana, 46 Planting Junipers, Plate VIII, 25 Planting list, 1956, 17, 18 8 Plant Alaterials, sources of, 18 -, Woody, Christmas Decorations - < , - 6 1 -72 - \"Makamik,\" purpurea - - - \"Ormiston Roy,\" 29 aldenhamensis, lemoinei, 29 - sieboldi, 29 \/ - \"Red Jade,\" 29 - \"Red River,\" 24 - zumi calocarpa, 32 Maple, red, 2, 34 -, Schwedler's, 18 0 Mistletoe, 70 Mock-orange, 46 - 29 Plants, New and Rare, Distributed by the Arnold Arboretum, 33-51l Plum, beach, 46 I'o~,oa wy-, .5, 6 Poison Ivy Vine Plate II, 7 on Red Maple Tree, Privet, Prunus - 44 japonica, 24 46 maritima \" Premier,\" i amabilis, 48 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 72 Pseudolarix Pyracantha coccinea \"Kazan,\" 26, - 48 \"Bouquet Blanc,\" 46 ; Plate XII, 43 lalandi, 48 Rhamnus japonica, - 26 75 Rhododendron, 62 Rhodotypos scandens, 72 Robinia - Trees, ornamental, small,demonstration plot, Listed, I 0-14 ; Plate IV, 13 3 \"hillieri,\" 26 26 26 - kelseyi, 26 pseudoacacia, - Tree, small, Christmas novelties, i `? ; Plate XVII, 65 Trees, small, ornamental flowers, 14 4 -, -, - fruits, 14 5 -, outstanding autumn color, 15 -, 24 Tulip-tree, American, Rosa moyesi - \"slavini,\" \"Geranium,'' 6 26 virginiana, alba, 48 Salix purpurea pendula, 18, 2 Samaras, maple, 72 27 i Tupelo, - l 72 Sambucus canadensis fructu-lutea, 48 Sorbus alnifolia, 48 ; Plate XIII, 47 7 Viburnum, Chinese, 49 lobophyllum, 49; Plate 13, 47 i opulus \"Notcutt's Variety,\" 27 - Spindle tree, European, 23 Spray, plastic, 64 Spruce, Norway, 62 Spring, An Early, 1-4 Spring Classes, 4, 8 Staphylea holocarpa rosea, 27 Stars, Plate XXI, 7]1 0 Styrofoam, 70 Swags, making of, 70 Taxus - tomentosum - \"Lanarth,\" 27 - i mariesi, 27 Walnut, black, 42 Weather, 1 Weed killers, 5, 6 Willow, purple, 27 Witch-hazel, Chinese, 2; Plate I, 3 2 -, native, 72 Wreath, Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 1 72; Plate XXI, 71 I Plate XXI.71 Wreath, boxwood, -, cone, 61 ; making of, 64-68 ; Plate XIX, 67 ; Plate XX, 69 -, evergreen Sweet-gum, 72 cuspidata densa, nana, 62 62 1 Tetraploid plant, 41 36 Tree, silk, Trees, Eighty for the Small Place, 3 9-15 foliage, making of, XVI, 63 61- Trees, narrow, upright habit, 14 4 2 64, 72 white pine, Plate -, `? Yew, 62, 64, 72 76 _ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23449","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170856e.jpg","title":"1956-16","volume":16,"issue_number":null,"year":1956,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forcing Hardy Wood Plants in the Greenhouse for Early Bloom","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24286","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eb326.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"I ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 J ~I.A RCH ~ 18,J~ J NUMBER I FORCING HARDY WOODY PLANTS IN THE GREENHOUSE FOR EARLY BLOOM indoors to produce gorgeous bloom for spring flower shows become a favorite indoor sport for many a commercial grower. The Arnold Arboretum tried valiantly to refrain from this type of acti~ ity but has had to succumb. When it came to figuring the time to bring in plants from outdoors so that they would produce the proper amount of flowers at the exact time the judges toured the show, it was woefully clear that there was not much published information which would help rank amateurs at this game. The experienced growers, who had been doing this for years, either kept such facts in their heads or else tucked away in some attic file which was referred to briefly once a year. Many growers helped the amateurs of the Arboretum with timely suggestions, but we wanted to have something more definite than a \"guess\" to go by. Consequently, we kept records of when the plants were brought into the greenhouse, how long it took them to come into flower, and at what greenhouse temperatures. The old-timers say, that such information is not of much value, since the number of days for blooming depends on the amount of \"cold\" (i.e., dormant period) the plant has received previously, the amount of rainfall the previous summer and fall, the temperature of the greenhouse, the number of days with sunshine after the plants have been taken into the greenhouse, etc. All of which is understandable, nevertheless, we wanted the records on paper to help us with such forcing for future shows. Consequently, the plant propagator, Mr. Coggeshall, kept a record of the dates the plants were brought into the greenhouse, and the number of days it took to force them into bloom. Included with the plants were two sets of cut branches, cut from the same plants but at different times, to determine the length of time it would take to bring these into bloom also. The greenhouse was kept at about 55-60 F. night temperature. The idea was to see if time of bloom out of doors FORCING plants has -1 is known) could be correlated with the number of days necessary to bring the branches into bloom in the greenhouse, and also to see whether shrubs with a ball of soil about the roots would bloom (when forced) in about as many days as the cut branches. (which BRANCHES OF SHRUBS FORCED IN A GREENHOUSE With Night Temperatures of 55-60 F. 2 ] PLATE I in the new lecture-demonstration hall in the Administration Building of the Arnold Arboretum. This exhibit is open to the public Monday through Friday from 9 A. M. to 5 P.M. from March 1 on for several months. In visiting the Arboretum, stop in to see this very practical exhibit. Pruning exhibit PLANTS BROUGHT IN JANUARY 11 PLANTS BROUGHT IN JANUARY 28 PLANTS BROUGHT IN FEBRUARY 1 PLANTS BROUGHT IN FEBRUARY 8 Only a few plants were forced in our greenhouses last year, but the above results show that plants blooming at the same time out of doors, can be forced into bloom indoors in about the same number of days. The later they bloom out of doors, the longer they take indoors, naturally. Also, plants dug with a ball of soil can be forced in about the same length of time as cut branches, under the same conditions. It goes without saying, that with higher greenhouse temperatures at night, the number of days to bloom can be further reduced. In other words, and with wide allowances for many variables, the time for forcing cut branches indoors can be summarized as follows : Approximate number of days CUT BRANCHES to bloom in greenhouse with temperatures of 55-60 F. night DONALD WYMAN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24288","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eb76f.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 15 APRIL 15, IJjJ NUMBER 2 PLANT BREEDING AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM introduction of trees and shrubs of horticultural interest has been an imfunction of the Arnold Arboretum for many years. Since its founding over seventy five years ago the Arnold Arboretum has been responsible for the introduction of nearly 3000 species and varieties of woody plants new to this country. Many of these have proven to be valuable ornamentals and are now widely distrtbuted commonly seen around homes, in parks and gardens and featured in other arboreta. The staff of the Arnold Arboretum has also been actively engaged in the development of new or improved ornamental trees and shrubs through plant breeding. The techniques of the plant breeder: hybridization, back-crossing, selection, used in the past to develop the now numerous varieties of roses, lilacs and rhododendrons, are being applied at the Arnold Arboretum to crab apples, forsythias, magnolias and other ornamental trees and shrubs. The plant explorer will continue to select and introduce plants new to America. The plant breeder will continue to use the best characteristics of each introduction to develop even more desirable ornamentals. The breeding of new horticultural varieties of trees and shrubs requires much patience for the results may not be evident for many years. The actual transfer of pollen between species or varieties to produce the hybrid seed is only the first of many steps, and detailed records must be kept through all steps. The hybrid seeds are carefully collected and stored. Many must be stratified to insure germination and some require two years for this process. The seeds are planted in the greenhouse in the early spring and the seedlings transferred to the nursery a few months later. After a year or two in the nursery they are planted in rows ten feet apart with the plants z-5 feet apart in the row. Here they remain until they flower-which may be several years, but often 5-10 years. The more promising types, as measured by leaf and flower characters, are then selected for propa- THE portant - J_ gation and again grown in the nursery for several years. They are then planted with sufficient spacing and in several locations, to test for growth habit, size and hardiness. The hybrids which pass this test are then selected and propagated for distribution to the commercial nurserymen, who in turn must propagate them for distribution to the public. Thus it may take 10-20 years or more before the new hybrid becomes available to the horticultural public. The plant breeding work at the Arboretum has covered a wide range of genera with emphasis in recent years on the production of small or dwarf trees and shrubs to meet modern landscape designs. Since the average home owner-or his wifeis also the gardener, the trees and shrubs which are planted should be hardy and require a minimum amount of pruning, cultivation and spraying. One of the first hybrids released in recent years by the Arnold Arboretum was an ornamental cherry, named as a tribute to the writer's wife and given her maiden name \"Hally Jolivette.\" The French name Jolivette is also appropriate since it means \"pretty little one.\" This flowering cherry is a hybrid between Prunus subhirtella and a variety of P. apetala. It is a small tree of graceful habit and comes into flower the second or third year from the time of propagation from cuttings or by budding on P. subhirtella rootstocks. The flowers are semidouble, white with a light pink center, and open up in succession so that the tree is in bloom for several weeks. The branches are dark and slender and at dusk the white flowers appear to be floating in air. This variety, like all cherries, likes full sun and well-drained soil. It is now available from a few commercial nurserymen. Mature specimens can be seen on the Bussey grounds and in the cherry collection of the Arboretum just inside the Forest Hills gate. Neither nature nor the plant breeder has yet produced the ideal variety of ornamental apple. It should be of small or moderate size, have attractive flowers which retain their color and texture until the petals drop, be of graceful growth habit while at the same time requiring little pruning, have foliage that will become colorful in the fall and possess attractive fruit remaining on the tree until late fall. Most of the apple hybrids made at the Arnold Arboretum have involved parental varieties of hybrid origin such as M. arnoldiana, M. pumila niedswetslryana, and M. purpurea eleyi. As a result the progeny have been extremely variable providing a great range of genetic recombinations. Many of the best oriental species are apomictic and produce only maternal types of offspring, but M. sargenti proved to be facultatively apomictic and occasional sexual hybrids have been obtained by artificial pollination. One of the first apple hybrids released by the Arboretum is a hybrid between M. arnoldiana and M. pumila niedzu~etskya~ia, distributed under the number 19039. It has been named \"Henrietta Crosby\" in honor of DZrs. V. R. Crosby,* who has * The cultivars being named for the first time in this paper are MalusX \"Henrietta Crosby,\" MalusX\"Blanche Ames,\" MalusX \"Henry F. du Pont,\" and MalusX \"Mary Potter.\" member of the Arnold Arboretum Visiting Committee. This variety graceful growth habit, with large single pink (China Rose 02~!1 ) flowers which hold their color well. The fruits are about an inch in diameter, and bright red in color. Mature trees of this variety are on the Bussey grounds adjacent to the Arboretum and at the Case Estate in Weston. It has been distributed to commercial nurserymen, but has not yet been placed on the market. Another attractive ornamental apple is an open pollinated offspring of M. sgrPCtrrbilis riaersi distributed under number 6639. This variety has been named \"Blanche Ames\" in honor of Mrs. Oakes Ames, a distinguished botanical artist and wife of the late Oakes Ames, former administrator of the Arnold Arboretum. This variety is a rather small tree which has a most attractive growth habit. The flower buds are pink and open up as semidouble white blossoms with a tinge of pink on the outer petals. The flowers are of delicate, but durable, texture and are most attractive. The fruits are small, yellow and drop rather early, but the graceful growth habit and delicate flowers make this variety unique. It is not yet available from commercial sources. Good specimens of \"Blanche Ames\" are growing on the Bussey grounds, and in the Arnold Arboretum on the bank just inside the Forest Hills gate. A more recent hybrid apple appears so promising that it has been named before it has been thoroughly tested. It is a seedling from \"I3enrietta Crosby\" and bears the Arnold Arboretum number ?295 i . The flowers are large - up to 1. 5 ~ inches in diameter-and are a brilliant red (Spinel red-0023\/I~. The fruits, which are about half an inch in diameter are bright red and hold their color and texture well into the winter. Although these trees are still young the spreading growth habit is already evident and the mature trees should possess a desirable form. This hybrid has been named \"Henry F. duPont\" in honor of a discriminating horticulturist who has long been a faithful member of the Arnold Arboretum's Visiting Committee. A small specimen of\"Henry F. duPont\" is on the Bussey bank inside the Forest Hills gate. It has been propagated for distribution, but will not be available to the public for at least several years. Some of the most exciting apple hybrids have been obtained by using Malus sargenti rosea as the seed parent. The hybrids resemble lYl..snrgeuti in growth habit and in leaf shape, but some have much larger and more colorful flowers and larger fruits. One of the first of these hybrids, made by George Skirm in 1938, resembles M. sargenti in many respects but is more vigorous. The pink buds open into white blossoms in great abundance. The small fruits are a bright red, but do not last long since they are eaten by the birds and tend to drop early in the fall. This hybrid is a cross between :Vl, sargenti rosea and M. ntrosanguinea and since it is a daughter of M. sargenti it has been named \"Mary Potter\" for one of Professor Sargent's daughters. It has been distributed to the commercial growers and should soon be available from at least one nurseryman. Excellent specimens are on the Bussey grounds and on the bank inside the Forest Hills gate. long been a is of moderate size, of _ 7 Two other promising new crab apple varieties have been introduced to the trade by the Arnold Arboretum. The first is \"Katherme,\" originated as a seedling at Rochester Park by B. H. Slavin about 25 years ago. It has been named, at DIr. Slavin's request, in honor of his daughter-in-law Katherine Clark Slavin. Malus speclabilis is probably one of the parents. This variety has large flowers which are double, with about 20 petals. The white and pink blossoms are most attractive and the growth habit of the tree is quite good. There is some tendency for it to flower only in alternate years and the small yellow fruits are not outstanding. We have progeny of \"Katherine\" with attractive red fruits which are now being tested. Small specimens of\"Katherine\" may be found in the Arboretum on Peters Hill, and it is available from several nurserymen. A spectacular variety of ornamental apple was found as a chance seedling by Dr. Donald Wyman on the Arboretum grounds. The flowers are white, deeply tinged with pink, with about 16 petals and are about5 centimeters in diameter. The orange yellow fruits are about 1.5 centimeters in diameter and are most colorful in the fall. It flowers when only two or three years old and is an annual bearer. It was named in honor of Dr. Wyman's older daughter Dorothea. Small specimens of\"Dorothea\" may be seen on the Bussey grounds and on Peters Hill in the Arboretum. It is available from commercial sources. The Magnolias are among our finest ornamental trees, particularly M. stellnln, the Star Magnolia. Unfortunately it blooms so early in the spring that the flowers are often injured by cold weather. We have not yet been able to combine the small attractive growth habit and attractive flowers with a later blooming variety, but one of the M. stellata hybrids has proved to be outstanding for gardens where a relatively large specimen can be used. This hybrid, a cross between M. stellata and M. kobus, has been named the \"Merrill\" Magnolia, in honor of Dr. E. D. Merrill, former director of the Arnold Arboretum. It has flowers much like those of 1V1. stellata and blooms early in the spring, but it is a symmetrical, vigorous tree and at the age of 15 years is larger than the 60-year-old M. stellata specimens near by. An excellent specimen is growing near the Administration building. It has been propagated and was offered for distribution by a large nursery last year. The Forsythias herald spring in New England. They are tough, hardy, easy to grow and are spectacular in early spring, but most of the varieties have little to offer the rest of the year. In cold open winters the flower buds are often killed. We have tried to produce new compact hardy types using Forsythia ovata, one of the hardiest species, as one of the parents, but without much success to date. In 1939, George Skirm produced a tetraploid seedling of Forsythin intermedia spectabilis which was named Arnold Giant.\" The growth habit is rather stiff. The large deep yellow flowers are attractive, but are rather shy and do not turn their faces to the sun. The late Lord Aberconway grew some plants of \"Arnold Giant\" in England where it was given an award of merit by the Royal Horticultural Society, but in this country most people prefer the lighter colored flowers. 8 PLATE II a cross between M. stellata and M. kobus is one of several meritorious ornamental plants that have been originated as a result of the plant breeding program of the Arnold Arboretum. Magnolia loebneri \"Merrill\"-This hybrid, \"Arnold Giant\" is, however, an excellent variety for forcing as a cut flower, and parent in the production of triploid varieties. \"Arnold Dwarf\" forsythia is an odd segregate from a cross between F. inte~~media and F. japonica saxatilis made in 1942. It grows only a few feet tall and the spreading branches root readily in contact with the ground. Its compact spreading growth habit makes it a good ground cover. It has been slow in coming into flower and as yet the flowers have not been borne abundantly. Perhaps propagation from flowering plants will overcome the delay and paucity of flowering. Several collections of \"Arnold Dwarf\" are growing on the Bussey grounds and several specimens have been planted at the lower end of the forsythia collection in as a the Arboretum. It is available from some nurseries. Considerable work has been done with the lilacs, to get a low-spreading type of bush with flowers like those of the Vulgaris lilacs, but with no success. The small-spreading species such as Syringa microplrylla can not be crossed with the Vulgaris lilacs, and crosses between Vulgaris varieties and S. laciniata or S. pinnatifolia produce only sterile hybrids. The vulgaris laciniata hybrids produced in Europe have given us the \"Chinese\" lilacs which have the grace of the Chinese species, S. laciniata, in growth habit and inflorescence, and the flowers have been increased in size by the Balkan parent S. vulgaris. A number of new hybrids between these parental species have been grown, but none has yet been better than the older varieties of S. chinensis. There are probably thousands of varieties of rhododendron, yet few of them are entirely happy in New England with the cold winters and hot summers. We have grown a number of hybrid segregates from crosses between the hardier Catawbiense varieties and the more tender but more attractive Fortunei hybrids. ~'e have selected several dozen from among more than 300 segregates and they are being tested for hardiness and insect resistance on the Bussey grounds. The artificial doubling of chromosomes has been a promising technique in producing new varieties of forsythia and other genera. In 1939, seedlings of F. intermedia spectabilis were treated with colchicine and produced a tetraploid plant. This was pollinated with pollen from nearby species, including F. ouatn, and gave rise to several dozen triploids. Several of these had exceptionally large flowersup to 2~rr in diameter-and flowered freely. One was selected for propagation and has been named in honor of Beatrix Farrand, one of the leading landscape gardeners of this country and former student of Professor Sargent. The \"Farrand\" Forsythia has been distributed to a number of commercial growers. The triploid forsythias are relatively sterile, but an occasional fertile seed is formed. These seeds often have an unbalanced chromosome number and produce aneuploid seedlings which are occasionally so unlike the mother plant that they hardly look like forsythias. Many of these aneuploid seedlings are dwarf types and should begin to flower this spring. The progeny of triploids have also proved to be unique in Philadelphus. Several 10 ~ ] of the most attractive varieties of mock oranges are triploids which originated in Europe from segregates of species hybrids. The variety \"Bicolore\" in the Arboretum produces some viable seed and we have grown more than a hundred progeny. They are extremely variable and may provide some unique segregates of horticultural interest. Triploid magnolias are also being grown. An artificial tetraploid was produced in 1939, but was of no value because the petals were too thick to open properly. It was back-crossed to normal diploids to produce triploids. We have several dozen plants which are still in the nursery. They will be moved to the testing plots at the Case Estates in Weston in another year or two. Other methods of producing new ornamental plants It has long been known that the mutation rate in plants and animals could be increased by exposure to X-rays or other ionizing radiation. Horticulturists in Sweden and in Canada have been able to increase the frequency of bud sports in apples by irradiating scions used in grafting. We have done some work along this line with a portable radiation source provided by the Brookhaven National Laboratories. We have also cooperated with this Laboratory by providing ornamental trees and shrubs which have been planted in the \"gamma field\" at Upton, Long Island. Various intensities of chronic irradiation are provided by planting the trees and shrubs at varying distances from the radioactive cobalt source in the center of the field. As these ornamentals reach the flowering stage they will be examined for desirable mutations or \"bud sports.\" Ionizing radiation from X-rays, radium or radioactive cobalt has also been used to stimulate plant growth, but with very few exceptions the experiments conducted in Europe and the United States have not shown any favorable results. V~'e have, however, been able to induce earlier flowering in gladiolus by irradiating the corms with 3000 roentgens of X-rays. This experiment was conducted at the Bussey Institution and will be repeated this summer. The need for smaller trees for the modern home and the home orchard has stimulated work on dwarfing techniques so that standard varieties of ornamental and fruit trees can be grown as dwarfs. For hundreds of years the European horticulturists have used special rootstocks to dwarf apples and pears. Wehave used Prunus tomentosa as a dwarfing stock for peaches and plums, and these dwarfed trees should soon be available from commercial sources. Some of the dwarf fruit trees are nice ornamentals and could serve a dual purpose. Work is in progress to find suitable dwarfing stocks for standard ornamental trees. Malus sargenti and other species of apples are being tested as dwarfing stocks for ornamental crabs. Preliminary tests indicate that the Silver Maple when used as a rootstock dwarfs the Red Maple and the new \"Crimson King\" greatly maple. New techniques for dwarfing trees and inducing earlier flowering have been 11 ~] Bussey Institution during recent the trunk of a young tree has the same effect as girdling, but without the danger of killing or infecting the tree. The flow of elaborated sap down the bark is checked by inverting the bark because the phloem cells are \"polarized\"-they permit flow in only one direction. This operation is performed in June and preferably on trees several years old, although we have inverted the bark of an ornamental apple with a trunk diameter of about 5 inches. Perhaps one could let a tree reach the desired size and check further growth by inverting a ring of bark. These experiments are still in the preliminary stages, but if anyone is interested he can see this and the other experimental work on the Bussey Institution grounds adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum, where a demonstration dwarf orchard has been planted adjacent to the Bussey developed at the Arnold Arboretum and the a years. The inversion of ring of bark on greenhouses. KARL SAX ARNOLDIA SUBSCRIPTIONS: tions to Arnoldia and still wish to receive Those who have not paid their 19~5 subscripit, should send $2.00 at once to: Arnoldia Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. Please make checks payable to Harvard University. FIELD CLASS Registrations are still open for the Friday morning Field Class at the Arnold Arboretum which meets Fridays from 10--12 o'clock. The registration fee of ~~?.00 can be sent to Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. 12 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Comes to the Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24290","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14ebb6d.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME IJ APRIL 22, 1955 NUMBER 3 SPRING COMES TO THE ARBORETUM the broad-leaved types have suffered considerable and an unusual amount of burning of foliage has been noted in certain exposed situations. Fortunately, the rhododendrons in the Arnold Arboretum collection have not been nearly as badly damaged as have been the plants in some of the gardens in the Boston suburbs. There has been a small amount of twig die-back, which is always most difficult to explain, but by and large the rhododendrons in the Arboretum came through the winter in fine con- EVERGREENS, especially damage during winter, the dition. The past winter has been a comparatively mild one. The damage that has been done to plants was probably caused by the alternate freezing and thawing experienced in January and February, when temperature changes were rapid and extreme; also, damage may have been caused when the ground was frozen but sudden high temperatures on warm days brought about increased transpiration. Heavy snow and ice storms failed to materialize so that the plants in the Arboretum did not suffer damage from this often serious trouble. In fact, a walk through the Arboretum now shows that most of the collections are in a surprisingly good condition. Although two hurricanes ripped through the plantings last fall, all but a few of the most remote trees blown over by those winds have been removed. As was stated then, the actual pruning off of broken branches will not be complete for a long time yet, although several men have been pruning throughout the winter on all but the coldest days. Fertilizers are being applied this spring to many of the collections and to many of the plants injured by the storms last fall. Spraying, which each year becomes an increasingly complicated problem, is progressing normally and the new high pressure hydraulic sprayer is certainly facilitating matters. Certain plants are still sprayed by spraying eases as the \"blower,\" but we are finding that we must depend on hydraulic well as mist spraying to successfully combat all the insects and dis- here. 13- The obvious evidence of spring came suddenly on April 11, after two extremely days brought several kinds of shrubs into bloom some several days in advance of the normal time they usually start to flower. The oriental witch-hazels were in bloom during the greater part of February and March and have now gone past. Cornu.s mas started into flower about April 5, as did Rhododendron mucronnlrrtum and Rlrorlodendron dauricum sempervirens. There does not seem to be much difference between the blooming dates of these two early blooming shrubs when they are growmg side by side as they are in the new azalea border across from the Administration Building. The star magnolia and its hybrid, the new lVTagnolirr \"B~err~ll\" came into full bloom very quickly on April 1 1. After two extremely warm days with rather brisk warm winds, these plants quickly put out their flowers in one day. It is interesting to note, that, as far as these plants in the Arboretum are concerned, no flower buds have been killed by the winter. Killing of these flower buds is usuallv brought about by extremely low temperatures, and the lowest recorded officially by the Boston 4~'eather Bureau until February was 10 F. on January ~8, truly a mild winter! In February, the temperature did dip below this on three days (Feb. 2, to 5, Feb. 3, to -1 , and Feb. 13, to 9). These three days were the only truly cold ones all winter! Another indication of the mildness of the winter is the present condition of the Corylopsis species. Cold winter temperatures frequently kill these flower buds so that normally they do not produce good flowers more than one spring out of three. This year, they came into full bloom April 12, and showed a surprisingly small number of killed flower buds. However, because the yellow forsythias and Cornelian cherry both bloom at this same time, and give about the same effect at least from a distance, the more tender winter-hazels have not proved very popular in New England. The red maples, elms, yews, and boxwoods all came into flower about the middle of April. The flowers of these are none too conspicuous but one is cognizant of their being in full bloom because of the activity of the bees about them, obtaining pollen to build strong spring broods. The native spice bush, too, bloomed at the same time. A nice clump of plants can be seen growing along the road opposite the lilac collection, and they produced many flowers this spring. Another plant which frequently fails to bloom properly because of extremely low winter temperatures is the spring heath (Erica carnea~. The planting of this is at the top of the bed of heathers by the Juniper collection, and these were covered with profuse flowers the week of April 10-far better in bloom than they have been for many years. The single flowered oriental cherries came into bloom April 18. The large collection at Washington, D.C. was badly injured by unprecedented cold in late March, when they normally begin to flower there. This cold spell extended down into the Carolinas, Georgia, and Alabama, and did millions of dollars damage to fruit crops alone. Fortunately, the plants in New England were not sufficiently far advanced at the time to be injured. warm 14 . PLATE III Corylopsis spicata, yellow flowers at no flower buds Spike Winter-hazel, has stifliy pendulous clusters of small this time of year. It is not thoroughly hardy in the Boston area, but killed this past winter. the were Each spring the Arboretum staff is questioned by hundreds of people concerning just when the lilacs are going to bloom, or which azalea will bloom the second week of May, or when do the rich red flowering rhododendrons begin to open their flowers. These dates naturally vary slightly from year to year. Also, the length of time the plants remain colorful depends on the weather, at the time, a cool cloudy spell will result in their lasting much longer than during hot sunny weather. In the following list, a single plant may be listed because the planting at the Arboretum is conspicuous. On the other hand, the groups, such as hydrangeas and honeysuckles, include many species which bloom over a considerable time. One should not expect them all to bloom together, but rather separately and within the general limits listed. It will undoubtedly be of interest to many a possible Arboretum visitor and amateur photographer, to glance through the following list of dates when the more conspicuous plants are expected to bloom this year: DONALD WYMAN 16 - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arboretum Lilacs in their Order of Bloom","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24291","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14e8126.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 15 5 MAY 18, 1955 ' NUMBER 4 THE ARBORETUM LILACS IN THEIR ORDER OF BLOOM are at least five full weeks of lilac blooms at the Arnold Arboretum. This is not known to every Arboretum visitor, since to the majority, lilacs bloom only during a ten-day period in late May. It is true that the largest display comes at this time, since three fourths of the lilac collection consists of Syringa vulgaris varieties. But it is still true that there is a continuous display of lilac blooms for a five-week period at least, and sometimes this is extended for another week or two if weather conditions remain favorable. When some of the species are compared with the many beautiful varieties of S. vulgaris, they are found lacking in color, fragrance and size ; but when the S. vulgaris varieties are not in flower for comparison, these species and their comparatively few varieties are of interest and contain several plants well worth including in many garden plantings. It should be noted here that the excellent survey \"Lilacs for America\" first published in 1941 and rewritten and published in October 1953, is now available from most of the major Arboretums of the United States. This was an intensive study of all lilacs grown now in America, notes on color and origin together with actual sources where each variety is being grown and where each variety can be purchased. Much of the information in this issue of Arnoldia is taken from this extensive survey. The Arboretum lilacs are listed according to the times at which they start to bloom. Frequently they may remain in bloom sufficiently long so that they can be used ornamentally with lilacs in another group. Thus, S. chinensis and S, persica come into bloom after the S. vulgaris varieties have reached their peak, but still can be used at the same time effectively. As is the case with the sequence of bloom of other ornamental trees and shrubs, weather conditions may alter the dates. However, after comparing the records based on the lilac collection at the Arnold Arboretum for several years, we find that the following groups of species and their varieties bloom together. THERE 17- LILAC SEQUENCE OF BLOOM Group1 Blooming about May 10 S. oblata and varieties Common Name hyacinthiflora pinnatifolia Early Lilac Hyacinth Lilac Pinnate Lilac _ Group Blooming about May 20 2 S. chinensis and variet~es julianae laciniata meyeri microphylla persica potanini pubescens velutina vulgaris and varieties 3 Group 5 Chinese Lilac Juliana Lilac Cutleaf Lilac Meyer Lilac Littleleaf Lilac Persian Lilac Potanin Lilac Hairy Lilac Manehurian Lilac Common Lilac Blooming about June S. emodi henryi and varieties josikaea and varieties komarowi prestoniae and varieties reflexa Himalayan Lilac Henry Lilac Hungarian Lilac Komarof Lilac Preston Lilac Nodding Lilac Swegiflexa Lilac Chengtu Lilac Felty Lilac Late Lilac Wolfs Lilac Yunnan Lilac 4 Group swegiflexa sweginzowi svv.eginzoiv.I tomentella villosa wolfi yunnanensis Blooming about June S. amurensis amurensis 15 japonica peli~nensis Amur Lilac Japanese Tree Lilac Pekin Lilac Not all the lilacs listed are of outstanding ornamental value, and not all are available in the trade in this country. It may be of value to Arnoldia readers, if a few in each group are pointed out as being good ornamental additions to garden plantings. _18~ J \"C v w &'\"3#x E; <IJ .~ \" '\" .%: : a a rj s Y w 0 <IJ 0 8 c. E a r~,.~ w~ 0 W d'Yc a. a 0 a m a , I 8 . 0 0 o ~ a ~ . U _~ ra U a \" H Group 1. The early lilac, S. oblata, comes from northern China and is valued because it is the first of all the lilacs to bloom and also because it is the only lilac with a red to orange autumn color. Unfortunately, there are times when the flower buds are injured by severe winters. The leaves are rarely disfigured by the mildew so evident on the common lilac in late summer. The variety dilatata is perhaps the best because of its large lilac-pink flower clusters. There are several varieties of S. hyaciuthiflora chiefly originated in France as a result of Victor Lemoine's hybridization at Nancy, France, and are of an intermediate lavender color. The varieties\"Turgot\" and \"Necker\" are probably the most prominent of the group. However, all the varieties of S. hyacinth~ora can be used for ornamental planting since they bloom slightly in advance of S. vulgaris and as a rule form larger growing and more vigorous shrubs. S. pinnatifolia is the least ornamental of any lilacs here listed. Group 2. The Arboretum collection contains over 300 varieties of the common lilac. The better varieties selected as a result of the Lilac Survey of 19~3, are listed in the following pages, mostly according to their popularity by the individuals who judged them. This group of lilacs begins to bloom at the time the common lilac varieties are at their best. Both the Chinese and the Persian lilacs are valued for their lower habit of growth and for the larger number of blooms produced every year. Frequently the varieties of the common lilac tend to bloom well one year but have comparatively few blossoms the year following. These two species, however, bloom profusely every year and so are particularly good for cutting purposes. Of the Chinese lilac varieties, saz~gennn is possibly the best because of its deep pink flowers. The cutleaf lilac (laciniata) is also of value because of the feathery texture of its small lobed leaves. The hairy lilac (S. pube.scens) is important because it is considered to be the most fragrant of all the lilacs, but the flowers are not as beautiful as those of the Chinese or Persian lilac, or, in fact, those of most of the common lilac varieties. Group 3. Probably the best known of the varieties of S. henryi is \"Lutece,\" noted for its large pale purple flower clusters which are not fragrant. This variety and the others in Group 3 are important for they bloom at a time when all the flowers of S. vulgaris varieties have faded. The variety \"Lutece\" grows vigorously and is available from many nurseries. The late lilac, S. villosa, is common in gardens, and justly so, because of its many creamy-white flower clusters and good dense habit of growth. Two hybrids are well worth growing, both being the result of Miss Isabella Preston's work at Ottawa, Canada. ~Syringa prestozaiae named by Mrs. McKelvey, in honor of Miss Preston, is a group of hybrids, the flowers of which contain a great deal of pink. Most of the lilacs blooming in early June have white flowers, 20 U _ttf U C .- : ~ ; m <I> ..<::\"'\" co ' ~a > c <= a~ oa Ea'\" a~ 11) c 0 , _o C ) ~ , U ' pD .G U ,~-~ ! i F. +> <= N ..C. ....,..<:: G~C \", A U F. y C. C .: ::2 N ~ '\" 1: cC C M 5 g m 0 C ~ r~ ~.~ 8 Nro C ::3 C.).,S'\" ~- w ~ C L o ~ '~ .. a '\" i. ~ ro .~n <I> .~.~ .~ F <I> '\"' 3 > y '\" <=- '\" .~ ~ .'a .~ ro \"\"' w n. .. I ) m . Ii:w~ U g z 0 ~ ~Y > 4~ U bp w ~ 0:5 ~.- <= '\" C ~ w O but, because the pink flowering S. reflexa is one parent, .S. prestoniae varieties are predominantly pink. This whole group is very important because the plants retain the vigorous growing qualities of S. villosa and some of the good color of S. reflexa. Syringa rgflexa at the Arboretum has not proved a good shrub, though the individual flowers are very beautiful; but Miss Preston's hybrids are well worth growing in the United States. The second hybrid group has been named .S. szeegi,fle.z~a. At the Arboretum, our plants are small, but at Ottawa larger plants are growing and clearly show that nurserymen in the United States would do well to grow at least a few of these varieties for their late flowers. _ Group 4. The last of the lilacs is the was as largest growing of all-the Japanese tree a separate species (and is listed by most but it is now considered to be a variety of S. amurensis. It forms a single trunk and has very conspicuous large creamy-white flower clusters in mid-June. The bark is distinctly ornamental for it is very similar to that of Prunus avium. Where it is given sufficient space in which to expand, it develops into the most prominent of all lilacs. lilac. This formerly considered to be nurserymen S. japonica), SOME OF THE BEST HYBRID LILACS LISTED IN THEIR RESPECTIVE GROUPS IN THE ORDER OF THEIR POPULARITY (s=flowers single d=flowers double) (date is the date of origin) Some Good Early Hybrids s s s s s \"Necker\" ( 1921 ) pink \"Lamartine\" (1911) pink \"Pocahontas\" (1935) purple \"Louvois\" (1921)violet s s s s \"Assessippi\" ( 1936~ lilac \"Catinat\" (1923) pink \"Buffon\" (1921) pink \"Montesquieu\" (1926) magenta s \"EstherStaley\"(1948)magenta \"Blue Hyacinth\" (1943) blue Season) \"Ellen Willmott\" (1903) \"Edith Cavell\" ( 1916) \"Mme. Lemoine\" ( 1890) \"Jeanne d'Arc\" (1902~ \"Marechal Lannes\" (1910) \"Violetta\" (1916) SYRINGA VULGARIS VARIETIES (Blooming I s s s in Mid (White) d d d d s \"Vestale\" (1910~ \"Mont Blanc\" ( 1915) \"Jan Van Tol\" ( 1916) \"Mme. Florent Stepman\" (1908) II (Violet) d d s s \"De 111iribel\" (1903) \"Cavour\" (1910) III (Blue to s s s s \"President Lincoln\" (1924) \"Decaisne\" (1910) \"Maurice Barres\" (1917) \"Firmament\" (1932) Bluish) d \"Olivier de Serres\" (1909) d \"President Grevy\" (1886~ d \"Duc De Massa\" (1905) d \"Emile Gentil\" (1915) - 22 -= ' IV s s (Lilac) d d d and \"Jacques Callot\" ( 1876) \"Cristophe Colomb\" (1905) \"Victor Lemoine\" (1906) V d \"Leon Gambetta\" ( 190 i ) \"President Fallieres\" (19i 1) \"Henri Martin'' (1912) \"~Ime. A. Buchner\" (1905) \"~lontaigne\" (1907) \"Belle De Nancy\" (1891) \"Paul Thirion\" ( 1913 ) \"Mrs. Edward Harding\" ( 1923) \"Paul Deschanel\" (192+) \"Charles Joly-\" (1896) \"Diderot\" ( 1913) \"Adelaide Dunbar\" (1924) \"Paul Hariot\" (1902) (Pink Pinkish) d d d s s \"Lucie Baltet\" (1888) \"D~acrostachya\" ( 1844) \"Katherine Havemeyer\" (1922) VI d (Magenta) d d d d s s s s \"Congo\" (1896) \"Capitaine Baltet\" ( 1919) \"Nlme. F. Morel\" (1892) \"Marechal Foch\" (192+) VII (Purple and Deep Purple) s s s s \"Ludwig Spaeth\" ( 1883) \"Monge\" (1913) \"Mrs. Vf. E. Marshall\" (1924) d d Some Good Late Hybrids (Blooming after June ~) s henryi \"Lutece\" ( 1900) (pale violet and pink) s \"Prairial\" (1933) (fuschia purple) s josiflexa \"Enid\" ( 192 i ) (cyclamen purple) s \"Lynette\" (1921) (rhodamine pink) s prestoniae \"Ariel\" ( 192 i ) (petunia purple) s \"Coral\" (192i) (rhodamine pink) S \"Dawn\" ( 192 i ) \" \"H CCIa\" (1 92! ) \" s \"Hiawatha\" (192i) \" s ' Isabella\" ( 1927) (fuschia purple) s \"Miranda\" (1927) s \"Nerissa\" ( 192 i ) (cyclamen purple) s \"Romeo\" ( 192 i ) (rhodamine pink) s \"Ursula\" ( 1927) (fuschia purple) \" \" \" \" \"4 DONALD WYMAN NOTE: An Open House was held at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum May 7 and 8, and several hundred visited the grounds at that time. These are always open to visitors and a detailed Map of the grounds is on the last page of this bulletin. It is here that the Arboretum maintains permanent and nursery plantings and conducts a portion of its experimental program in horticulture. on 23 -] ~~~ ~. Q ff o~H~~ 0 o G ~c ~ fT' 00 1-1 a. o C7 `~ gm I p '-~G y .w, .~s(D y-. cw\"o o o~.~s E.~ to znr cn ~,c e -n N o (D \"'1 \"\"\"'\"' n) ........ ~2;'~~:--J~ :, n - 2\" a. 0..' w 1-1 ~t p. \"'~t-t.2014(TM (n ~@~~ ~ ~ G ~ \"-' c~ .t .N S' \"'1 <1> !] <: nn~ n t-..:> N m (D N .... ^t \"t ~p,.~q C 0 dO ~pCx&# 3 ;1>N; : r: NS~ &#`~C3x ;1> S 0 : EO '-wh Gt.d~ps~a'.O~' G~'.n`C G p C ml>J~,o(\") ' 0 O ~ o ,wy o'g.;;zS?. ' ~n C G rtl>Jt!g: U) ~3~'Df\" t m N O d ~ w 0 ::s o : s (\") : 3 ? g-5~~0161 ~ `r CD m ~m ~ p ~~ C. O.~7 ~ ;P n' ~ 8, :S ><0 C \"'!3'...oC ^. w w.. o o 0 '<: \",:::: (D G ~ ~ rt x d I>J N (n proJ ro N (T7 S G~ N~O ~ ::- ~ g G(t) r'1- ~GT c.n ~ 0.0.: CD -. mC~ <1> ~~ ~t GC ::s 0. :: , O ~ ~' x ~. OOIQOG N 0 ::s .y . y ::Sc:r<1>' 00 :>;\" x ~ \"\"00 <1> ~ S ::s ri g\" t-,j (p Cn O. ........ v~ 00 Ng.>-J:--JI>Jg'\"~ :-r .j V ~ W ~. (~ <1>S: r: ::r oQ' t'Ij ID<1> W~W owo ~ ~2.,1fUJ1f S' n- ~ rl- : r' 5' M (D Gy x G cc fD td ~(\")~'O E$J;j;::rt-<, ~: ` w ~ c ~ `~ `a m ~ co = a ft n: 3 xro. ~ ~~ ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Revised Glossary of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural Terms","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24283","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eab6f.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kobuski, Clarence E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 15 JUNE ~4, 1955 NUMBERS 5-i A REVISED GLOSSARY OF THE MORE COMMON BOTANICAL AND HORTICULTURAL TERMS aresult of frequent requests this revised edition of the glossary of horticultural terms, first published fifteen years ago in the BULLETIN OF POPULAR A INFORMATION has been prepared. This glossary is a selective compilation of the technical terms used in horticultural literature and is recorded here as an aid to both horticulturists and amateur gardeners who do not have ready access to the many well prepared glossaries already in existence. Several of my colleagues have contributed considerably by suggesting many additional terms which are appearing more frequently in current horticultural literature and in the revised definition of some of the terms as used in the original edition of this glossary. The works of many authors have been utilized, among them L. H. Bailey, A. Gray, Fuller and Tippo, B. D. Jackson, Jepson, Dlayr and Simpson, G. H. M. Lawrence, A. Rehder, et al. more common the side of an organ away from the axis ; dorsal. aberrant differing from usual structure, departing from the type; used of variation. abaxial abortive mostly only barren; imperfectly are or not developed ; as abortive stamens when filaments acaulescent present. as stemless ; as in the dandelion. small, dry, indehiscent, one-celled and one-seeded fruit; buttercup. actinomorphic having flowers with a regular pattern ; symmetrical. acuminate having a gradually diminishing point; long pointed. achene a in the adaxial adnate the side of an organ toward the axis ; ventral. grown to, united to another part; stamens adnate to the corolla-tube. adventitious buds those produced abnormally, as from the stem instead of the axils of the leaves. z~ ~ ] applied to an introduced plant, not definitely established or naturalized. winged; furnished with an expansion, as found on the stem or petiole. allopolyploid a polyploid in which at least one set of chromosomes is derived adventive alate ament unrelated taxon. a spike of flowers usually bracteate and frequently deciduous, as the male flowers of willow, birch, beech and oak. amphidiploid a type of polyploid characterized by the addition of both sets of chromosomes from each of two species. , from an a catkin; amphiploid anastomosed see amphidiploid. leaves or m netted ; which the cross veins form a net. androecium the male stamen-bearing part of the flower. See also gynoecium. aneuploid having a chromosome number which is not an exact multiple of the haploid number. angiosperms plants having their seeds enclosed in an ovary. See also gymnosperms. anther anthesis the pollen-bearing part of the flower. to flowering ; strictly the time of expansion of a flower ; often used designate the flowering period. anthocyanins blue, red and purple water-soluble pigments of plants. true to apetalous without petals; as in willows. apomictic hybrid hybrid which can be reproduced type from seed, develops without fertilization. appressed lying flat and close against. which arborescent attaining the size a or habit of or a tree. articulate asexual jointed; having naturally. reproduction node joint where separation or may take place without sex; destitute of male female organs; the aid of sexual asexual reproduction vegetatively ; without slenderly ; applied usually to the apex of a leaf. atypical not typical; departing from the normal. auriculate furnished with ear-shaped appendages (auricles), as the base of a petal or leaf. autoploid see autopolyploid. autopolyploid a polyploid originating by the multiplication of the chromosome set of an organs. attenuate tapering individual. the sap of a plant cells. slender or stiff point. auxin specific organic product transported in specific effect on the growth activities of the a producing a tapering from the base to bristle-like appendage. axil the upper angle formed by a leaf axillary situated in the axil. awl-shaped awn a a or branch with the stem. 26] barb berry-like; pulpy or fleshy; as in the gooseberry. frequently doubly hooked. barbellate finely barbed. basifixed attached or fixed by the base. beaked ending in a beak or prolonged tip. baccate hooked hair, , furnished with a tuft of hairs. indehiscent fruit developing from a single ovary, having few to many seeds and a fleshy or pulpy outer wall; as the tomato or gooseberry. See also drupe and pome. bi or bis Latin prefix signifying two or twice. bicolored two-colored. biennial a plant which requires two years to complete its life-cycle; as the bearded berry an hollyhock. bifid two bifoliolate cleft. a leaf composed of two leaflets. from a cross bigener (bigeneric hybrid) genera. bilabiate two-lipped bilocular plant hybrid resulting between two ; as in flowers of .Salaia.. two-celled. binomial the combination of a generic and specific name to denote a given organism ; as Acer rubrum. biotype an elementary stable form. bipinnate twice pinnate ; when the divisions of a pinnate leaf are again pinnately divided. bisexual having both stamens and pistils. ~ _ blade the expanded portion see of a leaf. or bloom (1) blossom. (~) a The white waxy pruinose covering of many fruits of fruit trees. scale-like leaves in and leaves. blossom the flower, bole bract more often applied to those the trunk or stem of tree. or a a much reduced leaf, particularly the small cluster or associated with the flowers. bracteate having bracts. bracteolate having bractlets. flower- bractlet breed secondary axis, as on the pedicel. plants having distinctive qualities in common, which, develthe influence of man, requires control by man to prevent mixoped through tures with other groups ; does not imply directly traceable descent from any particular plant and may be propagated from seed. bract borne on a a group of bristle stiff hair. bud the nascent state of a flower, leaf or branch. ~ z~ ~ ] bud mutation bud-scale an abnormal shoot (caused by genetic change), which can be :,, . propagated only asexually. covering of a bud. same as same as bud-mutation. bud-mutation. bulb a modified bud with fleshy scales, usually underground. bulbil a diminutive bulb. bullate blistered or puckered ; as the leaf in Savoy cabbage. bush a low, several- to manv-stemmed shrub, without distinct trunk. bud-sport bud-variation - C caducous callus falling off early. a hard prominence or protuberance; in a cutting or on a severed or injured part, the roll of new covering tissue. calyx the outer perianth of the flower; the collective term for sepals. cambium the layer of delicate, rapidly dividing cells that form wood internally and bark externally. campanulate bell-shaped. canescent capitate capsule carinate gray-pubescent and hoary. head-like; collected in a dense cluster. a dry fruit of more than one carpel, opening keeled. at maturity. ' simple pistil or a member of a compound pistil. spike of unisexual, apetalous flowers. See ament. caudate having a slender, tail-like appendage. caudex the main axis of a plant, including both stem and root. caulescent more or less stem-bearing; having an evident stem above ground. cauline belonging to the stem, as cauline leaves. cell one of the minute compartments or living units of protoplasm of which plants are composed or made up; also a cavity of an anther or ovary. cespitose (or caespitose) growing in tufts; forming mats. channeled deeply grooved longitudinally. chartaceous having the texture of stiff writing paper. chlorophyll the green coloring matter within the cells of plants. choripetalous having separate petals; polypetalous. See also gamopetalous. chromosomes chromatin threads bearing hereditary determiners (genes) in the nuclei of cells; chromosomes contract by coiling at the time of cell division carpel catkin a a deciduous and are visible as rod-like ciliate fringed with hairs. ciliolate minutely ciliate. cinereous clavate circumscissile ' masses. ash-colored, light gray. opening or dehiscing by a regular transverse line of division. club-shaped; said of a long body thickened toward one end. Z8 closed self-fertilized flowers ; as in some violets. plants composed of individuals produced vegetatively from a single original plant; clones differ from races and strains in failing to come true from seeds; examples: Concord grape, Baldwin apple. coalescence the union of similar parts or organs, or of those in the same series as stamens with stamens and petals with petals. coalescent two or more similar parts united. colchicine a poisonous alkaloid ; used experimentally and commercially to produce new plant varieties (polyploids) when applied to mitotic cells. columnar having the shape of a column. compost a fertilizing mixture composed of such substances as peat, leaf mold, manure, lime, etc., thoroughly mixed for fertilizing and renovating land; usually decomposed in a pile with top soil as a compost heap. compound of two or more similar parts united into one whole; compound-leaf one divided into separate leaflets. cone the fruit of such plants as fir, pine and spruce. conifer cone bearing (not synonymous with evergreen). cleistogamous clone a group of , connate joined in one organ. connective cordate coriaceous the portion of the stamen which connects the sac of the anther. heart-shaped ; usually referring to the base of the leaf. leathery. corolla the inner series of floral tmct petals. corm envelopes consisting either of connate or dis- the a corymb costa enlarged fleshy base of a stem, bulb-like but solid, as in gladiolus. flat-topped or convex flowering cluster with the outer flowers opening first. See also cyme. a rib; the midrib or middle-nerve of a leaf. B cotyledon the primary leaf or leaves in the embryo. ':, creeper a trailing shoot that produces roots at intervals. crenate toothed with rounded, shallow teeth. cross hybrid of any description. cross-fertilization fertilization secured by pollen from the flower of another plant. cross-pollination transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another. crustaceous having a hard or brittle covering. culm the stem of grasses and sedges. cultigen a plant, group, or series known only in cultivation. See also indigen. cultivar so-called \"horticultural variety\" or \"garden variety.\" Progeny of a clone, chimera, or the result of selective hybridization, which is known only in cultivation and may or may not be reproduced from seed. The name, usually selected by the propagator, appended to either a generic name or a binomial, should be set off by different type or included within quotations to distinguish it from the binomial of a natural species. Examples: Syringa Congo or Syringa Congo; Malus\"Bob ~'hite''; Deutzia scabra \"Pride of Rochester.\" ~? 9 wedge-shaped ; triangular with narrow end at point of attachment. cupular cup-like or cup-shaped. cuneate cupule cup of such fruits as the acorn. cuspidate sharp-pointed. cutting a severed vegetative or asexual part of a plant used in propagation ; a cutting of root, of stem, or of leaf. cyme a convex or as flat flower-cluster with the central flowers opening first. See in cymes ; also corymb. cymose arranged cytology the branch of cyme-like. biology which treats D of cells, especially of their internal structure. deciduous collapse of seedlings usually ascribed to the attack of fungi. falling, not persistent, as the leaves of non-evergreen trees. decompound more than once compound. decumbent reclining or lying on the ground but with the ends ascending. decurrent (leaf) extending down the stem below the insertion. decussate opposite leaves in four rows up and down the stem; alternating in pairs at right angles. defoliation the casting or falling off of leaves. dehiscence the method or process of opening of a seed-pod or anther. See also damping off indehiscent. deltoid dentate in two groups, as the stamens of filaments. diandrous with two stamens. dichotomous forked regularly in pairs. di, dis diadelphous triangular; delta-like. with more or less spreading teeth. Greek prefix signifying two or twice. some Leguminosae, joined by their dicotyledons (dicots) plants having monocotyledons. die-back diffuse to die two cotyledons or seed lobes. See also loosely or down; generally applied widely spreading. to the apex of the shoot system. digitate with the members rising at one point. dimorphous occurring in two forms. dioecious staminate and cious. pistillate flowers on different plants. See also monoe- diploid an organism with a chromosome number double that of the haploid eration ; the 2 n generation. dissected gen- divided into many a narrow segments. fruit. as dissipiment distichous partition in an ovary or disposed in two vertical ranks, 30 the florets in many grasses. spreading, widely divergent. separated to the base. dormant restive or non vegetative; applied to buds or other parts of a plant in winter, or to the plant itself. dorsal relating to the back or outer surface of an organ. double (flowers) when the number of petals is increased at the expense of other organs, especially the stamens. drupe a fleshy indehiscent fruit with a bony, usually one-seeded endocarp; like the cherry or peach. divaricate divided 1~ e or ex Latin prefix usually denoting parts or are missing, as ebracteate or exstip- ulate meaning without bracts without stipules. to rounded ellipsoid a solid body, elliptic in section. elliptic a flat part or body that is oval and narrowed emarginate with a shallow notch at the apex. embryo the rudimentary plantlet within the seed. endemic entire native or ends. local. or division; with an even margin. epi prefix meaning upon, such as epiphyte. epigynous borne on the top of the ovary. See also hypogynous and perigynous. epiphytic growing on other plants but not parasitic. without toothing ericoid escape a of leaves which are like those of heaths. cultivated plant found growing as though one a wild, dispersed by some agency. espalier a fruit tree trained lattice-fashion in euploid havinga chromosome number which is evanescent soon plane. multiple of the haploid number. disappearing, lasting only a short time. evergreen remaining green throughout the year as pines and some rhododendrons. Does not necessarily refer to cone-bearing plants. See also deciduous. excurrent with a projecting tip, as the nerve of a leaf projecting beyond the margin ; the trunk of a tree mth undivided main stem, as in the fir. exfoliating peeling off in thin layers ; as the bark of the birch. foreign, not native. prolonged beyond the surroundmg organs, exsiccatae dried, pressed specimens. exotic exserted as stamens from the corolla. exstipulate eye without stipules. the marked center of a flower; bud cutting. a bud on a tuber, as on the potato; a single- P Fl first generation of a cross between species or varieties ; often cultivated for the are hybrid vigor; succeeding filial generations falcate designated F2, F3, etc. sickle-shaped. 31 abnormal widening and flattening of the stem or branches. fascicle a dense cluster. fastigiate with close and erect branches, as in the Lombardy poplar. ferrugineous rust-colored. fertile capable of producing fruit and seeds ; also said of pollen-bearing anthers. fertilization effect of pollen deposited on a stigmatic surface resulting in conversion of flower into fruit and of ovule into seed ; the union of egg and sperm. filament stalk of the anther. filiform thread-like; long and very slender. fasciated an \" . fimbriate flaccid floccose and weak. clothed with tufts of soft hair or wool. florets small individual flowers of compact heads or spikes. floriferous flower-bearing, usually in the sense of abundantly flowering. foliaceous leaf-like in texture or appearance; said particularly of sepals and calyx-lobes and of bracts that in texture, size or color look like small or large leaves. -foliate -foliolate follicle or fringed. not rigid; lax in combinations, -leaved; having leaves; as tri-foliate, three-leaved, as the stem of trillium. Often confused with trifoliolate. having leaflets; as trsfbliolate, nf three lec~et.s. dry, dehiscent pericarp opening only along one suture ; as the milkw eed peony. sub-division of a variety or species usually differing in one character and usually perpetuated vegetatively. frond leaf of a fern; sometimes used in the sense of foliage. fructiferous producing or bearing fruit. fructification the act or process of fruiting; also the fruiting organ. fruit the seed-bearing product of a plant. frutescent nearly shrubby. fruticose shrubby ; with woody persistent stems and branches. fugacious falling or withering away very early. funnelform said of a corolla with the tube gradually widening upward ; as in the morning-glory. furrowed with longitudinal channels or grooves. fusiform spindle-shaped ; narrowed toward both ends from a swollen middle; form as in the roots of the dahlia. G more or less united. See also choripetalous gamopetalous having petals and polypetalous. gamosepalous calyx of one piece; sepals united. geniculate bent abruptly like a knee. genus (pl. genera) a group of allied species under a single heading; or consisting the of an isolated species exhibiting unusual differentiation (monotypic genus). 32] germination the development of the plantlet from the seed. girdle (to) restrict or remove bark around the stem or other parts of plants. roots encircling roots at or below the surface of the ground which tend strangle the plant. glabrate nearly glabrous or becoming glabrous with age. glabrous not hairy. gladiate sword-shaped or sword-like. gland a definite secreting structure on the surface embedded in or ending a hair; also any protuberance of the like nature which may not secrete, as the warty swellings at the base of the leaf in the cherry and peach. glandular bearing glands or gland-like appendages. glaucous covered with a bloom; bluish white or bluish gray. glochidiate barbed ; tipped with barbs. girdling to glomerate in compact clusters. glume a chaff-like bract; particularly the one of two empty bracts at the base of spikelet in grasses. gourd a fleshy one-celled many-seeded fruit; like the melon. graft a branch or bud inserted on another plant with the intention grow there ; a scion. graft-hybrid plant showing influences of scion and stock caused by union that it will mechanical of the tissues. grafting the process of inserting a scion in a plant (stock) with the intention that the tissues of both shall unite and that the stock shall furnish the nourishment for the growth of the scion. , granular, granulose composed of or appearing as covered by minute grains. gymno in Greek compounds, signifying naked or not covered. gymnosperms plants with uncovered ovules, as the conifers. See also angiosperms, gynoecium the female or pistil-bearing part of the flower. H See also androecium. habit the general aspect of a plant, or its mode of growth. the type of locality in which a plant grows. haploid an organism with a single set of chromosomes (the n generation). hastate halberd-shaped ; like an arrowhead but with the basal lobes pointing outward nearly at right angles. head a dense cluster or short, dense spike of sessile or nearly sessile flowers. heartwood the innermost and oldest wood next to the pith, usually of a dark color. heel an enlarged or more or less transverse part on the lower end of a cutting secured from the older or larger branch from which the cutting is taken. habitat heliotropism herb a plant not the characteristic of turning toward the woody, at least above ground. light. 33 of the texture of an herb; not woody. collection of dried specimens of plants with data, often mounted on linen paper, preserved for study or comparison. heterogen group of plants heterozygous from hybridity or mutation among which there are several phenotypes. Individuals here may be propagated as clones, or cultivars may be segregated by selective breeding. Example: Japanese azalea. heteromorphous parts of different shape. heterophyllous with two sorts of leaves. hip the fruit of the rose. hirsute with rather coarse or stiff hairs. herbaceous herbarium a ' hirtellous minutely hirsute. hispid beset with rigid hairs or bristles. hispidulous diminutive of hispid. homo in Greek homogamous hormone see compound, bearing only one all alike or of one sort. kind of flowers. auxin. horny hard and dense in texture. host a plant which nourishes a parasite. humus decomposing organic matter in the soil. humus soils garden soils enriched with organic manure. hyaline hybrid or transparent a nearly plant resulting from a or so. cross between two or more parents that are more less unlike. obtaining hybrids by artificial crossing; (2) also occurring naturally. hydrophytes water plants, partially or wholly immersed. hygrophytes marsh plants, or plants which need a large supply of moisture for growth. hypanthium the cup-shaped or tubular receptacle on w hich the perianth and the stamens are inserted ; as in the flower of the cherry. hypogynous borne on the receptacle beneath the ovary; said of stamens and petals. See also epigynous and perigynous. hybridization the art of used for the same (1) operation I imbricate overlapping, and azaleas. as shingles on a roof; as the bud-scales of horse-chestnuts impari-pinnate pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex ; odd-pinnate. See also pari-pinnate. imperfect flower having either stamens or pistils, but not both. See also perfect flower. grafting by approach, the scion remaining attached place. incanescent hoary or gray-pubescent. inarching union has taken to its parent until 34 margin. opening by valves or along regular lines. See also dehiscent. indigen a plant of known origin growing spontaneously or in cultivation. See also cultigen. indigenous original to the country, not introduced. indumentum any covering, as hairiness. inferior ovary one that is below the perianth. See also superior ovary. indehiscent not incised cut sharply in the inflorescence the flower any infraspecific infructescence infundibuliform funnel-shaped. insectivorous used of those plants which capture insects and absorb nutriment from them. insertion node or place where one body is attached to its support. integument covering of a body or organ; envelope of an ovule. internode the space or portion of stem between two nodes. introduced used of plants which have been brought from another country; exotic. involucre a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, umbel or head, etc., as in the heads of composites and the flowering dogwood. involute having the edges of the leaves rolled inwards. irregular flower some parts different from other parts of the same whorl; usually applied to zygomorphous flowers. K cluster; disposition of the flowers on the floral axis. category of classification below the specific level. the inflorescence in a fruiting stage. the chromosomal complex characteristic of a group of allied plants ; associated with both morphology and number of chromosomes. keel a projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat; the two front petals of a papilionaceous corolla. or key fruit a winged-fruit, like in the maples; samara. key knee an abrupt bend in a stem or tree trunk ; an outgrowth of some tree roots. karyotype L in orchids. if torn. laciniate cut into deep narrow lobes. lactescent producing milky juice; as in the milkweeds. laevigate smooth, as if polished. lamina the blade or expanded portion of an organ, such as the leaf. lanate, lanose woolly, clothed with soft entangled hairs. lanceolate lance-shaped, about four times long as broad and broadest below about the middle. lanuginose, lanuginous woolly or cottony; with long and interwoven hairs. latex the milky juice of such plants as the milkweed. ' latifoliate, latifolious broad-leaved. labellum lacerate lip, particularly the odd petal as with margins appearing or 35 ] losing material by percolation, as rain washing away nutriment through the soil. leader the primary or terminal shoot of a tree. leaf the principal appendage or lateral organ borne by the stem or axis. Simple leaf: when undivided; compound leaf: when divided into distinct parts. leaf-scar the mark or cicatrix left by the fall of a leaf. leaf-stalk the stem of a leaf, leaflet the separate division of a compound-leaf. legume seed vessel or pod of the pea or bean family ; usually dehiscing by both leaching , petiole. sutures. lemma the lower of the two bracts lenticel on lens-shaped spots on young bark enclosing the flower in the grasses. equivalent in function to the stomata scurfy scales. woody climbing or twining plant. ligneous woody. ligulate furnished with a ligule. ligule the strap-shaped corolla in the ray florets of composites; the membranous appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most grasses. linear long and narrow with nearly parallel margins. lip the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx. loam combination of clay- with enough sand to counteract the cohering property of the clay ; usually implies the presence of considerable decomposed organic matter with accompanying fertility. lobed divided into or bearing lobes. locule compartment of cell : usually referred to the ovary, fruit or anther. loculicidal dehiscent on the back of the cells of a capsule. See also septicidal. lyrate pinnatifid with a large terminal lobe and small basal lobes. liana, liane a the leaf. lepidote with small M compounds meaning long, large or great. maculate blotched or spotted. male (flowers or plants) having stamens but no pistils. marcescent withering but not falling off. midrib the central vein or rib of a leaf; costa. meiosis reduction dmns~on ; the process (in cell division) wherein the macro in Greek chromo- reduced (by one-half) in number. membranaceous thin and soft in texture. mitosis the process of nuclear duplication involved in cell division. monadelphous stamens united in one group by their filaments. moniliform resembling a string of beads like the legume in Sophora. in Greek compounds meaning one. mono somes are monocotyledons (monocots) plants ha~ing and grasses. See also dicotyledons. one cotyledon or seed-lobe, as lilies ~6 monoecious with unisexual flowers of both sexes on the same cious. muck any kind of impure or decayed peat or black swamp when used as manure. mucronate plant. See dioe- earth, especially mulch mule tipped with a short abrupt point or mucro. strawy dung or any other material, as leaves, etc., spread on the surface of ground to protect the roots of newly planted shrub or tree. an particularly between different species ; hybrid ; hybrid. multiple fruit the united product (in one body) of several or many flowers; as the pineapple or mulberry. See also syncarp. muricate roughened with short hard points. mutation deviation occurring by a sudden change in the genetic makeup of a plant or an animal. See also bud-mutation. a old word for cross, cross-breed ; usually an infertile N flower without perianth. a place or organ where sugar or nectar is secreted. nectary nerve a slender rib or vein, particularly if unbranched. node the place upon the stem which normally bears a leaf or leaves. nut an indehiscent one-seeded hard and bony fruit. naked flower a ~ O ob Latin with the broadest part of the point of attachment. oblique slanting; unequal sided. oblong at least twice as broad as long. obovate inverted ovate. obtuse blunt, rounded. oblanceolate away from prefix usually signifying inversely lanceolate; inversion. a lanceolate body odd-pinnate see impari-pinnate. on a offset a plant arising mother plant. stolon or underground branch close to the base of the oleaginous oily and fleshy. oligo in Greek compounds meaning few. opaque applied to a surface means dull, not shiny. orbicular ortet ovary ovate ovule circular; rounded in outline. the original plant from which a clone is derived. that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds. having an outline like that of a hen's egg. the body which becomes a seed after fertilization. Y upper bract which with the lemma palea the paleaceous encloses the flower in grasses. chaffy. 3~ ~I palmate one (leaf) radiately point. a lobed or divided with three or more veins arising from panicle pannose compound, usually loose flower-cluster, longer than broad as a branched corymb. a raceme or covered with felt of woolly hair. papilionaceous butterfly-shaped ; applied to such a corolla as that of the pea. papillose bearing minute nipple-shaped protuberances. pappus peculiar calyx-limb of composites, being plumose, bristle-like scales or otherwise. organism which grows on and derives nourishment from another the host. parietal borne on or pertaining to the wall of the fruit. pari-pinnate pinnate with an even number of leaflets. See also impari-pinnate. parted, partite cleft nearly but not quite to the base. parthenogenesis producing seed without fertilization. pathology the study of the diseases of plants or animals. peat carbonaceous substance formed by partial decomposition in water of various plants especially sphagnum ; used as fertilizer or mulch. pedicel the stalk of a flower. pedicellate borne on a pedicel. peduncle the stalk of a flower-cluster ; also used for the stalk of a solitary flov;er. pedunculate borne on a peduncle. peltate shield-shaped ; attached to its stalk inside the margin, like the leaf of nasturtium (Tropaeolum) and 1B%elumbium. penninerved nerves ansmg along a central midrib. pentamerous in fives. pepo a hard-rinded berry of the gourd family such as pumpkin, squash, etc. perennial of three or more seasons duration. perfect flower having both stamens and pistils; bi-sexual. See also imperfect flower. perfoliate (leaf) having the stem apparently passing through the leaf. peri Greek prefix meaning around. perianth the floral envelope ; commonly used when there is no clear distinction between calyx and corolla ; as in the lilies. pericarp the wall of the ripened ovary. perigynous borne around the ovary and not at its base, as in flowers of cherry, where the perianth and stamens are borne on a cup-shaped hypanthium. See also epigynous and hypogynous. persistent remaining attached, not falling off; opposite of deciduous. petal one of the separate members of the corolla. petiole leaf-stalk. petiolule stalk of a leaflet. phenotype the external appearance resulting from the expression of the genotype ; often used to denote a specific appearance pattern shared by several to many individuals. parasite an plant, 38] the manufacture of carbohydrates within green leaves by energy derived from light, from simple inorganic materials such as carbon dioxide and water. phyllotaxy the arrangement of leaves on the stem. photosynthesis pilose with long straight hairs. pinnate (leaf) compound with the leaflets placed on each side of a rachis. See also impari-pinnate and pari-pinnate. pinnatifid cleft or divided in a pinnate way. pistil the seed-bearing organ of a flower consisting of ovary, style and st~gma. pistillate having a pistil and no stamens; female. placenta part of the ovary which bears the ovules. placentation the arrangement of placentae within an ovary. platy Greek prefix meaning broad. pleio Greek prefix for full or abounding, or many. plicate folded into plaits. plumose feathery. pluri Latin prefix meaning many. pod a dry dehiscent fruit. pollen spores or grains borne in the anther which later produce sperm cells. pollination the transfer of pollen from the stamen to the stigma. poly Greek prefix meaning many. polycotyledonous having several cotyledons. polygamous bearing unisexual and bisexual flowers on the same plant. polypetalous having separate petals; choripetalous. See also gamopetalous. polyploid plant with a chromosome complement of more than two sets of the _ - ' haploid number. a fleshy fruit like the apple and pear. procumbent trailing on the ground. prickle spine-like outgrowth from bark or epidermis. primocane the first year's cane (seldom producing flowers) of Rubus and pome > simi- surface; a bloom. pruning artificial removal of twigs or branches from trees, shrubs, etc. pruning shears strong-bladed shears used in light pruning of woody ornamentals. pseudo Greek prefix for false, as pseudo-bulb. puberulent, puberulous mmutely pubescent. pubescent covered with hairs, particularly if short and soft. on , _ lar genera. prostrate lying flat on the ground. pruinose covered with a waxy, powdery secretion the pulvinate punctate pungent cushioned. with translucent or prickly-tipped as in the colored dots or depressions. holly; acrid. ' _39~ ] pyrene a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe. _ pyriform quadri ate pear-shaped. Q Latin prefix meaning four; quadrifid as quadrangular (four-angled); quadrifoli- (four-leaved); in fours. (four-cleft). as quaternate quinate quinque race a in fives. Latin prefix meaning five ; quinquelocular (five-celled). R permanent variety are a ters raceme constant simple in or group of individuals whose distinguishing characand are reproduced true to type from seed. inflorescence of stalked flowers on a more or less elongated axis. racemose racemes or resembling a raceme. rachis radiate ramet ray an bearing flowers or leaflets. spreading from a common center; with ray-flowers. axis any individual of a clone. the margin portion of a composite flower head when distinct from the disk. receptacle the more or less expanded portion of an axis which bears the organs of a flower or the collected flowers of a head. recurved curved downward or backward. reflexed abruptly turned downward. reniform repand reticulate retuse with kidney-shaped. a slightly sinuate margin. in the form of _ shghtly see an revolute rhachis rhizome a network; net-veined. notched at the rounded apex. rolled backward. - rachis. underground stem, often enlarged by food storage. rib a primary or prominent vein in leaf. root prune pruning of roots, especially in preparation or in the process of transplanting trees or shrubs; a technique used to force flowering (e.g. W'isteria~. a rosette rostrate cluster of leaves beaked. or other organs in a a compact circular arrangement. a short tube. reddish brown. rugose wr~nkled. runcinate coarsely saw-toothed or cut, the pointed teeth turned toward the base of the leaf; as in the dandelion. a slender and prostrate branch, rooting at the end or at the joint. runner rotate (corolla) wheel-shaped ; flat circular limb with rufous S sac-shaped. sagittate shaped like saccate an arrow-head, the basal lobes directed downward. 40 ~ ] with a slender tube abruptly expanded into indehiscent winged fruit. See key. scabrous rough to the touch. scale a minute leaf or bract, usually appressed or dry. samara an salver-shaped (flower) a flat limb. scandent scape a scarious scion a climbing. peduncle rising from the ground, naked or thin and dry, not green. slip or shoot used for grafting. See graft. coiled without proper foliage. scorpioid seed (ring-like) while in bud. scrobiculate pitted. the ripened ovule consisting of the embryo and its integuments. semi-double partly changed into a double flower with the inner stamens perfect and the outer stamens petaloid. sepal a division of the calyx. separation multiplication of plants by means of naturally detachable asexual bodies or organs, as offsets, stolon. septicidal dehiscing along or in the partitions. See also loculicidal. septifragal where the valves in dehiscence break away from the partitions. ~ septum serrate a partition. , havmg teeth pointing forward. serrate with fine teeth. without any stalk. setaceous bristle-like. ,, setose beset with bristles. ~, sheath a tubular envelope, as the lower part of the leaf in grasses. shrub a woody plant branched from the base. sinuate with the outlines of the margin strongly wavy. sinus the recess between lobes, as in the leaves of some oaks. slip a softwood cutting \"slipped'' off or pulled off; applied also to similar parts cut off. spadix a spike with a fleshy axis. spathe a large bract or pair of bracts inclosing the inflorescence; like Jack-inserrulate sessile the pulpit. them from all other units within a genus, still not differbeyond the limits of a recognizable and integraded spathulate gradually narrowed from a rounded summit. species a natural botanical unit; composed of individuals which exhibit characters mg distinguishing from one another pattern of variation. spicate arranged in or resembling a spike. spike a simple inflorescence with the flowers sessile axis. or nearly so on a common spine sport a sharp-pointed woody outgrowth sudden deviation starting from a a from the stem. bud or seed. 41 ] projecting appendage of a flower, looking like a spur but hollow; as larkspur. stamen the pollen-bearing male organ of a flower. staminate having stamens and no pistil; male. spur any in staminode, staminodium the corolla and the standard stellate stem a sterile stamen of a or similar structure inserted between the upper pistil. broad petal star-shaped; a where several similar parts of a papilionaceous flower. spread out from a common center, like the axis sterile star. plant arising from its root. barren ; fertile; the petiole of a fern frond. stigma the part of the pistil that receives the pollen. stipe the stalk of a pistil. stipitate having a stipe. stipule the appendage at the base of the petiole, usually one on each side. stock the part on which the scion is grafted ; the strain or parentage. stolon a slender stem above or below ground which produces a new plant or axes not ' at its stoma tip. stoloniferous bearing stolons. or stomate a \"breathing\" pore in the epidermis of the leaf intercellular space communicating with the internal tissue. leading stool a clump of roots or rootstalk that may be used in propagation; also an established low plant from which layers are taken. strain a group of plants differing from the race to which it belongs by no apparent morphological characters, but by some enhanced or improved growth characteristics ; as heavier yield in fruit ; resistance to disease, etc. stratification the operation or method of burying seeds to keep them fresh and to soften their integuments, or to expose them without injury to cold temperatures, that they may be more readily and successfully germinated. striate marked with fine longitudinal lines. strict very straight and upright. strigose beset with appressed straight and stiff hairs. strike to emit roots as from a cutting. strobile an inflorescence marked by imbricated bracts or scales; as in the pine- (pl. stomata) into an cone. style a subshrub subulate stalk between the o~ary and stigma. an under-shrub or small shrub which may have partially herbaceous stems. succulent sucker a awl-shaped. fleshy ; juicy. shoot arising from the roots or suffrutescent slightly woody; woody at beneath the surface of the ground. the base. -42 suffruticose perennial plant with only the lower part of the stem and of the branches woody and persistent. sulcate grooved or furrowed. , , borne above the insertion of the ovary also inferior ovary. suture a line of splitting. syncarp a fleshy aggregate fruit. T superior perianth and free from it. See a general term applied to any taxonomic element, population, regardless of its level of classification. taxonomy the science of classification and arrangement of living organisms according to relationships. tendril a coiling thread-like organ by which a plant grasps an object for support. tepal used for sepals and petals of similar form and not readily distinguishable; as in the lily or tulip. teratology the subject of monstiosities, or of abnormal and aberrant forms and taxon (pl. taxa) group or malformations. circular in cross section. ternate in threes. testa the outer seed-coat. tetra Greek prefix meaning four; tetragonal (four-angled); tetragonous (with four pistils or styles); tetramerous (with its parts or sets in fours); tetrandous (with four stamens). tetradynamous six stamens, four long and two short. throat the place where the limb of the corolla joins the corolla-tube. terete thyrse a compact narrow panicle. dense woolly pubescence. tomentum dense covering of matted hairs. topiary ornamental gardening in which trees and shrubs tomentose are clipped into formal shapes. tree bent. with one main stem, and at least four to five meters tall. woody plant tri Latin prefix signifying three or thrice, as trifoliolate (with three leaflets). trichome any hair-like outgrowth of the epidermis. tortuous a or twisted triploid truncate tuber a having three sets of chromosomes (i.e., three times the haploid number). the end nearly straight across; as the apex of the leaf in the tulip-tree. thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with eyes the sides. (buds) on tuberous or producing tubers. swollen. turbinate top-shaped ; inversely conical. turgid swollen as a result of internal water pressure. bearing tumid 43] type . the specimen with which the scientific name of a taxon is always associated ; the type along with other related specimens is used in describing the taxon. U umbel an inflorescence with wavy pedicels or branches arising at the same point and of nearly equal length. undulate uni In compound unisexual urceolate surface or margin. words meaning one. of one sex, either staminate a or pistillate. utricle a urn-shaped. small bladder; sheathed bladdery one-seeded fruit. V vaginate valvate or surrounded by a sheath. valves ; meeting by the edges without overlapping as leaves opening by or a in the bud. botanical unit) a sub-division of the species composed of individuals differing from other members of the species in certain minor characters which are usually perpetuated through generations by seed. vascular with vessels or ducts. veins the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves. petals variety (as velutinous venation ventral ventricose vernation verrucose velvety. arrangement of veins. nearer relating to the inner surface or part of an organ ; the part swelling unequally, or inflated on one side. the axis. versatile its support. verticillate villous viscid the arrangement of leaves in the bud. covered with wart-like elevations. relating to an anther attached near the middle and moving freely on disposed in a whorl. or bearing long and soft, usually curved curly, hairs. ' glutinous; sticky. W whorl wing woolly the arrangement of three or more like organs in any membranous expansion. clothed with long and entangled soft hairs. Z a circle around the axis. zygomorphic hal~es. said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane in similar CLARENCE E. KOBUSKI 44 '~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Potentilla fruticosa, A Common but Little Known Plant","article_sequence":6,"start_page":45,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24289","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14ebb28.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1J 3 SEPTEMBER ~3, 1955 POTENTILLA FRUTICOSA, A COMMON BUT LITTLE KNOWN PLANT NUMBER 8 . _ of the few woody plants nacinquefoil (Potentillafruticosa) over both northern hemispheres. It can be found as a low mat of dense woody growth on top of the Olympic Mountains in Washington or high up in the Himalayas, and as three-foot shrubs in Michigan, as well as in Great Britain, Europe and China. Because of its wide habitat, there are many varieties being ~rown in various parts of the world, but all are considered as low shrubs under 'our feet in height. Today, with our interest centered on planting small proper:ies, such small shrubs should be of considerable value. Not only are these plants valued from the standpoint of their height, but they ilso are in that admirable class which do not have any serious insect or disease roubles. Then, too, the entire group is of interest for several months in the ,ummer time when few woody shrubs produce blooms, for their small bright yelow or white flowers begin to appear in July and are in evidence throughout the HE tive bush is one and well into the fall. Several varieties have originated in English garhave been introduced from far off China and the Himalayan region, lens, and some we have growing right here in America. Unfortunately many varieties ~ave been named, new ones appearing periodically and unquestionably many oave become mixed in the trade and in botanical gardens. It is incorrect to claim that these are outstanding ornamental plants. They are lot in the same ornamental class with the rose, or the azaleas, but they are of ;alue because of their interest in the summer, their low dense habit of growth, md their lack of persistent insect and disease pests. Plantsmen are usually anxious :o grow those shrubs and trees which require no care, and the varieties of this ~pecies are certainly in this category. One plant has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for 6.5 years, and never has required any spraying. Some of these varieties have been described in horticultural literature, but usu~ummer some 45 ally only one or two varieties varieties have been named, are mentioned at one time. At least twenty five fourteen of them are being grown in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. All are not sufficiently different to warrant growing them in landscape plantings, for some are so similar that it is impossible for the gardener to tell them apart unless they are observed growing side by side. First and foremost these are sun demanding plants which will not grow well in shaded situations. In order to flower profusely they must have a situation in the full sun. They seem to grow in any normal soil. Poor dry soil situations will result in slower less vigorous growth, for they do not require large amounts of moisture. The leaves are small and compound, usually with 3-7 leaflets, the single flowers having five petals are aboutof an inch in diameter, some varieties having white flowers but most being a creamy white to deep yellow. The fruits are dried capsules which unfortunately can remain on the plant several years and so give it a rather untidy appearance. This can be alleviated by light pruning in the fall after the flowering period is over. The Potentillas are not susceptible to severe insect or disease pests. The species is easily propagated by seeds, and the varieties are easily propagated by softwood cuttings. As noted previously, these are not conspicuous landscape plants, but their small size, dense habit, length of bloom, hardiness and ease of cultivation make them of is desired. increasing interest in small gardens where summer interest following notes were made from the plants as they grow in the Arnold Arboretum, with additional notes from the herbarium specimens and standard references. Additional varieties recently appearing in nursery catalogues but for which detailed information is unavailable at this time include : \"Farrer's White,\" \"Jackman's Variety,\" \"farreri prostrata,\" \"waltoniensis,\" \"hersi.\" The Varieties albicans: flowers bright yellow; leaves white tomentose beneath; said to be a handsome form but not growing in the collections at the Arnold Arboretum. Somewhat similar to beesi (see below). beani: flowers white, It is reportedly a ' formerly termed var. leucantha. hybrid between P. fruticosa friedrichseni and dahurica. beesi: flowers yellow; leaves white, hairy above and below giving them a strictly silvery hue. Our plant was received from the nursery of H. G. Hillier, Winchester, England, a few years ago (who had it in 1952), and is found in some European catalogues listed as the variety nana argentea. Similar to albicans originating before 1910 and but differs in that the upper surfaces of the leaves the under leaf surfaces. dahurica: flowers are more hairy than the white; native of northern China and Siberia; differing from 46 - G .> y E 3 :; c 'io ro G ai L E -= SL L d~ \" O p ro O '\" cd v E~ . u !-< 2;-= ......0 =: O C . m ., \"') a~ &G<.#x3E; E a.-ro o a\" c-= L +~ ~ ~3 ~ L c .c !of)c Z m '\" ., a '\" E ~aE o ., I(; d o\".5' i~ y U. ~ i ..... ... s r ~~ N y N Q.,oj E O wo \" i~ O 0 ' aa a~ a E ~ some of the other varieties by being less than 1 ~r tall. Although it was introduced into cultivation over a century ago (182Z~ it is still very rare. farreri: flowers deep yellow; leaves very small, the individual leaflets being less than 8 mm. in length, making them the smallest of any of the varieties here mentioned. This was first collected by Reginald Farrer in Tibet in 1920 at an altitude of 8,000 feet. The variety jOMrf\/o~;, also coming from Tibet, has flowers that are a lighter yellow. Our plant in the Arnold Arboretum, although about twenty years old is only two feet high and three feet across, making it one of the truly dwarf forms. It is similar to ~arn~'olia, except it is slightly lower in height. friedrichseni: flowers creamy white to pale yellow, one of the more vigorous growing forms, originating in the famous Spaeth Nurseries in Germany about 1895. Our plant, about 53 years old, is four and a half feet high and six feet across. grandiflora: flowers bright yellow and up to 1 nrr in the largest of any of the varieties here listed. In be the most vigorous and tallest of all, sometimes our diameter, with leaves about England this is supposed to reaching a height of 6r, but plant is not so vigorous at present. white; leaves with densely whitish pubescence on upper and lower surfaces and slightly smaller than the leaves of either neilchi or dcrJrurica. The habit is lower than that of friedrichseni. micrandra: flowers bright yellow,shrub of a lower spreading habit than the species ochroleuca: flowers creamy white; foliage light green; Spaeth Nurseries in Germany prior to 190 ~. not so mandshurica: flowers plant originated 8 mm. in the parvifolia: flowers deep yellow; leaves small and less than small as long although those of farreri. The leaflets are eitheror 7 in number, and the plant habit, the flowers and flower color are similar to fnrreri, although it is slightly taller. The plant in the Arboretum has been growing in the same spot in the shrub collection since 1914, and is l.r high and 4r across, being very dense, one of best of the deep yellow flowered varieties. pumila: listed as being a dwarf variety with silky pubescent leaves, this variety is not now in the lmmg collections of the Arboretum. purdomi: flowers pale yellow; leaflets usually less than 8 mm. long but slightly larger than those of firrreri. Our plant was grown from seed collected by Purdom in southern China in 1Sa 1 1, and was \"reluctantly\" named by Rehder in 19?~1, for at the time he admitted that it diflered only slightly from some of the other forms. A batch of seed from our plant sown a few years ago, resulted in seedlings of a surprisingly uniform habit and flower color. This plant today is one of the densest and best rounded of all the varieties. pyrenaica: flowers bright yellow; habit dwarf, being only 6rr-l8rr high, coming from the Pyrenees blountains, differing only from the species in its more dwarf habit. 48] rigida: flowers bright yellow; usually the leaves have only three leaflets; intro- duced from the Himalayas about 1906. tenuiloba: flowers bright yellow ; leaflets very small and practically linear, often produced in clusters. Our 34 year old plant is only l8rr tall and 3r across. This variety is a native of western North America and is at present the most dwarf of all the varieties growing in the Arboretum. veitchi: flowers white ; being the best of all the varieties for white flowers. This was introduced by E. H. Wilson from Hupeh Province in China during 1900 from an elevation of approximately 6,0001. vilmoriniana: flowers pale yellow to creamy white and a native of the northern British Isles. The foliage is silvery tomentose, somewhat similar to that of \"Katherine Dykes\" although the leaves of the latter are smaller. \"Gold Drop\" : a seedling, similar to the variety pordo~ni but with smaller leaves, first offered in this country by Wayside Gardens of Mentor, Ohio, about 19~3. It is practically identical in flower with both farreri and paraifi~lia. Katherine Dykes\": flowers pale yellow; foliage silvery green in color. This plant originated as a chance seedling in an English garden prior to 1946. It is of value for its silvery foliage although the variety beesi is better. \"Moonlight\": flowers pale yellow, slightly darker than those of \"Katherine Dykes\" and the leaves are larger and a darker green. It originated about 19~0. The leaves are similar to those of vilmoriniana except they are slightly smaller. The differences noted above among the varieties can be considered minute. After all, with the exception of three or four dwarf varieties, the remainder ha~ e approximately the same habit. For those who are not particular whether the flowers are w hite, creamy white, or yellow, they need not be particular concerning the variety of Potentilla fruticosa they obtain-any available variety would probably be satisfactory. For those plantsmen who are more particular, the fol- luwng sug~,restions might prove helpful: ' The best of the Potentilla fruticosa varieties for Landscape planting For dwarf habit .......... dahurica or tenuiloba Most vigorous grandiflora or friedrichseni For s~lcery foliage beesi, \"Katherine Dykes\" or vilmoriniana For smallest leaves farreri For pale yellow flowers ...... ochroleuca or purdomi For bright yellow flowers \"Gold Drop,\" farreri, grandiflora .......... ........ ........ ...... or parvifolia For white flowers......... veitchi 49] Two New Plants honeysuckle originated from seed at the Arnold Arboretum in 1945 and first bloomed in 1947. It has all the excellent qualities of Lonicera tatarica, being of vigorous growth, hardy throughout most of the northern United States. The flowers are the darkest red of any of the Lonicera tatarica varieties, even darker than those of L. tatarica sibirica, being Rose Bengal 25\/1 of the Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart when they first open. They are about 1~~ in diameter and the dark red fruits are approximately y. ~~~ in diameter, being larger than those of any L. tatarica varieties. It was first distributed by the Arnold Arboretum to commercial nurserymen in October 1954, and soon should be available commercially, for like other honeysuckles, hard and soft wood cuttings root easily. However, unless a darker flowered variety is wanted (or one with larger fruits) the easily available species and a few other varieties are still excellent general service plants to use in any garden. Tsuga caroliniana \"ARNOLD PYRAMID\" in a batch of 1 i ~ seedlings acquired by the Arnold Arbofrom the H. P. Kelsey Nursery Company of East Boxford, D9ass. All others in this lot were normal Carolina Hemlocks except this one. It has been allowed to grow this long unheralded, merely to make certain that the densely pyramidal growth will remain constant, which it has. From the accompanying picture (Plate VIII), taken in 1949, of the then 24 year old tree, it is evident that the dense pyramidal growth is being maintained, and the tree appears this way today, although the plant is somewhat taller. Actually it is now about 25~ tall and about 1~~ in the spread of its branches. This clone does have possibilities as Lonicera tatarica \"ARNOLD RED\" The \"Arnold Red\" clone of the Tatarian This plant appeared retum in 1926 a landscape tree. The \"Arnold Pyramid\" hemlock is a bushy, dense growing form of T.svga caroliniana, with many trunks coming from the base of the plant. The variety compacta listed years ago by Hornibrook in his \"Dvarf and Slow Growing Coni- described from a tree started in the Arnold Arboretum about Sargent noted much later, that this form was becoming more and more vigorous and finally, about 1940, it could not be distinguished from the species. A picture of it taken by Alfred Rehder in 1921 showed a round headed tree with very wide spreading branches, with no similarity in form to this newer \"Arnold Pyramid.\" Another tree growing in the Arboretum under the name of Tsuga caroliniana compacta is in a rather poor location, showing dense foliage but not this closely pyramidal form. The Carolina Hemlock has produced few if any clones that have been described to date, while there are nearly a hundred of the Canada Hemlock. As far as we can tell, this dense growing \"Arnold Yyramid\" has no additional ornamental fers\" was ( 1939) 1881. Even Professor 50 PLATE VIII At the time this picture was taken, this plant was 18' tall. It is now 25' tall and 15' in branch spread, being approximately 32 years old and has never been sheared. W uga caroliniana \"Arnold Pyramid.\" value over and above some of the Canada Hemlock forms, but it is of interest to know that this clone does exist and it is of sufficient value to be named and distributed. The Arboretum has scheduled this for distribution in 1956, but because of its slow growth it will probably be many years before nurserymen have the opportunity to work up a large stock. It is more difficult to propagate than the Canada Hemlock, and Mr. Roger Coggeshall, Propagator of the Arnold Arboretum, has found it very difficult to graft, although about 25% of the cuttings taken in October to November will root. DONALD WYMAN FALL CLASSES at the ARNOLD ARBORETUM LAST REMINDER: Once again classes will be offered this fall as part of the Arboretum's Educational Program. Registration is in advance by mail. Priority will be established on post office date of application. For further information and application, write Dr. Carrol E. Wood, Jr., Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts. Basic Botany for the Home Gardener 8 sessions. Instructor: Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr. Thursday evenings, 7-9, September 29-November 1 i. Fee ~10.00 Instructor: Dr. Donald 30-l~ovember 4. Fee Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants 6 sessions. Wyman Friday mornings, 10-12, September $2.00 Plant Propagation I 6 sessions. Instructor: blr. 28 Roger Coggeshall Fee ~10.00 Wednesdays, October 19-November (three sections). Principles and Practice in Plant Identification Instructor: Dr. Richard A. Howard 8 sessions. Tuesday evenings, 7-9, October 4-November ?~?. Fee $10.00 .7 _ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cotoneasters","article_sequence":7,"start_page":53,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24285","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eaf6d.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 15 OCTOBER 28, 1955 NUMBER 9 COTONEASTERS fruited very well m the Arboretum this fall, making about as fine a display as we have had from this group in many years. The large plant of Cotoneaster racemiflora soongorica, which E. H. Wilson liked so well, fruited profusely. Viewing it this fall, one can well understand why Wilson frequently put this plant at the top of his cotoneaster selections. There are about 75different species and varieties of cotoneasters growing in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. For those who are interested in plants it is always difficult to make a selection of \"the best\" but, because there are so many here and actually available in the nurseries of the country, an attempt will be made to suggest those that seem to have merit as landscape plants and those that do not. The cotoneasters are all shrubs, some prostrate and but a few inches high (C. nd~ressa which in fifty years growth in the Arnold Arboretum is a plant only 12 inches high by 48 inches across), others tall, vigorous shrubs that may grow to eighteen feet or more in height. Recent work in the Arboretum by Jlrs. Karl Sax has shown that most species will come true from seed even though collected from many species growing together in a crowded collection. They are as a group, natives of northern Asia, the Himalayan area and a few of Europe. Flowers in general are small and white, in some species borne singly or in twos and threes, and in others in flat clusters one or two inches in diameter. There are a few species like Cotonenster multiflora that make a show when they are in bloom, but mostly these plants are valued for their red or black fruits. These vary in size, most are about a quarter of an inch in diameter and are borne like the flowers, singly or in twos or threes in some species, and in bunches of 8-10 or more in others. In England many cotoneasters are highly esteemed and there are several which thrive in plantings along the highways, but unfortunately in America they can have several troublesome pests which may prove difficult to combat. Being closely related to apples, pears, and hawthorns, they too are sus- THE cotoneasters 53 to fire blight, borers, lace bug and frequently red spiders. In some areas, of these pests may be prominent, but in others, one or more of them may be so bad as to limit the number of cotoneasters planted. The plants in the Arboretum are frequently troubled with lace bug and red spider, and occasionally are infested with fire blight. Sometimes the fire blight can be controlled. The old-fashioned method used to be to spray with lime sulfur, but now there are some of the anti-biotics available which show promise of control on apple trees and so may work on cotoneasters as well. In any event, the cotoneasters as a group are used for their ornamental fruits, for their interesting forms or habits of grow th and some for their evergreen ceptible none foliage. There are exceptions orous are many of the cotoneasters with black fruits. These, with one or two not easily seen in the fall when the foliage is still present. Hence, most black-fruited cotoneasters have little ornamental merit. growers to and some may make fine shrubs, but, or They may be vigsince all cotoneasters are mentioned, it does subject not possible infestations of the disease insect pests wise to grow some of the deciduous (and black-fruited) forms, when other kinds of shrubs not susceptible to disease and insect attack will do just as seem well, i.e., viburnums, forsythias and honeysuckles. Consequently, in the list suggested for discard because of the lack of ornamental value a majority of the blackfruited forms appear. The recommended cotoneasters size groups : Prostrate Cotoneasters can be divided into the following four general There are five of these in the recommended list, C. adpressa being the hardiest but probably the slowest in growth. Our plant, acquired in 1903, is only one foot high and four feet across, but has probably been overly impeded in its growth by poor soil. Of the others, C. dammeri makes rapid growth and because it grows flat on the ground, it roots readily along its stems making an excellent ground cover, but it is not thoroughly hardy in Boston. The C. microphylla forms make excellent rock garden plants especially the variety thym~folia, which has the smallest leaves of any of the hardy cotoneasters. Where it is hardy, C. conspicua decora is one of the most beautiful in this group, but I doubt that our plants will prove hardy every winter even though they have lived through the last two with little injury. Cotoneasters about 3 feet high Perhaps C. horizontalis is the most popular of this group, being widely grown because of its low, horizontal habit and bank-co~ ering qualities. For some reason or other C. u~iculata has been generally overlooked in landscape planting. It has larger fruits and slightly larger leaves than does C. horizontalis, and so might have added merit in certain places. Cotoneaster nd~res.srr ~raecox is a mound-like plant, very dense and lacking the long horizontal branches of C. horizontalis, while C. 54] PLATE IX CotomeasLer .salicifolia floccosa as it grows in Williamsburg, Virginia. microphylla is an evergreen and so has merit in any rockery planting. Although we have plants of both C. congeslrr and C. conspicua growing here at present, they are small and have been exposed only to mild winters the last two years, but they very likely may not survive a truly cold winter. Farther south, however, they make excellent plants. Cotoneasters 4-6 feet high There are ten of these listed, all with red fruits and none of them fully ever- green. For good foliage qualities and a large mass of flowers (which none too many cotoneasters have) there are C. bullala and its variety floriburrrln, C. multi- ,flora calocarpa and C. hupeheusis. At least two have a yellow autumn color in the fall-C. hupehensis and C. zabeli miniata, while the leaves of C. dielsiana elegans and C. francheti remain on the plants very late in the fall. There are three species rather similar in landscape effect, namely C. rliz~aricafn, C. dielsiana and C. zabeli, The latter has slightly larger fruits in larger clusters. Both C. dielsinnn and C. ~abeli are gracefully arching shrubs and one can easily be substituted for the other in any landscape planting, while C. clinaricala is more dense and upright in habit without the arching outside branches. Cotoneasters 8-18 feet high It is these taller-growing cotoneasters which should be used with discretion. They are tall and vigorous, taking up much space, a well-grown plant of C. racem~ora soongorica that may be 8 feet tall will be at least 1 ~ feet in branch spread. Hence, to do well, and one should keep in mind that they are used primarily for their fruits, they should have plenty of space. The only black-fruited forms recommended in this group are C. lucirla, with lustrous foliage and a dense habit of growth, and C. foaeolnla, with striking leaves and upright habit. The leaves of the latter turn a good red to orange in the fall, while the fruits of C. lucidn drop rather early, falling by September 20 of this year when the fruits of most of the others were in their prime. Still the lustrous foliage of this species has some merit. There is a plant of C. frigidcc growing in the Arboretum at present, but here again, the warm winters recently have been responsible for its survival. Actually it is not dependable north of Richmond, Va. Its more heavily-fruited form is the variety vicari. The plant which is used a great deal throughout the mid-south is C. salic~f'olia,floccosa, the hardiest variety of this species and hardy except for the most severe winters, even in southern New England. Its arching habit, lanceolate leaves and profuse berries, make it most popular in all types of planting. Cotoneaster racemiflora soongorica is the hardiest variety of a variable species, but unfortunately it does not appear to fruit as profusely every year as some of the others. ColorrPn.ster lomento,srr is valued for the foliage, the under surface of the leaves being whitish, and the leaves of C. simonsi are lustrous green giving it an interesting quality at other times of the year also. All these but the two mentioned have red fruit. ~~s~ ] PLATE X multiflora growing ur the Arnold Arboretum is one of the few cotoneasters ornamentally valued for its flowers. Below: An excellent planting of C'ot~aeaster ad~ressa in the lioyal Botanic Garden, Ediubur~h, Scotland. Above: CotouPaster M x wJ U H < w z N 0 U 0 Ca W Ca z w ~ 0 U W 58] A; a .e r x 0 a p (U *o 11 U G G a I U m i U I 59 d v a . a s II W cc Cotoneasters With Little Ornamental Value C. acuminata C. acutifolia \" villosula C. C. ~nis bacillaris C. ambigua C. amoena C. bullata macrophylla C. dielsiana major C. disticha C. frigida aldenhamensis C. horizontalis perpusilla C. integerrima C. lindleyi C. melanocarpa \" C. laxiflora \" commixta C. C. moupinensis C. not superior to C. dielsiana or C. divaricata. black fruit falls in early September. not much different from C. acut~'olia. unkempt habit, dull red to black fruits, seems to be more susceptible to fire blight than some of the others. differs only slightly from C. acut~f'olia. closely similar to C. francheti. leaves too large and coarse. to it. superior ornamentally to species. strongly resembles C. horizontalis but not superior only minutely different from species. not multiflora C. multiflora C. nitens C. obscura granatensis smaller fruits than species. habit, fruits merely a dull red. fruit black, foliage coarse. black fruits. black fruits. black fruits. black fruits. C. foveolata is similar and much more widely used. red fruits, but not as large as those of its variety calocarpa. Otherwise an excellent plant. differs only minutely from var. calocarpa. open C. obscura cornifolia C. racemiflora C. C. black fruits, sparse foliage. fruit dark red and lustrous, but no better than the common C. dielsiana. fruit purple black. not as profuse in fruit and less hardy than the variety soongorica. racemiflora veitchi rosea C. salic~f'olia C. \" rugosa C. tenuipes C. uniflora above. similar in general to C. racemiflora soongorica, but in our collection one of the most susceptible to fire blight. red fruits are smaller than those of C. salic;f'olia,floceosa. not superior to C. salicifolia floccosa. black fruits. closely related to and no better than C. integerrima. same as The cotoneasters listed above might well be omitted from most ornamental if one is willing to accept the reasons for discarding them. After all, there are twenty nine of the better species and varieties in the recommended list with varying sizes, habits and suitable for several purposes. plantings DONALD WYMAN ~0 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Christmas Plants in the Boston Area","article_sequence":8,"start_page":61,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24284","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eaf28.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.; Wood Jr., Carroll E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLL:ME 15 ' DECEMBER 16, 1955 e NUMBERS 10-12 CHRISTMAS PLANTS IN THE BOSTON AREA mistletoe and poinsettia almost automatically bring to the minds of thoughts of Christmas, so intimately associated with the Christmas season have these plants become. But these are only a few of the everincreasing numbers of plants which find their way into the markets at this season. These familiar plants, the Christmas trees, the native evergreens, the bayberry, and the much-used cones and fruits are being supplemented by fresh flowers from as far away as South Africa or Hawaii, by foliage plants from Mexico, California, Washington and Florida and by dried plants from almost everywhere. Many of these plants are known by several common names, by names which obscure their identities or by coined trade names. Their sources and true identities are often unknown to the wholesaler, the retailer, the customer and even to professional -~- OLLY, H North Americans botanists. We have followed with considerable interest the Christmas plants mentioned magazines and those appearing in the Boston markets at this season and have attempted to draw together a preliminary list of those available in this area. This is by no means an exhaustive account but an attempt to present at least the principal plants used, together with their proper identifications and notes of general interest. Some of the plants appearing in dried, painted or fragmentary condition have proved to be real botanical puzzlers, but we have finally been able to identify all as far as the genus, at any rate, with the exception of a gaudy silvered and painted example which we have not even been able to in national horticultural place in a family. Plants are grouped by categories of general usage (for example, Christmas Trees, Wreath Plants, etc.) and are listed alphabetically by common name under each of these groupings. It will be immediately evident that some plants fall in more than one group, but we have not, with some exceptions, attempted to list a plant more than once. Neither have we attempted to include cut flowers or pot ~ s1 ~ ] plants, with the exception of those mas season which are especially associated with the Christ- in this part of the world. Readers in this and other parts of the United States will doubtless find many plants with which they are familiar and will know of others which should have been included. We should be most pleased to have corrections, additional names, and materials which might lead in time to a more comprehensive listing. Drawings illustrating some of the less familiar plants kindly have been made by Dr. Ding Hou, to whom we are much indebted. Many people in the local area have generously provided us with information of various kinds. We are especially grateful to Mr. Jlilton Robinson, of Henry '~I. Robinson and Company, of Boston, for his aid. The tremendous quantities of plants used at the Christmas season and then promptly discarded raise important questions of the conservation of our native plants. Some, such as the ground pines (Lycopodium) grow slowly, are easily exterminated and, in fact, have been very nearly exterminated in some areas. Certainly the indiscriminate use of these plants, our native hollies, mountain laurel, rhododendron, galax, and other evergreens can not be too strongly condemned and the use of material grown especially for decorative purposes is to be commended. The latter seems to be the exception, rather than the rule, and thought of the continued impoverishment of the native vegetation through indiscriminate collection of native plants for Christmas or any other season is an appallmg one. CHRISTMAS TREES Although widely used in Europe, the Christmas tree tradition apparently was first introduced into America by the Hessian soldiers. The first description of Christmas festivities involving a decorated Christmas tree concerns a celebration at Fort Dearborn, Illinois, in 1804. The idea and tradition spread, with Christmas trees mentioned for celebrations in Cambridge, Massachusetts, in 1832 and Philadelphia in 1834, Cincinnati in 1835 and Richmond and Williamsburg in 1846. The fir tree seems to be most closely associated with the Christmas tradition. It may be that the branches are more cross-like than those of other evergreen plants or that the trees retain their needles longer, or perhaps the characteristic odor proved of interest. In any case, the genus Abies, the fir, remains the most popular and perhaps most satisfactory tree today. The growing of Christmas trees is a major forestry industry with the total number of trees distributed estimated at 28 million. Most are grown within the United States, but nearly i million trees are imported from Canada and a few from Newfoundland and Labrador. Of the approximately 21 million Christmas trees cut within the United States annually, approximately 13 per cent come from public lands of the Federal government, state or county governments. The remaining 87per cent come from privately owned lands. Trees from government lands generally are cut on a definite schedule as a means of thinning forest plantings, al. 62 though to a few counties are known to harvest Christmas trees as a means of income trees support further conservation work. For the private landowner, Christmas a may be gram U. S. voted to the growing of Christmas trees. A harvest can be made in 8 to 10 years after the planting of seeds. New England and the Middle Atlantic States probably supply 7 million Christmas trees annually for the domestic and export markets. Dlontana is the largest producer in the West. The types of Christmas trees available in the New England area at Christmas include balsam fir (.~bies balsamen), Douglas fir (Pseuclotsugn menziesii), black spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (Picea glauca) and red cedar (Juniperus virgininna). Smaller numbers of Scotch pine (Pinus sylvestris) and red pine (Pinus resinosa) are on the commercial market, while white pine (Pinus ,strobns) and the Canada hemlock ( Z'suga canadeu.s~i.s) are also available but are less desirable. These trees can be distinguished by the following key: profitable crop. A plantation of Christmas trees may fit well into a proof land reclamation, forest establishment or profitable land utilization. The Department of Agriculture estimates that over 100,000 acres are now de- Leaves scale-like, pointed, opposite; fruit a berry-like cone, usually blue or gray in color.......................... Red Cedar Leaves needle-like or flat, borne in clusters or singly and alternate on the stems. White Pine Leaves borne in clusters of 2 to 5, needle-like. Needles 5. soft, flexible.................. Needles 2, rather stiff. Needles bluish-green or grayish-green, I-3 inches long..... Scotch Pine Red Pine Needles dark green, 3-7 inches long......... Leaves borne singly and alternate or in a spiral fashion. Leaves awl-shaped or needle-like, 4-sided. Branchlets smooth; bark pale brown............ White Spruce Branchlets pubescent (with short hairs); bark blackish-brown. Black Spruce Leaves flattened, linear. abruptly narrowed at the base, when fallen leaving the stem Hemlock roughened........... Leaves generally not narrowed at the base, leaving a circular or elliptic scar upon falling. Leaf-scar circular, flat against stem............... Fir Leaf-scar elliptic, slightly raised at the lower end..... Douglas Fir Leaves Spruce, fir and Douglas fir are generally preferred for Christmas trees because of their short needles and stiff branches. The needles of spruce fall readily, however. The long needles of pines with their lax appearance make these plants less desirable. The branches of hemlock are weak and the needles fall readily. Red cedars are narrow and upright with shorter branches and short, sharp, awl-like leaves and are not considered desirable for Christmas trees, although in restricted areas these trees may be popular. 63] Christmas trees for the commercial market are cut starting in October. The generally are bundled in large lots for ease of handling and to prevent dryout. When purchased, the tree should be kept out of doors or in a cool place ing until needed inside for decoration. Trees definitely retain their leaves longer when mounted in water. This supply of water should be replenished during the holiday season to prevent drying out and to delay needle fall. Various plastic compounds have become available in recent years, often in pressure spray cans to enable the purchaser of a Christmas tree to spray the tree and so retain the needles longer. A Douglas fir used as a Christmas tree at the Arboretum last year was felled by the hurricane in September. The top was cut off and kept out of doors until the middle of December, when it was brought into the heated building. The tree was then sprayed with plastic resin and no needle drop occurred during a period of three weeks of display. Some nurseries offer plants to be used as Christmas trees which have been dug with the root system intact in a ball of earth wrapped in burlap. Since this is a living tree, it must be treated as such, for it will become active when brought into a warm room. It must thus be watered as frequently as any other house plant. When its use as a decorated tree is over, care must be taken not to kill the tree by transplanting it out of doors. Generally the frozen ground prevents immediate planting and the tree is better placed in a cold pit or cold cellar. Occasional watering throughout the winter is necessary. The tree can then be planted when the ground is no longer frozen. Many people retain the family tradition of cutting their own Christmas trees. Advertisements appear in the local papers in areas where this is possible, for growers are often willing to sell trees they could not cut themselves or to allow the individual to select his own tree and cut it from a forest planting that needs thinning. In all cases, such cutting is done with permission. Cutting of Christmas trees on private property or in state forests is prohibited and the owner, whether an individual or the state, is protected by trespass and property-damage laws. Many states require a vender's tag to be attached to every tree to show trees its legal origin. Further restrictions must be observed regarding insect and plant diseases. Many areas of New England are within the quarantine area for gypsy moth infestation and it is illegal to carry trees from this area without plant inspection. Gypsy moth eggs are common on Christmas trees. During the Christmas season inspection teams of government officials often patrol state lines to prevent the spread of the gypsy moth infestation. These officials have the right to confiscate trees being transported without a certificate of cleanliness. The current infestation of pine borer in New England can become serious if pine trees are transported to other areas for use as Christmas trees. The purchase of commercial trees from the many sources available during the Christmas season assures the home owner of clean tree which will not bring disease or insect pests to the plants on his ow ^ property. - 64 PLATE XI Figs. 1-8, X 3. 1. White Cedar; 2. Arbor-vitae; 3. White Pine; Cedar; 6. Red Spruce; 7. Canada Hemlock; 8. Douglas Fir. 4. Balsam Fir; 5. Red FRESH FOLIAGE PLANTS This plant, origithe Boston market under common names so nating Australia, appeared e erroneous that they are not worth recording. The spectacular red filaments of the numerous stamens of flowers borne in close association on a leafless area of the brownish red stems give the appropriate common name \"Bottlebrush\" to the plant. When the stamens drop, the fruits expand and press against one another, remaining on the stem after shedding seeds until they decay. Callistemon rigidus has stiff, leathery, narrowly lanceolate leaves up to 5 inches long with conspicuous resin glands. The branches with capsules are used as greenery and hold up well. Boxwood (Buxus .semperuirens: Boxwood Family) is a common hedge plant of more southern areas. Christmas supplies of boxwood shoots are commonly obtained as cuttings of hedge plants or plants allowed to sucker for the purpose. Commercial supplies are picked about 1 ~-Iinches long, but these are frequently cut into shorter lengths for wreaths, kissing balls and similar decorations. The small, roundish and convex leaves which are dark evergreen and shiny easily characterize this plant. Occasional specimens are seen bearing the small 3-4 parted capsules, each segment topped by a small stylar point. Corkscrew Eucalyptus, Spiral Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus globulus: Myrtle Family) (F~cs. 10, 13). Various species of Eucalyptus, all native to Australia and New Zealand, have been widely planted in the warmer regions of North America for their attractiveness, rapid growth, aromatic oils and honey-producing qualities. The species are all characterized by a polymorphic leaf-shape, for the leaves of the young shoots and-those of the mature branches may be completely different in shape, size, and the length of the petiole. The branches of Eocaly~lus known in the Christmas market as spiral or corkscrew eucalyptus are young shoots of Eucalyptus globulus. The leaves are sessile and opposite. In the \"spiral\" form the leaves have heart-shaped bases but do not overlap and the individual leaves are broadly ovate and about I inch long and wide. In the \"corkscrew\" form the heart-shaped bases of the leaves extend beyond the stem and tend to overlap the opposite leaf in a spiral fashion. The leaves of this form are generally longer than broad, usually 2-3 inches long and 1-2 inches wide. \"Hard'' and \"soft\" varieties of the corkscrew eucalyptus are recognized by the florist but these qualities seem to reflect only the age of the plant and perhaps the source. Commercial supplies come from Florida, California and Hawaii. The keeping quality of these shoots varies greatly. The attractiveness of the shoot is not diminished in the Bottlebrush in (Callisfemou rigirlus: DTyrtle Family) (Fic. 14~. has on dry branches, however. Emerald Palm leaves (Collinia [Chamaedorea] elegans, erroneously and widely known as ~1-eanthe bella: Yalm Family). Appearing on the Boston market m quantity from Texas and presumably imported from 1Blex~co are bundles of 12- to 18inch leaves of this small palm, a native of Mexico. The rather thin, dark green, pinnately compound leaves are used in wreaths, sprays and as fresh foliage. The 66] readily grown from seed and small plants are sold almost throughout the dime stores and supermarkets as houseplants, a role in which they are quite satisfactory. The plants may begin to flower at a height of about a foot, producing small yellow flowers with a fleshy, almost berry-like perianth. The plant is year in sexes are separate. the specific name derived from the leafless stalk v hich bears the flowers : Diapensia Family). The leaves of this plant are used in wreaths and corsages at the Christmas season. The rounded or cordate leaves up to 5 inches wide have a wavy or coarsely toothed margin and are normally dark green and shiny. In the fall they color, often becoming a rich bronze which adds to their decorative value. The plant is a native of the southern Appalachian region and commercial supplies may be obtained from Virginia, the Carolinas or Georgia. In recent years these plants have been cultivated for the foliage in their native area, as well as in New England. In some areas the plant has become established locally after escaping from cultivation. Holly (Ilex sp. : Holly Family) ranks as one of the oldest and most commonly used of Christmas decorations. Species of holly are found on nearly every continent and in a variety of climatic and environmental situations. The plants characteristically have the two sexes on different plants. In the past, only the female plants which produce the colored berries have been used in horticulture or as cut foliage for the Christmas market. Dlore recently, the male plants have come to be valued for their foliage alone. Two principal species are used for foliage and berries in this country : the English Holly (Ilex aquifolium) and our native American Holly (I. opaca). English Holly is probably native from western and southern Europe to China and has been most widely used for its dark green, glossy, spinymargined leaves with which the brilliant berries contrast strikingly. Nearly two hundred horticultural varieties of this species are known, including variations of size, shape and color of the leaves and the fruit. Forms with leaves variegated in green, gold and white are sold in the Boston market district. Commercial supplies of the English holly are obtained from growers in the northern Pacific states, although considerable publicity is given to that imported from England. Our native species, which has leaves of similar shape, dull green and with fewer teeth, is also available and is widely used farther south. The less attractive foliage and dull scarlet color of the fruit make Ilex opaca a second choice. Two native deciduous hollies are also sold for their fruits. These are the winterberries (or black alders, a singularly inappropriate common name), Iler verticillata and 1. laeaegrrta. Supplies of the winterberries and American holly may be from New England or from states farther south to Virginia and the Carolmas. Huckleberry ( 6'accinium ouatum: Heath Family) (Frc. 1 ~) is an evergreen shrub of the same genus as the blueberry. It is a native of the Pacific Coast States and commercial supplies are obtained from California to British Columbia. Formerly only a Christmas green, this handsome spray foliage plant is being used throughGalax (Gnla.r aph~lln, ~~ J by florists. The leaves are short, 1-1+inches long, ovate and finely toothed on the margins. They are leathery, dark green and shiny above and paler beneath. The fruit is small, black and acid. out the year Magnolia leaves (Magnolia grand~ora: Magnolia Family). The leaves of this handsome, large tree of \"moonlight and magnolia\" fame in the Southeast may be 8 inches long and three inches broad on petioles 1-1~ inches long. When fresh the leaves are a glossy dark green above and a rusty golden brown below. Many people buy the fresh leaves for decorations at Thanksgiving and allow them to dry out, after which they are gilded or painted as Christmas decorations. The large fruit, 4 inches long and 1~ inches in diameter, bears rusty or golden hairs, and is occasionally used in decorating wreaths. Podocarpus (Podocarpus macrophylla var. maki: Yew Family) (Fic. 11). The branches of this most commonly cultivated variety are sold for use as greenery. The flattened leaves to 2 inches long are dark green and glossy above and yellowish green below. The plant is a native of Japan and China, but is being grown for the northern markets in Florida. Rhododendron, Rosebay, Great Laurel (Rhododendron maximum: Heath Fam- ily) is the common evergreen species of Rhododendron of the Appalachians. The leaves, oblong in outline, 5-10 inches long, and borne on petioles 1-2 long, are dark green, occasionally shiny above, and lighter colored beneath. Commonly used for a mass green effect, the commercial supplies are obtained locally in New England or are shipped from the full extent of its range. Scotch Broom, Broom (CJtisus scoparius: Bean Family). A native of Europe, large, thick inches Scotch Broom has become naturalized in various parts of the United States where it is being gathered for its thin, green, leafless branches. The leaves are small, with 3 leaflets and fall from the plant earlier in the year. The brilliant yellow pea-like flowers are borne in abundance in late spring. Local supplies are from Virginia. Shallon, Salal, Lemon Leaf (Gaultheria shallon: Heath Family) (FIG. 9). This plant, a shrub about 2 feet high with reddish branches and ovate, light green, leathery leaves up to 5 inches long, is an unlikely-looking relative of the eastern Wintergreen or Checkerberry (G. procumbens). It is a native of western North America from California to Alaska and commercial supplies are obtained from almost the length of its range. Salal is not hardy in the New England area. Sweetbells, Leucothoe (Leucothoe erlitorrrm: Heath Family) is representative of an interesting group of deciduous and evergreen shrubs of Eastern America and Eastern Asiatic distribution. This species is native to the southern Appalachians but is widely used as an evergreen shrub in New England. As used for decorations, the old fruits generally are retained in racemes on branches bearing oblong to oval leaves 3 inches long. Commercial supplies are from local cultivated plants or from the Carolina mountains. 68 PLATE XII Figs. 9-14, X~. 9. Shallon; berry ; 13. Spiral Eucalyptus; 10. Corkscrew Eucalyptus; 11. Podocarpus; 1Q. Huckle- 14. Bottlebrush. FRESH WREATH MATERIALS Arbor-vitae branches (Thuja occidentalis: I'ine Family) (FIG. ~). The branches forma flattened spray with minute scale-like leaves in two ranks. Those leaves on the top and bottom are almost flat, while the leaves on the edges are strongly keeled. The cones are aboutinch long with about 8-10 'scales which are attached at the base. The tree is native to limey soils, especially bogs, over a wide northern area and extends southward to North Carolina and Tennessee on lime- cliffs, skipping Pennsylvania completely. (Asparagus plumosus: Lily Family). This plant, not a fern at but closely related to the garden asparagus, is a tall climbing vine with flatall, tened branch systems which give the plant its \"ferny\" appearance. The actual leaves are minute and scale-like and are not even green. The plant is available throughout the year and is commonly used in corsages and as greenery. Commercial supplies are greenhouse-grown or are from the far South or West. The species is a native of South Africa. Asparagus sprengeri, also a native of South Africa, is used less extensively than A, plumosus. In nature it may be a climbing vine with stems reaching 6 feet in length. As a house plant or greenhouse or conservatory subject it is commonly grown in baskets and the branches hang down. As in other members of the genus Asparagus the true leaves are reduced to scales and in this species the modified leaf-like branches are narrow and up to I inch long. stone Asparagus Fern Club-moss, Ground-pine, Running Cedar, Christmas Green (Lycopodium sp. : Club-moss Family) (FIG. 31). These low evergreen plants with creeping or trailing stems have long been associated with Christmas in the New England area. Early historical records of the colonists indicate that these plants, visible in the woods in mid-winter, were among the first employed in the holiday season. Several species of Lycopodium are used in wreaths and greenery. Most extensively used is L. complanatum which has the branches apparently flattened and fan-like through the reduction of the leaves on the lower side. The 1-I cones are borne on slender stalks which bear reduced scale-like leaves. Lycopodium clavatum has many long, running stems with the numerous hair-tipped leaves equally developed on all sides of the stem. A third much-used species is L. obscurum with a horizontal underground stem with erect, aerial branches resembling miniature trees. Portions of these erect stems dyed a deep green are used dried with cones and in wreaths to simulate evergreen foliage, presumably spruce. Other species sometimes used include L, annotinum and L. lucidulum. The former has unstalked cones while the latter has no well-defined cone, the spore-cases being borne in the axils of the upper leaves. Commercial supplies are generally obtained locally, although additional material is received from New York and Pennsylvania. The plants grow relatively slowly and indiscriminate gathering has nearly exterminated them in some areas. Florists' stocks are often carried over from one year to the next and the dried stems may then be artificially colored. A tropical species (L. cernuum), more Christmas-tree-like, 12-18 inches high, with short, erect cones, is occasionally seen in the Boston area. 70 ] (.4bies balsamea, or other species : Pine Family) (FIG. 4). The needle-hke, flattened, with 2 whitish lines below. They are spirally arranged or so distributed as to give the branches a flattened appearance. A flat, circular scar is left when the needles fall off, leaving the branch lets smooth. Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens: Pine Family). With somewhat longer Fir branches are leaves scale-like leaves and fewer cone-scales than arbor vitae, the flattened fan-like branches of incense cedar are more graceful than those of its relative. The plant is a handsome tree native from Oregon to Lower California with its best development in the Sierra Nevada of California. Bundles of branches are sold in the Boston markets. Hemlock branches (Tsuga canaden.vis or T. caroliniana: Pine Family) (Flc. 7). The needles are short, flattened and whitish beneath. The Canada hemlock, usually seen, has flattish branches and small cones; the Carolina hemlock has the needles emerging at all angles and has larger cones. In both species the needles fall quickly, leaving a roughened stem. Mistletoe (Phoradendron flaaescen.s: Dlistletoe Family). The European mistletoe (hiscum album), which our eastern American plant resembles, is one of the traditionally oldest plants associated with Christmas. Since the time of the Druids this plant as a parasite on trees, especially the oak, has been given religious significance. Our American plant is parasitic on many different species of trees, attaching itself to the water-conducting tissues of the tree. The plant is spread by white fruits which contain a sticky, mucilaginous material which may adhere to the beaks of birds which eat the fruit. The commercial Christmas market is a large one. Plants for the Boston area come chiefly from New Mexico and Oklahoma, although some supplies were seen from Tennessee, Kentucky and the Carolmas. Mountain Laurel (Kalmia lat;folia: Heath Family) is used at the Christmas season as green or wreath material. The plant is widespread in the eastern mountains and supplies are either obtained locally from the New England States or shipped from farther south. Pine foliage (Pinus sp. : Pme Family) (Fic. 3). The leaves are of two types, the primary small and scale-like, spirally arranged and tightly compressed against short branches which bear 2-.i longer needle-like leaves, the whole branch forming a \"fascicle\" or bundle of needles. White pine (P. strobus) characteristically has 5 needles in a bunch ; the long-leaf pine (P. australis) has clusters of 3 needles up to 12 inches long; red pine (P. resinosa) and Scotch pine (P. sylc~estris) have 2 needles in each cluster. \"Smilax\" of florists (Asparagus a.sparagoides: Lily Family) is a third asparagus species from South Africa. The plant is a branching vine with the leaves reduced to scales and the axillary branches flattened and leaf-like, ovate in shape and 1-1~ ) inches long. Commercial supplies are grown in greenhouses for the Christmas market and are obtained from many parts of the United States. Spruce branches (Picea sp. : Pine Family) (Fic. 6). The needles are short, ~1 keeled above and below and thus four-sided or four-angled. Each needle is raised on a small peg-like base, so that the branches remain rough to the touch when the needles fall. Most commercial supplies for Boston are obtained from ~laine and eastern Canada. White Cedar branches (ClramaecJparis tlrujoides: Pine Family) (FIG. 1). The branches are only slightly flattened but the leaves resemble those of Arbor-vitae. e The lower surface of the branches often shows white lines between the leaves. The cones are globular with the scales peltate (attached in the middle, umbrella-like). Wild Smilax (Smila,r lanceolata, primarily : Lily Family) is an unarmed evergreen member of a widespread genus. This high-climbing vine with broadly ovate shining leaves 2-4 inches long is shipped in tremendous quantities from the Gulf States for the northern Christmas market. Unfortunately the stems do not keep well, as the leaves tend to shrivel in drying. spirally arranged, DRIED FRUITS, FLOWERS AND CONES Agave fruits (Agave sp. : Amaryllis Family) (FIG. 25). Several species of the century plant supply clusters of 3-parted capsules about I-1~ inches long and ~ inch in diameter which are dyed or painted and used in Christmas wreaths and arrangements. Beech Family). Acorns used in Christmas decorations with shellac or are painted. Unless the cups are present are generally covered the acorns are difficult or impossible to identify. Only white, mossy cup and bur oak fruits could be recognized with certainty. Artichoke (G~rrara scolymus: Sunflower Family) (Fic. 21) was seen as the fresh cultivated form and the dried wild form. Local market supplies of fresh artichokes were commonly worked into flower or fruit arrangements. The mature and dried heads of this relative of the thistle were painted and dyed various colors. The outer bracts of the head of flowers were pointed and protruding in the dried specimens which were of the inedible wild form of this plant which has become naturalized in California. The artichoke is a native of the Mediterranean area but is grown commercially as a crop plant in California, the source of both fresh and dried flower-heads. Australian Pine cones (Casuarina equisetifolia: Casuarina Family) represent fruit clusters of a flowering tropical tree (not a pine at all) which are erroneously called \"cones.\" These fruit clusters less than ~ inch long and ~ inch in diameter are used in dry corsages, decorations on wreaths and sometimes are fixed to parts of other plants. The commercial supplies are obtained from Florida where several species native to Australia are widely grown. Bayberry (M~rica ~ensJloanica: V~'ax-Dlyrtle Family). This native plant has long g been prized in New England for the wax which develops on the mature fruits. The sexes are on separate plants and only the female plants produce the fruits. The female flowers mature into dense clusters of bony, globular nutlets which, Acorns (Quercus sp. : 72] PLATE XIII 15, 19, X1; others X~). 15. Flora Buttons; 16. Straw Flower; 17. Spruce Bird; 18. Prairie Parsley; 19. Star Flower; 20. Pepper Tree; 21. Artichoke; ?2. Lotus; 23. Teasel; 24. Desert Primrose. Figs. 15-24 (Figs. 16, 17, 23, X~; Figs. when dry, are covered with white waxy or warts. The wax is removed from the fruit making Christmas candles which have a characteristic fragrance. The stiff, leafless dried branches with the grayish fruits are used in arrangements and wreaths. The detached berries are often used in decorating other Christmas artifacts and are used whole on candles. Cat-tail, Cat-of-nine-tails (Typha angustifolia, T. latifolia: Cat-tail Family). The narrow-leaved cat-tail is used especially in this area. It is easily recognized by the fruiting clusters of small diameter with a distinct separation between the female and the male flowers above. The other species has thicker fruiting spikes and the female and male flowers are adjoining. Both of these swamp-loving plants are of wide distribution within the United States, yet quantities of the former species have been imported from Italy. Cotton bolls (Gossypium hirsutum: Mallow Family) (FIG. ~6). The open capsules of cotton, carefully cleaned of all seeds and fibers, suggest a stylized 5-lobed flower and are sold either in their natural brown color or dyed, silvered, or painted. The upland cotton is used and supplies come from the South or from California. Date Florets (Phoenix dactylifera: Palm Family) (Fic. 28) are portions of the date palm inflorescence possessing young and commonly abortive fruit or only the calyx lobes after the fruit has been picked. The larger inflorescence is broken into pieces about 10-12 inches long for sale. Some material appears to have been bleached and dyed. The much-branched staminate inflorescences, from which \" Commercial supplies come the flowers have fallen are sold as \"male date calyx. by steam immersion in hot water and is used in from California. are the expanded leaf of the Yucca. The leaf itself is long and narrow and has bases of a desert relative marginal spines which are hooked towards the apex of the leaf. The outer part of the leaf is cut off, leaving the basal 11-18inches which are usually displayed in a vase with the white or yellowish leaf base upward. Occasionally the bases are dyed a brilliant color. The genus occurs in Mexico and the Southwestern States. Locust fruits (Robinia pseuclo-acncia or occasionally Gleditsia triacanthos: Bean Family). Dlature seed pods dried and colored are used in fruit arrangements. Fruits of the black locust (Robinia) are about 2-4 inches long while those of the honey locust (Gleditsia) are up to 18 inches long. Both trees occur locally and Desert Spoons (Dasylirion sp. : Lily Family) (FIG. 33) are planted widely and in eastern states. The large of this well-known aquatic are used top-shaped fruiting receptacles flat-topped in dried arrangements. The fruits contain large seeds which may be loose or held tightly in the individual cavities in the fruit. This is an introduced pink-flowered species which is grown in many botanic gardens and has become established in waterways and lakes in the southern states, Texas and California. We have not Lotus (Nelumbium nelumbo, primarily : Water-lily Family) (FIG. ~?2). determined whether our native yellow-flowered species is ever used ; we hope not. Milkweed pods (.4sclepias syriaca and others : ~Iilkweed Family). Local fields 74 ] the commercial quantities of open and partially open milkweecl shops as Christmas decorations. The curved, swollen fruits with soft, recurved protuberances on the outside are often almost completely inverted. Partially opened pods are often sprayed with a plastic to retain the seeds s in the pod. Fully opened pods which have shed the seeds are artificially colored. Okra fruits (Hibiscus esculentus: Dlallow Family) (FIG. The common vegetable fruit of the South, an hibiscus as much as the swamp mallow or the rose-ofsharon, is represented in Christmas decorations, wreath ornamentation and dried arrangements by the dried fruits. The elongate capsule has been allowed to mature and is then dried and colored. The capsules seen had split lengthwise into narrow fibrous strips which remained appressed at the tip. The spherical brown seed rattled free in the fruits. Pepper Grass (Lepidium nirginicxm: DW stard Family) is a common and familiar weed with numerous small, flattened fruit, notched at the tip, which fall apart into two halves when fully ripe. The plant is sold uncolored for use in dried apparently supply pods seen in the florists' arrangements. Pepper-Tree fruits, Pepper Berries (Schinus molle: Cashew Family) (FIG. ~?0~. The large clusters of small dried pinkish red I-seeded fruits are used in their natural condition for decorations. While the tree is a native of South America, it has been planted widely in the American tropics and grown extensively as a street tree in California. Commercial supplies are obtained from that state. The plant belongs to the same family as poison ivy and some people are allergic to the touch of even the dried fruits. Pitch Pine cones (Pinus rigida: Pine Family). This species is commonly used locally, but various other species are also represented. Pitch-pine cones are about ~?2 inches long when mature and open and are often as broad, conical in shape with the base flat. The scales have a short, sharp terminal spine. Redwood cones ( Sequoia sempervirens: Pine Family ~. The reddish-brown cones about 1 inch long are sold in cellophane bags to be used in making corsages and dried arrangements. The distinct peltate scales, broadly triangular at the apex, distinguish this cone. Screw Bean (Prosopis pubescens : Bean Family) is the fruit of a mesquite tree of the dry areas of the southwestern United States. The fruit is a pod tightly twisted into a cylindric body 1-I~ inches long. It is used in fruit arrangements and corsages. (~Solanum aculeatissimum: Nightshade Family) occasionally as the dried branches bearing fruits or as detached fruits among plants used as decorations. As the name suggests, this is a very spiny plant with the golden prickles of the stems and calyx adding to the attractiveness of the orange or orange-yellow fruit. The fruits I-1~ inches in diameter, Spiny Solanum, Spiny Tomato seen is retain their color even when dried. \"Spruce Birds\" (FrG. 1 i ) with bodies made from red spruce cones (Picea nibens), 75 ; molded heads and plastic wings and tails are being advertised widely. These clever painted birds are imported from Denmark where our native red spruce has been used extensively. Starflower (Syngonanthus sp. : Pipewort Family) (Fro. 19). Sold in large bunches, the small, strawflower-like heads, white (but stained a brilliant red or a dozen other shades), borne on slender leafless stems led us completely astray, as did the report that these were imported from Europe. The plant proves to be a pipewort relative (see \"Flora Buttons\") which has a head of flowers with surrounding straw-like white bracts, the whole about 4-2 inch across, so that it strongly resembles a small straw flower. We now find that we have been seeing this for years as a component of the tiny dried bouquets which are sold in \"shadow boxes.\" The plant is a native of Brazil where it must occur in enormous quantities in moist savanna areas. The leaves are about 2 inches long, very narrow and form a basal rosette. Sugar Pine cones (Pinus lambertiana: Pine Family). The cones of this majestic species of the Sierra Nevada and the Coast Ranges of California and Oregon may be as much as 18 inches long. They resemble giant cones of the white pine, to which this plant is related. Strawflowers (Helichrysum bracteatum: Sunflower Family) (Fig. 16) are occasionally called Everlasting, although in New England this name is usually reserved for ,~naplaalis margaritacea, which has grayish-white bracts at the outer edges of the head and yellowish bracts toward the center. The straw flowers are natives of Australia. The mature heads retain the brightly colored bracts after the fruit are shed. The bracts of the dried heads are usually of the red-to-yellow range. Heads vary in size to ~~ inches in diameter. Straw flowers can be grown in New England as annual plants, but commercial supplies come primarily from growers in California. Sweet-gum fruits (Liquidambar styraci,flua: Witch-hazel Family). The \"fruit\" of this handsome tree is really a'globular head of many fruits. The cluster appears spiny due to the two pointed beaks of each mature fruit. Most of the seeds are abortive and the woody capsules appear to be filled with sawdust. The fruit clusters are obtained from the southern states and generally are painted before they are sold. Teasel, Fuller's Teasel (Dipsacus fullonum: Teasel Family) (Fic. `?3). The dried fruiting heads may or may not be bleached and dyed in a variety of colors. The recurved bracts of the head distinguish this species from the commoner New England weed, D. sylvestris, which is also used. Both species are European in origin. The dried heads of Fuller's Teasel once had considerable use in carding wool. White Pine cones (Pinus strobus: Pine Family) are from one of the most common pines of New England. The white pine has needles in bundles of five and has slender, often curved, nearly cylindrical cones. The cone-scales are thin, without recurved points and are commonly tipped with oxidized resin which adds to their attractiveness in decorations. 76] PLATE XIV Figs. 25-33, X1. 25. Agave; 26. Cotton; 27. Australian Beech; 28. Date Florets; 29. Butcher's Broom; 30. Yucca; 31. Lycopodium obscurum; 32. Okra; 33. Desert Spoon. (Ile.r aerticillata, 1. laevigata: Holly Family-). Often called Black these plants are abundant locally around swamps, ponds, streams and in Alder, damp thickets in the Eastern United States. In foliage, number of fruits and appearance of the branches the plant is extremely variable. The sexes are separate and the female shrubs which produce the short clusters of 1-8 bright orangered fruits are valued for Christmas decorations in the leafless condition. Unfortunately the fleshy fruits dry out, shrivel and lose their bright color. Yucca fruits (Yucca sp. : Lily Family) (FIG. 30). The large, 3-parted capsules, about ~4 inches long and one inch in diameter, of western relatives of the widely planted eastern Spanish Bayonet are seen in markets where they are sold singly, mostly silvered, gilded or otherwise painted. They resemble Agave fruits in general shape, but are easily distinguished by their larger size and by not being borne Winterberry in compact clusters. DRIED AND OFTEN PAINTED PLANT PARTS . Sections cut obliquely through the soft, woody species of Agave (and perhaps Yucca: in the Boston market as bases for dried flower arrangeLily Family) are sold ments. Agaves, popularly known as Century Plants, have a large basal rosette of fleshy leaves. From the center of this rosette a large stalk is produced which bears the numerous flowers. The \"agave stems\" are cut from this large stalk. Commercial supplies are received from California and adjacent Mexico. Agave stem (Agave sp. : Amaryllis mature fruiting stalk of Family). Australian Beech, Red Box, Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus ~olyanthemos: Myrtle The mature fruiting branches of this Australian tree are common among materials for Christmas decoration. The mature leaves are lanceolate in outline, 3-4 inches long, oblique at the base and arranged alternately on the stem. The fruits, borne terminally and in the upper leaf axils in clusters and Family) (FIG. 2 i ). goblet-like fruit The specimens seen hereabouts are gilded, has a distinct smooth and thin ring. silvered or colored. Commercial supplies are from California. Bunya-bunya (Araucaria bid~c~illii: Pine Family), is a member of a remarkable, ancient genus of scattered distribution in South America, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand. The bunya-bunya, native to Australia, is grown in Hawaii and California. The young shoots possess spreading ovate to ovate-lanceolate leaves up to 2 inches long arranged in two rows, but the mature foliage is arranged in a tight spiral and consists of leaves about 2 inch long. It is the juvenile shoots which are dried and used in arrangements. Commercial supplies are obtained groups of 3-5, are aboutinch in diameter. The apex of the from California. aculeatus: Lily Family) (FIG. 29). The apparent leaves of this plant are really dark green, ovate, sharp-pointed, flattened branches which are borne above the minute and scale-like true leaves. The flowers are borne in a cluster from the center of the flattened leaf-like stems and may produce orangeButcher's Broom (RzGSCUS ?'8 ~ ] berries ~ inch in diameter. For the Christmas market the branches are dried and most of those seen in the Boston area appear to have been partially decayed in water (until the outer layers have peeled off), dried and silvered or dyed a brilliant red. Ruscus is a native of the D7editerranean area and commercial supplies come either from Italy or from plants cultivated in either Florida or California. Desert Primrose (Oenothera deltoides: Evening Primrose Family) (FIG. 24) on the Christmas market consists of the dried fruiting stalks with open fruits which have shed the epidermal layers. This white-flowered winter and spring annual of the J~ohave Desert area reaches a height of one foot. Specimens may be a natural bleached color or may be tinted or dyed. Commercial supplies are from California. Eucalyptus: See Australian Beech. \"Flora Buttons\" (~'riocaulon decangulore: Pipewort Family) (Frc. 15). A marsh plant known in fresh condition as pipewort, this plant is common on the coastal plain from New England to Texas. The dried and colored globose flower heads which at first glance resemble those of tansy (Tanncelum: Sunflower Family) borne on thin 10-l z ribbed reed-like stems appear in the florists' shops at Christmas. Each head consists of many small fruits, each with a small pointed bract, giving the head a minutely bristly texture. Palm Flowers (Cocos uucifera: Palm Family) are the fruiting calyces of the coeonut palm. The small calyx of the flower expands with the development of the fruit. When the fruit is ripe these woody perianth parts can be removed as a unit and form a whorl of woody scales around an irregularly surfaced center. In wreaths and for corsages or artificial flowers these fruiting calyces may be used in natural form or may be painted or dyed. Occasionally artificial stamens are placed in the center of the rosette of calyx lobes to resemble a larger flower. yellow Palm Drift, \"Fantazma,\" Embryo Palm-leaves, Unborne Palm-leaves (Plroe- ui.r sp. : Palm Family). These are the unexpanded or partially expanded leaves of either the date palm (1'. dactyl~'era) or the Canary Island date palm (P. canariensis), taken from the terminal bud. The tree is killed in removing these leaves which are of various sizes and are used in dried arrangements. Commercial supplies are obtained from California and Arizona. Pin Oak leaves (Quercus palustris: Beech Famrly). Cellophane-wrapped packages of oak leaves appear on the Christmas market as decorative materials. The leaves, mostly those of the pin oak, were bleached and pressed flat, still attached to the branches. Some materials are dyed in brilliant colors of yellow, orange or red and others colored to resemble true fall coloring (but not that of oaks). Most commercial supplies came from Indiana, although smaller lots were available from local sources. Pine Roses (Pinus sp. : Pme Family-). Pine cones when sawed or twrsted trans~-ersely- into whorls of scales are commonlyyused in w reaths and arrangements. A nun,l~er of species of pines are used in this fashion. The tip of the cone is commonlysed alone. The cone roses may be used in the natural condition or painted. 79] Poison Hemlock (Conium maculatum: Parsley Family). Dried fruiting stalks of this plant have been sprayed with \"flock,\" according to the florists. The nature of this material is not known to us but appears to consist of short fibers of plastic or other glistening synthetic material. Colors are applied either by means of the \"flock\" or sprayed on afterward. These stems appeared in yellow, green, and blue. The stems bearing the characteristic compound umbels and fruit are used. The plant is notoriously toxic and supplied the classic poison drunk by Socrates. It is a native of Europe but is widely naturalized in the United States. Prairie-parsley, Crinkle Bush (Polytaenia nuttallii: Parsley Family) (FIG. 18). Leaf-bearing fragments of the stems of this plant from which the flower and fruiting clusters have been removed are dried and painted and sold for wreath ornamentation and dried arrangements. Jlaterials which we saw were painted with aluminum and then sprayed with a garish purple or rose. The plant is a native of the mid-western states and Indiana was the source of the commercial supply. Ravenna Grass, Erianthus Plumes (Erianthus ravenrrae: Grass Family). The much-branched, plume-like flower clusters of this European grass are I `?-18inches long and 3-5 inches across. In their natural condition they are an attractive silvery-beige color but as sold in the Boston area as a dried ornament the panicles are dyed in miscellaneous colors and sold in gaudy bunches. The grass may be as much as 12 feet tall. It is cultivated as an ornamental and is hardy at least as far as New York. The soft, plumose appearance is given by fine silvery hairs beneath the spikelets. Sea Lavender, Caspia (Limonium sp. : Leadwort Family) is a salt-marsh plant with tall. a basal rosette of leaves and a much-branched inflorescence often 18 inches Gilded, silvered or dyed in brilliant colors, the inflorescence of the plant is hardly recognizable and we have not been able to determine the species with certainty. or Silk-oak (Grevillea robusta: Protea Family) leaves when dried and colored one several colors are used in arrangements and for ornamentation on wreaths. The much-dissected leaf comes from a large, fast-growing tree native to Australia. It has been a pot plant. The dried leaves planted widely in the warmer parts of the United States and is often grown as are obtained from Florida, California and Hawaii. CHRISTMAS POTTED PLANTS Christmas Cactus, Crab Cactus (Schlumbergera Bridge.sii, erroneously known Zygocactu.s truncatus: Cactus Family) is a native of tropical America. As a potted house plant it has long been a favorite from its habit of blooming profusely from the Christmas season through March. The flowers are usually crimson, although a number of color variants are now known. The drooping, flat, jointed stems are sometimes grafted onto other more erect species of cacti. Adventitious shoots of the stock plant may thus cause confusion. as 80 common names oum annuum Christmas Pepper, Cherry Pepper, Cone Pepper or Ornamental Pepper are for the small-fruited decorative (and very hot) varieties of Capsi- (Nightshade Family). The forms cultivated as house plants flower at small size productng an abundance of round or pointed fruits. Dr. Charles Heiser, of Indiana University, who is studytng the cultivated peppers, has kindly written that the two principal forms which we have encountered in the Boston area probably are C. annuunz \"Celestial,\" with fruits which progress from green to white to purple to red, and C. anurzuzn \"Floral Gem,'' with fruits which ripen to red omitting the purple phase. \"Celestial\" is said to have been introduced from China, but in both instances Dr. Heiser notes that the basic ingredients certainly came from Mexico, Central America or the West Indies. False Jerusalem Cherry (Solonum cn~sicastrum: Nightshade Family), resembles the true Jerusalem Cherry (below) but differs in the smaller size of the plant, the broader leaves and the presence of hairs, many of which are star-shaped, on stems and leaves. This plant is a native of southern temperate South America. Compact or variegated cultivars are often available. Plants are grown from seed. Jerusalem Cherry (Solanum ~seudoca~sicum: Nightshade Family~ is one of the old-fashioned but still popular house plants for Christmas. It is available as a small pot plant and retains its orange or scarlet, globose fruits well. In Madeira, where it may be native, it may reach a height of 3-~ feet, but only compact dwarf forms are cultivated. \"Cleveland Cherry and \"l'atterson\" are two of the betterknown compact cultivars. The fruits are inedible and poisonous. Orange Trees, Otaheite Orange (Citrus taitensis: Rue Family). Pot-grown specimens of the Otaheite Orange are popular Christmas plants. While the scientific name of this member of the citrus group suggests that it is a native of Tahiti, it is probably of hybrid origin and its place of origin unknown. Basically a dwarf type of plant when confined in root development, it will flower when a foot tall and produce both flowers and fruits almost contmuously. The flowers are pinkish and the fruits are like small oranges, rarely over 2 inches in diameter. The flavor of the juice of the ripe fruit is disappointing. Poinsettia (Euphorbia ~ulcTrerrima: Spurge Family) stands today as the most popular plant for Christmas. In the South and far West where it can be grown out of doors it is commonly in full flower during the Christmas season, being a short-day plant. In the North it is available in all ranges of size and price. The poinsettia has been known to botanists for nearly 200 years but its introduction to the commercial and horticultural market occurred only a little over 100 years ago. Its common name is associated with the man responsible for its introduction. Robert Potnsett, the first U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, sent a plant from Jlexico to be exhibited in the horticultural show of the Philadelphia Horticultural Society in 1836. Buist, a Philadelphia nurseryman, introduced the plant to the trade. Since that time pink, white and yellow color variations and the socalled \"doubles\" have been selected for the Christmas market. 81 The poinsettia is characterized by having a peculiar cluster of staminate and pistillate flowers in one unit. The flowers lack the normal corolla and calyx and the conspicuous parts of the poinsettia plant are modified leaves which lack chloroply-11 but have brilliant red or yellow pigments instead. Like the colored leaves of autumn, the brilliantly colored leaves of poinsettia are very sensitive to changes of temperature, moisture and abrasion and fall readily from the branches. The \"double-flowered\" forms are not that at all, but are selected forms which develop abnormal branches in the axils of the principal colored leaves and these small shoots, developing brilliantly colored stunted leaves form the \"double poinsettias.\" The clusters of flowers on the modified axis are composed of 3-5 red, jointed stamens or male flowers and usually a single triangular female flower borne on a long and recurving stalk. At the base of these parts is a large, elliptical brilliant yellow nectar gland which in nature attracts insects which aid in pollination. Poinsettia plants are difficult to handle and can not be shipped for great distances. The plants available in the florists shops are, therefore, generally grown nearby. Florists and nurserymen of New England import field-grown roots of poinsettia (generally from California) which are allowed to sprout in the greenhouse. Shoots are cut from these stocks and the cuttings are treated with growth substances to aid root development. The rooted cuttings are then planted in pots and sold for the Christmas trade. Thus the weak root system present contributes to the difficulties many prople have in carrying these plants over the winter. The inclusion of a fern plant in the pot of poinsettia supplies additional green color. It is wise for the recipient of such a gift-plant to nurture the fern and cut out the poinsettias after the red leaves have fallen. CUT-FLOWERS FOR CHRISTMAS (Strelitzia reginae: Banana Family). An exotic flower the Christmas market, either greenhouse grown locally or shipped in from Hawaii, the West Indies or South Africa, is this native of the last locality. The strange orange and blue flowers are produced in a compact folded bract which incloses the buds. In nature one to several flowers will arise from the bract at one time, but as a cut-flower it may be necessary to lift each flower in succession from the bract. The dark blue \"tongue\" of the flower consists of 2 arrow-shaped petals which inclose 6 stamens of different lengths. The third blue petal is short and broad. The orange portions of the flower are sepals. Christmas Rose (Helleborus niger: Buttercup Family). One of the unusual plants of the Christmas season is the Christmas \"rose\" which blooms naturally out of doors in New England in winter. Helleborus is a native of Europe and each year many plants are imported for American gardens. The cut-flowers of the florists are either flown in from Europe or are greenhouse forced for the season. Flamingo Flower (:~nthzerium X cultorum: Arum Family ). This plant, belonging to the same family as skunk-cabbage, jack-in-the-pulpit, the calla lily and philBird-of-Paradise Flower now frequently seen on 82] has grown in popularity as an exotic cut-flower with the advent of modern transportation. Many are grown in local greenhouses, but large supplies come from Florida, the 4~'est Indies, Central and South America and Hawaii. The cultivated plant is derived from the hybridization in cultivation of at least 4 species of Anthurium with A. Andreanum of Colombia. The plant is notable for the stiff, waxy, dark red to white, showy, modified leaf which is at the base of a finger-like spike of small and inconspicuous whitish or yellowish flowers. Thus it is an entire inflorescence or cluster of flowers which is sold. The flamingo flower keeps well and may last several weeks. Star-of-Bethlehem (Ornithogalum thyrsoides: Lily Family). The bulbous genus Ornithognlum is European and African in urigm. Two species, also called \"Starof-Bethlehem,\" were introduced into New England gardens many years ago, but escaped from cultivation locally and ha~e become naturalized as a part of our spring flora. The Mediterranean O. arabicum and the African 0. lacteum are cultivated in Florida and California for cut-flowers of the florist trade. The third species considered here is also cultivated in this country, although the largest supplies are shipped for the Christmas season from South Africa. Plants purchased in good condition may last as long as three weeks. ARTIFICIAL PLANTS Bonsai are or odendron, Ming Trees. While these plants appear throughout the year, they dish may frequently featured as Christmas gifts. They may be available either as gardens or as block pieces for wall mounting. The trunks of these \"trees\" be pieces of driftwood or the branches of the manzanita (Arctostaphylos manzanita: Heath Family), of the mountains of California. The \"foliage\" glued or wired to these branches is usually the entire plant of a low-growing species of false buckwheat (Eriogonum: Buckwheat Family), also from California, but may consist of mats of moss, sphagnum or other plant material. Most such \"bonsai plants\" are made by a local florist from material procured commercially from various localities. The fimshed production generally includes figurines and colored shell fragments. While these plants are called Ming Trees or Bonsai Plants by some, they should not be confused with the living, dwarfed trees which are properly termed Bonsai. Many different kinds of artificial fruits made of plastic resins and attached in a variety of ways have been seen in displays, wreaths and shops. These make colorful, if unconvincing displays. One odd type of artificial fruit consisted of small white pellets ~-2 inch in diameter sprayed with adhesive and attached at random to branches of hemlock, spruce or to the naked branches of various hardwood shrubs, in some instances suggesting a bizarre cross between bayberry and snowberry !1 One of the strangest artifacts from the botanical point of view was the ingenious combination of the large cone of the sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana) from the West with the leafy branches of the long-leaf pine (P. australis) from the South- 83 hole had been bored in the base of the pine cone which was then thrust the tip of the long-leaf pine branch. Although the botanists winced at the thought of such a hybrid, the public went right ahead and bought. Neptune Fern. Sold throughout the year tied together in small bunches are brilliant green, slender stalks 4-6 inches long which apparently bear alternate, finely divided leaves greatly resembling the common aquarium plant, Cabomba. These are not plants at all but minute, colonial hydroids, relatives of the jellyfish. This particular one, kindly identified for us by Dr. Elisabeth Deichmann, of the Museum of Comparative Zoology, is Thuiaria cupressina (the name alluding to Thuja and Cupressus, two perfectly good cone-bearing trees), which is found on both sides of the Atlantic, although local supplies come from England where it is especially abundant. The animals are allowed to decay away, leaving behind the remains of their transparent colonies which are then dyed green or, less frequently, red. Although these are completely and utterly dead when sold, we have been assured quite solemnly that the \"plant\" lives only on air, needs no water, and grows ! One lady, of whom we know, carefully places hers on the window sill in the sunlight each day. east. A on RICHARD A. HOWARD AND CARROLL E. WOOD, JR. Exhibition at the Administration Building, Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts CHRISTMAS SHOW OF HOLIDAY DECORATIONS December 19 - 30 A cones display qf' plant materials for use at Christmas time. Evergreens, u~reath planls, and fruits from the Arboretum, and dried and exotic plant materials from the Boston markets make this show qf interest to everyone. Open 9:00 a. m. to 5:00 p. Except December 24 - 26 m. 84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XV","article_sequence":9,"start_page":85,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24287","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14eb36b.jpg","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XV Illustrations Abies are in bold face type I -, balsamea, 63, 71 2 Acorns, 72 Red, 63 ; Plate XI, 63 Cedar, White, 72 ; Plate XI, 2 72 65 7 Agave, 72, 78; Plate XIV, 77 - Alder, black, 78 6 Anaphalis margaritacea, 76 Anthurium andreanum, 83 X cultorum, 82 Araucaria bidwillii, 78 Arbor-vitae, 70; Plate XI, 65 Arctostaphylos manzanita, 83 Artichoke, 72; Plate XIII, 73 Asclepias syriaca, 74 1 Asparagus asparagoides, 71 0 Fern, 70 plumosus, 70 - , . Chamaecyparis thujoides, Chamaedorea elegans, 66 Checkerberry, 68 1 Cherry, Jerusalem, 81 I -, False Jerusalem, 81 Chionanthus , virginicus, Plate V, 80 21 1 ', ' Christmas - Cactus, ', ' \/ j ' Plants, 61-84 Christmas-rose, 8~~#& x3E; Christmas Show, 84 Trees, 61, 62, 63 -- - sprengeri, 70 75 Ba3-berry, 72 Bean, Screw, Citrus taitensis, 81 1 Cocos nucifera, 79 9 Collinia elegans, 66 Comum maculatum, 80 Cornus mas, 14 4 Corylopsis species, 14 spicata, Plate III, - 7 Beech, Australian, 7 8 ; Plate XIV,77 Bird-of-Paradise Flower, 82 15 Blooming dates this Bonsai, 83 Boxwood, 66 6 year, 16 69 a Cotoneaster adpressa, 58 ; Plate X, 57 -~ - Bottlebrush, 66; Plate XII, Branches of Shrubs Forced in praecox, 58 - Greenhouse, -, 2 - apiculata, 58 - bullata, 58 floribunda, - 58 7 Broom, Butcher's, 78; Plate XIV,77 - congesta, - Scotch, 68 Buckwheat, False, 8 Bunya-bunya, 78 58 conspicua, 58 83 - conspicua decora, - dammeri, 58 - 58 Buxus sempervirens, 66 Cactus, Crab, 80 Callistemon rigidus, 66 1 Capsicum annuum, 81 - -- - - dielsiana, 58 elegans, 58 divaricata, 58 foveolata, 58 - \"Celestial,\" 1 81 - francheti, 58 - 58 58 1 \"Floral Gem,\" 81 Case Estates, Map of the, 24 -, Open House at the, 23 Caspia, 80 2 Casuarina equisetifolia, 72 4 Cat-of-nine-tails, 74 4 Cat-tail, 74 Cedar, Incense, 71 - - frigida, - vicaryi, horizontalis, 59 hupehensis, .59 - lucida, 59 microphylla, 59 cochleata, 59 thymifolia, 59 - , - - 83 Cotoneaster multiflora, Plate - i X, 57 I - \"Farrand,\" - 10 calocarpa, 59 - racemiflora soongorica, :i9 - salicifoliafloccosa, 59,Ylate IX,55 - simons~, 59 - o intermedia, 10 spectabilis, 8 -,japontca sasattlts, - 10 o 8 - ovata, tomentosa, 59 59 59 - - zabeli, - miniata, Fresh Foliage Plants, 66 Fresh Wreath ~laterials, 70 Fringe Tree, Flowers of the, Plate Cotoneasters, 53-60 about 3 feet tall, 54 about 4-6 feet high, 56 8-18 feet high, 56 -, Prostrate, 5~ - with Little Ornamental Value, 60 7 Cotton bolls, 74 ; Plate XIV, 77 Crmkle Bush, 80 Z Cynara scolymus, 72 - V, ~1 Fruits, artificial, - 83 . _ Galax aphylla, 67 Gaultheria procumbens, 68 shallon, 68 4 tnacanthos, 74 Glossary, Revised, of the Dlore Com(xledttsia mon Botanical and Horticultural Cytisus scoparius, 68 Damage during the winter, 13 3 Dasvhrton sp., 74 Date florets, 74; Plate XIV, 77 Desert Spoons, 74; Plate XIV, 77 - Terms, 25-44 ~. Gossypium hirsutum, 74 Grass, Ravenna, 80 Grevillea robusta, 80 Ground-pine, 62,70 Helleborus niger, 82 Hemlock,1I -, Canada, 63; Plate XI, 6.5 . Dipsacus fullonum, 76 6 sylvestris, 76 Douglas fir, - 63 Dried Fruits, Flowers and Cones, 72 8 Plant Parts, 78 I Dwarfing Trees,new techniques for,1 ) Erianthus ravennae, 80 4 Erica carnea, 11 9 Eriocaulon decangulare, 79 -, Yoison, 80 6 Helichrysum bracteatum, 76 Hibiscus esculentus, 75 Holly, 61, 67 Huckleberry, 67; Plate XII, Ilex aqmfoltum, 67 8 laevigata, 67, 78 - 69 Eriogonum, 83 Eucalyptus, 66, 78 -, - - opaca, 67 Corkscrew, 66 ; Plate XII, 69 8 78 69 1 81 - globulus, 66 polyanthemos, -, Spiral, 66; Plate XII, Euphorbia pulcherrima, 52 Fall Classes at the Arnold Arboretum, \"Fantazma,\" 79 84 ' Fern, Neptune, Fertilizers, 13 -, Fir Balsam, 63 ; Plate XI, 65 Douglas, 63; Plate XI, 65 Flamingo Flower, 82 3 Flora Buttons, 79 ; Plate XIII, 73 Forcing Hardy Woody Plants, 1-4 Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf,\" - 10 0 \"Arnold Giant,\" 8 8 vertictllata, 67, 78 Juniperus virgtniana, 63 1 Kalmia latifolia, i Key (Christmas tree tdenttfication~,63 Lemon Leaf, 68 Lepidium virgmicum, i ~ Leucothoe edttorum, 68 1 L~bocedrus decurrens, i Lilac, Common, 20 8 Sequence of Bloom, 18 -, The Late (Syringa villosa), Plate IV, 19 Lilacs, Best Hybrid, Listed in Their Respective Groups of I'opularity,~2 \"Lilacs for America,\" 17 i -, Good Early Hybrids, 22 - in Their Order of Bloom, 17-23 -, Late Hybrids, 23 - [gs- Lilacs, Mid Season Varieties, 22 Limonium sp., 80 Liquidambar stvraciflua, 76 Locust Fruits,74 4 Lon~cera t~tarica \"Arnold Ned,\" Lotus,1: I'late XIII, 73 Orntthogalum arabicum, - 83 lacteum, 83 thyrso~des, R3 9 Palm, Canary Island date, 79 (i6 .i0 Lyopodium, 6~, ~0 - 0 annotinum, 70 0 cernuum, 70 0 clavatum, 70 complanatum, luc~dulum, 70 0 70 - - - - - i obscurum,70 ; Plate XIV, 77 68 9 - drift,9 9 -, embrco, 79 -, emerald leaves, 9 flowers, 79 5 Pepper berries, i -, cherry, 811 1 , Christmas, 81 Pepper, cone, 81 Pepper-grass,7.5 , - - Jla~nol~a, 68 grandiflora, kobus, 8 3 Pepper-tree,3 ; I'late XIII, i Ph~ladelphus, II, 8 ; 1 1 - 10 - loebneri \"Merrill,\" Plate (i 8 - stellata, BIalus arnold~ana, - Phoenix canariensis, 79 9 9 dactyhfera, 74, 79 Phoradendron flavescens, 71 1 Picea glauca, 63 atrosanguinea, 7 - 8 - \"Dorothea,\" \"Katherme,\" 8 - pum~la niedzwetzkyana, purpurea eleyi, 6 I sargenti, - 6 mariana, 63 rubens,7.5 2 Pine, Australian, 72 -, long-leaf,1, 83 - . - -- rosea, ', I spectabilis riversi, i - ~ \"Blanche Ames,\" 6 \"Henrietta Crosby,\" 6 - ~ \"Henr~- F. duPont,\" 6 - X \":~Iarp Potter,\" 6 ~~anzanitx, 83 Maple \"Crtmson King,\" 111 ~Iaple, 11I ~Iethods of producing new ornamenI tal plants,11 4' Milkweed, r~ ll~n~ Trees, 83 JUstletoe, 61, 711 0 Jloss, club, i Jlountain-laurel, ;11 `? ~Icrica pensylvanica, i Neanthe bella, 66 4 Nelumb~an nelumbo, 74 N ew Plants, 50 - -, pitch, 75 -, red, 63, i1 9 Pine-roses, 79 Pme, Scotch,71 -, sugar, 83 6 --, sugar, cones, 76 -, - ' . ,t white, 63, i I, i 6 ; Plate XI, 60 Ptnus - australis,1, larobertiana, ~76, resinosa, 63, i1 83 83 ~ - rigida, 75 -sp., il, 79 - - -- 6 strobus, 63, i 1, 76 sylvestris, i1 Plant Breeding at the Arnold `~ tum, 0-1 Arbore- Plants, artificial, - 83 69 68 Podocarpus, 68 ; Plate XII, macrophylla var. maki, Poinsettia, 61, 81I Polytaen~a nuttallii, 80 i VII, 47 albicans, 46 beani, 46 beesi, 46 - 9 Oak, pin, i Oenothera deltoides, 79 9 7 Okra, i ~ : Plate XIV, i I Potentilla fruticosa, k~-a~? ; growing in the Arnold Arboretum, Plate - Orange Otaheite, Onental cherries, 1 81 14 4 I - - - - I 87 Potentilla fruticosa,Best of the Varieties for Landscape Planting, 49 - Smilax -, - - -- - - - - - - - - - - dahurica, 46 farreri, 48 friedrichseni, 48 \"Gold Drop,\" 49 grandiflora, 48 \"Katherine Dykes, \" mandshurica, 48 8 micrandra, 48 lanceolata, 7l wild,7 ~#& x3E; Solanum aculeatissimum, capsicastrum, -- 5 75 81 1 81 I - -- pseudocapsicum, 811 \"Cleveland Cherry,\" - \" Patterson,\" 811 49 - - \"Moonlight,\" nana 49 - - argentea, 46 - - - - - - - - ochroleuca, 48 parvifolia, 48 pumila, 48 purdomi, 48 pyrenaica, 48 8 Spanish Bayonet, 78 Spraying, 13 6 Spring Comes to the Arboretum, 13-16 3 \"Spruce Birds,\" 75; Plate XIII, 73 Spruce, black, 63 -, red, 7 ~ ; Plate XI, 63 -, w hite, 63 Star Flower, 76; Plate XIII, 73 Star-of-Bethlehem, 83 - - Strawflowers, 76; Plate XIII, 73 Strelitzia regmae, 82 - - - - - - - - rigida, 49 tenuiloba, 49 veitchi, 49 vilmoriniana, 49 3 Prairie-parsley, 80; Plate XIII, 73 3 Primrose, desert, 79; Plate XIII, 73 - Prosopis pubescens, Prunus - 75 2 - Pruning Exhibit, Plate I, - apetala, 6 6 - \"Hally Jolivette,\" subhirtella, tomentosa, 6 I1 - - Sweetbells, 68 6 Sweet-gum, 76 Syngonanthus sp., 76 Syringa chinensis, 10 o laciniata, 10 o microphylla, 10 henryi \"Lutece,\" 20 hyacinthiflora, 20 oblata, 20 pinnatifolia, 20 prestoniae, 20 . - - Pseudotsuga menziesii, Quercus palustris, 79 Red-box, 78 Red-cedar, 63 Redwood, 75 Rhododendron, 68 - 63 villosa, 20 vulgaris varieties, 22 9 Tanacetum, 79 3 Teasel, 76; Plate XIII, 73 6 -, Fullers', 76 - dauricum sempervirens, 14 4 maximum, 68 mucronulatum, 14 Robinia pseudoacacia, 74 Rosebay, 68 0 Running-cedar, 70 Ruscus aculeatus, 78 8 Salal, 68 Schinus molle, 75 Schlumbergera bridgesii, 80 Sea-lavender, 80 Sequoia sempervirens, 7~ Shallon, 68; Plate XII, 69 Silk-oak, 80 I Smilax, 71 - - Thuiaria cupressina, 84 Thuja occidentalis, 70 Tomato, spiny, 75 Tsuga canadensis, 63, 7l caroliniana, 71 - - \"Arnold Pyramid,\" 50; Plate 51 VIII, - compacta, 50 ~ Typha angustifolia, 74 4 latifolia, 74 Vaccinium ovatum, 67 Viscum album, 71 1 Winterberry, 67, 78 - . Wintergreen, 68 Wreath Plants, 61 1 i Yucca, 78; Plate XIV, 77 88] "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23387","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24e816e.jpg","title":"1955-15","volume":15,"issue_number":null,"year":1955,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Japanese Dwarfed Trees","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24273","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170bb6f.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 MARCH 12, 1954 NUMBER I JAPANESE DWARFED TREES Japan will find, in many an old garden, small trees which have been grown and carefully tended in pots for centuries. These are the result of an oriental art termed \"Bonsai\"-the art of dwarfing trees. It actually is an art, for not only are the trees grown slowly, but they are so pruned and restricted in their growth habits that small plants only a few feet high are trained to produce the same general outline and branching habits of the same kind of trees when grown under normal conditions, trees which may approach 60 or 100 feet in height. This is not the easiest thing to accomplish, for it takes a minute knowledge of pruning, of grafting and of fertilizing and general culture. Many an American gardener does not have the time, the patience, nor even the knowledge VISITORS to to grow trees in this way. grown in Spring Flower Show can see some of these the Arnold Arboretum displayed its collection plants they Japan, of dwarfed Japanese trees in the proper settmg of a Japanese garden. These trees were all imported to the United States in 1913, by the late Larz Anderson, who became interested in Japanese horticulture several years earlier. He served as Ambassador Extraordinary from the United States to Japan (191?-1913~ and it was during this period that he brought these trees back from Japan, all in their original containers, and grew them under the watchful eyes of several Japanese gardeners on his estate in Brookline. This was before the strict regulations of the U.S. Department of Agriculture made it impossible to bring back any plants into the United States with soil about the roots. These trees were given to the Arnold Arboretum in 1937, by Mrs. Larz Anderson as a memorial to her husband's great friend, Charles Sprague Sargent, the Arboretum's first director. Normally, this unique collection can be seen at the Arnold Arboretum in a shade or lath house erected especially for them. Around this shade house have been planted some of the shrubs and trees one commonly In order that visitors to the Boston as are 1 [ gardens, and in the display at the Flower Show, the under a bamboo shelter similar to the way they might be plants arranged grown in a sunny, hot situation in Japan. The names and ages of the various trees in this display at the Boston Spring Flower Show are: were finds growing in Japanese LARZ ANDERSON COLLECTION \"Bonsai,\" the Art of Training Dwarf Trees Century old customs have been handed down by the Japanese regarding the training of the interesting dwarf trees so characteristic of the gardens and homes of that country. There are several reasons for their existence. In the first place, Japanese and Chinese gardens are usually small, for space is at a premium. This is particularly true in the urban areas where the art of making gardens on a very small scale is centuries old. Then, too, the oriental's well known appreciation of the aesthetic value of living plants has been a prime factor in their cultivation. It often takes fifty to one hundred years to grow a worthy specimen dwarf tree, yet it is possible by twisting the trunk and restraining the growth of tops and roots to give a comparatively young plant the appearance of great age. This treatment requires a thorough knowledge of horticulture as well as painstaking patience, but many Japanese are fascinated with \"Bonsai'' and practice it as a pastime. ~ Chamaecyparis obtusa. PLATE I Over 200 years old (Larz Anderson Collection). Most woody plants can be dwarfed if given the proper training. If the branches and roots of growing plants are vigorously restrained from developing rapidly, the individuals soon become dwarfed and this is the principle underlying all training. Then, too, great care is given to the training of the trunk, the spread of the branches and their shape, and the spread of the roots, since each can be so trained as to give the impression of great age. Many methods have been devised through the centuries for attaining these ends. Maples, bamboos, cherries, pines, hollies, n oaks, azaleas, junipers, and many other plants have been used. They are grou in comparatively small containers, kept pot bound throughout their existence, and carefully and judiciouslp pruned to maintain the desired type of growth. Whenever possible, the Japanese start with plants that have already been dwarfed by nature. These are searched for in the high mountains, in regions often unfamiliar to the ordinary traveller. Such plants are frequently found growing in high rocky crevices, just barely existing for lack of sufficient nourishment. If these are dug immediately and remov ed, they might succumb at once for the delicate balance between the amount of root system and bare existence is easily upset. The plant hunter may locate such plants several years before he will venture to remove them from their rocky dwelling. At first he will prune a small portion of the plant and leave it in place fora year; then he will return and root prune another small portion, repeating this process until it is safe to move the plant. In this way splendid specimens are obtained that have already been trained with the assistance of mother nature herself. If dwarf plants are to be trained from the seedling stage, the smallest and weakest seedlings are selected. Conifers are considerably easier to train, for they do not form adventitious buds as readily as do the broad leaved plants. The seedling is placed in a very small pot. If there is a tap root, it is pruned considerably, and if a central leader is present, it too is cut back. In order to obtain the desired effect, only certain branches are allowed to develop. As an example, Chamaecyparis obtusa is ordinarily a very bushy plant, yet the illustration shows only a few picturesque branches. These few branches have been carefully selected and trained, while the others have been entirely removed. If one of these branches should die, eventually a new bud would be allowed to develop a branch to sufficient size to take the place of the dead one. To give the correct appearance of wind-contorted shape, the main stem is often twisted around a bent upright of heavy wire or metal, and after a formative period the upright is removed This twisting in itself is a dwarfing process, since frequently it breaks a large number of the conducting vessels in the stem. Branches are twisted in like manner. They may all be trained on one side of the plant, or arranged to droop on one side of the pot, or trained in any one of a dozen different ways. The Japanese gardener usually has a model in mind when he trains his plant, some wind-twisted tree which he is trying to reproduce in miniature [4 ce 0 0 \"C r a N N G 4~ F~ G7 .e '\" ~H co Y Fn 1$ b 1 H a W C7 oj Q~, O '\" a~ a. N '\" v .D ~ a. oj A 0 o! z 'a N 0 .5 and it is surprising to the uninitiated to observe how accurate these reproductions can be. Often in nature one observes old gnarled trees the larger roots of which are exposed, especially when growing in rocky places where there is still soil. This effect is reproduced by the\"Bonsai\" artist by growing his seedling in charcoal and moss for a period sufficiently long to induce long roots. When the plant is removed to its permanent container, a part of these roots are left to develop above the soil level, eventually aiding materially in giving the plant the appearance of form, great age. Pruning, Repotting and Watering Not all branches numerous are entirely removed. Some of these century old plants have picturesque stubs, certain gardeners believing that these add to the beauty of the plant. Any diseased tissue on such stubs is carefully scraped, disinfected, and painted. Sometimes in order to gain the appearance of stubby old age rapidly, taller plants that have been growing normally are used. The basal branches are cut back to give the stubby appearance. The top is entirely cut off. The plant is dug and after many of the roots have been removed it is placed in a small pot. Then certain of the adventitious buds are allowed to develop, or else scions are grafted at the desired places. Grafting is also resorted to when certain shoots die, for if a very important branch has died, it may take many years for a new one to grow to a sufficient size from an adventitious bud. The Japanese are particularly adept at this and take great pains in training an individual branch by pinching the buds back here, or twisting the branch there, and so forcing the latter to grow in the desired fashion. The pruning and pinching operations are done during the active growing period, since the development of branches from adventitious buds is then more frequent. are repotted every four or five years for two reasons. In the first it is necessary to remove some of the newly developed fibrous roots so that the tree will remain dwarfed. Secondly, it is necessary to mix a small amount of Dwarf trees place fertilizer with the soil, since as these trees are forced to grow in very small containers, there is not sufficient room for enough soil to allow new root development unless the plant be artificially stimulated with nutrients. It is also advisable to keep a fresh layer of green moss on the surface of the soil. This not only adds the impression of age, but keeps the soil from drying out. The containers are usually provided with a hole in the base for proper drainage. In the hot summer days there is some danger of the soil becoming too dry, and at such times the plants need special attention. Spraying the foliage with water once or twice a day during the hottest spells of summer is advisable in order to keep the plant in good condition. Dwarf trees cannot be considered primarily as indoor plants. They may be used indoors for short periods, but must be grown in the open a greater part of the -c time. Because of their very small root system, and the small containers in which they are grown, these dwarf trees cannot lose much water through transpiration and still survive. Consequently they must be grown in a shaded location. The shade house in which this collection is being maintained at the Arboretum was designed and erected especially for this purpose. Constructed of cypress wood, the top and sides of the house are covered with strips 11inches wide with similar spaces left between each strip. This supplies plenty of shade and at the same time keeps the atmosphere considerably cooler and reasonably moist. Winter Protection Although many of these trees are hardy, they cannot survive our northern winters because of their shallow root system, unless given some winter protection. Japanese maple, for instance, growing normally in the ground may survive a during which the temperature goes to 20 below zero although the top of the plant may be killed to the ground. However, in these small pots the roots of dwarf trees would be subjected to temperatures almost as low as those of the surrounding atmosphere, and consequently the whole plant would be killed. During the winter in the north, they are best put in cold frames or pits which are well protected with glass and even with boards and mats during the most severe weather. In our pit where these plants were stored last winter the temperature did not go below freezing, although the temperature outside the pit dropped to zero on several occasions. Another danger from freezing temperatures is that with the expansion of freezing soil the containers may break. Although these are seldom ornate, since the Japanese believe that the plant itself should be the point of interest, nevertheless their simplicity alone is beautiful and makes them important adjuncts to any such collection and thus worthy of full protection. Thus with an exacting knowledge of the numerous rigid requirements of the art of \"Bonsai\" the painstaking Japanese gardener is able to reproduce dwarf trees that are exact replicas in everything but size, of century old specimens as they occur in nature. The Japanese have developed other forms of dish gardening, but to the American horticulturist perhaps none is so interesting as \"Bonsai.\" A winter DONALD WYMAN also be seen at the Arnold Arboretum by the greenhouses, during spring, summer and early fall, Monday through Friday (9 to 5) Note: These plants can except on holidays. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New Director of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24280","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14ea36d.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"THE NEW DIRECTOR OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Dr. Richard A. Howard was appointed Arnold Professor and Director of the Arnold Arboretum, effective February 1, 1954, as successor to Dr. Karl Sax. Dr. Howard received the degree of doctor of philosophy from Harvard University in 1942 and following war service was assistant curator at the New York Botanical Garden ; assistant professor of botany at Harvard, and most recently Professor of Botany and Head of the Department of Botany at the University of Connecticut. During the years of World War II, Dr. Howard was in charge of the Air Force Survival Training Program and responsible for the establishment of rescue teams and the techniques for living off the land. His botanical interests have been in horticultural and native plants of eastern United States and the tropics of the world. ......... SUBSCRIPTION BLANK CUT OFF HERE ARNOLDIA A bulletin of popular information concerning woody ornamental plants issued the growing season about twelve times a year by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Recent issues have dealt with \"Autumn Color,\" \"Crab Apples,\" \"Euonymus,\" \"Forsythias,\" \"Ground Covers,\" \"New Spray Materials,\" \"New Methods in Plant Propagation,\" \"Collecting, Cleaning, and Shipping Seeds of Woody Plants,\" \"Two Months of Azalea Bloom,\" etc. during Subscription price $2.00 Please enter my name per year for one year's subscription (1959~~ to ARNOLDIA. Cut off this blank and mail with $2.00 to: Arnoldia Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts Please make your check payable to Harvard University "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Flowering Displays in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24270","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170b36d.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 APRIL 2, 1954 NUMBER 2 FLOWERING DISPLAYS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM that everyone is interested in color photography these days. With the films available and the excellent cameras, many a rank amateur photographer, be he young or old, can take beautiful color pictures by paying attention to a few of the rudiments of photography. The Collections at the Arnold Arboretum afford a wonderful laboratory for all those interested in taking pictures, especially in the spring. Beginning about the first of April, there will be some colorful plants in bloom here every week until October when the native witchhazel blooms and marks the end of the flowering season. But even then the colorful displays are not over, for the autumn color of the foliage of many plants is just as striking as are their flowers. Also, many are blessed with brilliantly colored fruits, and these too are subjects for many a close-up by color photography enthusiasts. Each spring the Arboretum staff is questioned by hundreds of people concerning just when the lilacs are going to bloom, or which azaleas will bloom the second week of May, or when do the rich red flowering rhododendrons begin to open their flowers. These dates naturally vary slightly from year to year. Also, the length of time the plants remain colorful depends on the weather at the time, a cool cloudy spell will result in their lasting much longer than during hot sunny weather. In the following list, a single plant may be listed because the planting at the Arboretum is conspicuous. On the other hand, the groups such as hydrangeas and honeysuckles, include many species which bloom over a considerable time. One should not expect them all to bloom together, but rather separately and within the general limits listed. It will undoubtedly be of interest to many a possible Arboretum visitor and amateur photographer, to glance through the following list of dates when the most conspicuous plants are expected to bloom this vear: IT fine seems . Amelanchiers Azaleas (American) Late April-early May Mid-May-late June Azaleas Azaleas Azaleas Azaleas l3room s (Asiatic) (Flame) (Ghent Hybrid) (Torch) ('rabapples Dogwood(Flouering) Forsythias Fothergillas Hawthorns Honeysuckles Horsechestnuts Hydrangea (Climbing) Hydrangeas Japanese Quinces Lilacs (Common) Lilacs (Preston Hybrid) Magnolias Mock-Uranges Mountain-Laurel Oriental Cherries Oriental Witch-hazels Rhododendrons Rose-of-Sharon Rose species Siberian Pea trees Mid-April-late May Early June Late May Mid-May Early May-mid-May Early May-late May Mid-May Mid-April Mid-May Early May-mid-June Mid-April-mid-June Mid-May Early June Late June-August Early May Mid-Late May Early June Late April-Early May Early June-mid-June Mid-May Late April-Early May March Early June-mid-June August Late May-mid-June Mid-May Late April-mid-June Mid-may-mid-June ' Spiraeas Viburnums Weigelas Mid-may-mid-J une COLOR POST CARDS This year, for the first time, the Arboretum has available a series of seven post cards in full color made from Ektachromes taken by Mr. Heman Howard, of the Arboretum staff, showing a few of the displays at their best. The black and white reproduction of them, p. I1 (a poor substitute) is the best picture we could make of the actual cards. Many a visitor has asked for such cards in the past, and these make a good selection for a start. In order to acquaint Arnoldia subscribers and \"Friends of the Arboretum\" with these, a sample is included with this issue. Also, by mailing a dollar to the Arboretum, or making out a check to Harvard University for one dollar and sending it to the Arboretum, three complete sets of these will be mailed immediately. This is a means of assisting a larger group of friends to become acquainted with a few of the color displays which are to be seen here every spring. The individual pictures are all regular size S~~~x5~~~; ~~5 which is \"Jumbo\" , size 6\"x9\"). Approximate time taken I. Magnolias by the Administration Building 2. The Japanese Flowering Crabapple 3. The Rhododendron collection 4. Oriental Cherries in full bloom at Forest Hills Gate ~. The famous Lilac Path 6. The Ghent Hybrid Azaleas 7. The \"Mont Blanc\" Lilac (about May 4) (about May 8) (about June 8) (about May 1) (about May 20) (about May 25) (about May 20) DONALD WYMAN 10 ., ~ ... . PLATE III at Arnold Natural color post cards available Arboretum. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Shrubs and Trees with Colored Foliage Growing in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24279","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14ea328.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 MAY 7, 1954. NUMBER 3 SOME SHRUBS AND TREES WITH COLORED FOLIAGE GROWING IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM a series of notes made about some of the colored foliage growing here in the Arnold Arboretum. Other studies were undertaken years ago, and many notes were published m 194? (Arnoldia 2 : Nos. 1 1-1 ~?). The notes appearing in this issue were made last year both in the Arboretum and in the nurseries of the Arboretum at Weston. The plants were mostly observed by Mr. Heman Howard of the staff, at six different times from May 20 until September 10. In periodically observing these plants, the color of their foliage was noted and the approximate time it changed to another color or to a normal green. We often read glowing accounts of a certain tree (take as an example the oldfashioned Schwedler's maple) which may have bright red foliage early in the spring. This may be perfectly true, but for many a plant and this one in particular, there comes a time when the bright color of the foliage gradually turns to a normal green. Certain other plants (like the new \"Crimson King\" maple) retain their bright foliage color until fall. Just which plants do retam their color, and when do some of the others lose theirs? In planning a garden in which such plants are featured, it might prove helpful to know just how long their colors will last. All the plants noted here are not prominently important ornamental varieties, nor is this a complete list of all the woody plants with colored or variegated foliage. Of the approximately 100 plants listed, there will be found some popular favorites and some others which should never be grown for their \"ornamental\" qualities in any garden. Many a gardener will not have a variegated leaved plant in his garden, while others carefully select a plant with gray or blue foliage to relieve the \"monotony'' of an otherwise green foliaged border. Also, it is of interest to note that different soils may affect the foliage colors of some of these O:VCE again we publish in Arnoldia trees and shrubs with in different ways; a variegated plant tending to have more white and yellow in its leaves when grown in poor soil, than when grown in a good rich soil. Be that as it may, here are some of the changes noted between May and September on the following plants in the Arnold Arboretum last year. plants Foliage Colors of Certain - Trees and Shrubs Arnold Arboretum Growing in the Abies pinsapo glauca foliage a good blue green throughout the year. leaves a good deep red all summer. Acer japonicum aconitifolium \" each leaf about 50~o yellow (outer edge of negundo elegans - leaf) all summer. \" \" palmatum \" \" - at first reddish in - spring, but turning atropurpureum \" best red out foliage of all green by July. Japanese maples through- summer. \" \" \" \" \" greenish red foliage turning green by August. hessei - good dark red foliage until August when brilliance goes. ornatum - excellent feathery dark red foliage, bronze by July 15, green by August. dissectum - \" sanguineum \" \" \"Burgundy \" platanoides \"Crimson \" upper side of leaves dark red (under side green) until mid-August when it turns bronze green, but fruits bright red until September. Lace\" - good deep red foliage throughout summer turning a deep dull red by mid-August. King\" - foliage a good deep purplish red through- out \" summer. by end of June turning bronze in outstanding. \" \" dark red until mid-June when it begins to lose schwedleri color, changing to green by mid-August. Berberis thunbergi argenteo-marginata slight yellow variation in leaves on new wood only, remaining through most rubrum - leaves dark green mid-July - - not - of summer. and leaves dark red, especially those atropurpurea twigs throughout summer. exposed to the sun \" \" nana \"Little Beauty\" - same as above. \" 4 vulgaris \"Sheridan Red\" - the best red foliage of any barberry we have throughout summer. white margin throughout summer - not Buxus sempervirens albo-marginata \" \" - - - Chamaecyparis \" 6 \" outstanding. growth a good yellow all summer. \" \" tetragona aurea\" foliage yellow to yellow green. pisifera aurea tips of young growth slightly yellow at first, turning green by mid-June. Not outstanding. obtusa aurea - young -- - 14 Chamaecyparis pisifera \"filifera aurea\" \" - young tips good yellow throughout and fall. to - summer \" \" \" \" mid-July when outstanding. plumosa argentea\" - tips of young shoots a pale yellow to mid-August when they not outturn a yellow green standing. plumosa aurea\" young growth an excellent bright yellow during summer and fall. \" \"plumosa flavescens\" - young tips a striking yellow until mid-August when color is no longer prominent. tips of shoots a good gray green throughout thyoides glauca not - \" lutescens - tips of shoots pale yellow they turn yellow green summer. Cornus alba argenteo-marginata \" \" \" \" \" \" leaves with creamy white margin through summer until early September. gauchaulti - foliage dark green with a thin ivory white margin. spaethi - leaves with yellow green center and pale yellow green irregular margin until September. variegata - foliage green, but 50l0 of each leaf is a wide ivory - margin. foliage medium green with an ivory margin good. dark green leaves, ~0l0 of them having an ivory white kousa variegata margin, sometimes tinged with pink. The pink tint is gone by mid-June, but white variegation remains until September. viridissima young twigs green throughout year. sanguinea maxima purpurea foliage a rich dark red until end of June and by Corylus mid-August foliage is green. Cotinus coggygria purpureus - first young foliage reddish but turns green by alternifolia argentea - \" - \" \" - - mid-June. - young reddish foliage retains good red color until mid-July when it turns green. leaves with cream colored border throughout year, fortunei gracilis Euonymus but inferior to \"Silver Queen\" in effect. \" \" \"S~lver Queen\" - wide creamy white leaf border throughexcellent in effect. out entire year a good dark red foliage through mid-July, when Fagus sylvatica atropunicea brilliance starts to disappear, leaves turning a dull red bronze. \" \"Notcutt's Variety\" - - - 15 Fagus sylvatica riversi - slightly darker but by August are - red in June, than variety atropunicea, not much difference between the two. an Forsythia Both intermedia variegata excellent. Hybiscus syriacus variegatus - green with 50'0 of leaf white margin - good. foliage dark green with 500,0 of leaf foliage dark ivory an ivory Hippophae rhamnoides Juniperus chinensis aurea \" \" -- \" \" . \" \" entire summer and best of this color in the junipers. \"aureo-globosa\" about half the young tips are yellowish, but color is not outstanding. pfitzeriana argentea\" all young tips are pale yellow and excellent, but lose brilliance by late June, and by mid-July a normal green. plumosa aurea\" foliage greenish yellow in May, turning to dark yellow green in late June, then - yellow margin. foliage gray throughout summer. foliage a bright yellow through fall - - . - to golden yellow in mid-July, retaining \" \" this color throughout the summer and fall. steel blue foliage throughout the summer. horizontalis douglasi scopulorum \"Blue ~loon\" - foliage a good light bluish green through- out year. Blue\" same as above. \" \" \"Gray Gleam\" - same as above. \" \" \"Hills Silver\" - same as above. \" \" same as above. \"Marshall's\" \" \" same as above. \"b9oonlight\" \" \" same as above. \"North Star\" \" virginiana burki - foliage a good light bluish green throughout year. \" \" glauca - same as above. Kerria japonica aureo-vittata -~green branches striped with yellow. leaves variegated with greenish yelLigustrum ovalifolium aureo-marginatum low throughout summer and fall good color. \" \" variegatum foliage green with margin of lemon yellow - \" \" Chandler's - - - - - - \" vicaryi - bright yellow orange. foliage starts as light yellow green, but turns to a brilliant yellow by mid-June (in full sun) for remainder of to young summer and fall. - Liquidambar styraciHua aurea most leaves on green heavily speckled with golden yellow throughout summer. 16 a ~! a a m a s w w u s m H 'o o 0 w~ a y o ~. ' .C ~ a a a o N a ro 0. r. O 0 J\"r a a a o ~ 0 # . o c u Ns 0 Liriodendron Lonicera tulipifera variegata - dark green center with wide yellow green margin. japonica aureo-reticulata - foliage speckled yellow and green giving yellow appearance from a distance through- out summer and fall. Malus with reddish bronze leaves throughout the summer: M. purpurea aldenhamensis; M. purpurea eleyi ; M. pumila niedzwetzkyana; M. floribunda atropurpurea ; M. moerlandsi ; M. purpurea lemoinei ; M. \"Crimson M. \"Oakes Rosy Bloom\"; M. \"l'rofusion\" ; M. \"Redford\" ; M. Red Silver\"; M. \"Strathmore\" ; M. \"Timiskaming.\" brilliant greenish yellow foliage until early `Philadelphus coronarius aureus August when it turns a light yellow green. at first brilliant yellow, yellow green early June luteus Physocarpus opulifolius to early July, after that about a normal green for remainder of summer. Picea abies argenteo-spica young shoots bright yellow green, but gradually loses color until late June when it is a normal green. new growth brilliant yellow green, turning to \" orientalis aureo-spicata light green by early June and normal green by late June. a good blue throughout the year. \" pungens glauca \" \" a very fine silver blue throughout the year. globosa \" \" kosteriana same as above. \" \" moerheimi same as above this is the best blue of the P.pun- Bril~ant\" ; - ' - - - - - - - - gens varieties. Prunus blireiana moseri \" - foliage fall. - a good dark red throughout the summer and foliage dark purplish red throughout summer and fall, one of the best red leaved trees. \" \" foliage dark red throughout summer and fall. nigra \" dark red entire summer and fall. cistena foliage \" foliage deep reddish purple until early August, when spinosa purpurea it gradually turned a dull reddish purple. \" \"Newport\" foliage a glossy deep red entire summer and fall. \" \"Royal Red Leaf Peach\" leaves of new growth a brilliant dark red, rest are bronze green. \" \"Shubert\" until early July when leaves start to turn a foliage green dull dark red retaining this color the rest of the summer and fall. \" \"Thundercloud\" - leavesva good deep purplish red. Ptelea trifoliata aurea good glossy yellow foliage till late July ; by mid-August a normal green. cerasifera atropurpurea - - - - -- - - - 18 ~ Quercus \" foliage yellow, turning to yellow green by end July. \" varie~ata a - youngleaves speckled with white on green,but appearance is of diseased foliage. Sambucus canadensis aurea ~0~0 of leaves are yellow to yellow on green, remainder are speckled with yellow throughout the robur concordia - young of - summer. leaves with yellow margin entire summer. most leaves spotted with yellow, some more than Syringa vulgaris aucubaefolia others, retaining this color the entire summer. new growth bright yellow, brightest of all Taxus ; by midTaxus baccata aurea July gradually losing some of its brilliance; turning dull yellow by mid-August and retaining this throughout fall.. \" \" elegantissima -- foliage a brilliant greenish yellow until mid-August, \" nigra variegata - - - \" \" variegata aurescens - \" cuspidata gradually turning yellow green by mid-September. foliage a pale yellowish green until mid-July when it gradually turned a normal green. new growth bright yellow until mid-July when it gradually turns to yellow green by mid-August - Thuja occidentalis alba _ \" \" \" \" no longer outstanding. foliage spotted with dirty gray and unattractive. young By mid-July tips of young foliage are creamy white holding this all summer but not attractive. new growth bright yellow turning to yellow green by aurea late June and by mid-July about a normal green not outstanding. ericoides golden brown foliage until mid-July gradually turning a yellow green with golden tips the re- when it is - - - - \" \" lutea _ \" \" mainder of the summer. growth a brilliant yellow, retaining this the This ~s the most brilliant summer and fall. in our Thuja collection. yellow lutescens foliage only slightly lighter than a normal green - young entire - outstanding. growth bright yellow, turning yellow green by mid-July. leaves light green with speckled yellow green, Ulmus carpinifolia variegata retaining this throughout summer. General appearance is of tree with diseased foliage. wredi - 90~o of leaves are bright yellow. Maintained through- not \" orientalis conspicua - tips of new - \" \" Weigela out most of summer. florida variegata -- dark green leaves with yellow green margin, retaining this through summer and fall. DONALD WYMAN 19= "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Note","article_sequence":5,"start_page":20,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24274","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d1708128.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lipp, Lewis","article_content":"NOTE Mr. David Leach of Brookville, Pennsylvania, has called my attention to an article published in the Home Garden (Vol. 19, No. 5, 26-28. May 1952) in which he described a propagating unit similar to the one I described in Arnoldia (Vol. 13, No. 10. Sept. 1953). My unit was developed mdependently and without knowledge of Mr. Leach's work. However, they differ only slightly, my unit utilizing cheesecloth to prevent excessive sun from reaching the'plants and to eliminate dripping in a concentrated area by promoting an even distribution of moisture throughout the unit. Many others have seen the advantage of plastic film over the older glass frame and cloches used by horticulturists for hundreds of years. Mr. John L. Creech of the U. S. D. A. was one of the first to use plastic film in horticulture in air layering. Mr. Dale Sweet of Michigan State College has used polyethylene film with success in propagation. Horticulturists in general agree that a tent of plastic facilitates the rooting of cuttings of woody plants. LEWIS LIYY 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fifty of the Better Ground Covers","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24269","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170b328.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 4 MAY ~1, 1954 FIFTY OF THE BETTER GROUND COVERS NUMBER 4 are becoming increasingly interested in ground and because of this the extensive demonstration plot of 150 kinds of ground covers was planted by the Arnold Arboretum in 1930, on its Case Estates in Weston (see Map, Plate V). Although many of these plants are yet young, experience during the past few years, as well as notes made in the widely disspersed plantings throughout the East have shown that the fifty ground covers mentioned in this bulletin are among the best available. Certainly there are others, for plantings in other parts of the country contain many another, but these mentioned here might be the first to consider when contemplating a planting in the East. Some young gardeners hope to find a \"good substitute for grass,\" thinking, no doubt, that there must be some plant that will look as well, grow as well, and withstand the abuse as well as grass, without requiring the care given most lawns. Of course there is no such plant. Even ground covers need some attention occasionall~-, and those that need no cutting or pruning or fertilizing (yellowroot is one) differ from a grass cover in that they may grow considerably taller or can not be walked on. Most of these listed have interesting flowers and some have bright colored fruits as well. However, many a gardener is at a loss when it comes to selecting a ground cover for a bank or very dry slope where grass will not thrive. Even though these plants will not replace grass in every respect, nevertheless, there are many situations where ground covers are needed. Some special purposes for which ground covers are needed might be: 1. For Shade: There are frequently shady spots in the home landscape where grass fails to grow well. If this shade is not augmented by poor soil and competing tree roots, as is so often the case, there are some plants which will withstand shade and make a better cover for the ground than will grass. PLANTS1~IEN everywhere covers, zl 2. For can Dry Soil: Plants for poor, dry soil are usually vigorous growers that easily become garden pests in good soil, and can quickly outgrow their gar- den limits. Such plants may be needed, but they should be used with caution in the general flower border. YolJgonum reJnoutria can be a pretty plant in its place, but on the other hand one can easily spend all one's spare gardening time rooting it out of the flower border where it becomes established in good soil. 3. For Rapid Increase: When funds are slim and space is large, plants are wanted which can be expected to grow rapidly and cover the ground. One Pachysandra plant may cover less than one half a square foot of ground, but one plant of the memorial rose can quickly cover many square feet. 4. Plants less than 6 inches high: These are wanted for the neatly kept areas, often close to the house. Sometimes they are to be walked on, but none are as serviceable in this respect as grass. 5. Evergreen: It is these that are most desirable for they supply a green cover over the ground the entire year. They are usually more expensive than the deciduous woody plants and perennials, and are slower in growth. 6. Plants needing special attention: Some of the ground covers listed die to the ground in the winter (like Epimedium) while others may become too tall over a five year period and have to be cut to the ground occasionally (like Rhus aromatica). Others, like the heather, may die back in some situations or during some winters and so require a severe pruning every spring. There may be some good reason for using such plants as ground covers, but their failings should be known. 7. Plants needing no attention: Such plants, of course, are greatly desired, but they may grow too tall, or too rampant, or be too coarse for use in every situation. (In the following list, the numbers to the right of the common names, refer to the above categories, where each plant can easily be placed. This is merely a rough grouping of possible uses to aid the inexperienced gardener in making his first list from which to choose a ground cover for some particular situation.) Height Aegopodium podograria Ajuga reptans Akebia quinata 14\" 3\" i Goutweed, 1,2,3,7 Carpet Bugle, 1,3,4 i Akebia, 3,4,7 i Bearberry, 2,4,5, Heather, 5,6 Snow-in-Summer, 3,4 Lily-of-the-Valley, 1,3,4,7 Rock Spray, 7 i Purple Broom, 2,7 Dwarf Bush-honeysuckle, 3,7 r Longspur Epimedium, 1,6 Purpleleaf Wintercreeper, 1,3,4,5,6 Vine 4~' 10\" 6\" 6\" 36\" 18\" 36\" 9\" 3\" Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Calluna vulgaris Cerastium tomentosum Convallaria majalis Cotoneaster horizontalis Cytisus purpureus Diervilla lonicera Epimedium grandiflorum Euonymus fortunei colorata L ~z : '\" r G 0 N a E a oj .. > 0 U c 0 C5 L \"C a oj c 0 m a~ W '~ ~ '\" H ~,' am m G. W U E a 0 a d \"C 0 c a~ L w G O i~ U _O bU G 'a 0 L '\" a '\" ~ Euonymus fortunei kewensis &\"C3x#& ; #x3C; \" f< minima .. Gaultheria Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" procumbens repens rosea 3\" 8~~ 36\" 4\" 6~~ Vine 1 ~~~ 12\" 1~\" l4'~ 48\" 6-12\" 12\" 6-12\" Wintercreeper, 1,4,5,6 Baby Winterereeper, 1,4,5,6 7 Arnold Dwarf Forsythia, 1,3,7 or V~'intergreen, l,~?, Checkerberry Kew 5 4,5 Gypsophila Hedera helix Hosta sp. Iberis sempervirens Hypericum buckleyi \"White Gem\" Indigofera \" I Rosy Creeping Gypsophila, 4,7 7 English Ivy, 1,3,4,5,7 7 Plantain-lily, 1, 2, Blue Ridge St. Johnswort, 7 White Gem Evergreen Candytuft, 5,7 mcarnata alba Juniperus \" \" kirilowi horizontalis White Chinese Indigo, 3,6 Kirilow Indigo, 3,6 plumosa chinensis sargenti Leucothoe catesbaei Liriope spicata Leiophyllum buxifolium Lonicera japonica halliana Lonicera henryi Lysimachia nummularia Nepeta hederacea Creeping Juniper, 4,5,7 Juniper, 5,7 7 Sargent Juniper, 4,5,7 36'~-~-Drooping Leucothoe, 5,7 8~~ Creeping Liriope, 1,3,5,7 7 24\" Box Sandmyrtle, 5,7 Vine Halls Japanese Honeysuckle, 3,7 7 Vine Henry Honeysuckle, 3,7 Andorra 2'~ 4~' Moneywort, 1,3,4 Ground Ivy (Gill-over-the-Ground~ 1,2,3,4,7 7 1 ~?~' Canby Pachistima, 5,7 Pachistima canbyi 12'~ Japanese Spurge, 1,3,5,6 terminalis Pachysandra 7 Vine Virginia Creeper, 2,3,7 Parthenocissus quinquefolia i Emerald Cushion Moss Pink, 4,7 6\" Phlox subulata \"Emerald Cushion\" 7 18~~ Ribbon Grass, ~,3, Phalaris arundinacea picta 18\" Dwarf Lace Plant, 2,3,6,7 Polygonurn reynoutria 7 36~~ Fragrant Sumac, 2,3,7 Rhus aromatica 36~~ Max Graf Rose, 3 Rosa \"Max Graf\" Memorial Rose, 3,7 6~' Rosa wichuraiana 7 Rock Soapwort, 1,2,4,7 3\" Saponaria ocymoides . 36~~ Variegated Bamboo, 1,~?,3,7 Sasa variegata 5~~ Sedum species Stonecrop, 2,3,4,6 1 ~?'~ Chamaedrys Germander, 6 Teucrium chamaedrys 7 8\" Vaccinium angustifolium laevifolium Lowbush Blueberry, 1,7 I 18'~ Drug Speedwell, 1,3,7 Veronica officinalis 7 Periwinkle or Myrtle, 1,3,4,5,7 Vinca minor 3'~ i ~4'~ Yellowroot, 1,3, Xanthorhiza simplicissima ' DONALD WYMAN ~ 2-~ -_ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Propagating Some Rarer Plants from Seed","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24276","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d1708526.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coggeshall, Robert G.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 JUNE 25, 1954 5 NUMBER PROI'AGATING SOME RARER YLANTS FROM SEED as all nurserymen know, is by far the easiest and cheapest salable plants, assuming of course, the plants to be propagated come true from seed. Taking this fact into consideration, let us consider the methods used in producing some of the more uncommon plants from seed. These are plants that have been recommended as new additions to the group of plants that are now already in use in street tree plantings, specimen plantings, etc. First, let us consider the method used at the Arnold Arboretum, in handling seed that require no pretreatment for germination. The following plants bear such seed : Phellodendron amurense Cercidiphyllum japonicum Evodia danielli Phellodendron lavallei Evodia hupehensis Phellodendron sachalinense For an example of the procedure used let us take the seed of Phellodendron amurense. The fleshy fruit of this species is collected during the latter part of SEED propagation, produce way to October, brought into the greenhouse and cleaned immediately. We use a machine called a Waring Blendor for cleaning the fleshy fruits. This is the same type of machine used by house wives in every day cooking, with the following modifications. V'e found that the steel blades the machine comes equipped with are much too sharp to be used in seed cleaning. If used, the steel blades will cut the seed all to pieces. To overcome this cutting effect, a piece of rubber cut from a truck tire was inserted in place of the steel blades. This piece of rubber was 12~~ square and was ~~~ thick. It was bolted onto the shaft that whirled the steel blades, in such a way that when it spun, it revolved in a honzontal plane. The rubber is tough enough to stand up under the terrific battering it takes, yet it does not injure the seed. Also, it was found that a proportion of two thirds water to one third fleshy fruit was necessary to give good clear seed with the least injury to the seed. Once the seeds have been cleaned they are either sown immediately in pans and then spotted off into flats as they germinate, or they are stored dry in 2.5 bottles until spring, at which time they are planted out in prepared beds. In regard to Cercidiphyllum and Evodia, the seed of which dehisce, we collect the seed capsules just prior to their dehiscing, place them on sheets of paper in the greenhouse to open and then sow them immediately in pans in the greenhouse, or store them in a dry place until spring, at which time they are sown outdoors in prepared beds. We also have plants, the seed of which, require exposure to a cold stratification period before they will germinate. This treatment is necessary in order to overcome internal dormancy in the seed. This is probably the most common type of dormancy and is caused by internal conditions of the stored food or of the embryo itself. Inside the seed certain chemical changes in the stored food, or in the embryo, must take place before germination can begin. Also, the embryo is sometimes unusually small at the time the seed is dispersed, so that it must undergo some * growth before germination can begin.* To overcome this internal dormancy we expose the seed to an abundant supply of moisture and oxygen, at a constant temperature of 41F., for a period of three months. The following is a list of plants having seed with this type of dormancy. Treatment Recommended Acer capillipes Acer griseum Acer rufinerve Acer tataricum 3 months ' 41F. .. .< <. <. 16 <. \" Acer triflorum Acer truncatum Carpinus cordata \"\" ,, 16 ~-4 months 41 F. Carpinus japonica Carpinus or~entalis \"I 14 <. < 1 < \" Carpinus turczaninowi Seeds requiring low temperature stratification are handled as follows : the seeds are collected from the latter part of September, through the early part of Octoare mixed in thoroughly o ith old rooting which is saved from the previous summer's bench cleaning. This rootmedium, ing medium consists of 50~o sand and ~0~o peat, by volume, and ~s thoroughly moistened. After the seeds have been thoroughly mixed with this rooting medium, we bag the mixture in polyethylene plastic bags. Once bagged the combination of seed and rooting medium is placed in the refrigerator. The seed remains in the refrigerator for three months in the case of the above Acer species and for four months in the case of the above Carpinus species. The temperature of the refrig- ber. Following collection, the seeds erator is kept at a constant 41F. Following this three or four month period at 41 F. the seeds are either sown in flats and spotted off as they germinate, or they are sown directly outdoors in prepared beds. * Woody Plant Seed Manual; U.S.D.A. ; Misc. Publ. No. 654; pp. 35-36 (1s48). 26 - treatment given those seeds which require no pretreatthose which require only exposure to cold to bring about germination, let us now consider those plants, the seeds of which require exposure to a period of high temperature followed by exposure to a period of low temperature, before they will germinate. Seeds requiring such pretreatment are said to have \"double dormancy,\" a term used to indicate that the seeds have two different types of dormancy. One ~s a dormancy caused by the impermeable seed coat, which can be made permeable, allowing oxygen and water to pass through, by subjecting the seed to a fluctuating day and night temperature of 60 F. to 85 F. This high temperature treatment should be carried out for from three to five months depending on the kind of seed. Some seeds require a longer period of high temperature to break down the seed coat than others. The second type of dormancy is the already above mentioned internal dor mancy, which can be overcome by subjecting the seeds to a temperature of 41 * F. for a period of three months.* Listed below are plants, the seeds which require such pretreatment before they will germinate. Having considered the ment and Treatment Recommended Cotoneaster bacillaris 4 months at 60-85 F. Cotoneaster dammeri Cotoneaster disticha Followed by 3 months at 41 F. Same as above Sorbus almfolia 3 months at 8 60-85 F. Followed by months at 41F. Same as F. Followed by 3 months at 41 F. Viburnum lobophyllum Same as above Seed of the above plants are collected during the first week m October, cleaned of their pulpy flesh in the Waring Blendor, mixed thoroughly with old rooting medmm and bagged in polyethylene bags. This procedure is the same as was previously described for those seeds which required a cold stratification period. However, instead of placing the bags in the refrigerator at a temperature of 41 F., such as was done with the maple seed, the bags are placed right out on the open bench in the greenhouse. Here the seeds are subjected to a day and night fluctuating temperature of 600-850 F. : for three months in the case of the Sorbus species; four months in the case of the Cotoneaster species, and for five months in the case of the Vibur5 months at num Sorbus japonica Viburnum hupehense above 60-85 species. this treatment of exposing the seeds to Following * 60-85 F., for a prescribed Woody Plant Seed Manual; U.S.D.A.; Misc. Publ. No. 6,54; p. 38 (1948). [ 27 and placed in additional three months. At the end of this period the seeds are either sown in flats in the greenhouse and spotted off as they germinate, or they are sown directly in prepared beds outdoors. By using these polyethylene plastic bags, seed propagation has been made much easier and even more important, much faster. Once placed inside these plastic bags, with the medium suitably moist, the seeds are in no danger of drymg out. After they have been placed either on the open bench, or in the refrigerator, depending on the type of seed, they require no further attention other than being changed from the hot to cold temperature at the proper time. By using these plastic bags for seeds which require a high temperature period followed by a low temperature period before germination will occur, a great deal of time can be saved. For example, Sorbus japonica seed handled the way described above will germinate in six months. Whereas, on the other hand, the same seed planted outdoors in the fall, immediately after it has been collected and cleaned, will not germinate until one year and a half later, or not until one year later if it has been stored dry all winter and is sown in the spring. This long delayed germination is due to the fact that the seeds require a period of high temperature, followed by a period of low temperature. Therefore, if you planted the cleaned seed in the fall they would not receive a long enough period of high temperature to break down the seed coat before winter, so that they would lie dormant all winter long until summer came, during which the seed would receive the necessary high temperature to break down the seed coat. Following this exposure to high temperature the seed would then have to go through the next winter before they would receive their cold period. It is this exposure to cold that overcomes the internal dormancy in the seed. Once these two conditions have been fulfilled, in the right sequence, high temperature followed by cold temperature, the seeds will germinate the following spring. Cold stratification prior to the warm stratification will be of no use, as witness the fact that no germination occurs the first spring following fall planting. The impermeable seed coat must be broken down first by the high temperature, which allows water and oxygen to penetrate into the seed. The presence of these two plus the cold stratification period which follows, will bring about the necessary physiological changes in the seed so that good germination will occur the follow- length of time, the bags are removed the refrigerator at ~.1 F. where they from the greenhouse bench an remain for in the manner described, salable plants be produced much faster and much cheaper than was previously possible. In conclusion then, it is safe to say that polyethylene plastic film has made seed propagation much easier and much more profitable. ROGER G. COGGESHALL can ing spring. By treating the above mentioned species Note: This article is reprinted here from the March-April Magazine\" by permission of its editor. 28 1954 issue of ' \"Trees "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Old Fashioned Roses at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24278","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170896f.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 4 JULY 9, 1954 NUMBER 6 SOME OLD FASHIONED ROSES AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Afew years ago, Professor Stephen Hamblin (Assistant ture Emeritus, Harvard University) gave the Arnold Arboretum old fashioned roses which he had collected over tanic Garden. It was impossible to find sufficient room at the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain to display these properly, so they were arranged in a long row in our experimental nurseries at the Case Estates in Weston. Here, they have been growing well ever since, and were at the height of their bloom this year, the week of June 22nd, most of them being literally covered with blossoms. Growing as they are in the nursery row, they receive no individual attention, and it is necessary to prune them back severely every few years. Even with this little care, they respond remarkably well with a large amount of bloom every year. At the time this collection was given us, these varieties were selected because they were among the best of many growing in the Lexington Botanic Gardens. We are listing them below, not because they may be superior (or inferior) to others that are currently available, but merely because of the fact that they are alive here, and have been growing well under our treatment since 1948. There are many interesting stories told about some of the old fashioned roses, and some have been valued garden plants for centuries. Regardless of their relative merits as landscape plants, here are some of the ones which have bloomed at the Arnold Arboretum during the past six years : Name alba alba incarnata ` `A lika\" \"Amadis\" \"Annie Crawford\" Professor of Horticula group of the years, at the Lexington Bo- Approx. Year - Diam. Introduced S,SD,D of Flower 1?38 1906 - Color Type Gallica 1915 SD D D SD D 3;\" 3\" Q~\" ~L~\" 29 White Blush pink Red Crimson purple Bright pink Alpina Hy. Perpetual \"Arthur Young\" \"Barronne Prevost\" \"Baroness Rothschild\" \"Belle Isis\" \"Blanc Double de Coubert\" 1863 1841 1868 - D ~\" D Q~' D 2~\" D 8~\" D 3\" \"Brenda\" \"Capitaine John Ingram\" \"Captain Hayward\" \"Cardinal de Richelieu\" \"Catherine de Wurtemberg\" centifolia centifolia cristata \"Comte de Nanteuil\" \"Coupe d' Hebe\" \"Crimson Globe\" \"Cumberland Belle\" damascena damascena versicolor 1892 1894 1 s.5~ 1893 1810 1843 1596 18~27 1852 1840 1890 - S 1~\" D ~\" SD 3~\" D ~l~\" D 3~\" D 3\" D 31,\" Moss Dark purple Rose pink Hy. Perpetual Very soft rose tinted white Hy. Perpetual Gallica Pale flesh pink White Hy. Rugosa Peach Blossom pink Eglanteria Moss Reddish purple Hy. Perpetual Light crimson Gallica Dark red violet Moss Soft pink Pink D 3\" D D D 1.573 D 1551 SD - `~~' ~~\" ~~., ~~\" Deep pink Crimson purple Deep pink Deep crimson Silvery pink Red, pink or white White, red and some Gallica Hy. Bourbon Moss Climbing Moss flowers white and red \"Desiree Parmentier\" \"Duchesse d'Istrie\" \"Duchess of Sutherland\" \"Dumortier\" \"Elizabeth Rowe\" \"Eos\" foetida bicolor 1855 1912 - D243 Vivid pink D ~l~\" Crimson changing D 4~\" Rose pink Light red D ~~,. Deep pink - to slate Gallica Moss Hy. Tea Gallica Moss gallica gallica officinalis \"Gloire des Mousseux\" ``Goethe\" \"Green Mantle\" \"Grussan Teplitz\" \"Henri n1artin'\" .. .. 1590 1500 1500 1852 1911 1895 1897 1863 - \" H y pathia\" \"Jeanette\" \"Jeanne de Montfort\" \"Julia Mannering\" \"Konigin von Danemark\" \"Lady Penzance\" \"Lanei\" \"Maiden's Blush\" \"Marie Louise\" \"Marie Tudor\" Sunset red scarlet and yellow D 2-3\" Deep pink to crimson Brick'red D Moss D 31,\" Pink Moss S,SD 1~\" Crimson Eglanteria S,SD ~~\" Rosy red Dark velvety scarlet Hy. Tea D Crimson SD Gallica Bright rose pink Gallica D 2~., Bright light red Moss Clear pink 1851 SD Eglanteria S,SD 2~\" Pink Centifolia D 2~\" Flesh pink SD S 2\" ~l~\" Orange - . 1894 1854 1797 1813 - S 1~\" Coppery D 3\" D 3\" D 3\" D Hy. Eglanteria \"Meg Merrilies\" \"Mercedes\" \"Mme. Hardy\" \"Mme. Louis Leve\"que\" \"Mousseline\" \"Mousseux Anciens\" \"Mrs. John Laing\" \"Oeillet Parfait\" \"Oskar Cordel\" 1847 183~ 1873 1880 - S D D 2\" Q~\" c~~. 1887 1841 1898 - D 1~\" D ~~\" D 2\" D D D D ~~\" \"Pepita\" \"Pergolese\" \"Persue de Gossart\" \"Petite de Hollande\" D 3\" lsso - ~~\" ,,, Crimson Soft blush Rich deep pink Cherry red Rosy crimson White and lilac Pure white Carmine rose Pinkish white Pink Soft pink Striped red and crimson Bright carmine Soft rosy pink striped white Bright purplish crimson Velvety cerise Rose pink Moss Hy. Alba Damascena Gallica Eglanteria Gallica Damascena Hy. Perpetual Moss Moss Hy. Perpetual Gallica Hy. Perpetual Gallica Centifolia Centifolia 30 PLATE VI The old fashioned Cabbage Hose (Rosa centifolia) has been a popular garden plant for nearly 400 years. \"Phenice\" \"Prolifera de Redoute\" \"Red Moss\" \"Red Provence\" \"Rose des Peintres\" \"Salet\" \"Tuscany\" \"Ulrich Brunner\" \"Waldtraut Nielsen\" ' D D D D D 1854 D SD 1882 D 1843 - 2~\"Striped red 2\" Deep pink 3\" and light red - - - - 1~\" 2~\" ~~\" ~l~\" 2~\" Reddish rose Clear crimson red Purple pink striped white Rosy pink Velvety blackish crimson Geranium red Gallica Centifolia Moss Centifolia Centifolia Moss Gallica Hy. Perpetual Moss DONALD WYMAN - Clear deep pink NOTE NEW APPOINTMENTS AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr. has been appointed Associate Curator at the Arnold Arboretum effective September 1, of this year. Dr. Wood, currently Associate Professor of Botany at the University of North Carolina, received his B.S. degree from Roanoke College in Salem, Virginia, and the D~.S. degree from the University of Pennsylvania before entering the Army in 1943. During the Second World War he served first as lecturer in the Moroccan Arabic language area program, and later in the Field Artillery in Europe. Following his war service Dr. Wood entered Harvard Graduate School and received the Ph. D. in 1949. He was an instructor at Harvard from 1949 to 1951 before accepting an invitation to ,join the staff of the University of North Carolina. An active field botanist and worker in horticulture, Dr. Wood has traveled connection with his research in the southeastern United States, northern Michigan, California, Mexico, and Cuba. His publications deal with the cytology, genetics, and classification of flowering plants. In his new position at the Arboretum Dr. Wood will continue this work, utilizing the extensive living and herbarium collections of the Arboretum, and will in addition take part in the Adult Education program of the Arnold Arboretum. widely ? Coggeshall has been appointed Propagator at the Arnold ArboJuly 1, 1954. Mr. Coggeshall is a native of Acushnet, Massachusetts, and a graduate of Bourne, Massachusetts, High School. He attended Northeastern University for a year before interrupting his education for military service with the Army in Japan. Upon his return he entered Stockbridge School of Agriculture at Amherst, Massachusetts, where he specialized in ornamental horticulture. After his graduation in 1950 he was appointed Assistant Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. His work with problems of propagating woody plants has been reported before the Plant Propagators' Society and the American Society for Horticultural Science. Recent articles by Mr. Coggeshall have been published in the AMERICAN NURSERYMAN, TREES, and ARNOLDIA. Mr. Coggeshall is appointed to the position left vacant by the resignation of Mr. Lewis Lipp, who served as Propagator at the Arboretum from 1952 to 1954. Mr. Lipp joins the staff of the Cleveland Garden Center and the Holden ArboRoger retum effective retum. Mr. G. 3~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Education Program at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24267","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170ab6b.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Howard, Richard A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 Sf.PTEI~IBf.R 17, 1954 NUMBER 7 AN EDUCATION PROGRAM AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM this fall the staff of the Arnold Arboretum will offer, twice a year, of classes to allow the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" and others interested in horticulture and scientific botany an opportunity to become familiar with the staff members and the resources of the Arboretum. To the Field Course which has been offered in the spring and fall for a number of years there will be added this fall three courses, Basic Botany for the Home Gardener, Plant Propagation, and Tropical Botany; and will consist of illustrated lectures, demonstrations and laboratory or practical work, to be taught by the staff of the Arboretum. The courses are all informal and no academic credit will be given. All are open to anyone with an interest in the topics and willing to attend regularly ; however, priority of enrollment is being offered to members of theFriends of the Arnold Arboretum.\" The courses will be elementary in the approach to the subjects and no technical knowledge or special background is required in order to join the courses. Some of the classes will be repeated in the spring of the year and additional topics and courses will be added in succeeding semesters. Advanced courses will be offered in future years. A nominal fee will be charged for the course work offered and the funds so obtained will be used to meet the expenses of the courses, to further the work of the Arboretum in the field of adult education and to offer a series of public lectures on topics of general interest pertaining to the work of the Arboretum in horticulture, plant exploration, dendrology and plant geography. The course in plant propagation to be offered this fall will be conducted in the Arboretum greenhouses. The others will be offered in the new lecture-demonstration hall in the Administration Building. The Arnold Arboretum is reached from Boston by elevated trains or surface cars to Forest Hills station. The greenhouses are located on South Street just beyond the Bussey Institute Laboratories. The Administration Building is at the Jamaica Plain Gate about ten minutes' STARTING aprogram 33 walk from the Forest Hills subway station. Parking space is available for cars at both locations. Registration must be made by mail in advance or at the first meeting of the class. Enrollment is limited in all courses and priority will be established on the post office date of application. Fees are payable in full in advance. Members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" may receive a 50~o discount of the fee for one course each semester. Applications for registration or questions regarding these or the future courses should be addressed to Dr. Carroll E. Wood, Jr., who is in charge of this program. Checks should be made payable to Harvard University. R1('HARD A. HOWARD The Staff Roger Coggeshall is propagator for the Arnold Arboretum. A graduate of Stockbridge School of Agriculture at Amherst, Massachusetts, Mr. Coggeshall joined the Arboretum staff in 19~0 and was appointed head propagator in 1954. Mr. Dr. Richard Howard is Arnold Professor of Botany and Director of the Arboretum. With a long-standing research interest in tropical America, Dr. Howard calls upon personal field experience to present the plant life of the warmer areas )n the course of Tropical Botany. Dr. Carroll Wood joined the Arboretum staff in 1954 as Associate Curator and will be in charge of the adult education program at the Arboretum. Dr. Wood has enjoyed considerable success in teaching elementary botany at Harvard University and more recently at the University of North Carolina. His familiarity with the science and his knowledge of ornamental plants will allow him to present Basic Botany in terms of plants with which the student is familiar. Dr. Donald Wyman, horticulturist at the Arnold Arboretum, is well known to garden clubs and horticulturists in New England. His personally conducted field classes of the spring and autumn have enabled many persons to enjoy more fully the beauties and the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. His several books and his many articles in \"Arnoldia\" have reported to many the work of the Arnold Arboretum. FALL COURSES Basic Botany for the Home Gardener How Instructor: Dr. Wood is discussed in this course plants live, grow and reproduce and an expla- botanical classification and of plant names is given. The subject matter will be discussed in terms of plants you grow or use in or around your home. If you have ever wondered why your efforts at gardening succeed or fail, you may find the answers in the fundamentals of plant structure and growth, or nation of modern the relationship of the plant to its environment. This course may also serve as an 34 introduction to you for the parts of the plant and the proper names to be applied to each. Lectures will be illustrated with kodachrome slides and will be followed by laboratory periods of practical study and examination of plant parts. 8 sessions. Tuesday evenings, 7-9, beginmng October ~th. Fee $10.00 Fall Field Class in Ornamental Plants Instructor: Dr. Wyman . Informal outdoor talks and field trips on the Arboretum grounds under the supervision of Dr. Wyman and the horticultural staff make up the Fall Field Class. Different plant groups are studied on each trip. The class sessions will consider the berried trees and shrubs, autumn color, the evergreens and similar topics. Opportunities are afforded for questions and answers relating to the identification and culture of ornamental plants as seen in the Arboretum or as suitable for culture in New England. In case of rain or cold weather, meetings are held indoors. 6 sessions. Friday mornings, 10-12, beginning October 1st. Fee ~~.00 Coggeshall introductory course to the principles and practices of reproducing flowering plants. The work is designed for the amateur or home gardener who may wish to propagate plant materials for his own garden. The proper methods of selecting, collecting, storing, starting and handling seeds, corms, bulbs and tubers _ will be considered. Lectures, demonstrations and practice will be given in techniques of making soft and hard wood cuttings for rooting. The techniques of buddmg, grafting, air layering and the use of hormones and plastics will also be An Plant Propagation I Instructor: DIr. included in the 8 course. once a sessions, meeting week. Three sections will be offered, one on Tuesday one on afternoon (2 :30-4 :30), Wednesday evening (7-9). one on Wednesday morning (9 :30-1:30) greenhouses. and Enrollment limited to twenty students per section. Fee $10.00 Instructor: Dr. Howard First meeting October 5th at the Tropical Botany This course is planned particularly to answer the desires of men and women who have been in the tropics or the near tropics during the past few years, as well as for those contemplating trips in the near future. The lectures will be illustrated with kodachrome slides and will consider such topics as food plants, agricultural crops, ornamentals, forest types, epiphytes and orchids. Supplementary studies will be made of herbarium specimens and tropical plant products. A consideration of the literature of the area will also be given. If you are planning a trip to Florida, any of the Caribbean Islands or even further South, you will profit from these discussions of the geography of the 35 American tropics, the various types of plants that make up the native and introduced vegetation and the tips on where to go and what to see. 6 sessions. Thursday evenings, 7-9, beginning October 14th. Fee ~10.00 3G "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hurricane \"Carol\" in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24271","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170b726.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 HURRICANE . SEPTEMBER 24, 1954 NUMBER 8 \"CAROL\" IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM morning of August 31 dawned with rain-ladened clouds and moderate winds. By 9 A. M. the hurricane warnings were coming over the radio, but m the Arnold Arboretum the winds did not build up until near noon. At 11 A.M. a quick trip through driving rain disclosed little damage. A half hour later a few branches were noted as broken and one or two trees were blown over. During the next hour, the lights in the admimstration building went out and telephone connection was severed. Once again I took a quick trip about the grounds shortly after noon. This time there were many trees blown over and the Arboretum road became blocked during the few minutes I drove around. Most of the serious damage to the Arboretum plantings occurred at about this time for shortly after 12.30 the sun appeared for a few minutes and the winds, although strong, were not the previous heavy hurricane gusts of about 125 miles per hour. There had not been much rain prior to this storm for the soil under the roots of fallen trees was very dry. This was just the reverse of the situation in the 1938 hurricane when heavy rains of nearly a week had preceded the storm and trees were easily blown over because of the muddy soil about the roots. Hurricane \"Carol\" did a great deal of damage to the trees in the Arboretum and it will take many months of pruning to correct the damage done to trees still left standmg. The \"whipping\" damage done to branches of standing trees seems to have been greater this time than it was in 1938, but otherwise the statistics concerning the fallen trees are heartening. Approximately 300 trees were blown over or otherwise irreparably damaged in the Arboretum in Jamaica Plain, as compared with 1490 in the 1938 hurricane. An additional 43 trees were blown down (with roots exposed) but were replanted, staked, watered, pruned and fertilized within three daysafter the storm. An additional 63 trees were tilted over by the high winds, but had no roots exposed. All these were staked and watered within ten days after the storm. Consequently, THE [ 37 ] of approximately 400 trees severely damaged, ~?5lo were salvaged and properly cared for by the regular Arboretum crew of eight men within ten days, and all should live. These were all it was possible to salvage. Other figures are even more heartening. Seven of the downed trees that were not duplicated in the collections, were propagated at once so that the clonal line would not be lost. Of all the trees which must be removed, only 7 are not duplicated in the collections and none of these are valuable clones. Duplicates, or propagation material can be found m other arboretums if we want to grow them again. Trees that grow with dense branching, and in exposed situations were most susceptible to the freak gusts. Most trees were blown down in a northerly or northeasterly direction. Trees with rotted trunks or poor crotches were of course susceptible to injury. Firs, spruces and lindens seemed to suffer most because of their dense branching habit, and the poplars were badly injured, not because of their weak wood but also because the areas in which they were growing were exposed to the south. One interesting fact appeared however, and that was that in the Malus collection, in the same exposed area where poplars, firs and spruces were blown over, few of the Malus were broken off or blown down. Many had their roots loosened but were saved by the prompt attention of the grounds force. It is impossible to estimate the damage done in the Arboretum in dollars and cents. Suffice it to say that with the purchase of two additional chain saws and a brush chipper, it is estimated that the fallen trees and branches can be removed by the present grounds force of eight men, within the current year's budget. It is true that many beautiful trees have been destroyed, but it is most fortunate that no valued species and varieties have been lost, and that the immediate damage can be repaired by the present grounds force and within current Arboretum funds available. The removal of this debris will take most of the time of the grounds force during the next weeks, and battered trees left standing will be evident for months to come, so that other work planned for this fall must be put off. However, the damage could have been far worse. No beautiful vistas have been irreparably damaged, and after the debris has been cleared away the Arboretum will still remain America's greatest garden. DONALD WYMAN P. S. Since writing the above, Hurricane only 15a\/o of \"Carol's damage. \"Edna\" has blown through but did Note-The next bulletin will contain information on the caring for injured trees, and a list of some which seem to be more resistant to wind breakage than others. 38 ., '\" '\" s ..... .D 8 3 ., e ro 0 c a~ .. 0 .~ c <t: 0 c x 0 .. .. a~ ~m W ~o 2 o c ..:'\" ~~ < '\" B x U J'. B O x C7 U ..c O U O d~ U .,., f.' C '\" . -0 ~ \"1 s a ~~ o::\"'\" :.2 .:- i~ ^ B o U HURRICANE LOSS Some of the trees blown over or so badly damaged they will Picea Picea Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus pungens have to be removed amabilis (L) Abies cilicica (2) Abies concolor (10) Abies nephrolepis (1) Abies sachalinensis (2) Acer grandidentatum Acer platanoides vars. (3) Acerrufinerve (I) Acer \"Weir Maple\" (1) Aesculus hippocastanum (2) Amelanchier canadensis (1) Carya buckleyi arkansana (~) Carya cordiformis (1) Carya glabra (1) Carya tomentosa (1) Carya \"Small Nut\" (1) Carya \"Weiker Hickory\" (1) Castanea mollissima (t) Catalpa speciosa (l) Cedrus libani (1) Celtis bungeana (1) Cercis canadensis (1) Cladrastis lutea (1) Cornus controversa (1) Cornus florida ( I ) (1) Crataegus crus-galli (2) Crataegus phaenopyrum (1) Crataegus punctata (1) Elaeagnus multiflora ovata (1) Cotinus americanus Abies (I ) plant) Fagus sylvatica atropunicea ( 1 ) Fraxinus americana (~) Fraxinus pennsylvanica (2) Fraxinus tomentosa (1) Gymnocladus dioicus (2) Hamamelis intermedia (I) Juniperus virginiana (1) Larix leptolepis (I) Liriodendron tulipifera (2) Magnolia acuminata (1) Magnolia fraseri ( I ) Malus fusca integrifolia (1) Malus \"Excellenz Thiel\" (1) Paulownia tomentosa (2) Picea abies (3) Picea asperata (1) Picea glauca (3) Picea mariana (2) Picea obovata fennica (1) Picea omorika (2) Eucommia ulmoides (2) Evodia danielli (our oldest (1) nigra (1) resinosa (1) strobus ( I ) Populus acuminata ( 1 ) Populusalba (1) Populus berolinensis (1) Populus canadensis (4) Populus canadensis regenerata (1) Populus candicans (~) Populus generosa (4) Populus jacki (I) Populus nigra (I) Populus robusta (2) Populus trichocarpa (1) Prunus padus alberti (1) Pseudotsuga taxifolia glauca (3) Ptelea trifoliata aurea (I) Pyrus ussuriensis ovoidea ( 1 ) Quercus alba (I) Quercus bicolor (~l) Quercus heterophylla (I) Quercus imbricaria (2) Quercus lodoviciana microcarpa (1) Quercus macrocarpa (1) Quercus mongolica (1) Quercus montana ( 1 ) ) Quercus schuettei ( I Quercus velutina (2) Rhus copalliua ( I ) Robinia hispida x pseudoacacia (1) Robinia kelseyi floribunda (1) Sorbus hybrida (1) Syringa \"Ellen Willmott\" ( l) Tilia americana (3) Tilia amurensis (1) Tilia flavescens spaethi ( 1 ) Tilia moltkei ( l ) Tiliaoliveri (1) Tilia petiolaris (1) Tilia platyphyllos sphaerocarpa Tilia platyphyllos tortuosa (1) Tilia tomentosa ( 1 ) Tsuga caroliniana (5) Ulmus americana (1) Ulmus parvifolia (1) Viburnum \"Hahs\" (1) rubens (I) echinata (2) lambertiana , (I) Salix (15) -.~o- "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rehabilitation of Trees Injured by Hurricanes of 1954","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":55,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24277","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170856b.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 OCTOBER 15, 1954 1~IUMBERS 9-10 REHABILITATION OF TREES INJURED BY HURRICANES OF 1954 this fall, did great damage to the trees of New England, but must be admitted that many a tree came down that was rotten at its heart, or large branches were broken off which had never been properly pruned. The hurricane of 1938 did five times as much damage to trees, one of the reasons being g that it had been nearly 100 years since a previous hurricane in this area. In the few years since 1938, many another decayed limb or tree has been allowed to stand too long by the responsible property owner. A close scrutiny of the trees which are down now proves the old adage that \"It is an ill wind which blows no THE hurricanes, it one good.\" I speak from experience, because in front of my house were two large horsechestnut trees at least two feet m trunk diameter. They supplied much needed shade and acted as a screen between the house and the street, but we knew they were rotten in the center and that they should have been taken down several years before these hurricanes. As a result, they were both toppled over by the first strong gusts of \"Carol\" and took the electric and telephone wires with them. Undoubtedly, many another home owner found himself m the same predicament. Many lessons were learned about plants as a result of the 1938 hurricane and it is not amiss to list a few of the highlights resulting from a close study of plants made after that storm, for the lessons learned then are certainly applicable now. Salt Water Damage Many plants showed a remarkable ability to withstand immersion in salt water for a twenty-four hour period and even longer. This may have been because the soil was saturated with water from the heavy rains (1938) before it was immersed in salt water. Be that as it may, lawns were then submerged in salt water (as in 1954) and the Rhode Island Experiment Station received hundreds of soil samples from anxious property owners the following spring, who wanted to know what to 41 do about their soil which they thought might be made sterile by high salt accumulations. In no case was a sufficiently heavy accumulation of salt found to cause permanent injury to the soil. There were many cases where either the grass foliage or the grass roots had been killed by immersion in salt water. Standard practice to renovate immersed lawns was to apply ground limestone immediately at the rate of 20-50 pounds per thousand square feet and thoroughly water the limestoned area after the application. If the grass roots were not killed, new growth appeared in the spring. If the grass roots were killed, the soil was dug up and reseeded, standard applications of regularly recommended fertilizers being made at the time. Different grasses reacted in different ways. Bent grass and Kentucky Bluegrass were easily killed, while the omnipresent crab grass was not. Several of the lawns observed around ~'oods Hole the spring after the '38 hurricane were a nice green from a distance, although on close examination the grasses were sometimes those of a more coarse texture than were originally there. Nevertheless, the fact remains that they were not killed and made an excellent recovery. widely in that study after the '38 storm soils, drainage, exposures, together with wind velocities of the storm and the height, age and condition of the plants in question. Many commonly grown plants were not observed in this survey so that numerous additions to the following lists can easily be made from first hand observation. The following lists do include those plants that can and should be planted in seashore areas where a recurrence of salt water injury is always a possibility. Those who are wondering about the injury to foliage of deciduous and evergreen trees now (1954), should be interested in going through these lists. The foliage of deciduous trees and shrubs was due to drop anyway a few weeks after the storms hit, so the chances are that few deciduous plants will be permanently injured from salt water spray alone. With evergreens it is more important to wash off the salt spray from the foliage unless heavy rains have already done it. Also during the '54 storms, salt spray damage probably did not appear nearly Injury to trees undoubtedly due to variations in as and shrubs differed far inland as it did in 1938. The following plants were submerged in salt water for at least 24 hours after the hurricane (of '38) and were recovering satisfactorily when observed one year later (In all cases the roots were submerged, and in many cases the plants themselves or portions of them. Satisfactory recovery means that, although injured, these plants were sending out vigorous suckers from the base or from the larger stems, or the tops were sending out new shoots. It should be noted here that if the inundation had come after a long drought and the soil had not been saturated with water, there might have been a considerably greater injury.) Acer pseudoplatanus Aesculus hippocastanum Ailanthus altissima Aronia arbutifolia [ 42 :J Q. ;;. '0; \" ..0 '\" 1$ m U l. U O U x m 3 > an c x \" 8 v F 11 r~ d '~ ,~ N., 0' 1$ B E-< ~ f1 a~ f y w~., > ., '~ Fv o! C .;; 8 C~ b Cd JS F. > Frr a ~ oj ~ ....bI: '\" L0 m fl '\" z~ ., ~Y Y ~3 Calluna vulgaris Campsis radicans Catalpa speciosa Clematis paniculata Prunus virginiana Pyrus communis Quercus alba Rhododendron viscosum Rhus aromatica Rhus copallina Rhus glabra Rhus toxicodendron Rhus typhina Rhus vernix Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa (Ramblers) Rosa rugosa Rosa virginiana Rosa wichuraiana Salix alba Sambucus canadensis Smilax glauca Clethra alnifolia Comptonia asplenifolia Corylus americana Cryptomeria japonica Hibiscus syriacus Ilex glabra Juniperus chinensis pfitzeriana Juniperus virginiana Juniperus virginiana glauca Ligustrum amurense Ligustrum ovalifolium Malus sylvestris Myrica pensylvanica Nyssa sylvatica I'arthenocissus tricuspidata _ Spiraea prunifolia Tamarix parviflora Tilia cordata Ulmus pumila Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum dentatum Vitis labrusca Wisteria sinensis Populus grandidentata Picea canadensis Picea pungens kosteri Pinus sylvestris I'~nus thunbergi Prunus n~aritima Prunus serotina Plants subjected to salt spray and either uninjured or not injured seriously ('38) (The hurricane came only a few weeks before most deciduous trees dropped their leaves ; consequently, salt spray injury was comparatively worse on the evergreens. The amount of salt spray varied considerably in different locations, and many of the plants in this list would be injured in one place and unmjured in another. Many other plants weathered salt spray injury satisfactorily but do not appear on this list because they were not observed. These facts should be kept in mind when studying the list.) Acer Acer platanoides pseudoplatanus Actinidia arguta Baccharis halimifolia Cedrus atlantica glauca Cephalanthus occidentalis Ailanthus altissima Amelanchier canadensis Chamaecyparis pisifera plumosa Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa Arctostaphylos uva-ursi (damaged somewhat) 44 Clethra alnifolia Cornus kousa Cotoneaster divaricata Pinus mugo on mughus (varied responses different soils) Crataegus crus-galli Cytisus praecox Cytisus scoparius Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnus longipes Elaeagnus umbellata Euonymus alata compacta Fagus sylvatica Forsythia species Gleditsia triacanthos Hippophae rhamnoides Pinus nigra Pinus thunbergi Populus alba Prunus maritima Pyrus communis Quercus marilandica Rhamnus cathartica Rhus copallina Rhus glabra Rhus toxicodendron Rhus typhina Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa (ramblers) Rosa blanda Rosa humilis Rosa nitida Rosa rugosa Rosa virgmana Rosa wichuraiana Salix humihs Sambucus canadensis Hydrangea macrophylla Ilex glabra Ilex opaca Juniperus communis Juniperus communis depressa Juniperus excelsa stricta Juniperus horizontalis Juniperus virg~niana Juniperus virginiana glauca Kalmia angustifolia Ligustrum amurense Lonicera japonica halliana Lonicera morrowi Lonicera tatarica Malus sylvestris Spiraea species Syringa vulgaris (if submerged, it was killed) Tamarix parviflora 'raxus species and varieties (even took submergence for 2-3 days in some instances though they did not respond as well as Pfitzer's juniper) Tilia americana Tilia cordata Tilia vulgaris Thuja occidentalis varieties Ulmus pumila Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum cassinoides Viburnum dentatum Wisteria sinensis D~yrica pensylvanica (M. carolinensis) Parthenocissus tricuspidata Physocarpus opulifohus Picea abies Picea asperata Picea canadensis Picea glauca Picea orientalis Picea pungens kosteri Pier~s japonica ' 45 Plants killed or very seriously injured by salt water ('38) the soil long enough it would kill all the roots of most trees and shrubs, except a very few like Baccharis. The plants listed below were killed or seriously injured by salt spray, by submergence in salt water, or by both.) (If salt water stood on Abies concolor Abies pinsapo Acer rubrum Liriodendron tulipifera Lyonia ligustrina Parthenocissus quinquefolia Azaleas (evergreen Berberis thunbergi Betula papyrifera Betula populifolia types) Pinus rigida Pinus strobus Buxus sempervirens Buxus sempervirens suffruticosa Cephalanthus occidentalis Chamaecyparis species and varieties Clematis virginiana Euonymus species and varieties Ginkgo biloba Hedera helix Larix decidua Liquidambar styraciflua Pseudotsuga taxifolia (P. douglasi) Rhododendrons (evergreen types) Rosa-(any grafted or budded rose) Injury may have been due to sudden freeze late in the fall, more than to salt water injury. Sassafras albidum (S. officinale) but coming up from roots Tsuga canadensis Ulmus americana Ulmus fulva Weigela species and varieties WIND DAMAGE INLAND The home owner should have carefully inspected the trees and branches which blown down on his property, after the recent hurricanes, to note and understand the reasons why those particular plants were injured. It must be admitted that sometimes the vagaries of the wind only could be blamed. More often however, those that were rotten in the center, or those with weak crotches or in very exposed situations, were the ones most injured. It was easily evident too, that those species like .4bies concolor and Tilia cordata which are densely branched, presented easy targets for strong gusts to topple over-if the strong gusts came that way: while other open-branched types like the honeylocust and tupelos were susceptible. plants that could be pulled back into position should have been cared for properly. Those with roots exposed should have been cared for within two days after the storms. It is a simple matter to dig under the roots of small trees that have been tipped up, and then slowly and carefully pull the tree back into posiwere not so All tion, wiring are different directions. Trees over 10~~ in diameter and too difficult to pull back into position and stake permaheavy usually nently without the expenditure of considerable money, and the use of power equipment. Of course, the heavier and taller the tree pulled back now, the easier it is blown over again by the first gust of wind that strikes it. Wires used in staking it to stakes in three too 46 s > s ~ ~ s ce 0 CO b A 6 c b c M 0 a 0 x c ~ ~ -~a x s 3 M JS U a~ ~ W 0 0 ~ d b 0 c d <u S C C N 8 G O' B C N CL a U U x C N d small trees should be No. 8 gauge at least, and should be passed through a piece of rubber hose where they encircle the tree in order that the wire does not bite into the bark. No wire should be wound around the tree trunk tightly, but rather loosely to allow for the future growth of the bark tissues. Stakes hammered in the ground deeply are sufficient anchorage for most small trees. Larger ones require several \"dead men.\" A deep hole is dug and a sturdy timber or heavy branch several feet long is placed in the hole at right angles to the tree trunk. The wire is attached to this branch or timber, the hole filled in with stones and soil. Such an anchorage serves for the heavier trees. The tree might well be watered and mulched with manure or compost, or fertilized with a reasonable application of commercial fertilizer. If many of the roots have been broken, the top should be trimmed back accordingly. A good rule, when in doubt, is to remove one third of the linear branches of a tree being transplanted unless it has a ball of earth about the roots. Certain proportionate deductions can be made when only a small proportion of the roots have been broken. . PRUNING After all trees have been salvaged in this manner, then the pruning should be started. From the standpoint of tree growth, the pruning can be done any time between now and when growth starts next spring. However, in the case of jagged wounds, there is the possibility that the longer these are left uncared for the more the opportunity for water and disease spores to find their way into the trunk and start decay. So, the sooner the pruning can be done, the safer the tree is from disease troubles. All dead, broken or diseased branches should be removed. HOW TO PRUNE 1. Make all cuts clean with 2. sharp tools. Never leave any stubs. A short stub may never heal over and is always a for infection. Make all cuts back to a bud, branch or main trunk. The removal of a large limb should be done in three cuts. First, an undercut is made by sawing up one fourth or one third through the limb about a foot from the trunk of the tree. Then the uppercut ~s started one to two inches beyond the first cut away from the trunk on the top of the branch and sawed down until the limb falls. As the two cuts near each other and the limb begins to sag, its weight will break the wood at the center and the limb will jump clear without stripping and tearing the bark down the tree trunk. Finally the stump is removed by a cut flush with the trunk of the tree. source 3. Paint all cuts over 1to 2~~ in diameter with a protective paint. One should always keep in mmd the type of tree like the birches, l~ndens, hickories and most of the being pruned. conifers, grow Most trees best with a 47 single trunk as leader. In such cases, never allow two equally vigorous leaders to develop on exactly opposite sides of the trunk. This would always be a weak crotch and susceptible to breaking or splitting in the center the first time a strong wind hits it just right. Such breaking can easily spoil the symmetry of the entire tree, so these obvious faults should be sought out early in the life of the tree and corrected by prompt pruning. One of the leaders should either be removed entirely when it is young, or else cut back severely so that it will never grow as fast as the main leader. trees in New England can be done either now or next spring. Some of the harder-to-move plants like the magnolias, tupelos, white oaks, etc., might best be moved in the early spring. The soil has plenty of moisture now, so transplanting might well be undertaken this fall for many other kinds of plants. It might be well to keep in mind some of the trees that are notorious for weak wood, and can be expected to split in any heavy wind storm. In fact, some towns have passed laws which prohibit some of these from being used as street trees. Transplanting TREES THAT CRACK AND SPLIT EASILY IN WIND OR ICE STORMS Acer rubrum Acer saccharinum Aesculus hippocastanum Albizzia julibrissin rosea Carya species Catalpa species Cladrastis lutea Fraxinus species Liriodendron tulipifera Paulownia tomentosa Red Maple Silver Maple Horse-chestnut Silk tree Hickories ' ' I Catalpa American Yellow-wood Ashes Tulip Tree Royal Paulownia lw ' 1'opulus species Sahx spec~es Ulmus pumila Poplars Willows Siberian Elm TREES TO PLANT ' in a question of what to plant. Since losses have been sustained different places, it is most difficult to give one list of trees which are suitable for all situations. Instead there follows a list of some of the best ornamental trees for the New England area, with index numbers denoting what they might be first considered for. These are all available from New England nurseries with one or two exceptions. Sources where they might be purchased were listed in ARNOLDIA 12: No. 1, March 7, 1952, which is unfortunately now out-of-prmt. (The numbers after each tree name refer to the uses for which it might be planted.) There is so always many 48] 1. Street Trees 2. With Ornamental Flowers 3. With 4. With Ornamental Fruits 5. 6. Interesting Bark For City Conditions Usually Pest-Free . 7. Best Small Shade Trees for Small 8. 9. 10. Properties Height: 20~-35~ 3J~-7D~ over 70~ These are not all perfect trees for every situation, but they all have special qualifications for one or more particular situations. Included in this are many excellent evergreen trees and many with outstanding autumn color. Abies concolor 5, 10 Abies White Fir Nikko Fir Korean Fir Vine Amur homolepis 10 9 Abies koreana Acer circinatum 1, 3, 7, 8 Acer Acer Acer Maple Maple . ginnala 1, 3, 7, griseum 1, 4, 8 8 Paperbark Maple 8 palmatum atropurpureum 7, o platanoides 1, 5, 10 o Acer platanoides columnare 1, 10 Acer platanoides \"Crimson King'' 1, 10 Acer Bloodleaf Japanese Maple Norway Maple Columnar Norway Maple Columnar Red Acer rubrum columnare 1, 10 Acer saccharum I, 10 Maple Sugar Maple Shad blow Amelanchier canadensis 2, 3, 4, 9 Serviceberry Amelanchier laevis 2, 3, 4, Betula lenta 10 Betula 9 Allegany Serviceberry Sweet Birch papyrifera 4, 10 10 Paper 9 Birch Cedrus libani 6, Cedar of Lebanon Katsura Tree Cercidiphyllum japonicum 1, 6, Cercis canadensis alba 2, 7, 8 White Eastern Redbud Hinoki Chamaecyparis obtusa 6, 10 Falsecypress 49 The Siberian elm or ice storms. ( l7lrreus pumila) ~s one PLATE X of the first trees to break up ~n wind, snow Cornus florida 1, 2, 3, 7, 9 Cornus kousa chinensis 1, 2, 3, 7, 8 Flowering Dogwood Chinese Kousa Dogwood Crataegus crus-galli 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 8 Cockspur Hawthorn Yaul's Scarlet Hawthorn 8 Crataegus oxyacantha pauli 1, 2, 3, 5, Crataegus phaenopyrum 1, 2, 3, 7, Elaeagnus angustifolia 4, 5, 6, ?, Evodia danielli 1 , 2, 8, 8 8 ~-ashington Hawthorn Russian Olive Korean Evodia Fagus species and vars. 4, 10 Beech species and varieties Ginkgo biloba l , 5, 6, 10 Gleditsia triacanthos \"Moraine\" 1, 5, 6, Halesia monticola 1, 2, 10 Ilex opaca 3, 9 Ilex Ginkgo 10 Moraine Honey-locust Holly Mountain Silverbell American pedunculosa 3, 8 10 10 8 Longstalk Holly Eastern Redcedar Juniperus virginiana 3, 4, 6, Kalopanax pictus 1, 2, 3, 6, Koelreuteria Laburnum vossi 2, 6, 8 paniculata I, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, Golden-rain tree leptolepis 10 Liquidambar styraciflua 1, 6, Magnolia denudata 2, 3, 5, 9 Larix Japanese 10 Larch American Yulan 8 Sweetgum Magnolia Dlagnol~a soulangeana 2, 3, 5, 7, Magnolia stellata 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8 Saucer Star Magnolia Magnolia Apple Apple Magnolia virginiana 2, 3, 8 Sweet Bay Arnold Crab Malus arnoldiana 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 Malus atrosanguinea 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 Malus Malus Carmine Crab \"Dorothea\" 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 \"Eley\" \"Hopa\" 2, 3, 5, 8 Malus floribunda 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 Malus Malus Japanese Flowering - Crab Apple 2, 3, ~, 7, 8 8 hupehensis 2, 3, :i, Tea Crab Apple Purple Crab Apple Crab Malus purpurea aldenhamensis 2, 3, 5, i, 8 Malus purpurea lemoinei 2, 3, 5, 7, 8 Aldenham Lemoine Purple Apple 52 PLATE XI A hu~e branch was broken off this elm and the cavity was cleaned out and painted as well as possible. This will not make the tree perfect, but will help preserve it for a longer time. Malus robusta 2, 3, 5, 9 Malus scheideckeri 2, 3, ,i, 9 Malus ' Cherry Crab Apple Apple Apple Scheidecker Crab Cutleaf Crab 8 toringoides 2, 3, 5, 10 9 Malus zumi calocarpa 2, 8, ~, 7, Zumi Crab Black Apple or Nyssa sylvatica Tupelo Sourwood Oxydendrum arboreum 1, 2, 8, 7, 9 Sorrel Tree Parrotia persica 4, 6, 9 Persian Parrotia Phellodendron amurense 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9 Amur Cork Tree Picea asperata 9 Picea Dragon Spruce White Serbian 9 glauca 10 Spruce Spruce Pine Picea omor~ka 10 Pinus bungeana 4, 7, Lace-bark Pine Pinus resinosa 9 Pinus strobus 10 Pinus Pinus Norway 10 0 10 Eastern White Pine thunbergi Japanese 9 Black Pine sylvestris 4, Scotch Pine Double Flowered Mazzard Prunus avium plena, 2, Cherry Prunus sargenti 1, 2, 9 Prunus serrulata Prunus serrulata Prunus serrulata Sargent Cherry 8 \"Amanogawa\" 1, 2, \"Fugenzo\" 1, 2, 7, 8 Kwanzan\" 1, z, 7, 10 0 8 Pseudolarix amabilis 3, 10 Golden Larch Common Pseudotsuga taxifolia Quercus Quercus alba 4, 10 Douglas-fir White Oak 9 Quercus borealis 1, 5, coccinea Northern Red Oak Scarlet Oak . 1, 9 Quercus palustris Sciadopitys 1. 9 Pin Oak vertic~llata 6, 10 10 , Umbrella Pine Sophora japonica I, ~?, 5, 6, Sorbus aucupar~a 2, 3, 9 Japanese Pagoda Tree European Mountain-ash Korean Stewartia Stewartia koreana 2, 4, 6, 9 Styrax japonica 2, 6, 7, 8 Japanese Snowbell - 54 Syringa amurensis japonica 1, 2, 4, 7, 8 Japanese Tree Lilac o Thuja plicata 10 Giant Arbor-vitae Littleleaf Linden 10 Tilia cordata 1, 2, 5, 10 Tilia platyphyllos pyramidalis 1, 2, 5, 10 Pyramidal Bigleaf Linden Canada Hemlock Carolina Hemlock Tsuga canadensis 7, Tsuga Viburnum caroliniana 5, 7, 9 prunifolium 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8 Blackhaw Viburnum Monetary Losses It is important to note that hurricane losses, for removal and clearance of broken downed trees (due to wind but not salt water), will be deductible from income tax returns. One should keep copies of all bills for clean-up work and submit them with the regular tax information. It is well to include pictures of the damage done if these are available. As far as the intr~nsic loss to the landscape is concerned, due to a tree being blown down by the hurricane, we have just been informed by the U. S. Bureau of Internal Revenue that it will be necessary to have a competent real estate man make a fair appraisal of the property before and after the hurricane. The difference between these figures is the amount deductible (plus of course the figure discussed above for removal and clearance). There are several so-called \"tables\" used to estimate the value of trees in the landscape. One of the best and most frequently used, takes into consideration the size, age and kind of tree, the assessed land valuation and the distance of the tree from the house. However, because value is going to be based on a fair appraisal of the property as a whole, by a competent real estate operator, the publication of any \"table\" here for determming tree values might only confuse the issue. or DONALD WYMAN 55 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Polyethene Plastic - Its Application to the Propagation of Hardwood Cuttings","article_sequence":12,"start_page":57,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24275","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170816d.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Coggeshall, Robert G.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 14 NOVEDiBER 2fi, 1954 NUMBER 11 1 POLYETHYLENE PLASTIC-ITS APPLICATION TO THE PROPAGATION OF HARDV~'OOD CUTTINGS film was first used in the propagation of plants by the Arnold Arboretum in February 1953. Prior to this, it had been used in making air-layers and also quite extensively used in the shipping of plant material from the Arboretum to distant parts of the world, but it had never been tried in the propagation of cuttings. The reason that prompted the building of a frame covered with polyethylene plastic film was that the large cutting case then in use was far from satisfactory. It was a large wooden-framed case, enclosed with screen-wire imbedded in cellulose acetate. The size of this case was 6' wide 18~ long, and roughly 4' high. An automatic humidifier inside at one end was controlled by a humidistat at the far end. With this humidifier, the cuttings were not kept turgid enough and there was trouble in controlling the temperature even though the screening was POLYETHYLENE plastic cuttings at opaque. Realizing that polyethylene plastic had the property of retaining water vapor, thereby keeping the humidity very high, it was decided to experiment with a frame covered with this material. A frame 15~~ high, 6' wide and 18~ long was erected over a section of greenhouse bench. It was constructed of 1~~ x 2\" boards with plaster laths laid across on top to support the plastic between the cross-pieces. The polyethylene plastic used was 0.002 of an inch thick and measured 52 inches across, so that three sheets enclosed the top and sides nicely when put on lengthwise with two additional pieces needed to enclose the ends. A lead heating cable was installed 0 which was operated by a thermostat set to mamtain a bottom temperature of i 4 to 76 F. The bench under the plastic was divided into three sections to contain three different types of media. The first was plain, sharp sand; the second was sand : 57 and Canadian peat, mixed half and half by volume; and the third medium was a mixture of sand, Canadian peat and a plastic called Styrofoam, mixed in thirds by volume. Styrofoam is a white multicellular plastic manufactured by the Dow Chemical Company, and is added to the medium to provide greater aeration about the bases of the cuttings. It has been shown in the past that the stems of rhododendrons turned black below the surface of the medium due to the lack of oxygen. Therefore, Styrofoam is added solely to increase the amount of oxygen in the medium in order to overcome this blackening of the stems. Styrofoam is inert, does not absorb water, has no nutritional value, but allows air to penetrate readily throughout the rooting medium thus supplying a greater amount of oxygen. Previously, this medium of sand, peat and Styrofoam had been used primarily for the rooting of rhododendron varieties from stem cuttings and for the rooting of azalea species such as Rhododendron calendulaceum. However, both magnolias and stewartias have been rooted in it with results that were good, but no better than the conventional media of sand, and sand and peat. Once the frame had been erected and covered with polyethylene plastic, the heating cable and thermostat installed and the sections of bench filled with these respective media, the case was ready to receive hardwood cuttings. A great many species and varieties of plant materials were tried, among them cuttings from such plants as rhododendrons, Acer palmatum vars., Juniperus virginiana vars., Ile.r species and vars. and Mahonia species. The procedure was as follows : The cutting wood was collected in the Arboretum, wrapped in a sheet of polyethylene containing some moistened sphagnum moss and brought into the greenhouse. Normally, the matenal was handled immediately, but if for some unforeseen reason it was not, it would keep perfectly fresh for three to four days wrapped in this plastic when placed in the refrigerator at 41 F. Once the cuttings had been collected and brought into the greenhouse, they were made and treated according to the type of plant material. For example, with stem cuttings of rhododendrons, the cuttings would be wounded heavily at the base by removing a thin piece of wood from one side. They are then treated with a strong hormone mixture, using talc as a base. A good deal of experimental work has been done using many different plant hormones, all stronger than the available commercial preparations. The results have been very promising, so much so, that our grafting program for producing rhododendrons has been discarded. This includes even such difficult varieties as: \"E. S. Rand,\" \"Dr. Dresselhuys,\" and \"Charles Dickens.\" These have all been satisfactorily rooted under the polyethylene plastic and, it might be added, successful, not only from an Arboretum's viewpoint, where only a few plants are needed, but on a basis to make it profitable for commercial nurserymen. 58 c .~ .~ z u Y 4 ~a F a 'C ro v o ro w N o a s~ co m 's~. O v ro ^ ro a ~a ~a Fn ci S S F CC Y 3~ H Y _O U ~ G o o w \" T5 % !~ U~ U m N U x4 Caa. a~ 4) ~ .t! F .c 33#& x E; U G ~ ro ro o '~ U ro 0 0 -a o a ,b O .'I-'~\" wO y C C > m~ y~ U m w ~~ o ro O 7-~ O U O varieties are also treated with the indole buteric acid in talc giving the best results. Experimental work has also been done as to the advantage of taking large cuttings: 8\" to l2rr long, or small cuttings: 4\" to 6\" long. At the present time, the results indicate that the highest rooting percentage results from the smaller cuttings. These are but two kinds of plant material mentioned more extensively here, because they require a little more than average care. Normally, the plant material is handled as soon after collection as possible. The cuttings are made 4\" to 6\" long depending upon the plant material, treated with a hormone and inserted in the different media under the plastic. All rhododendron stem cuttings are inserted in the medium of sand, peat and Styrofoam. Such plant material as Juniperus chinensis and virginiana varieties, and Ilex opaca and aqrr{f'olium varieties are inserted in the medium of half sand and half peat. P~racantha coccinea lalandi, Ile.r crenata varieties and deciduous hardwood cuttings are inserted in the medium of sand. Once the cuttings are inserted in their respective media, they are watered heavily. This is all the firming the cuttings receive. The medium is never pounded down around the cultings. Following watering in, the plastic covering over the case is closed and tightly sealed. This is easily accomplished by leaving a 3rr to 4\" overlap on each individual sheet of plastic covering the frame. Then, once the cuttings have been inserted and watered in, the edges of the plastic sheets are moistened and overlapped. If the surfaces of the plastic are wet, they will stick very well to one another and that is all that is necesssary to seal the case tight. It is now that the advantages of polyethylene plastic can be shown. After the cuttings have been inserted in the medium, watered in and the plastic closed tightly over them, they require practically no further care. First of all consider the shading factor: At this time of year, from mid September or early October to the first of April, the sun is not high enough to necessitate the use of shade over the polyethylene plastic case except in unseasonably hot weather. The lath shades which are used on the greenhouse are rolled up all the way to give the maximum amount of sunlight throughout the fall and winter months. Shading is not necessary when propagating hardwood cuttings under plastic. Second, the watering factor is considered. Following watering in, the case is sealed, and it is not necessary to water the medium again for six to ten weeks. What happens is this : The medium is completely moist when the plastic is sealed, assuming, of course, that the plastic is completely sealed. The moistened medium gives off water vapor into the air increasing the humidity to nearly 100~o around the cuttings keeping them fresh and turgid. As the inside of the case becomes filled with water vapor, it condenses on the inside of the plastic, forming droplets, which fall back onto the medium keeping it moist. The cycle is now com- Juniperus virgininnrr and Juniperus chinensis stronger plant hormones, with the 1 ~o [ 60 2~ p ~rL -S \" ~ os e ' yE, ~. ~ ~ . < Q~, ~o y o~J: 0 ~= c a ~~0 \"\"'....D 6 '\".,0 O = -= 8 Q `' o c o~ ~s 0 '\" .., :';:-+Jo fl ~~e v~ '1:1 0 3 o =..c 0 3~ m '1:1'1:1..... ~~~ w ~ b0 s cc o~ S~a j= ,b .c o Vi .C 1~ 0 ~' U d HY G~ bDoy i~~3 ... p, c`~a ~ o ~ 1~. ,b ~ B o E-~ .c ~\"\"'gJ-=-= L y ~ a> a~S oy ca .~ ~ ~~~:5 Q o b0 .s~~sfi ,- ^o \"\" .L :_J ~c m bC ~ y a U m a xro 3 O O ~ y =0 ~ 1;; O y 3L.w. yNcU ~o y= o t C o '\" '1:1 c~.ccro c y y \",..w ~ o ~,.a y~.;~] ycoc .~ao -~ ~ 2aC \"y o~y J ry = y ~ ro o0.o. oa~-'. .mr.edCd~ bpe .n Cd 00 r&#S3x^~E; xC1~ '~be~ .~S. o C ,. ,- ~ ..... O\/)., S water vapor rises from the moistened medium, condenses into droplets which fall back onto the medium keeping it constantly moist. The two things which determine the amount of watering needed, once the case has been closed, are the number of sunny days and the bottom heat. In sunny weather the medium tends to dry faster, as a small amount of vapor is lost through the plastic. On cloudy days, the electric bottom heat runs more, tending to dry the medium. One thing that should be pointed out here is that in three years of operation, falling droplets have never damaged the cuttings. This also holds true for the propagation of softwood cuttings. Third, consider ventilation : Many people have believed that when the plastic was sealed tightly, it made the case airtight. This is not so, for if it were airtight, the cuttings would quickly die. Polyethylene plastic is actually air permeable, allowing air to pass both in and out though the loss of water vapor is very plete -the small. Considering these factors, the advantages in using the propagation of hardwood cuttings are : 1. No polyethylene plastic is low. film for daily shading is required as the seasonal light intensity as 2. No out daily or even weekly watering for long periods. is necessary, the medium will not dry 3. No ventilation is necessary due to the ability of air to penetrate the plastic. Once the cuttings have been watered in, and the plastic sealed over them, it should not be necessary to open the case until they are rooted, other than for an occasional inspection. On the subject of disease, fungus has developed only three times, and in all three cases, it was during the summer when experimenting with very soft cuttings. A spray of Semesan gave complete control. Plastic is inexpensive, one pound costing sixty-six cents, and covering ten square yards. Once sealed tightly, the case is self operative, allowing all the time which normally would be spent in watering, syringing, shading, etc., to be put to other use. For plants best propagated by hardwood cuttings, considerable time, money and effort is being saved in the propagation program of the Arnold Arboretum. To illustrate the results obtained with hardwood cuttings under this polyethylene plastic film, consider the propagation of Rhododendron \"Charles Dickens\" : On the 24th of November, 1953, cutting material was brought into the greenhouse and handled as follows : First, the large flower buds were removed. Flowering wood is not the ideal type of cutting material, however, in this case there were no short vegetative shoots. Following removal of the flower buds, the cuttings were trimmed to three or four leaves, made approximately 4\" long. Wound- 62 then accomplished by removing a thin slice of wood, from one half to one inch long, from the basal part of the cutting. In order to obtain a comparison, different concentrations of hormones were used. The cuttings were then inserted in the medium of sand, peat and Styrofoam. ing was On the 1 st of March, 19~~, the cuttings were lifted with results as follows: Next the cuttings were potted in 3~~ or 3~~~ pots, using a mixture of sand, peat and Styrofoam, which had been saved from the previous year's rooting medium. Now I realize that the number of cuttings tried here is by no means significant, as far as percentage basis is concerned. However, comparable results have been attained with approximately forty other species and varieties. One exception to this is Rhododendron smirnou~i which rooted best when treated with 1 ~o 2-4-D. ROGER G. COGGESHAI,L 63 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Exhibition at the Administration Building, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass.","article_sequence":13,"start_page":64,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24268","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170af6f.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Exhibition at the Administration Building, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. PAINTINGS OF TROPICAL FLOWERS November 15 - December 15 An exhibition of tempera paintings by Bernard and Harriet Pertchik. These paintings of colorful tropical trees and shrubs were used to illustrate the book, \"Flowering Trees of the Caribbean.\" CHRISTMAS SHOW OF HOLIDAY DECORATIONS December 15 - 31 1 of horticultural materials for use at Christmas time. Everwreath plants and cones from the Arboretum collections with greens, identifications, botanical and horticultural information make this show of value to everyone. A display Open 9:00 a.m. - 5:00 p.m. Except November 25 and December 25 and 26 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Wilfred Wheeler - The Holly Man","article_sequence":14,"start_page":65,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24281","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d14ea726.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University DECED~BER 10, 1954 WILFRID WHEELER-THE HOLLY MAN VOLUME 14 NUMBER 12 who know something about the native American holly (lle.~~ opaca) certainly heard of Wilfrid Wheeler and may have had the pleasure of him and hearing him enthusiastically discuss this wonderful American meeting tree. He has been interested in this plant for a long time and has done much, especially in an area where it is at its present northern native limits, to increase its popularity. It is not enough to grow or transplant just any tree, but Mr. Wheeler has spent years in carefully searching for the trees that make the best ornamentals in the northern parts of its range. Years ago, when he was in England as a much younger man, he became intensely interested in the English holly, the painstaking care the people took with it, the wide popularity of the tree in all sorts of ornamental plantings, and the close relationship of the plant to the customs and spirit of the Christmas time. He, of course, knew of the American holly, but then there was little being done to advance the plant in popular acclaim in America except to mutilate thousands of trees by cutting carloads of branches for Christmas decorations. illr. V'heeler's forebears farmed in Massachusetts since the early 1800's and he himself has been associated with farming in the Concord, Massachusetts area practically all his life. Born in 1876 in Concord, Mass., he was made the first commissioner of agriculture for Massachusetts, in 1919. Prior to that time, he was secretary to the old State Board of Agriculture. He was re-elected eight times \"the Number One Farmer In Public Service\" by the farmers of the State, prior to the reorganization of the old State Board of Agriculture. As secretary of the State Board, he was trustee of the State College. During World War I, he headed several important committees on food production, and in 1920, he took over the 10,000 acre Coonamesset Ranch Project on Cape Cod, for the Cranes of Chicago. In 1925, he bought about 300 acres of land nearby, including a couple of farms that were practically abandoned, mainly in Hatchville and HOSE have 65 Mashpee, now called Ashumet Farm, off Route 151, and it is here that he started his holly program. Today he has nearly 2000 hollies growing here including 200 full si~ed trees in the woods. He grows them commercially, propagates them and has been experimenting with the growing of several exotic species. In 1930, a friend sent him a dozen small hollies and he planted them in his woodlands. He was amazed at their rapid growth (some are now twenty and thirty feet tall) and when he found that hardiness was not a problem, he decided to grow hollies commercially, for he realized in order to reduce the vandalism to the trees, they would have to be made far more common in gardens and public plantings as well. At the time, nurserymen were not growing them much as ornamental specimens, for several reasons. First, buyers always shied away from them because of the thought of creating tempting possibilities for vandals in home plantings; they were supposed to be very difficult to transplant and had to be partially defoliated ; they required special soil conditions ; and finally, since the sexes were separate, there was always the difficulty of placing a known pistillate tree in the right place, by providing a suitable staminate tree in the near vicinity to insure fruiting. Seedlings took nearly 10 years to fruit, and many a northern gardener thought they were not hardy. Through the years, many people have whittled away at these \"barriers\" to holly growing in the North, and one of the most enthusiastic has been Mr. Wheeler. He had spent much of his time ferreting out known local stands of hollies on the Cape and in adjacent areas, studying their respective ornamental merits and selecting and propagating some of the better ones for commercial purposes. To date, he has named 21 varieties. Some of the things he has found out about hollies in this part of the country are of help to every northern gardener who might contemplate planting some. Of course hollies require acid soils, but fortunately, New England is especially rich in these. They like a certain amount of moisture, but the soil must be well drained also. Water is especially helpful if applied during a drought when the trees are in bloom and shortly afterwards, as this will help fruit formation. Planting is done by giving the young plant the best possible soil. The tree may live to be 300 years old (or considerably more) hence a little care at the start is worth while. Even though the plant to be set out is only in a three-inch pot, it is wise to dig a hole three feet wide and two feet deep and remove all the soil, if it is poor. He feels that the trees should be planted about twenty-five feet apart. Decomposed sod can be placed upside down in the bottom of the hole with six inches of oak leaves on top. These need not be decomposed. Then good acid loam is placed about the roots of the young plant, and a slight depression left m the soil to catch any rain water. No tamping is done to the soil, but the plant is well watered in. After the ground has settled a few days, the soil can be filled in a bit more and a good mulch of well-rotted oak leaves, pine needles, sawdust, 66 PLATE XIV W'Ufmd Wheeler inspecting one of his many hollies. Photo courtesy of Massachusetts Horticultural Society well-rotted manure, or native peat applied. A mixture of well-rotted manure and any of these materials proves excellent. As a result of wide correspondence and considerable holly hunting in the eastern part of New England, 11r. Wheeler has found Ilex opaca as far north as Portland, Maine and even in Amherst, Massachusetts. He has known plants in Groton, Mass., subjected to winter temperatures of -30 F. which were not damaged, and his experiences along the seacoast have led to his remark that he has \"never seen a holly yet that has been killed by water or weather.\" Salt water does not injure them. Many are growing within the reach of salt water spray and, after the 1938 hurricane, he knew of a group which was under nearly 20 feet of salt water for nearly two weeks without serious injury. Hollies on Fire Island, N.Y., are subjected to lots of salt water yet they do not seem to mind it. In the old days on Cape Cod, sheep proved especially destructive for they not only ate the foliage of holly, but chewed off the bark of the trees. Fires, too, have destroyed many a valuable Cape Cod holly plant, even in recent years. Mr. Wheeler has pointed out the fact that now other growers are shipping the American holly as far north as Nova Scotia and Simcoe in southern Ontario and that a well known tree is growing in West Virginia at an altitude of 3000 feet. A grower in Wales, Massachusetts, at an altitude of1600-1 i 00 feet, is planting a few every year, and last year some of them fruited for the first time, providing the winter bird food which he was anxious to have. This man wanted to do his bit in assisting the American holly in becoming as popular an evergreen tree in the North, as is the large leaved Magnolia grandiflora in the South. One of the biggest trees of which Wilfrid Wheeler knows is in the Lowell Holly Reservation, between Dlashpee Pond and Wakeby Pond on the Cape, a 150 acre tract, presented to the Trustees of Reservations by the late President Lowell of Harvard University. The tree is twenty-four inches in diameter and 45 feet tall. There are nearly five hundred hollies in this Reservation twenty to fifty feet tall, and of course thousands of younger ones. The flowering habits of the American holly have come in for some close observation on Mr. ~'heeler's part. He has never seen a tree with perfect flowers, nor has he seen a tree with polygomodioecious flowers. He has found that the pistillate flowers of I. opaca can not be fertilized with the pollen of the native black alder, Ile.r verticillata, which is native throughout the same area, or other Ile.r species. He has also found that there is as much as two weeks difference in the time certain clones bloom, even though they may be growing side by side. This is a most important fact to be known, for it is, of course, necessary to have male plants in bloom at the same time as the female plants. Even a week's difference might spell the difference between a good crop of fruit and no fruit. He has noted from personal observations that over 60 kinds of insects visit the holly flowers in his garden. This includes several kinds of wasps and especially the large night flying moths, yellow jackets, common mud wasps, hornets and [ 68 ] ants. The male flowers are very fragrant and the trees beautiful in bloom. Althe general suggestion is one male tree to every twenty-five female trees in a rather close planting, as would be found in a commercial orchard, nevertheless, it is better to err on the side of too many males than too few, Also, when several males are used, they should be of different clones in order to make up for any differences in the time of bloom. Male trees can still be excellent ornamentals for planting as evergreen backgrounds. Then, too, such trees do not offer much temptation to would-be vandals at Christmas time. The sexes can be determined only when they are in flower. Well-rotted manure is an excellent fertilizer to apply, when available, and Mr. Wheeler would like to apply it as a mulch to his plants every year if he had it. (He tries not to use what he calls \"raw chemical\" fertilizers, for he believes these are not as conducive to good growth as some of the organic types.) He has used cotton-seed meal as well as tobacco dust, and found that these materials aid in producing an excellent dark green foliage and brighter berries. He likes to keep a mulch about the base of his trees for this helps conserve moisture all the time. If commercial fertilizer must be used, he has applied one-half pound of nitrate of soda to a big tree about twenty feet tall and has cut this amount in half for trees that are only five feet tall. He has also used hen manure mixed with sawdust or shavings, about a half wheel barrow load for a twenty foot tree. Pruning hollies becomes a pleasure when it is combined with the gathering of Christmas greens, for young hollies should be shaped a little and when done at the Christmas season, the clippings can be used m the house for decoration. As the trees grow larger, quite a lot of branches may be cut. Care should be taken not to cut too short or too many in one place. Usually a tree can be cut on one side one year, and the other side the next. Some hollies will make a growth at the top of two or three feet and this, if left on, is apt to make a long space without branches. This long growth should be cut back at least one half, for the hollies make much better ornamental specimens when forced into thick growth though by proper pruning. When it comes to the reasons for selectmg certain trees in the wild for commercial propagation, Mr. Wheeler has had to be strict. In the first place, he has discarded most varieties with berries less than one-quarter inch in diameter. The way the berries are borne on the branches is most important, for on some trees they are bunched closely together, making an excellent display, and in others they are loosely distributed on the branch. The color of the fruits on different trees varies from yellow to almost black. He has had to keep in mind certain special purposes for which the plants are to be used. For instance, a clone that is to be used as a hedge plant would have different properties from one that was meant to be a fruiting specimen. The hedge plant should have dense, dark green foliage, and because it would have to be clipped a good bit of the time, might even be a male plant. 69 There is a question about the advisability of using southern varieties (i.e. those clones of Ilex opaca which have originated in the South) in the North. Mr. Wheeler feels it is better to use clones that have originated here in New England. The \"Howard,\" originally found by Dr. H. H. Hume, is one of the best for Georgia, and is used in several big commercial orchards in the South, one of these being one hundred forty acres in size, but this variety does not perform as well m the North as some of the New England varieties. On the other hand, some of the New England varieties are doing well in North Carolma, Kentucky and Tennessee, as well as in the North. He selected the variety \"Elizabeth\" for its very light colored red berries, lighter than most. \"Emily\" is one of his best, having berries one-half inch in diameter and being named for his wife. The variety\"Perpetual\" was selected because of the fact that the fruits remain on the tree a full year, that is, if they are not first eaten by the birds. As a greenhouse pot plant, the variety \"St. Mary\" has proved popular since it fruits very early in life, and six to twelve inch plants can be greenhouse grown, dusted with \"l~ootone'' or Hormodin\" (in lieu of pollen) when in flower, and will then produce berries for the Christmas trade. Wilfrid Wheeler propagates hollies by cuttings in the greenhouse, taken any time from mid-August to January. Although he has never experimented with grafting on established plants out of doors in the early spring, as is frequently done with apple varieties in order to \"make over\" a tree from one variety to another, he sees no reason why this could not be done. As far as transplanting is concerned,he does this on Cape Cod any time from midAugust to April, but prefers the dead of winter when he can move the plant with a frozen ball, presupposing of course, that the new hole has been dug in advance. He e does not find it necessary to defoliate the trees in transplanting, for with ordinary precautions, he has obtained at least 90% survival in his transplanting operations. Other than vandals destroying the fruiting trees, and birds devouring the bright ripe berries just before the Christmas period, the worst pest with which Mr. Wheeler has had to deal is the holly leaf miner. This insect, at one point in its life history, hatches from the egg and as a small worm eats its way in between the upper and lower epidermis of the leaf itself. Until recently, this insect was very hard to control, for once it was inside the leaf, no spray could reach it. Now, with \"Lindane,\" he has found that this material not only kills the insect outside the leaf, but the fumes of this spray will kill a goodly proportion of the msects shortly after they have entered the leaf. However, the exact timing of this spray is still highly important, for it is much easier to obtain a good kill of the insects before they enter the leaves. The extensive use of this material has resulted in larger infestations of red spider, so that it is advisable to mix \"Aramite\" with the \"Lindane\" to kill both insects. (Note: in the Arnold Arboretum, we have found it advisable to make two applications, one between May 15 and 25, and another between June 1 and 10.) [~o_ The hunt for better varieties of the American holly continues, for there is always a chance that a previously unknown tree will be found worthy of propagation. It was only a few short years ago that Mr. Wheeler and J. M. Batchelor of the United States Department of Agriculture were going through some almost impenetrable briar thickets, on the Cape, when they came across a tree they could not reach but which had surprisingly large berries. This happened to be in the path of certain army maneuvers and when Mr. Wheeler visited it again, he found it had been badly mauled by army equipment. He was able to measure the berries and found they were one half inch in diameter. He obtained a few cuttings, and on a third trip found the tree to have been completely destroyed. However, he has raised many trees from those few cuttings and found that the plants have performed remarkably well, one of the largest fruiting forms he has ever found. He named it \"Emily\" after his wife, and thanks to him and his persistence in maintaining his unceasing hunt, this variety is now available com- mercially. During his long horticultural career, DZr. Wheeler has written many articles on holly, which have been printed in the leading horticultural periodicals. He has been active in many organizations and was especially helpful in alding in the forming of the Holly Society of America a few years ago. The Massachusetts Horticultural Society presented him with the Jackson Dawson medal especially for his work in propagating hollies. He has been awarded citations by both the Massachusetts Federated Garden Clubs and the American Holly Society for his work with these native American plants. Although he will not be pinned down regarding which individual variety is \"best\" for New England, it goes without question that among the twenty-one varieties he has named, will be found the best hollies for growing in the northern United States today. DONALD WYMAN THE BEST OF THE FRUITING HOLLIES NAMED BY MR. WHEELER trees for landscape planting. The branches droop somewhat and bear the berries on the upper side so that the effect of the tree when berries are ripe, and from a distance, is as if it were covered with a red blanket, and yet the beautiful green spiny leaves make a background against which the berries stand out. The berries are borne on long stems, very conspicuous-brilliant red. A splendid lawn tree. \"Amy\": One of the best roadside when it had been almost a very rapid grower. It has large leaves and bears abundant large deep orange colored berries, a color quite like many of the English hollies. The berries are borne in long loose clusters in a very striking way so that the tree gives an effect of being covered with berries agamst a background of large dark green well-spined leaves. This is a good tree either for cutting spraysor for landscape work. It was named for Miss Elizabeth was a \"Elizabeth\": This tree cut to collected from pieces by vandals, and is 71 C. White, of Whitesbog, N.J., who has also done a great deal of work in select- ing outstanding clones of Ilex \"Emily\": So far opaca. as size of berries (which often measure ~'~ in diameter) and the color of fruit is concerned, this tree ranks best in the Wheeler collection of hollies. It was named by Mr. ~'heeler for his wife. The leaves are smaller than many others, but are a dark green and inclined to curve, and are well spined. This is a fast grower and comes into bearing almost the earliest of any. Young trees three years old are usually covered with fruit, and the berries are borne in close, dense clusters giving the effect of great masses of color. This tree is probably the most spectacular one in the Wheeler plantings. variety is a very large rather compact tree growing rapidly under Cape Cod conditions, in a pyramidal shape. The leaves are very large, well spined and a real holly green. Fruit is above average size and a bright glossy red, not as conspicuous as some, but still a very handsome tree. Because of its rapid growth and its good color, it is one of the best, and should be planted as a lawn tree. \"Natale\": This tree is inclined to grow slowly and very compactly, bearing great quantities of berries held closely to the branches on rather short stems. It bids fair to become one of the most popular varieties, originally growing in the colder part of the Cape where it was exposed to winds from every direction. The fruits are very shiny. A very fine tree where space is limited. \"Freeman\": This large holly tree, growing rapidly and making a remarkable landscape tree. The fruit is large on long stems, appearing very early, and the foliage ~s fine. This tree is large enough for a roadside tree or for plantmg in a border where a definite planting is desired. The original was found growing on the island of St. Mary in Osterville Harbor, and it is named after the mother of the Virgin Mary. came from the island of St. Mary in Osterville Bay, and named for the Virgin Dlary. It is a beautiful compact tree with closely growing branches making it a dense tree and bears abundant mediumsized berries of bright red color. This tree is becoming one of the most popular among nurserymen because it makes a good growth, bears early, often the first year after rooting. \"St. Ann\": A fine \"St. Mary\": St. Mary was \"Perpetual\" : So named because of its habit to carry red berries through the year. The tree is tall with rather short branches, making its use desirable where height is required. It is an annual bearer of good sized berries with fine color. In fact, this variety is often chosen by visitors as the best in the Wheeler plantings, because of the color and appearance of the berries and leaves. A truly fine holly. Mr. Wheeler has selected and named several male holly clones such as \"Ashumet,\" \"Charles,\" \"Dick,\" \"John Banks,\" \"Rick\" and \"Wilfrid.\" He has named several other fruiting clones as well, but the eight fruiting varieties described in his words above, are the eight which he feels will make the best plants for ornamental planting. [ 72 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume x","article_sequence":15,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24272","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170b76b.jpg","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XIV Illustrations Abies concolor, 49; Plate homolepis, 49 koreana, 49 - are in bold face ' type 14 4 VII, 39 - - atropurpurea, nana, pinsapo glauca, 14 Acer - buergerianum, 49 49 2 circinatum, - ginnala, griseum, \"Little Beauty,\" 14 4 vulgaris \"Sheridan Red,\" 14 Best Small Shade Trees, 49, 55 Betula lenta, 49 papyrifera, 49 o Brooms, 10 - - 49 14 \"Bonsai,\" Boston Brush 1, 7 1 - - - japonicum aconitifolium, negundo elegans, 14 palmatum, 2, 14 - Spring Flower Show, Chipper in Arnold Arboretum - atropurpureum, 14, 49 Plate IX, 47 Buxus sempervirens 14 4 albo-marginata, - \"Burgundy Lace,\" dissectum, 14 hessei, 14 multifidum, 2 ornatum, 14 14 - - - - - - - - Calluna vulgaris, 22 Cedrus hbani, 49 Cerastium tomentosum, 22 Cercis canadensis alba, 49 14 - - sanguineum, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, I, - 49 - - - platanoides, 49 columnare, 49 \"Crimson K~ng,\" 14, 49 rubrum, 14 schwedleri, 14 - rubrum columnare, 49 saccharum, 49 Aegopodmm podograria, 22 Ajuga reptans, 22 Akebia, ~? Amelanchier canadensis, 49 laevis, 49 Amelanchiers, 9 American holly, 68 -, flowermg habits of, 68 Anderson, Larz, Collect~on, 2 Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 22 Arnold Arboretum Garden Book, Azaleas, 9, 10 Berberis thunbergi argenteo- Chamaecyparis obtusa, 2, 49, Plate 3 4 rosea, 14 - - - \" tetragona aurea,\" 3J - pisifera aurea, 1.5 \"filifera aurea,\" - 14 4 - - ~ 1 - lutescens, .5 1,i j 1. plumosa argentea,\" 15 - - \" plumosa aurea,\" 1~ I~ -- \" plumosa flavescens,\" 15 --- 2 squarrosa, - -- - thyoides glauca, 15 Coggeshall, Roger G., o Color Post Cards, 10 Convallar~a majalis, 22 56 32 Cornus alba vars., 15 - alternifolia argentea, 15 j ' - margmata, 14 I ~ 73 florida, 52 kousa chinensis, - 52 15 - variegata, 15 - sangmnea viridissima, Corylus - maxima purpurea, 15 j Hawthorns, 10 5 Cotinus coggygria purpureus, 15 Cotoneaster bacilaris, 27 i dammeri, 27 disticha, 27 - Hedera helix, z4 Hibiscus syriacus variegatus, 16 horizontalis, 22 Courses at Arnold Arboretum, 33, 34 0 Crab apples, 10 Hippophae rhamnoides, 16 0 Hollies, fertilizer for, 69, 70 Holly hunting, 68 Hollies, planting, 66, 68 -, insects on, 68 -, pruning, 69 -, sexes m, 69 -, Crataegus sp., 52 2 Cryptomena japonica, Cytisus purpureus, 22 Damage due to Hurricane, 37, Diervilla lonicera, 22 Double dormancy, 27 Dormancy in seed, 26 Dwarf Trees, Training, 2-7 Education Program, 33, 36 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 52 XI, - 40 0 transplanting, 70 Honeysuckles, 10 Horsechestnuts, 10 Hosta sp., 24 How to prune, 47, 48 Hurricane \"Carol,\" 37-40 - \"Edna,\" 38 - Elm, in Arnold Arboretum, Plate 53 Epimedium grandiflorum, 22 Euonymus fortunei colorata, 22 gracilis, 15 - losses, 41-56 Hydrangeas, 10 Hypericum buckleyi, 24 Iberis sempervirens `. White Gem,\" 24 4 Ilex opaca, 52 - kewensis, 24 minima, 24 - - \" Sil~er Queen,\" 15 Evodia danielli, 5~ Fagus species, 52 - sylvatica atropunicea, 15 - - - - - - - Ilex - \"Amy,\" 711 \"Elizabeth,\" 70, 711 \" Emily,\" 72 2 \" Freeman,'' 72 \"Natale,\" 7`-' `~ opaca \"Perpetual,\" 72 riversi, Classes, Spring, 1954, 12 Fifty of the Better 21-24 Field 16 6 at Arnold Arboretum, Ground Covers, - Flowering Displays in the Arnold Arboretum, 9 Forsythias, 10 \"Arnold Dwarf,\" 24 6 intermedia variegata, 16 - - 2 \"St. Ann,'~ i L \"St. llary,\" 72 -, male, 69 pedunculosa, .5~ Indigofera inearnata alba, 24 kirilowi, 24 Internal dormancy, Z i Japanese Dwarfed Trees, 1 Quinces, 10 Juniperus chinensis aurea, 16 - Fothergillas, 10 procumbens, 24 Ginkgo biloba, 52 Gleditsia triacanthos\"Moraine,\" 52 Ground Covers, Fifty of the Better, Gaultheria - - - - - - - \"aureo-globosa,\" 16 \"pfitzeriana argentea,\" \"plumosa aurea,\" 16 24 16 6 -- - sargenti, - - horizontalis, Plate IV, 17, - 24 ~1-~?4 and Demonstration Plots at Case Estates, Weston, Map of, Plate V, 23 Gypsophila repens rosea, 24 Halesia monticola, 52 - - plumosa, 24 douglasi, 16, 17 scopulorum vars., 16 virginiana, ~2 burki, 16 - - - - glauca, 16 74 Kalopanax pictus, 52 Kerria japonica aureo-vittata, Koelreuteria paniculata, 52 Laburnum vossi, 52 Larix leptolepis, 2, 52 16 - 1' Leiophyllum buxifolium, `? Leucothoe catesbaei, 24 Ligustrum ovalifolium marginatum, - 16 6 variegatum, ti vicar~~i, 1 - 16 Nepeta hederacea, ?4 Nyssa sylvatica, 54 Oriental Cherries, 10 Witch-hazels, 10 Oxydendrum arboreum, 54 Pachysandra terminalis, 24 Pachistima canbyi, 24 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 24 Parrotia persica, 54 Phalaris arundinacea picta, 24 Phellodendron amurense, 54 Lilacs - (common), aurea, 16 10 ' Liquidambar styraciflua, Liriodendron 5l 18 Ph~ladelphus y 4 coronarius aureus, 18 1'lilox subulata 24 \"Emerald Cushion,\" 18 tulipifera variegata, Liriope spicata, - I'hysocarpus opulifolius luteus, 8 Picea abies argenteo-spica, 18 - Lonicera henryi, 24 8 - japonica aureo-reticulata, 18 halliana, 24 Lowell Holly Reservation, 68 Lysimachia nummularia, 24 Magnolia species, 52 Magnolias, 10 ~Ialus arnoldiana, 5? - asperata, 54 - - - glauca, 54 omor~ka, 54 orientalis aureo-spicata, pungens 18 - vars.,18 5 Pinus Pinus - bungeana, 54 jeffreyi, Plate II, atrosanguinea, 52 - \"Crimson Brilliant,\" 5? 18 Dorothea,\" - \" Eley,\" 5`l -- - - floribunda, - 52 18 8 - 2 resinosa, 54 strobus, 54 sylvestris, 54 thunbergi, 54 26 case, parviflora, - atropurpurea, Polyethylene plastic bags, Polyethylene plastic - - .i~2 hupehensis, 52 \"Hopa,\" Plate XIII, 61 -, - purpurea -- purpurea - aldenhamensis, 52 lemoinei, 18, 52 moerlandsi, 18 \"Oakes Rosy Bloom,\" 13 propagation with, ~15-R8 1'oly~onum reynoutna, 24 Arboretum, Plate III, Plants from 11 1 Post Cards available at Arnold - \"1'rofusion,\" - 18 - purpurea - R - pumila niedzwetzkyana, 18 aldenhamensis, 18 eley, 18 - \"Red Sil~~er, - 18 seed, R.i-`?8 I'uly-~omod~oecious flowers, 68 Propagating plants from seed, Prumng, 4i Prunus avium plena, 54 - l5-28 \"Redford, 18 54 - robusta, 54 scheideckeri, - bl~reina moseri, 18 cerasifera atropurpurea, 18 - - nigra, - - \" Strathmore,\" 18 \"Timiskaming,\" 18 - - cistena, - 18 18 18 toringoides, 54 zumi calocarpa, \"Newport,\" 18 \" Royal Red Leaf Peach,\" 54 54 43 - sargenti, - Maple, Norway, Plate VIII, - serrulata Bars., 54 Monetary losses, Dlountain-laurel, 55 10 \"Schubert,\" - spinosa 18 8 purpurea, 18 75 Prunus - subhirtella, 2 Street Trees, 49-55 - - - - 18 8 Pseudolarix amabilis, 54 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 54 8 Ptelea trifoliata aurea, 18 Quercus alba, 54 borealis, 54 coccinea, 54 palustris, 54 9 robur concordia, 19 9 variegata, 19 Rehabilitation of trees, 41-56 - \"Thundercloud,\" - Styrax japonica, 54 Syringa amurensis japonica, vulgaris aucubaefolia, 19 cuspidata aurescens, 19 55 Taxus baccata vars., 19 - Teucrium chamaedrys, 24 Thuja occidentalis vars., 19 orientalis conspicua, 19 - Rhododendron, Rooted cuttings of, Plate XII, 59 Rhododendrons, 10 Rhus aromatica, 24 Rosa centifolia, Plate - VI, 1 31 plicata, 55 5 cordata, 55 platyphyllos pyramidalis, 55 Trees, Best small, for shade, 49-55 -, Blown over in hurricane, 40 -, for City Conditions, 49-55 -, Heights, 49-55 - injured by hurricane, 41-56 - Tilia - - \"Max Graf,\" 24 wichuraiana, 24 Rose-of-Sharon, 10 o Rose species, 10 Roses, list of old-fashioned Arboretum, 29-32 at - that crack Arnold Salt spray, Salt water -- plants uninjured by, 44,45 damage, 41-46 -, plants killed by, 46 -, plants submerged in, 42-43 24 easily, 48 - usually pest free, 49-55 - with Interesting Bark, 49-55 - with Ornamental Flowers, 49-55 - with Ornamental Fruits, 49-55 Tsuga canadensis, 55 caroliniana, 55 Ulmus carpinifolia variegata, 19 - wredi, 19 - pumila, Plate X, - 50 9 Sambucus canadensis aurea, 19 Vaccinium 24 angustifolium laevifolium, Saponaria oc3 moides, Sasa variegata, 24 Sedum species, 24 Sciadopitys verticillata, Seed, Propagating from, 13-19 9 54 25-28 Veronica officinalis, 24 Viburnum hupehense, 27 i lobophyllum, 27 prunifohum, 27 - Shrubs and Trees with Colored Foliage Growing in Arnold Arboretum, Viburnums, 10 Vinca minor, 24 Weigela florida variegata, 19 Sophora japonica, 54 Sorbus alnifolia, 27 i - Weigelas, 10 Wheeler, Wilfrid, The Holly Man, Plate XIV, 67 Wind damage (hurricane), 46-47 i Wood, Dr. Carroll E., Jr., 32 Xanthorhiza simplicissima, 24 aucuparia, - japonica, Spiraeas, 10 Stewartia koreana, 54 Stratification, 26, 28 54 28 T6 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23482","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eb728.jpg","title":"1954-14","volume":14,"issue_number":null,"year":1954,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some of the Best Vines and Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24263","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170a36f.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 MARCH 6, 1953 NUMBERS 1-2 SOME OF THE BEST VINES AND GROUND COVERS * FOR MASSACHUSETTS GARDENS* the past two years, two issues of Arnoldia have dealt with some of best shrubs and trees for Massachusetts gardens. (Arnoldia 11 : No. 1, March 9, 1951 ; Vol. 11 : No. 1, March 7, 195~?~. This issue, dealing with vines and ground covers will complete this series. Everything which was said in those bulletins on what constitutes \"the best\" and how such plants are chosen, is also applicable here to the vines and ground covers. It should be re-emphasized here however, that nothing is implied in the following discussions of the selected types, that would indicate some of the others listed on pages 18 and 19 are not just as serviceable. The recommended ones might be used considerably more than they DURING the are at present. It is especially important to note that each plant in the following list is available from at least one of the listed nurserymen. It was impossible to contact all the nurserymen in the state, so there are undoubtedly many other sources in the state for these plants. Since they are available, your local nurseryman can obtain them for you, if he will. Glowing descriptions of plants that are unobtainable may play on the imagination, but it is useless to become enthusiastic about them until they are obtainable. Each one of these listed is available in 1953. Consequently, the gardeners of the state are urged to become better acquainted with these vines and ground covers, buy a few that are hardy and in this way increase the beauty and interest of the home grounds. * This list was prepared at the request of the Horticultural Committee of the Garden Club Federation of Massachusetts, and is a companion list to those published in Arnoldia for March 9, 1951 (Shrubs) and March 7, 1952 (Trees). It is not perfect and many may take exception to it. However, it does inclnde the 35 top notch vines and ground covers that can be used more in our gardens today. Vlost important, all are available in 1953 from local nurseries! 1 Thirteen of the Best Vines for Massachusetts Gardens quinata Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Campsis tagliabuana \"Mme. Galen\" Clematis montana rubens Clematis texensis Clematis vitalba Euonymus fortunei colorata Hedera helix baltica Akebia Hydrangea petiolaris Lonicera henryi Polygonum auberti Wisteria floribunda macrobotrys Wisteria floribunda rosea Fiveleaf Akebia 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Porcelain Ampelopsis 1, ~l, 6 Var. of Trumpet Vine 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Pink Anemone Clematis 2, 6, 7, 8, 9 Scarlet Clematis 6, 7, 8, 9 Traveler's Joy .5, 6, 9 Purpleleaf Wintercreeper 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Baltic Ivy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 Climbing Hydrangea 1, ~l, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Henry's Honeysuckle ~, 4. 6 Silver Fleece Vine 1, ~, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8 Longcluster Japanese Wisteria 6, 10 Rose Japanese Wisteria 8, 10 ' Twenty three of the Best Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens Aegopodium podograria Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Cytisus purpureus Diervilla lonicera Euonymus fortunei kewensis Euonymus fortunei minima Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" Bishop's Goutweed 8 Bearberry 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 Purple Broom 5 Dwarf Bush Honeysuckle 5, 6 Kew Wintercreeper 1, ~2, 5, 6, 7, 8 Baby Wintercreeper 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Hypericum buckleyi Indigofera incarnata alba Indigofera kirilowi Iberis sempervirens \"White Gem\" Juniperus horizontalis Juniperus horizontalis plumosa Juniperus chinensis sargenti Leiophyllum buxifolium Leucothoe catesbaei Lysimachia nummularia Pachistima canbyi Pachysandra terminalis Rhus aromatica Rosa wichuraiana Teucrium chamaedrys Xanthorhiza simplicissima 2, 5, 8, 10 Blue Ridge St. Johnswort 6, 8 White Chinese Indigo 5 Kirilow Indigo .5, 6 Var. of Evergreen Candytuft ~L, 3, 7, 8 Creeping Juniper 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 Andorra Juniper 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Sargent Juniper 2, 5, 6, 8 Box Sandmyrtle 4, 8, 10 Drooping Leucothoe 1,2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Moneywort 6, 8 Canby Pachistima ~l, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 Japanese Spurge Fragrant Sumac or Pachysandra 1,2,3,4,6,7,8,9,10 1. 6, 7, 8 Memorial Rose ~, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Chamaedrys Germander 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 Yellow-root 1, ~l, 4, 5, 6, 7 Sources for Vines and Ground Covers Listed Adams Nursery, Inc., Westfield, Mass. Bay State Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. 3. Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury, Mass. 4. Harlan P. Kelsey, Inc., East Boxford, Mass. 1. 2. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Maryland Henry Kohankie and Son, Painesville, Ohio Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, ?l7 Centre Ave., Abington, Mass. Weston Nurseries, Inc., Weston, Mass. Wyman's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Mass. Tingle Nurseries, P~ttsville, Maryland 2 N ~ e 0 a C u C v O jI 7 ~) j w O p ~ Y Y 6 y C I H L, m O r~. C s O .~. C ug a~~ \"S~ ay yw U u C8 \" 03 0 o Z x a'o is.': , s C u #~ H m .a S S m The following lists of vines are suggested for different purposes but are not infallible by any means. Certain vines can be made to grow on banks or in the shade, or be used as ground covers with a little careful training and fertilization when normally they would not be expected to do well under such conditions. The interested gardener will want to experiment on his own with other varieties, and may be rewarded with success if he goes about making his selections intelligently. . Twining Vines Celastrus species Lonicera species Actinidia species Akebia quinata Aristolochia durior Polygonum auberti Wisteria species (clinging Campsis species Euonymus fortunei Vines climbing by Clinging Vines to stone and wood) Hedera species varieties Parthenocissus Hydrangea petiolaris tricuspidata and varieties of tendrils or means twining leaflets Clematis species Vitis species Vines for Flowers Campsis species Clematis species Polygonum Hydrangea petiolaris Lonicera species auberti Wisteria species Vines for Colorful Fruits Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Celastrus species Euonymus Vines Clematis-most species Parthenocissus species fortunei vegeta ' Withstanding Shade Hedera species Actinidia species Akebia quinata Aristolochia durior Clematis species Hydrangea petiolaris Lonicera species Parthenocissus species Vitis species Euonymus species Vines Withstanding Dry Soil Conditions Parthenocissus Parthenocissus auberti Campsis radicans Clematis texensis quinquefolia tricuspidata 1'olygonum _ Akebia quinata Celastrus species Euonymus obovata Hedera helix baltica Lonicera species Parthenocissus quinquefolia GROUND COVERS FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES Ground Covers for Shade Aegopodium podograria Ajuga reptans Convallaria majalis Epimedium grandiflorum Euonymus fortunei and vars. Gaultheria procumbens Hedera helix ~ Hosta sp. Liriope spicata Lysimachia nummularia Nepeta hederacea Pachysandra terminalis Vinca minor Xanthorhiza . simplicissima Ground Covers for Dry Soil Aegopodium podograria Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Cytisus purpureus Hosta sp. Nepeta hederacea Rhus aromatica Sedum species Gaultheria procumbens Ground Covers which increase rapidly Aegopodium podograria Akebia quinata Ajuga reptans Cerastium tomentosum Convallaria majalis Diervilla lonicera Euonymus fortunei colorata Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" Lonicera species Lysimachia nummularia Nepeta hederacea Pachysandra terminalis Parthenocissus quinquefolia Polygonum reynoutria Rhus aromatica Rosa wichuraiana Sedum species Vinca minor Indigofera species Liriope spicata Xanthorhiza simplicissima high Iberis sempervirens \"Vfhite Gem\" Juniperus horizontalis (usually) Ground Covers less than 6 inches Ajuga reptans Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Cerastium tomentosum Convallaria majalis Epimedium grandiflorum Euonymus fortunei var. Liriope spicata Lysimachia nummularia Nepeta hederacea Pachysandra terminalis PLATE II This Climbing Hydrangea, growing on an elm tree by the Arnold Arboretum makes a wonderful display every year and does not injure the tree in any way. Hydrangea petiolaris. Gaultheria procumbens Phlox subulata \"Emerald Cushion\" Gypsophila repens rosea Sedum species Vinca minor Evergreen Ground Covers Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Calluna vulgaris Euonymus fortunei vars. Gaultheria procumbens Iberis sempervirens \"White Gem\" Juniperus sp. and vars. ' Leiophyllum buxifolium Leucothoe catesbaei Liriope spicata Pachistima canbyi Pachysandra terminalis Vinca minor out most of as hardy in Zones 2,3, and 4 are hardy throughthose hardy in Zone 5 can be safely grown only in Massachusetts; the southern, eastern and southeastern parts of the state. Hardiness Note: Plants listed VINES Akebia quinata 30~-40~ Zone 4 Fiveleaf Akebia Twining This is a dainty-leaved, vigorously growing twiner that makes one of the best foliage vines for this area. It is not new, has been in America for nearly a censome cases where it has been allowed to grow unrestrained, has bemuch of a pest as bittersweet. However, it is not used nearly enough. just The small purple flowers appearing in mid-May are not conspicuous, but are very interesting. As a delicate foliage vine, it has few peers. Since it climbs by twining, it must have some upright support around which it can twine. Grown on a rainspout, it will climb to the top of a two story building in a few years time. When the spout must be removed for repairs or painting, the vine can be cut back to within two or three feet of the ground. If this is done in the early spring the vine can be expected to grow back in another two years. The leaves remain green on the plant until early winter. It requires no particular attention, and as far as we know, has no serious insect or disease pests. tury, and in come as Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Zone 4 Porcelain Ampelopsis The Porcelain Ampelopsis climbs by attaching tentrils to a means of support. It has deeply lobed leaves, is not a dense vine like the Boston Ivy, but its most ornamental characteristic is its porcelain blue fruits in the early fall. No other vine in the North has fruits as colorful as these. Campsis tagliabuana \"Madame Galen\" The larger flowers of Trumpet Vine (C. radicans) are its chief claim 2~~ Clinging this hybrid clone over to Zone 4 Var. of Trumpet Vine the flowers of the common native added use. The flowers are orange L7 and scarlet, usually 2~~~ in diameter and like the other members of the genus it climbs by attaching small root-like holdfasts to the wall. Since the large flowered Chinese Trumpet vine is not hardy here, this hybrid might be used where its large flowers are wanted. Clematis montana rubens 2~~ Zone 5 Pink Anemone Clematis brought this beautiful plant into America from China. Although completely hardy in all parts of Massachusetts, and many people find difficulty in meeting the exacting demands of the Clematis clan in order to grow them well, nevertheless it might be worthy of a trial for those who are willing to study its needs and supply them. The flower buds are borne on the previous year's wood, hence it should not be pruned until immediately after flowering. The flowers are rosy pink, about 2~~-2~~~ in diameter and appear in May, and the new young foliage is a reddish bronze color. Like many another clematis, the plumy seed heads are also very interesting in the fall. E. H. Wilson it is not Clematis texensis A native 6~ Zone 4 Scarlet Clematis Texan, there are a few gardeners in Massachusetts who are successful cultivating this six foot vine. The bright scarlet flowers are bell shaped and profuse, appearing in July. If grown in a sheltered spot it may start to bloom in early summer and continue until frost. Although it may die to the ground in the winter, it grows quickly from the base, and since the flowers are borne on the current year's growth, it can be expected to bloom the same year. Like most other clematis varieties, it needs special soil conditions in which to do well. in Clematis vitalba 30~ Zone 4 Traveler's Joy One of the vigorous-growing species, it does have small flowers so that its rapidity of growth, its late summer bloom and its very fluffy seed heads in the fall are its important features rather than the size of the individual flowers. The common name comes from the fact that the white flowers of this European native are slightly fragrant, and the odor proves quite refreshing to the traveler on a hot summer's day. An excellent vine for growing over fence or garden pergola where dense foliage is wanted. Euonymus fortunei colorata Zone 5 Purpleleaf Wintercreeper The so-called Purpleleaf VCintercreeper is good as a low vine and especially a ground cover. It is not completely evergreen, but in the fall its inch-long leaves turn a brilliant purplish red, making it a very effective fall plant. This fall color may last for several months, long into the winter. Like the other Euonymus, it climbs by means of attaching small root-like hold fasts to wall or tree trunk, hence it should not be used to chmb on wooden buildings. 8 E 0 O 0 a aF 4) e i, H .5C u 47 c 'D .S# ~ a ' a x 3 u U ux y .a o -. u og 3 E u 3 F i~ .., a a~ c~ 5i 3 1 u ~Q''3-&#x C; M a~~F a ~\" 4) S fl a k.e ~ w ~, S,~ o n~ o~ ~, .., ~ -S ~x u -o a~ a~ w~ c~ v f'. x be ~~ Q 0 ~s % ~ .~ \"$? 4) ~ dw tt o c E ~e :J Hedera helix baltica Clinging 90' Zone 4 Baltic Ivy Every one is familiar with the English Ivy, but it is not completely hardy in all parts of Massachusetts. The variety ballica is supposed to be the hardiest variety available at present. It is growing to the top of the three story brick administration building of the Arnold Arboretum, on the north side, and has been there for nearly forty years. It must be admitted that this is a sheltered situation, and even here, during some of the more severe winters it is partly injured, but many a winter it comes through unscathed. Consequently, if English ivy is to be used, this variety might be expected to do best. On Cape Cod it grows to the top of thirty foot trees, but in most colder situations it is best to try it only in sheltered situations, especially those with northern exposures. Hydrangea petiolaris 1892 it has not been Clinging 7~~ Zone 4 Climbing Hydrangea Although this excellent vine has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since as widely used as it merits. This may be partly due to the fact that young plants take several years before they become well established and really start to grow. It is a true hydrangea, and climbs by root-like hold fasts which attach themselves to brick, stone or tree trunk. It should not be used on a wooden building, obviously. It does not harm tree trunks, for the simple reason that it does not twine and strangle branches as would bittersweet or the Fiveleaf Akebia, but it grows more or less vertically up the trunk. The lateral branches extend about three feet from the trunk or wall, and it is literally covered with 6~~-10~~ creamy white, flat flower clusters in June. Lonicera henryi Twining 8' Zone 4 Henry-'s Honeysuckle The common Hall's Honeysuckle, which has escaped cultivation in the South and become a pest over wide areas, is not reliably hardy in all parts of ~lassachusetts. Henry's Honeysuckle is similar in many respects to L. japonica halliana except that it is slightly more hardy. It can be used as a ground cover. Polygonum auberti Twining 10~-30~ Zone 4 Silver Fleece Vine A handsome, vigorous, twining vine that may grow as much as ~0~-30~ in a single season. The foliage is dense and bright green, and the small greenish white flower clusters appear in large numbers late in summer when few woody plants are in bloom. The fruits are not very effective. Its vigor and conspicuous late bloom are its chief assets in the garden. Wisteria floribunda macrobotrys Twining 24' Zone 4 Wisteria Longcluster Japanese This is a variety of the Japanese wisteria which is hardier than the more com- 10 Chinese species, W. sinensis. This variety has flower clusters that are the longest of any, some in the Arnold Arboretum measured 36~~ long. In Japan, E. H. ~'ilson reported some flower clusters of this same species which were 52~~ long, but these of course, were growing under ideal conditions. mon Twining 24~ Zone 4 Rose Japanese Wisteria This is the only wisteria with truly pink flowers, the racemes bemg at least 1~?~~ long and extremely fragrant. It is one of the best varieties of this species. Wisteria floribunda rosea GROUND COVERS Aegopodium podograria in 12~~-14~~ Zone 4 This sturdy perennial does very well in dry soil, and sun and shade. Although the carrot-like fruiting heads may be as much as 14~~ tall, the foliage is considerably lower. It can be cut with a lawn mower and fully recover, although this is not conducive to good growth if done regularly. In some plants the leaves are green and in others the green leaves are bordered with white. It can become a weed unless it is kept restrained. Bishops Goutweed does almost equally well Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Prostrate creeper Zone 2 Bearberry few inches tall, this excellent native ground cover with its small (~~~-~~~ long) leaves is especially adaptable for sandy soils. In fact it requires poor soil in which to grow. It is often used at the seashore in rocky areas where the small soil pockets may tend to dry out. In the wild, it forms dense mats which can be lifted in squares and transplanted to new locations. It is being used considerably along highways in eastern coastal regions for planting sandy banks where little else will grow. On the Pacific Coast it is equally popular and for the same reasons. Only a 18~~ Zone 5 purpureus Purple Broom Purple Broom can be used as a ground cover, but it does not increase by runners or underground stems. In other words, the original plants should be spaced about 18~~-14~~ apart and eventually they will grow together forming a complete covering never over 18~~ tall. Since all brooms prefer dry sandy soil, this has its merits, and the bright purple, pea-like flowers appearing in mid-May Cytisus The add to its effectiveness at that time. Diervilla lonicera 8~ Zone 3 Dwarf Bush Honeysuckle A hardy native, this can be used as a coarse ground cover in part of the garden where its height is not objectionable. When well established it can be ruthlessly cut to the ground, and, since it does not suffer from any serious disease or insect pests there are places where it might be tried. It will increase by underground stems, but not rapidly. 11 1 5 Kew Winterereeper Euonymus fortunei kewensis Prostrate creeper Zone \" \" fortunei minima \" Baby V~'intercreeper Euonymus Both these are ~ery- small-leaved evergreen forms, and they do differ in that minima has leaves about ~~~ long and Ireze~ens~is has leaves smaller than this. It ~s probably inadvisable to plant these over large areas, for they are small and slow growing. In small spaces however, in the rockery or along the flagstones of the garden path, they can cause much interest. Both hug the ground and seldom are over a few inches tall. Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" since it `?~ 5 Zone This dwarf forsythia, originated in the Arnold Arboretum and has never bloomed was introduced in 19~1. Hence it is not a desirable \"flowering\" shrub, but as a ground cover it is desirable where a mounded irregular growing mass is desired. Old plants are only z~-~~ tall, usually almost twice as broad, and everywhere the drooping branchlets touch the soil they root. Consequently, if planted several feet apart, the plants quickly cover the ground and of course, would keep the soil from washing. It does not make a uniform cover, since the habit of its growth results in high and low spots, but it can be depended upon to cover considerable ground in this interesting manner. Hypericum buckleyi 10~~ Zone 5 Blue Ridge St. Johnswort A single plant of this species will quickly grow into a round mat of foliage several feet in diameter, and although the spreading branchlets do not seem to root, nevertheless they do cover the ground. The bright yellow flowers, about 1~~ in diameter appear about mid-June, and the profuse small leaves give ita fine texture. of Evergreen Candytuft The old-fashioned Evergreen Candytuft has been considerably used in the past and its limitations are well known by most gardeners. This variety is more compact and dense than the species, hence is better for use as a true ground cover even though more plants must be planted at the start. There are other dwarf varieties available equally as good for ground cover purposes. Iberis sempervirens \"White Gem\" 6\" Zone 5 var. Indigofera incarnata alba 1~~ 5 Zone White Chinese Indigo This white flowered variety is considerably hardier than the species and is not at all well known at present. The flowers are pea-like, appearing in July and the plant makes a dense growth by underground stems. Even if it does winterkill, it can be cut to the ground and quickly grows back in time to bloom profusely. This Japanese native has been in America over half a century without being used much as a ground cover. 11 ai c o s-c 3~ s U h ~ro ~ # m ~ 2 O 1 G 6D G 2 b0 O .O# L ro ~ o a .`? a w o 0 ~ o 0 w a ::~ ox s S~ o. ~W~w H ro E'~ V `~ U ~ S~~s CO 3 ' O y ,_, y.,' y3 p <~ t- tC ~ x 11 Y in 'S ~ VJ 4 Y .H S Q1 .n 47 a .V _o . a1 _~ O cS 3 f ;; a a~ .~ o g 3 0 Cj ro E oc E S > a! c c5 o .b 0 5 m Indigo low, dense shrub which makes an excellent ground cover by suckering and spreading rapidly by underground stems. It grows to a uniform height and makes a more dense ground cover than does the Yellow-root. If, in severe winters, the branches are killed, it quickly sprouts from the base again and flowers in summer on the current years' shoots. Indigofera kirilowi A 2 6~~-1~~~ Zone Creeping Juniper Juniperus horizontalis 12~~ Zone 2 Andorra Juniper Juniperus horizontalis plumosa These are not rare by any manner of means, but they should be known by all who are interested in evergreen ground covers. The species is low and creeping, 8~ Zone 4 Kirilow with runners several feet long, so that sometimes it does not cover the ground as well as should be expected. The variety plumosa on the other hand, is more dense and compact in habit, growing into a low, flat, slightly mounded plant. This variety turns a pleasing purplish in the fall and remains that way a greater part of the winter. When it is used as a ground cover, if the plants are regularly spaced about 2~ apart, they will eventually grow into each other and make a low dense mat completely covering the ground. It is commonly used as a specimen plant in many evergreen plantings, and should be considered for mass planting as a ground cover where a dense foliage mat is wanted. Sargent Juniper low, prostrate, creeping juniper has steel blue foliage and makes mats eventually 8~-10~ in diameter. It makes an excellent ground cover with foliage a different color from the other junipers used for this same purpose. Juniperus chinensis sargenti This 8~~-l l~~ Zone 4 Leiophyllum buxifolium 18~~ Zone 5 Box Sandmyrtle A small evergreen of value as a ground cover only in very acid soil suitable for ericaceous plantings. It should always be planted in clumps about 1 ~~~-18~~ apart where it will grow into a rather loosely open evergreen cover, with waxy white flowers in May somewhat like those of blueberry, and a brownish green autumn color. It is not one of the best plants for completely covering the be used for variation where the soil is suitable. Leucothoe catesbaei ground but can 6~ Zone 4 Drooping Leucothoe Although this is a 6~ shrub in some areas, it can be used as a ground cover in Massachusetts if it is periodically cut to the ground every few years. It grows in clumps but does increase by underground stems to some extent, especially in situations where rhododendrons grow well. The lustrous dark green leaves throughout the spring and summer turn a delightful bronze in the fall. In our area it does need some winter shade in order to prevent winter burning of the foliage. The small racemes of waxy white flowers appear in early June along the entire 14 E ~ 0 J b e 0 0 tc c ~ v ~ u > 0 0 v ~ ww d~ o 0 04 r 0 4) x ai E M -C E. U . ~3 under side of the gracefully arching branches. A native of southeastern United States, it can be used with discretion in Massachusetts, but only as a ground cover if it is kept periodically cut and even then it will grow as high as three feet. Lysimachia nummularia Prostrate creeper Zone 3 Moneywort This European native has escaped cultivation in America and so is frequently found in widely separated spots in the eastern United States. It withstands shade, but also does well in the sun, and prefers a rich, moist soil. The bright yellow flowers appear during the spring and summer and it grows rapidly as a creeping vine along the soil surface, rooting at various places along its stems. If the soil and situation are satisfactory this can make an excellent cover. Canby Pachistima This is a low evergreen with small leaves less than 1\" long which turn a beautiful bronze in the fall and winter. It makes one of the best of wintergreen ground covers if planted in acid soil and given a little shade. It was this particular ground cover which looked the best of all in the Ground Cover Demonstration Plots at Weston this past fall and early winter. Pachistima canbyi 1~2~~ Zone 5 Pachysandra terminalis Zone 5 a new nor a rare Japanese Spurge This certainly is neither ground cover, but it is without doubt for growing in the shade. It increases rapidly by one of the best, especially underground runners, is evergreen and can be grown in a wide variety of soils, but can not be expected to grow well in hot, dry situations in the full sun. It is this plant which might well be considered first in selecting a ground cover for shady situations. Rhus aromatica 3~ Zone 3 This is one of the taller ground covers but proves excellent for planting on sunny banks. To keep it in the ground cover category, this is another of the shrubs which might be periodically cut to the ground every three or four years. Its red fruits in early summer, and brilliant yellow and scarlet autumn color make it prominent. It increases rapidly by underground stems, but because of its vigorous growth, its texture is definitely coarse when used to cover the ground and so its use might be limited to the more rugged areas about the home grounds. Rosa wichuraiana Fragrant Sumac in dry soils, and Prostrate vine Zone 5 Memorial Rose Adapted for covering banks and rocky slopes, this procumbent trailer was first introduced into North America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1891, and was first used as a ground cover in Franklin Park, Boston. Its white flowers, appearing 16 b~ ` a ... a o a o fl o 8 eo '0~ 4 u w .a L E. O ee E b.a .~ F n .~ o8 b_ .C v U U a B v .~ c e a ~ ':. g ~' o C U E a ~ a, E' t ~ ~ CZ > t R .C ~lCy s 0 O Z O ~d ~ .a o 3 p. ,~e ~' s w Q O O E Z .!'!C m .S e e~ ~U ~' Cd U U#. ad. w ~o C .. a p- mid-July, are L~~ in diameter and its lustrous green leaves are semi-evergreen. For rapid growth (it quickly roots along its stems where they touch moist ground), it can be considered as excellent for rough ground where finer textured and smaller ground covers might prove unsuitable. in Teucrium chamaedrys a 10~~ Zone 5 This makes completely neat, uniformly high border or hardy in all parts of D~assachusetts. Chamaedrys Germander ground cover plant, but is not Xanthorhiza simplicissima ~'~ Zone 4 Yellow-root A native American plant, found from New York to Florida, this makes an excellent woody ground cover. True, it grows ~?~ tall, but in a planting in the Arnold Arboretum we never have to give this planting any attention except to pull out woody weed plants which appear every few years. It increases rapidly by underground stolons and quickly makes a dense mat of upright stems and feathery foliage. The flowers and fruits are not especially prominent, the bark and roots are yellow. As a neat, uniformly high cover, this plant has no peers. Among the Best Common Vines Actinidia arguta Aristolochia durior Bower Actinidia 6, 7, 8, 9 Dutchman's Pipe 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9 Trumpet Vine 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Oriental Bittersweet 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 American Bittersweet 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Campsis radicans Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Sweet Autumn Clematis 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Virgin's Bower 6, 7, 9 Wintercreeper 1, ~, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Bigleaf Wintercreeper 1, l, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Hedera helix English Ivy 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 Hall's Honeysuckle 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Lonicera japonica halliana Parthenocissus quinquefolia Virginia Creeper 1, ~, 3, 6, 7, 8 Parthenocissus quinquefolia engelmanni Engelmann Virginia Creeper 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Parthenocissus quinquefolia saint-pauli St. Paul Virginia Creeper 6 8 Boston Ivy 1, L, 3, 4, 7, Parthenocissus tricuspidata Low's Japanese Creeper 1, 2, 6, 7, 8 Parthenocissus tricuspidata lowi Veitch Japanese Creeper 1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 10 Parthenocissus tricuspidata veitchi Vitis coignetiae (kaempferi) Glory Vine 6 Euonymus fortunei Euonymus fortunei vegeta Wisteria sinensis Chinese Wisteria 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 White Chinese Wisteria 1, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 Wisteria sinensis alba - 18 Among the Best Common Ground Covers Ajuga reptans Calluna vulgaris Cerastostigma plumbaginoides Cerastium tomentosum Carpet Bugle 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, Heather 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 Blue 8 Cerartostigma 6, 7, 8 Convallaria majalis Cotoneaster horizontalis Snow-in Summer l, 6, 7, 8 Lily-of-the-Valley 1, ~l, 4, 6, 7, 8 Rock Spray 1, ~l, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Epimedium grandiflorum Gaultheria procumbens Gypsophila repens rosea Hosta sp. and var. Liriope spicata Lonicera japonica halliana Nepeta hederacea Parthenocissus quinquefolia Phlox subulata \"Emerald Cushion\" Longspur Epimedium 1, 8 Checkerberry or Wintergreen 4, 6, 8, 10 Rosy Creeping Gypsophila (Baby's Breath) 1, 2, 4, 6, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Plantain-lily Creeping Liriope (Lilyturf) 5, 6, 10 Hall's Honeysuckle 1, 2, 3, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Ground Ivy (Gill-over-the-Ground) 6, 7 Virginia Creeper 1, 2, 3. 6, 7, 8 Var. of Moss Pink 1, ~L, 6, 8 8 Polygonum reynoutria Rosa \"Max Graf\" Rosa rugosa repens alba Sedum species Vaccinium 2, 6 8 2, 6, 7, Var. of angustifolium laevifolium Vinca minor Rugosa Rose 6, 7, 8 Stonecrop 1, 2, 4, 6 Lowbush Blueberry 4, 6, 8 Periwinkle or Myrtle 1, ~l, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Note: All these vines can be observed growing in the Arnold Arboretum with the exception of two clematis which are in our nurseries and yet too small to be planted out in the collections. All the ground covers mentioned and some eighty more can be seen in the Ground Cover Demonstration Plots which are on the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum, on Wellesley Street in Weston. Here each plot is kept 6~ x 6~ so that over 125 different ground covers can be compared as to their habit of growth, height, foliage cover and general all around suitability as ground covers. There is no collection of ground covers as complete as this anywhere in the United States. All the plants are clearly labeled, and, to anyone interested in studying this serviceable group of plants, a visit to this collection would be worth the trip to Weston. DONALD WYMAN 19 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pruning Ornamental Shrubs and Trees","article_sequence":2,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24261","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d1608926.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 3 MARCH 20, 1953 NUMBER 3 PRUNING ORNAMENTAL SHRUBS AND TREES exhibit of pruning at the 19.i3 Boston Spring Flower Show was assembled by the Arnold Arboretum for the purpose of clearly showing right and wrong methods of pruning. A little knowledge of what to prune and how to do it, goes a very long way in assisting plants to grow into well balanced specimens which prove an asset in any garden. Conversely, the indiscriminate hacking of shrubs and trees at definite heights is the quickest means by which otherwise beautiful plantings are made unsightly. A glance through this exhibit showed some of the following things : THE WHEN TO PRUNE any time concerned, pruning can be done almost but if done then, the new growth may not early summer, except have sufficient time to mature before winter and killing may result. However, as far as our interest in the ornamental qualities of plants is concerned, shrubs are divided into two groups, those that bloom in the early spring like Daphne, Forspthia and Lilac, which might be pruned after they flower in order to obtain the full benefit of their flower the current y ear; and secondly, plants which bloom on the current year's wood like Hydrangea and Rose of Sharon which can be pruned in the late winter or early spring and still be expected to bloom the same year. Trees are usually pruned in the late winter and early spring (with the exception of those that \"bleed\" profusely like the Birch, Dlaple, Yellow-wood) for at this time, before the leaves appear, it is much easier to see which branches should be removed, and also it gives the tree the entire spring and summer to form new gruw th. However, they can be pruned any time except the \"bleeders\" as noted above. WHAT TO PRUNE As far as the growth in the of the plant is l. Dead, broken are or diseased branches. Y. Broken roots and one-third of the branches at routs transplanting time. Some rule is always cut when a plant is dug. A good general _ to remove about .) ~ third of the total linear branch length when the plant is moved by thinning or damaged branches and correcting structural defects. This compensates for the loss of roots which have been cut in the transplanting operation, and always results in more vigorous plants at the end of the first year. This is hard for the home owner to do, since the new plant looks smaller than the original specimen purchased from the nursery, but it is always better for the plant m the end. When plants are to be moved from their native place in the woods, it is advisable to root prune (merely forcing a spade in the ground in a wide circle about the plant) one year in advance, to force the production of many roots close to the base so the transplanting operation will be easier. Nursery grown plants one out weak are usually root pruned periodically. 3. Young trees should be pruned early. 'I'irnely corrective pruning saves trouble later. If the tree is one that normally has a single trunk, see that only one straight trunk develops and cut out any others that try to grow. Occasionally several branches grow out from the trunk at the same place and these will always make weak crotches. All but one should be removed. In the Flower Show exhibit was a Dogwood plant with many leaders from the base. Unless most of these are removed at once, the plant will be a bush (and a poor one at that) and never a fine tree. Sometimes young shrubs should be \"headed back\" a bit to force them to grow more branches from the base. A Forsythia, for instance, with just one leader would never become an interesting shrub. In other words, know how the tree or shrub will develop at maturity, and help it early in life by selecting the proper leaders, removing the others if necessary. 4. Correct structural defects. Never allow two equally vigorous leaders to develop on exactly opposite sides of the same trunk. This will'always be a \"weak\" crotch, susceptible to splitting as the tree grows older. It may spoil the symmetry of the entire tree when this happens. Examples of several weak crotches were shown in the exhibit. 5. Cut suckers from the bases of grafted or budded plants. Many plants used in gardens such as roses, crab apples, lilacs and fruit trees, are either grafted or budded on another kind of understock. Usually, this is never more than a foot or so from the ground. Hence, all suckers developing below this point should be removed as soon as they are observed for if allowed to develop they will not only spoil the symmetry of the plant and sap the strength of the variety wanted, but will develop into an entirely different and usually undesirable plant. An excellent example was shown of a rose, grafted on Rosa multiflora in which the understock had completely smothered the original variety. Frequently, when two kinds of blossoms or leaves are seen on one plant, this is the reason. Cut out understock suckers as soon as they develop. 6. Rejuvenate old shrubs. A Mock-orange, Privet, Lilac, Spirea or many another shrub may grow too tall and become open and ungainly at the base. Most shrubs can be rejuvenated in one of two ways : either by cutting the entire shrub to 6~~ above the ground in the early spring and allowing it to develop as a [ 22 new plant; or by- thinning out the old wood, cutting some of the older branches off near the ground and allowing new ones to form, then repeating the process with a few more of the older branches the second and third years. Lilacs are often treated thus, for in this way they produce a few year of the while when they are cut to the ground they do not bloom for two or change, three years. However, one Forsythia shown in the exhibit was cut to the ground in the spring of 'S~? and produced a few Hower buds for bloom in the spring of '33. 7. Hedges, screens and windbreaks. These should be pruned with the objective of increasing their density, for if a twig is cut back a few inches, it frequently sends out more than one new shoot to take the place of the one removed. This growth habit of plants can be utilized to force them to grow more dense. 8. Certain limbs for utility purposes. The lower limbs of street trees, or limbs that interfere with a certain view, walk, window or wire, must sometimes be removed. 9. Girdling root. Close observation of the base of poor growing trees often discloses a girdling root, that is a root partly on the surface of the soil or just beneath, that is growing in such a way as to choke or constrict the trunk of the tree or a larger root. Such girdling roots can do real harm and usually should be cut as near as possible to the trunk of the tree or at least at the point where they are doing the damage. These then, are the reasons for pruning. Be certain the reason for pruning is understood before it is done, for it is always a dwarfing process, and there are some plants that never need any. Study the situation and have a good reason for all pruning. HOW TO PRUNE blooms each 1. Make all cuts clean with sharp tools. never heal over and is always a for infection. Make all cuts back to a bud, branch or main trunk. The removal of a large limb should be done in 3 cuts. First, an undercut is made by sawing up one fourth or one third through the limb about a foot from the trunk of the tree. Then the uppercut is started one to two inches beyond the first cut away from the trunk on the top of the branch and sawed down until the limb falls. As the two cuts near each other and the limb begins to sag, its weight will break the wood at the center and the limb will jump clear without stripping and tearing the bark down the tree trunk. Finally the stump is removed by a cut flush with the trunk of the tree. 3. Paint all cuts over 1\" to 2\" in diameter with a protective paint. 4. Disinfect tools after each cut on diseased plant. A satisfactory disinfectant to have in a suitable can for this purpose is alcohol. .i. Shrub rejuvenation. Thin out the older branches over a period of a few years or cut the shrub to within a few inches of the ground in late winter or early spring. The obvious exception to this would be weak growing shrubs or those which have been budded or grafted. Never cut any shrub off at a horizontal line source 2. Never leave any stubs. A short stub may ] [ 23 several feet above the ground. This is an artificial practice, outmoded for many years, and always results in unsightly specimens. Thin out here and there, cut one branch back hard and another not nearly as much and thm out from the base, simultaneously. In this way, an old plant can be reduced in size, still look natural and will produce new growth at different places from the ground on up to the top. 6. Shear hedges wider at the base than the top. Both evergreen and deciduous hedges should be sheared in such a way that they are wider at the base than the top, thus allowing the important lower branches plenty of room, light and air. If the hedge is pruned narrower at the base than the top, the lower branches will often die from lack of light. Once these lower branches die on an evergreen hedge, it is practically impossible to force any new ones to grow in the same place. Deciduous hedges, on the other hand, are mostly vigorous growing plants, and when they become open at the base, the entire hedge can be cut to within a few inches of the ground in the early spring and will quickly start a new vigorous growth from the ground, thus forming a new hedge in a few year's time. Pruning need not be difficult. It is important, however, that one understand exactly why the contemplated pruning is necessary and can visualize the probable results. Even yews and rhododendrons can be heavily pruned and old plants rejuvenated by the expert gardener who has previously studied what to do, and when to do it. The exhibit at the Boston Spring Flower Show clearly demonstrated many good and bad methods of pruning and the growth made by the plants as a result of certain practices. DONALD WYMAN SUBSCRIPTION BLANK CUT OFF HERE ARNOLDIA A bulletin of popular information concerning woody ornamental plants issued during the growing season about 12 times a year by the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University. Recent issues have dealt with \"Autumn Color,\" \"Crab Apples,\" \"Euonymus,\" \"Forsythias,\" \"Ground Covers,\" \"Killing Woody Plants with Chemicals,\" The Best of the Lilacs,\" \"Smaller Street Trees,'' etc. Subscription price $1.00 Please enter my Name name per year for one year's subscription (19.i3) to Arnoldia. ____________________________________ Address _ _ Cut off this blank and mail with$1.00 to: Arnoldia Arnold Arboretum Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts Please make your check payable to Harvard University "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Layering Plants in Holland","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24259","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160816a.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 MARCH 27, 1955 NUMBER 4 LAYERING PLANTS IN HOLLAND Dutch have long been recognized as excellent propagators and in 19.i 1, the first time, I had an excellent opportunity of seeing how many Dutch nurserymen actually did their propagating. There were many little tricks dealing with the taking of cuttings or the making of grafts, some of which were offered me without asking, others of which were evident merely as a result of close observation. They knew how to use their soil and their climate to best advantage in this respect. During many generations they have learned how to use every square inch of land profitably. Some use their small greenlouses for rooting cuttings and obtain five complete turnovers of materials in them during the course of one year. Also, they carefully study the idiosyncrasies of individual plants. Take H,~drangea petiolnris as an example. In America we frequently have a difficult time growing it commercially, but not in Holland. Growing it from seed is too slow-the Hollander grows it by one of two methods. In the first place, he grafts it on Hydrangea pauiculntu graurli,flora roots. Or, he lets the runners from young plants creep along on the surface of the soil. He does not cover them over, for in so doing they fail to root; but the shoots that ramble along the surface of the soil root at many places and later are easily cut up into pieces, forming excellent rooted cuttings. One of the most common methods of plant propagation uniformly practiced is that of layering. This old-world method has never been followed in America as closely as it has in Europe. Even in England there are extensive layering beds. Somehow or other, in America we do not have the time or the climate or the space to propagate plants extensively this way. By American standards it is generally considered an expenshemethod. Under certain specific circumstances, however, especially where soil moisture is at an optimum and temperatures of soil and air are conducive to good rooting, it can be done profitably. This is true in Holland, especially in the nurseries about Boskoop. This area comprises little THE for [ 2.> 2300 acres, yet there are 600 nurserymen doing business here. Very few have more than 1acres under cultivation, yet they are able to grow three times as much in the same amount of soil as many an American nurseryman, merely because they practice an mtelligent fertilization program, they control the amount of moisture in the soil, and they have a wealth of knowledge concerning the growing of plants. The height of the water table is easily regulated merely by regulating the height of the water in the nearest canal. One of the most interesting layering blocks I saw, was that operated by the Department of Parks in the Hague. lZr. S. G. A. Doorenbos, the Superintendent of Parks, is a most enthusiastic plantsman with many friends ~n America. He has literally hundreds of plants in this layering block, all actually rooting, some of course rooting more slowly than others. Because of the interest in America in air layering at the present time, many nurserymen might be interested in knowing just what plants can be counted on to root when conditions are at an optimum. With the aid of polythene films, air layering and outdoor grafting is a decided possibility here in America. (One English nurseryman, illr. W. J. Jlarchant of Stapehill, Ferndown, Dorset, who did little layering, claimed he could root \"almost any\" woody plant when cuttings were placed under bell jars in the open ground in his soil. Here also a careful study of the moisture conditions of both soil and atmosphere as well as a study of local temperature recordings, would be essential in understanding Mr. Marchant's phenomenal success with his method.) The following list comprises the plants Mr. Doorenbos is continually rooting by layering, in his extensive layering block on a soil where soil moisture is easily controlled throughout the entire year simply by manipulating the height of the water in the nearest canals : Acer rufinerve albo-limbatum Acer buergerianum over captlitpes cappadocicum davidi \" saccharinum aspleuifolium \" aureum \" schwerini spicatum truncatum griseum henryi japonicum niagiiificum \" Aesculus glabra \" indica lobeli fit micranthum nikoense oliverianum Actinidia purpurea Alnus glutinosa - four varieties \" rugosa serrulata \" spaethi \" parvifiorum pa]matum corallin urn platanoides erectum pseudoplatanus-several rubrum hybrid viridis undulata Amelanchier amabilis asiatica \" \" vars. \" canadensis florida a 2(i Amelanchier it 66 grandiflora laevis Caragana spinosa \" ,, sukiensis spicata Aronia arbutifolia tangutica Carpinus 11 tneianoearpa wislei Atraphaxis muschketowi A triplex canescens Baccharis halimifolia Berberis aggregata \" callillntha \" 46 \" 16 cordata betulus columnaris laxiflora macrostachya tschonoski Celastrus angulatu ,. ~ageHaris loesnert rugosa ,, \" gagnepatnt j erra lycium mentorenS1S nova 41 \" Cercis chinensis \" siliquastrum Chaenomeles lagenaria Clethra fargesi Cornus alba gouchaulti \" \" \" stenophyllaCrawley Gem\" septentrionalis costata vars. veitchi Betula albo-sinensis \" \" \" amomum \" crmani ,, kousa chinensis rugosa forresti \" \" \" \" japonica b7.ecllUanica lutea maXlmOWIC7.lana Corylopsis paucinora pll1typetala \" \" \" \" \" \" medwediewi niiddendorffi pendula dalecarlica 44 Corylus 66 veitchiana sieboldiana 66 mandshurica ,, tristis viscosa Cotinus coggygria atropunicea Cotoneaster conspicua and several vars. \" 14 \" platyphylla \" Cotoneaster a frigida \" japonica mandshurica \" \" \" \" \" harroviana horizontalis \" pumila purpust utilis wIlsolli americana \" perpusilla 46 wilsoni \" \" \" \" \" \" \" Callicarpa 14 dichotoma \" japonica angustata Caragana frutex jubata \" \" ,, Cytisus Deutzia \" 66 lllctea salicifotia wardi watereri zabeli miniata farreri corymbosa rosea discolor floribunda maximowicziana pygmaea Sllllca \" \" 66 grandinora hybrida \"Mont Rose\" hypoglauca ~I Deutzia maliflora \"Fleurde Pommier\" \" \" \" \" \" monbeigi pulchra reflexa rosea multiflora sieboldiana Malus hupehensis Neillia sinensis Osmarea burkwoodi Osmaronia cerasiformis Philadelphus argyrocalyx C6 lemoinei fimbriattis nivalis \" Dipelta floribunda Eucommia ulmoides \" \" \" sulphureus pendulifolius verrucosus Euonymus \" \" \" \" \" americana \" bungeana europaea aldenhamensis pubescens Photinia beauverdiana notabilis Planera aquatica Populus tremuloides fortunei vars. \" \" \" \" \" \" \" grandiflorus japonica robusta lanceifolia maacki 1'runus-many species \" \" oxyphylla phellomana semiexerta verrucosa plena Pyracantha \"Kansan\" Rhamnus purshiana Rhus -many sp. Ribes sanguineum \"King Edward\" Rosa hibernica \" stellata mvrifica Salix moupinensis Sassafras albidum molle serrula triloba Forsythia species Fothergilla monticola Gaultheria veitchiana Halesia monticola Hydrangea macrophylla domotoi opuloides vars. \" Spiraea arguta compacta \" \" cana \" \" Ilex crenata \" convexa \" lungigemmis luteo-variegata \" serrata leucocarpa \" verticillata Indigofera divartcata Juglans regia laciniata Ligustrum compactum japonicum Lonicera alpigena chaetocarpa \" \" pedunculosa trilobata Staphylea colchica Stewartia monadelpha Stranvaesia davidiana Styrax \" \" americana \" \" \" demissa japonica fargesi Syringa microphyll.~ superba tigerstedti Tilia mongolica platyphyllos and several Tripterygium regeli \" vars. \" \" gracilipes heckrotti maximowiczi \" \" \" \" \" pyrenaica nigra Ulmus-several species Viburnum betulifolium \" chenaulti \" fragrans album \" \" \" \" \" periclymenutu belnica rupicola ruprechtiana xanthocarpa standishi lancifolia tellmanniana ichangense juddi lantana versicolor nudum \" \" \" phlebotrichum sargenti flavum DONALD WYMAN Lycium turcomanicum Magnolia sargentiana Weigela \"Gustave Mallet\" ' "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Two Months of Azalea Bloom","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24265","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170a76d.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 3 APRIL 24, 1953 TWO MONTHS OF AZALEA BLOOM NUMBER 5 form a most colorful display of bloom in the springtime, and if care is taken in selecting certain species, it is possible to obtain a flowering sequence for a period of over two months. Many azaleas commonly grown in the south are not hardy in the northeastern United States, but all are valued for their bright flowers and some for their fragrance. The foliage of some deciduous azaleas turns yellow to red in the fall, and such forms certainly warrant more extensive use. The more plants of twofold interest that we can use in our gardens, the longer our gardens will be enjoyed. Although there are a large number of excellent hybrid azaleas available in the trade today, it is the object of this Bulletin to discuss briefly only certain species and a few varieties which are known to bloom in sequence in the Arnold Arboretum, so that by selecting plants from this list it may be possible to have azalea flowers in the garden for eight or ten weeks. AZALEAS ORDER OF BLOOM Mid April Rhododendron mucronulatum Korean Rhododendron Snow Azalea Albrecht Azalea Rhodora Amoena Azalea Arnold Azalea Hinodegiri Azalea Torch Azalea Royal Azalea Early May R. mucronatum Mid May R. R. R. R. R. R. R. albrechti canadense obtusum amoenum obtusum arnoldianum obtusum \"Hinodegiri\" obtusum kaempferi schlippenbachi 29 R. vaseyi R. yedbense Late May poukhanense Pinks hell Azalea Korean Azalea Coast Azalea Ghent Hybrids Japanese Azalea Mollis Hybrids Pinxterbloom Downy Pinxterbloom Flame Azalea Sweet Azalea R. R. R. R. R. R. atlanticum gandavense japonicum kosterianum nudiflorum roseum Early June R. calendulaceum Mid June R. arborescens , Late June R. viscosum Swamp Azalea Rhododendron mucronulatum: This was originally introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 188~? and blooms before any of the azaleas. It is the only true rhododendron discussed in this Bulletin and is one of the two decidu- rhododendrons. The flowers are large and rosy purple. If the weather remains cool, it may hold its beautiful flowers for about two weeks. Sometimes late frosts kill the flowers after they have opened, but if it is planted in the shade and protected from the morning sun the chances are increased for its remaining in good condition for some time. Most of the early blooming shrubs have yellow flowers in the early spring, but here is one with a rosy purple color which makes ous it very conspicuous. Rhododendron mucronatum (A~alea mucronata, A. lerl~'olia alba, A. indica albn) : Unfortunately, this lovely white flowering azalea, although perfectly hardy from Long Island southward, is not completely hardy in New England gardens. Still be grown in shaded and protected situations, especially in gardens on Cape Cod. This lovely plant, so highly valued for its white flowers, has been in this country for almost one hundred years. It is one of the best azaleas for pure white flowers, it roots readily from cuttings, and forms a dense flat-topped mass of foliage that faces to the ground on all sides. Where it can be well grown, it is an excellent plant to use in combination with such bright colored sorts like R. obtxsum kaempferi, for although it blooms slightly earlier, the flowers remain on the plant long enough to make a striking color combination with the later blooming it can torch azalea. Rhododendron albrechti: This excellent azalea is in American nurseries. The two inch flowers as yet very difficult to find are a rose bengal shade (~5~~? in the Royal Horticultural Color Chart)-a reddish or rose color without any of the purple that is common to some of the earlier blooming species. The foliage turns [ 30 ..J ~ ... ~ w .~ '5 :e b c os .:!2 c c ro 's a S~ ~ o ~~ '\" E ~..s H~ <~ E! '\"B:! .o 0 : c '\"B:! ~ 0 u ~ N 1~ 0 Y ~ (\/J Y cJr'~ C~ yellow autumn color. The Arnold Arboretum is now trying to establish an English strain of this species that is outstanding for its color and is highly valued in England wherever azaleas are grown in that country. It is a native of Japan, first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 189~?. a Rhododendron canadense (Rhodora canadensis) : The rhodora grows all over New England and southeastern Canada where it covers large areas of many acres. The flowers are small, magenta rose to nearly white in color. In fact there is a white flowered variety. It likes moist swampy areas where it is perfectly at home. It grows aboutI to 3 feet tall and is perhaps the least ornamental of all North American azaleas. Rhododendron obtusum: Neither R. obtusum obtusum is amoenum (Azalea amoena) (A. Hinodegiri) are completely hardy in Boston. The \"Hi~aodegiri\" nor R. former than any other evergreen azalea, but its flowers are a very color that is extremely hard to use in combination with any other poor magenta color. On the other hand, R. obtusum \"Hinodegiri\" has decidedly better flowers and foliage, but it is not quite as hardy. The foliage of both of these plants is superior to that of R. mucronatum. In some places R. obtusum amoenum is used as a clipped hedge because of its very small leaves and also because it stands clipping very well. Rhododendron obtusum arnoldianum (var. amoenum X var. kaem~feri) is similar to var. amoenum, except that it grows taller and is hardier, being hardy in the Arboretum, and the flowers are a deep rosy mauve to red. It originated in the Arboretum as a seedling in 1910, and can be substituted for var. amoenum where this is not hardy. Rhododendron obtusum kaem~f'eri, the torch azalea, is the common mountain azalea of Japan. Although it had been known for a very lon~ time, it first appeared in the United States when Professor Sargent brought seed to the Arnold Arboretum in 189~. Since that time it has grown splendidly and has proved to be the best bright red azalea for northern gardens. The Arnold Arboretum now has hundreds of these plants on its hillsides, and when they are in bloom they make a better display than any other azalea. In places the woods look almost as if they were afire, the color is so vivid. Because the flowers may be injured by the hot sun, it is advisable to plant them in shaded places. In the Arboretum some of the plants are considerably over 5 feet tall, and they may eventually attain a height of 10 to 12feet, with a correspondingly broad spread. The plants are partly deciduous in Massachusetts, but further south the leaves of R, obtusum varieties (except var. kaemRf'eri which is wholly deciduous) are retained throughout the winter. The flowers of var. kaempferi range in color from salmon to a brick red. When the plants are massed together, as is often best in order to afford some protection to the roots, they make a dense mass of foliage and flowers and form one of the best displays of Japanese plants growing in the Arboretum. Rhododendron schlippenbachi: This is another Korean plant much used in that country, introduced by the Arnold Arboretum from seed sent by Professor Jack. The flowers are very large, sometimes as much as 8 inches in diameter, and a pale probably hardier 32 -0 4) 4) 3 E .~ SP g c~~ G C ~~~ sss o C > 4) ~ ..... ~ .~ ~ '~ .. o ,d ~ E aa o -c B t 5~ 0 <4; U4i .p < 'C ~ ro ~ m ~!B -C ~a ., ~ S3 ~~3g-C#~ ~ #E *\" c x W ro ae~a ~ a~~o~~S ~S - ~~ ~ ~ .5 M) -~ In ~ `\" ~ r~ ~ S C # ~. ~-~ . f ~e > ~~ y ~O a~ Ob N ,C ~ a 3 4) L' +~ .3 FU7, ~ 1~ r~o, ~ y o P' 'o fl c s M ~ .w pink. Apparently perfectly hardy under New England conditions, this plant may grow to be 15 feet tall, but is usually under 8 feet in height. One of its valued characteristics is the fact that in the fall the leaves turn from yellow to orange crimson, thus enabling landscape gardeners to utilize it for autumn as well as spring color. to rosy vaseyi: This is the second of the native azaleas to bloom in the It is found in a few valleys of the southern Appalachian Mountains, spring. chiefly in South Carolina where it grows to be 15 feet tall, but in New England is usually under 8 feet in height. The flowers appear before the leaves and are a good pink color. It is perfectly hardy in Boston and is highly valued for its delicate flowers, which are very conspicuous because they appear before the leaves. Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense: Originally named by a French botanist from Mt. Poukhan in Korea, where the plant was discovered for the first time by a French missionary, this plant was introduced into this country by Professor J. G. Jack of the Arnold Arboretum in 1905. The flowers are a pale lilac-purple and are usually borne in great profusion. The plant itself rarely grows taller than about 3 feet and is thus well suited for rock gardens and small borders. The branches grow close to the ground making a dense mass. In using it in combination with other flowering plants, its color should always be kept in mind for this proves rather difficult to combine well with red. Strangely enough the double flowered form (\"Yodogawa\" in the trade) is the species. Rhododendron atlanticum: This little azalea is native on the Coastal Plain from southern Pennsylvania to South Carolina. It seldom gets over 18 inches tall and can be considered the smallest of all the azaleas here mentioned. Its flowers normally are white (there are pink forms), fragrant and about the size of the flowers of R. nudi,flornm. It is considered as hardy as R. obtusum kaempferi, does well in the Arboretum and is an excellent little plant to use, particularly in small scale plantings. It does equally well in both sun and shade, and is good for filling in around the bases of taller growing azaleas when this is necessary. Rhododendron gandavense: The Ghent azaleas are very popular and many interesting forms are available. These result from crosses between the tender, fragrant, yellow-flowered R. luteum (A. poutica) the American R. calendulaceum, and R. nud~lorum. The colors in these hybrids are all shades and combinations of those of the parent plants. Some of the better outstanding varieties available saturn from a few American nurseries are: (fls. single) \"Coccinea speciosa\" red, filaments red; \"Daviesi\" - white, blotched yellow ; \"General Trauff\" rose shaded orange; \"Gloria Mundi\" - fire-red, upper petal orpiment-orange ; \"Nancy Waterer\" - yellow ; \"Pallas\" -,jasper-red with markings of Indian yellow on upper corolla; \"Unique\"-bronze: (fls. double) \"Bijou de Gentsulfur-yellow; \"Raphael de brugge\" -white, flushed pink; \"Narcissiflora\" Smet\" - white, flushed pink ; \"Souv. de Pres. Carnot\" cadmium-orange and brick-red. Rhododendron - 34 are Rhododendron japonicum: The large orange-red flowers of the Japanese azalea particularly outstanding, but unfortunately they have a most disagreeable odor. The plant is valued for its large flowers and its hardiness. Because it is perfectly hardy under New England conditions, it is used considerably in breeding work. During late May, there are a large number of multi-colored azaleas that bloom in great profusion, and many of these are hybrids of this Japanese azalea. Rhododendron kosterianum: The \"Dlollis\" hybrids are the result of a cross between R. molle, which is tender here in the North, and R. japonicum. Mr. T. D. Hatfield's original hybrid named \"Jliss Louisa Hunnewell\" is an outstand- from this group. Some of the better outstanding varieties available few American nurseries are: \"Hugo Koster\" poppy-red with orange markings ; \"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" - orange-yellow; \"Otto Lilienthal\" ivory-white ; \"Phidias\" - light pink and yellow, double ; \"Snowdrift\" -white. Rhododendron nudiflorum: All the azaleas blooming after June 1 are natives of this country. The common pinxterbloom is a familiar sight everywhere, for it is native over wide areas of the eastern United States. Rhododendron roseum: Another New England plant, this is probably the best of the azaleas native to this general region. Its flowers are a deep rosy pink, and ing example of a - most fragrant. Rhododendron calendulaceum: The flowers of the flame azalea are usually a brilliant orange, but lack the fragrance of the two preceding species. It occurs from Pennsylvania south to Georgia, and is very abundant on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. It is the most showy of the American azaleas which have been established in the Arnold Arboretum. It is perfectly hardy and superior to most of the hybrids derived from it. One of its best features is the fact that its flowers remain in good condition for a considerably longer period than do those of the Asiatic azaleas, for they are not injured by excessive heat. Rhododendron arborescens: Since the flowers of this azalea do not appear until after the leaves are fully grown, it is not as conspicuous as some of the others, but it is very fragrant. The white or slightly pink flowers are of interest because of their fragrance and also because of the long red stamens. At high elevations it only grows a few feet tall, while in valleys in the mountainous regions where it is at home it may grow to be 18 feet tall. It is another native of the Appalachian Mountains. Rhododendron viscosum: This is a common plant in swampy regions in the northeastern United States and is valued because it is the last of all the azaleas to bloom. Its flowers are usually pure white and most fragrant. Strangely enough, in spite of its natural habitat, it does not require swampy conditions, as it will thrive in almost any fertile acid soil. DoNAI,D WYMAN in the mountains '' i'3.) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Field Class to Study the Flowering Trees and Shrubs of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24256","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160b726.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Field Class to study the of the Flowering Trees and Shrubs Arnold Arboretum Dr. Donald Wyman will conduct a Field Class at the Arnold Arbo- retum every Saturday during May, to assist those who wish to gain a more intimate knowledge of the flowering trees and shrubs which grow in New England. This is the ideal time to observe the hundreds of plants which bloom intervals, the class will retum at its best. then in the Arboretum. Meeting at weekly be given ample opportunity to see the Arbo- The instruction will be given in informal outdoor talks and examination of the plants. Different plant groups will be examined at each meeting. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required in order to join the class as the instruction is intended to be simple in character, affording opportunities for questions and answers relating to the identification and the culture of specimens under observation. The aim is to assist in gaining a better practical knowledge of the beautiful flowering woody plants available for northern planting. Information will be given regarding their ornamental and useful properties, habits of growth, and other features which members of the class may desire to know. The class will meet promptly at 10 o'clock in the morning, on Saturdays, in the Arboretum, at the Jamaica Plain entrance. The class will start Saturday, May 2, and close May 30. In case of rain, the class will meet indoors. Two hours will be devoted to each meeting. Both men and women are invited. The fee for the course is $1.00, payable in advance. Admission fees to single exercises cannot be accepted. Members of the \" Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" are entitled to attend all classes without charge. The Arnold Arboretum is reached from Boston by elevated trains or surface cars to Forest Hills in twenty to thirty minutes. The Jamaica Plain entrance to the Arboretum is within ten minutes' walk of the many . station. Applications and further inquiries may be addressed to Dr. Donald Wyman at the Arboretum. Checks should be made payable to Harvard University. Registration limited, and only in advance, by mail. JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS., APRIL 24, 1953. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"For the Record","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24257","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160bb27.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University `3 VOLUME 13 MAY 8, 1953 NUMBER 6 FOR THE RECORD during the past 18 years an issue of \"Arnoldia\" has been \"This New England Weather.\" This year should be no exception. What with mild winter temperatures (only twelve days during the first four months on which the temperature has dropped below ~0 F.-Jan.3 days, Feb.days, March 7 days) and the phenomenal amount of rain (~ i . 46 inches or its equivalent in snow) has seemed bad enough. The pay off came in April, after many plants were in full bloom and many a gardener had already mowed EVERY given so often to over his green lawn for the first time, when a snow storm blanketed the area-3 inches in the Arnold Arboretum and 6 inches at the Case Estates in Weston. Undoubt- edly the weather prognosticators have been doing their best, but Mother Nature tricked them nearly half the time into misleading forecasts. This snowstorm was not predicted by a single forecaster until merely thirty minutes before the snow actually began falling. The amount of rainfall-1 ~.14 inches abo~e normal for the year up to May lst-has been the greatest in any four month period at any time during the history of the Boston Weather Bureau. Gardeners anxious to get into their gardens know that up to the first of May it rained on five consecutive weekends. April lived up to its moist reputation, for rain fell on 21 days during this month alone. March was even wetter, for during this month the rain totaled 11.00 inches7.57 inches above normal. In fact, it rained on 59 of the first 120 days of the year. When one considers that outdoor work in the Arboretum depends on good weather conditions, one can understand why we are considerably behind in our work and will have to leave some of the changes and tmprovements we had anticipated completing this spring until later on in the year. The heavy, sticky snow which came on the night of April 13-1 ~ and remained on the ground and on the branches of most plants for nearly twenty-four hours was something for gardeners to remember. Flowers of several shrubs were fully B'~ open and the leaves of many plants after this snow went down to about amount of were as ~?8 F., much as half grown. Temperatures but there was a surprisingly small injury. Snow frequently acts as a mulch on the ground, but it is hard for some of us to visualize several inches of snow and ice caked about tender young leaves and flowers without seriously injuring them. Different plants can withstand different temperatures. For instance, young cabbage and pea plants can withstand many hours of freezing temperatures at 25 to ~?8 F. Also, certain plant parts withstand different temperatures at different times. A branch of a raspberry would be killed by a temperature of 280 F. in July, but it can withstand -10 F. in mid-winter. I'omologists have found that the flower buds of most fruit trees are killed before the leaf buds. The dormant flower buds of peaches are killed at -1~? to -160 F. while the dormant leaf buds are not killed until -16 to -~l~? F. is reached. Those who have carefully studied the effect of cold on fruit trees have found that at least three temperature factors are concerned in winter killing: 1. The rate of the temperature fall. The faster the fall, the greater the injury. 2. Duration of the low temperature. The longer the duration of low temperature, the greater the injury. 3. Lowness of the temperature. The lower the temperature, the greater the injury. Low temperatures do other things to flowers besides killing or injuring the petals. Low temperatures of varying degrees may easily kill the germinating pollen grains on the pistils of some plants. Apricots, for instance, very seldom fruit in this part of New England although they frequently flower, merely because the pollen grains are killed by cold weather or because with low temperatures when the flowers are in bloom, the insects do not fly about and pollenize them. Many people had found it necessary to cut the grass of their lawns by April l3th showing the season was well advanced by this time. The snow which fell that night was such that it bent twenty foot gray birches and eight foot yews right to the ground where they were held for as long as 24 hours. Because of the fact that so many plants had started into active growth, and because the snow and ice remained on and about the leaves and flowers for as much as 24 hours, it may be of interest to note the plants which were actually in flower at the time, as well as those which had their leaves fairly far advanced. Plants in full bloom at time of snow not noticeably injured : Duffodils Dirca palustris Corylopsis species Forsythia speeres Lindera benzoin 3~ Lonicera \" \" fragrantissima purpus~ \" standishi Prunus \" \" cyclamina tomentosa cerasifera varieties subhirtella varieties (only- partially open) Rhododendron mucronulatum Flowers of the following plants were fully open and by the snow or the low temperature: Abeliophyllum distichum Magnolia stellata \" salicifolia \" loebneri \"Merrill\" \" kobus \" denudata Prunus incisa \" \" \" were damaged somewhat mandshurica \"Scout\" \" \"Mikado\" sargenti simoni ., \" The leaves of many plants had started to open. Those mentioned below were considerably beyond the bud stage with well developed leaves an inch long and some longer. This list does not include all species in the Arboretum that were this far advanced but certainly it is enough to show that there is a very large group of shrubs with young foliage that can withstand snow and ice for 1t hours and a temperature of 28 F. for one night. Alyssum gemonense Berberis, many species Caragana frutex Chaenomeles, many varieties Cotoneaster, several species Deutzia, several species Diervilla, several species Euonymus, many species Hypericum species Iber~s savatile holl.witzia atnahilis I.umcer:~, many species Malus, many species and Orixa japonica Osmaronia cerasiformis varieties :~S> Potentilla fruticosa Prunus padus varieties ' Prinsepia sinensis \" uniflora Ribes, many species Rosa, many species Rubus odoratus Salix, several species Sambucus canadensis Sorbaria sorbifolia Spiraea, \" many species species many varieties van houttei many Syringa, \" vulgaris, Viburnum sieboldi Most maple leaves were still to appear and the buds of the oaks and azaleas had not opened. At the time this is being written another rainstorm has come to make an already soggy ground still soggier. Such are the vagaries of This New England Weather.\" DONALD WYMAN , Estimated Blooming Dates of Some Major Displays in the Arnold Arboretum Oriental quinces 3 Jlay 1-l,i 1-7 Apples May T:arly Flowering May 1-7 Magnolia soulangeana varieties ~ialeas May 6-25 (Rhododendron schlippenbachi, vaseyi, yedoensis 3 poukhanensis, obtusum kaempferi Dlay ~-15 il-l.i .j Brooms (Cytisus praecox) May Flowering Dogwood Dlay 9-20 Crab :lpples-ma,jor display May 9-1S Lilacs May 14-25 i (Lilac Sunday) May 17 Roses 25-June May Rl~ododendrons May 2 i-June Crab 15 5 10 Preston Lilacs June 1-8 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seeds of Woody Plants","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24262","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160896b.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 3 3 SEPTEMBER 11, 1953 NuMSERS 7-9 SEEDS OF WOODY PLANTS Collecting - care and requirements for studies of seeds of an intriguing one over the years. Much work has been germination, has been done, mostly with the seeds of cereals, annuals and trees used for reforestation. Text books on forestry have much detailed information concerning forest tree seeds, but the seeds of many woody ornamental plants have not been studied as thoroughly as many a commercial grower would wish. This bulletin has to deal THE Cleaning Shipping their collection, plants, - - Longevity with such seeds, primarily with suggestions for their collection, care in storage, and shipping before they are sown. This information is taken from many sources. not the least of which are the first hand experiences here at the Arnold Arboretum where the propagators have been sowing such seeds for over 75 years. The best reference on the subject with an excellent bibliography, is \"Woody Plant Seed Manual\" written by the Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture (Misc. Pub. No. 654, issued June 1948). Collecting Seeds should not be collected until they are ripe, for in many cases, seed collected prematurely may not germinate. Any collector who has had experience in this field knows that there are various methods of determining the ripeness of the fruit the shrivelling of the pod or the cord connecting the seed to the pod in the legumes, the color or softness of the pulp of the fruit of Malus, Viburnum and Cotoneaster, and close examination of the cones of coniferous trees sometimes even tested by determining the specific gravity of the unopened cones. Seeds should be collected wherever possible from pure stands. There are many groups of plants which cross pollinate easily, and when seed is collected from arboretums or other closely planted collections of many species, there is ample opportunity for hybridization. This is also true in nature, so that in order to insure good seed, collect it either in pure stands or from isolated specimens. - 41 One very important fact to keep in mind is that the seed of many a variety, botanical as well as horticultural, may not come true to name.\" There are some cases admittedly, in which the variety will yield a surprising percentage of the seedlings true to name. Such is the case with Quercus robur fnstigiata. But the rule is, that in most cases, the seed of the variety yields seedlings similar to the species. The actual date seed ripens in one locality may vary from year to year in the way and for the same reasons as do the blooming dates of plants and the autumn color. Often one makes a special effort to collect seed of a certain plant only to find on coming to the plant that all the seed has fallen on the ground or been eaten by the birds and rodents, or been partially destroyed by weevils. The seeds of witchhazels, in particular, must be collected before the capsules open, for at that time they are actually thrown considerable distances by the explosive opening of the capsule. Certain plants like Chionanthus virginicus, with fleshy fruits, may appear ripe one day and be gone the next, merely because a flock of birds have taken them all from the plant in a few hours time. This has happened with this plant on several occasions in the Arboretum. There are many plants which retain their fruits for a long time in the fall, and far into the winter, the fruits of which may be collected over a long period. Many of the seeds collected on the dates in the following list will have to be cleaned and dried, preferably in the greenhouse. Then there is an after-ripening period or a period of dormancy for many seeds so that it is frequently months from the time the seed is collected until it is ready for planting. However, when seed is to be obtained for special purposes, it is best to collect it as soon as it is ripe, instead of waiting too long and taking the chance of it disappearing. The following list of dates on which seed collections have been made in the Arboretum can be considerably more flexible than the single date entry would lead one to believe. All these dates should be coordinated with the fruit ripening dates in the locality where the list is to be used, and collecting dates for many more can be inserted as they become known. same Seed Collection Dates-Chronologically 5 May L,'lmus pumila 37 Mav 1.~ Salix sp. May 30 . Ulmus americana Populus tremuloides Acer rubrum Acer saccharinum Elaeagnus multiflora Daphne mezereum Lonicera coerulea Lonicera fragrantissima Lonicera standishi 5 June Prunus apetala June 15 Populus alba Prunus canescens , 42 Amelanchier Cornus alba oblongifolia 1'runus sargenti Lonicera morrowi June 20 Prunus subhirtella Prunus tomentosa Viburnum fragrans June 30 Prunus cerasus July Amelanchier spicata Cornus stolonifera Lonicera altmanni Lonicera bella Lonicera chrysantha Lonicera maximowiczi 5 Lonicera muendeniensis Lonicera notha Lonicera tatarica Lonicera xy losteum Mahonia aquifolium Nemopanthus Julv 10 mucronatus Jforus sp. Rosa agrestis Rosa hugonis Rosa roxburQhi Rosa spinosissima Vaccinium vitis-idaea Viburnum tomentosum July Amelanchier amabilis Amelanchier sanguinea 30 Rosa ecae Vaccinium 5 August corymbosum Populus maximowiczi Ilex geniculata Lonicera alpigena Prinsepia sp. Prunus japonica Prunus glandulosa Prunus maritima Rhamnus frangula Rhus typhina Ribes odoratum Rosa amblyotis Rosa harisoni Rosa primula August Acer ginnala Cedrus libani Ceanothus pallidus roseus Cornus racemosa Crataegus arnoldiada ' 57 15 Cytisus purpureus Gaylussacia sp. Lonicera webbiana Ostryavirginiana Shepherdia argentea Viburnum sieboldi Cytisus nigricans August Berberis laxiflora Betula papyrifera 20 Carpinus sp. Cornus bailevi Ehretia thyrsiflora Kolkwitzia amabilis Prunus cerasifera Spiraea veitchi Viburnum alnifolium Viburnum lantana August Berberis fendleri Berberis heteropoda 30 Caragana Cornus maaimowicziana mas Cornus kousa Cotinus coggygria Cotoneaster racemiflora Laburnum sp. 44 Lonicera demissa Lonicera orientalis Lonicera tangutica Rosa carolina Rosa davurica Acer negundo Berberis vernae Rosa macouni Rosa pendulina Sambucus canadensis Syringa :i September amurensis Viburnum trilobum Potentilla fruticosa Rhus copallina Rosa rugosa Rosa reversa Cladrastis sp. Cornus asperifolia Cornus glabrata Crataegus punctata Acer griseum Acer pensylvanicum Zanthoxylum americanum September Aesculus sp. 15 Lindera benzoin Lonicera subsessilis Paeonia suffruticosa Akebia quinata Philadelphus virginalis Rosa acicularis Rosa alba Rosa blanda Rosa coriifolia Rosa rubrifolia Rosa willmottiae Rosa woodsi Sassafras sp. Schisandra chinensis Viburnum wrighti Aronia melanocarpa Betula lutea Betula lenta Betula populifolia Betula pendula Chionanthus sp. Clethra alnifolia Cyrilla racemiflora Deutzia sp. Evodia danielli Acer . September platanoides Acer saccharum 20 Cotoneaster rosea Cotoneaster tenuipes Aralia spinosa Berberis henryana Fagus sp. Halesia sp. Ilex yunnanensis Berberis poireti Corylopsis sp. Cotoneaster adpressa Cotoneaster ambigua Cotoneaster melanocarpa Cotoneaster moupinensis Cotoneaster nitens Kalopanax pictus Nyssa sylvatica Pieris sp. Quercus sp. Viburnum dilatatum September Actinidia arguta Ailanthus altissima Cercis canadensis Clerodendron trichotomum Cornus sanguinea Exochorda sp. 30 Koelreuteria paniculata Lonicera iberica Pinus sp. Rosa gallica Symplocos paniculata October 5 Berberis amurensis Ampelopsis sp. 45 Berberis bretschneideri Cornus florida Cotoneaster foveolata Fothergilla sp. Hamamelis sp. Larix sp. D7agnolia acuminata Magnolia soulangeana Magnolia stellata Robinia sp. Solanum dulcamara Sorbaronia jacki Sorbus sp. Vaccinium oldhami Viburnum betulifolium Viburnum carlesi Viburnum cassinoides Viburnum dentatum Viburnum ovatifolium Viburnum prunifolium Acanthopanax sp. Aronia arbutifolia Aronia prunifolia Celastrus sp. Cotoneaster acutifolia Cotoneaster bullata Cotoneaster dielsiana Cotoneaster divaricata Cotoneaster lucida Abies sp. October 10 Cotoneaster zabeli Enkianthus sp. Euonymus bulgarica Hydrangea petiolaris Lonicera ferdinandi Pseudotsuga taxifolia Symphoricarpos Taxus sp. sp. Tsuga sp. Berberis chinensis Berberis gilgiana Caragana arborescens Castanea mollissima Celtis occidentalis Chaenomeles lagenaria Clematis paniculata October 15 Hicoria sp. Ilex verticillata _ Juglans sp. Juniperus sp. Leucothoe catesbaei Liriodendron sp. Picea sp. Rhododendron sp. Rosa canina Rosa corymbifera Rosa eglanteria Rosa helenae Rosa hibernica Rosa horrida Stewartia sp. Thuja occidentalis Tilia sp. Ulmus parvifolia Viburnum acerifolium Viburnum setigerum Vitis sp. Corylus americana Corylus avellana Corylus cornuta Davidia involucrata Euonymus alata Euonymus americana Euonymus bungeana Euonymus fortunei vegeta Euonymus nikoensis Euonymus obovata Euonymus sanguinea Fraxinus sp. Ginkgo biloba Albizzia julibrissin Alnus glutinosa Berberis vulgaris Buddleia sp. rosea October 20 Lycium . sp. Cercidiphyllum japonicum Crataegus oxyacantha Malus baccata Malus toringoides Oxydendrum arboreum Phellodendron sp. Photinia villosa 46 . Physocarpus sp. Viburnum hupehense Berberis koreana Cotoneaster horizontalis Cotoneaster integerrima Cotoneaster tomentosa Gymnocladus dio~ca Gleditsia sp. Hippophae rhamnoides Ilex opaca Baccharis halimifolia Berberis aggregata Berberis canadensis Viburnum lentago October 30 Kalmia latifolia . Ligustrum sp. Malus, many sp. Pseudolarix amabilis Rosa arvensis , Rosa virginiana Viburnum burkwoodi Wisteria sp. November 5 Myrica pensylvanica Paulownia tomentosa Callicarpa sp. Cotoneaster multiflora Rhodotypos scandens Viburnum lobophyllum Viburnum opulus Viburnum sargenti November 1 ~ Lonicera korolkowi Lonicera maacki , Elaeagnus angustifolia Berberis thunbergi Cotoneaster affinis ' Elaeagnus umbellata Franklinia alatamaha Lonicera bracteolaris Lonicera henryi Pyracantha coccinea Ribes fasciculatum Rosa setigera Rosa wichuraiana November 20 Crataegus lavallei Crataegus nitida Cotoneaster rugosa Cotoneaster salicifolia Crataegus prunifolia Rosa multiflora November 30 Ilex Crataegus phaenopyrum glabra Cleaning Seeds Most seeds must be cleaned in one way or another before they are sown. The fruits of rosaceous plants, viburnums, magnolias, dogwoods and many other fruits with pulp about the seeds must be cleaned before the seed is shipped or even before it is stored in large quantities, for the rotting pulp quickly heats and in many a case the high temperature will kill the embryos. On the other hand, many of the seeds produced in dry capsules like those of the ericaceous plants, spireas, mock oranges, etc., can be merely sun dried and then shipped. Even elm seed must be dried before it is shipped. This seed is frequently picked while it is still slightly green on the tree, or picked up from the ground while it is damp, and if stored or shipped in large quantities before it is thoroughly dry, it may heat and be completely killed on arrival. This has happened to many shipments arriving There are at the Arboretum. some many ingenious methods for cleaning seeds, of them worked 47 on the spur of the moment, Cones from coniferous trees, for instance, must be dried and in many cases have hot air applied to them in order that they will open and thus allow the seeds to fall out. For small amounts, this is easily accomplished in the hot sun or on the greenhouse bench, with the cones on screens so that the seed will fall in the receptacle below. For large amounts, the foresters have invented several types of drying kilns. Conifer seeds, and those of maple and ash and others like them, can be shipped with the wings on, but should be dewinged before they are sown. This can be accomplished in several ways, but for small amounts the best method is by hand rubbing; or secondly, by lightly rubbing the seeds over a screen. Too much pressure can injure the seeds, so care must be shown in this operation. Screening and even fanning of the resultant mixture are means of separating chaff from seed. Some of the larger seed can be handled by regular farm machinery. Hulls of the black walnut, for instance, can be removed by running the fruits through the corn sheller. Various fruits can be run through threshing equipment in order to produce clean seed. Finally, the pulpy seeds are usually cleaned by macerating them and soaking them in water during which process the pulp and poor seeds usually float to the surface and can be removed while the viable seeds sink and can be later dried for storage and shipping. Acorns have been \"cleaned\" by the water method since the cups and weeviled acorns float and the viable acorns sink to the bottom. Naturally, the amount of seed to be cleaned governs the method chosen. For small amounts of seed, we have found the Waring Blender most serviceable. This has been used by several institutions (or possibly other makes as well). We removed the metal blade of this electrically operated household machine and substituted one cut from the casing of an automobile tire instead. This is a small piece of rubber, 1 ~ inches square held horizontally on the revolving axis of the machine, which does not injure the seeds. The standard whirling metal blade which comes with the machine can quickly scarify and injure the seeds of many plants, hence it should not be used. Even with the rubber blade, the fruits should be completely ripe so that the flesh is easily macerated (or else it should be partly y. macerated in advance by hand) and the seed put in for no longer than two minutes together with an ample supply of water. The length of time depends on the kind of seed, its degree of softness and the amount of seed. None larger than the fruits of Prunus americana or P. hortulana can be used. Obviously, only small amounts of seed can be handled in this fashion, but undoubtedly larger equipment could be made if necessary. This method has proved a timely and quick one with us, for cleaning small amounts of pulpy seed. Many seeds are sun dried after the cleaning process and sown, stratified or stored, but for those who want to be certain no disease gets into the seed, a simple treatment with some disinfectant such as washing in a 3-10 per cent solution of potassium permangenate might be well worth the effort. To kill weevils out 48 and worms and any other insects, the seeds could be dusted with rotenone, available in most countries. With acorns, carbon bisulfide has been used to kill the weevils, a small amount placed in a large covered container and the acorns left in long enough to kill the weevils. Naturally the amount of the chemical used depends on the size of the container and the amount of seed to be disinfected. This may not prove suitable for all kinds of seeds. Shipping Seeds long distances over land or sea, great care should be means by which they are shipped. Every seed packing know something about the seeds he is sending, how they should collector should be cleaned, and which ones should be shipped as soon as collected. This last point is a very important one. Unfortunately many institutions shipping seeds from When seeds must be sent taken in their and the abroad and many a botanical collector as well considers that all seeds can be handled alike, that is, they can be stripped from the plants in the fall, cleaned within a month or so and held possibly for six months until all the seeds are ready for shipment at one time or until weather conditions are such that the collector can take the time to ship them. The Arnold Arboretum has had many sad experiences with shipments sent off by such individuals. It will be noted from the following lists that some seeds can not be allowed to dry out and should be shipped immediately as soon as they are collected. Certain seeds like those of Populus, Salix, Magnolia and Ulmus should always be shipped promptly by air since they will remain viable for only a very short time even under the best of conditions. Willow seeds may remain viable a few days. Seed that is important enough to collect and clean (especially rare seed) is valuable enough to ship by air whenever possible. Last spring the Arboretum received two identical shipments of seeds from Argentina, collected at the same time. One consignment was sent by air and arrived four days after mailing. The second consignment mailed the same time but sent by regular mail (boat) arrived one month later and ~?5 per cent of the packets failed to germinate, whereas only 1 per cent failed in the first air-shipped lot. Cleaning has already been discussed, but in shipping seeds, certain types like those of Cytisus, Robinia or Quercus are susceptible to attacks of weevils or other insects and if the period of shipment is long and slow, it may well be that the seed will be worthless on arrival. Such seeds should be treated with some material to kill such pests. Carbon bisulfide gas has been used satisfactorily here with acorns, but the amount used depends on the size of the closed container in which the fumigating is to be done, the amount of seed and even kind of seed. One excellent suggestion has been that rotenone dust be used for dusting over such seeds when they are placed in the packet, the amount of dust used being equivalent to one-fourth the bulk of the seeds. Any seeds that might be unusually susceptible as disease carriers might be only .) n treated with a mild disinfectant, such as a 5-10 per cent solution of potassium permangenate, then dried and bagged for shipment. lists that some seeds should not be allowed This is a most important group of seeds and it is safe to say that we have been unable to germinate hundreds of groups of seeds sent us here, merely because the collectors failed to recogmze the importance of this fact. Only last year a Japanese botanist who should have known better, collected seeds for us in one of the higher and colder parts of Japan, but he kept all his seeds until he was finally ready to send them in one shipment. As a result, 45 per cent of the seed numbers he had sent (159 packets in all) failed to germinate, a discouragingly large amount when one considers the efforts he spent at his end to collect them and the efforts to which we went here to record and sow them. The old fashioned method in shipping seeds, used frequently by E. H. Wilson so they would not dry out in transit, was to pack them in charcoal. Moist saw dust or moist peat moss is not good if the shipping period is long or hot, for the seeds may either start to germinate, or high temperatures may cause the packing materials to heat and kill the seeds. Charcoal, however, proved an excellent medium for it does not absorb moisture. Polythene bags can now be used to excellent advantage. This material is widely used in America for packaging vegetables, is very light and can be sent to collectors in the field if need be. We are sending cuttings, scions, budwood, and plants wrapped in this material to many parts of the world and doing it satisfactorily. The polythene film does allow a small movement of gaseous vapors through, but not water vapor (See Arnoldia 1 I : Nos. 7-8, Oct. 26, 19~ 1 ~. Bags made of polythene should be tightly sealed, could contain several paper packets of seeds and even a very small amount of moistened moss to keep the small amount of air in the bags slightly humid, for those seeds that should not dry out. Another method for shipping such seeds as acorns or chestnuts would be to dip them in paraffin. We have sent seeds treated this way successfully to Norwar , Italy and Palestine and they quickly germinated after planting. Each seed packet should be tightly sealed and clearly marked with the following information : 1. Scientific name of plant from which collected. Date collected. 3. Location where collected. 4. Any pertinent information about the plant if it varies from the species or if its name is unknown. The plant quarantine laws of the United States prohibit the entry of some seeds into this country. None can be sent in with moist pulp about them. In the northern part of the United States the more important woody plants the seeds of which are prohibited are Berberis species, Ribes nigrum, Bamboos and their It will be noted in the following to dry out in transit (List A). .i 1 ~] relatives. These as peat moss, quarantine laws approve only certain packing materials such sphagnum, excelsior, wood shavings, sawdust, ground cork, bucksame wheat hulls, expanded vermiculite and charcoal. Packing materials prohibited are soil, sand, leaves, forest litter, wood's moss, hay, straw, etc. -anything taken from direct contact with the soil. Seeds packed in such materials will be prohibited entry. Seeds collected in the United States for the Arnold Arboretum should be sent to : The Horticulturist Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University Jamaica Plain 30, Massachusetts, U.S.A. Seeds of woody plants collected in foreign countries and destined for recipients in the United States must be accompanied by a permit. The Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine of the U.S.D.A. issues such permits to individuals and institutions upon application. A number is given the applicant and this number appears on a standard green and yellow tag bearing the address of the quarantme station (Hoboken, N.J. ; Miami, Florida; Laredo, Texas; or San Francisco, California). This required tag is the only address appearing on the outside of the package other than the collector's name and address in the upper left hand corner. The Arnold Arboretum's permit number is 3 i-1738, and collectors in foreign countries should request these permits from the Arboretum in advance of seed collecting and for the port of entry most convenient. \"Seeds for Experimental Purposes only - no commercial value\" should be clearly written on the outside of the package from a foreign country. Inside the package should be the address of the Arboretum and a list of the seeds enclosed. These regulations are required by the \"I'lant Quarantine Act #3 i \" and should be followed to insure foreign seeds reaching their proper destination in the United States. A 10 per cent DDT dust might be mixed with the seeds to kill insects. The following three lists do not contain all those woody plants commonly grown from seed but they should serve as a guide to collectors to indicate how certain seeds should be handled and how rapidly they should be shipped. Special emphasis should be placed on list \"A\" as the \"perishable\" group. List \"B\" contains those which can be sown or stratified at once or dried and used later. List \"C\" contains those which can be kept in a dry condition, some of them for periods longer than one year. The procedure in shipping seeds of all woody plants should therefore be: 1. Clean all seeds thoroughly and at once, taking special precautions not to allow pulpy or wet seeds to \"heat\" before cleaning. 2. Prevent certain seeds from drying out-List \"A\"-by proper packaging. 3. Properly dry the remainder. 4. Fumigate or in other ways treat for insects or disease pests if necessary. .i. Label all seed packets completely. 6. Ship as soon as picked (and by air) those in L~st 7. Send the remainder of the shipment as soon as possible, keeping the seeds dry and away from contamination with insect and disease pests. A. Seeds that should not be allowed to dry out in shipping (These should be shipped immediately as soon as ripe. They should be sent great distances only by air and should be sown as soon as received. Special precautions should be taken in packaging these for shipment so that they will not dry out enroute, otherwise, they may be worthless on arrival at their destination. Some will remain viable only a few days (Salix); others a few weeks to six months (Cedrus). Acer Aesculus Alnus Amelanchier Davidia Diospyros Fagus Franklinia Halesia a Ostrya Populus Potentilla Quercus Rhus ~ Ampelopsis Aralia Asimina Juglans Liriodendron Lindera Salix Sassafras Carpinus Carya Castanea Cedrus Liquidambar Lycium Magnolia Mahonia Shepherdia Sophora Spiraea Staphylea Stewartia Cercidiphyllum Clerodendron Chamaecyparis lawsoniana Myrica Nandina Styrax Ulmus Zelkova stratified as soon the following spring be as Cryptomeria B. Seeds that Nyssa can be dried and sown or ripe or sown (These need Berberis Betula Buxus not necessarily be as shipped quickly by air, but can received from the collectors.) sown or stratified as soon I Cotoneaster . Crataegus Elaeagnus Exochorda Caragana Celastrus Celtis Chaenomeles Chionanthus Cladrastis Cornus Lonicera Malus Phellodendron Prunus ' Ginkgo Gleditsia Pyracantha Rhodotypos Robinia Taxus Viburnum Hippophae Ilex Juniperus Ligustrum C. Seeds that can be stored dry and sown within the year (These can be stored and shipped dry, and can be held dry on receipt from collectors. Naturally all seed should be shipped as soon as reasonably possible by the collector, but this group can be held the longest and does not deteriorate as rapidly in shipment as seeds in List \"A.\") Actinidia Akebia Ailanthus Albizzia Amorpha Aronia Atriplex Callicarpa Calvcanthus Caryopteris Catalpa Cercis Chamaecyparis Cupressus Cytisus Elaeagnus Deutzia Diervilla . .) ~] Euonymus Evodia Fraxinus Hibiscus Kalmia Koelreuteria Laburnum Morus Paulownia Rosa Philadelphus Physocarpus Picea Pinus Platanus Sciadopitys Sophora Sorbus Symphoricarpos Syringa Taxodium Lagerstroemia Larix Leucothoe Libocedrus Pseudotsuga Pyrus Rhododendron Ribes Robinia Thuja Tsuga Vaccinium Vitex Wisteria Metasequoia The Longevity of ornamental woody plant seeds has not been given exhaustive study. The United States Department of Agriculture reviewed the literature on this subject in its \"V~'oody Plant Seed Manual\" Misc. Pub. No. 654, issued June 1948, and for detailed information the reader is directed to this publication and its excellent bibliography. The longevity of seeds depends on the kind of seed, where and how it was grown and matured, the conditions under which it is stored, etc.-all variable factors. Poplar seeds lose their viability very fast and must be sown within a few weeks of ripening-willow seeds are viable even a shorter time. Experimentation has shown that many annual garden flower seeds are viable under normal conditions for 2-3 years and many 4-5 years. Many vegetable seeds are good up to 10 years (beets, cucumber, radish), many of the cereals from ?-13 years, and certain weed seeds like smartweed, moth mullein and evening primrose germinate after having been stored in inverted bottles in the soil fifty years. The recent classic example of Lotus seeds which have proved to be 100(1 years old and germinated is the extreme. Experiments in dormancy and the keeping qualities of seeds have shown that longevity usually increases with a drop in the temperature of the stored seeds, so that now it is generally believed that temperatures of 320-410 F are ideal for seed storage, especially when the moisture content of the seeds can be maintained uniformly. illany commercial nurseries have mechanical refrigeration equipment now which can be easily regulated and such equipment is proving almost a necessity in the storage of woody ornamental plant seeds. Suffice it to say that although some woody plant seeds can be satisfactorily stored for a year or two in open containers at room temperatures, by far the greater proportion can be kept longer if stored in air tight containers at temperatures between 3 ~-41 F. There are numerous problems connected with the breaking of the dormancy of the seeds of ornamental woody plants and accurate information on their longevity is meagre. Most of the following listed information has been taken from the \"V~'oodv Plant Seed D9anual\" but some has been inserted as a result of the longevity .).) experience with these seeds we have grown at the Arnold Arboretum. Here is recorded the approximate time during which woody plant seeds can be stored (not sown or stratified) on and still retain some viability. Naturally, the longer the cases. can storage period the less the viability The column in most the left indicates the time in years that seeds be stored normally (dry and at room temperatures) and still be viable. The column on the right indicates the time in years that the seeds can retain some viability when stored (not sown or stratified) in air tight containers at approximate temperatures of 3l-41 F. It should be pointed out that those plants in List \"A\" page ~4 do not appear here merely because it is a known fact that they must be sown quickly after they mature and before they dry out. This following list is most incomplete and if nothing else, it serves to point out the fact of what little we know about the longevity of these seeds and in some cases, how really short lived they appear to be. Longevity (All of Seed in those in list \"A\" page 54 have very short Storage longevity at room temperatures) Ordincary storage Sealed atorage .S~-l~1 F (i~a yvars) Abeha Abies alba balsamea concolor 1 (in yrarg) ~-4 1_~ I less than . c 11 5 \/ grandis procera Acer ginnala macrophyllum negundo pensylvanicum platanoides pseudoplatanus rubrum saccharinum saccharum 2i sow at once-can't be stored 1~ % 1 ~1-2 2-~ 1 1-~ l spicatum Actinidia Akebia Ailanthus altissima Albizzia julibrissin Alnus glutinosa Amelanchier Amorpha fruticosa Aronia 1~ 3 . 1-IJ 1 i 1 3-5 1 Atriplex sp. Baccharis 6-7 6 mos. Berberis Betula lenta lutea 1 1~ 1~ 1~ 1~ 1 l 1 5 J2 2 nigra papyrifera pendula populifolia Buddleia Buxus 2 2 Callicarpa Caragana arborescens Carya sp. Catalpa bignonioides speciosa Ceanothus americanus Celastrus Celtis laevigata occidentalis Cephalanthus occidentalis Cercis 3-,) 2 2 2 t+ 8 31 4 1 ' Cerocarpus montanus 5 Chaenomeles 2! 1 1 2 1 . Chamaecyparis Chionanthus virginicus Cladrastis Clematis Clethra Comptonia peregrina Cornus florida racemosa 2 2 1 2 2 2+ 1 Corylopsis Corylus americana avellana cornuta 2+ 1 2+ 1 1-2 1 Cotinus Cotoneaster Crataegus mollis 2+ 2+ 8-10 Cupressus Cyrilla Cytisus Davidia arizonica 1 3 3 1-2 1 Elaeagnus angustifolia commutata .51 Deutzia Diervilla I~pigaea repens 1 3 mos J~ Enkianthus I Euonymus atropurpurea europaeus verrucosus 2 2 2 1 1 2+ 2+ 2+ 1 1 Evodia Exochorda Fagus grandifolia sylvatica Fothergilla Fraxinus excelsior 2-3 1 3-6 nigra oregana 1 ~3 1 pennsylvanica americana 3 4 2 dipetala Gaultheria procumbens Gaylussacia Ginkgo Gleditsia baccata 1 2 2 Gymnocladus Hydrangea Hypericum Ilex dioicus ~-2 1-2 1 2 Hamamelis virginiana Hippophae rhamnoides 2 2+ 1-~ 4-5 4 Juglans cinerea Juniperus ashei pachypoda scopulorum Kalmia Koelreuteria paniculata Laburnum Larix decidua laricina sibirica 5 8~ 2+ 10 1 3-4 3-4+ 6 )+ 2 3 1-2 Leucothoe Libocedrus decurrens Ligustrum vulgare Liquidambar styraciflua Lonicera tatarica Maclura pomifera 0 1+ 2+ Malus pumila 2 3 ~21 2 1-2 Metasequoia Morus alba Myrica cerifera Paeonia suffruticosa 58 Parthenocissus Paulownia Phellodendron 1 R Z 1 2+ Philadelphus Physocarpus l'icea abies !0+(?) 5+ 5+ 10+ 5+ 10+ 1 engelmanni glauca mariana rubens Pieris Pinusattenuata banksiana caribaea contorta latifolia coulteri densiflora echinata flexilis 15 (on trees) 10+ 5+ 9 30 + (on trees) 4 1-4 7+ t+ 6 halepensis jefleeyi lambertiana monticola mugo 2+ 8 2 1-2 10+ 10+ muricata nigra palustris pinaster 20+ (on trees) 2+ 2+ 8-4 5-9 6 ponderosa pungens resinosa 9+ (on trees) 8-~ rigida strobus 10+ 2+ 8+ 18 sylvestris taeda 7-9 thunbergi virginiana !+ 5+ 1 Prinsepia Prunus americana a armeniaca avium l~ 1-2 1-~1 4 pensylvanica serotina t+ 2 1 4 ' virginiana Pseudotsuga macrocarya taxifolia I'telea trifoliata 10 0 1 44 t+ Pyracantha Pyrus communis 59 Quercus robur Rhamnus alnifolia davurica cathartica 3-4 8 2 6 2 mos Rhododendron Rhodotypos scandens Rhus glabra 8-~-? 9 mos typhina Ribes americanum cynosbati Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa Rosa blanda Rubus idaeus occidentalis . 7 3-4 3-5 when stratified 8-~ 8 10-~ 1-2 ~ 1-~ Q 2 . Sambucus canadensis pubens Sapindus drummondi 1~ Sequoia sempervirens Sequoiadendron giganteum Shepherdia argentea Sorbus americana 1 8-24 8~ 8 4 aucuparia 2 Symphoricarpos Syringa vulgaris albus 2~ 1-2 6 mos Taxodium distichum Taxus baccata mos ~ 4+ 6 Thuja occidentalis plicata Tilia americana cordata Tsuga canadensis 5 2 2 2-8 4-6 2-3 heterophylla Ulmus americana 2+ 4 2 2 pumila Vaccinium Viburnum acerifolium cassinoides 1-~- lentago opulus trilobum Vitex agnus-castus Vitis riparia Wisteria 2~ 2 ii+ 1 2 2 Zanthoxylum Zelkova americanum 2 2+ DONALD WYMAN 60"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New Methods in Plant Propagation","article_sequence":9,"start_page":61,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24260","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160856d.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lipp, Lewis","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University 3 VoLUrtE 13 SEPTEMBER 25, 1953 NEW METHODS IN PLANT PROPAGATION NUMBER 10 of horticultural varieties of ornamental trees and shrubs must for the reason that they do not develop true from seeds. However, they can be propagated by grafting or budding on seedling or clonal rootstocks, by stem or root cuttings and by soil or air layering. All of these procedures have the flavor of great antiquity. Grafting of trees of merit on seedling rootstocks was known in the Roman period while air layering was performed by the Chinese thousands of years ago. Moreover, far back in time horticulturists used distinct methods of encouraging root formation of cuttings. They often placed a sprouting seed in a cleft made at the base of the cutting thus providing the added hormone which stimulates root growth. Bottom heat for propagating beds was provided by filling a trench with fresh horse manure covered with soil. The decomposition of the manure provided the necessary heat. The Chinese kept their air layers moist by water dripping from an earthen vessel suspended above a split clay pot containing moss circling the branch. The modern propagator now has many new techniques which make productivity higher and his work easier. Synthetic hormones, such as indoleacetic and indolebutyric acid, stimulate root formation in cuttings and air layers. Generally, hormones are applied to the cut surface of the cutting either in liquid or powdered form. They are made up in various strengths, for what is practical for one species may be impractical for another. Each plant has a unique combination of characteristics, even in the relationship within the species, so that it is impractical to advocate the exact hormone one must use, for plants are complex and may differ from place to place. Bottom heat in cutting frames is now provided b~ electric heating cables that has a significant value for many cuttmgs. High humidity needed for softwood cuttings was formerly provided by glass enclosed cases and recently supplemented by automatic mist sprayers. Polyethylene film is now used to maintain high hu- THE majority vegetative propagation be by grown midity in cutting beds and in aerial layering. These achievements do not substitute for the skill and judgment of the propagator, but they do make his task easier and there is an incalculable saving in labor. This new polyethylene plastic film is one of the most useful materials in horticulture and enjoys immense popularity today. This plastic film is the same as that used in the packaging of home frozen foods and some fruits and vegetables. It can be obtained by the yard at large mail order and department stores. We are using it for air layering, stratification of seeds, shipping and storing plant material and for the new propagating unit. This new propagating unit developed by the writer has proved to be of great value to the amateur propagator and can be modified for professional needs. A deep greenhouse flat is filled with sand, vermiculite, or a mixture of sand, peat moss and \"Styrofoam.\" For cuttings which root easily, sharp sand or vermiculite will do. For more difficult material a mixture is made up of seventy percent peat, ten percent sharp clean sand and twenty percent \"Styrofoam.\" This styrene plastic comes finely shredded from a florist supply house. The hard or soft wood cuttings are treated with a hormone powder and set in the flat. The cuttings then should be watered well. Next a wire frame is made over the flat for a framework to support a damp cheesecloth covering. Over the cheesecloth is placed a sheet of the semi-transparent polyethylene film large enough to tuck under the sides, ends and bottom of the flat. This plastic has the unexpected quality of checking loss of water and yet permits the cuttings to \"breathe.\" The cheesecloth spreads the moisture evenly in the flat and adds a little shade for the cuttings. When completed, the propagation unit can be placed on a greenhouse bench or in a window of a dwelling. During the late spring and summer the unit can be placed under a tree or in the shade of a building. By using this method the unit does not need to be watered for weeks or even months if well sealed; in fact, more than one watering may even be harmful! If placed in a greenhouse or sunny window they should be shaded by a newspaper during hot sunny days of summer. It is incredible how \"domesticated\" the cuttings become, growing green and turgid in what seems a natural habitat. Once the cuttings are adequately rooted, care must be taken for they must not be subjecte~l to extreme changes in atmosphere. Remove framework of wires and cheesecloth, then replace the plastic film over the cuttings and during excessive hot days place a newspaper shade over the film to prevent burning of cuttings. Perhaps it was a coincidence, but we are highly pleased to find by leaving the plastic on for a considerable time, azaleas and rhododendrons will break dormancy earlier. This alone has been a disturbing factor for many nurserymen. When the cuttings are well hardened, they can be planted in a coldframe, lath house or nursery. The use of gives the essential insurance of air in the rooting mixture over a long period. These small particles of plastic help eliminate the problem of over-watering the cuttings. Cuttings may be left in the peat mix- \"Styrofoam\" PLATE XIII dbnae-YIcIntosh apple cuttings taken June 20. Fifty eight percent rooted (under polyethylene film) and the rest were heavily callused when the experiment was discontinued. Ce~ate~A propagation kit for amateurs, described on page 62. l3otto~rc-Grafting Rho. fortunei hybrid on rooted cutting of Rho. \"Cunningham's White\" takes only two months under polyethylene film from the time the cutting is inserted until the graft unit has knit. Seventy five percent of these grafts were successful. From left to right: Cutting of Rho. \"Cunningham's White.\" Top of rooted cutting removed and scion ready for insertion. Graft made using cut strips of polyethylene film to hold scion in place. Completed graft growing well. (i ~. PLATE XIII A dilute nutrient solution should be added prevent chlorosis, since corrections are exspecies, slow once the deficiency appears. Many propagators have had considceedingly erable experience with decay of soft wood cuttings due to fungus growth. A good rule to safeguard cuttings is to add a small amount of \"Fermate\" to the rooting powder. With this principle and worthwhile precaution, a never-ending list of difficult plants has been rooted by the writer. Over and above the scores of plants that have been rooted, apples, Betula pumila, Cotinus coggygria atropurpurea, Taxus baccata fructu-luteo, and Daphne altaica have also been grown from cuttings with this method. And along with this, we are receiving gratifying letters from amateur propagators who have also had remarkable results. Another method of using polyethylene film in the propagation of cuttings has been developed by Dale Sweet of Michigan State College. A handful of sphagnum or peat moss is placed on a small sheet or in a small bag of polyethylene film. The base of the cutting is placed in the moss and the plastic sheet pulled up around the cutting and closed with a rubber band. The plastic film was also used to cover flower pots to reduce water loss. The writer has grown house plants in plastic bags filled with soil. They need little watering and the plastic bags ture to develop into rugged plants. to this mixture for some to have many advantages over clay pots. With a comparatively small expense this propagating method can be adapted for larger units. A greenhouse bench is lined with vermiculite or finely granulated peat moss about an inch deep. The plastic film is placed on this bed and filled with a peat-sand-\"Styrofoam\" mixture. The plastic film is left long enough at one side of the bench so that it can be drawn over a wooden frame to make a tight tent over the bench. This film can also be used to replace the glass covers in the conventional propagating frames. One large nursery has used the polyethylene film to permit the propagation of cuttings in the field. The cutting beds which are about four feet wide are covered with a portable wire framework over which is spread a wide sheet of plastic film. The edges of the film are held down with strips of wood or brick to form a tightly closed tent over the cuttings. High humidity is maintained by an automatic mist sprayer. When shade is needed the propagating unit is covered with shade cloth. When the cuttings are well rooted the plastic tent is removed and the cuttings are left to grow in the field. Plastic propagating units are especially well adapted for summer propagation from soft wood cuttings. Add also the fact that cuttings can be taken earlier when using the tent method. It is necessary to take the cuttings at the proper season and in the conventional way. The time factor and methods of taking the cutting varies greatly with the different genera and often with the different species. For example, cuttings of roses are made in late Jt~ne, July or August with the young twig cut off at the base of the current season's growth. Rhododendrons are propagated from July to November, using a clean cut at the base stem GG and a heavy wound by cutting off some tissue immediately before treatment with hormone. Viburnums are cut from the middle of July on into September with the cut made below a node. Top quality rhododendrons, both in shape of plant and texture of flowers, have been successfully grafted onto freshly rooted cuttings all within a period of two months. Seventy five percent of these grafts have developed into sturdy plants with polyethylene solving this problem. Plastic bags are used for this grafting as well as for summer grafting in the field. Seeds of Malus, Crataegus, Cotoneaster, Prunus, Quercus and many maples must be stratified. Many seeds, for instance, those of Crataegus, have a pronounced dormancy that will require several weeks of high temperature before stratifying. At the Arboretum, we stratify by mixing the seed with damp peat moss in a plastic bag and storing in a refrigerator for several months. This semitransparent bag permits one to see easily if any seeds are germinating, since some seedlings at this stage are somewhat susceptible to damping off. Plastics have provided a substitute for the conventional lath house. \"Saran\" cloth, now used for window screens, provides a good shade, reduces wind and can be used to exclude insects. Forest tree seedlings under a \"Saran\" cloth house needed no artificial watering while adjacent nursery plots have had to be watered several times during the summer. The plastic is so light in weight that a light frame is sufficient. At the Case Estate in Weston the Arboretum has built a frame of 1~~~ iron pipe on 1 ~~ centers. The plastic cover is made up in 13 foot widths and rolled over the frame in early summer and removed in the fall. Small trees and shrubs are now planted during the summer months by using balled and burlaped plants and preventing excessive transpiration by spraying the leaves with a special wax or latex emulsion. The cost of maintaining these plants while on display during the summer or in storage during the winter can be reduced by covering the roots with a plastic bag closed around the base of the stem with a rubber band. These plants need little water and when water is needed, the plastic bag is opened at the top and water is poured into the bag. The use of polyethylene film in air layering has been described by Dr. Wyman, in an earlier issue of \"Arnoldia.\" Most nurserymen now use the plastic film in transporting scions, cuttings and bud wood. Some are using plastic bags to cover roots of nursery stock in transit. Plastic film is rapidly becoming one of the most useful materials in plant propagation. Lr.wts F. LrPu 67 - "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule","article_sequence":10,"start_page":69,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24264","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d170a728.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Williams, Robert G.; Fordham, Alfred J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 13 DECEMBER 25, 1953 NUMBERS 11-ll THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM SPRAY SCHEDULE New Spray Materials of the insecticidal properties of DDT and its use during World II initiated sweeping changes in our methods and materials used for controlling insects and diseases attacking plants. DDT (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) was soon followed with related hydrocarbons such as chlordane, BHC (benzene hexachloride) and its derivative lindane. The organic phosphates soon appeared in the form of TEPP (tetraethyl pyrophosphate), parathion and related compounds. The discovery and development of the miticides has aided our battle against the mites and red spiders. The carbamate compounds such as ferbam, a few of the mercury compounds, and the dinitro compounds have headed the parade of new fungicides used to control plant diseases. Often the numerous new materials have come into usage so fast that experts on spray materials have had difficulty in keeping abreast of developments. We still do not have any one all-purpose spray material. DDT is effective against most chewing insects and through its paralyzmg action against some crawling insects, but it does not work well against aphids, lacebugs and the mites. Benzene hexachloride (BHC) and lindane are effective against aphids, lacebugs, and some leaf mining insects. The organic phosphates are rather toxic to man, hence must be used with care. This is especially true with parathion. Anyone using this material should use at least a respirator with a cannister to filter out the organic phosphates ; a suitable gas mask and waterproof outer clothmg are preferred. Parathion is useful where it can be used safely, as it will kill a wide variety of insect pests. A new development, the material malathon, which is much more toxic to insects than to mammals, looks as though it would be a big help. Although it is effective against many of the insects that parathion controls, it is much safer for THE discovery W ar c~a man to use. So it is with the compounds for controlling plant diseases ; ferbam is useful are preventive spray for many fungus diseases, certain other diseases controlled best by some of the mercuric compounds. 'e now have over four as a from; some are multi-purposehile others all-purpose. A distinct advantage in using DDT, lindane, dieldrin, and some of the other new spray materials, is their residual action; however, this does not eliminate the need for the proper timing of spray applications. DDT, especially if the emulsifiable form is used, may be effective for a month to six weeks after application. Lindane not only has a residual effect, but also will kill some insects inside of tree leaves such as young birch leaf miners when they are in the leaves. One of the advantages of dieldrin is its .long residual action. Although this residual action helps us in some cases, we must still time our sprays correctly, not only to get the most benefit from the chemicals used, but also to be able to protect all of the plant, especially in the growing season when growth produces new, and unusually tender, areas for the plant pest to attack. It is especially important in disease control to protect these expanding surfaces since we still must rely mainly on preventing the entrance of the disease organism into the plant tissues to control plant diseases by spraying. For this reason, disease control spray applications must be repeated every week or two in the spring. The chemistry of these newer organic spray materials is rather complicated for the layman. It would be difficult for most of us to remember the chemical name serve thousand spray formulations to choose only one purpose: none are make up of these substances so the manufacturers and others concerned have adopted standard or generic names for many. In this manner the chemical : 1, 2, 3, 4, :i, fi, i , 8,8 octachloro -4, 7-methano -3a, 4, 7, 7a-tetrahydroindane has become chlordane; the gamma isomer of benzene hexachloride of at least 99l0 purity has become lindane. The names : parathion, ferbam, malathon, and many others have each come to mean a definite substance so that we may rely on them. A few of the first materials still keep their initial names as DDT, or TEPP. Any one of these substances may be available on the market in various forms and may be sold under brand names. For example, lindane is commonly available as a 25% lindane wettable powder or a 20% lindane emulsifiable concentrate. Anyone handling spray materials must remember that they are our ammunition, used in most cases, to kill the pests of our plants. Most of them are poisonous in one way or another. They must be handled with care to protect the user and the public; but, by choosing the correct compound and applying it properly, we can push forward the battle-line in our never-endmg war on injurious insects and plant diseases. I'arallel~ng this development of new materials, there has been the development of mist spraying where low volumes containing relatively high concentrations of spray material are carried to the plant by an air stream. This method of spraying has its limitations, but when feasible, it has given excellent results especially or 70 leaf eating insects, at greatly reduced operating costs. The problem of spray application with these new machines is important in that the right amount must be applied to the plant in the correct manner. With mist spray methods, the amount of material which is applied to a tree is set by the size of the mist particles, concentration used and the amount (i.e the length of time) the tree is sprayed. With the hydraulic spray formulae, the amount of material applied ~s governed by the spray concentration and the amount which will stay on the plant without running off. Inasmuch as any excess applied with a hydraulic sprayer will merely run off without harming the plant, this is probably the safer in control of spraying method. The Arnold Arboretum Spray Schedule woody plants growing in close proximity in the Arnold wonder that the problem of keeping all these plants free of pests is acute. In the old days, it seems, this was a fairly simple procedure, but now, with all the many insects and disease pests which abound, and with the hundreds of remedies offered by various commercial chemical producers to combat these pests, pest control here has become complicated indeed. Only a few years ago, we would merely spray for scale insects, cankerworms, the larch case bearer and the elm leaf beetle. Admittedly some of the collections may have been infested with disease or insect pests, but they did not seem serious at the time. This year, the grounds force had to spray on 24 different days, from April1 to September 29, and each time the spraying was necessary to control some pest or disease that was disfiguring some of the specimens here on the grounds. However, because of this extensive spray program, the plants in the Arboretum have been growing vigorously and the results of disease and insect With over 6000 kinds of no Arboretum, it is depredations Most of it are hard to find. spraying is considered to be on an experimental basis, since we find expedient to change our sprays from time to time as new and possibly better our become available. However, it was thought that readers of Arnoldia and others interested in the Arnold Arboretum would be interested in knowing exactly what we have used in our spray program this year. We offer it here, merely as a guide to those who are interested in similar problems, but with emphasis on the fact that these control methods are definitely not the only ones, nor are they possibly the \"best\" ones. Everyone familiar with pest control knows that there are frequently several effective controls for one pest, as well as many different kinds of chemicals which can be used, some basically the same but with different ones trade names. The Arnold Arboretum does not take any credit for the formulae here presented as pest controls, since the best recommendations are scanned from the various experimental stations (and modified, if we think necessary) to suit our particular conditions. Consequently our program should be considered as experi- 71 mental only, but, season it is only fair to add, it resulted in pest free plants during the growing of 1953. A few years ago, before the advent of DDT, all the spraying here was done with the old-fashioned hydraulic sprayer. Then, when newer materials became available and mist spraying appeared, we tried to do a major part of the spraying with a large mist blower, since it obviously cost less to operate such a machine, when two men do the work instead of five or six. However, more recently, we have come to the conclusion that there is a very definite place for both types of spraying, when complete coverage and pest control is the main need, for certain sprays can be more effectively applied by the mist blower, and others need to be applied by the hydraulic high pressure sprayer in order to give effective coverage. In order to make the following chart usable for individuals who may not have a mist blower, we have included a column for the equivalent spray to be used in the hydraulic sprayer. We have used all the mist sprays and most of the hydraulic sprays, but a few of these latter have been added untried, but taken from reliable sources. The dates of application vary some from year to year, even in the Arboretum. Insect and disease pests should be hit when they are most vulnerable, and no hard and fast dates can be given for this. It is always best to know exactly what the spray is expected to control, and find whether the pest is in the desired form before the spray is applied. Too often spraying is done about the home grounds merely because some one else has done it or it is \"about\" time the plants were attended to. To be truly effective, the application must be timed properly. ~2 M l1'.I Oi r-i I W a A w x U M d' W A, M S E C4 W O Ca G4 ~ 0 z x << Ca a 73] ~ ~ ~ I -t:~9 '~, ~1j '-~ Q 1 ~~ ....c.J ~o ~~ .~ ~~ ~ ~ ~ ~ .N ~ ~ x '\" H ~ w x \"I ! '\" :i N H N q 74 l~ w ~ -s ~ ~, ~~ ~ -~~,:\"'c.:J' 1~ ~ **< a 1 ~~ :~ ~..... ~~ 14) 1;~. ~i ~ ~ '\" ~ s '\" ! 1i ~ ~ :: t:! a~: rn ~ -N <~ tzt 76 77 PESTS FREQUENTLY DESTRUCTIVE IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Pest Host Spray Date Anthracnose Ash and Lilac Borer Platanus, Quercus Fraxinus, Syringa May 1-10; May May 1-10; May May 1-10; May Mar. 15-25 15-25 Bacterial Blight Syringa Fagus Betula Taxus 15-25 Beech Bark Louse Birch Leaf Miner Black Vine Weevil Boxwood Leaf Miner 1-Apr. ~0 May 15-25; July June 15-25 esp. B. microB. sempervirens 10-15 Buxus, phylla, May 15-~?5 Cankerworm Acer, Carya, Catalpa, Fraxinus, Juglans, Prunus, Quercus, Syringa, Tilia, Ulmus Rust May 15-25 Cedar-apple Malus, esp. M. soulardi, Mar. 1-Apr. Crataegus, Juniperus Ulmus 20 Elm Bark Beetle Elm Leaf Beetle Elm Leaf Miner Apr. 15-30 ; June 25-July May May 15-25 15-25 5 Ulmus Ulmus Euonymus Scale 3#& x C; <.C3x#& ; Celastrus, Dirca, Euonymus Pachistima and Mar. 1-Apr. 20 ; May 25-June. June 25-July 5 ; Aug. 15-25. Pachysandra European Pine Shoot Moth May 25-June 5 ; June 25-July 5 A ug. 1 5-~5 June Pinus, esp. P. mugo, P. nigra, P. resinosa, P. sylvestris z5-July 5 Apple tree Rosa, Sorbus, esp. R. rugosa, Malus, etc. Golden Oak Scale Quercus Flat-headed Borer Hawthorn Leaf Miner June 1-10 ; June Mar. 25-July 5 1-.Apr. 15-~?5 ~0 Crataegus Ilex, esp. I. opaca May Holly Leaf Miner May 15-25; June 1-10 20-25 Japanese Beetle Aesculus, Ampelopsis, July 10-15; July Hydrangea, Metasequoia Rosa, Sassafras, Tilia, Vitis ~8 Pest Host Spray Date 30 Juniper Scale Kalmia Leaf Juniperus Spot Kalmia Sept. 15-Oct. May 15-25 Lacebugs Amelanchier, Azalea, May 15-25 ; June 1-10 ; .i Crataegus, Cotoneaster, June ~5-July Kalmia, Pieris, Rhododendron, Sorbus Larix Robinia Larch Case Bearer Locust Borer Mar. 1-Apr. ~?0 May 1-10 types Mottled Willow Borer Salix, esp. shrub Sept. Mar. ~?5 Oyster Shell Scale Peach Tree Borer l'me Bark Celastrus, Fraxinus, Populus, Syringa, etc. Prunus persica ]-Apr. 20 July 10-15 ; July May 15-25 20-25 Aphid Pinus, esp. P. strobus San Jose Scale Chaenomeles, Malus, Prunus, Pyrus, etc. Chaenomeles, Picea, esp. P. Mar. 1-Apr. LO Mar. I-Apr. 20 DZar. 1-A pr. 20 May May 1-10 Scurfy Scale Spruce Gall Aphid Tent Malus abies, etc. P. pungens vars. Caterpillar Malus, Prunus, Pinus strobus White Pine Weevil Willow Leaf Beetle May 1-10; May 15-25 15-2~ Salix 79 GENERA FREQUENTLY PLAGUED WITH PESTS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Genus , Pest Spray Date Acer Aesculus Amelanchier Cankerworm May 15-?5 20-25 Japanese Beetle July 10-15 ; July June Lacebug Japanese Beetle Lacebug Birch Leaf Miner May 15-25; June 1-10; ~5-July 5 20-25 Ampelopsis Azaleas July 10-15 ; July June May I 5-~,5 ; June 1-10; ~5-Julv S 10-15 15-~5 15-25 15-25 Betula Buxus May 15-25 ; July May May May June Boxwood Leaf Miner Cankerworm Cankerworm Carya Catalpa Celastrus Euonymus Scale May 25-June 5 ; 25-July .5 ; Aug. 1-A pr. 20 15-25 Oyster Shell Scale Lacebug Cedar-apple Lacebug Euonymus Scale Euonymus Scale Beech Bark Louse Rust D9 ar. Chaenomeles Cotoneaster Scurfy and Jan Jose Scale Mar. I-Apr. June Mar. 20 5 20 ~5-July 1-Apr. 15-25 Crataegus Hawthorn Leaf Miner May D~ar. June 1-10; June ?5-July 5 Dirca 1-Apr. 20 ; May 23-June5; June 25-July 5; Aug. 15-25 Mar. 1-Apr.`?0; May ~?5-JuneS ; June 25-July.5; Aug. 15-25 Euonymus Fagus Fraxinus 4 Mar. 1-Apr. 20 Mar. Oyster Shell Scale Ash and Lilac Borer 1-A pr. 15-25 20 May 1-10; May May July 10-15 ; July 15-25 Cankerworm Hydrangea Ilex Japanese Beetle Miner 20-25 1-10 Holly Leaf May 15-25; June Juglans Cankerworm May 80 15-25 55 Genus Pest Spray Rust Mar. Date 20 Juniperus \" Cedar-apple Kalmia Leaf 1--April 15-25 Juniper Scale Sept. 15-Oct. 30 Kalmia Spot and May Lacebug C3x#& ; Lacebug Larch Case Bearer June 1-10; June Mar. 25-July 5 Larix 1-A pr. I-Apr. 1-10 20 Malus C3x#& ; San Jose and Scurfy Scale, Cedar apple Rust Tent Mar. 20 Caterpillar Apple tree May C3x#& ; Flat-headed Borer June 1-10; June 25-July 20-25 5 Metasequoia Pachistima Japanese Beetle Euonymus Scale Euonymus Scale July 10-15 ; July May 25-June 5 ; June 25-July 5 ; Aug. 15-25 Pachysandra Picea, esp. P. abies P.pungens May 25-June 5 ; June 25-July j ; Aug. 15-25 Mar. 1-Apr. 20 . Spruce Gall Aphid Lacebug White Pine V6'eev~l White Pine V6'eev~l, Pine Bark Aphid and Pieris May 15-25; June 1-10; June 5 25-July May May 1-10 15-25 Pinus strobus Pinus, Pinus, esp. P. strobus esp. P. mugo, P. nigra, P. resinosa, 1'. svlvestris European Moth Pine Shoot June 25-Julc' S Platanus Anthracnose May 1-10; May Mar. 15-25 Populus 1'runus Oyster Shell Scale San Jose Scale Tent 1-Apr. 1-10 15-25 20 Mar. 1-Apr. LO Caterpillar May May Mar. Cankerworm Peach tree Borer San Jose Scale Prunus persica Pyrus July 10-15; July l -A pr. 20 20-25 81 Genus Pest Spray bl ar. Date 20 15-25 Quercus Golden Oak Scale Anthracnose Cankerworm 1-A pr. 15-25 May 1-10; May May Rhododendron Robinia Lacebug Locust Borer Flat-headed Borer May 15-25 ; June 1-10; June 5 z.5-July May 1-10 Rosa, esp. R. rugosa Apple tree June 1-10; June 25-July 20-25 5 Japanese Beetle Willow Leaf Beetle July 10-15 ; July May Sept. 15--~5 25 Salix Salix, esp. shrub types Mottled Willow Borer Sassafras Sorbus Japanese Beetle Flat-headed Apple tree Borer and Lacebug July 10-15; July June 1-10; June 20-25 25-July 5 Syringa Oyster Shell Scale Ash and Lilac Borer and Bacterial Blight Ash and Lilac Borer, Bacterial Blight and Cankerworm Black Vine Weevil Cankerworm Mar. 1-Apr. 20 May 1-10; May May 15-25 15-25 4 Taxus June 15-25 Tilia May Apr. 15-25 20-25 Japanese Beetle Elm Bark Beetle July 10-15 ; July 15-80 15-25 Ulmus < Cankerworm, Elm Leaf May Beetle and Elm Leaf Miner Elm Bark Beetle June 25-July 5 Vitis Japanese Beetle July 10-15 ; July 20-25 \" _8l_ A FEW DEFINITIONS Aramite: emulsifiable concentrate a miticide containing 25~0 aramite in a form which will mix with water. Used to control red spider or mites on ornamental plants. ?5'o - Blood Albumen: An emulsifier used more especially with dormant oil to make it mix easily with water. DDT: . A chlorinated hydrocarbon (dichlorodiphenyl trichloroethane) It is both a stomach and a contact insecticide, helpful in controlling many chewing insects including elm bark beetles, cankerworms, gypsy moth and Japanese beetles. As it kills many predators, a build-up of mite population and to some extent aphids and some scale insect populations may follow its use. 25% DDT Concentrate: A liquid, containing one fourth of its weight ulated so it will form an emulsion in water. as DDT, form- 50 ~o DDT Wettable Powder: A dry powder, containing so one half its weight water. as DDT, form- ulated Dieldrin: it will make a suspension in A chlorinated hydrocarbon wireworms, other soil insects and insecticide. Useful for control of some ants. As a foliage spray it will kill young miners in their mines. DN or Dinitro: Compounds derivatives of phenol and cresol. As a dorwill kill aphid eggs, some scales such as euonymus, scurfy and oyster shell. Also it will kill some overwintering fungi at dormant spray strength. are mant spray it DN-Slurry: A watery mixture of the above dinitro compounds principally : sodium dinitro ortho-cresolate); and Krenite (19% sodium dinitro-ortho-cresol). Will discolor painted Elgetol (19~o surfaces or stone. can Fungicide: contact the A material which will kill a fungus, especially when it fungus outside the plant tissues. The chemical compound containing the two stomach poisons lead and arsenic. A poison for chewing insects such as bagArsenate of Lead: worms, cankerworms, and many beetles. It has been to a great extent superseded by the newer insecticides, especially DDT. Lead Arsenate: or 83 Lime Sulfur: A combination of lime and sulfur used as a contact insecticide and fungicide, available as a liquid or in a dry (powdered) form. As a dormant spray it will control San Jose, pine needle and other scales as well as many aphids. Will discolor painted surfaces. A purified form containing at least 99~0 of the gamma isomer of benzene hexachloride (BHC). Useful to control some aphids, leaf miners, lacebugs and some soil insects. A compound especially adapted to the control of mites and red spiders. Three of these newer compounds are \"Aramite,\" \"Di-mite\" and \"Ovotran.\" An organic phosphate insecticide, very toxic to insects but also very toxic to humans unless used with proper precautions. Carefully used, it will control aphids, mites, mealy bugs, some scale, nematodes, and some chewing insects. A mercuric fungicide used to control, and often help eradicate, fungi. For anthracnose of sycamore and oak. Puratized Agricultural Spray is quite similar but is used at about twice the amount as the Apple Spray. - Lindane: Miticide: Parathion: Puratized Apple Spray: Sulfur, Dusting: A very finely ground form of this elemental chemical used primarily as a fungicide to control powdery mildews, rusts, and leaf spots. It will also help keep down mite populations. Do not apply in very hot weather as ~t may injure any plant under these conditions. Sticker: A material added to the spray to make it adhere to the leaf surfaces. Calcium caseinate, wheat flour or powdered skim milk are examples. ROBERT G. WILLIAMS ALFRED J. FORDHAM - 84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XIII","article_sequence":11,"start_page":85,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24258","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d1608128.jpg","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XIII Illustrations are in bold face type Aegopodium podograria, \" I I 18 19 I Euonymus fortunei kewensis, .` *3#& x C; <3#& x C; 1 `L , . Akebia quinata, i Among the Best Common \" \" \" minima, .. , 11 Vines, Ground Covers, 7 Ampelopsis brevipedunculata, Aramite, 83 I Arctostaphylos uva-ursi, 11 Arsenate of Lead, 83 Automatic Mist Sprayer, 66 Evergreen Ground Covers, i Exhibit of Pruning at 1953 Boston Spring Flower Show, 21i Experiments in Dormancy, 55 Fermate, 66 Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf,\" For the 2 ll Azalea amoena, 32 \" Bloom, Two Months of, 29 \" ,, Order of Bloom, 29 Blood Albumen, 83 Record, 37 Fruits of ornamental woody plant genera, seeds of which should be Campsis tagliabuana \"D~adame Galen,\" 7 Carbon bisulfide gas, 50 Case Estates of Arnold Arboretum, 19 cleaned before shipping, Plate IX, 48 Fruits of ornamental woody plant genera, seeds of which should not be allowed to dry out prior to sow- ing, Plate X, 49 i Cleaning Seeds, 47 Clematis montana rubens, Fruits of ornamental 8 Clematis montana rubens, Plate \" texensis, 8 \" I, 3 genera requiring no fore shipping, Plate woody plant cleaning be- XI, 53 vitalba, 8 Collecting Seeds of Woody Plants, 1 Cytisus purpureus,11 DDT, 52 \" Fungicide, Girdling Root, 41 23 Ground Cover Demonstration Plots, Plate IV, 13 3 Ground Cover for Different Purposes, 3 Concentrate, Wettable 83 83 83 \" Powder, Ground Cover for \" \" 5 Dry Soil, j Dieldrin, 5 \" Shade, ~ Diervilla lonicera, 1 I DN or Dinitro, 83 \" \" less than 6 inches high, 5 DN-Slurry, 83 Doorenbos, Mr. S. G. A., 26 Dormancy, 42 Estimated Blooming Dates of Major Displays in Arnold Arboretum, 40 Euonymus fortunei colorata, 8 Ground Covers, Twenty-three of the Best for Massachusetts Gardens, 2 Ground Covers which increase rapid5 ly, ~ Hedera helix baltica, Hybrid Azaleas, 29 10 o 8.i o Hydrangea petiolaris,10 I 6 Hydrangea petiolaris, Plate II, Iberis sempervirens 12 2 2 Hypericum buckleyi, 12 \"White Gem,\" Plastic Propagating Units, 66 Polyethylene Film, Another Method of Using in Propagation of Cut- tings, 67 66 Polyethylene Film incarnata in Air Layering, Indigofera \" _ alba, 14 12 2 kirilowi, \" Juniperus \" chinensis sargenti, 14 4 horizontalis, 67 in 14 \" plumosa, Holland, 14 4 25 14 Polyethylene film in plant propagation, Plate XIII, 65 Polyethylene film, three uses in plant propagation, Plate XII, 63 emulsion, Layering Plants Latex Polyethylene Plastic Film, Polygonum auberti, 10 62 Lead Arsenate, 83 Polygonum auberti, Plate III, 9 Leiophyllum buxifolium, 4 Leucothoe catesbaei, 14 Lime sulfur, 84 Lindane, 84 Longevity of Ornamental Woody Plant Seeds, 55 Longevity of Seed in Storage, 56 Lonicera henryi, 10 Low temperatures, 38 6 Lysimachia nummularia, 16 Mild Winter Temperatures, 37 Miticide, 84 New Propagating Unit, 62 New Spray Materials, 69 Order of Bloom of Azaleas, 29 6 Pachistima canbyi, 16 Pachistima canbyi, Plate V, 15 5 6 Pachysandra terminalis, 16 Packing Materials Prohibited, 52 Parathion, 84 Permit for Plant Introduction, 52 Pests Frequently Destructive in the Arnold Arboretum, Plant Propagation, New Methods, 61 1 Quarantine Laws, 51 Plants Damaged by Snow or Low Temperature, 39 Plants Frequently Plagued with Pests in the Arnold Arboretum, 80 \" Polythene Bags, 51 Potassium Permangenate, ,i 1 Procedure in Shipping Seeds, 52 Pruning, Exhibit of, at 1953 Boston Spring Flower Show, 2] Pruning Ornamental Shrubs and Trees,21 Pruning, What to Prune, 21 When to Prune, 21 Puratized Apple Spray, 84 i Rainfall, 37 Rhododendron albrechti, 30 arborescens, 35 \" \" Rhododendron arborescens, Plate VII, 35 \" \" 6 Rhododendron atlanticum, 34 \" calendulaceum, canadense, 32 gandavense, 34 35 \" \" japonicum, 35 kosterianum, 35 mucronatum, 30 30 \" \" \" \" mucronulatum, nudiflorum, 35 obtusum, 32 \" \" \" \" \" amoenum, 32 arnoldianum \" .` Hinode- 32 \" 86 giri,\" \" ~), 3? \" c Spray Schedule of Arnold Arboretum, kaempferi, 32 32 73-77 \" roseum, 35 \" schlippenbachi, vaseyi, 34 viscosum, 35 \" .` \" yedoense poukhanense Stratifying Seeds in Plastic, Sticker, 84 Styrofoam, 62-66 Sulfur Dusting, 84 Synthetic Hormones, 61J 67 i 34 Rhododendron yedoense the \"Yodogawa\" Azalea, Plate VIII, 33 8 Teucrium chamaedrys, 18 The Arnold Arboretum Spray Sched- canadensis, 32 6 Rhus aromatica, 16 6 Rosa wichuraiana, 16 Rotenone Dust, 50 Saran Cloth, 67 Seed Collection Rhodora Vines ule, 73-77 Climbing by means of Tendrils or Twining Leaflets, 4 Vines, Clinging, 4 Vines for Colorful Fruits, 4 Different Purposes, 4 \" \" Dates-Chronologi- Flowers, 4 cally, 42x&# 3E; Seeds that can be stored dry and sown within the year, 54 Seeds that can be sown or stratified as soon as Ground Covers, Vines, Hardiness Note, 7 \" \" 5 Some of the Best and Ground Covers for Massachusetts Gardens, 1 - ripe, 54 Seeds that should not be allowed to shipping, .54 Woody Plants, 41 Shipping seeds, 50, 51 Shrub Rejuvenation, 23 Shrubs withstanding snow and 24 hours, 39 Snow, 38 out in dry Vines, Twining, 4 Vines Withstanding Dry Soil tions, Vines 4 Condi- Seeds of ice for Withstanding Shade, 4 Waring Blender, 48 Weevils, :i0 Wisteria floribunda macrobotrys, - . 10 o \"3#& x C; I rosea, I Some of the Best Vines and Ground Covers for Massachusctts Gardens, 1 Sources for Vines and Ground 2 Covers, Plant Seed Manual, 41 Xanthorhiza simplicissima, 18 Xanthorhiza simplicissima, Plate i VI, 17 Woody I 87 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23475","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ea76e.jpg","title":"1953-13","volume":13,"issue_number":null,"year":1953,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forty-Five of the Best Trees for Massachusetts Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24248","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25e816d.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 MARCH 7, 1952 NUMBER I FORTY-FIVE OF THE BEST TREES FOR MASSACHUSETTS GARDENS* has long been a horticultural center where many new first introduced into cultivation. In colonial times this was true of fruit varieties, a little bit later it was true of many rare greenhouse plants, and since the beginning of the twentieth century it has been true of trees and shrubs suitable for enriching the ornamental plantings about the home. Now, there are hundreds of trees being grown in the state, so many that it is frequently most confusing to the home owner to select a few for his own garden. This list of 45 of the \"best\" trees for Massachusetts gardens is prepared in the hope of stimulating gardeners into becoming acquainted with some of the more unusual trees that are now commercially available. One fact should be kept in mind however, before taking the following list at its face value. There are many trees commonly grown in Massachusetts, some native and some exotic, that will always be serviceable. New trees may be glowmgly described in the catalogues, but these common favorites have served reliably for many years and probably will continue to do so for many more. These are among the trees that every gardener should know and use for one reason or another. Nothing is meant to be implied in the following discussion of the 45 selected types that would cast a shadow of doubt on the serviceability of these, a few of which are listed on pages 19 and 20. MASSACHUSETTS plants were * This list was prepared at the request of the Horticultural Committee of the Garden Club Federation of Massachusetts, five of the trees to be discussed at each of the nine meetings of the horticultural chairmen throughout the year. Because of wide-spread interest in this list it is here produced for the benefit of ARNOLDIA subscribers, and is a companion list to that published in ARNOLDIA for March 11, 1951, describing forty-five of the best shrubs for Massachusetts gardens. It is not perfect, and many may take exception to it. However, it does include forty-five top-notch trees that can be used more in our gardens today. Most important, all are available in 195? from local nurseries! Keeping these trees very clearly in mind, let us consider some that are not as easily found, either in gardens or commercial nurseries. It is especially important to note that each plant in the following list is available from at least one of the listed nurserymen. It was impossible to contact all the nurserymen in the state so there are undoubtedly many other sources for these plants than those listed. Since they are available, your local nurseryman can obtain them for you if he will. It is useless to become enthusiastic about a plant that is unobtainable. Each one of these is available in 1952. Consequently, the gardeners of the state are urged to become acquainted with some of these better trees, buy a few that are hardy (for all are not completely hardy in all parts of the state) for planting in order to become better acquainted with them, and in this way increase the beauty and interest of the plantings about their homes. Forty-five of the Best Trees for Massachusetts Gardens Abies homolepis 1,4.,6,9,10 koreana 4 Acer circinatum 5,10 Malus - - \"Dorothea\" 5,8 hupehensis 4,5,6, 7,8,9 purpurea aldenhamensis - I 6,7 - griseum 5,6 - lemoinei 3,5,6,8,10 - - - palmatum atropurpureum 1-10 platanoides columnare 1,5,6,7,8 8 \"Crimson King\" 1,~,3,4, 7 ,8 - toringoides 6 Oxydendrum arboreum 1-8,10 - - rubrum columnare 1,~?,4,6,7,8,9,10 Albizzia julibrissin rosea .i,6,10 Amelanchier laevis 4,5,8 Cedrus libani 4,5,6,7 7 - Parrotia persica 5 Phellodendron amurense 4,5,6 Picea asperata 4,6 omorika 4,5,6,9 Pinus bungeana 5,6 Cercidiphyllum japonicum 2,5,6,7,8,9 Cercis canadensis alba 5,6 - thunbergi 2,4,6,7,8 Prunus avium plena 6 - serrulata \"Amanogawa\" 5,7,8 Evodia danielli 5,6 \"Fugenzo\" 7 \"Kwanzan\" 1,2, 7 ,8,9 Gleditsia triacanthos \"Moraine\" 1-4,6-9 Pseudolarix amabilis 5 Halesia monticola 4,5,6,7,8,10 Ilex pedunculosa 5,10 7 Sciadopitys verticillata 3,5,7 Elaeagnus angustifolia `?,4,6,7,8,10 - - - Kalopanax pictus 6,8 Koelreuteria paniculata 1,4,5,6 Larix leptolepis 4,7,8 Magnolia denudata 6 virginiana 5,6,7,8,9,10 Sophora japonica 1,4,5,6,7,8,10 Stewartia koreana 5 Syringa amurensis japonica 1,3-7,9 Thuja plicata 4,6,10 Sources for Trees Listed 1. 2. 3. Adams Nursery, Inc., Westfield, Mass. Bay State Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury, Mass. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Kelsey, Inc., East Boxford, Mass. Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Maryland Henry Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, 227 Centre Ave., Abington, Weston Nurseries, Inc., Weston, Mass. ~Vy man's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Mass. Tingle Nurseries, Pittsville, Maryland Harlan P. ' Mass. Forty-five of the Best Trees for Massachusetts Gardens as hardy in Zones ~~, 3 and 4 are hardy throughMassachusetts ; those hardy in Zone.i can be safely grown only in the southern, eastern, and southeastern parts of the state. Hardiness note: Trees listed out most of Abies homolepis 90~ Zone 4 Nikko Fir One of the best firs for ornamental planting. Easily distinguished from other firs because of the horizontal decurrent lines along the one year twigs. Dark green, vigorous-an excellent conifer for use in any landscape where it can be given plenty of room to grow naturally. Like all other firs, this Japanese native is stiffly pyramidal in outline with definitely horizontal branches. Abies koreana 50~ Zone .5 Korean Fir ture This tree grows very well but few trees in this country have reached their maheight. It grows more slowly than some of the others and might be the only one considered for small gardens because of this fact. It is stiff and formal but the whitish undersurface of the needles shows to good advantage. A native of Korea and introduced into America in 1918 by the Arnold Arboretum, it too, is stiflly pyramidal in habit. Acer circinatum ~?5~ Zone .i Vine Maple of the Pacific Coast adapted for use in gardens because of its small, compact size and its ability to grow in partially shaded situations especially under evergreens. It is somewhat similar in habit to .4. palmatum except that its stems twist and turn in a most interesting manner, thus giving rise to its name. The wood is very tough - the Indians, according to legend, used the wood to make fish hooks. A native maple Acer griseum Very difficult 25' to Zone 5 Paperbark Maple a propagate in quantity because only very small proportion of the seed develops. Otherwise, it could easily be one of the most popular maples. The bark is cmnamon-brown and exfoliates in paper-thin strips similar to that of certain birches. This bark characteristic is easily noticeable from some distance 3 away, this tree of outstanding interest throughout the entire year. It is hoped that a reliable method can be found for propagating this plant on a large scale for it certainly merits wide use and has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum for fifty years. making Acer palmatum atropurpureum 20~ Zone 5 Bloodleaf Japanese llaple of the best forms of the Japanese Maple. Frequently these forms are not asexually propagated but grown from seed, a very poor practice. The true Bloodleaf Japanese Maple keeps its good red foliage color throughout the entire growing season and is fairly hardy in Massachusetts. It is well worth trying to obtain the true form, since so many of the substitutes either will not keep the foliage color or are mjured by winter cold. This is one Acer platanoides columnare 90~ Zone 3 Columnar Norway Maple This columnar variety of the commonly planted Norway Maple, has all the good traits of the latter and in addition a very narrow habit. Trees 20-30 feet in height may be less than ten feet in diameter of branch spread. For tall, narrow accent points on the small property or for trees along narrow streets, this city dweller is excellent. Acer platanoides \"Crimson King\" a 90~ Zone 3 seedling of Acer platanoides sch~eedleri, originating at Orleans, France, Company. It was first introduced into America by the Gulf Stream Nurseries, ~'achapreague, Virginia, in 199.8, and has been patented (No. i 35) by this company. This tree is far superior to the Schwedler Maple, in that it keeps its rich purplish red foliage color throughout the entire growing season. Up to the time this clone became available, the Schwedler Maple had proved popular for its colored foliage; but, as many know, this color, while a pronounced red in the early spring, gradually turns greenish in the summer. During the four growing seasons that \"Crimson King\" has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum, it has kept its color uniform throughout the entire period of growth, from spring to fall. Consequently, it is an excellent shade tree in situations where its colored foliage is thought desirable. This is in the nurseries of Barbier and Acer rubrum columnare Like the Red is not Dlaple as narrow as Maple foliage and texture, but densely upright in habit. It the Columnar Norway Maple but is a fast growing type. in rosea 60~ Zone 3 Columnar Red Albizzia julibrissin 36' 5 Zone Silk Tree This tree of exceedingly dainty foliage and flowers is now threatened in the South with a serious wilt disease which kills the tree. This fungus occurs in the soil and infests the tree through the roots. Jlany clones are being tried and some 4 PLATE I The Umbrella Pine, evergreen Sciadopitys verticatlata, makes an excellent dense, pyramidal specimen. have been found to be very resistant to the disease. Fortunately it may not affect trees grown in the northern states at all. The hardy variety rosea is probably like the species in that it is difficult to get established at first. Since vegetative growth is made late in the season it can be killed somewhat during very cold winters. Although it can be grown on many soils, the Arnold Arboretum has found that it does well on poor, dry, gravelly soils and so has an important use. Being a legume, the seed is borne in small flat pods. The flowers are conspicuous, not because of petals (which are insignificant) but because of inch long pink colored stamens, borne in ball-like clusters. The plant has the very desirable trait of opening its flowers consecutively throughout the summer months. The plants growing in Boston start to bloom about July1 ~th and are continuously in bloom until early September -a long flowering period which cannot be matched by any other northern ornamental tree. The leaves fall at the first frost without changing color. A splendid ornamental tree, very much worth experimenting with in the North (hardy variety only) until just the right soil and winter protection are found so that it will live over the first few winters and become a sizeable plant. The tree blooms early in life, sometimes when the seedlings are only two to three years old. Propagation is easily accomplished by 3 inch root cuttings made in very early spring using roots that areinch or more in diameter. Smaller roots do not root nearly as well. Amelanchier laevis 86~ Zone 4 Allegany Serviceberry A small native tree, delightfully prominent in the very early spring when its profuse white flowers appear before the leaves. The orange to scarlet autumn color brings it into prominence a second time in the year, and its light gray bark is especially distinctive. Admittedly a native, this tree has several qualities (other than its short-lasting flowers) suggesting that it should be used more in naturalized plantings. Cedrus libani 1 ?0~ Zone 5 was Cedar of Lebanon until the Arnold Arboretum highest altitudes where these trees were native that plants could be perfectly hardy in the northeastern United States. Mature trees are very wide at the base, but trees of ;30-40 years of age have about the same dimensions as Abies concolor, although they are not nearly as dense. The dark green foliage, stiff habit, picturesque and rigidly upright cones, some of which are usually on the tree since they take two years to mature, give this tree a popular interest. Frequent reference is made to it in the Bible and Solomon's Temple was supposed to have been built with its massive timbers. It does not produce much shade and certainly is very formal m sent Widely grown throughout the South, it a special expedition to Asia Minor in not 1903 to collect seed at the [6 0: A U L r yO .c ~ Q) o Fn U C ro .~ a x a a Q) ,.., a .. x W ,~ E. o ~ .2 8 Oa. '\" ~ ~ ~ Ii: a 0 TS ~ 0 '\"' N x 0 0. ai u 0 H < Q) x E~ habit, is the but apparently has great popular appeal nevertheless. This hardy only form of true cedar reliably hardy in Massachusetts. strain Cercidiphyllum japonicum 60-100' Zone 4 Katsura Tree A wide spreading tree with foliage very much like that of Cercis canadensis usually growing with several main stems or trunks. The flowers are insignificant, but the small dry fruit capsules on the pistillate trees-the sexes are separateremain on the tree most of the winter. The rounded leaves are nearly 4 inches long. Valued as a shade tree because of its wide-spreading habit but also valued because of the rather loose foliage which allows for a great amount of air circulation. An excellent specimen tree of particular value for its graceful leaves which remain unattacked by any insect pest throughout the entire season. Normally wide-spreading in habit, it has been used as a substitute for Lombardy Poplar (see Plate VI) when grown with a single trunk. Cercis canadensis alba 86~ Zone 4 Eastern Redbud A common sight in the eastern United States, especially in the woods of Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Virginia when it blooms early in the spring is the Redbud. It is often planted with the Flowering Dogwood, blooming at the same time. The white flowered variety is almost as hardy as the species, and certainly . worthy of wider use. Eleagnus angustifolia ~?0~ Zone 2 Russian Olive The flowers and fruits of this plant are none too conspicuous, but the gray is outstanding and the plant can be used for this one feature. Hardy and vigorous, it grows easily in many kinds of soils and its unique crooked trunk can easily be of interest in its own right for it is covered with a brown shredding bark which is of considerable interest throughout the winter. foliage Evodia danielli 25~ Zone .5 Korean Evodia The Korean Evodia is fast becoming of interest because of its late summer flowers, at a time when few woody plants are in bloom. The flower clusters, nearly 6 inches across are made up of many small whitish flowers quite similar to the flowers of Viburnum lentago. This might be considered a \"new\" tree for the small garden, especially where late summer bloom and early fall fruits (red) are desirable. As a street tree it will not prove satisfactory for its wood is comparatively weak and splits easily, and apparently is a short-lived tree ( 15-40 years). Gleditsia triacanthos \"Moraine\" 100~ Zone 4 Moraine Honey-locust The thornless variety of the Honey-locust has been widely recommended as a substitute for the American Elm because it can be grown in so many situations. The long twisted pods of the species are interesting for they remain on the tree PLATE III Kalopanax pictus is an excellent foliage tree, but as yet very gardens. Its fruits, in the late fall, are most attractive to birds. rare in American long they under certain conditions can be troublesome since subject to borers as is the true Locust (Robinia), has no particularly interesting flowers nor autumn color. The new variety \"Moraine,\" developed and patented by the Siebenthaler Nursery Company of Dayton, Ohio, is thornless and is said to be sterile, hence no fruit pods are developed. This observation is based on the original tree which is over fifteen years old and 16 inches in diameter. after the leaves fall, yet must be raked off. It is not Halesia monticola 90' Zone .i Mountain Silverbell With larger flowers than the Carolina Silverbell this species and its pinkflowered variety are planted more because they are more easily seen when in bloom. The pendant flowers, appear all along the twigs of the previous year's growth before the leaves appear making a well grown tree a unique and beautiful sight when in bloom. At other times of the year, the tree is not meritorious but it has no serious insect or disease pests, an important point to consider where annual maintenance and careful supervision will not be given. Because of its loose foliage, and comparatively small flowers, it might best be used where it can be closely observed, or else planted with an evergreen background of white pine or hemlock. Ilex pedunculosa 30' Zone 5 Longstalk Holly This is one of the hardiest of evergreen hollies, and should be better known especially in northern gardens. The fruits are often as large as those of I. aquifolium. Kalopanax pictus ' 90' Zone 4 This tree should be grown much more than it is. Typically a tall, rounded tree, its large maple-like leaves give it somewhat a tropical appearance, and a deep rich soil with plenty of moisture seems to be much the best for good growth. Some of the younger branches and vigorous shoots have sharp prickles, but most of these disappear at maturity. The small balls of flowers appearing in the late summer are unique, and the small black fruits are quickly eaten by birds. Possibly the reason it is not grown more is because of the fact that the seeds take two years to germinate and there are very few fruiting trees in this country, even though it has been growing here for almost a century. A good shade tree devoid of insect and disease pests it should be planted more widely. Koelreuteria paniculata 30' Zone 5 Golden-rain Tree This and the Laburnum are the only trees with truly yellow blossoms that can be grown in the Arnold Arboretum. It is quickly and easily grown from seed and Its large, upright and pyramidal, conspicuous flower clusters in early summer, followed by its equally conspicuous fruits, make it prominent throughout the summer period when most other trees have few if any flowers or colored fruits. It is 10 being used a great deal in the Ohio Valley, even as a street tree. Because of its weak wood, this might be none too advisable. It has no autumn color and unless desired specifically for its summer bloom, other trees might be used instead which would have its longer life of ornamental usefulness. This much must be said behalf, however, it does seem to grow well in a wide range of soils. a in Larix leptolepis rJOr Zone 4 Japanese Larch This is the best ornamental among the larches and seems to grow faster than some of the other species. However, it is not immune to the various troubles which plague most of the larch species, but it is less susceptible to canker disease than are the European and American Larch. Magnolia denudata 45' Zone 5 Yulan Magnolia Many people have learned to know this excellent tree under another name, M. conspicun, now superseded by the name denudata. It has been cultivated in the gardens of central China since the earliest times -a splendid tree with larger pure white conspicuous flowers in early May and should not be crowded by other plants but given plenty of room in which to develop. This means it should be allowed a ground space of about 30'. Magnolia virginiana fi0r Zone 5 Sweet Bay The very fragrant, waxy white flowers appearing in June and early summer, the gray bark and good foliage with leaves white on the undersurface, make this an attractive native species. In the deep South this plant is a tree and nearly evergreen, but ~n New England it is much more shrubby and deciduous. It can be grown well m wet soils, although it does not require such situations to grow an excellent native plant. well - Malus \"Dorothea\" 25r 4 Zone This seedling was first noted in bloom when it was 5 feet high. The foliage resembles the Parkman Crab Apple somewhat, while the fruit resembles that of :Vl. arnoldiana. It is one of the very few semi-double flowered crab apples which also bear fruit, and particularly beautiful yellow fruit,2 inch in diameter. Another very important characteristic is the fact that it bears double, slightly pinkish flowers annually, something which unfortunately cannot be claimed by all crab apples. Also it blooms early in life, young plants grafted one year frequently bloom the next. Malus hupehensis 14r Zone 4 Tea Crab Apple The Tea Crab Apple is the most picturesque of all crab apples because it is vase shaped in habit with long-reaching single branches growing from the trunk and spreading out like the ribs of a fan. In bud and flower, it is beautiful and its 1 11 PLATE IV Top: The flowers of the Silverbell, Halesia mo~aticola. Bottom: Flowers of the oriental cherry \"Fugenzo\" one of the few which can be planted in the warmer parts of Massachusetts. marked habit is clearly evident every season of the year. The white flowers are produced on small spurs or short branches up and down the entire length of the long straight branches ; the red fruits are small and not especially colorful. Malus purpurea aldenhamensis 25~ Zone 4 Aldenham Purple Crab Apple Purple Crab Apple because of a large number of petals (5-8), hence a longer period effective in flower. It frequently bears a few flowers a second and even a third time. to Superior the Malus purpurea lemoinei 25' Zone 4 Lemoine Purple Crab Apple Lemoine's Crab Apple has the darkest red flowers of any of the Malus species. It is decidedly ornamental, and is prominent anywhere. It is far superior to M. purpurea or 'VI. ~umila nieds~etskyana because of the darker colored flowers and also because they do not fade nearly as much. Malus toringoides 15~ Zone 5 Cutleaf Crab Apple One of the last crab apples to bloom (late May) and one of the best in fruit-the pear-shaped fruits being colored red and yellow remain on the plant in splendid condition until after the first hard freeze. E. H. Wilson used to consider this the best of all species in fruit, but because its flowers are pure white it must be admitted that there are several superior to it for colorful flowers. Oxydendrum arboreum can 75~ Zone 4 Sorrel Tree or Sourwood This is one of the superior ornamental trees especially while it is young and be kept clothed with branches from top to bottom and grown in a situation where it is exposed to full sunshine. Its leaves are similar in size and shape to those of Mountain-laurel; they are lustrous and effective throughout the growing season. The late summer flowers, brilliant scarlet autumn color and graceful pyramidal habit give this tree additional interest every season of the year. Parrotia persica An excellent tree for trous. 50~ Zone 5 it Persian Parrotia foliage, usually grows with several trunks from the more base and has leaves somewhat similar to those of the Witchhazel but lus- flowers, appearing before the leaves, are insignificant, but the interesting bark flakes off in patches leaving a colorful trunk like that of the Stewartias or Pinus bungeana giving it special interest in winter. Also the branches tend to be more or less horizontal and covered with leaves all in one plane. When allowed to grow with branches to the ground, older specimens can become very graceful indeed. This tree is not apparently infested with any serious insect or disease pest and might well be grown considerably more than it is. 13 The PLATE V Top: The southern Sourwood, Oxydendrum arboreum, has flowers in late Bottom: The Japanese Snowbell, Styrax japonica, blooms in early June. summer. Phellodendron amurense 45' Zone 3 Amur Cork Tree There has been some misunderstanding about the Phellodendron species, because C. S. Sargent states back in 1905 that P. sachalinense was best under cultivation. This statement has since been copied by many authors. The fact of the matter is that of the five species growing in the Arnold Arboretum P. amureu.se has been outstanding and C. S. Sargent has noted this in some of his writing in 1924. The other species are similar but P. amurense has the large branches of picturesque habit and corky bark which is of interest all winter. Like other species in this genus the sexes are separate and only pistillate plants will bear the numerous clusters of black berries. The autumn color is only of passing interest since the leaves quickly drop once they have turned yellow. It is a vigorous growing tree and easily and quickly grown from seed (seedlings are continually sprouting up all over the Arnold Arboretum-more so than any other plant) and the roots are fibrous, making it easy to transplant. This wide-spreading tree produces only light shade and is of little interest in flower, but of particular interest in winter' because of the massive branches and interesting bark. Picea asperata 7~~ Zone :i Dragon Spruce Somewhat similar to the Norway Spruce in general appearance while young, this tree is finding a place for itself in seaside planting where it does better than most spruces. The needles of this species remain on the tree approximately seven years, the main reason why the foliage is so dense. Picea omorika 90~ Zone 4 Serbian Spruce One of the best spruces for landscape planting. It has done very well indeed in the Arnold Arboretum since it was first introduced there seventy years ago. Its dense habit, and very beautiful glossy green needles, which show much of their whitish under-surfaces as they move in the wind, make it decidedly beautiful the entire year. Some of the trees have pendant branch lets which add materially to its beauty. The Serbian Spruce can be termed almost columnar in habit, for old plants in the Arnold Arboretum 60 feet tall have a branch spread of no more than l.i feet at the base. If only one spruce is to be chosen for a planting this should certainly be considered first. Pinus bungeana ( 3~ Zone 4 Lace-bark Pine a A rather slow growing, dark green foliage tree, with excellent possibilities as specimen plant because of its habit of growth and interesting bark. Very young plants will show the characteristic for exfoliating bark when the branches are only an inch in diameter. Also, this tree has the most desirable trait of holding its needles about five years, longer than most pines. Consequently this excellent specimen pine should be planted considerably more than it is. Its picturesque habit of growth with several major trunks, is also one of its desirable traits. [15 PLATE VI Syringa amurensis japonica, blooms in mid-June. Bottom: The Katsura tree, Cercidiphyllum japmaicum, when grown with a single trunk can be very columnar in habit (three trees on left). Grown with several trunks (two trees on right) it is very wide-spreading and rounded. Top: The Japanese Tree Lilac, Pinus thunbergi 90~ Zone 4 Japanese Black Pme The best pine, possibly the best evergreen, for planting along the seashore in the northeastern United States, is this Japanese Black Pine. It has done very well on Nantucket and Martha's Vineyard where other plants have failed, for it withstands salt laden winds right off the ocean remarkably well. Double Flowered Mazzard Cherry nearly 75 years but it is still splendid not seen very often. Its beautiful double white flowers, nearly l~ inches in diameter, appear in early May and are not borne profusely but they do remain effective for a very long time nearly a week longer than those of the single flowered DZa~zard Cherry, which is of course widely planted for its fruits. All Mazzard cherries do best when grown in the full sun, for in the shade, only a very few flowers appear. Prunus avium plena 60' Zone 3 This tree has been in North America - Prunus serrulata \"Amanogawa\" is the 20~ Zone 5 only truly fastigiate oriental cherry worth growing. tall, flowers 14inches semi-double, light pink and fragrant. The varietal name means \"milky way\" an indication of its floriferous blooms. David Fairchild is credited with first introducing this from Japan in 1906. It is interesting to note that a very high percentage of the seedlings of this tree Usually not over 20 \"Amanogawa\" feet are identical with the mother plant in form and flowers. Prunus serrulata \"Fugenzo\" 20' t Zone 5 catalogues under the name of The Japanese name translated means \"James H. Veitch\" and also \"Kofugen.\" \"goddess of a white elephant. \" The flowers are as much as 2~ inches in diameter, rosy pink fading to a light pink, double with about 30 petals, blooming at about the same time as \"Kwanzan.\" It is rather wide-spreading in habit. Paul Russell in his excellent work on the \"Oriental Flowering Cherries\" notes that it was known to the Japanese 500 years ago and is still widely planted. It is often confused with \"Shiro-fugen\" but the flowers of this last variety fade. This popular variety is also found in nursery Prunus serrulata \"Kwanzan\" `?5~ Zone 4 This is probably the most popular and the most hardy of all the double flowered oriental cherries. The deep pink double flowers are 2~ inches in diameter and have 30 petals. They are borne on a fairly upright growing tree about 1 Z18 feet tall. The young foliage, as it first appears, is a bright reddish copper color, adding considerably to the colorful display of this tree in early spring. Probably the best display is at Washington, D.C., along the Tidal Basin where nearly 200 trees of this one variety alone are growmg. 17 Pseudolarix amabilis (kaempferi) 1 ~0~ Zone 5 Golden Larch The Golden Larch is one of the most beautiful exotic trees. Originally found by Robert Fortune growing in pots for ornament in China and eleven years later he found it growing naturally in a monastery garden. Unfortunately ~t has never become popular in America, possibly because it is not a tree for the small garden, since trees even up to 30 and 4.0 feet are almost as broad as they are tall! Also it is very likely that seed sources, especially in this country are very limited. Our trees have a good crop of seed only about every three or four years. On large estates or in parks, it can quickly become a beautiful specimen, interesting because of its beautiful foliage throughout the spring and summer. In the late summer, when the cones begin to mature, these too are interesting and in the fall its beautiful golden yellow autumn color is very outstanding even though it is of short duration. Sciadopitys verticillata 1 R0~ Zone 5 Umbrella Pine This very beautiful tree, easily grown and not susceptible to any serious disease, is valued for its dense habit and very dark evergreen foliage. Twenty to thirty of the needles are arranged in whorls about the twigs somewhat similar to the ribs of an umbrella, from which similarity it gets its common name. These needles remain on the tree 2-3 years before falling off, and one of its good points is that it keeps its lower branches for a long time and so makes a splendid lawn specimen. Although growing tall in Japan, it is rather slow growing in this country and plants fifty years old in the Arnold Arboretum are still only 25 feet high. It should have good soil and not be planted in hot, dry situations. Sophora japonica l.i~ Zone 4 Japanese Pagoda Tree This is a good shade tree with alternate compound leaves a dark green color. The common name comes from the fact that it is frequently used around Buddhist temples in the Orient. It is also considerably used there as a wide-spreading street tree, with several desirable quahties. It blossoms in late summer, with large pyramidal clusters of yellowish pea-like flowers that are most conspicuous. It is the last of the larger trees to bloom, and so is greatly desired as an ornamental. One excellent quality is its apparent ability to withstand city conditions. Old trees have much the same general rounded habit as the White Ash. The yellowish pods, following the flowers, frequently remain on the tree all winter. A desirable large tree, it should be used considerably more than it is. Stewartia koreana 43~ .i Zone Korean Stewartia Smaller growing than S. pseudo-camellia but with larger flowers and just as interesting winter bark, this Korean Stewartia is very difficult to find in gardens. The conspicuous early summer flowers that are pure white and 3 inches in diameter with golden centers, make it a useful small tree for bloom when few trees are 18 densely pyramidal. It is unfortunate that this excellent extremely difficult to find for it has been flourishing in the Arnold Arboretum where it is perfectly hardy, ever since 1917 when it was first introduced. The striking bark, irregularly flakes off in pieces, the older darker bark on the outside of the trunk breaking off to disclose the inner lighter colored bark beneath it, somewhat similar to the bark of the Sycamore or Pinu.r bungeana. in flower. The habit is specimen is Japanese Tree Lilac This Japanese Lilac can be grown as a tree with a single trunk and it is of special value because of the late bloom of the creamy white pyramidal flowers in mid-June. The shiny cherry-like bark is interesting in the winter, the large leaves and conspicuously vigorous habit is striking in the spring and summer, and the large creamy white pyramidal flower clusters, make it an outstanding plant, either as a specimen or in a group as screen or windbreak. The variety differs from the species in being more tree-like in habit, taller and slightly later to flower. It is susceptible to borers and scale infestations which must be kept under control if it is to be a well grown plant, sufficient reason for not using it as a street tree Syringa amurensis japonica 4 Zone 30r only native Japanese tree which Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada. Thuja plicata 180r where annual maintenance and close surveillance are necessities. This is the F. L. Skinner can grow in the severe climate of Zone 5 Giant Arbor-vitae This arbor-vitae is the best of the arbor-vitaes because its lustrous evergreen not turn brown in the winter as does the foliage of most of the T. occidentalis varieties. Commercial growers in the northeastern United States have learned that it is necessary to use seed collected from plants high in the mountains of Montana and Utah, for plants grown from seed collected on the Pacific Coast have not proved hardy in the East. The Giant Arbor-vitae is a splendid tree, large or small, and can be kept restrained at almost any height by proper foliage does clipping. Among the Best Common Trees Abies concolor l, 2, 8, 4, 5, 6, i, 8, 10 0 Acer ginnala `2, 4, 6, i , 9, 10 - 0 platanoides 1, 2, 3, 4, ~, 6, i , 8, 9, 10 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 SSCCharUm ~ , 2, 3, Amelanchier canadensis 1, 2, 4, 3, 6, 7, 8 Betula lenta 4, 6 - papyrifera I, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, ovata 9 Carya 6, Chamaecyparis obtusa 6, 7, 8, 10 0 10 Cladrastis lutea 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9 - 19 Cornus florida 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 kousa chinensis 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 - Crataegus crusgalli 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, - 8 10 oxyacantha pauli 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, phaenopyrum 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 o Fagus species and varieties 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 0 Ginkgo biloba 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10 0 Ilex opaca 5, 6, i, 8, 10 o virginiana 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 Juniperus Laburnum vossi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10 Liquidambar styraciflua 4, 5, 6, I , 8, 10 Liriodendron tulipifera 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Magnolia soulangeana 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 0 stellata 1, 2, 3, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 10 Malus arnoldiana 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 atrosanguinea 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 \"Eley\" 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 0 floribunda 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 - ' - - - \"Hopa\" 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, i, robusta zumi 8, 9, 10 - 3, 4, 5, 6, i, 8 - scheideckeri 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 , - 0 calocarpa 3, 4, 5, 6, 8, 10 8 Nyssa sylvatica 2, 4, Picea glauca 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 0 . \" - - Pinus resinosa 1, ~, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 strobus 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Pinus sylvestris 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 10 Prunus sargenti 2, 4, 6, 8 Pseudotsuga taxifolia 1, 2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9 0 Quercus alba 4, 6, 7, 10 borealis 2, 3, 4, 7, 8 coccinea 3, - 4, 7, 8, 9 - palustris 1, `?, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 ' 10 0 8 0 Sorbus aucuparia 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Styrax japonica 5, 6, - Tilia cordata 3, 4, 7, 8, 9, 10 platy phyllos pyramidalis 3, 7, Tsuga canadensis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 caroliniana 1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 Viburnum prunifolium 4, 6 - DONALD V~ yMAN 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nut Growing in the Northeastern States","article_sequence":2,"start_page":21,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24250","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25e896c.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"MacDaniels, L. H.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 MARCH 21, 1952 . , NUMBERS ~-4 * STATES NUT GROWING IN THE NORTHEASTERN Northeastern States have a rich heritage of native nut trees. Among the in the fields and woodlands are six hickories, the black walnut, the butternut, two species of filberts, the beechnut, and formerly the chestnut. At the present time, however, the species have not been developed in the horticultural sense and so do not form any commercial industry, nor have they been improved by selection and breeding in a way comparable to the Persian walnut or the pecan. The nuts that are grown commercially in America such as the Persian walnut, the pecan, the European filbert, and the almond have all originated either in foreign countries or in the region to the South and West where the climate is better suited for their growth. The planting of improved nut trees in the northeastern states is thus a comparatively recent development. To be sure nut trees have been given a sort of culture in that they have been left in the fence rows and in the fields that were cleared of other species, and seedling trees have been planted around the home grounds from which nuts have been harvested from time to time. Except with the chestnut it is only within the last quarter century that there has been any attempt to improve the nuts grown and to encourage nut culture in any real sense. Such improvements as have taken place have been the discovery of varieties that bear superior nuts and their propagation and testing. In the Northeast this process is still in the exploratory stage and there is yet much to learn as to the adaptation of the various kinds of nut trees to this region. As the work has progressed it has become evident that the successful production of improved nuts in the Northeast is largely dependent upon the discovery of varieties that are adapted to this region. Dlost of the varieties of nuts which have been selected, named and propagated havoriginated to the South and THE occurring species * formation would also Referring specifically to New England, New York and Pennsylvania. Of apply to other regions with similar climate. Z1 course the in- brought into the northeastern states have not produced good mostly because the climate is not warm enough and the growing season long enough for the normal development of the variety. It seems obvious that for the most part in this region nut culture must be developed from varieties which have originated in the North or in parts of other countries which have a similar climate. The search for varieties adapted to the North has been going on for West and when crops time and a considerable number have been named. The time is now ripe for more extended planting of nut trees to determine their adaptability to growth m northern locations. Planting nut trees for shade and as a hobby is to be greatly encouraged because not only are trees of assured hardiness and landscape value available but the grower by testing varieties is contributing to our knowlege of nut culture in the Northeast. some Climatic Factors with all other plants, the most important determining factor growth is the climate of the region where they are planted. Apparently the limiting factor with many species is winter cold, particularly the absolute low temperatures reached in any one season. Most nut species are long lived trees and although the mnters of several decades may not be injurious the occasional exceptional winter may entirely wipe out a given species or variety. This has occurred in parts of the North with the Persian walnut. Previous to 1933-34 there were a considerable number of these trees flourishing in the fruit belt of western New York State, many of which had grown to a bearing size. The unprecedented cold of that season killed most of the trees outright except in a very limited area where the temperature did not fall below -?0 F. This temperature is critical not only for most varieties of Persian walnuts but for many varieties of filberts, Chinese and Japanese chestnuts, heartnuts, and some black walnuts. There is little use in planting trees of these varieties if such temperatures are of frequent recurrences. The zones with temperatures above -20 F. over a 15 year period are shown in the accompanying map. (Plate VII) Another climatic factor that is of real importance in the growing of nut trees is the length of the growing season or the number of days between freezes. Practically no species will stand a hard freeze after the growth starts in the spring. These spring frosts rarely kill the trees outright but destroy the new shoots and with them the year's crop. At Ithaca, N.Y.,it is probable that this killing of the new growth on hickories and walnuts is responsible for crop failure more often than any one other factor. The leaves come out from other buds after the freeze and during the growing season the trees appear normal except for the fact that there is no crop. Most of our nut tree species require a growing season of at least 150 days between frosts although butternuts and filberts may require less. The length of the growing season for the various parts of the northeastern states is shown on the accompanying map. (Plate VIII) With nut trees, as in their survival and 11 <+::- ~ _y '\" o U s . <: rp o C~ `~' N en O U ~ro ' O ~ C U ..c '\"- :.::- Cd N\"F~ .... :, U ~s Y .... '\" y o ~ V~ G O rFv&Ex&:.!f # 3 ; #x3C; .~.O. U:5a b~~G7 ~ Cl - \" ..... O~ y w c~ G = ~ ~ :.= C., O 37 .C10) N \" '~' S'r ~f., .,. Q,) G '\" , r E aa ro , \" o~. c rw ow I y a~ z~.A ~ r. a - c .. .G 3C h a ~ ,. =~B '\" Q) '\" Q,) ~ ..c a~ ro o `\" ~as 0 ~ .~ .c c c 3 '\" o E~ . <: '\" == :, en ..... ~9a o en en '\" ...... o S .. \" ~~ .c x ,, o.... U ~.!: :g W^X .r u a U ~' ro \" C~ ...,J . Somewhat less damaging than late spring frosts are freezes which occur in early fall. Black walnuts are particularly likely to be damaged at this time. The nuts on the trees will not be hurt by light frosts but if the temperature goes to --~n ~o F. or below there is likelihood that not only will the leaves be frozen off the trees but the nuts themselves will be frozen so as to make them poorly flavored and useless. In many cases if the leaves are frozen from the trees the development of the nuts will stop and the nuts are poorly filled. Early fall freezes, if the drop in temperature is rapid and occurs before the growth on the trees has hardened, may cause serious damage to both trees and nuts. Associated with the same problem as the length of the growing season between frosts is the mean summer temperature sometimes expressed as total summer heat. Varieties of fruit trees, nuts included, require a certain amount of heat above a base temperature in order to develop well-filled nuts. Thus, even though the growing season may be sufficiently long, if the temperature during the growing season is too low, nuts will not mature. This is particularly important with those species that normally grow farther South such as the northern pecan from Illinois and many of the black walnut varieties. These trees may be perfectly hardy as far as winter low temperatures are concerned but they rarelymature a crop because of cool summers and the short growing season. Sometimes exceptionally warm seasons will mature nut varieties in a region where they usually fail to ripen. The same thing is also true of grapes and other fruits. Local variations in climate are often important in determining the suitability for growing nut tree species on a particular site. On the accompanying maps the climatic zones are indicated in a general way. ~Vithin these zones, however, there may be certain sites which are more favorable for the growth of nut trees than others. These sites are related to proximity to bodies of water, good air drainage, protection from winds or other favorable factors. An example of such a site has been observed at Aurora on Cayuga Lake, N. Y. Here on a certain bench cluse to the lake and surrounded by rather high banks, a number of species were growing for many years that were not adapted to the surrounding region. These included a California redwood, a number of Persian walnuts and a few northern pecans. These trees had grown to considerable size and had produced satisfactory crops but in the winter of 1933-34 the lake froze over for the first time in many years and the temperature on a single night dropped to an unprecedented low point. All of the trees except the pecans were either killed or badly damaged. Advantage should be taken of such locations wherever they occur. On the other hand exposed hillsides, frost pockets, and high elevations should be avoided. From the above discussion of climate and an examination of the maps, it becomes evident that parts of the Northeast differ greatly in their suitability for growing nut trees. In northern New England, particularly Maine, New Hampshire and Vermont, only a few of the most hardy kinds such as the butternut can be grown. In southern Pennsylvania, however, most species and varieties will . :!4 - CB w \" ~ a 0 'U \" ~ a w H a succeed. In between these areas conditions become increasingly less favorable from South to North, the suitability of any locality being influenced by local factors that effect temperature, air drainage, and the l~l,e. Species As before a and Varieties nut trees in the northeastern states of varieties and their adaptation. The greatest concentration of the more valuable native species, particularly the black walnut and the shagbark hickory, is in the Mississippi River basin, particularly the Middle West. Named sorts originating in these regions are probably not adapted to northern New York or New England and should be planted with the realization that it is an experimental project or else there should be assurance based on tests that the varieties will succeed. The probable solution of the problem is to obtain varieties that have originated locally or under similar climatic conditions and are of proven worth. BLACK WALNUT. The black walnut, although primarily a plant of the Mississippi River basin and the region of the Great Lakes, is hardy in most parts of the Northeast and one of the most valuable nut trees for the region. It is extensively planted around the farmsteads in southern New England and southward and has escaped along the fence rows and in waste places where it is not native. Most of the varieties which have been named and propagated originated to the West and South of New England and have not proved suitable here. At Ithaca, New York, the variety-\"Thomas\" has been one of the most successful but apparently this is about the limit of its northern range and even here there are seasons when the nuts do not mature. Other varieties extensively propagated such as \"Ohio\" and the \"Stabler,\" do not mature at Ithaca or farther North. Varieties of northern origin have as yet not been sufficiently tested to be sure of their behavior in New England. They are, however, the most promising for this region and are well worth a trial. Among these can be mentioned the \"Snyder\" from the Ithaca region, the \"Wiard\" and \"Allen\" from Michigan, the \"Huber\" and \"Cochrane\" from southern Minnesota and the \"Cresco\" from northern Iowa. These are being propagated sparingly by nurserymen and could be propagated to order if the grower so desires. Varieties successful in southern New England, central Yennsy-lvania and southward are the \"Thomas,\" \"Elmer Myers,\" \"Stambaugh\" and \"Sparrow.\" These are available from nurserymen. Those interested in nut culture should observe trees growing in the northern part of' the black walnut range and select those whrch produce the best nuts over a period of years. These can be propagated by nurserymen on order or grafted by the individual himself. It ~s only by such selection from trees that are successful that progress will be made in the varietal adaptation of nuts to a northern mdrcated, the problem of growing is largely matter environment. '~11 ~ \" E [ '\"0 e ~ 0 v ~ M ~ w H a a, A4 The vvrratwn m cracking quality and size ol' black walnuts is great. Some of the better sorts may have as high as ;i~~o kernel although 20~o kernel is good and most common seedlings have considerably less. Black walnuts are best adapted to deep, rich, slightly alkaline or neutral soils with good drainage. They are found growing naturally in alluvial soil in the river valleys. In the North such sites should be avoided if they are \"frost pockets.\" BUTTERNUT. The butternut extends the farthest North in its natural range of any of the important nut trees and in fact in northern New England is about the only nut which will succeed. Here it should receive much more attention than it has in the past. It has the disadvantage of being rather short-lived under some conditions. The cause of this in some cases rs a parasitic fungus but in others it is apparently related to the nature of the tree itself. Although the butternut will succeed fairly well on the poorer upland soils it thrives best on richer neutral soils with good drarnage. A dozen or more varieties have been selected but only a few have been propagated commercially. Some of the named sorts that are propagated by nurserymen, at least in small quantities, are the \"Kenworthy,\" \"Irvine,\" \"Love,\" \"Craxezy,\" Thill,\" and \"Craxezy Van der Poppen.\" For some unknown reason the butternut is not easily propagated. Named varieties certainly deserve much more attention than they now receive because of their very superior cracking quality as compared with the ordinary run of seedlings. PERSIAN WALNUT. Attempts have been made to grow the Persian or English walnut in the Northeast for many years with recurring damage from winter cold. Trees in the protected fruit region of New York became large enough to bear good crops until the extreme cold winter of 1933-34. At that time practically all Persian walnuts in the East were either killed outright or very severely damaged. Apparently the temperatures of -20 F. becomes critical for most trees of this species and quick drops in temperature in spring or fall may be injurious at higher temperatures. At the present time there is a very real interest in what is known as the Carpathian walnuts which have been introduced from Poland by Mr. Paul Crath of Toronto, Canada. These trees are grown from seeds or grafts from trees in the Mountains which have withstood temperatures as low as -40 F. Some of these trees have been growing in North America in both Canada and the United States for fifteen to twenty years and show promise of successful culture. Many seedling trees have now fruited and a few varieties have been named and propagated among them the \"Littlepage\" and the \"Metcalf.\" A recent contest discovered a number of other superior types that should soon be available. Trees are available mostly as seedlings in both the United States and Canada. It should be borne in mind that even though the Carpathian walnut is hardy there may be other climatic factors which are limiting in their culture, such as length of growing season or the amount of summer heat available. Indications are, however, Carpathian 28 \"'\" '\" > . .... v > <.i s OJ '\"0 cn a \"' a~ v 0.1 ,s \"'\" ~ 'a - '\" '-' U 0.1 > 1: c =:\"'\" \"'\" ...c:' x > '\" y > '\" \"' '\" o\"'\"kIS G o :~ ~r ~. ~ 0 .;S .~ 's ~ > .2 m :;..:<: ,:!: b~ \"'o-< .>. _~ s a ~ t:' : a \",'\"0 OJ -s ~ wx U '-' .... L. '\" '-' U ,.C rb S g :d ~l =: : : . ~c. : ~'\"O =: L, b '\" . . . ~ '\" U oa . 3 '\" <.i m c0.1 =: W .c ~ r a .~ ~n a~ .~ 0 that they are adapted to relatively short seasons and they have shown little killing back from winter cold. They have however been damaged by late spring frosts. JAPANESE WALNUT. The Japanese walnut (.l7rglans cordiformis crilanlifolin) makes rapid and lu~urious growth even in rather poor soils and is well adapted for use as a shade tree. It comes into bearing early and has a tropical appearance which is very pleasing. Seedling trees vary considerably in their hardiness but for the most part withstand winter cold in all except the most severe parts of the Northeast. At Ithaca, many have withstood temperatures of -35 F. without damage. On the other hand there are some seedlings which have been damaged at -20 F., and early fall freezes may be damaging at higher temperatures. The nuts of the Japanese walnut resemble the butternut in flavor of the kernel, but in general are not so highly flavored. Some types of this nut are fairly smooth whereas others are rough much l~l;e the butternut. It was thought that these rough nuts were hybrids with the butternut, but the fact that such rough nuts occur in Asia where there are no butternuts indicates that they are probably only a form. The name brrnrtrent is used for Japanese walnuts of therough shelled type. As yet there are no named varieties of this nut. HEARTNUT. The heartnut (.Iuglan.s corrlifo~-rnis) is a sport or mutation of the Japanese walnut resembling it closely in foliage and growth habit. The nuts h.me much better cracking quality, however, and with most of the named sorts kernels can be recovered in whole halves. The shells of some of them can be split apart with a knife inserted in the base of the nut. The nuts are smooth and attractive in appearance and although usually smaller, they are much superior to the ordinarj- forms of the Japanese walnut. There is Bariation in hardiness of the different named varieties and at the present time it is impossible to give a well substantiated opinion as to the adaptation of the named varieties to northern culture. The \"I,ancaster\" has not been hardy at Ithaca. Other sorts in the trade are the \"Bates,\" \"Faust,\"\"Ritchie,\" \" -alters, \" and \" Fodermaier. .. Anyone interested in planting this nut will do a real service by keeping- records of their performance and giving the information to experiment stations or the Northern Nut Growers' Association. HICKORY NUT. A number of species of hickory are native in the Northeast. Among these are the mockernut (Carya alba), the shagbark hickory (C. onato), the red hickory (C. oaalis), the pignut (C. glabra), the bitternut (C. cordiformis), and the shellbark hickory or kingnut (C. laciniosa). Of these the shagbark hickory is by far the most important. Mockernuts are gathered to some extent from the wild but are undesirable because of their thick shells. The pignut is usually not bitter but with few exceptions is of such poor cracking quality as to be of little value. The bitternut is intensely bitter, astringent, and quite inedible. Some of the hybrids with the shagbark hickory have been propagated because of their thin shells but are of poor cracking quality and flavor. The problem of growing hickory nuts in the Northeast is much the same as with the black walnut. Al- \" ' Stranger, ., 30 many sorts have been named a large part uf them hme their orrgm m the South and West, and when brought into the Northeast are not successful because of the short growing season and lack of heat. The Northeast must rely on varieties which have originated in the northern states. Among these may be mentioned though \" Davis,'. \" , hoY, ., \"Glover,\" \"Goheen,\" \" Rirtland, ,. \" ~lann, .. `.. ~liller,' \"Nielsen,\" \"'hitney,\" \"Beeman,\" \"Bridgewater,\" and\"~-ilcoY.\" Most of these were reported in some of the nursery catalogs in 1939 and many of them could be propagated on order. One factor standing in the way of increased planting is the difficulty of propagating the trees. Young hickory stocks have a very large tap root, making the trees difficult to handle in the nursery. This can be surmounted by cutting the tap root about 18 inches underground at least a year before transplanting, thus forcing lateral roots to form. V~'ell managed nurseries provide for this and such trees are much more likely to succeed than those transplanted from the wild. PECAN. The pecan so extensively grown in the cotton belt and extending in its natural range into parts of Indiana and Illinois, has not been successful in the Northeast. This is not because of tenderness to winter cold but rather to the relatively short, cool growing seasons which do not mature the nuts. There are a number of hybrid varieties which make good shade trees. Among these the \"Burlmgton\" is particularly attractive. It has been perfectly hardy at Ithaca, has good clean foliage and occasionally has matured a few nuts. Usually they have been frozen on the trees before maturing. Other hybrid sorts such as the \"Cxerurdi,\" the \"Des Dloines,\" and the \"l'leas\" have attractive foliage and make good shade trees. In favorable location5 in southern Pennsylvania some of the northern varieties of pecans occasionally mature crops of nuts. Anyone planting these should use varieties which are of northern origin. Among these are the (~reenriver,\" \"lla,jor,\" and the \"Posey-.\" CHESTNUT. In the past the chestnut has been by far the most valuable of the nut trees in the Northeast. The wild groves of this species have, however, been almost completely destroyed by the chestnut blight. This disease, coming into the New York area about 1.<a00 has now covered practically the entire native range of the chestnut in North America. Sprouts from old stumps may live from year to year, their usual history being that they grow until they are about two or three inches through and 10 to 15 feet high. At this stage the bark forms fissures through which infection occurs with the result that the sprouts are killed and are replaced with suckers from the base. Sometimes these sprouts become large enough to bear a few nuts and there are constant rumors that the chestnut m conllng back m the forests. This, however, does not seem to be the case as there are no recorded instances of real immunity among trees of the native a chestnut. There has been ment and some persistent attempt on state forestry departments to introduce the part of the federal governor develop other species ~l or . hybrid varieties of the chestnut which would be resistant or immune to the blight. In this some success has been achieved. The Chinese chestnut (('aslanecr mollissima) and the Japanese chestnut (C. crenata) although not immune to the blight are highly resistant. Hybridizing these with each other and with the native American species to obtain blight resistant types is underway. There are at the present time a number of varieties that are distinctly promising. Among these are \"Abundance,\" \"Carr,\" \"Hobson,\" and \"Yankee.'* These are available from nurserymen and are well worth a trial. Newer sorts developed by the L.S.D.A. are the \"Nanking,\" \"Meiling,\" and \"Kuling,\" are excellent for quality and are worth a trial. Some stock-scion incompatability has apwith Chinese chestnut varieties so that planting seedlings of good strains peared is being done. Many of the nuts are fully as sweet as the native chestnut, and considerably larger. The trees are not as hardy as the native chestnut and may be damaged by temperatures ranging around -20 F. There undoubtedly is great variation in hardiness in these varieties and they should be tested further. FILBERT. Two species of native filbert occur in the Northeast. One of these is the beaked filbert (Corylus cormcta) and the other the American filbert (C. amPricana). These, however, are relatively inferior as compared with the F:uropean species, C. auellaua and C. ma.rima, which together with their hybrids are the basis of the world's commercial industry. In New York tests have been made at the Geneva Experiment Station where a large number of varieties of European filberts have been grown. The limiting factor with most of these has been winter cold and late spring frosts. Temperatures of -?0 F. have seriously injured many of the European varieties and late frosts frequently destroy the staminate catkins or pollen producing flowers and thus prevent a crop. The variety recommendations G. L. Slate based on experience at Geneva, New York are as follows : \"Cosford\" and \"Medium Long\" are two of the hardiest varieties and with the exception of \"Italian Red\" are the most productive. Both are vigorous, upright trees. \"Cosford\" nuts are of medium size and thinnest shelled of all varieties tested. The nuts of \"Medium Long\" are slightly larger than those of \"Cosford'' and the shell is of medium thickness. The pellicle or fiber on the kernel is rather heavy. \"Italian Red\" has thus far produced more nuts than any other variety tested, but at the Geneva Experiment Station in recent years the tree has not been as hardy as it appeared earlier and the variety is placed third on the list. The tree is vigorous and upright. \"Barcelona\" in the earlier years of the test was the most productive variety, but recently the trees have experienced so much winter injury that the variety is recommended for limited trial only. The nuts are large, thick-shelled, and the kernels are covered with a heavy pellicle, but the tree is less vigorous than others, not productive, and is lacking in hardiness. \"Red Lambert\" is as hardy as \"Cosford\" and \"Medium Long\" and produces size and 31 .~ '5 s ~< ; s ?S .S a, 'e -g # U U r~J C :J x C C n5 \"~, cd N ~ n N b0 ~F ',~, w ., ... C~L.._C , s ~ 'a O~h a~ U~ x ._ .~ U x3#-6HCx&;2#& x ; ~ C N cd ^. J~ 'S C U D\" E'' a .x a ,, u 'C ~ os 0 &B ~x ~ o o ~3x&# 3E; a C# .. x ~. a . # m s M xec W ~S E\" .;, Ga \" fine large nut, but the tree is unfortunately very unproductive and of value pollenizer. Its spreading habit of growth makes it unsuitable for plantm a hedhre with other varieties, most of which are uf upright habit. ing More recently a promising development in the filbert situation is the hybrnnzation of American with European ~arieties. The varieties \"ItusU\" from l'ennsylvama and \"V'inl;ler\" from Iowa of the American species are the varieties must used. \"Rusir\" rsa tall growing shrub and has borne well at Ithaca. \"V'inl,ler\" is hardmr, more productive and bears larger nuts, but makes a low growing shrub. Of the hybrid varieties the \"Bixby'' and \"Buchanan'' are now regarded as being the most promising because of their size and other merit of the nuts and hardiness of plant. llany other seedlings are being tested and seem promising. only as a Cultural Practices It is not the purpose of this bulletin to give details as to the propagation of nut general the same principles are involved with this crop as with other fruit trees but the material is somewhat more difficult to manipulate and wholly efficient methods of budding or grafting have not been developed. It should be emphasized here, howeBer, that in common with other fruit species, grafted trees are very much superior to seedlings. Nut varieties might very well be compared to apple varieties in this regard. Anyone who is familiar with the small, hard natural apple fruit which is found m the pastures of New England and Lnows of its bitter, astringent flavor can appreciate the difference between these and the better named grafted varieties such as the \"Baldwin\" and \"McIntosh.\" The same diflerences exist with the nut trees also. 'I'he great majority of seedling nut trees have nuts that are so difficult to shell that there is little incentive to grow them. 'flre named and grafted varieties, however, may be said to be as superior to the ordinary run of seedlings as the grafted apples are superior to natural fruit. Better varieties of nut trees should bear nuts of good size which have a high proportion of good quality kernels which are easily shelled out. It is not difficult to imagine what a difference it would make if the many millions of wild trees bore nuts of as good quality as the selected and named sorts. Obtaining trees of desirable varieties may be something of a problem. llfany varieties are already in the trade and are being propagated by nut tree specialists. It is also possible to have particular varieties propagated to order. It must be realized, however, that nut trees are much more difficult to produce in the nursery than are apples or pears and in justice to himself, the nurseryman is compelled to charge more for the nut trees than for other fruit trees. For one really interested rn the growing of nut trees a good practice is to top work established stocks hy grafting. It is not too difficult to learn the technique and in many localities there are nurserymen and plantsmen v ho will make grafts as desired. To.grow seedling stocks it is necessary to stratify the seeds before planting. trees. In .'3~ This should be done m the early fall before the nuts have been allowed to become very dry. The process of stratification involves keeping the nuts at temperatures slightly above freezmg. Best results are obtained by keeping nuts buried in most peat moss at a constant temperature of about 35-t0 F. Such conditions may be found in cold storrr~re houses. For the grower, successful stratification can be attained by exposing the nuts to winter temperatures. 'I'his is done by burying the nuts in sand and leaving them in an exposed place which should be well drained. Protection with wire netting is necessary to keep rodents from destroying the seeds. If danger from theft by rodents is not likely and the soil is well drained, the seed nuts may be planted in the nursery row in the fall or they may be planted m their permanent location in the fall or the stratified nuts planted out in the spring. Those desiring only a few nut trees of named varieties may best purchase them from nurserymen who are specializing in nut tree propagation. There are a number of these in the Northeast and Middle West. A list of nurserymen can be obtained from the Northern Nut Growers' Association. If nut growing is to be carried on as a hobby and a considerable number of trees are to be involved, a good practice is to raise seedlings and get them established in their permanent location and then graft the most vigorous individual trees to well-chosen varieties. Scions may be obtained from trees locally or from nurserymen who furnish scions. Soils suitable for nut trees are the same as those required for almost any other fruit crop. The first requirement is that they shall be deep and well drained. 'I'hin topsoil overlying impervious subsoils which remain soggy will not grow good trees. Often rocky soils are very good because they usually are well drained un-' less the underlying rock is impervious. The most favorable soils are friable loams of good organic content and good moisture holding capacity. Fertility can be easily supplied to poor soils which are suitable in texture and drainage by the use of leguminous cover crops, and by application of barnyard manure or complete commercial fertilizers. It is a mistake to plant nut trees on heavy, wornout soils that are not good agricultural lands. On the other hand they may very well be planted in rocky lands incapable of cultivation provided other conditions are frm orable. The planting of nut trees does not differ essentially from planting trees of other kinds except possibly that most nut trees have few fibrous roots and hence must be planted with unusual care. Hickories are difficult to transplant because of the scarcity of lateral roots and the slow rate at which new roots are formed. If the taproot has not been cut a year previous to digging or the tree transplanted in the nursery row once or twice, there are likely to be practically no fibrous roots and the chances of survival of the tree are slight. If seedling trees are to br brought in from the woods, it is of great advantage to cut off' the taproot about 18 inches below the surface of the ground a year before transplanting and thus stimulate the formation of the lateral roots near the surface. 'rhere is an advan- ~J tage in buying trees from nurserymen skilled in the propagation of nut trees because attention is given by them to developing a good root system. While the trees are out of the ground, care should be taken not to allow the roots to become dry before planting. Keeping them covered with wet burlap or puddling them in a moist clay is highly important. Some trees can be bought balled and burlapped but this is expensive and should be unnecessary. The hole should be dug large enough so that all of the roots can be accommodated readily and the topsoil should be worked in carefully around them. One of the most important practices is to firm the soil about the roots with a tamping stick of some sort. At the time of planting the soil should be moist but not wet enough to puddle or cake when firmed with the tamper. After planting, the trees should be well watered and weeds kept down about the trees either by cultivation or by mulching. This is particularly important until the trees become well established. At the time of planting the tops of practically all nut trees should be cut back to about one-third or one-half of the wood present ~n the nursery, making sure that at least several good buds remain. This is important because even with carefully dug trees a large proportion of the root system is destroyed or damaged in digging and the tup must be cut proportionally. After planting, if the season is dry, the trees should be watered during dry periods of at least the first season or longer if necessary until they become established. On soils that are low in organic matter a good practice is to work in granuLited peat moss with the soil about the roots. Care should be used that the peat is well soaked with water either before or after the planting, otherwise it will be of no benefit. Covering the trees with wax has been recommended by some authorities but under conditions of hot sun this practice has proved injurious and is not recommended. After the nut trees become established not much care is needed. Pruninr is of less importance than with most fruit trees. With walnuts and hickories it is sometimes necessary to correct faulty crotch structure and space the limbs about the trunk. The most common fault is the development of two leaders which are about the same size. If this occurs one should be removed or at least pruned severely to dwarf it with relation to the other. Hickories and walnuts should be so trained that central leaders, or modified central leaders will develop. For best yields filberts should be trained as standard trees without suckers at the base. In removing a sucker, the soil is dug away from the base of the tree exposing the base of the sucker where it joins the root and the sucker removed with a sharp saw, cutting close to the main root. Fertilizers Nut trees respond to fertilization and good soil management much as do other fruit trees although many wild trees apparently do well in competition with other vegetation. Outstanding growth or yield is usually associated with an unusually ~ (i favorable situation as to soil fertility, moisture supply or other soil conditions. It is a mistake to think that nut trees will survive under adverse conditions. Neglect, especially before the trees are well established, will often result in the loss of the trees. Nut trees do particularly well under cultivation which keeps weeds and other growth away from the soil over the roots. This, however, is rarely practical with nut trees in the fence row or around the home. The benefits of cultivation can be largely secured by mulching the area under the trees so that the weeds are kept under control. Any plant material such as old hay or straw or garden refuse is suitable for mulching purposes. On soils low in fertility nut trees will respond to applications of nitrogen. Either sodium nitrate or ammonium sulfate may be used, the former probably being preferable with the walnuts which are adapted to neutral or alkaline soils. Trees growing in sod may be fertilized at the rate of ~pound of ammonium sult:rte or sodium nitrate for each inch of the diameter of the trunk until they have attained a diameter of about ti inches when orbout ~ pound may be used for each mch in diameter up to the maximum of 15 to 20 pounds per tree. With large trees that are well established, much more fertilizer should be added. The above is of course only an approxim.rtion. The actual needs of the tree will depend upon the natural fertilityof the soil and other conditions. The trees should be observed carefully to avoid either excessive stimulation of growth, which would make the trees liable to winter injury, or the other extreme of an under-vegetative condition as indicated by yellow, sparse foliage and poor yields. In general trees suffer much more from the lack of fertility than from too much. If trees are to yield and adequately. There is some regular crops they must be fertilized evidence to show that some of the minor fertilizer elements, particularly zinc, are deficient in some of the soils of the Northeast. Zinc deficiency shows up as weak yellowish growth late in the season. The leaves are small with the edges curled upward. Application of zinc sulfate is usually an effective control. regularly Insect and Disease Troubles Insect and disease troubles are about as common for nut trees as for any other shade trees. The problem is complicated by the fact that most home owners can not have their trees sprayed. There are a number of caterpillars which destroy the foliage. Among them, most commonly encountered is the walnut caterpillar which appears about mid-summer and may seriously defoliate the trees one or more times m a single season. These may be controlled mth arsenate of lead. Where the trees are not sprayed it is often possible to destroy the worms by collecting them when they gather on the trunk in a mass to shed their skins. These caterpillars and others on hickories can often be destroyed before theyattam large size on small trees by picking off the leaves upon which they are feeding. They usually teeH m groups close together. Hickories and chestnuts sometimes [ ~r h.me the nuts destroyed by wee~ ils. The control here is to destroy all nuts which to the ground before the weevils emerge. This may be fairly easy if the trees are in the lawn but difficult if the ground is rough. The Persian walnut is attacked by the codling moth, which is similar to that which damages apples. Spraying with arsenate in mid-summer when the muths appear is an effective drop control. Diseases are usually not troublesome with nut trees although under some conditions they may be. There is a blight which sometimes attacks the filberts, appearing as dead and brown shoots. If affected parts are cut out promptly and burned, the trouble is usually easy to control. Some varieties of walnut, particularly the \"Thomas,\" become infected with a perennial canker. This is relatively less damaging on trees that are growing rapidly so that good cultural practice is a means of control. Of course the chestnut blight has been the most devastating disease of nut trees which has practically wiped out the chestnut ~n its natural range. Methods of controlling this disease in the American and European chestnuts have not been developed. Of the blight resistant Chinese and Japanese '%species, it is worthwhile to cut out blighted limbs as they occur and to cut away bark cankers on the trunk. The cut surfaces should be painted with some good antiseptic solution. Nut trees, particularly the hickories and walnuts ordmarily bear only in alter- nate years. This is a natural tendency which is to be observed also with other fruit trees. There is apparently little that can be done to control it although it may be lessened somewhat by an adequate fertilizer and soil management program. Thinning the nuts while still green should also be of help but is not practiced. What happens is that during the bearing year the crop is such a heavy drain on the food manufactured in the leaves or possibly other substances, that there is not enough for bud formation for the following year. Different varieties vary in this respect. The chestnut and the filbert do not alternate as seriously as the walnut and the hickory. Cross Pollination Most kinds of nuts require cross pollination. From a practical standpoint this that at least two varieties of each species which flower simultaneously should grow together. With kinds that are frequently planted this may offer no problem to the individual home owner as neighbors may have trees which will be a source of pollen. With the filbert and chestnut, however, two varieties should always be planted together. To a somewhat lesser degree this is the case with the Persian walnut and the hickories. The pollination requirements of black walnut are not well understood but it is highly probable that cross pollination is necessary for this species also. In small areas where several trees cannot be planted, a part of the tree may be top worked to another variety. The pollen of the walnut, filbert and hickory is wind borne and may be carried over a considermeans 38 able distance. It ~s impossible to state with accuracy how close together it is necessary for trees to be planted for cross-pollination. Anywhere within the radiw of 100 feet should be satisfactory. Harvesting Nuts Nuts should be allowed to become fully mature on the trees and preferably to fall naturally. Mild shaking is sometimes practiced to bring down the last of the crop but clubbing the branches is seldom justified. Nuts should be picked up as soon as they fall. This is particularly necessary with the Persian walnut which discolors if allowed to lie on the ground and with the black walnut, the husks of which may dismtegrate into a brown mass if not picked up within a few days after falling. Black walnuts should be shucked soon after harvesting to prevent discoloration of the kernels. Small quantities of black walnuts are beaten or tramped from the husks. With larger quantities the old fashioned corn sheller may be ad,justed to remove the husks satisfactorily. Black walnuts that are washed immediately after removing the husks will remain an attractive brown color instead of turning black. Nuts of all species should be allowed to dry after the husks are removed. Small quantities can be spread out on the floor of a well vent~lated shed or attic. With larger quantities some sort of racks with screen bottoms can be devised. The drying room must have a free circulation of air. One of the commonest difficulties experienced with nut trees in the North is that the kernels fail to fill. There are a number of causes which contribute to this condition. Probably the most frequent, particularly with the hickories and walnuts, is too short a growing season or too little summer heat. Under these conditions the leaves are frozen from the trees while the nuts are still immature and no further development of the kernels take place. The problem may be better understood when it is realized that in the development of most kinds of nuts, the growth of hull and shell to full size takes place early in the season. During the latter part of the season the kernels are developed from the carbohydrates which are manufactured by the leaves. It is thus obvious that any condition which cuts down the effectiveness or destroys the leaf surface will effect the filling of the nuts. This may be due to loss of leaves by insects or diseases or to interference with their effective function by drought or inadequate nitrate supply. Another condition is found in trees in an over-vegetative condition where the growing shoots use up the food materials which otherwise might go into the kernels. This is apt to be found with young rapidly growing trees or trees kept growrng with frequent irrigation. There is little that can be done to control the failure to fill except to grow varieties which are adapted to the locality as to length of growing season and prutecturg the leaf surface from pests and disease troubles. Supplying water at time of drouth and a good fertilizer program are also helpful. Summary In the forego~ng pages an attempt has been made 39 to outline the requirements for growing nut trees in the Northeastern states. There is nothing in the situation which should encourage anyone to try to establish commercial plantings in this area unless possibly with some of the newer chestnuts and some varieties of black walnuts. On the other hand it should be emphasized that there is real value in planting grafted trees throughout the Northeast both for shade trees and for the nuts which may be produced for home use. The fact that at the present time we do not know which varieties will succeed best over a period of years only adds to the interest of the problem. Enough is known to assure the growing of good shade trees and certainly in some measure improved nut crops will result. Nut kernels are a product that is without equal for food value and palatability, and producing a supply for home use merits the attention of' all who have land at their disposal. All home owners in the villages and on the farms may be encouraged to plant nut trees for shade with the realization that even though the large crops of superior nuts may not result, the testing of the varieties will be a real service in developing our knowledge of nut growing in the Northeast. It should also be emphasized that at the present time there are undoubtedly many superior varieties of nut trees that are adapted to growing in various localities but which have not been propagated and tested. They are standing as wild trees in the fields and along the fence rows on the farms or in dooryards. Trees which bear nuts of outstanding value and which bear crops fairly regularly should be brought to the attention of some agency which would be capable of judging the relative merit of the variety and seeing to it that the tree is propagated and tested further. The Northern Nut Growers' Association, J. C. McDaniel, secretary, Dept. Horticulture, University of Illinois, Urbana, Illinois, has been organized to do this sort of thing. Some of the state experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture are also equipped to test the merit of new varieties. Anyone knowing of superior trees will do a real service by calling them to the attention of one of these agencies. L. H. DlacUaniels Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture Cornell University ~U "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Flower Colors of One Hundred Hardy Azaleas","article_sequence":3,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24253","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160ab6e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 2 APRIL 18, 1952 NUMBER 5 THE FLOWER COLORS OF ONE HUNDRED HARDY AZALEAS THERE tuda~-; there are be of interest to note the color of one hundred of these. Our records are not complete cuncermng the flower colors of all the varieties we are growing, but each one in the follo~mng list has been grown in the Arboretum and its flower color has been compared with the color chart of the Royal Horticultural Society. It rs perfectly evident to anyone who has studied flowering plants that the color of the flowers varies from day to day, and possibly ev en from ear to year. It is impossible to record in words or numbers the exact colors m some of the varietres which may sport several beautiful colors in one fluwer. Rather, it has been the practice here to record the major color for any such lmt as is ofl'ered here, refr.vimnc from mmute descriptions such as that in our records for Azalea \"Yrmce Henri de Pay Bas,'' reading as follows: \"Flower: 2~~~ in diameter, G11~~1 on edge of upper petal with 9 at throat; other petals ?0~1 with white streak in center of outer tip.'' Instead, this r5 lrsted as merely ~0~1 (~,Teranium lake), this bemg the predominating color of the flwver. As previously noted in ARNOLDIA (Vul, 7 ; 41-,i?, 19~i~ the Royal Horticultural Colour Chart is still America's best means of properly identifying flower colors. The means by which colors and hues are recorded as numbers as well as names, has many advantages already discussed in the earlier issue of ARNOLDIA. ~~.rrious movements have been started in the United States to produce \"better\" color clrarts, but as yet, none have been published. Consequently, the follu~mng list is offered as a rough approximation of the coloring of these azaleas as they have bloomed in the Arnold Arboretum durmg the past years, measured by means of comparisons with the Royal Horticultural Colour Chart. literally hundreds of azaleas being grown in the United States are hardy only in the warmer parts of the country. However, a large number being grown in the Arnold Arboretum, and it might are many 41 Azalea Flower Colors (All albrechti flowers are single l3nd ~5 unless otherwise noted) Rose Size \" HCC fl ~l.s\/Z 1 6~0\/ G05\/~ 21\/3 630\/1 427 Bengal \"Alphonse Lavallee\" \"Anthony Koster\" \"Apricot\" \"Atlanta\" \"Aurore de \" `3'-~\" ~\"19\/2 \" - Porcelain Rose Chrome Yellow , Carmine 2\" Mallow Purple Rose Pink Royghern\" \"Beethov en\" ~L'~\" \" - - \"Bett~ \"Big Joe\" \"Bi,jou des Amateurs\" \"Bijou de Gandbru~~e\" (dbl) \"Bouquet de Flore\" \"Briarcliffe\" H\" 2014 L\" - 31\/1 6~L3\/2 1 630\/1 5~23 Orchid Purple Ne) ron Rose Mallow Purple Dawn Pink Mandarin Red Otil9 - 1',\" z\" - \"Bryon\" (double) calendulaceum croceum lk\" '-i\"white, - 17\/~ ~0\/2 (i25\/~ hose in hose Geranium Lake Spinel Pink White 2\" - \"Cardinalis\" \"Carmen\" \"Carmine\" \"Caroline Gable\" \"Charlemanne\" \"Cherokee\" \"Chinook\" 1~\" ~L~\" OL~ 8~' 2014 1~\" 23\/1 2\" 13\/1 - 604\/1 G25\/1 1 22\/1 G~3\/1 ('i~3 Straw Yellow Spinel Pink Crimson 11\/~ aud 607\/~ s20\/2 620 Neyron ltose ~Teyron Rose Marigold Orange, Maize Yellow 1~\" - Blood Red Porcelain Rose 2\" - \"Cleopatra\" \"Coccinea Speciosa\" \"Compte de Flandre\" \"Compte de Papadopoli\" \"Compte de Quincy\" \" 2z\" - 13 \"Consul Ceresole\" ~\" 2014 3\" 016\/1 1 ~l t605\/1 I 3z\"l9\/1 3\" 620 G23\/1 13\/1 21\/1 6Z0\/1 fi05\/~ fi~0\/1 fi~3 Neyron Rose Saturn Red Carmine Porcelain Rose Chrome Yellow Porcelain Rose \"Coquette\" cumberlandense Neyron Rose Fire Red Dawn Pink White \"Cymodoce\" \"Daviesi\" \"Dexter's Yruk\" \"Dr. Chas. Bauman' \"Early Dawn\" \"Elizabeth Gable\" \"Fanny\" ' lz\" I zs\" sls\/1 'E\" Gll6\/1 11\" 1-~~\" 1E\" 2~\" sz~ \"- 15\/1 5~3 White fi25\/Z 1 b\/2 zs\/~ Gzz 1 (il5\/ Spinel Pink Nasturtium Red Fuchsia Purple Camellia Rose Spinel Pink ~Z \"Fedora\" `.Flamboyant\" \"Flora\" \"Frere Orban\" \"Furst Camille Von I~ohan\" \"Gloria Mundi\" ,Vi~e Liu~! Z\" o3r3 ~\" H(,(' .ft I fiZ5\/ o3fi\/i, so~\/~, so3\/z Spinel Pink l3rick Red Maize Yellow Primrose Yellow 1,\" - 2~\" - fiis\/i fio.~\/a White Coral Pink Chrome Yellow White y\" fio.i\/l 24\" - \"Glory of Dawn\" :2\" - - \"Graf Von Meran\" \"Heureuse (double) Surprise\" til:3j1 - 3;\" ~\" \"Hortulanus Witte\" fi z ) \"Hugo Koster\" \"Ignaea Nova\" \"II Tasso\" (double) \"Irene Koster\" \"Iriquois\" \"Joh. S. Bach\" \"Josephine Klinger' \"I,a Lumiere\" 2;\" ~k\" 21\" Q\" 1~\" ,a,l\" 1~\" 1~\" 1\" ols\/3 ~W \/3 filti;3 - 13\/1 il5\/~ ti33\/~' ,iz7\/z s\/z ls\/~ vls\/3 ls\/~ ,i~3\/~ ls\/a ?8\/~ fi19 Saturn Ked Spinel Pink Neyron Rose Ithodamine Pink '1'angerine Oran~e Poppy Red Signal Red Scarlet Dawn Pink Scarlet Fuchsia - Purple 0_~l i Coral Pink Claret Kose 021 i \"La Priemere\" (double) (double) .i'i'1 \"Louise\" \"I,ouise Gable\" \"Marion ~'Ierriam.' 1~\" 1~\" Q~\" 1~\"' 2~\" 1\" 6~5\/:i 23\/1 6Z1\/1 9 upper Spinel Pink Kose Madder corolla, Iio,i, lower Empire Rose Tan~erine Orange Chrome Yellow Scarlet Mallow Purple \"Vlary Dalton\" (double) l0\/l - \"Vlauve Queen\" 39\/~ fi30\/~ ` ` M el lo-Glo'. \"Ylilton\" lfi\/~ White Solferiuo Purple White (double) \"llinerva\" \"~Imestre I'horbecke\" .` Miriam'. \"Mme. Gustave Ciuillemot\" ~L~\" 21\" :3i\" olli\/It Iy\" v ~\" H~~?\/3 - gol\/;i filfi fi Camellia Rose \"Mossieanutn\" \"NarcissiHora\" iitiditiorum obtusum - - (double) ~ ~\" 1 ~\" ~~\" (il),i - a~noenum I Illi-?1 fil3\/l l~l\/1 ti~7\/1 fio5\/l li`~5\/3 ,i_~3\/I li~?7 1 13311% Shrimp Red Neyron Rose Crimson h'uchsine Pink Chrome Yellow Spinel Pink Dawn Pink obtusnm arnoldianum obtusum ,jaNonicum obtusum kaemNferi \"Old Faithful\" 1~\" i\" `~?,\" 2'1\" h'uchsine Pink - Mallow Purple Yorcelam ltose Yhlox - t3`LO - fi32\/~' Purple 43 ,1'i ~e \"Othello\" \"Pallas\" 1\" lla~l - !lL'(' ,\/I ao\/i 018\/1 so~\/3 sos\/z White Geranium Lake \"Phidias\" (double) \"Phoebe\" (double) y\" y\" g\" ois sts Jasper Red Mimosa Yellow 604\/~L \"Prince Henri de Pay Bas\" ~20\/1 \"Pucella\" 6~3\/~ ozr\/i \"Purple King\" s~o 420\/2 \"Iiaphael de Smet\" (double) \"Iteinbrandt\" oz~\/i ~\" oo~~ 2\" \"Roi des Feux\" s~i\/i 719\/3 sQS roseum z\" 623\/1 1~\" oos~3\/2 719\/3 \"Sang de Gentbrugge\" s\" ~.~r\/i schlippenbachi a\" \"Sibelius\" oisy \"Souvenir de Pres. Carnot\" (dbl) ,\" s\/~ \" 24\/2 \"Springtime\" \" 9\/1 `ITnique'. ~?,4\/3 21\" g2N vaisyi White with fiyI 1;\" t\/2 viscoSepalum \"William I11~. m\/a ,;\"ois \"30\/~ yedoense (double) \"63~\/~L poukhanense yedoense Z~\" 0`l`l liZ6\/~ ' `~ampa\" - (double) \"Praxiteles\" (double) \"Polaris\" ~\/2 1~\" ~' r\/2 2~\" 020\/1 III, y\" - Chinese Yellow White Straw Yellow Geranium Lake B'ey ron Rose Magenta Rose Venetian Pink Rose Opal Signal Red Beyron Rose Signal Red Rose Pink Jasper Red Cadmium Orange Tvrian ltose 'f.mgerine Orange TyrianRose Indian Yellow Nacturtium I~ed w Cy clarnen Purple Phlox Purple Spinel Pink DONALD ~1MAN Field Class Informal Field Classes to study the hundreds of ornamental trees and shrubs will be held in the Arboretum again this year during the Saturday mornings throughout :llay-. Meetings will start at 10 A. M. at the Jamaica Plain gate in front of the Administration Building. In case of rain the meetings will be indoors. Registration is in advance (~ l .00 fee) by mail : \"Friends of the Arboretum\" without charge. 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Comes to the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24252","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160a76d.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 MAY 2, 1952 NUMBER 6 SPRING COMES TO THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM THIS past low of winter has been zero on snow cover. a mild one; temperatures have not gone much beany occasion and in the late winter, at least, there was plenty The bad weather in March was followed in mid-April by many bright sunny days with high temperatures which brought the magnolias and the single flowered Japanese cherries into full bloom by April 18. In fact the early flowering magnolias have never looked as beautiful as they did during mid-April, none of the flower buds showing any injury at all. One magnolia in particular this year has again been very beautiful and this is a cross made by one of Dr. Sax's students in 1939 - M. stellata X kobus. This is now a tree 18 feet tall and at least 1 feet in branch spread, covered with beautiful white flowers, very similar to those of M. siellata and with the fragrance of M. stellata, but there the similarity ceases for it is growing as a vigorous tree with a single trunk. The flowers have nearly as many petals as those of M. stellata, but the flower petals are considerably wider. (See Plate XII.) E. H. Wilson used to point out that M. kobus did not bloom for fifteen years, but this vigorous hybrid tween these two bloomed within five years from seed. Professor Rehder termed all crosses bespecies M. loebneri, and this particular clone has been named the \"Merrill\" magnolia in honor of Dr. E. D. Merrill, former Director of the Arnold Arboretum. It can be considered an excellent addition to our early flowering magnolias, combining the vigor and habit of M. kobus, and the beautiful flowers of the slower growing and smaller M. stellatn. Usually at this time of year, everyone wonders whether the spring is \"early\" or \"late\" and one of the means we have of measuring, is to record the definite dates at which certain plants bloom or come into leaf. A certain weeping willow in front of the Administration Building has a habit, as do all weeping willows, of turning a pale green almost overnight in the spring as its small leaf buds be- 45 gin to open. The dates on which this has occurred ' during the past years are as follows: 1940 1941 May 1 1942 1948 l9 ~4 1945 1946 April 15 April 6 April 28 1 May March ll March 27 1947 1948 1949 1950 1951 1 195~1 April 14 5 April April 4 April 28 8 April April 19 . From this it would appear that the season is about normal. We can look forward to profuse bloom among the azaleas and the crab apples by early May and the lilacs should be in the best of condition by May 20, unless we have much unfavorable weather between now and then. In general, little winter injury has been noticed. A few exceptions have been that the flower buds of Rhododendron xlauricuxn were killed, but on the other hand the flower buds of Abeliophyllum distichum were not injured and this shrub has bloomed unusually well. It should be mentioned in this connection, that severe damage was noted on small azalea plants last fall before November 1. Several hundred azalea plants under a foot high were grown in one of the saran cloth houses at Weston. The summer drought was followed by unusually heavy rains in the fall and there were at least three times, prior to November l, when night temperatures went considerably below freezing. It was noted then that the bark on these small plants separated from the twigs and now, of course, the tops of these plants are completely dead. Several cases of winter injury to broad-leaved rhododendrons have also been called to our attention, but the specific reasons for this injury are unfortunately in doubt. An extensive collection of flowering crab apples has been planted on Peters Hill. Included in this collection are some of the more valuable Asiatic species, new varieties, which have been introduced by the commercial nurserymen, and the new hybrids which have been developed at the Arboretum during the past fifteen years. This new planting, together with the older introductions of species from all parts of the world, should eventually provide the most complete collection of ornamental apples in the world. DONALD ~5'MAN Note: Lewis Lipp has been appointed propagator at the Arnold Arboretum to replace Richard Fillmore who resigned this spring to accept a more lucrative position with a commercial nursery. Roger Coggeshall remains as assistant propagator. ~ 46 PLATE XII Llpper fig. Magnolia loebneri \"Merrill.\" Lower fig. Top row, left to right: M. kobus, M. stellata, M. loebneri \"Merrill.\" Bottom row, left to right: M. salicifolia, M. denudata, M. proctoriana. \" \" A NOTE ON LIGUSrRI:l1 IBOLIUM In Inventory ~'46, 1916, of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, there is described the origin of a hybrid privet, Ligu.strum ovaljfolium X L. obtusifolium regelianum, now known as L. ibolium Coe, the Ibolium privet. At that time, cuttings of several selections from the cross were presented by the Elm City Nursery Company, New Haven, Connecticut, accompanied by the description summarized here. In the fall of 1900, a plant of L. oualjfoliu~n growing in their nursery among several plants of L, obtus~'olium regelianum bore an especially heavy crop of fruit. Since fruiting of the California priB et was uncommon in the locality, the inference was that a natural cross had occurred. When the seedlings were raised, they showed every indication of hybridity, varying from upright and vigorous to prostrate and dwarf, from deciduous to more or less evergreen and producing flowers from terminal or lateral branches. The upright selection of L. ibolium is well known in the nursery trade, valued for its handsome habit similar to the California privet, but approaching the less attractive L. obtusifolium in hardiness. In current descriptions of L. ibolium, one finds no mention of the existence of dwarf forms, but two of the dwarf selections from the original introduction are still being grown at the U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Maryland. The plants are from 1928 propagations and have attained scarcely 18 inches in height, with dense, glossy, somewhat persistent foliage that remains reddish-green at temperatures down to 0 F., and has wavy leaf margins. The two selections differ mainly from each other in the size of the leaves and one plant is more prostrate than the other. Eventually one will be eliminated but not until the relative hardiness and adaptability factors have been studied. The plants have now been moved to a test nursery where they show every indication of becoming desirable additions to the rather limited group of hardy, dwarf plants. As there is always a need for plants that will make good low hedges or compact borders, a privet with such a habit and, in addition, the hardiness attributed to L. ibolium should arouse considerable interest among nurserymen. At the present time, the selections are carried under a garden number until they can be propagated for distribution and wider testing. JOHN L. CREECH Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering Beltsville, Maryland 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Note on Ligustrum ibolium","article_sequence":5,"start_page":48,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24246","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25eb76f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Creech, John L.","article_content":"A NOTE ON LIGUSrRI:l1 IBOLIUM In Inventory ~'46, 1916, of the Office of Foreign Seed and Plant Introduction, Bureau of Plant Industry, there is described the origin of a hybrid privet, Ligu.strum ovaljfolium X L. obtusifolium regelianum, now known as L. ibolium Coe, the Ibolium privet. At that time, cuttings of several selections from the cross were presented by the Elm City Nursery Company, New Haven, Connecticut, accompanied by the description summarized here. In the fall of 1900, a plant of L. oualjfoliu~n growing in their nursery among several plants of L, obtus~'olium regelianum bore an especially heavy crop of fruit. Since fruiting of the California priB et was uncommon in the locality, the inference was that a natural cross had occurred. When the seedlings were raised, they showed every indication of hybridity, varying from upright and vigorous to prostrate and dwarf, from deciduous to more or less evergreen and producing flowers from terminal or lateral branches. The upright selection of L. ibolium is well known in the nursery trade, valued for its handsome habit similar to the California privet, but approaching the less attractive L. obtusifolium in hardiness. In current descriptions of L. ibolium, one finds no mention of the existence of dwarf forms, but two of the dwarf selections from the original introduction are still being grown at the U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Maryland. The plants are from 1928 propagations and have attained scarcely 18 inches in height, with dense, glossy, somewhat persistent foliage that remains reddish-green at temperatures down to 0 F., and has wavy leaf margins. The two selections differ mainly from each other in the size of the leaves and one plant is more prostrate than the other. Eventually one will be eliminated but not until the relative hardiness and adaptability factors have been studied. The plants have now been moved to a test nursery where they show every indication of becoming desirable additions to the rather limited group of hardy, dwarf plants. As there is always a need for plants that will make good low hedges or compact borders, a privet with such a habit and, in addition, the hardiness attributed to L. ibolium should arouse considerable interest among nurserymen. At the present time, the selections are carried under a garden number until they can be propagated for distribution and wider testing. JOHN L. CREECH Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils and Agricultural Engineering Beltsville, Maryland 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Winter-Killing of Certain Shrubs, As a Result of the Winter of 1951-52","article_sequence":6,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24251","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160a36c.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University Vot.vmF 1? OCTOBER 10, 1952 SOME WINTER-KILLING OF CEItTAIN SHRUBS, AS A RESULT OF THE WINTER OF1931-5~? was not what might be termed a \"hard\" winter, esthe Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston, Mass. In one of the fields on this 1,i0 acre plot there are a number of miscellaneous ornamental shrubs which were planted three years ago in rows ten feet by ten feet and cultivated mechanically, the idea being that these plants are a reserve plantation for the Arnold Arboretum, where a few good varieties, and many mediocre ones are merely grown to augment the collections in the Arboretum at Jamaica Plain. It is impossible, for lack of space, to grow all the species and varieties that we would like to in Jamaica Plain, but this additional planting is not too space-consuming, is easily cared for and is accessible to anyone who is interested in these plants. Over 500 species and varieties have been growing in one of these fields since 1946. After this past winter, it was noted that some plants were killed to the ground, others partially, and still other species and varieties were apparently winter hardy. Since all the plants are growing together, since the climate and soil are uniform, since no plants received any more attention in the way of water or fertilizer than any other, it ts reasonable to deduce that, if a Bariation in winter killing is shown here it is undoubtedly caused by variation in individual plant hardiness. Many factors must be included in determining the hardiness of plants such as winter cold, rainfall, snow cover, early and late freezes, etc. Plants vary considerably with their specific requirements, and no one of these factors should be taken as the only one involved in winter hardiness. However, in determining w inter loss, temperatures are certainly the easiest records to look to, when rainfall has been normal, and in this study only the temperature factor is p veu. The coldest days for November 1!a51 to March 19~2 were: November i 1' January -1 , -1. F December -~?, -4, -5F February 7 F 10 F March NomBFR 7 LST pecially winter (19.i 1-52) at -~9 only five days throughout the winter when the minimum tempera0 F. V'e have learned to expect little winter injury in the Arnold Arboretum unless winter temperatures go considerably below this point. It will be of interest to study the following lists. Only those varieties (and species) are reported that are being grown here together in this one field. In general, especially in the Arboretum itself, there was not too much winter injury last year, where the winter temperatures are usually several degrees higher than those at the Case Estates, twelve miles away. There were tures went below The Percentage of winter killing of vegetative shoots of certain woody plants grown at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum as a result of the winter 1951-52 Note: All years and plants were have been growing here together in between 3 feet and 8 feet in height. ternatus a cultivated field for five , Acanthopanax * \" 10% *Deutzia mollis it *Berberis * * \" \" \"t trifoliatus actinacantha aggregata barbarosa ningpoensis 50% purpuraseens 14 50% * \" \" reflexa rosea cc recurvata cousimilis 66 f \" o0% * * * ' \" 50% campanulata 750\/0 ** 46 16 \" '' A *\" extmea It delsianll laxiflora 50% ', 66 grandiflora scabra It * \" * \" \" langeana 50% parvifolia 50,70 poiretiweichangensis poh antha \" \" 46 multiflora \"Eminens\" * * * * \" \"macrothrysa mirabms \" \" silva-taroucana suberecta 50% nivea j0% . \" \" \" suspensa \" watererit0% sehneideriana \" *Buddleia * * \" \" 10% laxiflora yunnanensis stenostachya carnea * ', * \" sieboldiana staminea Deutzia *\" * * \" 75,10 * * * \" ]0% \" \" \"lactea \"stellata chuni discolor \" villmorinae \" \" 66 J0% . \" \"Avalanche\" \"BouleRose\" \"Contraste\" 75% * \" \" 66 major hypoglauca 50% 11.1 poleuca 50% lemoinei\" Boule de Neige\" \" \"John Richardson\" 100\/0 Ligustrum obtusifolium 20% quihoui 50% 66 16 \" \" sinense50% 100\/0 * *\" * \" longifolia elegans it ~ faureri \" magnifica longipetala vulgare Lodense\" 75% *Philadelphus burkwood delavayi 30% falconeri 100\/0 66 6c \" [ JO Philadelphus ment\" nus lemoinei Enchant- Spiraea \" cantoniensis 50,0 30% sericanthus rehderia- macrothrysa 500,0 margaritae 10~0 Philadelphus \" \" \" 10% \" Phi]adeIphus\"Amalthee\"50% Banniere\" 73% \" pachystachya z3~o pyramidata 30~0 revirescens \" i.i~o \"Bouled'Argent\" j0% \" \" \" '\"DameB]anche\"50% \"Enchantment\" 256\/1 \"Favorite\" 2j% \"Manteau de Her- \" \" Weigela \" \" rosthorni 50~0 schimabecke ,i0'o trilobata 50~0 hortensis 50~0 \" \" japonica 50~0 japonica var. (variegated) mine\" \" 10% \" \" \" 10'0 \"Stelzneri\" 50'0 \"Vanhouttei\" 20~0 \"Andre Thouin\" 25~0 Chamaelon\" i 3~0 Philadelphus \"Monster\" 30% \"Patricia\" 10% \"Voie Lactee\" 900\/0 Pteleapolyadenia 10% \" c` 50% a0% \"Quebec\" 7ic\/c Rhamnus dumetorum 50% Sorbaria assurgens 10% sorbifolia 750\/0 alba 10% Spiraea albiflora 10% billiardi 10% blanda .3ov, brachybotrys 50% Hibes diacanthum 41 \" \"Congo\" ,i0~o \"Dame Blanche\" \"Descartes\" ussuriense * * \" \" \" a ac Groenwegeni\" 60~0 \" Hendersoni\" 75% \"Ideal\" 20~0 \"Le Printemps\" 10% \"Madame Lemoine\" 20% \" \" \" \" 11 \" \" a` \"Majesteaux\" ~0~0 \"Richesse\" 25\/0 44 \" \" * Plants killed to the ground Weston permanent nursery plants not injured - Aug. 6, 1952 Acanthopanax divaricatus henryi \" \" < \" \"t Berberis amurensis \"1 aristata \"6 \"6 nana 41 leucorrhizus senticosus bretschneideri canadensis circumserrata \" 46 \" sessilifiorus simoin 46 14 46 dictyophylla gilgiana vernae Berberis-some 59 species and varieties, mostly very rare, but includ- \"I I Ii ing : Berberis aggregata Deutzia 14 vulgaris glabrata monbeigt 51 DeutUa 66 parn-iflora scabra macrocephala Ligustrum acuminatum 66 Spiraea arguta \" blumei \" \" \" \" \" \" 46 \" \" 66 acutisslIl1um amurensis canaXthunbergi canescens myrtifoiia cantoniensis'lanceata tnsuiare sinensis stauntoni chamaedryfotia 91 utmttolia vulgare Philadelphus \"Albatre\" \" cinerea \" \" ' corymbosa cordifolius coronarius \" \" \" duplex 11 salicifolius \" \" \" fontenaysi alba fritschina gemmata \" 66 66 \" 66 speciossissnnus Coupe d'Argent\" CrJadwyne hirsutus' \" \" \" \" \" \" henryi hvpericitotia 66 acuta 41 tc 64 66 66 , grandiflorus \"Iniiocence\" inordorus intJexa latifolia 11 Pink Flowers\" insignis lemoinei lewisi lueida \"Caiidelabre\" \" \" longegemmis media Inen:l.le>. \" 66 66 66 \" 66 66 magdalenae X grandifiorus magnincus \"Merde Glace\" Mrs. Thompson\" microphyllus nepalensis nivalis \" \" \" \" \" microtln'rs:1 miyabaei glabrata mollifolia muftinora notha nudinora \" \" \" \" 41 \" \" \" Nuee Blanche\" pekinensis brachvbotrvs * 69 kansuensis . \" \" oxyodon pikoviensis pubescens rubra sansouciana polyanthus \"Gerbe de satsumanus Neige\" Philadelphus \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ,, sempertJorens trichocarpa uratensis sehrenki \"jacki mandshuricus sericanthus subcanus virgata virginiana 66 serrulata \" \" \" 6 Weigela decora Sylviane ten'uifolius tomentosus \" \" 61 Feerie\" 44 Nlare rellier\" \"V ~rs('haffelti\" \"Abel Carriere\" \"Daubenton\" \"Dr.BaiI]on\" \"Floreal\" President Dllchartre\" Profusion\" Vantcek) 4 41 \" \"Van Houttei\" \" \" \" Stynaca V eiteda vel'l'UCOSUS \" zey heri \" \" \" \" ,, Ptelea trifoliata aurea Sorbaria arborea 66 glabrata Spiraea arcuata \" ~ ) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Autumn Color","article_sequence":7,"start_page":53,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24247","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25ebb6f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 l ' OC~I~OBEN. 17, 1 J~ ~ AUTUMN COLOR NUMBER 8 indications point to a splendid display of autumn color this fall. There has been plenty of sunshine during September and rainfall has not been excessive. The nights during the first week of October have been very cool. All these indications thus point to the combination of conditions that should produce a fine display of color during the next week. The eastern United States is fortunately located in one of the few regions of the world where brilliant autumn coloration of foliage prevails. There is only one small region in the southern hemisphere, and that in South America. In the northern hemisphere, there is a large region in eastern Asia, including central and northern Japan, and a small region in the southwestern part of Europe. In North America, the region characterized by brilliant autumn foliage extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida and westward to the Great Plains, areas which are blessed with extensive deciduous hardwood forests and considerable rainfall. Here the general climatlc conditions are often just what is needed to produce that lovely phenomenon of nature - the autumn coloration of deciduous foliage. In North America the most brilliant displays of autumn color are of course in southeastern Canada, the northeastern United States and in certain other areas at higher altitudes. The further south one goes, the less brilliant is the display of autumn color, particularly in areas along the seacoast. In the higher altitudes of the South, such as the Blue Ridge Vlountains and the Great Smokies, the color is just as brilliant as in the northeastern United States. It should be pointed out that it is chiefly in areas of predominantly deciduous forests that autumn color displays are best, and such forested areas occur only in two general regions in the world. Plants growing in deciduous forests in tropical regions usually drop their leaves towards the end of the dry season. Since these leaves usually dry up before they fall (because of lack of water), they do not often develop brilliant colors. In the case of plants growing in deciduous forests in AI,L 33 especlall) in areas with ample rainfall equally distributed throughout the year-the leaves fall at the approach of cold weather, and because the plants havebeen well supplied with water, leav ea of many trees do change color before they fall. This gorgeous phenomenon is what focuses our attention temperate regions - the woods and forests at this time each year. In some years, the autumn color is much more pronounced than in others. There are always plants, the foliage of which turn yellow in the fall, but it is the brilliant reds and gorgeous scarlets which, in combination with the yellows, make autumn color of outstanding beauty. It is chiefly the reds and scarlets which are intensified by the right climatic conditions. Leaves are green because they contain a complex material called chlorophyll. This is essential to the growth of all plants, except the saprophytes and a few parasites, for it is through the action of chlorophyll that the plant can manufacture the food it requires from crude chemicals in the presence of light and heat. Chlorophyll is a highly complex chemical material, being continually manufactured in the leaf and at the same time being continually broken down. Ordinarily, the rate of its breakdown about equals the rate of its manufacture. In the fall, the rate of chlorophyll manufacture is gradually reduced, although the rate of its decomposition is maintained. The exact cause for this phenomenon is not fully understood, but the accumulation of waste products in the leaf may be the on principal cause. Why leaves are yellow A certain stage is reached where there is little if any chlorophyll manufactured. Most of the chlorophyll already made eventually is destroyed. This is the reason why leaves are yellow, for the two yellow pigments usually present, carotin and Yanthophyll, are continually masked by the chlorophyll. When most of the chlorophyll is destroyed, these pigments become apparent. These same coloring materials are present in large quantities in egg yolk, carrots, and in some yellow flowers. When green plants are taken into dark places, such as a cellar, the leaves often turn yellow. Also, young shoots appearing for the first time under the dark conditions of the cellar are usually yellow. This is explained by the fact that chlorophyll is manufactured only in the presence of light. When light is absent, plants are unable to manufacture new chlorophyll and the yellow pigments become predominant as soon as all the previouly manufactured chlorophyll has been destroyed. 'rhe gradual cessation of chlorophyll manufacture and the final breakdown of all that previously made, complete the first stage in autumn coloration. This is the reason for certain plants becoming yellow. There are some plants, like some magnolias for instance, the leaves of which do not turn yellow, but change from green directly to brown. For some reason, the breakdown of the chlorophyll does not start soon enough or is not complete enough to result in the appearance of the yellow pigments. The yellow color does appear in the foliage of many other J4 plants regardless of the weather cuuditmus. 'I'Itere is an interesting lyl~ degree of individuality in certain species. Red maple, for instance, usually turns a good red in the fall, but certain individuals maycolor yellow. The same can be said of sugar maples and several other plants. 'l'h~, is a most interesting plysmlu~Tic:~l problem worthy of considerable investigatmn. Why leaves are red The gorgeous beauty of most autumn color combinations results from the brilliant reds and scarlets, together with the yellows. The sassafras, some of the maples, oaks, sumacs, sourwood, tupelo, and other plants are particularly out- standing for their brilliant red ~n autumn color. These plants are most interesting that the brilliance of their color apparently varies from year to year. The red tn their leaves is caused by a third pigment called anthocyanin, which results in some way from the accumulation of sugars and tannins in the leaf. In some of the maples valued for their sugar production, it is probably the sugars which cause this red color. The oaks, however, bemg rich in tannins probably owe their high autumn coloration to the presence of these. There are two factors necessary m the production of red autumn color. The first is light. There must be warm, bright, sunny days in the fall, during which time the leaves naturally manufacture a great deal of sugar. Secondly, such days must be followed by cool nights, during which the temperature is below ~.i F. Plant physiologists have shown definitely that, under such conditions, there is little or no translocation of sugars and other materials from the leaf to other parts of the plant. In other words, when cool nights occur, following warm, bright, sunny days, sugars and other materials are \"trapped\" in the leaves. The accumulation of these products results in the manufacture of the red anthocyanin. The combination of these factors is well understood when one observes a certain tree that may be red only on that side exposed to the sun. Other leaves not directly in the sun's rays may be green or yellow. Leaves exposed to the sun have been able to manufacture more sugars, which when accumulated and \"trapped\" in the leaves by cold night temperatures may result in the red color. It is interesting to note that trees and shrubs growing in swamps and other low places are often among the first to color in the fall, simply because they are in such places that cold air first settles on still nights. With these points in mind, it can be easily seen why there is so much divergence of opinion about autumn color. When plants are located so that they receive full sunlight, especially in the late afternoons during the early fall, they should be expected to show pronounced color if the weather conditions have been favorable. On the other hand, if a plant grows in the shade where it receives no direct sunlight, it cannot be expected to have marked autumn color. One species in the Arboretum annually demontrates this point. There is a splendid plant of Fothergilla monticola in the shrub collection of the Arboretum. 55 sunlight, while the shrub collection is in the lowest would normally expect plants there to color ~f any did. In years when the climatic conditions havee favored autumn color formation, this particular plant of Folhergilla monlirola is gorgeously colored red and yellow on the western side. On the eastern side, where the foliage is shaded from the late afternoon sun, the foliage is merely colored yellowish and does not show the brilliant contrasts of red and yellow. Fortunately all plants do not show such great variation in autumn color when one side is compared with another, but it is a fact, that the western side usually has the deepest colored foliage when there has been plenty of sunshine. This point should be kept in mind in planting, locations and plants being selected that would show to best advantage during the period of autumn color. This plant is exposed to full spot in the Arboretum, so one - Dull autumn coloration A warm, cloudy fall, sometimes with much rain, will restrict the formation of bright colors in the foliage. With insufficient sunlight, the sugar production is greatly reduced, and with warm nights, what little sugar has been manufactured in the leaves can be readily transported to the trunk and roots where it has no effect on the color of the foliage. The leaves of many evergreens change color in autumn. Some of the junipers and arborvitaes are listed in the following groups. Some pines may turn yellow, but usually such color lasts only for a short time, the leaves quickly turning brown. This is particularly true of those evergreen leaves which are normally shed each year, and although the autumn color may not be conspicuous in many evergreen plants, nevertheless it is evident on close examination. All leaves eventually turn brown. This is not an autumn color, but is merely the result of the death, and in some cases the decay of the plant tissue. Sometimes, the leaves turn brown while they still remain on the tree, as in the American beech and in some of the oaks. In other cases, like the sugar maple and the spicebush, the leaves drop from the plants while they are still brightly colored and turn brown afterwards. Autumn color is then a physiological phenomenon which is very complex. There are plants the leaves of which will always turn yellow regardless of current climatic conditions, but many of the plants with red fall foliage will be striking in appearance only when warm, sunshiny days prevail, followed by nights with temperatures below 45 F. The sugar formation in the leaf, the amount of sunshine received by the plants, and the temperature of the air are three variable factors which to a large degree control autumn coloration. Woody plants with autumn color The following plants are listed according to their most conspicuous autumn color. As has been explained above, these may change from year to year, depending on climatic conditions. For instance, some years Cladrastis lutea will be JG yellow, depend other years the same trees will 1>e purplish. The degree of color may also on soil conditions, it being a well-known fact that pin oaks, for instance, which have received heavy applications of nitrogenous fertilizer, will have a much deeper red color than those grown on poor soils without such fertilizers. With these qualifications in mind, the following lists are offered. Autumn Color -Red Acer circinntum ~Tmnala mandslruricum ml.ueuse I'arrotia persica - red to ~ellwv 1'artlrenocissas quinqurti>lia tricuspidat.~ 1'runus mueimowieii p:vlnmtum rubrum-recl red scarlet spicatum -orange and saceharum - red and yellow tatur~cum - red to yellow .lmelr:nclrier Spicatum-yellw- to red lawn, - velluw to red - sargenti and t-ellow ScIrlesingeri very early Pyrus communis pyrifolia ussuriensis Quercus borealis ' coccinea palustris velutirm Rhododendron calendulaceum Berberis, many species Carpinus caroliniana Cornus alba - schlippenbachi vaseyi Rhus aromatica florida a mas ,;tolonifera Cotinus americanus copallina glabra radicans - sOining red - red and yellow yellow co~rTy-~ria typhina - Crataegus lavallei bronze-red nitida - orange to red Rosa rugosa - red and i>haenopwrum Enkianthus campanulatus perulatus Euonymus alata atropurpurea sachalinensis red and yellow Sassafras albidum - red, yellow to - setigera virginiana orange Sorbus aucuparia discolor Fothergilla species - red and yellow Franklima alatamaha-red and yellow Liquidambar styraciflua -red and folgneri Spiraea prunifolia-glossy yellow Vlalus ciawvuniana-red and yellow Nemopanthus mucronatus Nyssa svlvatica Oxydendrum arboreum ' [ .)7 red Stewartia koreana - orange to red Syringa oblata dilatata Vaccinium species Viburnum dentatum lantana - deep red prunifolium tomentosum-velvety, dull red Autumn Color-Reddish to Reddish Purple Cornus racemosa I rawuus umer~cana Gaultheria prucumbens Alahonia repens ' Gaylusaccia brachycera Juniperus horizontalis plumosa virginiana Leucothoe catesbaei Mahonia aquifolium 1'achistinm canimii Quercus alba Thuja occidentalis ericoides plicata bronze ~'iburnum acerifolium dilatatum . - - purple lentago Autumn Color - Yellow Acer pensylvanicum platanoides Hamamelis mollis vernalis rufinerve saccharinum virginiana Larix decidua laricina Lindera benzoin 1Blalus halliana spontanea and purple Populus alba Actinidia arguta Amelanchier species yellow to red Asiminatriloba Betula species Celastrus species Cercis canadensis Cladrastis lutea yellow to purplish Clethra acuminata alnifolia Ginkgo biloba - - yellow grandidentata nigra italica tremuloides Prinsepia sinensis Pseudolarix kaempferi Fagus grandifolia sylvatica Magnolia stellata yellow Quercus imbricaria - Autumn Color - Yellowish to Bronze parviHora yellow brown yellow to brown Carya species Castanea dentata yellow to brown mollisima yellow to brown Aesculus - - brown - No Autumn Color Acer campestre negundo pseudoplatanus Aesculus hippocastanum Albizzia julibrissin Alnus glutinosa Baccharis halimifolia Clematis, many species Corylus colurna Crataegus monogyna Daphne mezereum Davidia iwolucrata Elaeagnus angustifolia Eucommia ulmoides Carpinus betulus Cedrela sinensis 58 Euonymus bungeana Fraxinus excelsior semip~ersistens Hibiscus syriacus .luelans species Laburnum species aui>erti I'otentilla spec~e~ I'olty~unun~ I,yrustrutn wl~~are I,omcer:~ frd~rantissima syrin~unthx th~bet~ca 1'ruuu, per,ica (,~uercu, rul>ur Itobinia species Salix blanda I,wmm hulirnifolium ~l:ynoha - most species llalus - manc species pentanclra Sophorajaponica ~'ite~c negundo Autumn blooming shrubs The display of color in the fall not only consists of colored foliage and bright colored fruits, but also includes the flowers of a few late blooming shrubs and vines. The sweet autumn clematis (('le~rralis pnrriculnla) and the fleecevine (I'o!ygnrrrtrnartberli)are two vines whose white flowers have considerable merit in the fall. I;'l.stlroltsio slauntoni is a fall flowering shrub from China which grows about four feet tall and has many spikes of small lilac colored Howers. It was first introduced into this country in 1905, and although it has not found its way into many gardens, it is listed by several nurseries. Frauklinia alalamnha in the Arnold Arboretum begins to bloom about the first of September and continues until frost kills flower buds and leaves. The plants this year do not have many of their pure white, waxy flowers, due in large measure to the serious set-back the plants received in the prolonged drought this summer. Usually at this time they are covered with flowers. Though this native American plant is usually grown in the south as a tree, it is grown in the Arnold Arboretum as a shrub, with many branches from the base of the plant. When grown in this manner, winter killing is not nearly as severe as it is when the plant is grown as a tree, and, also, soil can be mounded around the base of the plant to aid in winter protection. There are several members of the LPSpetle^n clan whrch are m bloom now. One of the most conspicuous this year is Lespede~tr japorrica, almost impossible to find in nursery catalogues, but a handsome, free-flowering shrub nevertheless, with its pure white flowers borne on conspicuous terminal spikes. Our plant is about four feet tall. Lespede~n tlrunbergi is also in full bloom, with pink flwvers. It is only about three feet tall, and the flowers are not as conspicuous as those of L. ,jn~touicn. The native witch-hazel (Nnmamelis rirgirriarrn) is startingtu bloom now, usually an indication that most shrubs have ceased flowering for the year. However, the unseasonably warm weather not only brought it into bloom uhead of achedule, but the flowers of many spring blooming shrubs are starting to appear here and there in the plantings also. 1~UN9LD ~ 1 M1N 59 \"The Arnold Arboretum-America's Greatest Garden\" This lecture is a series of 100 Kodachrome 2~~ X 2~~ slides showing the best that is growing in the Arnold Arboretum, and is available to garden clubs for a small rental fee. As the slide collection in the Arboretum has grown, it has become possible to assimilate this lecture for the use of any garden club or interested group that wants it. Accompanying the slides is a typed list showing just what is portrayed in each picture. Also included is a 46 page booklet which gives some of the background and early history of the Arboretum, together with a general account of its many accomplishments up to the present time. Since small kodachrome slides are universally used now, most people know that they are best shown in a completely darkened room, using a glass beaded screen. Small 100 watt projectors can be used when the image is small but for large groups, air-cooled lanterns (300-1000 watts) are highly superior and result in bringing out all the colors to best advantage on the screen. Any individual who spends a little time studying the booklet, together with the notations about each slide (both common and scientific names of the plants are listed) would not have much difficulty in presenting this Arboretum story to a group. The nominal rental fee is five dollars. It is hoped, that groups interested in the Arnold Arboretum and the thousands of plants growing there will avail themselves of this opportunity and so bring the Arboretum before many who can not visit it. 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Hunnewell Arboretum 1852-1952","article_sequence":8,"start_page":61,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24254","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d160af6f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 12 DECEMBER 1 ~, 195~ NUMBERS 9--12 THE HUNNEWELL ARBORETUM 18~2-1951 Hunnewell Arboretum in Wellesley, Massachusetts, is an excellent livof the results of the painstaking, costly, time-consuming efforts of one family, carried out through three generations. It has contributed greatly to our present knowledge of horticulture in the United States. This year marks the one hundredth anniversary of the establishing of this great garden, so it is fitting at this time to record a little of its earlier history and accomplishments. Started over a century ago by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, the Hunnewell Arboretum was continued and increased by his son, Walter Hunnewell, and his grandson, Walter Hunnewell, Jr. Now, a century after the first trees were planted, the hundreds of diverse plants growing there make a wonderful display, appreciated by those interested in trees and shrubs who come to visit it from all over the world. The information gleaned from there and freely given to all who ask for it, has been used widely throughout the gardening areas of the northern United States. The one hundred years of interest and care which have gone into the building of this great privately owned arboretum have resulted in new plants, some of which are widely used throughout the northern United States today ; in the accumulation of a tremendous amount of knowledge concerning the trees and shrubs of distant lands ; and in a magnificent collection of conifer trees, some of the specimens being the oldest (and largest) in America today. However, only a small part of the story is told by the plants existing there now. A century ago, little was known about the hardiness of many plants native to the Midwest and the Pacific Coast when grown in the northeastern United States. Naturally, the trees and shrubs from foreign lands presented many unknown problems also for at that time there were no publicly operated arboretums. Very few plants were coming from China and practically none from Japan. Consequently, private individuals interested in trying new plants had to use the costly THE example ing G1 and time-consuming method of trial and error in attempting to grow hardy types. In the case of this arboretum, thousands of plants were brought from European nurseries and planted at Wellesley in an attempt to find those that would prove hardy there. Even a larger number were purchased from American sources. American horticulture owes much today to the valuable contributions this New England family has made to our knowledge of plants during the past century. Horatio Hollis Hunnewell two children of Dr. Walter Hunnewell, the original founder of this arboretum, was one of Hunnewell, a physician who 'lived in Watertown, Massachusetts (1 i69-18:i~), and practiced medicine there for siYty years. Young Horatio was born in Watertown, July ?7, 1810, and like most of the other childHoratio Hollis educated in the lower schools there. When he was fifteen years old an came for him to go to France and learn the banking business with Welles & Co. His parents wanted him to make the final decision himself, concerning this opening, and it did not take him long. Like many another youngster, it may have been the thrill of going to a foreign country, or just the desire for adventure, that appealed to him. In any event, he crossed the ocean alone at fifteen and entered into the banking house of V~'elles & Co., in Paris, later becoming a partner in the firm. On December ~?4, 1835, he married Isabella Pratt ~t'elles in France, the daughter of John Welles, one of the partners of the firm for which he worked. (The 4~'elles family lived in what used to be called West Needham, Massachusetts. Later186~-the name of the U.S. Post Office was changed to Wellesley by a vote of the town in respect to this family which had done much for the townspeople and in 1881 the town was set off from Needham). Because of the serious French financial crisis of 1837 and the very difficult times thereafter, it became necessary to sell what was left of Welles & Co. As a result, Horatio Hollis Hunnewell came back to America in 1839 without a cent in his pocket but with a rich experience in banking behind him. He found he had to start life again at the bottom of the business ladder, but, although he had no college education, he was a keen business man and was soon on his way to acquiring a considerable fortune. He was connected with railroads in the East and Midwest for many years. Also he became interested in Boston real estate and served on the boards of many manufacturing companies. In 1860 the banking firm of H. H. Hunnewell & Sons was established. Early in his life, Mr. Hunnewell acquired the hobby of raising plants. In his diary he writes (dated November 1838): \"I did not take special interest in gardening in those days, being absorbed in business; but I will mention a circumstance that shows I did begin very early in life to do so, for when I could not have been more than a dozen years old I planted some cherry-stones in my father's garden, which came up and I budded them before leaving home. These trees my father sold, and sent me over fifty dollars as the proceeds; so the first money I ren was opportunity 62 earned was in the nursery business.\" Mrs. Hunnewell inherited 20 acres of land from her father in West Needham and it was this land that eventually served as the center about which he acquired considerably more as he prospered in business, so that by 1851 he owned 13i acres. His very early interest in plants, his wife's ties with her home in West Needham, and his business ability which made it possible for him to practice horticulture on a very large scale even in those days, are the three factors contributing to the establishing, maintaining and enlarging of the Hunnewell Arboretum as it is now known. Other interests kept Dlr. Hunnewell very busy, many of them having a horticultural bent. He served as Vice President of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society from 1864 to 1874, as well as serving on many of its committees. A few of his many gifts included the Town Hall, Library and ten acres of land to the Town of Wellesley ; the present Administration Building of the Arnold Arboretum in Jamaica Plain. ever The Arboretum Chronologically, the present plantings did not start until the new house was built in 1852 (the house now occupied by Mr. V~'alter Hunnewell, Jr.), but actually DIr. Hunnewell became very interested in country life in 1843 with the making of the first improvements about the property. By 1846, Mr. Hunnewell was importing large numbers of evergreens, fruit trees and forest trees from England and by 1856 he started importing Rhododendrons in large numbers, having been urged into it through the enthusiastic reports of his friend and relative H. W. Sargent. Mr. Sargent returned from a trip to England and had been impressed with the universal use of rhododendrons throughout that country and their good looks everywhere they were grown. Three years later Mr. Hunnewell began introducing azaleas as well. By 1847, 2,060 trees were imported from England and planted in his nursery. These included : Abies, Acer, Aucuba, Berberis, Betula, Buxus, Cedrus, Crataegus, Fagus, Ilex, Laburnum, Larix, Populus, Picea, Pinus, Quercus, Sorbus, Tilia, Taxus, Ulmus and Ulex species. Some of these died later from poor conditions in transportation and lack of winter hardiness. It was about this time that the family definitely decided to pursue the country life and began enlarging upon the idea of planting, improving the soil, building the stone wall along Washington Street (1846), buying new tracts of land and eventually by building the house in 1852, overlooking Bullard's Pond, now called Lake Waban. Mr. Hunnewell was able to do things on a large scale. In 1847, he noted that he raised some apple seedlings and budded 533 trees. Also in this same year he noted he had planted 1,922 trees, including: 591 evergreens, mostly firs, white pines and a few Norway spruce; 637 forest trees of a great many kinds, among them spruces, maples, ashes, elms, horsechestnuts, firs, mountain ash, Ailanthus, larches, chestnuts (Spanish and American), catalpas, magnolias, lindens, alders, G3 butternuts and acacias; 290 peach trees; and 404 apples, pears, cherries, etc. In addition, there were 4,000 seedling trees in the nurseries, some of which were \"of good size\" according to his diary. This was a sizeable accumulation of woody plants from which to select specimens for planting about the estate. When Mr. Hunnewell moved into the new house in 1852 (the conservatory was added in 1866) very little had been done to improve the land adjacent to the house. The lawn was an old pasture almost entirely \"run out,\" having been neglected for many years. The only specimen tree on the place at that time was a white oak which is still growing in excellent condition. However, he immediately began to change this. It was not long before he had to find places for some of the plants in his ever increasing nursery. Continual notes were made in his diaries concerning the plantings that he made from 1836 on. There is also an almost continual record of changes, enlargements and additions to the greenhouses and wintering pits. There was an orangery, grapery, and orchid house, and some of these have been continued to the present time. When the decision was made, shortly after 1902, to do away with wintering so many tender plants in tubs, naturally some of the pits were abandoned. As time went on, and newer importations of plants were made from western North America and abroad, the Hunnewell Arboretum became the outstanding garden of its kind in New England if not the entire eastern Unrted States. It was here that hundreds of visitors came to see the native and exotic plants that they could not see or study elsewhere. Later, when the Arnold Arboretum was established in 18 i ~?, Charles Sprague Sargent, the young director, familiarized himself with the plantings of the Hunnewell Arboretum. It was undoubtedly here that he learned much about the hardiness of certain plants that had never been tried elsewhere, and also gained much information concerning their culture and propagation. Mr. Hunnewell was fortunate in being able to import plants from abroad long before the restrictions concerning soil about the roots. Because of this, he was able to receive larger plants and, all in all, had reasonably good success with their survival on arrival here. The majority of all his rhododendrons he noted (1894) came from the firm of Anthony Waterer and Sons, ~'oking, England. Other plants were received from Kew Gardens, Van Houtte, Reuthe (in England) and many others. Prominent European horticulturists and botanists were continually visiting his place, for, in the early days, it was the only meritorious collection of evergreen plants in the eastern United States. In fact, Charles S. Sargent wrote in Garden and Forest ( 1892) that it was \"unsurpassed in the number of species and varieties of these trees that it contains and in the size and beauty of individual specimens.\" In the later years, the Hunnewell Arboretum began receiving seeds and plants from the Arnold Arboretum. Jackson Dawson, Charles S. Sargent, Ernest H. Wilson and William H. Judd were continually giving plants. The Hunnewells 64 contributed to several of the expeditions made by E. H. Wilson, so that when the seeds from these expeditions were distributed, the Hunnewell Arboretum was able to grow seedlings as quickly as the Arnold Arboretum. As a result, many of the specimens now living which resulted from these expeditions, are at their best in the Hunnewell Arboretum, and in fact are among the oldest, if not the oldest, in North America. Walter Hunnewell, Sr. When Walter Hunnewell, Sr. inherited the Arboretum in 190?, he gradually to make changes. This was in the day when station agents along the railroad were still spelling out the names of the stations with bedding plants. Walter Hunnewell was less interested in tender plants, feeling that to be worth while here in New England, a plant should be perfectly winter hardy. As a result, the tender plants that had been brought out to the garden in tubs for so many years, later to be wintered over in pit houses, were gradually discarded. Deciduous plants were seldom a feature. Rather, time, labor and interest were spent on the evergreens. Today there are still many beautiful deciduous trees and shrubs on the grounds, but the evergreens, always given the preference in care and space, are the featured attractions. From 1902 until the present the area of the arboretum and grounds has remained about 40 acres. Mr. Hunnewell's diary contains many notes from 1915 to 1921 concerning the hardiness of plants and the weather conditions responsible for certain plant reactions. He was not without his troubles as far as growing plants were concerned for in 1915 he noted that serious rhododendron injury that spring was due to a bad drought the preceding autumn. Gypsy moth was noted in 1915 and the first time a lilac \"blight\" hit the lilacs was in 19ll. This disease has been prevalent in the Arnold Arboretum in the rainy spring of 1952. Rhododendron lace fly is mentioned as being completely absent in 1915, resulting in excellent plant growth. Some of the weather notes are interesting. For instance, in July 1915, there was nine inches of rain, the heaviest in forty years. The winter of 1913-16 produced a snowfall of eighty inches with eight inches of it coming on April ~?8. The winter of 1917-18 was, in Mr. Hunnewell's words, \"the most extraordinary I can remember in my life time. Between December 22nd and February 5th, we have had only six days during which the thermometer has been over 32 degrees for an instant.\" Also a heavy frost occurred on the night of June 21 killing all vegetables in low spots but the Hunnewell vegetables were fortunately saved by the continual operation of the Skinner irrigation system, Many hemlocks and oaks were badly injured or killed this same winter. A large tree of Pinus lambertiana was killed outright. Leucothoe catesbaei and Pieris japonica were badly injured as well as some of the native red cedars. It was one of the most severe winters on record from the standpoint of plant injury, but many of the plants killed to the ground, made a rapid recovery, especially the azaleas. began 66 February 19~0, he notes that the depth of snow on the ground in Wellesley .59.7 inches, a heavy enough layer to injure and break the branches of many rhododendrons. The reading of these notes and records proves most interesting, adding to our knowledge of the plants which are on the borderline of hardiness here in New England. In was Walter Hunnewell, Jr. Mr. Walter Hunnewell, Jr., the present owner, inherited the arboretum on the death of his father in 19~1 and has persistently carried out the precepts of his father and grandfather. He has added many plants to the collections, and has kept the pinetum open to the public and especially to the students of Wellesley College (which borders the grounds). He has continued the generous policy of always giving specific information concerning his plants and his experiences with them, to the many who are continually seeking information there. Interesting hybrids have artsen in this collection and propagating material has been distributed. He, too, has been particularly interested in the Pinetum and in the rhododendrons, and has recently been especially persevering in his efforts to promote good growth among the hundreds of the older rhododendrons. He has been a Trustee of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society since 19~5 and has served as Vice President and as Treasurer of that organization. He has also served long and faithfully on many of its important committees and at the same time has kept an active interest in many other horticultural organizations. His continued efforts to keep the plants of the arboretum in good condition, to add new species and varieties where possible, to continue experimentation with their culture, makes this collection one of the outstanding private collections of conifers and rhododendrons tn America today. The Gardeners Right here a word of praise must be made to the three gardeners responsible for the maintenance of this collection over the first century of its operation. Mr. F. L. Harris was the first head gardener, coming to the employ of Mr. H. H. Hunnewell about 1854. Continuing after that until he retired in 1900, he was in charge of the arboretum and greenhouses, and died three years later at the age of 80. It was Mr. Hunnewell who had the vision of what to plant and where to plant, but undoubtedly Mr. Harris contributed greatly to the success of the arboretum as a whole from his years of practical knowledge of growing plants. Mr. Theophilus D. Hatfield was employed by Walter Hunnewell, Sr., on his place adjacent to his father's for thirteen years prior to 1900. In that year, Mr. H. H. Hunnewell, knowing that his son Walter would eventually inherit the arboretum, took Mr. Hatfield to \"break him in.\" Consequently, in 1902, when Mr. H. H. Hunnewell died, Mr. Hatfield had already become well acquainted with all the plants. Trained in Kew Gardens, England, he had a rich and practical background. He was continually seeking new information and contributed ~I many articles to the the gardening and horticultural magazines of the times. Some of plants originating in this arboretum were the results of this keen interest and knowledge. The Hunnewells were indeed fortunate in having T. D. Hatfield to them until his death in 1929. The third superintendent was John Ellis, another graduate of Kew Gardens, who came in 1930 and is the present superintendent. Mr. Ellis also is a great horticulturist and brings to the arboretum a great knowledge of growing plants. His knowledge and experience is respected and frequently sought by all who are interested in growing rhododendrons and coniferous plants in New England. serve Topiary Garden Mr. H. H. Hunnewell started what he termed the \"Italian Garden\" in 1851, described by Downing in his \"Landscape Gardening\" in 1858. This was a series of evergreen trees, planted on a two acre bank by the lake, which were clipped and pruned in special ways, similar to what was done in certain Italian gardens of those times. Once there were 200 trees here. The steep bank rose 75 feet in a very narrow space, and D~r. Hunnewell constructed a series of seven terraces. He always felt that this treatment and type of planting was the best he could have possibly made to utilize the space in an interesting manner, while at the same time not cluttering up the beautiful view of the lake. The disadvantages of growing these plants unnaturally were known to him, of course, but it has always been of great interest to visitors. It is the oldest topiary garden in America today and one of the very few where the effects of this type of pruning can be observed on evergreens. When they grew well, the trees used to be clipped twice a year. T. D. Hatfield records that it was frequently difficult to keep the plants in good condition and that frequent replacements had to be made. However, in the time that he was there ( 1902-1928) it was the part of the estate that changed the least. Completed in 1859, Mr. Hunnewell noted in his diary that during the next twenty years, nothing of importance had occurred concerning it. In 1898 the following trees were growing there: 34 Chamaecyparis pisifera and vars. ; 8 Fagus sp. : 1 ; Juniperus virginiana; 10 Larix decidua81'icea abies ; 30 1'inus strobus ; 32 Thuja ' occidentalis ; 2.5 Tsuga canadensis. Many of these are still growing. Additional species like Taxus cuspidata were added later. This whole project was really an innovation on DIr. Hunnewell's part for he had to use mostly at the beginning, plants native to North America. In Europe the topiary was done chiefly with English Yew and other native European plants, but he could not purchase European plants sufficiently large to make an initial planting worthwhile and some of these species would not have proved hardy anyway. Rhododendrons and Azaleas Apparently it was in 18.i6 that Dlr. H. H. Hunnewell first began importing 68 4 co ~ f x a O~ 4 \/V b ~ ~ \"0 ce C5 D. O E w ~ E~ rhododendrons in large numbers, after being interested m these plants by H. W. Sargent, his friend and relative. DIr. Sargent returned from a trip to England very enthusiastic about the growth and universal use of rhododendrons in that country. Three years later Mr. Hunnewell also began collecting azaleas. His enthusiasm for these plants increased with the numbers of specimens that he purchased from abroad, and it was not long before his plantings of rhododendrons and azaleas became one of the outstanding spring shows in New England. He wrote in his diary : \"It is my opinion that the Rhododendron is the most ornamental shrub we can grow in our climate and so I give it a most decided preference over all others. Some persons may prefer the lilacs which we all adm~t have much to recommend them, but how is it when they are not in flower, which is a large portion of the year? Are they not an eyesore, rather than an ornament in a very conspicuous place, such as this? Of this there is no doubt in my mind.\" Time and again mention is made of this excellent rhododendron display in the records of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and gardening magazines of the times. He is to be given credit for pioneering in the culture of rhododendrons in North America. Every variety it was possible to obtain from European nurseries, Mr. Hunnewell tried. Undoubtedly he should be given full credit for being the introducer of many varieties into North America from abroad. Unfortunately his earlier records do not contain many specific notes to dates of introduction of specific varieties, but he was importing them in large numbers before others in this part of the world had come to realize their true ornamental value. Many varieties which were at first too tender for New England were tried over and ocer again in the hope they might be hardy. In fact, Mr. Hunnewell sensed that popular interest was so great in these plants that he wanted to do something more than just open his gardens at Wellesley to visitors. As a result, he is credited with staging the first Rhododendron Flower Show in America, on the Boston Common in 18i8. For years thereafter, the Hunnewells have taken many prizes in many shows for their excellent rhododendrons. Today, the plantings of these shrubs are still among the best and most colorful in New England. The Hunnewells deserve a great deal of credit for starting the interest in growing these valuable ornamental plants in the northern United States, as well as for growing them continually during the past century and learning so much about their hardiness and culture. After the death of Mr. H. H. Hunnewell, his son became more and more ins terested in the plants which were completely hardy out of doors in New England's winter. As a result, the many tender rhododendrons which previously had been kept in tubs, moved into pits in the winter and out of doors in the late spring, were either sent away to the DuPont's at Kennett Square, Pennsylvania; to the Missouri Botanic Garden; to South Carolina, or left continually out of doors at Wellesley. Gradually, the really hardy ones became known. - 70 i~F 0 F Q *~ Y 3 c ~ c c x ~ ~ w 0 .3 ~~ w~ r MS \"! F .C s O a a! G N f .0 3 a 4) A > M c 0 v c u ro 0 b 0 ~ Azaleas also interested Mr. H. H. Hunnewell at an early date, but many of the ones he imported from England were tender sorts which had to be placed in the pit house for winter. Some of the Ghent hybrids were imported as early as 1878. Walter Hunnewell became interested in the Ghent and Mollis hybrids, but T. D. Hatfield noted that by 19~9, most of the Mollis types had disappeared because they were so susceptible to borer attack. There are st~ll some excellent hybrids remaining. Early in the twentieth century, the Hunnewells obtained some of the seeds of rhododendrons and azaleas collected by E. H. Wilson in China and Japan. At about this time, the azalea species which were being grown in the arboretum (in the order of their flowering) were : Rhododendron dauricum ; mucronulatum ; vaseyi; schlippenbachi ; reticulatum ; obtusum kaempferi; yedoensis poukhanensis ; quinquefolium ; nudiflorum ; roseum ; canadensis ; japonicum ; calendulaceum ; molle ; viscosum ; arborescens. Jackson Dawson of the Arnold Arboretum gave Mr. Hatfield some small plants of R. japonicum which Mr. Hatfield crossed with R. molle. The resulting hybrids were the first authentic crosses between the Chinese and Japanese species and one of the dark orange colored clones was given the name \"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" after one of the daughters of Walter Hunnewell (Sr.). The large flowers, fully two or more inches across, are produced in large rounded heads of a rich brilliant yellow color, with the slightest tinge of red, taken from the Japanese species. Its freedom of growth, profusion of bloom, size of flowers and cheerful brilliancy of color commend it in every way. It is one of several plants which originated in the Hunnewell Arboretum. Another hybrid which Mr. Hatfield made was R. cnnarlensisX R. japonicum. The Arnold Arboretum had a plant of this sent it by a Mr. Fraser from the Pacific Coast. The true identification of this plant was doubted and Mr. Hatfield was asked to make the cross again which he did, and the resulting seedling proved to be identical to Mr. Fraser's plant. In this particular instance several hundred plants were raised but only six had vitality enough to live and carry on. Incidentally, Mr. Hatfield attempted crossing a large number of azaleas. The progeny of several always turned out to be \"mules\" -seedlings seldom living more than two or three years. Also he tried R. speciosum crossed with R. calendulaceum and Ghent R. japonicum, but he never succeeded in getting more than two or three percent of these to make real plants. (Nole: For additional listing of tender species and varieties over the years as well as for list of rhododendrons growing in 19;i~?, see main list, pages i 8--81 ). In 1928, T. D. Hatfield listed the hardy rhododendrons (as a result of their year's of growth in the Hunnewell Arboretum) as follows: R. Album Elegans Album Grandiflorum Alexander Dancer Abraham Lincoln Baroness Henry Schroeder Butlerianum 72 R. Boule de Neige Caractacus carolinianum \" album catawbiense caucasicum album , Marquis a Mme. Carvalho of Waterford a maximum < Minnie micranthum longistylum Charles Bagley Charles D~ckens C. S. Sargent Delicatissimum E. S. Rand Everestianum minus Miss Caroline Hunnewell . Mrs. Mrs. Mrs. Mrs. C. S. Sargent John Clutton Milner Charles Thorold fargesi F. L. Ames General Grant Mrs. Simpson Mum Old Port praecox giganteum Gormer Waterer Henrietta Sargent H. W. Sargent James Mackintosh James Bateman Kettledrum Lady Clermont Princes Mary of Cambridge Princess Victoria Prometheus punctatum Ralph Sanders Scipio Sultana smirnowi ungerni Lady Lady Lady Lady Armstrong Gray Egerton Rolle , sutchuenense The Bride venustum - wellesleyanum wilsoni Hillingdon The Pinetum After he moved into the new house (185~~ Mr. H. H. Hunnewell planted several kinds of evergreens about the grounds. Six Abies nordmanniana and six Abies pinsapo imported from Europe were planted in 1858. Abies nobilis and A. cephalonica received from Webber were planted in 1861. Abies sibirica; Chamaecyparis lawsoniana ; Picea abies compacta; Pinus excelsa, monticola and ponderosa were all planted in 1862. So, there was a growing interest in evergreen trees which culminated in the following statement written by Mr. Hunnewell in his diary under the date of April 1867 : \"It will be my aim to plant in it (the Pinetum) every conifer, native and foreign, that will be found sufficiently hardy to thrive in our New England climate.\" The actual work starting the Pinetum began in September 1866, when he noted in his diary on September 26, 1866, \"Commenced improving piece of land, bought last year of Darling for a Pmetum.\" Since this time, plants have been continu- ~73~ ally planted, introduced from all parts of the northern hemispheres. Many were undoubtedly brought to America for the first time. After the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum in 1872, the Hunnewells were generous contributors to the various expeditions of E. H. Wilson and frequently they received small amounts of his original seed collections. These were immediately grown, and as a result, many of the trees in the Hunnewell Arboretum are among the tallest and oldest of their kinds in America today. The story of this Pinetum is a lengthy one, and can not be told in a few printed pages, for the successes and failures were many. For instance, it took Mr. H. H. Hunnewell thirty years of experimenting with various clones of Thuja plicata from the Pacific Coast until he finally found a form that was hardy here in New England, a form which is widely grown here today. Abies fraseri was repeatedly tried, with little success, until a form was finally obtained from near the northernmost limits of its habitat in the South, and this did well. The white fir from California also was tried for many years, unsuccessfully, until a form was finally introduced from Colorado which has proved perfectly hardy over the years. This is now widely planted in the gardens of the northern United States. Abies amabilis was still another western species tried for many a long year. In fact, plants were nearly fifty years old and only twelve feet tall before it was realized that Abies homolepis, growing close by for the same length of time and forty five feet tall, was a superior tree for this eastern area. Many individual trees are still of great interest. There is an old white oak near the house which was the only tree on the pinetum grounds a hundred years ago and it is still in excellent condition-easily 60 feet high and with a spread of 80 feet. The old Norway spruce on the front lawn is undoubtedly one of the oldest in New England. It is so old that several young trees fifteen feet and more in height have sprouted from these layered branches which have rested on the for many years. The century of careful experimentation with the growth and culture of these plants has resulted naturally in the production of many new ones. Taxus media and Taxus media hatfieldi are meritorious additions to the ornamental woody plants hardy in the northern United States and both are now widely grown. One interesting pine now nearly twenty feet tall is probably a cross between Pinus strobus and P. parviflora, and has caused considerable interest. These are only a few, others are recorded in the following list. The hundreds of evergreen trees and shrubs growing in this arboretum are evidence enough of what has gone before. Abies cilicica one hundred feet high, the hardy strain of Cedrus libani nearly fifty years old and bearing large quantities of cones, dwarf forms of the Norway spruce nearly thirty feet in diameter and a Taxus cuspidata densa nearly thirty feet across - these are only a few of the ground splendid specimens as they are today. The continual gleaning of information in the Hunnewell Arboretum during the [ 74 past century has not been publicized as well as it merits. Rather it has been undertaken in a quiet way, with information freely given when it was asked for, with visitors courteously admitted to the grounds at all times. The Hunnewells have been staunch supporters of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society and have been displaying plants in the various flower shows of the Society continually since 1856. The record of prizes won is long indeed. And so, although many a gardener fails to realize it, ve have to thank the persistent efforts of three generations of Hunnewells for some of the plants we freely grow today and many of the practices we have freely adopted, all of which have resulted from their long and costly experiments ~n growing plants Woody at Wellesley. A Few of the Plants Grown in the Hunnewell Arboretum 1852-1952 The dates given here are appro.ri~nnte only, being the dates on which the plants were first mentioned in the Hunnewell diaries or in the articles and records of Dlr. Hatfield. Plants recorded as still present are not necessarily the original plants since these have died or been removed in many cases and others have been planted later. Mr. H. H. Hunnewell was introducing plants prior to 1852 and where these dates are known they are listed here. Frequently a plant was growing in the arboretum for many years before specific mention was made of it in the above records. This is not a complete list by any means, for hundreds of other plants including orchids, greenhouse plants and various kinds of fruits were grown. Nor is this a complete list of the plants now growing in this arboretum. It is merely a selected list, to show some of the interesting woody plants and especially some of those which may have been original or very early introductions. 0= Conifers and rhododendrons present in 19.i2. ~=Ylants ~=Ylants that may have been introduced by the Hunnewell Arboretum, many cases, jointly introduced with the Arnold Arboretum or in (after 1872). originating in the Hunnewell Arboretum. ~ Abies alba - 184; ~~Abies holophylla 1860 0 -r \" about 1905 t 0 0 0 \" \" columuaris - 1868 amabilis - about 1862 \" \" homolepis - about 8 \" koreana - 1908 lasiocarpa arizonica 1870 \" \" cephalonica - lj;0 t O \" cihcica - about 1870 concolor - 1867 (hardy 0 \" violacea - 1890 fargesi - about 1902 .i. form) \" ` mariesi - 1879 0 \" nephrolepis , O\" \" \" \" t \" faxoniana - about 190~? fraseri - 186 7 grandis - 1867 \" ` O\" ` nobilis - 1867 nordmanniana - 1860 recurv ata sachalinensis nemorensis about 1914 4 75 Abies cilicica Arboretum. planted in 1tt70 and PLATE XVI now the tallest tree in the Hunnewell Abies sibirica - 1867 0 \" veitchi - about 1880 ~ Acer henrvi - before 1902 Aurucaria 186; Berberis buxifolia - 184 7 ~ Buxus sempervirens - 1847 0 Cedrus libani - 184 7 Cephalotaxus fortuni - 1867 Chamaecyparis lawsoniana - 1867 \" a obtusa - 1880 Juniperus oblonga pendula - 1867 \" sabina - 1867 \" imbricata - \" tamariscifolia 1864' scopulorum 1890 to 0 0 \" \" squamata-1867 < t 64 meyeri thurifera - 1867 \" 0 \" virginiana glauca 1861 1 to Larix eurolepis - 1907 t 16 leptolepis - probably o 0 ca \" lycopodoides nana - Libocedrus decurrens 1892 ~ 0 Ligustrum japonicum obtusa \" Chamaecyparis \" `c 1892 o o .. 1847 lucidum - 1847 pisifera - 1880 ericoides - Metasequoia glyptostroboides Picea abies - 1852 1867 ~ Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera - by 1892 t\" t\" ++\" \" clanbrasitiana-1867 \"compacta 44 elegans . gregorlana ~ ~ 0 0 Chamaecyparis pisifera \"filifera aurea\" - by 1892 Chamaecyparis pisifera plumosa leptoclada by 1892 Chamaecyparis pisifera squarosa \" \" \" \" +\"\" 10 t\" -j. + '* t \" \" 0 \" pygmaea \"pumila 66 pyramidalis 64 septentrionalis asperata 1910 o 1909 about 1880 ~ Chamaecyparis pisifera \"squarosa nana\" +0 to ~0\" \" notabilis aurantiaca - 1910 ponderosa - 1910 bicolor - 1870 0 0 0 0 0 \" ~ 0 0 0 Chamaecyparis thyoides Cryptomeria japonica - 1867 \" lobbi Cunninghamia lanceolata - 1867 Cytisus multiflorus - 1847 Fagus sylvatica -1847 pendula \" `c \" \" \" \" brachytyla breweriana \" \" ~ purpurea - 1847 . Ginkgo biloba - about 185.5 0 Juniperus chinensis - 18fi 7 0 japonica f a`C3x#& ; engelmanni - 1890 0 lulauca - tbout 1854 0 66 albertiana 0 44 coniea glehni - 1892 to 0 jezoensis - 1890 honodensis \" * \" \" \" 66 about 1890 0 0 \" \" o \" a` pfitzeriana rigida communis suecica - 186 7 0 \" koyamai - 1919 likiangensis balfouriana mariana doumeti - 1900 maximowiczi -about 1895 \" 0 \" 0 \" formosana 46 77 $~Picea montigena O O \" -1908 ~ Pseudotsuga taxifolia - 184 i \" \" O O obovata omorika - 1890 orientalis - 1867 7 ~ i Pyracantha -I 84 Quercus robur - 1847 \" \" polita - 1880 0 0 Rhododendron catawbiense - hardy1890 album carolinianum maximum \" $O pungens - 186`? hardy 18 i i 1905 O\" 1900 \" compacta - before 0 gandavense hybrids 0 ~O \" pungens hunnewelliana - before 1923 o purpurea - 1910 0 0 0 minus $O \" 0 \" obtusum smirnowi amoenum - 1 l8 i retroflexa rubra wilsoni ~ Pinus armandi O O \" \" \" o o sutchuenense banksiana - about bungeana 1902 by 1905 1860 O O O 0 O O 0 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" O \" cembra - 1867 7 cembroides edulis `1 densiflora - about 1872 echinata - by 1905 flexilis - by 1902 0 koraiensis - about 18 7 186 7 griffithi lambertiana - 1867 7 monticola - 1867 7 wellesleyanum - before 190~ Rhododendrons and Azaleas (Many of these varieties were undoubtedly first introductions, but because accurate data is lacking, it is impossible to list the introductions here.) o Abraham Lincoln - 1928 Adrian Lothiar - 1889 o Album Elegans - hardy 1905 0 0 \" Grandiflorum - 1895 \" Nova Alexander Adie - 1889 Alexander Dancer - hardy 1905 America O\" O \" \" mugho mughus \" rostrata nigra austriaca - 1867 nepalensis - by 1905 ' 0 0 0 Amphion Blossom Arthur Apple 0 O O \" parviflora - by peuce - 1894 1905 \" Helps - 1889 Atrosanguineum 1905 0 0 0 \" 7 ponderosa - 1867 resinosa Auguste Van Geert - tender \" \" \" sibirica strobus nana - by 1900 O O 0 sylvestris tabulaeformis 0 thunbergi Populus tacamahaca - 1847 Prunus lusitanica - I 847 11867 \" ~ Pseudolarix amabilis - o Aurora - 1889 Bacchus - hardy1890 Bacon Dyke - 1889 Baroness Lionel Rothschild-1889 Baroness Schroeder - 1890 Beethoven Blanche Superba - tender 1905 Blue Bell - 1894 Boule de Neige - 1928 ~ '~8 Brightoni - 1889 0 0 Eclipse - 0 Brittania - tender 1928 Brookline Seedling - 1905 Butlerianum - before 19~?8 tender 1905 Edward S. Rand - hardy 1890 Everestianum - hardy 1905 Exquisite 0 0 1889 B~-lsianum-0 1889 0 y0 0 0 0 0 0 Candidissimum Captain Webb - 1889 Caractacus - 1890 Caroline H. Blake Charles Bagley - hardy 1889 Charles Napier - hardy 1889 Charles Dickens - hardy 1890 Charlie Waterer - tender 1905 Chelsoni - 1889 Chevalier Felix de Sauvage - 1889 Christiana -189.i Claude - hardy 1890 Claude Pardoloton Coerulescens - hardy 1905 Concessum - 1890 Cottage Maid Countess of Athlone Countess of Clancarty - 1890 Countess of Morello - tender 1905 Countess of Normanton - 1893 Countess of Pourtalis - 1889 Crown Prince - tender 1905 Cruentum - 1889 C. S. Sargent - 1890 Cunninghan's White o Fastuosum - 1894 F. D. Godman - 1889 F. L. Ames - 189:i Francis Dickson - 18857 Frederick Waterer - 1889 General Grant - 19~?8 o George Hardy - 1889 George Paul - 7 893 Cilennvanum Gloriosum - hardy 190.i Gormer Waterer - 1889 Grace Darling - 1890 Grand Arab - 1889 Guacino - 1889 Guido - 1889 Hamlet - 1895 Hannibal Hector - 1889 Helen Schiffner - 1905 Helen Waterer - 1889 Henrietta Sargent - 1905 Henry Bohn - 1889 H. H. Hunnewell - 1889 H. V~'. Sargent - hardy 1890 Isaac Davies - hardy 1890 Isabel Mores - 1889 0 0 0 0 0 Cynthia 0 0 1893 0 Delscatissimum - 1890 Doncastum Isago - 1892 Ignatius Sargent 0 0 0 Dorothy Dr. H. C. Dresselhuys Dr. V. H. Rutgers Duchess of Bedford - 1890 Duchess of Connaught - 1889 Duchess of Rdmburgh - 1889 Duchess of Sutherland - 1889 Duke of Teck - 1895 Earl of Haddington - 1889 James Bateman - hardy 1890 James Macintosh - hardy 1889 James Mason - 1890 James Nasmyth - hardy 1890 Jane Peele Jean Byles - 1889 0 Jean Ellis Jill Saunders 0 .J. Marshall Brooks Johann Strauss hardy 1889 [ 79 o John John John John John Henry Agnew Kelb - 1889 1894 Spencer - 1890 Walter - 1893 o o Waterer - 1889 Kate Waterer - 1889 Kettledrum - hardy1890 Kewense - tender King of the Purples - hardy 1905 Lady Annette de Trafford - 1889 1928 o Lady Armstrong - 1890 Lady Dorothv Beville - tender 1905 Lady o o Frances Crossley - hardy 1905 Lady Clermont - Hardy 1889 Lady Gray Edgerton - hardy 1889 o Lady Hillington - 19011 Lady Lopez - 1889 Lady Olive Guinness - tender 1905 o Lady Rolle - 1895 Lady Tankerville - 1889 Lord Eversley - 1889 Palmerston - 1889 Roberts Sefton - 1905 Selborne - 1889 3 Louisa Hunnewell - before 1915 Luciferum Lucidum - tender 1905 Maculatum superbum - hardy 1890 o Lord Lord Lord Lord Lord John Russell -1889 0 o o D~me. Carvalho - 1889 o Mme. Mme. Mme. Mme. ll~lle. Masson Jean Penn - 1889 Piccoline - 1889 Wagner - tender 1905 Marie Closson - 1890 1893 Maggie Heywood - Marchioness of Lansdowne - 1889 Marie Stuart - tender 1905 0 8 Marquis of Waterford -1928 Martin Hope Sutton - 1889 Maxwell T. Masters - hardy 1905 Melton - 1905 Meridan - 1889 Meteor - hardy 1890 Michael Waterer - 1889 -tender 0 Minnie - hardy 1889 Miss Buller - 1889 Miss Caroline Hunnewell - 19~?8 Miss Jekvll - tender 1905 Miss Mary Ames - hardy 1905 Micrandum - hardy 1905 o Mozart Mrs. Arthur Hunnewell - 1889 tender o Mrs. Charles Thorold o Mrs. C. S. Sargent Mrs. Frederick - 1928 Mrs. Frederick Hankey - 1889 half hardy Mrs. Heywood - 1889 - tender Mrs. Harry Ingersoll - 1893 Mrs. H. S. Hunnewell - 1893 o Mrs. John Clutton - 1889 Mrs. John Kelk - hardy 1905 Mrs. Penn - 1892 Mrs. J. P. Lade - 1895 0 Mrs. D~ilner - 1890 o Mrs. P. den Ouden Mrs. R. G. Shaw - 1898 Mrs. R. S. Holford - 1889 Mrs. Russell Sturgess - 1889 tender Mrs. S. Simpson - hardy 1905 Mrs. Shuttleworth - 1890 Mrs. Thomas Wain - hardy 1889 Mrs. Wendell - 1890 Mrs. Millbank - 1928 Neilsoni - 1889 80 o o o Ne Plus Ultra - 1890 Neige et Cerise - 1889 Ochroleucum - 1889 Old Port - hardy 1889 Olmsted, F. L. - 1895 Papilionaceum - tender 1905 I'arson's Gloriosum I'arson's Grandiflorum Sir Sir Sir Sir Sir Arthur Grinness - hardy1890 Joseph Whitworth - 1890 Robert Peel - 1889 Thomas Ackland - 1889 Thomas Seabright - 1889 hardy Snowflake - 1889 Souvenir 1889 Stella - 1889 - tender Sultana Sunshine - 1889 T~ppo Sahib - 1889 Triomphe d'Angers - tender 1905 Van der Brocke Van Weerden Porlman Varium - 1889 Vauban - 189i Village Maid - 1892 ' 1'elopidas 1895 I'en,jerrick - tender 192R , I'icturastum - 1890 Prince of Wales - 1889 0 o 0 0 Princess Christian - 1889 Princess Louise - 1889 Princess Mary of Cambridge 189R - tender Princess Victoria - 1889 Prof. F. Bettex P. Simon - 189,i 0 o Warrior - hardy o 1889 o Purity - 1893 Purpureum Elegans-hardy 1905 Purpureum Grandiflorum - hardy 1905 0 o Purpureum splendens Queen - 1889- tender Ralph Saunders - 1889 Richard Wallace - 1889 Robert Marnock - 1889 Rosabel - 1889 Roseum Elegans - hardy 1905 Roseum Grandiflorum - 1905 Saint Simon - 1889 Samuel Morley - 1889 Sappho - 1895 - tender Scarlet Prince - tender 1928 Scipio - 1889 - tender Sefton - 1895 Sherwoodianum - 1889 Shilsoni - tender 19~8 Sibelius S~gismund Rucker - hardy 1889 Silvio - hardy 1890 ~~ ~~ Spiraea henryi 0 \" Waterer Gloriosum W. E. Gladstone -1889 ~ilhelmina William Austin - 1889 William Cowper - hardy1890 William J. Penn - 1890 William Mintor - 1889 Sciadopitysverticillata - 1867 since 1905 o veitchi - 1907 0 Taxodium distichum - by 1880 Taxus baccata - by 1905 \" to t0 \" miyabei - since 1905 trichocarpa - 1920 \" adpressa \" aurea - by 1905 1905 0 \" \" 0 O 0 `a \" fastigiata cc repandens chinensis 1847 \" \" o \" cuspidata - 1866 densaabout 1900 ~~ 81 Taxus media - about 1900 PLATE XVII Taxus media hatfieldi originated in the Hunnewell Arboretum. This picture was taken by E. H. Wilson in 1929. ~0 Taxus media hatfieldi - about 1900 Thuja `` occidentalis - 18 7 0 r `` 0 Torreva taxifolia 0 Tsuga canadensis macrophylla Q pyramidalis \" \" i hoveyi - 186 1902 \" \" meldensis 1867 Thuja occidentalis robusta -1867 Thuja orientalis 0 plicata - 1867 \" 0 Tsuga caroliniana - about 1895 O \" chinensis 0 \" diversifolia - about 1900 0 \" heterophylla \" mertensiana 0 \" 4 standishi - about 18 7 Thujopsis dolobrata - 1867 Torreva mucifera - by 190.i 0 \" sieboldi - 1892 ~ by 1905 Ulex europaea plena - 1847 Ulmus campestris -184 i Tree Measurements in feet, 1892-1949 (These are only a few of many recorded) First Pla~xted 1892 Ht. 22 42 28 1905 Ht. 5 19Z9 199 Ht. 25 Ht. Spread QO Abies amabilis \" \" brachyphylla cephalonica cilicica concolor 188L 1870 1860 1870 1867 1909 3.5 51 49 35 59 59 \" 82 30 \" \" (Colo. form) holophylla homolepis koreana \" 1880 1909 1902 1880 1914 1860 1914 1880 1867 24 54 47 69 19 37 35 \" \" lasiocarpa arizonica After mariesi 19 \" 9 42 15 22 19 20 .59 ~0 35 \" nephrolepis nordmanniana sachalinensis nemorensis veitchi Chamaecyparis lawsoniana obtusa \" \" \" \" \" pisifera \" aurea 1880 1880 1867 1892 1880 1855 1913 1861 1852 1919 \" 32 12 9 31 32 25 35 5$ 47 56 6 40 40 50 45 \" \" filifera 15'6\" 29 50 30 \" \" squarosa Ginkgo biloba Larix eurolepis leptolepis \" 45 50 52 60 54 78 Picea abies \" 87 30 26 86 5 70 90 58 asperata notabilis bicolor \" 1870 1890 21 \" engelmanni glauca \" 1 \" 18.54 \" conica 1909 25 5 65 36 5Q 1Q 18 83 First Planted rssa zsus 19~9 1.949 Ht. 49 Ht. Ht. 5 Ht. Spread 19 Picea glehni jezoensis \" 1892 1890 1890 1895 \" 1902 \" 1900 \" L890 \" 1867 \" 1862 parryana \" 1880 polita \" 1862 pungens After 1902 Pinus bungeana \" densiflora umbraculifera 190~L \" \" \" \" honodensis maximowiczi After koyamai mariana doumetti omorika orientalis \" 17 17 11 45 30 17 33 17 33 16 49 32 34 39 10 10 45 45 41 64 .57 69 ~LO ~3 zo \" \" \" banksiana echinata flexilis koraiensis lambertiana 1860 By 1905 After 1902 1870 1867 1867 Q~ ll 18 38 27 37 37 35 ~9 \" \" \" nigra austriaca parviflora By 1905 QO 29 43 56 85 64 peuce \" resinosa \" strobus Pseudolarix amabilis Pseudotsuga taxifolia Sciadopitys verticillata Taxodium distichum Taxus media hatfieldi Thuja standishi Torreya nucifera Tsuga canadensis \" \" \" caroliniana diversifolia sieboldi 1894 1873 1840 1867 1867 ? By 1880 1914 ? 1874 By 1885 1860 1895 About 1900 189~1 33 60 90 90 21 36 35 57 14 43 ~S 54 ~1 47 36 50 31 54 15 4.5 ~6 86 37 31 33 41 15 57 25 7~ 30 15 DONALDWYMAN This information has been obtained from the published and unpublished diaries of H. H. Hunnewell, Walter Hunnewell, Sr., Walter Hunnewell, Jr., from many published articles and unpublished notes of T. D. Hatfield, and from first hand information given by Mr. Walter Hunnewell, Jr., and his present super- intendent, Mr. John Ellis. 84 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XII","article_sequence":9,"start_page":85,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24249","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25e856c.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XII Illustrations are . in bold face type Abeliophyllum distichum, tum, Plate - 46 - glabra, ~0 30 Abies cilicica in Hunnewell Arbore- - XVI, 76 3 - laciniosa, ovalis, 80 ovata, ;30 homolepis, - - - koreana, 3 Acer circinatum, griseum, 3 Castanea and Hort. 3 - 1 vars., 81 1 crenata, $1 - - - palmatum platanoides columnare, 4 \"Crimson King,\" 4 - rubrum columnare, 4 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 4 Amelanchier laevis, 6 - atropurpureum, 4 mollissima, 811 libani, 6 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Plate VI, - Cedrus 16; 8 Cercis canadensis alba, 8 Cherry, Oriental, \"Fugenzo,\" Plate IV, 12 Chestnut and Hort. vars., 3 1-32 Cladrastis lutea, 56-5 i Clematis paniculata, 59 Arnold Arboretum, Field Class 1952, 44 - - -, lecture on, 60 -, Spring comes to the, 45-48 Autumn Color, 53-60 Autumn blooming shrubs, 59 Dull autumn coloration, 56 Why leaves are yellow, 54 Why leaves are red, 55 Woody plants with, 56-59 i red, 57 reddish to reddish-purple, 58 yellow, 58 yellowish to bronze, 58 no autumn color, 58 Azalea \"Louisa Hunnewell,\" 72 Azaleas, The flower colors of one hundred hardy, 41-44 Coggeshall, Roger, 46 Color, Autumn, 53-60 Colors of one hundred hardy Azaleas, The flower, 41-44 Colour Chart, Royal Horticultural, 41-44 Corylus and Hort. - vars., 8~-~4 americana, 82 - avellana, maxima, 46 82 82 - cornuta, AR Peters - Crabapples, flowering, on Creech, John, 48 Elaeagnus angustifolia, Ellis, John, 68 Hill, 8 Butternut and Hort. vars., 26-28 Carya laciniosa, Plate XI, 33 1 - and Hort. vars., 30-31 Elscholtzia stauntoni, 59 Evodia danielli, 8 -- alba, - 30 cordiformis, 80 Fagus sylvatica pendula in Hunnewell Arboretum, Plate XIII, 65 85] Field Class, Spring 1952, 44 Filbert and Hort. vars., 32-33 MacDaniels, L. H..21-40 Magnolia denudata, Plate XII, 47 ; 11 1 - Fothergilla monticola, Franklinia alatamaha, 55-56 59 \"Fugenzo,\" oriental cherry, Plate - kobus, Plate XII, 47 ; 45 loebneri \"Merrill,\" Plate XII, 47 ; 45 IV, 12 Gardens, Best trees for Massachusetts, 1-20 - - Gleditsia triacanthos \"Moraine,\" 8 o Halesia monticola, Plate IV, 12; 10 Hamamelis virginiana, 59 7 Harris, F. L., 67 Hatfield, T. D., 67 Heartnut and Hort. vars., 30 Hickory Nut, Plate XI, 33 and Hort. vars., 30-31 Hunnewell Arboretum, The -- proctoriana, Plate XII, 47 salicifolia, Plate XII, 47 stellata, Plate XII, 47 ; 45 - stellata X kobus, 45 - I virginiana,11 Magnolias, Plate XII, 47; 45 Malus \"Dorothea,\" - 11 I - 1852-1952, 61-84 Tree measurements, 83-84 Trees and Shrubs introduced by, 75-83 3 Trees and Shrubs listed in, 75-83 Trees and Shrubs originated in, 75-83 Hunnewell, H. H., 62 Hunnewell, Walter, Sr., 66 7 Hunnewell, Walter, Jr. 67 Ilex - I hupehensis, 11 3 purpurea aldenhamensis, 13 3 - lemoinei, 13 3 toringoides, 13 Merrill, Dr. E. D., 45 Nut Growing in the Northeastern United States, 21-40 Climatic Factors, 22-24 Cross Pollination, 38 Cultural Practices, 34-86 Fertilizers, 36-37 Harvesting Nuts, 39 Insect and Disease Troubles, 37-38 - Map, absolute minimum temp., Plate 25 pedunculosa, 30 10 o VII, `L3 season, Juglans, - Map, growing 30 10 o Plate VIII, cordiformis and Hort. vars., 30 ailantifolia, Map, July temp., 1926-1940, the Arnold Plate IX, 27 Species and vars., Summary, 39 26-34 Kalopanax pictus, Plate III, 9; Kodachrome slides on Arboretum, 60 Koelreuteria paniculata, 10 Larix leptolepis, 111 - - - Lespedeza japonica, 59 thunbergi, 59 Ligustrum ibolium, 48 obtusifolium, 48 8 regelianum, 48 Lipp, Lewis, 46 - Oxydendrum arboreum, Plate V, 3 14; 13 Parrotia persica, 13 3 Pecan and Hort. vars., 31 1 Phellodendron amurense, Plate 7; 15 Picea asperata, 15 - II, omorika, 15 86 - 8 Pinetum, The, 73 bungeana, 15 7 thunbergi, 17 Polygonum auberti, 59 Prunus avium plena, 17 7 Pinus Styrax japonica, Plate V, 15 Syringa amurensis japonica, Plate VI, 16; 19 Taxus media hatfieldi, Plate 82 XVII, - serrulata --- \"Amanogawa,\" 17 Thuja plicata Plate 19 \"Fugenzo,\" Plate IV, 1~; 17 Topiary Garden in Hunnewell Arb., - - \" Kwanzan,\" 17 7 Pseudolarix amabilis, 18 Rhododendron canadensis cum, 72 XIV, 69 Xjaponi- Tree measurements, Trees, Among the Best 19-20 - Common, - dauricum, 46 Rhododendrons, hardy 62 at Wellesley, l - - in Hunnewell 2 Arboretum, 72 - - winter injury to, 46 and Azaleas, 78 41-44 I i ' - Royal Horticultural Colour Chart, Sciadopitys verticillata, Plate I, 5 ; 18 for Massachusetts gardens, Fortyfive of the best, 1-20 and Shrubs introduced by Hunnewell Arb., 75-83 and Shrubs originated in Hunnewell Arb., 75-83 U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Md. 48 - Walnut Black and Hort. vars., 26-28 blooming, 59 - Some Winterkilling of Certain, autumn Shrubs, - Japanese, 30 49-52 - Persian and Hort. vars., 22, 28 Walnuts, Black, Plate X, 29 - - I injured, 50-51 not injured, 51-52 Sophora japonica, 18 - Spring Sources for trees, 2-3 comes to the Arnold Arbore- tum, 45-48 Stewartia koreana, 18 8 ~ Weeping Willow, 45 leafing dates, 46 Winter-Killing of Certain Shrubs, percentage of, 49-52 injured, 50-51 not injured, 51-52 - 8T _ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23487","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e816e.jpg","title":"1952-12","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1952,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forty-Five of the Best Shrubs for Massachusetts Gardens","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24235","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24eb726.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 11 i MARCH 9, 1951 1 NUMBER 1 FORTY-FIVE OF THE BEST SHRUBS FOR MASSACHUSETTS GARDENS thousands of different kinds of shrubs growing in D~assabut many of these are decidedly inferior to others from an ornamental viewpoint. Just which ones are best will always be a debatable question. Some are meritorious for autumn coloration ; some make far better hedges than others; still others are superior for spring bloom. No two people will ever agree on a small list of the best shrubs (the smaller the list the more the disagreement!) Even with these points clearly in mind, the plants discussed on the following pages are offered as among the best shrubs for Massachusetts actually THERE gardens today, chusetts are gardens. First, however, before scrutinizing the list, it should be understood that there are several \"old stand-bys\" that will always be most serviceable. New shrubs may be glowingly discussed in the catalogues, but these old-fashioned favorites have served reliably for many years and probably will continue to do so for many more. These are among the plants which every gardener should know and use, for one reason or another. Nothing is meant to be implied in the discussions of the forty-five \"selected\" types, that would cast a shadow of doubt on the serviceability of these. A few are listed on page 20. With the above-mentioned \"common\" shrubs clearly in mind, let us consider some that are more unusual, either not used as frequently in gardens as they might be or are more difficult to find in nurseries. It should be emphasized that some Massachusetts nurseryman has indicated in 1951 that he has plants of each * This list was prepared at the request of the Horticultural Committee of the Garden Club Federation of Massachusetts, five of the plants to be discussed at each of the nine meetings of horticultural chairmen throughout the year. Because of wide-spread interest in this list, it is here reproduced for the benefit of ARNOLDIA subscribers. It is not perfect and many will take exception to it. However, it does include 45 top-notch shrubs that can be used more in our gardens today. Most important, all are available in l9ot from local nurseries! 1~ ] of the varieties listed (two exceptions only), available for sale in 1951, and those sources are given. It is useless to become enthusiastic about a plant that is unobtainable. Not so this list of forty-five. Every one is grown and offered for sale in 1951 by some easily available nurseryman (and there are other nursery sources on the record, outside the state, where these plants can be obtained likewise). Consequently, the gardeners of the state are urged to become acquainted with some of the shrubs in the following list in 1951, to purchase and use a few that they do not know already, and in this way increase their knowledge of good plants as well as improve the beauty of the plantings about their homes. one Forty-five of the \" 1 Best Shrubs Recommended for Massachusetts Gardens 11 i Berberis julianae 2, 5, 7, 10, koreana 1, 3, 4, 5, 6 Buxus microphylla koreana 2, 4, 5, 6, 8, 11 Chionanthus virginicus 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 1I 1 Clethra alnifolia rosea 4, 5, 10,11 o Cornus alba sibirica 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, 10 1 Cotoneaster dammeri 5, 6, 11 .` divaricata 2, 4, 6, 8 Cytisus praecox 2, 4, 5, 7, 8 i Enkianthus campanulatus 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 1 alata compacta 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 Euonymus Fothergilla sp. 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11 1 1 Hamamelis mollis 5, 6, I , 8, 1 \" vernalis 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 Hypericum sp. 1, 2, 5, 6, 8 i Ilex crenata convexa 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 0 chinensis sargenti 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Juniperus 1 Leucothoe catesbaei 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 Lonicera amoena arnoldiana 5, 6 \" bella 1, 6 \" korolkowi floribunda 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 i Magnolia stellata ~, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11 1 Mahonia aquifolium ~, 5, 6, 7, 8, 11 i Malus sargenti 1, 2, 3, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 lemoinei \"Avalanche\" 6, 7, 9, 10 Philadelphus \" ' splendens 6 1 Pieris floribunda 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 ' japonica 1,2,111 Potentilla fruticosa 6, 7, 8 Rhododendron arborescens l, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10 \" calendulaceum 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, \" _ 11 Rhododendron \" \" gandavense 9 i mucronulatum 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 schlippenbachi 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, smirnowi 4, 9 1 11 \" \" vaseyi 1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, I0, 10 11 i 1 Rosa multiflora 1, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11 Syringa persica 1, 2, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, \" prestoniae 5, 6 Taxus \" 1 cuspidata nana 1, ~?, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 Tsuga canadensis pendula 5, 7, 8 diversifolia 5, 7, 9 i Viburnum dilatatum 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 \" 1 sieboldi 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 \" tomentosum 2, 5, 6, 7, 8 Sources for Shrubs Listed 2. Nursery, Inc., Westfield, Mass. State Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. Bay 3. Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury, Mass. 4. Harlan P. Kelsey, Inc., East Boxford, Mass. j. 6. 1. Adams Kingsville Nurseries, Kingsville, Maryland Henry Kohankie Son, Painesville, Ohio 7. Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, 227 Centre Avenue, Abington, Mass. 8. Weston Nurseries, Inc., Weston, Mass. 9. Wyman's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Mass. 10. Lexington Nurseries, Inc., 1266 Massachusetts Ave., Lexington 73, Mass. 11. Tingle Nurseries, Pittsville, Maryland Forty-five Berberis julianae of the best shrubs for Massachusetts gardens 6~ Zone 5 Wintergreen Barberry A very dense growing, hardy, evergreen barberry. This is one of the few barberries not susceptible to the black stem rust of wheat and hence it is allowed to be grown and sold freely. It should have some winter protection in the coldest parts of the state, and might well be used in evergreen foundation plantings where some protection is usually available. There are other evergreen barberries that are as good or possibly even better, but this one is available. Its spiny evergreen leaves, delicate yellow bell-like flowers and blue fruits combine to make it an interesting plant. Berberis koreana 6~ Zone 5 Korean Barberry ries This deciduous Korean Berberry is rapidly proving itself in gardens and nursethroughout the eastern United States as a perfect substitute for the some- 31 l what taller and certainly more common barberry (B. vulgaris). This latter is one of the many species which is an alternate host for the devastating wheat rust, and it is these that the U.S. Department of Agriculture is passing legislation against so that it is becoming increasingly difficult for commercial men to grow them. In this case, the Korean Barberry is a perfect substitute, with its small, pendulous fruit clusters of bright red berries in the fall and its fiery red autumn foliage coloration. It makes an excellent barrier plant as well as a fine specimen. Buxus microphylla koreana 3-4' Zone 5 Korean Box This is the hardiest of all the boxwoods. Because of the gardener's inherent desire for boxwood in plantings, even in New England, this variety may have merit. Admittedly there are several clons of the true English Box (Buxu.s sempervirens) that have shown indications of hardiness in New England under varied climatic conditions, but until these are propagated on a wide scale and thoroughly tested under all of New England's tough growing conditions, one might do well, if box must be grown, to confine one's efforts to this species. As time goes on, it may well be that some of the many clons above-mentioned will replace this variety in popularity. virginicus 30~ Zone 4 Chionanthus Fringe-tree Fringe-tree makes a fine ornamental, either as a large shrub or as a small tree. Its fleecy white flowers are produced in the utmost profusion. Usually the sexes are separate with the staminate flowers the larger. One word of caution should be given, for since this plant is closely related to the lilacs, it is also susceptible to the same scale infestations. These should be rigidly controlled. Especially does this make a well-rounded specimen plant in the full sun where it seems to grow best. Some Europeans consider this one of the most striking of the American shrubs introduced into Europe. The fruits are large and grapelike, and the brilliant yellow autumn color is outstanding. Its leaves appear late in the spring, one of the last plants in the Arboretum to produce leaves. Even with this drawback, it makes a splendid specimen where it can be given plenty of This native room. Clethra alnifolia rosea 9~ Zone 3 Pink Summersweet Either this variety or the species makes an excellent addition to the garden for bloom and fragrance. Not many shrubs bring forth deliciously fragrant flowers in the summer and the narrow spikes of the Summersweet are most beautiful. The flowers of the species are white, and this variety has flowers that are tinged a light pink. Sometimes they gradually fade white. If the pink-flowered form is not essential, don't overlook the species, a native along the New England coast. It tends to grow in clumps and it increases by underground stems. If the summer :soil is too dry, there may be some danger from an infestation of red spider, which can be controlled, but in moist soils it is at its best. Native American plants should be exploited in our gardens to the utmost, and this is one that apparently has not been used as much as it should. Cornus alba sibirica 9~ Zone 2 This variety does not spread as rapidly as does our native C. fact should be kept in mind so that it is not planted in borders and expected to \"take over,\" as is C. stolonifera. However, the Siberian Dogwood has stems the winter color of which is the brightest red of any shrub available. Unfortunately it has become mixed in American nurseries, with some of the lesser brilliant redstemmed forms, but the real plant is excellent for winter color. It is best to prune it heavily every third year or so, even cutting the planting to the ground in the early spring, so that the young shoots will grow vigorously. It is these that are the brightest colored. Its numerous white flowers in late May, and white to bluish berries in the early fall, are additional reasons why it should be grown. Cotoneaster dammeri Dogwood stolonifera, and this Siberian 1~ Zone 3 Bearberry Cotoneaster Lower in habit than C. horizontalis, this makes an excellent ground cover or rock It is not recommended in place of C. horizontalis but only in situations where a lower plant of this type is desired. Its bright red berries are most conspicuous in the fall. garden plant. Cotoneaster divaricata 6~ Zone 5 Spreading Cotoneaster The arching, spreading habit of this 6~ Cotoneaster is outstanding. The branches covered with small bright red berries each fall. The leaves are only ~~~ long and in the experience of several Massachusetts commercial growers, this species is easily among the most reliable for the state. are Cytisus praecox 6 Zone 5 Warminster Broom If dry soil or very poor soil is present in the garden, where few other things will grow, the chances are the Brooms will thrive. This one in particular is recommended because of its hardiness (more hardy than the Scotch Broom which has been naturalized on the Cape) and because of its green twigs, that actually give the plant an evergreen appearance in the winter. It grows in a very dense manner, with minute leaves, but its pale yellow pea-like flowers appear in midMay in the greatest profusion. It should be noted that large plants are hard to move. To avoid disappointments, buy small plants, preferably in pots, and set them out in spring in their permanent situation. 6 Enkianthus campanulatus 30~ Zone 4 Redvein Enkianthus An ericaceous shrub requiring the same type of cultural conditions as azaleas and rhododendrons, but differing in having small bell-shaped flowers in mid-May and brilliant scarlet autumn color. The flowers appear just before the leaves and so are easily seen. A good acid soil plant, not used nearly enough m our gardens. Euonymus alata compacta as i~ Zone 3 Dwarf Burning Bush should well known. It originated in the Adams Nursery in West Springprove just field in l9Rfi, and only now is becoming widely available. It makes a splendid dense, rounded specimen and has been used in hedges requiring no clipping if sufficient room is available. When space is limited, it can be easily restrained with clipping every other or even every third year. One of the specimens growing in the Arnold Arboretum colors so vividly every autumn that it is easily among the best of all the plants there for fall color. Everyone knows the Cork Bush, but this compact, dwarf form is one that Fothergilla species There are 3-9~ Zone 5 Fotherg~lla several species available from different nurserymen, varying chiefly in height at maturity. All have interesting, white, thimble-like flowers in midspring, and all have an excellent yellow and red autumn foliage coloration in the fall, especially when grown in the full sun. If in the shade, neither flowers nor autumn coloration are quite so marked. However, in a foundation planting, especially with an evergreen background, these American natives can be kept restrained and still be among the most ornamental plants during the two seasons when they are at their best. They are rather difficult to propagate except by seed, one of the reasons why the nurserymen fail to grow them in large quantities, but from the standpoint of the home gardener, they are certainly worth seeking out! Hamamelis mollis 30~ Zone 5 Chinese Witch-hazel This Witch-hazel has the largest flowers of the group, and they are fragrant as well - hence it makes a desired garden specimen. Its flowers with unique ribbon-like petals, and its brilliant yellow autumn color, are its chief reasons for two-season interest. It can easily be kept controlled with judicious pruning. Hamamelis vernalis 10~ Zone 5 Vernal `Vitch-hazel There are several Witch-hazel species available, but this one should be better known. It is an American native, with deliciously fragrant small flowers in late winter-actually it is the first woody plant to bloom. It is vigorous in growth, needs almost no attention, and like others in this group has bright yellow fall :7 color. Although the Chinese Witch-hazel has larger flowers, this Vernal Witchhazel makes a fine bush and is hardier, being amenable to all sorts of pruning and restraint, especially by the over-anxious gardener who likes to force things indoors. Hypericum species Ground Cover to 6~ Zone 4-7 St. Johnsworts The St. Johnsworts are low woody shrubs, sometimes ground covers, valued for their bright yellow flowers. Some of them, as they grow tall, will have a very interesting shiny brown exfoliating bark of considerable ornamental value in the winter. The ground covers, especially, are frequently avid growers and can quickly crowd out other low plants in the rockery if not restrained. Their fruits are dry capsules and have little autumn coloring. However, a splendid feature of this group, especially the ground covers, is the fact that they grow well in dry, sandy soil. Some of them, like Hypericum prol'Tfccum, continue to produce flowers over many weeks in the summer and, of course, summer-flowering shrubs, especially those with bright yellow flowers, are none too numerous. These plants should not be overlooked for the small garden especially since several species are available commercially to fit several types of situations. If summer bloom amongst the shrubs is not particularly needed, the shrubby types might be passed over, but the ground covers have merit regardless. Ilex crenata convexa 15~ Zone 5 Convex Leaved Japanese Holly The best New ers England may want to try the true Box substitute for Box. As stated previously, some gardenor one of its many so-called \"hardy\" clons. For those who do not want to take this chance, this small leaved evergreen is the substitute. One plant in the Arnold Arboretum now is easily 7' tall and at least twice as broad without a dead branch in it. Like other varieties of this species, it is easily pruned and can be used in hedges, but as a specimen plant, untouched by the pruning shears, it makes an excellent well-shaped specimen. perfect Juniperus chinensis sargenti more Ground Cover Zone 4 Sargent Juniper Certainly not a new plant to American gardens, but one that could well stand general use. It is a low, prostrate ground cover, found in seashore areas in junipers used for ground 6~ covers. its native habitat in mats 8-10~ in diameter. Its steel blue color differs from that of most Leucothoe catesbaei Zone 4 Drooping Leucothoe An American native, it is black-listed in New England sometimes merely bepeople do not know how to care for it properly. It may grow as high as 6' in its native habitat, but in New England it should be kept much lower mostly under three feet. Whenever it is severely injured by a hard winter it might well cause 8 . ground and started all over again. The lustrous dark green leaves enough why it should always be kept growing vigorously, and the bronze autumn color of the foliage lends value to any evergreen foundation planting in the winter. In spots where some winter protection is available, especially some shade during late February and March, the foliage will not be burned as much as when the plant is grown with full exposure to sun and vi~inds. The small racemes of waxy white flowers borne on the under side of arching stems repay anyone for taking a few pains in providing the right growing conditions be cut to the in summer are reason and winter protection. Lonicera amoena arnoldiana 9~ Zone 5 Arnold Honeysuckle A very graceful floriferous shrub, it is meritorious for the arching habit of its branches as well as its delicate foliage. Since honeysuckles are not susceptible to serious disease pests, it is well to know a few others than the one or two common species that are planted so much. Lonicera bella 6~ occur Zone 4 Belle Honeysuckle hybrid species that cause this group to be one of the fruitful of all. Either for massing or for specimen use these plants have merit. The early summer fruits are, like other Loniceras, very bright and attractive to birds. Several clons most floriferous and most in this Lonicera korolkowi floribunda 1 Zone 5 Blue-leaf Honeysuckle are Either the species or the variety (they are very likely mixed in many nurseries) outstanding for their bluish to grey-green foliage color, adding considerable color variation in the shrub border throughout the entire growing season. It must be noted here that this is one species, as opposed to all the other honeysuckles, that is apparently difficult to establish, but once growing well, it is a worthy addition to the plant population of any garden. Magnolia stellata 20~ .i Zone Star Magnolia Actually a tree, but easily grown as a shrub even on the small property. The white, fragrant, star-like flowers appear in late April as first among the Magnolias. It also is the hardiest and the only one with a good bronze autumn color when grown in the full sun. Its dense habit of growth, splendid green foliage and autumn color make it a valued addition to the larger shrubs available for Massachusetts planting. Mahonia aquifolium 3' most This is in the perhaps the East, yet it could be Zone 5 rarely 6' Oregon Holly-grape popular of the Pacific Northwest plants now grown used more. Its lustrous dark green, leathery leaves, 10 pyramidal spikes summer, make it of bright yellow flowers use and light-blue grape-like fruits situations, especially in early effective for in many in evergreen foundation plantings and in shaded spots It does well in poor soil and can be kept low by proper pruning Its spiny, holly-like evergreen leaves are interesting and its method of increasing by underground stolons insure its use as a ground cover of fair height. Malus sargenti 6' Zone 5 Sargent Crab apple The lowest of all the crab apples, included here for it seldom grows over 8' in this is a crab apple that can be used on the small grounds. It usually grows twice as broad as high, and, of course, has two seasons of colorful interest, because of profuse white flowers in May and dark red fruits in the fall. height, Philadelphus lemoinei \"Avalanche\" 4~ Zone 5 \" This excellent little variety is only about 4' tall, with single white flowers 1~~ in diameter and a fine arching habit from which the plant takes its name. Philadelphus splendens 8~ Zone 5 Of excellent habit, this is another mock-orange that can be used as a specimen if desired for it is well clothed with branches to the ground. The flowers are borne in groups of five with conspicuous yellow stamens, but they have only mediocre fragrance. In some situations sacrifices can be made in the fragrance of the flowers in order to have a plant that is symmetrical and well branched. Pieris floribunda 6~ Zone 4 Mountain Andromeda One of the most serviceable of all broad-leaved evergreens in the North beit seems to do well in any normal soil and has no serious pests or diseases. The erect to nodding clusters of white flowers are composed of numerous small waxy flowers similar in size and shape to those of the blueberry. The flower buds somewhat of a conspicuous promise are prominently evident all winter long that spring-blossoming time is just around the corner. cause - Pieris japonica 9~ Zone 5 Japanese Andromeda An excellent broad-leaved evergreen for the same reasons P. floribunda is popular. In addition, the Japanese Andromeda has a lustrous dark green foliage and flower clusters that are pendulous. A well-grown specimen of the Japanese Andromeda, covered with lustrous leaves and pendulous flower clusters, is about as beautiful an evergreen as it is possible to grow. In New England it should be grown in protected places, but farther South this is unnecesary. Young foliage is usually a rich bronze in spring, later turning a normal green. This species can 1 11 be grown in a shaded situation, but like many other many flowers there as in situations with more sun. Potentilla fruticosa plants, will not produce as 4~ Zone 2 Bush Cinquefoil Many varieties of this species have been found over a wide area of the northern hemispheres. The sturdy, very hardy plants, bloom in mid-J'Iay- and continue throughout summer, sometimes even into September. Because of its comparatively low height, its lack of interesting fruits and autumn color, its garden effectiveness is easily supplanted by annuals or perennials. Incidentally, a large number of potentillas are herbaceous. When comparing P. fruticosa varietal differences with those of the massive lilac, they do not appear very important. The extremely long blooming season is their only redeeming factor for the places where they might be used in the garden are limited. Rhododendron arborescens 9~ Zone 4 Sweet Azalea An unusually fragrant species, blooming near the end of the azalea sequence. Even though the beautiful white flowers do appear after the leaves, they are conspicuous and their delicious fragrance makes them useful in mass plantings. Rhododendron calendulaceum 9~ rarely 15~ Zone 5 Flame Azalea This is the most showy of the American species and is among the best for northern gardens. It has the unique property of retaining its colorful flowers in good condition in full sun for nearly two full weeks in June. The flowers of many Asiatic azaleas quickly fade in direct sun and so must be used with partial shade if they are to be enjoyed for a longer period. When large numbers of seedlings are grown it is noticed that the flower colors vary from yellow (orange buff 507 to cadmium orange 8) to scarlet (19~ on the Royal Horticultural Colour Chart. The lighter colored forms have been given the varietal name croceum, and the red-colored types the varietal name aurantiacum. Since very few azaleas are in flower at the time this species blooms, this variation in color is most helpful in making an interesting display when planted singly and in groups in an open oak woods, there is nothing at this time of year more colorful. - Rhododendron gandavense 6-10~ into the Zone 4 Ghent Azalea hardy species of value because they garden at a time when they are greatly needed. Ghent azaleas have lived many years and been perfectly hardy as far north as Bryant Pond, Maine, where they have been exposed to temperatures as low as 20 degrees below zero. Some nurserymen grow these from seed, some propagate them by asexual means so that the definite colors of the variety will be maintained. A very interesting and lively colored group, these should be There are many hybrid varieties of this bring brilllant red and yellow flowers m~ ] PLATE III Viburnum sieboldi makes specimen is 37 years old. a splendid specimen in flower or in fruit. This particular used men considerably will find more means than they are, and it is hoped that more and more nurseryof propagating them asexually. They bloom just before R. calendulaceum. Rhododendron mucronulatum 6~ Zone 4 Korean Rhododendron another member of this genus blooms earlier in the Arnold Arborecan really be considered the first of its clan to bring forth flowers in the spring, since the other is not a good ornamental. It is not wise to use this plant in the coldest parts of the state, but if planted where it obtains some winter protection, it will usually bloom in mid-April except in the coldest years. A particularly good plan is to use it on the northern slopes where its early opening flowers may be retarded just long enough to protect them from late freezes. Easily pruned, and perfectly at home under pine trees, it is one of our earliest flowering shrubs. Although tum, this Korean Rhododendron Rhododendron schlippenbachi 15~ Zone 4 A handsome azalea because of its good growth habits and It has very large flowers appearing in mid-May and is fortunate in being in the group with colorful autumn foliage. These are two important reasons for including it in the garden. Rhododendron smirnowi Royal Azalea general appearance. 6-18~ Zone 4 Smirnow Rhododendron Perfectly hardy as far north as Boston, this dense rhododendron makes a good ornamental not only for its large flowers but also because the undersurfaces of the leaves are covered with a conspicuous white, woolly tomentum that adds to its attractiveness. Because of this woolly undersurface, the plant is not infested with lace bug - an important maintenance item. Sometimes the flowers have corollas with a wavy margin which is another desirable characteristic. All in all this species, though little used yet in American gardens, can well be added to an ever lengthening list of worthy rhododendrons. Rhododendron vaseyi 6-9~ one Zone 4 Pinkshell Azalea This native azalea is hence it has two good very few with colorful autumn foliage in the fall, of interest in gardens. It does well in moist situations bordering ponds where its delicate pink flowers can be reflected in the water, or it will do well on drier soils. One of the best of the native azaleas, the flowers appear at the same time that the young leaves of the oaks are unfurling. a of seasons Rosa multiflora 10~ rose .i Zone Japanese Rose Perhaps the most vigorous of all the used more and more as an ornamental. species, this splendid plant is being Although its flowers are small and white, they are produced in large quantities so that when the bush is in full bloom it is literally cov ered with blossoms. These are followed by myriads of small red beron the plant throughout the winter and afford food for the much so that it is being widely planted for this reason alone. It also makes an excellent understock in grafting, especially a thornless strain which has recently become popular among nurserymen. There are nurseries which use it entirely as an understock for the grafting of hybrid tea and perpetual roses. One other important asset is its definite arching habit of growth. A mature plant may easily be 8' high and 1~!~ across, a dense thicket of spiny growth. In fact, it is now being recommended by the United States Soil Conservation Service for hedge-row planting, where it not only affords an excellent medium for holding soil in place, but also is a perfect barrier and source of food for wild life. Where plenty of space is available, this rose, requiring practically no care except an occasional pruning, might well be tried. It is one of the parents of the modern rambler. Where space is limited other plants might be grown in its place since it does not look well when pruned heavily. ries which remain birds, so Syringa persica 6~ Zone 5 Persian Lilac This is the smallest of the lilacs and might be used on the small property where there is not sufficient space for the larger growing common lilacs or the vigorous Preston lilacs. When grown properly, the branches are covered with small, pale lilac blossoms. It is not seen very often in gardens, but might well be included in small property planting lists. Syringa prestoniae vars. 9~ Zone 2 Preston Lilac Some time before 1925 Miss Isabella Preston, then Horticulturist of the Canadian Experimental Station at Ottawa, Canada, made the initial cross of S. villosa X S. re~e.ra resulting in a large number of seedlings. A few of the best varieties are Isabella,'* \"Audrey,\" and \"Handel.\" Several others are being propagated by American nurserymen that are similar. They are all sturdy, dense and upright in habit, with leaves as large as those of S. villosa but the flowers are all tinged pink-a carry-over from the other parent S. roexa. 'I'he flowers are borne in large pyramidal spikes, and appear considerably after those of the common lilac varieties. A splendid group of late blooming lilacs, not especially fragrant but making outstanding specimens, they can be used either in windbreaks or in flowering hedges. They are among the hardiest of the lilac species. Taxus cuspidata nana 12~ Zone 4 Dwarf Japanese Yew Of all the yews this one is selected merely because it is slower in growth than so can be used on the small property without the fear that it will outgrow its allotted space in a short time. All yews are among the best of ornamenmost and 16 PLATE V Hamamelis mollis, the Chinese Witch-hazel, the largest flowered of this genus, first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1902. plants, serviceable the year round as dark evergreen masses of foliage which practically free of insect or disease pests. All have sexes separate, that is, the staminate flowers are on one plant and the pistillate flowers are on another. Both types must be in the near vicinity in order to insure the fruiting of the pistillate plant. There should be a spot for some yews in every garden! tal are Tsuga canadensis pendula is an 15~ Zone 4 Sargent Hemlock The Sargent Hemlock, a dwarf weeping form of the native Canada Hemlock, ideal plant for the garden where space is not too limited. In the rockery, or at the rear of a low perennial border or beside a pool, it has considerable flat topped with drooping to pendulous branches merit. Its definite form limits its use some, but gardeners certainly should know it and use it if the right place is available. It has all the good traits of the Canada Hemlock which is one of the best of all ornamental woody plants. - - Tsuga diversifolia 90~ Zone 5 Japanese Hemlock This tree is listed here merely because it is an excellent slow-growing hemlock and can fulfill the place of an evergreen shrub in many situations. If the Canada Hemlock were used, it would have to be sheared repeatedly, whereas this plant grows sufficiently slow so that it must be sheared but seldom. Worthy of a trial in evergreen plantings where the hemlock type of foliage is desirable. Viburnum dilatatum 9~ Zone 5 Linden Viburnum One of the best of the viburnums for its very colorful bright red fruits. Dense and compact in habit, it is usually covered with red fruits every fall, the fruit clusters being sometimes as much as 5\" in diameter. The yellow-fruiting variety is just as clean a shrub with regularly formed foliage and both are very dense, well adapted for either specimen planting or for massing in general. Viburnum sieboldi 80~ Zone 4 Siebold Viburnum If I were to choose only one viburnum for my garden, I think it would be this because of the splendid long (6~~) leaves, its very desirable branching habit which results in rounded masses of foliage interspersed with open areas where lights and shadows add much interest, and also because of its colorful fruits. Although these are black at maturity, they remain unripe and bright red for several weeks in summer, and even after they turn black and fall off or are eaten by birds, their red fruit-stalks remain another three or four weeks to give color to the plant at a time when the fruits of most other shrubs are not sufficiently ripened to be colorful. As a specimen plant it is the best of the viburnums for the northern United States at least. 18 Viburnum tomentosum 9~ Zone 4 Doublefile Viburnum This is really an old-fashion favorite but the more conspicuous flowered variety, the Japanese Snowball, has taken its place too often. The central flowers in the flat clusters of the species are small and fertile, the flowers on the perimeter of the cluster are the large sterile flowers. This plant is outstanding in the fall because of its numerous red fruits, that eventually turn black and are most attractive to birds. It also has merit because of its decidedly horizontal branching, interesting throughout the entire year. Several varieties of this species are also excellent for the same reasons, especially the variety mariesi, the fruit of which is even more ornamental than that of the species, but unfortunately this variety is not being offered in 1951 by any of the nurserymen here listed. An excellent species, this may easily grow as broad as it does tall. In the coldest sections of New England it may need some winter protection. Among The Best Common Shrubs Everyone Uses Are: I Berberis thunbergi 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 11 i Cornus mas 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, Cotoneaster horizontalis 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 1 Ilex crenata microphylla 5, 6, 11 i glabra 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 10, 11 1 verticillata I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 Juniperus chinensis pfitzeriana 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, \" \" 11 i Kalmia latifolia 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, i Kolkwitzia amabilis 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 11 i Ligustrum species 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9 o Lonicera tatarica 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Myrica pensylvanica 1, 2, 8, 4, 6, 7 1 Rhododendron carolinianum 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, I \" 1 catawbiense hybrids 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 8 Rosa harisoni 5, Spiraea prunifolia plena l, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, \" 9 houttei 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus I, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10 van Syringa vulgaris 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, Taxus \" \" 10 1 cuspidata 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 1 media hatfieldi I, ~, 3, 4, 5, 6,7, 8, 9, 10, 11 \" 11 1 hicksi I, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 1 Vaccinium corymbosum 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11 DONALD WYMAN 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The New Ground Cover Display Plots at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24243","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25ea76a.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 11 I APRIL 1`u~, 1951 1 THE NEW GROUND COVER DISPLAY PLOTS AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM NUMBER 2 of the tremendous interest in ground covers, an extensive display has been started on the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum in Weston. Here, in small 6' x 6~ plots are growing at present time some 60 different ground covers planted last year. Others are being contemplated for adding during 19.i 1. Although only recently planted some of the plots have already established their claim to the term of \"good\" ground covers, while others have not. Considerable has been written about certain interesting plants used in thls manner, and almost every plantsman has his \"pets\" for such purposes. Here they are growing side by side in a gravelly loam, not too moist, but with considerable shade on some of the plants for a third to a half of the day. Typical ground covers are low, dense and rapid in growth. Some do better in shade than others. Some are low enough and sturdy enough to be walked on. In fact, some plantsmen consider this to be one of the essential requirements of a good ground cover. Others are considerably taller or will not stand such rough service. There are certain conditions, especially under such trees as the Norway :llaple and the Beech where it is practically impossible to force any ground cover to grow because the feeding roots of these trees are close to the surface of the soil, and quickly take most of the nourishment and moisture from it. When such conditions are encountered, it may save time and expense to refrain from planting ground covers. Let such areas of ground remain bare or cover them with BECAUSE plot pebbles or paving are stones. These plants being established at the Case Estates merely because the difof finding sufficient space for them and maintaining them properly after ficulty they are established would cause too much of a labor problem at the Arnold Arboretum. As noted above the plots are 6' x 6~ with a 2~ space between them. Maintenance is being kept down (we hope) by periodically spraying this two foot zl strip with weed killers, when the weeds grow too dense or the ground covers themselves grow so vigorously that they overstep their allotted space. Each plot must be hand weeded several times a growing season at fir~t, but as the plants become better established some plots will need verylittle hand weeding. Admittedly, this is a very small area to devote to a ground cover, but it is hoped that if the maintenance costs can be kept at a reasonable level, the comparisons in plant performance easily noted among these many plots will be very much worth the effort. Visitors are cordially invited to inspect these plots. They are situated on the north side of Wellesley Street in Weston, on land immediately adjacent to what is known locally as the Case School property, part of the area sold by the University to the Town of Weston a few years ago for public school purposes. Ground Covers Already Established Scientific ~'ame Aegopodium podagraria Aegopodium podagraria variegatum Ajuga reptans rubra Alyssum saxatile Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Artemisia stelleriana Calluna vulgaris Cerastium tomentosum Height 14\" 14\" 3-l2' 6.. 4\" Common Name Goutweed Variegated Goutweed Purpleleaf Carpet Bugle Goldentuft Alyssum Bearberry, Kinnikinnick Beach Wormwood, Dusty Miller Scotch Heather Snow-in-Summer Blue Ceratostigma ~~. 10\" 6\" creeping 1' 4\" 3' 8' Ceratostigma plumbaginoides Coreopsis aurea nana (?) Cotoneaster apiculata Cotoneaster horizontalis Dianthus plumarius Duchesnea indica Cranberry Cotoneaster Rock Cotoneaster I ~' 3\" trailing 9.. 3\" trailing vine 3\" 3'... 12\" creeping vine 3' 6\" 4\" creeping 6\" \" Epimedium grandiflorum Euonymus fortunei coloratus Euonymus fortunei minimus Euonymus fortunei \"Silver Queen\" Euonymus obovatus Cottage Pink India Mock-strawberry Longspur Epimedium Purpleleaf Euonymus Baby Wintercreeper Euony mus Running Strawberry Bush Galax Forsythia \"Arnold Gyosophila Dwarf\" Galax aphylla Gaultheria procumbens repens rosea Hedera helix baltica Hydrangea petiolaris Hypericum buckleyi lberis sempervirens Indigofera incarnata alba Indigofera kirilowi Leiophyllum buxifolium Liriope spicata Lonicera henryi Lonicera japonica halliana vine vine lQ\" 12\" Q. 4' Q. 8\" vine eine Wintergreen I~osy Creeping Gypsophila Baltic Ivy Climbing Hydrangea Blue Ridge St. Johnswort Edging Candy tuft White Chinese Indigo Kirilow Indigo Box Sand-Myrtle Creeping Lily-turf Henry Honeysuckle Halls Japanese Honeysuckle 22 Lysimachia nummularia Mentha piperita Pachistima canbyi creeping vine vine Pachysandra procumbens Pachysandra terminalis Parthenocissus quinquefolia St. Pauli Parthenocissus tricuspidata lowi Phlox stolonifera Phlox subulata Rhus aromatica Rosa wichuraiana Rubus laciniatus Salix tristis Moneywort Peppermint Canby Pachistima Alle~any Pachysandra Japanese Pachysandra St. Paul Virginia Creeper Lows Japanese Creeper Creeping Phlox Ground or Moss Pink Fragrant Sumac trailing Memorial Rose ('utleaf or Evergreen Dwarf Pussy Willow Rock Soapwort Variegated Bamboo 2' Blackberry 1~' Saponaria ocymoides Sasa variegata Satureja alpina Sedum acre Sedum album Sedum album roseum Stellaria media Teucrium species Teucrium chamaedrys Teucrium chamaedrys prostratum trailing creeping creeping creeping creeping (p 6.. ~~) trailing Alpine Savory Stonecrop White Stonecrop Rose Stonecrop Chick Weed Germander species Chamaedrys Germander Dwarf Germander Thymus serphyllum Vaccinium angustifolium Vinca minor Mother-of-Thyme Lowbush Blueberry Common Periwinkle or laevifohum 8\" trailing creeping vine Running Myrtle Vinca minor rubra (?) Xanthoriza simplicissima Red Common Periwinkle Shrub Yellow-root DONALD WYMAN Field Class The Arnold Arboretum Field Class will again be conducted this year on Satur28 to May 26. A certain phase of the Arboretum's activities will be featured each week under the guidance of various staff members. Registration is in advance by mail (Registration fee - ~ 1. 00). Members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" are entitled to attend all classes without charge. day mornings (10 :00 to 12 :00) from April 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia Brought Up-To-Date","article_sequence":3,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24237","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24ebb6a.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' ` A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 111 A PRIL ~? 1951 1 , i NUMBER 3 UP-TO-DATE METASEQUOIA BROUGHT of the discovery of Metasequoia glyptostroboides has been retold several times. In short, it is this. In 1941 the genus Metasequoia was described by Miki, a Japanese botanist, on the basis of fossil material found in Korea and Japan. Mr. Tsang Wang of the Central Bureau of Forest Research in China, first collected specimens in 1944, not knowing what they were. In 1945, Mr. C. L. Wu, another Chinese botanist, in examining these collected specimens, realized that they represented a genus that was very unusual and probably new. These specimens eventually came into the hands of Dr. W. C. Cheng of the National Central University, Nanking, and Dr. H. H. Hu of Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Peiping. They were recognized as belonging to the previously described fossil genus Metasequoia. To make certain, an expedition was organized in 1946 to collect fresh material which Cheng and Hu later described in 1948 as Metasequoia glyptostroboides. To all these Chinese botanists goes the full credit for the discovery of this heretofore \"extinct\" species. When botanical specimens were examined by Dr. E. D. Merrill, former Director of the Arnold Arboretum, in the latter part of 1946, he became interested in attempting to obtain seeds. Accordingly, a modest grant was sent to Dr. H. H. Hu, who sent out an expedition for this purpose on September 3, 1947. This expedition returned with seeds, the first ones of which arrived at the Arnold Arboretum on January 5, 1947. Dr. Merrill and the Arnold Arboretum should be given credit for the introduction of this species into modern garden.s, for this first lot of seeds was distributed far and wide throughout the world. Later, additional seed lots were also sent to the Arboretum, as well as to institutions on the Pacific Coast. Because of great popular interest in the story surrounding the discovery of this species, many articles have appeared concerning it. The best bibliography of these to date appears in \"An Ecological Reconnaisance in the Native Home of Metasequoia gl,yto.stroboides\" by Kwei-ling Chu and William S. Cooper in Ecology, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 19.50, pp. 260-278. THE history ~J very fast growth. The photograph on page ~7 shows 28-month-old specimen has grown eight feet from seed in England. Specimens in this country may not have grown quite so fast, although one plant in the Santa Barbara Botanic Garden grew five feet in one year. As mentioned above, considerable has already been written about this tree and its origin, but requests keep coming in continually for more information concerning it. For detailed facts, the above-mentioned bibliography, and especially the article to which it is attached, will give the complete story. A few points of Metasequoia has exhibited a how practical interest here, may help to bring many \"up-to-date.\" At first it was thought that this species might not be hardy north of Georgia. The climate of the coastal plain in Georgia is very similar to that of the native habitat of this tree. Recent investigations have shown that it is growing in a small section of Szechuan and Hupeh Provinces in China (near Chungking) where the annual rainfall amounts to about 48\", rather evenly distributed throughout the year. Here also very little snow falls, and though there may be some, native reports are to the effect that it does not amount to much. Temperatures on the average apparently do not go much below freezing. Just why this species should be confined to this small area of not over 300 square miles will make a most interesting story when all the facts are known. Suffice it to say that the atmosphere in this area is reasonably moist and that several soil tests show the soils to be about neutral to only slightly acid. Apparently no accurate records are available on the lower temperatures in the winter, and summer temperatures are not supposed to average over 100 F. The tree has been found to be reseeding itself in moist ravines, in what might be considered the same kind of places where we would expect hemlocks to reseed themselves in this country. Since its introduction, it has been living out-of-doors unprotected in several places on the Pacific Coast. Here in the East it has survived in Washington, D.C., Philadelphia, New York and Boston, living out-of-doors uninjured the last three winters without protection. All reports are not yet available and many seeds and plants have been distributed, so that some may have been injured within this area. It should be pointed out that these three winters have been comparatively mild ones, and no prolonged sub-zero weather has occurred. It would be advisable not to become too enthusiastic concerning the hardiness of this species, certainly not until we see what happens to older trees when unusually cold winters occur. Practical plantsmen can have a field day in discussing the possibilities of hardiness. Many variable factors like soil, rainfall, high temperatures, low temperatures, exposure and length of growing season affect the hardiness of a plant. In the case of a new plant, where climatic records of its habitat are meagre (as in this case), one should proceed slowly in drawing conclusions concerning its hardiness on the basis of three mild winters only. However, for those practical plantsmen willing to do some guessing, it will be of much interest to know that Chu and Cooper found the following plants native to the same location as the Metasequoia. Incidentally, all of these are hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. 26 . PLATE VIII Metasequoia glyptostroboides. A 28-month-old specimen high. Bramley, Surrey, England, and now 8' grown in a coldhouse at 3\" Akebia trifoliata Kalopanax pictus sinense Cercidiphyllum japonicum ' Cornus controversa Corylopsis sinensis Cotoneaster horizontalis Decaisnea fargesi Euonymus alata Lonicera japonica Morus alba Parthenocissus tricuspidata Quercus acutissima variabilis Rhamnus utilis Helwingia japonica Spiraea japonica Hibiscus syriacus Styrax japonica Idesia polycarpa Viburnum setigerum However, before said practical plantsmen wax overly enthusiastic concerning hardiness of this new species, the following plants are also growing in the same location. These are not hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. Actinidia chinensis Liquidambar formosana Camellia oleifera Lonicera pileata Cunninghamia lanceolata Nothopanax davidi Ficus heteromorpha Nyssa sinensis The tallest specimens of this tree in China are about 100 feet high. Estimates have been made from borings in the trunk that some of these trees may be 300 years old. It is obviously a rapid-growing tree, certainly while young, but it should also be emphasized that apparently everyone growing it in America has given it optimum growing conditions. The wood is rather brittle, and is not apparently used for any special purpose except for fuel, by the natives in the vicinity of the native stands in China. It apparently grows best in a moist atmosphere, with soils that contain a good deal of moisture. It is obviously loose and open in habit, and may be best suited for growing in groves rather than as individual specimens, although many in this country, at least, will grow it for a long time as single specimens merely because of its interesting history. It should be remembered that this species is not an evergreen and in this respect certainly not like the giant redwoods of our Pacific Coast. It is deciduous, and in its native habitat does not grow to the great size and age of our native redwoods. The name \"Dawn Redwood\" is most misleading, intimating a close association (at least to the general public) with the giant redwoods of the Pacific Coast that actually does not exist. It is easily propagated by cuttings. There are a sufficient number of plants growing in America now, so that even though the seed source may be cut off, commercial propagation of this plant can easily be worked up to supply the demand in a short time. Either soft wood or hard wood cuttings root readily. Although many nurserymen have it in America, there are three, at least, who already list it as availabe in their catalogues. These are: plant Club, 208 McAllister Avenue, Kentfield, California Tingle Nursery, Pittsville, Maryland Verhalen Nursery Company, Scottsville, Texas Rare These notes should be of value to all those amateurs interested in the latest information concerning this tree. DONALD WYMAN 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24242","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25ea727.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INI~'ORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 11 I 1 MAY 11, 1951 NUMBER 4 THE LARZ ANDERSON COLLECTION OF JAPANESE DWARF TREES Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees presented to the Arboretum as a memorial to his friend, Charles Sprague Sargent,\" is an explanatory statement quoted from the carved inscription displayed with these intriguing plants. This group of dwarf trees is unique in this country and was received at the Arboretum in the fall of 1937. The plants have been on public display in a specially erected shade house ever since. Brought to this country at a time when strict plant quarantines were not in force, these plants were imported with soil around the roots in their original Japanese containers. The Arboretum welcomes the opportunity of being able to display these striking examples of Japanese horticulture to its visitors. The honorable Larz Anderson became interested in Japanese horticulture as early as 1907and built a particularly attractive Japanese garden on his estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. Somewhat later he became interested in dwarf trees and in 1913 he brought back from Japan a splendid collection of them, which he acquired while serving as Ambassador Extraordinary from the United States to Japan (1912-1913~. These he placed on display in his own garden where they were carefully tended for twenty-five years by different Japanese gardeners. The collection has been displayed at several exhibitions in Boston where it invariably won high honors. This unique collection is displayed in its lath house between the old Bussey Institution building and the greenhouses, fairly close to the hedge collection. Around the shade house have been planted a few shrubs and trees native to Japan, and during the next few years it is planned to augment this planting. The collection now installed in the shade house consists of 29 specimens all imported in 1913. They are well labelled, but for those unable to visit the collection (the house is open from 9 :00 a.m. until 5 :00 p.m. each day except Saturday, < < THE Arnold [29; Sunday are and holidays) the given below. names of the individual plants and their respective ages \"Bon-sai,\" the art of training dwarf trees Century old customs have been handed down by the Japanese regarding the training of the interesting dwarf trees so characteristic of the gardens and homes of that country. There are several reasons for their existence. In the first place, Japanese and Chinese gardens are usually small, for space is at a premium. This is particularly true in the urban areas where the art of making gardens on a very small scale is centuries old. Then, too, the oriental's well known appreciation of the aesthetic value of living plants has been a prime factor in their cultivation. It often takes fifty to one hundred years to grow a worthy specimen dwarf tree, yet it is possible by twisting the trunk and restraining the growth of tops and roots to give a comparatively young plant the appearance of great age. This 30 Chamaecyparis PLATE IX obtuaa. 163 years old. (Larz Anderson Collection.) requires a thorough knowledge of horticulture as well as painstaking patience, but many Japanese are fascinated with \"Bon-sai\" and practice it as a pastime. Training Jlost woody plants can be dwarfed if given the proper training. If the branches and roots of growing plants are vigorously restrained from developing rapidly, treatment become dwarfed and this is the principle underlying all care is given to the training of the trunk, the spread of the branches and their shape, and the spread of the roots, since each can be so trained as to give the impression of great age. Many methods have been devised through the centuries for attaining these ends. Maples, bamboos, cherries, pines, hollies, oaks, azaleas, junipers, and many other plants have been used. They are grown in comparatively small containers, kept pot bound throughout their existence, and carefully and judiciously pruned to maintain the desired type of growth. Whenever possible, the Japanese start with plants that have already been dwarfed by nature. These are searched for in the high mountains, in regions often unfamiliar to the ordinary traveller. Such plants are frequently found growing in high rocky crevices, just barely existing for lack of sufficient nourishment. If these are dug immediately and removed, they might succumb at once for the delicate balance between the amount of root system and bare existence is easily upset. The plant hunter may locate such plants several years before he will venture to remove them from their rocky dwelling. At first he will prune a small portion of the plant and leave it in place for a year; then he will return and root prune another small portion, repeating this process until it is safe to move the plant. In this way splendid specimens are obtained that have already been trained with the assistance of mother nature herself. If dwarf plants are to be trained from the seedling stage, the smallest and weakest seedlings are selected. Conifers are considerably easier to train, for they do not form adventitious buds as readily as do the broad leaved plants. The seedling is placed in a very small pot. If there is a tap root, it is pruned considerably, and if a central leader is present, it too is cut back. In order to obtain the desired effect, only certain branches are allowed to develop. As an example, Chamaecyparis obtusa is ordinarily a very bushy plant, yet the illustration shows only a few picturesque branches. These few branches have been carefully selected and trained, while the others have been entirely removed. If one of these branches should die, eventually a new bud would be allowed to develop a branch to sufficient size to take the place of the deceased one. To give the correct appearance of wind-contorted shape, the main stem is often twisted around an upright, and after a formative period the upright is removed. This twisting in itself is a dwarfing process, since frequently it breaks a large number of the conducting vessels in the stem. Branches are twisted in like man- the individuals soon training. Then, too, great _~z~] ~ s ~ >. o i'\" \"' ~ oS 8 ~ c cc 12 ~ -s >, .0 .\" ~ a .\" ^ 5 I < 3 Il. f;I;1.0 H .S 8 <J r S ~ ~ ..0 ~ oS A4 '! 8 :e z \"'~ \"' 's '\" o .S Ji.~ .s, 11-1 ~ ~ They may all be trained on one side of the plant, or arranged to droop on side of the pot, or trained in any one of a dozen different ways. The Japanese one gardener usually has a model in mind when he trains his plant, some windtwisted tree which he is trying to reproduce in miniature form, and it is surprising to the uninitiated to observe how accurate these reproductions can be. Often in nature one observes old gnarled trees the larger roots of which are exposed, especially when growing in rocky places where there is still soil. This effect is reproduced by the \"Bon-sai'' artist by growing his seedling in charcoal and moss for a period sufficiently long to induce long roots. When the plant ~s removed to its permanent container, a part of these roots are left to develop above the soil level, eventually aiding materially in giving the plant the appearance of great age. ner. Pruning, Repotting and Watering are entirely removed. Some of these century old plants have picturesque stubs, certain gardeners believing that these add to the beauty of the plant. Any diseased tissue on such stubs is carefully scraped, disinfected, and pamted. Sometimes in order to gain the appearance of stubby old age rapidly, taller plants that have been growing normally are used. The basal branches are cut back to give the stubby appearance. The top is entirely cut off. Not all branches numerous The plant is dug and after many of the roots hace been removed it is placed in small pot. Then certain of the adventitious buds are allowed to develop, or else scions are grafted at the desired places. Grafting is also resorted to when certain shoots die. If a very important branch has died, it may take many years for a new one to grow to a sufficient size from an adventitious bud, so that grafting is often resorted to. The Japanese are particularly <rdept at this and take great pains in training an individual branch by pinching the buds back here, or twisting the branch there, and so forcing the latter to grow in the desired fashion. The pruning and pinching operations are done during the active growing period, since the development of branches from adventitious buds is then more frequent. Dwarf trees are repotted every four or five years for two reasons. In the first place it is necessary to remove some of the newly developed fibrous roots so that the tree mll remain dwarfed. Secondly, it is necessary to mix a small amount of fertilizer with the soil, since as these trees are forced to grow in very small containers, there is not sufficient room for enough soil to allow new root development unless the plant be artificially stimulated with nutrients. It is also advisable to keep a fresh layer of green moss on the surface of the soil. This not only adds the impression of age, but keeps the soil from drying out. The containers are usually provided with a hole in the base for proper drainage. In the hot summer days there is some danger of the soil becoming too dry, and at such times the plants need special attention. Spraying the foliage with a f 3.~ water once or twice a day during the hottest spells of summer is advisable in order to keep the plant in good condition. Dwarf trees cannot be considered primarily as indoor plants. They may be used indoors for short periods, but must be grown in the open a greater part of the time. Because of their very small root system, and the small containers in which they are grown, these dwarf trees cannot lose much water through transpiration and still survive. Consequently they must be grown in a shaded location. The shade house in which this location is being maintained at the Arboretum was designed and erected especially for this purpose. Constructed of cypress wood, the top and sides of the house are covered with strips 1~ inches wide with similar spaces left between each strip. This supplies plenty of shade and at the same time keeps the atmosphere considerably cooler and reasonably moist. Winter Protection Although many of these trees are hardy, they cannot survive our northern winters because of their shallow root system, unless given some winter protection. A Japanese maple, for instance, growing normally in the ground may sura winter during which the temperature goes to 20 below zero although the of the plant may be killed to the ground. However, in these small pots the top roots of dwarf trees would be subjected to temperatures almost as low as those of the surrounding atmosphere, and consequently the whole plant would be killed. During the winter in the north, they are best put in cold frames or pits which are well protected with glass and even with boards and mats during the most severe weather. In our pit where these plants were stored last winter the temperature did not go below freezing, although the temperature outside the pit dropped to zero on several occasions. Another danger from freezing temperatures is that with the expansion of freezing soil the containers may break. Although these are seldom ornate, since the Japanese believe that the plant itself should be the point of interest, nevertheless their simplicity alone is beautiful and makes them important adjuncts to any such collection and thus worthy of full protection. Thus with an exacting knowledge of the numerous rigid requirements of the art of \"Bon-sai\" the painstaking Japanese gardener is able to reproduce dwarf trees that are exact replicas in everything but size, of century old specimens as they occur in nature. The Japanese have developed other forms of dish gardening, but to the American horticulturist perhaps none is so interesting as \"Bon-sai.\" vive DONALD W`MAN 33 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Some Shrubs for at Least Two Seasons of Beauty","article_sequence":5,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24240","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24e896f.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME I ~ I MAY 25, 1951 1 NUMBER J SOME SHRUBS FOR AT LEAST TWO SEASONS OF BEAUTY that are being grown in various parts of the northern part of the United States. Certainly all are not of the best! There must be some basis on which these plants can be judged in which the better ones might be easily pointed up. I would like to suggest that one basis on which such shrubs can be selected is the number of seasons during which they are of real ornamental value. Take for instance the yews or flex crenata convexa or many of the evergreen rhododendrons - these plants are of interest every season of the year because of their evergreen foliage. On the other hand, some of the forsythias, deutzias, spireas and lilacs are only of special interest during the two-week period that they are in bloom. They have no interesting autumn color, they have no bright colored fruits, they have nothing particularly meritorious for winter display. Of course such plants will always be needed in many gardens, but the important point to emphasize is that in the small garden, where space is at a premium, plants might well be used that have ornamental interest more than one season during the year. The viburnums are excellent examples of plants in this group. These plants have conspicuous flowers in the spring, many of them have bright colored fruits in the fall, some of them lasting all winter long, and most have a rich red to purple-red autumn color. Surely such plants merit first consideration on the small property. A suggested list of some of these good plants is given here together with some specific information as to why they are included. 1. Flowers 2. Fruit B. Summer foliage 4. Autumn coloration 5. General form MANY gardeners fail to realize that there are literally several thousand shrubs [ 37 6. V'inter twi~T or bark 7. Winter foliage why these shrubs are The numbers below refer to the mental use. reasons valued for orna- Abelia grandiflora 1, 3 Acer palmatum varieties 3, 4, .i ' Amelanchier grandiflora 1, 4, H Berberis species 1, ~?, 4, and some 7 Chionanthus mrginicus 1, 2, 4 Cornus alba sibirica 1, 4, (i 5 C. mas 1, 2, 4, Cotinus coggygria purpureus ~?, 4 ~ Cotoneaster dammeri 2, 7 C. horizontalis 1, 2, 3, 7 C. microphylla 1, z, 7 C. salicifolia floccosa 2, 7 VI. virginiana 1, 1, ~ 3 Mahonia species 1, 2, 3, 4, 7 Malus sargenti 1, ?, 3 Philadelphus floridus 1, 5 P. grandiflorus 1, ,i P. laxus 1, .i 5 Y. virginalis \"Bouquet Blanc,\" 1, P. splendens 1, ~ 5 Pieris species 1, fl, j, 7 .i Prinsepia sinensis 1, ~, Prunus tomentosa 1, 2 Cytisus praecox 1, 6 C. scoparius 1, 6 Daphne species 1, 2 Enkianthus species 1, 4 Euonymus alata compacta 4, E. fortunei vegeta 2, 3, ~, 7 4 Fothergilla species 1, - 5 Hamamelis species 1, 4 Hydrangea petiolaris 1, 3, ~, 6 Ilex cornuta '2, 3, 7 1. crenata 2, 3, 7 I. yunnanensis 2, 3, 7 Kalmia latifolia 1, 3, 7 Kolkwitzia amabilis 1, 2, 6 Leucothoe catesbaei 1, 3, 4, 7 Ligustrum obtusifolium regelianum 1, 5 2, 3, Rhododendron carolinianum 1, 7 R. catawbiense 1, 7 R. fortunei 1, 7 R. schlippenbachi 1, 4 R. vaseyi 1, 4 5 Rosa helenae 1, 1, R. multiflora 1, ~~, 5 R. roxburghi 1, 5, ,' R. rugosa 1, ~, 4 Spiraea prunifolia plena 1, 4 Lonicera amoena arnoldiana 1, 2, 5 L. bella 1, 2 L. fragrantissima 1, 2, 3, 7 L. korolkowi floribunda t , 2, 3 L. maacki 1, 2 L. tatarica 1, 2 Magnolia stellata I, 2, 3, 4 Taxus baccata 2, 3, 5, 7 T. cuspidata 2, 3, 5, 7 T. media 2, 3, ~, 7 Vaccinium corymbosum 1, 2, 4, 6 Viburnum cassinoides 1, ~?, 4 V. dilatatum 1, 2, 4 V. japonicum 1, 2, 3, 7 V. lentago 1, 2, 3, 4 V. opulus 1, ~?, 3, 4 V. prunifolium I, 2, 3, 4, 5 V. rufidulum I, 2, 3, 4 V. sargenti flavum l, 2, 3, 4 V. sieboldi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 V. tomentosum mariesi 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 V. trilobum 1, 2, 3, 4 DONALD WYMAN 38 - io c:: > ~ > '\" 0 C 3 0 a x .D _~ y ~ :e Cl~ o r :., c:: .. O Wl y, '- ~a ~, .~~ 0 ,..v ~~ U ym ~J ~ '\" ..1 Il. & 1; 2014 'D N a ~ ..c:: ~ 8 ~e G. ` U ~ N `V +~ c CC _~ _~ m V U D! N _ :oo Ooj S ~ ~,~ v ::r ~ c:: '\" x \" '\" 8 8 a, p Dor yCG _~ c:: ~Vx&: # 3E; \"::'::r : > ~ '\" O 0 a ~: ~. . .D THE EFFECT OF LIGHT ON SEED GERMINATION have had difficulty in germinating the seeds of certain when stratified in the usual manner. If, however, the seeds are left on the surface of the ground under the trees, they germinate readily. Germinating seeds collected in early spring are planted on moist sphagnum, where they develop rapidly. The young seedlings are then transferred to pots or flats. In this way we have been able to get early germination of Cedrus libani, Pseudolarix and Acer griseum. The more rapid and complete germination of seeds exposed over winter on the surface of the soil may be related to experiments recently reported by Dr. Risto Sarvas of the Forest Research Institute of Helsinki (Oikos Acta oecologica Scandinavica 1950). Dr. Sarvas finds that the seeds of Picea e.rcel.sa, Betula verrucosa, Betula pubescens and Pinus sylvestris, germinate much more rapidly if exposed to light. The seeds sown on the surface of the soil, or very lightly covered, germinated more rapidly than those kept in the dark or planted deep enough to exclude the light. If light is a factor in the early germination of seeds exposed on the ground under natural conditions, the method of germination developed by Dr. Sarvas may give equally rapid germination under artificial conditions and without the hazards of exposing seed to rodents during the winter. For many years trees we species of even LEWIS LIPP 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Effect of Light on Seed Germination","article_sequence":6,"start_page":40,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24241","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25ea326.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Lipp, Lewis","article_content":"THE EFFECT OF LIGHT ON SEED GERMINATION have had difficulty in germinating the seeds of certain when stratified in the usual manner. If, however, the seeds are left on the surface of the ground under the trees, they germinate readily. Germinating seeds collected in early spring are planted on moist sphagnum, where they develop rapidly. The young seedlings are then transferred to pots or flats. In this way we have been able to get early germination of Cedrus libani, Pseudolarix and Acer griseum. The more rapid and complete germination of seeds exposed over winter on the surface of the soil may be related to experiments recently reported by Dr. Risto Sarvas of the Forest Research Institute of Helsinki (Oikos Acta oecologica Scandinavica 1950). Dr. Sarvas finds that the seeds of Picea e.rcel.sa, Betula verrucosa, Betula pubescens and Pinus sylvestris, germinate much more rapidly if exposed to light. The seeds sown on the surface of the soil, or very lightly covered, germinated more rapidly than those kept in the dark or planted deep enough to exclude the light. If light is a factor in the early germination of seeds exposed on the ground under natural conditions, the method of germination developed by Dr. Sarvas may give equally rapid germination under artificial conditions and without the hazards of exposing seed to rodents during the winter. For many years trees we species of even LEWIS LIPP 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Smaller Street Trees Needed","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24239","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24e856d.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN of the Arnold VOLUME 11 1 OF POPULAR INFORMATION Arboretum, Harvard University JUNE 8, 1J~1 1 NUMBER 6 SMALLER STREET TREES NEEDED were different one hundred and fifty years ago ! Take street tree plantfor instance. Only a very few kinds of trees were used, and the mighty American Elm was placed at the top of the preferred list. Its great height and lofty arching branches were such that eventually it not only shaded the street completely but also shaded the houses near by as well. During the ensuing century and a half conditions changed. With the tremendous increase in the population of the urban centers came a corresponding increase in property values, especially along the street. The space in which trees were allowed to grow formerly was continually reduced and buildings and paved walks and streets were pushed closer and closer over the wide spreading roots of such giants as the elms. The horses and buggies of our forbears were gradually changed to horseless motor machines that emitted gases poisonous to plant growth. At carriages first, this was negligible, but as traffic increased these gases became greater and greater in proportion. This, combined with the fact that the root area allotted to street trees became smaller, did not aid in their perfect growth. Labor costs became greater, and with larger trees of the magnificent size of mature elms, spray costs and pruning costs reached an all time high. Then came the Dutch elm disease, a cruel and unscrupulous killer of trees. It was then that the street tree departments of many a town began to realize the tremendous cost of removal of large specimen trees. When it costs between $100 and $300 to remove a single tree, some of the towns where killing had been especially great, soon found that normal budgets mean little with a large number of trees to be removed annually. It was then that many an individual responsible for planting street trees, began to look around for \"substitutes\" for the American Elm. Of course, there are no real substitutes, for no tree has the wide arching habit of the American elm. However, it is becoming increasingly apparent to many TIMES ing - 41] ] the Arnold Arboretum has been preaching this for fifteen years) that the time has come to carefully scrutinize many other trees that might be suitable for street tree planting especially trees smaller at mature size than the American Elm. Modern towns do have overhead power lines, much as we dislike them. In some situations, property owners are fortunate in forcing their placement underground, but the great cost precludes this in all but the largest and most congested urban areas. Why not select some small tree, that will reach its mature height under the power lines? (and - Street Planting While the planting of our major highways is done chiefly by highly trained federal experts and is out of the hands of the average citizen, tree planting along the streets of the towns and cities is much closer to him and he may even serve on a \"tree selection\" committee. Frequently it has to do with planting on his own property. There are a few generalities about this type of planting that might be kept in mind. Attempting to grow trees in the heart of our largest cities, is one thing, and grov:ing them in the suburban areas of such cities or in the thousands of towns and villages across the country is another. Very few trees will thrive under the exceedingly tough growing conditions of the city while more might be tried in areas where more soil-space is available, and where traffic hazards, soot and smoke state and are not as severe. In some of the are major office buildings recently erected in our large northern cities, terrific trees places keep the planting very much wanted as ornamental features, but they must resist odds in order to survive. The paved walk is all about them and in some heating pipes are put near their roots to be turned on in the winter to snow melted on the sidewalks above ! About all that can be said of such is that amount of open only the most resistant varieties should be selected and the ground about their roots should be as much as will be allowed by the architects. The minimum amount of open ground for a tree to grow in is a square 8' on a side, the larger the better. Often a space 1 ~~x 12~ is provided. In many European cities and in this country as well, widely woven iron grating is placed over this soil to allow for water to seep through to the roots while at the same time providing for foot traffic over it without pounding the soil down to such an extent that it bakes almost as hard as concrete when it is dried out. Such a condition is not conducive to the free passage of air or rain water to the roots, without which the tree will frequently sicken and die. Much attention should be given the matter of tree planting before the street is were finally laid out by the town engineers. In the horse and buggy days, trees planted along the street with tree trunks often abutting the curb. Today more room with automotive transportation what it is, much must be given drivers 42 b 3 0 U M N U f. bC 0 ~ 3 0 ? c a~ E~ .~ *?. c c ~' --~ fl '~a~ H ~ ~3 v 4> L O c0.a av >-o ~ a ~ a C. Ga ~ 3S 0 > O @ ~o a f a~ # o ~. o ~' ~ ~a .. ro ~ o a~ o~ &E l) ~. x c~ ~ ~o C7 4) s! o m .n Q aj c ~2 ~c x~ s E~ these streets. If this is not done, accidents (often caused by skidding) are not only to the traffic but to the trees themselves. The best method of planting along suburban streets is to allow a strip of ground between the sidewalk and the property line in which trees are planted. This strip should be a minimum of 7' to 8' and better still 12~ if some of the larger growing types of trees are to be used. This arrangement is ideal, for it does not encroach on private property, yet affords plenty of space for the future development of the trees. It places the tree away from service lines, pipes and sewers that are frequently placed at the edge of the street paving, a decided advantage for when these are opened up and tree roots are in the way, they are usually mercilessly cut. This system is working remarkably well in the newer suburban developments of many large cities, especially in Denver, Colorado, and some areas about Cleveland, Ohio. The property owner can take care of the grass in this strip, and the town will be responsible for the care of the trees. This type of cooperation between the town and the private property owner is obviously an arrangement only feasible when the street and abutting properties have been laid out with this in mind, and certain ordinances have been approved in order for the arrangement to work successfully. In older suburban areas, where such space is not available, but where the houses are set back considerably from the property line along the street, trees can be planted on the edge of the private property. The sidewalk may or may not abut the street but even if it does not and there is a small grass strip between the sidewalk and street, no trees would be planted in it. They would instead be planted on private property, particularly if the property line abutted the sidewalk, This method of tree planting obviously creates several complications. It would require special town ordinances governing the care and removal of such trees. It would also require the major cooperation and enthusiasm of the original property owners along a certain street. Once the system is agreed on and approved, it is seldom that such purchasers of such property already planted with street trees would seriously object. This plan has many good points, especially from the standpoint of the health of the trees. They would be away from the street and its destructive traffic, their major roots would be away from the destructive ditch digging operations frequently encountered and property owners as a rule would take pride in their general good health. This plan is working in some areas, but it is obvious that it takes considerable cooperation between property owners and town officials. It can result in more beautiful trees and more permanent trees, which both groups should obviously desire. In many cities and towns neither one of these methods of tree planting is possible and the trees must be planted between the sidewalk and the curb. No tree should ever be planted closer than 32~ to the curb, and the further away it is, the better for the tree and the passing traffic. The ideal width for this strip of on serious, _ ~ 44] grass between curb and sidewalk would be 11~ and the tree would not be centered in it but planted closer to the sidewalk than the street. Street trees should not be planted opposite each other but should alternate, allowing for a greater development of the tops. Spacing should be at least 75' apart. Planting closer than this (except in the use of very small tree species) only creates more costly maintenance, and sometimes may necessitate the removal of some trees which are crowding others. It is far better to plant fewer trees and take care of them properly, allowing them plenty of room for development, than to crowd them close together in order to make a \"show\" while they are young, at the same time greatly increasing their maintenance cost. Size of Tree at Planting Time It is in being found by city street town and many whose responsibility it is to plant trees along the streets of the country, that smaller trees are much better to use smaller in size at the start and smaller in permanent Trees with a mature height of under 40' can be far less costly to remove. The landscape effects of the tall tree and the smaller tree may not be the same, but there is a nation-wide trend now to consider usiug smaller trees along the streets of our cities and towns. Admittedly the need for medium or tall trees will vary with circumstances and general planting - stature. trees 1~~ in diameter, than one 4~~ in diameasily acclimated to the new situation, and if properly root pruned and top pruned in the nursery will grow even better the first two years than the larger tree. Water can be added to better advantage, more of the right soil can be given at the start, so the smaller tree usually starts in a more vigorous growing condition than does the larger tree. This bears some thought. Smaller trees are more easily broken and admittedly there are always places where larger trees must be planted. The arborists of the country have the information and the equipment to move trees at every time of year. There will always be a demand for big tree moving by these experts. However, in the cramped, tough situations in which most street trees are required to start growth, trees of an inch caliper or slightly more usually will get off to a better start than trees of larger caliper. The cost in transplanting is also considerably less. Consequently, the tree superintendent can concentrate on a comparatively deeper hole, on better soil and give more attention to water requirements of the new smaller tree. With mounting labor and transportation costs, these two points are going to prove very important in street tree planting programs during the immediate future. Some towns like Brookline, Massachusetts, have a policy whereby small streets are planted with one type of tree only. The governing shade tree commissioners see to it that many different types are used throughout the city. It is not with- specific situations. Also, it is far easier to plant several eter. The smaller trees are more ~3 Crataegus monogyna inermis, a PLATE XIII thornless hawthorn with a dense rounded head. out to expect that the majority of property owners on one street might the Sargent Cherry, for instance, whereas on another street another majority would request the Littleleaf European Linden. An intelligent shade tree commission, with certain standard policies, and always ready with helpful suggestions in such cases, could easily mold a most interesting over-all tree planting program that would go a long way to make the town beautiful and interesting. reason on decide Small Trees Height Zone *Acer argutum A. campestre A. circinatum A. cissifolium 24' 5 4 5 5 5 2 25' 25' 30' *A. carpinifolium 30' 20' A. ginnala 25' A. griseum 30' A. mandshuricum 50' A. platanoides globosum 25' A. spicatum 30' A. tataricum 30~ Carpinus betulus fastigiata *Carpinus caroliniana pyramidalis 40' 45~ *C. cordata 45~ C. japonica 15~ *C. turczaniovi 45' *Celtis bungeana Chionanthus virginicus 30' 40' Cornus florida 21 ~ C. kousa 20-35' Crataegus species *C. monogyna inermis 30' C. stricta 30' *C. phaenopyrum fastigiata 30' 25' Evodia danielli 40' Fagus sylvatica fastigiata Gleditsia triacanthos elegantissima 35' 30' Koelreuteria paniculata 20' Magnolia stellata Hedge Maple Vine Maple Hornbeam Maple Amur Maple , 5 4 3 2 4 5 2 Paperbark Maple Manchurian Maple Globe Norway Maple Mountain Maple Tatarian Maple Pyramid European Hornbeam Pyramid American Hornbeam , j 4 Heartleaf Hornbeam Japanese Hornbeam Bunch Hackberry Fringetree Flowering Dogwood Japanese Dogwood ' ~ 5 5 4 4 .5 . ' 3-5 Hawthorns 4 4 4 5 4 4 5 Thornless Single Seed Hawthorn Upright Single Seed Hawthorn Pyramidal Washington Hawthorn Korean Evodia Dawyck Beech Bushy Honeylocust Golden-rain tree Star Magnolia Sourwood Amur Cork Tree 5 4 Oxydendrum arboreum Phellodendron amurense 30-75' 45' 18' 35' 3 5 4 *Prunus nipponica *P. sargenti columnaris Nipponese Cherry Columnar Sargent Cherry 47 30~ 20-25' P. serrulata var. *Robinia pseudoacacia umbraculifera 35~ 30' Syringa amurensis japonica *Ulmus carpinifolia umbraculifera 35' 30' Viburnum lentago 15' V. prunifolium V. rufidulum 30' V. sieboldi 30' , *Prunus serrula 5 5-6 3 '2 4 2 Oriental Cherry Umbrella Black Locust Japanese Tree Lilac Globe Smooth Leaved Elm Nannyberry Blackhaw Southern Blackhaw Siebold Viburnum 3 5 4 Narrow Trees for Narrow Streets (Not necessarily Acer platanoides columnare \" erectum A. A. rubrum columnare Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Quercus robur fastigiata Tilia platyphyllos fastigiata Ulmus americana ascendens columnaris U. \" U. \"Augustine\" low in 3 3 3 4 5 3 2 2 2 4 height) Erect Norway Columnar Red 75' 75' I~~ 50' 50' 50' 100' 100' 100' 50' 50' ~5~ 50' 5 ~~ 75' 50' 75' Maple Maple Sentry Ginkgo Pyramidal English Oak Columnar Big Leaf Linden Columnar American Elm Cornish Elm Dampier Elm Koopmann Elm Jersey Elm Exeter Elm Belgian Elm Blanford Elm nurserymen *U. carpinifolia U. \" cornubiensis *U. \" dampieri koopmanni 44 4 4 4 4 4 ' . sarniensis U. U. glabra exoniensis U. hollandica belgica \" \"Klemmeri\" U. \" *U. \" superba are * These are apparently not yet offered by American but plants growing in this country and there is no reason why stock could not be worked up. As for the others, they may not all be available in sufficient numbers or the proper sizes to meet the increasing demand but there is no reason why their production should not be increased. And these are not all the possibilities, but certainly enough to initiate the idea that smaller trees are growing in this country and it is high time they are propagated commercially and planted along our streets. DONALD WYMAN 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Air Layering with Polythene Film","article_sequence":8,"start_page":49,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24232","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24eab6d.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 11 1 OCTOBER 26, 1951 AIR LAYERING WITH POLYTHENE FILM NUMBERS 7-8 rooting is a practice that and undoubtedly it was init, troduced into America by the earlier settlers. Until comparatively recently, the method has been used chiefly in the greenhouse. It consisted of scarifying the stem of a plant and wrapping moist moss (or soil) around that injured plant part. If the wrapping material was kept moist continually, rooting often occurred. The difficulty came in keeping the wrapping material moist. Rubber or paper wrappings did not prove satisfactory, and watering of the wrapping would frequently have to be done daily and even several times a day in a hot greenhouse. This continual care was frequently more bother than it was worth. In 19~ i , Colonel William R. Grove of Laurel, Florida, found that the oldfashioned method of air layering could be decidedly augmented with the use of one of the newer plastic films. He published his findings dealing with the propagation of Lychee in the 1947 \"1'roceedings of the Florida Horticultural Society. \" Colonel Grove at first used \"I'liofilm\" manufactured by the Goodyear Tire and Rubber Company, Inc., but he found that it disintegrated before the roots formed. Then he used \"V~tafilm\" this yielding much better results. On the strength of this he has used it (and other materials as well) in commercial propagation, and applied for a patent, granted four years later, covering use of plas* tic material in air layering process. In 1950 John L. Creech of the United States Department of Agriculture Station at Glenn Dale, Maryland used plastic films with good success in the propagation of evergreen rhododendron air layers, and published some of his experiences in the National Horticultural Magazine, July 19~0. He used a polythene film successfully. The Arnold Arboretum, after suggestions made by Mr. Creech earlier in the year, started using polythene film around air layers in the summer THE making is of air layers on woody plants to induce centuries old. Generations of Chinese did * Airwrap Products, Box ll~l, Sarasota, Florida. 49 ] proved so interesting that additional experiments were tried in 1950, some plants showing rooting that might not ordinarily be expected to root as cuttings. During the past summer, Mr. Heman Howard of the Arnold Arboretum placed air layers on 250 species and varieties of woody plants. Some were placed early in the spring, some were placed on the current year's growth in June and July, in an attempt to determine whether this is a reliable method of rooting difficult plants. The results this year have been rather disappointing in that many of the air layers failed to root. Even with the failures, there remain enough possibilities to make this method of interest for everyone, and in order to place some of this information before ARNOLDIA readers the results accomplished in some of these experiments are recorded here. of 1949. Results Polythene Film number of plastic films now on the market, and all do properties. The important properties of the film necessary for in the proper rooting of air layers, would obviously include high perassisting meability to gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide, and a very low permeability There are a confusing not have the same to water vapor. A few years ago the Imperial Chemical Industries Ltd. of England developed plastic known as \"Polythene,\" a high polymer of ethylene. E. I. DuPont de Nemours & Company was licensed to manufacture this resin in the United States in 1943. Originally DuPont used the name \"Polythene,\" but later adopted the trade name \"Alathon\" for this new plastic. Bakelite Corporation is also licensed to manufacture this resin, they calling their product \"Polyethylene.\" These new plastic films are now widely used for packaging foodstuffs under such trade a names as\"Howard-Seal,\" \"Pearlon,\" \"Tralon,\" \"Visqueen,\" etc. Specifically, the material used at the Arnold Arboretum was one of these, purchased from the Harwid Company of Cambridge, Massachusetts under their trade name of \"DuraClear,\" manufactured from the resin \"Alathon.\" It is unfortunate that the terms \"Polythene\" and \"Poly-ethy-lene\" have both been used as the generic name for the high polymers of ethylene since they are confusing to the layman. The point is, that the \"Dura-Clear\" used in our experiments, has the same properties as the \"Alathon'' of the DuPont Company. These properties are as follows: 50 The thickness of the \"Dura-Clear\" film we used was four thousandths of an inch, but thinner material would probably have served just as well. It is these qualities relating to water vapor and permeability to certain gases that make this material ideal when wrapped about air layers. (The same properties and its transparency make it ideal in packaging perishable fruits and vegetables.) It is obvious, from the above, that the polythene film should be conducive to rooting. It should be noted that air layers have been kept perfectly moist by this film, when the wrapping of the film is done tightly, for periods of up to one year in length. Sometimes the sphagnum moss in the wrap actually grows, and grass seeds germinate and grow vigorously when included in the moss mixture. Because the film is fairly transparent, the rooting of the twig inside can sometimes be noted without even opening the wrapping. This polythene film (the term used here to include all such trade-named products as mentioned on page 50) is ideal for packaging plants also. Mr. Richard Fillmore, the Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, has merely wrapped dormant scions of roses in pol3 thene with very little sphagnum moss, sent them by ordinary mail to England where they arrived five weeks later in perfect condition. He also wrapped scions of roses (Rosa hugoni,s) without packing material and placed them in the refrigerator for about 12 months with no bad effects, after which they were grafted and some grew successfully. Some azalea plants (3' tall) were dug last spr~ng at the Case Estates, the roots washed free of all soil and then wrapped tightly in polythene film. Some were kept outside, others were kept at room temperatures for a full month, then were planted out, and all grew normally thereafter. The Air Layer The making of the air layer itself is very simple and the principle is over a thousand years old. A longitudinal cut of about two inches upward is made on the young twig, the cut going nearly to the center of the twig. (An adaptation of this is to remove a complete circle of bark one half inch wide around the stem.) Then both cut surfaces are dusted with some hormone rooting powder which may (or may not) aid in the rooting. We have used Hormodin #3, but undoubtedly is other materials are just as good. Moist sphagnum moss - about a handful between the cut surfaces and then all around the entire cut, fully covering it. packed Polythene film is wrapped carefully and tightly about it, then tied top and bottom. - 51 Rubber bands used in grafting have not pro~ed satisfactory for tying. Mr. James M. Rooney of Attleboro, Massachusetts, suggested the use of Scotch Electrical Tape ~3~, and this has proved most satisfactory. The wrapping and tying of the film should be done in such a way that the moss is well contained and that no opening in the film is left for the evaporation of the moisture from the moss. Mr. Fillmore has pointed out that the overlap of the film wrapping should be on the underside of the air layer so rain water will not seep in. Also he has pointed out the very important fact that in taping the top end of the wrap the tape should be started on the bare twig and gradually spiral down to completely close the top end of the wrap in order that rain water will not seep down the twig and into the moss inside. In Plate XIII this is not done properly. Many of the air layers we made in 1951 may have failed to root because this was not done, water seeped into the moss packing, pushing out much of the air and creating a soggy condition decidedly unfavorable to rooting. If properly done, the air layer will remam moist for months (we have had some remain moist for a year) and rooting may take place in a few months' time. This is all there is to the operation. The time it is done, the size of twig used, the amount of hormone powder used and the amount of moisture in the moss are variables with which one has to contend for proper roottng. We have placed air layers in early spring on wood that is dormant, and again in June and July on twigs that grew the current year. As far as our results have been concerned, there seems to be a considerable variation and one would expect that rooting might easily vary with the species. Many plants are propagated from both hard wood\" or dormant cuttings, and \" soft wood\" cuttings made of wood grown the current year; others may root better from one or the other type of cutting. Consequently one would expect the time these layers are applied might well vary with the species, for best rooting. Twigs have been rooted that were a half inch in diameter, although usually one might expect normal rooting from the twigs about the size of a lead pencil. We have undoubtedly been over-generous with our applications of the rooting powders, and ~Ir. Fillmore has suggested that, from the appearances of some of the layers later, too much has been applied, for some have shown what appears to be hormone injury. This also is something what will have to be worked out later. Because so Bery little moisture passes through the film, one should be extremely careful not to have too much moisture in the sphagnum moss at the time it is applied about the cut. The moss should be squeezed prior to applicatron, so it will be moist not wet. - _ 'p . oo F II) a 0 a OIJ c x a c 0 o c II) E 8 0 J N O z i~ v F > F Q ro 0 c N js 1~ N;3#& x C 'O C 8 'F a7 CL k II) F II) ~a _Ld C 11. S GO II) ::I \"\" N - OIJ '-!-: ::s ~~ W II) 'F a .. ~ ,'X~, 0w Wa ~ -J.<:: F a~ ~.... .... Number Tried Number Rooted I 2 *Abeliophyllum cc f distichum 1 4 6 Acer barbinerve 44 46 \" \" \" 4 2 callipes circinatum ~,~8 5 1 3 1 1 1 1 1 cissifolium duretti 8 2 ginnala griseum \" * \" 3 8 4 4 6 ft \" grosseri hessi 8 1 \" ,, *\" palmatum pensylvanicum platanoides \" \" \" dissectum 6 4 1 6 4 4 2 \" \" \" \" globosum nanum var. 3 2 4 1 \" 4 8 4 saccharum monumentale Aesculus carnea 2 2 1 5 1 hippocastanum \" umbraculifera *Albizzia julibrissin rosea \" 46 6 4 10 Betula aurata 66 fon tinlllis 8 4 6 10 o 2 1 1 Carya tomentosa Castanea mollissim8 Catalpa bignonioides \" \" 4 4 4 4 1 2 2 2 2 bungei speClOsa 4 4 Cercis chinensis Cladrastis platycarpa Clethra barbinervis *Cornus alba sibirica Cornus florida rubra 8 3 8 3 8 3 9 4 4 Corylopsis glabreseens 46 spicata 3 1 Corylus chinensis *Layers made in ~950, all others in 1951. 54 Number Tried Number Rooted 4 *Cotinus coggygria \" \" \" purpureus \" 4 11 1 3 4 4 1 Cotoneaster foveolata 4 4 horizontalis monogyna stricta Crataegus 6 \" 6 6 4 4 pinnatifida major praecox I 1 Cytisus \" supinus 4 5 3 Davidia involucrata vilmorini Diospyros lotus Enkianthus campanulatus *Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf\" Franklinia alatamaha Ginkgo biloba Halesia carolina \" monticola rosea Hedera helix baltica 5 15 4 ' 5 B 4 1 6 4 4 1 6 4 3 4 1 6 4 4 *Hibiscus syriacus rosea 1 3 6 1 1 Hippophae rhamnoides Ilex crenata convexa \" glabra \" \" 6 montana macropoda 1 verticillata 8 4 Indigofera amblyantha Koelreuteria paniculata Laburnum anagy roides \" 3 3 3 4 3 4 4 -2 8 4 watereri ibota aureum 8 8 *Ligustrum * \" \" ovalifolium vulgare buxifolium Lonicera maacki Dlaackia amurensis Magnolia denudata \" 4 4 4 4 10 o 4 4 ~ 4 1 1 1 4 soulangeana \"Alexandrina\" Malus astracanica atrosanguinea \" 5 5 6 \" \"Dorothea\" a floribunda halliana spontanea .5 1 J \" \" 5 Number Tried Malus \" \" Number Rooted 2 \"McIntosh\" micromalus 8 7 4 2 3 3 3 prunifolia purpurea rinki 6 6 \" \" \" sargenti rosea \" \" \" spectabilis sublobata ' 5 6 2 6 4 4 4 4 66 Wabiskaw\" Morus alba pendula Orixa japonica Osmaronia cerasiformis *Populus alba nivea 2 4 2 2 1 2 Q 1 4 6 6 Prunus juddi \" \" maacki \" \" \" serrulata \"Amanogawa\" \"Gvoiko\" \" 4 8 1 2 \"Kwanzan\" yedoensis \"Taizanfukun\" aurea \" \" 4 2 Ptelea trifoliata * *Rhododendron \"Dr. Charles Baumann\" 7 9 5 \"Josephine Klinger\" 8 Salix caprea 1 Styrax japonica Symplocos paniculata Syringa amurensis japonica prestoniae \"Lucetta\" \"Paulina\" \" \" \" 7 7 6 4 5 5 7 2 3 8 3 3 9 2 1 1 0 \" \" villosa vulgaris vars. 35 Tamarix pentandra Taxus cuspidata nana Tilia cordata \" 8 5 8 3 2 platyphyllos fastigiata \"6 \" .. Tsuga canadensis Ulmus carpinifolia koopmanni \"f \" 6 3 6 3 I 1 I sarniensis 4 8 4 \" glabra Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum carlesi \"Jersey\" 2 1 56 ] Number Tried Number Rooted 1 1 *Viburnum dilatatum juddi * opulus rhytidophyllum ii \" < \" \" 4 4 4 6 6 8 1 I rufidulum * \" sargenti \" \" 5 8 4 8 flavum 4 8 4 4 4 \" setigerum aurantiacum 3 I sieboldi Wisteria floribunda 16 \" \" \" violacea-plena longissima alba 2 2 4 2 \" \"N'aga Noda\" 4 4 4 15 5 8 6 6 .6 66 formosa a \" macrostachya sinensis 4 I \" \" \" 61 hybrid venusta 2 I 6 8 Zelkova serrata '' Sllllca Plants which Failed to Root Number Abies homolepis umbellata Acer campstre \" \" qf Layers Tried 6 6 1 2 palmatum atropurpureum \" 4 lutescens s \" \" platanoides shirasawanum tataricum carnea 6 8 6 5 4 4 18 6 2 4 8 4 \" Aesculus \" \" plantierensis discolor mollis glabra leucodermis Albizzia jul~brissin rosea Amelanchier canadensis Amelasorbus jacki Betula jacquemontiana Carpinus cordata \" orientalis 4 57 Number qf Layers Tried 6 R 4 Carya glabra laneyi 66 \" 94 ovata schnecki 4 4 6 Castanea dentata Catalpa fargesi Cercis canadensis alba Chaenomeles sinensis 4 4 . Chionanthus \" 14 retusa virginicus ., . 2 Cladrastis lutea Cornus florida \" 4 4 mas \" elegantissima 8 4 4 8 5 5 4 officinalis Corylus avellana fusco-rubra \" contorta \" 64 colurna Cotinus americanus Crataegus arnoldiana 44 46 \" coceinioidcs. lavallei monogyna inermis 9 ,, 6 4 R \" versicolor 8 5 6 . \" nitida \" \" pruinosa punctata succulenta 6 \" 8 S 4 Diospyros virginiana Eucommia ulmoides Evodia danielli 4 4 Fagus grandifolia sylvatica atropunicea \" 8 2 6 pendula Fothergilla monticola Fraxinus chinensis \" \" \" pennsylvanicum 6 .. Gleditsia triacanthos \"( \" \" inermis 4 Hamamelis mollis 8 58 Number qf' Layers Tried 8 6 *Hamamelis mollis Juglans cinerea \" nigra * \" 9 4 6 laciniata \" f 4 4 5 5 \" < 66 f Kalmia latifolia \" \" polypetala 7 4 8 Kalopanax pictus Lindera benzoin Magnolia fraseri \" loebneri \" * stellata rosea \" \" \"3#& x C; 6 6 4 6 4 3 5 4 1 virginiana Malus \"Arrow\" \" \" baccata \"Bob White\" \" brevipes coronaria charlottae \" 8 5 4 5 1 \" \" \" \" florentina glabrata hupehensis ioensis plena robusta \" \" 4 6 sargenti Parrotia persica Phellodendron amurense \" chinensis \" sachalinensis Photinia villosa Pinus bungeana Prunus maritima Eastham\" \" 4 9 4 6 4 5 4 , 64 46 Raribank\" 4 serrula Pseudolarix amabilis Quercus bebbiana 66 bicolor \" dentata 66 5 4 4 6 4 * Layers made in 1950, all others in 1951. 59 Showing the rooting of air layer was made. PLATE XIV Malus \"Dorothea\" in September 1950, three months after the Number of LnJer.s Tried 8 5 Quercusfalcata \" marilandica \" mong\"olica robur \" 5 6 4 6 \" \" argenteo marginata \" runcinata \" \" stellata variabilis S. 5 4 _ Rhododendron\"Mrs. C. 41 44 Sargent\" 4 1 66 Purpureum grandiflorum\" caterer! Robinia longiloba Sophora japoniea Sorbus alnifolia \" 3 3 4 4 4 M~ \" aucuparia \" 8 6 4 . latifolia matsuillarana \" \" pratti 8 4 4 4 5 , thuringiaca Syringa pubescens Taxus cuspidata expansa Thuja standlshi Tilia americina fastigiata platyphyllos Tsuga caroliniana Ulmus carpinifolia dampieri \" \" 4 4 6 4 6 ' \" \" \" \" umbraculifera wredi 4 4 2 2 \" plotti I Vaccinium corymbosumHarding\" Results WisteriaJako\" It will be noted from the results that only a few plants were tried that are easy to root from cuttings. The process was merely checked at first to ascertain whether easily rooting plants like For.sythia, I,igu.,lrmre, Syriuga prestoniae, Populu.s, the Siberian Dogwood, Tamarix and some of the ~'~burnutns would root this way as well. Although the other materials (hsted as rooted) may be rooted from ~ 61 cuttings, most can be considered as \"difficult\" when handled was purpose of these reported experiments to-root plants, would respond to the air in this way. The to ascertain which of these difficulta layer technique, possibly saving time- consuming grafting operation. It must be admitted that after the roots are formed, the matter of cutting the potential plant from the parent is not simple. Only a few attempts were made to pot these plants. Mr. Lewis Lipp rooted twigs of the McIntosh apple, but was unsuccessful in getting the plants to grow after they were potted. Some of the other plants are in the same group. It may well be that cutting the rooted twig from the parent plant should best be done at a certain time, or gradually, or that the moss in the air layer might be taken from it and soil substituted before the plant is cut off. These first experiments have to do only with the formation of visible roots during one growing season. Most of the layers were put on either in late April or July 1951 and were removed in early October. The majority of those that did not root were well callused, some much more so than others. Air layers that were opened by vandals, that broke off in high winds, or that died because of improper cuts, do not enter into the figures given. This age-old subject of air layering now appears to be given a great impetus due to the properties of these new plastic films. If these results can be repeated, the percentage of rooting increased, and the young plants removed from the parent satisfactorily, this method of propagation will be a highiy valued one in any garden where rare and difficult-to-propagate plants are grown. DONALD WS'MAN 62 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Simple Key to the Pines","article_sequence":9,"start_page":63,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24238","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24e816c.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University I VOLUME 11 NOVE~IBER 9, 1JJ1 SIMPLE KEY TO THE PINES available from nurseries in the United 9 NUMBER (Native simple THISfrequentlykey is or States) is offered chiefly for the benefit of the amateur gardener who confronted with keys which he finds unnecessarily complicated. The key is based primarily on foliage characters which, in most cases, can be observed without the use of a hand lens. It should be clearly understood that any key based primarily on the length of the leaves (and this key is just that) is open to serious criticism because the length of the leaves of any plant will vary with the individual as well as with soil, age and climate variations, disease infestations and altitude at which the tree is growing. Other plant characters vary likewise. However, in order to assist the gardener who has an interest in pines, this key is offered in spite of just such criticism. It includes only those pines which one is likely to find in the woods or nurseries of this country. A few native species have been omitted because they occur only in limited areas, and many exotic species are omitted because they have not yet been widely distributed in cultivation. It goes without saying that the more species included in a key, the more complicated that key becomes. There are about 80 species of pines distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, 27of which are growing in the Arnold Arboretum. This key includes all but four of the species native to the United States, as well as 15 exotic ones available from nurseries, all in all, 38 species of pines. All measures of leaf length should be considered as approximate only. On one individual tree needles may vary in length from 2 inches to as much as 8 inches, but in the key the length given would be4 to 6 inches, meaning that mature needles - not the young ones which are elongating, nor the ones on weak or on over-vigorous branches are mostly within the4 to 6 inch length. If this is clearly understood by those using this key, the key will undoubtedly prove helpful in the identification of most of our commonly grown pines. - (i3 ,\" The key is designed to be used chiefly with living material, hence the color of the foliage and the general habit of the tree sometimes plays an important part. Occasionally, as in differentiating between Pinus strobus and P. monticola, the two species are so much alike that cone characters are used, but these are resorted to only when absolutely necessary, for many a tree which one would like to identify is not graced with cones at the time one wishes to identify it. This key can be greatly simplified for there are not many pines which are commonly found in any one area in the United States. As an example, let us consider the five-needled pines. There are at least 15 five-needled pine species of which 11are growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Thirteen species and 3 varieties are listed in the following key. If this key were designed merely to identify the five-needled pines native to this country, the list would be reduced to 7 species. If the key were to be used in identifying the five-needled pines native in the northeastern United States only, this part dealing with five-needled pines would include merely P. strobus. Hardiness is given according to Zones in the Hardiness Map published in former issues of Arnoldia (Vol. 3, No. 10, p. 53, 1943). Habitats are also given, because sometimes such information may prove helpful in assisting in plant identification. There is no excuse for avoiding a simple key such as this one, merely because of a lack of thorough botanical training. Such keys, when carefully made, are understandable, and if they are used with a full knowledge of their limitations, they will prove most helpful to the gardening public. Identifications made by the use of any key, and this one in particular, should not be considered final, but should be further checked against a complete description in some standard text, and available illustrations. SIMPLE KEY TO THE PINES Native or available in North America ous or Needles in bundles of 2 to 5, persistent sheath a rarely solitary, enclosed at the base by a deciduPinus ...... 1. Needles 5 in sheath albicaulis-W hite Bark Pine aristata-Bristle-cone Pine cembra-Swiss Stone Pine strobus-Eastern White Pine strobus fastigiata strobus nana torreJana-Torrey Pine long with smooth margin P. aristata (California to Colorado) Zone .5 2. Needles usually 1~ to 2 inches long flexilis-Limber Pine gr~thi-Himalayan Pine parv~flora-Japanese White Pine parv~fLora glauca peuce-Balkan Pine pumila-Japanese Stone Pine koraiensis-Korean Pine lambertiana-Sugar Pine monlicola-Western White Pine 2. Needles usually less than 12 inches 64 3. Bark of trunk brown to creamy white, needles rigid and stout, margin P. albicaulis Columbia to California) Zone 3 3. Bark of trunk black, needles more flexible 4. Needles bluish green, often twisted, intensely white underneath, leaf P. parviflora margin finely serrulate, i. e. , rough to the touch (Japan) Zone 5 4. Needles intensely bluish green ... P. parviflora glauca 4. Needles light green, not twisted P. flexilis 5. Mature twigs glabrous, needles smooth to California) Zone 4 (Alberta 5. Mature twigs pubescent; leaf margin finely serrulate, i.e., rough to P. pumila the touch smooth ...... (British . .. . .... 3 (Japan) Zone 2. Needles mostly ~2 to ~~ inches long; leaf margin serrulate, i.e., rough to the touch 3. Mature twigs glabrous P. strobus nana 4. Plant shrubby, not tree-like 4. Branches upright, tree dense ....... P. peuce .5. Needles stiff (Balkan Mts.) Zone 4 ... P. strobus fastigiata 5. Needles soft and flexible 4. Branches horizontal, tree more open 5. Cones usually 2 to 4~ inches long; twigs glabrous or only slightly ... ' pubescent P. strobus U.S. and Canada) Zone 3 5. Cones usually 4~ to 10 inches long; twigs pubescent when young P. monticola (British Columbia to Idaho and California) Zone 5 (These two species are difficult to tell apart with the naked eye, except that the habit of P. monticola is more narrow and dense and the needles stiffer than are those of P..strobu.s.) (Eastern 3. Mature twigs 4. Tree pubescent densely upright, pyramidal m (Alps 4. Tree not 5. 5. as of Europe) habit Zone 4 ' .. P. cembra above, more open Needles lustrous, dark green (Japan, Korea) Needles dull green 6. Terminal bud blunt almost ... Zone 3 cones P. koraiensis ' globular, Zone 5 12 to 20 inches (Oregon 6. 10 inches to California) P. lambertiana not Terminal bud sharply pointed, definitely globular, cones 4 to ...... P. monticola (British Columbia to Idaho and California) Zone 5 - 6:i - 2. Needles 4~ to 8 inches long long .... P. griffithi (Himalayas) 2. Needles 8 to 12 inches 1. Needles 3 to 4 Zone 5 P. torreyana .... (Southwestern California) Zone 9 P. cembroides parryana only occasionally 5; leaf margin smooth (California) I. Needles 3 in a Zone 9 Parry Pinyon Pine sheath attenuata-Knob-cone Pine bungeana-Lace-bark Pine canariensis-Canary Pine coulteri-Coulter Pine jeffreyi-Jeffrey Pine palustris-Longleaf Pine 2. Needles mostly 2 to 5 inches 3. Leaf sheaths ponderosa-Ponderosa Pine radiata-Monterey Pine rigida-Pitch Pine sabiniana-Digger taeda-Loblolly Pine Pine long deciduous, bark of older twigs smooth, with white or yellow patches bark of trunk P. flaky .... bungeana bark of P. a rigida (China) 3. Leaf sheaths 4. not deciduous, cones Zone 4 bark of older twigs very 2 to 4 inches rough, trunk dark brown to black Foliage dark green, or usually long (Eastern 4. U.S. and Canada) Zone 4 Foliage bright 5. Bark 5. Bark on bluish green; cones 3 to7 inches long P. attenuata upper part of trunk and branches smooth to California) Zone 8 (Oregon on upper part of trunk and branches rough Zone 8 P. radiata (Southern California) 2. Needles 4. mostly 5 to 10 inches long 3. Winter buds resinous Twigs fragrant when broken ; cones 3 to 6 inches; foliage dark green, branchlets orange brown .... P. ponderosa (Eastern and Central U.S.) Zone 5 Twigs green not 4. - fragrant when broken; cones 9 to 14 inches; foliage bluish ....... P. coulteri (California) 3. Winter buds not resinous 4. Zone 8 Foliage bluish green 5. Needles stout, bark cinnamon red, cones 6 to 12 inches P. jeffreyi (Oregon 5. Needles and California) Zone 5 3 to 6 inches slim, bark red brown, 66 cones P. taeda (New Jersey to Florida and Texas) Zone 6 PLATE XV 4. Foliage dark green; cones 5 to 12 inches .. P. coulteri (California) 2. Needles 8 to 18 inches Zone 8 long .... 3. Foliage gray bluish green 4. Needles 4. Needles 3. slender, drooping stiff, erect P. sabiniana (California) (California) Foliage green 4. Needles Zone 6 P. coulteri ..... Zone 8 green and lustrous P. canariensis green mostly mostly a 8 to 10 inches 12 inches long, light (Canary Islands) 4. Needles 1. Needles 3 and 2 in Zone 10 ? or more long, dark Zone 7 P. palustris (Southeastern U.S.) sheath \" caribaea-Slash Pine cembroides-Mexican Pinyon Pine echinata-Shortleaf Pine ponderosa scopuloruzn-Rocky Mountain Ponderosa Pine tabzzlaPformis-Chinese Pine 2. Needles less than 2 inches long .... P. cembroides (Southern California and Arizona) Zone 9 2. Needles more than 2 inches long 3. One year twigs greenish to purplish, covered with glaucous bloom P. echinata (Eastern U.S.) Zone 5 3. One year twigs yellow brown to brownish P. ponderosa scopulorum 4. Terminal bud very resinous (Rocky Mountain Region) Zone 4 4. Terminal bud not resinous or only slightly so S. Needles 2 to 7 inches long; cones 1~ to 2 inches long 5 P. tubulaeformis (China) Zone 5. Needles 8 to 12 inches long; cones 3 to 6~ inches long P. caribaea (Southeastern U.S., Bahamas, Honduras) Zone 8 . .. . 1. Needles 2 in a sheath bnnksiana-Jack Pine densiflora-Japanese Red Pine ~ den.siflorrr oculu.s-drnconis densi,flora umbraculifera echinata-Shortleaf Pine nzugo-Swiss Mountain Pine mugo nigra austriaca-Austrian Pine pinaster-Cluster Pine pungens-Table Mountain Pine resinosn-Ited Pine sylvestris -Scotch Pine . eompaclrr mugo 2. pumilio 3 tabulaeformis-Chinese Pine thunbergi-Japanese Black Pine virgininna-V~rginia Pine ss Needles 4to inches long 3. 3. Foliage with each needle marked mth a yellow band P. P. densiflora oculus-draconis Foliage bluish Foliage 4. green, bark of upper trunk red Zone ~? sylvestris and vars. (Europe) :3. green Plant 5. usually shrubby, with several main branches from the base P. mugo and vars. Needles ~ to 2 inches long, bark black . (Central Europe) globose shape 6. Shrubby, upright habit 5. Needles 3 to 5 inches, bark red 4. Plant a Zone 2 .. 6. Dense almost P. mugo compacta P. mugo ... pumilio to reddish P. densiflora umbraculifera tree with a central leader inch 5. Needles mostly I long ... P. banksiana 5. (Northeastern U.S. and Eastern Canada) Needles l~ to 3 inches long 6. Branchlets or 2 Zone 7. usually with glaucous bloom, often greenish to purplish yellowish Foliage bluish green, cones usually not persistent, bark of upP. densiflora per trunk red ; leaves flexible ... (Japan) 7. Zone 4 cones Foliage bright green, black; leaves stiff persistent, bark of .... upper trunk P. virginiana (Eastern U.S.) 6. Branchlets without Zone 4 orange to one glaucous bloom, more yellow on 7. Vigorous shoots often with the current year's growth than whorl of branches ... P. pungens on (Southeastern U.S.) 7. Vigorous shoots with only or one Zone 5 whorl of branches the current year's growth whitish to light yellow P. thunbergi Zone i 8. Winter buds dark brown P. tabulaeformis (China) Zone 5 2. Needles 3 to 8 inches long 3. Winter buds resinous 4. Needles slender and flexible, breaking when bent P. resinosa (Northeastern U.S. and Eastern Canada) Zone 2 8. Winter buds white (Japan) .. 4. Needles stout and stiff, not breaking when Zone 4 so bent in P. P. nigra austriaca 3. Winter buds not resinous (Central Europe) (or only slightly tabulngf'ormis) - 69 4. Buds stout, up to 1 inch 4. Buds long; branchlets bright reddish Zone 8 .... Zone 4 brown P. pinaster (Portugal to Greece) less than ~ inch long (Japan) .i. Bark of upper trunk red P. densiflora 5. Bark of upper trunk black 6. One year twigs with glaucous bloom, Zone 5 green to purplish P. echinata (Eastern U.S.) 6. One year twigs without glaucous bloom, yellow to brown P. tabulaeformis 7. Winter buds dark reddish brown (China) Zone 5 ' P. thunbergi 7. Winter buds light yellow to white or whitish (Japan) Zone 4 . DONALD V~~I'MAN _ EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATION opp. page 66) of the trunk of the lace-bark pine made by Mr. Heman Howard of the Arnold Arboretum, was taken on the property of Mr. and Mrs. Roger Ernst, Brookline. This tree, now about 60 feet tall and nearly 30 feet in branch spread, is standing on what was formerly \"Holm Lea\" the original home of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, first Director of the Arnold Arboretum. Since the first plants of this species came to the Arnold Arboretum in~ 1879 from the old Botanical Garden in Cambridge, Massachusetts, it is highly probable that this tree may have been planted in Brookline about that time. The picture (Plate XV, (Pinus bungeana), 70 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Five Interesting Trees","article_sequence":10,"start_page":71,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24234","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24eb36f.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University i VOLUME 11 NOVEMBER 16, 1951 FIVE INTERESTING TREES NUMBER 10 the past few years, three new trees have proved of considerable int terest in the nurseries or the plantings of the Arnold Arboretum. Others, which have been growing here for some time but have not yet been widely distributed in the nursery industry are also worthy of mention. A few of our notes concerning some of these trees may prove of timely interest. Acer platanoides \"Crimson King.\" This is a seedling of Acer platanoides schz.edleri, originating at Orleans, France, in the nurseries of Barbier and Company. It was first introduced into America by the Gulf Stream Nurseries, Wachapreague, Virginia, in 1948 and has been patented (No. 735) by this company. It was first planted m the Arboretum on March 10, 1948 under the provisional name A. platanoides schzeedleri nigra, but later, plants obtained under the patented name in 1949 showed that the earlier plants were identical. This tree is far superior to the Schwedler Maple, in that it keeps its rich purplish red foliage color throughout the entire growing season. Up to the time this clone became available, the Schwedler Maple had proved popular for its colored foliage; but, as many know, this color, while a pronounced red in the early spring, gradually turns greenish in the summer. During the four growing seasons that \"Crimson King\" has been growing here, it has kept its color uniform throughout the entire period of growth, from spring to fall. Consequently, it is an excellent shade tree in situations where its colored foliage is thought desirable. Gleditsia triacanthos \"Moraine Locust.\" This variety of the native Honeylocust has recently been given wide publicity, and justly so. To the Siebenthaler Company of Dayton, Ohio, goes the credit for observing, propagating and patenting (No. 836) this tree in 1949. The original tree had apparently been under observation for many years. Two qualities make it outstandmg. It is thornless, and, apparently having only staminate flowers does not produce the long pods in the fall, which creates a messy raking problem. There are other forms of Gledit- DURING 71] ] sia triacanthos inermis. We have grown several from seed here, but whether or not they will bear fruits or have the wide spreading form so desirable in a shade tree, cannot be determined for many years. The \"Moraine Locust\" has all the other good attributes of the native Honey locust. It is long lived, has hard wood, grows well under the trying conditions of the city and is fairly drought resistant. It is also easily transplanted, the Siebenthaler Company noting that in one spring and fall they transplanted nearly a thousand treas ,i-6r in height without a single loss. It has been growing at the Arnold Arboretum since March 31, 1948, and in the four growing seasons has made remarkably fast growth. Metasequoia glyptostroboides. This tree has been completely discussed in ARNOLDIA 11 : No. 3, April ~i, 1951. However, it is interesting to note that at least two of the Arboretum's specimens grew 4'4\" during the past summer. In the picture (Plate XVI) the young lady is pointing to the height of this specimen when it was planted in the early spring of 19,i 1. Another plant within a few feet of this one only grew half as much. Both these plants were grown from seed sown July 9, 1948, and the photograph was taken in September 1951. I had hoped this was a record, but recently a note came of a specimen from balmy southern California, growing in the garden of James F. Clarke, San Jose nurseryman, now measuring 11r10~r in height. Davidia involucrata. Much has been written about the beautiful Dove Tree. E. H. Wilson was very fond of it. However, during the past fifteen years it has not performed well in the Arnold Arboretum until this past spring. Only once before during that time, was it known to flower (in the Arboretum), and then only a few deformed flowers were formed. This past spring it was covered with beautiful blossoms and many fully developed fruits were picked this fall. The trees in the Arboretum were killed to the ground in the severe winter of 198334 and have had a difficult time recovering. Now about 20' tall, with a season of heavy bloom on the record for 1951, it will be interesting to watch their performance in the future. Malus toringoides macrocarpa. During the course of the years, the Arnold Arboretum acquires many plants that are improperly named. Some of these prove great disappointments, especially when the name leads one to believe that they may have special merit. Here is one example where the name given probably correctly describes the plant. The Cutleaf Crab (Malxs toringoides) is now a well known favorite among the crab apples, valued for its densely pyramidal habit, its white flowers in the spring and its small, pear-shaped fruits in the fall that are colored a beautiful red and yellow. However, no varieties of it have been known in America, at least. The story of this \"new\" plant is simply another in a long list showing how patient one must be in awaiting the normal flowering and fruiting of certain \"new\" woody plants. Major F. C. Stern (now Colonel) of Goring-by-the-Sea, Sussex, England, collected seed from our original Malus toringoides in the late twenties or early thir- ~'2 ~ ] PLATE XVI Metasequoaa glyptostroboides in the Arnold Arboretum photographed m September 1951. The seed was sown in July 1948, and when this tree was planted in the spring of 1951 in this spot, it was at the height pointed to by the young lady. During the ensuing growing season it grew 4'4\" up to the time it was photographed. Now 8'8\" tall, this is not a record growth for these trees in America, but it is not every tree that doubles its own height when slightly over three years old. seedlings had unusually large fruits, and scions from his plant received by the Arboretum on February 29, 1939. Large fruited forms of woody plants may sometimes be due to unusually good soil conditions, so we wanted to wait and see how these grafted plants behaved here. It turned out that we had to wait a long time. Four plants were set out in 1942 resulting from the scions we received in 1939. Two were killed by fire in 19~.5 before they fruited, one was broken off by skiers m 1946 before it fruited. Grafts were made again from the one remaining plant, in February 1948 when it was apparent that only one specimen of this variety was still alive, and luckily so, for it is recorded as \"missing\" later in 1948. Three healthy plants were planted in the nurseries in 1949 and were observed in fruit for the first time this fall. The fruits are ~rr in diameter and nearly twice as large as those of the species. They are pear shaped, red and yellow and very beautiful. It is everything the name implies, but the fruits do not remain on the tree as long as do those of the species. The flowers are identical with those of the species, as is the foliage also. In other words, due to a series of circumstances, this plant has been observed in fruit for the first time in the Arboretum after thirteen years. Patience is indeed an asset when growing trees and shrubs ! ties. One of his were DONALD W YMAN Trees for American Gardens, by Donald Wyman, published by Macmillan Company of New York this month, is a companion volume to Shrubs and Vines for American Gardens, published in 1949. Approximately i4o native and exotic species and varieties of trees are recommended for planting in American gardens. Nearly one thousand others are listed in a secondary list as either inferior to or no better than those in the recommended list. As with the volume on Shrubs, not every horticulturist will agree with such lists, but in offering them a much needed step is made m the direction of simplification of the tremendous number of good (and mediocre) varieties of plants now being offered in this country by commercial sources. Nearly 250 species and varieties of flowering crab apples are being offered by commercial sources in America - forty-four are suggested as being superior in this book. ~'ritten primarily as a companion volume to the book on Shrubs, this one on Trees covers the same hardiness areas and is printed in the same general style. Note: ~4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Woody Plants Used in Colonial Williamsburg","article_sequence":11,"start_page":75,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24244","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d25eaf27.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORbiATIOB of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University I VOLUME 11 NOVEL~IBER 30, 1951 NUMBER 11 I WOODY PLANTS USED IN COLONIAL WILLIAMSBURG THE to an grace and charm of colonial Williamsburg is being forcibly brought home ever-increasing horde of visitors each year. The painstaking care with which this former Virginia capital is being restored is something for which all Americans can be justly proud, for here one is able to visualize the kind of life led by the people who lived here over two hundred years ago. The restoration is not completed, for ambitious building and excavation programs are being executed each year. The restoration appeals to different people in different ways. Volumes have been written about the architecture of the times, about the furnishings in the buildings and the mode of life. To many who are interested in gardening, it is the gardens and plants that are of special interest. Williamsburg was the capital of the Virginia colony from 1699 to 1780. Here the governor and other representatives of the king lived and entertained. The restless fighting of the earliest adventurers to Virginia's coast had gradually stopped, so that prior to 1750, people were becoming increasingly interested in living leisurely, in becoming comfortable, in making and caring for small but beautiful gardens. Of course, many native plants of the southeastern United States were known to these people and used by them in garden making. Also, many plants had been brought over from Europe during the years of sailing across the ocean, so that by 1750 quite a few woody plants common in European gardens had reached America and were well established. The stories of the introductions of certain types of European plants brought to America by the earlier settlers would prove most interesting. Many plants undoubtedly were brought over as seeds, for as such they were easily transported. The horse chestnut, lilac, roses, mountain ash, yew and linden could all have been in this group. Many herbs and annual flowers were available and even bulbs such as tulips, narcissus and hyacinths were grown. In a recent list of 265 plants grown in 1700, only R? were not listed in the current issue of the \"Plant Buyers : 75: Guide,\" showing that the plants used in those times were good selectionssufficiently so to be popular during the ensuing two centuries. The following list is of some of the woody plants used by the early Virginia settlers in making their gardens prior to 1750. *Acer platanoides rubrum Colutea arborescens Cornus florida a saccharinum saccharum '~Aesculus hippocastanum * Ailanthus altissima Amelanchier canadensis Amorpha fruticosa Aronia arbutitolia Asimina triloba Baccharis lralimifolia *Cornus mas *Cotinus coggygria Crataegus phaenopyrum ' *Daphne * cneorum mezereum Diospyros virginiana *Elaeagnus angustifolia Euonymus * americanus europaeus *Berberis vulgaris Betula lenta lutea papyrifera Bignonia capreolata *Broussonetia papyrifera *Buxus sempervirens * Fagus grandifolia * sylvatica *Ficus carica Fothergilla sp. a Fraxinus americana excelsior Gleditsia triacanthos Gymnocladus dioica Halesia carolina Hamamelis virginiana *Hedera helix * suffruticosa americana Callicarpa *Calluna vulgaris Calycanthus floridus Campsis radicans Carpinus caroliniana * Carya betulus illinoensis ovata *Hibiscus syriacus Hydrangea arborescens *Hypericum calycinum *Ilex aquifolium cassine Catalpa bignonioides *Cedrus libani Celastrus scandens Celtis occidentalis Cercis canadensis Chionanthus virginicus Cladrastis lutea Clematis virginiana Clethra alnifolia * glabra opaca verticillata *Jasminum officinale Juglans cinerea nigra Juniperus mrginiana Kalmia latifolia *Laburnum vulgare over Exotic plant materials brought by earlier settlers from Europe. [ , E~ F NC G LO . G_ C C,' a w 0 a~ a ro v 0 w m S a 8 : .-~ a W E a a~ ~\" v ~ ro a~ y x . w ~. .~ d a~ en ~a '5 a. a~ g no 0 h a~ ~ o > ~ o *' h o ea .~ w o; ~ ~ :c *Lavandula officinalis *Laurus nobilis *Ligustrum vulgare Lindera benzoin Rhododendron calendulaceum carolinianum nud~florum Rhus aromatica Liquidambar styraciflua Liriodendron tulipifera Lonicera sempervirens * typhina Robinia hispida pseudoacacia Rosa alba carolina * centifolia * damascena * tatarica *Lvcium hahmifolium Magnolia grandiflora macrophylla virginiana *Malus sylvestris *Dlelia azedarach *Morus alba Myrica cerifera Nyssa sylvatica Parthenocissus quinquefolia * * * * eglanteria gallica laevigata spinosissima virginiana Sambucus canadensis Sassafras albidum Sorbus americana *Salix babylonica *Philadelphus *Picea abies Pinus taeda coronarius * aucuparia virginiana Platanus occidentalis *Populus alba * Spiraea tomentosa Stewartia malacodendron Symphoricarpos albus nigra avium *Syringa vulgaris *Taxus Thuja * *Prunus * * laurocerasus persica *Punica granatum baccata occidentalis Tilia americana *Pyrus communis vulgaris Tsuga canadensis Ulmus americana procera Quercus alba coccinea * marilandica nigra Vaccinium Viburnum corymbosum prunifolium phellos velutina virginiana Rhamnus cathartica Rhododendron arborescens trilobum Vinca minor Vitis labrusca Wisteria frutescens DONALD WYMAN 78 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Elms Grown in America","article_sequence":12,"start_page":79,"end_page":93,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24233","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24eaf6e.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University i VOLUME 11 DECEMBER 7, 1951 1 ELMS GROWN IN AMERICA NUMBER 12 THIRTY-FIVE Arboretum unfortunately just years ago, Professor Charles S. Sargent, Director of the Arnold wrote the following statement concerning the European Elmsas then \"There is probably more confusion in the identification and proper naming of these trees (the European elms) in American parks and gardens than of any other group of trees, and it is only in very recent years that English botanists have been able to reach what appear to be sound conclusions in regard to them. The confusion started with Linnaeus, who believed that all European elms belonged to one species, and it has been increased by the appearance of natural hybrids of at least two of the species and by the tendency of seedlings to show much variation from the original types.\" Today, with six elm species native in the United States, five species native of Europe (including many varieties), and several more species native of Asia, the picture becomes even more confused. The elm is, and always has been, a standard shade tree, for even though it is threatened in certain sections by the Dutch elm disease and phloem necrosis, the gardening public will still plant elms. Approximately fifty elms will be mentioned in this bulletin. About thirty of them have been listed as available in the nurseries of this country during the past two years: all but five of them are growing in the Arnold Arboretum at Boston. true today as it was - The Native American Elms Of the six native American species, only three are of ornamental value - the American elm (U. americana) and its varieties, the slippery elm (U. fulva), and the winged elm ( U. alata). The winged or wahoo elm is hardy only in the southern United States, being native from Virginia to Florida and westward to the Mississippi River and Texas, while the other two are native throughout the East and Mid-west. These species are easily distinguishable and little reason exists for any confusion. A key based on foliage characters is appended to this paper. 79 Rich in references in the early history of the United States, the American elm is the most outstanding and the most deserving of all the elms. It is widely distributed throughout southern Canada, as well as the eastern and the mid-western parts of the United States. In early colonial times, it was under numerous stately specimens that important meetings and many important events took place. Some of these historic elms are still standing today and are well over a hundred feet in height. Many a community in the eastern and mid-western United States has its own local history closely tied to some huge elm which is yet living; and it is the concensus of opinion in hundreds of communities that it would be a dire calamity indeed if the use of the American elm were discontinued in landscape work. There is no ornamental tree just like the American elm. Its wide, vase-shaped form is unique, making it an excellent specimen for lawn and for street planting. Its lofty branches allow much air circulation underneath and, though the tree supplies perfect shade, the widely arching branches do not hinder views from houses. This habit, characteristic of the American elm, is much more evident in mature specimens than in younger trees. Since the habit varies considerably when the trees are grown from seed, it is advisable to propagate vegetatively those individuals of outstanding form. Strangely enough, it is, like the white oak, one of the few of our native trees that does not thrive well in Europe. Several recognized varieties give clear evidence of the diverging habits of the American elm. There is, for instance, the variety columnaris with rather upright branches forming a wide columnar head. The variety ascendens is more narrow, distmctly columnar. Other columnar or narrow pyramidal forms would include the \"Lake City\" elm, the \"Moline\" elm, the \"Augustine\" elm and the \"Princeton\" elm. Sometimes a variety \"urni,\" or \"vase-shaped form,\" is found listed in nursery catalogues; this is, in reality, the true U. americana. Then too, there is the variety pendula, which has all the good qualities of U. americana with the addition of drooping branchlets, making it decidedly graceful. These and other forms should, of course, be asexually propagated in order to perpetuate their characteristic forms. The slippery elm ( U. fulva) is usually found over the same range as the American elm but is not such an excellent ornamental and only grows about sixty feet high. Its form is round; its head, broad and somewhat open; and the foliage, not so dense as that of the American elm. From the mucilaginous inner bark of this tree, very popular cough drops were made at one time. The slippery elm is slightly more susceptible to elm leaf beetle injury than the American elm, and need never be used as a substitute for that much better tree. The winged, or wahoo elm ( U. alata) of the South is a vigorous growing, small tree with a wide-topped head, reaching a height of about thirty feet. The leaves are smaller than those of either of the elms already described, and there are pronounced broad and opposite corky ridges along the vigorous young branches. Sometimes the winged elm will grow in protected places as far north as Boston, 80 but it is not dependably hardy north of Philadelphia. Where it can be grown, it makes a vigorous growing, small tree, often with graceful arching branches. It should be given preference to the American elm, however, only where a small sized mature tree is desired. Three other elms, native in the United States, are seen occasionally in cultivation but these are seldom offered by nurseries because the trees have little to offer as ornamentals when compared with the more beautiful Ulmus americana. One is the cedar elm (U. crassifolia) of Texas, Mississippi and Arkansas. It is very common in these states but has been found to be of little value elsewhere in the United States. It is a somewhat round-headed tree, growing about 75 feet tall and having, like U. alata, opposite corky ridges along the twigs. Closely related is the red elm (U. serotina) native to Kentucky, Alabama and Georgia but hardy as far north as Boston. It has spreading, somewhat pendulous branches, forming a broad head ; and it, too, often develops corky wings along vigorous growing twigs. These two elms and U. ~arvifolia, the true Chinese elm, are unlike all other hardy members of the genus in that they develop their flowers and fruits in the fall and not in the spring. The last native elm species is the rock elm, U. thomasi (formerly called U. racemosa). Though at present it is rarely grown, the tree might be valuable because of its unique growth habit. About 90 feet tall at maturity, it usually has a central trunk and irregularly developed short, lateral branches, giving an outline which is oblong, rounded at the top, but not necessarily dense. Its slow growth and loosely borne branches are probably the reasons why it has not been much utilized at ornamental, but its growth habit makes it easily distinguishable, even distance, from the rest of the elms. It, too, frequently develops irregular corky wings along its younger branches. So much for the native elms. Some are seen everywhere in the East and the Mid-west; and some of the less desirable ones have been left standing where the surrounding land has been utilized for building purposes. As stated before, the last three species mentioned are probably not grown in nurseries nor used in landscape work, but are seen here and there simply because they have remained as an a untouched in areas where man has \"developed\" Nature's handiwork. The American elm is the best - far superior to the others in every way. Asiatic Elms Of this group, the elm which has caught the public fancy more than any other is the Siberian elm (U. pumila). This plant is a native of northeastern Asia. It is unfortunately misnamed the Chinese elm in many nursery catalogues though this name belongs to U. paruifolia. It was first sent to this country in 1905 by Professor J. G. Jack of the Arnold Arboretum and later was introduced in large quantities through the efforts of Frank N. Meyer of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. This vigorous growing tree has found much use in the drier areas - 81 ~~ & ..c.. a 1:; * a a~~a ~ ~ o en .~ .a, '~ ei .'sS o< ;n ~wad a d \" 'N 8 % ~~~~ Z.:: d c ~ ~ ~F~. ..... :<;S~~ ;> ~ ~ N ~ ; W E. ~ ~ o > s * a -~~~ ~ .' a ~~ ~ o ~.~x i ~F 0- ~ <L> E c :b c c c of the Mid-west, where it does better than most other trees. It withstands clipping very well and forms dense hedges and windbreaks when properly clipped. But when we have noted its drought resistance and its fast growth, everything in its favor has been said. It is a weak-wooded tree, does not grow old gracefully, and if unpruned, becomes very loose and open. Where other trees are available for ornamental purposes, they should be grown. This is especially true in the eastern and northeastern United States. Reports are circulating of certain strains of this tree with good form and habit, which yield similar off-spring when propagated asexually. I have seen several of these trees, which, when young, admittedly make nice specimens; but it is questionable that they will maintain their good habit as they grow older. For dry soil planting, especially in the dry areas of the West, or for a quick screen which later may be replaced with one more permanent, this tree is admirable; but as a permanent specimen in areas where other trees are available, it is not to be desired. An elm frequently confused with L7. pumila is the true Chinese elm D. parvi,folia) native of northern and central China, Korea and Japan. Like U. pumiln, it has small leaves, one to two inches long. There are several ways in which it differs from the taller growing Siberian elm, however. The true Chinese elm is a small tree, usually under fifty feet in height. It has thin scaling bark and a round-topped crown, keeps its foliage green until late in fall and is half evergreen in the south. It bears its flowers in the fall while U. pumila has them in the spring. Usually, like the other elms, its autumn foliage is bright yellow; but two of the trees in the Arboretum have a bright red autumn coloration. It has been noted in the Japanese beetle area around Philadelphia, that where these two species were growing side by side, the beetles would practically defoliate U. pumila and scarcely touch L7. para~'olia - an interesting observation well worth further investigation. The Japanese elm (U. japonica) has long been a tree of importance to the Ainu, the aboriginal people of Japan. Many of these people believed that this was the first tree created, sent directly from heaven in full growth. This tree plays an important part in their economy. Fire is made by rubbing its dry roots together. When the inner bark of the tree is mashed and mixed with water, it is woven into a cloth from which wearing apparel is made. The outer bark is used in the roofing of houses and as covering for the outside (and the inside) walls. The Japanese elm is a handsome tree with good dark green foliage. It is as important ornamentally as the Scotch elm because of its similarity in general appearance. In the collection at the Arnold Arboretum, it is susceptible only to a very slight infestation of the elm leaf miner and the elm leaf beetle. The fourth and last Asiatic elm, the Manchurian elm ( U. laciniata) is of little importance ornamentally simply because it does not have a good habit of growth. All the trees in the collection at the Arboretum have a fan-shaped habit of branching, with a correspondingly rounded head, but the leaves are borne only 83 at the tips of the long branches, which have very few side shoots. This plant has been offered in a few American nurseries but might well be replaced by some of the better elms. European Elms There are . three elm species which, strictly speaking, are native of Europe only. They are the English elm, U. procera (formerly called U. campestri.s), the Russian elm ( L'. ltreris), and the Plot elm ( U. ploti). Characteristic of the European elms as a group is the fact that they all assume their autumn color later in the fall than do the native American elms. Of the three, the English elm is by far the most important in America. Many of these trees were planted in Massachusetts in the eighteenth century and since that time have been continually used as street trees and specimens throughout the East. E. H. Wilson strongly recommended this tree for city planting for he claimed it withstood the smoke and obnoxious gases of the city better than any of the other elms, the American included. It does not have the queenly arching habit of the American elm, but it does have a grace and beauty all its own, with its numerous ascending and spreading branches. It has also been noted that in good seasons the leaves remain green several weeks longer than do those of the American elm. Unfortunately it is most susceptible to attacks of the elm leaf miner and of the elm leaf beetle. Several varieties of the English elm are known, but none of them are grown in quantity by American nurseries. The variety t~anhoxtltei has leaves tinged wth yellow, and aurea actually has yellow leaves. The variety purpurascen.s has purplish leaves, and another variety, xnnrginnla, has leaves with a creamy--white margin. One form, au.stralis, has leaves that are much thicker and firmer than those of the species. Perhaps the best ornamental variety is m~rtifolia, which has the smallest leaves of any of the elms - scarcely one inch long. The European white elm or Russian elm, U. Irteris (formerly U. petlrtnculata~, is common in some parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Russia. It is similar in size to our own native American elm and is as hardy. However, it differs because it has a much thicker coating of tomentum on the undersurface of the leaves, and longer, more sharply pointed buds. In England, it grows better than the American elm. It is apparently rare in American collections, but makes an excellent specimen tree, with a single upright main trunk. Another European species is the East-Anglian or Plot elm, L'. ploti. The name lock elm was given to it in England because of the difficulty of working its tough wood. This tall growing tree, which reaches a height of 80-90 feet is closely allied to the Scotch elm and is rarely found in American collections. The next elm species to be mentioned is a hybrid, 17. holltrrtdica, apparently a hybrid of U. glabra and L'. carpiuifolia. There are a number of varieties but the one which well might represent this group is known as variety major, commonly called the Dutch elm. It is a tree of over 100 feet with a short trunk, wide- .S4~] ro a~ m a aor.~ Ox _td OU am m z m OO Q) # > ...- '\" '' a~ bIJ;: b0 ~ Q) w 'ii1-'= u\"\" vwa 0.~ ~ro#& x3E; . ~e U a~ \"a a a~ ro ~ a~ '\" . '\" ~ 0 \",..c -'S p'^oU o~ wU~ W Q)aj E-<ou E~ G7 ~ t c ~ .c pr ~n 'b 0 c o ,c = x~~ Q) Q) m Q) .... MbV :8 = ) s . a a _~, o ~ 'ii1 U @ r~.. U ..... '\" ~ -'= '\" Q CL y ~ '~ . ~ +, y ....:!: m :> S o Q,) gY ~y ~ eh .L' p Q) \" ~x a~ ~ _~ ' o ~a w +~ \" .. ;: .~ ~ :8 '\" U spreading branches and lustrous dark green leaves. Other varieties have been planted to some extent in Europe as street trees and a few have met with favor in America. The Belgian elm, U. hollaudicn belgica, is a tall, rough-barked tree with a straight trunk. Younger trees are dense and pyramidal in habit while older ones may be more or less cylindric. Trees of this variety in the Arnold Arboretum are apparently somewhat more hardy than typical U. hollandica major. The Klemmer elm (var. \"Klemmer\") has smooth bark, tall ascending branches and a narrow pyramidal habit of growth. It originated in Belgium where it is planted a great deal. The Huntmgdon elm (vegeta) originating about 1 i ~0 has been used in America and is valued for its height, its forked trunk and its rough bark. A narrow pyramidal variety with smooth bark is superba and still another variety, pendula, originating in England about 1830, has ascending branches but pendulous branchlets. Species Native The last two species are of Both Europe and Asia and Western Asia and are native of Europe used a great deal in the United States because of their good ornamental characters and their several horticultural forms. The first is the smoothleaf elm U. carpinifolia (formerly called D. foliacea or U. nitens). Being used to a great extent in this country, it is constantly confused with the English elm, U. procera ( U. campe.stri.s), from which it may be distinguished by its less deeply furrowed bark, mostly glabrous branchlets, longer and often obovate leaves which are lustrous and usually smooth on the upper surface with petioles from4 to 2inch long. Unfortunately, the seeds of this tree have been sold for years by European seedsmen as U. campPStris; consequently, the resulting confusion in this country has been inevitable. The smoothleaf elm, which may reach a height of 90 feet and is quite variable in growth habit, has many horticultural forms, some of which are available from nurseries in this country. This tree usually is pyramidal in outline, having a single trunk and somewhat ascending branches, although sometimes the branches may be pendulous and the head more or less rounded. In the south of England, it is often referred to as the Herfordshire elm and grows with a broad head and rather pendulous branches, surpassed in beauty only by the American elm as it grows in New England. The pendulous branched form (pendula) has been offered by American nurseries. An unusual variety is zeebbiana, of little horticultural value because, even though the tree is narrow and pyramidal with ascending branches, the leaves are folded longitudinally, giving the appearance of wilting. Another form, variegata, has its leaves blotched with two shades of green and with white; and though not particularly desirable, it is of interest to those who like trees with variegated leaves. Eight other varieties of the smoothleaf elm have horticultural significance, six of them being offered in American nurseries. Both the Cornish elm (cornubiensis) 86 and the V~'heatley elm (snrraiensis), incorrectly called sulrentle~i, though also known as the Guernsey or Jersey elm, are narrow, pyramidal trees with dense, erect branches. The Wheatley elm, almost columnar in habit, has a slightly broader head and wider leaves than the Cornish elm, with branches more stiffly erect. The variety dampieri is a fastigiate tree with a very narrow, pyramidal crown and deeply double-toothed leaves ; wredi is similar but its leaves are yellowish. Another variety, named suberosa, is little more than a dense shrub, irregularly cylindric in outline, the young sucker branches of which frequently develop opposite corky wings. Somewhat similar to suberosa is the variety propendens, the branches of which are pendulous and its leaves are very small, only being about one inch long. An outstanding elm was sent to Germany from Persia in 1878 and has since been named the variety umbraeul~f'ern. This is a dense growing, small tree with a globose or sometimes flat top and erect branches. Closely associated to it is the variety lcoopmanni, which is definitely more globose in outline but just as dense. Trees of these two varieties in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum are well clothed with branches from top to bottom. These unusual forms are not to be desired in preference to other more ornamental trees and shrubs in the landscape, but they do have a definite use. Sometimes there is a place in a large plant area for a small tree with a definite outline something which does not require constant pruning to keep it in shape. These varieties of the smoothleaf elm supply just such an accent point. Indiscriminate use of these trees, however, should be guarded against. The other elm species which is native of Europe as well as certain parts of western Asia, is the Scotch or 4~'ych elm, U. glabra, sometimes formerly called U. montann or U. scnbra. This tree, with wide-spreading branches and often flattopped head, is used considerably in America as an ornamental. The dark green leaves, sometimes with two or three points near the apex, are broader beyond the middle, very rough above and downy underneath. The petioles are about ~ 8L inch long. Unlike many of the other elms, this one does not produce suckers ; and on account of this good trait, it has been used much as an understock in grafting. Unfortunately, it is one of the first elms sought by the elm leaf miner and in locations where there are several varieties, this pest does more injury to this tree than to most of the others. This elm can always be distinguished from other European elms by the fact that the seed is in the middle of the fruit, the petioles are very short, the upper surface of the leaves is rough and there is an absence of corky ridges on the twoyear branches. The specific name glabra comes from the fact that the branches are very smooth, not rough like most of the other elms. A number of varieties of this are grown. The most popular is the Camperdown elm (cnmpertloxwi) which, when grafted on an upright stem, has a wealth of pendulous branches forming a globose head. Many such trees can be seen even in this country, forming natural arbors, under which chairs and tables are placed. - - 87 c 8 a Ga x a <I> x b oj 0 b a .~ N _Y .'y Xr U .Y^ O A <I> ~~ S N 0 O ~U . s a .~ ~, 0 Q) a 'o :a a a ~B 0 .. 1:>IJ ~ '\" i.; W ~ 'o a a d~ ~ # x .G E'~ 0 O :a Another form (peudula) has rather horizontal branches vcuth pendulous branchlets and grows into a low flat-topped tree. There is a fastigiate variety, called the Exeter elm (e.roniensi,r, formerly U. ~noutnnce fostigintrr), with rather small, often wrmkled leaves, but with branches rigidly upright. One variety ~purpurea) has leaves which are purple in color when prerea) retains the color in the leaves for they are young; another variety (atroparra longer period. A compact shrub with smaller leaves is the variety monstro.sn. A lower growing bush rs nnnn, Wnich seldom grows over 6 feet tall. Sometimes this bush elm is grafted 6 feet up on the trunk of U. glabra, resulting in a dense, compact, round-headed tree. A curious, Slotv-i,Trowmg form with leaves that are narrow and crmkled is called crispa used sometimes because of its queer foliage. This is not the time nor the place to enter into a discussion of the two serious pests that are now doing tremendous damage to the elms. Vluch has been written recently about the inroads of these two serious diseases east of the Mississippi River, and the Dutch Elm Disease is now as far west as Denver, Colorado. Much research work is being done by the L~.S. Department of Agriculture on control methods for these pests, and anything that might be said on that score here, might well be antedated in a year or so. Suffice it to say, that most elms are susceptible to both diseases, some species more than others. Vigorous, well-grown trees, well pruned, sprayed and fertilized, seem to have a better chance of escaping these diseases in infested areas than do sickly trees that are greatly in need of attention. It would seem that no one should plant elms without a thorough knowledge of the situation. Especially y is this true of those responsible for the expenditure of large amounts of public funds in planting trees along the streets and highways, for they have a responsibility to the future population as well as the present. If a long line of elms were set out now, with trees dying out intermittently during the next fifteen or twenty years, this would indeed be poor planning. There are enough other trees from which to choose for street or highway planting, so that elms might be overlooked in such planting plans for the time being at least. The policy should be, especially in disease areas or those adjacent to them, to use other trees where at all possible. Latest control methods should be thoroughly known and understood when planting large numbers of elms. Elms should now be planted only in situations where it is a foregone conclusion that they will receive the best annual care. -- The Key The following key is offered as an aid to the identification of elm species on the basis of foliage characters. More exact keys have been made, in w hich the flowers and fruits are used, but many an amateur is confronted with the perplexing problem of identification when flowers and fruits are not available ; hence this key. Every one of the elm species varies greatly, and to make a key using only 89 two characters is not very satisfactory. Therefore, this key is not infallibut it may serve its purpose to many who are perplexed concerning the ble, identification of these elms. To the individual not familiar with the use of keys, this may at first seem confusing, but careful study may prove its simplicity. For instance, all elm species fall into one of four groups (marked by the figure 1 ~, because of corky ridges on the branches, or leaves with several points at the apex, or leaves simply serrate, or leaves doubly serrate. To place a plant in one of these four groups, these four characteristics should be used in this sequence. Once done, the remaining points should be taken up in the particular group, in the sequence suggested in the key. Identification will be aided materially if the habitat of a tree is known. For instance, in the first group (corky ridges on the branches) Ulmus crassifolia would not be found in northern ~Imnesota, nor would it be likely that U. procera and U. japonica would be found growing wild in the woods. Be certain that the tree is examined carefully for all possible marks of identification, and that many leaves are examined since one alone would not tell the full story. It should be noted that this key does not take into consideration the varieties of these species, many of which can be identified by their form alone. Also, and this is very important, it should be noted that the following species are not common in America except in botanical collections: L'. japonica, laevis, ploti, and that other species, like U. thomasi and serotina, are used very little in landscape work. A knowledge of these facts should make this key much more usable. The elms are so variable that it is likely they will continue to be difficult to identify for many years to come. These notes and suggestions are offered merely as aids to those interested in this group of trees. one or ABBREVIATED FOLIAGE KEY TO COMMON ELM SPECIES 1. Corky ridges 2. Leaves 2. Leaves or wings on younger branches simply serrate serrate or Ulmus crass~f'olia doubly 3. Young twigs glabrous 4. 4. nearly so Wings usually not native two and opposite U. alata Wings several, not necessarily opposite, flowers in spring, U. carpinifolia suberosa not 4. Wings several, native necessarily opposite, flowers in fall, U. serotina 3. Young twigs pubescent [ 90 PLATE XXI Ulmus americana rolumnaris. Several clones of this upright variety have been named and are available from commercial sources. This picture was taken by R. E. Horsey, formerly of the Rochester, N.Y. Park Department, at the time the tree was 60 feet tall with a branch spread of only 18 feet. 4. Tree irregularly columnar oval or U. thomasi rounded in outline U. procera U. 4. Tree not irregularly columnar, 5. Leaves 2-3~~ 5. Leaves 1. Leaves three long, wings occasionally 3-1, i 5~~ long, wings occasionally at japonica pointed with tip or occasionally so, branches not corky U. 2. Mature branches reddish occasionally nearly ' one or two extra brown, hairy while young; leaves points at apex or glabra 2. Mature branches so when young; most of the leaves pale yellowish or grayish brown, glabrous three-pointed at apex 1. Leaves U, laciniata simply or nearly simply serrate, 0.75-2. i 5~~ long 2. Leaves often nearly equal at base, many leaves showing indications of double serration, young branches pubescent or glabrous, stipules broad, flowers in spring usually unequally rounded at base, pubescent, stipules linear, flowers in fall doubly serrate U. pumila 2. Leaves young _ branches U. parvifolia 1. Leaves 2. Young branches glabrous 3. Leaves 2. i 5-6~~ long 4. Leaves usually twice as long as as wide, as no conspicuous U. americana axillary tufts of hair 4. Leaves less than l~ times long wide, usually with on conspicuous tufts of hair in axils of veins face of leaves, considerably variable 3. Leaves under sur- U. hollandica 1.25-3.25~~ long g above 4. Petioles 0.25-0.5~~, leaves 2-8~~, smooth U. carpinifolia U. . 4. Petioles less than 0.25~~, leaves 1.25-2.25~~, slightly ploti scabrous above 2. Young branches pubescent beneath 3. Leaves often glabrous long U. americana 3. Leaves pubescent beneath U. procera 4. Leaves 2-3~~ 4. Leaves longer middle, 4-8\" long 5. Leaves often widest at , 22 ] 6. Branchlets grey to rusty brown hairs light brown, buds covered with U. fulva brown to be 6. Branchlets dark brown, buds without rusty hairs, leaves three sometimes showing a tendency pointed at tip 5. Leaves usually widest 6. on U. above glabra middle, ~.5-4. i 5~~ long above, corky wings U. Leaves scabrous and pubescent branches occasionally japonica U. laevis 6. Leaves usually glabrous above, very unequal at base DONALD WYMAN 93 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume XI","article_sequence":13,"start_page":95,"end_page":98,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24236","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24ebb27.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME XI Illustrations are in bold face type Acer platanoides, 71 Air Layering experiments, materials used, Plate XIII, 53 on Malus \"Dorothea,\" Plate - - - XIV, 60 -, plants that rooted, 54-57 -, plants that failed to root, 61 , - Elms, Asiatic, 81-84 -, European, 84-86 -, Grown in America, 79-93 -, Key to, 89-93 -, Native American, i 9-81 -, Native of both Europe and Asia, 86-89 Elm Species, Plate 57- XVIII, 82 - with results, 61, 62 Polythene Film, 50 49-62 Enkianthus campanulatus, 7 Euonymus alata compacta, 7 \"Alathon,\" American Berberis - Elm, 41 julianae, 3 koreana, 3 the art of training dwarf 4 Evergreena in Governor's Garden, S Williamsburg, Va., Plate XVII, 78 Five \"Bon-sai,\" trees, Buxus 30 Interesting Trees, 71-74 Fothergilla species, 7 1 Gleditsia triacanthos, 71 Ground covers already established, 22-44 Ground cover demonstration plot, Plate VII, 23 microphylla koreana, Chamaecyparis obtusa, Plate IX, Chionanthus virginicus, 4 Clethra alnifolia rosea, 4 Cornus alba sibirica, 6 Cotoneaster dammeri, 6 - 31 Grove, Colonel William R., 49 7 Hamamelis mollis, 7, Plate V, 17 - vernalis, 7 50 divaricata, \"Howard-Seal,\" 6 Crataegus monogyna inermis, Plate XIII, 46 \"Crimson King\" Maple, 71 Cytisus praecox, 6; Plate I, Davidia involucrata, 72 \"Dawn Redwood,\" 28 Hypericum species, 8 Ilex crenata convexa, 8 ; Plate Japanese Dwarf Trees, 19-3,i II, 9 5 \"Dura-Clear,\" 50, 51 1 Dutch Elm Disease, 41, 89 Dwarf Trees, Pruning, Repotting and - Watering, 35 -, Training, 32 -, V~'inter Protection, 35 -, Native of both Europe and Asia, - Juniperus chinensis sargenti, 8 Key to the Pines, Simple, 63-70 Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees, The, 29-35 Leucothoe catesbaei, 8 o Lonicera amoena arnoldiana, 10 10 o bella, korolkowi floribunda, 10 0 10 o Magnolia stellata, o Mahonia aquifolium, 10 I Dlalus sargenti, 11 - 95 - Malus L toringoides macrocarpa, 72 To Date, Metasequoia Brought Up - - parviflora, glauca, - 64 64 25-28 - -- peuce, 64 glyptostroboides, 25, 7~ ; 8 VIII,27; Plate XVI, 7 XX, 1 71 Plate 88 - pinaster, - 68 Moline Elm, The, Plate \"Moraine Locust,\" New Ground Cover ponderosa, 66 scopulorum, - pumila, 64 -- pungens, 68 68 Display Plots, The,1-l4 - radiata, 66, - resinosa, 68 \"Pearlon,\" 11 I - 50 Philadelphus lemoinei \"Avalanche,\" splendens, I 11 - rigida, 66 sabiniana, 66 strobus, 64 - - - virginalis, Plate XI, I Pieris floribunda, 11 I japonica, I Pinus albicaulis, 64 aristata, 64 attenuata, 66 39 fastigiata, 64 - - nana, 64 sylvestris, 68 - ' - tabulaeformis, - taeda, 66 - 68 - torreyana, 64 68 68 - banksiana, 68 - thunbergi, virginiana, - bungeana, 66; Plate XV, 67 - - - - canariensis, 66 caribaea, 68 cembra, 64 Plants used in Williamsburg, Va., Prior to 1750, 76-78 1 Plastic films, properties of, 50, 51 - cembroides, - 68 ' - parryana, 66 - - - coulteri, 66 densi8ora, 68 oculus-draconis, 68 umbraculifera, 68 echinata, 68 flexilis, 64 - \"Pliofilm,\" 49 \"Polyethylene,\" 50 \"Polythene,\" 50 -, - - Properties of, 50, 511 Potentilla fruticosa, 1~ Rhododendron arborescens, 12 ~? - - - - - griffithi, 64 - calendulaceum, e gandavense, 12 mucronulatum, 1~ 14 4 14 4 - jeffreyi, 66 ; Plate X, koraiensis, 64 lambertiana, 64 33 - schlippenbachi, smirnowi, 4 vaseyi, 14 14 - - - - - monticola, mugo, 68 - 64 68 - Rosa multiflora, 14 Seed Germination, effect of 40 light on, - compacta, - - pumilio, 66 68 68 Sentry Gingko along Roosevelt Blvd. Plate XII, 43 Shrubs for American - nigra austriaca, - palustris, Gardens, 1-20 96 Shrubs for at Least Two Seasons of Beauty, Some, 37-40 Street planting, 42 - Street trees, 41-48 -, size of at planting time, 44 - foliacea, 86 wheatleyi, 87 - fulva, 79, 80, 93 -- glabra, 84, 87, 89, - 9~? atropurpurea, 89 -, suburban planting, 6 Syringa persica, 16 - 44 - - camperdowni, 87 - Syringa prestoniae \"Isabella,\" Plate - VI, - 19 9 \"Hecla,\" Plate VI, 19 6 vars., 16 6 cuspidata nana,16 - -- crispa, 89 exoniensis, 89 monstrosa, 89 - - - - nana, 89 - - - - pendula, 89 Taxus - - purpurea, 89 \"Tralon,\" 50 - Trees, Five Interesting, 71-74 Narrow for Narrow Streets, 48 i -, Small for City Streets, 47 -, Small Street Trees Needed, 41-48 8 Tsuga canadensis pendula, 18 diversifolia, 18 ; Plate I V, 15 Ulmus alata, 79, 81, 90 - - hollandica, 84, 9~ belgica, 86 - - - \"Klemmer,\" major, S,i, 86 pendula, 86 superba, 86 vegeta, 86 86 - - - - - - - - - - americana, 79, 80, 81, 9Z - - - ascendens, 80 80 90 - japonica, 88, 90, 9~?, laciniata, 83, 92 laevis, 84, 90, 93 - 93 - - \"Augustine,\" \"Lake City,\" i -- montana, 87 - - - columnaris, 80 ; I'late XXI, 80 fastigiata, 86 89 - - - nitens, - - - \"Moline,\" pendula, 80 80 parvifolia, 81, 83, 9~? sempervirens, Plate XIX, 85 - - - - \"Princeton,\" cornubiensis, 80 - - - campestris, 84, 86 carpimfolia, 84, 86, - - pedunculata, 84 ploti, 84, 90, 92 procera, 84, 86, aurea, 84 - 92 - 90, 93 -- 86 - - - -- - - - - - dampieri, 87 koopmanni, 87 pendula, 86 propendens, 87 sarniensis, 87 suberosa, 87, 90 - australis, 84 84 84 - - marginata, - - myrtifolia, - - - - - - purpurascens, 84 vanhouttei, 84 - - - - - umbraculifera, variegata, webbiana, 6 86 87 - viminalis, 84 pumila, 81, 83, 9~ - - - - 1 racemosa, 81 -- - 86 - scabra, 87 serotina, 81, 90 - - wredi, 87 crassifolia, 81, - - 90 - thomasi, 81, 90, 92 97; Viburnum dilatatum, 18 Viburnum sieboldi, 18 ; Plate tomentosum, 20 - Williamsburg, Va., III, 13 to Plants used prior 5 1750, 75 \"Visqueen,\" 50 \"Vitafilm,\"49 Woody Plants used in Colonial Williamsburg, 75-78 98 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23265","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d25e856b.jpg","title":"1951-11","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1951,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Forest-Tree Breeding Work of the Cabot Foundation","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24221","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270af6e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Pauley, Scott S.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR IB1'OR:VIATIOB of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 JI.ARCH 31, 1930 NumHF:a 1 FOREST-TREE BREEDING V~'ORK OF THE CABOT FOUNDATION was first formally recognized at Harvard University the establishment of the Maria Moors Cabot Foundation in 1937 by Dr. Godfrey L. Cabot of Boston. Since that time a number of basic studies have been started. These include mvestigations of natural variability in forest-tree species, hybridization of species of timber trees, vegetative propagation and the study of insect and disease resistance in forest trees. These projects mvolve work not only in genetics, but also in plant physiology, plant pathology, entomology, ecology, and wood anatomy. It is evident that considerable foresight was demonstrated by the founder in establishing the Cabot Foundation in an institution where workers in these special fields are available for collaborative study. The tree breeding work of the Cabot Foundation was started at the Arnold Arboretum-an institution which may be truly called a tree breeder's paradise. Among the extensive collections are species uf'timber trees from all parts of the north temperate zone. It has been possible, for instance, to make h) brids between the Himalayan white pine and our native Pinus strobus, between Populus Ma.rimo~~icsii from Manchur~a and our native cottonwoods, and between other Old and New World species which have been established in the Arnold Arboretum for many years. Earlier work in forest-tree breed~ng has shown that species hybrids are often possessed of remarkable growth vigor. One of the best examples is the London Plane tree, a hybrid of I'lalnnu,s occidenlnli,s from eastern l:nited States and P. orieninli,s from southern Europe. This hy brid originated m England before 1 i 00, and is now widely grown in Europe and North America where it will thrive under conditions too adverse for the parental species. Recent work with hybrid pines ~ndicates that we can expect certain hybrids to grow nearly twice as fast as the parental species and similar growth acceleration has been reported in hybnd poplars and aspens. (Plate I) FOREST-TR)r;E breeding with The tree breeding program was started with pines and poplars. The pines, especially the white pines, are among our most valuable timber trees. Although poplars are not highly regarded by American foresters they grow rapidly and provide good wood for pulp and plastics. The hybrid seedlings are grown at the Bussey Institution and propagated for field testing. Fortunately, the Case Estate at Weston became available at the time when extensive field tests of the hybrid poplars were needed. There are now more than 100 hybrid clones of poplars in the field test covering about three acres. In addition a collection of hybrids and parental species are maintained for a source of propagating wood. Test plots have also been planted near the Harvard Forest through the cooperation of the Metropolitan District Commission of Boston which has made available several plots of land in the Quabbin Reservoir District. One of the most interesting aspects of the tree breeding program is the study of ecotypes of diverse geographic origin. Poplar clones native of the far north when grown at Weston start their growth early in the spring and stop growing early in the fall, while clones from more southern areas continue growth in the fall until killed by autumn frosts. These southern ecotypes make much greater growth than do their northern relatives, with differences in some cases of as much as 600 percent. Crosses between northern and southern ecotypes of balsam poplar result in hybrids which grow as fast as the southern strain, but stop growing in the fall as early as does the northern strain. Such hybrids should be of great value for areas where cold hardiness is a critical factor. (Plate II) Similar work is being done with pines. With the cooperation of V. C. Dunlap of the United Fruit Company, pollen of Central American pines has been sent to the Arnold Arboretum by air mail and used to pollinate our hardy northern species. Even if such hybrids may not thrive in New England, they might be of great value in the southern states. Hybrids between Asiatic and North American white pines were made in 1938 and these are now growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Several of these F1 hybrids flowered in 1948 and 1949 and have been used in other cross combinations. The hybridization of pines was resumed on a larger scale when another tree breeder was added to the staff in 1948. Some of the breeding work done at the Arnold Arboretum primarily for the production of ornamentals has proved to be of some interest in forestry and, conversely, it is to be expected that by-products of ornamental value will derive from the forest-tree breeding work. A cross between red and silver maple made in 1944 has shown unusually rapid growth. A few second generation segregates of this hybrid have already been obtained. Tree breeding has been greatly facilitated by new techniques and modern transportation. One of the most important is the \"greenhouse method\" of crossing poplars, willows and elms. Dormant flowering branches are brought into the y_ .. u G a a a~ ~ ro ro = o u O ~, ro F, .n-~ ~., y a L r~n U v +~ C 'i, :; O cd C a p ~L,, N, ro ~ ~ ~3&#x E; yr '\" '\" '\" ... O Q iw ~L '~ O .zy N L .,~ ~. w U ^^ a' L \" O O 'r W a =a O '\" = < L N w E' .~ (\/J m 4? Q) CI m O 5 ~G ?\" s bJ) y OL Mi ~S II) ~L O~ t. L O~ ~ y ~;:: y +~ 'b m m w '\" (\/J bp ~m y ro c N LUa L 'i, '~\". c~. B :;:;~0160 '\" ~x~ c;; , mL -.~+oJ o~ Lw G '\" ... Q, S Fn ~'\" ,i~\" ... L 0 rJ:J '~, .a ~' o .o+ = \"'t'j .-...~ 1: ) 1: ) . . Q) en ~ . . Q a~ ~ 0 do o ~~~~ .: ~ ' o '\" ~~~s # '\" a ~ H~ ~W~ro ~Uo M ux g rJ:J +oJ S1:1 ) PLATE II. Above: Female Alaskan (A), male Montanan (M) balsam poplar and between them photographed at the Cabot Foundation propagation area on the Case Estate, Weston, Massachusetts, September 10, 191.9. The vigorous height growth of the hybrid compares favorably with the paternal parent (both of which represent a single season's growth from unrooted cuttings) but is in sharp contrast to the maternal parent which is two years old from an unrooted cutting. The young man in the picture is a student from Denmark. Tielom: Terminal portions of stems of the above, photographed on the same day, showing early cessation of growth in the female parent from Alaska and incorporation of this character in the hybrid. The male parent from Montana continued in active growth until the middle of October. hybrid (F1) ac~ c ~.5~ G .~. U B p ~' ~O N W i. l. ~~i% OL~z y c :a c 3 m ec ~ ~3 o w> a cfl o C :c ac N y CC ~i~F~r ro T7G ~l U L . Cq O ro - x~~.S~ y ~ Y .~ o ~ ~hB cG g F~ O Nd .. '~ , o a l L & g -o o .: 'w aa Ca~c a~ xo roor'~c ~.~,v L~ ~ .r.. ~.,' S~~ ~'S. ~ o .c -S ' ~ObG ~ `~' N L -~ 'Q U . ~ ~L 3 c~ W N o ~5 W# ~~ ~.ax a ~~ ~ L Q' c. ~ ~ E'.F'X w ~ da v p'~, 'o ~ ~ o E ' ..3 o .~ ~: x . 'r\" ' y a~ W I Y~ PLATE IV. Abox~e: Scaffold permitting access to crown of phenotypically elite Scotch pine, near Swedish Forest Tree Breeding Institute branch station, Brunsberg, Sweden. Bel~no: Worker on scaffold platform as shown above inspecting recently pollinated cones. Photographs by the author while in Sweden en route to the Third World Forestry Congress held in Finland in the summer of 1949. greenhouse and forced into flower. The crosses are made in the greenhouse and the seed will mature on the cut branches kept in a jar of water. Thus it is possible to ship cuttings of poplars from wide areas and make the crosses even when it may be impossible to grow one of the parental trees m this area. Pollen can also be shipped for long distances by air mail. During the current season we have sent pollen to cooperators in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Holland. The ancient art of \"bottle-grafting\" has also been used with birches, where the fruiting branches do not live long enough as cut branches to mature their seed. By keepmg such grafted plants pot bound it is possible to stimulate annual flowering. Such \"dwarf trees\" may thus be preserved and used for hybridization year after year. (Plate III) Methods of vegetative propagation are of special interest to the tree breeder because hybrid vigor can be maintained only by such methods. The balsam poplars root easily from cuttings, but the aspens are usually difficult. The pines also root from cuttings with difficulty even when auxin treatment ~s used. A great deal of work on the rootmg of cuttings has been done by Prof. Kenneth V. Thimann of Harvard, who has recently published a survey of the use of plant hormones in vegetative reproduction under the auspices of the Cabot Foundation. (Thimann, K. ~'. and Jane Behnke-Rogers. The use of Auxins in the rooting of woody cuttings. Maria Dloors Cabot Foundation Pub. No. 1. 344 pp. 1930.) The use of grafts as a means of introducing genetically superior individuals d~rectly- into the forest or woodlot is under investigation by the Cabot Foundation (Jour. For. 46: 524-5~5. 19~5). This appears to be a feasible technique with such easily budded or grafted (but difficult to root) species as aspens, ashes and maples. (Plate III) Rapid growth of forest trees is of little value if these vigorous hybrids or ecotypes are unduly subject to disease or insect injury. After all, death by disease or insect attack is just as final and disastrous in a stand of streamlined thoroughbreds as in a stand of mongrel relatives. Studies of disease resistance in hybrid trees has been started in cooperation with the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Plant Industry. Our disease test plot of poplars is located in a relatively isolated area of the Arnold Arboretum. It is planned to extend these studies to include geographic races within ~arious forest-tree species in a search for resistant or immune types for future breeding work. Great progress has been made in the improvement of our domestic plants and animals by selection and hybridization. The utilization of hybrid v igor has made amazing progress in corn production and is bcing applied to other crops and to domestic animals. But foresters have only in recent years realized the potential possibilities in forest-tree breeding. In the United States the reluctance of foresters to adopt genetic methods is understandable since most of them are confronted at present with the problem of managing large areas of forests with budgets so limited that the care of the forests must be restricted to routine silvicultural treat- 7: ment. European foresters, although still properly concerned with problems of cultural practice, are increasingly aware of the need for forest genetics. In Sweden alone about twice as much money is expended for forest-tree improvement as is spent for such purposes by all of the government, college and privxte agencies in the entire United States. With the increasing need for substituting wood and wood products for our nonrenewable resources of gas, coal and metals, a more intensive management of our forests appears to be imminent. Under such conditions a logical approach to more efficient wood production will most certainly involve genetic analyses of wild forest stock, based on progeny tests, and the inauguration of carefully planned tree breeding programs to fulfill specific local needs. , SfOTT S. PAl'LFS' Harvard Forest, Petersham Note Regular Field Class again this year A Field Class for the study of the flowering trees and shrubs as they are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, will again be held this year. The first meeting will be on Saturday, Apr~l 29, at 10:00 A.M., meeting at the Forest Hills Gate. ~'eekly meetings will be held every Saturday morning during May, unless prevented by inclement weather, when the class will meet the next clear weekday morning. The period is two hours long, and discussions will be held about the plants as they come mto bloom during this spring season. Members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" are welcome to attend all classes without charge. Others must register in advance by mail and pay a registration fee. 8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Forsythias","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24230","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24ea36a.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA I A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 APRIL 14, 1J50 THE NUMBER 2 FORSYTHIAS* forsythias are among the most popular of garden shrubs, used chiefly in those regions of the country where their early spring flowers lend conspicuous color to gardens which have been apparently lifeless and dreary throughout the entire winter. Most of them are natives of the Orient, although a few have recently been developed in this country. The oriental species first came to this country about a hundred years ago, and since that time have proved as popular as almost any other woody plant for garden use, because their conspicuous color, and the ease with which they can be grown, make them adaptable to many soils THE and many situations. In the North, the bright yellow, scentless flowers appear before the leaves, usually in March and April, depending on locations, although in the Arnold Arboretum in 1944, due to an unusually late spring, Forsythia infermedia varieties were in full bloom during mid-May when lilacs were also at their best. One of their interesting (and useful) qualities is the abllity to grow in city gardens, where atmospheric conditions, and frequently moisture conditions, are not to the liking of many other plants. They are practically free from insect and disease pests. Some are valued for their arching or trailmg habit and only one (F. viridissima) is graced with conspicuous autumn color-a purplish red. Since this is one of the parents of F. intermedia, this quality of autumn color sometimes crops up to some extent in some of the clones in this hybrid species. The leaves of all forsythias are opposite, and in most species are sufficiently distinct so that they can be distinguished one from the other, by the amateur when they are not in flower. The fruits are merely dry capsules with no ornamental value. One of the most disturbing things about these plants, to those of us who appreciate plants growing in their normal habit, is the way that these are sometimes mutilated by improper pruning. Because they withstand city conditions * RE27TL72GBCLI fl'07)t THE NATIO.~`.1L IIORTICULTURaL M.aGAGINE, April 1J49. : 9 ] and are easy to grow, they are frequently used in public plantings, where uninformed maintenance men merely cut off the stems at an even five feet or so from the ground. This may be classified under the heading of so-called \"formal\" pruning, but forsythias are not the plants for this treatment. They should be used only where sufficient space is available for them to grow and expand naturally. Sometimes in planting a bank, it is advisable to plant the trailing types closely together in order to obtain proper ground coverage, but normally they should have plenty of room. A single plant needs at least 8 to 10~ in order to grow properly. Too often we see forsythia planted a mere 3~ from a walk and then mercilessly hacked for the rest of its life in order to properly \"restrain\" it. In 1844, Robert Fortune brought the first forsythias to Europe from the Orient. The manner in which this was done he has described in a most interesting way, for in those days, the trip to England from the Orient was a long and tedious one. The old sailing ships had to go around The Horn\" and in doing so the trip took four to five months. It was most difficult to keep seeds in a viable condition without modern refrigeration methods, and plants were a serious problem indeed. They had to be protected from salt water spray, they had to have fresh water, which of course was at a premium, and they had to have sunlight. Wardian cases were used by the early plant explorer to overcome these difficulties. (They are now commonly called solariums. ) Sheets of glass were sealed together with sufficient soil in the bottom that rooted cuttings or very small plants could be grown in them. Prior to the sailing of the ship they were watered and sealed, and serviced occasionally when the ship touched port. According to Fortune, \"large vessels with poops\" were preferred for the trip from the Orrent, for on such vessels the cases could usually be carried out of range of the salt spray. The pruning of forsythias is not difficult, but their general appearance is dependent on proper pruning at the proper time. Since all forsythias have flower buds formed the previous year, they should be pruned after they bloom, since pruning in the early spring before they flower merely reduces the number of flowers produced that year. As far as the vigor of the plants themselves is concerned, the pruning can be done either before or after the blooming period. The arching branches, and in some cases, the trailmg branches, are essential to good form, and so, any pruning is usually a thinning out of the older and overgrown branches, rather than a \"heading back\" of all branches on the entire plant. Forsythia su,spensa sieboldi is trailing in habit, while the clones of F. intermedin are upright. Forsylhia niri~li,ssima and ovatv are intermediate between the two, while there are several clones that are actually dwarf, and should receive little or no pruning. On occasion, it may be necessary to prune forsythias heavily-even cut them to within six inches of the ground. This can be done and they will recover quickly. We had a bank planting of forsythias in the Arnold Arboretum a few years ago 10 = PLATE V Forsythia viridissima; F. suspensa F. europaea; F. ovata sieboldi; that had become too tall and overgrown so that with heavy snow the breakage was very heavy. The cheapest (and easiest) way to bring the planting back into good appearance, was to cut all plants right to the ground. This was done in the very early spring, and within two short years the entire planting was again blooming beautifully. Lilacs, privets and many other shrubs can be treated this vigorously-on occasion-and be expected to recover. The first year after such heavy pruning the plants are not much to look at, hence in the small garden, whenever possible, it would seem best to prune by thinning only, leaving most of the younger and better branches to continue bearing flowers. A heavy pruning should not be done in the summer, or too late in the spring, for, if a prolonged dry spell follows, the plants may become too weakened to go through the first winter successfully. A renewal pruning each year or two, is certainly the best way (and the least conspicuous way) of keeping individual plants in good condition. As a group the forsythias are hardy in the northern United States, but the flower buds of the species are frequently killed in severe winters, cause enough why such plants are not used where winter temperatures normally go considerably below zero. The species with the flower buds that have proved to be the most hardy is F. ovata. It is decidedly inferior to most of the others in flower, size and color, blooms about ten days before most, but where a forsythia is wanted in areas where most suffer winter injury, this might be tried. If this does not bloom properly (because of winter killed flower buds) certainly no other forsythia will succeed. The habit of the forsythia is one of the two principal reasons why it is grown. All species and varieties are dense, well covered with foliage. The lowest is probably \"Arnold Dwarf,\" a recent hybrid grown at the Arnold Arboretum. The original plant was only about 2~ tall after six years of growth, yet it had increased to 7' in diameter, for it roots readily from the tips of its branches. It makes an excellent ground cover but seven-year-old plants have yet to produce their first flowers. Another dwarf type, originating at the New York Botanical Gardens, has been named F. viridissima bronxensis, and it does flower. Still another, and in the trade for several years and termed F. suspensa \"fortunei nana,\" is a dense dwarf but in six years at the Arnold Arboretum has failed to bloom. The chief trailing forsythia is F. suspensa sieboldi, often with long branches prostrate on the ground. Planted at the top of a bank or at the edge of a wall, trailing shoots 6~ long overhang gracefully. Forsythia ovata is rounded in habit, growing about 6' tall. Most of the remainder of the forsythias are dense shrubs, eventually growing about 9' tall and often having gracefully arching branches. When properly pruned and grown with plenty of room, these plants have a pleasingly graceful habit that lends beauty to them even when they are not in flower. The chief value of forsythias is of course their flowers. Twenty-four species and varieties have been grown in the Arnold Arboretum over a period of years, but 12 with the most careful scrutiny they can be divided into only five color groups (and possibly this is stretching it a bit!) The darkest is of course F. intermedia spectabilis, which has no peer in respect to deep yellow color. At least five are very light yellow (Empire yellow according to the Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart). Of these four could be recommended, F. onata-chiefly for its hardiness and where this is not a factor, it might be discarded ; F. intermedia vars. dens~ora and primulina and F. suspensa pallida. The last named variety is recommended even FORSYTHIAS Results qf Color Comparisons qf Forsythia Flowers 1945-1947 *recommended for one purpose or another (1-27-49) 13 PLATE VI. Forsythia viridissima brou.rensis chiefly for its gracefully arching habit. Forsythia inter7nedia s~ectabilis and F. inlermedia dens~ora produce more flowers than any other variety. The other forsythias are distributed between these color extremes as is shown in the table. A few years ago a\"new\" variety appeared in the trade catalogues2014\/*B .s'MA'peMt' \"fortunei aurea.\" After several years' trial at the Arnold Arboretum, the plant which we obtained in all good faith under this name appeared to be identical with F. su.spensa fortunei. All characteristics considered, eleven forsythias might be valuable enough for one reason or another to warrant growing in our gardens. Thirteen might be overlooked entirely. It is always difficult (and dangerous!) to make such eliminations, but that is just what I propose here, for reasons already mentioned and pursues the comparisons in the table on page 13. The records noted in the table are suggestive only. It should be obvious to anyone familiar with plants that flower sizes vary on the same plant and even on the apparent if one branch. Also the flower color varies similarly, aging flowers being lighter younger flowers being more deeply colored. These records were taken two different years and a conscious effort was made to take specimens of comparable parts of the plants. Sometimes a forsythia with small flowers and very wide petals will make a better display than a plant which has larger flowers but very narrow petals. The table is offered merely as a basis on which comparisons can be based. For those who will not agree with such records, I would like to point out the fact that these 24 species and varieties are similar in many respects, and some method should be found by which a number of them can be eliminated from our nursery catalogues. Their continued listing often fills us with renewed anticipation each time we order a plant with a \"different name \" only to wind up same colored, 1~ + severely disappointed when we learn, after several years of growing, that the \"new name\" plant gives a landscape effect which is identical with a type that has been in this country a century. The following key may be of assistance to some who wish to tell the species apart when flowers have passed, but leaves are fully developed :Leaf Key to 1. Forsythias Leaves often where leaves deeply lobed are attached. or divided into three parts, twigs hollow but solid F. suspensa F. europaea F. ovala 1. Leaves not divided into three parts. 2. Leaves entire. 2. Leaves mostly with teeth, only a few entire. 8. Leaves broad ovate, mature branches 3. Leaves 4. narrow and mature branches yellowish. greenish or brownish. Pith usually solid where leaves occur, leaves sometimes divided into three parts, especially on vigorous shoots. F. intermedia Pith usually in partitions. and Their Varieties F. viridissima Notes europaea : Flowers ouatn. Concerning the Species usually borne singly, hence not as conspicuous in flower as some of the others. The flowers and flower buds are almost as hardy as those of F. No better than F. infermerlin varieties. giraldiann: iniermerlia: A cross of viridissima and suspensa, hence it has some characteristics of both parents-occasionally some autumn color but not pronounced and the habit of F. suspensa fortunei with upright arching branches. The varieties rlensiflnra and .spectabilis have the most flowers of any of the forsythias, with speclnbili,s having the largest and darkest yellow flowers. The variety primuliun is valued for its light colored flowers and nitellina is more or less of botanical interest only. japonicn: Both the species and its Korean variety sn.rntilis, bear flowers singly, hence these do not make ornamental plants comparable with the better species listed here. ovata: Although this, too, bears only solitary flowers, the plant is valued for its flower buds which are hardier than those of the other forsythia species. It blooms about ten days in advance of most types. oanfa X europaea: A cross made at the Arnold Arboretum before 19~~, but resulting in plants that were not superior ornamentally in any way to the parents. IJ suspensa: If as we are to take Alfi~ed Rehder's listing literally, there is no such thing F. su.spensa since the variety siebokli is taken to be \"the type of the species.\" The variety sieboldi has long drooping or prostrate stems, is excellent for bank planting or for overhanging walls and has even been used as a wall plant and trained on a trellis ; pallida has the lightest flowers of the suspen.sa varieties and both pallida and fo~~tunei are vigorous upright shrubs yet with excellent arching and spreading branches that give a graceful appearance. The variety decipiens is not as good an ornamental because the flowers are solitary and not frequently in threes as is the case with the other varieties, and the twigs of atrocaulis and pubescens are not sufficiently colorful to warrant their being grown in place of the others. The form with variegated foliage I have never seen, but plants with variegated foliage are none too ornamental in most situations. viridissima: This species is the least hardy of the group, not hardy at the Arnold Arboretum, but its Korean variety koreana is, and is just as ornamental. Both have a rich purplish red autumn color, making them valuable in the fall. Comparatively recently the variety bronxensis was named at the New York Botanical Gar3en, having grown there for nearly ten years. This low dwarf does flower and has merit for this reason. Horticultural varieties: \"Arnold Dwarf\" is a cross between F. intermedia and F. japonica saxatilis and developed by the Arnold Arboretum in 19 t~?. It may prove of value as a ground cover for it roots readily, six-year-old plants are not over ~~ tall, but are 7' across. The drooping branches strike root readily and form a mat of foliage. However, it has not yet flowered. \"Arnold Giant\" is a tetraploid forsythia or~ginated at the Arnold Arboretum. Although the flowers are large and very dark yellow, it proved difficult to propagate from cuttings. Because of this difficulty, and due to the fact that some of the triploids obtained by crossing the tetraploid with diploid forms seemed to be superior in many respects, the \"Arnold Giant\" is not recommended for further distribution. \"Spring Glory\" originated about 1935 as a bud sport of F. intermedia primulina in the experimental garden of the late M. H. Horvath of Cleveland, Ohio. He claimed that this sport was distinct from the variety because it produced a larger flower and 30 to 50 lo more blossoms. It has been propagated and widely advertised for these qualities. The last mentioned in the table, Arnold Arboretum Seedling No. ~`?716, is merely mentioned for its very wide flower petal. This seedling was discontinued when \"Arnold Giant\" appeared, but may have interest after all since it can be propagated as easily as other forsythias. DONALD WYMAN 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Better Oriental Cherries","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24228","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d2708926.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR I~1FORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 AYRIL 28, I9aO THE BETTER ORIENTAL CHERRIES NUMBER 3 much interest in the oriental flowering cherries at this time the eastern United States. In Washington, l'hiladelphia, New York and other eastern cities extensive plantings of them can be seen in late April when they first burst into bloom, for the flowers have the most desirable trait of appearing before the leaves (in the case of most single flowered forms) or with the leaves in the case of the double flowered forms. Certainly in no cases are the flowers hidden by the fohage! In New England there are some that are perfectly hardy, some that are hardy in all but the most severe winters, and others which should not be grown at all, either because they are tender, or because they are similar in flower to some of the better species and varieties. The Arnold Arboretum has been responsible for the introduction of many of these oriental trees and has planted numerous varieties over the years. Charles Sprague Sargent, Ernest Henry Wilson and others have been outstanding in the study and introduction of many of these plants, so it may prove helpful to gardeners in New England to review some information about these plants at this t~me, as they come into flower. The Sargent Cherry is the tallest of all, being a standard tree up to 75 feet in height, although m this country few trees have exceeded 50 feet. The others are considerably smaller, and the double flowered Prunus serrnlata varieties seldom grow over 20 feet in height. The single flowered forms have small fruits, usually bluish black, and the double flowered forms produce few if any fruits. Even though the fruits are produced, they appear after the leaves are fully developed and so are completely hidden. Thus these trees have practically no ornamental value when in fruit-an important point. One or two, like the Sargent Cherry have brilliant autumn color, but most have no autumn color at all. The bark of the Sargent Cherry is interesting in the winter and that of Prunus serrula is really outstanding because of its glossy red appearance, but the winter effect of most of the rest is negligible. THERE always throughout is li Consequently, with a very few exceptions, these trees are of ornamental inonly during the period they are in flower, another important point to bear in mind especially when planting the small home grounds where space is often at a premium. The length of period these plants are in flower depends on the terest weather. If the weather is cool at the time the flowers open, the trees with sinbe colorful for a week. On the other hand, if the weather is hot, or if there are heavy rains at the time of full bloom, these cherries may be of interest for only two or three days. The double flowered varieties will of course be colorful for a much longer period, simply because there are many more petals. Two weeks is probably the maximum time they will be of interest, providing the weather is favorable, but again, if hot weather intervenes, this period will be reduced considerably. One new hybrid of Prunus subhirtella should be mentioned in this respect, for it has the desirable trait of opening its flowers consecutively over at least a two week period. This hybrid was produced at the Arnold Arboretum in 1941 and has been named Prunus \"Hally Jolivette\" (Arnoklia : 8 : 9-1 l, Dec. 1948). Consequently, with no ornamental fruits, with little autumn color, these plants as a group can be enjoyed only for the limited time they are in flower. When compared, as a group, with the flowering crab apples for instance, one might think twice before using valuable space to plant them when other trees like the crab apples might be selected which always have two seasons of interest, and gle flowers may sometimes more. Propagation There has been considerable discussion during the past thirty years concerning methods of propagation for these interesting trees. The species like P. sargenti, P. yedoensis, P. incisa, etc. will breed true from seed unless the seed is collected from trees growing in close proximity to other closely related cherries. The varieties, especially those of P. serrulata, must be budded or grafted on some understock, since cuttings root with difficulty. It is the understock which has caused much discussion. At one time P. sargenti was enthusiastically recommended, but long experience both with our own trees in the Arnold Arboretum and with trees in the extensive collection in Durand Eastman Park in Rochester, N.Y., has shown that P. avium, the Mazzard Cherry, is better and more permanent as an understock. Varieties of P. yedoensis can be grafted on seedlings of the species, and varieties of P. sublzirtella can be grafted on seedlings of that species, but for the majority of the varieties of the oriental cherries, Mazzard Cherry understock has proved most reliable from a long-term view point. Pests and Culture There sects are sprayed few insect and disease troubles to bother these cherries. Scale inperhaps the most prominent, which means that the trees should be with a dormant oil every two or three years, unless the pest is serious, are ] =is~ The bark of Prunus serrula is PLATE VII a rich reddish brown throughout theear. when they should be sprayed annually. In the collections at the Arnold Arboretum, canker worm is about the only other pest with which we have to deal, easily controlled with a spray of DDT or lead arsenate applied at the time the small worms first begin to feed. Consequently, it must be admitted that as far as pests are concerned, the oriental cherries are no worse off than the crab apples. It is perhaps unfortunate that so many people have the impression that these trees are best planted beside water. It is true that in such situations they are very beautiful, and the reflections formed as the trees blossom are superb, but trees planted this way can have a very short life span. Such situations frequently have very poor drainage, so that a tree may grow satisfactorily for a few years then die suddenly, merely because the drainage was not satisfactory. Good soil and good drainage are both aids in producing trees that have a maximum life span, and in the case of all but one or two species (such as the Sargent Cherry) this life span may be under twenty years. They are not long lived trees, for their branching habit is conducive to weak crotches, and their thin bark is often susceptible to \"sun scald\" in the more severe winters. Varieties Over 150 species and varieties of oriental cherry trees have been named by Japanese horticulturists and at least fifty are at present growing in the United States. The amateur gardener can have a difficult time determining which are best. Hardiness is the first consideration. The Sargent Cherry is the hardiest of the species and \"Kwanzan\" and \"Fugenzo\" are the hardiest of the double flowered varieties, at least in New England. The close similarity of some of the double flowered varieties is marked. All but the specialist want trees that are distinct from a landscape point of view. Some of the varieties have flower clusters with only slightly longer flower stalks, or the flowers are just a shade lighter or darker than some of or the leaf serrations or pubescence varies from some of the others. Such botanical characteristics are not conducive to distinct ornamental variations when the trees are judged in a landscape setting. Then too, the flowers of some varieties are considerably more fragrant than those of some others, reason enough why the fragrant flowering forms should be first selected. Because of these things, the better varieties only are here recommended and briefly discussed. Other varieties may be grown by the specialist who has the space, the funds and the time to grow plants with only minor variations. The oriental cherries recommended below, are divided into general groups according to habit or flowers, in order to make it easier to select certain ones for the others, specific landscape purposes. 1. Bush-like Trees. Prunus \"Hally Jolivette\" a hybrid of P. subhirtella developed at the Arnold Arboretum will probably develop into a small bushy tree. The flowers are small, 20 white, semi-double, and do not open all at once but consecutively over a two period, reason enough why it should be recommended here. Prunus incisa, the Fuji Cherry, is a delightful bushy tree, about 18 feet tall and very dense. Native in Japan, it has long been a favorite in this country and in England as well because of the extreme floriferous condition when in bloom. Its small white flowers, sometimes pinkish, are produced regularly each year in such great profusion that sometimes it is difficult to see the branches and twigs. week first introduced into America in 1910. nipponica, the Nipponese Cherry, is similar in size and density of branches and foliage. It also has white to pinkish flowers and is a native of Japan. Perhaps it might be desired in preference to some of the other cherries because it is one of the few cherries the foliage of which turns a splendid yellow to orange-crimson in the fall. was It Prunus 2. Standard trees, 30 feet Prunus or more in height. eventu- maximowiczi, the Miyama cherry, has white, single flowers. It a ally reaches height of 30 feet, is a native of Korea and was first introduced into America in 1892. Although beautiful in flower, it is particularly noted for the fact that its foliage turns scarlet in the autumn. This desirable trait, brings it ~nto the small group of cherries with two seasons of ornamental interest, and so makes it more desirable from a landscape viewpoint than some of the others. L,'nfortunatel3~ it is very difficult to locate available plants from commercial nurseries. Prunus sargenti, the Sargent Cherry, was named after Charles Sprague Sargent, first Director of the Arnold Arboretum, and has been recommended many times former issues of Arnoldia. It is a standard tree of 7~ feet in height in its naland, but probably will not grow over 40-50 feet in America. The flowers are single, large and deep pink and the young leaves, appearing as the flowers fade, are a rich bronze color as they unfurl, an added asset. In habit it is wide and spreading with a rounded top, but a fastigiate form is growing in the Arnold Arboretum and will be available from certain nurseries within a few years. It is one of the hardiest and the tallest of all the oriental cherries and is blessed with a rich red autumn color, giving it outstanding ornamental value in the fall as well as in the spring. This tree can be recommended for street tree use as well as use as a specimen, in most of New England. Prunus serrula is a tree as yet unavailable outside arboretums in this country. It grows about 30 feet tall, has white flowers, but is especially noted for its brilliant glossy, reddish-brown bark, a striking ornamental character that lends beauty and interest to this tree throughout the entire year. Prunus subhirtella, the Higan Cherry, is perhaps best known for its varieties. The flowers are single, light pink to almost white, and the foliage is of a very fine texture. The varietyautumnalis, has semi-double flowersof an inch in diin tive 21 ameter, that appear few are (some years) most beautiful. the Yoshino Cherry, is the one so widely planted around the yedoensis, Tidal Basin at Washington. Nearly 900 trees were presented to the city of Washington by the Mayor of Tokyo as a gift of friendship in 191 ~?. These trees have prospered and have been appreciated by millions of visitors. The Yoshino Cherry has single white to pink flowers, about one inch in diameter that are slightly fragrant. It was first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1902, and like all other cherries, is shown off to best advantage if planted in with an produced bloom, is very graceful deep pink flowers and is Prunus in the fall. The the spring, although very of the earliest cherries to Higan Cherry and floriferous. The variety \"Moni-jigari\" has double as in the fall well is as one evergreen background. pendulous branches. 3. Small Trees with Prunus subhirtella est pendula, the popular Weeping Cherry, is probably the oldoriental cherry tree in this country, having first appeared here about 1842. Its branches and pink flowers are familiar to most gardeners. A double flowered form of this variety is growing in this country and is very beautiful indeed. The form of Prunus yedoensis perpendens that is growing in the Arnold Arboretum is not as graceful as is the more common Weeping Cherry. long pendulous 4. Small trees with fastigiate form. Prunus serrulata \"Amanogawa,\" is the only true fastigiate oriental cherry worth growing. Its habit is favorably compared with that of the Lombardy Poplar, although of course it is a much smaller tree, seldom growing over 20 feet tall. The flowers are semi-double, light pink, fragrant, 1~ inches across. David Fairchild is credited with first introducing this interesting variety from Japan in 1906. A very high percentage of the seedlings will retain the fastig~ate form of the parent. 5. Small trees with spreading or or upright branches. varieties of P. 2 inches in A. Flowers single \"Botan-zakura\" with semi-double slightly semi-double (all are flowers, pink, serrulata). 6-15 5 diameter, petals and fragrant. name meaning \"Imperial yellowish costume\" because flowers are actually a yellowish green. This color is rather pleasing, the the flowers being semi-double and l~- inches in diameter. The variety \"Ukon\" is similar but the flowers are larger. \"Jo-nioi\" is the most fragrant of all the varieties of P. serrulnta, according to E. H. Wilson, reason enough why it should be grown. The flowers are mostly single, white and 1~ inches in diameter. \"Taki-nioi\" the Japanese name meaning \"fragrant cascade.\" This tree sel- \"Gyoiko\" the Japanese [ 22 >. 'S 0 G S e 0 0 S 0 a 0 U U O G cd m F. d '73 G ca rw \" M N '5 ,, C a .~ o. o .. 3 0 ro aj E b 3 0 1~ Y aj 1~ w a~ d 0 m :G m a~ X y dom grows over 12 feet tall. The flowers are and fragrant. \"Washino-o\" with single white flowers, single, white, 1~ inches in diameter 1~ inches in diameter and very fra- grant. B. Flowers double (varieties of P. serrulata except P. sieboldi). - Cherry, is the first of the double flowered oriental bloom. The flowers are light pink, about 1~ inches across and fragrant. \"Fugenzo\" which is also found in nurseries under the name of \"James H. Veitch\" or \"Kofugen\" is a popular variety for the flowers are as much as >>~ inches in diameter. They are a rosy pink at first, fading to a light pink. Paul Russell, in his excellent work \"The Oriental Flowering Cherries\" remarks that this variety was known and cultivated by the Japanese 500 years ago. \"Kwanzan\" is probably the most popular of all the double flowered varieties, and justly so. It is one of the most hardy. The flowers are a deep pink and as much as ~?~ inches in diameter, with 30 or more petals. The young foliage is a bright copper color as it first appears, adding materially to the colorful display of this tree in flower. \"Shirotae\" is the best of the double white flowering cherries. Its Japanese name means \"snow white.\" It is unfortunate that there is no double white form with as many petals as \"Kwanzan\" (30 or more) and this variety only has 12. However, the petals are slightly ruflled at the edges and this gives a most pleasing effect. The flowers are 1~--? inches in diameter and fragrant. \"Shogetsu\" considered by some to be the most handsome of the double flowered cherries. It grows about 1 ~ feet tall, is broad and flat topped. The flowers have about 30 petals, are a very pale pink color, often with a white center, and are up to 2 inches across. Prunus sieboldi, the Naden to cherries , DONALD ~'S MAN Field Class Registrations from are at the Arnold Arboretum which meets still open for the Saturday morning Field Class Saturday, 10 to 12 o'clock, 27. April 29 to May 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Best of Crab Apples","article_sequence":4,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24227","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270856f.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFOR:~ZATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 MAY 12, 1950 THE BEST OF THE CRAB APPLES most popular group of flowbe grown over a very wide area, actually in about ~ ~ ~c of the gardens in this country. There are nearly 230 species and varieties being grown commercially-a most confusing number from which the average home owner is expected to select. One of the reasons for this discussion is to emphasize this very important fact, and to start you thinking in terms of selecting \"the best.\"BTO list that any one individual will offer as \"the best\" will be unanimously accepted, but the time and effort needed to make this study will have been worth the effort, if it initiates thinking in the right direction,that of concentrating on some species and varieties that are superior to others, and eliminating inferior types. There are several large collections of named varieties being grown in America today. :11r. A. F. den Boer of the Des ~Ioines Water Works has perhaps the most complete, of over 200. The Arnold Arboretum has nearly that number of named varieties and several thousand seedling hybrids coming along for later selection. The Morton Arboretum, Rochester Park system and the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation at Swarthmore all have collections. Information obtained in these collections over a period of years was pooled a few years ago and a publication entitled \"Crab Apples for America\" was offered in which all information pertaining to known living varieties was given. Since 19~3, a few changes have been made in some of our selections. Using this material as a basis for the study and including information since gleaned from the large collection growing at the Arnold Arboretum, the following notations on this very valuable group of plants are offered. The difference between so-called ornamental crab apples and true apples, is slim. Anything over two inches in diameter is considered an apple as far as this study is concerned. All crab apples are valued for their flowers and many for NUMBFR 4 THE ering Oriental Crab Apples trees in America. are fast becoming the They can .) ~ their fruits as well. Some have interesting form, some hold their fruits all winter. It is these several items which make the crab apples so much more effective from the landscape point of view than the oriental cherries, the fruits of which are either non-existent or else are inconspicuous. Some of the more recently introduced varieties have foliage of an interesting reddish color, which adds materially to their usefulness in the planting plan. Still others, with excellent ornamental qualities, have fruits which make excellent jellies as well, being a very important reason for growing them under certain conditions and in certain areas. Most of these species hybridize freely, and when grown from seed, especially from seed collected in the larger collections, the resulting seedlings are more often than not, untrue to name. Budding and grafting, even most of the species, is bp far the safest means of propagation to insure true-to-type material. There are a few species which have proved that they are parthogenetic, i.e., that seedlings will be true to name almost 100~0. These species are foringoides, hupehensis, t.schososki and sikkimensis. One new dark red flowered hybrid we have growing at the Arnold Arboretum may prove to be a valued addition to this group after further trials have proved our original findings. Many types of understock are being used. The Experiment Station at Ottawa, Canada, has found that a certain seedling of Malus robusta (their ll~l. robusla iVo. ~, originally collected as seed in the Arnold Arboretum) can be mounded and stooled easily. It is being used as a dwarfing understock for apples, but might have possibilities as a uniform understock for the crab apples. Malus robrr.sla seedlings have proved most successful also. The following 42 crab apples are an excellent group to represent the 200 being grown. Perhaps even this group of 42 should be cut in half! However, the plants in this list have everything from weeping habit to fruit that remains all winter; from double flowers over ~?~r in diameter to reddish foliage and a few autumn color! Of course, each gardener may have his own pet variety which is chosen to grow for one reason or another, but look these over and if possible, make your first selections from this group. (D=flowers double; SD=flowers semi-double; Measurements=diameter of even have flowers) (figures BEST FOR FLOWER refer to flower size) in diameter arnoldiana; pink buds, fading white, ~lrr atrosanguinea; red, 1.~-rr~ in diam. baccata; white, 1-1~-rr in diam. \" gracilis; white, 1;;r~ in diam. mandshurica; white, I~rr in diam., first to bloom D coronaria \"Charlottae\"; pink, `1~~ in diam., one of latest to flower \" Cowichan\"; purplish red, l~rr in diam. D \"Dorothea\"; pale pink, ~rr in diam., bloom annually \" 26 \"Excellenz Thiel\" ; pink buds, white flowers, 1~'r in diam. \"Flame\" ; pink buds, flowers fading white floribunda ; red buds, flowers fading white, 1-l~rr in diam. D \"Frau Luise Dittman\" ; pink, I.~r' in diam. D halliana parkmani; deep pink, 1~\" in diam. spontanea; pink buds, white flowers, l ~rr in diam. \"Hopa\"; purplish red, l~rr in diam. hupehensis; pale pink buds, flowers fading white, 1 ~rr in diam. D ioensis plena; pink, 2rr in diam., one of last to flower D \"Katherine\" ; light pink fading white, 1.-~~'r in diam. D magdeburgensis; pink, l~rr in diam. micromalus ; pink, 1~'r in diam. \"Oekonomierat Echtermey~er\" ; purplish red, 1 ~rr in diam. D \"Prince Georges\" ; light pink, 2'r in diam., one of last to flower ~D purpurea aldenhamensis; purplish red, l ~rr in diam. lemoinei; red, the darkest of any, 1~'r in diam. \"Redfield\" ; carmine bud, dull pink flowers , \" \" , \" Redflesh\" ;j robusta .` 6 \" 1 \" 4 \" 6 1 \" 1.~~\" in diam. D \"Red S~lver'' ; purplish red, 1 ~rr persicifolia ; white, l ~rr in diam. \"Rosseau\" ; purplish red, 1~'r in diam, latest of Preston hybrids scheideckeri; pale pink, 1 ~-r' in diam. sieboldi arborescens; pink buds, flowers fading white, ~rr in diam., in diam. one of last to flower \"Sissipuk'': purplish red, l~rr D in diam. in diam. spectabilis riversi; pink, ~?rr in diam. zumi calocarpa; pink buds, white flowers, lrr BEST FOR FRUITS (Measurements refer to the size of fruit) arnoldiana ; yellow and red, ~r~ baccata : red or yellow, ~rr gracilis; red, ;_irr s mandshurica ; yellow to orange, ~rr s \"Bob White\"; yellow, ~rr, fruit remains all winter brevipes ; red, '~-s'r, fruit colors early \"Cowichan\" ; purplish red, 1 ~'r, annual bearer dawsoniana; yellow green and reddish, lr' long and \"Dolgo\" ; bright red, 1.~-~\", one of earliest to fruit \"Dorothea\" ; bright yellow, ~', annual bearer \"Flame\" ; bright red, does well in colder areas floribunda ; yellow and red, ~rr \" ' \" ~rr wide 27 \"Frau Luise Dittman\" ; yellow, 1\" Hopa\" ; orange and red, ~\" purpurea aldenhamensis ; purplish red, 1\" lemoinei; purplish red, -,N n \"Redfield\"; red, 1',-~~r \"Redflesh\" ; red, I ~\" robusta; red and yellow, ~-I~\", varies considerably persicifolia; red,:3r~ \" Rosseau\" ; rosy red, ~- I rr, annual bearer scheideckeri ; yellow to orange, H\" \"Sissipuk\" ; purplish red, ~\", annual bearer, fruits remain all toringoides; pear-shaped, yellow and red, ~\" zumi calocarpa; bright red, ~\", fruit remains all winter \" \" \" - winter BEST FOR FORM ' ' arnoldiana; dense mounded baccata gracilis ; branches pendulous brevipes ; low, bush-like \"Excellenz Thiel\" ; pendulous branchlets floribunda; dense, mounded halliana spontanea ; dense, fountain-like , hupehensis; picturesque, fan-shaped micromalus; densely upright \"Oekonomierat Echtermeyer\"; pendulous. branches sargenti; lowest of all, mound-like DUAL PURPOSE (ornamental plus \"Cowichan\" usable ' fruits) \"Redfield\" \"Redflesh\" \"Red Silver\" \"Dolgo\" \"Hopa\" atrosanguinea; dark glossy green WITH COLORED FOLIAGE reddish green halliana parkmani; very dark green purpurea \" \"Cowiehan\" ; \"Oekonomierat F:chtermey'er\" ; bronze aldenhamensis; reddish green lemoinei; reddish green \"Redflesh\"; greenish bronze \"Red Silver\"; reddish green ' \"Kousseau\" ; 61 Sissipuk\" ; reddish green reddish green . DONALD WYMAN 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Spring Walk Through the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24217","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260896c.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 MAY 1J~ 1950 NUMBER 5 A SPRING WALK THROUGH THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University is fast approaching its best Azaleas, crab apples, lilacs, and hundreds of other plants are vying with each other to attract attention. The spring, a most peculiar one, at first, with advanced blooming dates, but later, because of several weeks of cold weather, the blooming of many species was retarded so that today the season is just about \"on time.\" The Arnold Arboretum, established in 1872, has long been outstanding in the introduction of new plants from all parts of the world. Many of its introductions are now common in nurseries throughout the land. At present there are approximately 5,000 different species and varieties of woody plants growing within its borders. The famous garden of woody plants is not the only important feature of the Arboretum. It also maintains a library of more than .50,000 volumes dealing chiefly with woody plants, and an herbarium of 650,000 mounted specimens, limited to woody plants. The garden, the library and the herbarium, each one of which has earned world renown in its own field, all constitute the Arnold Arboretum; and these are supplemented by the greenhouse laboratories. Time does not permit a thorough examination of each one of these parts of the Arboretum. The garden of plants, made so famous by the painstaking effort of its first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, and also because of the many new plants it introduced through the efforts of Ernest H. Wilson, is now at its prime. The first color to be noted as one enters the Jamaica Plain gate and passes the Administration Building, is a planting of various azaleas beside the road. Beyond the azalea border a walk through the woods is most invigorating for here are planted hundreds of the torch azalea (Rhododendron obtusum kaem~f'eri~ one of the many outstanding ornamental plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced to this country. Walking through the famous collection of over 100 different kinds of maples, the sentry maple (Acer saccharum monumentnle) and the columnar form THE today. ~ 29 of the red maple are prominent. To the average visitor the maples are merely a group of common trees, but on close examination one is surprised at the large number which have been collected from other parts of the world and which can be grown in this climate. The maple collection merely exemplifies what is true of many other groups of plants, namely that many species and varieties are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, not all with outstanding ornamental value but with some of considerable merit that have been grown and offered for sale by commercial nurseries. Leaving the maples, one comes into the shrub collection, containing nearly 800 different kinds of shrubs, growing in long lines where they can be readily cared for and where each group of plants is kept growing fairly close together. This affords an excellent opportunity for comparing the different species and varieties in a genus. The better honeysuckles, quinces, spireas, currants and rose species will be found growing here. Special attention might be given the yellow roses shortly to be in bloom. Rosa primula is first to bloom, closely followed by R. hugonis. Many of the quinces are still in flower and it is interesting to note the wide diversity of flower sizes and colors among these old-fashioned favorites. Some of the currants (Ribes .sp.) and spireas are also in full bloom. Walking past the bank of sprawling forsythias (containing 19 different kinds) it is hard to realize that included in the collection of lilacs beyond are over 450 different varieties and species. The beautybush on the left of the road beyond the lilacs is one of the many plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into cultivation. It is just now coming into flower. Before 1922 it was indeed rare in nurseries although it had been growing continuously in the Arboretum since 1907. Now it is available from almost every nursery in the country. On the right of the road where it turns up Bussey Hill, is the viburnum collection some of which are now in flower. These serviceable plants cannot be recommended too often for they are of value when in flower as well as when their bright colored fruits and brilliant autumn foliage is on display in the fall. Ascending Bussey Hill, past the Euony~raus collection on the left, there are some Prunus species and varieties, some beach plums (Prunus maritima); and on the right the magnificent oak collection. At the top of Bussey Hill one can look across to Hemlock Hill, now showing material damage from the results of two hurricanes. In 1938, winds of over 1~?5 miles per hour velocity felled more than 300 mighty hemlocks, many of which were growing sturdily when George Washington was President of the United States. Many young hemlocks have since been planted, but the blowing over of so many trees on this rocky hill has seriously effected the water-holding capacity of the soil and hence the growth of the remaining mature trees is materially retarded. Coming down from the top of Bussey Hill, one can walk across an open area and under the large old pines at the end of the path. Many plants have been growing on Bussey Hill, mostly the Asiatic introductions of E. H. Wilson. Some 30 overgrown that it has been imperative to replant or replace many of them. leaving this area, one should pause a moment under the cedars of Lebanon, forty-year old trees originally coming to the Arboretum as seeds in 1902 from their northernmost limits in the Anti-Taurus ~Iountains of Turkey, just north of Syria. Many times this species had been tried, only to succumb in New England's chmate, but this strain has proved hardy for more than forty decades, withstanding temperatures of twenty degrees below zero. Close examination will were so Before show some of the peculiar cones still remaining on the trees. It takes two years for them to mature. The native pinxterflower (Rhododendron nudiflorum) as well as its close relative R. roseum with darker pink flowers, is on the left of the path as one walks back to the road. The brilliant scarlet azalea seen throughout the woods and so gorgeous at the end of this walk under the century old pines is the torch azalea from Japan (R. obtusum kaempferi) often referred to by Professor Sargent as the most brilliantly colored of all the Arnold Arboretum introductions. The mauve colored azalea is the Korean azalea (R. yedoense poukhanense) another Arboretum introduction. Note how well it goes with the pale lemon yellow flowers of the Warminster broom close moments at Azalea Path on the way down Bussey Hill, hundreds of azaleas can be seen in full bloom. The first along the path is the royal azalea from Japan (Rhododendron schlippenbachi) which is one of those rare azaleas the foliage of which is blessed with autumn co]or in the fall. Across from this is the hardy form of the silk tree (Albissia julibrissin rosea) which the Arboretum introduced from Korea in 1918, and this specimen was grown from the original importation of seeds. The trees that are so common m the southern United States are not so hardy in New England, but this form is. The foliage is very delicate and the interesting, thread-like flowers, begin to appear the middle of July and continue until September. A really unusual tree for this part of the country. Walking back to the Bussey Hill road and down the hill, one passes the oaks, the mountain ashes, the rockery with several interesting small plants, the hornbeams, and beyond them but mostly unseen from the road, the junipers and yews. Dogwoods (Cornusflorida) and redbud (Cercis canadensis) are evident everywhere and are loaded with flowers this year. Only one or two of the rhododendrons are in flower now, yet the Arboretum has over 200 representatives of the genus Rhododendron growing within its borders. The famous bank of mountain laurel will not bloom for at least another two or three weeks. The hill to the right of the road harbors most of the pinetum where hundreds of evergreens from many parts of the world display their dependable green foliage year in and year out. Pines alone are represented by j4 different species and varieties. The graceful Sargent weeping hemlock to the left of the road has been growing there since 1881. Plants were originally found growing on an estate along the Hudson River of upper New York. This is a splendid specimen and is by. Stopping for a few [ 31 another living example of what peculiar forms Mother Nature sometimes creates. Continuing through the gates and across Bussey Street to the Peters Hill area, to the oldest collection of ornamental crab apples in the country. Here varieties of the genus Malus are being grown side by side. The trees range in height from the low Sargent crab apple (7-8 feet) to the tall Mandshurian crab which is a standard tree of over 50 feet in height. The peak of the flowering of these interesting and usefully ornamental trees is in the first weeks of May, but some are still in flower. To appreciate them fully, one should return to see their myriads of small brilliant fruits during the late summer and fall. Time being at a premium, one rushes on past the pinetum once more, being certain to gain a view down Bussey Brook of the splendid native stand of American beeches, and on to the gorgeous planting of a thousand of the torch azaleas on South Street bank, through the propagating units of the Arboretum, glancing at a few of the experimental beds where many interesting experiments are being carried out by Arboretum staff members. There may be only a minute to pause at the unique collection of dwarf evergreen trees, originally imported from Japan many years ago by Larz Anderson and presented to the Arboretum by Mrs. Anderson. Some of these are well over 150 years old. The hedge collection of over 100 different kinds of clipped hedges is always open to close inspection for those who want to choose just the right hedge material for the right place. Before finally leaving the Arboretum, one should enter the Forest Hills gate where the majority of visitors first come, walk among the oriental cherry trees (now past bloom for several weeks), and continue to the top of the famous lilac collection, where one cannot but help gain inspiration from walking among these beautiful plants. Plant breeders and home owners for nearly two centuries have been contributing new varieties, and here in the collection, a studied attempt has been made during the past years to grow at least one specimen of every variety which can be obtained. At present there are 450 species and varieties. They commence to bloom about the first week in May with some varieties coming into bloom for a six-week period thereafter. At this time, by far the most numerous are the varieties of the common lilac (S. vulgaris) of which there are over 300 varieties being grown here. The early lilac, the late lilac, the littleleaf lilac that blooms a second time in the fall, the tree lilac and the Preston lilac-all are here and growing well. If lilacs are one's chief interest, this collection is the place to study them. Even the amateur is enthusiastic, for this large collection is living proof of the great efforts which have gone into the breeding and selection of these plants by hundreds of people throughout the north temperate zone. There is no better way to finish one's May visit to the Arboretum than to linger among the lilacs, and absorb to the full their fragrance and beauty. one comes nearly 200 species and , DONALD ~YMAN 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Control of Plant Development with Maleic Hydrazide","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":38,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24229","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d24ea327.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Filmore, Richard H.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 MAY 26, l9aO NUMBER 6 ` THE CONTROL OF PLANT DEVELOPMENT WITH MALEIC HYDRAZIDE of MANY species ing plants, commonly handled as develop undesirable soft shoots when exposed nursery stock, are likely to to high temperatures follow- a long period in cold storage. Such development, as well as the cost of cold storage facilities, might be avoided if nursery stock could be kept dormant by spraying nursery plants in fall or early spring. Our preliminary experiments have indicated that maleic hydrazide, which is e\"~ective as a low temperature spray on clormant nursery stock, may be a useful material for this purpose. The effect of maleic hydrazide was first described by Schoene and Hoffman (5) in 1949. Dilute solutions of maleic hydrazide were found to inhibit growth of tomatoes and various grasses. Growth was inhibited for a few days to several months depending upon the concentration of the chemical. Knott (~?) found that growth in a Pyracantha hedge could be controlled by spraying with a 0.to 0.5 percent solution. White and Kennard (6) used a 0.045 percent solution which delayed flowering in raspberries without any deleterious effect on subsequent fruit set. Plants sprayed on April twenty-seventh, when leaflets had expanded about one-half inch, set fruit from sixteen to twenty-three days later than untreated plants. Vegetative growth was temporarily inhibited but both treated and untreated plants had attained a similar development by midsummer. The crop was equally good in both instances. Miller and Erskine (3) have prevented fruit set in Ginkgo biloba by spraying blooming trees with 0. 1 percent maleic hydrazide. Naylor (4) sprayed corn plants thirty to forty inches high with 0.025 percent solution, thus producing male sterile plants with normal ears. Currier and Crafts ( 1 ) have found that a 0.percent spray killed young plants of Johnson and water grasses, but did not affect cotton plants sixteen inches high. Maleic hydrazide was sent to us for experimental purposes by Dr. John W. Zukel, Naugatuck Chemical Division, United States Rubber Company, Naugatuck, 33 Connecticut, as a solution containing 30 percent of the active ingredient in the form of the diethanolamine salt. The percentages of the dilute solutions are based upon the actual weight of the active ingredient dissolved in 1 liter of distilled water. Thus the 0.6 percent solution was prepared by adding 20 grams of the formulation, containing 6 grams of the active ingredient, to one liter of distilled water. Since the formulation has a specific gravity of 1.2, a substantially similar solution may be prepared by dissolving 16.6 milliliters of the formulation in one liter of distilled water. The material may be applied as a spray or by immersing the stems in the solution. The effectiveness of the spray treatments is increased by adding a wetting agent. Maleic hydrazide should be handled with the customary precautions which apply to all new chemicals. Treated food crops should not be eaten until a complete toxicological evaluation is available. Experimental On were Results January twenty-third, field grown, dormant plants of several rose varieties sprayed out-of-doors at a temperature of about 43 F. and at high relative humidity. At the same time corresponding plants were selected as controls. About five hours after spraying, suitable branches were removed from these plants and made up into seven-inch cuttings. These cuttings were then planted in sand and placed in a warm greenhouse. The results with Rosa dilecta \"Talisman,\" sprayed with 0.3 percent solution, are illustrated in Plate IX. Treated cuttings of this variety were effectively inhibited for twenty-eight days following treatment. At this time several dead cuttings had appeared in both treated and control lots and the cuttings were subsequently discarded. \"Paul's Scarlet\" climber was inhibited by spraying with 0.15 percent solution, but eleven weeks later the treated cuttings had only produced abnormally elongated leaves and the material was discarded. \"Dorothy Perkins\" climber, however, which received the same treatment, was effectively inhibited for about six weeks and after eleven weeks, the treated cuttings had resumed apparently normal growth, including good roots and vigorous, leafy shoots. Similar results were obtained with cuttings of Rosa uault~lora\"thornless\" sprayed with 0. 15 and 0.075 percent solutions. There were apparent differences between the two concentrations. Both dormant and actively growing plants of Rosa multiflora \"thornless\" were seriously injured by a 0.6percent spray treatment. Some of these dormant plants were packaged with moist moss and stored either in a warm greenhouse or in cold storage at 40 F. None of the plants treated with 0.6 percent have resumed normal growth and many of them were killed by the treatment. The treatment, however, is effective at temperatures of 40 F. and it is entirely possible that a suitable concentration would be very useful in preventing premature bud development in stored rose bushes. Several species of Yrunus were inhibited by maleic hydrazide treatment, both no 34 ~b U u U G M C. m ~-~ c~ U 1 \"a na o y OC .t o pV O O '-' y a~ E O m ~ E 3 G \" V O roa c .. E C T) N FI C~ :d b 't >N ~E w cd G F. F V cd C. U g V U pU N, ro M UO a 3 30 oE 00 t .c ~~ o G O av 4: fG ,_, ~ E = ro E~ m F S Q Y \"! - a c '~ a \" 6 x 0 w by spraying and by basal immersion of the stems. Dormant nursery seedlings of Prunus \"Mazzard\" have remained alive for eleven weeks following spraying with a 0.6 percent solution, but it seems unlikely that these plants will ever resume normal growth. Twenty-five cuttings, made from a dormant plant of Prunus persica \"Rutgers Greenleaf,\" sprayed out-of-doors with 0.3 percent solution, were definitely inhibited for several weeks. A few cuttings were killed by the treatment, but many resumed normal growth including both roots and shoots. Prunus sargenti and P. yedoensis seedlings were inhibited by a 0.3percent spray. Recovery of some individual plants has been fair to good in both instances. Scions of Malus pumila \"MacIntosh\" were inhibited by spraying with 0.6 perwere grafted on roots of untreated apple seedlings. Although the effect of this chemical is systemic rather than localized, it is apparently possible to secure considerable inhibition of buds and yet permit some degree of callus formation. An application of indolebutyric* acid, at the point of graft union, appears to have intensified the inhibiting effect of the maleic hydrazide. Small-scale out-of-door spraying of Malus pumila \"Delicious,\" using 0.075 percent maleic hydrazide, has not resulted in delayed flowering when the treated branches were removed from the tree and forced in a warm greenhouse. Well-budded branches of Forsythia were brought into the greenhouse for forcing in late January. Maleic hydrazide treatment had little effect on the time of flowering, but the duration of flowering was prolonged. In one lot, treated with 0.13 percent solution by soaking the basal part of the stems for sixteen hours, flowers borne on the treated branches remained in good condition for about a week longer than those on the controls. The flowering life of cut roses was also lengthened by using a 0.03 percent solution as an overnight soaking treatment. It is probable that the life of other cut flowers could be prolonged by similar cent solution. The treated scions treatments. Maleic hydrazide, as a 0.3 percent spray on dormant potted plants, has effectively inhibited vegetative growth and has delayed flowering in haccinium corymbosum \"Cabot\" and \"Yioneer.\" One treated plant of the variety \"Cabot,\" sprayed on February third and subsequently placed in a warm greenhouse, began to flower on April fourth, fourteen days later than the corresponding control. On April fourteenth, this treated plant was in full bloom while only an occasional flower remained on the untreated control. The treated plant still showed evidence of vegetative inhibition, but it had developed numerous apparently normal leafy shoots. Although both treated and control plants produced an abundance of apparently normal flowers, there was practically no fruit set in either lot. This lack of fruit set may be due to poor pollinating conditions in the greenhouse. Potted plants of Picea, Tsngn, Pinu.v and Lari,r were sprayed with 0.6 percent maleic hydrazide in greenhouse conditions. Growth was inhibited in all cases, *Hormodin 1. 36 but at the time of writing there has been no resumption of normal growth. Larix and Tsuga are apparently more tolerant of maleic hydrazide treatment than are Picea and Pinus. Actively growing potted plants of Rhododendron mucronatum (Asalea led~'olia alba) were severely injured by spraying with 0.6 percent solution on January twenty-first. On April fourteenth, however, these plants were forming new roots and there was considerable evidence of renewed bud activity. Syringa amurensis japonica, S. vulgaris, Betula papyrifera and B. lenta have not responded markedly to maleic hydrazide treatment in the conditions of these experiments. Conclusion The control of vegetative and floral development has many applications in horticulture : the delay of flowering in early blooming plants ; the destruction of flowers in plants which produce unwanted fruits or pollen; the selective killing of weeds; the prolongation of the life of cut flowers; and the retardation of dormant nursery stock. Although maleic hydrazide has given us some promising results in the control of floral and vegetative development, these results are based on limited trials with relatively small numbers of plants. Definite practical recommendations must await the outcome of further studies. RICHARD H. FILLMORE 37 BIBLIOGRAPHY l. Currier, H. B. and A. S. Crafts 1950. Maleic hydrazide, a selective herbicide. Science, Vol. III, No. 2786: 152-133. 2. Knott, J. E. 1949. The hydrazide for controlling the growth of a Pyracantha hedge. Unpublished paper presented at the Forty-sixth Annual Meeting, A. S. H. S., at the Hotel Schroeder, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 27, 1949. See also, Knott, J. E., 1950. Agricultural use of maleic Chemicals 5: 53-55. 3. Miller, Richard R. and Donald Erskine 1949. The prevention of fruit formation on some ornamental trees. Proc. of the 25th National Shade Tree Conference: 88-100. 4. Naylor, Aubrey ~. on - 1950. Observations the effect of maleic hydrazide on the flowering of maize and cocklebur. Proc. National Academy of Science, tobacco, Vol. 36, No. 4: 230-232. 5. Schoene, D. L. and Otto L. Hoffman 1949. Maleic hydrazide, a unique growth regulant. Science, Vol. 109, No. 2481: 588-590. 6. White, David G. and William C. Kennard 1949. The use of maleic hydrazide to delay blossoming of fruits. Unpublished paper presented at the Forty-sixth Annual Meeting, A.S. H.S., at the Hotel Schroeder, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on October 26, 1949. See also White, David G., 1950. Blossoming of fruits delayed by maleic hydrazide. Science, March 24, 1950: 303. 38 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cabot Foundation Publication","article_sequence":7,"start_page":39,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24218","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270a36e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"CABOT FOUNDATION PUBLICATION The Harvard Forest has recently published an enlarged edition of its 1947 i of Auxins in the Rooting of Woody Cuttings,\" by Kenneth V. Thimann and Jane Behnke-Rogers. (Maria Moors Cabot Foundation Publication No. 1 ) It is a paper-bound volume which contains 344 pages of valuable information on the rooting of cuttings. The information for each species is presented in convenient tables under such headings as the type of cutting, the influence of wounding, the percent rooted both with and without auxin (hormone) treatment, and the time required for rooting. There is a bibliography of 313 references for those who require information which does not appear in the tables. This book is frequently used in the propagating work at the Arnold Arboretum. It may be obtained from the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts. The price is one dollar plus postage. publication, \"The Use - 39 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Order of Bloom","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24225","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270bb6c.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 JUNE 16, 1950 ORDER OF BLOOM NUMBERS 7-8 the actual dates on which certain plants bloom will vary from to year, the sequence will remain the same. Lilacs will begin a little after some of the crab apples have reached their peak ; most to flower of the rhododendrons will follow the lilacs, and the mock oranges will follow the rhododendrons. Records of the sequence and the time of bloom of the many flowering trees and shrubs in the Arnold Arboretum have been kept over a long period of years and in the following lists some of them are recorded in their sequence and in the approximate time when they can be expected to flower ALTHOUGH year always normally. It should be stressed that some shrubs especially those with double flowers will remain in flower longer than others and hence can be used effectively in gardens with plants that are noted as blooming later. Still others are effective in flower bud and might be planted with varieties blooming earlier. Local studies along this line should prove most interesting to individual gardeners. In this connection it might be of interest to note the different times at which Cornu.s florida blooms throughout the country. This tree has a wide habitat o~ er the eastern United States and is so beautiful that it ~s highly valued as an ornamental wherever it is bud hardy. It can be expected to bloom in the following places at the approximate times mentioned. Mary, Florida Augusta, Georgia St. Louis, Missouri Ashville, North Carolina Washington, D.C. Lexington, Kentucky Columbus, Ohio Glen St. Mid-February - Late March Early April Mid-April Late April .. EarlyMay ~1 Philadelphia, Pennsylvania London, England Chicago, Illinois Detroit, Michigan Rochester, New York Boston, Massachusetts Seattle, Washington Portland, Maine Early May; Mid-May ; 4 Late May One other series of dates has proved interesting at the Arnold Arboretum. There is a weeping willow tree adjacent to the Administration Building which turns green almost over night when the weather is just right. Since the bud scales of willows are valvate, the bud scales drop when the temperatures are high enough and the young foliage quickly swells and gives the tree a green appearance. Since this happens rapidly-almost overnight-the dates on which this occurs afford a valuable commentary on the earliness or lateness of the season. The following are the dates for the past eleven years. The following order of bloom is applicable in localities other than New England. If local blooming dates of a few key plants are noted and the differences checked with those given in the following sequence, then all the dates can be correspondingly shifted and the sequence can thus be adapted to local climatic conditions. Order of Bloom (All plants in the same following practically the following sequence.) February Hamamelis vernalis the lists are growing in the Arnold Arboretum under soil and climatic conditions and have bloomed together in ~ March Acer saccharinum 41~ Corylus species Hamamelis japonica mollis Sahx species Snowdrop and Crocus \" , Late April Acer circinatum \" diabolicum purpurascens \" platanoides \" Early April Acer rubrum Alnus incana \" \" Amelanchier canadensis \" laevis spicata rugosa Cornus \" mas officinalis mezereum carnea Buxus microphylla Chamaedaphne calyculata Euptelea polyandra Lonicera altmanni pilosiuscula 66 Daphne Erica tenuipes Magnolia denudata \" Forsythia ovata kobus \" Jasminum nudiflorum Lonicera praeflorens borealis Populus species Prunus davidiana salicifolia \" stellata Malus baccata mandshurica \" Ulmus americana Viburnum Myrica gale Pieris floribunda Poncirus trifoliata Prunus armeniaca \" \" fragrans Mid-April Abeliophyllum Acer negundo Betula species distichum canescens \" cerasifera concinna a cvclamina dasycarpa \" \" Cercidiphyllum japonicum Corylopsis species Dirca palustris Epigaea repens Forsythia europaea intermedia varieties suspensa sieboldi \" viridissima Lindera benzoin Lonicera fragrantissima \" domestica incisa and varieties juddi mandshurica \" nipponica sargenti subhirtella and varieties tomentosa \" 41 \" purpusi \" triloba standishi Pieris japonica Rhododendron dauricum \" mucronulatum yedoensis Spiraea prunifolia Vinca minor and varieties \" Early May Acer campestre . Shepherdia argentea 43 PLATE X Viburnum tomentosum mariesi. This variety has larger flowers and fruits than the commonly grown Doublefile Viburnum (T : tomentosum). Acer saccharum Amelanchier grandiflora \" humilis \" \" . Malus zumi and varieties Myrica pensylvanica Narcissus sanguinea \" Bemophanthus mucronatus stolonifera Andromeda \" Berberis glaucophy-lla polifolia dictyophylla ' Carpinus carolimana Chaenomeles japomca and varieties lagenaria and varieties Crataegus arnoldiana Cytisus decumbens \" elongatus \" Orixa japonica Osmaronia cerasiformis Pachysandra terminalis Phlox subulata Primula elatior superba polyantha Prinsepia sinensis Prunus alleghaniensis 11 \" , \" americana \" \" avium beani Dandelion Enkianthus perulatus Exochorda giraldi Ledum groenlandicum Lonicera canadensis C` coerulea \" blireiana and varieties glandulosa and varieties hortulana incana instititia , \" japonica maritima nakai \" saccata \" Magnolia soulangeana and varieties \" padus and varieties pensylvanica persica and varieties Mahonia species Malus adstrmgens and varieties `C arnoldiana \" pumila susquehanae astracanica 46 atrosanguinea \" baccata \" brevipes \" \" floribunda halliana and varieties \" hupehensis micromalus prunifolia and varieties pumila niedzwetzkana purpurea and varieties robusta and varieties scheidecl;er~ soulardi spectabilis and varieties \" serrulata and varieties double-flowered forms starting to bloom and continuing for two weeks at least, depending on the variety, some being slightly earlier than others.) Prunus sieboldi Pyrus communis and varieties Rhododendron mucronatum \" (Many \" \" venustum \" \" \" Rhus aromatica Ribes alpinum \" \" aureum \" \" gordonianum \" , \" odoratum \" \" sylvestris 45 Spiraea arguta thunbergi \" Syringa hyacinthiflora and \" varieties ` Cytisus 61 61 purpureus oblata dilatata scoparius Tulips Viburnum alnifolium \"6 buddleifolium \" Daphne altaica caueasica eneorum \" \" burejaeticum simplicissima amencanum Violets Xanthorhiza Zanthoxylum Mid-May Acer palmatum Aesculus arguta \" bushi \" \" Deutzia grand itiora Uavidia involucrata Elaeagnus multiflora 46 umbellata Enkianthus campanulatus Euonymus alata latifolia Exochorda korolkowi ,. macrantha 11 . \" \" carnea \" racemosa \" \" glabra hippocastanum neglecta Fothergilla species Halesia carolina 66 monticola Iberis tenoreana Kerria japonica Leitneria floridana Lonicera alpigena 66 bella a 66 66 ' Akebia quinata \" tnfoliata Alyssum \" gemonense saxatile Amelanchier amabilis Amelasorbus jacki Aristolochia manshuriensis Berberis dielsiana \" chrysantha muendeniensis muscaviensis ig julianae koreana 14 syringantha 11 \" 66 46 wolfi \" \" \" \" stenophylla thunbergi and vernae thibetica varieties xylosteum Magnolia fraseri lihflora nigra Malus bracteata . 66 vulgaris Calycanthus floriclus Caragana arborescens \" \" 16 \" glaucescens ioensis frutex \" \" sophoraefolia \" sargenti \" Cercis canadensis \" chinensis Cornus florida sieboldi and varieties ' Papaver orientale Paulownia tomentosa Prinsepia uniflora Prunus cerasus \" maacki Cydonia oblonga Cytisus praecox \" \"6 purgans 46 \" Prunus virginiana Quercus species Rhododendron albrechti 41 eanadense it carolinianum is fraseri it luteum is is 46 Viburnum _ juddi lantana Weigela \"Conquerant\" \"Floreal\" \" florida venusta . \"Gracieux\" obtusum 64 amoenum Wisteria venusta and varieties Late arnoldianum Hmodegtr) \" May \" \" . japonicum Acer ginnala Aronia arbutifolia \" \"kaempferi racemosum \" \" \" \" \" \" reticulatum melanocarpa prunifolia schlippenbachi . vaseyi Asimina triloba Berberis arnurensis yedoense circumserrata 64 poukhanense scandens o~adnepaini verruculosa Berchemia racemosa Rhodotypos Ribes sanguineum Sambucus pubens Sibiraea laevigata Sorbus aucuparia Buttercup Caragana maximowicziana Celastrus flagellaris orbiculata scandens Cornus alternifolia 66 Spiraea \" 44 44 \" cinerea gemmata hypericifolia inflexa media mollifolia controversa ,, oxyodon pikoviensis prunifolia plena pubescens Syringa vulgaris and varieties \" \" \" \" stolonifera Coronilla emeroides Cotoneaster adpressa \" apiculata divaricata foveolata nitens (With over 300 varieties, it is as im\" racemiflora possible to list them here early, Crataegus crus-galli medium and late, although some might be so listed.) Vaccinium angustifolium laevifolium Viburnum bitchiuense 44 burkwoodi \" carlesi oxyacrantha pauli pruinosa punctata succulenta \" Daphne giraldi 48 Daylilies Deutzia candelabrum \" Prunus laurocerasus schipkaensis ; serotina gracilis kalmiaeflora lemoinei and varieties rosea \" \" \" and varieties Dipelta floribunda Enkianthus deflexus \" subsessilis Fendlera wrighti Fontanesia fortunei Gaylussacia baccata Genista pilosa ' Rhamnus cathartica Rhododendron atlanticum \" catawbiense \"Boule de Neige\" Rhododendron catawbiense \"Charles Dickens\" Rhododendron catawbiense \"Mont Blanc\" Rhododendron fortunei \"Duke of York\" Rhododendron gandavense hybrids \" \" \" \" \" Iberis sempervirens Juglans sieboldiana Laburnum species Leucothoe racemosa Lonicera amoena \" korolkowi \" maacki \" maximowiczi sachalinensis \" japonicum molle hybrids nudiflorum roseum \" smirnowi Robinia elliotti \" fertilis \" kelseyi slavini ecae \" morrowi tatarica and varieties \" Rosa \" \" Magnolia cordata soulangeana lennei tripetala \" hugonis \" \" primula a \" xanthina Rubus deliciosus Schisandra chinensis Smilax rotundifolia Spiraea blumei \" virginiana watsoni \" Malus \" \" angustifolia coronaria \" charlottae cantoniensis \" \" \" ioensis plena toringoides multiflora \" nipponica \" Neillia sinensis Paeonia suffruticosa Petteria ramentacea Philadelphus hirsutus \" schrenki Photinia villosa rotundifolia jacki trilobata \" vanhouttei Staphylea colchica \" trifolia \" Physocarpus \" \" amurensis monogynus Symplocus paniculata Syringa chinensis julianae \" \" Potentilla fruticosa and varieties meyeri [~o_ Syringa microphylla \" \" \" persica pinetorum potanini Elaeagnus angustifolia Euonymus atropurpurea bungeana Genista hispanica \" \" \" pubescens \" tinctoria velutina wolfi . Halimodendron halodendron Helianthemum nummularmm \" \" yunnanensis Tamartx Hydrangea petiolaris xanthoneura wilsoni Idesia polycarpa Ilex opaca \" parviflora Thymus serpyllum Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum lentago macrocephalum sterile opulus roseum rafinesquianum rhytidophyllum \" \" \" \" \" \" Indigofera amblyantha Jamesia americana Kolkwitzia amabilis Leucothoe catesbaei Lonicera ruprechtiana Magnolia sieboldi rufidulum sieboldi i tomentosum \" Periploca 66 \" graeca . \" sepium sterile \" Phellodendron 11 \" amurense \" trilobum Philadelphus \"Banniere\" . wrighti Weigela \"Dame Blanche\" \"Lavallei\" \" \" caucasicus \" \" Cole's Glorious\" \" \" Conquete\" , Wisteria floribunda and varieties \" formosa \" sinensis and varieties \" \" coronarius \" \" \"Coupe d'Argent\" floridus laxus \" Early June Abelia \" engleriana Actinidia arguta \" \" \" magdalenae Manteau de maximus Hermine\" - Buddleia alternifolia Ceanothus ovatus Chionanthus retusus \" \" \" nepalensis pekmensis \" Rosace\" \" virginicus Cladrastis lutea Cornus alba kousa \" \" \" tomentosus Physocarpus \" \" intermedius opulifolius frangula Rhamnus davurica Rhododendron arbutifolium \" calendulaceum \" catawbiense and rugosa Cotinus coggygria Daphne pontica Decaisnea fargesi 51 vars. Rhododendron ferrugineum 44 laetevirens 66 41 \" minus Viburnum cassinoides \" dentatum \" dilatatum and varieties \" \" \"Mrs. C. S. Sargent\" \"Purpureum Grandi- florum\" \" Rhuspotanini \" hupehense lobophyllum opulus prunifolium \" Robiniahartwigi 14 It hispida pseudoacacia - Rosa acicularis sargenti Weigela florida \" Gratissima\" Wisteria macrostachva \" arnoldiana \" bella Mid-June blanda foetida bicolor 46 harisoni I'heritierana Amorpha fruticosa glabra Castanea pumila Catalpa speciosa \" roxburghi rubrifolia rugosa and varieties spinosissima and varieties 44 N%,ilimottiae Sassafras albidum Sophora viciifolia Spiraea blanda 46 46 Ceanothus americanus Cornus amomum \" bretschneideri \" \" coreana \" \" racemosa 46 chamaedryfolia henryi trichocarpa wilsoni Cotinus americanus Cotoneaster dielsiana \" horizontalis \" multiflora Crataegus phaenopyrum Deutzia \"Contraste\" \" 6 \" 44 \"Magicien\" Staphylea pinnata Styrax americana .japontea \" \" magnifica Diospyros virginiana Euonymus europaea \" obassia 11 fortunei vegeta Syrmga henryi and varieties josikaea and varieties \" komarowi Gymnocladus dioicus Hydrangea bretschneideri Ilex glabra \" \" prestoniae and varieties renexa verticillata . .. Indigofera decora kirilowi \" . \" . swegmzOBB'J tomentelia \" x,illosa Vaccinillm stamineum \" potanini Kalmia \" angustifolia latifolia Ligustrum \" amurense Rosaarvensis \" ibolium canina .. i bota centifolia davidi \" \" obtusifolium 64 \" damascena .. regelianum .. \" . \" ovalifolium vulgare Liriodendron tulipifera Lonicerabrowni 66 \" eglanteria g'a II ica ., helen8e iberica jacksoni micrantha 6 4 japonica halliana periclymenum L yonia ligustrina 66 14 moyesi .. multiflora \" \"6 cathayensis 44 \" mariana .. \" virginiana . Philadelphus \"Albatre\" 66 Argentine\" 46 44 \" 66 \" \" Atlas 46 Avalanche\" webbiana Rubus allegheniensis Sambucus nigra Spiraea veitchi \" 66 Bouquet Blanc\" 46 Boule d'Argent\" cymosus watsoniana \" 66 \" \" \" Girandole\" \"Glacier\" grandiflorus Innocence\" inodorus lemoinei and varieties Stephanandra incisa Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus Syringa amurensis \" ft \" t < .. japonica .. pekinensis \" \" Tilia platyphyllos Viburnum acerifolium 66 molle 66 microphyllus monstrosus pubescens \" Weigela 41 \"Congo\" \"Eve Rathke\" pulverulenta \" if \" \" \"Mont Blanc\" 64 Norma\" 64 Pavillon Blanc\" pubescens purpurascens Zenobia Late June \" \" \" splendens zeyhei-i ' Pyracantha coccinea lalandi Rhododendron Album Elegans\" 66 Grandiflorum\" 66 66 arborescens Robinia B'iscosa Rosa alba Acanthopanax sieboldianus Actinidia polygama Ailanthus altissima Ceanothus pallidus roseus Cornus m8crophylla Cotoneaster salicifolia Deutzia myriantha .. scabra plena .. staminea 54 Diervilla sessilifolia Dorcynium hirsutum Genista anglica Ilex crenata Maackia amurensis Marsdenia erecta Rhododendron viscosum Rhus glabra Rosa setigera Indigofera incarnata alba Itea virginica Lavandula officinalis Rubus odoratus Spiraea salicifolia Stewartia koreana \" Lonicera henryi 1'Itiladelphus \"Belle Etoile\" \" pseudo-camellia Tilia euchlora (( \" C( burkwoodi \" \" \"Enchantment\" virginalis and varieties petiolaris tomentosa Rhododendron maximum Rhus typhina Rosa multibracteata Sambucus canadensis Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum Mid-July Aesculus parviflora Albizzia julibrissin \" (( Schizophragma hydrangeoides Sorbaria sorbifolia Spiraea b~lliardt \" bumalda and varieties \" \" rosea Amorpha brachycarpa canescens Ampelopsis (( douglasi japonica latifolia aconitifolia cordata \" \" margaritae \" menziesi \" pyramidata tomentosa Berberis aggregata Campsis radicans Clematis jackmani Cyrilla racemiflora Diervilla lonicera \" Hydrangea \" (( (( cinerea \" Stephanandra tanakae Tripterygium regeli Early July virginiana paniculata quercifolia radiata serrata . praecox \" Hypericum arnoldianum densiflorum frondosum Koelreuteria paniculata (( (( japonica Callicarpa dichotoma japonica Cytisus nigricans \" Buddleia Ligustrum quihoui Lonicera heckrotti 19 (( , Holodiscus discolor Hydrangea arborescens \" sempervirens Rosa wichuraiana grandiflora kalmianum Hypericum \" Securinega sufl~ruticosa Stewartia ovata patulum henryi Lycium species Symphoricarpos chenaulti 55 ~ ] Symphoricarpos orbiculatus Tamarix odessana \" Buddleia davidi varieties Caryopteris incana pentandra Yucca filamentosa Late July senticosus Clematis virginiana Clematis vitalba Clerodendron trichotomum Hibiscus syriacus varieties Acanthopanax Abelia schumanni Hydrangea macrophy-lla paniculata \" Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Aralia spinosa Buddleia albiflora Calluna vulgaris and varieties Cephalanthus occidentalis Clethra acuminata \" alnifolia \" 6 barbinervis 66 grandiflora Hypericum dawsonianum Lagerstroemia indica Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Polygonum auberti Rhus copallina Sophora japonica Vitex agnus-castus Hypericum prolificum Kalopanax pictus Lespedeza bicolor Nandina domestica negundo September incisa Oxydendrum arboreum Sorbaria arborea Baccharis halimifolia Clematis paniculata Elsholtzia stauntoni Franklinia alatamaha October August Abelia grandiflora Aralia chinensis \" elata Hamamelis virginiana Lespedeza japonica DONALD V~YMAN 56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rootstocks for Lilacs","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24226","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270816d.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 JULY 14, 1950 NUMBER 9 Ii,00TSTOCK5 FOR LILACS THE budding varieties of or common on lilacs are or generally propagated by cuttings are or by grafting privet lilac rootstocks. There certain disad- vantages in all of these methods of propagation. Propagation by hardwood cuttings is usually unproductive. Softwood cuttings are more successful, but these must be made durmg the busy season. In either case the resultmg plants grow slowly and ordinarily require three years to attain a height of two feet. Privet rootstocks are used extensively in the propagation of common lilacs, because budding or grafting can be done durmg the slack season and a marketable plant can be produced in two years. If, however, the privet rootstock is retained, the lilac will suffer from \"graft blight.\" Twenty years ago Chester ( I ), working at the Arnold Arboretum, observed that lrlac grafted on privet made good growth for several years. Symptoms of graft blight were evident, but had little effect until the plants were three to five years old. At that time the leaves became small, brittle, and chlorotic, and plant growthwas retarded. If, however, the privet rootstock is used only as a temporary nurse root, the graft blight does not persist and a healthy plant is produced. By planting the grafts deep the scions of most lilac varieties will strike root and replace the privet rootstock. But too often the deep planting is delayed or is inadequate, so that the privet root survives and injures the lilac in later years. Both the vulgaris lilac and villosa hlac have been used as rootstocks for the common hybrid lilacs. Shoots from the villosa rootstocks can be recognized and removed, but sucker growth from vulgaris rootstocks often cannot be readily differentiated from the grafted variety, and the rootstock growth may replace the grafted scion. There are many advantages in growing the common lilacs on their own roots either by cuttings or by use of a nurse rootstock. There is no danger of graft blight, no possibility of the rootstock replacing the grafted variety, and the 57 ~c\"erinr from the o;vn rooted lilac is the best insurance against the ravages of the lilac borer. On the other hand, the profuse development of suckers from the root produces so many stems that regular pruning is necessary to promote vigorous growth and flowering of the main stems. Several methods of propagation have been developed recently which should be of considerable value in the propagation of the common lilac. The Kerr method of grafting should permit the use of privet and other rootstocks with much less danger of the persistence of the nurse root. This method takes advantage of hormone polarity. The piece root is grafted upside down so that the root promoting hormone is accumulated at the graft union and stimulates rooting of the scion and suppresses growth of the nurse root. This method has been used in the propagation of Arnold Giant forsythia, a variety which is hard to root from cuttings, by Richard Fillmore (2) at the Arnold Arboretum. Another method of lilac propagation which appears to be promising is the use of the'tree lilac as a rootstock or nurse root for the common lilac. The tree lilac, Syringa amurensisja~onica (Maxim.) in Japan grows to be a tree 30 feet tall. Although it is in the subgenus Ligustrina it is compatible m grafting with most species and varieties of the Eusyringa. The seedlings require two season's growth in New England before they are large enough to bud or graft. The tree lilac seedlings have been budded and grafted with various vulgaris varieties, with villosa hybrids, and with hybrids between vulgaris and laciniata. All have made good growth. The average growth of common lilacs budded on tree lilac has been about 18 inches the first year, although occasionally one-year whips have reached a height of nearly four feet. In most cases the bud union is very good with a subsequent slight overgrowth of the tree hlac rootstock. There have been reports that the tree lilac overgrows the common lilac scion (3), but to date the graft unions appear to be perfect in most cases. The white flowered varieties of common lilac budded on tree lilac have shown some evidence of incompatibility as indicated by the swelling of the stem at the bud union. The tree lilac does not sucker from the root, and as a result the budded varieties develop a sturdy tree-like growth. The common lilacs on tree lilac rootstocks make rapid growth the first year, but subsequent grow th is less rapid. A five year old \"Congo\" on tree lilac is less than six feet tall, but the plant is very sturdy. The trunk circumference, six inches above the bud union, is five and one-half inches. This specimen first bloomed in the spring of the fifth year, but others have bloomed in the third year. The villosa varieties on tree lilac usually bloom the second year. While it may be too early to predict the ultimate success of the tree lilac as a rootstock the results to date are most promising. If a tree form of common lilac is not desired, the budded plants can be headed back to produce low lateral branches, or the graft union can be planted deep to force rooting from the scion. The use of the tree lilac as a nurse root would avoid all dangers of graft blight. .58 PLATE XIV \"Mrs. Marshall\" on S. amurensis ja~oniea rootstock. Fig. ~. One year's growth of an F, hybrid of S larixziataX S. x~ulgarie budded on a tree lilac seedling. Many of these Chinensis hybrids make more growth in one year on lilac roots than they make in five years on their own roots. Fig. 3. \"Congo\" budded on tree lilac, flowering at the beginning of the fifth ear. Fig. 4. A Yreeton htbrid lilac budded on tree lilac bloomed the second ear and flowered fully the third year. ' Fig. 1. One-year-old whip of S. xmlgaria The use of tree lilac rootstocks appears to merit trial by commercial propagators. The Arnold Arboretum has a limited amount of seed for distribution to propagators who may be interested in testing the tree lilac as a rootstock for common lilacs. KARI. SAX . REFERENCES 1. Chester, K. S. Graft-blight; a disease of certain understocks in propagation. Jour. Fillmore, R. H. lilac related to the employment of Arn. Arb. 12 : 79-146. 19:31. ' 2. 3. Upside Down Grafting. Horticulture 2; : 15. 1949. 1928. McKelvey, Susan D. The Lilac. The Macmillan Co., New York. 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Killing Woody Plants with Chemicals","article_sequence":10,"start_page":61,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24224","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270b76a.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA I A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 NOVEMBER ~, 1950 I NUMBERS 10-11 KILLING VVOODY PLANTS WITH CHEMICALS FOR work the past conducted reference was seven years, a considerable number of experiments have been at the Arnold Arboretum with chemical weed killers, much of the at the Arboretum's Case Estates in Weston. In 1944, the first made to what is now popularly termed \"?-4-D,\" and since that time many products have appeared on the market. Some kill \"lawn weeds,\" some \"thin carrots,\" some are supposed to kill poison ivy, and several kill \"brush.\" During this period we have tried several dozen different materials, noted their results, and tried to repeat the experiments with as good or better success. Each year recently, some new and better material has been offered, and been tried here. It may be of interest to ARNOLDIA subscribers to learn a little about these experiments, and especially to learn what the results have been being done up to the to present time. In the first place, since many \"selective\" weed killers are available, it is well understand exactly what our problem is here. Primarily it is one of mainte- we are interested in eliminating poison ivy and the many woody weeds that are continuously appearing in our collections and doing it as thoroughly and economically as possible. Secondly, the hand labor around plants (chiefly in the form of hoeing) which eats so deeply into our maintenance budget, must be reduced m order to keep within budgetary limits. V~'itch grass is a constant problem, for it grows around specimen shrubs, is difficult to cut except with hand labor, and takes a great deal of nourishment from young plants. Such weeds must be controlled as economically as possible, without injury to any of the specimen plants in the collections. At the present time, most of these thm~,rs are being done quickly, efficiently and economically, thanks to some of the new er weed killers. The above objectiv es should be kept in mind when ~oin~,r through this progress report. So many materials are available today, each one of which may well have nance, in which 1 f> its own specific use, that the following notes should not be used to condemn any individual material for all purposes. A very few materials have proved themselves to be meritorious for our specific purposes, but in order to have the complete picture of what has been done over a seven-year period, this progress report is offered. Flame Thrower Experiments were first started in 1943 to eradicate poison ivy with the flame thrower, a kerosene burning torch in which the kerosene vapor (under pressure) is ignited, giving a flame several feet long with a killing temperature of 2000F. The above-ground parts of this poison ivy were old and woody and it took considerable time on the part of the operator to \"burn them off.\" The operator is frequently in the smoke of the poison ivy, and if he is susceptible, he is often poisoned from the fumes. As a result of this burning, the poison ivy frequently re-sprouted, either the same season or in succeeding seasons, due to the inability of the torch to completely kill the plant below the ground. In later years, much was claimed for controlling weeds in field crops by \"sizz\" burners, in which a flame of high heat intensity was quickly passed over annual weeds. If they were tall, it was recommended to go over them in the morning and a second time in the afternoon. This was tried for killing the grass and weeds around the large lilacs in our lilac collection. On May 9, 1947, above-ground parts of the grasses and weeds were killed, but were reappearing from the roots on May 29. They were green again by June 13 and were almost normal grass by July 19. Another time this method was tried around the lilacs, searing the grass foliage twice the same day, but the grass eventually came up from the roots again the same season. Killing poison ivy and tmtch grass by use of a flame gun was not satisdid it give a complete kill. It was costly in that it took a considerable amount of the operator's time, and dangerous in the case of an operator susceptible to poison ivy poisoning. This type of vigorously growing material is quite different from the small annual weeds in field crops which can be killed by recommended \"siiz\" burners. Results: factory, nor Sodium Arsenite and Sodium Chlorate Both chemicals were used in 19~.3 and succeeding years at rates recommended by the manufacturers for the specific weed killers. (Sodium chlorate at the rate of ~to 12lbs. per gallon of water, and sodium arsenite, in a form then commercially available, at 4 gallons to .;0 gallons of water.) It was the sodium arsenite that brought home to us the importance of killing annual weeds with sprays, for we found that the materials, plus the labor of applying them to our shmb collection, cost about ~75.00, whereas the labor cost for one hoeing alone (in 1941~) was ~355.00. However, sodium arsenite is highly poisonous to the operator and to animal life. 62 Results: In 1945, these materials were compared with the then-new \"2-4-D\" for the purpose of killing broad-leaved, herbaceous weeds in grass plots, and \"?-4-D\" was apparently just as effective. In addition, and as mentioned before, sodium arsenite is poisonous to human beings and animals. Sodium chlorite dries after application, and a serious fire hazard results in areas where it has been used. Borax This material has been recommended for killing poison ivy and was used in at the rate of ~ lb. per square yard. It can be used either in powder form or in solution. It is easier to merely broadcast it in powder form, but it must be washed in by a rain. We applied it on June 2, 1949, and it did not start to kill the poison ivy until July 8, 1949 (due to lack of rain), but by July 28, 1949, after good rains, the poison ivy was completely killed and remained so the succeeding year as well. Incidentally, this was in continuous shade in the woods, one of the most difficult places to eradicate poison ivy. Nevertheless, the use of this material in this fashion would unquestionably be a serious hazard to any tree roots in the area. Results: A complete kill of poison ivy was obtained. For small areas in home gardens this might prove satisfactory, for it is easy to apply and does not take extra equipment. However, nothing else grew in the soil so treated for a year afterwards. It would be rather difficult and expensive to apply it this way on a large scale-the cost would be nearly five times that of \"Ammate.\" 1949, being applied Kerosene This cheap oil has been used as a grass killer, especially in edging flower beds. It is effective, kills the lawn grasses completely (the grass is apparently dead an hour after application), is not a fire hazard after drying since it is volatile, but it is inflammable while in use. It costs less than \"Ammate\" (which kills grass), but considerably more than Dow's \"Brush Killer\" (which does not kill grass). Soil used after four light applications of kerosene, germinated beets, carrots, lettuce and radishes at once, with no injury whatsoever. \"Ammate\" Sodium sulfamate (popularly termed \":lmmate\"~ was in use several years prior 1945, when we first used \"2-4-D.\" It was at first recommended only for poison ivy eradication. Many experiments have been conducted with this material at the Arnold Arboretum, but we will mention just those during 1949 and 19~0, when \"Ammate\" was being compared with Dow's \"Brush Killer.\" Applied on June `?, 1949 (at the rate of 1 lb. per gallon of water), to poison ivy growing in continual shade, the plants were apparently dead by June 16, 1949, and no shoots came up from this spot in 19.50. During some of our experiments with grasses, it was found that \"Ammate\" did not always kill grass completely, but to 63 grass 18~~ tall, it completely killed the grass in four sprouted the rest of the season. Mr. R. G. Williams, Superintendent of the Arboretum, noticing that the material does not adhere well to waxyleaved weeds, has been using O. E. Link's \"W.A.\" as a wetting agent, with apparently much better results. Blueberries and young peaches have easily been killed merely by the application of this \"Ammate\" spray to the soil about their roots, and not to their foliage. The time of application to plants in general seems to make little difference, since witch grass has been completely killed (at Rhode Island State College) when applications have been made from July1 to October 1. Applied on June 9, 1950, to the young suckers around lilacs (and also in 194 i ), the suckers hit by the spray were killed, but the untouched parts of the plant were not affected in any way, either then or later. Sprayed against the trunk of a large lilac, no injury was observed to any portions of the plant above the point of application. Results : Sodium sulfamate has proved to be an efficient killer of woody weeds. There is no fire or explosion hazard in its use. Most important, we have found no \"drift\" injury to other plants. So often, with \"`?-4-D\" and similar materials, regardless of how careful the operators are, there is a drift to nearby plants that results in severe injury. \"Ammate\" does not kill members of the genus Rubus in the shade more than about 75010, and Fraxinus only about 50 to i~~o. We have used it to kill standing trees, by notching around the trunk and thoroughly soaking the cut surfaces with a solution of 4 lbs. of \"Ammate\" in 1 gallon of water. Smaller tree stumps (6\") have been notched with a \"V\" cut in the stump after the tree was cut down, and a tablespoon of \"Ammate\" crystals put in to prevent the stump from re-sprouting. However, \"Ammate\" is corrosive to pump parts, causing abnormal rusting of iron or steel and the electrolytic reaction on brass which makes it break easily. Some of the plants (none over 8~ in height) we have killed with one application of \"Ammate\" spray prior to July 15 are: B in one experiment with witch none days, and Aronia arbutifolia Berberis vulgaris Castanea dentata Pinus strobus Prunus serotina Prunus virginiana Quercus alba Quercus rubra Rhus glabra typhina \" , Sambucus canadensis Vaccinium \" angustifolium corymbosum Vitis labrusca In a woodland of cut white and red oaks with 3 to 1 ~?~~ stumps, most of which had 3' suckers by June 5, 1950, we sprayed once with \"Ammate\" to thoroughly cover these suckers, almost completely killing them. Caution: See note page 70. 64 Sovasol #~5 \"Stoddard's Solvent ~~,\" \"Mineral Spirits,'' and \"Sun \"Sovasol'' is a naphtha-type petroleum product used in industry as a Spirits,\" paint thinner, a solvent, and for dry cleaning clothes. It is inflammable but not explosive, and has been sprayed for several years on carrot seedlings to thin them Also known as seedlings. It evaporates rapidly, is relaand will not plug or corrode spraying equiptively beings, ment, although rubber and leather washers as well as pump fixtures will disintegrate after a period of use with this material. As a selective weed killer for carrots it has been used considerably, and is recommended widely for killing herbaceous weed seedlings. It has been shown that plants like Juni~erus virginiana, spruce and hemlock are highly resistant to injury from it (~f small amounts reach the foliage), but that Taxus is very susceptible to injury from this material. It has been used at the Arnold Arboretum regularly for three years now, to kill small herbaceous weed plants in the shrub collection. As a brush killer, it was tried on June 9, 1950, on poison ivy in sun and shade, Rubus, Sambucus canadensi.s, ,9cer rubrum and Prunus virginiunu. Results : When applied at full strength on the above plants, foliage was killed within an hour, but most of the plants were growmg remarkably well again by July 1, 19b0. Even ragweed and morning-glory started growth after treatment. The spray did not kill poison ivy, some of which still grew well two weeks after being treated. Since \"Sovasol\" is highly volatile, the soil hit by the spray was not affected, and seeds of lettuce, beets, and radishes germinated and grew in the upper half inch of loam a few days after application. Applied to witch grass 18~~ tall on June 9, 19.i0, the tops were lc~lled within an hour, but the grass was growing vigorously again from the roots by July 9, 19;i0. Applied to lilac suckers around a huge plant, it killed the suckers to which it was applied and was not absorbed in sufficient quantity by the larger stems to cause injury to them. Sprayed on the trunk of a lilac, it did not injure the foliage above the spot of as well as to kill the weeds among the non-toxic to human application. Considering that it is as costly as sodium sulfamate (on a sprayed it is not nearly as good a killer of woody plant weeds or witch grass. nial grasses and woody weeds are killed to the ground only. Small weeds are killed quickly, and for this purpose ~t has merit. area basis), The perenherbaceous (2-4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid) We have been experimenting with this material since the spring of 1 S5, only few months after its plant-killing properties became known. Erratic results have been obtained from the first, especially when the material was used in the shade. When sprayed on suckers (about 3~ tall) of a large lilac bush, the suckers a 6.5 in full sunlight on were killed-those in the shade were not. Sometimes it proved not effective poison ivy, yet frequently, when applied in the shade, it was in several forms, and widely advertised under various trade names. We have used Dow Chemical Company's \"Esteron 44\" (which is the isopropylester of \"2-4-D\") with some success. Results: Because of superior results with Dow's \"Brush Killer,\" \"Ammate\" and \"T.C.A.,\" no detailed experiments with 2-4-D\" will be discussed. Both the salts and esters have been tried. As a killer of broad-leaved, herbaceous weeds in the lawn, \"2-4-D\" in one or more of its several forms may have its place, but in view of many experiments which we have carried out, it is not (alone) a dependable killer of miscellaneous woody plants. Among poison ivy plots receiving five different treatments in 1949, only those treated with \"2-4-D\" produced new growth eight weeks after application. \"2-4-D\" was applied at the direction of the manufacturer. Time and again it has produced very poor kills on Fraxinus americana, Acer rubrum, Rubus species and poison ivy, especially in the thoroughly effective. It has been produced shade. In one experiment it was applied to weeds along plant rows in our Weston nurseries. Broad-leaved weeds were killed (they were only a few inches tall), but of course the witch grass and the crab grass were not. At the end of the summer, plots treated with kerosene were devoid of all weeds and grass, while those sprayed at the same time with \"2-4-D\" had no broad-leaved weeds, but were thickly covered with crab grass `?~ tall. Dow's \"Brush Killer\" (Being a mixture, half and half, of the isopropyl and the isopropyl ester of 2-4-5 ester of \"2-4-D\" trichlorophenoxyacetic acid) In the spring of 1947, chemists of the Dow Chemical Company were experimenting with \"2-4-5-T,\" and found it gave a better kill for certain specific weeds like blackberry, raspberry and dewberry, than did \"1-4-D.\" Shortly after, it was found that a mixture of the two were even more effective, and in 1949 we were experimenting with this combination. The esters of these acids seem to be more soluble in the wax of the leaf epidermis than are the salts, possibly one of the reasons why Dow's \"Brush Killer\" is more effective, especially rainy weather. As a dormant spray, 2 pints of \"Brush Killer\" were mixed in 10 gallons of kerosene and sprayed on brush March 25, 1949. The brush was not over 4~ tall, but it included poison ivy, ash, red and sugar maple, blackberry, raspberry, dewberry and gray birch. All this brush failed to grow in the spring of 1949, and it was apparently completely k~lled. Brush in ground immediately adjacent, in and not sprayed, grew vigorously. In extensive spraying operations with \"Brush Killer\" during 66 1950 at our Case Estates in Weston, many plants were killed, most of them apparently within two days after spraying. Poison ivy was entirely killed where it grew in the shade, with one spray applied June 2, 19-t9, and in another plot, on June 2, 1930. Even Polygonum cuspidalum, a vicious weed once it is established, was killed when sprayed June 9, 1950. Other woody plants killed in the 1950 experiments were American ash, red and white oak, red maple, American linden, gray and paper birch, black cherry, willow, smooth and staghorn sumac, elderberry, meadowsweet, Virginia rose and brambles. Of these, the only plant in our experiments which showed much resistance was the American ash. Results: Dow's \"Brush Killer,\" applied at recommended strengths, is an effective woody plant killer. It has killed most of the actively-growing brush on which we have sprayed it-brush seldom over 6-8' tall, and usually much smaller. When applied on a sunny day, the usual affect is a drooping of the leaves a few hours after application. It must be particularly noted that all applications were made on suckers that were growing vigorously. The one serious danger in using \"Brush K~ller\" results from \"drift,\" for, if applied on a windy day, the spray can be easily blown some distance and can severely injure plants. In fact, the odor of \"Brush Killer\" is noticeable in the vicinity days or even weeks after application, and I am inclined to believe that the very small amount in the atmosphere (as evidenced by that odor), can injure overly susceptible plants. Because of this feature, care must be taken when using it near valuable plants, if it is known in advance that they are susceptible. A list of plants (not over 6-8' tall) that were killed with Dow's \"Brush Killer\" follows : especially Acer negundo rubrum saccharum Amelanchier canadensis Aronia arbutifolia Berberis vulgaris Hicoria ovata Malus sdlg. of many species Parthenocissus quinquefolia Yolygonum cuspidatum Populus tremuloides Prunus serotina . Betula papyrifera populifolia \" virginiana Quercus alba Quercus alba rubra Rhus - several species Robinia hispida 6 Bocconia cordata Carya ovata Castanea dentata Cornus florida \" pseudoacacia racemosa Crataegus - many species Fagus grandifolia Fraxinus americana (but some resist- ant) Rosa virginiana Rubus species Salix species Sambucus canadensis Sassafras albidum 67: Solanum dulcamara Vaccinium Spiraea tomentosa angust~folmm laevifolium corymbosum Tilia americana Ulmus americana Vitis species \"T. C. A.\" The sodium salt of trichloroacetic acid (popularly termed \"T. C. A.\" in the is much easier and safer to use than the acid itself. It was first suggested a few years ago as a weed killer, and has been available for this purpose since 1949. First experiments in the Arnold Arboretum were undertaken in 1949 when 60% \"T. C. A.\" was used at the rate of 1 lb. per gallon of water and sprinkled on weeds and witch grass in several places at the Case Estates in Weston, as well as between the vines along the Arborway wall in the Arboretum. Applications were made in some areas July 1, 1949, and in others September 1, 1949. In all instances the grass (witch grass, Kentucky Blue, Red top, Orchard grass and Timothy) was brown and dead the next day, and no perennial grasses have come up in these treated plots for a year. A few annual weeds have grown, but they undoubtedly have seeded-in since the original spraying was done. Unlike the chlorates or arsenites, there is no long-term soil sterilization, since soil can be taken sixty to ninety days after \"T. C. A.\" is applied, and seeds of vegetables can be quickly and normally germinated. On May 5, 1950, i0,o \"T. C. A.\" was applied (1 1b. dissolved in1 gallon of water) to witch grass growing beneath overhanging branches of Yrunus maritima plants about .i~ tall. The grass was completely killed in three days. No damage to the plants was noted until June 13, when some of the leaves began to turn color, dry up and fall off. One or two bushes were apparently killed. Several sent out a new set of leaves by July 7, 1950. Absolutely no \"drift\" hit the branches. The same treatment was given witch grass under Malu.s sikkimensis plants about fi~ tall. Here again the grass was killed at once and although the trees showed no apparent injury they failed to grow any more for the rest of the trade) season. \"T. C. A.\" (TO%, 1 lb. per gallon of water) sprayed on lilac suckers 3~ tall, quickly killed the suckers. Within two weeks the tops of the original 1 ~?~ plants were dying. No \"<lrift\" reached them. Apparently the material was translocated from the injured suckers to the tops of the plants. The material also was sprayed on lilac trunks, wetting the bark, but no injury to the tops occurred within three months' time. Rubus was not entirely killed in the shade (only about 9~~o kill was obtained), but in the sun nearly perfect kill was obtained. Results: Nearly complete kill on everything in the shade, and excellent kill on all woody weeds in the sun was obtained by using \"T. C. A. \" in this strength. Others have stated that the sterilizing effects in the soil last only sixty to ninety fi H days, depending upon the type of soil and the amount of moisture m it. Because of its action on Prunus maritima, when the material did not touch the plant foliage, and on lilacs, when it was apparently sprayed only on the foliage of suckers and then translocated to the tops of 1 ~1~ stalks at least 6~ away from the point of application, it would seem that this is a dangerous material to use in the vicinity of valuable woody plants. It is the most expensive of the materials here discussed (figured on an area-of-application basis). It is caustic to the skm ~f left on for a period, but is not seriously poisonous. Hop Mulch As A Weed Preventative been used in the Arnold Arboretum since 1946. This is the have found for suppressing weeds around plants, while at the same time it acts as a mulch that is resistant to fire. Many mulches burn readily and are impractical in a public place such as the Arboretum where the danger of fire among valuable plants is a very real one. Applied as a4 to 6\" mulch around plants, hops are merely stirred every month or so with a fork, if weeds grow through them. There have been examples in the Arboretum where this was not necessary until the second year after application. They are very acid, and probably should not be applied to lime-loving plants. We apply them to plants directly as they come from the brewery. The only precaution taken is to keep them 6\" away from the trunks or bark of plant shoots, for, on hot days, the temperature of these wet hops can easily be raised to such a high point that they may kill any living plant tissue with which they come m contact. Spent hops have we best material SUMMARY per DuPont's \"Ammate\" has proved successful (used at the rate of one pound gallon of water) for killing brush, broad-leaved herbaceous weeds, grass and poison ivy. in '`Brush Killer\" (half \"~1-4-D\" and half \"?--t-3-1\"') has proved effective killing brush under 6 to 8~ in height in one treatment, when applied while the plants are still in active growth at the rate of three quarts per one hundred galDow's proved effective in killing brush, poison ivy and grass application. \"Ammate\" does kill grass as does \"'I'. C. A.\" \"Brush Killer\" does not. The latter is only one half as expensive (estimated on area-covered basis) as \"Ammate,\" which in turn is only one half as expensive as \"T. C. A.,\" can be slightly dangerous and can cause some skin irritation to the operator if it gets on the hands, face, or in the eyes. The mist or drift of \"Brush Killer\" can cause injury to other plants some distance away, unless properly applied on a quiet day. Poison ivy in sun or shade can be killed by all three materials if applied during the active growmg season. Sometimes a second application ~s necessary late in one lons of water. Dow's T. C. A.\" has 69 in the an summer. We have completely eradicated large areas in this way, but from economic point of view, \"Brush Killer\" is cheapest. about the same as \"Ammate\") is excellent for spraying on few inches high), quickly killing them to the ground within a few hours. Small weeds are entirely killed-grass is killed only to the ground. Brush is slightly injured and very poor killing results have been obtained on poison ivy. Because of \"Sovasol's\" rapid action, the work of the operator can be quickly checked. This material is highly volatile, and the drift is not seriously troublesome to plants in most cases. T. C. A.\" can be highly destructive to plants, especially when merely sprayed on the grass under spreading branches. It is apparently quickly absorbed by the roots of plants and may damage tall lilacs, for instance, when it has only been sprayed on a few surrounding suckers. \"Brush Killer\" and \"Sovasol\" are not as destructive when used in this manner, although there is always the danger of injuring valuable plants when such spraying is done near them. Present indications are that the transportation of \"2-4-D\" (and also \"2-4-5T\") in plants is similar to that of the translocation of carbohydrates. When plants are more difficult to kill in the shade than in the sun it would seem that in the sun there is greater photosynthetic activity, hence a greater translocation of carbohydrates. In the shade, there is less photosynthetic activity and less translocation of carbohydrates, hence less movement of \"2-4-D,\" resulting in less effective killing. In hot, dry spells during the summer months, the translocation of carbohydrates toward the storage organs may be at a minimum in certain plants, hence killing plants with \"`?-4-D\" at this time has not been as complete as it has been earlier, when the translocation of carbohydrates from the leaves to the roots was more pronounced. To summarize, Dow's \"Brush Killer\" is the cheapest material for eradicating most types of brush (under 6 to 8' tall) when applied before the end of the growing season, or about mid-June. However, there is always the danger of drift injury to other plants. \"Brush Killer\" will not kill grass. DuPont's \"Ammate\" will also kill brush and poison ivy as well as witch grass. There is little drift mjury, action is often quicker than with \"Brush Killer,\" but * the cost is twice as much.* Dow's \"T. C. A.\" is also an effective killer of brush, poison ivy and witch grass, is slightly dangerous to the operator and costs (at present) four times as much as \"Brush Killer. \" It should be kept away from the roots of valuable specimens. Other materials which we have used for eradicating brush and poison ivy (including sodium arsenite, sodium chlorate, \"2-4-D\" used alone, borax, kerosene, burning, etc.) are not as practical nor as effective as the above materials. grass and young herbaceous weeds \"Sovasol\" (costing (a *Note: One serious effect of \"Ammate\" ivy was experiments. The foliage of poison has just become evident in our 19.50 sprayed under pine trees 6\" in diam- : 70 ] eter, during early summer. The soil was not soaked-merely enough spray was applied to moisten the foliage. Within three weeks all of the foliage on several 3.i~ pine trees was dead. As soon as this was noted, the experiment was repeated, with the same result. The destructive effect on white pines, at least, during a drought period, ~s serious. Hence, \"Animate\" should never be used under pine trees. DONALD WYMAN Note: At the national convention of the American Association of Nurserymen, held this summer in Washington, D.C., Dr. Donald Wyman was presented with the first Norman Jay Colman Award. This commemorates the name of a former prominent nurseryman who was also Secretary of Agriculture (1889~ and is to be given annually to stimulate \"horticultural progress through research.\" The committee selecting the winner was composed of five Experiment Station Directors and was awarded for the research work in ornamental horticulture which went into the preparation of the book SHRUBS AND VINES FOR AMERICAN GARDENS, published in 7949. J _ II "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Dwarf Trees","article_sequence":11,"start_page":73,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24220","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270ab6d.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 NOVEMBER 10, 1950 DWARF TREES NUMBER 12 a greater demand for dwarf be grown in a limited space. Dwarf fruit trees have long been grown in the home gardens of Western Europe, and dwarf ornamental trees are a characteristic feature of Japanese gardens. Dwarf trees have many advantages. For ornamental purposes they are well adapted to the small garden where space is not adequate for standard sized trees. For the home orchard dwarf trees require less space, they are easier to spray and prune, and several varieties will THE growing trees which interest in horticulture has led to can provide enough fruit throughout the season for the average family. There are many ways of producing dwarf trees. Trees grown in pots can be restricted in root development and with some judicious pruning can be restricted to a few feet in height even when they are more than a hundred years old. An excellent collection of these Japanese dwarf trees was given to the Arnold Arboretum by the late Mrs. Larz Anderson, and are on display in a lath house near the Arboretum greenhouses. Occasionally dwarf trees are obtained by mutation or by genetic segregation. The dwarf conifers are good examples of \"sports\" derived from standard trees by mutation. An excellent collection of these dwarf conifers may be seen in the Arboretum collection. Such mutants can be perpetuated by grafts or cuttings. Species hybrids often produce dwarf segregates. One such segregate is a dwarf forsythia with leaves only an inch long. Among our apple hybrids there ~s one tree which at the age of ten years is less than five feet tall, with a compact, almost globular form. The dwarfing of fruit trees by grafting on appropriate rootstocks has long been known in Europe. Graves (1), in a recent review of the art of grafting, has shown that the techniques were well known and practiced in the sixteenth century. Bradley (2), in 1 i \"6, not only refers to dwarfing stocks for apples and pears, but describes upside down grafts. Horticulturists in England have re- '~3 standardized the clonal stocks for apples, and these are referred to as 44 Malling\" stocks. The most dwarfing rootstock is \"Malling #9,\" but the root system is weak and the grafted tree must be staked. \"Malling #7\" makes a better root system, but is only semi-dwarfing. The Malling rootstocks are propagated by layering-an expensive processbecause most apple varieties do not come true from seed. We have found, however, that many of the Asiatic species of apple do breed true from seed, and we are testing these as rootstocks for both ornamental crabs and commercial varieties. Malus sikkimensis seems to be a good semi-dwarfing rootstock. \"McIntosh\" budded on M. sikkimensis seedlings have produced semi-dwarf spreading trees. A 10year \" McIntosh \" is shown in Figure 1, which bore more than 250 apples last summer. The rootstock causes the low spreading growth habit. The graft union is excellent with some overgrowth of the rootstock characteristic of dwarfing rootstocks (Figure 2). Malus ,florentina, a species from north Italy, is too dwarfing and a three-year old \"McIntosh\" budded on this rootstock is only about 2 feet tall. The Sargent Crab seems to be a good dwarfing stock, but different varieties vary greatly in growth when budded on Malus sargenti. Another method of modifying the growth of apple trees is by upside down budding or grafting. More than 25 years ago I budded one-year apple whips, placing the buds where the permanent branches were wanted, but the buds were inserted upside down. This work has been repeated and a photograph of such a tree is shown in Figure 3. The buds start growing towards the ground, and the branches gradually grow upward to form a spreading tree with unbreakable crotches. In pears such flattened trees bear earlier. In parts of Europe and California the branches of young pear trees are often tied down in a nearly horizontal position in order to flatten the tree and make it bear earlier. A \"Clapp's Favorite\" pear on the Bussey grounds has been treated in this manner with very cently satisfactory results. Another process is based upon the transfer of plant hormones. The plant horproduced by the leaves and growing points pass down the phloem of the bark and stimulate root growth. The passage of the hormone in the phloem is in only one direction. If a complete ring of bark is removed from the trunk of the young tree and turned upside down, the plant hormone is checked and a swelling occurs at the point of bark reversal. As a result the hormone does not get to the roots in normal amounts and growth of the tree is retarded. The tree shown in Figure 4 had a section of bark inverted three years ago. Bradley, in 1726, described a method of grafting which we have repeated with some mod~ficat~on. The tops of two seedling pears growing about 18 inches apart in the nursery row were brought together. A graft was made so that the stems formed an arch. According to Bradley, if the roots of one of the two seedlings are dug up and the seedling staked upright so that it stands inverted on the stem of the other seedling, the roots in the air wll form leaves and flowers. We do mones 74 PLATE XV not expect such results, but we have inserted a \"Clapp's Favorite\" bud upside down a few inches beyond the graft. Next spring the seedlings will be cut off just below the inserted bud. As a result we shall have a normal pear seedling with an upside down section of the second seedling, and on top of this the bud which is to form the new tree. The inverted stem section should exert a dwarfing effect. In the upside down bark and stem grafts it is possible that the new cells may eventually become reoriented to provide normal polarity. In such case the dwarfing effect would be temporary. Many species of apples, pears, hawthorns, and other Pomoideae have been intergrafted to find dwarfing stocks. A promising dwarfing stock for pears is Cotoneaster multiflora, although not all cultivated pears grow well on Cotoneaster. Quince rootstocks of specific clonal lines are commonly used for dwarfing pears, but since all pear varieties will not grow on quince, double working is often necessary, as is the case with Cotoneaster. The Cotoneaster root system makes ~t difficult to transplant the grafted pear, so we now bud Cotoneaster on either wild pear or on hawthorn and double work with cultivated pear. Thus we have a seedling pear or hawthorn root, an intermediate stem of Cotoneaster, and a pear top. The intermediate stem piece acts as a dwarfing stock. One of the most interesting combinations is .4rorria arbut~'olia budded on hawthorn rootstock. There is considerable overgrowth of the Crntaegns pedicellata rootstock, but the Aronia top is healthy and fruited abundantly in its third year. The tree form is much more attractive than the usual bush type (Figure 8). Graft combinations of various Prunus species have shown some interesting results. Peaches and plums budded on Prunus tomentosa seedling rootstocks produce dwarfed trees which bear early. All varieties of peaches and plums do not make compatible unions with the Nanking Cherry rootstock. Most peaches budded on P. tomentosa produce trees about two to nearly three feet tall the first year. The second year most of them flower and occasionally fruits are produced. A twoyear old tree of Jersey land\" peach bore eleven full-sized peaches the second year after budding, and the peaches were ripe before August 1 in 1949 (Figure 5). This summer a four-year old \" Valencia \" peach on P. tomenlosa stock bore 84 peaches on a tree about six feet tall. Prunus tomentosa is also a good rootstock for plums and a three-year old \"Stanley\" plum tree flowered heavily and bore a few fruits this summer, although the tree was little more than three feet tall (Figure 6). Prunus triloba multiplex budded on P. tomentosa produced a tree growth habit, although both stock and scion species commonly grow as a spreading bush. The tree form is most attractive and the plant bloomed profusely the second year. A picture of this graft at the age of three years is shown in Figure 7. Beach plums have also been grown on P. tomentosa. Seedlings or cuttings of beach plums are often difficult to transplant and it is hoped that by budding on the Nanking Cherry, with its more fibrous root system, the peach plum can be _ ~a ~] PLATE XVI transplanted more readily. There is some dwarfing effect of the P. tomenlosa rootstock, but the beach plums are still too young to be sure of ultimate success. Peaches and plums are dwarfed even more when budded on Prunus glandulosa, but this rootstock suckers badly from the root and the suckers have to be pruned back for several years. In spite of this difficulty, P. glnndulosa may prove to be a better rootstock than P. tomentosa because of better compatibility with more varieties of peach and plum, and a somewhat greater dwarfing effect. It is hoped that eventually we shall be able to produce dwarf apples, pears, peaches and plums, as well as dwarf ornamental trees and shrubs, on seedling rootstocks which will induce the desired degree of dwarfing. Most people prefer trees which are small and can be cared for by the home gardener. Although our work with seedling dwarfing stocks is still in the early stages of development, many horticulturists may be interested in the project, and all are invited to visit our test plots at the Bussey Institution adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum. KARL SAX ~ 1. Graves, George. Double working, the Hort. Mag. 29: 118-12I. 1950. Bradley, R. A general treatise of art of setting graft upon graft. Nat. 2. husbandry and gardening. London 1726. ,8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Description of Photographs","article_sequence":12,"start_page":79,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24219","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270a76a.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"DESCRIYTION OF PHOTOGRAPHS Fig. Fig. Fig. 1. \"McIntosh\" budded on Msikkimensis, 10 years old. dwarfing should be of value to the commercial grower. This degree of 2. Graft union of above tree. Note 3. Two year overgrowth of rootstock. inserted old \"Golden Delicious\" with branches developing from buds upside down the previous summer. Fig. 4. An ornamental crab of bark near apple which has been dwarfed the base of the trunk. on by inverting a ring Fig. 5. Two year tree 3 feet tall. 6. Three year old old \"Jerseyland\" peach \"Stanley\" plum on on P. tomentosa bearing 11 fruits on Fig. P. tomentosa. Fig. 7. Prunus triloba multiplex Prunus tomentosa. Three years old. Fig. 8. Aronia arbutifolia on Crataegus pedicellata. This little tree was covered with fruit at the age of four years. Note great overgrowth of hawthorn rootstock. All of these photographs at the photographer were taken Arnold Arboretum. by Dfr. Heman Howard, staff 79 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fruiting Habits of Certain Ornamental Plants","article_sequence":13,"start_page":81,"end_page":85,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24222","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270b326.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 10 DECEMBEIt 8, 1950 5 NUMBER 13 FRUITING HABITS OF CERTAIN ORNAMENTAL PLANTS are many species of plants with flowers dioecious, their flowering unnoticed except in botanical texts. However, some of these plants are valued highly for their very ornamental fruit. Taxus, Celnstrus, Lindera, Nemopnnlhns, Ile.r, Ailanthus, Yhellodendron and Morus are only a few of the genera included in a lengthy list. Experiments were started in 1946 with some of these in an attempt to determine which were parthenocarpic, whether wind or insect fertilization is necessary and the most diflicult of all - how far removed a pollen source can be and still effectively pollinize pistillate plants. Theoretically this the distance of the normal flight of bees. Answers might be three miles or less for all these questions on all species in the trials are not available and will not be for some time. It has been known for some time that the bright red fleshy fruits of 1\/e,c corntcta will develop without fertilization. Numerous reports have been made about Ile.r opaca, to the effect that certain trees have been known to bear fruit \"without a male plant for at least a mile\" from the pistillate plant in question. Zimmerman and Hitchcock of the Boyce Thompson Institute have reported that they have mvestigated many such plants and examined thousands of other plants, and failed to find a single plant with perfect flowers. I have been interested in other species, merely to ascertain whether they would produce ornamental fruits without fertilization, and to determine whether the pollen of certain species was carried chiefly by wind or insects. Bagging experiments were started in 19~.i, and repeated in 1948 and 19t9. Paper bags of the type used in corn pollination studies were used, and in 1949 many fine mesh cloth bags were tied on the branches of certain species to determine which might be wind pollinated as well as insect pollinated. At least a dozen bags were used on each plant, and usually the pistillate plant was growing in the near vicinity (less than twenty feet) from the male plant. The exact time THERE lrabits - 81 of bloom of all these plants was in the records at the Arnold Arboretum, so that the time of placing the bags before the flowers opened was not difficult. In many cases it was found, as would be expected, that the fruits of the plants in the paper bags started to form but dropped off prematurely. In the case of Baccharis halimifolia (which is of ornamental value because of the prominent thistle-like pistils of the pistillate plant) it made no difference whether or not the flowers received pollen as far as the initial appearance of the pistillate flowers was concerned, but the pistils of the fertilized flowers remained on the plant and were conspicuous for about twelve weeks longer than those not fertilized. In this case at least, the pistillate plant is the only one worth propagating as an ornamental for a short-time display (about six weeks) but for a longer display, fertilization is necessary. In the case of Cotinus coggygria, which is ornamental because of the wavy pedicels of the sterile flowers, of which there are many on certain clones, it made no difference whether the flowers received pollen or not. Hence staminate plants in this species are of little ornamental use. The following plants were bagged with paper and cloth bags with the following results : FRUIT DEVELOPMENT Time qf ?'!meQ\/' Name qf Plant Ailanthus altissima Celastrus orbiculata bagging Paper bags none Fine Mesh Cloth normal Bags (~0 openings per inch) normal C3x#& ; 5\/25~49 6\/1~47 6\/4\/48 6\/5\/49 none ' Celastrus scandens 6\/1 ~47 6\/4\/48 6\/5\/\/49 6\/4\/ 47 5\/6\/49 6\/5\/47 none normal ~o C3x#& ; < Chionanthus retusa* normal normal Chionanthus virginica Ilex none not done laevigata 6\/1~47 6\/5\/48 6\/4j 47 6\/5\/48 5\/~5\/49 82 normal C3x#& ; normal C3x#& ; Ilex verticillata none ~a3#& x C; not done C3x#& ; C3x#& ; Ilex yunnanensis s\/4\/~7 s\/1; 49 S\/28\/49 5\/1\/47 5\/2%48 none none Lindera benzoin Morus alba :llorus tatarica none not done normal normal none not done not done Nemopanthus mucronata 4\/10\/47 4\/ 15~`49 normal \" Phellodendron amurense 5\/15\/47 5\/16\/49 5\/6\/49 none 4 normal \" t Phellodendron lavallei Phellodendron sachalinense Taxus none normal normal normal 5\/16\/49 3~Z0\/47 311fo\/47 3\/15\/48 ~\/24~49 none cuspidata none * These flowers appeared $ Apparently no source polygamodioecious. of suitable pollen close by since this plant to be has not borne - fruits for years. The interesting points shown above are that in the clones used of Chionanthus retusa, Morus alba, Morus latarica, and Ilex laevigata, staminate plants and outside pollen are not necessary for the production of ornamental bright-colored, fleshy fruits-a rather important observation from the standpoint of the gardener as well as the commercial grower. As might be expected, all of these plants can be wind pollinated. a trade-marked hormone powder including naphthalene acetic acid was dusted on the open flowers of some of the bagged plants, namely Ilex verticillata, Ilex yunnanensis, Celastrus orbicvrlata and C. scandens, and Ilex montana. In only one case, that of Ile.r montana, was it successful as a producer of fruits as noted in the table below. \"Fruitone,'' Bag No. l No. 3 No. 8 o No. 1 3 No. 13 L~o. qf,~oze~er.s treated 15 55 u~ith,f~nitone l~o, qf frrtit.r pralv~ed 11 I 1 11 30 6 5? 15 ~n 2 3 4 7 83 Ilex yunnanensis has special merit as an ornamental because it has evergreen leaves somewhat the size and shape of Buxus sempervirens, and the pistillate plant has bright red fruits about the size of those of Ilex verticillata. ~'e finally have been able to obtain a staminate plant from England. It is interesting to note that in 1947 when the pollen of this plant was first used, the flowers so pollinated were the only ones to produce fruits even though the pollen of I. verticillata, I. montana and I. opaca were used. Again in 19~.9, when branches from the staminate plant were merely laid in the pistillate plant at the time the flowers were in full bloom, the only flowers on the eight-foot pistillate plant to produce fruits were those in the very close vicinity of these pollen-bearing branches. The peculiarities of Celastrus species are bemg studied more closely. Propagations were started in 194~?, from plants of known sex growing in the Arnold Arboretum. These were grown for several years and then planted out in several combinations. Pistillate plants of C.,flagellaris, C. orbiculata and C. scandens were planted alone and in combination with male plants of their own and other species. These plants have been checked from year to year in flower and fruit. Some of the interesting things which have developed to date are as follows : 1. Celastrus orbiculata cuttings (either male or female) will produce flowers the second year, while those of C. scandens will take four to five years to produce flowers, either when grown from cuttings or from seeds. a Entirely pistillate plants of C. orbiculata (when grown in the same hole with pollen-bearing plant of the same species) had good crops of fruit in 1946, 1947, 1948, and 1949, showing that this species can be an annual bearer. 2. 1 application of \"Fruitone\" powder to the open pistillate flowers of Celastrus species enclosed in paper bags did not result in fruits. 3. The 4. the Bagging unopened pistillate flowers with tightly development of mature fruits on all three species. Bagging unopened pistillate flowers per tied paper bags prevented ,i. (40 openings ulata 6. or inch) with cloth bags of very small mesh did not prevent normal fruit formation in either C. orbic- C. scandens in 1949. mesh on Bagging unopened pistillate flowers with cloth bags of very small plants that were at least one hundred feet from the pollen source, did vent normal fruit development in C. orbiculnta. 7. Apparently the pollen of one species is C. orbiculata and C. scandens are concerned. not pre- just as effective as another as far as 84 8. Both species can be budded on the other. easily budded in August, and one species can be easily polygamodioecious clone of C. orbiculnla was found in the Arnold Arbowhich has produced profuse flowers the third and fourth growing seasons. retum, Flowers are produced on short lateral spurs formed during the previous year's growth as well as on longer shoots made the current year. The fruiting performance of this clone has been erratic. In 194 i , sufficient fruits were formed over the entire plant to make it ornamentally acceptable, although in no way was it as profuse as a well grown pistillate plant of the same species growing with a 9. A staminate plant. In 1948, the flower production was profuse, but all the first flowers appearing were staminate. These appeared on the short stubby growths made the previous year. A second crop of flowers was produced a few days later (after the first crop had about fallen) and 10~0 of these were pistillate flowers but the resulting fruit crop was very poor and not of ornamental value. In 1949, flower and fruit production were profuse, making such vines as ornamentally prominent as pistillate vines fertilized from a nearby pollen source. Noticing the activity of insects about Celnstrus flowers when they are open, it is obvious that these are also responsible for a large amount of pollinizing as well as wind currents. The polygamodioecious plants produced poor fruits in 1948, but at present there is no explanation of this. It has been pointed out that C. orbiculafa can be an annual bearer if the pollen-bearing plant is grown in the same hole. Since the Celastrus species are both wind and insect pollmized, weather conditions need not necessarily effect fruiting, providing, of course, staminate and pistillate flowers are fairly close together. In 1948, it rained every day during the flowering period between June 7 and 13 with only 7 % of the possible sunshine and 78 degree days. (U. S. Weather Bureau reports temperature variations in this way for the heating engineers, a degree day being the difference between 65 F. and the mean temperature for the day.) In 19t9 there was no rain during this period, 8.i~o of possible sunshine was available and it was warm, there being only 14 degree days. Two extremes in weather, yet because of wind pollination, fruiting was effective on certain plants both year, even though insect flight in 1948 must have been reduced to a minimum because of cold temperature and rain. 1'h~s is merely a progress report of these experiments to date, but it would seem that from the evidence, commercial growers would stop growing (\"elnstrus indiscriminately from seed. Since they are easily rooted from soft or hardwood cuttings and easily budded, the fruiting of every plant sold could be insured by growing only pistillate plants from cuttmgs and budding on each plant one or two buds of the staminate plant. An adaptation of this could, of course, be used on other dioeeiuuc plants. DONALD ~-S MAN 8:~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume X","article_sequence":14,"start_page":86,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24223","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d270b727.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME X Illustrations are in bold face type Ailanthus 76 Arnold altissima, fruiting, 82 Apples, dwarfing understock for, 73Arboretum, Spring Walk Through, 29-32 Aronia arbutifolia, dwarfing under5 stock, 75 Baccharis halimifolia, fruiting, 82 Bloom, Order of, 41-56 Bottle-grafts, Aspen birch ) Best for fruits, 27, 28 Colored foliage, with, 28 Dual purpose, 28 Parthenogenetic, 75 26 as Crataegus pedicellata Cyrilla Dwarf racemosa, understock, XI, 47 Plate Trees, 73-79 8 Bibliography, 78 trees (left), Paper Dwarfing rootstocks, on, grafted (middle), Red ash (right), - III, 5 Bussey Institution, 2 Cabot, Godfrey L., 1 Cabot Foundation, Forest-Tree Breeding Work of the, 1-8 Cabot Foundation Publication, 39 Celastrus species, fruiting, 82, 84, 85 Cherries, The Better Oriental, 17-24 Pests and Culture, 18 S 18 8 Propagation, Cherry, Fuji, 21 - Higan, 21 8 Mazzard, 18 21 I Miyama, - Naden, 24 Sargent, 17, 20, 21 Weeping, 22 Yoshino, 22 Chionanthus species, fruiting, 82; Cornus florida, dates of bloom, 41, 42 Cotinus coggygria, fruiting, 82 Cotoneaster multiflora, 75 Crab Apples, Best of, 2.5-28 Best for flower, 26, 27 i form, 28 - Plate XV, XVI, 75, 77 i Dwarfing understocks, 73-77 Flowering Shrubs, 29-32, 41-56 Forest-Tree Breeding Work of the Cabot Foundation, 1-8 Forsythias, The, 9-16 Color comparisons of flowers, 13 Dwarf varieties, 12 Introduction into country, 10 Leaf key, 15 Notes on species and varieties, 15, 16 Plate . - - - Pruning, 10, 12 Value, 12-14 Forsythia europaea, l:i S giraldiana, 15 intermedia, 9, 10, 15, 16 densiflora, 13-15 primulina, 13, 15, 16 5 spectabilis, 13- I vitellina, 10 ~5 - japonica, 15 saxatilis, 15, 16 . - - - - - - - - - - - - ovata, 10, 15 - - I - - X europaea, 15 - suspensa, l.i, 16 [ 86 - - - - - Forsythia suspensa atrocaulis, 6 decipiens, 16 6 fortunei, 1 ~, 16 \" fortunei aurea,'' 14 6 pallida, 16 6 pubescens, 16 sieboldi, 10, 16 - 16 6 Malus - florentina, 74 hupehensis, 26 robusta #5, as 26 4 rootstock, 74 1 74 - sargenti - - - sikkimensis, 26, toringoides, 26 tschonoski, 26 Forsythia viridissima; F. suspensa sieboldi; F. europaea; F. ovata, Morus species, fruiting, 83 - - V, Forsythia viridissima, 9, 10, 15 6 bronxensis, 14, 16 16 koreana, 6 \"Arnold Dwarf,\" 16 \"Arnold Giant,\" 16 6 Arnold Arboretum Seedling No. 11 I - Plate Nemopanthus mucronata, fruiting, 83 Order of Bloom, 41-56 6 Peaches, dwarfing understock, 76 Phellodendron species, fruiting, 83 1 Pinus strobus, Platanus occidentalis, 1 orientahs, 1 Plums, dwarfing understock, 75, 76 - ?2i 16, 16 16 6 Poplar, hybrid (left), 1, Aspen, hybrid Spring Glory,\" (right), brid Plate opp. p. 2 Fruiting Habits of Certain Woody .I Plants, 81-8.5 dwarf trees, i 3-7 i Grafting Halesia monticola, Plate XII, 49 Ilex species, fruiting, 81-83 1 cornuta, fruiting, 81 81 1 opaca, fruiting, yunnanensis, fruiting, 83-84 Lilacs, graft blight, 57 rootstocks for, .i I-60 Lindera benzoin, fruiting, 83 Maleic hydrazide, 33-38 B~bliography, 38 - Poplars, Alaskan, Montanan and hy- (above), terminal stems of (below), Plate II, 4 Populus maximowiczi, 1 Propagation, dwarfing understocks, 73-77 6 Bibliography, 76 Lilac rootstocks, 57-60 Rooting woody cuttings, 8 Prunus avium, 18 76 glandulosa, -- 33-38 Maleic hydrazide, effect of, on treated cuttings, Plate IX, opp. p. 4 34 Malling rootstocks, Malus, 25-28 Best for flower, 26, form,28 fruit, 27, 28 Colored foliage, 28 - 4 74 1 -- incisa, 18, 21 I maximowiczi, 21 21 i nipponica, - sargenti, 18, 21 - serrula, 17, 19 (plate), 8 serrulata, 1 7, 18 - 21 - 27 i - - - - - \" Amanogawa,\" 22 \" Botan-zakura,\" 22 \"Fugenzo,\" 20, 24 \"G~-oiko,\" 22 - \" James H. Veitch,\" 22 24 Dual purpose, 28 Parthenogenetic, 26 - - \"Joi-nioi,\" \"Kofugen,\" 24 87 - \"Kwanzan,\" \"Shirotae,\" 14 - - \"Shogetsu,\" 24 \"Taki-nioi,\" 2l \"Ukon,\" 22 \"Washino-o,\" `?4 Prunus serrulata - 20, 24 I Rootstocks for lilacs, ,Bibliography, 60 lilacs, Plate XIV, 59 of, in tree breed6 use Rootstocks for Scaffolds, the ing, Plate IV, Styrax japonica, Plate XIII, 53 - - sieboldi, subhirtella, Taxus cuspidata, fruiting, 83 Understocks for dwarfing trees, 73-77i Viburnum tomentosum mariesi, Plate X, 44 22 - autumnalis, 22 21 - - . - pendula, \"Hally Jolivette,\" __ - \"qoni-jigari,'' 22 - tomentosa, 75, 76 - Weeping willow, leafing dates, 4? Woody cuttings, rooting, 33-38 Woody Plants, Blooming Dates of, 41-56 - - yedoensis, 18, ~~ perpendens, 22 Rooting Woody Cuttings, Woody Plants, 39 sexes separate, Rl-85 88 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23375","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24ea76e.jpg","title":"1950-10","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1950,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24206","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260a727.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Philadelphus lemoinei \"Belle Etoile,\" Plate I, Torch Azalea, Plate opp. p. l. II, p. 5. III, p. 10. D~lalus halliana spontanea, Plate Wisteria sinensis opp. (Left), and Wisteria,floribunda macrobolrys (Right~, Plate IV, opp. p. `14. p. ~1. Wisteria,floribunda macrobotrys, Plate V, Malus pumila niedsze~elskyana Rhododendron var., Plate VI, p. ~7. albrechti, Plate VII, p. 44. opp. p. 46. Sowing seed of Rhododendron calendulaceum, Plate VIII, Beach Prunus Plum, Plate IX, p. jj. maritima, Plate X, p. 61. iii iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sources for a Few New Plants","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24211","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260b727.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 APRIL 8, 1949 NUMBER 1 SOURCES FOR A FEW NEW PLANTS talk and write in glowing terms of some new or unusual quite another thing for would-be owners of such plants to find sources for them among commercial nurserymen. Most nurserymen are continuously looking for something \"new\" with which to embellish their catalogues, but all too often there are restrictions placed about such plant materials. The \"new\" plant must be easily propagated; the individual nurseryman would usually like to be the sole source for such a plant; it must grow quickly and make a sizeable plant in a short time; it must be well known before he will propagate it on a large scale. This last requirement is often the end of many a good plant before it even gets into commercial production, merely because it takes considerable time and money in advertising to create the proper demand. Many a commercial propagating establishment is not equipped to take the risk. Articles and news releases from arboretums and botanical gardens frequently have all the information about such plants, but do not reach a sufficiently wide public to create the desired demand. Consequently, as a result, many a \"new\" plant quickly reverts to the category of being \"rare,\" and there it may stay indefinitely. As a result of glancing through some recent nursery catalogues, I was surprised and pleased to find a number of plants listed which have been recommended in Arnoldia for years. Most of the plants on the following pages (but not all) have been introduced by the Arnold Arboretum, but the commercial nurseries should be given the credit for making them available to the gardening public. It would be impossible to list all the plants which have been so treated in the last ten years, but the following fifty plants have been repeatedly recommended in these pages and are being propagated and offered for sale by nurserymen this year. Of course there are other plants, and other nurserymen offering these same plants as well. The following fifty plants did not appear in nursery catalogues IT is one thing to woody plant, but it is of ten years ago and have been repeatedly recommended in Arnoldia as being good plants for the garden. The twelve nurserymen listed should be given due credit for making these available. Apologies are offered to other nurserymen who may have been propagating these plants during the same period, but whose catalogues have not been examined. This list is being published merely to show that our efforts in trying to popularize new plants are not in vain, and that we appreciate the efforts of these commercial propagators and others who make such good plants available to the public. Nurseries 1. Bobbink & - Atkins, East Rutherford, New Jersey. 2. Cole Nursery Company, Painesville, Ohio. 3. 4. Kelsey-Highlands Nursery, East Boxford, Massachusetts. Kingsville Nurseries, Inc., Kingsville, Maryland. Henry Kohankie & 5. Son, Painesville, Ohio. Center 6. Linn County Nurseries, Point, Iowa. Massachusetts. 7. Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, 8. Siebenthaler 9. 10. 11. Abington, Company, Catalpa Drive, Dayton, Ohio. 4838 Tingle Nursery Company, Pittsville, Maryland. Upton Nursery Company, Spokane Street, Detroit, Michigan. Wayside Gardens, Inc., Mentor, Ohio. Nurseries, Inc., Weston, Massachusetts. \"New\" Plants 12. Weston (available in 1949) (The number refers to the nurseryman offering the plant.) 9 Acer campestre compactum 4 Acer griseum 4, 5 Acer platanoides columnare 8, 12 Acer platanoides erectum 7 5 Acer rubrum columnare ~?, 4, Acer saccharum monumentale 4, Albizzia julibrissin rosea ,i, 9 Berberis koreana 5 Carpinus betulus fastigiata 5 Celastrus flagellaris 4 Cyrilla racemiflora 4 Cytisus purpureus 4 Forsythia intermedia primulina 5, Forsythia ovata 3, 4, 5, 6, 11, 12 Ilex crenata convexa 4, 5, 8, 9, 1 1, 12 5 7 5, Kalopanax pictus 5 Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiatum 5 Magnolia kobus borealis 5 Malus baccata mandshurica z Malus \"Bob White\" 1 Malus dawsoniana 9 Malus \"Gloriosa\" 4, 9 Malus \"Katherine\" 4 Cytisus praecox 2, 4, 12 Z Philadelphus PLATE I lemoinei \"Belle Etoile\" . Malus \"Prince Georges\" 4 Syringa \"Hiawatha\" Syringa \"Isabella\" 5 6 6 Malus purpurea lemoinei 4, 5, 9, 11 1 Malus \"Red Silver\" 4, 12 Parrotia persica 4, 5 Syringa \"Miranda\" Philadelphus \"Atlas\" 4, 8, 111 Philadelphus \"Belle Etoile\" 4, Philadelphus splendens 5 Prinsepia sinensis 4, 5 Prinsepia uniflora 4 Prunus davidiana 5 11 0 Syringa persica laciniata 4, 10 Syringa pubescens 4, 5 Tilia americana fastigiata 5 Tsuga diversifolia 4 Ulmus carpinifolia sarniensis j 5 Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum 4, , 5 Quercus imbricaria 5 Spiraea bumalda crispa Stewartia koreana 4 Viburnum I I opulus xanthocarpum 4, 5, 11 I 8, 11 \" Weigela \"Othello\" 4, 4 Syringa \"Guinevere\" Wisteria floribunda vars. 5, It 1 DONALD WYMAN Arnoldia 1949 subscriptions are now due. Those who have not yet sent in their subscriptions, please do so (price one dollar) and mail to Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. Please make checks payable to Harvard University. Field Class A Field Class for the study of the more ornamental of the flowering trees and shrubs as they are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, will again be conducted during the Saturday mornings of May. Please write for further information. 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Azalea Border","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24213","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260bb6d.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Farrand, Beatrix","article_content":"ARNOLDIA R1 A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University I PLATE II Porch Azalea (Rhododendron obtusum kaempferi) THE AZALEA BORDER has gone forward steadily in the last two years since suggestions made in November, 1946, regarding possible changes in some of the landscape planting at the Arboretum. The bulk of the necessary drudgery of clearing up is now done, and new reconstruction work has been started. Opposite the Administration Building the border close to the marsh has been cleared of overgrown colonies of shrubs of various unrelated sorts, and in their stead a plantation chosen chiefly from the Ericaceae is being assembled. The heaths belong to a beautiful family; it is hard to think of a single member that has not some special distinction and elegance; from the flat and fragrant mats of mayflower (Epigaea repens) to the tall rhododendrons and sourwoods. The position for this planting is ideal, as many of the heath family enjoy having their toes in or near water, and the gentle slope from the marsh level up to the road gives an excellent place to those which prefer drainage in addition to moisture. The tall species, such as the laurels and evergreen rhododendrons, will not be found in this plantation which is only the forerunner of a series of azalea groups. In order to give the plants the rooting medium and food they like, many loads of peat have been added to the border, and in the open and sunny spaces between the punctuating trees new colonies have been set out, so that in the future, when the plantation reaches maturity, colours will harmonize and give interest from earliest spring to latest autumn. Immediately inside the entrance the quiet open view over the marsh is maintained by low ground-hugging shrubs like bearberry, low blueberry and pachistima, ending in a higher mass after the first vista has been enjoyed. The earliest of the deciduous rhododendrons, known formerly as azaleas, start the procession with rhododendrons, mucronulatum, dauricum and canadense. The crinkled petals of mucronulatum, when they first appear, look as though they had been ill packed during the winter in a small valise, but they soon lose their wrinkles in the sun and air and show their deep maroon brown dots at the centre of the tremulous wind-swept flowers. These early and somewhat difficult shades are kept together as they do not agree with the pink, orange and red sorts. The lavender species bloom early, and where they thrive, as they should in their new position, they are a heartening sight to eyes seeking flower and colour after the long blank of winter. Some of the best of the old shrubs have been kept among the azaleas as dividing marks on what might otherwise be an overlong uninterrupted parade. There are islands and tufts of Shadbush (Amelanchier) and later on clumps of Labrador tea and leatherleaf will be added among the huckleberries and tall growing blueberries. The pink azaleas begin with the earliest, the deceptively fragile looking Appalachian mountain Vaseyi, which is hardy in the far north and flowers generously each year if given proper food. After the Vaseyis have made their appearance the Schlippenbachs from China spread their large pearly WORK T were pink petals. This Chinaman has taken kindly to our country and is never dull or dowdy. After the flowers wither the new buds appear tightly folded in their scales awaiting the next spring. During the summer the oak-like leaves are healthy and give character to the plant, and in the autumn they colour brilliantly from pinkish orange to deep maroon. After the Schlippenbachs come colonies of eastern American species, arborescens, with its deep red stamens lifting themselves from the pale pink flowers, and viscosum, the latest and sweetest and tallest of our native sorts. The nudiflorums and roseums follow, but bloom earlier than the viscosums. Enkianthus and good Phellodendrons make a definite break between the native pink species and their hybrids. Some of the older plantations of Sumach have been kept, and these are intended to act as a division between the American hybrids and the equally native Rhododendron calendulaceum and their fellows in the orange scarlet and yellow shades. The first years of this new plantation will not be as attractive as the later ones, since many older plants have been used which had to be neglected in the past. Some will look ungainly as they have been taken from crowded masses and this has meant hard pruning in order to give them a fresh start. As the marsh meadow border develops, further little tufts and wisps of the smaller Ericaceae will be tucked into the bays and hollows of the long line, and a walk next to the meadow will be made, so that the plants may be looked at from the marsh and from above on the level of the Meadow Road. The work done would not have been possible without the enthusiastic and understanding help of all who are vitally concerned in the welfare of the Arnold Arboretum. BFATRIX FARRAND "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring 1949","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24212","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260b76b.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University . VOLUME 9 APRIL 29, 1949 NUMBER 3 SPRING 1949 to the Arboretum this year a trifle earlier than usual. Unweather started the forsythia blossoms into bloom a full two weeks earlier than they normally appear, but colder weather of mid-April slowed them up again so that at the time this is being written it is safe to say that the season is advanced by about one week. The Arboretum has not looked so clean for a long time. A trip through it at this time shows most plants in splendid condition. A comparatively mild winter, with not too much snow, did no damage to any of the plants. Heavy snow storms and high winds of late February and March failed to materialize so that no damage has been encountered on this score. Sometimes, a heavy wet snow or ice storm in March can create terrific damage which may take the entire Arboretum force weeks to clean up. Nothing like this has happened this year, so that it is possible to spend considerable time in some of the collections that are somewhat removed from the view of the general public, but nevertheless are important. The mulching material (hops) which we have been using for the past few years is apparent now throughout all the collections, Its use has saved much money and time in weeding, and in fact, has actually prevented injury to some of the plants from fire. Some collections like the dwarf conifers received one application a few years ago and since that time the mulch has been worked into the soil. Now this collection is receiving its second application of the same mulch. No method has been found to prevent the potent odors of this material when it is newly applied, but this apparently lasts for a few short weeks only, and then disappears. In early spring it is not freshly applied to the most outstanding of the spring flowering collections, but rather kept on those collectums in the hinterland where it will not be too offensive. The winter was a rather dry one, but fortunately early spring rains have been ample so that regular planting has gone along uninterrupted. Final touches are SPRING has come usually warm PLATE III Malus halliana spontanea. A rare Japanese crab apple which is unusually '% beautiful in flower. The flowers are pure white and the profuse, but small, fruits dense, somewhat vase-shaped form is unusual among crab Unheralded and unsung, this has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum apples. since 1919 when it was brought from Japan by E. H. Vfilson. This is just another of countless plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum which have not received the attention they reall~ merit. It should be m full bloom the first part of May. are dark red. The 10 about to be given to some of the trees on the far side of Peters Hill, these being the best of a miscellaneous planting which has not been given the attention it deserves. A new mist blower (Bean's \"Rotornist'') was put m operation for the first trme this spring. This necessitates the changing over of our rather complicated spraying program from hydraulic methods to mist methods, causing considerable study on our part of the many new (and too often untried) materials for insect and d~sease control. However, we feel that mist-spraying is a technique which is very definitely going to be used more and more as new materials become available. In our case, the savings from the standpoint of labor are worth the change-over. V'e are willing, and in fact anxious, to do what we can in experimenting with this new method, and many new materials, if it is possible to obtam better control of insect and disease troubles, at a reduction of total application costs. Magnolia loebneri. Among the many interesting plants which hwe bloomed in the Arboretum already this spring, perhaps none is so interesting as a Magnolia loebneri which is growing on former Arboreturri property in Weston. This is a cross between M. stellata and M. kobus (originating before 1910). The tendency is too often to overlook some hybrid crosses after the flowers have been first observed. However, I have had an excellent opportunity of observing this hybrid planted at the Case Estates of the Arboretum several years ago. What is even more important, it is growing within a stone's throw of some M. stellata seedlings which are almost as old. The interesting thing is that this is one of the hybrids in which hybrid vigor has resulted in unusually good growth. The seedlings of M. stellata were planted in 1942 and are at present about three feet tall. Of nearly 100 plants only about one or two have flowers this season, about two to three each. This M. loebneri was grown from seed sown about 1939, two of the plants are twelve feet high (another is slightly smaller) and are covered with hundreds of flowers. The trees are pyramidal in habit, apparently are going to be tree-like and not shrub-like, and have a spread of about twelve feet. They havbloomed conspicuously for several years. h~. H. Wilson used to say of Ill. kobus that it seldom bloomed proFusely, certainly not while it was young. Here, then, is a bybrid which has been with us for some time, but the vigor of which has not been appreciated. The flowers are as large as those of M. stellata and have eight to twelve petals-usuallyabout eleven. The petals are twice the width of those of 1V1. eiellata, and shaped somewhat like those of M. kobus. The flowers are fragrant-a rather important feature. The tree blooms at the same time as does M. ,stellata and M. kobus, but is meritorious for its vigor and profuse bloom. This early-flowermg white magnolia of tree habit might well be propagated. Whether or not it will be as vigorous, or as floriferous when grafted on other understock, remains to be seen. Also it is important to state that since it is a hybrid, there may be several clones, and it is inherent upon all plantsmen I 11 to be certain to propagate from the better clones only. One of the clones in the Arboretum is decidedly inferior, having only six to eight petals. Another (discussed above) grown from seed by the Arnold Arboretum, has eight to twelve petals, mostly eleven and so is a much more desirable clone to grow. DONALD WYMAN NOTES Field Class. Once more the Field Class to study the flowering trees and shrubs of the Arnold Arboretum meets Saturday mornings throughout May. Meetings will be out-of-doors, beginning promptly at ten o'clock at the Forest Hills Gate. In case of rain the class will meet on the next fair week day. Instruction will be given informally in talks as the different plant groups are watched from week to week. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required. The fee for the course is $1.00 payable in advance by mail, with members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" entitled to attend all classes without charge. Applications and further inquiries may be addressed at once to Dr. Donald V'yman, at the Arboretum. Checks should be made payable to Harvard University. Through the Arnold Arboretum. The first copies of our new forty-six page guide book to the Arnold Arboretum have just been received. This ~s an up-todate description of the Arboretum as it is now, with much of interest concerning its past history. Well illustrated with fifteen half-tones and five full-color plates, this should make an excellent gift for any one who is not fam~l~ar with this worldfamous garden. Included is an up-to-date map showing where all the main collections are at the present time, and valuable information concerning meritorious plants which the Arboretum has been responsible for introducing. This should make an excellent gift for an out-of-town friend, or a reference to have available for friends who might wish to visit this famous institution. Copies are available postpaid for fifty five cents (stamps accepted). Correction. The 9, No. 2) should read: legend under the picture in the last issue of Arnoldia (Vol. \"Torch Azalea (Rhododendron obtusum kaempferi).\" 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Lilacs","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24208","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260ab6c.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 MAY 6, 1949 LILACS come to the Arnold Arboretum two weeks early this year. The of the weather have been such that the oriental crab apples and the lilacs have bloomed together for the first time in many years. In a recent trip through Philadelphia and Washington it was pointed out that in some sections the season is a full two weeks in advance and in others it is not, but everyone in the sections where it is advanced agrees that it has come very quickly-and to many a commercial grower it has come considerably faster than expected. This has resulted in a financial loss to many a nurseryman, whose nursery stock has come into leaf sooner than anticipated and hence his planting season has been NUMBER 4 LLAC time has vagaries shortened. In ARNOLDIA (Vol. 2, No. 6, April 24, 194~?) was published a list of the \"One Hundred Best Lilacs\" of Syringa nulg~cris varieties. Now, the following list is offered as being the best of all the lilacs, hybrids and species together-at least of the hundreds which have been on trial in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum. Not everyone will agree with this short list, particularly with the reduction in number of the S. vulgaris varieties. Others may look upon it aghast and remark that every lilac variety has a place in horticulture. However, this viewpoint is hard to accept, especially when one can cut a branch of opening flowers of \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall,\" \"Congo,\" \"Ludwig Spaeth\" and \"Rhum von Horstenstem,\" mix them up and then def:v even the experts to d~stinguish one from the other. This can be done when the flowers are first opening, and brings up the point that many lilacs are similar-certainly as far as their landscape qualifications are concerned. The following list of lilacs is admittedly small-many will consider it too small. It does include the best of the lilacs which have been growing in the Arboretum collection for a period of years. Dlerely because a lilac variety is not listed does 13 not mean that it is inferior. However, those included can be considered to be among the best landscape plants of all the 450 species and varieties being grown in the collection during the past few years. Some new and recently introduced growing a sufficiently long time to be judged properly. Those who have small gardens, and room for only a very few lilacs, would do well to make their selections from this list, rather than to become entangled with the lengthy lists of names in the larger collections of the country. RECOMMENDED LILACS varieties have not been Syringa species arrd varieties amurensis japonica chinensis \" \" \" alba saugeana Normal Time i Color Height of Bloom ~0~ mid-June creamy white 15~ late May purple-lilac 15~ late May white 15~ late May lilac-red henryi \"Lutece\" henryi X tomentella \"Prairial\" josiflexa \"Enid\" \" \"Lynette\" josikaea laciniata microphylla nanceana \"Floreal\" oblata dilatata oblata dilatata X vulgaris \"Assessippi\" \" Pocahontas\" oblata giraldi X vulgaris \"Catinat\" \" Lamartine\" \" Louvois\" \" Necker\" \" 6 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 4 1 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 41 \" \" \" \" Turgot\" \"Vlllar5\" 14 66 \" persica prestoniae \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \"Ariel\" \"Coral\" \" Dawn\" \"Hecla\" \" Hiawatha\" \"Isabella\" \" Miranda\" \" Nerissa\" \" Romeo\" 10~ 9' 9~ 9~ 1 ~~ 6~ 6, 9~ 1 ~l~ 1 ~?~ ll~ 1 ~?~ \/ I ~~ 12~ 1 ~?~ \/ 12 1 ~~ 6' 9' 0~ 9~ g\/ g~ 0, 9~ 3, 9~ 9~ earlyJune pale violet and pink early June fuschia purple cyclamen purple rhodamine pink \" \" \" \" \" \" late \" May a` lilac violet pale lilac \" \" early June petunia purple early May pinkish pinkish mauve reddish purple pinkish \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" violet \" pinkish \" a` a` \" \" lilac late May mid-June \" \" \" \" pale lilac pink to deep pink petunia purple rhodamine pink \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" .` \" \" \" fuschia \" purple \" \" \" \" \" \" cyclamen purple rhodamine pink \" 14 . 0 ~ ..., ~ ..... 0 ~ <u oJ:! - 0 ~ 0 ~ <u ..... <u ~ ... oJ:! ... ~ '~t o W ...; 3~ ;::.... o ~o <u <u.....- ~~ 3 o~ ~ 8 o 0 ~ <u oJ:! N w ~ a ... ' a x 0 ~ ~ <u -s: H prestoniae \"Ursulla\" ~ swegiflexa sweginzowi villosa _ vulgaris \" alba 9' 9~ 9' 9' `.20~ l0~ fuschia purple early June rhodamine pink early June reddish lilac mid-June \" \" rosy lilac to white mid-May \" \" lilac white \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \"Vestale\" - single \"Mont Blanc\" - single \" Jan Van Tol\" - single \"Marie Finon\" - single \"Edith Cavell\" - double \"Ellen ~illmott\" - double \"De Miribel\" - single \"Cavour\" - single \"Marechal Lannes\" - double \"Violetta\" - double \"President Lincoln\" - single Ie \"Decaisne\" - single \"Maurice Barres\" - single \"Olivier de Serres\" - double \"Emile Gentil\" - double \"Duc de Massa\" - double \"Marengo\" - single \"Jacques Callot\" - single \" \"President Fallieres\"-double \"Henri Martin\" - double \"Victor Lemoine\" - double \"Leon Gambetta\" - double \"Lucie Baltet\" - single \"Macrostachya\" - single \"Mme. Antoine Buchner\" - double \"Katherine Havemeyer\" - double \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ' \" .` \" \" ~ violet \" \" \" \" 14 \" 66 \" \" it 61 blue and bluish \" 16 16 66 11 \" is lilac 66 \" \" \" \" and pink 61 pinkish 14 \" \"\"., . 41 14 \" it \" \" \" \"Montaigne\" - double \"Nlarechal 1''och\" - single \"Mme. F. Morel\" - single \"Paul Thirion\" - double \"Paul Deschanel\" - double \"Mrs. Edward Harding\" - double \"D9onge\" - single \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall\" - single \"Ludwig Spaeth\" - single 15 magenta 66 \" It \" . \" \"Capitaine Baltet\" - single \" \" J \" \" \" purple (or deep purple) \" \" \" \" \"1 . \" 66 6 1 61 \" In going through this list of species and hybrids, it is noted that the time of bloom varies from early May to mid-June, nearly six weeks. This is important in making selections for the small garden. Also the height varies, the lowest being S. microphylla and S. persica-about six feet tall-and the highest being the tree lilac, S. amurensis japonica-about thirty feet tall. The range here is most useful in helping the gardner select the right lilac for the right place. DONALD WYMAN NOTE The Lilac Path in Color ARNOLDIA subscribers and friends of the Arboretum have known that picas a matter of course since 1936. All color films have been used, some with better success than others. The collection of color transparencies on file in the Arboretum now numbers well into the thousands. Many of these are used in lectures by staff members, many are for record purposes in noting differences among the horticultural varieties. The new guide book, \"Through the Arnold Arboretum,\" contains five color prints made from selected transparencies. It is obvious that color reproduction (i.e. printmg on paper) has not kept advancing as rapidly as color photography; yet even with its limitations, some color pictures tell a better story than do black and white pictures. Some do not! However, ARNOLDIA readers will receive these first few color reproductions from time-to-time so that they, too, may have reminders of the glorious color displays made by the plants that grow in the Arnold Arboretum. tures in full color have been taken 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Wisterias","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24215","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d2608526.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 JUNE lO, 1949 THE NUMBERS 5-6 WISTERIAS* Arnold Arboretum wisteria collection now contains some 35 species and not all that are being grown in this country today, but certainly a goodly representation. These lovely twining vines are widely used as ornamentals in the gardens of this country, and those who have travelled in Japan will long remember the striking specimens as they are grown there. They are without doubt among the best of our ornamental vines. Many gardeners have found them easy to grow, still others most difficult, but all will agree they are outstanding when in bloom during late spring. In this issue of ARNOLDIA, some of the interesting points about the varieties will be noted, as they have been observed growing in the Arboretum collection during the past ten years. However, it must be admitted at the beginning, that except for standard recommendations, there are no magical ways of making certain vines bloom. Many articles have been written dealing with the culture of these vines, and it is not the object here to enter into a minute discussion of this topic. Suffice it to say, that all vines should bloom, some just won't-at least it may take them ten to fifteen years to produce their first flowers. It is inadvisable to grow plants from seed. They had best be propagated asexually from plants known to flower early. Grafted plants of one variety, Wisteria \"Issai,\" are known to flower when very young, often at three years. This has happened with a vine here, but all too frequently valued specimens of other varieties do not bloom for a long time. Then the standard recommendations are to root prune, to prune the vigorous growing young shoots, and sometimes to give a feeding of superphosphate. These things have been known to help plants bloom, but sometimes even these do not seem to help. Experiments have been started at the Arboretum which may throw some light on the best procedure, but unt~l these have had sufficient time to produce THE varieties, * and Spelling follows that of Alfred Rehder in his \"Manual Liberty Hyde Bailey in his \"Hortus Secoud.\" of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs\" 17 results, the old standard recommendations of top and root pruning, and feeding with superphosphate are best to follow. There is even a controversy on which soils seem best-that is in aiding flower production. Planted in a light sandy soil, the plants may grow less vigorously, but tend to produce flowers sooner than when grown in a rich soil where vegetative growth is pronounced. However, E. H. Wilson, who studied this group thoroughly in Japan, made the observation that the larger, better flowering vines were those frequently planted by ponds where they had an unlimited water supply. Introduction There are six of which of eastern W. formosa-is a cross between W. sinensis and W.,floribunda. The Chinese (W. sinensis) and Japanese (W. ,floribunda) wisterias, have far outstripped the others in popular acclaim, at least in northern gardens, because of their profuse bloom, their large flower clusters and their varieties of varying colors and fragrance. Varieties are available with flower clusters from 6~~ to 48~~ in length, pink, white or varying shades of lilac, single or double flowers, some of which are very fragrant. The double-flowered varieties make poor ornamentals because their bloom is erratic and the double flowers quickly decay in wet weather. Wisteria frutescen.s, native on the east coast from Virginia to Florida and Texas, is not a strong vine and has not bloomed with us in recent years. Wisteria macrostachJa is perfectly hardy, but blooms late, after the leaves are developed so that blooms are considerably hidden by the foliage. Wisteria venusta has poor flowers when compared with its two Asiatic relatives. Wisteria formosa might be considered even a better ornamental than W. sinensis because it is deliciously fragrant. The longest flower cluster I have measured in the collection at the Arboretum was one 36~~ long, but E. H. Wilson has measured them up to 64~~ long on wellgrown specimens in Japan. Soil, moisture, and general culture all enter into the picture as far as length of bloom is concerned. The point is that there are some varieties which, if given optimum growing conditions, will produce flower clusters 3 to 4 feet long in this country. The genus was named in honor of Dr. Caspar Wistar (1761-1818) Professor of Anatomy at the University of Pennsylvania. The first species named was W. frutescens, a native of the southeastern United States from Virginia to Florida and Texas. About the same time seeds of W. sinensis were first sent to England where they were grown and it was not long before some reached this country. The Japanese wisteria (Wisteria floribunda) was first sent to the old Parson's Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, by Dr. George R. Hall, whom we have to thank for several of our very best ornamentals. This was done in ]862. Wisteria formosa was named from a plant growing on the Sargent estate in Brookline, Massachu- species of wisterias in North America and eastern Asia, growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Of these, three are natives two of the eastern United States, and one-the hybrid species Asia, about nine are 18 setts, about 1905. Wisteria floribunda violacea plena first flowered in the garden of Francis Parkman of Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, before 1875. The original W. ,floribrcnda rosea, in this country at least, was probably that found in a garden owned by a Japanese years ago in California. The entire' place was bought by the late Mr. Henry S. Huntington of San Marino, California, primarily to preserve this beautiful vine. The Arnold Arboretum received scions from this plant in 1917. Later, further exploration and the growing of many seeds in this country have resulted in other varieties. If seeds are sown of W. sinensis, the resulting plants will not vary much, but seedlings of W. ,floribunda (formerly W. mulf~uga) vary considerably, both as to flower color and flower size. Some plants like the huge Rosecraft\" wisteria at Point Loma, California, or the excellent plant so carefully tended for many years by Miss Mary P. Barnes of Hingham, Massachusetts, or the huge W. sinensis growing in the little town of Sierra Madre, California have created wide interest because of tremendous size and profuse bloom. These have grown to such proportions that they cover hundreds of square feet, and undoubtedly have been propagated. Some may have been given varietal names. So, today, there are many wisterias in this country, but there is much that they have in common. Only the better varieties should be grown. \"Tree\" or \"Standard\" wisterias are merely vines which have been staked rigidly upright and then the tops heavily pruned for years, thus forcing the stem to grow in trunk-like proportions. In the South, wisteria vines are allowed to ramble into the tops of the tallest trees, but it should always be kept in mind that they are twining vines and can kill trees and shrubs on which they climb by strangulation. In certain parts of China, the natives consider the flowers of W. sinensis quite delicacy. The flowers are collected when in full bloom and shipped to areas of wealth where they bring premium prices. They are steamed and eaten. Flowers of the more fragrant Japanese species are not so valued, for in these the flower odor is very strong and is a continual reminder that they are flowers after all! a Flowers of Robinia species are also cooked and eaten this way. The Chinese wisteria is not quite as hardy as the Japanese (W. floribunda). During very cold winters, the flower buds of both may be killed. Some gardeners in the northern states and southern Canada like wisterias so much that they are willing to take the pains of laying the vines on the ground each fall and covering them with soil to protect the flower buds from too low temperatures. This is a considerable effort, since the main stem of the wisteria becomes very woody and more or less rigid as it grows older, making the vine much more difficult to handle in this way than rambler roses. Twining It is of considerable interest to note that the wisterias can be sharply divided into two groups by the way they twine. Some vines climb by twining from left 19 PLATE IV Left: Wisteria sinezxsis. Right: 14 isteria floribunda macrobotrys which bloomed at the Arnold Arboretum in 194E3 with flower clusters 36\" long. The blooms on this same plant in 1949 were profuse, practically all of them being only 24\" long. right, others twine by climbing from right to left (ARNOLDIA, Series 4, Vol. VII, No. 7, June 23, 1939). The two native species, frutescens and zzzacrostach~a and the Chinese wisteria, sinensis, twine by climbing from left to right. The other three species in the Arboretum (,jloribundn, formosa, venust~z) all twine by climbing from right to left. As one looks at a plant which is naturally growing around some upright object, if it starts on the lower left side of the rigid object, and grows or twines upward towards the right side, it belongs to one group, if the reverse is to true, then the other. This is most helpful, not only in training the vine properly, but also in identifying it. Of all the Japanese varieties checked in this respect, several plants of each, none showed any variation from twining by climbing from right to left. The varieties \"Issai'' and\"J4rs. McCullagh,\" it has been noted by others, are not true W. floribunda types (they twine by climbing from left to right) but are probably hybrids of W. ,sinezrsi.s. Identification Since most wisterias in northern gardens at least are either varieties of W. sinensis or W. floribunda, distinguishing characteristics between them are needed. The following points might be helpful. The following key is offered merely as a help in identification. It is always best to consult a standard botanical reference with complete keys when positive identification is necessary. It should be pointed out that the native wisterias ( frutesceu.s and macrostachyn) and W. venusta do not appear often in northern gardens they are not among the better ornamental types. Wisteria formosa may for it is a hybrid and a very beautiful one, too. The flowers appear similar appear, to its Chinese parent, the fragrance and twining are'similar to its Japanese parent. The plant in the Arboretum came from the old Sargent Estate in Brookline. It might well be the other clones of this cross might show other characteristics. as Wisteria species 21 Vine twines by climbing from right to left Flower clusters 4 to 6rr long Flower clusters 8 to 48rr long Leaflets 13 to 19, flowers open progressively downwards Leaflets 7 to 15, flowers open all together ....... ............. W, venusta W. W. ,floribunrla formosa Order of Bloom The wisterias in the Arnold Arboretum bloom throughout a four-to-five-week with W. venusta, the earliest, and ending with W. macrostachya, which blooms after the others have all faded. In fact it blooms after the leaves are out so that they frequently hide the pale bluish blossoms. W. frutescens has not been recorded as blooming recently in the Arnold Arboretum, but it probably blooms after W. macrostachya. The order in which they bloomed in 1949 (the season was 10 to 14 days advanced) was as follows: period, starting Order of Bloom Full bloom 5\/6\/49 5\/13\/49 Past bloom W. venn.sla and varieties Full - Past bloom W. floribunda macrobotrys W. formosa W. sinensis and varieties 5\/13\/49 5\/~0~49 Full bloom Full bloom 5\/20\/49 W. Past bloom 5\/25\/49 floribunda and varieties Starting to full bloom 6\/ 1 ~49 when others are W. macrostachya (blooms past) Best for Fragrance The varieties noted for their delicious fragrance belong mostly to the species W. floribunda or its hybrid, W. formosa. The true Chinese wisteria has no fragrance, but it may well be that there are many vines passing in gardens as W. sinensis that are actually hybrids (i.e., W. formosa). Wisteria veuu.sla is only slightly fragrant. The best of all the varieties in the Arboretum for fragrance might be: W. floribunda \"Kuchi Beni\" \" \" \" Longissima alba\" \" \" macrobotrys ' \" \" Naga rosea Noda\" \" \" \" \" \" formosa \" sinPnsis \"Jako\" (possibly Zz a hybrid) Length of Clusters length of the clusters varies with the species, variety and growing condiWisterira frufesceus has the shortest clusters, about 2 to 5rr long, thus eliminvtine it as a desirable ornamental. Wi.sleria,floribunda has the longest, some of Its varieties having clusters 36rr long in the Arboretum, and most of them 12 to ~14'r. E. H. Wilson measured clusters of W.,floribuuda mncro.slnchw in Japan as much as 64rr long, grown under ideal conditions. This was on a huge vine growing on a bamboo trellis covering one sixth of an acre. However, this length of cluster can vary on the indis idual plant. For instance, one plant at the Case Estates in Weston last year had only a dozen or so clusters, but some measured 36rr long. This year this same plant produced a large number of clusters, most of which were about ~?4rr in length. The variety \"Kyushaku\" has clusters 4 to 5' long when grown properly in this country, according to the former A. E. Wohlert of Narbeth, Pennsylvania, who used to specialize in these plants. It must be admitted that the one flower cluster on our plant of this variety measured only l6rr this year, the first time it has bloomed. Consequently, length of cluster will vary with weather and growing conditions. The following modest measurements were taken in the Arboretum collections during the past five years : The tions. Length of Cluster 3 to o~~ long W. venusta and 6 to l~rr long W. ,floribnnda \" vars. W. alba car~tea ,floribunda \"Ushi Jima\" \" \" \" W. \" \" \" \" \" Geisha\" \"Murasaki Noda\" \"Russelliana\" \"Sekine's Blue\" \"Shiro Noda\" violacea plena macrostachya \"Mrs. McCullagh\" sinensis ` ` Jako\" \"Sierra Madre\" \" \" 6 \" \" l~i to l8rr W. \" \" long ,~loribundn \"Beni Fugi\" \"Kuchi Beni\" \" W. \" \" floribunda \" ro.sea \"Royal Purple\" \" \"Lon~issima alba\" formosa ~?I)rr long nrrd ~nore GI'. floribaurln \"Kyushaku\" ~firr \" \" nracrobolrJ,t 36rr ~V. ,~loribunda \"Naga Noda\" 2 ~~~ It should be emphasized again, however, that these measurements are only for these plants growing on one type of soil. DIr. ~'. B. Clarke of San Jose, Cali- Z3 who grows many wisterias says that W. 3 to 4' with him. Possibly others will do similarly better if fornia, ,floribundtz \"Longissima'' given more will grow suitable growing conditions. The clusters 30tt collection. variety\"Shiro long in this country, but has not yet Flower Colors Noda\" has been recorded as having performed this way in our selected because of four general traits, namely, length of bloom. Consequently one can not eliminate varieties merely by color alone. It might be far more satisfactory to buy a variety known to produce flowers early, regardless of color or size of bloom, rather than to wait years for the plant to produce its first flowers. However, there are certainly not thirty or forty different varieties of wisterias worthy of being grown and widely planted in this country. The following varieties are grouped in their respective color groups, together with notes about them, merely as an aid for those who wish to make their own selections. Colors are those of the English \"Horticultural Colour Chart.\" The number of leaflets on the leaves of the plants vary of course and should not be used as a means of distinguishing one variety from another, but the number given is the number normally on well-grown leaves on the plants in our collections in 1949. Also the length of flower cluster varies on the same plant and from year to year. For instance, clusters of \"Ushijima\" were only 6tt long in 1944, but 1 3rt long by 1946 on the same plant. Consequently all these figures are given merely as a matter of record. Apparently the flower clusters of a certain variety will become better and longer as the plant becomes better and better established. Selections of the better varieties as they have performed up to this time in the Arnold Arboretnm are listed with an asterisk (*) but undoubtedly there is ample opportunity for further testing in this interesting group. The wisterias can be classified or color, fragrance, time of bloom and Flowers White *Wisteria floribunda alba: Clusters 10 to l ltt leaflets thirteen. dense; long ; moderate fragrance; cluster Wisteria,floribundtt \"Kuchi a Beni\" : Cluster1 ~?tr a pure white, but slightly pinkish, giving long; good fragrance ; color not slight faded appearance; leaflets fifteen. Wisteria floriburtda \" Longissima alba\" : Clusters l4tt long ; good fragrance, supposedly a sport of the violet-colored \"Longissima\" ; leaflets thirteen. Wi.steria,floribnntla \"Shiro Noda\" : Clusters Stt long ; moderate fragrance ; leaflets fifteen ; has been listed in catalogues with flowers 14 to 30rt long. Wisteria sinensis albtt: The true vine has not bloomed recently in the Arboretum, but should be similar to W..sittensis except in color. 24 <Ii ~. <Ii .. ~ '\" .~ OIJ G c .: o a '\" o . .: c o .~ \"\" 3 \" IC#& x3 ;Ii x~ .v ~' ;;.. >. h \"\"'~ C .. \"C \"\"\"\"'..... ... \"\" en 5~ C '\" .. ~w~ ox \"\" .~ .o Ga o ea U .~ ~\" a O;, C a ~3 ~ C^ -0 O . '\" r~ *Wisteria sinensis \"Jako\" : Clusters 1 lrr long; dense ; leaflets eleven ; excellent fragrance-very probably a hybrid of W. sinensis because of its excellent fragrance. This is probably in the trade as W. siueu.vis alba, but is a much more desirable plant. Wisteria venusta: Clusters 3\" long; very little fragrance ; thin open clusters ; 9 to 13 leaflets; poor ornamental, There is supposed to be a form with double white flowers, but all plants we have received under the name W. venusta plena have turned out to be W. floribunda violacea plena. Flowers Pink Wisteria,floribunda carnea: Clusters 9 to lOrr; moderate fragrance; 13 to 13 leaflets ; a flesh pink. Our plant has only had a few clusters this year, but these ported to this country by W. B. Clarke Japan under name of W. sinensis rubra. did not vary too much from those of the variety rosea. This was first imof San Jose, California, in 1931 from When it bloomed it was found to be a W. floribunda type and not red but flesh pink-hence the name was changed. It is said to have a very strong fragrance. Clusters l5rr 530. *Wisteria,jloribunda rosea : color-Amaranth long; excellent fragrance; leaflets fifteen; to Violet rose Flowers Light Reddish Violet Wisteria floribun~la: Clusters 18 to 20rr ; moderate fragrance ; fifteen leaflets ; standard of flower whitish; keel and wings cobalt violet 634\/2. These colors vary widely when plants are grown from seed. Flowers open progressively from base of cluster to the end at the same time the leaves appear. Wisteria floribunda \"Beni Fugi\" : Clusters 1?to l4rr long ; fragrance fair; leaflets nineteen; only one blossom on vine in 1949. Wisteria floribunda \"Kyushaku\" : Clusters ~?6rr; fragrance fair; identical in color with macrobotrys. This plant first bloomed this year with only one flower cluster. It may well be that this variety and W. ,floribuncla macrobotrys are identical. \"Kyushaku\" was first offered by A. E. Wohlert of \"The Garden Nurseries\" in Narbeth, Pa., shortly before 1935 as the \"ultimate\" in length of wisteria flowers, but the botanical variety macrobolry.s of Rehder and ~'slson probably covers such clones. Wisteria,floriburrdcr \"Longissima\" : This has not yet bloomed in our collections, but was planted in 1938. Some nurserymen have given this name to selected seedlings so plants with this name are probably not identical. *Wisteria,floriburula macrobotrys: Clusters 18 to 36\" long and longer; fragrance standard of flower cobalt violet 634\/3, keel and wings cobalt excellent; violet 634 ; supposedly the variety with the longest flower clusters. Z(> *Wisteria jloriburula \"Murasaki Noda\": Clusters lOrr long; fragrance fair; leaflets fifteen ; identical with macrobotrys except that the standard of the flower is larger and slightly lighter. *Wisteria floribunda \"Naga Noda\" standard of flower : Clusters 18rr; fragrance excellent ; leaflets 17 ; bishop's violet 34\/1 ; keel and wings bishop's violet 34; :3. Wisteria,~loribunda \"Royal Purple\" : Clusters 1? to l~rr; fragrance fair; leaflets standard mineral violet 63~ \/ I ; keel and wings mineral violet 63~\/2 ; fifteen ; first offered in 1937 by W. B. Clarke of San Jose, California. Wisteria floribunda \" Russelliana\" : standard of flower almost Clusters white; wings 8rr ; little fragrance; leaflets fifteen and keel mineral violet 635. ; Wisteria floribunda violacea plena: Clusters 10 to l~rr; fragrance fair; leaflets thirteen; flowers double of varying shades of reddish violet. Not an ornamental variety since the plants produce few flowers and they rot quickly in wet weather. Wisteria ,floribundn \"Ushi Jima\" : Clusters l3rr ; fragrance poor ; leaflets flower standard white and violet 36\/2; wings and keel violet 635. Wisteria fifteen ; frutescens: purple\" flowers Flowers 2 to ~~rr ; leaflets eleven ; listed as having \"lilac recent years. but has not bloomed in the Arboretum during Wisteria macrostachya: W. (except Clusters frutescens) have 1 ?rr ; leaflets eleven ; blooms after all other types passed. Flowers Violet to Bluish Violet Wisleria,floribunda \"Geisha\": Clusters l2rr long; moderate fragrance; leaflets thirteen ; flower standard whitish ; wings and keels sea lavender violet 637\/ 1. Wisteria floribundn \"Sekine's Blue\" : Clusters 7rr long ; little fragrance; leaflets seventeen; standard whitish; wings and keel sea lavender violet 637\/?. '~Wisterin \"Issai\" : Clusters l2rr ; moderate fragrance; leaflets seventeen; flowers \"Blue-purple\" according to W. B. Clarke, but it has not bloomed for several years in the Arboretum. Probably a hybrid form because it twines by climbing from left to right and also from right to left. * Wisteria formosa: Clusters 1 `?rr ; fragrance excellent ; leaflets thirteen ; a hybrid (floribunda X sinensis) twining by climbing from right to left but all the flowers opening at once ; flower standard campanula violet 37\/3 ; wings and keel campanula violet 3 i \/ 1. It is probable that many so-called Chinese wsterias being grown in gardens today are actually W. formosa. Wisteria \"Mrs. McCullagh\" : Clusters 6\" ; moderate fragrance; as \"bluish violet.\" It is less vigorous than the others, not color a only noted good type. 27 *Wisteria sinensis: Clusters 8rz long ; not fragrant; leaflets eleven; flower standard methyl violet 39\/3; wings and keel violet 36\/1 ; twines by climbing from left to right; the standards of individual flowers are larger than those of W. floribunda types ( floribuzrda 1 1 ~ 16zr X S~Szr ; sinensis ir~ X 3~4zz~ and all the flowers open together before the leaves appear. Wisteria sinensis \"Sierra Madre\" ; Clusters 8r~; excellent fragrance, leaflets thir1 teen ; flower standard whitish; wings and keel sea lavender violet 637\/1 merely propagated from a large vine at Sierra Madre, California, that has been given wide publicity. This may be a hybrid. *Wisteria venusta violacea: Clusters 6\" ; fragrance good ; leaflets thirteen; flower standard whitish ; wings and keel methyl violet 39~~1. A good variety. Mr. W. B. Clarke saysthat older plants, especially grown in standard form, have an overwhelming profusion of bloom that is better than any form of W. sinensis. DONALD WYMAN 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Flower Colors of Hardy Hybrid Rhododendrons","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24204","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070896d.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA , A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University JULY 1, 1949 VOLUME 9 NUMBERS 7-8 FLOWER COLORS OF HARDY HYBRID RHODODENDRONS broad-leaved evergreen rhododendrons are most conspicuous durJune. If grown in fertile, acid soil, mulched properly and pruned properly (see ARNOLDIA, Vol. 8, No. 8, September, 1948) they should produce a bright display of flowers annually. The collection in the Arnold Arboretum is over fifty years old and has been added to continually from year to year. Rhododendron enthusiasts are continually studying this collection, noting the differences between the many varieties now being grown. Not all that are available in the eastern United States nurseries are here, but many are, and it serves a valuable purpose, at the same time making a splendid display. It is most difficult to properly identify the many hardy rhododendron hybrids. The species are of course keyed out in standard botanical keys, but there is little easily available information about the identification of hybrids grown in the East. There are no colored pictures or paintings sufficiently accurate for this purpose, nor are there suitable descriptions of the flower colors. Articles for popular periodicals are numerous, but color descriptions in these are entirely too general. The term \"crimson flowers\" may cover a dozen or more varieties, each one of which does differ slightly from the others. Size of truss, of flower, markings on corolla and even the color of the stamens and pistils are all aides in identification. Consequently, we have started an attempt at the proper description of hybrid varieties, growing in our collection, by the careful comparison of colors of the flowers as they bloomed this year, with the colors of the Royal Horticultural Society's Colour Chart. This has its drawbacks, as anyone familiar with plants is quick to point out. In the first place, the color of the flowers varies slightly depending on whether they open in shade or full sun. The size of the flower varies accordmg to the amount of nourishment the roots are able to receive. Flowers quickly fade in full sunlight --this and many other criticisms can be justly leveled at any such comparison. hybrid THE early ing 29 However, an attempt is here made to enumerate the respective characteristics of the rhododendron hybrids as they performed with us this year, all growing in the same soil together, under the same conditions. Readings and comparisons were made from a representative flower truss in full bloom. Even with the weaknesses of this method, the resulting information is valuable. It aids materially in pointing out the fact that there are many varieties being grown, several of which will give the same landscape effect. True, there may be slight differences in color or size of corolla or flower truss, or the markings or the colors of the pistil and stamens may differ slightly, affording reason for different varietal names, but when some 50 named varieties are brought together in a single room for comparison, similarities are striking and should be emphasized. Judging them from the viewpoint of their serviceability in the landscape, there are many which are practically identical. This is important. There is a slight variation in time of bloom ; some come earlier than others, and the trusses of some are more dense and larger than others-reasons why certain growers prefer some rather than others. The following list, it is hoped, is only a start at the time-consuming task of comparing all the varieties grown in the East. Whether or not this means of identification has merit can best be judged by each individual rhododendron enthusiast. Comments on this method of approach and the measurements given for these varieties will be greatly appreciated. Flower Colors of Hardy Hybrid Rhododendrons Group I White (General landscape effect) . Rhododendron caucasicum coriaceum pure white Truss: 3~~~ high and 5~~ wide ; loose, rounded 12 flowers in truss; flower diameter 2~~~ Markings inside corolla: Chartreuse green (663\/ 1 ) Style and stigma reddish ;* base of corolla outside pale reddish ; blooms early Rhododendron\"Boule de Neige\" pure white Truss: 4\" high and 6\" wide; compact, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flower diameter 2~~~ Markings inside corolla: Chartreuse green (663\/1) Edge of petals slightly frilled ;** plant blooms early. white Rhododendron \"Baroness Henry Schroeder\" Truss: 3\" high and 5~~~ wide; loose, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flower diameter ~?~~~ Markings inside corolla: Cyclamen purple (30\/1) 1'lant blooms early. , *Pistils and stamens are whitish unless otherwise noted. **Petal margins not frilled unless otherwise indicated. 30 Group II Pale Blush Pink to Whitish Rhododendron \"Album elegans\" Dawn pink (323\/3) fading Truss : 5zr high and 6rr wide ; dense, pyramidal 18 flowers in white in center truss; flower diameter Z~rr to Markings inside corolla: Primrose yellow (601\/2) Stigma red, style pink. Dawn pink (5l3\/3) fading Rlrodorlendron \"Sultana\" Truss: 4rr high and 6rr wide; dense, pyramidal 12 white flowers in truss ; flower diameter ?~rr , Markings mside corolla: Majolica yellow (09\/1) pronounced Anthers purplish ; blooms last of all those listed here. Rhododendron cnlaubieuse album Neyron rose (6~3\/3) Truss: 4~rr high and 6\" wide; dense, pyramidal 20 flowers in to whitish truss ; flower diameter 2~rr Markings inside corolla: Primrose yellow (601 \/1 ) very faint and few. Rhododendron \"Album grandiflorum\" Neyron rose (6~?3\/3) to whitish Truss : 4\" high and 5rr wide ; dense, pyramidal 18 flowers in truss ; flower diameter 2~rr Markings inside corolla : greenish yellow (fi4\/2) few and inconspicuous Stigma red, margins of petals slightly frilled. Rhododendron \"Delicatissimum\" Rose madder (23\/3) fading to white at center Truss: 4rr high and 5rr wide; loose-dense, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flowers z4rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Greenish yellow (64\/1 ) pronounced Stigma red. This truss is similar to but not as good as \"Album grandiflorum. \" Rhodorlendron \"Albert\" Rose madder (z3\/3) center whitish Truss : 3~rrhigh and 6\" wide; dense, round 16 flowers in truss; flower diameter 3\" Markings inside corolla : brownish Rhododendron \"Candidissimum\" Rose madder (13\/3) Truss: 4rr high and 6\" wide; dense, rounded 1`? flowers in truss; flower diameter 2~rr Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763\/3) few and inconspicuous Rhododendron ze~atereri Rose pink (427\/ 1 ) Truss : 5rr high and 6rr wide ; dense, pyramidal 20 flowers in truss; flower diameter 2~rr Markings inside corolla : brownish ' Group III Pale Pink (General landscape effect) Rhododendron \"Anton\" Roseine purple Truss: 4~rr high and 6rr wide; dense, pyramidal 1 flowers in truss ; flower diameter ~~zc (629j1) fairly uniform 31 Markings inside corolla: greenish to brownish Stamens and pistil pinkish; petals slightly frilled. Amaranth Rhododendron \"Bella\" Truss: 3~~ high and 5~~ wide; dense, rounded 14 flowers in rose (530~2) uniform truss; flower diameter Markings inside corolla : Yellow Stamens and pistils pinkish ; petal margins frilled. Amaranth rose (530~1) to whitish Rhododendron \"Duke of York\" Truss: 3~~~ high and iwide; loose, rounded 12 flowers in truss; flower diameter 3~-~~ Markings inside corolla: Uranium green (63\/2) 7 petals in corolla; color at tip of petals only. Phlox purple (632~3) uniform Rhododendron \"President Lincoln\" Truss: 4~~~ high and 5\" wide; dense, rounded 26 flowers in truss; flower diameter 2~'~ Markings inside corolla : brownish Stamens and pistil pinkish. Rose purple (533~1) to white in center Rhododendron \"Arno\" Truss : 4~~ high and 6~~ wide; dense, pyramidal 26 flowers in cluster; flower diameter 2~~~ Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931) prominent Pink to 2~~~ ochre (0'7) - Deep Pink (General landscape effect) . ' Solferino purple (26~2) Rhododendron \"Lady Armstrong\" Truss: 5\" high and 5~~~ wide; dense, pyramidal 24 flowers in truss ; flowers 2~~~ diameter Markings inside corolla : Ruby red (827\/3) few Stigma red ; style and stamens pinkish near tip. Fuchsine pink (62i~1) Rhododendron \"Henrietta Sargent\" Truss : ~~~ high and 6~~ wide ; dense, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flowers 2~~~ diameter Markings inside corolla : brown to greenish Stigma red ; styles and stamens pink. Fuchsine pink (627~1) Rhododendron \"James Bateman\" Truss: 4~~ high and 6~~ wide; dense, rounded 18 flowers in cluster; flowers 3~~~ diameter Markings inside corolla : Dahlia purple (931 ) Stigma red ; Style and stamens Fuchsine pink ' Rhododendron \"Flushing\" Truss: 4~~ high and 6~~ wide; dense, rounded 18 flowers in truss; flowers 2~~~ diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (cJ31 ) Stigma and style red ; stamens purplish Magenta (2i~1) 32 Rhododendron \"Daisy\" Magenta (27\/1) Truss : 3rr high and 4~-rr wide ; dense, rounded 16 flowers in truss; flowers ~~rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Barium yellow (503) Stigma red; style and stamens pinkish. Blooms early. Petals slightly frilled. Rhododendron \"Ignatms Sargent\" Tyrian purple (7`?7\/2) Truss: 3~rr high and ~rr wide; dense, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flowers 3rr diameter Markings inside corolla: brownish, pronounced Stigma nearly black, styles red, stamens pale pink, petals slightly frilled margin. on Rhododendron \"Desiderius\" Persian rose (628\/1) Z~rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Uranium green (63\/`?) Stigma red ; style and stamens pink ; blooms early. Flowers Fuschia purple Rhododendron \"Alarich\" Truss: 3~-rr high and 5rr wide; dense, rounded l0 flowers in truss; flowers ~4rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931) few, pronounced Stigma nearly black ; style and stamens purplish. Rhododendron \"Caractacus\" Fuschia purple Truss: 4r~ high and 5rr wide; dense, rounded 18 flowers in truss; flowers 8rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763) not conspicuous Pistil and stamens red. Fuschia purple Rhododendron \"General Grant\" Truss: 3rr high and 4~zr wide; dense, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flowers 24r~ diameter Markings inside corolla : Garnet lake (828) few Stigma nearly black; stamens Fuchsia purple; style lighter. (28\/1) (28\/1) (28~1) Rhododendron \"Kettledrum\" Truss : 3rr high and 4-~rr wide ; dense, rounded 14 flowers in Roseine purple (629) truss ; flowers 3rr diameter green Markings inside corolla : Citron Pistil and stamens reddish. (763) Rhoclodendron \"Adelbert\" Roseine purple (6R9) uniform Truss : 4rr high and ~~rr wide; dense, rounded ~?? flowers in truss ; flowers irr diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (9R I ) pronounced Pistil and stamens pinkish ; margin of petals slightly frilled ; almost identical with \"Echse\" except for color of stamens and pistil. 33 Roseine purple Rhododendron \"Echse\" Truss: 5rr high and 5~rr wide; dense, pyramidal 18 flowers in truss; flowers `Z~ diameter Markings inside corolla : Dahlia purple (931 ) pronounced (629) uniform Stigma deep red, style and stamens white ; margins of petals slightly frilled. Roseine purple (629) Rhododendron \"Hannah Felix\" Truss: 3rr high and 4~rr wide; dense, rounded 20 flowers in truss; flowers ~?4rr diameter Markings inside corolla : Beetroot purple (830\/1 ) pronounced Stigma red; style and stamens reddish ; blooms early ; color of flowers almost uniform except under corolla markings, where it is whitish. ' Rhododendron \"Bicolor\" Truss: 4\" high and ,i~rr wide; dense, rounded 22 flowers in Roseine purple (629\/1) truss; flower diameter 2-~'r purple (629\/1) Markings inside corolla: Pansy purple (928\/3) Stamens and pistil pink. Rhododendron Truss: C. S. Sargent\" Roseine and 6rr wide; dense, rounded 42rr high 17flowers in truss; flowers 3.~rr diameter Markings inside corolla : Greenish Pistil and stamens Roseme purple; petal margins frilled. \"Mrs. Rhododendron \"E~a\" Roseine purple (629~2) Truss: ~.rr high and 5rr wide; dense, rounded 22 flowers in truss ; flower diameter 3rr Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763) Stigma red; style and stamens pink; edge of petals frilled. Rhododendron \"Everestianum\" Roseine purple (6?9\/2) Truss: 4 ~rr high and 6rr wide; dense, pyramidal 18 flowers in cluster; flowers 2~rr diameter Markings inside corolla : Greenish to brown Pistil and stamens pinkish; petal margins slightly frilled. Rhododendron \"Mrs. DMlner\" Rhodamine purple (29\/1) Truss: 4rr high and 5rr wide; dense, pyramidal 16 flowers in truss; flowers 2~rr wide Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931) Stigma black ; style and stamens Rhodamine purple. Rhododendron' . Parson Gofe\" Rhodamine purple (29\/2) Truss : .5rr high and 5rr wide ; dense, pyramidal 25 flowers in truss; flowers Markings inside corolla: Stigma black ; style red ; 2~rr diameter Chartreuse green (663) few stamens Rhodamine purple. 34 ?a 0 a, 0 S A, 0 s n 0 <~ K o' 8 ' -~ I -~ 0 A ~ K K ~' A O *2014K ? '<< O n ? I Itz Rhodamine Rhododendron \"Roseum elegans\" Truss : 4rr high and 5~~r wide ; dense, slightly pyramidal 20 flowers in truss ; flower diameter 3\" Markings inside corolla; Chartreuse green (663) few Markings not pronounced ; center of flower white. Rhododendron \"Fee\" Cyclamen Truss: 3~'r high and 42r~ wide; dense, rounded 20 flowers to truss; flower diameter `?~r~ Markings inside corolla : Pansy purple (928) pronounced Stamens and pistil reddish. purple (29~~~ purple (30~Z) Group V Red to Reddish (General landscape effect) Rhodoclendron \"Charles Dickens\" Spiraea red (0l5) Truss: 4rr high and 5~~ wide; loose-dense, rounded 16 flowers in truss: flowers ~4rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931 ~ Pistils and stamens Spiraea red. Fuchsine pink (62i) Rhododendron \"Charles Bagley\" Truss : 5\" high and 5~~r wide; dense, pyramidal 18 flowers in truss ; flowers 3rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763) Stamens and pistils pink. Fuchsia purple (18) Rhododendron \"Norma\" Truss: 4rr high and 5rr wide; dense, rounded 18 flowers in truss ; flowers ~4rr diameter Markings inside corolla : Greenish Stamens and pistil purplish ; blooms early. Rhodamine purple (19~1~ Rhododendron \"Daisy Rand\" Truss: :3~r high and 4~rr wide ; dense, rounded 15 flowers in truss ; flowers ~2rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (~31) few Stigma black ; style whitish ; stamens purplish. Rhodamine purple (29~1) Rhododendron \"James MacIntosh\" Truss: 4r~ high and 5rr wide; semi-dense, rounded 177 flowers in truss; flower 2~rr diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931 ) Stamens and pistil Rhodamine purple. Rlralodendron \"Atrosanguineum\" Peony purple (i29i'l) Truss: `?~rr high and 4~rr wide; loose, rounded 14 flowers in truss; flowers 2~r~ diameter Markings inside corolla: Dahlia purple (931) Stamens and pistil Peony purple; blooms early. 35 Rhododendron \"H. W. Truss: 3~z high and Sargent\" Peony purple (729~1) wide 14 flowers in truss; flowers R4~~ diameter Markings inside corolla : Dahlia purple (931 4~~~ ) Stamens and pistil Peony purple. Group VI Purple (General landscape effect) Rhododendron \"Lee's Purple\" Imperial purple (33\/1) Truss: 4~~~ high and 6~~ wide; dense, rounded 18 flowers in cluster; flower diameter 2~~~ Markings inside corolla: Brownish, conspicuous Darkest purple of any varieties in this list. Pistil and stamens red. Rlcododezulron \"Purpureum grandiflorum\" Imperial purple (33\/~) Truss: 4~~ high and 7~~ wide ; dense, rounded 16 flowers in cluster; flower diameter 3~~ Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763) Stamens and pistil reddish. Rhododerulron \"Purpureum elegans\" Amethyst violet (3~\/2) Truss: 4~~ high and 6\" wide; dense, rounded 16 flowers in truss; flower diameter ~~ ~ Markings inside corolla: Citron green (7(i3) prominent Pistil reddish ; stamens purplish. Lilac purple (031\/1) Rhododendron \"Melton\" and 5~~ wide ;- dense, rounded Truss: 32~~ high \/\/ 14 flowers in truss; flower diameter 34~~ inside corolla: Maroon ( 1030) Markings Stigma black; stamens and style whitish. Lilac purple (031\/1) Rhorlodendroza \"Mrs. Harry Ingersoll\" 4~~ high and 5~~ wide ; dense, pyramidal Truss : 14 flowers in truss; flower diameter 1~~~ Markings inside corolla: Citron green (763) Stigma whitish, stamens purplish. A whitish condition of petal underneath markings gives a unique color. , . It wll be noted that no varieties in this group are starred for being \"the best.\" E. H. Wilson and many others have made such lists which may or may not be serviceable today. This issue of ARNOLDIA will have served its purpose well if it brings to the attention of all rhododendron enthusiasts the very important fact that there is a striking similarity among the colors of many of these rhododendrons. Only a comparatively few varieties need be grown for general landscape purposes. ~ DONALD WYMAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Peters Hill","article_sequence":7,"start_page":38,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24210","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260b325.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Farrand, Beatrix","article_content":"PETERS HILL when Professor Sargent was studying and determining the thorns, was the horticultural zoo in which the various species were asairplane view of the hilltop, when the crataegus were young, reminds one of an old-fashioned country pincushion with pins neatly arranged in radratin~,r lines: not a pm out of place. The thorns prospered on the hill, in spite of poor soil and lack of water-in fact they flourished so well that after twenty or more years their young seedlings sprang up among the parents and the older trees grew until they touched and their branches wove into each other. 4~'lrile they were in bloom and in fruit the hillsides were a beautiful sight, but the young thorns came up with such vigour that the whole area became a jungle. It was difficult to decide on a fresh start but a decision was urgent, as the trees were not only interwoven but the thickets below them were grave fire hazards. The die was cast, and most of the old trees were uprooted, leaving the hill bald and bare, with myriads of seedling thorns sprouting everywhere. A thorough cleaning thus became necessary, and the slopes looked even more defaced and tortured when strips of grass were sown in order to try and get rid of the invading shrublets which made a part of the fire hazard. Old friends of Peters Hill have shown their interest in the work of restoration done in the last year; the whole space is now being restudied and planting will begin before long. 'ork has started to change an overgrown and tangled slope to what may again be a typical and attractive New England upland. In former days there were many sorts of thorns assembled in the hillside pincushion plantation and of these a considerable number were so nearly alike in horticultural value that they could wisely be discarded in a re-arrangement. The conspicuously different species will be kept in the new planting so that the layered branches of the thorns of the cockspur type will show their beauty and characteristics, and others will display their several differences of growth, time of flowering or srze, colour and time of fruiting. They will be more widely separated than in the past and consequently will show their varied beauties. The plan in the middle pages of this bulletin will show the lines on which the replanting is being considered. I,rke all plantations, its outlines, in order to blend with slopes and natural features will--lihe timetables-be subject to change without notice. The idea underlying the new treatment of the hillsides is to adapt the plantation and walk lines to the hill contours and fit them to the steep slopes. There are occasional shelves on the h~ll where walks can be placed with little alteration in the natural grades, therefore the plantations will follow these walks or occasionally stand free in the open. Peters Hill is typical of many denuded and thin-sorled New England knolls, but the view from rt surpasses many others, with a distant prospect of the City of Boston as well as a wide sweep of country, while the foreground is full of the J Peters Hill sembled. An old IONG ago :38 colour and interest of the main body of the Arboretum. The very top is destined to be kept for an open view with radiating vistas. The summit will be reached by grass walks, following the contours of the hill and rising by easy grades. The circumference road will remain unaltered, but opposite the Bussey Street entrance an inviting breadth of grass will lead gradually to diverging walks between the new plantations of thorns and crabapples. There have been many new species of crabapples discovered, and still more Malus hybrids produced since the early days on Peters Hill. The finest of the old crabapples will be carefully preserved and the newer sorts and hybrids added to the old plantation, as plants, like people, need to have the younger generation grow up around them. The Malus plantation will be considerably enlarged, especially at the north and east sides of the road surrounding and climbing around the hillside. There is room for nearly double the number of crabapples of former years, and on the lower level near the railroad tracks an open space will give room for a collection of poplars, hybrids and species, which should thrive in the situation and should beneficently veil some of the railroad activities and groups of small houses beyond the lines. Access to the plantations was not easy in the old design, as slopes were steep and brambles and vicious young thorns caught the investigator, literally by the coat-tail. The new walks will be concealed between plantations, so that, as at the start, the general aspect of the slope will show a series of groups of allied and harmonious members of the rose family. The chief Malus and Crataegus plantations will face the visitor coming in from the Arboretum across Bussey Street and will cover the ground below the road, enlarging the present Malus group to the eastward and climbing up more than half the height of the hill. It is intended to have these plantations fairly narrow so that students and visitors will have easy access to both sides of any group. As the walks wind spirally around the hill, gaining height as they progress, the character of planting will change. For example, on the east side of the hill an old wood road follows a natural shelf above a moist hollow, in which alders and other plants flourish which crave more dampness than the re~t of the hill can provide. nearly A fine grove of native trees, predominantly oaks, climbs up one side of the hill to the very top. It is hardly necessary to say these will not be disturbed, because a loop of the upper walk will traverse the grove and give variety to the picture unfolded before the visitor. On coming out of the grove the bare top of the hill will show visitors the wide prospect of Arboretum, suburban settlements and a distant view of the tall buildings of Boston. This hill top is like many hundred others in New England, dome shaped, nearly bare of vegetation and desperately poor in soil. Therefore the new plantations must take all these considerations into account, and no plants should be set out which are incapable of fighting their own battles against wind, cold and 39 There may be no plants in the planters repertory that can completely fill this programme, but at least an effort will be made to try and meet the conditions, and thus dem~nstrate to some visitors how to solve a difficult problem near home. This fiercely windswept and uncompromisingly dry hillside is to be used as a trial ground for the most vigorous and sturdy of the low growing shrubs that help p to clothe many a picturesque Massachusetts slope. The lowest growing of the junipers, found in deserted inland pastures, will be used together with dwarf blueberries and wild roses, all of which maintain themselves unaided where Nature plants them on bare hills. If man's planting of these same little shrubs can be even moderately successful at first, later on Nature will help in spreading and increasing the swaths of brave plants which form patterns on many barren slopes. The persistent colour of junipers throughout the year, the scarlet and maroon flames of roses and blueberries remain in many memories of autumnal beauty. A group of larches surviving from the early plantations is still in good condition on the southeast high hill levels. These are pleasing in spring when the tender green of the young needles shows brilliantly, and again in autumn when the deciduous needles turn to gold before they fall in preparation for the winter. Near the larches a small grove of tall tree cherries and plums will be planted, since types like the double flowering English Mazzard (Prunus avium fl. pl.~ and the American Cherry (P. serotina) are large in stature and demand more space than can be found in the older part of the Arboretum. There are many tall growing forms of cherry and plum which are attractive in spring and as full of character in their winter structure as some of the thorn tribe. The Japanese forest tree cherries hke Prunus serrulata, Prunus Sargenti, and P. incisa are often forgotten by planters who are hypnotized by the reiterated nurserymen's advertisements of the smaller growing, larger flowered and shorter lived horticultural varieties. The American plums, P. americana and P. nigra are attractive and their clouds of tiny flowers on their thorny black branches make them the fairest of trees in their season. There are many interesting species in the old conifer collection on the Walter Street side of the hill and these will be preserved and cared for. For some reason this cold dry northern slope of Peters Hill seems friendly ground for some of the cone bearers and the Japanese Pinus densiflora and P. Thunbergi have grown well, in company with Picea Glehnii and our native red spruce, P. rubens. This seems likely ground for some of the conifer hybrids and among them and feathering them down to the paths and roadsides some of the dwarf pines and spruces will be set out among their taller relatives. There are, moreover, advantageous coves and curves in the old conifer groups where new and young trees will be planted and the new thorns and crabapples will have the benefit of a dark evergreen drought. background. Peters Hill in the difficult war years became more and more of a \"problem 42 a change of treatment and arboricultural reform seemed All reforms are uncomfortable and while in process they seem more like destruction than construction, but before long the plantations planned for the hillsides should at least give promise for the future, and as time passes the new crabapples, thorns, cherries, plums and conifers will bring a renewal of beauty to the slopes. The hard conditions imposed by the situation demand the use of plant material resistant to wind, cold, heat and drought and when these become established they should show future students and visitors what may be used on many a like situation. It is a long walk from the arid slopes of Peters Hill to the low lying ground near the Administration Building, but in fancy it can quickly be traversed and the plantation of deciduous rhododendrons appraised in the new position chosen for them. Most of them will appreciate the moister situation than the one on which they have fought and held their own on Bussey Hill. The past dry summer has been hard on newly planted shrubs, especially those which like azaleas like to feel there is moisture nearby if they need it for refreshment after a hot summer day. Much care has been given the new groups of ericaceous plants and although a few of the less vigorous have perished, the long sweep of azaleas has weathered the crisis better than could have been expected. The first crucial summer is past and soon the filling of gaps can proceed as there can be no family more varied than the members of the heath family ; each with distinction of growth and elegance of bearing. All have a peculiar beauty, whether those covering the ground like bearberries (Arctostaphylos Uva ursi) and the heathers, or of medium height like the Chinese azalea, or of tree-like form like the Manzanitas (Arctostaphylos Manzanita) of the Siskyou~ with their glowing red stems and glossy deep evergreen leaves. The neatness of their leafage, the dark shades of the persistent leaved sorts, and the magnificent autumnal colour of many of the deciduous kinds make them welcome in any garden or planting where the soil is free of lime and light enough to be to their liking. The line of azaleas and their friends, companions, and allies should in a comparatively short time give interest and beauty to the graceful curves of the Meadow Road. The last two or three years have been difficult for everyone at the Arboretum and for visitors as well : many old trees and shrubs have had to be taken out in order to save and give space to their neighbours. Heavy pruning, temporarily defacing in some instances, has been necessary, but the crest of the hill of rehabilitation has been surmounted and in the years ahead the confusion and the difficulties will be forgotten and the patience of visitors and persistence of workers will be rewarded. The rehabilitation of Peters Hill has been made possible through the interest of a friend of the Arboretum. child\" consequently necessary. BEATRIX FARRAND 43 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Growing Rhododendrons from Seed","article_sequence":8,"start_page":45,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24205","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260a36f.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Filmore, Richard H.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 NOVEMBER 4, 1949 GROWING RHODODENDRONS FROM SEEDS Seed Collection and Storage NUMBER 10 fruit of the rhododendron is a five to ten celled capsule. Every capsule contains many seeds. In the ca~~e of true species, each viable seed will reproduce substantially the same characteristics as the parent plant. Named varieties and hybrids will not, of course, come true from seeds. These special forms, however, may be grown from seeds in an effort to secure new and better THE normally varieties. The best date for collecting rhododendron seeds will vary somewhat with the species and with the season. Thus, in 1948, Rhododendron dauricum capsules had dehisced on October twenty-first, while R. obtusum kaem~f'eri capsules were still green. In 1947, R. calendulaceum were well ripened on October twentieth, but in 1948, they were still green on the same date. The ideal time for collection is when the capsules are just beginning to dehisce. It is usually possible, however, to collect well developed capsules for later dehiscence in bags or packets. This eliminates the risk of losing the seeds and frequently makes it possible to collect both early and late maturing species on the same date. In the Arnold Arboretum, seeds of most rhododendron species can be collected during the last three weeks of October. If rhododendron seeds are dehiscing when collected, they may be packeted at once and stored in a cool, dry place. Unopened capsules will release their seeds more in porous cloth a warm, dry room. They may be spread out on paper or packed bags. Capsules which fail to dehisce may contain good seeds. Such seeds can be obtained by crushing the capsules and screening out the debris. If it is too difficult to do this, the seeds may be sown uncleaned. Rhododendron seeds will keep well for several months in ordinary envelopes or seed packets. If seed is to be kept for longer periods, it should be tightly sealed in glass bottles and preferably stored in a refrigerator. rapidly in 45 Soil for Seeds Rhododendron seeds will germinate in a wide ~ariety of soils, but a rather acid, is best. Plenty of organic matter and good drainage are both necessary for successful growth. A mixture containing about equal parts of sandy soil, sand and leafmold or peatmoss should give good results. 1BIany successful growers use pure sphagnum peatmoss. At the Arnold Arboretum, we have had excellent results with equal parts (by volume) of coarse sand, Canadian peatmoss, and horticultural grade vermiculite.This mixture has the advantage of good aemtion while retaining sufficient water for good growth. We add one level tablespoon of a complete fertilizer (5-8-7) to each standard flat (3x 12x~?4 inches) of this mixture. sandy soil Damping-Off already populated by many other nitrifying bacteria, are useful to plants, but many others, such as the fungi which cause damping-off, are definitely harmful. Since the damping-off organisms are present in most soils, even in good \"clean\" sand, damping-off is the most widespread and serious juvenile disease of plants. Seedlings may be attacked both before and after emerging from the soil. Many of the failures which are attributed to poor seeds are doubtless caused by pre-emergence damping-off. The toppling over of young seedlings has been observed by most gardeners. The fungus hyphae grows both through and between the cells and the young stem soon becomes fatally weakened. The disease may be confined to a small area, but once established in a seed pan or flat, it will often spread very rapidly. A thousand seedlings can be reduced to a dozen survivors within a few days. Since the disease is soil borne, it can be most effectively controlled by treating the soil. Heat treatment: The damping-off fungi can be destroyed by heat. A temperature of 180 F. for one hour is effective. Soil which is to be pasteurized by heat should be fairly moist before the treatment is begun. Small quantities may be treated in an oven or by drenching with boiling water. Treated soil must be allowed to cool before planting. The heat treatment has the added adBantage of killing weed seeds. The chief disadvantage is that the treatment may seriously Seeds are usually planted in soil which is organisms. Most of these organisms, such as upset the balance of soluble mineral nutrients in the soil. Chemical treatments: There are numerous chemicals which will assist in the control of damping-off, but formaldehyde gas is probably the most effective. This gas is readily available as commercial formalin, which contains about 40~o form- aldehyde dissolved in water. It must be emphasized that the fumes of formaldehyde are very injurious to growing plants, although relatively harmless to dormant * Vermiculite is a micaceous ore which contains a small amount of water. The raw ore is ground into particles which are then exploded by heat. There is a water resistant type which is not suitable for most horticultural purposes. Vermiculite is widely distributed under such trade names as Terra-lite and Mica-Gro. 4(j ' o 9 o yu~ o `~ :c c 0 - >. -_ U+ G o .\" J) ~ ro J- .: o 0 - :~ \" '\" 2'SS iJ .::: \" R a ~?~ ...<:::;:: y '\" C\" \" ~00 _G \";::: s o 0.. 0 . ~roro g a ;; y~ c a~ o h . 00 ~b o -0 ~= ~ i~ o ~\"\"\"~ o ~- 0 a v~ O U ~r '\" . -\"\"'4: ~o 0 .. 0.. (fJ 'z' 3 'b a ' E p ,47 Q) E; ~n w&.#x3.~.~acn~a\"\"\".o ~ .~ '\" ....<:: a~ a~:;i...oa U~ :~ .c ~ ;: cd ~'wc ~ ~ ~' 3 ~_o ~ '\" ......<:: y00 ~'..... ~3 '\" U ...0~.r y~ . ~ :3 ~ \"'\" ~...<:: ..... 00 U'>UO ~~a ~~ ~ 'sw .. F .. ,, ^, 0 ~ o . : '\" ; B ~ ~~^'3 ^I E a .E~a \" 00 s 's s s ~w H 1- 'a ~ 3 '+\"> u a \"~: : -:S:; r: '\"0 E-&#~C3x ; \" '\" ~~M seeds. At full strength, formalin will burn the skin and long exposure to the fumes may irritate the eyes. It is not a dangerous chemical, however, and it is reasonably agreeable to work with. At the concentrations recommended in this article, it is possible to sow rhododendron seeds in treated soil immediately following treatment. There are two methods of applying formalin to seedsoil. It may be added full strength in the process of mixing, or it may be used as an aqueous solution in watering seeded pots or flats. A liberal initial watering with a solution containing one teaspoon of formalin to two gallons of water will give good protection. In the experiments reported below, the formalin was added directly to the seed soil at the rate of one teaspoon per three standard flats (~x 12x24 inches). The formalin was first mixed with a small amount of soil and this small amount was then mixed into the entire batch. When antibiotics were used for additional protection, no formalin was added to them directly. They would, of course, receive plenty of gas from the treated soil. Seeds which germinate in one day, such as willow and poplar, would be destroyed by this treatment. It is necessary to wait a few days before planting such quick germinating seeds in treated soil. (In an outdoor treated seed bed, it is best to wait several days before sowing any seeds. Formalin volatilizes much more slowly under outdoor conditions. The aqueous solution is most convenient for treating soil in cold frames, etc). Rhododendron seeds germinate rather slowly. Even the most rapidly developing species will be relatively inactive for the first few days. Meanwhile the damping-off organisms will have been killed and the seedlings may have time to grow through the most susceptible stages without injury. The soil will usually become re-infested within a very few weeks, since the effect of the treatment does not last long. Indeed, this short-term protection is the chief disadvantage of the treatment. The long-term protection required by most woody plants, including rhododendrons, makes it desirable to sow the seeds on a layer of material, which will resist the growth of the damping-off and other harmful organisms, but at the same time permit the successful development of the desired seedlings. Such substances are called antibiotics because they resist the growth of the organisms which cause damping-off. Antibiotics: During the past two years, the writer has experimented with growing rhododendrons in five antibiotic substances. These substances were sphagnum moss, soft-wood sawdust, fly-ash, vermiculite, and Flowerite. * In 1948, nine important species were grown on the first four of these substances. Flowerite was substituted for the fly-ash in 1949 and five other species of rhododendrons were included. Seeds of each species were grown in five seed pans, four pans with antibiotic substances and one pan as a seedsoil control. Some of these substances such as sphagnum moss, soft-wood sawdust and prob* as a Flowerite is the trade name of a very lightweight granular material which is described sterile mineral sponge. It may be obtained from the Floral Mart, Portland, Oregon. 48 s Q) n a a '\" . f a a '@ w a~ ca C. a~ a~ U) are true antibiotics, while the others, vermiculite and Flowerite, may much of their effectiveness to their initial sterile condition. In any event, seedlings developed well in all of these substances insofar as control of dampingoff was concerned. There are important differences, however, in the growth rate of the seedlings. Growth has been very poor in fly-ash and poor in soft-wood sawdust. The fly-ash used was too fine to permit good aeration. It is quite possible that a comparatively coarse grade would have produced better results. Hardwood sawdust, which is preferable to soft-wood, would undoubtedly have produced ably fly-ash owe good seedlings. During the first few weeks, the seedlings developed very slowly in Flowerite, but after several months, they were nearly as good as the best seedlings in vermiculite and sphagnum moss. The reasons for this early inhibition and later relatively rapid growth are unknown to this writer. Although very slow growth of seedlings in the early stages may make pure Flowerite an unsatisfactory substance in which to germinate rhododendron seeds, it is an interesting material which may yet prove very useful in other phases of rhododendron production. Of the five substances under consideration, only vermiculite and sphagnum moss produced a satisfactory development of seedlings under the conditions of these experiments. Both from the standpoint of seedling emergence and subsequent growth, there appears to be no important difference between them. Sowing Seeds Rhododendron seeds may be sown at any time from November to May and sowing dates will vary greatly from grower to grower. Since most growers work m greenhouses or conservatories where spring comes early, many rhododendron seeds are sown in mid-February. This is the standard practice at the Arnold Arboretum. There is probably no reason, however, why good seedlings should not be produced in a sheltered cold frame. If seeds are to be planted in a cold frame, sowing should be delayed until April or May, depending upon locations and seasons. Antibiotics should be equally effective both out-of-doors and in greenhouses. Preparation of pots or boxes: If an antibiotic is to be used, the flats or pots should be filled to within about one and one quarter inches of the top with good seedsoil. This soil should be evenly distributed, carefully levelled and slightly firmed. An additional three quarters of an inch of vermiculite, or sphagnum moss, will make an excellent seed bed. Vermiculite should never be firmed, but merely made smooth and level. Sphagnum moss may be slightly firmed. It is advantageous to have these materials reasonably moist before use. Horticultural grade vermiculite requires no screening,'but sphagnum should be rubbed through a onequarter-inch mesh. If no antibiotic substance is available, the flats or pots should be filled with formalin treated seedsoil. Good control of damping-off may sometimes be secured through the use of formalin alone, but both formalin and anti50 used in these experiments. After the surface of the material has been smoothed, it will be ready to receive the seeds. Sowing the seeds: Rhododendron seeds vary in size. Rhododendron calendulaceum produces relatively coarse seeds and R. vaseyi comparatively fine seeds. V~'ith most rhododendrons, sufficient clean seeds for a five-inch pan can easily be grasped between the thumb and first finger. The finer the seed, the easier it is to sow it too thickly. Thin, even sowing is the goal. A liberal watering, immediately after sowing, will wash the seeds into the surface of the bed. If formalin has already been added to the soil, use plain water; if not, use formalin solution. Covering is not necessary and not desirable at the beginning, although a little fine material may be added after the seedlings have biotics firmed were or begun to emerge. for germination will vary with the species. Rhododendron be in the seed-leaf stage in about ten days. Most other species require more time. In general, the seedlings should develop two or three true leaves and be ready for transplanting in six or eight weeks. required .schlipperrbachi should The time General Culture to Rhododendron seedlings will develop in a wide range of temperatures, but 60 70 F. is probably ideal. The young seedlings may be injured by high temperatures, especially if they are not carefully shaded. If, as is usually the case, they are being grown in a greenhouse, extra heavy shade should be provided during the first few warm days of spring. The seedlings require plenty of water; lack of water is one of the main causes of failure. It is best to water seed pans from below either by partial immersion in water, or by placing the pans on sand which is always kept very wet. A piece of glass laid flat on the rim of the pan will help to conserve moisture. This may be of great value under average home conditions, although it will not be necessary in most greenhouses. The glass should be turned every morning to prevent excessive condensation on its lower surface. If this glass is used too long after the seedlings have begun to emerge, they will be spindly. Growth of rhododendron seedlings will often be impro~ed by an occasional watering with Dunlop's nutrient solution. This solution contains one level teaspoon each of ammonium sulphate and potassium nitrate in one gallon of water. If the seedlings are developing too slowly, this solution should be used once every ten days. It is especially valuable when antibiotics are used, since these may contain little or no mineral nutrients. Once the seedling roots have reached the fertilized seedsoil, the nutrient solution will probably be unnecewary. e Although rhododendron seedlings have been successfully grown by using a wide variety of methods and materials, the procedures recommended here have proven very satisfactory at the Arnold Arboretum. A later bulletin will discuss the development of the rhododendron plant beyond the small seedling stage. RICHARD H. FILLMORE .~1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The James R. Jewett Beach Plum Award","article_sequence":9,"start_page":52,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24214","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260816f.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"THE JAMES R. JEWETT BEACH PLUM AWARD The James R. Jewett Award was established in 1940 \"for the scientific and empirical improvement of the beach plum (Prun zus maritima) including, however, the social significance of work with this native species or its products.'' This year the award has been given to the Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Association to support their work in beach plum improvement and in maintaining proper standards of beach plum products. Many superior varieties of beach plums have been selected, and one of the objectives of the Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Association is to test these varieties and to select new ones. Another objective of the Association is to maintain proper standards of beach plum jelly sold in stores and roadside stands. It seems that some of the beach plum products are a mixture of beach plums and apples, although perhaps not in the ratio of one beach plum to one apple as has been facetiously suggested. The Association plans to issue distinctive labels which should insure both the processor and the public against inferior products. The Arnold Arboretum is doing some experimental work with beach plums. We have six of the named varieties and are studying means of propagation. The use of Prunus tomentosa as a root stock may make transplanting a less difficult problem, especially where plants must be moved for some distance. All of the beach plum varieties are good ornamentals and the fact that they bear edible fruit only increases their value as ornamental plants. 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Looking Toward Beach Plum Cultivation","article_sequence":10,"start_page":53,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24209","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260af6e.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Graves, George","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 DECED1BER 30, 1949 e No~s~es 11-1? LOOKING TOWARDS BEACH PLUM CULTIVATION beach plum, Prunus maritima, in typical form, is a rugged bush native the coastal areas of northeastern United States. As part of the wild landscape in that section it is most showy when in flower during May. So white and so bold is its display of bloom that back in ]932 Edgar Anderson and Oliver Ames of the Arnold Arboretum were able to plot the wild distribution of the plant from the air. ( 1 ) This purely decorative feature has not been overlouked by landscape planters, especially, where fairly large groupings which call for little in the way of maintenance are being considered. Once established, even on poor soil, along roadsides or in informal, unpruned hedges or mass plantings elsewhere, the beach plum will pretty much take care of itself, and bloom well every year. Later in the season, except, perhaps, on the double-flowered form which Wilfrid Wheeler has found growing in Falmouth, Mass., the flowers give way to small plums which have long been prized for jelly making and preserving. Whereas, the show of bloom is an annual event, pollination failure, pests or other causes prevent the blooms from eventuating in clean, ripe fruit on all plants every year. Seaside residents who have for generations picked beach plums from the wild as a delightful and useful part of nature's bounty know that a good crop or \"throw\" oftener than one year in three is exceptional. Whether or not intensive cultivation with its attendant pruning, feedmg and spraying will always result in better fruit-set and more regular bearing remains to be seen. Pruning to keep the tops of the plants well furnished with two and three-year branches, feeding to increase the nitrogen supply and spraying to protect the fruits which do form have shown beneficial effects where tried. (2) (3) Still to be further investigated is the matter of pollination as it may become a factor in planning plantings to avoid crop failure due to self-sterility which seems common among beach plums. (4) Also, there is the question of the influence of THL~, to 53 weather at flowering time as it may affect the activities of pollinating insects and also prevent the complete fertilization of the flowers after actual pollination has taken place. Failure of complete fertilization may explain why, in some years, fruits form but are quickly aborted. Such a study should prove especially important if plantings of clonal stocks are to be made. Clonal stocks are the vegetatively produced progeny of certain individual plants selected for increasing because of fruits of outstandmg quality, heavy or regular bearing or other desirable properties. Such young plants, being actual pieces of the parent plants, should resemble them in every respect. Before extensive plantings of this sort are made it will be well to learn something definite about the behavior of the particular clones or varieties being set as regards self-sterility and, also, crossing with each other. In order that information may be gained on this subject, plants of the numerous clonal varieties now being named are being assembled at the Arnold Arboretum for observation in an area where beach plums do not grow wild. Where the plant does appear plentifully in a wild state ~n nearby fence rows, pollination of beach plum flowers during a season favorable to insect activity may be expected to present no problem. Nor should there be any pollination difficulty when the soil conservationist's practice of planting seeds in rows on the contour to grow to maturity in place is followed. According to this scheme, a planting should be thinned after fruiting has started, leaving only sturdy plants which bear high quality fruits. In this way, size of fruit, smallness of seed, desirable color and approximately simultaneous blooming ~an be established throughout a planting. Because every individual in such an assemblage is a separate seedling, cross pollination seems likely to be assured, as may be impossible where entire plantings are made up of vegetative progeny of one or, at most, a few parent plants. There is difference of opinion as to whether it is more satisfactory to plant seeds or to go to the trouble of vegetatively propagating outstanding individual plants. Those who depend upon seeds as a means of increasing beach plums say that the average quality of the general run of fruit on their plants is not sufficiently lower to justify the bother and expense involved in vegetative propagation. In this they have caught the correct attitude that the beach plum is purely a processing fruit which is wanted in volume pretty much as it now is in the wild. They recognize that the failure of numerous past attempts to put the plant into widespread cultivation can be charged to the mistake of placing it in orchard competition with dessert plums of other kinds, and of trying to \"improve\" it according to orchard ideas. (5) What is wanted, they say, are beach plum plants in quantity and at low cost. On a vast scale. this attitude may be all right but the planter who makes a limited setting has little opportunity to select by thmning. He wants to know the potentials of the few plants on which he spends money, labor and space. Even in sizable plantings, the use of clonal varieties can simplify operations. J4 \"\" i~ F~ .D E N O Z W O J '3 bL < G '\" U U E N .c: ..... C 'b, t U5 a W m Si e a '\" <U x .0 W 0 o ~ '\" <.> '\" <U E ..-; ..... '\" .~ '\" <U <U w 0 a~ C O All plants of such a variety grown under the same conditions in the same place will have their blooms open and fade at about the same time. Thus spray applications rnay be more readily timed for etFecti~~eness against pests and the greater protection of pollinating insects. Anyone who has made plantings of beach plum plants collected at random from the wild only to have them bloom each on its own schedule between early 1BIay and late June will appreciate the value of more uniform behavior of the flwvers of whole plantings for purposes of pest-fighting alone. ' Where flowering dates Bary from plant to plant, it seems necessary to apply the first insect spray (after a general dormant fungicidal application early in the season) ,just before the first blossoms open anywhere in the planting and repeat the same spray ecery seven days until the last one has faded. In order to protect all plants as many as eight applications may be necessary, and some open flowers may be covered with poison. On the other hand, if uniformity of floweropening occurred, perhaps four sprays would do the job-just before blossoms open, when the shucks split, when the shucks fall, and seven days later. Incidentally, the materials used can be those recommended for peach tree protection. On Russell B. Stearns' planting on Chappaquiddick Island this past season a combination of materials suggested by Warren U. Whitcomb of the Massachusetts Agricultural Experiment Station gave good results. It consisted of 2 lb lead arsenate, 2 lb .i0~o wettable DDT, 4 lb wettable sulfur, and 4 lb Fermate in 100 gallons of water. It appears, then, that there is plenty of reason for the vegetative increase of clonal beach plum varieties. Furthermore, advance indications from tests now in progress are that own-root vegetative progeny are going to be just about as cheap and easy to produce as are seedlings. To date, perhaps, a dozen or more named varieties are being increased vegetatively. Some of them have been described in print and others are favorite plants which their owners consider worthy of propagation. It is not yet possible to buy plants of any of them freely. Most of these selections have been made on the basis of fruit quality without too much thought having been given to such factors as disease resistance, regularity of bearing and other particulars such as the formation on older plants of spiny, short branches which are annoying to the fruit picker. The time is coming when selections will have to be made from among the first selections. Most publicized of the named clones are those reselected from the many outstanding plants collected in the years just before the last war by J. Milton Batchelor who traveled the North Atlantic coastal area for the Hillculture Division of the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture. Since then three varieties have been named and are described as follows : Hancock\" (HC-1 ~l~\/~)-Fort Hancock, 56 N. J.-` `Small shrub 3~ high ; foliage clean, 4-6~~ annual growth; fr. 20-25 mm., flavor excellent for eating rawlittle acidity; flesh, juicy golden; pit, small; matures Aug. 1to 25; yield 1988-l~ qts. ; fr. very clean and highly attractive blue. 1938 rating 8.i. i ~o . Considered best early maturing selection.\" sweet with \"Safford\" (HC-12~2)-I'1um Island, D~ass.-\"Prostrate spreading; bush to 4~, 30-35~ spread ; clean-heavy bearer: fruit 23-~.5 mm., sweet, good fla~or, attractive deep blue, matures Aug. 13-~?8. Mr. Safford \"best beach plum on Plum Island.\" 1938 rating \"Premier\" i8.2o~0. 19~9 rating 80.9~0.\" (J~C-7J.M)2014 Plum Island, Niass.-\"Shrub 41 high with 20'spread; foliage generally clean; fruit ~4-~5.5 mm. diameter (25 fruits averaged 24.5 mm.), good blue, attractive medium productivity, badly infected with brown rot. Best selection observed on Plum Island and the best selection of beach from the standpoint of field ratings. 1941 rating 86..i~o.\" plum Also collected by Mr. Batchelor but \"Eastham\" previously named by Mr. Wheeler is : (HC-1,~.~8) (Collins)-F~astham, Cape Cod.-\"Bushy habit about ft. Inclined to be of spreading habit. Covering area 1 10 feet across. Stems upright and strong. This selection produced ~?.i to 30 bushels of fruit in 1941 and is reported to normally bear 15 bu. annually. Carries fruit well off the ground. Leaves bright light green, long, slender. Fruit large (?1to 24 mm. in diameter) to very large average 1 ~~~ in diameter, color a deep purplish crimson, very attractive heavy bloom, borne along the stem in heavy masses. Quality tart but ripening to mildly acid. Seed small. Season early September but holding well on the plant in good condition for three weeks. Very attractive in flower, would make a good landscape plant because of its dense growth and enormous clusters of flowers and, later, fruit. \" 3-4 One other of DIr. Wheeler's numerous collections has also been described in the National Horticultural Magazine as follows : 6\"-Origin Truro, Mass. Plant an upright grower with strong stems. Leaves large deep green, oval. Fruit medium size averaging 1 ~~~, light blue, very attractive. Fruit borne in great profusion all along the stems. Has real beach plum flavor but ripening to a very sweet and good flavored, quality fruit. Seed medium size. This plant has a lot of character and most attractive both in flower and fruit, particularly the latter.\" \"Wheeler Selection No. ~-5~. Spreading , Wrs. Ina S. Snow of North Truro, Mass. has tion about two selections which she considers supplied the following outstanding. informa- .57 a \"Arrowhead\" (A. 10)-An oval, freestone, blue plum with heavy bloom, and flat pit. The bush is 20 or more years old, on a bank sheltered from north and east, and from west and southwest by pines. The plant measures about 1~? feet across and bore a bushel of fruit m 1949. \"Snow\" roundish blue plum with usual-shaped pit and excellent flavor. The bush is about 25 years old, is 10 feet across and is now beginning to get high in the middle. It is now being pruned for the first time. It is an annual bearer-this year about a bushel, last year about a peck. It has northern exposure and is surrounded by a mixed group of red and purple plums, none of wh~ch isery good. (A. 14)-A Still another variety which originated as a wild plant in Eastham, Mass. has been distributed by J. H. Putnam of Orleans, Mass. Its description as supplied by notes taken by John S. Bailey of the University of Massachusetts is as follows : \"Putnam\" (J H 1')-\"lledium to large size, largest inches in diameter, dark reddish purple, good flavor, clingstone, yellow flesh, large plum-like stone, 2x,~-~ 4 inches. This looks like an unusually large, promising, well-flavored beach plum. The bush is a vigorous, upright type.\" The New Jersey Agricultural Experiment plants of the following: Station has just made available \"Raribank\" (New Jersey ~~1)-\"Selection from the wild near Old Bridge, N.J. : established on New Jersey Horticultural Farm, No. 2 since 193~?. Large tree (as large as medium size peach tree), vigorous, purplish red fruit, freestone, good quality. Has beenery resistant to brown rot and free of Japanese beetle attacks. Makes excellent jelly, and can be canned as whole plums.\" Raribank is self-sterile which necessitates the planting of one pollimzer with lots of less than ten or ten per cent pollinizers with larger settings. In New Jersey, two clones which blossom at the same time are being recommended for planting with Raribank. They are New Jersey ~~?9 and New Jersey 30. already been suggested, very high fruit quality and very large fruits only criteria for the selection of beach plum clones for propagation. Where high fruit quality is linked with annual bearing as is the case with the variety \"Snow,\" the grower is fortunate. Where it is not, perhaps, regular bearing is the more important factor. A number of observers, notably ~9r. Wheeler and Mr. Stearns, have picked out varieties which seem to bear fruits regularly both in the wild and in cultivation, while plants of known better fruit quality nearby do so only occasionally. In the present state of advance of beach plum cultivation, these more dependable, if not so glamorous varieties may supAs has may not be the J~ ply a partial answer to the demand for beach plums in quantity and borne regularly, on submarginal land with considerable modification of the rules of textbook orcharding. As matters stand, very few beach plum plants are under actual cultivat~on. Most of the plants are still in the wild. To learn the beha~ ior of the plant we still study it in the wild. We recall that, as Humphrey D7arshall pointed out in his original description, \"This grows naturally towards the sea coast.\" It may grow naturally in the area just back from the shure or, at times, high up on the beach itself but that is no hmdrance to its being planted in other locations. The beach plum should grow well almost anywhere m this country. During the long history of the successive abortive attempts to popularize this species, rt was grown and fruited far from the sea, even as far west as the Plains States. Usually, transplanting to more fertile soil than that of its wild range makes for vigorous growth and greater ultimate size of plant. Instead of the starved, windwhipped growth possible in some of its wild coastal stations, a tree-like habit may often be assumed. Sometimes, without being moved from wild surroundings back from the sea but where the soil is poor, volunteer plants have responded to feedin the same manner. where beach plum plants abound there is great variability displayed in habit from plant to plant. On upland areas back from the shore, differences in stature can often be the result of mere differences in age. Just what the life expectancy is is a matter for conjecture. Surely, it is much greater than that of he who sets the plants or picks fruit from them. More than one seaside patriarch can point out wild plants from which he has been picking fruit for as long as he can remember. Such ancient specimens hold on to hfe, apparently, because they are so deeply rooted that passing surface conditions like drought affect them almost not at all. Then, too, especially away from the beach on more loamy land, they throw out far-rangmg shallow roots which often send up suckers to cause extension of the main plant into a thicket-like patch ~ ith the passing of the years. It is surprising that from the vast numbers of ripe fruits which fall ing and manuring In coastal areas to the seedlings spring up. habit, beach plums appear as wide-spreading patches of upright growths less than a foot tall. This can be explained by both age and environment. Such low patches are usually found both building and binding dunes just back from the high water mark of the sea but could occur in other places where the surface soil is not stabilized. Anyone who digs into such a planting soon discovers that there is much more plant beneath the soil surface than there is above it. The sequence of development was that seedlings got started on the spot long ago when the surface was level and not too far above the beach. As the wind-blown sand or soil was caught by the low branching of the beach plums and by beach grass and other vegetation, much of the top growth e of the beach plums was buried, leaving only the growth of a year or two abo~e ground beneath such plants, few Sometimes, at the other extreme of 59 ground, In the years that followed, the struggle to keep from being engulfed continued as the soil piled up. Plants taken from such a location have shown great vigor when transplanted to the strong soil of an inland location. Another interesting fact about these all but buried plants is that they fruit more regularly. This suggests that the reflected warmth of the sand may have some helpful inHuence on flower pollination, and that low plants are more desirable than treelike ones in some locations. 4~'hile environment ~s probably the greatest influence making for variability of branching and growth habit, inheritance of genetic factors in varying combinatmns is a probably more s~gnificant cause of differences, plant to plant. Time of blooming can be varied by ew ironment but seems also to be genetic. Foliage characters, time of ripening, color of fruit, siie and shape of fruit, size and shape of seed, resistance to disease and other such inherited variables difler so much from plant to plant that it is an easy conclusion that no two beach plum plants are alike. Perhaps, they are not but data published about thirty years ago by John Y. Pennypacher show that these characteristics are associated in a sufficiently systematic manner to establish eight major varieties-small- and largefruited blue, purple, red and yellow. Selections of the large-fruited blue variety seem to have the greatest economic promise. From the above review of the behavior and characteristics of the wild beach plum, it may be possible to reason out a few rules for the handling of the plants under cultivation. Frrst, it would appear that whether they be trees, large bushes or low bushes depends somewhat on the planter's preference and somewhat on the location of the planting. Varieties of peach-tree size and habit are going to become available for inland gardens. On the other hand, for soil-binding operations or for windy, sandy seashore planting, low spreading plants seem preferable. As for feeding, it appears that more good will be accomplished on poor, leached soil than on stronger land. Even so, there seems to be a point beyond which repeated feeding will result only in vigor of questionable value to the economy of the plants as bearers of usable fruit. Tests, as yet unfinished, indicate that liming is beneficial where the soil is very sour, as it is where most beach plum plants grow wild. After the first few years, mulching, cultivation and other purely soil surface treatments seem to have little effect because of deep rooting. However, during the year or two after setting, while the newly transplanted plants are reestablishing themselves, such practices, plus watering, are important. Beach plum plants on their own roots do not have many fine roots or well balanced radially distributed root systems. Both seedlings and plants grown from layers or cuttings usually develop one or two major roots which during the first few years after transplanting run in the direction in which they are aimed at planting time. Therefore, the understanding planter will point these roots, or what is left of them after digging, up or down the row so that he will know where the roots are (i0 c~ z ~ -C s a B a s ~:1 a m ~ x Ca .~ B 0 L N M \" ~ a i ~~ a~ ~ e ~ g s 0 w C_ s *~ t ~ n during the next few years m case he wishes planting interval, bush-type plants can be set to 10 water, feed or mulch. As for by 10 sidered in poor soil areas that setting closer in rows on 10 feet apart may be more suitable. The greater interval will be necessary on strong inland soils where peach orchard spacing may be necessary, at least, for the tree-like varieties. There are constant reports that beach plum plants do not survive transplanting in most instances. Or, if they do, they are very slow to recover and to send up new, well balanced top growth without severe pruning or actual cutting to the ground. One way to get easier reestablishment is to set plants which have been grafted or budded on the roots of some other species. One of the most likely of such understocks is Prrtuua tomerrlosa which is now bemg so used by Dr. Karl Sax, at the Arnold Arboretum. It has a radially balanced root system which is less affected by surface conditions during the year or so after planting. Also, it will make for faster top development which may lead to earlier fruiting. F. L. O'ltourke of the Michigan State College has reported that Myrobalan plum is a satisfactory understock in Michigan. Professor O'Rourke in years past was also successful with 1'rnuux trrnericttna, P. laortnltrnn and ~'. nngu.sl~f'olia as root stocks for beach plum. Just what the final outcome of setting beach plum plants worked on roots of other species will be remains to be seen. Set deeply enough, scion roots should form. If they do not, one wonders about the longevity of plants so feet, although, it is conthe contour and, perhaps, propagated. Because the beach plum is naturally so long-lived, it is the author's inclination use plants which are own-root from the start. It is beginning to be evident that they can be made to establish themselves satisfactorily by adopting a change in planting method. Instead of setting them in the natural vertical position, this writer now plants them-spring or autumn-flat on their sides on the ground in a wide hole or a furrow about eight inches deep. The roots are buried but the horizontally placed stems are left exposed to the light until new growth has started, as it will pretty much along the whole length of the stems. During the first growing season, the soil is gradually filled in about the new shoots as they extend upwards, until the soil surface is again level. By following this method, few, if any, plants have been lost and newly set plants finish the first season of growth after transplanting with up to as many as a dozen new shoots from below ground level instead of the one or two stems on plants planted in the conventional manner, if the latter are still alive. Also, under this system, the one or two root stubs on a poorly rooted plant can be aimed down at moisture if so desired. There is nothing new about this method of planting. It was recommended for the setting of holly hedges centuries ago. Even so, it is a technique of present value, especially for beach plums which are being planted for soil conservation purposes with the hope of eventual fruit to repay some of the cost and trouble of placing them to l~ind the soil. to (i o It seems, then, that with the precedents set by those other two native plants, cranberry and blueberry, something in the way of economic development may be expected from the beach plum. There are many people who thmk so. Fortunately, these beach plum enthusiasts are no longer working in isolation. In New England, at least, they are now organized as the Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Association. This organization, under the guidance of Bertram Tomlmson of Barnstable, Mass. is now coordmating present efforts to bring to reality something that has been talked about for generations. An earlier important step towards the exploitation of the beach plum was the establishment of the James R. Jewett prizes in 1940. Doctor Jewett, Professor of Arabic, Emeritus at Harvard University turned over the sum of five thousand dollars to the Arnold Arboretum, the income from which is to be used for the development of beach plums. Two prizes have been offered annually for the two individuals who, in the opinion of a special committee have done the most towards the exploitation of Prurrus maritima in the previous twelve-month period. These are known as the James R. Jewett prize and the Vieno T. Johnson prize, the latter commemorating an old employee of Dr. Jewett. Neither prize has been awarded every year since. Those who have won the James R. Jewett prize are D~rs. Wilfrid O. White, Vineyard Haven, Mass., 191.1 ; J. Milton Batchelor, then of the Hillculture Division of the Soil Conservation Service of the United States Department of Agriculture, 1942; Wilfrid Wheeler, Falmouth, ~Iass., 1943; Bertram Tomlinson, County Agent of the University of ~Iass. in Barnstable County, Mass., 1944; George Graves, 1943, 1948 ; Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Association, 1949. The Vieno T. Johnson prize was won by D~rs. Ina S. Snow, North Truro, ~Iass., 1941 ; William Foster, East Sandwich, Mass., 1942; Peter Hansen and his sister Mrss Anna Hansen, Truro, Mass., 1944; Fred F. Dill, North Easthani, Mass., 194.i. BIBLIOGRAPHY (1~ Anderson, Edgar and Ames, Oliver. Botanizing from an Airplane. Arnold Arboretum Bulletin of Popular Information, Series 3, Volume 6. Jamaica Plain, :l~ass., August 15, 193`1, Numbers 10 and 11. (`Z) Tomlinson, Bertram. The Culture of Beach Plums. Extension Service of Massachusetts State College, Special Circular Number 46, Revised. Arn- herst, MasS., tural 1941. (3) Bailey, John S. ber 1944. Experiment Station Bulletin, The Beach Plum in Massachusetts. Massachusetts AgriculNumber 41?. Amherst, Mass., Decem- 63 ) Penny packer, John Y. Observatiuns on the Beach Plum, a Study in Plant Variation. Contributions from the Botanical Laboratory of the University of Pennsylvania, Volume t, Philadelphia 1919. Number z, pages ~3? to 269. Well illustrated. (,>) Graves, George. The Beach Plum, Its Written Record. The National Horticultural Magazine, April 1944. Washington, D.C. Pages 73 to 9 i, A review of beach plum literature. GFGRGF _ - GR4VI~.S* *l:dltOiS NoteMr. Graves became interested in the beach plum over ten years ago and has done a great deal of work with it in the form of propagation, growing and experimentation during the course of that time. This article, together with the information contained in the bibliography, should bring our information up to date concerning this plant. 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume IX","article_sequence":11,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24207","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e3d260a76a.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME IX Illustrations Acer campestre compactum, 2 \" are in bold face type Huntington, Henry S., 19 9 griseum, \" 14 \" Z 2 platanoides columnare, Ilex crenata convexa, ? Jewett, James R., Beach Plum erectum, _~ \" rubrum columnare, 2 saccharum monumentale, Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 2 Arctostaphyllos manzanita, 43 \" l Award, 5~?,63 Johnson, Vieno T., Prize, Kalopanax pictus, 2 Lilacs, 13-16 63 uva-ursi, Arnold Arboretum, 9-12 - 43 - l~st of recommended, 14,1 ~ Lilac Path in the Arnold Arboretum, - Mulches, I Spraying equipment, 11 Azalea Border, The, 5-8 Plan of, insert, 6 Azalea, Torch, Plate II, 5 Barnes, Miss Mary P., 19 Batchelor, J. Milton, .56,63 Beach plum award, 52,63 9 - 4 color, insert, 14 6 explanatory note, 16 Liriodendron tulipifera fastigiatum, I Magnolia kobus, 11 in z \" \" L \" \" Malus \" e loebneri, 11,12 11 1 stellata, baccata mandshurica, z 2 dawsoniana, Berberis koreana, 2 Cape Cod Beach Plum Growers Asso- Malus halliana spontanea, Plate 10 o Malus III, ciation, 63 pumila niedzwetskyana var., Carpinus betulus fastigiata, 2 Celastrus flagellaris, 1 Clarke, W. B., ~?4,R6,2i,`l8 2 Cyrilla racemiflora, 2 Cytisus praecox, ,, Plate V I , 37 7 Malus purpurea \" \" lemoinei, \"Bob Wh~te,\" ? 2 4 \" \"Gloriosa,\" z ':2 \"Katherine,\" ? 2 purpureus, . Dill, F., Epigaea repens, 6 Forsythia intermedia primulina, 63 \" Fred Prince Georges,'' 4 Red Silver,\" 4 Meadow Road, new plantings along, \" \" 2 6,7 New Plants, Sources for, 1-4 Nurseries offering new plants, list L) ovata, 2 Foster, ~'illiam, 63 Graves, George, 64 8 Hall, George R., 18 Miss Anna, Hansen, Peter, 63 - of, Parkman, Francis, 63 i 19 I ~J Parrotia persica, 4 Peters Hill, 3l -44 1'eters \" 1 Hill, general plan of, bO, ~ 1'Iiilaclelphu5 \" tplendens,3#4& x C; and Plate IX, p. 55 I'ruuus ni~ra, ~? \" \" ~. \"_-ltl:rs,\" \"Belle l~aoile,\" 4~3#& x C; aar`~enti, serotina, 4~L 42 \" Philadelphus lemoinei \"Belle `l Etoile,\" l'late I, upo (I. serrulata, 42 62 ,. tomentosa, 1'we:t ~,rlehni, -4`l \" + (,~ueruu5 uubricarta, ~ ruben5. +`1 1'inus clenwHara, t`? tlmnbet'\",ri, 4`~ Ylum, Beach, ~3-d1. \" - I~Imdudeudrun Collection in Flower at the Base of Hemloch Hill, m - - - - 8 \"Arrowhead,'' 3~, i \" . I.avtllam,\" .i __ \"Hancock,\" .i(i,.i7 i - `. Yremier,\" :i \"Yutnarn,\" 38 \"Rarlbank,\" j8 \"Satforcl,'' .i; \"Snow,\" 38 - color, insert, .f?> Rhododendrons, Fluv-er Colors of Hardy Hybrid, L9-3ti L~Itodudendrons, Growing from Seeds, ~.i-.i! - Rhododendron propaeatton, l~.i-:i? Antibmttc substances, ~R,,iO -- Dampin~-ofl~ diseaae, lfi,~.ti culture,.it -- Propagation chart, '1'able I, -- General 49 - \"Wheeler Selection No. 6,\" .i7 Plum, Beach, Plate IX, p..i.i autl 1'latc ~, (r. tiI Ylum, Mprobalan, ti`1 ~. Prinsepia sinensis, unlHora, 4 ~ \" - Seed collection and storage, 45 - Soil for seeds, 4.5 - Sowing seeds, .iO,.iI '1'reatment of Sotl, ~ti, i8 -- Rhododendron albrechti, Plate 44 VII, Prunus americana, 41 \" \" 1 Rhododendron calendulaceum, ~S,.i \" arnbustifolia, ti? tlavidiana,1. hortulana, ti~? inctsa, k? nlar:ttma, j;3-(i~ \" Rhododendron calendulaceum, Sowing Seed of, Plate VIII, opp. p. 46 1 Rhododendron catawbiense album, 31 \" \" caucasicum coriaceum, -4,i \" 30 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ` \" \" \" \" `a \" \" \"9rrowhead,\" j8 '7 \" H:astham,\" .i, \" Hancoch,\" .iH,.i i \"Yrernier,\" .i \"~'Utnam,\" .>A `a Ilaribanl:,\" .iR \"~ttHord,'' ji \"~IIOW,\" jH i dauricum, ubtusum \" \" 5 kaempferi, ~.;~ ,il I schli~Yenbaclm, \" 1 vase~o, 3 \" watereri, \" \" 31 \" \"Adelbert,\" ,33 \"Alarich,\" ;33 \"Albert,\" ,311 Album elegans,\" \"Album grandiflo31 31 i \" \"l~'heeler Select10I1 \" \" No. I f7, m j Prunus maritima, Plate X, 1 p. f rum,\" (i(i Rhododendron \" \" \"Anton,\" 31 \"Arno.\"32 16 Atrosan~_yuineurn,'* Rhododendron \"Parson Gofe,\" 84. \"Pres. Lincoln,'* 3-2> \" \" \"Purpureumelegans'' \"PurpureumgrandiS3 \"Baroness Henry Schroeder,\"30 \" ,OJ \" Itliotio(leti(ii-on '6Bella,\" 32> + ..., Bleolor, ., 3.j. \" Boule de Neige, \" 30 \" \" florum,\" H.~ Rhododendron Roseum clegans,\"' \" \"Sultana,\" 31 ~lI ,. \"Cand[d)sstmum,\"3t1 \"Caractacus.\"3.S \"Charles Barley,\"3.) \"Charles Dickens,\" \" \" .).) \" ., \" \" \"Daisy,\"33 \"Daisy Rand,\" \"Delicatissimum,''3]1 \"Destderius,\"33 \"Duke of York,\"32 Snow, Mrs. !naS.,.)7,6H Spiraea bumalda crispa, 4 '2 Spring 1949, 9-1'2 Stewartia koreana, 4 Syrmga persica laomata, 4 pubeseens, t .> vullaaris, 13,1,5 \" \" \" \" \" \" \" .- \" \" \" \"Hchse,\"34. 1\"r~va,\" { Everesttanum,\" \"Fee,\"3j Flushing,\"3~ \" \" \" 34 14 \" \"Congo,\" )3 (juinevere, 4 4Hiawatha,\" 4 Isabella,\" \"Ludwig Spaeth,\" + Miranda,\" 13 3 \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall,\"]S Rhum von Horsten..tem,\" \" \" \" \"General Grant.\"33 \"H.W. Sargent,\"3a \"Hannah Felix,\"34 I:) tl Tilia americana tastigiata, 4 \" \"HenriettaSllrgent,\" 32 \" \"Ignatius Sargent,\" James Bateman, \" ~9,2 \"James Macintosh,\" 33 \" \" Tomlinson, Bertram, 6~ Tsuga diversifolia, 4 Clmus carpinifolia sarniensis, 4 Viburnum dilatlltum xanthocarpum, opulus xanthocarpum, 4 ,. 4 4 Weigela \"Othello,\" <::5 \" \" \"Kettledrum,\"33 \"Lady Armstrong,\" \" 32 6 \" \"Lee's Purple,\" 33 \"Melton,\" 33 \" \"1B1 rs.C.C. S. Sai-,o~eiit, 34. :,6 \" \"Mrs.MiIner,\"34 \"Norma,\" 33 ) 67 Wheeler, WHtrid,3H,ti3 White, Mrs. Wilfrid 0., ti;! x Wdson, E. H., ]0,I ),)8 18 8 Wistar, Caspar, s Wisterias, the, ]7-~8 H Culture of, ] 7, 1 Flower colors of, '24-:!S Fragrance of, M Identification of, :! I, '2'2#& x3E; Introduction of, I H, 19E3x#&t ; Length of clusters, ~i - Wisterias, Order of Bloom, 22 1 2014Twining of, 19,21 Wisteria floribunda, 18 8 alba, 24 46 44 ' Wisteria venusta violacea, 28 66 \" \" \" 46 46 \" 66 6 carnea, 26 \" \" macrobotrys, 26 \" \" Wisteria floribunda macrobotrys, Plate V., opp. p. 24. and (Right), \" \"Beni-Fugi,\"26 \"Geisha,\"27 16 Issai,\" I I \"Jako,\"~6 \"KuchiBeni,\"24 \"Kyusliaku,\" 23 Longissima,\" 24 41 Plate IV, opp. p. 2]. Wisteria floribunda macrostachya, 23 \" \" \" \" \" alba,\" 2.J. \" \" 44 rosea, 19 19 9 \" \" ., \"Yiolacea plena, 8 formosa, 18 frutescens,!8 8 macrostachya, 8 sinensis, 18 \" \"Mrs.McCul]agb,\"2? \"MurasakiNoda,'\"27 64 Naga Noda,\" 27 \"Rosecraft,\"19 61 Royal Purple,\"27 RusseIIiana,\"S7 \"Sekine'sB!ue,\"27 \"ShiroNoda,\"24 \"Sierra Madre,\" 28 \" \" \" \" Wisteria sinensis, 1 opp. p. 21 (Left), 24 Plate IV, \" \" Wisteria sinensis 44 alba, \" 18 venusta, 18 ) \"Ushijima,\"27 Wohlert, A. E., 23,26 68 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23423","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160b76e.jpg","title":"1949-9","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1949,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24195","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070ab6f.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS The type tree of the new Metasequoia at Mou-tao-chi. This is a sacred tree as indicated by the small Todee temple in front of the tree, Todee meaning God of the Land. Plate I, p. 3. Metasequoia, showing botanical characters. Plate II, p. i. Sketch map showing the limited geographic area of Metasequoia, drawn from data provided by Prof. Wan-Chun Cheng. Fig. 3, p. 7. The Chinese witch hazel (Hamamelis mollis) one of the many plants introduced * by the Arnold Arboretum (190~?) now in full bloom. Plate IV, p. 11. Labels used at present in the Arnold Arboretum. Plate V, p. 15. The fiery red torch azalea (Rhododendron obtusum kaempferi) first introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum. Plate VI, p. 23. Dr. Clark covering one of his high bush blueberries at fruiting time. (Left). Illustrating the method by which Dr. Clark protects his high bush blueberries from rodents. (Right). Plate VII, p. 27. Syringa villosa (left). Syringa re~lexa (right). These prestoniae. Plate VIII, p. 30. are the parents of Syringa group Syringa presloniae \"Isabella\" one of the most prominent of all this hybrid (left). Syringa prestoniae \"Hecla\" showing a smaller and more compact cluster typical of some varieties (right). Plate IX, p. 33. The late lilac Syringa grow in the Arnold flower villosa; in background Syringa henryi \" Lutece \" as they Arboretum, Plate X, p. 3~. (Left) Check showing normal growth of Rhododendron catau~biense for two years with leaves clustered at upper end of twig growth and bud scale scars at lower end. (Right) The '46 growth of this shoot was cut in June '47 with one leaf below the cut. The axillary bud grew and developed into this fine shoot. Plate XI, p. 39. ' (Above) growth died The '47 growth of this was cut in June '47 below the leaves. The '47 back and buds on '46 growth were forced into shoots growing in iii mant '47 and '48. No shoots at time of cut. (Below) '43 growth was cut above dorbud, forcing dormant buds on both '42 and '43 growth. No buds apparent at time of cut. Plate XII, p. 41. (Above) at Rhododendron cataubiensr stub cut off 12~r above the ground with no buds the time of cutting in June '47. Showing buds developed and sprouts grew in '47, and both primary and secondary growth '48. No shoots at time of cuts. (Below) Ilex glabra stubs cut in June '48 (plants originally 8' tall) showing profuse growth developed within 60 days. No young shoots at time of cuts. Plate XIII, p. 43. form of the silk tree (Albizzia julibrissin rosea) ; close-up of flowers and the as it blooms throughout the summer in the Arnold Arboretum. Plate p. 49. Hardy tree itself XIV, Prunus \"Hally Jolivette,\" several-week conspicuous for in its double white flowers opening dur- ing a period early May. Plate XV, p. 51. (Left) Interesting bark of the true Chinese elm, Ulmus parujfolia. (Right) The fruit of Celastrus orbiculata compared with the large-fruited C. orbiculnta mqjor. Plate XVI, p. 53. Malus \"Dorothea,\" which do not crabapple noted for large semi-double pink flowers fade, and brilliant yellow fruits. Plate XVII, p. 55. a new Malus \"Katherine\" also noted for double white small red fruits. Plate XVIII, p. 57. flowers, followed by a wealth of (Upper) cum. Viburnum rlilatatum Plate XIX, p. 61. xanthocarpum. (Lower) Viburnum setigerum aurantia- iv ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Metasequoia, Another 'Living Fossil'","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24198","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070b36b.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 MARCH ~, 194H NUMBER 1 METASEQUOIA, ANOTHER \"LIVING FOSSIL\" a genus of very ancient lineage, in fact from of outside of the Cycadaceae, the most the ancient of living trees, is often spoken of as a \"living fossil.\" The sole species, once of very wide geographic distribution in the North Temperate Zone of both hemispheres, can scarcely be distinguished from fossil forms of ancient Mesozoic times. This is a beautiful example of the persistence of selected life forms, in highly organized groups, through many millions of years. Ginkgo has persisted in cultivation in China, but there are a few places in that country where it is spontaneous in limited forested areas. Whether or not it is truly native in such places, or merely occurs as a descendant from planted trees, is not definitely known. It was introduced into Japan about 700 A.D., into Europe about 1730 and into the United States in 1784. Now another striking case develops, not quite as old geologically as is the Ginkgo, through a remarkable discovery originally made by Mr. T. Wang in 1945. Metasequoia, previously known only from paleobotanic records is now shown to exist in the form of a single living species in a very limited area, and it, or its immediate ancestry, goes back to Mesozoic monotypic GINKGO BILOBA, geologic history, standpoint times. leading articles of the issue of the Saturday Evening Post for January 3, 1947, is entitled, \"There could be Dinosaurs.\" Its author discusses the possibility of some of the giant reptiles whose kin dominated the fauna of the earth in the Mesozoic era, through the Triassic, the Jurassic, and the Cretaceous times, actually existing today in the unexplored swamps of tropical Africa. He admitted that wishful thinking and vague rumors were involved and after considering the possibilities frankly stated that there is, as yet, no positive evidence that these giant reptiles do still exist. Jluch more than a strictly popular account will be needed to convince the herpetologists, although some representatives of the general public, reading the article, may be persuaded that there is the possiOne of the bility that somewhere in the world there still exist a few representatives of these giant reptiles. I have deliberately referred to the above admittedly popular article for the simple reason that in the same geologic era, the Mesozoic, when the world fauna was dominated by the great reptiles, the land vegetation was largely dominated by the Gymnosperms, the primitive flowering plants, and that a great many of the genera which then evolved are still represented by living species. This was particularly true of the Triassic and Jurassic times, but in the Cretaceous many types of Angiosperms, the highest group of flowering plants, had appeared on the scene. Various genera of these ancient Gymnosperms have persisted throughout geologic time to the present including Ginkgo, mentioned above, the genera of living Cycadaceae (the most primitive of living flowering plants) and many of the genera of that large group commonly known as the Coniferae, which make up the ancient great evergreen forests of temperate regions with which we are so familiar. Thus it was, as to time of origin from a geologic standpoint, that the period of development of and dominance of the great reptiles coincided with that of the primitive but while the great reptiles have disappeared from the scene, of the genera of Gymnosperms have persisted, and, especially in the temmany perate regions, still dominate the vegetation of vast areas, particularly in the North Temperate Zone. Actually some of the living Gymnosperms can scarcely be distinguished from the fossil forms of ancient Mesozoic times. The Mesozoic era has been defined as a succession of ages extending over a few hundred million years, but modern estimates place its duration as about 180 million years; even this last estimate is impressive enough, for to it must be added perhaps another 50 million years covered by the Tertiary down to the present time. It was toward the end of the Mesozoic era, in the Cretaceous, that the families and genera of many of the striking and most highly developed groups of flowering plants originated, the Angiosperms as contrasted to the more primitive Gymnosperms. While the animal kingdom in Mesozoic times was dominated by the great reptiles, particularly toward the end of that era, in the Cretaceous, the mammals were also developing, although during the Mesozoic none of the modern types was known and none of the immediate ancestors of man had appeared on the scene. Mr. Wang's fragmentary specimens of 1945 were supplemented by additional material collected in the following year, originally three large trees representing this strange conifer having been located in northeastern Szechuan, very close to the Hupeh border. With the additional collections made in 19~6, the discovery then developed into one of extraordinary interest in that the tree proved to be a living species of a genus, Metasequoia, which, up to that time, had been known only from paleobotanic records. Various species of North America and Asia originally ascribed to the genus Sequoia as fossil forms, proved not to belong in that genus, and in 1941 the new genus Metasequoia was proposed to accommodate flowering plants; 2 PLATE I The type tree of the new Metasequoia at Mou-tao-chi. This is a sacred tree as indicated by the small Todee temple in front of the tree, Todee meaning God of the Land. Courtesy of Dr. H. H. Hu. these; and only four years after that genus was described, a living species was actually found in China. This, because of the ancient lineage of Metasequoia, and its former wide geographic distribution (various parts of North America, Japan, Saghalien, Manchuria), is a most extraordinary circumstance. The proposed paleobotanic species are Metasequoia heerii from North America, M. japonica and M. distichrz from Japan, and M. chinensis from Manchuria and Saghalien. Assuming that all of these extinct species are actually congeneric, then, in former geologic times, Metasequoia was a genus of very wide geographic distribution, as was Ginkgo. The latter is represented by only a single living species and this apparently now persisting only because it was preserved in cultivation in China. And now this striking Metasequoia is found, confined to a relatively few individual trees scattered along small streams and on the slopes of northeastern Szechuan and the adjacent parts of Hupeh. It is sufficiently extraordinary that only four years after Metasequoia was actually described from the fossil records, that a living species of the genus should be found in China; but what is perhaps even more extraordinary is that when found, this living species, the sole surviving representative of a former widely distributed genus, was apparently not far from the verge of extinction as a living entity was in its native habitat. above, the first observer located only three trees. A second expedition by Professor V~'an-Chun Cheng of the National Central University, in 1946, and Mr. C. J. Hsueh, his assistant, who led this expedition, Nanking, brought the census up to about 25 trees. When botanical specimens were received As noted sent out part of 1946 I immediately became interested in the possibility of securing seeds of this extraordinary species, and accordingly communicated with Dr. H. H. Hu, Director of the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology in Peiping, one of the joint authors concerned with the actual description of the species. Incidentally Dr. Hu was trained at the Arnold Arboretum, receiving his Sc. D. degree from Harvard University in 1925. Dr. Hu responded favorably and accordingly a modest grant was made from the Arnold Arboretum restricted Chinese exploration fund provided by the late Harrison W. Smith of Tahiti, himself a graduate of Harvard in 1895 and long interested in matters Chinese. On the basis of this grant Professor Cheng organized a third expedition to the type locality, this also led by his assistant Mr. Hsueh. He flew from Nanking to Chungking on September 3, 1947, and arrived at Mou-tao-chi, 110 km. east of Wan-hsien, Szechuan, on September 11, where the type of the species was originally discovered. This is very close to the Hupeh border. He spent approximately three months prosecuting field work in this part of Szechuan and in adjacent parts of Hupeh. He reports somewhat more than 100 large trees representing the species, occurring on slopes, along small streams, and near rice paddies (some of the trees planted) between the altitudes of 900 and 1,300 m. scattered over an area of about 800 square kilometers. This is a region of con- at the Arnold Arboretum in the latter PLATE II Metasequoia, showing botanical characters, courtesy of Dr. H. H. Hu. siderable rainfall, with some ice and snow in the winter months. The center of its greatest abundance is in the Shui-sa-pa valley in Hupeh Province, where there are at least 1,000 of the trees, including the small ones ; but there are no z groves or forests made up of the species. In other places such as Houng-pm-ying and Mou-tao-chi, there are only a very few trees. It is of interest to note that the valley where most of the trees are now found takes its name from that of the tree, the tree itself known as shui-sa (shui=water, sa=fir or spruce), the place of its greatest occurrence being Shui-sa-pa. The largest tree which was measured was 33 m. high, its trunk 2.3 m. in diameter. While 1941 was reported as not being a good seed year, an ample supply of seeds was secured during the time that Mr. Hsueh was in the field. These were delivered in Nanking early in December; the first small sending reached Boston January 5, 1948, and a second and larger shipment is now in transit. Seeds were planted in our propagating house early in January, and many of these germinated before the end of the month. Thus it is that in due time the Arnold Arboretum will have a certain number of living plants for distribution. Following long established Arnold Arboretum practice, packets of seeds have been widely distributed to institutions in the United States and Europe. It is, of course, not known whether or not this remarkable species will prove to be hardy under the rather difficult climatic conditions characteristic of the Boston area. With excellent germination records it is now certain that we shall be able to establish this ancient but now nearly extinct type in various parts of the United States and elsewhere, for somewhere, with us, favorable climatic conditions will be found-if not in the northeast, then in the south or on the west coast. The point is emphasized that in spite of the present unfavorable economic conditions, in spite of adversities in China rendering travel difficult, and in spite of unfavorable exchange conditions, this cooperative project did succeed; that as a result an ample supply of seeds is available; that the seeds are viable; and, this being the case, the Arnold Arboretum has made an important contribution, working through its Chinese associates, in thus being involved in an attempt to preserve a remarkable conifer, and a species that in its native habitat is apparently not far from the verge of extinction. Incidentally Professor Cheng who, with Dr. Hu, cooperated with us, writes that without the modest grant made by the Arnold Arboretum, it would have been impossible for his representative to make the trip to Szechuan and Hupeh in 1947, and comments on the fact that trees are being rapidly destroyed by cutting in this region as well as in various other parts of China. He specifically mentioned Picea heterolepis Rehder & Wilson, which was described in 1914 from collections made by E. H. Wilson for the Arnold Arboretum in western Szechuan, in 1910, and a species now growing in our grounds. Not a single tree can now be found in the type locality, nor have the Chinese botanists been able to locate the species anywhere since 1932. The actual grant made by the Arnold Arboretum to finance this trip to Szechuan in 1947 was only 6 $250.00 which, because of the extreme inflation, actually yielded $9,750,000 in Chinese currency. This will give some idea of the current financial difficulties under which the Chinese botanists are carrying on their work. This new \"living fossil\" is a large tree, attaining a height of at least 1 15feet with a trunk diameter of at least i ~- feet. One of its striking characteristics is that, like the various species of Larix (larch) and Pseudolarix (golden larch), and our Taxodium (swamp cypress) its leaves are deciduous, the trees being leafless in the winter months. In general appearance the leafy branchlets suggest those of Fig. 3. Sketch map showing the limited geographic provided by Prof. Wan-Chun Cheng. area of Metasequoia. drawn from data 7 the genus Glyptostrobus. It is needless to repeat here the technical characters of this remarkable species, as these will be available when the formal description is published. All I have attempted to do has been to give the high lights regarding this remarkable discovery, and to call attention to the fact that viable seeds of the species have been received, from which young plants are now being grown. It has been argued in some quarters that we approach the condition of diminishing returns in the botanical exploration of China, a field that has long been one in which the Arnold Arboretum has specialized. This statement is doubtless true to a certain degree, but from what has appeared in extensive collections made within the past three decades, I am still of the opinion that a vast amount of field work is still called for and is still justified. This remarkable Metasequoia find bears out this belief. In spite of all that has been published on the enormously rich flora of China in the past century, and particularly within the past four or five decades, there are vast areas still remaining to be explored, and the already known flora will be very greatly increased, as to the number of actually known species, when the more recently assembled collections are studied in detail. This Metasequoia case is by no means the only one where living species of Chinese plants have generic names which were originally based on fossil forms. In the walnut family (Juglandaceae) two cases occur to me. In eastern Asia one finds the very characteristic monotypic genus Platycarya, this name proposed in 1843. An earlier name for the same group is the paleobotanic one Petrophiloides ( 1840). Actually in 1933 Messrs. Reid and Chandler in their large volume devoted to a description of the London clay flora, i.e., the fossil plants found in the clay deposits which underlie the City of London, abandoned Platycarya as the generic name for this group and accepted the earlier Petrophiloides, with the binomial Petrophiloides strobilacea (Sieb. & Zucc.) Reid & Chandl. for the living eastern Asiatic tree. The other case is more recent. In 1941 the very striking new genus Rhamphocarya, with a single species, was described from recently col- lected Yunnan material; but shortly after the description was published it was discovered that the earlier paleobotanic generic name Caryojuglnns (1935), which had been proposed to take a European fossil form, represented the same group. While in a way these two cases parallel Metasequoia, they are not as striking, for the Juglandaceae is, geologically speaking, a much more recent group than is the Coniferae; yet all three genera were formerly of very wide geographic distribution in the North Temperate Zone although the three living representatives, one in each genus, are now of distinctly restricted ranges in eastern Asia. I am able to reproduce the figures, plates I and II, through the courtesy of Dr. H. H. Hu, one showing the type tree of the species, while the other the botanical characters. The map (fig. 3) was based on data provided by Professor Cheng. Dr. Ralph W. Chaney of the University of California kindly checked the geologic and paleobotanic aspects of this short paper. E. D. MeaeiLL "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring - 1948","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24201","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d0708126.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 APRIL 2, 1945 SPRING - 1948 NUMBER 2 last-we hope-after a winter of record snowfall and record hardships to the general public. Plants did not suffer nearly as much as in the severely cold winter of 1933-34. At least this was true up until the time the snow cover melted. Since that time however, injury has been noted in many quarters and it is yet too soon to generalize on the reasons why certain plants have suffered. Some interesting points should be kept in mind when one tries to analyze the reasons for injury during the past winter. Two rather important items should be noted ; namely that there was a snow. cover on the ground in most New England areas from December 23 until about March 15, and secondly, that there were some days in most New England communities when the temperature went below zero. As has been previously pointed out (Arnoldia, 3: no. 5-6, 25-36, 1943) rather extensive injury can be expected in the Arnold Arboretum when the temperature falls below zero several times during the winter. It may be this which has caused the rather widespread leaf burning on some of the broad-leaved evergreens as well as a few of the narrowleaved types. Rhododendrons and laurel have been especially hard hit in this vicinity. Normally the answer for foliage \"burning\" of evergreens is simple-that the leaves give off water during the winter months and that when the ground is frozen and soil water is unavailable, more water may be given off during periods of high winds than is good for the plants. This winter, however, the ground (in this vicinity) did not freeze. The snow blanket came while the soil was still unfrozen, and the heavy accumulation of snow kept it from freezing throughout the winter months. In fact, there are places on high ground in Weston on the Case Estates of the Arboretum which could be plowed only a few days after the snow cover had completely disappeared. Trucks could travel over much of the high ground in the Arnold Arboretum without leaving tracks by March 18. This is most unusual. Usually there is a long period of alternate freezing and thawing during which time the soil is very muddy SPRING has come at 9 are easily made in it. The water from melting snow apparently went right through the soil with surprisingly little surface runoff. After heavy snow storms there is always a certain amount of splitting and cracking of branches and trunks where strains from the heavy snow has been too much for the framework of the tree. Surprisingly little occurred in the Arboretum this winter, yet many a prized specimen in gardens in the Boston suburbs (where snowfall has been considerably heavier) has been ruthlessly split or broken. Mice damage has been considerably more serious than in other years, both in the and tracks Arboretum and in the Boston suburbs. Some of the narrow-leaved evergreens are displaying burned foliage, but fortunately practically none has occurred in the Arboretum. In Wellesley for instance, forty-year-old trees of Cedrus libani and Sciadopitys uerticillata have been heavily burned, together with some of the more tender plants like Cryptomeria japonica and Pinus tabulaeformis. It is difficult to know why such trees have been injured in one place and not in another only ten miles distant. Snowfall was less in the Arboretum, but minimum temperatures went to several degrees below zero about five times in both places. The trees showing the most injury are those growing in a very protected ravine and there have been few high winds, practically none since the end of January. Rhododendrons and especially mountain laurel are showing much foliage burning. Whether the plants will really die back or whether the leaves only are in,jured, remains to be seen. Pruning such injured branches at this time would very likely be a mistake, since new leaf buds can quickly develop providing the twigs themselves are not seriously injured. The flower buds of some plants that are frequently killed by winter cold, have not been injured this winter. Forsythia, Lonicera fragrantissima and L. praecox, Hamamelis mollis and H. japonica, Magnolia stelhcta and many other plants have been quickly forced into flower when cut branches have been taken Indoors. This would indicate that as far as these shrubs are concerned, the winter has not been an unusually severe one. However, flower buds of Corylopsis spicata, Abeliophyllum distichum and Viburnum fragrans have been killed to some extent in the over 1 14 inches of snow and often a four-foot snowcover Estates in Weston) on the ground for weeks at a time, will be one (at the Case that is long remembered. As this goes to press, Hamamelis mollis and H. japonica are coming into full flower where grown in protected places, together with Lonicera praecox, but when grown in low areas the flower buds may have been killed above the snow line. Crocuses and snowdrops came into bloom by March 20. Acer saccharinum and Hamamelis vernalis were in full bloom by March 10. With spring very definitely on the move, a quick walk through the Arboretum shows surprisingly little plant damage from one of the worst winters on record in this part of the country. DONALD WYMAN Arnold Arboretum. This past winter with 10 PLATE IV The Chinese witch hazel (Hamamelia mollis) one of the many plants introduced Arnold Arboretum (1902) now in full bloom. by the NOTES . _ of The \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" is a new group now being formed, people who are definitely interested in the Arnold Arboretum and subscribe to some of its work in horticulture. Annual membership is on the following basis: A membership application card will be promptly sent to anyone requesting it. This group, it is hoped, will make possible some of the much-needed reconstruction necessary in the various collections of living plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum. A new dwarf hybrid sweet corn of excellent quality has been developed at the Bussey Institution, especially adapted for growing in New England. Any member of the newly organized \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" who wishes to try some of this \"Harvard Hybrid\" sweet corn may obtain seed simply by writing to Dr. Karl Sax and asking for some. Field Class A Field Class for the study of the flowering trees and shrubs as they are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, will again be held this year. The first meeting will be on Saturday, April 14, at 10:00 A.M., meeting at the Forest Hills Gate. Weekly meetings will be held every Saturday morning during May, unless prevented by inclement weather, when the class will meet the next clear weekday morning. The period is two hours long, and discussions will be held about the plants as they come into bloom during this spring season. Members of the \"Friends of the Arnold Arboretum\" are welcome to attend all classes without charge. Others must register in advance by mail and pay a registration fee. 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Labels at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24197","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070b328.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 APRIL 9, 194H LABELS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM NUMBER 3 received at the Arnold Arboretum for inof labels used on the thousands of trees and shrubs growing here. Many types of labels are available, and are being used by botanical gardens and arboretums throughout the country. The types found satisfactory here may not meet the needs of those in other areas of the country. Prime requisites for labels in the Arnold Arboretum are: 1. Low Cost. Thousands of labels must be made every year and in order to keep all of the plants labeled, the cost must be as low as possible, and the labels of such a nature as to last a long time, hence reducing the cost of replacement continually being RE(,IUESTS regarding type formation are the to a minimum. Making. All labels are made by our own staff; hence materials and methods must be limited to as little equipment as possible. Much of this work is done indoors durmg the winter months. ;i. Indestructiveness. Unfortunately, vandalism is an ever-present problem, and the types of labels used here must be indestructive. These prerequisites practically eliminate the costly baked enamel labels used in some gardens, the rather expensive plastic labels appearing in others, and some of the carved wooden labels being made of shipmast locust. Because of permanence and neatness, the hand-written or inked labels commonly recommended for amateur gardeners are not successful under conditions in the Arnold Arboretum. The types used have proved satisfactory under our conditions over a long period of time. Considerable research and much money is being spent by various industrial concerns to find paints which are weatherproof, but it is impossible to change our procedure every time a \"new\" weatherproof paint appears. In order to keep abreast of the times, we have an experimental series of labels weathering on the roof of the Administration Building, in which new types of materials are made into labels and are under continual test. Here the labels are exposed to more severe conditions of wind, sun and rain than they would normally have on the plant. These experiments have been under progress for the past ten years. Be?. Ease of 13 of the results obtained from these continuing tests, we have changed the materials we use in label making several times during the past decade, and will continue to do so whenever we are certain that better materials for meeting our particular requirements, are available. Rather than discuss these experimental results in detail, it will probably be most helpful to those interested in this problem to know the materials and methods we are using at the present time, the approximate costs, and the methods used in making these labels together with their probable life expectancy. It must be repeated that these materials are not offered as the only materials for this purpose, but they have proved satisfactory under our conditions, and are as good as, or superior to, many other types we have tried. Cost cause ' The initial cost of the equipment necessary to make our own labels is about a small paint sprayer, an embossing machine for making the record labels and rubber type for lettering the display labels. This equipment, if properly cared for, will last years (the rubber type must be replaced occasionally) and makes it possible to produce good labels of low cost during the winter months when outside work is frequently difficult if not impossible. $350.00. This includes Embossed or Record Label Every plant of sufficient size to be placed in the collections has a record label containing its record number, scientific name, the type of material which was originally received (whether plant, cutting, graft or seed), and the place from which it came, sometimes with the date, although this is also contained in the record number. These are made on ~~~ zinc tape (purchased from S. M. Spencer Mfg. Co., 3 Cornh~ll St., Boston), and punched out by our men on an embossing machine made by Roovers Brothers, Inc., 3611 14th Avenue at 36th St., Brooklyn, N. Y. The label is attached to a branch by means of No. 18 gauge copper wire, and will last as long as the wire will. Last year some were removed that must have been on the plants twenty years, and still were in perfect condition. Thousands of these are made each year, since some are inadvertently removed in pruning, others are lost\" in the center of shrubs, and still others do fall off. They cost about $.04 each, not including the labor of making them. Wooden Display Label made of either cymetal display labels, painted by spraying, press pine. They racks having been made to accommodate nearly 2000 at a time. Two coats of \" White Rhinamel \" (Tropical Paint and Oil Company of Cleveland, Ohio) are sprayed on them; then they are printed, using rubber type (R. A. Stewart and Company, Inc., 80 Duane St., N. Y.). The ink is purchased from the International Printing Ink Company. 175 Albany St., Cambridge, Mass., formula \" Special Black 46c-10~?8 i . \" A rubber roller is needed to apply the ink and a press (in our case a small binding press borrowed from the library) for making the impression. A special dyewash is used to clean the type, called \" Fedroid,\" manufactured by the James B. Matthews Co., 470Atlantic Ave., Boston, Mass. When the ink on the label has dried, usually over night is sufficient, then the These or are 8~~~ long, 1~~~ are wide and approximately ~~~ thick, as are all our 14 i a ~5 t~ a tc a _U C. ?~ `~ 60 m ro C~ cd U f. ~ S O u. \" j Q , r~ O G ro t. U ~: C m y N >W ~ ,~ s ~ N % ro H GL d ~ v a x 'T3 ~ a~ ~: a~ i~ x a a~ ~a a~ a~ g w ~ ro a y printed side is sprayed with \"Tropelite Exterior Spar Varnish\" (manufactured by the Tropical Paint and Oil Company), thus adding a year or two, to the usefulness of the label. Two holes are bored in the end of the label and it is strung with No. 16 gauge copper wire. It will last at least six years and possibly be legible for an additional three. The materials for such a wooden label cost approximately $.10, exclusive of the labor needed in making it. The speed with which these and the metal labels described below are made has been markedly sped up with paint spraying and printing with rubber type, in comparison with the older method of hand-painting and lettering by hand with linseed oil and lamp black. Several labels of a kind are made once the type has been set, those not needed immediately are filed for future use. This year nearly a third of our labeling requirements were filled from this reserve file made in former years. Metal Display Labels As seen from Plate V, these are of two types, one with two holes is put on a metal stand placed in front of a low shrub, and the other, with four horizontal slits, is nailed to a tree trunk with copper nails. The nails are placed as close together as possible so that there is some room for growth as the tree expands in girth. Both metal display labels are made of galvanized iron or cold rolled steel; in the case of the trunk label, 20 gauge and ~.~\"x6~\", and in the case of the stand label, 18 gauge and 4\"x64\". Both types are made for us by W. T. von Schoppe, 19 Palfrey St., Watertown, Mass. These labels are first washed with \"Toluol\" to remove any film on the metals, and then sprayed with \"A. C. B. Metal Primer Red\" manufactured by the Tropical Paint Company. Then a mixture of four parts \"Rhinamel Yellow\" and three parts \"Rhinamel Brown\" (mixture merely to supply the color we have used over a long period of years) is sprayed on, followed by printing and spraying with \"Tropelite Exterior Spar Varnish\" as with the wooden labels. Materials cost about $.12 per label, exclusive of labor and the stand for the stand label. Direction signs are placed about the Arboretum to show visitors the paths leading to the main collections and exit gates. These signs are made of first quality cypress planks, 30\" long, 12\" wide and 1\" thick. They are carved out on a regular drill press, using a 5\/16\" router bit, filed to make a V cut, and they were at first coated with linseed oil. After several years' use it was found that the color darkened materially with the linseed oil method, making it difficult to read them from a distance. To alleviate this, a dark shingle stain has been used and the letters are painted in with a bright yellow weatherproof paint, which seems to last several years. They cost about ~~?.00 each, exclusive of labor. Other woods might easily be used. These, then, are the labels and methods of making them at present in the Arnold Arboretum. It is necessary, of course, to keep a complete set of maps of the plants growing in the various areas, and to check them from time to time for missing labels. Some collections like the lilacs, are done every year, others are done every three or four years. Plants suitable for display in any arboretum must be kept properly and clearly labeled, for this is one of the most important functions of the modern arboretum. DONALD WYMAN 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Destroy Dead Elm Wood Immediately","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24194","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070a76d.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 APRIL 30, 194H DESTROY DEAD ELM WOOD IMMEDIATELY NUMBER 4 has been written in the past months concerning the Dutch Elm Disand its effective control. \"Spray now and save your elms,\" \"Contribute to this fund now and save New England's elms,\" are only two of several headlines originating from various sources, to try to force the property owner into spending money in certain ways for the so-called \"control\" of the disease. Unfortunately, such headlines are most misleading, and property owners are due a thorough report of the Dutch Elm Disease situation as it appears at the present M U CH ease time. It must be admitted that the Dutch Elm Disease has come to stay, and will be with us a long, long time. We hope that it will not be responsible for eradicating all the elms of New England, but it will continue to be an ever-present menace for a number of years. Regardless of what the final control solution will be, there are thousands of elms in remote places which can harbor the disease or the insects carrying the disease, or both -trees which are growing on inaccessible land or which are on such cheap land that it will not pay to treat them for the disease. This fact is not pleasing to contemplate, but it must be considered when discussing a practical means of control. A general meeting of scientists working on the control of this pest in New England, was called on November 7, 1947, by the New England Council in the Statler Hotel, Boston. Present were competent representatives from all the New England State Experiment Stations as well as from New Jersey and Maryland. Present also were representatives from the U. S. Department of Agriculture and certain Canadian Experiment Stations. In other words, this was a general meeting of all the interested scientific groups doing research on control problems for the New England area. Many of the men have been working on some phases of control as major research projects. This is not the place to discuss all the research projects under way at the present time, nor to study a history of control methods 17 used earlier in Ohio, New Jersey and New York. Certain facts were brought out during the course of these discussions which might be of interest to New England property owners, and it would seem advantageous to discuss a few at this time. ' No Practical Control of Disease Fungus Yet method of spraying to control the disease fungus once it is in living trees. All spraying attempts are directed towards controlling the insects on the trees. There is no practical No Positive Practical Control by Spraying of the Bark Beetles As most people know, there are two types of bark beetles which feed in the bark of dead or diseased trees and are responsible for carrying the fungus to living trees. Many statements have been made erroneously, that spraying will definitely control these insects. Unfortunately this is not true. It is impossible to cover all the small twigs of elms with sufficient spray materials to adequately kill insects in all parts of the tree. It is true that DDT kills bark beetles, but only when used in far greater quantities than has ever been used before on trees -quantities such that the price of spraying is often prohibitive for all practical purposes. The actual mechanics of applying these concentrated sprays, even with practically the latest types of blowers or hydraulic equipment, presents many serious problems which, it is hoped, will be solved with more experimentation. Consequently, thorough control of the bark beetles can not be obtained by spraying this spring with the equipment and materials normally in use at the present time. Sanitation is the Best Present Control Method Sanitation would include several things. First, it would include the removal and destroying of all dead elm wood. This is best done by burning immediately. Elm wood can also be stored indoors so that when bark beetles emerge they can not fly out-of-doors. Spraying dead elm wood with oil (1 lb. of DDT in 1~~ gallons of No. 2 fuel oil) on all sides has also proved an effective means of preventing the emergence of bark beetles and of killing them if they alight on such treated wood. Immediate burning, however, is best. Elm wood, dumped in piles, or thrown about miscellaneously at town dumps can serve as a source of disease infection for the entire community, unless it is burned or thoroughly sprayed img mediately. Elm logs over a year old do not serve as likely sources for hibernating beetles, but freshly-cut elm logs do. Completely removing the bark of all logs as soon as they are cut, or keeping them completely submerged under water has also been recommended, but these methods are rather difficult to carry out properly. Sanitation would also include the prompt removal and burning of dead elm branches on normally healthy trees. Fertilizing the trees to keep them in a healthy, growing condition could easily 18 be construed as being part of the general sanitation program. Many an elm growing in a prominent position bordering a street or on private property is a worthy subject for proper tree fertilization. This tends to keep such a tree in a vigorous growing condition and reduces to a minimum the number of weak spots where infection might possibly take place. It should be kept in mind, however, that even this is no cure nor is it a positive prevention measure. Spraying for leaf-eating insects such as the elm leaf beetle, elm leaf miner, canker worm, gypsy moth and several other pests is also included in general sanitation measures. When such insects feed on the foliage of a tree in large numbers, the tree is weakened considerably and becomes easy prey to bark beetles and possibly disease infection. So, proper spraying of the fohage for leaf-eating insects by any acceptable means used at present, would greatly aid in keeping the trees in a good, clean condition. Competent entomologists have suggested that three sprays might be used in eastern Massachusetts for maximum protection ; May 15, June 15 and July 15, although these times might vary slightly with weather conditions. The Massachusetts Arborists Association is to be complimented on its statement of policy which emphasizes this sanitation program. Such a decision to make public this policy and not to flaunt popular hysteria in spraying primarily for the bark beetles when sanitation seems to be much the best approach to the problem under present practical conditions and with present available materials, shows that these commercial arborists are Bery definitely trying to give the public the best information available at the moment on this troublesome and confusing situation. What One Town Has Done Williamstown, Massachusetts, is one New England community which has vigorously attacked the Dutch Elm Disease and worked out an excellent local solution, which might well be adopted by other communities. With an energetic local committee of civic leaders, experts and citizens, a program of action was advanced leading to the cleaning up of all dead or dying elm wood in the community. Frequent announcements were made in the local newspapers, various civic organizations obtained volunteers to donate truck services and men to load and carry off dead elm wood, students in the high school and local garden clubs assisted in the hunting for dead and dying trees, property owners combed their wood piles out-of-doors for elm wood and removed it and local funds were made available so that a trained investigator assisted in a property-by-property investigation for dead elm wood. Much was accomplished in this sanitation program by a thoroughly aroused community. The credit for clean trees in this town goes directly to an intelligent and energetic committee, which knew what the local problem was, and took the proper steps to make every property owner morally responsible for assistance. Programs similar to this can be launched in other communities, the sooner the better. - 19 No more fitting conclusion could be given than to emphasize the four points stressed by the Massachusetts Arborists Association in recommending that, for this spring, the Dutch Elm Disease should be fought in Massachusetts by : 1. Careful 2. pruning to remove all dead and use dying branches. plant foods. elm wood. gypsy moth cut Maintaining fertility by judicious of 3. 4. Prompt destruction or protection of all Spraying to control leaf-eating insects such as canker worms, caterpillars, elm leaf beetles, and other destructive pests. DONALD WYMAN NOTES large shipment of Metasequoia seeds has just been received from Szechuan Arnoldia Vol. 8, No. 1, March 5, 1948). Packets of these seeds will be sent (see to all readers of Arnoldia, who request them, as long as the supply lasts. It is by no means certain that this tree will prove to be hardy in the northern tier of States. A very Field Class It is not too late to register for the Arnold Arboretum Field Class, conducted for two hours every Saturday morning in May. The second meeting is on Saturday, May 1, at 10 a.m. at the Forest Hills Gate. Registration is in advance by mail. Through the efforts of Professor Stephen Hamblin, Assistant Professor of Horticulture in the School of Design, Harvard University, the Lexington Botanic Garden has presented the Arnold Arboretum with over 100 old-fashion roses. These have been collected from many sources in this country and abroad during the past ten years. The collection contains many varieties of Rosa gallica, R. centifolia and certain hybrids. They will be grown and observed in the nurseries at the Case Estates, Weston, for a few years, after which the better ones will be added to the collection in the Arnold Arboretum. The Arboretum wishes to take this opportunity to thank Professor Hamblin and the Lexington Botanic Garden for this valuable gift of plants. 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Trip Through the Arboretum During Lilac Time","article_sequence":5,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24192","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070a328.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 MAY 21, ]948 5 NUMBER A TRIP THROUGH THE ARBORETUM DURING LILAC TIME of people have the opportunity of visiting the Arboretum durlilac and they are fortunate for the Arboretum is now at its best. This issue of Arnoldia is written in order to aid our many visitors in remembering a few of the many things they have seen in bloom. Perhaps too, those who have been less fortunate and are unable to visit the plantations during this period, may derive some enjoyment from reading this enumeration of the plants of outstanding beauty which are admired by so many. Starting the trip through the Arboretum from the Jamaica Plain gate, we first notice the pecul~ar green flowers of the native Magnolia acuminata beginning to bloom. The flowers of the Asiatic magnolias have long since passed. Continuing on the road from the Administration Building, we pass the lindens and an excellent bed of Rlrododemlron roseum which has been in full flower for some time. A little farther on, near the horse chestnuts, is a planting of the daintily colored pinkshell azalea, Rhoclodenclron vaseyi, which adcls a bright spot to any landscape scene. Opposite this are the many forms of the Japanese maples coming out into full leaf, and the brilliant red of their foliage makes a beautiful contrast with the white flowering dogwoods close-by. In the woods are several hundred torch azaleas, Rhorlodendron obtusum lrnempferi, which have been in full bloom for over a week, and because of the excellent shade of the surrounding oaks, their flowers keep their color for a considerably longer period than do those of azaleas planted out in the full sun. Leaving the road for a moment, we stroll through these azaleas to a knoll in the woods overlooking the shrub collection. Approximately a thousand different shrubs are growing here, and with a hasty glance from our vantage point we notice that there are not many plants in bloom. At the extreme left there is a bright spot of white close to the ground (Iberis tenoreana), and nearby another bright spot of yellow (.Ilyssum gemonense), blooming at the same time, while Iberis THOUSANDS ing time, '~ 1 Looking farther, we see the white the collection the tall pearlbushes in full bloom. In front of us is a long row of vari-colored varieties of the Japanese quince, but as these have been in bloom for over two weeks they have now nearly lost their brilliance. Continuing from the woods interplanted with torch azaleas, we glance backward through the shrubbery overhanging a pond on the left to see an excellent planting of Rhododendron vaseyi in full bloom, the dainty shell-pink color of the flowers reflected in the still water at their feet. Continuing between the ponds we turn to the right and approach the lilac collection. What a sight! The bank is one mass of color. In this collection, one of the two best in the world, are over 400 different kinds of lilacs including over 300 different varieties of Syringa vulgaris alone. A good growing season during which all plants were pruned, fertilized and mulched has resulted in a profuseness of bloom unequaled for several years past. One of the first plants to draw our attention is the dark purple variety of Syringa vulgaris named \"Ludwig Spaeth.\" VVe notice at least two lilacs (Syringa amurensis, the Japanese tree lilac, and S. villosn, the late lilac) that are not in bloom, for these come later, the first in June and the other in July. Continuing up the walk among the lilacs, we see the most fragrant of all, S. pubescens, and can easily recognize its value even though its flowers are not conspicuously colored. On the left of the walk is the interesting small Persian lilac and its several varieties. Nearby is S. ckinensis, the first known hybrid, resulting from a cross between S. persica and S, vulgaris. One of its varieties, S. chinensis saugeana, is particularly valued for its dark reddish flowers. Both the Persian and the Chinese lilacs are valued for their profuse, graceful, nodding sprays of flower clusters which make them among the best for cut flower purposes. Near the end of the row of lilacs, placed between the walk and the road, are two plants outstanding for their deep reddish-purple flowers, namely \"Congo\" and \"Negro.\" Incidentally, it was this row of lilacs which was cut to the ground twenty years ago in an effort to reduce the size of the plants and so force them to grow into better specimens which would be appreciated more. Climbing up toward the top of Bussey Hill we pass through an old lilac hedge which is easily one hundred and thirty-five years old. These bushes are seldom pruned and sprayed, and are living examples of what lilacs will do under adverse conditions. They are now about ten feet tall (having been cut to the ground several years ago) and almost twice as broad, but even with the lack of care they do have many blooms each year. At the top of Bussey Hill in the Chinese Collection we find many things in full bloom. Our first impression is one of brilliant yellow color coming from the brooms which are at their best. These belong to the genera Cytisus and Genista. One plant stands out particularly among these because of its brilliant mass of profuse lemon-yellow flowers. This is Cytisus praesemperairens will of some not bloom for another week. in spiraeas bloom, and at the end of 22 PLATE VI The fiery red torch azalea (Rhododendro~a obtusum kaempferi) by the Arnold Arboretum. first introduced into America co.r, and those who have admired it will be certain nurseries. glad to know that it is available from To the right of this walk, across from the brooms, we see the last of the royal which is one of the first in the collection on the hill to bloom. Over the brow of the hill we notice many of the torch azaleas dotting the hillside here and there. Walking on toward the century old pine trees, acting as guardian sentinels for the entire collection we pass a bed of two beautiful azaleas, Rhododendron roseum and Rhododezzdrozz nud~orum. Their sweet fragrance fills the air. Bepond these is the Poukhan azalea, its lavender-purple flowers fading rapidly for it has been at its best for almost two weeks. However, one or two of the plants which are late to bloom indicate to us what the entire planting must have looked like azalea, when it was at its best. We notice that the dove tree, so interesting because of its history, has agam disappointed plant lovers and has not bloomed. This tree was killed to the ground during the cold winter of 1933-34 and has not bloomed since. Each year we look forward to seeing its blossoms, but always we are disappointed. Lnder the pine trees are the best plants of the torch azalea in the entire Arboretum. Here some are at least six to eight feet tall, literally one solid mass of fiery red blossoms. It is easy to notice the injury from the hot sun for some of the blossoms are badly faded and burned at the tip of the petals, but when they are grown in the shade they keep their color very well for some time. Continuing down the hill among the azaleas, we come to an excellent group of \"Ghent\" and \"Dtollis\" hybrids on the left, many of which are just beginning to show their excellent, highly colored blossoms. A number of these are perfectly hardy under Boston conditions and their wide variety of colors are unequaled by any other group of shrubs. On the right is the Arnold azalea, a chance hybrid in the Arboretum, having many of the qualities of Rhododendron obtusum amoenum but at the same time being considerably more hardy. We walk down the hill among the beeches, admiring the beautiful young foliage of the different varieties, and now and then glancmg toward Hemlock Hill at the base of which the first rhododendrons are just coming into bloom. Once more on the road at the foot of the hill some members of the group continue on toward Peter's Hill and the crab apples, some walk among the conifers, and others turn to the right and walk back toward the lilac collection. With time getting short, we hasten back to the lilacs where several in the group wish to spend the last moments of the trip, making notes and comparisons of these excellent plants to guide them in making their selections for their own homes. It is just for such concrete purposes as this that the thousands of plants in the Arboretum are being continually mamtained. DONALD WYMAN 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Blueberry Cages","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24193","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070a36b.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Clark, George O.","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 JULY 1G, 1948 BLUEBERRY CAGES NUMBER 6 blueberries - whether on a commercial scale or as an amateur with restricted area the small homeowner should immediately acquire the following pamphlets: WHOEVER contemplates growing highbush T - ( 1 ) \"Blueberry Growing\"-U. S. Dept. Agric. Farmer's Bulletin No. 1951. (~Z) \"Blueberry Culture in Massachusetts\"-Mass. Agric. Exper. Sta., Amherst, Mass. Bulletin No. 358. (;3)\"The Blueberry\"-Dominion of Canada Dept. of Agric., Ottawa, Publication No. 7.i~-Farmer's Bulletm No. 110. , An excellent summary of the basic facts pertaining to the horticultural varieties of l~acciniunz cozymbosum was contributed by Dr. Donald V~'yman of the Arnold Arboretum (~lrnohlia No. 5, Vol. 1, 19.t`?). Blueberry culture has been thoroughly discussed, and so exhaustively, in many publications of Barious state experimental stations, that opportunity to contribute anything definitely new seems nearly hopeless. Dr. F. V. Coville of the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture showed the necessity of providing an acid soil for successful growth. Working with Miss Elizabeth White from 1906 to 19:3the experiments in hybridization and selection of \"the best\" varieties were carried out. The desired characteristics of size, flavor, color, ease of picking, and keeping qualities were increased ; prolongation of seasun was increased by securing early, mid-season, and late maturing sorts. The impurtance uf growing sev eral varieties to insure cross-pollination has been demonstrated. During the past eleven years I have grown in Newburyport fourteen of the named variet~es-all under the same conditions and with such satisfaction that I ~~ J would urge any home-owner able to provide suitable conditions to plant at least three different varieties of the highbush blueberry; not dug up from the wild, but the horticultural named varieties. My experience with these fourteen varieties coincides largely with what seems to be the official ranking in order of importance with reference to certain characteristics of ripening, size of berry and dessert quality. One can readily appreciate the commercial grower's preference for the varieties which stand up best for transportation, for ease of propagation, for least expense in pruning and \"pickability,\" and which can be sold ahead of, or later than, the season when the market in a given district may be glutted. The home-owner consuming his own produce could be more interested in choosing varieties primarily for flavor, appearance and \"seasonability.\" Since the individual characteristics of some twenty named varieties have been accurately described and are available, a satisfactory choice can be readily made. Properly grown, all of the varieties are prolific. Acid soil, a heavy mulch of oak leaves or pine needles all-the-year, full sunlight, avoidance of competition from weeds and feeding roots of large trees, suitable pruning, application of nitrate of soda in May-these constitute the main requirements. Watering may be required where the water table in some localities makes watering of other shrubbery necessary. As with other fruiting shrubs or trees, preventing the individual bush from overbearing does definitely aid production of larger berries. Assuming our bushes have been selected, properly planted, have flowered and set fruit, we watch with pride the rapid growth of the berry clusters. As the berries, some as large as cherries, begin to change color from green to not unlike pink on the way to blue, we contemplate harvesting our crop bunches of Concord grapes. \"Just a few days more now.\" \"Ah ! Aren't they whoppers?\" Really, they're so beautiful it's almost a shame to pick them. As a matter of fact most of the varieties have their best flavor when picked as they become fully ripe. Not all of the berries in a given cluster become fully ripe on the same day, so properly we wait for just the right degree of color. But the feast is in sight ! Unfortunately, it is very much in sight -and who shall do the feasting? The owner? Perhaps!t Right here is the reason for this contribution to Blueberry literature. Shades of Audubon and Lucullus ! Degusfibus non dispulandum! Chewinks, catbirds, robins, red squirrels and greys - all in the neighborhood have been eyeing the premises with no less interest than we, the rightful owners and lavish - if reluctant - hosts. These unbidden guests have tastes that seem less fastidious than ours; they wait not for that exquisite shade of blue but start with the pink and carry on. With a large bird population due to deliberate protection at \"Chailey\" our - YG ~ ;: ~ OJ c II) ro 0 Fa G 0 w OJ U :::::;.., g in ~13 ~7 9x c S ~a ~w c + ' :E -c m ~x m W ,~ U II) U F G~O a~ a ~..::~ ., aF m t x . L:;C3x#& U ~U x~ . p. ... ~x .`~ :E ~3#&3Ex ; Op 11)\"0 a 0 Ox dD ~ .F C ~', a~ U % ~x 5 .C~ ., U ., ... U G :r home in Newburyport, our first blueberry crop underwent complete harvesting by these uninvited guests, and during the winter months rabbits showed a fondness for the bark of several bushes. Blueberry cages solved the problem. The accompanying illustrations demonstrate the construction and installation of a protection which is relatively inexpensive and not too difficult to be practical. Materials: one inch mesh galvanized poultry wire of 2 ft. width cut into 2 ft. lengths, ends fastened with 6 inch overlap, to encircle base of five stakes of cypress, 1 inch X 1 inch, each 6 feet long, the lower end pointed and driven 1 foot into the ground inside the wire and at intervals around the bush. These stakes and wire I leave in situ the year round. About July 5 we encircle the tops of stakes with string. The tops of stakes are then covered with a sheet of mosquito netting. To encircle the space between tops of stakes and wire a 13 foot length of mosquito netting suffices, starting at one stake and ending with a 6 inch overlap. Two inch safety pins are the most convenient means of fastening at appropriate places, as they are readily removed and replaced at the times selected for picking. These suggestions if properly carried out I have found essential to insure a crop of blueberries for the rightful owners. Too often horticulturists enthuse about the growing of these delicious fruits and fail to realize that the uninitiated amateur should be prepared for a mass descent of birds and squirrels as soon as the fruits ith a small amount of effort spent to protect these fruits, we at are ripe. \"Chailey\" enjoy our blueberry crop annually. - DR. GEORGE O. CLARK, Vioe Pres. Massachusetts Horticultural Society Fditor's l~'ofe: It is with particular pleasure that we publish this most timely on blueberry culture from Dr. Clark. Over a year ago he commented on our enthusiasm for the horticultural varieties of Paccinium corymbosum, but stated, that like many others, we failed to emphasize the most important of all-namely the protection of the ripening fruits. With blueberries in New England just now starting to ripen, there may still be time for enthusiastic amateurs to erect the cages described by Dr. Clark, and so save their blueberries from uninvited guests. note Z8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Syringa prestoniae","article_sequence":7,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24202","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d0708528.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR I:~1FORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 JULY 23, 1948 SYRINGA PRESTONIAE NUMBER 7 Preston, Horticulturist of the Government Experiment Ottawa, Canada, became interested in trying to obtain some hardier lilacs. Among other crosses she made, one has proved outstanding; namely S. ri!losa'~ S. refle.ra, later named Syringa prestoniae. From this original cross, a group of lilacs has appeared which bloom two weeks later than the S. vulgaris hybrids. The Arnold Arboretum has obtained many of these lilacs for trial, and, because there are now unfortunately so many named varieties, it has taken several years to study them and to record their ornamental characteristics. Of over forty now being grown in the Arboretum, not all were originated by Miss Preston. The name of F. L. Skinner, of the Manitoba Hardy Plant Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada, should also be mentioned in this connection. He has made the same cross (S. villosa X S. re,~le.ra) and others, in an effort to find hardier lilac varieties for his rigorous climate, and he too has introduced some splendid lateblooming varieties. In naming the original S. prestoniae hybrids, the authorities at the Ottawa Experiment Station were so enthused about the new plants, that many of the oryinal seedlings in the row were named, by the simple expedient of walking down the row and allottiiig the name of one of Shakespeare's heroines to each plant. This has caused some confusion, for many varieties are practically identical and have been introduced into the trade at one time or another. All in all, 76clones of the cross S. aillosa X .S. ~-P,fleaw, have been named and the names publishecl. At least 22 of these have since been recommended to be dropped by the Ottawa Experiment Station. Judged on their performance in the Arnold Arboretum, many others might be considered to be in the same category, and could well be dropped from further commercial propagation. This is not the place to enter into a lengthy discussion of the htstory- or paren- IN Station 1925 Miss Isabella at tage of all these clones and other similar ) C) crosses. Since many of these varieties CQ \"\" ;. Q t ~ 0 ~ ~ '<: Q \" ~ -. > ~> ~ro t\"\" . `. ~ H sC `. ~, r~ ~, go ~o ~, Q\"' b go 0 rt m O C~! .... s' p .e \"\" O c' 2 have been studied as they grow and bloom at the Arnold Arboretum for a period of six years or more, a resume is given below only of those varieties as they grow here. A few species and other hybrids have been included in this general study of the late blooming lilacs. In the following list, all varieties are hybrids of the cross S. villosa X S. refle.ra unless otherwise mentioned. Varieties not appearing in the following lists might first be compared with those marked with an asterisk (*) before they are generally accepted. Those with the asterisk appear to be the best ornamental types as they grow under our conditions. Color Groups not I have been comless composite, all the plants mentioned having bloomed in the Arnold Arboretum during that period, most of them blooming together this year when they were at their best about June eleventh. The colors have been compared with those of the Royal Horticultural Society's \"Colour Chart,\" and range only from rhodamine pink to imperial purple, or in more general terms, being in the violet reds and reddish ~iolets. The flower clusters of most varieties are pyramidal; many are rather large and open ; some are dense. Only a very few show the narrow type cluster of S. refle.ra. One plant in particular, Arnold Arboretum, No. 701-36, S. S~eegi,flexa, from Hesse Nurseries in Germany in 1936, is very beautiful in this respect, showing slightly nodding clusters of the S. re,fle.ra type. As is usual in most plants, the sizes of the flower clusters vary from year to year; also they vary on the individual plants. Several measurements have been made in different years of the following varieties, but even with this as a background the following measurements can only be indicative. The density of the flower cluster is a clonal characteristic, fairly constant from year to year. All are B zgorous growers and are very hardy. Those varieties marked with an asterisk (*) have proved the best from an ornamental viewpoint, as they have grown in the Arnold Arboretum. Far too many varieties have been named. The object of this discussion is to show their similarities (color and size of blossoms) and to indicate those which have performed well here. A few late-flowering species and other hybrids have been included to show how they compare with the named varieties of S. prestoniae. varieties are The colors of S. prestoniae widely different. are more or paring them since 1941, and the following notes . Group Flower buds - rhodamine pink Flowers - rhodamine pink 5? 7 1 ,i ~ 7 \/to ~2 7 \/? ~1 to whitish in most vars. 31 A`ote: The reason for recommending so many varieties in this group is that this delightful pink color is prominent in only 2 a very few lilacs. Group Flower buds - fuchsia Flower - whitish when purple (28\/2) to magnolia purple (ox0 ~?) fully open but much color still on corolla tubes 32 a !. : v > 11.1 E 0 w .. a U .- a -~ a o .. u x~ ~ .~ '\" .a u -= ~ ~ ~ o 0 :8 ,~ '\" u a `\" oo `' W~ E 0E c: x E av ~ ....~S 8 \"C :: o a, v o_ C E :e S E f '\" ..c w oa ~r ... G 'c~ . . ~ 'e~ ..Q <> c ~ o ~~ '\" '\" mC#& x3 ;:j a .~ o c c ~~ r .. aa aa ;>-.;>-. C\/~ I Group Flower buds . 3 cyclamen purple (30\/2) to magnolia purple (030; 2~ Flowers - cyclamen purple (30\/3) to magnolia purple (030% 3) keep their Flowers of most varieties in this group do not fade w hite but general color Group 4 Flower buds - petunia purple (32\/2) to phlox purple (632\/2) Flowers - petunia purple (32~8~ to whitish 34 a .. 0 b 0 q II) x b ~ O II) ~ b0 m :c~ U U ; ~ c~ ~ C~~ < ~1 N 'b 3 o F. ... '\" u bIJ a a O ~ ~~ ~ J U ~ Y _cd II) Group Flower buds - 5 Flowers - imperial purple (33~~) imperial purple (33 ~3) the late-blooming lilacs, flowering after S. i~ulgaris and its hundreds of varieties. The last of all the lilacs to bloom, 5. amureusis and its variety japonica, the tree lilacs, and S. pekinensis, come slightly after the lilacs mentioned in this bulletin. The late-blooming lilacs are mostly new, having appeared in the last two decades. They are interesting and vigorous as well as very hardy. This resume of those which have been tried in the Arnold Arboretum should prove of value to those who want to try a few of the best in their gardens. Not all of those recommended are available yet commercially, but, a majority are being grown by a few nurseries and more will be later. These, then, are DONALD WYMAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Pruning Rhododendrons","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24200","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070bb6f.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 SEP'TEMBER 17, 1948 NUMBER 8 PRUNING RHODODENDRONS shrubs respond well and quickly to pruning. Such plants as forsythias, deutzias and lilacs will initiate shoots from below the cuts when these are made at almost any time during the growing season. The earlier the cuts are made, the more time is allowed for the new shoots to mature satisfactorily by the time cold weather occurs. The more shoots that are cut, the greater the opportunity for such plants to send out new buds. In discussing the pruning of hedges, the statement is frequently made that almost any deciduous tree or shrub can be used in hedge making (i.e. can be heavily pruned and be reasonably expected to quickly recover) if the pruning is done at the proper time and on plants that are not too old. Two years ago, I tried pruning some old lilac plants which had grown to a single trunk at the base. Certain lilacs have shown a marked inclination to grow with a single trunk at the base, and pruning such plants heavily has presented a problem. There were 16 plants in all, each one with a smgle trunk nearly 6\" ~n diameter at the base with no branches nor apparent visible buds at least eighteen inches from the ground. The plants were Syringa vulgaris \"Ludwig Spaeth\" and .S. nulgnris \"Macrostachya.\" These were all sawed off 12~~ above the ground on .lpr~1 16. None had branches or externally evident buds below the cuts. Within six weeks, all but two of these stumps had sprouted (where no sprouts were superficially evident before) and at the end of the summer were growing satisfactorily. No buds, shoots or suckers came from the two stubs by August 16, and no obvious cause could be noted for the failure of these two, but the majority of the plants certa~nly responded favorably to this heavy pruning. Rhododendrons do not respond to pruning as read~lyas deciduous plants, probably for several reasons. Gardeners in general have adopted the policy of cutting off dead or diseased wood only. However, commercial growers are familiar with the methods used in large areas of the southern Appalachiau Mountains where MANY privets, 37 carloads of these plants, and mountain laurel, used to be collected and shipped for northern planting. Here the plants weie periodically killed back by burning over large areas, thus forcing young growth from the base of the plants, resulting in smaller but more dense and more desirat~le ornamental specimens. Occasionally, commercial nurserymen prune large plants, but if the results are not satisfactory, they can afford to discard such plants in the nursery row. Experimenting with a large ornamental specimen in its permanent place in the landscape planting is quite something different. Few gardeners wish to jeopardize such plants unless they have to. During the past few years, rhododendrons throughout the East have reacted in peculiar and often inexplainable ways. Branches and even whole plants will die in the spring for no apparent reason. Temperatures during the few winter months preceding were not subnormal. Drought conditions the preceding summer or fall may have been marked and contributed heavily to such failures among the plants. The older (and the taller) rhododendrons grow, the more difficult it is for the owners to prune them back. They visualize 10 to 15~ plants literally covered with blossoms each year and fail to realize that the taller these plants grow, the more susceptible they become to all manner of ills. Most Rhododendron ~ataubiense hybrids are at their best when approximately 6' tall, and if grown taller, the branches become too heavy and easily broken, especially from winter snow and ice. Rhododendron carolinianum is about the same height, though often lower. Even R. maximum (which grows 3~~ tall in nature) does not thrive when grown too tall under garden conditions. Consequently, most of the commonly planted rhododendrons are at their best when they are six feet tall or less. There are taller plants, yes, but usually they are the first to suffer breakage, winter injury and to show effects from drought conditions. When this last happens, irrevocable damage has been done to the plant tissues before remedial steps can be taken. The fifty-year-old collection in the Arnold Arboretum is no exception. To the best of my knowledge, the plants have never been \"pruned\" in the sense that one prunes with a definite determination to lower the height of the plants. However, the plants have suffered materially during the past few winters from drought conditions in the summer, from winter cold, and from several other things. At one time we were contemplating the repropagation of the entire collection. A few experiments were conducted at the Case Estates of the Arnold Arboretum last year on pruning rhododendrons, and the results were so favorable that this spring, the entire collection was \"pruned\" with the chief purpose of reducing the size of the plants, and forcing out new growth from the base of the plants and along some of the shoots. This was done in June, and the resulting growth to the present time has been excellent. These notes on pruning rhododendrons seem to be very much in order to help others who may be confronted with similar problems. Species selected for the experiments were R. cntawbiense, R. maximum and R. 38 .SfS 'a ~ w 0 ~ 3 ,. a~ a~ a^ c a a~ bh Y~ : a U U VJ i~ a a m ~ ~l ,3 a! -~ o Y ~3 ~ vY o ~.~ wo . r. ~~~ o ~~ Q,' ~ a~ o Ww~o~ Er a, ~' .~ a.N~,.G s'~ o U i., .-., ~ ei. ~v ro w .ri ro ~s ~ ~3 !~~ E 0o ~~a c ~ ~ ~~ \" a~ ~'~'' U <s,~= ~ C a~ S~~ \"~ a U -\" \" ~ ata N3g carolinianum. On all of these the annual shoot growth was fairly clearly marked for the past six years at least. The object was to make cuts at different places on twigs of different ages and sizes and note the resulting reactions. From the illustrations it will be noted that the annual twig growth of a rhododendron shoot consists of a part at the terminal end with leaves, and another part near the base without leaves. The leaves remain on the plant 2 to 4 years, depending on the species, possibly the variety and possibly the condition of the soil. In the axil of each leaf is a dormant bud, which remains dormant, usually, unless something happens to the above portion of the twig, when the bud may be forced into growth. These buds are potential shoots for as long as they remain on the twigs. On the twig elongation each year, there are a few scars below the leaves (i.e. on the lower part of the twig) which look approximately like leaf scars, but lack a dormant bud. These are bud scale scars. If the cut is made so that a few leaf buds are directly below the cut, new shoots will be forthcoming from the dormant buds remaining. If the cut is made in the annual growth in such a way as to be below the dormant buds and above the bud scale scars, no buds will be formed on that year's growth, but they will be produced on the previous year's growth below the cut. In the first experiment, pruning cuts were made on twigs of seven different ages, all on the same plant, but always at a spot where a few true leaf scars were left below the cut. This was done on each year's growth, 1947 to 1941 inclusive, on June 13, 1947. By July 13, buds were breaking immediately below each of these cuts, on the same annual growth as that cut. In other words, shoots appeared on twigs that were at least seven years old. Other cuts were made on twigs of different ages, but with no true leaf scars below the cut for that year. In each case, it was the dormant buds in the true leaf scars of the previous year's growth which were forced into growth. It is of interest to note that as the twig grows older, the axillary buds become less and less prominent, until after four or five years they are not recognizable as such without a lens. In other experiments, twigs were pruned according to size with no attention given to age. For instance, some branches that were alive and in vigorous growing condition were cut off at 1~~ in diameter, some at ~~~, ~~~ and 4~~. In every case buds were appearing below the cuts within thirty days, immediately below if the cut were at the top of the annual elongation, and on the previous year's growth if the cuts were in the area of the bud scale scars. Such buds, once started, did not grow fast the first year, but only about 2~~. However, the second year they A grew normally. large plant of R. maximum (8' tall) base. Half the plant was cut to within was a this side varying in diameter from ~~~ selected with many shoots from the foot of the ground, leaving 9 stubs on to I~\". At the end of ten weeks, five 40 PLATE XII The '47 groath of this was cut in June '47 below the leaves. The '47 Rrowth died back and buds on '46 growth were forced into shoots growing in '47 and '~8. No shoots at time of cut. (Bvlwv) '43 growth was cut above dormant bud, forcing dormant buds on both '42 and '~3 growth. No buds apparent at time of cut. (Above) of these stubs had formed buds and small shoots; the remainder did not. All the shoots on one side of a vigorous plant of R. carolinianum (4' tall) were cut to within a foot of the ground in June, 1947, the stubs ranging from ~~~ to ~~~ in diameter. Within thirty days all the stubs were showing buds and within ninety days these had grown from 6 to 18~~ long, making a low dense shrub on that side of the plant. Kalmia lat~'olia was cut similarly in June of 1948. These plants were much overgrown with 8~ long branches and leaves only at the ends. The stubs left were 1 to 2~~ in diameter. Seventy-five percent of those cut showed buds and young shoots within thirty days. The same was done with 8' tall Ilea~ glabra, the stubs being 1 to 2~~ in diameter. At the end of the summer the plants were dense mounds of shoots 18 to R4~~ tall, and on their way to becoming healthy vigorous specimens once more. The experimental laurel and rhododendron plants were growing in a shaded woods area without any particular care. The buds started to grow into shoots as soon as they appeared, but the length of this shoot growth varied from 2 to 8~~, depending on the size of the cut, the number of buds allowed to grow, etc. Some seemed to have a difficult time, once started, others seemed to flourish. It would seem advisable to do such pruning very early in the season to allow the maximum time for shoot elongation. The old adage about pruning spring-flowering plants after they bloom should certainly not apply to rhododendrons for the young shoots once formed need every extra day of seasonable growing weather possible. The entire fifty-year-old collection in the Arboretum was pruned as a result of these findings. The cuts were not always made where they should have been, nor were plant responses all that might have been expected. This was mostly due to the fact that some of the plants had been allowed to become in a very poor and weakened condition. However, the entire collection has responded remarkably well. The wet weather during June and early July, and the application of a complete fertilizer during May, did much to aid the vegetative growth. The serious drought of August may be responsible for winter injury later, but all in all, the collection is in a more apparently healthy condition than it has been in years. The plants would probably have responded even better if these pruning cuts had been made during April, rather than June. In conclusion, rhododendrons and laurel can and should be pruned, but only when the conditions warrant it. Young growth can normally be expected on vigorous shoots, providing the pruning has been done at the right place and early in the growing season. It must be admitted that all plants, when cut to the ground, may not send up new shoots, possibly because some such plants are in an extremely weakened condition when cut. It should be pointed out that no rhododendrons should be allowed to deterioate this far, but corrective measures should be taken (pruning, watering, fertilization and mulching) long before it becomes 42 PLATE XIII li. cata2vbiense stub cut off 12\" above the ground with no buds at the time of cutting in June '47. Showing buds developed and sprouts grew in '47, and both primary and secondary growth '48. No shoots at time of cuts. (Belom) Ilea~ glabra stubs cut in June 48 (plants originally 8' tall) showing profuse growth developed within 60 days. No young shoots at time ofcuts. (Above) necessary to cut such pruning practiced place, can do plants to the ground to form entire new ones. Intelligent regular cultural operation and done at the right time and much to keep healthy plants in a healthy condition. as a DONALD WYMAN _ Fall Field Class A Field Class for the study of berried shrubs, autumn coloration and evergreens they appear in the Arnold Arboretum will be held this year. The first class will be on Saturday, October 2, at 10 :00 a.m., meeting at the Forest Hills Gate. Weekly meetings will be held every Saturday morning during October, unless prevented by inclement weather, when the class will meet the next clear weekday morning. The period is two hours long, and discussions will be held about the plants as they take on their fall coloring. Members of the \" Friends of the Arnold Arbotetum\" are welcome to attend all classes without charge. Others must register in advance by mail, and pay a registration fee of ~1.00. The fall class is being tried this year at the request of many people who have expressed an interest in learning more about the ornamental fall characteristics of the thousands of plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum. as 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"New or Rare Ornamental Plants Recently Distributed to Commercial Nurserymen by the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":45,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24199","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070b76d.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 8 DECEMBER 3, 1948 Nubtsras 9-12 2 NEW OR RARE ORNAMENTAL PLANTS RECENTLY DISTRIBUTED TO COMMERCIAL NURSERYMEN BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of the functions of the Arnold Arboretum always has been to distribute or rare ornamentals of high quality to the commercial propagators and so make them available to the plant-buying public. Many gardeners in the northern United States may not have had the opportunity to realize that the Arnold Arboretum has been doing this since it was established in 1872. Propagating material of plants not available in the trade in the form of seeds, cuttings, scions and budwood is frequently given commercial nurserymen who request specific items. Eight years ago a special program for the distribution of new or rare plants was started, and over 60 species and varieties of new or rare ornamental woody plants have been distributed to commercial sources as a result. It is always easy to lose sight of the fact that new plants are being made available to commercial sources (especially when no extensive advertising accompanies the program !). In 1941 a general program of propagation was started at the Arnold Arboretum in which particular new or rare ornamental woody plants were specifically grown for ONE new the nurseryman. Our experience had shown (see ARNOLDIA, Series 4, Vol. VIII, No. 3, May 1940) that seeds, buds, cuttings and scions when given to nurserymen frequently \"failed\" for several reasons. As a result, rare specimens in the Arboretum were being heavily cut in order to provide commercial growers with propagating material. Too often young plants propagated by nurserymen from such material, easily obtained, were quickly sold or forgotten, and requests were repeatedly made to the Arnold Arboretum for more propagating material. As a result of years of experience, it was decided to actually grow plants here in the Arboretum, and to offer these to the commercial growers under the agreement with the Arboretum that such plants could neither be sold nor patented, but could be used for propagating purposes by the nurseryman receiving them. 45 These plants are only sent to those nurserymen requesting them specifically, since it is reasonable to expect that all commercial propagators are not interested in all types of woody plant materials. plants noted in this issue of A RNOLDIA are either new or rare in Amergardens, and are certainly worthy of greater use. They have been sent to one or more commercial propagators as plants, and the recipient nurserymen are noted in the following pages. Gardeners who are interested in obtaining any of the following plants should write the nurserymen receiving them. Plants sent ican The 1947 and 1948 would not yet be available from the nurserymen, since there has not been sufficient time for them to propagate and grow adequate stock material. The advertising benefits derived from taking out a \"patent\" on a plant are rather marked, but the Arnold Arboretum does not wish to limit the propagation of any of its introductions in this unique way. The following list of plants sent to commercial propagators and the probable sources from which they may be purchased will serve as a finding list, we hope, for those adventurous gardeners who may wish to acquire some of this material. out in Plants sent to cooperating nurserymen with notes accompanying them *=first introduced in the United States by the Arnold Arboretum. numbers refer to \"List of Cooperating Nurserymen\" ceived the plant for propagating purposes. (page 64), who have re- *Acer campestre compactum - small tree First introduced in 1900 Distributed 1943 23 17, 18, 21, 22, Here is a very good form of the hedge maple which is perfectly hardy in this area. Because it requires little clipping, it may be valuable in certain low, informal hedges. The ultimate yearly growth is only about six to ten inches. Acer palmatum atropurpureum - small tree Distributed 1943 8, 11, 17, 18, 19, ~1, ~?~, 23, ~?5, 1I We offered seedlings from a tree which has been growing on grounds adjacent to the Arnold Arboretum for nearly fifty years. The color of the foliage is a dark red throughout the entire year, and it does not change to a greenish hue in the late fall. All of the seedlings have the identical characteristics of the parent plant, including the same good color. The original tree is probably no better than many other trees of the same name, except that its hardiness and constant color have been demonstrated. This maple also has the advantage of be- ing parthenogenetic. Acer rubrum columnare - 50~~- Distributed many times and 1943 The oldest specimen of this columnar In the Arnold Arboretum since 1899 19, 21, ~?~, 23, 25, 27 maple which we have growing in the 46 Arnold Arboretum is about sixty feet tall with an approximate twelve-foot spread of the branches. It is an easily-propagated, fast-growing maple which is valued for its columnar to narrow-pyramidal habit. Acer saccharum monumentale - In Arnold Arboretum since 1885 50~+ 5 Distributed many times and in 1943 19, 21, 2?, 23, 25 A slender, slower-growing form of the sugar maple which is dignified by the common name, \"Sentry Maple.\" We have had many demands for this tree during the past thirty years because of its narrow, upright habit, and are now about to stop sending out large amounts of propagating material. rosea - small tree First introduced 1918 R Distributed many times and 1948 31 4, 11, 13, 18, 19, 21, 25, 27, 19, This variety, introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum about 1918, is more hardy than the species, and does well in Boston except in the most severe winters. Seedlings twelve to eighteen inches tall were available for trial. The hardiness of these seedlings is still questionable, but all seed came from the original plant that has been growing here since 1918. Seedlings should be worthy of trial, but need further protection during the first few winters in the north. Seed is the best method of propagation at present, but root cuttings are worthy of a trial. *Albizzia julibrissin *Berberis triacanthophora - 4~ First introduced 1908 Distributed many times and 1941 2, 17, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27 This is the hardiest and most useful of the evergreen barberries and the most attractive. The narrow leaves are a clear, bright green in color, and it is one of the few evergreen barberries which are immune or highly resistant to the wheat rust. As a result of this immunity, the Plant Quarantine Act allows for its purchase and sale by nurserymen in the United States. It is easily propa- gated by cuttings. ~ Carpinus betulus compacta - small In the Arnold Arboretum since 1922 tree Distributed 1942 11, 14, 17, 18, 19, `?l, 22, 25 Here is a shrub with all the good qualities of Carpinus betulus. In addition, it is densely compact, slow in growth, and gives the appearance of being clipped. This plant is hardy in Zone 5, and is chiefly propagated by grafting. Vine '~'Celastrus flagellaris Distributed 1942 The bittersweet is the First introduced 1905 4, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 25 only one of those hardy in this area to have thorns. The only about i\" long. We offered plants of the fruiting form (pistillate). This plant does not grow as fast as the other bittersweets, thorns, however, are 47 but it does make a good ground-cover, and it forms a dense, impenetrable of vines and foliage when grown over a low fence. Cuttings are the best method of propagation. mass *Celastrus First introduced 1910 orbiculata major - Vine Distributed 1942 4, 17, 18, 19, ?0, 21, l2, 23, l.i Plants of the fruiting or pistillate form of this variety were offered which had fruits nearly twice the size of the species. The Arnold Arboretum introduced this plant into the Umted States from China. This excellent vine is perfectly hardy and is easily propagated by cuttings. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1886 Clethra barbinervis - 30~ Distributed its reddish bark which 'I'h~s shrub can flakes off almost as much as the bark of Acer gri.seum. 'fhe flowers are fragrant, and the shrub sometimes reaches a height of twenty-five feet. Propagation is by cuttings and seed. i `~, 1 i , 19, 2`?, 23, ? be classed as picturesque because of 1941 *Corylopsis platypetala Distributed This shrub is only seed. 1 1941 10~ 7 8, 17 south and west of First introduced in 1908 hardy Philadelphia. It ~s propagated by *Cytisus praecox - 4-6~ Distributed many times and in First introduced 19 24 1942, 1943 4, 1 1,1 i , 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 2~ . When we first offered this plant for distribution, it was being sold only by two or three nurseries in the country. Last summer we had unusual success with an experiment in the propagation of this species, and we are therefore offering it again. Two series of cuttings were run, one with every care and moisture consideration a cutting required, and the other simply on an open greenhouse bench in the hot sun, where the rooting medium frequently dried out. The rooting of the \"checks\" on the dry greenhouse bench was nearly one hundred per cent, and so this can be recommended as the best practice. When something is as easily propagated as this, it should become popular. You will remember that the Warminster Broom is noted for its pale lemon-yellow flowers which are prolifically produced in May, and for its colorful twigs which are green all winter long. It is one of the hardiest brooms in the Arnold Arboretum collections, and it will recover quickly from heavy pruning. Cytisus 8 In the Arnold Arboretum since 1878 purpureus - 1-2~ 7 Distributed 1942 4, 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22,~?5, 2i This broom is a decided asset in any rock garden or in a foundation planting 48 Hardy as PLATE XIV form of the silk tree (Albizzia juldbr6ssivz ro~va); close-up of flowers and the tree itself it blooms throughout the summer in the Arnold Arboretum. where a low flowering plant can be used. It is not much over a foot high and has large purple and white flowers in May. It is perfectly hardy in this area and is propagated by cuttings. *Deutzia candelabrum ' First introduced 1908 Distributed 1943 4, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23 2 First introduced 193 *Deutzia \"Contraste\" Distributed 1943 4, 17, 18, 19, 21, 23 First introduced 1932 *Deutzia \"Magicien\" Distributed 1943 Deutzia rosea 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 21, `?2, 23 eximea 3 Distributed 1943 4, 17, 19, `?1, 22, 23 These Deutzias might well be considered as a group. None of them are any hardier than the \"Pride of Rochester\" group. All are slightly taller than D. gracilis. D. candelabrum and D. rosea eximia bloom at the same time as D. gracilis and the other two bloom about a week later. In the large collection of Deutzias at the Arnold Arboretum, these four and D. gracilis are the most outstanding in flower. The flowers are all single and all but those of D. candelabrum are slightly pink. D. candelabrum has the largest flower clusters of this group. My suggestion would be, if you are interested in Deutzias other than those you now carry, to try out all four and make your own selection for propagating from this group, after you have observed them in flower. *Forthysia \"Arnold Dwarf\" - 2r Distributed 1946 and 194.8 Originated in the Arnold Arboretum 1942 30 10, 13, 17, 19, 21, 2b, 26, 29, Forsythia intermediaXjaponica \"Arnold Dwarf\" is a small dwarf forsythia, developed by the Arnold Arboretum, which should be of value as a border plant or as a ground cover. The original plant in the Arnold Arboretum nursery is about two feet tall and it had a spread of over seven feet at the age of six years. The drooping branches strike root readily and form a mat of foliage. The leaves are small, about an inch long, and are ovate or ovate-lanceolate A with serrated margins, sometimes pinnatifid. Unfortunately this dwarf forsythia has not flowered even after eight seasons of growth and we are not sure that it will flower. Even without flowers, its vegetative habit is so attractive that it should be of value for certain types of planting. *Ilex yunnanensis - 12r First established in 1929 Distributed several times and 1942 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 27 This holly is evergreen even in New England. It has red berries and small 50 Yrunus \"Hally Jolivette,\" weeks period in early May. conspicuous PLATE XV for its double white flowers opening during a several- leaves similar to those of Ile.r crenata conre.rn or boxwood. Plants of the pistillate form were offered and fruiting is obtained when pollen from other species is available. The pollen requirements of this form have not been worked out definitely, as yet, to ~nsure fruitmg, but it is hoped that we will be able to have staminate plants of the same species available in a few years. It is prop- agated by cuttings. *Kalopanax First introduced in 189~? pictus - Tree i .i~ Distributed many times and 19~.8 3, 16, 17, 1?, 1.5, 26, iI Although this tree has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1892, it has been a neglected ornamental. One reason for this may be that it is difficult to propagate and the seeds take two years to germinate. It is a tree of striking tropical appearance, with large five-to-seven lobed leaves, sometimes fourteen inches across. '1'horns are present on the young plants, and the flowers and fruits are akin to those of the Aralias. This plant is reported to be propagated by root cuttings as well as by seeds. Laburnum alpinum - a0r In the Arnold Arboretum since 18 i ~. Distributed many times and 194~2 27 -, 1~?, 17, 21, 23, This species is considerably hardier than L. vulgare, and is, in fact, the hardiest of all the Laburnums. In addition, the flower clusters are longer than those of L. nr~lgnre. It may be propagated by grafting, or by seed. In the Arnold Arboretum since 193:3 4, 10, 17, 18, 19, 11, 15, 17, 30 originated some time before 19?0 in the garden of ~'icary Ligustrum vicaryi - 6' ? Distributed 1948 This privet probably Gibbs of Aldenham, Middlesex, England. It has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1933, when it was obtained from the New York Botanical Garden. Its chief ornamental characteristic is its yellow foliage which remains a good yellow throughout the spring and summer, especially when grown in the full sun. In partial shade this coloring is not so pronounced. It is probably a cross between L. oual~f'olium aureum and L. vulgare. The weaker and shaded leaves are fully green. If a bright yellow-leaved privet is desired for its color in the full sun throughout the growing season, this is it. Easily propagated by cuttings. Ligustrum vulgare pyramidale - 8' In the Arnold Arboretum since 1888 Distributed many times and 7941, 194~?, 1946 17, 18, ?1, 22, 25, 27 This is an unusual dense privet of narrow pyramidal habit, which is of considerable value from the standpoint of its form. Being a variety of L. vulgare, however, it is susceptible to the same serious twig blight, and should be grown only in areas where this disease does not prove serious. It is easily propagated by cuttings. .52 u .c: ~ t: t ,s(L)9E3~ 0 ol ~g < .S: ; ~ .:\"'\" e 3 a -3 o ::s s ;t t. -,5 ~cQ !- 6 'q i& . .! 0 ~t i~ 4 'Ei 3 m .'5 . ~ .c: ~ w d1 a Il. E T \" I L ~ . .:$ :v .c - e .... i: ., '\" 0, s ~ -t: ~~ 2~ ~ 's I ~ ~ c *Lonicera 9 amoena arnoldiana - 8~ Originated in the Arnold Arboretum 1919 Distributed several times and 1941 17, 18, 22, 23, 25 The abundant, slender-stalked flowers of this hybrid honeysuckle are white, flushed with pink. The plant has an interesting arching habit and the foliage is a grayish-green color, making it one of the most distinctive of honeysuckles. It is easily propagated by cuttings. *Lonicera maximowiczi sacchalinensis - 9~ First introduced 1917 1 Distributed many times and 1941 This is valued chiefly for its dark red among the honeysuckles. The fruit is 17, 19, 22, 23, 25 , flowers, which bright red. It are the darkest of any is easily propagated by cuttings. *Lonicera praeflorens - 6~ First introduced 1917 7 Distributed 1941 17, 18 The flowers of this plant, which is the earliest of the honeysuckles to bloom, usually appear in early April before those of L. standishi. Except for this the plant is of little value, since the flowers open so early that in the latitude of Boston they are often killed by frost. Softwood cuttings are the best method of propagation. 6 kobus borealis First introduced 1876 Distributed many times and 194~? 4, 8, 11, 1`?, 1 7, 18, 19, ?I, 2~?, ~3, 27 This plant is not new, but it is often hard to find in nurseries. The flowers of this tree-form are larger than those of M. kobus. Propagation may be done by *Magnolia grafting. *Malus the Arnold Arboretum in 1927 Distributed 1942 4, 12, 14, 17, 18, 19, ~0, 21, ~12, ~?5, `ll This crab apple is especially fastigiate when it is young. A twenty-five-foot specimen growing in the Arboretum had a branch spread of only about four feet in diameter. However, older and larger plants begin to lose this fastigiate habit, and this is of course true of other fastigiate crab apples. Hence its chief ornamental value is while it is still young. It is perfectly hardy and is propabaccata columnaris , 50-75' First introduced by gated by grafting. *Malus \"Dorothea\" - 15-~?0~ ? Originated in the Arnold Arboretum before 1943 3 Distributed 1948 2, 3, 4, 10, 11, 13, 16, 17, 18, ~1, ~5, ~?6, 27, 30, 31, 32 This was a chance seedling in the Arnold Arboretum and was first noticed m bloom when it was about five feet high, on May 17, 1943. It is probably a cross between M. halliana parkmani and M. arnoldiana, the foliage resembling g 54 PLATE XVII :Vfadus \"Dorothea,\" a new crabapple noted for large semi-double fade, and brilliant yellow fruits. pink flowers which do not the former somewhat, and the fruits, the latter. The original plant and plants grafted from it have bloomed very well. Flowers are semi-double (eleven to i sixteen petals) 1~~~ to 1~~ in diameter, and a pale crimson or Tyrian Rose (22\/1 to 24\/2 of the British Horticultural Colour Chart) with darker buds. The flowers do not fade white. This is one of the very few crab apples with semidouble flowers which also bear fruit, in this case ~~~ in diameter and a goldenyellow when exposed to direct sun. This combination of large semi-double pink flowers, followed by colorful fruits, is rare among the ornamental crab apples and should make this one of the best for two seasons of interest. It is named for the eldest daughter of Dr. Donald Wyman who originally found it growing in the Arboretum. *Malus \"Katherine\" - 15-20'? First introduced 1943 Distributed 1948 2 1, 2, 3, 4, 10, 13, 16, 18, 19, 25, 26, ~?7, 30, 31, 3? This is a seedling which was found growing in Durand Eastman Park, Rochester, New York, and named in 1943 by Dr. Donald V~'yman. The double flowers are over two inches in diameter, with nearly twenty petals. The flower buds are deep pink and the flowers gradually fade white. Even though the flowers are double, they are followed by small red fruits, making this double-flowered crab apple one of the best of its kind. It is propagated by budding and grafting. *Malus First introduced 1913 3 \"Prince Georges\" - 15-~0~? 31 1 Distributed 1948 1, 3, 4, 13, 16, 18, 21, ?5, 30, Originating in the form of seed in the Arnold Arboretum in 1919, this is prob- ably a hybrid between M. ioensis plena and M. angustifolia. The flowers are very double, two inches in diameter, and light pink. Blooming at the same time as M. ioensis plena, the flowers have more petals, and the leaves are narrower. It was originally grown by the Glenn Dale Station of the U.S.D.A. Division of Plant Introduction and it is named for the county in Maryland in which the Station is situated. Philadelphus grandiflorus - 9~ Distributed 1941 17, 22, 23, 25 This is one of the best of the native mockoranges from the standpoint of habit. It grows about six to twelve feet high and has drooping branches which face well to the ground on all sides. The flowers are 1~~~ in diameter, slightly square in shape and are not particularly fragrant. The shrub is perfectly hardy and is easily propagated by cuttings. Philadelphus inodorus - 6-8~ Distributed 1943 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 25 The flowers of this native mockorange are single, 2~~ in diameter, and borne in 56 PLATE XVIII Mc~lecs \"Katherine,\" also noted for double white flowers. followed by a wealth of small red fruits. one to three They are pure white, but not very fragrant. What makes this one of the outstanding mockoranges in our collection of about 100 different kinds is Its lustrous dark green foliage and its arching branches which face the ground on all sides, something which is not found in most Philadelphus species. The habit of growth makes up for the lack of fragrance in the flowers. When habit of growth is more important than newer production alone, P. inodorec.c could well be used. groups of Philadelphus splendens - 6' Distributed 1941, 1948 ~2 2, 3, 16, 1 i, 18, 21, 22, 23, 25, 2i, 30, 31, 32 Another excellent native mockorange from the standpoint of habit, a hybrid between two American types. Its excellent rounded habit of growth makes it a far better lawn specimen than either P. coronnrirc.s or~ P. nirginnlis. The flowers are not so square in shape as those of P. grancl~orus and it is easily propa- gated by cuttings. *Populus maximowiczi - 90c First introduced 18 i 8 Distributed many times and 1942 14, ]7, 18, 22, 23 This tree is one of the handsomest of the poplars. It is hardy in New England, is a vigorous grower, and has leaves which are a dull dark green above and whitish beneath. Propagated by hardwood cuttings. *Prinsepia First introduced 190;3 sinensis - I Or 2 Distributed many times and 1941, 1946 3, 4, 5, 1 ~, 21, 22 This shrub is particularly thorny and it has considerable merit as a tall, dense, spiny barrier plant. The flowers are small and yellow and they appear very early in the spring. The leaf buds begin to open sooner than practically anything else. It is propagated by seed and possibly by cuttings. *Prunus \"Hally Jolivette\" - 15' Originated 1941i Distributed 1948 3, 11, 13, 1 i , 18, 19, 21, 22, Z,i, 29, 30, 31, 32 This is an ornamental cherry of the Prurrus subhirlella type which was originated and first introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in the spring of 1948. It is a small, graceful tree with semi-double flowers which are a delicate pink when first open and white when fully open. The continuous succession of bloom is distributed over a ten-day period to several weeks, depending on the season, and the plants begin to bloom when only two years old. This hybrid is a cross of P. subhirtella X yPdoensis back-crossed with P. snbhirtella. Dr. Karl Sax, who produced this hybrid, has given it the maiden name of his wife, \"Hally Jolivette,\" the translation of the French name meaning \"pretty little one.\" canadensis maxima - 8' Distributed many times and 1943 *Sambucus First introduced 1908 18, 20, 21, 22, 23 .58 This is the largest flowering and fruiting variety of the species. When properly grown, the flower clusters are over twelve inches in diameter. This variety might well replace the species which is grown from seed in most nurseries. Easily propagated by cuttings. Symphoricarpos orbiculatus leucocarpua - 3~ Distributed 1942 17, 18, 21, 22, 25 This native plant is comparatively new and is only listed by one or two nurserymen. It is similar to the coralberry, except that the fruits are white and not red. *Syringa First introduced in 1900 vulgaris \"Congo\" - 15~ Distributed many times and 1942 7 17, 19, ~? 1 , 22, 25, 27 This is an old favorite, originating in the Lemoine Nurseries in France in 1896, and one of the best of the dark purples. In Arnold Arboretum since 1936 Distributed 1942 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 21, 2?, 23, 25, 27 F. L. Skrnner originated this plant in 1935. It is a cross between S. vulgaris and S. oblata dilatata. Syringa \"Evangeline\" - ~?0~ In Arnold Arboretum since 1935 Syringa joaiflexa \"Guinevere\" - `10~ Distributed 194~? 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 21 This is one of the newer lilacs which rates with the best and was originated by Miss Isabella Preston of Ottawa, Canada. It is a cross between S. josikaea and S. re~lexa, and it blooms with the S. prestoniae types. Syringa \"Hedin\" - 20~ In Arnold Arboretum since 1936 Distributed 1942 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 27 This is a cross between S. villosa and S. su~eginsouri, and it was originated by F. L. Skinner of Manitoba, Canada, before 1936. Syringa \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall\" Distributed 1941 4, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27 This is one of the darkest purples of all the Syringa vulgaris hybrids and was originated by Mr. T. A. Havemeyer of Glen Head, Long Island, in 1924. It is easily propagated by softwood cuttings immediately after flowering. Syringa laciniata-6~ (formerly S. persica laciniata) In Arnold Arboretum since 1881 1 Distributed many times and 1941 4, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, 27 The arching branches and the small, deeply-cut leaves of this plant probably make it the most graceful of all the lilacs. The foliage gives it particular merit. 59 It is rather difficult to propagate, but softwood cuttings and fair success, and it comes fairly well from seed. \" Rootone \" give Syringa prestoniae hybrids - 20~ Here are some of the best of Miss Isabella Preston's lilacs with several of the introductions of F. L. Skinner in Manitoba, Canada. Several are listed, but note the way they compare with each other. All, of course, are late-blooming, appearing a week or so after the S. nulgaris hybrids, and all are very hardy, even more hardy than many S. nulgarix hybrids. These plants must be tried out in a number of places in order to find which are best. Those nurserymen who are interested in them should try a few and see which do best under their own conditions. (For more complete information see ARNOLDIA, Vol. VIII, No. 7, 29-36, July 23, 1948. ~ \"Handel\" originated by F. L. Skinner 1936 in 1932; in Arnold Arboretum since Distributed 1941, 1943 i 4, 8, 17, 18, 21, 22, `?3, 25, 27 \"Hecla\" originated by Distributed 1942 F. L. Skinner 19 32 ; in Arnold Arboretum since 1936 4, li, 18, 21, `12, 23, 2; Miss Isabella \"Isabella\" originated by 192 i ; Distributed 1942, 1943 Preston, Ottawa, Canada, before in Arnold Arboretum since 1935 4, 8, 1 i , 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27 Miss Isabella \"Nerissa\" originated by 1938 Preston; in Arnold Arboretum since Distributed 194`? 4, 1 i , 18, 21, 2 ~, 23, 27 Miss Isabella Preston; in Arnold Arboretum since \"Octavia\" originated by 1938 Distributed 194`?x&# 3E; 4., I i , 18, 21, `?2, 23, 27 Miss Isabella , \"Paulina\" originated by 1938 Preston; in Arnold Arboretum since Distributed 1942 ~., 17, 18, 21, 22, 27 . *Syringa First introduced 1882 Distributed many times and 1942 4, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 27 This is the most fragrant of all the lilacs and the color varies from pink to white. It is not outstanding in flower and is valued only for its fragrance. It is not new, but it is rather hard to find in nursery catalogues. pubescens - 20~ *Syringa swegiflexa - 20~ Distributed 1942 First introduced 1936 4, 17, 18, 21, 22, 23, 27 60 Upper: Yiburuum dilatat~~m xanthoca~pum. PLATE XIX Locver: ~ ahurnum setigerum auramtiarumi. between S. srceginsozci and S. re,flexa, originating in the German of H. A. Hesse before 1935. The panicle of bloom is 8\" tall by 6~~ wide at the base, pyramidal in shape, and loose and open in growth. The flowers are a deeper pink than those of \"Isabella\" but soon fade white. It does not have the purple tinge that most S. prestoniae types have, and for this reason the color is good, but the loose panicles of bloom may be too much of a deterrent. It certainly is worth a trial. a cross This is Nursery Taxus aurescens - ~?~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1919 9 Distributed many times and 1943 24 17, 20, 21, 22, 23, This yew is of value because it is very low, not over 1~~ tall. The tips of the branches and their foliage are a golden yellow in the spring and early summer, changing to yellowish during late summer and continuing this color throughout the winter. cuspidata Taxus cuspidata expansa Distributed 1943 4, 17, 18, 19, 21, 2~, 23, 24, 25 Many nurserymen do not realize that T. cuspiclata is normally a single trunk tree! This variety is the typical vase-shape so frequently sought as an ornamental. Ulmus In the Arnold Arboretum since 1884 parvifolia - 50~-fDistributed many times and 1946 1, 2, 5, 17, 19, 21, 25 This is a small tree about 50~ tall with a broad, round head. It is the true Chinese elm and is one of the few elms to color red to purplish in the fall. Older trees are particularly outstanding for their mottled bark. It is also far less susceptible to attacks of the Japanese beetle than is Ulmus pumila. Like Ulmus pumila, it is fast-growing and has weak wood, but because of its autumn color and mottled bark may be of more ornamental value than is generally recognized at present. It is easily propagated by seeds or cuttings. In the Arnold Arboretum since 1919 9 Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum - 9~ Distributed several times and 1941 2, 4, 8, 17, 19, ~?~, 25 This shrub is similar to V. dilatatum except that it has Viburnum yellow fruits. In the Arnold Arboretum since 19~0 fragrans - 9~ Distributed 1941, 1942 4, 11, 1~?, 17 This is the earliest of the Viburnums to bloom. The plant itself is perfectly hardy north of New York, but the flower buds appear so early in the spring that in the vicinity of Boston they are frequently killed entirely by cold weather. The flowers are somewhat similar to those of V. carlesi, though not as good. Propagation is by cuttings. 62 Viburnum opulus xanthocarpum - 12~ In the Arnold Arboretum since 1898 Distributed many times and 1943, 1948 3, 4, 10, 16, 17, 19, 21, 22, 2.i, 26, 2 7 , 29, 311 This shrub is similar to V. opulus except that the fruit is a golden yellow. Although we have offered it for distribution several times, it still is not grown as much for landscape work as it should be. It is easily propagated by cuttings, and both it and L'. dilatatum .ranthocarpum add considerably to any situation in the fall because of their colored fruits. *Viburnum sargenti The flavum - 10~ F~rst introduced 1904 rare. a Distributed 1948 3, 4, 16, 1 7 , 18, 19, 29, 30, 311 viburnum is still very a Its golden-yellow fruit five-year experiment, I have found that, although the seeds will not yield 100% yellow-fruited plants, neBertheless the plants can be segregated as one or two-year seedlings according to the color of the leaf petiole. Red petioled leaves are borne on plants which later on will produce red fruits, and yellow or greenish-yellow petioled leaves are only borne on plants which later will produce yellow fruits. This is yellow-fruited Sargent is its chief ornamental characteristic. As result of an accurate means of differentiation in the seed bed years before fruit is borne. *Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum - 12~ First introduced 1908 Distributed many times and 1941 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 22, 23, 25, `27 This is of considerable merit because of its reddish-orange fleshy fruits. It is easily propagated by cuttings. All of the viburnums on this list add materially to the color range of this group in the fall. *Weigela First introduced 1913 3 \"Bouquet Rose\" - 8' Distributed several times and 1943 4, 8, 11, 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 24 The flower of this weigela is about the same size as that of W. \"Gracieux\" but it is a pale pink, making it one of the best of the hybrids growing in our collection from the standpoint of conspicuous color. \"Gracieux\" - 8~ First introduced 1905 Distributed several times and 1943 4, 8, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24 The flowers of this variety are white on the inside of the corolla and are streaked with purplish-pink on the outside. They are 1~~~ in diameter. This and W. \"Bouquet Rose\" are among what might be considered the best of the French hybrids and might well be compared with varieties grown commercially. *Weigela DONALD WYMAN 63 List of Cooperating Nurserymen to number under each (Those 1. 2. nurserymen receiving the plants listed from the Arnold Arboretum have been listed according plant.) 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 2~. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. Nursery, Inc., Westfield, Mass. Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, Calif. Bay State Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. Bobbink & Atkins, East Rutherford, N. J. Bristol Nurseries, Inc., Bristol, Conn. C. R. Burr & Co., Manchester, Conn. California Nursery Co., Niles, Calif. W. B. Clarke & Co., San Jose, Calif. Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio F & F Nurseries, Springfield, N. J. Fruitland Nurseries, Augusta, Ga. Glen St. Mary Nursery, Glen St. Mary, Fla. Hicks Nursery Co., Westbury, Long Island, N. Y. Hill Nursery Co., Dundee, Ill. Hillier & Sons, Winchester, England Jackson & Perkins Nursery Co., Newark, N. Y. Kingsville Nurseries, Inc., Kingsville, Md. Henry Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, Abington, Mass. Manitoba Hardy Plant Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, N. J. Rare Plants Nursery, Linwood, N. Y. Rockmont Nursery, P.O. Box 266, Boulder, Colo. Sherwood Nurseries, 141 S. E. 65th Ave., Portland, Oregon Siebenthaler Co., Catalpa Drive, Dayton, Ohio Snyder Bros., Inc., Center Point, Iowa (now called Linn County Nurseries) Upper Bank Nurseries, Media, Pa. Verhalen Nursery Co., Scottsville, Texas Verkade's Nurseries, Wayne, N. J. Wayside Garden Co., Mentor, Ohio Weston Nurseries, Weston, Mass. Wyman's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Mass. Adams . 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume VIII","article_sequence":10,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24196","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d070af26.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME VIII ' Illustrations 10 are in bold face type Abeliophyllum distichum, - Acer campestre compactum, 46 - - palmatum atropurpureum, 46 columnare, 46, 47 saccharinum, 10 saccharum monumentale, 47 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 47 rubrum - : Clark, George 0., 28 Clethra barbinervis, 48 Cooperating nurserymen, 64 Corylopsis platypetala, 48 - spicata, 10 0 Coville, F. V., 2~ Cryptomeria japonica, Cytisus - 10 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, close-up of flowers and showing tree itself, 21 praecox, 22, ~4, purpureus, 48, 50 48 - - - - Plate XIV, 49 Aly ssum gemonense, Azalea, Arnold, 24 Ghent, 24 Mollis, 24 Pinkshell, 21, 22 Poukhan, 24 Torch, 21, 22 - Davidia involucrata, 24 Destroy Dead Elm Wood Immediately, 17-?0 Deutzia candelabrum, 50 - - \"Contraste,\" 50 \"Magicien,\" 50 eximea, 50 rosea Azalea, the fiery red torch, Plate VI, 23 - - triacanthophora, 47 Blueberry Cages, 25-28 Blueberry culture, Construction cages for, 28 Requirements of, 26 Berberis - of - - Dove tree, 24 Dutch Elm Disease, 17-20 Four-point plan to combat it, 20 No positive practical control for 8 disease fungus or bark beetles, 18 Sanitation as best present method 9 of control, 18, 19 What one town has done to com4 - Sources of information about, 25 Blueberries, Methods of protecting, Plate VII, 27 Carpinus betulus compacta, 47 Cedrus libani, 10 Celastrus flagellaris, 47, 48 orbiculata major, 48 - - . Celastrus orbiculata and C. orbiculata major; Ulmus parvifolia, bark of XVI, 53 Cheng, Wan-Chun, 10 Plate ! 4 Chinese witch-hazel, the, Plate IV, 65 Biology, \"Arnold Dwarf,\" 50 Forsythia Gingko biloba, I 0 Hamamelis japonica, 10 10 mollis, o vernalis, 10 Hamblin, Stephen, 20 4 Hu, H. H., 4 Hsueh, C. J., Iberis sempervirens, 21, 22 - bat it, 19 9 Fan Memorial Institute of 1 tenoreana, 21 Ilex glabra, 42 Ilex glabra; Rhododendron catawbiense, Plate XIII, p. 43 showing botanical characteristics of, Plate II, .5 Metasequoia, type tree of, Plate I, 3 - Ilex yunnanensis, 50 Kalmia latifolia, 42 Nanking, National Central University at, New New 4 Kalopanax pictus, Labels 16 6 in 52 the Arnold Arboretum, 13- 4 - Cost of equipment for making, 14 -- Essential requirements for, 13 3 - Sources for materials, 1-4 + 17 Rare Ornamental Plants Recently Distributed to Commercial Nurserymen by the Arnold Arboor England Council, retum, 45-64 I Ottawa - Types of, 14, 6 16 Labels used at the Arnold Arbore- tum, Types of, Plate V, 15 Laburnum alpinum, 52 Laurel, Winter damage to, 9 - - - Ligustrum vicaryi; 52 vulgare pyramidale, 52 Lilac, Chinese, 22 Persian, 2? Lonicera amoena arnoldiana, o fragrantissima, 10 maximowiczi o praecox, 10 i 54 - sacchalinensis, 54 - - - praeflorens, 54 1 Magnolia acuminata, 21 kobus borealis, 54 stellata, 10 o ' Experiment Station, 29 Pearlbush, `?`l Philadelphus grandiflorus, 56 inodorus, 56, 58 splendens, 58 Picea heterolepis, 6 0 Pinus tabulaeformis, 10 Plants Sent to Cooperating Nurserymen with Notes Accompanying Them, 46-64 Populus maximowiczi, 58 Preston, '~liss Isabella, 29 Prinsepia sinensis, 58 Pruning Rhododendrons, 37-44 Pruning rhododendrons, experiments - , - in, 40, Prunus Prunus 51 l 4`~3#& x E; \"Hally Jolivette,\" 58 - \"Hally Jolivette,\" Plate XV, Maidenhair Tree, 1 Malus baccata columnaris, 54 - \"Dorothea,\" 54, 56 . Malus \"Dorothea,\" Plate Malus \"Katherine,\" 56 Malus \"Katherine,\" Plate XVII, 55 37-4~ Rhododendrons pruned in two differi ent ways, Plate XII, 41 Rhododendrons, winter damage to, Rhododendron carolinianum, 38 catawbiense, 38 Quince, Japanese, 22 Rhododendrods, pruning of, i XVIII, 57 9 Malus Prince Georges,\" 56 Manitoba Hardy Plant Nursery, 29 Massachusetts Arborists Association, - 19, 20 Rhododendron catawbiense; Ilex glabra, Plate XIII, 43 Rhododendron catawbiense, Plate Metasequoia, Another sil,\" 1-8 Metasequoia, map of 7 found, Fig. 3, \"Living Fos- XI, where - 39 area Rhododendron maximum, 38 nudiflorum, 24 66 Rhododendron obtusum amoenum, 24 - - \"Hedin,\" henryi, 32 3~~, 59 kaempferi, 21,22 - - roseum, 21, 24 - vaseyi, 27, 22 - \"Hiawatha,\" 32 \"Isabella,\" 32, 60 - - - wedoense poukhanense, Rosa centifolia, 20 gallica, 20 types, 20 24 - \"Jessica,\" - 34 Roses, donation of old-fashioned josikaea, 34 zabeli, 34 - julianae, 34 - - \" Katherina,\" 59 32 Royal Horticultural Colour Chart, Sambucus canadensis maxima, 58 31 - laciniata, - 0 Sciadopitys verticillata, 10 Skinner, F. L., 29 Smith, Harrison W., 4 Spring, 1948, 9-12 Symphoricarpos orbiculatus leucocarpus,59 Syringa amurensis, 22, 36 japonica, 36 - \"Ludwig Spaeth,\" \"Lutece,\" 34 old Arboretum, 22, 37 Syringa henryi \"Lutece\" in the Arn- pictured 35 32 with S. villosa, Plate X, - Syringa \"Lynette,\" - ` ` Macrostachya,\" \"Miranda,\" 32 \"Mrs. W. E. 37 i 59 - Marshall,\" - - - - - \"Ariel,\" 34 \"Audrey,\" 32 \"Bellicent,\" 31 \"Congo,\" 22, 59 \"Coral,\" 32 \"Caliban,\" 32 \"Carlton,\" 32 \"Charles Hepburn,\" 34 - \"Negro,\" 22 - \"Nerissa,\" 34, 60 \"Bocturne,\" 34 \"Octavia,\" 32, 60 \"Olivia,\" 34 \"Paulina,\" 32, 60 - pekinensis, persica, 22 pinetorum, 36 - - - \"Charmian,\" chinensis, - 34 - 32 - - 22 - - - saugeana, 22 \"Dawn,\" 32 - \"Portia,\" 32 \"Prairial,\" 32 prestoniae, 29-36 origin of, 29 (*)recommended varieties, 32, 34 varieties divided into color groups, - - \" Desdernona,\" 32 - - \"Donald Wyman,\" 34 - - - - - - - - - - \"Dorcas,\" 32 \"Elinor,\" 32 \"Enid,\" 34 \"Evangeline,\" 59 \"Floreal,\" 34 \"Francisca,\" 34 \"Guinevere,\" 34, 59 \"Handel,\" 32, 60 \"Hecla,\" 32, 60 67 - 31, 32, 34, 36 prestoniae hybrids, 60 Syringa prestoniae \"Isabella\"; Syringa prestoniae \"Hecla,\" Plate IX, 33 Syringa pubescens, 22, 60 reflexa, 29 \"Romeo\" 32 -- - - - - - - - \"Royalty,\" 36 \"Rutilant,\" 34 \"Silvia,\" 32 \"Sulte,\" 34 \"Swanee,\" 34 swegiflexa, 31, sweginzowi, 32 32 32 . Trip Through the Arboretum During Lilac Time, 21-~4 Ulmus parvifolia, 62 Ulmus lata and C. orbiculata - parvifolia; Celastrus orbicumajor, Plate XVI, 53 - - \"Titania,\" tomentella, - 32 - - \"Ursulla, 32 \"Valeria,\" 32 velutina excellens, villosa, 22, 29, 34 34 villosa and S. Umbrella Pine, 10 Vaccinium corymbosum, 25 Viburnum fragrans, 10, 62 dilatatum xanthocarpum, 62 - - Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum; Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum, - Syringa henryi \"Lu- Plate XIX, 61 1 Viburnum opulus - xanthocarpum, 63 tece\" in the Arnold Arboretum, Plate X, 3~ Syringa villosa; S. reflexa, Plate sargenti flavum, 63 setigerum aurantiacum, 63 Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum; Viburnum dilatatum xanthocar1 pum, Plate XIX, 61 2 Wang, T., 1, Weigela \"Bouquet Rose,\" - VIII, 30 Syringa vulgaris, 22, 29, 36 \"W. T. Macoun,\" 32 wolfi, 34 Taxus cuspidata aurescens, 62 - 63 \"Gracieux,\" Miss 63 25 - - expansa, 62 White, Elizabeth, 68 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23364","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270bb28.jpg","title":"1948-8","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1948,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24180","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060a36d.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Routes between the Arnold Arboretum and the Case Estates, Map, Plate I, op- posite p. ~. No. 8?40 Arnold Cherry-This photograph taken in 1944, shows the flowering and growth habit of the hybrid cherry at the age of four years. Plate II, op- posite p. 10. were All these elms on Boydon Road, Columbus, Ohio, necrosis disease of elms. Plate III, opposite p. 18. Azalea Path p. zs. as killed by the Phloem it will appear on Bussey Hill about mid-May. Plate IV, opposite Tilia cordala, Plate V, opposite p. 30. Picea Engelmanni, as it grows in the Arnold Arboretum. Plate VI, opposite p. 34. Pyrus zursurieresis, Plate VII, opposite p. 39. The Meadow Road in the Arnold Arboretum. Plate VIII, opposite p. 58. This beautiful bronze plaque in honor of Professor Charles S. Sargent was prepared at the expense of the Visiting Committee who were all personal friends of Professor Sargent. Plate IX, p. 60. Ulmusparvifolia: the true Chinese elm p. 62. (left); Stewartia koreana : Korean stewartia (right). Plate X, opposite Acer griseum : the paper bark maple with lustrous brown exfoliatin~T bark (left) ; Pinus Bungeana: the lace bark pine, the best of all the pines for ornamental bark (right). Plate XI, opposite p. 67. ill 111 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Past Year at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24188","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060bb6a.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 ' MARCH 21, 1947 THE PAST YEAR AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM NUMBER 1 have been made at the Arnold Arboretum during the past in some of the living collections. The many friends of the Arboretum will be interested in understanding some of the past events which have made it possible to undertake these changes, and in our plans for the future. This issue of Arnoldia will be devoted to an explanation of the situation so that our friends can better understand and appreciate the alterations when they visit the Arboretum this spring. Everyone familiar with the late Professor Charles Sprague Sargent knows of his great love for the Arboretum and the plants grown there. Since his death in 19~17, no one has seen fit to materially modify the plantings for which he was personally responsible. Undoubtedly he would have been the first to recommend the removal of many plants and even entire plantings, once they had served their purpose; Mrs. Beatrix Farrand also recognized this fact (Arnoldia, Vol. 6, No. 10). Since Professor Sargent's death, however, plants have continued to be sent to the Arboretum, new plants and some sent for \"trial\" to the extent of approximately 600 a year. Since the area (265 acres) has not been enlarged, and trial growing space had to be given for new and untried plants, the general plantings became more and more crowded, with the result that individual specimens received less care. MANY changes year, especially Labor and Staff In the interim since 1927, with an ever-increasing plant population, labor in has been demanding (and receiving) increased wages for fewer working hours. For various economic reasons there has been a gradual reduction of the 50-hour week to the 40-hour week with an accompanying increase in labor costs. As a result of this situation and the difficulty of obtaining labor during the war years, only half the time was being spent on the maintenance of the living collections in 1944 as was spent ~n 1931, and possibly considerably less than half general the time that was spent on the collections when Professor Sargent was living. By the end of World War II it became evident to even the casual observer that this situation could not continue. During the past year we have had 12 full time and 5 part time men working on the grounds for a total of 3905 man days of labor (figured on an 8 hour day basis) at a cost of $30,500. In 1931, when a total of 5400 man days was spent in the collections, it cost $14,~?31. The hourly wages of our permanent labor staff has more than doubled during the past ten years. Labor efficiency has been increased by greater use of mechanized equipment, but this, too, is expensive. At the end of the war the Arboretum found itself with a greatly depleted labor force. Some of the men had been taken on to fill vacancies only temporarily, and were obviously not interested in their work. The lack of care due to labor depletion during the war years was all too evident in many collections. The Arboretum suffered a tremendous loss when the Superintendent, Victor Schmitt, and the Propagator, William H. Judd, both of whom spent almost their entire lives working in the Arboretum and both of whom were carefully trained by Professor Sargent, died within a year and a half of each other. Valued nursery land adjacent to the greenhouses was taken by the state as essential for the erection of an addition to the State Antitoxin Laboratory. Contrasted with this, the bright the picture gradually became evident late in 1945 when some of our young men came home from the armed services and we were once more able to hire additional competent workers. Heman Howard, for 14 years in charge of labelling and mapping at the Arboretum, returned from the army in 1945 and was made Assistant Horticulturist. Alfred Fordham, for 14 years Assistant Propagator at the Arboretum, returned from the Army in 1946 and was made Assistant Superintendent January 1, 194 i . Mr. Robert Williams, who came to the Arboretum in 1945 as Superintendent to fill the vacancy left by the death of Mr. Victor Schmitt continues in his energetic efforts to keep the collections properly maintained. Mr. Richard H. Fillmore has been appointed Propagator starting March 1, to carry on the work formerly done by Mr. Judd. Mr. Fillmore comes from a horticultural family, and has worked rn his father's nursery in Nova Scotia. He graduated from Acadia University, Nova Scotia, in 1945 (majoring in botany) and since then has taken graduate work at Massachusetts State College (majoring in landscape architecture), transferring to Cornell University in1946; he hopes to receive his M.S. degree in Ornamental Horticulture from that institution this June. In early 19k6 a full time tree pruner was employed, a young man trained in the skills of modern arboriculture. He and his immediate successors have proved many times over that they are worth their extra compensation, especially in an arboretum such as ours where all the men we had during the war were unable to do pruning work off the ground. side of - Mechanized equipment such as tractors, specialized tractor-drawn lawn mowers, etc., have been purchased during the past five years to reduce the amount of hand labor necessary. One of the most recent acquisitions has been a Disston chain saw, purchased last fall. This alone has resulted in a tremendous saving in labor. This morning, for instance, three men using the machine, felled and cut up (in less than 48~~ lengths) a 30~~ oak in less than an hour, a job which would formerly have taken three men at least a full day. Several substantial bequests have made it possible for the Arboretum to increase the budget for labor and equipment although increased costs still keep our labor force much smaller than in Sargent's time. The Case Bequests The generous gifts of Miss Louisa W. Case and her sister Miss Marian Roby Case, both of Weston, occurring over a period of several years, have come at a most opportune time. In the fall of 1942, as a memorial to her father, James B. Case, Miss Louisa W. Case of Weston gave the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University an outright gift of $50,000.00 together with her residence, greenhouses, barns and fifty-nine acres of land to be utilized for the purposes of the Arnold Arboretum. In July, 1944, her sister, Miss Marian Roby Case, left the Arboretum some ninety acres of land, various buildings and what has amounted to a capital endowment of $420,000.00. In the fall of 19~.6, Miss Louisa Case left an additional forty acres of land and a residuary amount of money from her as yet undetermined. Miss Marian Roby Case had been interested in horticulture ever since she started her summer school for boys in Weston in 1909. Since that time her Weston estate had been carefully planted with many kinds of fruit trees and ornamental specimens so that her gardens were of great interest to the community. Miss Louisa W. Case, too, had been interested in the Arnold Arboretum for many years and served on its Visiting Committee. Because of their interest in horticulture in general and in the Arnold Arboretum in particular, the Arboretum is now in a much better position to carry on its horticultural work than it has been for estate many years. As a result of these excellent gifts from people who were deeply interested in the work of the Arnold Arboretum, land ~s now available for nurseries and experimental plots. Much preliminary work has been done during the past two years to make it possible to set up a most interesting series of horticultural experiments on these properties this spring. Many of the experiments have to do with cultural practices governing the color of the foliage, flower, fruit and autumn coloration of many ornamental woody plants. A sufficient endowment was given with these Case estates so that they can be operated without reducing the funds available for maintenance work in the Arboretum at Jamaica Plain. 3 The Balch Bequest The Arnold Arboretum has also received this past year $150,000.00 from the Balch, wife of the late John Balch of Milton. Mr. Balch was a friend of the Arboretum for many years, frequently visiting the collections and coming for advice in order to help him solve his many problems as tree warden for the town of Milton. By the terms of the will the money was left \"to be used so far as possible for practical horticulture and for such uses as may reasonably add to the interest and enjoyment of the average visitor and the general beauty of the Arboretum.\" estate of Katherine T. Reorganization Finally, the reorganization of botanical activities at Harvard and the passage of time have resulted in certain administrative changes in the Arnold Arboretum. In order to coordinate the various botanical institutions of the University the botanical activities have been divided into two administrative areas. The first includes the taxonomic and morphological activities of the Arnold Arboretum, the Gray Herbarium, the Botanical 11W seum and the Farlow Herbarium. The other includes the experimental and field work of the Arnold Arboretum, the Bussey Institution, the Harvard Forest, the Cabot Foundation and the Atkins Garden in Cuba. It is hoped that such coordination of the outlying botanical agencies with the Department of Botany will save duplication of certain activities and personnel. Such a plan was proposed by Dr. E. D. Merrill when he first came to Harvard as the Director of the Arnold Arboretum. When Dr. Merrill retired as Director at the age of 70 last fall, the administration of the Arnold Arboretum came under the direction of the chairmen of the two botanical areas, with Dr. Karl Sax, Professor of Botany, serving as Acting Director. New Policies A combination of all these circumstances since the war has resulted in an in- creased emphasis on the horticultural activities of the Arboretum. Two policies have gradually evolved which may greatly affect the future of the general maintenance work in the Arboretum. In the first place, a greater part of the nursery space for the initial trial of new plants and replacement plants will be on the Case estates in Weston. The breeding and most of the propagation will be continued at the Arnold Arboretum. In Weston sufficient land is available so that plants can be grown to flowering size before they are moved to permanent plantings. If it is found that a \"new\" variety differs only slightly from another long established in the collections, differs shall we say by an additional pubescence of the leaf or a slightly more entire leaf margin than another variety already established, it may not be kept. Full notes will be taken for the permanent records and then the plant may be discarded merely because it differs so slightly. The second policy is perhaps more important. Certain varieties which have not proved themselves to be among the best of their group for ornamental purposes may be removed from the general collections at Jamaica Plain and grown on the Case estates in Weston. Here such varieties, important for scientific reasons, would be lined out in rows and cultivated by machine at comparatively little expense. More room for better growth and display would again be given to the remaining plants in that particular group at the Arnold Arboretum. At Jamaica Plain, then, one would be able to see the most important plants and the best ornamental varieties in certain groups normally having a large number of varieties. If one wanted first-hand information of the others in the group, he could easily see these at the Case estates in Weston. In other words, as Mrs. Farrand has very rightly pointed out, it is impossible to continue to grow all the woody plants that are hardy in this climate on the l65 acres, especially if certain wooded areas and other important landscape features are to be maintained, as they should. All parties concerned having agreed in general to these two policies, certain things have been done last year and this, which will, we hope, make the Arboretum a much more interesting and instructive place to visit. ~ Work 1. Accomplished The Past Year shrubs and lrees have been removed. Often when a number of same seed lot, interesting and valuable variations will occur among the plants. It is always advisable to grow species from seed collected near the extremes of their known habitat and this can greatly increase the number of plants of a certain species. An intelligent understanding of this situation has to be made with each species to limit the number of plants grown. This winter, for instance, we were able to remove over 900 plants of ~5 genera without eliminating any species or variety of importance. Many duplicate plants are set out all grown from the 2. Vistas are being opened. Because of the elimination of one some 150 elm and ash Hill from the Forest Hills Gate, another showing the Customs House Tower from Bussey Hill, and another through the elms. Vistas have been opened also in the oaks and in the lindens with the elimination of some 80 linden and horse-chestnut duplicates. The trees remaining in all these collections are bound to benefit by having more room for proper development and by our ability, under the circumstances, to give them much more of the proper care that they need. It should be emphasized that not a single species or variety has been entirely eliminated by this thinning process. There are the following species and varieties of these plants represented in our collections at present: trees, several splendid vistas have been opened, showing Bussey No. Aesculus Fraxinus Tilia Ulmus qf sp. 36 48 40 and var. 110. qf plants 102 109 103 158 65 5 3. fl greater part qf the barberry collection has been removed to the Case estates. done because the U.S. Dept. of Agriculture is placing more and more restrictions on the growing and shipping of barberries carrying the dread black stem rust of wheat. Only about 25 species and varieties of barberries are immune. These are remaining in the Arboretum. The remainder (some 96 species and varieties) have already been planted on the Case estates. This was greater part of the Ribes collection has been removed to the Case estates. known to be be alternate hosts of the white pine blister rust, and rigid restrictions are placed against growing them in areas where five needled pines are grown. Hence the general public has difficulties in growing them. Over 40 species and varieties of these have been planted on the Case estates, with only a 4. The These are few of the ornamental ones left in the Arboretum. 5. Spent hops are being used as a mulch in many collections. It has been demonstrated that, on soils similar to those in the Arboretum, woody plants benefit from mulches. The difficulty comes m finding the proper mulch. Hay is excellent in areas removed from the public where fire is not a hazard. Peat moss, too, makes a splendid mulch, but in areas where this has to be applied in the Arboretum there is no available water, and it has been proved time and time again, right in the Arboretum, that, under our conditions, where weeks of summer drought are common, the surface of peat moss will dry out to such an extent that it constitutes a serious fire hazard. A carelessly flipped cigarette or a small fire actually started by boys, is an ever-present hazard, and once dry peat moss starts to smoulder and is whipped into a blaze by a strong wind, it is one of the most difficult types of fire to put out. As a consequence, we are experimenting with spent hops, hauled from one of the local breweries. It is too early to say much about them except that they do not burn so readily as peat moss and that their water retentive value is higher. Visitors to the Arboretum this spring will see a great deal of hops around the plants, and if they have just been applied the odor will be all too evident. However, we hope it is all for the better growth of the plants, and the objectionable odor of hops does disappear after a week or so. 6. The lilac collection in the Arboretum will probably not be further enlarged. The Arnold Arboretum has more varieties of lilacs than any other institution in this country if not in the world. It is a valued collection. Few other arboreta or botanic gardens are willing to grow some 450 named varieties of lilac; yet at the moment the feeling seems to be that this is a valuable reference collection and all these varieties should continue to be grown at the one place in this country where students of this diversified group of ornamental plants can see how similar many varieties are. There is not enough room in the lilac collection for all these 6- out Consequently, nearly 100 of the less important varieties will be lined the Case estates, where they can be studied by those who wish to do so, but where the general public will not be confused by an additional number of varieties (many of them unavailable from nurseries). varieties. on 7. Weigela, Philadelphus, Deutzia and .Spiraen collections, similarly treated this spring. it is hoped, will be 8. The lilac collection was thoroughly pruned for the fcrst time since 19~1. It is difficult to understand the tremendous amount of work done here last spring (well over 75 man days of 8 hours each) and the great amount of material it was necessary to remove. The lilacs may not produce a heavy display of bloom this spring, but they are in better physical condition than they have been in many years and should definitely show it by producing a bumper crop of blossoms in 1948. , 9. The Euonymus collection formerly by the Aesculus collection was moved early last spring to its permanent place at the foot of Bussey Hill. At the same time some thirty different Phellodendron duplicates were removed and the work completed before early spring visitors arrived. It was of great interest that of the very few visitors who did note the change, all agreed it was a decided improvement. Weed plants in all collections are continually being pulled out with tractors. In is this more evident than along the meadow side of Meadow Road where several weeks were spent in eliminating a greater part of the overgrown shrubbery. Now, because of the great interest in ground covers it is proposed to plant demonstration areas of some of the better types here. Only a few will be planted this spring, since much of the ground will have to be weeded carefully for a full year in preparation for other demonstration beds. The right kind of ground covers, properly grown, are far easier to maintain than grass. Even the highway departments are coming to realize this. The increased cost of adequate maintenance labor is forcing the planting of ground covers where they have not been used before. 10. no place ment of the All the roads in the Arboretum were resurfaced last spring by the Park DepartCity of Boston. This makes the walking much more pleasant and removes some of the bad holes which have occurred over a number of years. The work was completed before Lilac Sunday last year. Mr. William P. Long, Chairman of the Boston Park Commission, is to be thanked for his foresight in completing this work at such an opportune time. 11. 12. A Building. Arnold fe~e additional planls zcill be added to the plantings around the Administration Mrs. Farrand has suggested that some of the better introductions of the Arboretum be selected for permanent display in this prominent area. 7; Current Plans It is hoped that the general weeding out of undesirable plants can be continued this year. It is also hoped that some of the duplicates among the conifers can be removed to give those remaining more room in which to grow. A program for the proper fertilization of certain collections will be again undertaken. In the past, stable manure has been purchased from time to time and put on the collections most in need of it. This is most beneficial but it is a time-consuming operation, and we hope to be able to cover more areas more quickly and economically by the use of a combination of commercial fertilizer and mulches. We are also planning to rearrange the general planting in the Chinese collection on Bussey Hill. Some of the unsightly specimens have been and will be removed to other places in the Arboretum and it is hoped that a general planting of azaleas can be featured in this likely spot. There are over 125 different kinds of azaleas growing in the Arboretum now, but they are distributed in many places. It is hoped that this general location can be so planned and landscaped that this will be the azalea collection where some can always be seen in flower during the two full months that they bloom. Such a planting when observed from the top of Bussey H~ll would be a sight worth remembering. In order to make such an outstanding planting feasible it is necessary to lay a water line to this area so that the plants can be properly watered during droughts. Mr. William P. Long, Chairman of the Boston Park Commission, has promised that he will include in his 1947 budget, a request for the money for a water system throughout the entire Arboretum, for he realizes, as we do, the tremendous advantages which would accrue therefrom. Not only would it be possible to water plants when they needed it most, but also our own men could undoubtedly control many small fires without calling out the city fire trucks. As an example of our difficulties in this respect, on one particularly dry day in February this year our men put out eight set fires in one afternoon and called for assistance from the fire department only once. This was during the week of school vacation. It is hoped that the Park Department can see its way clear shortly to erectmg proper fences around a few unfenced areas in the Arboretum. This then is a general discussion of what has been happening at the Arnold Arboretum since the war. With an mcreasing interest in ornamental plantings clearly evidenced over the entire country it is only logical that this great collection of plants-America's greatest garden-should once more be put in excellent condition so that the thousands of visitors each year can fully appreciate the many plant treasures it has on display. DONALD WYMAN "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Plant Breeding at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24182","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060ab26.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 MARCH 26, 1947 NUMBER 2 PLANT BREEDING AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM 60 years the Arnold Arboretum has introduced plants of horticultural interest from all parts of the world. This has been done by cooperation with other botanic gardens and horticultural institutions and by field collections made by our own staff members or agents in North America, Europe and Asia. During this time nearly a thousand species and varieties have been introduced into cultivation in the United States by the Arnold Arboretum. Many of them have proved to be of great horticultural value. Among the outstanding introductions are the Sargent Cherry, the Dove tree, a hardy form of the Cedar of Lebanon, the Regal lily, Malus hupehensis, Malus toringoides, Rhododendron obtusum kae~npferi, and Kolkzeitsia a~nabilis. It is possible that a few more new hardy ornamental trees and shrubs will be found in the fields and forests of the Orient, but plant collectors have explored most of the north temperate zone. New species or varieties must now be obtained largely by the selection of occas~onal \"sports\" or mutations, or by producing hybrids of various species and varieties. These methods have long been used with the more common species of ornamental plants, and the great array of horticultural varieties of roses, rhododendrons, lilacs, and other ornamentals are the results of the plant breeders art. The Arnold Arboretum provides an unusual opportunity for the plant breeder. Here we have trees and shrubs from all parts of the world and crosses can be made between some of these species which in nature would never hybridize because of geographic isolation. Some of our most important ornamental trees and shrubs have been produced in the past by crosses between American and European or Asiatic species. For example, the London Plane tree which is so often used for street planting in Europe and the United States originated in England from a cross between our Platanus occideutalis and the Mediterranean Platrcnus orientalis. The hybrid is more vigorous and hardy than either parent. Some of our hardiest FOR nearly 9 Rhododendrons have resulted from crosses between the American Rhododendron catawbiense and the European Rhododendron ponticum and other species. At the Arnold Arboretum we have crossed our native white pine, Pinus strobus, with the Himalayan white pine, Pinus Gr~thii, and with the Japanese white pine, Pinus para;flora, to produce new types of possible economic and ornamental value. Plant breeding work was started at the Arnold Arboretum nearly 20 years ago. The early work was confined largely to problems of species origins and relationships as a foundation for the breeding program. The breeding of trees and shrubs is a time consuming and expensive project. Many species can be crossed only with difficulty, if at all, so that large numbers of pollinations must be made. Any hybrids obtained must be grown to flowering size and the plants must have room to develop naturally, so that the growth habits can be observed. Often a second generation is necessary to obtain the proper combinations of parental characters. Promising hybrids should then be grown for another generation as cuttings or on standard root stocks in order to study their behavior following the usual methods of propagation. In some cases test plantings should be made in various locations to test the adaptability of a new variety. Thus the time required to develop a new variety by hybridization will vary from six or seven years in the case of forsythias to nearly 10 years for apples and much longer for maples and pines. After the hybrids are selected and tested they are still not available for general distribution. Since the Arnold Arboretum can not engage in a general nursery business, the new varieties must be propagated and distributed to cooperating nurserymen. They in turn will need several more years in which to propagate the nursery stock for release to the public. A number of hybrid plants have now been selected and include several varieties of forsythia, a long-flowering cherry, and many new ornamental apples. The two forsythia varieties have been named, and cuttings have been sent to cooperating nurserymen. \"Arnold Dwarf\" is a segregate from a cross between Forsythia intermedia and F, japonica. The original plant in our nursery is aboutfeet tall, and has a spread of about 8 feet at the age of six years. The drooping branches root readily and produce a creeping mass of foliage. The leaves are small, about an inch long. Unfortunately this forsythia has not produced flowers and may never do so, but its vegetative habit is so attractive that it should be of value as ground cover or border plant. \"Arnold Giant\" is a tetraploid forsythia induced by treating a seedling of Forsythia intermedia with colchicine. This was done by one of our student assistants, George Skirm. Like most plants with a double chromosome number, the leaves are thicker and greener, and the flowers are larger and darker than the parental form. The leaves are ovate, three to four inches long, and with serrated margins. The plant is somewhat stiff when young, but forms a compact spreading a bush when mature. This variety has flowered every year for the past four seasons, and is hardier than most species and varieties of forsythia although probably not as hardy as F, ovata. 10 PLATE II No. 8340 Arnold Cherry-This photograph taken in 19~.~., shows the flowering and 2~roccth habit of the hybrid cherry at the age of four years. Among the cherry hybrids one of the most interesting is a form which appeared in the progeny of a hybrid between Prunus subJtirtilla and P. yedoense. The original plant flowered when it was two years old, and at six years it is about 7 feet tall. It bears a profusion of small semi-double white flowers, which show a tinge of pink as the flowers open. The flower buds develop irregularly, so that in a normal season there is a good bloom for 10 days to two weeks. This variety, as yet unnamed, will be distributed to nurserymen next year. The apple hybrids have yielded a number of promising varieties, but the proportion of good types has been small~-as those of you who aided th~s work by growing the seedlings can testify. As a partial compensation to our cooperative friends who carried on this testing work we hope to be able to supply you with of the better varieties in a few years. Meanwhile if you have any outstanding hybrids which we distributed in 19~.0, please let us know so that we can propagate them. Most lilac varieties have been produced from Syringa vulgaris by plant breeders in France, Germany, and Rochester Park in this country. An outstanding exception is the Chinese lilac, a hybrid between S. vulgaris and S. laciniata (formerly S. persica var.) which first originated as a natural hybrid in a European botanic garden in 1777. This hybrid has since been produced artificially, although in limited numbers. The cross is easily made, and the hybrids grow slowly for the first year or two, and then about 97 percent of the seedlings die. Most of those which survive lack vigor. We have been able to remedy this trouble by budding the young hybrids on tree lilac (S. amurensis,japonica) root stocks. The tree lilac also makes a good stock for the common lilac varieties. Other lilac species can be crossed, but not if they belong to different sections of the genus. Crosses between S. laciniata and S. poinnat~'olia produce vigorous hybrids which may prove to be of value. We have also produced hybrids of S. pinnat~'olia and S. vulgaris, but they produce poor flower clusters, and since they are completely sterile they can not be used in further breeding experiments. The small flowered species can be intercrossed to some extent, but they are too much alike to produce distinctly new types of lilacs. The hybrids are grown in the nursery plots af the Bussey Institution, and a few of the selected hybrids are grown on the Bussey grounds to provide readily accessible propagating material. Formerly the hybrids were tested on the Walter Street tract, a piece of land owned by, but not incorporated into, the adjacent Arnold Arboretum. Our hybrids are now to be tested at the Case estates in Weston, recently given to the Arnold Arboretum, where ample land is available and where there is little or no danger of vandalism. Although the greenhouses and nursery plots of the Bussey Institution are not open to the general public, amateur or professional horticulturists who are interested in plant breeding or propagation are always welcome. some trees from the KARL SAX 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Bussey Institution","article_sequence":3,"start_page":3,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24186","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060b725.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 APRIL 4, 1947 THE BUSSEY INSTITUTION Institution has played an important part in the development of 2 Arnold Arboretum. When the Arnold Arboretum was established in 1872 the Bussey Institution provided most of the land for the new organization. The two institutions worked in harmony for many years and when the Bussey Institution was closed in 1936 part of the funds were used to support the work of the Arboretum. Under the reorganization of botanical activities at Harvard these two institutions will continue to cooperate. In 1835 Benjamin Bussey provided in his will for both the land and an endowment for a school of agriculture and horticulture, thus anticipating by more than 25 years the Morrill Act of Congress establishing the State Agricultural Colleges. The obligations of the Bussey Trust were not liquidated until 1862, and the organization of the Bussey Institution was effected in 1871. The curriculum covered a three-year course for undergraduates who had done a year's work at the Lawrence Scientific School. Inadequate funds, competition from State Colleges, and the transfer to the Arnold Arboretum of most of the Bussey land led to the termination of Harvard's undergraduate school of agriculture in 1906. In 1907 the Bussey Institution was reorganized as a graduate school \"for advanced instruction and research in scientific problems that relate and contribute to practical agriculture and horticulture.\" Under the administration of W. M. Wheeler, with the cooperation of East, Castle, Brues, Bailey and Ames, the Bussey Institution soon became a center of graduate instruction and research in genetics, entomology, plant anatomy, and economic botany. It attracted graduate students from both the United States and foreign countries who have subsequently become leaders in agricultural institutions and other fields of applied biology. In the field of genetics alone 40 men obtained the Sc.D. degree before the Bussey Institution was closed in 1936. The research contributions from the Bussey Institution have been equally im- NUMBER 3 THE Bussey the ` 13 pressive. Perhaps the greatest single contribution to agriculture of this century was made by two biologists of \" Ivy \" colleges-Shull of Princeton and East of Harvard-when they developed the method of crossing inbred lines of corn to produce the vigorous and productive hybrid corn which now dominates American It is estimated that the development and utilization of hybrid corn worth more than half a billion dollars to the farmers of this country last year. In 1930 the Bussey facultywas merged with the faculty of Arts and Sciences, and in 1936 the Bussey staff was transferred to the Biological Laboratories in Cambridge. The Bussey Institution continued as a holdmg agency, and the funds were used largely to support the work of the Arnold Arboretum. Under the recent reorganization of botanical activities at Harvard, the Bussey Institution will be included m the newly created Institute for Research in Experimental and Applied Botany, whose objective is that of coordinating the activities of the Botanic Garden, the Bussey Institution, the Harvard Forest, the Atkins Garden and Research Laboratory in Cuba, and the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum. During the war years the Bussey Building was renovated by the Medical Corps of the U.S. Army, who occupied it until the summer of 1946. Most of the building is now occupied by the Massachusetts Department of Public Health, which will be responsible for all maintenance and repairs. We have retained a large laboratory for use as summer quarters for staff members and students in horticultural and botanical work, and have ample quarters for the Arnold Arboretum maintenance staff in the basement. The grounds and greenhouses will continue to be used for experimental work in botany, plant breeding, horticulture and agriculture by staff members and students. The grounds also contain the greenhouses and nursery plots of the Arboretum, although much of the nursery work has now been transferred to the Case estates in Weston. When the Bussey Institution gave up undergraduate instruction in agriculture and horticulture, and became organized for graduate work in applied biology, the original functions of the institution were not forgotten. :llany of the graduate students came from agricultural colleges, and of those who specialized in plant genetics most have returned to agricultural work in State or Federal service. Since agriculture is based upon the fundamental biological sciences a curriculum in pure science can provide the essential training for research in agriculture. The Bussey Institution fulfilled this need in the past and now as part of the Institute for Research in Experimental and Applied Botany can again contribute to the instruction of graduate students interested in agricultural research. In addition, provision has been made for work in tropical agriculture, the field work to be done at the Atkins Botanic Garden in Cuba. During recent year5 experimental work in agriculture and horticulture has been conducted at the Bussey Institution by Professors Karl Sax and Paul C. Mangelsdorf. Problems related to the origin of corn are being studied by crossing standard varieties with forms from Central and South America and with related genera. agriculture. was 14 By means of genetic and cytological analysis it is possible to determine relationships and possible origins of our modern corn varieties. Other work with corn includes the procluctu>n of new sweet varieties adapted to ?Vew England. Seven years ago the white \"~I~dget,\" an early corn of very h~gh quality, was crossed with \"Golden Bantam.\" hybrid was backcrossed and the yellow segregates backcrossed on \"Blidget'' a second time. on \"~luiget\" The next year the plants were selfed to obtain pure yellow types. These were selected for uniformity of growth habit and fohage color, and were then intercrossed. As a result we have a new variety which has the earliness and high quality of \"~lidget\" but one which is more productive and has more vitamin A. We have named the new variety \"Seven-eighths Midget\" since approximately seveneighths of its germplasm is derived from \"l~idget.\" We now have seed for distribution to those who wish to cooperate in making field tests for productivity and eating tests for quality. Although the \"Seven-eighths Midget\" is a corn of very high quality, the yields are relatively low. Yields have been increased by crossing \"Seven-eighths Midget\" with an early dwarf strain of \"Golden Bantam\" and utilizing the vigor of the first generation hybrids. This hybrid corn retains most of the quality of the \"Dlid~,ret\" and is, ~n our opinion, of higher quality than any of the many hybrid sweet corn varieties now on the market. Seed of this hybrid is being produced this year so that it can be distributed for testing in the New England area next The year. The artificial induction of polyploidy to increase the size of flowers, fruits and seeds has been of considerable value with certain ornamental plants. Doubling the chromosome number of species of crop plants has not been very satisfactory. Such polyploids are partially sterile and seed production is reduced. V~'e have produced tetraploid sweet corn, broccoli, turnips, rye, wheat and barley, but none of these polyploids have been of economic value. Chromosome doubling in sterile generic or species hybrids, however, restores fertility and results in new species or genera. At the Bussey Institution we have produced a new genus by doubling the chromosome number of a wheat-rye hybrid, and a new species of wheat has been resynthesized. Hundreds of new species have been produced throughout the world during the past decade by the artificial induction of polyploidy in sterile species hybrids. Some of these will be of economic value. Many of our economic crop plants have originated by natural doubling of the chromosomes of species hybrids in nature, but nature required thousands or perhaps millions of years. Investigators at the Bussey Institution were among the first in this country to utilize embryo culture as an aid m plant breeding. Crosses between distinct species often produce no viable seed, but in some cases this sterility can be overcome by culturing the young embryos in nutrient solution and permitting them to mature independently of the mother plant. Clonal lines of apple root stocks are becoming more generally used since it has 13 been found that tree growth can be controlled if certain types of root stocks are used. Of special interest are the \"Malling\" dwarfing root stocks originated in England. The disadvantage of clonal root stocks is the cost of propagation by layering. In our breeding of ornamental species of apples we have found half a dozen Asiatic species which breed true from seed due to apomixis. We are now testing these species-Malus toringoides, M. hupehensis, 111 siklcimen,ris, and other species -as root stocks for \"1BIcIntosh\" and other commercial varieties with the hope that some may have a dwarfing effect. These Asiatic species are also resistant or immune to crown gall-a factor of some importance in commercial propagation. In the genus Prunus we have found that P. tomentosa has a dwarfing effect on the commercial varieties of peaches and promotes early fruiting, but more time is required to determine its practical value. For lilac propagation the tree lilac is giving very promising results as a root stock for standard Syringa vulgaris varieties. In the Pomoideae a more or less systematic survey is being made of the grafting compatibility of the different genera. The work of the Bussey Institution is closely coordinated with that of the Arnold Arboretum and the Harvard Forest. Under the auspices of the Cabot Foundation, a forest tree breeding project was started ten years ago. Numerous hybrids have been made between the species of poplars growing in the Arnold Arboretum. We now have about fifty selected clonal lines of hybrid poplars which make a much more rapid growth than do the parental species. These are to be tested under field conditions at the Harvard Forest for growth rate and disease resistance in order to select desirable types which can be used for reforestation for special purposes. Species hybrids of pines also show hybrid vigor and a number of our hybrids have been planted in the Arnold Arboretum for further tests and seed production. Eventually these, too, will be tested at the Harvard Forest. The Bussey Institution, as part of the Institute for Research in Experimental and Applied Botany, will continue to conduct work in pure and applied science. With the facilities of the Arnold Arboretum, the Biological Laboratories, the Harvard Forest, and the Atkins Garden, Harvard is in a better position than it has ever been before to contribute to the basic sciences of agriculture and horticulture. KARL SAX 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Watch the Elms","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24189","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060816d.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 APRIL 11, 1947 WATCH THE ELJIS caucus the other night, attended by over five hundred persons, of whom own their own homes in a suburban Boston area, I was surprised to find the sentiment expressed that the elms would \"take care of themselves.\" This, even after the town tree warden had made an impassioned and intelligent plea for sufficient funds to spray the elms along that town's highways in order to prevent the influx of the Dutch elm disease, known to be within fifteen miles or less of that town. The lesson I learned was that the tree warden knew the problem and knew the required measures to be taken, but there were not enough individuals present who were equally well-informed to force the town authorities to supply the available funds this year. As a result of this episode, it was thought advisable to devote this issue of Arnoldia to a few points concerning the Dutch elm disease which will help all property owners, especially those in Massachusetts, to understand the current situation. Although the Dutch elm disease has been killing trees in this country since 1930, it has been only during the later war years that the number of trees known to have the disease in Massachusetts are as follows: NUMBER 4 AT most a town 1941 - 1 1942 - 6 1943 - 4 1944 - 32 1945 - 42 - , 1946 - 296 1947 - 87(first two months only) The disease has appeared in 48 cities and towns in this state, among which are Quincy, Plymouth, Braintree, Hingham, Milton and Weymouth, all fairly close to :lletropolitan Boston. The disease is also reported to be in Providence, Rhode Island. 17 There is no basis for assuming that elms anywhere is it in the state of Massachu- possible to estimate how many other trees are affected with the disease right now. Every elm in a sickened or dying condition can be considered as a potential victim. Such trees should be carefully examined by experts, and immediate steps taken to rectify their condition. setts will be immune, nor It is not necessary to consider in detail here the tremendous damage done to the elms of northern New Jersey, for many subscribers to Arnoldia are unfortunately too aware of that already. It should be said however, that in certain Connecticut towns and cities where funds or interest on the part of the citizens was lacking during the past few years, street trees in general were neglected. As a result of this inactivity there are so many dead elms killed by the disease that practically the entire park appropriation for the towns is necessary this year just to remove the dead trees. This is not the time to fly off in an emotional whirl about the value of these stately trees or the tremendous loss in property values if the elms are wiped out. Rather is this the time for those of us living in Massachusetts to carefully examine the situation as we find it now, and see what can be done about it this year, both individually and collectively. Much has been written and will be written concerning the symptoms of the disease which include wilting, curling, yellowing and early falling of the leaves together with a brown streaking of the infected wood and inner bark. Proof of the presence of the disease is only possible by laboratory technicians who make certain cultures and tests with the woody parts of the infested tree. Death, either gradual or sudden, results from the fungus causing the disease. It is particularly important to note that the disease is carried by a small bark beetle (Scolytus naultist~~irrtus) feeding in the bark of small branches or twigs, commonly in crotches. The beetles develop from the egg stage in dying or dead elm trees in the bark, just the places where the fungus causing the disease thrives. The insects then carry the spores to healthy trees and infection takes place in those same crotches where the adult beetles feed. It is not known how far these beetles will fly when aided by favorable winds, but there havebeen cases when they have carried the fungus at least two miles. Present research with control measures for the disease seem to point to the fact that if the spread of the beetle can be controlled, this automatically reduces the spread of the disease. Progress of the Dutch elm disease is closely associated with beetle infested dead elm wood where the fungus thrives. Dead elm trees result from many diverse causes, but it is evident that cleaning up such dead wood is of the utmost importance in controlling the disease. Hence it is important for everyone to understand just what can be done to obtain this end. Massachusetts is being invaded by the disease at a time when DDT m some form is available to the public. Unfortunately, entomologists have not had sufficient time to experiment with 18 PLATE III All these elms on Boydon Road, Columbus, Ohio, were killed by the YhGoem necrosis disease of elms. This disease does not occur in New England, but a similar sight might result from the inroads of the Dutch Elm disease in New England towns unless precautionary steps are taken for its effective control. Courtesy \"Trees Magaziyce\" . DDT so that they are not as yet agreed on the exact amounts which should be used for controlling the elm bark beetle without burning the foliage of the tree. DDT will be available this spring in many forms and many claims will be made for these. We know that it is more effective in controlling many leaf-eating insects than is lead-arsenate. However, the' feeding habits of the elm bark beetle are peculiar in that the feeding is done mostly in the crotches of twigs and the beetles move around far less than caterpillars and voracious leaf-feeding insects. Hence a greater concentration of DDT must be applied in such a manner as to run down the twigs and drench all the twigs and crotches. DDT kills the beetles, but the amount known to prevent feeding for several weeks may injure the foliage of the tree in leaf. Hence, a blanket recommendation for applying any time can not be made at the time this is being written. Two suggestions are given on page 22. There is no known cure for the disease once it has started in a tree, but it may be possible to control this carrier of the disease, and certainly as far as Massachusetts is concerned, now is the time to attempt to do it. An ounce of prevention is always worth that pound of cure, and in Massachusetts, much beauty and money may be economically conserved if proper preventative measures are taken at once. What The Individual Can Do 1. Carefully examine all the elms on the property for dead or broken branches. All such branches should be cut off and burned before May first, when the beetles ' v first emerge. 2. Any elm trees that are dead or in a dying condition should be cut down and burned at once. The disease is spread more often by elm bark beetles which live in dead or cut elm wood than by beetles which feed on living twigs. No cut elm wood should be allowed to remain out-of-doors with the bark on. It may be possible to spray such wood with ? % DDT in fuel oil so that the wood will not harbor the bark beetle, but it is much more satisfactory to burn the wood at once and take no chances. 3. Keep sound elms a. in good growing condition. This can be done by : Spraying the trees to control cankerworms, elm leaf beetles, and other right materials would at the proper time to control destructive insects. b. Spraying the trees with the the elm bark beetle. Fertilizing those trees which c. petent commercial organizations are obviously benefit from prepared to do this. it. Many com- ~?o the proper authorities of a dead or dying tree on private or public property. In Massachusetts this might be the tree warden of the town. Or samples of the apparently diseased twigs or wood can be sent the Dutch Elm Disease Laboratory at Massachusetts State College, Amherst. Other states have their own stations for receiving this type of material. Such stations are the only proper places where the presence of the disease in a tree can be definitely proved. 4. Notify 5. Once a tree is known to have the disease, it should be removed (and de- stroyed) at once, as it will deteriorate rapidly and serve as a source of mfection for other trees in the neighborhood. If home owners everywhere would only realize this and act at once, forcing their towns to act as quickly, some of the tremendous destruction caused by this disease in the past might have been avoided. 6. When it becomes necessary to plant a tree, consider the possibilities of some other tree. It is admitted that none have the graceful vase-shaped using form of the elm. At the same time it should also be admitted that there are many ornamental trees which have fewer insect and disease pests, and also much more ornamental flowers, fruits and autumn color. These are all decided assets, especially in planting on the home grounds. If no other tree will properly meet the situation, plant an elm, but m light of the current situation, be certain that other ornamental trees have been carefully considered before the elm is chosen. What The 1. Commanity Can Do BII In Massachusetts the community can give the local tree warden every assistance that he needs. He is the man who should know what to do about an infected tree or a doubtful one, how to spray it and how to remove it and at what cost. He should be provided with sufficient town funds to do the necessary spraymg to keep the elm bark beetle controlled on all town-owned trees, and he should see to it that prompt action is taken with removal and disposal of diseased elms once their presence is known. 2. The community can provide fora vigilant watch of all elm trees in its area. 3. All elm or logs a sprayed with ~~o and branches at the town dump should be burned if solution of DDT in fuel oil. possible 4. Spray program :-The town should prooide funds for the spraying of all town-owned elm trees for general insect control, and wherever possible for elm bark beetle control. As far as the general program is concerned it might be di~ided into two parts (for this year only). A. Spray mg of dead trees or those known to have the disease. The first spray for elm bark beetle control suggested by Dr. D. E. Parker and Dr. B. ~'. Wil- 21 ford, Bureau of Entomology, United States Department of Agriculture, could be applied as a dormant spray just before May first (in Massachusetts) and a second application about July first if the trees are still standing when the second generation of the beetle is active. The formula is: DDT-technical grade Benzene, industrial grade Velsicol AR 50 Triton X-100 Water 16 pounds 9 4 quarts quarts a I pint 100 gallons 1~0 East Pearson (Velsicol (Triton ' AR 50-Obtained from: Velsicol Corporation, St., Chicago, Illinois) X-100-From: Rohm & Haas Company, Washington Square, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania) ~ The DDT is mixed with the solvents (benzene and Velsicol) and then the emulsifier (Triton X-100) is added. This stock mixture is stable when stored at temperatures over 60 F. Once mixed with water the mixture should be used within 24 hours. It has been suggested that in order to control the bark beetles (especially on dead or diseased trees) the trees must be thoroughly sprayed so that all twigs and crotches are thoroughly wet with the spray. For the average elm tree an supposed to be enough. controlled it is estimated that spray containing only .~-~ lb. DDT is sufficient for the average elm tree. It is most unfortunate that this is the best spray recommended so far since DDT Technical grade (actually 100% DDT) may be difficult if not impossible to obtain this spring. There is such a demand on those manufacturing the DDT that most of the supply to be manufactured this spring has been already sold to other manufacturers who are putting out commercial DDT products of considerably less concentration than 100~0. If some of these products are used in order to obtain a ~~~o DDT solution it must be done with the full realization that many such mixtures hane not been fully fesled, and injury to the foliage may result when amount of spray containing about one pound are of D DT is If only leaf beetles, cankerworms, etc. to be such mixtures B. are applied in July. Spraying live elms in fairly good condition :-It is suggested that tvettable powders containing SO~o DDT be used (this year only) in the general spray program for insects eating the foliage of elms, especially the elm leaf beetle and the cankerworms. Wettable powder containing ,i0~c DDT is safe on the trees and will kill the bark beetles but does not remain effective longer than two weeks. Although it does 22 equal the effectiveness of the emulsion,to 6 pounds of the powder is the practical amount to use in 100 gallons of water. Applications about May 20 and again July 10-15 will control elm leaf beetle and cankerworms, and give partial control of the elm bark beetle. It should be pointed out that these sprays are for the high pressure conventional spraying machine. Spraying by airplane, or application by using the new blower-sprayer type of apparatus will control the elm leaf beetle and other leaf eating insects, but may not give sufficient DDT to fully control the elm bark beetle. The new blower-sprayers, sometimes referred to as \"fog\" machines, will be difficult to obtain in quantity this year. It is highly probable, however, that not most in the future most of the nation of spraying will be done with these machines or a combithese and the use of helicopters for large areas. In other words, materials and methods of application this spring and summer still must be considered in the experimental stages. Any of these materials are probably better than the old-fashioned lead arsenate in controlling most elm insects. By next year entomologists feel they will have had sufficient time for experimentation to be able to recommend two sprays applied 75 days apart which will definitely control the elm bark beetle without injuring the elms. This year we will have to do the best we can with the recommendations and spray materials available. 5. When new street tree plantings are to be made, consider selecting trees other than the American elm. If, after a careful analysis of the situation, elms must be used, it might be advisable to use another type of tree in addition to elms, so that no one street would be planted exclusively to the American elm. Whether or not this would be advisable or feasible, depends entirely on local conditions and concepts. DONALD WYMAN Z3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring in the Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24185","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060b36e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 MAY 9, I94% SPRING IN THE ARBORETUM NUMBER 5 . plants in New England, especially those in past Arnold Arboretum. There were no heavy ice storms to break branches and twigs, no days when the temperature dropped so low as to cause serious damage to shrubs and trees. There was not much snow as a protecting blanket, yet very little mjury has shown up on any of the plants in the Arboretum. Late frosts have injured the flowers of Abeliophyllum distichum, Magnolia stellata, M. dentulatn and 1VL kobus after they were in full bloom. Forsythia bloomed unusually well this year. A new planting of F. inlermedia spectabilis planted on the bank at the rear of the Administration Building a few years ago bloomed very well. Forsythia ovata was late ui coming out so that it was in full bloom when the other species appeared. Forsythia europaea was, as usual, about the last of the group to open its flowers. The Prunus collection at the Forest Hills Gate was at its best last week, none of them showing any killed flower buds. Prunu.r subhirtella autumnalis was particularly lovely. Those who know the Arboretum well will miss the large specimen of P. Sargeittii in this collection near the ponds. It had to be removed last summer after a particularly heavy wind storm did it irreparable damage. The lesson learned from this incident is that this species is best grown with a single central trunk. This plant was grown from the seed lot ~mported from Japan in 1890 and had been allowed to grow with several main branches all originating from about the same place at the base of the tree. Various rods had been installed, years ago, m an attempt to keep the tree from splitting up, but at the age of 56 years, bad structural defects took their toll. If it had not been for these, the tree could probably have lived to be twice this age. Visitors to the Arboretum this spring are particularly urged to walk to the top of Bussey Hill, especially during azalea and lilac time, for here one can obtain a splendid view of the collections looking toward the Forest Hills Gate. Azalea THE the wnter has been kind to 2.5 Path has been pruned out somewhat in order to make more room on the paths, but even this will not detract from the wealth of bloom that will be displayed here about the middle of May. Some of the dcnntlroparrn.r species and other miscellaneous plants on the far side of this hill will probably be removed to other places, since there are several in this group that very definitely are not ornamentals, and should not be taking up the valuable display space in this area. The lilac collection is in better condition than it has been in many years. Much pruning was done last year, and it is obvious that some of the suckers remaining should still be removed, but all in all the collection is in fine shape. There may not be as many blossoms produced this year as in some former years, but the collection is in a much better condition to produce a bumper crop of flower buds for 1948. Of particular attention should be the collection of the .Syringa Preslorriae and some of its hybrids at the upper end of this group. These plants are comparatively new in American nurseries, certainly in American gardens. They bloom a week to ten days after the common lilac varieties, and so lengthen the season of bloom. Attention is called to them because of their vigorous growth and profuse flower clusters which become very conspicuous in early June. The elms in the Arboretum have been carefully pruned during the winter. Those that were known to be in poor condition have been removed entirely, for we want to take every precaution possible against the inroads of the Dutch elm disease, not yet in the Arboretum. The elms will be sprayed shortly with a highly concentrated solution of DDT recommended in Arnoldia, Vol. 7, No. 4, pages 17-`1-t, April I 1, 1947, and a careful watch will be maintained for other pests throughout the summer. The crabapples should be a real display this year. Some changes have been made in the collection near the Forest Hills Gate, some of the older trees removed and new, better flowering varieties planted in their place. These of course will not blossom for several years. The older collection of crabapples at the base of Peters Hill shows promise of producing splendid bloom, about the middle of May, although the first one to appear, 1'Vla!us bnccnla mandsirurica, showed deep color in the flower buds, May second. The flowers when fully developed are white. g Pieris japonica bloomed very well this spring. Some good plants of it are doing nicely rn the rockery, and where this plant has some protection from winter cold, it makes a splendid evergreen. Rhodoclerrrlron Kei.rkei has flowered nicely in one of the nurseries. A plant grown from the original seed sent to this country in 1905 by Professor J. G. Jack of the Arboretum died a few years ago and the Arboretum again obtained seed from Japan in 19;i9. The flowers are pale yellow, a little over an inch and a half in diameter with only about three to six flowers in a cluster. However, there are few evergreen rhododendrons with pale yellow flowers and this might well be one which could be used in hybridizing work. Rhodorleur(rou mucronrclatnm bloomed well and was not too severely damaged by late frosts to give a good display. Viburnum frngrans had very few flowers this 26 PLATE IV Azalea Pass as it will appear on Bussey Hill ahout mid May. year. The Corylopsis were covered with bloom, another proof that the past winter was a mild one. These species are among the first to show the effects of low temperatures by killed flower buds. One of the interesting and colorful displays of spring is the color of unfolding foliage. A walk through the Arboretum now is of great interest for this reason alone. The bronze of the foliage of Cercidiphyllum japonicum, the yellow and light greens of the various willows, the green of some viburnums and the greens of the bush honeysuckles are all clearly in evidence. As spring marches on the foliage of these plants changes to other colors giving way to the foliage colors of other plants, like the bronze of the oaks, the light green of the native Fagus granrl~'olia, the green of the maples and the red of the Schwedler's maple. These and many others are well worth watching for and appreciating. In the fall, autumn color makes one complete and brilliant display, but in the spring the picture is changing almost daily. To one who can appreciate these spring changes, the foliage color in the spring is almost as beautiful as that in the fall. Further mention should be made of the hops which are being used as an experimental mulch in the Arboretum. One sees them everywhere, and those with a keen sense of smell may claim that the odor of decaying hops and the fragrance of spring blooms do not mix. Admittedly they do not, yet we are trying to find an inexpensive mulch for the plants that will not catch fire quickly. Peat moss will. Apparently hops will not. Whether or not it ~s the perfect mulch remains to be seen. Some places received a mulch of this material last summer, so there is opportunity to judge what it may do over this lengthy period. Some have more recently been placed in the shrub collection and around a few of the lilacs. It appears that it may assist in controlling the weeds about these plants, although it makes an excellent medium for the germination of new weed seeds. Estimated Blooming Dates . The season is slightly retarded due to the cold wet weather of the last two weeks. However a few really warm days and plants will quickly burst into bloom. It is always difficult to accurately gauge blooming dates in advance. Here is the best that can be done at this point: Chaenomeles species Cornus florida Magnolia soulangeana \" vars. ' Kaempferi ~ Schlippenbachii Vaseyi yedoense poukhanense Syringa vulgaris & vars. \" \" Malus species Rhododendron obtusum i May 10-1 May 15-2~ 4 May i-11 3 May 10-23 May 15-22 1 May l ,i-~? May May 15-21 May 17-24 , May 15-~l DONALD WYMAN 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fifty Years of Gardening in Northern Manitoba","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24178","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15e856a.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Skinner, F. L.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 ' . JUNE 27, 194 % NUMBER 6 FIFTY YEARS OF GARDENING IN NORTHERN MANITOBA gardening. I probably inherited this love of plants, for at least one in each family who people there was was fond of growing things. One of my ancestors planted a garden over two hundred years ago that is still one of the show places of Scotland. Some of the happiest days of my early childhood were spent in an old garden near Aberdeen, Scotland. It was there I really learned to know many plants that are still my favourites. Among the shrubs were rhododendrons, lilacs and mockoranges ; there were fragrant herbs such as myrrh, rosemary and southernwood, and the path that led down to a bed of old-fashioned moss and cabbage roses was bordered with double white and pink varieties of Dianthus plumarius. The vcindow I was always fond of among my mother's usually of my bedroom looked out into an old Yew tree, covered in the fall with red berries, and the birds that sheltered there would wake me up m the morning with their song. Along the edge of the driveway :1'arcissus poeticus and daffodils were naturalized under the maples that formed the avenue. A small stream, or \"burn\" as we call ~t in Scotland, ran through the property and Minaulns luteus~ grew m the grass along its banks, apparently wild. Dow n by the wall under which the burn flowed there was a copper beech, a few of whose branchlets trailed m the water as if loath to see it go. It was here, also, that I first knew the monkey puzzle tree, a tree that can be grown in Boston, only under glass. I am the youngest of a large family which came to Canada fifty years ago and settled near where I now live in northern Manitoba. At that time this was the northern outpost of agriculture in Manitoba. V~'e were thirty miles from the nearest town which had only one train a week. There were no telephones or motor cars in those days and the journey to town and back took two days with horses. The early settlers made their living principally by stock-raising and little gardening was done other than the growing of enough of the more common vegetables for home consumption. At that time there were no varieties of either corn or .) c) out-of-doors in northern Manitoba. A few zinnias, was told that it was scarcely worth while bothering with them as they would only be coming nicely into bloom when the early autumn frosts would destroy them. In spite of this, the first dollar I had was saved for the purchase of flower seeds and I was able to show those early settlers that other flowers besides petunias, portulacas and zinnias could be grown in this district. There was no horticultural page in any of the Manitoba papers those days, and the only horticultural information within my reach was contained in the annual reports of the Dominion Government Experimental Farms which were established ~n 1886. In these reports I found a mine of information including articles on plant breeding by the late Dr. William Saunders, the founder and first director of the Dominion Experimental Farms. As I grew to manhood I started growing trees and shrubs from seed secured from trade sources and also from the horticultural division of the Experimental Farm. Later on, when I secured a farm of my own, I bought nursery stock from many available sources, only to find that very few of my old favourites could be cultivated here. None of the old roses were fully hardy, neither the mockoranges nor Spiraea Van Houttei could be expected to flower unless protected, and even the common lilacs were sometimes injured by our severe winters. At that time it was thought that trees also, especially conifers, could not be grown on the Canadian prairies. The reports on Dr. Saunder's work in plant breeding led me to think that possibly I, too, could obtain or produce new strains that would be hardy here. work led me into correspondence with The quest for material to men and institutions well known to the horticultural world, including the many late Professor C. S. Sargent; Mr. W. T. Dlacoun, Dominion Horticulturist; and the Edinburgh, Kew, and Upsala Botanic Gardens. To all these men and institutions with which I came in contact, either personally or by correspondence, I owe much. My horticultural work at this time was merely a hobby, as in conjunction with a brother I was carrying on a fairly large grain and stock farm and I was in charge of the live stock end of the business. Being much in the saddle I had a good opportunity to get acquainted with our native plants and to study their habits. As my collection of plants grew, I found that there was quite a difference in the hardiness of geographical forms of the same species. For instance, the Scotch pine, usually grown from commercial seed collected in Germany, was hardy in ordinary winters, but every so often we would have test winters that would kill many of them outright and badly injure many more. The same species when grown from seed of the north-Russian, Finnish, or north-Swedish forms is equally as hardy as our native Jack pine and a very much finer and faster growing tree. With the Norway spruce, the Finnish form is also much hardier than that grown from ordinary commercial seed, and can stand our worst winters without injury. tomatoes that could be ripened were petunias and portulacas sometimes grown, but I carry on this 30 PLATE V Tilia cordata An interesting example of this variation of hardiness within the species is provided by Acer glabrum. I have collected this maple from four different sources, viz. near Boulder, Colorado; west of Cheyenne, Wyoming; at Waterton Park in southwest Alberta ; and just west of Fernie in southeastern British Columbia. Our Canadian forms usually kill to near the snow line; some of those from Wyoming have suffered in very severe winters, but the lone specimen from Colorado has never been injured by winter. Ulmus pumila has given us a very vivid illustration of the difference in hardiness of geographical strains. In 1940 a nursery row 100 yards long had three quarters of its length planted to this elm grown from seed secured from Harbin, Manchuria, and the balance of the row was planted to a strain that had been hardy for a number of years in southern Manitoba and was bearing seed there. In September 194z, the temperature went down to zero, and during the following winter we had temperatures of -50 and -550 F. In the spring of 1943 the Ulmus pumila from Harbin was alive to the tips of the branches, while the other strain was killed out, root and branch. With many other trees and shrubs I have found that the forms in commerce are not suited to our conditions, and were hardy only when special strains were collected or secured from correspondents. Besides the examples already noted, the following are hardy at Dropmore only when special strains are secured : Acer saccharinum Deutzia parviflora ' Pinus strobus Prunus triflora koreana Juniperus communis Juniperus scopulorum Juniperus virginiana Larix Larix Larix Pinus Pinus Pyrus ussuriensis ' decidua Tilia americana Tilia cordata Thuja occidentalis leptolepis occidentalis contorta Ulmus japonica Ulmus scabra Weigela florida flexilis hardy strain of Ulmus scabra came to me as seeds from the Upsala Botanic Gardens, and Ulmusjaponica is the Manchurian form sent to me by the Bureau of Plant Industry at Washington. Prunus triflora koreana is even hardier than the wild Prunus nigra that I collected twenty miles east of Dropmore. The fruits of some of its varieties are excellent eating, raw or cooked, and come nearer to the domestic varieties in quality than any other plum that is hardy here. I have crossed this plum with our sand cherries, sand cherry hybrids, and with a green gage plum of my own raising. The latter cross gave weak plants that do not look The promising at the present time. In October 1918, after four strenuous war years, I took a three weeks' holiday 32 and paid my first visit to the Central Experimental Farm at Ottawa, and the Arnold Arboretum. After having seen a little of the great wealth of material to be found at the Arboretum, I decided to report to Professor Sargent. A kindly- looking elderly gentleman, accompanied by a younger man, was pointing out some trees as I approached and enquired the way to the Administration Building. They were Professor Sargent and his companion, the Superintendent, while the trees they were examining were Chinese pear species. I noticed that one tree had already shed its leaves, and remarked to Professor Sargent that if any tree was to prove hardy with us I felt sure that would be the one. It proved to be Pyru.v uasurieu.ri.r and from the scion that I brought back with me I grew what is now the oldest hardy pear tree on the prairies of western Canada. Among the other treasures I brought back with me, were some one-year-old seedlings of two lilacs grown from seed collected on the Diamond mountains of Korea by E. H. V~ilson in 1917. These lilacs (~yringa uelutiua and S. obkrta dilatnta) have proved absolutely hardy at Dropmore ; and, therefore, in 1921 I crossed some of the \"French\" lilacs, which sometimes are quite severely injured by our winters, with S. oblata dilatala. A new race of \"American'' lilacs resulted which seems better suited to our continental climate than the European varieties of the common lilac. These new lilacs have several interesting features. Many of them have bronze leaves in spring, and turn a deep purple m autumn. They do not sucker to the same extent as do the older hlacs (in fact a hedge of the first hybrids raised in 1922 has not suckered yet) and they are extremely free-flowering and fragrant. In some of my later crosses of these lilacs the blooms compare well with Lemoine's varieties and are much hardier here in northern Manitoba. Professor Sargent sent me seeds of several varieties of trees and shrubs collected by Dr. J. F. Rock in western Kansu, but very little of this material has proved sufficiently hardy for our cold, dry climate. At the present time, those that are still alive and promising are Betula rclbo-sinen.si.s, Picea purpurea, Daphne Giraldii, D. languticu, Potenhlla frufioosu and Cnrcrgaua brevifolia. I corresponded with Professor Sargent until the time of his death-indeed, his last letter was written to me just a few days before he died and it fell to me to write a Canadian appreciation of his work. In 192~, the Great Plains Horticultural Section of the American Association for the Advancement of Science, met in Manitoba and about twenty of the members spent a day at my place. Among this company were Professor Alderman of the Division of Horticulture at the University of Minnesota and Mr. :41. B. Davis of Ottawa (now the Dominion Horticulturist). They were quite surprised at the variety of material I had succeeded in collecting and growing and also at the amount of plant breeding I had already done These men strongly advised me to keep on with the work, even if it meant commercializing it. By 19 2rural western Canada was already suffering from the post-war depression. I decided to take the advice of Professor Alderman and Mr. Davis, and a few years later the Mani- 33 Hardy Plant Nursery was established and now has patrons from the Yukon Europe, and as far south as New Zealand. Next to growing the plants themselves, I enjoy reading books on plants and their distribution. As we are so far from any large town, I have no opportunity to consult the horticultural or botanical shelves of a good library, so have had to build up a small library of my own. In one of my books, \"F'lore des Serres et des Jardines de I'Europe,\" Vol. XIX, I saw photographs of Cnrttgann jxbata and Malus bwcatrr \",flore roseo pleuo\" and decided that both probably would be hardy toba to if I could a secure them. After several years I obtained the Caragana and now haB e well-grown bush of it about four feet high. The young branches of Caragana ,jubata are very wooly and the leaf stalks and strpules become hard and thorny, making it a difficult shrub to graft. Under conditions in this hemisphere it is also difficult to raise from seed, and is therefore likely to remain scarce in American gardens. I consider this a pity, as it is rather striking looking when in bloom. The double-flowered Malus baccata has so far eluded me and apparently is no longer grown in western Europe. Another of my own books, Bean's \"I'rees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles,\" indicates that a number of hardy trees and shrubs from cold dry sections of the northern hemisphere do not flourish in Britain. Bean speaks of one of these as follows: \"Populus lrislis (Fischer~ is a balsam poplar allied to the above, wrth similar downy shoots and leaf stalks .... Brandis, alluding to it as P. balsamjfern, says it occurs in arid valleys of the inner north-western Himalayas. Probably our climate is too moist and dull for it. Although introduced in 1896 from Spaeth's Nursery at Berlin, it has never succeeded ; and although it makes vigorous growths during the summer, they are frequently cut back in winter, and it has never got beyond a few feet high. \" Ten years ago I obtained cuttings of this poplar from Kew and now have several trees over thirty feet high. Besides being a fast grower, and very easily propagated from cuttings, it is highly resistant to the leaf rust that frequently disfigures all our native poplars. So far I have hybrids between it and our aspen and balsam poplar, and have seeds ripening on cottonwood that were fertilized with its pollen. I hope to get a disease resistant tree with soft white wood that will grow easily from cuttings. The way that some plants appear in gardens often makes a most interesting story. Ribes tliacnnthurn unexpectedly grew in my garden from some unknown source years before I securecl seed of it from a correspondent in Manchuria. This, by the way, is a much more attractive shrub in northern Manitoba than R. alpitrrtm. It grows up to four feet high and besides fruiting freely its foliage colours up brilliantly in autumn. I,crri.v Gmelitri juporrica came to me from the Yokohama Nursery Company under the name of Larix leptolepis. Knowing that it was not named correctly, I sent a sample of the seed to the late E. H. Wilson, who found out from the manager of the Japanese firm that the seed had been collected in the Kurile Islands. This larch is better suited to our climate than L. leptolepis and 34 8 a .Q .~ c <f; 'a 0 c ~. ~ a w ~, o g 0 !ibt 064 \"a ai S z s ~ _s tin s -~ 0 plants look as if they will develop into beautiful specimens. In the midst of block of Siberian spruce, some of which have now started to bear cones, there is one answering the description of Picea bicolor reflexa. This seed was secured from Johannes Rafn & Son of Copenhagen, Denmark, and it is just possible that a few of the seeds of the Japanese spruce may have become mixed with the Siberian species. Seeds of juniper from Japan yielded one plant that was quite obviously different from the rest. Now over fifteen years old, this has quite an ancient tree look about it, though only twelve inches high and about sixteen inches across. So far it has pro~ ed quite hardy with us. A rooted cutting is now in the nursery of the Arnold Arboretum under the provisional name of Chamaecyparis \"Dropmore variety.\" It has not as yet borne fruit. Two shrub families that are interesting garden subjects and have quite a few members that are hardy in northern Manitoba are the daphnes and the brooms. Besides the two daphnes already mentioned we have Daphne Me~ereum, B. Cneorum and its lovely and very dwarf white form, and a six-inch plant of D. collina which came safely through last winter without protection and has flower buds now showma colour. Among the brooms, Cytisus decumbens becomes a mat of y-ellow, two inches high and one to two feet acoss in June. Cytisus nigricans, C. rrustriacus, C. elongatxs, C. hirsutres, C. leucanthus var. Schipkaensis, and C. pxzrpureus all have forms sufficiently hardy to be worth cultivating. In genistas, the spinyfour-to-six-inch bushlets of Genista sylvestris flower freely. Genista tinctoria and the double-flowered form are very showy and reliable. Genista sngittalis, though ~t at times suffers a little from our winters, is as a rule a mass of gold in summer. Another member of the pea family that is quite hardy here is Maackia nmurPnsis with its upright spikes of yellow-eyed white flowers. In some seasons this seed ripens freely with us. Before the great drought of the nineteen thirties completely wiped out my collection of rhododendrons, I had some measure of success with a number of the hardiest species. Both Rlzodozlendron hirsutum and R. ferrugineum had flowered for several years. Even R. caucasicum had lived through a winter and flowered. Seedlings of its close relative, R, chrysanthum, proved winter-hardy and I had hoped to raise hybrids between these two. Unfortunately, before R. clrrysantlzu~n flowered, the drought period had reached us and in July it died. Our only water supply at that time came from a well 285 feet deep and it contained far too much lime and iron to be of any value to rhododendrons. Rhododendron mucronzzlatunr, R. canadense, and Erica carnea have all lived long enough to flower when planted in especially prepared soil, but curiously enough I have had little success with R. dauricum. 'here suitable soil and moisture conditions can be prov ided, and snow covering in winter can be relied upon, there is no doubt that a number of rhododendrons would prove hardy and fairly easy to cultivate. In such a location there is a wide open field for the plant breeder who cares to work with this type of shrub. my a 36 Some of the More Unusual Trees at Dropmore Acer saccharinum, 35 feet high, bole circumference ~2 inches. Larix decidua, up to 50 feet high with bole circumference up to 2 feet 4 inches at 30 years of age. Larix Gmelini japonica, 25 feet high, with a bole circumference of 13 inches. This is a most variable tree in leaf colour and habit, and some forms are highly ornamental. Larix laricina, up to 50 feet in height with bole circumference of 2 feet 4 inches. Though usually found growing in swamps in nature, this tree has stood the drought years much better than any of the poplars. Larix sibirica, thirty years old, up to 45 feet high with bole circumferences running from 2 feet 4 inches to 3 feet at 3 feet above ground level. A belt of seedlings eleven years old are now up to 25 feet in height, some of them with a bole circumference of 23 inches at 3 feet above ground. The parent trees were growing near the European and American larches and many of the young trees show signs of hybrid origin in both the bark and cones. Picea abies, a beautiful specimen in a sheltered spot, 45 feet high with branch spread of 28 feet, bole circumference 3 feet. Picea pungens glauca, 35 feet high, bole circumference 2 feet 10 inches. Pinus Cembra, ?0 feet high, bole circumference 17 inches at 3 feet. Pinus Cembra sibirica, 24 feet high, bole circumference 1 inches. Pinus flexilis, 1 feet high, bole circumference 11 inches. Pinus sylvestris, 30 years old, now up to 50 feet high with bole circumference running from 2 feet 6 inches to 3 feet. Populus tristis, ten years old, over 30 feet high with a bole in circumference of 2 feet 8 inches and a branch spread of 22 feet. o Pyrus ussuriensis, twenty-six years old, circumference at three feet, 2 feet 10 inches, height 25 feet, spread of branches 25 feet. Sorbus amurensis forms a clump reaching a height of 24 feet, the main stem having a circumference of 25 inches, three feet from the ground. Sorbus aucuparia grown from seed collected near the headwaters of the River Tay in Perthshire, Scotland; now 20 feet high and with three main stems from 12 to 15 inches in circumference. Thuja occidentalis, 25 feet high, bole circumference 29 inches at 2 feet. Tilia americana, 30 feet high, 25 feet spread of branches and bole circumference of 2 feet 8 inches at three feet. Tilia cordata, a clump 2l feet high with a spread of 20 feet, the main stem having a bole circumference of 23 inches. Ulmus japonica from seed collected in Manchuria for the United States Department of Agriculture. This tree has three main stems near the ground, each of which is from 24 to 25 inches in circumference. Though only 20 feet high, this tree has a spread of branches of 24 feet. 3'~ ~1 PLATE VII Pyrus ussuriensis Conifers at Dropmore Abies balsamea Abies holophylla Abies nephrolepis Abies sibirica Chamaecyparis (?) Dropmore variety Jumperus cmnmunis Juniperus horizontalis Juniperus Sabma Juniperus scopulorum Juniperus virginiana Larix decidua Larix Gmelini Larix Gmelini japonica Larix Gmelini japonica X raised by intention at Lar~x Gmelini olgensis Larix laricina Larix leptolepis Larix occidentalis , sibirica Dropmore Picea Picea Picea Picea Picea Picea Picea Picea Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus Pinus abies bicolor reHexa Engelmanni glauca jezoensis mariana obovata purpurea Banksiana Cembra Cembra sibirica contorta Hexihs Mugo ponderosa resinosa Strobus syl~~estris Pseudotsuga Douglasi~ Though much progress has been made in gardening during the past fifty years, there is still much to do. Many of the trees and shrubs of northeastern Asia with northern limits in Kamchatka, eastern Siberia, Saghalien and northern Korea, have been introduced to cultivation from their southern or insular limits and may prove much hardier when secured from colder and drier districts. Syrirrga jnponira, introduced to cultivation from Saporo in the north island of Japan by Professor Sargent, is the only broad-leaved tree or shrub from Japan that has proved fully hardy here. Possibly others from the same neighbourhood would repay a thorough trial. While we have a small company of very enthusiastic plant workers in western Canada who are doing much to improve our fruits, vegetables and flowers by plant breeding, there is still much more to do than they can hope to accomplish. Personally, I would like to see some of the following plants introduced : a hardy weeping willow, a pyramidal poplar, a double-flowered Malus baccata, large-flowered dogwoods, buckeyes with bright-coloured flowers (the Ohio buckeye is quite hardy), and truly hardy viburnums with the fragrance and beauty of Viburnum Cnrles~ii. A complete list of hardy bulbs and herbaceous perennials that are grown at Droprnore would be wearisome, so I will mention only a few of the more outstanding that are finding their way into our northern gardens by way of Dropmore. In early spring we have Callianthemum angust;f'olium with its pure white buttercups, and Viola altnicn that becomes a mat of cream or yellow pansies \" 39 in early May. These are hybridizing with the garden violas to give will be a race of quite hardy pansies. Towards the end of June or hope early July, Iris Kaempf'eri from Manchuria and Iris acutifolia, which came to me from Leyden Botanic Gardens, are among the most striking flowers in the garden. There is Ligularia speciosa with enormous elephant-ear leaves and fifteen to eighteen-inch spikes of orange yellow flowers. Clcrysnuthemum Znumdskii from Austria, though rather a disappointing daisy that is scarcely worth growing on its own account, has given me some hybrids that are both hardy and beautiful. (It is interesting to note here that the inspiration I got from a visit to Alex Cumming of Bristol, Connecticut, started me breeding chrysanthemums.) Muscari polyanthum is also quite at home and towards the end of May, Tulipa Oslrouskiana (scarlet) and T. Kolpakozeskinna (yellow) make brilliant patches of colour. In early June the white narcissus of the Swiss Alps comes into bloom. This was collected for me by Henry Correvon, high above Montreux, about twenty-five years ago, and is the only narcissus that really does well here. Then as the German iris starts to flower, we have Allium sebrlranense (pure white) and the blue laiolirion montanum. These two make a lovely picture when grown together. Lilies of course are grown by the acre at Dropmore, and our collection of these is being augmented yearly. That, however, is a story in itself. While my work with plants has been done entirely with a view to securing forms suited for this region, it is interesting to note that some of my hybrids are beginning to find a place in widely separated gardens of the world. It ~s a great satisfaction to know that some of the new hybrids raised here have been sufficiently outstanding to warrant their being planted elsewhere, even in gardens where an extremely low temperature is not the all important factor in the selection of varieties. F. L. SKINNER Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada (rarely blue) what I , Mr. Skinner owns and operates one of the most northcrn nurseries for ornamental plant materials in North America. His experiences and observations in growing ornamental woody plants where winter temperatures may go to -50 F. or even lower may prove of interest to Arnoldia readers. 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform Color Standards","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24177","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15e8528.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 SEYTEMBER 26, 1947 NUMBERS 7-8 AMERICAN HORTICULTURE NEEDS TO ADOPT UNIFORM COLOR STANDARDS time has come for American Horticulture to adopt some uniform standard which color can be accurately measured and uniformly judged and described the country over. Many industries have done this. Horticulture seems tu be far behind. The advent of color advertising in magazines of national circulation, and the production of moving pictures in color have clearly emphasized the fact that sometimes colors are accurately portrayed and sometimes they are not. Color photography for the amateur has done still more to educate people to the fact that colors can vary, and that it is very difficult to select the proper words or terms to describe them. Those of us who are constantly studying plants realize better than most, the necessity for having an accurate standard by which we can compare the colors of flowers, foliage and fruits, and afterwards to describe those colors m uniform terms understood by other individuals who have not seen the flowers themselves. Color photography is one means of recording colors. A slight over-exposure of film will give a light color or tint, and a slight under-exposure will give a slightly darker shade, so that this method of recording color is not satisfactory. The other day a color positive was brought in for criticism. The plant photographed was Rhododendron mucronulnlum, but the film had been slightly over-exposed so that it was not the true color of this species, but rather the much better color of Rhododendron .~lbreohlii. Such mistakes are easily made. Then, too, the development of most color films takes time, so that eventually when they are returned fully developed, the plants photographed have frequently lost their flowers or fruits. THE by Reasons for Adopting Uniform Color Standards There are many good reasons for the adoption ofa good horticultural color chart by the horticultural organizations of this country. Some ofthemore important ones are : -~ 1 1. One term refers to As an flowers without a color authors describe them: Cercis canadensis specific color throughout the country. example of the present confusion in attempting to describe the colors of one standard, let us take two plants and see how various pink flower bud, deep red calyx-Werthner, \"Some rose pink to purplish-Rogers, \"The Tree Book\" . American Trees\" purplish pink-Lamson, \"Gardening With Shrubs\" reddish purple or pink-Graham and McMinn, \"Ornamental Shrubs and pink to Vmes of the Pacific Coast\" red-ffright, \"Garden Trees and Shrubs\" rosy pink-Van Dersal, \"Ornamental American Shrubs\"; Rehder, \"Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs\" ; Hottes, \"The Book of Trees\" ; Bailey, \"Cyclopaedia bright pink to of Horticulture\" purple-nursery catalogues it is Compared with the Horticultural Colour Chart \"Fuchsia Purple 18\/3 to 2R~2.'' brought to our attention this spring. In clear to say that it was merely a \"lighter pink.\" On comparison with the Horticultural Colour Chart, however, it proved to be \"Rose Madder ?3,\" or five full hues removed from the color of the species itself. The use of this terminology and a glance at the Colour Chart are sufficient to clearly denote the difference between the species and the variety. Another plant widely grown Vy nurserymen, is a clone, and is variously described as follows: A new was variety of Cercis cnnnden.si.s view of the above descriptions it was not Cornus florida rubra ` . bright rosy red-Bean, Trees and Shrubs of British Isles\" pmk red or rose-Bx~ley, \"Cyclopaedia of Horticulture\" or pink-Rehder, \"Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs\" pink-Lamson, \"Gardening A Garden\" with Shrubs\" : ~'~lson, \"If I Were To Make red-Wright, \"Garden Trees and Shrubs\" bright pink to deep red-nursery catalogues Compared with the Horticultural Colour Chart it is \"Empire Itose o611.'' Numerous other examples could easily be given, but these should be sufficient to show the confusion now existing in the description of plant colors. .j.~ 2. Colors can be properly and uniformly described in popular articles, scientific descriptions and plant patents. In writing of a new crabapple which is described in Boston as having scarlet flowers or fruits, some one interested in this description in Seattle, Washington, can consult a color chart and quickly find the exact color, shade or tint referred to. Merely stating that the flowers are pink to purplish, or a light purplish pink is not enough and is certainly not satisfactory to the individual who knows of several varieties which could be in this general class. But to state that the buds are \"crimson\" and the flowers are \"Chinese Rose\" when fully opened, according to a certain standard color chart, is a definite observation worthy of permanent recording. New plants should not be named unless the flower and fruit colors are compared with those in the color chart and described in the same terms used in the accepted chart. Plants should not be patented unless their colors are likewise compared and described. There are many situations occurring in flower shows when reference to known color charts would be most helpful to those making displays as well as those who have to judge them. Botanists especially could use the chart to good advantage in describing the colors of flowers and fruits of new species. Those who write for the national horticultural magazines should freely make use of color charts and their terminology, so that when \"Dexter's azalea is referred to as \"crimson,\" it should mean the same exact color to everyone reading the art~cle, regardless of the part of the country in which the article is read. The word \"crimson\" may now mean \"red\" to one, \"brtght red\" to another, and scarlet\" to a third individual. It' the termmology of the color chart is uniformly adopted, each one of those terms will refer to a specific color in the chart-and only one. Everyone having access to the chart will then know the exact color which is meant by the specific term used. Pink\" :3. Color rated comparisons areas. can be quickly made with plants grown in widely sepa- Hybrid seed is often grown simultaneously in several areas and comparisons in color can be easily made bvuse of the chart. New varieties can be tested in several areas and uniform color comparisons can be made. 4. Color comparisons can be made of the same plant in different years. can Also in comparing colors of varieties that bloom at different seasons, the colors be uniformly compared by use of the chart. an ,~. Color comparisons based on a uniform chart would be the results of certain experiments with plants. asset in describing better varieties from a large group of Chaenomeles, or sweet the color chart is an ideal means of assisting in the segregation peas, petunias, of these varieties that have identical colors of flowers, fruits or foliage. This is a In selecting the or 43 important point for many times a \"new'' variety appears which is merely old variety that is unknown to the plantsman or which may have disappeared from gardens for some time. By properly recording the colors of all varieties according to color chart standards, much of the present confusion dealing with \"new\" varieties might be eliminated. It might be argued that different people see the same color in different ways, hence a color chart is not a good means of comparison. In order to check the ability of one individual to determine color properly and accurately with reference to a number of other individuals, thirteen of the people in the office of the Arnold Arboretum one afternoon were given a petal from a single peony blossom and asked, to compare it with the color chart, taking all the time they wanted but not comparing notes or suggestions, one with the other. It is interesting to note that of the 800 color blocks in this chart nine people selected the same identical block, 627\/1. Two people chose the next hue, 5? I ; one chose a hue four blocks removed, ?6\/l, and one chose a hue seven blocks removed, 6?~~ 1 . Translating this to the colors, the majority called the color fuchsine pink, two called it rhodamine pink, one called it solferino purple and one, phlox pink. Translating this still further, i.5lc of the people chose the same identical color block. In looking at the other colors chosen, it is important to point out the fict that they are very similar. Consequently colors can be compared reasonably well by various individuals. very an Available Color Charts Several color charts are available. \"Color Standards and Color Nomenclature\" by Robert Ridgway, published in 191~, contains .i3 color plates with 800 different colors, tints and shades. The Munsell Book of Color\" published in 1942, has been considerably used by various professions in the United States. The pocket editions, convementlw sized, contain 9~l color charts with 90H colors, tints and shades. Neither of these charts has been found completely satisfactory in our work with plant colors at the Arnold Arboretum. Ridgway's chart contains many blues, greens, browns, and purples, but not nearly enough of the reds and yellows for our type of work. One is frequently confronted with the annoying fact that there is no color in the chart comparable to the one in the flower or fruit being studied. The same is true of the Munsell chart. The Horticultural Colour Chart at the Arnold Arboretum Colour Chart\" has been used in the horticultural studies for the past nine years. It is highly recommended (and published) by the Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain. This contains 200 color plates, each representing a color plus three graduated tints. The colors themselves and the names of the colors have been prunarily selected for the purposes of hortmulture, a very important fact. There are a sufficient number of the The \" Horticultural 44 right colors from tint, or which to choose so that one can usually find just the right hue, shade. New terms for certain colors have been selected from the names of well-known flowers whenever possible. This color chart has been most useful in assisting with the study of many plant groups in the Arnold Arboretum, and it can well be adopted by the horticultural organizations of North America. The comp~lers of this color chart have selected those colors most frequently found in garden flowers. Each of the 200 colors is carefully numbered and named and has three lighter tints shown as well. Color names for corresponding colors in four other color systems are given whenever there is a corresponding color. These systems are the British Colour Council, Ridgway's \" Color Standards and Nomenclature,\" Oberthiir et Dauthenay's \"Repertoire de Couleurs,\" Ostwald's Colour System. It may be mteresting to those who have used Ridgway to note that of the 200 colors (colors, tints or shades) used in that chart only 7~ were found sufficiently common to be selected for the Horticultural Colour Chart. This emphasizes the fact that well over half of Ridgway's colors have not been selected for this strictly horticultural color chart. A brief history of name is given together with foreign equivalents in Dutch, French, German, Italian, Latin and Spanish. Most important of all, horticultural examples are given for each color, shade or tint whenever it is possible to do so. For instance, the horticultural example for the color \"Spiraea Red\" is .S;oiraea bnmnlrla var. \"Anthony V~'aterer\" ; for \"Mandarin Red\" three examples are given : Lychnis chalcedonica, Liliu~n chalcedonicum, Tulipa Korolko~eii. The horticultural example for \"Phlox Purple'' is Primula Sieboldii; for \"Lobelia Blue,\" Muscari armerriacu~n and Lobelia tenuior. Such notes are most helpful and are not given by any other color chart. Then too, the horticultural names given to the colors will probably be of much more interest to horticulturists in general than is the number system of the Munsell plan. A comparison of a few color names will illustrate the emphasis which has been placed on horticultural terminology in the English Chart : the color . Identical Colors English Horticultural Color Chart I'rimrose Yellow Ridgway Pale Lemon Yellow Light Cadmium Buttercup Yellow Apricot Plum Purple Veronica Violet Capucme Yellow Cotinga Purple L~ght Violet Blue Violet Lobelia Blue Gentian Blue Carnation Green Phenyl Blue Gnaphalium Green Yellow Green Pea Green 45 How It Works The English Horticultural Colour Chart consists of 64 \"full hues\" or color tones comprising equal gradations of the spectrum range together with 136 lighter tints and deeper shades of these 64 selected hues. In this chart the numbering system is very simple. The 64 selected hues are numbered 1 to 64. The bottom color on each of these sheets is the full hue, and the three blocks above are three progressively lighter tints. All other of the 136 sheets are either tints or shades of these selected hues and are so numbered that they can be easily distinguished and the hue to which they refer readily identified. The simple comparison of colors is the same for all the charts. Specimens should be examined and matched indoors in a good north light immediately after cutting. It is essential to obtain a composite picture of the flower color from several blossoms, or to take specific readings for the flower bud, another just at the time it is fully open and another when it starts to fade. It is usually advisable to study the color at arm's length for a moment or two, and in comparing it with various colors, use a black mask to keep all miscellaneous colors from affecting the final estimate. Color can vary in three different ways, i. e., in hue (that attribute by which one distinguishable from another); by tone (by whuh it appears to hold a certain position in a light to dark scale); and intensity (by which the brilliancy of a hue is revealed). Tints are considered to be lighter tones of any certain color, and shades are considered to be darker tones of any certain color. Tints and shades are noted (as well as the colors) by a numbering system. Each color block in the chart has its own number. In describing the color of RPgonin ,foclrsioidP.s, it would be given as \" Porcelain Rose 6~0\/ I which means that it is the darkest of the three lighter tints of \"Porcelain Rose.\" Rose \"Coral Cluster\" would be \"Porcelain Rose 6~0\/~?.\" a tint once agam lighter than that of Regonin,frrclr.stnidP.s. color is \" Grouping Colors There is still another feature about this chart which seems very good, especially accurate, but not alarmingly so. If the chart is adopted and the terminology used, the colors can be grouped so that a very fine color differentiation in color names is not necessary. For instance, the yellows are listed below with the grouping as given in the chart: to those who wish to be 1'rimrose Yellow 601 . Sulphur . Yellow I Dlim~sa Yellow 6(l0 . Canary Yellow :~aples Yellow ~ (i 4(13 Barium Yellow 50$ 603 Empire Aureolin Yellow 3 604 4 Straw Yellow Yellow Lemon Yellow Amber Yellow 505 Chrome Yellow (Light) 605 5 606 6 , Buttercup Yellow Chinese Yellow Indian Yellow Egyptian Buff Orange Buff Maize Yellow 407 507 607 ' Orange Yellow Saffron Yellow Yellow Ochre 7 07 . Yellowish Orange Orange Apricot Tangerine Orange Majolica Yellow Nasturtium Orange Orpiment Orange Spanish Orange Persimmon Orange Marigold Orange Salmon Yeach Carrot Red Cadmium 8 609 9 09 610 10 010 710 11 411 ~) ~11 ~) 612 ~1 12 Orange Orange From the above lwt it will be seen that there are 32 different colors up to the orange (and it should not be overlooked that three tints of each of these 3l are given, making a total of 128 yellows). This may be much too fine a differentiation for general purposes. These 3? colors can be condensed into four general groups, namely, \"Light Yellow,\" \"Yellow,\" \"Orange Yellow\" and \"Yellowish Orange.\" In each general group the color limits are sufficient to make allowances for slight var~ations in the fadmg of flower colors. The color nomenclature is still accurate and bounded by very definite color limits so that in using these general terms one can often be sufficiently accurate for many purposes. 47 If lumping these colors together is too general, \"Yellow\" can be broken down and more accurately defined as \"Lemon Yellow,\" \"Buttercup Yellow\" and \"Indian Yellow.\" If this is not fine enough, these three hues can be broken down even further so that \"Indian Yellow,\" for instance, can be defined as \"Egyptian Buff,\" \"Orange Buff,\" or \" Maize Yellow.\" Each one of these colors has three additional tints. So it is seen that the system of giving color names need not be too general nor too simple. It all depends on how accurate the users wish to be. This system of naming colors should have many obvious advantages. A Study of Chaenomeles see It might be interesting to how this chart has helped in the varieties of Chaenomeles. In the collection of the Arnold Arboretum study of the are growing about varieties of this genus. Only two or three are of value for their the rest are grown primarily for their bright spring flowers. Many are habit; practically identical. In making comparisons with the Horticultural Colour Chart, the following notes were taken in 1947 : fifty named Color of Chaenomeles lagenaria varieties at Arnold Arboretum May 15, 1947 in Chnrt Corresponding Color alpirra (C. japonica var.) \"Vermilion\" Fire Red \" 15\/11 Vermilion \"Knaphill Scarlet\" ~` `Incendie\" \"Double Orange\" l;i\/2 to Poppy Red 16\/11 \" 16\/1 \" \" \" 18\/11 \" 16 619 \"Apricot\" \"Kermesina semi-plena\" _ Mandarin Red Begonia Scarlet \" \" 17\/11 to 619\/2 \"Semperflorens\" \"Versicolor lutescens\" \"Columbia\" \"Foliis rubis\" 19~~1I \"Sanguinea semi-plena\" \"Rosea plena\" \"Cardinalis\" \" Atrococcinea plena\" \" Baltrii\" \"Rubra grandiflora\" \"Blood Red\" 19\/1 19\/1 19\/1 '\/I 19\/11 19\/1 to Geranium 19\/1 to 19\/1 to 19\/1 to 19\/1 to Red 719\/3 Signal \" ' \" \" Lake \" \" \" \" \" \" \" . \" \" 20\/1I 20\/1 \" 20\/1 \" 20\/1 \" 20\/1 \"Phvllis Moore\" Porcelain Rose 620 48 \"Bonfire\" Delft Rose \" \" o20\/I1 \"Early Apple Blossom\" \"Atrococeinea\" \"Crimson and Gold\" \"Enchantment\" \"Pink Beauty\" \"Eximea\" \"Cathayensis\" hybrids No.319, \"Simonii\" \"Leonard's Variety\" \" Atrosanguinea\" \"Umbilicata\" \"Contorta\" Blood 020\/1 \" o20\/l Red 820\/tI 21\/1 21\/1 21\/1 \" 721 \" 721 ' Carmine Rose 621 1 Carmine \" \" 1 331 Turkey Red 721 11 \" 1 Currant Red 821 Dawn Pink 523 . ' \"Apple Blossom\" White to Carmine Rose 621 1 \" \" \" \" \"Grandiflora semi-plena\" ` `Marmorata\" \"Moerloesi\" \"Vet-sicolor\" \"Rosea grandiflora\" ` `Grandiflora\" \"(~randiflora semi-plena\" \"Alba\" \"Candida\" \"Falconet Charlet\" \" T.~ i val is\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 621 \"6~1 '\" 62) \" 621 621 621 \" MI _ White tints The Chaenomeles varieties listed above have nmeteen different colors, hues, or shades-far too many for the general run of display gardens. Hence it becomes necessary to study these varieties and their colors and see how the number of varieties can be reduced. The first step is to study the color nomenclature in the Horticultural Colour Chart within this color range. Colors Listed from Orange to Camellian Rose 1R 2 ()rnn~e Orange Saturn Red D7ars 13 3 Orange 49 018 3 Indian Orange Chinese Coral Nasturtium Red Burnt Fire Red %13 614 14 014 Orange 15 Capsicum Red Orient Pink 715 416 516 616 . Shell Pink Shrimp Red Reddish Orange Poppy Red Brick Red 16 o16 Mandarin Red 17 717 618 18 018 Dutch Vermilion Azalea Pink Vermilion Jasper Red Garnet Brown 00918 619 o619 19 ' Begonia Coral Pink Orange Red Scarlet Signal Red Orient Red I , 719 819 420 Venetian Pink French Rose Porcelain Rose Geranium Lake .i? 0 620 20 020 Delft Rose Blood Red Carmine Rose 820 621 Empire Carmine Rose os~?1 21 Claret Rose o21 Turkey Red Currant Red i~l 821 622 Camellia Rose 30 By studying this listing of colors Chaenomeles fall can it ~s be grouped into l. seven obvious that the Icolors into which the general color groups: Orange (1?-616) Reddish Orange Scarlet 2. . ( 16-619) ' ;3. 4. 5. 6. ( 1 p-610) Geranium Lake (20-o6R1) Turkey Red ( i 11 ) White to Carmine White ' 7. Then, if the above are to be the color \"classes,\" a re-study of the varieties falling into each class is necessary to determine \"the best\" for each group. Because of similarity in size, habit, fruit and ease of growth, many of these varieties are rieties similar to others in ornamental usefulness. Hence the classification of the vaaccording to flower color affords an excellent basis on which to judge them for the purpose of selecting a few of the better varieties. If twelve varieties have practically the same flower color, then profuseness of flowering, size of flower and singleness or doubleness are the criteria on which the best are selected. Working over trarily the large group in this way, the color classes and the varieties reduced in the following order: of can be arbi- 1. Orange-japonic'n nlpinn (S) (lowest 2. reddish all) Orange-\" Apricot\" (S) ;\"Double Orange\" (D) S. Scarlet-\"Kermesina semi-plena\" (SD) (tallest of all) \"Cardinalis\" (D); \"Baltzi~\" (S); \"Sanguinea semi-plena\" (SD) 3.. Geranium Lake-\"Phyllis Moore\" (D): \"Bonfire\" (S); \"Rosea plena\" (SD) Blood Red\" (S): .5. Turkey Red2014 Simon])\" (SD): \"Unibilicata\" (S) ti. ~'hite to Carunne --\"blarnmrata\" (S): \"Jloerloesi\" (S): \"Gran<l~flora semi-Nlena'' (SD) i. V'h~te-\"Nivalis\" (S) ; \"Falconet Charlet\" (S) 1'o~P: . S=single flowers SD=semi-double flowers D=double flowers . J~ I Seven color groups instead of nineteen and seventeen varieties instead of a three-quite reduction ! k forty- So it is a seen how the use of a color standard helps materially in the study of group of plants, grown chiefly for the bright colors of its flowers. It is hoped that the horticultural organizations of this country will take up this important problem and do something about it. It may be that all are not uni- formly agreed upon the adoption of one particular chart, but certainly all should be agreed that the present chaotic condition of color nomenclature in Horticulture should be immediately rectified. DONALD ~5 MAN ' Note: , _ Republication of Sargent's Silva of North America This standard very beautifully illustrated work was originally published in 14 volumes quarto between the years 1891 and 1902. Its original price was $350.00 for the complete set. It has long been out of print, and naturally the selling price advanced as copies were occasionally offered by dealers. The work contains 740 magnificent plates illustrating the trees of North America north of Mexico. Now, thanks to the initiative of Mr. Peter Smith, Publisher, 351 Fifth Avenue, New York, this basic work is again available. Official permission to republish Sargent's Silva was granted to Mr. Smith in 194.5. 'I'he work has been reproduced by the modern offset lithograph process and is an exact replica of the original text. It is printed on very excellent paper. This new issue is of the same size (quarto) as the original, but is bound in library buckram, two Bolumes in one, i.e., forming seven volumes instead of the original fourteen. The new issue sells for $200.00 a set. For all practical purposes this re-issue is as valuable as the original edition. The lithoprint work was done by the Dlurray Printing Company, Cambridge, a firm noted for its high quality of excellence. The offset work on this book was so well done that it was selected, by a competent committee of judges, to be among the best books by offset in 19 47. 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Seed Collection Dates of Woody Plants","article_sequence":8,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24183","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060af28.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 OCTOBER 10, 1947 SEED COLLECTION DATES OF WOODY PLANTS NUMBER 9 interested in collecting the seeds of woody plants, chiefly purposes. It is very difficult to find the dates on which many of them ripen. During the war years special lists of these ripening dates had to be made up for some of the young people at the Arnold Arboretum who were doing the seed collecting at that time, since they were unfamiliar with most of the plants. This information, together with some other notes, has been massed together into one large list which gives the approximate dates on which seed is gathered in the Arnold Arboretum. The actual date seed ripens in one locality may vary from year to year in the same way and for the same reasons as do the bloommg dates of plants and the autumn color. This year, for instance, the Acer rubrum Schlesingeri opposite the Administration Building in the Arboretum changed its color to a good red, September 11whereas last year it was definitely red by September first. Often one makes a special effort to collect seed of a certain plant only to find on coming to the plant that all of it has fallen on the ground or been eaten by the birds and rodents, or been partially destroyed by weevils. The seeds of witch hazels, in particular, must be collected before the capsules open, for at that time they are actually thrown considerable distances by the explosive opening of the capsule. Certain plants like Chionaufhus virginicus, with fleshy fruits, may appear ripe one day and be gone the next, merely because a flock of birds have taken them all from the plant in a few hours time. This has happened with this plant on several occasions in the Arboretum. There are many plants which retain their fruits for a long time in the fall, and far into the winter, the fruits of which may be collected over a long period. Many of the seeds collected on the dates in the following list will have to be cleaned and dried, preferably in the greenhouse. Then there is an after-ripening period or a period of dormancy for many seeds so that it is frequently months from the people are for propagation MANY 53 ready for planting. However, when seed is obtained for special purposes, it is best to collect it as soon as it is ripe, instead of waiting too long and taking the chance of it disappearing. The following list of dates on which seed collections have been made in the Arboretum can be considerably more flexible than the single date entry would lead one to believe. Other seed collecting dates should be inserted as the information is collected and the entire series of dates changed to agree with local climatic conditions. time the seed is collected until it is to be Seed Collection Dates ' Abies sp. Acanthopanax Acer Ginnala Acer griseum Acer negundo sp. 5 Oct. 15 Oct. 10 Carpinus sp. Aug. 20 Acer platanoides Acer saccharum Aesculus sp. Akebia quinata Albizzia julibrissin rosea Alnus glutinosa Amelanchier amabilis Amelanchier oblongifolia Amelanchier sanguinea Amelanchier spicata Aug. 15 Sept. 15 5 Sept. Sept. 20 Sept. 19 5 Sept. 15 5 Sept. 15 Oct. 20 Oct. 20 Castanea mollissima Ceanothus pallidus roseus Cedrus libani Celastrus sp. Oct. 15 Aug. 15 Aug. 15 Oct. 10 Oct. 20 16 15 j June 20 Aug. 30 5 Sept. Aug. 20 Oct. 5 Sept. 5 Aug. 30 Aug. 15 Aug. 15 Sept. 30 July 5 0 Aug. 30 Cercidiphyllum japonicum Chaenomeles lagenaria Chionanthus sp. Cornus alba Cornus Amomum Cornus asperifolia Cornus Baileyi Cornus florida Cornus glabrata Cornus kousa Cornus mas Cornus racemosa Cornus sanguinea Cornus stolonifera Cotinus Coggygria Cotoneaster acutifolia Cotoneaster adpressa Cotoneaster affinis Cotoneaster ambigua Cotoneaster bullata Cotoneaster Dielsiana Cotoneaster divaricata Cotoneaster foveolata Cotoneaster horizontalis Cotoneaster integerrima Cotoneaster lucida Cotoneaster melanocarpa Cotoneaster moupinensis Cotoneaster multiflora Cotoneaster nitens Cotoneaster racemiflora Cotoneaster rosea Cotoneaster rugosa Cotoneaster salicifolia Oct. Sept. July June 30 Ampelopsis sp. Aralia spinosa Aronia arbutifolia Aronia melanocarpa Aronia prunifolia Berberis aggregata Berberis amurensis Berberis Bretschneideri Berberis canadensis Berberis chinensis Berberis Fendleri Berberis Gilgiana Berberis Henryana Berberis heteropoda Berberis koreana Berberis lax~flora Berberis Poireti Berberis Thunbergii Berberis Vernae Berberis vulgaris 20 July 30 July 5 Oct. 5 Sept. 20 Oct. 10 Sept. 15 o Oct. 10 Nov. 5 Oct. l0 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 5 Nov. 5 Oct. I Sept. Sept. 20 20 Nov. 15 5 Aug. 30 Oct. 15 5 20 30 Oct. 30 Aug. 20 Sept. 20 Nov. 10 0 Sept. 5 Oct. 20 Aug. 20 Oct. 20 Nov. 5 Aug. 30 Sept. Aug. Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Oct. 10 Oct. 5 Oct. 30 Oct. 30 Oct. 10 Sept. Sept. papyrifera Buddleia sp. Callicarpa sp. Caragana Maximowicziana Betula 20 20 Nov. 5 Sept. 20 Aug. 30 Sept. 20 Nov. 30 Nov. 30 54 Cotoneaster tenuipes Cotoneaster tomentosa Cotoneaster Zabeli Crataegus arnoldiana Crataegus Lavallei Crataegus nitida Sept. Aug. 20 Oct. 30 Oct. 10 15 Nov. 20 Nov. 20 Oct. 20 Nov. 30 Nov. 20 5 Sept. Aug. 15 Aug. 15 June 15 Aug. 20 July 5 15 5 Oct. 15 5 Oct. 15 o Oct. 10 Oct. 15 Oct. 15 j Oct. 15 Oct. 15 Oct. 15 Sept. 15 Sept. 20 5 Oct. Aug. 15 Oct. 15 Sept. 20 Oct. 5 5 Oct. I Oct. 30 Oct. 10 0 5 Aug. Nov. 30 Sept. 20 Oct. ~0 Oct. 15 Sept. 20 Oct. 15 5 5 Oct. 15 Sept. 20 Aug. 20 0 Aug. 20 .5 Oct. 15 Crataegus Oxyacantha Crataegus Phaenopyrum Crataegus prunifolia Crataegus punctata Cytisus nigricans Cytisus purpureus Daphne Mezereum Ehretia thyrsiflora Elaeagnus multiflora Elaeagnus umbellata Euonymus alata Euonymus americana Euonymus bulgarica Euonymus Bungeana Euonymus Fortunei vegeta Euonymus nikoensis Euonymus obovata Euonymus sanguinea Evodia Danielhi Nov. Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera bella July 5 5 bracteolaris Nov. 15 3 chrysantha coerulea July Aug. D9ay June 15 30 30 30 0 demissa Ferdinandi Oct. 10 Nov. 15 5 fragrantissima Henryi iberica Korolkovii Dlaack~i Dlaximowiczii Morrowii muendeniensis notha orientalis Standishii subsessilis Sept. Nov. 15 Nov. 15 July 5 June 30 tangutica tatarica Webbiana Xylosteum July 5 July 5 Aug. 30 May 30 Sept. 15 Aug. 30 July 5 Aug. 15 July 5 Oct. 20 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 . Fagus sp. Fothergilla sp. Gaylussacia sp. Gin~Tko biloba Halesia sp. Hamamelis sp. Hicoria sp. Hippophae rhamnoides Lycium sp. Magnolia acuminata Magnolia Soulangeana Magnolia stellata Mahonia Aquifolium Malus Malus Malus Malus Morus baccata robusta July Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 5 toringoides many sp. sp. 20 30 20 . Hydrangea petiolaris Ilex geniculata Ilex glabra Ilex laevigata Ilex opaca Ilex verticillata Ilex yunnanensis Myrica pensylvanica N emopanthus mucronatus Nyssa sylvatica Oxydendrum arboreum Philadelphus virginalis Photinia villosa 25 July 25 Nov. 5 Sept. 20 Oct. 22 ~) July 5 Sept. 10 Physocarpus Picea sp. Pieris sp. Pinus sp. sp. Oct. 20 Oct. 20 Oct. 15 Juglans sp. Juniperus sp. Kalopanax pictus Kolkwitzia amabilis Laburnum sp. Leucothoe Catesbaei Prinsepia sp. Prunus apetala Prunus canescens Prunus cerasifera Prunus Cerasus Prunus glandulosa Prunus japonica Prunus maritima Sept. 20 Sept. 25 Aug. 5 June 5 June 15 ' Aug. 20 Ligustrum sp. Oct. 30 5 Sept. 15 Aug. 5 July 5 June 30 Lindera Benzom Lonicera alpigena Lonicera Altmannii Aug. 10 Aug. 5 Aug. 8 Prunus Sargenti Prunus subhirtella Prunus tomentosa Pseudolarix amabilis Pseudotsuga taxifolia Pyracantha coccinea Quercus sp., Rhamnus Frangula Rhododendron sp. Rhodotypos scandens Rhus copallina Rhus typhina Ribes fasciculatum Ribes odoratum Robinia sp. Rosa acicularis Rosa agrestis Rosa alba Rosa amblyotis Rosa arvensis Rosa blanda Rosa canina Rosa carolina Rosa coriifolia Rosa corymbifera Rosa davurica Rosa Ecae Rosa Eglanteria Rosa gallica Rosa Harisonii Rosa Helenae Rosa hibernica Rosa horrida Rosa Hugonis Rosa Macounii Rosa multiflora Rosa pendulina Rosa Primula Rosa reversa Rosa Roxburghii Rosa rubrifolia Rosa rugosa Rosa setigera Rosa spinosissima Rosa virginiana Rosa Wichuraiana 20 20 20 30 10 15 Sept. 10-20 5 Aug. 5 Oct. 15 Nov. 5 5 Sept. Aug. 5 5 Nov. 15 Aug. 5 Oct. 5 Sept. 15 June June June Oct. Oct. Nov. Rosa Vfillmottiae Rosa Woodsii Sambucus canadensis Schisandra chinensis Solanum Dulcamara Sorbaronia Jackii Sorbus sp. Spiraea Veitchii Stewartia sp. Sept. Sept. Aug. Sept. 15 15 30 15 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 20 Aug. Symphoricarpos sp. Symplocos paniculata Syringa amurensis Taxus sp. Oct. 15 Oct. 10 Sept. Aug. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. 30 30 Thuja occidentalis Tilia sp. Tsuga sp. July 20 5 Sept. 15 5 Aug. Oct. 30 Sept. Aug. Sept. 15 5 Oct. 15 30 15 Oct. 15 Aug. 30 July 30 Oct. 15 Sept. 80 Aug. 5 Oct. 15 Oct. 15 5 Oct. 15 July 20 Aug. 30 Nov. 20 Aug. 30 Aug. 5 Sept. 5 Ulmus americana Ulmus parvifolia Ulmus pumila Vaccinium Oldhamii Vaccinium corymbosum Vaccinium Vitis-idaea Viburnum acerifolium Viburnum alnifolium Viburnum betulifolium Viburnum Burkwoodii Viburnum Carlesii Viburnum cassinoides Viburnum dentatum Viburnum dilatatum Viburnum fragrans Viburnum hupehense Viburnum Lantana Viburnum Lentago Viburnum lobophyllum Viburnum Opulus Viburnum ovatifolium Viburnum prunifolium Viburnum Sargenti Viburnum setigerum Viburnum Sieboldii July ~0 Sept. 15 Sept. 5 .5 Nov. 15 July 20 Oct. 30 Nov. 15 Viburnum tomentosum Viburnum trilobum Viburnum Wrightii Wisteria sp. Zanthoxylum americanum 10 15 15 10 May 5 Oct. 15 May 5 Oct. 5 July 30 July 20 5 Oct. 15 Aug. 20 Oct. 5 Oct. 30 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Sept. 20 June 20 Oct. 20 Aug. 20 Oct. 20 Nov. 5 5 Nov. Oct. 5 Oct. 5 Nov. 5 Oct. 15 Aug. 15 July 15 Aug. 30 5 Sept. 15 Oct. 30 Sept. 5 DONALD WYMAN 56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Drought","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24187","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060bb27.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 OCTOBER 17, 1947 THE DROUGHT NUMBER 10 Arnold Arboretum has received practically no rain since September 2 when a generous 2.71inches fell. During the month of August (with normally 3~ inches of rain) only about 2 inches fell. As a result of this, the plants in the Arboretum are suffering from the terrible drought which has struck New England and is doing such tremendous damage. The woods are tinder dry, but what is even more important (though less noticeable) to those who are interested in good ornamental plantings, the soil is extremely dry. In pulling some weed shrubs during the past two weeks, we noticed that the soil is powder dry for several feet below the surface. The foliage of the trees and shrubs started off to a splendid display of color this fall, only to be prematurely dried up by lack of sufficient moisture. This is the worst fall drought during the past thirty three years. There are two very important things to keep in mind for those with gardens in the drought area. Any plantings made this fall should receive plenty of water if they are to be kept alive over winter. Secondly, and more important, is the plight of the evergreens, both narrow-leaved and broad-leaved. These plants depend upon absorbing their winter's supply of water just prior to the time the ground freezes in the late fall or early winter. With the unusually warm-actually hot-days which we have been having for several weeks, these evergreens have given off far more water than usual for this time of year, and there is far less available for them to absorb from the soil than there has been for decades. If evergreens are to have any chance at all of coming through the winter in a normal condition, they must receive plenty of water from now until the time the ground freezes. This is of the utmost importance. If sufficient rains do not come, and these plants are compelled to go into the winter with no additional water, serious \"winter injury\" will result, not necessarily from any climatic condition brought about by winter cold, but because the plants do not have sufficient water before winter sets in. Consequently water all evergreens well, now, and do not allow the soil about them to dry out again before the ground freezes. THE 57 I FRUITS THIS FALL This has been a rather good year for the fruiting of woody plants, especially the conifers. Many of the shrubs have also produced their full complement of fruits as well. Sorbus discolor, for instance, with pure white fruits, was literally covered this fall. Many of the viburnums produced an abundance of fruits, as well as the Malus, Lonicera and Taxus species. It was a season when the fruits ripened fast. Many of the conifers opened their cones in record time, probably because of the effects of the drought, so that seed collecting had to be done rapidly in order to obtain everything desired. Fleshy fruits, especially those ripening in the fall, matured quickly due to the drought and the weeks of un- seasonably warm weather. in late October is that in to new One of the dormant buds disconcerting things noticed on some of the ex- certain shrubs are starting has tremely warm weather has brought this about. no possible chance of survival when it appears at this time. With the warm weather predicted to remain for some time yet, this additional danger to shrubs will probably be increased. There is little that can be done about it, unfortunately. Some of the more interesting plants with fruits this fall were 1)ecai.snea Farge.sii, with fleshy purple pods, somewhat similar to, but smaller than, those of <~kebia quinata. Callicarpa japonica was covered with its bright purple fruits and growth. The dry and Such young growth of course of the native deciduous hollies were also well covered with fruits. Ailonlhus ahi.ssima erythrocarpa displayed its red fruits well, thus underlining the fact that it has more colorful fruits than the species growing immediately beside it with pale yellowish to almost colorless fruits. Cotoneaster muh~ora and C. racemiflora soongorirm were well covered with their conspicuous bright berries. One of the most interesting of all was the fruit of Lorricera quinquelocularis t~-arrslusceus, with white, translucent fruit through which the brown seeds are easily seen. The yellow fruiting Viburnum rlilatatum xanlhocarpum also was resplendent in its colorful fruits, and branches placed in water keep this bright display for many days. A splendid specimen of Viburnum .setigeraim rrurantiacum growing on Bussey Hill, bore many clusters of its bright orange fruit, unique among the hardy northern some plant bears particular mention, for it fruited unusually well this fall, namely Celastrus angulata. This has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1924 and is apparently hardy. It has never been listed in our records of plants suffering winter injury. Its vigorous growth, large leaves and 6 inch long clusters of yellow to \"Indian Orange\" berries in late October and November, make it unusually prominent at this time of year. DONALD WYMAN viburnums. One other 58 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Fruit this Fall","article_sequence":10,"start_page":58,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24179","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15e896c.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"I FRUITS THIS FALL This has been a rather good year for the fruiting of woody plants, especially the conifers. Many of the shrubs have also produced their full complement of fruits as well. Sorbus discolor, for instance, with pure white fruits, was literally covered this fall. Many of the viburnums produced an abundance of fruits, as well as the Malus, Lonicera and Taxus species. It was a season when the fruits ripened fast. Many of the conifers opened their cones in record time, probably because of the effects of the drought, so that seed collecting had to be done rapidly in order to obtain everything desired. Fleshy fruits, especially those ripening in the fall, matured quickly due to the drought and the weeks of un- seasonably warm weather. in late October is that in to new One of the dormant buds disconcerting things noticed on some of the ex- certain shrubs are starting has tremely warm weather has brought this about. no possible chance of survival when it appears at this time. With the warm weather predicted to remain for some time yet, this additional danger to shrubs will probably be increased. There is little that can be done about it, unfortunately. Some of the more interesting plants with fruits this fall were 1)ecai.snea Farge.sii, with fleshy purple pods, somewhat similar to, but smaller than, those of <~kebia quinata. Callicarpa japonica was covered with its bright purple fruits and growth. The dry and Such young growth of course of the native deciduous hollies were also well covered with fruits. Ailonlhus ahi.ssima erythrocarpa displayed its red fruits well, thus underlining the fact that it has more colorful fruits than the species growing immediately beside it with pale yellowish to almost colorless fruits. Cotoneaster muh~ora and C. racemiflora soongorirm were well covered with their conspicuous bright berries. One of the most interesting of all was the fruit of Lorricera quinquelocularis t~-arrslusceus, with white, translucent fruit through which the brown seeds are easily seen. The yellow fruiting Viburnum rlilatatum xanlhocarpum also was resplendent in its colorful fruits, and branches placed in water keep this bright display for many days. A splendid specimen of Viburnum .setigeraim rrurantiacum growing on Bussey Hill, bore many clusters of its bright orange fruit, unique among the hardy northern some plant bears particular mention, for it fruited unusually well this fall, namely Celastrus angulata. This has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1924 and is apparently hardy. It has never been listed in our records of plants suffering winter injury. Its vigorous growth, large leaves and 6 inch long clusters of yellow to \"Indian Orange\" berries in late October and November, make it unusually prominent at this time of year. DONALD WYMAN viburnums. One other 58 6 ~. sG~ 3 ~ '\" XZ E . ro. rn ,- . c: : bJ) \" Q) ~p a a .~ ~ x '\" '\" S :; S ., bJ) ~ 8 b .~ ~S.s '.. aQ.) '~ aX J. ~ 'o ...'_ ~,a v +Jo ,.. oc 2 ::\",0 5 : I' 016 % y ~ ~ ... d`\"' c. ~o ~ a v o ~w a .,g .~ :S +~ .~ .C \"\"t:! < e ~a C ~ ~_LN ;): . . .: 0 O C~ ~O. .~. ~~:~~,, ,5. ~ ;:: .;; ~ ~ ~ '\" bG . p_NCO h r.~ c c O .y m ;j N iCcY E-<, Y > ,, ~..\"c., ., . ~ ,.. := c:d c: ~a .'r '~ Cd U . O~caO.i.. 3 \"o ~ c ~ . .~ -o..c \"' w x a~ a ~ Ey ~3 .., ~ ~ocG.n a._ ~ a, ~~ ~ ~ a~ r~ a~ ~ s l N o ~ '~ U `~ e N \" ro CS R # C ~ y F'0 c~. O 8 E U y,~ s;\"ss ~ Cd U J-o == 'ScSo c U 0 ;::::,rn~'\"O ~ ..= ~ a ~ ' y~ ~. ro ~w Cd ~j= ~JS a ~ S o ~. g \"s-s ~ ~x~ ' ~ o `' ~ o ~ 0 o~~ ~~ C ~ s' o N .7 (p g ~. g f 0 3 a -. ' G . ~ o 'i_7 ~.c9O b O G. O F~ ~ '.G.,~ f~D f9 O fD S n > 3 G O w O y 'S hJ H \"'~ ,y m O ~ M~~ 8 c~c U ~ ~_ O b ~. b ~ 5-?~ S ~8 ~ ., o \"~ \" ~ ., c m ~w X c~ ~ ~ a. ., ~. ~ x x ~, w ... b S M a:: S- '. ft ' fi "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Woody Plants with Interesting Bark in Winter","article_sequence":11,"start_page":61,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24190","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060856f.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"' ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME % NOVEMBER 28, 1947 NUMBER 11 I WOODY PLANTS WITH INTERESTING BARK IN WINTER the Arnold Arboretum in the dead of winter will disclose a with interesting bark characteristics, some of them new to many gardeners. The lists appended to this issue of Arnoldia are the results of just such a trip. Some of the plants are commonly known ; others, possibly unusual in gardens, should very definitely be noted as potential colorful contributors to winter gardens. The more color in the winter landscape, the more interesting the garden. The color and general characteristics of a tree's bark come with old age, and mature trees are valued specifically for these characteristics. However, shrubs with colored twigs frequently can be forced to grow brighter-colored twigs for winter display if a few simple maintenance items are practiced. C,'ornus alba, the Tatarian dogwood, is known to have red one-year twigs. The color will not be pronounced on an old plant which has been growing ui poor soil for some length of time, and the one-year growth may be only two or three inches in length. This is not conducive to a colorful display. If the same plant is heavily pruned in the early spring, possibly even cut to the ground, then it will send out vigorous young shoots which will color nicely by winter. Applying a nitrogenous fertilizer will also help in the production of colorful bark. In fact, any practice which aids the rapid vegetative growth of the shoots, will aid in the coloration of the bark of the twigs. Varieties might well be selected which are known to be vividly colored. The best of all the shrubby dogwoods for colored winter twigs is Loruus nl6a sibiriwr, the Siberian dogwood with twigs a brilliant red, and when the plant is furced into vigorous growth during the growing season, there is not a woody plant with bark more prominently colored in winter. Sunshine plays an important part m the coloration of some twigs, just as it does in promotin~r more intensive color in the fall foliage. Some of the blueberries, for A TRIP through number plants of (i 1 instance, may have green to greenish one-year twigs when they are grown in the but in the sunshine their one-year twigs turn a bright red. This is espeshade, cially true of such plants as Cornus alba sibirica and Salix alba chermesina, both of which can produce twigs of brilliant color. The older these plants become, the less brilliant this color, merely because the one-year twigs become smaller and more dispersed throughout the plant. When the plant is young, or when it has been pruned heavily, then the one-year shoots are confined to a smaller space, and make a much more brilliant display. The following list of shrubs and trees include about 130 plants which have colored bark or colored twigs in winter, and all are growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Certainly there are sufficient to make possible an interesting selection for any winter garden. The seventy plants listed with an asterisk (*) have bark more interesting than the others and might be given preference wherever possible. Of course, there are other plants of interest for their bark characteristics in winter, but the ones listed are some of the more important. or Plants with Red Twigs Red Bark , Acer palmatum red, but Acer pseudo-sieboldianum that the color is Acer Sieboldianum Ceanothus pallidus rosea - dull red ' Twigs dispersed over such a wide area mostly unnoticeable from a distance *Cornus *Cornus alba alba sibirica - bright red, bark more colorful than any other dogwood Cornus amomum Cornus arnoldiana Cornus australis Cornus glabrata Cornus obhqua Cornus pubescens *Cornus stolonifera *Cornus stolonifera coloradensis young twigs dull red Cornus Walteri young twigs dark red *Gaylussacia baccata twigs of current year's growth red twigs of current year's growth red Gaylussacia frondosa young twigs a shiny reddish brown petiolaris Hydrangea Leucothoe racemosa twigs of current year's growth red *Pinus sylvestris - bark of upper branches and trunk red - - - *Rosa acicularis *Rosa canina twigs dark red twigs dark red Rosa centifolia young twigs dull red *Rosa coriifolia cinerea young twigs glossy red *Rosa Kochiana twigs bright red, one of best young young - ' G2 S bo '-~g y a Q ~U ~~ -3 .~ .Na~~ P'r m ~x r. C m ~ O 1~ V. L . E' 4~ r L ~U N dy w s.~ ~ O w a ~ ~3 ~ q r, +~ I - ' a~ +' ca . =~a m o w \" M S~ d' > $ o a~ ~~L ~ -~ ~s ~ c~ k a ~ ce s cd C a, a~ e a~ 3 C . o ;. k u G C1, L ~~a' ~ a .~ a~ UO y t a~ 0 V_cr`~, b y~ > \" S a .s i 3 s ..& r V ~, m CC G~ ?V ~f. UO ~ ~x a~~ I x I~~ U Rosa Luciae young twigs dull reddish purple Rosa multiflora young twigs dull red Rosa pomifera - young twigs glossy red *Rosa setigera - twigs bright red, one of best Rosa Spaldingii young twigs glossy red *Rosa virginiana twigs bright red, one of best *Salix alba chermesina vigorous young branches a bright red *Vaccinium corymbosum - twigs of current year's growth red *Viburnum opulus nanum - younger twigs red - Shrubs with Gray Twigs (These are sufficiently prominent - to afford a colorful contrast in the winter) Acanthopanax Sieboldianus Aesculus parviflora Aralia sp. all twigs gray *Buddleia alternifolia *Clethra alnifolia *Cornus racemosa - young twigs gray, older branches light brown - *Elaeagnus umbellata - both *Ilex decidua *Lonicera Morrowii Lonicera tatarica Lycium chinense - young and old twigs gray - all twigs gray all twigs gray Myrica pensylvanica all twigs *Neillia sinensis - gray *Prinsepia Spiraea Viburnum Viburnum sp. - all twigs gray cana Opulus Sargenti Plants with Green Viburnum trilobum Twigs . Coronilla emeroides Coronilla Emerus - but not a good color *Cytisus *Cytisus Cytisus praecox scoparius supinus Genista radiata *Jasminum nudiflorum *Kerria japonica *Poncirus trifoliata twigs, *Rosa Wichuraiana - older branches green ~ Salix blanda - twigs green to brown 64 Sophora japonica Smilax sp. *Cornus Kerria -- twigs green but not a good color Shrubs with Yellow Twigs stolonifera flaviramea japonica aureo-vittata - twigs predominantly yellow, but green some pure green, some striped yellow and *Salix alba tristis *Salix alba vitellina *Zenobia pulverulenta be a young twigs light yellowish brown. Probably this would prominent color if the plant were cut to the ground occasionally - Shrubs with Twigs a Conspicuous Light Brown Color *Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Deutzia sp. *Hydrangea Bark of Trunk and Branches arborescens Philadelphus Gray Lemoinei vars. *Acer rubrum *Acer saccharinum *Amelanchier sp. Celtis Bungeana Celtis laevigata - . - gray bark - on upper trunk on Celtis occidentalis *Cladrastis lutea - gray bark upper trunk Crataegus many species dark Euonymus sachalinensis Euonymus Maackii *Fagus - all species - gray bark - *J9agnolia several species especially the bark of the upper trunk and branches ~lalus micromalus bark of young trunk and branches Quercus borealis bark of young trunk and branches velutina Quercus *Sorbus sp. light gray bark - - - - ' - - *Ulmus carpinifolia Ulmus hollandica superba Ulmus laciniata nikoensis - bark of young trunk and branches `' bark light gray light gray Bark of Trunk and Branches White *Betula *Betula *Betula *Betula coerulea coerulea-grandis japonica Jlaximowicziana *Betula papyrifera (best) *Betula populifolia *Betula pendula *Betula utilis 6J xr ~f II ~ ' *< ~~ s Q ~. a S' ~<r~ .b~r w c~o ~ f: Ct7 CD \" \"< c ro ~~ EH ~5~ =o ~n O C m c- - ~ G -r O rr G ~ b k G O 3= O ,_r\",' .y .. OS' PS ~ <t 3~ G ~_ s' K' Bark of Trunk Cherry-Like brown (sometimes exfoliating) Betula lutea - bark of older trunks - yellowish best! *Prunus Sargentn *Prunus serrula bright red, one of *Prunus Schmittii very glossy, red -- Prunus - many other species of course, but above are some of the most out- standing Syringa amurensis japonica Bark of Trunk or Older Branches Exfoliating, Either Shredding Off in Lon~ Strips or Flaking Off in Regular or Irregular Patches *Acer griseum one of best, light brown color Acer triflorum Betula davurica purplish brown bark, very good and peculiarly interesting in that the bark peels or flakes off in regular strips an inch or so square Betula lutea bark of older trunks yellowish, cherry-like, exfoliating Betula nigra dark, blackish, plated bark on older trunks, often chipping off Betula white-barked species Clethra acuminata older bark brown, exposed young bark gray Cornus officinalis Deutzia glabrata peculiar exfoliating bark, light brown new bark, dark brown old bark dark gray exfoliating bark, irregularly colored patches Euonymus sanguinea on older stems remaining *Hicoria ovata stiff older bark flaking off arnoldianum *Ht-per~cum peeling and a lustrous reddish brown *Kolkwitzia amabilis bark shredding off in long strips bark shredding off in long strips *Lonicera Ferdinandi iberica - bark shredding off in long strips Lonicera *Parrotia persica - bark flaking, older bark red brown Physocarpus sp. - shredding bark *Platanus acerifolia greenish underbark on some specimens and not on others, off in irregular patches flaking *Platanus occidentalis white underbark, gray outerbark flaking off in irregular - . - - - - - - - - - - - - - patches *Pinus Bungeana bark flaking off in irregular patches, underbark almost white Rosa Roxburghii bark shredding off in long strips mottled bark and of the best! Older bark brown, younger *Stewartia koreana bark light brown also mottled but not as ornamental as S. korennn Stewartia pseu<lo-camellia - u, *Ulmus parvifolia this is a - mottled clonal bark, flaking off in irregular patches. Apparently characteristic, for some trees do not appear to have it Miscellaneous . Acer capillipes green striped bark *Acer pensylvanicum green and striped - bark bark green to light brown Ceanothus americanus Decaisnea Fargesii gray to yellow old and young twigs alata corky wings on twigs and older branches *Euonymus bark corky on mature trees *Phellodendron amurense Prunus triloba bark of older branches a pronounced black Quercus montana corky bark on mature trees Rubus occidentalis twigs whitish to pinkish Salix fragilis bark of young branches yellow brown *Salix purpurea twigs reddish purple Ulmus alata corky wings on twigs Zelkova serrata corky ridges on bark of twigs and small branches - - - - . - - - - - - DONALD WYMAN 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spent Hops - An Effective Mulching Material","article_sequence":12,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24184","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060af6b.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 7 DECEMBER 12, 1947 NUMBER 1Z SPENT HOPS-AN EFFECTIVE MULCHING MATERIAL eradication of weeds by means of applying chemicals has become a popular method in the garden, and many a gardener is probably trying out some preparation in order to eliminate tedious hand labor. In the Arnold Arboretum we hav e been forced to find time-saving means of eliminating weeds. Many chemical materials have been tried, and not all have proved successful. Some of our experiences have taught us lessons that may be helpful to others, and as a result, these notes are offered. There are many kinds of weeds m every garden, but the weeds with which we have to deal in the ornamental plantings of the Arnold Arboretum are chiefly perennial weeds, and the rampant spreading quack grass (Agropyron repensy. When allowed to grow eight inches or more in height about the base of a recently planted small tree or shrub this pernicious pest can (and frequently does) materially weaken the plant and in some cases may grow so vigorously that it will absorb a greater part of the moisture about the plant during dry spells, and so be responsible for the death of the plant. It is this type of weed, growing around younger plants that have been set out as individuals throughout the 265 acres of the Arboretum, which has proved costly. A good many years ago, sufficient labor was available so that the weeds about all young plants could be kept in check by hand-hoeing. Now, of course, with high wages and restricted budget, such costly hand labor is out of the question. Other means must be used to control weeds. One of the methods used in weed control at the Arnold Arboretum is the use of mulches. THE Various Types Tried Mulches are highly desirable about many plants, and mdeed, experiments have shown that on Massachusetts soils similar to those in the Arnold Arboretum, almost any kind of a mulch will aid tree growth. However, it is not quite as simple 69 e the Arboretum. In the first -place, a mulch must be fairly inexpensm needs. Secondly, it must be neat in appearance, be easily maintained and not blow away in high winds. Lastly -and this is most important - it must not be easily burned or set on fire. It has proved very difficult to find a mulching material meeting all three of these essential requirements. Hay and straw make good and cheap mulches, but they are quickly set on fire. Unfortunately, this type of vandalrsm is one whtch must be met tn any public area. A flash fire about the base of a tree or shrub can easily mar permanently as that in to meet our kill the plant. Leaves haBebeen used, but unless these are well-rotted, they burn easily, and even in the case of leaf mold, there are times when it will dry out during the hot summer months and then can easily be burned, especially during periods of high winds. Oak leaves and maple leaves, individually and mixed together have been tried without too much success. Wood shavings, mixed with horse manure (when the shavings have been used as bedding in stables) have been tried. Under some conditions these may prove satisfactory, but under our conditions this material dries out quickly and tends to blow about, giving the plantings an unkempt appearance. Ground coconut hulls, buckwheat hulls, ground banana stalks, and glass fibers, have been tried, but these have proved too expensive to be used extensively under our conditions. Vermiculite, too, was tried as a mulch, but it proved too expensive to be used on the large scale necessary in the Arboretum. It tended to pack down rather hard after it had been exposed to the elements out-of-doors for a few months, and it was quickly evident that it proved an ideal medium for the or even germination of weed seeds. Peat moss has, of course, been used extensively in planting and when so used has been thoroughly mixed with soil. Used strictly as a mulch, it is neat in appearance, and not too expensive, but as everyone knows, it does dry out, especially in summer. We have had several experiences with peat fires in the Arboretum, and some experience with small blazes in peat mulches. The last one was the most costly. Native peat moss was obtained from a local source at a reasonable cost and was placed six inches thick about the conifers in the dwarf collection. Admittedly it looked exceptionally well. However, a month after it was applied it became very dry due to a summer drought. A fire started, either set by children or as a result of a carelessly flipped cigarette, and with a stiff breeze, flames were quickly whipped up that ruined hundreds of dollars worth of rare plants before the fire department came. A new fire was whipped into a blaze by the wind on every spot of peat moss mulch where a spark would light. The fire department put on 600 gallons of water, and our own spray cart applied another 600 gallons that afternoon. The area burned over was about ~O~X 1;i0~. By nightfall it looked as if all the smoldering spots were out. The next morning, the peat moss in that area was smoldering in 19 places and had to be 70- far removed from a water supply, and where form or another, peat moss is not the type of mulch to use, especially on valuable plants which could be destroyed by fire. It is of course widely used as a mulch, but in areas where water can be applied interunttently- to keep it moist, and where there ~s no fire menace. clug out. Consequently, fire menace on areas there is a in one Spent Hops After these experiences, and others, spent hops were used in mulching. These obtained inexpensively and hauled directlv from a local brewery while there m still a strong odor to them, but over the year and a half they have been used, they are provmg better as a mulching material, for our purposes, than any of the aboc e-ment~oned materials. They are inexpensive, easily applied, look well, clo not dry out quickly and clo nol burn readily. Approximately 87~0 of their weight (as obtained from the brewery) is water, 1l o~o organic matter, 0.4% nitrogen and 1 % ash. They test very acid (pH 4.8). From this analysis, it is obvious that there is not much to them, yet the mterestiog thing is that after they have been exposed to the atmosphere of a dry room for over a month, they still will not blaze up and \"catch fire\" when a match is applied. They can be burned, yes, but the blaze goes out soon unless the fire is Sustained by other combustible material. If a fire were started in the leaves about them and were fanned by a very high wind, they might burn. However, for all practical purposes it appears that they burn only with the greatest difficulty. They have been used in all parts of the Arboretum, and although we recently experienced a very severe drought, there was no fire in any of the mulches of hops, nor did these catch on fire when adjacent areas burned. :Vot everyone will be suflic~ently enthusiastic about their non-burning properties to use them to Profeot plants from fire. ~ e have done just that, placing heavy mulches about the arborvitae specimens to prevent a possible fire from spreading to this highly vulnerable group of plants. They retain a large amount of water for long periods and so are very serviceable for use in a mulch. When applied in the summer, and especially when applied m a mulch approximately 6\" deep about a plant, care should be taken to keep the hops 6~~ to 10~~ away from young trunks and tender shoots. If this is not done, the extremely high temperatures caused by the wet, disintegrating hops in the hot summer sun, will cause injury to the succulent or tender-barked stems. are Disagreeable Odor Some characteristic may appear that will prove a decided deterrent to their mulch, but dunng the one and a half years of their use in the Arnold Arboretum, no serious drawback has been found except, possibly, their odor. In a small compact garden near the house, this would probably be obnoxious, but in use as a 71 the open spaces of the Arboretum we find that the odor gradually disappears after few weeks. Several conditions are created in the soil under a mulch which are conducive to the better growth of plants. Mulches of hops, if thick enough, keep the weeds under control about a plant which is an additional benefit, and in many cases the most important. A thin layer, `?~~ to ~~~ deep is not sufficient to kill the weeds. A 6~~ mulch is effective. One of the experiments was carried out under lawn conditions. A 6~~ mulch of hops was placed in wide circles about several trees in February. Not a single blade of grass came through this mulch until the end of June when a few small weeds appeared. By mid-July they were growing vigorously, but a mere stirring and rearranging of the hops, covering over the vigorous weeds, was sufficient to stop all weed growth under that mulch for the rest of the season. In other words, it took about five minutes to maintain this particular hop a mulch for the year. When applied to taller, more vigorous growing grass, the grass or weeds may force growth through in a shorter period, in which case they are easily pulled. Rearrangement of the mulch several times might be equally satisfactory. However, if not promptly attended to, the few weeds that do come through the mulch will grow far more vigorously than they would without it. Mulches of hops have been placed on rhododendrons, laurel, lilacs, cotoneasters, elms, cytisus, roses, spiraeas, deutzias, hydrangeas, hollies and many other plants in the Arnold Arboretum with excellent results. Many chemicals are also being tried at the Arnold Arboretum to combat the weed menace. Some are proving more successful than others. Burning the weeds with a flame gun has been tried in several situations and has not proved as effective a control under our conditions as the hop mulch, nor as the application of certain chemicals. These experiments are continuing and will be reported later. After a year and a half of mulching with spent hops continuously under many varied situations, they have proved highly effective material for weed control about woody plants, under the conditions prevalent in the Arnold Arboretum. DONALD WYMAN Note: The Horticultural Colour Chart (described in Arnoldia 7 : 41-52), published by the Royal Horticultural Society of England, may now be purchased in this country from the Chronica Botanica Company, 79 Sartelle Road, Waltham, Massachusetts, at a cost of $14.00. 72 _ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume VII","article_sequence":13,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24181","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d060a76f.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME VII Illustrations are in bold face type Abeliophyllum disticlwm, Acer ~,rlabrum, 3 ~ - v.i griseum, Plate XI, opposite rubrum i p. 67 Sehlesmgeri, repens, ti9 53 Agropyron Ailanthus altissima erythrocarpa, .58 American Association for the Advancement of Science, 33 American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform Color Standards, 41-~~1 Collection, 6 Roads, Resurfacing of, 7 Spiraea Collection, 7 ~'mitmg Committee, 3 Work Accomplished the Past Year at the, 5 Water System, 8 Weed Plants, Removal of, 7 Weigela Collection, 7 Arnold Cherry, No. 8240, Plate II, - Ribes - - - - - - - opposite 0 p. 10 16 6 Antitoxin Laboratory, State of Massa- Atkins Garden and Research Labora- t~). chusetts, tory in Cuba, 4, 14, on - Arnold Arboretum Azalea Collection, 8 Azalea Path Bussey Hill, Plate - Barberry Collection, Chinese Collection, 8 Current Plans, 8 Deutzia Collection, 7 Drought at the,i 6 - - - - IV, opposite p. ~?6 Bequest, the, 4 Balch, John, 4 Mrs. Katherine T., 4 Bark, Woody Plants With InterestBalch - ing, - 61-68 Euonymus Collection, 7 Fall Fruits at the, 58 Labor and Staff of, I Lilac Collection, 6, 7 2 - Mulches, ti, 69- i - New Equipment, 3 - New Policies, 4 - Opening of New Vistas, 5 - Past Year at the, 1-8 Philadelphus Collection, 7 ~? Plant Breeding at the, 9-1 - Plantings at Administration Building, 7 - -- Cherry-li6e bark on trunk, 67 Exfuliating bark, 67, 68 Gray bark on trunk and branches, ti.i - - Gray twigs, shrubs with, 64 Green twigs, plants with, 64 Interesting bark, miscellaneous list of, 68 Light brown color, conspicuous, shrubs with, 65 - Red twigs or red bark, plants with, 6Z, 64 - White bark on trunk and - Removal of - Duplicate 4 Shrubs and . branches, 65 Trees, 5 Reorganization, - Yellow twigs, shrubs with, 6.i Betula albo-sinensis, 33 73 Blooming Dates, Estimated, 18 Botanic Garden, Harvard University, 14 ~. - Boston Park Commission, 8 Park Department, 7, 8 British Colour Council, System, 4;i Bureau of Entomology, U.S.D.A., 223#& x E; Conifers at Dropmore, a list of, 39 Corn, hybrids of, 15 Cornus alba, 61 sibirica, 61, 62 - florida rubra, color comparison of flowers, 42 - Corylopsis, -- 28 36 3 Bussey, Benjamin, 13 6 Institution, 4, 12, 13-16 3 Trust, 13 6 Cabot Foundation, 4, 16 Canada, Gardening in Northern Manitoba, 29-40 Caragana brevifolia, 33 jubata, 34 Case Estates, 3-7, 12, 14 - - Cytisus austriacus, decumbens, 36 elongatus, 36 36 - hirsutus, - leucanthus Schipkaensis, 36 36 nigricans, - purpureus, 36 36 . - Case Estates, Routes Between The Arnold Arboretum And, Plate I, - Daphne Cneorum, collina, 36 Giraldii, 33 Mezereum, 36 tangutica, 33 , - opposite - p. 4 - Case, James B., - 3 ' Ottawa, Canada, 33 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 28 Cercis canadensis, color comparison of flowers, 42 Chaenomeles, color study of, 48-52 Chamaecyparis \"Dropmore Variety,\" 36 Miss Louisia V~'., 3 Miss Marian, 3 Celastrus angulata, 58 Central Experimental Farm, Davis, M. B., 38 DDT, 26, 1 s-23 Decaisnea Fargesii, 58 Disease of Elms, Phloem necrosis, Plate III, opposite p. 18 Chionanthus virginicus, 53 Collection Dates of Seed of Woody Dogwood, Tatarian, 61 Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada, 29-40 Dutch Elm Disease, Control of, 17-23 Dutch Elm Disease Laboratory, University of Massachusetts, 21I Edinburgh Botanic Garden, 30 Elm Disease, Dutch, 1 i-23 Elms, Watch the, 17-23 Entomology, Bureau of, L.S.D.A.,22 Erica carnea, 36 Plants, 53-56 Color, names for, 46 or terms used for, Fagus grandifolia, Fall fruits, 58 28 Color of Bark of Woody Plants, 61- 68 Color Standards, American Horticulture Needs to Adopt Uniform, 4152 Farlow Herbarium, 4 Color Standards, Reasons for Adopt41-44 ing, - Farrand, Mrs. Beatrix, I, j, 7 Fillmore, Richard H., 2 Fordham, Alfred, 2 Forsythia \"Arnold Dwarf,\" 10 \"Arnold Giant,\" 10 74 Forsythia - europaea, 25 Massachusetts, University of, 25 21 ' intermedia spectabilis, Meadow Road in the Arnold Arbore- oB'ata, 10 o Fruits This Fall, .i8 Genista sagittalis, 36 - tum, Plate VIII, Jlerrill, E. D., -1 opposite p..58 33 Minnesota, University of, sy lvestris, 36 4 - tinctoria, 36 Gray Herbarium, Harvard 1N (i - Biological Laboratories, 14, - Botanical Museum, 4 to Department of Botany, 16 . Morrill Act of Congress, 13 3 \"Vlunsell Book of Color,\" ~~. Oberthur et Dauthenay's \"Repertoire de Coleurs,\" ~..i Ornamental Trees, Suggested for Various Purposes, List of, 24 Ostwald's Colour System, 45 - Forest, 4, 14, Hops, Spent, i1 42, 44-48 Parker, D.E., ~?1i Picea bicolor reflexa, - 36 Horticultural Colour - American source Chart, English, 2 for, i purpurea, 33 Pieris Pinus japonica, 26 2 Howard, Heman, Bungeana, Plate XI, opposite Institute for Research in Experimen6 tal and Applied Botany, 14, 16 Judd, William H., z Kew Botanic Garden, 30 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 9 Larix Gmelini japonica, 34 3 Lawrence Scientific School, 13 Long, William P., 7, 8 Lonicera quinquelocularis translucens 58 p. 67 Pinus Griffithii, 10 o Plane Tree, London, 9 Plant Breeding at the Arnold -- Arboretum, 9-12 occidentalis, 9 orientalis, 9 Populus tristis, 34 Potentilla fruticosa, 33 Platanus Prunus nigra, 32 - Maackia amurensis, 36 Macoun, W.T.. 30 Sargentii, - 25 - 2 subhirtella 12 - Magnolia denudata, - 25 - autumnalis, I ti 2~ kobus, 25 15 - stellata, tomentosa, - triflora koreana, 3! Malus baccata mandshurica, 26 - - pedoense, I2 - hupehensis, 9 6 sikkimensis, 16 toringoides, 9 Mangelsdorf, Paul C., 14 Manitoba Hardy Plant Nursery, 34Manitoba, Northern, Fifty Years of . Pyrus ussuriensis, site p. 39 33 oppo- Pyrus ussuriensis, Plate VII, Quack Ribes grass, 69 Gardening in, Massachusetts 19-40 Department of Public Health, 14 - diacanthum, 34 Ridgway, Color Standards and Color Nomenclature, 44, t:i Rhododendron canadense, 36 o catavrb~ense, 10 I.i ~] ' Rhododendron caucasicum, 36 - Stewartia koreana, Plate site p. 6~1 Syringa amurensis - X, oppo3J - - - - - - chrysanthum, 36 dauricum, 36 ferrugineum, 36 hirsutum, 36~. keiskei, 26 mucronulatum, 26, 36 obtusum Kaempferi, 9 10 o japonica, 1 1, - - japonica, 39 ~), laciniata, 1~? oblata dilatata, persica var., 1 2 2 pinnatifolia, 11 z~i Prestoniae, velutina, 33 33 - - . - v . d - ponticum, -- Rock, J.F., 33 Royal Horticultural Society of Great Britain, 44 Salix alba chermesina, 62 Sargent, Charles Sprague, 1, 2, 30, 33, 39 Sargent Plaque, Plate IX, ' - Tilia cordata, Plate V, opposite p. 30 some Trees, Unusual, Ulmus a list of at Dropmore, japonica, 37 7 3l ' Ulmus p. 60 parvifolia, Plate X, opposite p. 62 Ulmus pumila, 32 - Sargent's \"Silva of 52 North America,\" scabra, 32 Sax, Karl, 4, 11, Schmitt, Victor, 2 Scolytus multistriatus, 14 4 18 8 Woody Plants, 53-56 Skinner, F. L., 29-40 Skirm, George, 10 Sorbus discolor, 58 Spent Hops~-An Effective Mulching l Material, 69-72 in the Arboretum, 25-28 Spring Spiraea Van Houttei, 30 Standards of Color, Uniform, 41-52 Seed Collection Dates of United States Department of Agriculture, Bureau of Entomology, ~?~? Upsala Botanic Garden, 30 Viburnum Carlesii, 39 - dilatatum xanthocarpum, .58 -- fragrans, 26 Watch the Elms, 17-z3 Wheeler, W.M., 13 1 Wilford, B.W., 21 Williams, Robert, 2 Wilson, E.H., 3~ Woody Plants With Interesting Bark In Winter, 61-68 These bulletins will be discontinued until renewals for 1948 are now payable to Spring of next year. Subscription due, price $1.00 per year. Checks should be made Harvard University; and mailed to the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. 76 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23481","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eb36e.jpg","title":"1947-7","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1947,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24169","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15ea726.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":", ILLUSTRATIONS at the Arnold William Henry Judd, 1888-1946, Propagator p. 26. Arboretum, Plate I, opposite A group of six species of running bamboos grown in \"clumps,\" with roots confined, at U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Maryland. Plate II, (Left) opposite p. 30. Pseudosa.sa japonica the well-known Metake, at the old U.S. Washington, D.C. Plate II, (Right) opposite p. 30. Sasa Botanical Garden, pumila, a dwarf running bamboo, with roots confined. Plate III (Top, left), rarely oppo- opposite p. 32. Sasa tessellata, one of the largest-leaved of all bamboos but of low stature, taller than 3 feet. Plate III (Bottom, left), opposite p. 3?. Basal sections of selected culms of site p. 32. Phyllostachys aurea. Plate III (Right), Shibataea kumasaca, a unique broad-leaved bamboo-roots confined-with ovatelanceolate leaves. Plate IV (Left), opposite p. 34. Sasa variegata, a dwarf bamboo-roots confined-with white-striped leaves. Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens in background. Plate IV (Right), opposite p. 34. ~5asa veitchii, a dwarf broad-leaved running bamboo growing usually to only 15 inches or less in height. Plate V (Left), opposite p. 36. come Phyllostachys up on aurea, kept in artificial clump form by cutting all culms that the outside. Plate V (Right), opposite p. 36. Sasa palmata, one of the larger-leaved bamboos, growing here to about5 feet high. Plate VI (Left), opposite p. 38. Phyllostachys aureosulcafa, a Chinese hardy bamboo, in early stage of growth. Plate VI (Right), opposite p. 38. Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi-One of the many Arnold Arboretum introductions. Plate VII, opposite p. 46. Tsuga caroliniana, men as the Carolina its northern relative hemloclc, just as beautiful an ornamental speciTsuga canadensis. Plate VIII, opposite p. ~0. Tsuga diversifolia, a splendid hemlock native in Japan. Plate IX, opposite p. 5~. Tsuga Mertensiana, mountain hemlock as it grows in ~lt. Baker National Forest in the Rocky Mountains. Plate X, opposite p..i4. The Sargent weeping hemlock (Tsuga onnadensis pencluln) is one of the most graceful forms of all the Canada hemlock varieties. Plate XI, opposite p. 56. iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring in 1946","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24172","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15eaf6b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 APRIL 5, 1946 SPRIN(x IN 1946 NUMBER 1 Teurly HERE is every indication that spring will be early this year, but just how it is difficult to say as yet. Mngnolia .slellala growing in front of the .Alministratiun l3uildint, in the Arnold Arboretum usually is in full bloom on April 1 j. On ~l:xrch 18 of this year their flowers were fully open, only to be frozen on the night of March 30. One other definite indication of an early spring is the early appearance of the small green leaves on a weeping willow opposite the Administration Building. This tree has the peculiar faculty of turning green almost overnight in the early spring. Dates on which the green leaves have app:~rcd during the past few years are as follows : . 19 40 19~.1 19-~ - - 19~:1 . - 19-14 1943 - May 1 .I April l.i ti April April ~tt May 1 March 1 i March 2 i The trouble with an early season in New England is the fact that usually warm weather m March and April is followed by a cold spell, frequently including disastruus frosts. Last year the New England fruit crop was ruined, and there were less fruits on many kinds of trees and shrubs growing in the Arnold Arboretum than there have been for many years past. This year, even though the spring was utl' to an early start, heavy frosts followed record-breaking high temperatures. On the night of April 1, an inch of snow and sleet with thunder and lightning, all came at once as if to prove to anxious gardeners that Mother Nature herself was undecided what to do about the weather. Unfortunately, there is no way we can cwcumvent an early spring, but all of us interested in growing ornamental plants for display purposes (and commercial fruits for best production) certainly 1946 - hope that severe. the spring will not be too a early and that later fiosts will not be too on the Arboretum grounds this spring, and these need that the visitor who knows the area well will understand what is It must be realized that during the war years it was impossible to obtain all the labor necessary to keep the collections in good condition, much badly needed maintenance work having had to be deferred. Because of this, broken branches and poorly maintained shrubs are evident on everyside. We have now been fortunate in adding four new men to our maintenance force, one of them an experienced tree pruner. The Assistant Horticulturi5t, Mr. Heman Howard, and the Assistant Propagator, Mr. Alfred F'ordham, recently released from the Army, are back to lend us their vigorous assistanceas well. C'nder the competent direction of Mr. Robert G. Williams, the Superintendent, the maintenance force has become a more energetic one than before the war, and this is well, for much of the plantings need vigorous treatment. It will not be possible to bring the collection back into perfect shape overnight, and visitors who are accustomed to seeing perfectly grown specimens in the Arboretum should realize this. However, with an invigorated force (and plenty of work piled up ahead) we hope to be able to improve the collections greatly in the months ahead. There are few changes to be explained taking place. so Vines The v ine collection has been renovated and we hope will soon be in a much better condition than it has ever been. It was always sadly crowded. The only apparent method of overcoming this was to eliminate most of the grape species and varieties and give the truly ornamental vines more room for proper growth and display. The Vilis collection has been reprupagated, and when the plants have grown to suitable size, a place will be found for them on some of the walls or fences bordering the Arboretum property. The entire vine trellis has been rewired and vigorous growing species and varieties have been transplanted so that one vine will now occupy the entire space between two posts, making the maintenance of these vines much more simple, andgivingeach vine sufFtcient room so that tt will be able to grow better and flower and fruit normally. It is admitted that the honeysuckle vines are not well represented in this collection. We have been accumulating these during the past few years and have a representative group growing well in the nursery. The logical place for them is along the Arborway wall, where they will have some winter protection and plenty of support. It is hoped that, within the next year or two, we can eventually plant a good collection along this wall, but this will not be done until we can care for it properly. The Shrub Collection is responding markedly The entire shrub collection consisting of nearly one thousand di8erent plants to the \"re,juvenating program\" adopted for it a few years ~- ago. With the elimination of every other grass path between the long lines of shrubs, machine cultivation is greatly reducing the amount of hand labor neces- properly for these plants. Lime and fertilizer have been generously the soil, vigorous pruning has greatly reduced their general overgrown appearance, and some, of necessity, have had to be severely cut back. Nevertheless, the plants are now in a much better condition than at any time since the beginning of the war. The reduced number of grass paths does not in any way hinder close inspection of each and every plant, and, what rs most important, the reduction of hand hoeing in this large collection allows more time for proper care of the plants. sary to care applied to Pruning It was impossible to obtain the serv ice, of an experienced tree pruner during the war years, and many stubs and broken branches remain as mute evidence that we were unable to care tim the trees properly because of this situation. Now we have a well-trained man who is able to climb trees and who knows how to prune them properly- without constant supervision. The amount of work ahead of him is tremendous, but rt is highly probable that, within a month or two, the casual observer may not notice too much amiss with the more conspicuous trees. There will be rnany long months of work ahead of this pruner; painstaking work, a great deal of whmh will not be seen nor appreciated by the majority uf Arboretum visitors. For the first time in muny years it is now possible to provide once more for the proper and intelligent pruning of trees. Once the trees are in good condition, it will be much easier to keep them so by providing the consistent attention they had in earlier years. It must be pointed out, however, that pruning neglected in the war years cannot be accomplished in a few short months. Visitors who see the plantings off the main walks will become aware of the tremendous amount of work ahead in this field. We realize the situation, but with the excellent progress already made since DlarchI of this year, we can foresee the time in the not too distant future when the pruning neglect of the war years will be just another memory of that unsettled period. Trees are not the only plants in need of attention. The lilac collection, consisting of over 600 plants (with five hundred more in the nurseries) has not been properly pruned for the past six years. Anyone who grows lilacs will understand what this means, for the numerous suckers and dead branches which will appear in that length of time in such a large collection constitute a real maintenance item. Time for doing some of this may be available before these plants bloom this spring, but the apparent earliness of the season seems to indicate that some of this will have to be done later. At least we nury expect to be able to take care of the more conspicuous cases. Half-hardy Plants For many years it was the policy of the Arboretum to grow every species and i variety of woody plant which will lwe mate. out ut' doors in New England's fickle cli- This, up to the last year, included a considerable group of half hardy shrubs which would exist for a few years, only to be killed by a severe winter. Such plants are usually in very poor condition at all times. They necessitate considerable care and repeated propagating and even then are not what one might call \"good specimens.\" Consequently, last year it was decided that, after a thorough test, if a plant proved itself to be consistently in this half hardy group, it would not be maintained in the collections. Ample notes are recorded regarding each species, the number of times it has been tried, propagated, and the number of times it had failed, and the various situations where it had been grown. If it failed to be \"Rependably hardy\"-hardy except in the unusually severe winters-then it was marked for elimination. In each case a serious attempt will be made to see that it becomes thoroughly established in an area with a milder climate, so that the species involved will not be lost to cultivation. DoNAl.1) '1111AN ~ NOTE Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, lla~ received an expresappreciation from the War Department for services relldered as Culsultant to the Secretary of War in the Army Medical School, in connection with its specialized training program in tropcal me<iicine. He has also received the following recognition from abroad: he has been elected a foreign member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Stockholm, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Dr. L. Diels; and, he has also been elected as an honorary memI)r. E. D. sion of ber of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh. 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Tree Peony","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24174","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15eb76e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wister, John C.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 MAY 3, 1946 NUMBER 2 TREE PEONY yet rare in our gardens. It is too slow for us Americans, something like a verbena, which can be had in full bloom and sells cheap.\" Thus wrote that great New England gardener, Hovey, in 1864. He had been writing about these same plants in the American Gardeners' Magazine and Register for 28 years with the hope of popularizing them; apparently he was getting discouraged. Mr. B. M. Watson, who taught horticultural classes in the old Bussey Institute, used to tell his pupils that the tree peony was the most beautiful flower in the world. Yet he knew only a few of the older kinds. What could he have said had he lived to see the magnificent varieties of today ! The tree peony has been in cultivation in this country for nearly a century and tree peony is we \"The must have a half. Collections of 25 or more named varieties were exhibited at flower shows at both Boston and Philadelphia120 years ago, yet what Hovey wrote so long ago still remains true. Our gardening public flocks to the cheaper, quicker things. The oldest and largest of the public collections in this country is at Highland Park in Rochester. John Dunbar brought named varieties from Japan in the early 90's. The plants were grafted on wild Paeonia ss~'ruticosa stock and did not long survive, but Dunbar saved the seeds and there are now some 5000 seedlings to be seen in the Rochester Parks. They have a fairly good color range, but most of them are not equal to the finest named varieties of the day. The collection at Swarthmore College has fewer plants but has over 200 of the finest varieties. These plants are now 10 and 15 years old and give spectacular bloom each year. The name \"Tree\" peony is unfortunate for the plants are quite dwarf shrubs. They grow ordinarily not more than 4 or 5 feet in height though occasional plants are to be seen up to 6 or even i feet. The term \"Tree\" has long been __ used to distinguish them from the herbaceous peonies which die to the ground each winter. Commercial propagation nowadays is by grafting on herbaceous peony roots, which do not sucker to any extent, and which seem to support the new plant well, although not every one of the plants will eventually have the desirable trait of growing on their own roots. Planting should be done in the autumn, preferably about the middle of October. They must be given a well-drained position ; soil should be dug deep and have plenty of plant food. Occasional applications of ground limestone are beneficial in acid soil regions. Little pruning is necessary except to cut out old or weak stems. In some places the plants ought to be covered in winter with straw or burlap to prevent rabbits from eating the young shoots. The color range of tree peonies is from pure white through pink, scarlet, crimson, purple, magenta and lilac pink. It is one of the most remarkable color ranges of any garden plant. When the expression \"tree peony\" is used it ordinarily refers to varieties of Paeonia syruticosc~, the wild home of which was only discovered in western China quite recently although the tree peony had been an inhabitant of China's gardens for over 15 centuries. The wild plant is a single magenta purple and it has a white form with some purple flecks in it. The old Chinese gardeners loved heavy double forms and propagated these and it was varieties of this group which first came to western Europe in 1787 and to this country about 1800. Many American gardeners do not care much for these heavy double forms which hang their flower heads down in the foliage. The color selections in this group also are not particularly pleasing to American tastes and of the more than 100 varieties of these that I have grown I have retained only very few, the best of them being\"Reine Elizabeth,\" \"Carolina d'Italie,\" \"Souvenir de Ducher\" and a few others. The tree peony was taken from China to Japan by Buddhist monks in the 1 7 th century. Japanese gardeners have developed single and semi-double varieties, which I very much prefer to the Chinese ones. They seem to be a little more finicky in their requirements than the Chinese kinds and perhaps for that reason are not so well known. I recommend them to all American gardeners, who are not in the class described by Mr. Hovey, and who are willing to pay a fair price for a plant that is expensive to produce and are willing to wait for it to develop properly. Plants of named varieties of Japanese types are now available in a few Amerinurseries, the prices range anywhere from $3 to ~10 apiece, depending on size, and this price, I believe, is a very reasonable one as the plant is increased slowly and with considerable difficulty. It would seem to me best for most American gardeners to buy Japanese tree peonies from specialty growers and to give the order by color desired rather than by name, as the quantities of some of the named varieties are so small that can * it is not always possible to get ,just the variety commerce American with cross one wants. A list of all varieties in reference to the nurseries which have them was the American Peony Society in September 1944. All the peonies I have mentioned are commonly called moutan peonies, the name being derived from the old Chinese word for peony. There are coming into commerce now, however, hybrids between these moutan peonies and the more recently discovered species from southern China, Paeonia lutea and Paeonia Delaneyi. These peonies, discovered by French missionaries in the 1880's were sent to Paris where they attracted the attention of Professsr Louis Henry of the Paris Museum of Natural History. He made crosses which resulted in a variety now quite well known among peony experts, \"Souvenir de Maxine Cornu.\" It is a heavy double yellow with red and magenta markings and to me it looks much more like a dahlia than a peony and I do not care much for it. It has sold in this country in the past few years for as much as $65 for a small plant just because it is so unique. The Lemoines took up this cross and produced quite a number of varieties both single and double, the best known of which are probably \"La Lorraine,\" \"Flambeau,\" \"Surprise\" and \"Alice Harding.\" Now we are getting magnificent new hybrids in this group from Professor A. P. Saunders of Clinton, New York. His first introduction, \"Argosy,\" is beginning to be quite well known in gardens. Among his newer varieties which are not yet widely distributed and which can be had in only very small quantities, there may be mentioned \"Banquet,\" \"Black Pirate,\" \"Festival,\" \"Roman Gold,\" \"Siver Sails.\" These hybrid peonies are very vigorous in our climate but may not be quite so hardy in the extreme North. They bloom in the Philadelphia region in the last of May which is about two weeks later than the moutan peonies which usually come published by ' in mid-May. Tree peonies have been so little grown that relatively little is known either about their cultural requirements or their climatic adaptability. There are fine ones in Boston and other parts of New England, splendid ones in central and western New York and in New Jersey, eastern Pennsylvania, Delaware, Maryland down to Washington, D.C. They are probably not so hardy in the middle west although I have seen them in Chicago and there is quite a collection of them in the park in Milwaukee and an occasional report comes in of plants in Minnesota. They are thoroughly hardy to 20 degrees or so below zero and beyond that we do not know exactly what they will or will not stand. I do not know how well they will do in the regions south of Washington, D.C. In general they seem to be more subject to spring frost injury in mild climates because it is their habit to start growth extremely early. In some of these milder climates they might begin their growth in January and then be ruined by February frosts. Each year when the buds come out in the spring I wonder if they will be nipped by frost but I have had good flowers from plants with quite large buds when the thermometer dropped as low as 28 in mid-April. Only once since _7_ I have been growing tree peonies has the entire crop been ruined and that year practically all spring flowers including lilacs were caught. The Japanese, who have developed so many beautiful varieties, evidently feed their plants quite heavily. I have been rather afraid to do that here on the theory that the quick growth would be soft and more subject to disease. The only serious trouble I have had with my plants has been botrytis. It seems to be worst in seasons with alternating hot and cold weather when whole branches will suddenly wilt and die overnight. These branches should be pruned off' well below the affected part and burned to prevent the spread of the fungus. It is said that the regular spraying with Bordeaux mixture will prevent this trouble but my ~xperience is too limited from which to draw conclusions. I allow the seed to ripen each year so that I can plant seed as this is a fascinating experiment to see if superior new forms can be obtained. I find that many of my seedlings have poor colors and hence they are discarded but occasional good whites and pinks and reds turn up and they are much appreciated. Commercial propagation is by grafting on the roots of the herbaceous Paeonia albiflora in August. Experiments are under way in suggesting new methods. One of these is storage of grafts in warm vapor to hasten the callous. The Boyce Thompson Institute has done some work on tree peony seeds in reference to temperature for after-ripening and work has been done at Cornell on embryo culture. All these are still in the experimental stage but may make propagation methods more certain in the future. As far as I have record no one has been able to root cuttings to any great extent. Occasional reports come in of successful layering. For more detailed accounts of the tree peony I would refer the reader to the manual of the American Peony Society published in 1928 and to the bulletins of the American Peony Society, particularly the September 19~4 number. * WISTER Secretary, Pennsylvania Horticultural Society JOHN C. * Editor's Note: We are greatly pleased that Mr. Wister wrote this article for Arnoldia. He has been growing tree peonies for many years and so is well qualified to give us information about them. 8 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Garden Club of America Tours of the Arnold Arboretum May 15, 1946","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24173","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15eb36d.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 MAY 15, 1946 THE GARDEN CLUB OF AMERICA TOURS THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM MAY 15, 1946 NUMBER 3 Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University is fast approaching its best crab apples, lilacs and hundreds of other plants are vying with each other to attract attention. The spring, a most peculiar one, at first, abnormally advanced blooming dates, but later, because of several weeks of cold weather, the blooming of many species was retarded so that today the season is just about on time. \" The Arnold Arboretum, established in 1872, has long been outstanding in the mtroduction of new plants from all parts of the world. Many of its introductions are now common in nurseries throughout the land. At present there are approximately 6,000 different species and varieties of woody plants growing within its borders. The famous garden of woody plants is not the only important feature of the Arboretum. It also maintains a library of more than 46,000 volumes dealing chiefly with woody plants, and an herbarium of 640,000 mounted specimens, limited to woody plants. The garden, the library and the herbarium, each one of which has earned world renown in its own field, all constitute the Arnold Arboretum ; and these are supplemented by the greenhouse laboratories. Time does not permit a thorough examination of each one of these parts of the Arboretum. The garden of plants, made so famous by the painstaking effort of its first director, Charles Sprague Sargent, and also because of the many new plants it introduced through the efforts of Ernest H. Wilson, is now at its prime, and the Garden Club of America tour will be entirely taken up with the observation of these many wonderful trees and shrubs. The first color to be noted as one enters through the Jamaica Plain gate and passes the Administration Building, is a planting of the pinkshell azalea (Rhodo~lrndron haseyi) beside the road a little beyond the linden collection. A native of the southeastern United States, this azalea does very well in the Arboretum, and is especially valued because its leaves turn red in the fall. A walk through the woods at this point is most invigorating for here are planted hundreds of the torch azalea (Rhododendron obtusum Kaem~f'eri~ one of the many outstanding orna- THE Azaleas, today. 9 mental plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced to this country. Walking through the famous collection of 137 different kinds of maples, the sentry maple (Acer sacchartzm monumenlale) and the columnar form of the red maple are promment. To the average visitor the maples are merely a group of common trees, but on close examination one is surprised at the large number which have been collected from other parts of the world and which can be grown in this climate. The maple collection merely exemplifies what is true of many other groups of plants, namely that many species and varieties are growing in the Arnold Arboretum, not all with outstanding ornamental value but with some of considerable merit that have never been grown and offered for sale by commercial nurseries. Leaving the maples, one comes into the shrub collection, containing nearly one thousand different kinds of shrubs, growing in long lines where they can be readily cared for and where each group of plants is kept growing fairly close together. This affords an excellent opportunity for comparing the different species and varieties in a genus. A majority of the honeysuckles, quinces, spireas, currants and rose species will be found growing here. Special attention might be given the yellow roses shortly to be in bloom. Rosa primula is first to bloom, closely followed by R. Hugonis. Many of the quinces are still in flower and it is interesting to note the wide diversity of flower sizes and colors among these old-fashioned favorites. Some of the currants (Ribes sp.) spireas and pearlbushes (Exochorzla sp.) are also in full bloom. Driving past the bank of sprawling forsythias (containing eighteen different kinds) it is hard to realize that included in the collection of lilacs beyond are over 450 different varieties and species. These will be seen at first hand later. The beautybush on the left of the road beyond the lilacs is one of the many plants the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into cultivation. It is just now coming into flower. Before 1922 it was indeed rare in nurseries although it had been growing continuously in the Arboretum since 1907. Now it is available from almost every nursery in the country. On the right of the road where it winds up Bussey Hill, is the viburnum collection some of which are now in flower. These serviceable plants cannot be recommended too often for they are of value when in flower as well as when their bright colored fruits and brilliant autumn foliage is on display in the fall. Ascending Bussey Hill, past the Euon,yzrzu.r collection on the left, there are some Prunus species and varieties, some beach plums (Prunus maritima); and on the right the magnificent oak collection. At the top of Bussey Hill one can look across to Hemlock Hill, now showing material damage from the results of two hurricanes. In 1938, winds of over 125 miles per hour velocity felled more than 300 mighty hemlocks, many of which were growing sturdily when George Washington was President of the United States. Many young hemlocks have since been planted, but the blowing over of so many trees on this rocky hill has seriously effected the water-holding capacity of the soil and hence the growth of the remaining mature trees is materially retarded. Coming down from the top of Bussey Hill, one can walk across an open area and under the large old pines at the end of the path. Many plants have been growing on Bussey Hill, mostly the Asiatic introductions of E. H. Wilson. Some were so over- 10 grown that this year it has been imperative to replant or replace many of them, an operation which is going on at the present moment. Before leaving this area, one should pause a moment under the cedars of Lebanon, forty-year-old trees originally coming to the Arboretum as seeds in 190~ from their northernmost limits in the Anti-Taurus Mountains of Turkey, just north of Syria. Many times this species had been tried, only to succumb in New England's climate, but this stram has proved hardy for more than four decades, withstanding temperatures of twenty degrees below zero. Close examination will show some of the peculiar cones still remaining on the trees. It takes two years for them to mature. The native pinxterflower (Rlrodorlendron nud~jlorum) as well as its close relative R. roseum with darker pmk flowers, is on the left of the path as one walks back to the road. The brilhant scarlet azalea seen throughout the woods and so gorgeous at the end of this walk under the century old pines is the torch azalea from Japan (R. obtusum Kaernpferi) often referred to by Professor Sargent as the most brilliantly colored of all the Arnold Arboretum introductions. The mauve colored azalea is the Korean azalea (R. yedonese poukhanerrse~ another Arboretum introduction. Note how well it goes with the pale lemon yellow flowers of the Warminster broom close by. Stoppmg for a few moments at Azalea Path on the way down Bussey Hill, hundreds of azaleas can be seen in full bloom. The first along the path is the royal azalea from Japan (Rhodalendron Schlippenbacleii) which is one of those rare azaleas the foliage of which is blessed with autumn color in the fall. Across from this is the hardy form of the silk tree (Albissia julibris.sirr ro.sea~ which the Arboretum introduced from Korea in 191 R, and this specimen was grown from the original importation of seeds. The trees that are so common in the southern United States are not so hardy in New England, but this form is. The foliage is very delicate and the interesting, thread-like flowers, begin to appear the middle of July and continue until September. A really unusual tree for this part of the country. Walking back to the Bussey Hill road and down the hill, one passes the oaks, the mountain ashes, the rockery with several interesting small plants, the hornbeams, and beyond them but mostly unseen from the road, the junipers and yews. Dogwoods (Corrrus,florida) and redbud (Cercis canadensis) are evident everywhere and are loaded with flowers this year. Only one or two of the rhododendrons are in flower now, yet the Arboretum has 285 representatives of the genus Rhododerrdrorz growing within its borders. The famous bank of mountain laurel will not bloom for at least another two or three weeks. The hill to the right of the road harbors most of the pinetum where hundreds of evergreens from many parts of the world display their dependable green foliage year in and year out. Pines alone are represented by 68 different species and varieties. The graceful Sargent weeping hemlock to the left of the road has been growing there since 1881. Plants were originally found growing on an estate along the Hudson River of upper New York. This is a splendid specimen and is another living example of what peculiar forms Mother Nature sometimes creates. Continuing through the gates and across Bussey Street to the Peters Hill area, one comes to the oldest collection of ornamental crab apples in the country. Here 189 species and varieties of the genus lVlalx.r are being grown side by side. The 1 11 height from the low Sargent crab apple ( i ~to 8~) to the tall Mandshurian crab which is a standard tree of over 50 feet in height. The peak of the flowering of these interesting and usefully ornamental trees is in the first two weeks of May, but some are still in flower. To appreciate them fully, one should return to see their myriads of small brilhant fruits during the late summer and fall. Time being at a premium, one rushes on past the pinetum once more, being certain to gain a view down Bussey Brook of the splendid native stand of American beeches, and on to the gorgeous planting of a thousand of the torch azaleas on South Street bank, through the propagating units of the Arboretum, glancing at a few of the experimental beds where many interesting experiments are being carried out by Arboretum staff members. There may be only a minute to pause at the unique collection of dwarf evergreen trees, originally imported from Japan many years ago by Larz Anderson and presented to the Arboretum by Mrs. Anderson. Some of these are well over 150 years old. The hedge collection of over 100 different kinds of clipped hedges is always open to close inspection for those who want to choose just the right hedge material for the right place. Before finally leaving the Arboretum, one should enter the Forest Hills gate where the majority of visitors first come, walk among the oriental cherry trees (now past bloom for several weeks) and pause a moment to admire the magnificent specimen of the Sargent cherry which is one of the oldest in this country grown from the first packet of seeds here introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1890. It is a standard tree, perfectly hardy under New England conditions. Graced with deep pink flowers in the early spring at about the same time the bronze leaves start to unfurl, it is of marked ornamental interest a second time in the fall when its foliage turns a brilliant scarlet. Leaving this specimen and continuing to the top of the famous lilac collection, one cannot help but gain inspiration from walking among these beautiful plants. Plant breeders and home owners for nearly two centuries have been contributing new varieties, and here in the collection, a studied attempt has been made during the past years to grow at least one specimen of every variety which can be obtained. At present there are 430 species and varieties. They commence to bloom about the first week in May with some varieties coming into bloom for a six-week period thereafter. At this time, by far the most numerous are the varieties of the common lilac (S. vulgaris) of which there are over 300 varieties being grown here. An interesting experiment would be for several individuals to stroll through this collection and each list the ten \"best\" lilacs. Comparisons of such lists after a thirty-minute or a five-hour visit are sometimes most educational. The early lilac, the late lilac, the littleleaf lilac that blooms a second time in the fall, the tree lilac and the Preston lilac-all are here and growing well. If lilacs are one's chief interest, this collection is the place to study them. Even the amateur is enthusiastic, for this large collection is living proof of the great efforts which have gone into the breeding and selection of these plants by hundreds of people throughout the north temperate zone. There is no better way to finish one's May visit to the Arboretum than to linger among the lilacs, and absorb to the full their fragrance and beauty. trees range in DONALD WYMAN 12 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"On the History of the Introduction of Woody Plants into North America","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24171","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15eab6a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Rehder, Alfred","article_content":"ARNOLDIA .. A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University 6 VOLUME MAY ~1, 1946 NUMBERS 4-J ON THE HISTORY OF THE INTRODUCTION OF WOODY PLANTS INTO NORTH AMERICA' introduction of North American woody plants into Europe has been treated frequently, and especially more recently by K. Wein,while of the introduction of woody plants from other countries into North America almost nothing has as yet been written. It will, therefore, be appropriate to give here a brief sketch as to when and how foreign and also western American woody plants reached the gardens of eastern North America, as well as to mention the earliest and the more important gardens and arboreta. The history of the introduction of ligneous plants into North America may be divided into three periods, the first of which embraces the time from the arrival of the first European settlers up to the middle of the 18th century. This period THE I Professor Itehder has rarely been prevailed upon to write for the Bulletin of Popular Information or Arnoldia, hence this paper is doubly valued. It is reproduced from the National Horticultural Magazine of October, 1936, because it is deemed of sufficient value to be of interest to all Arnoldia readers. Several years prior to 1932 it was written by Professor Rehder in English. No American publication would then accept it. The horticultural magazines rejected it as being too botanical, and the botanical journals did not care for it, because it was primarily of horticultural interest. Then it was translated into German and published in Mitteilungen der Deutschen dendrologischen Gesellschaft, pp. 114-129, 19:I3. Later, Miss hahelyn M. Tucker, Librarian of the Arboretum at that time, translated it hack into H;nglish, and it was published in the National Horticultural Magazine. Because of the great part the .lrnold Arboretum has played in the introduction of plants to .~merica this article still has much merit, and is here reproduced in the hope that someone, with the interest, the time, and the means, will take up this study of plant introduction. There is much about it not yet known nor recorded. 2 ~lTitteiluragen der Deritarherr dvrzdrologasr,hen GaselLarhaft, 1930, pp. 137-lfi3; 1931, pp. 95- 154~; 193~, pp. lZ3-1~9. 13 by the fact that the introduction of European woody plants is restricted chiefly to fruit trees and other useful plants with the addition of but a few ornamental shrubs. This is not to be wondered at since pioneers in a strange land have a hard struggle for existence and are forced to seek first to assure for themselves the necessities of life, and only with increasing wealth and security of possession do they find leisure to think of beautifying their surroundings. The first fruit tree introduced into the New World was the peach, which as early as the l6th century was brought into Florida by the Spaniards; from there it spread west and north and was planted by the white settlers as well as by the Indians. The introduction of woody plants in the North began in the first half of the 1 ith century. The first account of this we find in Josselyn (New England Rarities, 161 z, and Account of Two Voyages to New Fnglancl in 1638 and 1663, 16'74~ where he mentions the apple, pear, yuince, cherry, plum and barberry as thriving in New England ; he mentions also ~Srrlx~in q$'ccinolis and remarks that Artemisia nbrotanum, rosemary and lavender were not suited to the climate of New England, which shows that their introduction was attempted, but was successful only in the southern states. Of ornamental shrubs he mentions only the rose. We can, however, be almost certain that some other ornamental shrubs, such as the lilac, snowball (Viburuum Opulus f. roseum~ and box had already in the second half of the 1 ith century been found here and there, as in the garden of Van Cortlandt in Croton on Hudson established shortly after 1681, and in that of Peter Stuyvesant in New Amsterdam (New York) which was established somewhat earlier; but as to what other plants these gardens may have contained we ' have no knowledge. The sources of information concerning the garden plants of this period are very few and unreliable; it is, however, to be assumed that some native ligneous plants also were cultivated, especially shade trees such as sugar maple, elm (Ulmus rrmeri~nnn~, red oak, and farther south Catalpa. Here, too, it may be mentioned that m the year 1645 Endecott, Governor of Massachusetts, introduced Genistn tinctorin as a dye plant, which soon escaped from cultivation and is now thoroughly naturalized in eastern Massachusetts. The second period is characterized by the introduction of an ever-increasing g number of ornamental trees and shrubs, exclusively, however, from European gardens, and may be considered as extending from the middle of the l8th to the middle of the l9th century. In this period two men are outstanding figures, pioneers in garden-craft. One is John Bartram, who in 1 i~8 established a botanic garden at Kinsessing near Philadelphia, where he planted and cultivated American trees and shrubs, which he had collected in his travels extending from Lake Ontario to Florida. He was in active communication with England and introduced many American plants there; in exchange he received plants from European gardens and propagated them in America. Among these may be mentioned the horse chestnut, which probably came to America in the year 1746. His work was continued by his sons, John and William. Bartram's house and garden stand tois characterized [ 14 Prince, who in which has been manFlushing, Long Island, aged continuously through five generations of the same family. Although in the beginning intended only for the raising of fruit trees, the management gradually broadened to include ornamental trees and shrubs, and since 1793 the nursery has been continued under the name Linnean Botanic Garden. From the catalogues which were issued it is evident what foreign trees and shrubs were in commerce at that time; from the catalogue of 1790 the following plants may be mentioned, though only the English names are given : Colinu.s coggygrin, Koelreuteria paniculata, Goluten nrbore.scPns, Laburnum nrrngJroicle.s, 1'opulus nigra var. italica, Viburnum Opulu.s f. sterile, Hibisou.s .szJrincu.s. In the earlier Prince estate still stand the oldest specimens in America of the cedar of Lebanon and Atlas cedar, Pnxclounin, the copper beech, Asiatic magnolias and other5. Toward the middle of the 18th century wealthy landowners, especially in Pennsylvania and Virginia, began to lay out large gardens in which among other things one finds box, lilac, Tn.ru.s baccata, and .Sali.x bab,ylonicn. ~'ashington's garden at Mount Vernon, begun about 1760, was one of the most important and contained many American and foreign trees and shrubs. One other very rich garden was laid out some years later by William Hamilton on his estate, \"The Woodlands,\" near Philadelphia. This estate was later converted into a cemetery, \"Woodlands Cemetery,\" in which today many of the trees planted by Hamilton still stand, among them the first Ginkgo in America which was planted in 1784. Humphry Marshall, inspired by his cousin, John Bartram, began in 1 i 73 the foundation of an arboretum in Bradford, now Marshallton, in Pennsylvania. In 1 i 8.5 he published his \"Arbustrum americanum,\" the first work written by an American on American trees and shrubs. Many of the trees which Marshall planted stand today. The first actual botanic garden in America was founded in 1801 by David Hosack in New York under the name Elgin Botanic Garden.\" In the year 1810 it was taken over by the state of New York and later transferred to Columbia University, but was discontinued for want of funds. The second edition of the catalogue of this garden in 1811 contained many European and a number of Asiatic trees and shrubs, among which are Cledil.sin sinen.sis, Malus apectnbilis, I>'o.sn mulf~orrr, Mcrgnolin lil;florn, H,rydrnngea mncroph,r~llrx (H. opuloidPS), .Sophorrr jnponica and Aucuba japouica, the last two grown as greenhouse plants. A second botanic garden was established at the beginning of the l9th century in Cambridge, Massachusetts and still exists as the Botanic Garden of Harvard University. In the year 1818 a catalogue of the garden by W. D. Peck was issued listing the following Asiatic trees and shrubs not mentioned in the catalogue of the Elgin Botanic Garden: hite.r '~egundo var. inci.su, Friobotrya japonico and Tlrujn orientali.s. Other eastern Asiatic trees and shrubs listed in Prince's catalogue for 18~?8 are Ulmu.s pnro;f'olia and Wisteria sinen.sas. In the year 1806 an expedition under command of Lewis and Clark, sent to the west coast by the United in their the year 1780 founded day, preserved original form. The second man is Robert a nursery in finally 13 States government, brought back to the East the first west American plants, which distributed by J~acmahon and Philip Landreth, two gardeners in Philadelphia ; by far the most important woody plants so brought were Mohouirr .4qu~olium, Ribes aureum, and Ribes .snnguineum. At the beginning of the l9th century a greatly increased interest in gardening and plant culture and especially in the cultivation of trees and shrubs was evidenced through the collection of ligneous plants begun in 1800 by the brothers Samuel and Joshua Pierce in Longwood, Pennsylvania, and through more than .i0 years carried on by the family. The garden which still contains many of the trees planted by the Pierce brothers ~s now the property of Pierre S. Du Pont. Another well-known collection is the I'ainter Arboretum, near Lima, in Pennsylvania, founded in 1825 by the brothers Minshall and Jacob Pamter, who extended and maintained the arboretum up to the time of their death in the 70's. The garden exists today and contains among other plants the oldest specimen of =.Sequoiadendrmr gignntea in eastern North America. In the year 18?8 John Evans founded a garden on the Ithan Creek near Philadelphia and brought together a remarkable collection of trees, shrubs and herbaceous plants. He corresponded with both Hookers, father and son, and exchanged seeds, and also received seeds of Himalayan plants which Joseph Hooker had collected. In the year 1841 Henry Winthrop Sargent bought the estate Wodenethe above Fishkill Landing in the state of New York and planted and attempted to raise all the conifers which he was able to obtain ; from here was distributed Pinus ponderosa f. ~enrlula. Another pinetum was established by Horatio Hollis Hunnewell, of Wellesley, Mass., in the year 1852, and is still maintained by the family. No garden in the eastern United States can boast a better collection of fine large specimens of various conifers. Here also mention should be made of some famous nurseries such as that of Ellwanger and Barry in Rochester, New York, established in 1840, the nursery of Samuel B. Parsons and his brother Robert established at the same time in Flushing, Long Island, and later that of Thomas Jfeehan, in Germantown, near Philadelphia, in 18,'>:3. All these firms carried a large number of trees and shrubs and thereby made many of the plant treasures of European gardens available to American garden lovers. A third period may be marked from the year 1861 in which the first Japanese plants were sent to America and thereby direct communication with Japan and later also with China was initiated, countries which were destined to enrich American and European gardens through a large number of beautiful aird valuable trees and shrubs. Up to this time America had received eastern Asiatic woody plants entirely by way of Europe, with the possible exception of a few important trees and shrubs such as Rosn lner~igntn Michx., which had previously come direct to America and by the end of the 18th century was already growing wild in the southern states. How it may have come there remains unknown. were - 16 In the year 1861 Dr. George R. Hall, who spent nearly fifteen years in China and had also visited Japan sent a number of plants from Japan to America; in the following year he brought still more Japanese plants, some of which he sent to Parsons' Nursery, in Flushing, some to Francis Parkman, in Boston, and some he planted on his own estate in Bristol, Rhode Island, where many of them are growing today. Among the plants which he introduced may be mentioned some then not even known in Europe, as his Malus Hallinrra, Magnolin slellnta and M. kobus, Hydrrrngea paniculata f. grrrndiflorn, H,ypericum pntulum, Taxus cuspidata f. nanrr, Scindopitys t~erlirillala, Pliellalenclron Lnuallei, Euorry rnus paterrs and Lilium auratum. Other Japanese plants were introduced by Thomas Hogg, the American consul in Japan in the years1865 and 1875, and propagated in Parsons' nursery ; among these Ceroidiph,~llum japonieum, Hytlrangea petiolaris, .Symplocos prrnieulatn, Magrrolia paru~ora and ~I. oboaatrr (M. hypoleuca) deserve special mention. In the year 187? the Arnold Arboretum was founded as a department of Harvard University with Professor C. S. Sargent as Director, an institution whose purpose was to grow all the woody plants which would be hardy in the climate of Boston. All plants already cultivated in European and American gardens were collected and planted. As to those not yet found in cultivation the director made it his aim to introduce from eastern Asia the rich ligneous flora up to that time only slightly known in western gardens. The first shipment of seeds from eastern Asia was sent to the Arnold Arboretum in the 80's by Dr. E. Bretschneider, who was physician to the Russian embassy in 1'eking. It consisted chiefly of trees and shrubs from the mountains west of Peking, among which may be mentioned Syringa pubescen.s and S. uillosn, .Sorbu.s pohren.shnnen8i.s and .S, di.scolor (.5, peklnP)7.sl.s), 1)enlzin prrro~oru, Rhodoclemlron rlnrericurn var. mucrorrulntum, 1',r~rus l3reLcchneidPri, !'. betrrl~folirr and 1'. phneoonrpa. From Japan the Arboretum received in 1890, through Dr. William S. Bigelow, seeds of Prurrus Srrrgenlii. Two years later, the director, Professor Sargent, visited Japan and brought back seeds of many trees and shrubs chief among which were RhododPnrlron obtusum var. Knempferi, one of the most valuable intrrxluctions of the Arboretum, ~~lalus .fnrgerrtii, Acer cvrpillipes and Sorbu.s cxln;f'olire. In the year 1905 J. G. Jack made a trip to eastern Asia and brought back, among other plants from Korei, Rhododeudrou yPdoen.sP var. porrkhnnen.eP, Tripterr~gium liegelii and E'uoclirr Dauiellii, and from northern Chma (,~uercus rrliPan and .Sali.r Mnl.smlnna. A year earlier the Japanese botanist Uchiyama had sent seeds of Korean woody plants to the Arnold Arboretum, among them 4bies holoplr,~lln and A'eillia C'ekii. In the years 1907 and 1908 E. H. Wilson, who had formerly collected very successfully in China for the English nursery firm of Veitch, traveled for the Arnold Arboretum. Two years later he undertook a second journey to China, chiefly to western China, to collect seeds of conifers which in 1908 had borne no cones. During these three years Wilson sent more than 1,200 numbers of seeds to the Arnold Arboretum as well as a number of cuttings and young plants of 1'opulus 17 and Salix and some other woody plants. Many of the plants collected by him proved to be new not only to cultivation, but also to science. Wilson's new introductions and even those of horticultural merit are two numerous to mention here and only the following selection may be noted, among which are found some previously collected by him for Veitch; Abie.s Fargesii, Actinidia chizzensis, Aesculu.s Wilsonii, Berberis Sargenlinna and B. Iriaoazrlhophora, C'erci.s racemo.sn, Corylopsis Veitchircna, Cofonea.ster dinrzricatrc and C. lzupelaensis, Dipteronin sirreu.sis, Fagu.s lucida, Hyclrrrzzgea Sargentinua, Ile.c Pernyi, Ja.smizrum Mesnyi (J. priznulirzum~, Kolkzeitzia (imiibilis, Malus lmpelren.sis, Populu,s la.niooarpa, Picen asperata, lio.ca Moye.sii, Sali.r magn'tf'cca, Sargentoclo.za cuneata, Sizzozcilsonia Henryi, Sorbaria arborea, .Spirrtea Veitchii, .Styra.r Wilsonii, Syringa re~e.ra, hiburnum rhJtidiplzyllum. Also a part of the seeds of woody plants collected in western China by C. Schneider for the Austrian Dendrological Society in 1914 came to America owing to the interruption of communication with Europe by the World War. In the year 1914 Wilson went again to eastern Asia and this time to Korea and Japan. Of the Korean ligneous plants which he introduced those deserving special mention are Fors,ythicz oaatn, Pezrtactinrc rupicola, Stezcartia 6orearza, Bu.cus microphylla var. koreana, Thzja koraiensis and .Syrirzga nelutina; of the Japanese ligneous plants may be named the numerous garden forms of Japanese cherries and the Kurume azaleas. From Formosa, which he visited in 1918, he introduced the only recently discovered Taizeauia cryptomerioides, the tallest conifer of eastern Asia, a counterpart of the .Seqrzoiaderzdron gigantea of California. In the year 1910 and 191William Purdom s isited the northern provinces of China and sent back a large number of valuable seeds of ligneous plants, such as Malus trrrn.siloria, PrinsPpia un;flora, Berberis circrrmsPrrata and B. Purdomii, Sorbus Koelmerrnn, Deutzia grazzd~ora and D. lrypoglnuca, and Picea Meyeri. The last collector for the Arnold Arboretum in eastern Asia was J. F. Rock, who in the years 191~ and 19?6 collected in northwestern China, after he had previously traveled for the United States Department of Agriculture in southwest China, Burma and Siam. Among the woody plants collected by him that were new to cultivation may be mentioned the following : JunipPru.s tibPtion, J. rli.slans, J. glaueeswPn.s, BPlala japorzirm var. Rookii, (,~uercu.s laolungensi.s, .Spiraea uraten.sis, Cnragana brenjfolia and C. derzsa, 1;'uonymu.s zzanoides and E. Prsezeal.skii, Rlrodorleuzlron rrtf'um and R. capitatrzm. During the sixty years of its existence the Arnold Arboretum has introduced into American gardens some ~,.500 species and varieties besides the garden forms of .SJrizzga, Rhodalezrdron, Rosa, Diernilla and others; of these some 1,400, including 600 species of CrataPgrzs, were for the first time introduced into cultivation and over 1,000 were introductions from European gardens into America. Also to the Department of Agriculture with its experiment gardens in different parts of the country, America is indebted for many new introductions of trees and shrubs through collectors sent to all parts of the world. One of the most successful of these collectors was Frank N. Dteyer, who in the years 190i-1914 traveled in central and eastern Asia, where by accident he lost 18] Among his new introductions may be mentioned Juniperus squamaFa var. Meyeri, Syringa Meyeri, Albizzia kalkora, Betula ehinensris, Buxus microphylla var. sinica, Duphne Girrcldii, Wisteria villo,ra. The botanic gardens with arboreta connected such as the Missouri Botanical Garden in St. Louis, founded by Henry Shaw as a private garden and opened to the public about 1860, the New York Botanical Garden founded in18t1~. and the Brooklyn Botanic Garden established in 1910, have contributed but little to the introduction of foreign Yangtze River. trees and shrubs. The as his life in the same is true of other arboreta founded in more recent the Knox Arboretum in 4~arren, Maine, the Sanford Arboretum in times, Knoxville, Tennessee, and the Morton Arboretum, in Lisle, near Chicago. The last named is, next to the Arnold Arboretum, the most important arboretum in the United States; in it are special plantations, largely of trees of value for forestry purposes, but it is also very rich in its collection of ornamental trees and shrubs. From the preceding statements it is evident that the introduction to American gardens of most of the trees and shrubs was not direct from their native country but through the medium of European gardens. Not until the second half of the present century did introductions begin to be made direct. Even many American plants, especially those from the Rocky Mountains and from the western states, came by way of Europe into eastern American gardens. Since most of the plants reached America by way of Europe, it may not be amiss here to give a short sketch of the history of the introduction of woody plants into Europe. If we disregard the gardens of Babylon, Egypt, India, Persia, Greece and Rome, since we are chiefly concerned with the woody plants of the cooler temperate zone, we find the first written proof of cultivated trees and shrubs in middle Europe in connection with cloister gardens, as in the plan of the cloister garden of St. Gallen published in the year 830, and in the \"Capitulare de villis\" promulgated by Charlemagne in the year 812, in which many fruit-bearing trees such as apple, pear, plum, cherry, quince, walnut, mulberry, peach, almond, chestnut, hazel-nut, medlar and grape, also salvia, rosemary, and Artemisia nbrotnnum are mentioned. Of ornamental shrubs only the rose appears, probably Rosa cenlifolia. A fairly complete list of woody plants cultivated in middle Europe in the middle of the 16th century we find in Conrad Gesner's\"Horti Germaniae\" under the date of 1.i60. He names nearly all the known woody plants growing wild in Germany and also some in south Europe such as Cercis, Colutea, Laburnum, .5faphylea, Vite.r and (.'otino.s, while some eastern trees and shrubs, as the horsechestnut, lilac, and nuwk-oran~e are still lacking, but in John Gerard's Catalogue of the plants in his garden, published in l~9Ei, which is the first catalogue of plants cultivated in English gardens, the last named plants are found together with others from eastern and southern Europe. About the same time Jean Robin published a catalogue of cultivated plants in the Royal Garden at 1'aris, and Itohier de Belleval a catalogue of the botanic garden in Montpellier. 19 catalogues of garden plants for France. The first North Amerwoody plant Europe through France. It was the arbor-vitae (Thuja which probably was brought to France in the year 1536 througls occidentolis~ Cartier's expedition. In the first quarter of the l7th century a large number of American trees and shrubs were introduced into France as shown by J. Robin's \"Enchiridion Isagogicum\" of 1623, and Cornut's \"Canadensium Plantarum Historia\" of 1635, in which among others were listed Robinia Pseudoncrrcia, Partherrocissus quinqugf'olia, Rhus Toa~icorlentlron and R. lyphina, Campsis radicans and Prunu.n serotirrrc. From the middle of the lTth century, however, most of the new introductions came first to England and by the end of the 18th century nearly all the more important trees and shrubs of eastern North America, partly through the agency of John and William Bartram, had reached Europe. The first plants of western North America, through the expedition of Lewis and Clark, came in 1806 to the East and from there to Europe ; however, most of the woody plants of the west coast of North America and of the Rocky Mountains were introduced into England through W. Lobb, R. Douglas, and Th. Hartweg between 1815 and 1850. For later introductions we are indebted chiefly to American gardens and various American and European collectors. Among the latter we may here mention the two German collectors, C. A. Purpus and A. Purpus. Siberian plants reached Europe scarcely before 1 i.i0, when such species as Lonicera talaricrr, Caragana arborescens, C. ,frute.c and C. pygmnen, Cornxts albn, Sorbaria sorb~f'olia, Malus baccntrc and Malus pruu~'olia were received. From the These are the first ican reached middle to the end of our present century we owe our introductions of north and central Asiatic woody plants in large part to the St. Petersburg Botanic Garden and its collectors. The very first Chinese plants reached Europe before or about the beginning of t the Christian era by way of the old trade rcmte from North China through Tibet and Turkestan to Persia. The most important among these are the peach, apricot, Morus alba, Hibiscus syriacu.s, ~Snli.r brrb,ylonica, and Syringa persica, which for a long time was thought to be a native of Persia. Some few east Asian plants came to Europe through India, such as Rosrc chinensi.r, which therefore was called Bengal rose. The first direct introduction we owe to the Jesuit father d'Incarville, who in 1 I50 among other plants brought to Paris Ailnrrllru.s altissima (.4, glrrrrdulosa) and Sophorn jrcponica. Toward the end of the l8th century and at the beginning of the 19th century Chinese plants began to be introduced into England through the English East India Company, among them Paeonia su\"~'rutico.rrc (P. moutan) and magnolias. Between 1810 and 1830 John Reeves sent many valuable trees and shrubs to England, such as Wisteria sinettsis, Spiraea canlotrieusi.s and various azaleas. Very important introductions we owe to Robert Fortune, who in the years 1840 to 1860 collected in China from whence he sent to England among other plants Prunus triloba, F;.rochordrc grnndiflora, Spirrrea prun~f'olir~, Piburnum tomentosncm, Jasminrem uurl~otwrn, Forsythia viridissima and F. suspen,src var. Forlunei, 20 Syringa oblata, and Pseudolarix anaabili.s (P. Kaempferi). Another who in the year 1880 was sent out to China by the nursery firm of Veitch was Charles Maries, to whom we owe the introduction of Ha7namelis mollis. In the years 1870to 1880, through the French missionary, A. David, many important northern Chinese plants were brought into France and at about the same time a Russian, Dr. Bretschneider, in Peking, sent woody plants from northern China to Europe and also to America. Between the years 1890 and 1900 various French missionaries as J. M. Delavey, P. Farges and J. A. Soulie sent seeds of central and western Chinese woody plants to France and the Italian missionaries G. Giraldi and C. Silvestri sent seeds of northern and central Chinese trees and shrubs to Italy. From 1900 to 1904 E. H. Wilson collected very successfully for the English firm of Veitch and from 1907 to 1910 for the Arnold Arboretom in central and western China, as already related above more in detail, where also the explorers F. N. Meyer, W. Purdom and J. F. Rock are mentioned. In more recent times F. Kingdon Ward, Reginald Farrer and G. Forrest sent many woody plants from western China to England, especially rhododendrons. During the last decade with the creation of Chinese universities and scientific institutions Europe as well as America is beginning to receive seeds and plants directly from Chinese botanists and collectors. As in the case of the Chinese plants so also the first Japanese plants came to Europe by way of other countries, as Rhododendron indicum, which was brought from Java to Europe in the year 1680. Others as the Hydrangea macrophylla (H. opuloides) and Deutzia scabra, which were cultivated in China, were introduced into Europe from the last named country. Not until the second quarter of the 19th century were the treasures of the Japanese gardens made available for Europe, first through Philipp von Siebold, who traveled in Japan in 18`Z3 to 18`?9 and returned again in the year 18.i6. Of the numerous valuable trees and shrubs which he introduced we may here mention Malus floribun~la and M. ~Sieboklii, Cornus Chionarrthus retusa, English collector kou,sa, Cercis sinensis, Hydrangea paniculata, Callicarpa japonica, Spiraea Thunbergii, many forms of Acer palmahrm and of Dieruilln. Other Japanese plants were brought to St. Petersburg by the Russian botanist Maximowicz about the year 1850, and cultivated there. In the year 1860 John Gould Veitch journeyed to Japan and brought many plants, especially conifers, to England. Of the introduction of trees and shrubs to America through Hall, Hogg, Sargent and Wilson we have already spoken. In more recent times new woody plants have been sent to Europe and America by Japanese botanists and nurseries. The introduction of woody plants from the Himalayan Mountains began chiefly about the year 18`?0; particularly were the English gardens enriched through the collections of Joseph Hooker, who in the years 1848 to 1851, traveled in India and especially in the Himalayan Mountains. The influence, however, of the Himalayan introductions of woody plants on the gardens of the cooler temperate zone has remained comparatively slight, since most of the plants have proved more or less tender, es21 among which are many of great ornamental value. of eastern Asia which was the latest to disclose to us its ligneous That portion treasures is Korea. Some woody plants such as Pinus koraiensis, Cornus qfficinalis, Poncirus (Citrus) trifoliata and Rhododendron Schlippenbachii had already reached us by way of Japan before the end of the 19th century and Viburnum Carlesii in the year 1902, but the first direct introductions to America came about through J. G. Jack, T. Uchiyama and E. H. Wilson, as has already been reported above. The southern hemisphere has contributed little to the ligneous flora of our northern gardens. Of the Australian and New Zealand flora the New Zealand Cassinia fulvida is the only hardy shrub, and from Antarctic South America there are but a few species of Berberis, especially B. bu.rifolia, some species of Pernettya, as P. mucronata, and Eseallonia virgata (E. Philippiana), which have proved to pecially the rhododendrons, some extent hardy. Of the woody plants introduced into North America from Europe and Asia may be found so favorable conditions for their growth that they, especially in the eastern states, have to a large degree escaped from cultivation, and many are so well established that they actually form a part of the native flora. Among such woody plants that have become naturalized in many places may be mentioned the following: Picea Abies (P. excelsa), Snlix fragilis, Populus ulba, P. nigra, Alnus glutinosa, Berberis vulgaris, B. Thunbergii, Ribes sativum, Philadelphus coronccriu.s, .Sorbaria sorbifolia, Malus pumila, Sorbus flzccuparia, Crataegus Oxyacantha, P,z~rncanthtt coccinea, Rubus laciniatus, Rosa caninn, R. Eglanteria (R. rubiginosa), Prunus Persica, P. avium, P. Cerasus, P. spinosa, Genista tinctoria, Cytisus scoparius, Ailanthus altissima (A. glandulosa), Evonymus europuea, Rhamnus eathurtica and R. Frangula, Daphue Mezereum, Solanum Dulcamara, Legu,rtrum vulgare, Paulouuia tomentosa, Lonicern Cnpr;folium, L. japonica, L. tntaricn, L. Xylosteum, L. Morrowii and many others. Their number increases from year to year so that in time the flora of the wooded areas, at least in the more densely populated regions, takes on a mixed character. For the most part, however, the foreign trees and shrubs will probably never become so predominant as is the case with herbaceous plants on cultivated and uncultivated ground in proximity to settled communities. Here the native plants are often almost crowded out by the European aliens, and when a European who has a knowledge of plants comes to northeastern America he will scarcely be reminded by the surrounding vegetation, so long as he stays in and near the cities and does not go out into the country, that he is in another part of the world. In Europe this is far less the case; American plants have not become naturalized to such a degree as to change the character of the vegetation ; in contrast to the European plants the American plants appear to possess less vitality, which possibly may be explained by the fact that the European plants represent a geologically younger flora. The American plants belong in the main to the tertiary flora, while the European flora has developed and spread since the ice age. But the European and Asiatic flora will also change with time. As a consequence of [ 22 the intercourse between the different countries ever becoming closer one may expect that an increasing mixture of floras of each of the climatic zones will take place and that finally each climatic zone around the world will have more or less the same or similar vegetation, as this is already the case today to a higher degree in the Tropics than in the Temperate zone. A~.r'rsFO REHDER Trnnslated from the German by . FTHFLS'N M. TL'('KFR (Reaiserl by Translator's Note the author) foregoing article Professor Rehder has made an important contribution knowledge of the dates of introduction into America of many of our well known trees and shrubs. There is a constantly increasing interest in the history of our favorite or familiar plants, where they came from, how and when, who named them, and why they bear the names they do. It is hoped that someone will carry forward the fascinating study which Professor Rehder has so ably begun and thus give to garden lovers a better acquaintance with their plant friends. In the our to Note The many friends of the Arnold Arboretum will welcome the announcement that Mrs. Beatrix Farrand has been appointed Consulting Landscape Gardener to the Arnold Arboretum during the next year. Mrs. Farrand, once a student of Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, has been Consulting Landscape Gardener to Princeton University, Yale University, the University of Chicago and Dumbarton Oaks in Washington, D.C. Mrs. Farrand's aim will be to initiate plans that will bring the living collections of the Arboretum into the best possible degree of usefulness to the general public. William H. Judd passes away It is with the deepest regret that the Arnold Arboretum announces the sudden death of William H. Judd, propagator, on its staff for thirty three years. Mr. Judd died of a heart attack on May 23. More information concerning him will appear in a later issue of Arnoldia. 23 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"William H. Judd, Propagator","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24175","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15ebb25.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 JUNE I, 1946 WILLIAM H. NUMBER 6 JUDD, PROPAGATOR years William H. Judd has been propagating plants at the Arnold Arboretum. This long period of usefulness was cut short in the early hours of May 23 when he died unexpectedly of heart disease. He had just returned from the last meeting of the season of the Horticultural Club of Boston, reaching his home at eleven P. M. when his attention was attracted by a large fire not far distant. He apparently hurried to the fire, and it was while he was mingling with the spectators that he suffered the fatal heart attack. He had not complained of any serious illness and was up to the very end as keenly interested in his daily tasks at the Arboretum as he always had been. Born on July 14, 1888, at Preston Brook, Cheshire, England, he was the son of the superintendent of a large private estate known as \"The Oaklands.\" Naturally, in such an environment he developed an interest in gardening, and his earlier training undoubtedly included many a chore which one would expect to find on an estate of the time. At the age of fifteen, he commenced his own gardening career in earnest, taking a position at Steventon Manor, Hampshire, England, where he worked from 6 A.M. until 6 P.M., his salary being four shillings a week. He changed positions several times during the next few years, as was apparently the custom among the gardening apprentices in order to gain a rounded experience. He was always interested in the Royal Gardens at Kew and many a holiday would find him off on some excuse to visit these famous plantings. Finally, in 1910, when he was twenty-one years old, he accepted a position there. The training he received during the next three years was of the utmost importance to him in later hfe. It was here that he learned the system of records which he was responsible for initiating at the Arnold Arboretum. It was here that he learned many of the gardeners' \"tricks\" which better prepared him to propagate the new and strange plants which came to him later at the Arnold Arboretum. Kew meant a great deal to Mr. Judd, and many of the things which he learned and practiced there he strictly followed through the years. New processes might be explained FOR thirty-three -~- 25 to him, new methods demonstrated, but he would always gauge them by the old \"reliable\" methods he had learned at Kew. The associations he made there lasted throughout his life. He was always intensely loyal to the United States and the Arboretum, but if anyone, even in jest, would so much as say a word its trainees he was quick to take up the argument in behalf of Arnold against Kew and what was his Alma Mater. In June, 1913, he left Kew coming to the United States to accept employment at the Arnold Arboretum in a position offered to him by Charles Sprague Sargent. He was immediately placed under the general supervision of that remarkable propagator Jackson Dawson. I wish I could have listened in on some of the conversations these two strong-willed characters must have had. Jackson Dawson had much to teach to the new lad from England, and without a doubt it was absorbed quickly, until I think that student and teacher must have been on par. When Dawson died in 1916, Mr. Judd was given complete charge of all the propagating work at the Arnold Arboretum, an important responsibility which he assumed with eminent success until his death thirty years later. This is yet too early fully to gauge just how valuable his efforts have been to the Arboretum and to horticulture in general. We undoubtedly owe him a very great deal, for when a packet of seeds reached the Arnold Arboretum greenhouses from some remote Chinese source, it was the propagator's responsibility to exert all his skill in order to coax at least a few of them to germinate. He was propagator during a period when the Arboretum was introducing tremendous numbers of plants from eastern Asia as well as from Europe. All of the seeds collected by Wilson on his 1917 and 19?0 trips to eastern Asia were handled by Mr. Judd, this being his sole responsibility. Thus the success of some of the Wilson introductions were to a certain degree due to the skill of Mr. Judd as a propagator. It is one thing to introduce the seeds of a plant new to horticulture; it is another matter to grow the plants and to test them under varying climatic conditions. Because of his painstaking nature, his excellent gardening training, and a highly developed experimental inquisitiveness, he was able to propagate many things where others would undoubtedly have failed. He not only had \"green fingers\" but he knew the language of plants, and was always willing to talk about plants to anyone at any time. With amateurs he was courteous but often abrupt. With so-called \"experts\" he took delight in pointing out the mistakes they made in discussing certain plants. He was always in demand by those writing on horticultural subjects for he could easily and quickly point out errors that had escaped others. His advice was continually being sought by all types of individuals because of his phenomenal knowledge of plants. He would not hesitate an instant to tell a Director of the Royal Horticultural Society that he was wrong as to a certain point, while on the other hand he would be the first to commend some youngster who might have brought in some new or interesting specimen. His dry humor and quick wit have made him famous in this country as well as abroad. One of his most prized positions was that of secretary in the Kew Gardeners of America, an organization made up of men who took their early training at Kew and have since occupied responsible positions in various horticultural and botani- 26 William Henry Judd 1888-1946 Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum 1916-1946 cal establishments in the United States and Canada. He was a life member of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, and since 1921 has been in great demand as a judge at its mpre important flower shows. In 1931 he was awarded the Jackson Dawson Gold Medal of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society for his skill in the propagation of hardy woody plants. He was a past president of the Boston Gardeners and Florists Club, one of the most important groups of its kind in this country. In 1945 he was awarded the Veitch Memorial Gold Medal by the Royal Horticultural Society, London, a high award made each year to a person who has distinguished himself for achievement in horticulture. Mr. Judd was very properly proud of this award, for it could not have been given to a more deserving person in the United States. Mr. Judd was also a prominent member of the Masons, the Horticultural Club of Boston, the New England Botanical Club, and many other organizations, taking an active part in their deliberations. In any group where horticultural problems were under discussion he would express himself cogently regarding his Arnold Arboretum experiences with a great variety of species, and when Judd spoke, his humor was always awaited with anticipation by those in the group who knew him. He was easily one of the country's foremost authorities on ornamental woody plants. He liked to travel and always made it a point to keep extensive notes of his trips, the people he met, his experiences, and particularly the individual plants noted on such trips, especially those that he had propagated and distributed. He made frequent trips to Europe where he was d~st~nctly a persona grala with the outstanding propagators in England, France, Holland and Germany, as well as with administrative heads of botanical and horticultural establishments, proprieters of private estates, wealthy amateurs and professional horticulturists. When traveling became more restricted, he journeyed to the west coast of the United States. It is evident that he travelled largely to learn more about plants, and no matter where he turned up, he would make it a point to visit the prominent plantsmen in that particular locality. He was continually making new friends for himself and the Arboretum, for he had to a remarkable degree that capacity of meeting people in all walks of life, impressing his personality on them, and of retaining their respect, esteem, and personal friendship. His death is a very great loss to horticulture and especially to the Arnold Arboretum for he is the last of the practical plantsmen on the staff of the Arboretum trained under the administration of Professor Sargent. His good nature, his dry wit, and his phenomenal knowledge of plants will be sincerely missed by his host of friends in this country and abroad. DONALD WYMAN As positive evidence of the esteem that others had for Mr. Judd, it is here recorded that on the day of his funeral there was received from one of his Boston fri~2ds a check for $1000.00 payable to the Arnold Arboretum. The donor requested that the amount be added to the capital funds of the institution under the designation \"The William Henry Judd Memorial Fund.\" Others among his very numerous friends may be inspired to increase their amount. L 2s "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Bamboos for Northern Gardens","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":43,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24166","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14e856e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Young, Robert A.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 JUNE 28, 1946 BAMBOOS FOR NORTHERN GARDENS NUMBERS 7-9 the title of this paper be misunderstood, it must be explained at the start that although nearly all the hardier bamboos retain their leaves in fresh, green condition through the winter in regions having a suitably mild winter climate, the leaves of even the hardiest species are injured or killed at temperatures ' around zero. At lower temperatures the branches and, finally, the culms (main stems) are killed. Since the culms and branches normally live for several to many years where injurious winter temperatures do not occur, and the wood of the culm does not reach its full hardness and durability until the end of the third season in the life of the culm, it will be evident that with killing back every year or two no culms can ever fully mature their wood. Nor can the development of culms of full size take place, except possibly in some of the very small, grasslike species of bamboo. These circumstances preclude the production of culms suitable for industrial purposes in these colder localities. Even when the branches and culms are killed to the ground in winter, however, the hardier bamboos often can be grown as ornamentals with a measure of satisfaction, provided the ground be well mulched to prevent cold injury to the more shallow-growing rhizomes (underground stems) and roots. Rhizomes in soil only moderately mulched have survived when the minimum air temperatures were somewhat lower than -LO F., though the rhizomes at the surface of the ground were largely killed. The degrees of temperature at which cold injury to the leaves and to the woody parts of a given bamboo occurs cannot be stated with any exactness, since they are determined in part by the exposure of the plants to sunlight at the time of low temperature and to cold winds. It occasionally happens that the degree of cold that kills the leaves of a bamboo is not quite sufficient to damage the culms or kill the branches. The killing of the leaves alone is not too serious a matter, for new leaves always appear in the spring; they are borne on new twigs arising from the older ones ,just below the leaves of the preceding year, and the old leaves gradually fall. LST 29 and very diverse group-of the grass and range in their maximum heights from 6 woody perennials family. They or 8 inches to 1 LO feet, with basal diameters of from 1 \/ 16 inch to about 1 foot. The largest are tropical species, though two or three giants of the temperate zone reach heights of 70 to 80 feet. The leaves of all the species may easily be distinguished from those of almost all other members of the grass family by the narrowing of the blade into a short but definite petiole at the base; the petiole is joined to the sheath that encircles the culm, branch, or twig (branchlet) on which the leaf may be borne. Except in the very dwarf bamboos and at the tips of the culms in others, the true leaves are always borne on branches or twigs rather than directly on the culm as in the ordinary grasses. Below the leaves gathered at or near the tip of the culm, the \"leaves\" on the culm itself become \"culm sheaths,\" modified in character until they cease to function even temporarily as true leaves. In many bamboos, including those of the genus Phyllostachys among the hardier kinds, the culm sheaths are early deciduous ; in Semiarundinaria they are tardily deciduous while in Arundinaria, Sasa and some other genera they are more or less persistent. Flowering is exceedingly variable among bamboos. In a few species it may occur at intervals of only a few years and without resulting death of the plants-unless seed production is profuse, which often it is not. The bamboos constitute are a fairly large The Hardy Running Bamboos The hardy bamboos are of running habit as contrasted with most of those adapted to warmer climates, which usually grow in close clumps. The rhizomes in general run horizontally underground for a greater or less distance and only rarely turn upward at the tip to form a culm. They are all jointed, consisting of nodes and internodes, much like the culms, but with internodes shorter and much thicker walled-sometimes solid. From lateral buds at certain nodes arise the culms, which form gradually-sometimes rather rapidly-an extended thicket. The true roots, woody in character, develop in a whorl from each node of a rhizome and from the underground nodes of the culm base. To summarize what has already been said in more detail, the distinctly hardy bamboos, with a number of which we shall be concerned here, are mostly evergreen at temperatures down to about 5 F., but at about zero the leaves of all but the hardiest are killed, and at a few degrees lower the stems are partially or completely killed. Notwithstanding this, as was stated in the beginning, it is often possible by maintaining a good winter mulch among the culms to grow many of the hardy bamboos rather satisfactorily as ornamentals even where the tops ordinarily are killed in winter. The culms normally live for several years and when all are killed, by cold or other means, the size of those produced in the succeeding season will be much smaller. The hardy bamboos send up their new shoots in the early weeks of really warm weather in spring, provided the ground is reasonably moist. A shoot develops into a culm of full size in 5 to 8 weeks. 30 .... w :J a ' in all except perhaps the smallest and strength gradually during the first density species, only three years of its life. These hardier bamboos are mostly native to China and Japan. At least two species, however, of the very wide-spread and diverse genus Arundinaria are endemic in our southern states. They are not very ornamental and will not be mentioned further. Other genera of hardy bamboos besides Arunrliuarin of which representative species are now in cultivation in the United States are Ph~r~llostach,y,s, l'sPUdosasa, Sasa, Semiarundinaria and Shibataea. However, with the exception of Plyllo,sfa~hys and Shibataea, generic lines in this large group are not too clearly drawn, and for this and other reasons there has been and doubtless will be further considerable transfer of species by botanists from one genus to another. The genus Pleioblastus, erected in 1925, is at present considered by some authorities to be of doubtful validity and in this paper it is recognized only in synonymy. Attention will be given here to a number of species of the hardy bamboos, mostly small or medium sized, of the genera previously mentioned. They will be treated, as far as practicable, in order of size, the smaller being considered first. The photograph on page 31 shows a small part of a collection of hardy oriental bamboos, grown in circular \"tanks\" 5 feet in diameter-filled with soil and without bottoms-at the United States Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Maryland. The tanks are for the purpose of keeping the running rhizomes from spreading into adjacent areas. They are formed from galvanized iron sheets 26 inches wide and are sunk that distance into the ground. Running bamboos with their rhizomes thus confined grow in an artificial clump form and should be clearly distinguished from those that grow naturally in compact clumps. These plantings were about five years old when the photograph was taken. Incidentally, the temperature at Glenn Dale in some winters falls to between -10 and -15 F., and rarely as low as -z8. In light soils the rhizomes of some of these bamboos may grow under such a barrier and come up on the outside, and there is always the probability that those of all the running species will come to the surface and go \"over the top\" into the soil outside and continue to spread, unless watched and cut off when they start to go over. The wood is at first very soft, however, and attains its maximum here is reported to reach 9 to less rigorous winter climate. The leaves of .4. graminea are distinctly grasslike-4 to 10 inches long and from less than a quarter to scarcely a half inch wide. Botanical synonyms for this species are A. laind8ii var. graminea and Pleioblastus gramineus. The plant is a native of Japan but was introduced into this country from a European source, as have been most of our other oriental bamboos of small and medium size. 1. Arundinaria 16 feet in localities with a graminea (Plate II) 32feet high 2. `Sasa chrysantha (Arundinrcria chrysantha) (Plate II~, 323#& x E; a larger-leaved species w H < a . has grown to nearly 5 feet in height. Its maximum is probably a little taller. Branches arise from the upper nodes of the culm, bearing 5-7 oblong-lanceolate leaves, 3-7 inches long and up to i inch wide. pumila (Plate II, III) is dwarf, growing about 2 feet in cool climates partial shade in warmer ones. It branches rather freely from the upper nodes of the culm and each branch bears 4-7 oblong-lanceolate leaves 1~-8~ 3. Sasa in or inches long and ~ to nearlyinch wide, gathered near the tips of culms and branches. The leaves tend to curl, or roll up, in dry and sunny situations in summer. Because of its small size and rampant rhizomes, S. pumila may easily become a weed; it is very difficult to eradicate when it escapes into a garden and especially when it invades a lawn. 4. Shibataea kumasaca (Plate II, IV) is a broad-leaved bamboo 3 to 6 feet high. Other names, but without botanical standing, that have been used in the literature for this species are : Shibataea kumasasa (variant of kumasaca), S. rusc~'olia, and Bambusa viminalis. This bamboo is a native of Japan. There are usually 3 to 5 darkgreen, ovate-lanceolate leaves at each of the upper 8 or 10 nodes of the slender culm; they are 1~-3 inches long and are usually terminal on very short branches -which commonly range fromto ~ inch in length but rarely considerably longer. The leaves suffer more or less injury at temperatures below 10 F. a handsome Japanese bamboo has leaves conspicuwith white or creamy white. S. variegata has been reported to grow ously striped only 12 to2 feet high, but the culms of the plant grown at Glenn Dale have attained slightly over 3 feet in height. The white-striped, oblong-lanceolate leaves, well rounded at the base, are finely pubescent beneath ; they are 5 to 10 in number, usually gathered near the culm tip and the tips of the branches and are from 2 to 6 inches long. The plant is a little more cold-resistant than the preceding. Although the identity of our present plant has not been questioned until recently, it now seems to me possible that an apparently similar species described under the name S. argenteo-striata may be involved. Since the true identity of the plant is in some doubt, synonyms for the name S. variegata cannot well be given. 5. Sasa variegata (Plate IV) V) is a dwarf broad-leaved bamboo from Japan, with leaves those of S. palmata but much smaller and quite distinct in roughly resembling detailed characters. The little culm sheaths are at first densely white-hairy, which serve to help in identification. The leaves, dark green above and glaucous beneath, are usually oblong,2 to 7 inches long and ~ to 1~ inches wide, broadly tapering or rounded at the base. There is a tendency for the leaves to decay on the margins and turn brown to whitish in the late autumn or winter. This is very striking and characteristic in some situations, and when the first description was 6. Sasa veitchii (Plate 34 w . the plant was given the varietal name albo-marginata, under a different and species. The plants in the photograph are 15 inches high and repregenus sent average growth, though it is reported in England culms have sometimes attained heights of 3 to 4 feet. S, veitchii was first described as Bambusa veitchii and later was for some time known as Arundinaria veitchii. Still later it was called Sasa albo-marginala, a name shown by Mr. Alfred Rehder to be invalid. A small variety of S. veitchii was described from Japan many years ago as forma minor and it is possible that our present plant represents this rather than the larger, typical form. published 7. Sasa tessellata (Plate III) a large-leaved, low-growi~, species from China, has the distinction of bearing probably the largest leaves of all known bamboos. Its height is only 2~ to 3 feet, but the leaves have measured from about 10 to as much as 23 inches in length and from 1~ to 8~ inches wide, at Glenn Dale, Md. In shape the leaves are oblong, tapering broadly at the base and rather narrowly to a sharp point at the apex. They are medium green above, glaucous beneath, and are regularly 2 in number at tip of the culm the first year, there being no branches developed that year; the midrib is conspicuously yellowish. The culm is rather short-jointed. The plant is interesting in a collection of bamboos but cannot be rated as very ornamental under ordinary conditions. It was introduced into Europe before 184,i. Synonyms of S. tessellata are Bambusa lessellata, Arundinaria tessellata and A. ragamou~skii. 8. Sasa palmala (Plate VI) is the accepted name for this handsome large-leaved bamboo. For some time we had supposed it to be S. senanensis (Fr. & Sav. ) Rehder, but the misidentification has recently been discovered. The latter species has not yet been introduced into this country so far as known. S. palmata is one of the most striking of the medium-low bamboos. The culms, curving upward from the base, often grow 5 to 6 feet tall and in very favorable situations will reach 7 or 8 feet. Branches arise singly from some of the middle and upper nodes of the culm. The leaves, bright green above and glaucous beneath, are borne in palmate clusters of 3 to 9 at the apex of the culm and the tips of the branches. They are among the largest in bamboos, measuring up to 15 inches long by 3~ inches wide and being exceeded in length, I believe, only by the leaves of S. tessellata. This bamboo is generally neat in habit and makes an exceedingly attractive appearance where mass effect is desired and where the winter climate is not too severe ; it is but little injured at temperatures of 5 F. Besides the misidentification of our plant as S. senanensis, it has been known at various times, in Europe or in Japan, under the synonyms Bambusa palmata, Arundinaria palmala, A. paniculata forma chimaki-zasa, Sasa paniculata, and S. australis. 9. Pseudosasa japonica (Plate II) still widely known as Arundinaria japonica, is ~ 36 : w H d a believed to be the earliest of the hardy oriental bamboos to be introduced into the United States. It came, of course, by way of Europe, sometime after 1850, and it probably is still the best known and most widely grown species in decorative plantings, especially in the more northern areas in which bamboos thrive. An attractive group of plants that grew in the old U. S. Botanical Garden shortly before it was moved to its present site is shown on page 31. Besides the rather handsome leaves, evergreen down to about '7 F., and the ease of growing the plant, the comparatively slow spreading of the rhizomes is a characteristic by which this bamboo doubtless has largely earned its popularity. It more nearly \"stays put\" than almost any other hardy bamboo that might otherwise have competed with it. The erect culms commonly grow from 6 to 10 feet high, even where they are killed by cold every few years, and in warmer localities they sometimes reach 16 feet or more. Semi-erect branches grow singly from some of the upper nodes, and these, with the apical section of the culm, bear clusters of 4 to 11 narrow-oblong leaves 5 to 13 inches long, wedge-shaped at the base; they are glossy dark green above and somewhat glaucous beneath. Other synonyms of Pseudosasa japonica are Bambusa metake, Arundinaria ~netake, and Sasa japonica. The accepted Japanese common name for our present plant is Yadake, though it presumably at one time also was called Metake, by which name we recognize it in this country. a variable bamboo from Japan, represents one of the forms the species assumes, supposedly by way of its seedlings. This one, several being grown at the U. S. Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduction Garden, near Savannah, Georgia, came originally from a European source. It is a form of medium stature, the tallest culms being about 8 feet. Although A. simoni is not a spectacular bamboo, the absence of any strong tendency to run and the consequent forming of a fairly dense clump are points in its favor. The leaves of A. simoni are narrow-oblong, sometimes almost linear, from 3 to 12 inches long and from ~ to about 14 inches wide at most. Occasionally a white stripe appears. The Japanese name for A. simoni is DTedake (which should never be confused with Madake, Phyllostachys bambusoides, or with Metake, Pseudosasajaponica). 10. A~~undinaria simoni Semiarundinaria fastuosa is the stateliest, if not the handsomest, of the hardy bamboos. Narihiradake, the Japanese name for it, has allusion to the general appearance of the plant, as does also the Latin specific name, fastuosa. Narihira is said to have been a sort of legendary Beau Brummel. We may call the plant the Narihira bamboo. The culms grow ultimately to heights up to 25 feet or more in a mild climate. The rhizomes are less active than those of most running bamboos, which results in slow spreading. The smaller culms are generally densely clothed for almost their entire length by the rich dark-green, oblong to oblong-lanceolate leaves, which are from 4 to 7 inches long and are borne on 11. 38 > w. H a short, rather upright, branches. The smooth straw-colored culm sheaths often hang on in a semi-detached state for a number of weeks after the new culms have completed their growth and are quite characteristic during that period. The species fortunately is one of the hardiest and withstands temperatures down to zero F. with little injury. There are many other things that might be said concerning this splendid bamboo but space does not permit. The synonyms are Bambusa fastuosa, Arundinaria fastuosa, A. narihira. Hardy Bamboos of the Genus Phyllostachys The species of Phyllostachys have an open branching habit, quite different from that of any of the members of Arundinaria, Sasa, or other genera previously mentioned. The internodes of the culms of Phyllostachys are grooved or flattened on one side, above the branches, and the branches themselves are similarly somewhat flattened. The grooved strip is called the \"sulcus.\" The branches are paired and are unequal in size, the smaller one arising, in fact, from an almost suppressed basal internode of the larger. The nodes of the culms and branches are much more prominent than in any of the other genera of bamboos that we have considered. The leaves of none of the species of Phyllostachys are large, and all those on adult culms are small as compared with the size of the plants. This is easily apparent in P. nigra var. henonis. In other general habits of growth, such as running rhizomes and the spring growth of the new culms, these bamboos are much like those of the other genera discussed. Each species has its own time for sprouting in any given environment-usually in May in the north -but the exact time is always dependent upon heat and the moisture supply. However, this is also true of all types of bamboo. Besides Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis, another variety of P. nigra and three other species of the genus will be discussed briefly. A number of other species and varieties, probably not less well adapted for growing in the North for their decorative effects, could have been included but their characteristics are much * the same in general and space does not permit.* 12. Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens is a native of China and is one of the smaller of the species of the genus so far introduced into the United States. It was first brought to this country from Europe by the Biltmore Nurseries, about 1895. At Glenn Dale, Maryland, because of being frequently frozen back it has not exceeded about 12feet in height but at the U. S. Barbour Lathrop Plant Introduction Garden, near Savannah, Ga., it has grown to twice that height. From its * For any reader who may be interested in a somewhat more detailed treatment of the and other species of the hardy bamboos, there is a series of three articles by the author in the National Horticultural Magazine in the issue3 for July and October, 1945, and foregoing January, 1946. 40 might expect it to be strikingly distinctive in its greenness or character of the under surface of the leaves as compared with glaucous other species of Phyllostachys. The foliage does not, however, differ greatly in either of these respects from that of most others. The leaves, 2 or 3 to 5 on a twig are ~~-6~- inches long. The dry culm sheaths are dull straw color, lightly spotted and blotched with brown, and have a characteristic roughness on the upper part of the outer surface due to scattered minute projections from some of the veins. The maximum height recorded at Savannah for P. viridi-glaucescens is about ?~ feet-a third taller than that attained at Biltmore, where minimum winter specific in the name one temperatures 13. sometimes are injurious. Ph,~llo.stccchys nigra f. muchisa.sa is one of several black-stemmed variants of nigra and is grown somewhat widely in Japan and in Formosa (Taiwan). The country of origin is said by Dr. T. Nakai to be in doubt. It was introduced into H;urope many years ago from a source not now known and was imported into the United States by the Department of Agriculture in 1928. Culms up to ~'~ feet in height have been produced near Savannah, Georgia. P. 14. Phylloslachys aureosulcata (Plate VI) is a medium-sized Chinese bamboo, known to reach heights of at least 30 feet in favorable environments in the South. The plant was originally collected as an unidentified species in Chekiang Province, China. The specific name alludes to the pale-golden or yellowish color of the sulcus (the flattened or grooved area of the internodes of the culm and branches) that is present during the first year. In the second year, as the green of the rounded part of the culm or branch becomes paler, the yellowish color of the sulcus becomes gradually less apparent and by the third year is practically indistinguishable from the faded green of the rounded part. During the first season at least, the pale-golden sulcus constitutes an infallible means of identification of this bamboo. Another useful character is a faint roughness of the culm and branches that can be felt when the fingers are moved gently upward over the surface of a new culm. This roughness also becomes less perceptible with time. The light-green culm sheaths, with their whitish threadlike stripes and the prominent, bristled auricles at the apex, are likewise very characteristic during the period of development of the new culms. The leaves, 2-5 inches long, are borne 3-5 on a twig. The new shoots, when of sufficiently large diameter to be useful for food, are reported to be of very good quality. 1'hyllostaohys aureosulcuta was for a time placed under P. nevinii and was sent out widely under that name. After discovery of the error (1933) plants were sent out by the Department of Agriculture simply as \"Phylloslacly.s sp., P. I. No. 55713\" until the species was described under the new name in 1945. The fact of the extensive distribution of this bamboo made by the Department of Agriculture, in the North as well as in the South, is one of the reasons for including it 41 in this paper, of it. 15. though its attractiveness and vigor of growth well justify mention Phyllostachys aurea (Plate III, V) may be the first species of this genus successfully introduced into the United States. Culms up to 30 feet in height have been produced near Savannah, Georgia, and there are unverified reports from other localities of greater heights. Although the species has the creeping rhizomes of all its relatives, it spreads much less rapidly than many. It is not difficult to confine it to a satisfactory clump form, for a number of years at least, by cutting any culms that may come up beyond the limits desired. The leaves of P. aurea are mostly small but they range up to 5 inches long; there are usually only 2 or 3 on a twig. The species has flowered oftener than any other of the introduced bamboos but little seed has been produced. An outstanding characteristic of this bamboo is a type of distortion of many of the culms by which a varying number of the lower internodes are shortened, in a very irregular manner ; the nodes occasionally are inclined at an oblique angle, and there appears to be a form in which this pattern is commonly carried out in such a way as to give a tortoise-shell effect. This crowding of the nodes makes such culms very attractive for distinctive fishing poles and walking sticks, especially in view of the fact that the wood of this species is generally rated high in strength. The mature culms of this species may be considered as of high quality generally for all purposes to which bamboo of its size range may be adapted. The specific name aurea, which would seem to imply a distinctly golden or yellow coloration, is to that extent a misnomer. The culm is green at first and becomes no more golden with age than do the culms of numerous related species when grown under similar light conditions; and it does not at any time compare with the brilliant yellow culms of two other members of the genus, P. bambusoides var. castilloni and P. sulphurea. 16. Phyllostachys nigra var. henonis (Plate II~ has produced culms more than 50 feet in height in the Gulf region but, although it is considered one of the most cold-resistant bamboos, it is so often killed back in winter at Glenn Dale that no culm has exceeded 15 feet. It is a handsome bamboo and is well worthy of trial, especially where subzero temperatures are not an annual occurrence. Synonyms are P. henonis, P. puberla. ROBERT A. YOUNG . _ Division of Plant Exploration and Introduction Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Agricultural Research Administration U. S. Department of Agriculture Engineering 42 EXPLANATION OF THE ILLUSTRATIONS Plate II. (LefT). A group of six species of running bamboos grown in \"clumps,\" confined, at U.S. Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Maryland. Foreground : Armulinaria graminea. Center : Sasa chrysantha (left) ; S. pumila (right). Background : Pseudosa.sa japonica (left); Phyllostachys nigra with roots var. henonis (center); Shibataea kumasaca (right). (Right). Pseudosasa japonica, the well-known Metake, at the old U. S. Botanical Garden, Washington, D.C. Plants up to 7 feet tall. Plate III. (Top, le`ft). Sasa pumila, a dwarf running bamboo, with roots confined. (Bottom, le`ft). ~.Sasa tessellata, one of the largest-leaved of all bamboos but of low stature, rarely taller than 3 feet. (Roots confined.) (Right). Basal sections of selected culms of Phyllostashys aurea, showing the characteristic distortion of nodes and internodes of some of the culms that makes them attractive for walking sticks, etc. ; no two culms are exactly alike but some are very similar. The base of nearly one-half of the culms may exhibit these irregularities of structure. Photograph by Robert L. Taylor. Plate IV. (Le`ft). Shibataea kumasaca, a unique broad-leaved bamboo-roots confined-with ovate-lanceolate leaves. The new culms, with leaves not yet fully expanded, dominate the center and right side of the clump. (Right). Sasa nariegata, a dwarf bamboo-roots confined-with whitestriped leaves. (Plants 2 feet high. Phyllostachys viridi-glaucescens in background.) Plate V. (Lefl)..Sasn veitchii, usually to a only 15 inches dwarf broad-leaved running or less in height. bamboo, growing (Right). Phyllostachys aurea, kept in artificial clump form by cutting all culms that come up on the outside. This clump, growing in 1933 at the U. S. Plant Introduction Garden, Glenn Dale, Md., had a diameter of 6 feet at the base. Plate VI. (Le`ft). ~asa palmata, to about one 5 feet high. of the larger-leaved bamboos, growing here Old U. S. Botanical Garden, Washington, D.C. (Right). Phyllostachys aureosulcata, stage of growth as on a Chinese hardy bamboo, in early West Front of U. S. Capitol, Washington, D. C., it appeared in 1983. 43 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Contemplated Landscape Changes at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24167","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14e896e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Farrand, Beatrix","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 NOVEMBER 1, 1946 NUMBER 10 ~ CONTEMPLATED LANDSCAPE CHANGES AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM than seventy years ago the Arnold Arboretum was started as a colof trees and shrubs of the temperate regions of the world grouped in a landscape design by Frederick Law Olmsted. Mr. Olmsted's unrivalled skill and his perception of the possibilities latent in the varied topography of the acreage used the natural modeling of the land to full advantage. The first director was Professor Charles Sprague Sargent. Perhaps his greatest contribution to the design was his appreciation of the value of the various plant groups considered as an integral part of a harmonious picture. Years of close observation and study of landscape composition convinced him that plant material could not only be displayed correctly from the botanist's point of view but also as part of a design. In placing each plantation, advantage was taken of pleasant incidents of topography, either an outcropping of rock; a steep hill slope or a quiet stretch of open meadow-land. The setting of the groups was considered quite as important as the number of different specimens they contained. Under his leadership plants were placed so that they might be studied either as free-standing individuals or as parts of a larger whole. Different sorts were variously treated in an effort to solve the double problem of showing a botanical collection and yet displaying the qualities of plants as they might be used in outdoor design. Emphasis was frequently repeated on the need for space between groups and complication and crowding of planting was deprecated. In the years which have passed since the early plantations were started, hundreds of introductions have been made, many of great merit, but others have proved either of no permanent a3ult value or so like other hybrids and varieties that they are of little interest except to a student of the particular genus they represent. Since the early years many new introductions have been carefully tried but should now be ruthlessly discarded since they show no special merit. Long before the so-called \"habitat\" groups of animals began to appear in Natural History Museums Professor Sargent anticipated them in the plant world -~- MORE lection 45 living collection under his direction became more than an outdoor herbarInevitable changes made by passing years have altered many of the conditions. Hurricanes have swept through the groups and have destroyed or maimed many plants. New problems are awaiting solution, among others the re-forestation of Hemlock Hill. The ageing conifers need special study, since the hurricane of 1938 did irreparable damage to this grove of century old trees. Overcrowded plantations should be gradually remodelled and Peters Hill and its experimental collection of thorns and apples should also be carefully remewed. The problems are many and the need is great for a re-study of existmg conditions in order to restore the general composition as much as possible to its early grace and easy spaciousness. A hasty review of present conditions makes certain needs apparent. It is evident that the studies started several years ago regarding elimination of duplicate and over-age plants should be broadened and continued. Thinning of groups should be carefully done rather than additional plantations started. Among many questions to be considered is whether the comparatively small acreage of the Arboretum can wisely accommodate all the species and varieties of woody plants of the temperate regions. If the acreage is thought too small for this full collection, a further decision should be made whether to limit the Arboretum collections or to provide a space for planting the material of comparatively limited interest which would overcrowd the present available area. The physical aspects of the care of the Arboretum have altered with passing years. Policing has become a considerable difficulty and protection of plants and visitors are an essential part of administration. Costs of upkeep are very different and labor conditions must be frankly faced if the institution is to endure on the lines originally conceived. Old friends of the Arboretum may feel aggrieved in seeing some of the plantations altered, but they will be less distressed when they realize that these very alterations are absolutely essential. They are undertaken in order to restore the design to essentials in the plant groups and also to display to advantage the best and most ornamental of the plants now growing within the Arboretum. A start must be made in every undertaking and in order not to attempt a larger campaign than budget funds and labor conditions permit, a few areas of various types have been chosen to begin the long and slow process of rehabilitation. Greater demands are made today on normal upkeep of grounds due to shortage of labor and materials during the war years. Hurricanes have dealt harshly with the plants in the neighborhood of the Administration Building as the pines and other conifers on the hillside were almost completely destroyed. Much of the hill was replanted with red and white pines immediately after the 1938 hurricane but it now needs additional attention. Below the pine border plantation, a few of the best introductions of small trees and shrubs might be planted between the building and the entrance gate walls. On the opposite side of the road where some of the groups have left their best years behind them, new groups of Arnold Arboretum introductions might be placed, chosen from sorts appropriate to the place and growing conditions. At the Forest Hills entrance the Pyrus collection has already been removed making room for a as the ium. 46 ~i ~ ~ ~ .::; U '\"' ..... J ~ oo< '\" ... '\" v o 0 O a G 50 . \"C ;::I ~a ~ .(5;.~:! ..8 .~ o V < b 0 G < i 8 e G of > x HxoE &# 3C; o ':: 0 a a'\"I w a v ~ a of x a a 0 G 0 ro G 37 ro O J\". O ro collection of the best crabapples started there several years ago. These two entrances will exhibit some of the many plants given to horticulture by the Arnold Arboretum during its seventy-four years of plant introduction. The planting at Bussey Hill has also deteriorated and been gashed by the' elements so that this neighborhood must also be partly replanted and considerably thinned as some of the older plants are now almost unsightly. One of the major undertakings should be the start of the rehabilitation of Hemlock Hill. The opinion of forestry experts has been sought and the Harvard Forest has recommended a far-sighted course of treatment. Soil must be rebuilt and reconditioned, nurse trees encouraged, and the young hemlocks planted after the 1938 hurricane should be protected, so that in time to come, many years hence, the hill will again be covered with hemlocks interspersed with a few hardwoods, as it used to be at the time of its greatest beauty. It is evident that where so much should be done, only a few areas can be attempted at the start. Everyone must agree that the places which cry loudest for help should be those first attended to, so the conifer and shrub collections and Peters Hill will have to wait their turn. Professor Sargent often commented on the Massachusetts climate as unfavorable to many cone-bearers, many of which come from moister and cooler regions where there are foggy nights and tempered sunshine. He foresaw the progressive deterioration of many species after they had passed their attractive adolescence, and often said the old Norway spruces of the neighborhood proved more emphatically than warning words how difficult it was to foresee the appearance of an aged alien tree when studied in its prom- ising youth. Certain present defects of upkeep must be corrected as funds become available. There is great need for a proper watering system. Ample nursery space must be provided where valuable sick plants may be coaxed back to health, and new plants tried and sorts grown which are needed to complete the collections, but for which there is no room in the Arboretum itself. It is hoped that the Case estates in Weston, recently given the Arboretum, will provide ample ground for this purpose. Patience and understanding interest will be needed both from the casual visitor and the technically interested horticulturist or botanist, but before long vistas will reappear which will add material beauty to the landscape and plants will have wider frames and more spacious surroundings. The spirit and teaching of the first Director will be studied as clearly as memory can dictate and the contributions of succeeding Directors followed as carefully as present-day situations permit. BEATRIX FARRAND Consulting Landscape Gardener 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hemlock - The Queen of Conifers","article_sequence":9,"start_page":49,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24168","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15ea325.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jenkins, Charles F.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 6 DECEMBER 13, 1946 NUMBERS 11-1~? HEbILOCK-THE QUEEN OF CONIFERS beginning of the Hemlock Arboretum, founded at \"Far Country,\" Germantown, Philadelphia, in 19:i1, the Arnold Arboretum and its officers from the \"Keeper\" down have been most helpful. New plants, generous advice and sound suggestions have all contributed to what success, so far, has come this way. Especially helpful has been the cooperation of William H. Judd, propagator at Jamaica Plain. His frequent visits, his generous contributions of new varieties, the eagle eye kept open for errors of statement and printer's mistakes in the little quarterly Hemlock Bulletin, all were deeply appreciated. We called him, familiarly and affectionately, \"Juddy.\" His death on May 29th, after thirty-three years at the Arnold Arboretum, was a shock, giving us a deep sense of personal loss. So it was, when it was suggested by Arnoldia's editor that hemlock copy for a bulletin would be welcomed, there was nothing to do but to comply promptly. A bulletin for popular reading was requested; for a scientific treatise the FROM the editor would have had to look elsewhere. Among the first of our American landscape architects was Andrew Jackson Downing, who in his \"Rural Essays\" published in18.i4, described the hemlock, Tsugn canadensis, from a horticultural viewpoint. In this important book, one of the milestones in aesthetic appreciation of rural life, he wrote : \" We place the hemlock first, as we consider it beyond all question the most graceful tree grown in this country. There are few who have the least idea of its striking beauty when grown alone on a smooth lawn, its branches extending freely on all sides and sweeping the ground, its loose spray and full feather foliage floating freely in the- air and its proportions full of the first symmetry and beauty.\" This sketch could be filled entirely with similar quotations from horticulturists, botanists, poets and artists. Dr. Charles S. Sargent, long the head of the Arnold Arboretum, summed it up in a few words in his monumental \"Silva of North America\" -\" No other conifer surpasses the hemlocks in grace and beauty.\" 49 lumberman, who ran rafts of timber down the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania, once said the early Scotch-Irish settlers regarded the white pines as \"noble\" trees and called a forest of them the House of Lords, whereas they thought the hemlocks lacked \"quality'' and he likened them to the House of Commons. But this opinion may have been from a practical, the lumber, standpoint. I hold no brief for the hemlock against the pine, except for gracefulness and it may be pointed out that in the English form of government, the House of Commons is the far more important body. Let me express the thought a little differently : An old The pine is called the \"kingly\" tree, It well deserves full royalty ; The hemlock's called the \"princely\" tree, This lower rank is not for me. Right here and now, Oh Hemlock tree, A royal crown is given thee; Not prince, but equal,- \" queenly\" tree In beauty, grace and symmetry; Great honor his, full honor hers, The KING and QUEEN of conifers. From the first settlement of the American Colonies, hemlock was a valuable of lumber supply, and later its bark was important as an agent in tanning leather. In 1887, one million two hundred thousand tons of hemlock bark were cut and used for this purpose and in many cases the logs were allowed to rot on the ground. In modern times other barks have been extensively used and synthetic chemicals have largely replaced hemlock for tanning. When introduced to the English settlers hemlock was considered and called \"spruce\" or a \"fir.\" Because its leaves and branches resembled that of the European poison hemlock, Conium maculatum, a weed of the carrot family wellknown in Europe, it was commonly called \"hemlock spruce,\" that is, the spruce with hemlock-like leaves. When years later the botanists determined it was not a spruce, the name hemlock continued as the common name. Visitors to the Hemlock Arboretum at \"Far Country,\" knowing their classics better than their botany, often asked which part of the hemlock is poisonous, the roots or the leaves, remembering that the philosopher Socrates was put to death by the\"hemlock cup.\" In his day this was the Athenian's method of putting criminals to death, and Plato's description of the symptoms caused by Hemlock poisoning is one of the masterpieces of the literary world as he tells of the last hours of his beloved friend. No part of our hemlock tree is poisonous. The botanical name of the genus hemlock, Tsuga, comes from Japan, meaning in that language \"the mother tree.\" When first introduced to the botanists of Europe, the hemlock was included in the genus Pi~eu.s. Later the French botanist, Michaux grouped it with the firs. Finally, another French botanist, Carriere, source 50 ~ % i U . K D ' L ~'. F~ i'. O C . s C.' N 8 m 3 1~1 ea w y o G z ~ ~ a'~. 'S CC s .~ ~ U s N lr C _C O t~ J\"r 1~ s a O . O IC L~ classified all hemlocks into a separate group under the generic name Tsuga. In 1931, the writer started making a collection of hemlocks at his home in Germantown, Pennsylvania, on a hillside overlooking the Wissahickon Valley, which is part of Fairmount Park. There were seven and a half acres available, and gradually a Hemlock Arboretum was evolved. Arboreta, nurserymen, collectors and horticulturists throughout the country have generously cooperated and the number of accessions on the card catalogue is now 211. Some of these have died, many have been shared with other arboreta or growers, so that the number actually growing in the Arboretum is about 140, with many duplicates. Hemlocks are indigenous to horth America and eastern Asia. They are not found native m Europe, western Asia, Africa or in the southern hemisphere. There is some difference of opinion as to just how many species of hemlock should be recognized. We have two species in the eastern United States, two on the Pacific coast, two in Japan, two in China and one each in the Himalayas and the Island of Formosa. Some other species have been listed, but they are not generally recognized by botanists. Of the foreign species, Tsuga dumosa, coming from the Himalaya ~Iount<mns in Sikkim and Nepal, a most distinctive hemlock, is not hardy in the neighborhoud of Philadelphia. It comes from high in the mountains where the rainfall is 120 inches in the year. Likewise neither Tsuga yunnanensis, from the Chinese province of Yunnan, which is also called \"the land below the clouds,\" nor T.sugu formosana will stand our climate and more severe winters. These three species are removed shortly after the first frost comes to the sheltering care of a cool green house at the nearby hospitable Morris Arboretum, where they stay until danger of frost is over in the spring. The remaining foreigners from China and Japan are perfectly hardy in the latitude of Philadelphia. Tsuga chinensis, from the province of Sezuan in western China, is growing successfully in the Arnold Arboretum and e last year the specimen at \"Far Country \" made a growth of twenty inches. We have two trees growing side by side-a seedling which the late W. H. Judd of the Arnold Arboretum grew from seed obtained from the Sun Yetsen Park, in Nanking, C;hma, and a grafted plant on L:sugn canadensis stock. They are of the same age but the seedling is now outstripping the grafted plant in growth. The two species from Japan are also hardy. L'swga diaers~'olia is one of the best of the hemlocks for ornamental purposes. It is slow growing and of unusual beauty and distinction. Its leaves, when a branch is turned up, are grayish white underneath and on this account the Japanese call it the \"rice tree.\" It was introduced in 1861. Z'suga .Sieboldei is a more rapidly growing tree. It was introduced in the United States in 1850 and both it and 7'. divers~'olin are grown and sold by nurserymen specializing in the rarer plants. No variations of these foreign species have so far been obtainable, but some have been listed in Japanese catalogues. It is an interesting fact that Tsuga diversifolia is the first, of all the hemlock varieties, to put out leaves in the spring, and Tsuga Sieboldii is the last. JZ d :e a < h c ~ -14 0 ~c e ., \"C EW. -c w a = a. a ni z; ~. I i m 2' tz & a h Of the two hemlocks from the Pacific coast, Tsuga heterophylla and Tsuga ll~Teris an important lumber tree. The forestry authorities of British Columbia stated on a recent visit that they were growing it \" by the millions\" for reforestation purposes. But on the western coast its use as an ornamental was very restricted. A visit to one of the larger nurseries near Seattle some years ago disclosed but a bare dozen specimens in stock. Josiah Hoopes, whom I remember well as a boy, wrote the first book in America on comfers in 1868. While extolling the beauty of our eastern hemlock, he said that the only tree which could compare with it for beauty was the Deodar Cedrns Deodaro. In lower California we found the latter used for ornamental purposes exclusi~ ely-, as against the western hemlock, which compares most favorably in beauty and symmetry with our eastern hemlock. Tsuga heterophylla is a native of the Pacifio Northwest where it gets plenty of moisture; for this reason it does not do well in the East. On the other hand, the mountain hemlock, Tsuga Mertensiana, coming from the high Sierras, is a contented, although slow-growing, inhabitant of the Hemlock Arboretum. It is this tree growing amid the snows and ice and rocks of the western mountains, its natural habitat, which has aroused the enthusiasm of western poets and naturalists. Readers who are familiar with the writings of John Muir, will come across many allusions to its grace and beauty. It is our eastern hemlock, Tsuga oanaden.s~is, which is a native of the Atlantic Seaboard from Canada to northern Georgia, that we turn to for most of these variations which have added interest and zest to the collector's task. John C. Swartley, a young man who had graduated from the University of Pennsylvania and went from there to do practical work at the nearby Morris Arboretum, took the Hemlock Arboretum as a laboratory for advanced study. Starting in the spring of 1938, he has devoted a large part of his time to studying the mutations of Tsuga canadensis. The result of his labors appeared in a thesis at Cornell University, where he had been taking an advanced course in ornamental horticulture. In the preparation of this work, Mr. Swartley visited many of the nurseries, arboreta and private estates on the Atlantic Seaboard. He found sixty-two variants of Tsuga canuden,sis, all of which had been named, many of which were similar to plants bearing other names. It was confusion and duplication. A nurseryman or botanist or plant lover might find an unusual hemlock growing in a nursery row or in the wild, proceed to propagate it and give it or have it given a name, without knowing that an identical plant bore some other name. And having quoted Dr. Charles S. Sargent as to the beauty of the hemlock, it is only fair to repeat what he has to say about these variations : \"The abnormal cultivated forms of Tsuga canadensis are distinguished m some cases, by a dwarf and compact habit, in others by fastigiate branches, and by unusually broad or narrow leaves or by foliage slightly marked with white. About eighteen of these forms are cultivated but none qf'them have any particular beauty or ualue.\" (The italics are mine, De tensiana, the former ~- gustibus non disputandum. ) 54 C ~ w.S c \"~ c 0 5 ~S ., u g o ~ '-co\".!<: V a~ . <: c v w w -~ 0 :~ ~a z ~, x :.< p: FW., ; ~i .G ..:i z ?w '\" 3 0 c .~ x u .~ E v c G 0 8 3 c t ~ !: ~ .\"n a ~ Using the Hemlock Arboretum as a laboratory, Mr. Swartley proceeded to try bring order out of chaos. Cooperating with the committee which was at work on the new edition of \"Standardized Plant Names\" published in 1942, the natural seed variations of Tnuga canadensis were reduced to twenty-one classes as to fulluw s : Broadleaf (iulden Slender Bushv Globe Cinnamon Dense Denseleaf Largeleaf I,~ttleleaf Prostrate Pygmy Fastigiata Globe Pyramidal Dwarf Pyramidal Sparseleaf 5preud~n~,r Twiggy V'eepin~~ V'hitet~p Yewlilce In the above classification it will be noted that some are differentiated by their form or manner of growth, as bushy, fastigiate, pyramidal, weeping, spreading, prostrate, etc. Others are specialized by their color, golden, whitetip and cmnamon, while the third class are those whose description relates to their leaves or to sire and shape. Then follow 5, in this authoritative book, a list of sixty named variations of our eastern hemlock. Mr. Swartley is 5ti11 at work observmt,~ and classifying this bewildering list. Perhaps the best-known and the most popular of these mutations of L;ougn ca~r nrlen.si.r are the weeping pendulous trees, and heading this list is Sargent's weeir ing hemlock. This variety was important in the prominence of its distinguished discoverer, the manner of its original propagation and its dissemination. General Joseph How l.md sometime before 18 ifound four seedlings growing in the mountains back of Beacon, B.5'. He gave one to his good neighbor, Henry ~'. Sargent, another to the famous Hunnewell Arboretum at ~'ellesley, Massachusetts, another to Dr. Charles S. Sargent of the Arnold Arboretum and kept one for himself. Of these, the latter two are still growing and flour~shing, one at Beacon, N.Y. and the other not far from the Arnold Arboretum. From some of these original plants grafts were made and plants were shown in the horticultural display at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia, in 1876. They created a great sensation among horticulturists and nature lovers, and as a result there are still growing today around Philadelphia many of these early specimens. They were all grafted on Tsuga cnnodensis stock, and in most cases this has influenced the plant so that the clones are never quite as low growing as their ancestor. If you have room for only one hemlock, plant a Sargent, picking one from the nursery row that is most pendulous. The plant at the Hemlock Arboretum is now thirty years old and we call it our \"vernal fountain of perpetual joy.\" Of twelve specimens of Sargent's weeping hemlock planted in the Centennial gardens, four still survive and form a most striking and beautiful group on the lawn near Horticultural Hall in Fairmount Park, Philadelphia. At Inver House, a country es- 56 ~ :~ . os ~ x U ~s OS 0 OS \"'C c Q; U ~. W U os L 00 E 0 '.7 1~ o !>IJ H~\/ a Q; V~ +' O 0 a0g a. ... 0 ,.g ~ '\" a . X '\" d <:j 62 x U _O E '8a +' U !>IJ C a~ B OJ; m M a~ a E~ twelve miles from Philadelphia, are a dozen of these graceful and unusual trees which must be at least sixty years old. Just before the financial crash in 1929, ten of them had been sold to a gentleman on Long Island for ~1600 apiece, delivered and planted. It took a little time to arrange for their transportation. They were too large to go through the Holland Tunnel or on the ferry boats in New York harbor, so a barge was secured to float them down the Delaware River and around by sea. But the stock market collapsed, the purchaser cancelled his order, and the trees are still growing, in all their glory, in their old home. One of the latest additions to the Hemlock Arboretum is a prostrate variety which crawls over the ground. Another miniature one is Tsuga canadensis minuta, a little plant which grows about one-half-inch a year and is now six inches in height and twenty years old. The white tip variety, Tsuga canadensis \"alba spicata,\" comes from a plant some ten feet high growing at the Morris Arboretum, which is thought to be nearly one hundred years old. Tsuga canrxdensis Jenkinsii (Bailey) is a quick growing, small-leaved variety with rather sparse, pendant branches. Of particular interest is a globose bushy form with at least a score of stems, its only drawback being its inability to stand up under a heavy weight of snow. But it would be impossible to describe all the many variations of form, size, growth and color. Mr. Swartley's monumental book on the mutations of Tsuga c~rrnadensis contains 382 pages of typewritten material, with 245 illustrations. Cornell University is now at work on an edition which, when issued, will undoubtedly increase interest in Tsuga canadensis and its variations, and will be a distinct contribution to horticulture. Of the second species, indigenous to the eastern United States, Tsuga caroliniana is represented in the Hemlock Arboretum by four varieties, with one more spoken for and expected in the spring. This species has a romantic history remaining unknown to the scientific world until 1850. For nearly a hundred years a long list of experienced botanists had combed the southern Alleghenies, beginning with William Bartram, Michaux, the Frasers, and in 1842, Asa Gray himself. None of them had noticed any difference in the hemlocks which grew so profusely on crag and mountain and in glen and gorge. \"Pinus canadensis,\" as it was then called, was the only genus that had been identified. It was in 1858 that Professor Lewis R. Gibbs reported to the Elliott Society of Charleston, South Carolina a body formed for the serious study of natural history, as follows : \"Professor Gibbs mentioned his recent verification of a suspicion he had entertained respecting the existence of a new species of fir in the Saluda Mountains resembling Pinus canadensis but clearly distinct by well-marked characteristics.\" Thus to the distinguished scientist of Charleston belongs the honor of discovering and identifying the charming Tsuga cnroliniana. It was a gratification that the correspondence between Dr. Gibbs and Dr. Asa Gray which is now reposing in the tate some 58 Gray Herbarium at Cambridge, was first published in the Hemlock Bulletin of October, 1934. The four varieties of Tsuga caroliniana so far established in the Arboretum are: 1, the type plant; 2, a dense compact variety, Tsuga caroliniana compac(a; 3, T. caroliniazza fastigitda and ~, pendula. Let me conclude the reference to Tsuga caroliniazza by quoting from Ernest H. Wilson, the \"Keeper\" of the Arnold Arboretum, who says : \" Both the Hemlocks (Tsuga canadensis and Tsuga caroliniana) are excellent trees, but the Carolina species with its dense and tufted branches is the most lovely.\" If you ask how many variations of Tsuga are growing in the Hemlock Arboretum, the answer is we do not know, but probably fifty. It will take some years to have them all classified. Some of them which were distinctive in their juvenile form, as they have grown older, have lost their early character and it is hard to place them. The Arboretum at \"Far Country\" is open to the public and horticulturallyminded visitors are always welcome. More than half the specimens have been presented by nurserymen to augment the collection. Growers will find among their rows of seedlings some \"ugly duckling,\" that is, one that differs from the type and which they cannot sell, not being true to type. They lay it aside thinking they will propagate and disseminate it, but nurserymen are busy, there may not be a market, and they finally send it along to the Hemlock Arboretum or, phanage. Last fall John C. Swartley made a \"swing around the hemlock circle\" visiting many nurseries throughout the east to encourage them to propagate their distinctive varieties, list them in the catalogues and make a market for them. Many of are more suited for foundation planting, for rock gardens and for hedges, than the varietal type. The Hemlock Arboretum receives inquiries, from time to time, as to where some rare form may be obtained. Several nurseries are now at work increasing their stock of varieties. The Arboretum issues a quarterly bulletin of hemlock news and will be glad to send it to anyone, without charge, who would be interested. It is not a commercial enterprise, there is no stock for sale, but cuttings and assistance with information will be gladly furnished. How old and large do hemlocks grow? In 1932, observing the two hundred and fiftieth anniversary of the coming of William Penn to Pennsylvania, a census was made of the trees in Pennsylvania, New Jersey and Delaware, which in all probability were growing when Penn sailed up the Delaware in 1682. The list of trees, which numbered ~.i0, included nine hemlocks. The smaller of the group of nine was nine feet, eight inches, in circumferenc. As to age, a stump is or was standing in the Tionesta National Forest in Warren County, Pennsylvania, that was fifty inches in diameter and had five hundred and sixty annual rings of growth. From Sullivan County, New York, a reliable observer years ago counted eight hundred rings on a fallen hemlock, a monarch of the forest. The log had been stripped of its bark and allowed to rot. the dwarf varieties 59 Hemlocks, like other conifers, should not be planted along city streets, ur in parks in large cities, where their leaves, which continue for three years or more, become coated with dirt and smoke. They will not thrive and are no credit to the race. They do best growing in full sun and in any good garden soil. We give them a mulch annually of rotted oak leaves and peat moss but have never used commercial fertilizer. The dwarf or unusual forms should not be grafted but grown from cuttings, as the stock, usually the varietal form of T.suga canndensi.s, has a marked effect on the new plant. While Sargent's weeping hemlock was named by Dr. Charles S. Sargent for his cousin Henry W. Sargent, the tree in ninety-nine times out of a hundred is associated with the distinguished scientist, arborist, and for 55 years head of the Arnold Arboretum. While not strictly horticulture, I would like to conclude this account of the tree he loved so well, by a sonnet to his memory: I do not know where Sargent's body lies, If shaft or urn may mark that sylvan spot, We do not know that he builded to the skies, With \"Sylva\" he will never be forgot. Twice fortunate was he, whose ardent task Added each day new luster to his fame, And greater monument no one need ask, Than the low-sweeping hemlock with his name. . In green cascades around its lowly girth Its branches graceful as green waterfalls; With soft caress they stroke old mother earth, It Sargent's calm and dignity recalls. A monument, which time will not destroy, A vernal fountain of perpetual joy. . CHARLES F. JENKINS The Hemlock Arboretum Note resigned as Director of the Arnold Arboretum in June, his resignation being accepted as effective at the end of July, 1946. He retains his Dr. E. D. Merrill academic position as Arnold Professor of Botany and is to become Professor Emeritus in June, 1948. [ 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume VI","article_sequence":10,"start_page":61,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24170","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d15eab27.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME VI Illustrations are in bold face type Acer rubrum - columnare, 10 saccharum monumentale, 10 I Albizzia julibrissin rosea, I Arnold Arboretum, Contemplated Garden Club of America, The, Tours the Arnold Arboretum, May 15, 1946, ton, 9-123#& x E; Gardeners' and Florists' Club of Bos28 12 2 Landscape Changes - at the, 45-48 Arundinaria, 30, 32 graminea, 32, Plate II simoni, 38 Ash, Mountain, 111 i Azalea, Korean, 11 - Hedge Experiment, Hemlock Arboretum, 49, 60 Hemlock Hill, rehabilitation of, 48 Hemlock, The Queen of Conifers, ' 49-56 - - - Pinkshell, 9 Royal, I 1 1 Torch, 9, 11 Bamboo, Narihira, 38 Bamboos, Hardiness of, 29 Bamboos, the hardy running, 30, 32 Bamboos for Northern Gardens, l9-4l Bamboos, Running, a group of six species of, (Left); Pseudosasa ja- Henry, Louis, 7 Honeysuckle, 2, l0 Horticultural Club of Boston, 25, 28 ponica p. 30 (Right); Plate II, opposite Broom, Warminster, 11 Cedrus Deodara, .54 libani, 11 I Cercis canadensis, I Cherries, Oriental, 12z Conium maculatum, 50 I Cornus florida, I Crab, Manchurian, 12 I Crabapples, I I Cytisus praecox, 11 Dogwood, 11 Q Evergreens, Dwarf, 12 - Horticulturist, Assistant, 2 Howard, Heman, 2 Hurricane damage, 46 Introduction of Woody Plants into North America, History of, 13-23 Jenkins, Charles F., 60 Judd, The William Henry, Memorial Fund, 28 Judd, William H., Propagator, 23, 25-28, 49 Judd, William Henry, 1888-1946, Propagator at Arnold Arboretum, Plate I, opposite p. 26 Kalmia latifolia, I] Laurel, Mountain, Lilac, 3, 10, 12 Madake, 38 Maintenance 11 I force, Arnold Arbore- tum, - 2 Malus baccata 48 Exochorda species, 10 Farrand, Beatrix, Mrs., 23, 2 Fordham, Alfred, mandshurica, 12 2 Sargenti, 12 Maple, red, columnar form of, 10 sentry, 10 o - 61 Merrill, E. D., 4, 60 Metake, 38 Narihiradake, 88 Paeonia albiflora, 8 7 Delaveyi, i - lutea, suffruticosa, :i, 6 Pearlbush, 10 Peony, hybrids, 7 \"Alice Harding,\" 7 - - aureosulcata (Right); ata (Left) ; -- Plate VI, opposite p. 38 Sasa palm- . - - - - \"Argosy,\" 7 \"Banquet,\" 7 ~ - \"Black Pirate,\" 7 7 - - \"Festival,\" 7 \"Flambeau,\" - bambusoides, 38 var. castiloni, 42 - nigra forma henonis, 40 forma muchisasa, 41 sulphurea, 4l viridi-glaucescens, 40 I Pinxter flower, 11 32 Pleioblastus, Propagator, Assistant, 2 z Prunus Sargenti, 12 32 Pseudosasa, - japonica, 36, 38, Plate II - , , - - \" La Lorraine,\" 7 \"Roman Gold,\" 7 \"Silver Sails,\" i -- japonica (Right); Bamboos, Running, a 'group of six species of, (Left); Plate II, opposite p. 30 23 Rehder, Alfred, . \"Souvenir 7 Cornu,\" de Maxine Rhododendron obtusum 11 1 Kaempferi, 9, Kaempferi- - i \" Surprise,\" Rhododendron obtusum 8 - - - - Moutan, 7 Society, American, Tree, 5-8 Color range of, 6 Fertilization of, 7 Hardiness of, 7 One of the many Arnold Arboretum Introductions, Plate VII, op- posite - p. 46 I I nudiflorum, I roseum, I - - - Schlippenbachii, I1 - History of, 6 6 - - Method of Purchasing, (i-7 - Vaseyi, 9 yedoense poukhanense, I I - -- - - Planting of, Propagat~on of, 6 Peters Hill, proposed review of, Phyllostachys, 30, 32 hardy bamboos of the genus, aurea, 42, Plate III, V aurea, Rosa - hugonis, 10 primula, 10 46 40 - Sargent, Charles Sprague, 9, 26, 45, 48, 49, 56, 60 Sasa, 30, 32 argenteo-striata, 34 - - culms of (Right); Sasa - pumila ~! p. 32 - (Top, left); Sasa tessellata (Bottom, left); Plate III, opposite ' chrysantha, 32, Plate II palmata, 34, 36, Plate VI palmata aureosulcata - (Left); Phyllostachys (Right) Plate VI, opIII Sasa tessellata aurea (Right) ; Sasa Plate veitchii (Left) - posite p. 38 - V, opposite p. 36 aureosulcata, 41, Plate VI 62 pumila, 34, Plate II, pumila (Top, left); (Bottom, left); Phyllostachys rea, culms of au- - - minuta, 58 56 (Right); Plate III, - - pendula, 1 1, - - opposite p. senanensis, 36 tessellata, 36, Plate III pumila 323#& x E; - canadensis pendula is most tessellata aurea, (Bottom, left); Sasa (Top, left) ; Phyllostachys culms of (Right); Plate III, one of the forms of all the Cangraceful ada hemlock varieties, the Sargent weeping hemlock, Plate XI, oppo- s~te p. 56 - - opposite p. 32 variegata, 84, Plate IV variegata (Right); Shibataea kumasaca (Left); Plate IV, opposite p. 34 - veitehii, 34, Plate V veitchii (Left); Phyllostachys aurea (Right); Plate V, opposite , - carolimana, 58 favt~g~ata, ,i9 - - caroliniana, the Carolina hemlock, just beautiful an ornamental specimen as its northern relative Tsuga canadensis, Plate VIII, opas - posite p. 50 chinensis, 52 - diversifolia, diversifolia, native in .il a p. 36 - splendid Plate hemlock - veitchii forma minor, 36 Saunders, A.P., 7 Japan, 52 52 IX, oppo- site p. 52 - Sem~arundinaria, 30, fastuosa, 38 Shibataea, 32#& x3E; - 32 dumosa, - formosana, - heterophylla, Mertensian<~, 54 54 as - - kumasaca, 34, Plate II, IV kumasaca (Left); Sasa variegata (Right); Plate IV, opposite p. 34 I Silk Tree, 11 - - Mertensiana, mountain hemlock it grows in Mt. Baker National Forest in the Rocky Mountains, Plate - - Spring in 1946, 1-4 Half-hardy plants, Pruning, Shrub 3 3-4 - - X, opposite p. Sieboldii, 52 yunnanensis, 54 52 Collection, 2-3 2 - Vines, `? Syringa, 3, 10, 12 2 vulgaris, 12 Tsuga canadensis, 52, .54, \"alba spicata,\" 58 Jenkinsii, 58 - ' j6 - - Veitch Memorial Gold Medal, 28 Wilson, Ernest H., 9, 26 Wister, John C., 8 Woody Plants, History of Introduction into North America, 18-~8 Young, Robert A., 42 - - 63] "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23471","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e896e.jpg","title":"1946-6","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1946,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24157","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14ea727.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS The Cedar Waxwing is Plate I, p. 7. fond of fruit that it has been called the so Cherry Bird. Winterberry (Ilex verticillafa) a deciduous holly with early winter. Plate II, p. 11. Mountain Ash (Sorbus Plate III, p. 13. red berries in the fall and americarra). Always attractive to the birds in early fall. Most of the viburnums prove attractive to the birds when in fruit. This is the Arrowwood (Viburnum dentatum) in flower. Plate IV, p. 17. Plants in the ica. tropical tum, Soledad, Cienfuegos, Cuba, arboretum of the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboreone of the few arboretums in Tropical Amer- (I) The Traveller's Tree. (2) Bamboo at its best. Plate V, p. 30. The famous The well \"Lilac Path\" at the Arnold Arboretum. Plate VI, p. 35. planned propagating unit of the Arboretum of the University of Washington, Seattle. Plate VII, p. 41. rose The beautiful Thornhill Building of the Morton Arboretum. Plate The hedge collection from the nois. Plate IX, p. 43. garden at the Morton VIII, p. 43. Arboretum, Lisle, Illion Jlap of the United States showing the locations of the arboretums listed pages 46-48. Plate X, p. 45. Viburnum Lantaua grown as a hedge in the Canadian Government Garden at Ottawa, Canada. Plate XI, p. 59. Experimental Two snowballs for the North. Left, the European snowball, Viburnum Opulus roseum. Right, the Japanese snowball, V. tomentosum .sferile. Plate XII, p. 62. The weeping variety of the Colorado spruce, Picea pungens. Juniper, Juniperus scopulorum. Plate XIII, p. 69. Limber pine, A Rocky Mountain Pirrus,flexilis, at timber line. Plate XIV, p. i`?. One of the many species of rhododendron for which the climate of cellent for growth. Plate XV, p. 81. The England is ex- Cottage Garden. A thatch-roofed cottage, often seen on the English countryside, surrounded by its garden. Plate XVI, p. 85. The Christmas-rose (Kelleborus niger) flowering in English gardens during Deeember and January and traditionally used at Christmas. Plate XVII, p. 87. 111 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Early Spring","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":3,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24152","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170bb6a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 5 March 30, IJ4J AN NUMBER I EARLY SPRING the past week or two have been unusually high. the United States Weather Bureau in Boston announced an all time high for the month of March of 88 F. A- letter from Des D~oines, Iowa in this morning's mail indicates that the spring is unusually early there and the crabapples may bloom by April 15. This may also be true in the Arnold Arboretum and if so will be unpreeedented. For those who are interested in growing plants -and that is most of us-these temperatures mean two things-a very early spring and the probability of considerable damage to plants in April. Looking out the window at the Administration Buildmg of the Arnold Arboretum, one easily sees the willow collection. As the buds of the weeping willow swell, they gradually turn from yellow to a yellow green. Then there comes a time, if the weather is unusually warm, when the foliage turns green almost over night. The most striking plant in this collection is a weeping willow tree, which turned green on May 1 last year. This year it turned green March 19. Spring plowing is being attempted, successfully in some places, today, and many is the Victory gardener who is energetically going over his seeds and playing with the idea of sowing many of them shortly. The experienced gardener will smile at such activity and bide his time. The season is unusually advanced, but there is no promise that it will remain so. Thus it would behoove all gardeners in this area at least to try to control the urge to hasten the regular garden procedure. It should be remembered that on May 18, 19 and ~0 of last year there were killing frosts over a very wide area ~n New England. THE temperatures during Yesterday ' Early bloom now in the Arboretum It is of interest to note that the crocuses, snowdrops and .~doui.s~ murensis bloomed at about the same time last year as they did this year, namely about March l0. Immediately following the bloom last year, there was a long cold 1~ ] not bloom until May 1 and, as already mentioned, the weeping willow did not turn green until the same date. Now, however, the willow is green, and O2rrgrzolirr stellata will be in full l>loom on Easter Sunday, April 1,a full month earlier than last year. Over a long period of years the average blooming date of Magnolia stellata is about April 1,~. It should be noted in e this same connection, however, that although the daily temperatures may not haB as high in 1936 as they are in 19~;i, nevertheless many of the woody averaged plants that are in bloom in March of this year, also bloomed in March, 1936. The spring was unusually early both years. Skunk cabbage is now in flower, as well as some of the poplars and pussy willows. Special mention should be made of Forsythia oaata. This is the first of the forsythias to flower, and some of the plants in open places in the Arboretum are now in full bloom. It must be admitted, however, that there will not be the usual ten day lapse between the time this species flowers and the time that Forsythia irztermedia speclabilis blooms, for many of these plants are showing a great deal of color in their buds now, and some should be in full bloom on Easter Sunday. Prunus Dnuidiana was in full bloom at least two days ago. This is the first of all the Prunus tribe to flower in the spring..~6eliophJllum di.siichum should still be in full bloom the first of next week. Its many small white flowers on the long arching branches make it an outstanding shrub for early spring effect, and south of New York City, it is likely that the flowers would not be nipped by late frosts, as so frequently happens in the Arnold Arboretum. The witch hazels have, of course, been in full flower for some weeks. All have good flowers this year. The closely related Corylopsis species are barely startmg to show the yellow color in their flower buds, but soon should be in full bloom. Louicera prae,florens was in full flower several days ago. Rlrorlaleurlron rlaurieum and R. mucronulnturn are in full bloom today. Their purplish pink flowers are very much alike as far as color is concerned, but R. znucrouulatum is much the better plant in this climate for it is hardier and flowers much more freely. Although it is a true rhododendron, it is frequently thought of as an azalea for it drops its leaves in the winter and to all intents and purposes functions as an azalea in the garden. These two plants are the first of all the woody plants to display flowers of this color, and so are valued. Finally, the Japanese cornelian cherry (Cornus q~cinalis~ will be in full flower tomorrow and will be followed in a few days by the cornelian cherry (C. mas~. If this weather keeps up a few more days, many other shrubs will be forced rapidly into premature bloom. The flowers of many of these can easily be killed by a frost, which at this time of year should be expected at almost any time. spell. Magnolia stellrrla did Winter Injury Very little ever, winter injury has occurred due to low temperatures this year. Howthe very heavy snowfall of February 8 caused a great deal of damage. This :l ] snow was rather wet and froze somewhat to the branches of many trees and shrubs, bending many practically to the ground. Of course, this was responsible for some breakage. The day after the storm, while the snow and ice were still on the trees, a wind prevailed for a short period but unfortunately long enough to cause heavy damage. It is estimated that this one storm alone caused so much breakage in the Arnold Arboretum that it wlll take our entire force at least three weeks properly to prune the trees mjured by it. In visiting the Arboretum this spring, please keep this in mmcl for it will be impossible to clear away all signs of damage done by this storm in time for the big spring flower displays. DUNALD V~ZMAN Notes It was with sincere regret that we announced last fall the death of the Superin- tendent, Mr. Louis Victor Schmitt, on November 16, 1944. News releases were issued at the time, but no mention was made in the final issue of Arnoldia for 1944. Mr. Schmitt came to the Arnold Arboretum in 1905 and served long and well, eventually being appointed as Superintendent. His position has been filled since the first of this year by Mr. Robert G. Williams, who came here from his position as Superintendent of Parks in Greensboro, North Carolina. Mr. Williams is a graduate of Cornell University, and is well prepared for the work in the Arboretum. Full announcements time of his were made in the horticultural papers at the appointment. The Veitch Memorial gold medal of the Royal Horticultural Society in London has been awarded to Mr. William H. Judd, propagator of the Arnold Arboretum, for his excellent work in propagation. This is an award made each year to persons who have distinguished themselves along horticultural lines. Mr. Judd has been on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum ever since he came to this country from England in 1913, since which time a very great amount of new material has been introduced by the Arnold Arboretum. This has necessitated a rather complete knowledge of propagation. Mr. Judd hopes to be able to go to England shortly after the war in order to receive this medal in person. 3 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review","article_sequence":2,"start_page":4,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24154","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170856e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"Book Review Betts, E. M. Thomas Jefferson's Garden Book, 1766-1824, with l~elevant Ex- Writings. i-xvi. 1-704. pl. 1-36. 1944 (Mem. American Philos. Soc. Philadelphia, vol. ~?2~. Price ~5.00.-The basis of this interesting document is the original Jefferson manuscript which was purchased, among other papers, by Jefferson's great-grandson, Thomas Jefferson Coolidge of Boston, and by him presented to the Massachusetts Historical Society, June 9, 1898. It contains the most varied entries of all of Jefferson's memorandum books. It was started as a diary of garden observations but became a written repository for numerous other Jeffersonian interests. As he states in a letter addressed to Charles Willson Peale, August ?0, 1811 : \"No occupation is so delightful to me as the culture of the earth, and no culture is comparable to that of a garden.\" The volume is replete with very numerous entries appertaining not only to agriculture and horticulture but to a multitude of the author's other remarkably wide interests. As the editor states: \"Here is revealed what was probably the most absorbing of all the interests of one who was the foremost philosopher of his time, Governor of Virginia, Secretary of State in Washington's cabinet, Vice President and President of the United States, President of the American Philosophical Society for eighteen years, and founder of the University of Virginia,\" and, it may be added, author of the Declaration of Independence. Very many of Jefferson'sletters to a wide circle of correspondents are reproduced. The volume is well documented, provided with an ample bibliography, and a comprehensive index. This outstanding book is highly recommended to all individuals who may be interested in this very remarkable man, and especially to that increasingly wide public that is intrigued with plants, their culture, and the time of introduction of various types into cultivation in the United States. tracts from His Other E. D. D~RRRILL "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Build Bird Populations with Food Plants","article_sequence":3,"start_page":5,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24156","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14ea326.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Mason, C. Russell","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 5 April 6, IJ'I~J NUMBERS 2-3 BUILD BIRD POPULATION WITH FOOD PLANTS essential feature of every attractive landscape. Not only the and lawn, but the farmstead with its fence rows and hedges, its fields and woodland edges, has its interest heightened by the color, the activity, and the song of our native birds. And the charm of these feathered citizens lies not only in their beauty, but in the hard, cold fact that they benefit the townsman and the farmer economically through their destruction of harmful ininsects and weed seeds. They serve to maintain balance in nature by keeping in check grasshoppers, gypsy moths, tent caterpillars and rodents, the over-population of any one of which might drive man from great areas of the earth. By the consumption of millions of weed seeds they also reduce the competition of weeds with cultivated plants. The most interesting way to attract a greater population of birds about the home is to plant trees and shrubs especially attractive to them. Such plants may provide escape cover, in which birds may take refuge from their enemies or from storms ; nesting cover, which furnishes the right type of support for young birds' cradles; or winter cover, represented by the conifers and most important where the ground is long covered with snow. If a cover, in addition to any of the above uses, will serve to provide bird food-mainly as seeds or fruits, but for some birds as buds or leaves or bark -such trees and shrubs serve doubly well. Shrubs and trees of special value to birds, as well as to mammals, may well be selected for fence rows and windbreaks, for woodland edges, for border plantings about the home lot and for foundation plantings around the house. Through the use of certain varieties-many of them well-adapted native species, others easily grown exotics-there may be a succession of food for wildlife through much of the year, at the same time providing beauty of bloom and leaf and interest through fruits or seed pods. Various writers have listed fully a hundred trees and shrubs that are of value BIRD-LIFE is an town garden ~s= as food plants. Experience at the Arnold Arboretum could doubtless add other species and varieties. However, we will consider here mainly those many in more common use, which are easily secured from nurseries or taken from surplus woodland growths. For many years the Moose Hill Sanctuary of the Massachusetts Audubon Society at Sharon, Massachusetts, has kept records of fifty varieties of fruit-bearing trees and shrubs planted especially to attract bird-life. Of this number, Superintendent William A. Taylor has selected ten that are particularly desirable, not because all of them are favorites of the birds, but because these plants are most likely to meet the birds' requirements in that section throughout the twelve months of the year. The ten most highly recommended are: to birds For summer and early autumn Tatarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera Buckthorn (Rhnmnus caroliniana Red Mulberry or latnrica~ R. cnthnrlica) (Morus rubra) Gray Dogwood (Cornu.s rnoemosn) Redosier Dogwood (Cornzc.r stolon~'ern) For late autumn and winter Arrowwood Viburnum ' (Viburnzczn deninlnm) Common Winterberry (Ile.c rerlicillata) Mountain Ash (Sorbus americancc or S. nxcuparia) Flowering Crab (Mnlus,floribundn) Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thunbergii) number of other varieties are briefly discussed in the following paragraphs, to allow a wide choice where one must consider the space available for planting, the condition of the soil, location as to sun or shade, and other factors that effect plant growth. Peculiarly enough, reports from many observers who have kept records on the fruits most favored by birds for food indicate that in one locality a number of birds may rapidly clean off the fruits of a certain tree or shrub, while in another locality the same fruit may go through the season almost untouched. Native species of plants are labeled (N), while introduced or exotic species are labeled (F:), and the approximate height to which the plants grow is also indicated. These and a These Trees are Useful as Summer and Autumn Foods to 60 The Oaks, such as White Oak to 60 (Quercus alba) (N : 40 acorns ft.) and Red Oak (Quercus rubrn) (N : 50 ft. ) provide and including Jays, Woodpeckers Nuthatches, as that furnish food to many well as to Squirrels and birds, Chip- munks. The fruit of the Hackberry (Celtis occirlentalis) (N : 40 ft.), jnaturing in September and October, is eaten by forty species, while the Sassafras (Snssnfrns albidum) (N:20 ft.) may be grown as a small tree or, through cutting back, will [6- PLATE I The Cedar (C'ourlvsg llenry B. lianv) nesting is so fond of fruit that it has been called the Cherry Bird. During the season, you will find these birds carrying the small wild red and black cherries, as well as fruit of the bush honeysuckle, to their young. Waxwing form a shrubby copse. In landscaping it is valued for its brilliant autumn foliage, and the dark blue fruit on red stems attracts birds ranging from the Bob-white to the Crested Flycatcher. The Sour Gum or Black Tupelo (l~;yssa sJlnnficn) (N : 50 ft. ), with its crimson leaves in the autumn and blue-black fruit, may encourage visits not only from Waxwings, Thrushes and Blue Jays, but even from Wood Ducks and Ringnecked Pheasants. The American Elm ( (7\/mus americann) (N : 60 ft. ) should not be overlooked, for in addition to its edible, winged nutlet, it furnishes the ideal site for the nesting of the Baltimore Oriole. The White Ash (Fraxinus americana) (N : 50 ft.) is planted for its seeds, which are liked by the Pine Grosbeaks, favorites among the scarcer winter Finches that appear in New England. Even the Sugar Maple (Acer snccharum) (N : 50 ft.) has its part in furnishing seed to bird and mammal life. The Cherries have fruits that are favorites of many birds, more than seventy species feasting on them. The wild cherries are even more popular with birds than the cultivated varieties, although they should not be planted where live stock may reach them, as their leaves often prove poisonous to animals. The Wild Red Cherry or Pin Cherry (Pruuus pen.sJluanicr~) (N::33 ft.) produces its wh~te flowers and small red fruits in early summer, while the Black Cherry (P. serolina) (N ::50 ft.), with purple-black fruit, follows the Red Cherry in season. The Red Mulberry (Morus rubra) (N : .i0 ft.) and the White Mulberry (M. rrlbn) (E: 30 ft.) are not particular as to soil and will endure partial shade. Though a limited fruiting season detracts somewhat from their value, during late June and July they attract a great number of birds. Many bird-watchers have stated that if they could choose only one fruiting tree to attract birds, they would select the Mulberry. Fifty-nine species of birds are known to feed on Mulberry fruit. These include the Yellow-billed Cuckoo, Kingbird, Tree Swallow, Scarlet Tanager, Waxwing, Vireos, Catbird, Thrasher, Thrushes, Purple Finch and the Warblers. The variety trrlrrricrr, of Russian origin, is a smaller, hardier tree, worthy of trial. Staminate and pistillate flowers of Mulberry may be on the same tree but not infrequently are on separate trees, and in the latter case both types of plants are needed to ensure fruit production. Shrubs Furnish much Fruit for Summer and Fall Blackberry and Raspberry (Rubus sp. ) (N : 8-5 ft. ). For a tangle in a corner garden, these fruits are unexcelled for bird food, over a hundred species being known to eat them, and their brambles make fine nesting spots and good escape cover for Indigo Bunting, Catbird, Brown Thrasher, and many others. Blueberry (Vaccinium sp.) (N : 2-6 ft.) and Huckleberry (Gaylussacia sp. ) (N : 2-6 ft.), thriving mainly on acid soil and producing most acceptable berries in late summer and autumn, are attractive to such birds as Ruffed Grouse, Kingbird, Oriole, Chewink, Catbird, Thrasher, Thrushes, Chickadee and Waxwing. of the _g_ Buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana) (N:6-10 ft.) and R. eathartica (E: 6-10 ft.), the former with red fruit that turns black, the latter with shiny black fruit, are also valuable. The former's extended period of fruiting adds to its value, for, starting to ripen in July, it continues through the summer and is available for food until the autumn frost. Buckthorn is not recommended, however, in sections where oats are grown, as it harbors oat rust Of the shrub Dogwoods (C'ornn.r sp.), the Gray Dogwood (C'ornu.c racemosa) (N : 5-6 ft.) and the Redosier (C. stolonifera) (N : .i-6 ft. ) have excelled at Moose Hill Sanctuary as bird fare. The flower~ of both are small, in clusters, and attractive. The fruit of the Gray Dogwood is greenish, the size of small peas, in close, small bunches on crimson stems. The fruit of the Redosier is lead-gray, black-dotted and in clusters, while its brilliant bark lends color to the snowy scenes of winter. The Silky Dogwood (C..4mon:um) (1T:6-8 ft.), with grayishpurple bark and clusters of pale blue berries, is particularly good for planting in wet places and for woodland edges, since it requires little care. It has given excellent results in attracting birds at Arcadia Wildlife Sanctuary in Northampton, Massachusetts. The Pagoda Dogwood (C. altern;f'olia) (N : 10-15 ft.) is indifferent as to soil, and its yellowish fruits are quickly gathered by several species of birds, including the Crested Flycatcher. The Flowering Dogwood (C. ,florida) (N : 1510 ft.), a well-known small tree, has greenish-yellow flowers surrounded by showy white bracts three inches across. The foliage turns a rich crimson in the autumn, and the berries are a brilliant scarlet. The Kousa Dogwood (C. kou.sn) (E: 15 ft.) follows the C. florida in blooming season. It has very attractive flowers and equally brilliant fruit. Eighty-six species of birds are known to feed upon Dogwood berries, and because of their time of production they are available for, and of special value to, fall migrants. Robins and other Thrushes quickly clean them up as they move southward for the winter. American Elder (.~ombucu.r canadensis) (N:8-10 ft.) is a coarse, rank-growing shrub, often overlooked because of its very commonness. It is a great producer in the late summer of heavy clusters of black berries, which are eaten by a hundred species of birds, including Flickers and other Woodpeckers, Bluebirds and Thrushes. The Elder proves more attractive to birds than some of our finest cultivated fruits, such as grapes and raspberries, so that it may be successfully used as a lure crop to draw the birds away from the more valuable fruits. The Scarlet Elder (Sambucus pubens) (N : 8-1 ? ft. ), with its conspicuous clusters of scarlet berries, is more colorful than the American Elder and, within its range, is just as great a bird attraction. Sapphireberry Sweetleaf (.SJynplocos paniculata) (E:5-7 ft.) produces most attractive clusters of sapphire blue berries in the autumn. However, the birds are so eager for these fruits that most of them never get a chance to ripen. It has proved one of the best bird food plants at the Roosevelt Bird Sanctuary, Long Island, and is being used successfully in Massachusetts. [9 ] Shadbush or Serviceberry (Amelanchier canaden,ris~) (N : 10-15 tt. ). A shrub or small tree, garlanded in white flowers in May, has small, purple, applelike fruits which are so popular with birds like Orioles, Waxwings, Flickers and Thrushes that they do not last long after ripening. Spicebush (Lindera Benzoin) (N: 8-10 ft.) is valued for its handsome yellow flowers that cover the branches before the leaves unfold in early spring, while in autumn the foliage turns bright yellow and the conspicuous scarlet fruits are eaten by many fall migrants as well as resident birds. Strawberry Bush or Euonymus (EuonJmus americanrz) (N:8ft.). The flowers of this shrub are inconspicuous, but the salmon pink fruit is interesting and supplies food in the autumn for Scarlet Tanager, Sapsucker and Thrushes. Tatarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera latarica) (E : 6-8 ft.). This easily grown shrub has pink and white flowers in May and June, followed by bright red or yellow fruit that proves most attractive to summering Thrushes, Thrashers, Catbirds and Waxwings, as well as to White-throated Sparrows and Purple Finches. Trees Supply Some Winter Needs Red Cedar serves cover a triple a and ~s a well-known evergreen that purpose for birds. The foliage is so dense as to make excellent desirable nesting site for many species. The blue fruits are attractive (.luzziperu.s virginiaurt) (N : ?~ ft. ). Evening and Pine Grosbeaks and the Purple Finch, as well as to lmgering Cedar Waxwing and Myrtle Warbler, and they are an aid to early spring arrivals like Bluebird, Phoebe, Robin and Tree Swallow. Over fifty species of birds are said to enjoy the Red Cedar fruits. The tree should not be planted where there are apple orchards, as it serves as an alternate host for the Cedarapple rust. Although the Oldfield Common Juniper (Juniperus communis depressa) (N: 1-3 ft.) is considered a pest plant in many sections, it does serve its purpose in covering poor, waste lands, and its blue berries, like those of Red Cedar, are hked by many birds. Canada Hemlock (Tsuga canarlen.sis) (N : 60 ft.) has seeds which are eaten by the winter Finches that we try so hard to bring to our gardens-the Grosbeaks, Crossbills and Pine Siskin-as well as by the Red-breasted Nuthatch, Chickadee, Junco, White-crowned and White-throated Sparrows. in winter to The Pitch Pine (Pinus rigizlrz) (N : 30 ft.) and the White Pine (P. Strobus) (N : .50-75 ft.), both grown easily in this state, have cones that are sought by over sixty kinds of birds, as well as by squirrels. The Birches are so well adapted to Massachusetts that there is usually room for these small trees in a garden of moderate size. Plant a group of Gray Birch (Betula populifolia) (N: 30 ft.), one of the larger, graceful Paper Birch (B. pnpyr~'era) (N :90-100 ft.), or, near a pool or small stream, the Tellow Birch (B. lutea) (N : 40 ft.) or the Sweet Birch (B. lenta) (N : 60-70 ft.). These trees carry in their small cones a supply of tiny seeds that the winter Finches -Goldfinch, 10= Winterberry (Ilex verticillata) The sexes are PLATE II deciduous holly with red berries in the fall and early winter. separate and both staminate and pistillate plants should be near each other to insure fruiting. a Siskin and Redpolls-will search for. The Birches are also very attractive to Warblers during migration because of small insects, such as aphis, which feed on the foliage. The Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana) (N: 20-30 ft.) and S. aucupnria (E: ?030 ft.) are ornamental small trees. The broad, flat-topped clusters of white flowers are followed by bright, crowded, shining-red to orange fruit clusters that persist well into the winter and are favorites of the Waxwing, Oriole, Catbird, Robin and Thrasher. The American form is said to be more resistant to disease than the introduced species from Europe, but the latter is not so particular as to soil and has larger fruit clusters. The Flowering Crab (Malus,floribundre) (E : 10-15 ft.) is a small tree, to be planted in an open, sunny well-drained location. It bears attractive, rose-colored blossoms freely in May. The bright red fruit, the size of peas, borne on long, slender stalks, is in winter a favorite of Mockingbird, Cedar Waxwing and northern Finches like the Pine Grosbeak, Purple Finch and Red Crossbill, as well as of the Ruffed Grouse. The same birds will also welcome the yellow and red waxy apples of the Siberian Crab (M. baccatn) (E : 40 tt. ), which is more resistant to disease than our native Crabapples. The Hawthorns form dense, thorny growth, making an almost impenetrable hedge. The white blossoms are produced in May. The leaves are dark and glossy, some species turning brilliant scarlet in autumn to match the applelike fruit. All the plants of this group require a sunny location and prefer a soil that is not acid. The fruit lasts well into the winter and, when softened by frost, furnishes good food for Grouse and winter Finches hke the Pine Grosbeak, as well as for hungry spring Robins. Cockspur Thorn (Crataegus crus-galli) (N : ~?0 ft. ), Washington Hawthorn (C. PhaenopJrum) (N : 10 ft.), Arnold Hawthorn (C. arnolrliana) (N : 20 ft.), and English Hawthorn (C. O.rJocantha) (E: l0 ft.) are four of the best. Boxelder or Ash-leaved Maple (Acer l~%egmado) (N : 60 ft. ) is a fast-growin\",r tree that furnishes good shade, but the wood is brittle and the shape of the tree is poor. However, the winged fruits are particularly attractive to the Evening Grosbeak, a bird in demand at every feeding station in New England, though they appear in numbers only in occasional winters. Only the pistillate plants of the Boxelder bear fruits. Amur Corktree (Phellodendron amurense) (E: ~0-30 ft.), with its raisinlike clusters of fruits, has been noted in the Arnold Arboretum as a life-saving food of early returning Robins and Bluebirds that have been caught in a spring snowstorm, as well as of wintering Waxwings. Many Shrubs Furnish Fruit for Cold Months The Common Winterberry (Ile.c verticillata) (N : 6 ft.) is a shrub of open type growth that prefers moist soil but will grow under many conditions. The white flowers in June are inconspicuous, but the brilliant orange-scarlet fruit in scat- 12 PLATE III Mountain Ash (Sorbus americana). Always attractive to the birds in early fall. tered clusters may continue on the bare branches until midwinter and form a food supply for Grouse, Quail and possible wintering Thrasher, Catbird or Waxwing. Forty-eight species are said to eat its berries. American Holly (Ilex opncn) (N : 6-8 ft.), the Christmas Holly, is of value for its shining, evergreen, spiny leaves, as well as for its red berries as winter bird food. In the Cape Cod area of Massachusetts, the Holly supports a considerable population of wintering Robins, as well as other species. Along the coastal area, the Inkberry (Ile.r glabra) (N : 4-6 tt.), an evergreen that thrives best on acid soil and produces abundant crops of black berries, may be recommended. Also, for the seacoast, the Bay'berry (Myrica pensyluanioa) (N : 6-8 ft. ) with its gray berries, will be a boon to wintermg Myrtle Warbler, Carolina Wren or Hermit Thrush. Black Chokeberry (Aronia melanocarpa) ('.~i : -4-6 ft.) and Red Chokeberry (.~ronin nrbut~'olia) (N:8-10 ft.) grow best in low, moist, acid soil. White flowers are produced in April or May, followed by fruit in profusion in the autumn, lasting well into the winter and attractive to many birds, including Meadowlark, Bob-white and Ruffed Grouse. The Viburnums. Nearly all of the berry-producing Viburnums are considered () desirable for birds, but the Arrowwood Viburnum (Viburnam derrtnlurn) (N:6-10 ft.) seems to be the favorite. Like many of this fam~ly, it tolerates shade and can therefore be planted under trees. It has white flowers in small heads and slate-blue fruit that becomes almost black in ripening. Sheepberry or Nanny berry (Y. lentago) (N : 8-10 ft.) has cadet-blue berries. The flat, creamy white flower heads of the Withe Rod (Y. cassinoides) (N : 6-8 ft.) are followed by varicolored berries, while the American Cranberrybush (V. trilobum) (N : 8 ft. ) furnishes showy white blooms, brilliant autumn coloring of foliage and scarlet berries. The Mapleleaf Viburnum (Y, acerifolium) (N : 4-3 ft.) will endure much shade and is attractive throughout the year with its yellowish-white flowers, shapely leaves that turn purple in the autumn and showy blackish fruits. The Blackliaw V~burnum (V. prun~'olium) (N : 10-15 ft. ), a thrifty grower, is not particular as to soil and furnishes abundant bird food. All the Viburnums bloom in May and June, and their attractive fruits, though maturing rather early in the autumn, will hang well through the winter and prove desirable food for thirty-five species of birds, including the Rose-breasted Grosbeak, Purple Finch, Pine Grosbeak, Ruffed Grouse, Flicker, Waxwing, Robin, Bluebird, Thrasher and Catbird. Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thunbergii) (E : 3-~ ft.) is a shrub that has inconspicuous yellow blooms in June and bright red foliage and berries in the autumn, the latter lasting well into the winter. The fruit is eaten little by summer resident or fall migrant, and therein lies its value. During \"time of famine,\" when most other fruits are eaten, snow-covered or decay'ed, these berries become life-saving food for soft-billed birds that may be wintering in the North, as well as for early spring migrants that are caught in the snowstorms of March and April. At Moose Hill, they are also eaten through the winter by the Ruffed Grouse. A thorny 1~= hedge of Berberis Tlrunbergii rs likewise a protection from bird enemies and an excellent nesting location for Song Sparrows and Catbirds. The European Barberry (Berberis uulgnri,r) (E: 6-8 tt.), which has escaped from culti~at~on and is found in many thickets and along country roads in BZassachusetts, produces long clusters of bright red berries that make a delicious jelly when <umbined with crab apple, and the birds, perhaps recognizing their good flavor, feast upon them in late fall and winter. The plant is not recommended in wheatfarmmg sections, since it harbors the wheat rust. The Chokecherry (Prunus virginiauu) (N:8-10 ft.), with its attractive white flowers in spring and dark red fruit, provides a good nesting place for birds, but the plant is in disrepute because of its susceptibility to the black knot disease. The Chokecherry and the shrubby Beach Plum (P. maritimur) (N:4-5 ft.) that grows so well on Martha's Vmeyard, Nantucket and Plum Island, are both adapted to the sandy, acid soil along the coast. The fruit of the latter makes a most delectable jelly and is also eaten by the birds. Coralberry (.S,~mphoricnrpos orbiculatus) (N : 3-4 ft. ~, also known as Indian Currant, is especially good for banks and dry spots where low growth is wanted. The pink flowers in July are followed by racemes of currantlike red fruit for autumn and winter feeding of Purple Finches and Grosbeaks, which birds also will occasionally take the snow-white fruit of the Snowberry (.S. albus) (N: 4-5 ft.). European Privet (Liguslrum vulgare) (E : 6-8 ft.) and Ibota Privet (Ligustrum ibota) (E :,5-6 ft. ), so commonly used for hedge plants, should be mentioned, as their black berries, persisting through the winter, furnish food for Ruffed Grouse, as well as for other birds, and these plants will grow on almost any soil and will endure the unfavorable conditions that exist in many cities. Rugosa Rose (Rosn rugo.sa) (E: 3 ft.), as well as native roses like the Carolina Rose (R. carolina) (N : 3 ft.), Virginia Rose (R. virginiana) (N : 3-4 ft.) and the Swamp Rose (R. palustris) (N : ti ft. ), whose hips persist through the cold weather, will often prove acceptable to the Ruffed Grouse, Bob-white, Purple Finch and Bluebird. Japanese Rose (Rosa mult~lora) (E), a climber, is highly recommended by the Soil Conservation Service as wild-life escape and nesting cover and as a natural fence along the edge of field and woodland. The Staghorn Sumach (Rhus lyphiua) (N : z0 ft. ), also the Flameleaf Sumach (R. copallina) (N : 15 ft.) and the Smooth Sumach (R. glabra) (N : 15 ft.) furnish last-resort food that will be picked up in the spring by many birds when their other food supplies are exhausted. Woodpeckers, Chickadees, Blue Jays, Sparrows and early-arriving Phoebes and Hermit Thrushes may partake of the Sumach berries. The Sumach helps Flickers to subsist in winter in coastal areas like Cape Ann. It has also been noticed that fall-migrating Hermit Thrushes and Robins linger in the Sumach thickets to feed on the berries, so these are not altogether a food of last resort. ' l.i ~ ] Recent information from eastern Massachusetts lists the Golden St. Johnswort (Hypericrcm frondo.sum) (E: ~?-3 ft.) as a most successful shrub for bird feedrng. The seeds which remain on the plant through the winter are held two or three feet above the ground, where Juncos and Tree Sparrows can get them after all but the deepest snows. The golden flowers add vivid color to the garden. Many Vines will Produce Bird Food Old stone walls, produce ries are unsightly poles and trellises may be covered with vines that berries attractive to birds. Even the Poison Ivy (Rhu.s to.ricodenrlro~r) bereaten by birds, though this of course, is not recommended for planting. most desirable vines for bird foods are: American Bittersweet (Cela.rtrua .scarrdens) (N). A well-known, shrubby vine that will thrive in either sun or shade. The interesting orange and red capsuled fruit produced in the autumn is food for Pheasants, Grouse and Quail, as well as Thrushes and Vireos. Native Grapes, such as Summer Grape (Vitis nesfivalis) and Frost Grape (h. vulpina), are desirable for bird food, their use depending largely on suitable space for planting. Greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia) (N). A partially-evergreen, thorny vine that makes excellent cover, while the bluish-black fruits are desirable food for many kinds of birds, such as Thrushes, Catbird and Brown Thrasher. Trumpet Honeysuckle (Lonicera semperairens) (N), with its orange-scarlet flowers, will attract the Hummingbirds during the summer, while its red fruit is eaten in the autumn by Thrushes, Catbird and Bob-white. The Hall's Japanese Honeysuckle (L. japonica Halliana) (E), Morrow Honeysuckle (L. Morrowii~ (E) and Amur Honeysuckle (L. Maackii) (E) are of similar value to the birds. Virginia Creeper (Parlhenocissu.s qecinquefolia) (N~, known also as the Five-leaved Ivy, clings well to garden walls, has brilliant foliage in the autumn, and black fruits that prove acceptable to Robin, Bluebird and other Thrushes, Tanager, Mockingbird, Purple Finch, Myrtle Warbler, Woodpeckers and the Pine Grosbeak. Among the Ground Covers Are of Value Too In the shade of many shrubs and trees there is opportunity to use groundprove a boon to birds through certain seasons of the year. The Bearberry (Arctostaph~lo.s uva-ursi) (N) is a creeping, evergreen shrub, growing only a few inches high and thriving in acid soil in semishade. The urn-shaped flowers are pinkish-white, and the red fruit, which may persist until spring, is eaten by Fox Sparrow and Ruffed Grouse. The Partridgeberry (Mitchella repens) (N), an evergreen trailer well known in our woodlands, has fragrant white flowers and red berries, is more tolerant as to soil than the Bearberry, and is a particular food of the Ruffed Grouse. Checkerberry Wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens) (N), needing acid soil, is rather upright in growth, though reaching a height of only four inches. The foliage is evergreen and shiny covering plants, the fruit of which will also 16 ~ j I F B o 'C . 8 ~ K ~ .N ' ' i , ' B 3 0 <!* s .c H Hw S~j L 3 ro 2 4) L 0 t) > U F \"s v > O CL m 5 C O L U L w O O s decided wintergreen flavor. The Virginia Strawberry (Frrrgarin l~irginiana) (N) is liked by more than fifty species of birds, including the Towhee and the Wood Thrush. A thick carpet of this plant should by all means be included in the bird garden to produce June fruit. The red fruits of the Bunchberry (Cornus canadensis) (N) are a good food for the Ruffed Grouse and other ground-feeding birds, while its tiny flowers surrounded by showy white bracts make this four-inch-high plant a veritable miniature flowering dogwood. Canada Beadruby (Maianlhemnm canredense) (N), known also as Canada Mayflower and False Lily-of-the-Valley, is easily grown in moist soil in the shade. Following its small, white flowers, greenish fruit which turns dull red will be eaten by Pheasant, Grouse and Thrush. and the scarlet berries have a Herbaceous Perennials and Annual Flowers Have a Place A vigorous herbaceous perennial that is found in many a neglected spot where its seed has been sown by birds is worthy of attention. It is the Common Pokeberry (Ph~lolacca anrPricnua) (N : 6-1L ft. ). The long clusters of purple berries, which in earlier times had use in ink-making, are eaten by many species of birds, including Mourning Dove, Flicker, Kingbird and other Flycatchers and members of the Mockingbird and Thrush families. Delphinium (many species), Oswego Beebalm (Monorda rlid~rnn) and Cardinal Flower (Lobelia cnrdinnlis) among perennials and the annual Scarlet Sage (~Salnia .r~lendens) are flowers which most easily attract to the garden that flashing jewel, the Hummingbird, though Phlox and Gladioli seem to serve equally well in some localities. The fondness of Goldfinches for Sunflowers (Helianlhus speciP.r) is taken advantage of by California seed growers who plant rows of this plant to draw the hungry birds away from the rarer plants being grown for seed production. Zinnias, Bachelor's-buttons, Coreopsis, Cosmos, Petunias and Asters of many kinds, if allowed to produce seed in the cutting garden, will furnish food for the Finch or Sparrow family, and many of these plants will hold their seed pods above the snow to help the birds through the winter months. A spare corner of the garden may also be devoted to growing a mixture of seed like sunflower, buckwheat and millet, to serve as pasturage for the flocks of Whitethroats and other Sparrows, Buntings and Finches as they migrate southward in the fall and when they return to their nesting grounds in the spring. May Have a Bird Thicket Even on a Small Lot The size of your property is not particularly a limiting factor so far as attracting birds is concerned. Investigation in farming areas has shown that the greatest population of birds occurs where woodland edges merge with open country and You along the Such conditions are practically duplicated in a border planting of shrubs and small trees that surround the lawn of a town lot, as illustrated here. There are endless variations of such a plan that may be worked out according to the desires of the individual, keeping in mind always a succession of fruits for the birds through the greater part of the year. overgrown fence rows. is Planting Key 1. Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana) 2. 3. k. 6. Gray Birch (Betula populifolia) Flowering Dogwood (Cornus floridn) Flowering Crab ( ~'Ialus,floribmrda) Arrowwood Viburnum ( Viburuum dentatum) Spicebush (Lindern Beuzoiu) or Buckthorn (Rhamnus caroliniana) 7. Redosier Dogwood (Cornus stolonifera) 8. Gray Dogwood (Cornus racemosa) or Silky Dogwood (C..4momum) 9. Common Winterberry (Ile,r t~erlicillcrta) 10. American Cranberrybush (1-iburrrum lrilobum) or Sapphireberry (SJmplocos paniculnta) 11. Mapleleaf Viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium) 1~1. Washington Hawthorn (Crataegus Phnenop~rum) 13. Arnold Hawthorn 1~.. Tatarian (Crolaegus nrnoldiana) I Honeysuckle (Louicern talnrica) 1.5. Japanese Barberry (Berberis Thuubergii) 16. Coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatxs) 17. Rugosa Rose (Rosa rugosa) 18. Virginia Creeper (Parthenocissus 19. Bittersweet . (Celastrus scandens) ~10. Suitable location for cover Feeding Station quinquefolia))lj stone over or fence wall or Bird Bath. Ground (Milchelln repens) of Virginia Strawberry (Fragaria under trees and taller shrubs. virginiana) and Partridgeberry 19 to cover all of the plants that are seeds. There has been no attempt made to include the waterfowl to any degree. Rather, the material has been confined to better known plants that may be used in limited space as well as on extensive estates. It is hoped that all who read it may say: \"Why has the author not included that shrub that we find the Finches like so much?\" or \"4~'e have in our garden a tree not mentioned here in which we have watched a dozen kinds of birds eating the fruit.\" It is hoped, too, that this information will then be passed on to the writer, so that his records of food plants for birds may be augmented and future articles will give a still wider choice of plant varieties that may be used to attract birds and at the same time beautify the home grounds. It is impossible in an article of this length or attractive to birds because of their fruits C. RUSSELL MASON Secretary- Treasurer Massachusetts Audubon Society ~20~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Rushes On","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24161","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14eb36f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 5 . April 20, 1943 NUMBER 4 SPRING RUSHES OI~ LILACS in the Arnold Arboretum will be in full bloom on April 24, a full month earlier than normal. Unprecedented and continued warm weather, in which several weather records have been broken, has advanced spring this year to a point where it is so early that many of the \"oldest residents \" have difficulty in remembering a similarly advanced period. Our records of actual blooming dates during the last fourteen years, are represented in a table in this issue of Arnoldia : this shows far better than many words of explanation just what has happened over a period of fourteen years. The early lilacs bloomed well. fJriugn oblrrla and its derivatives have been in flower for a week, and with unusually warm weather many of the S. axlgaris varieties are in bloom today with the best of the flowering display to appear by the middle of the week of April ~2, unless very cold weather intervenes to retard them. ('rab apples are now in full bloom. There has been very little winter injury in the Arboretum apparent up to now. Some damage by rabbits and mice has been done to plants in the nursery, as is usually the case when the snow cover persists for an appreciable length of time. Those who are interested in the redwoods will be sorry to learn that the last of our SequoiadPrrdron gigauleu~n (Sequoia gigrrrrtea) clred this winter. These were what remained of an original shipment of six plants, collected especially for the Arboretum at the upper limits of this species in the Sequoia National Park. They were selected from sites on Mount Whitney because of their apparent resistance to cold. All six were carefully planted in a nursery adjacent to the greenhouse that rs protected on all four sides with a seven foot board fence. They were given every attention at planting time and really pampered during the hot summer months. Three of the plants died in the second and one in the third winter, leaving two plants which thrived without much noticeable injury until the spring of 1944. One of these was planted in a protected place in the Arboretum in 1944, and the other was left in the nursery. Both plants died in the past winter for no apparent reason, since the temperatures were not unusually low, and the snow THE nearly [ 21J 5 a a a 0 ~ b 0 4 a x a ao a 0 w 9) a a. 0 9) m A y nc a . 0 0 aa ... `o c E nc ~ ~ a `~ Q 0 ~ .. a a S E 0 0 r~ a r. ' .C ... a~ 'O ..Q ~ ~Cr a ~@ axt&# 3C; ~ ~ -o a 0 U !J r : ~ ., 'a ~ ~ a ~~ i 4) a~ Sg U ~U .~\". +, GL N fl O U '~. a! =a C 3 .d a' ~'~ a, o 9 . _~. ~ gC a`~ ~ x\" s, ~ 'r. n sU, v ~ II II II -' P ~ ~ P ~~ ~ a~3#c& x E; O C i; ~ ~~~. r. II II II II Z ~z -. h Q \"'~ Lr. ~ y a C a n p, -C .n c~ C w GC v ti a ,~ ~C ca, ~ n. DO ,.C ^ '' :C \" sC. +~ ,r nj S4J ~ +' w y~, O 0 C s n z cover was unusually deep, the latter being a favorable condition for this species. This is not the first time redwoods have been planted in the Arboretum, several attempts having been made before, but eventually all the plants have succumbed. It was hoped that this last trial would result in success since the plants had been carefully selected for this purpose. The shrub collection is worthy of special inspection this spring. For many years the thousand different shrubs growing here have been allowed to encroach on the walks and it has been increasingly difficult to maintain grass walks between every line of shrubs. During the past year every other walk was removed and this ground will be kept contmually- cultivated, thus giving the plants a better soil in which to grow. Last fall all the plants were heavily pruned in order to induce them to grow into convenient size at a reasonable distance from the walk. This heavy pruning, in some cases, resulted in removing the greater part of certain plants, but such an operation often becomes necessary even in the home garden. Much can be learned by the careful observer now, just from an inspection of these rows of shrubs, for, in cases where it is obvious that the plant was heavily pruned, its response to such pruning is most interesting. As an example, on one or two of the overgrown honeysuckles and pearl bushes, only a few very large branches were left on the plants. These now have many small shoots coming directly from the few remaining large woody stems. Other shrubs, pruned similarly, are not responding in that fashion, showing clearly that they should be pruned in a different manner. A close scrutiny of these shrubs will disclose many interesting facts about pruning. After the pruning, the soil was limed and thirty cords of cow manure were spread around the plants. This should result in excellent growth during the present season. All the labels have been set back closely against the plants to enable us to cultivate the soil between plants and walks with a rototiller. With a minimum amount of hand hoeing around the plants and most of the work to be done by machine, the maintenance of the shrub collection should now be on a much economical basis. One other change should be noted in the Arboretum this spring and that is the radical reduction of the large nursery at the rear of the greenhouse. Two thousand plants had to be moved on very short notice this spring because the University is to construct a new wing to the State Antitoxin Laboratory, for use in certain recently developed phases of blood investigations. This projected construction has a high priority and the building will probably be erected immediately. However, the plants had to be moved at this time, because of the unusually advanced season, in order to save them. Some have been planted in a new nursery within our grounds between South Street and the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad tracks, and the remainder have been planted on the recently acquired Case Estate at Weston. more It should be emphasized once more that the peak of the blooming season for azaleas, lilacs, crab apples and many other plants will be the week of April 22 this year, and not the latter part of May as is normally the case. DONALD WYMAN ')-~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Park Arboretum - How to Establish One as a Living War Memorial","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24163","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14ebb27.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University May 18, 194:i 5 VOLUME NUMBERS J-i THE PARK ARBORETUM-HOW TO ESTABLISH ONE AS A LIVING WAR MEMORIAL the first week of 1945 six requests came to the Arnold Arboretum information as to how to start an arboretum. Since that time, we have received many more similar requests, clearly indicating that the arboretum idea is definitely being considered in widely separated parts of the country. The arboretum idea, initiated by the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum m 18 i `?, has within the present century been widely extended, there now being approximately fifty arboretums in the C'nited States alone, some large and well endowed, some small and more or less in their infancy. Professor Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, long ago realized the need of arboretums strategically located in the various climatic zones of North America. Many new arboretums were established during his time. Such institution, are not competitive but oo-operative, and today there is a great need for more of them. After this war there will be the desire on the part of every community for a war memorial. A \"living\" war memorial, which wll bring beauty, pleasure, recreation, and a certain amount of education to the people of a community over a long period of years, will undoubtedly be a first consideration in many places. This may eventually be expressed as a park, a street or highway planting, or a cemetery development, but in many communities, be they large or small, the \"Park Arboretum\" as a war memorial should have careful consideration. In order to be a fitting memorial, the Park Arboretum should be carefully planned, well financed, and competently administered. 'I'his issue of Arnoldia is DURING for complete Note: (~hrorrioa Bolnnioa will contain a paper early next year on the de~ elopment of arboretums in this country. It was written by Gordon Cooper, Landscape opment of certain arboretums, and Architect, of Cleveland, Ohio, who has spent a great deal of time on the develon an analysis of a mass of data on the subject. '~J devoted to ways and means of establishing and maintaining a satisfactory Park Arboretum, many of the suggestions here offered resulting from the successful development of various arboretums in widely separated parts of the country. Definition Arboretum, as considered in the following discussion, is an ample area growing and effective display of all the different kinds of worthy ornamental trees, shrubs and vines which can be grown out of doors in a given A Park set aside for the area, their maintenance and proper labeling. It does not necessarily have to inthat can be grown out of doors in a region, nor does woody plants it necessarily have to include expensive beds of annuals and perennials, nor large display greenhouses filled with exotic plants which will not live out of doors in clude all the winter. An arboretum differs from a park in that in the former a serious effort has been made to plant an extensive collection of many kinds of labeled woody plants for display purposes. :liany parks are planted without the labeling of any plants and with the use of only a small number of locally available plant species. Some parks, it is true, contain a certain number of labeled plants, as for example the Boston Public Garden; Roger Williams Park in Providence, Rhode Island; Fairmount Park in Philadelphia; and others throughout the country, but no consistent effort is made in most of them to label and keep labeled all the different kinds of plants grown. Both a park and an arboretum can be used for recreational purposes; but the arboretum goes beyond the park in that it becomes highly educational to many of its visitors, demonstrating by means of labeled specimens what good species are available for planting in a given area. An arboretum differs from a botanical garden in that the emphasis is placed on the growing of woody plants in the arboretum, whereas in the botanical garden emphasis is also placed on the growing of other kinds of plants as well, sometimes even to the exclusion of woody plants. Large rock gardens and expensively operated rose gardens are frequently found in arboretums, but these are not essential when funds are limited. The purpose of any arboretum, be it large or small, is primarily to grow (and to keep labeled) the best of the ornamental woody plants which will thrive in a given locality. Many other objectives may be considered, such as the actual introduction of new plants into cultivation, actual exploration of remote regions, the growing of all types of woody plants hardy in the area, scientific investigations of various kinds including plant breeding and hybridization, the maintenance of a large herbarium and library, and laboratories of various types-these may be legitimate functions of an arboretum, depending on the funds available, and the qualifications of the members of its staff. However, small communities should not be deterred by these weighty and often expensive objectives for they may be omitted altogether where funds for the maintenance of such purposes are '~~)] unavailable. If the arboretum effectively demonstrates \"the best\" of the woody plants hardy in its area, this one purpose alone will make it a most valuable asset in the community it serves. It is this kind of an arboretum that will be considered here as the \"Park Arboretum.'' Charles Sprague Sargent, first director of the Arnold Arboretum, used to say that in order to start an arboretum it was necessary to have a thousand acres of land with at least a million dollars endowment; yet he started an arboretum with only115 acres of land and one hundred thousand dollars endowment, and in the early years of the Arnold Arboretum he had only one third of the income of that modest endowment for annual expenditure. There is still the need for large arboretums placed in different regions representing different climatic conditions where all the woody plants hardy in an area may be grown and which are well endowed for scientific investigations. This is undoubtedly what Professor Sargent had in mind, for the Arnold Arboretum was, and is, that kind of an inatitution. But times are changing. With the extensive garden club movement and increased tendency away from urban dwelling, more and more people are becoming interested in growing plants. The Victory Garden movement has undoubtedly aided this development. A new conception of an arboretum is coming into being. It is very well expressed in the plantings of the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation at Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. The Park Arboretum is adaptable to communities smaller than Boston, Philadelphia, Chicago, New York, St. Louis or Seattle. It is feasible where there is no particular desire to finance expensive scientific investigations, but where there is a great need to grow and demonstrate to the public \"the best\"* woody plants hardy in a particular area. It is readily seen that this idea is a flexible one for the actual size of the arboretum may vary considerably. The Park Arboretum idea is based on the theory that the same old varieties of plants may be superseded by new and better varieties. There are new varieties of cars, of refrigerating devices, of clothes and women's hats, and there are new varieties of plants as well. In the arboretum the \"old\" varieties are grown side by side with the \"new,\" both often being available to the plantbuying public. But with the best varieties only being displayed in the Park Arboretum, interest and variety in private planting, and municipal planting, will be greatly augmented. With this conception in mind, the committee responsible for planning the Park Arboretum should be so constituted as to give the best advice possible for its usefulness and adaptation to the community. Functions of a Park Arboretum The purposes for establishing an arboretum should be carefully considered before the plan is publicly broached. Some of the more important functions of a Park Arboretum are : *Best used here in the sense of the best ornamental. - 27 - 1. To grow \"the best\" woody plants hardy in the area in order that home own- 2. S. 4. 3. 6. ers may become acquainted with their names, their ornamental characteristics and the proper methods of culture. To show a complete selection of all that is considered the best from an ornamental standpoint among the woody plants that it is possible to be grown in the area. To serve as a means of introducing new woody plants into the area, regardless of the source from which they may come. To disseminate a knowledge of woody plants to the public. This would include information on culture, pruning, fertilizing and possibly a continual study under local conditions of just what varieties are \"the best,\" including even cooperation with schools, garden clubs and other organizations. To test the hardiness of untried varieties. To provide an out of doors laboratory for students of botany, horticulture and nature study. 7. To increase the productivity, economic importance and beauty of an area, by intelligent and interesting planting, and by introducing plants not grown there before. 8. To provide recreational stimulus to the public by means of walks, drives and beautiful displays, and to stimulate the pleasure of learning to know new plants which might be adapted to planting on private property. 9. To serve as a \"Permanent Living War Memorial,\" beneficial to the people living in the area and attractive to visitors from outside the area. Each one of these functions should be studied individually with view to the best interests of the community. One of the first decisions to be made is whether the park system present satisfies the desire of the people for formal rose gardens or beds of annuals and perennials. Would the people be interested in only a garden of woody plants? Are the lives and habits of the people so ordered that there would be little interest in an expensive display greenhouse for showing material in the winter? Fortunate is the community which can sell the idea of a Park Arboretum to its public without some of these things, for such an arboretum will be less expensive to operate and will actually include a greater variety of woody plants in the end. If the community is small, the effective functions of the arboretum will be largely display. If the community is large and funds are available, the functions may also include scientific investigations, especially if there is an institution of higher learning with which the arboretum may be connected. How far this may go will depend on the community, its nearness to other large arboretums, the availability of funds, and on leaders in the municipality. Method of Establishing an Arboretum The first arboretums started as private gardens where individuals became in- _ ~~ g] terested in assembling a collection of trees and shrubs. John Bartram has the credit of establishing the first large collection of trees and shrubs in this country when he established his garden in 17`?8 at Kingsessing on the banks of the Schuylkill River near Philadelphia. Since that time, many private collections have been established at one time or another but frequently many of them pass out of existence after the death of the original owner. Today there are a few private arboretums worthy of the name. Among them would be the one started by Mr. H. H. Hunnewell in Wellesley, Massachusetts, in 1851, and devoted mainly to conifers; and that of Mr. Stanley Rowe of Cincinnati, Ohio, which now contains 1.i00 different kinds of woody plants. The government operated arboretum is exemplified by the Dominion Arboretum adjacent to the Experimental Farm in Ottawa, Canada. This is 56 years old and contains about ?500 species and varieties of woody plants. It is owned and operated by the Canadian government. Our own National Arboretum at Washington, D.C., has been started, but little planting has been done due to lack of available funds. Even national government budgets are frequently the playthings of legislators, and the future of an arboretum under government jurisdiction, though safer than a private arboretum, may still suffer much from a fluctuating annual budget. An arboretum is sometimes part of the park department of the city. Such is the case with Highland Park and Durand-Eastman Park in Rochester, New York. The 484 acres constituting Durand-F:astman Park was originally a gift to the city, made by Dr. Henry S. Durand and George Eastman, but maintenance operations are carried out exclusively by the.city Park Department, support being from city taxes. The advantages are obvious, for the park personnel is usually well equipped to maintain a collection of trees and shrubs. However, disadvantages are often evident. In many a park department the annual budget is subject to devious manipulations by politicians who may have no interest in park plantings, and in ,~11 too many cities in this country the park department budget is the first to suffer reductions when city expenditures are cut. The best method of establishing an arboretum is to provide a properly safeguarded restricted endowment, the income from which may be used only for specified purposes. The endowment should be sufficiently large to provide a reasonably ample annual income, for in this Bvaypermanence is assured. It will be necessary for the Planning Committee to estimate the annual expenses in advance. Many arboretums today are being operated wholly or in part by income from endowments. The endowment is not sufficient m some instances to cover all expenses and additional funds are necessary from the tax budget or from private sources in order to make it possible to attain the ends desired. When the income from an endowment must be augmented by annual popular subscriptions or by annual grants from the city park department, many difficulties arise. This ~s, in general, a most unsatisfactory way of operating an arboretum, for projects started 29 ' PLATE V Plants in the tropical arboretum of the Btkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, Soledad, Ctenfuegos, Cuba, one of the few arboretums in Tropical America. 1. The Traveller's Tree. ~. Bamboo at its best. one year when funds may be ample may have to be curtailed or even discontinued in another year. Assured success is best insured when endowment is possible. C,'suallv there is a board of directors formed to oversee the administration of Such is the case with the Morton Arboretum at L~sle, near Chicago. Frequently ~t has been found advisable to associate the arboretum (with its endowment) with an institution of higher learning. Such ~s the case with the Arnold Arboretum (Harvard University), Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation (Swarthmore College), Morris Arboretum (University of Pennsylvania), each one of which has its own endowment. The Arboretum of the University of Washington (Seattle) is connected with the University with most of its maintenance funds coming from state appropriations. This source is supplemented by membership fees, and an attempt is now being made to secure a restricted endowment. The association with a university is ideal for it tends to add permanence to the arboretum ; sound and intelligent advice on arboretum problems are alwaysavailable from university staff members, and the arboretum can serve as an ideal out of doors laboratory to augment classroom instruction. It is also true that the facilities offered by an arboretum would be used more as a result of this association than might otherwise be the case. When budgetary items are reasonably fixed from year to year, the work of an arboretum can proceed unhindered by extraneous circumstances. The main object ~n establishing an arboretum is to make it permanent, to provide for a permanently dependable source of income, and thus insure its usefulness to be contin.~ '' uously available to the greatest number of people. There is no better way to an ample endowment at the beginning. insure this than to provide funds in 'privately endowed institutions. Selection of the Site ` plan can be made, a site must be decided upon, and the size of the developed should be determined in connection with the sources and amount of available funds. The site could well be a local spot of beauty, of historical significance, or existing part of the Park Department if suitable. It will take intelligent discussion and sound advice to decide on the site, for the general plan and the functions of the arboretum also must be considered simultaneously. Arrangements should be made for alternatives in case the amount of money originally hoped for is not eventually forthcoming. A very important factor is accessibility. Before the to be area Who is to plan . Almost any enthusiastic temporary group may be responsible for initiating public interest in the Park Arboretum, but a planning committee responsible for preparing definite plans associated with a campaign for raising funds should be carefully selected. The planning committee could well include an experienced landscape architect ; a representative from the park department who would know 31 1 a person well versed in the values of real esand representatives from prominent civic urganizatate ; prominent nurserymen; tions who would represent the desire of the people to have an arboretum and the will to work for uur. A representative from an active arboretum, similar in size to the one cunteu~plated might well k~e called in for <unsultation. Large oummittees mow more slowly than small ones, but ,umeluwv all interests ,Imuld either be represented or heard prior to the time the actual site is decided upon and the about future park plans; a banker; plnn is cunyleted. Ways of initiating interest and action simple matter to propose the idea of an arboretum in any community Except in strictly urban areas, most home owners are interested in lacking their properties so as to make them beautiful and enjoyable for as much planting of the year as possible. In strictly urban areas the people always desire to get into the open for rest and relaxation. Consequently, people in general are receptive to the idea and do not begin to \"hedge\" until the time comes for asking It is a one. donations for endowment or for annual support. are well equipped to assist in a campaign for an arboretum. The garden club movement is fortunately firmly imbedded in almost every community. Nature clubs, bird clubs, forestry associations, cuu~ervationist groups and other organizations by their very nature should be interested in the idea and their members afford an excellent basis for enthusiastic support. Schools, parent-teachers organizations, Rotary and Kiwanis Clubs, women's organizations, church groups, town park departments, all should be thoroughly canvassed and their support enlisted. Horticultural experts could give illustrated lectures to show the kinds of plants which might be grown. Local landscape architects could have a field day in dmcussing possibilities. Staff members from existing arboretums could come and show what has been done in other committees, and discuss frankly the possibilities of a local arboretum. Costs could be discussed by committees representing various organizations. When opinion becomes fairly crystallized, some group could offer a sum to be used for the preparation of a definite plan. This was done in Seattle with excellent results. It was felt by those in charge that a topographic map of the Seattle Arboretum site was necessary, showing the two-foot contour lines. Such a map was prepared by the State W. E. R. A. at a cost of ~5~.65.00. Then the Garden Club of Seattle raised $3000.00 and under its auspices a plan was drawn by a prominent firm of landscape architects. By the time the plan drawing stage is reached, public opinion should be fairly well crystallized in the furm of a planning committee or \"Arboretum Committee\" which would have the authority to work with the individuals drawing the plan. It is always advisable to have a well conceived plan on paper, regardless of what the local situation may be. The mzn or men eventually to be in charge of for increased taxes or Many community organizations 3 ) arboretum do not just begin to plant trees and shrubs, Roads must be constructed, paths provided for pedestrians, a certain amount of grading done, certain plants placed in situations where they will grow best, a propagating unit intelligently placed, water pipes laid where they will do the most good, drainage provided for in certain instances -in short, a thousand and one things should be thought of before the actual planting is started. In some instances the soil of the an arboretum site may be very poor, and arrangements must be made to grow cover crops on it for several years (this was done on the site of the National Arboretum in Washington), thus preparing the soil over a period of time before any trees or shrubs are planted. Water, in the form of a running brook or a pond, can be used to excellent advantage if properly planned for, without planning such a feature might easily become a liability. Trained horticulturists experienced in arboretum objectives and various professional landscape architects are familiar with these phases of the project. Thus if carefully considered plans are prepared in advance, much money can be saved, and many disappointments avoided by doing the right thing at the right time in the right manner. whereas How to Plant The actual according plants to placing of the different groups a carefully conceived plan in of trees and shrubs should be done which the individual needs of the are considered as well as the best interests of the public. Some of the arboretums have been laid out so that the plantings follow a definite botanical sequence of families and genera. This is not necessary or essential the Park Arboretum. It is advisable to keep all the plants in a certain genus together if possible, and to so place the important genera that they are easily seen from roads and paths. All projected plantings should be critically considered from the standpoint of landscape design. Azaleas and rhododendrons, if used, should be given a situation with acid soil where they have some protection from winter winds. Lilacs should be so placed that people can easily walk among them and observe them closely as well as from a distance. A collection of hickory or walnut trees, for instance, might be placed in an out-of-the-way spot, where they can be seen from a distance. Colorful displays that have particular seasonal interest should be easily accessible and where they can be seen from many vantage points. Some plants like wet soils, some do better in dry soils. Each group should be placed where it will grow best. Special attention should be given to displays of seasonal interest. Lilacs, for instance, are of interest only in the spring and might well be grown near the viburnum collection, which is of interest chiefly ~n the fall. The oriental crab apples, on the other hand, have seasonal interest both spring and fall and hence might be in a spot by themselves. Certain araleas and the flowering dogwood bloom at the same time and might be planted adjacent to one another. A bank of red roses that will bloom in late June might be planted near the collection of m :3i ~] mock oranges to give it additional color interest when its white flowers appear. Evergreen trees are frequently kept by themselves, but intelligent planting would call for the placing of a few deciduous trees in such a collection, especially those which color vividly- in the fall, t`> lend color and variety. And in or near plantings of deciduous trees it is usually desirable to place a certain number of selected evergreens. It may be advisable from a maintenance standpoint to grow many shrub groups together in long beds with grass walks between them. Planted in this manner the shrubs are easily observed closely, and a large number can be studied with comparatively little effort, and direct comparisons made. Roses, and representatives of such genera as Weigela, Spiraea, Deulsia, Philndelphus, Chaenomeles, and several other genera come in this group that can be so treated. Such a collection, though of little lnnd.rcape interest, has a great deal of interest to the public at all times of year. The \"shrub collection\" at the Arnold Arboretum contains a thousand different kinds of shrubs in parallel beds. It might well be one of the features in any arboretum, placed easily accessible to the main entrance, where people with little time can spend it to best advantage. What to plant and who is competent to judge which are \"the debatable question. There are in existence several large collections of woody plants in this country and attempts are continually being made to make reliable lists of\"the best\" ornamentals in each group (family or genus). Such available lists could be utilized at the start. Let me explain more fully how this might be done, using the collections at the Arnold Arboretum as an example. At the present time there are approximately 6300 different species and horticultural varieties of woody plants being grown in the Arnold Arboretum. Certain groups are larger than others. Thus in these collections there are i viburnums, 98 mock oranges, 132 maples, 180 crab apples, ~~13 lilacs, and 550 hawthorns. Taking the lilacs for closer scrutiny, there are approximately 330 varieties of S~ringa vulgaris alone, of which 32 have white flowers ! Certainly all do not have outstanding ornamental value. In fact, it is extremely difficult to tell some of the varieties from others. It would be difficult to locate nursery sources for all, and certainly many have been discarded by commercial growers as being unsatisfactory. This large collection of lilacs has its place as a laboratory for scientific study (Mrs. Susan D. McKelvey did much of the work for her monograph on lilacs in this collection) but many of the varieties could be eliminated if scientific study were not one of the functions of this arboretum. The collections would be much more ornamental if the number of varieties were reduced, for then massed plantings of a single lilac variety could be made in space now occupied by twenty different varieties, for the ornamental effect of a massed planting is always more effective, especially for the casual observer. What constitutes the best\" a best\" is always ei Y~ `^ G % ~ v o = v bC vi 2bI: w OC .. L D ~L ar 'L 1~ L e :.., r. v S 3 \" G \/r. a '\" H ., `o 0 -~ .c .47 .y :J vG:; C O s. b '\" > . ~' ~. C +~ ., S G7 v 9 .... .. I G 0153 O O' av2 P~r :~ E., '\" Ha o c~, a~ L'b +~ O 0 v v ., a y., L Y e; y O G .m 'v CC 1: ~. iJ .'^. 4J H .~ .c m J :I} 'J. ~ v ~o u v o :; 0 s : w ~a o3&#x E;' a~ : of lilacs might be considered to be the most ornamental and representative of the entire group. Just as many plnnls could be used as in our large collection if space were available, but far fewer rnrietiex. The same principle could be used in selecting \"the best'' in the other groups of plants. The advice of local plantsmen will prove invaluable at the start when considering such points. In a small arboretum, a collection of ,i0 or even ?.5 varieties satisfactory-only those being selected for planting which are _ The number of plants The number of plants selected at the beginning will vary with the part of the country in which the arboretum is located, with its size, financial resources, and its propagating facilities. A few examples will illustrate this point. In making a preliminary report of proposed plantings for the Cornell University Arboretum, now called \"Cornell Plantations,\" there were approximately 2,000 species and varieties of woody plants listed as worthy of trial at the beginning. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation of Swarthmore College listed approximately 12,800 species and varieties of woody plants that were being grown there in 19-)~?. The fi,.500 species and varieties now growing in the Arnold Arboretum might be reduced as much as one half or even more if only the most ornamental were to be selected. These figures are, of course, very general but they give some idea of the number of plants worthy for first consideration. The smaller the arboretum, the fewer the number of specimens of any one variety which should be grown. The first places to investigate as a possible source for plant materials would be the local nurseries. Nurseries at a distance may be able to supply many varieties unavailable locally. It will, of course, be found that some species are unobtainable from commercial sources. Then it is necessary to provide for a propagating unit and grow wanted varieties from seed, cuttings or by grafting, where the propagating material is supplied by other arboretums, private mdi~ iduals, ur iu some instances where seed is collected in native habitats primarily for this purpose. The smaller the plants when purchased, the lower the initial expenditure. The larger the plants at the start, the more quickly an initial display can be made for the public to enjoy. The factors here involved are obviously important ones and should be carefully weighed by the local planning committee. The amount of space required This, too, varies with the arboretum, its size, funds available for maintenance, and Its functions in the community. Should much space be given over to massed of single varieties? Massed plantings of azaleas, lilacs and crab apples are most ornamental and can be extremely effective, whereas massed plantings of maple trees, for instance, take up much more space and have little ornamental effect. The enforcing of a rigid rule that no more than two or three plants of any one variety can be planted might be enough to defeat the purposes of an arbore- plantings c3(i turn in the eyes of the public. The Arnol.l Arboretum covers an area of ?65 acres, there is little room for additional planting, even though nearly half the presyet ent area is woodland. This wooded area is considered absolutely essential in setting off the man-made plantings to good advantage, and to serve as an added source of beauty and interest to visitors. Viburnums alone take 30,000 square feet (190 plants), while mock oranges take approximately 34,200 square feet (184 plants). Three and a half acres constitute what is known as the shrub collection -long beds of miscellaneous shrubs with grass walks between, in which about 1,000 different species and varieties are grown. Almost a third of this is taken by the grass walks. Such a shrub collection affords an excellent means of teaching the public a great deal in a small area, but affords no opportunity for gorgeous displays of massed plant materials. Another way of approaching a decision on the amount of space necessary would be to take the figure of 2,000 species and varieties as a starting point (the number suggested as the starting point for consideration by Cornell Plantations). If two plants each of these were planted in long nursery rows, the distance between plants averaging 20 feet, they would take about 3acres. Would such a planting in nursery rows have aesthetic Balue and be of interest to the public? Of course not! On the other hand, the proverbial \"thousand acres\" might prove too much for practical purposes. Here is another opportunity for intelligent planning by the Arboretum Committee, and an opportunity where practical plantsmen and landscape architects can lend invaluable assistance. Costs The maintenance of plants in an arboretum need not be expensive. Spraying, pruning, planting, should not be curtailed in any one year. If spraying and pruning be omitted two or more successive years because of lack of funds, the plantings quickly show neglect and it may take several years to bring some of the plants back into vigorous growth. A fluctuating budget does not allow for intelligent annual operation, one of the best arguments against trying to operate too on the basis of funds solicited annually. The actual amount of money necessary to operate a Park Arboretum varies with the size of the arboretum, the labor situation, equipment, the objectives and the extent of its formal plantings. A good park administrator who knows park maintenance costs in the locality where an arboretum is to be established can give excellent advice regarding such costs. However, certain things are known. Lilacs, crab apples, qmnces, and many other groups are very susceptible to infestations of scale and should be treated annually with a dormant spray to control this pest. They need a certain amount of renewal pruning every few years, without which periodic care they will very quickly turn into unattractive specimens which have little ornamental value. No collections of these particular kinds of plants should be contemplated unless they can be cared for properly each year. extensively 37 ~ J example of the cost for maintautinrr one group of plants, there are approximately 600 lilac plants in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum. Sprayiny these with a dormant oil spray takes four men about a halt' day, and about ti~0 gallons of spray mixture. Annual pruning is currently not carried out as well as it might be because of the present labor situation, but if three good pruners could spend an average of two weeks in this collection each year, it could be kept in As an excellent condition. The cutting off of flower clusters is cannot do this a time-consuming opera- tion but should be done for the benefit of the next season's display. Although we completely every year, if done properly (as it should be) it would take four men at least two weeks. This will give some idea of how to approach the problem of prospective costs in each of the large collections contemplated. Viburnums need practically no spraying and very little annual pruning. Elms must be sprayed in this area for elm leaf beetle. The larch case bearer is a difficult pest to control and larch trees must be sprayed with lead arsenate as soon as small worms appear. Canker worm, gypsy moth, willow leaf beetle, Japanese beetle-all attack many kinds of plants and must be controlled in various parts of the country. Our total time spent in spraying in the Arnold Arboretum amounted last year to about thirty man days, with approximately $250.00 expended for the purchase of spray materials. Of course, the necessary spray equipment must be available, and its initial cost must be considered. Pruning, also, cannot be definitely estimated. Young plants, pruned properly at transplanting time may require no pruning for several years. On the other hand, in an established arboretum with many kinds of mature trees, a wind, snow or ice storm may cause immense damage. The hurricane of 1938 cost the Arnold Arboretum in pruning and the removal of fallen or badly damaged trees and shrubs about $6,500 above the budget provided. This did not include the irreparable loss of old established specimens. This past winter, one fourteen-inch snow storm with very heavy snow broke so many branches that it will take approximately seventy-five man days to repair this damage alone. There have been winters, on the other hand, when little damage was done, and pruning in the entire arboretum did not take more than a hundred man days. Planting Much time will be needed at the start of any arboretum for this operation. The size of the arboretum governs the annual planting, of course. During the past few years in the Arnold Arboretum, we have not spent more than fifty to seventy man days in planting new specimens in the collections in any one year. Labor This item is the most expensive in any park or arboretum. It can be controlled somewhat by the amount of grass cutting and leaf raking which is done. In some parks all grass areas are carefully cut with a lawn mower once a week. This is a very expensive operation. In the Park Arboretum certain areas given over to the 38 growth of deciduous trees and conifers the grass need only be cut but once a seaproviding a few walks are open through these collections. In the shrub collection, which many people visit at all seasons of the year, the walks should be closely cut, as well as certain small areas along the main walks and near main entrance gates. But in many areas in the arboretum the grass need be cut only once a year and still the public will have ample space for circulation. Grass cutting is an essential annual operation to reduce the fire menace and must be provided for. Hoeing by hand takes considerable time. The cost of this operation can be reduced by the use of mechanical equipment in the larger beds, and may be reduced still further by the use of some of the new hormone weed killers now a~ailable. The Arnold Arboretum employs eight laborers wth occasional additions during spring and summer, a superintendent for the maintenance of the growing collections, as well as a propagator with his assistant, and a man in charge of labeling and mapping. These are not maximum requirements, probably might be termed the minimum labor requirements for an arboretum the size and age of the Arnold Arboretum. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation at Swarthmore with an area of about fifty acres employs seven men, a part time director, and a part time gardener. The Morton Arboretum with 800 acres employs approximately fifteen men for the maintenance of the grounds. son, Equipment The more standardized mechanical equipment that can be utilized to good advantage, the less will be the expenditures for labor. Minimum equipment for a 200-300 acre arboretum might be: Tractor (with sickle bar, plow, harrow, ete.) Sprayer with tank capacity of at least 300 gallons At least one ton and a half truck ~ power lawn mowers 3 hand mowers z sickle bar machines Rototiller or small motorized cultivator Mecanical saw The best available hand saws, pruners, pole saws, etc. for the type of work contemplated Propagation not be available from commercial sources hence the arboretum will have to propagate many species from seeds, cuttings or grafts. There are decided advantages in having a nursery well stocked with materials, for plants so grown are easier to dig and move. They should be correctly named for if they are allowed to grow to sufficient size in the nursery, they can be properly identified before being transplanted. Larger specimens can be handled this way than would be advisable with purchased specimens. as Every Park Arboretum should have the plants grown will be rare, they will its own propagating unit. Since many of plants, 39 ~ ] The actual size of the greenhouse will depend on the location of the arboretum, its size, and the amount of material to be propagated. At the beginning, a great deal of propagating will be needed to provide material for contemplated plantings. Many of the older arboretums are concerned merely with a few replacements and material which is new to the collections. It is amazing what a large amount of material can be propagated and grown to planting size in a small, well organized space. The Arnold Arboretum has one propagating house ~0~ ~18~ (erected with the accompanying potting shed and heating unit at an approximate cost of $20,000 about twenty-two years ago) and this is ample for its needs. The Morris Arboretum in Philadelphia has twice as much, the Morton Arboretum nearly three times as much, and the younger University of Washington Arboretum four times as much space. The Arthur Hoyt Scott Foundation at Swarthmore has only one small house, as does the arboretum in Whitnall Park in Milwaukee. A pit house .i0~X9~ is essential in the north and lath shade houses are a requisite in the south. Frames are essential for wintering small plants and 1800 square feet of these might very well be contemplated. Nursery space varies with the size and age of the arboretum and the need for plant materials. The Arnold Arboretum has one-half to one acre of nursery space, varying from year to year; Morton Arboretum about three acres; and the University of Washington Arboretum has about seven acres under the Skinner irrigation system. The services of an experienced propagator are essential. Sometimes he can work alone, sometimes he may need assistance, but in order to keep accurate records and to produce good plants, he should be thoroughly trained and experienced. Labeling and Mapping A most essential function of an arboretum is to keep the plants properly labeled. In order to maintain correct labeling it is essential that the plantings be accurately mapped. An active young man who is really interested in this workshould be able to keep maps and labels and it takes a great deal of walking! he has some seasonal assistance. In the winter some of the up to date, providing labor force could paint and even print labels. In the summer, one or two high school boys might be hired to help with the mapping if this were necessary. Mapping with the alidade and tape is sufficiently accurate. We have found that maps approximately l~X`l~~ on a scale of 1~~=20~ are practicable, but a few enlargements are necessary on a scale of 1~~=10~. It took nearly a year for two men properly to map the 265 acres in the Arnold Arboretum a few years ago, but once accomplished, the maps are easily kept up to date with a minimum expenditure - of time. If plants are not accurately and clearly labeled, the arboretum loses its educational function completely. Labels will disappear, often being appropriated by certain types of visitors, and others will become defaced. Thus a careful mapping _ 0 .;: ,,~ ~ \"~'~ ~. 0 0 E 8 aLB;) .~ .c o c ~~ - s c v ~ .s ~ '\" ca , ~~ s Q, o~ 'e>~; : ~ ..; ~ i: ~ k a o 0( 0 == .- ~~' g '6,a s o ~ ^o ~~~ ~ -S ~ : :, c . C) .J c xb( x 'n s a~ ~o ~ c - Q,~O() . ~ o! ~ ... b ::; ~ [fJ0= . c:c. Q,~ c. $'o x .' w ~ .~ a a xI1:: o a~ w >,'\" .. ~, o ~ E\" c 0.~, > ~ ;: .= v Q, ~ro .~ ~ ~, wo y_, :: 0 ~r a 0 ]3 ~ . <t ? a~ w == o == o! ..... E E x~ c ;; ~a a `~ & -s Q, v x o ... a .c o o~ ~ Q, a i c %x r Q, c.. c v '\" v ~c~3~'c ~ of a collection makes relabeling of individual plants simple and accurate, for the critical and sometimes time-consuming matter of reidentification is not involved. One active and intelligent young man can keep a collection mapped and properly labeled, even in the larger arboretums, providing he has some seasonal help occasionally. A display label should be clearly visible on every plant except in instances where a large number of a single variety are used in mass planting. On the label, as a minimum, should appear the common name, the scientific name, and the geographic origin of the species. In the Arnold Arboretum we have a small record label made of embossed zinc tape which is attached to every plant when it is planted in the collections. This remains on the plant indefinitely, and contains the accession number of the plant, its scientific name, the origin of the plant, and the date of its accession. These cost about ten cents per label for labor and materials. A larger wooden or metal display label is attached to each plant that is large enough to carry one. These cost about twelve cents per plant for labor and materials and will remain on the plant m good condition about five years. Certainly a plant worth placing in an arboretum is worth two labels at a cost of twenty-two cents ! This mapping and labeling in a large arboretum may cost as much as ~~500 per year, but it is worth it. Educational costs If the community is large enough, the director or superintendent of the Park Arboretum might be a man who could direct the work in the arboretum and at the same time give lectures to local groups concerning the plant materials in the arboretum and their proper use. He could write articles for local publication, conduct groups through the arboretum, and work with local groups for the general education of the public in better appreciation of the plants and their maintenance. The services of such a man are almost a \"must\" for the Park Arboretum, since a certain amount of educational publicity contributes materially toward a better utilization and appreciation of the arboretum by the residents of a community. It would serve no purpose to give the actual operating expenses of any arboretum, since methods vary, functions of the arboretum vary, and wages vary. Each expense item should be understood before studying actual maintenance costs. The figures and facts given, however, should serve to help with the general plans of any Arboretum Committee. They should be interpreted by men familiar with maintenance work who at the same time are familiar with the proposed functions of the arboretum under consideration. Examples Potentially ise of strong many of the smaller and recently established arboretums give promdevelopment in the future. The suggestions and lists which follow definitely do not include all the arboretums in this country. Some are mentioned merely in an attempt to point out the different kinds of arboretums in this country. They are listed in this manner merely to serve as examples in fostering the 4Z ~ ] I,'orertva~ of the Mortou Ar6oretmn. Li~le. Illinoi.e PLATE VIII The beautiful Thornhill Building of the Morton Arboretum. Completed in the of 19~.~, it was erected on the site of the Joy Morton residence and incorporates the library wing of the building It c~ntams lecture halls, laboratories and administrative offices and was e,pecially planned to provide facilities for the expans~on of the Arboretum educational program. summer Courtesy of the ryTorto~r ~rborete~m, Lia(e, lllir~oi., PLATE IX The hedge collection from the rose garden at the Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois. This collection contains nearly z00 different kinds of hedges-one of the most complete hedge collections in t~is country. Arboretum\" and no intention has been made to include them all. Collections :-It seems to be desirable to mention a few outstanding small collections merely to show what is being done along this line. These are not arboretums as described in this paper. Examples of other important collections of plants would be the rose garden of the Hartford Park Department; the collection of lilacs of the Park Department of Lombard, Illinois ; the very valuable collection of fruits of the New York State College of Agriculture at Geneva, New York, and other experiment stations ; the important collections of woody plants at various places under the supervision of the Bureau of Plant Introduction of the United States Department of Agriculture ; and many very valuable collections in nurseries throughout the land -all these are excellent collections and should certainly not be overlooked. They are not mentioned here because they do not conform to all the requisites of a true arboretum. Hemlock Arboretum, \"Far Country,\" Kitchen's Lane, Germantown, Pennsylvania. Mr. Charles Jenkins, the owner, has approximately 7~- acres of land around his home which was built in 1917. In 1931 he became interested in collecting hemlock species and varieties, and at the present time has over 1.50 species and varieties -the most complete collection in this country if not in the world. . Most of the plants are small, but the older they grow the more valuable this collection becomes. Mr. Jenkins publishes a leaflet from time to time describing some of his plants and thus in this and in other ways promotes the interest of botanists and home owners alike in this interesting group of plants. Breeze Hill, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. Mr. J. Horace McFarland has probably grown more varieties of plants on his 2.4 acres of ground than anyone else in th~s country. As owner of a horticultural printing establishment, he needs authentic pictures of all sorts of plants. In 1941 he was growing 888 varieties of He emroses alone and in addition 1,164 species and varieties of other plants. ploys a gardener with two or three part-time assistants and has proved that .v great deal can be done in a very small space when intelligently operated. Westtown Boys School, Westtown, Pennsylvania. A boy's school, founded in 1799, has been accumulating a collection of trees over a long period of time. Because of lack of space and funds, it is at present specializing on the firs, trying to obtain all species and varieties that it is possible to grow at Westtown. Some thirty different kinds are already established. Eddy Arboretum, near Placerville, California. This is a tree breeding unit operated by the Institute of Forest Genetics of the California Forest and Range Exconcerned with rapid growing pines. There are periment Station, and is now some seventy species and twenty-five varieties with various hybrids of pines growing there, many of the trees fifteen to eighteen years old and sixty feet tall, planted in rows fifteen feet apart, varying from one to thirty specimens in each 1. Small idea of the \"Park chiefly group. 2. Small arboretums:-It would be impossible to list completely every collection :.u] ] x -~f s s G C O ~ b ,~ m s z v 0 ~c a y ,9t~, o 0 o w W o 44 ~! Q,' ~ ~) a~ i x c ~a 0 y ~ 11 cn b y .c w a x s under this heading. Some are listed the accompanying map, all of which have more than 300 different kinds of labeled woody plants, but less than 2,000. After the war, doubtless many of these will become active, and accumulate larger collection, and many other potential arboretums not listed here will be able to keep their plants properly labeled and so might later be included in this group. The division of the arboretums in this country into two groups is done merely as an aid to committees entrusted with the planning of Park Arboretums, so that such groups will know where to turn for practical information and advice. to come on of plants which might be considered Small Arboretums Arboretum of the Barnes Foundation, i Merion, Pennsylvania, 1 Blandy Experimental Farm, Boyce, Virginia (University of Virginia), 20 Boyce Thompson Southwestern Arboretum, Superior, Arizona (Boyce Thompson Institute, Yonkers, New York), 41 1 Breeze Hill, Harrisburg, Pennsylvania (J. Horace McFarland), 14 Cornell Plantations, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York, 11 I Dawes Arboretum, Newark, Ohio, ~?fi Ellis College Arboretum, Newtown Square, ment of Pennsylvania, 15 Experimental Farm, Morden, Manitoba, Canada (Canadian Government Depart- Agriculture), 47 ' Fort Worth Botanic Garden, Fort Worth Texas, 39 Childs Frick Arboretum, Roslyn, New York, 8 Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California (City of San Francisco), 44 Holden Arboretum, Cleveland, Ohio (Cleveland Museum of Natural History),28 H. H. Hunnewell Arboretum, V~'ellesley, Massachusetts (Walter Hunnewell), ~? Topeka, Kansas (Dr. Carl A. Menninger), 38 Jungle Gardens, Avery Island, Louisiana (E. A. McIlhenny), 37 i Michigan State College, (Campus), East Lansing, Michigan, 31 Robert E. More Arboretum, Buffalo Creek, Colorado, 40 Marsh Botanical Garden, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut, 4 Morris Arboretum, Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania (University Indian Hill Arboretum, . of 1? 't Pennsylvania), New 18 8 Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station, New Brunswick, New Jersey, Nichols Arboretum, Ann Arbor, Michigan (University of Oberlin College Arboretum, Oberlin, Ohio, 29 Ohio State Michigan), 30 University (campus), Columbus, Ohio, Cincinnati, Ohio, 24 25 Stanley M. Rowe Arboretum, Sanford Arboretum, Knoxville, Tennessee (A. F. Sanford), 23 Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California, 45 \"Skylands,\" Sterlington, New York (Clarence McK. Lewis), 5 . Slayton Arboretum, Hillsdale, Michigan (Hillsdale College), Smith College (campus), Northampton, Massachusetts, 3 - 32 46 State Institute of Applied Agriculture, Farmingdale, Long Island, New York, University of California Botanic Garden, Berkeley California, 43 v University of Maryland Arboretum, College Park, Maryland, I~) University of Wisconsin Arboretum, iVladiSUn, Wisconsin, :34 Whitnall Arboretum, Hales Corners, Wisconsin (Milwaukee mission), 33 Wooster Arboretum, Ohio Agricultural Experiment Station, 3. 9 County Park Cu~n- Wooster, Ohio, ? i Large Arboretums:-These constitute the largest collections uf labeled woody plants in this country, mostly having more than 2,000 species and varieties of labeled woody plants growing out of doors. Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, Established 1899 ; ?z? acres ; large collections of palms. Endowed. Owned and operated by Harvard College. Arthur Soledad, Cuba, 22. tropical woody plants and more, Scott Horticultural Foundation of Swarthmore College, W varth16. Established 15330. About SO acres-collections of \"the best\" varieties of woody Hoyt Pennsylvania, as tree peonies, etc. Endowed. Swarthmore College. Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, 1 Established 1872. 26.5 acrev-large collections of hardy woody plants exclusive of economic fruit varieties. Endowed. Operated as a unit of Harvard University. The land originally owned by Harvard University but deeded to the City of Boston in 1883 and leased to Har\"s^ vard University for a term of 999 years with renewal pruvisiom of$.00 per This is the oldest arboretum in the United States. year. Brooklyn Botanic Garden, Brooklyn, New York, 7 Established 1910. ~0 acres. Collection of woody plants as well as waterlilies and herbaceous plants. Partly endowed, partly supported by the New York City Tax Budget Appropriations. Owned and operated by the Brooklyn Institute of .Artv & Sciences. plants well as narcissus, Owned and operated by Dominion Arboretum and Botanical Garden, Ottawa, Canada, 48 Established 1889. 6.5 acres. Collections of woody plants. Owned and Fairchild operated by the Canadian Government. 21 i , Tropical Garden, Dade County, Florida, Organized 198.i. 83 acres. Collections of palms tropical woody plants. Endowed. Operated by the Fairchild Tropical Garden. Highland and Durand-Eastman Parks, Rochester, and other tropical and semi- 0 New York, 10 Established about 1907. About 600 acres. Collections of hardy woody plants. Owned by the City of Rochester, operated by the Park Department. Huntington Botanical Garden, San Marino, California, 46 Established 19z i . 207acres. Collection, of woody plants as well as cacti and succulents. Endowed. Owned and operated by the Henry E. Huntington estate. 47] Masonic Homes, Elizabethtown, Established 1910. 1?00 acres. Pennsylvania, 13 3 Collections of ornamental woody plants. En- dowed. Owned and Dlasons. operated by the Grand Lodge (Pennsylvania) of Free and Accepted Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis and Gray's Summit, Missouri, 36 Established 1889. 1 ti i ~ acres (ohiefly at Gray's Summit). Collections of plants, water lilies, orchids, cacti and succulents, etc. Endowed. woody Owned and operated by the Missouri Botanical Garden. Montreal Botanic Garden, Montreal, Canada, 49 Established 1936. 600 acres. Collections of hardy woody plants, economic plants, perennials, tender plants in display greenhouses, etc. operated by the City of Montreal. Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois, 35 Established 1922. 800 acres. Collections of hardy woody plants exclusive of fruits. Endowed. Owned and operated by the Morton Arboretum. New York Botanical Garden, Bronx Park, New York, New York, 6 Established 1895. 280 acres. Collections of hardy woody plants and many exotic tender plants in large display greenhouses. Owned and Morton Partly endowed, partly supported by New York City Tax Budget appropriations. operated by the New York Botanical Garden Corporation. of Washington Arboretum, Seattle, Washington, 4~~ University Established 1934. 260 acres. Collections of hardy woody plants. Owned and operated by the University of Washington. Owned and References The following references are merely a few to indicate that there are lists of \"the best\" varieties of shrubs and trees which might be first planted by the new Park Arboretum. Many more references could be quickly obtained by an inspection of the larger horticultural libraries of this country. Chadwick, L. C. Compiling a new nursery list. Yublished by the American Nurseryman, Chicago, 96 pp., 1939. Ihrig, Herbert A report of the hardiness of rhododendrons, Winter of 19421943. Arb. Bull. Univ. of Washington Arb., Seattle. pp. 201 : 4S-64. 23. December, 1943. McDaniels, L. H. Nut growing in the Northeastern States. Arnoldia. Russell, Paul Wister, John October 31, 1941. The Oriental flowering cherries. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circular No. 313. March, 1934. Lilacs for America. Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Founda- tion, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. 1-64. April, 1942. Crab apples for America. American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretum. 1-81. July, 1943. Also many other lists can be found in the following publications: Arnoldia, and past issues of the Bulletin Of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Morton Arboretum Bulletin, Lisle, Illinois. University of Washington Arboretum Bulletin, Seattle, Washington. Missouri Botanical Garden Bulletin, St. Louis, Missouri. DONALD WYMAN Wyman, Donald 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Report on the Arnold Arboretum Hedge Demonstration Plot","article_sequence":6,"start_page":49,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24160","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14eaf6d.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the PLII,I.E'L'IN OF P(>I'ULAIt INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University Vur.umtE ,i October .S, 1945 R>i;POItT ON THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM HEDGE DEMONS'I'RATIO:~' PLOI'~ NUMBER 8 of the l l,i hedges in the hedge demonstration plot were planted either fall of 193fi or in the spring of 1937. The majority have grown well since and it seems to be advisable to make a report on their growth performance to date. They have received a minimum amount of care. The grass walks between them have been mowed regularly, and all plantings have received at least one application of well-rotted manure. Most of the deciduous hedges were cut to within six inches of the ground when they were planted, this being done in order to insure bushy growth. Of course, the evergreen hedges were not treated this way, their growth now being largely proportional to the size of the plants when they were originally received. 1'runing or clipping has been held to a minimum, usually done on deciduous as well as evergreen hedges during the latter part of June or the early part of July at a time when the current year'S growth was about complete. One pruning or clipping at this time was usually sufficient each year, although a few of the plants needed an additional light clipping in the fall. This additional clipping was the exception rather than the rule. All hedges have been clipped in the same form, i.e., narrow and slightly rounded at the top and wider at the base, since this slyrhtly triangular shape is conducive to best hedge growth. Seven plants were placed in each of the taller-growing hedges and ten plants were placed in most of the lower growing ones, the length of each hedge after planting being approximately twenty-five feet. Full details concerning the plot as ~t was originally planted, together with a plan, will be found in the Bulletin MOST in the * A similar article under this title will appear in Vol. 47 of the ican Society for Horticultural Science., now ~n press. Proceedings of the Amer- ~J ~ ] of Popular Information of the Arnold Arboretum. (Series 4, Vol. VI, No. 14, Dec. 1938.) A large number of these hedges have proved to be satisfactory up to this time. The advantages of using one kind of plant material in preference to another depends on the purposes for which the hedge is intended. Such important items as the size of the leaves, presence or absence of thorns, color of flowers and fruit, and texture, all enter into the selection of plant material for hedges, but these are not considered in this paper. This report is based primarily on growth made to date for it is of value merely to note the large number of species that have grown into good hedges since this demonstration plot was planted. Good hedges are bushy at the base; and many of these plants have grown together in the hedge rows to make continuous masses of plant materials and give every indication of responding well to clipping in the future. Some of the hedges have not proved to be satisfactory within this trial period, and the species are listed together with the reasons why they have proved to be unsuitable. Some, especially those that have been recently planted, are still too small to be judged properly at this time. The chief object in this demonstration plot has been to keep all the hedges comparatively low, to give them identical care, and to keep them sufficiently restrained so that they can be clipped easily by a man standing on the ground. This is comparatively easy with Taxus species ; not so easy with the more vigorous growing Acer species. Minor accidents have occurred to plants here and there in the plot, but as a whole they have grown well. This report deals only with the amount of growth the different plants have made as clipped hedges under Arnold Arboretum conditions, from the time of planting ( 193fi-3 i ~ to the present. 30 LIST I Plants which have N~mH:: These are proved to be satisfactory- as hedges. completely to the ground and hedges. Naturally their te.rture varies with size of leaf. Interest varies with flower, fruit and autumn color. But as eight-year old hedges, they are all satisfactory at their respective heights and widths. The figures in the second column are the original heights of the plants as they come from the nursery. Those marked () were cut to within 6\" of the ground immediately after they were planted grown all very dense, well branched together to form continuous in order to force them to branch well from the base. _ JZ , ] 52 LIST II Hedge NoTF : These in are Plants - Second Choice rather slow growth or decidedly second choice at present, being slightly open at the base or both. Cut to within 6\" above the ground immediately after transplanting in order to make a hedge which was well branched close to the ground. 53] LIST III Plants of as yet doubtful value may prove to be hedges but satisfactory later. in which NunE: These either recently planted and too young as yet to be properly judged, or else there is something wrong with them that would appear to make them inferior to those plants in List I. are Acer platanoides Caragana frutex Chaenomeles lagenaria Hypericum densiflorum Ilex crenata convexa Ilex opaca Pinus nigra Populus alba pyramidalis Very open at base. Only recently planted. Only recently planted. Very open at the base. Only recently planted. Only recently planted. \/ ' _ All plants died within three years. Apparently of too vigorously upright growth to be well filled out at the base. habit habit Populus nigra italica Prinsepia sinensis Prinsepia uniflora Prunus japonica Nakaii Quercus robur fastigiata Apparently of too vigorously upright growth to be well filled out at the base. Only recently planted. Only recently planted. Only recently planted. Dense at top and open at base. Apparently of too vigorously upright growth habit to be well filled out at the base. Few branches at base. Badly infested with oyster shell scale. Slight infestation of oyster shell scale but apparently an excellent low hedge. This has proved to be a consistently poor grower in our plot for some unknown reason. It should be a vigorous growing shrub. Too upright in habit-grows laterally, very slowly, hence it has made a poor hedge. If plants had been spaced 18~~ or less apart, it might have proved to be satisfactory. This should make an excellent hedge. Our plants were poor to begin with and this may be the reason why these have made a very poor hedge up to this time. Salix purpurea . Salix purpurea gracilis ,,\" Syringa Josikaea Thuja occidentalis Wagneriana Ulmus pumila 54 - ' LIST IV Plants which have proved to be decidedly inferior as hedges. ~uw:: These are definitely inferior as low hedges under Arnold Arboretum conditions. Some may have died or been susceptible to a serious pest. There is nothing about their performance to date that would suggest these species be selected for hedges if those in L~sts I and II were available. .-llnes Hraseri ]Not vigorous enough in itions to compete with growth under our eonclimore strongly growing species. Cercidiphvllum ,j,iponicum .Half of these plants are having a hard time getting started. The other half look as if they are so upright in growth habit that they will be open at the base. Clethra alnifolia Very poor growth. Our plants are growing in a v ery dry soil which is probably the cause for the poor development, for with us this is typically a plant of very wet places. At Gloucester, Massaohusetts, under moist growing conditions, this has been clipped and forms a fairly dense hedge. Died back repeatedly. Did not make a good hedge Deutz~a gracil~s Does not grow vigorously at the sides, hence Gink~o biloba fasti~iata makes a poor hedge. Much too open to compete with other plants as Uleditsia triacanthos a small hedge. rhamnoides Very difficult to get established under our condiHippophae tions. Not to be recommended as hedge material. l'artv of plants died after shearing and were uncommunis Juniperus sightly. Had to be removed. Lonicera Korolkovii floribunda Apparently very difficult to get tlns established. This was replanted three different times and finally was \",iven up .rs too difficult to handle as a ~ hedge. Maclura Pinus Pinus pomifera Ph~ladelphuscoronarmspumilu5 Mugo Mugo Mu~hus Does not grow well under our conditions. Does not make a good hedge. All dead. Plants became quickly infested with scale and soon died. Became severely infested with scale and gradually died out. If scale can be kept under control, ~ .5.5] Pinus sylvestris this plant should make a very dense, low, flat hedge. Two plants died within two years after transplanting. As a hedge, it is not as satisfactory as Pinus Strobus. Became severely infested with a twig borer which ruined the plants. Not sufficiently dense for a clipped hedge. Does Rosa virginiana not compare favorably with others for this purpose Most of the plants died and the remainder were Bumalda Spiraea removed. Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus Too loose and open in growth. Not sufficiently dense nor vigorous enough for a clipped hedge. Tamarix pentandra Most of plants winter killed badly and had to be removed. Rather open at top and makes a poor hedge for occidentalis spiralis Thuja this reason. Nine of the ten plants died within three years. Viburnum Opulus nanum These were growing in poor soil but should have proved to be hardy. Another trial in another location should be conclucted. Rosa rugosa DUNALD ~~5 MAN Fogg, John M., Jr. Weeds of Lawn and Garden. Philadelphia, Univ. of Penn. Press. p. I-~15, illus. 1945. Price $2.50. -This excellent little book, of a size which can be easily carried around, is written for the average gardener by a prominent botanist who has been interested in the subject of garden weeds for years. One hundred and seventy five common garden weeds are described and pictured in such a popular fashion that they can be easily identified. Sufficient information is given about each weed to enable one to identify it properly from the excellent line drawings. The habitat of each weed and method of growth is also given, and what is most important, a method of control. All this information about each is contained in a two-hundred-word paragraph appearing on the bottom half of the page, the top half containing an excellent line drawing of the young weed before flowering stage, and the mature plant in flower, thus enabling it should one to identify it at any time. An excellent, practical, workable book be kept within reach of everyone with a garden. - 56 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Viburnums for the Northern United States","article_sequence":7,"start_page":57,"end_page":63,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24164","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14ebb6a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME J November 23, 194.5 NUMBER 9 VIBURNUMS FOR THE NORTHERN UNITED STATES viburnums are among the most serviceable of all shrubs. They have inflowers in the springtime; most of them have splendid green foliage the summer; colorful fruits in the late summer, fall, and even the throughout winter; and most of them have brilliant autumn foliage color. Here is a group of plants which has ornamental value every season of the year. Some kinds of plants, like the lilacs for instance, we may carefully grow fifty weeks of the year in order to enjoy them in flower for two weeks. The viburnums, on the other hand, are usually of ornamental value at least two seasons of the year, sometimes three and even four. They have no serious pests, need little pruning, and in fact require little, if any, attention. They can be grown over a wide area of the United States and Canada and hence are to be highly recommended for many situations and for many uses in the garden. The following paragraphs concerning viburnums for the eastern and northern United States are written to augment the accompanying chart in which specific information about each one of the better species THE teresting can be found. Viburnums valued for flowers The first of the species to bloom in the Arnold Arboretum is Yibarnmu frngrans, ordinarily starting to flower in March or very early April. This blossoms so early in the season, that the flowers are frequently killed by freezin~\"; weather. In fact, the flower buds themselves may be injured during the winter months bplow temperatures. Farther south, it is not so susceptible to winter in,jury and hence is more valuable as a landscape plant than in the North. 1ibnrnnm ('rrrlP.rii rs the second to bloom, starting about the end of April and being in full bloom the first week in May. Because it blooms later, the flowers are not often injured, Su it is much better than V. fi~agrans for gxrdens in the North. Both ot' theae pl,mts are unusual among viburnums in that they have clusters of small pink, trumpet-shaped flowers similar to those in shape and color of the native flowering nrbutus and :rl- ~ I] as fragrant. 6'i6urnrrnr JruGlii, a tybrid uf l'. C'arle.sii and l'. hitehiuen.se, Iras white flowers and at the Arnold Arboretum has prov ed a superior plant to both. These three and l'iburuum l~rrrka:oodii, :muther vimilar hybrid, are the only unes used in the North with ple.win~,elv fragrant flowers. Three viburnums are valued for their large sterile flower clusters and are commonly called snowballs. The first, Vihurnum Opulu.s roseum (V. Opulzr.s .sterile in the trade) has been in this country longest, but is not desirable because the young shoots and flower clusters are susceptible to severe infestations of plant lice which mar and disfigure the plants. V. lomeotoszem sterile (V. tomezrtosuzrr pliculum in the trade) has been in this country only since 1860 (introduced from Japan); rt is the more desirable type of snowball for the North simply because it is not as susceptible to plant lice infestations as is the precedin~r species. Unfortunately, it is slightly less hardy than the European snowball. Both are planted everywhere for their conspicuous, large white flower clusters in May. In the South, the Chinese snowball (V. macrocephalum sterile) is prominent everywhere. It has much the largest flower clusters, and even though a plant is growing in the Arnold Arboretum, it is not reliably hardy north of Washington, D.C. The rest of the viburnums used in the North ordinarily have large flat clusters, made up of very small, creamy-white flowers which, in appearance, are very similar to Queen Anne's lace. One or two, like V..Sargenti, V. zrln~f'olium and V. Opulus have a few sterile flowers rimming the outside of the clusters, maku~g them slightly more conspicuous. Although the majority of the viburnums may not be valued for conspicuously beautiful flowers, nevertheless these are borne m such profusion that most are prominent in the landscape when in full bloom. most Plants attracting birds All theviburnums except those with sterile flwvers have fruits w hich are nunst attractive to birds. The fleshy fruits usually contain one flattened seed and the fleshy outside layer of the fruit is often brilliantly colored. The U.S. Department of Agriculture records show that one plant in particular, V. prunifolium, has attracted the following birds which w ere observed to eat its fruits :- Ruffed grouse Yellow-billed cuckoo Flicker Catbird Brown thrasher l~ulnn Eastern bluebird Cedar waxwmg Rose-breasted grosbeak Purple finch To this list undoubtedly could be added many other birds, and it is safe to say that in general all viburnums in fruit attract a great many different kinds of birds, possibly more than any other group of fruiting woody plants except the cherries and the crab apples. In reference to this note on fruits it must be admitted that those of V. Lentago have a disagreeable goat-like odor, hence the common name of nanny-berry or sheep-berry. :58] ] II) :; ~ ....11) 11)'0 M~ a~ E Wx ,~ II) B\" .~b S a ~ro E II),E = .. CwD~w~.. Q r~a Y os ~ ~3 c~ '\" 8 ~H ..... '0 ~ > .. =' '~<cII) .,..c:: -\"\" II) =- =. c: Q O f#& x3E; s rn . os G~ os ~ ~ I:j . ~a ~ os ~O rii f '\" ... ~ ti0 ~] z z r q d z 6] H ' g~ o rr E~~ e ~5 o~~ !F!g ~.a w ~ ~c 'p'm ~Drr O ~~z ~ ~s ~ ~' ` r ~p rr O p., S z~ ~~~. ~~~r ~~ ~co ~ .c n.n cbe tHr1 E m` \" mo c~o N V' E E'S- ' ~r !7\"' *~~s <-~ E 0 .~' _~.~' E s~ !~ s'!~ fD .T Landscape use As a group, the majority of the viburnums are vigorous growing shrubs which enjoy good sunny locatiow and can be used in mass plantings or as specimens; there is probably nothing mcer than a specimen plant of the tree-like V. ~SiPboldii, which is noted for its billowy masses of dense dark green foliage. The exotic viburnums, particularly, are used as specimens while many of the native types are used in naturalized plantings. However, V. aeer;f'olizt7n and V. rrlrrifolium, and possibly one or two others, need the shade and often the cool, moist conditions of the woods in order to do their best. These do not grow well in full sun. As a rule, viburnums are most valued for their colorful fruits and are among the shrubs outstanding in this respect. Some of the fruits are black ; while the fruits of others, like V..Siebolttii, change from a light green to red, and eventually to black before they fall from the plant. Others, like V. cns.sinoirle.s, have fruits with various colors for as they change from green to red to black, often in the same clusters the various colors will be present at the same time. As noted in the table, the fruits of some, like V. Opulu.s, remain on the plants all winter long (that is, when there are not too many birds in the vicinity), a most desirable characteristic; while the fruits of others, like V. frngrnns, are borne in the early summer and are soon eaten by the birds. One of the important things to be noted is that there are three yellow-fruited varieties which should be used more and grown more by nurserymen, because of the very interesting combination which can be obtained by using these with the black and red-fruited forms. A study of the table shows that the heights vary considerably. V. Leulag~o, tiw instance, is a small tree and can be trained to a single stem when desired. V. :` Opulus nnnnm, on the other hand, never grovrs taller than two feet ancl can be used as edgm~,r or in rockeries. Autumn color ' ' ' Theiburnum5 are among the best of our shrubs for autumn color, being predominantly red at this time. Some, like V. ~runifolium, are brilliant red, others, like V. dilalatnm, are a dull red but still outstanding, others like V. CnrlP.sii have a very deep wme-red autumn color sometimes mixed with orange and yellow. T'. noerifolirrrrr has almost a purple autumn color. Of course, to color properly in the fall, these plants must be in certain definite climatic regions (like the northeastern United States) where the climatic conditions are such as to aid materiallv producing autumn color. The following table lists the most important of the viburnums for ornamental use. In the column headed \"Time of Effective Fruit\" S=Summer, F=Fall, and W=Winter. In the columns \"Value of Fruit\" ancl \"~'alue of Flower\" those with a line are not particularly outstanding, those with a mn\",rle asterisk are of value and those with a double asterisk are particularly valuable. The \"Zone of Hardiness\" in the last column refers to the Hardiness Map in the Bulletin of Yehular Information, Series t, Vol. VIII, No. 1?, til-fi~.. l9~ll. in ~;a ~J Book Review U. Plant Life of the Pacific World. Macmillan, pp. i-xv, I295, illu.r. 19~5. Price :~~..i0.-Although it is scarcely to be expected that any single book can comprehensively discuss the vegetation of a region which cuutains upward of 50,000 species of plants, the reader of this remarkable Bolume will agree that its author has come close to accomplishing the feat. From this statement one is not to assume that the subject is presented in any dry or technical sense ; on the contrary, this book is eminently readable and, to anyone with the slightest interest in plants, even exciting. Due to the inclusion of a lucid chapter on the principles of botanical classification, to a glossary, and to ?56 well prepared text-figures, the non-botanical reader can understand and appreciate every statement in the book. Yet, this is not a book entirely for the novice : actually it will be read with great pleasure and profit by professional botanists, for many of whom the Pacific is a strange area. Certainly no other living botanist can write of this region with the authority of Dr. Merrill. Following an amusing introductory chapter exploding certain fictions pertaining to the \"dangerous\" tropical forests, the author takes us on a tour of various ecological habitats (in chapters entitled Plants of the Seashore, The Mangrove Forest, The Secondary Forests and Open Grass-lands, and The Primary Forest). Additional chapters on weeds, cultivated plants, emergency food plants, problems of plant distribution, the significance of local names, etc., round out a surprisingly complete picture of a highly complex region. This book should be of very particular significance to service men stationed in the Pacific area ; it is one of the most distinguished of an excellent Pacific Handbook Series which has appeared under the auspices of The Irifantry Journal, Washington, D.C. The restricted edition, for the armed forces, is identical in content but smaller in format and paper-bound. Not only service men garrisoning our Pacific bases, but also prospective travelers to the region will find their experiences vastly enriched by a perusal of Plant Life of the Pacific World. Merrill, Elmer - A. C. SMITH 64] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Book Review","article_sequence":8,"start_page":64,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24153","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170816c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Moore, Robert E.","article_content":"Book Review U. Plant Life of the Pacific World. Macmillan, pp. i-xv, I295, illu.r. 19~5. Price :~~..i0.-Although it is scarcely to be expected that any single book can comprehensively discuss the vegetation of a region which cuutains upward of 50,000 species of plants, the reader of this remarkable Bolume will agree that its author has come close to accomplishing the feat. From this statement one is not to assume that the subject is presented in any dry or technical sense ; on the contrary, this book is eminently readable and, to anyone with the slightest interest in plants, even exciting. Due to the inclusion of a lucid chapter on the principles of botanical classification, to a glossary, and to ?56 well prepared text-figures, the non-botanical reader can understand and appreciate every statement in the book. Yet, this is not a book entirely for the novice : actually it will be read with great pleasure and profit by professional botanists, for many of whom the Pacific is a strange area. Certainly no other living botanist can write of this region with the authority of Dr. Merrill. Following an amusing introductory chapter exploding certain fictions pertaining to the \"dangerous\" tropical forests, the author takes us on a tour of various ecological habitats (in chapters entitled Plants of the Seashore, The Mangrove Forest, The Secondary Forests and Open Grass-lands, and The Primary Forest). Additional chapters on weeds, cultivated plants, emergency food plants, problems of plant distribution, the significance of local names, etc., round out a surprisingly complete picture of a highly complex region. This book should be of very particular significance to service men stationed in the Pacific area ; it is one of the most distinguished of an excellent Pacific Handbook Series which has appeared under the auspices of The Irifantry Journal, Washington, D.C. The restricted edition, for the armed forces, is identical in content but smaller in format and paper-bound. Not only service men garrisoning our Pacific bases, but also prospective travelers to the region will find their experiences vastly enriched by a perusal of Plant Life of the Pacific World. Merrill, Elmer - A. C. SMITH 64] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Glenmore Arboretum at Buffalo Creek, Colorado","article_sequence":9,"start_page":65,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24162","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14eb726.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Moore, Robert E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA ' A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 5 ' December 7, 1945 THE GLENMORE ARBORETUM AT BUFFALO CREEK, COLORADO I NUMBERS 10-11 Glenmore Arboretum is at Buffalo Creek, Colorado in the Colorado foothills. It was started twelve years ago when its owner decided to landscape his summer residence with native plants. A number of native plants which were available at local nurseries were purchased and a few trees and shrubs were collected from nearby locations. The next spring it was decided to add, to the collection of native plants, as many different types of evergreens as could be obtained, whether native or not. All types that were offered by local nurseries were trucked to Buffalo Creek and numerous exotics were ordered by mail. Little attention was paid to soil or location and the following spring it was discovered that even though the Colorado mountains were covered with evergreens, not all evergreens were hardy there, and that even the natives required different treatment from that which had been accorded. Information relative to the proper planting practices was readily obtained, but curiously enough it seemed that no one had ever made any systematic endeavor to ascertain just what evergreens are hardy in Colorado. It was decided to conduct experiments along this line. During the fall and winter a library on evergreens was started, a good deal of studying was done. Buffalo Creek is but twenty miles from the Continental Divide where the eternal winds distort the limber pines into grotesque shapes and the protracted low temperatures furnish but the briefest of growing seasons. Even at Buffalo Creek, with an elevation of only 7000 feet, high winds are invariably present in the spring and annual minimum temperatures range from -~1~ to -85 F. Often there is little snow in the winter and in the spring alternate freezes and thaws kill all but the most sturdy of plants. The soil is a disintegrated granite THE 63 with very little humus. Lacking adequate browse, the deer pruned most of the junipers and disbudded all exotic pines. Never having been told that pruning should not extend into old wood, a great deal of damage was done. Peter Rabbit also found buds and tender shoots to his liking. To improve the soil, an area was manured, plowed and planted in soy beans, and these were turned under while green. At the suggestion of the Supervisor of the U.S. Forest Service Nursery at Monument, Colorado, this area was fenced with a fine mesh wire (one-third inch) eighteen inches high and buried six inches beneath the surface. Above this was stretched two feet of rabbit wire, and above that, a couple of strands of barbed wire. Subsequent experience has indicated that this is the only feasible method of excluding rabbits and mice. \"Repellants\" have proved but appetizers. The deer, of course, hop over this fence when so inclined. The extra effort required, however, has thus far proved a decided deterrent. The following spring, permission was secured from the Denver City Nursery to use a few frames and the more doubtful items which were purchased at that time were planted in these more favorable surroundings. (Denver's annual minimum temperature is a good ten degrees above that of Buffalo Creek and soil and wind conditions are better, too.) Lath shading was kept on these Denver frames for a year and the same protection was furnished the new trees that were planted at Glenmore. They were regularly watered at both places. Some years later a frame for propagation by seed was added at Buffalo Creek and the Denver City Greenhouse lent a bench for experiments in vegetative propagation. Out of all these faltering experiments and subsequent additional ventures, three main purposes have finally evolved : 1. To establish at Buffalo Creek an arboretum composed of native plants and such evergreens (natme or foreign) as will live there. 2. To ascertain what evergreens are hardy under normal Colorado conditions. ;3. To perpetuate, through vegetative propagation, evergreens that are noteworthy because of their appearance or their hardiness. Although cuttings are placed in sand at the City Greenhouse each December, the vegetative propagation is carried out for the most part through the medium of commercial nurseries that handle custom grafts and cuttings. Each December scions are taken from noteworthy trees that have been observed during the preceding year. A false cypress that has no business even staying alive in Denver has, for some reason, actually flourished for ten years. Its tips are sent away for grafting. The aphis that travel from Douglas fir to spruce for some reason leave a given tree entirely alone. Possibly grafts from it may have the same immunity. Fastigiate junipers and pines are sometimes found in the hills, and perhaps, their useful ornamental form may propagate true. Grafts from a weeping \" spruce may themselves weep. The Glenmore Arboretum has a golden Colorado spruce, which was noted among several hundred thousand normal seedlings at a local \" 66] few years ago. A cynical wife insists it is but a \"peroxide blonde\" because this same nurseryman sold some dwarf ponderosa pines\" a few years ago that turned out to have knots tied in their seedling trunks, just below the surface of the soil of the pots in which they were planted. Two of these \"dwarfs\" were even proudly sent to the Arnold Arboretum! However, the \"peroxide blonde\" has kept her amazing color in her new surroundings for almost three years now. Its scions will be grafted this winter. The functions that were first named are the ones most stressed, however. Exotic evergreens that can \"take\" Denver's occasional winters of -ZO Fahrenheit, its alternate freezes and thaws each spring, with little snow protection, and its burning sun and high winds-such evergreens are probably pretty hardy everywhere. If, in addition, they can survive the additional rigors always present at Buffalo Creek, then a very worthwhile test has been given. Although originally all of the experimenting was done at Buffalo Creek, now it constitutes the secondary stage. Each year there are purchased and placed in the Denver frames evergreen transplants from various locations, the annual minnursery a . low as -.5 to -10 (Rehder's Zone V). These trees are kept in the Denver frames for two years, the first year being under lath screens. Half of those that survive are taken to Glenmore and are there put in nursery frames for two years, again having lath protection the first year. The other half of these specimens are planted in open nursery rows in Denver, where they will get cultivation and water. At the end of another two years further transplanting is done. Those that have lived for two years in the Buffalo Creek nursery frames are put in open nursery rows at Buffalo Creek and half of those that have lived in the open nursery rows in Denver are then taken to the open nursery at Buffalo Creek. After two years in the open nursery at Buffalo Creek they are transplanted to permanent locations and if they survive a couple of reasonably rigorous winters in their final location, it is felt that they are \"good imum temperature of which runs at least as prospects. \" Of course, no decisive test can be made in a time as short as this. The winter of 1944 and the spring of 19~.5 were the most trying that have been experienced at Buffalo Creek. A virtual drought from August to December, and practically no snow between December and April created a condition that even the native trees found little to their liking. Colorado spruces and limber pines that had been transplanted to their permanent locations as much as six years ago died. Mountain common juniper growing naturally died in great quantities. Japanese larch killed almost to the ground after three successful years in the open nursery. (If larch sap could be used as a rodent repellant it might be successful. Not one larch bud has ever been eaten, even during the years of worst famine.) During these twelve years a card index record was kept on every evergreen that was planted. This record will, perhaps, be the most valuable contribution fi~ to horticulture of the Glenmore Arboretum. For the statistically inclined, a sum- Once a tree leaves the nursery, life is harsh. The earth ball has good soil in it and native grasses discover this almost immediately. Probably the additional moisture that is given after transplanting attracts these hungry marauders. Whatever it is, by the end of the first season any tree that has been planted even near sod has all it can do to stay alive. If it does stay alive two or three years it still may not be able to subsist on the native diet, once its roots have gone beyond the earth ball. There are high spots, however. Juniper blight is never known in this dry atmosphere. Red spiders are infrequent and scale is seldom present. Spruce gall aphis are always present, but are not too bad. The pine tip moth comes every now and then, but seems to prefer conditions along the roadsides. From the lists appended it will be noted that the great majority of varieties attempted at \"Glenmore\" are clons. The number of species that are happy in Colorado-particularly at Buffalo Creek-are relatively small. Even the sturdy eastern red cedar has a much harder time than its western cousin, the Rocky Mountain juniper. The Rocky Mountain juniper is truly a splendid tree in Colorado. As it is very variable, at least in youth, forty-five distinctive clons have been secured. It will be interesting, long after the present owner is dead, to see if these variants in color, form and texture eventually arrive at the somewhat typical pattern shown in the cut below. The Colorado native evergreens have made great contributions to ornamental horticulture. The bristlecone pine, bizarre in youth and picturesque at maturity, has few, if any, rivals for naturalistic planting. (Unfortunately this tree has not thus far proved successful in eastern locations.) The common Douglas fir of Colorado is highly prized everywhere. It is one of the \"common\" trees at \"Glenmore.\" The Colorado spruce in its striking blue and silver shades is becoming almost ubiquitous, while the white fir of Colorado has no rival in its genus for general landscaping purposes and should be used even more than it is. The deciduous trees and shrubs at \"(xlenmore\" are, as has been stated, re- stricted to natives, for the most part, because that group has not been explored by local nurserymen as much as the deciduous exotics have been. These deciduous natives, when put upon their own, grow with incredible slowness. And that constitutes the one great drawback to a Colorado Arboretum-life is seldom more than threescore years and ten. ' mary of the Buffalo Creek burials is appended. Growth is incredibly slow at \"Glenmore.\" 68 - ~ ;0 0 ~ U ;! U ~ D.o '2 h C :s . C a O >, U O .( x w H :s a w 4~ U a '\" 0 0 U ~ b 0 oo ~ '\" .e~ 'i. S ~ \" 60 ~ > .N G a~ B ~ E EVERGREENS TRIED AT GLENMORE ARBORETUM Two hundred and fifty two species, botanical varieties and clons of evergreens have been tried at Glenmore. These have been divided into the following eight tentative groups. I. Hardy in Denver and Buffalo Creek Abies concolor (difficult to get \" \" 6 brevifolia \" ca started) Juniperus scopulorum \" \" 6 \"Emerald\" conica \" 6 c` \" \" \" \" \" `c a` \"Fastigiate\" Funalis\" Juniperuschinensis CompactPntzer\" \" Hetz \" c` Pfitzeriana \" \"Pfitzeriana aurea\" \" 4 \" \"GareeiSpreading\" \" \" \"Glenmore Globe\" \"Glenmore Queen\" `c \" \"Gray Gleam\" \" `c s` Sargenti `a aa Silver Sargent\" \" \" , communis saxatilis a` 6 `c \" \" \" \" \" \" \" `a Compact \" c` Green King\" `a Green Queen\" \" \" \" Hall\" ` ` Hilborn Globe\" \" \" \" `a \" \" \" \"Dense\" \"Erect\" \"Lewis\" \" \"Prostrate\" \" \" \" c` \" \" \" \" \"Marshall\" \" \" \" Marshall spreading\" \"McCoy\" \"Moffett\" horizontalis monosperma \"Wyoming\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" c` \" \" \"Silver\" Sabina ~ \" \" \"Montana\" Morrison\" Northern Beauty\" \"Pathfinder\" \" \"Russian\" \" \" Russian No. 4\" tamaricifolia \" tamaricifolia erecta\" \"Von Ehron\" scopulorum - (clons of this have all proved hardy, those in bold face type being especially \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \"Raleigh\" \"Scraggy\" \"Silver Beauty\" \"Silver Column\" \" \"Silver Cord\" \"Silver Globe\" \"Silver Spreader\" \"Stove Pipe\" \" fine) \" \" \" \"Sutherland\" \"Table \" scopulorum argentea \"Blue Heaven\" \"Chandler Blue\" \" 6 \" \" \" Top\" \" \" \" \"Tepee\" \" \"TollesonWeeping\" \" \" 6 \" 6 \" \" \" c` \" \" \"Cologreen\" \" \"Column\" \"Weir\" \"Welch\" \" \"Communistype\" a` \" Cone \" `c a` Dewdrop \" 70 . \" `c c` `a a` \"Winter Brown\" Winter Green\" \" Wyoming e, Juniperus utahensis (not J. scopulorum) Larix Gmelini as sturdy as Picea Engelmanni \" \"4 argentea \" glauca densata (sometimes scorches a little) \" Buffalo \" compacta Picea pungens \"Wellington\" Pinus aristata \" Banksiana (difficult to start) \" cembroides edulis (this occasionally burns particularly the first winter after transplanting) \" contorta latifolia \" pungens \" \" \" flexilis \" \" \"Fastigiate\" \" \" \" Long Leaf\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \"Fan'' glauca Glenmore Golden\" \"Hill Golden\" \" \"Hudson\" \" \" \"Short Leaf\" \" Silver\" \"Twisted Leaf ' \" \" Heldreichii leucodermis \" \" Pseudotsuga taxifolia compacta \" \" kosteriana \" \" \" \" ` \"Moerheim\" \"Redskin\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" 4 \"Turkey Creek\" \"Weeping\" \"Weeping Silver\" II. fastigiata glauca pendula viridis \" \" 6 Hardy in Denver but Questionable in Buffalo Creek or Unsatisfactory Juniperus chinensis Keteleeri communis aurea Juniperus virginiana Kosteri \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" Schottii virginiana \" tripartita Larix laricina Pinus nigra \" Burk\" \" Canaertii \" \" Cypress \" \" resinosa \" \" glauca \" Strobus west \"C3x#& ; \" globosa \" \"Goldtip\" \" (occasionally side) burns on \" sylvestris \"Hill Dundee\" Denver and Buffalo Creek if III. Hardy in arizonica protected Abies \" lasiocarpa \" \" \"Blue\" Pinus Cembra Taxus cuspidata nana Juniperus excelsa stricta 71] ] PLATE XIV Limber pine, Pinus flexilis, at timber line. IV. Hardy in Denver if protected, but Questionable or Unsatisfactory in Buffalo Creek tablished in Denver, it does well, but often is difficult to start) Pinus Mugo Mughus es- Juniperus horizontalis plumosa Picea glauca conica Pinus densiflora umbraculifera Pinus Mugo compacta (when once V. Possibilities in both Denver and Buffalo Creek - trees that have done well during a very brief trial homolepis Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera Forest\" \"Glenmore\" Juniperus chinensis \"Armstrong\" columnaris \" Abies Larix decidua ' 46 sibiri(-a Libocedrus decurrens Picea glauca albertiana \" \" \" japonica \" \"Dwarf\" \" tortulosa communis \"nana compacta\" saxatilis horizontalis \"Admirabilis\" Black Hills\" Douglasii \"Filicinus\" \"Pulchiness\" \" \" \" \" \" \" mariana \" obovata \" orientalis Pinus densiflora \" \" \" monticola \" \" \" nigra pygmaea \" ponderosa (from of the the west side \" \" \" sylvestris Rocky Mountains) fastigiata \" \" \" (These clons of J. horizontalis should be transplanted only \" when they are very small. They \" should probably not be exposed \" to the west sun and wind) \" Taxus media Hicksii Thuja occidentalis robusta \" \" Woodwardii \" orientalis \"Dark Green\" \" \"Fairfax\" \" \"Fastigiate\" \" Glenmore\" \" \" Krameria\" \" squamata \" 41 \" stricta prostrata VI. Questionable Trees but trees that have lived thus far give indications in Buffalo that they \" 4 are not hardy Abies \" lasiocarpa (hardy Creek, however) Veitchii obtusa Pinus Griffithii a rigida Sequoiadendron giganteum (has Chamaecyparis Juniperus conferta lived under lath in Denver for three years, but dies quickly at Buffalo : 73] Creek) Taxus media Brownii \" . Taxus media \"Wellesley\" Thuja plicata \" Hatfieldii VII. Unsatisfactory such a manner Trees - trees that have that they have no stayed alive but in horticultural value covered in winter to Abies balsamea live) holophylla Chamaecyparis obtusa gracilis \" \" \" , nana Juniperus horizontalis \"Bar Harbor\" squamata Meyeri (holds dead foliage and gets \"leggy \") \" pisifera Juniperus chinensis (this dead \" 6 Picea Abies retains its un\" \" 4 borealis foliage and gets very sightly) chinensis Thuja occidentalis (as previously stated, a few trees have been successful and clons from these give \"Dwarf\" \" communis Jackii (must be promise) VIII. Trees that have died Abies alba \" Picea Abies argentea \" 6 \" cephalonica cilicica firma Fraseri \" \"C3x#& ; \" Gregoryana Maxwellii II nana . \" \" 6 \" 6 \" \" \" \" pygmaea \" ' grandis Nordmanniana Chamaecyparis nootkatensis \" obtusa Crippsii \" \" \" \" Engelmanni \"Dwarf ' glauca jezoensis hondoensis Omorika \" thyoides (poor conditions, however, will be tried \" polita rubens Pinus albicaulis again) Cryptomeria japonica Cupressus arizonica Macnabiana Gingko biloba (will be tried Juniperus californica \" chinensis mas \" communis \" try \" \" (should be hardy, will again) monophylla attenuata \" again) \" cembroides Sabiniana \" Strobus \" nana \" fastigiata (both these varieties should be hardy in depressa (will be \" \" Denver) Taeda , tried again) Larix occidentalis Thunbergii ~'4 I Pseudotsuga macrocarpa Taxodium distichum Taxus brevifolia Taxus canadensis be tried again) canadensis (this has lived under Tsuga lath at the Denver City Nursery) Taxus 66 11 cuspidata (will canadensis 'Kelsey Weeping\" caroliniana stricta Deciduous Trees and Shrubs - mostly natives of Colorado, all growing very well Acer \" glabrum Negundo . Ipomoea leptophylla Jamesia americana Lonicera involucrata Aesculus octandra Alnus tenuifolia Amelanchier alnifolia Lycium pallidum Mahonia Aquifolium \" \" Amorpha \" \" \" \" canescens repens fruticosa \" angustifolia Pachistima Myrsinites Parthenocissus quinquefolia nana Apocynum androsaemifolium Artemisia \" a frigida Philadelphus microphyllus Phyllodoce empetriformis Physocarpus species (3) Pieris floribunda tridentata Berberis Fendleri \" koreana Betula fontinalis \" Populus \" \" \" acuminata Andrewsii angtistifolia deltoides \" \" glandulosa papyrifera Sargentiii - Ceanothus Fendleri \" velutinus Celtis occidentalis tremuloides Potentilla fruticosa Prunus americana \" 6 \" Cercooarpus montanus Clematis ligusticifolia Cornus stolonifera coloradensis 14 \" Besseyi pensylvaniea virginiana melanocarpa ' Corylus cornuta Cowania Stansburiana Ptelea trifoliata Purshia tridentata Crataegus species (4) Eleagnus argentea Fallugia paradoxa Forestiera neo-mexicana F'raxinus pennsylvanica lanceolata Holodiscus dumosus Humulus lupulus neomexicanus Quercus Rhus \" \" macrocarpa . glabra cismontana \" flavescens trilobata Ribes americanum aureum \"6 \" , cereum ~5 Ribes species (3) Robinia luxurians Rosa species (4) Rubus deliciosus \" \" \" \"Andrews Double\" Shepherdia canadensis Sorbus scopulina Symphoricarpos species (4) Viburnum pauciflorum Vitis Longii Yucca angustissima baccata 66 idaeus strigosus Salix species ( 1 1 ) Sambucus microbotrys Sapindus Drummondii glauca \"t .. \" a~ rosea 64 Shepherdia argentea neomexicana ROBERT E. MORE Editor's Note: Mr. Robert E. More, owner of \"Glenmore\" at Buffalo Creek, Colorado, is an enthusiastic plantsman who for many years has been experimenting with the growing of evergreens. We do not receive much information concerning the growing of ornamental trees in the Rocky Mountain region and that is why we welcome this frank discussion of what Mr. More is doing at \"Glenmore.\" His letters have proved to be so interesting over a period of years that he was asked to record his experiences so that other Arnoldia readers will understand some of the problems in reference to the growing of ornamental evergreens in his area. Indian Artifacts e An exhibit of special interest has just been installed in the display cases at the in the vestibule of the Administration Building of the Arnold Arboretum. right This consists of about one hundred stone artifacts found by Mr. E. J. Palmer in the Arboretum grounds. The display includes arrow and spear points, scrapers or knives, digging tools, etc., as well as a number of stone flakes or spalls. The presence of the latter indicates that the Indians who inhabited the area actually manufactured their stone implements at their permanent or temporary camp sites, the latter, for the most part, having been situated near one or the other of the small streams that flow through the grounds. Several of these have also been found near the spring across the road from the Rockery. For further information concerning Indian relics found in the Arnold Arboretum, see the bulletin on the subject written by Mr. Palmer. (Arnold Arboretum Bull. of Pop. Inf., Series 4, Vol. II, No. 1?, Dec. `l8, IP34.) `~6 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Indian Artifacts","article_sequence":10,"start_page":76,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24159","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14eab6c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Ribes species (3) Robinia luxurians Rosa species (4) Rubus deliciosus \" \" \" \"Andrews Double\" Shepherdia canadensis Sorbus scopulina Symphoricarpos species (4) Viburnum pauciflorum Vitis Longii Yucca angustissima baccata 66 idaeus strigosus Salix species ( 1 1 ) Sambucus microbotrys Sapindus Drummondii glauca \"t .. \" a~ rosea 64 Shepherdia argentea neomexicana ROBERT E. MORE Editor's Note: Mr. Robert E. More, owner of \"Glenmore\" at Buffalo Creek, Colorado, is an enthusiastic plantsman who for many years has been experimenting with the growing of evergreens. We do not receive much information concerning the growing of ornamental trees in the Rocky Mountain region and that is why we welcome this frank discussion of what Mr. More is doing at \"Glenmore.\" His letters have proved to be so interesting over a period of years that he was asked to record his experiences so that other Arnoldia readers will understand some of the problems in reference to the growing of ornamental evergreens in his area. Indian Artifacts e An exhibit of special interest has just been installed in the display cases at the in the vestibule of the Administration Building of the Arnold Arboretum. right This consists of about one hundred stone artifacts found by Mr. E. J. Palmer in the Arboretum grounds. The display includes arrow and spear points, scrapers or knives, digging tools, etc., as well as a number of stone flakes or spalls. The presence of the latter indicates that the Indians who inhabited the area actually manufactured their stone implements at their permanent or temporary camp sites, the latter, for the most part, having been situated near one or the other of the small streams that flow through the grounds. Several of these have also been found near the spring across the road from the Rockery. For further information concerning Indian relics found in the Arnold Arboretum, see the bulletin on the subject written by Mr. Palmer. (Arnold Arboretum Bull. of Pop. Inf., Series 4, Vol. II, No. 1?, Dec. `l8, IP34.) `~6 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"British Gardens in War Time as Seen by an American Soldier","article_sequence":11,"start_page":77,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24155","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170896f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Kobuski, Clarence E.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University of VOLUME 5 December 21, 1945 BRITISH GARDENS IN WAR TIME AS SEEN BY AN AMERICAN SOLDIER e NUMBER 12 the past few years, in connection with my duties in the Armed of the United States, I made several trips to Europe and Africa. Some of the trips were very brief and of these my memories consist of little more than a constantly changing horizon viewed from the deck of a ship. On six of these trips made to the British Isles, I accumulated a wealth of memories, some of them very pleasant, others very discouraging. However, since time mellows most things, already one can view with humor the unpleasant situations and dwell DURING Forces more enthusiastically upon happier moments. VVhile in Britain my outfit was seldom stationed long in any one place, hence considerable moving about occurred. Although, at the time, this moving seemed irksome because of the total blackout (and it seemed we always moved at night), unfamiliar railway stations, crowded trains, new billets, etc., this very moving provided the means for our greater knowledge of the country, its terrain, people and customs. Now, in retrospect, we are thankful for these many changes. While in any one place, ample opportunities were afforded each individual to visit localities within a reasonable distance from his base. Many men, naturally, preferred the larger cities and there spent most of their free time. To me, however, the English countryside held more allure and after an occasional visit to the cities to discover that a definite sameness seemed to exist in all the larger commercial centers, I was content to browse around and carry on a feeble bit of botanizing, almost entirely along observational lines. Several long train trips were made, some from Glasgow or Edinburgh, south through the entire length of England including Wales and vice versa. Of course, one cannot judge the country from a train window but certain observations and conclusions were reached based on this method of travel. We never tired of look- ;77 ing at the countryside and we all felt that even though Britain at that time was being torn apart by war -on the whole, the English countryside was probably of the loveliest and most peaceful spots in the world. The gorse ( (~le.r PuroPneu.s) often brightened the landscape with its yellow flowers either growing wild upon the hillsides or planted along the railways or near stations. In northern England and southern Scotland, walls made of flat stones stretched away over the hills as far as the eye could see, appearing almost as the great wall of China in miniature. These rock-fences enclosed the various fields and pastures. While conversing about these walls, the observation was made, that unhke our American fields and pastures, not a single loose or stray stone could be seen. Thereafter, almost as though it were a game, the men watched the fields carefully and concluded finally that the clean fields and pastures were not mere chance but that the fields throughout all of England had been made clear through effort. Farther south, hedge-rows replace the stone walls and are used almost exclusively to separate the fields and retain the cattle and sheep. Occasionally, one can see fields edged by hedge-rows which have become worthless for fencing because of neglect in trimming. When such a condition does occur, the hedge can be transformed into a serviceable fence by \"plashing.\" This is done by slashing the main stems half off with a knife and then bending them down and anchoring the branches so as to interlock with the adjoining plants. We saw some of these hedges in southern England a day or so after they had been \"plashed.\" Although they presented a formidable barrier through which no animal would attempt to break, I must confess, at that stage, the rows appeared very unsightly. When traveling in Wales our train often moved close along the coast. On one side the ocean was sometimes within ten feet. Just a short distance on the other side of the tracks, the terrain arose abruptly, not so very high, but enough to present that strange, somewhat barren and lonely, almost indescribable atmosphere that is so typically Wales, which one must see to appreciate fully. Here on the hillsides one could see gullies filled with snow, yet growing close by would be clumps of bright-colored gorse-or so it appeared from the train. Our first stay in Wales was brief, consisting only of five bleak days in March. We were billeted at Colwyn Bay which is situated on the north coast by the Irish Sea. The many small hotels, the promenade along the shore and the long metal pier with its pavilion led one to conclude that Colwyn Bay probably was a favorite peace-time summer resort for many people. The city also boasted a public garden which was none too attractive at this time of year. Photographs taken during the summer presented the garden in much better condition. The Welsh people seemed much interested in us since we were among the first American soldiers to pass their way. They did much to make our stay pleasant. One acquaintance suggested several trips to noteworthy spots nearby and went so far as to check our trains to these various destinations. He even gave us deone 78] tailed information on how to reach other points of interest and mentioned places where he thought we might enjoy eating. In two of the cities visited, Conway and Caernarvon, were ruined castles. Conway castle, the first viewed, was old, exceedingly old, and easily the most primitive among \"our\" castles. We spent considerable time there reconstructing it mentally and in the process withstood many imaginnry attacks and prolonged sieges. We rebuilt it and staged gala affairs in the large halls. Unfortunately, in spite of our mental efforts, the castle was still in ruins when we departed ! The city itself, in reality a walled city within the castle grounds, ts still unspoiled and charming. It was bythe merest chance that I found myself standing over the\"grave in the Conway churchyard\" which inspired Wordsworth's famous poem, \" We are Seven.\" On a longer trip to Caernarvon, we were fortunate in having a train companion who pointed out numerous places of interest along the way. At this castle we were treated to a \"special\" tour by one of the guards. Later, in the guardroom we were shown the pictures of the latest investiture of the Prince of Wales, a truly noble piece of pageantry. The destruction of this castle was most unfortunate. It seems that in the middle of the nineteenth century, the castle was abandoned. The townspeople were permitted to remove the castle stones for building their own homes. Later,-but too late-this practice was discontinued and an attempt made to restore the castle to a semblance of its former state. Several other castles were visited at various other times, but these two, because they were our first, will probably always hold a special niche in our hearts. All things botanical were brought to me, since I was the only botanist in the outfit ! Another outfit, which usually moved with us, boasted a zoologist so between the two of us we could answer a majority of the questions \"biological.\" Recently I was asked what impressed me most in England. There are many things to impress an American, away from home and tired by war. The fortitude and gallantry of every British citizen, after years of privation and war was enough alone to make a lasting impression and to give a moral lift to anyone. Among other things, the endless number of chimney-pots, rows upon rows of them atop all the city houses, the beautiful English countryside and the thatched cottages -all were impressive. However, what impressed me more than anything else was the English people's love for their flower-gardens. It seems, wherever possible, every house has its garden-the larger estates, gardens often of renownthe smaller homes, gardens to fit the space, no matter how small it may be. Some of the larger estates, like Warwick Castle, have centuries of history and tradition behind them. Their gardens are just as old and historic. In fact, the grounds of the entire estate appear as one huge garden. Like the castle itself, the plans of the grounds were made many years ago. Perhaps a new wing may be added to the castle-perhaps a small change may be made in the plantings- 79] the over-all picture will scarcely change. I use Warwick Castle as an example because today, despite the war, the castle is alive-the grounds in beautiful condition. A pitiful sight is a similar, perhaps less renowned, estate sinking into the abyss of decay. Taken over by the Armed Forces, the halls resound with alien footsteps of war. Initials appear on the woodwork and balustrades. Windows are broken in. These are nothing-and can easily be repaired ! A walk down the garden path shows real destruction. Vandalism-no, they know no better! Trucks have made shorter roads through shrub plantings. Lying on the ground, gasping its last may be a precious gift from the Orient! Nearby construction destroys another group planting. C'est la guerre! C'est 1'americain! Wherever possible, however, the British themselves have maintained an excellent standard in their parks. They will deplore the rundown condition, as they term it. Last spring, I visited the public park at Leamington. An extended walk through the grounds proved the place to be in excellent condition. The trees were well-labeled, the grounds well-kept, and the border plots filled with regular rows of tulips and other spring flowers, making a truly brilliant display. The trees were in full flower and the red-flowered varieties of the English hawthorn (Cralaegus Oryacantha var. ) were at their best. The hawthorn is perhaps England's finest flowering tree. It starts flowering in May and continues into June. At this season of the year one can see the bright spots of pink and rose dotting the landscape. Another brilliant and colorful display was afforded by the flowers of the many species, varieties, forms and hybrids of rhododendron. Near Warrington in Lancashire is an estate that has the most casual planting of rhododendron that I have had the pleasure to see. Always I had thought of rhododendrons growing only in sheltered places but here they were planted in the open as well as among the trees. I am afraid that I failed my companions miserably when I told them that I could not begin to name all the different kinds. They could not understand why such simple looking plants should be difficult to name-so thereupon I gave them a not too profound \"lecture\" on species and hybridization. With such ample material at hand-perhaps I was convincing. The most prevalent gardens in England and, perhaps, the most traditional are the front-yard or door-yard gardens. Each house along the city streets, at least in the smaller cities, has its own little garden. In the country they are termed cottage gardens. This same custom of door-yard garden was brought to the United States by the early settlers and flourished during Colonial times. At that time, the front yard was not for pleasure and children never played there. It was a part more formal than the side or back of the house. I understand that these door-yard gardens originated back in the middle of the 18th century in England when the fore-court was planted to give privacy to the home. Later, it became the custom of the yeomen to have door-yard gardens and this idea, in modified form, has been carried into modern times without general realization of its origin. ~so= s 3 0 ~t w G T! U X w U _m 'c G _td Y W w U ~ U a U ' y Ga. w a '0 c B ` d3 b L 0 L O m 37 ~V d m >~ C. ed E L U w y C Often the dour-yard shrub plot was used as an type of garden has long fallen into disuse and been plantings near the house. In tin~~ly, this custom has become part of their very life. Some of the most beautiful front-yard gardens were observed in Wales. These gardens are not merely the whims of individuals, lasting a few years until the novelty wears off and then allowed to run to weeds. The individual gardener takes great pride in the care of his plants even though they may be few and very common. However, one usually finds that over a period of time each garden has acquired one or several unusual species or varieties which have become pampered pets. Even during the trying war y-ears-and I probably saw them at thor poorest-these gardens were kept up. In the rear of the houses where vegetables were planted, perhaps less care had been given to the flower borders that usually surrounded these gardens and greater attention given to the vegetables themselves. It appeared to me that war-time emergency demanded that the people concentrate on cabbage, brussel-sprouts and other variations of Brassica olPracen because of the quantity pruduced rather than the quality. This same was true in the public\" gardens devoted to the growth of vegetables. These latter resembled very much some of our Victory Gardens but appeared more permanent. Over a rather extensive plot of ground, one might see many very small sheds, which I presume housed the tools of the ~ ariuus gardeners. The sheds, in most instances, appeared rather old. All this was merely assumption, since these plots were observed always, it seemed, from the train window. I have recently learned that these are permanent and are termed allotment garclens\" which rent at a very nominal fee of about ten shillings a year. At the same time, I was told that cabbage has always been the dominant vegetable grown in these gardens. Often over a period of time it was the only fresh green that appeared in our mess halls. It was much more coarse in texture and taste than the cabbage to which we are accustomed in the States. In the very old villages and towns, the houses often were flush with the walk and one could step immediately from the street into the dwelling. One expected no gardens here. However, the windows were usually gay with flowering plants. In the smaller cities, the homes were set back from the street anywhere from ten to twenty feet or even more. Along the street-walk and side of the house customarily had been erected a low concrete wall about eighteen inches high. Immediately behind this low wall might be a hedge. Up to this point there seemed to be a definite sameness. The gardens themselves, however, varied considerably. In some instances, the whole yard became the garden with beds or plots formed by connecting paths. In other places, grass plots served as bases for plantings with flowers in the center and along the sides. Still other patterns were produced by planting the flowers along the main path to the house and a border garden. In the United States, this replaced by grass plots with England and also in l~'ales, perhaps uwvit- herb 82 along the outside with the hedge as a background. yard with these exceptions was devoted to lawn. When one ican In these instances the entire display found in our Amerthese small British gardens may at first appear lowly. On further observation one realizes that the British have merely used restraint and individuality in their selections. There may be gardens there as riotous with ~color and abundance as any found in America only I never have happened to see them. This restraint may be illustrated in the use of the rose. Roses, because of the timorable climatic conditions, flower long and luxuriantly. One might imagine an English just a shower of rambler roses. Just the opposite situation occurs. As far as I can recollect, the rambler rose, used so extensively in this country, appears more rarely in Britain. The small British garden may boast of one or two fine rose bushes-but what roses! There is an individuality exhibited by each plant. The owner obtained it, perhaps, from some obscure source-or may have produced it himself. It is his very own and he is very proud of it. Some gardens, on the contrary, are almost wholly devoted to roses since it is a very popular plant. I can recall passing daily a garden in Llandudno, Wales, and stopping each time to peer over the hedge in order to admire a particularly gorgeous double yellow rose. At that time, it appeared to be about the only plant flowering in the garden. The owner had observed my interest, I knew, and one day as he stood in his garden, I commented on the beauty of his rose. He was very proud of the plant, and told me that he had produced that particular rose himself. Whether or not he gave all the information to his neighbors also I don't know, but it was the only rose of its kind that I saw in Llandudno. And such is probably the story of many other varieties of roses in the same city block, which mcidentally happened to offer especially beautiful roses to view. Close by, in another yard, I found growing a tall, rather old tree, the monkeypuzzle (Arttucarin axrncanrr). This again was the only tree of its kind in the vicinity and attracted the attention of the Americans, many of whom had never seen it growing before. I knew immediately when one started to say; \"I saw the strangest tree today-\" just where he had been in town and to which tree he was gardens, a period of a few weeks we were billeted in private homes in LlandudThis city, erected on a point of land almost completely surrounded by water, is one of the finest vacation spots in North Wales. We learned to know the people quite well-and the surroundmg country became the scenes of our hikes, some enforced and others for pleasure. One evening while strolling along the promenade we discovered a statue erected in memory of Lewis Carroll, renowned author of the widely read '-'Alice in Wonderland.'' The statue was fittingly placed at the far end of a wading pool for children, at that time used for an Emergency Water Supply. One could easily imagine on examming the caves on Great Orme no. is accustomed to the abundance of floral referring. During 83 and the nature of the shore-line just how and where Carroll got his whimsical ideas for his ever-read books. While roaming on Great Orme, a high rocky cliff, along the shore just outside of Llandudno, I was amazed to find growing in solitary grandeur, a species of cotoneaster. My first thought was that it was an escape, but frankly I couldn't understand whence the species could have escaped up there on that lonely spot. Since then, I have been told that it is Cotoneaster integerrima and happens to be an isolated station for the species. On the journey down the shore-drive back to the city we were amazed to find thousands of gulls nesting high on the cliffs over our heads. Such an inquisitive group of birds ! They had elected to build their nests on the very edge of the cliff, so that they could observe passersby by merely craning their necks over the side of the nests with the least effort. Immediately, as we came into view, the birds set up a raucous din with their exchange of calls. While at Llandudno we saw some of the Welsh gardens at their finest. Used extensively, but modestly, was the lupine (Lupinus polyphJllus). Here were beautiful blues, some shading from deep blue at the base to near-white at the top of the spikes, others deep blue the entire length of the inflorescence. Red variations were likewise found in abundance and some plants had a combination of red and blue. Another favorite was stocks (Matthiola incana). This species appeared as the most commonly used flower at that period of the year. The sweet-William (Dianthus barbatus) in white, pink, scarlet or deep red was grown along with the true carnation (Dinnthzus Caryophyllus). I was surprised to find the latter growing in the yards in such excellent condition. Also used was the wood-anemone L4nemone nemorosa) and columbine (Aquilegia vulgaris). Occasionally, in the corner, perhaps near the house, could be seen a small tree of laburnum or golden-rain with its cascades of bright yellow flowers. When admiring this tree, one was always informed with a sort of solemn triumph that the tree was poisonous! Another spring was spent in Wiltshire, Somerset, and Warwick Counties. In the very early spring we were stationed near Lavington and Devizes in Wiltshire. One February day while on a walk, a companion and I happened to stroll through a small village near Erlestoke Manor. This little place was composed almost entirely of homes with thatched roofs. I neglect to say cottages because some of the places were homes of more than a single story. Some houses, even though quite large and seemingly more modern were very old and one could see that the nails when used were hand-fashioned. The homes alone were intriguing. One little place interested us more than all the others because of the gem of a garden before it. We spent considerable time looking at the brilliant-colored crocuses, the snow drops (Galanthus nivalis), the grape-hyacinth (Muscari racemosa), a few daffodils, a small bush of jasmine (Jasminum nud~orum), a few perky primulas, and finally a small stiff-branched bush, about eighteen inches high, of Daphne Mezereum. The owner, who happened to appear, gave us a sprig of daphne be- 84 '. ~ f ! ~ i s ' c Gc :: - ~ '\" os . : '\"&! #x3E;t !o. rJ). . K N l' \" .o~ ..0 I ~ \"E :::; o :: :: wor. j e =' ~ ~ ) bi G . y - ~ ~ m 1: ::i '\" U ..0 \" L H C Y or. !>f) C W .J o W ~x g a s a~ a. w 0 E~ ~ d '\" :: ~ ~ bg w v w v C b C b0 L`D 1f U a~ Y 1~ E I wished my companion, who had never seen nor heard of it, to enjoy the fragrance. The owner remarked that most people considered it too stiff! It did appear a bit awkward and bristling when he drew attention to its growth. However, few plants produce such an exquisite odor outdoors at that time of year. And as my companion remarked, \"I don't blame the poor plant. I am stiff with the cold myself.\" This little garden was one of the most beautiful I have ever cause seen-and in February ! Another winter flowering plant which pleased me much but which I saw infrequently was the Christmas-rose (Helleboru.r niger). Oddly enough, the first time I saw the flower was Christmas day. We had arrived at our first base in Britain the afternoon of the previous day, Christmas eve, after a long train trip of nearly forty-eight hours. We were a very dismal looking, disgruntled group of soldiers when we finally arrived at our base in the Midlands. We had left the Queen Elizabeth in the Clyde early in the afternoon of December twenty-second and through a confusion of orders, were shipped to the very southwest tip of England, only to find we were unexpected and unwanted. After a long two-hour wait in the dark and cold, we again entrained and started back to our original destination, arriving there on Christmas eve. Much time was consumed in hurriedly getting established before dark. During the night, the feeble fire in our tiny stove went out and Christmas morning found us shivering, a trifle apprehensive and discouraged. A couple of us decided that it was warmer outside than within the hut and since we had not been assigned to duty yet, we would stroll about the grounds of a nearby estate. Here we found growing-and in full flower-the Christmas-rose. I had never seen it before but recognized from the descriptions the beautiful white flowers which were tinged with pink. I remembered enough about the plant to explain that the showy portion was the calyx and not the corolla. My companion thought it was very auspicious that we should find the flower on Christmas day. There is considerable folk-lore associated with the Christmas-rose. It was used by the ancients to purify their houses and hallow their dwellings. They also believed that by strewing or perfuming their living quarters with the plant, they drove away evil spirits. In the same manner they blessed their cattle with the plant to keep them free from spells of the wicked. The people would first pray to Apollo and Asklepios (the Greek god of medicine) for leave to dig up the root. Later, the Christmas-rose, with its delicate white flowers was dedicated to St. Agnesand most appropriately, since she was always regarded as a special patroness of purity. The same , day, while walking to a nearby village, we observed one of the finest pieces of camouflage it had been our privilege to see. Pausing at the top of a hill, we looked down at a tiny village sleeping in the valley. Not a person was in sight. The other side of the valley appeared as a green and brown plaid, pat- 86 Courtesy of the lYlassachu.sett.v Horticultural Society PLATE XVII The Christmas-rose (Helleborus niger) flowering in En~lish gardens and January and traditionally used at Christmas. during December terned by many fields and hedges. The unploughed fields were all very green but one appeared a trifle more so than the others. We pondered on the sight and wondered what might be planted there. Later, on closer observation, we discovered that it was a huge building for some war use, artfully camouflaged to match the nearby green fields. Later in March and April, on still another trip, we were stationed near Taunton in the southern part of England. The houses here were neither the thatched type noted previously nor the street type of the cities, but semi-modern so-called detached houses along the road. Here the same love of gardens was found, but more individual. Flagstone walks up to the house formed the basis for planting. Here also we saw some larger homes with walled-in gardens of corresponding proportions but carrying out the same general effect of the smaller gardens mentioned above. Fruit trees were in flower. The display seemed rather feeble compared to our own abundant fruit orchards. The following month found us again in the Midlands near Birmingham. From this base we visited Kenilworth, Warwick and Stratford-on-Avon. The last named place is a pilgrimage for all Shakespeare lovers the world over and I became one of the millions who have paid tribute to the bard. The townspeople did' everything to make our stay there pleasant, showing us all things relating to Shakespeare and his family. In the rear of one of the Shakespearian Museums is a garden devoted to the growing of the flowers mentioned by Shakespeare in his works. In late May, it was an excellent display but little time was permitted for a prolonged tour to examine the various plants. So many of them I did not know. was in early May, 1944. Everything eventually comes to an end-and so it was with the war in the European Theatre of Operations and my various stays in Britain and on the Continent. At the time, I felt very weary and worn and was glad to dash up my last gang-plank at Southampton and take one last look at the coast as our ship faded into the night and the English Channel. I had traveled enough-and would be glad to settle down in the States forever!As I mentioned earlier, time mellows everything and I already begin to feel the urge to go back to see how differently Great Britain will appear in time of peace and to check up on things I.am doubtful about-as well as to meet again some of the friends I have made in a foreign land. This C. E. KoBUSxm 88] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume V","article_sequence":12,"start_page":89,"end_page":90,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24158","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d14ea76a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME V Illustrations are in bold face type Abeliophyllum distichum, Adoms amurensis, 1 2 Jasminum nudiflorum, 84 Judd, William H., 3 Aquilegia vulgaris, 84 Juniperus scopulorum, Plate XIII, 69 Anemone nemorosa, 84 Araucaria auracana, 83 Lilac Path at the Arnold Arboretum, Plate VI, 3,i 3 7 Arrowwood, Plate IV, 17 Plate V, 30 Bamboo, of plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum, ~`?, 18 Brassica oleracea, 8?x&# 3E; British Gardens in War Time as seen by an American Soldier, < <-88 Build Bird Population with Food Betts, E. VI . , t Blooming dates praeflorens, `? Lupinus polyphyllus, 84 llagnol~a stellata, 2 Jlason, C. Russell, .5-~?0 Matthiola mcana, 84 65-76 Morton Arboretum, Hedge Collection, Plate IX, 43 Thornhill Building, Plate VIII, 43 - Lonicera ' Merrill, E.D., 64 More, Robert, E., Plants, 5-~0 Cedar Waxwing, The, Plate I, 7 Colorado spruce, Plate XIII, 69 Mountain Ash, Plate III, 13 3 Cornus The officinalis, 2 Cory-lopsis sp., 2 - Muscari racemosa, 84 Park Arboretum, The, z5--t8 i Cost, 37 Cottage Garden, Plate XVI, 8,i Cotoneaster integerrima, 84 - Definition, 26 -- Educational costs, 42 Crataegus Oxyacantha var., Daphne :~lezereum, 84 Dianthus barbatus, 84 - 80 Caryophyllus, Fogg, John M., Jr., 56 Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, 84 2 Equipment, 39 - Examples, 41 i Functions, 2 - How to plant, 33 - Labeling and Mapping, Labor, 38 - 40 - ovata, 2 - Map, Plate X, 4,i Galanthus nivalis, 84 Glenmore Arboretum at Buffalo Creek, Colorado, 65-76 Hedge Demonstration Plot, report the A.A., 49-56 Helleborus - - Methods of Establishing, 28 Number of plants, 36 - on - Planting, 38 Propagation, 39 . - niger, the Christmas- - 6 rose, Plate XVII, 87, 86 Ilex verticillata, Plate II, 11 1 - Selection of the Site, 81 I Amount required, 36 Space, Ways of Initiating Interest and Action, 32 89] What to plant, 3~1 - Who is to Plan, 31 1 Picea pungens, Plate XIII, 69 - - dentatum, - - z Pinus flexilis, Plate XIV, 7 - Plate IV, 16 6 Lantana, Plate XI, 59 Opulus roseum, Plate XII, 62 tomentosum sterile, Plate XII, 62 Plant Life of the Pacific World, 64 Rhododendron dauricum, 2 - - Viburnums, Landscape Autumn color, 63 use, 63 mucronulatum, 2 Schmitt, Louis Victor, - 3 ' - 3 Sorbus americana, Plate III, 13 An Early, 1-3 Spring, - Plants attracting birds, 58 Northern U.S., for the, 57-63 Valued for flowers, 57 GreenPlate Washington, University of, VII,1I 4 Rushes on, 21-2~. Thomas Jefferson's Garden - Book, Traveller's Tree, Plate V, 30 house, Weeds of Lawn and Garden, 56 Williams, Robert G., 3 Ulex europaeus, 78 Veitch Memorial Gold Medal, 3 Viburnum Chart, 60-61 Winterberry, Plate II, Winter 11 i Injury, 2 These bulletins will be discontinued until renewals for 1946 are now Spring of next year. Subscription due, price $1.00 per year. Checks should be made Arnold payable to Harvard University, Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. - 90 ~ ] "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23495","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060a76e.jpg","title":"1945-5","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1945,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24146","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170a76c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Pokeweed, fruiting top; and Pokeweed, I, p. ;~. Jerusalem young sprouts ready to gather. Plate Artichoke, flowering tuber; and Chicory. Plate II, p. 5. Plate Mountain Sorrel PW anona (Oxyrio digyna); and Cowslip (Caltha palustris). III, p. ~1. (Mon.rtera deliciosa) ; and Chayote (fechium edule). and Cashew Plate IV, p. ~3. Pungapung (Amorphophallus campanulatus); Plate V, p. 3S. (Anacardium occidentale). Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass. View southwest among glacial moraines, to valley of Macdonald Creek. White spruce and lodgepole pine in foreground (Photo. D. S. Correll, courtesy of the Geographical Revieze). Plate VI, p. 69. Natural prairie in View southward valley across of Pine Creek, about 100 miles west of Whitehorse. the Alsek valley to the Dezadeash Mountains. Plate VII, p. 69. lll , ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Food Plants in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24144","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170a328.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 MARCH 3, 1944 FOOD PLANTS IN '1'Hh. ARNOLD ARBORF~I'C'1~ the general search that is being made under the stinmlus of war cunditimn5 for food plant5 :uul for plants of economic value even as snr<rll :ur area as the Arnold Arboretum lr:n something to crmtrilrutr. For although the nmst nnpnrtant w~rl. uf tl~e Arboretum lw, m other fields, wrmu, plants :wr found in the native Nuru and ur the collections uf trees and shrubs drawn from nmnt part~ uf the world that have ti~od value, und suure uf them are bemg used in a limited way fur fuud purposes. The plants growing spuntarteuusly in the Arlmrrtum are uf course those found generally in eastern Massachusetts and most ut them mver :r large part of eastern North America. Most of the cultivated trees and shrubs are alsu grown or may be \",rruw n mure ur less rrenerull~ in this region. Notes on the timd plants of the Arboretum will, therefore, have a wucler :rpplicatnm than to the luuit, of the area itself. .Blmust one hundred species of the larger fungi h:mebeen ulentifird a5 uccurring in the Arboretum and the number that might be found is no doubt much larger. The fungi differ so wdel~ in appearance from fluwering plants that man~ people scarcely think of assuciatmgthem ; andet the) timm an important class in the vegetable kingdom. Some sorts found here are most undesirable, as they attack trees and other plants through in,jurie5 in the bark and wood, and promote decay. The more permanent vegetative parts uf these plants are seldum seen, as they grow underground or are concealed under the bark or in the tissues of decaying wood. This subterranean growth, called the mycelium, rs a xnass of rootlike or net-like fibers which at certain seasons and under favorable conditions of moisture and temperature sends up the familiar growths known as mushrooms, toadstools and puffballs, or the brsmclrin\",r bracLet-like t'urms often seen on decaying trees and logs. These are the frmtmg parts of the plants on which the xnioruscopic spores for the propagation of the species are borne, usually un the NUMBER 1 IN gills or pores. 1~ ] The popular distinction made between mushrooms and toadstools and the idea that the former are edible and the latter poisonous has no basis in tact. The name toadstool mbviouslyrefers to the shape and to the fancied resemblance to a pianu ~tmul or vimilar bit of furniture. If applied consistently, it would include the mushroom of cummerce and many of the edible native sorts. Unfortunately there are a few sorts of poisonous mushrooms, and one ur two species are so toxic that serious illness or death may result from eating a small portion of them. For this reason, it is well to let all duubtful sorts alone. But it is not necessary for anyone with a little intelli~,rence and enterprise to refiarn from gathering and eatin~, wild mushrooms, since the poisonous ones can easily be distinguished from the good ones by consulting one of the many popular illustrated papers or books on the subject or by receivin~\" a little instruction from someone who knows mushrooms. Only a few of the numerous sorts of edible mushrooms found in the Arboretum can be mentioned here. Some of them can be found from .Iune until November. The supply wries greatly in different years, and they are nrust abundant in rarn~ acwuns. is sometimes abundant in meadows. BBhere the grass is not too tall. 'l'hrs n a wild open pluce~ usuallygruw form of the cumnnm mar6rt uumhruun~. Innnnilar places, or ,mmetuue, about trees that lume been rultm:vted or fertilized rs tirmul the para~ul mu~lwuurn (Lep- The field ruu~lrrmrnn m (_l~,~rrninrr.s wrnrpP.clniay It ioln pnooern) ur its rrlatmr, tlie snwmtlr lyuuta (\/.. rrarroirrn)..B11 uf' ilrr,e are evcrllent to eat. The large pufflralls ((;r~nlhrr.~ ollu, ('lrrmrtrrr r;~nllriformis, etc.~ grow wu:rlltwhere the grass has been kept nunved ur along patlrs or ruadsides. Small tururs gruwn clusters ulrout decaying ~tumps. All uf the E>utlballs with the tleslr white or pale colored while young are safe and good to eat. The oyster rnushroom (Pleurotet.s ostnentus) rs ofteu found as u sot2 shelt=lrke growth on decaying luys after heavy rams. In the late fall large clusters of the honey mushroom (.4r~millarirt rrrellea) and uf the bruk-top mushroom (HJpholoruu awblnterilium) comr up about the bases of rotting stumps or spring up from the decaying roots where they are often well concealed by the grass. Both are of rather firm or tough texture, but many people esteem them. The shaggy mane and inky cap are gregarious mushrooms, often very abundant on ground fertilized with stable manure or on fertilizer heaps. They are very fragile but good, if taken soon after they come up. There are scores of other sorts that are edible and desirable, if found in sutficient quantity. Many of our citizens of foreign origin prize the wild mushrooms highly, and they may be seen searching for them when in season. Others, includmg~ members of the Arboretum staff, know their value too and do not overlook this sort of highly palatalrle fi>od. V'ith the first days of spring the search for greens begrm. The leaves of the common dandelion (L'~tra.totcuru ofJicinrrle~ are among the earliest tu apprar. '1'Irey are extensively gathered and eaten and are sometimes sold on the market. Some people prufess to like them in spite of the slightly bitter taste, and there is a 2] s x 0 ro s II) n 0 0 a bc G 0 0 ro II) II) 3 0 A. H <r: a w a 0 ~ c 4. '\"0 Q, v 3 Q, 0 ~. popular idea that they serve as a spring tonic as well as an addition to the bill of fare. They are rich in vitamins. The young sprouts of chrcory (Cichorium Intybns), charlock (E3rnssicn ornensis), yellow dock or curly-leaf dock (Rn~nex orispus), sow thivtle (,Souohu.e olPrneeus), wild lettuce (Loolncn spp.), and lambsyuarters (('heuoporliunr rrlbunr), are alw ~\";athered for greens. The last is :r relatme uf the ~~arden spinach and tastes vourewhat lrl.e it. It is sometimes found in large patches on dumps or in waste ground. The most clcsir:rble weed ur wild pl:uxt tiw greens found in this area m the pokeweecl or pmheberrt(I'hr~lolnccm nmericmun). '1hi5 plant has become alrundmt m recent years in v arimv parts of the Arboretum, t,'rowint,r on partially shaded baukv or in waste or cultivated ground where the soil is rather fertile. It is a deeprooted pPrennurl, and late m the syrmh wlmn the ground has become quite warm, srnds up clusters of ,pruuts from the base of the old stems. 'I'Itetare as tender asparagas and can be usecl until they are four or five inches high and the leav es are about half yrown. '1'he plants grow to a height of five or six feet and in late summer the are rather attractm e when loaded with the long pendulous racemes of purplish black fruit. Our piuneer ancestors made mh bt wal.uy~ rusty nails m a decuctrun of twhel>erry ,juu~e. Chu~ury alw had another and a uxure uupurtant use. The Heshy roots after being clrred were ruasted and ground and used as a rt as substitute for cutFee or were mixed With cuflee. .1 numlrer of other plant~ found m the Arboretum are sometimes used for greens or fur ~al:ad~, including fiddle-heaclv ur the young sprouts uf several ferns, purslane (I'ortuhrco olernceu), ,prouts uf the cunnnun nul6weed (.Isolepias~ syrirrcrrs~), pepper~ras~ (Lepidiam r~irgiufonnr), and uater cress (Rorfppu 1-n.sturtinnr-rrqunticmu). Water cress grows along lrruul.~ and ditches and is a tender and tasty sulad plant, when rruwn in clean running water, In some years it is very abundant in the lrhuretunx. Sassafras (,u.asvlfiw.r al6irlnur var. nrolle) ts probably the best-6nwvn ~prce plant of the North American Hma. It grows over a large part of the eastern and central United States. In some sections it becomes a large tree, but in New England it is usually shrubby, spreadrng into thickets. It is a relative of the cinnamon tree, and the bark of the roots is highly aromatic. An oil distilled from that part of the plant is used for Havuring candies, root beer and other beverages, and in perfumery. In early colonial days sassafras became an important article of commerce and it sometimes formed the most valuable cargo of ships sailrn~ from Cape Cod, Martha's Vineyard and Nantucket. The custum of drinking sassafras tea in spring is still Bery prevalent in many parts of the South and ~Iiddle-west, where it is regarded as a medicine as well as a beverage. Its reputed medrcinal virtues are Bague but very general and you are told that \"It's good for what ails you. \"' A thicket of native sassafras is growing near the top of Peters Hill in the Arboretum and it is planted elsewhere. The roots should be dug in early spring and tea can be made from them by steeping them in boiling water. The flavor is very 4,] iH N U V w H a < 44 '\" O) 0 0 a 0 x oj x 0 F H ~ a '\" h agreeable sparingly to most on people. The aromatic wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbeus~ grow s Hemlock Hill. The leaves haB e been used for tea and they are the source of w mtergreen uil used for flavoring confections. F;dible native fruits found in the Arboretum include blackberries, dewberries, raspberries, strawberries, blaeberries, service berries and elderberries. Most of them are not produced in sufficient quantity to be of much importance. A species of blackberry has become established in the low meadow near the maple collection and elsewhere that produces large quantities of frutt of a good quality. The seeds were probably brought in by birds from cultivated plants, as it appears to be a selected variety of the native high-buslt blackberry. Two sorts of' low blueberries (Pnecinirtm augttatifolium and P. uaoilhtus~ gruw abundantly in open woods and on rucl.y ground in several parts of the Arboretum. The quantity of tiwit produced rs not large, but children and ulder wntur5 can often be seen gathering the berries in season, h:lderberriev (.Srtrttbueus cvtttatletr.ris~ t,rrow vl>untaneously in the low meadows, and theyare ~umetimes used for jellies or for other purposes a5 well as for mal.ing wnie. l~lan~ fruit-bearing trees and shrubs of exotic urigm, as well as most of the native sorts, are cultivated ux the Arboretum. None of them are selected primarrly' fur their fruit and nu attempt mnade tu yru cummereial pumulyac,rl varreties. But most mf them produce fruit m considerable quantity, and ~unne of it large cullection uf Juueberrms and shad bushes (amelatrchier ~p~.~. The fruit uf all sorts m edible and it is often abundant. No use is made of it here, but in some sections the plants are cultivated for their fruit. The American plums often bear very heavy crops of fruit. Beach plum (I'rttnrr.a maritima~ jelly xs well known in New England, and the tiwit of' vev eral other Species is equally good. Among the best sorts in quality of fruit are Yrunvs americonct, P. lanata, P. horlttlatttt and P. Munsoniaua. Most of the Japanese cherries are grown eaclusiveh for their flowers, but a few sorts produce small but edible fruit. The Chinese crab-apples are also grown mainly for their flowers, but nearly all of them bear heavy crops of fruit, and in some species it is su handsome and brightly colored that the trees are almost as attractive in autumn as in the flowering season. The fruit of a number of species is excellent for the making of jelly and ts a Guusel~errtes, currants, barbernes, apples, pears, cherries, plums and grapes are found in great variety. There cuts, has food wlue. yuuwes, aprt- marmalade. The butternut (JrtbUlons tinerPa~ and three or four species of hickory, as well as the hazelnut (G'oryluawrnericcartu~ are native in the Arboretum. The chestnut (Custrttrea tletrtalrt~ turmerly a~rew in the woods until destroyed by the blight. Spruuts still come up from old stumps on Peters Hill. ln the planted groups are found additional species of w:rlnut5, hwkories, chestnuts, filberts and hazelnuts. The black vsulnut (.htgktu.x nigrn~, the shagbark hickury (Catyct ouata), the kingnut (C. lr ittiosu~ and the chmyuapin (G'a.olrttrPrt pecyrtila) are often heavxly luaded li ~ ] with nuts. Usually the gray squwrels get most of the nuts even before they ripen, but in good seasons boys and other visitors compete with them for the remainder of the crop. In the low meadow near the maple collection there ~s a large patch of the sunflower, Helianthvs tuberosm. The fleshy tuberous roots of this plant, known as Jerusalem artichokes, are esteemed as a vegetable by many people. They grow in great quantities a few inches below the surface and are best dug in late fall after the plants have begun to wither, and early m the spring before the new growth appears. In 1943 these were sold in the Boston markets for a5 high as ?,i cents per pound, and in one large patch there are literally hundreds of pounds available to anyone who may wish them. In more indirect ways the Arboretum also contributes to the program of food conservation. One of them is in the feeding of birds and in the fact that the Arboretum is a bird sanctuary. Seeds and fruit of many plants furnish food for the birds, and they are among the best friends of the farmers and gardeners in their fight against destructi~e insect enemies. f.KNFST J. 1~ALMb:K [7: "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Cuts in this Bulletin are from the Original Drawings...","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24141","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160816f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"original drawinbs appearrn~ m by Merrttt Lyndon Fernald and Alfred Charles Kinsey, pp. 422, 124 fig., 25 plates. Idlewild Press, Cornw-all-on-Hudsun, New York. The Gray Herbarium of' Harvard L'mversity recently announced this important publication. More than one thousand species of edible flowering plants and the more important edible ferns, mushare Cuts in this bulletin reproduced from the EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA rooms, seaweeds and lichens which grow wild in North America north of Florida and east of the Great Plains are considered in this book. One hundred and twenty-five line drawm~s and twenty-five half tone plates aid materially in the identification of these edible plants and additional notes are given concerning their identification. Recipes for cooking and preserving the different types of vegetables and fruits are given. This is the most comprehensive and authoritative treatment of our edible wild plants ever prepared. It may be obtained either from the Idlewild Press, Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, or from the Gray Herbarium, Harvard University, Garden Street, Cambridge 38, Massachusetts. The price, post paid, is ~~.Oll. DONALD WS MAN _] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Short Guide to Care of the Garden During War Time","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24149","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170b325.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation oi' the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of' the ~fnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 MARCH ;~4, I~J44 NUMBER3 2-~'I SH(>R'1' (IUIUF, TO CARE OF THE (:ARDI;N UURIN(1 WAR 'I'Inll`: Pruning will have tu cW their own pruning this year. Fur some tlns may they have ev er attempted tt themselv rs, Pruning is not dtfiicult once the general fundamentals are understood, and it may be well tu dec~tte this issue mf Arm~ldra to the general rules tor pruumy trees and shrubs v htch are commonly found un the home yrmunds, as a \"refresher,\" especiallt fur thme w hu are not experienced or who ha~ e ne~ er attempted to do their own pruning. Many people be the first tune Reasons for 1. To cut down water loss at time of pruning many roots are un- transplanting. Since a avmdul>ly Uune at cut off or injured in the transplanting operation, certain number of the branches must be removed to make up for this loss. If such pruning is not transplanting ttme, a larger number uf leav ev will be produced than can be properly supplied with water by the roots. As a result, the branches or even the whole plant may die and ui any case the plant will he weakened. If proper pruning is done at the time of transplanting, thus permitting tune fur the turmation of new roots to support the new foliage, the new growth will make a vigorous start. This ts one of the most difficult points tur the amateur to understan<i, but it is vitally essential. Naturally one always dislikes to cut off what appear to be normal branches. Clearly, tf nurserymen would prune their plants before they sell them, far better results would be uhtained by the average gardener. 2. To cut out 3. To dead, diseased or scale-infested limbs. as remedy structural defects and other faults such unnatural growth. Sometimes a branch takes the lead in vigorous growth and must be restrained for the general good of the others. Frequently a bad crotch forms, that is, two branches of apparently equal vigor form at the same height on the trunk but on 19 ] opposite sides of the tree. especially prune one in fruit trees which bear Splitting of the trunk heavy crops, in certam cases at this place may result later, hence it is always advisable to branch back, or to remove it altogether. 4. To increase mere density of windbreaks, tu force the screens and hedges. Usually this is a clipping operation utility growth of or many small branchlets. a 5. For purposes. Often a a branch obstructs view, hits the house during of eleeconnec- windy weather, partly k>locks tric driveway, light wires. Such branches should be unnecessarily bars the path removed, if possible. In this more space available for service the wide arching limbs of an American elm or the wide spreading through branches of a white oak than there is through the rather dense branching systern of a Norway maple. Hence, when a tree must be planted where it may interfere with service wires, it is advisable to select a tree with an open branching system, rather than one like the Norway maple, which is dense in habit. tion it should be remembered that there is much wires 6. To promote flowering and fruiting of certain specialized plants. It is here emphasized that all pruning is a dwarfinw prucess. Vigorous young shoots may de~ elup aftera large limb has been removed, but careful experiments have proved that, other conditions Ireing equal, the plant which is pruned ~,rrows less (usually tnea~ured in total amount of leaf area) than the plant which ts unpruned. The leaves uf the plant are the food roanutiicturm\",r urrrans. 1V'ater and mineral nutrrent~ taken iu I>y the roots, assucrated with ~unlight, heat and carbon dw~tde 1'rum the air, are the raw materials from which the leaves manufacture foods, through the action of chlorophyll. Any pruning would decrease the total leaf area of the tree, and this decreases the total amount of food manufactured. Therefore, total growth would be decreased also. This is a very important fact to keep irmund whenever pruning is contemplated. Time for pruning Pruning can be done now, for tests made in the northeastern United States show that wounds heal quicker when made between February 1 and May 1, than when made at any other time of year. If a plant, like early flowering forsythia or the flowering dogwood, is to be pruned for some justifiable reason, pruning might best be put off until after the flowering, vo that one will obtain the full benefit from the flower buds now on the plants. If flowering this year is not a factor, prune at once. On the other hand, for plants which flower on the current year's growth like the rose of sl~aron, the time to prune is now. A few trees, among which are the birches and the yellowwood, are best pruned in the suntmer, for they ' bleed\" profusely when pruned earl~ in the y-ear. Wound dressing Various types of cummercial wound paints are on the market, and those made from asphaltum are satistactory. Wounds over two inches in diameter should al- 10 painted. Wounds less than two inches in diameter may be left untre:vted, always safer to paint all wounds. Orange shellac has been used a5 a but it is difficult tu obtain now and the color is uh,jectmarl>le. BB'hite nnd paint red lead trrrxxt, are also uh,jecturnal>le in color and are ~ly~lrtly in,juriuu~ to the cambmm, but they do form effective wuuud dressint,rs, lf umther asphaltum paint nor orange shellac can be used, then these paints may be used. V'uunds my~ 1>e repainted annually if necessary. ways be but it is ' Methods of Pruning Fruit Trees Obviousl~- the method of pruning varies v rth the type of plant. Apple trees, for inst:xnce, are an example of fruit trees. There should be a fairly prominent central leader and ~,rreat care should be t:rhen so that there are nu bad crotches ; i.e., branches of equal size and vigor originating at the same height on the trunk but un opposite sides. On old trees, there is a tendency for the formation of water strruut5 \"-mguruus young shoots originating from the older branches. These are often profuse and much too vigorous, acting as a dr:rin on the tree and most uf them should be removed, then, tuo, air and light should be allowed in the center of the tree to allow the fruits to develop properly, and this frequently necessitates the removal uf rnanv srnall linxlrs in the center of the tree. Too man %~ HuwerS and fruits on an apple tree are uudelirable because the t3wit~ wll renuun small and frequently too many will fall before maturity . The ideal is tu ubtatn a tree with sturdy, well-spaeed branches, strong enough to carry a heay crop of tiwts without breaking, and w ith sut6cient light and air available m the center ut' the trees so that fruits will be produced there as well as at the ends of the branches. If fruits are produced only at the tips uf the branches, too much werght occurs at the ends and breakage may uccur. Grapes several methods mt' pruning grape5, but one popular method is suffiarticle. This is known as the four-arm Knit6n systern. Nresuppusmg the grape vine is to be grown on wires, pust5 are erected 8 to 10 feet apart, and two heav~ wires strung between them, one at 11 feet from the ground, the top wire about 5 feet from the ground. The first ear the grape is planted, it is allowed to grow at will. The next year the strongest leader is selected and tied to the top wire perpendicularly. The idea now is to obtain four main branches which will grow from either side of the main leader on the two v ires. The third spring, select these four branches, tie them carefull~ to the vrres, cut them back to :rlruut 8 tu 1 buds (this depends un the variety and the vigor of the plant). All other branches can be cut off except a short branch bearing a few buds near where each main branch joins the central leader; for these short branches are to grow into the long branches which will bear the fruit the following year. In There are crent for this 11 ~ ] the grape, fruit is borne only on une-year-ulcl wood. After the four branches have fruited, they should be removed in the spring, thus permitting the four new one-year-old branches which lumbeen grwvinrr during the past season to be used as the fruit bearing branches during the current year. Raspberries usually pruned immediately after they are through fruiting for Raspberries the simple reason that once a cane has fruited, it does not fruit again and usually dies. Hence, as soon as the canes have fruited, cut them out and leave only the new suckers which have come up during the current growing season. la~xperienced growers know that the best way to produce raspberries is to limit the height of the canes to about -tlor 5 feet and grow them in a row about two feet wide between a few strands of wire which will help hold them upright. are Blackberries slightly different in that their fruits are not borne on the main cane a5 case in rast~herries, but on lateral branches. These laterals should be pruned back sunuwlat, but the amount of prunm~y drpemls ~nt the wnety-. l1'ith the Elcluraclu, the best wriety fur Al.msacIrusetts, laterals 5huuld be lett 1 ~ to L inches long since most mt' the fluw er hucls are produced at the ends of these are Blackberries is the laterals. Blueberries . is of the utmost importance with blueof large fruits. A few of the older main produce good crop branches are cut back ur rernw ed each year in order to insure an ample supply *% of vigorous growing young wood. The slender weak growth throughout the plant should be removed annually. Those branches which are allowed to remain should be cut back to 3 or 4 flower buds. HoweB er, v aneties differ in the amount of cuttmg back required. Cabot, for instance, should he cut back more heavily than l~ubel. season Severe pruning in the dormant a berries in order to Vines in general Ornamental vines. like bittersw eet, clematis, honeysuckle, lrower actinidia and the ltke, need little pruning except the regular removal of any dead wood. Vfisteria, on the other hand, frequentlyrequires healy- prunmg in order to incluce it to fluwr well. 'fhts pruning is frequently dune during the period (usually June) when the shoots are elongating, the idea bemg to cut them back continually so that food will be available for the formation of flower buds and w tll not all go mto vegetative growth. If a msteria vine blooms satisfactorily without any prunmg, it mrght be left alurre, but if few flowers are produced, then a continual pinching back or cutting back of the elongating young shoots is very much in order, and will probably result in profuse flowering the followingy ear..~llsu, prunuri,~ ur cutting back some of the roots of a non-flowering wisteria may aid it rn producing flowers the following season. [ 12 - Hedges Young deciduous hedges should be pruned heawly when planted (many tu the ground) in order to make the hedge more dense at the base. After this initial pruning the plants should grow unmolested the first season in order tu grow vrgorously and develop a strong root system. Another heavy pruning may be necessary the second season, after which frequent trimming, to promote denseness, is desirable until the hedge reaches maturity~. Mature deciduous hedges need to be trimmed but once a year, except a few of the most vigorous ones such as California privet, osage-orange, or honey locust. This may be done at any time of the year but probably for best results the hedge should be trimmed just after the first growth has stopped in the late spring or the early summer; if trimmed at this time the hedge will have a fairly e~en, uniform appearance for the rest of the year. The plants may grow some after this trimming, but not enough to spoil the uniformity of the hedge, unless they are the unusually vigorous ty pes above mentioned. If the pruning is delayed too late m the summer, new growth may result w hich will not haB e sufficient time to mafreezing weather. ()u the other hand, if trimming is done in the fall or very early spring, the hedge will remain eB en for a short time only, for when growth starts m the sprinr~~ rt will haB e a decicledly uneven appearance for the rest of the y ear..~ little careful observation and irractice will give the home owner a better linov ledge of when he may trim his particular hedge under his particular conditions and get the best effect for the longest period of time. Since evergreen hedges are sluwer in their growth, they du not need to be pruned so much nor so early as deciduous hedges. However, each y ear'S growth can be made much more dense by one ur two trimmings early during the gruwm~,~ period. The amount of growth to be removed depends on the present size of the hedge and on the permanent size desired. If it is to grow no larger, only abuut one inch of the current year's growth should be left after trimming. In fact, it may be necessary to cut back to three- or four-year-old wood at mterwls m order tu keep the plants within bounds, but only a very little of such trimming should be done ture pruperly before ' at first If in order to determine whether ur not this methud i feasible for the ty pe of hedge being grown. a hedge has a considerable amount uft,rruwth to make before it reaches the proper size, then more of the current season's growth can be left un. Sometimes several clippings can be given a yuunn hedge during the growing season, suuply to remwr a small amount of the terminal growth and su promote the branching of side shoots. The general shape should be wide at the base and narrower at the top. Styles differ. Some like a rounded hedge while others prefrr one more or less trrangular with only a very narrow flat surface at the top. The hedge with the ruunded 13] top tends to shed the m snow much better than the one with a important The 1. ~~. sections where the snowfall is heavy , particularly if Hat top, and this is the plant used is weak-wooded. following points about trimming hedges cannot be over ernphasized. Always trim so that the base of the hedge is wider than the top. Do not be in a hurry to force growth in height at the expense of denseness an and width. old deciduous hedge that b scraggly and open at the base, it wnll usually pay to cut the plants to within a few inches of the ground now and let the new growth develop again from the base, rather than attempt to correct the growth in other ways. 3. In Lawns Actually, the cutting of grass on the lawn is a pruning operation. This year especially, w hen little or no fertrlrzer is available for use on the lawns, it is essential to let the ~lrass remain on the lawn after cutting. Do not rake it off. (irass should be cut so that w hat remains is about 1 ; inches high, and it should be cut frequently enuugh, sn that thr clippinem will dry up in a day ur two. If the grass is too thick ur too long, the clippings will mat and may injure ur eBen kill the living grass underneath. This may be avoided 1>y mowing the lawn frequently enough so that the clippings will not mat down, but will quickly dry up. The amount of rain, kind ui' suil, tertMizer, and the amount uf moisture in the soil, all govern the speed mth which the grass grows and each person will have to decide for himself eaactly> how frequently the mowing of his uwn lawn should be done. Clipping must be done more frequently in the late spring than rn the summer. The accumulation of drred clippmgs w er the course uf one year not only acts as a mulch to the grass roots, but ev entually adds considerable fertilizer to the soil in the form ul much-needed nitroeen. 14J ] SPRAY PROGRAM IN THE HOME GARDEN Woody Plants Scale insects Miscible oil 3 1-li - Feb. 15 to early April Applied when temperature remains 4.0 F. and above until oil dries Euonymus scale Miscible oil 1-15 3? early Aprxl (If applied to an evergreen species,defoliation may occur) In the summer Feb. 15 to \" \" I-50 1-30 1-30 Pine leaf scale Miscible oil Early April Early April As . Spruce gall aphis Larch case Miscible oil bearer Spring canker W worm illow worm Calcium B t .~ , WaterWuter ' ( Arsenate of lead caseinate i Willow leaf beetle 1 lbs. 1 lh. .i0 .?() gal. soon in spring as young appear '\" ~ t~~ Nu~rx. : -1~'or the w illuv leaf beetle the spray should be tu the underaurface of the leaves in early June. Elm leaf beetle and Japanese beetle applied Arsenate ot' lead Calcium caseinate 3 lt~s. 1 lb. 50 Water Japanese beetles spray with are gal. on Early June for the Elm leaf beetle and early July for the Japanese beetle garden produce or gal. water. As the msects appear in Now::-1f the _ profuse 0 1-i fruits, Rotenone, 3 lbs. in 50 Lace wing fly of Rhododendrons Sunoco oil . spring 1-60 In summer on a cloudy day when temperature is not over 80 F. Red spider on Sunoco oil 1-100 Applied in summer as a evergreens fine mist on a cloudy day when temperature is not above 80 F. Roses Rose bugs Arsenate of lead Molasses Water ~. lbs. 1 Apply of une when beetles first week if infestasevere 50 gal. gal. appear and at inter~al, tion is 15 ] Black spot of Roses Finely ground sulfur lead arsenate dust !~ parts 1 part Applied weekly, preferably before a r:rin rather than after it NarE:-Sume cuuuuercial clusts are available that are dyed ~~reen and are not so conspicuous as pure sulfur dust. ' Grapes Bordeaux Mixture ( b- N-.i(l~ NurF:-Usually four sprays will suffice if applied at the proper time :1. When new growth is ~r-1 long 2. When new growth is 4-6\" long 3. As soon as blossoms fall 4. Just before berries touch in the clusters ' Apples suited for the home garden especially because they make insect and disease cuutrul Bery simple. Though there are nwv insects and cliseases iufesting apples, u~ually the tullwvuyr dust uppl:ed ev ery BBeek or ten days until mid-July or early August will prove a satisfactory control, especially un Dwarf apples are ideally dwarf apple trees. H'ine sulfur dust Arsenate of lead 8 parts v parts Vegetables Cutworms cardboard c~~llar Heaypaper around young plants, v~~ below gruuuci and 4\" above or during late May and June Cabbage maggots Cabbage on ti~~ square of heavy roofinhT paper surface uf' soil over plant routs ltutenone dust in Dlay and June worms Weekly from tune first appear w ur~ns Mexican bean beetle Rotenone or Pyrethrum dust u~yly to mulersurtirce of leaves every week or ten days weel.ly from time Striped cucumber beetle Calcium arsenate talo (or dust with Rotenone) 9 1 part parts . beetles first appear Potato Potato bugs and blight Bordeaux Mixture Arsenate of lead ( 9 1 parts part dusted on ti'om '2-6 times from time plants are fi-8~~ high, or as needed DONALD WYMAN , 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rhododendron Winter Injury","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24148","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170af6f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA - A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFOR:~IATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 AhRIL zl, 1944 NUMBER 1. RHODODENDRON WINTER INJURY R I- fact, HODODENDRONS have been a seriously injured durmg the past winter. In widespread adelphia, northern cursory investigation seems to indicate that the injury will be as as it was after the winter of 1940-41. Injury has been noted in Phil- New Jersey, New York and Boston, undoubtedly indicating that rhododendrons growing in a wide area have suffered. As many home owners will be disappointed with their plants this spring, and because of this widespread injury, this issue of Arnoldia is devoted to a d~scussion of some of the factors that might have been the cause. (For notes on the injury occurring three years ago, see Arnoldia vol. I, ~~-~6, April 29, 1941.~ The injury became evident m the Arboretum about two or three weeks ago. Prior to that time, the plants were apparently in good condition, though it is admitted that we did not make minute examinations. The greater number of the evergreen rhododendrons are growing at the base of Hemlock Hill. This spot is frequently verycold and very wtndy at times during the winter, and wind has caused freakish injuries to rhododendrons and other plants as well. The in,jurtes this spring are varied. A branch here and there may have been killed on a plant while the remaining branches are m a healthy condition. Sometimes only a few leaves are injured ; sometimes half the plant is killed. Several large plants m the collection, plants which have been growing there for ten or fifteen years, are completely killed, while their immediate neighbors are apparently unscathed. Of course there are many varieties of rhododendrons growing in the Arboretum with varying degrees of exposure. Most of the plants are mulched well with oak leaves, and those with the worst exposure were protected from winter winds by pine boughs, set and tied in place during December and removed the first week in April. How did the damage occur? , Obviously, the temperature records should be consulted first to determine 17 : whether the injury was caused by low temperatures. This was not the cause of injury in the Arboretum last winter for several reasons. Records of maximum and minimum temperatures are recorded daily at our greenhouses. Only once did the temperature drop below zero (December 24) when it was -1 0 F. and only five times did it drop below ten degrees above zero. From the standpoint of winter cold, this was a mild winter, and accuratel~ kept temperature figures are not the only criterion. Plants themselves tell the temperature story. For instance, the flower buds of Viburnum fragrans are very xnuch in evidence all winter long. These are frequently injured by low temperatures. However, Viburnum fragran.s in the Arboretum is in full bloom now with hundreds of beautiful pink flowers, not one of which shows any winter injury. In fact, the flowers of this plant have not looked so well for many years. Cor~lopsis flower buds are frequently injured by cold winters, but none were affected in the past winter. Forsythia flower buds also are frequently injured by. low temperatures, but these are in splendid condition and soon will begin to open in all their golden splendor. The flowers of our cherished native dogwood, Cornus florida, are not injured, and, incidentally, the trees throughout this area are loaded with flower buds giving promise of a gorgeous display in May. It may be remembered that the previous winter (1941-43~ was a severe one with respect to many woody plants and that in many cases the outer bracts of the dogwood \"flower'' bud were injured to such an extent that when the \"flower\" was fully open, only two bracts were a normal white, the other two were grayish and stunted or else had dropped off altogether by flowering time. Such is not the case this year and it is safe to predict that dogwoods will produce in another month one of the best are many more which could be mentioned), the flower buds of the rhododendrons themselves are in splendid condition, except on those branches or plants that have been completely killed. In severe winters, the flower buds show considerable injury at this time, but such is not the case, at least in the Arboretum collection. Of course, these plants will not bloom for six weeks, and complications in the injured water systems of the plants may arise which might cause some of the flower buds to die before they open, but now, the majority of the plants that are uninjured are well covered with perfectly normal well filled flower buds. These plants, too, will produce a splendid display of flowering displays in years. And as a final example (there flowers this season. from the temperature records taken in the Arboretum and from the fact that other plants with tender flower buds were uninjured, low temperatures alone were not responsible for the peculiar and disappointing type of winter injury which is so evident on rhododendrons. Consequently, High winds High winds are frequently the cause. cause of winter injury, and often a This was not the case in the Arboretum last winter. One has contributing only to m- 18 ] spect the plants in the collections to be convinced. Here it would be quickly evident that injured branches are not those that are most exposed. On the contrary, the injured branch as evidenced in our collection may be the branch most protected from suu rmrd wind ! Entire plants in the center of the collection have been killed, whereas those on the outside of the collection, those most exposed, have not been injured. Hence it is not possible to blame the injury to high winds. This fact is borne out by an examination of the official weather bureau reports for the months in question (November '43 to March '44) which show that the wind velocitie5 for each of these months has been about normal. It may be remembered that in March of 1941 there were several days when there were comparatively high temperatures, some slight wind, full sunshine and rather remarkably low hurnidities, factors which combined to make a condition most unfavorable to rhododendrons at that time of year. No such correlation of temperature, humidity and sunshine existed during this past winter; consequently, with these factors in mind, it would seem logical that injury was not caused by high winds or a combination of low humidity and high temperature. Rainfall If there is any one factor which can be singled out as being responsible for the injury, it might well be the rainfall, or better, the rainfall and the snowfall. In the first place, there was practically no protecting blanket of snow on the ground all winter. The one major snow storm occurred March 20, a ten-inch fall which did no good as a ground cover for it melted in a few days. In Boston the annual rainfall amounts to about 40 inches each year. By the end of December, 1943, there was an 8 inch deficit in this expected amount. November and December are actually the critical months for it is during these months that the ground freezes. Once this occurs, the ground water becomes unavailable to plants. If the soil freezes at a time when the plants themselves have not had sufficient water, injury may occur. Especially is this true of broad-leaved ev ergreens for their stomate5 are continually exposed to the atmosphere and must give up water on warm ur windy days, Pverr though IhP ground remrrius frozen. Injury occurs when no more \"stored\" water is available from plant parts above the ground, and with the ground frozen, the plant gives up water essential to the life of the plant cells. During November and December of 1 ia43 there was a raintall of only 3.15 inches -lesa than half the normal amount for those two months. By November there was already a inch deficit in the rainfall. Hence the rhododendrons went into the winter (after the soil had frozen) in a very dry condition. With practically no snow cover, and evaporation of water from the soil surface throughout the winter, the situation was aggravated. With the first occurrence of high temperatures in March, increased evaporation occurred from the leaves but water could not be taken up from the soil, hence injury occurred. It is extremely difficult to explain the unequal injury of these plants; i.e., why only a branch was killed 19 here and there ious on one plant. root It is plant parts, unequal likely that unequal absorption of water by vardistribution, and unequal freezing and thawing of the soil are all related to the problem. It is interesting to note that very few been injured here this past winter. Care of plants other than rhododendrons have injured rhododendrons Now that the injury is evident, what step5 should be taken to help the rhododendrons back to good growth? All dead wood should be cut out, the plants given plenty of water and the tops sprayed with w ater occasionally (except in bright sunshine when the temperature is high). Everything should be done to aid the plant into vigorous growth early in the season. The only thing which might have prevented injury to rhododendrons this past winter (presupposing normal cultural methods were followed) would have been a thorough watering of the plants throughout late October and November, or during the several week period prior to the time the ground froze. DONALD WvMAN ~o] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Spring Displays in the Arnold Arboretum, 1944","article_sequence":5,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24150","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170b726.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 APRIL 28, I~~~ NUMBER .i SPRING DISPLAYS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM, 1944 THIS interested appreciate be at their year, like last, time and gasoline are at a premium. Persons who are in the beautiful collections at the Arboretum would undoubtedly some information about the time when these displays are expected to peak. The following ten groups of plants have been selected merely because they constitute some of the more conspicuous flowering collections during the spring months. Dates given can only be approximate but are corrected for this year, evidenced mally do. . a by year which has been marked for its cold weather up to this time, as many of the plants flowering a week or two later than they nor- Magnolias The magnolia collection, situated around the administration building by the Jamaica Plain gate, is coming into flower now. There are 18 species and zfi varieties of these in the Arboretum, the first in flower always being Magriolia slellata, shortly followed by M. Kobus and M. denudntn. Then come the colorful M. .1'oulnugearrn variettes, most of which should be in bloom durtng the first week in May. This collection is not marked for large numbers of trees but rather is of interest for its individual specimens. Forsythias fwery one who has visited the arboretum during the latter part of April will remember the impressive bank planting of forsythias at the base of the lilac collection opposite the ponds. Contrary to popular belief there is not just one \"forsythia,\" but in the collection at the Arboretum 6 species and 15 varieties are represented. Forsythia intermedia spectabilis has the largest, deepest yellow colored flowers of the varieties yet named, while F. intermedia primulina is very lovely because of its pale primrose yellow flowers. Since F. ovata started to bloom April 20 and the other forsythias are now in full flower and will be colorful for another week or two, it is seen that these plants can fill a corner in the garden with bright spring cheer for several weeks. z1 Oriental cherries Many of these interesting small trees were first introduced into this country by the Arnold Arboretum. However, the trying climate of New England has not been kind to many of the double flowered varieties. The single flowered species, like Prunus Sargenti, P. subhirtella, 1'. triloba, P. tomentosa and others will be in full bloom the first week of May. Prunus subhirlella autumnalis particularly is worth observing because its flowers are semi-double. It can be termed the first of the double flowering cherries to bloom, a splendid tree being situated immediately within the Forest Hills entrance. The double flowered cherries bloom a week to ten days after the single flowering forms, and can be expected in flower durmg the week of May 15. The collection of these on Bussey Hill has been hard hit by severe w~nters, but there are a few, here and elsewhere in the Arboretum that are well worth inspection. One of the hardiest of all is the variety \"Kwanzan.\" Crab apples Much has been written in these pages during the past few years in praise of the oriental crab apples as ornamental plants. They will start to bloom within a few days but the peak of their bloom will not come until the week of May l.i. Some excellent old specimens are planted adjacent to the Forest Hills entrance. Others can be found on Bussey Hill. The largest collection is planted around the base of Peter's Hill on the further side of Bussey Street. All in all, there are nearly 200 species and varieties of the genus Malos growing in the collections, many of which make admirable ornamentals. Their vividly colored fragrant flowers are always followed by myriads of bright colored fruits in the fall. Most of the varieties being grown in the Arboretum are available from some nursery in the United States. If there are some that you would like to have in your garden and you cannot find them in the available nursery catalogues, write to the Arboretum and it may be that sources can be located. The delicate pink and white blossoms of Malus ,floribunda, the purplish red flowers of M. purpurea and its several varieties and the carmine flowers of M. atrosanguinea are all outstanding and should be compared, one with the other, in order to select the \"best\" species or variety for one's own garden. Azaleas The parade of the azalea blossoms has already begun. Rhododendron mucronulatum (to all intents and purposes considered an azalea) started to bloom last week, and by May 15 a wealth of azaleas should be on colorful display. The pinkshell azalea is ideally planted beside Meadow Road and also at the edge of one of the ponds, where its delicate pink flowers are always mirrored in the water beneath the tall growing oaks. The torch azalea from Japan should also be at its height of bloom at this time. There are hundreds of these in the woods of the Arboretum but perhaps the best display of all is beneath the century old pines on Bussey Hill. The royal azalea, the one with the largest flowers, is also in ~ .) orange H. bloom at mid May, followed by some of the natives in late May and the gurgeous cnlPntlulnceutrt m early ,June. Many hybrids also bloom in late D9ay and early June, especially the popular Ghent azaleas, so many of them that it is certainly worth a trip tu the Arboretum to compare the varieties at their height of color. The largest collection of hybrids is on the southern slope of Bussey Hill facy~ Hemlock Hill. Dogwoods dogwood mentioned, one immediately thinks of the flowermg dogwood, Cornus,jloridzr, a native, widely distributed over the eastern United States. This tree is frequently seen in the Arboretum and this year its presentation of blossoms should be one of the best in years, for the plants are covered with fat Hower buds that are merely awaiting warm weather to start opening. The week of May l.i should see these trees come into the glory of full bloom and they will remain at their best until lilac time. Among the many interesting plants growing m the Arboretum are a double flowered dogwood and a variety with pendulous ~'henever is approximately 65 different kinds of dogwoods growing in the Arboretum, many of them being in the collections near the lindens along Meadow Road. Most of these of course are the shrubby types. Cornus mas and C. q~cinn\/i.s started to bloom last week. Although the big display of the dogwood clan is with Corrtus,jlorida, many of the shrubby sorts that follow have interest and certainl~ C. kousa and its variety chinensis are well worth seeing when they bloom m branches. There are June. Lilacs There are approximately .i50 lilacs growing in the collections and the nurseries the Arboretum ! To many it proves confusing to walk through the long lines uf' bushes when they are at the height of their flowering period (about the week of May 22 this year) for there are so manyvarieties that look alike! Yet there is always the possibility of spotting a variety that has just the right color for one's own garden. It is indeed difficult to distinguish some of the varieties apart because of their similarity. That m whv the Arboretum has listed some varieties as \"the best\" in order out some that are outstanding and at the same time are available from nursery sources. Of this large group 30 are lilac species. Most of the others are varieties of. ~lyrirzga z~ulgnri.s but it should be pointed out that each year now, we are expecting more and more bloom (in early June) from the hybrids and varieties of ~S. Pre.stonine which are planted at the upper end of the main collection towards the F,uony7nus group. These lilacs do not have the fragrance of the S. 2mlgaris varieties but they have vigor, hardiness and bloom a week or two after most of the .S, vulgaris varieties are past. m to point Rhododendrons The main collection, planted at the base of Hemlock Hill beside a meandering z3 stream, should prove very colorful this year, even though many plants have been seriously injured during the past winter. The rhododendrons, like many other plants, are at their best in alternate years. They seem to be well covered with flower buds at this time, and, if no complications arise from the buffetinQ many of them underwent last winter, a splendid display should be in store for those who care to walk over to see them during the first week in June. Mockoranges The main mockorange collection is across the road from the lilacs, near the Forest Hills entrance, with some planted in the shrub collection. Together they number at least 110 different species and varieties, all of which should bloom e during a two or three week period starting about the first week in June, with the of the bloom being the week end of June 17. These dense shrubs vary in peak size from dwarfs about a foot high, to massive shrubs l,i feet high. Some, like the hybrid Philndelphns virginalis varieties have very fragrant blossoms, while others like the mound-like, dense, single flowered P. splenden,s have very little fragrance. The flowers of all are white, the fruits have no ornamental value and none of the species have any autumn coloring in the fall. Consequently, the only time to enjoy these plants is when they are in flower. Since last winter vcas <x comparatively mild one as far as temperatures were concerned, many of the slightly tender hybrid varieties are probably uninjured and should be well covered with flowers during mid-June. Roses Those who have visited the Arboretum know that there is no formal rose garden as such. Howecer, there are well over a hundred species and botanical varieties of roses growing in the shrub collection adjacent to the Forest Hills entrance. These begin to flower in late May with Rose Iscve, R. primula and l~. Hugonis leading the display that reaches its height during the third week of June. Many of the old-fashioned roses are growing in this interesting collection, including some of the moss roses, the Lancaster and York rose, the old cabbage rose or rose of e a hundred petals and several varieties of the Scotch rose, the rose which is nat~oe area of the earth's surface than any other rose. over a wider These then are some of the most prominent displaysof flowers to be anticipated in the Arboretum this spring. The Arboretum is easily reached by automobile, being situated at the junction of Centre Street and the Arborway in Jamaica Plain. Routes 1, 3, 28, 38, and 138 go right past it. Or it may be reached by taking the Arborway car at Park Street and getting off at the Arborway. Or, it may be quickly reached by taking the Forest Hills subway, getting off at Forest Hills and walking one block along the Arborway to the entrance gate. Easily accessible, with a major proportion of these displays within a short walk of the Forest Hills gate, there is always the opportunity to see gorgeous flowering displays during May and June with little expenditure of time and effort. DONALD ~T'I'MAN ) `~'] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"How to Spend and Hour in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24145","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170a36a.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 MAY 26, IJ~I4 NUMBER 6 HOW TO SPEND AN HOUR IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM a desire to see all parts of the 265 but apologetically remark that their time is limited-they only have \"an hour.\" To one who is familiar with the many thousands of different kinds of trees and shrubs growing on these ~?65 acres, it is manifest that little more than a hasty trip through the grounds can be accomplished in an hour. If, however, the hour is spent in leisurely strolling up and down the walks through the shrub collection, immediately adjacent to the Forest Hills gate, over a thousand different kinds of shrubs (and vines) can be closely observed and many notes can be made concerning the ornamental qualities of the most interesting of these. First, one might walk between the two rows of vines, each containing about 60 different kinds of vines. Some, like the Ampelopsis species are noted for their interestmg foliage and a few for their bright fruits. Others, like the trumpetcreepers, are valued for their conspicuous flowers in early summer. Of particular interest should be the five-leaved Akebia (Akebin quinatu~ which is one of the best twining vines available because of its excellent almost semi-evergreen foliage. Several species of bittersweet (Celastrus) are growing near the Akebia, and tt is easy to note the distinguishing characteristics between the native American bittersweet (C. scandens) and the oriental bittersweet (C. orbicul~cta). One other bittersweet might be noted here too. It is not available in the trade but it should be, for tt has small thorns, grows in a dense mass, and thus makes a formidable barrier plant. This is C. ,flugellaris, a splendid little vine and well worth planting for barrier purposes. Then one could easily spend much time examining the long rows of shrubs, many of which are commonly grown in nurseries and hence are available to every home owner. Most of the shrubs in this collection have been permitted to grow with a mmimum amount of pruning, so that the true habit could be properly attained. In some cases, crowding has unavotdably modified the habit and certain MANY acres, visitors to the Arboretum express Z.i ~ ] allowances, therefore, must be made, but on the whole most of these plants have been allowed to develop more or less as they would in nature. The barberries occupy most of the row next to the vines. It should be kept in mind that many barberries carry the destructive wheat rust, and legislation is in force against planting them in many areas. All varieties of Berberis Thunbergii are fairly immune to this disease, and so B. Thmabergii minor deserves special attention because of its diminutive leaves, flowers and fruits. Berberis koreana, too, is nearly immune and is fast replacing many of the more susceptible species, hence it too, should be observed closely. In the fall its brilhant red foliage and scarlet fruits make it truly desirable. The tall, aristocratic pearl bushes (E.cocleorda sp.) might be inspected. Here is clear evidence that the species common in the trade (E. race7nosu) is not the hardiest, in fact it is the least hardy ! Exochorrla Giraldii Wilsonii is probably the best, particularly because of its larger flower clusters, and again because it is certainly hardier than the common E. racemosa, Most of the spireas can be passed over quickly since their similarity in flower is frequently confusing to the amateur. The vigorous growing ninebarks (Phz~socarpus species) clearly show their vigorous habit of growth and demonstrate the fact that when they are planted they should be allowed plenty of room for ex- pansion. The rose species occupy the better part of two full rows the length of the tire collection. These might be called the wild roses of the world. Some enare familiar \"old fashioned\" roses like the cabbage rose (Rosa certt;f'olia) and the Austrian copper rose. The rose with the smallest flower (R. Wntsoniaua) is of interest for this fact and also because of its finely cut foliage. Many of these roses bear close scrutiny-R. Helenae for its delicate flowers, R. Roxburghii hirtula for its very large flowers and interesting bark, unique among roses, and many others which will bloom during the month of June. The qumces were particularly beautiful during mid-May. The comparatively mild winter did not injure the flower buds and hence an excellent opportunity was presented to compare them in flower. It should be pointed out that the hybrid Chaenomeles cath~c~ensis is not hardy. Chaenomeles Lagenaria \"kermesina semiplena\" is apparently the largest growing of all, while Chaenomeles j~cponica and its varieties are the lowest, being less than three feet tall. Various mock oranges and deutzias are about to come into bloom now and in.tercsting notes might well be made concerning them as well as the hydrangeas, weigelas and privets. Though several species of these are commonly seen in gardens, other less well-known ones grow here in these rows, making comparisons a most interesting way of spending a short time in the Arboretum. This shrub collection is one of the very few places in this country where so many different kinds of woody plants can be seen and closely examined in such a small area. An hour spent here is well worth while to both amateur gardeners and professional plants- hybrids, many are men. zs] The mid-May frosts The vagaries of the weather have not left the trees and shrubs of the Boston untouched this year. Mention has already been made of injury to rhododendrons (in Arnoldia, vol. 4, No. 4, 1944). On the nights of May 18, 19 and ?0 parts of Boston and its suburbs experienced killing frosts. This was true in many other parts of the country as well. Damage done to crops has been considerable and some ornamental plants were injured. As an example, this spring a planting of 42 varieties of Ghent hybrid azaleas was made on the James B. Case estate in ~'eston, now the property of the Arnold Arboretum. The frost on the night of the l8th killed all of the flowers and the leaves of all the varieties, a very disappointing loss since these plants were just coming into bloom for the first time. Now no records of flower size and color can be made until next year, and these data were needed for use in a proposed selection and propagation program. The highbush blueberries in the Arboretum were uninjured, but in low lying areas of Boston's suburbs a very heavy crop of flowers was completely killedsad news to many a housewife who was depending on some of the fruits for canning this summer. The young shoots of many oak trees were either partly or entirely killed, depending on the situation in which the trees were growing. Such a freeze occurred about six years ago when many oak trees were injured. The unseasonably warm weather during the first part of May developed the foliage with a rush, so that when the freeze came, the young growth of many plants was entirely too tender to withstand it. Young shoots of sycamores, sumac and hickory trees were also killed in the western part of the state and many oak woods appear brown when viewed from the train window because of the killing. Clarlra.sti.s lutea, for instance, was badly injured. One tree in my garden-approximately fifteen feet tall-had all its leaves killed. New leaves and shoots will grow on this tree, but it is of interest to note that the leaves and young shoots of Fagus grand~f'olia, Fagus sJlvatica, Acer saccharum and Acer mnndshurieum growing in the same place were not injured. Lilacs, Rosa primula and R. ratgosn were not injured in the same situation where the young shoots of hybrid tea roses were killed back to the ground, although it is understood that there was killing of lilac foliage in some of the other suburbs. The young shoots of many Taxus species and varieties are about an inch long at this time of year. These shoots were all killed in certain sections of the Boston suburbs, whereas the young shoots of pine and spruce were not injured. This, of course, means only that in these certain locations the young shoots of Taxus are the first to be killed. I do not have a record of the exact temperatures, but, at Weston, there was an eighth of an inch of ice on small pools the morning following the first freeze. Fern fronds, young grape shoots, and even some clover leaves and shoots of area ',17 : were killed. Such injuries are not serious as the plants affected all strongly recuperative properties, but it is interesting to note that even native plants were totally unprepared for such a drop in the temperature. poison ivy have Plants in the Arboretum did not suffer very much. Few of the hundreds of azaleas in full bloom were injured. Flowers of Malu,r ioensis plena were just opening and the outer petals of these were turned brown. The lilacs suffered no injury. If they had, it would have been disastrous indeed for it is estimated that perhaps between 30,000 and 4.5,000 people visited the Arboretum to see them on Lilac Sunday, May 21, just after the frosts. The cold spring kept many of the early blooming shrubs in check until the first of May. Then there was a procession of unseasonably warm days with high temperatures and strong sunshine. The flowering season was about two weeks behind by the end of April and even forsythias did not reach full bloom until shortly after May first. Then with the warm weather, many plants burst quickly into bloom so that by mid-May plants were blooming very near to the accustomed time when they are normally expected. The sudden frosts, after two weeks of unusually warm weather, came at a time when the young growths of many plants The differences in the way the were too tender to withstand low temperatures. same varieties were affected in different locations is, of course, accounted for by differences in elevation, air drainage, and the vagaries of low temperatures and wind currents in general. DONALD W1 MAN Notes E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum was elected a member of the council of the American Philosophical Society for a term of three years at the annual meeting of the Society in April. He was also selected by the Executive Committee of the National Academy of Sciences to represent that Society on the Board of the National Parks Association, succeeding the late Dr. J. DIcKeen Cattell. ' Arnold Arboretum staff members, Dr. H. M. Raup, Assistant Professor of Plant Ecology, and Dr. A. C. Smith, Curator of the Herbarium, were both honored by being elected to membership in the American Academy of Arts and Sciences at its annual meeting in May. 28 ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Emergency Food Manuals","article_sequence":7,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24142","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d1608526.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 JUNE 16, 1944 EMERGENCY FOOD MANUALS NUMBER 7 everybody at all familiar with world events realizes the present global war is in many respects very different from the first world war. Not only are many operations prosecuted along lines totally different from those which characterized the period between 1914 and 1918, but sources of special information have been developed in a wide variety of fields. Relatively speaking, the last A war was a world war in name, but in the present conflict actual combat involves not only the oceans of the world, but also the continents of Europe, Asia, Africa and the islands of the Pacific. In this second conflict botanists trained and experienced in widely diversified fields are contributing materially to the solution of various complex problems. The emergency food manuals are a small but distinctly important contribution from the fields of systematic and economic botany. In the early part of the century when I commenced botanical work in the I'htlippines I soon realized, from field experience, that it was incumbent upon me to accumulate as much knowledge as possible regarding the edible qualities of various jungle plants. In my first year I had the experience of having been marooned for more than a week with no other available food than rice; and boiled rice three times a day with nothing to diversify it, is not only monotonous but is also distinctly not a satisfying diet from any angle. At that time I knew praotically nothing about what one could find to eat in the vast tropical forests of the 1'htlippmes. Little did I realize that forty years later my services would be drafted to compile the data regarding jungle foods for the benefit of the men in our various services who were called upon to operate in the islands of the Pacific. Several years after the boiled rice experience when three of us were marooned by heavy rains in central Mmdoro, entirely out of food and no avenue of escape open to us as long as the rain contmued, one of my companions observed, when on ThaukSgiving Day 1906 we dined on two broiled wood rats each, supplemented by boiled fern tips, \"Cheer up, you couldn't buy a meal like this at Delmonico's.\" This great z~ ~ ] iv, hwvever, no place to enlarge upon the subject of what I have eaten and why, for the list would indeed be a strange une. It is clear to anyone familiar with the tropics, and who has even a limited knowledge of the plants, parts of some of may be eaten with entire safety. that there is no need of anyone vtarving to death in the midst of relative plenty. 'frue, an army could not possibly Subsist on what might be found in the junglev, but mdimduals and ~mall groups of men c.m find much that may be eaten provided they know what to select. Dr. H. I,am mentions in his most interesting account of his trip up the Jl.unberamo River to the summit of the Central Snow Range (Mount ~'ilhelmina) in 1S)10 that his partymet at the Meervlakte two Chinese bird hunters accompamed by nineteen native 1'apuans, who had travelled inland from the coast to the Idenburg Rmer and thence down the Mumberamu. For a period of seventy days they had sub,ivted wholly on such plant and animal food as they could secure in the New Guinea forests, proof, if proof be needed, that it is possible to live on the country even in uninhabited areas such as this one in New Guinea. Naturally, widely scattered and very rare or local species should not be cunsidered in any popular booklet on edible plants, hence a prime necessity, if anything really useful is to be prepared, is a wide field experience on the part of the compiler. He must in the first place know the tropics from personal experience, and in the second place he must know what plants and plant parts may be eaten, either crude or processed-an<1 some plunt parts must be processed before they 'I' can be eaten in order to eliminate certain poisonous lwinciples. But what rs of even greater importance than this is a knowledge of what are the common and widely distributed species. It would be utterly valueless were a species to be included that is so rare or so local that no one could possibly expect to find enough tu Satisfy, in part, the hunger of even one man. The first emergency booklet prepared was a small one compiled by Captain A. B. Godshall and published in Panama in 1942, entitled \"Edible, Poisonous and Medicinal Fruits of Central America,\" illustrated by 4l excellent line drawings. Itnmediately the idea appealed to others and within a very short time after this booklet appeared no less than twenty-one different individuals or agencies, representing various branches of the service, commenced to play with the idea of preparing something for the benefit of our service men who might become separated from their commands and who might have to live for a time on what they could find in the tropical jungles. There was no coordination of these endeavors, and too frequently individuals with no knowledge of the subject and with no tropical experience were assigned to the task of compiling data. Because of this contlrsion a meeting of representatives of the various services was arranged under the auspices of the National Research Council in Washington m September, 1941. The result of this conference was to enlist my services to prepare the copy for a booklet appertaining to the I'acific islands, while to Mr. Paul C. Standley and I 30 'i ~ .~ r~S ~~ C y~ N C \"~ s ~ ~ > ~a cO ~~ 3; ~ o Ss~ ~ w ~z a~ .~ c ~ >, _~, O o' U ~' '~' ~ < ~ :3 :: .JrJJ O m n L' .C v U o..;e Y .O ~ ... 47 E-< a: i a. U o ... ;e..... ~ O :: ~~c ~ 0.~, ~ .~ ro a~ ~ ... a o 0 -3~0 cO o ~ `n ~ a, c x o, ~ :: m V w0 ~ .~ ~~ .a, ro w o UA V v T7 ~ z y O i' O ~-''., CA .. O O 5 g 2; 1)r. B. E. Dahlgren of the Field Museum of Natural History, Chicago, were assigned the arctic and subarctic regions (includinhr Alaska) and tropioal America. Irninediately on my return to Boston from this conference I commenced to cumpile the data that were available to me, and the result was the completiun of the copy and the illustrations late in December, 194?. The booklet of 1 ~t~ pages with 11:3 illustrations was issued in a large edition on April l.i, 1!143. This is '1'echnical Dlanual 10-~?0, entitled \"Emergency Food Plants and 1'oisonou, Plants of the Islands of the Pacific,\" issued by the War Department for wide distribution to service men.* It is non-te<hnical, without descriptions, the illwtrations taking the place of descriptions, and includes the majority of the <ommun and widely distributed jungle plants that may be used as food, even including some that, unless the seeds or the tubers are properly processed, are actually poisonous if eaten raw. It covers in general certain natural groups such as the palms, ferns, grasses and aroids, followed by a consideration of those species in various unrelated families that produce edible tubers, those plants parts of which may be freely eaten as greens, edible fruits, edible seeds, a brief consideration of poisonous plants that it is desirable to avoid, and finally a consideration of the more common species parts of which, when macerated and thrown into pools or slow streams, will suffocate or poison fish. The area covered is all of the islands of the tropical Pacific, Papuasia, the Philippines, and all of the Malay Archipelago ; and for all practical purposes it also covers British Malaya, Indo-China, Siam, Burma, and southern and eastern India. All in all some 1`?8 different edible plants or plant parts are illustrated and others are discussed or mentioned. Some of these species will be found on every island of the entire tropical Pacific region that is high enough to support any vegetation. A more finished product in this field is the \"Edible and Poisonous Plants of the Caribbean Regiun\" by B. E. Dahlgren and Paul C. Standley of the Chicago Museum of Matural History, in somewhat larger format than TM 10-4?0, mentioned above. This is a booklet of 102 pages with 72 illustration, published by the Bureau of Medicine and Surgery of the Navy Department in 1944, and the equally authoritative \"Edible Plants of the Arctic Region\" by Paul C. Standley, a booklet of 49 pages with 27 illustrations, issued in 19~.3. The former is available to the public through the Superintendent of Do<uments, Government Printing Office, Washington, D.C. at 10 cents per copy. These, then, are some of the contributions of American botanists who are familiar with their fields and also, on the basis of extensive field work, familiar with the tropics. Little can be said in favor of the botanical parts of \"Jungle Desert Arctic Emergencies\" and\"Jungle and Desert Emergencies\" issued under the auspices of the Army Air Forces in * This is available to anyone interested in securing a copy through the Superintendent of Documents, Government Printing Oflice, Washington, D. C., the price being fifteen cents in coiu (not stamps) per copy. 313#& x E; ..; 0 ;j <Ii x ~ 0: \" :::! .0 <Ii. . 0: ~ <I) ~~ ~ ~0 0 >, '\" ........ .c U; 00 > g, ~~ ~ ~z 'o ro A. ro <Ii u ~0 ~ ~ := ~[fJ 0: 0; a. ~, y ~ \"\" '0y~'\" 0:.v,~ .: d' ~ o ~:;E ,a 'o ~ P~.~ . U u 5 a. a \",-= ;b ro .: a ~ ~ v~y o .d S . ~; -& - <Ii '< '\" '0 ; .... 00 0 i~ g ~ 1p w ~ ~NG.w ~ ~' 60 ~ a~ O U, a S O := _i f W *' ~~ O >. O ` a ~>, 'b ~7 U O a a~ 19t~, for the simple reason that too much of the relatively small amount of data about plants included in themerces on botanical misinformation, rather than on real facts. But the United States Government is not the only one that has tapped this special botanical reservoir of information for the benefit of its service men operating in strange lands. About the middle of 19~.3 there was issued in Australia a booklet entitled \"Friendly Fruits and Vegetables\" compiled for the use of Aus1 tralian service men operating m the Southwest Pacific area. This consists of i there was issued under the auspices of pages wth 37 figures. In August, 1943, the Auckland Institute and Museum, Auckland, New Zealand, \"Food is Where You Find It. A Guide to Emergency Foods of the Western Pacific.\" This is a 7? page booklet with illustrations of nearly fifty plant species as well as pictures of certain fishes that are poisonous if eaten, and others that inflict severe wounds (including also the poisonous sea snakes and cone shells), as well as other fishes and marine forms that may be eaten with safety. These two antipodean contributions include much the same plant species as those discussed in Technical Dlanual 10-420. To be mentioned in this category are two booklets issued in Honolulu for the needs of our service men in the Pacific area, one by K. P. Emory, puk>lislxed by the Bishop Museum entitled \"South Sea Lore,\" and one compiled and published by the United States Army, entitled \"Castaway's Baedeker to the South Seas.\" Both of these contain some information regarding edible and otherwise useful Polynesian plants. The former is a booklet of 7.i pages and the latter one of 63 pages, and both are illustrated. Nearer home, and a mine of information regarding the edible qualities of our own species ts the Fernald-Kinsey \"Edible Wild Plants of Eastern North America,\" pp. i-xiv. I-4:iZ. fig. 1-119. pl. 1-Z,i. 1943. This was prepared at the Gray Herbarium of Harvard University, and is by far the most complete and most authoritative treatment of our native edible plants that has been issued. It covers the area from the Maritime Provinces to Minnesota southward to eastern Oklahoma and northern Florida. It is available from the Idlewild Press, Curwvall-on- Hudson, N.Y., price $3.00. (See ARNOLDIA, The 4: 8. 19~4.) published information regarding potential jungle food plants is tremendously scattered in periodical literature, covering the fields of botany, horticulture and agriculture, as well as in various standard botanical treatises. Several of the particularly valuable reference works in the field of economic plants appertaining especially to the llal.yan region and hence also to Polynesia, Micronesia, the entire Southwestern Pacific region and all of southem Asia are: Ochse, J. J. & Bakhuizen van Indies\" i-x. \"Fruits and Fruticulture in the Dutch East 1-180, p1.1-~7 (in color). 1931. (This is an English edition of thew den Brink, R. C. \"`'ruchten en vruchtenteelt in Nederlandsch-Oost-Indie\"); their \"Vegetables of the Dutch East Indies (Edible Tubers, Bulbs, Rhizomes, and Spices Included). Survey of the Indigenous and Foteyn Plants Smin~,~ <as 1'ot-herlts and Side 34 M ?S .. ' ~ '~ ~~ ~ a ! t~) O 0 ~ .~ ~g -S LJ c~ ~w ^~f~ ~, i> t. ro y Gd U 7 ~ ~ O O ~r.. y~ W ~O m ~ ro Q&-' ) #x3C; ~ S f 5 s c a.v fl ~ ~ 0' 0-) ro ~ ~ c # g -~ s C S-~ ~: O ' SG '5 J O S U ca a N gM~ w ~ _e a~ S ~ G~j o c~U ~r O U ~ 'Q A 3 G1~ c~ S U J n ro ow , , sa G1, U 50 ~ O 1 ro Dishes.\" i-xxxvi. 1-1006, illus. 19;31. (This is an English edition of their \"Indische groenten\") ; Heyne, K. K. \"Die nuttige planten van Nederlandsch-Indie .\" 1: 1-~50. i-xxviii.~ 1916 (re-issue 1-.i'70. i-lxxx. 192`?), 2: 1-:3~9, i-xxxix. 1916, 3 : 1-A.OZ, i-xlviii. 1917, 4: 1-254. i-xxxvi. 191 i ; ed. Z, 1 vol. in 3, p.p. 1-1662. i-ccxli. 1927 ; and Burkill, I. H. \"Dictionary of the Economic Products of the Malay Peninsula,'' 1 vols. pp. i-xi. 1-l4Ol. 1935. Thus certain information, not previously available in any single volume, some of it based on actual experience and observation on the part of individual authors, some compiled from widely scattered publications, has been assembled. In the compact form of the booklets brie8p discussed above, these data have now been made widely available for all who may be interested in acquiring information which, on occasion, may be vitally important. This of course applies especially to individuals lost in the jungles of the tropics, cut off from their food supply and thus those whose lives are dependent on their own efforts. E. D. MERRILL ~ Notes Dr. H. M. Raup, of the Arboretum staff, left Boston on May 31, with his party of seven, to continue the botanical survey of the Alaska Military Highway. Last year his party covered that part of the road from its southern terminus to Whitehorse. This year the group, which consists of Dr. and Dlrs. H. M. Raup and their two sons, Karl and David, Dr. S. K. Harris of Boston University, Dr. John H. H. Sticht, glacial geologist, and Mr. Frederick Johnston of Andover Academy, archaeologist and anthropologist, will cover the region from Whitehorse to the Alaskan terminus of the road. The botanical field work will be done by Messrs. Raup and Harris and Mrs. Raup. This trip has been made possible by special grants received from the Milton Fund of Harvard University, the American Philosophical Society, the National Academy of Sciences, the Society of Sigma Xi, the American Geological Society and the Peabody Foundation. This year, as last, the party will operate in the field, not only with the permission of the military authorities, but transportation on the road and commissary privileges have been granted by these authorities without which it would be impossible to operate. This will be Dr. Raup's tenth season in botanical field work in the northern parts of North America. The party mll return about the middle of September. 36] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Autumn Color","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24139","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160b76e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 (~C~I'OBIUI~, 1:3, 1944 AUTUMN COLOR NUMBER 8 indications point to a splendid display of autumn color this tall. There has been plenty of sunshine during September and rainfall has not been excessive. The few days prior to the hurricane of September 14 were about the last during which there was an appreciable amount of rain in Boston. The nights during the first week of October have been very cool, with light frosts in low spots in the Boston suburbs. All these indications thus point to the combination of conditions that should produce a fine display of color during the next few weeks. In order that Arnoldia sub,cribers will be better alOe to interpret what they may see during this period, the following notes on autumn color are presented, these data being in part publication of an earlier number of the Bulletin of Popular Information (Series 4, Vol. IV, November, lp8ti~. The eastern United States is fortunately located in one of the few regions of the worl<1 where brilliant autumn coloration of fohage prevails. There is only one small region in the southern hemisphere, and that in South America. In the northern hemisphere, there is a large region in eastern Asia, including central and northern Japan, and a small region in the southwestern part of H:ur~rpe. In North America, the region characterued by brilliant autumn foliage extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to Florida and westward to the Great Plains, areas which are blessed with extensive deciduous forests and considerable rainfall. Here the general climatic conditions are often ,jBSt what iwee<lecl to p~ctuoe that lovely phenomenon of nature -the autumn coloration of deciduous foliage. In North America the most brilliant displays of autumn color are of course in southeastern Canada, the northeastern United States and in certain other areas at Iri~rher altrtucles. The further south one \",r~ret, the IPS~ brilliant is the display of autumn color, particularly m ;trcas along the vPac~ast. In the higher altitucles of the South, such as the F3lue Rtd~re BImuntatne, the color is usually just as hrrlli:mt a~ m the northeastern lTmtecl States. ALL ;37 ] It should be pointed out that it is chieHy in areas of predominantly deciduous forests that autumn color displays are best, and such forested areas occur only in two general regions in the world. Plants ~rrowmt,r in deciduous forests in tropical regions usually drop their leaves towards the end of the dry season. Since these leaves usually dry up before they fall (because of lack of water), they do not develop brilliant colors but usually turn brown and then fall off. In the case of plants growing m decrduous forests in temperate regions-especially in areas with ample rainfall equally distributed throughout the year-the leaves fall at the approach uf cold weather, and because the plants have been well supplied with water, leaves of many trees do change color before they fall. This gorgeous phenomenon is what tircuses our attention on the woods and forests at this time each year. In some years, the autumn color is much more promnnced than in others. There are always plants, the foliage of which turns yellow in the fall, but it is the brilliant reds and gorgeous scarlets which, in combination with the yellows, make autumn color of outstanding beauty. It is <hieHy the reds and scarlets which are intensified bythe right ollntatic conditions. Leaves are green because they contain a complex material called chlorophyll. This is essential to the growth of all plants, except the vaprophyte~ and a few parasites, for it is through the action of thlorophyll that the plaut can manufacture the food it retluire~ from crutle chemi<a1~ in the presence of light and heat. Chlorophvll iv:rhi;,hly twnplex cherni<a1 material, 1>ein~T wmtinually m:mutacturetl m the leaf and at the same tnne l m;,r contmu.rllc' lwul.en down, Ordinarily, the rate of its l-ealalmvn about equal, the rate of its manufacture. In the fall, the rate of <Irlwoplmll nrnnuf:ltturc iv ;,~~rallually recluced, :llthwu~Th the r.lte uf itv det~nyxwtum I~ mmllt:at<I. 'IIm ev:ut cwve for this phen<rnaenrm iwot fully unIler~tmnl, IIt the :ICtunlul,tma of w:mtt poxluctv m the leaf may be the pnn<yr,tl ctmse. Why leaves are yellow A certam stage is rc:mIw<I where there is llttle If arlvthloropht Il nmnut:uturetl. 1Blost of the olllorophyll already rnatle eventu.lllt- iv tlwtroyed. 'I'his is the reason why leaves are yellow, for the two yellwv pigments usually present, carotin and r,ntluylryll, are continu:tlly m:tsketl l>y the ohlorophyIl. When most of the chloruphyll is destroyed, these pigments become apparent. These same coloring material~ are present in lal'ge quantities in egg y~rll., <arrots, and in some yellow Howers. When green turn ' plants are taken into dark places, such as a cellar, the leaves often yellow. Also, young shoots appearing for the first time under the dark conditions of the cellar are usually yellol~-. 1'hls IS explained by the fact that chlorot>hpll is manufactured only in the presence of light. When light is absent, plants are unable to manufacture new thlorupht-11 ~ntl the yellow pigments become predominant as soon as all the hrevirnmly lanut;~ctured chlorophyll has been tle~trln ed. :1HJ The gradual cessation of chlorophyll manufacture and the final breakdown of all that previously made, completes the first stage in autumn coloration. This is the reason for certain plants becoming yellow. There are some plants, like some magnolias for instance, the leaves of whrch do not turn yellow, but change from green directly to brown. For some reason, the breakdown of the chlorophyll does not start soon enough or is not complete enough to result in the appearance of the yellow pigments. The yellow color does appear in the foliage of many other plants regardless of the weather conditions. There is an interesting high degree of indniduality in certain species. Red maple, for instance, usually turns a good red in the fall, but certain xndividual5 may color yellow. The same can be said of sugar maples and several other plants. This is a most interesting physiological problem worthy of considerable im estigation. Why leaves are red The gorgeous beauty of most autumn color combinations results from the brrlliant reds and scarlets, together with the yellows. The sassafras, some of the maples, oaks, sumacs, sourwood, tupelo, and other plants are particularly outStandin~r tur their brilliant red autumn color. These plants are most interesting in that the brilliance of their color apparently varies from year to year. The red m their leaves is caused by a third pigment called anthocyanin, which results in some way from the accumulation of sugars and tannins in the leaf. In some of the maples valued for their sugar production, it is probably the sugars which cause this red color. The oaks, however, being rich in tannin5 probably owe their high autumn coloration to the presence of these. There are two factors necessary in the production of red autumn color. '1'he first is light. There must be warm, 1>ti~rht, sunny days in the t:xll, during which time the leaves naturally manufacture a great deal of sugar. Secondly, such days must be followed by cool nights, during which the temperature is below 45 F. I'lant physiologists have shown definitely that, under such eonditions, there is little or no translocation of sugars and other nurterials from the leaf to other parts of the plant. In other words, when cool nightv occur, following warm, bright, sunny days, sugars and other materials are \"tr.y>ped\" in the leaves. The accumulation of these products results in the manufacture of the red anthocyanin. The combination of these factors is well understood when one observes .r certain tree that may be red only on that side exposed to the sun. Other leaves not directly in the sun'v rays may be green or yellow. Leaves exposed to the sun have been able to manufacture more sugars, when .rcoumulated and \"trapped\" in the leaves by cold night temperatures may result in the red color. It is interesting to note that trees and shrubs growing in swamps and other low places are often among the first to color in the f.rll, ~imply because it is in such places tlr.rt cold air first aettles on still nights. With these points in mind, it o.xn be easily seen why there is so much divergence of opimon about autumn color. When plants are located so that they re- :W ~] ceive full sunlight, especially in the late afternoons during the early fall, they should be expected to show pronounced color if the weather conditions have been favorable. On the other hand, if a plant Qru~s in the shade where it receives no direct sunli~ht, it cannot be expected to have marked autumn color. One species in the Arboretum annually demonstrates this point. There is a splendid plant of Fnlhergilln monticoln in the shrub collection of the Arboretum. This plant is exposed to full sunlight, while the shrub collection is in the lowest spot in the Arboretum, so one would normally expect plants there to color if any did. In years when the climatic conditions have favored autumn color formation, this particular plant of Folhergilla mouticola is gorgeously colored red and yellow -on the western side. On the eastern side, where the foliage is shaded from the late afternoon sun, the foliage is merely colored yellowish and does not show the brilliant contrasts of red and yellow. Fortunately all plants do not show such great variation in autumn color when one side is compared with another, but it is a fact, that the western side usually has the deepest colored foliage when there has been plenty of sunshine. This point should be kept in mind in planting, locations and plants being selected that would show to best advantage during the period of autumn color. Dull autumn coloration A warm, cloudy fall, sometimes with much r.w, will restrict the formation of bright colors in the foliage. With insufficient sunli~pht, the sugar production is greatly reduced, and with warm nights, what little sugar has been manufactured in the leaves can be readily transpcwted to the trunk and roots where it has no effect on the color of the foliage. The leaves of many evergreens change color in autumn. Some of the junipers and arborvitaes are listed in the following groups. Some pines tnay turn yellow, but usually such color lasts only for a short time, the leaves quickly turning brown. This is particularly true of those evergreen leaves which are normally shed each year, and although the autumn color may not be consicuous in many evergreen plants, nevertheless it is evident on close examination. All leaves eventually turn brown. 'fhis is not an autumn color, but is merely the result of the death, and m some cases the decayof the plant tissue. Sometimes, the leaves turn brown while they still remain on the tree, as in the American beech and in some of the oalcs. In other cases, like the sugar maple and the spicebush, the leaves drop from the plants while they are still brightly colored and turn brown aftertvards. Autumn color is then a physiological phenomenon which is very complex. There are plants the leaves of which will always turn yellow regardless of current climatic conditions, but many of the plants with red fall foliage will be striking in appearance only when warm, sunshiny days prevail, followed by nights with tempet.ttures below 4~.i F. The sugar formation in the leaf, the amount of sunshine 40] received by the plants, and the temperature of the air whwh to a large degree control autumn coloratu~n. are three variable factors Woody Plants with Autumn Color The following plants are listed accordinr to their most conspicuous autumn color. As has been explained above, these machange from year to year, depending on climatic conditions. For instance, some years Cladrasti.s lutea will be yellow, other years the same trees will be purpltsh. The degree of color may also depend on soil conditions, it bemg a well-known fact that pin oaks, for instance, which have received heavy applications of nitrogenous fertilizers, will have a much deeper red color than those grown on poor soils without such fertilizers. With these qualifications in mind, the following lists are offered. Plants with an asterisk (*) usually show conspicuous autumn color. Autumn Color - Red *Acer Ginnala japonieum mandshuricum * obovata sachalinensis aan~~uinea * * irnlnuctum platanoides Schwedleri rubrum -red .md yellow ~chlesin;~eri - very early red saecharum - red ancl vellow triflcmuxu Aronia arhutifolia *Fothergilla lmv species - red and yellow Franklinia alatamaha - red and yel- 'Liquidambar ~tyr.miHua - red ~ ell~m Malus D<cwsoniana - red and and yellow Nemopanthus mucronatus melanocarpa prunifolia *Nyssa ylvatica *Oxydendrum arboreum species *Berberis, * many Carpinus caroliniana *Parthenocissus quinquefolia * triwvptdata Photinia villosa Prunus mandshurica *Cornus alba Hcmida kousa mas Maximowiczii * stolonifera ny>ponica Sargentii communis *Cotinus americanus * ~'<)=,r~rV'r,rl'1:1 Cotoneaster divaricata *Pyrus * * ~)yt'ItOlla ussuriensis *Crataegus Phaenopyrum *Enkianthus oampanulatus * i>erulatus *Quercus * * * borealis maxima coccinea lkclustris velutm~ Rhododendron calendulaceum Euonymus europaea alata .ItryourEntre.~ Schlippenbachii 41 *Rhododendron Vaseyi *Rhus aromatica * copallina - shining red * glabra * radicans - red and yellow * typhina verniciflua Ribes aureum * setigera virginiana - red and yellow to *Sassafras albidum - red, yellow orange *Spiraea prunifolia - glossy Syringa oblata dilatata red hirtellum odoratum *Vaccinium species *Viburnum dentatum * Lantana - deep red * prunifolium tomentosum - *Rosa rugosa-red and yellow * velvety, dull red Autumn Color - Reddish to reddish Cornus Amomum * racemosa purple Prunus armeniaca canescens allegheniensis Dav~esi \"Mikado\" Forsythia viridissima *Fraxinus americana *Gaultheria procumbens *Gaylusaccia brachycera Ilex decidua cyclamina serrulata spontanea *Quercus alba Rhododendron obtusum roseum Kaempferi *Juniperus v horizontalis plumosa ir~,~~imana Rubus hispidus *Leucothoe Catesbaei Ligustrum ubtusifolium Regelianum Symphoricarpos Chenaultii *Thuja *Mahonia ~lqu~folium * repens Malus bac<.~ta . purpurea * Fleyi ocoidentalis ericoides -purple plicata - bronze *Viburnum acerifolium Carles~i * dilatatum . sublobata * Lenta~,ro molle Vitis Myrica pensylv anica -bronze *Pachistima Canbyi Physocarpus monogynus Rafinesquianum Coignetiae affine Autumn Color - Yellow *Acer pensylv.xnicum * platanoides rufinerve saccharinum Actinidia arguta . *Celastrus species Cercidiphyllum japonicum *Cercis canadensis *Cladrastis lutea - yellow to purplish *Clethra acuminata to *Amelanchier species - yellow *Assimina tr~loba *Betula species red * <rlnifolia Diospyros virginiana Dirca palustris 42 ] *Ginkgo * *Hamamelis *ernalis biloba mollis Parrotia persica - yellow to orange *Phellodendron amurense Physocarpus opulifolms Populus alba mry nian<x Hypericum species Kalopanax pictus grandidentata nigra italica tremuloides Poncirus trifoliata Kerria japonica *Larix decrdua * lancma Prinsepia sinensis \"'Lindera Benioin ' Liriodendron Tulipifera Maclura pomifera Malus Halliana spontanea - *Pseudolarix Kaempferi *Sorbus americana * aucuparia Ulmus amencana yellow and purple Zelkova serrata Ostrya virginiana Autumn Color - Yellowish to Bronze parviflora - yellow brown *Carya species - yellow to brown *Castanea dentata - yellow to brown mollisima - yellow to brown Dirca palustris *Fagus ~;randifolia Aesculus Ailanthus altissima Akebia '~' sylvatica Gymnocladus dioica stellata imbricaria *Magnolia *Quercus Malus ioensis yellow brown plena - yellow brown No autumn color yrin~antlxa thibetica Lycium halimifolium Polygonum Auberti . _ quinat,t Baccharis halimifolia Clematis, manyspecies Daphne Dlezereum Davidia nm olucrata Potentilla species , Prunus I'er5ic.r Elaeagnus an~rustrfblia Euonymus Bun~;eana semipersistens Hibiscus yriacus Ligustrum vul~yare Lonicera Robinia I'seudoacacia a Salix blanda 1>enW n<lra Sophora ,ja~x~ni<:x Vitex fr.yrrantiss~ma , Ne~undo Note:--Since this number of Arnoldia deals with foliage colors for a short period in the fill only, attention should be called to other recent issues which treat of foliage culw5 at other times throughout the year. W nter Ful~a~e Color of Narrow-leaved F:ver~reens. Arnoldia, Volume ~, No. a, May, 1 Sa~:3. Rr~rad-lP.rved H,ver\"-rreens wth C3reen H'olia~,re 'I'hr~m\";hout the Winter. Arnoldia, Vmlume :3, No. 4, May, lSl~.:3. 4a] Foliage 11 to Colors of Woody Plants April Autumn to September. Arnoldia, Volume 2, Nos. 1~, December, 19~Z. blooming shrubs The display of color in the fall not only consists of colored foliage and bright colored fruits, but also includes the flowers of a few late blooming shrubs and vines. The sweet autumn clematis (Clemati.s patticulata) and the fleecevine (YolJgonum Auberti) are two vines whose white flowers have considerable merit in the fall. Elsholtzia Stauratoni ts a fall flowering shrub from China which grows about four feet tall and has many spikes of small lilac colored flowers. It was first introduced into this country in 1905, and although it has not found its way into many gardens, it is listed by several nurseries. Fraulrlinica nlatnmrrhn in the Arnold Arboretum begins to bloom about the first of September and continues until frost kills flower buds and leaves. The plants this year do not have many of their pure white, waxy flowers, due in large measure to the serious set-back the plants recetved in the prolonged drought this summer. Usually at this time they are covered with flowers. Though this native American plant is usually grown in the south as a tree, it is grown in the Arnold Arboretum as a shrub, with many branches from the base of the plant. When grown in this manner, winter killing is not nearly as severe as it is when the plant is grown as a tree, and, also, ,oil can be mounded around the base of the to aid in winter protection. e There are several members of the Lespede~a clan which are in bloom now. One of the most conspicuous this year is Le,sperle2cr jnponicn, almost impossible to find in nursery wntalogues, but a handsome, free-flowering shrub nevertheless, with its pure white fluw erv borne on conspicuous terminal spikes. Our plant is about four feet tall. Lespetlezn %'hnubergii is also in full bloom, wtth pink flowers. It is onlt about three feet tall, and the flowers are not as conspicuous as those of L. jnponico. 'fhe native witch-hazel (Hamnmeli.s nirginiaurr) is starting to bloom now, usually an indication that most shrubs have ceased flowermg for the year. However, the unseasonably warm weather (it was Rti the other day) not only brought xt into bloom ahead of schedule, but the flowers of many spring blooming shrubv (.fpiraea.s, Cfrnenomele,r, ete.) are starting to appear here and there in the planting, also. The \"advantages\" of New England weather this year have been for- plant cibly emphasiied by a late spring freeze, a long summer drought, an earthquake, a hurricane, and now a real Indian summer; to say nothing of a mosquito menace nt mid Oet~ber !I _ DONALD ~V1'MAN 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Available Rapid Growing Vines for the United States","article_sequence":9,"start_page":45,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24140","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160bb6f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 DF.CEMBER 8, 1944 NUMBERS 9-11 I AVAILABLE RAPID GROVfIN(~ VINES FOR THE UNITED STATES a very essential part in any garden, and rapid growing vines are desired for some particular purpose which no other plant material will fulfill. Sometimes they are needed only temporarily; other times they are needed permanently. Rapid growingines are notalways the most ornamental, but, since their number is rather large, some of the best will be found among them. Nor are the most ornamental vines always the easiest to obtain. Rapid growing vines that are easily obtainable are very much of interest and are in demand throughout the country. Consequently, this number of Arnoldia deals with those rapid growing vines, easily obtainable, that are recommended in different areas of the C'nited States. They may not all be of prime ornamental value when <ompared with some of the rarer ones, but their rapid habit of growth makes them of considerable value for certain screening purposes. The information in this issue of Arnoldia is taken from a report prepared a short time ago when there was a great deal of interest in the camouflaging of various installations in this country, both public and private. Various horticulturists't mndely separated parts of the country contributed information on the VINES play frequently * Edgar Anderson, Missouri Botanical Garden, St. Louis, Missouri W. H. Friend, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, Weslaco, Texas Norvell Gillespie, O.C. D., San Francisco, California John Hanley, University of Washington Arboretum, Seattle, Washington A. C. Jordahn, The Coconut Grove Palmetum, Coconut Grove, Florida E. L Kammerer, Morton Arboretum, Lisle, Illinois H. K McMinn, Mills College, Oakland, California H. B. Parks, Texas Agricultural Experiment Station, San Antonio, Texas H. W. Shepard, School of Landscape Architecture, University of California, Berkeley, California Maunsell Van ttensselaer, Santa Barbara Botanic Garden, Santa Barbara, California Eric Walther, Golden Gate Park, San Francisco, California Donald Wyman, 4rnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts [45]J vines in their respective areas, and this aided materially in the selection of the final lists of plants. It must be understood that all of the vigorous and fast growing vines do not appear in the following lists, merely because some are very difficult to find in nurseries and are of more or less restricted occurrence in nature. Areas For purposes of selecting the right vines for the right areas, the United States has been divided into eleven general areas, and vines are listed and recommended for each area. Naturally, these areas will overlap considerably. It is readily understood that there are many places within a certam area, where, because of altitude, soil conditions, or some climatic factor, recommended vines may not thrive. For instance, Area No. 1-the Eastern United States-bounded by the Atlantic Ocean, Canada, the Mississippi River, and a line across southern Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia-covers a great territory with widely varying climatic conditions. Vines that would not grow in the vicinity of 11t. Washington in New England would flourish in the comparatively mild climate of the James River m Virginia. With these points in mind, the recommended areas for growing these vines should be taken with considerable reserve. The most vigorous and most hardy vines only have been selected. All can be used for screenuxa purposes. Vines for growing within specific localities should be selected after first obtaining available information concerning plant growth and hardiness m the specific locality under consideration. \",.eneral all that part of the Umted States east of the Mississippi River and between lower Georgia, Alabama, Mississippi and Canada. 2. North Central United States-The entire 1. Eastern and Northeastern United States-In the 3 area in Wiscowin, ()hut, Indiana, Chicago area, and possibly west of the Mississippi into Iowa. (Areas 1,and overlap somewhat, but much of the recommended plant material is ~dentical.) 3. Central United States-Inoludin~ area a wide area around are more Oklahoma. In general, this the eastern United States. 4. The Great Plains has summers that Missouri, Arkansas, hot and dry than in Area-Incluclin~; a wide area around Minnesota, Nebraska, Dakota, Kansas, Montana, Wyoming. However, in northern Montana, Wyoming, and North Dakota, temperatures go extremely low in the North and South some winter and of these vines may not survive in the areas with extreme winter cold. 5. Northwest Pacific Coast-Between San Francisco and Seattle. vines can Many of the be used considerably farther inland than the coastal area. 6. San Francisco Area-This is intermediate between Areas :5 and 7. Many of the vines recommended for growing in both these of San Francisco, some, however, needing special areas care. will grow in the vicinity 46 ] 7. Southern California-This does not include the area hot, arid areas. 8. Semi-arid of Southwest Texas 9. Coastal Area of Southern and Southwestern United States-This includes part of Texas and a general area across all the Gulf states through Florida but does not include the subtropical areas of Texas and Florida. 10. Extreme Southern Texas and Southern Florida-Subtropical can areas only. as There is a tropical, small area, south of Corpus Christi, which together wrth the southern part of Florida. be considered sub- 11. Extreme southern part of Florida-Many of the vines listed in area 10 can be grown throughout southern Florida but there is an area from Stuart south around the coast to Ft. Myers, where truly tropical vines can be grown. VINES FOR EASTERN AND NORTHEASTERN UNITED STATES (Area 1) Clinging to stone Hedera Helix Parthenocissus Parthenocissus or wood by rootlets Campsis radicans quinquefolia tricuspidata or Climbing by tendrils stalks twisting leaf to any mate- (These will I,omcera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Menispermum canadense Polygonum Auberti Pueraria Thunher~iana Wisteria floribunda n Isterla SInenSIS Wisteria sinensis Used as cling rial similar to chicken wire.) Ampelopsis aconitifolia ground covers Ampelopsis brevipedunculata imowiczii DTax- Clematrs paniculata Clematis vrr,~iniana Clematis Vitalba Clematis Viticella Smilax hispida Vitis aestivalis Vitis argentifolia Vitis Coignetiae Vitis Labrusca Vitis vulpina Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Lonicera japonica Halliana Parthenocissus quinquefolia Pueraria Thunbergiana Retaining leaves late winter in fall to early ' twmmg about wires Twtning Twining (For twining about wires and 't of various kinds andshapes) supports Actinidia arguta Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Akebia quinata Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Clematis Vitalba Clematis Viticella Lonicera japonica Halliana '~ Smilax hispida , Most ornamental Campsis radicans-red flowers Celastrus sp. -yellow and orange fruit 47 Clematis Lonicera sp.-white flowers sp.-yellow or reddish flowers Wisteria Polygonum Auberti-white flowers sp.-white to purple flowers Note: Three vines, namely LonicPra japonica Halliana, Polygonum Auberti and Hedera HPlix will grow well in Boston but are frequently injured bp severely cold winters. Consequently, they might best be used south of New York. A third, probably the fastest growing of all vines, Pueraria Thunbergiazza should not be considered thoroughly hardy north of Philadelphia. VINES FOR THE NORTH CENTRAL UNITED STATES (Area ~?~ Clinging to stone or wood by Campsis radicans Parthenocissus Parthenocissus rootlets quinquefolia tricuspidata or Climbing by tendrils stalks twisting leaf will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis aconitifoha Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Maximowiwr.ii (These Lonicera ,jalxmioa Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Menispermum canadense Polygonum Auberti Wisteria floribunda Wisteria sinensis Wisteria sinensis ' Used as ground covers Vitis Labrusca Vitis aestivalis Vitis Labrusca Vitis vulpina Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Smilax hispida Vitis aestivalis Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Lonicera japonica Halliana 1'azthenocissus quinquefolia Most Most ornamental Campsis radicans-red flowers Celastrus sp.-yellow to orange fruits Clematis sp.- white flowers Lonicera sp.-yellow or reddish flowers Auberti-white flowers Polygonum Wisteria sp.-white to purple flowers . Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and shapes) Aristolochia durior Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Note: There are no evergreen vines for this area, unless Euonymus species might be considered. These are comparatively slow in growth and susceptible to scale. VINES FOR THE CENTRAL UNITED STATES (Area 3~ Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Campsis rad~cam Parthenocissus quinqnefol~a 4H or twisting leaf stalks (These will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis arborea Climbing by tendrils Used as ground covers Clematis paniculata Clernatis Clematis viryimana Smilax hispida Srntlax h~spida a Vitis Sp. Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Lonicera japonica Halliana ~~ parthenocissus quinquefolia virginiana ' Parthenoclssus quinquefolia Pneraria Thunbergiana Ptieraria Thunbergiana neraria unberiana \" Evergreen vines none Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and Aristolochia durior Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Lonicera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Polygonum Auberti Pueraria Thunbergiana Wisteria floribunda Wisteria sinensis shapes) Most ornamental Campsis radicans-red flowers Celastrus sp.-pellow to orange fruit Clematis Lonicera sp.-whtte flowers sp.-yellow to reddish flowers Polygonum Auberti-white flowers Wisteria sp.-white to purple flowers areas more Note: This area is considerably more hot and dry in the summer than many m the eastern United States, consequently the choice of material is limited. VINES FOR THE GREAT PLAINS AREA (Area 4) Clinging to stone Parthenocissus or wood by rootlets quinquefoha or Celastrus scandens Lonicera sempervirens Used as Climbing by tendrils stalks twisting leaf to any mate- ground covers (These will cling rial mnttlar to chicken tmre~ Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Smilax hispida Vitis amurensis Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Parthenocissus quinquefolia Evergreen vines none Hardiest for this area Vitis Labrusca Bulpina Vitis Viti,; Labrusca Celastrus scan dens Parthenocissus ., .L ' quinquefolia Most ornamental Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and shapes) Aristolochia durior Celastrus orbiculata Note: The climatic conditions in this Celastrus and orange fruit Clematis sp.-white flowers sp.-yellow In some unusually In others where moisture dry and cold areas, none of these vines may grow. iwot too limited but where winter temperatures are extremely low, only Ce- huge area vary greatly. ~9 lastrus scanden,r and Parthenocissus quiuqugfolia may ~;row. The more moisture and more moderate the winter temperatures, the more vines on this list may succeed. All have been successfully grown in Minnesota; in North Platte, Nebraska; and in Brookinos, South Dakota. VINES FOR THE NORTHWEST PACIFIC COAST (Area .s) Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Hedera Helix Parthenocissus Parthenocissus quinquefolia tricuspidata or Polygonuux Auberti Puerana Thunbergiana Wisteria floribuncla Vl'~steria sinensis Used as Climbing by tendrils stalks twisting leaf ground covers will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis aconitifolia Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Maximowiczii (These ' Clematis montana Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Clematis Vitalba Clematis Viticella Smilax hisp~da Vitis aestivalis Vitis Akebia quinata Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Hedera Helix Lonicera japonica Halliana Parthenocissus quinquefolia Pueraria Thunbergiana Retaining leaves winter late in fall to early argentifolia Vitis Coignetiae Vitis Labrusca Vitis vulpina Twining supports (For twining about wires and Akebia quinata Clematis montana Clematis paniculata Clematis virginiana Clematis Vitalba Clematis Vitxcella Hedera Helix (evergreen) Lonicera japonica Halliana Smilax hispida Most ornamental various kinds and Actinidia arguta ebla qumata Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Lonicera etrusca superba Lonicera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Menispermum canadense Actinidia arguta of shapes) Celastrus sp.-yellow andorange fruits Clematis sp.-white flowers Lonicera sp.-yellov to reddish h flowers Polygonum Auberti-white flowers Wisteria sp.-white to purple flowers Note: Most of the vines in this list can be grown from San Francisco to Seattle. The list is practically identical with that for the eastern Umte<1 States. However, the climate along the northwest Pacific Coast is considerably milder than JO that of New England-more on a par with that of the Carolinas. these vines should grow more luxuriantly. FROST RESISTANT IN SAN FRANCISCO AREA Consequently, , (Area 6) Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Used as ground covers Hedera Hel~x Parthenocissus I'arthenocisws Akebia qumata quinquefolia tricuspidata Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf stalks(These will cling tm any mate(The~e wiII any ,. ('ling to stalkssimilar to chicken wire~ ... rial Cissus striata .. Celastrus orbiculata Celastrus scandens Hedera Helix Lnnicera japonica HII' L'\" Halliana . , Muehlenbeckia complexa * Clematis montana Clematis paniculata Clematia V~talba I'liaedranthu~ huocinatorius 1'arthenocissus quinquefolia art 1enOClS~u~ qUlllque 0 111 I'ueraria 'I'hunbergiana Puprar)a I hunbergtana Evergreen foliage Hedera Helix Lonicera japonica Halhana Mandevilla suaveolens l~luehlenbeckia complexa I'hae<lranthusbuccinatorius Phaedranthus u('cmatorms Most ornamental Twining ( For twining about wires and aupportv of various kinds and shapes~ Actinidia chinensis Akeb~a quinata Celastrus orbiculata (\"elastrus scandens Lonicera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Mandemlla suaveolens Muehlenbeckia complexa Polygonum Auberti Pueraria Thunbergiana Note: to Celastrus sp.-yellow and fruit orange Clematis Lonicera to reddish flowers Phaedranthus buccinatoriusshowy red to purplish flowers sp.-flowers sp.--yellow out which During the rainless summers, all plantings require frequent watering withthey are certain to fail. Their annual growth is directly proportional amount of summer irrigation. the SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA (Area 7) Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Climbing by tendrils or twisting leaf stalks Campsis grandiflora Ficus pumila Hedera Helix Parthenocissus Parthenocissus ' (These will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis arborea Bignonia capreolata Boussingaultia baselloides quinquefolia tricuspidata ~1 ~ ] Cissus capensis Cobaea scandens Distictis lactiflora Doxantha Unguis-cati Pandorea pandorana Yassiflora sp. Phaedranthus buccinatorius Pithecoctenium echinatum Pyrostegia ignea Vitis californica Vitis Girdiana Cobaea scandens Distictis lactiflora Dolichos lignosus Doxantha Unguis-cati Ficus pumila Hedera Helix Lonicera japonica Halliana Muehlenbeckia complexa a Pandorea pandorana I'assiflora sp. I'haedranthus buccinatorius 1'yrostegia ignea Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and shapes) Solanum jasminoides Senecio mikanioides Tecomaria capensis Most ornamental - Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea spectabilis Dolichos lignosus Ipomoea sp. Lonicera etrusca superba Lonicera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens Muehlenbecl.~a complexa Senecio mikanioides Solanum jasminoides Solanum Rantonnetti ~'ister~a floril>anda Used as Bignonia capreolata-yellow-red flowers Bougammllea sp. -magenta fruit bracts Ronssingaultia basell~ide5-fragr.mt white flowers Campsis grandiflora-scarlet flowers Distictis lactiflora-purple to white flower, 1''icus ground covers Ampelopsiv arborea Hedera Hel~x I,onicera ,japomca HallianaB Maehlenheckia complexa pm~la-fine foliage Ipomoea sp.-sho`~y flnwers I.nnicera vp.-tia~\"~rant flwvers I'.vssiflora sp.-vhwvy flomers Phaedranthus buceinatorias-red flntt.e~.s 1'yrostegia ~gnea- orange flowers .] \"1~terJa floribnnda--white tn PUI'~'isteria tJoJ'lbunda pnr- Evergreen vines Evergreen vines ~ \" .. orange t nowers . ~ Bougamvil I en g I abra Bougainvillea glabra BougainviIlf'a spectllhilis Bougainvillea spectabilis Cissus capensis Note: There - --whiteple to fI I p f' flwvers fnB-erS are many vines grown in Southern California. These are only a very few of the most common. Some are grown as perennials which in the north might be treated as annuals. Also, some of the vines grown farther north certainly would grow here. However, during rainless summers all plantings require frequent watering without which they are certain to fail. Their annual growth m directly proportional to the amount of this summer irrigation. 52 It should be noted in this connection that the resistant: following vines are drought Bougainvillea spectabilis Ficus pumila Pithecoctenium echinatum Tecomaria capensis Vitis Girdiana Rubus vitifolius needs moisture \" , SOUTHWEST TEXAS - SEMI-ARID AREA (Area 8) Clinging to stone or wood by Campsis radicans Ficus pumila rootlets Operculina dissecta Parthenocissus <iuinquefolia or Polygonum Auberti Pueraria Thunbergiana Serjania brachycarpa Thunbergia alata Used as ground covers Climbing by tendrils stalks twisted leaf (These will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis arborea Boussingaultia baselloides Ci.ssus incisa Clematis crispa Clematis Drummondii Clematis 1'itcheri Clematis texensis Parthenocissus heptaphylla Parthenocissus quinquefolia Vitis candicans _ arborea Clematis Drummondii Pueraria Thunbergiana Ampelopsis Serjania brachycarpa Thunbergia alata Most ornamental Bonssin,~aultia baselloides-fragrant white flowers Campsis radicans-red flowers Clematis sp.-flowers Ficus pumila-fine foliage Lonicera sempervirens-red and Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and shapes) Lonicera sempervirens Note: Because of the yellow flowers Polygonum Auberti-white flowers Thunbergia alata-white to purplish flowers numerous large area and of vines are offered for three three areas. areas. climatic conditions in Texas, lists Seventeen of these vines are grown in all COASTAL AREA OF SOUTHERN AND SOUTHEASTERN UNITED STATES (EXCLUSIVE OF SUBTROPICAL AREAS OF TEXAS AND FLORIDA) (Area 9) Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Campsis grandiflora Campsis radicans Ficus pamila Hedera Helix Operculina dissecta Parthenocissus quinquefolia Parthenocissus tricuspidata ~ [53]l Climbing by tendrils stalks or twisted leaf Pueraria Thunbergiana will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis arborea Anredera vesicarra (These Serjania brachycarpa Evergreen (E) and semi-evergreen (S) vines Bignonia capreolata Boussmgaultia baselloides Cissus incisa Clematis crrspa Clematis Drummondii Clematis panieulata Clematis Pitcheri Clematis texensis Parthenocissus heptaphylla Smilax hispida Vitis candicans Ampelopsis arborea (S) Cissus incisa (S) Clematis crispa (S) Clematis Drummondii (S) Clematis Yitcher~ (S) Clematis texensis (S) Ficus pumila (E~ Hedera Helix (E) Ipomoea cairica . ' (E) (E) Lonicera japonica Halliana Lonicera sempervirens (E) Twining (I'or training about wires and (f 01' training about wires and of supports of various kinds and shapes~) shapes ~ ctInl chinensis Actinidia111 e Inen~IS Akebia eluinata Uperculina dissecta (S) Phaseolus Caracalla (h;) a (,) .., Serjania brachycarpa ( ) (S) I>h asE'O I us Caraca II S \" h ' Aristolochia durior lflost Most ornamental Ipomoea cairica cairica Ipomoea Bignonia <.apreo capreolata-yellow red flowers flowers ~~ Boaaainvillea sp.-ma~enta t5wit ~ Hf)ugamv))Iea i, sp.2014magenta fruit ornamental Lomcera japornca Halliana Lonicera japouica Haihana Lonicera sempervirens Yh.rseolas Caracalla Poiygonum Aubert[ l'ueraria 'I'hunber~;iana uerana el'gIanll YolyaonumAuberti \" Borrssin,~aultia Bnu;singaultia lr,tselloides-fra~,rrant white nosers grant white flrrwrs flowers (al1lpsi, , sp.2014red nowers Clernatis sp.-flower~ r'mus pumila-fine foliage ricus pumila2014hne i ~ fotiage ,.. Ipornoea cairica-pink flowers Polygonum Auberti-white flowers Wisteria sp.-white to purple ('aml~siv bractv Serjania hrachycarpa Wisteria norfbunda Wisteria smensis sincnsi.,, Used as , un flonbunda sp.-red , ground covers Ampelopsis arborea Clematis Drummondii flowers Note: There are several vines ideally suited for growin~ on and Coast beaches. They would include: Brunnrchia cirrhosa (native of Gulf Coast) along the ' Gulf Cardiospermum sp. (\"o<oulus oarolmus (native Ipomoea 1'ev-ca~we (natme of Texas) of (xulf Coast) _ 'I'etrasti~;ma Harrnandii It is also of interest to note that ,4rnpelopsis nrboren will cnver in less time than any other vme in most parts of Texas. J~ more square feet EXTREME SOUTHERN TEXAS AND SOUTHERN FLORIDA (SUBTROP. ICAL AREAS - EXCLUSIVE OF THE SOUTHERN END OF FLORIDA) (Area 10) Clinging to stone or wood by rootlets Campsis grandiflora C'ampviv radicans Serjania 1>rachycarir.t Thunbergia alata Wisteria ' , japonica purnila Oper<uMna dissecta Parthenocissus Partlrenoci~aus quinquefolia Climbing by tendrils stalks or 1wv Used Used as ground covers ground covera f twisted leaf ('1'Irese will clin~; to any material wmilar to chicken wire) Ampelopsis mpe OpSIS arborea Anredera vesicaria stalks .. ( i fhese ~ wu) [ ) clingto ~ any Antigonon leptopus Boussingaultia baselloicles Cissus incisa Clematis crispa Clematis Drummondii Clematis paniculata Clematis Pitcheri Clematis texensis Cobaea scandens Doxantha Unguis-cati Parthenocissus heptaphylla Passiflora y. arburea II Clematis I 1)rununonclii I\" Muehlentreckia complexa 1'neraria '1'huuber~,Tiana ~nrhelopws br~~cht-carpa Serjania braetiBf'arpa '1'Itmober~ia alata Evergreen (E) or Semi-evergreen (S) Ampelopw arborea (S) Antigonon leptopus (E) ~ Cissus incisa (S) Clematis crispa (E) Clematis Drummondii (E) Clematis paniculata (E) Clematis Pitcheri (E) Clematis texensis (E) Cobaea scandens (E) ' 1'yro5te~ia ignea '1'etrastigma Harmandii Vitis oanclioaw Cryptostegia grandiflora (E) Cryptostegia madagascariensis (E) Doxantha Llnguis-cati (E) Ficu, pumila (H:) Ipomoea cawica (E) I,omcera semper~ irens Twining ( For twining about wires and wCymtv of various kindv and Sharre5) l~(Ill,~_,r:11i11111P:1 \"~lahra liou,~amwllea yectabilm Cryptostegia grandiflora Cryptostegia madagascariensis lpomoea ca~rica l,cmmera vPmpervirens Muehlenbecl:ia compleva 1'hateolus ('aracalla 1'mly \"~rcmum Auberti I'uerart.r '1'hunher;.,Tiana Muehlenbeck~a complexa Operculina dissecta (E) 1'a5siflora sp. (H;) 1'haseolus Cara<alla (H;) (Ir;) (E) Pyrostegiaa ynea (H:) Serjania hrachycarpa (S) 'fhunberyalata (E) Wisteria japonica (H;) < Most ornamental Antigonon leptopus-pink flowers Bougainvillea ~p.-rnagenta fruit bracts 5:i ~ ] Boussingaultia baselloides-fragrant white flowers Campsis sp.-red flowers Clematis sp.-flowers Cryptostegia sp.-flowers Ipomoea cairica-pink flowers Passiflora sp. -showy flowers Polygonum Auberti-white flowers Pyrostegia ignea-orange flowers Wisteria japonica-white flowers the coast to Ft. EXTREME SOUTHERN PART OF FLORIDA (From Stuart south around Clinging to stone or Myers) (Area 11~ wood by rootlets Ficus pumila Monstera deliciosa Philodendron sp. Scindapsus aureus Syngonium sp. Climbing by tendrils stalks or Thompsonae Cryptostegia grandiflora Cryptostegia madagascariensis Ipomoea Horsfalliae Briggsii .lacquemontia pentantha Pereskia aculeata Petrea volubilis Podranea fticasoliana Quisqualis indica Stephanotis floribunda Thunbergia alata Clerodendron twisted leaf will cling to any material similar to chicken wire) (These Antigonon leptopus Antigonon macrocarpum Arrabidaea magnifica Thunbergia grandiflora 7'rachelospermum jasminoides Evergreen Antigonon sp. paniculata Clytostoma callistegioides Cydista aequinoctialis Doxantha Unguis-cati Clematis Clematis paniculata Clerodendron Thompsonae Passiflora coerulea Passiflora quadrangularis Pithecoctenium echinatum Porana paniculata Pyrostegia ignea Twining (For twining about wires and supports of various kinds and shapes) Allamanda cathartica Hendersonii Allamanda cathartica Williamsii Allamanda violacea Clytostoma callistegioides Cryptostegia grandiflora Cryptostegia madagascariensis Cydista aequinoctialis Doxantha Unguis-cati Ficus pumila Monstera deliciosa Passiflora coerulea Passiflora quadrangularis Pereskia aculeata Petrea volubilis Pithecoctenium echinatum Argyreia nervosa Aristolochia brasiliensis Aristolochia grandiflora Sturtevantii Pyrostegia ignea Stephanotis floribunda Thunbergia alata '1'hnnberg~a grandiflora Bougainvillea glabra Bougainvillea glabra Sanderiana Bougainv illea spectabilis (and vars. ) 7'rachehspermum jasminoides 56] Most ornamental Allamanda sp.-large, conspicuous yellow to rose-colored flowers ouralIlVl sp. - rJ lant co Bougainvilleaeasp.-brilliantlyy colured flowers, many vars. ;vigorous vigorous ()I*ed flowers, habit Cy.< ista aequino('tialis-showy Cydista aequinoctialis-showy white or purplish flowers white or purplish flowers Ipomoea sp.-large flowers Petraea volubilis--violet colored flowers in early spring Podranea Ricasoliana-panicles of pale pink to red flowers Yr~rana I)oi-ana paniculata-pure white flowers flo~A-ers in early. fall early tall indica-white to red, Quisqualis flowers fragrant fI t' ragrant owers Thunbergia grandiflora-large blue or white flowers , ANNUAL VINES good types for each area. selection, would be :Calonyction aculeatum sp. No attempt has been made to list all the annual Bines, of which there are many A few suggestions, but by no means an exhaustive Common Name Area for which recommended 0 8,9,10 Large Moon Flower Baloon Vines Cardiospermum C'ouvolvulus sp. Gulf Coast 6 ' Cobaea scandens Cup and Melons Gourds Saucer Vine Bindweed ~~,.5,7 C'ucumiv vp. Cucurbrta y. I~ioscorea bulbifera 1,?,~,,5,6,7,8,9,10 ~i 1,~,S,.i,H,7,8,9,10 0 9, I Air Potato Vine f;chmo<vstis lobat.r H;<hinocytm Humulw y. Wild Cucurnber (~nlf CoaSt .i oregana Oregon ~lan-rout I-lyu D1ornmg (~lorres (:mards I'eav Passion Flowers Reans 7 1,~?,.i,fi,7 [prm~ea l.athyrw y. y. 1,?,a,.i,ti,i 1,2,3,o,fi,7,8,9,10 6 : ,H I.agenaria ~p. I'assifl~ra ~p. I'hasemlus ~p. t;,!~, 10 1,?,~,5,(i,7,8,9,10 ~ (,~uamoclit slr. Star Glory Eyed Vines 7 Rhvnchnwa Thunbergia minima sp. sp. Miles of Gulf Coast Black Susan Vine 9 Tropaeolum Nasturtiums 5,6,7 .57 58]] J~ ~o] 61 ~z ~ ] 63] z c ); a c z 0 Ca 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Expeditions to the Alaska Military Highway 1943-1944","article_sequence":10,"start_page":65,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24143","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d1608927.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 4 DECE:VIBER 29, 1944 J NUMBER 1? ~ EXYEDITIONS TO THE ALASKA MILITARY HIGHWAY 194:3-1944 Alaska Highway, for many years an apparently unattainable dream of travellers and vacationists, has suddenly, under the necessity of war, become an actuality. It is not yet open to the general public, but presumably rt will become so after the war. Public interest m the building of the road, and pride in its accomplishment are taking form in hopeful plans-millions of themfor automobile trips to northern British Columbia, Yukon or Alaska. Perhaps few people have realized, however, that the road opens to naturalists some of the most maccessible areas of northwestern America-vast stretches of wilderness situated between the Mackenzie and Yukon River basins, and in southwestern Yukon and adjacent Alaska. The openinghas taken place rapidly, rather than by slow stages, so that nearly all of the new highway is through a relatively unmodified and unspoiled wilderness. Before the building of the road the only inhabitants were a few scattered Indians, and an occasional trapper or trader. Only a few hardy prospectors and geological surveyors, and still fewer students of plants and animals, had made hurried and expensive trips into the more remote districts. The solutions for a whole ser~es of problems having to do with the systematic relatronship and geographic distribution of the fauna and flora, the structure and development of biotic communities, and the migrations of plants and animals, including prehistoric man, have awaited an examination of these regions. In addition to the more purely scientific attractions of the highway, it presents also some unique opportunities in applied biology. One of the greatest problems in modern studies of land utilization and the reasonable conservation of our natural biological resources is the d~fficulty of estimating long-term natural potentialities in the land. One of the best clues to a solution of this problem, and very often the only one, is in the kind and dmtribution of native vegetation and animal life under the conditions that obtained before the coming of white men. Those who have tried to gather such mformation for regions that have long been THE American 65 under settlement are keenly aware of the unsatisfactorvnature of the scattered material that has to be sifted laboriously out of early records. Most such records were made by persons whose knowledge of natural history was extremely sketchy, and who could not dream of modern ideas and methods. The new road therefore offers an extraordmary opportunityto describe a vast new region in terms that should be of use in setting up a rational program of biological exploitation. The Arnold Arboretum, in collaboration with certain other institutions, sponsored two expeditions to the Alaska Highway in the summer seasons of 1943 and 1944. In 1943 approximately the southern two-thirds of the road were covered, between Dawson Creek, B.C., and Whitehorse, Yukon, while the,journey of lf>44 extended the survey from Whitehorse to the Alaska terminus at Fairbanks. The field party of 1943 included, in addition to the writer, Dr. Charles S. Denny, who was then at Wesleyan University in Connecticut, but who is now with the U.S. Geological Survey at Washington, Dr. Donovan S. Correll, then of the Botanical Museum at Harvard, Mrs. Lucy G. Raup, and Karl and David Raup. Dr. Correll collected mosses and served as assistant in handling the vascular plants, while Mrs. Raup collected the lichens. Dr. Denny is a geologist whose primary purpose was a survey of the glacial features of the region. In 1944 Mrs. Raup continued the lichen collections and served as general assistant in all of the botanical work, as did also the two boys, Karl and David. Dr. Denny's geological investigations were ably carried forward by Mr. John H. H. Sttcht of the Department of Geology and Geography at Harvard. A highly interesting and diverting phase was added to the work during the second season by Mr. Frederick Johnson, an archaeologist and anthropologist of the Robert S. Peabody Foundation for American Archaeology at Andover, Massachusetts. Dr. Stuart K. Harris of Boston l~niversity served as cook to the expedition of 1944. At the same time he collected birds and small mammals and occasionally assisted with the plant collecting. The two trips were financed by generous grants from several sources. In addition to the Arboretum's contributions, the botanical work was supported by grants from the Milton Fund at Harvard, the American Philosophical Society, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, the National Academy of Science, and the Society of the Sigma Xi. In both seasons the geological work was supported financially by the Geological Society of America, and the expenses of Mr. Johnson's archaeological studies were paid for by the Peabody Foundation. Invaluable assistance was given by the Department of Mines and Resources in Canada, principally through the loan of field equipment. Even with adequate financial assistance, the expeditions would not have been possible at all had it not been for the all-important transportation facilities that were supplied by the Northwest Service Command of the United States Army. Arrangements for this were made through the Joint Economic Committees of Canada and the United States, an organization that was formed in June, 1<.)41, in part for the purpose of gathering and correlating information on the natural f>(i resources of western Canada and Alaska. In fact our two expeditions were origof the Joint Economic Committes, and were carried out under the combined auspices of the Committees and the Arnold Arboretum. The Army command supplied the field parties with all necessary transportation on the highway, and made it possible to purchase subsistence supplies from the Army depots. It would be difficult to express too great an appreciation of the efficiency and good will with which the o`ficers and men of the Army carried out their part in the program. With the exception of the means of transport the parties were quite independent so far as living facilities were concerned. There are no regular stopping places for unattached cimlians along the road, so that a complete set of camping gear had to be carried. Only on rare occasions was it possible to find bunk space in barracks or in abandoned construction camps. During the period of active construction excellent meals could be had at the civilian labor camps, but later this became inally suggested by representatives nearly impossible. The Alaska Highway can be reached from the outside world by four routes. The easiest is by way of Edmonton, Alberta. From here there is both a railway and an automobile road to Dawson Creek, B.C., which is the southern terminus of the highway. A second route is by way of Skagway, Alaska, which is reached by boat from Seattle, Vancouver, or Prince Rupert. A narrow-guage railway, the White Pass and Yukon,\" leads from Skagway to Whitehorse and so to the highway which passes westward through the latter place. The third route is by boat to Anchorage, Alaska, and thence by the Alaska Railway to Fairbanks. The fourth is by boat to Valdez and then by the Richardson Highway to Big Delta, a place on the new highway about 100 miles east of Fairbanks. There is now an alternative to this last route, by a new road leading from Gulkana to Slana and finally to Tok, which is on the main highway in the upper Tanana Valley. \" at the In 1943 our party left Dawson Creek on June 8th and made its first base camp Beatton River, about 150 miles north of Dawson Creek. There it remained until July 4th. The Beatton River crossing is in the outer foothills of the Rockies, at an altitude of about 3?00 feet. Many shrubs and trees were just breaking their winter buds there in the second week of June, and frosts were not uncommon at night. The next base camp was at Summit Pass, where the highway runs westward through the front range of the Rocky Mountains. The altitude in the pass is about 4200 feet above sea-level, and within about 300 feet of the mountain timberline. The situation proved exceedingly favorable for alpine collecting, and we stayed there from the 7th to the 28th of July. The next camp, from July 30th to August 7th was at Watson Lake, in the plain of the upper Liard valley. A few collections were made enroute there from Summit Pass, notably at a hot spring near the lower crossing of the Liard River. Whitehorse was reached on August 9th, but the party stayed there only long enough to replenish supplies, and left on the afternoon of the l Oth for the return ~)~ _ trip. The last camp of the season at which large collections were made was at a point between Little Atlin and Teslin Lakes, where the road passes between two precipitous mountains. By August llst, when the expedition left this place, the season was well advanced, with hard frosts occurring frequently. The time between August Llst and Sept. ,ith was given to a rather leisurely trip back to Dawson Creek, with frequent ~tops for pictures, notes, and rnis<ellaneous cullections. The 194~ expedition left Boston on May :3lst and went dwectly tu V~'hrtel~urve by way of Vancouver and Skagway. After transportation and supplies had been arranged for at Whitehorse, the first base camp of the season was made at Pine Creek, about 100 miles tu the west. This is in the valley uf' the Alsek Itiver, close up to the northern base of the Coast Range. About 1~ weeks were spent here, from June 14th to ,`~~Oth, and then a new <amp was set up near the eastern end uf Kluane Lake. Kluane Lake proved to be quite rich m archaeological and geological as well as botanical interest, and was used as a center of operations until July ~6th. From there we drove directly tu Fairbanks, w here we remained from July ~Sth to August 1st. A base camp was then established in the Tanana Valley about 180 miles east of Fairbanks, and collections were made from neighboring valleys, hills, and mountains. August 16th and 1 ith were spent travellm\"~~again, this time back to Burwash Landmg which is near the western end of Kluane Lake. About a week was devoted here to the last serious collecting ~rf the season. Frosts had already come, and most plants had matured and lost thenseed. Three days were used for a fine trip by boat to the north shore of the lake and to the head of a long northern arm that reaches some z0 miles hack into the mountains. Two or three days were devoted to fall collecting and a search for Indian artifacts at Pine Creek, the scene of the first camp of the season. On returning to Whitehorse, we did not retrace our route back to the United States by way of Skagway and the coast, but continued on down the highway to Dawson Creek. This was a leisurely trip similar to that of the fall of 194:3, with frequent though brief stops along the way. The weather was fine, and the frosts had brought out the autumn color in all its glory. Days or parts uf dayswere spent at Teslin Lake, Watson Lake, Muncho Lake, and Summit Pass. A camp of several days was made at the Buckmghorse River, and, finally, three days at Dawson Creek saw the party packed and ready for home. The road itself is remarkably good. It is of ample width and well-graded, with a gravel surface. The original track had some bad hills and turns, but with local straightening and rerouting most of these have been eliminated. The distance from Dawson Creek to Fairbanks is about 1600 miles. In terms of landscape the region of the highway can be divided roughly into eight districts. At the southern end it begins in the agricultural country of the upper Peace River, where broad expanses of gently rolling arable land, at an al- ti8 - PLATE VI. in morames, to Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass. View southwest amon~ glacial valley of Macdonald Creek. White spruce and lodgepole pine foreground (Photo. D. S. Correll, courtesy of the (#eoymnphimal l~vr~irn), PLATE VII. Natural prairie tu valley of Pine Creek, across of Whitehorse. View southward Mountains. the Alsek valley about I~HI miles west to the Dezadeash feet, are separated by remnants of ancient plateaus that rise thousand feet or so higher. Northward from Ft. St. John the road soon leaves this country and rises to the higher plateaus and outer foothills of the Rockies. It remains at elevations ranging from 3000 to 4000 feet for about a hundred miles, then descends gradually to the bW skwa River at Nelson. There are some fine views westward in this area, for the road follows in many places the western rim of a high escarpment from which one looks across a broad valley to the high peaks of the mountains. Summit Pass is about 100 miles west of Nelson. It is reached by wav of the north fork of the Tetsa River which rises in the Pass. Scenically this is one of the more striking areas along the highway. Towering limestone mountains whose summits reach to about 7000 feet above sea level stand on either side, with still higher peaks a short distance back. Two small lakes in the pass add greatly to its charm. The Tetsa valley and the pass mark the beginning of the third topographic district. It is ruggedly mountainous and extends northwestward about 1 z0 miles to the lower crossing of the Liard River. The scenery is beautiful throughout most of this stretch, particularly in the Toad and Trout River valleys. Muncho Lake, at the head of the Trout River, is especially attractive. The fourth district is the broad upper basin of the Liard River, traversed by the road from the lower crossing which is near the mouth of the Trout to beyond Watson Lake and the upper crossing. The surface of the Liard Plain is for the most part gently rolling, with the mountains visible from the road only in the distance or not visible at all. It is continuously forested, and after the breathtaking scenery of the Rockies is apt to be monotonous to the traveller. Watson Lake, however, is a delightful place in spite of the low relief of the surrounding country. Other points of interest are the hot spring near the lower crossing, and Lower Post, an old trading establishment along the Liard near the mouth of the Dease River. After leaving the Liard plain the road winds westward up the valley of the Rancheria River to the continental divide in the Stikene Mountains. These mountains are not so rugged as the Rockies, and differ markedly in form because they are of igneous rocks. The divide itself is not a spectacular pass, but rather a broad upland marked by muskegs, lakes, and rather low mountain summits. The road descends the western slopes by way of the Swift River valley. The sixth topographic district is the great lake country of the upper Yukon basin. Teslin Lake is the first large body of water met with as one goes from east to west. This is a narrow lake some 90 miles long, surrounded by low mountains in the northern part. The highway follows its northeastern shore for about 40 miles, then turns westward across the Teslin River. From here on there is a succession of lakes -Squanga, Little Atlin, ~larsh-to within a few miles of Whitehorse. Whitehorse is on the Lewes River, at the head of navigation on the Yukon system. West of this place the route leads across a plateau country to the Alsek a titude of about 2000 '~ 0] valley. Begmning about .i0 miles west of the town, semi-open prairie country appears, with lofty snow-covered peaks m the background. The only large body of water encountered beyond Whitehorse is Kluane Lake, situated in the mountains about 50 miles beyond the Alsek. The whole region of the I)eiadea,h valley and Kluane Lake is perhaps the most charming section traver;ed by the entire highway. It has greater variety in color, form, and vegetation than anv other district. The prairies and alpine meadows are veritable gardens, set in the most picturesque mountain landscape imaginable. Reymd Kluane Lake the road crosses a series of large streams that issue from the high ran~re5 to the south and finally find their way into the Yukon. These are the Duke, Donjek and White liivers, all with deep valleys and broad gravel beds. West of the White the route leads through a wrde region of lakes and muskegs to the Alaska border and the upper Tanana valley. Scenically this section is rather uninspiring, but it has great topographic significance because in it the transition is made from a glaciated to an unglaciated region. The surface becomes more subdued in relief, and the hills have long rounded slopes with `'shaped valleys between them. The upland valleys are broad, with gentle, even slopes to the lakes or streams that occupy them. The whole surface is a \"mature\" one, developed by a long period of erosion and solrfluction (movement of soils under the influence of frost) without the effects of glacial scouring or deposit. The last notable topographic division is the Tanana valley itself, whrch the road follows all the way to Fairbanks. It is a broad valley, bounded on the north by the unglaciated Yukon Plateau, and on the south by the mountains of the Nutzotin and Alaska Ranges. These mountains, with one exception, appear only in River the distance on the southern horizon. The exception is between Tok and the Robertson River, where the route leads up to the base of the slopes. Southern tributaries to the Tanana, rising in the mountains, carry enormous quantities of ' gravel which they have deposited in huge fans in the main valley, pushing the river over to the north side. The highway, on the south side, traverses one after another of these great fans, whose even surfaces and ample road materials have made possible long straight stretches, often ?0 miles or more in length. The scientific results of the two expeditions are somewhat varied, but their general significance is greatly enlarged, we believe, from having been gathered in an active field collaboration among botanists, glacial geologists, and an anthropologist. The first of the basic objectives was a description of the natural flora ancl rts distribution along the highway. To this end some 4100 field numbers of plants were collected, involving approximately ?5,000 specimens. Accompanying descriptive matter includes an account of forest types seen along the road, most of it in mile-by-mile notes. This is correlated with similar records of the princit~al soil types and topographic features. More detailed studies of local distribution and soils were made in the neighborhood of base camps, with special reference to the influence of sorl frost upon the development of topography and vegetation. [71 Particular attention was given to the interpretation of aeiial photographs in those parts of the area for which they were available. The geologists set out to describe the glacial phenomena of the country along the highway, with a view to fitting them into the general pattern of Yleistooene and post-1'lemtooene events, or to setting up a new pattern if this should prove necessary in the light of new material. Topographic phenomena related to soil frost were given special attention, for they loom large in this subarctic wilderness. The anthropologist found his primary interest in a search for evidence of' prehistoric man-this to be related on one hand to the early history of man in America, and on the other to the present distribution and living habits of the Indian tribes of the region. An integral part of all these scientific aims and results was a search for ways in which the vast wilderness opened by the highway can be put to use by modern Americans. Even if the road is no more than barely mamtained to service the great modern airports that have been established along it, a great many people will have to live either in camps by the road or at the airports themselves. What portion of their necessary food, shelter and materials of abode can these people find in the country? And are there any native resources that can be exported profitably? In addition to beginning a general biological description, our two expeditions have looked for evidence of agricultural potentialities, and have attempted to evaluate forest resources. Notes on the latter take the form not only of descriptions of existing timber, but also of attempts to unravel the history of the present stands and to predict the course of future development. In these practical aspects, the work of our expeditions supplements that carried on at the same time by the Geological Survey of Canada in the field of mineral resources, and bythe Canadian Department of Agriculture in its survey of soils. Not since the early daysof pioneering and railroad building in the West has so huge a territory been made available for exploitation in so short a time. The primary ideas on what could be done in the way of biological exploitation rested then, and must rest now, on a clear understanding of the natural biological resources of the country. HUGH M. RAUP 72] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume 4","article_sequence":11,"start_page":73,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24147","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d170ab6e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME IV Illustrations are in bold face type Z Agaricus campestris, Alaska Military Highway, Expedi2 tions to the, 1948-1944, 65-i Chayote, Plate IV, 33 ~. Chenopodium album, Amelanchier spp., 6 Amorphophallus campanulatus, Plate V, 8.i Anacardium occidentale, Plate V, Armillaria mellea, 2 Arnold Arboretum, Plate II, .i Chichorium Intybus, 4 Clavatia cyathiformis, ~ 2 Cornus florida, 18 8 Chicory, . ,I 3.i Corylopsis, 18 Corylus americana, Cowslip, Plate I II, Crab 6 a I frosts, the mid- May,i - Food Plants in the, 1-7 How to spend an Hour in the, ~5-a8 - Spring Displays `? 4 in the, 1944, Y1- Asclepias syriacus, 4 Autumn Color, ,3i-14 - Dull, 40 8 l~o, 43 - Red, 411 - apples, ~?~~ Cyathus olla, 2 Dogwoods, 23 Emergency Food Manuals, 19 Forsythias, ~Z1 Garden, Short Guide to the Care 6 During V~'ar Time, 9-16 Gaultheria procumbens, 6 Helianthus tuberosa, 7 2 Hypholoma sublateritium, Jerusalem Artichoke, tuber, Plate 11, .i of flowering - Reddish to reddish purple, 42 - Why leaves are red, :35~ Why leaves are yellow, 38 Ju~lans cinerea, -- 6 nigra, 6 Woody plants with, 41 - Yellow, 4l - Yellowish to Bronze, 43 Azaleas, L`~ Brassica arvensis, 4 Caltha palustris, Plate III, 31 1 Lactucca spp., 4 . 4 Lepidium~r~inicum, ~ ~1 Lepiota naucina, - 2 procera, ? Carya lacmiosa, - 6 ovata, 6 Case, James B. estate, frost damage, `' i Lil<~cs, 13 llagnolias, I1 Vlerrill, E.D., 1R Mockoranges, 24 Monstera deliciosa, Plate IV, ;33 Mountain Sorrel, Plate III, ;31 I Cashew, Plate V, Castanea - 3.; 6 Oriental Cherrie,, ~~~ dentata, pumila, 6 Oxyria digyna, Plate III, 4 Yhytolacca americana, ~ l 31 IB - Pinanona, Plate IV, 3;3 Pine Creek, Natural prairie in valley of, Plate VII, p. fitl 2 I'leurutus ostreatus, ? Pokeweed, fruiting top, Plate I, :> Young sprouts ready to gather, Plate I, ;3 Roses, Y~. Rumex crispus, 4 Sambucus canadensis, 6 Sassafras albi<lum molle, 1. Sechium edule, Plate IV, 3;3 Shrubs, Autumn blooming, ~~ 1'ortulaca, Pruning, !1 - 4 oleracea, ' Smith, A.C., ~18 Sonclms oleraceus, 4 Spray Program in the 15, 16 6 Home Garden, - Jlethods - of, Blackberries, 1? z Blueberries, 12 I1 Taraxacum officinale, ~ Vaccinium an~;ustifolium, 6 - - - Fruit trees, Il 1I . vacillans, 6 Grapes, 3 Hedges, 18 1-t 4 Lawns, 1 Raspberries, 1 in general, Vines - Reasons for, !a ~i - Time for, 10 -- - - - - Viburnum fragrans, 18 8 Available Rapid Growing for Vines, the United States, 4.i-fi~ - - -- -- ~3 1 i - Annual, 57 -- Chart, 58-6~. for the Central United States, 1.8 [for] Coastal area of Southern and Southeastern United States, 53 - for Eastern and Northeastern United States, 47 i ~for~ Extreme Southern Part of - Prunus americana, 6 hortulana, - lantauzr, 6 - ti - maritima, - 6 6 :VI unsoniana, Florida, - 56 Pungapung, Plate V, 35 Raup, H.DZ., 28 Rhododendrons, - ~:3 ~for~ Extreme Southern Texas and Southern Florida, 55 - Frost Resistant in San Francisco I i -10 ' lthododendron Winter Care of, ~ZO Injury, Area, 51 I - High winds, How did the 18 for the Great Plains Area, -t9 - for the North Central United - damage I occur, 17 States, 48 - R.rinfall, lS~ Rocky Mountains in Summit Pass, Plate VI, p. 6!) 0 - for theNorthwest Pacific Coast, 50 Southern California, 5? -- [for] [for] Southwest Texas, Semi-Arid - Ilorippa N Nasturtium-actuaticum, Area, 53 3 These bulletins will be discontinued until renewals for 1945 are now Spring of next year. Subscription payable to due, price $1.00 per year. Checks should be made Harvard University, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain 30, Mass. ] _ I -~ ~ "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23488","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e8528.jpg","title":"1944-4","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1944,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24127","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25eb728.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Hardiness i~l.y. Plate I, l~..ia. Needle of hemlock (a) w ith petiole and spruce (b) without petiole. Figure 1, 1igure `?, p..i8. p..58. (a) T.sugn canndensis. (1>) Tswgrr Sieboldii. (e) L',ragn a crrroliniunn. 'I'~p of one year shoot of Picea pungens showing at right angles to the twig. Figure 3, p. 60. majority- of the needles ne.rrly show- End bud and base of one year shoot of Picen polila (a) and Picen _4bies ing the tight fitting scales on bud and shoot base of P. politn as with those of P..~bie.r. Figure ~, p. 60. (b) compared Tip of one year shoot of Yioerr Frlgellalorara! s170BB'II7;.,T :r majwrity' uf the needles :~t less than right angles to the twig. Figure .i, p. (il. Cross sectmn of needle of Picert Orra0Yl6'n and I'1('Pn glnuce. Figure ti, l~. ti`?. Side view of shoot uf' Picea oboanln and Piceu glnarcn shwving tlre difference in the way the needles are borne on the twig. Figure 7, p. 6-t. (a) Twig of fir showing the smooth twig surface when the leaves have fallen Twig of spruce showing the small leaf bases (making a rough which remain after the leaves have fallen. Figure 8, p. titi. twig (b) surface) (a) Terminal any fir. bud of fir. (b) many scales and long pointed p. 6(i. Terminal bud of Pxeudot.suga In,rifolin shcnving its character distinctly different from the buds of Figure 9, (a) _~bies koreaurr. (b) _~bies nlbrr. (c) .4bies :1-orrlnrnnniuna. Figure 10, p. tii. atul (a) Abies holophJlla. (b) A. firmu. (c) _~. ceplrnlonicvr. (d, e, f) Rounded slightly notched needles commonly found on most firs. Figure 11, tiH. (a) Needles mostly at right angles to twigs as in .~. honrolepis, al5o Showing lou~yitudmal lines or grooves in twig. (b) Needles mostly directed towards the tip uf tw irs .m in .1. ~1-nrrlmnnninna. Fi;rure 12, 69. [ iii ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Planting Vegetables","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24130","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25e816d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 >BI:1RCH 16, 194;3 PLANTING VEGETABLES everyone will be interested in aiding the war effort by growing :lluch is being published in the popular garden magazmes about what to plant and when to plant it, as well as by our colleges of agriculture, horticultural societies, and other organizations. The Arnold Arboretum can contribute little to this concerted effort but it is believed that the tabulated data included in this paper will prove to be of value at least to the amateur growers. A careful examination of this table will show that it includes practically all of the necessary information, answermg the questions of how much to plant, how far apart to plant, when to plant, and when and how much of a crop to expect. Varietal names of vegetables purposely are not given, for at the time this table was prepared there was such a demand for vegetable seeds that many of the seed houses were completely sold out of the better varieties. Demands for seeds are three months ahead of schedule. The longer the choice of varieties is delayed, the fev er there will be from wlrich to choose. Many agricultural experiment station and extension service publications are available in the different states wherein the better varieties are listed, and these might be consulted if time permits. An interesting innovation suggested here is a planting schedule worked out on the basis of the time that certain flowering trees and shrubs are in full flower. In every planting table seen to date, the exact dates of planting are given with the note that allowances must be made for variations in the current season. This alw.y, is indefinite. ~-hy not watch some plant growing in the open in a situation comparable to that of the vegetable garden? When this plant is in full bloom, or the leaves are appearing-then would be the time to sow certain seeds. The idea, of course, is that the climate governs the blooming periods, hence the suggestion of correlating the time of planting certain vegetable seeds with the time of flowering of certain characteristic natmand introcluced plants. The old Indian custom was to wait for sowmg corn unt~l the leaves on the oaks were the size of NUMBER 1 THIS spring vegetables. a squirrel's ear. In any event, the sowing of seeds in accordance with nature's tune table sounds and the plant groupings below are offered as illustrating planting dates in the vicinity of Boston. There is no reason why the correlation cannot be made for other regions, even outside of New England. feasible, APPROXIMATE PLANTING DATES The plants in each group start to bloom about the same time. It is suggested that such plants, if grown in unprotected places, be watched as indicators for planting the different kinds of vegetable seeds. (See Chart pp. 4-3~. I (April 10-20) Forsythia intermedia Forsythia f:lngaea suspensa repens Chionodoxa Lucrlliae Lindera benzoin Scillas Salix babylonica-leaves then turnmg green II appearing and Cornus florida Darwin Tulips Malus arnoldiana Malus floribunda Malus pumila Malus purpurea Paeonia suffruticosa Prunus persica Syringa vulgaris Trollius europaeus IV (April 25-May 5) A13-ssum saxatile Amelanchrer canadensis Amelanchier laevis Chaenomeles (May 25) Acer platanoides lagenaria Daphne cneorum Dicentra spectabilis Iberis sempervirens Magnolia stellata Magnolia Soulangeana IVIuscari botryoides Narcissus Poeticus Narcissus Barri Phlox subulata 1'rimula polyantha Prunus Sargentii Prunus subhlrtella Vaccinium angustifolium laevifolium Vaccinium corymbosum III Linum perenue Lonicera Morrowii Lonicera tatarica Malus ioensis plena Rhododendron nudifloruni Rosa Hugonis Sptraea Van Houttei Viburnum tomentosum plicatum Wisteria sinensis V (June 3-5) Crataegus phaenopyrum Iris sibirica Kolkwitzia amabilis Laburnumv ulgare Paeonia officinalis Rhododendron calendulaceum Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa Harisonii Rosa multiflora Rosa rugosa (May 15) Bearded Ins Berberis Thunbergii Berberis vulgaris Cercis canadensis Sorbus aucuparia Viburnum opulus PESTS IN THE VEGETABLE GARDEN There are many insects and diseases that infest growing vegetables, but only few are prevalent to any great extent in New England. The following pests are common, and possibly will be encountered in most vegetable gardens this summer. Recommendations for the control of these pests are given by all the state agricultural experiment stations, and are merely repeated here for the sake of c~mvenience and as a part of the Arnold Arboretum's contribution to the Victory Garden program. The most effective control is one which is applied early, before the pests become firmly established. V~'atch for the pests and apply the dust or a large quantities and are most troublesome between the middle of May and the middle of June. They feed at night upon newly planted cabbage, eggplant and tomato plants, in addition to many others, cutting the plants off just above the soil level. During the day they hide under stones or in the upper half inch of soil and many can be easily dug up by merely scratching the soil surface. The type which has been particularly injurious around Boston during the past few years is the dingy cutworm. One method of preventing injury to young plants is to provide them with a collar of stiff paper, placed completely around the stem for one inch below and one inch (or more) above the soil level. Six thicknesses of newspaper would suffice. This collar prevents the cutworms frum getting at the succulent young stems. Sometimes a garden may be severely infested, for the number of cutworms are governed from year to year chiefly by the amount of rainfall the previous year. '~luch rain forces them to the surface where birds and predatory insects eat them or else the excess moisture prevents the females from laying eggs in satisfactory places. A satisfactory bait which aids in the control of these pests is as follows : yray promptly as soon as they appear. Cutworms: These are sometimes present in very 1 ~165. 1 1 oz. bran ii green paris cupful of mola~,rs orange ur juice of one lemun mix 13 -`1 quarts of water, thoroughly This ahould be applied, at the rate of ?~ lbv. per quarter acre, along the rows of vegetables during late May and June when injury is worst. Since the cutworms feed chiefly at night, the fresh bait is best distributed just before sunset. It should be noted that this poisonous bait may be fatal tu do~s, cats, and uther pets. It should be used with discretion. Cabbage maggots: These often infest the roots of early planted cabbage and <auliflower plants m June, causing the young plants to wilt and die quickly. Injury to the plants can be prevented if a square or circular piece of heavy paper about 3-4 inches in diameter is placed on top of the soil at the base of the plant. To fit snugly, the paper m sIt and a small hole cut at the center, barely large z 0 H < ::: 0 w z 0 z H z Pn enough for the stem of the young plant. The outside edges of the paper are held down with soil. This prevents the fly from laying the eggs in soil cracks at the base of the plants. Cabbage worms: These are the small worms whwh infest the headv of cabbage, broccoli, caul~flower and other related plants. They appear from June to September. Lead arsenate vpray ur dust c.m be applied until the headv are onethird grown, then pyrethrum dust can be used. If pyrethrum dust is avadable m sufficient quantity, it might be substituted for the lead arsenate, since lead arsenate is poisonous to human beings and should not be used if at all possible. Rotenune dust is very effective also, but as this may be difficult to obtain later in the season it should be conserved as much as possible. It may be necessary to make two or three applications, preferably while the worms are still small. Mexican bean beetles : These are the coppery colored\"lady bugs\" appearing on snap beans and lima beans from July to September. In many gardens they are very numerous and steps must be taken for their control as soon as they ap- laid on the under surface of the leav es ; the of the damage for they eat holes in the leaves spiny, yellowish larvae do most causing the leaves to resemble lacework. pear. The eggs are yellow and are are both effective in controlling these insects. would be effective except that it should not be used because of its puisonous effect on human beings.) The dust should be applied to the under surface of the leaves where the larvae feed. The larv ae and insects must be thoroughly covered with the insecticide, and thus it may take two treatments at an interval of three days to control the infestation. There are small dusters on the market which are admirably suited for directing the dust to the under surface of the leaves. I3ecause the mature insects live over winter in old rubbish, it is advisable to pull up and t>uru all bean plants as soon as the crop has been harvested. Rotenone or pyrethrum dust (Lead arsenate Since rotenone is so effective in the control of the Mexican bean beetle, it is fortunate that the ~~ar 1'rucluctiun Board still .rlluws its use for this purpove. to human beings. Its supply is of the War Yroduotion Board (order limited and urder no. 133 as amended Jan. `1;3, 1943) restricts its use to the following:-peas (protection against pea weevil and pea aphid); beans (protection against the Mexican bean beetle); cole crops-other than cabbage-including: broccolt, brussel, sprouts, cauliflower, kohl-rabi, mustard, kale, turnips and cullards (protection against caterpillars and aphids); sweet corn (protection against the European deadly to becoming increasingly Rotenone is mseots but not an injurious corn borer). are destructive of melons, squash and cucumber plants. They are the most severe pests of cucurbits east of the Rocky Muuntain5, for they not only feed on the leaves of the plants, but they carry a serious bacterial wilt from one plant to another. They are familiar to eBery gardener for their black and yellow striped bodies cannot be mistaken. It is very Striped cucumber beetles: These beetles ti important that they be controlled, for if these be eliminated, this will control the bacterial wilt. The use of rotenone is not permitted on cucurbits, and so the next best control method is to use a dust consisting uf ten parts calcium arsenate and ninety parts talc. Treatments should be thorough on all plants, and should be repeated at weekly intervals from the time the beetles fir,t appear, which frequently may be when the young plants ha~ from four tu six leaves. 4 or Squash vine borers: These borers eat their way into the base of the runners of squash plants causing them to wilt and die before the fruit reaches maturit~-. It is possible, in small gardens, to watch for these pests and remove them with a knife. Then by covering up the cut portion with moist earth, the stem may continue growth. Since rotenone is unavailable for use on cucurbits, pyrethrum might be used, ctusting four times at seven day intervals, the first treatment being given by the end of June. Other sprays recommended are ( 1 ) nicotine sulphate, one part in one hundred parts of water wth une-half part fish oil soap for a sticker; (z) three pounds uf lead arsenate and one quart of fish oil soap in one hundred gallons of water; (:3~ Bordeaux mixture to which is added some lead arsenate or calcium arsenate. This should be applied three or four times at weekly intervals. It is very difficult to reach the borers since they feed on the mvide of the stems, but sometimes these sprays prove tu be eHeotive tiw killing the young inseot5 before theyeuter the stems. Potato bugs and potato blight: These common pests are undoubtedly familiar to everyone. Potato growers usually spray from two to six times with Bordeaux mixture to control the blight and other potato diseases. The first spray is applied w hen the plants are six to eight inches high and other applications follow at intervals of from ten to timrteen days. Earlier applications would be at 4-4-.50 vtrength (hydrated ltme-oopper Sulphate-water~and later applications at 6-6-.i0. 1)rt- Bordeaux is purchavable from most seed stures, and so the gardener with a Srnall B egetable garden is not confronted with the difficulties of making his own Bordeaux mixture. In using Bordeaux mixture, le<ul arsenate might well be added w hen apl>lioatiuus are made during late ~pring and early unumer tim the control of the potato bug. Or, lead arsenate can be used alone to control the potato beetle, using one pound of lead arsenate to fifteen gallons of water. ()f course there are many other insect and disease pests, often uccurring m some sections but absent in others. The few mentioned here are the most prevalent ones. If these are not kept in check, the returns from some ut' the crops will be v er~- disappointing indeed. If they are kept in check, many gardeners can reasonably expect full returns on the time and money they have invested in their gardens. . spread of stems , l~t)N4t.D W1 M~1N "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"\"Sylva Telluriana\" of Rafinesque","article_sequence":2,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24133","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160a325.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"\"SYLVA TELLURIA:VA\" OF RAFINESQUE Last year we announced the facsimile lithoprint reproduction of the very rare \"Autikon Botanikon\" of Rafinesque, pp. 1-200, originally published in Philadelphia in 1840 in a limited edition. We now .mnounce a similar facsimile lithoprint edition of the equally rare \"Sylva Telluriana\" of Rafinesque, pp. 1-184, published originally in Philadelphia in 18;38. These two very rare botanical volumes have long been entirely unavailable to botanical and other libraries, only about a dozen to be in existence. These modern facsimile editions much easier to consult than are the originals, as both of Rafinesque's books were printed on poor paper which is now badly discolored. These volumes may now be had from the Arnold Arboretum, the \"Autikon Botanikon\" reprint being priced at $3.00 and the \"Sylva Telluriana\" at ~1.~0. If the demand for these is reasonably good, it is probable that the larger and equally rare \"Flora Telluriana\" of Rafinesque, four volumes, Philadelphia, 1836-38, will be similarly reproduced. This reproduction service is of great importance to the libraries of technical and educational institutions, as copies of the originals cannot be purchased at are copies of each being known any price. JAMES B. CASE MEMORIAL The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University has recently received an outright gift of $50,000.00 from Miss Louisa V~'. Case of ~'eston, Jlass., together with her residence, barns, greenhouses, and fifty-nine acres of land in Weston, to be utilized for the general purposes of the Arboretum. The real estate is assessed at $84,000.00, Miss Case's gift thus being in the neighborhood of $134,000.00. The gift is a memorial to her father, James B. Case. Several hundred hybrid crabapples and cherries have already been planted by the Arboretum staff on the Case estate. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"James B. Case Memorial","article_sequence":3,"start_page":8,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24129","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25ebb6c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"\"SYLVA TELLURIA:VA\" OF RAFINESQUE Last year we announced the facsimile lithoprint reproduction of the very rare \"Autikon Botanikon\" of Rafinesque, pp. 1-200, originally published in Philadelphia in 1840 in a limited edition. We now .mnounce a similar facsimile lithoprint edition of the equally rare \"Sylva Telluriana\" of Rafinesque, pp. 1-184, published originally in Philadelphia in 18;38. These two very rare botanical volumes have long been entirely unavailable to botanical and other libraries, only about a dozen to be in existence. These modern facsimile editions much easier to consult than are the originals, as both of Rafinesque's books were printed on poor paper which is now badly discolored. These volumes may now be had from the Arnold Arboretum, the \"Autikon Botanikon\" reprint being priced at $3.00 and the \"Sylva Telluriana\" at ~1.~0. If the demand for these is reasonably good, it is probable that the larger and equally rare \"Flora Telluriana\" of Rafinesque, four volumes, Philadelphia, 1836-38, will be similarly reproduced. This reproduction service is of great importance to the libraries of technical and educational institutions, as copies of the originals cannot be purchased at are copies of each being known any price. JAMES B. CASE MEMORIAL The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University has recently received an outright gift of $50,000.00 from Miss Louisa V~'. Case of ~'eston, Jlass., together with her residence, barns, greenhouses, and fifty-nine acres of land in Weston, to be utilized for the general purposes of the Arboretum. The real estate is assessed at $84,000.00, Miss Case's gift thus being in the neighborhood of $134,000.00. The gift is a memorial to her father, James B. Case. Several hundred hybrid crabapples and cherries have already been planted by the Arboretum staff on the Case estate. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Naming of Horticultural Varieties","article_sequence":4,"start_page":9,"end_page":15,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24134","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160a727.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A rontinuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard Uni~-ersit3~ VOLUME 3 APRIL lti, 19~3 THE NAMING OF HORTICLTL'1'L,'~RAL VARIETIES a blank wall when it comes tu he thinks he has found. Shall the plant name be in Latin ur in English? Shall ~t be a botanical variety, a horticultural Bariety, or a \"form\"? If it is a hybrid, just what is the correct procedure in order tu give it a proper name that will be accepted by horticulturists and botanists ulike? There is an ever-increasing tie between the botanist and the practical plantsman, as far as the scientific names of plants are concerned, for both groups have agreed that it is best to follow the International Rules uf Botanical Numenclature, as approv ed by the Internatiunal Botanical Congress, Cambridge, Eng- z NU~tHER MANY intelligent plantsman providing an a name is up against tur some new land, 1930. though everyone agrees to the International Rules, the naming plants difficult, and in the following discussion it is hoped that the procedure for naming new varieties is clearly set turtt~.~ 1;v en is of new correct Variety First, it is necessary to understand the concept of a botanical variety. The corA variety is a subdivision of a species composed of reot definition would be - iudividuxls differing from other representatives of the species in certain minor characters which are often of geographical significance, and which are usually perpetuated through succeeding rlenerations by seed. Form A form is a subdivision of a ,spPCies or tariet,~, usually differing in only one eharacter and often appearing sporadically throughout the range of the species ; it is usually perpetuated vegetatively but may be perpetuated by seed, in which case only a certain percentage, as a rule, will be identical with the original furrn and the remainder will reBert to the species or variety. In some cases no clear lme between a Banety and a form can be drawn. Also, ' ~ See also Jour. Arnold Arb. 10: 6S. 1919. o the two terms have been used and are used interchangeably, so that differentiation between the two is often exceedingly difficult. Both the variety and the form as :clon described should be giv en a Latin name, and the uriginal published deaoriptiun should include a short I,attu cie,cry>tmn. The furm ur the variety may occur again m nature, and if it conforms to the original description, it would be given the same name nu matter where ur when it oocurs. Clon On the other hand, there is a large group of plants which fail to come true from seed. Individuals in this group may be outstanding, and are perpetuated solely by asexual propagation of one kind or another. Such plants may be conaidered ,jorm.r or they may be oonsidered olons (ti~rmerly spelled clones). A clon is a group of plants composed of individuals reproduced vegetatively from a single plant. Hence, though a form may also be propagated vegetatively (a clon must be), the form may appear again anywhere at anytime and should be given the same name as its predecessor, whereas the clon constitutes a group of plants propagated from a .ringle specimen, and if all the members of this group should happen to die, no plant in the same genus should ever be given the same name ugam regardless uf where or when it occurs. If the plant is considered a form, it is given a Latin name, and any time in the future that a plant is found conti~rmin~r to the uriginal description, it takes the same Latin name. In other words, a form name is one given to a group of indiv iduxls which may havee originated over widely separated areas. A <lon name is one given to a single individual and its vegetatively propagated progeny. If considered a clun, the plant is given a vernacular name -a nuun or an adjective used aa a noun, in any language, as \"Transcendent,\" \"Snow ~'hite,'' \" I)ul~m,\" or \"V~'abiskaw.\" Any plant with such a name must be propagated a~wually in a direct line from the one uriginal plant. Selecting the New Name descriptions of terms that giving Latin names (species, varieties, forms) plants should be done by individuals who are trained taxonomists. In the past many plantsmen have tried to give Latin names to socalled \"new'' individuals, but because they did not know the entire group thoroughly nor the literature on the subject, such names, in many instances, have been proved worthless and unfortunately continue to clutter up many a nursery catalogue. Consequently, the amateur should give a horticultural varietal name in English ; unless he is oertain he has a new species, variety ur form, in which case he should get confirmation uf his Latin name and Latin description from a trained taxonomist who is in a position to knuw the literature pertaining to the plant group in It is evident from the above to question. If a certain plant is given a varietal name in English, it will always designate that particular clon even thuugh some taxonomist at some future date may, in 10 several similar clons, mention their similarity and give a Latin name (variety form) to the group. This is possible and permissable, but the don name still rema~ns m use for that particular plant regardless. Horticultural varietal names in English (i.e., clun names) would be best for most new v arieties of Malus appearing that may be wnrth3- uf naming. Sucli names should be simple and tu the point whenever possible. \"Bub 4~'hite\" is a Bery good one. \"Mr. C. S. Sargent\" or Prof. C. S. Sargent\" are not. The name might better be \"Professor Sargent\" or \"Charles S. Sargent.\" The same brevity is needed with the prefix \"Mrs.\" or \"Dliss.\" It is far better to give the full name, as \"Henrietta White\" rather than Mrs. ~Vhite'' or \"Mrs. A. R. White,\" or \"Mrs. Alfred R. White.\" Taking the last two instances as examples, such names are easily confused in making labels and it is never long before such varieties become changed tu \"Jlr. Alfred R. ~'hite\" and finally to \"Alfred L3. V~'hite.\" working over or Rules for Selecting New Horticultural Variety Names The International Horticultural Conference in London resolutions ( 1930) adopted several 193.i. dealing with the naming of horticultural varieties. These have also appeared as an Appendix in the International Botanic;~l Rules publishedin It behouves everyone who is interested in the naming uf new horticultural varieties to study these resolutions and follow them in selecting new names for all plants. other translated when transferred from but must be preserved in the language in which they were originally described. Where desirable a translatiun nuy be placed in brackets after the v ariet<il name. 1. Names uf horticultural varieties must not be languages, Z. So far as use possible, of not names word; the more of horticultural varieties should consist of a than three words is permitted as a maximum. single 3. A varietal na~me in use ti>r one variety of a kmd of plant should not be used tur .mother variety of th.~t kind, even though it may be attached to a different sE>ectea. '1'Ims the use of the name 1-nmi.v.vu,~~ p,retnlomrroia.sus \"Victoria'' shoulcl preclude the use of \"V~ctoria\" as a varietal name for any other species of Narcisws, such as '~orci.r.car.r poelirux \"Victoria.\" Similarly there should be but one In, \"Rrulwmaul.\" unr I'lum \"~uperb,\" and su ou. N. Var~etal names Ukelv to be confused with one another should be avoided. For instance, the use of the name \"Alexander\" should preclude the use of \"Alexandra,\" Alexandria,\" and \"Alexandrina\" as varietal names for the same kind of plant. .i. Where personal names are used to designate ~arieties, the prefix Mr., Mrs., Miss, and their equivalents should be avoided. Excessively long words and words difficult to pronounce should be avoided. articles\"a\" and \"the\" and their equivalents should be avoided in all languages when they do not form an integral part of the substantive. For instance, \"Colonel,\" not \"The Colonel\"; Giant,'' not \"The Giant\" ; \"Bride,\" not \"The Bride.\" 6. 7. The 11 I 8. All the names of horticultural hybrids are formed as provided in the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature. If a Latin name has been given to a hy brid form of uncertain origin which cannot be referred to a Latin binomial, it must he treated like <c veruacular (fancy) name; e.g., Rlralalendrorr \"~trosan~rnineutn,'' l2\/iodwlerrdrnn \"Yurpureum ~rr:mdiHorum.\" Publishing the Name To be valid under the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature, the Latin or scientific names of species, varieties, and forms must be \"validly published\" in a work accessible to botanists and the public in general, and a short description in Latin nm,t accompany the original description. I publishind the names of horticultural varieties (clons), the Latin description is not required, but the description in English (or any other language written in Roman characters) should appear in a recognized horticultural or botanical periodical, mono`~raph ur other dated scientific publication. The mention of a clon in a a catalogue or in the report of an exhibition ,eithout description is not considered valid publication even though a figure is given. Naming Hybrids From a botanical point of view, a cross may be designated bo a formula consisting of the names of two plants joining to make the cross, i.e. lylalus baccataX prrrn;firlirc. ~'henever it seems \"useful or necessary\" a name may be given to this cross, i.e., flulu.s robusta, in this case the rtame being given because the plant has considerable ornamental value, is grown a great deal, and the single name is more usable than the formula ; it will ittclude ull the crosses however different between the two species, but the individual crosses, treated as clons, retain their horticultural names under it. It is correct (and always best for the amateur) to use the forrrrnkr in speaking of a new cruss, rather than to run into the difficulties of selecting a new Latin name. It is of the utmost importance to realize that hybrids are made up of clons which ~mry cun,iderubly in many characters. For instance, XMrrlus robustn is a hybrid (:ll. bcrwvrla `~grrurr~olia), the fruit and Hower sizes varying considerably. In fact, some plants resulting from this cross are practically worthless ornamentally. So, when one merely buys X .'tI. rofiu.stn, une may ubtxin anything within the limits of this cross, some decidedly inferior and some very good ornamentally. But, X M. robcrsta \"Joan\" is a clon with definite characteristics, and one is able to know in advance just what characteristics this particular clon will have. Consequently, horticultural varietal names should be given to the offspring of all crosses. Examples identical with Coruus yellow fruits but in every other respect is variety, form or clon? Upon careful investifloridn. it is found that yellow fruited dogwoods have appeared at widely separated gation places in the eastern United States. Hence, it ns not a clon for it cannot have l. A dogwood is found which has IS it a 1 '~ been vegetatively propagated from a single specimen. It is not a ~armty- for it differs from the species in only one character. Hence, it is a form, and it is given the name ('oruu.,floridn .rnnlleocnr~n. 1. A new crab apple has been found with unusually large double flowers. Nothing exactly like it has been described before, though some of its foliage characters are ~imilar to those of :Vl. Hnllinnn, and uther5 similar tu tlmve of yl. bncrvrln. IaM. vestigatmn shows that a cross between these two ~peoies has been named Hartzcigii, but on looking up the description of this cross, the new plant does not seem exactly to fit. Since it obviously is a hybrid it is also a clon, and the name \"Katherme \" is given it. At present it will be known merely xs ~'Ilnlu., \" Katherine.\" If at some future time fruits are available (they were not this year), it may be that this will definitely belong to the hybrid species X M. Hnrluigii, and then it will be known as M. Hnrtzeigii \"Katherine\" or it still may be called 1V1. \"Katherine.\" In any event, it will always keep the name \"Katherine\" regardless of what hybrid species it is associated with, and all its offspring must be asexually propagated in a direct line from the one original plant now growing in Durand-Eastman Park in Rochester, New York. (It is always well to use quotation marks around all clonal names to differentiate them unmistakably from all other names.) Conclusion In naming new horticultural varieties it is essential to :I. Understand the differences between a species, variety, form, and clon as here defined. l. Understand the rules for naming horticultural varieties as here set furth. 3. Select the name. a. If a species, variety, or form, obtain confirmation from a trained taxurrumist regarding the name itself and the Latin description which must accompany its first publication, and which must conform to the International Rules of Botanical Numenclature. b. If a clon or horticultural varietal name, be certain that it conforms to the rules set down in this paper. 4. 1'ublish the name and description. a. If a Latin name, publish (with Latin description) in some botanical periodical available to botanists and the general public as well. If a horticultural name, publish (without Latin description) in some acb. ceptable horticultural or botanical publication easily available to all. Don.ar.n Wl MAN l.i Notes Fruits still reuurmng on shrubs and trees in the Arnold Arboretum on March ?ri, 191~;i. Yresumably the fruits of other plants have fallen. Ar`nnx xrlrut~fulm - cl.rrk l>rwvu, withered \" \" \"Brillixntissima\" - dark brown, withered rr,acrulrrr~-llx melxnoc.vrEm elxta prunifoli.r Berberis cxn<rdensis - a few bright red, \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" still attractive \" I,urearnx - dark red and witlrerecl \" \" few, bright red Thunbergii - bright red, still ottawens~s \" attractive \" \" xrgenteo-variegata - bright red, still attractive \" \" \" atropurpurea - dark red minor - bright red, still attractive verruculosa - pale blue, withered Celastrus orbiculata - orange red, withered scanclens Cotoneaster integerrima - few fruits, dark brown to \" \" \" \" black, \" \" withered \" \" \" obsoura - \" \" \" \" \" \" Zabeli - \" \" \" \" \" Crntxegus I,avallei - dark brown, withered Ilex glabra - dull black, withered Li~rwtrum acuminxtum - dull black \" \" \" .rcutissimum \" \" xmureuse \" \" \" \" '\/ \" \" ibolium Ibota '1'sohonuskii - dull black \" \" ul>tusifuliunr \" Ite`rr,eli:rnum - rlull Irl,`cf` \" ~ ulgure -clull black and w ithrrrcl \" \" sempervirens - dull black and withered Malus Hartwigii - ~5~o still on, remaining dark brown, withered rnicrom.rlus - d.rrl: brown, withered Zumi \"Bub Vfhitr'. - .i0% still on, brown, withered \" cxlocarpa - dark brown, withered 1'hellodendrun amurense - dull black, withered \" \" \" \" chinense Lavallei - few remam, dull black, withered l~lmduty~u~ scandens - dull reddish-black Ribes tascicul.rtum chinense - red orange, withered \" \" \" \" \" \" - 1-~ Rosa alba - few remain, brown and withered \" arvensis - few remain, dark purplish red \" canina inermis - reddish brown, still attractive centifolia - few remain, brown and withered coriifolia dark red, withered curymbifera - dark red, slightly withered Luciae - few remain, brown to black :~laximowicziana Jackii - glossy dark red micrantha - few remain, dark red, withered e multiflora - glossy dark red, still attractive \" \" cathayensis - glossy dark red, still attractive \" setigera -dark dull red, still attractive \" \" serena - dark dull red, still attractive virgimana - red to black, i ~ ~e are withered Symphoriearpos sp. - few remain but dark brown and withered Viburnum dilatatum - very dark red, withered \" lobophyllum - brown to red, withered \" Sargenti - a few withered fruits remain, red \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" l~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Foilage Color of Narrow-Leaved Evergreens","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24135","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160ab28.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA . A continuation of the BULLETIB' OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 MAY 14, 1943 NUMBER 3 WINTER FOLIAGE COLOR OF NARROW-LEAVED EVERGREENS a rather complete report was published on the foliage color of woody from April to September (Arnoldia 2: 5 i-68, 194?). Another tin on autumn color of deciduous plants (Bull. Pop. Information, Series 4, 4: 83-90, 1936) covered that period in the fall when deciduous plants are most colorful. This current issue of Arnoldia is devoted to the color of narrow-leaved evergreens during the winter, and completes~ the study of foliage colors of woody plants throughout the year. This past winter has been an unusual one because temperatures dropped to -10 F. for very short periods on several occasions. This caused considerable winter injury to deciduous plants, and some to evergreens. There were no periods of continuous high winds so that little \"burning\" of evergreen foliage resulted from wind injury. Consequently, winter injury this year was due largely to low temperatures. A full report of injury to deciduous plants will be given at a later date when the amount of injury will be more evident than it is at present. Many evergreens change color in the fall and winter, some take on pleasing colors like Jurriperu.s hori~ontali.s plumosa, and others take on brownish tones which frequently make the plants look sickly or even as if they might be dying. Several varieties of Thuja occidentalis are in this category. The colors of evergreens noted in the following lists were maintained by the plants through the past winter until May I, 1943, and might well be compared with colors listed in the first reference above. LAST plants year bulle- Report I. NARROW LEAVED EVERGREENS on winter foliage color (Oct. 194Z-:~pril 1943) Gray (good foliage color) Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa \" \" .` y uarrosa communis naua\" Jumperus \" O'Donnell\" ~ 17 Gray (good foliage color, cont.) Picea glauca 44 , mariana Doumetii purpurea \" \" 2. Yellow (many plants with yellow foliage turn a (iirty yellowish in the winter. Those mentioned below maintained their yellow color throughout last winter. Juniperus chinensis japonica aureo-variegata\" Thuja orientalis decussata 3. Yellowish \" (very poor color for ornamental plants) Chamaecyparis Juniperus \" \" obtusa gracilis aurea\" pisifera plumosa flavescens\" japonica aurea\" . chinensis plumosa bm]thn cuspidata aureseens Thuja occidentalis Ellwangeriana lutea Waxen Woodwardii Taxus \"t \" , \" \" orientalis conspicua \" elegantissima (good foliage color) 40. Blue Abies concolor Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa Juniperus horizontalis alpina scopulorum \"\"Chandler'~ Silver\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" glauca 11 Hill's Silver\" 11 Nlarsliall's Silver\" Medora Moonlight squamata Meyeri , \" \" virginia glauca Picea pungens Kosteriana \" 11 Moerheimi 5. Bluish green (good foliage color) lasiocarpa Chamaecyparis pisifera minima Abies 18 Bluish green \" 1 (good foliage color, cont.) chinensis . Juniperus \" \" mas \" Sargenti communis \" hiberntca horizontalis \" \" `` \" Douglasii procumbens scopulorum \"Colo~-reen\" squamata \" \" Picea bicolor \" Glehnii '' \" pungens Pinus monticola \" \" i>arviflora sylvestris . Purple (good foliage color) Juniperus horizontalis plumosa \" virginiana reptans 7. Green Of the majority of narrow-leaved evergreens belong in this group but are not mentioned here because of lack of space. Because of the diversity of colors among the Junipers, individuals in this species which maintained a good green color are mentioned here) Juniperus chinensis 1'fitzeriana course \" (Plants maintaining their green foliage color throughout last winter. \" pvramulalis \" 'atereri formosana ~ \" \" 11 \" glaucescens Sabina tamariscifolia \" \" \" \" scolmlurum \"Emerald\" virgtntana - however, this color may vary with different individuals, some being almost purple, some brownish \" Koateri - one of the best for a normal green color throughout the winter 8. Brownish (Plants not necessarily injured but the foliage of which normally turns ltrowni~h in the winter. A very poor color for ornamental plants) Chamaecyparis LawSUniana \" obtu~a compacta \" pisifera \" aurea \" \" plumosa argentea\" 1 ~~ Brownish \" (plants not Juniperus \" \" communis \" necessarily injured..., cont.) depressa \" depressa aurea\" rigida Sabina \" virginiana-brownish a green - some dark green individuals, however, foliage throughout the winter maintain Sequoiadendron giganteum Taxus baccata \" aurea \" Dovastoni-50o~o foliage killed \" erecta-injured by the winter \" lutea - 50 % foliage killed chinensis - i 5 ~o of foliage killed Thuja occidentalis ericoides \"Rheingold\" \" \" \" \" 6 \" . globosa DONALD WS:NAN \" orientalis Note: At the time this is being written (May 8) there is comparatively little in bloom at the Arnold Arboretum. The early magnolias and shadblows are very much in evidence. The cherries, which are usually so noticeable at this time of year, have practically no flowers at all. Apparently the flower buds of many Prunus species were killed by the cold of last winter. The crab apples, on the other hand, show promise of profuse bloom this spring, probably by the time this publication is in the mail. This is additional evidence in favor of planting more of the sturdy, dependable crab apples. The common Forsylhia susperrsa and F. intermedior varieties did not bloom. A few flowers appeared on F. ovata and F. europaea, and nearly fifty per cent of the flowers appeared on F. japonica sa.cafilis. Lonicera starrdishii, Corrrus mas and C. q~cirrrrlis, Lirrdera Berrsoirr, all bloomed as usual. Flower buds on Corylop.sis species, Rhododendron mucronulatum, hdburnum frrrgrans and Pieris jrrponica were completely killed. 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Borad Leaved Evergreens in Good Condition with Green Foliage Throughout the Winter","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24124","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25eab6f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 M AY ~i, 1943 NUMBER 4 BROAD LEAVED EVERGREENS IN GOOD CONDITION WITH GREEN FOLIAGE THROUGHOUT THE WINTER (Oct. 1942 - April 1943) Arctustaphy los uva-ursi Buxus microphylla koreana - The only boxwood which was not injured Calluna vulgaris varieties -all in good condition but these were covered with evergreen boughs and snow during the coldest weather. Chamaedaphne calyculata -foliage bronze red Daphne Cneorum Euonymus Fortunei colorata - foliage bronze red \" minima - foliage dark green to bronze red \" Silver Queen\" -leaves Bariegated \" vegeta - in some locations plants have lost up to 30% \" *t of leaves Ilex crenata \" < t eonBeXa giabra opaca \" peduneulosa rugosa \" \" Sugeroki yunnanensis \" Kalmia Carolina 11 latifolia Mahonia Wagnen-dark reddish purple Pachistima Canbyi-very dark purplish to green Pachysandra terminalis Pieri\" iloribunda 16 japonica 21 Potentilla tridentata - bronze red and dark green Rhododendron species and varieties - the majority of the rhododendrons came through the winter with very little foliage injury--though the flower buds of many may have been killed Thymus sp. - green to reddish purple Vinca sp. and vars. BROAD LEAVED EVERGREENS WHICH HAVE BEEN INJURED DURING THE WINTER OF 19~1-~3 Berberis candidula-all leaves remain \" cc on cc plant \" cc but c c cc they \" 6 cc are `c brown ancl dead c ` c ` \" cc Chenaultii - \" \" ` c \" Cxahnepainii cc ca triacanthophora verruculosa \" cc cc cc ac cc \" \" \" \" \" but reddish brown \" , brown and dead a Buxus sempervirens-all varieties of B. sempervirens had a considerable propor- tion of their leaves killed Cotoneaster \" be dead Erica Hedera Helix baltica -all leaves killed (plant was on a wall growing to a height of 50'). As a ground cover this might not have been so Henryana-all leaves remain on plant but brown and dead microphylla - leaves dark brown, undoubtedly they will soon carnea-apparently 50~0 of plants have been killed severely injured Ilex crenata Helleri-dark green with slight burning Leucothoe Catesbaei - 75 ,o of foliage injured Lonicera Henryi (growing on the ground) 50% leaves brown, rest green. On trellis 50% of the leaves had fallen and the remainder were all dead Mahonia Aquifolium and vars. - reddish purple to brown, considerable injury Mahonia repens-reddish purple to brown, some winter injury Prunus Laurocerasus Zabeliana-dark green to brown, some injury Sasa senanensis-very few leaves green, all others brown and dead BROAD LEAVED EVERGREENS (SO CALLED) WHICH HAVE DROPPED MANY OF THEIR LEAVES BY APRIL 1943 These plants then cannot be termed completely entirely dropped \" evergreen in the vicinity of Boston Abelia grandiflora-leaves \" Akebia quinataBerberis J ulianae - 75 0~0 `c \" mentorensis - 5% \" \" pruinosa - 50 lo Sargentiana -l.i Jo Cotoneaster \" 6 adpressa-leaves entirely dropped elabrata - S 0 ~o Z~ Cotoneaster horizontalis 2014 leaves \" entirely dropped \" 6 6 \" . lactea pannosa - \" 1 '' \" '' \" ' ' '\/ `~ \" Cyrilla racemiflora - 00% h:uony-mus kiautschovica - 2.i olo Iberis sempervirens-leaves entirely dropped Kalmia anHustifolia-50~0 Lonicera affinis pubescens - 10 ~o \" japonica Halliana - leaves entirely dropped Mahobert>eris Neuberti - 5 0,0 Pyracantha coccinea Lalandii-all leaves brown and dead Viburnum buddleifolium- 10% \" \" \" rhytidocarpum - 25 % rhytidophylloides - 10% rhytidophyllum - 30 ~o NOTES Crab tinue to be in full flower apples: The crab apples have been at their best all week and will conover the coming week end. Although the severe winter has seriously injured many shrubs in the Arboretum collections, none of the crab apples suffered except possibly M. Zumi calocarpa. There are two trees of this variety at the base of Peter's Hill and both seem to be in very poor condition ; the trouble may prove to be fire blight and not winter injury, however. Normally tYl. Hnlli~ma Parkmanii is the least hardy of all the Malus species and varieties, but this spring it was fairly well covered with flowers. The injuries observed from the unusually cold winter again prove that the crab apples are perfectly hardy in this northern climate and are to be recommended for planting everywhere in the North. It may be of interest to mention in connection with the crab apples, that a rather comprehensive survey of these important ornamentals has just been completed and is now in the hands of the printer. All of the varieties known to be grown in North America are mentioned, sources where they may be purchased are given, and as complete descriptions of flowers and fruits are given as is possible under the somewhat limited space of the booklet, which approximates sixty pages. A history of the crab apples in North America is given together with a discussion of present experiments in hybridization, the new varieties being grown and recommended for the colder areas of the mid-western United States and the prairie prov inces of Canada. Further information concerning this booklet will be given when it is issued a few weeks hence. Lilacs: As u~ual, lilacs were uninjured by the low temperatures of the past ~mnter. These are among the most hardy of shrubs and the majority of them should be at their best by the week end of May ?2. Cold weather has retarded v3 their progress considerably this in the publish pictures year. In tact, one Boston paper went so tar as to of the Lilac Path showing rotagruvure section (May 16~ the plants in full bloom; this was not due to any fault of the newspaper, but was taken from information supplied by the Arboretum from records of previous years. It is an excellent example of the difficulties one encounters in predicting from the records of previous years just what may happen this season ; always we must consider the idiosyncrasies of the New England weather. Shrub collection : Visitorv to the shrub collection this year will notice that every other grass path through its long lines of shrubs has been dug up and wll be kept under cultivation throughout the summer. This has been done in order to eliminate fifty per cent of the work necessary in keeping proper display labels on the plants and also to reduce the amount of grass cutting necessary. It will be possible now to use a power cultivator among these shrubs and so eliminate much of the hand work which in the past has been so consuming. Like many other institutions during this perutd, the Arboretum is confronted with a labor shortage, making it impossible to keep the grounds in as good condition as in past years. Young men on the labor force have left us or are about to be called into the Army, and it is proving to be very difficult to replace them. With the very large amount of winter injury many plants are now conspicuous because of dead branches, this being especially true in the shrub collection. These of course will be pruned later in the spring, but the work entailed will take considerably longer than other years and will mean that much evidence of winter injury will unfortunately be noticeable until summer. Clematis collection : One of the bright spots late this spring, we hope, will be the new clematis collection, planted along the fence at the far end of the linden collection. Of some eighty plants placed there last fall, only seven failed to show new shoots by May 15. Since these were mostly old plants given us by the clematis specialist, Mr. Louis Vasseur of Milton, they should produce a large number of blooms in the late spring and probably up to the end of June. The successful wintering of these plants proves again that clematis can be grown in New England. They may become diseased and die from various other causes, but if the results of this winter mean anything, the demise of a few plants cannot be laid entirely to low temperatures. None of the plants were mulched but the base of each was surrounded with coal ashes to prevent mice from destroying the stems during the cold months. Equally successful results were obtained in our nursery, where we wintered about forty-five varieties of clematis given by a large grower last fall. These had merely the same protection as those mentioned above and weathered the winter with no greater percentage of loss. These were, moreover, much younger and smaller plants than those in the Vasseur collection, but apparently young plants are no more susceptible to low temperatures than are mature ones. DONALD WS'MAN [ 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Injury in the Arnold Arboretum, 1942-1943","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24136","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160ab6a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard VOLUME 3 University NUMBERS 5-6 JUNE 25, 1943 WINTER INJURY IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM, 1941-43 OW temperatures during the past winter have caused considerable injury to trees and shrubs in the Arnold Arboretum, more injury than at any other time since the severe winter of 1933-34, when temperatures in Boston reached an all-time low. Last winter there were no strong winds, the soil was sufficiently moist at the time of freezing so that damage cannot be blamed on lack of moisture then. A study of the temperature records during the ten year period since 1~a33 demonstrates that significant winter injury can be expected every year when temperatures of below zero are recorded at the Arboretum greenhouses. A complete listing was made of the plants suffering injury during the past winter and the lists of deciduous trees and shrubs are reproduced in this bulletin. A list of all plants suffering winter injury during the winter of 1941-42 is included since this was a very mild winter and excellent comparisons can thus be made. Not many evergreens were injured, and complete notes on them are to be found in Arnoldia 3: zl-23, 1943. In studying these lists, another group of lists should also be studied, these being made by Arnold Arboretum staff members after the severe winter of 1933-34 and published in the Bulletin of Popular Information, Series 4, Volume 11, Nos. 7, 8, 9, 1 1, pp. 29-47 ; 55-60, 1934. These combined lists thus form a rather complete picture of the kind and amount of injury to be expected in mild and severe winters at the Arnold Arboretum. I -J Minimum temperatures tum Maximum and minimum temperature readings are taken daily at the Arboregreenhouses. It is interesting to note that a studyof these shows that temperatures of below zero have been recorded in only three winters since 1933, and each time plants suffered considerable winter injury. The minimum temperature of the 19:33-34 winter was -17 F., during 1934-35 it was -8 F., and the minimum for last winter was -13 F. Winter injury may be due to any one of several factors, or to a combination of them, but from a study of the temperatures 25 and the reactions of the plants themselves it is safe to predict that serious injury will occur to plants when the temperatures drop below zero. By injury is meant the actual killing of flower buds, twigs, and branches. The typical \"burning\" of evergreen foliage can occur any winter regardless of the low temperature. If the ground is frozen and the air temperatures during the day are considerably higher than during the preceding night and high winds blow, optimum conditions for burning evergreen foliage occur. The minimum temperatures recorded at the Arboretum greenhouses are given below. These vary only a few degrees from the U.S. ~'eather Bureau official figures for Boston. It is interesting to note that on only seven days in 1 i18:3-34 and six daysin 194?-43 did the minimum temper.ctures fall below zero. Only one other time did the temperature go below zero since 19:33, and that was seven days in January and February, 1035. 19.3.~ . 1942 -4 December l8 December 17 i 19E3x#& ; -4 L9 -17 -7 -j -t 30 -1~ 20 -10 0 1 ~1 1934 February 7 8 19\/~~ -2 0 February l,i -13 ~'3 lti -11 1 9 -18 10 -3 14 - -4 injury done in these two winters, it should be kept consistently high winds throughout the winter of 19~3-34 which must have added materially to the killing of twigs and branches. There were no high winds last winter, nor was the soil too dry when it froze in the fall. However, there are 260 acres in the Arboretum grounds and temperatures are not in mind that there were In comparing the amount of uniform over the whole area. For instance, on December 29, 1933, when the thermometer at the greenhouse registered-1 I F., one in the shrub collection a few hundred feet away (but considerably lower) registered -26 F. It is a known fact that injury is always more severe in the shrub collection on account of its low situation without sufficient air drainage. There is a question concerning the time the damage is actually done. It will be noted that in both years the temperatures were below zero in December and February, and hence, theoretically, the damage could have occurred at either time. One instance seems to show that it may be the February cold spell which did the killing in 1942-4~. Forsythia branches were taken in the greenhouse and forced after Christmas in December, 1<.)4~?, and the flowers eventually came out tn profusion, while branches cut again in late February failed to bloom. We also know that dormancy of many plants is a great deal more difficult to break by forcing in the greenhouse in December than it is in February. However, this 1f> interesting problem as further. to the exact time injury takes place should be investigated Explanation of lists The following lists constitute a complete survey of winter injury in the Arnold Arboretum durmg the past two winters, one a very mild winter and one a severe winter. Many of the plants killed to the ground are sending out new buds from ground level and will grow again; a few were killed completely, although it is still too early to determine this in all cases. Albisaia julibris.siri rosea, for instance, suffered considerable mjury. It was not until after June 6 that any branches showed life at all. On the other hand, Slr~ra.r Obrrs.sio showed a normal growth of young shoots when examined on June I, but after that date all new shoots suddenly withered and died, thus indicating injury to the cambium layers of the main trunk. The plants growing in the Arboretum are divided into four groups, depending upon how seriously they were injured, i.e., plants killed to the ground, plants partially injured, flower buds only injured, and plants uninjured. It will be noted that some of the names are followed by percentages in parentheses. This is the amount of injury occurring in the winter of 1J41-4?, and all plants injured during that season are so designated. It may be assumed that all other plants not so designated were uninjured during that winter. Though some discrepancies in the figures are difficult to explain, in most cases the injury in 1p41-42 was considerably less than in 194~?-43. There was a much larger number of plants injured last winter than the previous one. In the second list the percentage figures without the parentheses represent the approximate amount of twigs and branches killed. This naturally varies among the plants and the places where they are growing in the Arboretum, but the figures given are comparable. In the third list, plants with flower buds killed, the percentages not in parentheses represent the approximate number of flower buds on the entire plant which were killed. It is reasonable to surmise that those plants listed as having more than fifty per cent of their branches killed would also have few, if any, fl~mc ers. Plants in this group are naturally those in which the flower buds are formed dming the previous summer and are thus present all winter. It will be noted that such plants normally bloom from early spring to mid-June, including some of our most colorful ornamentals, among which are the forsyth~as, the oriental cherries, the magnolias, the wisterias, the azaleas, and the rhododendrons. Plants blooming later in the summer usually form their flower buds on the current year's growth. All species at present growing in the Arboretum, not included in these lists, were uninjured by the winter cold. However, the mere listing of these would take too much space and would serve no important need : there is, of course, alway5 the question, especially in the minds of those not fam~liar with the Arnold Arboretum, as to whether a certain species is actually growing there. To emphaSuc the t:wt tlmt certain questionable plants did come through last winter unia. .) \/ jured, a fourth list ones has been included. Not all plants of the thousands of uninjured could be included in this publication, but the few in the fourth list may prove to be of interest to those who are interested in hardy trees and shrubs. I. PLANTS KILLED TO THE GROUND DURING THE WINTER OF t 942-t3 (The heights given represent the size of the plants killed. The fact that a six foot plant is killed to the ground represents a considerably greater injury than the killing of a younger plant of the same species which is only one foot high. The figures in parentheses denote the percentage in amount of winter injury during the comparatively mild winter of 199~1-4~.~ Abelia En~leriana ~~ Callicarpa -all species ti-H~ in collection Goucheri 1~ (~.p pallidus roseus grandiflora 5~ Acanthopanax leucorrhizus '7~ Acer japonieum aconitifolium 10~ Oliv erianum 4~ Actinidia chinensis z~ melanandra 4' (80) polygam.v 4~ Alnus Dlaximowiczii 2~ Amorpha croceo-lanata fruticosa tennessensis Campsis grandiflora Thunbergii 2~ (80~ Ceanothus 2~ (l~0~ Celastrus gemmata 6~ (90) hypoleuca 6' (80) Celtis Tournefortii 3~ Chaenomeles lagenaria cathayensis varieties 6-8~ 3~ (90) species and Clematis Clerodendron trichotomum 10~ Colutea - all (80) glabra Baccharis halimifolia 6' (~D~ Berberis aggregata Prattii 5' recurvata S' species and varieties 6-8~ (20-80) (la~ Coronilla Emerus 4' (d0~ \"Autumn Cheer\" ;i~ Beaniana 5' buxifolia nana 3~ candidula 1~ Chenaultii 8~ Fendleri \"Fireflame\" ~~ Corylopsis platy-petala 10~ spicata 6' Veitchiana 10~ Cotoneaster affinis bacillaris 8~ amoena 2' conspioua 4~ microplylla 1~~ Ga~nepainii 3~ polyantha 3~ rubrostilla 2~ Sargentiana ,i~ Wilsonae Stapfiana 6' (a30~ iubcauIialata .i~ Berchemia racemosa 8' (80) Buddleia - all except alternifolia rotundifolia 3~ rubens 3~ salicifolia rugosa 4~ Cytisus \"Burbank hybrids\" 6~ sessilifolius 8~ Decaisnea (~0~ Deutzia Fargesii 6~ (.~0~ \".walan<he\" 4~ caandelabrum 3~ candida ~~ (1~0~ 28 Deutzia carnea 3~ (.\/~0) densiflora 4~ (~5) stellata 4' \"Contraste\" 6~ elegantissima 6~ thsciculata ~4~ (60) glomeruliflora 5~ hypoleuca 3~ (80) halmiaeflora 2~ longifolia and vars. ~~ (50) \" ~fagicien\" 3~ magnifica and vars. 3~-9~ (60) mollis 1~~ \"Mirabilis\" 5~ myriantha 8~ reflexa 3' rosea and vars. 4~-6~ (80) soabra and most vars. ~~-6~ (30) Sieboldiana and Bar. 5~ Vilmorinae 3~ Dipelta floribunda 1 Z~ t entricosa .i~ Fraxinus Pax~ana 4~ Gaylussacia brachycera I' Genista wnerea 2~ Grewia biloba 10~ (90) Helwingia japonica 4' Hovenia dulcis z.i~ Hydrangea arborescens and vars. 3~ cinerea and var. 3~ querctti~l~a 3.~ (15) radiata `?~ Ilex .lyuitulium a~ ~unmwensis (\"large leaf'') 1~ ( \"small leaf\"-no injury) Indigofera amblyantha 10~ Kerria japonica and vars. 4~ (~5-8U) Lagerstroemia indica (Cole's ` ` h.ardy\" ~ariety) :3~ \/ Lavandula officinalis 1~ bicolor 4~ Lespedeza .l~ilumma ti~ '1'lmuberyii 6' ' Ligustrum acuminatum macrocarpum ovalifolium aureo-marginatum (50) sinense 10~ (~0) Lindera obtusiloba 10~ praecox 12~ Lonicera affinis pubescens 5~ (70) alseuosmoides 1'' dioica 3~ etrusca 8~ (70) gynochlamydea 3~ (.~0) Henryi 2' involucrata serotina ~~ (20) Myrtillus 2~ (60) obovata 3~ orientalis longifolia 10~ (,~,~) Periclymenum belgica 4' (00) quinquelocularis 9' (,~5) translucens 8~ saccata (50) Standishii lancifolia 6~ Marsdenia erecta 3~ Meliosma Beaniana 15~ Neillia ribesioides i ~ sinensis 3~ (30) , Parrotiopsis Jacquemontiana 8' Periploca laevigata 8~ Philadelphus argyrocalyx 3~ ` \"Dame Blanche\" ~~ (~30) Lemoinei \"Coupe d'Argent\" B~ subcanus 6' (~0) Photinia Beauverdiana notabilis ~.~ Physocarpus capttatus ti~ (Lp) Pleioblastus dtstichus :3~ Polygonum baldschuanicum 3' Prunus Laurocerasus schipkaensis 4' Quercus kewensis 4~ Rhamnella franguloides 4~ \/ Rhododendron indicum laciniatum 1~ \"Katie\" 2~ \"I~ellie\" 2~ Rosa Brunonii 2 Davidi 2~ Henryi ~?~ 29 Rosa Luciae ~~ mollifolia i~ revirescens 3' mollis 2~ (60) (I~0) (70) Morica\" 3~ Noisettiana 3~ omeiensis rubra 3~ Sargentiana Zabeliana 4' .i~ chrysocarpa ~~ (.~0) pteracantha (70) Stephanandra incisa 5~ (a0) sempervirens Serafinii I' Woodsii and 1~~ var. (<i0) `1~ (00) Sophora viciifolia 8~ (~0) Spiraea albiflora ~I~O) Sasa senanensis 6~ Blumei 4' (Ia) brachybotrys 3~ (25) Bumalda Froebeli 2~ ruberrima 1~ (,~5) Tanakae ~~ Vaccinium Vitis-idaea I~ Viburnum buddleifolium 6~ ovatifolium 10' rhytidophyllum and var. ~~-9~ Vitex Negundo incisa 6~-8~ Vitis Piasezkii Pagnuccii 8~ pulchra 8~ (90) Weigela hortensis ;i~ japonica microphylla 2~ (.~0) Miyabei glabrata 3~ (.30) japonica sinica i ~ Zanthoxylum simulans 3~ (90) II. PLANTS PARTIALLY INJURED DURING THE WINTER OF ls~z-4~ (The figures represent percentage in amount of winter injury; the figures in parentheses denote the amount of winter injury during the comparatively mild winter of 19k 1-1.1. ) 9,i Acanthopanax setchuenensis Simonii 50 ternatus 95 Calluna Nulgaris vars. 10-50 (10-50) Calycanthus fertilis 1.5 flor~dus ovatus 50 ulibrissin rosea 50-98? Amorpha brachycarpa 90 Albizzia canescens Caragana Boisii 15 5 Chamlagu densa 50 frutex 20 ,i0 .50 .i fruticosa i nana 80 sacrorum pekinensis Y~ ovatus 2,i 13 Artemisia Ceanothus americanus i.5 ~l~0) 90 5 Berberis aemulans i aggregata 80 10 pubescens .i0 -10 \"Barbarossa\" Cephalanthus occidentalis Cercis chinensis 50 ~~0) dictyophyll.c Julianae 90 Chaenomeles 10 0 lagenaria \" Carclinalis\" ~.0 morrisoniensis 50 triacanthophora verruculosa .i0 80 \"Marmorata'' Wilsonii 50 15 vulgaris atropurpurea wokingensis 50 superba 30 2~ (20) virginicus 30 Chionanthus Clethra acuminata 5 alnifolia 10 Helianthemum nummularium Hypericum densiflorum 50 vars. 50 Corema Conradii 25 Cornus australis Cotoneaster (.30) frondosum 20 (60) Koenigii 50 apiculata 50 (30~ Kalmianum ?0 prolificum 20 Dielsiana 50 3 Henrvana 75 horizontalis 50 Iberis saxatilis 30 sempervirens Idesia m.t- 50 50 polycarpa perpusilla 50 Ilex crenata 50 Wilsonii 75 rotundifolia 50 Zabeli 50 decidua 50 ,j rugosa i.i serrata i .i (90) (\/~0) 80 Corylopsis pauciflora 50 Cyrilla racemiflora 50 Cytisus praecox 75 purgans 75 Itea virginica (~0) Jamesia americana 10 o Laburnocytisus Adami 75 Leucothoe racemosa 10 o 10 0 supinus 75 Davidia involucrata 50 ? Deutzia candelaburm fastuosa 25 Ligustrum acuminatum ~bolium 25 Ibota nana 80 insulare 25 obtusifolium 25 ,i ovalifolium 75 0 Quihoui 10 pendulum 50 vulgare 30 \" Lodense\" 75 pyramidale 50 discolor 50 major 50 gracilis 75 (30) hypoglauca 75 (30) Lemoinei 30 ' compacta 30 (S0~ 50 parviflora ovatifolia 25 scabra \"Pride of Rochester\" 5 Schneideriana laxiflora 73 Diervilla rivularis 20 (20) sempervirens 50 Lindera Benzoin 30 Erica carnea 90 23 Liquidambar Styraeiflua rotundiloba ;~0 Euptelea polyandra Evodia Daniellii 30 (This is a small plant obtained from North Carolina) Exochorda Korolkowi 30 racemosa Lonicera ~?.i Fontanesia Fortunei 50 0 Forsythia suspensa 10 0 Gaylussacia baccata 10 0 alpigena 10 ~l pilosiuscula 10 ~l chrysantha Regeliana 10 deflexicalyx 50 (.30) fragrantissima z,i Altmannii glaucocarpa 20 dumosa 90 frondosa 10 ~l Genista radiata 50 Hamamelis Heckrottii a0 heteroloba 10 ~l Korolkov~i 30 ~20) 50 microphylla Morrowii 10 0 2.i macrophylla 31 Lonicera Purpusii syringantha 50 10 Potentilla fruticosa ;30 thibetica 10 Vilmorinii 50 Webbiana 30 micrandra 10 ochroleuca l5 ('~0) 10 parvifolia 25 (.~0) wlosteoides 10 tenuiloba 10 Veitchii 10 Lycium chinensis halimifolium 50 ruthenicum .i0 (20) Prunus concinna 25 (~o) Fontanesiana 25 1'ersica and vars. 50 Lyonia mariana Myrica Gale .i0 40 (J~0) (except var. pendula uninjured) pilosiuscula 60 pumila susquehanae serrula20 25 ' which was Paulownia tomentosa, small trees to ground, large trees only 25 Periploca graeca angustifolia 75 5 Pertya sinensis I 5 Philadelphus \"Bonje\" 75 Burkwoodii 90 coronarius cymosus serrulata, no vars. had any flowers and all pumilus 50 2.i apparently suffered severe twig injury as evidenced by many leaf buds failing to by June 5 75 1 \"Conquete\" (~0) (1~0) 15 open cymosus \" Nuee Blanche\" \"Rosace\" 25 (30) \"Kwanzan\" subhirtella 50 Lemoinei 50 \"Amalthea'' 50 \"A~~alanche\" 50 \"Belle Etoile\" 90 (00) erectus 50 \"Innocence\" 50 (~.i) \"Mont Blanc\" 50 5 Lewisii i autumnalis, intermittent injury all along twigs pendula 50 Pterocarya hupehensis .50 Pyracantha coccinea Lalandii, foliage only killed Quercus 5ohoohiana 50 Rhododendron obtusum japonicum \"Magdalenae\" ,i0 nepalensis 2.i (20) \" Norma'' 2.i \"1'amllon Blanc\" ' hybrids l.i-100 10 10 ' Arnoldianum Kaempferi 50 Rhodotypos scandens .i0 Ribes <liacanthum ~.i purpureo-maculatus \"Sybille\" sericanthus .i0 (.30) .i ` `Sylvanae' ~ i futurum 10 50 (.~0) petraeum Biebersteinii 50 virninalis \"Argentine\" \"Glacier\" 80 10 () (80) robustum 50 Rosa arvensis 30 Physocarpus intermedius parvifolius stellatus 50 (20) Poncirus trifoliata 50 caudata 50 centifolia SO foetida bicolor ~,i Helenae .i0 - 32 5 Rosa Lheritierana 7 nipponica oxyodon 50 multibracteata 50 multiflora 10 rugosa \"Max Graf\" 50 nudiflora 10 20 50 pachystachys (~0) \"Rustica\" 10 (~0) spinosissima fulgens 50 pimpinellifolia `~Ylato''50 10 prunifolia 25 pubescens 10 pyramidata 30 Rosthornii 90 salicifolia 20 Schinabeckii 50 semperflorens 75 \"Yythagoras\" Watsoniana 50 25 (I~0) ' (50) Wichuraiana 75 Rubus deliciosus 50 Sorbaria arborea (,~0) 50 10-95 superba 50 Securinega suffruticosa vars. trilobata 50 uratensis 25 sorblfolia vars. 50-75 Spiraea alba 50 arcuata 50 arguta 25 betulifolia 50 (~0) Billiardii 50 (50) cantoniensis 7.i (60) Vanhouttei 20 Veitchii 20 virginiana serrulata 10 Staphylea colchica and vars. 75 Stewartia sinensis 50 Symphoricarpos albus laevigatus 10 o (15) Chenaultii 755 chamae<lrvfolia cinerea 30 30 (.!0) var. (.30) hesperius 50 corymbosa .50 Douglasii 50 (25) fontenaysii alba 10 rosea orbiculatus and 50 (30) 10 0 Syringa emodi . 50 Taxus chinensis 30 Ulmus 25 carpinifolia Dampieri FoYU 50 Fritschiana 30 o suberosa 10 hollandica 30 gemmata 2.i major Vaccinium var. 30 Henryi .50 hy percifolia and mflexa 25 (20) o japonica 10 atrosanguinea ovalifoha 25 corymbosum 10 o 25 (20) hirsutum 15 Viburnum Burkwoodii 2 erosum Z.i (?0) 80 ,i0 50 (I~0) erubescens 90 (50) l~upehense Vitex laevigata 50 Agnus-castus alba (90) (80) latifolia 25 0 lucida 10 (~30) 50 Doaniana 50 Weigela \"Andre Thouin\" 20 Dlargarttae \"E. Andre\" 0 florida 10 10 . (60) media and Bar. 25 ~lenziesti 50 multiflora 2.5 \" Conno\" variegata 33 2.5 ?5 (80) Weigela \"Vlarc Tellier\" \"Pres. Duchartre\" ~0 10 \"Verschaffelti\" Zenobia 20 (3~) 50 Zanthoxylum schinifolium 50 \"Seduction\" 50 \"Vanhouttei\" 50 pulverulenta 10 0 (20) (70) Zizyphus jujuba INJURED DURING III. PLANTS WITH FLOWER BUDS ONLY THE WINTER OF 1941-1943 Figures denote percentage of injury 5 Abeliophyllum dist~chum 0-75 ~l Amelanchier canadensis 15-.i0 florida 2o Flower clusters have Cornus Juddii 90 mandshurica 75 Dlaximowiczii 100 nipponica kurilensis 7 5-95 Sargenti 75-90 Schmittii 90 serrula 100 serrulata and most vars. 90-100 tomentosa and vars. 90 triloba multiplex 99 the two bracts (outside of bud) injured and stunted in many cases. Corylopsis glabrescens 100 Daphne Mezereum 100 Forsythia europaea 10-90 japonica saxatilis ovata 75 50 X europaea 50-75 all others 100 Hamamelis mollis 100 Lonicera fragrantissima I.i vedoensis 100 Rhododendron arbutifolium 90 cata~biense, many hybrids ~L5 i5 \"Cunnin~ham's White\" 100 dauricum 100 praeflorens 100 o 10 Magnolia denudata Soulangeana \"Alexandrina\" sempervirens 30 100 \"Candolleana\" \"Norbertiana\" rubra 75 25 z.i hybrids 20-100 ~audavense many vars. 75 indicum crispiflorum crosses Fortunei laetevirens 90 100 stellata 25 Pieris molle, l00 ~a.i many vars. 5 75 japonica mucronulatum obtusum 99 Prunus apetala amoenum 95 avium 90 canescens 90 arnoldianum 9.p Kaempferi vars. 9,i 100 .i i cerasifera and concinna 100 95 Schlippenbachii fra~rans cvclamina incisa and insititia 99 100 ~ars. viscosepalum 75 yedoense poukhanense 100 Davidiana and vars. Viburnum 100 i 5 ~30 Wisteria sp. 100 e) i~ IV. PLANTS UNINJURED DURING THE WINTER OF 19~`z-~;3 (NoTE: were not some usually presupposed that all plants not recorded in \"injured\" lists injured. Such is the case with these lists. However, to be certain that interesting plants are definitely recorded as uninjured, the following list is It is offered. ) Alyssum Betula gemonense \"4~'aterlilv\" vars. papyrifera and Mahonia repens Aquifolium Campsis radicans Castanea mollisima Oxydendrum arboreum Paeonia suffruticosa Cercis canadensis Celastrus flagellaris Periploca sepium Pieris floribunda orbiculata scandens Chaenomeles Prinsepia ,japonica\"Corallina\" sp. Prunus americana sanguinea Chamaedaphne calyculata Daphne altaica Cneorum and ` Besseyi (heavy bloom) cerasus austera domestica Julianae vars. glandulosa Munsoniana `Somerset'' coreana Deutzia \"Newport\" nigra Padus vars. salicina glabrata grancliflora parviflora staminea spinosa tenella var. palustris Enkianthus campanulatus Dirca Pyrus communis Pyraster Gymnocladus dioicus Hamamelis vernalis Hibiscus pyrifolia ussuriensis hondoensis (very few svriacus vars. flowers) ovoidea Rhododendron atlanticum Ilex montana a v unnanensis Kalmia latifolia Kolkwitzia amabilis Lespedeza kmsiana Liquidambar Styraciflua Macludrania Maddenia hybrida hypoleuca \"Boule de Neige\" calendulaceum canadense carolinianum X mucronulatum catawbiense ' Magnolia Kobus salicifolia Soulangeana speciosa verbanica album Fraseri \"Fiirst Camille von Rohan\" \" Henrietta Sargent\" (35_ Rhododendron \"Heureuse Surprise\" Hugonis Primula rugosa and most vars. \"Imperialis\" japonicum narcissiflora nudiflorum spinosissima Spiraea prunifolia simpliciflora \"Pallas\" \" Pucella\" roseum I Thunbergii Staphylea holocarpa Stewartia koreana Smirnowii Symplocos . panicu lata Tripterygium Re~elii Viburnum speciosum Vaseyi Rhus aromatica rhytidophylloides vars. Vinca minor and Xanthorhiza and vars. odoratum and vars. Rosa Ecae Ribes aureum simplicissima Zanthoxylum americanum 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Ghent Hybrid Azaleas are Hardy in New England","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24126","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25eb327.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ellery, Bessie Collier","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 - JULY ~r, 1943 NUMBER I GHENT HYBRID AZALEAS ARE HARDY IN NEW ENGLAND the most beautiful of all the great group of azaleas, but few are to be found in the gardens of New have felt them to belong m the class of tenderer shrubs, while England. Many others have believed them too much of a hazard for the amateur to attempt, especially as the initial price seems high. Then, too, they have been often difficult probably THESE enough, comparatively curiously are to obtain. True it is that the novice, just beginning the cultivation of azaleas, is wisely advised to start with our own native species as being the hardiest and surest of success. Rhodculeuclrorr mlendrclaceum, for example, probably the finest with its of color from pale yellow to orange and crimson, and with its long season range of bloom is so sturdy, that granted the simplest requirements of practically all azaleas, will survive the rigors of the coldest winter and many abuses beside. Another native, the lovely shell pink R. Vnse,~i from the Carolina mountains, is equally sturdy, while R. nud~orum, R. ro.seum, R. arborP.scen.s and R. ni.scosxm, noted for their exquisite fragrance as well as beauty, deserve to rank with the best and strongest of our native shrubs. Azaleas from the Orient-such as R. molle, R. obtusum varieties jnponicum aud Knerrrxtf'eri, R..fclrlippeubnohii, 1~. mvornuulalnm-wth their various colors, are deservedly great favorites in our gardens and have been widely planted with varying degrees of success. Hybrids of R. molle and R. obtusum japonicvm have been particularly popular, though not rewarding as to hardiness. But the Ghent hybrid in abundance is likely to be missing, not only from the garden collection but from many nursery catalogues as well. The history of the creation of this valuable class of azaleas is a fascinatin;,r one, but SuHice it to say here that Ghent hybricls (R. gandnuen.se~ rtrc the results of crossing the only European species, the large yellow Pontic Azalea (R. luteum or _4snlea ponlicn~ from the regions of the Black Sea with the American Flame Azalea :; \/ _ the the first experiments were made in England early in the nineteenth century, the developments of lasting importance came out of Ghent in Belgium in about lAl5; and many are the beautiful offspring of this magnificent accomplishment. The species seems to possess so many virtues !-a bewildering range of color running from creamy white through pale yellow and pink, salmon and rose, to flaming orange and red ; fine form, which applies not only to the flowers-large in some varieties, medium or small in others, single, double, \"hose-in-hose\"--but also to the rich foliage and the shrub itself which may in many varieties grow to six or seven feet in height and nearly as wide. Then, too, they have that important asset, delicious fragrance, and last but not least, proven harctiness. This last statement is made after twenty-four years of experience in growing them, as well as close observance of the plantings in the Arnold Arboretum. These plants in the Arboretum were very likely the first large shipments imported into this country, coming in 1913 and 1914:-from Veitch in England, the rosy \"Beaute Celeste,\" \"Cardinal\" and \"Flamboyant\" ; from Wezelenburg in Holland, \"Fnrst Camille von Rohan,\" \"General Trauff,\" \"Dtinerva,\" beautiful salmon rose, the extraordinarily brilliant \"Pallas,\" \"Pucelle,\" the crimson \"Josephine Klinger,\" and the delicate \"Heureuse Surprise\" ; from Koster, the brilliant red \"Comte de Flandre,\" the lovely Aurore de Royghem,\" the dark \"Julius Caesar\" and many others. \"(xloria ~lundi\" always stands out as a marvel of orange magnificence ! Besides these in the Arboretum many plants went to nurseries and thence to private growers. One hears that a large percentage of the latter were lost, due to owners not realizing what these rare specimens required in the way of soil, nutrition and natural surroundings. Fortunate it is that those in the Arboretum flourished, and now produce one of the most magnificent displays of any kind to be seen anywhere in May and June! And fortunately, too, enough of those in private hands survived to demonstrate what a satisfactory shrub this can be, because Plant Quarantine No. 37-effective June 1, 1919-cut short the importation of all nursery stock with soil about the roots of the plants, and so our nurseries were thrown on their own to keep alive and propagate these valuable hybrids. The experience of this writer has been to find them infinitely more satisfactory in every way than the Oriental species; i.e., R. molle, R. Schlippenbachii, R. obtusum jrrpouicum, and even R. obtu.sum Knempf'eri. We had some hundred of these R, gandaueuse hybrids installe<l in 1919with almost no loss in Brookline and also in Maine, sixty miles north-west of Portland, where in winter the temperature drops anywhere from ten to forty degrees below zero. Yet not only have the plants proved hardy, but the flower buds have survived as well. The situation in which these have grown have not been uniform by any means except for the one required fundamental cond~tion-acid soil with plenty of leaf (R. clendulnceum) and Pinxterbloom (R. nucl~orum); sometimes also with Swamp Azalea (R. viscosum) and the Sweet Azalea (R. arborescens~. Though 38 mold and humus, and protection from hot winds. For instance, \"Narcissiflora,\" the beautiful pale yellow \"hose-in-hose\" variety grows six feet tall under tall red pines at the eastern edge of the lake at Bryant Pond, Maine, while underneath and growing lower are the brilliant vermillion \"Coccinea Speciosa,\" the clear yellow \"Nancy w'aterer\" and orange \"Unique.\" Cold icy winds tear down the lake in winter, but still these lovely things persist happily. In another spot more secluded, on a gentle slope going to the lake on the south side, these same varieties mixed with the native R. nrborescezrs thrive so happily that they seem as at home as the old white pines and maples under which they grow. Across the lake on the side of a sheer wooded mountuin are more varieties growing perhaps not 5o tall, but sturdily nevertheless. The lovely Japanese Torch Azalea also is here but its growth is not so vigorous. No weeding was necessary after the first year and no feeding has ever been given them, the annual dropping of the soft pine needles making a natural protective mulch and a continuous source of supply. In Brookline, on the other hand, cottonseed meal has been applied to the soil from time to time, and a fall mulch of oak leaves added. Perhaps the most imazing of all are the specimens which have grown in Maine in a bog by the pool in the sunken garden. This is a natural pool which rises and falls with the changes of water level of the lake, and in spring the roots of the azaleas are almost surely in water. The plants are exposed to full sun practically all of the day until September-the best possible condition of course for setting buds. Here is really a brilliant spectacle when \"Minerva'' and \"Bouquet de Flore\" both salmon rose and the pale \"Raphael de Smet\" cover their branches with a miracle of bloom and fragrance. The trunks of these shrubs are one to two inches thick and the side branches grow so well that long sprays may be used for cutting each year. This also keeps the plant from getting \"leggy.'' Below are the fragrant Swamp Azaleas, absolutely at home, yet a few yards away not a hybrid tea rose will survive a winter, having to be sunk not two, but four feet in the fall, so deep does the frost penetrate the ground. Also it has been found that none of the true rhododendrons can be grown in this locality, yet the supposedly tender R. gnnrlnz~en.se hybrids live and like it! It is no news that azaleas can be moved in full bloom, but we put some of these to a terrific test when we dug many of our tallest treasures in August at Bryant Pond, Maine, balled them and sent them to Brookline, Massachusetts in a closed truck. The day they were dug a sudden change in the weather sent the temperature into the nineties for five cruel days, yet all survived and bloomed profuselyin the spring, and for two years gave no evidence of the shock they had received. Howev er, conditions tn Brookline were not nearly so ideal, and at the end of that time the two main stalks showed no signs of approaching death. Accordingly these were cut to the ground and have since grown into new vigorous plants which are now thriving. This ability to \"keep going\" after a severe pruning of the dead - 39 wood is a valuable characteristic in these azaleas as it is fortunately in many other deciduous shrubs. No one should decide too quickly that an azalea is dead merely because the main branches look dead. If one would multiply these hybrid treasures, the layering process is to be recommended. \"Irene Koster\" a very beautiful but tender and temperamental hybrid-of which out of a thousand imported to this country only six are now known to be alive-thus far having defied all the improved methods of propagation by cuttings, has finally been successfully multiplied by layering. Two years is necessary before severing the layer from the main plant in order to obtain an adequately strong root system. This past dltiicult winter has brought one of the severest possible tests to all flowering shrubs (a rare winter indeed when Forsythia buds are killed !) and it was probably one of the worst about here for azaleas. Rhalalendrou mucronulatnm failed to bloom; R. ~Schlippeubachii, another early Korean was poor ; R. molle varieties had many flower buds killed ; and R. obtusum Koempf'Pri had flowers in evidence only below the snow line-all the more apparent after last year's glorious array! On the other hand, all the azaleas native to northeastern United States bloomed well this spring, (see Arnoldia 3: zo-3Ei, 19~3) with practically no evidence of injury. Coming in far ahead of the orientals and second only to our natives were the R. gandarense hybrids-not a hundred percent bloom to be sure, but with flower buds hardy enough to be considered as among the hardiest of azaleas for our New England climate. All of which goes to show that the native blood in this fine hybrid species is the answer! More and more are hybridizers coming to eliminate the tender I~. luternn strain and are substituting these stron`\"; native parents. V~'orth while results may be expected along this line. Now one hopes that many more nurseries will be encouraged to carry these on and that more individuals will know them better through living close to them. ~urely they will add even more glory to uur great season of flowering shrubs ! winter BFS97E CoLLIF;R FLLF:RS (D1R,. WILLL~m h;LLF~R~ Mrs. ) of the Chestnut Hill Garden Club, has been growin Maine and in Brookline for many years. They have survived intense winter cold astonishingly well. What she has to say about them indicates their hardiness, adaptability and desirability for planting throughout New England.-Ed. Ellery, past President ing magnificent Ghent Azaleas 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Crab Apples for Ornamental Fruit","article_sequence":9,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24125","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25eaf26.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 SF~PTEMBER 17, 1943 CRAB APPLES FOR ORNAMENTAL FRUIT NUMBER 8 retaining their colorful others are mediocre in this respect, and still others have fruits for long periods, fruits that remain green until they fall from the trees. Some of the crab apples we value for their beautiful flowers alone, such as the double flowering varieties of Mnlu.s ioPn.si,s, M. Hollionn 1'nrkmanii, M. hvpen.si.s, \" Katherine \" and \" Prince (xeorges,\" the last two of which are new double flowering varieties. However, these do not have brilliantly colored fruits. In a few forms, such as \"Bob White,\" the small fruits remain on the trees throughout the winter, and these supply a source of food for certain winter birds. Then there are some like \"Beauty,\" \"Bob White,\" Mnlv.s breuipPx and M. loringoidP.s which are ~alued for their colorful fruits but which are not especially prominent in flower when compared with the better flowering varieties. The best of these useful trees, however, is that group which includes the species and varieties noted for both colorful flowers and fruits, such av M.rrrnolrlinna, M.brr~rrrlrr, \"Flame,\" llr.,flnribunrla, \"Hopa,'' \"Joan,\" \"Montreal Beauty,\" the M.pnrpurPrr varieties nldenhmmensi,s, F,leJi, and Lernoinei, \"Iledflesh,\" M. robu.stn perci,s~'olin, \"5issi~xik,\" M. 7n~rri onlocnrpn. In many old orcharcl~ one used to find certain crab apple trees grown for economic purposes, chiefly for makin~ preserves and jellies. \"Hyslop,\" \"Transcendent,\" and \"~'hitney\" are probably the best of these, but \"Florence\" and \"Early Strawberry-\" are available from one or two nurseries in this country. ~Iodern methods of manufacture and selling have largely eliminated the oldtashioned practice of growing crab apples in the home orchard, tim it has become far easier to go to the corner grocery and buy crab apple jelly which has been manufactured m car load lots, than to grow trees and manufacture one's own supply from fruit collected in the home <>rchard. 41 NOV~' red is the time of year when the fruits of the crab and yellow. Some varieties are outstanding, apples color brilliantly, Dates between which crab apple fruits are colorful and effective These dates were been corroborated recorded during 1942 at the Arnold Arboretum and have by observations made in other parts of the United States. p =only green fruits and dropping on this date . 42 0=only green fruits and - Bold face type dropping on this date botoxnical speciea and varieties Large capitalv-outstandina horticultural varieties Small capitals 2014 ]esser horticultural var)eties 4:3] Newer varieties of ecunomicallp valuable crab apples are becoming available through a few nurseries in the United States and Canada. Among these varieties, some of which are ornamental as well as useful are \"Bedford,\" \"Columbia,'' \" Dol~;o, \"\" Osman, \"\" Rosilda, \"\" Scu~og, \" \" Wynema \" and Young America.\" Some of these are grown for their fruits in place of standard apple varieties in the colder parts of C.mada where ordinary apples are not hardy. The length of time that the species and varieties retain their colorful fruits un the trees is of great interest and the chart, pp. 42-43 shows some of the data collected in the Arnold Arboretum last year. The length of time the fruit remains colorful may vary from year to year, but these data represent the normal fruiting season of 1942 and are reprinted from CRAB APPLES FOR AMERICA, recently published by the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums. Notes of Interest CRAB APPLES FOR AMERICA by Donald V~'pman, published by the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums is an 81-pa~e booklet giBing detailed information concerning the ~?ti0 varieties of ornamental and economic grown in North America, together with sources where they be obtained. The booklet is the result of a survey made by a committee of may the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, thus bringing together the combined experiences of this committee and other available infor- crab apples now being mation concerning this valuable group of ornamental trees. This booklet should be owned by everyone interested in growing crab apples tirr it ccmtains much practical information and will serve as an excellent reference sub,ject. It may be obtained for one dollar from the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, 111.msachusetts. If urclers be sent, checks should be made payable to the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums. work on this byMerritt I~ ernalcl and Alfred Charles Kiwet-, pl>. 4~?~?, 1 24 fi~., ~l.i plates. Idlewild 1'ress, Cornwall-on-Hudsun, New York. The Gray Herbarium of Harvard University announces this important publication. More than one thousand species of edible flowering plants and the more important edible ferns, mushrooms, seaweeds and licltens which grow wild in North America ncmth of Florida and east of the Great Plains are considered in this book. One hundred and twenty-five line drawin~s and twenty-fit-e half tone plates aid materially in the identification of these edible plants .rnd additional notes are given concerning their iclentification. Recipes for cooking and preserving the different types of vegetables and fruits are given. This is the most eomprehensme and authc-itative treatment of our edible wild plants ever prepared. It may be obtained either from the Idlewild Press, Cornwall-on-Hudson, New York, or from the Gray Herk>ariurn, Harvard University, Garden Street, Cambricl\",Te 38, Massachusetts. The price, post paid, is ~8.00. DONALD V~'WYIAN EDIBLE WILD PLANTS OF EASTERN NORTH AMERICA Lyndon 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Woody Plants with Yellow or White Fruits Growing in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":10,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24137","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d160af6c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 OCTOBER 29, 19-t3 NUMBER 9 WOODY PLANTS WITH YELLOW OR WHITE FRUITS ' GROWING IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of the berried plants in any landswpe planting are those with red, or black fruits. Such is with barberries, roses and viburnums, three large groups of plants which are highly valued for their ornamental fruits. Shrubs and small trees with yellow or white fruits are just as ornamental especially when grown where their fruits can be viewed in contrast with plants having red or blue fruits. A few such plants, like the bittersweets and snowberries, are easily avarlal>le from most nurseries, but some of the most striking, like the yellow fruiting ~il>urnums, are very difficult to locate. The number of plants in each group is not large. Those with white fruits are so limited that plantsmen must depend almost entirely on a few of the shrubby dogwoods and the snowberries. These are commonly available from most nurseries. Those listed with an asterisk in this bulletin are the most ornamental, and nursery sources are given where some of these may be obtained. All are growing m the Arnold Arboretum. A few words about them might be of interest. MOST blue the case Yellow Fruits the yellow fruiting Japanese barberry is not outstancling. The fruits are not borne in large numbers nor is the color a brilliant yellow. If it were possible to have a Japanese barberry with fruits a vivid, brilliant yellow, that plant would be of value. Such a barberry has not been developed as yet. The bittersweets have fruits the capsules of which are yellow. These split open, exposing the brilliant red aril, the fleshy part of the fruit. It should be remembered tluxt all C'Plaslro,s species have the sexes on separate plants and both staminarte and pistillate forms should be planted to insure fruiting. This is often economically done by planting a staminate plant in the same hole with a pistillate plant, allowmg the pistillate plant to grow at will but pruning the staminate plant so that only two or three stems will be allowed to grow. These will supply sufficient flowers to pollenize the flowers of a large pistillate plant. Clnti~rtun.vtely, 4.5 The sea buchtluuw, buffalo berry, t-ew, and the lrolly also have separate sexes :nul ,rmilar step, must be taken in order to insure their proper fruiting. The crab apples are noted for their brilliantlycolored fruits, but, strangely enough, there are not many with completely yellow fruits, especially fruits which will remain colorful far into the winter. Most of the yellow crabapples have fruits which decay early. The Arnold crab is one example. The fruits are a fine yellow color, but they commence to decay even before the leaves fall from the tree. Many seedlings of 11Inlu.x robu.sln, bnccntn and prun;folin have yellow fruit,, and future selections may result in establishing one that wll retain its brilliant yellow fruits far into the winter. The black currant, of course, serves as alternate host for the white pine blister rust and should not be grown in many sections of New England. The poison sumao is .mative which naturally should never be used. The viburnums are really the best of all, for their brilliantly colored fruits stand out just as well as the red fruiting species. Both Piburuvm Opulu.s .rnrrtlrocarpn~n ti and l'..Snrgenti flnnum have fruits a brilliant, golden yellow, the same size and shape as those of the species. The fruit clusters are so heavythat they often droop, as do those of the species, adding materiallyto their effective color. The fruits of 1'.dilnlntum ,rnntbocnrpam are smaller, a lighter yellow color, and borne in rigid upright clusters. These three viburnumsare truly outstaudmg and are well worth planting. The orange fruiting V. ,veligerulI1 rmrrnntincum is also a good variety, and is included in this list because it deserves being better known. White Fruits Tatarian dogwood and the native gray dogwood are perhaps the most commonly used white fruiting shrubs. The snowberries come a close second. L-nfortunatelt , in some sections of the eountry several different diseases attack the fruits of the snowberries and they may prematurely turn black for this reason. The diseases are first noticed on the young foliage in late spring. Using a dormant ,pray ut' ltme ,ulfur and burning all diseased canes is one method of controllm;,r these diseases. Another method is to dust the twigs and berries during the late summer with copper-lime dust at about ten-day intervals until freezing weather arrives. All leaves and fillen fruits of diseased plants should be raked uEn the fall and burned since the fungus may live over winter in these parts. The Japanese spurge produces few fruits but in older plantings the small pyrtrmulal fruit clusters are frequently conspicuous. The sumacs are both poisonous to the touch and should be avoided. The white fruiting blueberries last for such a short time that their fruits are practically useless from an ornamental standpoint. The fruits of I'ruurr.~~ lomeulo.rn leucocrrrpn are the same ,me as those of the species. Appearing in early summer, at a time when the leaves are fully developed, the fruits of thw variety are sometimes so masked by the leaves that they do not stand out markedly. The unusual translucent fruits of Louiceru quinqueloculori.r trnnslucPn,s are delicately unique among the ordinary berried shrubs, and for thr, The common reason they attract mterest. -~(i Fruits Yellow (.F<~?<rM <\/p~o\/f M?\/?'~?'?M'~'ow te,hi(-h r\/t'~;7r\/&\/f) Berberis Thunbergii xanthocarpa *Celastrus angulata *Celastrus flagellaris *Celastrus orbiculata (most) *Celastrus orbiculata major (6,7) *Celastrus scandens (most) *Cornus florida xanthocarpa (9) *Cornus mas flat a Yellow Japanese Barberry Anglestem Bittersweet Korean Bittersweet Oriental Bittersweet American Bittersweet Yellowberry Flowering Dogwood Yellow Cornelian Cherry Yellow Dotted Hawthorn Yellow fruited February Russian Olive Common Sea Buckthorn *Crataegus punctata aurea Crataegus viridis padukensis (orange fruit) Daphne Mezereum alba F:laeahnus angustifolia Daphne *Hippophae rhamnoides (orange yellow) ( l, i ~ *Ilex verticillata \"Orange\" *Lonicera Morrowii xanthocarpa (7) *Lonuera Ruprechtiana xanthocarpa (4) *Lonicera tatarica lutea (7) *Jlalus arnoldiana (4,6) Malus baccata columnaris Malus \"Bob White\" :~falus \"Frau Luise Dittmann\" Malus \"Lady Northcliffe\" llalus \"Oranoe\" Malus Scheidecl:eri Yellow Morrow Honeysuckle Yellow Manchurian Honeysuckle Yellow Tatarian Honeysuckle Arnold Crab Apple Columnar Siberian Crab Apple Scheidecker Crab Apple *Dlalus \"5no~bank\" (5) ~Ialus spectabilis (yellowish) *Malus sublobata (~~ Chinese Flowering Crab Apple Yellow Autumn Crab Apple Noi'F : Various unnamed seedlings, chiefly of M. baecatn, M. and :Vl. robu.stn also have bright yellow fruits. prvoifi~lin, Prunus angustifolia (red or yellow) Prunus cerasifera divaruata Prunus Da~-id~ana (yellowish) *Prunus hortulana (red or yellow) (o, i ) *Prunus hortulana \"Golden Beautv'' Prunus lanata (red or Prunus mandshurica '~'Prunus maritima flava Prunus salicina (yellow or light red) Prunus umbellata (red, ~-ellov or dark purple) I'runus ~ ir~,in~ana xanthocarpa Rhus verniciflua Ribes nigrum xanthocarpum Chickasaw Plum Wild Myrobalan Plum Da~-id Peach Hortulan Plum Inch Plum Dlanchur~an :lpricot Yellow Beach Plum Japanese Plum Flatwoocls 1'lum Yellow Choke Cherry NJapanese Lacquer Tree Yellow European Black Currant yellowish) 47 *Rosa omeinsis chrysocarpa Sambucus nigra fructu-luteo *Shepherdia ar~entea xanthocarpa Sorbopyru5 auricularis bulbitimmis Goldfruit Omei Rose Yellow European Elderberry Yellow Buffalo Berry *Sorbus aucuparia xanthocarpa Taxus baccata lutea *Viburnum *Vtburnum *Viburnum *Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum (6,7) Opulus xanthocarpum (i) Sargenti flatum setigerum aurantiacum (3,6,7) Yellowberry European Mountain Ash Y ellowfraited F:nahsh Yew Yellowberry Linden Viburnum Yellow European Cranberrybush Y ellowfruit Sargent Cranberr~bush Orangeberry Tea Viburnum Fruits White *Cornus alba (most) Cornus asperifolia Genkwa *Cornus racemosa (most) *Cornus stolonifera (most) Dogwood Roughleaf Dogwood Gray Dogwood Tatarian Red Osier Lilac Daphne Mistletoe Honeysuckle Whitefruit Mistletoe Honevsuckle - *Daphne (?, 3) *Lonicera quinquelocularis ( i ) *Lonicera quinquelocularis translucens (7) Pachysandra terminalis *Prunus tomentosa leucocarl>a Rhus radicans Rhus vernix Sambucus pubens leucocarpa *Symphoricarpos albus (most) *S~mphoricarpos albus laevigatus Japanese Pachysandra Palefruit Manchu Cherry Poison Ivy Poison Sumac Ye.~rl Elderberry Common Snowberry Garden Common Snowberry (most) *Symphoricarpos hesperius (8) *Symphoricarpos occidentalis ( i ) Symphoricarpos orbiculatus leueocarpus Vaccinium atrococcum leucococcum Vaccinium canadense leucocarpum Washington Snowberry Western Snowberry White Coralberrv White Downy Blueberry White Canada Blueberry Sources where the most ornamental may be obtained Nursery, Littleton, Colorado Nurseries, East Rutherford, N.J. ;3. W. B. Clarke & Co., San Jose, California 4. Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio 5. Kelsey-Hi~hlands Nurseries, East Boxford, Massachusetts 6. Kingsville Nurseries, Inc., Kingsville, nlaryland 7. Henry Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio 8. Sheridan Nurseries, Ltd., Clarkson, Ontario, Canada 9. Tingle Nursery Co., Pittsville, Dlar~-land I. Arapahoe .~lcres 2. Bobbink & Atkins DONALD W1 MAN 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Simple Key to the Pines","article_sequence":11,"start_page":49,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24132","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25e896f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 NOVEMBER 19, 1943 SIMPLE KEY TO THE PINES available from nurseries in the United NUMBER 10 (Native or States) . is offered chiefly for the benefit of the amateur gardener who confronted with complicated keys which he finds to be too difficult for his purposes. The key is based primarily on foliage characters which, in most cases, can be observed without the use of a hand lens. It should be clearly understood that any key based primarily on the length of the leaves (and this key ia just that) is open to serious criticism because the length of the leaves of any plant will vary with the individual as well as with soil and climate variations, disease infestations, age and altitude at which the tree is growing. Other plant characters vary likewise. However, in order to assist the gardener who has an interest in pines, this key is offered in spite of such just criticism. It includes only those pines which one is likely to find in the woods or nurseries of this country. A few native species have been omitted because they occur only in limited areas, and many exotic species are omitted because they have not yet been widely distributed in cultivation. It goes without saying that the more species included in a key, the more complicated that key becomes. There are about 80 species of pines distributed throughout the northern hemisphere, ~7 of which are growing in the Arnold Arboretum. This key includes all but 5 of the species native to the United States, as well as 15 exotic ones available from nurseries, all in all ;35 species of pmes. All measures of leaf length should be considered as approximate only. On one individual tree needles may vary in length from 2 inches to as high as 8 inches, but in the key the length given would be 4 to ti inches, meaning that rrialure needles-not the young ones which are elongating, nor the ones on weak or on over-vigorous branches-are mostly within the4 to 6 inch length. If this is clearly understood by those using this key, the key will undoubtedly prove helpful in the identification of most of our commonly grown pines. THIS simple key is frequently ~9 The key ~s designed to be used chiefly with livmhr material, hence the color of the foliage and the general habit of the tree sometimes plays an important part. Occasionally-, as in differentiating between Yinu.r .S'Irobns and P, runulicola, the two species are so much alike that cone characters are used, but these are resorted to only when absolutely necessary, for many a tree which one would like to identify is not ~rraced with cones at the time one wishes to identify ~t. This key can be greatly simplified for there are not many pines which are commonly found in any one area in the United States. As an example, let us con3 sider the five-needled pines. In \"The Cultivated Conifers,\" L.H.Bailey lists 15 five-needled pine species of w-huh 11are growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Thirteen species and 4 varieties are listed in the following key. If this key were designed merely to identify the five-needled pines native to this country, the list would be reduced to 7 species. If the key were to he used in identifying pines native in the northeastern United States only, this part dealing with five-needled pines would include merely P. Strobus. Hardiness is given according to Zones in the Hardiness Map. Habitats are also given, because sometimes such information may prove helpful in assisting in plant identification. There is no excuse for avoiding a simple key such as this one, merely because of a lack of thorough botanical training. Such keys, when carefully made, are understandable, and if they are used with a full knowledge of their limitations, they will prove most helpful to the gardening public. Identifications made by the use of any key, and this one in particular, should not be considered final, but should be further checked against a complete description in some standard text, and available illustrations. SIMPLE KEY TO THE PINES . Native or available in North America at the base Needles in bundles of2 ous or to .i, rarely solitary, enclosed by a deciduPinus persistent sheath a ...... 1. Needles 5 in sheath albicaulis-White Bark P. aristaYa-Bristle-cune 1'. parviflora--Japanese poraifloro glauca Peuce-Balkan P. White P. Ayacahuife-:Vlexican ,fle.rilis-Limber P. V'hite P. Cembra-Swiss Stone P. Cembra sibirica l~~oraiensis-Korean P. Lanzbertiana-Sugar P. monticola-Western White P. 2. Needles usually less than 1~ inches pumila-Japanese Stone P. ,Strobus-Fastern White P. Slrobus fir.sligiata .S'Irobus nann TorreJnnn-'1'orrey Y. P. aristata lon~ with smooth margin (California 2. to Colorado) .)~) Zone ,i Needles usually 12 to inches long ] 3. Bark of trunk brown to creamy white, needles rigid smooth ....... and stout, margin P. albicaulis Columbia to California) Zone 3 black, needles more flexible 4. Needles bluish green, often twisted, intensely white underneath, leaf P. parviflora margin finely serrulate, i.e., rough to the touch Zone 5 (Japan) P. parviflora glauca 4. Needles intensely bluish green 4. Needles light green, not twisted 5. Mature twigs glabrous, needles smooth ... P. flexilis to California) Zone 4 (Alberta 5. Mature twigs pubescent; leaf margin finely serrulate, i.e., rough to the touch 6. Tree dense and upright in habit .. P. Cemba sibirica 6. Tree more open P. pumila Zone 3 (Japan) ?. Needles mostly 2~ to ~~ inches long; leaf margin serrulate, i.e., rough to the touch 3. Mature twigs glabrous 4. Plant shrubby, not tree-like .... P. Strobus nana 4. Branches upright, tree dense j. Needles stiff P. Peuce (Balkan Mts.) Zone 4 5. Needles soft and flexible ... P. Strobus fastigiata 4. Branches horizontal, tree more open 5. Cones usually 2 to 4~ inches long; twigs glabrous or only slightly (British 3. Bark of trunk . .. ..... pubescent ...... P. Strobus (Eastern U.S. and Canada) Zone 3 5. Cones usually 4~ to 10 inches long; twigs pubescent when young P. monticola (British Columbia to Idaho and California) Zone .5 two species are difficult to tell apart with the naked eye, (These except that the habit of P. montzeoln is more narrow and dense and the needles stiffer than are those of P..S'lrobus. ) 3. Mature twigs pubescent 4. Tree densely upright, pyramidal in habit P. Cembra of Europe) Zone 1 (Alps 4. Tree not as above, more open 5. Needles lustrous, dark green ... P. koraiensis Zone 3 (Japan, Korea) 5. Needles dull green 6. Terminal bud blunt almost globular, cones 12 to ?0 inches P. Lambertiana (Oregon to California) Zone 5 .. [ .n ti. 1'ernanal bud 10 inches 2. Needles sharply pointed, defimtel~ not globular, cones 4 to ...... P. monticola to I<luhu and Branchlets finely ~~ (Mexico) Zone 9f !. Needles 8 to 1 inches long (Britivh Culumbia to 6 inches. California) Zone .i needles bluish green pubescent, P. Ayacahuite P. Torreyana ..... 1. Needles 3 to 4 in a sheath (Suuthwe5tern Califorma) Zone 9 only occasionally 5; leaf margin smooth P. cembroides Parryana Zutte 9 1. Needles 3 in a Yarrv Ymwn I'. ponderu.sn-Ponderosa f'. rrrdinlrr-Dlunterey P. rigida-Yitch P. Snbirrinua-Digger P. L'rterla-Loblully P. bark of trunk P. sheath rrtterrrrnla -Knoh-oone 1'. L3ungennn-Lace-bark I'. canarieu.sis-CanaryY. Lou\/leri-Cuulter I'. ?. prrlrtsIris-Lunhleaf l'. Needles mostlyto .i inches long 3. Leaf sheaths deciduous, bark of older twigs smooth, with white or yellow patches flaky .... Bungeana (China) 3. Leaf sheaths not deciduous, Zone 4 bark of older twigs very rough, bark of trunk ~ P. rigida usuall~-~~ to 4 inches long U.S. and Canada) Zone 4 4. Foliage bright or bluish green; cones 3 to 7 inches long 5. Bark on upper part of trunk and branches smooth P. attenuata (Oregon to California) Zone 8 ~. Bark on upper part of trunk and branches rough P. radiata (S. California) Zone 8 ~. Needles mostly 5 to 10 inches long 3. Winter buds resinous 4. Twigs fragrant when broken; cones 3 to 6 inches; foliage dark green, branchlets orange brown .... P. ponderosa 5 (Eastern and Central U.S.) Zone 4. Twigs not fragrant when broken; cones 9 tu 14 inches; foliage bluish cones dark brown to black 4. Foliage dark green, (Eastern green ....... P. Coulteri (California) 3. Winter buds not resinous 4. Zone 8 ... P. Taeda P. Coulteri . 4. Foliage bluish green; cones 3 to 6 inches (New Jersey to Florida and Texas) Foliage dark green; cones 5 to 1? inches Zone 6 .. (California) 2. Zone 8 Needles 8 to 18 inches long 52 3. Foliage gray bluish green 4. Needles slender, drooping 4. Needles .... P. Sabiniana P. Coulteri (California) stiff, erect Zone 6 Zone 8 green and lustrous P. canariensis ..... (California) 3. Foliage green 4. Needles 4. Needles mostly mostly a 8 to 10 inches 12 inches long, light (Canary Islands) 1. Needles 3 and 2 in Zone 10 ? or more long, dark Zone 7 green P. palustris (Southeastern U.S.) sheath caribaea-Slash P. cembroides-Mexican Pinyon P. echinata-Shortleaf P. ponderosa scopulorum-Rocky Mountain Ponderosa P. tabulaeformis-Chinese P. .... P. cembroides 2. Needles less than 2 inches long (Southern California and Arizona) Zone 9 2. Needles more than 2 inches long 3. One year twigs greenish to purplish, covered with glaucous bloom P. echinata (Eastern U.S.) Zone 5 3. One year twigs yellow brown to brownish P. ponderosa scopulorum 4. Terminal bud very resinous (Rocky Mountain Region) Zone 4 4. Terminal bud not resinous or only slightly so .i. Needles 2 to 7 inches long; cones 1~- to Z inches long P. tubulaeformis (China) Zone 5 5. Needles 8 to 12 inches long; cones 3 to 62 inches long P. caribaea (Southeastern U.S., Bahamas, Honduras) Zone 8 ~ .. 1. Needles 2 in a sheath ` _ Banks~iana-Jack P. densiflora-Japanese densiflora ocvilus-draconis densiflora umbraculifera Red P. Pinaster--Cluster P. pungens-Table Mountain P. rPSinosa-Red P. sylvestris-Scotch P. echinata-Shortleaf P. Mugo-Swiss Mountain P. Mugo compacta Mugo pumilio nigra austriaca-Austrian nigra Poiretiana 2. P. sylvestris aurea sylvestris rigensis sylvestris Watereri tabula~f'ormis-Chinese P. Thunbergii-Japanese Black P. virginiana-Virginia P. a Needles ~to ;3. Foliage 3 inches long with each needle marked with yellow band P. densiflora oculus-draconis J~ 3. P. sylvestris and bluish green, bark of upper trunk red Zone 2 (Europe) ~.. Young foliage at first yellow, changing later to blutsh green Foliage vars. P. sylvestris aurea P. sylvestris rigensis 4. Bark very red, trunk tall and straight 4. Habit low, dense, pyramidal, needles steel blue P. sylvestris Watereri 3. Foliage I'lant .i. green usually shrubby, Needles ~to 6. 2 inches with several main branches from the base P. Mugo and vars. long, bark black 2 (Central Europe) Zone .. 6. Dense almost .i. globose shape Shrubby, uprtght habit Needles 3 to5 inches,bark red to reddish a P. .. P. Mugo compacta Mugo pumilio P.densiflora umbraculifera 4. Plant central leader 5. Needles mostly one inch long ... P. Banksiana 2 (Northeastern U.S. and Eastern Canada) Zone 5. Needles 1~ to 3 inches long 6. Branchlets usually with glaucous bloom, often greenish to purplish a or tree with 7. yellowish Foliage bluish green, cones usually not persistent, bark of upper trunk red ; leaves flexible ... P. densiflora (Japan) 7. leaves stiff 4 Zone Foliage bright green, cones persistent, bark of upper trunk black ; ..... P. virginiana (Eastern U.S.) 6. Branchlets without Zone 4 orange to glaucous bloom, more yellow on 7. Vigorous shoots often with the current year's growth than one whorl of branches ... P. pungens on (Southeastern U.S.) 7. Vigorous shoots with Zone .5 whorl of branches only or one the current year's growth whitish to light yellow P. Thunbergii 4 Zone 8. Winter buds dark brown ... P. tabulaeformis ,i (China) Zone 2. Needles 3 to 8 inches long 3. Winter buds resinous 4. Needles slender and flexible not breaking when bent P. resinosa ~? (Northeastern U.S. and Eastern Canada) Zone 4. Needles stout and stiff breaking when bent P. nigra austriaca (Central Europe) Zone 1 5. Branches more ascending P. nigra Poiretiana 3. Winter buds not resinous (or only slightly so m P. lafirrln~formi.o) 8. Winter buds white (Japan) ... 55 4. Buds stout, up to one (Portugal to inch long; branchlets Greece) Zone 8 bright reddish brown P. Pinaster 4. Buds less thaninch long ~. Bark of upper trunk red .... (Japan) Zone 4 P. densiflora 5. Bark of upper trunk black 6. One year twigs with glaucous 6. One year bloom, green to purplish P. echinata (Eastern U. S. ) 5 Zone to brown twigs without glaucous bloom, yellow . 7. Winter buds dark reddish brown (China) Zone .i Winter buds light yellow to white 7. (Japan) Zone 4 P. tabulaeformis P. or whitish Thunbergii DONALD ~'S'MAN Note: The demand for copies of \"Crab Apples For America\" has been so great that a second printing has been ordered. Copies may be obtained by writing the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass. and enclosing a check for $1.00 made out to the American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums. 56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Simple Foliage Key to the Hemlocks and Spruces","article_sequence":12,"start_page":57,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24131","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25e856e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 DECEMBER 17, 1943 i NuMSEx 11 SIMPLE FOLIAGE KEY TO THE HEMLOCKS AND SPRUCES foliage characters alone. Especially is this true of the spruces. One of the reasons they are difficult is because of the fact that the needles soon fall off when they are dry. The key which follows is prepared solely for the determination of material which is fresh. It cannot be used with dead material. THIS identify is a group of narrow leaved evergreens which is extremely difficult to from Such a key has its characteristics such good points and its bad points-good because the obvious as color of foliage and twigs are used and it can be used in the field without the use of a lens (in most cases), bad because the key is only usable for the period of a few days after the branches have been taken from the living tree. All that is said in Arnoldia, Volume 3, No. 10, 1943, describing the Key to the Pines, is also applicable to this key to the spruces and hemlocks. The key is offered for the garden enthusiast who is not a trained botamst, but the key should not be used as a means of final ~dent~fication, standard texts and illustrations should be consulted. Most of the characters used can be observed with the naked eye. Since many nurserymen grow the spruce species from seed, there is the opportunity for hybrids to creep into the trade and obviously these always prove troublesome in any key. It is interesting to note that there are only 7 species of spruce native to North America, and all are included in this key. There are about 22 species available in the trade, all of which are included in the key, as well as 10 varieties in addition. There are about 26 varieties of Pica flbies offered by various nurseries, and the differences among these are frequently so slight, especially in the younger stages of plant development, that it is impossible to make a satisfactory key for them. Consequently, it has only been possible to list the dwarf varieties of P. ~lbie.s as a group. J~ Of the six hemlocks, four species are native and these are included in the key of Tsuga cnnaden.si.s are offered in the trade and probably many more. It was impossible to make a foliage key for these because in many cases their differentiation depends on their shape alone. As in the Key to the Pines, habitats are given for all species and Hardiness Zones refer to the Hardiness Map, Arnoldia, Vol. 3, No. 10, 1943, p. 53. species. At least FOLIAGE KEY TO THE HEMLOCKS AND SPRUCES (Native or available in North America) 15 varieties of Needles borne singly, leaf bases persistent ... Picea and Tsuga 1. Needles narrowed at base to form distinct petioles Tsuga species This character must be clearly interpreted. Sometimes when the needle of a spruce is pulled off, a small portion of the twig bark also comes off, looking like a petiole unless observed with a lens. The needles of all spruces are without petioles, their leaf-blades being attached directly to the twig. FIGURE 1. Needle of hemlock (a) with petiole and spruce (b) without petiole. canadensis-Canada Hemlock heterophylla -Western H. caroliniana-Carolina H. Mertensiana-Mountain H. Sieboldii-Siebold H. diversifolia Japanese H. z. Needles with white lines on under surface only, cones less than 2 inches long 3. Needles noticeably blunt and notched at tip 4. One year branchlets 4~. One year branchlets 3. Needles not pubescent ... T. diversifolia T. Sieboldii (Japan) Zone 5 ... glabrous (Japan) noticeably Zone 3 notched at end but rounded FIGuRF 2. a. Tsuga canadensis. serrulate margin seen with a lens. b. T.suga Sieboldii c. Tsuga coroliniana The very fine can only be 58 4. at the Many of the needles on vigorous one year shoots wider at base than tip; i.e., gradually tapering from base to tip; needles mostly two ranked, in one plane, and with a very fine serrulate margin (when examined with a lens); cones4 inch or less in length T. canadensis (Nova 4. Scotia and eastern on U.S.) Zone 4 Majority as of needles wide at base as at margin of T. caroliniana entire and T. heterophylla is serrulate (when examined with a lens). Cones longer than ~inch 5. One year twigs orange brown, cones 1 to 1~ inches long T. caroliniana (Southeastern U.S.) Zone 4 5. One year twigs pale yellowish brown; cones to 1 inch long T. heterophylla (Alaska to Idaho and California) Zone 6 ?. Needles with white lines on upper and lower surfaces, cones 2 inches or more vigorous one year shoots not tapering but about tip ; needles in several planes about twig; needle in length ...... T. Mertensiana (Alaska Abies vars.-some to Idaho and California) Zone 5 Picea . Needles without distinct petioles species Abies-Norway Spruce 26 varieties available in the trade asperata-Dragon S. bicolor-Alcock S. Brereeriana-Brewer S. Fngelma~rni -Engelmann S. glauca-V~'hite S. glauca albertiana-Alberta S. glauca conica-Dwarf Alberta S. glauca densata-Black Hills S. (=lehnii-Sakhalin S. jPSOPnsis-Yeddo S. Onaorika-Serbian S. orientalis-Oriental S. orientalis aurea-Bronze Oriental S. polita-Tyertail S. pungens--Colorada S. pungens pungen.s pungens urgentea-Silver S. Koyamai-Koyama S. mariana-Black S. marirrna Doumetii-Doumet S. obovata-Siberian S. ?. Needles on current year's growth mostly at right angles to twig; also see Fig. 5, p. 61. (No~r~:: In no specimen are all the needles exactly at right angles to the twig. Some needles always point towards the end of the twig hence making an angle less than a right angle. However, the plants in the group with needles at right angles should have more than fifty per cent of their needles at right angles to the twig. In case of reasonable doubt, certain plants can be located again under the second No. 2Needles mostly at an angle considerably less than a right angle.\") ) Bakeri-Baker S. Colorado S. pungens Kosleria~aa-Koster S. pungens Moerheimii-JToerheim S. purpurea-Purple Cone S. rubens-Red S. S'chrenkiana-Schrenk S. .sitchen.sis-Sitka S. Smithiana-Himala~an S. WiLsonii-Wilson S. glaucrr-Blue 59 FIcURF 3. Tip of one year shoot of Picea pungens showing a majority of the needles nearly at right angles to the twig. 3. Needles ~ inch long 4. Needles 5. Plant a or less showing intense white lines when observed from tip looking towards base of branch; branchlets pubescent .. . tree, loose and open in habit to Alaska; Wisconsin and 5. Plant not so tall, dense conical habit P. mariana (Labrador Michigan) Zone 2 P. mariana Doumetii 4. Needles not showing intense white lines, plant a low dense pyramid of tightly compact light green foliage; branchlets glabrous P. glauca conica 3. Needles mostly more than ~ 4. Terminal bud lustrous, inch long dark brown, prominent, about 4inch long; scales remaining snugly tight fitting and blackish at P. polita base of branchlets for several years .... (Japan) Zone 5 its tight fitting FiGURF 4. End bud and base of one ~olita (a) and Picea Abies (b) showing the tight fitting scales on bud and shoot base of P.~olita as compared with those of P. Abies. year shoot of Picea 4. Terminal bud not lustrous nor as prominent, light brown. The scales, if they remain at the base of the current year's branchlets are curled and indistinct, not snugly tight fitting P. pungens glauca ~. Foliage of one year twigs definitely blue P. pungens argentea - P. pungens Moerheimii 60 The only way to tell these three apart is to determine the degree of blue color.P. pungens glauca is the least blue, 1'. pungerrs argen!en the ty-p~cal \" Koster's Spruce \" of the trade is next, and P. pungens Moerheimii is the deepest blue. NOTE : (Visualize the blue of P. puugens argenlea [the typical Koster's Spruce\" of the trade, sometimes incorrectly named Kosteri or Koslerinnn~ and the green of the Norway spruce. These are the two sharp color divisions. Plants with foliage a color between these two extremes come under the second No. j2014 Foliage bluish to 5. grayish green\" Foliage bluish to grayish green 6. Needles rigid, extremely sharp to the touch, one year shoots and vigorous often 6 to 10 inches long strong P. asperata 7. Needles frequently curved Zone 5 (West China) P. pungens 7. Majority of needles straight to New Mexico) Zone 2 (V~'yoming 6. Needles not so rigid and sharp to the touch, one year shoots not ... ... so vigorous .. , P. Wilsonii 7. One year twigs greenish gray and West China) Zone 5 (Central P. glauca 7. One year twigs yellowish to orange brown and northern U.S) Zone 2 (Canada 5. Foliage uniformly green. Usually most of the needles of this species are not at right angles to the twigs but sometimes on very P. Abies vigorous shoots they are ..... t) (North and Central Europe, naturalized in eastern U.S.) Zone 2. Needles on current year's growth mostly at an angle considerably less than a right angle with the twig; i. e. , needles pointing towards the tip of the twig. Also see Fig. 3, p. 60. FIGURE 5. Tip of one year shoot of Picea Eugelmanni showing a majority of the needles at less than right angles to the twig. 3. Foliage of current year's shoots uniformly blue. blue of P. pungen.s argenten ~the t~ pical \"Koster's (NuTF: ~'isualize the Spruce'' of the trade] ~ 61 and the green of the Norway spruce. These are the two sharp color divisions. Plants with foliage a color between these two extremes come under the second No. 3-\" Foliage bluish to grayish. \") 4. One year twigs densely pubescent, noticeable without a lens l P. Engelmanni (British Columbia to Arizona) Zone 4. One year twigs glabrous 5. Plant with rigid, horizontal branches P. pungens Bakeri 5. Plant with pendulous branchlets .. P. pungens Kosteriana (Not to be confused with the Silver spruce, P. pungens argentea, which does not have pendulous branchlets) 3. Foliage of current year's growth bluish to grayish or whitish ; especially when viewed from tip of branch, looking toward base of branch ; green when viewed from above the branch . 4. Needles ~inch 5. One year or less in length gray ... twigs greenish P. purpurea .i (West China) Zone 5. One year twigs yellowish to brown 6. Needles flat in cross section . FIGURE 6. Cross section of needle of Picea Omorika (below) and Picea glanca (above). ' 7. Winter buds resinous 8. Branchlets glabrous and horizontal, foliage intensely white when viewed from underneath the branch 9. Needles pungent, ~ to 1 inch long P. sitchensis (Alaska to California) Zone 6 9. Needles not pungent, ~ to ~ inch long P. jezoensis (Manchuria and Japan) Zone 4 8. Branchlets pubescent, usually markedly pendulous; foliage not intensely white when viewed from beneath 5 P. Breweriana (Oregon to northern California) Zone 7. Winter buds not resinous; branchlets pubescent P. Omorika (Southeastern Europe) Zone 4 6. Needles angular in cross section, usually 4-sided 7. Two and three year old twigs black on upper side of branch at least, giving a dark appearance to the tree; needles sharp; P. mariana branchlets pubescent (Labrador to Alaska, Wisconsin to Michigan) Zone 2 [ 62 7. Two year twigs usually light brown; branchlets glabrous, needles blunt 8. Tree slow growing, dense and compact P. glauca densata P. glauca 8. Tree more open in habit .... and northern U.S.) Zone 2 (Canada a P. glauca albertiana and British Columbia to Montana) Zone 2 (NoTE : It is difficult to tell these two apart with the naked eye. P. glauca albertiana is considered a geographical variety of the species.) 5. One year twigs definitely a red brown 6. Cones ~?~ to 4~ inches long P. bicolor 4 (Japan) Zone 6. Cones 2 to 3 inches long P. Glehnii (Japan) Zone 3 (Here is a case where differentiation between these two species without a lens and without fruit is very difficult ; the differences are largely those of degrPP. The white markings on the upper surface of the needles of P. bicolor are more intense, whereas the pubescence of the branchlets and the dark green color of the branchlets of P. Glehnii is more marked.) 4. Needles more than inch long 5. Needles flat in cross section; see Fig. 6, p. 62. 6. Branehlets glabrous ; foliage intensely white when observed from underneath branch .... P. sitchensis (Alaska to California) Zone 6 6. Branchlets pubescent; usually markedly pendulous; foliage not intensely white when observed from underneath branch P. Breweriana (Oregon to northern California) Zone 5 5. Needles angular in cross section, usually 4-sided P. Smithiana 6. Winter buds resinous .... (Himalayas) Zone 6 6. Winter buds not resinous ... P. Schrenkiana (Central Asia) Zone 5 (Alaska ... ... ~ 3. 4. The Foliage uniformly green majority of the needles 5. Needles flattened ~ inch or less in a uniform dark against branchlets; P. orientalis above and below glossy green and Asia Minor) Zone ~. (Caucasus 5. Needles not flattened against branchlets except in some P. Abies varieties which are dwarf shrubs and not trees; nor a marked uniform glossy green above and below except sometimes in P. rubens ... . length markedly 63 dwarf shrubs P. Abies varieties Some 26 dwarf varieties are offiere<1 in the trade.) 6. Plants not low, dense, dwarf shrubs, but trees P. glauca 7. One year twigs yellowish, foliage gray green (Canada and northern LT.S.) Zone v 7. One year twigs reddish brown ; foliage green 8. Needles only slightly glossy, brauchlets pubescent P. rubens (Nova Scotia to North Carolina) Zone ~? R. Needles not glossy, branchlets glabrous P. koyamai J (Japan and Korea) Zone 4. The majority of the needles at least ~ inch and usually approaching 6. Plants usually low, dense, (NuT~: ~ inch j. in length dark green, branchlets usually orange 6. Terminal bud lustrous, dark brown, prominent, lung ; its tight fitting scales remaining snugly tight Foliage aboutinch fitting and blackish at base of branchlets for several years; foliage decidedly harsh to the touch ; see Fig. 4, p. 60 .. P. polita (Japan) Zone 5 6. Terminal bud not lustrous. The scales if they remain at the base of the current year's branchlets are curled and indistinct, not snugly tight fitting ; foliage not harsh to the touch; see F~g. 4, p. 60 P. Abies 5. 2 Europe, escaped in U.S.) Zone Foliage grayish green, one year twigs yellowish 6. Needles usually rigidly upright on the upper side of the br.~nchlets ; needles dense, even on four year old branchlets ; tree open (North and Central in habit (Canada ....... and northern U. S. ) Zone 2 P. glauca FIGURE 7. Side view of shoot of Picea obovata (above) and Picea glauca (below) showing the difference in the way the needles are borne on the twig. usually appressed or held closely along the upper side of the branch, not upright; needles sparsely borne; tree dense P. obovata and conical in habit to Kamchatka and Manchuria) Zone 2 (Northern Europe 3. Foliage bronze golden, at least when the needles first appear in spring. The majority of the needles less than ~inch long ; plant a tree P. orientalis aurea DONALD V~'S hIAN 6. Needles .... I . 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Simple Foliage Key to the Firs","article_sequence":13,"start_page":65,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24123","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25ea76e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 3 DECEMBER 31, 19~3 A SIMPLE FOLIAGE KEY TO THE FIRS NUMBER 1~ to the firs is the third and last in this series of keys the narrow-leaved evergreens, and all statements made concerning the other two (Simple Key to the Pines; Arnoldia, ;;: No. 10, Lf)I3; and a Simple Foliage Key to the Hemlocks and Spruces; Arnoldia, ;3: No. 11, 19~3~ appl~ to this key to the firs. The firs are perhaps the most difficult of the four groups of plants to tell apart because their needles ~ar~- cuwulerabl~ in size and shape, and the color uf the twiy and the amount uf pubescence on them also variev. There are ten fir species native to this country, all of which are jncluded in the following key, in addition to fifteen exotic species and six varieties. All of these are either native or being grown commercially at some place m the L'nited States. As with the pines and spruces, many more firs are being grown in botanical gardens and arboretums in this country but their culti~atum is limited to such an extent that they are not available at this time to the plant buying public m sufficient quantity to warrant their inclusion in this key. The Zones refer to the Hardiness Map, Arnoldia, 8: No. 10, 191~ , p. :i3. The habitats are given for all species appearing in the key, for such information is often helpful in identifying these plants in the field. Note: The three simple foliage keys to the evergreens given in this and the two preceeding numbers of Arnoldia should materially aid the gardening enthusiast or woodsman in his associations with this valued group uf plants. 'I'he keys co~ er pract~callv all the pines, hemlocks, spruces and firs nati~e in large areas in this country or rerown m quantity in our oomnrerctal nurseries. Actuall~-, 10~ evergreen trees are included in these keys, of which 1 l species are native to this country. This is about all the evergreens in these groups which one would normallt find in the woods, parks and gardens of the L-nrted States. It is hoped that these keys may stimulate an interest in the names and relationships uf these conifers. They were planned to be used with living plants. L`se them and learrr to l.nuv- yuur evergreens ! THIS simple foliage key to , (>.iJ~ SIMPLE FOLIAGE KEY TO THE FIRS Native or available in North America Leaves single, leaving a circular leaf bases on the twigs scar when ..... falling ; without persistent prominent Abies, Pseudotsuga FIGURE 8. a. Twig of fir showing the smooth twig surface when the leaves have fallen b. Twig of spruce, showing the small leaf bases (making a rough twig surface) which remain after the leaves have fallen 1. End bud fruit a sharply pointed, long and narrow, with many scales, not resinous; pendulous cone, needles spreading radially on all sides of twig Pseudotsuga taxkf'olia-Duuglas-Fir Pseudotsuga ta.r;f'olaa glauca FIGURE 9. a. Terminal bud of fir b. Terminal bud of Psezrdotsuga la.r~f'olia showing its many long pointed character distinctly different from scales and the buds of any fir 2. Foliage green ..... Pseudotsuga taxifolia (British 2. Columbia to western Texas) Zone 6 P. taxifolia glauca green J (Rocky Mountains) Zone 1. End bud not long and narrow and sharply pointed, mostly resinous; fruit upright, needles of most species (except A. Pinsapa and A. koreana~ not spreading radially on all sides of twig (see Figs. 9 and 10) Abies species Foliage bluish alba-Silver Fir alba pyramidalis amabilis-Cascades F. balsamea-Balsam F. concolor violacea ftrma-Momi F. Fraseri-Southern Balsam F. Fraseri prosfrala grandis-Giant F. holophylla-Needle F. ceyhalonica-Greek F. chensiensis-Shensi F. cilicica-Cilician F. concolor-Colorado F. 66 homolepis-Nikko F. koreana-Korean F. procera glauca lasiocarpa-Rocy Mountain F. religiosa 2014Sacred F. lasiocarpa nrisouico magnjfica-Re<1 F..saohalirrPn.ris-Saghalin F. Vlariesii-~laries F. sibirica-Siberian F. F. T'eiichii-Veitch F. uerrusta-Brrstle-cone F. ?~ordmanniana-Nordmann F. speclabilis-Himalapan Pin.ca~o-Spanish Piu.rapo glaurvr procern 1. Needles F. (formerly .1. nobilis)-Noble F. mostlyinch less in length or a. Neeciles spreadm~ radiall~- on all srdes of twig FtcuHH; 10. ,46iPS korPaua shov;-in~~ needles spreading radially b. _~bies nlbn showin~ needles distinctly 2-ranked c. Abies 1B-ordmanninua showmg needles appearing on sides and from upper Surface of twig a. 4. Needles intensely white beneath, usually blunt and tip ....... greenish Zone .5 to greenish white beneath rounded at the A. koreana at the (Korea) 4. Needles usuallypointed A. tip ...... Pinsapo (S~rxin) 4. Needles 3. Zone ti ... or less 1-ranl:ed, that is with needles appearing on the two sides of the twig and frequently on the upper surface as well (see Fig. 10) 4. Needles lustrous green utrov e, w hite or whitish lreneath ; stomate lines present on under surface only '% 3. Needles, especially on year old twigs, directed toward tip of branch (see Fig. 1R) A. Mariesii (Japan) Zone .i 5. Needles, especially on 2 year old twigs, more or less at right angles to the twigs (see Fig. l~?) ti. Ylaut a tree A. balsamea (Labrador to V'. Virginia and Iowa) Zone 3 ~lxucous or bluish Needles not radially distributed ; apparently A. Pinsapo glauca more .... ..... A. Fraseri (Allegheny ~lts., (These two are closely W. Virginia and Tennessee) Zone 4 related and difficult to tell apart without (i7 cones or without a lens. The under surface of the needles of A. Fraseri has 8 to 1~1 lines of stumates in eaeh white band, while that uf .I.bnl.snnreu h.m only to 8 line, in e.uh white ban<l) ti. Plant a prostrate shrub A. Fraseri prostrata b. Needles gray green above and below, due to the tiut that stomate lines (seen with a lens) are on both upper and lower needle ,urtaces 5. One year twigs ashy gray 6. Bark or trunk gray A. lasiocarpa (Alaska to New Mexico) Zone ;3 6. Bark of trunk creamy white and corky A. lasiocarpa arizonica 5. One year twigs rusty brown ti. Foliage bluish green ... A. procera (_I. nobili.s) .i (Washington to California) Zone or bluish 6. Foliage glaucous A. procera glauca .. .. 2. Needles more thaninch in length on Needles green and lustrous above; no lines of stomates face of needles (when observed with a lens) -4. upper sur- Needles definitely pointed FtcneF 11. at a. tip b. c. Tip Tip Tip d, of needle of A. lrolophJlla of needle of young .L. firnrrt of needle of _~. oe~lralonioa e, f. Rounded and slightly notched needles commonly found on most firs. When any of these types make up a majority of the needles of a specimen, the needles are considered to be blrrn! as far as this key is concerned the purposes of this key needles similar to those of a, considered pointed or sharp. This can usually be felt by gently squeezing the ends of the needles. Those similar to d, e and f are considered blanl. It should be understood that needles vary greatly and some trees will have differently shaped needles, often on the same branch. Typical needles should be considered to be those appearing on the specimen in the greatest number) .i. ~Tu,jority- of needles especially on 2 year old twigs at right angles to the twigs (see Fig. 12) ti. liranchlets glabrous; vigorous shoots have needles with only one b and c are (No~-~::-For point i . '1'wigs deeply grooved (see Fig. 12) A. homolepis (Japan) Twigs not Zone 1 deeply grooved 68 8. White lines clearly visible needles ; needles frequently .5 Zone the lower surface of the produced on all sides of twig on 8. A. cephalonica White lines only faintly visible on the lower surface of the needles; needles often curved and pointing directly yr (Greece) warcl, f,. not appearing radially arranged Zone .i A. holophylla (Manchuria, Korea) needles with two ,i. Branchlets slightly pubescent; vigorous sharp points (see Fig. 11) ti Zone young shoots may have A. firma (Japan) 7. One year twigs 7. One year twigs Majority of needles not at right angles to twig ti. Needles less than 1~ inches long (see Fig. 1 ~L) A. glabrous pubescent (Manchuria, Korea) (Mexico) ... .i Zone holophylla religiosa ... A. Zone 9-lOr 6. Needles 1~ to 1.-~~ inches long ... A. venusta (California) Zone 8 t~. Majority of needles blunt and rounded at tip or slightly notched at the tip (see Fig. t t) 5. Needles, especially on ~l pear old twigs, mostly at right angles to the twigs FIGI'RE 12. a. Needles mostto ly at ri~~ht angles as .~.homolepi.s, also showin~ longituditwigs in nal lines or grooves in twig. h. Needles mostly directed towards the tip of twigs as Illll )!l! ti. in .I. ~-urchnau- Branchlets glabrous 7. Foliage intensely white beneath ; twigs deeply grooved (see A. Fig. 12) i. (i. ... J (Japan) Zone homolepis Foliage green beneath; twigs Zone 6 not deeply groo~ ed A. chensiensis (Central China) Brancl~lets pubescent 7. Branchlets slightly pubescent, one year twigs often have faint grooves; needles on vigorous shoots frequently pointed, ... A. firma needles up to 1~ inches long (Japan) Zone ti (i:) 7. Branchlets in densely pubescent, needles rarely .... more than t inch length a 8. Plant tree A. balsamea (Labt:wctur to V'. Virginia and Iowa) Zone a A. Fraseri (Allegheny blts., V~'. Virginia and Tennessee) Zune ~. (These two are closely related and dtflicult to tell apart without cones or without a lens. The under surface of the needles of A. Frnseri has 8 to 1~3lines of stomates in each white band, while that of a. bnl.svmrerr has only 4 to 8 lines in each white , band) 8. Plant 5. Majority of 6. a prostrate shrub needles not at right .. angles A. Fraseri prostrata but pointing toward the A. tips of the twigs Lower side of (see Fig. 1?) year twigs olive green to California and Zone ti one grandis (Vancouver ti. One year Montana) twigs not olive green to 7. Foliage grayish white beneath: needles I \/24 width I % 16 inch in (NOTE :-This is a difficult measurement to make but the is that the needles of the point than those of most other species) 8. Needles dark green A. sachalinensis (Japan, Kurile Isls.~ Zone ~l 8. Needles light green A. sibirica (Northern Russia to Kamchatka, Turkestan and Manchuria) Zone ~? (These two are difficult to tell apart without a lens. The undersurface of the needles of A. sachnlanen,ri.s has i tu 8 lines of stomates in each white band while that of A. sibiric~~ has onlv 4 to 5 lines in each white band) 7. Foliage of one year shoots intensely white beneath ; needles 1\/ll inch or more in width 8. Winter buds resinous 9. Needles mostly more than I inch long (1 to L4 inches) are nurrow-er .. ... following two firs twigs usually grooveck ... A. spectabilis (Himalayas) 9. Needles 10. Zone 7 not grooB ecl mostly less than 1 inch long : twigs Branchlets gray pubescent A. amabilis A. Veitchii Columbia to Oregun~ Zone .i 10. Branchlets brown pubescent (Japan) Zone .3 8. Winter buds not resinous (British 70 ' closely arranged in two ranks hke teeth in a comb (see fig. 10) 10. Tree pyramidal m habit ... A. alba of Central and Southern Europe) Zone 4 (JZountains 10. Tree columnar in habit A. alba pyramidalis <.~. Leaves not in two closely arranged ranks 10. Needles of one year twigs very white beneath, the upper ones directed forward and closely appressed to the twigs A. Nordmanniana ,i Jlts. and Asia :~Iinor) Zone (Caucasus 10. Needles of one year twigs merely greenish white beneath, more or less spreading and with a V-shaped depression above, not closely appressed to the twigs A. cilicica (Asia Jlinor, Syria) Zone 5 two are difficult to tell apart without the cones. (These The Nordmann Fir is by far the more common of the two in this 9. Leaves .. country) 3. Foliage bluish green above and below because there are stomatiferous lines on both upper and lower surfaces of the needles dull grayish seen or (These can be with a 4. Needles flat in cross section lens) (as in Picea Omorika. Arnoldia 3 : No. 11, 194a, Fig. 6, p. 61) .... .i. One year twigs glabrous ti. Foliage bluish green A. concolor (Colorado 6. Foliage a California and New Mexico) Zone 4 bluish white ... A. concolor violacea to gray One year twigs pubesoent ti. Twigs ashy A. lasiocarpa 7. Bark of trunk gray (Alaska to New Mexico) Zone 3 7. Bark of trunk creamy white and corky A. lasiocarpa arizonica 6. Twigs rusty brown A. procera (.9. nobili,s) 7. Foliage bluish green 5 (Washington to California) Zone A. procera glauca 7. Foliage glaucous or bluish 4. Needles, at least some of them, quadrangular in cross section, similar to the cross section of those of Picea glarrea (see Arnoldia 3 : No. .. 11, 1943, Fig. 6, p. 6?) .... A. magnifica - DONALD VVS-MAN 71 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume III","article_sequence":14,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24128","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d25eb76a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO ~'OLL':~IE III Illustrations are in bold face type Abies, 66 1 alba, Fig. 10 (c), (i 7 , 7 1 p~ ramidalis, 7 0 - amabilis, 70 0 - balsamea, 67, 70 cephalonica, Fig. 11 (c), ti8, ti9 chensiensis, 69 - c~licica, 71 - concolor, 7I 1 violacea, 71 -- firma, 69 8 - -, tip of needle, Fig. 11 (b), ~i8 0 - Fraseri, 67, 70 prostrata, (i8, 70 --- Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 2 i American Association of Botanical (~ardens and Arboretums, k-t \":lutikon Botanikon,\" 8 Azaleas, Ghent Hybrid Hardy England, 37-40 Bailey, L. H., .i0 Beetles, Mexican Bean, 6 Striped Cucumber, 6 :3 Cabbage maggots, - in New worms, ti 0 - grandi,, 70 holophylla, - 69 Case, James B., memorial, -, Miss Louisia V~'., 8 Celastrus, 45 Clematis collectiun, Y~ Clon, definition of, 10 Crab 8 - -, - - - tip of needle, Fig. 11 (a), ti8 homolepis, 68, Fig. 12 (a), ti9 koreana, Fig. 10 (a), 67 lasiocarpa, 68, 71 1 arizonica, 68, 7 - apples, 2;3 Crab Apples for America,\" -t~, 5(i Crab Apples for Ornamental Fruit, ~1-4~ -, - magnifica, - - 1 71 Mariesii, 67 nobilis, 68, 7 I dates between which fruits colorful and effective, 3.~?-4S are - Nordmanniana, Fig. Fig. 12 (b), ti9 - 10 (b),67 , 71 - 7 - Pinsapo, 67 glauca, 67 1 68, 71 - Cutworms, 3 \"F~d~ble V'~ld Plants of Eastern North America,\" 44 Ellery, Dlrs. William, 40 Ever~;reen,, Broad-leaved in good cont~), ditron, ? I-~! -, -, - procera, - 1 glauca, 68, 7 religiosa, 69 - 0 - vachuliuensis, 70 0 mbirica, 7 - spectabilis, venusta, 69 70 injured, 2~ ; Narrow-lea~ eci, 1 I -, Winter Foliage Color of, 1 i-?0 Fernald, ~l. L., t4 Firs, Simple Key tu the, ti.i Fir, twig, Fig. 8 (a), vi(i -, terminal Broad-leaded -- Veitchii, 70 - bud, Fig. 9 (a), 9 fili Form, definition ul', 73 Fruits, Yellow or White Growing the Arnold Arboretum, 45-48 -, -, in jezoensis, koyamai, - 62 li4 remainino March ~?fi, 1514;3, Suurce, where 14-l.i - mar~an.~, - ti0, 6Z ti0 they may be ob- Doumetii, tained, 48 White, 46, 48 -, Yellow, 45-48 Hardiness Map, ,i;3 Hemlock, needle of, - obovata, Fig. 7, ti4 1 - Omorika, Fig. 6, ti -- orientalis, - (i3 - aurea, 64 Fig. 1 (a), ,~8 8 Hemlocks and age Key to Hybrids, ~aming, 1 ~ I Juniperus horizontalis plumosa, 1`, Key to the Firs, 65 to the Hemlocks and Spruces, - Spruces, Simple Folithe, i i-H4 - pungens, - - polita, Fig. 4 (a), 60, ti~. 1 Fig. 3, ti0, 61 argentea, (i0 -- - - -- Bakeri, 61 glauca, 60 Kosteriana, 6`1 Moerheimii, 60 - 5?-64 to the Pines, 49-56 44 - purpurea, 6>> - rubens, 64 - Kinsey, A. C., Lilacs, ~~3 - Malus Halliana Parkmannii, ~?3 Zumi calocarpa, ?8 ~Z Name, Publishing the horticultural, 12 -, Rules for selecting the horticultu- - - ral, I1 o -, Selecting the new horticultural,10 Naming of Horticultural Varieties, The, s~-13 ;3 1'ests, Vegetable, Picea, 58 - Schrenkiana, 63 sitchensis, 62, 63 Smithiana, 63 Wilsonii, 61I Pines, Simple Key to the, Pinus, 50 1 albicaulis, .i aristata, :i0 attenuata, 5`1 -~9-~6 - - . - - - Ayacahuite, ~'1 Banksiana, 55 Bungeana, 52 canariensis, ~-t - Abies, 3 i , Fig. 4 (b), 60, 61, - 64 - - ~.ars., 64 1 asperata, 61 - - - -_ bicolor, - 63 Breweriana 6~1, 63 1 Engelmanni, Fig. 5, 61, fi glauca, til, Fig. 6, fi?, ti3, Fig. 7, (i i. - - - albertiana, conica, li0 li:~ - - - - densata, 63 68 - Glehnii, caribaea, 54 Cembra, 51I 1 sibirica, .i t cembroides, .i Parryana, ~? t - Coulteri, 52, 5 densiflura, .i.5, 5ti oculus-draconis, 54 umbraculifera, 5,i - echinata, 34, 56 - flexilis, 51 - - - - - - - - 74 Pinus - koraiensis, Lambertiana, monticola, .51, Mugo, 55 - 51 51 1 - 52 -- - \"Aurore de Royghem,\" \" Beaute Celeste,\" 38 calendulaceum, 3 i , 38 38 8 - - \"Cardinal,\" \"Comte de 38 38 - compacta, 5.i - Flandre,'' 38 - - pumilio, 5.i 55 - \"Flamboyant,\" nigra austriaca, - -- Poiretiana, 55 palustris, 5~ parviflora, 51 1 glauca, 51 - Peuce, .51 Pinaster, ,i6 ponderosa, 52 scopulorum, 54 1 - pumila, 51 - - - -- \"Furst Camille von Rohan,\" gandavense, 37-40 \" General Trauff,'' 38 \"Gloria Vlundi,'' 38 - \" Heureuse Surprise,\" 38 - \" Josephine Klinger,\" 38 \"Julius Caesar,\" 38 - luteum, 37, 40 - 38 - - - - \"Minerva,\" 38 - pungens, 55 - radiata, 52 - resinosa, - 55 rigida, 52 Sabiniana, 5~ 1 - Strobus, 51 1 fastigiata, .i - - molle, 37, 38, 40 mucronulatum, 3 i , 40 nudiflorum, 37, 38 - obtusum japonicum, 37, 38 Kaempferi, 37, 38, 40 - - - - - \"Pallas,\" 38 \"Pucelle,\" 38 Schlippenbachii, 37, 38, 38 40 - roseum, 37 - nana, 51 sylvestris, 55 - i -- Vaseyi, 37 - - aurea, 5.i - viscosum, 37, 55 .i6 - - rigensis, 53 k Shrub collection, ? - - Watereri, - tabulaeformis, 54, 55, 56 -, Spruce, Needle of, Fig. 1 (b), Twig, Fig. 8 (b), 66 58 - Taeda, 52 Thunbergii, 55, Torreyana, 52 - virginiana, ,i,i Potato -- - blight, 7 bugs, 7 Pseudotsuga, 66 taxifolia, 66 - glauc:~, 66 __ Spruces, Simple Foliage Key to Hemlocks and, 5 i -64 Squash vine borers, 7 Striped cucumber beetles, ti i Styrax Obassia, l \"Sylva Telluriana,\" 8 Temperatures, minimum, ?3-26 i Thuja occidentalis, 17 Tsuga, 38 2 9 - -, Terminal bud, Fig. (b), 66 - canadensis, Fig. (a), (c), 58, .59 C. Rhododendron Rafinesque, S., 8 arborescens, 37-39 - - caroliniana, diversifolia, 59 58 7J ~-- Tsuga heterophylla, Mertensiana, .i9 Sieboldii, Fig. 2 59 -, Hardiness - Map, 53 in the Arnold Arboretum during during -- (b), .i8 Variety, definition uf, 9 Vasseur, Louis, z~ Vegetables, Planting, 1-8 -, Ylanting dates, l - Planting information, 1.-5 Winter Injury, to flower buds only winter 1942-43, Z.5-~6 -, plants killed to ground winter -, 1942-43, 28-30 plants partially injured during winter winter 1942-43, 30-34 -, plants uninjured during 1942-43, 35-36 during winter 19I~-~3, 34 Spring of next year. Subscription renewals for 1944 are now due. Send the subscription price of $1.00 to Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at your early convenience. These bulletins will be discontinued until 76 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23276","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d1608525.jpg","title":"1943-3","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1943,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24115","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24eb36f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Chinese New Year scene in Lily. Plate I, p. 3. Scenes in Canton before its Canton, showing both types of Chinese New Year partial destruction, showing Chinabells. Plate II, p. 3. Another Chinese New Year scene, with Chinese Sacred ornate Chinese porcelain. Plate III, p. 7. Lily, Peach branches and ~Shortin gnlac~folia. Plate IV, p. 15. a Composite drawing made 1843. Plate V, p. 19. Copy The of an in 1940 from portrait of Asa Gray made in about en~-ravin~; of Dr. Charles Wilkins Short. Plate VI, in the p. ~3. p. 27. Hyams Shortia specimen Gray Herbarium. Plate some VII, Showin~ the variations VIII, p. 43. in leaw es and buds of Euonymus species. Plate Fuony7nu.s FortunP2 varieties. Plate IX, p. 45. iii 111 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Flowers of the Chinese New Year","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24113","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24eab6d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Metcalf, Franklin P.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 9 FEBRUARY l~, 194~ FLOWERS OF THE CHINESE NEW YEAR NUMBER 1 of the most interesting customs in Canton, China, is that connected with the Chinese New Year, a variable date which may occur, according to the foreign calendar, some time during the month of January or February. On the Chinese New Year (February 15 of this year), every Chinese family in Canton feels the necessity of having in its home some flowers appropriate to the New Year season. All shops are likewise decorated. Every sampan, the home of the boat people, has its splash of color and so does the junk and flower boat. Without this symbol of life, and without the decorations of scarlet-red paper, the spirit of the New Year season seems lacking. To prepare for the great number of flowers demanded at this holiday season, peonies (Paeonia su\"~'ruticosa Anderson) are shipped from the north ; water lilies are imported from Chungchow, Fukien Province; villagers scour the hillsides for azaleas (Rhododendron spp.) and Chinabells (Enkianthus quirrque,florus Loureiro), and the peasant or farmer cuts branches from his flowering peach trees (Prunus per.cicn Linn.~ and brings them to the market. Through long custom two or three areas in Canton have been entirely turned over to this interesting flower market; the most celebrated is that region near the Sap Sam Hong district, but the broad street, Wing On Road is also used to some extent. In these two areas for the two or three days preceding the New Year and especially on the last day of the old year, the streets on both sides are literally lined with thousands upon thousands of flowering branches suitable to the New Year season. The water lilies are placed in shallow porcelain containers or in wooden tubs. The branches of peach and Chinabells are placed in porcelain jars or earthen jugs. Peonies and camellias are attractively arranged on wooden frames. All during the day and especially the last evening of the old year, the streets are crowded with a kaleidoscopic aggregation of cheerful, happy, hurrying, hustling humanity, most eager to purchase flowers for home, boat or shop needed on the morrow. The purchase is always OI~TH: accompanied by the ever old custom of bargainmg and good-natured haggling over prices. The prospective buyer asks the price and receives an answer; if the price is too much, he offers a lower price and if not accepted, he moves away. The owner calls out a slightly lower price but the prospective buyer moves on and tries the same process somewhere else. He may even return to the same seller and begin all over again until he obtains what he thinks is a just price. If, however, the seller agrees to his offer, the purchaser is honor bound to pay, even if the purchaser realizes too late that he has offered too much. Here one might see a prosperous merchant accompanied by his rickshaw coolie, carrying a large peach tree costing approximately five or six dollars Chinese currency ; jostling in the crowd next to him may be a poor ragged, grass-shod, rickshaw coolie, proudly carrying home a small branch of Chinabells (Enkianthus), costing possibly only two dunes. Or, one might see a group of well-dressed, hatless, joking, jovial, joyous students in long Chinese dark-blue, padded coats, for the air is cold and brisk ; or the ever present short dark-coated merchant or artisan's helper. Occasionally, in the early evening, one might see a group of gorgeous silk-clad, satin embroidered slippered, immaculately groomed, elegantly perfumed and brilliantly jade-bedecked Chinese girls, traveling always in groups or followed by the ever-present servant or \"amah.\" The \"amah\" acts as a bodyguard, and devotedly attends to the least wish or whim of her mistress. Perchance one might see an Englishman from Shameen, with brown coat, golf trousers and Scotchplaid golf socks, somewhat aloof, with heavy walking stick and gloves, out for a brisk walk ignoring the crowds, but occasionally stopping to admire or bargain for some choice flowers or an ancient bronze jar. Relatively few kinds of flowers are used for the New Year festival, the beginning of the first or holiday moon. The commonest flowers used during this holiday season are briefly discussed below. . Lily, Water Fairy Flower, or Chinese Sacred Lily (Narcissus \"Shiu Sin Fa.\" tasetta Linnaeus), This represents probably the most common flower of the China New Year festival and the Chinese people adore it for the pure snow-whiteness of its petals and its rich fragrance. This is the same species that is extensively grown in the United States. The contrast of these fragrant blossoms, with narrow elongated rich green leaves, bursting forth from out of the shaggy brown bulbs, symbolizes the beginning of a new year. It is always available and can be obtained at very low prices, ranging from one or two to four or five dimes, depending upon the variety and method of slicing the bulbs. There are two major types : those with split erect bulbs and erect stems with single or double fragrant flowers, and those with peculiarly cut and often horizontally sliced bulbs, resulting in numerous closely compact curved groups of closely associated flowers, giving a crowded horizontal and brilliantly colored mass of fragrant flowers. These are cut in such a way as 1. Chinese New Year [2 Photograph courtesy of Prof. G. W. Groff, Lingnan University, Canton, China. PLATE I. Chinese New Year scene in Canton, showing both types of Chinese New Year Lily. Note grass used for string, students in old and modern costume, and the merchant in background. beautiful and delicate designs simulating vartous object5. If the design especially pleasing the cost is considerably more. These are very fragrant and uttra<tive, and are prepared in such a manner that the bloom~ will be at their is to form beginning of the Chinese New Year. This constitutes <lurte all admirably discussed in a paper by McClure.'This industry is confined to a tiny area of about ten hamlet5 to the east of Yellow Mountain, Wung Shan. in the v icinityof Changchow, Suuthern Fukien. This plant and the Camellia are also very commonly used as flower mfferin~rs to the ~ariuu5 gods in the temple5, at which time the bearers ask for sons or prosperity for the New Year. muximum at the industry and has been 2. Chinabells (Enlrianlhue qrrinquPfloru.s Loureiro), \"'riu Chun~= Fa.\" Thts beautiful example of the Heath family (Ericaceae) is rather common in the nearby mountains and is extensively cut and brought into the market. Its beautiful pendulous clusters of white, pale pink or rose colored bell-like flowers make a very pleasing and appropriate New Year flower. Each cluster may have 4 to 15 flowers and the prospective buyer always tries to purchase the branch that has the most flowers in a cluster. If placed in large water jars, these branches will keep for a period of a week or two, the flowers gradually enlarging in size, later being accompanied by the developing of young, delicate green shoots and leaves which add considerably to the gay color scheme. Large clusters of flowers are supposed to brrng good luck. 3. Peach (PrunusPersica Linnaeus and forms), \"To.\" The large branches and in fact the entire trees of the peach are brought in regularly to the market. There are two or three color forms, ranging from pale pink to coral pink, and some with almost blood-red blossoms. The larger branches or trees are rather expensive and are more commonly seen in the large silk hongs (shops) or are purchased by the well-to-do. 4. Apricot (I'runu.s mnme Sieb. & Zuce.~, \"Mooi.\" This is only occasionally used and is not as common at the New Year time as the peach. It is, however, extensively cultivated in Chinese gardens. The flowers are a pale delicate pink and the double flowering forms are often pure white. The cut branches are not very satisfactory, as the flowers soon drop off. 5. Tree peony (Paeonia suffruticosa Anderson, P. moutan Sims), \"Mau Tan.\" These are not grown locally in Kwangtung ; each year they are shipped down from the north. This shrubby biternate-leaved plant has large beautiful attractive c pink flowers, often four to five inches across. The flowers should be fully open on r Hon~kong Naturalist Vol. III, p. 186-193, t. ~L6-~19, and fig. 1-L (1932). [4 Canton Photographs courtesy of Dr. W. W. Cadbury, Supt. Hospital, Lingnan University. Sun Yat-sen Medical College and PLATE II. Scenes in Canton before its partial destruction, showing Chinabells. New Year's day. If the weather is unusually cold, the buds do not open and often the seller is left with hundreds of plants on his hands, as the Chinese will not purchase them if they think the flowers will only be in bud on New Year's day. One rather cold year the gardener in charge of the Lingnan University greenhouse purchased a large number of these plants and forced them in the heated greenhouse, so that the plants that he forced were the only ones to flower in Canton on that particular Chinese New Year; they actually brought fabulous prices in the open market. This peony has a long history in China; before 600 A. D. it was primarily used for medicinal purposes, but after that date was extensively used as an ornamental. One kind has been used to give to friends as a gift on separation, or often as a family remembrance upon the return of some member after separation, in a way similar to the forget-me-not of America. The tree peony is called \"Hwa Wang,\" or King of Flowers, and has been cultivated extensively by nobility, the literary and the rich; it has become a favorite subject in art, in literature, in ceramics, in textiles, and in prose and poetry. It is often found associated with the Phoenix, the King of Birds, and these two together were extensively embroidered and depicted on the trousseaux of princesses. 6. Azalea or Rhododendron (Rhododendron Kuen.\" Simsii Pl. and cultivated forms A few years ago the only azaleas found in the New Year market were the native brick-red species (R. Sim.rii) and the delicate lovely lavender-tinted species (R. Ferrarae). Whole bushes were dug up from the nearby mountains and brought into the market. More recently Japanese varieties of azaleas have been introduced into the Chinese trade and many beautiful varieties of these are now found during this holiday seeson. As R. Simsii occurs commonly on the nearby mountains, grows vigorously, flowers abundantly, and is endowed with the favored brick red color of the holiday season, it has special significance at this time. By some, mostly R. of R. indicum Linnaeus), \"To spp., Ferrnrae Tate, R. however, it is supposed to be a tragic flower, in contrast to its smiling, bright, flashing beauty, and as one legend goes, it was supposed to spring from the tears of blood of the cuckoo. The cuckoo was supposed to be the reincarnation of a boy in search of his lost brother who was persecuted from home by his stepmother. 7. Camellia Ch' a. \" (Camellia jnponicn Linnaeus : Then japonicn ( L. ) Nois. ) , ` ` Shan This shrub with beautiful dark green, shining foliage and usually delicate pink flowers is seen in the market either as shapely shrubby bushes, beautifully cultivated in attractive flower pots, or as cut branches. Red and white forms are not often seen during the holiday season. The larger shrubs are expensive. This flower, as mentioned above, is extensively used as a floral offering to the temple gods when special requests for the New Year are presented. It may be 6 Photograph courtesy of Prof. G. W. Groff, Lingnan University, Canton, China. PLATE III. Another Chinese New Year scene, with Chinese Sacred Peach branches and ornate Chinese porcelain. L~ly, mentioned also in passing that this flower is never worn as an ornament in a lady's hair, for the large buds of the Camellia take a whole year to open. To the Chinese this would symbolize the fact that a woman would have to wait one whole year for a son-much too long a period-and so the Camellia is not used by women as a floral decoration. For this purpose the following species are used : \"Orchid tree\" (Aglaia odorata Lour. ) , \"Mai Tsai Lan or Shue Lan\"; \"Pearl orchid tree\" (Chloranthus spicata Makino), \"Chue Lan\"; \"White and Yellow Jade Orchid tree\" (Michelia alba DC., M. Chnmpaca Linn. ), but not, however, at the Chinese New Year. 8. Waxflower or Wilson), \"Lap Wintersweet (Chinzonanthus prnecox Linnaeus : Mertitia prnwo.r Mooi\" or \"La Mei Hua.\" This shrub with the flowers appearing before the leaves is occasionally seen. The delicate waxy yellow flowers with the inner sepals beautifully striped with pale purplish brown, are very fragrant and eagerly sought. Occasionally other flowers or fruits are found in the market at this season, such as Buddas' fingers (Citrus medica Linn. var. sarcodoctylus Swingle), flowers of the plum (Prunus japonica Thunb.), peculiar fruited species of ,Solanum, various dwarf forms of oranges, kumquats and orchids. It should also be mentioned that there are always a few practical jokers who cunningly and artistically prepare composite sprays of leaves of one species and flowers of another, which they try to sell at high prices because of their rarity, and take great delight in trying to fool the general public. Being a botanist any unusual blossom or fruit at once attracts my attention. The writer remembers, very much to his chagrin, the purchase of one of these beautiful hand-made floral fakes, which his Chinese companion, without saying a word, allowed him to purchase. Upon subsequent investigation this proved to be a clever, temporary, artificial arrangement between two entirely unrelated species. His Chinese compamon had a good laugh at the writer's 1 expense.I I am however, consoled by the fact that I have not been the only botanist thus \"taken in.\" One of Augustine Henry's Chinese collectors \"manufactured\" a dried botanical specimen by combining parts of two entirely different species so skillfully that when the specimen was studied at Kew it was described and illustrated as a new genus and a new species, Acti~aoti~aus sinensis Oliv. in Hook. Ic. 18: t. 1740. 1889. The author indicated in the original description that while the floral characters were those of Viburnum, yet the vegetative characters were those of Aesculus, the two genera of course belonging in totally unrelated families. The hoax was not detected until a year later when a critical re-examination of the type specimen showed that the collector had so skillfully attached the inflorescence of a species of Viburnum to a terminal leafy branch of an Aesculus that neither the highly skilled botanist who studied it nor the widely experienced artist who prepared the drawing, detected the artifact at the time the description and the drawing were prepared. FRANKLIN P. METCALF [ 8 :\/ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nursery Sources for Nut Trees","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24118","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24e8127.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 MARCH 13, 194~ . NUMBER 2 NURSERY SOURCES FOR NUT TREES entitled \" Nut Growing in the Northeastern 1 ; 45-64; Oct. 31, 1941~ over sixty varieties of nuts were recommended for trial in the northeastern United States. In the past, some of our practical minded readers have offered the just criticism that such published information is not nearly as valuable as if actual sources for such varieties are given. In these trying times, when plants with economic value are becoming increasingly important, it seems only fitting that sources for such plants be published when available. IN a recent number of Arnoldia States\" (Arnoldia, Vol. -- In this current issue of Arnoldia nursery sources for about forty of the sixty odd nut varieties discussed in the above-mentioned issue of Arnoldia are listed. Also, some one hundred other varieties are listed simply for the information of the prospective nut tree purchaser. For critical information concerning the relative merits of these varieties the reader is referred to Arnoldia, Vol. 1 ; 45-64 ; October 31, 1941. It will be noted that only nine sources are listed for nut trees. This does not mean that no other nurseries offer nut trees. Far from it! Many a nursery dealing with ornamentals will have a few desirable varieties of nut trees available, but for the purposes of listing sources in this bulletin, it was advisable to refer only to those northern nurseries which grow nut trees as a specialty. Although sources for about one hundred and fifty varieties have been found, only those starred have been recommended in the former issue of Arnoldia by Dr. L. H. MacDaniels. The others may or may not be of \"good\" quality. (Incidentally, Dr. MacDaniels did not mention persimmons.) However, this lengthy list of nut variety sources is here offered in the hope that it will materially assist home owners in acquiring a few nut trees for the home gardens. It shows that nut trees are available for spring planting in considerable variety and w e hope we have done our part in specifically pointing this out to the plant buyny pubhc. 9J Northern Nurseries 1. Benton & Smith Nut Tree specializing in Nut Trees Nursery; Wassaic, New York Nursery; Eagle Creek, Oregon 3. Gellatly's Nut Nursery; Box 19, Westb.mlc, British Columbia, Canada 4. Indiana Nut Nursery; Rockport, Indiana 5. J. F. Jones Nurseries ; Box 356, Lancaster, Pennsylvania 6. Nut Tree Nurseries; Downingtown, Pennsylvania 7. Mountam Nut Company ; Roanoke, Virginia 8. E. A. R~ehl Nursery; Godfrey, Illinois 9. Sunny Ridge Nursery; Swarthmore, Pennsylvania 2. Carroll Bush Nut Tree Varieties and Their Sources CHESTNUTS American Chestnut (Castanea dentata) Hobson 4, 7, 9 . Hathaway 2 Honey Big Boy 2 2 2 *Homan 2 , . European Chestnut (Castanea sativa) *Reliable 7 *Yankee 9 Zimmerman 9 Quercy Japanese Chestnut (Castanea crenata~ Chinese Chestnut (Castanea molli,ssima) , , *Abundance 2 *Carr 4, 7, 9 Austin 4, Murden 7 Vibbert 7 7, 9 *Stoke (mollissima k orentcc~ 7 HAZELNUTS AND FILBERTS Hazelnut and Filbert (Corylus ,s~ecies~ 9 ' *Barcelona 2, 5, 6, Bawden 3 Brag 3 Giant) 2, 7 Holder 3 '~Italian Red 5 .(ones Hybrid 5 2 Longfellow . Brixnut 7 3 Carey3 Nixon 2 2 Nonpare~l ~ Clackamas 2 Comet 3 3 Crai~ 6 Daviana 2, p, UuChilly 2, 5, 6, Nooksack 2 Nottingham 9 ~L Haller * (Geantes de Halle, Hall's l Scherf White Aveline 5, 6 Winlcler 8, 9 . ` - Variety recommended or discussed in Arnoldia Vol. 1, 45-64, MacDaniels of Cornell University. by Dr. L. H. 10 Pecan (Carya illinoensis, C. pecan) *Goheen Hagen1 I Busseron 4, 5, 6, 9 Gallatin 4 Giles 4 *Greenriver 4, 5, 6, Indiana 4, 5, 9 9 Hand 1 Minnie 8 Nlurdock 1 *Neilson 8 6 Romig Kentucky 9 *Major 4, *Posey 4, Hicans 9 Stanley 6 5 5, Stratford 6, 9 (C. laci~iiosa X C. 5, 9 illinoensis) - *Whitney *Wilcox 1 1 9 Bixby 4, 6, *Burlington *Des Moines 9 *Gerardi 9 *McCallister 2, Anthony Brooks 8 1 Hickory Hybrids 4 (C. cordiformisX C. ovata) 8 Berger (C. tomentosa X C. laciniosa) 1 Creager (C. cordiformis X C. ocata) 8 Beaver Shagbark Hickory (Carya ouata~ Fairbanks (C. cordiformis X C. ovata) 9 5, 6, 8, 5, 8 8 *Pleas (C. cordiformisXC. illinoensis) Siers (C.cord~f'ormisXC.tomentosa) 8 Weiker (C. ovata X C. laciniosa) 8 WALNUTS *Davis 1 *Fox1 *Glover 1, Black Walnut (.Iuglan.s nzgrrr~ *Allen1 Beck 8 Benton 1 Booth I 8 Mintle 1, D9yers 1, 5, 6, 8 8 ~ Oakes 8 *Ohio 1, 4, 5, 6, 7 Pinecrest 1, 8 '~'Clark 1, '~Cresco1 Rohwer 8 Sifford 1, 7, 8 Edras 8 Edmunds 8 *Snyder Hadley 8 Hepler 8 3 Impit *Kettler 8 Korn 1 I,amb Curly 4, 7 Metcalf 8 1, 8 Sparrow 1, 8 *Stabler 1, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 Stambaugh Swartz 8 '~ . 8 1, 9 *Tasterite I, 7, 8, Ten Eyk Thorp1 11 I 8 5, Thomas 1, 9, 4, 5, 6, 8, 9 Black Walnut (cont.) Butternut (Juglans cinerea~ . Todd 8 1, Wanda 1, 8 Weber 1 1 Wetzel I *VViard 8 Buckley 8 Creighton 8 Herrick Johnson 8 8 Lingle William Penn 6 Persian Sherwood 8 (or English) 5 Walnut (Juglans regia) Alpine 2 Breslau *Thill 8 *Van der Poppen Wright 6 Heartnut 8 Hybrids (Juglans sieboldiaua \" cord?f'ormis~ *Bates 5 7 Broad view 1, *Carpathian 7 *Crath 1, Eureka 5 5 Grenoble Hall 5 D. 1 Calender 3 Canoka 3 Franquette 2, 7, 9 *Faust 8 *Fodemaier I Mackenzie 3 O. K. 3 _ 2 King 9 Mayette 5, 7, 7 Payne 5, 2 Pekin Sinclair 5 *Walters 7, Wright]1 Buartnut . 8 (Juglans cinerea X J. siebold- . Watt 3 iaua cordiformis) Crofter 3 Leslie 3 Okanda 3 Note: Though can that not considered nuts, there are a few varieties of persimmons well be included in this list of economically valued trees. PERSIMMONS American Persimmon . (Diospyros vir- Penland 4 Oriental Persimmon giniana) Buhrman 6 4 Colby Early Golden .5, 6, (Diospyros kaka~ Emperor 9 9 Hicks 4 Josephine 5 Kansas 9 Killen 9 Lambert 5, 6 M~ller 4 Great Wall 9 Honan Red 2 Kawakami 2 Lotus 2 9 Peiping l Sheng Tamopan 2 DONALD WS MAN 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Asa Gray and His Quest for Shortia galacifolia","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24111","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24ea36a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Jenkins, Charles F.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 APRIL 10, 194~ NUMBERS 3-4 ASA GRAY AND HIS QUEST FOR SHORTIA GALACIFOLIA word bewitched has antipodal meanings. The first, sinister, fearsome, savoring of Salem trials and clouded minds; the second charmed, enchanted, captivated. In this second sense Asa Gray was bewitched. For forty years, the greater part of his productive life, the memory of a fragmentary, dried, incomplete specimen in a neglected herbarium cabinet in France, haunted him. Child of his naming, the assurance of its existence as a living plant and the hope of its rediscovery were with him constantly. A shy, evergreen ground cover with damty, creamy-white flowers in early spring; cheerful, shmy, bright green leaves m summer ; a winter coloring rich and rare-it well deserved his lifelong devotion. When the search was ended and the ~isible assurance of its existence was placed in Gray's hands, he could well exclaim, as he did: \"Now let me sing my nun~ dimittis.\" On November 9, 18~8, Gray sailed in the packet ship Philadelphia for Europe. He had received appointment to a professorship in the newly planned University of Michigan at Ann Arbor. As the buildings were not ready he was granted a year's leave of absence, a salary of $1500.00 and $.5000.00 was placed at his disposal to purchase books for the new University library. The main object of his trip, however, was to examine the original sources of American flora as they existed in the principal herbaria of Europe. After a twenty-one day voyage he landed in Liverpool and then began a year crowded with rich cultural and educational experiences. Everywhere he made friends among the botanists and scientists and everywhere he found in the old established herbaria specimens of American plants which had been collected through the past century by a long list of botanists and travellers. Finding the herbarium specimen in France THE By the middle of March Gray had reached I'ans where he remained nearly a month. Here he worked over the collections of Andre Michaux ~1746-180~), that indefatigable collector and botanist, who fifty years before had spent eleven years 13 States, sending home to France great quantities of botanical treasAmong these m a cabinet of unidentified plants was a faded, incomplete specimen with the label: \"Hautes montagnes de Carolinie. An pyrola apec. ? An genus novum?\" In his carefully kept Journal Andre Michaux not only te115 of the finding of the plant, but gives careful directions that future botanists might also in the United ures. locate it in the \"High Mountains of Carolina.\" Michaux's Journal in French, as written, is not readily available, nor is there a translation of the whole Journal for English readers. Through the courtesy of Professor Edith Philips, of the French Department of Swarthmore College, the following translation of that small portion relating to the finding of Shortia is here presented. It will give some idea of the hardships borne by the botanist in his travels and covers his experiences on four disagreeable winter days when he came upon the little plant which has intrigued botanists for one hundred and fifty-four years. The roads became more difficult as we approached the headwaters of the Keowee [spelled Kiwi by Michaux] on the 8th of December, 1788....Two miles before arriving there I recognized the Mngnolia montnnn which has been named M. cordata or auriculata by Bartram. There was in this place a little cabin inhabited by a family of Cherokee Indians. We stopped there to camp and I ran off to make some investigations. I gathered a new low woody plant with saw-toothed leaves ereepin~,r on the mountain at a short distance from the ri~er. The weather changed and it rained all night. Although we were in the shelter of a great Strobus pine our clothing and our covers were soaked. About the middle of the night I went to the cabin of the Indians, which could scarcely hold the family composed of eight persons, men and women. There were besides six big dogs who added to the filth of this apartment and to its inconveniences. The fire was placed in the middle without any opening in the top of the cabin to let the smoke out; there were plenty of holes, however, to let the rain through the roof of this house. An Indian came to take my place by the fire and offered me his bed which was a bear's skin. But finally the rain having stopped and annoyecl by the clo<~s which kept biting each other continually to keep their place by the fire, I returned to the camp. This place which is called the source of the Keowee is incorrectly so indicated. It is the junction of two other rivers or large torrents which unite at this place and which is known only as the forks of the Keowee. On December 11it froze hard and the air was clear and keen. I noticed a chain of high mountains which extended from west to east and where the frost was little felt in places exposed to the sun. I gathered a Juniperus I Michaux, F. A. Journal of Andre Michaux. 17H7-1796, with an introduction and notes by Charles Sprague Sargent. Proc. Amer. Philos. Soc. 26: 1-145. 1HH9. The introductory part was read before the American Philosophical Society at its meeting on October 19, l8Nti. The translation here given was made from the printed text. p. 45-46. The priceless original journal has been removed to a place of safety for the \"duration.\" \" 14 C Q.) ~U N U~ a o~, ~, .. . <:. <: wo GTw \" U p ~ 'b C U C m O: U. . Od AA b~ \"\";0; ~.... .3 .o 0 wU a crJ _. P. .I s n! Q.) 0.; E i: ~ U $,8 ~-5 ~x i H U ~ ~ 0 S x F.1 +n G ~repens~ which I had not yet seen in the southern part of the United States but it must be noted that I saw on these mountains several trees of the northern regions such as Betula nigra, Cornus alternifolia, Pinus Strobu,s, Abies, Spruce, etc. We crossed a space of about three miles in the midst of Rhododendron maximum. I came back to camp with my guide at the head of the Keowee and gathered a large quantity of the low woody plants with the sawtoothed leaves that I found the day I arrived. I did not see it on any other mountain. The Indians of the place told me that the leaves had a good taste when chewed and the odor was agreeable when they were crushed, which I found to be the case. Direction,s for finding this plant The head of the Keowee is the junction of two torrents of considerable size which flow in cascades from the high mountains. This junction takes place in a small plain where there was once a Cherokee village. On descending the river to one's left and the the right, one finds at about 100-300 feet from the junction, a path formed by the Indian hunters.' It leads to a brook where one recognizes the site of an Indian village by the peach trees which still exist in the midst of the underbrush. Continuing on this path one soon reaches the mountains and one finds this plant which covers the ground along with the Epigaea repens. from the mountains which face north on junction of these two torrents with In his journal for April 8, 1839, Gray records the find ~n the herbarium of the Paris Museum which immediately aroused his interest: \"But I have something better than all this to tell you. I have discovered a new genus in Michaux's herbarium-at the end, among plantae ignotae. It is from that great unknown region, the high mountains of North Carolina. We have the fruit, with the persistent calyx and style, but no flowers, and a guess that I made about its afl'tnities has been amply borne out on examination by Decaisne and myself. It is allied to Galax, but is 'un tres distinct genus,' having axillary one-flowered scapes (the flower large and a style that of a Pyrola, long and declined). Indeed I hope it will settle the riddle about the family of Galax, and prove Richard to be right when he says Ordo Ericarum. I claim the right of a discoverer to affix the name. So I say, as this is a good North American genus and comes from near Kentucky, it shall be christened Shortia, to which we will stand as godfathers. So Shortia galacifolia, Torr. and Gr., it shall be. I beg you to inform Dr. Short, and to say that we will lay upon him no greater penalty than this necessary thmg-that he make a pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina this coming summer and procure the flowers.\" Charles Wilkins Short (1794-1863) and Asa Gray never met. Their friendship was founded on a voluminous correspondence and a mutual respect for the botan- Sargent notes, \"This path still exists very much in the same condition, probably, chaux found it a hundred years ago.\" Proc. Am. Philos. Soc. 26: 47. 1889. 16 as Mi- _, ical writings and attainments of each other. Both had been graduated in medicine and both were college instructors in science. Short was Gray's senior by sixteen years. He never saw the dainty little plant so honorably named, nor the dried specimen in the Paris herbarium. This and the few lines in Torrey and Gray's Flora of North America were all that were definitely known of it until fourteen years after Dr. Short's death. Apparently the latter never made the penalty pilgrimage to the mountains of Carolina in search of his namesake. His own large collection of dried plants passed to the Academy of Natural Sciences in Philadelphia but his name is still to be found on the twenty-five thousand herbarium specimens he is said to have generously distributed to like-minded enthusiasts throughout the world. The search of the Carolina mountains Returning from his trip abroad, Gray reached home early in November, 1839, immediately plunged into the task of completing the Flora of North America. Shortia, however, was always in his mind. It was :l9ichaux's incomplete and misleading label \"Hautes montagnes de Carolinie\" on the herbarium specimen in Paris that delayed for nearly forty y ears the satisfaction he was to have in holding in his hand a li~ing plant. In anticipation of a botamzing trip Dr. Gray now consulted Michaux's journal. But one must read carefully to find the reference, although in all the journal no species location is so faithfully described as in that of Shortia, but Gray unfortunately missed the significance of DZichaux's directions, or did not realize that the passage reproduced above appertained to the much desired Shortia. With two friends, John Carey and James Constable, he started on his first quest late in June, 1841. To the \"High Mountains'' they went, Roan, Iron, Grandfather, Black and others, all over 5000 feet in height. Michaux had also visited them. He recorded in his journal that on the 30th of August, 1794, standing on the summit of Grandfather, which he thought was the highest peak in all the Appalachians, he and his guide, John Davenport, had chanted the Marsellaise and cried Vive 1'Amerique et la Republique Fran~aise, Vive la Liberte !\" The Gray exploring party made its headquarters in the little town of Jefferson, the County seat of Ashe County, North Carolina. None of the party knew that Shortia flowered in late March or early April, nor did they know at what altitude it grew. Reporting on his extended trip in a classical account which he wrote for Sir William J. Hooker, Gray says: \"We were unsuccessful in our search for a remarkable undescribed plant with a habit of Pyrola and the foliage of Galax, which was obtained in the high mountains of Carolina. The only specimen extant is among the Plantae incognitae' of the Michauxian herbarium, in fruit only; and we were anxious to obtain flowering specimens, that we might complete its history ; as I have long wished to dedicate theplant to Professor Short, of Kentucky, whose attainments and eminent ser~ ices to North American botany are well known and appreciated both at home and abroad. \"Inafootnote from this quoted passage is the first published description of the genus Shortia Torrey and Gray. and e > ~ 1 ~' Two years passed and the position at Michigan having been abandoned, on April 30, 1841, Gray was appointed to the Fisher Professorship of Natural History in Harvard College. Again Shortia called him and for nearly three months tn 1848, this time with another friend, William S. Sullivant, he herborized in the same general territory, the happy hunting ground of many distinguished botanists, both before and since. But again he was searching in the wrong place and again was disappointed. In neither trip did he come within many miles of where z the little plant had been first discovered. Ur. John Torrey was the first to suggest as early as 18.i~, that ~Shortirr wats probabl.B an early spring plant and further that it might disappear after flowering and perfecting its seed. \"One should be pretty early on the ground to find it in Nuwer,\" he wrote l)r. Short whu was anticipatinyjourney to the Carolina mountains in quest of it. John Carey about the same time was urging Dr. Short to ascertain the name and whereabuuts of Michaux's old guide, John Davenport, tiwnt 3 whom he might learn his track \"in general if not in particular.\" Rediscovery It wa5 at last! l~Iay, 18I I, that se~enteen year old George McQueen Hyams (1861Statesville, N. C., found Shortia growing on the banks of the Catawba River near Marion, the county seat of McDo~ell County, N. C.,' some seventy miles in a direct line from the site of Michaux'S discovery. His father, M. E. Hyams (1819-1891), was an herbalist but did not know the plant and eighteen months later sent a specimen for identification to a friend, Joseph W. Congdon of East Greemiclr, R. I. He in turn wrote Dr. Gray telling him he thought he had Shortia. The latter wrote \"send it on\" and at last the search of nearly forty years was at an end. Dr. Gray was triumphant. \"Nu other botanist has the news,\" he hastened to write, on October ~1, 18'78, to his close friend and fellow botanist William M. Canby, who was to be the first to share with him the jubilain 1931) of Notes of a botanical excursion to the mountains of North Carolina, etc. with remarks on the botany of the higher Alleghany Mountains, in a letter to Sir Wm. J. Hooker. Am. Jour. Sci. 42: 1-49. 1842. also pubhshed in London Jour. Bot. 1: 1-14, 217237. 184~L, 2: 113-125. 1843, 3: 230-~14~1. 1844; reprinted in Scientific papers of Asa Gray, selected by Charles S. Sargent 2: ~dl-70. 1889. some tSee Gray, A. 2For an account of the second journey see Gray, A. Musci A lleghaniensis, sive Spicilegia Muscorum atque Hepaticarum quos in itinere a Marylandia ad Georgiam per tractus monttutn A. D. lYIDCCCXLIII, decerpserunt Asa Gray et W. S. Sullivant....Am. Jour. Sci. II 1: 70-81. 1846 (p. vs-sl). Letter from John Carey to C. W. Short edited Sci. Soc. 57: 1~2. 1941. by Prof. W. C. Coker. Jour. Elisha Mitchell for fifty years a well known plantsman and collector of Biltmore, N.C., says all the stations of Shortia in McDowell County, where it was rediscovered in 18?7, have been destroyed with the exception of one small colony. He has found it in nearby Burke County where it has increased considerably in the last twenty-five years. rF.M.Crayton 18 0 ~ 2 e co ,~ ~ w o o '~ x I ~ co fl G CS m ~z w 3 ow c ~ '!. w o~ ~. o ' e Q wo r o a~ .. U . ,fl c ~ m m x s S~ bC O # ~3 C ~ y c ~, B o o .c ~, ~~ J 0 g a~ U0 y 6T4 rna H I~1 over the rediscovery. In the period of forty years of waiting, many deserved honors had come to him, including college degrees and memberships in fifty learned and cultural societies throughout the world. A few months previously he had been elected a member of the Academie des Sciences of the Institut de France, one of tion the most coveted rewards to a scientific man. Yet the discovery he was communicating to his friend, \"has given me,\" he said, \"a hundred times the satisfaction that the election to the Institut did. \" And then he contxnues: \"If you will come here I can show you what will delight your eyes and cure you effectively of the skeptical spirit you used to haveabout Shortia galacifolia. It is before me with corolla and all from North Carolina ! Think of that! :lZy long faith rewarded at last. \" Dr. Gray wrote to M. E. Hyams,l October ~?'7, 1878, telling him how much immortality had been lost for his son by not sending the specimen when it was found eighteen months before, in order that the description might have been included in the edition of the Flora which had gone to press in the meantime, but promising to make his name famous through an article in \"Silliman's Journal pro tem.\" He also informed M. E. Hyams, that he or Mr. Canby, or both, would be down the following May, call for the boy and ask to be taken to the spot. Mr. Hyams in replying, October 31, tells of the finding of the plants : \"~'e were passing along the road and my attention was called to an elevated hillside that I could not ascend as being at the time rather exhausted, being sixty years old, requested him [his son] to ascend and bring whatever was in flower. I have forgotten the locality, but he is fully known to it, as he lived within two miles of the place for ~ several years. \"2 Now that a definite station for Shortia had been located, Dr. Gray early in the spring of 1879organized a real excursion to see it growing in the wild. Mrs. Gray and her brother with the latter's wife and their two daughters and his botanical friends, ~'illiam DI. Canby of Wilmington, Del., Dr. Charles S. Sargent of Brookline, Mass., and J. H. Redfield of Philadelphia, Penna., composed the party. The four principals of the party arrived in Statesville, N. C. by train and were entertained by a Mr. Wallace, a leading citizen of the town. Redfield wrote a full account of the trip but only that portion relating to Shortia is mcluded here. He says3 \"The recent rediscovery of Shortia in North Carolina has created much xThe interest of M. E. Hyams in botany was lifelong and enthusiastic. A son relates that when he would take his boys walking he would bid one look up and the other look down so they would miss nothing. He was a purchasing agent and collector of medicinal plants for a large Baltimore drug house His home was in Statesville, N.C. from 1870 until his death in 1891. The botanical fame which Dr. Gray promised George M. Hyams as the rediscoverer of Shortia did not materialize. Removed from the influence of his father he lost interest in botany and became the proprietor of a general store and postmaster at Old Fort, N.C. where he was a respected and influential citizen. He died at Old Fort in 1932. zOriginal letter in Gray Herbarium. `~ Redfield, J. H. Notes of Club. 6: 331-339. 1879. a botanical excursion into North Carolina. Bull. Torrey Bot. ~' 20 of many years had particularly to the author of the genus the recovery was somewhat like that of a longlost child....The object was not only to see Shortia but to find more of it if possible and to explore course some portions of the mountains which the oldest member of the party [Dr. Gray] had v istted in l 841 and 1843.... \" A wsit to the root and herb warehouse belonging to V~'allace Brothers and under the charge of Mr. Hyams, furnished evidence that this branch of industry has reached an extent and importance of which few are aware. The printed catalogue of indigenous plants, dealt in by this house, enumerates about 630 species.... These simples find a large market, both in this country and Europe, and the orders come mainly from the wholesale druggist5 and the manufacturers of patent medicines. Think of a single order for fifteen tons of Hepatica triloba!... \"Bemg now in McDowell County, the Shortia locality was visited under the guidance of 111r. George M. Hyams the actual discoverer. In the secluded and well protected station, well over-shadowed by Rhododendrons and Magnolias, was seen the little colony of the plant, so long sought and by many so long doubted. Its companions were Mitchella repens, Asnrum Virginicum and Galn.r aphylla. The space over which the plant extended was perhaps 10 feet X 30 and m all there may have been 50 to 100 plants. As the plant multiplies by stolons it is remarkable that its area should be thus restricted and since in the struggle for life of two allied plants the weaker must go,' Dr. Gray suggested the possibility that its stronger cousin, the Galax, had crowded out the Shortia. And here indeed, m what may be the last foothold of the rarity, Galn,r appeared to be actually doing so. Yet the plants, though comparatively few, were vigorous and healthy. Other stations may be looked for; but they must be hard to find. When we consider the long search which has been made for this plant, how all the mountain region of the Carolinas and 1'ennessee has been examined by the sharp optics of Buckley, Rugel, bI.A.Curtis, Dr. Gray, Canby, Le Roy and Ruger, the Vaseys, elder and younger, Chickering and others, it is very certain that if there be other localities I \"1 they must be 'few and far between.' Asa Gray never saw Shortia in bloom in its native mountains, nor did he ever visit the forks of the Keowee. Shortly after his return to Cambridge he wrote to Dr. Short's daughter: Botanic Garden, Cambridge, Mass. 9 Aug. 5, 18 i Hon. and dear Madam: I respond at once to your letter of Aug. lst, and send you the announcement in Silliman's Journal, on which (& on a later) notice the article in the \"Garden\" must have been founded. interest among botanists.... Searches repeated in the proved fruitless, so that to the botanical fraternity and See also Gray's account of the rediscovery of Shortao. covered. Am. Jour. Sci. III. 16: 483-485. 1878. 21 Gray, A. Shortia galacifolia redis- Year after year have I hunted for that plant! And I grew sorrowful at hav- ing named after Dr. Short a plant that nobody could find. So conspicuous for its absence had this rarity become, that friends of ours botanizing in the mountains two years ago, were accosted with the question-\"Found Shortia y et?\"-from people who had seen our anxious search for it. After all, the rediscovery was accidental, and by one not a botanist. Few botanical events excited more interest at home and abroad ; and your honored father is commemorated by perhaps the most interesting flower in N. America, with a counterpart in Japan. Well my wife and I with three other botanists, passed the month of June 1 in a visit to the discovered locality-a small patch, at the foot of the mountains, and in a diligent search for more-as it no doubt belongs higher up in the mountains. We did not,find more of it. But I am not yet 69 years old, and I hope to try once more, having now narrowed the region in wh~ch the search should be made with some confidence. But we had a delightful journey. When your memorial is printed please let me have a copy of it. Consider I have an interest in the subject of it next to his descendants. Excuse hurried line from a very busy man, & poor writer, and believe me to be always, Yours very Asa sincerely, Gray (P.S.) I have had more or less to do with the naming (besides the genus) of several species for Dr. Short. Among them Carex Shortii, Viscaria Shortii [now Lesquerella globosa in Gray 7th ed. ~, Aster Shortii, Solidogo Shortzi. A.G The flowering specimens are left in the hands of Mr. Hyams who is (P.S.) a plant dealer-Statesville, N. C. They have been gathered scantily not to endanger the stock. Next year you shall have a dried specimen, or better a plant to flower for yourself. A pretty but modest thing. A.G.' Dr. Sargent finds Shortia Dr. Sargent was in 1879 and again not satisfied with the meagre results of the search for Shortia visited the Carolinas in the early autumn of 1886 hunting for mentioned by Michaux. At Sapphire, Transylvania County, he and Mr. Stiles who accompanied him, were met by Frank E. Boynton N.C., of Highlands. One evening after a botanizing trip Dr. Sargent produced a leaf and asked what it was. Mr. Boynton thought it might be Galax but examining it more closely said he did not know. Mr. Stiles jokingly said : \"That is Shortia,\" and it turned out so to be. It was a coincidence that in the evening mail the following letter arrived from Dr. Gray : Magnolia cordata, ILetter in a collection of Dr. Short's letters at the University of North Carolina. Published in the Jour. Elisha Mitchell Sci. Soc. 57: lb?. 1941. 22 > !\/ ,~....,:....._,~ PLATE VI. Copied from an eugraving of Dr. Charles Wilkins Short owned by the American Philosophical Society; there is also a copy of this in the Jane Loring Gray collection of portraits of botanists at the Gray Herbarium. , _ September 17, My dear 1886. Sargent: a discovering were with you. I can only say crown yourself with glory by habitat-the original habitat of Shortia which we will believe Michaux found near where Magnolia cordata came from in that first expedition. V~'ould I Yours, ever, Asa Gray Unfortunately Dr. Sargent could not recall where he had found the Shortia leaf. He and his party had travelled all day over rough mountain country searching for Magnolia cordafa. So the two Boynton brothers were sent back to locate the growing plants from which the leaf had been plucked. Frank Boynton remembered that Dr. Sargent and he had passed through Bear Camp, a small settlement on Bear Camp Creek, a little stream flowing into the Horse Pasture River, which in turn enters the Keowee. Here they found Shortia and gathered a small amount and it was one of these living plants which Dr. Sargent placed in Dr. Gray's hands as coming from the Michaux land \"the headwaters of the Keowee,'' for it was at this place that :lTichaux first found it on December 8, 1788. Two reports from Frank E. Boyntonl associated with Dr. Sargent in his botanical excursion in search of .5hortia and Magnolia cordata, aroused the enthusiams of botanists two generations ago. Mr. Boynton's home was in Highlands, N.C. near the South Carolina line, which town boasts of being the highest incorporated town east of the Jlississippi River. The following is a quotation from his letter to Professor Sargent, November 7, 1886. Several days ago I went to Cashiers Valley to get seed of the Rhododendron Vaseyi for you. After getting it I could not withstand the temptation to hro down through the country and look up Shortia. I made a sort of calculation as to the direction in which the forks of the Toxaway and Horse Pasture were from me, and started on through the woods. I went through some rough country and finally came to a little settlement called Bear Camp way down in a deep cove. Here I found Ilex mollis.... A small stream called Bear Camp Creek runs through the little valley. I followed the br. down from several miles and finally came to a bank with .Shorlia. There was rods covered with it just as Galax covers places about here.\" Frank E. Boynton accompanied by his brother Charles L. Boynton made a trip in the spring of 1889, from their home in Highlands, N.C., to the headwaters of the Keowee. The account will aid other botanists who may wish to ascertain if Shortia still grows m the great profusion and in the location described. He writes2 1From Boynton's original letter Boynton's letter to Asa Gray. in the Gray Herbarium, Cambridge, as Dr. Sargent sent 2Boynton, ton is still living, in poor in Lodi, California. F. E. The home of ,~hortict. Gard. & Forest 2: 2lt 215. 1889. Frank E. health, at Old Fort, N.C. His brother Charles L. Boynton is Boynliving ~Z4_ \" We camped the first night at the White Water Falls, which alone are worth a considerable journey to see. The Jocassee Valley, our destination, is at the mouth of White V~'ater Creek or rather at the Junction of White Water and Devil Fork. I wished to see if Shortia w as growing as high up in the mountains as these Falls, which are at least 1000 feet above Jocassee. No Shortia was found, however, until we reached the valley, which has an altitude of about 1200 feet and here it grows by the acre. Every little brooklet is lined w ith it. Most of these little water courses are in deep narrow gorges where the sun hardly penetrates, except during the middle of the day. All these steep banks are literally covered with Shorlia. VG'hat is comforting to the botanist is that it can hardly be exterminated. It is on land too steep to be cultivated and there is such an abundance that no amount of collecting can ever effect it strenuously. Our party took away bushels of it, and no one could tell that a plant had been disturbed, so thickly it is growing. No idea of the beauty of this plant can be formed until it has been seen in its native home. The mass of glossy green and white, once seen, can never be forgotten. \"The home of Shortia is a strange mixture of North and South. As a rule it grows under the shade of rhododendrons and tall kalmias. Hemlock and white pine of splendid dimensions are very common.... To see Shortia in blossom and in its glory one must get there about the 20th of March, not later than March 25.\" Another later botanist, Professor Henry J. Oosting, of Duke University, tells of herborizing in 19BH in another nearby region. He says, \"the Shortia in Toxaway Gorge is scattered along the low banks of a stream for perhaps a half mile, as I recall. It grows in dense mats two to six feet in diameter. The locality is rather maccessible for, as the guide remarked, 'it's five miles down into the gorge a~H and fifteen miles out.' I saw it in the rain and got no Satisfactory pictures.\" ' Recent searches for the plant An examination of specimens in thirty one of the leadmg herbaria in the United States discloses ninety-eight sheets of Shortia. Of these forty-four were collected along the banks of the Whitewater River in Oconee County, S.C. Fourteen more are listed as coming from the Jocassee Valley, also in Oconee County. Thirteen were found in McDowell County, N. C. more definite locations not being given. Eight were found in the Toxaway Gorge in Transylvania County, N. C., three along the Bear Camp Creek and two along the Horse Pasture River, both locations 4 in Transylvania County. One each from `the mountains of N. ~'. Carolina,\" \"4 miles N.W. Salem, S.C.'' and \"Macon Co., N.C.'' The remainder are specimens with labels giving no definite locality or come from cultivated plants. The Biltmore herbarium was very generous in distributing specimens, a number of sheets bearing their imprint. The Savannah River and its tributary, the Tugaloo, form the boundary between South Carolina and Georgia. The Tugaloo and the Seneca form the Savannah. The Seneca is made by the Little River and the Keowee and the latter in turn is 25 formed by the Whitewater and the Toxaway. The junction of these two latter Oconee, the northwesternmost county of South Carolina where this state joins Georgia and North Carolina. The rocky gorges of these tumbling streams are the native haunts of the little plant with the serrate leaves and is the wilderness first botanically explored by the intrepid Michaux. The North and South Carolina state line runs directly through the Shortin hiding places and ~t is doubtful whether the early botanists knew in which state they were collecting. All the known Shortia land is now included in two great national forests. The Natahala National Forest embraces the five western counties of North Carolina and includes in its limits the Joyce Kilmer Memorial Park. The Sumter National Forest, which immediately adjoins it on the south within the State of South Carolina, embraces a large part of Oconee County. In 1940-1 the Forest authorities, as reported by Mr. Ralph M. Nelson, Acting Director, made a search for colonies of Sfzorlia on national forest land. They rea ported \"no colonies were found.\" Whether foresters are the best searchers for little ground cover, is a question for they have been trained to follow Edshy, ward Everett Hales' injunction \"look up and not down.\" But much of the area within the limits of the forests has not yet been acquired by the Government and Shortia colonies may occur on privately owned land where the rangers did not search. It is incredible that a species that may have occurred in \"acres and acres\" which has been searched by keen-eyed botanists and collectors has been entirely exterminated. To the casual observer, except when they are in bloom, Shortia resembles Galas and it is difficult to distinguish from it. Undoubtedly Shortia can still be found in abundance in many an unfrequented gorge along the tributaries of the Keowee. streams lies in Growing Shortia in the North .Shortia plants may be obtained from a number of nurserymen and collectors who specialize in the flora of the Carolina mountains. An authority writing for Bailey's Encyclopedia of Horticulture, saysthat it fails to set seed as the stem withers before the seed matures. Apparently no plants are propagated in this way. It would be well for botanists and growers to note whether this condition generally prevails. Shortir~ was grown successfully in the Arnold Arboretum without special care for twenty-five years (it has recently disappeared, however, but is now being reestablished) and may be found in many wild gardens throughout the country. It is hardy up to the White Mountains of New Hampshire where the thermometer goes forty degrees below zero. It has been successfully grown for fifteen years on the estate of F. Cleveland Morgan some twenty miles northwest of Montreal, Canada, and has been reported as cultivated at Grand Metis, on the Gaspe Peninsula, one hundred and fifty miles further north than Montreal. There are numerous reports of failure, however, as it often lives for a while and then pines away and disappears. These failures are probably due to the soil and location and not the climate. [ 26 PLATE VII. The Hyams Shortia specimens in the Gray Herbarium. The detailed drawing is by Isaac Spra~ue. It has been growing at the Hemlock Arboretum in Philadelphia for several years. A six inch bed of oak leaf mold was prepared, under and near a clump of hemlocks, where it gets the sun but an hour or two in the middle of the day. One clump, however, planted under a dense, low-growing dogwood, where it had no sun at all, did better than its fellows. In the autumn the oak leaves, as they fall, nestle down and cover the bed. In the spring these are removed and sieved leaf mold is scattered over the clumps and worked down under the leaves. Again in the summer a light application of peat moss is given in the same way. Dr. Frederick P. Lord of Hanover, N.H. thinks his success in growing Shortia is due to applications of a mixture of cottonseed meal, superphosphate and potassium sulphate, but after disastrous experiences trying to help Epigaea repens along, we, at the Hemlock Arboretum, having been afraid to use commercial fertilizer of any kind for ericaceous plants. Dr. Lord also waters his stands rather regularly during the summer but here again we are afraid to use the city water, with its supercharge of bacteria-destroying chemicals. Our plants could not do better if growing in their pristine mountain homes, as they have a healthy leafage and an abundance of flowers. Observations of two successful plantings show that in these Shortia does better on a slope than when grown on level ground. This may be due to better drainage or less direct exposure to the sun. On the herbarium specimens which the Hyams prepared and distributed extensively in 1878, \"H3 ams' Sparkling Shortia\" was given its common name, but this was extremely local in Its use. Alice Lounsberry in her book \"Southern Wild Flowers and Trees,\" (1901~ says \"Shortia's common name was Little Colt's Foot,\" a dainty and descriptive designation. In 19~3, the editors of Standardized Plant Names, called it Oconee Bells and this now is the name generally used in the nursery trade. The significance, of course, is it having been first found in the wilderness of what is now Oconee County, S.C. As has been stated up to the time of the rediscovery of Shortia Dr. Gray had received fifty honorary degrees and memberships in learned societies. Twenty-one more were to come to him before his death, which occurred January 30, 1888. He was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery, Cambridge, Dlass., where a simple stone bearing a cross marks his last resting place. It may not be too late to suggest that, with the soil properly prepared, there might be planted on his grave an ever green and ever beautiful blanket of the little flower which he so loved and which he pronounced \"perhaps the most interesting plant in North America.\" CHARI,ES F. JENKINS Hemlock Arboretum Mt. Airy, Philadelphia, Pa. 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Highbush Blueberry","article_sequence":4,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24119","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24e8528.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University 2 VOLUME APRIL 17, ~ 942 THE HIGHBUSH BLUEBERRY NUMBER 5 recent issue of In a discussed and in Volume 2, No. 2, March 13, 194~, nursery sources for 146 varieties of nut trees were given. In this issue, attention is called to the blueberries, especially the horticultural varieties of the highbush blueberry, Vaceinium corymboswm. The high bush blueberry is found in swamps or moist areas, and also grows at high elevations. It may grow from ten to fifteen feet tall and does not stand drought very well. In certain areas of the eastern part of the United States an increasing amount of interest is being shown in the comparatively \"new\" horticultural varieties of this species, as is evidenced by large commercial plantings. These same varieties are also becoming more popular among home owners who have a limited amount of land available. Blueberries are native over a wide area in the eastern and northeastern United States, as well as in northern Wisconsin, Michigan and Minnesota. Several specie5 are valued for their fruits, and these are gathered over large areas where the plants are native. In 1941 the value of the crop picked in only three states where blueberries are grown (New Jersey, North Carolina and Michigan) amounted to $700,000. It has been chiefly with V. corymbosum that the greate5t amount of selection and hybridization has been done, and through hybridization the sizes of the individual berries have actually been tripled so that now varieties of the highbush blueberry can be obtained with fruits nearly an inch in diameter. It is these large fruited varieties which are proving so popular today. By planting the right variety at the start and by intelligent pruning and culture, several varieties of V. corymbo.sum can be depended upon to produce unusually large and delicious fruits. The pioneer in blueberry investigations was the late Dr. F. C. Coville of the U. S. Department of Agriculture who, as early as 1906, began his experiments a gardener spring THIS contemplate planting will many a in the eastern and northeastern United States few economically important woody plants. were \"Arnoldia\" various nut trees : z~ ) ] hybridization. Miss Elizabeth White of Whitesbog, New Jersey, with him closely for a number of years and assisted him in many probcooperated lems. She was also responsible for selecting a number of promising plants from the wild, and grew thousands of seedlings for close study. Dr. Coville has reported growing 68,000 seedling blueberries to bearing age from which to make his selections. Of this large number only fifteen were considered sufficiently worth while to name and introduce into the trade. In these tests over 300 seedlings bearing fruits over ~~~ in diameter were discarded merely because they did not meet the rigid standards of flavor set by Dr. Coville. Of the eighteen varieties offered by eastern growers in 1942, it is interesting to note that Dr. Coville was responsible for either selecting or originating fourteen of them. Some varieties like the Wareham, Scammell and Rancocas originated as far back as 1915, while others like the Dixi originated in 1930 and even as late as 1937 there was only one plant of this variety, but it is now offered by at least two nurseries. It takes a number of years to grow a blueberry bush from seed to sufficient size so that its productiveness can be adequately tested, this being one of the reasons why blueberry culture is only beginning to come into its own. With eighteen varieties of the highbush blueberry now available, potential growers should have an adequate list from which to select. Size of the individual fruit is not all-important when judging the qualifications of a new blueberry. Time of maturity, color, keeping qualities, taste, hardiness, and even the shape of the bush are all qualities to be carefully considered when making selections for the home garden. The U. S. Department of Agriculture Leaflet No. 201 lists twelve of the outstanding varieties in the order of importance in which they measure up to each one of these essential characteristics, and this table is reproduced herw ith : Blueberry varieties ranked approximately in order of importance with re\/erence ~ cey<a!tK c~arnc~n's\/!cs o\/ ~'peM~~, sz'ze o\/ &e7-r<\/, am~ reference to certazn characteristics of ripening, size of berry, and dessert qunlzty <yM<ih<y y in selection and ~ 2 The Dmt and Weymouth Pioncer m are too new for their shipping quality and cold resistance to be estimated accurately y a Scammcll Michigan npens with or later than Stanley. npens later than Stanley m New Jersey. ~o] are Many fruit trees and bush fruits can be expected to bear well, providing they planted in a \"good garden soil. \" This is not necessarily so with the high bush blueberry. If the \"good garden soil\" is on the alkaline side, the blueberry bushes mll soon sicken and die for these plants are adapted to acid soils only. The average gardener should be cautioned against going into blueberry culture without thoroughly investigating all the growth requirements necessary to insure strong healthy plants. Some soils are ideally suited for blueberries, other soils are not, and a knowledge of such requirements at the start will save disappointments later. Blueberry culture has been thoroughly discussed in various publications of the different state experiment stations especially m those states where blueberries a list of the more recent and available to the home owners complete experiment within the state concerned, and are usually available free or for a small charge to mdividuals outside the state. One or more of these bulletins should be obtained by every person contemplating growing blueberry bushes, for all the essentials of planting, pruning, fertilizing, pest control and other factors are carefully and grow in abundance. At the end of this bulletin is station bulletins. These are clearly discussed. Northern growers 1. Atwater selling horticultural varieties of Vaccinium corymbosum 368 South Nurseries; Street, Agawam, Massachusetts. 2. Theodore H. :3. Budd ; Pemberton, New Jersey. Byrd's Nursery; Lacota, Michigan. Houston 4. ,i. 6. Orchards; Hanover, Massachusetts. Blueberry Plantation5, Inc. ; Grand Junction, Michigan. Dr. Keefe's Mrs. Mabelle H. Kelley; East Wareham, Massachusetts. 189 Silver 7. George A. 8. J. H. Morse; Williamson, New York. County Nursery, Yutnarn ; Franklin Massachusetts. Street, Greenfield, 9. Rayner Brothers; Salisbury, Maryland. H. B. 10. Scammell ; Toms River, New Jersey. 1 l. J. R. lz. Spelman Company; J. South Haven, Michigan. East Joseph H. L. White, Inc. ; 4Z'hitesbog, New Jersey. 654 Forest 13. Wilhs; ABenue, Lansing, Michigan. 31 Plants of horticultural varieties of Vaccinium corymbosum offered by growers in 1942 1 Adams-,i, 11 3 Atlantic-2, ll, 13 z Burlington- 12 Cabot-1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 ConCOrd-1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8, 10, 11, 12, 13 Dixi-12, 13 ' Grover-8 1 Harding-5, 11 Jersey-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 June-2, 5, 9, 11, 12 Pemberton-2, 12, 13 3 Pioneer-1, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 1,`3 5, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 Rancocas-1, 2, 3, 4, Rubel-1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13 Scammell-~L, 8, 9, 10 Stanley-~, 6, 8, 9, 11, 12 Wareham-4, 6, 13 Weymouth-2, 10, 12 Good References for Information on Blueberry Culture state experiment station usually supplies its bulletin free to residents within that state and makes a small charge for its bulletins to residents in other states. The U.S.D.A. bulletins are supphed for a very small charge.) (Each Coville, F. V. Direction for Blueberry Culture, 1921. U. S. Dept. Agr. Bull. 974. October, 19 21. Washington, D.C. 2. Beckwith, C. S., Coville, S. & Doehlert, C. A. Blueberry Culture. N. J. Agr. Exp. Sta. Circ. ~~9. April, 1937. New Brunswick, N. J. 3. Latimer, L. P. & Smith, W. W. Improved Blueberries. Univ. of N. H. Ext. Serv. Ext. Circ. ll.i. June, 1938. Durham, N. H. 4. Slate, G. L. & Collison, R. C. The Blueberry in New York. N.Y. State Agr. b:xp. Sta. Circ. 189. March, 1940. Geneva, N.Y. 5. Darrow, George M. Blueberries. U. S. Dept. Agr. Leaf. 201. October, 1940. ~'ashington, D.C. ($0.05) 6. Darrow, George DI. The Atlantic, Pemberton and Burlington Blueberries. U. S. Dept. Agr. Circ..i89. December, 1940. Washington, D.C. (~0.05~ 7. Bailey, J. S., Franklin, H. J. & Kelley, J. L. Blueberry Culture in Massachusetts. Mass. Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 358. April, 1941. Amherst, Mass. 1. For a short history of Dr. Coville's interesting experiments in blueberry hybridization and a discussion of how certain varieties originated see Coville, F. C. Impro~ing the Wild Blueberry. Yearbook, U. S. Dept. Agriculture, 1937. 559,5 71. DONALD ~'SMAN ~) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The One Hundred \"Best\" Lilacs","article_sequence":5,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24121","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24e896c.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 APRIL ~~, 1J~~ THE ONE HUNDRED NUMBER 6 \"BEST\" LILACS five hundred different lilacs are actually being grown in North America three hundred of which are being offered by the nursery industry. Truly a bewildering number, especially for the av erage home owner who wants only a few of \"the best\" for his own small garden. Ho~rever, this very large number contains many varieties which are now termed \"obsolete,'' being ~urpassed by newer varieties which lmvesuherierr yualitie, for consideratim av (ornamentals. A thorough-going study of all the lilacs as they are being grown in America has been completed by the Committee on Horticultural Varieties of the American :t Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums. John C. `Vivter, Director of the Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation at Swarthmore, 1'enn5clvania, has acted as Chairman of the Committee and I:ditor of the ~ixty-four page report '`Lilacs for America\"* which has just been published. This excellent publication contains the practical information always desired about these plants-the name, color, originator and date of origmation of each variety, combinecl with the very practical information of where thrt are actuallt being grown and who has them tim ~ale in America. This is not all. Most of the varieties have been judged (in Hon er) :cnd scored on a numerical basis, by a group of ccnnpetent incli~ iduals. These vtudies were made in all the larger lilac collections m this ccnmtry, and nmm- a long row of lilacs in the larger nurseries was scored in the same manner. This intiwnrttion was then carefully tabulated, and rewnoled, und in this publication the totals of all the tabulations are listed. Because of this, one can see at a glance which var~eties do well, which are little known and which are \"obsolete.\" To ~ummarize OVER approximately today, *Wister, John C. Lilacs for America. Published by Arthur Hoyt Scott Horticultural Foundation, Swarthmore College, Swarthmore, Pennsylvania. Apnl, 19I2. (Additional copies are available.) 33 work, the committee selected one hundred lilacs which it considered to be the best of all. chiefly on account of the high scores these varieties received when grown under different conditions or because of their superior qualities when compared wath other varieties. These one hundred lilacs are listed on the following puges,and should be given primary consideration by anyone purchasing lilac plants. its \"The Best\" of the Common Lilacs and Early Hybrids S-Single flowers D-Double flowers N-Novelty; i.e., a comparatively \"new\" variety been tried for many years, but which looks considerable merit. White as which has not if it might have Total Varieties Considered titi Bleuatre (S) Boule Azuree (S) . Candeur (S) (N) Edith Cavell (D) Ellen ~'~llmott (D) Jan van Tol (S) Jeanne d'Arc (D) ~Iarie I~'inon (S) ~Iarie Legraye (S) Mme. Casimir Perier (D) Mme. Felix (S) Mme. Florent Stepmau (S) Mme. Lemoine (D) Jlont Blanc (S) Jlonument (S) (N) Decaisne (S) Diplomate (S) (V) Duc de Jlassa (D) Emile Gentil (D) Firmament (S) (N) (:eneral Sherman (S) JuleS Sinum (1)) Maurice Barres (S) Olivier de Serres (D) 1're~ident (:rew~ (D) President Lincoln (S) President Viger (D) Ltene Jarry-De5loges (D) Lilac Siebold Vestale Violet (D) (S) Total Varieties Considered ~R C'hristophe 3 Total Varieties Considered 13 Colomh Henri Martin (D) (S) ' Cavour (S) De ~liribel (S) Le Notre (D) Marechal Lannes Violetta (D) Blue and Bluish Hippolyte Jlaringer (D) Jacques Callot (S) Leon Gambetta (D) (D) (D) Marengo (S) President Fallieres (S) (N) Thunberg(D) Rosace Victor Lemoine Total Varieties Considered ?l (D) Ambassadeur (S) (N) Ami Schott (D) (N) ~~ulgari~ (vxlgnris ooerulea) (S) Wm. C. Barry (S) (N) 34 Pink and Pinkish Purple (or Deep Purple) Total Varieties Considered 93 Adelaide Dunbar (D) Diderot (S) Etna (S) (N) J. De blessemaeker (S) La Place (S) Total Varieties Considered 78 Nancy (D) Capitaine Perrault (D) Belle de Frau Wilhelm I'fitzer (S) Jean Mace (D) Jules Ferry (D) Katharine Havemeyer (D) _ ' Lucie Baltet (S) Macrostachya (S) Montaigne (D) Mme. A. Buchner \" Ludwi~ Spaeth (S) :Vlon~e (S) lVlrs. W. E. Marshall Paul Hariot (D) (S) (D) Prodige (S) (N) _ Virginite (D) Waldeck-Rousseau (D) Toussaint 1'Owerture Volcan (S) * Early Hybrids* (S) Magenta (or Reddish Purple) Total Varieties Considered 80 Total Varieties Considered 33 Capitaine Baltet (S) Charles Joly (D) Congo (S) Geor~,~~e5 Bell.rir (U) Marceau (S) Marechal Foch (S) Massena (S) Mme. F. Alcmel (S) Jlrs. F:cla:rrd Harding (D) Paul Dewlmmel (D) 1'aull'hiriun (D) President Loubet (D) President I'oincaire (U) Heaumur (S) Ruhm von Hur~temtein (S) Assessippi (S) (N) Lilac Buffon (S) Pink Catinat (S) Pink Lam.rrtine (S) Pink Lout~ois (S) Violet Mir.rbeau (D) Lilac Montesciuieu (S) (N) Magenta Necker (S) Pink oblntn dilalnta (S) l'ink 1'oc.rhontas (S) Purple Vauban (D) Pink Villars (S) Lilac *Note. With the exception of this group of \"Early Hybrids\" all others in this list are varieties of figringa 2~ulgarix. Many species together with their botanical varieties are hikhly valued for their flowers, but these were not considered when making this list of one hundred varieties. 37 NOTES This past winter was a very mild one as far as it effected trees and shrubs. There are several ways of determining this. Thus the flowers of Abeliophyllum distichum are unusually profuse and well formed this spring with no injured flowers apparent in the large clusters. The same is true with the flowers of Viburnum fragrans. The flower buds of both of these species are prominent throughout the winter and suffer materially in unusually cold winters, the flowers in this climate appearing at their best in only one year out of three. Further south of course, where the winters are always milder, these two shrubs can always be depended upon to produce many flowers annually, but this is not true in Massachusetts. They usually produce some flowers, but in certain years the flower buds are so injured by cold weather that the few flowers which do develop are of little or no value from an ornamental standpoint. The flower buds of Cornus florida have not been injured. Last year approximately fifty percent of them were killed, and by this time had fallen from the trees; but this year the flower buds are not only very numerous but are in splendid condition so that it is reasonable to expect one of the best displays of flower- ing dogwoods in recent years. Minor twig injury has been observed here and there on somewhat tender shrubs but everything considered, woody plants have come through the winter very well indeed. Plants in bloom at the Arboretum now include the Forsytlxias, Magnolia denudata, M. stellata, M..soulangeana varieties, Abeliophyllum di.slichum, Bensoizz ae,stzvale, Dirca palustris, Prunus davidiana (some of the early Japanese flowering cherries will probably be in bloom some time during the week of April 17~, Prunus apetala, P. cyclnmina, P. armeniaca, P. fomentosa, RhododFndron mocronulatum, R. dauricum sempervirens, Pieri.s ,floribunda and P. japonica. Cornu.r mas, the Corylopsis species and Lonicera standishi have been in bloom for some time but have passed the peak of their flower. Also the flowers of Taxrzs cu,spidatcz are now open and this is the best time of year to distinguish between the plants with staminate flowers (about 4z~ long from w hich pollen falls) and the fruiting plants with pistillate flowers (minute, merely a pistil, sometimes not much over ~zz long). DONALD V~'1'MAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The Medicinal Plant Garden of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy","article_sequence":6,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24120","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24e856b.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Youngken, Heber W.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 JUNE ~J, I~42 THE MEDICINAL PLANT GARDEN NUMBER 7 OF THE MASSACHUSETTS COLI,h;GR OF PHARMACY Medicinal Plant Garden of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy came in March, 1941, as the result of the cooperative support of the Arnold Arboretum. Dean Howard C. Newton and Dr. Heber W. Youngken of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy, one of the state's oldest institutions, drew up the general plans for the garden and the Arnold Arboretum loaned about two acres of land on the grounds of the Bussey Institution of Har~arcl University for the development of the medicinal plant garden. The otficialv of both institutions welcomed the opportunity of cooperatin~ in this way on a project of such economic value. This medicinal garden is financed and operated by the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy but is open to the inspection of any visitors at the Arnold Arboretum. Plants are carefully labeled and both institutions ,juin in inmtinh the public to visit it. It is easily accessible, being on the point of land nearest to the Forest Hills Fletated Station. As one tvalks up South Street from the elevated station, turn in the first gate, walk nearly to the large vtune building, then right, and it will be at the end of the grass roadway runnmg between the two experimental plots. The garden occupies an area of about two acres and has been laid out in rectangular, circular and crescentic beds under the direction of Dr. Youngken, I'rofessor of Pharmacognosy and Botany at the nTassachusett5 College of Pharmacy, and his assistant, Dr. M. ~'. Quimby. Seventeen of these beds were completed by the early part of last summer and fully planted. Around the border of the garden have been introduced a variety of medwinal trees including Sw eet ~;am, THE being into 10- witch-1)azel, sassafras, prickly-ash, elder, upland sumach, viburnutns, buckthorn, alder-buckthorn, sugar maple, junipers, bayberry, white-oak, etc. Two experimental beds for the breeding of drug, insecticidal and oil plants are 37 . located on the north side of this garden. Some ornamental plants have been added to enhance the beauty of the garden. Planting began on April 19, 1941, and by early summer 381 different species and varieties of plants, mostly medicinal and aromatic, had been established. The purposes of the garden are (1) to provide added facilities for the teaching of Botany and Pharmacognosy by enabling students to see and study the growing medicinal, oil-~ielding and aromatic plants which yield many of our drugs and condiments, (?) to provide authentic plant materials needed for class work and iw evtigation, (3) to ascertain which medicinal plants of exotic origin can be grown successfully in this part of New England, (4) to endeavor to ascertain what nutrient and other factors are essential to the yield of drugs of superior quality. HFBFR W. I~GL'NGKEN, Dept. of :~lateria Dlediea, ~IasSachusetts College of Pharrua<y, Boston, ~I.wachusetts Species grown in the medicinal plant garden of the Massachusetts College of Pharmacy in 1941 1 Acer saocharum Achillea A~per,ttmn \" D'lilletuliuru tomentosa \" .lrnioa moutanv Artemisia Alrmtanmn \" AhSinthnun \" alhulx '' , Acc ~itum autamnale \" FiSCheri \" annua a \" \" 1)raounculus l~apellw \" \" fri\";ida ~>ontica Actaea alba \" rubra Adonis aestivaliv vul~aris (lactiflor:y Asarumcanadense .Ae;;opodium 1'cula;,~~raria carie\",ratum A\" astache Fueni<ulum Ajuga ciliata 46 reptans Alchemtlla ~ul~aris Allium Cepamyrwarn \" Ascletas tuberosa Asperula odorata Atropa Belladonna R~wayo officinalis Brassica alba \" ny~ra Schoeuopasttm rosea Althaea Campanula rotund~folia Capsicurn frutescens Carthamus tinotorius Carum Carvi Cassia marrlandica Caulophyllum thalictroides ' Anacyclus Pyrethrum Anchusa officinalis Anemone Pulsatilla Anethum graveolens sp. Angelica \" Chaenomeles japonica h~-b. Chamaelirium luteum Cheltdonium majus Chenopodiam ambrosioides antheltnintmum Archanhelica Anthemis nobilis Anthrtscus Cerefulium Aquile~ia canadensis .lralia uudicaulis \" spinosa Arctium minus Arisaema triphy llum Chenop`~d~um bonus-henricus s Botrv \" Chionanthus mr~imcus Chrysanthemum Balsamita 3R Chrysanthemum toides - Balsamita tanace- Heuchera sanguinea Chrysanthemum cinerariaefolium \" \" coccineum Parthenium Cichorium Intybus Hydrastis canadensis Hydrophyllumvirginianum Hyoscyamus niger Hyssopus aristatus \" officinalis \" \" C~mictfuga \" racemosa simplex 46 albus ruber Cnicus benedictus Colchicum autumnale Comptonia peregrina Convallaria majalis Copt~s groenlandica occidentalis Coriandrurn satmunt Crocus satw us Cunila mariana CynoglosSUm officinale \" Isatistinctoria Jefferson ia d i phy lla Juniperus Sabina 61 virginiana Lallemantia canescens Lamiumatbunt \" maculatum album \" purpureum Lavanduta officinalis 11 Spica Cy tisus Scopartus Daphne 11 \" DZezereum 11 \" alba Leonurus Cardiaca Levisticum officinale Linum perenne 11 Datura Metel \" Stramonium \" Tatula usitatissimuni Lippiacitriodora Liquidambar Stracifiua Lobelia cardinalis 44 iiiflata . . Delphinmm ajacis hybrid (Belladonna) \" \" \" (Bellemosum~ eximta Dicentra canadensis \" Cucullaria \" \" siphilitica Lupinus (Russel hybrids) MahoniaAquifolium Majorana hottensis Marrubium peregrinum 11 16 \" 'r spectabilis purpurea Digitalis ambigua \" \" 1 ulgare DioSCOrea villosa Dipsawts fullonum Drt opteris Filix-mas , Matricaria Chamornilla Melissa officinalis Mentha aquatica X rotundifolia \" arBcnsis \" marginalis Ephedra d~stachya \" \" \" \" \" \" \"plperascensYaquatiea \" 1 ~ X spicata \" \" equisetina sinica sp. citrata crispa \" longlfolh mliaca Euonymus atropurpureus Eupatorium purpureum Filipendula hexapetala \" \" \" \" piperita Fulesmrn rotundifolia 1 Ulmaria \" \" < Foeniculum vulgare Galium verum Geranium maculatum Hamamelis virginiana Hemerocallis fulva \" (sterile male) vaiiegata \" spicata Mirabilis Jalapa Monarda didyma 39 Monarda fistulosa \" punctata Myrica pensylvanica Myrrhis odorata Myrtus communis Nepeta Cataria hederacea Mussinii \" nuda Nicotiana Tabacum vars. Ocimum Basilicum Origanum Dictarnnus \" \" Salviaazurea officinalis \" \" . atbinora \" \" pratensis canadensis canadensis minor Sclarea Sambucus canadensis Sanguinaria Sanguisorba 64 Santolina 11 Chamaecyparissus Majorana vulgare Ornithog alum sp. \" \" \" ' viridis Sassafras albidum Satureia alpina \" hortensis \" montana umbellatam Osmorhi~a \" Panax Passiflora incarnata Pedicularis canadensis Petasites japonicus \" officmalis Petroselinum crispmn Phytolacca americana Pimpinella Anisum Pinus Strobus Plantago indica ~P,arenaria~ \" Claytonii longistylis quinquefolium Nepeta (Calamintha) vuls'aris Scutellaria alpiiia \" \" baicalensis Sesamum alatum Silybulll Alariaiiuiii Sium Sisarum Spigel]a marilandica ' \" Symphytutn 11 asperum officinale lanceolata ovata a , \" \" Tanacetum B ulgare Teucrium Chamaedrys Thymus britannicus \" Herba-barona \" laiiiequlis \" \" \" \" Psyllium Podophyllum peltatum Polygonum B~storta Potentilla alpina Anserina tridentata Pulmonaria angustifolia \" \" Serpylluiii 6. COCClneus 66 variegatus vulgaris grandiflorum sessile Tradescantia virginiana Trillium erectum \" \" Pycnanthemum \" sp. Ranunculus Ficaria Rhamnus cathartica \" Tussilago Farfara Urginea marttima (red var.) , Frangula Purshiana Rhus \" glabra typhina - Valeriana offi(-inalis Vancouveria ht'xandra Veratrum viride Veronica incana 44 Ricinus communis Rosa centifolia Rosxnarinus officinalis Rumex Acetosa \" virginica Viburnum \" ~ _ scutatus Ruta graveolens 40 trilobum Viola cueullata \" odorata \" Opulus prunifolium "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Euonymus","article_sequence":7,"start_page":41,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24112","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24ea76c.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 OCTOBFR 30, 1942 EUONYMUS Nums~as 8-9 are not to he considered ~t-htch should be grown more groups in our gardens. On the contrary, there are probably too may- forms of Fuon~ mus a~ atlable from nurseries now. A resume of nursery catalu~ues vhou that approximately thirty different species and ~ariettes can be purchased in this country, and tt ts certainly doubtful if all of these are of sufficient ornamental lalue to make them worth while. Some of the most common are the evergreen ~-tnes, of course, while others are the taller growing trees and shrubs. The evergreen types are Balued for their foliage, whtle the dectducus types are valued chtefl~- for their brilliantly colored fruits and the bright autumn color of their fohage. Most of the deciduous forms, like F,rrnnymzr,s alatn, F. yedoensi.c and F.. sanguineo have foliage which turns a brilliant scarlet in the fall. On the other hand, a few like E. Rougeann and F,. lance~'olin turn a pale yellow in the fall. Still others like F. europaen retain thew green leaves in the fall considerably lon~er than most shrubs. The fruit ts conspicuous chiefly because of the bright colored capsule (usually red or pink) which opens in late September or in October, disclosin,~ the bright orange or red flesh~ co~ ertng~ of the seed, called the aril. Sometimes, as tn the case of F.. Rnngeana semipersisten.s, the capsule is light pink, and the aril is a deep orange. In other instances, as in the case of T..snngtzinen, the capsule is a deep red, and in still others (F,. europaea and F. e. atror2zbens~ the eapsule is a vtvid red and the aril is bright orange, making an excellent color combinatton. The fruits of a few color early in the fall and drop shortly afterward. ~uch for example would be F,. Irrt3f'olzr~, F,. sachalinen.sis and F..sanguinen. In others, the fruit remains on the plant a considerable time m the fall lending much ornamental interest, as for example E. B~cngeana ,semipersistens. The flowers of most are inconspicuous and are hence of no ornamental value. THI';constttutiny as ~arious plants belonging one to the Euonymus clan of those \"neglected\" 41 A few of the Euonymus are grown for their form or habit of growth. Fuon,z~mu.s for instance, has a typically horizontal method of branching, and its variety conzpacta is valued for its low, dense habit. On the other hand, E. europaea and its varieties are vigorously upright, while E. Bungeana and its variety semipersistens is a small tree, with broad, spreading, almost pendulous branches. Unfortunately most of these plants are susceptible to an especially pernicious scale, the Euonymus scale, and unless this is kept in check by effective spraying, serious difficulty is encountered in growing Euonymus effectively in the garden. I do not mean to black-list all Euonymus. However, I do think it advisable to study their respective characteristics carefully and select only a few which may be best adapted to alata, ornamental usage. Growing in the Arboretum are species from North America, Europe, China and Japan. Popularly called the spindle-tree this name probably belongs to F. europaea a native of Europe, for the wood is very hard and in earlier times was used in making spindles. Because this species has been in cultivation so long, there are a number of horticultural varieties, some of which are very much worth while and surpass the original species in beauty. The American Euonymus are three in number, E. americana, often called the strawberry-bush because of its prickly bright red fruits; E. atropurpurea, called the Wahoo; and E. obovata, a little ground cover or procumbent shrub. Thou\",rh these are used in naturalistic plantings, they are not sufficiently outstanding in thew performance in the Arboretum to be considered as valuable ornamentals. Since thirty-seven of the Euonymus are growing in the Arboretum collections, it may be w ell to note those which are domg best. Trees One of the most common of the Euonymus in American gardens is E. europaPn, a large shrub or small tree. When grown from seed, this plant varies considerably, so much so that at least ten varieties have been named. The best in the group is F,. europaea intermedia which first appeared in 18~8. This variety has very dense foliage, larger leaves than the species, and excellent annual crops of dark red fruits that are much larger and darker-colored than the type. Frequently when E, europaea is grown from seed, the fruit of the resulting plants is a poor pink, hence decidedly mediocre in color. The variety intermedia is much superior, the fruits being the darkest red of all Euonymus. Other varieties of E. europaea like atrorubens (not to be confused with E. e. atropzirpacrea which has purplish lea~ es) and aldenha~nensis also have fruits of more vivid color than the species. All should be propagated asexually. An interesting form of F. europaea in the Arboretum is a definitely glohe-shaped form-a plant now ten feet tall with smgle fourfoot trunk topped by a definitely globose head about six feet in diameter. This plant originally came from the Hesse nurseries in Germany in 1909 and does have ornamental possibilities, though it is not available from nurseries. All va- 42 PLATE VIII. Showin~ the variations in leaves and buds of some Euonymus species. 1. E. kiautschov~ca ~. E. alata 3. F~. americana 4. E. nana 5. E. yedoensis 6. E. bul~arica 7. E. sachalinensis H. E. sanguinea 9. E. macrophylla l0. E. sachalinensis l E. latifolia 12. E.yedoensis 13. E.Maackii l.l. E.europaea 15. E.alata 16. E.mkoensis 17. E bul~arica rieties of Is. europaeo retain their leaves very late in the tant character. fall, this being an imr>or- Another tree form is E. Bungeann semipersistens, a wide spreading, small tree valued because it is one of the last deciduous trees in the Arboretum to drop its leaves in the fall. Added to this important feature is the fact that it is covered with a wealth of pale pink fruits, which open late and remain on the tree well into the winter. Fuonymus Maackii and l,'. ,sangrrirren are two other valued tree Euonymus. Especially are they important for the fact that their leaf buds are among the first to open in the spring, showing considerable color about the middle of March. Though Euonymus as a group develop their leaves early, these two are about the earliest of anything in the Arboretum except Prinsepia ,sinerrsi.s which is always first. Both have brilliant red autumn color, the leaves of F,..sanguinea being reddish underneath and often slightly curled. It should be said, also, that E. sanguinea has done exceptionally well in the Arboretum with vigorous branches and dense foliage, and makes one of the best Euonymus from the standpoint of foliage alone. Its fruit opens early, and falls shortly afterward (about October 1 this year), usually some time before the leaves fall from the plant. Because of this and the fact that the fruits are not borne profusel~-, it should only be used for its good foliage. . , . Shrubs The most common shrub is T. ~rlntn, valued fur its honzontal halnt of ~,rrovcth and its fiery red autumn color. The varietyoomprwtn m :tl5o a talued plant, oryinating in 19~6 av a chance seedling in the Adams Nurser~ , Springfield, 1BIa55achusetts. Because of the low compact habit of growth of this ~arietv, ~t is well adapted for specimen planting or use in hedyes. h;norrymrr.s yPdoerr.si.s is somewhat similar to T. Innoe;folin m general appearance except that tt is a shrub and not a tree. In the fall its lea~-e5 turn a brilliant red and tts fruits are brilliantly colored, comparing favorably wath the best. The leate5 are often four to five inches long, the largest of any of the Euonymus grown in the Arboretum, with the exception of R. nrnoroptern, which has lea~ es of a simrlar size. The evergreen F,, japonica ts not hardy in Massachusetts, but south of Philadelphia, it is used a great deal and to good ad~ antage. There are severalartet~es of this species, one with smaller leaves and some with variegated leaves. ~'here hardy, it does well along the seashore, and has been used in European gardens for over a century. A hardier evergreen is F,, kiautschovico (formerly called T. pntens~, which does winter o~ er in the Arboretum and can be considered semte~ ergreen here, being alued for tts fohage and late, attractive fruits. This was introduced by Dr. G. R. Hall from Japan in 1861 and does very well at Newport, R. I. FnorrJmus bulgnricn mtght also be menttoned as one of the shrubby types with unusually good foliage. It ts dense and dark green, the leaves slightly ru' , 44 PLATE IX left to right. E. Fortunei varieties, kewensis, mimma, colorata, radicans Second row. A leaf from each slightly enlarged Third row. E. Fortunei vars. \"Silver (~ueen,'\" gracilis, reticulata, vegeta,Carrierei Fourth row. A leaf from each slightly enlarged Top row 00 .cl 00 1) y CJ oj U y O y y o nir~ Y~ >. ,..; '7'J O '5:= ES (L) v ... lp en ::! .- .0 .8 <.8 \"O\"O 5~ v ::! ~~ ~ bE ... 1j '.Ii ~ u -1 >. 4 ;:::::; -~ z ...... s v <l) \"S z ~ ,.., '- '\" ... ~ It'\"~ \"o ~ .:: --::: ~ ~~ -E I- ,~ :e ..::: ~ oj 1) ++ pII :0; It ~ .- ..:t -~ :;; c ;o c v y y f e c y f. ~ f v Y ? o y f U U y_ r (!. f s F~ I gose. Sometimes tt develops corky wings Vines on the more vigorous branches. The evergreen vines in the Euonymus clan are the ones most in American gardens. FuonJrrrmx Fortunei rndicaus (formerly E. commonly seen rrulicans) is the most commonly planted of all. On older plants, considerable variation occurs in the lea~ es and it ts not unusual to find foliage of several different types growing on the same plant. Some of these can be grown asexually. and have given rise to certain varieties. For instance, E. Fortunei vegeta is one of the best of all the fruiting Euonymus, being a vine or prostrate shrub. Its large leaves are not quite evergreen m New England but then do remain on the plant a considerable t~me in the fall. The variety C'arrierei has leaves more pointed at the tip and is not nearly as fruitful as is negetn. 'fhe variety colnrntn is really a ground cover, noted for its reddish foliage in the fall, and h'. Fortunei (forrnerly f:~. rndicaus aeartn) i5 frequently planted for its larger pointed leaves. Many variegated forms have appeared ; there is usually a variegated branch or two on every plant of C'orrierei. 3~;uou~rmr.s Fortunei gracili.s is the name whrch has been given to include some of these forms. \"Silter Queen'' is one with unwually large variegated lea~ ev. Two small leaf forms ,~re available, though often not correctly named in the trade. h;nou<<~mn.e Forlnuei minimn wav originally raised by Srnxtn-Luuis, a French nurverp firm, during the la~t century, and has leaves the larger of the two forms. F. radienn.s kez~ensi.s was raised from seed sent by Professor Sargent from Japan tu the Arboretum and then to Kew Gardens in 1~91. This variety has the smallest leaves c,f all, being onlsof an mch long, while those of minitna are nearly twice the size. Both these small leaved varieties are evergreen, cling well to stone walls, and are admirable w hen used to cov er low rocks or bare spaces in the rock garden ; but because of their small size, they do not grow as rapidly as the other larger leaved forms. All the Euonymus growing in the Arboretum are included in the table on pages 46-4I . An attempt has been made to point out their habitat or source of origin and also to check those characteristics for which they are particularly valued. It will be noted that some have little value while others are important for several reasons. Such a table often aids materially in quickl~ emphasizing the value of certain plants when compared w'itls others. This table might well be checked further after a study of the Euonymus as they grow under various local conditions, for this might reveal points not noted by performance under Arnold Arboretum condition5. - Euonymus Scale Some of the to the Euonymus, particularly F,. Fortunei and its varieties are susceptible pernicious Euonymus scale. This is controllable when fought in its earlier to thrive for several years, infestation may become so severe stages, but if allowed [ 48 that control rneasures do not prove satisfaotort . Then the best means of eradication is to cut the vines to the ground and start over again. The mature female scale. The insects winter in New England either female scales. In the early spring the young appear and eggs fully grown ev en in New England there may be as many as three generations in one season. Consequently, it can be seen how quickly this pest becomes serious, for if only a small infested area exists after one spraying, this area can be increased so rapidly that another general infestation soon results. Thorough spraying with a dormant oil usually controls this pest. At the Arboretum we haBe used Sunoco oil as a dormant spray at a ratio of 1-30. In the summer when it has been necessary to spray on account of additional broods, we ha~e used Sunoco oil at a ratio of 1-50 but it is essential in using the summer oil spray to apply it only on cloudy days when the air temperature rs below 80 F. Fortunately the shrubby Euonymus, with the possible exception of F,. nmericaun and F,. jnponicn, are not as susceptible as the vine types, but it should be remembered that all Euonymus are susceptible and they should not be planted unless the proper steps can be taken for spraymg them when the scale appears. wale resembles the or as oyster-shell as DONALD ~'I MAN > .L\")l1'it. 49 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Notes","article_sequence":8,"start_page":50,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24117","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24ebb26.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"NOTES . Collection of Clematis given the Arboretum A valuable collection of approximately ninety Clematis species and hybrids was given the Arboretum this month by Louis Vasseur of Milton. Mr. Vasseur has been raising and hybridizing Clematis for years, having learned much about their care and culture in France many years ago. The collection he has turned over to the Arboretum represents a long period of painstaking effotts tn hybridization, chiefly with Clemntis lanuginosa hybrids. Some of the plants are as much as fifteen years old. the plants were cut back severely with only a few inches of the stems now remaining, it is hoped that in a short time this will be the neucleu5 of one of the most complete Clematis collections in this country. All these plants have been planted at the base of a seven-foot woten wire fence bordering the tract adjacent to the Adams House grounds. Added to this valuable collection is another group of Clematis given the Arboretum by a nursery which specializes in growing these interesting vines. This additional gift totals thirty-four different species and named varieties, with more to come next spring. Special care will be given these vines and it is hoped that they will thrive under Arboretum conditions. After all, Clematis can be grown in New England, and we hope that within a short time there will be many beautiful plants here to demonstrate this thoroughly. Though New Building Dedicated at Morton Arboretum The beautiful Thornhill Building was dedicated at the Morton Arboretum on September 25, Dr. E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, being the guest speaker at the dedication exercises. This new building occupies the site of \"Thornhill,\" the former residence of the Arboretum's founder, Mr. Joy Morton, and the dedication occurred in the twenty-first year of the existence of the Morton Arboretum. The library wing of \"Thornhill\" was preserved, forming the stack room of the new building. This is a valuable addition to the Morton Arboretum and makes possible the amplification of many of its services. In his address at the time of the dedication, Dr. Merrill discussed the history and accomplishments of the Arnold Arboretum which was the progenitor of the Arboretum idea, having been established in 187?. Since the establishment of the Morton Arboretum, there have been many cases of mutual assistance between these two great plant growing institutions, and, to commemorate this cooperation, Mrs. Joseph M. Cudahy, Chairman of the Board of Directors of the Morton Arboretum, has presented the Arnold Arboretum with a splendid four-foot specimen of Meyer's Juniper, a duplicate of which was planted near the Thornhill building bt Dr. Merrill. These two plants, although now growing so far apart, will cornmemorate the excellent spirtt of cooperation and mutual assistance existing between the two institutions. 50 Recent Important Publications reissue of the important Monograph of Azaleas\" Arboretum Publ. 9, out of print for about ten years) by Rehder and Wilson, the reissue is priced at $4.00 instead of the original ~5.00 per copy. So many orders for this important out-of-print work were received that it became desirable to reissue it in facsimile form. The Arboretum has also received a number of copies of Metcalf's \"Flora of Fukien and Floristic Notes on Southeastern China,\" published by Lingnan University, fase. 1, pp. i-xviii. 1-8?, 2 maps. 194? ; the price of th~s is ~1.,i0. The first two numbers of the technical publication SnHr.F:N~nn (named in honor of Charles Sprague Sargent) which replaces the old \"Contributions of the Arnold Arboretum\" series have been issued. The first consists of a paper by Dr. A. C. Smith based on the Fiji collections secured on the voyage of the \"Chen~ Ho\" SponSUred by Dlrs. Anne Arch bold and entitled \"Fijian Plant Studies, II.\" pp. 1-148, July, 194?, priced at ~1..i0; and the second is by Dr. Hui I,in Li, entitled The Araliaceae of Announcement is made of a pp. i-iv, 1-?19. 1921 (Arnold China,\" pp. 1-1:34, November, 194?, priced at ~?.?.i. A very important facsimile lithoprint reproduction of the very rare Autikon Botanikon by C. S. Rafinesque, Philadelphia, 1840, is also announced. This is a 200 page volume of which only about a dozen copies are known to exist, touch- ing all parts of the world. This facsimile reprint is priced at ~3.00 51 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"An Amateur's Observations on Hardiness from Growing Rhododendrons in the Pacific Northwest","article_sequence":9,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24110","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24ea328.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Ihrig, Herbert G.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the I~iII.LE'I'IN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 NOVEMBER ~0, 19~.? NUMBER 10 AN AMATEUR'S OBSERVATIONS ON HARDINESS FROM GROWING RHODODENDRONS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST discussing this subject lies in the fact that few people just what constitutes \"hardiness.\" To some it means a plant which will never \"winterkill.\" To others rt means a plant the flowers of which are neBer injured by late frosts. To a third group it means a plant which weathers the ordinary winter but may react unfavorably under unusual climatic conditions. There are thousands of other gradations depending upon the individual and his experiences. In a recent discussion of this wb,ject conducted by an English garden magazine one prominent grower gave his definition for hardiness av a plant wlnch is \"locally tolerrtnt.\" This may only shift the discussion from the rneanin~r of hardiness to that of tolerance, but to me it has much merit. We are often ~.,ruide<1 in pchasing plants on the basis of our zone rating which in general m a valuable guide but with \"border line\" varieties, this may be inaccurate for a certain locality. It behuoves us, theretirre, to study not only our zone conditions and other factorv w hwh in a yeneral way inHuence Irardiness, but to brmg our prublem dwectly to our ow gardens. 1'irvt among the general f.utors is the early fall frost. While such frosts are unuw.rl in the Pacific Northwest, tlxet do occasionally o<cur and may prove disastrous to some plants. Some years ago a Northern Calitirrnia nurseryman lost an entire field of RhodndPmlron \"Britannia\" due tu an October tieeze. Thiv might haB been a purely lmsl condition but my own experience indicatw that this occurs more often when plants do not receive proper care. Either late fertilizing or late waterin~,~~ may oause such :r loss, fi both vtimulate late vegetative \",protvth wlmlr may not have time to mature and therefce be Suueptible to an earlyfrost. I suffered a similar loss with a group of 7)*. ~4itgtivti)ii* but m mB case only the new growth was injured. Se<mcl growth m nenrly always too tender to weather HE are chief difficulty in in agreement as to of thought .):~ a cold winter. I believe, then, by witholding late feeding and watering it is safe to say that hardiness may be increased so that new growth will enter the winter thoroughly ripened. Many experienced growers in the Pacific Northwest do not water after August 1 except when the plants show definite signs of bemg affected by drought. This does not mean that they should enter the winter in a dry condition for Eastern grwvers recommend heavy watering just prior to the advent of cold weather. In the Pacific Northwest our normal rainfall usually cares for this. The late spring frosts come next and while not numerous here are often most troublesome in England, Hollancl and Belgium and are known to have oaused much damage. The Ghent Azalea originated from the exper~ence of P. Mortier, a baker at Ghent, who endeavored to obtain new hardy varieties with late flowering, by crossing certain hardy azaleas with tender late flwvertng varieties. In the Pacific Northwest area the Seattle weather reports show only five days from Ift;3;i to 1!141 inclusive when the thermometer touched fieezin~r after March 1. Many people have never had a plant injured after that date, yet know some localities near the citywhere much damage has occurred from these frosts which sometimes come as late as May. It is obvious from these facts that there are definite factors applicable to each location and some of these may appear in the following discussion. Perhaps the first of these would be air drainage. After years of ubvervatiun I am convinced that this is one of the most important factors in the lt.rrclinew of plants. It might be more correct to say it may often be the governing factor in growing a borderlme plant. Cold air, like water, m~turally follows the ground and flows to the lowest point. When it enters a confined clepressiun, it remains there like a lake or pool and a~ additional cold air flows in, the tvztrmer air overflows and the pool <~>mtantlv becomes colder. Such a depression may prove di5avtrou5 to many shrubs. I have seen plants in such an area severely injured while those only a few yards away through in splendid shape. n~,jury in m.m~- luoati<mv iv due no doubt to just such a condition. This is especially true m lowlz~nds and valle~ s where drainage is sluggish. On the other hand, those who have gardens near the salt water generally have an unobstructed flow of cold .ar. The water of I'u\",ret Sound varies only four degrees between wncame Winter mer a ztnd winter, and z~5 the hot air rises from this warm area, it makes room tiw continuous flow of the colder currents. this is likewise true of hillside locations. Ne.~rness to water generally vtimulatev air flow hnt it is less active adjacent to inland waters as the winter temperature variation of such water is much greater than that of salt water. Exposure is another factor in hardiness but one hard to determine accuratel~ . It is noticeable that when we have a severe frost, most of the damage is done on the north side of the street, that is, with a southern exposure. This is due according to some authorities to the vtimulatinn which the plant receives from the wn- .7~ is especially harmful in the late winter or early sprin~. At the Arnold Arboretum many rhododendrons do not suffer from severe cold, even zero weather, when they are protected from sunlight and high winds durtn~- this period. On the other hand, when plants are in an exposed positum, a sharp drop m temperature following bright sunshine will frequently injure the hardiest varieties. Plants with .v northern exposure protected from the direct ray of the sun will withstand a severe winter-even a cutting north wind-much better than those subjected to the winter sunshine. While considerin~ exposures, it might be well to mention again the importance of local conditions, for an open sunny location is more favorable than one against a wall or rock where heat is radiated. Many authorities believe that some plants which we condemn as not being winter hardy are in reality injured during the summer months. In several instances I have seen rock garden rhododendrons die out when placed against a warm rock while those in a more open location survived and prcrspered. Volunteer Parl: in Seattle has several examples of open southern eepo,ures where hardy rhododendron varieties prosper and this may be due in part to another factor which must be considered under the head of exposure ; that is the intensity of the sun's rays. Ours is often filtered by moisture in the air and by drifting clouds. We seldom have long periods of bright sunshine. Another illustration : the standard practice in planting camellias in the south is to avoid a south or west exposure. My own experience in the Pacific Northwest m that here they do best with a western exposure. This does not change the standard practice in other clistricts but is evidence nf the rnildness of our sunshine and brings us back again to local conditions av they effect harcliness. I;yxmure to wind must be considered. llhdculemlrnnr cmtriclr crf:r t'ew ;rlpnev will not prosper in a wind) location, for winds, eye<iall~ dry mtw, ahurrh moisture from the evergreen leavev and c.m be as <lev.wt;vtin~,r in their own w.y .m .r hot south wall. Hence, a drafty location or a wincly curner vlmulcl bc .muided, because of increased transpiration due to the wind aml also beo.me the wind lowers the tPntjrerature in those places. Returning a\"~am to colder weather, it w~ul<l .yp,tr that the lc rt~\"tth of tmc wch cold continuev or the suddenness of the change nuyad~erselyeffect the plant more than the low temperature. My own plants recover from a short, sharp cold yell much more rapidlt-than a long <~ntmued one, providecl, of course, tht, cold comes in the middle of w inter. It is in the <olcler winter i>rrimclv that ~\"~enetieal clifferenees in plants of a certain species ur varietybecome ev ident, for these, as well as environmental differences, frequently are responsible for man) peculiar differences in plant hardiness. One other thing whuh might be el.wed under environment is directional planting. Large eBergreen shrubs when transplanted should be thcecl the varne direction as originally grown, especially where they hat not been partially protected hy nearby trees ~r shrukw. 'I-he5e plants huilcl urt :r resistance to ly~ltt over a light and ~ .) ~ period of years in both leaves and bark and this protection is much greater on the side which was exposed to the sun than on the shady side. A reversal of this position may cause a loss of foliage, bark splitting, and in extreme cases, the loss of the plant itself. This damage is less in areas of mild light intensity than in those of brilliancy and warmth. These comments, as the subject states, are merely the observations of an amateur, not an attempt at scientific statement, for few amateurs are qualified to make correct deductions from the facts available to them. We do know, however, that hardiness is not a fixed quality ; that it can be measured by no given standard ; and in the Pacific Northwest it is largely a matter of trial and error. It is hoped that these notes may be of assistance to many plant lovers who wish to bring into their gardens a host of fine plants which, contrary to the usual opinion, can be grown in their localities. HERBERT G. IHI!IG Seattle, Wa.shinglou Note:-These observations of DIr. Herbert Ihrig are made by a man who has been growing many different rhododendron species for years in his beautiful Seattle garden. Although his hardiness observations have been made in the Pacific Northwest and deal with many plants that are not hardy here in New England, nevertheless he has been attempting to grow so many \"border-line\" plants, that he has had .m exceptional opportunity to study hardiness problems by intelligently observin~ the reactiuus of these plants as they are grown under varyn`y environmental conditions. Consequently, his hardiness notes are sound and are applicable to rhododendrons as well as to other plants, not only in the Pacific Northwest, but in New England also. Because of his many years experience in growing rhododendrons-a particularly difficult group of plants with many of the species susceptible to winter in,jury-these hardiness notes should be of interest to Arnoldia readers. 56 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Foliage Colors of Woody Plants, April to September","article_sequence":10,"start_page":57,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24114","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24eaf6e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 2 DECEMBER 18, t 94~ FOLIAGE COLORS OF WOODY PLANTS APRIL TO SEPTEMBER e NUMBERS 11-7 ~ England's autumn foliage have been fully described which plants contribute most brilliantly to the display, and how this display differs from year to year, but little information is available about foliage colors of plants throughout the growing season. Nor is there much on record about colors of the early foliage as the leaves unfurl in the spring, how it changes from week to week, approximately when it comes and when it disappears. As a matter of fact, the bright colors of the early spring foliage are almost as beautiful as are the fall colors. All the data included in this paper were recorded in the Arboretum this year in connection with observations made weekly from April to October regarding foliage color changes. Such observations thus methodically recorded will be of considerable interest to the gardening public. Many horticultural varieties of woody plants may present brilliantly colored foliage in the early sprmg, and such plants may have been given varietal names because of these characteristics. However, after a few weeks the foliage color gradually fades and by the end of June the leaves become a normal green. Such is the case with the common Physocnrpu.s opul~f'ohus luleu.s. On the other hand, some of the woody plants keep their foltage colors throughout the entire growing season, and such plants should be carefully noted. Lonioern Korolkonii is one ex:~mple, and Berberis Thunbergii ntropurpuren is another. This is not in itself a plea for plants with colored or variegated foliage. Such plants are frequently entirely out of place in any landscape picture, simply because the foliage color is so pronounced that the shrub or tree itself is far too obvious and does not blend well with surrounding plantings. Because of their ~ari-colored foliage, some forms are actually deficient m chlorophyll and hence are sickly m growth and appearance, never developing into the good robust specimens we like to have in our gardens. Consequently, these color forms should be THE times, many beauties of New .)~ used mtiequently and only on special occasions where considerable thought has been given to their peculiar qualifications. It should be noted that all the forms mentioned in this paper are in the Arboretum collection and that notes on their colors have been taken from observiny the plants themselves, not from previously prepared lists. In recording these ob- servat~ons, it has been found that many plants bearing the varietal names of lulen or nuresceus, etc., actually do not deserve such names stnce their color changes are so slight as to have no diatinctive or ornamental ~ulue whatsoever. Sometimes only young plants will show variations in the foliage color and as they grow older, the foliage reverts to normal green. Such forms are not listed here. Another point worth mentioning is the fact that when a plant is given a varietal name (either botanical or horticultural) because of its foliage color, for some reason the original plant may die or become \"lost'' and though the name itself may be carried in text after text, on the authority of the original record supported by herbarium material, it may be impossible to locate a living plant of the variety. From a perusal of various texts one will observe that many species have yellow leaved varieties, but it is extremely difficult to find the living plants of many of these. I reiterate that the plants here listed are actually growing in the Arnold Arboretum, and that the following color notes are based on observations made during the 1<.34? growing season. If certain named forms with known colored foliage are missing from this list, it means that they are either not in the Arboretum living collections or that their color variations were not sufficiently outstanding to attract attention. Early Foliage The past spring was characterized by the relatively early appearance of the young foliage. Thus one willow tree, Sali.r alba vitellina, opposite the Administration Building in the Arboretum, is among the first trees to display its green foliage in the early spring. Frequently the buds are so far advanced that if a day or night with unusually warm temperature occurs at the right time, the tree will turn from an apparently inanimate object to a thing of living green almost over night. During the past three years the tree turned green over night on the following dates :-1940, May 1 ; 1941, Aprtl 15 ; 1942, April 6. From such data one can readily obtain an idea of the temperatures prevalent during the early spring. In 1940 the season was very late and in 1941 it was distinctly early. Consequently, actual dates of leaf appearance are not dependable from year to year for indnidual species, yet it is interesting to note the number of trees which come into early foliage together and which thus react regardless of whether the season is early or advanced. The various colors of the young foliage of trees and shrubs are just as beautiful as are those in autumn foliage, only less vivid. Little attention is paid these early colors, possibly because they do not last very long, and also because so much that is interesting happens in the early spring when everything seems to be break- 58 ing into life that our attention is being called a hundred places at once. I suggest that a study of the early spring colors next year will repay However, the effort to anyone interested in plants and plant l~fe. The following forms all showed color prior to May 1, 1942, and most of them in this list gradually turned a normal ~,-reen about June 1, after which little variation in their colors could be noted. Not all spring foliage colors are reported here for there are many trees and shrubs (the oaks for example) the foliage of which does not appear until mid May. These have not been recorded. Added to foliage colors are the hundreds of flower colors, the two combining to make the early sprm~ so colorful. The Norway maple, for instance, is at first a clear yellow, not because of its foliage, but because the flowers appear before the leaves. Then as the flowers gradually fade, the green leaves appear and the general appearance of the tree changes from yellow to green. Such color changes are multiplied by the hundreds in spring. The following lists should prove helpful to all who wish to anticipate foliage colors in early sprinh :new DECIDUOUS WOODY PLANTS SHOWING THE FIRST FOLIAGE COLORS PRIOR TO APRIL 25, 1942 Green , - Abelia biflora Berberis amuren5is Berberis Dielsiana Berberis Francisci-Ferdinandi Berberis Gilgiana Berberis koreana Berberis notabilis Berberis ottawensis Berberis Purdomii Berberis reticulata Berberis Vernae Cotoneaster divaricata Cotoneaster foveolata Cotoneaster lucida Deutzia glabrata Euonymus macroptera Euonymus sachalinensis Euonymus sanguinea = Lonicera bella and varieties Lonicera chrvsantha Lonicera notha Lonicera Ruprechtiana and varieties Lonicera tatarica latifolia Lonicera tatarica Leroyana Lonicera Xylosteum Malus robusta persicifolia Prinsepia sinensis Prunus Padus sibirica Prunus Padus Spaethii Euonymus Euonymus europaea chrysophylla Maackii lanceolata Pyrus ussuriensis Ribes, many species Spiraea lucida Acer ' Yellow Green to Pale Green Acanthopanax Sieboldianus Acer campestre Acer Mono Acer Nalmatum heptalobum Ne~unclu 5~ Aesculus Dupontii Hessei Artemisia sacrorum Malus robusta I'runus Padus commutata 1'runus Padus glauca Iilmmnu5 Schueideri Rosa cinnamomea . Salix alba v itellin:~ . Rihes alpinum Itihes luridum liibes odoratum Salix Jlatsmlan.~ ~al:x rubra Tilia jap<u~ica . 'I'ilia platt-r~hyllus sphaeru<ar~r,v Dark Green Chaenomeles japonica, most varieties Chaenomeles lagenaria, most varieties Ribes divaricatum Amelanchier asiatica Amelanchier canadensis Amelanchier sanguinea ' Ribes ~rovsuluria wa-<ryri li.~bes innominatum liihes rol>ustum Dlartcl.ut Fauriei Gray Green Yrinsepia uniHnrx Bronze to Reddish Acer griseum Acer platanoides Schwedleri Acer rubrum Amelanchier laevis Berberis Thunbergii atropurpurea ' Cercidiphyllum japonicum Corylopsis Veitchiana Diervilla sessilifolia Lonicera Maximowiczii sachalinensis ' Dladdenia hypoleuca Paeonia snffruticosa I'vrus ussuriensis hondoemiv Ithus arornatic.r Vaccinium an~yustitulrum laetiti~lium Viburnum c,rs5inoide~ Viburnum fra~yrau, Viburnum OE~uluS nanum ` WOODY PLANTS WITH LEAVES VARIEGATED OR COLORED THROUGHOUT THE GREATER PART OF THE GROWING SEASON OF 1942 In the following lists are recorded those plants which have colored foliage (some color other than a medium or neutral green which makes the plant stand out from the surrounding background) throughout the growing season or a part of it. Plants appearing under a certain color heading have foliage of that color from the time the leaves first appear until the fall, unless another notation or date m indicated. \" Normal by 7i fi\" means that the leaves of a particular plant have turned a normal green on or slightly before July 6, lp4l. If no notes appear, the leaves remained colored throughout the season. Certain allowances must be made hwve~-er, for the colors of the young foliage is considerably more brilliant than that of mature foliage. Thus in Berberis Thunbergii atropurpurea, the leaves of this plant first appear as a vivid scarlet and gradually fade to red. Some plants in the \"bluegreen\" list may border on the \"gray-green\" or \"purple-green.'' It may be well to cite another example of a plant with colored foliage to show how widely a plant may vary in foliage color. Kerria jnponica picta normally has 60 leaves with a light green leaf margin until July, after which time the leaf margin turns white. If a strong application of a nitrogenous fertilizer is given in June, the pale green margin may turn into a deeper green margin r~nd remain so throughout the season. On the other hand, if the plant is grown m very poor so~l, the margin may first appear white and remain white throughout the season. Another example is that of a golden-t~pped form of Tsuga canadensis growing in I'ennsylvania. It was noted by a bright-eyed nurseryman, and transplanted to his nearby nursery where the needles still had conspicuously golden tips. Then it was taken \" to Far Country\" or Hemlock Arboretum, the estate of Mr. Charles F. Jenkins, in Germantown, Philadelphia. Mr. Jenkins aave it every care including good soil, with plenty of nitrogenous matter. The tips turned a normal green and the tree could not be distinguished from any other specimen of T,sugn cnnnden.si.s when I saw it la~t spring. A soil examination was made and the results show that the ~lifi'erencea in the soil contents between Germantown and the original habitat of the tree may have been responsible for this change in color. With these examples in mind, it can be readily understood that many plants may react d~fFerently- under different conditions. The following notes record the ti~l~a~,re colors and their changes during the growing season of l4kn of all plants growing in the Arnold Arboretum with fola~,re any color except a normal green. NOTES ON DECIDUOUS PLANTS WITH LEAVES VARIEGATED OR COLORED THROUGHOUT THE SEASON, (OR PART OF IT) 1942 Light Green Acanthopanax 5xeboldianus\"' Acer ,japonicum Acer japonicum aconitifolium dish bronze Acer Mono * - red- Negundo pseudo-californicmn'~ Catalpa bi~nonioides aurea-normal by i\/31I Acer Larix decidua * Ribes cereum~ * i ~31 - 10,~10+ t Gray Green Amorpha canescens Andromeda glaucophylla Andromeda Yolifolia Berberis Populus alba Rosa Fedtschenkoana - normal by 8\/18 , - dictyophylla Elaeagnus angustifolia gray Elaeagnus umbellata Hippophae rhamno~des blue green Lonicera Korolkovii blue green Lonicera microphylla * Lonicera praeflorens'~ - Rosa rubrifolia -blue green * Rosa rubrosa \"Carmenetta\" Salvia officinalis Shepherdia argentea Sibiraea laevigata Zenobia pulverulenta * Foliage turns a normal green by 6j 30 ~ This plant had light green foliage until approximately 7 ~ 31 when the foliage a turned reddish bronze and remained that color for the rest of the season. 61 Yellow to Yellow Green . 1 japonicum aureum - normal by 7\/31 Negundo auratum - beautiful golden 4\/2z-7\/1~?, changing from bright 8 yellow on 7\/6 to greenish by 7\/31, normal by 8\/18 Cornus alba Rosenthalii-turning purplish red 9\/.i Fagus sylvatica Zlatia -- leaves yellow when young, normal by 7% 1 ~#& x3E; Hypericum Dawsonianum -yellow green Lespedeza kiusiana yellow green Ligustrum Ibota vicaryi* --only young leaves yellow by 6\/3o Lonicera japonica aureo-reticulata yellow leaves spotted green Philadelphus coronarius aureus-yellow green; greenish by 8\/18; green Sl\/.i Physocarpus opulifolius luteus - brilliant yellow ~\/ 2'~ ; yellow green 6\/10 7\/,i 1 (not outstanding); normal by 7\/ 31 Pleioblastus distichus - foliage with leaves of varying stripes of green from yel- Acer Acer - - - foliage yellow; mature foliage yellowish green outstanding Pterostyrax corymbosa - yellow green Stephanandra incisa leaves vary from yellow green to dark green Syringa vulgaris aucubaefolia variegated yellow Viburnum Opulus aureum - golden yellow 4 \/?9 ; yellow green 6% 10 -9\/.i Viburnum Sargenti flavum - young leaves yellow green Weigela praecox variegata*-variegated, dark green center, light green edge Yucca filamentosa variegata - leaves yellow and green stripes not - low to dark green Ptelea trifoliata aurea - young ; Red to Reddish Purple palmatum atropurpureum Acer palmatum atropurpureum \"Oshi Beni\"-normal by 6\/30 Acer palmatum crispum - normal by 8\/18 8 Acer palmatum Hessei Acer palmatum ornatum eventually turning bronze green Acer palmatum sanguineum -turning from a deep red to a bronze Acer palmatum versicolor- 5 j 12-6,~8 normal by 6\/30 with some foliage a \"yellowish pink\" Acer platanoides Schwedleri -bronze 5\/z~? - 6\/30 ; dark green 7~~31-9; 5 * Acer platanoides Stollii* Acer Yseudo-platanus purpureum bronze green Aesculus carnea * - light bronze Berberis Thunbergii atropurpurea Berberis vulgaris atropurpurea deep purple 4\/24 ; reddish purple 5\/22 2014 7\/31 ; almost normal by 8\/18 8 Acer - [ 62 Malus green \"Arrow\" -early foliage a good bronze 5 j l1 ; changed to a distinct reddish by 6\/8 ; turns more green but also has a slight reddish hue until leaf same as \" fall :llalus \"Berlini\" ~talus Oekonomierat Echtermeyer\" ~lalus purpurea Malus purpurea Eleyi Malus purpurea Lemoinei Malus Red Flesh\" blalus Red Silver\" for \" Vlalus \"Arrow\" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" ,~ \" \" . J9alus \" Slocan \" - Prunus blireiana Moseri red to reddish purple 1'runus blireiana \" Newport \" -- dark bronze 5\/22 - 6\/ 10 ; red 7\/31 ; reddish purple 8\/18 - 9\/5 1'runus cerasifera applebiana - reddish purple Prunus cerasifera atropurpurea-dark red 5% 29 -H j 10 ; reddish purple i \/;3 I -9\/5 l'rimus cerasifera nigra - dark bronze 5\/?l-fi~30; reddish purple 8\/18-!y5 Prunus cerasifera ~'oodii - dark red 4\/?~? -- 6\/10 ; purplish red 7 \/31 -9\/5 Prunus gland ulosa rosea - red leaves streaked with some green Prunus Persica atropurpurea shining red, excellent 5\/27 - 7; 31 : reddish pur-2 ple8i78-P\/lo Prunus spinosa purpurea dark bronze fi ~10 ; reddish purple 7\/31 0 j 11 Prunus \"Vesuvius'' - dark red 5\/?? - 7\/31 ; reddish purple 8; 18 - 9\/.i Weigela florida foliis-purpureis purplish green Weigela ~'Iaximowiczii-.50% of leaves red or reddish, remainder green - - -- , - \/. Bronze Acer palmatam'~' - deep dish tmge bronze - 5\/ti ; light bronze .i j ?2 ; green with slight red- 6\/10 bronze green Acer palmatum dissectum 1 Cotinus Coggygria purpurea - normal by i \/ 31 l Fagus s3-lvatica -normal by 7\/l * Rosa rubrifolia glaucescens'~ * Viburnum Opulus nanum -- bronze to bronze green Purple Acer purplish red above, green below platanoides maxima purpurea - mixed light and dark bronze by 6\/ 10, old foliaye C~wylus 1 normal by I \/31 Fagus sylvatica atropunicea 2014purplish green by 7\/31I Note:--There are a number of forms of the purple beech, with varying intensities of foliage color. The lasting qualities also vary, possibly due to soil variations, some trees remaining with a purple foliage throughout rubrum - 63 the season. Unfortunately, none of these forms green l by 7j31 are growing in the Arboretum. Fagus sylvatica purpureo-pendula-purplish Green with White Margin Acanthopanax Sieboldianus variegatus-some green in leaves but mostly white and yellow 7\/6; leaves pale yellow blotched with green 8; 18-9\/1~ 2 Acer Negundo crispum variegatum\" Acer Negundo elegans-yellowish edge 5\/~2-6~10; white margin 7\/~1-9~5 Acer platanoides Drummondi-yellowish margin 8~18-9~11 ~2 Buxus sempervirens albo-marginata _ Cornus alba argenteo-marginata (\",ornus alba Gcruchaultii- margins blutche<l white tii`?~?-Oi 30; blotched and whtte i \/31 - SI ~ `l I Cornus alternifolia argentea white margin with some pink Cornus florida Welchi -white margin with some rose pink blotching l~;uonymaa Fortunei gracilis -- pinl. l~;uonynum h'~tunei ` ` Silver (~lueen\" Kerria japonica picta-light green margin until 6~~30 ; whtte margin i i ~1 -10\/ l8 Green with Yellow Margin ' Negundo aureo-tar~egatum Spaethit -leaf margin blotched Cornus mas elegantissinu-6\/8-~)\/5 pink in yellow margin, leaves look sickly Ginkgo blloba Rid\",relancl~i Ligustrum ovalitblium aureu-marginatum Weigela florida variegata margin yellow green Cornus alba - Acer Green with Red or Pink Margin Acer palmata roseo-marginatum Variegated 1.;: Thunbergii argenteo-variegata-~5 ~o of leaves variegated white and pink and dark green variegated mottled 5 ~~~~-6~10, Fenzlii-light Berberis Lonicera tatarica inconspicuous thereafter Magnolia tripetala variegata-10~0 leaves are variegated with yellow 5\/~~-9~.i Prunus cerasifera Hessei-leaf margins pink, yellow, white 7\/620149\/12(looks sickly) Ruercus robur argenteo-picta -some leaves are white and white spotted 40 Japanese blaple clons - various shades of red and green, not listed here because of similartty or questionable names, mostly showing various shades of ' red but a normal green by i; 31l [ 64 EVERGREEN FOLIAGE COLOR , Light Green R Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana \"erecta alba\"leaf tips light green, normal by 8\/18 1 Chamaecyparis thyoides Hoveyi-very light green, normal by 7\/31 Taxus baccata variegata --young foliage yellow-green, leaves with light green center and yellow margin ; older leaves normal green ' Gray Green Chamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa -gray- green to blue Cryptomeria japonica -young leaves gray green Picea glauca gray green to bluish green - green Picea mariana Doumetii Yellow a Chamaecyparis obtusa aurea Chamaecyparis obtusa \"gracilis aurea'' ,luniperus chmensis \"japonica aureo-variegata~ Taxus cuspidata aurescens Thuja occidentalis conspicua Thuja occidentalis Rllwangeriana Thuja orientalis decussata Yellow Green nephrolepis-normal by 7\/6 Chamaecyparis nootkatensis lutea Chamaecyparis pisifera aurea normal by i \/ti Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera aurea\" normal by 7\/6 Chamaecyparis pisifera \" lutescens nana -- normal by i \/6 Chamaecyparis pisifera \"nana aurea\" Chamaecyparis pisifera plumosa Chamaecyparis ptsifera \"plumosa aureo-compacta\" Chamaecyparis pisifera plumosa argentea\" Chamaecyparis pisifera \"plumosa flaveseem\" Juniperus chinensis aurea F Juniperus chinensis \"Pfitzeriana aurea\" -normal by 7\/6 chinensis plumosa aurea\" Juniperus o J umperus communis aurea spica\" - normal by 7\/6 communis \"depressa aurea\" - normal by 7 % 6 Juniperus Picea Abies aurea-normal by 7\/6 Picea glauca aurea-normal by 7\/6 Pinus pumila - normal b~ \"7 ~~6 Taxus baccata aurea --normal by 7\/6 Taxus canadensis aurea-young foliage tips yellowish green o Thuja occidentalis aurea-normal by '7i6 occidentalis lutea Thuja Abies -- ' ' ' ~ \" \" ' , ' ' 65 Thuja Thuja Thuja Thuja occidentalis pulcherrima normal by i ~6 occidentalis \"robusta lutea\" occidentalis \" Waxen\" orientalis conspicua-younb foliage yellowish green - Blue Green Abies Fraseri prostrata Abies lasiocarpa Abies Vilmormri Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana \"robusta glauca\" Chamaecyparis nootkatensis Chamaecyparis pisifera minima Chamaecyparis pisifera \" squarrosa interrnedia'' Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus seravshanica squamata squamata Weyeri turkestanica virginiana Burki virginiana glauca virginiana McCabei virginiana reptans . Chamaecyparis pisifera nana\" \"squarrosa Chamaecyparis thyoides glauca Juniperus chinensis oblonga Juniperus chinensis Reevesi Juniperus chinensis sylvestris Juniperus communis Juniperus glaucescens Juniperus recurva Juniperus Sabina prostrata Juniperus scopulorum Juniperus scopulorum \"Cologreen\" Juniperus scopulorum glauca Blue 1'~cea bicolor Picea Glehnii Picea montigena Picea pungens Picea pungens globosa Pmus flexilis reflexa Pinus monticola Pinus parviflora Pinus sylvestris Pinus sylvestris fastigiata Pinus sylvestris lapponica Pinus sylvestris Watereri Pseudotguga taxifolia - varies from green to blue green Abies amabilis Abies concolor - from light blue to blue green varying on different trees Abies concolor violacea -young foliage blue Abies lasiocarpa ar~zonica Abies lasiocarpa compacta Chamaecyparis obtusa ericoides Juniperus scopulorum \"Hill's Silver\" Juniperus scopulorum \"Marshall\" Juniperus scopulorum \"Marshall Silver\" C'hamaecyparis pisifera squarrosa 1 lyht blue i ~81 py ~trrnaea'' Juniperus chinensis densa glauca\" Juniperus communis echinaeformis Juniperus scopulorum columnaris Jumperas scopulorum Gareei - Juniperus scopulorum \"Vleclora\" Juniperus scopulorum \"Dloonlight'' Juniperus virginiana \"glauca Hetzi\" Juniperus virginiana pseudo-cupressus Juniperus virginiana venusta 1'mea F.ngelmanni Picea pungens argentea Picea pungens Kosteriana Picea pungens Moerheimi Leaves Whitish Underneath (g~ivin~ Abies alba a ~rayish appearance at a distance) p3 ramidalis .~bies homolepis .abie, homolepis umbellata Abies Veitchii olivacea Picea Abies ele~aus 'faxus baccata Yicea ,jezoensis hondoensis Picea notha Picea Omol'lk.a I'inas par~~iflora ~lauca Variegated \"fastigiata aurea\"-margin of leaves yellow , EARLY COLORED AUTUMN FOLIAGE already been published in a previous issue of the Bulletin of Popw e Information, Series k, Vol. IV, No. 14, 19~6, of trees and shrubs which ha~e specific autumn colors. No mention was made of those species which may be listed as turning color early in the fall; that is, actually the first to take on autumn Lists have lar coloration in the Arnold Arboretum. The following list shows those plants which began to turn color prior to September 1, 19~2. This is very early, especially 'N when it is understood that autumn color was not predominantly evident in the Arboretum until about October 7, and did not reach its peak until about October 14 this year. However, there are always plants which can be expected to change color early or at least begin to change color before the majority of other plants, as indicated by the following list. It should be noted that the season, the situation in which a plant is growing, the amount of rainfall and its seasonal distribution, all combine to determine the actual dates on which fall color first is evident and these dates vary from year to year. The following species are always the first to start the color procession. WOODY PLANTS SHOWING THE FIRST AUTUMN COLOR (ON OR PRIOR TO SEPTEMBER 1, 1942) Abeliophyllum distiehum -yellow green Acanthopanax sessilinorus - yellow green Acer rubrum-few turning red Acer rubrum Schlesingeri-turning red (holding its leaves fully colored until Aronia species and varieties turning red and yellow Berberis amurensis - turning deep red Berberis Bretschneideri - p5 ~o turning bright red Berberis dasystachya turning to red Berberis Francisci-Ferdinandi - bronze green Berberis Purdomii - turning deep reddish purple Berberis 'I'hunbergii-yellows and reds starting to appear Berberis Thunbergii Maximowiczii-turning bronze Callicarpa dichotoma - yellow green with little purple -- 10,! 1 ~ 67 Carpinus laxiflora -- young leaves turning red Cercidiphyllum japonicum-few turning color, some leaves yellow and some bronze Cornus alba turning reddish purple - Cornus Amomum - turning bronze red Cornus florida -few trees showing much red fall tion and soil conditions) Dirca palustris turning yellow green Euonymus alata - turning red -- coloring (probably due to loca- some turning yellow and others turning red Euonymus Bungeana trees vary Euonymus europaea turning reddish Euonymus oxyphylla turning red Euonymus sachalinensis many leaves turning red deep bronze Euonymus sanguinea Bretschneideri glabrescens turning yellow and brown and dropping Hydrangea Lmdera Benzoin turning yellow green few leaves turning red Parthenocissus quinquefolia Phellodendron amurense-few trees already turned bright yellow Phy Socarpus bracteatus -- .i0~c turning brown with a little red Prinsepia sinensis - ?,i ~o turning bright yellow Prunus Padus commutata - 500,o bright red and dropping Rhododendron yedoen5e pouklanen5e-few plants with leaves turning bronze red - - - - - Ribes aureum - starting to turn red - Ribes odoratum aurantiacum 7.i ~o now deep red . Ribes odoratum praecox 50~0 of leaves bri~,rht red Rosa carolina glandulosa-turning dark red Rosa Roxburghii and varietiei - turning bronze Rosa setigera , Securinega dropping Spiraea alba turning yellow brown Spiraea salicifolia turning bronze Stewartia ovata grandiflora turning brown and purple ---- turning bronze red sufl'ruticosa turning yellow and serena - Tilia euchlora-50o~o yellow Vaccinium atn~rustifolium laevifohum --bronze green and red Vaccimum canadense-bronze green and red Vaccinium cory mbosum \",rlabrum- turning red Vaccinium Oldhamii -turning deep red Vaccinium tomentosum rotundtfolium .i0 0~0 of leaves dark red and green - DON4LD WSMAN f ~,8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume II","article_sequence":11,"start_page":69,"end_page":71,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24116","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d24eb725.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME II Illustrations are in bold face type Abeliophyllum distichum, Actinotinus sinensis, 8 36 :l~;laia odorata, 8 0 - Chinese, 10 European, 10 - Japanese, 10 - American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboretums, Committee on Chimonanthus praecox, 8 Chinabells, - 4 Horticultural varieties, 33 Chinese New - Apricot, 4 1 \"Araliaceae of China,\" 51 Autikon Botanikon,\" 51 Autumn Year, Flowers of the, Lily, 2 Scene, Plate III, 7 1-8 - Foliage, 67 Azalea, 6 Blueberry, 29-32 Culture, references on, 32 Highbush, 29-32 Varieties, 30 Boynton, Charles L., 24 Frank E., 22, 2~ Buartnut, 12 Bussey Institution, 37 Butternut, 12 Camellia, fi japoni<a, 6 Canby, William DI. , 18, 20 Canton, Scenes in, Plate I, 3, II, Carey, John, 17, 18 I Cary-a illinoensis, 11 I laciniosa X illinoensis, 11 - Chloranthus spicata, 8 Citrus medica sarcodoctylus, 8 Clematis, Collection Given Arnold - - , ' - 5 Arboretum, 50 lanuginosa, 50 8 Congdon, Joseph ~'., 18 r Constable, James, 17 \"Contributions of the Arnold 1 tum,\" 51 Cornus florida, 36 Corylus species, 10 Cowlle, F. C. 29-30 8 Crayton, F. M., 18 Mrs. Joseph M., 50 Cudahy, Davenport, John, 17, 18 Diospyros kaki, 12 - Arbore- virginiana, 12 e ~? Enkianthus, - - - ovata, 11 I quinqueflorus, 1, Epigaea repens, 16, 41-51 - 4 28 - I pecan, 11 Castanea crenata, 10 - Euonymus, alata, 41, 4z, Plate VIII, 43, 44 compacta, 42, 44 americana, 42, Plate VIII, 43, atropurpurea, 42 bulgarica, Plate V III, 43, 44 - Bungeana, 41, 4? semipersistens, 41, 42, 44 -- dentata, 10 mollissima, - 10 - 49 - 0 mollissima X crenata, 10 - 0 sativa, 10 Chestnuts, 10 - American, 10 - - 69 - Chart of Ornamental Characteristics, 46, 47 - europaea, 41, 42, Plate VIII, 43 41~ - Evergreens, Colored Foliage, \"Fijian Plant Studies, II,\" .511 Fisher Professorship of Natural tory, 18 8 His- aldenhamensis, atropurpurea, atrorubens, 41, 42 42 \"Flora of on - - 42 Fukien and Floristic Notes I Southeastern China,'' 51 - - 42 - intermedia, - Fortunei, 48 - - - - - -- - - - - - - -- - - - . - colorata, Plate IX, 4.i, 48 Carrierei, Plate IX, 45, 48 gracilis, Plate IX, 45, 48 kewensis, Plate IX, 4,i, 48 minima, Plate IX, 45, 48 radicans, Plate IX, 45, 48 reticulata, Plate IX, 45 \"Silver Queen,\" Plate IX, 45, vegeta, Plate IX, 45, 48 49 - - - Foliage, Changes in, .i7-(i8 Colored, 59 Colors of Woody Plants April to September, 5 7-68 Early, .iLl Early Autumn, 67 1 Variegated, 60, 61 Galax, 16, 17, 21, 22, 24, `?6 Sa Gray, Asa, Plate V, 1 His Quest for Shortia Galacifolia, --, 13-28 48 -- Hardiness Notes, Rhododendrons, 53-.56 o Hazelnuts and Filberts, 10 2 Heartnut Hybrids, 12 - japonica, 44, - kiautschovica, Plate VIII, 43, 44 - lanceifolia,6 I , 1.4 latifolia, 41, 1'late VIII, 4;3 - Maackii, Plate VIII, 43, 44 macroptera, 44 nana, Plate VIII, 43 nikoensis, Plate VIII, 43 - - - - - obovata, 42#&x3E; patens, 44 - rndicnns, - 48 - - - acuta, 48 sachalinensis, 41, Plate VIII, 43 sanguinea, 41, Plate VIII, 43, 44 48 44 Hepatica triloba, 21 I Hicans, 11 I Hickories, 11 Hickory Hybrids, 11I Hyams, George McQueen, 18, 21 -, M. E., 18, 20 Ihrig, Herbert, 53-56 Ilex mollis, 24 Jenkins, Charles F., 28 Juglans cineria, 12 2 X sieboldiana cordiformis, 12 ` - Scale, -- Shrubs, - - nigra, -- regia, 11 I 12 t2 Species showing variations in leaves and buds, Plate VIII, 43, Plate IX, 42 45 - - Trees, Vines, '2 - sieboldiana cordiformis, 11 \"Lilacs for America,\" 33 -, The One Hundred \"Best,\" 33-36 Lord, Frederick 1'., 28 DIacDaniels, L. H., ~l 48 Magnolia cordata, 22, VIII, 43, 44 70 24 - yedoensis, 41, Plate Medicinal Plant Garden of the Mass- achusetts 0 37-40 College of Pharmacy, 38-40 Redfield, J. H., 20 Rhododendron spp., 1, 6 - - Species Grown in, Augustinii, Ferrarae, 6 53 53 :~Ieratia praecox, 8 Metcalf, Franklin P., 1-8 - \" Britannia,\" - Michaux, Andre, 13, 14 Michelia alba, 8 - Champaca, 8 \"Monograph of Azaleas,\" l~Iortier, P., 5~ Morton Arboretum, .50 -, Joy, 50 Narcissus tazetta, 2 - - Hardiness Notes, 58-56 In the Pacific Northwest, 53-56 - 1 51 - - indicum, 6 6 Simsii, Vaseyi, 24 Sargent, Charles S., 20, 22, 1 Sargentia, .i Shagbark Hickory, 11I Plate `~4 Nelson, Ralph M., 26 Newton, Howard C., 37 Nut Growing in the Northeastern States, 9 Nut Trees, Northern Nurseries Speo cializin~ in, 10 '2 Sources for, 9-12 -, Nurser3 -- Varieties and Their Sources, 10 OoStlnt.,r, Henry J., 25 PaeOnla moutan, 4 Short, Charles Wilkins, 16, 22, VI, `1;3 I Shortia - 7 galacifolia, 16, Plate VIII, ~7 1 3-Z8 8 Gray and His Quest for, 8 Solanum, 8 Sulli~-nnt, 4~'illiam S., 18 Thea japonica, 6 Asa \"Thornhill,\" - 50 29 8 Torrey, John, 18 Vaccinium corymbosum, Sll~rlltlc0521, 1, Museum, 16 Peach, 4 I Pecan, 11 I'eoy, Tree, 4 Persimmons, 12 e American, 12 12 ' - Oriental, Prinsepia sinensis, 44 Prunus japonica, 8 - 4 Horticultural Varieties OfFered by Paris Growers, ;3z3#& x E; - Northern CTrowers Selling, 1 31 - - mume, 4 - persica, 1, 4 Publications, Important, Quimby, M. W., 37 Recent 1 51 Variegated Foliage, Vasseur, Louis, 50 Viburnum fragrans, 36 I Walnuts, 11 I -, Black, 11 e -, Persian (or English~, 1`~ 8 Waxflower, White, Miss Elizabeth, 30 Wister, John C., 33 Youngken, Heber W., 37-40 These Bulletins will be discontinued until Spring of next year. Subscription renewals for 1943 are now due. Send the subscription price of at your $1.00 to Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, early convenience. 71 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23458","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eaf28.jpg","title":"1942-2","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1942,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24100","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270a728.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Professor Charles Sprague Sargent in the Arnold Arboretum -1904, Plate I, opposite p. 30 Flowers and fruits of the p. 35 Library hardy orange, Porrcirus tr;f'oliata. Plate II, Map showing absolute minimum temperatures in the Northeastern states from 1926-1940. Plate III, p. 47 season Map showing an average length for growing ern states. Plate IV, p. 49 Map showing the average states for the years 1926 to 1940. in the Northeast- July temperature Plate V, in the Northeastern 1 p. 51 Black walnuts. Plate VI, p. 33 Hickory nuts of various types. Plate VII, p. 57 p. 69 The native rock The elm, Ulmu.r thomasi. Plate VIII, or European white elm Russian 1 elm, Lllmus laenis. Plate IX, p.71 Two varieties of the smoothleaf 5 elm, L'lmus carpinjfolia. Plate X, p. 75 Leaf specimens of various elm species. Plate XI, p. 79 111 . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"A Simple Change in Name","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":2,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24097","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d2608525.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 MARCH 14, 1941 A SIMPLE CHANGE IN NAME NUMBER I Information\" has always been an unbecause of the form of its title, which reads: \"Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, Bulletin of Popular Information.\" Moreover, for no very obvious reason, in the twenty-nine years of its publication it has attamed four series, and for clarity it is necessary to cite the series as well as the volume. Initiated in May, 1911, sixty-three unpaged numbers form the first series, this run closing in November, 1914. In 1915, a new series was commenced with volume one and was continued for twelve years, closing with volume twelve in December, 1926. Series three was initiated with volume one in 1917, and closed with volume six in 1932. The fourth and last series was commenced with volume one in 1933, and was closed with volume eight in 1940. In scanning the many thousands of entries in such a comprehensive reference work as the \"Umon List of Serials in Libraries of the United States and Canada,\" one notes that an overwhelming majority of the periodical titles stress the name of the sponsoring organization in their titles, whether published by a society or an institution. My attitude is that in general a single name is better than a long and cumbersome title, and in many cases single name titles would have established and maintained the institutional or organizational prestige just as well as the longer explanatory title-and, of course, would be infinitely simpler to cite. One unnecessarily long title that I replaced with a single word one was the following: \"University of California Publications. The Agricultural Experiment Station of the College of Agriculture Technical Paper No.-.\" In 192.5, this series was closed and the new to Popular OUR \"Bulletinperiodical cite, satisfactory of title \"Hilgardia\" was selected, with an explanatory subtitle, \"A Journal of Agricultural Science published by the California Agricultural Experiment Station,\" to replace the \"Technical Bulletin\" series with the long and cumbersome name, and \"Hilgardia,\" named in honor of the first Director of the California Agricultural Experiment Station is now in its thirteenth volume. In 1931, a new technical periodical was established at the New York Botanical Garden, and for this the single word name Brittonia\" was selected in honor of the first Director of the Garden, Dr. Nathaniel Lord Britton, with an explanatory subtitle, \"A Series of Botanical Papers published by the New York Botanical Garden. \"I And now the old name of our Bulletin of Popular Information is replaced with a one word title \"Arnoldia\" honoring Mr. James Arnold whose initial bequest of $100,000.00 in 1868 lead to the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum in 2 187~1.2 In the short paper referred to above on one-name periodicals, about forty ; one-word or essentially one-word titles for well-known technical periodicals are listed where the name itself indicated the general field of the publication. Following this, another series of about forty onename titles is given, where the names were, for the most part, derived from those of individuals prominent in botanical and horticultural as \"Adansonia,\" \"Bonplandia,\" \"Candollea,\" \"Gre\"Hedwigia,\" \"Lmnaea,\" \"Malplghia,\" \"Sieboldia,\" villea,\" case we are fortunate in being \"Torreya,\" and others. In our science, such own able to derive a short, euphonious, one-word title from the name of the individual whose broad vision and interest lead him to provide funds, devised to the trustees of his estate, that lead to the establishment of the institution that bears his name. It is believed that the new name \"Arnoldia\" with its explanatory subtitle, \"A Continuation of the Bulletin of Popular Information of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University,\" will be far more satisfactory than the somewhat cumbersome one that it replaces. It will, at the same time, reflect proper institutional credit on its sponsoring institution, the Arnold Arboretum, and on its holding body, Harvard University, as long as we are able to maintain it as a medium of publication that serves the needs of its supporters. E. D. MFRRII.L IMerrill, E.D. One-name periodicals. Brittonia 1: 1-5. 1931. zRaup, H.M. The genesis of the Arnold Arboretum. Arnold Univ. Bull. Arb. Harvard Pop. Inf. IV. 8: 1-11. pl. 1. 1940. 2~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The While Flowering Rhodora","article_sequence":2,"start_page":3,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24107","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d2708125.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"THE WHITE FLOWERING RHODORA The rhodora is a typical New England shrub, growing from Labrador and Newfoundland, south to Pennsylvania. The correct scientific name is Rhododendron canarlense, though it is known throughout New England by Its synonym, Rhodora canadensis. It is one of our hardiest woody plants, being hardy in areas where the temperatures may go from 35 to 50 degrees below zero during the winter months. It is known and readily recognized for its delicate rose-purple flowers, appearing in the early spring before the lea~es. It is usually found growing in slightly marshy ground. In ornamental plantings, it is ~alued for its early spring flowers and is used especially in naturalistic plantings. A good place to see it is to go to Ralph Waldo Emerson's grave in Concord on May 25, his birthday anniversary. Because of his poem \"Rhodora\" and his affection for the flower, some admirer will have carried out the tradition. Whether the flowers come from the neighborhood or from far afield, there will be a bunch laid reverently upon the grave. The white flowering variety of the rhodora, known as Rhododendron canadense albiflorum, is not a particularly \"new\" plant, but try to find it in any of last year's nursery catalogues ! Not a single American nursery listed it last year or any year prior to that, as far as I know. However, it has been known to exist since 1894, at least, when it was described by Rand and Redfern in their \"Flora of Mount Desert Island.\" The white flowering variety of Rhododendron canadense has all the characteristics of the species except that its flowers are white. Fortunately for present-day gardens, Mr. Richard W. Hale of Boston became very much interested in this plant. In fact, he admired its qualities so much that he took it upon himself to locate individual plants or groups of plants with white flowers, in order that this variety could be propagated and become readily available to the average gardener. Mr. Hale has located Rhododendron canadense albi,flo~~um growing at about nine different places. He advertised in various local papers in Maine and in \"Horticulture\" in order to find sources for good shrubs with pure white flowers. All plants which he has located are definitely white flowered. Even though this plant had been growing in several places, no one had taken an active interest in propagating ~t and placing it on the market until Mr. Hale began to collect plants from the wild and to propagate them. The only successful propagation so far has been by root division, which is altogether too slow. In this work Mr. Hale has had material assistance from Mr. Will C. Curtis of \"Garden in the Woods,\" Sud- though Mr. Hale has over fifty plants now and can by collecting them from certain places in Maine, his supply would not go very far if there proved to be a large demand for this interesting native. He has seen this from the first. The problem of a commercial supply even bury. However, obtain more for the introduction of this beautiful shrub is one of commercial prop- agation, and this rhodora is Institute a failure. There may be some doubt whether the to them was adequate. Then Mr. Hale and Mr. Curtis went to East Boxford and laid the problem before Mr. Harlan P. Kelsey, Sr., who enthusiastically took on the task. Without waiting for plants of the white rhodora, he began experimental propagating of the purple form and looks forward to mastering the problem. We hope that in an early number of Arnoldia we shall be able to make a supplementary announcement, perhaps even stating that there will be some plants commercially available in the spring of 19~.z. And so horticulture has one man to thank for his painstaking efforts in making this plant available to the gardening public. Mr. Hale, in locating sources for the white rhodora, in obtaining plants and growing them under his personal supervision to make certain the flowers were white, and finally in turning over his stock to a commercial propagator so that the plants will eventually become generally available, has done an exemplary piece of work. As a result, it is hoped that one more worthy shrub will soon become a common resident in gardens, not necessarily as a plant to be used in place of the purple flowered R. canadense but as one which can be used in combination with the latter, to supply an interesting color combination in early spring. Boyce-Thompson candidly reported material supplied apparently going to be recalcitrant. The very kindly volunteered an attempt and DONALD WYMAN 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sources for Rare Woody Plants, 1941","article_sequence":3,"start_page":5,"end_page":19,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24104","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270b36d.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 1941 MARCH 21, 1941 NUMBERS2-3 SOURCES FOR RARE WOODY PLANTS the Arnold Arboretum is besieged with requests to rare woody plants which are very difficult to find in nursery catalogues. The institution makes a smcere effort to locate sources for such plants since one of its functions is to aid in the establishing of rare woody plants in this country, both in the commercial nurseries and in privately owned gardens. When a tree or shrub ~s eventually grown and offered for sale by one or more nurserymen in this country, the Arboretum, theoretically, does not feel the need of extensively propagating this particular plant in its own greenhouses, but rather refers all queries for it to the nurseryman who has propagated it and offers it for sale. Many readers of this bulletin are desirous of having certain rare plants growing in their gardens but do not know where they may obtain them. As a service to these readers, we have gone to considerable trouble this season to locate rare woody plants actually now offered for sale in nursery catalogues issued for the current year 1941. Over two hundred current catalogues were requested by the Arboretum from all parts of the United States, and more than one hundred had actually been received at the time this bulletin was prepared. These catalogues have been checked carefully and a list of rare plants now in American commerce has been compiled, together with the names of the nurseries offering such plants for sale. It is desirable to indicate that there may be several weaknesses in any such list. In the first place, some plants listed might not be considered \"rare\" by all individuals. Secondly, even though only one or two sources for a single plant are listed, it does not mean, necessarily, that these are the only places in the United States where such a plant can be obtained. It would be impossible to locate actually every source EVERY locate year certain 5 plant. In most cases, we have been content to locate one or only, because we feel that present-day transportation facilities enable the buyer to obtain live plants in good condition from any part of the country. Admittedly, the transportation expense from for every two sources distant nursery may be great, but it must be remembered that these plants are rare and we feel fortunate that we are able to give even one source, no matter how distant. Another weakness lies in the discrepancies in nomenclature, for which we are not responsible. An u~teresting example of this is shown in the case ofthedouble-flowered form of Cornus florida. In the 1941 catalogues, a number of nurseries are listing this unusual plant, using the varietal names alba-plena, multibracleatrc and plena. The correct varietal name is ~luribracteata, and it is so listed in this bulletin, even though the nurseries have it in their catalogues under the other names. Finally, we have no way of knowing if the plants ottered are always true to name. A word should be said about the method of checking the catalogues. They were examined in the order in which they arrived. Because we noted only the first few sources which we discovered for a plant, many nurseries that may carry the same forms will not be given credit for having certain of these plants. No preference was shown to any particular firm, or to any particular part of the country except that little attention was paid to plants for the far South. Several worthy nurseries-growers of rare plants-are not listed here merely because we did not receive their 1941 catalogues before this bulletin went to press. All plants recorded in our 1941 files are not listed in this bulletin. For instance, one nursery, alone offers 250 species and varieties of Fuschia. We have located approximately 150 named varieties of lilacs, which could not be herein listed. One nursery last year listed about 100 species and botanical varieties of roses, but we have not as yet received its 1941 catalogue. It is believed that this list of rare woody plants and their 1941 sources will be exceptionally valuable to the plant-buying public even though it may be out-dated by next fall or the following spring. We wish to call attention to the list of nurserymen offering rare woody plants in their 1941 catalogues, and we take this opportunity to compliment them for takmg the time and trouble to grow rare things even when the demand for them must be rather limited. If Arnoldia readers are interested in this list and would like to receive another list with plants not herein mentioned (possibly including the names of nurseries whose catalogues have not yet been received),I please write to the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, and make your wishes known. DONALD WYMAN a Nurseries Listing Rare Woody Plants in 1941 Catalogues (Several other catalogues not yet received at the prepared might also be included) time this was 1. Adams Nursery, Inc., Springfield, Mass. ?..Andorra Nurseries, Inc., Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. 3. Arapahoe Acres Nursery, Littleton, Colo. 4. Armstrong Nurseries, Ontario, Cal. 5. California Nursery Co , Niles, Cal. 6. Chase Nursery Co., Chase, Ala. 7. W. B.Clarke & Co., San Jose, Cal. 8. Carl S. English, Jr., 8546 - 30th Ave., N.W., Seattle, Wash. 9. Fruitland Nurseries, Augusta, Ga. 10. James I. George & Son, Fairport, N.Y. 11. Griffing Nurseries, Beaumont, Texas 12. Carl A. Hansen Nursery, Brookings, S.D. 13. D. Hill Nursery Co., Dundee, I11. 14. I. E. Ilgenfritz Sons Co., Monroe, Mich. 15. Kallay Bros. Co., Painesville, Ohio 16. Kingsville Nurseries Inc., Kingsmlle, Md. 17. Kiyono Nurseries, Crichton, Ala. 18. Henry Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio 19. Le-Mac Nurseries, Hampton, Va. 20. Manitoba Hardy Plant Nursery, Dropmore, Manitoba, Canada 21. McConnell Nursery Co., Port Burwell, Ontario, Canada zlA. J. Franklin Meehan & Sons, Inc., Mt. Airy, Phila., Pa. 22. Thomas B. Meehan Co., Dresher, Pa. 23. Naperville Nurseries Inc., Naperville, Ill. ~?1. Portland Wholesale Nursery Co., 306 S. E. Twelfth Ave., Port_ land, Oregon 24A. Rare Plants 25. Sherwood Nursery, Linwood, N.Y. Nursey Co., 141 S. E. 65th Ave., Portland, Oregon 26. The Siebenthaler Co., Catalpa Drive, Dayton, Ohio 27. Stark Bros. Nurseries, Louisiana, Mo. 28. Tingle Nursery Co., I'ittsville, Md. 29. Towson Nurseries, Inc., Towson, Md. 30. Upper Bank Nurseries, Media, Pa. 31. Upton Gardens, Colorado Springs, Colo. 32. Wayside Gardens, Mentor, Ohio 33. ~'Vestminster Nurseries, Westminster, Md. 34. Willis Nursery Co., Ottawa, Kansas 3.i. Wohlert's Nurseries, Narberth, Pa. Rare Woody Plants listed in 1941 Nursery Catalogues Abies alba (.4. pectirialn~ 18 18 8 8 lindleyana 18 pyramidalis cephalonica 7 Horticultural Varieties chensiensis `19 8 concolor violacea18 8 firma 28,18 pinsapo glauca 7 8 Acer buergerianum 18 cappadocicum (A.laetum~ circinatum `?8 glabrum 3 s griseum 18 \"Concord'' 15,28 \"Dubonnet\" 1.7,3?, 37>, \" F:leanor\" 15 18 8 \" Charming\" 22,3~?,34 \"Fortune\" 32 \"Ile de France\" 15,22,34 \"Orchard Beauty\" 28 Buxus microphylla koreana 18,26 Buxus 24A \" Fxrquari\" 15,~~? \" Vlagnifica\" 37. mandshuricum 18,26 nikoense 18 8 Actinidia chinensis 4 Aesculus microphylla japonica Callicarpa baumani 18 8 hippocastanum octandra 18 turbinata 18 americana lactea (C. nmeriarua alha~ 9 d~chotoma (C. purpuren~ 1 18 8 japonica si.s~ 7 Atbizziajulibrissm rosea 18,28 8 Alnus glutinosa laciniata 18 tenuifolia 3 Amorpha nana 3 0 Ampelopsis aconitifolia 10 \"BrilliantisAronia arbutifolia 5 sima\" 2?,1 Campsis grandiflora (C.chinPnCaragana arborescens lorbergi 20 0 boisi 18 8 decorticans 26 frutex 18 8 prunifolia (A.ntropurpurpa~ 15 grandiflora 20 3 pygmaea 20, spinosa 20 8 Carpinus betulus 26,22,30,18 Atraphaxis buxifolia 20 Berberis atrocarpa 9,17 7 9 candidula 19 ? X chenaulti 33,19 corallina compacta 7 darwini 25,5,4 dulcis nana 25,24 japonica 18 8 tschonoski (C.yedoensis) 18 8 8 Cedrela sinensis 18 knighti 25,5 koreana 28,22,18,1.i,26,1,8 Cedrus libani compacta 7 8 Celastrus gemmata 18 loeseneri 32 pruinosa 9 wilsonae 5 Celtis laevigata ensis) 21A (C.mis.sissippi28 32 32 8 Cercis canadensis alba 9,16,18 13 Betula fontinalis 18,31,8 sil~quastrum alba \"Enchantress\" pendula fastigiata (B. alba X \" Chaenomeles californica\" 7 .fit.sdigiata~ 18,2l Buddleia h 30, 31 crispa (B. al ternifolia 5, I 4, l.i, \"Masterpiece\" parriculata~ 18 8 \"~Iount Everest\" 32 \"I'mk Beauty\" 32 Chaenomeles (cont.) 32 \"Sunset Glow\" 32 7 japonica 7 japonica alpina japonica alpina \"Naranja\" 7 \"Rosemary\" wilsoni 18 serratifolia 18,20 tangutica 18,~0 obtusmacula 10 texensis 10,18 Xtroutbeckiana veitchi 18 viorna 18 8 10 \" lncendie\" 7 lagenaria Atrococcinea\" 7 \"Blood Red\" 7 \"Bonfire\" 7 \"Candida\" 7 Cardinalis\" 7 cathayensis (C.cathayensis~ 3~ \"Appleblossom\" 7 vitalba 18 viticella 18 Horticultural Varieties \"Ascotiensis\" 10 0 10 \"Elsa Spath\" 10 \"Empress of India\" \" Grace\" 20 \"Huldine\" 10 \" Kermesina\" 10 0 \"Columbia\" 7 \"Double Vermilion\" 7 \"Foliis rubris\" 7 \"Grandiflora\" 7 \"Kermesma semiplena\" 7, 18 \"Gipsy Queen\" 10 \"Japanese \"Knap Scarlet\" 7 \"King Edward VII\" 10 0 \"King of the Belgians\" 10 \"La France\" 10 0 \"Lady Betty Balfour\" 10 0 0 \"LadyCarolineNeville'' 10 \"Lady Northcliffe\" 10 \"Mr.G.J.Yatijn\" 10 Hill Scarlet\" 7 macrocarpa 7 \"Marmorata\" 7 nivalis 7 pygmaea 5 18,15 \"Rosea grandiflora\" 18 rubra grandiflora\" 7 semperflorens 7 \" Vermilion\" 18 versicolor 7 \" versicolor lutescens\" 7 Xsuperba \"Atrosanguinea\" 7 \"Corallina\" 7 \"Crimson and Gold\" 7 \"Early Appleblossom\" 7 \"Mrs. Robert Bryden\" \"Prins Hendrik\" 10 \"Ramona\" 10 \"The President\" 10 0 \"Ville de Lyon\" 10 \"Ville de Yaris\" 10 0 \"W.E.Gladstone\" 10 \"William Kennett\" 10 19 Clethra alnifoha rosea 32 Clerodendron trichotomum 18, 28 \"Juliet\" 7 perfecta7 Red\" 7 Clematis brevicaudata 20 barbinervis 18 Cornus controversa 28 \"Stanford florida pendula 2,22,29,16 plur~bracteata (C. florida multibracteata, C. florida crispa 18 8 fargesi 18 Xjackmani rubra 10 Xjouiniana \"Spingarn\" plena,C.,florida alba-plena) 2,7,22,16,35,26,18,6,32, 29 10 welchi 26,28,16,18 X lawsoniana 10 ligusticifolia 18,20 montana undulata 10,18 S rubens 10 nuttalli 24,5 stolonifera coloradensis 3 Corylus avellana 83,15 avellana aurea 18 9 Corylus avellana (cont.) fusco-rubra (C. avellana 26 purpurea) 1 francheti 2,11 7 harroviana 28 henryana 7 8 heterophylla sutchuenensis 18 Cotoneaster adpressa praecox 16 O glaucophylla integerrima lactea 19 pannosa nana 18 8 \"Lord Lambourne\" 25 \"Maria Burkwood\" 7,z5 \"MeGill\" 4 \" f omona~' z.i,4,7 San Francisco\" 15,4 \"St. Marys\" z5,4 \"Scandinavia\" 32 \"Stanford\" `2.i supinus 18 Daphne cneorum variegata mezereum alba 18,2 odora alba 7 28 \"Dorothy Walpole\" 25 \"Geoffrey Skipworth\" 7 microphylla thymifolia 25,28 11,5,4 25 tenuipes 18 Crataegus arnoldiana 18,`16 coccinioides 18 coloradensis 3 colorata 7 erythropoda flava 2 marginata 24,7,5 variegata 4 Davidiainvolucrata 18,1 XDeutzia lemoinei compacta 18 8 5 Xrosea 18, I 20 campanulata 18 carminea 18 eximia 18 hupehensis jacki 7 Xlavallei 18 18 floribunda 9 venusta 18 (C. carrierei) macrantha 18,7 nitida 18,`~:3 18 pinnatifida 20 major 18 sanguinea 20 Diospyros haki 21 A Elsholtzia stauntoni I 8,15 5 Enkianthus campanulatus bini 8 cernuus rubens 8,28 persistens pali- succulenta 23,20 Cryptomeria japonica Cytisus albus 24 perulatus nana 18 18 25 Erica ciliaris 16 Xdarleyensis ardoini 7 battandieri 7 burkwoodi ~1.,7 h~rsutus 18 kewens~s 7 nigricans 18 praecox ~,1.i,5,14 purpureus `Z,i lusitanica 4 medtterranea 4 6 terminal~s (E. slricta~ 16 tetral~e 16 umbellata 8 Eucommia ulmoides 18 Euonymus europaea alba (E. eu~~opaen,s fructo-al6a~ purpureus 3l elongatus (C. pPIllI7lIll.S') racemosus 7 japonica albo-marginata albo-variegata 33 aureo-marginata 5,24 ~3 microphylla .i,1 latifol~a 18 maacki 18 nana 24 5 scoparius andreanus 18,24 Borsch'S Prostrate Broom\" ~;i \"California\" 25 18 10 Euonymus (cont.) sachalinensis Evodia minima 3 (E. plani~es~ (H. helix doneraliensis~ 5,28 yedoensis 15,28,1 hupehensis 18 Fagus sylvatica fastigiata 18,1 Forestiera neo-mexicana 3 \"Mrs. Pollock\" 28 \"New Bronze\" 28 palmata 28 peltata 28 Forsythia ovata 32,18,15,28,3 suspensa atrocaulis 18 \"Russell's variegata \"Pittsburgh\" 5 28 Gold\" 28 8 Fothergilla gardeni 18 major 30 Franklinia alatamaha (Gordonia 21 alatamaha) 18,35,~ Fraxinus excelsior mandshurica 18 rhombea 28 Hippophae rhamnoides 3,26,20 Holodiscus dumosus 3 Hovenia dulcis 18 pendula Gaultheria cuneata 8 Hydrangea petiolaris 30,26,2 8 Hypericum kalmianum18 hispida 8 - lobocarpum moser~anum humifusa 8 laxiflora 8 nummularioides 8 ovatifolia 8 18 18 perplexa wardi 8 8 patulum 18 henryi 18,25 8 Idesia polycarpa 7,18 polycarpa vestita 7 Ilex aquifolium albo-marginata 25 Genista tinctoria plena 25,5 Ginkgo biloba fastigiata 2 Gleditsia japonica 18 8 sinensis 18 Hamamelis triacanthos inermis 14,22,35 japonica rubra 18,2 zuccariniana ~l japonica vernalis tomentella 18 Hedera colchica dentata 28 8 aquifolium aurea 28 \"Golden Queen\" 4 \"Golden Variegated\" 7 pendula 7 \" Silver Variegated\" 7 \"van Tol'' 7,4,,i Xaquipernyi 7 cassine angustifolia 9,17 celiospinosa 7 integra 19 helix \"Albany\" arborescens 25 balttca 28 28 laevigata 18 latifoha 7,19 montana atropurpurea 28 opaca (l.monticola~ \"Arden\" 28 28 28 conglomerata 28,5,25 d~g~tata ~8 discolor 28 \"Croonenburg\" \"Dwarf Albany\" \"Emerald Gem\" gracilis 28,32 marmorata 25 32 28 \"Lake City\" 28 \"Mrs. Santa\" 28 xanthocarpa 28,19 pernyi '7,19,5 veitchi 7,19 serrata hibernica 28 hibernica aurea\" 28 (l.sieboldi~ 22,28 18 8 verticillata chrysocarpa 18 9 polycarpa 1,19 Indigofera amblyantha marmorata elegans\" 28 \"Merion Beauty\" 32,28 kirilowi 18 11 Itea il~cifolia 4,5 8 virginica 18 Jamesia americana 20 Jasminum beesianum 9 Ligustrum henryi indicum 4 (L.ne~alense~ 17 4 japonicum rotundifolium (L.coriace- floridum .5,19 humile 9,5 officinale grandiflorum parkeri 7 Xstephanense 7,9,5,19 Juglans mandshurica 20 um~ 17,19 5 laciaum 19 7 compactum17 \" margmatum aureum\" 9 pyramidales 17 repandum 17 ovalifulium variegatum 18, ~5, 29 quihoui 17 vulgare foliosum 18 sieboldiana 18 Juniperus chinensis columnaris 1 2,33,1 chinensis \"pfitzeriana aurea\" 13 3 leucocarpum styraciflua 18 torulosa 7 communis cracovica 18 8 8 dayi 18 8 \" suecica nana\" 18 8 Liquidambar formosana 18 aurea 18 tu- Liriodendron chinense 18 mon- saxatilis (J.conamunis tulipifera fastigiatum (L. lipifera pyramidale) 18 16 tana~ recurva 3 X Lonicera browni fuchsioides caerulea edulis 20 conferta 18,7,17 7 pachyphloea 29,4 18 8 8 rigida 18 8 sphaerica 18 virginiana burki capr~folium 20,18 chrysantha 18 conjugialis 18 ' 26 can- dioica 20,18 canaerti (Jvirginiana ~3 narti~ elegantissima 13,23 fastigiata 26 globosa 153#5& x E; grandiflora superba 3 gracilipes 18 etrusca 4 heckrotti \"Gold Flame\" 10 henryi 18,21 hildebrand~ana .i hirsuta 18 involucrata 3,;30 japonica aureo-ret~culata 10, 16 kosteri 23 pendula 2,15,18,29 \"pyramidaformia schotti 23 smithi 23 8 venusta 18 hilli\" 13 3 Kalmia polifolia microphylla 8 Kalopanax pictus maximowiczi (Acnnlhoprrnrrs ricin,ifolium 8 maa~imoaricqi~ 18 Laburnum Larix chinensis 10 koehneana 18 korolkowi floribunda 15,16 zabeli 23 ledebouri 18, l,i maximowiczi sachalinensis 28 morrowi xanthocarpa 15 alpinum 18,24A leptolepis (l..krrempferi~ 30 Leucothoe davisiae 8 8 grayana muendeniensis 18 orientalis longifolia (L. Iressel18 ringi~ 12 18 8 periclymenum belgica Lonicera (cont.) ruprechtiana 18,29,6,2 saccata 18 \"Erie\" z1 \"Excellenze ' Theil\" 29 sempervirens magnifica 32,16 spinosa alberti 18,20 tatarica lutea 33,18 \"Hopa\" 12,35 \"Joy\" 12 \"May Day\" 12 \"Namew\" 21 21 sibirica 18,15,33 X tellmanniana 18,16,10 o yunnanensis 32 Maackia amurensis 18 Magnolia denudata (M. con- s~icua) 30 kobus 30,19 sieboldi (M. paruiflora) 18,30 stellata rosea 18,7,26,28,19 \"Pink Giant\" 12 \"Red Flesh\" 12 \"Red Silver\" 12,34,35 \"Red Tip\" 35 \" Simcoe\" ~1 \"Slocan\" 21 \"Snow White\" 12 \"Van Wyck\" 29 Melia azedarach umbraculi- \"Okanagan\" \"Waterlily\" X veitchi 17 Mahonia repens 28 formis 4,9 Muhlenbeckia axillaris (Berberis (M. repens) 16,18 31 1 nana)1 Neillia sinensis 18 8 Neviusia alabamensis 30 Parrotia pers~ca 7 Phellodendron chinense 18 Malus baccata mandshurica 6, Xdawsoniana 29 florentina 18 fusca 18 X gloriosa 28 lancifolia 29 lavallei 18 sachalinense 18 Xmicromalus 18,26,35 prunifolia rinki 16,23 pumila translucens (M.pumila Philadelphus coronarius 18 aureus plena~ 26 X purpurea lemoinei (M. floribunda lemoiuei) 15,18,26 Xrobusta 23 primulaeflorus (P. coronarius mult~florus plenus) 18 pumilus (P.coronorius nanus~ 18,~3 falconeri 2,18 fastigiata 23,26 persicifolia 18 sieboldi 23 sikkimensis 7 X sublobata 18 tschonoski 18 yunnanensis veitchi 18 Xzumi 16,23 gordonianus 9,15,~3 grandinorus 2,15 incanus 18 laxus 9 Xlemoinei\"Avalanche\" erectus 18 23 lewisi 18 8 magdalenae 18 nepalensis18 X polyanthus \"Favorite\" 18 \"Gerbe de Netge\" 18 calocarpa 18 8 Horticultural varieties \"Athabasca\" 21 \"Dakota Beauty\" 12 sericanthus 18 2 zeyheri \"Dolga\" 12,26 \"Dr. Van Fleet\" 23,26 Elise Rathke\" 18,26 29 13 Horticultural Varieties \"Atlas\" 7 Philadelphus Hort.Vars. (cont.) Platanus racemosa 7,4 \"Belle Etoile\" 7 \"Enchantment\" 7 Populus maximowiczi 18 simoni 13,18,L 9 fastigiata 7 tremula pendula 8 Prinsepia sinensis ~0, 18 \"Syb~lle\" 18 18 \"Voie Lactee Phyllodoce empetriformis 8 Physocarpus intermedius parvifolius 18 monogynus 2`3 Potentilla fruticosa dahurica (Y.duhurica~ ~0 Prunus avium plena 18,9 opulifolius nanus 18,15 Picea abies aurea besseyi 18,31,3 Xblireiana ~3,7 18 8 8 (P. alcockiana) 18 glauca albertiana (P.canaden- bicolor plena 21 Xcistena 18,21,6,3 davidiana 18 alba 18 Xdunbari 18 hortulana 18 3 sis albertiana) 1,25,18 nana (P. canadensis nana) 1 koyami 28 omor~ka pendula 28 orientalis aurea 7 japonica 18 pohta 18,1 smithiana 7 wilsoni 29,28 Pieris formosa 8 laurocerasus schipkaensis (Laurocerasus o,~'ccinalis schipkaensis) 18,19,`~9 l9 ,japonica variegata nana 8 padus 18,15,23,26 persica albo-plena 18 \"Aurora\" 35,7 \"Burbank\" 7 Pinus ayacahuite bungeana 30 29 \"Camelliaflora\" 7 \"Cerise\" 35 \"Clara Meyer\" 18,35 \"Double Pink\" 7 \"Double Red\" 7 cembra 30,2,29 cembroides 5 monophylla 5 dens~flora umbraculifera 30, 2,26 flexilis 18,25,30,1 koraiensis 29,28 massoniana 29 mgra \"Early Double Red\" 7 Helen Borchers\" 7 Iceberg\" 7 35 \"Jeanne Wohlert\" \"Orchid\" 27 poiretiana 26 \"1'eppermint \"San Jose Stick\" 6,7 I palustris 11 parviflora 18,29 \"Red Pep\" 7 \"rosea plena\" 2,18 glauca 28 pumila 25 radiata 4,7 strobus fastigiata \"Rubroplena\" (P. strobus L5 18 2 Pink\" 7 \"sangumea plena\" \" Santa Rosa\"27 \"Weeping\" 35,34 \"Weeping Double 7 pyramidalis) nana ~8 28 Pink\" tabulaeformis taeda 28 (P..sinensis~ \"Weeping 7,35 7 Double Red\" White\" i thunbergi 29,28,7 yunnanensis (P.sinensis yun- \"W eeping Double 14 nanensi.s~ 29 Prunus (cont.) pumila 18 ussuriensis champali 7 16 serrulata \"Asagi\" 35 Quercus agrifolia 5 \"Beni-Higan\" \"Botan-Zakura\" \" Fugenzo\" 16 16 dumosa 7 falcatal, ~6 gambelli 81 1 Gozanoma-Nioi\" 16 \"Hata-Zakura\" 16 \"Hi-Zakura\" 16 Hosokawa-teni\" 35 12,24A,~1A kellogi 28 lyrata 22,18 shumardi 26 stellata 22 imbricaria \" Kofugen\" 35 \"Me~getsu\" 16 \"Mikuruma-Gaeshi\" \"Mrs. 16 suber 7,9 texana 18 Rhamnus davurica 23 8 frangula asplenifolia18 A. E. Wohlert\" 35 \"Paul Wohlert\" 35 \"Ruth Wohlert\" 35 rosea 35 \"Ojochin\" 16,35 \"Oshibavama\" 16 koraiensis 22,18,2 8 purshiana 15,18 utilis 18 Rhododendron \"Rosy Morn\" 85 16 \"Senriko\" \"Takinioi\" 35 \" Torano\" 16 \" Ukon\" 35 \" Shiro-fugen\" 16 \"Shiro-higan\" 35 \"Shogetsu\" 35 adenog~num adenophorum 8 adenopodum 8 aechmophyllum 8 8 8 8 ambiguum arboreum 8 argyrophyllum cupulare 8 augustini 8 \"Wase-miyako\" sieboldi 6 35,16 16 baileyi 8 Yae-akebono\" 16 Yae-murasaki\" 16 balfourianum 8 barbatum 8 (P. \"Takasago\") 18, brachyanthum bracteatum 8 calostrotum 8 8 sibirica 18 (P. armPniaca sibirica) subhirtella ascendens 18 autumnalxs 26,18 campylocarpum 8 campylogynum 8 cantabile 8 caucasicum 8 \"Momi-jigarx\" 06,~ 35 pendula \"flore plena\" 30, virginiana demissa 18 charianthum 8 charitopes 8 chartophyllum ciliatum 8 concinnum 8 crassum 8 crinigerum 8 cuneatum 8 8 8 melanocarpa yedoensis 18 3 chasmanthoides \" Shidare-yoshino\" 16,35 Pseudolarix amabilis (P.kaempferi~ 29 18,28 Pseudotsuga taxifol~a pendula Pyrus calleryana graciliflora 7 kawakami 4,5 15 cyanocarpum 8 dalhousiae 8 davidsonianum decorum 8 8 Rhododendron (cont.) deleiense 8 8 desquamatum occidentale 8 8 oleifolium oreotrephes 8 8 detonsum 8 orthocladum 8 diaprepes 8 didynum 8 diphrocalyx discolor 8 8 8 edgarianum euchaites 8 pacliytrichum paradoxum 8 polylepis 8 probum 8 pruniflorum 8 puralbum 8 rad~num 8 racemosum 8 fargesi 8 fastigiatum 30,28,8 fauriei 8 ferrugineum 8 fulvum 8 glaucum 8 grande 8 reticulatum 8 rhantum 8 rigidum8 8 riparium 8 rubiginosum 8 8 rupicola russatum 8 griersonianum griffithianum haemaleum 8 hanceanum 8 8 heliolepis 8 saluenense 8 sanguineum scintillans 8 8 scottianum 8 8 searsiae smirnowi 8 8 hemitrichotum 8 hippophaeoides hirsutum 8 8 hormophorum stereophyllum .. 8 houlstoni 8 8 hypolepidotum impeditum 8 supranubium 8 tapetiforme 8 telmateium 8 inopinum 8 insigne 8 8 tephropeplum 8 thayerianum 8 trichocladum 8 triHorum 8 johnstoneanum keleticum 8 8 kotschyi 8 kyawi tsangpoense tschonoski 8 , 8 Xlaetevirens (R.za~ilsoni~ 2 virgatum villosum 8 8 8 lochmium 8 lutescens 8 maddeni 8 lep~dotum 8 lindley litangense 8 wight~ 8 yunnanense 8 zaleucum 8 Rhus glabra cismpntana 3 Ribes cereum 3 setosum 8 calophyllum megaealyx 8 (R. sn.rimont~cnuna~ 3 Robinia elliotti 18 8 8 fertilis 18 minus 28 mori 8 hispida macrophylla 7 s X holdti 18 myrtifolium ~?5,~ neriiflorum 8 obovatum 8 neo-mexicana 3 pseudoac.~cia bessoniana 16 18 8 Robinia pseudoacacia (cont.) decaisneana 18, 7 pyramidalis28 umbraculifera 18,7 Rubus deliciosus 18,31,3 Salix irrorata 3 purpurea nana 32,18,26 Sambucus canadensis acutiloba ~'3 20,2~ m~crobotrys 31 laciniata 4,9 Xprestoniae \"Coral\" \"Hiawatha\" 20 \"Nocturne\" 20 pubescens 18 reflexa 3 velutina 20 (S.pnlibiniana) 18 18,26 yunnanensis Horticultural Varieties mgra 18 aurea 15,18,1,20 variegata 18 \"Asessippi\" 2020 \" Evangeline\" pubens leucocarpa racemosa 20 18 \"Excel\" 20 \"Hedin\" 20 \"Vlinnehaha\" 20 \"Pocahontas\" 20 Shepherdia argentea 31 canadensis 31 \"Royalty\" 20 xanthocarpa 3 Sophora japonica pendula tetraptera 7 5 microphylla Taxus baccata adpressa 2 baccata aurea 25 ~?8 cheshuntensis 29,2 dovastoni (T.baceata pen- dula~ 29,7 dovastoni aurea\" 5 erecta 2 29 vicnfolia 18 Sorbaria aitchisoni 18 arborea glabrata 3,18 sorbifol~a 18 tomentosa \" fasti`riata aurea\" 15,29 \"fastigiata variegata\" 5 , stricta (r. 6acca~ ~\/.t\/!g':- (1S'. lindleyarea~ 20 18 ala) 25,5 washingtoni 30,2,18,29 Sorbus amurensis sambucifolia 3 scopulina 20 Stewartia monadelphia ovata \" washingtoni aurea\" 15 canadensis densa 26 28 stricta 32 grandiflora 18 cuspidata 24,17 3 nana Stranvaesfa davidiana andersoni 26,28,15 browni 26,13 16 Styrax oba5sia 28 Symphoricarpus oreophilus Symplocos pamculata 18 Syringa ch~nensis alba 23 metensis 18 saugeana emodi 18 thayerae (T. media 26 thayeri) \"Vermeulen\" 26,28 Xhunnewelhana 28 Xmedia kelseyi 26,28 ' 18,30 Thuja occidentalis pumila ( occ. \" Little Gem\") 18,1 occidentalis spirahs 18 umbraculifera 1 8 Tilia euchlora 18 T. jos~kaea 1,3,18,30 microphylla 18 oblata 18 dilatata 18,23,26 ~ giraldi 18 pekinensis 18 persica alba 1,30 henryana 18 heterophylla oliveri 18 18 platyphyllos 18 17 platyphyllos (cont.) pyramidalis 26 8 Tripterygium regeli 18 'Z canadensis gracilis 19,~ Tsuga canadensis microphylla 33 Tilia \" nana variegata\" hortensis 18 18 japonica 18 Horticultural Varieties \"Abel Carriere\" 15,18 divers~foha 2,29 heterophylla 24 ' sieboldi 29,18 Ulex europeaus 18 Ulmus americana klehmi 23 americana \"Lake City\" 26 \"Littleford\" 26 \" urni\" ~6 X \"amersino\" 3 carpinifolia sarnien sis ( U. cam- \"Cand~da\" 15,18 \"Desboisi\" 15,18 R \"Eva Rathke\" 15,18 7 \" Fairy\" \"Floreal\" 7 \" Groenewegeni\" 18 8 \"Gustav Mallot\" 18 \"Hendersom'' 15 \"ldeal\" 7 \"Le Printemps\" 7 pestris wheatleyi, U. campestris monumentalis, U.foliacea \"Majesty\" \"Styriaca\" 7 18 ~l Stelzneri\" wheatleyi) glabra nana 18,~6,29,~3 18 suberosa 33 \"van Houttei\" 2,18 2 \"Verschaffelti\" Wisteria floribunda alba vegeta 18 7,32 \"Hansen Hybrid hollandica belgica Elm\" 12 floribunda carnea 7 (U. cam- 8 pestris latifolia) 18 \"Klemmer'' (U. campestris \"Geisha\" 82,7 \" Issai\" B2,`7 7 Koshigaya\" \"Kyushaku\" 32,2,7 Irlemmeri) vegeta Z3 18 8 longissima 7,32 japonica 18 parvifolia ~3,21A procera purpurea 18 tris \"Murasaki Noda\" \"longissima \"Naga alba\" 7,32 2 ( U. campes18 Noda\" 2 thomasi purpurea~ (U.racemosa) rosea 32,2,7 7, 32 \"Royal Purple\" \"Shira Noda\" 2 7 Ushi,jima\" Vaccinium ovatum 25 Viburnum betulifolium bitchuiense 18 28,7 \" \"Violaceo-plena\" 2,32,7 frutescens 18 cylindricum 4 fragrans 30,?6 hupehense 18 opulus nanum 1,2 sargenti 33,?,3 tomentosum lanceatum 26 macrostachya (W fwle.scens 18 8 mngni~ca~ venusta violaceae 7 Xanthoceras sorbifoliurn 18 Xanthorhiza wrighti 26,2 Weigela floribunda 15,18 florida simplicissima 18,1 (Zanthorhi2a apiifolia) rosea) Zelkova serrata 18 (W, amabilis, W. 15,18 18 Subscription renewals for 1941 are now due. Those who have not resubscribed, and who desire to continue to receive Arnoldia, should remit $1.00 to Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at an early date to insure continuity in the receipt of the numbers as issued. 19 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Sources for Rare Woody Plants, Supplementary List, 1941","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24105","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270b76e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 1 APRIL 4, 1941 NUMBER 4 1941 SOURCES FOR RARE WOODY PLANTS. SUPPLEMENTARY LIST have been received for the last number of Arand so many requests have come for more mformation of a similar nature that this bulletin is offered as a supplement. No more plant sources will be listed in Arnoldia this spring, but there are hundreds of names of other rare plants listed in the files of the Arboretum as being available from American nurseries MANY requests noldia (Vol. 1, No. 2-3) in 1941. ing truly surprising to note the number of different plants belongto a particular genus which can be obtained after an examination of a series of catalogues. Particular mention should be made of the It is ~3 lilacs and the 72 are species and botanical varieties of roses. Not all but because of wide special interest m these groups all available varieties in these two have been hsted. The 2:i available varieties of Hibiscus syriacus are also noteworthy. It is suggested that in order to use this supplementary list properly, the information printed on pages 5 and 6 of the last bulletin be read carefully. The data there given applys equally well to the supplementary list, as well as to the nursery numbers appearing on page 7. After checking through the last bulletin, one nurseryman wrote a congratulatory letter, but expressed suprise at the absence of the names of certain nationally known nurseries which have advertised rare plants for years. He continued to note with satisfaction, that although the name of his own nursery was not given, yet in his 1941 catalogue he had listed over 100 of the species and varieties mentioned in that bulletin! We are glad to mention his nursery, among others, in our supplementary list as we have just received his catalogue. \"rare\" 21 However, it should be clearly understood that we have merely examined catalogues in the sequence in which they arrived ; that we considered two or three sources sufficient for one species or variety; and that simply because a certain nursery is not listed does not mean it has no rare plants. Sometimes nurseries are tardy in sending their catalogues. As this number of \"Arnoldia\" goes to press April 1, certa~n catalogues that we would have liked to examine have not been received. Like the previous list, this supplementary one doubtle5s has its defects, but if it helps the gardenmg public to obtain rare plants and so learn to appreciate them, then it will have served Its purpose. DONALD WYMAN Additional Nurseries listing Rare Plants in 1941 36. Bay State Nurseries, North Abmgton, Mass. 37. Bobbink and Atkins Nurseries, East Rutherford, N.J. 38. Brand Peony Farms Inc., Box 408, Faribault, Minn. 39. Cherry Hill Nurseries, V~'est Newbury, Mass. 40. Cole Nursery Co., Painesville, Ohio 41. F. & F. Nurseries, Springfield, N.J. 42. Farr Nursery Company, Weiser I'ark, Penna. 43. Joseph B. Gable, Stewartstown, Penna. 44. Gardens of the I3lue Ridge, Ashford, McDowell Co., N.C. 45. Outpost Nurseries, ltidgefield, Conn. 46. Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, N.J. 47. Rockmont Nursery, P.O. Box 266, Boulder, Colo. 48. Upton Nursery Co., 4838 Spokane Ave., Detroit, Mich. 49. Weston Nurseries, Weston, nlaas. 50. Wyman's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Dlass. Supplementary List Rare Buxus Woody Plants listed in 1941 Nursery Catalogues 6 microphylla compacta 16 sempervirens angustifolia 26 aurea 28 Cotoneaster acutifolia villosula 18 8 arborescens 26 2 argentea adpressa conglomerata 8 ambt~ua 18 - 7 conica 26 ~lobosa 26 . bullata macrophylla 7 handsworthi 18,29 oleaefolia 29 rotundifolia 26 suffruticosa albo-marginata 25 5 9 conspioua decora 7,4,19 dammeri I S .i dielsiana elegans j foveolata 18 8 glabrata 7 22 Cotoneaster (cont.) cornuta 1i,19,30 22,41,46 ' , 9 horizontalis minor 19 perpusilla 19,50 wilsoni ~8,18,16 lucida 18,36 18 8 cochleata 28 moupinensis 18 multiflora 18 nitens 18 obscura 18 pyrenaica 19 burfordi 9,17,19 crenata buxifolia 2 convexa m~crophylla fortunei 2,29 helleri 19,41 \"KingSVille\" 16 latifolia 1,19,40 ~nicrophylla 19,40,41 rotund~foli.e 19,40,41 geniculata opaca 18 (male) 18,45 racemiflora soongorica 18,25, 41 rosea 7,18 rotundifolia 18 rubens 28 salicifol~a floccosa 19,28 simonsi 19,41 I zabeli miniata 41 Hibiscus syriacus Hort. Vars. Hume No.1 ?8 Hume No.2 ~?8 vomitoria (female) 17 Magnolia fraseri 28 grandiflora \"St. Mary\" 7 kobus borealis 41 l~liHora 41 7 y~rac~lis \"rlmpl~ssimus\" nigra 41 40 \"AnemoneHorus'~ 40,46 \"Ardens'' 1,18,40 Banner\" 18,40 \"Bicolor\" 40 \"Boule de Feu\" 2,46 \"Coelestis\" ?,18,40 \"Comte de Hainault\" Z,46 macrophylla 28,22 obovata28 201420142014 X soulangeana` ` Brozzom\" \"Amabilis\" 7 \"L.enne~\" 7,46,41 \"Norbertiana\" 28,41 \"liustica\" 46,41 \"San Jose\" 7 41 \"Alba superba\" 28,37,35 \"Alexandrina\" 37,7,35 \"Elegant~ss~mus\" 40, 4.i 2,46 \"Duchesse de Brabant\" \"Jeanne d'Arc\" 2,40,46 \"Lady Stanley\" 18,40,45 \"I'uniceus plenus\" 46 \"1'ulcherrimus\" 40 \"I'urpureus plenus\" 40,46 Roseus\" 18 \"Itubis\" ~?,18,40 8 \"Itubra Plena\" 18 \"Sir Charles de Breton\" z \"Specmsa tr~petala lZ all>a\" 41 41 ' \"Verbanica\" maximus 4fi \"Lucy\" 40,46,45 Philadephus inodorus 46 microphyllus 47 X nivalis 46 pekinensis brachybotrys pubescens 46 purpuraseens 46 verrucosus 4.6 46 \"Speciosus Nlenus'' 18 \"'I'otus albus\" 18,40,45 Philadelphus Hort. Vars. \"Variegatus\" Ilex 40,46 \"Violaceus plenus\" 2 \"W.R. Smith\" 2,45 casmne myrtifolia 9,17 I \"Albatre\" 1.6 \"Banniere\" 46 \"Cole's Glorions\" 40 \"(irandole\" 40,46 \"mvrtifolia lowei\" 9 \"1'vram~dale\" 23 46 Picea abies-Dwarf Forms ochraceum 43 \"Clanbrasiliana\" 18,41 ` `conica\" 41 pennsylvanicum peregrinum 43 43 43 \"Gregoryana\" \" microsperma\" 41 XpoukhanenseXledifolia X racemosum X keiskei 43 smirnowi 43 vernicosum 43 wardi 43 alba \"tnversa\" 29 \"Maxwelli\" 18,41,16 41 - \" nana compacta\" 18 ` `nana pyramidalis\" 18 \"Nidiformis\" 13,16 XwardiX'discolor 43 \"procumbens\" 41,36 \"pumila\" 41,36 \"pygmaea\" 18 \"Pyramidata\" 41 \"Remonti\" 18,36 Rhododendron Hort. Vars. \"Album elegans\" 37,39, 41 \"Album grandiflorum\" 2 38,39,~ Repens\" brachycarpum 41 \"America\" 39,41,28 Rhododendron atlanticum 43 43 3 X brachycarpum X discolor 43 X campylocarpum X discolor 43 \"Amphion\" 37,16,41 \"Atrosanguineum\" 2,41 2 \"Blandyanum\" ~ ' carolinianum album 43,44,49 catawbiense compacta 44 \"Boule de Neige\" 39,41,2 ~ \"Candidissimum'' 2 \"Catawbiense album\" 39, 41,47 \"Catawbiense grandiflorum\" 2,~~8 X catawbiense X fortunei 43 caucasicum 43 3 chrysanthum 43 chryseum 43 decorum 43 \"Caractacus\" 39,41,2 \"Charles Bagley\" 37,16, 43 41 X decorum X loderi discolor 43 fargesi 43 fastigiatum fortunei 43 \"Charles Dickens\" 16 \"Delicatissimum\" 2,41 43 43 \"Dr. H.C.Dresselhuys\" 37,39,41 hippophaeoides houlstoni 43 keiskei 43 keleticum 43 X laetvirens 43,49 linearifolium macrosepalum 43 \"E.S.Rand\" 41,37,16 \"Everestianum\" 37,41,39 \"F.D.Godman\" 37,39,`? 2 \"General Grant\" \"H. H. Hunnewell\" 41 \"Ignatius Sargent\" 37,41, 39 litiense 43 luteum 43 maximum roseum 41 X maximum X discolor 43 XmaximumXfortunei 43 micranthum 43 minus \"Kettledrum\" 16,2 \"Lady Armstrong\" 2,41 \"Lady Grey Egerton\" 37 \"Lee's Dark Purple\" 37, 39,28 2 \"Luciferum\" 43,44 43 \"Mrs.C.S.Sargent\" 41, 39,37 2 \"Mrs. Harry Ingersoll\" \"Mrs.P. den Ouden\" 39 X minus X carolinianum 43 Xmyrtifolium 41 XnudtflorumXjaponicum 24 Rhododendron Hort.Vars. cont. \"Old Port\" 2,37,41 2 \"Parson's Gloriosum\" \"Parson's grandiflorum\" 2 \" Parson's rubrum\" 41 \" President Lincoln\" 28 \"Yurpureum elegans\" 37, 41,2 \" Purpureum rum\" 37 7 41 grandiflo- \" Narciss~flora\" ~9 \"Old Faithful\" 43 \"Othello'' 19,40 \" Yallas'' ~ 2 \" Yolar~s\" 43 \"Yurple Kmg\" 19,29 \"Rembrandt\" 29 \"Sang de Gentbrugge\" 2, 29 \" Nancy Waterer\" ~,19 Roseum elegans\" 37,39, Roseum superbum\" 2,41 \"Sefton\" 2 \"Stella\" 2 Azalea Hort. Vars. \"Souv. de Pres. Carnot\" 2 \"Springtime\" 43 \" Unique\" ~ \" V~ola\" 43 William III\" 29 Note-These include only the Ghent, Mollis and Kaempferi hybrids and not the many Kurume and Indian Azaleas. \"Willy\" 29 \"Zampa\" 19 Rosa acicularis 3,37,`~6 nipponenms 37 Xalba 37 \"Atlanta\" 19,28 \"Beaute Celeste\" alberti 37 29 arvensis 37 20142014201420142014201420142014201420142014 Betty\" 28 \"Big Joe\" 43 \"Bouquet de Flore\" ` ` Carrnen'' 19,28 \"Caroline Gable\" \"Cherokee\" 43 \"Chmook\" 43 43 bella 37 blanda 37,40 2,29 canina 26,18,37 \" Coccinea spectosa\" 2,29 \" Daviesi\" 2 \"Eltzabeth Gable\" 43 \"Emite\" 29 \"Fedora\" 40,19 9 \"Gloria Mundt\" 2 \"Glow of Dawn\" 4 \"Herbert\" 43 \"Cleopatra\" 19 carolina 37,26,40 centifolia 37 muscosa 37 chinensis minima mutabilis 37 viridiflora 37 cmnamomea 37,41,18 37,40 coriifolia froebeli 18 damascena 37 7 trigintipetala 37 versicolor 37 7 davurica 18 ecae 18 Ignea Nova\" \"Iroquois\" 4;3 29 8 eglanteria 37,46,18 foetida bicolor 37 \"La Lumiere\" 43 La Premiere\" 43 \"Loutse\" 40 \"Louise Gable\" 43 persiana 18,39 glutinosa 37 X harisom 39 helenae 37 \"Mary\" 29 Mary Dalton\" 43 \" Mauve Queen\" 19 \"Mildred Mae\" 43 \"Miriam\" 1,3 25 hugonis 37,40 laevigata 37 X Lheritierana 37 luc~ae fu,psanensis 1 R marreti 18 8 Rosa (cont. ) Xhyacinthiflora jacki 37 , 49 maximowicziana I Xmicrugosa 37 \"Berryer\" 87 moyesi 18,37 multiflora 37 cathayensis 18,37 nitida 37,41,26 odorata gigantea 37 omeiensis 37 \"Buflon\" 7,37,48 \"Claude Bernard\" 28,37 64 Descartes\" 16 \"Lamartine\" ~3,48 \"Louvois\" 7 \" Mirabeau\" ~?3 ' palustris 37 pendulina 18 primula 37 richardi 37 Xreversa 37 roxburghi 37 hirtula 37 , \"Pascal\" 23,26 \"Vauban\" 28,37,48 \"Villars\" ~3 josikae 42,48,49 julianae 37,48 komarowi 16,48 \"Montesquieu\" 48 plena 37 rubrifolia 26,37,41 rugosa 37 alba 37 sargentiana 48 meyeri 16,48 microphylla 37,48 oblata 48 affinis 48 dilatata 37,48 albo-plena 37 \"repens sericea 18 alba\" 3Z rubro-plena 37 sempervirens 37 i setigera 37 giraldi 16,48 pahbiniana 16 pekinensis 16,48 persica 98,49,36 alba 4`? soulieana B7 laciniata 16,48 rubra 42 spinosissima 37 \"alba plena\" 37 altaica 18,37 pinetorum 16,48 pinnatifolia 16,48 potanini 48,49 6 pubescens 48,49,16 6 reflexa 48,38,16 swegmzowi 16,37,48 superba 7,48 tomentella 16,48 fulgens 37 hispida 18,37 vorbegi 37 virginiana 37 alba 37 watsoniana 37 wichuraiana 37 willmottiae 37 woodsi 31,37 fendler~ 37 i xanthma 37 Syringa amurensis 48 velutina 48 villosa 48,49 vulgaris 50,36,38 alba 48,49,86 japomca 48,37,49 Xchinensis 49,.i0 alba 48 saugeana 42,49 emodi 48,7 I ' Xhenryi \"Floreal\" 48 \"Lutece\" 37,48,38 26 wolfi 48,16 yunnanensis 48 Syringa vulgaris Hort. Vars. \"Adela~de Dunbar\" 37,48 \"Alexander Hamilton\" 7 \"Alice\" 38 \"Aline Mocqueris\" lfi,49 \"Alphonse Lavallee\" 37, 48 S. vulgaris Hort. Vars. (cont.) \"Arthur William Paul\" 37 \"Belle de Nancy\" 37,48, 50 \"Amy Schott\" 7 \"General Grant\" 48 \" General Pershing\" 16,48 \" General Sherman\" 37,48 Ueorges \"Glorie \"Glo~re Bleuatre\" 37,42,48 \" Boussmhault\" 16,3i \"Capitaine Baltet\" 42,49 \" Capitatne Perrault\" 3 i , 48 \" Bellair\" 3 7 ,4~ de Lorrain\" 48 de Moulins\" 48 Gloryde Horstenstem\" 37 Carmen\" 42 \" Catinat\" 37 \"Cavour\" 49 \"Charles X\" 37,48 \"Charles Baltet\" 37 \"Charles Hepburn\" 37 \"Charles Jo]y\" 42,48,36 \"Charles Sargent\" 42,48 `c Godron\" 37,38 \"Goliath\" 42 \"Grace ()rthwaite\" 38 \"Grand-Duo Constantin\" 37 \"Henn \"Henry Ward 38,4? Martin\" 37,38,49 Beecher\" 23 Herman Eilers\" 37 7 Hippolyte iBlarrn~er `c H ugo Koster\" 37,49,36 I \" Huo~o de Vries\" 37,7 \"Jacques Callot\" 38,42 \"Jan Van Tol\" 37,42,48 \",lean Mace\" 37,42 \"Jeanne d'Arc\" 48 \"Jules Ferry\" 37,42 \"Jules Srmon\" 37,42 \"Justi'' 23 \"Kate Harlin\" 37 \"Katherine Havemeyer\" 37,48 \"Christoplte 42 Colomb\" 37, \"Clara\" 28 \"Clara Cochet\" 49 \"Colbert\" 37,48 \"Comte Adrien de Montebello\" 38,42 \"Comte de Kerchove\" \"Condorcet\" 37,48,50 \"Dame Blanche\" 49 \"De Mirtbel\" 7,42 \" De Saussure\" 42 \"Decaisne\" 42,48 \"Diderot\" 38,42 37 \"Congo\" 37,42,48 \"La Tour d'Auver~;ne\" \"Lamarck\" 28 23 \"l.aplace\" 7 \"Dr. Humboldt\" 37 \"Dr. Maillot\" 37,49 \"Dr. Masters\" 37 Due de Massa\" 49 \"Eden\" 7 \"Edith Cavell\" 37,42,48 Edmond About\" 37,38 \"Edmond Boissier\" 37,42 \"l;llen WIllmott\" 42,48 \"Emile Gentil\" 42,49 Emile Lemoine\" 16 \"Etna\" 37,48 \"Furst Liechtenstein\" 37 \"Geheimrat Singelmann\" 38 7 \" Diplomate\" \"Lavoisier\" 49 \"Le Notre\" 37 \"Le Printemps\" 23 3 \"Leon Gambetta\" 16,38 \"Leon Simon\" 37,41 \"Leopold II\" 1fi,37 \"L~larosa\" l3 \"Linne\" ~8 \"I.'Oncle Tom\" 48 \"Lucetta\" 38 cc Lucie Baltet\" 37,4~,48 \"LudWla Spaeth\" 37,48 \"Macrostachya'' 38 \"Marc Micheli\" 28,42 \"Marceau\" 16,`?3 \"illarechal de B.rssom27 S. vulgaris Hort. Vars. (cont.) 7 pierre\" 37 \"Marechal Foch\" 37,48 \"Marechal Lannes\" 42,48 \"Marengo\" 37,48 \"DTarie Finon\" ~8,7 \"MarieLegraye\" 37,48,36 \"Massena 4~,48 \"Maurice Barres\" 28,7 \"Maurice de Vilmorin\" 37,38 \"Maxime Cornu\" 37 \"Pasteur\" 49 \"Paul Deschanel\" 28,48 \"Paul Hariot\" 37,16 \"Paul Thirion\" 38,48 \"Pearl\" 7 \"Philemon\" 49 \"Planchon'' 49 \"President Fallieres\" 38 \"1'resident Grevy\" 37,48 \"I'resident Lincoln\" 42 \"President Loubet\" 38,48 \"President Poincare\" 38, 42 \" Maximowicz\" 7 \"Michel Buchner\" 37,48, 36 \"Milton\" 16,38 \"Mireille\" 7 \"DTlle. Fernande Viger\" 49 \"President Viger\" 38 \"Prince de Beau Veau\" 37 \"Princess Alexandra\" 49 \"Princess Clementine\" 37,49 \"Mme. Abel Chatenay\" 37,49 \"Professor 23,48 \"Prodige\" 7 E. Stoekhardt\" \"Mme. 37,48 Antoine Buchner\" \"Mme. Briot\" 37,18 \" Mme. Casimir Perier\" 37,32,48 \"I'rofessor Sargent\" 49 \"Reaumur\" 37,49 \"Rene Jarry-Deslo~;es'' 37,48 \"Mme. F. Morel\" 37,48 \"Mme. Felix\" ~8,37 \"Mme. Florent Stepman\" 16,49,50 Rochambeau\" 38 \"Ro~ Albert\" 16 \"Rouge 28,38 de Trianon\" 49 \"Rubra de Marly\" 16,36 \"Ruhm von Horstenstein\" \"Saturnale\" 42 \"Senateur Volland\" 38 \"Stadtgartner Rothpeltz\" 16,38 \"Mme. Kreuter\" 48,49 \"Mme. Lemoine\" 3I,48 \"Mme. Leon Simon\" 38 \"Monge\" 38,48 \"Mont Blanc\" 42,49 37,49 \"Montaigne\" \"Sunol\" 38,48 7 \"Monument Carnot\" 48 \"Mrs. Edward Harding\" 37,48 \"Mrs. McKelvey\" 23 \"Mrs. W. F~. Marshall\" 49 \"M.J.de Messemaeker\" 37,38 \"Thunberg\" 38,42 23 \"Toussaint-Louverture\" \"Triomphe d'Orleans\" \"M. van Aerschot\" 37 \"Naudin\" 37 \"Vestale\" 42,48,50 \"Vesuve\" 7 \"Victor Lemoine\" 26,38 \"Vtoletta\" 37, 38 \"Virginite\" 37,16 \"Viviand-Morel\" 48,42 \"Volcan\" 13,49 \"Vfaldeck-Rousseau\" 37 \"l~illiam Robinson\" 1~2 28 \"Negro\" 37,48 \"Olivier de Serres\" 48,49 \"Othello\" 16 \"Pascal\" 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"The One-Hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of Charles Sprague Sargent","article_sequence":5,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24106","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270bb6f.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME I APRIL 24, IJ4I NUMBER 5 THE ONE-HUNDREDTH ANNIVERSARY OF THE BIRTH OF CHARLES SPRAGUE SARGENT first Director of the Arnold Arboreinsatiable interest in trees. Even before his association with the institution, he was interested in botany and in horticulture, his first appointment at Harvard University bemg as Director of the Botanic Garden in Cambrtdge. On assuming the directorship of the Arnold Arboretum in 1873, he already appreciated the tremendous value of collections of living plants as a means of promoting public interest in horticulture. His desire for study and for research, combined with his deep love of plants and a thorough appreciation of landscape design, eminently fitted him for the adoption of an unusually farsighted policy in reference to the development of the Arnold Arboretum; and the policies that he developed and maintained throughout his productive life insured the future of the institution and its present pre-eminent position. The Arnold Arboretum is the oldest institution of its kind in America, remarkable among its other accomplishments for the extraordinartly large number of species that it has introduced into cultivation both in America and in Europe. To Charles Sprague Sargent horticulture and botany owe a great debt, a fact that is fully appreciated by those who knew him and h s work during his fifty-three years of service as Director of the Arnold Arboretum. However, time frequently dims individual accomplishments, and so it seems fitting on this, the one-hundredth anniversary of his birth, briefly to review the conditions under which he commenced his pioneer work in the early days of the institution, together with some data appertaining to its present scope and resources; for what the institution is today is due to the long-continued, consistent, and highly intelligent guidance initiated by its first Director. Charles Sprague Sargent was born April l4, 1841, he being the third child of Ignatius and Henrtetta (Gray) Sargent. His father was a well known merchant of Boston and a direct descendant in the fourth generation of William Sargent, who probably came from England before I678. Professor Sargent was graduated from Harvard University in CHARLES Sprague Sargent, tum, had an 29 186~?, and in the following year joined the United States Army, in whtch he served during the remainder of the Civil War, attaining the rank of brevet-major. After leaving the army he spent three years in European travel and on his return continued his interest in horticulture by managmg his father's beautiful estate in Brookline. In 1872 he was appointed Director of the Harvard Botanic Garden, and served as professor of horticulture in 187? and 1873. On November ~4, 1873, he was appointed to direct the newly created Arnold Arboretum, and two days later married Mary Allen Robeson, a talented and charming woman, daughter of Andrew Robeson of Boston. Their life together covered nearly half a century, and it is difficult to disassociate the aims and activities of the one from the other. Briefly then, this is the story of Sargent's life up to the time that he became associated with the Arnold Arboretum. He was endowed with an excellent background, a splendid ancestry, and, fortunately for what he wished to accomplish, was financially independent. He was intimately associated with the prominent men and women of Boston, from many of whom he obtained liberal financial contributions for the development and support of the new institution which he had been selected to direct, and this long-continued support aided him materially in developing the institution that he loved so dearly. (For a more detailed account Rehder, Alfred ; Charles Sprague Sargent, Jour. Arnold Arb. 8 :69-86. 1927). What he accomplished after 1873 was due largely to his increasing desire to make the Arnold Arboretum a garden of trees unsurpassed in America, and to this purpose he devoted all his energies, working early and late, day after day, month after month, year after year. The straightforward,impersonal account of the first fifty years of the Arnold Arboretum (Jour. Arnold Arb. 3: 127-171. 19~z) is his own modest account of the greater part of his own productive life. It is familiar knowledge that in 1873 he took charge of approximately 125 acres of very poor land, and with an annual assured mcome of only about $3,000 with which to establish and develop an institution (for further information see Raup, H. M. The Genesis of the Arnold Arboretum. Bull. Pop. Inf. Series 4, Vol. 8: 1-11. 1940). No one, least of all Sargent, realized what was ahead, yet he and his associates immediately commenced the development of the plantings, and in the first decade of his directorship, worked out the famous agreement between the City of Boston and Harvard University in such an ideal way that this arrangement is still a model for newly established arboreta. The acreage has been increased by gift and by purchase, until today the Arboretum covers approximately 265 acres. Professor Sargent's greatest interest was in the living collections at the Arboretum. Everything that he did was planned to increase the number of plant species actually growing on the grounds and to disseminate knowledge appertainmg to them. This is why he himself traveled extensively in Europe and in Japan; this is why he developed relationships with individuals in foreign countries,such as Bretschneider in Peking ; this is why he employed E.H.Wilson; this is why he constantly fostered plant exploration in distant lands where climatic conditions were somewhat similar to those in Boston ; and this is why 30 c ~_ IH L CC L N G i~ ~ o L ~ b_ O ~'r L H - ~ W N r. .... (U a.c a. I:: t) bJj L 'II [fj 3J dl L a rf) CJ1 a~ U L c a~CJ1 0 'I he bequeathed to the Arboretum the capitalsum of $10,000 under the condition that income be added to capital for one hundred years, at which time, one-half of the accumulated sum is to be made available for Arboretum maintenance and development and the remaining half is to be left to accumulate interest for a second hundred years,when this amount, also, may be used for Arboretum purposes. Truly an expression of faith in what had been his life work ! In 1873, Professor Sargent listed 118 different kinds of trees, shrubs, and vines, mostly native, that were already growing on the property when he was appointed Director of the Arboretum. In the first two years, he acquired L74 additional species, and constant annual accessions have been received since that time, until now, instead of the 118 species listed in 1873, there are about 6,500 different species and varieties actually in cultivation within the grounds. During a sixteen year period starting in 1922, 43,000 packages of seeds, 38,000 living plants, and 11,000 lots of cuttings were distributed by the inStitution. Last year alone, 552 packages of seeds taken from its own plants and 824 packages collected by its cooperative expeditions in China were sent out as well as 4,115 living plants, 946 lots of cuttings and scions, these going to various institutions and individuals. In 1874, he acquired a few needed publications to guide him in intelligently planning and planting the Arboretum, and from time to time within the next few years secured other reference works. It became increasingly evident, however, that the young Arboretum needed every cent of its limited income for expenditure in acquiring and planting trees and shrubs and in propagating them for distribution. Consequently, Professor Sargent urged many of his friends to donate botanical and horticultural books to the Arboretum, and his reports covering the first decade of its existence show that several hundred volumes were thus received each year. In 189~?, when the Administration Building was constructed with funds provided by Horatio Hunnewell, Sargent presented his personal library of some six thousand volumes to the Arboretum, a most important gift, as it contained many rare and highly prized volumes. Later he acquired and presented many more items, and the total was further increased by gifts from his friends. It was Professor Sargent who laid the foundation for the Arnold Arboretum library through his personal gifts, and who provided for its constant increase. When Mrs. Sargent died in 1919, she bequeathed $5,000 to the Arboretum, the capital amount in the Mary Robeson Sargent Fund now being ~7,845.75; the income from this fund may be used only for the purchase of books. On Professor Sargent's death in 1927, he bequeathed $20,000 to the Arboretum, the income from which is also restricted to the purchase of books. Thus today, from these two funds, the Arboretum has an approximate annual income of $1,150 for the purchase of books, this forming a living memorial to the man who established the library and nursed it from infancy. Today it contains approximately 44,500 bound volumes, 12,800 pamphlets, and 18,700 photographs, being one of the largest, most comprehensive,and most valuable botanical-horticultural libraries in the world. Another essential part of the Arboretum is the herbarium, which 31 trips. Commencing time there Sargent himself started by collecting specimens on his earlier in January, 1880, an assistant (without compensation) gave full time to the building up of the herbarium. At this Professor were 848 mounted specimens and 1,073 unmounted ones available, either collected by Professor Sargent or received as gifts. In the following eight months, 1060 species, represented by 2,736 specimens, were added to the collection. Since there was no building within the grounds suitable for herbarium purposes, the collections were housed in a vacant building on the Sargent estate, loaned for the purpose by Ignatius Sargent. Such were the meagre beginnings of the herbarium. Due to the continued interest of Professor Sargent and his successors, this collection of reference material has become world-famous in its own right. Today approximately 495,000 mounted specimens of woody plants are represented in the organized herbarium, with approximately 100,000 more mounted but not yet distributed, and an equally large number of unmounted specimens. This great reference collection contains material from practically every country in the world. The herbarium is staffed by a number of full-time productive workers. Last year, twenty-six loans, approximating 2,300 specimens were sent to individuals in thirteen other institutions for study purposes. In the same period, about 67,000 specimens were actually received. Due to its vigorous growth, the herbarium was moved from the Sargent estate to the Administration Building, as soon as the latter was completed, in 1892. A large herbarium annex was added in 1905, but the combined herbarium space of these two buildings is now far two small for these tremendously valuable and rapidly expanding collections. Due to Professor Sargent's efforts, the Arboretum increased from an initial 125 acres of worn-out pasture land to an area of 265 acres, on which is maintained a world-famous collection of living plants, a library unequaled in its field in the world, and an herbarium of woody plants surpassed in extent and value by no similar restricted collection elsewhere. After Professor Sargent's death, his friends subscribed $1,066,993.90 to form the Charles Sprague Sargent Memorial Fund, this being done in appreciation of his life-long work and his outstanding accomplishments in the general fields of horticulture and botany. The income from this fund made it possible to expand the functions of the Arboretum, particularly in the research field, a development which Professor Sargent had long desired. Now the Arnold Arboretum is an integral part of Harvard University, several of its staff teaching regular University courses, and others directing graduate students. The grounds, library, and laboratories are used not only by staff members and Harvard University students, but by individuals and scientists from many parts of the world. Many individuals have contributed to make the Arnold Arboretum the institution that it is today, but the outstanding contributor of time, thought, effort, farsighted direction, and funds was Charles Sprague Sargent. Many honors were bestowed upon Professor Sargent during his long and productive career, but the Arboretum itself stands as a living memorial to him, for of him it may most truly be said : Si naonumentum requiris, circumspice. 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Rhododendron Injury","article_sequence":6,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24103","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270af6c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 1 APRIL 29, 1941 NUMBER 6 RHODODENDRON INJURY to rhododendrons. Old plants and and in some cases killed, from New injured, Jersey to Maine, and it is most difficult to explain the exact causes. The injury has struck so suddenly and been so widespread that it is doubtful if it could be caused by disease. The only logical blame might be placed on the weather, though there are several loopholes in this explanation also. It is yet too early to state the exact causes definitely, and since it occurred over such a wide area there may well have been several contributing causes, but until careful examinations are made, it would seem logical to blame it on the weather. The situation has been this. During the past winter the weather has been consistently cold and the snow on the ground remained as a good covering until March 22 in Boston, or two days later in the suburbs, according to the Boston Weather Bureau, with the temperature averaging six degrees below normal for the earlier part of March. As far as the plants were concerned, this was satisfactory, and not harmful. However, suddenly on March 23rd the temperature rose to 56 degrees. There was a cloudless sky and 100,o sunshine with a wind of seventeen miles per hour. The relative humidity fell to the low thirties though it had been considerably higher for a greater part of the month. A similar condition prevailed on March 26th and 27th, culminating on the 31st with a maximum temperature of 49 degrees, a wind of twenty-four miles per hour, and the remarkably low humidity of 17~0. Naturally, with such comparatively high temperatures and low humidities, the plants, especially the rhododendrons, would transpire LAST plants young winter was very trying were 33 a great deal. However, the ground was still frozen, and after a long winter, such a high transpiration was serious to almost any broad- leaved evergreen since the soil water was still frozen and hence unavailable to the plants. In other words, rhododendrons, normally lose a certain amount of water all winter long, even though this supply cannot be replenished from the frozen ground. This is the reason for watering them in the fall thoroughly, before the soil freezes, so that they will have sufficient moisture to carry them through the winter. When, after several months with the ground frozen, a few days come with winds, high temperatures and low humidities, the rhododendrons are called upon to give off more water than they can afford to lose, and the result is total or partial death of certain plant parts. Added to this is the fact that since the ground has thawed there has been only one half inch of rain up until April 23rd, and the damage has been evident long before this. Hence, during the period when not only the roots of rhododendrons but their tops as well might have been benefited with extra water, there was only one half inch of rain in a month's time. This explanation also may assist in explaining why some plants were injured and others close by were not, for the uninjured plants may have had a deeper root system and hence been able to tap a larger supply of water. However, the damage has been done over a wide area. Not only rhododendrons, but mountain-laurel and other broad-leaved evergreens have been injured. Hemlocks and narrow-leaved evergreens have been injured to less extent, chiefly in exposed situations. As far as can be found out at this time, a few deciduous plants also have been injured. Now that the injury is evident, what steps should be taken to help the rhododendrons back into good growth? In the first place, it may be too soon to prune heavily. Certainly watering the roots if the ground is dry, and sprmkling the tops in the late evening after the sun has set, might help the plants recover and prevent the injury from spreading. In fact, one recommendation has been made that partially injured plants be sprayed with some one of various rubber solutions now on the market to prevent excessive transpiration ; but none too much is known yet concerning the final results of these rubber (or wax) solutions on rhododenron foliage and it might be a better policy to spray the foliage with water in the evenings. Later on, when the extent of the injury can be definitely determined, all injured wood should be removed. The danger from pruning too heavily at this time is because it is frequently difficult to distinguish injured wood from uninjured 34 PLATE II Flowers and fruits of the hardy orange, Yo~erirus trifolfiutu. ThiS bloomed well in the Arboretum last week and came through the wnter uninjured, though hardier shrubs suffered considerably. and it would be a pity to remove live wood unnecessarily. Little can be done to prevent such injury again. Mulches are always recommended for rhododendrons, yet in late winter and early spring when the damage from the above-mentioned causes is greatest, the mulch does prevent the ground from thawing out rapidly. Possibly protecting exposed plants with some screens against winds would prove helpful but this is usually practiced under normal conditions. It is doubtful if many of these severely injured rhododendrons will regain good health. Certainly those people owning collections must be prepared to take some loss of plants, and a smaller number of flowers this spring will undoubtedly be the result in most gardens. wood, Another Arnold Arboretum Field Class A field class will be conducted at the Arnold Arboretum on Saturday mornings during the month of May. This class has proved popular in former years, and is open to all those who wish to gain a more the flowering trees and shrubs growing in the Dr. Donald Wyman, Horticulturist of the ArboArnold Arboretum. retum, will conduct the class for a two-hour period each Saturday morning, weather permitting, during the month of May. The objective will be to study the various woody plants as they come into bloom, and to consider any additional points of culture and care which may be desired by those attendmg. No previous training is essential, but it would be helpful if applicants would register in advance by mail. The first meeting will be on Saturday, May 3, from 10 to 12A.M. There will be a nominal registration fee of $1.00 per person, payable in advance by mail. The group will meet promptly at the Forest Hills Gate, the entrance to the Arboretum which is nearest the Forest Hills station of the Boston Elevated Railways. The group will study the various collections of flowering plants in the sequence in which they bloom, and the better horticultural varieties will be pointed out together with nursery sources where they may be obtained. Though many of the plants growing in the Arboretum are \"rare\", a thorough investigation of 1941 nursery catalogues has disclosed 1941 nursery sources for literally hundreds of woody plants formerly considered unobtainable in this country. Hence, by continually referring to the availability of the \"rare\" plants considered by the group, the information obtained will be decidedly practical and timely to New England garden owners. All those interested should register immediately intimate as knowledge of it may be necessary to limit the number in the class. DONALD WYMAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Winter Injury and Serious Pests to be Fought Now","article_sequence":7,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24108","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d2708526.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 MAY ~3, 1941 WINTER INJURY AND SERIOUS PESTS TO BE FOUGHT NOW the last issue of Arnoldia, (Vol. 1, No. 6, April 29, 1941), menwas made of the severe damage done to rhododendrons and a few other evergreens during the past winter, especially during the latter half of March of this year. Since that bulletin was written, considerable damage has appeared among deciduous plants, both trees and shrubs, including species which normally are not subject to winter injury. A careful examination of hundreds of plants affected at the Arnold Arboretum shows a very confusing picture. Shrubs in certain areas may be killed to the ground, whereas the same species in another part of the Arboretum in apparently just as exposed or just as protected situations, may be completely unharmed. As a result of these confusing data, it seems advisable at this time to base the winter damage on the vagaries of the weather as explained in that bulletin. This does not explain why twenty-five and thirtyfoot tall varieties of Carpinus betulus are injured for the first time m many years, nor does it explain why KPrrirz japonica is uninjured at one place and severely injured at another. Nor does it explain why the species of Exochordn, normally somewhat tender, escaped injury in all parts of the Arboretum, nor why Abelia grandiflora is badly injured while hiburnunz macrooephrzlum sterile, growing next to it, is in perfect condition. Believing that some readers of Arnoldia would be interested in a partial list of plants which have shown more or less severe winter in,jury up to the present time, such a list is given below. While some of these are subject to slight injuries every winter, these have been included as a matter of record. If the list does nothing else, it may help to console gardeners by recording the fact that winter injury has hurt gardens besides their own. NUMBER 7 IN tion !~ I A Few of the Woody Plants Injured Last Year Lonicera korolkovi Abelia grandiflora Amorpha fruttcosa Berberis vulgaris atropurpurea Buddleia alteruifolia myrtillus orientalis longifolia standishi lancifolia tatarica Callicarpa sp. Calycanthus fertilis ferax Carpinus betulus carpintzza globosa horizontalis angustifolia lat~folia lutea thibetica quercifolia Cornus florida-50% of the flower buds rubra--branches killed Coronilla emerus Philadelphus-most sp. and Physocarpus capitatus intermedius parvifolms Prunus maritima subhirtella vars. pendula \"A. J. Ives lection\" Ptelea tr~foliata mollis se- Corylopsis pauciflora Cotoneaster microphylla Cydoma oblonga Cytisus \"Burbank hybrids\" elongatus sessilifolius Rhododendrons-many hybrids and species Ribes gordonianum holoser~ceum scoparius andreanus Deutzia hypoleuca lemoinei rosea nigrum apiifolium petraeum Rosa rugosa spinosissima \"Plato\" \" l'ythagoras\" watsomana Gordonia alatamaha Hydrangea arborescens ctnerea Sophora viciifolia Spiraea sp.-most jured Staphylea colchica pinnata of them in- Ilex crenata convexa helleri Kalmia latifolia Kerria japonica Leucothoe racemosa Stephanandratanakae Symphoricarpos chenaulti macro- Ligustrum carpum acuminatum Viburnum dentatum venosum canbyi Lonicera fragrantissima involucrata serottna Weigela little \"Congo\"-others very A Few of the Woody Plants Killed to the Ground Amorpha brachycarpa canescens Calycanthus fertilis floridus ovatus Carpinus betulus compacta Ceanothus americanus Cytisus ratisbonensis Genista pilosa Helwingia japonica Ligustrum obtusifolium Lonicera quinquelocularis Neillia smensis ueki Pachistima myrsinites Prunus bokhariensis Ribes bethmonti pall~dus roseus Cephalanthus occidentalis Colutea arborescens media Cytisus albus nigrum 38 The Elm Leaf Beetle More growing pains for interested home owners everywhere in the northeast this year will be caused by the elm leaf beetles, which undoubtedly will be present in large numbers. Mature beetles have been appearing in many houses during the early spring, and by May 15 had made their appearance on some of the elm trees in the Arnold Arboretum. Last year there was a particularly bad infestation of these beetles in New England. Though many American elms were badly infested, some of the European elms were practically defoliated. As is usually the case in such circumstances, many home owners did not think of spraying until the damage was done, i.e. after the trees were practically defoliated. As a result the larvae ate voraciously and were allowed to mature into beetles. Many of these beetles wintered over in protected nooks and crannies and have already started eating holes in elm foliage this year. Just now, these mature beetles are busily engaged laying their light yellowish orange colored eggs on the under side of elm leaves. One female may deposit as many as six hundred eggs ! These eggs will soon hatch and the young larvae will commence eating on the under surface of the elm leaves, completing their growth in fifteen or twenty days. The remedy is immediate spraying with lead arsenate about 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water using some good \"sticker.\" This should control the pest if the spray be aimed particularly at the under side of the leaves, and may even kill some of the mature beetles before they lay their eggs. Because the insect is appearing unusually early this year, it may be necessary to spray a second time in order effectively to control the larvae when they appear. The important thing to remember is that if the same trees are allowed to be completely defoliated again this year as were defoliated last year, it will seriously weaken them and one more defoliation next year may be the cause of their death. Our New England elms are worth keeping, and with the Dutch elm disease practically at our door step, it is imperative that we keep these elms in a vigorous and healthy condition. Willow leaf Beetle and Canker worms The willow leaf beetle, a small steel-blue beetle, is now actively devouring the foliage of willow trees while the canker worms are eating the foliage of many ornamental trees, including oaks, lindens, elms and crabapples. Both these msects can be controlled by using the same spray as is recommended for the elm leaf beetle. Garden Cut Worms Though these are troublesome pests mostly to herbaceous garden plants, they have shown themselves to be present in such large numbers around Boston that they should not be overlooked. Gardeners 39 will be troubled with them from now until the middle of June. The species which are particularly numerous around Boston this year are the dmgy cut-worms. They eat succulent young plants other at or near the surface of the soil. Their numbers are governed from year to year chiefly by the amount of rainfall the previous year, much rain forcing them to the surface where birds and predatory insects eat them or else the excess moisture preventing the females from laying eggs in satisfactory places. From their numbers this year, apparently conditions were ideal for them during May and June last year. About the only method of controlling them now is to sprmkle a poison bran bait over the soil in the early evening, since these cut worms feed chiefly at night. The bait might be made in the following proportions : l~ lbs. bran 1oz. sodium arsenate ~ pint black molasses sufficient water to make a mash These are a few of our plant troubles this year. Now is the time to control them, while they are actively eating the foliage of trees, shrubs and plants. Do not delay spraying until the damage is done. ' Notes The Oberly Memorial Fund Committee of the American Library Association has awarded the Oberly Memorial Prize for 1940-41 to Dr. E. D. Merrill, Arnold Arboretum, and Dr. E. H. Walker, Smithsonian Institution for their \"Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany\" published by the Arnold Arboretum. This selection was made in competition, the objective of the committee being to select the most outstanding bibliography in the fields of agriculture and the natural sciences. The Eunice Rockwood Oberly Memorial Fund was established in 1924 and awards are made at two year intervals. At the annual meeting of the National Academy of Sciences in on April 30, Dr. Karl Sax of the Arboretum staff was honored by election to membership. It is worthy of note that three of the present staff members of the Arboretum are included among the twenty-five making up the section of botany of the Academy. Elections are limited to fifteen in the whole field of science in any one year and Dr. Sax was the only botanist elected this year. Washington Apparently this season will break all records of visitors to the Arboretum with approximately 43,000 visitors on Lilac Sunday, May 18. Because of the continued cool weather the lilacs and hundreds of other trees and shrubs are still retaining their flowers, making the Arboretum well worth a visit this week end. DoNALD WYMAN 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Hibiscus syriacus","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24099","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270a327.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Graves, George","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME 1 1 JULY 25, 1941 NUMBER 8 HIBISCUS SYRIACUS IT to was home Syria tells as us only towards the end of the last century that the native of Hibiscus syriacus was determined to be China and not Loudon and others of the older writers had supposed. Bean that the travels of Augustine Henry definitely placed the plant, Persian both wild and in cultivation, in the Orient. Like the so-called lilac, it had, presumably, come down over the old trade route the Near East at some long forgotten time. But Chinese or not, we shall probably continue to meet with such vernacular references as Syrian rose, Rose of Sharon (probably applicable by right only to some bulbous plant), or Syrian Ketmie. The older European gardeners, noticmg the hollyhock-like flowers, used the everyday name of Althaea frutex. Being apt, this name has stayed with the plant in all sections influenced by the European tradition. Now, however, Ketmie-an old botanical name for Hibiscus in general-is being revived in England as a common name. That this revival looks to broader horizons may be determined by taking the word on a talking tour. It is Ketmie, or Ketm~a, in English, French and German; Chetmia in Italian; Ketmi in Turkish and Khatmiyah in Arabic. Thus the Althaea may yet come to be known in gardens as the Syrian Ketmie. The older estimates of the relative hardiness and particular cultural requirements of the one woody species of Hibiscus have lived on to misdirect us. Parkinson started some of the misunderstanding back in 1619 by rating the Althaea so tender that its indicated treatment was pot or tub culture with winter storage in buildings or cellars. Although, in the long years since then, Parkinson's idea has been upset, 41 there still remains a tendency to place an over-amount of blame for cultural failure with the Althaea on an exaggerated supposition of innate tenderness. Fully as important as inherent hardiness are the factors of suitable soil and environmental conditions. Many instances of Althaea loss in northern United States may be traced to the literal application of recommendations of English rather than Continental horticultural writers. Philip Miller's opinion, expressed in 1768, is still being heeded to the inhibition of happy Althaea culture. Obviously of but local usefulness was his dictum that \"they want light soil, not too wet, for in strong land their stems grow mossy and they never thrive thereafter.\" Somehow his plea for light, dry soil has too often prompted planting in parched, gravelly hillsides in America. Or, as it is sometimes put, \"Althaeas need to be put on the driest spot on the place\". The cultural directions set down in nineteenth century France are much more adaptable for our use. Abel Carriere recognized that, while the woody Hibiscus wants full sun and can sometimes endure drought or extreme wet, what it really desires is a deep, amply watered soil. His definite advice was strict attention to the watering of plants established in dry places. Personal experience in New England has shown that it is usually less disastrous to err on the wet side in selecting sites for Althaea planting. The influence of environmental factors such as these will be reflected directly in the size of the leaves and in the general aspect of the plants while in growth. Another truth expressed in the French literature, and known to numerous plantsmen in this country, is that winter injury strikes chiefly at young, quick-growing plants. Unless such striplings are protected heavily or taken up and stored for the first winter or so, they cannot be expected to develop size and structure in proportion to their age in the cold north. This killing back or freezing out is not to be expected with older, slower-growing plants. These last may have some twigs frozen but, since the Althaea flowers on new wood, such injury is usually superficial. Thus, the Althaeas should be introduced into northern gardens in Spring in the form of plants which are old enough and large enough to have developed winter-resistant tops. After planting, their leaves may be very slow in unfolding. Many newly set plants have been so deliberate about showing new growth that they have been given up, erroneously, for dead. In planting newly purchased Althaeas, whether trained as bushes or standards, pruning should follow the practice of removal of whole branches. By this process of thinning, as opposed to severe lopping 42 back of all upper branches, size of plant is not reduced, more old, weather-resistant branches are retained and fewer winter-tender shoots are induced. Routine pruning of established plants can proceed, when necessary, on this same basis. Pruning of old plants usually need consist of nothing more than the removal of dead wood in spring. Propagation of the Althaea by either leafy or hardwood cuttings is a relatively simple process. However, in the light of the above discussion of tenderness of young plants, it seems prudent to limit its use in northern gardens to the increasing of individual forms not available in the trade. Although eighteenth century gardeners often grew Althaeas from cuttings or layers, they much preferred two other methods of propagation. For increase of the variegated-leaved sorts, they chose to graft on seedling understocks. Strangely enough, Althaeas are still being so grafted in this country. Most usually, they grew their plants from seed. By so doing, they had bushes large enough for setting in permanent locations by the end of the fourth year. From the lack of records of introduction, it is reasonable to assume that all of the named forms of Althaea are but chance products of this practice, selected out and preserved by alert, but now unknown, gardeners. While Parkinson noted but two or three varieties, Miller and Hanbury, about a hundred years later, recorded forms with pale purple, dark purple, white, pale yellow and red flowers. Also listed were two forms with variegated leaves. In all of these, the flowers were single and had dark-blotched petal bases. Out of the lot one of the purples might be picked as representing the type flower. As time went on more selections were made, particularly in France at such places as the nursery of Simon-Louis Freres. With this increase in the number of garden forms, a strange evolution in their names took place. Instead of the simple color designations of the older authors, the nineteenth century knew such varieties as H, s. flore luteoto pleno, H. s. ,flore roseo striato sim~plice, H. s. flore ~zlbo pleno and others with equally unmanageable Latin descriptions for names. Fortunately, we are today confronted only by simple, obvious garden names, some of which are commemorative and others arrived at by anglicizing of older names. In some known, and probably other uncertain cases, the newer names were bestowed on wellknown old forms by rechristening. Of the newer Althaeas now available, a reasonably representative selection could be had by securing the following varieties: In white there are \"Totus Albus\" (sometimes called \"Snowdrift\" or \"Snow- 43 a pure white single; \"Jeanne d'Arc\" (identical to the old H. s. flore albo pleno), a double pure white and \"Anemonaeflorus,\" semi-double with dark center. Red varieties are \"Rubis,\" single, and \"Duc de Brabant,\" dark double. \"Ardens\" is double lavenderviolet. \"Boule de Feu\" is violet-red. \"Coelestis\" (\"Celeste\") is single, purplish blue in flower color. About the nearest to pink in Althaeas are \"Lucy,\" semi-double and \"Amphssimus,\" double. Many others are offered including the hardly desirable variegatedleaved sorts and the varieties with striped petals. Most of the garden value of Althaea centers around its habit of flowering late in the summer when few other shrubs are in bloom. This important contribution to garden interest was not appreciated by the gloomy old author in Curtis' Botanical Magazine when he wrote that \"we view it, however, with less dellght, as it is a sure indication of approaching winter.\" While the flowering season often hangs over into the autumn, the leaves of the Althaea do not put on any kind of distinct fall coloration. One other seasonal property of the Althaea was pointed out by E. Jouin, a French nurseryman. He studied his favorite varieties and was able to classify them as being early, mid-season or late in their relative times of flowering. Of those mentioned above, M. Jouin rated \"Coelestis\" as early-flowering, \"Totus Albus\" as mid-season and \"Jeanne d'Arc\" as coming later than either of the other two. GEORGE GRAVES storm\"), Massachusetts Horticultural Notes Society England. Even with all the difficulties concerning shipthe North Atlantic these days, the Arnold Arboretum recently received a shipment of live woody plants from Hillier's nursery in England. This was the fulfilment of a normal order placed early in the spring. There were about 100 plants altogether representing fifty different kinds, and though they were en route nearly a full month, they arrived in fair condition and all but four of them will live. None of these plants are represented in living American collections. Plants from on ping Dr. E. D. been elected of India. Merrill, Administrator an of Botanical Collections and Di- rector of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University, has recently honorary member of the Royal Agricultural Society DONAI,D WYMAN 44 ~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Nut Growing in the Northeastern States","article_sequence":9,"start_page":45,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24102","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270ab6b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"MacDaniels, L. H.","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME I 1 OCTOB~.R 31, 1941 . 2 NUMBERS 9-Il 1 STATES1 NUT GROWING IN THE NORTHEASTERN Northeastern States have a rich heritage of native nut trees. Among the in the fields and woodlands are six hickories, the black the butternut, two species of filberts, the beechnut, and formerly the walnut, chestnut. At the present time, however, these species have not been developed in the horticultural sense and so do not form any commercial industry, nor have they been improved by selection and breeding in a way comparable to the Persian walnut or the pecan. The nuts that are grown commercially in America such as the Persian walnut, the pecan, the European filbert, and the almond have all originated either in foreign countries or in the region to the South and West where the climate is better suited for their growth. The planting of improved nut trees in the northeastern states is thus a comparatively recent development. To be sure nut trees have been given a sort of culture in that they have been left in the fence rows and in the fields that were cleared of other species and seedling trees have been planted around the home grounds from which nuts have been harvested from time to time. Except with the chestnut it is only within the last quarter century that there has been any attempt to improve the nuts grown and to encourage nut culture in any real sense. Such improvements as have taken place have been the discovery of varieties that bear superior nuts and their propagation and testing. In the Northeast this process is still in the exploratory stage and there is yet much to learn as to the adaptation of the various kinds of nut trees to this region. As the work has progressed it has become evident that the successful production of improved nuts in the Northeast is largely dependent upon the discovery THE occurring species lReferring specifically to New England, mation would also apply to other regions with New York and Pennsylvania. Of similar climate. course the infor- 45 of varieties that are adapted to this region. Most of the varieties of nuts which have been selected, named and propagated have originated to the South and West and when brought into the northeastern states have not produced good crops mostly because the climate is not warm enough and the growing season long enough for the normal development of the variety. It seems obvious that for the most part in this region nut culture must be developed from varieties which have originated in the North or in parts of other countries which have a similar climate. The search for varieties adapted to the North has been going on for some time and a considerable number have been named. The time is now ripe for more extended planting of nut trees to determine their adaptability to growth in northern locations. Planting nut trees for shade and as a hobby is to be greatly encouraged because not only are trees of assured hardiness and landscape value available but the grower by testing varieties is contributing to our knowledge of nut culture in the Northeast. Climatic Factors with all other plants, the most important determining factor growth is the climate of the region where they are planted. Apparently the limiting factor with many species is winter cold, particularly the absolute low temperatures reached in any one season. Most nut species are long lived trees and although the winters of several decades may not be injurious the occasional exceptional winter may entirely wipe out a given species or variety. as Vfith nut trees, in their survival and This has occurred in parts of the North with the Persian walnut. Previous to 1933-34 there were a considerable number of these trees flourishing in the fruit belt of western New York State, many of which had grown to a bearing size. The unprecedented cold of that season killed most of the trees outright except in a very limited area where the temperature did not fall below -20 F. This temperature is critical not only for most varieties of Persian walnuts but for many varieties of filberts, Chinese and Japanese chestnuts, heartnuts, and some black walnuts. There is little use in planting trees of these varieties if such temperatures are of frequent recurrences. The zones with temperatures above -200 F. over a 15 year period are shown in the accompanying map. (Plate III~ Another climatic factor that is of real importance in the growing of nut trees is the length of the growing season or the number of days between freezes. Practically no species will stand a hard freeze after the growth starts in the spring. These spring frosts rarely kill the trees outright but destroy the new shoots and with them the year's crop. At Ithaca, N.Y., it is probable that this killing of the e new growth on hickories and walnuts is responsible for crop failure more often than any one other factor. The leaves come out from other buds after the freeze and during the growing season the trees appear normal except for the fact that there is no crop. Most of our nut tree species require a growing season of at least 150 days between frosts although butternuts and filberts may require less. The 46 -o ~x 'ro 0 <o <1J u '\" 0 E \" o 0 .,. .~ .... CL 0 0 ~ ro\" U :G o ~J c~ U O CO i r' O GJ ... J S t~ w o Q <1J 0 t~ . a 0. ,_ i~ .~c: &#O3x C;1J j= <1J O -t~d = O ~== N ~ Ny ~a y a o. e~ E ,~ v~, \"0 c, c. 8 ,- I O OU c~ <1J o ~ ~~~ c \" \"0 E .... EJ w \"'\" \"'\" U;3#>1CxUJ & >, C R E ro.. ~ .Up ~c ~ U O., , p 0 3 0 o a~~ ,. ~ o w, ~ a ro o U 'o o U ,G <o 'g en .... &0..oCx# 3 ; ~.a~ S~~ g R Og x 'b zx O~ cC ~, .... 0. :w~'0 0 ~~ :.\" S \" H~b ....:i <1J = ~'B:5 .3 -3 <o of the growing season for the various parts of the northeastern states is the accompanying map. (Plate IV) Somewhat less damaging than late spring frosts are freezes which occur in early fall. Black walnuts are particularly likely to be damaged at this time. The nuts on the trees will not be hurt by light frosts but if the temperature goes to -~~5 F. or below there is likelihood that not only will the leaves be frozen off the trees but the nuts themselves will be frozen so as to make them poorly flavored and useless. In many cases if the leaves are frozen from the trees the development of the nuts will stop and the nuts are poorly filled. Early fall freezes, if the drop in temperature is rapid and occurs before the growth on the trees has hardened, may cause serious damage to both trees and nuts. Associated with the same problem as the length of the growing season between frosts is the mean summer temperature sometimes expressed as total summer heat. Varieties of fruit trees, nuts included, require a certain amount of heat above a base temperature in order to develop well-filled nuts. Thus, even though the growing season may be sufficiently long, if the temperature during the growing season is too low, nuts will not mature. This is particularly important with those species that normally grow farther South such as the northern pecan from Illinois and many of the black walnut varieties. These trees may be perfectly hardy as far as winter low temperatures are concerned but they rarely mature a crop because of cool summers and the short growing season. Sometimes exceptionally warm seasons will mature nut varieties in a region where they usually fail to ripen. The same thing is also true of grapes and other fruits. Local variations in climate are often important in determining the suitability for growing nut tree species on a particular site. On the accompanying maps the climatic zones are indicated in a general way. Within these zones, however, there may be certain sites which are more favorable for the growth of nut trees than others. These sites are related to proximity to bodies of water, good air drainage, protection from winds or other favorable factors. An example of such a site has been observed at Aurora on Cayuga Lake, N. Y. Here on a certain bench close to the lake and surrounded by rather high banks, a number of species were growing for many years that were not adapted to the surrounding region. These included a California redwood, a number of Persian walnuts and a few northern pecans. These trees had grown to considerable size and had produced satisfactory crops but in the winter of 1933-34 the lake froze over for the first time in many years and the temperature on a single night dropped to an unprecedented low point. All of the trees except the pecans were either killed or badly damaged. Advantage should be taken of such locations wherever they occur. On the other hand exposed hillsides, frost pockets, and high elevations should be avoided. From the above discussion of climate and an examination of the maps, it becomes evident that parts of the Northeast differ greatly in their suitability for grow- length shown on 48 ~ y F. y z y y i) w d ~ a C4 ing England, particularly Maine, New Hampshire hardy kinds such as the butternut can be grown. In southern Pennsylvania, however, most species and varieties will succeed. In between these areas conditions become increasingly less favorable from South to North, the suitability of any locality being influenced by local factors that effect temperature, air drainage, and the like. and nut trees. In northern New Vermont, only a few of the most Species and Varieties of growing nut trees in the northeastern states their adaptation. The greatest concentration of the more valuable native species, particularly the black walnut and the shagbark hickory, is in the Mississippi River basin, particularly the Middle West. Named sorts originating in these regions are probably not adapted to northern New York or New England and should be planted with the realization that it is an experimental project or else there should be assurance based on tests that the varieties will succeed. The probable solution of the problem is to obtain varieties that have originated locally or under similar climatic conditions and are of proven worth. As before a indicated, the problem is largely matter of varieties and walnut, although primarily a plant of the MisIlm er basin and the region of the Great Lakes, is hardy in most parts of sissippi the Northeast and one of the most valuable nut trees for the region. It is extensively planted around the farmsteads in southern New England and southward and has escaped along the fence rows and in waste places where it is not native. Most of the varieties which have been named and propagated originated to the West and South of New England and have not proved suitable here. At Ithaca, New York, the variety Thomas has been one of the most successful but apparently this is about the limit of its northern range and even here there are seasons when the nuts do not mature. Other varieties extensively propagated such as \"Ohio\" and the \"Stabler,\" do not mature at Ithaca or farther North. Varieties of northern origin have as yet not been sufficiently tested to be sure of their behavior in New England. They are, however, the most promising for this region and are well worth a trial. Among these can be mentioned the \"Tasterite\" and \"Snyder\" from the Ithaca region, the \"Wiard\" and \"Allen\" from Michigan, the \"Kettler\" from Wisconsin, the \"Clark\" from southern Minnesota and the \"Cresco\" from northern Iowa. These are being propagated sparingly by nurserymen and could be propagated to order if the grower so desires. Those interested in nut culture should observe trees growing in the northern part of the black walnut range and select those which produce the best nuts over a period of years. These can be propagated by nurserymen on order or grafted by the individual himself. It i5 only by such selection from trees that are successful that progress will be made in the varietal adaptation of nuts to a northern environment. BLACK WALNUT: The black 50 ~. Js =. (,) a (,) 0 z y ~ a w H a, The variation in cracking quality and size of black walnuts is great. Some of the better sorts may have as high as 35% kernel although 20% kernel is good and most common seedlings have considerably less. Black walnuts are best adapted to deep, rich, slightly alkaline or neutral soils with good drainage. They are found growing naturally in alluvial soil in the river valleys. In the North such sites should be avoided if they are \"frost pockets.\" BUTTERNUT: The butternut extends the farthest North in its natural range of any of the important nut trees and in fact in northern New England is about the only nut which will succeed. Here it should receive much more attention than it has in the past. It has the disadvantage of being rather short lived under some conditions. The cause of this in some cases is a parasitic fungus but in others it is apparently related to the nature of the tree itself. Although the butternut will succeed fairly well on the poorer upland soils it thrives best on richer neutral soils with good drainage. A dozen or more varieties have been selected but only a few have been propagated commercially. Some of the named sorts that are propagated by nurserymen, at least in small quantities, are the \"Kemvorthv .> \" \"Irvine > \" \"Love > \" \"Sherwood,\" \"Thill\" and \"Van der Poppen. \" For some unknown reason the butternut is not easily propagated. Named varieties certainly deserve much more attention than they now receive because of their very superior cracking quality as compared wth the ordinary run of seedlings. PERSIAN WALNUT: Attempts have been made to grow the Persian or English walnut in the Northeast for many years with recurring damage from winter cold. Trees in the protected fruit regions of New York became large enough to bear good crops until the extreme cold winter of 1933-34. At that time practically all Persian walnuts in the East were either killed outright or very severely damaged. Apparently the temperature of -20 F. becomes critical for most trees of this species and quick drops in temperature in spring or fall may be injurious at higher temperatures. At the present time there is a very real interest in what are known as the Car- pathian walnuts which have been introduced from Poland by Mr. Paul Crath of Toronto, Canada. These trees are grown from seeds or grafts from trees in the Carpathian Mountains which have withstood temperatures as low as -40 F. Some of these trees have been growing in North America in both Canada and the United States for a dozen years or more and show promise of successful culture. The seedling trees are now beginning to fruit so that in the near future more accurate information regarding their behavior should be available. At the present time they offer promise of establishing Persian walnuts in the Northeast. Trees are available mostly as seedlings in both the United States and Canada. It should be borne in mind that even though the Carpathian walnut is hardy there may be other climatic factors which are limiting in their culture, such as length of growing 52 r.~ U dN >. ~ ftt C V # r. V U 'b ~ L C ~r i t V Uy C V o '3 m CC C \"C bG k cd .n-~ ~i y iw Y -s ~ O +~ i ~ >. ~ rr ~ .? Oo`~ L'' x .B N i--i .C V1 b ~ _^. W~ ' ~ t-~ J S '-: ~1 ,b SeM cc i~ S ^' a~ V x 6C cd V zC, * 00 3 -o ~ -s w a~ -~ ~ # _ ~z :J _~ y .y C F, C g C C 60 I x~ s! s C # Cq;~c 0 heat available. Indications are, however, that short seasons and they have shown little killing they adapted relatively back from winter cold. As yet there are no named varieties in the trade. season or summer the amount of to are JAPANESE WALNUT: The Japanese walnut (Juglan.s Sieboldiana~ makes rapid and luxurious growth even in rather poor soils and is well adapted for use as a shade tree. It comes into bearing early and has a tropical appearance which is very pleasing. Seedling trees ~ary considerably in their hardiness but for the most part withstand winter cold in all except the most severe parts of the Northeast. At Ithaca, many have withstood temperatures of -30 F. without damage. On the other hand there are some seedlings which have been damaged at -~0 F., and early fall freezes may be damaging at higher temperatures. The nuts of the Japanese walnut resemble the butternut in flavor of the kernel, but in general are not so highly flavored. Some types of this nut are fairly smooth whereas others are rough much like the butternut. It was thought that these rough nuts were hybrids with the butternut, but the fact that such rough nuts occur in Asia where there are no butternuts mdicates that they are probably only a form. The name buartnut is used for Japanese walnuts of the rough shelled type. As yet there are no named vanet~es of this nut. HEARTNUT: The heartnut mutation of the (Juglans S'ieboldiana, var. cordiformis) is a sport or walnut resembling it closely in foliage and growth habit. The nuts have much better cracking quality, however, and with most of the named sorts kernels can be recovered whole. The shells of some of them can be split apart with a knife inserted in the base of the nut. The nuts are smooth and attractive in appearance and although usually smaller, they are much superior to the ordinary forms of the Japanese walnut. There is variation in hardiness of the different named varieties and at the present time it is impossible to give a well substantiated opinion as to the adaptation of the named varieties to northern culture. The \"Lancaster\" has not been hardy at Ithaca. Other sorts in the trade are the \"Bates,\" \"Faust,\" \"Ritchie,\" \"Stranger,\" \"Walters\" and \"Fodemaier.\" Anyone interested in planting this nut will do a real service by keeping records of their performance and giving the information to experiment stations or the Northern Nut Growers' Association. Japanese species of hickory are native in the Northeast. the mockernut (Carya alba), the shagbark hickory (C. ovata), the Among red hickory (C. ovali.s~, the pignut (C. glabra~, the bitternut (C. cordiformis) and the shellbark hickory or kingnut (C. laciniosa). Of these the shagbark hickory is by far the most important. Mockernuts are gathered to some extent from the wild but are undesirable because of their thick shells. The pignut is usually not bitter but with few exceptions is of such poor cracking quality as to be of httle value. these are HICKORY NUT: A number of 54 The bitternut is intensely bitter, astringent and quite inedible. Some of the hybrids with the shagbark hickory have been propagated because of their thin shells but are of poor cracking quality and flavor. The problem of growing hickory nuts in the Northeast is much the same as with the black walnut. Although many sorts have been named a large part of them have their origin in the South and West and when brought into the Northeast are not successful because of the short growing season and lack of heat. The Northeast must rely on varieties which have originated in the northern states. Among these may be mentioned Davis,\" \"Fox,\" \" Glover, \" \"Goheen,\" \"Kirtland,\" \"Mann,\" \"Miller,\" \"Nielsen,\" \"W-hitney,\" \"Beeman,\" \"Bridgewater\" and \"Wxlcox.\" Most of these were reof the nursery catalogs in 19:39 and many of them could be proporder. One factor standing in the way of increased planting is the difficulty of propagating the trees. Young hickory stocks have a very large tap root, making the trees difficult to handle in the nursery. This can be surmounted by cutting the tap root about 18 inches underground at least a year before transplanting, thus forcing lateral roots to form. Well managed nurseries provide for this and such trees are much more likely to succeed than those transplanted from the wild. ported agated in some on PECAN: The pecan so extensively grown in the cotton belt and extending in its natural range into parts of Indiana and Illinois, has not been successful in the Northeast. This is not because of tenderness to winter cold but rather to the rela- cool growing seasons which do not mature the nuts. There are a number of hybrid varieties which make good shade trees. Among these the \"Burlington\" is particularly attractive. It has been perfectly hardy at Ithaca, has good clean foliage and occasionally has matured a few nuts. Usually they have been frozen on the trees before maturing. The \"McCalhster\" is a very large nut but the trees 1a~e not been hardy in the Ithaca region and the variety is not recommended. Other hybrid sorts such as the \"Gerardi,\" the \"Des Moines\" and the \"Yleas\" have attractive foliage and make good shade trees. In favorable locations in southern Pennsylvania some of the northern varieties of pecans occasionally mature crops of nuts. Anyone planting these should use ~arieties which are of northern origin. Among these are the \"Greenriver,\" \"Major\" and the \"Posey.\" tively short, CHESTNUT: In the past the chestnut has been by far the most valuable of the Northeast. The wild groves of this species have, however, been almost completely destroyed by the chestnut blight. This disease, coming into nut trees in the the New York area about 1900 has now covered practically the entire native range of the chestnut in North America. All that is left of the great chestnut forests are the dead trunks and stumps often with sprouts coming up from the base. These sprouts live from year to year, their usual history being that they grow until they 55 about two or three inches through and 10 to 15 feet high. At this stage the bark forms fissures through which infection occurs with the result that the sprouts are killed and are replaced with suckers from the base. Sometimes these sprouts are become large enough to bear a few nuts and there are constant rumors that the chestnut is coming back in the forests. This, however, does not seem to be the case as there are no recorded instances of real immunity among trees of the native chestnut. There has been a persistent attempt on the part of the federal government and some state forestry- departments to introduce or develop other species or hybrid varieties of the chestnut which would be resistant or immune to the blight. In this some success has been achieved. The Chinese chestnut (Castanea mollissima) and the Japanese chestnut (G'. crenata) although not immune to the blight are highly resistant. Hybridizing these with each other and with the native American species to obtain blight resistant types is underway. There are at the present time a number of varieties that are distinctly promising. Among these are \"Abundance,\" \"Carr,\" \"Hobson,\" \"Homan,\" \"Stoke,\" \"Reliable\" and \"Yankee. \" These are available from nurserymen and are well worth a trial. Many of the nuts are fully as sweet as the native chestnut, and considerably larger. The trees are not as hardy as the native chestnut and may be damaged by temperatures ranging around -250 F. There undoubtedly is great variation in hardiness in these varieties and they should be tested further. occur m the Northeast. One of these and the other the American filbert (C. americaua~. These, however, are relatively inferior as compared with the European species, C. Avellana and C. maxima, which together with their hybrids are the basis of the world's commercial industry. In New York tests have been made at the Geneva Experiment Station where a large number of varieties of European filberts have been grown. The limiting factor with most of these has been winter cold and late spring frosts. Temperatures of -l0 F. have seriously injured many of the European varieties and late frosts frequently destroy the staminate catkins or pollen producing flowers and thus prevent a crop. The variety recommendations G. L. Slate based on experience at Geneva, New York is as follows: \"Cosford\" and \"Medium Long\" are two of the hardiest varieties and with the exception of \"Italian Red\" are the most productive. Both have vigorous, upright trees. \"Cosford\" nuts are of medium size and thinnest shelled of all varieties tested. The nuts of \"Medium Long\" are slightly larger than those of \"Cosford\" and the shell is of medium thickness. The pellicle or fiber on the kernel is rather FILBERT: Two species of native filbert is the beaked filbert (Co~ylus cornuta) heavy. \"Italian Red\" has thus far produced more nuts than any other variety tested, but at the Geneva Experiment Station in recent years the tree has not been as hardy as it appeared earlier and the variety is placed third on the list. The tree is vigorous and upright. 56 o o~ g x a~ a a~ U v E. . > > g CC ?-. c V 9 3 .. U .`c o ~ c x U -E m .'-'. &B >. L b bD U ,y .\" r.~ O ... rr ,w, 'C V ~ ~ MX H a ~ '= ~x ~ ~ ~s a~ ro -c .~ !<: o .~ ~, x w s E t~ oo ~s a ~' ag oS& .~ ,~ o > ._ wOy .N C m U c~ A O Q U .,.. U ~ x \"Barcelona\" in the earlier years of the test was the most productive variety, but recently the trees have experienced so much winter injury that the variety is recommended for limited trial only. The nuts are large, thick-shelled, and the kernels are covered with a heavy pellicle, but the tree is less vigorous than others, not productive, and is lacking in hardiness. Red Lambert\" is as hardy as \"Cosford\" and \"Medium Long\" and produces a fine large nut, but the tree is unfortunately very unproductive and of value only as a pollenizer. Its spreading habit of growth makes it unsuitable for planting in a hedge with other varieties, most of which are of upright habit. More recently a promising development in the filbert situation is the hybridization of American with European varieties. The varieties \"Rush\" from Pennsy lvania and \"Winkler\" from Iowa of the American species are the varieties most used. \"Rush\" is a tall growing shrub and has borne well at Ithaca. \"Winkler\" is hardier, more productive and bears larger nuts, but makes a low growing shrub. Of the hybrid varieties the \"Bixby\" and \"Buchanan\" are now regarded as being the most promising because of their size and other merit of the nuts and hardiness of plant. Many other seedlings are being tested and seem promising. Cultural Practices It is not the purpose of the bulletin to give details as to the propagation of nut general the same principles are involved with this crop as with other fruit trees but the material is somewhat more difficult to manipulate and wholly efficient methods of budding or grafting have not been developed. It should be emphasized here, however, that in common with other fruit species, grafted trees are very much superior to seedlings. Nut varieties might very well be compared to apple varieties in this regard. Anyone who is familiar with the small, hard natural apple fruit which is found in the pastures of New England and knows of its bitter, astringent flavor can appreciate the difference between these and the better named grafted varieties such as the \"Baldwin\" and \"McIntosh.\" The same differences exist with the nut trees also. The great majority of seedling nut trees have nuts that are so difficult to shell that there is little incentive to grow them. The named and grafted varieties, however, may be said to be as superior to the ordinary run of seedlings as the grafted apples are superior to natural fruit. Better varieties of nut trees should bear nuts of good size which have a high proportion of good quality kernels which are easily shelled out. It is not difficult to imagine what a difference it would make if the many millions of wild trees bore nuts of as good quality as the selected and named sorts. Obtaining trees of desirable varieties may be something of a problem. Many varieties are already in the trade and are being propagated by nut tree specialists. It is also possible to have particular varieties propagated to order. It must be realized, however, that nut trees are much more difficult to produce in the nursery trees. In 58 than or pears and in justice to himself, the nurseryman is compelled to for the nut trees than for other fruit trees. For one really interested in the growing of nut trees a good practice is to top work established stocks by grafting. It is not too difficult to learn the technique and in many localities there are nurserymen and plantsmen who will make grafts as desired. To grow seedling stocks it is necessary to stratify the seeds before planting. This should be done in the early fall before the nuts have been allowed to become very dry. The process of stratification involves keeping the nuts at temperatures slightly above freezing. Best results are obtained by keeping nuts buried in moist peat moss at a constant temperature of about 3.i-40 F. Such conditions may be found in cold storage houses. For the grower, successful stratification can be attained by exposing the nuts to winter temperatures. This is done by burying the nuts in sand and leaving them in an exposed place which should be well drained. Protection with wire netting is necessary to keep rodents from destroying the seeds. If danger from theft by rodents is not likely and the soil is well drained, the seed nuts may be planted in the nursery row in the fall or they may be planted in their permanent location in the fall or the stratified nuts planted out in the spring. Those desiring only a few nut trees of named varieties may best purchase them from nurserymen who are specializing in nut tree propagation. There are a number of these in the Northeast and Middle West. A list of nurserymen can be obtained from the Northern Nut Growers' Association. If nut growing is to be carried on as a hobby and a considerable number of trees are to be involved, a good practice is to raise seedlings and get them established in their permanent location and then graft the most vigorous individual trees to well-chosen varieties. Scions may be obtained from trees locally or from nurserymen who furnish scions. Soils suitable for nut trees are the same as those required for almost any other fruit crop. The first requirement is that they shall be deep and well drained. Thin topsoil overlying impervious subsoils which remain soggy will not grow good trees. Often rocky soils are very good because they usually are well drained unless the underlying rock is impervious. The most favorable soils are friable loams of good organic content and good moisture holding capacity. Fertility can be easily supplied to poor soils which are suitable in texture and drainage by the use of leguminous cover crops, and by application of barnyard manure or complete commercial fertilizers. It is a mistake to plant nut trees on heavy, worn-out soils that are not good agricultural lands. On the other hand they may very well be planted in rocky lands incapable of cultivation provided other conditions are favorable. The planting of nut trees does not differ essentially from planting trees of other kinds except possibly that most nut trees have few fibrous roots and hence must be planted with unusual care. Hickories are difficult to transplant because of the scarcity of lateral roots and the slow rate at which new roots are formed. If the are apples charge more 59 taproot has nursery not been cut row once or a year previous to digging or the tree transplanted in the twice, there are likely to be practically no fibrous roots and the chances of survival of the tree are slight. If seedling trees are to be brought in from the woods, it is of great advantage to cut off the taproot about 18 inches below the surface of the ground a year before transplanting and thus stimulate the formation of the lateral roots near the surface. There is an advantage in buying trees from nursery men skilled in the propagation of nut trees because attention is given by them to developing a good root system. While the trees are out of the ground, care should be taken not to allow the roots to become dry before planting. Keeping them covered with wet burlap or puddling them in a moist clay is highly important. Some trees can be bought balled and burlapped but this is expensive and should be unnecessary. The hole should be dug large enough so that all of the roots can be accommodated readily and the topsoil should be worked in carefully around them. One of the most important practices is to firm the soil about the roots with a tamping stick of some sort. At the time of planting the soil should be moist but not wet enough to puddle or cake when firmed with the tamper. After planting, the trees should be well watered and weeds kept down about the trees either by cultivation or by mulching. This is particularly important until the trees become established. At the time of planting the tops of practically all nut trees should be cut back to about onethird or one-half of the wood present in the nursery, making sure that at least several good buds remain. This is important because even with carefully dug trees a large proportion of the root system is destroyed or damaged in digging and the top must be cut proportionally. After planting, if the season is dry, the trees should be watered durmg dry periods of at least the first season or longer if necessary until they become established. On soils that are low in organic matter a good practice is to work in granulated peat moss with the soil about the roots. Care should be used that the peat is ~t ell soaked with water either before or after the planting, otherwise it will be of no benefit. Covering the trees with wax has been recommended by some authorities but under conditions of hot sun this practice has proved injurious and is not recommended. After the nut trees become established not much care is needed. Pruning is of less importance than with most fruit trees. With walnuts and hickories it is sometimes necessary to correct faulty crotch structure and space the limbs about the trunk. The most common fault is the development of two leaders which are about the same size. If this occurs one should be removed or at least pruned severely to dwarf it with relation to the other. Hickories and walnuts should be so trained that central leaders, or modified central leaders will develop. For best yields filberts should be trained as standard trees without suckers at the base. In removing a sucker, the soil is dug away from the base of the tree exposing the base of the 60 sucker where it joins the root and the sucker removed with close to the main root. Fertilizers a sharp saw, cutting Nut trees respond to fertilization and good soil management much as do other fruit trees although many wild trees apparently do well in competition with other vegetation. Outstanding growth or yield is usually associated with an unusually favorable situation as to soil fertility, moisture supply or other soil conditions. It is a mistake to think that nut trees will survive under adverse conditions, and neglect, especially before the trees are well established, will often result in the loss of the trees. Nut trees do particularly well under cultivation which keeps weeds and other growth away from the soil over the roots. This, however, is rarely practical with nut trees in the fence row or around the home. The benefits of cultivation can be largely secured by mulching the area under the trees so that the weeds are kept under control. Any plant material such as old hay or straw or garden refuse is suitable for mulching purposes. On soils low in fertility nut trees will respond to applications of nitrogen. Either sodium nitrate or ammonium sulfate may be used, the former probably being preferable with the walnuts which are adapted to neutral or alkaline soils. Trees growing in sod may be fertilized at the rate ofpound of ammonium sulfate or sodium nitrate for each inch of the diameter of the trunk until they have attained a diameter of about 6 inches when about 2 pound may be used for each inch in diameter up to the maximum of 15 to 20 pounds per tree. With large trees that are well established, much more fertilizer should be added. The above is of course only an approximation. The actual needs of the tree will depend upon the natural fertility of the soil and other conditions. The trees should be observed carefully to avoid either excessive stimulation of growth, which would make the trees liable to winter injury, or the other extreme of an under-vegetative condition as indicated by yellow, sparse foliage and poor yields. In general trees suffer much more from the lack of fertility than from too much. If trees are to yield regular crops they must be fertilized regularly and adequately. There is little evidence to show that phosphorus and potassium or the other minor fertilizer elements are an advantage in the soils of the Northeast. Insect and Disease Troubles Insect and disease troubles are about as common for nut trees as for any other shade trees. The problem is comphcated by the fact that most home owners cannot have their trees sprayed. There are a number of caterpillars which destroy the foliage. Among them, most commonly encountered is the walnut caterpillar which appears about mid-summer and may seriously defoliate the trees one or more times in a single season. These may be controlled with arsenate of lead. Where the trees are not sprayed it is often possible to destroy the worms by collecting them when 61 the trunk in a mass to shed their skins. These caterpillars and others hickories can often be destroyed before they attain large size by picking off the leaves upon which they are feeding. They usually feed in groups close together. Hickories and chestnuts sometimes have the nuts destroye,l by weevils. The control here is to destroy all nuts which drop to the ground before the weevils emerge. This may be fairly easy if the trees are in the lawn but difficult if the ground is rough. The Persian walnut is attacked by the codling moth, which is similar to that whioh damages apples. Spraying with arsenate in mid-summer when the moth5 appear is an effective control. Diseases are usually not troublesome with nut trees although under some conclitions they may be. There is a blight which sometimes attacks the filberts, appearing as dead and brown shoots. If atlected parts are cut out promptly and burned, the trouble is usually easy to control. Some variettes of walnut,particularly the \"Thomas,\" become infected with a perennial canker. This is relatively less damaging on trees that are growing rapidly so that good cultural practice is a means of control. Of course the ohestnut blight has been the most devastating disease of nut trees which has practically wipecl out the chestnut in its natural range. Methods of controlling this disease in the American and European chestnuts have not been developed. Of the blight resistant Chinese and Japanese species, it is worthwhile to out out blighted limbs as they occur and to cut away bark cankers on the trunk. The cut surface, slumkl be painted with some good antiseptic solution. Nut trees, particularly the hickories and walnuts ordinarily bear only in alternate years. This is a natural tendency which is to be obser~ecl also with other fruit trees. There is apparently little that can be done to control it although it may be lessened somewhat by an adequate fertilizer and soil management program. Thinning the nuts while still green should also be of help but is not practiced. What lxappens is that during the bearing year the crop is such a heavy drain on the food manufactured in the leaves or possibly other 5ubstance5, that there is not enough for bud formation for the following year. Different varieties ~ary in this respect. The chestnut and the filbert do not alternate as veriowly as the walnut and the hickory. they gather on on Cross Pollination means Most kinds of nuts require cross pollination. From a practical standpoint this that at least two varieties of each species which flower simultaneousl~- should are frequently planted this may offer no problem neighbors may have trees which will be a source of pollen. With the filbert and chestnut, however, two varieties should always be planted together. To a somewhat lesser degree this is the case with the Persian walnut and the hickories. The pollination requirements of black walnut are not well understood but it is highly probable that cross pollination is necessary for grow together. With kinds that to the individual home owner as 62 this species also. In small areas where several trees cannot be planted, a part of the tree may be top worked to another variety. The pollen of the walnut, filbert and hickory is wind borne and may be carried over a considerable distance. It is impossible to state with accuracy how close together it is necessary for trees to be planted for cross-pollination. Anywhere within the radius of 100 feet should be satisfactory. Harvesting Nuts Nuts should be allowed to become fully mature on the trees and preferably to fall naturally. Mild shaking is sometimes practiced to bring down the last of the crop but clubbing the branches is seldom justified. Nuts should be picked up as soon as they fall. This is particularly necessary with the Persian walnut which discolors if allowed to lie on the ground and with the black walnut, the husks of which may dismtegrate into a brown mass if not picked up within a few days after falling. Black walnuts should be shucked soon after harvesting to prevent discoloration of the kernels. Small quantities of black walnuts are beaten or tramped from the husks. With larger quantities the old fash~oned corn sheller may be adjusted to remove the husks satisfactorily. Black walnuts that are washed immediately after removing the husks will remain an attractive brown color instead of turning black. Nuts of all species should be allowed to dry after the husks are removed. Small quantities can be spread out on the floor of a well ventilated shed or attic. With larger quantities some sort of racks with screen bottoms can be dev ised. The drying room must have a free circulation of air. One of the commonest difficulties experienced with nut trees in the North is that the kernels fail to fill. There are a number of causes which contribute to this condition. Probably the most frequent, particularly with the hickories and walnuts, is too short a growing season or too little summer heat. Under these conditions the leaves are frozen from the trees while the nuts are still immature and no further development of the kernels takes place. The problem may be better understood when it is realized that in the development of most kinds of nuts, the growth of hull and shell to full size takes place early in the season. During the latter part of the season the kernels are developed from the carbohydrates which are manufactured by the leaves. It is thus obvious that any condition which cuts down the effectiveness or destroys the leaf surface will effect the filling of the nuts. This may be due to loss of leaves by insects or diseases or to interference with their effective function by drought or inadequate nitrate supply. Another condition is found in trees in an over-vegetative condition where the gro~ ing shoots use up the food materials which otherwise might go into the kernels. This is apt to be found with young rapidly growing trees or trees kept growing with frequent irrigation. There is little that can be done to control the failure to fill except to grow varieties which are adapted to the locality as to length of growing 63 season water at time and protecting the leaf surface from pests and disease troubles. of drouth and a good fertilizer program are also helpful. Supplying Summary In the foregoing pages an attempt has been made to outline the requirements for growing nut trees in the Northeastern states. There is nothing in the situation which should encourage anyone to try to establish commercial plantings in this area unless possibly with some of the newer chestnuts and some varieties of black walnuts. On the other hand it should be emphasized that there is real value in planting grafted trees throughout the Northeast both for shade trees and for the nuts which may be produced for home use. The fact that at the present time we do not know which varieties will succeed best over a period of years only adds to the interest of the problem. Enough is known to assure the growing of good shade trees and certainly in some measure improved nut crops will result. Nut kernels are a product that is without equal for food value and palatability, and producing a supply for home use merits the attention of all who have land at their disposal. All home owners in the villages and on the farms may be encouraged to plant nut trees for shade with the realization that even though large crops of superior nuts may not result, the testing of the varieties will be a real service in developing our knowledge of nut growing in the Northeast. It should also be emphasized that at the present time there are undoubtedly many superior varieties of nut trees that are adapted to growing in various localities but which have not been propagated and tested. They are standing as wild trees in the fields and along the fence rows on the farms or in dooryards. Trees which bear nuts of outstanding value and which bear crops fairly regularly should be brought to the attention of some agency which would be capable of judging the relative merit of the variety and seeing to it that the tree is propagated and tested further. The Northern Nut Growers' Association, G. L. Slate, secretary, Geneva, New York, has been organized to do this sort of thing. Some of the state experiment stations and the United States Department of Agriculture are also equipped to test the merit of new varieties. Anyone knowing of superior trees will do a real service by calling them to the attention of one of these agencies. L. H. MacDaniels Dept. of Floriculture and Ornamental Horticulture Cornell University 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Elms Grown in America","article_sequence":10,"start_page":65,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24098","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d2608926.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLDIA A continuation of the BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University VOLUME I DECEMBER I 9, 19411 NUMBER I S ELMS GROVG'N IN AMERICA years ago, Professor Charles S. Sargent, Director the Arnold Arburetum w rote the following statement concerning the European Elms-unfortunately just as true today as it was then \"There is probably more confusion in the identification and proper naming of these trees (the European elms) in American parl.s and gardens than of any other group of trees, and it is only in very recent ~ ears that English botanists have been able to reach what appear to be sound conclusions in regard to them. The confusion started with Linnaeus, who believed that all European elms belonged to one species, and it has been increased by the appearance of natural hybrids of at least two of the species and by the tendency of seedlings to show T~'ENTY-FIVE of much variation from the original types.\" Today, with six elm species native in the United State, five species native of Europe (including many varieties), and se` eral more species native of Asia, the picture becomes even more confused. The elm is, and always has been, a standard shade tree, for even though it is threatened in certain sections by the Dutch elm disease, the gardening public will still plant elms. Approximately fifty elms will be mentioned in this bulletin. About thirty of them have been listed as available in the nurseries of this country during the past two years : all but five of them are growing in the Arnold Arboretum at Boston. The Native American Elms - Of the six native American specw,, only three are of ornamental wlue--the American elm (U. n~nericana~ and its varieties, the Slippery elm (U.fulva), and the wtnPed elnx (D. alnh~). The winged or wahoo . 65 elm is hardy only in the southern United States, being native from Virginia to Florida and westward to the Mississippi River and Texas, while the other two are native throughout the East and Mid-west. These species are easily distinguishable and little reason exists for any confusion. A key based on foliage characters is appended to this paper. Rich in references in the early history of the United States, the American elm is the most outstanding and the most deserving of all the elms. It is widely distributed throughout southern Canada, as well the eastern and the mid-western parts of the United States. In it was under numerous stately specimens that important meetings and many important events took place. Some of these historic elms are still standing today and are well over a hundred feet in height. Many a community in the eastern and mid-western United States has its own local history closely tied to some huge elm which is yet living; and it is the consensus of opinion in hundreds of communities that it would be a dire calamity indeed if the use of the American elm were discontinued in landscape work. There is no ornamental tree just like the American elm. Its wide, vase-shaped form is unique, making it an excellent specimen for lawn and for street planting. Its lofty branches allo~ much air circulation underneath and, though the tree supplies perfect shade, the widely arching branches do not hinder views from houses. This habit, characteristic of the American elm, is much more evident in mature specimens than in younger trees. Since the habit varies considerably when the trees are grown from seed, it is advisable to propagate vegetatively those individuals of outstanding form. Strange enough, it is, like the white oak, one of the few of our native trees that does not thrive well as early colonial times, in Europe. Several recognized varieties give clear evidence of the diverging habits of the American elm. There is, for instance, the variety columnaris with rather upright branches forming a wide columnar head. The variety ascendens is more narrow, distinctly columnar. Other columnar or narrow pyramidal forms would include the \" Lake City \" elm, the \"Moline\" elm, and the \"Princeton\" elm. Sometimes a variety \"urni,\" or \"vase-shaped form,\" is found listed in nursery catalogues ; this is, in reality, the true U. americnna. Then too, there is the variety pendula, which has all the good qualities of U. americana with the addition of drooping branchlets, making it decidedly graceful. These and other forms should, of course, be asexually propagated in order to perpetuate their characteristic forms. The slippery elm ( U. fulua~ is usually found over the same range a5 66 the American elm but is not such an excellent ornamental and only grows about sixty feet high. Its form is round ; its head, broad and somewhat open; and the foliage, not so dense as that of the American elm. From the mucilaginous inner bark of this tree,very popular cough drops were made at one time. The slippery elm ~s slightly more susceptil>le to elm leaf beetle injury than the American elm, and need never be used as a substitute for that much better tree. The winged, or wahoo elm ( U. alata~ of the South is a vigorous growing, small tree with a wide-topped head, reaching a height of about thirty feet. The leaves are smaller than those of either of the elms already described, and there are pronounced broad and opposite corky ridges along the vigorous young branches. Sometimes the winged elm will grow in protected places as far north as Boston, but it is not dependably hardy north of Philadelphia. Where it can be grown, it makes a vigorous growing, small tree, often with graceful arching branches, It should be given preference to the American elm, however, only where a small sized mature tree is desired. 'flree other elms, native in the United States, are seen occasionally m cultivation but these are not offered by nurseries because the trees have httle to offer as ornamentals when compared with the more beautiful Ulmus americana. One is the cedar elm ( U. c~wssifolia~ of Texas, Mississippi and Arkansas. It is very common in these states but has been found to be of little value elsewhere in the United States. It is a somewhat round-headed tree, growing about 75 feet tall and having, like U. alata, opposite corky ridges along the twigs. Closely related is the red elm ( U. serotina) native to Kentucky, Alabama and Georgia but hardy as far north as Boston. It has spreading, somewhat pendulous branches, forming a broad head ; and it, too, often develops corky wings along vigorous growing twigs. These two elms and L'.part~ifolia, the true Chinese elm, are unlike all other hardy members of the genus in that they develop their flowers and fruits in the fall and not in the spring. The last native elm species is the rock elm, U. thomasi, (formerly called U. racemosa~. Though at present it is rarely grown, the tree might be valuable because of its unique growth habit. About 90 feet tall at maturity, it usually has a central trunk and irregularly developed short, lateral branches, giving an outline which is oblong, rounded at the top, but not necessarily dense. Its slow growth and loosely borne branches are probably the reasons why it has not been much utilized as an ornamental, but its growth habit makes it easily distinguishable, even at a distance, from the rest of the elms. It, too, fre- 67 quently dec elops irregularly corky wings along its younger branches. So much for the native elms. Some are seen everywhere in the East and the Mid-west; and some of the less desirable ones have been left standing where the surroundin~- land has been utilized for building purposes. As ,tated before, the last three species mentioned are probably not grown in nurseries nor used in landscape work, but are seen here and there simply because they have remained untouched in areas where man has \"developed\" Nature's handiwork. The American elm is the best-far superior to the others in every way. Asiatic Elms Of this group, the elm which has caught the public fancy more than ThiS plant is a natioe of any other is the Siberian elm northeastern Asia. It is unfortunately misnamed the Chinese elm in ~U. ~umiln~. many nursery catalogues though this name belongs to U. parvifolia. It was first sent to this country in 190.i by Professor J. G. Jack, of the Arnold Arboretum, and later was introduced in large quantities through the efforts of Frank N. iVleyer, uf the U. S. Department of Agriculture. The name Dwarf Asiatic elm, given to the plant in the first edition of \"Standardized Plant Names,\" is unfortunate since it is a standard tree 75 feet tall-anythin~ but dwarf. This vigorous ~rowm~ tree has found much use in the drier areas of the Mid-w est, where it does better than most other trees. It witlrstands cl~ppin~ Bery w ell and forms dense hed~e5 and windbreaks when properly elipped. But when we ha~e noted its drought resistance and its fast growth, everything in its favor has been said. It is a weak-wooded tree, does not grow old gracefully, and if unpruned, becomes ery loose and open. Where other trees are available for ornamental purposes, they should be grown. This is especially true in the eastern and northeastern United States. Reports are circulating of certain strains of this tree with good form and habit, which yield similar off-spring when propagated asexually. I ha~e seen several of these trees, which, when young, admittedly make nice specimens; but it is questionable that they will maintain their good habit as they grow older. For dry soil planting, especially in the dry areas of the West, or for a quick screen which later may be replaced with one more permanent, this tree is admirable; but as a permanent specimen in areas where other trees are available, it is not to be desired. An elm frequently confused with U. pumila is the true Chinese elm ( U. ~arr~ifnlirr~ native of northern and central China, Korea and Japan. Like U. purnila, it htw Small leaves, I to 2 inche5 long. There are sev- 68 PLATE VIII The natme rock elm, L lmaus thomasi. eral ways in which it differs from the taller growing Siberian elm, however. The true Chinese elm is a small tree, usually under fifty feet in height. It has thin scaling bark, and a round-topped crown, keeps its foliage green until late in fall and is half evergreen in the south. It bears its flowers in the fall while U. pumila has them in the spring. Usually, like the other elms, its autumn foliage is bright yellow; but two of the trees in the Arboretum have a bright red autumn coloration. It has been noted in the Japanese beetle area around Philadelphia, that where these two species were growing side by side, the beetles would practically defoliate U. pumila and scarcely touch U. ~aruifolia-an interesting observation well worth further investigation. The Japanese elm ( U. japonica~ has long been a tree of importance to the Ainu, the aboriginal people of Japan. Many of these people believed that this was the first tree created, sent directly from heaven in full growth. This tree plays an important part in their economy. Fire is made by rubbing its dry roots together. When the inner bark of the tree is mashed and mixed with water, it is woven into a cloth from which wearing apparel is made. The outer bark is used in the roofing of houses and as covering for the outside (and the inside) walls. The Japanese elm is a handsome tree with good dark green foliage. It is as important ornamentally as the Scotch elm because of its similarity in general appearance. In the collection at the Arnold Arboretum, it is susceptible only to a very slight infestation of the elm leaf miner and the elm leaf beetle. The fourth and last Asiatic elm, the Manchurian elm (U. laciniata~ is of little importance ornamentally simply because it does not have a good habit of growth. All the trees m the collection at the Arboretum have a fan-shaped habit of branching, with a correspondingly rounded head, but the leaves are borne only at the tips of the long branches, which have very few side shoots. This plant has been offered in a few American nurseries but might well be replaced by some of the better elms. European There are Elms three elm species which, strictly speaking, are native of are the English elm U. procera (formerly called U.campestris~, the Russian elm (U.laeais~, and the lock elm (U.ploti~. Characteristic of the European elms as a group is thefact that they all assume their autumn color later in the fall than do the native American elms. Of the three, the English elm is by far the most important m Amer- Europe only. They 70 The European white elm PLATE IX or Itus~ian elm, Ulmus laevas. Many of these trees were planted in Massachusetts in the eighteenth century and since that time have been continually used as street trees and specimens throughout the East. E. H. Wilson strongly recommended this tree for city planting for he claimed that it withstood the smoke and obnoxious gases of the city better than any of the other elms, the American included. It does not have the queenly arching habit of the American elm, but it does have a grace and beauty all its own, with its numerous ascending and spreading branches. It has also been noted that in good seasons the leaves remain green several weeks longer than do those of the American elm. Unfortunately it is most susceptible to attacks of the elm leaf miner and of the elm leaf beetle. In Massachusetts during the past summer, these pests were unusually numerous, and trees which had not been sprayed were practically defoliated by the end of July. Although many other elms, including the American elm, were victims this season, the English elm suffered ica. particularly. elm are known, but none of them American nurseries. The variety vanhoultei quantity by has leav es tinged with yellow, and aurea actually has yellow leaves. The variety puzpuras~ens has purplish leaves, and another variety, marginata, has leaves with a creamy-white margin. One form, azc.stralis, has leaves that are much thicker and firmer than those of the species. Perhaps the best ornamental variety is nzyrlifolia, which has the smallest leaves of any of the elms-scarcely one inch long. The European white elm or Russian elm U. laevis, (formerly 17. pedunculata) is common in some parts of the Scandinavian Peninsula and Russia. It is similar in size to our own native American elm and is as hardy. However, it differs because it has a much thicker coating of tomentum on the undersurface of the leaves, and longer, more sharply pointed buds. In England, it grows better than the American elm. It is apparently rare in American collections, but makes an excellent specimen tree. Another European species is the East-Anglian or lock elm, U.ploli. The name lock elm was given to it m England because of the difficulty of working its tough wood. This tall growing tree, which reaches a height of 80-90 feet, is closely allied to the Scotch elm and is rarely found in American collections. The next elm species to be mentioned ia a hybrid, U. hollandica, :zpparently a hybrid of U. glabra and U. cazpin folia. There are a number of varieties but the one which well might represent this group is known as variety major, commonly called the Dutch elm. It is a tree of over Several varieties of the grown in English are I~ 100 feet with a short trunk, wide-spreading branches, and lustrous dark green leaves. Other varieties have been planted to some extent in Europe as street trees, and a few have met with favor in America. The Belgian elm, U. holGmdicn belgica, is a tall, rough-barked tree with a straight trunk. Younger trees are dense and pyramidal in habit while older ones may be more or less cylindric. Trees of this variety in the Arnold Arboretum are apparently somewhat more hardy than typical U. hollandica mnjor. The Klemmer elm (var. \"Klemmer\") has smooth bark, tall ascending branches, and a narrow pyramidal habit of growth. It originated in Belgium where it is planted a great deal. The Huntmgdon elm wegetn~ originating about 1 I50 has been used in America and is valued for its height, its forked trunk, and its rough bark. A narrow pyramidal variety with smooth bark is superba, and still another ~ariety, penduln, originating in England about 1830, has ascending branches but pendulous branchlets. The elms, at least in the eastern part of the United States, are seriously threatened by the Dutch elm disease, about which every tree lover has read much. It is not my purpose to discuss this disease or its future potentialities, but I do want to plead for the cause of the elms. I believe that we should not stop planting elms simply because they may be subject to this disease. It is true that there are many other trees we can use in street tree planting, but none can compare with the American elm, and few have the distinctive forms characteristic of some of the varieties of the European elms. It is also true that they must be sprayed with lead arsenate to combat the elm leaf beetle. In very restricted areas, as around New York City, it may be advisable to discontinue the planting of elms, at least for the time being. However, I think the elms should be held in just as high regard as they always have been and that in New England, though adjacent to the Dutch elm disease area, we should continue to plant elms until that disease shows more pronounced signs of rapid spread. Species Native of Both Europe and Asia The last two species are native of Europe and western Asia, and are used a great deal in the United States because of their good ornamental characters and their several horticultural forms. The first is the smoothleaf elm U. carpin folin, (formerly called U. foliacea or U. nitens~. Being used to a great extent in this country, it is constantly confused with the English elm, U. procera, ( U. campe.stri,s~, from which it may be distinguished by its less deeply furrowed bark, mostly glabrous branchlets, longer and often obovate leaves which are 73 the upper surface with petioles from of this tree have been sold for years by European seedsmen as U. campe.stri.s; consequently, the resulting confusion in this country has been inevitable. The smoothleaf elm, which may reach a height of 90 feet, and is quite variable in growth habit, has many horticultural forms, some of which are available from nurseries in this country. This tree usually is pyramidal in outline, having a single trunk and somewhat ascending branches, although sometimes the branches may be pendulous and the head more or less rounded. In the south of England, it is often referred to as the Herfordshire elm, and grows with a broad head and rather pendulous branches, surpassed in beauty only by the American elm as it grows in New England. The pendulous branched form (pPndulo~ has been offered by American nurseries. An unusual variety is zcebbiana, of little horticultural value because, even though the tree is narrow and pyramidal with ascending branches, the leaves are folded longitudinally, giving the appearance of wilting. Another form, onriegaln, has its leaves blotched with two shades of green and with white; and though not particularly desirable, it is ~f interest to those who like trees with variegated leaves. Eight other varieties of the smoothleaf elm have horticultural significance, six of them being offered in American nurseries. Both the Cornish elm (cornacbiensi.sy and the 4`'heatley elm (svcrnien.si.s), incorrectly called ze~henlle,yi, though also known as the Guernsey or Jersey elm, are narrow, pyramidal trees with dense, erect branches. The Wheatley elm, almost columnar in habit, has a slightly broader head and wider leaves than the Cornish elm, with branches more StifHy erect. The variety dampieri is a fastigiate tree with a very narrow, pyramidal crown and deeply double-toothed leaves; wredi is similar but its leaves are yellowish. Another variety, named suberosa, is little more than a dense shrub, irregularly cylindric in outline, the young sucker branches of which frequently develop opposite corky wings. Somewhat similar to suberosa is the variety propenrlens, the branches of which are pendulous, however, and its leaves are very small, only being about one inch long. An outstanding elm was sent to Germany from Persia in 1878 and has since been named the variety umbroculifer~t. This is a dense growing, small tree with a globose, or sometimes flat top and erect branches. Closely associated to it is the variety lronp~nanni, which is definitely more globose in outline but just as dense. Trees of these two varieties in the collection at the Arnold Arboretum are well clothed with branches from top to bottom. lustrous and on usually smooth 4 to ~ inch long. Unfortunately, the seeds 74 ~ ~ O x \" \"\" . <: . <: D II) c ~ 0 $ ..c U ~ F II) C~ W ~\". M~ C~ <: ~C: F~~ .~ ~o '\" S ~ G N II) w L O O E N L_ w m .N Y O 3 E~ These unusual forms are not to be desired in preference to other ornamental trees and shrubs in the landscape, but they do have a definite use. Sometimes there is a place in a large planted area for a small tree with a definite outline -something which does not require constant pruning to keep it in shape. These varieties of the smoothleaf elm supply just such an accent point. Indiscriminate use of these trees, however, should be guarded against. The other elm species which is native of Europe as well a5 certain parts of western Asia, is the Scotch, or Wych elm, U. glabra, sometimes formerly called U. monta~ra or U. scabra. This tree, with widespreading branches and often flat-topped head, is used considerably in America as an ornamental. The dark green leav es, sometimes w ith two or three points near the apex, s~re broader beyond the middle, very rough above, and downy underneath. The petioles are about $ inch long. Unlike many of the other elms, this one does not productsuckers; and, on account of this good trait, it has been used much us an understock in grafting. Unfortunately, it is one of the first elms sought by the elm leaf beetle, and in locations where there are several varieties, the beetle dues more injury to this tree than to most of the others. This elm can always be distinguished from other European elms by the fact that the seed is in the middle of the tiwt, the petioles are very short, the upper surface of the leaves is rough, and there is an absence of corky ridges on the two-year branches. The specific name glabra comes from the fact that the branches are very smooth, not rough like most of the other elms. A number of v arieties of this are grown. The most popular is the Camperdown elm (crrmperdoacni) which, when grafted on an upright stem, has ar wealth of pendulous branches forming a globose head. Many such trees can be seen even in this country, forming natural arbors under which chairs and tables are placed. Another form (jM\/ydnla~ has rather horizontal branches with pendulous bran<hlets and grows into a low flat-tmpped tree. There is a fastigiate variety, called the Exeter elm (exoniensis, formerly U. montanrr,fir,stigintrr~, with rather small, often wrinkled leaves, but with branches rigidly upright. One variety ( purpuren~ has leaves which are purple in color when the~ are young; another variety (atropurpvrea~ retains the color in the leaves for a longer period. A compact shrub with smaller leaves is the variety mon.strosa. A lower growing bush is nnna, which seldom grows over 6 feet tall. Sometimes this bush elm is grafted 6 feet up on the trunk of L'. glrrbrn, resulting in a dense, compact, round-headed tree. A more 76 curious, slow-growing form with leaves that is are narrow and crinkled called crispn-used sometimes because of its queer The foliage. Key aid to the identification of elm the basis of fbliage characters. More exact keys have been apecies made, in which the flowers and fruits are used, but many an amateur is confronted with the perplexing problem of identification when flowers and fruits are not available; hence this key. Every one of the elm species ~aries greatly, and to make a key using only one or two characters is not very satisfactory. Therefore, this key is not infallible, but it may serv its purpose to many who are perplexed concerning the identification of these elms. To the individual not familiar with the use of keys, this may at first ,eem confwing, but careful study w ill prove its simplicity. For instance, all elm species fall into one of four groups (marked b5 the figure 1), because of corky ridges on the branches, or lea~ es w ith several points at the apex, or leaves simple serrate, or leaves doubly serrate. To place u plant in one of these four groups, these four chameteristres should be used irr this sequence. Onoe done, the remaining points should be taken up in the particular group, in Ilrr seqaence .su~,agested in the kPr\/. Identification will be aided materially if the habitat of a tree is known. For instance, in the first group (corky ridges on the branches) Ulmus crassfolin would not be found in northern Minnesota, nor would it be likely that ('. procerra and 17. japorricra would be fuund groming wild m the vroods. Be certain that the tree is examined carefully for all possible rnarhs of identification, and that many leaves are examined stnce one alone would not tell the full story. It should be noted that this key does not take into consideration the varieties of these species, which can be ulentified by their form alone. Also, and this is very important, it should be noted that the following species are not common in America except in bot.rnical collections : U. japooica, laevis, ploti, anct that otherr Specie5, like 17. thomasi and serolina, are usedery little in landscape work. A knov ledge of these facts should make this key much more usable. The elms are so variable that it is likely they will continue to be difficult to identif:v for mttny years to come. These notes and w~rgestions are offered merely a5 aidv to those interested in this group of trees. The followm~r key on is offered as an many of 77 ABBREVIATED FOLIAGE KEY TO COMMON ELM SPECIES I. Corky ridges 2. Leaves 2. Leaves ;3. or wings on younger branches simply doubly serrate serrate or Ulmu,s crass~f'olia Young twigs glabrous 4. nearly so Wings usually in two and opposite U. alnta 4. Wings several, not necessarily opposite, flowers U. carpin folia suberosa spring, not native Wings several, fall, native not 4. necessarily opposite, flowers U. serotina in 3. Young twigs pubescent 4. Tree irregularly columnar irregularly columnar, oval or U. thomasi rounded in outline U. procera 4. Tree not 5. Leav es ~-B~~ 5. Leaves 1. Leaves three long, wings occasionally 3-~.75~~ long, wings occasionally or U. japonica corky pointed at tip with occasionally so, branches not 2. Mature branches reddish occasionally one or two extra brown, hairy while young; lea~ es L'. glabra points at apex 2. Mature branches pale yellowish or grayish brown, glabrous or nearly so when young; must of the leaves three-pointed at apex simply or U. laciniata 1. Leaves nearly simply serrate, 0.75-2. 75~~ long 2. Leaves often nearly equal at base, many leaves showing indications of double serratiun, young branches pubescent or glabrous, stipules broad, flowers in spring U. U. pumila 2. Leaves usually unequally rounded at base, young branches pubescent, stipules linear, flowers in fall 1. Leaves 2. parvifolia doubly serrate Young branches glabrous 3. Leaves 2.75-6~~ long 78 S ~~ GLc $~. Z' M L .w a' . 40, ,~ ~ N l IvJ 'S ^~t .5 l39 1 'i 0 g ~ ~' '!~ .vI L 3~= c .c ~ -!a C 5~ ~1 N a tr C a~ . S . o ~e ~- . o S cr; s ~ S Q. ~~ s a~' `\" ^' a '; c' ~ ~. ~ ~ .~ ~ '~ .a ~_ ~ = s a, '; ~ r: 4. Leaves usually twice as long as wide, conspicuous axillary tufts of hair no U. americana 4. Leaves less than 1~ times as long as wide, usually with conspicuous tufts of hair in axils of veins on under surface of leaves, considerably variable U. hollandica 3. Leaves 1.25-3.25~~ long 2. 0.25-0.5~~, leaves 2-~~~, smooth above U.carpin~f'olia 4. Petioles less than 0.25~~, leaves 1.25-2.25~~, U. ploti slightly scabrous above Young branches pubescent 4. Petioles 3. Leaves often 3. Leaves glabrous beneath beneath U. amPricanrs pubescent longer 4. Leaves 4. Leaves 2-3~~ long U. procera 5. Leaves often widest at 6. Branchlets grey to middle, 4-8\" long buds covered light brown, with rusty brown hairs 6. Branchlets dark U. buds without rusty a fi~laa brown, hairs, leaves sometimes showing dency to be three pointed at tip brown ten- U. glabra 5. Leaves usually widest above middle, 2.5-4.7.5~~ long U. fi. Leaves scabrous and pubescent above, corky wings 6. Leaves on branches occasionally very japonica U. laevis usually glabrous above, at base unequal DONALD WYMAN 80 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","title":"Index to Volume I","article_sequence":11,"start_page":81,"end_page":83,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24101","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d270a76a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOLUME I Illustrations are in bold face type. Althaea, - 41-44 - Culture of, 423&#x E; - Corylus americana, Avellana, 56 - 56 Propagation of, 43 - Winter injury of, 4 Arnold Arboretum,Administration Building, 31-32 Field Class, 36 History of, l9-3~ - cornuta, 56 56 -- maxima, 1 Library, 31 Herbarium, 31-32 \"Arnoldia,\" - 1-2 Beetle, Elm Leaf, 39 Willow Leaf, 39 Bitternut, .i4-55 \"Bulletin of Popular Information,\"I Butternut, 52 Cut Worms, Garden, 39-40 Elm Leaf Beetle, 39 Elms, Asiatic, 68-70 European, 70-73 Grown in America, 65-80 Key to, 77-80 Native American, 65-68 Native of Both Europe and Asia, 73-77 - - - - Filbert, :i6, .i8 American, 56 - beaked,:i6 -- -- European, Bureau, 33 56 Boston Weather Canker - - - Worms, 39 Caryaalba, 54 cordiformis, 54 glabra, 54 laciniosa, 54, Plate VII, 57 ovalis, 54 - Graves, George, 41-44 Hale, Richard W., 3, 4 Heartnut, 54 Hibiscus syriacus, 41-44 - early varieties of, 43 -- newer varieties of, 43-44 Hickory Nut, 54-;iS, Plate VII, 57 - - ovata, 54 - Castanea crenata, 56 - - mollissima, 56 Change in Name, A Simple, Chestnut, 55-56 Chinese, 56 Japanese, 56 Cornus florida, 6 - 1-4 alba-plena, 6 multibracteata, 6 - - plena, 6 pluribracteata, 6 -- red, 54 Shagbark, ,i4 Shellbark, 54 Hunnewell, Horatio, 31 Juglans Sieboldiana, 54 cordiformis, 54 Kingnut, 54 Lilac Sunday, 40 DlacDaniels, L. H., 45-64 Merrill, E.D., 40, 44 - - - I 81 Mockernut, 54 Nurseries Listing Rare Woody Plants in 1941 Catalogues, 7, 22 Rhododendron Injury, 33-36 Rhodora canadensis, 3 Rhodora, White Flowering, 3 Nut Growing in the Northeastern - States, 45-64 Climatic Factors, 46-50 - Climatic map showing absolute minimum temperatures in the Northeastern states from 1926-1940. Plate - Robeson, Andrew, 30 Robeson, Mary Allen, 30-31 Rose, of Sharon, 41 Syrian, 41 Royal Agricultural Society of India, 44 III, Sargent,Charles Sprague,29-32 - 47 - Climatic map showing an average length for growing season in the Arnold Arboretum in the Northeastern - Library, 1904, Plate I, posite p. 30 fund, 31 op- states. Plate IV, 49 - - - Climatic map showing the average July temperature in the Northeastern states for the years 1926-1940. Plate - Memorial fund, 32 One-hundredth Anniversary of the Birth of, 29-32 30-31 V, - 51 Cross Pollination, 62-68 Cultural Practices, 58-61 Sargent, Mary Robeson, Fund, 31i Sax, Karl, 40 Ulmus alata, 65, 67, 78 - - americana, 65, 66, 6 7 , 80 - - - Fertilizers, 61 Harvesting, 63-64 Insect and Disease 61-62 - - - - Troubles, - ascendens, 6Ei columnaris, 66 \"Lake City,\" 66 \"Moline,\" 66 66 - Species and Varieties, 50-58 Summary, 64 Oberly Memorial Prize, 40 - - americana - pendula, \"Princeton,\" 66 - Pecan, 55 Pignut, 54 Plants from England, 44 Poncirus trifoliata, the hardy orange, Flowers and fruits of, Plate II, 35 Rare Woody Plants, 1941 Sources of, 5-18 Nurseries Listing, 7, 22 - 4 - campestris, 70, 73, 74 carpinifolia, 72, 73, 80 - cornubiensis, 74 - - dampieri, 74 - koopmanni, 74, Plate X, p. 75 - - - - pendula, 74 propendens, 74 sarniensis, 74 suberosa, 74, 78 umbraculifera, 74, Plate 5 p. 75 - - - - - Supplementary List, 21-28 Rhododendron canadense, 3, 4 albiflorum, 3 - - - X, -- variegata, 74 82 L~lmus - carpinifolia webbiana, 74 wredi, 74 8 crassifolia, 67, 77, 78 - - procera, - 70, 73, 77, 78, 72 80 -- aurea, - australis, 7 marginata, 72 --,folincea, 73 zvheatleyi, 74 - fulva, 65, 66, 80 - glabra, 72, 76, 78, -- - - myrtifolia, 72 purpurascens, 72 - - 80 -- - - - - atropurpurea, 76 camperdowni, 76 crispa, 77 6 exoniensis, 76 monstrosa, 76 - -- vanhouttei, 72 virninalis, 72 pumila, 68, 70, 78 - - racemosa, 67 - scabra, 76 - serotina, 67, 77, 78 - thomasi, 67, 77, 78, Plate - - - - -- - nana, 76 pendula, 76 purpurea, 76 - - VIII, 69 Walker, E. H., _ 40 - - - hollandica, 7 z, 80 belgica, 73 Klemmer, 7:i 2014 Walnut, Black, 50, 5?, Plate - 2014 major, 72, 73 - - - pendula, 73 superba, 73 8 vegeta, 73 VI, 53 Japanese, 54 Persian, 52, 54 Weather phenomena, March, 1941, 33-34 - -- - - - - -,japon~ca, 70, 77, 78, 80 8 laciniata, 70, 78 - laevis, 70, 72, 77, 80, Plate IX, 71 - ~nontana, 76 - - fastigiata, 76 3 - nitens, 73 parvifolia, 67, 68, 70, 78 - ped:cnculatcc, 72 - ploti, 70, 72, 77, 80 - Willow Leaf Beetle, 39 V~'mter Injury, 34 - and Serious Pests to be Fought Now, 37-40 Woody Plants Injured Last Year, List of, 38 - Killed to the Ground, List . - \/ of, 38 Worms, Canker, Cut, 39-40 39 These Bulletins will be discontinued until spring of next year. tion Subscription renewals for 1942 are now due. Send the subscripprice of $1.00 to Arnoldia, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at your early convenience. 83 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23432","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170a328.jpg","title":"1941-1","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1941,"series":null,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24085","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070816b.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS James Arnold, George B. Emerson, Plate I, p. 5 Flowering in the branch of Cornus mas, one of the earliest shrubs to bloom spring, Plate II, p. 15 Showing The the differences in the flowers of three early magnolias : Magnolia kobus borealis, M. kobus, M. stellata, Plate III, p. 23 tree lilac (Syringa amurensis japonica) is the last of all lilacs to bloom and is the most conspicuous in flower, Plate IV, Japanese p. 26 The Virginia at the rose (Rosa virginiana) Arboretum, as Arnold Plate it grows in 1 V, p. 31 a border planting Alfred Rehder, Plate VI, p. 59 Hardiness Map, Plate VII, House, 2. Casa p. 62 1. Harvard 1. View Catilina, Plate VIII, p. 67 across one pentandra, 1. Ravenala of the ponds in the Palm Collection, 2. Ceiba Ceiba or Kapok Tree, Plate IX, p. 69 Travelers' madagascariensis, 1 p. 71 Tree, 2. Bamboo at its best, Plate X, iii ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Genesis of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":11,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24094","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260b76c.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII APRIL 26, 1940 NUMBER I THE GENESIS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM of the Arnold Arboretum from the time of its establishment in Jamaica Plain has been described with thoroughness and understanding, especially by the late Charles Sprague Sargent, and more recently by Mrs. Susan D. McKelvey. From shortly after the date of its founding in 18I`? until his death in 19~7 it was continuously in the capable and creative hands of Professor Sargent, under whom it grew from scarcely more than an idea to an artistic, horticultural, and educational institution of first rank in the world. The history of the institution is usually considered to have begun with the execution of an indenture between the President and Fellows of Harvard College and three trustees under the will of James Arnold of New Bedford. These three men were George B. Emerson, John J. Dixwell, and Francis E. Parker, all of Boston. To them, as trustees, had been bequeathed one and a quarter twenty-fourth parts of the residue of Mr. Arnold's estate, \"to be by them applied for the promotion of Agricultural or Horticultural improvements, or other Philosophical, or Philanthropic purposes at their discretion ... \". The indenture contained agreements between the contracting partiesfir.st, that the trustees would transfer the fund at their disposal to Harvard College, with the understanding that it be kept as a separate unit and allowed to accumulate until the principal had reached $150,000 and until the Bussey land in West Roxbury had finally become available to the College ; second, that.i percent of the net income each year should be added to the princ~pah ; third, that the income should be used for the establishment of an arboretum to be known as the Arnold Arboretum, THE development -t- lThe James Arnold Fund now contains ~1?-1,793.17. ] .1~ and to support the \"Arnold Professorship\" in the College;fourth, until the happening of the events named in the first clause, the college should be allowed to spend a third of the income in each year for preparations toward future development of the Arboretumfkfth, that the fund should be subject to the same minimal expense of administration as other College funds; and sixth, that the arboretum should be established upon a part of the Bussey estate in West Roxbury. Mr. Arnold's will was drawn in January, 1867 ; and he died in December, 1868. The above indenture was signed on March 29th, 1872. Within this short space of time, therefore, the idea of starting an arboretum in the vicinity of Boston had crystallized ; further, it was to be established as a part of the botanical organization of Harvard College, and was to be located at the newly-organized Bussey Institution in West Roxbury. The consequences of these arrangements have acquired such broad significance that it becomes of great interest to trace the stages by which they came about, to visualize the motives that determined them. The Arnold Arboretum was the first of its kind to be established in America, and has been the principal inspiration and source of ideas for the many institutions of similar aims now in existence. With whom did the idea of starting an arboretum originate, and how was it brought to the attention of the College? What were the causes for its establishment in West Roxbury rather than in Cambridge ? There is nothing in the terse wording of the clause in Mr. Arnold's will to indicate that he had such a specific purpose in mind; in fact the latitude given the trustees was so great that they could have used the fund for a purpose entirely outside the field of botany. Professor Sargent states (10~ that Mr. Emerson proposed that the Arnold bequest should be used for an Arboretum; and in two of the published accounts of Emerson's life ( 1, 13~ there are brief notes to the effect that he was instrumental in securing the bequest. A number of letters between the principal actors in the drama have recently been examined, and these throw new light on the questions just noted. The remainder of this sketch will be devoted to a brief account of their contents, together with such biographical items as seem pertinent. was born in 1781, at Providence, R.I., of Quaker little is known of his early life or education, but he parentage. Very came as a young man to New Bedford where he entered the business office of Mr. William Rotch, Jr. In 180'7 he married Sarah Rotch, a daughter of William Rotch, and eventually became a partner in the Rotch mercantile concern. With increasing wealth he acquired an James Arnold L22] estate of about eleven mansion house of his own, surrounded by This establishment was a mecca for visitors built, in 1821, a large lawns aud gardens. through many years. The Arnolds both took a keen interest in the garden, building it in the varied but orderly manner of the English type. They carried on the unusual practice of opening it to the public on Sundays. Other than this natural interest in gardening, equaled ~f not superceded by that acres in New Bedford and of his wife, we have no indication that James Arnold had any particular interest in natural history or horticulture. In fact, if he had any consuming interest outside his business, it appears to have been his study of classical literature. For this he was well-known among his neighbors, and was a prominent member of a local literary society of the day. We do not know all the facts leading up to his bequest to the three trustees in Boston. It is clear, however, that he was influenced toward it by one of them, Mr. George B. Emerson, who was a relative by marriage, and apparently a rather close friend. Since Mr. Emerson played an important part in the succeeding events, some account of his life will no doubt prove significant. George Barrell Emerson was born in 1797, at Wells, Maine, and died in Brookline in 1881. His father was a prominent physician in Wells, a graduate of Harvard in 1784. Young Emerson took his degree at Harvard m 1817, but suffered a severe illness during the latter part of his work there which considerably impeded his further studies. For two years after leaving Harvard he was master of a private school at Lancaster, Mass., and in 1819 was called to Harvard as a tutor in mathematics. In 1820 the English Classical School was founded in Boston, with Mr. Emerson as its first principal. He remained in this capacity until 1813, when he established a girls' school of his own in Boston. This proved to be a highly successful undertaking, and absorbed Mr. Emerson's active teaching energies for thirty years. In 1823 he married Olivia Buckminster, who died in 1832, leaving two sons and a daughter. A second marriage occurred in 1834, to Mrs. Mary (Rotch) Fleming. He was prominent in the organization, in 1830, of the American Institute of Instruction ; and a report on the school situation in Massachusetts, prepared by him and presented to the Governor of the Commonwealth, led to the organization of a State Board of Education with Horace Mann as its secretary. This step proved to be an important milestone in the development of public education, not only in Massachusetts but in the whole nation. ~3~] Although widely recognized in the field of education, he is also well known in the world of natural science for his classic work on the \"Trees and Shrubs Growing Naturally in the Forests of Massachusetts.\" This book was prepared as a result of his appointment as chairman of a commission to make a zoological and botanical survey of the state. It went through five editions, the first of which was published in 1846. For six years, between 1837 and 1843, he was president of the then recently formed Boston Society of Natural History. In subsequent years Mr. Emerson travelled extensively in England, France, Italy and Germany, making observations of plant life and studies of educational methods. In 1870 he made a journey to the Pacific coast. a man mover who by training, inclination and experience in the development of the arboretum prime idea. That he was is clear from the following letters. We have but little information concerning Mr. Dixwell or Mr. Parker. Professor Sargent says that the former was \"a successful Boston business man, ...also a lover and student of trees, and had assembled on his place in Jamaica Plain one of the largest and best collections of native and foreign trees which was growing at this time in New England\"(12). A passage in one of Mr. Emerson's letters, quoted below, gives further indication of Dixwell's interest in matters botanical and horticultural. Mr. Parker was an attorney in Boston, and there is some evidence that he handled the financial transfers connected with the bequest. In the Harvard College Archives is a letter from Professor Asa Gray to Dr. Andrew Preston Peabody who was Acting President of the College during a short period of months between the administrations of Thomas Hill and Charles W. Eliot. The letter is dated February 20, 1869 and was written from Egypt where Dr. and Mrs. Gray were travelling at the time. Dr. Gray says, \" I am apprised in a letter from Mr. John Lee that Mr. Arnold of New Bedford, just deceased, has left a legacy of $100,000 to trustees for horticultural, agricultural, scientific or other like purposes, and that Messers Geo. B. Emerson, J.J.Dixwell, and F.B. Parker are the trustees. Whether any, or if any what sum is applied or applicable to horticulture and the like, I have not the means of knowing, nor whether the disposition is at the discretion of the trustees under the will. But I have reason to think that some provision may be made for arboriculture and an arboretum, and it is known to the Corporation of the University that I have, from time to time pressed the recommendation that the grounds around the Observatory, having the advantage of being contiguous to the Botanic Here, then, was might have been a ~4 0 0 '\" v 9 w :Q 0 O() 0 \" w d a .. ro 0 G < 4) 8 h Garden, with out very some great extensions (which could lately have been had withcost) should be utilized for the purpose of an arboretum, if ever the means for its support were to be had. Now, if any specific legacy has been made for such purposes, or one which may be so directed by Mr. Arnold's trustees, it would be well that the wants and desires of the University should be represented. And I dare say you may have already been in communication with the Trustees in regard to it. Two of them, Messers Emerson and Dixwell, are very well acquainted with our state and our wants at the Botanic Garden, and would no doubt give attentive consideration to any application of or in behalf of the University. Would you kindly let me know if there is anything to be expected. \" This appears to have been the first time the Arnold bequest was brought to the attention of the College. The following note from Mr. Emerson to Dr. Peabody indicates that he had been approached as a result of Dr. Gray's letter. This note from Mr. Emerson is so illuminating that it will be quoted in full. 3 Pemberton Sq. Mar. 31. '69. Rev. Dr. Peabody, My dear friend, Dr. Gray is correctly informed in regard to several things about Mr. Arnold's will. He did leave to me, J.J. Dixwell and F. E. Parker, for purposes made known to Dr. Gray-a large bequest, probably two thirds of what it is reported to be. This was originally intended for an arboretum. But Mr. Arnold, to leave us at liberty, extended the limits of the bequest. We have hoped that an arboretum might be formed by it. But, if the greater part of the money would have to be expended for land at house-lot prices, I would be very unwilling to give it that direction. So far as I am concerned, I mean, if possible, to have an arboretum-and for Harvard College: and, if land can be found near the College, already in possession of the college or procurable at reasonable price, the arboretum will be more likely to be in Cambridge as an appendage to the Botanic Garden, than anywhere else. Indeed my original idea, in recommending such a bequest to my dear friend and brother, was the hope that the management of the whole garden by Dr. Gray might be facilitated by this bequest. Have the goodness to give my kindest regards to Dr. and Mrs. Gray, and tell him that now for the first time I feel jealous of you. Ever sincerely yours, Geo. B. Emerson . It thus becomes clear that Mr. Emerson, acting independently, and with a definite Idea of an arboretum in mind, suggested to Mr. Arnold that he insert a favorable item in his will. The actual wording of the bequest was to give the trustees freedom in case it should not prove feasible to carry out the original idea. It is clear, further, that the original intention was that the arboretum should be a part of Harvard College; if possible, an adjunct to the then existing Botanic Garden under the capable direction of Dr. Asa Gray. In his letter to Dr. Peabody, however, Mr. Emerson was already doubtful as to whether the last would be possible, since he did not approve of diverting any large part of the money to \"capital investments\" in land. It is of interest to note, in passing, that his reasoning is still good in many aspects of the financing of biological education and research. The fact that such institutions as Harvard University already have large investments in lands, equipment and personnel is of first importance to donors who wish to see their gifts used largely for actual teaching or investigations rather than for expensive material developments. It is difficult to determine how much influence was exerted by Dr. Gray in formulating the project. He says, in the letter quoted above, that Emerson and Dixwell were both familiar with the problems of the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, and it is not impossible that they had discussed the development of an arboretum. It seems clear, however, both from Gray's and Emerson's letters, that the idea had not taken definite form. With the purpose established, and the means available, it was finally decided that the arboretum should be at the Bussey Institution, on land already owned by the College. Who made this decisions not definitely known. In the minutes for the meeting of the Harvard Corporation of March 18th, 1871, it is stated that President Eliot \"read a memorandum of a proposed contract between George B. Emerson, John J. Dixwell and Francis E. Parker....whereupon it was voted that the President be authorized to sign a contract in conformity with the terms of the memorandum....\" A marginal note describes this as the \"Memorandum of a proposed contract for an Arboretum at the Bussey Inst'n.\" Thememorandum itself has not been found, although it may have been only an original draft of the later indenture. Sometime between March, 18fi9, and March, 1872, the whole matter must have been threshed out. By June, 1872, the indenture had been ratified by both parties and signed. Three letters during this short period are worthy of note. The first is from Dr. Gray to President Eliot, undated 8 ] presumably in the first half of 1870. In it is the following paragraph : \"Mr. Longfellow met me yesterday with a plan in his head that you ought to know about. He proposes to be one of 12 or more to buy a large bit of Brighton Meadows for $12,000 and present it to the College-[I suppose land directly opposite his house!~I told him that if the land he proposed to acquire would serve for an arboretum, I thought the likelihood of his finding partners in the purchase would be largely increased. After inquiring what an arboretum might be and why I thought so, he said he would go and see Mr. Emerson.\" The land along the Charles River, some 70 acres,was purchased and presented. Mr. Longfellow's letter of transmittal was dated July 4,1870, but it contains no mention of the possible use of the property for an but arboretum. It is probable that the plan for using the Bussey land was already underway at this time. A letter from Mr. Emerson to President Eliot dated December 8, 1869 (Mr. Eliot had been elected President in May of that year) begins with the following sentences: \"It would be of little use for us to go to Roxbury while the snow would prevent our walking freely about the Bussey fields and woods. But I would like to talk with you about the intentions of the President and Corporation as to an agricultural school to be established upon that estate.\" The remainder of the letter contains an outline of what Emerson considered should be the aims and methods in the proposed school of agriculture. We may infer from this letter that Mr. Emerson had been approached by President Eliot as early as 1869 with the proposal that they examine the Bussey land together, presumably with the idea of placing the Arboretum there. By way of summary, it may be said that a large portion, if not most, of the credit for the starting of an arboretum at Harvard is due to Mr. George B. Emerson. The idea appears to have first taken form in his mind, and he secured an initial endowment fund sufficiently large to make a concrete begmning of the project. Further, together with his fellow trustees of the Arnold bequest, John J. Dixwell and Parker, he formulated an unusually far-sighted arrangethe College for the future handling of the money. Also, we cannot underestimate the significance of Dr. Asa Gray's influence, not only upon Mr Emerson himself, but in first bringing the whole matter to the attention of the College. That Dr. Gray continued his interest in the Arboretum, and later influenced the actual planning of thegrounds,is indicated by an item found in an account of the life of Frederick Law Olmsted, the great landscape architect who had Francis E. ment with [ 9J so prominent a part not only in the development of the Arboretum, but also of the entire Boston park system. This note states that Olmsted spent the summer of 1878 \"with E. L. Godkin in Cambridge in order to work out plans for Arboretum with Professor Gray and Sargent.\" (8) The first topographic map of the grounds, with proposed driveways, was made at about the same time. It is probable that to Dr. Gray must also be given the credit for the extraordinarily wise appointment of Charles Sprague Sargent as the new Arnold Professor of Aboriculture and head of the youthful Arboretum. There are several references to Sargent in Gray's published letters, especially to his friends in Europe, all of them in terms of highest praise. Professor Sargent was for several years in charge of the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, and closely associated with Dr. Gray. It is difficult to conceive of a finer memorial to an individual than that of the Arnold Arboretum to James Arnold. He did not deliberately plan it so during his own lifetime, but entrusted it to a group of friends whose judgment he respected. The peculiarly fortunate combination of events and ideas described above has probably given perpetuity to his name far more effectively than would have been possible had a specific program been laid down by Mr. Arnold himself. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The writer is indebted particularly to the keeper of the Archives of Harvard University for permission to search the files of correspondence and records for notes on the Arboretum's early history. He wishes to express his appreciation also to Mr. Jerome D. Greene, Secretary to the Corporation, for granting permission to publish parts of the correspondence. Miss Lucy Lowell of Boston, a granddaughter of Mr. Emerson, has very graciously placed at the writer's disposal her personal recollections of the man himself and of his connection the beginnings of the Arboretum. The portrait of Mr. Arnold is from Ellis' History qf New Bedford,while that of Mr. Emerson is taken from Waterston's Memoir. \" 10 REFERENCES 1. Anon. George B. Emerson. (This name note has been attributed to does not appear as of his collected necrologies). 2. Proc. Am. Acad. 16: 427-29 (1881~. Professor Asa Gray, but his the author of it, nor is it in the volume Geo. B. Emerson in etc. Bouve, Thomas T. Note on a Historical Sketch qf the Boston Society qf'.~'atural History, 3. Anniversary Mem., Bost. Soc. Nat. Hist. 1880, pp. 235-37. Ellis, L. B. History qf ~ ew Bec~ford D. Mason & Co. and its Pieinity, 1602-1892. (1892). 4. Jenkins, Edw. H. George Barrell Emerson. Dict. Am. B~ography 6: 127-8 (1931). Harv. Alumni 5. McKelvey, Susan Delano. The .4rrrold Arboretum. Bulletin 38: 464-72 (1936~. 16: 59- 6. Morison, J. H. George Barrell Emerson. Unitarian Rev. ti9 (1881). 7. Morison, Samuel Eliot. The Deueloprnent qf' Harvard University Since the Inauguration qf President Eliot, 1869-1929. Harv. Univ. Press (1930). 8. Olmsted, F.L. Jr., and Theodora Kimball. Frederick Law Olmsted, Laudscape Architect, 1822-190~3; Early Years and Experiences. Putnam's, New York (1922). Pease, Z. W. The Arrrold tllansion and its Traditions. Old Dartmouth Historical Sketches No. 52 9. (1924) New Bedford. 10. 11. Potter, W.J. To the Mezrzory qf James Arnold, New Bedford ( 1868). Ricketson, Daniel. 1'~ew Bedford of the Past. Houghton-Mifflin (1903). 12. Sargent, Charles Sprague. The First F~y Years qf the Arnold Arboretum. Jour. Arn. Arb. 3: 127-171 (1922). Emerson, LL. D. 13. Waterston, Robert C. Memoir qf George Barrell Proc. Mass. Hist. Soc. 20: (1882-3). HUGH M. RAun 11]] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"This Past Winter","article_sequence":2,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24095","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260bb6e.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII MAY 3, 1940 THIS PAST WINTER NUMBER 2 THIS not urbs. past winter has been very hard on many of the evergreens only in the Arboretum but also in many of the Boston sub- have been the rhododendrons, Canada hemand arborvitaes. It is difficult to cite the exact time when injury locks, occurred, but it is doubtful whether any of it took place much before March 1. This is certainly the case with the hemlocks. Many of the native Canada hemlocks have been under observation, the trees apparently remaining in good condition throughout the winter, with green foliage and no apparent injury whatsoever even as late as the end of February. However, during early March there were a few warm, sunny days. Since the ground was still frozen, transpiration from the foliage was at a maximum, and because of frozen soil, the plant roots were unable to take in sufficient water to make up for the loss from the foliage. The warm sunny days were followed by a period with low temperatures and high, cold winds. As a result, evergreens in exposed situations were badly burned, and in many cases have become unsightly. e One particular instance proved interesting. On the grounds of the to the Arboretum, there is a planting of large Adams House, adjacent Canada hemlocks. As would be expected, these were very badly burned on the southwest side. Standing in the same location, with exactly the same amount of exposure, was a fifteen year old Carolina hemlock. This tree showed no burning whatsoever. No general conclusions should be drawn from this, since Carolina hemlocks in other situations around Boston were injured also, but apparently in this particular soil with this particular exposure, the Carolina hemlock was more resis- Particularly injured tant to injury. [13; The rhododendron collection suffered considerably because of foliinjury, especially those plants immediately opposite the road junction. This is the windiest spot in the collection; and, though these plants were protected with evergreen boughs, as they are every year, the covering was not sufficient to protect the foliage completely. Some plants have lost a number of leaves and it may be necessary to prune these individuals later. Other plants that have suffered are the green-twigged brooms on Bussey Hill. Some of the Cytisus scoparius varieties had grown to be about six feet tall, but were so badly injured that they will have to be cut back materially. The interesting hybrid Warminster broom (C.praecos~, which has been recommended in other issues of the Bulletin, came through with no serious harm, showing that it is well adapted for New England planting. Some years the oriental flowering cherries on Bussey Hill have suffered materially from sun-scald. However, though it is a little too early *v to tell definitely, there was apparently no injury to the trunks this age past winter. The winter has not been so unusually cold as far as low temperaare concerned. According to the official figures of the Weather Bureau, the temperature went below 10 (above zero) only four times during the winter, one day in December and three days in January. Even then the minimum was 6 (above). Consequently, none of the injury can be blamed entirely on low temperatures even though these temperatures listed by the Weather Bureau are higher than those for the surrounding suburbs. As a result, we anticipate little, if any, injury to deciduous plant material. tures This Spring Officially spring began on March 20, but a few days later an unusually cold spell descended on the northeast. Four days after spring officially started the temperature went down to 14 (above) making this day an inauspicious one for spring flowers. At the time this is being written, woody plants are blooming almost two weeks late. Earlier this season, azaleas were blooming in northern Florida about four weeks late. Farther north, in Washington, D.C., the Japanese cherries were in full bloom in a snow storm, blooming as late as they have at any time during the past six years. In Ph~ladelphia, forsythia was just beginning to show a yellow color on April 20; while in the Arnold Arboretum, it has not even started by April 27-at least two weeks later than it normally blooms. [ 14 ] PLATE II Flowering branch of Cornus mas, to bloom in the one of the earliest shrubs spring. It is difficult to say just how the blooming dates of later flowering shrubs will be affected, but undoubtedly they will all be retarded for a period. An examination of the Bulletin of Popular Information of Nov. 29, 1939 (Vol. VII, No. 11) will show the approximate blooming dates of many ornamental flowering shrubs. Interesting comparisons can be made with this list and with blooming dates for 1940. Another interesting comparison is afforded by carefully observing the table on the last page of the Bulletin for April 29, 1939 (Vol. VII, No. 3). It will be noted that last year blooming dates were later than they had been since 1931, when these particular records were first started. This year (1940~ is even later. On the date this is written (April 27), Daphne mezereum, Cornus mas, Forsythia ovata, and Magnolia stellata are not in full bloom. Each of these plants shows considerable color, but the flower buds are not fully open. Though one very warm day would hasten results, the cold temperatures and overcast skys of the past week have not been conductive to bringing these plants into full bloom immediately. The perennial question of, \"When will the lilacs bloom?\" is as yet unanswerable. Probably, Memorial Day would be a conserative guess, but this year, as last, we will have to wait a week or two before being able to give a dependable reply. DONALD WYMAN Notes Dr. E.D.Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, has recently been elected an Associate Member of the Museumd'Histoire Naturelle, Paris, in appreciation of his services to that institution. On the evening of March 13, the Horticultural Club of Boston honored Professor Alfred Rehder, Curator of the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum, with a testimonial dinner at the Parker House. This was in appreciation of his 42 years of service at the Arnold Arboretum and for his outstanding contributions to the literature of botany and horticulture. Subscription renewals for 1940 are now due. Those who have not resubscribed, and who desire to continue to receive the Bulletin, should remit $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at an early date to insure continuity in the receipt of the numbers as issued. 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Trials and Tribulations of an Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24091","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260af27.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII MAY 10, 1940 NUMBER 3 SOME TRIALS AND TRIBULATIONS OF AN ARBORETUM of the many services conducted by the Arnold Arboretum is that of distributing material for propagation, (seeds, cuttings, or living specimens) of new and rare plants to individuals who ask for them explicitly. This includes some species of no particular ornamental value, since other institutions frequently desire specimens of these for scientific study. Naturally, requests for material representing ornamental species far outnumber those for species and varieties of merely y scientific interest. Throughout its history the Arnold Arboretum has sent out thousands of packets of seeds, cuttings, scions, and plants, mostly representing rare or otherwise desirable material. The following figures represent the distribution from 1922 to 1938. ONE packets .......... 43,000 Living plants 38,167 Lots of cuttings and grafts .... 11,200 .......... Seed Distribution to Various Parts of the World To the United States ... To Europe ........ Elsewhere ........ 87~0 10% 8~0 These figures clearly indicate the practical services of the Arnold Arboretum to the horticultural public. Certain plants of outstanding merit are described in the Arboretum publications and in papers written by Arboretum staff members, and published elsewhere. Some species or varieties are quickly accepted, perhaps because of their appeal to popular fancy. Others, just as valuable from an ornamental stand- 17] point, way into nursery catalogues. Such listing is necessarily the first step in order that these plants may eventually reach the wider gardening public. There are at least two are very slow in finding their why nurserymen do not propagate all new plants immediately. In the first place, it is relatively expensive to establish a large stock and to advertise a new plant, for, of course, professional nurserymen must be interested in financial returns. Secondly, many nurserymen are already overstocked in more or less standard species and varieties and thus naturally hesitate to propagate forms that are new and hence unknown to the horticultural public. We hear frequent criticism to the general effect that new woody plants are not available since nothing new is listed in current catalogues. As a matter of fact, there are hundreds of relatively rare plants not only in the numerous arboreta in America but also in private gardens, which are perhaps better suited for landscape planting than others which have been generally available for many years. Some of our experiences at the Arnold Arboretum in attempts to popularize outstanding species and varieties may be of interest. Acer saccharum monumentale: This tree is a striking example of the trials and tribulations that beset an arboretum. One plant was found in a cemetery in Newton, Massachusetts, and scions were taken January 21, 1885. As a result of this propagating our plant has since been growing in the Arboretum for over fifty years only a hundred and fifty feet from the Arborway, one of the very busy parkways serving Boston. Approximately 11,000 cars pass in sight of this tree from 7 a.m. until 6 p.m. on an average day in winter and, of course, this number is considerably greater during the spring and summer. Its picture has appeared in the Bulletin of Popular Information (Plate XII, 1938, p. 65), it has been illustrated in newspapers and gardening magazines throughout the east, and as a result it has undoubtedly been seen by at least a million readers during the past fifteen years. It has been discussed before garden clubs and nursery organizations throughout the east and middle west. On several occasions during the last fifteen years, it has been carefully described in nationally circularized garden magazines. This tree is always pointed out to Arboretum visitors as outstanding among the many unusual ones grown at the institution. It has all the meritorious characteristics of the sugar maple, differing only in its columnar habit. It has the growth form of the Lombardy poplar without the objectionable characters of that widely known and commonly planted columnar tree. Many people photograph it, write us about it, reasons 18 and inquire where it may be purchased. Yet, it is offered in no nursery catalogue. What has the Arboretum done to disseminate it? Our propagator, Judd, has kept detailed records about this plant since 191~. Approximately 4000 scions have been cut and distributed from this one tree, and 22 living plants have been sent to various organizations interested in the propagation of rare or unusual varieties. In spite of all this, still the tree is not available to the general public. During the last three years there have been so many requests for propagating stock that it is now practically impossible to select suitable material, even with the aid of a tall ladder and pole shears. One nurseryman obtained grafting material five different times between 1927 and 1933 ; yet he has never listed it in his catalogue. Euonymus planipes : This shrub was introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum in 1902. Realizing its value as an ornamental, the Arboretum, between 1920 and 1938, has distributed 12 lots of cuttings, 63 plants, and 49 packets of seeds. It was not, however, until 1938 that it was first listed in an American nursery catalogue by a leading Massachusetts nurseryman. It apparently takes a considerable amount of \"distributing\" before a new plant is deemed by the grower to be worthwhile. Syringa pubescens: Commonly called the hairy lilac, this is the most fragrant of all the lilacs and for this reason alone is a valued addition to lilac collections, even though the flowers are not as beautiful as the varieties of S.vulgaris. Between the years 1922 and 1940, no less than 157 plants and 63 lots of cuttings have been sent to various individuals and nurseries. Although it has been offered in one or two catalogues for a short period only, it was soon dropped either because there is no apparent demand for it or because it is too difficult Mr. to propagate rapidly. Viburnum dilatatum as a boretum xanthocarpum: This was obtained by the Arsmall plant in 1919. Approximately 30 nurseries in the United States have obtained propagating material in one form or another since then, but it has yet to be listed in a catalogue. Another form ( hib:crttum seligerum aurautiacum~ of particular value for its orange 1 fruits, has been growing in the Arboretum since 1908. Between 1931 and 1939, plants have gone out to 89 different individuals, seeds to 40 others, and cuttings to many more; still the plant is not listed in any catalogue. Of course, woody plants cannot be propagated as rapidly as perennials and annuals. Combined with this is perhaps a lack of interest 19~ ] the part of nurserymen and gardeners-two facts which make it exceedingly difficult to place new woody plants within the reach of the public. Do not blame the Arboretum ! The plants are here, they are being propagated, and they are being discussed. It is for the garden-minded public to study these interesting plants and to begin to ask for them. Only then will they be grown, for nurserymen are naturally interested in plants for which there is a demand. It is manifest that the garden-minded public is becoming increasingly plant conscious. The garden clubs are doing excellent work in educating their members to consider better plant materials. There is even a movement among some of the nurserymen to be more selective in growing only the better varieties and in discarding inferior forms. Such a movement, if aggressively carried on by both garden clubs and the nurseries, should aid materially in bringing the better plants on into more common use. MERITORIOUS ORNAMENTAL PLANTS Plants and material for propagation of which have been sent out by the Arnold Arboretum since 1922 First offered Name Acer griseum Acer rubrum columnare Acer saccharum monumentale Albizzia julibrissin rosea (hardy strain) Cedrus libani (hardy strain) Enkianthus cernuus rubens in Nursery Catalogue Not yet Not yet Not yet 1986 Euonymus planipes Halesia monticola rosea Laburnum alpinum Not yet Not yet 1937 Not yet 1989 Ligustrum vulgare pyramidale Magnolia stellata rosea Prinsepia sinensis Prinsepia umflora Sophora japonica pendula Stewartia koreana Syringa persica laciniata 1937 1937 1925 Not yet Not yet Not yet (1 (1 yr. only) only) yr. Syringa pubescens Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum Viburnum sargenti flavum Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum 1987 1937 Not yet Not yet Not yet DONALD WYMAN 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Map of the Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24087","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070896d.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII MAY 17, 1940 NUMBER 4 MAP OF THE ARBORETUM this number of the Bulletin, as an insert, is included a copy of the new map Arboretum. The methods used in making this map were fully Croizat in the Bulletin of May 16, 1938 (Series 4. Vol. VI No. 5). This map is complete and as nearly accurate as many months of careful work can make it. To the average visitor, it is complete as it appears on the insert ; but to those who know the Arboretum and are accustomed to looking up individual plants within its 265 acres, the map represents only a very small part of our very extensive mapping program,which is now rapidly reaching completion. The grounds are arbitrarily divided into 74 equal sections, and individual maps have been made for each, each map being divided into quadrants. The location of every tree and shrub growing in the planted collections of the Arboretum is registered. These maps are permanent records but would not be useful to the average visitor if it were not for a complete card index on which are listed the numbers and map quadrants for each individual plant. With this as an aid, it is possible then to go to the card index, find the name of the plant in question, get the corresponding map number and quadrant number from the card, and thus find immediately the location of the plant on its particular map. Such a system is most useful, not only to Arboretum staff members but also to many visitors who come for the sole purpose of studying individual plants, to check their characteristics or growth habits, or to see them in flower. Two staff members have been trained in the making of these maps, and it is their duty to keep them up to date. This in itself is not as easy as it might appear to be. Each year from 400 to 500 new plants are distributed throughout the collections. Some die and accurate information must be kept concerning these. With others, name changes may have been made, or certain individuals may have been re-identified. Therefore, it takes much time and careful work to keep all this information completely up to date. Mapping is the only method by means of which a very large collection of living of the Arnold explained by Dr. IN ~ ~21_] ~ found in the Arboretum, can be kept properly labeled, there being approximately 7000 named species and varieties in the collections. Labels disappear, either because of age or sometimes because of vandalism. However, if collections are mapped properly, plants with missing labels can be immediately y identified by reference to the map ; and, because the registration number of each plant also appears on the map, not only the name of the plant but also its complete record can be located immediately, even though the label is lost. Consequently, this mapping program, which is now practically completed, is a great boon to the Arboretum and is the means by which accurate labeling will be coordinated with permanent records in the future. plants such as are Early Magnolias: All of the early flowering magnolias were tion at the Arboretum last week. Most of these have white in splendid condiflowers, and, though the flower buds of Magnolia stellata rosea are pink, the flowers themselves eventually fade white. Of course, M. soulangPana and its several varieties are not considered in this group since they bloom after the early flowering white species and varieties. A new hybrid, M. proctoriana has recently been named by Professor Rehder. Occurring in 1928 in a batch of seedlings grown from seed collected on the Proctor estate at Topsfield, Massachusetts, it is a cross between M. salicifolia and M. stellata. It differs from M. salicifolia in the number of petals being 6-1~ instead of 6 as in M. salicifolia and in the pubescent leafbuds while those of M. salicifolia are glabrous; it differs from M. stellata in that the number of petals in the flower are 6-12 rather than l l-18 as is the case with M. stellata. Also, it is apparently growing to be an upright tree, vigorous of growth, and not slowgrowing and mound-like as M. stellata. The following notes on the white flowering magnolias appearing in early spring may be of assistance as identification aids. MAGNOLIAS WITH EARLY WHITE FLOWERS Name No. of Petals 9 6 6 Diameter of Flowers Shape of Petals M.denudata M.kobus M. kobus borealis 4~~~-6~~ 4~~ M.proctoriana M.salicifolia M.stellata 6-12 6 4~~~ 4~~~ 4~~~ 3~~ 12-18 8 Oblong-obovate Oblong-obovate Oblong-obovate Narrowly oblong-obovate Narrowly oblong-obovate Narrow-oblong The shadblows also have been unusually beautiful during the past week. Much has been written in other issues of the Bulletin concerning the beauty of Amelanchier grandiflora, a large flowering hybrid between A.laevis and A.canadensis. Its \"pink\" flowering variety, rubescens, has also been discussed. However, A. 22- i~ c~ w x. s F \"p s a2 ~ 3~ ni L ~1 rt~ LI M~ \"< InV a~ -0 < ~~ a ~, s ~e x -a ~ S ' s~ he ~' w o ~ xw ~ ~w E rL4 ~ grand~lora rubescens, as it is now growing in the Arboretum, does not show any horticulturally outstanding characters that would warrant its being grown instead of the species. It is true that the flower buds are slightly pinkish, though at a distance of a few feet this color is practically unnoticeable and as the flowers open they fade to white. Consequently, the \"pink\" flowering A.grandi,flora rubescens is relatively unimportant after all, and need not be substituted for the species in landscape work. This week the Japanese flowering quinces are in full bloom. Over 30 species and varieties are planted in the shrub collection where they can easily be observed and studied. The bush honeysuckles are also coming into bloom, the greater number of which are located in the shrub collection and across the road from the lilacs. The largest displays of the week are the azaleas on Bussey Hill and the oriental flowermg crabapples. Rl~ododerrdron schlippenbachi, the royal azalea, came into full bloom about the first of the week, but R.yedoense and its variety poukhanense should be in full bloom by the time this Bulletin reaches its readers. Rkodorlerrdron obtusrrm kaempferi has been showing a little color on its flower buds, and during the week of May 19 it should be in full bloom. Hundreds of these excellent shrubs have been planted in the woods in various parts of the Arboretum, the planting having been done years ago under the direction of Professor Charles S.Sargent and Mr.E.H.Wilson, both of whom were justly fond of this gorgeous, fiery red azalea. NEW PLANTS FROM ABROAD Despite the European war, over 200 living plants have been received from Europe during the past few weeks. None of the species and varieties are in the Arboretum collections, many of those in these shipments being first introductions into the United States. Over 100 distinct species and varieties are represented. In spite of the fact that they were about six weeks in transit, all arrived in good condition and are now growing in the nursery. From the other side of the world, where another war is being waged, comes an important shipment of seeds. This lot, containing about 150 packets, comes from the Lu-Shan Arboretum, Likiang, China, the seed having been collected in 1939 at higher altitudes in northwestern Yunnan Province. The package was actually shipped about six months ago. This accession came as the result of a small grant made by the Arboretum last year to support cooperative horticulturalbotamcal field work in China. More recently the corresponding botanical material has been received in the form of twenty-three large parcel post packages. With wars bemg waged on opposite sides of the globe, it is interesting to note that the Arboretum is continuing to import seeds and living plants from both war-torn areas. DONALD WYMAN 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Arboretum Lilacs in their Order of Bloom","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24092","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260b328.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII MAY 24, 1940 NUMBER 5 THE ARBORETUM LILACS IN THEIR ORDER OF BLOOM least five full weeks of lilac blooms at the Arnold This is not known to every Arboretum visitor, since to the majority, lilacs bloom only during a ten-day period in late May. It is true that the largest display comes at this time, since three fourths of the lilac collection consists of Syringa rulgaris varieties. But it is still true that there is a continuous display of lilac blooms for a five-week period at least, and sometimes this is extended for another week or two if weather conditions remain favorable. When some of the species are compared with the many beautiful varieties of ,S.vulgaris, they are found lacking in color, fragrance and size; but when the S.vulgaris varieties are not in flower for comparison, these species and their comparatively few varieties are of interest and contain several plants well worth including in many garden plantings. The Bulletin of Popular Information (May 20, 1936, Series 4 Vol. IV No. 8) contained considerable information concerning the care of lilacs, their history and some of the outstanding varieties of S.vulgaris, so that it is unnecessary to repeat that information here. However, it may be of interest to note the sequence in which these plants normally bloom. The Arboretum lilacs are listed according to the times at which they start to bloom. Frequently they may remain in bloom sufficiently long so that they can be used ornamentally with lilacs in another group. Thus, S.chinensis and S.persica come into bloom after the S. vulgaris varieties have reached their peak, but still can be used at the same time effectively. As is the case with the seqence of bloom of other ornamental trees and shrubs, weather conditions may alter the dates. However, after comparing the records based on the lilac collection at the Arnold Arboretum for several years, we find that the following groups of species and their varieties bloom together. HERE Arboretum. are at 25 ~ ] SEQUENCE OF BLOOM o 1. Blooming about May 10 Syringa oblata \" \" \" affinis \" dilatata \" \" giraldi about 2. \" Blooming \" \" \" \" \" \" \" May 15 5 X Syringa hyacinthiflora (S. oblata X S. vulgaris) \" \" Berryer \" \" \" \" \" Buffon Catinat Claude Bernard Descartes Louvois Mirabeau \" Montesquieu Necker Pascal \" \" \" \" \" \"\" \" \" \" Turgot Vauban Villars 20 300 varieties \" pinnatifolia 3. Blooming about May Syringa vulgaris and its 4. \" Blooming about May 2.i X Syringa chinensis \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" alba \" bicolor \" metensis President (S. persica X S. aul~.ari.s) Hayes \" \" \" \" saugeana julianae meyeri microphylla persica \" alba laciniata rubra \" \" \" \" pinetorum potanini pubescens 5. \" Blooming about June \" 5 X Syringa henryi \" (S.josikaea X S. uillosa) Floreal Lutece \" X Syringa josiflexa \" \" \" \" Enid Guinevere H. Zabel (S josikaea >f S.re,flexa) Syringa josikaea \" \" \" \" \" \" \" pallida \" rosea rubra komarowi 261 04)::::'\"O..c ~i~ -..c\"\"' C Q, 0 w~w o r. ( yx j ( , ' \" ( , a~ Q, Q,x ..c O)..c ::;jQ, y a~ .~ `~ x +~~ e <u U~ a) '^ ~C' O +~.,O rp ~.~ 8 c~ x 0) a~ E-< '\"0 w, \" ,; v ~ .N E, ~ ~ x a ~ ~ 'N ,, cca, W~3 ~a~ !u 0) .... 0) ~ii~~ '- o U~O s;~ .= y m N 0) 3~ SA Fn f. F`~ y C~:> S ..... r.n ci'\"~ cdoS c: .8.: ;j. ~x ~ 1: 0 O E-<..0<8 ~ - 0. 0 0 .... X Syringa prestonae \" \" \" \" \" (S. reflexa X S.villo.sa~ Audrey Alice Desdemona Elinor Isabella Jessica Miranda Oberon Octavia Romeo Ursula \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" \" Virgilia W.T.Macoun ' reflexa \" I pallens XSyringa swegiflexa (S.re,flexaXS.sre~eginsoroi~ Syringa sweginzowi \" \" \" albida tomentella \" \" \" superba 15 j villosa 6. Blooming about June Syringa amurensis \" \" \" japonica pekinensis Not all the lilacs listed are of outstanding ornamental value, and not all are available in the trade in this country. It may be of value to Bulletin readers if a few in each group are pointed out as being good ornamental additions to garden plantmgs. Group 1. The broadleaf lilac S.oblata comes from northern China and is valued because it is the first of all the lilacs to bloom and also because it is the only lilac with a red to orange autumn color. L nfortunately, there are times when the flower buds are injured by severe winters. The leaves are rarely disfigured by the mildew so evident on the common lilac in late summer. The variety dilatata is perhaps the best because of its large lilac-pink flower clusters. Group 2. The several named varieties of S. hyacinthiflora chiefly originated in France as a result of Victor Lemoine's hybridization at :~Tancy, France, and are of an intermediate lavender color. The varieties Turgot and Necker are probably the most prominent of the group. However,all the ~arieties of S.hyaointh~ora can be used for ornamental planting since they bloom slightly in advance of S.aulgari.s and as a rule form larger growing and more vigorous shrubs. S.pinnatifolia is the least ornamental of any lilacs here listed. Group 3. The Arboretum collection contains over 300 varieties of the common lilac. The better varieties, according to our selective list, were published in the Bulletin of May 10, 1936. Group 4. This group of lilacs begins to bloom at the time the common lilac varieties are at their best. Both the Chinese and the Persian lilacs are valued for their lower habit of growth and for the larger 2~' ~] number of blooms produced every year. Frequently the varieties of the common lilac tend to bloom well one year but have comparatively few blossoms the year following. These two species, however, bloom profusely every year and so are particularly good for cutting purposes. Of the Chinese lilac varieties, .snugeana is possibly the best because of its deep pink flowers. The cutleaf variety (laciniata~ of the Persian lilac is also of value because of the feathery texture of its small lobed leaves. The hairy lilac (S.pubescens~ is important because it is considered to be the most fragrant of all the lilacs, but the flowers are not as beautiful as those of the Chinese or Persian lilac or, in fact, those of most of the common lilac varieties. The blooms of the common lilac varieties last long enough so that they are still ornamental when the lilacs in Group 4 are at their best. Group 5. Probably the best known of the varieties of S. henryi is Lutece, noted for its large pale purple flower clusters which are not fragrant. This variety and the others in Groupare important for they bloom at a time when all the flowers of S.vulgaris varieties have faded. The variety Lutece grows vigorously and is available from many nurseries. The late lilac S. villosa is common in gardens, and justly so, because of its many creamy-white flower clusters and good dense habit of growth. Two new hybrids are well worth growing, both being the result of Miss Isabella Preston's work at Ottawa, Canada. Syringa prestonae, named by Jlrs. ;BlcKelvey in honor of Miss Preston, is a group of hybrids, the flowers of which contain a great deal of pink. Most of the lilacs blooming in early June have white flowers but, because the pink flowering S. re,fle.ra is one parent, S.prestonae varieties are predominantly pink. This whole group is very important because the plants retain the v~gorous growing qualities of S. villosa and some of the good color of S. re,fle.ra. Syringn reflexa at the Arboretum has not proved a good shrub, though the individual flowers are very beautiful ; but Miss Preston's hybrids are well worth growing in the United States. The second hybrid group has been named S.s~ceg~e.ra. At the Arboretum our plants are very small, but at Ottawa large plants are growing and clearly show that nurserymen in the United States would do well to grow at least a few of these varieties for their late flowers. Group 6. The last of the lilacs is the largest growing of all-the Japanese tree lilac. This was formerly considered to be a separate species (and is listed by most nurserymen as S japonica~, but it is now considered to be a variety of S.amurensis. It forms a single trunk and has very conspicuous large creamy white flower clusters in mid-June. The bark is distinctly ornamental for it is very similar to that of Prunus rrvium. Where it is given sufficient space in which to expand, it develops into the most prominent of all lilacs. DONALD WYMAN . 28 ~] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Rose Species","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":35,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24090","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260ab26.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII JUNE 28, 1940 NUMBER 6 SOME ROSE SPECIES present day landscaping. There this, but after a careful examination of the types available, one is not surprised to find that there are certain species which deserve a place in almost every garden. Attention is here called to some of the more outstanding rose species for use in modern gardens. ROSES may are too little used in be several reasons for our The exact number of rose species has been a much debated point for many years. In 1892 Gandoger recognized 4266 species, while a few years before Bentham and Hooker recognized only 30-a rather striking difference of opinion! Be this as it may, Professor Alfred Rehder suggests that there are probably between 150 and 200 species of roses in the temperate and subtropical regions of the northern hemisphere. On the basis of Rehder's estimate, it is of interest to note that over one half of these occur in the living collections at the Arnold Arboretum, and that one nursery (Bobbink and Atkins) has recently listed 93 species and botanical varieties as being grown by them and ready for sale in the form of two year old, field grown plants. With these figures as a background, let us examine some of the important reasons why more of these rose species should be grown in the garden. In the first place, as these are the wild roses of the world, they are entitled to a place in any wild garden, in the woodlands or at the border of roadways and woods. Every wild garden typical of New England should have at least one plant of the beautiful Virginia rose which is so prominent along our seacoast. Other species have been in cultivation for a long time. Centuries ago, before the advent of the modern rose,\" it was these wild species which were grown and ap- 29 native cabbage rose of Europe, for instance, has been grown for over two thousand years. At one time it was used a great deal in Greek garlands, and later played a prominent part in the social festivities of the Romans. Certainly such a rose, rich in historical background, might well find a place in our modern garden if for nothing else than sentiment alone ! Many of the rose species are far more hardy than the commonl3~ grown hybrids. Gardeners living in the northern United States and Canada should remember this for it means less care and less winter protection. Also, the wild species are less susceptible to insect pests and disease troubles ; and this means less dusting, spraying and pruning, important factors in keeping any garden looking at its best. It is these plants which require less care that should be more commonly grown, in order to reduce maintenance drudgery. A formal rose garden is beautiful when the roses are in bloom. Many of the rose species, however, are valuable in the landscape because they are attractive at more than one season of the year. A species like the Virginia rose is of interest at every season of the year-in late spring and early summer when the light pink flowers appear, all through summer because of the shining dark green leaves, in the fall with its red fruits and beautiful orange autumn color, and in the winter because the red twigs and persistent fruits are bright colored throughout the cold season. It is such plants-those that are of interest at more than one season-that should be more commonly grown regardless of whether they are roses or dogwoods. Of importance is the fact that these rose species are hardy shrubs and as such can be grown with other shrubs in the border or even in foundation plantings when desirable. Many of the hybrid varieties, so popular in formal rose gardens, cannot be so used, but most of the species can. They add variety and interest when planted with any group of shrubs, for their flowers, fruits and foliage, and frequently their twigs are unusual, and thus contribute to the landscape features. There are many other reasons why rose species should be more commonly grown, but the points above made are sufficient to start a train of thought in the right direction. With these ideas in mind, then, let us examine a list of twenty-four rose species which have been selected for their wide variety in size and shape, color of their flowers, and also because of their wide adaptability for various landscape uses. This list does not contain all of the best forms but is merely offered to show the wide range of plants available, and in the hope that it will stimulate horticulturists to give this group of plants more preciated in gardens. The 30 M c: :g e. u a '0 O '\" ,js 5 S > '~ cc :.,~ M-~ 0 \"0 0) g-E ~ ;4 ~.4 t '\"0 .Is0&#flx3C; 44 --, Z' .~ 0.) 0) -S~ e ** s -s v o c: '5 u .& ..<:: attention. It is unnecessary to enumerate the merits of all these roses ; consequently, only a few of the more outstanding are discussed in the following short paragraphs : Rosa centifolia, the cabbage rose, has been mentioned in literature from as early as 270 B.C. It was one of the first wild roses introduced into cultivation and derives its name from the fact that its flowers were supposed to have one hundred petals. Being one of the few species with double flowers, several distinct varieties have evolved, one in particular designated as var. mucosa. This is the moss rose, so called because of the glandular moss-like excrescences of the sepals and flower-stalks. Many beautiful derivatives or selections have come down through the years from the moss rose, and even today it is one of the most interesting of roses in the older gardens. Rosa damascena, the damask rose, another double flowering species, is a native of Asia Minor, and its pale pink to red flowers are very fragrant. It is one of the parents of the large class of hybrids called hybrid perpetuals. It was this rose that the early European hybridists started with and crossed in so many ways. It was probably grown in Gaul (France) and England by the early Romans. There is a variety called versicolor, which is credited as being the true York and Lancaster rose, and its history is interesting. In 1455, Henry VI of the House of Lancaster was the ruler of all England. However, the Duke of York, head of the House of York, felt he should be ruler instead, and as a consequence a long and bitter war commenced, known as the war of the Roses which lasted until 1485. Those members of the House of Lancaster, and others loyal to it, selected the semi-double dark red Rosa gallica, or French rose, as their badge. Members of the House of York and its followers selected the white Rosa alba as their particular flower. As a result of long fighting, the throne passed between the two families until I-t8:S, when Henry VII of the House of Lancaster was eventually proclaimed king. He married an heiress of the House of York in order to avert hard feelings, and shortly a new rose appeared. On the same bush grew red flowers and pure white flowers and some that where both red and white. This is supposed to have been Rosa danaascena versicolor, or the York and Lancaster rose, symbolic of the final union of the House of Lancaster and the House of York. It is of interest to note in this connection that in the true York and Lancaster rose, the variegated flowers have white or red (or pink) petals and are not striped. Sometimes the striped flowers of R. gallica uersicolor are assumed to represent the true York and Lancaster rose, but this is incorrect. 32 Rose Botanical ~ame Species for Landscape Use Single or Common ~~~ame Color Double R.bella lSolitary Rose R.blanda 3Meadow Rose R. canina 2Dog Rose R. centifolia 2Cabbage Rose R.cinnamomema l2Cinnamon Rose R.damascena 2Damask Rose 2Sweetbrier Rose R.eglanteria R.foetida lAustrian Brier Rose 2French Rose R. gallica R.helenae lHelen Rose lFather Hugo's Rose R.hugonis R.moyesi lMoyes Rose R. multiflora 'Japanese Rose R.omeiensis lMount Omei Rose R.palustris 3Swamp Rose lPrimrose Rose R.primula R.rubrifolia zRedleaf Rose S bright rose S rosy pink S white to light pink D red S purplish red D pale pink to red S pale pink S deep yellow S dark red S white S yellow S dark red S white S white S pink S yellow S deep red S purplish red S deep rose S white to pale pink S pink S white S rose purple Sand D yellow R.rugosa R.setigera R.spinosissima R.virginiana R.wichuraiana R. willmottiae R.xanthina lRugosa Rose 3Prairie Rose llScotch Rose 3Virginia Rose 'Memorial Rose lWillmott Rose 'Korean Rose lNative of China, Korea or Japan 2Native of Europe 3Native of North America : 33 ] list, the hardiest of which is a sturdy plant, a vigorous grower producing bright yellow single flowers in late Dlay. It is reported that in some sections of Westchester County, N.Y., this rose is susceptible to a certain stem canker; but where this disease is not prevalent, Father Hugo's rose can be considered as one of the hardiest and earliest of all. The Persian Yellow rose, R.foetirla persicana, might There are several yellow roses in the rose R. hugonis (Father Hugo's). This is beautiful rose with double flowers that are a color than Harison's yellow. Rosa primula, another single yellow rose is just as early in bloom and is as hardy as R.hugouis. Splendid plants of this rose are growing in the Arboretum and are now about six feet tall. It would be an excellent substitute for Father Hugo's rose in situations where the latter is susceptible to canker. Rosa harisoui is really not a wild species but a hybrid, originated by the Reverend Harison of Trinity Church in New York about 1830. It is mentioned here because it is the most common of yellow roses. At one time it was considered to be a variety of R.foetida; actually it is a cross between R.foetida and R. spinosissi~na. The Japanese rose, R. nurlt~lora, was first introduced into the United States before 1868. It is covered with small, pure white flowers in early June. With wide arching branches, vigorous growth, and bright red fruits which remain on the plant a greater part of the winter, the Japanese rose has been used considerably as one of the parents of the rambler roses ; and, in fact, one of its varieties (curnea~, first coming to England from China in 1804, had double red flowers. The redleaf rose (R.rubrifolin~ is outstanding among other shrubs because of its dark reddish foliage. It blends with green foliage extremely well, and should be classed with Eleagnus rengustifolia as one of the really good foliage plants that can be used for mod~fyng an unbroken line of green when desirable. It is impossible to say too much in favor of the \"sea tomato\" of Japan, Rosa rugosa. It is widely planted in the eastern United States and has become naturalized in various places. It grows vigorously within reach of salt water spray, and survived a complete submergence under salt water as the result of the New England hurricane of September, 1938. Several varieties are available with single or double flowers. The fruits are large and beautiful in the fall and the foliage takes on an orange color-one of its chief merits for fall use. It is well adapted for use in hedges and as barriers, and is not subject to also be added for it ~s a deeper golden yellow serious diseases. 34] of the best of the North American roses from the of view is Rosa setigera. It grows from six to twelve feet high, with wide-arching, thorny branches, and is covered with pink blossoms in the early summer. This is the last of the rose species to bloom, and should be used only in situations where it can run rampant, unrestrained by too much pruning. The Scotch rose, R. spinosissima, is the most widely distributed rose in the world, being found from the British Isles to Japan. Incidentally, it is the only rose native of Iceland. Growing about four feet tall, it makes a dense, compact thorny mass of stems and foliage. The prickles are straight and of different lengths but very pronounced. The flowers are normally single and vary from white to pale pink, although forms or varieties occur even with red flowers, and double-flowered forms are known, while one variety (lutea~ has yellow flowers. Much could be written about the rose species given in the accompanying list and others not included therein. It is urged that gardeners study these plants and select a few for inclusion in the garden. They bring interest and color everywhere, and afford a close connection with the horticulture of past centuries. DONALD WYMAN Probably one landscape point _35~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Rhder's Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":7,"start_page":36,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24089","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260a725.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"REHDER'S MANUAL OF CULTIVATED TREES AND SHRUBS A second edition of this work first published in 1927 has just been issued. It has been brought up to date by the addition of numerous new introductions, the inclusion of the results of recent studies of certain groups, and the revision of the botanical names in conformity with the decisions of the last International Botanical Congress. The number of species fully described and mentioned in the keys has increased from 2350 to 2535 and of varieties from 2465 to 2685 ; the number of species and hybrids only briefly described has increased accordingly. Some genera, as Rosa, have been 'entirely rearranged, and in Rhododendron the number of species fully described has increased from 62 to 86. The general use of the term var. for all subdivisions of the species has been given up and the names are cited as trinomials with the author's name followed by the exact rank of the subdivision (subspecies, variety, form, lusus) as given by the original author of the combination. This will satisfy both the horticulturist and the systematic botanist. The zones of hardiness have been reduced from eight to seven and the small map of the climatic zones in the first edition has been replaced by a full page size map with the zones clearly indicated in color. The explanation of author's names, restricted in the old edition only to abbreviations of less than 500 names, contains now about 1200 entries with full names, dates, and country. The index of plant names contains over 14,400 names cited in the book. 'Rehder, Alfred, MANUAL OF CULTIVATED TREES AND SHRUBS hardy in North America exclusive of the subtropical and warmer temperate regions. Second edition revised and enlarged. XXX. 996 pp. map O. Macmillan Co., New York,1940. Price $10.50 . 36 ~ ] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Brief Glossary of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural Terms","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24083","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070bb27.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Kobuski, Clarence E.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII JULY 19, 1940 NUMBERS 7-10 A BRIEF GLOSSARY OF THE MORE COMMON BOTANICAL AND HORTICULTURAL TERDIS1 diffenng from usual structure, departing from the type; used mostly of variation. abortive - barren: ~mperfectly or not developed; as abortive stamens when only filaments are present. acaulescent - stemless; as in the dandelion. achene - a small, dry, indehiscent, one-celled and one-seeded fruit; as in the buttercup. acuminate - hw mg a gradually diminishing point; long pointed. adnate - grown to, united with another part; stamens adnate to the corolla-tube. adventitious buds - those produced abnormally as from the stem instead of the axils of the leaves. adventive - applied to an introduced plant, not definitely established aberrant or alate or naturalized. winged; furnished with an expansion, as found on the stem petiole. ament - a catkin ; a spike of flowers usually bracteate and frequently deciduous, as the male flowers of w~llow, birch, beech and oak. androecium - the male or stamen bearing part of the flower. See also gynoecium. technical aid to horticulturists and amateur gardeners who do not have easy access to the many well prepared ~lossanes already in existence. The works of many authors have been utilized, among them L.H.Bailey, A.Gray, B.D.Jackson, A.Rehder, A.B. Stout, et al. a lThis glossary is merely selective compilation of the more common as an terms used in horticultural literature and is recorded here . 3~ ~] an ovary. See also gymnosperms. anther - the pollen bearing part of the flower. anthesis - flowering; strictly the time of expansion of a flower; often used to designate the flowering period. apetalous - without petals ; as in willows. apomictic hybrid - hybrid which can be reproduced true to type from seed, which develops without fertilization. appressed - lying flat and close aga~nst. articulate - jointed ; having a node or joint where separation may take place naturally. asexual - destitute of male or female organs; asexual reproduction - reproduction produced vegetatively ; without the aid of sexual organs. attenuate - tapering slenderly ; applied usually to the apex of a leaf. auriculate - furnished with ear-shaped appendages (auricles), as the base of a petal or leaf. awl-shaped - tapering from the base to a slender or stiff point. awn - a bnstle-l~ke appendage. axil - the upper angle formed by a leaf or branch with the stem. axillary - situated in the axil. angiosperms - plants having their seeds enclosed in baccate - berry-like; pulpy or fleshy as in the gooseberry. hair, frequently doubly hooked. barbellate - finely barbed. basifixed - attached or fixed by the base. beaked - ending in a beak or prolonged tip. barb - hooked a bearded - furnished with a tuft of hairs. berry - an indehiscent fruit developing from single ovary, having few to many seeds and a fleshy or pulpy outer wall ; as the tomato or gooseberry. See also drupe and pome. bi or bis - Latin prefix signifying two or twice. bicolored - two-colored. biennial - a plant which reqmres two years to complete its life-cycle ; as the hollyhock. bifid - two cleft. bifoliolate - a leaf composed of two leaflets. bigener (bigeneric hybrid) - plant hybrid resulting from a cross between two genera. bilabiate - two-lipped; as in flowers of Salvia. bilocular - two-celled. 38] a generic and specific name to denote given organism ; as Acer rubrum. biotype - an elementary stable form. bipinnate - twice pinnate ; when the divisions of a pinnate leaf are again pinnately divided. a binomial - the combination of bisexual bloom - blade - the having both stamens and pistils. expanded portion of a leaf. (1) See blossom. (2) The white waxy or pruinose covering of fruits and leaves. many blossom - the flower, more often applied to those of fruit trees. bract - a much reduced leaf, particularly the small or scale-hke leaves in a flower-cluster or associated with the flowers. bracteate - having bracts. bracteolate - having bractlets. bractlet - bract borne on a secondary axis, as on the pedicel. breed - a group of plants having distinctive qualities in common, which, developed through the influence of man, requires control by man to prevent mixtures with other groups ; does not imply directly traceable descent from any particular plant and may be propagated from seed. bristle - stiff hair. bud - the nascent state of a flower, leaf or branch. bud mutation - an abnormal shoot, (caused by genetical change) which can be propagated only asexually. bud-scale - covering a bud. same as bud-mutation. bud-sport bud-variation - same as bud-mutation. bulb - a modified bud with fleshy scales, usually underground. bulbil - a diminutive bulb. bullate - blistered or puckered; as the leaf in Savoy cabbage. bush - a low, several-to many-stemmed shrub, without distinct trunk. of falling off early. hard prominence or protuberance; in a cutting ered or injured part, the roll of new covering tissue. calyx - the outer perianth of the flower. caducous a callus - or on a sev- campanulate - bell-shaped. canescent - gray-pubescent and hoary. at capitate - head-like; collected in a dense cluster. capsule - a dry fruit of more than one carpel, opening carinate - keeled. maturity. 39] simple pistil or a member of a compound pistil. spike of unisexual, apetalous flowers. See ament. caudate - having a slender, tail-like appendage. caudex - the main axis of a plant, including both stem and root. caulescent - more or less stem-bearing; having an evident stem above ground. cauline - belonging to the stem, as cauline leaves. cell - one of the minute compartments or vesicles of which plants are composed or made up; also a cavity of an anther or ovary. cespitose (or caespitose) - growing in tufts; forming mats. channeled - deeply grooved longitudinally. carpel a catkin - a deciduous chartaceous chimera - having the texture of stiff writing paper. characters of both the stock and the scion, caused by the fusion of tissues of both ; periclinal chimera - one in which the cells of one have grown completely around the cells of the other; sectoral chimera - chimera in which the two different cell masses merge but one does not completely encircle the other. chlorophyll - the green coloring matter within the cells of plants. choripetalous - having separate petals; polypetalous. See also gamo- graft hybrid exhibiting petalous. fringed with hairs. minutely ciliate. cinereous - ash-colored, light gray. circumscissile - opening or dehiscing by ciliate - ciliolate - a regular transverse line of division. clavate - club-shaped; said of a long body thickened toward the top. as cleistogamous - closed self-fertilized flowers ; clon a in some violets. group of plants composed of individuals produced vegetatively y from a single original plant ; clons differ from races and strains in failing to come true from seeds ; examples : Concord-grape, Baldwinapple. coalescence - the union of similar parts or organs, or of those in the same series as stamens with stamens and petals with petals. coalescent - two columnar or more similar parts united. having the shape of a column. compost - a soil mixture containing balanced plant requirements. compound - of two or more similar parts united into one whole; compound-leaf conifer connate cone one bearing (not in one divided into separate leaflets. synonymous with evergreen). organ. joined 40 connective - the portion of the stamen which connects the cells of the anther. heart-shaped; usually referring to the base of the leaf. mner series of floral envelopes consisting either of connate or distinct petals. corm - the enlarged fleshy base of a stem, bulb-like but solid, as in gladiolus. corymb - a flat-topped or convex flowering cluster with the outer cordate corolla - the flowers opening first. See also cyme. a r~b; the midrib or middle-nerve of a leaf. cotyledon - the primary leaf or leaves in the embryo. creeper - a trailing shoot that produces roots at intervals. crenate - toothed with rounded, shallow teeth. cross - hybrid of any description. cross-fertilization - fertilization secured by pollen from the flower of another plant. cross-pollination - transfer of the pollen of one flower to the pistil of another. crustaceous - having a hard or brittle covering. culm - the stem of grasses and sedges. cultigen - a plant, group, or series known only in cultivation. See also indigen. cultivar - so-called \"horticultural variety\" or \"garden variety\". Progeny of a clon, chimera, or the result of selective hybridization, which is known only in cultivation and may or may not be reproduced from seed. The name, usually selected by the propagator, appended to either a generic name or a binomial, should be set off by different type or included within quotations to distinguish it from the binomial of a natural species. Examples: Syringa Congo or Syringa Congo; ~lalus\"Bob-V~-hite\"; Deutzia scabra \"Pride of Rochester\". cuneate - wedge-shaped ; triangular with narrow end at point of attachment. costa - cupular - cup-like or cup-shaped. cupule - cup of such fruits as the acorn. cuspidate - sharp-pointed. cutting - a severed vegetative or asexual part of a plant used agation ; as a cutting of root, of stem, or of leaf. cyme a convex or in prop- first. flat flower-cluster with the central flowers opening See also corymb. cymose - arranged in cymes : cyme-like. 41 ~ cytology - the branch of biology which their internal structure. treats of cells, especially of damping off - collapse of seedlings usually ascribed to the attack of fungi. deciduous trees. falling, more not persistent, once as the leaves of non-evergreen decompound decumbent - than or reclining lying compound. on the ground but with the ends as- cending. decurrent decussate - (leaf) - extending down the stem below the insertion. opposite leaves in four rows up and down the stem; alternating in pairs at right angles. or off of leaves. process of opening of a seed-pod or anther. See also indehiscent. deltoid - triangular; delta-like. dentate - with more or less spreading teeth. di, dis - Greek prefix signifying two or twice. diadelphous - in two groups, as the stamens of some Leguminosae, joined by their filaments. diandrous - with two stamens. dichotomous - forked regularly in pairs. defoliation - the casting falling dehiscence - the method or dicotyledons (dicots) - plants having see also monocotyledons. diffuse - two cotyledons or seed-lobes ; loosely or widely spreading. digitate - mth the members rising at one point. dimorphous - occurring in two forms. dioecious - staminate and pistillate flowers on different plants. See also monoecious. dissected - divided into many narrow segments. dissipiment - a partition in an ovary or fruit. distichous - disposed in two vertical ranks, as the florets in many grasses. divaricate - spreading, widely divergent. divided - separated to the base. relating to the back or outer surface of an organ. drupe - fleshy rndehiscent fruit with a bony, usually one-seeded docarp ; like the cherry or peach. dorsal a e or ex or en- Latm prefix usually denoting parts or are missing, as ebracteate exstipulate meaning without bracts without stipules. 42 ellipsoid - a solid body, elliptic in section. elliptic - a flat part or body that is oval and narrowed emarginate - with a shallow notch at the apex. embryo - the rudimentary plantlet within the seed. endemic - native or to rounded ends. local. epigynous - borne on the top of the ovary. See also hypogynous and perigynous. epiphytic - growing on other plants but not parasitic. ericoid - of leaves which escape a are like those of heaths. growmg as cultivated agency. a fruit tree plant found though wild, dispersed one by some espalier - trained lattice-fashion in plane. evergreen - green throughout the year as pines and some rhododendrons. Does not necessarily refer to cone-bearing plants. remaining See also deciduous. with a projecting tip, as the nerve of a leaf projecting beyond the margin; the trunk of a tree with undivided main stem, as in the fir. exfoliating - peeling off in thin layers; as the bark of the birch. excurrent - exotic - exserted - foreign, not native. prolonged beyond the surrounding organs, as stamens from the corolla. dried, pressed specimens. exstipulate - without stipules. exsiccatae eye - the marked center of a flower; a bud on a tuber, as on the potato; falcate - a single-bud cutting. widening and flattening of sickle-shaped. an fasciated fascicle - abnormal the stem or branches. dense cluster. with close, and erect branches, as in the Lombardy poplar. fastigiate ferrugineous - rust-colored. fertile - capable of producing fruit and seeds; also said of pollenbearing anthers. fertilization - effect of pollen deposited on a stigmatic surface resulting in conversion of flower into fruit and of ovule into seed. filament - stalk of the anther. filiform - thread-like ; long and very slender. a fimbriate - flaccid - not fringed. rigid; lax and weak. _43~] floccose - clothed with tufts of soft hair or wool. florets - small individual flowers of compact heads or spikes. floriferous - flower-bearing, usually in the sense of abundantly flow- ering. foliaceous - leaf-like in texture or appearance ; said particularly of sepals and calyx-lobes and of bracts that in texture, size or color or large leaves. combinations, -leaved ; having leaves ; as tri-foliate, tJrree-leauerl, as the stem of trillium. Often confused with trifoliolate. -foliolate - having leaflets ; as trifoliolate, of three Jeoflet.r. follicle - dry, dehiscent pericarp opening only along one suture; as look like small -foliate - in the milkweed or peony. form - sub-division of a variety or species usually character and usually perpetuated vegetatively. frond - leaf of fructiferous - differing in one fern; sometimes used in the sense of foliage. producing or bearing fruit. fructification - the act or process of fruiting: also the fruiting organ. fruit - the seed-bearing product of a plant. frutescent - nearly shrubby. fruticose - shrubby ; with woody persistent stems and branches. fugacious - falling or withering away very early. funnelform - said of a corolla with the tube gradually widening upward ; as in the morning-glory. furrowed - with longitudinal channels or grooves. fusiform - spindle-shaped ; narrowed toward both ends from a swollen middle; as in the roots of the dahlia. gamopetalous - hav mg the petals more or less united. See also choripetalous and polypetalous. gamosepalous - calyx of one piece; sepals united. geniculate - bent abruptly like a knee. germination - the development of the plantlet from the seed. glabrate - nearly glabrous or becoming glabrous with age. glabrous - not hairy. gladiate - sword-shaped or sword-like. gland - a definite secreting structure on the surface embedded in or ending a hair; also any protuberance of the like nature which may not secrete, as the warty swellings at the base of the leaf in the cherry and peach. glandular - bearing glands or gland-like appendages. glaucous - covered with a bloom ; bluish white or bluish gray. [.j,4] glochidiate - barbed; tipped with barbs. glomerate - in compact clusters. glume - a chaff-like bract; particularly one of base of the two empty bracts at the spikelet in grasses. gourd - a fleshy one-celled many-seeded fruit; like the melon. graft - a branch or bud inserted on another plant with the intention that it will grow there; a scion. graft-hybrid - plant showing influences of scion and stock caused by mechanical union of the tissues. See chimera. process of inserting a scion in a plant (stock) with the intention that the tissues of both shall unite and that the stock shall furnish the nourishment for the growth of the scion. granular, granulose - composed of or appearing as covered by minute grafting - the grains. gymno - in Greek gymnosperms - compounds, signifying naked plants with uncovered ovules, or or as not covered. the conifers; see also angiosperms. gynoecium - the female androecium. pistil-bearing part of the flower. See also general aspect of a plant, or its mode of growth. halberd-shaped ; like an arrowhead but with the basal lobes pointing outward nearly at right angles. head - a dense cluster or short dense spike of sessile or nearly sessile hastate - habit - the flowers. an enlarged or more or less transverse part on the lower end of a cutting secured from the older or larger branch from which the cutting is taken. heliotropism - the characteristic of turning toward the light. herb - a plant not woody, at least above ground. herbaceous - of the texture of an herb; not woody. heterogen - group of plants heterozygous from hybridity or mutation among which there are several phenotypes. Individuals here may be propagated as clons, or cultivars may be segregated by selective breeding. Example : Japanese azalea. heteromorphous - parts of different shape. heterophyllous - with two sorts of leaves. hip - the fruit of the rose. hirsute - with rather coarse or stiff hairs. hirtellous - minutely hirsute. hispid - beset with rigid hairs or bristles. heel - ~43_ hispidulous - diminutive of hispid. homo - in Greek compound, all alike or of one sort. homogamous - bearing only one kind of flowers. horny - hard and dense in texture. host - a plant which nourishes a parasite. humus - decomposing organic matter in the soil. humus soils - garden soils enriched with organic manure. hyaline - transparent or nearly so. hybrid - a plant resulting from a cross between two or more parents that are more or less unlike. hybridization - (1) the art of obtaining hybrids by artificial crossing; (2) also used for the same operation occurring naturally. hydrophytes - water plants, partially or wholly immersed. hygrophytes - marsh plants, or plants which need a large supply of moisture for growth. or tubular receptacle on which the stamens are inserted ; as in the flower of the cherry. hypogynous - borne on the receptacle beneath the ovary; said of stamens and petals. See also epigynous and perigynous. hypanthium - the cup-shaped perianth and the overlapping, as shingles on a roof; as the bud-scales of horse-chestnuts and azaleas. impari-pinnate - pinnate with a single leaflet at the apex; odd-pinnate. See also pari-pinnate. imperfect flower - having either stamens or pistils, but not both. See also perfect flower. inarching - grafting by approach, the scion remaining attached to its parent, until union has taken place. imbricate incanescent incised - cut indehiscent hoary or gray-pubescent. sharply into the margin. - not opening by valves or along regular lines. See also dehiscent. known origin growing spontaneously or in cultialso cultigen. indigenous - original to the country, not introduced. indumentum - any covering, as hairiness. inferior ovary - one that is below the perianth. See also superior indigen - a plant of vation. See ovary. disposition of the flowers on the floral a fruiting stage. infundibuliform - funnel-shaped. inflorescence infructescence - the inflorescence in axis. ~46_ insectivorous - used of those plants which capture insects and absorb nutriment from them. insertion - mode or place where one body is attached to its support. integument - covering of a body or organ; envelope of an ovule. internode - the space or portion of stem between two nodes. introduced - used of plants which have been brought from another country : involucre - exotic. a whorl or set of bracts around a flower, umbel or head, the heads of composites and the flowering dogwood. involute - having the edges of the leaves rolled inwards. irregular flower - some parts different from other parts of the same whorl; usually applied to zy\",rornorphous flowers. etc., as m projecting ridge on a surface, like the keel of a boat; the petals of a papilionaceous corolla. key or key fruit - a winged-fruit, like in the maples; samara. knee - an abrupt bend in a stem or tree-trunk ; an outgrowth of some keel a two front tree-roots. labellum - lip, particularly the odd petal in orchids. lacerate - with margins appearing as if torn. laciniate - cut into deep narrow lobes. producing milky juice; as in the milkweeds. as if polished. lanate, lanose - woolly, clothed with soft entangled hairs. lanceolate - lance-shaped, about four times long as broad and broadlactescent - laevigate - smooth, est below or about the middle. lanuginose, lanuginous - woolly or cottony ; with long and interwoven hairs. latex - the milky juice of such plants as the milkweed. as latifoliate, latifolious - broad-leaved. leaching - losing material by percolation, triment rain washing away nu- the soil. leader - the primary or terminal shoot of a tree. leaf - the principal appendage or lateral organ borne by the stem or axis. Simple-leaf - when undivided, compound-leaf - when divided into distinct parts. leaf-scar - the mark or cicatrix left by the fall of a leaf. leaf-stalk - the stem of a leaf, petiole. leaflet - the separate division of a compound-leaf. legume - seed vessel or pod of the pea or bean family, usually dehisc~ng by both sutures. through 47] lemma - the lower of the two bracts grasses. lenticel - lens-shaped stomata on enclosing bark the flower in the to the spots on young corresponding the leaf. lepidote - with small scurfy scales. liana, liane - a woody climbing or twining plant. ligneous - woody. ligule - the strap-shaped corolla in the ray florets of composites; the membranous grasses. appendage at the summit of the leaf-sheaths of most long and narrow with nearly parallel margins. the principal lobes of a bilabiate corolla or calyx. lip loam - combination of clay with enough sand to counteract the cohering property of the clay; usually implies the presence of considerable decomposed organic matter with accompanying fertility. lobed - divided into or bearing lobes. loculicidal - dehiscent on the back of the cells of a capsule. See also linear - septicidal. lyrate - pinnat~fid with macro - a large terminal lobe and small basal lobes. compounds meaning long, large, or great. or spotted. male (flowers or plants) - having stamens but no pistils. marcescent - withering but not falling off. midrib - the central vein or rib of a leaf; costa. monadelphous - stamens united in one group by their filaments. moniliform - resembling a string of beads like the legume in Sophora. mono - in Greek compounds meaning one. monocotyledons (monocots) - plants having one cotyledon or seedmaculate - blotched _ in Greek lobe, as lilies and grasses; see also dicotyledons. monoecious - with unisexual flowers of both sexes on the same See dioecious. muck - any kind of impure or decayed peat or black swamp plant. earth, when used as manure. mucronate - tipped with a short abrupt point or mucro. mulch - strawy dung or any other material, as leaves etc. spread on the surface of ground to protect the roots of newly planted shrub especially or tree. an particularly between different species ; hybrid ; cross-breed ; usually an infertile hybrid. multiple fruit - the united product (in one body) of several or many mule - old word for a cross, 48 flowers ; muricate mutation - the pineapple or mulberry. See also syncarp. roughened with short hard points. variation derived by sudden changes in seedlings. See also as bud-mutation. flower without perianth. or organ where sugar or nectar is secreted. nerve - a slender rib or vein, particularly if unbranched. node - the place upon the stem which normally bears a leaf or leaves. nut - an indehiscent one-seeded hard and bony fruit. a naked flower a nectary - place ob - Latin prefix usually signifying inversion. inversely lanceolate; with the broadest part of a lanceolate body away from the point of attachment. oblique - slanting; unequal sided. oblanceolate - oblong - at least twice as broad obovate - inverted ovate. obtuse - as long. blunt, rounded. see odd-pinnate offset a impari-pinnate. plant arising close to the base of the mother plant. oleaginous - oily and fleshy. oligo - in Greek compounds meaning few. opaque - applied to a surface means dull, not shiny. orbicular - circular; rounded in outlme. ortet - the original plant from which a clon is derived. ovary - that part of the pistil containing the ovules or future seeds. ovate - having an outline like that of a hen's egg. palea - the upper bract which with the lemma encloses the flower grasses. in paleaceous - chaffy. palmate (leaf) - radiately lobed or divided with three or more veins arising from one point. panicle - a compound, usually loose flower-cluster, longer than broad branched raceme pannose - covered with as a corymb. woolly hair. butterfly-shaped ; applied to such papilionaceous or a felt of a corolla as that of the pea. papillose - bearing minute nipple-shaped protuberances. pappus - peculiar calyx-limb of composites, being plumose, bristleor like, scales otherwise. 49 parasite - organism which another grows on and derives nourishment from plant, the host. See also parietal - borne on or pertaining to the wall of a fruit. pari-pinnate - pinnate with an even number of leaflets. impari-pinnate. parted, partite - cleft nearly but not quite to the base. parthenogenesis - producing seed without fertilization. peat - carbonaceous substance formed by partial decomposition water of various plants especially sphagnum ; used as fertilizer mulch. pedicel - the stalk of a flower. m or pedicellate - borne on a pedicel. peduncle - the stalk of a flower-cluster; also used for the stalk of a solitary flower. pedunculate - borne on a peduncle. to its stalk inside the peltate - sh~eld-shaped; attached the leaf of nasturtium margin, like (Tropaeolum) and nelumbium. nerves arising along a central midrib. penninerved pentamerous - in fives. pepo - a hard-rinded berry of the gourd family such squash, etc. as pumpkin, perennial - of three or more seasons duration. perfect flower - having both stamens and pistils; b~-semal. See also imperfect flower. peri - Greek prefix meaning around. perianth - the floral envelope ; commonly used when there is no clear distinction between calyx and corolla ; as in the lilies. pericarp - the wall of the ripened ovary. perigynous - borne around the ovary and not at its base, as in flowers of cherry, where the perianth and stamens are borne on a cupshaped hypanthium. See also epigynous and hypogynous. persistent - remaining attached, not falling off ; opposite of deciduous. petal - one of the separate leaves of the corolla. petiole - leaf-stalk. petiolule - stalk of a leaflet. phenotype - biotype of mixed individuals having like external characters but of unlike germinal composition. pilose - with long straight hairs. pinnate (leaf) - compound with the leaflets placed on each side of a rachis. See also impari-pinnate and pari-pinnate. pinnatifid - cleft or dmided in a pinnate way. 50 pistil - the seed-bearing organ of and stigma. pistillate - having a pistil and no a flower consisting of ovary, style stamens. placenta - part of the ovary which bears the ovules. platy - Greek prefix meaning broad. pleio - Greek prefix for full or abounding, or many. plicate - folded into plaits. plumose - feathery. pluri - Latin prefix meaning many. pod - a dry dehiscent fruit. pollen - the fertilizing powder contained in the anthers. poly - Greek prefix meaning many. polycotyledonous - having several cotyledons. polygamous-bear~ng unisexual and bisexual flowers on the same plant. polypetalous - having separate petals ; choripetalous. See also gamopetalous. pome a fleshy fruit like the apple and pear. procumbent - trailing on the ground. prickle - spine-like outgrowth from bark or epidermis. pruinose - covered with a waxy, powdery secretion on the surface; a bloom. or pruning - artificial removal of twigs etc. branches from trees, shrubs, pseudo - Greek prefix for false, as pseudo-bulb. puberulent, puberulous - minutely pubescent. pubescent - covered with hairs, particularly if short and soft. pulvinate - cushioned. punctate - with translucent or colored dots or depressions. pungent - prickly-tipped as in the holly; acrid. pyrene - a seed-like nutlet or stone of a small drupe. pyriform - pear-shaped. quadri - Latin prefix meaning four; as quadrangular - four angled; quadrifoliate - four-leaved ; quadrifid - four-cleft. quaternate - in fours. quinate - in fives. quinque - Latin prefix meaning five ; as quinquelocular - five-celled. race - a permanent variety, or group of individuals whose distinguishing characters are constant and are reproduced true to type from seed. 51 raceme - a simple inflorescence axis. in racemes or of stalked flowers on a more or less elongated racemose - rachis - an radiate - resembling a raceme. bearing flowers or leaflets. spreading from a common center; with ray-flowers. axis individual of a clon. the margin portion of a composite flower when distinct from the ray disk. receptacle - the more or less expanded portion of an axis which bears the organs of a flower or the collected flowers of a head. recurved - curved downward or backward. reflexed - abruptly turned downward. ramet - any kidney-shaped. a slightly sinuate margin. reticulate - in the form of a network; net-veined. retuse - slightly notched at the rounded apex. reniform - repand - with revolute - rolled backward. rhachis rib a see rachis. or prominent vein in a leaf. beaked. rufous - reddish brown. rugose - wrinkled. runcinate - coarsely saw-toothed or cut, the pointed teeth turned toward the base of the leaf; as in the dandelion. runner - a slender and prostrate branch, rooting at the end or at the primary rostrate - joint. saccate - sac-shaped. an sagittate - shaped like ward. arrow-head, the basal lobes directed downa slender tube abruptly expanded into flat limb. samara - an ~ndehiscent winged fruit; see key. scabrous - rough to the touch. scale - a minute leaf or bract, usually appressed or dry. a salver-shaped (flower) - with scandent scape a climbing. from the peduncle rising ground, naked or without proper foliage. scarious - thin and dry, not green. scion - a slip or shoot used for grafting; see graft. scorpioid - coiled (ring-like) while in bud. 5Z ~ ] pitted. ripened ovule consisting of the embryo and its integuments. sepal - a division of the calyx. separation - multiplication of plants by means of naturally detachable asexual bodies or organs, as offsets, stolons. septicidal - dehiscing along or in the partitions. See also loculicidal. scrobiculate seed - the septifragal - where the valves in dehiscence break partitions. septum - a partition. serrate - having teeth pointing forward. serrulate - serrate with fine teeth. sessile - without any stalk. away from the ' bristle-like. with bristles. sheath - a tubular envelope, as the lower part of the leaf in grasses. shrub - a woody plant branched from the base. sinuate - wth the outlines of the margin strongly wavy. sinus - the recess between lobes, as in the leaves of some oaks. slip - a softwood cutting\"slipped'' off or pulled off; applied also to similar parts cut off. spadix - a spike with a fleshy axis. spathe - a large bract or pair of bracts inclosing the inflorescence; like Jack-in-the-pulpit. spathulate - gradually narrowed from a rounded summit. species - a natural botanical unit; composed of individuals which exhibit characters distinguishing them from all other units within a genus, still not differing from one another beyond the limits of indwidual diversity. setaceous setose - beset spicate - arranged in or resembling a spike. spike - a simple inflorescence with the flowers sessile a common or nearly so on axis. spine sport - a a sharp-pointed woody outgrowth from variation starting from a spur - any projecting appendage hollow; like in larkspur. stamen - the pollen-bearing male staminode, staminodium a the stem. bud or seed. of a flower, looking l~ke a spur but organ of a flower. sterile stamen or similar structure inserted between the corolla and the pistil. standard - the upper broad petal of a papilionaceous flower. stellate - star-shaped ; where several similar parts spread out from a common center, like a star. , ~ 53 of a plant arising from its root. fertile. stigma - the part of the pistil that receives the pollen. stipe - the stalk of a pistil. stem - the axis or axes sterile - barren ; not stipitate - having a stipe. stipule - an appendage at the base of the petiole, usually side. stock - the part on which the scion is stolon - a subterranean stem. stoloniferous stoma one on each grafted ; the strain or parentage. a breathing pore in the epidermis of the leaf leading into an intercellular space communicating with the internal tissue. stool - a clump of roots or rootstalk that may be used in propagation ; also an established low plant from which layers are taken. strain - a group of plants differing from the race to which it belongs by no apparent morphological characters, but by some enhanced or improved physiological tendency propagated from seed :as heavier yield in fruit. stratification - the operation or method of burying seeds to keep them fresh and to soften their integuments, or to expose them without injury to cold temperatures, that they may be more readily and bearing stolons. (pl. stomata) or stomate - successfully germinated. striate - marked with fine longitudinal lines. strict - very straight and upright. strigose - beset with appressed straight and stiff hairs. strike - to emit roots as from a cutting. strobile - an inflorescence marked by imbricated bracts in the pine-cone. style - a stalk between the ovary and stigma. subulate succulent sucker a or scales ; as awl-shaped. fleshy ; juicy. shoot arising from the roots or beneath the surface of the ground. slightly woody ; woody at the base. perennial plant with only the lower part of and of the branches woody and persistent. sulcate - grooved or furrowed. superior ovary - borne above the insertion of the perianth suffrutescent suffruticose - the stem and free from it. See also inferior ovary. suture - a line of splitting. L~~J ] syncarp - a fleshy aggregate fruit. a coiling thread-like organ by which a plant grasps an object for support. teratology - the subject of monstrosities, or of abnormal and aberrant forms and malformations. terete - circular in cross section. ternate - in threes. testa - the outer seed-coat. tetra - Greek prefix meamng four; tetragonal - four-angled; tetragonous - with four pistils or styles; tetramerous - with its parts or sets in fours; tetrandous - with four stamens. tetradynamous - six stamens, four long and two short. throat - the place where the limb of the corolla joins the corolla-tube. tendril - thyrse - a compact narrow panicle. tomentose - dense woolly pubescence. tomentum - dense covering of matted hairs. tortuous - twisted or bent. tree - a woody plant with one main stem, and at least four to five meters tall. tri - Latin prefix signifying three or thrice, as trifoliolate - with three leaflets. truncate - the end nearly straight across; as the apex of the leaf in the tulip-tree. tuber - a thickened portion of a subterranean stem or branch, provided with eyes (buds) on the sides. tumid - swollen. turbinate - top-shaped ; inversely conical. type - individual plant or part of plant (prepared and preserved) from which the description of a genus, species, variety, etc., has been prepared and upon which the scientific name has been based. umbel same an inflorescence with pedicels or branches arising at the point and of nearly equal length. undulate - wavy surface or margin. uni - in compound words meaning one. unisexual - of one sex, either staminate or pistillate. urceolate urn- utricle - a small shaped. bladder; or a bladdery one-seeded fruit. a vaginate - sheathed, surrounded by sheath. 55] valvate as opening by valves ; meeting by the edges without overlapping or a leaves petals in the bud. unit) - a sub-division of the species composed of individuals differing from other members of the species in certain minor characters which are usually perpetuated through generations by seed. vascular - with vessels or ducts. veins - the small ribs or branches of the framework of leaves. variety (as botanical velutinous - velvety. venation - arrangement of veins. ventral - relating to the inner surface nearer or part of an organ; the part the axis. ventricose - swelling unequally, or inflated on one side. vernation - the arrangement of leaves in the bud. verrucose - covered with wart-like elevations. versatile - relating to an anther attached near the middle and momng freely on its support. or disposed in a whorl. villous - bearing long and soft, usually curved viscid - glutinous ; sticky. verticillate whorl - the arrangement of three around the axis. or more curly, hairs. circle like organs in a wing - any membranous expansion. woolly - clothed with long and entangled soft hairs. zygomorphic - said of a flower which can be bisected only in one plane in similar halves. CLARENCE E. KOBUSRI [ 56] "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Professor Alfred Rehder's Retirement","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24088","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260a36e.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII OCTOBER ~5, 1940 NUMBER 11 I PROFESSOR ALFRED REHDER'S RETIREMENT the thirty-first of this year Professor Rehder retired from active service as Associate Professor Emeritus, after having been a staff member of the Arnold Arboretum for forty-two years. Born at Waldenburg, Saxony, September 4, 1863, he became a gardener and later studied at the Universities of Berlin and Gi>ttingen, after which he began his scientific career as assistant editor of Miiller's Deutsche Gartner-Zeitung, at that time one of the better known German horticultural publications. In 1898, at the age of thirtyfive he came to the United States to study American trees and shrubs at their source. He was employed by the Arboretum as a working student for the summer, and at the same time maintained his connection with Miiller's Deutsche Gairtner-Zeitung by writing articles for publication in that periodical. His intentions were to return to Germany in the autumn. By mere chance he became associated with Professor L. H. Bailey of Cornell University who was beginning work on his Cyclopedia of American Horticulture and was engaged to prepare the data appertaining to the important genera of woody plants for that publication. A year later, Professor C. S. Sargent, director of the Arnold Arboretum, in initiating work on the Bradley Bibliography arranged that the important task of compiling the data for this monumental work be assigned to Professor Rehder. During the years 1904-1906 Professor Rehder worked in European botanical libraries compiling the detailed information needed for the preparation of the manuscript. The first volume of this Bibliography was not published until 1911. While the Bradley Bibliography was in the final stages of publication, Professor Rehder began the preparation of \"Plantae Wilsonianae\" the two great works appearing almost simultaneously. On returning to the United States, after the completion of his ON August J~ account of the Bradley Bibliography, he the herbarium at the Arnold Arboretum and m 191assumed the title of curator. Professor Rehder set the standard for productive taxonomic research at the Arnold Arboretum and vastly widened its scope. At the same time he greatly stimulated the expansion of the herbarium which under his leadership was increased rapidly until rt now contains in excess of half a million spec- European library work on was appointed assistant in imens. The year following his appointment as curator, Professor Rehder organized the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum as a vehicle for the publication of technical papers prepared by staff members, and from that date has been its editor. Fortunately, for the best interests of the institution, he has consented to continue as editor of this publication which he instituted twenty-two years ago. Eighty-four numbers have been published and seldom has an issue appeared without at least one article written by him, for during this period Professor Rehder made eighty-two contributions to the Journal. However, this is but a small fraction of his published botanical and horticultural papers which to date approximate 980 titles. We sincerely hope that time will permit him to increase this number to well over the thousand mark. (Reprinted from the Journal of the Arnold Arboretum XXI N o. 4, Oct., 1940.) Dr. A. C. Smith, formerly associate curator of the New York Botanical Garden, has been appointed curator of the Herbarium at the Arnold Arboretum, his duties beginning October 1, 1940. A graduate of Columbia University in 1926, Dr. Smith received his Ph. D. from that institution in 1933, doing his research work at the New York Botanical Garden. He has been very much interested in the plant explorations in tropical regions, having accompanied E. P. Kilip of the Smithsonian Institution into Colombia and later on another trip travelling from Lima, Peru, across the Andes and down the Amazon, studying the plants used by the South American Indians for fish poisons. He also spent nearlv a year in Fiji (1933-34~ on a fellowship from the Bernice P. Bishop Museum in Honolulu. Again in 1937-38 he made another trip to South America as botanist for the TerryHolden expedition to British Guiana. Dr. Smith is the author of numerous botanical papers, dealing chiefly with the flora of tropical America, and Fiji. Previous to his appointment at the Arnold Arboretum, Dr. Smith was associate curator of the herbarium at the New York Botanical Garden. Dr. E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arboretum, has been appointed by the President of the National Academy of Sciences as one of the [ ,')8 BACHRACH eight directors of the Canal Zone Biological Area. This area within the Canal Zone includes Barro Colorado Island, and is set aside by Congress as an area in which the natural features shall, except in event of declared national emergency, be left in their natural state for scientific observation and investigation. The Board of Directors includes the Secretaries of War, Agriculture, and Interior, the Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, the President of the National Academy of Sciences, and three appointed members, Dr. Thomas Barbour (Director of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard), Dr. Alexander Wetmore (Assistant Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution), and Dr. E. D. Merrill. A VALUED GIFT OF BOOKS Mr. Ralph Lowell, Harvard 1912, and Mr. James H. Lowell, Harvard 1914, of Chestnut H~ll, recently delivered to the Arnold Arboretum librarya distinctly important assortment of botanical and horticultural publications. The gift, which is valued at more than $700.00, was made in memory of Mr. John Lowell, Harvard 1877, by his children, they being great grandchildren of Mr. George B. Emerson, Harvard 1817, who originated the idea of establishing an arboretum and who induced Mr. James Arnold to make provisions in his will with the hope that such an institution could be established (see Bull. Pop. Inf. ser. 4. 8: 1-11. 1940). With nearly 46,000 bound volumes on our shelves, one of the largest and most important botanical-horticultural libraries in the world, it is noteworthy that this recent accession should contain a number of important items new to the collection. TROPICAL FRUITS 1 One of the recent publications of the Arnold Arboretum is a 131 page booklet entitled \"Tropical Fruits for Southern Florida and Cuba and Their Uses,\" written by David Sturrock, Superintendent of the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum at Soledad, Cuba. Mr. Sturrock has been interested in tropical fruits which can be grown in southern Florida for a long time, and is well qualified to discuss the subject. Many introductions of recent years afford an excellent opportunity for enterprising fruit growers of the sub-tropical areas, and it is the author's hope in discussing many of these exotic fruits that the booklet will induce many local residents to appreciate more fully what is actually available to them, and that some may be inspired to develop local industries based on these exotic fruits, many of which cannot be grown in the United States outside the warmer parts of Florida. Over 125 fruits are discussed and some information given concerning the culture and potential economical possibilities of each. Because so little is known concerning some of these fruits, this booklet should go a long way in promoting interest in growing new fruits among southern Florida residents. (Price $1.25, at the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts.) [so: "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Hardiness Map for the United States","article_sequence":10,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24084","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d0708128.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII NOVEMBER 1, ts4o NUMBER 12 A HARDINESS MAP FOR THE UNITED STATES hardiness of plants is naturally of great interest to all plantsIt is only by long and careful trials that the northern limits of growth of any particular exotic tree or shrub can be determined. Even when the northern limits of a number of different species become known, it is somewhat difficult to divide the country into hardiness zones that are wholly satisfactory. Many such maps have been prepared, some reasonably satisfactory, others less so. After a careful consideration of all factors, it was felt that the best basis for limiting hardiness zones is the average annual minimum temperatures. The map here offered, first published in Hedges, Screens and Windbreaks by Donald Wyman in 1938, and later adopted and enlarged to include Canada by Alfred Rehder in the second edition of his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs ( 1940~, is about as accurate as any small-scale map can be. Hardiness of plants is an indeterminable quantity, based not only on a plant's resistance to minimum temperatures, but also on its resistance to maximum temperatures, and other factors such as lack of water, exposure, soil conditions, length of growing season, etc. It would be impossible to prepare a map depicting all these factors, though several might be included on a complex one. However, since a map based on the average annual minimum temperatures agrees in many instances with the known limits of hardiness of certain plants, these data were adopted as the basis for hardiness zones. Figures for the average annual minimum temperatures were published by the U. S. Department of Agriculture in 1936, based on data compiled by the Weather Bureau over a period of forty years, 1895 to 1935, and these figures were used as a basis for the preparation of the Hardiness Map. For this purpose the United States and Canada were arbitrarily divided into ten zones, nine of which are in THE men. = s1] the United States. These were based simply on ~, 10, or 15 degree differences in the average annual minimum temperatures. Professor Rehder used this same system in the first edition of his Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs (1927) ; but since his work was published before the U. S. Weather Bureau figures were available, there are certain discrepancies between the zones as adopted by him and the temperature data as published in 1936. Professor Rehder's new revised Manual ( 19~0) contains a map based on the later data and similar to the one shown in Plate VII, augmented somewhat by zone information for Canada. On a small-scale map such as this, it is impossible to show all the minute climatic variations within the limits of each zone. In this same connection, certain strains of plants mayprove hardier than others of the same species or botanical variety. Take, for instance, the Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus hbani) which was tried at the Arboretum unsuccessfully many times until seed was collected from the northernmost source of this plant in the Anti-Taurus fountains in Asia Minor. Seedlings grown from this seed have proved perfectly hardy and have been growing in the Arboretum for the past 37 years. Similar variations in the hardiness of other plants of a single species or variety are common. If a map of any one of these zones were enlarged, various zone changes would be noted due to altitude alone. The Grand Canyon, for example, appears on our hardiness map in one climatic zone; yet there are at least four climatic zones in this one canyon, due, of course, to variations in altitude. Plants grow at the bottom of the Canyon which thrive in the Mexican deserts, yet on the North Rim (5700 feet above the Canyon floor) plants are found which are native as far north as southern Canada. Consequently, many local variations in this small-scale map are to be expected. A plant is usually listed in the coldest zone where it will grow normally, but at the same time ~t can be expected to grow in many of the warmer zones where maximum temperatures and drought conditions might prove to be the only limiting factors. With these limitations in mind, the following plants are listed in the coldest zones where they can be expected to do well, simply as indicators for the large group of plants doing well in that particular zone. Using this general map as a basis and these lists of plants as indicators, similar hardiness maps could be worked out for limited areas or even for each state in the United States and each province in the Dominion of Canada, but in much greater detail. Such detailed maps would be of much greater value to local plantsmen than a general map covering the entire country, such as the one accompanying this article. ]sz]] w H a CL, WOODY PLANTS HARDY IN DIFFERENT ZONES Zone I (This Zone II includes the Arctic Regions of northern Canada.) Zone VI Acer ne~~undo Caragana arborescens Cornus alba Berberis buxifolia Bynonia capreolata Ilex crenata Myrica cerifera Taxus baccata Juniperus virginiana Prunus virginiana Zone III Zone VII Abelia triflora Ilex cornuta Prunus laurocerasus Euonymus alata L~gustrum amurense Lonicera tatarica Philadelphus Pinus strobus Zone IV coronarius Pyracantha crenato-serrata Quercus virginiana Zone VIII Abies concolor Betula popuhfolia Juniperus chinensis Euonymus japonica Ligustrum japonicum lllelia azedarach , Ligustrum vulgare Tsuga canadensis Zone V Abelia grandiflora Berberis triacanthophora Ilex opaca Pieris japonica Taxus cuspidata Zone X Myrtus communis Pittosporum tobira Zone IX Berberis darwini Cinnamomum camphora Cotoneaster pannosa Nerium oleander Raphiolepis umbellata Buginvillaea spectabilis Cocos nucifera Hibiscus rosa-sinensis Musa sapientum Roystonea regia 63] INCREASING THE ENDOWMENT OF THE ARBORETUM Since the work of the Arnold Arboretum is dependent on the infrom its restricted endowment, plus gifts for special or general purposes from its friends, it is very gratifying to report increases in the General Endowment Fund. Recently this Fund has been increased by two bequests totalling $35,554.90. Of this, $12,500.00 was from the estate of Miss Grace L. Edwards, formerly of Beacon Street, Boston, this being the final payment of her bequest of $25,000.00 ; and $23,054.90 from the estate of Mrs. James G. Freeman, formerly of Boston and Weston. The latter is added to the Laura Lucretia Case Fund which was established in 1925, the income to be used for the general purposes of the Arboretum. It is interesting to note that the total endowment of the Arnold Arboretum is made up of thirty-four different items, each being carried under the names of the individual donors. come GLOSSARY The \"Brief Glossary of the More Common Botanical and Horticultural Terms\" published by the Arnold Arboretum as Bulletin Nos. 7-10 of the Bulletin of Popular Information (July 19, 1940) has proved overwhelmingly popular. A few copies of this still remain and can be purchased for 25 cents from the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. . DIRECTIONS FOR THE PREPARATION OF HERBARIUM SPECIMENS The thirty-five page illustrated booklet by Dr. I. M. Johnston, entitled The Preparation of Botanical Specimens for the Herbarium, issued last year by the Arboretum, has proved to be so popular that the original edition is now exhausted. It is to be reprinted in a larger edition. Copies may be obtained from the Arnold Arboretum, price: 30 cents, prepaid. INSECT PEST BOOKLET An important booklet entitled Important Tree Pests of the Northeast has recently been published by the Massachusetts Forest and Park Association. This contains descriptions of 50 of the most important pests, written by a dozen or more experts. Full descriptions, pictures, and control are given for each. Further information concerning this excellent 187-page booklet may be obtained from Harris A. Reynolds, Secretary, Massachusetts Forest and Park Association, 3 Joy Street, Boston, Massachusetts. DONALD WYMAN 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, Soledad, Cienfuegos, Cuba","article_sequence":11,"start_page":65,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24093","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e0d260b36b.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VIII DECEMBER 18, ls4o NUMBER 1~ THE ATKINS INSTITUTION OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM, SOLEDAD, CIENFUEGOS, CUBA* distant of Harvard University's separately endowed and scattered units forming its botanical empire is the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum. It is situated at Soledad, about ten miles from Cienfuegos, on the south shore of Cuba, and approximately 190 miles from Havana. With the exception of the Harvard Forest at Petersham, Massachusetts, the remaining seven botanical institutions are located in Cambridge, Jamaica Plam, and Forest Hills, reasonably close to the holding body, the University itself. As the Atkins Institution, administratively a branch of the Arnold Arboretum, and like the Arboretum, based essent~ally on a great collection of living plants, is relatively little known to the botanical and horticultural public of the United States, it has been thought desirable to prepare this short paper summarizing its history, development, and objectives. Essentially the Atkins Institution is a botanical garden, one of the few in tropical America, and the only one not government supported. In this latter respect, being essentially a private foundation for the benefit of the public, it is unique in tropical America, and is thus in a strategic position to render important services not only to Cuba and its people, without cost to Cuba, but also to biologists in general particularly in North, Central, and South America. Mr. Edwin F. Atkins, then a young man, left Boston for Cuba in 1869 to learn Spanish and Spanish business methods, and in 1875 he assumed full charge of the Cuban affairs of his father's firm, E. Atkins & Company. Commencing in 1882, various tracts of land were acquired in connection with business matters, and previous to the Spanish- THE -t- widely most *See also Barbour, T. and Robinson, H. M. Monthly 51: 140-146. illus. 1940. Forty years of Soledad. Sci. 65 ] American war in 1898, these tracts had been consolidated and organized into one of the most modern and progressively managed sugar estates in Cuba*. The Soledad Sugar Company which he organized is still a family corporation, and one that has been outstandingly successful in its field. Mr. Atkins died in 1926 at the age of 76 years, but in the meantime he had initiated and provided for the future support of a project that is proving to be of increasing value to the country in which it is located and to biology in general. Mr. Atkins becoming interested in the possible development of better strains of sugar cane through selection and breeding, consulted with Professor George L. Goodale of Harvard University and with Professor Oakes Ames in 1899, the latter then a young man recently graduated from Harvard. These conferences resulted in an arrangement by which Professor Ames undertook to supply a certain amount of supervision and advice; Mr. Robert M. Grey, an experienced plant breeder, then in charge of the Ames collection of living orchids, was engaged for actual work at Soledad ; eleven acres of land were set aside for experimental purposes; and Mr. Atkins undertook to provide the necessary financial support. Thus began the botanical development at Soledad, some 40 years ago, which in 1932 officially became the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum, Harvard University. In addition to the work on breeding new varieties of sugar cane, an early project was the introduction and acclimatization of vegetables with view to selecting and breeding varieties adapted to Cuban climatic conditions. From the time the work was initiated at Soledad until he retired as Supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum in 1935, Professor Ames continued his interest in the project, operating it first as an adjunct to the Botanic Garden in Cambridge, later in connection with the Bussey Institution, with the advice of a special committee, and finally as an official part of the Arnold Arboretum. Both DIr. and Mrs. Atkins were interested in plants for their aesthetic and economic values, and Mr. Grey, a very keen plantsman, encouraged and supported by them, commenced to assemble a representative collection of tropical species. Among the first accessions wap an important collection of orchids and various other tropical ornamental plants transferred from the Ames greenhouses in North Easton to Soledad. Thus over a period of years the so-called \"old garden\" was developed, which now forms a section of the existing plantings at the Atkins Institution. Gradually through Mr. Atkins' continued interest and support the acreage was increased, the last boundary adjustments *Atkins, E. F. Sixty years in Cuba i-xii. 1-362, illus. 1926. . 66 ~] PLATE VIII House 2. Casa Catilina 1. Harvard having been made in 1938, when important adjacent tracts were added to the garden holdings by Mr. William H. Claflin, son-in-law of Mr. and Mrs. Atkins, President of the Soledad Sugar Company, and Treasurer of Harvard College. The total area of the garden is now 221.6 acres, about 40 acres less than the Arnold Arboretum holdings in Boston. Well over one half of the Soledad area has been developed on an approved planting scheme; roads, paths and bridges have been constructed, dams built across the small stream flowing through the garden to form a series of small ponds, a water tank and irrigation pipes installed, and ample propagating facilities provided. A great number of tropical plants that have been drawn from the warmer parts of both hemispheres have been established and are now thriving at Soledad. A list of plants in cultivation at Soledad was published in 1933*. In this work 1970 species were enumerated, representing 921 genera and 165 families; the number actually planted out is now between 2500 and 3000 species. Accessions for trial have been very large in the past few years. Thus in the period 1933-35 a total of 2~?50 species were received for trial, while in 1937 six hundred thirty two additional ones were accessioned. These figures suffice to give some idea of how rapidly the plantings are being enriched with both native and exotic species. a large palm garden, a fine cycad for marsh plants, a large succulent collection, gardens, garden, a rock garden on an exposed limestone outcropping at the end of the seboruco, a large cactus garden, a special place for native and exotic orchids and bromeliads, a vine section, a bamboo collection, and special areas designated and now under development for representatives of the great families of tropical flowering plants. Forming as it does an \"oasis\" surrounded by pasture land and sugar cane fields, and including a small permanent stream, the garden site forms a natural wild life sanctuary in which bird life is particularly abundant and interesting. Since the garden is located in a region where most of the native arborescent vegetation has been largely destroyed, it is fortunate that a considerable tract of native forest is included. This area, a rocky outcropping known as the seboruco, is being maintained as a characteristic representation of native lowland Cuban forest. The entire region is characterized by a relatively dry tropical climate, the annual rainfall averaging about 50 inches. Because of prolonged dry seasons, we Established plantings include water areas *Gray, R. M. and Hubbard, F. T. List of plants growing in the botanical garden of the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum at Soledad, Cienfuegos, Cuba. i-vi. 1-~~5. 1933. G8 ~ PLATE IX of the ponds in the Palm Collection Q. Ceiba pentandra, Ceiba or Kapok Tree one 1. View across thus have the opportunity of developing tropical plantings of those species that are more or less characteristic of those parts of Asia, Australia, Africa, Mexico, and South America which have somewhat similarclimat~c conditionsall of these regions have contributed extensively to the rapidly expanding plantings at Soledad. At the same time, with irrigation, it is possible to grow a great many tropical species that are adapted to regions of higher hmnd~ty and a greater or more evenlv distributed annual raitifall. To provide for the future support of the growing garden, Mr. Atkins in 1919-~0 presented to Harvard Unmersity the initial payments on 1 an endowment fund. This was increased by addit~onal gifts from 19 ~1 to 191~, until the total anrounted to :~ I 8.i,1-11 . 00. 'I'his fund N~as cle5ignated as the Atkins Fund for Tropical Research in Economic Botany, the annual income to be expended at Soledad. Naturally with an assured annual income limited to that recem ed from this endowment,the activities at Soledad must of necessity be restricted,and much highly desirable work must be deferred. Again as the planted areas are increased, the cost of maintenance also mereases. In 19?-t the Cuban unit was designated as the Harvard Biologic Institute in Cuba, and eight years later, in 1932, under the administration of Professor Ames, to simplify administration and to bring about a somewhat closer atfiliation with the northern units in Massachusetts, the name was changed to the Atkins Institution of the Arnold Arboretum. Thus in etFect the general field of the Arnold Arboretum in its attempt to maintain a great collection of hardy plants in the not too hospitable climate of New England, has been extended to the tropics, where, with the income from the Atkins fund, a great collection of tropical plants is now established, and is being maintained and increased. In 19 ~ t, llZr. Atkins provided for the construction of Harv ard House, as a combined headquarters building, lxburutory, and lit y~ quarters, and here, since that date, many scientists have been entertained for lunger or shorter periods of time. Here staff members of Harvard University, and graduate students, recipients of' Harvard Fellowships for work at Soledad, and representatives of other institutions have made their home. the facilities include desk space, microscopes, \",=lassware and other laboratory equipment, an herbarium containing a large collection ot' Cuban plants and representatives of species culticated in the garden, a reference library, plant presses and dr~ers; in fact that general type of equipment that is nu~uually needed fur burlogual laboratory and field work, so that visitors need take little with them other than what is needed to meet their special personal requirements. Yet from the time Harvard House was constructed, in spite of the limited L 70 : PLATE X 1. Ravenala madagaseanensis, Tra, clcrs' Tree 2. Bamboo at its best facilities available therein, an incomplete list of registrants who have lived and worked there exceeds 130 individuals, about half of whom were botanists and half zoologists. A new dormitory, Casa Catalina, was constructed in1938, with funds generously provided by Mrs. Atkins and Dr. Thomas Barbour, Director of Harvard University Museum and Custodian of the Atkins Institution This ~s beautifully located at the crest of the ridge overlooking the garden, with a magnificent view of the Trinidad Mountains beyond. Casa Catalina now provides sleeping accomodations for at least twelve persons so that there is no reason why the facilities at present available at the Atkins Institution should not be more widely utilized. Up to the time that Casa Catalma was constructed it was, of course, necessary to limit the number of residents or workers at Soledad, and naturally preference was given to the officers and students of Harvard Universitv. Three Harvard University Fellowships for work at Soledad are available annually to graduate students registered at the University, and from time to time others have been made available, either from the income from the Atkins Institution endowment, or from gifts received for this purpose. In the summer of 19~0, nine graduate students and one instructor worked at Soledad on various botanical and zoological problems. Representatives of other institutions and individuals interested in general biological problems, in botany, and in horticulture, are always welcome up to the limits of available space in Casa Catalina and Harvard House. Aside from the excellent facilities now available at the Atkins Institution for biological work based on material cultivated in the garden, there are, of course, a great number of problems appertaining to the native flora and fauna of the region as a whole. The Atkins Institution forms an excellent center for biological field work on these wider problems, for many interesting regions are accessible from Soledad, includmg the Trinidad Mountains, with their tropical vegetation, a short distance north of the garden, which attain altitudes of between 3000 and 1000 feet; while for individuals more interested in marine zoology the brackish reaches of the Caunao, Arimao and Anaya Rivers and the salt waters of Cienfuegos Bay and the Carribean Sea are accessible. Or again, one interested in floristic studies can reach the extensively developed xerophytic vegetation characteristic of coastal areas, the mangrove swamps, and farther along the largest fresh water swamp in Cuba, the Cienega de Zapata, with many interesting endemic plants and animals; and to the north and east, in Santa Clara Province, between Cienfuegos and Havana, the extensive palm barrens with their characteristic plant and animal life. 72. In 19L7, Dr. Thomas Barbour, because of his long interest in Cuban biology, his knowledge of the Spanish language and of Cuban conditions, was appointed Custodian of the Atkins Institution. Since then he has continued to direct its general program and handle its budgetary details. Because of increasing interest on the part of leading Cuban officials and citizens in the progress of the work at Soledad, on the recommendation of Dr. Barbour, the following Cuban citizens were officially appointed as Collaborators of the Atkins Institution by the President and Fellows of Harvard College in 1938 : Dr. Juan T. Riog y Wesa, Brother Leon (Joseph Sylvestre Sauget y Barbier), Dr. Gonzalo Martinez Fortun y Foyo, Dr. Julin Acuna y Gale, Dr. Alberto J. Fors y Reyes, Dr. Jorge Dechapelle, and Jose Perez Carabia. Thus we have the sympathetic interest and support of a group of Cuban citizens who are alive to the benefits that the Atkins Institution can bestow on Cuba. As an example of what may come through the pioneer work of the Atkins Institution, our experience with teak, first introduced in Cuba at Soledad, may be cited. This tree grows with remarkable rapidity, and its timber is highly resistant to decay and to the ravages of term~tes. Some of the officials of the Soledad Sugar Company, intrigued by this and by other exotic and native tree species, have established extensive forest plantings on land not particularly adapted to, or needed for, the cultivation of sugar cane, with view to providing for a future supply of durable timber for railroad ties and general construction purposes. It is evident, because of the extensive deforestation of many parts of Cuba, that in the future this problem of local timber supplies will become more and more important, and it is highly probable that other sugar estates will follow the lead of Soledad and establish similar plantings. It is very important to have a body of knowledge available regarding the cultural requirements of selected tree species, and at the same time a ready supply of fresh viable seeds. A project that is now engaging the attention of Mr. Sturrock, the present superintendent, is the amplification of the collection of trop~cal plants that produce edible fruits, supplementing the large collection assembled by Mr. Grey. The objective is to have available breeding stock from widely scattered sources that may be used to produce better varieties by selection and hybridization. Mr. Sturrock is also interested in the possible utilization of tropical fruits and their products* and as was his predecessor, ~Ir. Grey, in the introduction and establish- *Sturrock, D. Tropical fruits of southern Florida t-131. 1940 (published by the Arnold Arboretum). and Cuba and their uses. 73 supplementary food plants to augment and diversify the satisfactory diet of the guajiros. present The garden already contains representatives of the leading tropical economic species, such as the bread fruit, jak fruit, coffee, nutmeg, clove, Manila hemp, litchi, cinnamon, etc., as well as botanical ment of not too ball tree, and traveler's well as a great collection of true palm all), palm (which palms (over 260 species) and cycads from the tropics of both hemispheres, and a great variety of economic and ornamental trees, shrubs, vines, and herbs. Some of the large groups are Aloe, with 90, Agaae with 60, and Euphorbia (the fleshy forms) with 40 species. The Cactaceae is represented by 47 genera and about ~60 species. The plantings are easily accessible through a series of roads and grass paths extending to all parts of the grounds. In the local administration of the Atkins Institution, Mr. Robert M. Grey retired as Superintendent Emeritus in 19~6, after a long period of efficient service, but he still resides at Soledad. He was succeeded by Mr. David Sturrock, the present Superintendent. :llr. Sturrock is ably assisted by Mr. F. G. Walsingham, a Kew Garden graduate, who is in charge of accessions and exchanges, propagation and records. Individuals wishing to avail themselves of the facilities at the Atkins Institution forafew days or longer should address the Custodian, Dr. Thomas Barbour, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Accredited individuals planning to visit Soledad via Havana should communicate with our Havana agent, Miss Marion Henriquez, Western Union Building, Dept. 604, Havana, who will make all necessary local arrangements. Cienfuegos may be reached from Havana by train, by bus, or by airplane, or one may drive from Havana direct to 1 Soledad over surfaced roads. Mr. Sturrock's address is Apartado 251 Cuba. Dormitory facilities and private rooms (Soledad) Cienfuegos, are available at Casa Catalina and at Harvard House, while meals may be had at Harvard House. The charges are very moderate. Doubtless some horticulturally minded individuals visiting Cuba may wish to see this great collection of named palms and other tropical plants. Visitors are always welcome at the Atkins Institution, and we mll be only too glad to advise them, and to assist in any way that we can in reference to any such proposed pilgrimage. Frankly, one of the objectives in writing this account was to make the general facilities at the Institution better known to our botanical and horticultural public with the hope that more and more individuals, visiting Cuba, may include a trip to the Atkins Institution in their itinerary. curiosities like the baobob tree, cannon isn't a at as , E. D. MERRILL . "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume VIII","article_sequence":12,"start_page":77,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24086","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070856c.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES Illustrations are 4 VOLUME VIII in bold face type. Acer saccharum 18 monumentale, - Cytisus praecox, scoparius, 14 14 - - canadensis, 22 grandiflora, 22 -rubescens, 24 laevis, 2l Ames, Oakes, 66 Anti-Taurus Mountains, 62 Arnold, James, Plate I, 5 James, 1, 2, 60 Fund, The James, 1 2 Professorship, Atkins, Edwin F., 65 Fund for Tropical Research in Economic Botany, 70 - Amelanchier Distribution of Plant materials to various parts of the world, 17 Dixwell, John J., 1, 1,, 7, 8 Edwards, Miss Grace L., 64 Eleagnus angustifolia, Eliot, President, 8 - 34 Emerson, George B., Plate I, 5 George B., 1, ;I, 4, 7 , 8, 9, 60 Endowment of the Arboretum, - Institution of the Arnold Ar- Increasing, 64 Euonymus planipes, 19 Founding of the Arboretum, 1 Freeman, Mrs. James G., 64 Genesis of the Arnold Arbore- boretum,Soledad,Ceinfuegos, Cuba, The, 65-74 1 Bamboo at its best, Plate X, 71 Barbour, Thomas, 72, 73, 74 \"Bradley Bibliography\", 57 Brighton Meadows, 9 Broom, Warminster, 14 - tum, The, 1-10 of the more common botanical and horticultural terms, A brief, 37-56 Godkin, E. L., 10 Glossary 2 Bussey estate, Institute, 8 Canal Zone Casa Case 64 Biological Area, 60 Casa Catalina, Plate VIII, 67 Goodale, George L., 66 Grand Canyon, 62 Gray, Asa, 4, 7, 8, 9, Greene, Jerome D., 10 Grey, Robert M., 66, 73, 74 Hardiness map for the United Catalina, 72 Fund, The Laura Lucretia, States, Plate VII, - 62 map for the United States, in Cedar of Lebanon, 62 Cedrus libani, 62 Ceiba pentandra, Plate Claflin, William H., 68 61-64 IX, 69 - Cornus mas, Flowering branch of, Plate II, 15 - Biologic Institute 0 Cuba, 70 House, 70, 72 House, Plate VIII, 67 Hemlock, Canada, 13 Harvard ] =~7~ 3 - Carolina, 13 Henriquez, Miss Marion, 74 Henry VI, 32 Honeysuckles, Bush, 24 6 Horticultural Club of Boston, 16 Japanese flowering quinces, 24 - Ornamental 20 plants, lleritorious, Palm Collection, View across one of the ponds in, Plate IX, 69 tree lilac (Syringa amurensis japonica) Plate IV, Z6 Kapok Tree, Plate IX, 69 Lancaster, House of, 32 Lilac, Chinese, 27 , Hairp, 28 --, Persian, 27 Lilacs in their order of bloom, The Arboretum, 25-28 Lowell, James H., 60 8 Parker, Francis E., 1,4,7,8 Peabody, Andrew Preston, 4 `< Plantae Wilsonianae\", 57 i Plants from abroad, New, 24 - hardy in different zones, Woody, 63 Prunus avium, 28 Quinces, Japanese flowering, Ravenala 24 madagascariensis, 71 59 Plate X, Rehder, Alfred, Plate VI, -, John, 60 -, Lucy, 10 -, Ralph, 60 Lu-Shan Arboretum, ~?4 - Alfred, 16 -, Retirement of Alfred, 57-60 Rehder's \"Manual of Cultivated R2 Magnolia denudata, - kobus, 22 borealis, l2 z - proctoriana, 22 Magnolia salicifolia, soulangeana, 22 stellata, 22 - - Trees and Shrubs\", 36 Rhododendron collection, 14 t obtusum kaempferi, 2 Rhododendron schlippenbachi, 24 ?2 rosea, 22 22 - yedoense, 24 poukhanense, Rosa alba, 32 centifolia, 32 -- 24 Magnolias, Early, -, Showing Plate mucosa, 32 the differences in the flowers of three early, III, 23 - with early white flowers, 22 \"Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs'', 61 Map of the Arboretum, 21, 25 Merrill, E. D., 16, 58 Museum d'Historie I~aturelle, 16 damascena, 32 versicolor, 32 - foetida, 34 - - - persiana, 34 32 - gallica, 32 versicolor, - - harisoni, 34 - hugonis, 34 multiflora, 34 - carnea, 34 Olmsted, Frederick Law, 9 - primula, 34 rubrifolia, 34 -- 78] - - rugosa, 34 setigera, 35 - - - spinosissima, 34, 35 lutea, 35 virginiana, The Virginia rose - as it grows in a border plant- ing at the Arnold Arboretum, 32 - Plate V, 31 Rose, Cabbage, 30, -, Damask, 32 -, Father Hugo's, Rose, French, 32 -, Japanese, 34 Persian Yellow, -, Redleaf, 34 -, Scotch, 35 __ - henryi, 28 hyacinthiflora, 27 Necker, 27 Turgot, 27 - japonica, 28 - oblata, 27 -dilatata, 27 Syringa persica, 25 laciniata, 28 pinnatifolia, 27 - - - - - - - 34 - - prestonae, 28 pubescens, 19, 28 34 species for landscape use, - species, Some, 29-35 Virginia, 30 -, York and Lancaster, -, 33 - reflexa, 28 swegiflexa, 28 villosa, 28 - ul~aris, 25 Travelers' Tree, Plate X, 72 2 \"Tree Pests of the Northeast, - Important\", 32 10 64 Sargent, Charles Sprague, Sea tomato, 34 Sequence of bloom of 26-27 lilacs, Trials and tribulations of an Arboretum, Some, 17-20 \"Tropical Fruits for Southern Florida and Cuba and Their Uses\", 60 Shadblows, 22 Smith, A. C., 58 3 Soledad Sugar Company, 68, 73 Spring, Th~s, 14 Sturrock, Dav~d, 60, 73, 74 Sugar cane, 66 Syringa amurensis, 28 - United States Department of Agriculture Weather Bureau, 61 Viburnum dilatatum xanthocar- pum, 19 - setigerum aurantiacum, 19 amurensis japonica, Plate 25 - IV, 26 chinensis, - - saugeana, 28 Walsingham, F. G., 74 Winter, This past, 13-16 York, Duke of, 32 -, House of, 35 These Bulletins will be discontinued until spring of next year. Subscription renewals for 1941 are now due. Send the subscripprice of $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., at your early convenience. tion ] : 79 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"arnoldia","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23353","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd270a36e.jpg","title":"1940-8","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1940,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24071","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060b76c.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS A typical rhododendron planting in the Northwest, Plate I, l2 p. 9 Viburnum fragrans, Plate was II, p. 15 When the Arboretum Malus ioensis plena Bechtel's Crab, young-1890, Plate III, Plate (branch) IV, p. 29 ioensis plena) Plate V, (Malus p. 27 Index Kewensis in its new Loose Leaf Form at the Arnold Arboretum, Plate VI, p. 39 Logs awaiting the saw mill in Tom Swamp Pond of the Harvard Forest, Petersham, Massachusetts, mute evidence of the terrific destruction caused by the hurricane last fall, Plate VII, p. 9~~ Eel Pond swamp, Woods 47 Hole, September 29, 1939, was Plate VIII, p. Japanese Black to salt Pine (P.thunbergi) IX, p. 49 outstanding in its resistance water, Plate Seedling crabapples at growth, Plate X, the Arnold Arboretum after their first year of p. 6(i Granite and shale mountains around the western end of Brintnell Lake, Plate XI, p. 70-71 iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Past Winter at the Arboretum","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24081","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070b325.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4 VOLUME VII 1939 , L 'VE ,\" RI , 1, 1A5 1 PUBLISHED BY THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM JAMAICA PLAIN, MASSACHUSETTS ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII APRIL 14, 1989 NUMBER I THE PAST WINTER AT THE ARBORETUM past THE wood--literally sawing wood, ing winter at the Arboretum has been spent chiefly in saw- stroyed, their removal became a Popular Information of October 7, 1938, a graphic description was given of the damage done by the hurricane of September 21. Although a great deal remains to be done, a majority of the fallen trees have been removed, particularly those adjacent to the roads and walks. for with about 1500 trees demajor project. In the Bulletin of Because an extra force of men has worked full time all winter, the casual visitor in the Arboretum this spring will see few fallen trees, but will notice hundreds of stumps here and there in the collections where trees once stood-grim reminders of the fury of the September storm. A great deal of necessary pruning is at least three months to complete this being done pruning now. It will take program. Trees that were otherwise uninjured have many broken branches which must be removed and clean cuts made in order to prevent trouble from insects and diseases later on. Everyone in New England is fully aware of the extreme damage done to trees in the path of the September hurricane. The Arboretum has done everything within its power to make the plantings look presentable for the flowering season this spring. Even with an extra force of men it has been necessary to omit the ordinary routine tasks normally taken care of m the fall and winter. Although there is much obvious repair work yet to be done, it is hoped that spring visitors will appreciate the progress that has been made. There are at least three areas in the Arboretum so badly damaged by the hurricane that they will havee to be replanted. One of these is at the rear of the administration building, another at the top of Hemlock Hill and the third, the hill along South Street where so many of the beautiful torch azaleas were planted by E. H. Wilson about ten years ago. Evergreens will be used to replant these areas, but they will not be placed until late August or early September, for that is the season when such trees are best moved. Since it will be impractical to water the plants after they are once in place, it is far better to plant them in the fall, rather than m the spring when they will have to go through the hot, dry summer months with little attention. Hemlocks will be used for replanting the top of Hemlock Hill. Some of the venerable specimens uprooted in the September storm were growing when George Washington was President, others are much younger. It will take the better part of a century before the magnificent grove on Hemlock Hill will again approach its perfection of September 1938. The soil is extremely shallow, in some places being only about eighteen inches deep. Because of such poor growing conditions, it has been thought advisable to replace the large trees with smaller ones, each young tree with a ball of earth around its roots. This will enable them to get a quick start. Providing the weather conditions prove too much for the first planting-several hundred 2-3 foot plants have been acquired to be cared for in the nursery through two growing seasons. After this time they will be planted in the more open places on Hemlock Hill or where some of the other young plants may have died. It was thought better to replant in stages, rather than to do the entire task at once and thus take a chance on weather conditions ; for if one long dry spell occurred after the first planting, many y of the plants might suffer severely or be lost entirely. The bank at the rear of the administration building was originally planted with white and red pine. Later, other interesting evergreens were added. The large grove of white pines was practically eradicated in the hurricane, and this area will be replanted with small white pines. Some of the young exotic spruces will be rearranged in the fall, but to make this planting beautiful once more, it will be necessary to plant some larger trees. For this purpose, some splendid Carolina hemlocks approximately fifteen feet tall will be moved from the Walter Street tract to the hill back of the administration building. With such good plants, once in place, an interesting evergreen planting should be established in a very few years. Red pines will be replanted on the South Street hill. One of the last plantings that E. H. Wilson authorized was that of approximately one thousand torch azaleas on this bank. The bank was well adapted for such a planting for on it were growing many vigorous red pines which gave sufficient shade to protect the delicate azalea flowers. When exposed to the full strength of the sun for any length of time, the flowers of the torch azalea fade in a very few days, but when given some shade during the day, they may last for a week or longer. The hurricane destroyed the majority of red pines on this bank. The thousand azaleas are still there, mostly unharmed, but in mid-May when tection from the bloom, their flowers will be sadly in need of some probright sun. Since the red pme is of very vigorous growth, it is expected that the three foot plants which will be placed there this fall will develop rapidly enough to give the needed protec- they will be in tion within a few years. A large number of stumps still remain. It is hoped that during the summer the smaller stumps can be removed. A tractor has been needed in the Arboretum fora long time and one was acquired this spring to be used especially for stump removal and to take care of the heavy work connected with moving the large Carolina hemlocks this fall. Larger stumps will be cut close to the ground and allowed to rot in place, as their immediate removal is a very expensive undertaking. It is a comparatively simple matter with proper equipment to remove stump after the other along the highway or street, but when such stumps are on steep banks and among closely planted trees and one shrubs, it becomes practically impossible to remove them without jury to adjacent plantings except at very great expense. Age of Trees Destroyed in- Bulletin readers may be interested in the age of some of the trees destroyed by the hurricane. In the case of those trees about 70 years of age or older, the figures were obtained by ring counts. For the younger trees, data were compiled from our planting records, as accurate data have been maintained appertaining to all trees planted since 1872. 8 (Note): All these were perfectly healthy trees with solid trunks. Other trees were blown over, many of them natives but with rotten trunks. Many of these were very old, possibly older than any listed above, but it was impossible accurately to estimate their age because of the decayed interior parts of the trunks. area which will be replanted within a year or two is the base of Peter's Hill where the older poplar collection was located. Since this slope faces the tracks of the New York, New Haven and Hartford Railroad (Dedham Branch) it affords an excellent amphitheater for a display of flowering trees. It had been decided to replant this area with a comprehensive collection of the oriental flowering crabapples. The plants are being grown in the nursery now and will be ready for transplanting to this bank in a year or two. These trees are most attractive when in full bloom, and because of their heavy crops of small colored fruit are again attractive in the fall. In some species and varieties the fruits remain on the trees well into the winter. Individuals familiar with the Arborway may regret to notice the removal of most of the large willows immediately within the fence. Because of their age and their brittle nature it was decided in 1937 to remove about one third of them in the winter of 1937-38, which was accomplished. The plan was to remove another third in the winter of 1938-39, and the remainder the following winter. Because of the extreme breakage during the September storm, most of the remaining trees were removed this past winter, and the few that are left will be taken out next winter. They are to be replaced by intermixed plantings of red maple, tupelos and sour woods. DONALD WYMAN A fourth slope at the (Note): Subscription renewals for 1939 are now due. Those who have not resubscribed, and who desire to continue to receive the Bulletin, should remit $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at an early date to insure continuity in the receipt of the numbers as issued. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Rhododendrons in the Pacific Northwest","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24075","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d0608927.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Ihrig, Herbert G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY . + BULLETIN APRIL ~S, 1989 OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII NUMBER 2 RHODODENDRONS IN THE PACIFIC NORTHWEST BY HERBERT IHRIG Ghairman, Rhododendron Committee Arboretum Foundation Seattle, Washington is the the coastal region Northwest. This territory extends along from British Columbia through Washington, Oregon and northern California. O~ing to the warmth of the Japanese current, climatic conditions are mild with an absence of extreme heat and cold, but while the rainfall is generally less than either Boston or New York, the periods of rain are much longer. This moist weather and a naturally acid soil seem to meet their requirements to a remarkable degree. Whether they come from the higher elevations of the Himalayas, the jagged gorges of Upper Burma or China, or the open moorlands of Tibet, they readily adjust themselves to our garden and woodland. These facts have long been known to students of horticulture, but are not today generally understood in this country. While England has experimented for more than one hundred years and developed a literature that reflects a long and continued appreciation of rhododendrons, it is only in recent years that we have made worth while con- THE Pacific greatest area in America for growing rhododendrons tribution. Not only has plant material representing very numerous species been unavailable, but owing to the embargo that existed for some time, we failed to keep pace with the hybrid developments abroad, especially in England and Holland. Occasionally some individuals imported seed or a few new hybrids, but little or no record was kept 5 of their results, so that interested amateurs like myself were at a loss as to what to buy or where to buy. It was for that purely selfish reason that I first began my importations. I wished to test some of the better things and to determine what was hardy in our locality, what really constituted garden value,\" and what the conditions of soil and growth were. I started with one great advantage in that most of the English rhododendron literature is applicable to our climatic conditions, and the work of the Rhododendron Association in establishing standards was invaluable as a guide. Its ratings, when criticised as not suitable for the Umted States are misunderstood, for obviously those on hardiness apply only to the British Isles and each rating is so defined. These ratings give one an established starting point and should be even more valuable to the eastern experimenter than to one on the Pacific Coast. Ratings are as follows: (A) Hardy anywhere (B) (C) (D) (E) (F) is in the British Isles and may be planted in full exposure if desired. Hardy anywhere in the British Isles, but requires some shade to obtain the best results. Hardy along the seaboard and in warm gardens inland. Hardy in south and west, but requires shelter even in warm gardens inland. Requires shelter in most favored gardens. Usually a greenhouse shrub. In our Northwest area a plant with an \"A,\" \"B,\" or \"C\" rating hardy in most locations. A plant with a \"D\" rating is generally hardy, although inclined to be a sparse bloomer except in occasional years. A plant with an \"E\" rating can be grown in favorable locations, and in my garden R. Barcla,yi \"Helen Fox,\" a large, broadleaf variety, which is rated \"E,\" blossoms in early March and has never missed a year since it reached a blossoming age. I have, also, grown plants with \"F\" ratings with light winter protection. As to \"Garden Merit\" the English Association's ratings, like all such, are subject to change as standards improve and experience varies, but they can generally be accepted as the best guide available. On the basis of these ratings, as borne out by local experience, there are no less than two hundred and sixty seven different species of garden merit that can be generally grown out of doors in the Pacific Northwest; nineteen others are suitable for favored locations, and more than four hundred that are questionable or untried a general idea of the variety of the beauty and variety of types that impart figure species, but are encompassed, ranging from tiny creepers only a few inches high These numbers in themselves give no can to huge trees. These naturally divide themselves into definite botanical groups, but for the layman these can be grouped in five general subdivisionsv (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) The broad-leaf varieties The narrow-leaf varieties The Alpine or rock garden varieties The Azalea group The Hybrids The Broad-leaf Varieties In the broad-leaf division lies the parentage of most of our lovely garden hybrids, and the finest stock comes from India, northern Burma, and western China. Representatives of such series as Barbatum, Fortunei, Irroratum and others do wonderfully well in this area and embrace many lovely varieties. They range from small shrubs to huge tree forms, some of which eventually reach the height of forty to sixty feet (R. Calophytum 30'-tOz ; R. Barbatum 30z-60'). Conditions under which they grow in their native home, however, vary greatly. Some come from rain forests ; others high, open woodlands ; and the American grower's chief task is to find the conditions of soil, exposure, sun, and shade best suited to their success. While I have grown several thousand plants of nearly two hundred different species, my experience is too limited to make any dogmatic statements. Generally I have found that the larger the leaf the more shade required. Shade, however, is a comparative term. It varies in density and moisture content, two factors of importance and different in various localities. None seem to do well in \"deep shade\" or beneath overhanging branches. They do best with the sky overhead, and their shade intermittently broken with sunshine such as comes through tall abutting trees. The Narrow-leaf Varieties The narrow-leaf group, in which I have included such species as R. rubiginosum, yunnanense, lutescens, Daridsoniannma, heliolepis, and others, will stand considerable sun and a dryer location. A number of these have beautiful flowers, but are difficult to place in a garden as they are sometimes inclined to be unshapely. In an open, naturalistic planting, however, they are a real joy, and a number of R. yunnanense planted with our native Salal (Gaultheria Shallon) and Oregon Grape (Mahonia Aquifolium) is a sight worthy of a long pilgrimage. 7 The Alpines and other rock When a we consider the alpines to be garden varieties are even general statement is apt misleading in that there many different ideas as to what constitutes a rock garden type. Low alpines such as R. myrtilloides, pemakoense, imperator, tum, keleticum, radicans, and similar species have done well in but I always try to get their roots well under rocks where protected from direct sun rays and do not dry out. Almost all of the Lapponicum series which include such as Calostrofull sun, they are varieties R. fastigialum, impetlitum, intricatum, russatum, scintillans, sun. etc. do well I grew them in semi-shade for several years and they were leggy, poorly shaped and sickly, but when moved into full sun sent out new shoots from the base and main stock so that in two years they were in full shapely, healthy, well-grown plants. R. ciliatum grows to six feet in favorable locations, but when exposed to full sun breaks out at the base and forms one of the best rock plants I know. Occasionally a precocious shoot may try to attain height, but can be easily cut back. R. glaucunz is another that shapes better and remains comparatively low in the sun. R. moupinPnse, which I have always protected, as it blossoms in February, has been moved to full sun and shows material improvement. R. racemosum does nicely in any location. R.Tephropeplum seems to prosper in either sun or shade, but remains lower in the sun. Then there are some like R. repens that I have been unable to make happy in any location. The alpine group is so extensive and varied that it is impossible to discuss it fully at this time, but it offers perhaps more immediate interest than any other group because of its beauty, and the 'demand for new and interestmg rock plants. From it will, no doubt, come varieties and hybrids that can be generally grown throughout the United States, and a wealth of beauty awaits the hybndist. The Azaleas the west coast with deciduous azaleas differs little Experience from that in the east, but in evergreen types we have a great many new comers such as malvaticum ~' Kae~npferi and Japanese crosses of eriocarpum, indicum (macranthum~, scabrum, and others. These undoubtedly have a very definite place in the future. At present these crosses have become intricate and variations are so slight that the entire group is sadly in need of standardization. This will come with time, but meanwhile we will continue to grow many varieties, all beautiful and interesting, and hope that out of on ~ ~ x 0 ~ Z :5 ~C !!L t w 0( Po A.'t1. 2 o 0 E-4 c ~ bA Cor 't1 't1 o co '5. t' them will come more hardy varieties that will be available to section of the country. The a larger Hybrids layman hybrid is just another Rhododendron, but reality something quite different. It is the result of a scientific effort to adjust or improve plants for garden use. It has the heritage of long years of effort in crossing and recrossing species with species or with other proven hybrids. These are grown under garden conditions and take more kindly to garden change. The aims of the hybridist have been varied. Some have sought to improve hardiness, some color, form or foliage, and their success has advanced our standards to a remarkable degree. It is true that in \"hardiness\" this advance has not been all that could be desired ; for the hybridists have not as yet developed a wide range of Rhododendrons with color and beauty which are capable of withstanding the rigors of our northern winters, as has been done for To the average a it is in the more favored climates. But in other ways, such as size and texture of blossom, clearness and beauty of color, and richness of foliage, their results are conspicuous. In the Pacific Northwest area most of these new hybrids are being grown such as \"Blue Tit,\" \"Betty Wormald,\" \"Brittania,\" \"ButterHy,\" \"Cornubia,\" \"Corona,\" \"Dr. Stocker,\" \"Glory of Littleworth,\" \"Goldsworth Yellow,\" and many others, but their names are still strange to most gardeners, and there are many old favorite stand-bys that have been replaced, not for a whim or a passing fancy, but because of the inexorable advance of science in a field of beauty. I do not depreciate the lovely old favorites as there is a beauty of age in most Rhododendrons for which nothing can be substituted, but I do urge those who are contemplating new acquisitions to study these new plants before making their decisions. I am sure that when they have seen the gorgeousness of a \"Beauty of Littleworth\" or a \"King George\" most other white rhododendrons will pale into insignificance. This is equally true of the other colors: blush, pink, rose, red, scarlet, yellow and apricot. Only in the blue and orange ranges does one feel the need of better colors, and even here \"Blue Tit\" (impeditum v Aa~gustinii~ and the new R. Dichroanthum crosses are doing much to make up this deficiency. Those who are familiar only with the American and early English hybrids have a real treat in store for themselves, for while these earlier varieties had the advantage of being hardy, they were largely from North American stock, R. maximum and R. catawbiense, the first 10 of which produces small papery flowers, while the Catawbiense crosses have a tendency to re~~ert to a purple or unpleasant magenta shade. The newer hybrids made with Asiatic species have acheived not only size and texture of blossom, but a clearness and depth of color that must be seen to be fully appreciated. Some even surpass the catalogue descriptions! Many British hybridists believe that the use of the hardier Asiatic rhododendrons, especially those from the higher altitudes, will eventually produce a race of hybrids beautiful in color and size and suitable for general use in our colder sections. Already Mr. C. O. Dexter of Sandwich, Massachusetts, has done much along this line with Fortunei hybrids, but there are still many other sturdy varieties unknown and untried. Most of these better hybrids, as well as the Asiatic species, are now in west coast arboreta and private collections and should be available to the hybridist who wishes to develop a new field of beauty. Culture Much has been written about proper soil conditions, but ( have and purchased rhododendrons grown in almost every conceivable soil from California \"gumbo\" to loose sand and gravel, so I am led to believe that other being on the acid side there are other factors that are important. My own experience is that lime in any form ts not only unnecessary, but dangerous. My soil is only slightly acid and every attempt to treat it with a lime-bearing fertilizer has been disastrous. I have had splendid success with a soil made up of a mixseen than ture moss, loose sandy soil. Some variation of this formula wmll meet almost any condition, provided the planting area is well drained. of 2leaf mold, ~peat and 4 Rhododendrons need moisture, but at the same time drainage is important, for few if any will prosper in wet, soggy ground. In their natural habitat, most rhododendrons grow in loose, rocky soil with plenty of moisture around their roots, so that if the soil is loose or sandy (with excessive drainage) it is well to add leaf mold or peat to aid in retaining the moisture. The very word pruning is an anathema to rhododendron growers and properly so when considered in the usual sense of the term. However, used judiciously it can do much to improve the plants both in looks and growth. I began experimenting on our native rhododendrons, R. macroPlzyllum (R. calzforzzicum),cutting out weak or uns~ghtly growths. Now I do not hesitate to do this on finer hybrids and moss 11 trim them for it will bushiness, help shape as well. Sometimes this is done for height or sometimes to eliminate crossing branches. Properly done in the development of good growth, appearance and flower. a There is another form of pruning that will help the shapeliness of rhododendron and that is disbudding. This is better than permitting growth that should later be cut out. Some varieties like \"Earl of Athlone\" tend to crowd their upward growth and both flowers and foliage are at a disadvantage. By proper disbudding this new growth can be encouraged to spread out, giving much more room for both flowers and foliage. Fertilizers ~r This is also a controversial subject. Some growers recommend wellrotted cow manure, others oppose it. Some avoid commercial fertilizers in any form. I use both with good results. Of course, I do not mean the promiscuous use of fertilizers, many of which contain ingredients that are poisonous to rhododendrons, but there are good fertilizers available, or one can use an accepted formula. In selecting a fertilizer it is important to select one with an acid rather than an alkaline reaction, and to get the right proportion of available food minerals with which to supplement the so~l. What constitutes proper soil balance has not been scientifically determined, for as previously stated, I have found them doing well in various soils, but a common factor in all successful formulae that I have tried seems to be a large potash content. Whether this is due to a soil deficiency or a special plant requirement, I do not know. The formula that ing to my own best for Puget Sound requirements accordexperience is as follows : seems This I apply at the rate of one handfull to a small plant and to larger ones in proportion. This is simply spread on top of the ground over the root area and is best done in early spring. Late summer applications may start new growth that will not harden sufficiently to resist the winter cold and consequently be cut by frosts. Woodland plantings require less treatment, and the usual mulch of leaves and pine needles will generally suffice. 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Hesitant Spring","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24078","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070a76c.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII APRIL 29, 1959 NUMBER 3 THIS HESITANT SPRING swelling at the Arboretum, but their opening is far beschedule. The continued cold, cloudy spell will be responsible for many peculiarities in blooming dates this year. Some plants are as much as three weeks late in flowering. Viburnum fragrans, for example, is just now starting to flower. Only half of the flowers of Magnolia stellata are open at the time this is being written. About half of the buds near the top of the trees came into bloom last week, but the rest have remained tightly closed, awaiting warmer weather. Forsythias should be in bloom now. There are many bushes at their height of color in warm, protected places in the city, but at the Arboretum, forsythias are just beginning to show patches of yellow here and there. Forsythia ovata-normally opening a week before the restcame into flower only a few days ago. The spice bush is not yet in full bloom, but various species of Corylopsis have been in flower for about a week. Rhododendron mi~cronulatunz is not a mass of colorful flowers-yet. Many of the flowers opened on a warm day last week, but the weather has been so cold since that the majority of flower buds are still closed When these buds do open the flowers which have been out for some time will undoubtedly begin to fade, so that the display of color made by these plants this year will be mediocre. The same is true of Magnolia stellata plants gowing in front of the Administration Building. Fortunately the plants of M. stellata rosea in the lawn in front of the building are still in tight bud; and if we have a warm spell of several days' duration, these plants should make a splendid BUDS are hind display. The winter has been a very mild one, at least as far as the woody plants at the Arboretum are concerned. It is true that some of the 13 slightly burned, but this was done by the hurof last September and not by the winter. Apparently, there has been no serious winter injury to flower buds. One of the \"mdicator\" plants in this respect is Viburnum frugruns, which is injured ricane evergreens have been frequently by cold in the winter. This spring all the flower buds in excellent condition, and now they are gradually opening. This is a fine plant for early spring flowers, but is best used south of New England where it is reliably hardy. The late season is well illustrated by a list of blooming dates kept by 1~lr.W. H.Judd, of the Arboretum staff, and reproduced in part on page 16. so are Notes Dr. E. D. Merrill, Administrator of Botanical Collections, Harvard University, and Director of the Arnold Arboretum, has just received through the State Department, the gold medal of the :Vl~nistere de 1' Agriculture of the French Republic and the corresponding diploma of the Societe Nationale d'Acclimation de France. These were conferred on Dr. Merr~ll at a session of the Societe d'Accl~mation in Paris on February 12, 1939, in appreciation of his services to French horticulture. . , ~ . ` , ' ' - . ~ , Estimated Blooming Dates for the Arnold Arboretum, 1939 Magnolias Single-flowered Japanese cherries, shadbushes Crabapples, double-flowered Japanese cherries Torch azaleas Lilacs, wisterias, deutzias. Rhododendrons haw thorns May 3-7 May 3-7 May 15-~?0 May 18-2k May 20-24 JunelO-15 5 It is extremely difficult to predict reasonably accurate bloommg dates in advance this year. Those given above should be considered only as approximations. A very warm spell in early May mll change them all. DONALD WYM~1N 14 PLATE 11 Viburnmn fragrans Photographed in the Arnold Arboretum, April by Professor Uakes Ames 15, 1931, Blooming Dates of Individual Plants in the Arnold Arboretum* *These figures have been supplied by Mr. W. H. Judd, Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum. The dates represent the first day each plant could be considered to be in full bloom. The same plant has been inspected each year for this information. ' Note: All dates given are for April unless otherwise noted. N = November D = December r ' , J=January F=February M=March ' , m=May 16 ` "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"New England Must Plant Trees This Spring!","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24074","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d0608525.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII MAY 5, ~sss NUMBER 4 NEW ENGLAND MUST PLANT TREES THIS SPRING! ample opportunity for every town in New England to carefully planned tree planting program this spring, and the need for this is very great. After the devastating hurricane of last September, the streets of many towns have been frightfully marred by THERE initiate is a the loss of valuable trees, and civic organizations everywhere in New in planning intelligent tree planting programs for the streets and highways as well as on private property. There are a few important points to be kept in mind when planting trees anywhere; some are common knowledge, but others may be un- England are uniting known to the individual who has had little or no previous experience in this field. Briefly, these points are as follows: Transplanting in the spring should only be done when the soil is well dried and in workable condition. When soil is wet or muddy, any handling or working will \"puddle\" it; that is, the air spaces will be closed up when worked,and the soil may dry out in almost brick-like consistency. In such soil it ~s almost impossible for plant roots to grow. Consequently, the time of actually planting trees will vary considerably over the New England area. As soon as the soil is in good condition plant immediately, for the longer the period in which the tree has to grow, the better off it will be. The hole dug for the tree should be deep and ample. The tree itself should be set not more than two inches deeper than it was formerly. Remember that it is always better to plant a fifty-cent tree in a threedollar hole than a three-dollar tree in a fifty-cent hole. If drainage is poor, a drain should be put in the bottom of the hole. If there is a hard clay bottom, it should be broken up a pick axe. If the soil is very poor, it might well be removed entirely, a good layer of well-rotted manure (never use fresh manure) placed on the bottom of the hole, and good top soil filled in firmly underneath and on top with 17 of the roots. Sometimes a tamping stick is used for this, since it is imperative to get plenty of soil well-firmed under the roots as well as on top of them. Some tender barked trees, such as birch and beech may do better if their trunks are wrapped in burlap for several months after transplanting. It may be advantageous to leave a slight depression around the tree in order to catch water, for the newly transplanted tree needs much water, and it should be carefully and conscientiously watered during the dry periods the first year. At the time of transplanting, the tree should be either staked or guyed with wires which are run through a rubber hose around one side of the tree only, so that it will become established in the correct upright position. The wires should be left on for the first year or two. A word of caution is needed for the person who wants to dig and transplant trees from the woods. Sometimes this proves successful, but more often it results in failure because the roots have never been pruned. Such trees are very difficult to transplant unless every root is carefully dug and protected against drying out during the transplanting process, and the roots are apt to be greatly elongated. It is usually better to buy trees from nurseries, for such trees have been periodically root pruned, thus rendering ~t easier and safer to transplant them. Pruning and Later Care It is it. If a comparatively simple matter to plant a tree. Anyone can do reasonable care be taken in the transplantmg operation, the tree will live. However, no planting program is complete without a word of caution concerning the later care of the tree. It must be pruned somewhat as soon as it is in its new situation. The pruning of branches is necessary to compensate for the loss of roots cut off in the trans- planting operation. Trees which were severely wrenched or tilted by the hurricane might also have some branches removed. This is frequently hard to do, but results in much better growth. The tree must be carefully watered ; evergreens must have their tops sprayed in the evenings of particularly hot summer days; bad crotches among the branches must be located and eliminated ; disease and insect troubles must be cared for as they appear, and often it is wise to take preventative measures before they appear. The experienced gardener knows these things and is always prepared to act when such difficulties arise. What Trees to Plant to popular belief, there is a wide variety of trees which planted along the streets of New England towns. There is nothing quite like the American elm and the sugar maple, both of which are native here. Yet, since the time our forefathers planted the streets so marred by the hurricane, a surprisingly large number of hardy exotic Contrary be can 18 have been introduced and tested, and these offer splendid opportunities for interesting planting. Then, too, there are many trees native to this country which might very well be included in any tree planting program. All the streets of a town do not have to be planted with the American elm or sugar maple. If the property owners on a certain street unite in the desire \"to plant something different,\" let them, by all means! They might try the beautiful flowering Sargent cherry, the mountain silverbell, or even the flowering dogwood ! If they want brilliant autumn color combined with splendid summer foliage and flower, they might use the southern sourwood. The sweetgum is also a possibility. If the street is very narrow, there are other plants besides the Lombardy poplar. The upright growing variety of the trees hornbeam are all possibilities. have a splendid opportunity for making their streets interesting to a public which is becoming increasin~ly plant conscious. The following suggestions are given to indicate some of the trees that might be used. All are available from nurseries, and if they cannot be located m local nurseries, the Arnold Arboretum will be glad to indicate where they may be obtained. English beech, ginkgo New England towns or now Suggested List of Trees for Planting in New England (Those marked with an asterisk are not hardy in the northern parts of Maine, New Hampshire and Trees for Wide Streets Vermont.) Acer saccharum Celtis occidentalis Sugar Maple Hackberry Katsura-tree White Ash Green Ash Thornless Honeylocust Sophora japonica Fraxinus americana Fraxinus lanceolata Gleditsia triacanthos inermis Liriodendron tulipifera Phellodendron amurense Platanus acerifolia Populus alba Prunus sargenti *Tuliptree Amur Corktree Quercus palustris Quercus rubra *London Planetree White Poplar *Sargent Cherry *Pin Oak , _ Ulmus americana Ulmus campestris Acer Acer Red Oak American Elm *English Elm Trees for Medium Width Streets _ platanoides platanoides schwedleri Crataegus crusgalli Halesia monticola Norway Maple Schwedler Maple Cockspur Thorn *Mountain Silverbell Liquidamber styraciflua Magnolia acuminata 19 *Sweetgum *Cucumbertree Oxydendrum arboreum Quercus coccinea Quercus phellos Quercus imbricaria Nyssa sylvatica Sassafras albidum Tilia cordata Tilia vulgaris Tilia tomentosa *Sourwood *Scarlet Oak y *Willow Oak Shingle Oak *Sassafras *Littleleaf European Linden *Common European Linden *Silver Linden *Tupelo (S. officinale) Trees for Narrow Streets Pignut Hickory *American Redbud Cercis canadensis Cornus florida *Flowering Dogwood Washington Hawthorn Crataegus phaenopyrum Crataegus phaenopyrum fastigiata Pyramidal Hawthorn *Dawyck Beech Fagus sylvatica fastigiata Columnar Ginkgo Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Bolleana Poplar Populus alba pyramidalis *Pyramidal English Oak Quercus robur fastigiata Tilia platyphyllos fastigiata *Pyramidal European Linden Ulmus americana Moline Elm\" Moline Elm Other Trees and Tall Shrubs for Ornamental on the Home Grounds Carpinus betulus fastigiata Carya glabra *Pyramidal Hornbeam Planting Oriental Crabapples (many types valuable for flowers and fruits) *Magnolias (for flowers) *Japanese Cherries (for flowers) *European Beech (several varieties for interestFagus sylvatica ing form and color) *American Holly (for fruits) Ilex opaca *Yellowwood (for white flowers) Cladrastis lutea *Japanese Tree Lilac (for flowers) Syringa japonica Caragana arborescens Siberian Pea-tree (for yellow flowers) Viburnum lentago *Nannyberry (for flower and fruit) Viburnum prunifolium Blackhaw (for flower and fruit) Elaeagnus angustifolia Russian-olive (for gray foliage) Amelanchier laevis Allegheny Shadblow (for flowers) Pseudotsuga taxifolia Douglas Fir (evergreen) Red Pme (evergreen) Pinus resinosa White Pine (evergreen) Pinus strobus Canada Hemlock (evergreen) Tsuga canadensis Carolina Hemlock (evergreen) Tsuga caroliniana *Serbian Spruce (evergreen) Picea omorika ` .. ' DONALD WYMAN 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The North Meadow","article_sequence":5,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24079","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070ab6e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII MAY 12, 1989 NUMBER 5 THE NORTH MEADOW Jamaica Plain Gate is one of the most attractive approaches the Arnold Arboretum in the first warm days of spring. The magnolias planted about the Administration Buildmg, which stands just inside the gate, are among the earliest flowering shrubs to open their buds. They enjoy particularly good conditions here because, being mainly on the south side of the building, they are exposed directly to the warm sun; also they are protected from cold winds by the building and the hill behind it. About the same time the red maples on the opposite side of the road are opening their scarlet flowers, and the willows nearby are producing catkins. It was decreed in the original plan of the Arboretum that the trees and shrubs should be arranged in a sequence which would conform to a commonly accepted view of their relationship. The scheme chosen was that of the great British botanists of the last century, Bentham and Hooker. Consequently, as one goes along the Meadow Road past the magnolias, he first finishes the Magnolia Family by passing their relatives, the tulip-trees, which grow on the hillside near the place where the bridle-path turns off. These trees do not flower until late May. Just to the south of the road and partly hidden by tall shrubbery is a grass path along which is a large planting of gooseberries and currants which flower attractively in May. The old-fashioned golden currant, Ribes odoratum is one of the most fragrant and most popular in this group. Proceeding along the road one notes that it is on a low embankment, with wet meadow on the left and park-like expanse on the right. The embankment itself had been planted with Cercidiphyllum, Phellodendron, and Evonymtcs on the right, and with Cercidiphyllum, shad- THE -*- to 21 bushes, maples, buckthorns, and sumacs on the left. The Cercidiphyllums put forth their bluish-green leaves early, but these are preceded by a wealth of small flowers that have bright red stamens. Although of an unfamiliar sort, the Cercidiphyllums have a form more or less characteristic of our native deciduous trees. The Phellodendrons, on the other hand, possess an \"awkward,\" unsupported branching form that is foreign to our usual eastern American concept of what a deciduous tree should look like. The linden and horsechestnut collections are among the finest of their kind in America. They appear to be thriving in the low but fairly well-drained field which extends from the road westward to the wooded gravelly knolls nearby. In late May the horsechestnuts and buckeyes are covered with their upright, conical inflorescences, ranging from white or cream-color to deep pink and red. Between the Meadow Road and the Arborway is a low swampy area which remains wet during a large part of the year. At its lower end, just across from the Administration Building, are the remnants of a once-large willow collection. Strangely enough many species have failed to do well here, chiefly because the water table has been at such a high level that even willows cannot survive! A row of tall willows along the Arborway fence had grown so large that its overhanging branches threatened traffic on the street. A part of these were removed in the winter of 1937-38, and the remainder were so severely damaged in the hurricane of September, 1938, that most of them were taken out last winter, leaving a few surviving veterans to be disposed of later. It is being replaced with a planting of red maples and tupelos whose brilliant red autumn color will eventually become one of the Arboretum's outstanding autumnal displays. On the opposite side of the low ground, northwest of the lindens and Cercidiphyllums is a curving grass path lined with honeysuckles and viburnums. Back of this is the bridle path, recently improved by the city from a mudhole to a well-drained roadway. As in most of the Arboretum, the evidences of earlier history are here nearly all erased. Along the bridle path, and roughly bordering the property of the Adams Nervine hospital, is a row of tall ash trees (now badly damaged by the hurricane) which appear to have marked an old boundry of the low meadow. Although it is not now visible, one of the oldest surveyed lines in the town of Roxbury passes through this tract. When the original settlers in the town divided among themselves the lands in the outlying districts, they laid down a line, trending roughly northwest and southeast, as a base from which to 22 0~ x y .~ c 6f. 5 0, v . c g 5 ~ G ti Y ~ -< Fw ~ \" o , t~ ~1 n1 -s J s E h[ . G ~a 3 v 0 F d 0 ,a ~ G 4) This was known as the \"headline of the first division,\" and extended from a point among the shadbushes and Cercidiphyllums across the wet meadow and the Arborway so as to margin the westerly curb of Park Road. Farther over the hill the line marks the end boundary of the Bussey Institution grounds. This lme was the northeast boundary of the original Arboretum. Later the present extensions of the tract to the Jamaica Plain Gate and to Centre Street were added by the city or by the University. Most of the low ground, notably that west of the Meadow Road and the southerly half of the remainder, is mentioned in the oldest land records in Roxbury as \"Gore's Meadow.\" It remained a meadow throughout its history to the time of the Arboretum plantations. As such it was in demand among the early settlers who had to have natural feed for their stock. Most of the countryside was originally wooded except, perhaps, for the low stream margins and swampy areas; and even when cleared, the production of forage ~n the dry hillside pastures was meager. Consequently the farmers used the coarse grasses and sedges of the natural meadows to good advantage, and utilized every means at their command to drain the wetter parts so that they could be used. The old maps of our wet meadow show the arrangement of these early drainage ditches, which were also the dividing lines between small parcels of land which were bought and sold separately. The part west of the road was evidently most in demand because it was higher and needed less artificial drainage. Parts of it changed hands twenty or more times during the first 200 years after the lands measure. in our area w ere granted. or can only be suggested. It was probably a sedgy meadow, for this term was used for it in the earliest land records. Nevertheless, at some early date it must have had a swampy forest, for cedar logs have been taken from excavations in the underlying peat. The only record we have that the peat was ever used for fuel is in a deed given by Eleazer Weld to one Daniel McCarthy in 1784, giving the latter the right \"to cut Sufficient Turff for fuel for the Necessary Support of Two Families ... so long as Turff can The original vegetation grassy be cut on said ... meadow land.\" The Meadow Road was bmlt by 1890, making possible the plantations on its borders soon after. The Arborway was completed in 1895, and its border plantation of willows was put in about that time. A small stream known as Goldsmith Brook, which rises in the hills west of Centre Street, formerly had a channel through the meadow. It was brought under partial control in 1892 ; and the lindens, horsechest- 23 were planted in 1894. The arrangement satisfactory, however, and the brook was finally confined to an underground conduit in 1905. Drainage from the lower part of the meadow was somewhat improved in 1900 when the eastern sewer level was lowered between the Arborway and Stony Brook. It is still unsatisfactory, however, for the meadow is flooded at least once a year, often nearly to the level of the Meadow Road. Since nothing can be planted there, the weeds are allowed to grow rankly throughout the summer. Fortunately they are composed largely of wild asters, mints and goldenrods,which make a blaze of color in late summer and early autumn when the Arboretum is otherwise reduced to browns nuts, and neighboring groups did not prove and dull greens. These low grounds at the northeasterly end of the Arboretum have been difficult to make attractive. Nothing could be done at all until the water level was lowered by local ditching or by lowering the sewer barriers. The Meadow Road gave a mass of stable and well-drained soil which could be used for suitable border plantings. We owe a tribute to the foresight and sense of proportion which were shown by the founders of the Arboretum in laying out the plantings. They had to visualize as best they could the mass effects of trees and shrubs as they would appear 50 to 75 years after they were planted. That they accomplished an admirable task is evident on every hand in the Arboretum, and no more so anywhere than in the north meadow. But much remains to be desired in the low swamp across from the Administration Building. The variety of possible plantations will always be limited by the excessive peaty substratum. If the whole were to be filled up it would be necessary to open it as an unsightly dumping ground for a considerable period of years. It has been suggested that a permanent pond for hardy water lilies might be established by excavating a portion of the peat bog and utilizing the excavated material for filling other parts of this area. This would add a very attractive feature to the meadow and should at the same time increase the area of higher land which might be used for permanent plantings. This might be a feasible solution, for there is an abundance of water both from the brook which enters the lowland from a culvert just east of the building and from the old Goldsmith Brook. Both of these flow throughout the summer. HUGH RAUP 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Flowering Crabapples for Spring and Fall","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24070","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060b36a.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII MAY 19, 1989 NUMBER 6 FLOWERING CRABAPPLES FOR SPRING AND FALL THIS TIME of year in New England and New York, the in full bloom. Collected from widely segregated places in the northern hemrsphere, nurserymen in this country are able to offer over fifty of them to the public. Generally, they can be grown wherever the common apple does well, and, though subject to similar apple troubles such as borer and scale, they are an asset to any garden. The sizes and shapes of the twenty-five different crabapples listed in this bulletin differ greatly. Malus baccata mmrdshurica is not only the first to bloom, starting this year while the Japanese cherries were still in flower, but is also the tallest, growing fifty feet high or more. On the other hand, MalTrs sargenti is the smallest, often growing twice as broad as it does high and seldom becoming over 8 feet tall. This might be the best crabapple for the small home garden where space is the limiting factor. Unfortunately, nurserymen often grow it from seed which has not been collected from pure stands, resulting in trees that do not have the typical low-growing habit but are much more upright. Since there are few, if any, pure stands in this country, grafting might better be resorted to in order to insure the typical form. The rest of the flowering crabapples range m height from 15 to 30 feet, the majority of them being 15 to 25 feet tall. Some, like lYLhalliana parkmaui, rarely exceed 15 feet, while others like M.ioensis plena and M.,floribxrnda may attain 30 feet. Some of the varieties, like M.prnnifolia rin~i,are upright and spreading in habit of growth ; others, like M.,floribnnda and M. arrrolclinxa, are generally mound-like in appearance. The most picturesque in habit is the tea crab, now called M.harpehensis, but listed in nursery catalogues as M.theifera. The main branches, AT flowering crabapples are 25 originating from the trunk, are long with few side branches, appearing from a distance somewhat like a huge fan. It is always outstanding, particularly when planted in front of grouped pines or hemlocks. Like the common apples, the flowering crab has a strong tendency one to be alternate bearing, that is, fruit production is poor year but good the next. Though this may not be particularly noticeable in the flowering, it is very noticeable and often disappointing in the fruiting habits. For instance, the best fruiting tree in the group at the Arboretum (M.toringoidPS~ was marvelous in fruit during the fall of 1936, but in 1937, even the largest plant was uninteresting because of few fruits. The Oriental crabapples (see table) are the first to bloom, followed shortly afterwards by the native species. The flower display lasts about a week, but, of course, depends entirely upon the weather, and this year is considerably retarded because of the unseasonable cold weather. When this issue of the Bulletin reaches its readers the crabapples will be in full bloom at the Arboretum. Some years when the weather is particularly cool the beauty of these plants is prolonged. For instance, the Tea Crab is charming with its long slender branchclothed with delicately-colored flower buds. It is almost the ideal among crabapples, since the deep pink of the buds, touched here and there with a tinge of white, blends beautifully with the bright green of the unfurling leaves. When these buds begm to open, it is noticed that the petals are white inside and this color becomes predominant, the pink on the under-side slightly fading to white, so that instead of having a pink-flowered crabapple as might be reasonably supposed from a view of the pink buds, actually the flowers are white in color. Although most of the crabapples are either red to pink or white in flower, the Purple Flowered Crab (M.purpurea) is unusual with its strikmg reddish-purple flowers that are particularly conspicuous. The fruits, veins of the leaves and even the wood of the twigs of this peculiar plant are all a slightly reddish-purple shade. es One of the best of color combinations can be obtained by planting single Carmine Crab, (M.atrosareguinea~ the flowers of which are a very beautiful deep carmine, in front of two Japanese Flowering Crabs ( M.floriburtda~. These latter are light pink as the flowers open but fade to white almost immediately. Since the Carmine Crab and the Japanese Flowering Crab are about the same height, seldom over twenty-five feet tall, dense, bushy and mound-like in habit of growth, and bloom at the same time, such a combination is never forgotten, a 26 v t2 fi ~ .t zt\" 2~~ \"! O P. ~10~~ `. ct tt U T r D FG particularly when planted so that they are ~iewed with an evergreen background of pine or hemlock foliage. In the late summertime, the crabapple fruits begin to color, naturally becoming conspicuous against the green background of leaves. The green, the fruits of the red like those of the Zumi Crab, Purple Crab, purple. Many fruits are some are bright yellow, but the ones we value the most are red and yellow, red on the side towards the sun, and yellow on the side away from the sun. Such is the fruit of the Cherry Crab, and the Cutleaf Crab, M.toriugoirlP.s, the best of all the crabapples for ornamental fruit. It was introduced into this country for the first time in 1904 and since that time has proved itself the best in fruit of the hundred different kinds growing at the Arnold Arboretum in Boston. The individual fruits are almost half an inch long, slightly pear-shaped, and colored a glorious mixture of red and yellow, red on the side turned towards the sun and yellow on the side shaded from the sun. For a good yellow-fruited form, the Arnold Crab, originating in the Arnold Arboretum before 1883 as a chance hybrid, is probably the best since its fruits are a brilliant golden yellow. It is difficult to say what varieties are most enticmg to birds, for in years when birds are numerous almost all of the varieties prove attractive, although there is a tree here and there which for some reason may be left untouched. fruits of a few species are an inconspicuous In New England and parts of New York, past winters have demonstrated that the double-flowered Japanese cherries are not dependably hardy. Gardeners in general should realize that the crabapples are considerably hardier and that there are also double-flowered forms (see table). Though these may not be considered as worthy substitutes for cherries, they can at least be depended upon for bloom. The least hardy of all the crabapples is the Parkman Crab, M. hnllioua pnrlrmani, which was injured conssderably during the winter of 1933-193k, both in New York and at the Arboretum. The method of propagating these plants varies considerably. Many of the species can be easily grown from seeds, but in botanic garden collections, where a number of species are in close proximity, there is ample opportunity for cross polliniation ; and it has been definitely proved that M. s~argPUti when grown from seed thus collected does not give plants with the desired low-growing habit but rather plants with a more upright form. It is much safer to bud or graft all forms, obtaining buds or scions from stock plants with known character~stics. There is a confusion in the nomenclature of the crabapples in many ~8 PLATE IV MllGIIS 1OP118bS '~lZPttlI Photographed in the Arnold Arboretum, May, ~Lfi, 1931, by Professor Oakes Ames. today, simply because large scale production from seed has resulted in many variations from true types. Asexual reproduction naturally brings up the problem of understocks, which is by no means definitely settled. The American species are best grafted on seedlings of M.ioeusis or M.~oronaria. Both French crab seedlings and those of the various Asiatic species have proved successful for the Asiatic forms, especially M. robusta. Crabapples are hosts of Juniper rusts, and the Arnold Arboretum has found the Asiatic species to be the least susceptible. There are places around Boston where Bechtel's crab becomes so disfigured with this disease that it is not grown. Bordeaux has been used in efforts at control but with little success. After several years of careful investigation, the Arnold Arboretum recommends the following for the control of this troublesome disease on ornamental flowering crabapples : Use .i to 6 pounds of \"Linco,\" a colloidal sulphur spray produced by Linder & Co. Inc., 296 North Beacon St., Boston, Mass., with 100 gallons of water with 3 pounds of \"S. S. S.\", a commercial \"spreader\" available at any store selling spray materials. Spray at first when the young leaves become visible and follow with four or five sprays at six to ten day intervals. Spraying just before a rain gives optimum results. To control chewing insects, add 4 pounds of lead arsenate to one of the later applications. It should be mentioned that crabapples must be sprayed for scale. At the Arboretum Sunoco Oil is applied as a dormant spray, one part of oil and 15 parts of water, the application being made sometime between the middle of February and the first of April. During the next few years the Arboretum will replant the slope at the base of Peter's Hill where the poplar collection was located before the hurricane. This has already been mentioned in a previous issue of the Bulletin (Vol. VII, No. 1 ; April 14, 1939). Over a thousand seedlings are now being planted in our nurseries and will be ready to plant in the permanent collections within a few years. This is the result of a definite plant breeding program and it is hoped that at least a few new and interesting varieties will be found in this large number of seedlings. Crabapples are easily grown in a large number of soils and situations. They are of ornamental interest several seasons of the year and are excellent for attracting birds. We should recognize these sterling qualities and plant more of them !1 nurseries 30 (; a h ro a '\" C :.a U 0 y 47 > C;3#& x E : . ~, . s 'n a o a a~ ~a :d .::: ~U .~ a .Q>:: .. Y \"\"'~<1) :p~ ~s g 0 C _ c~ b N +~ ..~ S6~fi~~ a~ J F~ E:~ n r.n g o ca\/~ ) Notes At the time of writing the weather is still unusually cold. There have been frosts for the past three nights with strong indications of another tonight. At the present time the Magnolia soulangeana varieties are still at their height of bloom. Amelanchiers have been at their best for the past few days but will soon drop their petals rapidly. Forsythias are still gorgeous, but they too, will lose their brilliance as soon as one or two warm days force the vegetative shoots into growth. The single flowering cherries are past but the double flowering cherries will soon be at their height of bloom. This week end will find the Japanese quinces in full bloom; the crabapples approaching their peak and some of the early flowering azaleas like the royal azalea and the pink-shell azalea will be particu- larly conspicuous. Lilacs should be in full bloom during the week end of May 27, with May 28 being Lilac Sunday. At this same time the thousands of torch azaleas planted on the hills in the Arboretum should be at their best. DONALD WYMAN , A last minute show more inspection of the lilacs discloses the fact that they flower buds than they have for many previous years. Consequently the lilac display this coming week will certainly be a worth trip to the Arboretum. 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Twining Vines","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24077","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070a36b.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII JUNE 23, 1989 NUMBER 7 SOME TWINING VINES gardener how many species of hardy ligneous twining there are, and the answer may be from six to twelve ; yet, the Arnold Arboretum has approximately 65 species and varieties of hardy twining vines growing within its boundaries. Truly a surprising number! And this is not all, for if the other climbing vines are added to this list, the total number of woody vines actually growing in the Arboretum today is well over 150. All of these are not good landscape plants, but there are some which might well bear further investigation by the interested gardener. Old-fashioned vines like Actin~dia arguta, Aristolochia durior, and Celastrus scandens are all grown here, of course. So are the Chinese and Japanese wisterias ( Wisteria sinensis and W. ,floriburrda~. However there are 84 other wisteria species and varieties being grown also, many of which have been added to the collections during the last three years. It is doubtful if all the varieties in this genus now being offered by American nurseries are distinct and worthy of individual varietal names; nevertheless, all are now being grown on a long arbor recently erected near the old Bussey Institution Building, and after they become well established and produce flowers, it will doubtless be most interesting to study their differences. Akebia quirrata can be considered as one of the best of these vines for foliage. Its palmately compound leaves are semi-evergreen, and its small purplish colored flowers-though not conspicuous-are most interesting and unusual. Akebia trifoliata (.4. lobata) has three leaflets instead of five and is somewhat coarser in texture because of this character. There is a vigorously growng hybrid (A. penlnphJlln~ between the two now growing in the Arboretum. This plant has leaves with ASK any vines 33 three, four, and five leaflets. All three have tuberous roots, are easy to divide and of very vigorous growth once they become well established. When not allowed sufficient space in which to expand, the foliage becomes so dense that some of the inner leaves are shaded to such an extent that they often become yellow and drop off. The bower actinidia (Actinidia arguta) is perhaps the most vigorous of all these climbers (actually Pueraria thunbergiana is, but this plant is not winter-hardy at the Arnold Arboretum). The sexes are separate, and the pistillate plant bears fruits that are about the size of a gooseberry and very good for making jelly. At one time the Hicks Nurseries at Westbury, Long Island, had five strains of this species selected primarily for their large fruits. These are now represented in the collections at the U. S. D. A. Bureau of Plant Introduction Station, Bell, Maryland. Actinidia polygama is another climber, very enticing to cats. Several plants have been literally chewed to death in our vine collection. A few years ago Mr. Judd grew some in the greenhouse for a time, and he states that cats were so attracted by the delicious odor from this plant that they actually crept through the overhead greenhouse ventilators to get a taste of it. This vine is relatively rare in American gardens and if grown should be protected by wire screening of some sort. Two species of Cela.slru.s are commonly used, Celastrus ,s~~mlerr.s, native to the United States, and C. orbiculata, (C. articulaia~ native to Japan and China. Both are excellent for their ornamental fruits, and vigorous twining habit of growth. The peculiar C. ,flngellrcri.s from northeastern Asia makes an unusually effective barrier because it has stipular spines that are very effective indeed. It is the only hardy twining vtne with thorns that thrives with us and consequently should have many uses. (lSmila.r also has thorns, but this is not considered to be a twining vine). This Celastrus is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and might very well be tried elsewhere. The common moonseed (Mercispermaum ~anaden.se ) is a vigorous twtning vine that spreads rapidly over the ground and quickly climbs up any means of support with which it comes in contact. It easily becomes a pest, for it escapes its bounds rapidly, but is not as bad in this respect as M. dauricum ; it should be used with some discretion. These vines are not very woody and usually die down to the ground in winter, but on the trellis in the Shrub Collection, some of the vines have already grown as much as eight feet high this spring alone. The two silkvines (Periploca grneca and P..sPpiom~ suffer winter injury frequently here in the Arboretum. The Grecian silkvine (P. 34 growing of the two, has more foliage, but is not the Chinese silkvine (P.sepium). Their fruits are long hardy pods, which, when they open in the fall, are full of fluffy seeds reminding one of the milkweed. There are actually 36 named wisterias growing in the Arboretum. The differences between some of the varieties of W.,floribunda may not be very marked, but most of these forms are being offered in the nurseries of the United States. In the Chinese wisteria the flowers of each cluster open at once, while in those of the Japanese wisteria the flowers open progressively from the base of the long cluster to the end. Both are good plants, with deliciously fragrant flowers, the Chinese form being more common in landscape use, although the W.,floribunda is somewhat hardier. It is from specimens of our native W. frutescens that this genus was first named by Nuttall in 1818. Seeds of' the Japanese wisteria were first sent to this country by Dr. George R. Hall, to his friend Samuel Parson, of Flushing, Long Island, in 1862. Today \"wisteria\" and W. sinensis are synonymous to many Americans, but nurserymen are beginning to offer some forms of the Japanese wisteria with long racemes, so that it will not be long before these also become familiar. It may be of interest to Bulletin readers to note in which direction the various vines twine. One of the catch questions in many a quiz on garden matters centers on this interesting point. There is not a haphazard method of twining, but the plants of each species invariably twine consistently in one direction. In training young vines, this should be kept in mind, for it is just as easy to wind young plants around their supports in the right direction, and the chances are that this will be much more likely to be permanent. I have just now inspected all the vines listed here and have noted their habit in this respect. It will be seen that the species of each genus consistently twine in the same direction in all cases, except the wistenas. Three species of this genus twine by climbing from left to right, and two species twine by climbing in the opposite direction (i.e., from right to left). All our plants at the Arboretum have been examined in this respect, and in the case of W.floribuuda two plants of more than a dozen examined were found that twined in the opposite direction from the majority of this species. Consequently we should welcome correspondence on this subject particularly if some plants of the species named are found which do not twine in the manner noted below. graeca) as is the taller as 35 TWINING VINES Twining by climbing from left to right Actinidia polygama Silvervine purpurea \" Purple Actinidia Kolomikta Bower Actinidia melanandra \" kolomikta \" arguta Akebia \" \" pentaphylla trifoliata quinata Aristolochia durior \" \" Threeleaf Akebia Fiveleaf Akebia Dutchman's Pipe kaempferi manshuriensis Celastrus \" \" flagellaris orbiculata scandens loeseneri Korean Bittersweet Oriental Bittersweet American Bittersweet \" hypoleuca Menispermum canadense ' \" dauricum Periploca graeca sepium Wisteria frutescens \" macrostach3a Common Moonseed Asiatic Moonseed Grecian Silkvine Chinese Silkvine American Wisteria Kentucky Wisteria to left - Twining by climbing from right Berchemia racemosa Dioscorea villosa Lonicera henryi \" japonica halliana Japanese Supplejack Wild Yam sempervirens Schisandra chinensis *Wisteria floribunda \" formosa Henry Honeysuckle Honeysuckle Trumpet Honeysuckle Hall's Japanese Wisteria (W. sinensisXW. floribunda) *Of about fourteen plants of this species examined, all but two twined by climbing from right to left. Those two twined by climbing from left to right! The experiences of others are welcomed on this interesting and often controversial subject. DONALD WYMAN 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index Kewensis in Improved Loose Leaf Ledger Form","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24072","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060bb6d.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES -~. VOL. VII JUNE 30, 1989 NUMBER 8 INDEX KEWENSIS IN IMPROVED LOOSE LEAF LEDGER FORM at the New York Botanical Garden, I initiated the pastof all the entries in Index Kewensis and its seven supplements then published, in loose leaf ledger form, the first time that the task was consummated on the basis of modern business technique in any institution. The actual work was done under the personal supervision of Mr.G. L. Wittrock, by assistants provided by the Emergency ~'ork Bureau of New York City. Since the New York set was completed two additional supplements have been issued. This fundamental work, now consisting of over 6,000 folio pages with about 700,000 binomial entries is the most used single work in all institutions where systematic botanical work is a major activity. The importance of a single generic sequence is at once realized when one considers that if the several r~dde~ida and emendnnda be included, there are as many as fifteen different generic entries in the eleven volumes now published for some groups. This means that one must, or should, search in fifteen different places when consulting the work when one is mterested in determining whether or not such and such a specific name has been used, and if so, where it was first published. In February, 1939, the task of pasting up all entries in the original work and its nine supplements in one generic sequence was initiated at the Arnold Arboretum and was completed early in June. The improvements in the Arnold Arboretum set over the style selected at New York are in the adaptable auto-flex four post binders manufactured by the W~lson-Jones Company, pig skin binders ~ather than buckram being selected for permanency ; chain lock mechanism fur holding the sheets firmly in place and providing for future easy addi- I N 1932, ing 3~' sheets; the individual sheets reinforced by tough cloth binding edge; and a very much greater amplification of the pasted-in data, thus providing ample space for future additions without breaking sequences as additional quinquennial supplements appear; and in the case of all large genera, an indefinite amount of tions of extra on strips the space for this purpose. In preparation for this work two complete sets of Index Kewensis and its nine supplements were clipped. Each entry was stamped \"IK\", \"IKSI'', \"IKS2\", etc., and when this part of the task was completed, the clippings were arranged alphabetically under the generic heads, and chronologically in accordance with the sequence of the several supplements. After carefully checking for alphabetic sequences and proper spacing between entries, the items were pasted on the standard sheets selected. The estimated amount of space for future additions under each small genus was approximately determined by scanning the several Supplement entries, but all large and medium sized genera were left \"hanging\" for indefinite future additions, the blank part of the last page to be filled first and then new sheets, as necessary, to be inserted. In all large genera the entries were pasted in solid, covering both sides of the sheet, regardless of the amount of space left on any last page, but except for such groups the items were pasted on one side of the sheet only. Thus rn one of the open loose leaf ledger books shown in the illustration, it will be noted that the third and last page of Gludiolus is nearly full; but when the tenth supplement appears, the small amount of remaining space will be used and then a new sheet will be inserted to take the remainder and future additions. When Supplement ten appears, five years hence, it may be necessary to break sequences to provide for some of the newly published genera, and occasionally it may be necessary to do this in a few cases where a very large number of new binomials under any old generic name may be published. The breaking of sequences can, however, be readily obviated by steaming the sheets, removing the pasted entries, and expanding the arrangement to meet future contingencies. This provision for the insertion of additional sheets is the great advantage of the modern loose leaf ledger format over the older system of permanently bound volumes, such as that initiated at Kew many years ago. The system of a single sequence is, for practical purposes, superior to the form used at the Rijks Herbarium, Leiden, where the generic entries were first sorted into families, and then arranged alphebetrcally by genera, each genus commencing a new page. 38 . -f: ~t:c ~o :~ o~c O < ~. oo +~ . ~~c s 8 o ' ~E ~ o O V '\" v c~. a. . o ... o ~j EE <E~t~ 4) v :5 .E1::~v O ~7 S \" ? ... ' a a~ +~ . '. ~ a ~ a ~ b O a> .C w d a~ C o d m 00~ bI: v0 '\" O r '~ GT, # E ~ .';~' _ W y ~ \"\"';3..' r~ V ~ E~ .a fl o Cm D Q'' a~ o * Q. g ..J > ~~ o ,n~ a~a., ~, ~ Z ~~~~ ~~ S .1!3 ~.~ rc a~ cc .~,~~a a n f! M bL~>.\" a. y ~ I '\"OB.b'o..... o > a~ o Gv o , ~ v: ~ p ~ 4~ ~,00a 3 v~ ~]~ ~ a~ \" -S 4~ .3 5c \"\"\"'.!e!>IJ :5 'a' X ro ~ ] a~ a~ 4~ 2 ~ s .~,~ a .~ ~ C ;' Q) aw cw .3 ~#~ ~ C7 0 J m The page size selected is the same as for the New York set, 17 by inches, four column format. The sheets are arranged in one generic sequence occupying six binders, each about five and one-half inches thick, about 550 sheets to a binder. The net advantages to the numerous users of this indispensable work is the actual saving of a vast amount of time when one has to check the published binomials in any genus of flowering plants, the time actually saved in this connection often amounting to as high as 90 percent. 14 E. D. MERRILL NOTES The loose leaf ledger system is ideally adapted to the purpose of keeping scattered bits of information together and in order. Various sizes of binders are available from the Wilson-Jones Company, 100 S.Elmora Avenue, Elizabeth, New Jersey. A special glue, known as \"Mikah\" remoistening gum, manufactured by the National Adhesive Corporation, 15 Elkins Street, Boston, Massachusetts, was used in pasting, and its excellent adhesive qualities make it most satisfactory for this type of work. This adhesive has been used by the Arboretum in some other extensive pasting work which is in perfect condition years after being applied. In making the references of the voluminous Index Kewensis thus quickly accessible. Dr. Merrill investigated a considerable number of adhesives, most of which he discarded as being unsatisfactory for one reason or another. Horticulturists in general might well profit from Dr. Merrill's experience and adopt some standard loose leaf binder as a highly satisfactory method of filing miscellaneous articles, reports, clippings, notes, programs, and the thousand and one other bits of garden information that are constantly appearing and should be kept-provided they can be filed so they are readily accessible when needed. ' DONALD WYMAN Addition to Twining Vines (Bulletin of Popular Information, Vol. 7, No. 7, June 23, 1939). In the lists of twining vines on page 36 the Chinese Wisteria (Wisteria sinensis) was unfortunately omitted. This should be added to the group Twining by climbing from left to right. 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Drought at the Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24069","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060b328.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM - HARVARD UNIVERSITY . BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII AUGUST 11, 19:i9 NUMBER 9 DROUGHT AT THE ARBORETUDI extended drought of the past six weeks has been broken-we hope ! Never before in the history of the Boston Weather Bureau was there so little rain in July, and accurate records have been kept in this area 121years. Friends of the Arboretum will be glad to know that the heavy thunderstorm of August fourth, brought considerable relief to the many plants at the Arnold Arboretum, and alleviated the acute condition for the time bemg, at least. Inany large area the size of the Arboretum, there are always places which can normally be expected to become considerably dry when rainfall is low-particularly in the summer time. In the Arboretum, for instance, one of the azalea beds along the Meadow Road is always among the first to suffer from lack of water. Some of the plants in the Chinese collection on Bussey Hill can be expected to show lack of water readily, and it is usually necessary to water the rhododendron collection at least once during the summer, although efforts are made annually to incorporate more humus into the soil about the plants. There is a ram gauge in the small nursery adjacent to the greenhouse and readings are taken there daily for the Boston V~'eather Bureau. Though the official rainfall for the month of July for the Boston area was given as .75 of an mch (nearly 3 inches below normal) only . 3k of an inch was recorded at the Arboretum during the same period, about the lowest of any area in the vicimty of Boston. The previous July record low for rainfall in the Boston area was in 7 8~.9 w hen only .85 of an inch was recorded. With an excess of rain (11.10 inches total rainfall in July) and flooded conditions throughout Massachusetts for the same period last year (later followed by a hurricane),it would seem that the plants in eastern Massachusetts are bemg subjected to all the vagaries which an unpredictable Nature can provide in the short period of one year! I It is fortunate, indeed, that the heavy rainfall of August fourth came THE 41 when it did. The rain gauge recorded a fall at the Arboretum of .99 of an inch, practically three times as much ram as had fallen dur~ng the entire month of July ! . Plants Affected Foremost among the plants which showed noticeable wilting were the large lilacs in the lilac collection growing between the walk and the road, and the Philadelphus on the opposite side. These were wilting consistently and it became necessary to water them every few days in order to keep them from losing their leaves. The rhododendrons were beginning to show wrltin\",T about the middle of July. Because of the g~reat value of these plants it was necessary to water them continuously for a full week. Many of the younger trees and shrubs planted in the collections during the past two and three years suffered considerably. Attempts were made to water them but some were so far from the road that rt was impossible and as a consequence some undoubtedly will d~e. Near the end of July, particularly during the last few days, trees began to show the effects of drought at an alarming rate. Some of the small Japanese cherries near the Administration Bmldmg dropped some of their leaves. Several of the viburnums in the collection were in very poor condition, and such rugged plants as Viburmm clentrrtum and V. lPUlrr~,mn, growing at varurus places in the Arboretum showed an increasing number of wilted and fallen leaves. The bank of Forsvthias below the lilac collection started to wilt about July th~rty-first. It was nothing serious, for the leaves did not dry up entirely as did those of many other plants, but they did sUuw pronounced wilting and the rain came in the nick of time to save them from more serious injury. Fires During the latter part of July the danger to the plants from fire was as great as the danger from lack of water. One day during the last week of July there were three fires within the boundaries of the Arboretum, two of them burning simultaneously. Most of the fires, (they averaged about one a day for over two weeks) were small grass fires, started by dropped matches or cigarettes and were easily controlled by Arboretum workmen, but for some it was necessary to call the fire department in order to obtain quick control. No serious damage was done to any of the valuable trees and shrubs, due to the prompt control methods of the Arboretum force and the firemen. It is hoped that the heavy rains of August fourth will be followed shortly by others. At the time this is written, plants in the Arboretum can be said to have recuperated fairly well, but with a pronounced deficiency of rainfall to date, considerably more rain is needed before the trees and shrubs can be considered safely out of danger for the rest of the summer. 42 v f yY s -s . +O ~ 's ~ n ~-~L i' 1~ ... V .~. '5: L :d ~7 N ~< 2014 's w o ~ > ~ x~~ .,s ~ .. ~ ~ ~ ~.~~~, ~ n o 5 h W ro -c x Q~. O I L o o ~ a~ 3~ ~'!~ w a ~~ E C~~ ` > E a oc o ~a e u E ~ ~' S n 3 \" '+'~ c uc ~ a~ a~ 'C a~ a~ S -S G .yO go~ n! ~~ T I ~ o ro >x~ a~ ~ An Important Introduction of Seeds from Western China to the Arnold Arboretum Within the past few years it has been the policy of the Arnold Arboretum to make modest grants to strategically located institutions and individuals in support of cooperative collection of seeds as well as botanical specimens essential to the proper identification of the former. Last year the very large seed collection, comprising about 2300 numbers, made by Mr. Yu in 1937in western China was distributed through the Arboretum. From a grant made in the early part of 1938 to the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology in Peynng the Arboretum has just recemed, in one shipment, .iRS packages of seeds from Yunnan-Sikang, in southwestern China. Over one-half of the numbers ' represent woody species, the remainder herbaceous forms. The field work was done by Mr.T.T.Yu during the past collecting season. The seeds were shipped from Yunnan-fu in April and de]lBered m Boston on July 12, a commentary on the delays in transportation to which such material is subject due to present unsettled conditions in China. The botanical material, shipped at the same time, has not yet been received. Selections from the woody species wll be made for trial at the Arboretum,while excess material will be distributed to the various correspondents of the institution w ho may be interested in new introductions. With little information as to whether or not the various species may prove to be hardy in New Fngland, ~t seems to be better policy to give such current introductions rather wide distribution, so that if the species fails to survive with us, ~t may be found to thrive elsewhere. The seeds of the herbaceous species, mostly determined to the ~renus, have been turned over to the Massachusetts Horticultural Sooety for distribution to its members. This current shipment from war-torn China is potent evidence that plant hunting is still actively going on in these unsettled times. Note The Arboretum is always recommending new plants to the horticulturally minded public, though it is not always possible to get such new things in large quantity. Both Prirrs~epin sinensis and P. vn~orn are two excellent,vigorous-growing, thorny shrubs which are not grown much in this country outside of botanic gardens but they have been described from time to time in this Bulletin and recommended. The trouble has been the inability to get seed. Now it may be obtained for $0.50 per pound (cleaned, packed, and deliBered to the Post Office at Harbin, Manchoukuo) from : Mr. A. Woeikoff, The Garden of Manchurian Flora, P. O. Box :~5:3, Harbin, Manchoukuo. Those interested should write immediately. . 1)ON4Ln ~ S nl:lN 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Salt Water Injury of Woody Plants Resulting from the Hurricane of September 21, 1938","article_sequence":10,"start_page":45,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24076","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070a328.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII NOVEMBER 3, lss9 NUMBER 10 SALT WATER INJURY OF WOODY PLANTS RESULTING FROM THE HURRICANE OF SEPTEMBER 21, 1938 last year's Hurricane, it has been particularly interesting to note the rapidity with which certain trees and shrubs recovered from salt water injury. Many plants have shown a remarkable ability to withstand immersion in salt water for twenty-four hours and longer. Because of this, a study was made of certain sections around Woods Hole and Falmouth, in Massachusetts; Newport, Rhode Island; and places along the north shore of Massachusetts, a year after the hurricane, in an attempt to see how well injured plants were recovering. As a result of these observations, the appended lists are presented. These data ere compiled on special trips to the areas indicated and have been checked by several individuals who have been doing landscape work in the regions. Mr. Wilfred Wheeler, of Hatchville, Massachusetts, has been particularly observant and helpful, and assisted materially with his important observations and has also checked the ~INCE lists. Lawns flooded with salt water, and in the spring anxious samples to the Rhode Island Experiment Station for analysis. Several of these samples were analyzed but in no case was a sufficiently heavy accumulation of salts found to cause permanent injury to the soil. No great accumulation of salt in the soil took place because the ground was thoroughly saturated with water before the storm struck. It had been raining steadily during the four days preceeding the storm, and in the months following there was plenty of rain and snow, so that much of the salt remaining after the storm was leached out before spring. However, there were many cases were Many lawns property holders sent many soil 45 where either the grass foliage or the grass roots or both were killed. Standard practice for renovating immersed lawns was to apply ground limestone at the rate of LO-50 pounds per thousand square feet and thoroughly water the areas after the limestone was applied. If the grass roots were not killed, new growth appeared in the spring. If the grass roots were killed, the soil was dug up and the affected areas were reseeded, standard applications of regularly recommended fertilizers being made at the same time. Different grasses reacted in different ways. Bent grass and Kentucky Blue grass were easily killed, while the omnipresent crabgrass eventually appeared even after being submerged 1~ hours or more. Several areas around Woods Hole where salt water had stood for 24 hours, observed one year later, were a good green-from a distance. On close examination, the grasses and weeds making this green color were of some of the coarser and more objectionable sorts, but, nevertheless, the fact remains that they were not killed and made an excellent recovery. Trees and Shrubs considerable care was taken in observing the extent of Although salt water injury on trees and shrubs, conditions differed widely, and plants that may have suffered severe damage in one place may have been unharmed in others. This may be on account of variations in soil, drainage, and the length of time the salt water stood about the plant roots. Salt-spray injury also differed widely, perhaps chiefly because of varying degrees in exposure, wind velocities at the time of the storm, height, age and condition of the plants, and other factors. Consequently, the information included herein should be taken only at its face value. It merely represents observations made in areas where salt water damage to woody plants was greatest. Many commonly grown plants were not observed in the flooded areas examined ; consequently numerous additions to the lists can and should be made as additional data becomes available. Fortunately, with hurricanes in the east spaced 100 years apart, it is not necessary that the fear of another in the immediate future should govern present seashore planting. Since continual planting is being done, it is hoped that the following lists may prove helpful to those engaged in selecting the right kind of plant material for exposed seashore situations. It is very seldom that such a golden opportunity is offered to study the effects of wide-spread salt water damage to woody plants, and, since the opportunity has presented itself, it was thought advisable to take advantage of it and make careful notes on individual species before the damage became minimized by the soothing effects of time. 46 PLATE VIII Pictures taken in Eel Pond swamp, Woods Hole, September 29, 19:39. At the top, Sycamore maple, Acer pseudoplatanus is growing unharmed though its roots were submerged with salt water for l4 hours. Nearby, red maple, elrn and birch have been severely injured. Lower picture shows red maple ai d Pmus rigida killed, while white willow, bayberry, azalea and various grasses are growing well. The following plants were submerged in salt water for at least 24 hours after the hurricane and were recovering satisfactorily when observed one year later. cases the roots were submerged, and in many cases the plants themselves or portions of them. Satisfactory recovery means that, although injured, these plants were sending out vigorous suckers from the base or from the larger stems, or the tops were sending out (In all new shoots. It should be noted here that if the inundation had come after a long drought and the soil had not been saturated with water, there might have been a considerably greater injury.) Acer pseudoplatanus Aesculus hippocastanum Ailanthus altissima Aronia arbutifolia Prunus martima Prunus serotina Prunus virginiana Calluna vulgaris Campsis radicans Catalpa speciosa Clematis paniculata Clethra alnifolia Pyrus communis Quercus alba Rhododendron viscosum Rhus aromatica (R.canadensis) Rhus copallina Rhus glabra Rhus toxicodendrun Rhus typhina Rhus vernix Robinia pseudoacacia Rosa (Ramblers) Rosa rugosa Rosa virginiana Rosa wichuraiana Salix alba Sambucus canadensis Smilax glauca . . Comptonia asplenifolia Corylus americana Cryptomeria japonica Hibiscus syriacus Ilex glabra Juniperus chinensis pfitzeriana Juniperus virginiana Juniperus virginiana glauca Ligustrum amurense Ligustrum ovalifolium Malus sylvestris Myrica pensylvanica (M. carolinensis) Nyssa sylvatica Parthenocissus tricuspidata Spiraea prunifolia Tamarix parviflora Tilia cordata Ulmus pumila Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum dentatum Vitis labrusca Wisteria sinensis Populus grandidentata Picea canadensis Picea pungens kosteri Pinus sylvestris Pinus thunbergi ' 48 PLATE IX The Japanese Black Pine (P.thunbergi) was outstanding in its resistance to salt water. 1'h~s one, only a few hundred feet from the shore at Woods Hole. was exposed to the worst of salt spray and was even covered with salt water, yet it came through in perfect condition. Plants subjected to salt spray and either uninjured or not injured seriously a few weeks before most deciduous trees their leaves ; consequently, salt spray injury was comparativedropped ly worse on the evergreens. The amount of salt spray varied considerably in different locations, and many of the plants in thi, lmt would be injured in one pluce and uninjured in another. Many other plants may have weathered salt spray injury 5atisfactorilv but do not appear on this hst because they w ere not observed. These facts should be kept in mind when studying the list.) (The hurricane came only Acer platanoides Acer pseudoplatanus Actinidia arguta Ailanthus altissima Amelanchier canadensis angustifolia Ligustrum amurense Lonicera japonica halliana Lonicera morrowi Lonicera tatarica Malus sylvestris Kalmia Arctostaphylos uva-ursi Baccharis halimifolia Cedrus atlantica glauca Cephalanthus occidentalis Myrica pensylvanica (M. carolinensis) Parthenocissus tricuspidata Chamaecyparis pisifera plumosa Physocarpus opul~fulius Picea abies Picea asperata Picea canadensis Picea glauca Picea orientalis Picea pungens kosteri Pieris japonica Pinus mu~o mughus (varied responses on different soils) Pinus nigra Pinus thunbergi Populus alba Prunus maritima , Chamaecy paris pisiferasquarrosa (damaged somewhat) Clethra alnifolia Crataegus crus-galli Cytisus scoparius Elaeagnus angustifolia Elaeagnus longipes Fagus sylvatica Forsythia species Hippophae rhamnoides Hydrangea macrophylla (H. hortensis) Ilex glabra Ilex opaca Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus communis communis Pyrus communis Quercus mar~landica depressa Rhamnus cathartica Rhus copallina Rhus glabra Rhus toxicodendron Rhus typhina , excelsa stricta horizontalis virginiana virginiana glauca 50 Rubinia pseudoacacia Rosa (ramblers) Rosa blanda Rosa humilis Rosa nitida Rosa rugosa Rosa virginiana Rosa wichuraiana Salix humilis Sambucus canadensis Taxus species and varieties(even took submergence for 2-3 days m some instances though they did not respond as well as Pfitzer's juniper). Tilia americana Tilia cordata Tilia vulgaris Thuja occidentalis varieties Ulmus pumila Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum cassinoides Viburnum dentatum Wisteria sinensis Spiraea species Syringa vulgaris (if submerged, it was killed) parviflora Plants killed or Tamarix very seriously injured by salt water water stood on the soil long enough it would kill all the of most trees and shrubs, except a very few like Baccharis. The plants listed below were killed or seriously mjured by salt spray, by submergence in salt water, or by both.) roots (If salt Abies concolor Abies pinsapo Acer rubrum Azaleas (evergreen types) Berberis Betula papyr~fera Betula populifolia Buxus sempervirens Buxus sempervirens suffruticosa Cephalanthus occidentalis Chamaecyparis species and Lyonia ligustrina Parthenocissus quinquefolia Pinus rigida Pinus strobus Pseudotsuga taxifolia thunbergi (P. douglasi) Rhododendrons (evergreen types) Rosa-(Any grafted or budded rose) Injury may have been due to sudden freeze late in the fall, more than to salt water varieties Clematis virginiana Euonymus species and varieties Ginkgo biloba Hedera helix Larix decidua injury. up from Sassafras albidum (but coming (S. officinale) roots) Tsuga canadensis Ulmus americana Ulmus fulva Weigela species and varieties Liquidambar styraciflua Liriodendron tulipifera 51 NOTE Through the support received from a number of friends of the Arnold Arboretum it has been possible to establish a Fellowship for 1939-40 which has been assigned to Miss Luetta Chen, a Chinese student taking graduate work in botany in Radcliffe College. This has been designated the \"George B. Emerson Fellowship\" in memory of Mr. Emerson, one of the trustees of the James Arnold estate, and the individual who actually suggested the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum. Because of his enthusiasm and interest, the trustees of the Arnold estate were inspired to transfer the initial endowment of $100,000 to Harvard University, provided the University would set aside a part of the Bussey farm as a site and foster the establishment of the Arnold Arboretum. DONALD WYMAN 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Order of Bloom of Trees and Shrubs at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":11,"start_page":53,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24080","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d070af6f.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII NOVEMBER 29, tsss NUMBER 11 I THE ORDER OF BLOOM OF TREES AND SHRUBS AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM order to establish a beautiful planting of tlowermg trees and one must have a knowledge of those plants which effectively bloom together. Although the actual day on wh~ch a certain plant may come into bloom varies from year to year according to the weather, there are some that always bloom together, and it is this information that gardeners should always have available when planning their gardens. In this bulletin a large number of the more ornamental trees and shrubs growing at the Arboretum are listed according to their sequence of bloom. Many varieties have been omitted because of lack of space, but the list is of sufficient length to serve as a basic list to which future additions may be made. Of particular interest could be the addition of notes on the length of bloom of these plants, and in making additions and notes of th~s character the hst should become of increasing Balue. Many have had the opportunity of following the spring from the South into the North. In fact, one could enjoy the beauties of any particular period in the spring a full three months simply by travelling in slow stages from Florida to Nlau~e. The following schedule shows the approximate times the mountain-laurel (Knlmza lat;f'olirr~ blooms at different places in the United States. Though these vary according to the weather during the particular year in question (see Bulletin, No. 3, April 29, 1939, page 16, for other information on this same point),nevertheless, there is a progressic~e display of mountain-laurel from the South to the North over a two-month period. IN shrubs, 53 The time Kalmia latifolia blooms in different regions Since most of the hybrid rhododendrons bloom slightly before the mountain-laurel and most of the PhiladPlphusspeciesand varieties bloom at about the same time, it is easy to correlate the time of bloom of other plants with those in such a list. With this in mind, the list offered in this bulletin is really applicable anywhere since the sequence of bloom is the same, even though the actual time mentioned is for the vicinity of Boston, Massachusetts. In consulting the following list it should be kept in mind that, though a certain plant may be listed as blooming the first part of June, it may remain in full bloom and hence be effective from the landscape point of view for at least two weeks or more, and so can be used in combination with plants that normally bloom later. The length of bloom is an intensely interesting study, and because of a long blooming period, many plants are quite useful. As an example Spiraea prunifolia plena normally starts to bloom at the Arboretum on May 1. It frequently remains effective for three full weeks. On the other hand, a plant like Amelanchier canadensis may remain in bloom only five days ur even drop its petals in three days if the weather is unusually warm. Consequently, the length of time the flowers remain on the plant is important and depends upon the weather and the kind of plant. As a rule, the plants with double flowers last considerably longer than do those varieties with single flowers. The length of time that plants like the flowering crabapple can be enjoyed depends particularly upon the weather. Many are more interesting in bud than m full flower, and if there is a long period of cool, cloudy weather when the buds are full but not open, they may remain in good condition for some time and so may be colorful and 54 effective for two weeks or more. On the other hand, if a warm hot spell forces the buds to open at once, the flowers may fade in less than a week. Since these conditions vary considerably, those interested in using such plants must study them carefully and consider local conditions as a basis for determining the length of time the flowers may be expected to be of ornamental value. Wherever possible, yearly records have been kept of individual plants, since one individual of the same variety, growing in a warm, sunny spot, will undoubtedly bloom earlier than another which is more exposed. The following list is based on blooming dates in Boston and has been correlated with records kept by Professor J.G.Jack of the Arnold Arboretum between 1887 and 1893. Because of lack of space, a majority of the varietal names have not been given. Among the large number of Japanese cherries and the hybrid lilacs, there are some varieties that do bloom earlier than others, but this is a study in itself. Not all the plants listed are of value for their flowers, but they have simply been included as a matter of record. A plant is listed only for the particular date when it is in full bloom from the landscape pomt of view, although its flower buds might be rather conspicuous for several days previous to full bloom. As an example Pierisfloribunda and P.japonica are listed only once each m the following list, yet the flower buds of both are conspicuous a greater part of the late winter. Consequently, it is not to be considered that hard and fast date lmes are set up in the following list, but the general sequence and the association of plants blooming together should be of particular value to all interested in woody trees and shrubs. ORDER OF BLOOM * .f February - Hamamelis vernalis March Acer saccharinum Hamamelis japonica Hamamelis mollis Prinsepia sinensis buds opening Salix species (Snowdrop Early April & Crocus) , Acer rubrum Alnusincana \" Corylus species Daphne mezereum Erica carnea .. . rugosa Cornus mas Cornus officinalis Forsythia ovata Jasminum nudiflorum 55 Lonicera fragrantissima praeflorens standishi Populus species Prunus davidiana Rhododendron dauricum Viburnum fragrans Pieris japonica Mid-April Abeliophyllum distichum Acer negundo Berberis thunbergi (leaf buds opening) Betula species Cercidiphyllum japonicum Corylopsis species Dirca palustris Epigaea repens Forsythia \" Forsythia viridissima Lindera benzoin Lonicera morrowi and L. tatarica leaf buds opening Pieris floribunda Rhododendron mucronulatum Salix bland leaf buds opening Shepherdia argentea \" canadensis leaf buds opening Viburnum sieboldi Ulmus americana europaea intermedia suspensa B'ars. Late April ' ~ ' Acer circinatum \" diabolicum purpurascens \" Prunus canescens 16 cerasifera 61 platanoides conclnna \" \" Aesculus species, leaves well advanced Euptelea francheti \" cyclamina dasycarpa fenz]ana incisa 11 \" \" polyandra \" Larix species leaf buds opening Lonicera altmanni pilosiuscula \" coerulea edulis \" serrata mandshurica \" \" \" tenuipes Maddenia hypoleuca \" nigra nipponica sargenti , denudata kobus \" \" borealis \" stellata Malus baccata mandshurica Magnolia \" ,, \" salicina simoni \" subhirtella and varieties tomentosa ,, \" Myrica gale Prinsepia sinensis Prunus apetala \" \" tomentella triloba \" yedoensis Vinca minor and varieties armeniaca 56 Acer saccharum Early May Prunus incana \" Alyssum gemonense \" \" \" lanata , , Amelanchier species Andromeda glaucophylla maritima maximomczi \" \" Chamaedaphne calyculata Crataegus arnoldiana Chaenomeles japonica Chaenomeles lagenaria vars. Cydonia oblonga Cytisus beam '\" \" munsomana \" \" orthosepala padus and varieties persica \" \" decumbens elongatus cneorum Daphne (Dandelion) Forestiera acuminata Iberis tenoreana Ledum groelandicum Leitneria floridana Lonicera canadensis \" coerulea \" serrulata (many double flowered forms starting to bloom and continuing for two weeks at least, depending on the variety,some being slightly earlier than others.) Prunus slavini \" Pyrus amygdaliformis \" communis and varieties \" , michauxi . \" \" serotina gracilipes saccata salicifolia Rhododendron mucronatum venstum \" \" \" Magnolia Magnolia soulangeana Malus astracanica \" salicifolia Ribes \" vars. \" \" alpestre alpinum aureum \" brevipes \" diacantha \" micromalus \" gordonianum inebrians .. . Mahonia aquifolium \" \" (Narcissus) Nemopanthus \" irriguum mucronata \" \" Phlox subulata (Primula elatior odoratum orientale heterotrrchum ( \" superba) polyantha) pmetorum \" robustum setosum \" Prunus \" allegheniensis \" americana avium cerasus \" tenuipes Spiraea arguta \" \" \" \" \" \" domestica fontanesiana hortulana chamaedryfolia ulmifolia hy pericifolia acuta media multiflora \" \" 5~' ~ Spiraea pikoviensis prunifolia plena thunbergi \" \" \" \" Viburnum bitchluensis \" buddleifolium , \" burejaeticum shensianum \" (Tulips) Vaccinium species Viburnum alnifolium (Violets) Xanthorhiza simplicissima Zanthoxylum americanum Mid-May Aesculus \" carnea Exochorda \" \" giraldi korolkovi macrantha hippocastanum \" Akebia lobata \" quinata \" \" grandiflora racemosa Alyssum \" gemonense saxatile . Forestiera neo-mexicana Amelasorbus jacki Aristolochia mandshuriensis Aubretia deltoidea Berberis \" \" Fothergilla species Halesia carolina \" monticola Kerria japonica Lonicera alpigena \" \" dictyophylla dielsiana stenophylla thunbergi \" \" \" gibb~flora iiiierophylla muendemensis muscaviensis - vulgaris Calvcanthus floridus Caragana species Berberis \" \" Cercis canadensis \" syringantha \" wolfi thibet~ca \" chinensis \" Coriaria japonica Magnolia \" xylosteum fraseri lihflora nigra Cornus florida Coronilla emeroides Cytisus praecox \" \" purgans \" \" Malus adstringens \" arnoldiana \" purpurea \" atrosanguinea baccata \" \" ratisbonensis rocheli \" \" \" scoparius \" . denticulata floribunda \" triflorus \" Daphne \" \" caucasica \" cneorum \" Elaeagnus multiflora Enkianthus perulatus Euonymus alata 58 \" glabrescens halliana parkmani hupehensis prunifolia pumila niedzwetzkyana . \" \" purpurea Malus robusta \" sieboldi \" soulardi \" \" R.yedoense poukhanense Rhodotypos scandens Rhus canadensis Ribes fasciculatum 66 \" . spectabilis iumi calocarpa Pachysandra terminalis 44 sanguineum pinetorum (Papaver orientale) Potentilla fruticosa fnedrichseni Prinsepia uniflora Prunus angustifolia watsoni glandulosa and varieties \" \" \" \" Rosa primula Sambucus pubens Sibiraea laevigata Spiraea \" \" canescens gemmata grayana instititia hypericifolia inflexa mollifera \" maacki mexicana \" \" \" \" persica, double flowered varieties oxyodon pubescens Syrmga hyacinthiflora \" \" \" vars. \" pumila susquehanae sieboldi . oblata d~latata \" \" \" giraldi \" \" virginiana Quercus species Rhododendron canadense \" carolinianum \" fraseri \" obtusum amoenum \" obtusum arnoldianum \" pinnatifolia vulgaris; with approximately B00 varieties. It is impossible to list them here as Early,'' \"Medium or \"Late,\" though some might \" \" obtusum \"Hinodegiri\" obtusum \" kaempferi be so listed. Viburnum carlesi \" lantana \" reticulatum \" schlippenbachi vaseyi \" mongolicum wrighti Weigela \"Fleur de Mai\" \" \" Late May Acer ginnala Aronia arbutifolia Asslmina tnloba Ceanothus ovatus Celastrus species Chaenomeles lagenaria Berberis amurensis \" \" Kermisina semiplena\" Cornus alternifolia 61 \"C3x#& ; j uhanae vernae \" \"3#& x C; controversa 46 verruculosa 11 Bu]garis 59 (Buttercup) stolonifera Curomlla emeroides Cotoneaster adpressa \" Cotoneaster multiflora \" racemiflora Malus ioensis cc \" plena rmersi sargenti \" Crataegus oxyacantha \" \" . \" pruinosa punctata spectabilis sylvestris toringoides \" scheideckeri Daphne giraldi \" (Daylillies) Deutzia candelabrum \" \" gracilis hypoleuca lemoinei & varieties \" \" parviflora rosea Neilla sinensis Paeonia suffruticosa Petteria ramentaceae Philadelphus hirsutus schrenki Yhotma villosa \" \" and varieties Physocarpus \" \" amurensis monogynus Elaeagnus longipes umbellata Enkianthus campanulatus deflexus Fendlera wrighti Genista pilosa Iberis sempervirens Juglans sieboldiana Leucothe racemosa Lonicera amoena \" l>ella rosea \" \" Prunuslaurocerasussehipkaensis \" pennsylvanica serotina \" Rhamnus cathartica Rhododendron atlanticum R. catawbiense \"Albert\" \" R. \"Boule de Neige\" \" R. Charles Dickens\" \" R. \"Daisy\" \" R. \"Mont Blanc\" R.catawbiense \"Viola\" R.furtunei \"Dukeof York\" \" chrysantha korolkowi maacki . \" \" \" morrowi \" punicea \" R.japonicum R.gandavense hybrids R.molle hybrids and varieties tartanca Magnolia \" cordata glauca soulangeana lennei tripetala Malus angustifolia \" \" \" R.nudiflorum R.roseum R. smirnowi Robinia elliotti \" fertilis \" a bracteata coronaria \" \" hispida kelseyi \" \" charlottae slavini Rosa aciculans \" \" engelmanni vars. \" dulca hugoms spinosissima and xanthina \" glaucescens .. \" \" \" \" ioensis 60 Rubus deliciosus Smilax rotundifolia Spiraea blanda blumei \" \" Syringa velutina vulgaris and 41 many vari- eties \" wolfi \" cantoniensis \" yunnanensis Tamarix parviflora Thymus serphyllum Vaccinium corymbosum Viburnum affine \" \" chamaedryfolia cinerea \" \" nipponica trilobata \" vanhouttei \" wilsoni Staphylea colchica 16 \" erosum 41 66 trifolia \" \" Styrax obassia Symplocos paniculata Syringa chinensis julianae \" \" lentago macrocephalum opulus roseum rhytidophyllum rufidulum sieboldi tomentosum \" \" \" \" meyeri ,, plicatum trilobum several species & many vars. microphy lla persica pinetorum potanini \" \" Weigela, ,, \" varieties Wisteria species and \" pubescens Early June Actinidia arguta Buddleia alternifolia Chionanthus retusus Elaeagnus angustifolia Euonymus atropurpurea Genista hispamca Gemsta tinctoria Helianthemum nummularium virginicus Cladrastis lutea Clematis glauca 66 t angustifolia Hydrangea petiolaris xanthoneura wilsoni Idesia polycarpa Ilex opaca \" verticillata \" recta , Colutea species Cornus alba kousa chinensis \" rugosa Cotinus coggygria Crataegus cordata crus-galli oxyacantha pauli Daphne pontica Decaisnea fargesi c~ Jamesia americana Kolkwitzia amabilis Laburnum species Leucothoe catesbaei Lonicera maacki podocarpa minutiflora \" \" ruprechtiana 61 Lunicera xylosteoides Lycium species Magnolia parwHora Phellodendron amurense Philadelphus schrenki Rosa rugosa 64 64 ti spinosissima virginiana Physocarpus \" \" amurensis intermedia webbiana willmottiae Sassafras albidum Sorbus aucuparia 44 opulifolius Potentilla fruticosa varieties Pterostyrax hispida Rhamnus frangula Rhododendron arbutifolium \" , \"` calendulaceum catawbiense and many vars. Spiraea dasyantha trichocarpa Staphylea pinnata Styraxamericana japonica Syringa henryi varieties josikaea varieties \" 66 11 \" \" ,, komarowl ferrugineum . prestonaeand varieties \" R. minus Rhus potanini Robinia hartwigi \" reflexa \" \" \" sweginzowi pseudoacacia blanda canina Rosa acicularis \" arnoldiana \" \" \" \" \" tomentella villosa \" wiIsoni Viburnum cassinoides dentatum dilatatum \" \" foetida harrisoni \" 66 . \" \" persiana \" opulus prunifolium sargenti Rosa multiHora Mid-June Amorpha fruticosa pumila Catalpa speciosa Castanea Ceanothus pallidus rosea Celastrus scandens Colutea arborescens Cornus amomum bretschneideri \" \" \" Gymnocladus d~oica Hydrangea bretschneideri Ilex glabra Kalmia angustifolia \" latifolia \" Ligustrum obtusifolium \" \" regelianum coreana \" \" \" vulgare Liriodendron tulipifera Lonicera browni \" iberica \" \" kousa racemosa Cytisus supinus Deutzia scabra and varieties japonica halliana periclymenum \" Diospyros virginiana Euonymus europaea \" Periploca sepium Philadelphus coronarius cymosus varieties fortunei vegeta 62 Philadelphus \" inodorus Spiraea \" \" menziesi grandiflorus laxus lemoinei and varieties maximus . nipponica rotundifolia veitchi racemosus \" \" Symphoncarpos igatus laev- \"C3x#& ; \" \" Syringa \" \" amurensis \" 11 pubescens tomentosus japonica pekinensis platyphyllos tomentosa .. \" virginalis and varieties Tilia \" Rosa arvensis \" dahurica \" ,jacksom \" \" \" Vaccinium stamineum Viburnum acerifolium \" dilatatum hispidum \" \" \" micrantha multiflora cathayensis rubifolia rugosa kamtchatica \" \" erosum \" \" molle pubescens \" \" repens Weigela \"Congo\" Xolisma ligustrina 61 \" . allegheniensis Sophora vic~f'ol~a Spiraea henryi Acanthopanax \" Rubus mariana Zenobia Late June pulverulenta sieboldianus senticosus Rosa Carolina Actinidia polygama Amorpha glabra Cornus macrophylla Cotoneaster salicifolia Cytisus albus \" damascena multlbracteata Rubus odoratus Sambucus canadensis 14 41 Schizophragma hydrangeoides Sorbaria sorblfoha supinus Deutzia myriantha Genista anglica Hal~modendron halodendron Hex crenata Indigofera decora \" kirilowi \" Spiraea brachybotrys 11 44 \" \" bumalda latifolia pyramidata rubra \" sy Ivestl'l~ tenissima tomentosa \" \" \" potanini Itea virginica Lonicera VlrglI1lana Watsoniana Stewartia koreana Tilia species ,, henryi graeca Periploca Rhododendron arborescens Rhododendron maximum Rhus typhina Rosa anemoniflora Tripterygium regeli Weigela \"Eva Rathke\" Yucca glauca 63 Early July Buddleia japonica Castanea species Cytisus nigricans Holodiscus discolor Maackia amurensis Rhus glabra Rosa setigera Spiraea billiardi _ _ Indigofera amblyantha Aesculus Mid-July parviflora Amorpha brachycarpa fruticosa Berberis aggregata ovata Hype`icum kalmianum Koelreuteria paniculata Lespedeza bicolor Lonicera sempervirens Martensia erecta Rhododendron viscosum Catalpa speciosa Ceanothus a~nericanus Clematis ,jackman~ D~ervilla lonicera Hydrangea arborescens \" Securinega grandiflora ramiflora Sorbaria sorbifolia Sphaeralcea remota Spiraea alba \" albiHura \" cmerx \" paniculata quercifolia serrata aureum \" douglasi \" praecox ma~;entae Tamarm udessana pentandra Yucca 6lamentosa Late July rosea Hypericum Albizzia ,julibr~ssm Aralia spmosa Budcilei.v albiflorx Hypericum proliticum Indigofera pulchella Ligustrum quihoul Lonicera invulucrata serotina Nandina domestica Oxydendrum arboreum Sorbaria arborea Spiraea bumalda \"Anthony Waterer\" August Callicurpa species Callunx vul~,raris and varieties Campsia radicans Cephalanthus occidentalis Clethra acuminata alnifolia Hydrangea radiata \" Abelia grandiflora Buddleia davidi magnifica Clematis virginiana vitalba Evodia (lanielli Hibiscus syriacus varieties Hydrangea arborescens 11 11 Hypericum dawsonianum Lespedeza buergeri praecox cyrtobotrya \" Lonicera heckrotti Yaulowaa tomentosa Polygonum auberti \" \" macrophy lla paniculata Sophora japonica y rnphoricarpos vulgaris Vitex agnus-eastus \" 41 graiidiflora negundo wcma September Clematis paniculata Clerodendron trichotomum Hamamelis virginiana - Elsholtma stauntoni Franlslinia altamaha October DONALD WmaN 64 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Breeding New Varieties of Ornamental Crabapples at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":12,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24068","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060af27.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Skirm, George W.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII DECEMBER 1, 1989 NUMBER m BREEDING NEW VARIETIES OF ORNAMENTAL CRABAPPLES AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM the past few years the Arboretum has started rather in the breeding of ornamental trees and shrubs. One of the objectives is the possibility of thus obtaining new plants which may be desirable from an ornamental standpoint. To perhaps attain this objective, a large number of seedlings must be grown from which to make selections. Since nursery space at the Arboretum is limited, we cannot carry through all of these seedlings to maturity and, hence, plan to \"farm out\" these plants to interested individuals who have space in which to grow them. The ornamental crabapples were selected because of their high ornamental value and the interesting genetic problems connected with their breeding. Approximately ~000 seedlings will be distributed next spring to individuals and institutions requesting them, and it is to acquaint those who may be interested with some of the facts concerning this work that this bulletin is issued. It is desirable from our standpoint that plantings be made in regions reasonably convenient to Boston so that at the proper season we may have the privilege of examining the growing stock. They will, of course, all represent unnamed seedlings, but it is expected that some of them will present features of special horticultural interest and it may later be desirable to perpetuate some of these by asexual propagation methods. As a rule the breeding of new varieties of plants is done by artificial cross pollination, but in the case of apples and cherries the plants are largely self-sterile so that under proper conditions hybrids are produced naturally. It has long been known that apples are partially or completely self-sterile and must be cross pollinated to produce fruit and DURING extensive experiments 65 a clonal variety are inter-sterile so that in commercial orchards different varieties must be planted together to insure proper pollination. The cross pollination is effected largely by bees, and in many of the large western orchards hives of bees are distributed through the orchards at blooming time. In New England the bumble bees play an important part in orchard pollination. The species of ornamental crabapples also are self-sterile and must be cross pollinated in order to produce seeds. In the Arnold Arboretum these species and varieties are represented by single specimens as a rule so that the seed produced by a single tree is the result of pollination by the other trees in the vicinity. Consequently, the seedlings produced by such a collection of species must be hybrids. There is some limitation on crossing because the flowering periods of the Asiatic and American species do not overlap and as a consequence crossing is restricted to species within these two groups growing in the Arnold Arboretum. Seeds from species of crabapples were collected in the fall of 193ti and were planted in flats. Young plants were grown in the greenhouse until they could be set out in the nursery plots in May. Most of these seedlings are now froml to 4 feet tall and can be transplanted next set seeds. Trees of spring. There are over :3,000 trees in the nursery representing the progeny of 50 species and varieties. As expected most of the seedlings from any species vary greatly in growth habit, leaf shape, and color, indicating that they are of hybrid origin. Some of the parental trees were known to be of hybrid origin so that their progeny should vary even if pollination were limited to a single male parent. Among these crabapple species two produce only the parental types. These species, Malus hupehensis (theifera) and NI. tormgoides, are parthenogenetic and produce seed asexually without pollination. These species fortunately are among the best of the flowering crabs, and can be reproduced by seed regardless of their association with other species. A few of the other species show little segregation, but most of them produce seedlings which are extremely variable. Among the seedlings from the Arboretum collections there are many dwarfs, a few prostrate or weeping types, and many variations in leaf shapes and colors. Some have dark purple foliage all summer long while others have color only in the fall. A few are very large and vigorous and may have possibilities as root stocks for orchard trees. It is hoped that many of the new combinations of species will produce varieties of horticultural value. Types with attractive flowers, 66 0 o ~o o % '~ c i~ ~ t a~ .c fl a .T1 .~ -Q y N ^O Y i, L ~ w~L ~ ~-< 3 W ... ~ :J ~ 9 ~3 k 'b y C~ y W d 4J ^F X .3 M >N ~ 4 ro a~ J y ~4 ~'bj I n _v o~ E eC VI xc~ C~ ornamental fruits and trees mature. The Arboretum will be selected as the has several acres of nursery space where many crabapple, lilacs, cherry, and rose seedlings will be grown to the flowering stage. There will be a considerable number of crabapple trees which we cannot handle at the Arboretum and we hope that about 2,000 of these seedlings can be placed on private grounds or estates. We plan to distribute our surplus stock next spring to individuals who will care for the young plants. If any particular orphan tree should prove to be of exceptional value, the Arboretum reserves the right to obtain propagating stock from it so that the variety can be more widely distributed. The surplus apple seedlings will be distributed in the spring of 1940. Most of them should be of ornamental value and some should be new and unusual types. Those interested in growing some of these hybrids should send their request to Dr. Donald Wyman, at the Arboretum, and indicate the number of seedlings desired. Because of the hybrid nature of these seedlings, as explained above, the color of flowers and fruit cannot be foretold. The plants will be delivered simply as crabapple seedlings. However, since all have been grown from seed collected in the Arboretum where the best ornamental species are grown, a large number should be of distinct ornamental value. It is understood that, in most cases, the prospective grower will obtain the young trees at the Bussey Institution greenhouse at a time to be indicated later, and see that the trees are properly planted and cared for. now graceful growth habits GEORGE W. SKIRM 67; CONDITIONS UNDER WHICH CRABAPPLE SEEDLINGS MAY BE OBTAINED 1. Each seedling must be carefully planted and given normal care thereafter. They become the property of the person or institution obtaining them. 2. Arboretum staff members will have the privilege of these seedlings occasionally from time to time. inspecting 3. The Arboretum reserves the right to take propagating material from any tree which proves to be of exceptional value. 4. The plants will be prepared for shipment by the Arboretum but recipients are expected to make arrangements for their delivery from the Bussey Institution greenhouse, South Street, Jamaica Plain, at a time to be indicated later. . , 5. Because of the hybrid origin of these trees, color of flower, fruit, etc., cannot be foretold; consequently they will be distributed simply as unnamed seedlings, originating in the Arnold Arboretum. Lt, 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Botanical Exploration of the Mackenzie Mountains","article_sequence":13,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24067","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060ab25.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VII DECEMBER 15, 1939 NUMBER 13 . BOTANIC.AL EXPLORATION OF THE DIACKEN7,If: MOUNTAINS expeditions and local collecfrom the days of Kalm, Mtchaux, Douglas and Nuttall to retors, cent times, have seen to that. The Mackenzie Mountains of northwestern Canada have remained a challenge, not only to botani,ts but to geographers and geologists as well, during the long period of more active exploration around them. They are remote both by distance and accessibility, hidden away in the vast wilderness of Yukon and western Mackenzie, and drained only by broken, unnavigable streams. A few hardy trappers and prospectors, and a few Indians who are among the least civilized on the continent, are the only inhabitants. But the development of .mr transport in recent sears has altered all our prospects for biological exploration. Even the most inaccessible regions now become available for study by naturalists in various fields. The Arnold Arboretum as part of its general program of field work sponsored a collecting expedition to the Mackenzie Mountains during the past summer. The main objectives were to make collections representing the flora of a part of this unknown region, and a study of the local types of vegetation. The net results will be a contribution to the broader problems of boreal phytogeography, for the summer's work will throw light on one of the largest blank spots in our plant maps of the northern part of the continent. The field work was in charge of the writer, who, with his wife, had been engaged in the botanical investigation of the Mackenzie basin for several years ; and was financed in part by grants from the iBIilton Fund of Harvard University, the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and the National Academy of Science. The National Museum of Canada made generous loans of field equipment. Mr.James H.Soper, of Hamilton, Ontario, served as field assistant. Since it was especially desirable to reach the mountains for spring collecting (mid-June), and since the Mackenzie system at Great Slave Lake is not commonly open to navigation so early in the season, plans for the whole trip had to be made a year ahead of time. 69 BOTANICALL Y unexplored mon mountam are no longer conr- in North America. A host of PLATE XI Granite and shale mountains around the western end of f3r~ntnell Lake. The expedition's camp is on the shore near the right hand margin of the picture. Timber line is from 1 zUU to 14~U teet above the level of the lake, and the effects of snow-slides may be seen m the spruce and birch forests on the steep slopes. supplies, collecting outfit, and heaB ier camping equippacked and shipped to the Hudson's Bay Company at Fort Simpson m the summer 1938. The party left Boston May 20, 1939, and reached Simpson on June 8th, using a Mackenzie Air Service plane for the last and ordinarily most time-consuming stage of the journeynorth from Fort Smith. A week at Simpson gave time to sort and repack supplies, and to collect the local spring flora along the Mackenzie ment were Jlost of the food River. On the Wth a chartered plane carrted us to Brintnell Lake, a small body of water at an altitude of 2600 feet in the Snyder Range, approximately 200 miles west of Fort Simpson. This range lies in the heart uf the Mackenzie Mountain system, and ts composed of rugged granite and shale mountains, some of which reach elevations 9000 feet or more above the sea. It would be difficult to conceive of a more completely primeval country than this. Two years ago a surveying party sponsored by Mr. Harry Snyder of Montreal (for whom the mountains were named) camped there for a few weeks; and trappers spent a winter on the lake a few years ago. Aside from these few visitors the lake and its surrounding mountains seem never to have been inhabited by human beings. No evidence of Indian occupation could be found. Overland travel proved extremely difficult due to the steep slopes and the complete absence of man-made trails. The flora is a small one in number of species, and strongly Arctic in character. Never-the-less a remarkably rich forest of spruce grows on the lower slopes of the mountains. The timber line is from 1200 to 1400 feet abo~e e the lake, with colorful alpine meadow and crex ice vegetation aboB e. The steeper slopes everywhere are made difficult for plant growth by the prevalence of hazardous slide-rock ; and on the steep southward-facing surfaces the vegetation is subject to great damage by periodic spring snow-shdes. Collecting and field studies of local distribution problems engaged our attention until another plane came for us on the 20th of August. A sectional canoe made possible short trips about the lake, but otherwise we went on foot to the surrounding country. No two mountain slopes had the same flora, so that the collecting did not become monotonous in spite of our confinement to one region. After a stay of three weeks in Fort Simpson we travelled southward up the Mackenzie, Slave and Athabaska Rivers by slow stages, and finally reached home on the 28th of September. The summer's collecting netted some 15,000 herbarium specimens, over two thirds of which are of flowering plants and ferns, and the remainder lichens, mosses and fungi. Most of the material came from Brintnell Lake and Simpson, although some very interesttng plants, especially willows, were gathered along the rivers as we travelled northward in the spring. The collections will be studied at the Arboretum and the duplicates distributed from it in exchange with herbaria throughout the world. HUGH M. RAUP 7:>' "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume VII","article_sequence":14,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24073","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060816f.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"' INDEX TO SERIES 4 VOLUME VII m Synonyms are in italic; illustrations bold face type. ~ - Abehophyllum distichum, Acer rubrum, 16 6 saccharinum, 16 Actinidia arguta, 33,34 - 16 ) Brmtnell Lake, 72 Carmine Crab, z6 Celastrus articulata, 34 - Akebia - polygama, lobata, quinata, 34 33 3 33 , flagellaris, orbiculata, 34 34 - scandens. 33-34 pentaphylla, 33 - - trifoliata, 33 Arborway, The, 24 Aristolochia durior, 33 Arnold Arboretum, Drought at the, 41-42 -, Fires in the, 4 ~ -, Hurricane damage at the, 1-4 - -, 6 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 16 Cornus mas, 16 ;s Corylopsis, 13 fi pauctflora, 16 Crabapple seedlings, Conditions under which obtained, 68 Crabapples, Breeding new vanties of, 65-68 Crabapples, Oriental, l6 Crabapples, The best flowering, - When it 22 was young, Plate 1 31 III, Arnold Crab, 28 Bechtel's Crab, (Malus ioensis plena), Habit of, Plate V, 27 Daphne mezereum, 16 Dexter, Charles 0., 1 1 fi Dirca palustris, 16 Drought at the Arboretum, 41-42 ll Eel Pond swamp, Woods Hole, Benzoin Bloom, - - - - - - G aestivale, 16 of, 53-64 February, 55 March, 55 April, 55-56 May, 56-61 June, 61-63 July, 64 -- August, 64 September, 64 - October, 64 Blooming dates for the Arnold Order \"Earl of Athlone\", Plate VIII, 47 Emerson,George B.Fellowship, 5l Exploration of the Mackenzie 69 Mountains, Botanical, Fan Memorial Institute, 44 - 2 Fertilizers (for Rhodendrons~,1 ~ 42 Fires in the Arboretum, Arboretum, 1931-1939, 16 Breeding apples, new varieties of crab- Flowers, Malus, 31 6 Forsythia ovata, 1 3,16 31 Fruit, Malus, Gold Medal of the Mmistere . 65-68 73 de I'Agriculture of the French Republic, 14 Gore's Meadow, 23 Great Slave Lake, 72 Hamamelis mollis, 16 - - atrosanguinea, 26 - - baccata - - - vernalis, 16 2 Hemlock Hill, Hurricane, Age of trees destroyed by, 3 Areas - mandshurica, 25 floribunda, 25 hall~ana parkmani, 1.5 hupehensis, 13 ioens~s plena, ?.i , - ioensis plena IV, z:3 - (branch) z.p Plate prunifolia rinki, purpurea, 26 -, replanted after the, by, - 2-4 -, - sargenti, 25,28 done Repairing damage The best 31 flowering crab- 1-4 apples, form -- Ihrig, Herbert, 5-12 Index Kewensis, Improved of, 37-40 at the Arnold -, in its new Loose Leaf Form Arboretum, - Plate - VI, 39 Supplement, theifera, z.i toringoides, ~6,18 Meadow Road, l-1 Dlemspermum canadense, dauricum, 34 Merrill, E.D., 14 ;S4 Japanese bergi), Plate IX, 38 Black Pine Mountains around Brintnell (P.thun- 49 Judd, William H., 16 Jumper rusts, 39 Kalmia latifolia, Blooming dates in different 1 Lake, Plate XI, 70-71 North Meadow, The, ll-z~. Order of Bloom of trees and * regions, .~3-54 - Lawns, Salt 45-46 water injury to, shrubs, 53-64 Periploca graeca, 34 sepium, 34 Prinsepia sinensis, Seed source Logs awaiting the saw mill at Harvard Forest, Plate VII, 43 -- of, 44 uniflora, Seed Pruning of trees, armeniaca source of, 44 18 8 Prunus 16 6 \"Mikado\" Lonicera praeflorens, 16 Loose-leaf binder, 40 Mackenzie Mountains, Botanical Exploration of, 69 - --- concinna, - 16 6 16 6 davidiana, 16 - incisa, - - - Magnolia denudata, 16 kobus borealis, 16 soulangeana speciosa, 6 stellata, 13, 16 - mandshurica, 16 6 16 6 16 6 - nigra, 16 -- sargenti, -- rosea, 13 subhirtella, pendula, tomentosa, 16 16 Malus arnoldiana, 25 - 16 74 6 Prunus triloba multiplex, 16 Pueraria thunbergiana, 34 Purple Flowered Crab, 26 Rhododendron Barbatum, 7 - - - macrophyllum, 11I malvaticum x Kaempferi, 8 o - maximum, 10 8 -- moupinense, Barclay \"Helen Fox\", 6 - californicu~n, 11 I - - - Calophytum, 7 Calostrotum, 8 catawbiense, 10 0 - - mucronulatum, myrtilloides, 8 pemakoense, 8 13 3 - - planting in the Northwest, Plate I, 9 - ciliatum, 8 2 - culture, 11-12 6 dauricum, 16 - racemosum, 8 - radicans, ' 8 - Davidsonianum, 7 - repens, 8 - -- Dichroanthum, eriocarpum, 8 8 10 - rubigmosuui, 7 russatum, 8 8 I6 6 - - fastigiatum, - scabrum, - 2 fertilizers, 12 - Fortunei, 7 - schlippenbachi, Tephropeplum, 16 6 8 - scintillans, - 8 - glaucum, 8 heliolepis, 7 - hybrids, 10 0 \"Blue Tit\", 10 \"Betty ~'ormald\", - - vaseyi, - yunnanpnse, 7 - - - - 10 - - - - - - - - - - - - - 0 \"Brittania\", 10 0 \"Butterfly\", 10 0 \"Cornubia\", 10 \"Corona\", 10 \"Dr. Stocker\", 10 \"Glory of Littleworth\", - Rhododendrons, \"Garden Merit\" rating of, 7 Hardinevs, rating of, 6 in the Pacific Northwest, 5-12 water Salt injury 1 4.i-~ of woody or plants, Salt water injury,plants killed Salt 10 o - \"Goldsworth Yellow\", o 10 - seriously injured by, water injury, Plants ering from, 48 1 51 recov- \"King George\", 8 8 8 10 0 Salt water - impeditum, imperator, injury, Plants slightly i injured by 50-51 water Salt - injury to lawns, 45-46 at the Ar- - mdicum, - Seedling crabapples intr~catum, 8 Irroratum, 7 nold Arboretum, Plate X, 66 - - - keleticum, 8 lutescens, 7 macranthum, Sequence of bloom, 54 Shrubs, Order of bloom of, 53-64 8 Smilax, 34 75 Societe Nationale d'Acclimation de France, 14 t South Street Hill, 2 Spring, This hesitant, 13 Street trees for New England, 17-zo I Trees for ornamental planting on the home grounds, 20 Trees of wide streets, 19 9 Twining vines, Viburnum 33-36 Ulmus americana, 16 6 fragrans, 13,14,16 Tea Crab, z5,16 8 Transplanting of trees, 17-18 Trees and shrubs, Order of Plate II, l,i 3 Some twining, 33-36 Vines, Vines twining from left to right, t3 ;3 of, 58-64 Trees and shrubs, Salt Trees bloom Vines twin~ng from water in- right to left, 36 1 ,jury to, 45-51 destroyed by the hurricane Weld, Eleazer, 23 Wheeler, Wilfred, Wisteria - 45 `~',i at the Arnold Arbore- tum, Trees for medium-width streets, 19 3 floribunda, 33, frutescens, 35 sinensis, 33, 35, 40 Trees for narrow streets, 19 9 Yu Expedition, 44 Zumi Crab, 28 These Bulletins will be discontinued until spring of next year. Subscription renewals for 1940 are now due. Send the subscription price of $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass; at your early convenience. 76 . "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23480","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eb328.jpg","title":"1939-7","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1939,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24051","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14e8526.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS shrub, indigenous to a restricted I Georgia, Plate I, p. 11 Malus baccata mandshurica, now in full bloom, is first of the Asiatic i crabapples to flower, Plate II, p. 17 The lilac path at the Arnold Arboretum, Plate III, p. 21 An airplane view of the Arnold Arboretum, Plate IV, p. 25 A fragrant double flowering Japanese cherry at the Arnold Arboretum, Plate V, p. 29 Elliotia racemosa, area a rare American in eastern and southern The shade house containing the Larz Anderson Collection of dwarf trees, Plate VI, p. 33 The Larz Anderson Collection of dwarf trees now on exhibit by the Arnold Arboretum, Plate VII, p. 35 Chamaecyparis obtusa, 150 years old (Larz Anderson Collection), Plate VIII, p. 37 Robert Fortune (1813-1880), Plate IX, p. 45 Augustine Henry (1857-1930), Plate X, p. 47 Cytisus nigricans, the spike broom, Plate XI, p. 61 Acer saccharum monumentale, sentry maple, Plate XII, p. 65 Acer rubrum columnare, Plate XIII, p. 67 Views of hurricane damage in Arboretum, 1938, Plate XIV, p. 72 A stately American elm, Plate XV, p. 77 i Hedge Demonstration Plot at the Arnold Arboretum, Plate XVI, new pp. 82,83 iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"National Flowers","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":6,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24056","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15eab6d.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Hayden, Richard J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI APRIL 1, 1938 NUMBER l NATIONAL FLOWERS hear of the \"national\" flowers of various but it is surprising to find that there are none of these national'\" flowers officially accepted by the national governments. There have been various methods used for selecting \"national\" flowers, so that hoped for official recogmtion would lend considerable weight to such selections, but unfortunately this is lacking in most cases. Consequently we must rely on various polls and other selective methods for information, and there are many interesting stories connected with certain flowers which have been popularly chosen. For instance, the rose has been greatly admired by the people of England since the reign of Edward IV (1461-1483) when it made its first appearance upon the great seal of England. Shakespeare told of a quarrel in the old temple garden between the Duke of York and the Earl of Somerset. Finding that their followers were becoming very excited, the Duke suggested that they \"shall in dumb significance\" proclaim their thoughts, adding: FROM countries, European time to time we Let him who is a true born gentlemen, And stands upon the honor of his birth, If he supposes I have pleaded truth, From off this briar pluck a white rose with me.\" To which the Earl replied : \"Let him who is no coward nor no flatterer, But dares maintain the party of the truth, Pluck a red rose flower from this briar with me.\" This quarrel lasted thirty years and is referred to now as the War of the Roses. At the end of this thirty-year period a Princess of York 1 married a Prince of Lancaster, and so the roses were united. One of the roses used in gardens today was named to commemorate this great occasion. It is called the Rose of York and Lancaster, for its flowers are partly red and partly white. Legend has it that this rose originated at the end of the bloody War of the Roses. Mention is often made of the cornflower (Centaurea cyanus) as the national flower of Germany. In German history it is associated with the beautiful Louise of Prussia, who was the mother of William, the first Emperor of Germany (1871-1888). It is said that during the battle of Jena and Auerstadt, Queen Louise was forced to make her escape from Berlin with her two sons, the older of whom was about nine years old. On the way to Koenigsberg their carriage broke down, and they were obliged to alight and wait by the roadside until the damage was repaired. The Queen mother put her arms about each small boy and endeavored to divert them by calling their attention to the great number of beautiful \"Kornblumen\" that were growing nearby. \"Go,\" she said, \"and gather some of these flowers, and I shall make a wreath and crown you king.\" Forgetting their troubles, the little fellows ran off and soon picked many blossoms. The Queen then made a wreath from the flowers and placed it on the head of her oldest son. Little William, not to be outdone by his older brother, begged his mother to make one for him, which she did. In placing this wreath on her son's head, she said, \"Crowns mean very little sometimes. \" Before the close of the century that little boy was crowned Emperor of United Germany. Needless to say, he always loved the Kornblumen,\" because they reminded him of that pleasant time with his mother when he was a child. The Fleur de Lis (Fleur de Louis), the white iris, was historically the national flower of France since the time of Philippe le Bel, and King Saint Louis ( 12 14-1270) wanted it to be the emblem of purity. But the flower was the emblem of monarchy for it had appeared on the crest of the royal family, and so could not be used by the Republic. Although the Italian legislative assembly has never chosen a flower to represent their country, the people have selected the marguerite ( Chrysanthemum Jrutescens) , because it bears the name of the first Queen of Italy, Margherita di Savoia. In Norway the \"Roslyng\" (Calluna vulgaris) has been generally considered the national flower. It is not only of value for its lovely summer blossoms, but it is able to withstand the very poor soil conditions and at the same time be perfectly hardy. The flower most dear to Swedish hearts is Linnaea borealis, for it is 2 named in honor of the world famous Swedish botanist, Linnaeus. Another flower which is very popular in that country is Chrysanthemum leucanthemum (in Swedish prastkrage\") ,and the Swedish people use it a great deal in their home decorations. This is the oxeye daisy, a native of Europe, which has become a weed in certain parts of the eastern United States. The bright yellow centers of these daisies make them excellent for use in combination with blue flowers on patriotic occasions, for blue and yellow are the Swedish national colors. In Denmark the clover is considered the most characteristic flower, and the beech tree (Fagus sylvatica) the most frequently mentioned in Danish poetry. The common rue (Ruta graveolens), a symbol of virginity and purity, has often been considered the Lithuanian national flower. The Lithuanian vestal virgins who guarded \"the eternal sacred fire\" always wore wreaths of rue upon their heads. The tulip is generally accepted as being the most representative of the Netherlands, since it is highly probable that proportionately more tulips are grown in the Netherlands than in any other country in the world. The shamrock is considered the world over as the popular representative of Ireland. The interest in Trifolium repens (or T. minus) centers around the early days of the mission of the great Saint Patrick (about 432). One day he was preaching in the neighborhood of the County of Meath in an attempt to explain the doctrine of Trinity to a group who found it most difficult to understand. \"How,\" asked one of the chiefs, can there be three in one.\" Saint Patrick stooped and picked from the sod at his feet a clover leaf. Holding it before them, he said, \"Behold, in this trifoliate leaf how three persons in the God-head can exist and yet be one.\" The generic name of the clover is Trifolium, meaning one leaf in three parts. The illustration was so forcible and yet so familiar that the Chief and his whole clan accepted the Christian faith. From this tradition, in all probability, came the adoption in later years of the shamrock as the national emblem of Ireland. In Scotland the thistle has been traced to the reign of Alexander III and the battle of Largs. In the year 1263 there was a great battle between the Danes and the Scots. The northern invaders under King Haakon succeeded in landing unobserved on the coast of Scotland near the mouth of the Clyde, not far from where Alexander's army was encamped. Under the protection of the night the Danish soldiers crept stealthily toward the Scottish camp, hoping to conquer the Scots 3 this surprise attack. Victory seem within their grasp when one of the barefooted Danish soldiers trod upon a thistle. His sharp cry of pain was sufficient to arouse the Scottish soldiers, who in turn fought with such bravery and skill that the Danish invaders were driven from the Scottish shore. Since that time the Scotch thistle, Onopordum acanthium, has been considered the national flower of Scotland. The Welsh people wear the leek on the first day of March in commemoration of Saint David, the patron saint of Wales. White and green, the hues of the leek, are the Cambrian colors. In Switzerland the edelweiss ( Leoiilopodium alpinum) is considered of importance because its natural habitat is in the Alps. Greece claims the violet as its national flower, because it has been mentioned so often by Homer and other writers of the classics. It blooms abundantly in the Isles of the Mediterranean and is constantly seen in the Athenean flower markets. The sunflower, one of the many species of Helianlhus, is the national flower of Russia, not only because it grows so well but because it is also of great economic importance. As far as the United States is concerned, a pamphlet was published several years ago by Louis Prang of Boston in which he set forth the respective merits of goldenrod (Solidago) and arbutus (Epigaea repens) as competitors for the place of honor. He asked for an expression of opinion from the public at that time, and the response was overwhelmingly in favor of the goldenrod. Personally, the writer feels that the goldenrod is very well suited for a national flower not only because of its wide distribution in this country, but also by reason of its scientific name -Solidago- which means to make whole or to join. The name alone almost qualifies it as an emblem of our great republic. Richard J. Hayden Superintendent of Parks & Cemeteries , Boston, Massachusetts by J.Hayden, Superintendent of the Boston Parks, been interested in this subject of national flowers for many years. At one time he contemplated making a garden in which would be represented the national flowers of each country. In order to get official information he wrote to many of the European Consuls and also to several of the European governments for definite information and was very much suprised to find that no government had passed legislation recognizing one as their national flower. The notes contained in this Bulletin are the result of Mr. Hayden's correspondence and are published here for the interest of the gardening public. Note: Mr. Richard has 4 OFFICIAL STATE FLOWERS List compiled by the Wild Flower Preservation Washington, D. C. Society Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. I^egis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Schools 1917 1933 1901 1903 1899 Alabama Arizona Arkansas California Colorado Connecticut Delaware Florida Goldenrod Giant Cactus Solidago sp. Cereus giganteus Apple Blossom California Poppy Colorado Columbine Mountain-laurel Peach Blossom Orange Blossom Cherokee Rose Lewis Mockorange Native Wood Violet Zinnia Wild Rose Sunflower Goldenrod Southern Magnolia Pine cone & tassel Malus sp. Eschscholtzia californica Aquilegia caerulea Kalmia latifolia Prunus Persica Citrus sinensis Rose laevigata Philadelphus Lewisi Viola sp. Zinnia elegans Rosa pratincola Helianthus aunuus 1907 1895 1909 Georgia Idaho Illinois Indiana Iowa Kansas 1916 1931 1908 1931 1897 1903 1926 1900 1895 1918 Kentucky Louisiana Maine Solidago sp. Magnolia grandiflora Pinus Strobus Rudbeckia hirta Maryland Massachusetts Michigan Minnesota Mississippi Missouri Montana Bitterroot Nebraska November Goldenrod Nevada Sagebush New Hampshire Purple Lilac New Jersey Violet New Mexico Yucca New York Rose North Carolina Oxeye Daisy North Dakota Prairie Rose Ohio Scarlet Carnation Oklahoma Mistletoe Black-eyed Susan Trailing Arbutus Apple Blossom Showy Ladyslipper Southern Magnolia Downy Hawthorn Epigaea repeus 1925 1H97 1902 2014 Malus sp. Cypripedium spectabile Magnolia grandiflora Crataegus mollis Lewisia rediviva Solidago serotina Legis. Legis. Legis. 1923 1895 1895 1918 Artemisia trideutata Common consent Syringa vulgaris Viola sp. Yucca sp. Rosa sp. Legis. Legis. 1913 2014 Chrysanthemum Schools Schools 1891 leucanthemum Common consent Oregon Pennsylvania Rhode Island South Carolina South Dakota Tennessee Texas Utah Vermont Oregon Hollygrape Mountain-laurel Violet Carolina Jessamine American Pasqueflower Iris Texas Bluebonnet Sego-lily Red Clover Virginia Washington West Virginia Wisconsin Flowering Dogwood Coast Rhododendron Great Rhododendron Native Violet Indian Paintbrush Hibiscus Wyoming Hawaii Alaska Rosa arkansana Dianthus Caryophyllus Phoradendron flavescens Mahonia Aquifolium Kalmia latifolia Viola sp. Gelsemium sempervirens Pulsatilla hirsutissima Iris sp. Lupinus subcarnosus Calochortus Nuttallii Trifolium pratense Cornus florida Rhododendron macrophyllum Rhododendron maximum Viola sp. Castilleja coccinea Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Schools Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Legis. Schools 1907 1904 1H93 1H99 1933 1H97 1924 1919 1933 1901 1911 1894 1918 1893 1903 1909 Forget-me-not Myosotis 5 sp. Legis. Legis. Legis. 1917 1923 1917 As this goes to press, there are many plants in the Arborewhich are already showing signs of active growth. During the last tum of March there were many unusually warm days which started early growth in several types of plants. The warm spell was immediately followed by cold rainy days that, fortunately, held things back a bit. The leaf buds of many honeysuckles, barberries, and currants are as far advanced as are those of Prinsepia sinensis, which ordinarily is the first of all to start growth in the spring. Some of the willows as seen from the Administration Building are yellowish or reddish-green, sure signs that warm weather must soon come to stay. Magnolia stellata is not yet in bloom, and though many of the flower buds have started to split open, they are still sufficiently tight to withstand any cold weather during the next few days. Rhododendron mucronulatum is just starting to bloom, while Viburnum fra grans has been out for several days, its flower buds being uninjured by the mild winter. Coryiopsis, Forsythia, and Benzoin are just ready to open, while Erica carnea, protected by a mulch of straw all winter is now in full bloom. Daphne Mezereum, Acer rubrum, and Acer dasycarpum have been in bloom for Notes: several days. It is safe to say that there has been practically no winter injury to the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum this winter. If the unusually warm weather of the past week continues, there may be danger from late frosts, but otherwise most of the plants in the Arboretum came through last winter in splendid condition. Subscription renewals for 1938 are now due. Those who have not resubscribed, please send the subscription price of $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, at your earliest convenience. 6 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Rare American Shrub","article_sequence":2,"start_page":7,"end_page":13,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24046","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14eaf6b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Knight, William A.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. Vol. VI APRIL 22, 1938 2 NUMBER A RARE AMERICAN SHRUB RACEMOSA is a rare American shrub or small tree a restricted area in eastern and southern Georgia. Because of its rarity, the reference literature is rather meager. Unfortunately, in the little which has been published there appear some misstatements concerning its normal habitat and method of reproduction. The purpose of these notes is to clarify these points. During the past several years the author has had the species under observation at a number of stations. In the course of this study, he has been accompanied on many of his trips by Frank M. Crayton, a nurseryman and plant collector of Biltmore, North Carolina, who is entitled to share any credit that may accrue from these investigations. Acknowledgements are also due Mr. C. D. Beadle of Biltmore, who was a member of a recent expedition and with whose assistance a more thorough study of the plant's method of reproduction was made than had been undertaken up to that time. Elliottia racemosa is an attractive plant even when not in flower and when in bloom, few native American shrubs can approach it in beauty. Its flowers are pure white, usually with four linear-elliptic petals that are markedly recurved. The racemes, which are always terminal on leafy, fastigiate branches, are rather long, averaging well over six inches. There are several illustrations in the literature but few of ELLIOTTIA indigenous to these do the plant justice. The line drawing in Bailey's Cyclopedia of Horticulture is good enough in so far as the structure of the flower is concerned, but it fails to give a true picture of the plant in blossom. The petals are actually much more recurved and the racemes much more densely flowered than this illustration indicates. Plants of average size, up to six feet or more in 7. height, bear from three to more than twenty racemes and one of the profusely flowered specimens presents an impressive sight indeed. If it were hardy in the north and were readily propagated, Elliottia would undoubtedly be one of our most popular shrubs. Unfortunately, its hardiness is questionable and its rarity would make general transplanting out of the question even if it were hardy. It cannot readily be transplanted even in the area where is is native. This is evidenced by the fact that of four specimens that were transplanted from a large station to gardens within two miles during the past three years two promptly died and the remaining two are not thriving well. While Elliottia is one of our rarest shrubs, there is a general impression that it is either nearly extinct or promises soon to become so. This impression can be attributed, in some measure at least, to published statements that are somewhat at variance with the facts. Investigations indicate that while the plant unquestionably is rare and seems to have disappeared from some areas where it was formerly known to occur there is no occasion to consider it to be in danger of extinction. Also at some stations it appears that there has been no reproduction for many years. However, there are stations where it is propagating itself by seed so that it is definitely not sterile to its own pollen. up At various times during the past several years the author has taken a number of plants in eastern Georgia. In each case the roots were followed to their very ends and no evidence was found to show that the plant multiplies from its rootstock. In common with many other ericaceous plants, it has shallow horizontal roots that are long and heavy, but, except for rather young plants, they are usually noticeably free from the small fibrous rootlets that are so abundant on the roots of many plants in this family. It does reproduce itself by seed, but to what extent it produces viable seed and whether some such seed is produced annually or only during occasional years is not yet determined. During the past several years it has flowered profusely, but, while the flowers seem to be setting seed as they pass maturity, the vast majority of the fruits abort. In the fall of 1936 a check of one plant which bore twenty-three flower racemes that averaged over forty flowers each (a total of approximately 1000 individual flowers) showed only eight capsules and not one of these contained a viable seed ! Most of the plants that year failed to produce a single fruit. The racemes average fully forty flowers each (more than 80 have been counted on some of them), yet in 1986 a total of only twenty-eight seed capsules were produced by ap- 8 proximately four hundred racemes; and no seed germination has been reported from any of the material distributed. Seeds were sent to Kew, the Arnold Arboretum, and several individuals in the United States. At several stations no very young plants are in evidence, but in two places at least a fair number of small seedlings less than eight inches high were observed, proof that the plant has produced viable seed within the past few years. Several of these small specimens were lifted, the soil sifted from about their roots, showing no connection with other plants. Elliottia seems normally to grow with a single trunk, similar to a small tree. However, the area in which it is native is subject to periodical burnings, and if a plant is killed by fire a cluster of sprouts usually arises from the base of the stump. At several stations, as a consequence of this burning, there are whole groups of plants that are of a bushy character. At one large station the plants are mostly of this type, the single-stemmed ones being largely confined to the outer and wetter edges of the area where fire never reaches them. At another station the plants occur at scattering intervals for several hundred yards along the edge of a swamp. Fire seldom, if ever, reaches them, and here they are almost entirely of the \"tree\" type. There are several stations in one county in eastern Georgia. All of them that have been investigated are in soil known as Norfolk sand. A survey of the area made by the Bureau of soils, U. S. Department of Agriculture, gives the following information: \"The surface soil of Norfolk sand, to a depth of 6 or 8 inches, consists of loose sand of light gray to dark gray color, changing to light yellowish, the surface being darkened for a few inches by the accumulation of a small amount of organic matter. 2014 The subsoil is of material similar to the soil, in fact there is practically no line of demarcation between soil and subsoil. The subsoil extends to a depth of over is several feet in depth, in places more.-The particles forming the sand are subangular grains of quartz, no other material seeming to enter into its formation.\" A mechanical analysis given in this survey is as follows: 36 inches.-Generally (it) much as being as 20 feet or Fine gravel Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt 2.2% 19.5% 20.8% 39.9% 8.6% 6.0% 2.5% 9 Clay of soil taken from about the roots of Elliottia at the largest. a definite acid reaction ranging from pH .5. 1 to pH 5.42. Of the five stations in this neighborhood, three of them, including the largest one just mentioned, are all rather low. At the large one the immediate plant associates include the following: Osmanthus americanus Cyrilla racemiflora Cliftonia monophylla Stewartia malacodendron (S. virginica) Kalmia hirsuta Magnolia virginiana Baccharis halirmfolia Fothergilla sp. Azalea 3 sp. Wisteria frutescens Symplocos tinctoria Hypericum fasciculatum Vaccinium sp. Lyonia nitida (Pieris nitida) Persea Borbonia Liquidambar Styraciflua Samples station show While some of the above species are occasionally found on higher and dryer land, most of them (with the exception of Symplocos) usually grow only in damp soil. Immediately adjacent to this station is a small area of perhaps half an acre, that is covered by a solid growth of Hypericum fasciculatum. Here the water table is practically at the ground level. At no time during the past three or four years has the author ever seen this area without some water showing at the surface. Where the Elliottia grows nearby, the ground level is at no pomt more than five feet higher than it is at this stand of Hypericum, and most of it is not more than three or four feet higher. At this station is found the best evidence that the plant actually does reproduce itself by seed. Here there are many hundreds of plants ranging in size from seedlings seven or eight inches high, to mature plants up to eleven feet tall. Here also occurs the most profuse flowering seen during these investigations. Formerly there was a scattering growth of pines over this station but these were cut off some years ago and now the whole area is in open sunlight. This fact probably accounts for the profuse flowering. The station covers an irregular area a ranging from 30 yards to almost i!00 yards in width by a quarter of mile in length. Across a small stream from this station and about 200 yards away more plants are found. Most of them are scattered through a heavy growth of other shrubs and here are found the largest known specimens. There are three trees, all of which are above sJO feet in height, one of them being more than 30 feet tall and measuring five inches in trunk diameter, three feet from the ground. These trees are in ground that is fully as low-lying as that at the large station across the creek. Several smaller plants, some up to seven feet tall, grow on rising ground close by, but none of them under the typical \"sand ridge'' 10 PLATE I Elliottia racemosa, a rare American shrub, indigenous to in eastern and southern Georgia. a restricted area as the habitat for this plant by some botanists. In south central Georgia and some 80 miles southwest of the large station the plant occurs again. Here it grows near the foot of a sloping sandy ridge, adjoining the swampy area along a small creek. The surface soil seems to be much the same as found at the other stations. While this station is higher and dryer than those in the eastern part of the state, nevertheless the soil must contain considerable moisture |as the immediate plant associates include thrifty specimens of both Cliftonia monophylla and Cyrilla racemiflora. Typical plants of blackjack oak are found nearby, but all of them grow higher up the slope than does the Elliottia. There are hardly more than a dozen plants at this station. They range in height from about three to eight feet. There are no small plants and there is no evidence of reproduction. In the National Herbarium at Washington are deposited specimens of Elliottia collected by R.M.Harper on September 22, 1903 bearing the notation \"very dry pine barrens north of Douglas, Coffee County, Georgia.\" Dr. Harper has informed the writer that he located this station many years ago and could hardly direct anyone to it now as the present roads probably do not follow the cart tracks of that time. As a consequence there has been no opportunity to check this station, for Dr. Harper is too reliable a collector for his information to be questioned, but it seems that while this plant is adapted to exclusively sandy soil it is somewhat indifferent as to moisture. However, the pnly stations where there is any evidence of reproduction itself are the lowest and dampest of them all. In all the published descriptions of Elliottia that the author has seen which have appeared since Elliott's \"A Sketch of Botany of South Carolina and Georgia\" published in 1821, there occur some statements which are apparently erroneous. Most of the description given by Rehder in Bailey's Cyclopedia is correct, but he makes two statements to which the present writer cannot subscribe. He states \"pro- conditions specified 2022~* pagation by suckers, which appear only occasionally.\" Exception is taken to this for the reasons given above. Again he states \"racemesoften branched at the base.\" The author has seen literally thousands of racemes, but he has yet to see one that branched either at the base or elsewhere. If there exists any herbarium specimen with a branch- *The description of the racemes as \"often branched at the base\" may be easily misunderstood, and therefore I have changed it in my Manual of Trees and Shrubs (p. 678) to \"pedicels slender, 6-12 mm. long, the lower ones sometimes branched,\" which is more correct since it is not the axis of the raceme itself but the lower pedicels which are branched, so that the raceme becomes a panicle. It may be added that it would be more accurate to replace \"sometimes branched\" by \"often branched\" or even \"usually branched.\" Alfred Rehder 12 ing raceme, this description should read \"occasionally\" instead of \" often.\" Small, in his Manual states \"flowers-in short panicles.\" A better description would read elongated\" instead of \"short,\" for the reagiven earlier in this article. Again he states calyx-lobes 3 or 4.\" In the several years this plant has been under observation neither a three-parted flower nor a three-parted capsule has been seen. A preferable statement would be \"perianth segments usually four but frequently five.\" Until this year the author would have written occasionally\" instead of \"frequently\", but in June, 1937, several hours were spent in photographing the plants in flower, and while engaged in this a number of plants were noted on which many of the flowers had their parts in fives. While collecting seed in the fall, a fairly large group of plants was noted on which a majority of the seed capsules son were five-parted. There is a Government Weather Bureau station not far from the largest Elliottia station, the altitude at both places being slightly under 200 feet above sea level. The station records cover the past thirty-nine years and show an average annual minimum temperature of 54.7 degrees Fahrenheit, the average minimum for the three winter months being 39.6 degrees. Record \"lows\" during the 39 years were December (8 above zero); January (12 above zero); and February (2 above zero). Precipitation averaged 49.04 inches annually. Efforts to transplant Elliottia at Biltmore, North Carolina, have not been entirely successful. About four years ago six plants were brought in, four of which are still living. One succumbed in 1936, possibly as a result of the heavy freeze in March of that year, and another died the same year, but as it had some protection the heavy soil in which it was planted probably was the cause of its death rather than the low temperature. The other four plants are still living and appear to be a little thriftier as each year passes. One of them has even developed an occasional flower. It is hoped that they will eventually become acclimated and thrive. Evidently the plant will withstand fairly low temperatures if given proper soil conditions, a very sandy loam with a definite acid reaction. . William A. Knight Biltmore Forest Biltmore, N.C. 13 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Tribute to an Eminent Botanist","article_sequence":3,"start_page":14,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24047","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14eb36c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"A Tribute to an Eminent Botanist Forty years ago this month the Arnold Arboretum welcomed from Germany, Alfred Rehder, a man who is today one of the foremost botanists of America. In 1883 Professor Alfred Rehder began writing articles on dendrological subjects for German periodicals, in 1895 becoming associate editor of Mollers Deutsche gartner-zeitung. In 1898, wishing to visit the Arnold Arboretum, whose fame was well known in Europe. Professor Rehder made arrangements with Professor C.S. Sargent, then Director, for one-half year as student-worker for $1.00 a day while at the same time carrymg on his editorial work for the German periodical. It was not long before his accurate knowledge and painstaking care were recognized and when Dr. L. H. Bailey, who was compiling the Cyclopedia qf Horticulture, asked Mr. C. E. Faxon, Assistant Director of the Arnold Arboretum, to make drawings for this work, Mr. Faxon not wishing to undertake it recommended Mr. Rehder. Mr. Rehder did a few drawings, then sent an article on Aesculus, telling Dr. Bailey that drawing was not his forte but that he would be willing to write on dendrological subjects. Whereupon Dr. Bailey engaged him to write all the dendrological articles for the Cyclopedia, a work of several years. Meanwhile in 1900 an extensive work had been undertaken by the Arboretum, the Bradley Bibliography, a guide to the literature of the woody plants of the world published before the beginning of the twentieth century. This work was not progressing satisfactorily and in 1901 it was entrusted to Mr. Rehder who spent seventeen years of exacting and concientious labor upon it, traveling m this country and in Europe visiting the important libraries, examing untold masses of material and gleaning for his Bibliography 100,000 titles. Upon the return of E. H. Wilson from China, Mr. Rehder cooperated extensively in the preparation of Plantae Wilsoniae, edited by Professor Sargent. Of inestimable value to horticulturists, botanists and even to amateurs interested in growing plants is Mr. Rehder's Manual qf Cultivated Trees and Shrubs Hardy in North America. And so the half-year has lengthened to forty years of fruitful labor in his adopted land, and best wishes for the benefit of his continued service and helpful companionship are extended to this modest gentleman. 14 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"This Spring at the Arboretum","article_sequence":4,"start_page":15,"end_page":18,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24065","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d060a36e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI APRIL 29, 1938 NUMBER 3 THIS SPRING AT THE ARBORETUM weather this year has forced many trees and early flower. The Japanese cherries bloomed ten days early, and the crabapples will be in bloom approximately nearer the first of May rather than the middle of May as is usually the case. Weather is always an unknown quantity, and if all the days were as cold and dreary as the one on which this is bemg written the Japanese cherries might well remain in bloom for sometime. Considerable interest has been shown by the public this year in the cherries, and newspaper reporters estimated that about 35,000 people visited the Arboretum on Sunday, April 2-t, when they were at their best. This shows an unusually early interest in the collections at the Arboretum. Because of the warm weather, Prunus Sargentii lasted about three or four days, but P.subhirtella, P.subhirtella autumnalis, and P.yedoensis all lasted a full week. Prunus incisa was particularly well flowered this season, and the plants of the double-flowered P. triloba are still in splendid condition. Amelanchiers of various species have been in full bloom for several days this week. Professor Sargent placed many at outstanding points of interest so that their conspicuous white blossoms are seen everywhere and impress upon visitors the fact that spring has come to stay. Although they do not hold their flowers more than a few days in warm weather, they are true harbingers of spring. U shrubs NUSUALLY warm into very Magnolias magnolias have been in excellent condition, particularly the early flowering Magnolia stellata which was in good shape for over a week, while M.kobus borealis also did very well. One large specimen of this interesting, tall-growing tree (it is the tallest growing of all the Asiatic magnolias) close to the Administration Building has been observed by several people who ask why it does not flower well. This year it had only a few scattered flowers, as it did last year and the year before that. Unfortunately, because of this some think that the variety does not bear flowers well until it is considerably older. The 15 However, a close examination of this particular tree will show that girdled for over three-fourths of the way around the base of the trunk, apparently by mice or rabbits. No tree can be expected to have good blossoms under such circumstances. There is a tree of the same variety, between the Administration Building and the wall along the Arborway, that is only about eight feet tall, but is literally covered with blossoms, showing that the variety does bear early flowers providing it is in good health and the soil conditions are favorable. it has been Magnolia denudata and M.Soulangeana flower buds were somewhat injured by a late cold snap early in April. It is of interest to note again the hardiness of the flower buds of and M.kobux and its variety, which, though they were considerably farther advanced than the flower buds of M. Soulangeana, were not injured m the least by this cold spell. New Foliage Appearing the Arboretum is clothed in a mantle of many shades. The new foliage of certain plants varies considerably m color when it first appears. Some, like the early Prinsepia sinensis and Berberis Thunbergii, show a bright green. Others, like Viburnum I^enlago, and certain species of Betula and Evonymux, are bronze and blend splendidly with the other shades. On the other hand, the Japanese maples and some of the Ribes species have young fuliage which at first is bright red. The Schwedler's maple and Gercidiph.yllum also possess a fine reddish-bronze color early in the season, though the color of the former may last for a considerable period, finally changing to a dark green by the end of the summer. Many people fail to appreciate the beautyof the early spring foliage. This is only natural, since spring usually comes with a rush and there are so many conspicuous flowers to draw our attention that we do not take the opportunity to admire all the different kinds of leaves. However, from the top of Bussey Hill or Peter's Hill, there is now, a splendid view of this early foliage. It is interesting to stand on such a high pimt either in the Arboretum or anywhere else where there are a number of trees and try to identifp the various trees and shrubs from a distance simply b) this early foliage color. A larch will be easily spotted because of its bright green color and definitely pyramidal growth habit. Beeches will be noticed because of their gray bark and delicately hazy green leaf-color. The oaks can be readily determined by the late appearance of their young leaves which vary in color from a deep yellow to a good bronze or gray-green. A careful observance of these plant characteristics at this time will lead to a greater appreciation of the beauty of the spring as it gradually unfurls, changing color from day to day. The crabapples are fast approaching their blooming season-ahead of time. From the appearance of the large number of flower buds on the trees it looks as if the flower display in this collection will be unusually good. Ma \/us baccata mandxhurica is in bloom now, and other Right now 16 o 0 s~ y 0 4 Ii o & I == Ia C.) Ml |J 1 .2 3 1 fc ^ t~ II 0 N ~~ o -S e I 8 ce id 4) I5 V .2 species and varieties will be coming out during the week. These plants are all subjected They have good to that phenomenon of nature-alternate bearing. there is one Peters' Hill which has a line of demarkation that can be easily seen almost every year. Half the tree blooms and fruits well one year, while the other half does not. The next year this is reversed. By a complicated system of fertilizing over a period of years, orchardists are able to control this to some extent. Experimentally the alternate bearing of one half of a tree has been obtained by special fertilizing. Normally, however, there is little that the average home owner can do about this interesting phenomenon. If the trees are well taken care of and in splendid growing condition, fertilized each year, the alternate bearing may not be so pronounced as it is in starved trees. Particular attention should be given to Malus Lemoinei this season. Last year one small plant had the darkest flowers of any of the Malus group. If any Bulletin readers have this tree, please send in notes on the color of its flowers, since it apparently has good possibilities as an ornamental flowering tree. Plant crops of fruit one year and poor the next. In fact tree in the older crabapple collection at the base of Breeding Those visiting the Arboretum this spring will undoubtedly see many cellophane bags on trees and shrubs everywhere. This is evidence of a considerable amount of plant hybridizing now being done on the grounds by staff members, under the supervision of Dr. Karl Sax of the Arboretum staff. There are several reasons for this activity. In the first place, the Maria Moors Cabot Foundation for Botanical Research was established on a long-range research program for increasing the production of cellulose by plant breeding, particularly tree breeding. Part of this work is being done in the Arboretum, particularly that part dealing with the hybridization of trees by artificial pollination in order to evolve more rapidly growing strains. Although this is only a small part of the work, it is the part which an Arboretum visitor notices. Other hybridization is being done with the ornamental plants in order to study them more carefully from a genetical point of view and also with the chance that new hybrids may be obtained of ornamental value. Those who read a recent article in the Saturday Evening Post on the breeding work with marigolds may realize the tremendous numbers of individuals which should be grown. In any such breeding work the more individuals grown, the better the chances for variation. Woody plants are slow in reaching maturity and often it is ten to twenty years before they flower. Consequently such a program necessarily must be carried out over a long period of years, particularly when the number of individuals grown is as severely limited, as it is in the Arboretum where space is at a premium. Hundreds of crosses are being made among outstanding ornamentals in the hope that some may yield new or interesting garden plants. 18 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Spring Rushes On!","article_sequence":5,"start_page":19,"end_page":22,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24061","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15e8128.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI MAY 10, 1988 NUMBER 4 SPRING RUSHES ON! read in the papers that the Japanese cherry trees in Washington, D.C., the latter part of Marchten days ahead of time-we were not particularly interested. But that was the forerunner of an unusually early spring season which has blanketed the eastern part of the country at least from South Carolina to Maine. All types of plants are blooming unusually early. Even ornithologists tell of bird migrations being noted the earliest in years. Still the warm weather prevails. Those who have visited the Arboretum this spring have seen many plants blooming a week or ten days earlier than in previous years. This bulletin is written to inform our readers of the situation, so that they may not miss certain displays which normally come later at the Arboretum. WHENblooming T we were Lilacs Lilacs are in full bloom now. If the weather is cool during the next week, the plants will probably remain in fairly good condition, but if the days are very warm the flowers will fade rapidly. Sunday, May fifteenth, will be Lilac Sunday, a day on which the largest crowds of the year visit the Arboretum. Some of the early flowering lilacs started to bloom the week of April twenty-fifth, and at the time this bulletin is being written Syringa oblata dilatata is at the height of its beauty. A very few of the S. vulgaris hybrids flowered last week in the Arboretum collection, and here and there in gardens around Boston, where in a warm sunny location, individual lilac bushes were in full bloom. The two greatest collections of lilacs in the world are in the United States. The collection at the Arboretum contains 417 named species and varieties, while that at Rochester, New York, contains 390. It is interesting to note that the flowering of the collection at Rochester 19 is also be considerably advanced so that Lilac Sunday there will probably May fifteenth. Normally, both this excellent collection and that at the Arnold Arboretum are at their best about a week later. The blossoms on the plants this year are not as profuse as last year. Lilacs, like many other ornamental woody plants, are subject to alternate bearing, the good flowers of one year being followed by poor blossoms the next. In large collections, however, there are sufficient bushes flowering well each year to make a visit worthwhile even for the most casual observer. Although such gorgeous iana, M.baccata, M.hupehensis, Matrosanguinea, M.purpurea, and M. spectabilis have already faded, several of the crabapples are in full bloom now. One is the Sargent crab, (M.Sargenti) the lowest growing of all, the pure white flowers of which make it most conspicuous. The double-flowered Bechtel crab (M.ioensis plena ) and several others apple 2022~ Crabapples crabapples as Malus floribunda, M.arnold- be seen in the collection at the base of Peter's Hill. The crabbloom this year was good, but because of the warm weather the flowers opened so quickly that there was not the mass of color in the collection which has made such a vivid display in previous years. can Other Plants in Bloom Azaleas have been outstanding for several days. Earlier in the season Rhododendron mucronulatum was severely injured by a late freeze, but R. Schlippenbachi was in full bloom on May first, and R. yedoense poukhanense was in full bloom a few days later. The torch azalea if. obtusum Kaempferi is now at its best. This plant was considered by Professor Sargent as the most brilliant of the Arboretum's introductions from Japan. There are literally thousands of them planted around the Arboretum grounds, and every spot graced by their vivid color is now a place of beauty. Some have been planted in the woods by the pond adjacent to the shrub collection. A thousand were planted several years ago in the woods next to the old Bussey mansion on South Street. These shrubs will increase in size and beauty with the years. By far the best collection of the torch azalea is on the top of Bussey Hill, where there is a mass planting of splendid specimens six feet tall. Every year these plants, growing under the century old pines on the top of the hill, are admired by thousands. Another colorful planting is a little below this on the same hill. The torch azalea is best planted in the partial shade of the woods, since its delicate flowers are easily injured by too much bright sun. Several of the 20 s s < 4; ~.4 - | y v Bit L) ~ v H other Asiatic azaleas thrive under the same sheltered conditions. Our native R.calendulaceum, which usually blooms about the first of June, can withstand a great deal of sun and does not fade nearly so soon as the Asiatic species. Although the entire countryside is particularly beautiful at this time of year, the Arboretum is an even more gorgeous spectacle, for it is enhanced by the artistic plantings of thousands of exotic trees and shrubs. Many other plants should not be overlooked at this time. Rhododendron Vaseyi can be seen at its best along the edge of the pond near the shrub collection and also along the road bordering the horsechestnuts. A few of the \"Ghent\" and \"Mollis\" hybrids are beginning to flower now, as well as Rhododendron carolinianuna and a few other early rhododendrons in the collection at the base of Hemlock Hill. In fact, the entire Rhododendron collection will probable be in bloom either the last week in May or the first of June, provided this warm weather continues. The flowering dogwood, Cornus florida, is blooming profusely again this year. Last year its blossoms and bright colored fruits were more numerous than in many years, not only in the collections at the Arboretum, but also in many other parts of the East. The three species of Fothergilla are in full flower. Although native to the southeastern United States, the Fothergilla was first cultivated in English gardens more than a century ago and only recently appeared in American gardens. The genus is named after Dr.John Fothergill, who in the eighteenth century cultivated in his gardens what was then one of the most complete collections of American plants. The three members of this genus are closely allied to the witch-hazels, as suggested by their similar leaves. The peculiar \"bottle-brush\"' flowers are conspicuous because of their long white stamens. Fothergilla Gardeni is the lowest growing of the three, being only about 3 feet tall; F.monticola grows about 6 feet tall, and F.major about 9 feet. There is a splendid specimen of F.major by the pond at the base of the Philadelphus collection. One of the most outstanding characteristics of the Fothergilla is its autumn color, for if it is planted where it is exposed to the full,late afternoon sun of September the foliage turns to a gorgeous orange and red. One of the plants in the shrub collection is of interest every year, for on the side facing the Arborway (east) the leaves are never anything more than a brownish yellow in the fall, while on the side where the foliage gets the direct sun of late afternoon in September the leaves turn brilliant orange and red. DONALD WYMAN 22 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Mapping the Arboretum","article_sequence":6,"start_page":23,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24054","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15ea36b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Croizat, Leon","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY -^ ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI MAY 16, 1988 NUMBER 5 MAPPING THE ARBORETUM THE number of living plants has increased in the Arboretum, of locating individual species naturally has become more and more difficult. Many thousands of individual trees and shrubs representing over 7000 named species and varieties from the north temperate zone of both hemispheres are growing in the glades and on the hills within the Arboretum boundaries. A handy record is essential to locate them when access to a particular species or variety is needed for horticultural or botanical purposes. The basic plant records of the Arboretum are kept in card mdex form. The data on the cards give the history of the plant, including its name, origin, date of acquisition, number and the general collection (e.g. maples, lindens, etc.) in which it is to be found. Such a record was adequate for its purpose as long as the collections were comparatively small and each staff member could have a thorough knowledge of the grounds. Experience eventually taught that a supplementary graphic record is absolutely necessary. Thousands of plants spread over 265 acres of widely diversified grounds cannot be exactly located by means of approximate references and brief de- A problem the scriptions. One of the important projects recently initiated at the Arnold Arboretum has been the actual mapping of the positions of all the trees and shrubs in its extensive living collections. Prior to this time partial surveys had been made, and maps covering certain sections had been prepared which unfortunately were not kept up to date. The new and complete survey will involve between seventy and eighty maps, each measuring 2 by 1B feet. The progress made in the last seven months indicates that the work will probably be finished by the end of the present calendar year. 23 Two scales are being used: l\" :20' and I1\" :1 0', i.e. one inch to 20 feet and one inch to 10 feet. The l\":10' maps are designed to show in detail the positions of all small plants or shrubs cultivated in congested areas, thus supplementmg the standard ones. The scale 1\" :20' is the standard adopted for the general maps where for the most part tree species are involved. The instruments used in our work would not satisfy the requirements of the Coast and Geodetic Survey. They are essentially those which were available to George Washington in the days of his youth, that is, the magnetic compass, the alidade, and the chain. In their modern form these instruments are available in the standard K. & E. Traverse Table and in the usual 50 and 100 foot tapes. The alidade is the device that establishes a line of sight between two points. It has a fore slit, a back vertical thread, and a side ruler that is scaled, in our case to one inch for 40 feet. By putting the point to be \"spotted\" in line between the slit and the thread and scaling off its distance on the table, one determines its position and its distance from a station at which the instrument is set up. The distance between the station and the plant is actually measured, or, if it is inaccessible,determined by sighting the point from two or more different stations. The intersection of the lines of sight gives the location sought. Crude as these instruments are, they are surprisingly accurate if the user has a definite understanding of their limitations. The normal rate of error is about one foot in one hundred, which is more than satisfactory for a survey of the type in which we are interested. Sufficient accuracy in the long range is assured by so called traverse lines that connect landmarks within property limits. The partial surveys are integrated on these traverse lines. Each partial survey shows the positions of three or more trees in each adjacent area. Thus it is possible to overlap the surveys on known points, singly and as a whole. The disadvantages inherent to this manner of field work are apparent to the professional surveyor. Its advantages for our particular work, however, are simplicity of operation and availability of record with a minimum amount of time and with limited personnel. About 180 acres were covered in sufficient detail to outline the main features of the maps and to locate the majority of trees in about ten weeks of actual operation. The use of precise instruments yields precise results, but mvolves exacting requirements. It is debatable as to whether or not the record secured by a regular survey would be more serviceable, cost considered, than that secured by use of the traverse table. The field record taken at the scale of 1\": 40' is assembled and reduced to the scale of l\": 20', or i\" : 10'. Each map covermg an area 24 PLATE IV An airplane view of the Arnold Arboretum. on tracing cloth at the scale of 1\" :20'. From black and white print is made. This print is carethis master map fully checked in the field, the necessary revisions, corrections, and additions being then made. The changes are eventually transferred to the master tracing cloth map. When the field check is finished and the data all transferred, each master map is then divided by four intersecting lines that determine sections, or quadrants A, B, C, D. Lastly, the exact position of each plant is recorded on the index cards, references being added to the map number and to the quadrant. The card entry, Acer negundo 6 I B, for example, indicates that the corresponding plant is located on map 6, quadrant B. This establishes its position within a definitely located tract measuring onh 200 by 300 feet. Revisions of the master map will be made as changes in the plantings occur; that is as plants are moved, removed, or added. The necessary corrections will be entered on the prints in the field in connection with all future operations. Since each revision will be dated, the corrections will be transferred from the prints to the master maps only once or twice a year. Thus at a glance the record will tell whether or not the master map is up to date. If it is not, the print must be consulted. In either case, the necessary data are readily available. The method that we have selected answers our problem. Its low cost, simplicity, and the time element involved commend it in this particular case. Directors of small botanical gardens have, at times, found it convenient to prepare diagrammatic sketches of plant groups as to the location of individual plants in a loose-leaf book. The method is excellent where large maps are not needed, but is inadequate in an area as large as the Arnold Arboretum. These maps of the Arboretum will become a most important part of its records. They will be very useful to the visitor and to the student who wishes to consult either a few or many plants in any particular group. They will be able to locate what they are looking for with a minimum amount of walking. They will be of even greater use and value to the staff members concerned with the care, study, and amplification of the very extensive living collections. Comprising as they will the exact location of every planted tree and most of the individual shrubs within an area of 265 acres, representing somewhat in excess of 7000 named species and varieties, they will help make the Arboretum collections more and more a source of inspiration to the lovers of fine plants. LEON CROIZAT 400 by 600 feet is drawn a 26 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Oriental Flowering Cherries","article_sequence":7,"start_page":27,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24058","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15eb325.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Lewis, Clarence McK.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI MAY 20, 1938 NUMBER 6 ORIENTAL FLOWERING CHERRIES Oriental flowering cherries, when in bloom, present such a of beauty to the eye that there is frequently a feeling of disappointment when it is found that these flowers are often without THE picture . fragrance. The question may then be asked, which, if any, of these cherries have attractivee fragrance, and if the quality of fragrance is desired, can a selection be made that will embody this quality as well as being otherwise satisfactory? To help answer this question, the following compilation has been made, based chiefly on the description of these cherries in the late Dr. Wilson's book \"The Cherries of Japan\", and in \"The Oriental Flowering Cherries\" by Paul Russell of the U.S. Department of Agriculture. The critical comments, where they appear, are Dr. Wilson's, than whom there could hardly be a more competent or experienced observor. FLOWERS PREDOMINANTLY WHITE. Cherry (Prunus Lannesiana f. albida). A small flowered wild mountain type, usually short-lived. Flowers single, white, and only,faintly fragrant. Habutai. This is listed in some Japanese catalogues as having large white flowers with a silky sheen as being very fragrant. Wilson's comment, however, is that \"it has little horticultural value\". Gozanoma-nioi. (Another name for this is Ozu-mako). Flowers single, white, and very fragrant. Taki-nioi. (In Japanese this name means \"Fragrant Cascade\"). Flowers single, white, and very fragrant. Oshima 27 Washino-o. (This name is also spelled as VVasinowo). Flowers sin- gle, white, fragrant. single, or nearly so, white, very fragrant. Sumizome. Flowers single, or nearly so, white flushed with pink, very large. Fragrant. Wilson's comment is that it is \"one of the most beautiful of all Japanese cherries\". Hosokawa. Flowers single, or semi-double (some Japanese catalogues list this as having semi-double to double flowers and as being very fragrant). Pure white, fragrant. Wilson's comment is that \"it is a pleasing form\". Jo-nioi. (This name in Japanese means \"Supreme Fragrance\"). Flowers single, or semi-double, of remarkable pure whiteness. Very fragrant. Wilson's comment is \"a lovely plant, the most fragrant of all the forms\". Kunrinjo-shirotae. (Also sometimes spelled Kurinjo-shtrotae). Flowers semi-double, white, fragrant. Senriko. Flowers semi-double, very large, pale pink passing to white. Fragrant. Wilson's comment is \"one of the most beauMina-kami. Flowers tiful of its class\". Suragadai-nioi. Flowers semi-double, pink fading grant . to nearly white, Fra- pendulous on long slender pedicles. Late flowering form. Shirotae. name is sometimes spelled Sirotae, and it is also designated as Mount Fuji). Flowers double or semidouble, large, pure white. Fragrant. Wilson's comment is that \"this is the finest of all the double flowering white cherries\". Miyako. Flowers double, white flushed pink. Fragrant. Wilson's comment is that \"it is one qf the best of the late flowering forms\". Yaye-oshima (or Yae-zakura). Flowers double, white, fragrant. (This at times FLOWERS PREDOMINANTLY PINK. Banriko. Flowers single, large, pale washy pink. Some Japanese catalogues list it as being very fragrant, but Wilson's comment of very little horticultural value\". Hitoye-zakura. (This type form of Prunus Lannesiana) . A cultivated form with single, pink flowers. Fragrant. Kirigaya. Flowers single, pale pink, fragrant. Ariake. Flowers single or semi-double, very large, pale pink, fragrant. Wilson's comment is that it is \"a very striking form\". Amanogawa. (This name in Japanese means \"Milky Way\"). A tree of fastigiate habit. Flowers semi-double, pale pink, frais that it is \"a form is the 28 a I I \"o < -a a ~ s s >i w >j w\" ~S x . d' s t-~ t6 a ft, 1-5 c be *^ 0 u s 13 c< Io N grant. Wilson's Botan-zakura. comment is that \"it is a beautiful form, very Flowers Wilson's comment distinct in its habit of growth\". means (This name \"Paeony Cherry\"). semi-double, pale pink, very large, fragrant. is that it is \"one of the very best forms\". Higurashi. Flowers double to semi-double, pale pink, slightly fragrant. Wilson's comment is that it is \"agood form\". Ise-zakura. Flowers semi-double, rose pink, fragrant. Yae-akebono. (This name is also spelled Yaye-akebono). Flowers semi-double, very large, soft pink, fragrant. Wilson's comment is that it is \"a very beautiful form\". All of the foregoing varieties are classed as forms of Prunus Lannesiana. In addition, the following are also listed as being more or less fragrant. for this cherry semi-double or occasionally single, delicate pink or sometimes nearly white. Wilson does not specifically refer to this species as having any fragrance, but Russell describes it as having fragrant flowers. Prunus yedoensis, Yoshino Cherry. Flowers vary from white to pink and are slightly fragrant. Wilson's comment is that it is one of the most floriferous and beautiful of the oriental flowering cherries\". CLARENCE McK. LEWIS Prunus Sieboldii, are names are Takasago Cherry. (Other Naden and Musha-zakura). Flowers \"Skylands\" Sterlington, New York *A group of Japanese cherries mostly garden forms which differ little from P. serrulata and are now generally included in that species. 30 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese Dwarf Trees","article_sequence":8,"start_page":31,"end_page":41,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24064","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15e896c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI MAY 27, 1938 NUMBER 7 THE LARZ ANDERSON COLLECTION OF JAPANESE DWARF TREES Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees presented Arnold Arboretum as a memorial to his friend, Charles Sprague Sargent,\" is an explanatory statement quoted from the carved insciption displayed with these intriguing plants. This group of dwarf trees is unique in this country and was received at the Arboretum last fall. The plants have just been placed on public display in a newly erected shade house. Brought to this country at a time when strict plant quarantines were not in force, these plants were imported with soil around the roots in their orginal Japanese containers. The Arboretum welcomes the opportunity of being able to display these striking examples of Japanese horticulture to its visitors. The Honorable Larz Anderson became interested in Japanese horticulture as early as 1907 and built a particularly attractive Japanese garden on his estate in Brookline, Massachusetts. Somewhat later he became interested in dwarf trees and in 1913 he brought back from Japan a splendid collection of them, which he acquired while serving as Ambassador Extraordinary from the United States to Japan (19121913). These he placed on display in his own garden where they were carefully tended for twenty-five years by different Japanese gardeners. The collection has been displayed at several exhibitions in Boston where it invariably won high honors. This unique collection has just been placed on display at the Arnold Arboretum in a new shade house erected for this purpose with funds provided by Mrs. Anderson. This is situated between the old Bussey Institution building and the greenhouses, fairly close to the hedge collection. Around the shade house have been planted a few shrubs to the \"The Larz 31 and trees native to Japan, and during the next few years it is planned to augment this planting. The collection now installed in the shade house consists of 29 specimens, all imported in 1913. They are well labelled, but for those unable to visit the collection (the house is open from 9:00 a.m. until 5:00 p.m. each day except Saturday, Sunday, and holidays) the names of the individual plants and their respective ages are given below. \"Bon-sai\", the art of training dwarf trees Century old customs have been handed down by the Japanese regarding the training of the interesting dwarf trees so characteristic of the gardens and homes of that country. There are several reasons for their existence. In the first place, Japanese and Chinese gardens are 32 CO %*a t~ T3 0 s J _u \"o (J I1; 2014 'C >< S H ~S 1I1~ N S a. be C 'S e: 0 2022j V 3 0 ~s ~ *a ~! VI a~ C ~ usually small, for space is at a premium. This is particularly true in Japan where the art of making gardens on a very small scale is centuries old. Then, too, the oriental's well known appreciation of the aesthetic value of living plants has been a prime factor in their cultivation. It often takes fifty to one hundred years to grow a worthy specimen dwarf tree, yet it is possible by twisting the trunk and restraining the growth of tops and roots to give a comparatively young plant the appearance of great age. This treatment requires a thorough knowledge of horticulture as well as painstaking patience, but many Japanese are fascinated with \"Bon-sai\" and practice it as a pastime. Training Most woody plants can be dwarfed if given the proper training. If the branches and roots of growing plants are vigorously restrained from developing rapidly, the individuals soon become dwarfed and this is the principle underlying all training. Then, too, great care is given to the training of the trunk, the spread of the branches and their shape, and the spread of the roots, since each can be so trained as to give the impression of great age. Many methods have been devised through the centuries for attaining these ends. Maples, bamboos, cherries, pines, hollies, oaks, azaleas, junipers, and many other plants have been used. They are grown in comparatively small containers, kept pot bound throughout their existence, and carefully and judiciously pruned to maintain the desired type of growth. Whenever possible, the Japanese start with plants that have already been dwarfed by nature. These are searched for in the high mountains, in regions often unfamiliar to the ordinary traveller. Such plants are frequently found growing in high rocky crevices, just barely existing for lack of sufficient nourishment. If these are dug immediately and removed, they might succumb at once for the delicate balance between the amount of root system and bare existence is easily upset. The plant hunter may locate such plants several years before he will venture to remove them from their rocky dwelling. At first he will root prune a small portion of the plant and leave it in place for a year; then he will return and root prune another small portion, repeating this process until it is safe to move the plant. In this way splendid specimens are obtained that have already been trained with the assistance of mother nature herself. If dwarf plants are to be trained from the seedling stage, the smallest and weakest seedlings are selected. Conifers are considerably easier to train, for they do not form adventitious buds as readily as do the broad leaved plants. The seedling is placed in a very small pot. If 34 s <I I \"O \"3 a <! V >) 4 I 15 1= x 4) ?1 0 c M '\" P~ p t-j t. P- S ~ ^ \"O 4-0 O 0 u _u \"5 ~ s 0 a; 2022a < CO <1\/ H there is a tap root, it is pruned considerably, and if a central leader is present, it too is cut back. In order to obtain the desired effect, only certain branches are allowed to develop. As an example, Chamis ordinarily a very bushy plant, yet the illustration shows only a few picturesque branches. These few (Plate VIII) branches have been carefully selected and trained, while the others have been entirely removed. If one of these branches should die, eventually a new bud would be allowed to develop a branch to sufficient size to take the place of the deceased one. To give the correct appearance of wind-contorted shape, the main stem is often twisted around an upright, and after a formative period the upright is removed. This twisting in itself is a dwarfing process, since frequently it breaks a large number of the conducting vessels in the stem. Branches are twisted in like manner. They may all be trained on one side of the plant, or arranged to droop on one side of the pot, or trained in any one of a dozen different ways. The Japanese gardener usually has a model in mind when he trains his plant, some wind-twisted tree which he is trying to reproduce in miniature form, and it is surprising to the uninitiated to observe how accurate these reproductions can be. Often in nature one observes old gnarled trees the larger roots of which are exposed, especially when growing in rocky places where there is still soil. This effect is reproduced by the \"Bon-sai\" artist bv growing his seedling in charcoal and moss for a period sufficiently long to induce long roots. When the plant is removed to its permanent container, a part of these roots are left to develop above the soil level, eventually aiding materially in giving the plant the appearance of great age. aecyparis obtusa Pruning, Repotting, and Watering Not all branches are entirely remov ed. Some of these century old plants have numerous picturesque stubs, certain gardeners believing that these add to the beauty of the plant. Any diseased tissue on such stubs is carefully scraped, disinfected, and painted. Sometimes in order to gain the appearance of stubby old age rapidly, taller plants that have been growing normally are used. The basal branches are cut back to give the stubby appearance. The top is entirely cut off. The plant is dug and after many of the roots have been removed it is placed in a small pot. Then certain of the adventitious buds are allowed to develop, or else scions are grafted at the desired places. Grafting is also resorted to when certain shoots die. If a very important branch has died, it may take many years for a new one to 36 J 0 u f 3 I U T3 S3 c m < ro :R 0 C-' _) ~ F, V. S ~ s \"1 ~ I grow to a sufficient size from an adventitious bud, so that grafting is often resorted to. The Japanese are particularly adept at this and take great pains in training an individual branch by pinching the buds back here, or twisting the branch there, and so forcing the latter to grow in the desired fashion. The pruning and pinching operations are done during the active growing period, since the development of branches from adventitious buds is then more frequent. Dwarf trees are repotted every four or five years for two reasons. In the first place it is necessary to remove some of the newly developed fibrous roots so that the tree will remain dwarfed. Secondly, it is necessary to mix a small amount of fertilizer with the soil, since as these trees are forced to grow in very small containers, there is not sufficient room for enough soil to allow new root development unless the plant be artificially stimulated with nutrients. It is also advisable to keep a fresh layer of green moss on the surface of the soil. This not only adds the impression of age, but keeps the soil from drying out. The containers are usually provided with a hole in the base for proper drainage. In the hot summer days there is some danger of the soil becoming too dry, and at such times the plants need special attention. Spraying the foliage with water once or twice a day during the hottest spells of summer is advisable in order to keep the plant in good condition. Dwarf trees cannot be considered primarily as indoor plants. They may be used indoors for short periods, but must be grown in the open a greater part of the time. Because of their very small root system, and the small containers in which they are grown, these dwarf trees cannot lose much water through transpiration and still survive. Consequently they must be grown in a shaded location. The shade house in which this location is being maintained at the Arboretum was designed and erected especially for this purpose. Constructed of cypress wood, the top and sides of the house are covered with strips 12 inches wide with similar spaces left between each strip. This supplies plenty of shade and at the same time keeps the atmosphere considerably cooler and reasonably moist. Winter Protection Although many of these trees are hardy, they cannot survive our northern winters because of their shallow root system, unless given some wmter protection. A Japanese maple, for instance, growing normally in the ground may survive a winter during which the temperature goes to 20 below zero although the top of the plant may be killed to the ground. However, in these small pots the roots of dwarf 38 subjected to temperatures almost as low as those of the surrounding atmosphere, and consequently the whole plant would be killed. During the winter in the north,they are best put in cold frames or pits which are well protected with glass and even with boards and mats during the most severe weather. In our pit where these plants were stored last winter the temperature did not go below freezing, although the temperatures outside the pit dropped to zero on several occasions. Another danger from freezing temperatures is that with the expansion of freezing soil the containers may break. Although these are seldom ornate, since the Japanese believe that the plant itself should be the point of interest, nevertheless their simplicity alone is beautiful and makes them important adjuncts to any such collection and thus worthy of full protection. Thus with an exacting knowledge of the numerous rigid requirements of the art of \"Bon-sai\" the painstaking Japanese gardener is able to reproduce dwarf trees that are exact replicas in everything but size, of century old specimens as they occur in nature. The Japanese have developed other forms of dish gardening, but to the American horticulturist perhaps none is so interesting as \"Bon-sai\". trees would be DONALD WYMAN 39 Bibliography Anderson, Isabel. Spell of Japan. Boston. 1914. pp. 326-349. The Page Company, Anonymous. How the Chinese make dwarf trees. Technologist 4: 333. 1864.2014 Pharm. Jour. II. 5: 584. 1864.-Amer. Gard. III. 2: 42. 1881. Bockel, Liliputpflanzen. Oester. Bot. 1855.-Culture des plantes nains ou lilliputiennes. Jour. Soc. Hort. France. 5: 491-493. 1859.How to grow lilliputian plants. Gard. Chron. 1859: 773-774. 1859.-Pharm. Jour. II. 1: 338-339. 1860. Wochenbl. 5: 101-102. Godwin. Ueber die Zucht der Brick, C. Ueber japanische Zwergbaume. Verh. Naturw. Ver. Ham- burg III. 14: lv-lviii. 1907. Carriere,E.A. 1878: -- Essai sur 271-275. y. Japonaiseries. Rev. Hort. (Paris) 1889. l'horticulture J.?-6'7. 1878. japonaise. Rev. Hort. (Paris) 1889: 374-378.f. 94-99. Fortune, Robert. Three years' wanderings in the northern provinces of China. ed 2: 85-87. 1847. Henkel, F. Les arbres nains des Japonais. Journ. Hort. Vitic. Suisse 6: 145-148. 1909. I., W. Chinese method of dwarfing 772. 1846. trees. Gard. Chron. 1846: 7716: 373. 1893. Izawa, Henry. Dwarfing plants in Japan. Gard. & For. Lindley, J. Dwarfed plants. Bot. Reg. Livingstone, as 31: Misc. 45-48. 1845. dwarfing trees and shrubs, the Chinese, including their plan of propagating from branches. Trans. Hort. Soc. London 4: 224-231. 1821. J. Account of the method of practised by Matsuki, B. Japanese potted trees Rec. 20: 11: (Hachinoki). Brooklyn Reprinted Bot. Gard. 279-289.\/. 1-11. 283-295. 11. f. 1932. 1931. in Nat. Hort. Mag. Maumene, A. Les arbres nains Japonais. Leur formation au Japon. Leur utilization et leur traitement en Europe. 1-59\/. 1-16. 1902. Maury, P. Sur les procfides employees par les Japonais pour obtenir des arbres nains. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 36: 290-294.\/ 1-4. 1889. McClure, F.A. Methods and materials of Chinese table plant culture. Lingnan Sci. Jour. 12: Suppl. 40 119-149. pi. 4-1S. 1933. Morren, C. Sur les plantes naines, a MM. von Siebold et Succharini Gand 1: 109-112. 1845. propos de la Flora [Zuccarini]. Ann. Soc. Japonica de Agr. Bot. ex- Quin, C.W. The horticultural comprachicos of Japan hibition. Gard. 14: 174-175.\/. 1-6. 1878. at the Paris Roberts, W. Dwarfed Japanese trees. Gard.Chron. III. 26: 84. 1899. Tsumura, T. Dwarf trees. Trans. Japan Soc. London 6: 2-14. pl. 1-7. f. 1. 1903. Vallot, J. Causes physiologiques qui produisent le rabougrissement des arbres des cultures japonaises. Bull. Soc. Bot. France 36: 284-289. 1889. Les arbres nains du Japon et les procedes employees pour les obtenir. Jour. Soc. Hort. France III. 11: 466-469. 1889. Watanabe, Hadjime. Die Anzucht von Zwangsformen in Japan. Gartenfl. 40: 120-123. \/. 40. 1891. Yokohama Nursery Co. How the William, W. P. Dwarf trees. For. Leaves 3: 70-71. 1. pl. 1891. Japanese grow the dwarfed trees in Gard. Chron. III. 26: 466. 1899. jardinieres. 41 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants and the Men Whose Names They Commemorate","article_sequence":9,"start_page":43,"end_page":50,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24059","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15eb726.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Tucker, Ethelyn M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY '~~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI JUNE 3, 1938 NUMBER 8 PLANTS AND THE MEN WHOSE NAMES THEY COMMEMORATE To him who in the love of Nature Holds communion with her visible forms She speaks a various language.\" time immemorial Nature has spoken her language to the of men and held their mmds enthralled; like an enchantress she has lured them over land and sea, to the far corners of the earth to search out her secrets and her hidden beautIes. Many of our well-known trees and shrubs record the results of these journeys in the names they bear, perpetuating the names of men who have risked their lives to bring beauty from the wilds to brighten the gardens of the civilized world, while others honor the memory of some botanist working quietly in laboratory or garden. Research on the origin of these names opens a fascinating study in biography, history and romance. Thus for strictly herbaceous groups such familiar names as fuchsia, dahlia and lobelia perpetuate the names of men. The practice of selecting such names to commemorate individuals was commenced by Hippocrates and Theophrastus in the 4th and 5th centuries B.C., continued during the classical period, persisted through the Middle Ages, and thus following the Renaissance was adopted by European botanists and then transmitted to modern times. From the many thousands of plants so perpetuating the memory of men, a few of the more common ones may be selected from the large number one notes in passing through the Arboretum. These are listed in the order of their blooming from early spring to late autumn. Prunus Sargenti. One of the earliest and most showy of the flowering trees, this Japanese cherry is a beautiful and graceful memorial to Professor C.S.Sargent, for more than fifty-three years the Arboretum's devoted and able Director. FROM souls 43 suspensa Fortunei. The forsythia, as is so well known, named for William Forsyth (1737-1804), a prominent English horticulturist who was trained under Philip Miller and in 1784 became Royal gardener at Kensington and St. James' Palaces. The variety Fortunei received its name from Robert Fortune ( 1812-1880), a British traveler and horticulturist in China. He introduced the tea industry into India, and wrote a number of books on China and tea culture, the interest and value of which are very great. He was one of the first who opened the treasures of Chinese gardens to European horticulture. Magnolia Soulangeana. Pierre Magnol (1638-1715), Professor of medicine and Director of the Botanic garden at Montpellier, and Etienne Soulange-Bodin (1774-1846), a French horticulturist and writer, are commemorated in the name of this magnificent tree. Viburnum Carlesii. Hemsley named this attractive little shrub, valued for its delightful fragrance and handsome early flowers, for William Richard Carles of the British Consular Service. Carles was appointed a student interpreter in China in 1867, and in 1883 was sent by his Government to Corea, where, among other plants, he collected Viburnum Carlesii, which bears his name. Malus Halliana Parkmanii. Hall's flowering apple, often called the Parkman crab, reveals an interesting history. Dr. George It. Hall of Bristol, R. I., after graduating from the Harvard Medical School in 1846, embarked for China, and in 1855 made a voyage to Japan. From Japan, in about 1863, he sent to this country by F. Gordon Dexter of Boston, a plant of the Japanese crab, which found a home in the garden of Francis Parkman in Jamaica Plain. It is probably true that the double-flowered Japanese apple was thus introduced into America before it reached Europe, and is named for the two men responsible for its introduction into cultivation. Leitneria. The name of this plant is derived from that of Dr. E. F. Leitner, a German naturalist, killed in Florida during the Seminole Forsythia was war. Fothergilla, bottle-brush, perpetuates the (1712-1780), an eminent English physician, name of John Fothergill who introduced and cul- tivated many new plants. Sinowilsonia. As the fame of E. H. Wilson rest chiefly on his travels in China and his investigations of the Chinese flora, \"Sino\" meaning Chinese, is very appropriately bestowed upon this botanically extremely interesting genus, discovered by him in China and introduced into cultivation by him. Berberis Thunbergii, a Japanese barberry with dainty yellowish flowers, introduced into cultivation about 1864, and named by De Candolle for Carl Pehr Thunberg ( 1 7 43- 1 822) , the celebrated Swedish 44 botanist. Thunberg was an explorer of the flora of Japan, and subsequently Professor of botany at Upsala, succeeding the younger Linnaeus. His \"Flora japonica\" (l784) is an important contribution to the flora of that country. Mahonia. A member of the barberry family, this genus was named by Thomas Nuttall for Bernard M'Mahon (1775-1816), a prominent American horticulturist. azalea, Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi. A flaming beauty, the torch is indebted for its specific name to Engelbrecht Kaempfer (1651-171 6), an eminent German botanist and traveler. Like many another of the early botanists, he studied medicine and the languages. In 1683 he accompanied the Swedish ambassador to Persia. Having passed into the service of the Dutch East India Company as surgeon, he visited Bengal, Java, Sumatra and Japan. On his return to Europe in 1693, he published an important work entitled Amoenitates exoticae\" (l712), which contains the results of his researches in Persia and the other countries visited. Amelanchier Bartramiana. This shrub's chief claim to distinction is in its specific name, which was given in honor of one of the Bar- trams, father and son, famous travelers and explorers of the southern United States and whose garden, the first botanical garden in America, founded in Philadelphia in 1728, is still in existence. Halesia. The halesia or silver-bell, a handsome tree covered in spring with a cloud of delicate, shimmering white flowers, honors the memory of the Rev. Stephen Hales (l677-176l), an eminent English philosopher. He made important discoveries in vegetable physiology and in 1727 published a work entitled \"Vegetable statics.\" Syringa Meyeri. This small shrub bears the name of Frank L. Meyer, successful collector for the United States Department of Agriculture. He was born in Holland m 1875 and lost his life in the Yangtze River in 1918. most Wisteria, also spelled Wistaria. This charmmgly graceful vine, the beautiful of all climbers hardy in temperate regions, was named by the distinguished American botanist, Thomas Nuttall, in 1818 for Caspar Wistar ( 176 1-1 818). Dr. Wistar was Professor of anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. Although there are inconspicuous North American species of Wisteria, the commonly known and cultivated species are the Chinese and Japanese wisterias ( W.sinen.sis and W.fioribunda) of which the former was listed in the 1828 Catalogue of William Prince of Flushing, Long Island. Weigela, also spelled Weigelia. This shrub with its clusters of beautiful pink flowers was named for Christian Ehrenfried von Weigel, a German physician and naturalist ( 1748-1831). He wrote \"Observa46 AUGUSTINE HENRY ( 1857-1930) botanicae,\" and other works. Weigela often has been referred following genus: Diervilla. Weigela. Named for Dierville, or Diereville, a French surgeon who traveled in Canada, 1699-1700, and introduced Diervilla Lonicera into Europe. Spiraea Thunbergii. A graceful early-flowering shrub, native to Japan and China, and introduced into cultivation about 1863 is another of the many plants named in honor of the Swedish botanist, Thunberg. Spiraea Vanhouttei. One of the handsomest of the spring-flowering spireas and extensively planted, this shrub honors the memory of Louis van Houtte, an eminent Belgian horticulturist, who was born in 1810 and died in 1876. He traveled extensively in South America and introduced many new plants. In 1845 he founded Flore des serres, an important horticultural publication, which ran until 1883. In 1872 he established the famous nurseries at Ghent, which are perhaps the largest in the world, and for which he is best known. Spiraea Wilsonii. Spiraea Wilsonii is given its specific name in honor of the intrepid traveler E. H. Wilson who made expeditions to tiones to the China from 1899 to 1905 for the Veitch Nurseries in London. Later to China, Japan and various other eastern countries were - made between the years 1906 and 1919 in the interest of the Arnold Arboretum, for which institution he collected many rare and valuable ornamental plants, many of which have been widely distributed in cultivation in Europe and America. Deutzia. Among the most popular early flowering shrubs are the deutzias. They were named in honor of Johann van der Deutz, alderman of Amsterdam, by the distinguished Swedish botanist Carl Pehr Thunberg, whose friend and patron he was. Deutzia Lemoinei. This dainty shrub has the added distinction of bearing the name also of Victor Lemoine, the wonderful French nurseryman (1823-1911), who in his world famous nurseries at Nancy worked incessantly in the hybridizing of garden and greenhouse plants, and to such purpose, that there is not a garden today in which the products of the master genius are not familiar friends. Deutzia Sieboldiana. Philipp Franz von Siebold, for whom this species was named, was a celebrated German naturalist who accompanied the Dutch embassy to Japan as physician and naturalist in 1823, and spent about seven years in scientific researches in that country. After his return he published a number of valuable works, that of most interest to the botanical world being his \"Flora japonica\", 2 vols. 1835-1870. Many other species have been named for this noted man. Lonicera Henryi. Lonicera, commonly called honeysuckle, derives expeditions 48 name from Adam Lonicer, or Lonitzer, (1528-1586), a German physician and naturalist. Lonitzer obtained in 1554 the position of official physician of Frankfort, which he occupied thirty-two years. He published several treatises on medicine, and a Latin work on plants, animals and minerals called \"Naturalis historiae opus novum\" (15511555), which was often reprinted. The specific name Henryi honors Augustine Henry (1857-1930), who in his younger days collected extensively in Hupeh and Yunnan, provinces of China, demonstrating its the richness of the flora of an area hitherto little known to botanists. Later in life he was associated with Henry J. Elwes in their great work, \"The trees of Great Britain and Ireland.\" Gleditsia. This genus, popularly called the honey-locust, bearing greenish inconspicuous flowers in early summer and large ornamental pods in the autumn, was named for Johann Gottlieb Gleditsch ( 1 7141786), Director of the Botanic garden at Berlin. It is sometimes spelled Gleditschia. the davidia, a rare tree, appropriately called \"dove tree\" because of the large white bracts which surround a globose cluster of tiny flowers, and flutter in the breeze like a dove, has an interesting history. Pere Armand David, for whom it is named, was a distinguished missionary and naturalist, who botanized in China from 1862 to 1873. He was one of the pioneer explorers of western China, and contributed largely to our knowledge of the natural hisDavidia involucrata. The tory of that country. He entered the congregation of the Lazarists in 1848, was ordained to the priesthood in 1851 and in 1862 was atto tached to the mission of the Lazarists at Peking, where he soon began apply himself zealously to the natural history of that country. It was for the purpose of securing seeds of the davidia that E. H. Wilson made his first trip to China. Robinia. The genus Robinia was named in honor of Jean Robin (1550-1629), a French botanist, who was patronized by Henry IV, and planted a garden which was the finest in Paris. He published a work on plants which grow near Paris, \"Catalogus stirpium tam indigenarum quam exoticarum,\" etc. 1601. His son, Vespasien Robin, also a botanist, succeeded his father in the title of arboriste du roi, and lectured on botany at the Jardin Royal. Kolkwitzia. This genus was named by Paul Graebner in honor of Richard Kolkwitz, a professor of botany in Berlin, who died in 1873. Its most charming and popular species is Kolkwitzia amabilis, a graceful ornamental shrub, very handsome in spring with its profusely produced pink flowers. Stewartia, also spelled Stuartia. This very desirable ornamental shrub with its large, showy white flowers was named in honor of John Stuart, 3rd Earl of Bute (1713-1792), who took an extremely active 49 part in developing Kew gardens. He had been \"Lord of the bedchamber to the Prince and on his death, became groom of the stole to his son, afterwards George III.\" In 1761 Lord Bute was made Secretary of State, and from 1762 served as Prime Minister. Kalmia latifolia. The mountain laurel, the most beautiful of evergreen shrubs native to eastern North America, bears the name of the distinguished Swedish botanist, Pehr Kalm (1715-1779), who in 1748 sailed for America, where he spent three years engaged in the study of natural history. On his return to Sweden, he published an account of his travels under the title \"En rese til Norra America,\" in three volumes, 1753-1761. This is one of the most important accounts of early voyages to America and was translated into several languages. Albizzia. Closely related to the genus Acacia, Albizzia was dedicated to an old and illustrious Italian family, the Albizzi, since a member of that family was one of the first to introduce it into Tuscany. The founder of the genus was Doctor Antonio Durazzini, a Florentine who lived and wrote in the latter half of the 18th century. Spiraea Douglasii. This spirea honors the memory of Dr. David Douglas, an eminent Scottish botanist, employed as a botanical explorer for the London Horticultural Society. He arrived in California on his second trip to America in 1830. In 1834 he visited the Hawaiian Islands, where he was found killed in a wild-bull pit, under strong suspicion of foul play. Pseudotsuga taxifolia is commonly known as the Douglas fir. Buddleia Davidii honors the memory of two members of the clergy, the English botanist, the Rev. Adam Buddle (1660-1715), who wrote \"Methodus nova stirpium britann,\" and Pere Armand David, the French missionary. Koelreuteria paniculata, or varnish-tree, received its name in compliment to Joseph G. Koelreuter (1733-1806), Professor of natural history at Karlsruhe. It is a native of northern China and was introduced into Petrograd from the neighborhood of Peking some time between 1740 and 1756. In midsummer it is a conspicuous tree, covered with a shower of golden yellow panicles. Franklinia alatamaha. This exquisite, fall-flowering tree was brought in 1777 from the banks of the Altamaha River in Georgia to Bartram's garden at Philadelphia, and was named by John Bartram in honor of his lifelong friend, Benjamin Franklin. It was later transferred to the genus Gordonia, but later still, was found to differ by constant characters so that today Franklinia is the generally accepted name. This very attractive plant is now known only from cultivated specimens, no longer occurring in the South as a wild species. As early botany was closely connected with the study of medicine, the herbals being our earliest works on the subject, it is only natural that a large number of plants should have been dedicated to the memory of physicians. ETHELYN M. TUCKER of Wales, 50 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Current Arboretum Activities of General Interst","article_sequence":10,"start_page":51,"end_page":57,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24048","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14eb76d.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI JUNE 10, 1938 NUMBER 9 CURRENT ARBORETUM ACTIVITIES OF GENERAL INTEREST is constantly being shown in the work of the Arnold Arboretum by the gardening public. In order to record for Bulletin readers some of the little known lines of activity, as well as some of the more popularly known, the following condensed statements have been taken from a report made by Dr. E. D. Merrill, Director of the Arboretum, to the Visiting Committee on May 10, 1938. This report covers in general the work accomplished during the last two years and is of interest because it records a few of the many activities that are now in progress. INTEREST Public Relations Our relationships with other institutions, with Harvard University of which the Arboretum is a part, with the several separately endowed institutions of the University, with the City officials and with the general public are excellent. We enjoy the cooperation of the Park Department officials, as well as those of the Police Department and the Fire Department. Two of our regular employees have recently been appointed as special policemen, with power to act within the grounds, for there is some vandalism although it is not alarming or excessive. As an example, virtually all of the narcissus flowers were taken on two successive Sundays from the field near the Administration Building, yet there were no signs of broken branches or flower clusters on the many thousands of shrubs and trees in full flower although police estimates give the number of visitors on a single Sunday as high as 35,000; and last year on Lilac Sunday there were actually more than 40,000 pedestrians in the grounds on that one day. Inspection of the grounds the next morning showed no sign of this flood of visitors ex- 51 ' grass in the vicinity of attractive plantings ; there were no broken plants, no evidence that flowering branches had been taken, and no discarded newspapers or rubbish that one often sees in public parks. The conclusion that one draws is highly complimentary to the Boston public, and especially to the many thousands of individuals who visit and appreciate the Arboretum for what it is -a great living collection of ornamental shrubs and trees. Last year and the year before we were overwhelmed by bicyclists. Acting on the suggestion of the Police Department, an appeal was made to the Boston Park Commission to prohibit bicycling in the Arboretum. Action was promptly taken and this nuisance was immediately eliminated. cept the trampling of the Butler Estate The Isabel Butler estate was bequeathed to the Arboretum in the early part of 1936, and the property was taken over m May of that year. It consists of approximately two acres of land, an eleven-room, well-constructed residence built about eighty years ago, and a commodious barn. On the acquisition of the property, the Butler place was designated by the University authorities as the official residence of the Director of the Arnold Arboretum. It is admirably located for this purpose, as the grounds adjoin the Arboretum almost immediately back of the Administration Building on the Centre Street side, between the Adams-Nervine property and the convent of the Poor Clares. The Maria Moors Cabot Foundation for Botanical Research This new foundation as established in June, 1937, through the gift of Dr. Godfrey L. Cabot of Boston. It forms the ninth separately endowed unit of Harvard University in the botanical field, but is most fortunately in the form of a foundation rather than as an institution. The result is that the income from this new fund can be used to support research in the field specified by Dr. Cabot, by providing assistance to individuals employed by other botanical units, such as the Harvard Forest, the Biological Laboratory, the Arnold Arboretum, and Bussey Institution. The project is essentiallyatree breeding one, and one of its objectives is the study of methods whereby a more rapid increase in cellulose production may be devised. The Arboretum is a cooperating agency in the hybridization field, and much work has already been initiated. Special Grants Supplementing the regular Arboretum budget very numerous small and large gifts have been recen ed during the year, the combined a52 enabling the institution to initiate work in several important fields where budgetary limitations forbade expansion. Besides numerous unrestricted gifts, several special ones are worthy of note. Through grants from the Harvard-Yenehing Institute and the Smithsonian Institution, supplemented by a generous gift from an anonymous friend of the Arboretum, the printing of the very large and important Asiatic bibliography was made possible. Other gifts have been made for the care of conifers, special construction, and for lichen research ; the latter really finances a research project at the Farlow Reference Library and Herbarium. Dr. Raup of the Arboretum staff has just received a grant from the Milton fund of Harvard University to finance further botanical field work in northwestern Canada in the summer of 1939. The Director of the Arnold Arboretum received in 1936-37 a grant from the same source to initiate work on a critical study of the Bornean species of Eugenia, and this year he received a supplementary contribution from the American Philosophical Society to complete the task. mount Publications Through publications the Arboretum makes itself known to the botanical and horticultural public in all parts of the world. Because of the wise actions of its first director, Dr. Charles Sprague Sargent, who developed it not only as a magnificent planting of hardy trees and shrubs, unequalled in its field anywhere in the world, but also as a research and publishing institution, it has become one of the most widely and favorably known units of Harvard University. It is this combination of factors, and the high grade of its published results that have made the Arboretum great in its several fields. The Bulletin of Popular Information has been issued regularly, and the mailing list now approximates 1500 in comparison to the subscription list of about 600 in 1935. Each year four numbers of the technical Journal of the Arnold Arboretum have been issued, this being maintained on a strictly subscription and exchange basis. Exchanges received form an important part of our library accessions, and these come from all parts of the world. One number of the Contributions, another technical series, has been issued. Just off the press is the Merrill-Walker \"Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany\", a quarto volume containing nearly 22,000 author entries in practically all the languages of Europe and covers the period from the beginning of printing, not only in Europe but also in China, as far as the botanicalhorticultural fields are concerned ; the oldest publication recorded was issued in China in the third century B.C. The area covered extends its 53 from Tibet and Central Asia to Saghalien, Japan, and Formosa. In the press is Mrs. McKelvey's \"Yuccas of the southwestern United States\", to the preparation of which she has devoted many years of work and has travelled many thousands of miles. Besides these publications actually sponsored by the Arboretum itself, staff members have published thirty-eight technical and semi-technical papers in periodical literature. In all, sixty-six technical papers were published by staff members in 1987. Non-officially Professor Rehder is industriously working on a complete revision of his standard Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs,\" and Dr.Wyman has written a standard reference work entitled \"Hedges, Windbreaks, and Screens for Every Purpose\", to be published late in the summer. Cooperative Botanical-Horticultural Exploration twofold; seeds and liB ing plants to increase our livand additional botanical material to increase our hering collections, barium reference collections. The economical method of accomplishing field work in certain foreign countries, and in our own for that matter, is to make small grants to individuals who are strategically located and who are trained in methods of field work. Within the past two years numerous small grants haxe been made; four institutions in India, four in China, and one each in Japan, Burma, the Malay PenOur needs are insula, Java, Philippines, Mexico, Colombia, Brazil, Panama, Congo, New Guinea, Idaho, North Carolina, Louisiana, and British Columbia have received grants to be expended to cover the expenses of cooperative field work. In addition to extensive and valuable botanical col- lections acquired through this plan we have actually received in excess of 2000 packets of seeds from China and Japan alone. These will be distributed to various institutions in Europe and in America in the near future. Herbarium Exchanges These cooperative us expeditions, maintained at a minimum cost, our give not only a study set of all material collected for herbarium, but also vast quantities of duplicates for exchange purposes. With this material in hand we have recently developed some most important exchanges with such institutions as the botanical gardens and museums in Leningrad, Geneva, Vienna, London, Prague, Stockholm, and Copenhagen. Library library today is the largest and most important America, and is one of the great botanical libraries of The the past two years 942 bound volumes were in its field in the world. In received and accessioned, 54 and since July 1, 1937, many additional ones have been acquired. Plants New to the Arboretum Collections Beginning in 1936 a concerted effort has been made to acquire hardy or presumably hardy species and varieties of woody plants not represented in our living collections. In 1936-37, 171 accessions were procured from Europe and 187 from the United States. In 1937-38, 373 additional species and varieties were obtained from Europe and 493 from the United States. The foreign material was imported under special permits from the Federal Horticultural Board. Most of the American material was received from nurserymen, institutions with which we have exchange relations, and as gifts; Mr. Dexter, a member of our visiting Committee, presented us with a number of fine Rhododendrons new to our collections which we have placed in the more sheltered and warmer parts of the grounds. Mr. Childs Frick, another member of the Visiting Committee, very kindly purchased for the Arboretum a number of fine conifers that were available in European institutions. Two very large shipments were received from Holland and England in April. The grand total is 1224 species and varieties, all new to our living collections; this is by far the largest accession acquired in recent years. All this material is \"lined out\" in our expanded nursery near the Bussey Institution. It will be distributed among the living collections next fall or in the spring of 1939. We have already located some 500 more species in European nurseries and botanical gardens that we shall make a serious attempt to obtain during the next few years. To meet our space requirements for this new stock we have greatly expanded the nursery area near the Bussey Institution and are preparing a considerable area in the Walter Street tract to be used as an overflow nursery, in which plants will be lined out and grown until we can decide whether or not they are worthy of inclusion in the permanent Arboretum collections. Here we shall also grow some thousands of hybrids and chance seedlings taken from the Arboretum grounds. Hedge Plantings A year ago a series of plantings were made front of the Bussey Institution building to be in the open space in developed as clipped hedges with the purpose of demonstrating in a graphic manner a series of hardy evergreen and deciduous species and varieties adaptable to this purpose. In this planting 115 different species and varieties are represented, and as the plants reach the proper size the actual clipping will be started. All of the plants necessary for this installation VV h ~~ were presented by several of the larger part of the United States. nurseries in the northeastern The Larz Anderson Collection of Dwarf Japanese Trees In October, 1937, Mrs. Larz Anderson presented to the Arboretum a collection of 34 dwarf Japanese trees, obtained in 1913 by the Honorable Larz Anderson, then the United States Ambassador to Japan. This gift was made under the condition that the collection be known as \"The Larz Anderson collection of Japanese dwarf trees, presented to the Arnold Arboretum as a memorial to his friend,Charles Sprague Sargent.\" Mrs. Anderson generously provided the funds for the erection of a shade house in which this valuable group of plants is exhibited. (See Bulletin of Popular Information No. 7, 1938). New Detail Maps Beginning in 1937 a complete new survey of the Arboretum was made, and detailed maps showing the exact location of each planted tree or shrub will be finished during the present season. (This mapping project was fully described in the Bulletin of Popular Information No..i, 1938). Lantern Slides and Moving Pictures in Natural Color ' During the past two years the Arboretum has made a very fine set of about 650 slides in natural color and some 2400 feet of Hi mm. moving picture film in natural color, showing the attractive features of the Arboretum at all seasons of the year. Many of the outstanding introductions of the Arboretum are carefully photographed in flower and again fruit and autumn color to illustrate their ornamental characteristics at different times of the year. Arboretum, cooperated extensively The Standardized Plant Names through Professor Rehder and Dr. Wyman, has with the American Joint Committee on Horticultural Nomenclature on the preparation of the second edition of this standard work, Dr. Wyman being a member of the Editing Com- mittee. One of the objectives of this committee is to bring horticultural nomenclature closer to botanical usage by the adoption of the International Rules of Botanical Nomenclature. When once available, this work should go a long way toward the unification of nomenclature of cultivated plants both as to their scientific and their common names. Proposed Innovations of Suggestions a lily pond made appertaining to the to occupy a part of what is now were possible development a swampy meadow in 56 front of the Administration Building. In this area, which can scarcely be drained wuliuul mvviW 7=~.,'major and very expensive operation, the water table is so high that no woody plants can be grown. Another idea presented was the possible cooperation with an interested group in New York with the objective of installing a planting of trees and shrubs as a part of the horticultural exhibit planned as a feature of the New York World's Fair in 1939. Such a planting, if developed, would include only specimens of those species actually introduced into the United States or into cultivation by the Arnold Arboretum. A suggestion was also made appertaining to the possible desirability of organizing the supporters of the Arboretum with an informal group to be known perhaps as \"The Friends of the Arnold Arboretum.\" To quote from the concluding paragraph of Dr. Merrill's report, \"For what has been accomplished in the past two years I make no personal claims. Some of the ideas were my own, but much of the execution has been the work of others. To a loyal, interested and efficient staff the institution owes much. Contributions received from over 800 individuals from all over the United States and Canada have enabled the staff to initiate many lines of work that could not be developed and supported by budgetary funds alone. Lastly I wish to extend to the members of this committee my keen appreciation of the support that its various members have extended to the Arboretum, for after all it is \"the father of them all\" in Arboretum circles, not only in the United States, but in all other countries as well, in spite of the fact that it is now only sixty-six years old.\" 57 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Cytisus for New England","article_sequence":11,"start_page":59,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24049","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14ebb6f.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI JULY 15, 1938 NUMBER 10 CYTISUS FOR NEW ENGLAND of Cytisus are many plants that are only semiEngland, yet they are so colorful that they should always be considered when there is any possibility of their coming through the winter in good condition. In the first place, they are valuable assets to gardens because of their bright yellow flowers, although there are several with white, purple, or pale lemon-yellow flowers. Secondly, they add interest because their stems remain green all winter. Finally, they are of value because they are legumes and the nitrogen bearing nodules which form on their roots enrich the soil. They are not difficult to grow, and many may be raised readily from seed. However they cannot be expected to survive every winter, and even in protected situations in the Arboretum some are killed to the ground during the very severe winters. A little south of Boston, on Cape Cod, they prove much hardier and splendid specimens may be seen. Even some of the beautiful flowering hybrids, so common in England, are seen here and there in Cape Cod and Newport gardens. In New England there are some species of particular interest, and a AMONG hardy the species in New few of the better and is the ones are listed below. Cytisus scoparius. This is the most common broom native of Europe native to the British Isles. It is said to have been brought country as early as Captain John Smith's time by one of the early Virginia settlers, and it is well adapted to the eastern United States where it has escaped cultivation in several places, being particularly abundant in Nantucket. The Scotch broom is a bushy shrub which may grow .5 to 6 feet tall, although in the east it is considerably smaller because it is so often killed back by severe winters. only one to this The pear in large pea-like flowers are colored a deep golden yellow and apMay. The twigs are upright and green all winter. The name \"broom\" comes from the fact that there are so many upright twigs 59 that it is a comparatively simple matter to cut them off in large bunches, tie them together, and use them as a rough broom. There are several varieties growing in the Arboretum and many more in Europe. Among the most outstanding is var. Andreanus which is similar to the species in every way, except that the wing-petals and the standard petal are a rich brownish-crimson, adding considerably to the beauty of the flower. There is also a double-flowered variety, as well as one (var. pendulum) with graceful pendulous branches, and one (var. albus) with pale yellow or nearly white flowers. These varieties are best propagated asexually, either by grafting on Laburnum stock or by cuttings taken in late August. Cytisus nigricans. This species is a native of central and southeastern Europe and is m bloom at present in the Arboretum. It was highly recommended by Professor Sargent and E. H. Wilson because it never fails to bloom; each year it is covered with long terminal spikes of bright yellow Howers. In fact, it is easily recognized by these spikes when in bloom, for it is the only broom that blossoms during July and August that has these conspicuous flower spikes. Because it flowers on the growth made during the current year, any necessary pruning should always be done before growth starts in the early spring. When the blooming has ceased, the flower stalks might be removed to prevent seeding and so conserve the energy of the plant for vegetative growth. Because the flowers of this particular species turn black when dried, Linnaeus gave it the specific name nigricans. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1906 and consistently has produced large numbers of flower spikes in the early summer. Wherever summer bloom is desired, this splendid ornamental should have its place. Cytisus praecox. During the past two years the Warminster broom has been conspicuous in the collection on the top of Bussey Hill where many fine specimens are growing. In the spring this plant is the most conspicuous in the entire Cytisus collection and has proved to be one of the most popular with Arboretum visitors. The bushes are covered with very pale, lemon-yellow flowers, an easy reminder to even the casual observer that there are few woody plants blessed with this unusual shade of yellow. The species is a hybrid between C. multiflorus and C.purgans and is called the Warminster broom,for it first appeared in the nursery of Wheeler of Warminster in England about 1867. Todayit is available from one or two nurseries in this country. Because it does not come true from seed, it should be propagated by cuttings taken in August. Its very dense habit of growth and slender, erect branches appear very graceful even in the slightest breeze. In the Arboretum the plants are about 3 feet tall, and when covered with pale yellow flowers they are a most pleasing spectacle. 60 ~ ~ V 2014 'H. x I M~ g~ ~ ~ ~c ~ 04 2052s 2 s Z~ Si ~ Cytisus purpureus. This procumbent shrub seldom grows over If feet tall and in May it is highly valued for its purple flowers which are borne on the growth made the prev ious year. The branches often arch gracefully from the base of the plant, making a dense, slightly rounded mass of purple flowers. Unusual among the brooms because of its purple flowers, this species is one of the best of the low brooms. A white flowered variety (alba) is another valued ornamental. Other hardy species of note are C. ratixbonenxix withellow flowers borne along its arching branches (a native of Europe, particularly abundant in Hungary and the Balkans where it occasionally grows as tall as 6 feet),one of the hardiest of the brooms in the collection at the Arboretum, C. auxlriacus with its flowers in heads at the end of upright branches, and C.albus which is similar but has white flowers. Dwarf Brooms. For planting on sunny banks or on top of exposed rocks (hjtixws purganx, C.Ardoivii, ('. Bennii, and C. decumbens are admirably suited. All are prostrate with numerous, slender radiating branches which form masses of color near the ground. The best is C. Beanii, a chance hybrid between C.Ardoinii and C. purganx, with large deep golden-yellow flowers borne singly or in pairs from each joint of the previous year's growth. This plant blossoms so freely that the twigs and leaves are frequently hidden by the wealth of flowers. It is quite hardy m the Arboretum even though one of its parents, C. Ardoiiiii, is not. Cytisux decumbens, with its bright yellow flowers in clusters along the shoots, is perhaps the most prostrate of all. The growing season this year has been B ery long due to the abundant rains and comparatively cool weather. Most of the shrubs and trees show splendid growth and many a vigorous secondary growth. The moist weather has caused leaf and twig blight disease on the plane trees, and unfortunately this same disease had made headway on a few of the white oaks. Another year a definite attempt will be made to control this disease by spraying with Bordeaux mixture during the growing season. Although the winter was mild, considerable winter injury was noted in the shrub collection, where many plants, even Kolkxcitzia amabi\/is, were killed to the ground, whereas on higher ground other plants of the same species and varieties remained uninjured. The exact cause of such injury is difficult to explain, but probably was due to the sudden cold spells during early March, particularly on nights when there was little wmd. Cumulative index of the Bulletin of Popular Information. It has been suggested that a cumulative index of the Bulletin be published for the years 1916-38 inclusive. This would help readers who consult back numbers. The publication of such an index would take considerable time, but if Bulletin readers would like to have it, it can in all probability be done. I'lease write to the Bulletin of Popular Information expressing your views on this subject. DONALU WYMAN 62 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Narrow Upright Trees in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":12,"start_page":63,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24055","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15ea76c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. Vol. VI SEPTEMBER 23, 1938 NUMBER 11 t NARROW UPRIGHT TREES IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM has earned a bad name for itself among and in many localities ordinances have been passed restricting its use. However, because it is a rapid grower and is available from almost every nursery, it will continue to be used in certain locations. What are some of the possible substitutes for it? It is extremely interesting to note that there are at least 43 different species and varieties of trees actually growing in the Arnold Arboretum now which might be used in its place, and these do not exhaust the list of possibilities by any means. There are many others which, if noted, would make this list surprisingly long. It is an easy task to make note of unusual trees growing at various places over a wide area, but with specimen trees in one particular place and others several miles distant, it is rather difficult to make direct comparisons. For the purposes of this Bulletin it has been considered advisable to publish the list of those species and varieties with narrow erect crowns actually growing in the Arboretum, for this hst alone is sufficiently large to be impressive. The Arboretum will be glad to know of other forms and will appreciate receiving information and photographs of other unusual varieties representing these unusual growth forms so that a fairly comprehensive list with accurate notations can be assembled. Unfortunately, there is not a sufficient demand on the part of the public to make it profitable for nurserymen to grow these plants in large numbers ; that is why some are almost unobtainable in the trade. All the trees in the list are not of outstanding value. Some are far superior to others, as for instance the upright form of the European THE Lombardy poplar plantsmen general, in 63 beech which is a distinctly more valued ornamental than is the upright form of the American linden. There are interesting stories connected with the origin of many of these special forms. The beech came from the Scottish estate of F.R.S. Balfour; the Norway maple originated in Rochester, New York, and is now being propagated there for use as a street tree. The sentry maple (Acer saccharum monumentale) came from a Boston suburb over fifty years ago. The others originated in widely separated parts of this country and Europe. Each plant has its own peculiarity. Acer saccharum monumentale is a very narrow and upright tree, while A.rubrum columnare has a considerably wider crown, although it can be classed as upright. Then, too, these trees vary m their growth rate. The sugar maples are slow in growth, the red maple a little faster, and the poplars, of course, are the fastest. Some, like the hornbeams make splendid lawn specimens, but the maples soon outgrow their usefulness unless the lawn is very large. Because of their clearly defined shape, all might be considered as possibilities for use in formal plantings. Unfortunately, the nomenclature is somewhat confused, and as a result we have receiB ed duplicate plants under several different names, time and time again. The following plants now growing m the Arboretum are listed according to their accepted scientific names : Narrow upright trees in the Arnold Arboretum - Abies alba Acer Acer Acer rubium columnare Acer saccharinum pyramidale Acer saccharum monumentale pyramidalis ( A. pectinafa pyramidalis) platanoides columnare platanoides erectum . ( A. saccharum columnare, A.saccharum pyramidale) Aesculus Hippocastanum pyramidalis Betula pendula fastigiata ( Betula alba fastigiata) Carpmus Betulus fastigiata ( Carpi nus Betulus pyramidalis) Crataegus monogyna stricta (C.oxyacantha stricta) Crataegus Phaenopyrum fastigiata Fagus sylvatica fastigiata ( F.sylvatica Daxcyckii) Ginkgo biloba fastigiata Juniperus Juniperus Juniperus chinensis communis mas communis hibernica suecica 64 PLATE XII Acer sarrharum monumentale, sentry maple Juniperus virginiana fastigiata Juniperus virginiana pyramidalis Linodendron Tulipifera pyramidale (L.Tulipifera fasiigiatum) Morus alba pyramidalis ( M. alba fastigiata J Picea Engelmanm fastigiata Pinus cembra Pinus Strobus fastigiata Pinus sylvestris fastigiata Populus alba pyramidalis (P.alba Bolleana) Populus nigra italica Populus nigra plantierensis Populus nigra thevestina Populus Simonii fastigiata Quercus robur fastigiata Robinia Pseudoacacia erecta Taxus media Hicksii ( T.cuspidata Hick.rii) Thuja oecidentahs Douglasn pyramidalis Tilia americana columnaris (T.glabra columnaris) Tilia platyphyllos fastigiata (T.platyphyllos pyramidalis) Ulmus americana ascendens Ulmus americana columnaris Ulmus americana 'Moline Elm\" Ulmus carpimfoha cornubiensis (U.foliacea stricta) Ulmus carpinifolia Dampieri( U.foliacea Dampieri) Ulmus carpinifolia sarinensis (U.foliacea Wliealleyi) Ulmus glabra exomensis ( U.monlana fastigiata) Ulmus hollandica Klemmer\" DONALD WYMAN Large seed collection imported by Arboretum during summer In February 1937, the Arnold Arboretum made a small grant to the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Peipmg, China, to help finance a horticultural-botanical expedition to Yunnan Province. This expedition was in part supported by a grant from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. The fieldwork was done by Mr. Te-Tsun Yu, the results, as to quantity and quality of the material secured, being surprisingly good. The Arnold Arboretum's share of the seeds collected approximate 2000 numbers. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, received a similar shipment, as the seeds secured under each number were divided between the two institutions. Sir William Wright Smith, Director of the Edinburgh institution, states that he doubts whether 66 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Large Seed Collection Imported by Arboretum During Summer","article_sequence":13,"start_page":66,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24053","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14e896a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Juniperus virginiana fastigiata Juniperus virginiana pyramidalis Linodendron Tulipifera pyramidale (L.Tulipifera fasiigiatum) Morus alba pyramidalis ( M. alba fastigiata J Picea Engelmanm fastigiata Pinus cembra Pinus Strobus fastigiata Pinus sylvestris fastigiata Populus alba pyramidalis (P.alba Bolleana) Populus nigra italica Populus nigra plantierensis Populus nigra thevestina Populus Simonii fastigiata Quercus robur fastigiata Robinia Pseudoacacia erecta Taxus media Hicksii ( T.cuspidata Hick.rii) Thuja oecidentahs Douglasn pyramidalis Tilia americana columnaris (T.glabra columnaris) Tilia platyphyllos fastigiata (T.platyphyllos pyramidalis) Ulmus americana ascendens Ulmus americana columnaris Ulmus americana 'Moline Elm\" Ulmus carpimfoha cornubiensis (U.foliacea stricta) Ulmus carpinifolia Dampieri( U.foliacea Dampieri) Ulmus carpinifolia sarinensis (U.foliacea Wliealleyi) Ulmus glabra exomensis ( U.monlana fastigiata) Ulmus hollandica Klemmer\" DONALD WYMAN Large seed collection imported by Arboretum during summer In February 1937, the Arnold Arboretum made a small grant to the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Peipmg, China, to help finance a horticultural-botanical expedition to Yunnan Province. This expedition was in part supported by a grant from the Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. The fieldwork was done by Mr. Te-Tsun Yu, the results, as to quantity and quality of the material secured, being surprisingly good. The Arnold Arboretum's share of the seeds collected approximate 2000 numbers. The Royal Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, received a similar shipment, as the seeds secured under each number were divided between the two institutions. Sir William Wright Smith, Director of the Edinburgh institution, states that he doubts whether 66 PLATE XIII Acer rubrnm columnare any similar collections so ample in quantity and of such fine quality have ever been secured before in China by any single expedition. As far as the Arnold Arboretum is concerned, it is fullyrealized that none of the species represented in this enormous Yunnan collection will withstand the rigors of the Boston climate. The institution, however, has from the beginning of its career sponsored the introduction of exotic species into the United States, and has given its introduction wide distribution. In accordance with this principle, this great Yunnan seed collection has been divided into sets, approximating 12,000 seed packets. These have been distributed to strategically located institutions in the United States, Great Britain, Belgium, France, Germany and Italy; institutions so situated that it is hoped that these Yunnan species, once established within their grounds, may thrive. Excess stock in very considerable quantities has been turned over to the Seed and Plant Introduction Division of the United States Department of Agriculture, and herbaceous material to the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, for distribution to its membership. The nine large parcel post packages containing these seeds were forwarded to the Arnold Arboretum in three separate shipments from Yunnan-sen. A set of corresponding botanical specimens has also been received. This is an excellent example of cooperative fieldwork that has recently been developed at the Arnold Arboretum, whereby from unrestricted special funds received from its friends and supporters small grants are made to strategically located institutions and individuals to cover the actual cost of field work. Thus for less than it would have cost the Arnold Arboretum to send a staff member half way around the world, proB ide for his salary, travel and field expenses, it has been possible to finance, in the past two years, through these small grants. about twenty-five parties for work in China, Japan, India, Burma, the Malay Peninsula, Java, the Philippines, New Guinea, Colombia, British Columbia, Brazil, Mexico, Argentina, North Carolina, Louisiana, Washington, and Oregon. In some countries grants haBebeen made to several different institutions. The amount of material now being received will tax the efforts of the limited staff of the Arnold Arboretum to the utmost, to give it proper attention, to complete the necessary identifications, and to publish the results. The essential reference collections of the Arnold Arboretum are being rapidly increased with a great quantity of most desirable material, and at a remarkably low cost. (58 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Notes","article_sequence":14,"start_page":69,"end_page":69,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24057","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15eaf6e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"Notes September period of 40 years to the Arnold Arboretum, to horticulture, dendrology, systematic botany and botanical bibliography, the staff tendered a dinner to him and to Mrs. Rehder on the evening of September first. This was attended by thirtj-one individuals. During the course of the dinner, Professor Rehder was presented with a substantial purse provided by members of the committee appointed by the Corporation of Harvard University to visit the Arnold Arboretum, and his associates. It is worthy of note that Professor Rehder's original appointment on the staff of the Arboretum in 1898 was at the rate of $ 1.00 per day as what was then called a \"working student'', and his first task was to eliminate the weeds in the then newly established shrub collection by the vigorous use of a hoe. One unique feature of the dinner was the table decorations were all sprays of plants actually named on Professor Alfred Rehder celebrated his 7.5th birthday 4, 1938. In appreciation of his conspicuous services over a and described by Professor Rehder. At the opening ceremony of the fifteenth International Geographical Congress, Amsterdam, July 18, 1938, Dr. E.D. Merrill, Director of the Arnold Arboretum, was elected an honorary member of the Royal Dutch Geographical Society for his investigations in plant geography. The other American scientist so honored was Dr.C.O.Sauer, Professor of Geography, University of California. 69 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Preliminary Report on the Storm Damage to the Arboretum on September twenty-first","article_sequence":15,"start_page":70,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24060","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15ebb26.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Merrill, E. D.","article_content":"Preliminary report on the storm damage to the Arboretum September twenty-first on In the late afternoon and early evening of September twenty-first, the Boston area experienced its worst wind storm since weather records have been maintained. This was a West Indian hurricane that proceded northward along the New England coast. The rainfall was relatively slight in Boston, but the wind velocities at times reached approximately (87 miles actually reported) 90 miles per hour. The undersigned spent twenty-two years in the Philippines, a region noted for its numerous destructive typhoons, yet in this entire period he actually experienced higher wind velocities only two or three times. Naturally tremendous property damage resulted, and literally hundreds of thousands of trees were uprooted or so badly damaged that they will have to be removed and replaced. The Arboretum suffered severely. The storm was intense at 5 :00 p.m. and gradually increased in violence. The worst damage was done in the Arboretum between about 5 :30 p.m. and b' :30 p.m. A tour of the grounds at 5 :30 p.m. revealed relatively slight damage; for example there were only three or four trees in the extensive pine grove back of the Administration Building that were down or showed signs of weakening at that time ; an hour later nearly all the trees in the entire planting were prostrate. The sound of rustling leaB es,breaking branches, and creaking trunks was at times almost deafening. The worst of the storm was over by 8 :00 p.m. A hurried survey made early the next morning shows that approximately 1500 trees were either uprooted, broken off, or their tops so badly damaged that they will have to be removed. Many others were injured, but can be saved by judicious pruning. The losses include some of the oldest and largest trees in the Arboretum, as well as some of the rarest ones. Some of the roads were impassable, and all paths and roads were strewn with debris, broken branches, and fallen trunks. Damage was particularly serious in certain exposed areas, notably on the slopes back of the Administration Building, on the southeast or exposed side of hemlock hill, where scores of century old native hemlocks fell, in the southern part of the pinetum, where many of the largest pines, firs, and spruces are prostrate, and along the southeast side of the Peters hill area, particularly in the collections of poplars and oaks. This is the greatest single catastrophe that has happened to the plantings in the Arboretum since its establishment in 1872. It will take many years to repair the damage, for in many cases old mature trees must be replaced by young ones. It is planned to publish a more comprehensive report on the storm damage at a later date. E.D. MERRILL 70 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hurricane Damage at the Arboretum","article_sequence":16,"start_page":71,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24050","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14e8125.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI OCTOBER 7, 1938 NUMBER 12 HURRICANE DAMAGE AT THE ARBORETUM falling rather consistently for four days when on September large areas in New England, the downpour assumed the proportions ofa deluge. Rivers in western Massachusetts were at flood stage, and everywhere the ground was soggy from excessive rain. By late afternoon the rain slackened and the wind increased to a gale. At 4:50 p.m. when the lights went out in the Administration Building staff members expected a \"blow\",but certainly did not anticipate the hurricane which caused frightful damage throughout New England. The Arboretum lost approximately 1500 trees, and a recent newspaper estimate of the number of trees lost in Massachusetts-only one of the New England states touched by the storm-reached the appalling figure of 100,000,000. There is no way of checking such an estimate, but with definite information concerning the number of trees destroyed ina few Boston suburbs, this figure seems possible. This ruinous hurricane originated in the Caribbean Sea, a veritable hotbed for such storms. Ordinarily, such a malignant manifestation of Nature's power spends itself before reaching the North Atlantic States or else passes out to sea. For some reason, this particular storm chose to follow an unusual course. The U. S. Weather Bureau first reported it a few hundred miles northeast of Puerto RAIN twenty-first, -t- had been over Rico. At that time it was moving at the rate of about 17miles an hour in the direction of the Bahamas and Florida where preparations were being made for its arrival. Strangely enough, it did not touch Florida, but took an unexpected turn to the northeast, aiming its fury at some point off'the Carolina coast. On Wednesday morning the storm was charted off Cape Hatteras, and meteorologists believed that it would continue its curve out to sea where it would spend itself harmlessly as most hurricanes fortunately do. Instead the storm changed its course a second time, and with increasing velocity headed directly up the Atlantic coast. This second turn might have been reported except for one ironic fact. Governmental agencies had done a thorough piece of work in sending out warnings to ships so that there was no vessel in its path to report this most recent 71 deviation from the storm's expected course. All ships had either sailed far out to sea or else stayed in port. Consequently when the storm travelling at the rate of 60 miles an hour, struck the coast off Atlantic City, no ships were in its path to report the change of direction. The Blue Hills Observatory of Harvard University is approximately 5$ miles south of the Arboretum. Because of its situation on a high hill, gusts of wind were measured at the observatory during the height of the storm blowing in excess of 150 miles an hour. Wind velocities of 111miles an hour were measured there in three five-minute periods, 6 :05 p.m., 6:20 p.m., and 7:12 p.m. The wind averaged above 60 miles an hour shortly after 4 :00 p.m. and remained above that figure until 7 :-15 p.m. The official high for wind velocity in the Boston area during this storm was given by the U. S. Weather Bureau as 87 miles an hour at 5:23 p.m. The much higher figures at the Blue Hills Observatory were due apparently to the Hill's so obstructing the free flow of wind that it has to flow over the top at a higher rate.\" It is safe to assume that wind velocities probably in excess of 100 miles an hour were experienced in certain exposed portions of the Arboretum. Hemlock Hill in the Arboretum is one of the higher points between Boston and the Blue Hills. With wind velocities at times approximating 125 miles an hour it is understandable that great damage was done to the particular plantings on the southern or exposed side and top of that hill. To the older friends of the Arboretum, this damage will seem the most serious. Part of the old stand of native hemlock is absolutely flattened, the trees now forming a mass of broken timber that will take months to clean away. Fortunately, most of the hemlocks on the lee side of the hill are still standing, particularly those at the rear of the rhododendron collection, so that they will still form a good background for the ericaceous plants when the latter are in bloom. The beautiful collection of evergreen trees and some of the magnolias at the rear of the Administration Building are almost complete wrecks. The older poplar collection, between Peter's Hill and the railroad has been practically leveled, and the charming plantation of red and white pine on the southeast slope of Bussey Hill is a mass of fallen timber. Several hundred-year old specimen trees crashed to the ground during the height of the storm, but fortunately there is still a bright side to all this devastation. By actual count, there are only a dozen plants which have been uprooted that are not duplicated elsewhere in the collections. Most of our highly prized specimen trees are still in perfect condition. Of approximately 1500 trees blown down or very badly wrecked, a few have been pulled back into position, since it was usually the larger trees which were blown over. By far the majonty of injured or destroyed trees were native in the Arboretum, trees which added materially to the natural beauty of the plantings, but which were not prominent m the collections. Many of the trees which blew over would probably have remained firmly in the ground if it had not been for the heavy rains preceding the storm, but m such a case, breakage might have been greater. 72 PLATE XIV Views of hurricane damage in Arboretum 1938 3. At a. rear rear At 1. The old poplar collection. 2. In the conifer collection. 5. Remains of a stately pine. of Administration Building. 4. Hemlock Hill. of Administration Building. 7. A fallen pin oak. 8. A century old tulip poplar. Approximate numbers of trees lost. oaks, etc. on Hemlock Hill ...............400 Hemlocks, 200 Pines, poplars, magnolias, etc. at rear of Administration Building .... Conifers in conifer collection .................... 130 Red and white pines between the Overlook and South Street ...... 100 60 Poplars and oaks on Peter's Hill 200 Miscellaneous trees on Peter's Hill Pyrus, Malus, etc. at Forest Hills gate ............... 50 ........... 350 Miscellaneous trees elsewhere in the Arboretum This was not Boston's first hurricane. The last one occurred 123 years ago on September 23, 1815* and from various newspaper reports at the time was almost as devastating as the recent one. Many Boston buildings were \"unroofed\" or \"unslated\", and the Common suffered almost as much as it did this time. Twenty trees on the Common were \"torn up by the roots and prostrated\" carrying fences with them. Five thousand fruit and forest trees in Dorchester alone were ruined. As with the present hurricane, the damage in and around Boston was nothing compared to what it was in Providence where $5,000,000 worth of damage was done, which in those days represented very much higher values. The Arboretum has suffered and suffered badly. It will take months to clear away the wreckage, and many years to grow plants to take the places of the mature ones lost. Nevertheless, the damage might have been much worse. After all, striking damage is limited to a few exposed areas. Individuals intimately acquainted with the Arboretum plantings will note trees lacking here and there in the grounds. Those who occasionally visit the institution, after the winter cleanup is completed will notice few changes. The conspicuously beautiful landscape features for the most part remain essentially unchanged. The Arboretum staff is industriously engaged in a general rehabilitation plan, and work will be continued throughout the winter. The extra expense involved has been covered by an authorized withdrawal of funds from the institution's fortunately good credit balance. It is, however, practically impossible for us to continue the normal seasonal work of planting, pruning, fertilizing, etc. when we are faced with the immediate problem of removing the remains of between 1400 and 1500 trees. .................. ................. Notes By the will of the late Miss Grace M. Edwards of Beacon Street, Boston, $25,000 was bequeathed the President and Fellows of Harvard University for the benefit of the Arnold Arboretum, this sum to be added to its endowment. Home owners who have suffered the loss of trees due to the recent hurricane claim such losses in their next income tax returns, according to expert legal advice on the subject. Although many an old specimen tree that fell during the storm is irreplaceable in dollars and cents, nevertheless the claiming of such a loss in the next income tax report might help compensate in a very small way. DONALD WBMAN can *Farrar, John. An account of a violent storm of the 23d of September, Acad. of Arts $ Sciences (First Series) Vol. IV; 92, 1818. 1815. American 74 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Dutch Elm Disease Situation in the United States at the Close of 1938","article_sequence":17,"start_page":75,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24062","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15e816a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Faull, J. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI OCTOBER 14, 1938 NUMBER 13 THE DUTCH ELM DISEASE SITUATION IN THE UNITED STATES AT THE CLOSE OF 1938 discovery of the Dutch elm disease in the United States in 1929, infected spots have been found in Ohio, Indiana, Maryland, Virginia, Pennsylvania and eastern Connecticut, and a large infected area 50 to 60 miles in radius out from and including New York City. Eradication of the disease has been accomplished or is proceeding satisfactorily in all except the New York area. There the work is dragging. This is disturbing, because on the outcome of that part of the undertaking depends the future of America's elms. In order to get an independent, close-up view of the situation a visit was made to the New York area, September 15-17, 1938, by myself and Dr.J.S.Boyce, Professor of Forest Pathology, Yale University. We examined the maps and records of the Dutch Elm Disease Eradication Offices, interviewed Federal and State officials in charge and looked over a few critical parts of the field. Important findings are summarized below. SINCE the small \" I. Present status of the Dutch Elm Disease in Connecticut, New York and New Jersey. In the southwestern part of CONNECTICUT where the disease has been severe, there now appears to be some reduction as a result of intensive eradication and sanitation. Elsewhere there is no significant extension; but there are new scattered cases, in many instances miles removed from one another. The explanation of these cases is not clear, but they may be accounted for in part by the chance flight of Scolytus beetles, and in part by the local transfer of affected elm wood. It would seem that State restrictions governing the maintenance of wood piles containing elm logs and the transportation of unpeeled elm wood could be improved ; or existing restrictions more rigorously enforced. It is incongruous that we should exclude foreign wood for fear of infection and, at the same time, not restrict local transportation. In a considerable part of the infected region in NEW YORK STATE outstanding progress has been made in the eradication of the Dutch elm disease. 75 . applies particularly to Westchester County and the area to the south. For example, in Greater New York City, where there were 1264 cases in 1933-84, only 55 cases were found in 1938. There was a reduction of more than 25% in the area from White Plains southward in 1937, and there will be a further drop of about 35% in 1938 as compared with 1937. The success in New York State is in part explained by the efficient cooperation extended by the State. Thus, the State scouts give a normal week's work; the personnel is fairly continuous from This year to year; each group of scouts operates in its own district year after year; these scouts have become fully acquainted with the sections in which they work ; moreover, they are picked men. One disturbing feature in New York State is the discovery during the past summer of the disease in Dutchess County. This will mean an extension of effort but probably not to such an extent as to threaten the success of the eradication program. There has been no significant spread of the disease in NEW JERSEY in as compared with 1937. Control of further spread in New Jersey will be facilitated by the fact that the infected area is now bounded by natural barriers. In some parts there has been a considerable reduction in the amount of the disease as a result of eradication and sanitation. The large increase reported for New Jersey this year is related to silvicide operations. In certain regions half a million elms were recently killed by a silvicide process applied for the purpose of eliminating areas in which scouting is difficult and the elms of little Balue. The t resulting dead trees have unexpectedly served as breeding places for Seolytus. It is around these areas that the increase in the disease has occurred. For example, adjacent to a silvicide area in the town of Clinton the number of diseased elms this year is 225 as compared with 4 in 1937; in Montgomery, 75 as compared with one in 1937 ; in Hopewell to Hillsborough, 2160 as compared with 28 in 1937. These occurrences, while distressing, are probably not alarming. The silvicide areas will now be out of the picture. The further breeding of Seolytus in them will cease. The number of affected elms adjacent to them will drop off sharply. 1938 II. Disabilities that should be removed. 1. Funds have not been available early enough in the year nor with sufficient systematic scouting was not possible before July 9. June is the best month for scouting and it should be begun in the latter part of May. 2. As a result of irregularity and uncertainty with respect to the availability of funds,the field forces have again and again been demoralized at critical periods. 3. The quality of the field forces,welfare recipients, has been distinctly inferior for scouting purposes. This applies to a considerable proportion of the foremen and a large percentage of the men under them. 4. Under the present system the scouting forces have had to be continually reorganized ; hence much effort has been sacrificed because of the loss of experienced men and the necessity of giving time during the season to instruction of continuity. The result this year has been that their replacements. 76] PLATE XV A stately American elm. improves the quality of available men drawn from welfare and assigned to the eradication project has been and will be continuagencies ously on the down grade. 6. Under the present set-up there are complications with respect to the transfer of men from one town to another. In other words, it is sometimes impossible either to secure or place men where they are needed. 7. The work hours are too short at present; men on welfare are working about 113 hours a month instead of about the 190 hours which would prevail under normal conditions of employment. 8. Most of the men now employed are city men. They generally dislike the work and many of them are afraid and helpless in wooded tracts. 9. Many estate owners have become disgusted with the kind of men that are being sent in to scout and work on their properties and do not want them on their grounds. 10. These disabilities react on the spirit of the responsible officers and, in consequence, they feel that, if continued, the possibility of eradication is threatened or at least indefinitely postponed. 5. As business III. Comments. 1. Scouting should be organized and carried on without relation to welfare work. 2. The employment of W.P.A. workers should be restricted mainly to the sanitation part of the program. 3. Special attention should be given to the outer limits of the Dutch elm disease area in the states of New York and Connecticut so as to prevent the spread of the disease into contiguous regions in which the elm population is dense and important. A much further spread will spell doom to America's elms. 4. In formulating the program for 1939, the damage done to elms within the infected areas by the hurricane of September 21 will have to be taken into consideration. As a result of the fear aroused by the Dutch elm disease situation in America, some people have come to question the advisability of planting elms. The answer, especially for the eastern part of the country, is reached through an appraisal of the prospect that the disease will be eliminated. In my judgment we can safely continue to plant elms. It is unthinkable, in view of the demonstrated possibilities of success in eraducation, that the American people will abandon efforts to save one of the finest gifts of Nature. Given the opportunity, I still think we can preserve our elms. But provision for that opportunity rests immediately on Federal and State governments, and primarily on the insistence brought to bear by the public on those who represent them in those governments. The cost to try to save our elms is relatively small. On the other hand, if we let them go, the costs will be greater to this generation, and a noble heritage will no longer be ours to pass on to or spoken succeeding generations. Everyone can help at the moment by urgent written words, and now is the critical time for action. J. H. FAULL 78 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Hedge Demonstration Plot at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":18,"start_page":79,"end_page":86,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24063","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d15e856b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY At BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. VI DECEMBER 2, 1938 NUMBER 14 THE HEDGE DEMONSTRATION PLOT AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM THE fall of 1936 an extensive plot of experimental hedges was at the Arboretum. Because of the necessary formality of the planting, it was not laid out near any of the lovely informal plantings so enjoyed by the public. Instead it was set off from the rest of the Arboretum on ground formerly belonging to the Bussey Institution. At present there are 112 different kinds of hedges, and two more will be added next spring. In a new book just published* (Hedges, Screens, and Windbreaks, their uses, selection, and care), 250 plants are listed as suitable for different types of hedges. Not all are perfectly adaptable to this use, but a large number of them are. It is of considerable value to study such a large number of hedges when they are growing within close proximity under the same general conditions. The foliage of certain ones is rather coarse in texture; while the foliage of others is comparatively fine. Some grow vigorously and should be used only for tall hedges and screens, while others can be easily restrained to form excellent low and even dwarf hedges. The oldest hedge experiments in the western hemisphere are those at the Dominion Experimental Farm, Ottawa, Canada, where some of the plantings are over fifty years old. In the United States, the Morton Arboretum and Cornell University have the only other extensive experimental plots. Fortunately, some of the state experiment stations have realized the value of hedge demonstrations and some have already planted a number of excellent hedges. IN planted *Wyman, Donald, Hedges, care. screens and windbreaks; their New York; Lond. 1938. 8. pp. uses, selection and xviii, 249. Map plates. (McGraw-Hill Book Co.) 79 Each hedge at the Arnold Arboretum is 25 feet long. They are arranged in a semi-circular plot of ground in front of the old Bussey Building with sufficient distance between each hedge to allow ample room for growth. The taller growing hedges have been given more space than the lower growing ones. Many other shrubs might also have been included in this planting, but because of insufficient land available for this purpose they have been omitted. In a few places two hedges have been planted in the same twenty-five-foot row. For instance, the red-leaved Japanese barberry is similar to the typical form of that species in every respect but the color of the foliage. Consequently 12^ feet of one hedge is made up of Japanese barberry, and the other 12^ feet made up of its red-leaved variety. In the fall of 1936, when these hedges were planted, most of the deciduous plants were approximately 3 feet high. The evergreens were even smaller. Plants of this size are much easier to transplant than larger ones, and what is even more important, young plants are easily trained intoa dense, bushy habit. In the taller growing hedges only seven plants of each variety were used ; in the lower growing ones ten plants were used. All the deciduous plants were cut down to about six inches from the ground as soon as they were transplanted. This is necessary in any young hedge to force the plants to develop a bushy habit and to branch from the base. No pruning was given these hedges during the first year of growth. In the second year all the hedges were carefully inspected and the over-vigorous shoots were cut back, while a small amount of pinching was done on the sides to give the plants a uniform appearance. During the growing season of 1939, many of these hedges will require regular pruning, but for the first few years the object is to keep all hedges as small as possible in order to promote dense, bushy growth from the base. The evergreen shrubs have not been cut to the ground after planting, but have been inspected several times and occasionally clipped in order to promote a dense growth. Evergreen hedges, being slower growing than deciduous hedges, are considerably more easily cared for, but with both it is equally important to take every opportunity in promoting a dense habit of growth from the beginning. All the plants (except a few rare ones grown on our grounds) have been given to the Arnold Arboretum for the purpose of growing in a hedge demonstration plot. The following nurseries have very generously contributed this material. Wyman's Framingham Nurseries, Framingham, Mass. Bay State Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. Kelsey-Highlands Nursery, E. Boxford, Mass. Princeton Nurseries, Princeton, N.J. 80 Henry Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio Cole Nursery Company, Painesville, Ohio Cherry Hill Nurseries, West Newbury, Mass. Littlefield-Wyman Nurseries, North Abington, Mass. The Arboretum takes this opportunity of publicly expressing its appreciation of these gifts. It would have required manyyears and considerable trouble to propagate and grow these many plants. The rendered this experimental plot usegenerous gift of this material ful to the public, to nurserymen, and landscape architects in a comparatively short time. has Notes The Arboretum has done a great deal of hybridizing during the past spring and summer. Approximately 20,000 hand pollinations have been made. These have been distributed among 23 genera in- cluding Magnolia, Malus, Prunus, Rhododendron, Viburnum, Salix, Fraxinus, Betula, Pinus, Picea, Abies, and several others. Although it is one thing to poll mate flowers and another to collect the ripened fruit, nevertheless, inspite of hungry birds and the hurricane, quite a few were collected. In addition, a large number of open pollinated seeds were collected from trees and shrubs of particular ornamental value. This work is under the general supervision of Dr. Karl Sax of the Arnold Arboretum. A good proportion of the seed collected this fall will be germinated and later grown in the nurseries where it will be carefully watched and variations in the plants observed and noted. An increased amount of available nursery space will insure Its being carried on for a number of years. With approximately 7000 species and varieties of ornamental woody plants growing on its 265 acres, the Arnold Arboretum is unusually well equipped to carry out such a breeding program. It is particularly pleasing to acknowledge the hundreds of letters which have poured in from all over the country offering assistance or gifts of plants to replace those lost in the Arboretum during the hurricane of September twenty-first. These letters have come from private individuals, institutions, and many nurserymen who have generously offered plants of our own choice. The staff of the Arboretum appreciates the courtesy and interest shown by these people. The work of cleaning the wreckage in the Arboretum is progressing as rapidly as can be expected under the circumstances. There is a certain amount of routine fall work which cannot be neglected Those areas in which the damage is the most conspicuous from the roads are bemg cleared as fast as possible. The tedious, time-consuming task of pruning broken branches from otherwise uninjured trees will probably not be started until late in the winter. However, much progress has already been made, and with some assistance from outside the hurricane area we hope to make a splendid showing by spring. DONALD WB MAN 81 PLATE XV HEDGE DEMONSTRATION PLOT Arnold Arboretum November, 1938 Deciduous Acanthopanax Sieboldianus Acer campestre \" Ginnala \" Fiveleaf Aralia platanoides \" Berberis mentorensis Thunbergii 66 \" atropurpurea \" \" \" \" \" tt . . erecta minor vulgaris it \" atropurpurea Betula \" popuhfolia frutex Betulus caroliniana Hedge Maple Amur Maple Norway Maple Mentor Barberry Japanese Barberry Red-leaved Japanese Barberry Truehedge Columnberry Box Barberry European Barberry Purple Barberry Gray Birch Siberian Pea-tree Russian Pea-shrub Caragana arborescens Carpinus \" Cercidiphyllum japonicum Chaenomeles lagenaria Clethra alnifolia Cornus mas \" European Hornbeam American Hornbeam Katsura-tree Flowering Quince Summersweet racemosa Crataegus crus-galli \" monogyna phaenopyrum gracilis Elaeagnus angustifolia Deutzia \" \" Cornelian-cherry Gray Dogwood Cockspur Thorn English Hawthorn Washington Hawthorn Slender Deutzia Russian-olive Autumn Elaeagnus Dwarf Winged Evonymus American Beech European Beech Border Forsythia umbellata Evonymus alata compacta Fagus grandifolia sylvatica Forsythia intermedia Ginkgo biloba fastigiata \" Gleditsia triacanthos Hippophae rhamnoides Hypericum densiflorum Upright Ginkgo Common Honeylocust Common Sea-buckthorn 84 Ligustrum \" amurense \" \" \" ibolium obtusifolium ovalifolium Regelianum vulgare tatarica Lonicera fragrantissima Korolkowii floribunda \" \" Amur Privet Ibolium Privet Regel Privet California Privet European Privet Winter Honeysuckle Broad Blueleaf Honeysuckle Tatarian Honeysuckle pomifera Philadelphus coronarius \" 11 n Maclura Osage-orange ., pumilus Sweet Mockorange Dwarf Sweet Mockorange Ninebark London Planetree Bolleana Poplar Physocarpus opulifolius Platanus acerifolia Populus alba pyramidalis nigra italica `< Prinsepia \" sinensis uniflora Prunus tomentosa Quercus imbnearia \" \" Lombardy Poplar Cherry Prinsepia White Prinsepia Nanking Cherry Shingle Oak Pin Oak palustris robur fastigiata Frangula alpinum .. Pyramidal English Oak Rhamnus cathartica \" Glossy Ribes Rosa rugosa 11 \" Common Buckthorn Buckthorn Mountain Currant Rugosa Rose . virginiana Salix 6 6 Virginia Rose Laurel Willow Purple Osier pentandra purpurea Spiraea nipponica prumfoha Thunbergii \" \" Nippon Spirea Bridal wreath Thunberg Spirea Vanhouttei Symphoricarpus albus Syringa chinensis \" Josikaea \" \" laevigatus vulgaris Tamarix pentandra Tilia cordata Ulmus pumila Viburnum dentatum \" Lantana Viburnum Opulus nanum \" Vanhoutte Spirea Common Snowberry Chinese Lilac Hungarian Lilac Common Lilac Fivestamen Tamarix Littleleaf European Linden Dwarf Asiatic Elm Arrowwood . Wayfaring-tree Dwarf Cranberrybush Blackhaw pruntfolium 85 Evergreen Abies concolor 44 Fraseri Buxus microphylla koreana 11 66 White Fir Fraser Fir Korean Box Thread Retinospora Plume Retinospora Moss Retinospora Common Juniper Redcedar hybrid a Chamaecyparis pisifera filifera 66 << it plumosa , a squarrosa Juniperus 66 communis virginiana Picea Abies 66 Omorika 66 orientalis 66 pungens glauca Norway Spruce Serbian Spruce Oriental Spruce Blue Colorado Spruce Swiss Mountain Pine Pinus Mugo mughus nigra Strobus Mugho Pine Austrian Pine White Pine \" sylvestris Pseudotsuga taxifolia Taxus canadensis stricta 66 \" Scotch Pine cuspidata \" Douglas-fir Dwarf Hedge Yew Japanese Yew \" capitata t( nana nana media ., \"3#fCx& ; \" (hedge form) Hicksii Hicks Yew Hatfield Yew American Arborvitae American Globe Arborvitae Little Gem Arborvitae Ware's Arborvitae \" \" Hatfieldii \" \" \" Thuja occidentalis \" \" \" \" \" \" \" globosa \"Little Gem\" robusta \" \" spiralis Wagneriana Woodwardii Woodward Arborvitae Giant Arborvitae Canada Hemlock Carolina Hemlock \" plica ta caroliniana Tsuga canadensis 44 86 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume VI","article_sequence":19,"start_page":87,"end_page":90,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24052","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14e8928.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 4 VOLUME VI in bold face Synonyms Acer - are in italic; illustrations type. Buergerianum, 32 32 32 -, Maria Moors Cabot FoundaNew detail maps Plants new - palmatum, multifidum, rubrum, - tion for Botanical -, Research, 52 of, 23-26, 6 56 2014 , columnare, 64, to the Plate XIII, 67 2014 saccharum collections, -, 55 monumentale,64 6.5 Proposed innovations of, 56, Plate XII, 50 57 Albizzia, 18 Alternate bearing of crabapples, Alternate bearing of lilacs, 20 Amelanchier, Bartramiana, - 15 5 46 Arnold Arboretum, Airplane view of Plate IV, 25 2014 , Public relations, 51, 52 2014 , Publications of, 53,54 Special grants, 52,53 Bartram, John, 46 Beadle,C.D., 7 Beech, 16 Berberis Thunbergii, 16,44 \"Bon-sai,\" the art of trainmg dwarf trees, 32,34 -, Butler Estate, 52 2014 , Cooperative botanicalhorticultural exploration, -, Current activities of interest, 51-57 54 Broom, 59-62 -, Dwarf, 62 Buddle, Adam (Rev.), 50 general -, Hedge plantings, 55,56 Plate XVI, 82,83 Herbarium exchanges, 54 Larz Anderson collection of 2014 , Buddleia Davidii, 50 Calluna vulgaris, 2 Carles, William Richard, 44 Centaurea cyanus, 2 Chamaecyparis obtusa, - 32 Japanese dwarf trees,31-41, 56 pisifera squarrosa, 32 \"Cherries, The Oriental 27 28 VI, 33 VII, 35 VIII, 37 -, Lantern slides and moving pictures in natural color, 56 -, Library of, 54,55 Plate Plate Plate Flowering\", 27 \"Cherries of Japan\", Cherry, Amanogawa, 2014 , Arike, 28 2014 , Banriko, 28 2014 , Botan-zakura, 30 87 -, Collection 19 at Washington, 2014 purpureus, 62 D.C., -, - A fragrant double flowering Japanese 2014 2014 V, 29 Gozanoma-nioi, 27 2014 , 2014 , Habutai, 27 2014 , Higurashi, 30 2014 , Hitoye-zakura, 28 2014 , Hosokawa, 28 2014 , Ise-zakura, 30 2014 , Jo-nioi, 28 2014 , Kirigaya, 28 2014 , Kunrinjo-shirotae, 28 2014 , Mina-kami, 28 -, Miyako, 28 2014 , Oshima, 27 2014 , Senriko, 28 2014 , Shirotae, 28 2014 , Sumizome, 28 2014 , Suragadai-nioi, 28 2014 , Takasago, 30 2014 , Taki-nioi, 27 2014 , Washino-o, 28 2014 , Yae-akebono, 30 2014 , Yaye-oshima, 28 2014 , Yoshino, 30 Chrysanthemum frutescens, Cornus florida, 22 Crabapple, 15,16,18 -, Plate - - albus, 62 ratisbonensis, 62 scoparius, 59,60 albus, 60 Andreanus, 60 59-62 - pendulus, 60 Cytisus for New England, Daphne Mezereum, 6 - , ' David, Armand (Pere), 49,50 Davidia involucrata, 49 Deutz, Johann van der, 48 Deutzia, 48 Lemoinei, 48 Sieboldiana, 48 Diervilla, 48 Dierville,a French surgeon, 48 Douglas, David, (Dr.), 50 Durazzini, Antonio (Dr.), 50 Dutch elm disease, Comments - 8 on, 78 - in Connecticut, New York and New status 2014 , Jersey, Present of, 75,76 Disabilities that should be situation in the United States removed, 77,78 - 2 the close of 1938, 75-78 Dwarf trees, Bibliography of, at 40,41 -, Alternate bearing, 18 Crayton, Frank M., 7 Pruning, repotting, and watering of, 36,38 2014 , Training of, 34,36 -, Winter protection for,38,39 Elliottia racemosa, 8 of, 7,8 - Cryptomeria japonica, Cytisus Ardoinii, 62 - 32 Description austriacus, 62 - Description of flower, 7 Erroneous statements - - - Beanii, 62 decumbens, 62 nigricans, 60 Plate XI, 61 praecox, 60 purgans, 62 - concerning, 12,13 Growth of, 9 Immediate - plant associates of, - 10 - a rare - American shrub, 7-13 Plate I, 11 88 Reproduction of, 8,10 2014 , Soil condition suitable for, 2014 , International Geographical Con69 9,13 2014 , 2014 , 'Z Specimens of, 12 Transplanting of, 13 Elm, American, Plate XV, 77 - Epigaea repens, 4 Evonymus, 16 Fortunei radicans, Fagus sylvatica, 3 2 Fleur de Lis, Forsyth, William, 44 Forsythia, 6 suspensa Fortunei, - 32 gress, Amsterdam, 1938, Kaempfer, Englbrecht, 46 Kalm, Pehr, 50 Kalmia latifolia, 50 Knight, William A., 13 Koelreuter, Joseph G., 50 Koelreuteria paniculata, 50 Kolkwitz, Richard, 49 Kolkwitzia, 49 Larix leptolepis, 32 Larz Anderson Collection of Japanese dwarf trees, 31-41 Leitner, E.F. (Dr.), 44 44 Fortune, Robert, 44 Plate IX, 45 Fothergill, John (Dr.), 22,44 - - - Fothergilla, 22,44 Gardeni, 22 major, 22 monticola, 22 Franklin, Benjamin, 50 Franklinia alatamaha, 50 Gleditsch, Johann Gottlieb, Growing season at Arnold Arboretum, 62 Hales, Stephen (Rev.), 46 Halesia, 46 Hall, George R. (Dr.), 44 Hayden, Richard J., 4 Hedge Demonstration Plot, Diagram of Plate XVI, 82,83 Leitneria, 44 Lemoine, Victor, 48 Leontopodium alpinum, 4 Lewis, Clarence McK., 30 Lilac alternate bearing, 20 Lilac collections, Two of greatest in world, 19,20 Lilac path at A.A. 49 Plate III, 21 Lilac Sunday at A.A., 19,20 Linnaea borealis, 2,3 Lonicera Henry48,49 - Magnol, Pierre, 44 Magnolia denudata, 16 - kobus, 16 borealis, 15 Soulangeana, 16,44 2014 stellata, 6,15,16 Mahonia, 46 Malus arnoldiana, 20 2014 2014 Hedge demonstration plot at the Arnold Arboretum, 79-86 Helianthus, 4 Henry, Augustine, 48,49 Plate X, 47 i Hurricane damage at the Arnold Arboretum, 71-74 atrosanguinea, 20 2014 baccata, 20 2014 baccata mandshurica, Plate II, 17 i 2014 16 6 - Halliana 2014 Plate XIV, 73 Hybridizing work at Arboretum, 81 floribunda, 20 Parkmanii, hupehensis, 20 2014 ioensis plena, 20 - Lemoinei, 18 - purpurea, 20 2014 Sargenti, 20 44 89'. - spectabilis, 20 Maple, Japanese, 16 . 2014 , Norway, 64 2014 , Schwedler, 16 Mappingthe Arnold Arboretum, 23-26 2014 , Instruments used in, 24. -, Method used, 24,25 Maps of the Arnold Arboretum, Uses for, 26 Meyer, Frank L., 46 M'Mahon, Bernard, 46 Narrow upright trees in the -, Robinia, 49 Russell, Paul, 27 3 Ruta graveolens, Sargent, C.S., 43 Siebold, Philipp Franz Sinowilsonia, 44 Solidago, 4 Spiraea Douglasii, 50 - von, 48 - Thunbergii, Vanhouttei, Wilsonii, 48 48 48 Spring at the Arnold Arboretum, 15-18 16 Arnold Arboretum, 63-67 List of, 64,66 National flowers, 1-4 - foliage, Standardized Plant Names, 56 State Flowers, Official, 5 Onopordum acanthium, 4 Parkman, Francis, 44 Photinia villosa laevis, 32 Plant breeding, 18 Plant records at the Arnold Stewartia, 49,50 Stuart, John(3rd Earl of Bute) 49,50 , Arboretum, 23 - Plants and the men whose names they commemorate, 43-50 Syringa Meyeri, 46 oblata dilatata, 19 vulgaris hybrids, 19 Thujopsis dolobrata variegata, - 32 Poplar, Lombardy, 63 Prinsepia sinensis, 6,16 Prunus incisa, 15 - ' mume, 32 Sargentii, 15,43 Sieboldii, 30 subhirtella, 15,32 autumnalis, 15 triloba, 15 yedoensis, 15,30 Rehder, Alfred, 69 - Thunberg, Carl Pehr, 44,45,48 Torch azalea, 20 Trees lost, Approximate numbers of, 74 Trifolium minus, 3 , Trifohum repens, 3 a Ulmus americana - 2014 -, A tribute to 14 an eminent botanist, 22 - Rhododendron calendulaceum, Plate XV, 77 Houtte, Louis, 48 Viburnum Carlesii, 44 fragrans, 6 Viburnum Lentago, 16 Warminster broom, 60 Weigel, Christian Ehrenfried, van - 46,48 - - - - mucronulatum, 6,20 obtusum Kaempferi, 20,46 Schlippenbachi, 20 Vaseyi, 22 yedoense poukhanense, 20 Robin, Jean, 49 90 Weigela, 46,48 Wilson, E.H., 27,44,48 Wistar, Caspar (Dr.), 46 Yunnan seed collection imported by Arnold Arboretum, 66,68 Zelkova serrata, 32 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23473","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ea36e.jpg","title":"1938-6","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1938,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24036","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170b728.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Forsythia pensa, europaea, F. intermedia, F. Plate I, p. 5. viridissima, F. ovata, F. sus- Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, F. ovata, Plate II, p. 7. l Prunus Sargenti (formerly P.serrulata sachalinensis), Plate III,p.I Pink-flowered Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, Plate IV, p. 19 1 Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense, Plate V, p. 21 Part of the Chinese Collection on the top of Bussey Hill in the Arnold Arboretum, Plate VI, p. l7 Title-page uf Jacqurn's \"Selectarum atrrp~um amencanarum hrstorra\" (crr. 1780), Plate VII, p. 3,> Frontispiece and first page of \"Gart der GeSUndheit\" 1485, Plate VIII, p. 39 Clematis macropetala, a charming Churese species of the Atragene Type, in the azure-blue flowers, Plate IX, p. ~5 Clematis \"Duchess of Albany,\" one of the Texensis Hybirds, Plate X, p. 1~7 Clematis \"Belle of Woking,\" a double-flowered ,ilvery-gray hybrid, 1 Plate XI, p. 51 Clematis \"~V.F;.Gladstoue,\" a fine hybrid, with flowers of heavenly blue, Plate XII, p. 5~ Clematis lanugmosa, a Chinese large-flowered species from which many of the hybrids have been derived, Plate XIII, p..i.5 Berberis koreana, a worthy successor to the old-fashioned B. vulgaris, Plate XIV, p. 61 Berberis circumserrata, another handsome shrub of distinctive habit, Plate XV, p. 65 Berberis Gilgiana, hardy in Boston and valued for its fruit and autumn color, Plate XVI, p. 69 Viburnum prunifolium, Plate XVII, p. 75 Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpum, one of the yellow-fruited viburnums, Plate XVIII, p. 77 iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Forsythias","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24040","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170856e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Schmitt, Louis Victor","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ '~g~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V APRIL 2, 1937 THE FORSYTHIAS common of garden shrubs, and boone to many a dreary garden which has looked lifeless a greater part of the winter. They were first introduced into America about 100 years ago. Probably no other hardy wood shrubs which have been introduced from the Old World into our gardens can equal or surpass the forsythias in cheerful beauty, which is developed at a season when there are comparatively few other com- NUMBER 1 FORSYTHIAS are among the most are a their early yellow blossoms petitors so attractive. All the plants in this genus have yellow flowers which open in late March or early April before the leaves appear. All can be grown in many different types of soil and can withstand the tough, trying conditions of the city garden better than many other shrubs. Only one, the green-stem forsythia (Forsythia viridissima~ has autumn color, an<1 this is a lovely purplish red. Unfortunately many public plantings of forsythias are sadly mutilated because of lack of intelligent care in pruning. Forsythias should be given plenty of room in which to grow and expand. They should not be crowded closely together for any reason except to make a good, dense bank planting where the whole object is to cover the ground. Many times when a single bush is used, it will be placed only two or three feet from a walk when actually it should be placed 8 to 10 feet from the walk, in order to give the plant plenty of room to expand fully at maturity. If the plants are pruned from the side, this necessarily cuts off the lovely drooping branches and spoils the entire effect, leamng only the unsightly base and a few branches ending prematurely in mid-air when they should be allowed to arch gracefully toward the ground. Pruning. Forsythias should be pruned only after flowering. This anything peculiarly inherent in the plant itself, but the flower buds are present all winter long, and if the simply because plant is pruned before it flowers a large proportion of the buds would be needlessly destroyed before they have an opportunity to open. Consequently, it is always better to leave the plants alone until they have blossomed, and then, if necessary, do the required pruning. Also, after the flowers are gone the young shoots commence active growth, and such pruning as has been necessary will be considerably less apparent. It is usually best when pruning forsythias to leave as many of the graceful side branches as possible. Fortunately, forsythias, like lilacs and privets, when necessary, can withstand the most severe pruning. As an example, this spring at the Arboretum it was necessary to cut off one of our bank plantings of forsythias to the ground, because it had become so overgrown that it was a physical impossibility to cut out only the dead wood. Because e of the large amount of dead wood and the overgrown condition of the mass planting, the shrubs did not bloom nearly as well during the past few years as they should, thus requiring this drastic treatment. These plants will now sprout vigorously from the base and within two or three years will amply repay such extreme treatment by yielding a far superior crop of flowers. Hardiness. Although the forsythias are classed as hardy, there is a limit to the endurance of such severe temperatures as we often experience in New England. The plants themselves may withstand lower temperatures than the flower buds. It is common, after a severe winter in New England, to see flowers only on those branches which have been protected by the snow during the winter, for it often happens that with temperatures of 15 to 20 degrees below zero, unprotected flower buds will be killed. This has often happened in the Arboretum. There is, however, one forsythia which apparently can withstand these lower temperatures and still bloom. This is the Korean forsythia, F. ovata,introduced by the Arboretum in 1917. F.europaea has also proved hardy, but its flowers are not as handsome as those of the other species. Forsythia suspensa. The common type of this species is the variety Sieboldii, which is a shrub with very pendulous branches, often touching the ground and rooting at the tip. It was the first exotic forsythia introduced into Europe. It is a native of China and first reached the Netherlands in 1833. Now it is common in cultivation everywhere. There is the vigorous upright growing Fortunei, introduced from China in about 1860. In habit this is not nearly so droopis not because of 2~ ing as cannot be substituted for it, particularly where expected to cover arbors, walls, or to ramble over rocks. 2 Another variety, F.suspensa pallida, must have originated prior to 1912 and is simply of value because it has flowers of a considerably lighter yellow than the other type. Although there are several other varieties known (variegata, pubesces, and atrocaulis with its young growth purplish in color), these are not sufficiently outstanding to be strongly var. Sieboldii and it would be recommended and are more tender than the type. Forsythia viridissima. Robert Fortune is responsible for first sending this plant to Europe from the gardens of China in 1844. It is not as hardy in New England as the other species and often kills severely, the ground. It is upright in habit of growth, having the ada rather good, dark red autumn color in the fall, a character which most of the other forsythias lack. The manner in which these plants were first brought from Japan and China has been described in a most interesting way by Robert Fortune. In those days the trip from Japan to England was a long and tedious one around the Cape of Good Hope. The trip was not a matter of a few weeks, but one of four to five months. It was often difficult to keep seeds in a viable condition for that period of time, let alone cuttings and young plants. Then, too, if potted plants were taken there was the problem of protecting them against salt spray and of watering them over so long a period of time, for fresh water on sailing ships was limited. This difficulty was surmounted by the early plant explorer by using one of the then new \"Wardian\" cases, which are now more commonly used in the form of solariums. These were simply pieces of glass sealed together so that no air or moisture escaped. Sufficient soil was placed in the base in which to plant the rooted cuttings or young plants. Just before the ship sailed, the plants were well watered and the cases sealed for the trip. In this way the water requirement was decidedly reduced, and even if the plants did occasionally need additional water this could easily be supplied. One of the most important factors was to see that the cases were carefully sealed, not so much to keep the moisture in, but to keep the salt water out. If a very small amount of salt water got in, it would result in serious injury. The sealed cases had to be placed where there was plenty of light, and according to Fortune, \"large vessels with poops\" were always to be preferred where there was any choice. Probably more hardy than F.t~iridi.s.simn is its Korean relative, var. korearca, which was introduced 1>p the Arboretum in 1919 through even to vantage of developing 3 Department of Forestry in Korea. Forsythia forsythias cross freely, hybrids often and F.intermedia is one that has proved the most promising. It occur, is a cross between the two Chinese species. F.suspensa and F.viridissima, originating in Europe shortly before 1880. It is considered superior to both its parents, particularly its very common variety spectabilis, which has individual flowers 1% inches across. This can well be termed the most handsome of all the golden-bells because of its large, dark yellow flowers and the profuseness with which they are borne. It is extremely floriferous, and well-grown stems, 6 to 8 feet long, are literally covered along their entire length with the deep yellow flowers. seeds sent here by the intermedia. Since Two other varieties are of importance. The variety primulina,which originated in the Arboretum in about 1910, has the best pale yellow flowers of any forsythia. The variety vitellina is also considered good because of its deep yellow flowers. Since F.intermedia is a hybrid, it is sometimes confused with the Chinese species. As an aid in distinguishing between these plants, two helps are given; a key reproduced from Rehder's Manual qf Cultivated Trees arrd Shrubs, and illustrations showing the general outlines of the leaves of the different forms. Keyto Forsythias A. Brs. (After Rehder's Manual) 1. hollow, with solid pith at the nodes: lvs. often 3-foliate F. suspensa AA. Brs. at least partly with lamellate pith. B. Mature brts. greenish or brownish: Ivs. elliptic-ovate to lanceolate. C. Lvs. serrate, at least above the middle, only occasionally entire, 7-14 cm. long. D. Pith usually solid at the between the nodes; lvs. nodes, wanting on or lamellate 3-parted ............ vigorous brts. sometimes 2. F.intermedia DD. Pith lamellate throughout, only at base of vigorous brs. wanting between the nodes: Ivs. hardly ever 33. F.uiridissima parted usually entire or with few shallow teeth, 5-8 cm. long, never 3-parted .......... 4. F.europaea BB. Mature brts. yellowish: lvs. ovate or broad-ovate, serrate, never 3-parted............... 5. F. ovata ............. CC. Lvs. 4 PLATE I F.ovata F. viridissima F. intermedia F. suspensa Branches of five different Forsythia species showing normal leaf outlines. In identifying Forsythias, these illustrations should be used as an aid only, to the key on the opposite page. F.europaea Forsythia ovata. This Korean forsythia is a comparatively recent been introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1917. E. H. Wilson found it growing in the Diamond Mountains in Korea. Although its flowers are smaller and not as numerous as are those of F. intermedia, it is the earliest to bloom and hardiest of all the forsythias and for this reason should be used in northern plantings where other species and varieties are subject to winter killing. Its leaves are rounded and ovate. It is not very dense in habit of growth, but eventually forms a well-rounded shrub, 6 to 8 feet tall. The very fact that it is the hardiest should make it valuable to the plant breeder. arrival, having Forsythia europaea. This is the only forsythia native of Europe and the only non-Asiatic species. It was first discovered in the mountains of Albania in 1897. The flower buds are proving rather hardy, but it has less ornamental value than any of the others. NOTES Friends of the Arnold Arboretum will be glad to note that the number of subscribers to its Bulletin of Popular Information is now larger than it has been for many years. Through this medium, the Arboretum is able to reach an ever increasing number of friends. We are always glad to send sample copies to interested individuals and invite our readers to call our attention to those who may profit from it. It is our desire to extend the usefulness of the Arboretum as much as possible. For the benefit of those who did not subscribe to the 1936 issue in a complete set, there is still a limited number of the numbers available at 15 cents each : Tree Troubles, The following Flowering Crabapples, Just about Lilacs, Woody Plants with Ornamental Fruits, and Autumn Color. Address the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, for those you wish, enclosing the equivalent of the price in stamps. time to receive Recent Bulletin subscribers for the year 1936 will automatically receive the Bulletin for 1937, since many 1936 issues are exhausted. The Arnold Arboretum is actively cooperating in the revision of .ftnndardized Plant Names, origina113 published in 1923 and since that time widely used by the horticultural industries. There are now approximately 15,000 new names to be added to the original 40,000 entries. While much detailed work is involved, it is hoped that the revised edition will be available by the first of next year. DONALD V~ S'MAN 6 PLATE II Forsythia intermedia spectabilis Forsythia ovata This shows the difference in the size of the flowers between these two species. The flowers of F. intvrnrv~lic~ vpvvlul~ili.v are the lar~est and the most profuse of any of the forsythias. The Korean forsythia ( h', onula~ is the hardiest. SPRAY PROGRAM AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Because of many new subscribers who were unable to get a complete set of issues, this Spray Program is being reprinted from the 19;36 Bulletin. Wherever a miscible oil is mentioned, recommendations have been based on Sunoco Oil only, which has proved satisfactory at the Arboretum. 1936 8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Single Flowering Japanese Cherries","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24038","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170bb6b.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V APRIL 23, 1937 NUMBER 2 SOME SINGLE FLOWERING JAPANESE CHERRIES the Japanese cherries bloom in the spring they always lend a touch of exotic beauty and fragrance which is unsurpassed by any other group of flowering trees. In America the public is becoming increasingly conscious of their beauty, and because of the wide publicity given the plantings in Washington many cities and civic organizations are starting local collections. One of the most recent of these, and perhaps the largest, is in the Fairmount Park System of WHEN V were introduced into America approximately one hundred years ago. Prior to that time it was most difficult to send plant material of any kind out of Japan. In 1846 the old Ellwanger and Barry Nursery Company of Rochester, New York, listed a Japanese cherry in its catalogue, and this was probably the first time any were offered in America. It is probable that the variety first grown here was the pendulous form of Prunus subhirtella. In 1912 the Mayor of the city of Tokyo presented to the city of Washington as a token of friendship two thousand Japanese cherry trees, which have done much to promote American interest in these plants. Many of them were planted in Potomac Park in Washington where they are now creating nation-wide interest each spring when they bloom. Unfortunately, most of the double-flowering Japanese cherries should be considered as comparatively short-lived trees. This is particularly true of many of the double-flowered forms, which often have to be replaced about every fifteen years. Under favorable growing conditions they may last considerably longer, but it is well to consider them as a short-lived group in order to avoid later disappointment. The Sargent cherry is the exception. This is the hardiest of all Philadelphia. Japanese cherries 9 and grows to a sizable tree of a ripe old age. One of the first plants in this country, introduced forty-six years ago, is still growing in the Arnold Arboretum and is in perfect condition. In the colder sections of the United States the Japanese cherries are not hardy, but in general they may be considered as doing well in those places where peaches are hardy. In southern Maine, for instance, they cannot be expected to do well although in the states bordering the Great Lakes, where the temperatures are somewhat moderated, there are some excellent plantings. In the drier portions of the mid-west they soon succumb, but on the Pacific Coa,t they thrive from Washington to southern California. Even as far south as the middle of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi they are perfectly at home. Propagation. Formerly it was advocated that the best understock for Japanese cherries was that of the Sargent cherry, Przcnu.s .SnrgPZrli, formerly called Prunus serrulata .sachalinen.sis. Mr. William H. Judd, Propagator at the Arnold Arboretum, after long experience with these plants, now feels that the use of Prunus avium as an understock is perfectly satisfactory. This understock \"works\" slightly better than that of the Sargent cherry and is certainly much more easily obtained. It is widely used for this purpose by many nurserymen. Particular forms of Prunuv .subhirtPlla can be grafted on seedlings of this species. Prum~s yedoensis may be grow n from cuttings or grafted on P. avium stock. All double-flowered varieties can be grafted on P.anium stock. There are certain species which can be readily grown from seed, and would include P. Sargenti, P. incisa, P. ni~~onic, and often even the hybrid, P. yedoensi.s although in this species the plants do not always come true from seed. The Arboretum wishes tomodifv certain statements which have been made in the past in this Bulletin regarding understock for Japanese cherries and emphatically states that P. uiu~n as an understock has certainly proved as good if not better than P..Srgenti. Prunus Sargenti. Introduced about 1890 from seeds sent to the Arboretum by William S. Bigelow. this fast growing tree has proved the most hardy of all the Japanese cherries. It is the tallest, being a fair-sized tree, and is the only one of all the Japanese cherries that has any autumn color. This is a good deep red. The flowers are deep pink and single. It is one of the first Japanese cherries to bloom, usually opening before or at about the same time as the leaves appear. Because of its size, its hardiness, and its attractiveness in both spring and fall, this cherry is proving a valuable ornamental and is 10 PLATE III Prunus Sargenti (formerly P. serrulata sachalinensis) This is the largest and hardiest of all the Japanese <herries. It may be either upright and pyramidal in form (as in fore~round) or considerably more rounded (see other tree at rear of bench). of much wider use. yedoensis. The Yoshino cherry is another one of the singleflowered forms and makes up the greatest part of the display at Washington, since almost half of the original gift from Tokyo was of this variety. Professor Sargent wrote of this tree in 1911 that it was one of the favorites in Japan and before the earthquake in that year there were over 250,000 trees in Tokyo alone. The Sargent cherry is often upright in habit, but the Yoshino is more spreading. It has pale pink flowers which sometimes are almost white and can be combined with the Sargent cherry for general landscape effect, for the flowers of both open at approximately the same time. Prunus subhirtella. The Higan cherry is perhaps the most floriferous of all. Its single flowers are borne in the greatest profusion, and it is not unusual to find the branches literally covered by the blossoms. There is wide variation in the shapes of individual trees when grown from seed, but as a rule they are small and of very bushy habit with pale pink blossoms. All cherries, of course, are used most effectively in front of an evergreen background of pine or hemlock wherever such planting is possible. Perhaps the most common cherry planted now is the drooping form of the H igan cherry, Prunn.s subhirtella pendula. Another outstanding form is Prunus subhirtella autumnali.s, which often has a second bloom in the fall though at that season it is not particularly outstanding. Last spring a large tree of this variety was more attractive than any of the other cherries in the Arboretum. Its light pink, semi-double flowers are most outstanding. If the crop of flowers in the spring is unusually large, then the number of flowers in the fall will be very small. This tree is another good type and should be used a great deal more in combination with the early blooming single-flowered types. deserving Prunus FIELD CLASS AT ARBORETUM DURING MAY A Field Class will be conducted assist those who wish to gain a more Saturday mornings during May to intimate knowledge of the flower- shrubs growing in the Arnold Arboretum. The class will meet from 10 :00 a.m. to noon, is open to anyone who is interested, and will meet at the Forest Hills Entrance of the Arnold Arboretum for the first time on Saturday, May 1. Registration for the course is one dollar, payable in advance by mail. DONALD WYMAN ing trees and 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Identification of Plant Material at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":3,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24041","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170896f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V MAY 7, 1937 NUMBER 3 THE IDENTIFICATION OF PLANT MATERIAL AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM THERE with tion of many ways in which the Arnold Arboretum furnishes the public information concerning trees and shrubs. One of these is the identificaare plant material is done in the plants some sent through the mail. Most of the work of identifying herbarium, and it may be interesting and helpful to give account of how the work is handled. When a specimen is received at the Arboretum, it is examined by some member of the staff, who may be able to identify it at sight. Some plants are so distinct and easily recognizable that it may be possible to name them from a single typical leaf or fruit, but often the problem is not so simple. If the plant is not readily recognized,the investigator tries to limit it to certain plant families through such characters as are shown by the specimen, and then proceeds to follow up clues that may lead to its full identification. This is done by comparing it with mounted specimens in the herbarium, or, if possible, with living plants, and by consulting descriptions and illustrations in the literature dealing with the group to which it is thought to belong. This may involve much library and herbarium search, and hours may be spent in solving a particularly difficult problem. Sometimes the material received is so inadequate that the investigator must send for a more typical specimen. However, because of an unwillingness to disappoint the inquirer and because a difficult problem offers something of a challenge, every effort is made and every means is exhausted before such a course is taken. In cases where some doubt may remain after a careful study of the material, the investigator often consults with other members of the staff, especially if the plant belongs to a group with which one of his colleagues is especially familiar. Plants are extremely variable, there often being a wide range of diversity in various characters even within a single species. Some groups of plants are much more variable than others. For example, in the roses, apples, plurns, hawthorns, cherries and others, there is such great variability that authorities differ widely as to their classification. Some recognize numerous species based on slight varia- 13 place these slightly varying forms under a single name. The leaves of a species may differ greatly in shape and size, not only in different plants, but even on a single plant; while sometimes flowers, fruits and other parts are equally variable. Again, the leaves of seedlings, young plants, or those from vigorous shoots are very different from those of the mature plant or of typical flowering branches. Some of the divergent forms seem to be due to ecological conditions, such as the character of the soil, or the amount of light, moisture and shade received. Some of these aberrant forms can be accounted for only as sports or abnormalities, some as hybrids between related species, and in other cases they can only be regarded as individual differences, which are common to all living things. Consequently, when branches are selected for identification they should be taken from a normal plant. They should be fully matured in growth, but not have reached maturity too fast, due to excessive vigor, or too slowly, due to poor growth conditions, insect or disease troubles. If normally matured typical branches are selected, the inquirer will go a long way in assisting the Arboretum staff to tions while others correctly identify specimens. A vast amount of literature has been written about plants, and this is being increased each year by students of various groups in all parts of the world. That the subject of plant classification is one regarding which the last word has not been said is shown by the fact that for the higher groups of plants alone about 6500 new bmomials are published each year, of which approximately 4750 represent species supposed by their sponsors to represent previously unnamed and undescribed ones. Furthermore, many groups are subject to constant study and revision. Good manuals, covering the floras of most parts of the United States have been published and many other reference books about both native and cultivated plants are available. Some of these books are fully illustrated and contam keys and descriptions that make them valuable and almost indispensable to serious students of plant life. However, the information they contain is limited, because of the great number of species considered, and it is impossible to include in them In any more than brief descriptions, these usually limited to the typical forms. event, when a specimen comes to the Arboretum for identification, the investigator is familiar with these various sources of information, and thanks to the excellent library facilities available, he can turn to the desired references immediately. .Sugge.rtions for shipping In sending material for identification, a few simple rules, if observed, may save disappointment to the inquirer as well as much time and trouble to the Arborestaff. For the identification of trees or shrubs a small branch should be sent which bears flowers or fruit, as well as typical leaves. The specimen may either be pressed and mailed dry between cardboards, or if the material is not too fragile or the distance too great, it may be sent fresh. Fresh specimens may be placed between paper and cardboards or packed in waxed or slightly dampened paper and either mailed in a carton or protected by heavy wrapping paper. When more than one specimen is sent, each should have a number attached to it, and a list should be sent with corresponding numbers, giving as much information as postum 14 sible about the plant. In doing this, the same numbers should be given to the plants from which the specimens were taken. Large fruits, not attached to the branches, may be wrapped separately and should also bear the same number as the leaf specimen to which they belong. It should be indicated whether the plant is a tree, shrub or vine, the approximate height and general habit or shape, also whether it was found wild or in cultivation; if from cultivated plants, the source of the plant or seed should be indicated if known. It is also helpful to give the popular or local name, if known, and to state the color of the flowers which may be too much faded when they arrive for this to be determined. In the case of crab apples and similar plants represented in gardens by numerous hybrid forms, both flowers and fruits are often necessary for identification ; herbarium specimens of both stages from the same plant, or herbarium specimens of one and fresh specimens of the other should be sent at the same time. With thousands of specimens sent each year for identification, it is manifestly impossible to preserve the specimens sent and keep track of corresponding specimens received at different seasons of the year. However, it is not always possible to send samples of flower and fruit of deciduous plants. In some cases, particularly with the general run of nursery stock, accurate identification can be made without these aides, but in most cases they are necessary. For instance, it is comparatively easy to identify a normal twig of a crab apple, but with a few exceptions, almost impossible to tell the exact variety without the flowers or fruit or both. The inquirer should keep these points in mind and not expect the impossible where flowers and fruits are not sent. Many of the evergreens however, cannot be readily distinguished without cones, if at all, and thus cones should always be sent if possible. Some cultivated forms and varieties are distinguished solely by the shape or habit of the plant, and can thus be recognized only if information about these characters be given. In some cases it is necessary to have mature acorns or nuts in order to distinguish between different species or varieties of hickories and oaks, and both flowers and fruit may be necessary before some species of plums, apples and haws can be determined. The inquirer sending a plant for identification naturally desires to learn a definite name for it, and in the great majority of cases, it is possible to give this information if the material received is at all adequate or typical. Sometimes, because of meager, incomplete, or poorly preserved specimens, identification is impossible. In some cases, even though the material is ample, only approximate identification is possible, because the specimen may not be typical and may differ in some character from the species to which it seems most closely related. This anyone who has had considerable experience in studying plants readily understands but to the inexperienced, it is sometimes difficult to explain why definite identification of the species, variety or form is not always possible. The material received for identification at the Arboretum ranges from a single specimen, sometimes unfortunately consisting only of a detached leaf or fruit, to collections numbering hundreds of specimens. Occasionally seeds, sterile twigs, resins, gums, and specimens of wood are submitted for identification. Many speci- 15 of herbaceous plants are sent to the Arboretum, although our living and reference collections are limited to woody material. Occasionally even mosses, lichens, and fungi are sent to us from friends who seem to have too great confidence in our stock of information. These may be referred to other departments of the University, such as the Gray Herbarium in case of herbaceous species, and to the Farlow Herbarium for cryptogamic plants. The correspondents who call upon the Arboretum for information range from professors of botany in leading educational and scientific institutions to persons with little or no knowledge of plants. The Arboretum is also often called upon for advice by commercial concerns and by importers of various commodities, utilized in industry. Occasionally, we have been asked to furnish evidence to be used in litigation, or even to settle a wager. During the height of the cross-word puzzle craze, numerous inquiries were received, most of them by telephone, regarding the name of some tree or other plant with vaguely described characters but containing a definite number of letters. After a few good-natured efforts to comply with these requests it was decided that this was not really part of our mission in the world. There are no fixed formulas for identifying plants, nor does the scientist possess any occult powers for distinguishing them. All that the investigator can do is to examine the material available, noting the characters shown, and try to place it in its proper relationship in view of what he knows about plant classification and the characteristics that distinguish plant families, genera and species. Only when good material is supplied can the determination be made with facility and mens certainty. The botanist is not infallible and he is not dealing with an exact science. If he is honest, he will sometimes have to express a doubt, or admit that he does not know, and at times he may make mistakes. As an illustration of the difficulty found in some groups of plants, a botanist in one of the western states, in studying the plants of his region, found a number of specimens of wild roses that were difficult to classify, and some of these were sent to other botanists for study. In one case he reports sending identical specimens from the same plant to four of the leading botanical institutions of America, and of receiving in reply four different opinions as to the identity of the plant. Being himself a botanist and realizing some of the difficulties involved, he did not, as a result, completely lose confidence in the institutions nor in the value of the opinions of the man connected with them; at least he is still sending puzzling specimens to the Arboretum for determination. From the appreciative letters received from correspondents who have called upon us for help, we believe that the service the Arboretum is rendering in plant identification is a useful one. We wish to make the service as efficient as possible and to answer all inquiries as promptly and as fully as we can. It is hoped that this explanation of the methods followed and of the limitations of the service may be mutually advantageous to our correspondents and to the Arboretum. ERNEST J. PALMER 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Two Months of Azalea Bloom","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24043","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14ea726.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V MAY 14, 1987 NUMBER 4 TWO MONTHS OF AZALEA BLOOM a most colorful display of bloom in the spr~ngtime, and if care is taken in selecting certain species it is possible to obtain a flowering sequence for a period of over two months. Many azaleas commonly grown in the south are not hardy in the northeastern United States, but all are valued for their bright flowers and some for their fragrance. The foliage of some deciduous azaleas turns a brilliant red in the fall, and such forms certainly warrant more extensive use. The more plants of twofold interest that we can use in our gardens, the longer our gardens will be enjoyed. What are the differences between rhododendrons and azaleas? Now that azaleas are classed in the genus Rhododendron, this forms a perplexing problem to many, but is well clarified by a recent statement made by Professor Alfred Rehder: \"There are no clear cut characters between rhododendrons and azaleas; they can only be separated by a combination of characters. Rhododendrons are all evergreen except R.m7ccronulatum and R.rlauricum but there is an evergreen variety of the latter: they have mostly ten or sometimes more stamens, and the leaves are often scaly or lepidote; azaleas are mostly dec~duous ; they have mostly five stamens, the leaves are never dotted with scales and are often strigose. The two deciduous rhododendrons are distinguished from all azaleas by the leaves being dotted beneath with minute scales and also from most of them by the ten stamens.\" As with rhododendrons, all azaleas need acid soil. This is not the only so~l requirement, for it is usually best to keep their roots cool and moist all the time. This is best done by applying a good mulch, such as well-rotted oak leaves, pine needles, or acid peat moss. Although there are a large number of excellent hybrid azaleas a- AZALEAS form 17 vailable in the trade today, it is the object in this bulletin to discuss briefly only certain species which are known to bloom in sequence, so that by selecting plants from this list it may be possible to have azalea flowers in the garden for eight or ten weeks. ORDER OF BLOOM (sometimes incorrectly called Azalea This was originally introduced into America by the Arnold Arboretum in 1882 and blooms before any of the azaleas. It is the only true rhododendron discussed in this Bulletin and is one of the two deciduous rhododendrons. The flowers are large and rosy purple. If the weather remains cool, it may hold its beautiful flowers for about two weeks. Sometimes late frosts kill the flowers after they have opened, but if it is planted in the shade and protected from the morning sun the chances are increased for its remaining in good condition for some time. Most of the early blooming shrubs have yellow flowers in the early spring, but here is one with a rosy purple color Rhododendron mucronulatum mucronulata) : 18 U ~2 ~ C ~ U U HI O M~ ~m 9 a x ro 3 0 T: x a 0. which makes it very conspicuous. canadensis) : The Rhodora grows and southeastern Canada where it covers large England areas of many acres. It has small flowers of magenta-rose or lilac to nearly white in color. It likes moist swampy areas where it is perfectly at home. It grows about 1 to 3 feet tall and is perhaps the least ornamental of all North American azaleas although it is admired by many and used considerably in naturalistic plantings. Rhododendron mucronatum (Azalea mucronata, A.-lerlifolia alba, A. indica alba) : Unfortunately, this lovely white flowering azalea, although perfectly hardy from Long Island southward, is not completely hardy in New England gardens. Still it can be grown in shaded and protected situations. There are excellent plants doing well in gardens on Cape Cod. This lovely plant, so highly valued for its white flowers, has been in this country for almost one hundred years. It is one of the best azaleas for pure white flowers, it roots readily from cuttings, and forms a dense flat-topped mass of foliage that faces to the ground on all sides. Where it can be well grown, it is an excellent plant to use in combination with such bright colored species as R. oblusum Kaempferi, for although it blooms slightly earlier, the flowers remain on the plant long enough to make a striking color combination with the later blooming torch azalea. Rhododendron obtusum: Neither R.obtusum amoenum (Azalea amoena) nor R.obtusum \"Hinodegiri\" (A.Hinodegiri) are completely hardy in Boston. The former is probably hardier than any other evergreen azalea, but its flowers are a very poor magenta color that is extremely hard to use in combination with any other color. On the other hand, R. obtusum\"Hinodegiri\" has decidedly better flowers and foliage, but it is not quite as hardy. The foliage of both of these plants is superior to that of R. mucronatum. In some places R. obtusum amoenum is used as a clipped hedge, because of its very small leaves and also because it stands clipping very well. Rhododendron obtu,rum arnoldianum (var. camoenum X var. Kaempferi) is similar to var. amoenum, except that it grows taller and is hardier, being hardy in the Arboretum, and the flowers are a deep rosy mauve to red. It originated in the Arboretum as a seedling in 1910, and can be substituted for var. amoenum where this is not hardy. Rhododendron obtusum Kae~npfPri, the torch azalea, is the common mountain azalea of Japan. Although it had been known for a very long time, it first appeared m the United States when Professor Sargent brought seeds to the Arnold Arboretum in 1892. Since that time it has grown splendidly and has proved to be the best bright all over Rhododendron canadense (Rhodora New 20 PLATE V I Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense Raised in the Arnold Arboretum from seed collected 190,5 by J. G. Jack. (Druwing by Rlarzche Amea Ames~ on Poukhan, Korea, in red azalea for northern gardens. The Arnold Arboretum now has hundreds of these plants on its hillsides, and when they are in bloom they make a better display than any other azalea. In places the woods look almost as if they were afire, the color is so vivid. Because the flowers may be injured by the hot sun, it is advisable to plant them in shaded places, and they do well even in complete shade. In the Arboretum some of the plants are considerably over 5 feet tall, and they may eventually attain a height of 10 to 12 feet, with a correspondingly broad spread. In Massachusetts the plants are partly deciduous, but further south the leaves of R. obtusum varieties (except var. Kaempferi which is wholly deciduous) are retained throughout the winter. The flowers of var. Kaempferi range in color from salmon to a brick red. When the plants are massed together, as is often best in order to afford some protection to the roots, they make a dense mass of foliage and flowers and form one of the best displays of Japanese plants growing in the Arboretum. Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense (A.poukhanense~ : Originally French botanist from Mt. Poukhan in Korea, where the was discovered for the first time by a French missionary, this plant plant was introduced into this country by Professor J.G.Jack of the Arnold Arboretum in 1905. The flowers are a pale lilac-purple and are usually borne in great profusion. The plant itself rarely grows taller than about 3 feet and is thus well suited for rock gardens and small borders. The branches grow close to the ground making a dense mass. In using it in combination with other flowering plants, its color should always be kept in mind for this proves rather difficult to combine well with red. There is a double-flowered variety available called Yodogawa,\" but it is more tender. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii (A. Schlippenbachii): This is another Korean plant much used in that country, introduced by the Arnold Arboretum from seed sent by Professor Jack. The flowers are very large, sometimes as much as 3 inches in diameter, and a pale to rosy pink. Apparently perfectly hardy under New England conditions, this plant may grow to be 15 feet tall. One of its valued characteristics is the fact that in the fall the leaves turn from yellow to orange crimson, thus enabling landscape gardeners to utilize it for autumn as well as spring color. Rhododendron Vaseyi (A. Tlaseyi~ : This is the second of the native American azaleas to bloom in the spring. It is found in a few valleys of the southern Appalachian mountains, chiefly in South Carolina named by a 22 where it grows to be 15 feet tall. The flowers appear before the leaves and are a good pink color. It is perfectly hardy m Boston and is highly valued for its delicate flowers, which are very conspicuous because they appear before the leaves. Rhododendron japonicum (A. japonica) : The large orange-red flowers of the Japanese azalea are particularly outstanding, but unfortunately they have a most disagreeable odor. The plant is valued for its large flowers and its hardiness. Because it is perfectly hardy under New England conditions, it is used considerably in breeding work. During late May, there are a large number of multi-colored azaleas that bloom in great profusion, and many of these are hybrids of this Japanese azalea. Of these hybrids there are two general groups: 1. Rhododendron gamlavense: The Ghent azaleas are very popular and many interesting forms are available. These result from crosses between the tender, fragrant, yellow-flowered R. luteum (A. ponticrc~ the American R.calendulrcceum, and R.nud~orum. The colors in these hybrids are all shades and combinations of those of the parent plants. 2. Rhododendron Ko.sterianum : The \"Mollis\" hybrids are the result of a cross between R.molle, which is tender here in the north, and R. japouicum. Mr. T. D. Hatfield's original hybrid named \"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" is an outstanding example of this group. Rhododendron nudiflorum (A.nud~florum): All the azaleas hlooming after June first are natives of this country. The common pinxterbloom is a familiar sight everywhere, for it is native over wide areasd of the eastern United States. Rhododendron roseum (A.rosea, A.nud~jlora ro.sea): Another New England plant, this is probably the best of the azaleas native to this general region. Its flowers are a deep rosy pink, and most fragrant. Rhododendron atlanticum (Azalea atlantica) : This little azalea is native on the Coastal Plain from southern Pennsylvania to South Carolina. It seldom gets over 18 inches tall and can be considered the smallest of all the azaleas here mentioned. Its flowers normally are white (there are pink forms) fragrant and about the size of the flowers of Rhodo~lendron nud~orum. It is considered as hardy as R. obtusum Kaempf'eri, does well in the Arboretum and is an excellent little plant to use, particularly in small scale plantings. It does eqully well in both sun and shade, and is good for filling in around the bases of taller growing azaleas when this is necessary. Rhododendron calendulaceum (A.cnlendulacea) : The flowers of the name azalea are usually a brilliant orange red, but lack the fragrance of the two preceding species. It occurs in the mountains from Penn- 23 of the sylvania south to Georgia, and is very abundant on the lower slopes high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. It is the most showy of the American azaleas which have been established in the Arnold Arboretum. It is perfectly hardy and superior to most of the hybrids derived from it. One of its best features is the fact that its flowers remain in good condition for a considerably longer period than do those of the Asiatic azaleas, for they are not injured by excessive heat. Rhododendron arborescens (A. arborescens~: Since the flowers of this azalea do not appear until after the leaves are fully grown, it is not as conspicuous as some of the others, but it is very fragrant. The white or slightly pink flowers are of interest because of their fragrance and also because of the long red stamens. At high elevations it only grows a few feet tall, while in valleys in the mountainous regions where it is at home it may grow to be 18 feet tall. It is another native of the Appalachian mountains. Rhododendron viscosum (A.viscosa~ : This is a common plant in swampy regions in the northeastern United States and is valued because it is the last of all the azaleas to bloom. Its flowers are usually pure white and most fragrant. Strangely enough, in spite of its natural habitat, it does not require swampy conditions, as it will thrive in almost any fertile acid soil. Horticultural Society Field Day The Massachusetts Horticultural Society will hold a Field Day at the Arnold Arboretum on Thursday, May 20 at2 P. M. to discuss and inspect the lilacs. If rainy the meeting will be postponed until the next day. The group will meet promptly at the Administration Building of the Arboretum. After a short discussion a careful inspection of the lilac collection will be made. The lilacs will be in full bloom the week end of May 22. This large collection at the Arboretum is unusually well budded this year and the display of flowers should be most outstanding during the current week. DONALD WYMAN 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Chinese Collection","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24039","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170816d.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ -tBULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ~~ --- SERIES 4. VOL. V MAY 21, 1937 NUMBER 5 THE CHINESE COLLECTION of the most striking portions of the Arnold Arboretum during and early June is the varied collection of shrubs and trees planted on a rounded knoll just southeast of the summit of Bussey Hill. Gently curving grass paths encircle the crown of this knoll, with branches leading off down the slopes in different directions. Two of these paths lead off from Bussey Hill Road opposite the banked plantation of forsythia which has produced such a wealth of color this spring. At the points from which they take off the paths are margined with tall vacciniums, barberries and calicarpas. One goes only a short distance before he is confronted with a splash of brilliant yellow in the plantings of cytisus and genista which lie between the paths. To the right is the nearly pure white Rhododendron Schlippenbochii which has the largest flowers of any of the azaleas in the collection. From here on there is a profusion of color and form. A mound of lilac-purple blossoms nearly conceals a massed planting of the Korean azalea (Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhanense~. Under the old pines are the early-flowering Rhododendron mucronulatum, various forms of Enkianthus mth their delicate pendulous blossoms, and the brilliant Rhodudendron obtusum var. Kaem~pf'eri. Farther down the slope to the southward are beds of the hybrid azaleas in whose flowers a variety of salmon-pink tints play havoc with our usual concepts of color in this group. The dove-tree (Duaidia inaolucrata~ is represented in several places along the upper paths. It was killed back to the ground during the recent hard winters, but now shows vigorous sprouts six to eight feet high. Fothergilla, LeucothoP, Stewartia, and many forms of Cotoneaster are arranged in the beds above the pines, as well as the exotic maples (Acer TscJzonoskii, A. griseu~n~ and Euptelea. In large beds around the crown of the hill, inside the paths, are barberries, honeysuckles, cotoneasters, hydrangeas, Kerria and Acan- ONE May Z5 tkopanax. Near the point where the largest of the paths returns to Bussey Hill Road is a large plant of Ea~ochorda, the pearl bush. The top of the knoll itself has an open plantation of flowering cherries, crab apples, barberries, and honeysuckles. On the south side of the knoll, rising from the midst of an extensive planting of azaleas, are some ancient white oaks. They are much the largest and oldest trees in the Arboretum. In 1931 the lightning killed one of these veterans and it was immediately cut down, showing a trunk which had resisted disease so successfully that it was solid to the center. It proved to be about 265 years old, so that its life span covered most of the period since the first hardy settlers took up land in the Town of Roxbury. It was a young spindling shoot in the 1670's and during the first 90 years of its life it attained a diameter of only can indicate that it grew until about 1750 or '60 in a rather dense woodland of trees so large that they kept it in shade. At about this stage in its life, however, the surrounding remnant of the primeval forest in which it stood was nearly all cut down. The result was that, relieved of competition with its older neighbors and exposed to full sunlight, it acquired a new lease on life. From that time on it grew rapidly, putting on thick rings of wood each year. It is intriguing to reconstruct the scenes which have passed upon this knoll during the lifetime of the old oaks. Several generations of the children of the Weld families that lived on the property must have played among the great columnar trunks of that small patch of primeval woods which persisted for at least half a century in the otherwise cleared pastures and orchards of the district. Hepaticas, columbines and asters must have made a garden of the shaded aisles. In Revolutionary times when firewood was scarce in Roxbury, the stunted remnants of the old wood were too small or too inaccessible to be attractive. Or perhaps they were purposely preserved by some Weld descendant to keep alive childhood memories. In the first decade of the l9th century Mr. Benjamin Bussey, a well-to-do Boston merchant, realized the beauty of the site and purchased the farm containing it for a country home to which he could retire in his declining years. He built his mansion on the easterly side of what we now call Bussey Hill, and a summerhouse at the top of the slope. A double row of white pines was planted in rectangular arrangement around the crown of the hill, and long rows of lilac bushes margined the paths which led up to the summerhouse. Several of the pines are still standing: and though somewhat broken in appearance and bent to the eastward by the winds, they contribute much to the beauty of the modern plantations. The rows of lilacs, large parts of which also remain after at least 125 years, have grown together so that the old paths are scarcely visible. To the westward were views of pasture and orchard, in fields separated by the characteristic stone 6 inches. This 26 PLATE VI Part of the Chinese Collection on the top of in the Arnold Arboretum Bussey Hill walls which lend charm and order to so much of the New England Northeastward were Jamaica Plain and Roxbury, and on clear days the Bay was visible. Southeastward one could look across the valley of Stony Brook to Milton and the Blue Hills. From the time of the changes wrought by Mr. Bussey the top of the hill has remained a garden spot. At his death about the middle of the last century, he left it to Harvard College as part of a foundation for a school of agriculture and horticulture. Subsequently Frederick Law Olmstead, pioneer in American landscape architecture, planning the Arnold Arboretum with Professor Sargent, clearly recognized its attractiveness and potentialities. Bussey Hill Road, made to encircle the hill and end in a broad plaza on the summit, gave easy access to the whole area and ensured its significance as a focal point in future landscape. developments. The plantings able as we know them now did not take form until about 25 years ago when the collection of the late E. H. Wilson appear at the Arboretum. Our rounded knoll was selected began as a to suit- place for a special exhibit of floral wonders introduced by this gifted gentleman, and the whole area became known as \"the Chinese collection.\" An old photograph in the library of the Arboretum shows that early in the 1900's the knoll was a grassy meadow from which hay was cut in summer. Its soil is gravelly and poor, and the long struggle to make it suitable for planting can only be visualized from Professor Sargent's cryptic records in his annual reports and from the recollections of men still at the Arboretum. At one time, for instance, masses of peat cut from the low ground of the South Street tract were strewn over the beds to increase their fertility. The old oaks have seen the whole gamut of change. They served as part of the background for the long years of toil and struggle endured by the colonial farmers who built their successful communities in the New World. Forces which began to be felt through the ambition and imagination of Mr. Bussey finally brought the land into contact with a great educational enterprise so that it contributed its small part to the vast influence upon American applied biology which the Bussey Institution exerted. But the later scenes are the strangest. Here are exotic plants brought from the other side of the world to be tested for beauty and adaptability before they can be used to grace American gardens : azaleas with giant, pure white flowers entirely unknown in America; other azaleas with almost every conceivable combination of red, orange, white and purple; the curious dove-tree with flowers like great white wings ; and impossible maples with coppercolored bark that peels off in thin sheets like that of the sycamore. Such wonders were certainly beyond the wildest dreams of those children of the Welds' who played here. The only continuity is in the inherent charm of the place and in the lives of the ancient oaks. HUGH M. RAUP 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Trip Through the Arboretum During Lilac Time","article_sequence":6,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24033","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170ab6f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V MAY 28, 1937 NUMBER 6 ' A TRIP THROUGH THE ARBORETUM DURING LILAC TIME of people have had the opportunity of visiting the Arboretum the ten days, and they have been fortunate for the Arboretum is now at its best. This Bulletin is written in order to aid our many visitors in remembering a few of the many things they have seen in bloom. Perhaps too, those who have been less fortunate and were unable to visit the plantations during this period, may derive some enjoyment from reading this enumeration of the plants of outstanding beauty which have been admired by so many. Most of the trees and shrubs at the Arboretum are looking better this year than they have for several years past, merely because the mild weather has not injured any of the flower buds. We have been unable to find any evidence of winter injury due to low temperatures. Elsewhere in eastern Massachusetts, particularly where rock garden plants and perennials are grown, there has been considerable injury owing to lack of snow during last winter from the soil heaving and exposing the roots of the plants, but fortunately this has not been true of the trees and shrubs. Many of the azaleas, the flowering dogwood, and the lilacs have really been exceptionally beautiful during the past ten days because the flower buds have been untouched by the winter cold and all have fully opened. Starting the trip through the Arboretum from the Jamaica Plain gate, we first notice the peculiar green flowers of the native Magnolia acuminata beginning to bloom. The flowers of the Asiatic magnolias have long since passed. Continuing on the road from the Administration Building we pass the lindens and an excellent bed of Rhododendron roseum which has been in full flower for an entire week. A little farther on, near the horse chestnuts, is a planting of the daintily colored pinkshell azalea, Rhododendron Vaseyi, which adds a bright spot to any landscape scene. Opposite this are the many forms of the Japanese maples coming out into full leaf, and the brilliant red of their foliage makes a beautiful contrast with the white flowering dogwoods close-by. In the woods are several hundred torch azaleas, Rhodode~adron obtuse~m Kae~npferi, which have been in full bloom for over a week, and because of the excellent shade of the surrounding oaks, their flowers THOUSANDS during past 29 keep their color for a considerably longer period than do those of azaleas planted out in the full sun. Leaving the road for a moment, we stroll through these azaleas to a knoll in the woods overlooking the shrub collection. Approximately a thousand different shrubs are growing here, and with a hasty glance from our vantage point we notice that there are not many plants in bloom. At the extreme left there is a bright spot of white close to the ground (Iberis Tenoreana), and nearby another bright spot of yellow (Alyssum gemonense~, blooming at the same time, while Iberis sempervirens will not bloom for another week. Looking farther, we see the white of some spiraeas in bloom, and at the end of the collection the tall pearlbushes in full bloom. In front of us is a long row of vari-colored varieties of the Japanese quince, but as these have been in bloom for over two weeks they have now nearly lost their brilliance. Beyond the shrub collection, along the road on the farther side we see the last of Malu.s spectabilis, one of the double-flowering crab apples, and the first of the common pink Bechtel's crab coming into bloom. When the wind changes for a few minutes, we can immediately identify the fragrance of the bush honeysuckles which are now in full bloom nearby. Continuing from the woods interplanted with torch azaleas, we glance backward through the shrubbery overhanging a pond on the left to see an excellent planting of Rhododendron Vaseyi in full bloom, the dainty shell-pink color of the flowers reflected in the still water at their feet. Continmng between the ponds we turn to the right and approach the lilac collection. What a sight! The bank is one mass of color. In this collection, one of the two best in the world, are over 400 different kinds of lilacs including over 300 different varieties of Syringa vulgaris alone. A good growing season followed by a mild winter has resulted in a profuseness of bloom unequaled for several years past. One of the first plants to draw our attention is the dark purple variety of Syringa vulgaris named \"Ludwig Spaeth.\" We admire it, walk under its branches, and look up the lilac walk, bordered on both sides with lilacs ten feet tall and covered with blossoms. Wenotice at least two lilacs (Syringa amurensis, the Japanese tree lilac, and S.villosa, the late lilac) that are not in bloom, for these come later, one in July and one in June. Continuing up the walk among the lilacs, we see the most fragrant of all, S. pubescens, and can easily recognize its value even though its flowers are not conspicuously colored. On the left of the walk is the interesting small Persian lilac and its several varieties. Nearby is S.chinensis, the first known hybrid, resulting from a cross between S. persiccc and S.vulgaris. One of its varieties, S. chinensis ~Saiegeano, is particularly valued for its dark reddish flowers. Both the Persian and the Chinese lilacs are valued for their profuse, graceful, nodding sprays of flower clusters which make them among the best for cut flower purposes. Near the end of the row of lilacs, placed between the walk and the road, are two plants outstanding for their deep reddish-purple flowers, namely \"Congo\" and \"Negro.\" Incidentally, it was this row of lilacs which was cut to the ground ten years ago in an effort to reduce the size of the plants and so force them to 30 specimens which would be appreciated more. A critical survey of these same plants today will show that this severe treatment has resulted in plants which are now in excellent condition. Many people who knew this row of plants the year it was cut to the ground have remarked this season that although such rough treatment is not always warranted it has certainly proved worth while in this case. On the hill at the extreme end of the lilac collection are the younger lilacs recently added. One of these shows promise of becoming the darkest of all the dark lilacs. This is named \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall\" and is of very recent origin. Many of these lilacs are so intriguing that it is necessary to walk over the grassy path at the top of the collection and see close at hand some of the plants that we could only glimpse from below. One of these is a stunning single white variety named \"Vestale\" which is unusually well-flowered this year. Another variety close by is the double-flowered \"Edith Cavell\" also outstanding for its white flowers. Of the pink varieties, \"Macrostachya,\" \"Lucie Baltet, \"and \"Clara Cochet\" can all be observed in order, one after the other, growing along this path. Farther along on the right we must stop to admire the best of the pale blue lilacs, \"President Lincoln,\" the flowers of which are a wedgewood blue. It is most difficult among so many fine specimens to decide definitely on a few \"best.\" Professor Sargent use to say that the \"best\" lilacs were always those that happened to have the best flowers that year, and perhaps this should be our conclusion. Climbing up toward the top of Bussey Hill we pass through an old lilac hedge which is easily one hundred and twenty-five years old. These bushes are seldom pruned and sprayed, and are living examples of what lilacs will do under adverse conditions. They are now about ten feet tall (having been cut to the ground several years ago) and almost twice as broad, but even with the lack of care they do have many blooms each year. At the top of Bussey Hill in the Chinese Collection we find many things in full bloom. Our first impression is one of brilliant yellow color coming from the brooms which are at their best. These belong to the genera Cytisus and Genistc~. One plant stands out particularly among these because of its brilliant mass of profuse lemon-yellow flowers. This is Cytisus praecox, and those who have admired it will be glad to know that it is available from certain nurseries. To the right of this walk, across from the brooms, we see the last of the royal azalea, which is one of the first in the collection on the hill to bloom. Over the brow of the hill we notice many of the torch azaleas dotting the hillside here aud there. Walking on toward the century old pine trees, acting as guardian sentinels for the entire collection we pass a bed of two beautiful azaleas, Rhododendron roseum and Rhododendron nudiflorum. These came into full bloom on lilac Sunday, and their sweet fragrance fills the air. Beyond these is the Poukhan azalea, its lavender-purple flowers fading rapidly for it has been at its best for almost two weeks. However, one or two of the plants which are late to bloom indicate to us what the entire planting must have looked like when it was at its best. We notice that the dove tree, so interesting because of its history, has again disappomted plant lovers and has not bloomed. This tree was killed to the ground during the cold winter of1933-3~ and has not bloomed since. Each year we look grow into better 31 forward to seeing its blossoms, but usually we are disappointed. Under the pine trees are the best plants of the torch azalea in the entire Arboretum. Here some are at least six to eight feet tall, literally one solid mass of fiery red blossoms. It is easy to notice the injury from the hot sun for some of the blossoms are badly faded and burned at the tip of the petals, but when they are growing in the full shade they keep their color very well for some time. Continuing down the hill among the azaleas, we come to an excellent group of \"Ghent\" and \"Mollis\" hybrids on the left, many of which are just beginning to show their excellent, highly colored blossoms. A number of these are perfectly hardy under Boston conditions and their wide variety of colors are unequaled by any other group of shrubs. On the right is the Arnold azalea, a chance hybrid in the Arboretum, having many of the qualities of Rhododendron obtusum amoenum but at the same time being considerably more hardy. Walking toward the old Bussey Mansion we see another planting of the torch azaleas, where one thousand plants have been placed under protecting pine trees. Among these are a few dogwoods, and as we gaze on this scene fora few moments we must admit that unquestionably this torch azalea is the most brilliantly colored of all the plants we have seen on our trip. In fact, as noted in the Bulletin a few weeks back, it is the most brilliant of all the bright colored plants introduced to this country by the Arboretum from Japan. Turning toward the old Bussey Mansion, we see its porch covered with wisteria blooms. The common old-fashioned type, the Chinese wisteria, is at the front and makes the better display, and toward the rear of the house is the lighter colored Japanese wisteria with its longer flower clusters. Retracing our steps for a short distance only, we walk down the hill among the beeches, admiring the beautiful young foliage of the different varieties, and now and then glancing toward Hemlock H~ll at the base of which the first rhododendrons are just coming into bloom. Once more on the road at the foot of the hill some members of the group continue on toward Peter's Hill and the crab apples, some walk among the conifers, and others turn to the right and walk back toward the lilac collection. On our way we walk under an excellent specimen of the silverbell in full bloom, and a few moments later, off to the left, catch a glimpse of brilliant white which is, on close inspection, a perfect specimen of the flowering dogwood, about forty years old, at least twenty-five feet tall, and literally covered with blossoms from top to bottom. With time getting short, we hasten back to the lilacs where several in the group wish to spend the last moments of the trip, making notes and comparisons of these excellent plants to guide them in making their selections for their own homes. It is just for such concrete purposes as this that the thousands of plants in the Arboretum are being continually maintained. DONALD WYMAN 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Library","article_sequence":7,"start_page":33,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24042","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14ea325.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Tucker, Ethelyn M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. -!~ VOL. V JUNE 11, 1937 NUMBER 7 THE LIBRARY thinks of the library of the Arnold Arboretum the question arises what is it? How large is it? What sort of books does it contain, and who may use it? Is it open to the public? First, what is it? It is essentially a botanical library rather than a horticultural one, although it contains many horticultural works. While it has been developed primarily as an adjunct to the study of woody plants, yet it is so catholic in its scope that books on many allied subjects are to be found in it. It was begun in 1873 when Professor C. S. Sargent, the Arboretum's first director, obtained a few standard works needed in planning the Arboretum and arranging its collec- WHEN naturally one tions. How large is it? It now includes approximately 43, 000 bound volumes, 18,000 and several thousand nursery catalogues, thus of the three or four largest and most important botanical libraries ranking in America. In 1892 when the library had increased to six thousand volumes I Professor Sargent presented it to Harvard University and until his death in 19z when it numbered more than 37,000 volumes, it was almost entirely his contribution and that of a few of his friends. Since Professor Sargent's death, growth has of necessity been slower, partly because of limited funds. Fortunately through his foresightedness a large proportion of the older important and rare works were procured during his life time, a collection the value of which cannot be overestimated, for it could not be duplicated today, containing as it does thousands of out-of-print works. It is believed to be the largest dendrological library in the world. Who may use it and how? It is not a circulating library, but primarily a reference collection for the use of the Arboretum staff; however, research workers and others interested in the study of botany are welcomed to the use of the books within the building. Inter-library loans are often made to other universities and to botanical institutions. When loans cannot be made, the library can and does give much help in other ways ; it aids visiting students in looking up needed material, and upon request sends out lists of the best books on a certain subject, photographs, 12,000 pamphlets as one 38 verifies references, types short references when the inquirer cannot visit the library, and while there are no facilities for photostat work at the Arboretum, arranges to have it done at the standard price for this service. The photographs, mounted, catalogued and filed in steel cabinets are also available for consultation. They embrace all the photographs taken by Mr. E.H. Wilson on his trips of exploration undertaken for the Arboretum in eastern Asia, Australasia, India and Africa, and many obtained in the botanical gardens visited by him. A very large number have been acquired by gift, by purchase, and by the later work of Mr. Wilson and other members of the staff. They include photographs of trees and shrubs in the Arboretum and of famous trees in New England, and are arranged in four groups: photographs of men prominent in the botanical and horticultural world, famous gardens, single specimens or groups of specimens, and views taken in the countries explored and in parts of our own country. Where negatives are in possession of the library prints may be made for purchase upon request. The scope of the library. In the words of Professor Sargent, \"Particular paid to books relating to dendrology, general descriptive botany, the cultivation of trees, the works of travelers in which appear descriptions of trees and of general features of vegetation, and in obtaining complete sets of the periodicals in all languages relating to botany, forestry and allied subjects.\" Special attention has also been given to acquiring books relating to the history and cultivation of trees and shrubs valued for their economic products, such as tea, coffee, cocoa, oranges and their allies, cinchona, olive, and the mulberry in its relation to silk, since it seemed highly desirable that an arboretum library should contain all possible books on woody plants. Works on paleobotany, plant pathology, physiology and entomology are also included. The Arboretum takes pride in its comprehensive collections of floras, periodicals and monographs from nearly every nation of the world, more than thirtyfive languages being represented. Here the student may find nearly every reference pertinent to his studies. The Russian literature is particularly extensive, probably equaled in America only in the library of the United States Department of Agriculture. The works on Chinese and Japanese botany have attracted students from China and Japan to study the flora of their own country, as in few places is there to be found so complete a collection. The books on economic botany have proved of distinct value to various commercial firms. The Arboretum owns a nearly complete set of the botanical works of the celebrated Swedish botanist Linnaeus and is fortunate in possessing many of the original Linnaean dissertations which are usually rare items in reference libraries. It has also the Viridarium Cliffortianum,\" believed to be the only copy in the United States, since the one m San Francisco was destroyed in the earthquake of 1906. For twenty-five years Professor Sargent sought to obtain this small book, which has, perhaps, more of human interest than intinsic value. Linnaeus, whose \"Species plantarum,\" 1 i 53, revolutionized botanical nomenclature, and from which all botanical nomenclature of today dates, was sent to the University of Lund in 1727 to study medicine. Here his inclination for natural history was attention has been 34 PLATE VII Title-pa\"e of Jacquin's \"Selectarum st~rpium americanarum historia\" (cir. 17fi0) . favored by Professor Strobaeus, and he passed three years, 1735-1738, in the house of George Cliffort, a rich Dutch gentleman living between Leyden and Haarlem, who employed him to arrange his fine gardens and museum. It was out of a desire to express his gratitude to his benefactor that he honored his memory by a work entitled, \"Hortus Cliffortianus,\" of which the \"Viridarmm\" is an abridgement. 'The collection of Pre-Linnean books comprises more than 1600 volumes. These are the greatest bibliographical treasures in the library, twenty-six items falling into the group \"Incunabula'' (cradle books), printed before 1500 when printing was in its infancy. Of these \"cradle books\" the first acquired by the Arboretum was \"Opus ruralium commodorum\" by Piero Crescenzi, a book on agriculture ; the date is unknown, but was probably soon after 147 1. ~'ritten before the art of printing was developed, it was, because of its importance, one of the first to be put upon the press. Konrad von Megenberg, \"Das puch der natur,\" 1475, is our earliest and perhaps our most valuable work. A later edition of \"Das puch dernatur,\" 1478; Apuleius Platonicus (or Barbarus), \"Herbarium,\" 1484; Columella, \"De cultura hortorum,\" 1480? and Columella, \"Hortuli commentarium,\" 1488-90? are not known to be in any other library in this country. Other incunabula include Barbaro, \"Castigationes Plinii,\" 1492-93; Bartholomaeus Anglicus, \"Ue proprietatibus rerum,'' 1480 and 14<.11 ; \"L~br~ de re rustica,\" n. d. ; \"Herbolarium seu de virtutibus herbarum,\" 1491 ; \"Ortus sanitatus,\" 1490 or 1497, 1496 or 1487, and 1491; \"Gart der gesundheit,\" 1485 ; Macer Floridus, \"De viribus herbarum,\" date unknown; \"Opera agricolat~onum,\" 1482 and 1496; Matthaeus Sylvatvcus, \"Liber pandectarum medicine,\" cir. 1470 and 1480; Plinius Secundus, \"Historia naturalis,\" 1483 and 1496; Theophrastus Eresios, \"De historia plantarum,\" 148-?; Vincentms Bellovacensis, \"Speculum naturale,\"2 vol. 1479?, and 3 vol. 1486?; and Lucretius, \"De rerum * natura,\" 1486.'~ Many editions of these fifteenth century books were published in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and it has been the practice of the library to obtain as many editions of them as possible. It has, therefore, eight editions of Macer Floridus, 1506-1588, with one of 1832; three of Columella's Husbandry, 1551-1745, with one of 18`?4 ; seven of Pliny's \"Historia naturalis,\" 1507-1685, with one of 1855-57; sixteen of Theophrastus, 15?9-1644, and later, and nine of Crescentius' \"Opus,\" 1534-1745, ~mth one 18--? Of Prospero A1pino there are ten titles and editions, 1.i9~-1745 ; five editions of Francis Bacon's \"Sylva sylvarum,\" 1627-1670; seven of Bauhin's \"Pinax theatri botanici,\" 1596-1671 ; nine of Bonnefon's \"Jardimer fran~ois,\" 1653-1684; seven of Van Oosten's Nederlandse bloemhof,\" 1700-1749; twenty-one titles and editions of Richard Bradley on husbandry and gardening, 1716-1757; Brunfels' \"Herbarum and editions 1,53~ and 1,i36 of a second voltitles and editions by Charles Estienne, 1537-1622 ; fourteen works and editions by Olfert Dapper, 1668-1703 ; full collections of the works of vivae ume ; numerous eicones,\" of 1530 and 1532, :~A fuller description of the incunabula in the iv. pp. 56-60. 1923. library 3(> is given in the Arboretum .Journal. vol. Dioscorides, B~attioli, Ray, EvelS-n's \"S3-lva,\" Miller's \"Gardener's dietionary\" and other gardemn~- books ; twenty-one editions ofDodoens' \"Cruydeboeck\" and other works, l.i?1-1644; twenty-five works and editions by Leonhard Fuchs' 1531-1572 ; nine of Herrera's \"Obra de agricultura,\" 1513-1608, and 1819 ; eleven of Huerto, 1361-1616; sixteen of La Quintinye's \"Instruction pour les ,jardins frurtiers,\" 1ti90-1 756 ; eleven of Liger's \"Jardinrer fleurrste,\" 1706-1791 ; s~x of Tabernaemontanus' \"E~cones 1.i88-1731; Ptolemy's \"Geofour editions of Manwood's \"'1'reatise and discourse of the lawes graphia,\" 156`? ; of the forest,\" 1598, 1616, 1665, 1717, and Aristoteles' \"Problemata quae ad stirpium genus & oleracea pertinent,'' 1 539. A fine opportunity is thus afforded for the comparison of different issues. Other books in this group of more than usual interest are Boym's \"Flora sinensis,\" 1556, the first book on Chinese botany published in Europe; Bock's \"Kreuterbuch,\" 1546; Hernandez, \"Nova plantarum.... mexicanorum historia,\" 1651, the first natural history of the New World; Blake's\"Cornpleat gardener's practice,'' 1664; Gerard's \" Herbal,\" 1597, containinga manuscript note dating frour the time of Shakespeare ; \"Le grant herb~er,'' cir. 1 SZO ; \"The greate herball,\" 1.i61, and many others. Many of these books are curiously or beautifully bound, and very rare. The two folios of Dioscorides' \"Codex'' (190.i) in heavy board covers reproduce in facsimile the pages and plates of the famous \"Codex'' prepared in 51 z A. D. for the Princess Anicia Juliana, daughter of the Emperor of the Eastern Empire, which is now preserved in the Hofbibliotek at Vienna. The original is the oldest known manuscript of a botanical work. It was written in the first centurj of the Christian era. For sixteen centuries this book was considered the highest medical and botanical authority, and was the precursor of modern treatises on botany. There are in the library fourteen editions of works by this Greek botanist. The period immediately following the 15th century produced many books of special interest which also are to be found in the Arboretum library. Among these are Wagenheim's \"Beschre~bung einiger nordamerikanischen Holz und Buscharten,\" 1781, the first book on American trees by a German; Belon's \"De arborrbus coniferis,\" 1553, the first book on conifers ; a copy of Humphrey Mar~hall's \"Arbustrum americanum,\" 1 7 85, the first book on American trees written by an American. The mostBaluable work of Jacquin, an Austrian botanist, is his stirpium amencanarum historia,\" cir. 1780, with hand colored plates. But eighteen (according to some authorities twelve) copies of this work were issued and at the time the Arboretum copy was obtained it was the only one in this country; there are now copies in the library of the New York Botanical Garden and in the Congressional Library in Washington. A large group of books on roses numbers among its items several of outstanding interest. The earliest work, now very rare, is\"Collection of Roses from Nature,\" by Mary Lawrance, published in London in 1799. There are, with the frontispiece, ninety-one exquisite plates apparently colored by hand. The only other copy known to be in this country is in the New York Public Library. Little plantarum,\" \"Selectarum 37 was a teacher of drawin~, but her the first entirely devoted to the rose, will remain always one of the most interesting. In 1802? appeared the second monograph on the rose, \"Die Rosen\" by K.G.Rossig, published in Leipzig and having fifty colored plates. The Arboretum copy was purchased at the Castlecraig sale in England. H. C. Andrews' \"Roses,\" 2 vols. 1805-28, also with colored plates, is the third of these early monographs and is apparently rare. Two editions of Redoute's \"Roses\" and all other works known to have been illustrated by this famous artist are among the Arboretum's treasured possessions. A recent work on \"the queen of flowers\" ~s the beautiful two volume \"Genus Rosa\" by Ellen Willmott, with exquisite colored drawings by Alfred Parsons, 1914. There are 13l shelves filled with works devoted to the study of special families and genera, 36 to economic botany, 21 to medical botany and several to is known of Miss Lawrance except that she book, cryptogamic botany. Of the hundreds of illustrated folios, many of them exceedingly rare and exquisitely illustrated, some have already been mentioned, a few others may be especially noted: Redoute, \"Les Liliacees,\" 1802-16, and \"Choix des plus belles fleurs,\" 1827; Millais' \"Rhododendrons,\" in two series, 1917 and 1924; two editions of Lambert's \"Genus Pinus,\" 180:3-37 and 1818 ; Martius \"Flora brasiliensis,\" 18t0-96; Duhamel du Monceau, ` `, rraite des arbres et arbustes,\" ( 1800-19~ ; Bonelli, \"Hortus romanus,\" 1772-93; Humboldt, Bonpland, and Kunth, \"Nova genera et species plantarum,\" 1815-25; Sibthorp, \"Flora graeca,\" 1806-t0; Curtis, \"Flora londinensis,\" 1777-98; Oeder, \"Flora danica,\" 1761-83 ; Riocreux, [Collection of 87original water color botanical drawings], bound in crushed Levant, beautifully tooled, no date; and Palisot de Beauvois' \"Flore d'Oware et de Benin en Afrique,\" 1804-07-~?1~, excessively rare, the second volume being one of the scarcest botanical works in existence. A work in seven volumes of very special interest is\"The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland\" with 419 plates, by H. J. Elwes and Augustine Henry. These volumes were the gift of Professor Sargent's English friends and are autographed by the donors. Each volume is bound in a different wood, the binding of volume one (beech~ being taken from a portion of the foundation in Winchester Cathedral in the 13th century, which was removed when repairs were made some years ago. The 740 original drawings made by C. E. Faxon for Professor Sargent's \"Silva of North America\" are also replete with interest. More than seven hundred colored plates of Chinese plants executed by native artists more than one hundred years ago form an interesting collection of original paintings. The colors are well preserved and the drawings have an oriental charm. Over six hundred of these plates were the gift of one man.* Some of the plates represent well known plants that have been introduced into this country but many of them are very rare. One of the most important items in the library from the point of view of the working botanist is the tremendous collection of periodical literature from every country of the world, containing as it does tens of thousands of original papers *For fuller account see the Arboretum .Journal, Vol. 11. pp. 131-132. 1930. 38 x 's .c ro c r '\" ro .. ., ....., c5 : W: E\" a wa Q) o ~? .~ ro c ., 4) U U 'a c 0 w basic to proper research. Over four hundred periodicals, transactions of societies, etc. are currently received, with the number of publications from Russia, central Europe and Asia constantly increasing. Nearly 200 of these are received in exchange for the Journal and the Bulletin of the Arboretum. There are in the library more than 700 complete, or nearly complete, sets of periodicals ; among the complete sets are the Gardeners' chronicle, the Botanical magazine (the oldest serial still in existence, having been published for 150 consecutive years), the Botanical register, Loudon's Gardener's magasine, Loddiges' Botanical cabizzet and his trade catalogues, a set of the Revue horticole, lacking three early volumes, the oldest garden magazine still published, a set of the rare L'Horticulteur belge in five volumes from 18~3-1838, and a set of the Tokyo Botazzical magazine complete with the exception of a few numbers of volumes2 and 3. There are also Dietrich's Oekonomisch-botanisches garten-journal in six volumes 1795-1806, almost unlcnown in America, a complete set of the Verhandlungen des Vereins zur bPforderung des gartenbaues in Berlin, the Anuales de l'Institut horticole de Fromont, 1829-34, and Landreth's Floral magazine and botanical repository, 183L-3~, a rare American journal. on forestry is unsurpassed in this country, and there complete run of forestry periodicals anywhere in the world, covering as they do all the countries of Europe and Asia and ranging from For.rtArchiv zur Erra~eiterung der Forst-und .lagd-Wissenschaft, 1788, to the new publications as they appear. The Arboretum periodical titles may be found in the Union list of serials. \" Besides the works on botany, there is a large collection of books on travel, among which perhaps the rarest is the French copy of Michaux's Travels, a nearly complete set of Rafinesque's works, a large octavo edition of Audubon's \"Birds of America\" and Captain Thomas Brown's \"Illustrations of the American Orniti~ology of Alexander Wilson and C. L. Bonaparte,\" folio edition, pubhshed in London, 1835. Of the latter work only thirteen copies are known to exist, eight The collection of works more is probably not a in the United States. The Arnold Arboretum library is one of few of the larger botanical libraries in America or abroad whose treasures are made accessible to a very wide public through the publication of its comprehensive library catalogue, in 3 volumes from 1914 to 1933, two volumes listing the works by authors and one by subjects. To a very remarkable degree this great specialized reference library supplements and completes the other special libraries in and near Boston, such as the Gray Herbarium and the Farlow libraries in Cambridge, and various other units of Harvard University, the Massachusetts -Horticultural Society Library and that of the New England Museum of Natural History. Richest and most extensive of all of these within the botanical field, it offers to the seekers of knowledge from printed books on plants and plant science a most unique opportunity. As it stands today it is one of the great botanical libraries of the world, a monument, like the Arboretum itself, to the ability, vision and interest of Charles Sprague Sargent, who made it possible and through whose benefactions it is constantly being inETHEIYN M. TUCHNR creased. being 40 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Clematis for the Northeast States","article_sequence":8,"start_page":41,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24035","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170b327.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Spingarn, J. E.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V JULY 28, 1937 NUMBERS 8-10 CLEMATIS FOR THE NORTHEASTERN STATES has long been neglected in American gardens, and how could it be otherwise when not a single arboretum, botanic garden, or agricultural college in the United States has a representative collection of clematis plants growing on its grounds? It is high time that this state of affairs should be altered, and gardeners everywhere are turning with the new dehght of discovery to what the late William Robinson rightly called the most beautiful of all northern CLEMATIS climbing plants. HISTORICAL NOTE In the 1830's and 1840's gardeners in Boston and Philadelphia were new species and varieties of clematis from England almost as rapidly as they were introduced from eastern Asia and elsewhere. C. ,florida had been brought to Europe from Japan over sixty years before it was exhibited at Boston in 1838 ; but C. ~Sieboldii (C. florida bicolor~ was exhibited at Philadelphia in 1840 only three years after the plant reached Europe; C. patens was exhibited in Boston in 1841 only five years after it reached Europe; C. lannginosa was exhibited in Boston in 1856, only five years behind England; and when the first great hybrid, C.Jackmani, was created in England and introduced in 1863, it was shown in Boston by the historian Francis Parkman only three years later. By 1890 the interest had grown to such an extent that a Long Island nursery listed seventy-three varieties of the largeflowered hybrids in a single catalogue. But then fashion changed, or difficulties in growing the plants intervened, or Quarantine 37 put an embargo on importations ; whatever the reason, few clematis were seen in our gardens and few were offered by nurserymen. Perhaps 1928 might be taken as the nadir of American interest in the large-flowered hybrids. In that year, although nearly two hundred named varieties were listed in European nursery importing ~41 authority like the late E. H. Wilson could write that there are a score or more of these named varieties, but many are difficult to obtain in this country.\" Now times have again changed, and in answer to the new wave of enthusixsm for these beautiful plants, new varieties are being imported and made available to American gardeners, though most of them are really old varieties that have been lost to us merely by our indifference. catalogues, an \"altogether THE GENUS CLEMATIS The genus Clematis is a member of the buttercup family (which includes such favorites as anemone, columbine, delphinium and peony) and is characterized by opposite leaves, often divided into three, five, or more leaflets, and by a complete absence of petals. The showy portions of the flowers are sepals, and to call them petals is to declare yourself a novice. In a few species, however, such as the American C.verticillaris and the European C.alpina, the outer row of stamens has been so modified so as to seem more or less petal-like ; and in the most charming member of the group, the Cmacropetala of China xnd Mxnchuria, these staminodes, as they are called, would be mistaken for petals by all but the expert. For this reason some botanists regard this group as a separate genus, Atragene. Indeed, the spPCies of Clematis are so divergent that a few botanists split the genus into three or even four genera, Clematis, hiorna, Atragene and Viticella; but this is of little concern to the gardener and is rejected by the vast ma,jorhy 'v of botanists. I mention it merely to drive home the many-sided richness of this extraordinary genus. For rich it is, not only in the number of species and varieties, but in its range of size, color, and shape. It includes between two and three hundred species, growing all over the world, on every continent and the islands of the sea, but especially abundant in eastern Asia, the Himalayas, and our own North America. It is found on mountxms and in marshes and deserts, and though it grows almost everywhere, even in the Belgian Congo and the Fiji Islands, it is essentially a plant of the temperate zone, and shows its true beauty only in such regions. It includes climbers and non-climbers, ranging in height from twelve inches (as in the C.l3ald~inii of Florida) to thirty or forty feet (as m the C. Vitalba of Europe). Some species are weedy things with inconspicuous flowers, but the vast majority are fit subjects for the garden. In addition to these wildings, about five hundred hybrids have been created by the genius of man, and nearly two hundred of these are still listed by European nurserymen. Taking the genus as a whole, including both species and hybrids, we find flowers of almost every color, white, gray, lavender, mauve, purple,yellow,pink,scarlet,and red (though not as yet a true red),of every size, small, medium, and large, with a diameter in some cases 42 inches,-and of every shape,flat,tubular,bell-shaped, urn-shaped, lantern-shaped, platter-shaped,single and double, flowers like anemones or apple blossoms or semi-double roses. Nor are the flowers the only attraction. The charm and airy grace of the foliage make it an ornament throughout the growing season; and a new interest is added at seed-time by the fruiting-heads with their feathery styles. In many species these fluffvmasses form a display almost as striking as when the plant is in flower. THE SPECIES of ten to twelve At least forty or fifty species are hardy in New York and New England. Of these only one is in wide use in gardens, the Japanese C. prtraiculatct, with rts panicles of small, whrte, fragrant flowers in August and September; but others of the same type, such as the Japanese C.apiifolia and the Chinese C. brenicnudata and G`. Fargesii, mi`hht be used to produce variety. Little need be said of these except that they lend themselves to much the same uses as screens or over fences, walls, and tree stumps. But it may be worth noting that E. H.Wilson was in error when he said in More Ari,sloorals qf the (xnrden that G'.paniczrlata was introduced into the United States by the Arnold Arboretum, from seeds received from Russia; and others (including myself) have repeated the error in print. But Professor Sargent, in an article in Garden and Forest in 1890, definitely states that this species was introduced by rhomas Hogg through the Parsons Nursery, of Flushing, Long Island, from which the Arnold Arboretum received its first plant m 1877. \"The credit of making this fine plant known to American gardens,\" says Professor Sargent,\"is due to Mr. Edward O. Orpet,\" who is now, in hale old age, a nurseryman in California. A selected list of species hardy in the northeastern states is appended to this Bulletin. Of these a few deserve special mention. Loveliest of all is our own C. texensi,e, a native of Texas but hardy in Bar Harbor and Ottawa. A five or six year old plant covered with thousands of its scarlet to rose-pink urn-shaped flowers is as striking a sight as our northern gardens can show. Unfortunately there are drah forms of this species, and care should be taken to obtain a fine strain in which the ,~lowin~ color of the flower is preserved. Some plants are subject to mildew, which can be controlled by a prompt dusting with Kolodust or powdered sulphur. Other beautiful native climbers are C. crispa, C.troutbeckiana, C. Pitcheri, C.ner.sicolor, all with urn-shaped flowers of various shades, and the purple spring clematis of our eastern woods, C. uerticillaris. Of these C. crispu is second in beauty only to G'. texenszs, but inferior species are often palmed off as C. crispa by nurserymen. There is a pinkish, trumpet-shaped form which is superior to the rest and deserves a varietal name; I venture to call it C.cri.eprt ~r~lindricu, and congratulate the gardener who is successful in obtaining it. 43 C.montana and its varieties are sure to give the New England gardener heartache, for even the hardiest of them are likely to be killed to the ground, if not entirely destroyed, in an unusually harsh winter. The pink C.montana rubens and the white flushed pink C.montana undulata are sturdier than the others, but as they flower on old wood and will not bloom if hard hit by \"Jack Frost,\" we can recommend them for this climate only with reservations despite their beauty. Of the several yellow-flowered climbers from China and Korea, C.tangutica and its variety obtusiuscula are the best. They are sturdy as a rock, these slender climbers with their bright yellow, lantern-shaped flowers, and should be in every garden. Even more beautiful are some of the climbers of the Atragene group, the blue C. alpina of Europe, the white C. alpina sibirica (or alba), and especially the C. macropetala of China and Manchuria. The last has azure-blue flowers with a mass of tongue-like staminodes that make an unforgettable sight when in full bloom. It may seem fussy at first, but is the reverse of difficult when once established, and it is hardy enough to thrive in Manitoba. Mr. Ernest Markham has recently introduced a fine pink form. Three small to medium-flowered hybrids, C.Jouiniana, C.Dnrandii, and C.aromalica, are also attractive plants. I should like to make a special plea for the first, for C. Jouiniana (especially the form that grows in my own garden) is a delightful plant, perhaps the easiest to grow of the whole genus. It is a rampant climber, and in late summer it is covered with pale lavender, tubular flowers, which resemble those of one of its parents, C. Davidiana. A variety of C. ViticPlla introduced by Lemoine of Nancy, and usually called C.kermesina, may easily vie in popularity with C.mwatana rubens when it is better known. It has bright wine-red flowers that cover the plant in great abundance. Among the low herbaceous species for the flower border or front of the shrubbery are C.iutegr~f'olia, C.Davidiana, and C.recta grand~lora, the first two blue, and the last white. Some of our far western species, such as C.eriophora, C.Scottii, C.Douglavii, and C.Fremonlii, all low plants not over two feet high, with urn-shaped or bell-shaped flowers, are also worth a trial. THE LARGE.FLOWERED HYBRIDS The large-flowered hybrids are mainly derived from one European species, C. Vilicella, and three large-flowered species of Chinese origin,-C. florida, brought from Japan by Thunberg in 1776 ; C.paten.s, brought from Japan by Siebold in 1886, and C. languinosa, discovered by Robert Fortune in Ningpo, China, and introduced in 1851. It is by crossing these species, and some of their varieties, that the largeflowered hybrids have been created. The first and still the most popular hybrid, C.Jackmani, was first exhibited in England in 1868, and 44 v ~ g ~a o v w~ v ::; a~ w :e 0 c VC ~:\" L Y as a E. x -< 11 c L L ~ c C^ ~V .J a: d. ~ m v G s U x a ~B L ., 4 U ~ G1 L O _~ m U since then several hundred have been created in Great Germany, and Holland. Britain, France, These hybrids are usually classified in accordance with their resemblance to one or other of the parent species. Five types are recognized. These are: ( 1 ) Patens Type, blooming in spring on old woocl; (2) Florida Type, blooming in summer on old wood; (3) (4) (5) Lanuginosa Type, Viticella Type, and Jackmani Type, all blooming in summer and autumn on new wood. It is useful for the gardener to know to which type a given hybrid belongs, for he then knows the characteristics of the plant and when it will bloom. But it is absolutely essential that he should at least know whether it blooms on old or on new wood, that is, on the wood of the previous year or on the shoots of the current season. All pruning depends on this knowledge, for a plant that blooms on old wood will not flower if it is cut back hard either by the gardener or by \"Jack Frost.\" For this reason varieties that bloom on new wood are in general more adapted to the rather severe climate of the northeastern states. It should be added that there is a sixth group, the Texensis Type, developed during the 1890's by crossing our native C. texen.sis with various large-flowered hybrids. The Texensis Hybrids are delightful plants, quite different from the other hybrids in shape and color. They are all more or less trumpet-shaped, and of various shades of scarlet and pink, with or without white markings. They are among my own special favorites. A list representing what in my opinion are the \"twenty best\" largeflowered hybrids available in this country will be found at the end of this Bulletin. All such choices are of course arbitrary, and my list contains varieties that would not be included if an ampler choice were e possible. For the sake of comparison, I have added a similar list made by an English expert of the \"twenty best\" hybrids obtainable in England. It will be seen that seventy percent of the English list is included in my own, but if I were to have an unfettered choice of the hundred or more hybrids I have myself grown, my final decision would not exactly agree with either list. I suggest that the novice begin with the varieties that have withstood the test of survival in our climate for many years, such as C. Jceckmani (purple), Madame Edouard Andre (purplish red), Madame Baron-Veillard (lilac-rose), Gipsy Queen (dark velvety purple), C. Henryi (enormous white), Ville de Lyon (reddish purple),and the somewhat fussier Ramona (blue). The first three are the hardiest of all ; the color of Madame Baron-Veillard, never very distinguished, washes out in the sun,but much can be forgiven a plant that refuses to die and that blooms almost without interruption from midsummer to frost. After experimenting with these, the novice, no longer a novice, can try 46 ~ ~ V ;! Ie ~ U w~ O x '\" b O . ;., x '\" . x H a~ .J w 0 DC W .a S o < == ::. ~ _~ a~ w 0 L J a m 1~ S U Moser (pale mauve with red bar), Prins Hendrik (azure blue), William Kennett (deep lavender), Mrs. Cholmondeley (light blue), and some of the other varieties on the appended list, especially one of the Texensis Hybrids, such as the Duchess of Albany. The selection one makes will largely depend on one's color preferences, for there is not a variety on the list that could not grace the proudest Nelly garden. Two double-flowered varieties are now (pale mauve or silvery-gray) and Duchess of available, Belle of Woking Edinburgh (white), both blooming on old wood. Some single varieties, such as C. Jackmani alba and Beauty of Worcester, may also surprise us by having an occasional double flower. Something of the airy grace of clematis seems to me lost in the doubles, but Belle of Woking is a superior plant. SOIL AND SITUATION The best time to plant clematis is in spring, but the hybrids are usually grown in pots, and these may be set out almost any time dur- ing the growing season. The soil should be deeply dug; the deeper and wider the hole the better. This is not the place to discuss the complex problem of clematis and lime, and no one is as yet in a position to say whether lime or the texture of the soil is the essential element. It is sufficient to say that most of the wild species grow in limestone regions. A light loam, moist and well-drained, and with some lime added, is the ideal soil; if the soil is heavy, it may be lightened with leafmold and a little sand ; and in the case of all hybrids and most species, it should be enriched with manure,-cow manure preferably on light soils and well-rotted stable manure on heavier soils. Moisture and a cuol root-run are essential to the happiness uf clematis, and in dry weather they should be given an occasional watering. Most clematis prefer some shade, which can be provided by plant- ing them behind a shrub or small tree, or if this is inconvenient, they can be given a mulch of spent hops or possibly peat moss sweetened with lime. The ball of roots should be set two or three inches below the surface of the soil, and the stem immediately trained to a stake or post. I protect my own plants with a zinc collar about eight inches high, inserted in the ground two or three inches, for any kink or break in the stem may lead to disaster. I prefer this to the inverted bottomless flower-pot filled with sand that is sometimes used in Europe. Various methods have been suggested for increasing the sturdiness of the young plants. One method is to peg one of the lower nodes of the stem below the surface of the soil, so that a new mass of roots may be encouraged to grow. Another and more heroic device, in case the plants are not thriving, is to cut the stem at the beginning of the second year below the ground right down to the root, so as to encourage I , 50 PLATE XI Clematis \"Belle of Woking,\" a double-flowered silvery-gray hybrid. I'lauto by 11 u(tvr Bvvbv lt'i(dvr the growth of the proper soil new and healthier stems. But with strong plants and and situation, neither of these devices need be employed. PRUNING of the greatest of all clematis enthusiasts, Robinson, once wrote in his crotchety way : \"By giving up all pruning trouble is saved, and one gets a more picturesque result.\" In the case of many of the wild species this is perhaps advisable, and in the case of the hybrids, at least in our climate, \"Jack Frost\" often takes the matter out of our hands. But more and larger flowers are usually the result of judicious pruning when this is possible. The problem depends mainly on whether a plant blooms on old or on new wood. With Belle of Woking, Duchess of Edinburgh, Sir Garnet Wolseley, and other hybrids of the Patens and Florida Types, which bloom on old wood, little pruning is necessary except the cutting out of dead wood, but it may sometimes be advisable to trim the plant and cut out some of the growths for the sake of appearance even if some bloom is thereby lost. As for the varieties that bloom on new wood, the general rule is to cut back hybrids of the Viticella and Jackmani Types to within two or three feet of the ground, while only the more robust of the Lanuginosa Type should be treated in this way. The Texensis Hybrids, like C. texensis itself, solve the problem for themselves by dying to the ground each winter, so that one need merely cut off the dead canes. It should be remembered that some of the wild species, such as C.montana rubensand C.alpina, also bloom on old wood, and require the treatment accorded to all old wood bloomers. But it will be found that every species and hybrid, and even every situation, requires special treatment, and that these general directions may need some modification in each case. William one USES Clematis fulfill the general purposes of all climbing plants, in serving as screens, draping fences, walls, trellises, and pergolas, and covering old tree stumps. Nothing makes a lovelier picture than a fine hybrid variety in full bloom against the side of a house. Many of the species can be used in the wild garden, and some of the lower sorts can be used to advantage in the rock garden, as described in the English Gardeners Chronicle of November 9, 1935. One of the most charming ways to grow the climbers is to plant them on the shady side of a shrub or small tree, and let them scramble through the branches into the sunlight. They can be used in pots and tubs for house decorations or for the conservatory. They can also be used in beds, twining about branches set slantwise near the ground, with bulbous plants set out between them to furnish bloom in spring. They make admirable cut flowers, some of the varieties lasting ten days or more in 52 Clematis \"W. E. Gladstone.\" PLATE XII a fine hybrid with flowers of heaveulv blue. l'hotu t~y It'ultvn livvbv II'el~Ger water. It is strange that no of this fact, for some florists plants exclusively for the cut American florists have taken advantage in Holland grow a hundred thousand flower trade. PROPAGATION Most of the species can be grown easily from seed, while others, with hard-shelled achenes, do not germinate for many months. C.tungutica, for example, requires neither skill nor patience, while C.tevensis does not appear for eight or nine months, and some of the New Zealand species require one or two years. I have found it best to sow the seeds in the greenhouse as soon as they are ripe, but they can also be sown in a coldframe either in autumn or in spring. The hybrids can be propagated by layering, by grafting, or from cuttings. Grafted plants are usually inferior to own-root plants, and the latter should be procured whenever possible. The best way to propagate from cuttings is to bring the plants into the greenhouse early in January, take cuttings from the new shoots as soon as they are ready, immerse them for about twenty-four hours in the new rootforming substance discovered by Dr. Hitchcock and Dr. Zimmerman of the Boyce Thompson Institute, and then insert them in sand until they are rooted. When this method is followed, it makes little difference whether the cuttings are nodal or internodal, though by most other methods internodal cuttings may be preferable. BOOKS Ernest Markham's Clemntis,The I,zrrge and ~Smrzll Flore~erecl (London and New York, 1935) is a useful and practical little book, with a special chapter on \"Clematis in America.\" Moore and Jackman's The Clematis rrs a Garden Flower (London, 1872; revised edition, 1877), though out of date, is still indispensable. Those mterested in the species should consult Rehder's Mazzual qf Cultiaated Tree.e and Shrubs, Bean's Trees and ~Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles, and Bailey's Standard Cyclopedia qf Horticulture. The last deals with the largeflowered hybrids also. A complete check-list of the hybrids will be found in the National Horticultural Magazine, January, 1985. A list of nurseries offering interesting species and hybrids was published in the Bulletin of the Horticultural Society of New York, January, 1936. J. E. SPINGARN 54 Clematis lanuginosa, PLATE XIII Chinese large-flowered species from which many of the hybrids have been derived. Photo by Ti nllvr 73vvbv 1T'ildvr a APPENDIX TWENTY BEST LARGE-FLOWERED HYBRIDS OBTAINABLE IN THIS COUNTRY All bloom on new wood except Belle of Woking and Sir Garnet Wolseley. It might be of interest to compare with this list a similar one prepared for me a few years ago by a well-known firm of clematis specialists in England, since many of the varieties are the same, and the others will soon be available in this country. This list of the \"twenty best large-flowered hybrids obtainable in England\" includes : Ascotiens~s, Belle Nantaise (delicate lavender), Belle of Woking, Comtesse de Bouchaud, Crimson King, Elsa Spath, Fairy Queen (pale flesh with pink bar), Gipsy Queen, Henryi, Jackmani superba, Lady Northcliffe (deep lavender), Lady Betty Balfour, (deep velvety purple), Lasurstern (deep purplish blue), Lord Neville, Madame Edouard Andre, Mrs. Cholmondeley, Mrs. Hope (satiny mauve with darker bar), Nelly Moser, Ville de Lyon, and William Kennett. All these bloom on new wood except Belle of Woking and Lasurstern. There is only one pure white variety on either list, and other whites worthy of mention are Miss Bateman and The Bride, blooming on old wood, and Madame van Houtte and Marie Boisselot, blooming on new wood. Other beautiful varieties not yet available here are W. E. Gladstone (I~lac), Otto Froebel (gray with a lovely flush), Perle d'Azur (light blue), blooming on new wood, and La Lorraine (pink suffused with lavender) and Edouard Desfosse (violet with deeper bars), blooming on old wood. *Or any other Texensis Hybrid, Duchess of York, Countess of Onslow, Grace Darling, Admiration, all with trumpet-shaped flowers in shades of pink or scarlet. 5 (i "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Barberries Immune or Highly Resistant to Black Stem Rust of Cereals","article_sequence":9,"start_page":57,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24034","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170af26.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Ames, L. M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~~' ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION --~ --~-----~~ SERIES 4. VOL. V SEPTEMBER 10, 1987 NUMBERS 11-18 BARBERRIES IMMUNE OR HIGHLY RESISTANT TO BLACK STEM RUST OF CEREALS Berberidaceae contains a great number of ornamental shrubs which are at once pleasing and useful. Bright red persistent berries enrich the beauty of many of the species; and the foliage, which colors brilliantly in the fall, aids considerably in causing the plants to merit the praise of exacting gardeners. Various immune species of Berberis and Mahonia are worthy of wider use than they now enjoy and should be better known to the general public. Approximately 140 different species, forms, and hybrids of Berberis (including our two native species) have been found to be susceptible to Puccinia graminis, a parasitic fungus which in the spring and summer causes the devastating stem rust of cereals. THE family flowering LIFE HISTORY OF THE STEM RUST FUNGUS In the fall this fungus forms its thick-walled overwintering spores the grain stems and stubble, and is often called \"black rust\" because of the spore color. In spring, the comparatively large and heavy black rust spores germinate and produce much smaller ones, knuwn as sporidia, which are easily carried by air currents. Of the countless numbers of sporidia produced only a comparatively few are by mere chance transported to susceptible hosts. If these tiny sporidia fail to fall on susceptible species of Berberis or Mahonia, they die and the life cycle of the rust is terminated ; but if they fall on susceptible host species, only favorable weather is necessary to produce infection. Following infection small flask-shaped bod~es, containing minute spores, first make their appearance just beneath the surface of the upper epidermis of the leaves. Soon after their formation orange cluster cups are formed on the under surfaces of the leaves, within which are proon .57 duced chains of large aeciospores ; an average-sized barberry bush can produce more than 64,000,000,000 of these spores at one time. Only these aeciospores can effect initial spring infection on the cereals in the northern States. We have here a fungus that has five distinct spore forms during a complete life cycle. In addition, it has an interesting requirement involving alternate hosts ; the barberry is necessary for one stage, while the important cereals, such as wheat, oats, barley, and rye, must be present for another stage. HISTORY OF BARBERRY ERADICATION The barberry-cereal relationship of the fungus that causes stem rust first demonstrated on a scientific basis in 1865 by the celebrated German scientist Anton de Bary. More than a hundred years earlier New England farmers observed that rust was more severe on grains growing near barberry bushes, and they voluntarily eradicated their barberries for the specific purpose of protecting grains from the damaging effects of the disease. About this time many laws were passed, both in this country and in Europe, condemning barberry bushes because they cau5ed \"blasting\" of the grains. The earliest recorded legislation of this kind was enacted in Rouen, France in 1660. In 1726 Connecticut passed a law requiring that all barberry bushes growing in the vicinity of grain fields be destroyed, and similar action was taken by the Massachusetts legislature in 1751,. Unquestionably the empirical knowledge of the barberry-rust relationship expressed both by New England farmers and by husbandmen on the Continent led de Bary to make his study. It is this destructive disease of wheat and other cereals that makes current knowledge of the rust-immune species of the Berberidaceae so important from a horticultural standwas point. nearly 200 years had elapsed after the first laws passed condemning barberries in the United States, the first organized eradication program was undertaken. During this period certain species of barberry, particularly Berberis vulgaris L., became firmly established throughout the northern part of the United States. In 1918, when were As the number of these bushes increased in the important grain growing areas there was a corresponding increase in the number and severity of stem rust epidemics. With the beginning of the cooperative barberry eradication program nearly 20 years ago, thirteen of the north central States, namely, Colorado, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Michigan, Minnesota, Montana, Nebraska, North Dakota, Ohio, South Dakota, Wisconsin, and Wy58 oming, passed laws restricting the propagation and distribution of rust-susceptible species. These States were further protected by a provides that no plants, cuttings, stocks, scions, buds, fruits, seeds, or other plant parts capable of propagation, of the genera Berberis, Mahonia, or Mahoberberis 38 Federal quarantine (No. revised) which shall be moved or allowed to be moved interstate from any State of the continental United States or from the District of Columbia into any of the protected states, \"unless a permit shall have been issued therefor by the United States Department of Agriculture, except that no restrictions are placed by these regulations on the interstate movement either of Japanese barberry (Berberis Thunbergii) or any of its horticultural varieties, or of cuttings (without roots) of Mahonia shipped for decorative purposes and not for propagation.\" In addition to the above named states, Missouri, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia are now actively engaged in an eradication program. IMMUNE TYPES Fortunately, there are twenty-seven species of Berberi.s and three species of Mahonia which have been found to be either immune or of such a high degree of resistance to rust that they can be grown anywhere without endangering our cereal crops. Indeed, the choice of species is so ample and of such quality that the immune species will fulfill most of the purposes for which barberries are used in ornamental plantings. The following barberries I States without restriction.l B. B. B. B. B. B. can be grown anywhere in the United Permits are Thunbergii Thunbergii var. purpurea Thunbergii var. Maximotericzii Thunbergii f. minor Thunbergii var. plur~flora Thunbergii f. erecta required under the regulations of the 38 quarantine immune or (No. revised) resistant black stem rust for interstate movement of the following highly species or varieties into any protected and for such movement from any protected State into any protected State. Application for such permits should be addressed to the Division of Domestic Plant Quarantines, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C. State, 1 The six forms listed here all have conspicuous fruit, hardy in the Arnold Arboretum. 59 and are winter I Bearing 3 conspicuous fruit. winter in the Arnold Arboretum. protection at the Arboretum and in northern States. 2 Winter hardy Require hybrids of Berberi.r or Mahonia not listed prohibited shipment into the protected States or from any protected State into any protected State, and permits will not be issued for such shipment. All species, varieties, and in the foregoing groups are DECIDUOUS SPECIES Berberis Thunbergii and varieties. This species has long been a favorite and is found in nearly every lawn and garden. It is also extensively used for hedge plantings. Thunberg, sometime previous to 1784, was the first European to notice this barberry in Japan, erroneously referring to it as B.cretica L. In 18z 1 A. P. DeCandolle assigned the currently used binomial B. Thunbergii to it. It was introduced to Russia sometime before 1874 by E. von Regel, who received seeds from Japan at the Imperial Garden at St. Petersburg. These plants grown in Russia by E. von Regel eventually produced seed and from this source seeds were received at the Arboretum on January 14, 18 7 ~. A compact form of the species originated at the Arnold Arboretum as a chance seedling sometime before 1900. It has smaller leaves, shorter internodes, more slender and delicate branches, a better rounded growth habit, and more dwarfed stature. This form ~s now known as Berberis Thunbergii f. nzinor. Although not cultivated extensively as yet, it does, however, hold a well-deserved position in many shrub plantings; its leaves color well in the fall and the red berries remain attached during the winter. (i0 '\" II) II) '\" : G , E t;; o. 0 w~ ~b II) ~ :: s S -E w ~ro ~ ~ '\" o E. ~+~ .... @ 0 ,~ (.) o II) ,., 1:: >, 0 ~^1~8 ~ \"f Fn U (.) U ; . c:. c: Cd F~, ... 3 ~, m '\" < x o ro N :: '\" fl' Ir) II) aa The form B. Thunbergii var. purpurea, very widely known, differs from the type principally in the purplish to reddish color of the leaves; the fullest and most brilliant color develops on plants grown in full exposure to the sun. Berberis Thunbergii var. Maximowicsii is characterized chiefly by more twiggy branches, purple bark, and acute leaves which are green beneath. Seed of this variety was sent by the Imperial Botanic Garden, Tokyo, Japan, to the Arboretum in March 1901. The name of the form called B. Thunbergii var. pluriflora is somewhat confused. The varietal name plur~ora should be applied to B. Thunbergii plants which bear three or four flowers and fruits at the end of a short peduncle. Unfortunately, this name has often been applied to the hybrid B.ottawensis (B. Thunbergii X B.vulgaris), having B. Thunbergii-like leaves and bearing flowers and fruits in racemes and umbels. This hybrid is equally as undesirable as B.vulgaris. A new and superior selection of B. Thunbergii has recently made its appearance. Mr. M. Horvath of Mentor, Ohio, during his work on one of the large estates in the city of Cleveland, discovered a plant of B. Thunbergii with a strong tendency toward erect growth. He gathered the seeds from this plant and from their progeny selected seed from the most upright type. This process was repeated until the fifth generation, wherein Mr. Horvath found what he considered the perfect spire-like plant that he was seeking, properly called Berberis Thunbergii f. erecta. Unfortunately, this plant has had the erroneous polynomial B. Thunbergii var. pluriflora erecta applied to it. It is not a selection from a pluriflora type, but is a derivative of the typical form of B. Thunbergii. This selection is upright in growth and is admirably adapted for formal hedge plantings. It is propagated vegetatively and produces abundant red berries ; the foliage changes to a brilliant red in the fall. B.mentorensis. Through the hybridizing efforts of Mr. Horvath another barberry was introduced to the trade in 1934. Berberis mentorensis is the result of crossing B. Thunbergii with B.Julianae. The cross was made in 1924, and the hybrid which appeared in 1925 is propagated vegetatively. This hardy, three-fourths evergreen plant shows strong resemblance to both parents. The young branches are at first purplish to light brown, angled and strongly grooved ; the elliptic-ovate leaves which cover the bush to the ground are coriaceous in texture, dark green above and pale beneath; the margins are sparsely spinulose-dentate, and the apex of the leaf is tipped with a little spine. The plants in the Arboretum are apparently becoming 62 flowfascicle examined contained over forty blossoms. In size and ers ; one color the flowers closely resemble those of B. Thunbergii. When established, the strong growth of this distinctive shrub, armed with stiff spines, is very suitable for protective and ornamental hedges, while it may also be used as a specimen or in natural growing group plantings. In the autumn many leaves assume a pinkish to reddish tinge, later becoming somewhat bronzed. A few leaves remained attached and green during the entire past winter in the Arboretum. Where evergreen barberries fail to withstand rigorous winters, this plant will usually survive, for during the unusually cold winter of 1938-34 it withstood temperatures greater than -20~ F. in Ohio without any well established, and this year for the first time are covered with apparent injury. outstanding barberries which have been growfor many years in the Arboretum will very probably become ing well known within the next few years. The silky-leaved Berberis Gilgiana is one of these. It is a tall hardy plant with spreading branches and pleasing proportions. The young branchlets are grooved, slightly pubescent, and yellow or purplish brown. The elhptic-obovate or mostly oblong leaves are finely pubescent above and more conspicuously so beneath. Abundant yellow flowers are borne in dense racemes on slender puberulous peduncles. In the fall the oblong-ovoid fruits are at first somewhat greenish in color, but change first on the sunexposed side to pinkish hues and finally to a lovely deep blood red. The foliage also colors handsomely in the fall. The fine specimen on the Overlook in the Arboretum is from seed collected by Purdom (No. 589) and received from China m February 1911. B. circumserrata. Another Chinese barberry which has much merit but is little known, is Berberis circumserrata. It develops into a rounded bush up to 6 feet high and has a stiff twiggy habit of growth. The leaves are somewhat papery in texture, and color brilliantly in the autumn. The large ellipsoid-oblong fruits which taper to a distinct style are yellowish-red in color and are borne singly or in groups of three to five, prominently supported by rigid peduncles and strong pedicels. The fruit persists well through the winter. This is a hardy, handsome shrub of a distinctive type. B. koreana. From Korea comes a hardy barberry of outstanding character. Seeds of B.koreana were first sent to the Arboretum by 1'. Uziyama in 1904. Our plant is upright in growth habit and has now attained a height of 6 feet. The clusters of large globose-ovoid red fruit persist over the winter. They combine with the reddish to dark B. Gilgiana. Several 63 brown branches and the many leaf-like spines of the same color to produce an interesting plant during the dreary winter months. In the spring and summer new interest comes with the yellow flower clusters and the development of the large, rounded, thick paper-like leaves which take on a deep red color, and other hues, in the autumn. In recent years a number of nurseries have propagated this plant, and although a considerable proportion of the seedlings produce plants of upright growth there will be an appreciable number of less desirable growth forms. This hardy barberry is a fit type to replace B.vulgaris wherever hedges or individuals of that habit are desired. B. concinna. Our Berberis concinna, which was received from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, in March, 1885, failed to withstand the New England climate. It is reported, however, that at Kew, B.concinna forms a low bush of 3 feet in height, of close compact habit. Its leaves are lustrous green above, white beneath, obovate in shape, an inch or less in length, and petiolate, with the midrib ending in a sharp spiny tooth. The solitary, pendant flowers are deep yellow and a halfinch in diameter. The fleshy berries are red. This plant was introduced to Kew by Sir Joseph Hooker from Sikkim about 1850. Under suitable climatic and soil conditions it is a very lovely barberry, distinct because of the vivid whiteness of the under surface of the leaves. B. aemulans. The hardy, but quite uninteresting Berberis aemulans introduced to the Arboretum in 1908, from seed collected by Wilson in western China. B. Edgeworthiana reached England about 1845 ; but the earliest plants at the Arboretum came from seed sent by Mr. R. M. Parker in 19~0 from India, where it is native. The species, like B. aemulans, apparently has little to recommend it from a horticultural standpoint. B. dictyophylla f. albicaulis. Graceful and of slender habit, Berberis dictyophylla f. albicaulis is unusual and charming because of the dense snow-white bloom covering the new shoots and the under surface of the leaves. This form apparently turned up by chance as a minor segregate of B.dictyophylla,grown at Hesse's nursery at VVeener, Germany, shortly before 1916. The species is native to southwestern China. Most of the flowers are solitary and rather inconspicuous. The fruit is not abundant enough for ornamental value, but this is unimportant in view of the graceful sprays of lovely white stems and the chalky under-surfaces of the leaves, which make a splendid display in both summer and winter. The plant is not hardy at the Arboretum, but ~t can be grown south of Washington, D.C., or somewhat farther was north if given sufficient winter protection. 64 .0 oi ~ C U +~ ~ 0 F m O N E M ` cd ~~ '~ O - W 'G F^1 i F c! O G ~ a F N a U 'J .4 '~ F N B. Beaniana. Trim, slow-growing Berberis Beaniana has withstood the New England climate since 1923. This species was introduced to England in 1904,seeds being collected from western Szechuan,China, by a Veitch expedition. The plants at Kew were first reported to have flowered and fruited in 1914. It is not surprising then that the plant at the Arboretum, received from Kew Gardens, England, in April, 1923, has failed to blossom until this year when a few flower clusters appeared. Judging from flowering and fruiting herbarium specimens, this will be a very attractive species from a horticultural standpoint. It has reddish, angled branches, small elliptic-lanceolate leaves which are whitish beneath, and it bears panicles of yellow flowers which are followed by long, purple fruits covered with bloom. B. Potanini is closely related to B. Beaniana, but it is less hardy. This species, like the above, is native to China. Our plants which fail to survive the local climate were grown from seed received from Kew Gardens in February, 1927. B. Potanini is remarkable for its numerous long spines. The somewhat leathery or rigid, lanceolate to ovate leaves are armed with from 1 to 4 spiny teeth on each side and are whitish beneath. The flowers are produced in racemes, and the fruits are subglobose, red, and tipped with a short style. It should be of distinct value farther south. EVERGREEN SPECIES B. Darwinii, a native of Chile, it is not hardy at the Arboretum ; it is root hardy but not top hardy at Washington, D. C. In milder climates, as along the Pacific Coast, B. Darwinii thrives. This beauti- ful evergreen was discovered by Charles Darwin in 1835 while on his famous voyage on the Beagle. In 1894 it was introduced to cultivation by William Lobb for the Messrs. Veitch, Chelsea, England, from the Island of Chiloe. When grown under suitable conditions. B.Darwinii is a plant of great beauty, especially when laden with a profusion of deep orange blossoms early in the spring. In the autumn when it is burdened with a large crop of bluish berries it is also very attractive, and at all seasons the small holly-like leaves produce a pleasing effect. B. stenophylla. The beautiful, graceful hybrid Berberis stenophylla (B.Darwinii X B.empetrifolia~ first appeared in the nursery of Fisher & Holmes of Hansworth, near Sheffield, England, about 1880. Under conditions such as obtain in the milder parts of England it grows to a height of 8 to 10 feet, ~s evergreen, and has a graceful habit which neither parent possesses. In addition it has the floral beauty of B. 66 Darwinii and the added hardiness of B.empetrifolia, for in April and May it is blanketed with rich golden blossoms. In New England, the plant loses most of its leaves in winter and does little more than cling to life. The Arboretum specimen, which dates from 1884, is scarcely more than 2 feet in height. Even the milder weather of Washington, D. C., is not sufficient to bring out its potential beauty. Probably, then, only in the regions where B. Darre~inii thrives will this gorgeous plant come into its own. B. buxifolia. Another evergreen species from South America, this plant is approximately as hardy as B. stenophylla and hke it has just managed to survive at the Arboretum where it has been was introduced England collector who went with Captain King's expedition to survey the Magellan Straits. It will forma tall bush (up to 10 feet) of erect stiff habit. The leaves are leathery or hard in texture, the flowers are borne one or two in a fascicle, and the globose fruits are dark purple. B. triacanthophora. China has produced several of our hardiest, most useful evergreen barberries. The most attractive, Berberis triacanthophora, is one of our hardiest evergreens and is a graceful shrub with spreading branches which are well armed with strong slender spines. The narrow leaves are of a clear bright green color above and somewhat whitish beneath. They are borne in almost flattened whorls which aid in giving the shrub a distinctive airy lightness that is very pleasing. This plant was collected by Wilson and sent to the Arbo- 1884. This species to about 1826 growing since by Ander- son, the botanical retum in 1907. our hardiest and strongest growing evergreen barberries is B. Julianae. This species was sent to the Arboretum by Wilson in 1908. It is the tallest and most vigorous of the Chinese group, remarkable for its dense, glossy, dark green, luxuriant leaves. The stiff, yellowish gray, somewhat angled stems, armed with vicious spines, make it particularly valuable for protective hedges. The fascicles of yellow flowers are followed by ovoid fruits which are bluishblack, covered with bloom, and have a short but distinct style. B. Sargentiana. The much less hardy B. Sargentiana has rounded slender branches which are graceful in comparison with those of B. Julianae. The young branches are reddish in color, and the leaves, which are much longer and wider than those of the foregoing species, are closely spiny-serrate and firmly coriaceous in texture. The yellow flowers are borne in fascicles. The ovoid fruits are blmsh black with Wilson sent this species to a slight bloom and with a sessile stigma B. Julianae. One of 67 the Arboretum in 1908, but it had been introduced to England by Veitch in 1907. B. narrow Gagnepainii. The undulating margins of the firm, dark green, leaves of Berberis Gagnepainii give this species a distinctive ap- spreading branches are well armed with three-parted one-half to three-quarters of an inch long which, together with spines the sharp forward-pointing teeth set in the margins of the linearlanceolate leaves, provide it with unusually effective weapons of selfdefense. It is a native of Szechuan, China, and was introduced for the Messrs. Veitch, Chelsea, England, by Wilson about 1904. Our first plant came from Chelsea in 1908. This species bears large yellow flowers in clusters of about six or sometimes more in the axis of each whorl of leaves. The fruits are long, oval, black berries covered with a bluish bloom. B. verruculosa. The warty branches of Berberis verruculosa account for the specific name of this species, which is a sturdy, dwarf, evergreen shrub. The leaves are leathery in texture, lustrous green above and white beneath, and the recurved margins are armed with a few spiny teeth. The plant is suitable for rock gardens, edges of shrub border, and fronting foundation planting. Carefully pruned it will form spiny green domes which are very attractive. This fine evergreen surely is worth the trouble of winter protection and the necessary pruning because of its lovely form and color. The large golden flowers are solitary or in few-flowered fascicles. The berries are black and covered with The species was introduced into England by Wilson in 1904 from western China; five years later Wilson sent seeds directly from China to the Arnold Arboretum. B. candidula. The less hardy B. candidula was first collected by Farges in 1894, and in 1895 was raised from seed by M. Maurice de Vilmorin in France. Although it has been growing at the Arboretum since 1929, it scarcely more than remains alive even with considerable winter protection. It is a dwarf evergreen shrub with smooth arching branches. The tufts of small leaves, borne in the axils of the stiff three-parted spines, are dark shining green above and show a vivid blue-white color beneath. It produces large, yellow, solitary flowers. The species is suitable for rock gardens, but will thrive only under mild climatic conditions. B. sanguinea. From the mountains of Szechuan, China, Berberis .sanguinea,was introduced to France by M. Maurice de Vilmorin in 1898. The specific name refers to the color of the flower stalks and sepals. It is an evergreen shrub that will attain a height of 6 to 9 pearance. The bloom. 68 0 0 c E z ~ ~ ro G :t F m +J .F 0 r~ # C ~~ W Ew ro c d S ao a. -~ 0 s x c ~ ro .. b C .~ ~ 5 F. W F N feet. The pale grayish, smooth branches are armed with long slender spines and bear tufts of leaf clusters. The leaves are deep green in color, linear-lanceolate in shape, tapering to a fine point, and the margins are armed with sharp, forward-pointing teeth. The fascicles of golden yellow flowers, with the borne on reddish stalks of unequal blue-black in color. sepals reddish on the outside, are length. The berries are small and ' B. Chenaultii is a hybrid concerning the origin of which no definite information is available. The name suggests, however, that it may have originated in the nursery of Leon Chenault et Fils, Orleans, France. The plant appears to be a hybrid of B. Gagnepainii and B. verruculosa. The branches are verruculose, which is characteristic of the latter species, and the medium long, somewhat undulating leaves suggest the former. In stature it is intermediate between the two, and although sightly is scarcely an improvement on either species. All of the evergreen barberries need more or less winter protection in New England either to survive our worst winters or to insure against possible injury during milder ones. It is necessary to cover the ground sufficiently to prevent freezing of the roots, thus permitting the replacement of water lost by the plants through transpiration. It may be timely to suggest the futility of trying to obtain immune species from seed obtained from an arboretum, or any other place where the different species grow in close proximity. Hybridization, which takes place veryreadily, will be responsible for many disappointments. Seeds gathered from immune species in such a place will probably give rise to hybrids susceptible to attack by the rust fungus, so one should obtain species of known and dependable purity for real satisfaction. Barberry plants of dependable ancestry can usually be obtained from nurserymen who hold Federal permits to ship immune barberries into protected States, since such permits are not issued until their nurseries have been freed of all susceptible bushes. Our other native immune members of the Berberidaceae are thus far restricted to three species of the genus Mahonia. The members of this genus have unarmed stems, pinnate evergreen leaves, and generally form handsome undershrubs or, rarely, small trees. The dwarf, creeping Mahonia repens is native to the Rocky Mountain region,while the low-growing M. nervosa and the taller upright M. Aqzcifolium are native to the Pac~fic Northwest. Mahonia repens is very useful as a ground cover, especially under trees and shrubs or in locations not subjected to the full rays of the sun. It thrives without an abundance of moisture and requires very 70 well established. Its shapely foliage, in the spring, and the bluish fruit in the fall make the plant an ideal cover for areas that might otherwise be bare and unsightly. M. Aquifolium. The taller Mahonia Aqu~f'olium, Oregon-grape as it is known in its native habitat, is a beautiful plant which likewise enjoys considerable shade ; in fact, it grows better under such conditions than in the open. These two species are not only of much ornamental value to the home surroundings but for soil erosion and wild-life conservation they will surely serve a valuable purpose. The sheltering leaves and branches aid in the protection of wild life and the edible fruits contribute to the subsistence of birds and other animals. M. nervosa is a handsome, low-growing plant with lustrous, rigidly coriaceous leaflets armed with spiny teeth. The stem bears conspicuous, persistent lanceolate bud scales which are 2 to cm. long. The bright yellow flowers are borne on erect racemes 8 inches or more in length. The fruits are rounded oblong, small, and of purplish blue color. Mahoberberis Neuberti, a cross between Mahonia Aqu~f'oliuna and BPrberis vulgaris, is very susceptible to black stem rust. This hybrid has often been erroneously called B. ilic~j'olia. In view of the increasing number of States excluding susceptible species of Berberis and Mahonia, it becomes more and more desirable for all nurserymen interested in barberries to rid their nurseries of rust-susceptible plants and to establish a stock of the immune species sufficient for normal horticultural requirements. Only recently four additional States (Missouri, Pennsylvania, Virginia, and West Virginia) have asked to be included in the area protected by Quarantine No. 38 (revised). If this expansion in the protected area is made there will be 17 states in which the interstate shipment (into or between) of susceptible species of barberry is prohibited by Federal quarantine. All these States are now cooperating with the United States Department of Agriculture in the barberryeradication program. Owing to the steadily diminishing market for barberries that are susceptible to attack by the stem rust fungus, many nurserymen are now restricting their stock to immune species, thus becoming eligible to apply for a Federal permit to ship approved species to any point from which orders are received. Customers will automatically assist in the stem rust control program if, when making purchases, they little attention after it is once its abundance of yellow flowers early ~1~ will restrict their barberry selections to species described in this bulletin. one or more of the rust-immune L. M. AMES, Associate Pathologist, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, U. S. Department of Agriculture. NOTES Fascicle five of the important \"Icones Plantarum Sinicarum\" by Doctor Hsen-Hsu Hu and Professor Woon-Young Chun, issued by the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Peiping, China, is dedicated to \"Alfred Rehder, Associate Professor of Botany and Curator of the Herbarium of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University, mentor of our student days.\" Both authors received a part of their training at the Arboretum. The present contribution consists of folio plates 201 to 250 with explanatory text in English and in Chinese,and includes illustrations of six species of Rehderodendron, a genus dedicated to Professor Rehder. Fascicle tor of the one was dedicated to Charles Sprague Sargent, first Direc- Arboretum; fascicle two to Augustine Henry, famous botanical collector in China; fascicle three to Ludtvig Diels, Director of the Botanical Garden, Berlin, Germany; and fascicle four to E. D. Merrill, present Director of the Arnold Arboretum. The comprehensive \"Bibliography of Eastern Asiatic Botany\" by E.D. Merrill of the Arnold Arboretum, and E.H. Walker of the Smithsonian Institution, is being published by the Arnold Arboretum, and should be off the press late this fall or early in 1938. This will be a quarto volume of approximately 650 pages. It contains 23,000 author entries appertaining to the area from Tibet to Kamchatka, south to Formosa and Hainan. Practically every language of western Europe is represented, with many thousand entries in Russian, Chinese and Japanese. Each entry is provided with a brief abstract. Publication was rendered possible by three special gifts to the Arboretum. The preparation of the manuscript covered a period of ten years. 72 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Viburnums","article_sequence":10,"start_page":73,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24044","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d14eab28.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. V DECEMBER 10, 1987 VIBURNUMS NUMBERS 1~-15 THI; beauty hanced by every or and interest of tuauv a shrub lonoler is are viburnunts. These plants must greatly serviceable, en- and shrub garden should include at least a few rn one another. A good selection mt' vtburnutns vtll pruvtdr mtrrest place in the g~ardrrt during the whole year, suue srveral are valued fur their tfuN~erv rn the spring, others are valued tor their guud foliage, and some for their summer fruits. In autumn many are outstanding when covered with bright colored berries, while most uf the Viburnum sprcies have good autumn cul<waturn. In some species the fruit renums attached throughout the muter. Thus the viburnums are a group of plants that add interest to the garden throughout the year. Some are common in cultivation while others are still rare. The Arboretum collection contains about seventy species and ~arietxev. These mclude most ot' the hardy species and varieties available in nurseries in this country, together with some some of these are of rare types that are not generallt available; outstanding botantcal interest but have little ornamental ~alue. Supplementing those species hardy in New England are a considerable number of species that will thrive onlt under farther south. more favorable chmatic conditions in considermg a large group of plants such aa the v rlrurthe gardener is apt to lose sight of the wide ornamental possinums, bilities available by a careful selection of species within a single genus. This Bulletin is devoted entuwly tu a consideration of the viburnums that are hardy in the north. It ts hoped that the follomug data tna~ increase interest in this group of plant, and lead to a fuller appreciation of the horticultural possibilities of certain Sprctes. Sometimes, 73 Viburnums for Flower The first viburnum to bloom in the Arnold Arboretum is Viburnum fragran.s. Ordinartly, one or two flowers in a cluster start to open early in March, the remaining flowers finally opening in April. Since this species blooms so early in the season, the flowers are often killed by late frosts. Sometimes the flower buds themselves are partly frozen, so that the inflorescences have a bla5ted appearance when open. Consequently, Viburnum fragrans is not of great value in New England although the flowers are very fragrant and certain of the plants have a picturesque upright habit of growth. Farther south, where the possibility of winter injury is less, it is more valuable from a landscape point of view. The second viburnum to bloom is I'. Carlesii. It forms a round, broad bush and usually starts to bloom about the last week in Aprrl. By the early part of May it is in full bloom. Because of its time of flowering, it is not often injured, and is therefore considerably better for garden use than is V. fragrans. It, too, is very fragrant, and its small white flowers (pink in bud) are very similar in size and shape to those of our native mayflower or trailing arbutus. Viburnum bitche iuense is a third representative of this group with fragrant flowers. The young plants are very difficult to distinguish from L'. Carlesii, but as the plant grows older it becomes considerably more loose and open in growth habit, and consequently is not as valuable for landscape planting as is V. Carlesii. Unfortunately various American nurserymen ordering seed of Y.Carlesii from Japan have received seed of V.bit~liiuetrse. Because of the similarity of the young plants, tt is often very difficult to correct the error. Two other viburnums are valued for their large, sterile flower clusters and are commonly called the snowballs. The first, l-.Oprrlrr,r roseum (h.Opulus sterile in the trade) is too common in our gardens. It ts the taller growing of the two and the large sterile flowers are borne in round masses of about the same size as those of the ordinary snowball. Unfortunately the leaves, young shoots, and flower clusters are subject to severe infestations of plant lice which materially disfigure all parts of the plant. For this reason, it should not be planted. By far the better of the two, and a form which is not susceptible to infestation by plant lice, is the Japanese snowball, Y.tomentosunt sterile (V. to~rtertto.sunr plicatum). It is not quite as hardy as the common snowball, being killed to the ground as far south as Philadelphia during the severe winter of 1983-34, (though certain individual plants survived without m,jury) but in normal winters it is perfectly hardy m New 74 v b N 1~ v '5. . :e r 0 3~ .. 3 N 1 0 ;~-- Ld G7 \" oN ~[ 0 Ho H ,.a W F~', 1~ ~ ~~ rc. c \"u t) s!~ Ew Sc ~ .c . G E 3 C C. L i~ England. Besides having large flower clusters, its branches are hurizontal, like those of V.tomentosuna, giving the plant a unique layered appearance, particularly in the winter when the branches are bare. A third snowball, h.macrocephnlum .sterile or the Chinese snowball, m hardy in the north, but in the south tt is Bery popular for its large round cluster5 of flowers. The rest of the viburnums have large flat clusters of fluwers, the flowers themselves being very small and creamy white tn appearance, very similar to those of Queen Anne's lace or wild carrot. There are a few species, like h..Sargenti, which haBe e few conspicuous sterile flwvers on the outside of the cluster, making them slightly more cunspicuous than the others. These viburnums are Balued for their small flowers. It is true that I'.dentaturrr, V.dilatatum and I'.grubes~ceus~ CctubJi are outstanding when in full bloom because there is always a wealth of Hower clusters almost covering the plant, but other than the few species mentioned above most of the viburnums cannot be considered as having conspicuously beautiful flowers. Most of them bloom during May and June. not Viburnums for Fruit The majority of the viburnum5, with the exception of the doubleHowered varieties and a few others, have bright colored fruits. They range in color from yellow to red to blue and black with varying intermediate ~hadev. As a group, the viburnums are valued for their fruits more than for any other reason, and a careful selection of them should insure very colorful spots in the garden from late summer until far into the wmter. Some of the fruits are simply black ltl:e those of I'.acerifolium. These are not particularly conspicuous, but nevertheless are very attractive to the birds. The fruits of some others, like those of V. Sieboklii, are eventually black, but before maturity they are a brilliant red. Since they remain on the shrub for Some time while they are so colored, they lend much interest to the plant in the late summer and fall. Enough cannot be said about the good landscape possibilities of V.Sieboldii, since it is not only excellent from the standpoint of bright colored fruits and tall often tree-like habit, but it is also a splendid foliage plant. Even after the fruits have fallen, the bright red-colored fruit stalks remain on the plant a long time, lending considerable color to the plant until late in the fall. Other viburnums, like V.casxinoides and lJ. LPntago, have most interesting fruits, since they change in color from green to pink and red to dark blue. Often several of these colors are evident on the same 76 PLATE XVIII ~'tburuum dtlatatum xanthocatpurn, one ot the rare yellow-fruited viburnums. cluster or even on the same berry. Such a characteristic gives the plant great interest in the fall. Certain viburnums like V. Opulus and l'. lrilobu~n (h. americanztzn~ keep their fruits a greater part of the winter, providing there are not too many birds in the vicinity. Others, like V. fragrans, ripen early in the summer, but as these are soon eaten by the birds the color characters of the fruit cannot be counted upon to be of any landscape importance. Yellow-fruited Varieties Although most of the viburnums have red or blue fruits, some are yellow at maturity, and it is these that are worthy of more general cultivation. They should not be used in place of the red-fruited forms, but in conjunction with them. There are at least three, all of which are growing in the Arnold Arboretum but none of which are listed by American nurserymen, namely : h. dilatatztnz santhocarpuzn, P. Opulu.s .ranthocarpum, and V. Sargenti flavum. One other, h. setigerttnt aurantiacum, has good orange-red fruits rather than yellow ones. This plant should also be grown. Since the autumn color of the foliage of each species is dark red, the yellow fruits show off to excellent advantage after the foliage has turned color m the fall. A planting of considerable autumn interest mig-ht be made by usin~,~- two plants of the redfruited 1'.dilatatum back of a smgle yellow-frmted variety. The ~rrotving of these yellow-fruited forms cannot be recommended too highly, both for nurserymen and gardeners themselves. Some growers take the misguided view that since there is no demand for certain rare plants, such plants have no salesalue. This certainlyshould not be true of the yellow-fruited viburnums, for once they have become known to the public, there is no reason why the~ will not he even more popular than are the red-fruiting forms. Landscape Uses group, the viburnums are vigorous growing shrubs which enjoy a good sunny location and can be used either in mass plantings or as specimens. As a specimen foliage plant, there is probably nothing nicer than P..Sieboldii with its dark green leaves and its masses of billowy foliage. The exotic viburnums, particularly, are used as specimens, while the native ones are used considerably in naturalistic plantings. Viburnuna acerifolium and h. alnifoliztm are two plants which grow better in the cool shade of the woods than they do in the open sun. Viburnum pubescens Cattbyi also is excellent for naturalistic planting. As a general rule the other species like sunny locations, and when so As a 78 situated they will flower and fruit much better than if grown in cont~nual shade. In the fall,the predominating autumn color of the entire group is red. Some, like V. prunifolium, are a brilliant red, while others like V. dilatatum are a dull red. Viburnum acerifolium has almost a purple autumn color and is probably one of the few members of the group showing no shade of red in the fall. In order to get the best color effects liom the foliage in the fall, most of the viburnums should be grown in the full sun, particularly in situations where they are exposed to the warm sun in the late afternoons of September and October. The species differ considerably in the mature height to wImh they grow. Viburnum prun~f'oliunz has a single trunk and is considered a ~mall tree ; I'. Lentago sometimes grows into a small tree. 'fhe dwarf var~ety of the cranberrybush, I'. Opulus nanxm, never gets ~mer 1inches tall, and is splendid for low rock plantings or tiw formal edging material around small low gardens. Other species range m height between these two extremes. The chart gives the approximate height of the various species, as they are used in landscape plantings. Tender Viburnums In the south there are several outstandmg ~~burnums that are highly valued for garden use. These would include the evergreen V. japonicum, V. odorati.s.simum, T'. tinus, and 5everal of its varieties, I~. rhytidophyllum, V..nuspezzsum, I'. macrocephalumc, and V. Burkze~oorlii. Viburnum Burkwoodii has only recently been mtroduced into the coun- try, but midwestern nurserymen are now growing it in quantity. It is a cross between V. utile and V. Carlesii. In a protected place in the Arboretum it withstood the severe winter of 1933-34 in splendid condition, but it cannot be grown in the open in New England. South of Philadelphia it is reliably hardy and is fast becoming a favorite for its lustrous green foliage and pretty flowers. It is not as dense and compact in its growth habit as grafted plants of V.Carlesii. DONALD WYMAN 79 rare woody plants. In connection with some other the Arboretum has just completed checking some 1200 nursery work, catalogues for rare woody plants. If you have difficulty in locating sources for such rare woody plants, write to the Arboretum, and it may be that a source can be located for you. Sources for Note. Arrangements have been made with Mr. Richard Archbold, leader of the Archbold Expeditions to New Guinea, whereby the specimens collected by Mr. L. J. Brass, the Expedition Botanist, will be identified under the auspices of the Arnold Arboretum. Mr. Archbold is about to leave this country on his third trip to New Guinea under the auspices of the American Museum of Natural History and expects to be in the field for about one year. These Bulletins will year. now be discontinued until the spring of next Subscription renewals for 1938 are now due. Send the subscription price of $1.00 to the Bulletin of Popular Information, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Mass., at your early convenience. 82 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume V","article_sequence":11,"start_page":83,"end_page":87,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24037","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170b76a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 4 VOLUME V in bold face Synonyms are in italic; illustrations type. Acer g~rmeum, l.i -- - uutliflorrr, -- l3;E3x#& B Tschonoskii, Alyssum gemonense, Ames, L.M., 5i-i1 `?o 30 3 ra.sea, 23 Z3 ponlica, poulrharaense, 3 rosea, 23 l Z Arnold Arboretum, Identifica6 tion of plant matenal, 13-16 lilac - , '1'rip through durmg~ time, z9-:3z H Azalea, Amuena, 18 31 -, Arnold, H --, Coast, 18 -, Flame, 18, ?;3 H __ Hmode;;~r~, 18 --, Japanese, 18, ~? -, Korean, 18, 2~ R -, Ymkshell, 18 31 -, Poukhan, -, l~.oyal, 18, ;31 x -, Snow, 18 -, Swamp, 18 18 8 -, Sweet, -, Torch, 18, zo, zz, - ~Suhlippenbachii, zl haseyi, lz - niscosa, l4 .~lzaleas, 17-`?4, l8 , Ghent, L3, 3? -, \"Vlollis\" hybrids, z3, 3? H ---, Order of bloom, 18 l~> Barberries, 25, -, Hybridization, 70 - immune or highly resistant to black stem rust of cereals, 57-72 ~o-~x amoena, `~0 4 arborescens, ~~ l3 3 cttlantica, 3 calendulacea, ~3 20 Hinodegiri, indica alba, 20 Barberry eradication, History of, 58, 59 -, Cooperative program, .i8-ti0 Barberry-cereal 1't'lation<.;hlp, 58 Beech, ;i? Berberis, 57-7 ~ -, -, - - Deciduous species, 60-66 Evergreen species, 66-72 60 - - - __~aPonica, 23 20 20 -- ledifolia alba, - mucronata, -, Immune types, 59, - aemulans, 60, 64 - Beantana, 60, 66 - buxifolia, 60, 67 candidula, 60, 68 Chenaultii, 60, 70 - - mucronulata, 18 8 circumserrata, 60, 63 83 Plate - XV, 65 I -, Yoshino, 12 ~2 concinna, 60, 64 - cretica, 60 Darwinii, 60, 66, 67 - Chinese collection, ~?,i-2~, 31 1 dictyophylla, - 64 - - - - albicaulis, 60, 64 Edgeworthiana, 60, 6-I empetrifolia, 66, 67 Gagnepain~i, 60, 6!3 ti;i Plate VI, 27 Clematis, 41-56 -, Books, [recommended], 54 -, ~Chart listing important landscape characteristics of species and varieties], 48, k9 52 - Gilgiana, 60, - -, Florida type, 4ti, -, - Plate XVI, 69 1 ilicifolia, 71 i Julianae, 60, 67 koreana, 60, 63, 6-1 Plate XIV, 61 Historical note, 41, 42 - -, Jackmani type, 4ti, 51 -, Lanuginosa type, -t6, 5l -, Large-flowered hybrids, 44, 46, 50 - - - - - - mentorensis, 60, 62, 63 ottawensis, 6Z Potanini, 60, titi sanguinea, 60, 68 Sargentiana, 60, 67 stenophylla, 60, 6ti, 6; -, Patens type, 46, 5L -, Yropagation, 54 , 1'runing, .51 -, Soil and situation, 50, S1 -, Texensis hybrids, 46, 52 , Texensis type, tti, .iZ - Thunbergii, - 59-til til (iz - erecta, 59, -, Twenty best large-Huwered hybrids obtainable in this country, 56 - - - Maxinrowiczii, ,i9, minor, 59, 60 - - pluriflora, :i9, - ti`? -, Uses, 52, 54 -, Viticella type, 46, - 3? - - erecta, 61 for the northeastern states, 41 t alba, 44 alpina, 42, 44, sibirma, -t-t api~folia, 43 - - - purpurea, 59, 6l triacanthophora, ti0, verruculosa, 60, 68 1 - vulgaris, 58, 6l, 71 Bibliography of Eastern `~ Botany, 7 - (i7 - - 52 - .-lsiatw - - aromatica, 44 Bussey Hill, 25-18 - Baldwinii, \"Belle of 41 Plate VI, 27 - Woking\", Callicarpas, -, - 2:i t6 Cherries, Flowering, Japanese, 9-11 Propagation, ':1 Cherry, H~gxn, 1 9, 10, -, Sargent, -' 10 11 XI, 51 brevicaudata, 43 - orispa, 48 cylindrica, 4,`'3 Davidiana, f4 Douglasii, 44 - Plate - H-t - Durandii, Plate 44 - \"W.E.Gladstone\", I'late XII, .i;~ l.i-~8 - \"Duchess of Albany\", X, eriophora, 44 - Fargesn, 43 47 i - Collectimn, 'l'he Ch~nese, Cral>apple, l3echtel, ~0 Cytisu~ Damdia 41 1 1 praecox, 31 - - - florida, 41, -,floridn bicolor, Fremontri, 4t Henry i, fU _ \" 44 I 4ti in~ulucrata, l5 Dorwood, Flowering, 29, 8? Dove-tree, l.i, 28, 31 FurSytlma, Korean, Z, ~, (i - europaea, - Itanunra\", b(i -- \"Vrlle de Ly>n\", - lnteo,'1'1t`Ulla, 4k - Jackmanr, 41, 44, 0 -- alba, .i0 E(i 2, t, ,i Plate .i I, ti -- intermedia, b, ,J Plate I, - i~ primulma, -- \"(iipy (~ueen\", --\"Madame Barun-Villard\" 6ti 4 ti - 4 spectabilis, Plate II, 7 -t -- vitellina, .i Plate 1, 7 Ylate II, - \"Madame Ir:<luu.rr~l An~lre\", lti t .Jummar~a, 41 - ti ovata, `l, t, , - b kermemna, 4 - lanuginosa, 41, ' - suspensa, 2, 4 44 ' Plate XIII, ,5.; 44 ' - macropetala, 4l, Plate IX, 4;i - montana, 44 - - L rubens, 44, 5 44 undulata, ,p Plate 1, :d atrocaulis, z Fortunei, :3 - - pallida, -- - pubescens, 3 Sieboldii, z, - -- - R -- paniculata, Prtcher~, 43 44 variegata, '3 + - viridissima, 1, 3, ~ - - patens, 41, - Plate - 43 44 I, .~ .'i koreana, ~ - recta gi-andiflora, 44 41 - Scottii, - Sreboldii, - Forsythias, 1-fi -, Hardmess,z -, Key to (After t Manual), Rehder's tangutica, 44, 54 44 - obtusiuscula, - troutbeckiana, - versrcolor, 43 vertrcrllaris, 42, - mtalba, 42 - 43 43 -, Pruning, 2 Fothergilla, ~,5 Honeysuckles, 2.i, Hydrangeas, 25 - ~6 Iberis sempervirens, 30 Viticella, 44 Tenoreana, 3D 85 Identification of at the Arnold -, plant material Arboretum, 13-16 Plant material, Identification of, 13-16 Plant quarantines, Dit~smn Prunus avium, 10 0 - of, 59 Suggestions for shipping, 14, 15 Kolodust, 43 Library of the Arnold Arbore- incisa, 10 mpponica, 10 0 tum, 33-10 -, Fifteenth century buuks,:36 i -, Folios of Dioscurides, ;3 -, Illustrated fohos, 38 12 Sargenti, 9, 10, 12 Plate II1, 111 serrulata suchulinerr,ris, ~2 s, ~o, ~z , Illustration of title-page of Jacquin's \"Selectarum stirpium americanarum histotoria\" (cir. 1780), - - subhirtella, 1, 10, autumnalis, 1z l - _ _ pendula, 1 Z yedoen5ia, 10, 1 - J1 Plate VII, :3.i -, Illustration : Frontispiece and first page of \"Gart der Gesundheit\" 1485, Yuccma ~ramm5, 57 7 -, -, Plate VIII, B9 Incunabula, 36 Yerrodrcal Quarantine, ~7, 41 (~uu~ce, Japanese, 30 Rehderodendron, 7z Rhododendron, 17 , Korean, 17, 1 R literature, 40 -, Yhutographs, :34 -, Pre-Linnean books, 3d Lilac, Japanese tree, :3l) -, Nersiau, 30 - hedge m Arnold Arhuretum, ~I l - time in the Arnold Arbore- tum, 29-31 Mahonia, 57-60, 70-72 1 Aquifohum, 60, 70, 71 nervosa, 60, 70, 71 I -, repens, 60, 70, i Magnolia acuminata, 19 Mahoberberis, 59, 60, iI Neubert!, 71 Malus spectabilis, 30 Merrill, E.D., 7`~ H Pinxterhloom, 18 8 -, Downy, 18 - - arborescens, 1R, ?'l..J. - atlanticum, 18, 13 calendulaceum, 18, ~1;3 oanaden5e, 1 R, 10 dauricum, 17 ~yandavense, ~R __ ~ap,mmum, 18, 2,1 - Kosterianum, ?R -- luteum, ~3 -\"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" -- ~?3 molle, 23 - mucronatum, 1 t3, 10 - - - tnucronulatum, 17, 1 R, nudiflorum, 18, 23, :31 obtusum, L0, 22 - ~?5 amoenum, 1 R, l0, 32 ---XR.obtu.sunt KcaempfPri, - 10 - arnoldianum, 18, 20 20 -- \" Hinudeyri\", 86 18, - - Kaempferi, 18, ~2, ?3, Lo, ?9 - roseum, 18, 23, 29, 31 - Schlippenbachii, 18, ll, ~'.i Plate 6 cassinoides, 76 8 dentatum, 7 dilatatum, 7ti-i!~ -- 8 xanthocarpum, 78 IV, c) 79 - Vaseyi, 18, 2Z, 19, 30 - viscosum, 18, 24 -- yedoense poukhanense, 18, ~1, `?,i Plate V,1I - \" Yodugawa\", W > Rhododendrons, D~fl~erences tween beRhododendrons and i rl~aleas, 17 Plate XVIII, 77 8 - frayrans, 74, 78 7!a .lap~uicum, 9 - Lemtayu, ~ fi, i macrocepltalum, 79 ,i sterile, i odurattsaimum, i ~ - Opulu,, 7ti - n:utum, _ 7f) - llhudura, 18, ZO cauadensts, ?0 Sargent, Yrofessor C harles Sprague, 12, 18, 31, 72 Spmgarn, J.E., kl-.iti Spray l'rogram at Arnold :~rboretum, 8 nuSPUW, 14 + SlPI'tIP, 8 vanthucarpum, i 9 prunifolium, i -- Sulphur, Powdered, l;i Syrm\";a amuren5is, 30 --- ehinens~s, a0 _ - 5 I'late XVII, i 8 pubescens Canby, 7 6, i rhyttdophyllum, 7P 5 Sar~eott, 75 flavum, 78 -- setigerum auranttacum, 78 Sieboldii, 76, 78 - Saugeana, ;30 S~ su~pensum, i persica, ;30 9 - tinus, i - - - pubescens, 30 - villosa, 30 vulgaris, 30 \" Clara Cochet\", -- tomentosum, 76 - plicatum, 74 sterile, 74 31 -- \"Congo\", 30 - trilohum, 78 9 utile, 79 Viburnums - , Chart of best for ornamental use, 31 - - \"Edith Cavell\", 31 - - \"Lucie Baltet\", 31 - - \"Ludwig Spaeth\", 30 - -- 80, 8l Macrostachya\", \"Negro\", 30 31 - - \"Mrs. W. E. Marshall\" - , Landacape uses, 78, 79 ,Tender species & varieties,79 for - for - - - - \"Yresident Lincoln\", 31 - - \"Vestale\", 78 31 Viburnum - acerifolium, 76-79 .~ln~folium, 78 a7nerzcanum, - bitchiuense, 74 Burkwoodii, 79 Carlesn, 74, 79 . Yellow-fruited varieties, 78 flower, 74, 75 fruit, 75, 78 Viorna, 42 Viticella, 42, -I6, 5z Wilson, h~.H., 28, 42, 43, 64, 67, 68 Wistena, Chinese, 32 --, Japanese, 32 87 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23496","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060ab28.jpg","title":"1937-5","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1937,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24020","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160a36a.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS , The Old Lancaster Hamamelis i Elm, 17 H. mollis, 25 japonica, H. japonica Zuccariniana, and H. vernalis, 8 Magnolia stellata,photographed by Alfred Rehder,plate facing page 28 Early-flowering Rhododendron dauricum var. mucronulatum, plate facing page 29 33 Japanese Spring Cherry (Prunus subhirtella), Malus hupehensis, plate facing page 36 Syringa vulgaris \" Congo\", The Chinese lilac A 41 45 (Syringa chinensis), good hybrid, Rhododendron \"Album elegans,\" 5;3 Double-flowered Philadelphus virginalis The handsome As a \"Albatre,\" 61 1 57 Philadelphus splendens, 65 bush, Tripterygium Regelii, Fleece Vine (Polygonum Auberti), plate facing page 68 Campsis radicans, C.Tagliabuana, C.grandiHora, plate facing Cotoneaster racemiflora soongorica, 75 page 69 Most beautiful erabapple in fruit, Malus toringoides, 80 iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Tree Troubles","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":7,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24030","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160896d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV MARCH 21, 1936 NUMBER 1 TREE TROUBLES all trees keep in good healthy condition, and it is the purpose this bulletin to mention some of the causes why we have \"sick\" trees, together with some recommendations for their \"cure.\" The recommendations made are not primarily the results of any investigations at the Arboretum, but rather from various experiment stations throughout the eastern United States. Though suggestions are given on fertilizing it must be kept in mind that with wide variations in soils, in trees and in their root systems, any specific recommendation given to cover all conditions should be taken only at its face value. Efforts should be made by those interested to investigate thoroughly local conditions and try to suit any general recommendations to their particular needs. Illuminating Gas in the Soil. Gas, leaking from mains, gets in the soil and may cause the death of trees. Even a very minute leak may, over a period of a few years, be sufficient to cause a nearby tree to die. An ingenious method has been devised at the Boyce Thompson Institute* to determine the presence of illuminating gas in the soil. Of course, if gas is known to be present by its odor, then there is no need for the test, but often the damage is done by an amount of gas in the soil, so small that it cannot be detected by its odor. The test includes placing a young tomato plant in a hole in the ground, leaving it covered for twenty-four hours and observing its reaction when uncovered. If gas is present, the leaves will show a very definite type of wilting. NOT of *Toxic action in soil of illuminating gas containing hydrocyanic acid. By A.E.Hitchcock, William Cocker and P.W.Gimmerman. Boyce Thompson Inst. for Plant Research Contrib. 6 : 1-30. 19:W. 1~ ] If illuminating gas is present in the soil, no trees should be planted until the leak has been definitely and positively stopped. When this is done, the soil should either be removed entirely or be washed thoroughly so that all the soluble poisons are taken out of the soil. If the drainage is poor, tile drains should be put in since this washing process should be a complete one. When this has been done satisfactorily, new trees may be planted. Raising the Grade. Raising or lowering the grade around a tree may cause serious damage. The feeding roots of most trees are usually within the upper 18 to 24 inches of soil. At this depth there is a certain amount of oxygen in the soil air spaces, while at lower depths there is usually less oxygen, more carbon dioxide and possibly less water. Since roots need a certain amount of oxygen, and large amounts of carbon dioxide are injurious, when soil is piled on top of the existing level under a tree, conditions for root injury are augmented. A fill of a few inches of soil on top of tree roots is not harmful, but a fill of 18 inches or more may prove decidedly harmful, depending on the type of tree, type of soil, amount of rainfall, drainage and the like. If a considerable fill is to be made the procedure is as follows : The surface of the old grade is loosened; several lines (at least four) of 4-inch agricultural tile radiating out from the trunk of the tree like the spokes of a wheel, are laid as far as the spread of the branches; a layer of coarse stone or large screened gravel is used to cover the tile and to raise the grade to within 15 inches of the final lawn surface. On top of this is placed a 2-inch layer of smaller stone or pebbles, and on top of this a layer of straw, or better a layer of manure, or some similar material, in order to keep the dirt from sifting down through the rock layer. The top soil is then added to the finished grade. This treatment should be made over the entire area of ground covered by the tree branches. At the same time a\"well\" is built around the trunk of the tree to the top of the proposed soil level. This \"well\" is from 3 to 4 feet in diameter, or larger, depending on the size of the tree, and is made to allow air and water to enter the tile and the layer of crushed rock after the filling has been done. In this way, air and moisture can reach the tree roots no matter how deep the fill is. This treatment also makes it possible to water the tree very effectively during dry weather. Gas in the Air. City conditions are hard on plant life largely because of the injurious gases and soot in the air. The soot and dust 2 fall on the leaves and clog the stomates, thus preventing the normal intake of carbon dioxide. Also the gases contained in the air of the city, especially sulphur dioxide, are injurious to plant life. Some trees, such as Ailanthus, Catalpa, poplars and willows are more resistant than others to these variable conditions. The conifers, as a rule, are the most susceptible to this injury. If these conditions are present, one should observe the trees doing best in the vicinity and plant them, rather than trying a long series of untried and often disap- pointing types. Painting Wounds. most Experiments have shown that wounds heal when the pruning is done between February 1 and May 1. While many small wounds may heal over quickly enough to prevent infection, still it is best to paint all wounds 2 inches or more in diameter with some good durable wound dressing. At the present time the best paint for wounds, listed in order of their merit, are asphaltum, orange shellac, white and red lead paint and bordeaux paste. One of these should be applied immediately, as soon as the cut has been smoothed off, except on trees like the maples and birches, which \"bleed\" profusely in the spring. Such trees should be pruned only in the late spring or summer when the wood remains dry enough to quickly paint. Asphaltum is probably the best type of paint to use on wounds, providing a thin covering can be obtained. Several commercial asphaltum paints are on the market, some of which are thin enough so they can be used in cold weather without heating. This is the type to use. Thick asphaltum paints are not recommended, for they easily \"blister\" and are very hard to use properly in cold weather. The large \"blisters\" caused by moisture collecting under the surface eventually break the covering and provide a source of infection by the large opening they leave in the covering itself. Orange shellac is about the least harmful to the cambium tissue of any of the paint wounds. It can be appled in cold weather but is often objectionable on account of its brilliant orange color. It also tends to crack, particularly on large wounds and may have to be retouched once or twice or a year. red lead paints are objectionable in color and are slightly injurious to the cambium ; but they are effective and are usually available. Wounds should be repainted, when necessary, once a year. Bordeaux Paste is made by mixing dry commercial bordeaux mixture with enough linseed oil to form a thick paste. As a wound paint it has the desirable property of being slightly porous to moisture and White 3 at the same time is a fungicide. Blistering does not occur underneath this dressing. Its outstanding drawback is its color, which passes through changes of blue to green after it has been applied. Apparently little is accomplished by painting over it, since the multicolored copper salts eventually appear on the surface. Tree Repair. Tree repair is a study in itself. It is usually unwise, and often impossible, for the inexperienced person to attempt to fill cavities. In fact, some question the value of filling tree cavities at all, believing that trees are better off if the cavities are cleaned out, painted properly and left alone. This subject is too broad for discussion here. At least a cavity should have all the diseased wood cut out, the remainder smoothed over and then painted, preferably with a good fungicidal paint like bordeaux paste. A coat of asphaltum may be added over the bordeaux for permanence. One other thing the amateur can do is to brace some of the bad crotches in the older trees. This is never accomplished by completely encircling the limb with a wire, but by putting an eye bolt through each limb and connecting these two bolts with an iron rod or heavy cable. Each eye bolt should have the washer and nut completely countersunk on the outside so that the bark may heal over quickly. Fertilizers. Lack of sufficient nutrients in the soil is only one of many causes for \"sick\" trees. The addition of fertilizer to the soil about a tree is not a cure-all, and should only be attempted when one is certain that malnutrition is the cause of the poor condition. Experiments on a wide range of soils, over a long period of time, have shown that in the United States at least it is nitrogen which is most frequently deficient in the soil, and possibly phosphorous. Well rotted manure is always good as a fertilizer, not only because it has a high nitrogen content, but also because it contains much organic matter which aids the soil in retaining moisture. However, many trees can be aided materially by simply broadcasting on the surface of the soil under the tree ammonium sulphate or sodium nitrate (both of which contain a high proportion of nitrogen with no phosphorous or potash) ; or ammophos, a trade name for a material very similar to ammonium sulphate except that it contains phosphorous in addition to nitrogen. Shade trees may be fertilized either in the fall or in the spring. Spring fertilizing is often preferred because then, if a readily available fertilizer is used, increased growth will result the same year. If the tree is not in a valued lawn, such a fertilizer may be broadcast underneath the branches and washed in with water, but it must be remembered that large amounts of commercial fertilizer spread indis- air, and 4ji seriously injure it. Tests at Cornell Uniof ammonium sulphate as high as 30 pounds per 1000 square feet can be applied to a grass plot without injury to the grass, providing application is made before the grass becriminately on the grass may versity have shown that amounts to grow in the spring. On the other hand, there are many fertilizers on the market for shade trees with nutrients which are not so readily available to the plant as ammonium sulphate or ammophos. If such a fertilizer is applied, or if there is any danger from injuring a highly prized lawn with too much fertilizer, then the crow-bar method of applying the fertilizer should be used, as follows. Method of Applying Fertilizer. A circle is drawn on the ground under the outside limits of the branches of the tree, and another circle is drawn two-thirds of the way towards the trunk. The area between these two circles is the area to be fertilized. Holes about 15 inches deep are then dug with a crow bar, soil augur or automatic drill, and the fertilizer so divided so that a small amount is placed in each hole, and the soil replaced. The amount of fertilizer in each hole depends largely on the kind of fertilizer, if it has a high amount of readily available material in it, as does ammonium sulphate, then only a few ounces should be put in a hole. The holes themselves should not be more than 3 feet apart, preferably less, for the more evenly they are distributed, the better the results. In fact, some commercial concerns are now actually blowing the fertilizer into the soil in order to get better distribution. However, trees should not be fertilized, in general, until at least one year after transplanting, since the first year the tree is much more dependent upon its new water relations, that is, the amount of water which can be taken in by the roots as compared with the amount given off by the tops. The first year then, water the tree well, mulch it if necessary to give it additional moisture around the roots, but do not give it the highly concentrated commercial fertilizers. Some well rotted manure is satisfactory for this aids materially in conserving the moisture in the soil, but it must be well rotted. Amount of Fertilizer to Use. Most fertilizer recommendations are based on the size of the tree trunk, implying that the size of the trunk is an accurate criterion to the general size of the tree. Fertilizers vary considerably with the amount of readily available material in them, and that is why some are to be used at the rate of only 1 pound per inch in diameter of tree trunk, and some at 3 pounds. Ammonium sulphate and other similar materials can be used at the gins \" 5 ofto 1 pound per diameter inch of tree trunk on mature trees and even more on very large trees. Such materials should be used with caution on evergreens and deciduous trees under 4 inches in diameter. A 10-20-10 fertilizer (that is, containing 10 parts nitrogen, 20 parts phosphorous and 10 parts potash) can be recommended at the same rate, the larger amounts for the larger trees. There are many such mixtures on the market, varying considerably in the amount of readily available nitrogen. The larger the amount of readily available plant food in the fertilizer, the smaller the application should be. Well rotted manure, forked in under the trees is always good, and in a place like the Arboretum is one of the best and cheapest fertilizers which can be used. For Deciduous Shrubs and Evergreens. The best general recommendation for deciduous shrubs and evergreens is to regularly mulch them in the winter with well rotted manure, rotted leaves or other quickly decomposing organic matter. Particularly is this true of evergreens, at least until more is known about their reactions to commercial fertilizers. No commercial fertilizer should ever be placed in the hole at transplanting time. At maturity, most shrubs maintain a fairly definite height, and it is foolish to fertilize such plants in the hope of making them grow taller. Also, when excessive amounts of nitrogenous fertilizers are given to certain shrubs valued for their flowers and fruits, they make a greater vegetative growth at the expense of flowers and fruits. With some shrubs (Wisteria and flowering dogwood) it has been found that a phosphatic fertilizer such a superphosphate, mixed with the soil in a trench dug around the plant, may aid in producing more flowers the following seasons. If commercial fertilizers are to be used on the shrub border, then a 5-10-5 might be applied at the rate of 1 to 2 pounds per 100 square feet. A 10-20-10 might be used at half this rate. In growing nursery stock, stronger applications than these have been used. In fertilizing woody plants it should always be kept in mind that there is a time during the summer when no fertilizers whatever should be applied. For, if application were made at this time, increased growth might result in the early fall which would not have sufficient time to mature before the killing frosts came. Consequently, fall fertilizing might best be done at any time after the first of September. rate DONALD WYMAN 6 BOOKS There are several books and many bulletins on the care of trees. A few of the outstanding ones might be: Felt, E. P. and Rankin, W. H. Insects and diseases of ornamental trees and shrubs. New York. 19:31. Macmillan Company. Herrick, G. W. Insect enemies of shade-trees. Ithaca. 1935. Comstock Publishing Company, Inc. Le Sueur, A. D. C. The care & repair of ornamental trees in garden park and street. London. 1934. Country Life, Limited. Marshall, R. P. The relation of season of wounding and shellacking to callus formation in tree wounds. Washington. 1931. U. S. Department of Agriculture. Technical bulletin, 246. 7 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Insect Control at the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24022","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160ab6d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Schmitt, Louis Victor","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV MARCH 25, 1986 . NUMBER 2 INSECT CONTROL AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM IT problems is the purpose of this article to give a practical summary of the in relation to insects effecting trees and shrubs, report- ing methods of control that are used at the Arnold Arboretum. Though other materials and methods might give just as satisfactory results, only those will be reported which have been used over a period of years in the Arboretum and have proved satisfactory. Considerable thought should be given as to the right kind of equipment used in the spraying of trees in parks or private estates. Here at the Arboretum we find that a 300 gallon sprayer, mounted on skids, with a 32 horse power motor that is capable of throwing a stream 80 feet with 350 pounds pressure, is very satisfactory. This sprayer, weighing 1620 pounds, can be loaded on a 1~ ton truck in a very few minutes from a platform. When not in use the truck is available for other work. Our first problems are the scale insects. There are several kinds of these which do damage to shrubs, fruit and shade trees ; namely, oyster-shell scale, San Jose scale, scurfy scale, evonymus scale, pine leaf scale that also affects spruces, and juniper scale. All of these scale insects obtain their food by sucking out the plant juices from the twigs and limbs, thus materially weakening the plant. Oyster shell, San Jose and scurfy scale may be found on apples, lilacs, plums, peaches, poplars and willows. They can be controlled by spraying with miscible oil, 1 gallon of oil to 15 gallons of water. Or lime sulphur may be used but, though it gives good control, it is being discontinued on ornamentals because of the bad color it leaves and because it is disagreeable to use. Spraying with oil for scale insects can 9 be done from February 15 to early April, as weather permits when the temperature is not below 35~ F. Evonymus scale is similar in shape to oyster shell scale and is the most serious pest of Evonymus, often killing entire branches. There are at least two generations of these insects a year. Spray with miscible oil (1 to 30) in the dormant season and again in summer when young scales have hatched (1 to 50). If the plants are badly infested a third spray may be necessary later. It is important to have the dormant spray weaker than for other scale insects, on account of evergreen foliage of Evonymus radican.s and its varieties. Considerable damage is done to pines and spruces by the pine-leaf scale which is easily recognized because it gives the trees a whitish appearance. Spray with miscible oil early in April, 1 part oil to 30 parts water. Spruce-gall aphids can be easily recognized by pineapple-shaped growth of spruce trees, native and foreign. These gall are caused by small whitish plant lice feeding at the base of the leaves of young shoots. In August these galls become yellowish, dry and open, and the winged lice escape. Spraying in early spring before the new growth starts (about the middle of April) with miscible oil, 1 part miscible oil to 30 parts of water, will aid materially in controlling this pest. The work of the larch case-bearer is easily recognized by the leaves of the larch turning yellow or brown in early spring. This injury is caused by the feeding of a brown, black-headed caterpillar about 1 inch long, first biting a hole (in the leaf) and then mining in the leaf. The caterpillar is enclosed in a small, grayish case. The young larvae at first mine in the larch leaf; later, this is cut off and serves as a case for the larvae. The winter is passed in the larval stage inside the case. We have found that early spring spraying with arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water when the young are feeding galls on growths new is an excellent method of control. Golden oak scale is one of the most destructive scales occurring on oaks. It can be easily detected as the scale is a beautiful, greenish golden color, pass the winter and often kills twigs and entire branches. The scales as almost mature individuals, the young emerging in May. The pest may be controlled by spraying in very early spring with miscible oil, 1 gallon to 15 of water. From the end of April to the middle of May, as new leaves appear, close watch should be given to canker-worms. As soon as they appear spray should be applied at once as they cause considerable dam- 10 age in There are two common kinds of canker-worms, one appearing the spring, the other in the fall. The spring cankerworm seems to be the most injurious. It attacks maples, elms, oaks, apples and many other fruit and shade trees. The worms themselves are yellowish brown, about 1 inch long when fully grown. When crawling they arch the middle of their body, being a typical \"measuring worm.\" Spray should be applied when the worms are half grown, using arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to .50 gallons of water. In the past few years the willow leaf-beetle has been giving us considerable trouble. The beetle is a metallic blue in color, oval and rounded, aboutp of an inch long. There are two broods a year. It passes the winter under the rough bark of willow trees. Spray early in June with arsenate of lead, 2 pounds to 50 gallons of water. Great importance should be placed on getting the spray on the under surface of leaves, as the beetle feeds only on that surface. It is frequently so prevalent that it destroys all the foliage on certain species of willows. Rhododendron lace-bug. The lace-bug does considerable damage every year to Rhododendrons and mountain laurels, producing unsightly yellowish or brown spotting of the leaves, particularly on those in the full sun. It is a flat bug with light, lacy-like wings. The insect overwinters in the egg stage along the midrib on the under side of leaf. These eggs hatch in the early part of May. There is also a second brood in August. Spraying with miscible oil, 1 to 70, as soon as they hatch will control the early brood. The under surface of the foliage should be sprayed very thoroughly, using Sunoco oil at the rate of 1 to 60, for the August brood does the most damage. Select a partly cloudy day with temperature not above 80 F. to prevent the burning of foliage. The elm leaf-beetle is one of the most destructive insects attacking elms. The beetles are about4 of an inch long, yellowish green in color with a distinctly darker stripe along each side of the wing cases. The beetles pass the winter hidden under rough bark and various other types of shelters. In the spring they lay their eggs on the under surface of the leaves of elms. The larvae, hatching from these eggs, feed on the under surface of the leaf and practically skeletonize it. Spraying in early June, or as the larvae appear, with arsenate of lead, 3 pounds to 50 gallons of water will control the beetle. This spray should be directed especially to the underside of the leaves. As there are two generations a year, a second spray is necessary by the middle of July. only a few days. ~n 11 1 in summer often indicate red spider inThese pests multiply very rapidly during hot, dry weather. jury. They can be controlled by spraying with Sunoco oil, 1 gallon to 100 gallons of water, on a partly cloudy day with the temperature not over 80~ F. We obtain best results in applying this as a very fine misty spray, using considerable force. White pine weevil has caused considerable damage to young white pines in the Arboretum. It is easily determined by the central or terminal leader wilting and turning brown. As this damage is caused by grubs within the wood it is very hard to control. Cut out brown leaders and shoots at least several inches below the point where browning first occurs. There are several borers that cause considerable damage to shade and fruit trees. Round-headed and flat-headed apple tree borers have long been a problem on fruit trees. The work of these borers is indicated by shallow burrows on the main trunk just under the bark. Some are noticeable in the spring by the fresh dust or burrow excavations on the trunk. The most effective way of controlling these grubs at the Arboretum has been to cut them out with a sharp pointed knife. Leopard moth attacks a number of our valuable shade trees such as elms, maples, and lindens. These insects take 2 or 3 years to develop, so that two or three winters are passed in the larval stage. Young trees should be watched as borers get into the main stem. When a hole is located the grub can usually be hooked out with a wire. If this is not successful, put a few drops of carbon bisulphide into the hole and then putty up the opening. Again we repeat that these control methods are the ones which are actually being used successfully at the Arboretum and have been for several years. However, there are other materials and possible other methods of control which would probably prove just as satisfactory. L. V. SCHMITT Rusty colored evergreens 12 In all cases where miscible oil is recommended in this bulsuch recommendations have been based on Sunoco oil only, which has proved satisfactory at the Arboretum. There are several books and bulletins available as references for problems dealing with insects or diseases. A few of the outstanding onev might be: Britton, W.E. Plant pest handbook for Connecticut. i. Insects. New Haven. 1933. Connecticut agricultural experiment sta- NOTE. letin, Bulletin, 344. Chambers, E. L. and Thompson, N. F. tion. trees and shrubs. Madison. 1933. Pests and diseases of Wisconsin department of agriculture and markets. Bulletin, 145. Clinton, G. P. Plant pest handbook for Connecticut. ii. Diseases and injuries. New Haven. 1934. Connecticut agricultural experiment station. Bulletin, 358. Felt, E. P. and Rankin, W. H. Insects and diseases of ornamental trees and shrubs. New York. 193~. Macmillan Company. G. W. Insect enemies of shade trees. Ithaca. 1935. Comstock Publishing Company. Wilson, Andrew. Insects and their control. New Brunswick, N. J. 19~19. Thatcher-Anderson Company. Herrick, 13 SPRAY PROGRAM AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM Spray Material Amount to When to Apply 1-15 a Apply Scale insects e vonymus sea Evonymus scale Miscible oil \" \" Feb. 15 to early April are 1-50 \" \" 1-30 1-30 1-30 in the when plants early April April 15 5 dormant summer Pine-leaf scale Spruce-gall aphids Larch case-bearer \" \" Arsenate of lead 1 lbs.-50 Miscible oil Arsenate of lead gal. when young are feeding Golden oak scale 1-15 early spring as soon as Spring canker-worm 2 lbs.-50 gal. young appear Willow leaf beetle \" \" \" ~2 Ibs. -50 gal. early June, applied 0 1-70 1-60 as to un- der surface of the leaves Rhododendrons Lace-bug ofRhododendrons Sunoco oil i they hatch in the spring on a in August partly y cloudy day perature is Elm leaf-beetle when the temnot over 80~F. Arsenate of lead 3 lbs.-50 gal. early June. A second spray may be necessary for a second brood in summer as a Red spider on evergreens Sunoco oil 1-100 applied fine mist on a cloudy day when temperature is not over 80~ F. White pine weevil cut out borers and dead branches Borers dig out L. V. SCHMITT 14 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Viewpoint of the Arnold Arboretum on the Dutch Elm Disease","article_sequence":3,"start_page":15,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24029","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160856b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Faull, J. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV APRIL 1, 19~6 NUMBER 3 THE VIEWPOINT OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM ON THE DUTCH ELM DISEASE the United States the Dutch elm disease takes precedence. It is the most urgent because the Dutch elm disease is potentially capall of our elms so long as it remains borders and because, failing intelligent, persistent, aggressive action, the time that remains to us during which we still retain the power to get rid of it is uncertainly and perilously short. The question before us is how best can we continue to meet the problem. From the outset the Arnold Arboretum has advocated complete eradication of the Dutch elm disease from the United States as the guiding principle, for, after due consideration of its nature and its means of spread, no other measure seemed to offer any hope if our elms were to be saved. Added knowledge and experience during the ensuing years have but served to strengthen our earlier convictions. So, in considering future action, we continue to unreservedly support the policy of eradication, with its complement of sanitation, which has been sponsored by the Federal Government and facilitated by State cooperation. Indeed, we are more strongly convinced than ever that it offers the only chance of preserving the priceless national heritages, the retention of which is at stake-our American elms of all species. The federal machinery for combating the Dutch elm disease, as set up in 1933, consists of-(1) a laboratory at Morristown, N.J., for diagnosis and research; (2) offices at White Plains, N.Y., East Orange, N.J. and Stamford, Conn. which are responsible for (a) scouting, (b) eradication, (c) elm sanitation and (d) technical and educational projects. Organized cooperation, in addition, is afforded by the States AMONG our the various problems in the conservation of tree life in able of within destroying practically 15 in which the disease is known to occur. The actual working of the machinery has been as follows. The infected area and a surrounding 10-mile zone have been mapped and divided into administrative units; each unit is methodically scouted during the growing season in search of trees that exhibit suspicious symptoms; specimens from these trees are sent to the Morristown laboratory for diagnosis; if the diagnosis reveals the disease, the trees involved are condemned ; the condemned trees are then promptly cut down and burned. Throughout the year a sanitation corps is occupied with a systematized removal of dead and decrepit elms within the affected area regardless of whether or not they carry the Dutch elm disease fungus; the purpose of this is to destroy the breeding places of the insect carriers and accessory breeding places of the fungus. Additional important service is rendered by the Morristown laboratory by researches that are designed to afford extended knowledge of the disease and its means of spread. Speed in the detection and removal of diseased trees is of great importance, because such trees are not a menace in the spread of the disease until the \"carrier\" insects have had a few weeks in which to breed in the decrepit stems and branches. It should be added that continuity of the eradication service over a period of years is obviously of paramount importance because of the fact that several years may elapse before symptoms appear in an infected tree. But by dogged persistence the number of cases can surely be reduced to zero, just as has been true of an eradication campaign against citrus canker in Florida. Beginning there in 1915, at which time canker was present in 26 counties, the last diseased tree was found in 1917, and no instance of citrus canker in Florida has been found since that time. Up to the summer of 1935 deductions as to the probable success of this policy were based solely on biological data derived, mainly, from European investigations; no practical tests of its efficacy had been previously made anywhere. Not until the fall of 1934 had a comprehensive survey of the range and the intensity of the occurrence of the Dutch elm disease in America been completed ; and not until the spring of 1935 had those trees in which symptoms had become manifest been cut down and burned. With the compiled experiences of 1935 now available, however, we have, for the first time, statistical data against which to check our theoretical conclusions. It will, I think, be generally agreed that in discussing these data we may dismiss without further reference the single, small infection spots respectively in Virginia, Maryland, Indiana, northern Connecti- 16 The Old Landcaster Elm Courtesy of the Massachusetts Forest and Park Association two small spots in Ohio. All told they have involved fewer than 40 trees; the situation in each has been, and is being, closely watched and is well in hand. Moreover, except for Old Lyme, Connecticut, the origin of the infections in these locations is known with reasonable certainty and suitable restrictions on importations have been enforced by the Federal Quarantine Office to guard against the likelihood of further new outbreaks. Our main concern is with the infection area radiating out about 45 miles from the port of New York, an area embracing contiguous portions of the states of New York, New Jersey and Connecticut. The results of the work of eradication and sanitation in this New York area, as revealed by the compilations of 1934 and 1935, afford great encouragement. Certainly a good beginning has been made towards the objective. Thus the number of trees showing symptoms of the disease appears to have been somewhat fewer in 1935 than in 1934-in round numbers for 1935, say 6,700 trees, that is, less than one-half of one percent of the elm population of the area involved. What a contrast with the doleful efforts to get rid of the chestnut blight! Then, too, the condemned trees were cut down and destroyed so promptly in 1935 that probably comparatively few of them were factors in a continuation of the epidemic. It is just in that feature, too, that the sanitation program helps enormously. Again it is highly significant that scarcely a dozen infected trees were found in the surrounding 10-mile scouted zone-a zone tentatively regarded in 1934 as infection-free. How many of these were really infected before the eradication project was begun, in other words, how many were really new cases, is purely a matter of surmise. The same question arises with all the other cases found in 1935. This uncertainty is obvious when we remember that the disease may be present in a tree for five years before external symptoms are manifest and that our acquaintance with it in the New York area covers a period of less than three years. As for the sanitation project, hundreds of thousands of dead and moribund elms have been eliminated-a very impressive step towards the goal of utterly removing the breeding places of beetle agents preponderantly responsible for spreading the disease-producing fungus. Taking all these facts into consideration my own opinion of the results of the eradication work to date is that they indicate a substantial reduction of the disease in the New York area. At the very least we can confidently assert that combined Federal and State efforts have apparently held the disease in check and greatly lessened its potential spread. Surely there is good reason to conclude that we prob- cut, and the 18 ably can save be vastly less our elms if we will, and that the cost of the effort will than that of removing dead trees if the disease be al- lowed to take its course. Further evidence of the success of our eradication policy is afforded by comparing the status of the Dutch elm disease situation in America with that of western Europe-a region in which eradication has not been attempted. This will also help us to visualize the anticipated fate of our elms if we do not or cannot eradicate the Dutch elm disease. A few extracts from two recent reports (1935) which we owe to the British Forestry Commission will suffice to give us the picture. Quoting-\" In Utrecht 64~0 of the elms have already been removed, in Rotterdam 55 %. \" \"Between Louvain and Diest, a distance of 18 8 there was originally a more or less continuous avenue of kilometres, elms, aboutof which have been felled as a result of the disease, and aboutof those remaining are dead.\" \"This is comparable to the Newport Bishop's Stortford area in England.\" An estate in Worcester, England, \"reports that 500 elms are to be felled in 1935 owing to the disease.\" As for England the British Forestry Commission finds \"it is still impossible to recommend the planting of elms.\" As for Holland \"~t is assumed that all the present stand of elms in Holland, with the exception of a few specimens of resistant varieties, will eventually succumb to the disease.\" In other words, the elm situation in western Europe appears to be hopeless. The conclusion is surely inescapable that, unless eradicated, the Dutch elm disease is not likely to be less disastrous in America than it is proving to be in Europe, knowing as we do from repeated tests that American species of elms rank among the most susceptible of all elms. And now let us turn briefly to the question of costs. That matter must be faced regardless of what is done about our elms, whether we try to save them or leave them to their fate. It may readily be admitted that considerable cost will be incurred in carrying through the eradication project because it will take several years to bring ~t to completion. But costs are sure to be many, many times greater if we do not eradicate the Dutch elm disease. To my mind there is no alternative. So-called \"control,\" short of eradication, may defer the loss of our elms; but the conclusion in Holland, where essentially such a measure is being practiced, is that the elms will eventually go. Actually such \"control\" may be more costly in the aggregate than doing nothing at all. If our elms be allowed to die there will be unavoidable costs of removal and these will be huge because of the vast number of trees involved. Then there will be costs of replacements, 19 losses of property values, and the sad loss of the American elm for planting-a tree for which there is no equivalent. In conclusion I should refer to criticisms that have been expressed with regard to certain practical features in connection with the carrying out of the eradication and sanitation programs. Fortunately, so far as I know, none have had reference to the scientific staff or the administrative officers in charge. We express complete confidence in them and admiration for what they have accomplished. There have been two serious criticisms : delays in making appropriations available, and insistence on employing a large proportion of field workers without due regard to their efficiency and training. Both procedures threaten the success of the undertaking, either through the chance that the area of infection may in consequence become so extended that eradication will be impossible of accomplishment, or through the danger that the process will be so long protracted that the people will tire and then withhold appropriations. Both can be corrected. It is plain that not only should appropriations be adequate but also that they should be available when best use can be made of them. They should be included in the regular budget, and the logical unit to handle this work would seem to be the Department of Agriculture. It is equally *i plain that the administrative officers should be made responsible for the efficiency of their field forces, which, of course, is irrational unless they are empowered to choose workers of the type needed. Notwithstanding these criticisms the Arnold Arboretum holds fast to the adopted policy of eradication and its attendant sanitation project. The ship may leak somewhat at present, but the leaks can he mended. We have confidence that they will be and that the ship will, if there be no sabotage, reach its planned destination. Our confidence is strong because we believe the United States has begun its campa~gn in time. We know the locations and the extent of infected areas ; and their size is not yet baffling. Of great importance is the circumstance that we are acquainted with the essential scientific aspects of the d~sease ; from them we judge that it lends itself ideally to eradication. Moreover, from the practical results attained we believe the soundness of the policy has been demonstrated. It looks as though it offers the way out and at minimum costs. We are firmly convinced that the preservation of America's elms for our own and succeeding generations lies in our own hands. But there must be unflagging persistence and continuity of endeavor. Our purpose can be attained if we express an interest that will command the leadership and basic support of Congress. J. H. FAULL 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Loder Rhododendron Cup","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":21,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24028","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160816a.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"THE LODER RHODODENDRON CUP Arboretum is justly proud of the fact that the Loder Rhododendron Cup has recently been awarded to Professor Alfred Rehder for the year 1936. This makes the third time the cup has been awarded outside England, and each time it has come to men on the staff of the Arnold Arboretum. In 1924 it was awarded to Professor Charles S. Sargent, in 1927 to Dr. E. H. Wilson, and in 1936 to Professor Rehder. The Loder Rhododendron Cup is awarded by a joint committee of the Royal Horticultural Society and the Rhododendron Society to men who have been outstanding in promoting knowledge concerning Rhododendrons. It was donated in 1921 by Mr. G. W. E. Loder in memory of his brother, Sir Edmund Loder. Professor Rehder has for many years been making valuable contributions to our knowledge of Rhododendrons. Two notable examples are his contributions in \"The Species of Rhododendrons,\" published by the Rhododendron Society of London, and \"A Monograph of Azaleas\" by E. H. Wilson and Alfred Rehder. THE 21 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Early Blooming Shrubs at the Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":23,"end_page":26,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24018","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25e8927.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV APRIL 6, 1986 NUMBER 4 EARLY BLOOMING SHRUBS AT THE ARBORETUM These plants afford a \"tie in\" with fall and The common witch-hazel (Hamnmelis virginiana) is the last plant to bloom in the fall, usually late October or November. The vernal witch-hazel is the first woody plant to bloom in the spring at the Arboretum. This year some of the plants were in bloom by the middle of January. Hamamelis japonica and H. mollis bloom later in February or March. This year they both started about March 15. The leaves of the Japanese witch-hazel (H. japonica) have a brilliant scarlet to orange autumn color, while the foliage of all the others are colored a good yellow in the fall. Though there are many plants with yellow colored foliage in the fall, these witch-hazels can always be counted on to be outstanding. Hamamelis virginiana is a more or less scraggly growing plant, which is native all through the northeastern United States. In fact, it is much better used in naturalistic plantings and along the borders of woods than elsewhere because of this loose habit of growth. Hamamelis vernalis, native to southern Missouri and adjacent regions, was first brought to the attention of gardeners by Professor C. S. Sargent about 1908. It grows 5 to 8 feet tall, is dense and suckers very much at the base, making it an excellent species to use in mass plantings. It is the most floriferous of all the witch-hazels, though the individual flowers are the smallest. Therefore it is not as showy as the two Asiatic species, but it is valued for its fragrance, the flowers having a very distinctive and aromatic odor. There is a rather wide variation in the time individual plants bloom and in the color of the flowers. Typically, these have yellowish petals which are reddish towards the base. The flowers are closed when the temperature is low, and then WITCH-HAZELS. spring. T 23 the petals gradually expand when it gets warmer, a very interesting process. Hamamelis japonica, the Japanese species, is similar in habit to H. airginiana, but the flowers are larger and more plentiful. The petals are pure yellow while the cupped sepals are more or less purple on the inside. The variety arborea is more tree-like in form with golden yellow petals, calyx deep purple on the inside, and the stamens with purple anthers. The other varieties, H. japonica,flavo purpurascens and H. japonica Zuccariniana, are apparently just as hardy, the former being of more ornamental value because of its larger red and yellow flowers. As a rule it is hardier than H. molli,s. The Chinese witchhazel (H. mollis) is the one that has the largest and the most conspicuous flowers of all and has been the most publicized. Unfortunately, it cannot always be depended upon at the Arboretum. The flowers, and even the flower buds themselves, are subject to injury from low temperatures, and none of the plants at the Arboretum have given a good performance during recent years. In warmer sections, or in places where this plant can be given ample winter protection, there is no doubt that it is an addition to the garden, particularly since it is the most outstanding of the small group of plants in bloom at this time of year. Daphne species. The February daphne (Daphne Mezereum) is the most common of this group, since it has become naturalized at various places in the eastern United States. It is a native of Europe and has been in cultivation for about four hundred years. This is another plant whose early, fragrant, purplish spring flowers (there is a white flowered variety also) are not noticeably affected by freezing. When plants bloom at this early time in the year they are subjected often to violent changes in temperature, and the only flowers of value to us then are those which can stand such conditions. February daphne has red fruits in the summer, and these, combined with the green color of the leaves make a very effective combination at that time. The lilac daphne (D. genkre~a), though it has pretty violet colored blossoms, yellow fruits, and blooms in early May, has not proved very satisfactory here at the Arboretum. It has previously been grown here, but every now and then is either completely killed or is given a severe setback by a cold winter. This plant may do better further south, but cannot be recommended for climatic conditions similar to those at the Arboretum. Daphne Cneorum blooms in mid-May. There are three other members of this genus, all of them whiteflowered, which have been grown at one time or another at the Arbo- 24 cc C I) > x N C ~C c0 C V cd o rTr _:.7 .C m x o a 0 E 1> E co E cc x retum. are They are D.altaica, D.carcca.siea particularly outstanding. and D.alpina, none of which The Cornelian Cherry (Cornu.s ma.s~. A native of southern Europe and western Asia, this plant has been used in gardens for over three hundred years, and in this country for over a century. It is of value chiefly for its very early, bright yellow flowers, which apparently are not injured by late freezes. The flower buds themselves can usually be counted on even during the coldest winters in this section of the United States. It blooms at a time when there is little else of importance in flower except the early species of Hamamelis and Daphne Mezereum. Added to its effectiveness of flower is the beautiful, rich, dark green, shiny foliage, which is attractive all summer long. The fruits are something like elongated cherries, ripening during the summertime, red in color, and in Europe often used for making preserves. The plant itself is vigorous, dense, and is even used for clipped hedges, though it would be better perhaps to use it as an unclipped windbreak. There is a yellow-fruited form growing at the Arboretum. The amount of fruit it bears apparently depends on weather conditions, for when the weather is particularly cold at blossomtime, there often results a very small amount of fruit later. The Japanese cornelian cherry (Cornus q~cinali.s~ is very similar from a horticultural standpoint. It, however, is native of Japan and has only been in this country about sixty years. There is a striking difference in the bark of these two plants, in that the bark of C. mas is very close in texture, and a dark grey, while that of C. qffccirurlis is loose, splitting and peeling off on the second and third year's growth, into short, papery strands. It is reddish brown in color. From a horticultural standpoint one of these plants is practically the same as the other. They are both valued for dependable early flowers, good foliage and fruit, and a good dense habit of growth. Blooming periods. It is difficult to predict the weather conditions very far in advance, but it may be interesting to some if we list a number of the outstanding groups of plants, together with the approximate time that they normally would be expected to bloom. Middle April-Forsythias Late April-Single flowered forms of Japanese cherries Early May-Shadbushes, Japanese quinces, early spiraeas Middle May-Crabapples, double flowered Japanese cherries, red bud and flowering dogwood Late May-Lilacs, wisterias, deutzias, diervillas, hawthorns . DONALD V~~1'MAN zs "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants Blooming in April and Some Magnolias","article_sequence":6,"start_page":27,"end_page":30,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24023","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160af6e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV APRIL 13, 1936 NUMBER 5 PLANTS BLOOMING IN APRIL AND SOME MAGNOLIAS FLORIBUNDA. The mountain andromeda has always been dependable at the Arboretum, much more so than the rhododendrons. Professor Sargent wrote of it that, \"judging by an experience of over fifty years, it is the only broad-leaved evergreen to which nothing ever happens in this climate.\" It is not attacked by borers or the lace wing-fly, so troublesome on rhododendrons; its foliage stays a good bright green all winter long, and its nodding clusters of white flower buds are rarely injured by winter cold. They open the first thing in the spring and are in bloom now at the Arboretum. The mountain andromeda can not be recommended too highly, and, fortunately, is being used more frequently as its good properties are PIERIS recognized. Pieris japonica, the Japanese andromeda, is considerably less hardy, though its dark, shiny green leaves and the greater height to which it grows make it the more handsome of the two. However, there are some protected places in eastern Massachusetts (and at the doing well; its clusters of flower buds hanging on the plant graceful, drooping panicles, and its white flowers are an asset in the garden at this time of year, if they can be certainly brought through the winter uninjured. The Corylopsis, now in bloom, are oriental shrubs, very similar to the witch-hazels in general habit. All species have yellow, drooping spikes of flowers before the leaves open. There are three Japanese forms, the oldest in cultivation being Corylopsi.s spicata and C. pau~iflora. Unfortunately, these two plants can not be depended upon at the Arboretum, for they are frequently injured in the winter; either where it is in Arboretum) the flower buds themselves are killed or the branches and twigs are 27 killed back severely. The hardiest species is C.glabrescens (formerly C. Gotoana~ which is, unfortunately, not very common in the trade. Seeds of this species were first sent to the Arboretum from Korea by Professor J. G. Jack in 1905, and the plant itself has proved the hardiest and handsomest of the lot. Though the buds have been occasionally injured in the winter, such injury has never been as severe as that of the other species. It grows as much as 10 feet in height. The two Chinese species, C. Veitchiana and C. Willrnattiae, have been killed repeatedly at the Arboretum and are not recommended for this region. Though this \"Azalea\" discovered in the mountains west of Peking in 1885 by Dr. P. V. Kirilow,it was not introduced to America until Dr. Emil Bretschneider sent seeds to the Arboretum in 1881. The flowers of this variety are large, rosy purple and not nearly magenta, as is the species. It is the first azalea or rhododendron to bloom and if weather conditions are right, it may make a good show for about two weeks at this time of year. Sometimes late freezes kill the flowers after they have opened, though it is seldom that the flower buds themselves are injured during the winter. If planted in the shade, particularly out of the morning sun, the chances are considerably increased for it remaining in bloom for some time. People interested in a long blossoming period from azaleas and rhododendrons, or wanting to get some color other than yellow in the garden this early in the year, are planting this very worth while Korean plant. Early Blooming Magnolias. Those magnolias which bloom before the leaves open in the spring are naturally the most conspicuous and the ones in which the greatest amount of interest is shown. Most of them are Asiatic species, since the American species do not begin to bloom until mid-May. The first of the magnolias to bloom in the spring (usually late April) are Magnolia stellata or star magnolia and M.kobus boreali.s. The former is becoming common, fortunately, not only for its interesting, many petalled white flowers, but also for its excellent foliage. In fact, too much can not be said of its landscape value as a foliage plant. It is bushy in growth, dense, the leaves have a good, dark green color, and the whole appearance of the plant is one of a billowy mass of green foliage all summer long. Its texture is not coarse, like most of the other magnolias. With the exception of M. kobns and its variety boreali.s, M. stellata is about the hardiest of the magnolias, another excellent factor in its favor. Magnolia kobus borealis, a variety much better than the species, Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum. was 28 Magnolia stellata, photographed by Alfred Rehder '.z.' w 0 0 x rIg PC 0 a, 0 0 o. 0 0 a, < w ., r e ~ Japan. It was introduced by the Arboretum in 1878 and has not been used in cultivation very much, possibly because in some places it is said to take a considerable number of years before the plant blooms sufficiently to make it of value. However, this is not always true since there are young plants which bloom profusely. The flowers are white and have fewer petals than those of M. stellata. It is the hardiest of the magnolias, a tree type often growing 60 to 70 feet tall. It is a valuable tree, a vigorous grower and because of this fact is used a great deal as an understock for grafting other magnolias. The white yulan (M. denudata or conspicua) has been a favorite in Chinese gardens since the seventh century of the Christian era. It has a profusion of white flowers and blooms about the first of May, shortly after M..stellata. It is a fine type and should be planted more than it is. The lower growing M. Soulangeana and its several varieties are also in bloom the first of May. Magnolia ,Soulangeana is a hybrid between M.denudata and M.lil~ora, and originated in France in 1810. 'I'here are several named varieties of this plant but only a very few are obtamable from nurseries in this country. The true M. 5oulangeana has a purplish flower, but the color of the flowers in the varieties ranges from white (in alba and .spectabilis) to reddish in rustica. Variety LPnnei, the last of the Sozclangeana types to bloom (late May) has petals colored rosy purple on the outside and white on the inside. Two other varieties have their flowers colored white on the inside and light purplish on the outside (alexandrina and speciosa). The magnolia collection in Highland Park, Rochester, N.Y., one of the best in the country, suffered a severe set-back in the cold winter of '8~-~4, when the branches of these M..Soulangeana varieties were killed back consideris native in ably. The lily magnolia (M.liliflora) and M.oboaata (M.hypoleuca) bloom the middle of May. Magnolia lil~flora and its variety nigra are low, purple-flowered, shrubby plants, but have failed to do well at the Arboretum because they are tender. M..vrrlicifolia, which the Arbo- 1891, is another of the white-flowered Asiatic A very interesting magnolia is M. Wat,soni, first found in a species. Japanese nursery though its origin is unknown. It blooms in midJune. The flower is about 4 to 5 inches across and saucer-shaped, while the sepals are pink on the outside and the petals creamy white. retum introduced in The anthers, in a ball-like mass in the center of the flower, are a reddish pink, which with the surrounding white of the petals makes a very effective color combination. For interest and beauty of individual flowers, this species might be termed one of the best of those men- 29 tioned. Forsythias. Much has been written in past numbers of this Bulletin about the Goldenbells, now in full bloom at the Arboretum. It is certain that no Forsythia can take the place of F. intermedia speclabilia, the showy border Forsythia, for a splurge of brilliant yellow color. Nor can F. intermedia primulina, the primrose forsythia, be replaced in the minds of those who have learned to appreciate its delicate, pale yellow flowers, a color which is not nearly as showy as that of F. internzedia spectabilis, but which is much more restful to the eyes. However, the merits of F. ovata should be emphatically stressed again for those colder sections of the northeastern United States where the flower buds of the common forsythias have been repeatedly killed by cold winters. Forsythia ovata has the hardiest flower buds of any and though much might be desired in form and habit of growth it still blooms well (usually a few days before the rest) at times when the others fail. This plant was first introduced into this country by the Arboretum with seeds sent by E. H. Wilson from Korea in 1917. It should be grown more by nurserymen and used more by the gar- dening public. DONALD WYMAN 30 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Early Japanese Cherries, The Quinces and Shadbushes","article_sequence":7,"start_page":31,"end_page":34,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24019","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160a328.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV APRIL 27, 1936 NUMBER 6 EARLY JAPANESE CHERRIES, THE QUINCES AND SHADBUSHES the first Prunus to bloom at the Arboretum is Prnnu.e year on April 1) and followed by P. mandshurica the middle of the month. In New York and New England Japanese cherries begin to bloom usually the latter part of April and by the time this Bulletin reaches its readers the early, single flowered group of these cherries will be in full bloom. Sargent's cherry, P. Sargentii, formerly P. serrulata sachalinensis, is the hardiest of these flowering cherries. It grows to be a standard tree, has light pink flowers, and the young foliage as it unfurls is a good bronze color, an excellent combination. Since the flowers are single, it, unfortunately, does not hold them very long, particularly during warm ACTUALLY, Davidiana (starting this spells. admittedly the most floriferous of any of this early flowering group, frequently having so many flowers that trunk and branches are actually hidden. The flowers are single, light pink. The tree itself is usually small and bushy, and among seedlings, there is considerable variation in the form of different plants. Its weeping form, P. subhirtella ~enrlula, is now common everywhere, and was very likely one of the first \"Japanese cherries\" introduced into this country. In 1846 the old Ellwanger and Barry Nursery of Rochester, New York, listed a plant in their catalogue at that time, which was undoubtedly this variety. The Yoshino cherry, P. yedoensis, is a beautiful tree with single white flowers, blooming just a few days later than the Sargent cherry, and which is slightly flower bud tender during the severest of New England winters. Where it succeeds, it makes an excellent combinaPrunus subhirtella is 31 deep pink-flowered P. Sargentii. It is interesting to note, that in the original gift of over two thousand cherry trees from the city of Tokyo to the city of Washington, in 1912, this tree constituted about half the lot. In fact, Professor C. S. Sargent in writing about the Yoshino in 1922 said that, prior to the great earthquake, there were at least two hundred and fifty thousand of these trees growing in Tokyo. This shows what the Japanese think of this beautiful tree. These four trees then constitute the most outstanding of the singleflowered types, all of which bloom at about the same time. After this group has passed the stage of full flower, the double-flowered forms start to bloom, led by the Naden cherry, P. Sieboldii. Japanese Quinces. There has been a great confusion about the nomenclature of this group of plants, but in common parlance they can still be termed Japanese quinces. Chaenomeles lagenaria is the scientific name now given to the old-fashioned Japanese quince formerly called Chaenomeles japonica or Cydonia japonica, which used to be planted so frequently for hedges before the advent of Japanese barberry. It was introduced from Japan, possibly before 1800, and is still a garden favorite. It will soon be in full bloom at the Arboretum. Since it has been in cultivation so long, there are naturally various varieties, with flowers of different hues, and some even with double flowers. Since many of these varieties are in the trade, but are only offered under the species name, it would only be confusion to mention them here. Suffice it to say that there are varieties in white, pink, a rich dark red, and various combinations of these. The true Clzaeuomeles japonica (Cydonia Maulei now in the trade) is a lovely little plant which should be better known. It is not as tall growing as Chaenomeles lageuaria, seldom getting more than l or 3 feet tall, but is dense and compact with some varieties of very briltion with the flowers. Since these flowering quinces, together with the common quince, Cydonia oblonga, which has little ornamental value but is used considerably for its fruits, are all members of the apple family, they are, of course, all subject to fire blight, borer and scale, and perhaps this is the chief reason why the Japanese barberry has replaced them in liantly colored hedge plantings. soon be in bloom all the northeastern United States. Often called shadblows, service berries or Juneberries, they are so named because they bloom at about the same time the shad run up the streams from the sea; their edible fruits ripen in June. There are tree types, Amelanchier cana- The Shadbushes. Now the shadbushes will over 32 y Z:2 '< c ~ ! ~ w H ..<:: U 9G G M m Q) C \" C, \" densi,s, A. laevis and A. grandiflora, and bushy types, A. oblongyf'olia and A. spicata. Their delicate white flowers, common to every one familiar with the woods at this time of year, are all practically the same from a landscape point of view with the possible exception of A. grandiflora (A. canarlensi.s X A. laevis) which has the largest flowers of any. Its variety, rubescens, has flowers which are more or less tinged with rose. Sometimes, unfortunately, weather conditions are such that the plants are only effective in flower for a very few days, particularly when a rather long cold spell has kept the buds from opening, followed by a sudden warm spell during which they open with a rush. It seems worthless, often, to use plants for only a few days effectiveness in the year, but the Amelanchiers have the added advantage of beautiful gray bark, and a fairly good autumn red color, together with fruits in June which are attractive to birds. Amelanchiers are most effectively used in naturalistic plantings, especially on the borders of woodlands. Their dainty white blossoms, open now, seem to be a fulfilled promise that spring has come at last. Immediately after they are through blooming a great majority of plants burst out into leaf. Early Spireas. Two of the first Spireas to bloom in the spring are Thunberg's Spiraea Thunbergii, and bridalwreath, .S. prunifolia plena. Both these plants may be somewhat tender in New England, but in other sections they are both very common. Since Thunberg's Spirea is the first to bloom, it might be used effectively with the pink Prunus triloba plena, now in bloom. The double-flowered bridalwreath on the other hand can be used very effectively with the lower growing and later blooming pink-flowered Prunus glandulosa sinensis. In planning or replanting shrub groups enough emphasis cannot be placed on this very important factor of flower color and blooming dates, since effective combinations like these are decidedly worth while. Other Plants Now in Bloom. With the early warm spell this spring and the more recent cold rainy spell the blooming dates of plants are normal. Plants in bloom at the Arboretum now are the Corylopsis species, the forsythias, Cornus mas and C. q~cinalis, though these are about past, Dirca palustris, Benzoin aestivale, Acer rubrum, Prunus mandshurica, Erica carnea, Pieris floribunda, T~inca mainor and Magnolia stellata, though M. demsdata, M. kobus and even some of the M. Soulangeana varieties are fast nearing full bloom. Though it is hard to gauge blooming dates, particularly this year, we hazard a guess that the crabapples will be at their height of bloom May 10 to 16. Lilacs will probably be best at about May 15 to 20. DONALD WYmAN again back to 34 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Rhododendrons","article_sequence":8,"start_page":51,"end_page":54,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24024","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160b36f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV JUNE 6, 1936 NUMBER 9 RHODODENDRONS is the time of year when the rhododendrons are at the height their bloom. Though most of the commonly called \"azaleas\" are classed as rhododendrons, still most of the gardening public think of rhododendrons merely as those large leaved plants which keep their leaves all winter. Botanically this is not correct, but the idea has come to be accepted by many through long usage. Now, most of the azaleas are about past bloom, except the flame azalea, Rhododendron calendulaceum. This will be followed a little later by the sweet azalea, R. arborescens, and in July by the swamp azalea, R. viscosum. The last two have very fragrant white flowers and are of particular value because of their late bloom. During the past, many hybrid rhododendrons have been tried out under New England conditions. Several studies have been made of varieties which have successfully withstood the rigorous New England winters, but it can be said that only a comparatively few have proved satisfactory, and even these suffer during the most severe winters. Bulletin readers who have raised hybrid rhododendrons for a period of years will probably be able to add certain plants to the list given below, but for those who have not, it would be best to adhere to the fifteen given here as having proved the most hardy over a long period of time. Undoubtedly, new ones will be added and there are peculiar situations where certain half-hardy types will grow well, but in general the following list includes the hardiest: THIS of White Boule de Album Album Neige elegans grandiflorum 51 Purple Purpureum elegans Purpureum grandiflorum Everestianum (a pale purple, much lighter than either of the others) Pink Abraham Lincoln _ ' Lady Armstrong Henrietta Sargent Mrs. C. S. Sargent Roseum elegans Red Kettledrum Atrosanguineum H. W. Sargent Caractacus Added to this list of hybrid types are certain species which have been commonly planted for years. R. carolinianum R. catawbiense R. eatawbiense album R. maximum R. minus R. Nmirno~ii (not much planted yet, but a very good type) There might be mentioned a long list of rhododendrons which have been tried but been found slightly tender under New England conditions. For instance, the lovely R. Fortunei and its hybrids, though apparently doing well on Cape Cod, they have not proved sat~sfactory at the Arboretum. However, there is one plant, the \"Duke of York,\" growing in the rhododendron collection at the Arboretum which is about 8 feet high and literally covered with blooms this year. It is apparently an exception to the rule, but is growing in a shaded, sheltered place at the base of Hemlock Hill. If moved to a more open situation, it undoubtedly would suffer some injury. At the Arboretum, the length of bloom of the rhododendrons is rather long. This year, for instance, it started with R. venustum (one of the less hardy types) about May 5, followed closely by \"Mont Blanc\" and a few days later by \"Boule de Neige\" and \"Charles Dickens,\" the last two being in full bloom by the end of May together with R. carolinianum. Then the majority of them burst into 52 0 ., \"') ~ E 0 ro o 0 ~ 0 ro 0 ro b ~ >< ro 0 sc 0 bloom around the first to the middle of June to be followed at the end by the giant rosebay, R. maximum, which will bloom by the end of June. This is the tallest of all, but unfortunately blooms after the new leaves and shoots have started growth, so that its effect in flower is greatly decreased. Notes. Volume iv of \"Ieones Plantarum Sinicarum,\" an important, beautifully illustrated folio work with descriptive text in English and Chinese, appeared this spring and was dedicated to Dr. E. D. Merrill, Acting Supervisor of the Arnold Arboretum, as an authority on the flora of Malaysia and \"in recognition of his signal contributions to the knowledge of the flora of Hainan and Kwangtung.\" It is the work of Dr. H. H. Hu and Professor W. Y. Chun, both of whom received a part of their training at the Arnold Arboretum, and is published by the Fan Memorial Institute of Biology, Peiping, China. Other volumes have been dedicated to Charles Sprague Sargent (vol. i, 1927), Augustine Henry (vol. ii, 1929), and Ludwig Diels, Director of the Berlin Botanical Garden and Museum (vol. iii, 1933). Dr. Merrill has recently been honored by election as an honorary member to the Botanical Society of Japan, the oldest botanical society in Asia, organized in 1887 as the Tokyo Botanical Society. . degree of Doctor of Laws was conferred on Dr. E. D. Merrill on May `2'.1, by the University nf California at its ,7~t_rd f'Olnn7er:cament. In introducing Dr. Merrill for the degree, President Sproul of the University of California, characterized him as \"Dean of the College of Agriculture in the University of California for five years ; one of America's most eminent botanists ; distinguished authority on tropical flora; interpreter of plant geography in relation to man's food; able coordinator of agricultural and botanical research.\" The Color Photography. Friends of the Arboretum will be glad to know that a recent voluntary gift made by one of the supporters of the Arboretum has made possible a serious attempt to increase the collection of natural color slides owned by the Arboretum. It is possible, through the intelligent use of one of the color processes now available, to portray flower colors accurately on slides. The Arboretum should have the best collection in this country of natural colored slides of trees and shrubs, and this gift will aid materially in attaining this objective. DONALD WYMAN 54 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Best Philadelphus","article_sequence":9,"start_page":55,"end_page":62,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24027","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d1608128.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV JUNE 15, 1936 NUMBER 10 THE BEST PHILADELPHUS recent years, there have crept into the trade a bewildnumber of Philadelphus species and varieties. The plants themselves, though of value when in flower, are not particularly outstanding at other seasons of the year, though there are notable exceptions. It is interesting to note that \"Standardized Plant Names\" (published in 1923) lists 58 species and varieties; Rehder's \"Manual of Cultivated Trees and Shrubs\" ( 1927) lists 40 species and about as many varieties, while the \"Plant Buyers' Index\" (1931) lists no less than 68 different types in the trade. This is truly a bewildering number, particularly to the lay gardener who has the opinion that there are at the most only a dozen different Philadelphus from which to choose. In fact, one nurseryman feels the genus to be so important that he lists as many as 29 different kinds. A careful study of the group, particularly with the ornamental qualities of these plants in mind, will show that there is a surprising similarity among varieties and even among species. Ordinarily, gardens are planted to be enjoyed longer than a week or two, the length of time these plants are in bloom, and plants so selected should have as many good qualities as possible so that they may be enjoyed at DURING dering various seasons. To illustrate this point, take as an example the flowering dogwood, Cornus florida. This is a plant which is of interest in the winter because of its excellent horizontal branching habit. In the spring it is outstanding with its lovely flowers opening before the leaves appear; in the summer it is of interest for its good, dark green foliage all summer long; in the early fall the excellent fruits turn a brilliant red while the leaves are still green, a very good color combination; and 55 brilliant red color. Because this plant of the year it is one of the best woody plants to use in landscape work. On the other hand, take the widely planted Philadelphus virginalis varieties: True, they have very large, double, fragrant, white flowers, which may last at the most two weeks, but before and after that time, there is nothing ornamental about these plants. In fact they are always of poor shape, often slightly tender, at least in New England, and in any event are best used to the rear of other shrubs which may have more to recommend them over a longer period of time. With this critical attitude in mind, we can better examine the Philadelphus group, picking out important plants which have particular landscape value of one sort or another, and neglecting to mention many which are either inferior or at least not quite on a par with those selected. In the table we have tried to list the best of the Philadelphus and, since several are similar, arranged them in groups accordingly. Undoubtedly, there are some left out, and individuals who know the group well would be able to add several more to the list, particularly in the hybrid groups. However, since each group has its own peculiarities, it is doubtful if any more general groups would be formed, and, from the landscape point of view, the plants selected certainly are representative. The table is simply assimilated in order to give at a glance the general ornamental characteristics of each group of Ph~lin the late fall the leaves turn a has ornamental interest at all seasons adelphus. Height In general, most of the Philadelphus are vigorous growers and free from insect and disease troubles. Certain species, of which P.cororrariua is an example, are hardy over a very wide area of the United States, several species being native to this country. The large-flowered hybrid types are the ones which tend to winter kill in New England and other northern sections during very severe winters, but even these are hardy south of the Mason and Dixon line. Most of them will do fairly well in New England if given some protection. They are easy to grow and not exacting as to soil requirements. There are both tallgrowing and low-growing kinds. Philadelphus ma.cimus is perhaps the tallest growing of the group, good old plants of this getting up to 30 feet in height. The lowest growing are the P.cymosus and P. Lemoinei hybrids, the latter probably being the lowest of all, seldom exceeding 4 to 5 feet in height. 56 Double-flowered Philadelphus virginalis, Albatre Flowers and Fragrance the P. coronarius types usually bloom earlier than do some of the others (P.hirsutus, not mentioned in this list, is the first of all to bloom) the double-flowered types usually hold their flowers longer than the others though they commence to bloom as soon as do the majority. They all bloom within a two-week period and so Though in general seriously be classed as \"early\" or \"late. \" Usually they start just after the hybrid rhododendrons and just before the mountain laurel, this time being about the middle of June in normal years at the Arboretum though it is advanced about a week this year due to hot, dry weather. Ordinarily, P.pubescens might be classed as the last of cannot the group to bloom. Mock-Oranges, particularly the old-fashioned kind, are noted for fragrance and because of this and their similarity in appearance to orange blossoms they thus get their names. Known long before the common lilac, the Philadelphus was originally called Syringa, and even today this common name has persisted. However, the botanical term Syringa has since been applied to the common lilac and so the better common name for the group of Philadelphus might well be mock-orange. Perhaps the most fragrant are P.coronarius, P.tomentosus and P.Zeyheri. One is about as good as another in this respect. This would mean that if fragrance was the main reason for using these plants, certain species are more outstanding than others and should be used with this in mind. The table lists the comparative fragrance their of the different groups. The majority of the Philadelphus bear their flowers in upright or drooping clusters or racemes. However, one group (P.inodorus, floridus, grandiflorus and la~us) have only about three flowers on each stalk and these do not bloom all at the same time, so, when in bloom, the plants are apparently covered with small, individual, single blossoms. This gives a truly interesting effect, since they are apparently more or less regularly spaced over the entire plant. This same group also is noted for its drooping branches, which face to the ground very well. P.ins~ignis, probably the only one listed which is not in the trade, is the only one which has the flowers in panicles. Philadelphus virginalis varieties are 3 to 7 flowered, depending on the variety. \"Argentine,\" for instance, has 3 flowers, while \"Virginal\" and \"Glacier\" have usually 5 to 7 flowers in each raceme. The majority of the Philadelphus species have, of course, racemes of many flowers. 58 . ~.s O~ o c y C x ~ m o a ~ ~o 0.~ .x c m ~ro TS C a w U o ~ 0 ! U7 S N V 0 o a~ x a .. w a L~ y cn 8 0 o ~' o d a . w cw v sj V az c ~a a ~, 0 M w v N w V .~s' 3 ry :: ~ N .> x d A z -~ aH Nx c G U U .c C e s 3 a~ a d rJ'J w W ?. \"c U v~ c o @ x ri) W Ca 3 o ' > gM c t W x H a~ c o fl c o \"m ~ L m r t o ~ 8 ~~ An interesting group which was not mentioned in the list given in the table because they are none too hardy in New England are the P.purpureo-maculatu.s varieties (P. Lemoinei X P. Coulteri), noted because of the small spot of purple color at the base of each white flower 1. petal. Shape Most everyone is familiar with the tall, upright, often arching habit of the old-fashioned P.coronarius. For many years, particularly prior to the introduction of the hybrids and some of the species, this was taken as being indicative of the entire group. Today, however, if shape were the only character in which we were interested, we could get a Philadelphus (P.coronarius nanus~ which is a dwarf growing, dense, compact, round-topped plant, seldom getting over 13 feet tall ; or fairly low arching Philadelphus that look considerably like deutzias except that they are considerably more graceful as for example certain P. cymosus or P. Lemoinei varieties like P. Lemoinei \"Avalanche\" ; or still other round growing forms which face to the ground well like P.inodorus and P.splendens. This group contains some of the best Philadelphus for general landscape use, simply because of their excellent, mound-like form. Their branches face to the ground well, making it possible to use them in the foreground or even as specimen plants where they may be observed all the time. Even when not in flower, their drooping branches and general rounded form is outstanding all the year and hence they can be well used where this characteristic is desired. Pruning and Use Mock-Oranges, as well as many of the honeysuckles and forsythias, need some renewal pruning every few years. The older branches might well be thinned out at certain intervals. This need not be done all at once unless necessary, but at least over a period of years. Thinning out, cutting back the old or dying branches to the ground, is much the best method to use on these plants as a group. Certain species may tend to get bare of branches at the base and when this occurs a careful cutting back is in order. All members of this genus can stand severe pruning, since they are all vigorous growers, and, if the occasion demands may be cut down to the ground entirely and will come up in a comparatively short time. Consequently then, though the Philadelphus are used primarily for their lovely flowers in June, there are certain types more fragrant than 60 11 m 'i!- < -< m z 0 E ro a m x f E. others ; there are certain types with larger flowers or more interesting flowers than others, and above all, there are different forms available, making them useful for different landgcape purposes the entire year. Tall-growing species, like P. pubescens, might well be used in background plantings for the foliage is comparatively free of insect and disease pests. Others, like P. splendens, P. Lemzoinei \"Avalanche,\" etc., can be used as specimen plants. In hot, dry situations the P. coronarius type has been successfully used as a screen and even as a clipped hedge. A good, fast-growing, vigorous group of plants which be used for various purposes and an excellent group on which to demonstrate that a few of the best well selected types will be perfectly adequate to exemplify the many offered in the trade today. can Victor Lemoine general discussion of the Philadelphus group would not be complete without a word about Victor Lemoine, that great French nurseryman who has done so much to enrich our supply of ornamental plants. Many of the varieties of Philadelphus, highly valued in the trade today, can be traced directly to the nurseries of Victor Lemoine and his successors. Born of a long line of horticulturists in 1823, he graduated from college and learned his gardening practically, working for others until he was finally able to branch out for himself. Among the places at which he worked was that of Louis Van Houtte, at Ghent, Belgium. Lemoine established his business in 1850 at Nancy, France. Since that time the firm became one of the leaders in the world for hybridizing and introducing new varieties of woody plants. The number of different plants with which he worked is astounding. Some of them include Gladiolus, Paeonia, the double-flowered Begonia, Deutzia, Diervilla, Delphinium, Heuchrea, Syringa, Philadelphus and many others. During his life, he was the recipient of many outstanding horticultural honors, including the George Robert White Medal, presented by the Massachusetts Horticultural Society in 1911. When he A died in 1911, horticulture lost a man who did more than any one else in modern times in originating new varieties of ornamental woody plants. DONALD WYMAN 62 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some of the Rarer Summer Blooming Shrubs","article_sequence":10,"start_page":63,"end_page":66,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24025","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160b725.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION - ----~-- SERIES 4. VOL. IV JULY 11, 1936 NUMBER 11 I SOME OF THE RARER SUMMER BLOOMING SHRUBS Arboretum, the Stewartias started bloomend of June this year, though ordinarily they usually bloom ing a week or two later. They all have flaky, cinnamon-brown trunks, with white Camellia-like flowers. There are three types which can be considered here, namely Stewartia pentagyna, 1f. pseuclocamellia, and ~S, koreana. The first mentioned is the only one of the group nativeto this country, found from North Carolina to Florida. It is a shrub or tree-like bush with ovate to oblon\";-ovate leaves about z-,i inches long. The cup-shaped flowers are white and about 3-4'-a inches across, while the beauty of the individual flowers is considerably augmented by the orange colored anthers. There is a variety, grandiflora, which is even more beautiful because of its purple stamens. This is apparently perfectly hardy at the Arboretum and another large plant on the campus at Vassar College at Poughkeepsie, N. Y., suffered no injury there at all during the severe winter several years ago. An added advantage of this plant is that the dark green leaves turn an orange to crimson color in the fall. The Japanese representative of this group is Stewartia p.xeudocnmPllia. In Japan, where this plant is quite common around Nikko and in other mountainous regions, Wilson found it rather rare in cultivation and difficult to purchase, for some reason or other. The young plant has ascendmg branches forming a vase-shaped crown, but older trees become rounded at the top. The flowers are borne singly in the axils of the leaves of the current year's growth and there is a striking simthose of a Camellia. In the fall, the ilarity between its color. leaves turn a The Korean Stewartia, , . koreana, was first introduced in 1917by The Stewartias. At the at the flo ers'a`nd blackish-p le 63 the Arboretum from seeds collected in Korea. The unfortunate thing about this plant was that it took eleven years before it bloomed, but it is probably the most hardy of the group and certainly the most symmetrical as a small tree. It is upright and pyramidal in shape with the leaves a good dark green color. The edges of the flower petals are slightly fringed and the stamens are a rich yellow. Albizzia julibrissin rosea. Commonly called the silk tree, this is the most outstanding of the summer blooming shrubs at the Arboretum and has the most finely divided foliage of any of the woody plants hardy in the northern United States. The foliage reminds one of that of the Mimosa or sensitive plant. The native country of this tree may be in doubt, but it is found widespread in Asia from Persia through China to southern Korea, and has been naturalized in the United States from Virginia south to Louisiana. The peculiarity of this plant is that the stamens make the conspicuously showy parts of the flower. The flowers are borne in stalked heads which are produced many together in the topmost leaf stalks of the current year's growth. The sepals and petals are inconspicuous and dominated by the thread-like, upright, pink stamens. The flowers are borne on the upper side of the branches and stand above the foliage. For this reason, they are very conspicuous, and certainly are different from the flowers of most other hardy woody plants. In the type, the stamens are white and less showy than in the variety ro.reo, and fortunately this variety is also the hardier. The origin of this particular plant is interesting. Wilson observed it growing near a hotel in central Korea, which was near the northern limit for the plant. Feeling that seed from this tree would do better under Massachusetts conditions than seed of the same variety collected further south, he sent some seed to the Arboretum in 1918. Only a few seeds were collected, and the young seedlings were set out when four years old. Several were killed the first winter, but one came through and has only suffered during the most severe winters since. Each time it is injured, it sprouts again and comes back into good form. One of the best characteristics it has is the long blooming season. Starting in July, it continues to bloom usually well into September. Though rare yet in the trade, this plant is certainly worth a trial in the north where the winters are not too severe, and its unique and interesting flowers will make it one of the most outstanding plants in bloom during the summer. Tripterygium Regelii. This is one of those few woody plants which can be used either as a vine or as a shrub. Native in Korea and Japan, 64 Iz, '\" ~ ~a z s a \" 00 -1~ where it often climbs to the tops of the tallest trees, this plant is valued in this country because of its interesting, creamy-white colored flower spikes in mid June. The individual flowers are small but extremely numerous, and the fruits are bladder-like. This plant is another introduction of the Arnold Arboretum, the seed first being sent to this country by Professor J. G. Jack from Korea in 1905. Though occasionally suffering slight winter injury, it is still a valued plant for summer bloom. It is not classed as a vigorous growing vine, but makes its best show of flowers possibly when treated as a shrub, and could be used considerably more in northern gardens. Acanthopanax ricinifolius. This is a close relative of the shrubby Acanthopanax Sieboldianus (A. pentaphyllumz in the trade) which does so well as a foliage plant when grown in the shade or against a stone building. The interesting thing about A. ricinifolize.s is that it is a standard tree, occurring wild in Japan often to a height of 80 feet or more. In Korea and central and western China, it is also valued as a timber tree. There is a large tree in the Arboretum apparently perfectly at home. The leaves are large and similar in shape to those of the Castor oil bean (Ricinus) from which it gets its name. Each branchlet terminates in a broad, round compound cluster of flowers which are rapidly followed by small, jet-black fruits. The large and handsome palmate leaves give this tree a tropical appearance, yet it is perfectly hardy, quick growing, and apparently thrives in ordinary garden soil. If a tropical effect is desired, this tree might be an excellent thing to use. It is interesting to know that this plant is the only hardy member of the genus which grows into a tree, and that such an outstanding near relative of the popular A..SaPboldianus (A. pentnphyllnnz) is hardy here in the north. DONALD WYMAN GG "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Summer Blooming Vines","article_sequence":11,"start_page":67,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24026","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160bb27.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV AUGUST 8, 1986 NUMBER 12 SUMMER BLOOMING VINES creepers. The trumpet creeper, Campsis radicans (BigTecacna radicrcu.s in the trade) is one of the common sununer flowering vines. Widely used, this lovely vine is a native of the southern United States. Even as far north as Boston, the trumpet creeper is hardy, though occasionally it does suffer somewhat during the most severe winters. Having been introduced into cultivation as earlt as 1640, it is only natural that numerous special forms and hybrids have crept into the trade, so that a short discussion of this group does not seem to be amiss. There are two important species in the north, Canzpsis radicans or the native American type, and Campsis grandiflora (C. chinensis), the Chinese type. Unfortunately, this latter is not hardy at the Arboretum, but it has been grown successfully on Long Island. The Chinese form has more attractive flowers than the American one. Although the flower tube is shorter, the flare of the corolla is wider, thus making the individual bloom more conspicuous than in its American relative. Also, the flowers are not borne in a tight cluster as in the American type, but more loosely, making a much better display. Fortunately, there are hybrids between the two species which are fairly hardy in New England. These hybrid forms are usually known as C. Tagliabuana or C. hybrida. When introduced from seeds, there is naturally considerable variation in both flowers and in hardiness. One of the forms which has proved best at the Arboretum over a long period of years is the variety Madame Galen, which can be asexually propagated either by hard-wood cuttings or by top grafting on the native C. radicau.s. The trumpet creepers climb by clinging with small root-like hold- Trumpet or nonia 67 fasts similar to those on the common English ivy. Though some claim that they need additional support for clinging to stone work, this is not always the case. Two good examples of this vine clinging to the perpendicular walls of buildings without anysupport whatsoever are on the administration building at the Arnold Arboretum and also on the administration building at Vassar College. The vines have climbed to the roofs of both of these buildings and have never needed additional wire supports of any kind. Where these vines are grown near their northern limits, some of the branches may unfortunately die back at their tips. However, since they always bloom on the current year's growth and respond to pruning readily, they may be cut back rather heavily with little appreciable reduction in flowering. A list of the important differences between the two species is interesting because it aids in the understanding of some of the variations appearing in the hybrids. American Trumpet creeper Chinese Trumpet creeper (Ca~np.ris radicans) Leaves hairy beneath, along the veins Flower tubular Sepals relatively short Corolla lobes small Flowers usually orange-red Flower cluster compact Aerial roots common Vines up to thirty feet long (Camp.ris grandiflora) Leaves smooth beneath Flower bell-shaped Sepals relatively long ~ Corolla lobes large Flowers usually scarlet-red Flower cluster open Aerial roots rare Vines up to ten feet long Clematis. There are at least five species of clematis which are outstanding for their summer bloom, and many more species and varieties which have not yet attained wide popularity. The first of the five species is Clematis Jaclcmanni, that large, purple-flowered clematis which was introduced into the United States about 1866 and now is common in cultivation even as far north as Boston. There are pale gray and reddish-flowered varieties. The sweet autumn clematis, C. panirnclata, introduced by the Arnold Arboretum in 1877, may not bloom until September, but in some places starts to bloom bythe end of August. Its small, starry, white flowers are borne in the greatest profusion. Unlike Jackman's clematis, it is not killed to the ground except in the most severe winters. Neither of these are nxtives of America, but were introduced from abroad, Jackman's clematis as a hybrid from England (its parents 68 . :i \" m U Q ~, L W J l ~~ . ; ~ :J r o g c U ~- D~ 'C C J a! ` , .c .. O &k3#;3#x E & x C; ai G y .. L_ ~ x \" G = ~ ~L ~t J , Gx y i ~' \" =_ J-< y Nb 3 ' ~v.... o L ~ l..' s 1JJ: L 0 rz W . !: E _L ;:a 0 ~ o:! ~ !t* <t ~ C . '~ t~ 5 4z, 8 a &z3x# E; Z: from eastern Asia), and the latter, C. paniculata, from Japan. A native clematis, common in many places in the eastern United States along fence rows and the edges of woods is the virgin's bower, Clemntix airginiann. Its European relative, Clematis Vitnlbn or trav eller's ,joy, is a rank growing, small flowered vine, blooming profusely in the summer. Though the individual flowers are not large, they literally cover the plant and, for this reason, make an excellent show. Both can be used extensively in naturalistic plantings. One lovely native, which should be given considerably more attention m northern gardens, is that little, scarlet-flowered (:lPmali.s fP.rPn.ri.v, the scarlet clematis. It is hardy as far north as Bar Harhur, Maine. It was first collected in Texas, about 1850. The urn-shaped flowers are a bright scarlet to a rose-pink, and although the plant dies to the ground each winter, it comes up very vigorously in the spring. It has been used a great deal in hybridizing work, but should be in greater demand by gardeners who like the unusual. Honeysuckles. Everyone is familiar with the sweet-scented Hall's honeysuckle, Lonicera japonica Halliana, the flowers of which xre white, gradually changing to yellow. They begin to open in June and continue into July. The less floriferous and less vigorous Henry honeysuckle, Lonicera Henryi, also blooms in the summer and has smaller, reddish flowers. A very interesting native species is the trumpet honeysuckle, LonicPrn sempenriren.x, which is common in certain parts of New England, in the Adirondacks in New York, and further south. The flowers are long and trumpet-shaped, varying from orangeyellow to scarlet, with yellow and brilliant scarlet forms. An interesting fact regarding this plant is that the leaves are \"connate\" or joined together at the stem, so that it appears as if two opposite leaves formed a single one with the stem coming through the center. A good summer bloomer, conspicuous because of its bright colored flowers, but often injured by severe weather, this vine is not as vigorous a grower as the Hall's honeysuckle, and is often almost shrub-like. LomicPra HPCkrottii, the ever-blooming honeysuckle, is even more shrubby in growth. The tubular flowers are purple on the outside and yellow within, a very interesting combination. Unfortunately, both of these plants are susceptible to severe infestations of plant lice and should not be grown unless this pest be kept in check by proper spraying. Fleece vine: Polygonum Auberti, the fleece vine, has proved the better vine at the Arboretum when compared with its near relative, 1'. baltl.schuanicnn:. It commences to bloom the latter part of July. Introduced into cultivation in 1899, it has had a rather late start in 69 . ' ' summer blooming vines. It produces small, greenish-white flowers at the end of each branch. In New England and northern New York, the plant dies to the ground each winter, but grows so vigorously in the spring that it makes an excellent showing with its dainty flowers in the summertime. Being a twining vine, it readily ascends almost any kind of support given it and can be used to advantage in combination with the later blooming Clematis paniculata. Schizophragma hydrangeoides. Classed as a summer blooming vine, this is somewhat similar to H,ydrangea petiolari.s which blooms in June, and, in fact, is much confused with it. However, it is inferior in habit and flower to the former. Though it may be good in some sections, it seems that the climbing hydrangea might well be given the preference. Memorial rose. Though many rambler roses might be termed summer blooming vines, only one rose species will be mentioned here, namely Rosa Wichuraiana or the memorial rose. This is a low growing, trailing vine, best used as a ground cover. The leaves are small and a bright shiny green, the flowers small and white. The plant is best used on banks, for it not only makes an excellent display, but at the same time tends to keep the soil from washing. Tripterygium Regelii. Mentioned in the last issue of the Bulletin, this plant is also considered a summer blooming vine, although it is shrubby by habit and forms an excellent shrub if properly restrained. gaining popularity among other foot-long masses of DONALD WYMAN 70 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Woody Plants with Ornamental Fruits","article_sequence":12,"start_page":71,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24031","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d170a36e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV OCTOBER 1, 1936 NUMBER 13 WOODY PLANTS WITH ORNAMENTAL FRUITS fruits and autumn color are both of outstanding interest in In fact we often plant primarily with these in mind. Interesting, bright-colored fruits are not limited to fall display alone, since the fruits of many plants start to ripen as early as June and are effective during the hot dry summer months when comparatively few of our woody shrubs are in bloom. Then, too, the ornamental fruits of many shrubs will remain on the plants long after the leaves have dropped in the fall, thus giving interest during the dreary winter months. Since there are such a large number of plants with ornamental fruits available, a general knowledge of the subject should help in making the home grounds more interesting during the trying months of the year. All plants do not fruit well every year for various reasons. Take for example the flowering crabapples. These, like all apples, have abundant fruits one year and few fruits the following year, and little we can do will change this sequence. Every commercial orchardist is familiar with this \"alternate bearing.\" Then, too, weather conditions have a great influence on fruit bearing as would be expected. Sometimes a plant is in too rich a soil, and all of its energies are spent in making g vegetative growths, few towards flowering and fruiting. Here a good root pruning m~ght aid. Sometimes the application of potash or phosphorous-bearing fertilizer aids m fruit production as it always does with grains and vegetables. Plants like the common bittersweet or the Japanese yew have the sexes on different plants, and the staminate plants will never bear fruit under any conditions. Naturally, disease and insect troubles will reduce the amount of fruit borne by plants. Borers in the trunks are also outstanding in this respect. All these things must be carefully considered when estimating the amount of fruit that any particular plant ORNAMENTAL landscape. the fall may produce annually. Many of the best of our ornamental fruiting shrubs and trees are listed in the following pages, together with important notes about certain species. A careful study of these lists and notes will give a better understanding of what to plant for fruiting effect. 71 SUMMER FRUITS Red Acer ginnala Ailanthus altissima Ailanthus altissima (A. glandulosa)~ (A. glandulosa) Amur maple Ailanthus erythrocarpa~ Cornus kousa Kousa *Cornus mas Dogwood Cornelian-cherry *Crataegus arnoldiana$ *Daphne Mezereum *Elaeagnus multiflora (E. longipes) *Lonicera bella *Lonicera Korolkovii *Lonicera Morrowii Lonicera syringantha *Lonicera tatarica Lonicera thibetica Arnold Hawthorn February Daphne Cherry Elaeagnus Belle Honeysuckle Blueleaf Honeysuckle Morrow Honeysuckle Lilac Honeysuckle Tatarian Honeysuckle Tibetan Honeysuckle Nemopanthus mucronata~ Prinsepia sinensis Prinsepia uniflora Prunus avium Mountain-holly Cherry Prinsepia White Prinsepia Mazzard *Prunus tomentosa *Rhus glabra+ *Rhus ty phina~ Ribes alpinum~ Rosa Hugonis Nanking Cherry Smooth Sumac Staghorn Sumac Mountain Currant Father Hugo Rose Rugosa Rose *Rosa Rugosa Rubus odoratus Flowering Raspberry Scarlet Elder Silver Buffaloberry Russet Buffaloberry American Mountain-ash European Mountain-ash Showy Mountain-ash Wright Viburnum Blue *Sambucus pubens *Shepherdia argenteat Shepherdia canadensis+ Sorbus americana$ *Sorbus Aucuparia$ *Sorbus decora$ *Viburnum Wrightii *Cornus *Cornus alternifolia~ controversa Cornus Amomum Lonicera coerulea *Mahonia *Mahonia Aquifolium~ repens~ Dogwood Silky Dogwood Pagoda Dogwood Sweetberry Honeysuckle Oregon Hollygrape Creeping Holly grape Lowbush Blueberry Alternate leaved Vaccinum pennsylvanicum Vaccinum vacillans *Viburnum dentatum Dryland Blueberry Arrowwood 72 Black Aronia melanocarpa Berberis heteropoda$ Prunus Sargenti (P.serrulata Black Chokeberry Turkestan Barberry sachalinensis) *Prunus *Prunus serotina virginiana~ (kerrioides) White Rhamnus cathartica Rhodotypos scandens Ribes odoratum *Sambucus canadensis Common Buckthorn Jetbead Golden Currant American Elder Tatarian Sargent Cherry Black Cherry Common Chokecherry *Cornus alba *Cornus racemosa (C. *Cornus stolonifera paniculata) *Symphoricarpus albus laevigatus (S. racemosus laevigatus) Miscellaneous Dogwood Gray Dogwood Red Osier Dogwood Garden Snow berry Dark purple Allegheny Serviceberry Amelanchier laevis Yellow *Cornus mas flava Common Smoketree *Cotinus coggygria (Rhus cotinus) Greenish *Cotinus coggygria purpureus Purple Purple SmmkPtree (Rhus cotinus purpureus) Yellow Red purple Greenish Greenish Brown Yellow Yellow Yellow to red White *Daphne Mezereum alba February Daphne Fraxinus americana iodocarpa Ginko biloba+ Koelreuteria paniculata Kolkwitzia amabilis *Lonicera Morrowi xanthocarpa *Lonicera tatarica lutea American Ash var. Maidenhair-tree China-tree Beauty bush Yellov;~ Tatarian Hone~~suckle *Malus brevipes Morus alba Morus rubra Pterocarya fraxinifolia Yterocarva Rehderiana Ptelea trifoliata Rhamnus Frangula Robinia fertilis Robinia Kelseyi *Viburnum alnifolium Changing from red *Viburnum Sieboldii *Viburnum tomentosum 46 11 White,red,black White Mulberry Red Mulberry Purple Light green Caucasian Win~nut Light green Rehder ~'in~nut Light green Common Hoptree Purple Glossy Buckthorn Purple Purple Kelsey Locust to blue-black 44 16 \" 11 46 6 6 44 61 Hobblebush Siebold Viburnum Doublefile Viburnum * Of outstanding value. t Mentioned in notes. 73 FALL AND WINTER FRUITS Red Arctostaphylos uva-ursi *Aronia arbutifolia~ Benzoin aestivale Red Bearberry Chokeberry Spicebush Salmon Barberry Chinese Barberry Chalkleaf Barberry ' **Berberis aggregata~ **Berberis chinensist *Berberis dictyophylla~ *Berberis Gilgianal Berberis koreana~ **Berberis Thunber~;ii~ *Berberis Vernaet **Berberis vul~aris~ **Cotoneaster Dielsiana~ **Cotoneaster divaricata$ **Cotoneaster Franchetit **Cotoneaster horizontals~ *Cotoneaster microphyllal *Cotoneaster racemiflora soonhorica~ *Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa~ *Cornus florida$ Korean Barberry Japanese Barberry Verna Barberry European Barberry ' Spreading Diels Cotoneaster Cotoneaster Franchet Cotoneaster Rock Cotoneaster Rockspray Songarian Cotoneaster W illowleaf Cotoneaster Flowerm~ Dogwood Arnold Hawthorn Cockspur Thorn Downy Hawthorn English Hawthorn Washington Hawthorn **Crataegus arnoldiana$ Crataegus crus-hall~$ *Crataegus mollis~ Crataegus oxyacantha~ **Crataegus phaenopyrum (C. cordata~~ *Evonymus alata~ *Evonymus atropurpurea~ *Evonymus europaea atrorubens~ Evonymus obovata~ Gaultheria procumbens **Ilex opaca$ **Ilex verticillata$ Lonicera Maakii podocarpa Magnolia species *Malus atrosanguinea~ *Malus \"Hopa Crab\"~ Malus pumila Niedzwetzkyanat *Mitchella repens *Photinia villosa~ **Rhus copallina++ **Rhus ~;labra~ **Rhus typhina~ **Ribes fasciculatum.~',. **Rosa multiflora+ Winged Euonymus Wahoo European Burninabush Running Euonymus Wintergreen American Holly Common Winterberry Late Honeysuckle Magnolias Carmine Crab Hopa Crab Redvein Apple Partridgeberry Shining Sumac Smooth Sumac Staghorn Sumac Winterberry Currant Japanese Rose 74 G'oloneaster racemiflora soongorica has coral pink fruits. **Rosa rugosa **Rosa setigera **Rosa virginiana (R. lucida) . Rosa Wichuraiana **Sorbus americana **Sorbus Aucuparia **Sorbus decora~ , Rose Prairie Rose Virginia Rose Wichura Rose American Mountain-ash European Mountain-ash Showy Mountain-ash Rugosa **Symphoricarpus Chenaultii **Symphoricarpus orbiculatus (S. vulgaris) **Taxus baccata~ **Taxus cuspidatak **Taxus media Hicksii.~~. **Viburnum dilatatum **Viburnum Opulus **Viburnum trilobum Blue Coralberry English Yew Japanese Yew Hicks Yew Linden Viburnum European Cranberrybush Cranberrvbush ' Chionanthus vir~inica *Clerodendron trichotomum~ Juniperus horizontalis Fringetree Harlequin Gloryhovrer Creeping Juniper Redcedar Asiatic Sweetleaf White **Juniperus virginiana *Symplocos paniculata Vaccinium corymbosum dentatum Black Highbush Blueberry Arrowwood Turkestan *Viburnum Berberis heteropoda~ Cornus sanguinea Cotoneaster foveolatal Ilex crenata microphylla$ Ilex glabrat Barberry Bl<n~dtwi~,>~ Dogwood Littleleaf Japanese Holly Inkberry Amur Privet California Privet European Privet Common Buckthorn Jetbead Scotch Rose Mapleleaf Viburnum ~Vith e-rod Wayfaring Tree Ligustrum Ligustrum **Rhamnus amurense~ ovalitlium **Ligustrum vulgare cathartica **Rhodotypos scandens Rosa spinosissima Viburnum acerifoliurn Viburnum lantana ' (R. kerrioides) *Viburnum cassinoides* **Viburnum Lentago Nanny berry White pubescenst *Baccharis halimifolia$ *Cornus racemosa (C. paniculata) Cornus rugosa (or light-blue) *Symphoricarpus albus laevigatus (S. racemosus laevigatus) Viburnum ~ Groundselbush Gray Dogwood Roundleaf Dogwood Garden Snowberry ~ ~) Miscellaneous Callicat-pa Call~carpa japonica dichotomy Colutea arborescens Cornus florida xanthocarpa **Crataegus pruinosat Evonymus Bun~eana$ **Htppophae rhamnoides$ **Ilex opaca xanthocarpa~ Maclura pom~fera+ **Malus arnoldiana$ Malus baccata~ *Malus brevipes~ **Malus floribunda~ *Malus micromalus$ Malus prunifolia~ *Malus torin~oides.j **Myrica carolinensis$ Oxydendrum arboreum$ **Pyracantha coccinea~ *fthamnus Fran~ula~ Lilac violet Violet Greenish Yellow Dark purple Pink Chinese Beautyberry Japanese Beautyberry Common Bladder-senna Frosted Hawthorn Winterberry Euonymus Common Sea-buckthorn Orange Yellow Greenish Yellow Yellow to red Yellow to red Yellow to red Yellow to red Yellow to red Yellow tu red NGray Gravish Orange Dark Purple Osage-orange Arnold Crab Siberian Crab Japanese Flowering Midget Crab Chinese Apple Cutleaf Crab Northern Bayberry Sourwood Scarlet Firethorn Glossy Buckthorn Crab *Viburnum dilatatum xanthocarpunn Yellow Yellow *Vibttrnum Opulus xanthocarpum '~ Of outstanding value. ` + Mentioned ** in notes. a Of outstanding value during the fall and greater part of the winter. VINES WITH ORNAMENTAL FRUITS Actiniclia ar~uta+ articulata$ *Ampelupsis 1>revipeclunculat.v (A. heterophylla) *Celastrus Bower Actinidia Green Porcelxin Ampelopsis Pale lilac to green to dark blue or porcelain Oriental Bittersweet Yellow to red (C. orbiculatus) *Celastrus scandens$ *Clematis Flamrnula$ *Clematis paniculata+ *Clematis tan~utica+ *Cletnatis mr~,rmiana~ *Clematis Vitalba+ 4Orange Whitish Whitish Whitish Whitish Whitish American Bittersweet l'lurue Clematis Sweet Autumn Clematis Golden Clematis Virgins-Bower *H:vonymus radicans ve\",Teta+ (ve~;etus) Lycium halimifoliurn~ Parthenocissus (Ampelopsis) quinquefolia Orange Red Blue Traveilers-Jov Bigleaf Wintercreeper Matrimony Vine Virginia Creeper 77. Parthenocissus (Ampelopsis) Blue Brownish Scarlet Red Greenish Black Boston Ivy tricuspidata Polygonum Auberti$ Schisandra chinensist Solanum Dulcumara Fleece Vine Climbing Nightshade Tripterygium Regelii$ Vitis Coignetiae Glory Vine PLANTS OF VALUE FOR FLOWER BUT WITH INEFFECTIVE FRUITS (capsules, pods, nuts, etc.) Abelia grandiflora Acer species (except A. Aesculus species Kalm~a species ginnala) Kerria japonica Laburnum species Leucothe Catesbaei Liriodendron 1'ulipifera Amorpha canescens Azalea species Caragana arborescens Catalpa species Cercis species Chaenomeles (Cydonia) Cladrastis lutea Clethra alnifolia Malus ioensis plena Philadelphus species Phlox subulata Physocarpus opulifolius Potentilla species Rhododendron species Robinia species Rosa Harisonii Salix species Daphne cneorum Deutzia species Diervilla (Weigela) species Enkianthus campanulatus Forsythia species Fothergilla species Halesia species Hamamelis species Hibiscus syriacus Sophora japonica Sorbaria species Spiraea species Syringa species Tilia species Vinca minor Wisteria species Hydrangea species Hypericum species Note.s and Co~nments Sexes separate: One of the most important causes for certain of our imporplants \"not fruiting\" is simply the fact that the sexes are on separate plants and both male and female plants must be in close proximity to insure the fruiting of the pistillate plant. This is true in Baccharis, Ginkgo, Hippophae, Ilex, Maclura, Myrica, Nemopanthus, Ribes alpinum, Ribes fasciculatum, Schisandra, Shepherdia and Taxus. When only one specimen plant is desired, then it may be that a small staminate plant could be planted with the pistillate form, giving the general impression of one plant. This would probably be sufficient to insure good fruiting. Or, if several plants are to be used, the staminate form can be planted at the rear and the pistillate forms (usually about tant ornamental 78 three to six pistillate plants to one staminate plant) could be grouped in the front where they would be more conspicuous. The bittersweet (Celastrus) exemplifies another angle of this same problem. Many people all over the country have bought this lovely vine with the expectations of enjoying the gorgeous fruits in the fall, only to be disappointed year after year with no fruit whatsoever. They have applied fertilizers to the roots and pruned them and done everything to get fruit, but certain plants are of the staminate form and naturally will never bear fruits. There are other plants which may be slightly polygamous, that is, these plants will have a sufficient number of the staminate flowers to properly fertilize the pistillate flow-ers and so result in good fruits, and it is these plants which should be bought. Naturally the best time to buy such plants is when they are in flower. Other types in the same category as the Celastrus are Actinidia arguta, Ailanthus, Morus, Rhus and Vitis, and some nurserymen clam~ that Ilex opaca is also in this group. Consequently, when buying plants of this nature for their fruit, do not buy young plants grown from seed before they have fruited for in such a group there will undoubtedly be many staminate forms which will never bear fruits. Rather buy plants which have been propagated asexually from fruiting plants bearing both kinds of flowers, or individually inspect the plants for both kinds of flowers before they are taken from the nursery row. Ailanthus altissima: Only pistillate forms of this plant should be used because staminate plants have a very bad odor when in flower and do not have the good fruits in the late summer. Most of the pistillate plants have sufficient staminate flowers on them to insure fruit production. An excellent form for fruit is the variety erythrocarpa. Ginkgo biloba is an example of a case where the pistillate tree should never be used, since the unattractive round, greenish fruits about the size of a small crabapple, are decidedly ill-smelling and most obnoxious. Baccharis halimifolia: The sexes are separate (see note on sexes separate) and the fruits are in feathery masses like those of the asters. This plant is excellent for plantmg at the seashore where it withstands saltwater spray remarkably well. Berberis: Many barberries carry the black stem rust of wheat, but fortunatelv there are certain ones which do not. Rust immune barberries are limited to and its several varieties. Certain other species are fairly resistant to the disease and can be shipped into quarantined states with a permit. These include most of our common evergreen barberries, the Mahonias, and some new deciduous types which certainly are worth a trial. These are B. dictophylla albicaulis, B. Gilgiana, B. koreana. Though other species which carry the rust and against which there are restrictions for shipping have been mentioned in this Bulletin, the above mentioned species are of new ornamental interest to us because they can be shipped and so can be used in sections of the country where this disease is prevalent. Celastrus: All Celastrus are climbers and ha~ e the sexes separate (see note on sexes separate). The fruits of the oriental bittersweet are in short lateral clusters and the yellow capsules drop soon after opening, leaving the red fleshy aril surrounding the seed. The fruits ofthe American bittersweet are in nodding ter- B. Thunbergi 79 ' ~ 0 s!7' ('I) S ~ ~ ~ \"\" \"\" C'\" 10 'o <b 5' ::i' 1<' :: ~ 8\" ~ \" minal clusters and the capsules do not drop at all. One cannot be considered as better ornamental vine than the other, for both have their place. In Celastrus and Evonymus the seed is imbedded in a brightly colored fleshy covering called the aril, surrounded by the capsule which opens at maturity. Clematis: The fruits of these plants have a long feathery style attached to the small brown seed, making the whole effect one of fluffiness. This is much more marked in some varieties than in others. Clerodendron trichotomum: This large leaved plant is a most interesting one for late summer effect. The flowers are somewhat like those of the \"bouncingbet,\" white to reddish. Though the blueberry-like fruits actually drop soon after maturity, the bright red calyx remains for several weeks and gives the plant a striking appearance. In older plants the branching is horizontal. The plant is tender in the north while young, often killing to the ground during severewinters. In any event, it is best planted in sheltered situations. Cornus alternifolia : This plant is native in the woods of the northeastern United States and with its lovely sympodial branching the blue fruit clusters make it a good ornamental shrub. Unfortunately, it is susceptible to a serious tw~g blight for which there is yet no known remedy. Cornus controversa, introduced from Asia, has all the characteristics of C. alternifolia and at the same time is a much more vigorous grower. Cornus florida: The flowering dogwood is an excellent example of the perfect ornamental tree. It has bright showy flowers in the spring; good green foliage all summer long which is not troubled by any serious disease or insect pest; good red clusters of fruits of considerable ornamental value and most attractive to birds; excellent red autumn color; and a good horizontal branching system~~ r which is attractive all the year and particularly so in the winter. Plants such as this, of interest at every season of the year, cannot be used too much. Cotoneaster: The cotoneasters are all subject to fireblight, borers and scale. In Highland Park, Rochester, N.Y., it is claimed that fireblight is readily controlled by spraying during the summer with Bordeaux mixture. In any event, if these three troubles could be kept in check, cotoneasters would be excellent plants for their red or black fruits. Unfortunately, these troubles are all very serious, once they become established in a planting, and accordingly we must not become over enthusiastic about planting large groups of cotoneasters. Some cotoneasters are prostrate and form excellent ground covers like Cotoneaster apiculata and C. horizontalis, both of which have lovely red fruits, and some are taller shrubs growing up to six feet in height like the black-fruited C. foveolata. Perhaps one of the best of the cotoneasters, noted for its fruit of brilliant scarlet, is C. racemiflora soongorica. Crataegus: There are a very great many hawthorns with ornamental red fruits, but they are susceptible to several disease and insect troubles. For this reason they need an unwarranted amount of care during the spring and summer, so that for the time being, it is best to limit selection to a very few. The Washington-thorn, (C. cordata,) is one of the best for small fruits. These are a brilliant red and remain on the plant all winter. Larger fruited plants are C. arnoldiana a 81 and C. mollis, both of which have been used considerably in landscape plantings. vine, this plant is often treated as or as a semi-shrub, for sprawling bank plantings. such, Malus: In an earlier issue of the Bulletin, the crabapples were fully discussed. Most crabapples are valued for their fruits, and of a large number, M. toringoides is perhaps the best in fruit, though there are many other outstanding ones. Although Aronia, Cotoneaster, Malus, Photinia, and Pyracantha are all subject to fireblight, borers and scale, they are among the most outstanding plants for ornamental fruit. In sections where fireblight has proved troublesome, it may be unwise to plant any of these in large quantities. Lycium halimifolium: Though not a true Morus: The sexes are separate (see note on sexes separate) and the fruit is e similar in form to that of the common blackberry. It is relished by birds, but the tree is a nuisance when planted so that the fruits fall on a white concrete pavement. vine is not placed in this list primarily for its which are simply unattractive small brown capsules, but it does flower durfruits, ing late August at a time when little else is in bloom. It is immediately followed by Clematis paniculata,which has attractive flowers,as well as fruits in September. Sorbus: The mountain-ash has been commonly planted as a specimen tree. It is unfortunately very susceptible to borers at the base of the trunk, and once they become well established the tree is doomed unless remedial action be taken. All mountain-ash should be carefully inspected at regular intervals for such borers, and, if present, should be eradicated at once if the tree is to be enjoyed for a long period of time. The European mountain-ash is perhaps one of the most common ornamental trees for fruit, but a red-fruited species with larger fruit, Polygonum Auberti: This S. decora, is becoming increasingly popular. Tripterygium Regelii: This plant can be considered either or as a vme. as a sprawling The fruits are not particularly outstanding, but the flower shrub clusters are. These are borne in July in large, creamy-white pyramidal masses and the plant is often hardy as far north as Bar Harbor, Maine. Viburnum cassinoides: This plant is a very interesting one because as the fruit matures it changes color from yellow-green to pink and finally to blue-black. Since the individual berries are borne in clusters, there are times when there are several colors in one cluster. The same is true of Viburnum alnifolium, V. lantana, V. Lentago, V. Sieboldii and V. tomentosum. In Rhamnus Frangula the flowers continue to open from early summer until fall, resulting in the continually ripening fruit. Hence there are some green, some red, and some black berries on the plant at the same time. This creates an interesting effect, even though the profusely borne fruits are only as large as those of the honeysuckles. DONALD WYMAN 82 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Autumn Color","article_sequence":13,"start_page":83,"end_page":90,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24017","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25e8526.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV NOVEMBER 13, lsss NUMBER 14 AUTUMN COLOR United States is fortunately located in one of the few of the world where brilliant autumn coloration of foliage prevails. There is only one small region in the southern hemisphere, and that in South America. In the northern hemisphere, there is a large region in eastern Asia, including central and northern Japan, and a small region in the southwestern part of Europe. In North America, the region characterized by brilliant autumn foliage extends from the Gulf of St. Lawrence to the southern United States and westward to the Great Plains, areas of extensive deciduous forests. Here the general climatic conditions are often just what is needed to produce that lovely phenomenon of nature-the autumn coloration of deciduous foliage. In North America the most brilliant displays of autumn color are of course in southeastern Canada, northeastern United States and in certain other areas of high altitude. The further south one goes the less brilliant is the display of autumn color particularly in areas along the seacoast. In the higher altitudes of the south such as the Blue Ridge Mountains, the color is usually just as brilliant as in the northeastern United States. In some years, the autumn color is much more pronounced than in others. There are always plants, the foliage of which turns yellow in the fall, but it is the brilliant reds and gorgeous scarlets which, in combination with the yellows, make autumn color of outstanding beauty. It is chiefly the reds and scarlets which are intensified by the right climatic conditions. Leaves are green because they contain a complex material called chlorophyll. This is essential to the growth of all plants, except the THE regions eastern 83 saprophytes and a few parasites, for it is through the action of chlorophyll that the plant can manufacture the food that it requires from crude chemicals in the presence of light and heat. Chlorophyll is a highly complex chemical material, being continually manufactured in the leaf and at the same time being continually broken down. Ordinarily, the rate of its breakdown about equals the rate of its manufacture. In the fall, the rate of chlorophyll manufacture is gradually reduced, although the rate of its decomposition is maintained. The exact cause for this phenomenon is problematical, but the accumulation of waste products in the leaf may be the principal cause. Why leaves are yellow A certain stage is reached where there is little if any chlorophyll manufacture. Most of the chlorophyll already made eventually is destroyed. This is the reason why leaves are yellow, for the two yellow pigments usually present, carotin and xanthophyll, are continually masked by the chlorophyll. When most of the chlorophyll is destroyed, these pigments become apparent. These same coloring materials are present in large quantities in egg yolk, carrots, and in some yellow flowers. When green plants are taken into dark places, such as a cellar, the lea~ es often turn yellow. Also, young shoots appearing for the first time under the dark conditions of the cellar are usually yellow. This is explained by the fact that chlorophyll is manufactured only in the presence of light. When light is absent, plants are unable to manufacture new chlorophyll and the yellow pigments become predominant as soon as all the previously manufactured chlorophyll has been de- stroyed. The gradual cessation of chlorophyll manufacture and the final breakdown of all that previously made, completes the first stage in autumn coloration. This is the reason for certain plants becoming yellow. There are some plants, like most of the magnolias for instance, the leaves of which do not turn yellow, but change from green directly to brown. For some reason, the breakdown of the chlorophyll does not start soon enough or is not complete enough to result in the appearance of the yellow pigments. The yellow calor does appear in the foliage of many other plants regardless of the weather conditions. There is an interesting high degree of individuality in certain species. Red maple, for instance, usually turns a good red in the fall, but certain individuals always color yellow. The same can be said of sugar maples and several other plants. This is a most interesting physiological problem worthy of further investigation. 84 Why leaves are red The gorgeous beauty of most autumn color combinations results from the brilliant reds and scarlets, together with the yellows. The sassafras, some of the maples, oaks, sumacs, sourwood, tupelo, and other plants are particularly outstanding for their brilliant red autumn color. These plants are most interesting in that the brilliance of their color apparently varies from year to year. The red in their leaves is caused by a third pigment called anthocyanin, which results in some way from the accumulation of sugars and tannins in the leaf. In some of the maples valued for their sugar production, it is probably the sugars which cause this red color. The oaks, however, being rich in tannins probably owe their high autumn coloration to the presence of these. There are two factors necessary in the production of red autumn color. The first is light. There must be warm, bright, sunny days in the fall, during which time the leaves naturally manufacture a great deal of sugar. Secondly, such days must be followed by cool nights, during which the temperature is below 45~ F. Plant physiologists have shown definitely that, under such conditions, there is little or no translocation of sugars and other materials from the leaf to other parts of the plant. In other words, when cool nights occur, following warm, bright, sunny days, sugars and other materials are \"trapped\" in the leaves. The accumulation of these products results in the manufacture of the red anthocyanin. The combination of these factors is well understood when one observes a certain tree that may be red only on that side exposed to the sun. Other leaves not directly in the sun's rays may be green or yellow. Leaves exposed to the sun have been able to manufacture more sugars, which when accumulated and \"trapped\" in the leaves by cold night temperatures may result in the red color. It is interesting to note that trees and shrubs growing in swamps and other low places are often among the first to color in the fall, simply because it is in such places that cold air first settles on still nights. Dull autumn coloration A warm, cloudy fall, sometimes with much rain, will restrict the formation of bright colored foliage. With insufficient sunlight, the sugar production is greatly reduced, and with warm nights, what little sugar has been manufactured in the leaves can be readily transported to the trunk and roots where it has no effect on the color of the foliage. The leaves of many evergreens change color in autumn. Some of the junipers and arborvitaes are listed in the following groups. Some 85 pines may turn yellow, but usually such color lasts only for time, the leaves quickly turning brown. This is particularly a short true of those evergreen leaves which are normally shed each year, and although the autumn color may not be conspicuous in many evergreen plants, nevertheless it is evident on close examination. All leaves eventually turn brown. This is not an autumn color, but is merely the result of the death, and in some cases the decay of the plant tissue. Sometimes, the leaves turn brown while they still remain on the tree, as in the American beech and in some of the oaks. In other cases, like the sugar maple and the spicebush, the leaves drop from the plants while they are still brightly colored and turn brown afterwards. Autumn color is then a physiological phenomenon which is very complex. There are plants the leaves of which will always turn yellow regardless of current climatic conditions, but many of the plants with red fall foliage will be striking in appearance only when warm, sunshiny days prevail, followed by nights with temperatures below 45~ F. The sugar formation in the leaf, the amount of sunshine received by the plants, and the temperature of the air are three variable factors which to a large degree control autumn coloration. The following lists include some of the ornamental woody plants which are valued for their autumn color and some which are not. Shrubs and trees with good Yellow autumn color Acer pennsylvanicum Acer saccharinum (A.dasycarpum) Yellow and red Acer saccharum Aesculus parviflora Benzoin aestivale Betula species Carya cordiformis (Hicoria cordiformis) Yellow brown Carya ovata (Hicoria ovata) Celastrus species Cercis canadensis Cladrastis lutea Dirca palustris Fagus grandifolia (F.americana) Golden brown Yellow to red purple Fraxinus americana biloba Ginkgo Hamamelis mollis Hamamelis vernalis Hamamelis virginiana Striped Maple Maple Sugar Maple Bottlebrush Buckeye Spicebush Silver Birch Bitternut Shagbark Hickory Bittersweet American Redbud Yellow-wood Leatherwood American Beech White Ash Maidenhair-tree Chinese Witch-hazel Vernal Witch-hazel Common Witch-hazel St. Johnswort Hypericum species 86 Liriodendron Tulipifera Phellodendron amurense Populus alba Tuhptree Amur Corktree White Poplar Populus grandidentata Populus nigra italica Populus tremuloides Quercus imbricaria Rosa rugosa Rosa virginiana Orange yellow Yellow brown Yellow to orange (R. lucida) Largetooth Aspen Lombardy Poplar Quaking Aspen Shingle Oak Rugosa Rose Virginia Rose American Elm Sawleaf Zelkova Ulmus americana Zelkova serrata Shrubs and trees with good Red autumn color Acer ginnala Acer rubrum Amelanchier species Aronia arbutifolia Berberis (many species) Cornus alba Cornus Amomum Cornus florida Cotoneaster divaricata Amur Maple Red Maple Serviceberry . Crataegus phaenopyrum (C. Evonymus alata Evonymus atropurpureus Evonymus obovata cordata) Chokeberry Barberry Tatarian Dogwood Silky Dogwood Flowering Dogwood Spreading Cotoneaster Washington Thorn Winged Euonymus Wahoo Red Fothergilla major Hamamelis japonica Liquidambar Styraciflua Nyssa sylvatica Oxydendrum arboreum Parthenocissus quinquefolia and yellow Running Euonymus Large Fothergilla Japanese Witch-hazel Sweetgum Tupelo Sourwood (Ampelopsis quinquefolia) Parthenocissus Virginia Creeper Japanese Creeper Oak Pinkshell Azalea Sumac Common Sassafras Bridalwreath tricuspidata (Ampelopsis tricuspidata) Quercus (many species) Rhododendron Vaseyi Rhus species Sassafras officinale (S. (Azalea vaseyi) variifolium) Spiraea prunifolia Syringa oblata dilitata Vaccinium Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum species dentatum dilatatum Lantana red Russet Red Deep red Blueberry Glossy Arrowwood Linden Viburnum . Wayfaring-tree 87 Viburnum Lentago Viburnum prunifolium Viburnum tomentosum Purple red Nanny berry Blackhaw red Doublefile Viburnum Velvety,dull Shrubs and trees with Bronze to Purple autumn color Cornus racemosa Reddish to purple Gray Dogwood Greenstem Forsythia Reddish purple Fraxinus americana Red purple to yellow White Ash Gaultheria procumbens Wintergreen Juniperus horizontalis plumosa Red Cedar Jumperus virginiana Leucothoe Catesbaei Drooping Leucothoe Ligustrum obtusifolium Regelianum (L. ibota Regelianum) Regel Privet Mahonia repens Creeping Hollygrape Pachistima Canbyi Canby Pachistima Reddish purple Rubus hispidus Swamp Dewberry Symphoricarpus Chenaultii Thuja occidentalis ericoides Giant Arborvitae Thuja plicata Viburnum acerifolium Mapleleaf Viburnum (C. paniculata) Forsythia viridissima Shrubs and trees with no autumn color Ailanthus altissima (A. glandulosa) Akebia quinata Amygdalus Persica Baccharis halimifoha Clematis (many species) Daphne Mezereum Ailanthus Fiveleaf Akebia Peach Groundselbush Clematis February Daphne Russian-olive Midwinter Euonymus Shrub-althea European Privet Winter Honeysuckle Lilac Honeysuckle Tibetan Honeysuckle Common Matrimony-vine Star magnolia China Fleecevine Elaeagnus angustifolia Evonymus Bungeanus semipersistens Hibiscus syriacus Ligustrum vulgare Lonicera fragrantissima Lonicera syringantha Lonicera thibetica Lycium halimifolia Magnolia stellata Polygonum Auberti Potentilla species Robinia pseudoacacia Salix blanda Salix pentandra Vitex Cinquefoil Common Locust Wisconsin Weeping Willow Laurel Willow Sophora japonica Negundo Japan Pagoda-tree Negundo Chaste-tree 88 Wisterias and Forsythias Visitors to the Arboretum next spring who enter by way of the Forest Hills gate will notice two important changes m the plantings. 1. The trellis on which the wisterias were growing at the south end of the shrub collection has been removed entirely. This trellis, erected about thirty years ago, has failed badly and in the interests of safety alone had to be removed. The shrub collection is situated in a low spot which repeated temperature records have shown to be about the coldest spot in the Arboretum. The winter temperatures are as much as twelve degrees lower than on surrounding higher ground. Many times, the wisteria flower buds have suffered injury during severe winters, when they might have come through satisfactorily had the plants been placed on higher ground in a more sheltered position. The entire wisteria collection has been moved to nearby higher ground next the old Bussey dormitory, where the temperature on the coldest nights is from 8 to 12 degrees higher than in the shrub collection. In this new situation the soil is good, and ample protection is given from severe winter winds by a planting of pine trees. A rustic arbor has been erected specifically for these wisterias and eventually they can be observed to much better advantage than on the old trellis. The removal of the old trellis allows for more circulation of air through the shrub collection. Even more important, it permits one to get a good view of the rows of shrubs in the shrub collection from the Forest Hills entrance, a view which was previously entirely blocked by the trellis. At the same time, this change places the wisterias under far better growing conditions, where it is expected that they will flower more profusely than they have during the past few years. 2. For several years the large planting of Forsythia .su.s~ensr~ at the southeastern end of the lilacs has failed to bloom properly. The plants being badly overgrown, it became impossible to give them sufficient renewal pruning. The planting has become a dense mass of undergrowth with nearly 50~0 of dead wood. The shrubs are to be cut back to ground level in order to permit young vigorous plants to sprout from the old stumps. This is the only logical way to renew such a densely overgrown mass. Specimen plants in the collection have not been touched, but the lovely bank of drooping forsythia in mass will not be conspicuous at flowering time for several years. After this, the increased flowering of this bank planting will justify our present drastic measures. Both these changes have been necessary for some time and are now made in the interests of growing better plants. 89 Natural color photography at the Arnold Arboretum A special gift from one of the generous supporters of the Arnold Arboretum last spring has enabled us to develop color photography here on a rather comprehensive scale. Throughout the growing season, a series of natural color photographs of the outstanding plants in the Arboretum was made as they came into flower or fruit. In the fall, a special effort was made to photograph as many plants as possible to show full autumn color. This project has taken much time and rather heavy expenditures were involved. The season's work resulted in a collection of over six hundred lantern slides in natural colors. Since the process is an expensive one, the intrinsic value of the slides themselves is rather great and hence they are not available for loans. These slides, illustrating plants in their true colors, have a high esthetic and educational value. Realizing this the Arboretum takes pleasure in announcing that for nominal cost one of its staff members will present to interested organizations any one of the following lectures illustrated by these slides : \"The Arnold Arboretum, America's greatest garden.\" \"Attractive shrubs with gay berries.\" Autumn coloration.\"1 \"Flowering trees and shrubs pictured in their order of bloom.\" For conditions and details address the Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts. Hedge demonstration plot the planting of a hedge demonstration glad to show clipped hedges, each about 25 feet long, repplot, planned resenting 115 plant species and varieties. This plot is on South Street in front of the Bussey Institution building near the Arboretum greenhouses. Since these hedges have just been planted, most of the deciduous species have been cut to the ground. Consequently they will not attain good hedge size for at least two years. Detailed information concerning this plot will be given in the Bulletin next spring. This note is published to record the fact that this innovation has been started and to give public recognition to the following nurseries which generously contributed the necessary plants. Without their aid, this project could not have been initiated on such a comprehensive scale. 750 plants Bay State Nurseries, Framingham, Massachusetts 131 plants East Boxford, Mass. Kelsey-Highlands Nursery, 40 plants Kohankie & Son, Painesville, Ohio Henry We are to announce DONALD WYMAN 90 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Few Evergreens","article_sequence":14,"start_page":91,"end_page":94,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24016","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25e8125.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Wyman, Donald","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. IV DECEMBER 1~, ls3s A FEW EVERGREENS NUMBER 15 Picea omorika: The Serbian spruce is noted for its excellent dark green fohage and its pyramidal upright habit of growth. The foliage is dense and the branches, particularly on older specimens, are often drooping, adding considerably to the beauty of the tree. It might be said that this is the best of the spruces for ornamental planting, and, fortunately, it is now becoming available in many nurseries in the eastern United States. It was introduced into this country by the Arnold Arboretum in 1881, when seed was sent here by Dr. Carl Bolle of Berlin. It has formed large forests in southeastern Europe, and in this country it should be used much more than it is in ornamental plantings, par- ticularly is as a specimen tree. Picea orientalis: Another excellent spruce for ornamental planting the Oriental spruce, valued for its dark green foliage and dense pyramidal habit of growth. Its needles are only one half as long as those of P. ooaorika. In the Arboretum this tree is unfortunately attacked by borers which often kill the central leader. Since it is best grown as a single leader tree, this trouble is often serious. Both of these species are rather slow growing, but have great possibil~ties in ornamental work. They are considerably more valuable to us than either the Norway spruce or the Colorado blue spruce. Ten years ago, the following statement was published in this Bulletin concerning these last mentioned trees,and it is certainly true today. \"L~nfortunately the two Spruce trees which for years have been and are still generally planted in the northeastern part of the country, the so-called Norway Spruce of Europe (Picen ,4bies or P. e.rceLsa~ and the Rocky Mountain Blue Spruce (Pi~ea Pungens) from Colorado and east91 Utah to northern New Mexico and Vt'yoming, have not proved successful in the eastern states. Fifty or sixty years ago the Norway Spruce was very generally planted in southern New England where, however, it commences to fail at the top when about thirty years old and soon becomes ragged and unsightly, the leading shoot dying or failing to make a satisfactory growth and all the upper part of the tree gradually becoming thin, with the result that there is hardly a park or country place in New England where the sad spectacle of such half-dead trees cannot be seen. Easily raised from seed which is readily obtained, young plants grow rapidly, and they are therefore profitable plants for nurserymen to handle; and the public, in spite of the American experience with this tree, continues to buy it. In some of the states it is raised by state agencies and given away or sold at a nominal price, or is planted by the state in reforesting operations. Perhaps no other species of Pinaceae has produced so many dwarf forms and some of these are handsome and interesting plants. \"The Colorado Blue Spruce is still one of the most popular conifers m the northern United States where it is propagated and planted in immense numbers in spite of the fact that it early loses its value as an ornamental tree. It is very hardy, is easily raised and grows rapidly. The young plants are of good shape and dense habit, their lower branches resting on the ground. For the nurseryman the Blue Spruce has everything to recommend it; the easy germination of the seeds, quick growth and unusual beauty of the young plants lead to the certainty of a quick ~ale. To a planter looking for something more iroportant than a plant for a city garden or a small suburban yard this tree has certainly proved a failure. This is not surprising for Picea pringPn.s growing in small groves near streams in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains long before it attains its full size is a thin, scraggy, miserable looking tree with a few short branches near the top of the stem. This tree was discovered in 1861 and was planted the following year in the Harvard Botanic Garden. \"* is a plant in the Arboretum over sixty years old, and it is kept here as a warning for planters who are deceived by the beauty of young plants. Cedrus libani: The Cedar of Lebanon has had an interesting history at the Arboretum. It shows clearly how much it pays to make a selection of seed from hardy sources, particularly of a species which may prove tender. Prior to 1902, the Arboretum had repeatedly tried to grow this interesting tree, so rich in biblical history. Each time, ern *There though seedlings came through one or two winters, they were event- 92 ually killed. Unt~l 1902, most of the seed has been obtained from the general region around Palestine. However, the species was known also in Asia Minor on the Anti-Taurus mountain range, far north of the Lebanon range in Palestine, and in a much colder climate. Professor Sargent, realizing the possibilities of collecting seeds from hardier plants, had some collected from this more rigorous habitat, and in the spring of 1902 they yielded a large number of seedlings. Since that time, all have proved perfectly hardy, even in the most severe winters and themselves have yielded hardy seedlings. They have suffered neither from drought nor cold, except for occasional leaf burning. However, a few have been lost in transplanting, since they are unusually hard to move. Some of these trees in the Arboretum are now almost forty feet high. They are living examples of the successful use of geographic studies in the selection of seed sources. The Arboretum takes pride in being able to claim the credit for introducing this exotic tree into the northeastern part of the United States where previously it would not grow. Thuja plicata : In the coastal region of the northwestern states and British Columb~a, the Giant Arborvitae grows to great size and is one of the most important timber trees in North America. Fortunately, it ranges eastward to Idaho and northern Montana, a region which is very cold. Seed collected from this locality yields seedlings which prove hardy in Massachusetts and northwestern New York state. It is the largest and handsomest of the arborvitaes, its foliage having a peculiar shining lustre which is outstanding. Another important point in its favor is that in the winter, its foliage does not turn a dead brown as does that of most of the other arborvitaes. Rather, it turns a good bronze color, which is held a greater part of the winter. Plants of the Giant Arborvitae, grown from hardy parents, are a most valuable asset to any garden in the winter time. Sciadopitys verticillata : In 1928, E. H. Wilson wrote of this plant as follows : \"The Japanese Umbrella Pine is among the most notable conifers that can be grown in the climate of Massachusetts. It is of dense, pyramidal habit with ascending-spreading branches. The leaves are borne in clusters around the stem, one tier above another, suggesting a parasol, hence its common name. They unfold bright green but soon change to black-green and remain so throughout the winter. The strap-shaped leaves, each from3 to 4 inches long, are thick and leathery in texture with a white line on the under side. It likes a cool situation and good soil and would appear to thrive better in New England than in the British Isles. There are several fine specimens here and 93 there in Massachusetts, notably in Newburyport. Bythe old regime in Japan, this was one of the seven famous trees, the illegitimate felling of which was a capital offence. The wood is white, fragrant, very durable in water, and is used much in Japan for making bathtubs and small boats. Like certain other trees it does not grow old gracefully, and in the adult tree with its narrow, often spear-shaped, crown it is hard to recognize the stately ornamental plant we know in gardens. A monotype, it is confined mainly to the mountains of central Japan, being very abundant on Koyasan, a mountain not far distant from the ancient capital of Nara. The Umbrella Pine is easily raised from seeds but grows slowly. No other form of propagation is known, but on account of its great hardmess and distinct appearance nurserymen ought to raise it in quantity. It was one of the plants introduced into America by Dr. G. R. Hall in 1862. \" DONALD 4~'i MAN These Bulletins will year. now be discontinued until the spring of next Those who have not yet renewed their subscriptions for 1937 should do so at once. Recent subscribers for 1936 will automatically receive the Bulletin for 1937, since 1936 issues are exhausted. The subscription price to this Bulletin is $1.00 a year. 94 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume IV","article_sequence":15,"start_page":95,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24021","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d160a76c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 4 VOLUMEIV in bold face tppe. Synonyms are in italic; illustrations Acanthopanax ~enta~hylhi7n, ricinifolius, 66 Sieboldianus, 66 - 66 - dictyophylla albicaulis, Gilgiana, 79 koreana, 79 79 - - - - Actinid~a arguta, 79 Ailanthus, 3, 79 altissima, 79 -- erythrocarpa, 79 julibrissin rosea, \" Alternate bearing,\" 711 Amelanchier canadensis, - Albizzia 64 33 grandiflora, 34 rubescens, 34 - laevis, 34 oblony folia, 34 - - - - - spicata, Ammonium 34 sulphate, 5 Ammophos, 5 Andromeda, Japanese,27 -, Mountain, 27 o Aphids, Spruce-~all, 10 Apples, 9, 111 Arborvitae, 85 -, Giant, 93 Aronia, 82 Arsenate of lead, 11 I Autumn color, 83-91 1 Azalea, Flame, 31 -, Swamp, 51 -, Sweet, 51 Baccharis halimifolia, 79 Beech, American, 86 Berber~s, 79 ' Thunbergii, 79 Bignonia rtadicans, 67 Bittersweet, 71, 79 -, Amer~ean, 79 -, Oriental, 79 Blackberry, 82 Bretschneider, Emil, 28 Bridalwreath, 84 Campsis chinensi.s, 67 grandiflora, 67-68 hybrida, 67 \"Madame Galen,\" 67 - radicans, 67, 68 Tagliabuana, 67 Canker-worms, 10 Cedar of Lebanon, 92, 93 Cedrus libani, 92, 93 Celastrus, 79, 81 Chaenomeles japonica, 32 Cherry, Cornelian, 26 -, Cornelian, Japanese, 26 -, Early Japanese, 31 -, Japanese Blooming period, - - - - 26 -, Naden, -, Sargent, -, Yoshino, Chun, W.Y., 95 32 81 I iil 54 4 Citrus canker in Florida, 16 Clematis, 68, 81 Jackmanni, 68 pamculata, 68, 69, 70, -, Scarlet, 69 - 82 - texensis, 69 virginiana, 69 1 81 - Vitalba, 69 Clerodendron trichotomum, Cornus alternifolia, 81 1 - 1 controversa, 81 81 florida, 55, mas, 26 - officinalis, 26 Corylopsis glabrescens, - Gotoana, 28 pauciflora, 27 - - Cneorum, 24 -, February, 24 - genkwa, 24 -, Lilac, 24 - Mezereum, 24 Deutzia, 62 Diels, Ludwig, 54 Dogwood, Flowering, 6, 55 Dunbar, John, 40, 47 Dutch elm disease, 15-20 Early blooming shrubs at the Arboretum, 23-26 2 Elm, 11, 12 .~ 28 7 -, Lancaster, 17 - - spicata, 27 - Veitchiana, 28 Willmottiae, 28 Cotoneaster, 81, 82 1 apiculata, 81 1 - foveolata, 81 1 horizontalis, 81 - - - i leaf-beetle, 11 2 Evergreen, Rusty-colored, 12 81 Evonymus, o radicans, 10 Fall and winter fruit, 74-77 Fertilizer, 4-6 - Fleece vine, 69, 70 0 Plate opp. p. 69 Forsythia, 30, 81 1 - 60 30 - racemiflora soongorica, intermedia - I'late upp. p. i ~ - primulina, spectabilis, 30 30 Crabapple, Asiatic, 36 -, Bechtel, 37 -, Flowering, 35, I1 -, Parkman, 36 -, Tea, 35 -, The best flowering, 37 Crataegus, 81, 82 e arnoldiana, 81, 82 81 1 cordata, mollis, 82 Cydonia japonica, 32 - Maulei, 32 - oblonga, 32 Daphne alpina, 26 - - ovata, -, Primrose, 30 -, Showy border, 30 Fruit, Ornamental, 71-82 Gas, Illuminating, in the soil, 1 Ginkgo biloba, 78, 79 \"Graft blight\" of lilacs, 40, 43 Hamamelis - japonica, 22-25 5 24 25 flavo-purpurascens, - Zuccariniana, 24, - mollis, 23-25 - vernalis, 25 virginiana, 23, 24 - - - altaica, caucasica, 26 26 arborea, 24 Hedge demonstration plot, Henry, Augustine, 54 90 96 Hippophae, 78 Honeysuckle, 60, 69 -, Hall, 69 -, Henry, 69 Trumpet, 69 Hu, H.H., 54 Hydrangea petiolaris, 70 Ilex opaca, 79 Insect control at the Arnold -, Nodding, 49 -, Persian, 40, 46 -, Pinnate, 49 -, Propagation, 40 -, Pruning, 43 -, Species and varieties common in American gardens, 46 -, Species and -, Yunnan, 49 Lime sulphur, 9 2 Linden, 12 varieties that + Arboretum, 9-13 Insect, Scale, 9, 43 Ivy, English, 68 Jack, J.G., 28, 66 Judd, W.H., 37 Juneberries, 32 Juniper, 85 - could be used more, 48 Loder Rhododendron cup, 21 1 Lonicera Heckrottii, 69 - Henryi, 69 69 rust, 37 11 ] - japonica Halliana, sempervirens, 69 Kirilow, P.V., 23 Lace-bug, Rhododendron, Larch case-bearer, 10 ~l - I Laurel, Mountain, 11 Lemome, Victor, 40, 47, 62 Leopard moth, 12 Lilac, 9, 39-49 -, Bh~ht, 43 -, Borer, 43 -, Broadleaf, 48 -, Chinese, 40, 4.5 -, Common, 47 - culture, 41J -, Felty, 49 -, \"French hybrids,\" 40 , Hairy, 48 -, Himalayan, 49 -, Hungarian, 49 -, Hyacinth, 49 -, Japanese tree, 46 -, Juliana, 48 -, Komarof, 48 -, Late, 49 -, L~ttleledf, 48 Lycium halimifolium, 82 Maclura, 78 Magnolia conspicua, 29 - denudata, 29 -, Early blooming, 28 hypoleuca, 29 - kobus, 28 borealis, 28 lil~flora, 29 - nigra, 29 - obovata, 29 - - - salicifolia, 29 Soulanaeana, 29 alexandrina, 29 Lennei, 29 - - speciosa, Star, 28 - stellata, 28 -, - 29 V~'atsoni, 29 -, u'hite Yulan, Mahonia, 79 Malus, 82 arnold~ana, 35 - 29 97 - baccata mandshurica, 35 35 - - coronaria, 37 - - floribunda, - inodorus, 58, 59, insignis, .58, 59 laxus, 58, 59 60 - Halliana Parkmani, 35, 36 - Lemoinei, - 60 - hupehensis, Plate 5 35 p. 36 - \"Avalanche,\" erectus, 59 59, 60, 59 59 62 facing 35 - - ioensis, 37 - - - \"Girandole,\" 56 - plena, - - - prunifolia rinki, 36 35 - - hybrids, \"Mont Blanc,\" 59 - robusta, 37 - Sargenti, 35, - maximus, 56, - - the fera, - 36 - microphylltts, 59 pekinensis, 59 pubescens, 58, 59, purpurascens, 59 62 toringoides, 36 - 1 Plate opp. p. 81 85 Maple, 3, 11, 12, -, - - purpureo-maculatus, splendens, 59, 60, 60 Sugar, Merrill, E. D., 54 Miscible oil, 9 Mock-Orange, 58 Morus, 79, 82 Mountain-ash, European, Myrica, 78 Nemopanthus, 78 Oak, 11, 85-86 Painting of wounds, 3 Peach, 9 Philadelphus, 55 86 - - 62 Plate, - 61 tomentosus, 58, 59 - virginalis, - 56 - \"Albatre,\" Plate. 57 59 82 62 - \"Arhentine,\" 58, 59 \"Bouquet Blanc,\" 59 \"Glacier,\" 58, 59 \"Virginal,\" 58, 59 90 - coronarius, 56, 58, 59, 60, - deutziaeflorus, nanus, 60 59 - - - cymosus, 60 - Banniere,\" 59 - - \" Conquete,\" 59 - - - Zeyheri, 58, 59 Photinia, 82 Photography, Color, 54, Picea Abies, 91 excelsa, 91 omorika, 91 orientalis, 91, 92 - - pungens, 91, 92 hybrids, 56 59 Pieris - - - \"Norma,\" - \"Nuee Blanche,\" 59 59 59 floribunda, 27 japonica, 27 Pine, Japanese umbrella, 93,94 - - \" Rosace,\" - - floridus, .58, gordonianus, 59 grandiflorus, 58, - hirsutus, 58 ~ Plant accessions, 37 Plants of value for flower, but with ineffective fruit (cap59 sules, pods, nuts, Plum, 9 98 etc.), 78 Polygonum Auberti, 69, Plate opp. p. 69 - 82 baldschuanicum, 69 - - - - - Poplar, 3, 9 Prunus Davidiana, 31 glandulosa sinensis, 34 1 mandshurica, 31 Sargentii, 311 serrulata sachalinensis, 31 1 Sieboldii, 32 subhirtella, 31, - Sargent, C.S., 23, 27, 32, Sassafras, 85 Scale, Evonymus, 9, 10 -, Golden oak, 10 - insects, 9 54 - 33 3 - - 1 pendula, 31 triloba plena, 34 yedoensis, 311 Pyracantha, 82 Quince, 31 -, Japanese, 26, 32 Rhamnus Frangula, 82 Rhododendron, 11, 27, - -, Juniper, 9 -, Oyster-shell, 9 -, Yine-leaf, 9, 10 -, San Jose, 9 -, Scurfy, 9 Schisandra, 78 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 70 Schmitt, L.V., 43 Sciadopitys verticillata, 93 Shadbush, 26, 31, 32 Shepherdia, 78 Shrubs, Early blooming, 23 51-54 53 \"Album elegans,\" 51, Silk tree, 64 Sorbus decora, 82 - - - - - arborescens, 51 1 calendulaceum, 51 carolinianum, 5l catawbiense, 52 album, 5z - - dauricum mucronulatum, z 8 Plate opp. p. 29 - - - \"Duke of York,\" Fortunei, 52 I lace-bug, 11 maximum, 52, minus, 52 54 52 - - Sourwood, 85 Spicebush, 86 Spiraea, Early, 34 prunifolia plena, 34 Thunbergii, 34 Spray material, 14 Spraying equipment, 9 Spruce, Colorado blue, 91, -, Norway, 91, 92 -, Serbian, 91 Spruce-gall aphids, 10 Stewartia koreana, 63 - 92 ' - Smirnowii, 52 - pentagyna, - 63 - - venustum, 52 1 viscosum, 51 - - Ribes - Rhus, 79 alpinum, 78 fasciculatum, 78 0 Rosa Wichuraiana, 70 Rose, Memorial, 70 Rosebay, 54 99 grandiflora, 63 pseudocamellia, 63 Sumac, 85 Summer blooming shrubs, 63-66 Sunoco oil, 12, 43 Superphosphate, 44 Syringa, 62 amurensis japonica, 46, 47 - - chinensis, 40, 45, 46 Plate opp. p. 4~k - Traveler's joy, 69 Tree repair, 4 alba, 46 Saugeana, 46 - emodi, 49 - Henryi, 46, 48 Lutece, 48 - - troubles, 1-7 Tripterygium Regelii, 64-66, 70,82 Plate opp. p. 64 - - - - Trumpet creeper, 67, 68 - hyacinthiflora, 49 Plate opp. p. 69 Josikaea, 49 Julianae, 48 Komarowi, 48 Meyeri, 48 microphylla, 48 oblata, 46, 48 affinis, 48 dilatata, 48 Giraldii, 48 pekinensis, 46 - persica, 40, 46 alba, 46 - - laciniata, 46 - - - Tupelo, 85 Van Houtte, Louis, 62 Viburnum alnifolium, 82 cassinoides, 82 Lantana, 82 Lentago, 82 Sieboldii, 82 - - - tomentosum, 82 - - Vines with ornamental fruits, 77, 78 - Virgin's bower, Vitis, 79 69 - - - pmnatifolia, 49 pubescens, 48 - reflexa, 48, 49 - rotltomugensi.s, 40, 46 Sweginzowii, 49 tomentella, 49 - velutina, 48 - villosa, 46-49 - vulgaris, 40, 46, 47 - Washington-thorn, 81 White pine-weevil, 12 e Willow, 3, 9 leaf-beetle, 11 Wilson, E. H., 30, 49, Winter injury at the - 63 Arbore- tum, 38 - Wisteria, 6 collection, 89 Witch-hazel, Chinese, 24 , 25 Japanese, 23, 25 - - Congo, Plate opp. p. 41 1 49 -, 15 -, Vernal, 23, - yunnanensis, Tannins, 85 Teco~na rurlicans, 67 Thuja plicata, 93 Woody plants with ornamental fruits, 71-82 Wounds, Painting of, 3 1 Yew, Japanese, 71 100 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23490","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e8928.jpg","title":"1936-4","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1936,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24007","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24e896e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Malus Dawsoniana, 15 5 Map of the Arnold the numbered Arboretum and the Bussey Institution showing bulletin, plate facing amounts areas described in this page 44 Map of the Arnold in the snow Arboretum showing relative 39 of drifting of January3-Z4, 1930, Map of lands in the Arnold Arboretum about the year 1710, 49 in the Arnold Arboretum about the year in the Arnold Arboretum about the year in the Arnold Arboretum about the year Map of lands Map of lands Map of lands 1770, 1810, 55 59 1840, 67 on View from Mt. Domogled showing dry is limestone slopes which ' Syringaulgaris found, 3 iii iii "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Visit to the Home of the Lilac","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24004","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24e816d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"~~~ FORES ~'p ~ BBF~AR`~ SERIES 4. ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY Tl% ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION VOL. III TO THE MARCH 22, 1935 NUMBER t OF THE LILAC. To one who has known the lilac the first sight of it in its native home is almost certam to come as a shocl.. In the central Balkans, a dry and dusty land, whose climate roughly approvinlates that of central Nebraska, .fyriugn nulgnri,a picks out some of the drlest, rockiest situations. At Pancherevo, Bul~aria, where I first saw it, there were scattered indimdual5 growing in full umli~ht in rock crevices above the roadway. 'They grew out sideways from the cliff and hung over the road in low tufts of foliage bearing here and there, for it was late in the summer, lmose panicles of ripening seed capsules. I saw scattered specimens again near Gabrovo, at the foot of the Stara Planina, the mountain ran~e whrch forms an east-west backbone across northern Bulgaria. There too they were growing in rock crevices but in this case the chff rose above a stream and was covered with English ivy (HPdPrn heli.r). B'mt untilI came to Cazan Pass in southwestern Rumania did I find fiyriugn nulgnri.r \"rmvma in great abundance. At Cazan the Danube River is confined to a narrow gorge whose cliffs rise mountain hyrh on either side. In a ,eries of sharp turns the river, Irl.e a thwarted serpent, bends molently from left to right until it finally passes through the Iron Gates and reaches the level plarn beyond the mountains. The lower Danul>e, like the lower Mississippi, is a great yellow-brown flood. fhrou~;h the long level stretclrev of the Hungarian and Rumanlan plains an American traveller might well belreve himself at home. For all that he ~ees from the river steamerv, the willow swamps and shifting sand bars might well be those of Arkansas or Tennessee. But when the Danube throws itself against the Iron Gates there is little to remind hrm of the American scene. It is as if the Mississippi, instead of skirting the flanks of the Ozark Mountains, were to pass directly through them on its way to the sea. For so large a river the gorge is surprmmPly narrow. At Cazan it is only a lrttle over 100 yard5 across. AVISITgarden plant av a HOME cliffs rise almost vertically on each bank with narrow roadways The road on the Jugoslavian side of the river is in ruins, as well it might be, for it was constructed over 1800 years ago by the Emperor Trajan. It was a marvelous piece of engineering for that day, or for any day, since the road for much of the way had to be hollowed out of the rock. One can still see the holes drilled in the cliff to hold the beams on which the bridges were carried and at one spot there is a tablet with an inscription m Latin. On the Rumanian side of the river there is a similar road, a modern automobile highway, and, like the old Roman road, it now tunnels through the rock, now hangs on the foot of the cliff. The lilacs were everywhere, particularly on the sunnier Rumanian bank. Some grew on the talus slopes, others seemed to spring from the bare face of the rock itself, and an almost continuous fringe of them lined the cliff edge a thousand feet above the river. The pass must be a marvelous sight in sprm~ time. On inaccessil>le ledges wild tulips grow in profusion and make spots of color which can be seen from the river steamers. Flowering avh (Fraainus~ Ornu.s) with its filmy yellow-green flowers forms a natural foil for the lilacs and all these colors are backed by the bright gray-white of the limestone. There can be no possible doubt that S,yringa uulgari.e is native at Cazan. It is not only that it is abundant and that it yrow~ on inaccessible cliffs, the same can now be said for the American black locust (Robinitt ~.seudoncacia), which is thoroughly naturalized along the Danube and at Cazan is a common sight at the base of talus slopes. A much more compellin~ argument is the form of the plants and the remarkable variation which exists among them. The wild lilacs of Cazan do not at all closely resemble cultivated lilacs run wild. Their flowers are not borne in tight little bunches, but in great open sprays. Even on small bushes wedged m between limestone boulders, the panicles may reach two feet in length. Nor does the general form of the bush follow closely a single pattern as in the cultivated lilacs. This can best be seen back from the cliff edge where the lilacs grow in their greatest profusion, on the limestone plateau above the river. Here they form open thickets among the rocks, much as does the redbud (Cercis canaden.ri.e)in similar situations in our own southern states. From bush to bush there is striking variation in form and habit. Some are dense, some open. In some the two branches of the panicle are widely divergent, in others they ascend stifHy, side by side. There is, in other words, that rich and manifold variation which characterizes most plants in their native home, but which is not found in the few strains which are brought into cultivation. In flower color and size, there may be greater variation Steep at their bases. 2 among the cultivated varieties, hut the greater diversity in its native home. plant as a whole will show from these Balkan cliffs and mountains that the lilac passed Constantinople it was introduced into northern in the l6th century. The botanists of that day, unaware of the Europe richness of the Balkan flora, supposed that like many other plants cultivated by the 'f urks it had come from the Orient. This legend, once established, was hard to shake. In 1RLA, Anton Rochel first reported the lilac as native to the Balkans but not for fifty years did botanists as a whole accept the evidence. Had the Romans been as good gardeners as they were soldiers the lilac might have been introduced into cultivation a good fourteen centuries earlier. So plentiful is it in this part of the Balkans that it must have been known to the Romans when they occupied the country. At Caian it festoons the road which Trajan's workmen hollowed from the rooks. At Baile Herculane ~\"Hercules Bath'') it rrv>w prmfuselt on the limestone cliffs rising above the hot springs which have l>een known since Roman times. There, on the hot southern face of Mt. Domogled, .y\/ringn r~rclgnri.s is found in a variety ofsituations. It springs from crevioev m the bare rock, it ti>rm~ thiokets along dry gullies, and on the grassy slopes below the summit it assumes the character of an alpine shrub. As one:rscends,the lrlac bushes become smaller and more dense. At first they arch over the pathway, higher up they form dense clumps beneath the black pnev, and just below the summit, they are barely It was into cultivation. From high. There, among the rocks, they grow into broad mrrts of tirliage t'rom which the long open panicles rise conspicuously. In l.rte September, at the time of my visit, the seeds on these alpine lilaos had just berrun to ripen and most of the oapsules were a delicate yellow-green. The Rumanran Forest Servue, however, has been kind enough to collect seed for the Arnold Arboretum and many seecllin~s have alreadt- germinated. Vfhat will they look like in twenty yearv One can only 'i~ guess. Some alpines retain their dw:rrf habit when grown in the lowlands: others do not. It is quite lrl:ely that, under cultivation, they will grow more luxuriantl~-than on the mountain top but there is a reasonable chance that they may not exceed three or four feet in height even when grown in fertile garden soil. If so they will fill a distinct place in American gardens. EDGAR ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE knee Domogled showing dry limestone slopes Syringa vulgaris is found. View from Mt. on which "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Last Week in April","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24013","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25eb36c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~~ y BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. III APRIL 27, 1935 NUMBER 2 LAST WrEK IN APRIL fincls the pageant of spring well under way the Arnold Arboretum. From the rising ground at the edge of the maple collection the view across the meadow to the Administration Bmlclin\"~ forms a picture in ,oft pastels. At the right are the yellow greens of the willow5 and the blood reds of the swamp maples ; at the left are the Katsura trees (Cercicliph~llum japonicum) whose fan-shaped branches, lined with leaves and tiny opening flowers, are a h,ue of bronze red until the late afternoon sun lights them from the side and they glow with a deeper color. Forming a focal point in the center of the picture are the blossoms of the earliest Chinese magnolias, a striking chalk white as seen from the distance. Magnolirc stelluta has as usual been the earliest to flower and this year its starry, narrowpetaled flowers have not as yet been sullied by late frosts or heavy rains. Near the road Magnolia stellaln ~~ar. rosea is showing br~ght pink though not yet really in bloom. The creamy white flowers of Magnolia dPnudafn (the Magnolio conspicun or Magnolia Yulan of most nursery catalo~;ues~ are already spreading their delicious fragrance. The large velvety buds of the hybrids known as X Magnolia Soulungenuo are beginning to open and will soon add color to the collection. On the hill behind the l>uilclmg is the hardiest of all the oriental magnolias, M. kobus var. boreali,r. It has not yet reached the age where it may be relied upon for a fine show of bloom every year for this variety unfortunately does not blossom well until it is mature and this year there are only a few flowers scattered among the lower branches. Magnolia kobus, M. stellata and M. denudnta are all early-flowering and are all white-flowered or nearly so. Those who have trouble in distinguishing the three will find that it can be done quite simply by examining the flowers. Magnolia kobu,r has six petals and outside them three tiny sepals of greenish white. In Magnolin denuclaia the three ur at 5 to be distinguished from the petals so that the flowers appear to have nine petals which are creamy greenish white, gracefully cupped in an upright position. In Magnolia stellata the sepals are also petal-like and since there are more petals in this species the flower has the appearance of having a dozen or more petals set in an open sunburst of pinkish white. Although there were no really conspicuous floral displays until the Magnolias broke into flower there has been continuous bloom all the month in spite of a somewhat tardy spring. Hammamelis aernalis carried its fragrant flowers well into April this year althougheven in New England it is properly to be reckoned as a winter-flowering shrub. Gardeners planning to use this species would do well to plant it, if possible, well to the south of the point from which it will ordinarily be viewed. Placed in this way it will catch the level rays of the winter sun and if the color is even then not really brilliant, it will at least be a good deal brighter than when seen from the other direction. While it does not flower until later, Ribe.s cereum comes into leaf so early and so attractively that it is of distinct interest in the early spring garden. This year as usual it was the first plant in the shrub collection to put out its new leaves and by the first week in April its fragrant foliage was already attractive. It is unfortunate that quarantine regulations prevent this interesting western American shrub from being more widely known and grown. Early April also saw the first spring blooms on Piburnnm fragrans. This surprising shrub opened a few flowers in last autumn's long Indian Summer and it was feared that the buds were so far advanced that they would be hopelessly damaged during the winter. Some of them evidently were killed but there has been a continuous glow of pink and white among the bare branches during the month and they are now conspicuously in flower and delightfully fragrant. It is in tardy sprmgs that the Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas~ shows its worth as a spring Although not quite conspicuous as the more commonly used F'orsythia it is regularly and dependably a little earlier to bloom. This year with no early burst of spring heat, it has been a good fortnight ahead of its rival and is now in full bloom. Its small yellow flowers are borne in conspicuous clusters and are particularly effective when used as decorative sprays for the hall or living room. The closely related oriental species, Cornus o\"~cinalis, has been very much used for this purpose in Japan as any collection of pictures of Japanese flower arrangements will show. This latter species, differing chiefly in its longer-stalked flowers and its flakier bark, is also in sepals are so large as barely shrub. so 6 full flower. It will be of interest to the horticultural connoisseur and to the botanist, but for the average gardener it is if anything inferior to Cornus mas. When in flower both of these shrubs have a slightly offensive odor, something like that of a wet dog. Fortunately it is not so strong as to be objectionable, since in addition to earliness and hardiness, Cornus mas has several qualities which recommend its more frequent use in American gardens. For one thing it is very tolerant of smoke and has done surprisingly well in the smokier parts of some of our large cities. Furthermore although seldom used in this country (except by the birds), the fruit of Cornus mas has distinct possibilities. Late in the summer it bears glossy red-purple drupes and in southeastern Europe where the shrub is native they are much esteemed for the making of preserves. In Bulgaria large fruited varieties have been developed and are to be found in the markets in August and September. Seeds of several of these strains were obtained last Autumn for the Arnold Arboretum and may some day be of interest to discerning American gardeners. as the Korean Forsythia, is giving a good account of last. It is already in full bloom as is its close relative, For,sythia jr~ponica saxatilis. Both of these northern Forsythias are hardier, earlier, though smaller-flowered than the Forsythias commonly grown in New England. Although it is a fine shrub a little further south, Lonicera fragrantissima can not be unqualifiedly recommended for New England gardens. It was killed back practically to the ground last year and this spring it is flowering only on those branches which were protected beneath the snow during the winter. Two of its lesser known relatives, however, are giving much better accounts of themselves. Lonicera 5tczndislzii is in flower on the Overlook. While not as handsome either in habit or in flower as Lonicera fragrantissima, its behavior last spring and this have demonstrated its greater sturdiness in cold winters. A much rarer honeysuckle, the Korean Lonicera praeflorens, flowered profusely this spring in the shrub collection, by no means the choicest spot in the Arnold Arboretum for an early-flowering shrub. By the second week in April it was covered with bloom and although its spidery blossoms were browned once or twice by late frosts it was most attractive. The flowers are fragrant and of a pale greenish yellow tinged with red-purple. An even rarer shrub, Abeliophyllum distichum, is now in full flower in the same section of the shrub collection. Another specimen trained as a vine on the nearby trellis has blossomed in previous springs, but Forsythia ovata, itself this year f the to were shrubby one has never flowered well until this spring. Since they only introduced from Korea in 19z~theyare just now beginning one reach the age where may judge of their ultimate value for New England gardens. They have come throughtwo trying winters in good condition and if they continue to thrive they may prove to be a promising addition to the early spring shrub garden. The flowers are a creamy white with a deep yellow center. They are very much like those of Forsytlma in shape and are borne in short racernes near the ends of the branches. In general aspect Abeliophyllum di.stichizm ~ives the appearance of a more delicate Forsythia with creamy white flowers instead of yellow ones. On the Overlook in addition to Louicerrz Stnnrli.shii, may be seen the curious flowers of Fuptelen polJnndrn, conspicuous chrefly hy remon of their bronze red stamens which are thickly hung along the branches. Although introduced from Japan in ]892 it is seldom seen in this country. It was somewhat injured in the severe cold of 1f333-193-t but has apparently quite reco~ erecl. A little further .~lonn the path, under the sentinel white pines at the brow of the hill, Rhodorlendron dauricum mucronulnturn is makmh a brrlliant divplac and rs now in full flosver. The bright magenta-pink flowers clustered thickly on bare branches, form a striking contrast to the dark green of the old pines. The cool spring has been a positive krenefit in huldin~; back the k>loom5 until warmer weather actually arrived and while the flwver buds have been late in opening the flowers are larger and more perfect than usual. There is a good deal of variation from bwh to bush in size and color of the flowers, the latter varyin~,~ from \"mallow pink\" to light mallow purple\" in terms of Rid~;sva3-'s Color Standards. Illrododendrorz clnurirum nruoronulrrlrznr i~ sometiroes known as the \"Mm;,rolr:w Azalea,\" although technically it belongs with the true Rhododendrons and not in the sub-genus with the Azale.cs. Those amateurs who might question this disposition of Rhocloclendrnzr dnvricum w~ll be interested in another variety, R. dnuricurn semperuireu,r, which is also flowering well this spring and which may be seena little further down the slope of the hill. The flower~ are very similar to those of Rhoclorlenclrorr dnrzricum nzucronulntum, but the leaves are quite evergreen and give the species much more the aspect of those Rhododendrons with which the average gardener is acquainted. Many of the cherries and plums are showing color in the bud and will be attractive by the first week in May. Przzntz.s tonzenloxn is already opening its flowers near the Forest Hills gate, and the Sargent Cherry, 1'runv.s fnrgentii, will shortly follow. FDGAR ANDFRSON "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Flowering Quinces","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24012","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25eaf6b.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY j~ ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. <tf VOL. III MAY 27, 1935 NUMBER 3 QUINCES. THE flowering quinces are as difficult to they are beautiful to look upon. Even as their flowers are borne upon twisted thorny branches so the whole question of their nomenclature forms a spiny and painful thicket which must be penetrated before any precise discussion of garden-worthy varieties can be undertaken. In the first place the flowering quinces belong to a subfamily of the Rosaceae, the Pomoideae, a group of trees and shrubs which seem to present their own peculiar difficulties of classification. This group of plants includes, for instance, the mammoth genus Cratnegu.s, long an object of special study at the Arnold Arboretum and a genus in whrch detalled investigation has serBed mainly to reveal the terrrfic complexities of relationship which exist between the plants THE classify FLOWERING as classified under that name. Whatever the ultimate reason for such beha~ ior, similar complexities seem to exist among all the genera of the Pomoideae, in common speech those plants whose fruits have a core: apples, pears, medlars, quinces and the like. It is largely due to these complexities that botanists are not even yet agreed as to the generic name under which the flowering quinces should be classified. A few still hold out for Pyrua; many others classify them, together with the edible quince, under the genus Cydonirc; an increasing number follow the same practice as the Arnold Arboretum and consider them all members of the genus Chaenomeles. One authority, however, has gone so far as to split the flowering quinces themselves into two separate genera, raising the Chinese quinces, which we shall refer to below as Chaeno7raele,s .sinen,ris, to the status of a separate genus, Pserulocydonia. were not enough it has been further confounded by the production of garden forms and garden hybrids during the centuries that the flowering quinces have been in cultiva- As if this natural confusion 9 originally two distinct speChaenomeles lagertaria, and a cies, large growing China, low spreading shrub, (.\". japouirvr, in northern Japan, these are now accompanied in our gardens by a set of intermediates, G'..superba, which arose as garden hybrids between the two species. An even further complication has been added by the fact that though the early work on classification was done by European botanists, the flowering quinces are all native to the Orient, a region which in those early days was very imperfectly known to western naturalists. Thereture,whtle the true C. japonica is the low shruh wtth urange-re<1 fluwers, which is actually native in northern Japan, its taller Chinese relative, C.lagenarirr, very commonly cultivated in Japan, was comtnonly mistaken for it by botanists and gardeners alike. Thus it has come about that the Chinese plant bears as its commonest English names, \"J.rponica\" or \"Japanese Quince,\" while the true C. jrrpouicrr is still most commonly known as C. Mrtulei. The true C. japottica is a charming little shrul>, much mure neat and graceful than its Chinese substitute. Even in old well-established plants the slender branches seldom rise more than two or three feet above the ground. The leaves are smaller, as well, and are less buckled and rolled than those of the Chinese species. They are proportionrttely a little broader and the teeth along the mar~,~in are larger and fewer. The size and number of these teeth are one of the most useful characters to use in distin\";umhm~ C.japorrica and C. lageurtrin. Classit:vina a collection of garden varieties of flowering quinces is at best a finicky business. The connoisseur of qumces, like a judge of horses, may even be drmen to counting the actual number of teeth. For such students it may be useful to note that in C. japottica .r normal leaf has `?0 tu ~0 teeth on each side, that ut C.Ingettaria the number is usually from 40 to 60, and that in C. superba, it is about 3.i to 40. In the Ortent, (:.lagenaria has been grown as an ornamental shruh for centuries in Japan as well as in China. Even in its native home in central China most of the specimens which have been collected are either from cultivated bushes or from plants which Itave run wild near gardens or along hedgerows. With such a long horticultural history it is not surprising to find that there are many cultivated varieties. There are white, pink and red-flowered forms, varieties with double and semi-double flowers, prostrate types and others which are almost tree-like. Many of these have been introduced into western gardens and fifty years ago there was quite a rage for them in Europe. Relatively few of these horticulturalvarieties have been at all well known tion in the Orient. So a although there were one native to 10 in America and in 1905 the Arnold Arboretum assembled a compre- hensive collection, most of the plants coming from the old well-known firm of Spaeth in Germany. The collection has done well and has long been an attractive feature of the shrub garden. For a time the prevalence of San Jose scale made it difficult for the average gardener to grow shrubs such as the flowering quinces which are subject to the scale. As time went on, however, natural enemies of the scale have asserted themselves; the development of oil sprays has made the control of San Jose scale a relatively simple matter, and the last decade has seen a revival of interest m the flowering quinces. A number of American nurseries are now offering named varieties of Japanese quince, many of them obtained either directly or indirectly from the Arnold Arboretum. Most of the varieties on the market belong to the Chinese species, C. lagPnnria, a few are to be classed as hybrids between that species and C. japonicm (C.superba). The true C. japouicn (C. IVlartlei) is not as well known as it deserves to be. From New York southward another species, C.sinensi.s, is occasionally grown as a large shrub or small tree. In aspect it is intermediate between the true qumces and the flowering quinces. The pinkish flowers are scattered on little leafy twigs among the foliage instead of being clustered tightly along the branches as in the other flowering quinces. This species is not so hardy as the others and while it flowers, and in some years even fruits in the Arnold Arboretum, ~t is not to be recommended for most New England gardens. Of the bushier sort the following species and var~eties are included in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum, together with several other ~ar~eties of doubtful identity. Chneno7nelP.s lngPnnrin \"Alba\"'. Flowers v hite. Habit low and spreading. Baltzii\". Introduced by- Spaeth in 1885-86. Large red flowers well distributed towards the tips of the branches. \"Columb~a\"\". Flowers light red. Fruits large, well-developed. \"Cardinalis\". Flowers dark red, slightly double. Diffuse hxlot of growth. \"Kermesma semiplena\"'. Flowers light red, slightly double. '. ' Twigs thorny. \"Macrocarpa\". Flowers light red. Fruits large. \"Marmorata\". Flowers pale red and white. \"Nivalis\". Flowers white. Bush compact, symmetrical. \"Rosea plena\". Flowers light red, very double. \"Sanguinea semiplena\". Flowers red, double. 1 11 \"Simonii\". Very distinct. Flowers dark red, semi-double. Growth low, thorny and spreading. Long horizontal branches. A very decorative plant. Chaenomeles superba (C. japonica X C.lagenaria~. \"Perfecta\". Flowers very pale orange-red. Bush thorny,compact. Chaenomeles japonica Flowers light orange-red. Bush low, upright. G'haenomeles japonicn alpina Many of the plants in cultivation in American gardens, like the original plant brought from Japan by YrGfessor Sargent bear two colors of flowers, dark orange red and pale orange red. Bush low, thorny, slightly prostrate. Though few gardeners are aware of the fact, the flowering quinces are sometimes grown for their fruit and large fruited varieties such as \"Columbta\" have been deliberately selected for that purpose. The fruits are seldom seen, partly because they are yellowish green and are borne inconspicuously along the branches, but chiefly because the are more or less selfsterile. That is to say that most varieties will not serve as good pollinizers for their own flowers and hence set little or no fruit when grown by themselves. When two such varieties are interplanted, each may pollinate the other and a better set of fruit may be expected. While pleasantly aromatic, the fruits are unpalatable when fresh. Hard as bricks and sour as lemons, they derive their culinary possibil~ttes from an unusually high pectin content. For the home gardener they are useful in ,jelly making; a very few added to other fruits improve the \"jelling\" propensities of the mixture and impart a pleasant aroma to the jelly. Used alone the flowering quinces make a ,jelly which is beautiful to look at but with a flavor too rich titr the average palate. Commercially the flowering quinces are of some interest as a source of pectin. To the ,jelly manufacturer they present the desirable combination of a high pectin content, a high percentage of malic acid and an absence of starch. It is the presence of the latter in cultivated quinces which clouds the juice and renders it unfit for comrnercial ,jelly making. The flowering quinces are not only without this undesirable feature but they provide a source of malic acid unaccompanied by other less desirable fruit acids. At one or two experiment stations in this country, selected strains of flowering quinces are being developed as bush fruits. Ultimately they may become a dual purpose shrub for the home garden, producing decorative bloom in the spring and useful fruits in the autumn. EDGAR ANDERSON flowering quinces like many of our orchard fruits 12 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 4","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24010","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25eab27.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"n m11'1 V ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ . L f~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. III THE JUNE 4, 193o NUMBER 4 last week in May the lilacs have finally come into their The long, cool spring has not hurried them into bloom and seldom, ~f ever, has the collection been in more perfect condition. The wisdom of the severe pruning which was given them several years ago is now readily apparent. Not only are the bushes in excellent health but the blooms are now at a height where they can be seen and admired by every visitor. The profusion of bloom is noticeable even at a distance. Seen from the Arborway, the lilacs form a richly patterned carpet of subtle lavenders and blues, mantling the lower slopes WITn prime. Bussey Hill. The crab-apples, too, have been in splendid condition this spring. One or two varieties, including unfortunately the popular Parkman's crab (Malus Hnlliana Parkmanii) have been somewhat injured by the severe cold of the past two winters. The remainder of the collection has been untouched, or in some cases seems to have derived a positive stimulus from the low temperatures. The Mandshurian crab-apple (Malua~ 6nccata mnn~lshuri~n~ was a glorious dome of white in early May and another variety of the same species, Malus bnccntn var, gracilis was a lovely sight for another fortnight. While most of the varieties of Malus bnccatn are noteworthy parts of the collection both in spring and fall, M. baccata var. gracilis has been outstandingly so during the past several seasons. In the springtime, its somewhat smaller flowers, abundantly produced, make the other varieties seem a little coarse by comparison. In the autumn after the leaves have fallen, its slender twigs, profusely set with small fruit, make a delicate and graceful pattern against the sky. Two crab-apples of great botanical interest are flowering well this spring, Malus fusca a curious species from Oregon and X Mnlus Dawsoniana (illustrated in the accompanying plate) a hybrid between it and the cultivated apple which was raised 13 of years ago at the Arnold Arboretum. It is unfortunate that the collection of crab-apples is somewhat hidden at the foot of Peters Hill in a part of the Arboretum which is relatively unknown to the o average visitor. This neglect was somewhat remedied several years ago by moving the small crab-apples from the lawn adjacent to the Administration building and planting them along the roadway leading from the Pinetum to the crab-apple collection. The trees have taken kindly to their new home and are now reaching a size where they are quite conspicuous at flowering time. In a year or so as they reach maturity, they will form a conspicuous mass of pink and white, set off to advantage by the dark pines in the background and should serve to guide more visitors to the large collection now hidden to all but the most inquiring around the brow of the hill. In contrast to the apples, the flowering-clrerries have been disappointing this spring. Winter injury has been serious again this year and the fine old tree of 1'rrcuu.s ~PdoPrr.si.s near the shrub collection was killed outright. Prnnu.s inri.su, the iflt. Fuji cherry, gave a very good account of itself as did the hardy Sargent cherry (Prunus Sargentii). The latter species is so brilliant when in flower, its pink petals made even brighter by the reddish color of the unfitlding leaves, that it is a pity its blossoms come and go so quickly. Among the seedlingswhich have been raised from the original trees at the Arnold Arboretum, there is one, apparently a hybrid with Prunu.s ,r\/edoen.sis, which is a distinct improvement in so far as duration of bloom is concerned, and which last sprm~ and this has been one of the finest trees in the entire collection. It i, of distinct prumise for New England gardens and will be named and described in an early number of the Journal of the Arnold ~rlroretum. Winter injury has been apparent in a curious way in many of the collections this spring. Branches which were beneath the snow line escaped practically uninjured, while those just above the snow lost all their flower buds. On many bushes the bloom was so heavy below the snow line and so sparse above it, that they presented a curious appearance at flowering time, like old-fashioned ladies in plain dark skirts with bright ruflled petticoats showing beneath them. Among the bushes which bloomed in this manner, the Chinese almonds were particularly conspicuous in the collection near the Forest Hills gate. On the Overlook they escaped any great amount of injury and presented an almost normal complement of bloom. One variety introduced and grown at the Arnold Arboretum is worthy of special mention. It was discussed in the Bulletin of Popular Information for May 3, 1928, but the scisome large 14 entific name there given it, Prunus triloba multiple.r, should not be restricted to this variety alone but is meant to characterize all the double-flowered varieties of this Asiatic shrub. It may accordin~ly be designated as\"Purdom's variety\" since it was raised from seeds sent to the Arnold Arboretum by the late William Purdom in 1900. It distinct from the double-flowered is a most superior variety, forms. The flowers are very large and only semi-double, so that when wide open the center is seen, making the flowers look less like powder puffs and more like real blossoms with a form and grace of their own. The color is a brilliant pink, shading from very deep rose pink to nearly white and reinforced by yellow at the center of each flower. The pink, the white and the yellow, are all clear and clean, the flowers are large, and when in bloom the whole bush glows with color. Another introduction of the Arnold Arboretum which is practically unknown is a Korean variety of Prunus Padus collected hy the late Dr. E. H. Wilson in Korea m 1917. Originally designated as 1'ruuus Padus var. glaucn y'ilson no. 10689~ it does not have the glaucous leaves characteristic of that variety and is apparently a form of Prunus Padus var. comnzutata, an Asiatic variety of wide distribution. During the past several seasons it has been one of the most conspicuous members of the Prunus collection. The flowers are really very similar to those of ourown choke-cherry (Prunus uirgiuinnn~ larQe and so abundantly produced that the little tree when in bloom has had more the general appearance of a white wistaria. The Hwvers appear very early, at the same time as the first of the Japanese cherries, and remain in bloom from a week to ten days. The Arboretum originally had several small trees but only the one remains. It has been very much admired by vis~tors during the last few seasons and it is hoped that it will not only continue to live and flourivh, but that it may serve as a source of scions from which other specimens of equal beauty may be raised. very butthey-'areso EDGAR ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Page 15. Malus Dawsoniana Rehder (H'rom drav~iziy~ by C.L.Fa.xou for Sargnnt's \"Trrv~ and .~hrubs.\" \" 16 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 7","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24003","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24ebb6c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ ~ BULLETIN SERIES 4. VOL. III . . \" OF POPULAR INFORMATION AUGUST 7, 1s;35 NUMBER 5 MONTHS Of abundant rain the midsummer green of the Arnold a full fortnight there is a pause between the brilliant flower displays of spring and the rich autumnal coloring of leaf and fruit. Such flowers as appear are mostly white, and the few fruits which color towards the sun, are masked by the all prevailing foliage. Here and there a shrub with unusual leafage stands out attractively : Lonicera miorophyllo with bold flat leaves of blue-grey and Rosa rubrifolin with the clear, rosy purple cast of its mature foliage. The varied tones of the conifers compel attention, and the golden larch, P.seudolari.c am~cbilis, is particularly attractrne in the Bussey Brook meadow. Golden is scarcely an appropriate term for Paeudolari.o amabilis axt tlxxs season uf the year for the foliage has, if anything, a bluish green cast. In spite of the recent cold winters the trees are still fruiting abundantly. The wide-scaled cones have now reached almost their full growth and will be attractive for at least another month. In color and form they are of an almost impossible perfection. As beautiful as flowers, like roses of soft celadon green, they are clustered upon the upper branches. Of actual flowers there are but few and for the most part these few are either passing their prime, like the hydrangeas and stewartias, or have barely yet come into flower. In this latter class belongs one of the loveliest and most reliable of summer flowers, Vite.i Negundo iucisa. For years this variety has flowered attractively every August at the Arnold Arboretum, but it is still almost unknown in American nursery catalogues. Properly a shrub, in New England it needs to be cut back to the ground every spring and so has somewhat the aspect of a strong perennial. It thrives under this severe treatment when once established and is much more graceful and garden worthy than its better known AFTER Arboretum is opulently attractive. For 17 relative, the chaste tree, Vitex agnus-castus. Its long, wand-like shoots are thickly set with deeply cut leaves and throughout August the bush is covered with graceful plumes of small lavender flowers of a clean, spicy fragrance. Only two species can actually be said to be in full flower at the moment-the golden varnish-tree, Koelreuteria paniculata, frequently mentioned in these BULLETINS, and the lovely sourwood, O,cydendrum arboreunz. In the last two decades the original specimens of this species in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum have attained full ma- turity and have been supplemented by additional plantings so that they now make quite a showing along the north side of Hemlock Hill. The individual flowers are small, and only greenish white, but they are borne in great spidery panicles which droop gracefully outward and downward as they develop in long sweeping curves. Since O.rydendrum is, in truth, a small tree rather than a large bush, these large interlacing panicles produce a graceful cobwebby effect above the branches. Nor are the flowers the tree's only recommendation. Like many other members of the Heath family, its leaves color splendidly in the fall, but whereas the clear red purples of a blueberry bush are more or less hidden under foot, the same colors in a sourwood are carried by large leaves high up in the air, and of all the fall coloringsat the Arnold Arboretum none are more rich and varied, none lovelier in the delicate shadings from rose-red to purple to brown. In the shrub collection near the Forest Hills gate and on the rocky slope below Bussey Hill the heathers are in full flower. Two severe winters have taken their toll and there are a few bare spots in the collection, but by and large they make a most creditable showing and are horticulturally one of the most interesting groups to study at the moment. There is, in all the world, only one species of true heather, Calluna vulgaris, distinguished from the other heaths by the fact that its calyx is petal-like and the little flowers consequently when closely examined have the appearance of possessing two corollas, one outside the other. European gardeners have selected many horticultural forms from the original species, some with fully double flowers, some white some deep red, others with bronzed or golden-green foliage. A comprehensive collection of horticultural varieties of this one species may be quite a large affair. That at the Arnold Arboretum is in no sense a complete one, but it does include varieties which have proved dependable in the New England climate. The following are among the most important varieties: 18 Ctalluntt vulgaris vrvr. alba Flowers pure white. C. inzlgaris var. cuprea Foliage coppery red in winter and early spring. C. vulgaris var. nzultiplex Flowers double, like little pink roses. C. nttlgaris var. naua Dwarf, branches short. C. nulgaris var. hirsuta Foliage grayish green. Branches spreading. C. nulgnris var. coccittea Flowers reddish purple. more Callztna mtlgaris is native to the colder northern parts of Europe and than one American gardener has been puzzled to learn that while we can grow many central European plants successfully out-of-doors in New England, heather is hard to bring through the winter. To those few Americans who have lived through a winter in England or North Germany, this is no cause for surprise. Summer in England and in New England, while they may differ in details, are relatively the same sort of season. But winter in England and winter in Boston, U.S.A., represent experiences so totally different that one should have totally different names for the two seasons. London, as many Americans usually forget, is as far north as Labrador; the sun in December rises in mid-morning and sets early in the afternoon; not even at noon is it highin the sky. From sometime in November until early March the dew does not dry off the grass. On all but the driest southern slopes there is continuous damp or frost next the earth. If the sun comes out warmly, the cool moist earth steams and a ground fog rises knee high, or shoulder high, or even higher. To an American accustomed to the sparkling dry cold air and the bright blue skies of a Boston winter it seems as if he were living on the cool damp northern side of a mountain. It is small wonder then that heather, in its own country a plant of misty mountain slopes, should object to the clear dry cold and brilliant sunshine of our American winters. It is surprising rather that we are able to grow the species at all. Fifty years of trying are beginning to produce results and while it is too early to boast of complete success, the time has certainly come when we can give useful advice. The following methods have been gradually worked out at the Arnold Arboretum by the late Dr. E. H. Wilson and by Mr. L. V. Schmitt. 19 good rhododendron soil is to be preferred. The beds at the Arnold were prepared with very well-rotted oak leaves and clean sand. They were started from pot grown plants set out fairly sharp close together in the early spring. Larger specimens are more difficult to establish and do not look attractive. For several years after planting there is no particular summer care other than cultivating when necessary to remove weeds and grass. Every winter, however, a light covering is applied not later than the middle of November, to shield the plants from the sun and wind during the winter. This covering should be coarsc so that the air can circulate; a light dressing of coarse, weedy hay has been found excellent. This remains on the bed until early April. After the plants are established and have thickened together into more or less of a mat, they are clipped every spring. They should not A Arboretum be cut back too far lest the sun get in at the roots. Cutting back far enough to remove all the long, straggling ends and give the bed a neat appearance is suf8cient. The beds are dressed every year with well-rotted oak leaves. Any good rhododendron compost should suffice, but if manure has been incorporated it must be thoroughly composted since the little heather leaves lie close to the soil and are easily burned by raw fertilizer. Treated in this fashion the beds of heather have responded nobly and they now present the appearance of sleek turf thickly set with tiny blossoming spires of white or lavender or pink. Seen close at hand the plants are charming with their delicately shaded flowers and browning seed capsules. In springtime, when many of our flowering shrubs are at their best and the heathers look brown and mangy after the winter, one is apt to think that perhaps it is a mistake to spend so much energy in trying to grow them in New England but in August when they produce delicate sheets of bloom, the labor seems well spent. EDGAR ANDERSON 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Oriental Crab-apples","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24014","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25eb76d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ' _ . BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ' VOL. III OCTOBER 7, 1935 NUMBER 6 HE ORIENTAL CRAB-.4PPLFS. IT 1S difficult to write comprehensitely the oriental crab-apples; there are so many of them such a varied lot. In Asia the crab-apples behave in somethey are what the same bewildering way as do the hawthorns in this country ; taken as a whole they form a complex assemblage, difficult to sort into such conventional pigeonholes as species and varieties. They probnhly ht-bridize in nature, they most certainly do in cultivation. Some are low shrubs, others are forest trees. Some bear fruits closely re,rmblinc the cultivated apple in size and shape ; others have fruits so tinythat one must look closely to see any re,emblance to an apple. While the flowers in truth are mainly white or pink, they too m:y v:,ry, tirr there are a number of varieties of such a brilliant rosy purple that the color must be seen to be believed. One of the most distinct as well as one of the finest from an ornamental standpoint is Mnlrr.s loriugoide.c, now displayin~r its brillinnt fruits near the Forest Hills gate and on the Overlook. They are rather more pear-shaped than apple-shaped and are borne in gracefully drooping clusters along the branches. Late in August they begin to turn color, flusllin~ brilliantly where the sunlight strikes them, deepening their shade week after week until they are finally caught bythe hard frosts of mid-autumn. From green they pass quio6ly to orange overlaicl with a flu,h of ~carlet, which deepens to crim5un and may fiually cuver the whole fruit. These clear bright colors are brought to an even ;,re.~ter perfection by the waxy surface of the little apples which causes them to shine and sparkle among the leaves. The leaves are in them~elves somewhat ornamental, being so deeply cut that they resemble those of the English hawthorn and for this reason Maln.r loringoirle.r m sometimes known as the \"Ilawthorn-leaued crab.'' Its flowers are pure white, borne after most of the oriental crab-apples have finished ~~ Tabout and _ 21 hlooming. It very dense so grows rapidly, prrxlucin~r a py ramiclal that the attractive leaves and fruits are well-,pacecl ,mall tree, not and erhibited to good adwnnta~e. Another distinct crab-apple is Malrrx brer~ipex, valuable in certain situations for its low, dense habit of growth. Old specimens retain their muund-lil;e shape, fluwerin~ and fruiting profuselythough only :c few feet high. The flowers are pink in the bud, fudm~ to alnxnt pure white when in full flower. The fruits are unlike the other oriental cral>-apple, in that they have short, stiff ,talh,. Fruit and stall, have the same ~7t'OpOI'tlOIl aS in the cultivated apples and since the color is a bright red, they have the appearance of miniature market apples, no larger than the end of one's thumb. In one technical detail they can be readilydistinguished from such apples and since this detail is among the most important characters in the classification of crab-apples it may be well to describe it in full. Country people, like botanists distino-uish between the two ends of un apple and we may well use their expressive terms, \",tem end\" and \"blow end.'' If the blow end of the cultivated apple is examined carefully it will be seen that the five greenish leafypoints which originally protected the flower in the bud have still persisted, though the petals have long since opened out and fallen off. On Malu.s breaipe.s as on many of the flowering crab-apples, the blow end is as smooth as the ,tem end for these little leaf points Fall like the petals, lerwing only a slight scar. The technical term for such a condition is \"deciduous sepals,'' while cultivated apples and a few of the crab-apples which resemble them are said to have \"persistent sepals.\" The other r technical detail of prime importance in classifying the crab-apples is the degree to which the leaves are cut. The cultivated apple has \"entire\" leaves, that is, they have a simple outline, something like th:rt of an egg or a football, without any gross indentation. Most of the flowering crabs have their leaves more or less lobed or cut, particularly on the vigorous new shoots at the ends of the main branches. Using these two sets of characters we can make four pigeonholes in which to classit;v the apples and crab-apples: 1. leaves undivided, calyx persistent Mnlrr.e pran~'olin, Malrr.s .sperIrrbili.s, Malrr.s mirrmnalnv, cultivated ' apples undivided, calyx deciduous ll~Inlas barcatr~, Mnlu.s hupeherr.si.s~, Mnlrr.s Hnllirrun ;l. leaves uncliade<l, calyx persistent Mnlu.r ioeuxix, Mnlrrx rororrarin `l. leaves 22 t.. leaves divided, ealy deeicluuw llInlrt.s floribnurln, Dlnlet.r bOPt'lpP.c, llTnlu.c ,Srrrgenli llInln.e .~nmi, tylnlnx ,fiPboltlii, as Not all the oriental crabv are decorative in fruit well :ts in fluw- ei-. NI(ilits \/tMpp\/;e<\/y;.s' (Af. \/\/;f(\/e?vy) i, superlatiBely beautiful at fluw erin~y time, bears little apples mhich are at 1>est a clull reddi5h green. It is well worth ;,Yrowma, however, for its flower~ alone and its 5l~ape and size mal:e5 it a good tree for avenues or in t~trnutl ~~:~r- branches grow outward and upward at a slight hut angle (to be exact, something lil,e the main ril rel,ttiveltof an olcl-t:mltionecl elothe5-reel). Thielclyset with small fruiting branches or spurs which hug close to the main bt.mch, they seldom t'url;, continuing upward and outward at the same ~lupe. At floweriny time when the spurs are thickly covered with Howers, the main branche~ have the appearance of being graceful wands which has e heen artificially wound with bloom. For this reason this species is sometimes known a, the garland cral>.' One of the commonest of the oriental orah-apples, M, bawnlrr, include5 a variety which is not a~ well known as it deserves to be. Lil,e many another outstanding variety it was sent out from China by IA'ilmost dtscriminating Iram Purdom, one of the Arnold cullector5. Purdom apparently hacl a good ey-e for plants or varieties of particular garden merit. In several instances (the lovely Vibrtrnnm fi-rrgmn.s is one example) a species will be represented in the Arboretum by specimens sent in by several collectors, Purdom among them, and the plants raised from his seed will be outstanding as garden plants. So it is with Mnlu.v bnccala var. grrroili.r which iwnlyslirrhtl~ different from the manycollections of Mnlux bntcnlrr which h.we been received at the Arnold Arboretum from the orient. Yet that slight difference is important from the standpoint of horticulture, .md it is to be hoped that M, baccnln var. gwreilix will shortly become better known. Like the species, it forms a ti~ir-sized round-topped tree with clouds of white flowers in the spring and tiny red fruits in the autumn. It diHers in its smaller flweer5, narrower leaves anrl more graceful habit. Though the flowers are Smaller they are,if anything,more alnmclant and at flowering time when they are grown in great profusion on graceful twigs their delicacymal:es M. brroctito look a little coarse l>u 'i, comparison. In the late autumn when the leaves have fallen and the tiny fruits persist plentifully the tree is a lovely sight. The whole top of the tree is covered with the graceful drooping lines of the fruiting twigs, like raindrop, l>lwvn slantwise in a vhwver. mam rlem. Its con,tant , Arboretum's 23 These are only a few samples of the interesting and varied members of the crab-apple collection. Many more are equally deserving. There are the various purple crabs with flowers of an incredibly bright t rosy pink and with leaves and fruits tinged with red or purple. There are the Soulard crabs and their relatives, natural hybrids between cultivated apples and the native American \"prairie crabs\" ; these lusty 'i hybrids are bowers of pink in the spring and hold their abundantly borne large green apples late into the winter. There is Malu.~ ~Snrgenli from Japan, a low growing spreading shrub with all the delicacy of a Japanese screen, yet reliably winter hardy. All in all, the crabapples have gradually grown to be the finest single display at the Arnold Arboretum, fragrant and beautiful in the springtime, brilliant in the fall, and to the birds at least, attractive far into the winter. When their special merits are recognized and their care is understood they will be very generally used in New England, some for foundation planting, some for avenues and drives, others for naturalistic plantings and to furnish winter food on game preserves. EDGAR ANDERSON 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 18","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":31,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24011","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25eab6a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"1~~~~~~BORETUM HA~~~~ UNIVERSITY ~`~';, ~~ ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION _~ ---- _~__ _ __ _ - SERIES 4. VOL. III NOVEMBER 18, 1s~5 NUMBER 7 STUDIES OF WIN'1'ER IN,TURI IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. MATERIAL for this study of wmter injury in different parts of the Arboretum was accumulated during the growing season of 1934. The preceding winter had been one of unusual intensity, and the dama~e CO:VIPARATIVF incurred by the plants had been so great that a special sur~eyw.us made of it in the spring and early summer. The results of the survey were published in four bulletins ~ 1 ~ which included lists of plants killed outright, killed to the ground, and injured but not killed to the ground. In thefirst of these27 species and arieties were noted, in the second 248, and in the third ??,i, but no information was inn cluded as to the location of the plants injured. It has been hnown for some time that certain parts of the Arboretum are more suitable than others for seml-hardy species, and it has been suggested that, by classifying the winter injury of 1933-34 as to locality, some rather concise data may be found which would clarify the existm\"; differences in growing conditions. To this end the writer has had recourse to the original field notes made by the committee investigating winter injury, and has compiled a list of 62 species and varieties which were ~yrowmh' in more than one Situation during the wmter of 1933-34 and were injured in at least one of these places. It is recognized that the conditions of age and pruning under which the same species entered the Imnter may have differed to a certain extent in different places, but it is safe to say that nearly all of them were in good condition and did not differ greatly in these respects. These 62 plants should, therefore, be the best indicaturs a~-ailable of the variations in growing conditions. DloSt of the notes are on shrubby species which are more or less con- (1). Winter Hardiness of Trees and Shrubs Growing in the Arnold Arboretum. By J. H. Faull, J. G. Jack, W.H. Judd, and L.V. Sohmitt, Arn. Arb. liull. of Pop. Information. Ser. 4. Vol. ii. Nos. 7, S~, 9, 11 (1934). ZJ centrated in three areas: the shrub collection just inside the Forest Hills Gate, the so-called Chinese collection on the south knoll of Bussey Hill, and the Centre Street Path area which lies in the neighborhood of the Pterocarya group. The shrub collection, which is checked over thoroughly each year, is the only one for which complete data are available. That is, in addition to lists of damaged plants in it, we have also a list of all the plants ~rowiny there. In the other two localities only injured plants are listed. The writer is indebted to the members of the committee who prepared the original lists of injured plants ; particularly to Mes5r5. Judd and Schmitt, who have contributed a great deal toward the following analysis of the field notes. during Table I. Plants growing in more than one the winter of 1933-34, and injured localities : Table I locality m in the Arboretum one at least of these 27 Miscellaneous notes from localites not mentioned in this table show that Baccharis huli7nifolin was unin,jured in the South Street nurserp, Benzoin aestiunle was uninjured where it ~rows near the Peach tion, and Pruuu.s .serrulatn horizji was l.illed outright near the Forest Hslls Gate although it was undamaged on Bussey Hill. Collec- ~28 Table II. Distribution of the various kinds of looalities : Table II injury in different The Shrub Collection appears by far the most rigorous testing ground of all. Of the 55 species common to it and other places, 37, or about 67.3%, wintered more successfully elsewhere. Fifteen, or about ~? i . 8 ~o, were equally damaged elsewhere, while only 3, or about 5.5~0, suffered less in the Shrub Collection than elsewhere. '1 hirty-four species andvarieties were common to the Shrub Collection and Bussey Hill. Twenty (58.8~0~ of them were less injured in the latter place, 1? (35.3,0~ showed no differences, one (2.9%) was injured on Bussey Hill more than in the Shrub Collection, and one was indefinite. The figures for the Centre Street Path area are somev hat similar. Here there were 21 forms aBailable for comparison, of which 12 (.i ~.1~o ~ passed the winter more successfully than in the Shrub Collection, 6 ( 28.6 Jo ~ showed novariation, and 2 (9..i ,o ~ were injured more than in the Shrub Collection. Comparisons between the Bussey Hill and Centre Street Path areas are too limited to be of much significance. Only seven species of injured plants were found common to the two, but of these, five were less injured m the latter place, one showed no variation, and one was indefinite. Notes on the injury of plants in a few other localities have been included in the tables for the light they may eventually throw on the problem of causes. Bacchrzris halimifolia, though killed back to the ground in the Shrub Collection, was injured in the South Street Nursery, a situation lower in elevation and probably much colder. Bensoiu aestiunle suffered variously in the Shrub Collection, part of 29 the plants being killed back and others only slightly damaged. Across the Meadow Road, however, in the neighborhood of the peach trees and the nearby wooded knoll,it was uninjured. Cornxskou.sn var. ohinensix was killed outright on Bu~Sey Hill, but along Bussey Hill Road near the lilacs it was uninjured. Likewise, Kolkwitzia nnac~bili.c was badly injured in the Shrub Collection, variously damaged on Bussey Hill, but not at all on Bussey Hill lload. Two species of Lonicera, killed back to the ground in the Shrub Collection, were uninjured or only damaged a little in the beds along the Nervine Border of the Arboretum, although the latter are in very low ground. For.eJlhin riridi,r.simn was killed back to the rround in the Shruh Collection but on the nearby hillside, in the Forsythia Groult, it was uninjured. From the above notes, it becmmes quite clear that the Bussey Hill and Centre Street Path areas are much more suitable for the growth of setni-hardy plants than the Shrub Collection. This fact is generally in aecmrcl with those gained from past eYperience in the growing and establivltment of shrubs m the Arboretum. The cause~ for the differences, lutwever, are not so clear. It is not the purpose of the present paper to go into these causes, but a brief statement of the problem will not be omivs. Difference5 may be lwolced for in soils, local temperuturev, relative exposure to bright sun durin~ the winter and spring days, and relative protection from winds. In all of these except the first there appears, with present knowledge, to be some correlation with the winter injury of IP~~-3t. No detailed soil studies have been made, but \"eneral ol>Servations su;,r~est that the soils of the Shrub Collection and the Centre Street area are more nearly similar to each other than to those of BussetHill. Available temperature data indicate that the Shrub Collection suffera lower minima than either of the other two, and that of the latter the Centre Street Path is the colder by half. 1W posure to bright suuli~ht is probably greatest in the Shrub Collection and least along Centre Street. The Centre Street Path area suffers notably less from strong winds, Vr.trticularly those from the northwest, than the other places. The relative suitabilityof other parts of the Arboretum for the experimental growing of plants has not been studied extensively in this way, but tt is reasonable to expect that if at least the major causes can be established for the differences set forth above, the projection of the investigation into other areas should be greatly simplified and rendered more efficient. Studies of temperatures are already under way, and data have been gathered for a map showing the parts of the Arboretum protected from the northwest wind. Htcn M. RAUP 30 Continued mild weather during the autumn has encouraged number of plants in the Arboretum to put forth late flowers. o~ES: Ncomparatively large are: Notable among these Iberis Tenoreana Prunus subhirtella var. autumnalis Genista tinctoria Daphne Mezereum Rhododendron dahuricum var. sempervirens Erica carnea Forsythia suspensa Lonicera fragrantissima Lonicera praeflorens Viburnum affine Viburnum erosum Viburnum frryrrans In addition to the cultiv ate<I shrubs there were o~ er fifty species of wild plants in blossom on the same date the abovlist was made, November 16. Fruiting has been abundant this year, and many species are holding their fruits well into the winter. Viburnum, Malus, Symphoricarpos, Cratae\";us, Berberis, Cotoneaster, AcantholrmaY, Aronia, and Ile~ are all represented among these, and add touches of color to the otherwise gray landscape, as well as provide food for the birds and small mammals which are regular winter resiclents. 31 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Injurious Effects of Winds in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":33,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24009","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25ea726.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":",~e- ~r~v ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY !Btt ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. III NOVEMBER z5, 19:35 NUMBER 8 EFFECTS OF V~~INDS IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETC\"YI. ON January and ?4tll, 1935, that part of New England in which Arnold Arboretum is situated was blanketed with a snowfall of 18 to 24 inches. The colder and drier weather wnth northwesterly winds which followed caused a great deal of drifting in the light snow, the amount varyin~ with slope and exposure. During the succeeding week the temperature remained so low that no appreciable thawing occurred, and on the nights of January Z.i-26 and ?8-29 an inch or more of additional snow fell and was later added to the drifts. V~'orking on the assumption that the relative amounts of drtfttn~,r in various parts of the Arboretum would affor<1 data on the distribution of effectiv eness of the northwest wind near the surface of the ground at this time of year, some notes were made which are embodied in the accompanying map. It will be seen at once that many small detatlv are omitted, but the larger drifted areas are rather clearl~-outlined. The general clirnatic condition~ leading up to this fall of snow were not auu5ual. 5eteral days of mild weather had considerallx- reduced an earlier snow cover of 6-8 inches, forming a hard crust. On the morning of January 2~lnd a low pressure system was central over northern Georgia and South Carolina, a poorly defined high pressure area was central over Illinois and Missouri, and a prominent high was over the Canadian prairie ltrov inces..Another low pressure which It.ul previously brought heav~- snows to the lake states has passed northeastward over the CUaspe region. The southern low pressure area h<td moved northeastward by the morning of the l3rd to be central over Cape Hatteras, and a strong high pressure had centured ov er South Dakota and neighboring Minnesota. Snow began to fall in the Boston district about noon, accompanied ly northeast winds, and by evening 6-8 inches had accumulated. The fall continued throughout the night. INJURIOUS ~3rd the 33 On the morning of the 24th the coastal low pressure was central over the Gulf of Maine, its movement bringing northwest winds, lowering temperatures, and clearing skies. The advancing western high pressures were central over Illinois and Ontario, and were accompanied by intense cold. In the late afternoon of the `?3rd the temperature in the Arboretum averaged about 18 F., and about midnight reached a minimum of about 11. On the morning of the 24th the temperature rose to about 13 and during the day reached 18-19. After noon on the 24th it began to fall rapidly, and reached minima of 10 to 170 below zero during the succeeding night. In the period between the morning of the 24th and noon of the 25th the relative humidity fell from 90% to 38%, with only minor advances in the afternoon of the ~~th and the early morning of the 25th. In brief, a well-defined low pressure system moving northeastward along the Atlantic coast and passing to the southeast of Boston, brought moisture-laden northeast winds and abundant snow. These winds caused a certain amount of drifting as the snow was falling, but the drifts so made were soon obliterated by the strong, dry and cold, northwesterly wind which immediately followed the passa~=e of the storm. As will be noted below, the earlier drifts persisted only in a few places in the Arboretum. A strong subjective element was necessarily present in making a ,jucl;;ment on the relative amount of drifting in any ~,iven area; but the general criteria may be divided roughly into three classes. First, the \"hardness\" of the snow as indicated by the way in which snowslroes sank into it in ordinary walking; second, the number and kind of \"ripple marks\" and other surface sculpturings; and third, the distortion of the normal configuration of the snow about the bases of trees and shrubs. \"'here little or no drifting was present there were nearly circular depressions in the snow around the bases of trees, but where the wind blew hard the depressions were variously distorted and oriented accordin~; to the direction and force of the blast. In the order of diminishing intensity the most drifted portions of the Arboretum were the north and northwest slopes of Peter's Hill, most of the 14-.~cre ~'eld Street tract, the north and northwest f.vces ~rf Bussey Hill, and the southeastern part of the North Meadow. The first three were exposed to the full force of the northwest wind because of their elevation and the absence of large or dense plantations. The southeast end of the open meadow is so far away from the low hills to the northwest of it that their protection is lost. The influence of this wind which sweeps the meadow is felt as far as the Forest Hills entrance since the open plantings of maples are not enough to 34 check it. Peter's Hill is so open on its flanhs that the hard drifting is carried far around to the southeast and southwest sides, as showw on the map. Similarly a strong component of the wind which affects Bussey Hill sweeps down the Valley Road to produce hard drifting in the walnuts, in the upper part of the oak collection, and in the area about the old chestnut collection. Nearlyall of the drifted areas had their surface markinhrs clearltoriented to the northwest wind. Some modifications were caused by the larger topographic features, as in the crab-apple collection where the wind currents evidently came down the valley between Hemlock and Peter's Hills in an easterly direction. notable exceptions to the northwest drifts were the remnants of the northeasterly trend of the main storm. These were most prominent in that part of the South Street tract which lies southwest of the pond. All of this area was apparently well protected from the later winds by Bussey Hill. The only other place where this was nlrservecl was in the northern part of the linden collection where the northeast wind blew with cv>nsulerable force across the north end of the meadow, but where the northwest wind was completely stopped by the nearby hills and w-oods. In protected places the snow remained soft and powdery, w ith almost no surface markings. As would be expected, the larger of these areas lay on the lee sides of the hills, especially where the latter are more or less wooded. Smaller ones were caused by patches of natural woocls or dense plantations. One of the largest of the protected areas lay along the northwestern boundary of the Arboretum, ettendm~ from the Jamaica Plain entrance to Centre Street and including the northern end of the linden collection. Southeastward its boundary %was ill-defined, with a ~,raclual increase in the amount of drifting at base of the hill. As noted above, the northgreater distances from ern part of this strip showed some results of the northeast wind, but near Centre Street there was little evidence of driftm~ of any kind. Another prominent \"driftless\" area lay at the northeastern base of 13u15y Hill, taking in the collections of leguminous trees, the lower end of the lilacs, the plantings around the two westernmu5t of the small ponds, and a small portion of the shrub collection. The proteotion here is afforded by the wooded knolls which project northeastward from the larger hill. On the south side of Bussey Hill the plantings of pines, lreeclles, and a large portion of the azaleas were under soft snow. The northwestern part of the beech group and that part of the oak colleoti~m whwh lies below the small transverve ridge in this vallet- were only The only the 3.i partially drifted. Another prominent protected area lay along Centre Street, taking m most of the hickory group, the pterocaryas, and the nxiscell.rneous plantations of shrubs and small trees in this vicinity. It was caused by the highhill to the northwestward and accentuated by the presence of the embankment of the street itself. Most of the land occupied by the smaller conifers and hornbeams was also protected, in this case by the low, partially wooded ridge which crosses the Valley Road in the neighborhood of the spring. The lower end of this area, lxowever, near the place where the small spring-fed tributary enters Bussey Brook, was farther away from the barrier and was partially drifted. Most of the northern slope of the Bussey Brook valley was undrifted, protected by the nearby hills and large plantings. Near Bussey Street, where the brook flows through a broader expanse of meadow, the wind became effective on both sides of it, producing hard drifts. The shoulder of the hill among the spruces and firs was drifted, but t:rrther up in this direction the Centre Street embankment and wall again brought protection. South of Bussey Street the largest vheltered area lay south and southprojection around the old quarry. This land is partly in natural woods, partly in a miseell.xneous plantation of trees near South Street, and contains the collections of pears and some of the crab-apples. The shelter in its extewion toward South Street and the railroad is increased by the high embankment of the Peter's Hill Road. As would be expected the low ground in the old quarry is also protected, but the high rocks on its rim were drifted hard. The only land on Peter's Hill proper which achieves any protection to speak of is on the south slope in the lee of the natural oods, the larch plantation, and the old nursery. In the ~'eld Street tract the only protection is from a small thicket near the eastern end and in a small low area between the two hills. Most of the drifting in the natural woods was confined to the ritlhre tops and windward slopes where these do not carry much undergrowth. The hnrdwood timber is so open that drifting was common -here~ er the wind could get through the trees, but on Hemlock Hill only the top of the ridge was affected, the lower slopes being mantled with loose powdery snow. Drifting on the Bussey Institution land is not shown on the map, but follows the main outlines of the topo~raphv. It was greatly modified, of course, by the presence of the buildin\"s. The steep slope southeast of the Bussey Mansion was not much drifted, but that to east of Hemlock Hill and its BU the northeast is swept by winds from the open slopes of Bussey Hill, and was drifted hard. The top of the low bluff which forms most of the northwestern boundary of the land carried heavy drifts, and most of the plain eastward of the building bore strong surface markings. Among the factors reducing the winter hardiness of plants in our region is that of the dry winds which blow during cold clear weather. There is evidence among the plants in the Arboretum that the northwest wind which commonly follows a cy-elonic storm is the most significant in this respect. It regularlyhlows briskly- and brings clear weather with rapidly- lowering temperxture ancl relati~e humidity . In contrast, winds from other quarten durm~ winter and spring u5uallypresage cloudy skies with higher humidities and temperatures. For some years the land along the Centre Street Path in the vicinity of the pterocaryas has been regarded as especially suitable for plants which have not wintered successfully elsewhere. Although this, as w ell a5 the v i~rorous growth of the crab-apples, conifers, tree le;umes, and lilacs might be uttr~l>uted to soil or other factors, there can be no doubt that the protection of the are.rs in which they grow from clryin~; winds must also be taken into eonsicleration. Reference to the map will show that a portion of the shrub collection lies m the protected area in the lee of the wooded knolls along the Meadow Road, while the rernainin~\" part is <unwderably more affected by winds across the W rtlr Jleadmv. The protection afI<uoiecl is not so great as that :mmediately across the road, smce the low elevation of the knolls and the openness of the oak woods permits a good deal of the wind to pass thrmu~lr. '.~ everthelr5s the protected northwest corner of the collection suffered slightly less injury during the winter of 193R-St than the remanuler, and since there is a fairlyeBen distribution of hardiness throughout the whole collection this difference, small though it is, may be considered significant. A more direct suggestion as to the importance of the northwest wind is to be found in the distortion of the crowns of trees and vhruin. This is cle.rrly observnlrle in mam parts of the Arlmretum. It is t>erl~.ys most ,tnkm~ on BusSey- Hill among the old white pines w hwlr were plantecl there by Ben,jamm Bussey early in the nineteenth century, but it is also well-defined among the elms, birches, and hawthorn,. One of the outstanding features of it is a change from radial to bilateral symmetry in the orowns, with an orientation clearly- correlated with the northwest w ind. It is generally understood that the cl~,tc~rturn is due mainly to the drying effectv of air rmement~ rather than to mechanrcal injury, a condition which, in the light of what 37 dry northwest wind rather than Furthermore, if a map were made of the relative intensities of distortion throughout the Arboretum, the main outlines would coincide with those of the relative amounts of drifting. Evidence that the northwest wind is a damaging agent of no mean significance is therefore strongly suggested by the distribution of winter injury to semi-hardy shrubs, and is found abundantly in the forms of trees and shrubs in exposed places. It should be considered one of the more important factors outlining the natural biological divisions of the Arnold Arboretum or of other similar plantations, and protection from it should add aubstantiallv to the chances for success in bringing tender species through the winter in this part of the country. has been said above, relates it to the to other, more moist ones. HUGH ~f. Rwu 38 '\" ...; M >. oj ~ 5 . . w bn c o 3w 'F .... ~ ro Q,)\"\" 0 xo ~ .~ o c ;: oj E m c +~' w ro ~~ w a7 o u o ~ 8 oj Q,) .~ a~ '\" # : he ` w .... &a3#x E;a~s.Q,) Q,) .... .: 5p .c ~3 o U a~ t) c E '> oj a~ a~ Q,) ~; x o ro ~ E~ 0 .: a~ xL L w C~ oj ~T. "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Early Uses of Land Now in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":9,"start_page":41,"end_page":74,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24005","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24e856d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume III","article_sequence":10,"start_page":77,"end_page":81,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24008","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d25ea36f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 4 VOLUME III in bold face Synonyms are in italic ; illustrations type. Abeliophyllum distichum, 7 Aesculus, 44 Almond, Chinese, 14 Ames, Oakes, 42 Arbor-~~itae, 62, 63 Arnold Arboretum, Early of - Beech, 58, 60, 62 Benjamin Bussey, Estate of, Benzoin aestivale, 26, 28 Berberis aggregata, 26 - 43 Prattii, 26 26 - - uses - recurvata, land, 41 i - - - Historical sketch, 43 Map of lands about the 1710, - - - year - 49 1770, .5.i 1810, 59 --- dictophylla, 26 Francisci-Ferdinandi, poly antha, 26 Birch, 48, 51, .53, 61 -River, 46, 47, 69 Buckthorn, 44 - 26 - - - I 1840, 67 Map showing relative amounts of drifting in the snow of January 23-24, 1935, 38 and the Bussey Institution, Map showing the num- - Bussey, Benjamin, 72 Estate, 43 Hill, .i8 Institution and the Arnold areas -- - Arboretum, Map showing the numbered described in bered areas described in this p. 45 bulletin, plate facing - this bulletin, plate facing p.45 8 Calluna vulgaris, 18 - Ash, 48, 53 `? Flowering, i Autumnal coloring, 17 alba, 19 - - coccinea, 19 9 - - - - Azalea, 60 collection, 53, 60 Mongolian, 8 Baccharis halimifolia, 26, Balkans, 1 cuprea, 19 - - hirsuta, nana, 19 19 9 19 9 - - multiplex, i - 28 Caragana Boisii, 26 77 Catalpa, 48, 51, Cercidiphyllum, japonicum, 5 Cercis 53 Cornus kousa 6 - mas, - chinensis, 6 26 Ceanothus americanus, 26 44 ' - officinalis, - paucinervis, 26 69 canadensis, 2 Chaenomeles, 9 Z - japonica, 10, 12 12 z alpina, lagenaria, 10 - Crab-apple, 13, - Classification of, ~~ 21 - \"Alba,\" 11I - - \"Baltzii,\" 111 \"Cardinalis, 11i \"Columbia,\" 11 - - - \" -- \" Kermesmasemiplena,\" I1 i i \" Macrocarpa,\" 11 - - \" Marmorata,\" 11i I - - \"Nivalis,\" 11 - - collection, 66 Hawthorned-leaved, e! Mandshurian, 13 Oriental, 11 Parkman, 13 Crataegus, 9, 66 Cydonia, 9 Cypress, Bald, 62 Cytisus albus, 26 elongatus, 26 - - - - ` - nigricans, 27 purgans, 27 - -- \" Rosea plena,\" 11 i - - \" San~uinea semiplena, \" - purpureus, 27 11 i - \" Simonii,\" 10 12 2 - Maulei, sinensis, - 9 1`~ - - superba, 10, - Chaste tree, 18 8 - rat~sbonensis, 27 Daphne Mezereum, 31 Dawson, Jackson, 46 Deutzia, 61 hypoglauca, 27 hypoleuca, 27 magnifica, 27 - - Cherry, 48 4 Flowering, 14 Mt. Fuji, 14 Sargent, 14 Chestnut collection, - - rosea, 27 - scabra plena, 27 61 1 Dipelta ventricosa, 27 Dogwood, 47 Elm, 48, 51, 53 Erica carnea, 31 83 3 Choke-cherry, Climatic 16 conditions, January, Conifer, 51, 62, 6B, 69 Cornelian cherry, 6 Eucommia ulmoides, 27 Euptelea polyandra, 8 Fir, .51, 61, 66 78 - - Forsythia, 48, 53 japonica saxatilts, Korean, 7 ovata, 7 1 suspensa, 31 - 7 Ivy, English, I Juniper, 62, 68 5 Katsura tree, Kerria japonica pleniflora, 27 8 paniculata, 18 Kolkwitzia amabilis, ?7 1 Larch,.51, 61 - Golden, 61 i Lespedeza cyrtobotrya, Z i formosa, 27 Lewis House, 46 Lilac, 1, IB, 48, .il, .i~, 69 Visit to the home of, 1 Linden, 45 collection, 70 Locust, Black, 2 Lonicera fragrantissima, 7, 31 gynochlamydea, 28 Henryi, 28 Maackii podocarpa, ~8 7 microphylla, 17 praeflorens, 7, 31 Standishii, 7 lancifolia, 28 - - - Koelreuteria - - atrocaulis, 27 viridissima, 27 Fraxinus Ornus, 2 Genista pilosa, `?7 31 - tinctoria, z7, - - virgata, 27 Goldsmith Brook, 4,5 Gore's Cxrewia Meadow, 44 parvtflora, l7 6 Hackberry, 47, 5:3 Hamamelis vernalis, Hawthorn, 48 8 Heather, 18 - Winter care in New England, 19 - - Hedera helix,1 - Helianthemum nummulartum - straminium, 27 7 Helwingia japonica, z 7 Hemlock Hill, History of, ,5 Hickory, 60, 61, 69 Holodiscus discolor ariaefolius, - - - - Vilmorinii, 44 .5 z8 Magnolia, - Chinese, 27 conspicua, 5 - Hornbeam, 62, Horse-chestnut, 4,i 0 collection, 70 1 Iberis Tenoreana, 31 7 Indigofera amblyantha, 27 Injurious effects of winds in the Arnold Arboretum, 33 63 - - - .i denudata, kobus, 5 borealis, 5 Soulangeana, 5 - stellata, .5 - rosea, 5 5 - Yulan, 79 Malus baccata, 18, 22, 23 -- gracilis, 13, mandshurica, - brevipes, 22, 23 - 23 1:1 3 Plane-tree collection, 46 Plants, Late flowering, 31 coronaria, z? 5 - Dawsoniana, 13, 15 - Plum, 48 Pomoideae, 9 Poplar, 63, 66 Privet, 48, 53 4 Prunus incisa, 1-l' - - tloribunda, 23 ;3 - fusca, I - Halliana, zl 14 Parkmanii, 18 2 hupehensis, - mira, - 28 16 - Padus, - - 6 commutata, 16 - ioensis, 22 l 1? - micromalus, - prunifolia, 22Ex&# 3 ; t Z 6 glauca, 16 Sargentii, 8, 14 - serrulata horinji, 28 subhirtella autumnalis, - - - 31 1 - - - Sargenti, ~;3, Sieboldii, ?8 spectabilis, 22 - - tomentosa, 8 triloba multiplex, 16 6 - vir~iniana, fi 16 - tlze~f'era, l:3 `L l , - - torinQOicle,, - zumi, 2:3 Maple, 44, 48, Mt. Domogled, .il 1 3 .il ' Mulberry, 48, - Neillia sinensis, 28 thibetica, Oak, .53, 08, 18 66 - - yedoensis, Pseudocydonia, 9 Yseudolarix amabilis, 17 7 Pterocarya, 61, 69 Purdom, ~'~'illiam, 16, La Pyrus, 9 Quince, Chinese, 9 Classification of, 9 Flowering, 9 1-t 4 2 Redbud, ~ - collection, til White, 68 Oleaster, 48 Oxydendrum arboreum, - Rhododendron dauricum, 8 - mucronulartum, 8 18 8 - - sempervirens, 8, 31 1 Pachistima myrsinites, 28 Palmer, E. J., 42, 63 Ribes cereum, 6 Robinia pseudoacaci<r, 4 2 Persimmon, 47 Yhellodendron, t~ Pine, ~~., .i 1, (iO 80 - Rochel, Anton, Rosa multibracteata, 28 omeiensis pteracantha, 28 i rubrifolia, 17 Salvia officinalis, 28 San Jose scale, 11 I C. S., 42, 63 Sargent, Sciadopitys, 62, 6;3 Shadbush, 44 Snowfall, January, 38 Sophora viciif'olia, 28 - Rosa Tulip-tree, 44 Tupelo, 47 Varnish-tree, Golden, Viburnum, 47 - af6ne, 81 betulifolium, ?8 ' - 18 8 - erosum, 31 1 fragrans, 6, ZS, ~1 lobophyllum, ~8 - - - - Spiraea, 61 Henryi, 28 Miyabei glabrata, 28 nippomca, 28 Veitchii, 28 Spring at the Arnold Arbore5 tum, - - setigerum, 18 Vitex agnus-castus, 18 8 -- i Negundo incisa, 1 ~'alnut, 60 group, 61 - Spruce, ;i 1 , 61, Stephanandra Tanakae, Sumac, 44 Syringa vulgaris, 1 Taxodium, 63 Taxus, 63 Temperature, January, 1'ilia, 44 Tree legumes, 51 66 Willow, 45, 68, 6fi Wilson, E. H., 16 28 Winds in the Arnold Arbore- tum, Injurious effects of, 33 Winter injury in the Arnold - Arboretum, 14 Comparative studies of, - 33 z~ i V~'itch-hazel, 47 Yew, 6~~ 81 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23298","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d14e8527.jpg","title":"1935-3","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1935,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23990","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270b76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Akebia qumata, 18, 19 I Forsythia intermedia, I Forsythia ovata, I 11 Hamamelis vernalis, 3, plates facing plate fac~nQ pages ~, 3 page 64 Indian relics of the Arnold Arboretum, plate facing I page 51 Jlalus flor~hunda var., Jlalus Soulardi, plate facing amalnlis, .i9 page 50 Prunus serrulata wchalinensis, 7 l'Seadolarix Rhododendron maximum, Robinia pl.~tes facuy pages Zl, z3 fertilis, 1I 111 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hamamelis Vernalis Sarg.","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23987","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270ab6c.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY y BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ~ VOL. II APRIL ?8, 1984 NUMBER I 4MAMI~:LIS VFRN4LIS SARI:. TnP OZARK WI'IY H-HAZ6:1,. WI'I'Ir lIJ:34, A the Ozark witch-hazel may be said to h:we remhed its majority 'N as a cultivated shrub; it was just zl years ago this winter that it flow- H ered for the first time at the Arnold Arboretum. As earlyas 1813 the Saint Loum botanist, Dr.George En~elmann,had found it ~row In~'ahm;r the upper reaches of the Dler:xmec Iliver but not until 1911 did Professor Sargent call it to public attention by reco~'mznr~r it as a distinct species. Young plants were brought on from Missouri and in January lcJla they blossomed for the first time. This year, as every year, their tawnt- blossoms have madea good showin~,' on bright Sunn~' day durinrr the winter and on one bu,h or another there was :xlnunst cuntinuous bloom from Christmas until Kaster. flmrmnelr.v nPrnali.e has a curious method of:ucnm<xl:Itin~,T ttself to th i, unusu:rl blooming season. 1aloh flower has titur strap-vhape<1 petalv which in culor and texture remrnd one of ty-5havin\"from the outer rind of an orange. In the bud each little petal i~ rolled m toward the center. When the bud opens the petals rwll out, Smnetlm~~ lll.e openar~ fern frvmd~. In the witch-hazel this process is rever5ible and if the weather turns cold (as it usually does) the little petals roll back again. It is a surprising experience to visit the same bushes on succe>sive day5 during the winter. One daywill be warm and Sunuy and there will be quite an arrat' of bloom. If the next day is cc~lcl and clmudt- unly in the very center of the krud, oan one catch sight of the 1>rlyht little petals wlmIt n-err c1 ply ecl Sn attr:xetiv e1y the day betinw. When another w:xrln ,pell :Irrm e,, lr,mh rvlll the ptalv mul the bu,lw are in fluwer :r,Sr.,allr. [n its natm home m the Ozark nunmtaiw, Hrrmnureli.s 1'PI'rl(rILC 1, a e when in full bloom.L'nlllce our I~ewl;nylund v-itch-h:uel ~lorG1u55i~lxt it forms dense thukets, wmfiny~' itwlf v ert lar~,rely tn ~r~r:r~ clly krml:~ .mcl lted, of orecl,v and wtrtll ri~ erv. 5een close at 6an<l, the flowerv are clear and bright and though ,nmll are borne tn great al>undance. On any one bush the eolor is much the vatne but tlom bwh to lwh there ts great v ariatum tn the color of the fluw-er,. The unclerlying ttme is pale yellow vary my fn>m lenurn m the petals to a dull \",rreenish gold in the Sepals. This is overlaid m ~ arpm`~- amuunt, ly a clear dark red ; \"draym's blood red\" is the teehnical rmme for the eiaet color. Oocastonally there are bushes of a clear green gold throughout, with uo trace of red ; at the other extreme are tlu>se hwhw whose petals and sepals are completelySuffused with red, leav iny only the v ery tips of clivpla~- the underlsnn`\"; t ellow-. Betw-een these two exintermediates,the communest form bem`y one m which the green gold sepals bear a red line down the center rtn,1 the petals are flu,hed with red at the hase. Though almost lnulltant when seen close at hand in the bright sunlight, these ~ar~-tn~ reds and golds Fade mto one unother at a ltttle di,tance producny a taw-y hlend w hich is similar to the rich tonw of a turlci,h ru~r. '1'he general effect of the the petals to tremes are many bushes is made e~en more sombre by the dead leme5 of the prewnas ~-ear. In the Ozark w-itch-hazel they persist w-ell mto the wmter, much a, <ln oak leave,. '1'hu, a rwer tlmhet mf wntoh-Irarel, ts alreadv ru,tv brown before the flower, appear. The tl;y~ronce of the fl~m~erv is av wrl>rmin`y as the date of their appearance. 'Itile often comlr.tre<l to that of \",rrnpc,, it iv evenclmer to the oclur of n Vandn orchul. It Irw not unl~ tlte ruh, Iremt tla,~ernnoe of the ripening ~rrape,, but nt addttum an cnertune whwh m alnunt spicy,sort of nutme~n o<lm. Onlton the warmwt Fek>ruart datw cnn it be detected uut-of-<lr>ors in New England, but in the Ozxrl., where the weather is urmew Itat w-armer, it is often \",rm en off in great ahundanoe. 'I'o find this ruh tropical perfume on a winter's d.y ts a ,urprtsu~;.,T experience. Though the temperature is above freezing and the sun is bright, the w ind is raw and cold and the woods are lr.we. A<ross the muddywheat field, a quarter of a nnle or more aw-ay,a taw-ny line in the landscape shows where the Ozark witch-hazelv are ~rrmv inPalrm\"; the creek. Yet ,u heavy is the perfume and in such abundance w it produoed that the whole field is flooded with its tropmal f~;ysrance. ~'lile HnrnnrrreJi.s t~Prrrlll(.s ,eems to be the most depen<lal>le species tor w-mter blowom in Bew- I';nPland gardens, all members of this interestm~ genus have u tendency towards w-inter-flowertnn. Our common eastern wit<h-hazel, Ha7nn~nPJiswirgiuirtnn, flowers late in the autumn just as the leaoe, are tallm\",r and hwhes w tll oco.wumall~ be found in bloom :m late as December. 'I'Im Japanese wntch-hazel, .) t Hamrtmeli.s jrtponicvr, flowers at the Arnold Arboretum in the very e:rrly 'N The most couspicuous species of all is Hamameli.s molli.s, the spring. Chinese witch-haiel. It m a lovely sight when in full flower tor the petals are v ery large and the yellow is clear and k>ryrht. I= nti>rtunatel~ , with us it has prol ed to be a somewhat fickle prtma donn:x. None of the bushes at the Arnold Arboretum flowers regularly e~ er~ year and some of them have never given a really fine slu>tv of blov,urns. Though xts flow ers are much smaller, the Ozark v ttch-hazel blovsoms rePularly in the Arnold Arboretum; each Iruslt is well oovered with flowers every year. So reliably does it bloom that in France it has been used as a potted shrub for flowering indoors, ~,-rafted on stoek of Hamamelis nirginiana. Such graftin~; can also be resurted tu if' one wishes a specimen with a sin~le stem, since H. t~irginianrr does not sucker from the root as vigorously as does H. nernalie. For the ordinary shrub garden this latter habit is really an asset since it produces a den5e head of flowering branches and if one stem dies there are others to replace it. In such plantings Hamameli.r uernalis is most effectme if sev eral different bushes are used. The variation in flowering date will xn5ure a longer flowermhr season and the mingled reds and yellows will produce a richer effect in the landscape. Hamamelis oernalis due~ not seem to exhibit any marked soil preferences. In Missouri it is usually found in coarse river ~ravel on the banks of small streams, or like alders forming thrckets in the stre:un bed itself. At the Arnold Arboretum it is doing well in several situations all of which are well drained. Sarprismgly enough it takes kindly to city conditions and has flow ered regularly in shady and smoky city gardens. Heavy shade is scarcely to be recommended, however, since the natural habitat of the speme5 is in full sun or partial shade. Though its general landscape effect seldom exceeds a rich tawnc smudge of color, Ha~na7raeli.r t~ernrrli.e has many quahties which merit It has clean, attractive foliage and its curious a greater recohnition. flowers are fragrant and decorative when brought indoors. Certmnly any shrub which blossomed faithfully out-of-doors tltrou\",~~h the entire winter of 19~~-3t is worth knowing, if for no other reason. l:nG~x A~uFu,on EXPLANATION OF 'rHE PLATES Page (H'zonz drmninga~ by ('.l~'.Fa.zorz for ,W rqvnt's \"1'rres anvl .V7truLs.\"~ Insert. Flowerm~ branches of H. vernalis. (Photographed in the Arnold Arboretum, J'Iarch 1931.) B. Hamamelis vernalis Sarg. 4 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hardy Flowering Cherries","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23988","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270af6d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ------ -- ~- - - ~ ~ ~ SERIES 4. VOL. II ~ MAY 5, 1934 ----- NUMBER 2 --- FLOWFR1NG CHFRRIh;S. To a horticulturist, the collection of -t. flow errnhr cherries at the Arnold Arboretum is of particular interest this spring. The phenomenal cold of the past winter has provtded a se~ ere test of winter hardiness. On eight different ninht5 the thermometer at the Arnold Arboretum hreenhowe fell below zero, and on Fehruary 9th it reached 18~ below, an all time record. Taken as a whole, the flowering cherries have wxthvtood this extreme cold Surprxsinyly well. A few of the tenderer ~arietie5 are apparentlsbadly injured, just how badly it is still too soon to tell. A large proportion, though escaping permanent injury, havlost all, or nearly all, of this i ear~s flovc-er budv. But New England ~ardeners may be of good cheer, for at the other extreme there were several varieties which were practically unharmed by the se~ere cold and are this spring as lovely a sight as ever. Foremost among these hardy varieties is the Sargent cherry, ~'rurms .serrrclc~ta .snchnlinensi.s, one of the forest trees uf Northern Japan. At the Arnold Arboretum it has been planted in sev eral situations and in all of them it came through the winter in excellent condition. Since tn its own way it is one of the loveliest of the Japane5e cherries, as w e11 :xs the most reliable for northern gardens, its beha~-ior thm sprin~~ Should bring it well-merited attention from New England ~;ardenert. It laas many outstanding qualities. It is quick growing, lon~~-lmed, and eventually becomes a full-sized tree as large as a Sunrar maple and of much the same vhape. Its flower~ are usually a bright pink, and the redbronze of the opening leav e5, which appear w itlx the flow erv, reinfurces their color eflectm el~ . Though tlte fluwer5 tltexwelw5 are smaller and HARDI less abundant than in at some of the more flowering time are as cunspwuou5 at well drained situations, the leav es tender varieties, none of these a distance. When planted in dev elop clear autumnal tints of gold J and russet and orange. The tree is shapely and clean lnnbed, txarticularly so for a cherry, and it is attractm e III the landscape throughout the year. \"Cherries of Jrtpan,'' Dr. Wilson has given a brilliant deIn scription of the Sargent cherry as he knew it in its Japanese home his and as a cultivated tree. \"In the woods and forests it makes a tall tree with rt clean trunk and relatively short ascendin~ orascendin~~;-spreadin~-Oranclxes, wlmh form a shapely head. But on the margins of woods and in thicl.ets where it is usually met with, and more especially as a planted tree in open places, the trunk, within a few feet of the ground, breaks up mto several thick ascendin~ stems. From these rise thu1, wide-~preading branches which form a flattened crow u..... On the trunk and old branches the bark is dark and rou~h, but on the branclxes and branchlets it is polished chestnut-brown ; one-year-old shoots are pale ~,rrry. Like the shoots, the leaves are everyv here ~lal>rous and when they 'Nunfold are bronze metallic green, and in the autumn change to shadev of yellow, eman~e and crtmson ; the under side of mature leaves is more or less ylaucescent; the serration is simple and double to a greater or less degree on nearly ex ery leaf, and the gland-tipped teeth are m~tcronate or aristate ; on the ery young lea~ es aristate teeth are most noticeable and as the leaves grow and the teeth expand this character becomes less marked. The bud-scales vabtendino the unfoldm~r lern es and flowers are viscid without and ciliately glandular. The flowers are xnodorous, ever3wvhere ~~labrous and appear slightly before or at the same time as the leaves, and in color vary from rose and pink to w hite or nearly whtte,..... 'Ihe peduncle is only v ery vlt~-htlw if at all elongated ; the petals are notched, the anthers small and yellow and the stamen-filaments and calyx are more or less tinged with color. The fruit is globose or subylobose, jet black, about the size of a garden pea and of sweetish flavor.\" In late ~-earv, since the beautiful Japanese cherries at V'ashinh~~tou havbegun to attract general attention, there have been repeated efforts to evtablmh similar plantings in other parts of the country. Most of these experiments unfortunately are in the north and middle west and man~ of them are doumed to dtsappointment. Lo~ ely as Japanese cherries are when seen reflected in the water, they do not, in the north, do their best in such situatums. Their roots demand well drained soils and these are seldom to be found on river banks and the mar~ins of ponds. Someone with ima~;ination, reuxforced by horticultural ex- some day design a new kind of cherry di5play- tor the north. He will use the Sargent olrerry-, l:nowin\",~ that it m hardy there. He will set his garden on a slope where the soil is well drained, and where the cherries can be seen from v <li,tance. He will back up his cherries with Norway maples and willuwv, wloch flwver at the same time forming a bright yellow green foil for the pink of the cherries. He will know that these ,lapaneve cherries are lcm,~r-li~ ed and that they eventually grow into very large trees and lm will design his garden e accordingly. He may not live to see it reach maturity, but he will ha~ the satisfaction of having crevteda cherry garden which will fit Arnerican conditions as well as Japanese gardens fit Japanese conditions. While the Sargent cherry has come through the winter in better condition than any of the other tree cherries, v<nne of the lower rnrowing species have done equally- well. The following table lists the mam species and varieties in the collections of the Arnold Arboretum and t<tbulatev their bud hardiness and winter utjurv, m well .m these could be estinmted on April ?tith. perience, will Name Injury bu<lv to buds Injury to tree 1'ruuu.v \" '' pilo.siu.sorrlrt t~etrn.rtn eutirelyl.illed slight ry~olnrniurt \" \" \" Iomerrto.rn \" \" \" killed buds eut~relyl.tlled completely bud hardy most of the buds leuoocvrnpu ' ' \" '' '' \" \" Pnrlolniolm .sPrrululn .rponlarrrrt nuwt uf thr hud, killed lmul~ l.rllecl in part inci.sn .sPrrrrtrr .r few l~ud~ Lilled Irilobu .subhirte!la perrdnlu bud, entirelyl:ille<l \" ll.S(PIrIIPn.S most of the Inuls killed ..., ....., ~ ..., slight r\/edoen.si.s Large-flowered n.rmed ' \" ' ' \" extensive v arieties slight ? injury some varieties(1'rurrn.sLrrnrresirrn& its to trees in hyhrtd5~ ~.I)G 1R ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Prunus serrulata Lindl. var. sachalinensis 3Iak. after Makino in lc. Fl. Japon. (1900). (=Prunus Sargentii Rehd.) _ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hardy Forsythias","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":14,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23989","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270b36e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY , BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ------------~---~-- SERIES 4, VOL. II MAY 14, 1934 -- NUMBER 3 ~_ -----~-- HARDY FORSYTHIAS V~ITH A SHOR1' ACCOUNT OF THE HISTORS' OF GARDEN FORSSTHI~S AND RErIARKS REGARI>ING THEIR POSSIBLE FUTURE DEVELOYMENT. of For.rythia hav e proved thorouyhl~- hardy at the Arboretum this spring : Forsytlria ouata, F. europaPa, and F. japoniczx. In an ordinary year they are relatively inconspicuous members of the collection. This spring, as full of bloom as ever, they stand out in dramatic contrast to the bare branches of the commoner sorts. Of the three, the Korean Forsythia, F.oz~ata, is probably of the greatest garden merit. Though its flowers, as shown in the accompan~-ing plate, are smaller than those of most garden varieties, they have a delicate and airy grace. Wholl~- aside from its hardiness, F'.ouata would in certain situations be preferred to other Forsythias by reason of its flower color and habit of growth. The flower, are borne closely clustered on the branches and are of a soft, light yellow. HREE Arnold sYECIES The Korean Forsythia was introduced into western gardens in 191 i, when Dr. Wilson brought back seed5 from the Diamond Mountains of Korea. He te115 us that in its natmhome it is \"a straggling, often sprawling shrub of no great size.\" In cultivation it makes a small upright bush, less diffuse in habit than are most members of the genus. It is not only among the hardiest of all Forsythias, but it is with us distinctly the earliest to bloom. All m all, it is decidedly worth growing, and there are many situations where its smaller size, neater habit, and more delicate flowers make it preferable to any other variety. Forsythia japonica (under which name may be considered as well the barely distinct F. sa.ratilis~ has been grown at the Arnold Arboretum since 1924, when cuttings were recei~ ed from the Botanical Garden 9 at 'I'oky o. In flower and leaf it so portant difference, far as its use is very similar to F.onata, tt5 must imin gardens is concerned, ts its low- er habit of growth. Like many I'orsy-thtas it is a native of rocky places, and it might find its lappiest use as a low shrub for the rucl. garden. Fors~thirt europaea, while of great ltotanical interest, is of little importance horticulturally. American plant breeders should be interested in its hardiness and its profuse bloom. These should prove useful in butldin~ up an American race of garden Fursy thias. In itself the species is too weedy and coarse for custumary- garden use. Botanically- it is noteworthy as the only species which is not native to the Orient. It grows abundantly in combination with similar weedy shrubs in scrublands of the Balkan Yenmsula, where it ~c-as first discovered by Dr. Baldacci in 1897. Its natural habitat in dry situations su~-hrests that it might be worthy of extended trial in the more arid parts of the middle west. Comparatively speakin~-, Fursy-thias are newcomers to our western gardens. It was just a century ago that the first plants were brought back to Holland from Japan. Actually, the ~enw did not become well known until Robert Fortune sent Fora;yfltia niridi.s~.simrt to the ~~arden of the Horticultural Society of London in 18-1~. The tullowm~ account is taken from a letter he sent back to the society. \"I first discovered it growing in a garden...which belonged to a Chinese Mandarin, on the island of Chusan, generally called the 'Grotto Garden' by the English. It is a great fwurite with the Chinese, and is generally grown in all the gardens of the rich in the north of China. I afterwards found it wild amongst the mountains of the interior in the Province of Clxektanr, where I thought it even more ornamental in Its natural state amongst the hed~,res than when cultivated in the fairy ~ardew of the DZandrxrins.\" subsequent trip Fortune introduced the variety of For.sythia suspeusa which still bears his name. B early- all of our aarden Fursy-tlias trace back at least in part to the very plants introduced by Robert Fortune. In his day it was no easy matter to bring back ln tn~ plants On a from the Orient. He has left usa detailed account of the careful way in which his precious collections ere prepared for the long sea-voy age I. by sailing vessel. \"As I had now secured living specimens and seeds of all the urnamental trees and shrubs of this part of Japan which I was likely to meet with at this season of the year, the whole were removed across 10 the bay to Yokohama, and placed for safety in Dr. Hall's ~Vard's cases were ready for tlxe~r reception.... ~,rarden* until \"But from the latter part of the business to was no easy matter. To go Japan was easy enough ; to wander anu~n~,rst those romantic valleys and undulating hills was pleasure unalloyed; to ransack the capital itself, although attended by an armed guard, was far from disagreeable ; and to get together such a noble collection .xc I hal e just been describing was the most agreeable of all. The difficulty-the great difficulty 2014was to transport living plants from Yedo to the Thames, England seas, for a distance of some 16,000 miles. But t1 rrks to friend Mr. Ward, even this difficulty can now be overcome by my old means of the well-known glass cases which bear his name.... over stormy without The \" In a foreign country, however, e~ en V~'ard's cases cannot be made some difficulty.... Luckily, luw ev er, a sufficient number of got ready to enable me to oarry the collections on to China. steam-sh~p `Eny'land,' Captam Dundas, being akx<rut to return to Shanghae, I a~ atled myself of the opportunityto go over to that port with my collections, m order to sh~p them for England, there being as yet no means of sendin~, them direct from Japan. JIr. Veitoh had also put his plants on board the sameessel, so th,tt the w hole uf the poop was hned wth h~~lass cases crammed full of the natural productum, of Japan. ~ever before had such an interesting and valuable collection of plants occupied the deck of any vessel, and most devuutly did we hope that our belo~ed plants might be t;moored tmth fair winds and smumth seas, and with as little salt water av 1>uswble-a mixture to wimch they were not at all partial, andw hwl~ sadly dns.yrrees w ith thmr cases were constitutions... \"A detect in the construction of manyof these cases is the slu~rtness of their feet. The bottom of the case should be at least six inches raised from the deck of the vessel... ~'aslun`y deol.s is the first part of the sailor's business every morning at sea, and they are not generally very particular as to where they throw the water. If the feet of the plant-case are shurter than six inches, there will not be suHicient room for the sailurs to dash the water below it, and consequently the bottom and sides will stand the chance of being washed every morning as regularly as the decks. In the course of a four or rive month's v oyage, the salt water is certain to find its w.y into the soil, w htch it then saturates, and destroys the roots of the plants..... *This many was, of course Japanese plants the Dr. Hall of Bristol, Rhode into American gardens. Island, who introduced 12 When the vessel is ahout to sail the cases should be closed firmly, joints must be made perfectly tight. ~arruv strips of cam ass dipped in a botlin~, mixture of tar and pitoh, and put on the outside uf' the jou~ts, the purpose admirably, and should always be used where there m any ditficulty m makiny the juints close. L:rrye v essels with puuV~s are the best for plants, and should alwayss be preferred where there is any choice. as their decks are higher, and consequently less liable to be washed by the sea. The poop, either in small or large shi~rs, is the best place for the cases to be placed : in small v essels they and the should either be put there or not sent at all. The main or mrzen top m sometimes recommended ; but most catptains object to hat e such he:wyarttcles placed so high above the decks.\" 'The little plants which trav elled back to England m tight glass cases, thro~ettnot~iu~~;-ly well m Europe. In a few deoades Furythi:t5 were commonly grown in Europe and America. Both there and here, natural hybrids occurred m nurseries and botanical gardens. Zabel, the Curator of the Arboretum at a forest vchoul m Hano~ er, was the first to gm e them the name of For.s~thin interrnedin. Hts sltarp eyes noted the pec1zr leav e, of one set of seedltngs and he thought they might be hyhrul~ of Forsz~tlrin srz.speu.sa and F. tiridissinzzr. V'hen they came into bloom his suspicions were v erified and many of the garden Forsythias grown today are the ultimate result of these or similar crusses and are ol:zssified as varieties of Fors;~thia iutPrna~dia. One of the lu~ elrestof the new varieties, the Yrrntrose Forsythia, F. irztPrmezlin wtr. prinarrlinrr, urrguutted at the Arnold Arboretum as a chance ,eedlutg. It was dtscw ered nrruwmg among the ;,rrP:tt ma,v of Forsythias on the side of liuwe~- Hrll, ly 1'rufeww lleluler, w-hu,e sharp eyesnuted the Iwly soft yellow tune of its fiw-ers. To senmtiv e gardenerv, the rich butteryellow of most Fors~ tlnas is a little too bright, particularly so in a shrub v-hich tn ordinary years produces such large masses of color. The soft pranrose yellow uf F. irzterrrzPdin ~-ar. prirnulirzzz is less ttring to the eye and forms a beautiful background for the brilliant colors of earlt spring flmv ers. The past century has seen a ralrid development of garden Forsythias. Ridmg safely to Europe in little rrlrtsv <asewn the decW of sailmg t-essels, these oriental shrubs Itave ntoreased axtd tnulti~lied. Sharpeyed butani,ts and nurserymen haveseleoted thevhuwie,t of their h3e brml,. ('ullecturv hav assembled new,peces from Albama ztncl Korea. ~1'tll another oeuturt- show a correvpundinnrly great development? Will these ing new Specre5 be incorporated, m they emily could be, in uutstandgardenariettes? One looks forw ard hopefully to the new American 13 Forsythias which may soon be ori~,inatecl : Forsythias whichw ill cvm~bine the hardiness of the European and Korean species with the larger flowers of the Chinese species and hybrids; Forsythias whose flowers will be less ~laringl~- yellow and more light and airy m their oarria\";e; which will somewhere in their development lose the coarse and weedy habit which characterizes the wild species and which unfortunately is not even yet eliminated from our cultivated varieties. l~nG~lR _'~1DFH~Or EXPLANATION OF 'I'HE PLATE Forsythia ner a same ovata Nakai. Natural size. In the lower ri~ht hand corspray of X Forsythia intermedia Zabel has been drawn at the scale for comparison. ~IJruzceng bg liluuvhe _l mv~ _1 nu~~. J 14 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":4,"start_page":15,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23994","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270856a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Schmitt, Louis Victor","article_content":"CruRF~T IN-rFUr;s-r. THF warm weather of the past forthas hurried many plants into bloom and the Arboretum is now in the height of its spring glory. Though that glory is this year vomewltat dmmed by the rava~;es uf la5t wmter, some of the collections are in fine condition. the lilacs promise well. The earlier flowered ~Syringa oblnln and its hybrids with the common lilac are in full bluom at the moment of writing (May 9th) and a few warm da~-s will bring out the rest of the collection. The crab-apples likewise were practically unharmed by the cold winter and are now a lovely sight, though few m5itots, unfurtunatel~ , find the lar~e plantation at the foot of Peter's Hill. A number of small specimens planted ses eraly ears ago to carry the line of apple bloom around to the conifer collection are flowering well this ~prLn~\". In a few more year, when they are larger and more conspicuous they will form a beautiful contrast to the ever~~reens and will lead many visitors to the main collection which is practically hidden from the road. Many of the azalea5 are sltowinr ~ery- little color this spry~. The ~Ion~;olian Azalea, Rhododendron datcricuma var. rnucrortulalu7n, flowered very scatterin~l~-. Some bushes showed no blossoms at all, many had flowers only on those branches which were below the snow line, and one or two bushes were nearly up to normal. Rliodoclendrorc obtusum Knempferi, the 1'orch Azalea~, will apparently flower well this year only where protected by deep snow. The same i, true of Rh..fclrlippenbachii and the Poukhan Azalea, Rh. yedoeusP v ar. poukhaneu.sP. Our native a Azaleas, on the other hand are giving good account of themselves. The clrarminn Rhndora, Rhododentlrou ettnrttlen.se, is in fiue flower as is also its ,howier southern relative, the Pinkshell Azalea, Rh. I'nse,t~i. A similar condition pres-ails in other groups such as Viburnum and Berberm. Speaking very generally the Chinese plants have suffered the most, particularly those from ~'e,ten China. Americau species, even those nati~ e to the south, ha~ e ;~wen a good account uf them5els es and many things from northern Japan and north China are in excellent condition. B~- and large the botanical and horticultural curiosities from western China have been extensively mjured though it is still too early to i,rua~e accurately the full amount of the damage. The Dos e Tree, Dn~~idin int~olucrata, lras been v ery badly killed back <rnd there iv much injury to Fapteletr polyoudrct and E. Franolrefii. DipPltajloributtda has been killed to the ground. Among the ~nburnums it is the species from western China which have suffered most. The following species have either been killed to the ground or hav e been so badly injured that it was necessary to cut them back practically to the ruot5 : l'ibur- Pr.aiB-rv ua~,-ht OF 1.5 ouatifbliunr, V.hrlpPllPrrSC, h.loboplr,~llunr. Yibvrnu~rr Pro.strrn, Y.Prrzbescens, and V.torrceutosum and its v arietie5 havbeen somewhat less extensively damaged. Viburnum SiPboldii was only slightly hurt and is now looking very decorative with its sturdy branches and crisply held leaves. The behavior of Viburnum mongolicum was particularly instructive. Bushes on their own roots were scarcely touched by the cold and are now in full flower. Those which had been budded on V.Opulus were very badly injured and will apparently have to be cut back to the ground. It is encourzl~iu~ to report that Viburrrurn Carlevii and the closely related Y.bitchaziense are uninjured. Their fragrant pale pink flowers are borne in as great abundance as ever and are attractively set off nurrr by a full coat of foliage. Y. bitchuien.se is sometimes described as being decidedly inferior in flower to Y. Carle.rii. V~-hile it is true that its Howsomewhat smaller and its flower clusters less compact, it has of these very characteristics a ~rrace which is lacking in the sturdier V. Carlesii. There must undoubtedly be situations in which its more delicate aspect would make it the more desirable of the two. Both on the Overlook and in the Shrub collection, .S'piraea Heur,yi and ~lpiraea Veitchii were very badly injured ancl have been cut back to the ground. Kerria japonica here, as elsewhere, has more dead wood than live among the branches. Deutwia Vilrnorinae, D.re,fle.ra and D. scabra and its varieties have been cut back to the ground. Even the Beautybush, Kolkxe~it~ia amabilis, did not escape injury. Young specimens received relatively little m,jury- but the fine old bushes in the shrub collection and on the Overlook have been severely killed back, apparently to the roots. ers are by reason EDGAR ANDERSON LoriS VICTOR 5< H~IITT 16~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Genus Akebia","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23996","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24ea36d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ . BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION -~_~ ~ _ --------- --- SERIES 4. VOL. II MAY 22, 1934 NUMBER 4 GFNrrs AKEBrA. TnFatF are two species of Akebin, both natives Chin.r ancl Japan and both represented for some y ears in the oolleotions of the Arnold Arboretum. They are graceful vines w ith curious but inconspicuous flowers and are valued chiefly for their foliage which is of a pleasing texture and which holds its green color far into the fall months. Both species are ordinarily considered hardy in Boston, but this spring finds Akebin Ir~f'olintn (formerly known asA.lobnln~ killed back to the roots at the Arnold Arboretum, while even A.qviuntn has been somewhat injured. The latter is horticulturally the more important of the two, since A.trifolintn is coarser in leaf as well as less hardy. The two species, though obviously closely akin are easily told apart. Akebin qtcinata has delicate leaflets which are borne in ~roup~ of fi~ e. AkPbin trifolinln has lar\";er leaflets which are in groups of three and Itave a more or less wavy margin, so that its general appearance is not unlike that of our common poison ivy. The flowers of both species are verysimilar to each other but are quite unlike any flower known to the average gardener. They are borne in graceful clusters composed of one or two female flowers, accompanied bya slender raceme of smaller male flowers. Their color is curious,bem~ v ery close to that of raw liver. At its bri~;htest and seen with the light ~hininnr through the petals, it may approach :r rosy maroon; in the shade it is reduced to a dull chocolate brown. The flowers, in favorable seasons, are followed by fruits which ripen in the early fall. They are even more fantast~c than the flowers and look like ohunky bananas of pale blue leather. The blue has to be seen to be believed : it is not a shade common to fruits, such as the blue of a plum or a \",rrape ; it is a brilliant violet or indigo, softened by a deliCT cate gray bloom, and is altogether more reminiscent of a suede dancm\"t or a fancy coin purse than it is of flowers or fruits. When fully pump THE uf 17- open, revealing the soft whitish flesh thickly studded with small black seeds. Though it is said to be an article of diet in the orient, it is insipid and watery to most western palates. Akebia quinata has been in cultivation in western \"~rardens tor nearly a century, having been introduced into England by Robert Fortune. He first discovered it on the island of Chusan where, to quote his own words, it was \"growing on the lower sides of the hills in hedges where it was climbing on other trees and hanging down in graceful festoons from the ends of their branches.\" While it has often grown well in American gardens, in few places has it become thoroughly at home. On the Proctor estate in Topsfield, Massachusetts, it grows in almost its native profusion. It has there run wild in a small woodland and has climbed to the tops of small trees, forming a graceful curtain of delicate foliage. It must be admitted, however, that in climbing up some of the smaller trees, it has twined so tightly that the tree has been killed. Were Akebia quinata to become extensively naturalized, it might become a serious pest in plantations of small trees. Two years ago both species of Akebia flowered profusely at the Arnold Arboretum and Dr. Sax of the Arboretum staff fertilized the female flowers of A.quinata with the pollen of A.frifoliala. 1'he resulting hyl>rids are now vigorous small seedlings which may ev entually prove of some horticultural merit. From their foliage they are apparently intermediate between the two species and while this may not add to their beauty, it will probably, as in the case of many specific hybrids, produce a more vigorous individual. Before the question of their desirabllity can be answered, the seedlings must be raised to maturity and tried out in the Arnold Arboretum and elsewhere. There are a few extra plants which will be available next fall to those readers of the Bulletin who have the facilities for taking care of them and who will grow them carefully and report on their behavior. If those who are interested will send their names and addresses to Mr. W. H. Judd, Arnold Arboretum, Jamaica Plain, Massachusetts, the requests will be put on file. When the seedlings are large enough, probably early next fall, requests will receive attention in the order of their receipt, in so far as material is available. ripe, the fruit splits F.U(iAR ANDF:RSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES Leaves, flowers, and fruit of Akebia quinata Decne. f If'rom drazningv in La~~allee: Arboretum ~~Pgrvziat7vrm; IrotaPS ~PlPrtlcP...) 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Rhododendrons","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23995","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270896c.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ~ VOL. II WHAT JULY 9, 19$4 NUMBER 5 a prl~'I1C~C it would be, if we could call through the collection, the men who have contributed to the development of our garden rhododendrons. They would make an interesting and varied assemblage - Dean Herbert, the Earl of Carnavon, Sir J. D. Hooker, blunt Anthony Waterer, John Fraser, gentle Peter Collinson in his Quaker garb, and Baron Ungern Sternberg. For the rhododendrons of our gardens are quite literally something new under the sun; there is nothing just like them in nature. Aristocratic cosmopolites, they came into being in Victorian England when species from the Old World and the New were sympathetically gathered by plant collectors and intelligently blended by a few hy- RHODODENDRONS. -t. back as we walk bridizers. The contributing species are all mountain lovers. From the lower slopes about the Mediterranean and Black Seas comes Rhododendron ponticum; higher up in the Caucasus are the hardier R.cau~n,ricum and R. Smirnowii. Our own southern mountains contributed the hardy and attractive R. catawbiense which occurs by thousands of acres on the upper slopes of the southern Alleghanies. Near the North Carolina boundary among the open balsam woods and natural meadows which form the summit of Roan Mountain it reaches as far as the eye can see, growing in scattered groups in the open meadows and forming a dense undergrowth beneath the balsams. It was from this very locality that it was first collected for European gardens by John Fraser, over a hundred years ago. Fraser was a Scotchman, who as a very young man, like many another Scotchman, had gone to London to seek his fortune. He eventually became one of the most successful of those early plant collectors who ransacked the American continent to provide novel and beautiful plants for European gardens. He had phenomenal success in Russia where he became a favorite of Catharine the Great. After 21 her death, by Imperial uliase, he was sent back to America with orders to furnish rare and novel plants for the imperial collectums. \"Accompanied by his eldest son, John, he embarked in the year 1799 for the southern states of North America, where he prosecutecl his researches in various unexplored parts of the continent. On the summit of the Great Roan or Bald Mountain, on a spot which commands a view of five states, it was Mr. Fraser's good fortune to discover and cullect living specimens of the new and splendid R.cntazebieu.se, from which so many beautiful hybrid varieties have since been obtained by skillful cultivators.\" (Condensed from the account by Sir William Hooker, in the \"Companion to the Botanical Ma~azine. \"~ Another American species, the rosebay, R.7nn.ri~num, has been little used by the English hybridizers, untiwtunately so for American hardens, since it is one of the hardiest of the lot. It is of particular interest to New Englanders for it is occasionally found native as far north as Sebago I_ake and southern New Harnpshire. It was among the American plants introduced into England by the Quaker botanist Peter Collinson. The religious bond between English and American Quakers kept up a lively interchange between the two countries. Quakers had always been interested in gardening ; George Fox, the founder of the Society of Friends, had specified that the \"nature of herbs, roots, plants, and trees\" should be tau~ht in Quaker schools. ~'hat more natural then, but that packets of seed and pressed plants and much garden information should pass back and forth between the two countries. In this wav R. ~nn,rinanrn was sent from the NeWt'orl<1 to the Old and in Peter Collinson's \"Commonplace Book for June L~, 1756\" we find the entry, \"The great mountain laurel or rhododendron flowered for the first time in my ~.rrclen.\" One other species, the showiest of the lot, R.urboren~n, came from the foothills of the Himalayas. It contributed splendor to the garden rhododendrons for it is :r great shrub-like tree with large flowers of bright red, varying in different strains from blush pink to a black crimson. Unfortunately, it brought in a tropical aversion to cold along with all this tropical splendor. Rhododendron nrborex~n itself can barely be grown out-of-doors even in England ; it was not until it had been lrybridized with hardy American species that a plant was produced which could withstand the English winters. English hybridizers, Irowever, have continued to use R.arboreu7n and other lovely but tender species in their work. The result is a glorius group of flowering shrubs but one which Americans must cross the ocean to see. Only a few of the thousand or more n:rmed varieties will stand our hot summers and cold 22 winters. Among the pinks we can recommend \"Mrs. C.S.Sar~ent\" and \"Henrietta Sargent\" in deep pink and \"Lady Armstrong\" and \"Roseum elegans\" in rose pink. The hardiest reds are \"Charles Dickens,\" and \"H.~'.Sarnent.\" In dark purple the best are \"Yurpureum ~randiHorum\" and \" Yurpureum ele~ans. .. the creations of one man, English nurseryman who becamea sort of godAnthony Waterer, father to American gardeners. His particular affection for Americans came about in an interesting way. When Andrew Jackson Downing laid out the grounds about the National Capitol, he ordered plants from 4~'aterer. The plants were received but before payment was made Downing had died. His friend and neighbor, Henry Winthrop Sargent, when settling the estate found V~'aterer's unpaid bill. By the influence of his college classmate, Charles Sumner, he got a special bill through congress and Waterer was eventually paid. Now, Anthony Waterer was a forthright, John Bull sort of a man, as strong in his likes xs in his dislikes. Sargent's action lead toa life long friendship, one which was large enough to include Sargent's friends and his friend's friends as well. It was Henry Winthrop Sargent who brought Anthony Waterer and his rhododendrons to the attention of his cousins, H. H. Hunnewell and Charles Sprague Sargent. It was this friendship which lead to the great rhododendron collections at the Hunnewell estate in Wellesley, at Professor Sargent's home in Brookline,and at the Arnold Arboretum. In growing rhododendrons it ia necessary to remember their likes and dmlikes. They hate a limey soil. They dislike hot sun in the sprm~ and summer, coldwinds in winter. Theylike partial shade and a soil which is well drained but moist at the roots. The situation provided for them in the Arnold Arboretum is almost ideal. The hold ridge of hemlocks to the south screens them from the sun and helps to keep the soil moist at the roots. Even there they could be grown in greater perfection ~f they were more sheltered from winter winds and from adventuresome small boys. This latter pest ~s a very real problem m growing rhododendrons at the Arboretum. Anyone who was ever a boy does not blame the urchins for wanting to play about in the Bussey Brook and to crawl up through the rhododendron becls among the giant bushes. Yet anyone who knows rhododendrons and their needs knows that this crawlin~ is very hard on the bushes. Twigssnap off and sunshine strikes at the roots. The passmrr of hundreds of pairs of little feet, and little knees as well, wears out the very soil. The rich, cool mulch which has so carefully been built up is scuffed away and bit by bit the collection succumt>s. Most of these iron-clad varieties an are 23 Of late years rhododendrons here and elsewhere in New England have been attacked by the lace wing fly. These bizarre little creatures are scarcely larger than the head of a pin. Under the microscope they appear like hump-backed monsters dressed in lace. Monsters they are in action as well as appearance, for they gather under the rhododendron leaves and suck its juices. They can be successfully controlled by using an oil spray but their attacks are kept to a minimum if the rhododendrons areplanted in semi-shade. The insects dislike the shade ; the shrubs prefer it, therefore such a situation is doubly preferable. One of the Caucasian species, the handsome R..Smiruos~ii, tlmvarts the lace wing fly by clothing its leaves below with a mat of woolly hair. So protective is this covering that even the hybrids between R Smirnowii and the other species are practically immune. Fortunately, for the next generation of American gardeners, hy-br~dizers are at last at work creating new varieties for this country, varieties which will be winter hardy and summer hardy, which will at least discourage attacl; from the lace wing fly and which will, nevertheless, compare with present day English varieties in the size and beauty of their flowers. EDGAR ANDERSON IN spite of last winter's devastating cold there a show of bloom among the hybrid rhododendrons has been during the last month, the hardy Caucasian hybrid, \"Boule de Neige\" flowered profusely and the late-blooming variety \"Delicatissimum\" made a very good showing. Pending a more complete report on the collection as a whole it may be briefly recorded that in addition to these varieties the following gave at least a fair account of themselves: RHODODENDRONS. quite -M. B-~ rietta \"James B.cteman,\" \"Echse,\" \"Anton,\" \"Lacly Armstrong,\" \"HenSargent,\" and \" H.W.Sargent.\" ON on WINTER INJURY. '1'HH: eflects of the severe winter of the collections of the Arnold Arboretum are proving to be of great scientific and horticultural interest. Under the leadership of Professor J.G.Jack there is accordingly being prepared a comprehensive report on winter injury at the Arnold Arboretum. It w~ll comprise one or more numbers of the Bulletin of Popular Information and will be published in the autumn of 193~. A REPORT 1933-1934 EXPLANATION OF THE INSERT Rhododendron maximum L. (Fromdrawings by C.LS'.haaon forSc~rgeut's \"Sylv`tof North ~lmvrzra.\") 24 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Shrubby Robinias","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23997","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24ea76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Whitaker, Thomas W.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY '~~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ~ VOL. II AUGUST 9, 1934 NUMBER 6 SHRUBBY ROBINIAS. DuarNC late May and early June the collection is a beautiful sight along the Meadow Road at the Arnold Arboretum. While all the species of the genus are native to North America, several of them have very restricted distributions, and a really comprehensive collection is seldom seen, even in botanical gardens. The species are all woody, ranging in size from forest trees, such as the black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), to low, trailing shrubs which barely rise from the ground. Under the title of shrubby robinias we may conveniently group together about a dozen species which are shrub-like in form and size. Most of them are rather low shrubs with pinnate leaves, and pink flowers borne in drooping racemes. Of the dozen species, four are of more than ordinary horticultural importance: Robinizc hispida, R. Kelse~i, R.fertilis, and R.Hrxrtreugii. While they are quite similar, they may be distinguished as follows : Petioles and peduncles viscid ........... R.Hartwigii Petioles and peduncles never viscid. Leaflets oblong to oval, twigs hispid. Plants 1-4 ft. high, pods very rarely developed.. R.hispida Plants 4-8 ft. high, pods always developed R,fertili.s Leaflets lanceolate, twigs never hispid ....... R.Kelseyi Several of the terms used in the above key may require a word of explanation. \"Viscid,\" when used as a botanical term, means that the particular part of the plant referred to is clammy or sticky to the touch. \"Hispid\" indicates a bristly, hairy condition. \"Petiole\" and \"peduncle\" are the botanical equivalents of leaf stalk and flower stalk, THE robinia .... respectively. Robinia hispido was the first shrubby species to be introduced into cultivation. Sir John Colliton importe<I this plant from the Carolinas into Exmouth, England, in 1741. It is easily distinguished from R. 2.5 the characteristic dense coat of bristly, glandular hairs, which cover twigs, petioles, and peduncles, and from R. fPrtili.s and R. Kelseyi by the fact that it rarely, if ever, develops seed pods. Thomas Meehan, in 1893, reports that he examined several thousand plants in their native habitat and found two or three under-developed seed pods as a result of his efforts. This species produces shell-like, rosecolored flowers in great profusion. Probably owing to the absence of seed production, plants of R.hi.spirlrr have an exceptionally prolonged flowering season. It is perhaps the most commonly cultivated shrubby robinia. Because of its rather prostrate, straggling habit, and tendency to produce numerous root suckers, it is the least desirable species for garden planting. Used as a bank cover on sandy slopes, it is of considerable value; in such a location it is attractive and useful. Robinin hispirln is completely hardy, at least as far north as Boston. It has endured the severe weather of the past winter with little if any damage. Robinia fertilis when better known, should prove to be one of the most popular members of this group of plants. It is a native of the Carolinas, and has been in cultivation for some time, but seems to have been confused with other closely related forms. It is often difficult to distinguish between R.fertilis and R.hispida. Bristly, glandular h.~rrs cover the twigs, petioles, and pedicels in both species. In general, R ferlilis is a somewhat taller shrukr than R.hiapicla, the leaflets are oblong rather than round, and the flowers are usually smaller, although the latter distinction is quite variable. Robinia feriilis is a freely fruiting species ; consequently after the onset of the fruiting season, it is eawlp distinguished from R.hi.spida by the plentiful crop of bristly, reddishbrown pods produced. It seems to be a more desirable ornamental than R.hi.spirla, chiefly because of its upright Stature, and the interesting g appearance it makes in the fall, when its branches are attractively decorated with bristly, brown pods. This species seems to be slightly less hardy than either R.hi.spidrr or R.KelsPyi. Robinia Kel,seyi, introduced by Mr. Harlan N. Kelsey in 1900, is one of the most handsome of the robinias. It was found growing by Mr. Kelsey in the Blue Ridge Mountains, south of Pineola, North Carolina. It is readily separated from the other species of shrubby robinias by its lanceolate leaflets and its upright habit of growth. Like other robimas it flowers profusely, and in the late summer it is gracefully covered with dark, reddish-brown seed pods. This species seems to be fully as hardy as R.hi.spirla. The rose-pink flowers, and rather upright stature of this species make it an excellent subject for planting as a background in iris gardens. The blooming period is about the same as that of ir~s. The blues and purples of the tall, bearded irises make a Hartmigii by 26 contrast with the soft pink of R.KPlxeyi. Robinia Hartwigii (R.viscosa var. Hartwigii Ashe) has only recently been described as a distinct species. It becomes a thick, spreading shrub or small tree, with dark-green, graceful foliage. The handsome foliage borne by this shrub makes it a charming sight throughout the summer. It can easily be distinguished from the other robinias dealt with at this time by the clammy, viscid nature of the petioles and pedicels. The flowers except for a pale rose blush, are almost white. It can be separated from its nearest relative, R.viscosa, by the fact that the twigs are very seldom viscid. In addition, the flowers have less color; it is more spreading and hence never becomes a tree as R.visco.sa very often does. Robinia Hartwigii has a marked tendency to flower continuously during the summer and fall. In a garden planting it seems to be preferable to R.viscosa because of its shrubby habit, handsome foliage, and prolonged flowering season. During the past season this species has suffered considerable damage, and it seems to be noticeably less hardy than the three previously mentioned species. For the successful cultivation of the shrubby robinias, the selection of a well sheltered location is of major importance. The wood of these pleasing exceptionally brittle, and the plants are prone to suffer from wind damage. Robinias do not have a rigid soil preferseverely ence, doing well on any soil of moderate quality, preferably a light well-drained one. It is usually desirable to propagate by seed, in species where viable seed is matured. Robinia hispida and R. Kel.seyi are very often grafted on R.pseudoacacia stock, in which case they become small trees. This practice should be discouraged because the plants are usually short-lived when propagated in this fashion. High winds very often snap off the trunk at the union. Robinia hispida and R. Kelseyi are propagated easily by root suckers. Probably owing to their shrubby habit, the four species of robinia enumerated above suffer far less from the depredations of the locust borer (Cyllene robiniae) than does the black locust (R.psezuloacacia). The large trunk and branches of the latter species apparently offer a more suitable site of entrance for the borer than do the shrubby types. While the shrubby robinias are in general aspect, often weedy, particularly in the winter time, and while they usually look a bit unkempt because of occasional dead twigs, their leaves are light and graceful, and their flowers are superbly beautiful in form and color. Understandingly used they have a place in many gardens. THOMAS V~. WH1TAKFR species is EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE ' Flowering branch of Robinia fertilis. (Photographed in the Arnold Arboretum, 28 June 1934.) "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Winter Hardiness of Trees and Shrubs Growing in the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23998","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24eab25.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Faull, J. H.; Jack, J. G.; Judd, W. H.; Schmitt, Louis Victor","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. II SEPTEMBER 1 ~, 1s34 NUMBER 7 WINTER HARDINESS OF TREES AND SHRUBS GROWING IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM I WINTER OF 19:3:3-34 ranks as one of the severest ever experienced in New England and other portions of northeastern North America. With its passing, evidences of damage to trees and shrubs from the unusual conditions began to appear and these became increasingly <zpparent as the season of growth progressed. Full appraisal of resultant injury was not immediately possible because in addition to outright killing of plants or obvious parts of them, ~t was uncertain to just what extent root systems and the vegetativ etissues of stems has been affected. Even now, an estimate cannot be complete and secondary results due to inhibitory effects on buds, reduction of nutritional or\",rans and the attacks of disease-causinnr organisms that find their way in through injured parts will continue to express themselves for some time. However, a considerable part of the picture is now clear and the purposes of this article are to sketch its outline5, present such detailed data as have been assembled, offer suggestions as to how woody plants should be made ready for winter and advise as to the treatment of winter-injured trees and shrubs. Still fresh in the memories of most readers of the BULLETIN, little need be said concerning the rigors of the winterof 193:3-34.The records of the Weather Bureau for all the years of its existence do not show more severe and long-continued cold throughout the greater part of northeastern North America. Winter began early and persisted well into the following spring. As for New England, the monthly mean temperatures from November to March inclusive, January excepted, were below the averages of the lawt 47 years. The official figures for the deviation from the means are: November 5.4 F. below the average, THE 29 December 5. S below, January 0. 1 above,February 10. 7 below,March 1.8 below. Very low temperatures featured especially the last week in December and the entire month of February. Referring to the latter the U. S. Weather Bureau in its\"Climatological Data for New England\" (Vol. 46, p. 7) remarked - \"The coldest month ever recorded, since the compilation of Section averages, passes into New England history as the temperatures during February, 19:34, are brought into comparison with earlier occurrences.\" It is also pertinent to add that the cold was sometimes accompanied by strong winds. In fact, the winds from November to March inclusive were of more than normal mean intensity. Important as these official records are when considering the effects of the winter on plant life,or in drawing conclusions as to the hardiness of plants, it must be borne in mind that there are other critical meteorological data of which no account is taken. Reference is made particularly to the modifying influences of snow-cover and shelters, and local variations in temperatures as between those of the \"cold pockets\" of depressions and the various facies of elevations of land. Differences in snow-coverage or site often account for differences in winter damage to plants of the same kind proximately located. Regarding the phenomenon of winter hardiness of plants, that is, their resistance to cold, much remains to be learned. Basically it is an inherited character and, as do all inherited characters, shows minor variations only among individuals of the same kind under identical conditions. Its stability is indicated by the fact that a hardy race cannot be evolved from a tender one or vice versa simply by changing the environment. Thus, the progeny of plants reared in a climate foreign to them retain unimpaired their natural hardiness on being restored to their native surroundings. On the other hand hardier or more tender races can be evolved by appropriate methods of breeding. Although hardiness is inherent, it is subject, just as are other inherent characters, to considerable modification in the individual resulting from changes in the environment. Indeed, hardiness is in some instances so delicately attuned to a given environment that certain species desired for introduction elsewhere, even into regions of the same latitude, may prove satisfactory or otherwise according to whether they originate on one side or the other of amountain range. Differences in temperature,altitude, rainfall, season of rainfall, snowfall, proximity to the sea, physical and chemical soil conditions and various other factors may be of dominant importance in their effect on hardiness. In determining the fitness with respect to this feature of a species or race for introduction no rule of thumb applies ; the answer can be 30 learned only by actual test. Such experimentation is one of the many functions of the Arnold Arboretum and similar institutions. Finally, it should be observed that even in the cases of plants, native or introduced, suited to a given regional area, their natural resistance to cold may be weakened by such controllable factors as unfavorable soil and water conditions, crowdmn, wounds, recent transplanting, unfavorable sites, propagation on tender rootstocks and unseasonable or otherwise injudicious fertilization. Conversely, hardiness can be fortified by providing conditions favorable to good growth in the summer and suitable preparation for timely dormancy in the fall. From all that has been said above it is apparent that the explanation of instances of winter injury and the passing of judgment on the normal hardiness of any kind of plant involves a wide range of considerations. Just what ~t is in the organization of a plant that makes it winter hardy, just what happens when its tissues \"ripen'~ for dormancy in the fall and ensures dormancy until the insistent call of spring comes are phenomena not yet fully understood. They have been studied,however, from many angles and much of interest has been learned even though the riddles evade solution. Among these studies, some on the action of cold and frost on living cells, have resulted at least m producing plausible theories. Various theories, some more or less fanciful, others based on reasonable experiment, have been advanced in explanation of the nature of frost injury. Formerly it was believed that cell walls were ruptured by the formation of ice crystals, but observations show that generally this is not the case. It is now commonly believed that the ice crystals permanently disturb the organization of the living substance within the cells to such an extent as to render them incapable of retaining water. Inferentially then \"w-ater retention is the basis of hardiness.\" One investigator, (W. Stiles) m a recent paper summarizes his views as follows - \"In case of frost resistant plants, however, it is probable that water is bound to hydrophile colloids of the protoplasm and is non-freezable, so that the formation of ice crystals and the consequences of their formation to which the death of the cells is attributed do not take place.\" The extent and the kind of winter injury to woody plants present many aspects, some obvious and readily diagnosable, others insidious and difficult to diagnose unless the full history of the case is known. In all instances observations should be made as early as possible after winter closes because later on confusion may result from the inroads of destroying fungi or other disturbing agents, or from the similarity of symptoms that follow causes other than frost. The extent and the 31 . kinds of winter injury vary from complete killing, immediate or delayed, to localized affections as expressed by twig, bud, bark or root injury, dieback of crown, frost cracks and discoloration of internal tissues. Akin to these, but not included in this presentation, is the damage by early fall frosts to stems not yet fully hardened, and to premature growths by late spring frosts; nor are included \"heaving\" and so-called \"winter-browning,\" a browning on evergreen foliage on the sun-exposed sides of crowns that takes place in late winter or early spring, the result of excessive loss of water from the leaves while the ground is still frozen and the roots are inactive. Turning now to the compiled lists that follow under self-explanatory headings, it should be stated that a classification free from some overlapping and some likelihood of modification is impossible. A perusal of this introductory section, in which attention is called to natural variations and to the many ponderable and imponderable influences that affect hardiness, will afford explanations of why that is so. Further, there are examples in which injury may appear to be so much greater or so much less at the outset, than eventually materializes that incorrect initial listing results. Thus, what may seem at first to be simply a non-fatal dieback or a temporary inhibition of buds may be of such a nature that subsequent growth is never satisfactory and a year or two hence the plant dies. Indeed, especially with introduced species, experience alone over a long period of years is essential before one knows their reactions and can unfailingly interpret their manifestations under the various conditions and treatments in their new environment. Another difficulty arises from the circumstance that a species recognized under a commonly accepted name may actually comprise several unrecognized or unnamed strains differing inherently from one another in hardiness. The history of at least some of these would probably reveal that they represent strains of dissimilar geographical origin. Not so perplexing, yet worthy of mention, are those woody plants, both native and introduced, that die back more or less every winter because of their habit of continuing growth until checked by frost; in the course of the winter these always die back to the \"ripened\" wood. It is planned to extend and perfect these above mentioned lists as opportunity affords. A third section of this article is devoted to advice on the treatment of winter-injured plants and to a discussion of practical procedures in preparing and in protecting trees and shrubs so as to enable them best to resist the inclemencies of winter. J. H. Fnur.~, J. G. Jn~x W. H.Junu, L. V. S~nmrTT 32 II 1. Plants killed at the Arnold Arboretum in the winter of 1933-3t. Simonii Berberis atrocarpa Berberis pruinosa longifolia Chaenomeles lagenaria cathay- Acanthopanax Helianthemum glaucum Stoechadifolium Hypericum Hookerianum ensis Cladrastis Wilsonii Colutea arborescens bullata Cytisus multiflorus Cytisus scoparius Cytisus scoparius Ju~lans regia Ligustrum Quihoui Yicrasma quassioides Platvcarva strobilacea Polygonum Auberti Prunus avium plena Prunus Lannesiana affinis Prunus Padus Purdomii Prunus serrulata horinji Sinowilsonia Henrvi Sorbaronia Dippelii Viburnum ovatifulium Andreanus ` `Compacta\" Euptelea Franchetii Exochorda macrantha Helianthemum alpestre Helianthemum nummularium \" Carmine Queen\" 2. Plants killed to the winter of 19 ~ 3-;3 ~. ground at the Arnold Arboretum in the Abelia 1':nnleriana Acanthopanax setchuenensis Actinidia melanandra Akebia trifoliata Ampelopsis brevipedunculata ele~ans Baccharis halimifolia Benzoin praecox Berberis aemulans Berberis aggregata Berberis aggregata Prattii Berberis aggregata recur~ata Berberis candidula Berberis dictyophylla Berberis Francisci-Ferdinandi Berberis Gagnepainii Berberis Julianae Berberis polyantha Berberis san~uinea Berberis 5oulieana Berberis Wilsonae Stapfiana Berberis Wilsonae sul>caulialata Berchemia racemosa Callicarpa Bodinieri Giraldii Callicarpa dichotoma Callicarpa japonica Campsi5 chinensis Caragana Boisii Ceanothus americanus Ceanothus Fendleri Ceanothus pallidus roseus Celastrus hypoleuca Celastrus Loeseneri Celastrus Rosthorniana Celastrus rugosa Clematis paniculata Clerodendron trichotomum Colutea arborescens Colutea cilicica Colutea media 33~ Colutea orientalis Cornus kousa. Younger were plants uninjured. Cornus kousa chinensis Cornus paucinervis Coronilla emeroides Coronilla Emerus Corylopsis platypetala Corylopsis spicata Corylopsis Veitchiana Cotoneaster affinis bacillaris Cotoneaster bullata macrophylla Cotoneaster glabrata Cotoneaster microphylla Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa Cytisus albus Cytisus albus pallidus Cytisus multiflorus Cytisus sessilifolius Davidia involucrata Davidia involucrata Vilmoriniana Decaisnea Fargesii Deutzia candida Deutzia carnea Deutzia carnea densiflora Deutzia carnea stellata Deutzia discolor Deutzia discolor major Deutzia elegantissima Deutzia elegantissima fasciculata Deutzia glomeruliflora Deutzia hybrida \"Contraste\" Deutzia hybrida \"Magicien\" Deutzia kalmiaeflora Deutzia longifolia Deutzia longifolia Veitchii Deutzia longipetala Deutzia macrocephala Deutzia magnifica Deutzia rna\",rnific.r eburnea Deutzia ma\",rnifica erecta Deutzia magnifica gracillima Deutzia magnifica latiflora Deutzia maliflora \"Avalanche\" Deutzia mollis Deutzia myriantha Deutzia reflexa Deutzia rosea Deutzia rosea campanulata Deutzia rosea eximia Deutzia rosea floribunda Deutzia scabra crenata Deutzia scabra eminens Deutzia scabra Fortunei Deutzia scabra \"John Richardson\" Deutzia scabra macrothyrsa Deutzia scalrr.r plena Deutzia scabra Pride of \"l~oclrester\" Deutzia scabra suspensa Deutzia scabra Watereri Deutzia Schneideriana laxiflora Deutzia Sieboldiana Dippeliana Deutzia Vilmorinae Deutzia Wilsonii Diervilla hortensis Diervilla praecox \"Avant- garde\" Dipelta floribunda Dipelta floribunda parviflora Dipelta ventricosa Evonymus patens Evonymus Wilsonii Forsythia suspensa atrocaulis Forsythia suspensa Fortunei Forsythia viridissima Genista cinerea Genista hispanica Genista pilosa 34 Grewia parviflora Helwingia japonica Holodiscus discolor Holodiscus discolor ariaefolius Hovenia dulcis Hydrangea quercifolia Hypericum arnoldianum Hypericum Kal~nianum Indigofera amblyantha Indigofera decora alba Indigofera Gerardiana Indigofera Kirilowii Itea virginiana Kerria ,japon~ca Kerria japonica picta Kerria japonica pleniflora Lonicera trichosantha acutiuscula Lonicera Vilmorinii Lycium clrinense Meliosma Beaniana Neillia affinis Neillia sinensis Neillia thibetica Parrotiopsis Jacquemontiana Yeriploca graeca angustifolia Philadelphus argyrocal~-x Philadelphus Lemoinei Philadelphus subcanus Physocarpus capitatus Physocarpus glabratus Physocarpus mal~ aceus Poncirus trifoliata. Killed to Leptodermis oblunga Lespedeza Buergeri praecox Lespedeza cyrtobotrya Lespe<leza formosa Ligustrum acuminatum Ligustrum oval:tlium Lonicera chaetoearpa Lonicera deflexical_vx Lonicera discolor Lonicera fra~rantissima ground places, where uninjured. in some the else- Prunus mira Pterocarya hupehensis Rhododendron \"All>um splendens\" Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera lucens Lonicera Lonicera Lonicera Giraldii ~racilipes ~t nochlamydea Henryi involucrata flaveseens involucrata serotina Ledebourii Myrtillus Periciymenum Periclymenum belgica quinquelocularis transsaccata Standishii lancifolia sut~dentata Rhodotypus scandens Ribes Vilmorinii Rosa arnulcliana Rosa caudata Rosa centifolia cristata Rosa centifolia muscosa Rosa centifolia rnuscosa \"Salet\" Rosa damascena trigintipetala Rosa damascena versicolor Rosa dumetorum Deseglisei Rosa filipes Rosa gallica officinalis Rosa Gentiliana Rosa Helenae Rosa Lheritierana Rosa mollis arduensis Rosa multihracteata Rosa mult~Hura cathayensis 35 Ros,i Rosa Rosa Rosa Rosa Rosa Noisettiana omeiensis Youzinii ruhosa Chamissonis rugosa rugosa \" New Century\" .` Nova Zembla\" Rosa ru~osa \"Yarfum de 1'Hay\" Rosa rugosa Sclwveinitzii Rosa \"Ruskin\" Rosasericea Rosa spinosissima \" Dominie Sampson\" Rosa spinosissima \" Iris' Rosa spinosissima \"Kin~; of the Scots\" Rosa spinosissima \"Ylato\" Rosa spinosissima \" Yythagoras\" Rosa tomentella obtusifolia Rosa villosa Rosa villosa duplex Rosa villosa recondita Rosa Waitziana macrantha Rosa ~i'atsoniana Sorbaria arborea subtume ntosa Spiraea Billiirdii Spiraea blanda . Spiraea japmtica acuminata Spiraea Miyal>ei ,~labrata Spiraea rev irescens Spiraea Rusthwnii Spiraea Sargentiana Spiraea semperflorens Spirsteu Veitchii Spiraea Zal>eliana Stxphylea colchica Staphylea colchica Coulombieri Staphylea holocarpa Stephanandra incisa Stephvmtnclrit Tanakae Symplmricarl>us Cltenaultii Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum Viburnum flurum Viburnum ltetulifolium erubescens hupeltense ichangense mcm~olicum owutitblium rhytidophyllum tomentosum ~rancliVeitehii - Vitis Champini VitiS Davidi Vitis Yiasezhii - Spiraea brachybotrys Spiraea fontenaysii alba Spiraea Henryi. Some ,jured, others more or 1'agnuccii not in- less so. Vitis pttlchra Zanthoxylum ,chinifolium Zanthoxylum simulans (To be continued) 36 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Winter Hardiness of Trees and Shrubs Growing in the Arnold Arboretum II (Continued)","article_sequence":9,"start_page":37,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24000","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24eb327.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ -~N~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. II OCTOBER 16, 19s4 NUMBER 8 WINTER HARDINESS OF TREES AND SHRUBS GROWING IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM (Continuerl ~ 3. Plants injured, but not killed to the Arboretum in the winter of 19~~-34. Abelia Zanderi. ground, at the Arnold Tips Abies chensiensis. Buds end of May. of branches killed. extensively inhibited but some breaking at Abies cilicica. Flower buds and large proportion of vegetative buds killed. Abies Fargesii. Buds badly injured but some breakin~ at end of May. Abies Faxoniana. Buds badly injured but some breaking at end of May. Acanthopanax lasiogyne. Ends of many branches killed back2 to;3 feet. Acanthopanax leucorrhizus. Old wood killed badly ; young wood un- injured. Acanthopanax leucorrhizus scaberulus. Slightly injured. Acanthopanax setchuenensis. Variously injured; mostly killed to the ground. Acanthopanax ternatus. Severely injured. Acer griseum. Some branches badly injured, others killed. Actinidia arguta. Considerable injury ; buds breaking slowly at end of May. Albizzia julibrissin rosea. Killed ba<k ~ume; inhibited buds began to break in June. Ampelopsis brevipedunculata Maximowiczir. Killed back badly. Benzoin aeativale. Badly killed back; plants in higher elevations injured. Berberis Beaniana. About one-third of branches killed. un- 37 Berberis Mouillacana. More than half killed : some stems developing leaves in early June to near their tops. Berberis Poireti. About one-third of branches killed. Berberis Sargentiana. Badly injured. Berberis thibetica. Somewhat injured. Berberis Tischleri. Considerably injured. Berberis triacanthophora. Severely injured. Berberis verruculosa. Severely injured. Buddleia alternifolia. Ends of branches killed. Calluna vulgaris. Injury variable; sometimes unin,jured. Calluna vulgaris alba rigida. Full of intermixed dead wood. Calluna vulgaris Alportii. Laterally injured. Calluna vulgaris aurea. Full of intermixed dead wood. Calluna vulgaris compacta. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris cuprea. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris elata. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris erecta. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris Hammondii. Considerable injury. Calluna vulgaris hirsuta. Severely injured. Calluna vulgaris humilis. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris hypnoides. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris nana. Slight injury. Calluna vulgaris rosea. Severely injured ; nearly killed. Calluna vulgaris Searlei. Severely injured. Calluna vulgaris spicata. Slight injury. a Caragana Boisii. Some stems killed back 2 to3 feet; one plant, ll to 15 feet h~gh, very little injured but flower buds killed. Carpinus betulus quercifolia. Half of crown killed. Carpmus cordata chinensis. Many branches killed. Carpinus japonica. Three plants - a, b, c ; (a) many twigs and buds killed, (b) some branches injured, (c) crown more than half killed. Carpinus orientalis. Considerable injury. Carpinus Turc~aninowii. Some branches, many twigs and most flower buds killed. Carpinus 'I'urcranowii ovalifolia. Tips of branches and some branches injured. Cedrus libanotica. Needles browned and many dropped but buds not injured. Cercis canadensis alba. Cercocarpus montanus. Chaenomeles Very severely injured. Slight injury. lagenaria semiplena. Severely injured. 38 Chaenomeles lagenaria Moerloosii. Severely injured. Cladrastis sinensis. Very severely injured. Cotoneaster bullata floribunda. Severely injured. Cotoneaster Dielsiana. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Cotoneaster divaricata. Some branches killed. Cotoneaster foveolata. Somewhat injured. Cotoneaster Francheti. About one-half killed. Cotoneaster horizontalis. Considerable injury. Cotoneaster horizontalis perpusilla. Severely injured. Cotoneaster microphylla. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Cotoneaster moupinensis. Some branches killed. Cotoneaster racemiflora. About one-half killed. Cotoneaster Zabeli. Severely injured. Cyrilla racemiflora. Partly killed; buds inhibited and broke slowly. Cytisus elongatus. Severely injured. Cytisus praecox. Much damaged. Cytisus purgans. Severely injured but flowering. Davidia involucrata Vilmoriniana. Killed to the ground except for a few leaves here and there on some branches. Deutzia candelabrum. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Deutzia grandiflora. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Deutzia hypoglauca. Slight injury; full of dead twigs. Deutzia Lemoinei compacta. Slight injury. Deutzia longifolia ele\";ans. Slight injury; many dead shoots. Deutzia magnifica formosa. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Deutzia maliflora \"Boule Rose.\" Slight injury; full of dead twigs. Deutzia parviflora musaei. Much injured; full of dead wood. Deutzia parviflora ovatifolia. Slight injury. Deutzia Sieboldiana. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Dorycnium hirsutum. About one-half of stems killed. Ehretia thvrsidora. Killed back several feet. Enkianthus perulatus. Somewhat injured. Erica carnea. Severely injured. Eucommia ulmuides. Much killed back ; some branches dead. Euptelea polyandra. Flower buds killed,also many stems and branches. Evodia Danielhi. Many branches killed or injured; small trees show little or no in,jury. Evodia hupehensis. Buds inhibited ; broke later with little apparent injury. Evonymus europaea aldenhamensis. Killed back badly. 1'a~us lucida. One small tree (15 ft. high) killed, another severely 39 injured. Genista germanica. Injured but flowering well. Genista pilosa. Severely injured but producing some flua-ers. Genista radiata. Many twigs killed but flower~ng fairly well. Hamamelis mollis. Very slight injury. Hedera helix baltica. Leaves on northerly exposure considerably browned and all of growth of 1933 killed. Helianthemum appenn~num. Partly killed. Helianthemum nummularium varieties. Mostly much injured but producing some flowers. Ilex dubia monticola. Tips of branches killed back 6 to 12inches. Indigofera amblyantha Purdomii. Some stems killed, others flowering. Kalmia latifolia. Many of the flower buds killed outright or injured. Kerria japonica pleniflora. Tips of branches injured but flowering well. Koelreuteria apiculata. Killed back badly. Kolkwitzia amabilis. Some seriously injured, others wintered well. Lespedesa bicolor. Killed back to the old wood. Ligustrum acutissimum. About half of twigs killed. Ligustrum ibota nana. Injured somewhat. Ligustrum insulare. One plant injured severely ; another only slightly. Ligustrum obtusifolium. Some plants very slightly injured near tops ; others uninjured. Ligustrum vulgare. 'rips somewhat weakened. Lonicera Henryi. Killed back severelv. Lonicera Maackii podocarpa. Many branches and branch tips killed. Lonicera Standishii. More or less severely injured. Lycium pallidum. Killed back badly. Morus acidosa. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Myrica Gale tomentosa. Severely injured. Ostrya japonica. Slightly injured. Pachistima myrsinites. Very severely killed back. Parthenocissus quinquefolia. All grades of injury between none and killing to the ground. Pertya sinensis. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Petteria ramentacea. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Philadelphus cymosus. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Philadelphus microphyllus. Severely injured. Philadelphus sericanthus. Severely injured. Philadelphus virginalis \"Argentine.\" Severely injured. Physocarpus opulifolius Krynsii. One plant killed to the ground ; another one umn,jured. 40~ Picea species. Some of the spruces from central and western China were more or less injured. Prunus Armeniaca. One plant dead; another one severely injured. Prunus Armeniaca ansu. Killed back considerably. Prunus Armeniaca \"Mikado.\" Killed back considerably; no flowers. Prunus avium aspleniifolia. Some injury. Prunus blireana. Severely injured. Prunus dasycarpa. Considerable injury. Prunus Lannesiana erecta. Severely injured. Prunus Lannesiana grandrflora. Severely injured. Prunus Lannesiana moutan. Severely injured. Prunus Lannesiana sirotae. Branches killed back considerably. Prunus mume. Severely injured. Prunus Persica-double pink. Severely injured. Prunus pumila susquehanae. Considerable dead wood. Prunus serrulata chosiuhizakura. Severely injured. Prunus serrulata sekiyama. Severely injured. Prunus Sieboldii. Severely injured. Prunus spinosa. Twigs with dead ends. Prunus subhirtella. Considerable dead wood. Prunus subhirtella ascendens. Some branches severely killed back ; others dead ; no flowers. Prunus subhirtella pendula. More than half of lower branches dead; flower buds partly killed. Prunus tangutica. Severely injured. Prunus venulosa. Severely mjurect. Prunus virginiana demissa. Severely injured to killed. Pterostyrax hispida. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Quercus alrena acuteserrata. Some branches and buds killed. Quercus aliena calvescens. About one-half of twigs and buds killed. Quercus serrata. Severely injured. Quercus variabilrs. Considerable mjury ; about one-half of buds and twigs killed. Rhododendron \"Adalbert.'' All flower buds killed except those covered by snow. Rhododendron \"Albert. \" All flower buds killed except those covered by snow. Rhododendron \"Album ele,~ans.\" to three or A few scattered trusses but reduced Trusses four flowers each. Rhododendron \"Album Qrandiflorum.'' not fairly abundant but full. 41 Rhododendron \"Anton\" (pink). Trusses reduced in number. Rhododendron arborescens X obtusum crispifohum. Nearly dead. Rhododendron \"Bicolor.\" Flowering throughout but number of flowers in trusses reduced. Rhododendron \"Boule de Nei\",re.\" Most of flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Caractacus.\" Flower buds on some plants killed; on others uninjured. Rhododendron carolinianum. All flower buds killed. Rhododendron catawbiense. Not as full-flowered as usual. Rhododendron catawbiense album. Sparsely flowered; all trusses reduced to 2 or 3 flowers. Rhododendron \"Charles Dickens.\" Well-flowered both in shade and open but number of flowers in trusses more or less reduced. Rhododendron \"Desiderus.\" Fair but number of flowers in trusses much reduced. Rhododendron \"Diana.\" Flower buds all killed and plant much injured. Rhododendron \"Donar.\" All flower buds killed except those covered by snow. Rhododendron \"Duke of York.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Echse.\" Fair throughout; some reduction in number of flowers in trusses. Rhododendron \"General Grant.\" Fair throughout; some trusses with reduced number of flowers. Rhododendron \"Hanna Felix.\" Nearly all flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Henrietta Sargent.\" Good but reduced number of flowers in trusses. Rhododendron \"Ignatius Sargent.\" Flower buds killed throughout. Rhododendron \"James Macintosh.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Lady Armstrong.\" Fair ; flower buds in trusses much reduced. Rhododendron laetevirens. All flower buds killed except those covered - by snow. Rhododendron \"Lee's Purple.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Madame Carvalho.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Milton.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron minus. All flower buds killed except those covered by snow. Rhododendron Morelianum \"Everestianum.\" Poor; number of flowers in trusses reduced. Rhododendron \"Mrs. Harry Ingersoll.\" All flower buds killed. 42 Rhododendron \"Norma.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi. All flower buds killed: some injury to branches. Rhododendron \"Old Port.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"1'erspicuum.''All flower buds killed except those covered by snow. Rhododendron \"Purpnreum elegans.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"1'urpureum grandiflorum.'' Some plants killed or severely injured; others well-flowered but with number of flowers in trusses reduced. Rhododendron Smirnowii. Nearly all flower buds killed. Rhododendron \"Viola.\" All flower buds killed. Rhododendron Watereri. All Huwer buds killed. Ribes Giraldii. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Ribes nigrum X sanguineum. Severely injured. Rosa arvensis. Badly killed back. Rosa eglanter~a. One plant killed to ground; another one scarcely injured. Rosa Moyesii. Severely injured but some buds developing leaves. Rosa spinosissima hispida. Severely injured ; killed nearly to the gruund. Sciadopitys verticillata. Three plants lost most of leaves and some twigs near top were killed ; two plants retained normal full foliage. Sophora viciifolia. Severely injured ; some large branches dead to ground, others with living buds throughout but breaking slowly; amount of injury depends very much on location. Waterer.\" Considerable amount of dead Spiraea bumalda wood. Spiraea bumalda Froebeli. Considerable amount of dead wood. Spiraea Douglasn. Full of dead wood. Spiraea Henryi. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Spiraea Mennes~i. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Spiraea mollifolia. Killed nearly to ground. Spiraea nipponica. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Spiraea Veitchii. Severely injured ; much dead wood. Stewartia monadelpha. Killed down for about three-quarters of height. Styrax obassia. Severely injured; buds breaking slowly. Taxus baccata. Suffered severely in some cases; many inhibited buds and some dead branches and branch tips. Taxus cuspidata. In general without much injury; some arrested development of terminal buds and a checked growth from dormant buds that broke as the season advanced. \"Anthony 4~ Taxus hybrids between Japanese and European yews. Intermediate in hardiness between parents. Thymus nitidus. Much injured. Torreya nucifera. Top half killed, leaves and twigs on lower half killed and shedding; leaves near ground are green; new buds and shoots are developing at bases of whorls of dead twigs. (June ~1, 1934). Viburnum erosum. Severely injured ; full of dead wood. Viburnum lobophyllum. Severely injured; full of dead wood. Viburnum nudum. Severely injured. Viburnum setigerum. Severely injured; much dead wood. Viburnum setigerum aurantiacum. Severely injured. Viburnum tomentosum rotundifolium. Killed mostly to ground. Viburnum tomentosum sterile. Severely injured. Vitis Doaniana. Killed mostly to ground. Vitis Kaempferi. One plant killed to ground; old plants (1905) not injured. ~TO bP POYtLtYI'tIPIZJ 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Winter Hardiness of Trees and Shrubs Growing in the Arnold Arboretum III (Continued)","article_sequence":10,"start_page":45,"end_page":47,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=24001","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24eb36a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY '~\" ? BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ~ VOL. II OCTOBER 31, 19s4 NUMBER 9 WINTER HARDINESS OF TREES AND SHRUBS GROWING IN THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM III , (Continued ~ (A) TREATMENT OF WINTER-INJURED TREES AND SHRUBS. sYRrNC the Arnold Arboretum, with its large representation foreign introduced trees and shrubs finds that some have suffered more or less from winter injury, though never so much as in the spring of 193~. Such plants require attention with the purposes in view of improving their appearances and assisting them to become re-invigorated. h:ach plant is a problem by itself and calls for treatment based on experience and judgment. Yrunmg is the first procedure. Whenever killing to the ground ha~ taken place the entire crown should be removed as soon as possible. If, however, there are signs of life in the wood, as is often the case with deutzias, spiraeas, prmets, viburnums and dogwoods, the stems with apparent life should be left until the last of April or until it is certain that their buds will not break. Cutting back forces new growth if the root system is alive and well estahlished, and is likely to result in new, healthy crowns. If the killing has involved branches or parts of branches one should prune back to living wood. Considerable care should be given in pruning young trees ; they should be examined from time to time and headed back to live wood above crotches, leamn~; clean cuts. This should be practiced as soon as dead parts are detected so as to throw strength into the new wood. After new growth has started and the plants appear to be fresh and moist, a dry period is likely to cause disaster. In early May a mulch of well rotted stable manure will both stimulate growth and serve as EvFBV of native and 45 protection against drying out by retaining moisture in the soil. It should be noted here by way of precaution that fertilizers should not be added during the growing season subsequent to the middle of June, otherwise tender growths are forced and these may not sufficiently a \"ripen\" or or before the onset of frost in the fall. Mulching with manure treating with other fertilizers should be done only in late autumn early spring. PLANTS FOR WINTER. sNxcJC-FS (B) PREPARATION OF should go into the winter in a thoroughly in the fall, especially after a dry summer. Oak leaves or well rotted early cow manure are often used as protection and mulch on rhododendrons and mountain laurel. Small trees and shrubs, planted in early spring, should be protected by mulch. Medium sized trees should be looked over in late summer for dead wood and all camties and wounds cleaned and painted with good wound preservative such as a coal tar product. 'The following lists indicate for various kind of trees and shrubs the methods used in winter protection at the Arboretum. For the plants protected by earth mounds it is important that soil be taken a safe distance from plants so as not to expose or lessen protection of the root system, otherwise the roots are likely to suffer winter injury. Additional protection for these would be afforded by a good mulch of leaves, straw or manure over the root systems, extending the cover some distance from the stems of the plants. RHOUOUH;NnxoNS, ~~rxs AND moist condition. These groups should be watered 1. Plants protected by earth mounds, or earth and straw. Actiuidia melanandra Berberis buxif'olia nana Berchemia racemosa Buddleia albiflora Buddleia Davidii Buddleia Davidii magnifica Buddleia Davidii superba Buddleia Davidii Veitchiana Buddleia nivea yunnanensis Celastrus hypoleuca Celastrus Loeseneri Clematis Fargesii Clematis Fargesii Souliei Clematis florida Clematis Jackmani Clematis lanuginosa Clematis orientalis Clematis patens Clematis Simsii Clematis -others of large-flowered group than those listed above. Clerodendron trichotomum Cocculus trilobus Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa Cyrilla racemiflora 46 Cytisus scoparius Andreanus Gordonia alatamaha Meliosma Beaniana Auberti Rosa Gentiliana Rosa - tender climbers Rubus Giraldianus Rubus innominatus Rubus Linkianus Schisandra chinensis Vitis Davidi Vitis pulchra Vitis vinifera Polygonum Helwingia japomca Hydrangea macrophylla Hydrangea quercifolia Hydrangea serrata and vars. Hypericum patulum Hypericum patulum Henryi Ilex pedunculosa Leptodermis oblonga Ligustrum Quihoui 2. Plants protected by pine or other evergreen branches. Buxus microphylla koreana Buxus sempervirens and vars. Mahonia Aquifolium Mahonia Bealii (Berberis japonica in some Aukuba japonica Berberis atrocarpa Berberis Beaniana Berberis Gagnepainii Berberis Juhanae Berberis Sargentiana Berberis triacanthophora Berberis verruculosa Buxus microphylla japonica 3. gardens) hy- Mahonia repens Rhododendron - evergreen brids and exotic species Plants covered with coarse hay. Calluna vulgaris and vars. Chrysanthemum sibiricum Daphne Cneorum Helianthemum-various species and forms Pachistima Canbyi Pachistima myrsinites Paeonia suffruticosa and various forms (L'o be continuP~l~ 47 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":11,"start_page":48,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23993","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270816a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"OF CURRENT INTEREST. AT this season the question is someasked - \"\"'hat is there in bloom at the Arboretum now?\" Since the Arboretum is devoted exclusively to hardy plants with woody stems and has no greenhouses for growing tropical trees and shrubs, blooms in the latter part of October are rare, for killing frosts are liable to occur a month earlier. The outstanding shrub or small tree in flower at this time is our eastern American witch-hazel, Hamamelis virginiana, which may be found as a medium-sized shrub with from one to several stems in New England, the middle states, and Canada, or as a small tree on the slopes of the Allegheny Mountains in North and South Carolina and Tennessee where it attains a height of 25 to 80 feet. From its wide geographical range we might expect considerable variation. This is so, particularly with regard to flowering. In this part of New England the common witch-hazel is now in about its best flowering condition. The time of blossoming varies much, however, in individual plants and in the same species in different places. It may be found in flower on the Island of Orleans, opposite Quebec city, at the end of August. It is commonly to be found in flower in October and November in eastern Massachusetts and excellent specimens in bloom have been gathered in Boston in the middle of December. The only other plant in good normal bloom in the Arboretum at this season is the Siberian or Korean chrysanthemum, Chrr~santhemum sibiricum, which is listed in some commercial nursery catalogs as CcorPanum. This was collected on the mountain Pukhan, near Seoul, Kwrea and brought to the United States in 1905, apparently its first introduction into cultivation in this country. Within a few years it was offered to the trade by local nurseries and it has now become well distributed. The species appears to be quite hardy and increases by underground stems, soon forming large clumps. It also grows easily from seed and, by selection, improved forms may be obtained. While normally white and much resembling our well known oxeye-daisy (C. leu~centhemum), attractive flowering forms with decidedly rose-tinted flowers may be obtained from seed. Chr,y.nanthemzem.~ibiricuna has already been used with gratifying success in hybridizing with some of the hardy kinds of Clarr~.snuthemum with colored flowers cultivated in our gardens. Although this species would normally be called herbaceous, it is retained in the Arboretum collections because the stems are often more or less ligneous and retain life for six inches to a foot above ground. PLANTS times J. G. JA~x 48 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Game Foods in the Arboretum","article_sequence":12,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23986","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270a76b.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Hosley, Neil W.; Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY -~~ ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. II OCTOBER 31, 1934 NUMBER 10 FOODS IN THE ARBORETUM. THE LARGE collection of woody at the Arnold Arboretum, drawn from all parts of the world having a climate similar to that of New England, affords an unequaled field for the study of plants available for game food. While scarcely a beginning has yet been made in this direction, it is the purpose of this bulletin to call attention to the possibilities of the Arboretum as a contributing source towards furnishing information and material of value to those interested in game preservation. History has repeatedly shown that, as human population increases, game management passes successively through the stages of restriction of hunting, predator control, refuge establishment, artificial stocking and environmental control. In our most thickly settled regions the first four stages have been passed and the last step is necessary in order to keep a satisfactory stocking of game`1'. In spite of shortened open seasons, bag limits, sanctuaries and heavy stocking with artificially reared stock, game has more often decreased than increased. In the absence of suitable food the continued release of game, no matter how persistent, will lead to no permanent results. In order to produce game on areas deficient in food and to produce heavy stockings on limited areas such as estates and club grounds, food plant propagation is nec- GAME plants essarv. Forest and adjoining areas, under semi-natural conobservations have been carried on during the past year with ditions, this idea in view, particular attention being paid to the sorts of food consumed by deer and other game animals, to the amount available, and to the possibilities of increasing it so as to maintain or increase the game population. In the Harvard \"'Leopold, Aldo. Game Management, York, 1933. pp. 3-21, Charles Scribner's Sons, New 49 a plant propagated for game food must meet cerIt must produce food which will be used by the tain requirements. game for which it is planted. Some game species will starve with food all around them simply because they are unaccustomed to eating particular things and their habits are not so adaptable that they will try out new things. Secondly, the plant must produce food for use during a critical season of the year. During spring, summer, and early fall there is no food shortage, but during winter many species can find no food in much of New England. The food must also be available when needed. A good fruit crop buried under deep snow is next to useless. Such fruit must remain above the snow for use by most game. The plant must obviously fruit regularly and heavily. For most areas the plant must not require much care, and fast growth coupled with early fruiting are desirable. To be most useful, Woody plants are already coming to play an important part as propagated game food. They are, in general, long lived, require little care and, where species with persistent fruits are used, are an efficient means of solving the food problem during deep snow. While little is known about the value of hundreds of woody species having good possibilities, studies here and there are beginning to show more kinds of game. The the most important both in respect to numbers of game species using them and to the volume produced and eaten. The mammals and birds using apples for food include almost a complete list of the New England game species. The deer feeds on apples from October until March at least. The black bear often breaks apple limbs in trying to reach the fruit. The United States Bsological Survey in a study of 93 grouse stomachs taken during winter in the northeastern states found that, of 75 kinds of vegetable food taken, apple fruit, twigs, buds and leaves formed the greatest bulk, or ten per cent. The pheasant is also very fond of apples. A flock of them feeding on the persistent, small fruits of Malus floribundre just outside the Administration Building at the Arboretum is a common sight. Rabbits, squirrels, raccoons, muskrats, and even the fox and mink eat them. Of the many apples bearing fruit at the Arboretum, Mnlu.r ~Soulardi, a cross between the common apple of the old world and Mnlu.s ioen.si,s, a crab apple of the central United States, is especially outstanding. It is very vigorous in growth ; it bears a heavy crop annually ; the fruit persists well and remains firm until late in the season. There are some fifteen species of hiburnu~n in the Arboretum which that some species are apples undoubtedly valuable for head the list one or as 50 hold their fruit until spring. Of these the highbush cranberry, V. Opulus, is a proven food of the ruffed grouse and pheasant, and other species of this genus would probably be eaten. The common barberry, Berberi.s vulgaris, and the native bittersweet, Celastrus scandens, are both eaten by the ruffed grouse and pheasant. The fruits of both species persist well. The fruit of the buckthorn, Rhanznu.s cathartica, is eaten by grouse, but is all gone by early winter. Both the grouse and the squirrels feed on the berries of our native black alder, Ilex verticillata, which persist well through the winter. The fruit of Crataegus, is a staple food of ruffed grouse, pheasants, rabbits, squirrels and probably others. This tree with its beautiful blossoms and showy fruit is a fine addition to any rural landscape. However, judging from the hundreds of specimens at the ~rt>oretum, it is not the native species but those from the central and southern states which hold their fruit through the winter in our climate. Two of the native sumacs, Rhu.s t,yphina and Rhn.s glnbra, are valuable as game foods. The grouse eat the fruits and the deer eat both the fruiting heads and the ends of the branches. These species grow rapidly and hold their fruits until spring, but are easily killed where shaded by taller growth. The importance of the wild grape, Vitis spp., as a fall grouse food is well known to every experienced New England hunter. The pheasant will also eat this food ; it is eagerly eaten by the black bear, and the seed has been found in a deer stomach. Two or three species of this genus are native and many others can be easily cultivated. The so-called bittersweet, ~Solanuzn Dulcamearrt, is very colorful with its purple flowers and red berries and the pheasant relishes its fruit until late winter. From the nut trees the acorns and beech nuts are important game foods. They are used by deer, bear, grouse, raccoons and squirrels. It takes many years to raise either oak or beech trees to bearing age and the beech especially is very uncertain in respect to seed crops. The larger, heavier shelled nuts such as the hickory nut, black walnut and butternut are, of course, usable only by the squirrels. On estates and even around homes having fair sized grounds, the selection of species usable and attractive to birds and other wild life, as well as ornamentally acceptable, will give to landscape plantings a much greater value. NEIf. W. HOSLES ERNEST J. YALMER 51 EXPLANATION OF THE INSERT Fruiting branch of Malus Soulardi. the Arnold (Photographed in Arborvtum, wptembvr 193.) Fruiting branch of Malus floribunda var. (Photographed in the Arnold Arboretum, Rvptvmhvr 193\/~.) 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Winter Hardiness of Trees and Shrubs Growing in the Arnold Arboretum (Concluded)","article_sequence":13,"start_page":53,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23999","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d24eaf26.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ . BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. ' VOL. II DECEMBER 11, 1934 NUMBER 11 I WINTER HARDINESS OF TREES AND SHRUBS GROWING IN THE ARNOLD .~LtBOIth;'fl'M ~ Concl udPrl ~ SEVH;eF WrN~rH:R. IN recent numbers of this Bul9), besule a consideration of the factors contributing to winter injury, lists have been given of injuries or destruction caused among the collection5 of the Arnold Arboretum by the extremely severe winter of 1933-~~.. These lists pertained largely to deciduous plants, particularly shrubs and woody climbers. References to conifers were purposely' deferred because injuries were less immediately noticeat~le. Even now, at the end of the growing season, the real extent of the dama\"~rm~ effects of the winter cannot be fairly estnnated. The foll~mn;~r observations were made mostly in the Arnold .Arlmretum, but many plants in gardens and plantations in and around Boston have been used as checks or for the purpose of comparison. The yew and the conifer families suffered much from the cold .~1though on the whole the damage was less than the injury to many of our t>road leaved, deciduous trees and shrubs. On some species of conifers the Hmver buds, or most of them, were destroyed. In some instances the buds which ordinarily would have developed into new shoots or twigs were so greatly injured that they failed to make normal growth. As a result, afFected trees will probabl~ lose many of their branches and much of their symmetry, or may even die. While the Japanese yew, Trrxus cu.vpidata, generally passed safely through the winter there were many plants of this species which distinctly showed some injury. This often took the form of arrested development of the terminal buds and shoots which usually showed a browning of leaves. ComrH:as(Nos. letin, Ar~rEB A 7, 8, and 53 Generally the dormant buds had started and a checked growth developed as the season advanced. The European or English yew, Lii.rua bnccata, suffered severely in some instances. Branches have died or tips of branches have failed to show life and pruning has become necessary . A careful inspection of such injured branches in June showed Bery small latent buds developing in the axils of leaves or leaf scars. These in another year should develop into good normal shoots or branches. In such cases pruning should be done and then very carefully. It should be noted that some of the plants which have been narnecl as hybrids between the Japanese and European yews have shown less hardiness than the Japanese parent, though hardier than Taau.s bacccrfa. Several plants of T. media, one of such hybrids, show some injury on the tips of the branches, while T.medin Hntfieldii was much more seriously hurt. After growing in the Arboretum for many years, during which tune it flowered and fruited, the Japanese Torreya nucifera was nearly killed but, although the ternnn.~l parts of the branches failed to recover, new shoots developed on the basal portions so that there is a prospect of the trees regaimng a green aspect and good form after several years. Amon~>~ the cmafers, the pines as a group suffered less than some other genera. Browning of the foliage occurred in some foreign species, even in Scotch pine, but during the summer, twigs and buds have developed a normal number of leaves which cover superficially any defects. Individuals of the same species varied much in their resistance to damage. Injuries to flower buds were noted in some foreign species. On the whole, the hardy native American spruces (PicPn~ wintered well. On the other hand, the fine Sitka spruce, PicPn .s7IcJlP)f.s2.s, cannot be grown here, while the very rare Brewer or weeping spruce, 1'icPo Brerverinnn, of the mountains of southern Oregon aud northern California, will live but does not thrive well. The single plant, now 7 feet high, in the Arboretum had most of its buds killed last winter. Some of the stronger terminal buds survived and have developed new growths of from one to two or three inches in length. It is a straggling plant diHicult to grow and unworthy of planting in this climate. Some of the long-introduced foreign species have done well. The Norwayspruce is bearing a good crop of cones and the trees show little or no winter injury. This condition may be due to the fact that the original seed c.une from a northern part of its range in Europe, rather than from a southern distr~ct. The spruces which show the greatest damage from the severity of the winter are those which were collected for us in central and western China, in the provinces of Hupeh and Szechuan. The latitude ranges from about ?8 to 3~. Probably few interested people realize that the latitude of this Chinese collecting ground, which has been repeatedly explored to furnish plants for our northern gardens, largely correspond to that of northern Florida and the southhalf of Georgia. Florida ranges from a few feet above sea level the greater part to rarely 300 or 400 feet at the highest points. Southern Georgia averages higher than Florida, but much of the territory is well under a thousand feet in altitude and rarely exceeds two thousand, although higher hills and mountains are more common above 33~ of latitude. Trees or shrubs from the Florida and Georgia zones would rarely be considered as worth introducing for permanency into our northern states. The climate of the same latitude in western China, however, has the advantage of the general altitude of the country, which is from one or two thousand feet on the lower levels to ten or twelve thousand feet in the higher mountains. However, the rule which compensates latitude by altitude does not always work out satisfactorily because of precipitation, prevailing winds, temperatures, geologic features, soil and other factors. This estimation of latitude as related to altitude may be roughly stated in the allowance of one degree of latitude to 450 or .i00 feet of altitude. As already stated much depends upon other ecological factors. Later studies have shown that the dozen or fifteen supposedly new species and varieties of spruce recently brought from China may eastl~ be reduced to less than half a dozen species, some of which had already been found by earlier collectors and had been given names. Some of these species or so-called species show very serious injury from the effects of the past winter. For all practical or ornamental purposes they would be generally worthless for eastern Massachusetts if we had occasional repetition of such a winter as that of 19i34. Picea usperutu and its described forms have proved to be undependable and undesirable under such conditums as prevatled last winter. In the Arboretum an examination of seBeral trees in August showed that about fifty per cent of the winter buds failed to develop or to make anv appreciable growth. When such a large proportion of buds is killed, the surviving terminal or other buds often produce unusually long new shoots due to the concentration of growth into a few rather than manytwigs. Under such circumstances the trees are likel) to become permanently unsymmetrtcal. The drfference in hardiness of the plants which have been called P. a,rperata may well be due to altitude, latitude and other ecological factors occurring within its natural range. This species is clearly not adapted for successful plantings in regions with more se~ ere winter climate than that prevatlmg at Boston ern over ~5 here it is liable to serious damage in unusually severe years situations, although there are nurseries or plantations in the mcmty where the plants are reported to have come through in fairly good order. It may be that hardier races will be found in western China. Picea Balfouriana, which is probably the same as the older known P. likiangen.sis, is another of the so-called new species which has suffered such damage from the cold of the past winter that it may be considered unsuitable to plant m this climate for permanent landscape effects. A tree 14 feet high showed all buds dead or lr,mlly checked. On August first, the tree showed new leaves forming about the old dormant buds, but no new growth of twigs. Picea purpurea, which is possibly still another spnonym fur P. likiangen.si.s, was very badly injured and is rather unpromising for this region although tt may be a very desirable acquisition under less severe conditions. Pioea Wat.sonzaua, 1~?feet high, showed in August a very large proportion of buds permanently blasted ; a few escaped unhurt and exhibited extra long new shoots. These few abnormally vigorous twigs surviving among the multitude of buds which h.me fx~led must e~ entually produce an unevenly developed and undesirable tree for northern even or and gardens. firs, belonging to the genus AbiP.s, have long h.vd .z peculiar gardeners and landscape planters. Naturallt , there is an especial interest in all species which are reported hardy in our New England climate. ~l'e have few American species which thrive satisfactorily in the climate of Boston, probal>ly the best being AbiP.s ooncolor or the white fir of our western mountains. But to be hardy and satisfactory in New England the seed of this species must be procured from the drier, colder territory east of the Rocky Mountains, as in Colorado, for if grown from seed collected from west of the lioclcies, in the same latitude, the results are far less satisfactory. '1'his is true of rdl other splendid 1'acific coast firs ; they are far too tender for Satmfactory growth in central New England. European firs, ltke the Nordmann fir, Abie.s A-ordrrranuirrna, and the Cilician fir, A.oilicicvr, have long z been grown here with much sati5faction but the past winter proved seriously injurious to both species. The injury took the form of causing g The true attraction for the death of the hearts of a great many of the winter buds. The percentage of injury varied on different trees in different exposures. Usually on the most damaged trees some buds escaped. The result has been that by the first of August, when all new lenyth growths should have been completed for the season, the major part of the twigs and J~ buds still appeared the same as last winter except for a few twisted green leaves developing at the sides of the dead buds, or new, very Short twigs being found. The few buds which escaped injury have produced alnu~rmallylong new shoots as a result of the failure of a majority of the ltud, to develop. The twigs, apparently dormant even now, may be found developing scattered, small buds in the axils of the leaves of last year. These new buds on old shoots should grow next spry~ and carry un growth a year late. The result is likely to produce very rrregular and undesirable trees for ornamental purposes. It was hoped that the introduction of firs from Japan and western China would add greatly to our available ornamental trees. However, the experience of the past winter has shown that, danger from climatic changes is risked in using most of these species. In fav ored situations, they may appear to be doing well during a number of ordinary winters. Still a time may come when their growth may prove very disappointing. On the large trees of the Japanese ?~iil;ko fir, AbiPS hornolPpi,s, for example, planted on low ground, a guodly proportion of buds were winter killed and the struggle to produce new buds and leaves is very apparent. If these new buds survive and continue ~,Trowrh next year, the result w rll be, unattractive or unsymmetrical trees. On higher, sheltered ground with good air drainage the trees show only a small amount of injury, although the conspicuous male flower ItudS,a third of an inch long, still remain hard and inert and are black and dead within. The beautiful Abies Veitchii vhows similar disheartening effects of the winter. Recent studies of the firs introduced from western Chma tend to show that the number of species credited to that region is less than has been cl.vmecl. 1'he behac ior of the Japanese urnl>rella pine, .Sciadopih~.s nPrlicillnln, was interesting inasmuch as out of the six trees growing near together in the Arboretum three retained their usual number of leaves while the other three lost most of their foliage. As the buds were still sound n new growth of leaves developed to carry on growth. The end of the ~yrmwmg season, however, shows the damaged trees much less attractive and with fewer leaves than those which were umn,jured. The deciduous bald cypress, L'n,rodimn di.sticlruna, of our Southern states, in this latitude usually loses the tips of branches and twigs but this defect is soon overcome by new growth. In the past winter this trouble w.w decidedly more apparent but as the trunks and main liml>s wthstood the test they have put forth belated new shoots and leaves. But the trees are not ornamental. Rather curiously, the pond cypress, Tarndium n.scenrlen,s, which we J% have regarded as more tender than the other since its range is more southerly, came through the winter in fine condition and quickly produced its cover of light green foliage. As the two species are growing on the same northerly incline and within a few yards of each other the disparity in behavior is very interesting and unexpected. The arborvitaes (Thuja) behaved much western as in other seasons, the arborv it.re, Tlrrjn plicntn, wintermg wonderfully well the top of Hemlock Hill and in the cedar and juniper collection its base. This both giant on near was true also of the genus Chnrnaer;ypnri.s, commonly called cedar or cypress, names also applied to some other gcucra. Perhaps more than usual injury was caused by browning and other minor injuries. Similar damages may be noted after the average winter. EBen the somewhat uncertain Latvson cypress, ChamnPr,~pari.r Lozcsorrirrnn, came through with apparently little injury on Hemlock Hill although it makes poor growth on low land. Some injury was noted on junipers (.luniperus), sometimes <trusing the Shedding of mmor twigs with their leaves so that the trees or affected portions lost their full, clean greenness. But the branchlets usually appeared alive to near the tips, new growths appearing and giving promise that in another year the trees may present a more normal appearance. 'I'he dwarf spreadmg and the dwarf pyramidal junipers occasionally showed dead branches which probably succumbed after being weakened by other causes. Incense cedar, LibocPrlrrr.s dPOUrreu.s, ;3.i feet high, in the vhelter of hemlocks on Hemlock Hill, wintered much better than might have been expected considering that it is a I'awfio ctmst tree, west of the crest of the Rocky Mountains. The hardy race of Cedar of Lebanon (('edru.s librrrrolicn rrr ('. libnrri), introduced from Asia Vlmor, proved grrrttt;vrnoly resistent to the unusual cold to which it was subjected. Some trees lost a considerable proportion of their foliage in the spring, giving them a veryopen and naked appearance, but as few leaf buds were injured beyond recovery new leaves soon appeared so that by next year the trees will prolr.tlrly have returned to almost normal aspect. The larches (Laris) came through the winter in good order except that m some cases the flower buds were destroved. For several successive years the Japanese golden larch, 1'.vPUdolrrri.r rrrnrrhili.v, has flowered and fruited freely. This past winter all of the flower buds were destroyed by the extreme cold, so that the trees are not bearing any of their interesting cones this season. The trees, however, were otherwise apparently uninjured, a fortunate circumstance as the species is one of the most beautiful and interesting of hardy 58 deciduous conifers. The famous Gr~plornerin jnpotrica, of Japan aud Chu~a, untimtunately has so fir proved unadaptable to the climatic conditions of Boston although it may be long persistent and attain some size. In the past wmter trees l0 or l3 feet high had a large proportion of the weaker lateral twigs and leaves killed but stronger buds at and near the ends of the branches survived and carried on new growth. K J.(x.Jn~ EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Fruiting branch of Pseudolarix amabilis showiugcones produced during a normal season. (Photographed in tlzv Arnnl~l Arborvtum.J 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Indian Relics of the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":14,"start_page":61,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23992","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d2708127.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM . ----~- HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. II DECEMBER 28, THE 1934 NUMBER more 12 centuries of recorded history intervening between the present and the indefinitely long period when the region that is now Boston was occupied by the Indians ~t is interesting and not a little surprising to find that evidences of these earlier inhabitants and examples of their work can still be found here. For at least half of this historic period it is probable that no Indians have lived here under the primitive conditions of the stone age, nor have any of the implements been made that we find on their old hunting and camping grounds. Dury~ much of this time, and especially since the middle of the nineteenth century, Indian relics have been collected assiduously,and yet adillgent searcher even in such a frequented place as the Arnold Arboretum can still find abundant traces of former Indian occupancy in the indestructible stone implements made and used by them in the chase and in war and in their domestic life. Beg~inning with a chance find several years ago 1 became interested in looking for Indian evidences here, and a persistent search carried on at odd times in walks through the Arboretum has resulted in the building up of an interesting little collectum,a part of which is shown on the accompanying plate. Aside from the sentimental and romantic interest of these bits of prehistoric art, their chief value lies in the deductions that can be made from them in regard to the life and customs of the people who made them and in locating the sites of habitations occupied probably long before the coming of the first white colonists. And this in turn helps us to reconstruct some picture of what the local conditions must have been in those times and of the significance of the changes that have ensued. The variety of artifacts remammg on the site of any prehistoric settle- INUIAN IIELI('s OF ARNOLD ARBORETUM. ~'ITH than three 61 lapse of centuries, at least in a climate like that of New naturally quite limited and includes only objects made from the most indestructible materials, such as stone, or perhaps under more favorable circumstances, of vhell, bone, or clay in the form of pottery. And it is also highly probable that in a thickly settled and much frequented locality such as the Arboretum, most of the larger and more conspicuous objects originally left on the site would have been found and carried away long ago by earlier collectors. But even ment after the England, is with the very limited material that can still be found on these old camp possible to learn much about the habits and culture of the Indians who occupied them, and a number of deductions can safely be sites it is made as to what the physical conditions must ha~e been that induced them to select certain places for their camps or villages. L~Zost of the Indian artifacts that have been found recentlvin the Arboretum are of chipped stone and would popularly be called arrow heads, although probably only a few of the smaller ones were used for that purpose. Some of the larger and heavier ones may have been used for lance or spear heads and others for knives, scrapers or digging tools. A few of the rougher pieces that vhow evidence of chipping were probably unfinished or rejected objects. Besides the chipped implements, a few pieces have been found that were fashioned by pecking or grmding into hammer-stones, celts, scraper, and other objects, some of them of doubtful use. Stones accidentally Jhaped by natural agencies, such as small round boulders or sharp chips and flakes of the harder rocks, were no doubt made use of by the Indians with little or no improvement on thetr original condition, and in a few cases it might be difficult to say whether a particular object should be regarded as an Indian relic or not. But it is nearly always possible for the experienced archaeologist to distinguish between e~en the roughe5t object of human handicraft and natural or unworked stones of similar shapes by the evidence of fine chipping or peckmg found on the former and because of the obvious design shown in all the lines of fracture or polishing. In selecting material for his work, the ancient craftsman, guided by experiment and experience, used as a rule only the best that was readily available for his purpose, but in emergencies inferior stones or other materials were sometimes employed. For the manufacture of chipped stone implements some hard fine grained variety from which small flakes could be struck off without shattering the whole mass was essential, and the finest points with a keen cutting edge could only be fashioned from a stone that broke with a clear conchoid fracture. 62 Hard stones are abundant in the Boston area, although the material axailable to the Indian artisan here was not as good as that found in many other parts of the country. And all the relics found in the Arboretum, with one possible exception, are made from local material or from such as may be found in eastern Massachusetts. The material most commonly employed here in the manufacture of chipped implements, judging by the Arboretum collection, was porphyntic basalt or felsite. These two crystalline rocks without the porphyntic structure, as well as quartz, quartzite, chert, and argillite or slate were also used for making projectile points and cutting instruments. Slate, mioa-schist, sandstone, greenstone and granite furnished material for the pecked or abraded implements. Porphyritic rocks are those in which crystals,usually either of feldspar or quartz,large enough to be detected with the unaided eye are imbedded in a groundwork or ma~triv of finer or microscopic crystalline structure. The felsites are of a light color, usually pink, flesh-color or gray ; basalt, or trap-rock as it is popularly known, is of a dark slate-color or black on fresh fracture, although often turning to a lighter color on weathered surfaces. Both of these classes of rocks are found in a number of places in the vtcmtty of Boston, occurring in dikes and ledges and as loose material derived from them, as well as in detached masses in glacial deposits. The harder and finer grained varieties, either with or without porphyritic structure, furnished a very satisfactory material for the fabrication of chipped implements, as is shown by the fine workmanship, sharp pcnts, and keen cutting edges of some of those found in the Arboretum. In other cases the material was not of so good a quality, and as a result the fracture was hackly and the implements thtcker and rougher. Quartz is anotherein or dike material found abundantly in this regton, both in situ and a5 rubble, and also as pebble5 or boulders in the glacial drift. When broken it sometimes produces a very keen cutting edge and it was highly prized by the Indians for this quality. But it usually shatters too readily to have been used for any except the smaller implements. Quartzite, which is also common locally, was used sometimes for both chipped and abraded implements, but only the harder and finer grained varieties could be chipped successfully, and most of the points made from this material are rather rough and crude. A few artifacts of chert have been found, although this material was not abundant nor generally of a good quality in this vicinity. Slate furnished a very tndiflerent material for chipping, but it was sometimes used, though perhaps only in emergencies. It was one of the most easily worked materials for grinding and it was used commonly in this way 63 for a variety of purposes. Of about sixty implements, either perfect or broken, in the collection made in the Arboretum, a little more than half were probably used as projectile points, either for arrow s or spears. A number of the others, having a sharp edge but often a blunt or rounded point, may have been used as knives. But m some cases it is impossible to distinguish definitely between those two classes of tools, since some of them could have been used for either purpose. One of the pieces shown in the illustration (no. 2) is a small hatchet or celt. Number .5 is a rather rough piece, t>l,xin on one wde and bevelled on the other, that may h.mbeen used as a scraper in preparing buck5kin and other hcdes. There is at least one other scraper in the collection. The largest chipped piece so far found (no. 14) measures in its present broken condition ten centtmeters in len~th and five centimeters in greatest width. The color of the material was originallyblack, but it has been altered on the surfaoe to ,xn ashy- gray by long weatherinhr. Small chyv struck off ztecidentally by the tools of the w orl:men who unenrthe<1 it ~h<m- that the oxidation has penetrated to a depth of about one millimeter. The break is a very old one, :m the truncated end is discolored as completely a5 the rest of the surface. This piece may have been used as a dyyer or as a skinning knife. Number 16, .x drill or re.uuer, has under\"~rcme a similar alteration in color from the effects of weatlmru\"~,~. Such drcll *i points are comparatively rare, at least in a perfect wmdctum, a5 they are fra~rcle and easily broken. They are supposed to have been hafted and used for drilling holes by t>em~n turned with a ~w cft rutary nuttton. Amon~st the arrows shown in the photograph, numbers 7, 10, 1:3, 26 and L7 were probably war points. Three of these are of the triangular unnotched type and the others have only a trace of side notches or stem. Such points easily became detached from the shaft awd sn could not be removed from a deep wound, which was tlvereticre likely W prove fatal. Number 29 is a flat piece of slate with rounded ends and bevelled on either edge following a natural cleava~e plane which may have been ground to a sharp edge to make it ,er~iceable as a scraper. Another interesting piece, not shown in the illustration, is a fragment of coarse gritty sandstone eight centimeters long by about two centimeters in width and a little less in thichness. It is roughly rounded on one side and has a shallow longitudinal ~rocne on the other. This was used in smoothing arrow shafts, much as we would use S.xndpaper today. Nutnber 80 of the illustration is not Indian work, but is a relic of the white pioneers. This is a gun flint, used in flint lock guns before the inven- 64 percussion caps. The material is horn flint from the Cretaceous chalk deposits of England, where the quarrying and manufacturing of flints both of this sort and for domestic use with steel and tinder was at one time an important industry. Two other specimens of gun flmts have been recovered in the Arboretum. Most of the relics in the collection were found on the surface in the cultivated strips and beds where groups of shrubs are planted, or in the small plots dug up about individual trees and shrubs. This does not necessarily mean that they are most abundant in such places, but it is only when the covering of grass, weeds, and leaves has been removed that they can usually be seen. As the ground is turned up by the forks of the workmen the implements buried to a shallow depth are brought to the surface, and after a rain the earth may be washed off of them sufficiently for a sharp eye to detect them as they lie partially concealed amongst the other bits of stone and gravel. Although only a small part of the Arboretum is cultivated in this way the spots are well distributed, giving a sort of cross section of the whole area. And this has been sufficient to show that there are certain localities in which the relics are most abundant. Interpreting this with some knowledge of the needs of barbarian life, and v tth a survey of the present topography and allowance for the changes that we know have been made in it in recent years, it becomes possible to locate with considerable certainty the homes of these first inhabitants of the Arboretion of tum area. ' The most pressing needs of Indian life and the considerations that influenced them most in selecting sites for camps and villages were a near-by supply- of drinking water, food, and fuel. Considerations of safety, comfort, and economy of labor also induced them to seek a place that was comparatively open, well drained, and as free as possible from rocks and brush that would have to be cleared away. A situation with a fairly level but not too flat surface, near a perennial spring or running brook, shaded by large trees, and with an unobstructed view for some distance in all directions, would offer the maximum of advantages. Any spot offering most of these attractions was almost certain to have been chosen as a camp site at some time. And if in addition it were situated on some bay, lake, or navyrable stream, affording ready means of travel by canoe and an abundant food supply, it was quite likely to today have been occupied by a permanent ~illage. Looking over the land and taking all of the factors into consideration, the trained eye e of the archaeologist can locate such places, and he can generally pre- ~J dict with a considerable degree of certainty that Indian relics will be found there even before he has had an opportunity to search for them. While scattered specimens of Indian relics have been found in a number of places in the Arboretum, the great majority of them have come from a few limited areas that were evrdently occupied as camp or villa~e sites. Nearly half of the pieces in the collection, were picked up within the space of a few acres along Bussey Brook near the center of the Arboretum. A slight rocky elevation, the upper part of which is still covered by a remnant of the native forest of deciduous trees, extends from the boundary formed by Centre Street towards the brook. Ledges of Roxbury conglomerate outcrop in many places at the higher elevations near the street, and farther east the formation again comes to the surface, crossing the Valley Road and connectrn~\"; with Bussey Hill. A perennial spring issues from the rocks at a point near the road forming a small rivulet that flows away across the meadow to join Bussey Brook. Towards the brook and in the triangle formed by the channels of the two streams the hill flattens out into <x comparatively level bench or small plateau a few acres in extent, which is now occupied by plantings of various conifers and the Juniper group. Some distance back from the main brook there ia a depression that may have been a ravine or the bed of another small ri~ ulet, and the surface rises ~~;raduallyagain from this lowest point towards the brook, with the conglomerate curning to the surface at a few points and forminga low bluff or ledge along the narrow valley, with the north slope of Hemlock Hill on the opposite side. The drainage in this triangular area is good ; the soil thouah thin in places is fertile, and under primitive conditions it was probably covered with open oak or mixed woods. A good outlook could be had up and down the little valley and across to Hemlock Hill, while a little farther up, the valley widened into what was e~ idently a ,nr.xll swamp or bog. Such a place offered many advantages for a camp or small village site, and it seems to have been the center of an Indian settlement within the Arboretum area. The relative abundance of relics and fra~,rments found here seems to indicate that it was occupied with some permanency. For even more significant than the finished implements are the small flakes or spauls of the different varieties of stone used by the Indians that have been picked up here. These spauls, having a characteristic conchoid fracture, were struck off from the small mass of stone in the process of manufacturing the chipped implements, and they afford an indubitable proof that such an inclustry was carried on where they are found. f>6 The location of other Indian camps or lodges at several points in the Arboretum is indicated by the number of relics that have turned up. For although a stray arrow or spear may ha~e been lost almost anywhere on a hunting or foraging expedition, such an accident could not account for the presence of a number of relics near one spot, especially when they include implements of domestic use or spauls. After the Spring Brook Village site just described, relics have been found in the largest number along the slopes bordering the low meadow from near the Administration Building to the wooded hills beyond the Linden and Horse-chestnut groups. Until comparativelyrecent times much of this low ground was occupied by a shallow lake or bog fed by se~eral perennial brooks that have now, with one exception, been obliterated and the water carried under ground through sewers and condmt5. Even now the lower part of this area is quite swampy and it becomes flooded m wet seasons, with the water table near enough to the surface to afford homes for muskrats, no doubt the direct descendants of those that were trapped and hunted along with other game by the Indians who once camped along the borders of the bog and lake. Another Indian camp seems to have been located on the level ground at the east end of Hemlock Hill near the South St. gate and extending across the street. The construction of roadways and other changes have obliterated most of this site, but several relics and fra~ments ha~ e been picked up in a small cultivated area just within the Arboretum wall and in the nursery across South Street. Scattered relics have also been found near the top of Peters Hill, on Bussey Hill, in the shrub collection, on the wooded ridges above the horse-chestnuts, and at several other places. There is a strong appeal to the imagmation in ancient objects with human associations, and the question is often asked as to how old they are. Naturally, this cannot be answered defimtely in regard to such relics as those found in the Arboretum. The hard stones from which most of the chipped implements were made are practically indestructible or at least they yield very slowly to the disintegrating forces of time and weathering. The depth to which oxidation has penetrated some of the specimens indicates a considerable antiquity for them. Perhaps some of the pieces are no older than the time when the first white settler, began coming into the country or when the Indians abandoned their crude stone tools for the more efficient metal ones obtained lnbarter from the Europeans ; others may have been made centuries earlier. All that we can say is that they are very old. ERNEST JESSE YAI MER 67 EXPLANATION OF THE INSERT 1. Projectile point (base of Peters Hill. and point broken). Material, basalt-porphyry. Top l. Celt. 3. Knife? 4. ,i. 6. 7. tt. Material, felsite-porphyry. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east end. Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Scraper. Material, chert. Border of meadow, near lindens. Projectile point or knife. Material, quartzite. Hickory group. Arrow point. Vlaterial, basalt-porphyry. Top of Bussey Hill. Arrow point. Material, argillite (slate). Alon~ brook northeast of Administration Building. 9. Knife. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Spring Brook Village site. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Centre Street border. Projectile point. Material, basalt. Upper bench,Sprin~ Brook Villagesite. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Glacial esker, North Woods. Knife or digging tool (broken at both ends). Material, chert? Meadow near Administration Building. Projectile point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Border of Meadow, near horsechestnuts. Material, chert. Upper bench, Spring Brook Village site. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of meadow, near lindens. 18. Projectile point or knife. Material, felsite-porphyry. Border of former brook along Meadow Road, near corkwoo,l. 19. Projectile point. Material, felsite-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. l0. Knife (point broken). Material, chert. Spring Brook Village site. 21. Arrow point. Material, basalt-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. Z~L. Arrow point (point broken). Materia:, chert. Upper bench, Spring Brook Village site. 23. Knife (point broken). Material, fe'site-porphyry. Spring Brook Village site. ~4. Arrow point. Material, basalt. Foot of Hern:ock Hill, east end. ~5. Knife. Material, quartzite. Hickory group. 26. Arrow point. Material, quartz. Centre Street border. Q7. Arrow point. '~laterial, quartz. Centre Street border. ~18. Arrow point (point broken). Material, quartz. Foot of Hemlock Hill, east 16. Drill or reamer. 17. Knife. end. ~29. Knife or 30. Gun flint. scraper? Material, arg~illite. Border of meadow, near lindens. Material, horn flint. Border of meadow, near horse-chestnuts. 68 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume II","article_sequence":15,"start_page":69,"end_page":70,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23991","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270bb26.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX '1'() SF,IIII:S 4 ~ ~'OLCiW; II m 5)-nwn)-n~s are in ilnlin; illu,tratums bold face tt-pe. Akebia, 1'T Akehia, hybrids, ~46~ebin lobntn, 1 i .-ll.rlna yumata Hamamelis vernalis, 1, a, ~0 plates t:uin'~ hN. ~and 19 9 :3 Indian relics of the Arnold Akebia quinata, 17, 1 ti, A. Arboretum, lil, plate tacm'~ p. tit ~() triti~li.~ta, Ahel~ui triti~li.~ta, 1 i 5 Cl~errie5, hardy Nmwrin;,r, ii Cl~erries, winter in,jury, helsey, Harlan 1., L:~ce-win~ Hy, ?~. Lmcwt, Black, ~.i !ti Cherry, Sargent, Gmifers at'teru .5 Lucust lmrer, ~~ti M.~lus fluril>un<1.~, .i() Malus floribunda v.~r., I f;um~~ p..il sev ere 3 wmter, .i3 plate Cyllene rohiniae, zR Forsythia europaea, 9 F orsythia intermedia,I I , 1;3 ~J Malus Soulardi, .iO, plate facin~,r p..i0 YlantS of current interest, l.i, tH Plants the F'my-thia intermedia ulma, 1:3 Forsythia japonica, 9 Fmrsythui, Korean, 9 Forsythia ovata, 9, v,~r. prm- injured, ground, ln~t not h~lled to in tl~e winter of i 51:3;3-;3 ~, 3 I -~-1 Plants killed in the winter of 11 19:3~-i~., ~3 h'mrythia, Primrose, 13 9 Fnr.sJlhin .ra.rntilis~, 0 Forsythia suspensa, 10 tl Forsythia viridissima, 1 9 h'my thiav, lutrdt-, Forsythias, hi5tory uf, 9 Fortune, Robert, 10, ~10 li'r.wer, Johu, L1 C,ime tioul5 m the .-lrlonwtum,~.9 69 Plants killed to the ground in the winter of 193;3-3 f, :33-;3(i Preparation of plants for winter, ~(i Prmnus ,~nraPnlii, 8 Prunus serrulata sachalinensis, I oJ, i .i, Pseudolarix amabilis, .i9 Relics, Indian, li I Rhucladendrm \"Antw, 1t Rhododendron arboreum, z? Rhododendron \"Roseum Rhododendron \"Boule de Ne~ge,\" 24 Rhododendron catawbiense, elegans, \" 21 23 Rhododendron Smirnowii, 21 I Rhododendron caucasicum, ~1 Rhododendron \"Charles Rhododendrons, history of cul1 tivated,21 Robinia fertilis, 25, 27 Robinia Hartwigii, ~.5 Robinia Dickens,\" mum,\" 24 23 Rhododendron \"Delicatissi- hispida, Kelseyi, ~.i ~.i ~;i Rhododendron \"Echse,\" ?4 Robima Robinia Rhododendron\"H.4~'. Sargent,\" 23 Rhododendron \"Henrietta Sargent,\" 23 Rhododendron \"James Bateman,\" 24 Rhododendron pseudoacacia, var. I ' Robinia v~scosa, 28 Robinia ai,sco.sa Hartuigii, 25 28 Robinias, shrubby, Rosebay, l~ \"I,ad_v Arm- stronP,'~ Sargent, Henry ~'., 23 16 23 Rhododendron maximum, > >, plates facm~ pp. lz, ~~ Rhododendron \"Mrs. C.S.Sar- Viburnums, winter hardiness, Waterer, Anthony, 21, Winter of 198 3-3 f, 29 l~ ~;ent,\" 23 Rhododendron ponticum,1 I Winter hardiness of trees and shrubs growing in the Arnold Rhododendron Purpureum Purpureum 13 Arboretum, 29-47, 53-60 ele~ans,\" 23 Rhododendron Winter-injured trees and shrubs, treatment of, 4.i Witch-hazel, Ozark, 1 grandiflorum,\" 70 "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23489","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e856e.jpg","title":"1934-4","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1934,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23970","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070816e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS The numbers in brackets are the corrected page numbers Alectoria chalybeiformis [16] Arnold Arboretum, map showing approaches, 23 Buellia disciformis, [16] Calicium lenticulare, [16] Caloplaca aurantiaca, [16] Campsis chinensis, 3 Campsis radicans, 3 Campsis Tagliabuana, 3 Campsis Tagliabuana var. Mme Galen, plate facing page 4. Cetraria pinastri, [16] Cladonia pyxidate, [16] Clematis americana flore phoeniceo, 42 Dirca palustris, 27 Evernia prunastri, [16] Fothergill, Dr. John, 62 Fothergilla major, plate facing page 62 Graphis scripta, [15] Hydrangea petiolaris, 54 Leeanora subfusea, [15] Leitneria floridana, 46 Lobaria pulmonaria, [16] Opegrapha varia, [15] Parmelia caperata, [15] Parmelia saxatilis, [15] Pertusaria velata, [15] Physcia stellaris, [15] Prunus serrulata var. spontanea, 30, 31 Pterocarya Rehderiana, 59 Pyrenula nitida, [16] Ramalina calicaris, [15] Rinodina sophodes, [16] Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 55 Tilia glabra, 35 Usnea dasopoga, [15] Usnea trichodea, [15] Xanthoria parietina, [16]"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Trumpet-creepers","article_sequence":"1-2","start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23983","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d2608927.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. I JANUARY 15, 198~ NUMBERS 1 & 2 Trumpet-Creepers. THERE are three parts of the world where Trumpet-creepers grow in abundance. In the central and southern United States, the American Trumpet-creeper is one of the commonest sights of early summer. It carpets the rocky embankments of railroads and highways; it runs up fence posts, launching its orange-red flowers well out into the light and air; in the edge of rich floodplain woods it grows rampantly and climbs to the tops of trees and bushes. On the plains of Texas it is dwarfed, often growing without any support, more like an unkempt shrub than a true vine. Like the American robin, it rejoices in civilization and is probably a more common species today than it was before the country was first settled. It takes to fence rows like a song sparrow. In many parts of the South it has actually become a weed in plowed fields. The storage roots remain far underground, too deep for an ordinary plow. Whenever the top is cut back the roots send up a new crop of branches and so the plants manage to hold their own year after year though they may seldom or never flower. Halfway around the world the Chinese Trumpet-creeper is found in very similar situations, so much so that its original home does not seem to be known, though it was very probably central China. It is today a common ornamental vine in Chinese towns and villages, occasionally becoming a weed, as does its American cousin. It is a vine or semi-shrub, running up to six or eight feet in height. In the semitropical climate of southern China its main flowering period is in early summer and it then blossoms intermittently, a few flowers at a time, during the rest of the season. The third region in which Trumpet-creepers are common is southern Massachusetts, particularly in the neighborhood of Cape Cod. The vines which grow there are for the most part hybrids between the American and Chinese species. Most appropriately for man-made varieties they do not take to fields and woodlands as did their wild progenitors, though they make themselves very much at home in the situations where they have been planted. They climb over houses, barns, outbuildings, and garden fences, in complete abandon, their orange-red flowers harmonizing well with the silvery gray of the weathered shingles. It does not seem to be at all generally realized that these Trumpet-vines of our Massachusetts gardens are not the true American species, but are of hybrid origin. Were it not for the several striking characteristics by which the two species differ it might be difficult, if not impossible, to distinguish in every case between the two species and their hybrid derivatives. The outstanding differences between the species are shown in the accompanying plate. They may be summarized as follows: American Trumpet-Creeper (Campsis radicans Seem.) Leaves hairy beneath, along the veins Flower tubular Sepals relatively short Petal lobes small Flowers usually orange-red Flower cluster compact Aerial roots common Vines up to thirty feet long Chinese Trumpet-Creeper (Campsis chinensis Voss.) Leaves smooth beneath Flower bell-shaped Sepals relatively long Petal lobes large Flowers usually scarlet-red Flower cluster open Aerial roots rare Vines up to ten feet long The immediate hybrids, those of the so-called first hybrid generation, are intermediate in all these characteristics as is shown in Plate 1. Their seedlings are a variable lot and include many which superficially resemble one parent or the other. The two species differ in their hardiness, or at least their cultivated representatives do so. Campsis radicans is completely hardy in the Arboretum but although plants of C. chinensis have been grown, and for that matter have flowered, they have eventually died out during cold winters. At Flushing, Long Island, in the old Parson's Nursery there was for many years a large specimen of the Chinese species which received no winter protection in its later years. As in the case of Magnolias and many other woody plants, well established specimens seem to be hardier than young seedlings. Though many of our Massachusetts vines are garden varieties of hybrid origin, little seems to be known as to where they were produced or by whom. They probably came into being in a number of places, as the two species cross readily and are often grown from seed. Both species have been in cultivation in European gardens for over a century and there have been many opportunities for the production of hybrids. The American species has been in cultivation in England since at least 1640; the Chinese species was introduced in 1800. They are not often cultivated in northern Europe since the climate is a little too cool, but in southern France and in Italy they are common features of parks and gardens. Whether the first hybrids were intentional or merely a happy accident we cannot say. It is quite possible they may have been an accident, if the experiments made some years ago at the Botanical Garden in Washington are at all representative. Noticing that both species then in flower in the garden were being repeatedly visited by humming birds, W. R. Smith collected the seeds which set naturally on the vines and raised a number of seedlings. All of them were hybrids, brought about by the cross-pollinating agencies of bees and humming birds. The first published reference to the hybrids was in 1859 when an Italian botanist, Roberto de Visiani, described them and differentiated them from the parental species. He gave the hybrids the name Tecoma Tagliabuana in honor of the brothers Tagliabue, \"de horticultura italica optime meritis, et a quibus novam ignolaeque originis plantam acceptem refero,\" to quote from the original dedication. The hybrids are nearly as fertile as the parental species and from them have sprung a host of secondary hybrids, grandchildren of the original cross and back-crosses to the American and Chinese species. They combine the characteristics of the two species in various ways and are common in cultivation, though most of them masquerade in nursery catalogues as varieties of the American trumpet-creeper. Such, for instance, is the \"Bignonia radicans grandiflora atropurpurea\" of catalogues and horticultural literature. When carefully examined the influence of C. chinensis can be seen in the longer sepals and in the more open flower clusters. Only one of the hybrids in the Arboretum collection is really outstanding, the named variety, \"Mme. Galen\". It comes very near to uniting the best qualities of both species. Like the American Trumpet-creeper, it is hardy in New England. Like the Chinese species, it has large and flaring flowers ; like that species, too, is its flower cluster with the brilliant flowers set well apart so that they show to best advantage. While it is occasionally seen in eastern gardens it is almost unknown in the middle West, where Trumpet-creepers grow unusually well. It is a splendid ornamental vine and is deserving of far wider recognition in American gardens. In planting Trumpet-creepers it should be remembered that they are a little slow in establishing themselves; they should not be placed where they will have to compete with more vigorous vines or shrubs during the first few years. Once they are well established they have amazing vigor and will profit by heavy pruning, especially so if a good showing of flowers is desired. The vines bloom on wood of the current season's growth and for that reason one does not sacrifice even one season of blossom by cutting them back severely. They sometimes sucker freely from the widespread roots and may become troublesome unless they are kept within bounds. Trumpet-creepers show to their best advantage in a garden if they are trained to a post and are headed back even with the top of the post every spring. Treated in this manner they throw out a thicket of young branches each year, which becomes a brilliant bouquet of flowers during the middle of the summer. In the right setting a row of such pillar, would be very effective m a formal garden. Trumpet-creepers are easily propagated. They grow well from seed, though the seedlings resent shifting about and should be kept as long as possible in the same pot. Desirable varieties such as \"Mme Galen\" can be propagated either from hardwood cuttings or by top-grafting on to large plants of the commoner varieties. NOMENCLATORIAL NOTE The Trumpet-Creepers have had the misfortune to be classified under three genera, Bignonia, Tecoma, and Campsis. For technical reasons the Arboretum prefers the latter name, though many botanists still use Tecoma. Tecoma radicans Juss., and Campsis radicans Seem., are different names for the same species, the American Trumpet-creeper. The Chinese species is known as Tecoma grandiflora Loisel, or Campsis chinensis Voss. The hybrid is called Tecoma Tagliabuana Vis., Tecoma hybrida Jouin, as well as Campsis Tagliabuana (Vis.) Rehd., the name preferred by the Arnold Arboretum. Edgar Anderson The River Birch, (Betula nigra). Although it is one of our commoner American trees, common at least in terms of the total number of individuals and of its wide natural distribution, the River Birch is almost unknown to the general public. Though flourishing under cultivation, it has been so seldom planted that its remarkable hardiness and adaptability to adverse conditions, even in smoky cities, have passed unnoticed. This is probably due to the fact that the species grows naturally only along river banks and in the lowest parts of floodplains. Found only in such situations it is seldom seen except by hunters, fishermen, trappers, and those few naturalists who prowl through the dense thickets and tangled vines of floodplain woodlands. Nor could those who knew the tree in its native haunts have predicted how well it would behave under cultivation. For not only does it stand transplanting to higher and dryer ground, but it is very tolerant as to soil conditions and has a resistance to smoke injury scarcely equaled by any other American tree. Fortunately, in a few places the River Birch has been brought into cultivation. Seed for the Arnold Arboretum plantations was collected at Lowell, Massachusetts, in 1877. The resulting seedlings have grown into a fine group of trees. The largest of these trees is over three feet in diameter at the base and sixty feet in height. Though nearby White Birches and other species have been badly infested with borers and with blight, the River Birches have been practically unharmed. Along the Metropolitan Speedway, on the banks of the Charles River, there is a beautiful row of River Birches nearly a quarter of a mile in length. The situation is a difficult one for any tree. Before the construction of the Charles River Basin, that part of Boston was a salt marsh, and the subsoil is still so salty that Elms and Swamp Maples cannot be grown there. By a happy inspiration the Park Commissioners about twenty years ago tried out the River Birch with most satisfactory results, both as to the hardiness of the trees and the landscape effect. The trees are thickly planted, and today they are about twenty or twenty-five feet in height and one to two feet in diameter. They are thrifty and do not appear to have been in any degree retarded by the salt. In St. Louis, Missouri, one of the smokiest cities in the United States, the River Birch grows luxuriantly in the Botanical Garden and in the city parks, in situations too smoky for most of our native trees. The River Birch is widely distributed in the eastern and central United States, and m many places, e5pecally in the southwestern part of its range, it is the only native species of Birch. It occupies a belt mainly south of that of the White or Paper Birch, although the two overlap in New England and across the northern part of the United States. It grows naturally from New Hampshire to central Florida, and westward to eastern Nebraska and to the Brazos River in Texas. In New Hampshire and Massachusetts it is confined to the drainage basins of a few of the larger rivers, and it does not again occur north of Long Island. It is also absent from most of the Allegheny Mountain region. In the middle states the River Birch often becomes a large tree, up to eighty or ninety feet in height, and with a trunk diameter at the base of five or six feet. But it is usually much smaller, and it sometimes only attains the size of a small shrub when growing in thickets, especially towards the northwestern limits of its range. Trees seen in cultivation sometimes have a single, erect, trunk and a rounded but irregular crown, but the trunk is more often deflexed, and in a wild state it is commonly divided a few feet above the base into several stout, divergent branches, which ramify into many spreading branches, terminated by slender, pendulous branchlets. The trunk and larger branches are covered with a loose or ragged papery bark, of a silvery gray color, marked with short, horizontal dark lines. This gradually scales off, revealing the pale, pinkish inner bark on the upper branches. The striking and picturesque appearance of the trees is largely due to this characteristic bark as well as to the graceful, drooping branchlets. The rhombic or ovate leaves, about one and a half to two inches long and one to two inches broad, are feather-veined, with double-serrate margins, and sometimes with several pairs of short triangular lobes. When they first appear, rather late in spring, they are gray and silky, and they remain on the branches until late in the autumn, when they become bright yellow. The staminate catkins are formed in the autumn and remain dormant through the winter in clusters of two or three at the ends of the branchlets. They are slender, cylindrical, an inch or less in length, and of a chestnut-brown color. The pistillate catkins are shorter and stouter and appear in spring, remaining on until the seeds are matured in late summer. The Latin name, Betula nigra, signifying Black Birch, is rather misleading, as another species, Betula lenta, is sometimes known as the Black Birch. Furthermore the name River Birch, which seems most appropriate is the most widely known. Betula nigra is called Red Birch in some sections of the country. Growing on the immediate banks of streams, the River Birch frequently overhangs the water, on the surface of which it may be reflected, and the silhouette of its shaggy trunk and graceful branches seen in the open vistas of the river often adds a striking touch of beauty to the landscape, and suggests the possibility of similar effects for planting along the margins of ponds or lakes. Though the River Birch may be too ragged and unsymmetrical for general planting along streets and avenues, it should not remain neglected and unknown. For as Michaux observes in his North America Sylva, \"If the good properties of the Birch are not brilliant, they are at least numerous and useful\". EDGAR ANDERSON ERNEST J. PALMER EXPLANATION OF PLATES Plate I, page 3. Campsis Tagliabuana, Campsis radicans and Campsis chinensis. (Drawing by Blanche Ames Ames.) Insert Plate. Campsis Tagliabuana var. Mme. Galen. (Drawing by Blanche Ames Ames.)"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Lichens","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23974","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260a728.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Raup, Hugh M.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION --~ --- 'I!t SERIES 4. VOL. I MARCH 15, 1~:3~ NUMBER 3 FOR those whose interest extends to the lichens which the trunks and branches of trees, this issue of the Bulletin has been prepared. There are probably about fifty different kinds of lichens to be found growing on Massachusetts trees. Consequently the e notes here presented make no pretense to completeness, but it is believ ed that they cover the commoner species. LCHFNS. hrow on Lichens were long thought to be \"individuals' ~ in the plant kingdom after the manner of mosses, fungi, and the higher plants. But with the development of the mwroscope and the re5ultina investigation of minute structures they have proven to be dual beings consisting of algae and fungi growingtu~ether m a curious interrelationship apparently for mutual benefit. '1'he present tendency is to maintain them as a separate group. Most lichens are So constructed that they are largely independent of the soil as a source of water and nutrient salts. Thet absorb moisture, whether it be in the form of rain, mist, or water vapor, with extraordinari- ease and rapidity from the air or from the surface upon which the~ live, so that from a tinder-dry quiescent state in which they barely exist they may become turgid and active almost instantly under the influence of a light rain. Along with water they absorb large quantities of carbon dioxide from the air, and both are utilized by the green or blue-green algal constituents in the manufacture of the starchy materials upon which the whole plant lives. So far as is known reproduction is nearly alway vegetative, by spores or by the breaking off of portions of the lichen plant or thallu~ to term new colonies. ,ubstrata Unless they lie flat on rocks or soil, lichens are held closely to their by minute threads or rhtzoid5 which penetrate small inter- 1 wood. Some species are so thin and permeate the bark so completely as almost to appear part of it. It would seem then and such proves to be the case - that large foliose species should be expected upon trees with deepl~- fissured bark to which their comparativ ely large rhizoids can cling, while crustose forms which actually penetrate the outer yurfaces of the cork might be found most commonly on smooth-barked trees. Another factor beside the necessity for a holdtast must be considered, however. Trees whose bark is much broken h~cr.acks and crevices hold much more water on their surfaces than ~mooth-barl,ed ones, and so offer a distinct attraction for plants which are forced to utilize atmospheric moisture. Due in part to long periods of inactivity in dry weather, and in part, probably, to inherent qualities of the plants themselves, lichen growth is extremely slow. Some of the common foliose species will add a quarter of an inch to their diameter in one year, while others have been observed over periods covering fully twenty-five years without showing preceptible increase in size. In many trees the bark changes from a smooth to fissured condition with age so that there is a pro~ressi<m of lichen species whose requirements differ. The fact that most of the lichens are usually found on the lower ten to twenty feet of a tree is probably due not only to more suitable atmospheric conditions near the ground but also to the presence higher up of the younger, less fissured bark which offers less purchase for holdfasts and less surface moisture. stices of bark or ~'hatevPr the lichens may take from the bark itself is not known to do any damage to the trees, although st should be noted that they are most abundant on trees which are not in a healthv condition. That lichens are Sensitiv e to minute di$eremcev in the coutent of the atnumphere is shown by the common observation that they are almost entirely absent from the neighborhood of large cities. This seems to be due in part to the presence of coal smoke with its accompanying ~,rases which have been found h.~rmful even in small quantities. e Certain l~chew have been \"known\" from time immemorial to ha~ medicinal properties. A few such as the Iceland DZovs,Celrnrin i.slnudicrr, are still in use. Some species contain purple, yellow, and green pigments which are easily extracted to make good d~-estutls. Lwhem attain their greatest importance to man, however, in the treeless arctic and subarctic parts of the globe where fruiticose or \"bunch\" lichens, known as \"reindeer mowe5\", <ov er large areas to make natural tiwaye for vast herd5 of reindeer and caribou. Hrcu M. RmY .) PLATE I PLATE II PLATE III PLATE IV EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES PLATE I. n. Rnmar.rvn cm.icAxm bark. Color gray (L.) or Rohl. Nat. si~e. green. L'sually on on ruuhh rough pale b. L'sNH:n nnsv Yoc . Rohl. Nat. size. Usuall~- found trees. Color ;,pra~ to pale green. old r. Orr.t;traNnn vnxra 1'er.s. x4. Forms a thin whitish crust smooth bark. Fructifications black. d. GR.~rttrs crust scxtrra on on ~L.) Aoh. x3. Thallus a thin white or smooth bark. Fructifications black. grayish Lt;cnNOxa St-nH escn (L. ~ Aoh. x4.. Thallus a rather thick, fissured crust on rough or smooth bark, gray or pale green. Fructifications brown or black, with margins colored like the thallus. f. Pr~x-rc~snxr.v vH;r.naa (Turu.~ :~Jl. x1. Thallus thin, or in a~;P thick and fissured, whitish or pale green. The fructifications are in the shallow, lighter-colored, and often powdery de- pres5iom. PLATE II. rr. Clsur;n on ram HonFA branches, spxe-bearin~~ Ach. Nat. size. Forms pale green festoons usually on old trees. The small disks are the organs. b. The same. r~. c. 1'axvtr.r.tv Aoh. Nat. size. Very common on rough-barked L'pper surface straw-colored, usually toward the margin ; lower surface black,with black rhipaler zoidv. Fructifications (not appearin~ on this specunen~ reddish-brown disks with pale rims, much like those of the caNt;ua-rn (L.) trees. following. d. PAxniFt.rA LTpper surface e. Ach. Nat. size. L'sually on rou~h bark. pale green ; lower surface and rhizoids blac1.. Fructifications reddish-brown with pale rims. snYnTrr.rs (L. ~ gray or Ymsxm to (L.~ ~%yl. Y:~. Csuall`- on rou~h l>ark. Cray with white under surface and rhizoids. Fructipale green, fications w ith dark brown or blaol: disks. s~rtct.t am, , 7 PLATE III. rr. Ct.AUOxIA Pixroa'ra (L.) Flo,~'rra. Nat. size. Common on the bases of tree trunks. Thallus of many smalllobes which mossy are pale green or darker above and the cups are usually pale green, sometimes with small dark brown spore-bearin;,r or;,pans on their rims. white beneath ; h. ALH:('1'ORIA ('HAI,1 RI~:IFORMIS (L. ) II'Oltl. x ~. Branches usually ,tiff, dark brown, and rather shiny. The small white bodies on them are vegetative reproductive organs, or sorPdia. c. Y~Rr:Nw,A nrrmA (Weig.) Aclr. x~. The thallus, usually on smooth bark, is a gray to pale green crust. Fructifications i>lacl;. rl. C>'rRARrA NrnA,'rxr (LScop.) liolrl. Y3. L'suallc on rough bark. Thallus lobes green or straw-colored above, with the yellow under surface often rolled up at the edge, so that the lobes appear to have yellwv borders. f. RHI1BoUINA sopHODKs (~4r\/;.) jM~t.s'.!. x~. On smooth or rough bark. Thallus a thin, gray to brown, granular crust. Fruotifications dark brown or black, with margins colored like the thallus. XaN'rnoRm YaRr>,:~wA f: (L.) Behrnn~. x3. The whole plant oran;,re-<olmred. YL.~Th: IV. n. Lot;vRrA t>r LMO~ARrA (L. ) IFq~rn. N.rt. slze. L'sually on damp bark in rich woods. Grayish brown fructifications. b. H;w:RmA NRrivAS~'RI ori'ellowish Sue. green, with reddi5h- (L.) .4clr. ;~at. 1'ale \",rr:r~'-rrreen or straw-colored,usually on rou~'h bark. Rarely found with fruit. c. BeFI.c.IA crust mscm'oeM on Mudcl. x-I. Tlrrtllus a gray or gray-green smooth bark. Fruotific.ItionS black. d. CALOm.AOA AuRAN'riA( a Th.Fr. x:3. TOalluS a yellowi5h to ~ra`or whitish crust on rough or smooth barl.. Fructification5 orange to e. saffron, with paler rims. CAt.lcmM LH:N~'mrI.ARF Fr. Y-1. Thallus a thin white or gray often not evident. The black or dark brown sporecrust, bearin\", or~ans are on the Slender black stipes. L'suall~- on cle~ltl wood. .8 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Shrubs","article_sequence":4,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23980","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260bb26.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION -------- SERIES 4. VOL. I APRIL 18, 193:3 NUMBER 4 :~1'-1'RAC-I'IVh: IN LA-1'E ~'VINTh:R AND I'.ARI.I SI'RIB(:. FI:W, are the shrubs which are as attractive the first week in March as they were at Christmas time. As cold waves come and go, berries shrivel and lose their color, leaves reputedlyever`\"~reen turn brown and wither, or drop off altogether. Of all the shrubs plante<I frn' their winter effect only two classes Ilolcl their own as winter advances towards early spring ; those few species which flower in the w inter and secondly those such as the willows and osiers whose winter interest is due to the color of the young twigs. These actuallt- brighten as spring appro:uhes and by the first week uf March even the b.lre Ur:uwhes uf the I~orst'thia bushes lend a clistinctly yellow tune to the lanclsoape. ~IiR(;ISS indeed, The ~re.lt bulk of shrubs which at one time or :mntller h:me been 'recommended for their wmtereNeet owe that reemmmenclutiun either to everrreen leaves or ,rttr.ICtive fruits. A few of these species do not properly belong on any such lmt, .r, f.lr as New L:n~lun<l is cmuernecl, since they lose their I>eauty with the first killing frost. The `~re:lt nmjority certse to be eHectivafter a se~ ere colcl w,me, l3y e:Irly JI.IrcII onlyafew are left witll unblemished reput.ltion,. The t~>llmvin`~ II,t wa, m:ule on DI.Irrh Ia, 1~:3:3. It does not pretend tc: l>e ccnnplete though an attempt has been made to inclucle all the out,tnnclinrr \"winter shrubs\" in the collections of the Arboretum. It is :m attempt to ~.iw :l vi`~orou, spring house cle:min~r to the list of l>erriecl ancl eB'Pt;,a'Pel1 shrubs. Too muoll wei~rht should not be `~iven to tlli, sin`~le rating, however. 1~o two wiuters are .Ilike ancl while that of 1N:31_:3:3 nmv be taken as near the w-er:yre, many of the shrubs on these lists woulcl bell:me differently In another winter, or if planted in a different po,itinn. li ~ ] The author will be glad to hear from any readers of the Bulletin whose experience with any of these shrubs does not agree with the ratin~ on the present lists. SHRUBS ~''ITH ATTR4l'TIVF FRUITS. Rosrr Heleurre. Fruits practically uninjured, very attractive. Ro.sn rnrzlt~torn. Fruits attractive but not quite so effective as R. Helezrae. Ro.ea rmuinn. Fruits attractive, a few discolore<l. ,4ronin. Fruits lr.tdly witherecl, partreularly the wurieties with recl fruits. Varieties with black fruits not unattractive. Yibnrzzuzn Wriba\/~lii. Fruits witlzerecl but a elear darlc recl. Yibrrruum Wrigl~lii var. He.r.rei. Like Y'. 6G'riglrtii 1>ut the fruits slightly more conspicuous. Fruits very var. Vibrrrnuzn.Sargezzli. Yiburnzrm .Srrrgerzli practically rone. Ir.ully f:rdecl, color pr:wtically done. Fruits very Ir.ully t:ulecl, color Yiburzzum Irilobum. I ruits v ery b:ully faclecl, color practically gone. Crr~trregu.s. Fruith all tallen. Berberis Fruits witlterecl but attr:tctive. Berberi.s !'hunbergii. Fruits brirht ancl attractive, tr.crtly tallen. Ribe.r frrsciwrlnlrrm ~:vr. (IzrIlPItrP. Pruit, sliylttly fu:te.l, but per_ sistent arul nttractive. The list of berriecl shrubs which were reallyeffective by reasun uf the color of their berries can be reduced to three, the BIultiHora Rcr,es, the Chinese Currant, :zncl 1'iburnunr W'riglrtii. ~I:y~ of the otlmr rose species were more or less attr.zctive ; the wild European \"Do~r lto,e\", Ro.so mninrr, hacl I:ept a gooclly t~roportion of its briyht fruit~ un<l nuyof them were still a cleur and attr:utive red, but on li. rrrll~flora, ancl to au even greater extent on the closely related species, N. IlelennP, the fruits seemed quite :ns attractive as they had I~een in the t:cll. Ro.en HelPZZnP is a remarknl>le little rose wortlt ~~rowin~ tiw its Huwers anct tVi.Ige its well as for the persistent fruits. The flowers are such a tr.tle pink in color a, to be practicallywhite ; they are small, scurcely lar~er than one's thumb nail, but they are profusely horne in lar~~e corymb,. Yiburuzrnr Wrighlii :mcl its more <lwarf warietyHexs~Piareevcellentshrubs and should 1>e better known. Although it wa, introduced from Jap:m It It:m over forty years a~o, l'. Wrigl~lii is not at all commmly clean folia~e, an attractive shape, and the abundant wltite Howers are followecl byclark red fruits which contrast sllarply with the 1>lack la'unches. ~rown. 18 SHRLTBS V~'ITH EVERGREEN LRAVES. Bu,ru.r .remperuirerr.r. Tips burned, leaves partly brow-ned. Bu.rn.s microphJllrr var. ~orerrrra. Leaves somewhat reddish in general tone, but not unsi~htly. Bu.rus microphr~lla var. jnporrica. Leaves tin~ed with 3-ellovrish red. Erou~rrau.s jnponicn. Leaves brown and t-ellovs-, unsightly. Eron~rnu.s rndicnu.v var. regeta. llore or less ln-uts-necl, depending upon situation. ~:ron,yrrra.s rnrlionu.svar. Cnrrierei. Leaves attractive. brots-nish green, not un- 7:'rou~mn.s radionn.r \"Little Gem\". t'nsi~htlt-. ~;uorr,~rrau.r rrnlicrru.s var. rrrinimrr. Brown at tips of hranches. Eton~mu.s rrulicvrrr.s vrtr. pictrr. Some leaves fallen. lle.u rugo.sn. Foliage undama`~ed. (Specimen low and pmbalrly entirely protected hy the snwv~. Ile.e ererrrrtn wtr. corrue.urr. Attractive, an occasional yellow- ttp here and there. Ile.n ~uuunnen.sis. Ra~`yed attpe:tr:tuce, lem~es partly tallen, others d:irl, bruw-n. lle.n opnorr. ~.~11 mld, well estal>lislterl speoimen,) cle:tr and attr:tctiv e ttrlm~~e. 1\/er glrrbrn. In excellent cundttu t, quite as heauttful as when it entered the w inter. Knlmin rtugrr.etif'olirr. Le:m es unltarmed, attrmtise in colmr. linlnrin Irrlifolin. Lenve, in p uol cunditiun. LPrroollro'e C'nle.rbrrei..~Sn occasitmal leaf tallen, fvlnt~~e attr:tiw. l3erbrri.s,lulinnrre. Foli:a\"e:tttr:wtise, purplt,h yreen:m<l red, sumc leme, tallen but yymrently nm more than had f:tllen ly- Clsri,tmas time. Berberi.ot~Pr-r'r(tt(IO.RIr. PGli:t~real>sulutelyuncl:tm:yed,ut>per,les`sf le:m es a little d:trl;er tlmn in the sununertime, tlterebc <nmtr:r,tin~~ eHectively w-ith the gr:yish green lower surface5. Berberi.s Irintvrufhoplrorrr. Foliage red and green, attr:tctise. 11'Inl~onirr rPpPU.s. I~ulia;-Ye t>urned sumew-lott alxnethe wum line, but in better cuu<litiun than the neet on the lmt. ilCrrlronirt Aqrriftlirrnr. Foliage lr.tdly l>urnecl in l>laces, umi`~htl~'. X ~llrrlroberberi.s B'PUberli. Br:tncltes pr:tic:tlly b:we. 1'rrcl~i.slirrrrr rrrJr.rirrile.s~. 13:lls- ltrvw-necl almve the sn`m~ line. lilrotlotlendrou l~ir.rrrlnm. Leaves unl>lemislted. a little Audrornetln glnrrcoplrr~llrr. Leaves d:trk pur~-`~reen abov e, r:t~rrecl. 9. Rlradoclerrdron. condition. trnctice. (Jfant- cultivRted varieties~. Foliage in excellent pl;tees, but still at- Arcto.rtaphJlo.r rrra-ur.vi. Folia~e clarl: red in l'aceiairrm Yili.s-itlaea. Foli.ye nttracti~e. Pieri.s ,floribrrrnln ~Arrtlrorrrecla ,~loributlcr~. Lew es clarl: green, in excellent condition. Heclera lreli.r var. balti(vr. Some leaves purplish green, the youn~~;er grolvtlv l)rolvned in places. I'acl;r~.sarrdra lerrrrirrali.s. Leaves somewhat yellow-~reen in general tone. A few leaves drnppe<l, thnse purplish green. Colouea.rter hori_ontali.s. Berries <lroppe(l, leaves withered, some l)ushes unsi~rhtly-. Cotonea.rter Frarrcheli. Some of the le:wes cliscolore<l, berries un- Cotorrerra~ter .snlicjf'olia var. flocco.sa. were an ren)uinin~ attructive attrnctive. Colorrea.ster uaicrophJlla. Lem~es all burne(1 and un,i~rhtly. 1'wo of the shrubs on tltis lmt were so l)e:mtiful as to cleserve more than Imssin~T mention. Our native Inl.l)erry, Ile.r glabrrr, whose rnerits were set fimth year after year p Professor Sargent, is still not as well knolvn ns it should be. There is something almost like classical ornnment in the refinement of its darl: green lea~ es and ~~raceful brancltes. A tour of the Arboretum', collections in late winter, as the alxwe list e I)ears lvitne,s, slmws many srorclted leales and lr,tre 1)rnnches, but the iv quite :m <lear and clean :mcl lwtrou, m wlren the winter Iakberrt' beran. more attractive than from western Cltina. The e low, compact t)arl)erry leaves are smnll and cLrsely set, appearin~ smnewlutt like mini:vture hollt' leaves. '1'hey are a dnrk ~,lnssy green nlxme, contrvstin~~ attr:rc_ tively with the dull ~~r:y green of the lower surtiues. One of the ArUoretum's specimens, set on.m eyxrse<l ledge belirll- the Ot;erlmrl. had ,mur,t selere test but came tltrou~1 the winter un,cartlte<l. nelver nmne were Among the intr(r<luctions Berberis rerruculo.ra, a EU(;.1R ABnF:RS()B 20 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"How to Reach the Arnold Arboretum","article_sequence":5,"start_page":21,"end_page":23,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23968","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070b76b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"HO~' TO REACH THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM The Arnold Arboretum covers over 260 acres and visitors will be saved needless inconvenience if they can find out before their vi5it, the apt~rovimate location of what they wish to see. The main features of the Arboretum and their relation to the main automobile routes and the street car lines are shown, somewhat diagramatically, on the accompanying map. The Administration Buildlllg [ A' on the map] houses the Library and Herbarium, while the Laboratories and Greenhouses [not open to the general public] are approximately half a mile away at `D'..Asicle from the Dl:yrnolia collection, which is near the Administration Building, the showiest displays of spring and earlt- summer are in the central part of the Arboretum. ~Iost visitors are tamilirtrwith the sltrul collection and the nearly-lilacs, but many visitors miss altogether three of the most interesting collections in the Arboretum. These are 1, the Chinese plants on the Overlook, 2, the unusu,l shrubs alon`~ the Centre Street path ~`B' on the map~ and 3, the largest collection of flowerin`~ apple; and pear; at the base of Peter's Hill ~`P' on the map~. For visitors coming ly automobile there is on week days at least, ample parking space near all the entrances and by studying the map one can find which entrance is nearest to the collections which are to be visited. 1'he new four lane highway to Providence Ernsses rtlon~ one side of the Arlx~retum and the main route to Cry>e Cotl goes :vl`my another side. ViSitor; who cume t>r-wy-nf the elevatetley~tem will I>e glad to leurn that there is now a l>us line running from Jamaica Plain rvlmu`~route No. 1 which goes directly paet the Centre Street Gate ~II1~ from wlticlt tlte most interesting lr,trt; of the Arboretum can be reached with a minimum of e$i>rt. Those coming by street car will find ltelpful the little-wed path under the tailr<r.ul at the lr.t,e mf Hmnlm~l. Hill. 5urface c,r, can be taken along -ashin~rtoa by getting uH,tt Arboretum Rvr.ul ~`1:' mn the maty there is <mly.t vhort Irluch t`> wall.. Stree~ul 21 1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Leatherwood (Dirca palustris)","article_sequence":6,"start_page":25,"end_page":27,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23973","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260a326.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ; ~ + , ~ BULLETIN ----- OF POPULAR INFORMATION ---- SERIES 4. VOL. I ~ ~~ APRIL 29, 1933 NUMBER 5 --- the snow and rain of the Leatherwood. Since into flower, one blossom at a late March it time, and now in mid-April is a beautiful sight. The graceful little flowers of waxy yellow-green hang in groups of three along the dark, zig-zag branches. Bud-scales and young leaves arch protectingly above the flower clusters, and if the bush as a whole is not very conspicuous, it has at least an unusual perfection of small detail and a general air of quality and finish. even LATI-IERWOOD (Dirca ~alustrisy. this year's tardy discouraged No~~ spring have has been slowly creeping though the flowers may be, the species is well deserving of popular name as anyone will find who attempts to gather the flowering twigs without a sharp knife. The branches are surpri5ingl~- limber and the bark is tough and strong. One can actually tie the twigs in bow knots. If one attempts to snap off a branch quickly the wood itDelicate Its self may break and separate from the bark. It may even come away altogether, leaving the startled flower-gatherer with a perfectly bare twig in his hand and on the bush, dangling like an empty glove, the bark with its flowers and leaves still intact. This remarkable fibrous bark has never been put to use in commercial quantities though it was known to the Indians and the early pioneers are said to have used it for cordage. Its various common names, Leatherwood, Thongwood, Thongbark, Wickopy and Ropewood, show that its peculiar qualities were at least well known if not extensivelp used. most , Though seldom found growing in great abundance it is one of the widelsdistributed American shrubs, for it is native from the Province of Quebec south to the Appalachicola River in Florida and west 25 far as Missouri and Oklahoma. It grows in a variety of soils and under a diversity of conditions, though usually it avoids limestone. It is often found in the vicinity of water, so prevailin~;ly so that one of its common names is Swampwood. In New England it prefers cool, damp woods; in Missouri and Indiana it is found most commonly on sandstone outcrops along creeks and rivers. as Its wide tolerance of different soils and situations should help to make as a shrub for the small garden. It is not particularly to be sure, but it blossoms in the very early spring, and conspicuous, the flowering branches make dainty table decorations. The foliage is clear and clean looking and while the bush may not grow rapidly that very fact may be a point in its favor. A bush of Leatherwood will always stay in the picture and never get too large for the frame in which it has been planted. Only two points can be raised in its disfavor. The branches are so lax that on old specimens, such as those along the Lilac Path at the Arnold Arboretum, they will be bent down and cracked open by heavy snows. The other objection to the Leatherwood is that like many garden plants, the daffodil for instance, it contains a poisonit better known ous principle. qualities of the Leatherwood have not been extensively investigated. It is known that the bark and young fruits, taken internally are a violent purhative and that mashed up and made into a poultice they will even blister the skin. I,aatherwood has sometimes been used as a medicine though it is not officially recognized as a drug plant. Little could be added today to the account which Dr. Bigelow published in his \"Medical Botany\" over a century ago and which the worthy Doctor concluded with the following comments, \"I have introduced the Dirca in this place not so much because it has been yet applied to any medical purpose of great importance, but because it The poisonous a would be improper, in a work like the present, to pass over unnoticed shrub of such decided activity\". EDGAR ANDERSON 26 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":7,"start_page":28,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23976","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260ab6c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"PLANTS OF CL'RRFNr INTEREST. THE is better known to Daphne, closely related Eurasian genus, gardeners than the American genus Dirca. Like the latter, it is made up of low, much-branched shrubs with tough, fibrous bark and a tendency to winter or spring flowering. Daphue Crreorurzz, which is being very much planted in American gardens, is only one of fifteen or twenty species which at one time or anotherhave been in cultivation. For the most part they do not take kindly to New England. The old-fashioned Mezereum, scientifically known as D. Me~ereunz, is an outstanding exception to this generalization. It has even run wild in some parts of New England, and has this year done unusually well in the Arboretum where a large planting of it can be seen next to the collection of Dircn pnlustris on the Lilac drive. (iardeners who know only D. Cneorum may at first sight believe that there is some mistake in the label. Although the flowers resemble that species in being pink and fragrant, they are borne so differently on the branches that the plant is given quite a different aspect. While the flowers have as usual been more or less injured by the cold, wet weather, they have provided a show of bright color for nearly a month and have at all times been deliciously- fragrant. and (April ?~~ the Forsythias, Magnolias, which have been held back by the tardy early flowering Cherries, season, are just coming into bloom. Unless there is a killing frost they should provide a fine display during the first week in May. At the moment of writin~; EUGAR ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Dirca palustris, Natural size. Fig. Fig. 1. Young flower, three times natural size. 2. Mature flower, three times natural size. (llrct~eoing by Blanr)ze Ames rimea. J 28 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23977","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260af6c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~~ T BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION -------- ~ --- ~ ~ SERIES 4. VOL. I - MAY 12, 1983 --- NUMBER ~ 6 -------- ---- oH cuau~.NT tNr~:RES~r. Ymx and white are now the but colors at the Arboretum. The azaleas are not there is no lack of bloom, for the flowering cherries and crabapples are mounds of pmk and white. Earlier in the month the finest show of cherry bloom was near the Forest Hills Entrance. Though this planting still shows color, the center of the sta~e now belongs to the laterflowermy ~varieties which are seen at their best on the Overlook. It is unfortunate that more visitors to the Arboretum do not find this little orchard of cherry blossom which is situated on the plateau just below the summit of BuSSe~- Hill. It can be reached quickly, though precipitously, by climbing up sharply to the right from the South Street Entrance. Many other interestmg plants besides the cherries will be found there for the site has what the orchardists call \"good air draina~;e\". It has accordingly been chosen for choice but somewhat tender shrubs which might be injured by the colder night air of the valley-s. prevailin~ LeNTS at the Arboretum.The aialeasarenotyet conspicuous but Pcolors y-et conspicuous ` These late-flowering Japanese cherries are the results of ~-enerations of breeding and development. Many of the flowers are over two inches across ; some are white, some pink, and some are even green. While the latter look somew hat ~-rotesque on the tree, taken indoors and given the right background they make effective and beautiful cut flowers. There Botamcall~- these late-flowering varieties are somewhat puzzling. are many species of cherry growing wild in the Orient. Natural hybrids are not unknown and thehole ~ituation has been complicated by the dev elopments w htch have taken place under cultivation. Ever since 182~? when Samuel Brookv, an enterprwin~ English nurseryman, began mtroducing them into western garden, botanists have been try- ~9 ing to work out a satisfactory classification. The late Dr. E. H. V~-tlson straightened there are out some of the snarls in his still many doubtful pGmts. \"Cherrres of Japan\", but thing seems certain; many of the varieties are derived in whole part from a wild cherry of central Japan (Prurru.s .serrulrrt~ar. .spontnuea~ w-hich is shown xn detail m the accompanying plates. Otlxer One in or are catalogued under the closely related species Prunu,s Iwmuesinua, which differs chiefl~- in having long, almost bristle-like, out~rowths along the leaf margin, and in the fact that the leas e5 are reddish when unfolding. Prunus Lanues~innn is not known to exi5t an~wvhere as a wild tree and it may be that there is really only one species, P. serrulntn. Again it is quite possible that there are two species and that some of our varieties are hybrids. For the present the Arboretum con- varieties tinues, for con~enience, more list part of the varieties (those with the on the leaves) under P. I,~urue.sinnn and the remainder under P. serrulaln. to fragrant flowers and with the longer aristae Faced bythe frank admission of our iynorance, some laymen will be refreshed, many will be puzzled, a few actually annoyed. Those who have had real contact with scientific work will understand. Science is not static; its judgments change from day to day as new evidence comes to light. Fv en the natmnr of plants, apparently simple process though it might seem to be, partakes in this wayof the nature of all scientific work. The father of American Botany, Asa Gray, put the matter in another ssat when he said that,~~5pecses are but judgments\". In other words they are the best estimates that botanists are able to make with the evidence which is at hand at this time. The loveliest of the Azaleas, Rhododendron .Schli~~enbachii, the Ro~al is tn flower on the Overlook ; its large flowers of clear soft pink harmonize with the Japanese cherries and the flowering crabapples. While these latter can be seen at several places, the large collection at the foot of Peters Hill, on the Roslindale side of the Arboretum, is worthy of a special trip. Some species are in flower and others are in bud ; for at least another fortnyht this will be one of the most interesting collections in the Arboretum. The earliest of the lilacs are now in flower and many varieties should bloom by the end of this week. EDGAR .-~:~UP.RSON Azalea, EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES Prunus serrulata Lindl. Ic. Fl. Japon. (1900). var. spontanea Wtls. after Makino in 32 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Basswood Bark and its Use by the Indians","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23966","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070b327.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ y BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ~ ~-~~ ~~ SERIES 4. VOL. I MAY `l6, 1933 NUMBER 7 BaBx AND ms USE BY THE INDIANS. DI~Nt of the plants the Indians have found an important place in our civilization. We grow their corn, tobacco, and potatoes on an enormous scale; we tap the sugar maple as they did ; we smoke their tobacco. Their fiber plants have not fared so well. Most of them have been supplanted by immigrants from the Old World. A few of the ancient American species are occasionally tried out on a small scale but for the most part they are grown no longer, and except for a few specialists their very uses are forgotten. Such has been the fate of the fiber obtained from our common Basswood, Tilia ghxbra. It was once the main source of fiber for the V~'oods Indians of eastern North America. From its strong inner bark tltes made thread and rope which in turn were worked up mto mats, bags, and lrmketv. Bnsswoou used by In her book on Chippewa the follotmn~r account of the Customs\", use Miss Frances Densmore gives of Basswood among the Chippewa: \"One of the most important articles in the economic life of the Chippewa was the twine made from the fiber that lie5 between the bark and the wood of the basswood tree. as \"ln removing the bark from the tree an incision was made at a point high asa man could reach, the cut descendin~ straight to the ground, was after which the bark turned back in a sheet. It was then cut in len~thwise strips about four inches wide and laid among the reeds at the edge of a lake or pond, being held in place by tyH the reeds together above it. There it remained for about 10 days. The writer saw these strips of bark taken from the water, softened and slippery from soaking. The rough outer bark was easily detached and the soft yellow 33 in the bottom of the boat. In this form it woman's supply of birch bark, reeds, and other materials. There were many layers of this fiber, and the entire thickness would be needed for the strips in bags for boiling gum or in making baskets. Somewhat thinner fiber was used for woven bags, and one thickness was sufficient for twine, the fiber being split when the twine was made. In separating the layers of bark an Indian woman begins in the middle of a strip perhaps six feet in length and w>rks toward the ends. fiber was or inner bark heaped a ready to store with \"Basswood bark wa5 an article in such frequent use that a woman a quantity of it in all thicknesses at hand and prepared it in various ways as it might be needed. If she wished to tie a small packet, she usually moistened a strip of bark by drawtn~r it between her lipv. had used for twisted cord was prepared by moistening layers, and tearing strips of the desired width. If the twine is to be very strong the bark is boiled. The woody fibers are detached from one another and the bark softened by drawin~ the strips of bark back and forth through the pel~ ic bone of a bear. This work, in old times, was usually done bychildren. 'I'lie process of making twisted twine is described a~ follows byDr. Skinner. The woman `t<tkea two of the fibers in one hand and holds them, spread a few inches apart, against her bare shin. She slides the palm of her other hand lrtcl.ward and forward over them until the fibers twi5t together. At the end of each yard she combs the fibers with hcr fin\"~~-crs, select5 two more, and rolling half an inch of their ends with the ends of the old piece, makes a splice so perfect that it is invisible'. The work, as seen by the writer, was done on the flesh of the right leg abo~ e the knee, this forming a cushion on which the fibers were readily twisted. The entire process i~ deaterous and surE>risin\"~ly rapid. 'fwine made in this manner was an important article of economic we.\" to be The bark it, separating it into All this is gone with the change from an Indian civilization. BaSSwood is an excellent fiber, but it cannot compete commerctall~- with cotton, flax, and ,jute. There may be, lunvever, some few white American5 who, like the author, will be interested in basswood bark even though it has no commercial possibilities. These few will be ~lad to know that it is Surpri5in\"ly easy to obtain the fiber; one need not `\"~o into the process as thorou~;hly .rs did the Indians. F:v en a civ ilizatiunspoiled American, with a little practice, can produce twine Superior to any on the market, or rope which will support two or three men. The 3~ whole utes process from tree to twine need not take though greater p:zins will produce a more longer than thirty minfinished product. The material is unusually adaptable and everything from fine sewing thread to strong basketa can be produced from the same gathering of bark. It can be taken tiom the tree at any time of year, though natu- slips off most easily when the sap is running in the spring. Unless a very large amount is required, a single limb about four or five inches in diameter will provide plenty of material. Very often there are suckers sprouting up about the trunks of large trees and these are good material to work with, nor does their removal disfigure thetree. A five to six foot length, without side branches, is preferable if it can be obtained. A blunt wedge. inserted between the bark and the wood will start the bark to slip; it can be then taken off in long strips or pulled back in one piece like a glove. When it first comes off the tree the inner bark is soft and pliable; it can be worked up into String or rally it or cut in wide strips and used tor w-ea~ m~y baskets. 1'Izese latter will stiffen on drym~r and become Bery strong. A small ti;rlztlt- w-u~ en basket made by the author from freshly cut bark will now support the entire weight of a full grown man. rope, rope, and thread can be made from the inner fibers in the described byJZiss Densmore. One can use freshly gathered bark which is still pliable, or older material can be ~oftened ly soakin~ in warm water. The process goes much faster when, like the Indians, one uses the bare thiah for the twisting. The work is done most eae:lzwith two strands, one for each hand. There is only one important principle to be remembered. The .xlrnnd.s should tui.st nboul Pn('Ir OII7PT in IIrP '% Op~O.sItP (h!'P('I70)7 from aelrich enclr i.s Imi.rted ou iGself. This u>und, very complicated but a little practice will show that it is really a very simple trick to learn. If, for instance, the two strands ire being twisted about each other in a clockwise direction, each should first of all be twisted comrter-olockuise on its own axzs. One soon leazrw to heep each Strand rolling rapidly between thumb and forefinger, while the two are being twisted about each other in the opposite direction. If corre<tly twnned they will not unwind, even after theyhave been cut, and the cord will be strong and even. Coarse cord is easily made ; more practice is necessart- before one can turn out thread fine enough for a needle. In the Field Wveum of Natural Historyand in other institutions where there are large collections of Indian work may be seen beautiful bags and mats made in whole or in part from basswood bark. V~'ith a little patience, the interested white craftvman should be able to produce artz- String, manner 36 cles of similar workmanship from this durable and B-ersxtile fiber. 1~.DG4R ANUFRSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Leaves and fruit of the Basswood or American Linden, Tilia Vent. (= Tilia americana L. in part). glabra (Ntvmt drttmiuys hJ ('. l;. Not.rotr for W rt~r)rt'.s \"~ila~tt qf 1'nrth ~l mvriru' . J OF CURRENT INTH:RFST. HEAVB shoBB'ers on the eoenin~~; of twentieth gave the Arboretum a much needed watering and the collections are now in splendld condition. Many of the Rhododendrons are already in flower, the Arxleas are in their prime, and the Lilac collection is still giving a fine show of bloom. The American species of Crabapple are now at their best and may be seen along the bank beyond the Forest Hills Entrxnoe and at the foot of Peterv Hill. The trees in the latter collection are partwularly fine and are well worth a special B It. They can be reached by a two minute walk from the Bussey Street Entrance. It seems unfortunate that more people do not i isit the Arboretum in the late afternoon and earlt- evening. 'fhe delicate tints of the Lilacs and Crabapples show to their best advantage just before and after sunset and the gates remain open until well after SUTldOBV-II. I,AN'r, P~Iay ~~ T It Tecotnn rntlitvru.s Baricnlly x5 h'iguonitr raditmn.s .spetio.vo, .s~eciostt and Crrnt~LSi.s radicttn.sspeciosw. 'fhe Arnold Arboretum formerly had a fine specimen wkmch was eventually lo5t and which it is desired to replace. So far as we know the Barlet~- is no longer offered by un~ American nursery. We will be glad to llear from anyone who has Snrall plants for sale or who is m the pl)ssession of lar~e bushes from w IvcII vcu)n5 nuyht be obtained. or bu5hy Tl'llmpet-creeper. Wupright ur bushy variety uf thecomntm'frumpet-creeper. It V upright variety of the comnon w.l, 4NTEU. THFRI': W71S 71t ()I1f' time 111 (llltlBxtl(11r III tlrlS <(IUlltl'V at1 known EDGAR ANDERSON 37 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23978","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260b36e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"cles of similar workmanship from this durable and B-ersxtile fiber. 1~.DG4R ANUFRSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Leaves and fruit of the Basswood or American Linden, Tilia Vent. (= Tilia americana L. in part). glabra (Ntvmt drttmiuys hJ ('. l;. Not.rotr for W rt~r)rt'.s \"~ila~tt qf 1'nrth ~l mvriru' . J OF CURRENT INTH:RFST. HEAVB shoBB'ers on the eoenin~~; of twentieth gave the Arboretum a much needed watering and the collections are now in splendld condition. Many of the Rhododendrons are already in flower, the Arxleas are in their prime, and the Lilac collection is still giving a fine show of bloom. The American species of Crabapple are now at their best and may be seen along the bank beyond the Forest Hills Entrxnoe and at the foot of Peterv Hill. The trees in the latter collection are partwularly fine and are well worth a special B It. They can be reached by a two minute walk from the Bussey Street Entrance. It seems unfortunate that more people do not i isit the Arboretum in the late afternoon and earlt- evening. 'fhe delicate tints of the Lilacs and Crabapples show to their best advantage just before and after sunset and the gates remain open until well after SUTldOBV-II. I,AN'r, P~Iay ~~ T It Tecotnn rntlitvru.s Baricnlly x5 h'iguonitr raditmn.s .spetio.vo, .s~eciostt and Crrnt~LSi.s radicttn.sspeciosw. 'fhe Arnold Arboretum formerly had a fine specimen wkmch was eventually lo5t and which it is desired to replace. So far as we know the Barlet~- is no longer offered by un~ American nursery. We will be glad to llear from anyone who has Snrall plants for sale or who is m the pl)ssession of lar~e bushes from w IvcII vcu)n5 nuyht be obtained. or bu5hy Tl'llmpet-creeper. Wupright ur bushy variety uf thecomntm'frumpet-creeper. It V upright variety of the comnon w.l, 4NTEU. THFRI': W71S 71t ()I1f' time 111 (llltlBxtl(11r III tlrlS <(IUlltl'V at1 known EDGAR ANDERSON 37 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Wanted","article_sequence":11,"start_page":37,"end_page":37,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23984","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d270a328.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"cles of similar workmanship from this durable and B-ersxtile fiber. 1~.DG4R ANUFRSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Leaves and fruit of the Basswood or American Linden, Tilia Vent. (= Tilia americana L. in part). glabra (Ntvmt drttmiuys hJ ('. l;. Not.rotr for W rt~r)rt'.s \"~ila~tt qf 1'nrth ~l mvriru' . J OF CURRENT INTH:RFST. HEAVB shoBB'ers on the eoenin~~; of twentieth gave the Arboretum a much needed watering and the collections are now in splendld condition. Many of the Rhododendrons are already in flower, the Arxleas are in their prime, and the Lilac collection is still giving a fine show of bloom. The American species of Crabapple are now at their best and may be seen along the bank beyond the Forest Hills Entrxnoe and at the foot of Peterv Hill. The trees in the latter collection are partwularly fine and are well worth a special B It. They can be reached by a two minute walk from the Bussey Street Entrance. It seems unfortunate that more people do not i isit the Arboretum in the late afternoon and earlt- evening. 'fhe delicate tints of the Lilacs and Crabapples show to their best advantage just before and after sunset and the gates remain open until well after SUTldOBV-II. I,AN'r, P~Iay ~~ T It Tecotnn rntlitvru.s Baricnlly x5 h'iguonitr raditmn.s .spetio.vo, .s~eciostt and Crrnt~LSi.s radicttn.sspeciosw. 'fhe Arnold Arboretum formerly had a fine specimen wkmch was eventually lo5t and which it is desired to replace. So far as we know the Barlet~- is no longer offered by un~ American nursery. We will be glad to llear from anyone who has Snrall plants for sale or who is m the pl)ssession of lar~e bushes from w IvcII vcu)n5 nuyht be obtained. or bu5hy Tl'llmpet-creeper. Wupright ur bushy variety uf thecomntm'frumpet-creeper. It V upright variety of the comnon w.l, 4NTEU. THFRI': W71S 71t ()I1f' time 111 (llltlBxtl(11r III tlrlS <(IUlltl'V at1 known EDGAR ANDERSON 37 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Trees Used by the Pioneers","article_sequence":12,"start_page":38,"end_page":39,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23982","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d2608526.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"YIONF;F:RS. THE early white settlers pt'017f1b1y' of the uses of basswood fiber from the Indians, and they employed it in a similar way for cord and rope until it was superceded by hemp and cotton fibers. The tree is also much esteemed by bee keepers,because of the excellent honey furnished by the flowers, and in some parts of the south it is locally called bee-tree. The easily worked wood w.IS used for many purposes, including bowls for l;itchen use. And because of the fact that it bends readily, it was generally TRI?I~:' something learned LTSED ISS THE employed try were as in making ox-yokes. in the Althoughthe early settlers rather heavily timested parts of the coun- prone to have little respect for trees and to regard the forest an euemy- to be overcome than as a frtend, they were, never- theless, dependent upon it for supplyin~,T many of their needs. Besides furnishing them fuel and shelter, theydrew upon it for material for fences, furniture and many necessary implements and useful articles. It contributed directly, thou~h only in a minor way, to the food supply, but as a shelter for game and as a huntm~ ground it was even more important. The oaks and other hard woods furnished lu~,rs for the calliu walls and clapboards for the ruof. The wood of the shingle oak ((~uercu.s imbrionria) was patrticularly ~-aluecl for the latter purpose, hecause of its straight grain that split readily under the mallet and flail. The bark of the black oak ((,~uercus velulirra) was s-alued most hiahly l>y the tanner for com ertin~ hule, into leather. Hlcl.ury wa, the fawrite fuel wood, and it also furnished the best material for axe and other too) handles .w well .us for wa~on timber. Hickury ehips burned slmvly- nI the smoke-house, were also reputed to impart an eYCeptionall~- good H;wor to bacon and hamv. Rope and coarse twnne were also sometimes made from the inner bark of the huLory, and we read of hickory \"ralluses\" doin~T duty m men'S apparel, but they 5carcely convey an impression either of comtiwt or securtty-. The tuuyh bark of the leatherwood, where it was found, was probably a much better material for such purpo5es. Black walnut was so common in many parts of the Middle-west that in addition to its wood being employed nt house building and in the earliest oabmet makm~;, millions of feet of the finest loy were split up into fence rmh and posts. This tree and the butternut also furnivhed the pumeer wives with a dark brown dye for culurm`y homespun cloth. This was made from a solution of the hulls surroundm~ the nuts, and if anyone duubts its effectivenes5 or la5tnt`y qualities, it can be easily- tested by II,Indlm~.,r and hulling the fresllly 38 fallen nuts. The black oak also furnished primitive dces, and ink was made from the fruit of the inkberry or poke, or from oak galls and iron rust. Soap making was a home industry, and 1~ e had first to be made from wood ashes. Candles were made from the wax of the bayberry or wax myrtle, used either alone or mixed with tallow. Bavberrt- candles are still sometimes made in some localities on Cape Cod and in other parts of the countrs , but thew fabric.ztion rs now more of a traditum and a cerenuy than a practwal industry . American tree about which more pioneer lore and senthan the sugar maple. To the early settlers in the northern parts of the country it furnished one of the few luxuries that were aB ailable in the wayof food, and the tapEnh of the trees in early spring and the boiling of the sap into sugar were something of a ceremon~.z5 it still is in parts of New England. no '1'Izere is timent clings Fruits and nuts were a minor but not ne~lyible source of food. Wild plums, blackberries, wnld t,rrapes, chestnuts, butternuts, hickorynuts and pecans were amongst the sorts most generally prized for human consumption, and the supply of aeorns and other\"mast\" was largely relied upon to fatten hogs and turkeys. Persimmon beer and wild cherry wme acquired vogue in places where these native fruits were abundant, but they never equalled in popularit~- the traditional hard cider of New England. Dlanc natiwplants e<zrly nained a rehutatiou for medicinal wtues. is probable that the uses of some of these were learned from the Indixns, and those of others from Old World tulk lore were tran5ferred to similar American plants. Sassafras tea was a spring blood remecl~, It and it is still esteemed as such in some parts of the country. The bark of the slippery elm and ~F the prickly ash and the roots of moonseed andw ild ~-am all had tltew uses in the simple pharmacupueia of the pumeers, along with the leav es, roots or seeds of many herbaceous plants Exx~sr J. 1'~c.:~te;tt 39 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Jabberwocky","article_sequence":13,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23972","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed0708925.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ---~ -~ SERIES ---- 4. - VOL. I - JUNE 1, 198~ NUMBER 8 J.1B13f;R~-OCKY. Chamaecyprrri.s tnrifolia and THOUGH botanical barir.tri5m~ like Y.veudotxrtga rrootkrrterrsis are not eaactl~- euphonius a great advance on the long phrases which they displaced. theyare When Linnaeus gave the weight of his authority to the simple \"binomral,y,tem\", phrases like the CLEMA1'IS AMERICANA FLORN~ I'HOENICEO of the accompanying illustration were replaced by short, two-parted names, a ~enerre term followed by a Speetfic one. Incli~ idual plants are now indexed under species and the various related species are grouped and indexed under genera. When he first comes into contact with these mystic polyy11ab1e5, which the botanists oalls, \"scientific names\", the average layman can appreciate the remarks Alice made after reading \"Jabberwocky\" in her excur;ion through the lookingglass. you will remember that the poem told of \"Slithy to~es\" and how they did \"`\";yre and ;\"imble in the wabe\".\"Somehow\", said Alice, \"it fills my head with ideas only I don't etaotlt know what they are\". But botanical names are really more than \"Jabberwock~-\". After little familiarity with Seed lists and flower catalogues, the fog begins to clear away. Many of the names strll remain meaningless and unfamiliar but here and there intelligible syllables lrke jnporrica and marilirun are found to reappear with ohvious connotations. ~'Iten one at last begins to realize that these cataloguing devices are sumethm;~ more than mere nonsense syllables he is in a fair way to profit from their use. Some of these names indicate the habit of the plant, others its mn\";m; the great majority refer to the peculiarities of that particular genus and species. .r ~1 The specific names are most commonly de5<riptive. Some of the terms wlmch occur most tiequently and which are useful in that they tell a little something about the plant are the following: Those de5cribmg the habit of the plant scandens repens climbing creeping or fruticans Those frutescens shrubby describing the locality palustris rupestris aremiriu~ in which the plant grows marsh lov ing rock loving of ~andy places Those interested in choice Asiatic shrubs will do well to remember the names anrurensi.s, tnngutioa, and snchnlinen.sis. All three are to be found in wrtous Spellin~, for when Asiatic place names are tramliterate<1 into latin every man is his own master. Anavrerr.se refers to the Amur river between and Siberta. It is the home of our \"Amur the Amur Corktree, 1'hellocletrdron nnturetr.re. It i5a region Yrivet\",and of hot summers and cold winters. Plants labelled amarense may be expected to w-ithstand our difficult American climate. Tnnguticvr carries us back to the tunes of Jlarcu Polo when the JZongul emperors oonquered the kingdom of Tangut and united it with their empire. Then as nov-, its Chinese name was Kansu, but Marco Polo, attached to the Wongol court, was not overly familiar with Chinese and used Mongulmn terms when he dictated his famous book. So it came about that European scholars heard about Tangut before they were familiar with Kansu, and many Chinese plants bear that specific name. Kansu is not so far north as the Amur river and a species called tanguticn is apt to be a little too tender for New England gardens. Saghalin is the long narrow island north ofJapan. It has a cold but damp climate and species named ,stwlrnlirren.ois are apt to lre more winter harcly than drought re5mtant. Manchuria geographic.vl specific names have to be taken wntl~ a ,:tlt, particularly those referring to our Atlantic seaboard. When oolleotor5 first sent back plants from the American wilderness to European botanists, the words, Canada, Virginia, and Carolina were v er~- loo~el~- applied. In those days Canada or Virginia might refer to ,tno5t ant point along the eastern coast. So we find the fr:yrrant wnutc u~asquerxdin~ as Rhus onnrrclett.si.s, though it is a commonshruh in many southern states and is native to only a portion of Ontario. The wild n barberry of our southern states is known butanically as Berberis evurnyr:un of A few of these 43 densis though it does not grow wild an~here in modern Canada. Specific names often bear trik~ute to the disco~ erer of the pl.mt or to a friend of the man that named it. Many trees and shrubs are known the world around bv names a,sociated with the Arnold ArboretumAruoldinurr, firrrgeufii, Hehderinnn, Wil.soninnn, and Jnekii. Sometimes this connection is less w tdent, a5 when Dr. Wilson named a lovely Chinese rose \"Helenae'' after his wife or when an English botanist named an unusual shrub \"Sinowilsonia\" in a rather attempt to turn Dr. V~'ilson's nickname into latin. These recondite combination5 are not always easy to pronounce. What, titr instance, is one to do with \"ecae'', the specific name of one of the earlyflowering yellow roses from central Asia? The name was given it byAitchison and is said to be composed of his wife's initial5. Here at the Arboretum most of us have settled down to pronouncing it \"ekkee\", but \"eev,ee\" and \" essi~h\" are sometimes heard. hlat-ful The generic names are a studyin themselves. An explanation of their origin wtll be found sandwiched aw.y between parentheses tn most modern botanical manuals. References to these notes will do more than aid one in rememberin~,r the name av a cataloguing device. It wll lead down many an unexpected alley into history and geography and literature. Continued u er a long period tt may eB en become a rough and ready wb5titute for that classical training in word ori\";ins which is denied to most modern Americans. \"Dendron\" in Rhododendron auci Lirtodeudron means tree. Knowing this, one finds the same root being used in other words and uuderstancl, why a dendrologist is one who studies trees, or how the k>rrnuhin\"; nerve system of a tonth may be referred to av \"dendritzc\". \"S1>eciosa\" means showyand once that is learned the familiar phrase about specious arguments acquired a new significance. The attempt to understand botanical \"Jabberwockt-\" brings one at last to a better appreciation of English vpeech and a new 1>reci5icm in its use. E1)h.AR .~NUP;RIO1~ _ EXPLANATION OF THE PLATb: The common American Trumpet-creeper, Campsis radicans, illustrated in a horticultural treatise of the seventeenth century under the name of Clematis Americana Flore Phoeniceo. as 44 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Hardy Southern Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":14,"start_page":45,"end_page":49,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23981","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d2608126.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Palmer, Ernest J.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETU~ ~ '~~' HARVARD UNIVERSITY l~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION - 1 ~~---~~-- ~--~ SERIES 4. VOL. I ------ JUNE 23, 1933 NUMBER - 9 -~- - HAHDB SOIT'I'HERN ~hREES AND ~HRL'IIS. ONE of the useful serArb(metum and similar institutiow is to test the hardiness, adaptalnlity- to cultivation, and ~;eneral desirabil~t~- of plants from all parts of the world. This work is carried on conttnually even with plants for which the chance of wccess seems slight. JTan~- plants e are tried out that do not mrvive, but amon\",r5t those that do thrt~ are some of cons~derable mtere5t wlli<h find a permauent place in garclen5 or in laudswat>e planting. The pioneer work of the Arboretum in the disooverv and introduction of the trees and ,hrubs of China and other parts of eastern Asia is well known, and many Oriental plants now frequentlt- found in American or European gardens were first grown here. But perhaps little is known by the general public of the number of trees and shrubs from our own southern states that can be seen grovctn~ in the Arboretum. All of these are of interest to the Studentv of American plants, and some of them vre desirable for ~OME ,~Bv icev nf theArnold general planting. In the latitude of Buston, with the ,et ere winter ternlterature5 sometimes experienced, climate is the most important ltmttnt\",r factor in the introduction and growth of southern plants, but other things, wch as soils, the length of the ~rwvin~ period and seasonable rainfall have to be taken into consideration. Since many plants prove hardy under cultivation far north of the latitudes in which they grow naturally, their present distribution must be explained on other grounds than that of the climate alone. It is often impossible to tell whether a plant will prove harduntil it has been tried, and while it is naturally impossible to grow most of 43 sub-trop~cal southern plants out-of-doors in New England, occasionally some rather surprxsm,~ successes have been scored. These are often, thoughnot always, southern species of trees and shrubs closely related to northern ones, for in general it has been found that southern representatives of the northern groups are much more likely to stand transplanting to colder climates than are those of genera entirely southern in their natural distribution. Thus, almost any of the southern ~'illows, Maples, Birches and AlderS, and many of the Oaks, Hickories, Azaleas, Dogwoods, and most members of the Rose family, are likely to be hardy here. The Bald Cypress, one of the most picturesque trees of the southern the swamps, has been grown in the its northern climatic limit. As Arboretum, but this appears to be about a native tree it ranges only as far north as southern Delaware, and while it grows naturally only in swamps or along the borders of streams and bayous, it thrives in fairly drysitua- transplanted. One of the reasons why it has not travelled farther north without assistance is probably because of the special requirements of its seeds, since these Seem to germinate in nature only after long submergence in shallow water or mud. And since the seeds are rather heavy and not easily transported, the Bald Cypress has not found a continuous succession of suitable places farther north. tions when The Oaks as ~(~aPrcusy in have a wide species being found temperate re~xons, geo~raphical range, most of our Some extending as far north the limits of the deciduous countries. A few of the Oaks of the grown in the forests, and others being confined to warm Rockv Mountain states have been coast haB e Arboretum, but none of those from the Pacific proved sucoewful. But the Oak collectum contains several from the southern states, including the Overcup Oak, Basket Oak, Vfillow Oak, Georgia Oak, and Arkansas Oak. The Sweet Gum ~Liquidanzbar 5t,yrrrci,flun~ is one of the commonevt deciduous trees in manyparts of the 5outhern United StateS, and it is occawmall~- found wild as far north as southern Connecticut and Pennsylvania. It seems to be quite hardyhere, and some thrifty specimens can be seen near the small ponds, not far from the Forest Hills entrance of the Arboretum. It is a handsome shapely tree and is desirable for planting m certain places for shade or ornanxent. The rather large S-i-lobed, star-like leaves give it an unusual appearance, and it is particularly attractive in autumn when the leaves take on brilliant tmts of yellow and crtmson. Vlan~ of the native Azaleas of the southern states have been brought 47 here, and some of them are very handsome. R7rorlodencalendulaceum, with yellow to scarlet flowers, and Rhododendron speciosum, in which the flowers are of a somewhat deeper red, are amongst the most striking of these. into cultivation dron One of the most desirable late-blooming shrubs that has deservedly become better known in the last few years, is the white-flowered Buckeye (Aesculu.s pnrviflora). It is a native of the Piedmont regions from South Carolina to Florida and Alabama, but it stands the winters well in the vicinity of Boston, and a handsome clump of it may be seen in the Arboretum at the foot of the wooded knolls and at the western edge of the Horse-chestnut group. It is a vigorous spreading shrub up to ten or twelve feet in height, and its profusion of white flowers in erect terminal spikes make it a most attractive sight in July and early August when nearly all other trees and shrubs are through blooming. The red-flowered Buckeye (.4esculus discolor) is another shrubby southern species that has much to recommend it. It blooms in the Arboretum early in June, and the flowers borne in a loosely-flowered spike are of mixed yellow and scarlet. It grows naturally from Georgia to eastern Texas. trees from the southern states growing Gordonirr alatamaha, a plant not now known in the wild state, although the seeds are said to ha~e been collected many years ago in Georgia by William Bartram. It blooms here each year, although the plants are barely hardy and are partly winter-killed in severe seasons. The large single white flowers that appear in late summer or autumn, and the large, bright green, obovate or narrowly elliptic leaves that become brightly colored late in the season, make it at the Arboretum is Amongst the notable small very attractive. The Oak-leaved Hydrangea (Hr~drnngerr quercifolin~, from Georgia, Florida and Mississippi; the Mock-Orange (Yhilrrdelphu.s pubesceus), from Tennessee and the southern Ozarks ; and (Neviu.sa alabamensis), a rare shrub, somewhat related to the Spiraeas, known only from a small area in Alabama, are other distinctly southern shrubs that have been grown in the Arboretum. The Cork Wood (Leilueria floridancc) is another rare and interesting shrub or small tree of the southern states which may be seen at the Arboretum. The name Cork Wood is well-deserved, as the wood when dry is extremely light and porous and considerably lighter than common cork, and with the exception of the Balsa Wood of the ~'est Indian 48 and Caribbean regions, it is the lightest known. It is known only from a few widely scattered localities, having first been discovered in western Florida at a station later destroyed by enroachment of the sea. The plant was supposed to have become extinct until it was rediscovered in 189.i in the deep swamps along the Mississippi River, in southeastern Missouri and northeastern Arkansas. It has also been found locally in southern Georgia and near the mouth of the Brazos River in Texas. In its native swamps along the Mississippi it sometimes becomes a small tree twenty feet in height with a trunk diameter of four or five inches, but at the Arboretum it is scarcely more than a shrub in size, the largest specimens being eight or ten feet high. The bark is smooth, of a brownish color and marked with pale dots, and the stout branches have numerous half-moon-shaped scars arranged in about five ranks. The leaves are broadly lanceolate, five to eight inches long and two to three inches wide. They are of a thick leathery texture, dark green and conspicuously net-veined above, and are thickly- coated on the under,ide with pale brown tomentum. The catkins, which appear before the new leaves, are somewhat like those of the Cottonwood, and aw tn the Cottowvoods and V~'illows, tu whieh the Cork V'ood is somewhat related,the staminate and pistillate flowers are on different plants. Only plants with pistillate flowers are growing in the Arboretum, but since these occasionally produce scatterinr seeds, it would seem that the Sexev are not perfectly distinct. The Cork Wood is little known in cultivation, and can scarcely be outside of a few botanical gardens and parks. It was first hrown at the Missouri Botanical Garden after its rediscovery bv a collector for that institution. At the Arboretum it is growing m boggy depression near the south end of the Horse-chestnut group, and between the native woods and the road. It appear~ to be perfectly hardy here,and on account of its attractive foliage and remarkably light wood, it might be an interesting novelty- for planting about the marshy ltorders of ponds and strermt,. seen a little ~.RNESI' ,T. YALMER 49~ "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"A Simple Device for Exhibiting Flowering Shrubs","article_sequence":15,"start_page":50,"end_page":51,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23965","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070ab6d.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"DRVI('F FOR EXHIBITING FLOWFRING SHRI'B9. THE Arnold has recently developed a new type of flower holder for exhibiting flowering shrubs. While in several respects it is still capable of improvement, so many inquiries have been made about its construction that the following account has been prepared. ASIMI'LF Arboretum Only those who have tried to exhibit lilacs and other flowering shrubs apprec:ate the difFmulties of arranging woody material for exhcb:tion. To show to the best advantage they need to retain in the vase the approximate position they held on the tree. In any ordinary container the heavy branches develop a mind of their own and it is difficult to make them stay where they are put. One must either crowd the vase full of branches so that they support each other, or use a flower holder which is attached to the vase or which is so heavy that it wmll not tip over. The perfect exhibition vase for woody material should therefore, in addition to being cheap and inconspicuous, be capable of holding branches in any desired position and should be so low and llea~ y that it is not easil)- upset. can A container which meets thew requirements has been achiev ecl by pouring plaster ofparis mto flat pottery dishes and prcwulin`~ the plaster with guy wires before it hardened. Any cheap potterydish with a broad flat base can be used av the foundation. The original va5es were made from regulation \"puEyn- dishes\" sold by a local firm as they were readily avatlable in any quantity at a reasonable price. The dishes were prepared by mixing plaster of paris to the consistency of a thick cream and pouring it in to the height of about one iuch. V~'hile the plaster was still liquid, three to five pill bottles, cr~ted with vaseline, were inserted in the mixture to provide holes t<m the branches. One or two short len~ths of wire were anchored in the plaster, their lower ends, bent into a double loop to make them hold more firmly. As soon as the plaster began to vet, the bottles were carefully removed. When the plaster dried, the finished utensil was something like a shallow pottery dish with a built-m flower hulder. Additional support for heavy branches is given b~- the wires. In setting up an exhibit the branches are held in the desired position, the wires are wrappecl around their bases until the branches are held firmly in place, and a handful of pebbles is used to conceal the wire and plaster and to lend additional support. l'ert- much the same effect JO could be obtained by anchoring a glass or metal flower holder in the bottom of a vase with plaster of paris, providing it with small guy wires, or thin strips of metal. If a large quantity were desired they could probably be made m one piece by the pottery nxanufacturer5. EDGAR ANDERSON Ci'RRE1~1' INTEREST. THE Mountain Laurel ~KQl7YLIlX l(Lldhas burst quickly into flower during the last few days and is now a glorius sight. Unless the weather is unseasonably hot it should remain in fine condition until at least the end of June. Though no other single display can match it in interest, there is much to see in all parts of the Arboretum. Many Hawthorns are in flower on the north slope of Peters Hill. On the Lilac Path the Tree Lilacs are showing their great plumes of creamy flowers and the hybrid French MockOranges are in full bloom. Along the Meadow Road the wild roses are bright pink every morning and several species of Dogwood are in blossom. In the Shrub Collection most of the rose species are in bloom. On the fence of the Bussey Imtitutron along South Street may be seen a fine collection of Hy brid Climbing Roses. PLANTS folia) OF The alternate-leaved Buddleia, B. alternzfolia Maxirn. , is now in full flower on the Overlook and along the Centre Street Path. Earliest to flower of those species which are hardy here, it has a long season of bloom, covering the whole month of June and sometimes running well into July. Though it is often referred to as the hardiest of the Buddlexas, it is a little too tender to do its best in New England gardens. EBen in New York and Philadelphia it needs a dry slope, and careful attention to reach perfection. When well grown it is one of the loveliest of flowering shrub5 ; with us the bush is somewhat unsi~htly when not in fl<n~er and the flower bud~ are partly killed during cold winters. Russian expedition to China as early as 1 t375, introduced into western gardens until much later. Farrer Sent home seeds in 1914 and by 19?l these had produced fruitrnb bushes from which the Arboretum plants were raised. Farrer who saw the species in full flower in its nativehome, wrote of it as follows ; \"It prefers steep, dry banks and open warm places, where it grows like a fine-leaded and very graceful weeping willow, either as a bush or a a Though discovered by it was not ~1 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plants of Current Interest","article_sequence":16,"start_page":51,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23975","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260a76b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"could be obtained by anchoring a glass or metal flower holder in the bottom of a vase with plaster of paris, providing it with small guy wires, or thin strips of metal. If a large quantity were desired they could probably be made m one piece by the pottery nxanufacturer5. EDGAR ANDERSON Ci'RRE1~1' INTEREST. THE Mountain Laurel ~KQl7YLIlX l(Lldhas burst quickly into flower during the last few days and is now a glorius sight. Unless the weather is unseasonably hot it should remain in fine condition until at least the end of June. Though no other single display can match it in interest, there is much to see in all parts of the Arboretum. Many Hawthorns are in flower on the north slope of Peters Hill. On the Lilac Path the Tree Lilacs are showing their great plumes of creamy flowers and the hybrid French MockOranges are in full bloom. Along the Meadow Road the wild roses are bright pink every morning and several species of Dogwood are in blossom. In the Shrub Collection most of the rose species are in bloom. On the fence of the Bussey Imtitutron along South Street may be seen a fine collection of Hy brid Climbing Roses. PLANTS folia) OF The alternate-leaved Buddleia, B. alternzfolia Maxirn. , is now in full flower on the Overlook and along the Centre Street Path. Earliest to flower of those species which are hardy here, it has a long season of bloom, covering the whole month of June and sometimes running well into July. Though it is often referred to as the hardiest of the Buddlexas, it is a little too tender to do its best in New England gardens. EBen in New York and Philadelphia it needs a dry slope, and careful attention to reach perfection. When well grown it is one of the loveliest of flowering shrub5 ; with us the bush is somewhat unsi~htly when not in fl<n~er and the flower bud~ are partly killed during cold winters. Russian expedition to China as early as 1 t375, introduced into western gardens until much later. Farrer Sent home seeds in 1914 and by 19?l these had produced fruitrnb bushes from which the Arboretum plants were raised. Farrer who saw the species in full flower in its nativehome, wrote of it as follows ; \"It prefers steep, dry banks and open warm places, where it grows like a fine-leaded and very graceful weeping willow, either as a bush or a a Though discovered by it was not ~1 small-trunked tree, until its pendulous sprays erupt all along into tight bunches of purple blossom at the end of May, so generous that the whole shrub turns into a soft and weeping cascade of colour''. He tells how it persists in culti~ated areas where it may be found \"in cascades of purple along the hedgerows\". EDGAR ANDN:RSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Leaves, flowers, and fruit of the Corkwood, Leitneria floridana Chapm. (Frona drau~iugs by Amerira\".~ C. E. Fuxor` for `~argerat's \".9iLna of .1 orth 52 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hydrangea Petiolaris and Schizophragma hydrangeoides","article_sequence":17,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23969","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070bb6c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD \"'`. Hrb ~A`'\"' ARBORETU '~ HARVARD UNIVERSITY ~ + BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. I JULY 24, 1933 NUMBER HI DRANGEOIDES. 10 H lspecimens DRANGEA -L cite more PE'rIOLARIS AND S('HIZOPHRAGMA FEW in the living collections of the Arnold Arboretum ex- surprise in the average visitor than do these two asiatic vines. They are evidently Hydrangeas or are at least closely related, yet they cover the north wall of the Administration Building with a solid coat of shrubbery which breaks dramatically into flower every summer. Though reaching to the eaves they remain essentially shrub-like and are perhaps more appropriately described as climbing shrubs than as true vines. recognized, the two species are readily told apart, but until quite recently they were badly confused in nurseries, private collections, and botanical gardens. They are most easily distinguished by Once large showy flowers which surround the flower cluster. In HJdranencircling tiara is composed of greenish white flowers, each one made up of four rounded sepals. In ~Schi~ophrngma h~drnngeoide.r these showy sepals are a purer white and they are borne singly gea petiolnri.s this the rather than in fours. These and other technical differences are shown plates on pages 54 and 55. Gardeners will be more interested in the fact that Schizophragma blossoms later in the season, that its leaves are a lighter green, that the sepals remain conspicuous long after blossoming time and that in many ways it is a neater, cleaner, more garden-worthy vine than H. petiolari.s. Unfortunately neither vine blooms until it is fairly mature. For the convenience of those who are interested in identif:vin~; immature specimens, the outstanding vegetative differences are tabulated below. S. HYDRANGEOIDES Sieb. & Zucc. H. PETIOLARIS Sieb. & ZU('e. Leaves definitely heart-shaped. Leavesscarcelyroundedatthebase. Lower surface of the leaf of prac- Lower surface of the leaves much tically the same color as the veins. lighter in color than the veins. Bark shredding off in silky strands. Bark firm with conspicuous dots. in the 53 m So badly were the names of these two species interchanged during tlie early days of their introduction to the western world that it is diffiwas first grown in America. The mere in a nursery catalogue of one name or the other is not enough. presence There must be a specimen or an exact description covering at least one cult to determine when each of the features by which the two vines can be distinguished. One thing Though it may possibly have been brought in earlier through some unrecorded channel, H. petiolari.s is definitely known to have been introduced in 1865 through the old Parson's Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, whose material was obtained (though under the wrong name) from Thomas Hogg, an American consul. It was not until 1876that the Arnold Arboretum obtained seeds from Japan, but so completely had the earlier introduction been overlooked that even the late Dr. E. H. Wilson listed the vine among the introductions of the Arnold Arboretum in his well known book, \"America's Greatest Garden\". This mistake was perpetuated by the present author in the Bulletin for November 16, 1931 ; a mistake which it is a pleasure to set right, since that serves as an excuse for remindmg present day gardeners of their debt to the fine old Parson's Nursery, long since disbanded, and to Thomas Hogg, who once maintained one of the most interesting private collections in the United States. Both vines have done well in this country and as they become better known will be increasingly useful in our gardens. They are perhaps a little too robust for the average house, but for covering stone walls and fences they are superb. In the rock garden of Mr. Thomas Proctor at Topsfield, Massachusetts, there are fine specimens of H. Petiolari.s, which have been allowed to clamber freely over a long boulder strewn slope. Used in this way they are so effective that one wonders if they might not well be used as a bank cover on rocky slopes. In their native home both vines climb the trunks of tall trees and blossom among the lower limbs. Although it is alway s a matter of personal opinion, there are many who, like the present author, believe that these two vmes never look better than when one follows Nature and plants them at the base of an old tree. EDGAR ANDERSON is certain. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATES Page 54. Hydrangea petiolaris Sieb. & Zucc. Page 55. Schizophragma hydrangeoides Sieb. & Zucc. (From drawings in l: Nakcci's '`FGara .Sytvatira 1i orrarua\". ) tatter Insert.H.petiolaris and S. hydrangeoides (x~). (The latter includes a few leaves of H. anomala.) (From photographs by I)r.7~..11. Xaup. J Insert.H.petiolaris andS.hydrangeoides ( x 4 ) . (The .56 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Pterocarya Rehderiana","article_sequence":18,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23979","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8e1d260b76f.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETU Ni & HARVARD UNIVERSITY &#xJ~C3 ;~B~ BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 4. VOL. I SEPTEMBER 30, 19~:~ NUMBER 11 i REHnEmnNn. SOME millions of years ago in the age of or Wingnuts as they are sometimes called, were native to the forests of Europe and America. Just when they left we do not know for the fossil record is incomplete, but they finally disappeared from the western world along with the dinosaurs and pterodactyls. Unlike these fantastic creatures they did not vanish altogether from the earth. A few species lingered on, one in the region around the Caspian Sea, several others in southeastern Asia. Long after their disappearance they have been brought back, not as fossils, but as living curiosities and are occasionally to be found in botanical gardens and large private collections. The Caucasian Wingnut, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, was the first to reappear. It was brought to France by that same Frenchman, Andre Michaux, who later came to America and tramped through the wilderness studying the flora and collecting trees for the French government. One of the Chinese species, P. stenoPlera, was brought into cultivation somewhat later through the efforts of the Rev. Graves, an American missionary. P TEROCARYAPterocaryas, Reptiles, It was in France where both these species were grown in the Arbo- Segrezianum that they apparently hybridized. Seed collected there from P. stenoptera was sent to the Arnold Arboretum over fifty years ago. When the young trees developed they were not like the Chinese Wingnut but were instead intermediate between that species and the Caucasian Wingnut, P. frasin~f'olin. After studying them careretum fully Alfred Rehder of the Arnold Arboretum came to the conclusion that they were in fact hybrids between these two species. This conclusion has been generally accepted and by a German dendrologist they were eventually named P. Rehderiana. Although the behavior of the second generation grown from the original hybrids has helped to confirm the hypothesis of their hybrid 57 it is an interesting fact that the hybrid has not been duplicated elsewhere. So far as is known all the specimens of P. Rehderiana in cultivation are the descendants of the Arnold Arboretum trees which originated when, by a fortunate accident in the garden at Segrez, pollen from the Caucasian species was brought to the receptive stigmas of P. stenoptera. origin, Like many hybrids P. Rehderiana is unusually vigorous. While neither of the parent species has grown well with us, the hybrid seems to be thoroughly at home here. In fifty years the original seedlings have developed into bushy trees with trunks two or three feet thick and have come through all but the coldest winters without injury. For such large trees they have a curious habit of growth. Each has several stems ; e there is no main trunk and their general bushiness is enhanced by the lusty root-suckers which are thrown up in great profusion. Botanically, the genus Pterocarya is closely allied to the Walnuts and in several features the resemblance is fairly close. The leaf shape is similar as is the color and texture of the foliage. The pith of the branches, as in the case of Walnuts, is not a solid spongy cylinder but is divided up into tiny compartments or chambers. Were it not for the fruits our hybrids might easily be mistaken for some vigorous, bushy Walnut or Butternut. As can be seen in the accompanying plate, the fruits are curious and unusual. The tiny nutlets, no thicker than a pencil, are each set in a little green bowl, which flares out at either side into triangular wings. The indi~ idual nutlets are borne in long chains a foot or more in length and give the trees a bizarre appearance. weedy for the average might be particularly useful because of its unusual vigor. As a quick-growing screen it is certainly worth trying. It is expected that it would be particularly useful in wet or poorly drained soils since both parental species grow naturally in such situations. The Caucasian Wingnut grows on marshy deltas and along the banks of streams in the region around the Caspian Sea. The Chinese Wingnut is found wild along watercourses though it is sometimes planted m China as a street tree. Until they are better known, Pterocaryas should not, however, be planted in the immediate vicinity of perennial gardens. Their close relatives, the Walnuts, sometimes have a toxic affect upon plants growing nearby, apparently due to a poison contained in the leaves. It is quite possible that Pterocaryas might be similarly endowed. Certainly the Caucasian species contains a substance potent enough to stupifj~ While the hybrid Wingnut are is too coarse and garden there certain situations in which it 58 fish, when quantities of the leaves are thrown into the water. OF CURRENT INTEREST. THE Pterocarya collection is located the Centre Street Path at a point where natural seepage provides a favorable site. A number of other interesting trees are in fruit along this path, notably the Chinese Quince, Chaenomele.s sinPn.ri.s, and the American Papaw, Asimina triloba. Here is also to be seen a rare member of the Mint family, Comanthosphace sublanceolata. It is sometimes described as shrubby and may perhaps be so in a warmer climate but with us it is a true herb, dying back to the roots every winter. It is rather coarse, resembling in many ways the related genus Elsholtzia, but its late-flowering habit gives it some garden value. It was brought back from Japan by Professor C. S. Sargent over forty years ago and was introduced into English gardens through seeds sent by him to the Royal Botanic Garden at Kew. PLANTS along On the Overlook Albissia julibrissin rosea, described at length in the Bulletins for July 26, 1929, and August 21, 1931, has been in flower since June. There and along the Centre Street Path, Gordonia (Franklinia~ alatanaaha is flowering unusually well. This beautiful shrub (illustrated in the Bulletin for November 26, 1930) has had a curious history, a full account of which by C. F. Jenkins has recently appeared in the \"Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography\". The species was first discovered by two Quaker botanists, John and William e Bartram in September 1765, growing in profusion on the banks of the Altamaha river in Georgia. They introduced it into cultivation and following their directions Dr. Moses Marshall collected it at the same locality in 1790. Since that date it has not been found again. Many botanists \"have combed the muddy swamps which border the Altamaha in the region of old Fort Barrington to their own great discomfort and the annoyance of the rattlers and other venomous snakes which infest the region. Fire may have destroyed the original plantation, it may have been grubbed out by the early settlers, or the salt tides may have backed up the river, or again freshets may have washed it away. Several times in recent years the daily press has carried a news item that the Franklinia had been found but these have all been erroneous.\" EDGAR ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Leaves, flowers, and fruit of the Hybrid Wingnut, Pterocarya Rehderiana Schneid. (=P. stenoptera DC. x P. fraxinifolia Spach.) (From dra~enga by C. H:. Fa;ro7~ for Sargvnt's \"Trv.v and `Shrubs\".) 60 "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Fothergilla Major","article_sequence":19,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23967","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070b36a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY 1!t ? BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION ~ - ~---~~ -~-- -~ ~ SERIES 4. VOL. I -----~-- DECEMBER 29,1933 ~ ~ ~~ NUMRER j`~ FoR-rr N4-rt;, indeed, are those l>lant~ whcme comim:yrinativ e. The very name of \"ButtornBush \" served as a letter of introduction when Buddleiaswerenrst offered to American gardeners. Part uf the lxtkrlie interest in Pmvdin innolucrv~tn is due to the popular name of \"DoveTree\", an inuyrinative e allusion to the large white bracts below the flowers. Lacking such a name, the Fother\"~rillas have made their way slowly into puhlic t:wcw. In the southern states, where they grow wild, country chilclren wmotimes call them \"Bottle-brush Bushes\" because ot the curious sh:m\"r,-ry flowers of dull white. Sometimes they are callecl \"Grannr- C'Tret Irearcl\" or \"C~rant's Greybeard\", though these names are also used for other quite different shrubs. V~'ithin recent years the name \"Sprin~,pscent\" has been su\",r~-ested, and if it becomes current it may prove useful. There are several species of Fothert,rilla but for northern \",arden~ the most desirable is Follren~illn mrjor with which may- be included tlm <. very similar F. montiooln, by many botanists consiclered to be merely a variety of the tirrmer. As its name implies, F. m~jor is a tull shrul>. Both in the shape of its leaves, and in the general appearance of the bwh it shows its kinship to our native witch-hazels. The creamy white flmv ers are borne in spring, just as the leawv are unfolclin`\"~. 'I'licy :vre m:m,ed m tight little plumes at the erul, of vhcwt, yny~lit Itr:muImv, rmh l~ttle plume Ireinrr nutde up of trrmy indi~~idual flowers, whose long, milk-white vtamew are their nur,t cwtt,pieuow feature. Duriu~,~~ the summer Fother\",-ill:m are Surprmin~ly similar to their cousiw, the witch-hazels. More than one botanist, in fact, h:ts mistaken them for a lower, more compact, witch-haiel at that vP:ason of they ear. .W autumn cmmes on, they again show thcir indm nlu::litr ly <ml`nwn;-~~ nm,t br:llinutly-. Some bushes are pure yellow, others are deeply- ov erl:ml with hrilliamt crimson, but in either c:me the colors nrr cIevr. Fo~rur:RCm.t,a rr~.toa. mon names are attractive and !f'rr mrtr.rm r~Jlr'., , I .lnt.r rz<~afr2' Iarrt~rW ' \/ C73 1!t',v'I\/rxnlt W1f ~ r'.'\"'xx' .Jrr~t~'tl~>.E ( r'~rr \/J2 ef! Y J~t' t t~Jl r'r~tr ll~~ c'l'f s' 1'`r lt n'.f JJl r'r\/! ~'l rY! , (~t'If\/l.z r> f~ lr.lrfllG . i ~'t emn rz 13'zr~ Y tit f ' r : r,~ ~\/ .,;t f a \" l rfY. r Jrr re,ult, iiwtn :t ,hurt distuttce the lea~ es seenr :rlutust to shiw :r, if they had been lacquered. Fothergilla major and the doubtfull~- distinct F. monficola :rre native to a t-ert~ re~tricted area in the southern Alley'Imne,. I'luuy~'h grown in England u, early as 1 i 8l) it aplr.wently lr.n,ed out of oultivation altogether until it was re-introduced bt' Professor C. S. Sargent, .>\" :t who sent it to Kew in 1!rOY. This latter attempt has been more successtlrl and it is now occasionally seen m public :nul private gardens in northern Europe. Surprisingly enough, it seems to be hnrdy far north of its native home and i, known to have wnrne unharmed through temperatures as Imn- as ;i0 cle~rree, below zero. It can be grown apparently in any good garden ,oil, thoughh he:m y al>plications of peat are reported as havin~;a beneficial effect. One or two English writers hav e listed it as rooting from cuttin\" but in this country it has been found a very difficult subject. The simplest method of prupagation is to pot up small suckers from the base of estahli,lmd plants and to grow them until the~are ready tim:r pernvment lm,itum. The species can be grown from ,ee<l sown when ripe and kept in :v cu~l greenhouse where it \",rermin:tte, in about six month,. These seedlings should be grown in small w-ouden Hnts for a year or ,o, and are then ready to be potted up. The old specimens of Futher\",rilla at the Arnold Arboretum have been tiwitinrr w rll the last few s'ears :nul se<cl will he aupplted cheertullt to those priBate and profe,sionalgardens, ,.lro l~m~e Il~e facilitie.s for fahing oarP qf il. Though Fother\",rilla maym:t ,uuncl :rttractiv e w hen used a, a cmnnwm name, it is most yopropriate that a group of :lurericnn shrubs ,luwld be so desi~;nated. Linn:teus named the ~enus in honor of Dr. John . 1'mtlter~ill, an eminent Lomlm plm winn, w hm wu, :w uwvvrr~ mr cIramptun uf the Ameriean cmlrrni,t, during the trmuktleel tirne, mf tlm Revolution. He was a close friend of Benjamin h'ranl:lin and of the Philadelphia butxnt,t, John Bnrtt;vm. It was in h'nthPr~nill', rr:rrdrn that many :lmerwau k>l:rnt, were first grown in Europe. Hm mwdc_ seription of this An~rlu-:lmrri<ma garden mal.e, iaterwtm,p re:olmn~ : \"Irtder a north tvall\", wc find him writmr~' tm mn .lmeru:m fncml in 1 l7`', ~~I have a good border, nvule up of that hincl of rich Itl:oI: turf-like soil, mixed with some v.m<l, in which I find most of the American plants thri~ e best. It has u few hour, mf the mornin~r :mcl evenin~ sun, and is ynte ,heltered from mid-day hrat,. It is w ell ,npplie<l with water rlurmr the ,ummrr: :m<l the little ,hrulr, and Imrlr.t<emu, pl:tnt, Imv e r~'uml worm cvv erinrr uf dry fcrn tlvrmv a m rr a thew w Iren the frm,t, ,et in. 'I'Iti, is ~rr:tclually- renun ecl w hm tl~e y~in\",r advances, so that as the plants are neBer frozen in the ground while they are young and tender, I do not lose any that come to me with any degree of life in them; and it is acknowledged by our ablest botanists that there is not a richer bit of ground, in curious American plants, in Great Britain; and for many of the most curious I am obliged to thy diligence and care. My garden is well sheltered; the soil is good, and I endeavour to mend it as occasion requires. I ha~-ea little wilderness, which when I bouhrht the premises was full of old yew trees, laurels and weeds. I had it cleared, well duy, and tuoh up many trees, but left others st:tndin~,- for shelter. Among these I haB e planted K:xlmias,Azaleas,all the Magnolias,and mostother hardy American shrubs. It is not quite eight years since I made a beginning, so that my plants must be considered but as young ones. They are, howe~-er, extremely flourishin\"-. I have an Umbrella tree ~Mngnolin lrf~efnln L.) above twenty feet high, that flowers with me abundantly every spring; but the great Magnolia ~grandiflora~ has not yet flowered ; it grows exceedin~;lyfast; I shelter his top in the winter; he gains from half a yard to two feet in height every summer, and will ere long I doubt not repay my care with his beauty and ti~aPrance.\" That this collection was indeed a scientific treasure house is borne out by such tributes as that of Sir Joseph Banla : \"At an expense seldom undertaken by an indi~-idual he procured from all parts of the world a great number of the rarest plants, and protected them in the amplest buildings which this or any other country has seen. In my opinion no other garden in Europe, royal or of .x sub,ject, had nearly so many scarce and v:xluable plants.\" Perhaps, after all it m just as well that Dr. Fothergill's name, though scarcely euphonious, should be perpetuated byso lovely a flowering shrub. In so using it we shall be carrying out one of his own precepts. \"Let us\", he wrote, \"preserve the memory of the deser~ ing : perhaps it may prompt others likewise to deserve. ~' F nc ~r3 .-lwrrtso>B V'. 13..Jrnu EXPLANATION OF PLATES Pa~e G~. Dr. John Fothergill ~h'rnm un olr7 vnlynrinl~.~ Insert. Fothergilla major l l~rouinr\/ hl\/ l>lonnhr _1 nux _l narx.) (i~ I "},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 4 Volume I","article_sequence":20,"start_page":65,"end_page":67,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23971","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070856f.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES -l The uumber5 m ~'OLL-~I1~; I hraclcet~ in are the corrected page numher5. in Bold face Spnon~-ms are ilnhc; illustr::tions type. AeSCulun diaw:lor, ~8 par~-iflora, ~R Alectoria chalybeiformis, ~lti~ o _~udronrPrla floribuurlo, `1(1 ~~laucophylla, 19 i Arctostaphylos u~a-ursi, ~?1 Arnold :lrb~wetuu~, lucatiun, ?1 I map showing approaches, Arou~a, 1R ~1:~ :I Campsis chinensis, `?, ;3 radicans, 1, :3 Tagliabuana, ,3 Bar. \"Mme. Galen\", 4 ; t plate facing p. Cetraria islandica, ~10~ ?N pinastri,I ti~ Cherrie5, Japanese, Cladonia pyxidata, ~lti~ Clematis americana flore Azalea, Royal, :3l Bxrtram, John and ~'illiam, 60 Basswood bark and its use bv phoeniceo, -t 1, 1 ~~ Comanthosphace sublanceolata, 60 the Indians, ~3 Berberi5 Julianae, 'I'hunberrii, 1R tr~acanthuphora, 19 ~erruculosa, 19, l0 x wlQaris, 1R I l3rtuln lcnta, ni~ra, 6, 7 i Birch, Blach, I Red, t; Km er, ti Lf1 l3uttle-1>ru,h Bwli, (i 1 Buckey e, LR Cuntainen, .i0 Cork Wood, 48 Cotoneaster Francheti, ?0 horizontali~, ~?0 micrvrphtlla, 10 valicitulia var. floccwa, v0 H CI'atae;.,TOV, 8 Currant, C~llIleSe, 18 Cl Nl'eSS, li:dl(1, 47 Uaphue Cnem'um, 1tt Mezereum, l8 Dirca palustris, ~.i, Evernia Buellia disciformis, ~l ti~ ~) Buxw ~enrperv iren5, 1 n~ioruph)lla var. japunioa, 19 v ar. l.ureana, ~I 1 ?~ 1 prunastri,1 ti~ 19 v Calicium lenticulare, ~Iti~ Caloplacaaurantiaca, ~lti~ ~l.) ~ h~.vontmu, japonic:l, 19 ra~lu.an~ wr. Carrlerel, \"Little Gem\", 19 9 v ar. mimrn.r, 1 ~I Eton~-mus radicans 9 v ar. picta, I n ~etr. v e,~~'eta, 19 IVIoch-Oranye, 48 JIoSS, Iceland, ~10~ J Names, botanical, .i0 41 48 Exlibitin~' flow erin~; shrubs, Fother~ill, Dr. John, 63, fi,5 Fotherylla major, 61 monticol.T, 61 '~Tev iusa alahamensis, i Oala, 4 Opegrapha varia, Cl.i~ J 20 1'aohistima m~-rsinites, 19 Fraul,linia nlnlmnn7~n, fi0 (xorclonia alatamaha, 48, fi0 Graphis scripta, Hedera lelix ] ~l.i~ Pachysandra terminalis, Parmeliacaperata, ~1i~ J saxatilis, ~l,i~ J Pertusaria velata, bttltica, z0 Hydrangea, Oak-lea~~ed, ~8 petiolaris, ,i3, 54: plate fatcin,a' pp. 54, 55 c~uercifolia, 48 var. ~l,i~ 48 Philadelphus pubescens, J Physcia stellaris, ~1 S~ Pieris florihunda, z0 S) Ile~t crenxta ~ rlr. cow eva, 1 Plants of current mterest, Z8, oq, ;3 j , ti0 ~;l>Ibra, lt~, ?0 o~r.wa, lf)3#t& x E; I'u~,'o,U, lfl ) unllanPtl IS, W Prunus Lannesiana, 3~x&# 3E; serrulat.v, 30#& x3E; v trr. spontanea, ;30, 3 I , ,i?x&# 3E; 5S) lnl.berr~-, ~?0 Jaltherw'ochy ~a dlscusviun plant names~, 41 n Kalmur .m~~'ustifoli.l, 19 l;Itlfmll.l, 19 Leatherwood, ?.5, ~7 Lecanora i 1'terocarya tl~.wmitul~a, ,i of Rehderiana, S i, vtr~nyotFrti, .;7 Pyrenula nitida, ~1 (i~ Ruercw, 11 Ramalina Rhinodinasophodes, calicaris, ~l .i~ ] ~lti~ J subfusca,I .i~ Leitneria floridana, t.(i, k8 v Leuoutlme Crltwkr,lct, 19 Lichens, ~)~ Llquld.unkrar St~-raciflua, t7 Lobaria pulmonaria, L1 (i~ X Mahoberberis Neuberti, D Plahunla Aquifultum, 1J 7 fa Illmloclendrun, ?0 calendalaceum, 18 l~irsutum, 19 Schly>penhanlm, 8z 5peciomnn, 18 Itihes f<tscu~ulatum v ar, chinense ls 8 Rosa o.mina, 18 repens, 1S> Jlezereum, `?F~ i Michaux, Andre, .i Helenae, lf3 H multiflora, 18 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, i 3, i.i : plate faciny pp. ,i N, .5,p 66 Shrubs attractivee in late w inter and earl~- vprin~,~', 1 i H Shrubs wnth vttr.utme frmtv, 18 Trumpet-Preeper, _lmeruan,J 1 C117T1P5P, 'Trumpet-Preepers,J Usne dasypoga, ~l,i~ Shruln with ev er~~'reen lea~ w,1)3#t& x E; trichodea, Vihurnum ~1.5~ J Sprm~\"?wcent, 61I Sweet (aum, t7 .i L'econrrr ~rnud~\/lorn, .p l~~blirln, 1'll lll ('1177 R,J 1 1'n~linbrumn, Tilia glabra, .p3 'I~rew and shrubs, snme h.m<ly S~mthern, N,i V.~cPinium VitiS-idaea, `!0 H So-~ryent~, 18 ~.~r. o;~lwceu~, 18 t; tnlohuua, J ~Vr~!,~htn, 18 v.~r. He~Sei, 18 i 4~'m~~nut, Caucawan, i i (,hine5e, ,i i 'm~,~nutv, ,i Xanthoria parietina, ~lli~ fil "},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23442","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd170b728.jpg","title":"1933-1","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1933,"series":4,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23957","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060b76e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Acer saccharinum, 11I Amelanchier canadensis, 19 Arnold Arboretum as seen from an Airplane, 39 Arnold Arboretum Pit House, Interior view, 55 Crataegus Arnoldiana, 27 Facsimile of the Title-page of Mascall's Treatise on Grafting, 51 Hedera helix baltica, 3, 5 Hemlock Hill, Demonstrating the Effect of the Recent Fire, 23 Pinus pungens, 13 Poncirus trifoliata, 47 Prunus maritima, Distribution of (map), 41 Rosa rugosa kamtschatica, 31"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Baltic Ivy (Hedera helix var. baltica) & \"Winter Browning\" of Conifers.","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23951","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060a326.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Faull, J. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI MARCH 29, 1932 NOS. 1 & 2 Baltic Ivy (Hedera helix var. baltica), one of the Arboretum's introductions, has remained for twenty-five years in modest retirement on the south wall of the Administration Building. Among the millions of visitors who have come and gone during that time hardly one has noticed the plant, read its label or realized that it was in any way remarkable. There is nothing unusual in its appearance. The leaves are scarcely different from those of the common English Ivy and even in the technical characters studied by botanists there is little to set it apart. What is remarkable about the Baltic Ivy is its resistance to cold weather. It is hardier than any other true Ivy which has been tried out at the Arboretum and is for this climate, the quickest growing. Baltic Ivy was discovered by the present curator of the Herbarium, Alfred Rehder, on one of the trips he made to Russia when preparing the Bradley Bibliography for the Arboretum. He found it growing as a ground cover in the pine woods near Riga, in what is today the republic of Latvia. Since this was outside the known range of the common Ivy, and in a region of very cold winters, he not only collected specimens for the Herbarium but arranged with his host, Baron von Sivers, to have living plants sent back to the Arboretum. The plants sent by the Baron arrived safely in 1907 and in the twenty-five years since that time they have grown into a solid mantle of green reaching well above the second story windows. They look, as has been said, much like any other Ivy except that they do not become badly discolored during cold weather. Perhaps their most noticeable characteristic is the variation in leaf size, some of the sprays bearing small, dark-colored, conspicuously-veined leaves, while on others the leaf is virtually the size and color of the common Ivy. As a consequence the general appearance of the whole vine is somewhat irregular and unkempt. In the last two or three years the appearance of the vine has altered remarkably for it has begun to flower and Ivy is one of those interesting vines in which the fruiting branches look very different from the rest of the plant. Two other vines introduced by the Arboretum have this same curious habit of becoming quite different in their old age; they are the Wintercreeper (Evonymus radicans) and the Climbing Hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris). The change from youth to maturity is even more striking in the case of the Ivy as can be seen from the plates which accompany this article. It is hard to believe that these two forms, the juvenile climbing form, and the branching adult form, could belong to the same variety; superficially they look as though they belonged to different species or even to different genera. Certainly they are more different than a branch from an apple and one from a pear. Yet they came from the same vine. The first plate shows the vine as it appeared during the first 20 years of its life and as it looks even now on its lower branches. This is the so-called juvenile form. The other plate shows branches which have been flowering and fruiting for the last three years. The more carefully these two plates are compared, the greater does the difference between the two forms appear to be The juvenile form is unbranched; the fruiting one branches again and again. The juvenile form is a vine clinging tightly to trees or walls by numerous small roots. The fruiting branches are stiff and erect; even when the Ivy is grown on a wall they project out at right angles, giving somewhat the effect of a small bush grafted on top of the vine. This effect is heightened by the arrangement of the leaves which instead of occurring in two neat parallel rows as they do in the juvenile shoots, are borne on all sides of the stem. The leaf shape differs as well, the leaves are narrow, pointed at the basal end, and unlobed. This transformation is indeed as remarkable as that from Dr. Jekyll to Mr. Hyde but it is by no means as reversible. When once the change from youth to maturity has occurred it is permanent. Year after year the fruiting branches grow out farther and farther away from the wall or tree on which the vine is growing. New fruiting branches appear until the whole top of the vine is one continuous bush. The lower part of the plant may continue to send out vine-like branches but none of these originate from the fruiting wood. Even when cuttings are taken from the fruiting branches and they are grown as independent plants they seldom lose their shrubby character. Instead of a flat, quick-growing vine they produce a shrubby, slow-growing shrub, similar to the fruiting branch from which it came but not at all reminiscent of the original vine. It is, therefore, possible to grow each species of Ivy in two entirely different forms, the climbing juvenile one and the arborescent fruiting one. These ivy bushes, technically know as \"var. ar6orescens\" are seldom if ever seen in this country but in England they are very common, particularly in gardens which were laid out during the Victorian era. During that period Ivy enjoyed its greatest popularity. Nurserymen responded to the general demand and many garden varieties made their appearance. There were yellow-leaved, white-leaved, and even red-leaved forms. There were varieties which had leaves with deeply lobed edges, and others with neat scallops. There were short, thickset dwarfs and arborescent fruiting forms of many of the varieties. Some had round leaves, others triangular leaves, several long and halberd-shaped leaves. Whole books were published about the Ivy. Exhibitions of fancy Ivies were held and in some cases entire gardens were planted with fancy-leaved Ivies and Hollies. The climbing forms, each one different, were planted one after another along walls in the background and specimen plants of fancy-leaved Hollies and arborescent Ivies were set out in front of them, spaced well apart in neat beds. The multiplication of these garden forms and the natural variability of the Ivy have combined to make identification of garden Ivies exceedingly difficult and in some cases next to impossible. There are five recognized species of Ivy native to Europe, Asia, and North Africa. Each has given rise in nature to geographical varieties which depart somewhat from the type of the species. All of the known species and many of their geographical varieties have been introduced into cultivation and many of them are grown both in the arborescent form and in the juvenile form. Finally in addition to all these \"natural\" forms there are the fancy-leaved freaks which have originated in cultivation. They now number between fifty and one hundred varieties and belong to three of the species, though most of them are forms of the common Ivy (Hedera helix). This confusion is twice confounded by the fact that even the wild-growing species have very few precise differences by which they can be distinguished. Only one really reliable technical character has been discovered, the hairs on the stems and leaves. Ivy, to the naked eye, seems smooth and shiny; one would never think that it bore any hairs on the stem or leaf. But a closer examination will reveal numerous tiny gray flecks along the stem and on the young leaves. At the ends of vigorous branches these flecks sometimes become larger and more numerous until the whole end of the branch seems almost scurfy. Seen under a hand lens, these flecks are found to be hairs, but hairs of a very peculiar sort. They have a very short stalk and branch out in star-like fashion so that the whole hair is umbrella-shaped or shield-shaped. By these tiny hairs the species can be quite readily distinguished. In some species the rays are long, in others they are short. In some the rays are separate, in others they are united. One of the differences between Hedera helix and its variety baltica is that while in the former there are only five or six rays to a hair, the latter usually has eight. The differences between the species are even more extreme, as is shown in the accompanying plate. Figures 1 and 2 show greatly enlarged views of the hairs of Hedera helix var. baltica. Above, at the left, is shown the far different hair of Hedera colchica. It will be seen that the hair from the Baltic Ivy has fewer rays and that they are spaced widely apart instead of cohering into a disk. Nearly all the cultivated Ivies seen in this country belong to one variety or another of the English Ivy (Hedera helix), of which Mr. Rehder's Baltic Ivy is merely a hardy northern variety. Unfortunately many of the garden Ivies introduced into cultivation in this country have been chosen from among the more tender varieties such as Hedera helix var. poetica, and the Scotch or Irish Ivy (H. h. var. hibernica). With a little care in searching out the hardier sorts we ought eventually to be able to grow Ivies in our New England gardens almost as readily as they are grown in northern Europe. The Baltic Ivy is not the only variety which has proved hardy at the Arboretum. A semi-climbing form which came in under the name of Hedera helix var. arborescens, has made a good growth and withstood winter injury. A large-leaved Ivy (Hedera colchica var. amurensis) from Kew Gardens has proved fairly hardy though it is scarcely an attractive plant. More promising than either of these is a hardy form of the common Ivy from Switzerland brought back to this country many years ago by a member of the Agassiz family and recently obtained for the Arboretum from the Leyland Estate in West Manchester. As it grows on the Leyland estate it is somewhat protected from extreme cold by the nearby ocean and it has grown out in great profusion, covering the southside of the house and the garden walls and fruiting heavily each year. Last September an attempt was made to combine the hardiness of these two strains, the Baltic Ivy and the variety from Switzerland, by hybridizing them. Strong, healthy flower-branches of the Arboretum vine were selected as the mother parent. Working from ladders and window sills, the buds were opened with small steel forceps and the pollen sacs were removed. A trip was made to West Manchester for flowering branches of the Swiss Ivy. These were kept in the laboratory and as the flowers opened and shed their pollen it was carried outdoors and applied to the waiting stigmas. Soon afterwards the seed pods started to swell; the cross had been successful. All during the winter months the pods have continued to enlarge, for Ivy, strangely enough, ripens its dark blue berries between September and May. The seeds are now nearly ripe. If they can be germinated successfully and if the hybrid seeds grow, and if the seedlings are not accidentally destroyed, the Arboretum may hope, in a few year's time, to present American gardens with an even hardier and more vigorous variety than the Baltic Ivy. Until that time, the Baltic Ivy is to be recommended for northern gardens. EDGAR ANDERSON EXPLANATION OF PLATES Hedera helix var. baltica (Juvenile form). Figures 1 and 2, greatly enlarged views of stem hairs, seen from above. Figure 3, a single hair of H. colchica for comparison (after Tobler). (Drawing by Blanche Ames Ames.) Hedera helix var. baltica (Fruiting branch). Below at the left an enlarged cross-section of a single berry, showing two ripe seeds and an aborted ovule. (Drawing by Blanche Ames Ames.) Spring Classes for 1932. Three types of classes for amateurs are being offered this spring at the Arnold Arboretum. One, a course in the identification of trees, is being given in connection with the Scout Masters' Training School and is already well under way. A series of informal walks will be offered to the general public during April and May. On Saturday afternoons, a member of the staff will meet interested visitors at the Forest Hills Gate at 2 o'clock and conduct them on an hour's walk around the Arboretum, lecturing on the various trees and shrubs which are then in flower. No charge will be made for these walks which will be held, weather permitting, on the following Saturday afternoons: April 30th, May 7th, 14th, 21st, 28th, and June 4th. The third series is in the nature of an experiment, which if successful will be conducted on a larger scale next year. It has seemed that many people might like to visit the Arboretum during the long spring evenings and study some particular group of plants in which they are interested, under the guidance of a member of the staff. Any group of ten or more people with such an objective may apply for this privilege. They may be a garden club, or a scout troop, or a group with no formal affiliations, but willing to come on the same evening and study the same subject. The Arboretum will make every effort to cooperate with such visiting groups in making their visit worth while. If for instance, they wish to study the pruning of shrubs, a demonstration will be arranged for their benefit. It may be possible to arrange an indoor lecture later in the evening, if this is desired. The weekday evenings in the last four weeks of May will be set aside for this purpose and an entire week will be reserved for each organization. The meetings will be scheduled for Monday or Tuesday (at the pleasure of the visitors) with the understanding that if the weather is inclement the meeting will be held on the next possible evening up to and including the following Friday. The four weeks which are offered for such study visits this spring are May 9th, 16th, 23rd, and 30th. Past experience with scout troops and garden clubs has taught us that an amazingly high percentage of organizations make arrangements for visits to the Arboretum and fail to appear at the time appointed. For this reason the Arboretum requires a deposit of ten dollars at the time the reservation is made. When the organization visits the Arboretum on the scheduled week the deposit will be refunded. If the appointment is not kept, the deposit will be retained at the discretion of the Arboretum. The Arboretum is always willing to serve the public but it does not wish to waste its efforts. EDGAR ANDERSON \"Winter Browning\" of Conifers. In early spring, before there is any external evidence of growth, coniferous foliage often exhibits a rather sudden browning. The extent of the browning varies from a touch here and there to extensive patches or an inclusion of the entire crown, in the last instances the plants appearing as though dead. This injury is most pronounced in the foliage produced the preceding year though it may extend to needles of all ages. Not infrequently twigs as well as the leaves may be killed outright. No species are wholly immune, whether of Pines, Spruces, Firs, Arbor vitae, etc., but some are more susceptible than others. There are, also, differences in liability of individuals of the same species. Browning occurs almost exclusively on the sunned side of the crowns, and in the case of trees is most severe in the lower branches. The actual damage done varies chiefly according to the amount of twig-killing. If there is nothing more than a browning of the foliage, the subsequent new growth restores the green aspect of the crowns, and little permanent injury results. If twigs are killed there is a dwarfing of branches on the southerly exposed sides and in most severe cases plants may be killed outright. The cause of \"winter browning\" has been ascribed by some observers to excessive loss of moisture at a time when the ground is still frozen and the roots are unable to make good the losses, and by others to frost-killing of leaves and twigs, the cells of which have begun to be active. As \"winter browning\" takes place at a time of the spring when periods of warm sunny days are often followed by frosty spells the two explanations are not wholly incompatible, because it is a fact that transpiration, or the giving off of water from a plant, is not simply evaporation but is a process dependent to a great extent on protoplasmic activity in the cells. It is quite conceivable that excessive transpiration without restoration of the water content would result in harm to the living substance. However, the second one is the more explicit and is backed up by a certain amount of experimentation. Neger, a German pathologist, exposed spruce branches to eight or ten degrees (Centigrade) of frost in freezing mixtures for a few days and then microscopically examined the tissues of needles of different ages. He found that there was a frost injury and that the killing was greatest in the youngest needles and progressively less in the older. When branches treated in this way were exposed to the sunlight the browning developed just as in nature. Avoidance of browning is desirable, especially in the more tender shrubs. This can be provided by temporary shelter or protective plantings. J. H. FAULL Washington Elm. (Supplement to Bulletin No. 18, 1931.) In our Bulletin of Popular Information on December 10, 1931, we published our doubts upon the authenticity of some grafts now being offered by nurserymen as descendants of the Washington Elm in Cambridge. It has been brought to our attention that the Arnold Arboretum itself took some part in the identification of the tree on the grounds of the Public Library at Wellesley from which these grafts were taken and on whose descent from the original Elm their authenticity therefore depends. For this reason, and because the Arboretum did itself once accept the identification, it does not wish to be understood as in any way impugning the good faith of the nurserymen who now rely on it."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Some Early Flowering Trees & Flowering Habits of Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":2,"start_page":9,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23962","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070a328.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.; Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI MAY 6, 1932 NOS. 3 & 4 Some Early Flowering Trees. The flowers of many of our earliest blossoming trees are unrecognized by a great proportion of the people who enjoy their beauty of foliage or shade. Inconspicuous flowers may be followed by more or less noticeable or showy fruits but these, too, sometimes attract little notice. While we have Witch-Hazels earlier, the first of the large trees, native or foreign, to blossom in New England is our White or Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum). Normally flowering about the middle of March, in the past exceptionally mild winter the first flowers were found fully open on January 14th on a large low-branched tree in the Arboretum This tree has been watched and noted in the early spring for a good many years and its flowers always appear more precocious than those of other trees of the same species in the vicinity. Not all of the flowers appear at the same time, some remain in bud during a cold period succeeding the opening of the first flowers and develop the rest of their flowers several weeks later. Because of freezing, the earliest may not produce fruits but some of the later blooms may do so. In this latitude the fruit usually ripens in the last days of May or the first days of June. We have records of ripe fruit on May 18th. The Maple most nearly associated, botanically, with the native Silver Maple is our Red or Scarlet Maple (Acer rubrum). This usually does not blossom until about the middle of April when its honey-yellow or scarlet flowers cause the trees to have a much more conspicuous aspect than is ever shown by the White Maple. The fruits of the Red Maple are often as conspicuous as the flowers and mature with those of the White Maple. They are about one-fourth the size of those of that species, the wings often being brightly colored. If the seeds are allowed to become very dry they soon lose their vitality or power of germination. In nature the seeds germinate soon after falling on moist ground, so that new plants are well developed during the same season in which they are produced. The little plants of the White Maple are generally much larger than those of the Red Maple of the same age. Male and female flowers are usually produced on separate trees but, occasionally, both may be found on the same tree. In this region about the middle of April is the normal time for our American or White Elm (Ulmus americana) to blossom These flowers usually appear when the Red Maple blooms, but the dates may vary according to season. The little flat, winged fruits ripen at the end of May. Young plants 2 or 3 inches high should be developed in the same summer that the seeds are produced. An interesting peculiarity of the seedlings is that the first true leaves they produce are opposite while the normal phyllotaxy or leaf arrangement in later growth and in mature trees is alternate. Alders and Hazels in various species, were in best flower early in April and the bloom is now over for this season. A careful examination of a flowering branch of Alder (Alnus) will show the fading male catkins at or near the tips of the branches while inconspicuous female or pistillate catkins are near them on separate stems. While in New England we usually think of the Alders, such as Alnus incana and A. rugosa, as being coarse shrubs, they may become small trees. There are truly arborescent species native on our Pacific Coast. An Asiatic species, Alnus japonica, is quite hardy in this latitude and may become 60 or 70 feet tall. The Hazels are also commonly regarded as shrubs but the European Hazel or Filbert (Corylus avellana) attains a height of 15 or 20 feet, while the Turkish Hazel (Corylus colurna) will, under favorable conditions, become a shapely tree 60 or 70 feet in height. Like the Alders, the Hazels are monoecious, producing male aments and female flowers on the same plants. While the staminate catkins show conspicuously at or near the ends of the twigs, the pistillate flowers are developed from lateral scaly buds, only the pistils being visible at time of inflorescence. These female flowers develop into the well known hazel-nuts or filberts, partly or sometimes wholly, surrounded by leafy husks or involucres. The Poplars are distinctly among our early flowering trees. They are dioecious trees with the male flowers usually making a more conspicuous show than those with pistillate catkins. The proximity of male trees near dwellings may be the cause of much \"dust\" appearing on furniture while they are in bloom. A few weeks later the pistillate or fruiting trees may cause annoyance by the abundance of \"cotton\" which, at maturity, floats through the air, often in great profusion. This \"cotton\" is made up of innumerable, very slender, white, silky hairs which escape from the opening pods or capsules. These silky hairs are attached like parachutes to the very small seeds and enable them to attain a wide distribution through wind agency. Planters of the commonly used Poplars are confronted by annoyance from the pollen of the male trees or later by the escaping ripe seeds from the fruiting trees. Where only one or the other of the sexes will satisfy the ends desired, usually for quick growths or for screens, it is perfectly practicable to select that sex which will cause least annoyance. Plants may be easily grown from cuttings, a mode of propagation hardly feasible with most of our desirable shade trees. Probably the most commonly employed of these Poplars are the Cottonwood (Populus balsamifera), the Canada Poplar (P. canadensis) which is regarded as a hybrid between P. balsamifera and the European Black Poplar, known botanically as P. nigra, and its variety P. nigra italica, the Lombardy Poplar. Many of the Poplars are crossed by hybridization, either naturally, by wind-transported pollen, or occasionally by the intervention of man. Therefore there may be many puzzling forms found in cultivation or in nature. Our Quaking Aspen (Populus tremuloides) and our Large toothed Aspen (Populus qrandidentata) are among the earliest of the Poplars to blossom, the precocious flowers appearing in the first days of April in some early seasons, but being subject to delay until the middle of the month or later if the season is cool. In the popular mind some of the Willows are acclaimed as the earliest of our trees to flower and indicate the approach of spring, but usually the announcement of early bloom merely indicates the bursting of the scales covering the buds and exposing snugly packed catkins covered with fine, silky, white hairs attached to the small scales which subtend the numerous little flower buds found in each catkin. The swelling and splitting of the bud scales and exposing of the silky hairs may occur in early winter, during a mild period, two or three months before pollen and stigmas are matured. Hence the earliest of the Willows cannot be classed as really in flower before the Poplars. The most precocious species are merely shrubs and commonly blossom in early April, the arborescent species not generally flowering until the latter part of the month or later. Like the Poplars, the Willows are dioecious. Generally they are easily propagated by cuttings. If plants are desired for their pretty catkins, male plants will prove the most desirable as the anthers are more showy than the pistils. Observation of our Conifers will show a number of genera and species which produce flowers very early in spring. The Larches are among the largest of our Conifers which flower in early spring before much development of new leaves. They are monoecious, the male flowers being usually short, button-like or globose, borne on the sides of the branches, while the female flowers appear less numerously as small cones than the male flowers. The bracts of the cones are often bright red or scarlet. Arbor-vitae (Thuja occidentalis) was in best blossoming early in April in some localities and in some of its numerous forms. The flowers are among the smallest of those of our native hardy Conifers, averaging only about an eighth of an inch m diameter. A careful examination is necessary to discover the little purplish male flowers and the greenish female blossoms. The latter appear as swollen tips nearer the end of the twigs than the males. Another native tree with flowers even smaller than Arbor-vitae is the White Cedar of our swamps (Chamaecyparis thyoides) which usually produces its tiny male and female flowers in abundance on the same branches in early April. In the latitude of Boston our Red Cedars (Juniperus virginiana) are past, their fullest bloom being in April. This group is usually dioecious, at flowering time the male trees being most conspicuous with the release of vast quantities of yellow pollen, the female trees seemingly flowerless but a close examination shows little pale green cones which develop into the characteristic small fleshy blue fruits. The Yews also blossom early. They are commonly dioecious, so that if raised from seed only a part of the plants would produce the conspicuous red fleshy fruits characteristic of this genus. Any particularly desirable form is usually propagated from cuttings. During the past two weeks Magnolia stellata and M denudata have been in good flower although somewhat injured by late frosts. Prunus Armeniaca is flowering well this season, and Forsythias, Spice-bush (Benzoin aestivale) and Leatherwood (Dirca palustris), often mentioned in these Bulletins, were in their best flowering condition about April 27th. The single flowered Japanese Cherries are just passing out of bloom and the double flowered Cherries are now the most attractive feature in the Arboretum. Although there have been some injuries, the mildness of the past winter was, on the whole, favorable for plants so that, unless there are severe late frosts, the trees and shrubs should develop an attractive and interesting show of flowers. J. G. JACK. Flowering Habits of Trees and Shrubs. Most trees and shrubs bloom in the spring, but the flower buds may be formed and often are well developed long before the blossoms appear. In the Rhododendrons and Azaleas the young flower buds are formed in early summer. In August and September the pollen mother cells divide to form the young pollen grains. These develop and the flower bud is well formed and easily recognized in the fall. The buds remain dormant during the winter but complete their growth and blossom in late spring or early summer. A more usual type of floral development is that found in the Apples. The flower buds are differentiated in July, but make little growth until the following spring. During the fall and winter they cannot be observed without dissecting the surrounding tissue. Development is resumed in the spring and the pollen grains are formed in late April or early May. The flowers open several weeks later. A third type of floral development is found in the Larch. In the fall, the pollen mother cells begin to develop and show the early stages before division, but further growth is suspended until February. Growth is resumed periodically during the few warm days of late winter, and in March the divisions which form the pollen are completed. These cell divisions occur even when the snow is on the ground and the day temperatures are little above freezing. The Conifers vary greatly in time of pollen formation. In Yews and Junipers the young pollen grains are formed in the fall. The Hemlocks and Pines show little flower bud growth until spring The pollen is formed in April or early June. Some species form their pollen in the fall while other species in the same genus show little floral development until spring. Cornus mas, C. florida, and C. kousa all have well developed buds with young pollen grains in the fall, while Cornus stolonifera does not produce pollen until May. Cornus mas, the Cornelian Cherry, completes its floral differentiation in the fall and is ready to bloom early in the spring. This year it was one of the first shrubs to bloom and was out several weeks before the Forsythias. Cornus kousa and C. florida are much later in time of flowering, although their buds are also well developed in the fall. Most trees and shrubs differentiate their flower buds in the summer even though the pollen is not produced until spring. This condition is found in the Apples, Hawthorns, Quinces, Viburnums, Cherries, Maples, Magnolias, Honeysuckles and Lilacs. The flowers which appear on these trees and shrubs were set last summer and the number of flowers which will develop was largely determined by the conditions last year. The abundant rains of last summer should insure prolific flower production this spring, especially where the plants are properly cared for, as they are in the Arboretum. Next season's flowers are influenced only by climatic and cultural conditions but can be increased by proper pruning of certain plants. In the Rhododendrons and Lilacs, it is advisable to cut off the old flowers after the petals have fallen. The energy which would have been used in seed production is then available for the production of additional flower buds for the following season. Certain Apple varieties often set so many fruits that few flowers are produced the next year. Due to the few fruits produced the second year the tree is able to set an unusually large number of flower buds and the third year there is again an excess of fruit production. These varieties tend to bear only in alternate years and the cycle is disturbed only when fruit development is prevented by natural or artificial means. In wind-pollinated plants the pollen grains are produced in enormous numbers. They are light and dry enough so that they are carried long distances by the wind. Some pollen grains have small, wing-like projections which also aid in their dispersal. It has been estimated that a large American Elm may produce billions of pollen grains, but only a very small percentage of these is carried to the stigmas and effect fertilization. Some of the Pines produce so much pollen that the ground may be yellow with pollen grains m sheltered areas. In these wind-pollinated plants the flowers may be perfect and include both male and female organs, as in the Elms. In the Conifers, the male and female cones are borne on the same tree. Some of the Maples have the male and female flowers on different trees. In such species it is essential that enormous numbers of pollen grains should be produced to insure adequate fertilization and seed production. Most trees and shrubs with conspicuous flowers are insect pollinated. In such species the pollen adheres to the opened anthers and is not carried by the wind to any great extent. The Rhododendron pollen grains are held together in groups of four and these \"tetrads\" are united by very delicate sticky threads. The Apples, Pears and Cherries are almost entirely dependent on insects for the transfer of pollen from one tree to another, and since most of these fruit trees are self-sterile, fruit production is dependent on the activity of bees during the blossoming season. Great variation is found in the length of time between pollination and seed production in different species. Most Elms are pollinated about the middle of April in this region and the seeds are mature early in June. A relatively short period is necessary for seed development in some of the Maples. In most of the trees and shrubs, such as the Lilacs, Apples, Deutzias, and Roses, the seeds do not mature until fall. Most species of Pines require two years for the female cones to mature. The various stages in development are shown in the accompanying drawing of cones of Pinus pungens. The male cones (figure 1) shed their pollen in the spring and some pollen grains lodge between the scales of the female cone (figure 2). The female cone develops but fertilization does not occur until the following spring. During the second season the seeds develop and the female cone reaches maturity. KARL SAX. The display of flowering cherries is particularly fine this spring, and while the collection at the Forest Hills Gate is already past its prime the newer plantation on the Overlook is not yet in full bloom. The Crabapples are just beginning to open and will be in full flower before the Cherries have passed. In the Shrub Collection the Arboretum's unusual and extensive collection of Japanese Quinces is beginning to bloom and should be in fine condition for another week. EXPLANATION OF PLATES Acer saccharinum (Earliest flowering native tree). 1, Staminate flowers; 2, Pistillate flowers; 3, A single staminate flower ; 4, A single pistillate flower; 5, A pistil; 6, Pistillate flower, vertical section; 7, Leaves and fruit; 8, Base of fruit, vertical section; 9, seed, vertical section; 10, embryo; 11, Embryo showing cotyledons; 12, Branchlet in winter From drawing by C. E. Faxon for Sargent's \"Silva of North America\". Pinus pungens. 1, Male cones which produce the pollen; 2, Young female cone; 3, One year old female cone at top. Mature cone at base of branch. Two years are required from pollination to seed production in most Pines. From drawing by C. E. Faxon for Sargent's \"Silva of North America\"."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Cherries and Peaches","article_sequence":3,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23953","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060ab28.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI MAY 18, 1932 NO. 5 Cherries and Peaches. The early flowering Japanese and Chinese Cherries never flowered more beautifully than they have this spring. The past winter was so mild that practically every flower bud survived. Flowers were borne on every branch from the ground up. The situation of the largest trees, near the Forest Hills Gate, is not always favorable to such beautiful development, because the land in this locality is more or less basin-shaped and forms a pocket for the cold air which has no free flow, hence in this locality the lower parts of the trees are subjected to several degrees of lower temperature than the upper parts, and the blossom buds near the ground are very likely to be wholly or partly destroyed if the mercury falls to zero (Fahrenheit) or below. The semi-double and the double-flowered forms of the Japanese and other true Cherries are usually distinctly later in blossoming than those with normal, single blooms and as the latter fade away the former come into their best condition. The flowers endure much longer than those of the single forms, whose petals may begin to drop in forty-eight hoars after the flowers expand. Much depends, of course, upon weather conditions. The best collection of the later flowered Cherries in the Arboretum is on Bussey Hill and is now well worth a visit. The better forms or variations have so often been described in these bulletins that it seems unnecessary to repeat names when these are plainly given upon the plants for all who visit them. All forms do not bloom at once and plants with beautiful flowers continue to be of interest through the third week of May. Peaches (Prunus Persica) were in full bloom about May 6th or 8th. A number of the more popular kinds grown for their fruit show marked differences in their flowers. Plants like the well known commercial Peach, the Elberta, have much smaller and less showy blossoms than the flowers of Carman, an earlier ripening Peach, which is widely and extensively cultivated for its fruit. This garden variety has large, broad-spreading, pink petals; an orchard of this Peach in bloom is well worth a long journey to see. The double-flowered forms of the Peach are as interesting and beautiful as are the Japanese Cherries. Three forms deserving particular mention are the Double White, Double Pink and Double Red. Unfortunately, they appear to be even shorter lived than the normal Peach tree and far less enduring than the Cherries. They will be past flowering when this bulletin is issued. Juneberries. Some of the earliest shrubby Juneberries or Shadbushes (Amelanchier) were in good blossom in the last week of April. Now, May 8th, the Smooth Shadbush or Juneberry (Amelanchier laevis) is a conspicuous feature in the natural landscape, being covered with its fleecy white bloom that is accompanied by unfolding, reddish purple leaves. As a small garden tree, with single trunk, it is much to be preferred to the Gray-leaved or Swamp Shadbush or Juneberry (Amelanchier oblongifolia), another natural feature in our landscape, but one usually found in moist ground or on cool slopes. Amelanchier laevis frequents drier situations than A. oblongifolia, although both species grow well in ordinary garden soil. The Gray-leaved Shadbush has the young leaves heavily covered on the under side with a white tomentum before they fully expand; this tomentum is also abundant on the racemes of flower buds. The smaller, duller white blossoms of A. oblongifolia are less attractive than those of A. laevis. As a small tree, it usually has a narrow habit of growth and develops several upright stems from the ground, some of them slender. Often the whole plant assumes the habit of a large, round-topped shrub. Just now it is one of the most common and conspicuous plants, forming a striking contrast with other vegetation against the brown hillsides and leafless woodlands, and in the blueberry swamps. Another native species with arborescent habit is the so-called Canadian Shadbush or Juneberry (Amelanchier conadensis), which is distinguished from the other species referred to by having its young leaves more or less tomentose on both sides, whereas, they are glabrous in A. laevis, as already stated, and heavily tomentose on the under side only in A. oblongifolia. Its fruit is also described as tasteless, but in the other two as sweet. This quality is variable, however, and cannot well be relied upon as a specific character. The Canadian Juneberry occurs with A. laevis over much of the same geographical range as the latter, although it does not appear to extend so far north. A most interesting natural hybrid between these two species has been named Amelanchier grandiflora. It is a very floriferous little tree, the flower buds on some individuals being tinged pink, the petals showing some trace of the same color. This offers the suggestion that we may yet have a pink or red flowered Juneberry in cultivation. Some of the species of Amelanchier are mere shrubs and altogether they may develop a sequence of blossoms lasting several weeks. It is unfortunate that they do not have a generally accepted English name. Juneberry and Shadbush appear to be most common in use, though they are also known as Service-tree, this being the name adopted by the U. S. Forest Service and some other American botanical authorities, though sometimes modified as Service-berry. \"Standardized Plant Names\" uses Shadblow. In the confusion of local names a resort to Amelanchier, a Savoy name for the European species A. ovalis, offers a relief. Linnaeus accepted the local name as a specific term in his nomenclature. Shadbush seems a misnomer when applied to a small tree. The name Service-berry is certainly less known in this country than Juneberry, so named from the fact that the earliest fruits mature in that month. The prefix \"Shad\" to names of some of our eastern species refers to the coincidence of bloom with the annual movements of shad fish in our streams. Species of the genus occur from the Atlantic coast to the Pacific, and from Newfoundland and the Hudson Bay, and near the Arctic Circle, to the mountains of Mexico. The genus also occurs in Asia as well as in Europe, the best known Asiatic species in cultivation being Amelanchier asiatica. This is inclined to be arborescent. In the Arboretum it is one of the latest of the Amelanchiers to blossom. All of the Juneberries or Shadbushes bear edible and often quite palatable fruits. Not much has been done to improve these by artificial processes, but selections of the best found growing wild have been made. The edible qualities of these fruits in the wild state have been of great advantage at times to explorers and pioneers who relished them when other fresh fruit supplies were scarce. The North American Indians over a wide range of our country appreciate the fruit either in a fresh or dried state. When properly dried the fruits have something of the quality of raisins. Visitors to the Arboretum are advised that on Bussey Hill the beautiful pink-flowered Rhododendron Schlippenbachii is passing its best condition and the Poukhan Azalea is a mass of lilac-purple color. Kaempfer's Azalea from Japan may be seen in fine condition in the same locality. Viburnum Carlesii is in flower in the group near the Centre Street Gate; many Crabapples are already in flower and others are rapidly following, the best collection being on the north and east sides of Peters Hill. The cool weather has held back the flower show of some popular plants. Among these are the Lilacs, which at the present time, May 10th, do not appear as though they would be in best condition until about May 22nd, although a very early and interesting hybrid, Syringa hyac2n,thiflora, opened its first individual little flowers in the first week of this month. J. G. JACK. EXPLANATION OF PLATE Amelanchier canadensis (Juneberry). 1, flowering branch, reduced; 2, diagram of flower; 3, vertical section of flower, petals cut, enlarged; 4, stamens, enlarged; 5, cross section of ovary, enlarged; 6, ovule, magnified; 7, fruiting branch, reduced; 8, fruit, vertical section, enlarged; 9, fruit, vertical section, enlarged; 10, seed, enlarged; 11, embryo, magnified; 12, winter buds, reduced. From drawings by C. E. Faxon for Sargent's \"Silva of North America\"."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Fire!","article_sequence":4,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23954","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060ab6a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI JUNE 4, 1932 NO. 6 Fire! In the early afternoon of April 30th fire broke out at the base of Hemlock Hill. Fanned by a stiff wind, it ran up the southeast face of the hill, ruining a fine plantation of Japanese Yews and leaving an ugly scar on the hillside before it was finally subdued. During the last few years the thrifty grove of young Hemlocks at the base of the cliff has been a lovely sight the year round. It will take skillful replanting and ten years of care before this part of the Arboretum can be restored to its former beauty. The fire was fortunately far enough around the base of the hill so that the damage is not visible from the South Street Entrance. Disheartening as is such a fire to those who are interested in preserving and developing the beauty of the Arboretum, the complete record for the year is far more alarming. While the fire of April 30th was somewhat more spectacular than the average, it was only one of ten major fires this spring. All of these caused some damage, yet all were avoidable and some of them were deliberately set. In spite of the vigilance of the Superintendent, in spite of a special fire guard and patrol truck with fire-fighting apparatus, there have been over twenty-five fires m the Arboretum in the last six months. A partial record for this period is as follows: Fall of 1931. South Street Nursery. Small fire built in the nursery by boys playing about the pond. Killed several Willows. Oak Woods. Leaf fire in the Oak woods back of the Dawson house. Large area burned over but little actual damage to important specimens. This fire was deliberately set by four boys who were seen but escaped in the confusion. Bussey Meadow. Several fires, one of which was set, and one of which spread from a brush fire on adjoining property. Relatively little damage. Pinetum. A fire back of the Thuja collection. Probably caused by a careless smoker. Peters Hill. Grass fire. Several trees badly scorched. Bussey Dormitory. Grass fire near the public footpath. Apparently started by a careless smoker. Spring of 1932. Corner of Bussey and South Streets, April 12. Killed the lower branches of several Hemlocks. Of unknown origin. Walter Street Meadow. Grass fire started by boys. Damaged several young Larches. Oak Woods and Pinetum, April 18. Four fires deliberately set by a gang of boys, who threw matches and leaves into the grass as they walked through. They were seen by two students but escaped. One of the fires damaged the collection of young Chinese Pines. Hemlock Hill, April 30. The fire described above. Bussey Dormitory, March and April. Three fires in the shrubbery along the Arboretum border. One apparently started accidently by smokers. The other two, which occurred on the same day, had every appearance of being deliberately set. A fine southern Yellow-wood was ruined and the fire had ignited the house before the firemen arrived. Oak Woods, May 21. Two small fires, apparently set. Little damage. One grass fire near the railroad on the same day. Vandalism in the Arboretum has reached a point where friends of the institution need to know the damage that is being done and the danger to which we are exposed. Only a very few of those who come here for recreation misuse that privilege, but these few cause damage which is mounting into the tens of thousands of dollars. These hoodlums hold midnight carousals on Hemlock Hill, littering the ground with broken glass. They deliberately twist off the metal labels from trees and shrubs, so that valuable information is sometimes lost forever and the yearly replacement bill is terrific. They break hundreds of unopened flower buds off the Rhododendrons in the early spring. They throw stones through the windows of the Administration Building for the pure joy of breaking glass. Fire is, at present, their most dangerous ally. A single fire, backed by a strong wind could ruin Hemlock Hill. It has taken nature at least a thousand years to produce this outdoor cathedral. One hoodlum, one irresponsible youth, who likes to see the fire engines, may some day destroy it in half an hour. So much for the problem. What can be done about it? The Arboretum is doing its best by both direct and indirect methods to save the Arboretum from a small percentage of the public for the public at large. Two hundred and sixty acres are not readily guarded, either by city police or hired watchmen. During \"fire weather\" a truck equipped with fire-fighting apparatus is on constant duty. Four members of the staff have homes in or near the Arboretum and these homes serve as watch towers in preventing vandalism and in reporting fires in their early stages. In the last year the busy housewives in these four homes have turned in the alarms for at least half of the fires in the Arboretum. It may eventually be possible to develop a system of Sunday and holiday patrol in cooperation with the Boy Scouts. A promising start in that direction has been made this spring. A knowledge of what the Arboretum is and what kind of work it is doing, diffused through the immediate neighborhood, may eventually prove a deterrent force. One weapon which can be used against hoodlumism is public opinion and it is for that reason that a whole number of the Bulletin has been devoted to the subject. The Arboretum is located in Jamaica Plain but it is known throughout the world. It belongs to Boston and to the country at large. It serves the public everywhere. It must not be kept at the mercy of a few irresponsible youths. EDGAR ANDERSON. Plants of Current Interest. With the first week of June, spring has suddenly given way to summer in the Arboretum. The Cherries and the Crabapples are gone, the Lilacs are rapidly going, but the Rhododendrons and the late Azaleas are here to take their places. One of the most unusual trees in flower at the moment is the \"Empress Tree\" (Paulownia tomentosa), of which a splendid specimen can be seen near the Centre Street Gate. Originally from China, it has long been in cultivation in the Orient and was long ago introduced into southern gardens. It has made itself very much at home in the southern states and has run wild to such an extent that it might easily be taken for a native American tree. Its showy violet-colored flowers are seldom seen in Boston, for the tree is not quite hardy here and is at its best only after a succession of mild winters. The display of named varieties of the common lilac is rapidly passing by, but many of the later-flowered species are just opening their flowers and will be in fine condition for at least another week. In the Legume collection below the Lilacs the Rose Acacias, Laburnums, and Black Locusts are in splendid condition. The flowers of all three are essentially similar in shape but those of the Black Locust are pure white, those of the Laburnums are brilliant yellow, and those of the Rose Acacias are soft pink. Visitors with limited time at their disposal are advised to spend most of it in the neighborhood of the South Street Entrance. On the slopes of Bussey Hill are to be found Azaleas in a rainbow planting of pink, yellow, white, orange, purple, and scarlet. At the foot of Hemlock Hill the Rhododendron collection is already full of color. Under the hemlocks and among the red cedars the ferns are rapidly unfolding and their light green fronds contrast handsomely with the darker shades of the conifers. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Two views of the eastern slope of Hemlock Hill. Above: The undamaged northeast face. Below: A portion of the fire-scarred area."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hawthorns","article_sequence":5,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23956","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060b36d.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI JUNE 9, 1932 NO. 7 Hawthorns. In the fourth volume of Charles Sprague Sargent's \"Silva of North America\", published in 1892, there appears an enumeration of the native species of the genus Crataegus. The generic name Crataegus is derived from the Greek word kratos, referring to the hardness and strength of the wood. Commonly the group is known as Hawthorn and is sometimes called Thorn Apple, or Haw. The term Hawthorn appears to be derived from the old form hage or haeg, a hedge, and thorn in allusion to the sharp pointed spines usually characteristic of the genus. \"May\" has been used very often in English literature for the so-called English Hawthorn. Sargent states that about forty species of Crataegus are known, these being about equally divided between the Old World and the New, fourteen species being natives of the United States. In 1902, ten years later, in a supplementary volume (Vol. XIII) Sargent included eighty-four species as coming within the region covered by the Silva, but in his enumeration he did not admit a number of species that are recognized as shrubs rather than trees. At this time he stated that the number of American species was vastly greater than had been previously thought to be the case and that for their recognition and description some later work on American dendrology would have to be prepared. The Hawthorns comprise a group of trees and shrubs which normally have white flowers and pomaceous or apple-like fruits. The fruits are usually red but may be yellow, purple, black or green when ripe. Although they resemble small crabapples they exhibit a marked botanical difference in the hard bony coverings of the seeds. The petals are five in number except when there is a tendency for the flowers to become double. The stamens are usually five, ten, fifteen or twenty or sometimes twenty-five in number and, with the color of the anthers, are regarded as of specific value in separating closely related species. Horticulturally and in general garden practice, the Hawthorns may be expected to thrive under the same conditions as apple trees. They have not received the attention they merit as small ornamental flowering trees, or as hedge-plants or for their fruits which are often showy and of value as food for birds and sometimes also for man. The so-called English Hawthorns of our gardens are usually classed under the botanical name of Crataegus Oxyacantha but there is another species, Crataegus monogyna, which closely resembles it ana is often confused with it. The fact that they have hybridized adds to the confusion. Besides some differences in the leaves, the two species are differentiated by C. Oxyacantha having usually two of the hard bony nutlets or seeds in the fruit while there is only one in C. monogyna. The latter becomes a larger tree, attaining a height of over thirty feet. These white flowered trees are still occasionally seen in our gardens but they are considered less desirable than some of the garden forms which have been derived from the types They apparently have a greater tendency to produce colored flowers than has been shown by any of our native American species, although by long cultivation and selection we may develop from these many interesting garden forms. Of the European forms in cultivation Crataegus Oxyacantha plena, or muL~2plex, with very small rosette-like or double white blossoms, is one of the best of its kind. Among those with colored flowers Paul's Double Scarlet takes first rank for its brilliant scarlet blooms. It is the most conspicuous of the Thorns in brilliance of color. These various garden forms must be grafted or budded as the plants cannot be grown from cuttings. There are other foreign species of Crataegus found in our parks and gardens but they are generally considered rare or uncommon. Among them Crataegus pinnatifida, from northeastern Asia, is one of the most interesting. This becomes a small tree twenty feet in height, with large deeply or pinnately lobed, lustrous leaves, large flowers and large dark red fruits. A horticultural form, C. pinnatifida major, from northern China, is cultivated by the Chinese as an orchard tree for its edible fruits which are sometimes an inch in diameter. The collection of Hawthorns in the Arnold Arboretum is mainly located on the slopes of Peters Hill and, so far as possible, the chief groups have a frontage on the main driveway. With the possible exception of the collections in the parks of Rochester, New York, the Arboretum contains the largest collection of American species in cultivation. Students may find plants of various species in flower during a period of five or six weeks. The first species to show open flowers is Crataegus Arnoldiana. It was originally found growing naturally on the grounds of the Arnold Arboretum and although afterwards discovered in a few other places it appears rare in a natural state. It was named by Professor Sargent for James Arnold who by his will gave the original fund which made the Arboretum possible. This season the first flowers wet e four d open on May l2th, these being _about ~three-quarters of an inch in diameter and provided with ten stamens with yellow anthers. The trees become twenty or twenty-five feet in height, having stout trunks and broad rounded tops. The fruits are bright crimson, sometimes nearly threequarters of an inch in diameter and mature about the middle of August, usually falling before the first of September. They have a pleasant subacid flavor. The fruits of some species, as Crataegus submollis, bright red or orange-red in color, are often gathered and made into preserves or an excellent jelly, either pure or in combination with some other fruit, such as crabapples. In another group we have Crataegus coccinioides, a broad-spreading, low, round-topped tree producing large flowers, about three-quarters of an inch across, and globose dark crimson fruits with thick red flesh which should make excellent preserves. Its foliage, which is tinged red when unfolding, turns orange and scarlet in the autumn. The Hawthorns already mentioned are less known to the general public than the Cockspur Thorn (Crataegus crus-galli) which represents an interesting series of species extending from the Province of Quebec, near Montreal, southward to Florida. There is often confusion among nurserymen with regard to the species as at present known and apparent and unintentional substitution sometimes occurs. What is accepted as true C. crus-galli is a species with late flowers, having ten stamens with rose-colored or purple anthers; the leaves are lustrous, narrowly oblong-obovate tapering to a cuneate short-stalked base, usually rounded at the apex, sharply serrate and rarely lobed. The fruit is red and persists late. The species may become a tree thirty or thirty-five feet high but it is often low and broad-spreading. It is an interesting and useful tree either grown singly or as a strong barrier hedge, for which it is well adapted. Some interesting supposed hybrids have been developed from this species or its allies, but they are as yet little known in this country. Among these may be mentioned Crataegus Lavallei having leaves which turn bronzy-red late in autumn and fruits which remain on the trees through the winter, and C. persistens which holds its foliage in a green condition until early winter and with it bears its conspicuous and persistent red fruit. Crataegus punctata, the Dotted Thorn, is a representative of another group which grows naturally in eastern North America from Canada to Illinois and Georgia. While a low tree twenty or more feet in height its branches may spread over an area forty or more feet in diameter. It is well worth planting in parks or where there is plenty of room for the development of its normal beauty. It is rather late in flowering but blossoms before the Cockspur Thorn. The latest of the Thorns to bloom is the Washington Thorn (Crataegus phaenopyrum, or C. cordata), which becomes a small erect tree with rounded top. It bears small flowers in many flowered corymbs, small scarlet fruit which persists through the winter, if not earlier eaten by birds, and handsome clean foliage which turns scarlet and orange in the autumn. The thorns mentioned are among those best known in general planting. The collections in the Arboretum must be studied to get a fair idea of the diversity and richness of our hawthorn flora. J. G. JACK"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Rosa rugosa and its Hybrids","article_sequence":7,"start_page":29,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23961","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed0608927.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Judd, W. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI JUNE 24, 1932 NOS. 8 & 9 Rosa rugosa and its Hybrids. No exotic rose has made itself more at home in New England than the Asiatic species, Rosa rugosa. From the Bay of Fundy to Long Island Sound it is found growing spontaneously on sandy beaches quite as though it were a native American species. First reported as running wild in 1905, it is now known from the Elizabeth Islands, the Penikese Islands, Yarmouth, Nova Scotia, and from many intermediate points. In some of these situations it has merely \"jumped over the fence\" from a nearby garden. But in many of them, as on the Gurnet at Plymouth, Mass., it is found making itself thoroughly at home on isolated sand spits far from any garden. Rosa rugosa is a rampant, thrifty grower and is most decidedly a plant for the shrub border rather than for the formal rose garden. It can be trusted to look after itself more than can most roses, for it is winter hardy and resistant to such diseases as \"black spot\". If the bush becomes too large and scrawny it can be cut back ruthlessly close to the ground and will respond with clean new growth. It is particularly useful in situations where ordinary roses would be killed in cold winters or in seaside gardens where its natural tolerance of salt water gives it a special advantage. The foliage is a shiny dark green and is held crisply erect. In the typical form, the flowers are dark magenta, single, and very large, sometimes reaching over five inches in diameter. There are varieties which are semi-double as well as white-flowered and pink-flowered varieties. The flowers are borne more or less throughout the summer and are succeeded by brilliant fruits which gleam like large enameled beads among the dark green foliage. When the frost comes the leaves also turn color and finish the season in glowing shades of orange and scarlet. Quite as interesting as the species itself are the numerous hybrids which have been made between it and other kinds of roses. It has been remarkably fertile in crosses, and hybrids with the following species have been recorded: R. arvensis, R. chinensis, R. odorata, R. borboniana, R. palustris, R. blanda, R. carolina, R. Roxburghii, R. multiflora, R. Wichuraiana. Even in the Arboretum's modest collection of hybrid roses there are over fifteen which carry the blood of Rosa rugosa. These hybrids are now in flower in the Shrub Collection. Most of them are grouped together in one bed at the south edge of the collection; a few will be found scattered among the other species of roses. They are particularly interesting when considered as a group and compared with their parent species. In all of them the influence of R. rugosa is evident in their shiny, rugose leaves, large flowers, and vigorous growth. Unfortunately, some of the undesirable characteristics of R. rugosa seem to have been passed on quite as regularly, for nearly all of the hybrids have weak flower stems and a somewhat weedy habit of growth. All in all, however, they are a fine lot of flowering shrubs and should be much better known. As the president of the American Rose Society has said, \"They are of yet unrealized garden value\". It would seem as though many of these Rugosa hybrids might be useful in producing new varieties of hardy roses. It should be possible in further crosses to keep the better Rugosa characteristics and lose the less desirable ones. For the convenience of those amateurs who are doing breeding work with roses, the pollen of the hybrids in the Arboretum's collection has been examined in the Cytological Laboratory. In the following discussion the percentage of fertile pollen, as determined by microscopical examination, is reported for each hybrid where buds were available for study. Lady Duncan (R. rugosa X R. Wichuraiana). Pollen fertility 20%. A vigorous trailing rose, useful for holding banks, but not suitable for growing on a trellis. Flowers very large, fragrant, single and a vivid, clear pink. Foliage dark green, resistant to black spots. This was one of the hybrids produced by the Arboretum's first propagator, the late Jackson Dawson. Max Graf (R. rugosa X R. Wichuraiana). Pollen fertility 20%. Very similar to LADY DUNCAN, and therefore probably of the same ancestry, although R. setigera has been reported as one of the parents. The flower buds and foliage are slightly darker than those of LADY DUNCAN and the plant is somewhat more vigorous. This hybrid was raised at the Bowditch Nurseries in Pomfret Center, Connecticut, and bears the name of a gardener who was with the firm for many years. In the vicinity of Chicago, MAX GRAF has been used extensively as a bank cover in gardens along the Lake Michigan bluffs. In eastern Missouri it has withstood successfully the cold winters and blazing summers of that trying climate. New Century (R. rugosa X R. multiflora \"CLOTILDE SOUPERT\"). Pollen fertility 10%. Flowers large, fragrant, flesh-pink and fully double. Foliage light green. This variety and SIR THOMAS LIPTON were both originated by the late Dr. Van Fleet of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, who is known particularly for his hybrid climbing roses, SILVER MOON and AMERICAN PILLAR. Sir Thomas Lipton (R. rugosa X R. multiflora \"CLOTILDE SOUPERT\"). Pollen fertility 20%. Though this rose came from the same cross as did NEW CENTURY, it has much more the appearance of the next variety on the list, BLANC DOUBLE DE COUBERT. Like that variety its flowers are white and fragrant, sometimes showing a trace of pale pink in cloudy weather. It is reported as being much more of a continuous bloomer than the other large-flowered Rugosa hybrids. The foliage is dark green and glossy, the bush large and vigorous. Its general effect in the landscape is very fine. Blanc Double de Coubert (R. rugosa X R. odorata). Pollen fertility 35%. This variety was originated by Cochet-Cochet and has been variously reported as a sport of R. rugosa alba, and as the result of a cross with another species. The low pollen fertility would favor the latter interpretation. As compared to SIR THOMAS LIPTON the foliage is darker green, the bush less shapely and the flowers larger. Alice Aldrich. Pollen fertility 50%. From the appearance of this rose one might suspect it to be the result of crossing the old-fashioned pink Moss Rose with R. rugosa. The flowers are borne in clusters, the buds are pointed and open into fully double bright pink flowers. The foliage is thin for a Rugosa hybrid, the bush is thorny and of a rather floppy habit. Arnoldiana (R. rugosa X R. borboniana \"GENERAL JACQUEMINOT\"). Pollen nearly all sterile. This was another of the hybrids produced by Jackson Dawson. The flowers are single and a brilliant shade of dark crimson. The bush is a very vigorous grower. Agnes (R. rugosa X R. foetida \"PERSIAN YELLOW\"). Pollen nearly all sterile, but apparently a few fertile grains. This lovely rose, only recently becoming well known in the United States, was produced in 1900 by the Canadian plant breeder, William Saunders, who was then Director of the famous Experimental Farm at Ottawa. The flowers are a soft primrose yellow and semi-double. They are delightfully fragrant, the odor being a blend of the heavy rugosa perfume and the almost medicinal scent of the PERSIAN YELLOW. While very distinctive, it is quite similar to the delicate fragrance of most Tea Roses. The foliage is similar to that of R. rugosa. The variety is not only desirable for its beauty but for its extreme hardiness. It has been reported as having come unscathed through winters which killed other Rugosa hybrids back to the ground. In 1926 it was awarded the Van Fleet Gold Medal by the American Rose Society as being the most distinctive new rose originated in America. F. J. Grootendorst (R. rugosa X R. multiflora \"MME. NORBERT LEVAVASSEUR\"). Pollen less than 10% fertile. A hardy, everblooming rose. The flowers are small, very double, and with notched petals, giving the effect of a small red carnation. They are fragrant and are borne in clusters all through the summer. The foliage is dark green, rugose, and leathery. R. rugosa X R. ferruginea. Pollen fertility 60%. Flowers white and single, borne in clusters. Foliage thin but tough. The general effect is that of a tall, white-flowered wild rose. Ruskin (R. rugosa X \"VICTOR HUGO\"). Pollen practically all sterile. Ruskin is another of Dr. Van Fleet's hybrids. It has fully double flowers of bright, dark crimson borne singly or in small clusters. It is very fragrant and has leathery dark green foliage. Belle Poitevine. Pollen fertility 90%. The flowers are large and semi-double, very similar to those of R. rugosa in appearance and verging too closely on magenta to be generally popular. The variety is very hardy, however, and is a reliable bloomer. Nova Zembla. Pollen fertility 20%. This variety and the very similar CONRAD FERDINAND MEYER are vigorous hybrids with fully double flowers resembling those of a hybrid tea or hybrid perpetual. It has long-pointed buds, borne several in a cluster on stout stems and opening into a fragrant flower of pale shell pink. It is almost too vigorous and requires severe pruning out of old canes to be kept within bounds. It is sometimes planted as a hedge around rose gardens to form a background for the lower growing varieties. Schweidnitzia. Pollen fertility 10%. The flowers are white and semi-double. The bush is low, the foliage dark green and leathery. These few hybrids of Rosa rugosa are a motley group. Some are high shrubs, some low bushes, and some are vines. Their flowers are white, red, pink, and yellow; small and large; clustered and single. All of them are only partially fertile; none of them, so far as we know, are absolutely sterile. Various as they are, their variety is as nothing compared to the hidden possibilities locked away in their pollen grains and egg cells. Any one of these hybrids would give rise to varied progeny. It is beyond the limits of the human imagination to conceive of all the possibilities which might result from inter-crossing these fifteen varieties. Yet out of the thousands of hybrids which could be raised only a few would be worth growing. How then to select these few? Though the laws of heredity are in the process of being revealed, we still know relatively little about what happens when species are hybridized. We can usually explain the results we get, but we cannot predict the possibilities. It is for this reason, among others, that much of the time of the Cytological Laboratory of the Arboretum is spent on problems which have no immediate bearing on plant breeding but which do add to our knowledge of how hybrids behave. When a little more is known about hybrids between species, it will be possible to recommend in advance the particular crosses, out of the hundreds which might be tried, which will yield the desired results. When this time comes we shall, indeed, be able to produce the rose visioned by Mr. Wilson, \"The hardy rose of the future-the rose for the cotter's porch, for the rich man's garden; the rose that needs no protection in winter, the rose that will thrive in the coldest parts of these United States of America\". EDGAR ANDERSON. W. H. JUDD. Plants of Current Interest. The finest display in the Arboretum is still along the valley of the Bussey Brook and at the foot of Hemlock Hill. Though the Rhododendrons are rapidly dropping their brilliant trumpets, the Mountain Laurel is quite as rapidly coming into flower and while not so gorgeous in its coloring it is even lovelier in its general effect in the landscape. Further up the valley the conifers, with their clean new foliage are now as beautiful as if they were in flower. The blue spruces and silver firs are their very bluest and the Nikko Fir (Abies homolepis) is a symphony of contrasting greens; the old foliage is a dark bluish green, the new foliage much lighter, and the bloom on the backs of the needles a soft gray blue. At the very head of the valley close to the Walter Street Gate, the Japanese Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis) is in full leaf. Its soft green needles, borne in whorls, are exquisite in their form and arrangement and well repay a close examination. The young cones, on the higher branches, are already large enough to be attractive. They are quite unlike the cones of other conifers in their general effect and look rather like clusters of pale green roses set along the upper side of the branches. They will continue to be a lovely sight all through the summer and early fall and will drop to pieces, scale by scale, just as the tree loses its needles for the winter. In the Shrub Collection and along the road through the lilacs, the Mock Oranges are about at their best. Every year the Arboretum receives numerous inquiries by mail and telephone as to the proper use of the words, Lilac, Syringa, and Mock-Orange. The name Syringa is a somewhat unfortunate one, since it is used for two different groups of flowering shrubs. As a common name it refers to the Mock- Oranges, shrubs with large, fragrant, white flowers with waxy petals. Scientifically these are classified in the genus Philadelphus. Syringa as a scientific name belongs to the genus which includes the Lilacs and Tree Lilacs, earlier-flowering shrubs with much smaller flowers borne in large panicles. In using common names it is therefore better to refer to the latter group as Lilacs and to the first as Mock-Oranges, and avoid possible confusion. One of the Arboretum's most interesting exhibits is not really in the Arboretum at all, but adjacent to it. For some years Mr. W. H. Judd has been assembling a collection of hardy climbing roses in the nursery. These have recently been planted along the fence of the Bussey Institution on South Street. While they have not yet reached their finest development they are already showing up well. Many of them will be in their best flower during the coming week, and since several of the varieties are recent introductions, rose enthusiasts will find them worthy of study. It has not yet been possible to label the collection with conspicuous tags, but in nearly every case a small embossed metal tag will be found on the fence close to each vine and bearing the pertinent data. EXPLANATION OF PLATE Rosa rugosa var. kamtschatica. From drawing in T. Nakai's \"Flora Sylvatica Koreana\"."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Botanizing from an Airplane","article_sequence":8,"start_page":37,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23952","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060a727.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Ames, Oliver","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI AUGUST 15, 1932 NOS. 10 & 11 Botanizing from an Airplane. More than one householder in eastern Massachusetts was puzzled, one morning last May, by the peculiar antics of an airplane which flew along the coast. Until it appeared over the town of Ipswich, it behaved as might any other plane on a pleasant spring morning. Once over that town, however, it began a series of maneuvers which were as unusual as they were incomprehensible. It darted back and forth from the town to the coast; it circled over islands in salt marshes; it came swooping down over sandy beaches. With its motor shut off, it idled lazily at 2000 feet and then flew directly to Newburyport, where it again flew this way and that way, like a happy butterfly. In spite of appearances there was a sober purpose behind these maneuvers, which were repeated with minor variations all the way along the coast from Newburyport to Duxbury. The airplane, or rather its occupants, were actually botanizing. They were hunting for plants, or to be more specific, for a particular plant, the Beach Plum, (Prunus maritima.) It is far easier, in the confines of a short article, to describe an airplane search for Beach Plums than it is to explain why any botanist should want more data on the distribution of so common a plant or should feel justified in gathering these data by plane. There were such reasons, however. Anyone who knows only the most elementary facts about plants knows that they are grouped in species; but just what these species are, or how a species is to be defined, are questions that not even the wisest botanists can answer. So at the Arboretum, among other matters, we are studying a few species in great detail, in an attempt to make as complete a record as possible of the variation within an entire species. We hope to find out, for instance, whether a species ~s more variable at the center of its distribution or at the periphery; whether unusual forms are found with greater frequency in one part of its range than in another. One might have supposed that such simple and fundamental information would have been gathered long ago, but as a matter of fact, it has never been done. For several reasons, our common Beach Plum, (Prunus maritima), was selected for this kind of intensive study. The first question to be answered was, \"What is its exact range; what are its southern limits and its northern limits; where are the scattered localities at which it grows spontaneously away from the seashore?\" The second question was, \"How much does it vary? What are the ordinary limits of some easily measured character such as seed length and width?\" To answer this last question it was necessary to locate large colonies of plum hushes, places like the Province lands at the tip of Cape Cod where thousands of bushes grow side by side in great profusion. A first attempt to gather this kind of information had been made last fall during the time when the plums were ripe. Over a week had been spent in exploring the country along the south shore by automobile and on foot. A few bushes were found in one place, a few more in another, but away from Cape Cod itself, no really large colonies were located. It was evident that any attempt to locate the best places for study, even with the help of local botanists, would consume an appalling amount of time. At this point the junior author was consulted. Might it not be possible to map the distribution of the plums from the air and to find, in a very short time, the largest colonies in the region? His talk of \"An hour's flight to Portsmouth and back\" was reassuring as far as the time element was concerned. It remained to be seen if the Plums could be identified practically at a height which would be safe for general cruising, say 1000 to 2000 feet. A trial flight in the early spring showed that it might indeed be possible to study the distribution of Beach Plums from the air, particularly if the flights were made during the season when the bushes were in full bloom. Every successive hour in the air has justified this conclusion. It has been a matter of increasing surprise to find how many trees and shrubs can be recognized, with a little practice, at elevations of 1000 to 2000 feet. It might, in advance, have been suspected that species with conspicuous flowers, like the Lilacs, for instance, could be readily told at that height, but even in the case of the Torch Azalea, it was something of a shock, as we flew over the Arboretum, to find them even more conspicuous at 1500 feet than they are from the ground. With the morning sun shining full upon them, they gleamed like a crumpled mass of orange-yellow silk. With a little practice, many genera of trees can be recognized, and, in some cases, the species can be distinguished from heights so great that no single detail of leaf or flower is seen. At second thought this is not so surprising, as may be made clear from a comparison which is much more than a mere analogy. Seen under the microscope, leaves and flowers are found to be made up of myriads of cells. In the last analysis it is the form and arrangement of these cells which determine the appearance of the leaf or flower. If the cells are regular in size and evenly spaced, the surface of the plant looks smooth and finished; if they are irregular, the surface is rough. If the cells have thickened walls, though our eyes may not see the walls, much less the thickening, they detect the hard, varnished appearance which results therefrom. In the same way the texture of a tree at 1500 feet is distinctive, though at that height the individual leaves are invisible. It may be even more conspicuous than it would be on the ground. Many factors contributed to this texture, the size of the leaves, how they are spaced on the twigs, the character of their surface, the nature of the branching, the angle at which the leaves are held. So it is that at 1500 feet a Norway Maple in bloom can be recognized by its glistening yellow-green color, like pale green bronze covered with a light film of oil. The Shadbush (Amelanchier) blossoms at the same time as the Beach Plum and often grows in the same general locality, but they can be readily distinguished. On the Shadbush, the young leaves are scattered here and there among the flowers, and they impart to the plant as a whole, a soft, almost woolly texture. Sometimes the appearance of a plant from the air is so unexpected that one must use a good deal of imagination to determine its identity. The most puzzling species which we noted on our flight to Newburyport was a common feature in hilly pastures to the north of Boston. Its color was a dark yellowish green, and in texture it was hard and stiff. It looked, for all the world, like the circular patches of hard, crusty lichens one often sees on rocks. What could it be? It was evidently one of our commonest shrubs, since it occurred in pasture after pa5ture, sometimes alone, sometimes intermingled with a tangle of other vegetation. Before the puzzle had been solved, the coast was reached and it was time to look for Beach Plums. It was not until we were back on the ground that we realized that the lichen-like patches were nothing more or less than the common Sweet Fern, (Myrica asplenifolia). As for the Beach Plums themselves, they proved somewhat of a surprise. It had been anticipated that, with such conspicuous blossoms, they would, from the air, appear like glistening mounds of white. In the first place they did not seem mound-like at all. They are so low that from an elevation of a thousand feet they look almost like flat doilies upon the ground. While a single bush may be found covered with flowers, it is much more characteristic for part of the branches to bloom and part to be bare. Seen from a height, this irregularity of blossom imparts a patchy appearance to the bush as a whole. The black, bare branches and the flowering twigs blend together so that the color becomes a grayish pink, rather than a pure white. The soft texture of the blossoms is dominated by the rough bark and spiny twigs so that the bush, as a whole, takes on the hard surface of a pen and ink drawing on very rough paper. All these points were noted as we cruised back and forth above plants at Ipswich, which had previously been studied from the ground. Then we turned north to Newburyport and proceeded with our two objectives for that morning. These were first, to map the coastal distribution of the species from Newburyport to Plymouth, and second, to locate large colonies for study, somewhere along the south shore. We had provided ourselves with geological maps covering the area in question. They were mounted and folded and arranged in two bundles, one for the north shore and one for the south. The south shore set of maps was tucked safely out of harm's way. The north shore maps were numbered and ready. It was fast work for two people. The colonies of plums had, first of all, to be discovered, then identified with certainty, then their position and approximate extent indicated with red pencil on the survey maps. The pilot ran the ship, keeping an eye out for colonies far to the left or right and doubling back when the identity of a plant was in doubt. The observer sat behind him in the cabin of the ship, his lap a litter of maps, his coat pocket filled with a half dozen red pencils. The map in use at the moment was spread out on his knees, and the pencil was held above the last recorded locality. When the plums were sighted, a few glances back and forth from the small map to actual coast line itself served to locate their position. Then a few quick strokes of the red pencil and back to the window again, looking for the next colony of plums. Things worked smoothly until we flew off the map. Then one had to work quickly to get out the next map, open it, locate the plane's position and start in charting the plum distribution where it had been left off on the previous sheet. One had to concentrate on the work in hand. There was no time for sight-seeing and least of all for any attempt to synthesize the view from the plane with one's previous knowledge of the country below. Viewed from an airplane, even the most familiar spot looks utterly different from what it does on the ground, and one must use a great deal of imagination to reconcile the two aspects. Hills disappear, trees veil familiar buildings, the field of view is bewilderingly wide. Fortunately a few features of the landscape are even more conspicuous than they are from the ground, roads, railroads, lakes, and islands. By means of these landmarks it was comparatively simple to compare the map and the view from the plane; they were substantially alike. But any attempt to think of what was being seen from the plane in terms of what had been noted on the ground, took too much time away from the business in hand. Occasionally there would be some question about the identity of a particular bush or clump of bushes. Then the pilot obligingly turned the plane on its side and circled slowly above the spot, a maneuver which at first defeated its own purpose. When the plane is on its side, the occupants are also on their sides, a position at which one's instincts rebel. This proved the hardest single lesson for the observer to learn, the most difficult bit of technique for him to acquire ; that when the plane turned over, instead of leaning back, he should do just the opposite and welcome the opportunity for a free and unobstructed view straight below. It takes some practice and not a little nerve to lean forward, face against the window, and look calmly down for 1500 feet while the plane does a gentle spiral on its side. From Newburyport, after a short glance to the northward, we flew south along the sandy coast, charting the distribution of Prunus martima in the towns of Ipswich and Essex. And there the Plums stopped. Though the sandy stretches of Coffin's Beach did not seem to differ essentially from those of Plum Island, there were practically no plum bushes on the beach or among the sand hills behind it. The few which did appear were grouped at the north end, just across the Essex River from Castle Neck, where plums were fairly plentiful. Nor did the species reappear in quantity until Boston Harbor had been crossed. We saw no bushes in Nantasket, but just at the town line of Cohasset they reappeared and were soon one of the commonest bushes along the coast. What causes this transition, in both cases so abrupt? We do not know as yet. It may be due to some element in the soil; it may be connected, in some way, with the recent geological history of the coastal beaches; it may be due to some other quite unexpected cause. By the time we reached the south shore, practice had made identification and recording of the plants an easy matter. There now remained our second objective, the location of at least one large colony where the variation of the species might profitably be studied. We had not long to wait. Within a quarter of a mile of one of the localities visited the autumn before, there was a large area of shifting sand. It had been hidden from the road by the slope of the land and by a thick growth of scrub-oak, but from the air it was most conspicuous. It was so thickly studded with plum bushes that we did not even need to fly directly overhead. In company with a local naturalist, this colony was revisited the next day, by automobile, to obtain pollen for microscopical examination. As the car drove past nearly a solid mile of plum bushes the naturalist exclaimed, \"Why there are more beach plums here than I have ever seen growing together in one place!\" Though he had spent most of his life only a few miles away and knew the countryside pretty thoroughly, fifteen minutes in the air had given us a more complete knowledge of it than he possessed. In Duxbury we found another large colony from the plane. Again it was only a short distance from territory travelled through by automobile the year before. At fruiting time this fall, these two colonies will provide abundant material for study and experiment. The speed with which the ground can be surveyed, particularly along the coast, where there are ordinarily serious barriers to straight-line travel, is nothing short of amazing to a novice in the air. When we finally finished our charting of the plums along the south shore and had returned to the landing field, we had been in the air one hour and fifty minutes. In that time, we had explored the coast thoroughly. We had flown over many islands, we had looked into the hollows among the sand hills, we had examined the areas of higher land which rise here and there among the salt marshes. It would have taken two weeks by automobile and by foot and by boat to have covered the same territory as thoroughly from the ground. Best of all, we had ventured out into a new field and made a go of it. We had tried out a new and unknown technique and had found it even more useful than we had dared to hope. Here and there a few botanists have used airplanes in their work, chiefly in the West, when mapping the distribution of different types of vegetation. We had gone even farther and had studied a particular plant from the air. In the not far distant future such uses of planes in exploration and study must certainly become not unusual. Some regions of the earth's surface seem particularly designed for exploration and study from the air. Most of the sub-arctic zone, for instance, is dotted with little lakes, which would solve the difficult problem of where to land in the wilderness. It will not be long before these areas, now relatively unknown, botanically, will be explored by plane. For the present there is a certain satisfaction to us in having been among the first \"air-minded\" botanists. EDGAR ANDERSON. OLIVER AMES."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Growing Oranges in Boston & Grafting","article_sequence":9,"start_page":45,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23955","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060af6b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Chester, Kenneth S.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI NOVEMBER 5, 1932 NOS. 12 & 13 Growing Oranges in Boston Since 1929 the Curator of the Herbarium has been growing oranges out of-doors at his home in Jamaica Plain, though, unfortunately for him, the oranges in question are quite inedible. They are specimens of the hardy Trifoliate Orange, Poncirus trifoliata (Citrus trifoliata), a shrub or small tree native to China and commonly grown there and in Japan. It was introduced into western gardens in 185o and has been extensively planted in the southern states where it is used as an ornamental shrub and as a hedge plant; it has escaped from cultivation and has become naturalized in several localities. Along the Gulf Coast in late years it has become something of a pest since it harbors the undesirable citrus canker. Specimen plants of Poncirus trifoliata are occasionally seen growing without protection as far north as New York City but to the best of our knowledge Mr. Rehder's little orange tree is the only one to have fruited regularly out-of-doors in Boston. Several attempts to grow the species at the Arboretum have been unsuccessful, though at present there is a small specimen in the nursery. Mr. Rehder's Poncirus is planted in a corner by the north wall of his home and in that way is sheltered during very cold winter weather and is prevented from rushing into growth during deceptive warm spells in the early spring. As its name would suggest, the Trifoliate Orange is characterized by compound leaves, each of which is made up of three small leaflets. Almost as conspicuous as the leaves are the stout spines, one of which is set directly above each leaf. The twigs are irregularly flattened and, like the spines, are a bright, shining green, looking almost as if they had been enameled. They interlace in all directions and with their long thorns produce a barrier more impenetrable than a barbed-wire entanglement. The flowers are similar to true orange blossoms but are a little smaller, and with narrower, less conspicuous petals. The fruits, here in Boston, ripen in the early fall and are of an attractive bright golden color, particularly when seen against the clear green of the leaves and young branches. Though orange-like in general appearance, they are much smaller, being about the size of a large walnut. When green they are covered with a soft down, which becomes less perceptible as the fruit ripens. They are very aromatic and a few of them will scent up a whole room. To many people the odor is quite pleasant, suggesting Eau de Cologne; others find it rank and disagreeable. The exterior of the ripe fruit is so attractive that one is bound to be disappointed on opening it. There is little to recommend the contents. The seeds are large; they are even larger than those of the cultivated orange, and they leave little room for the pulp, which is sour and unpalatable. The rind is strongly impregnated with a bitter oil. which inevitably becomes mixed with the juice as the fruit is opened and gives it a vile flavor. For over forty years experts in the Department of Agriculture have been attempting to use the Trifoliate Orange in building up a new race of semi-hardy citrus fruits. They have been successful to a surprising degree in combining its hardiness with a more attractive flavor. They have definitely succeeded in bringing the culture of citrus fruits out of the tropics and into the edge of the temperate zone, but there is as yet no indication that they will ever make orange-growing profitable in Boston. The first hybrids were between Poncirus trifoliata and varieties of the cultivated orange. They were called \"Citranges\" and while they received a good deal of publicity when they were first introduced they may be said to have been more encouraging than useful. The fruit, though beautiful to look at, was scarcely larger than that of the Trifoliate Orange, and while the juice, taken by itself, could be used as a substitute for lemons, there was even in the hybrid so much musky oil in the rind, that special precautions had to be taken in opening the fruit. Another bad trait of the hybrid was its too quick response to warm weather in the early spring. It was, therefore, crossed with two other citrus fruits, which, though not so hardy in other ways, were slower to start into growth m the spring. These were the Kumquat, Fortunella japonica, and the Calamondin, Citrus mitis, a tropical citrus fruit from the Philippines. The triple hybrids which resulted were called \"Citrangequats\" and \"Citrangedins\" respectively. The most promising hybrid yet introduced is among the latter group and has been named the Glen Citrangedin, from Glen St. Mary's, Florida, where much of the breeding work has been done. It has small fruits about the size and flavor of a lime, but colored like an orange. The rind is without even a trace of the musky oil which characterizes the original hybrid and the tree is hardy at least as far north as southern Georgia. This artificial cosmopolite, uniting the possibilities of the Chinese Poncirus, and Philippine Calamondin with the common orange, is the \"farthest north\" which has as yet been achieved by the plant breeders. EDGAR ANDERSON. Grafting Die Veredelung, a German horticultural term for which we, unfortunately, have no English equivalent, is the ennobling, the refinement of a plebian plant, the raising of a weed, tree or herb, to luxuriant fruitfulness or beauty. Of the various methods of Veredelung grafting is one of the best known and most frequently employed. This art and science has come down to us from beginnings lost in hoary antiquity. Grafting was already an established procedure of horticulture in Bible times. (See St. Paul's Epistle to the Romans, Chapter 11.) Pliny and Virgil made frequent reference to grafting in ancient Roman horticulture. Gradually the practice emerged from the magic and superstition surrounding it; through the Dark Ages the Roman practices were retained and improved by the European monks, until today we have a heritage of the experiments and lore of two thousand years to guide us in our use of grafting in plant propagation. Yet experiments and observations in the past few years assure us that we have much to learn regarding when and what and why and how to graft. It is the object of this number of the \"Bulletin\" to point out some of the significant and interesting aspects of grafting, although it is impossible to do more than sketchily indicate the main features of a practice concerning which many volumes have been written. Why are plants grafted? This is a question which is frequently asked by the amateur horticulturist and to which there are many answers. Primarily, we graft to perpetuate a desirable variety which has appeared as a sport on an otherwise normal plant or as a seedling of uncommon worth. To propagate such a shoot or plant by seed would mean, in nearly all cases, a reversion to the less desirable parent form and consequent loss of the desired character, or else it would mean the loss of the prized variety in a host of variable and atypical offspring. Vegetative propagation will preserve a stock which otherwise would be lost to horticulture. But vegetative propagation includes procedures other than grafting, as, for example, the rooting of cuttings or of layers. Why, then, is grafting resorted to? Here many factors come into play. In some cases such as Apple, Pear, Sorbus and Maple, propagation by means of cuttings is impracticable because of the failure of the wood to root with a satisfactory percentage of success. In other cases, particularly where a large supply of the new variety is required, grafting or budding are resorted to because of the saving of the mother wood, since only one or two buds per plant are necessary in contrast to the several buds of a cutting. Frequently there is an important economic factor to consider; in cases in which the grafting method is more rapid or more economical of labor or materials, the propagator must employ the method most saving of expense and effort. Finally, grafting may be used for purposes peculiar to a given plant. Thus the European Grapes are grafted on American stocks because the latter are resistant to the destructive Phylloxera. In such cases as the graft of Almond on Peach, the grafted Almond attains a vigor nearly twice that of the ungrafted Almond. Dwarfing, for increasing the productivity, for decreasing the time from propagation to fruitfulness, and for producing certain desired ornamental effects, may be accomplished by grafting, as, for example, the dwarfing of Pear on Quince. The habit of a plant may be modified by grafting, a point of importance in dealing with the shapeliness of ornamental shrubs. Grafting may extend the period of productivity of a tree or may be used to repair the ravages of weather and parasites. Finally, grafting upon hardy roots may permit the cultivation of certain plants in colder climates than would otherwise be possible. All these and more advantages may result from the judicious selection and use of grafting stocks. These, then, are the advantages of grafting. What are its disadvantages, if any? One of the earliest arguments against grafting was based on the conception that the grafted scion partakes of the quality of the stock and that it may be more or less profoundly altered by the character of the stock. Grafting was condemned in some cases because it was felt that the scion lost its specific characters from the effects of its foreign root system. From our knowledge at the present we may say with assurance, however, that such direct stock effects are comparatively rare and do not serve as a legitimate argument against grafting in general. There is, however, one very important disadvantage in injudicious grafting and that is the incompatibility resulting from the grafting of ill-assorted stocks and scions. Such incompatibility may result in pathological symptoms in the crown of a severe order, as has been shown by the writer in Lilac grafted on Privet. Other cases are known in which grafting upon certain stocks results in a distinct loss of vigor or health of the scion. Fortunately, few such ill-mated graft combinations are frequently employed in nursery practice, but the discreet horticulturist should continually be on the guard against possible incompatibility in graft combinations. What plants may be grafted? In ancient times it was believed that any plant might be grafted onto any other regardless of botanical relationships. Such weird graft combinations as Apple on Citron, Grape on Cherry, Mulberry on Poplar or Beech, Pear on Ash or Maple, and Oak on Elm have all been cited by the ancients as desirable graft combinations, but as early as 1788 Duhamel du Monceau pointed out that all species of trees cannot be grafted onto each other, such union being possible only when there is a certain analogy between the stock and the scion. This analogy or relationship commonly is delimited by the botanical family. In general, we may say that plants of different families graft only with great difficulty or not at all; plants of different genera within the same family can sometimes be successfully grafted one on the other; plants of a given genus quite frequently serve as satisfactory understocks for other species of the same genus; while different varieties of the same genus can be inter-grafted as a rule with a high degree of success. There are some interesting exceptions to these general rules. Thus Lucien Daniel, who has devoted a long and fruitful scientific career almost exclusively to the study of grafting, has reported successful grafting of plants of different families on one another, and there are cases in which inter-generic grafts are more successful than inter-specific ones (the Potato succeeding when grafted upon Datura and Physalis but not when grafted upon Solanum pseudocapsicum). Similar cases in the Pomoideae may be cited, the incompatibility of Apple on Pear being a classic example of the failure of the union of closely related species. Grafting we commonly associate with the propagation of woody plants. However, many cases might be mentioned of the successful inter-grafting of herbs. Although such combinations are for the most part of no commercial importance they are of paramount importance in studying the physiology of the graft union. The Solanaceae, the Crycuferae, and the herbaceous legumes have been extensively investigated in this connection. All of the plants with which grafting is usually connected are, however, dicotyledons. Is it possible to inter-graft the monocotyledons and the higher cryptogams? Although one would be tempted to doubt the possibility of grafting plants without the dicotyledonous type of conducting system, nevertheless recent research has shown that it is entirely possible successfully to graft not only the monocotyledons but certain of the cryptogams as well. Thus Daniel succeeded in grafting Lilies, Gladioli, Vanilla, and other Orchids by using a graft so cut as to permit a very long cut area of scion to lie in contact with a correspondingly long area of stock. And finally he was able to graft the cryptogam Selaginella arborea, while others have accomplished the same even with fungi. How should one graft? This is a question requiring such extensive treatment that no attempt will be made to answer it here. There are scores of techniques that may be applied, and the reader desiring information regarding these techniques is referred to any of the following sources: Baltet, C., \"L'art de Greffer\" (Paris, 1907. An English translation is also available.); Olbrich, S., \"Vermehrung und Schnitt der Ziergeholze\" (Stuttgart, 1910); Bailey, L. H., \"Cyclopedia of American Horticulture\", section on Graftage\" (New York, 1903); Numerous publications of the United States Department of Agriculture, supplied on request. It is hardly possible in the present brief summary of grafting to enter into detail on the specific grafting requirements of the various woody plants. The reader who wishes information upon this subject is recommended to the more extensive treatises on grafting, several of which (Baltet, Olbrich, Bailey, etc.) give extensive catalogues of such data. Let it suffice to suggest, however, a few general rules. The valid and fixed species are usually best propagated by seeds. The perpetuation of hybrids and desirable sports is best accomplished, as a rule, by the use of cuttings where these root freely. In those cases in which this is not the case budding or grafting may be resorted to. A sound plan to follow in budding or grafting such hybrids or sports is to use as understocks the parent varieties where these are available, otherwise to use as close botanical relatives as may be obtained in sufficient quantity. Plants which sucker freely should not be used as understocks, if it is possible to secure stock varieties free from this habit, such stock suckering is evident for example, in Cotoneaster grafted on Crataegus, Hamamelis grafted on H. virginiana, and Viburnum grafted on V. Lantana or V. dentatum. There are few fixed and absolute rules as to the time and precise method of propagation. For this reason no one method can be cited in particular cases to the exclusion of others. The propagator, professional or amateur, is hence urged to consider the precepts of past experience merely as bases from which may be developed by trial and experiment numerous modifications and improvements more suitable to the peculiar requirements of variety, environment, and commerce. It has been the practice of the Arnold Arboretum to attempt many such modifications. Some, as would be expected, have failed. Others, however, have proven to be highly desirable. Such experiences have all been recorded and the examination of these records yields a wealth of useful information for future procedure. Accordingly, the propagator is strongly advised both to explore more thoroughly this field and to record an account of his successes and failures that horticulture may profit and advance. KENNETH S. CHESTER. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Facsimile of the title-page of Mascall's treatise on grafting, one of the earliest books in English on the subject."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Propagation of Woody Plants","article_sequence":10,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23963","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed070a36b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar; Judd, W. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. VI DECEMBER 28, 1932 NOS. 14 & 15 The Propagation of Woody Plants For over fifty years there has been a steady stream of seeds and cuttings coming into the greenhouses of the Arnold Arboretum. Some of them originated nearby, many of them came from Europe or Asia, a few came from other parts of the world. In our greenhouses they have been changed into a returning stream of shrubs and trees and vines for the Arnold Arboretum and for public and private collections all over the world. Only those who have tried to propagate woody plants will realize how well we have done with the material which has come in. Trees and shrubs, unfortunately, are much more difficult to grow from seed than are garden vegetables. Not only are they more particular as to light and heat and moisture but each kind of tree or shrub is fastidious in its own way. The following summary is, therefore, little more than a signpost, giving the general course one should follow. To be complete it should include special recommendations for each kind of tree which might be grown. By the use of three greenhouses, kept at different temperatures, we are able to satisfy the various requirements of our material. We use a warm greenhouse, a cool greenhouse, and a specially designed pit house. Certain kinds of seed are sown early. There are others which lose their vitality quickly and which must be sown as soon as they are ripe. To this class belong the Elms, Soft Maples, Poplars, Willows, Oaks and Magnolias. They are planted during the late spring, early summer and fall, and germinate that same season, all except the Magnolias. There is another class which must be sown outside. They have seed coats so hard that actual freezing out-of-doors is desirable. Here belong the Lindens, Hard Maples, Viburnums, Roses, Plums, and the whole Walnut family including Walnuts, Butternuts, Hickories and Bitternuts. The cool greenhouse is kept at a night temperature of 40 to 50. In it we plant Catalpas, Ashes, Beeches, Lilacs, Cercidiphyllums, Forsythias, Privets, all species of Vitis, and all the Legume family (Wistarias, Black Locusts, etc.) The warm greenhouse has a night temperature of 5GO to 65. It is used for Hydrangeas. Spiraeas, Deutzias, Mock-Oranges, Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and most other members of the Ericaceae or Heath family. Our pit house is a greenhouse specially designed for use in wintering woody plants at a temperature just above freezing. It is kept between 32 and 40, so far as that is possible, and to achieve this end it is built down into the ground. Because of its construction very little artificial heat is necessary, although it is supplied with hot water pipes for use during unusually cold weather. One door leads into the furnace room in the basement under the potting shed and on cold nights it is left slightly ajar, providing enough warmth to keep the house above freezing. At the other end of the house a flight of steps leads to an outside door. The pit is fifty feet long with a central walk, on each side of which are three shelves. In the pit house, after they have been planted in the fall, are stored such seeds as Apples, Pears, Barberries, Aesculus, Magnolias, Oaks, Birches and Chestnuts. In this low, even temperature they germinate more readily than they would in a warmer greenhouse. Two kinds of seed receptacles are used in the actual planting of the seeds. Those which are going out doors are planted, before the ground freezes, in shallow wooden flats. Those which are to go into the greenhouse are planted in regular clay flower pots of various dimensions, according to the number of seeds to be sown. A few kinds of seed require special soil mixtures. Seeds of the Ericaceae or Heath family, for instance, are planted in soil made up largely of peat and sand with a very little loam. For most seeds the soil is made up according to the following formula: one part sifted loam, one part well-rotted leaf mold, and a good sprinkling of sand. Before the seeds are planted they are well cleaned. This is particularly necessary if they have a fleshy covering, since such a covering usually retards germination. Apples and Pears are quartered and the seeds are removed. With such seeds as those of Davidia the outer fleshy husk is carefully scraped away with an old knife. No seed should be deeply planted, in fact some seeds such as those of Spiraea and Rhododendron are planted on top of the prepared soil and left uncovered. For most seeds the flower pot or flat is filled to the desired height and firmed down with the hand. The seeds are planted on the soil, are sprinkled lightly with sand, and are then just barely covered with the prepared soil, which is again pressed down firmly with the hands. When the seedlings come up they are pricked off into shallow wooden boxes, as soon as they are large enough to handle. Boxes are used rather than pottery pans since they are cheaper and since they do not dry out so badly during the hot weather. The boxes are set close together on the greenhouse benches for the summer. They spend the next winter on the shelves in the pit house and early in the second summer the young seedlings are planted out in rows in the cold frames. Distances vary with the material but these rows are usually about nine inches apart. They are kept well watered and during sunny weather are shaded with removable lath screens. They are left out-of-doors the second winter and receive no winter protection. During the next spring they are moved into the nursery where they remain until they are given a permanent place. To fit these various activities into the routine of a year requires no little experience. In sixty years the yearly round of duties at the Arnold Arboretum has settled down into a fairly definite schedule. It can be roughly summarized as follows: Jan., Feb., Mar., Apr., May, June, July, Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov., Dec. ........ planting seeds (inside) ........ grafting ........ pricking off seedlings ........ planting nursery ...................... care of nursery ........ planting seeds (outside) ........ cuttings Since the material handled by the propagating department at the Arnold Arboretum is of great scientific interest, it is necessary to keep very accurate records of all the material which comes in, of all the material which goes out, and of its behavior during the intervening years. When seeds or cuttings come in they are listed in the accession book and are given a serial number. In the book is entered the name of the species (if known), the place of origin, and the date received. If the material came in as seeds, the date they are sown and the date of germination is recorded. If it came in as cuttings, the number of cuttings made is recorded and the number which root. When the young seedlings are transferred to a row in the nursery they are entered in the catalogue of the nursery, and when they are sent away, either into the Arboretum proper or to other collections, their destination is entered in the records. All of this information is highly useful in many ways. It represents, in the bulk, whole years of careful work by those who have had the records in their charge. Only those who have helped to take care of a large collection of living plants can realize how difficult it is to keep such records complete and accurate. One can safely say that there are few other collections, private or public, which approach the Arnold Arboretum's in the completeness and accuracy with which plant records have been kept. EDGAR ANDERSON. W. H. JUDD."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index Series 3 Volume VI","article_sequence":11,"start_page":57,"end_page":58,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23958","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed060bb6f.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME VI Synonyms are in italics; illustrations in black face type Acer rubrum,9 - saccharinum, 9, 11, 16 Alders, 10 Alnus incana, 10 - japonica, 10 - rugosa, 10 Amelanchier asiatica, 20 - canadensis, 18, 20 - grandiflora, 18 - laevis, 18, 19 - oblongifolia, 18 Arbor-vitae, 12 Arnold Arboretum, Airplane View, 39 Aspen, Large-toothed, 12 - Quaking, 12 Botanizing from an Airplane, 37 Cedar, Red, 14 - White, 12 Chamaecyparis thyoides, 12 Cherries, Early Flowering Japanese and Chinese, 17 Citrus trifoliata, 45 Conifers, 12 Conifers, Winter Browning of, 8 Corylus Avellana, 10 - Colurna, 10 Cottonwood, 12 Crataegus, 25 - Arnoldiana, 26, 27 - coccinioides, 28 - cordata, 28 - crus-galli, 28 - Lavallei, 28 - monogyna, 26 - Oxyacantha, 26 -- multiplex, 26 - - plena, 26 - persistens, 28 - phaenopyrum, 28 - pinnatifida, 26 -- major, 26 - punctata, 28 - submollis, 28 Cuttings, 56 Daniel, Lucien, 49 Elm, American, 10 - Washington, 8 - White, 10 Empress Tree, 24 Filbert, 10 Fire, 21 Flowering Habits of Trees and Shrubs, 14 Grafting, 48 Grafting, Failure of Union, 50 Growing Oranges in Boston, 45 Hawthorns, 25 Hazel, European, 10 - Turkish, 10 Hazels, 10 Hedera colchica, 6 -- amurensis, 6 - helix arborescens, 6 -- baltica, 1 Hemlock Hill, Fire, 21, 23, 24, Ivy, Baltic, 1 Juneberries, 18 Juniperus virginiana, 14 Larches, 12 Maple, Red, 9 - Scarlet, 9 - Silver,9 - White, 9 Diascall's Treatise on Grafting, 51, 52 Orange, Trifoliate, 45 Paulownia tomentosa, 24 Peaches, 17 Pinus pungens, 13, 16 Pit House, Arnold Arboretum, 55 Plum, Beach, 38 Poncirus trifoliata, 45, 47 Poncirus trifoliata hybrids, 46 Poplar, Canada, 12 - European Black, 12 - Lombardy, 12 Poplars, 10 Populus, balsamifera, 12 - canadensis, 12 - grandidentata, 12 - nigra, 12 -- italica, 12 - tremuloides, 12 Propagating Department, 56 Propagation of Woody Plants, 53 Prunus maritima, 38 Prunus maritima, Distribution of, 41, 43 Prunus Persica, 17 Pseudolarix amabilis, 35 Records, Propagating Department, 56 Rosa Agnes, 33 - Alice Aldrich, 32 - Arnoldiana, 32 - Belle Poitevine, 34 - Blanc Double de Coubert, 32 - F. J. Grootendorst, 33 - Lady Duncan, 30 - Max Graf, 30 - New Century, 32 - Nova Zembla, 34 Rosa rugosa and its hybrids, 29 Rosa rugosa kamtschatica, 31, 36 -- X Rosa ferruginea, 33 - Ruskin, 33 - Schweidnitzia, 34 - Sir Thomas Lipton, 32 Seeds, Planting of, 54 Shadbush, Canadian, 18 - Gray-leaved, 18 - Smooth, 18 - Swamp, 18 Shadbushes, 18 Shrubs, Flowering Habits of, 14 Spring Classes for 1932, 7 Thorn, Cockspur, 28 - Dotted, 28 - Washington, 28 Thuja occidentalis, 12 Trees, Early Flowering, 9 - Flowering Habits of, 14 Ulmus americana, 10 Vandalism in the Arboretum, 22 Veredelung, 48 Willows, 12 Woody Plants, Propagation of, 53 Yews, 14"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Publications for Sale at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University","article_sequence":12,"start_page":59,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23960","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed0608526.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"PUBLICATIONS FOR SALE AT THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JANUARY 1, 1933 JOURNAL OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. A quarterly journal published by the Arnold Arboretum. Subscription price $4.00, single numbers $1.25. Vols. VI-IX (1925-28), and XI-XIII (1930-32) complete. Price $3.00 a volume, single numbers $1.00. Vols. I-V and no. 3 of vol. X out of print. CONTRIBUTIONS FROM THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY. A publication issued at irregular intervals. No. 1. The Hypodermataceae of Conifers. By GRANT Dooks DARKER. 131 pp. 27 pl. June 15, 1932. Price $3.00 No. 2. Taxonomy and Geographical Distribution of the Genus Milesia. By JOSEPH HORACE FAULL. 138 pp. 2 figs., 9 pl. Oct. 1, 1932. Price $3.00 No. 3. Boraginaceae. By IVAN M. JOHNSTON. 102 pp. Dec. 15, 1932. Price $2.00 No. 4. Ligneous Plants Collected in North Queensland for the Arnold Arboretum by S. F. Kajewski in 1929. By C. T. WHITE. (In preparation.) No. 5. Flora of Barro Colorado Island. By P. C. STANDLEY. (In preparation.) BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION. Series 3, illustrated. Issued during spring and autumn, about 18 numbers per year, together with index and title-page. Subscription price $1.00 A limited number of Series 2, vols. I-II (1915-16), VII (1921), X-XII (1924-26), and of Series 3, vols. I-VI (1927-32) can be obtained at $1.00 each, single numbers $0.10 to $0.25. THE BRADLEY BIBLIOGRAPHY. A guide to the literature of woody plants, including books and articles in the proceedings of learned societies and in scientific and popular journals, published in all languages, to the end of the nineteenth century. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by ALFRED REHDER. 4. 5 vols. Cambridge, 1911-1918. Bound Price $40.00 Unbound Price $30.00 PLANTAE WILSONIANAE. An enumeration of the woody plants collected in western China for the Arnold Arboretum during the years 1907, 1908, and 1910, by E. H. Wilson. Edited by CHARLES SPRAGUE SARGENT. 3 vols. (9 parts). Cambridge, 1911-1917. Parts 1-4 are out of print; the remaining parts each $1.50. THE GENUS PINUS. By GEORGE RUSSELL SHAW. f. 96 pp. 39 pl. Cambridge, 1914. Price ~10.00 CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ARNOLD ARBO. RETUM. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by ETHELYN MARIA TUCKER. f. 2 vols. Cambridge, 1914- 1917. Vol. I. Authors and titles. Unbound Price $7.50 Vol. II. Subject catalogue. Unbound Price $7.50 Supplement. (In press). THE CHERRIES OF JAPAN. By ERNEST HENRY WILSON. 8. 68pp. 8 pl. Cambridge, 1916. With supplement of 3 pp. Price $3.50 THE CONIFERS AND TAXADS OF JAPAN. By ERNEST HENRY WILSON. 4. 91 pp. 59 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $5.00 THE FOREST TREES OF NEW ENGLAND. By ROBERT GREEN- LEAF LEAVITT. viii + 179 pp. 1 pl., 2 maps, 78 + 1 figs. sm. 8. Jamaica Plain, Mass., 1932. Price $1.75 THE SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA; a description of the trees which grow naturally in North America exclusive of Mexico. By CHARLES SPRAGUE SARGENT. With 740 plates drawn from nature by Charles Edward Faxon. 14 vols. f. Boston and New York, 1891-1902. A few sets in which some pages in vols. IV and XIV are supplied by photostat copies. Price $350.00 The same. Broken sets. Number of volumes and prices on request. Complete sets of the 740 plates drawn from the \"Silva\". Price $100.00 Selected plates (according to number). Price each $0.50 to $1.00 GARDEN AND FOREST; a journal of horticulture, landscape art and forestry. Conducted by CHARLES SPRAGL:E SARGENT. 10 vols. 4. Illustr. New York, 1888-1897. The following volumes can be supplied; Vol. I (title-page and index missing).- Vol. II (only odd numbers).- Vol. III (bound in morocco).- Vol. IV (1 unbound and 2 bound copies).- Vol. V (3 copies).- Vol. VI (1 complete copy and 1 lacking no. 254).- Vol. VII (2 copies).- Vol. VIII (3 copies).- Vol. IX (3 copies).- Vol. X (1 complete copy and 1 lacking no. 484).- Also odd numbers. (Numbers and prices on request). Unbound volumes Price each $10.00 Bound volumes Price each $12.00 MANUAL OF CULTIVATED TREES AND SHRUBS HARDY IN NORTH AMERICA EXCLUSIVE OF SUBTROPICAL AND WARMER TEMPERATE REGIONS. By ALFRED REHDER. xxxvii + 930 pp. 8. New York, 1927. Price $10.50 GUIDE TO THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. 8. 33 pp. 7 pl., 2 maps. Price $0.50 POST CARDS; views of the Arnold Arboretum. Price $0.05 each; set of ten $0.40 Make checks payable to the ARNOLD ARBORETUM."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23376","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd24eab28.jpg","title":"1932-6","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1932,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23941","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15ea725.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Budding a Lilac, 51 Cones of the Dunkeld Hybrid Larch and of its parent species, (plate) facing page 66 Davidia involucrata Vilmoriniana, 27 Diospyros virginiana, 43 Ficus aurea, 38 Ficus aurea, (plate) facing page 38 Graft-blight of Lilac, 7 Japanese Blossoms and Pond in the Arnold Arboretum, 57 Juniperus virginiana, 63 Koelreuteria paniculata, 47 Lonicera amoena arnoldiana, 35 Malus ioensis plena, 31 Pinetum, Highland Park. Rochester, N. Y., 55 Prunus mandshurica, 11 Prunus serrulata sachalinensis \"Fugenzo\", 15 Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense, 23 Sorbopyrus auricularis bulbiformis, 19 Viburnum fragrans, 3"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Effect of Cold on Flower Buds of Trees and Shrubs","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23936","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14ebb6a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V APRIL 23, 1931 NO. 1 Effect of Cold on Flower Buds of Trees and Shrubs. As a rule our native plants are so accustomed to the rigors and vagaries of our New England winters that few of them show serious injuries from the varying degrees of cold or heat affecting them during the months when they are dormant. It is true that the exposed catkins of Alders and Hazels may be wholly or partially destroyed and the scales covering the flower buds of our Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) may become so dried and stunted that they lose their accrescent power or vitality, and do not develop into the beautiful snowy flowerlike organs calling attention to the small inconspicuous blossoms produced by this tree, which reaches its natural northern limit of growth in eastern Massachusetts. Such winter injuries are not uniform and may be dependent upon the conditions of growth and maturing of tissues during the previous season or upon local environment. In shelter of woods the Flowering Dogwood may develop beautiful large white showy bud scales when those on exposed trees are stunted and make little growth. Of course many of our really hardy native plants may be heavily damaged by unusual freezing temperatures late in the season, so that a crop of flowers or fruits may be lost for that year and even young growing shoots may be lost and the tree be forced to develop a new growth from latent or suppressed buds. As gardeners and horticulturists we have come to judge the severity of our winters largely by the behavior or condition of plants which have been brought to us from the Old World or, more rarely, those which have been introduced from other parts of our own country, chiefly from regions enjoying a milder climate than the average winter temperature of central and southern New England. Aside from the records left by thermometers, and judging merely by the general condition in the Arboretum, the past winter was, on the whole, fairly mild and so favorable as to warrant our expecting a good season for flowers and fruits. This is true of many species which are in situations less favorable than others of the same kinds. For example, we do not expect exotic vines, shrubs or small trees to show the same degree of winter cold endurance in the low ground, near the Forest Hill gate, where the general shrub collection is located, as we would expect to find in the same species at the top or near the top of the adjacent Bussey Hill. While better soil drainage conditions may be found on the hill, a factor conducive to better ripening of wood in the autumn, the chief factor is the better air drainage or air flow which prevails on the higher land. The low ground in which the shrub collection is located is nearly surrounded by low hills or ridges forming a sort of lake into which the cold air settles and is pocketed, forming a basic stratum which may be several degrees colder than the zone of air a few feet higher. In seasons when the winter temperature does not go much below zero (Fahrenheit) the effect of the difference in zones on certain plants may not be very apparent but if the recorded temperature falls to 12 or 15 below zero (Fahrenheit) serious damage to plant flowering may result, although leaves, twigs and branches may appear uninjured. This is well illustrated in the varieties of Peach, a native of China. In common with all early flowering trees and shrubs the flower buds are developed during the preceding summer. While some varieties of Peach have been developed in which the flower buds are considered more hardy than others a fall of temperature to 12 or 15 below zero is considered fatal to most of them, and 20 below zero is certainly so in virtually all cases. That the embryo flowers are dead may readily be ascertained by splitting open some of the blossom buds a day or two after the freeze. The hearts of the buds, representing the blossom portion, will be found dead and brown instead of being bright clear green as they should be if free from injury. Practical orchardists in the northern limits of peach growing recognize the advantage of planting Peaches where there is good air drainage as well as planting, if possible, on northerly slopes where spring growth would naturally be retarded and where there would be less danger of late frosts hurting the open flowers. Peaches and allied species of trees promise a good full bloom this spring, and this applies to Japanese Cherries in general, as well as to the garden varieties of our common Sweet Cherry (Prunus avium) from Europe and Western Asia. The flower buds of P. avium appear nearly as tender as those of the Peach, this being one reason why this plant is rarely cultivated and seldom produces fruit m northern parts of New England and other cold sections of our country where varieties of the Sour Cherry (Prunus Cerasus) thrive. The early spring months show a good deal of variation in the time of flowering of many of the precocious or very early flowering species, dependent on the number of warm days and degrees of temperature which prevail in any particular season. It may be interesting to note some of the species which have already blossomed or which are now in blossom in the Arboretum. As usual, the White or Silver Maple is the first of the large trees to flower. This spring it blossomed during the last two weeks of March and early days of April and it is usually at about that season we should expect the flowers to appear. But we have records of well developed flowers appearing on January 24th, 1913, on February 23rd, 1915, and February lst. 1916, these records usually being taken from the same tree. At the present time the Red Maple (Acer rubrum) is in blossom, displaying shades of color from honey yellow to deep red in different individuals. Our American Elm, too, is in flower and the flowers of some of our Poplars are passing or gone. The spring flowering Witch-hazels are now past their blossoming stage, the earliest being the southern Hamamelis vernalis, some of the flowers of which may open during warm days in January. It is not so beautiful and interesting in blossom as the Chinese Hamamelis mollis which is so precocious that the flowers are occasionally severely damaged or are destroyed by hard frosts. An interesting shrub, though not especially beautiful, is the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) native in northeastern America. Given proper chance for development it may form a short trunk branching to the ground or near it and producing pretty little bell-like yellow flowers scattered over the slender, tough barked, leafless twigs. It requires no special care in cultivation except freedom from too close crowding by other shrubs or vegetation or too much shading by trees. Among the most interesting of the newer shrubs in full flower (April 15th) in the Arboretum collection, is Viburnum fragrans. This specimen is now 6 or 7 feet high, the leafless branches well covered with the small panicles of fragrant, salver-shaped flowers which are pink in bud but white or light pinkish white when open. Although first described by the botanist Bunge nearly 100 years ago (1835) this species appears not to have been introduced into cultivation in Europe or America until about twenty years ago when seeds were collected in northern China by the late William Purdom for this Arboretum and for the nursery firm of Veitch, in England. The late Reginald Farrer collected seeds in 1914 which were also sent to England, producing plants which were soon distributed in English gardens. It is said to be a shrub attaining 8 or 9 feet in height and is described by Farrer as bearing \"profuse trusses of pearl-pink flowers in spring like lilac deliciously smelling of heliotrope\". He also described it as \"rare as a wild plant but generally cultivated in Kansu (China) for its loveliness and fragrance\". This species is apparently going to rank with our earliest flowering shrubs. In England it has been called the Wincer- flowering Viburnum and in the southern part of the British Isles it is stated that the bushes flower more or less throughout the winter, some blossoms attempting to open before the leaves fall from the branches. Farrer described the fruits as shining scarlet and of good flavor. J. G. J. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Graft-Blight of Lilac","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23939","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14e896e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Chester, Kenneth S.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 2, 1931 NO.2 Graft-Blight of Lilac. The result of the discovery of the use of Privet in the propagation of Lilacs has been that to-day practically half of the Lilacs grown in America are privet-grafted. The remaining half of the Lilacs in this country are grown by various own-root methods. As might well be expected, when one considers the various methods of propagation employed, there has been a certain amount of controversy among the nurserymen as to the most satisfactory method of lilac propagation. In fact while nurserymen in general almost universally condemn the grafting of Lilac upon common Lilac, there are two distinct schools of opinion among them supporting respectively the own-root methods and the methods involving the use of Privet. Each of these schools of opinion has backed its contentions with numerous assertions as to the relative superiority of Lilacs propagated by one of the methods considered, but neither group has subjected its beliefs to scientific analysis. The extensive lilac collection in the Arnold Arboretum is constantly being added to by new plants received from a variety of nurseries as well as by plants propagated by cuttings in the Arnold Arboretum greenhouses. During comparatively recent years it has become increasingly evident that many of these newer plants were manifesting symptoms of disease, and the diseased plants eventually became so numerous and unsightly as to require a thorough investigation for the purpose of determining and eliminating the cause of the diseased condition. The diseased Lilacs in question showed symptoms of chronic nutritional deficiency. The plants were very small and their growth exceedingly limited. When fifty diseased plants were measured during their sixth and seventh years of growth it was found that their average growth during the seventh year was an inch per plant. Practically none had blossomed even after nearly a decade of culture in some cases. When the leaves appeared in the spring they were usually very small and dark in comparison with leaves of normal Lilacs. and were gathered in little tufts at the tips of the thin, frail twigs. As the summer wore on the leaves became curled and very yellow, this yellowing beginning at the tip and between the larger veins and proceeding eventually to involve the whole leaf. The leaves during this yellow stage were notably thicker than normal and markedly brittle. Leaf-cast began early during the summer and the plants usually were devoid of leaves by midsummer, although in some cases the dead leaves actually persisted on the twigs long after normal leaf-fall. The new growth in a given season was very limited. The buds were weak, the twigs frail, and the plants in an obviously hazardous condition to meet the exigencies of an unfavorable season. The accompanying illustration is a photograph of a Lilac showing the disease in typical form. The curled, pale leaves are seen in their characteristic diseased condition, and the severity of the disease is very evident. Early in the investigation of these diseased Lilacs it became evident that all of the plants in question had been propagated by grafting upon Privet. In fact the distribution of the disease in the Arnold Arboretum almost exactly coincided with the distribution of the privet-grafted lilac plants which had been received in recent years. It was soon observed and demonstrated that the disease was not contagious, that it was not due to unfavorable soil or moisture conditions, and that it was not restricted to certain lilac varieties, but that it was evident on old, long-proven varieties as well as on the newer French hybrid Lilacs Since the disease under consideration was always associated with the grafting of Lilac upon Privet, and since it has been found that the disease is caused by such grafting, it has received the name \"Graft-blight of Lilac\". On investigation it was found that graft-blight was not limited in its distribution to the Arnold Arboretum. It was seen in typical form in numerous nurseries and private collections of Lilacs in New England, New York State, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Ontario, Canada, while what was unmistakably the same disease was reported by correspondents in Oregon, Ohio, Colorado, and Germany. That large numbers of Lilacs were involved was evident both from the observations and from the reports. In order to investigate the effect of grafting Lilacs upon Privet, a set of experiments in lilac grafting were planned and executed in the Arnold Arboretum greenhouses and nursery beds. Lilac scions of ore of the most vigorous varieties in culture (Andenken an Ludwig Spath) were grafted upon a number of species of Privet, Ash, Forsythia, Chionanthus, and Lilac. These were compared in their development with the normal health of sister lilac scions grafted upon common Lilac, rooted in the soil directly, and growing on the parent plants. The grafts of Lilac upon Ash, Forsythia, and Chionanthus proved unsuccessful, those upon common Lilac were entirely successful, while those grafted upon the various species of Privet showed in characteristic form the same condition as the graft-blighted Lilacs in the Arnold Arboretum ornamental collection described above. The lilac scions grafted upon the Calfornia Privet (Ligustrum ovalifolium) and the Amur Privet (Ligustrum amurense) were especially significant. In the former case the grafted plants showed precisely the same diseased condition as Lilacs in the field suffering from graft-blight, while on the other hand, the Amur Privet grafts showed in a single season the whole course of symptoms, stunting, yellowing, leaf-curl, leaf-cast, and death, evidenced by California Privet grafts during, the course of several years. Meanwhile the Lilac-on common-Lilac grafts and the own-rooted scions remained strong and healthy. A confirmation of these experiments resulted from examinations of many own-rooted and grafted Lilacs in nurseries. Here the symptoms of graft-blight were always associated with privet grafting. Finally further evidence resulted from the observation that even in privet-grafted Lilacs, occasionally a lilac sucker found to be on its own roots, is seen in perfect health although attached to a severely blighted plant. Hence it was plainly evident from these experiments and observations that the cause of the disease observed in the Arnold Arboretum lilac collection lay in the practice of grafting the Lilac upon Privet, particularly upon the California Privet. To obtain further information a questionnaire was submitted to the majority of the larger lilac producers in America and to some in Europe. This investigation yielded a number of interesting and significant facts regarding the commercial practices of lilac propagation. Since it was discovered by this means that half the Lilacs in culture in America were propagated by own-root methods, the practicability of own-root lilac propagation was at once evident. But it was found that privet-grafted Lilacs are much quicker in attaining marketable size than Lilacs grown from cuttings. This fact implies that the privet-grafted Lilac may be sold at a somewhat lower price than the own-root Lilac and still afford a reasonable profit on the nurseryman's investments. Hence the problem is plainly an economic one, and the solution lies in the hands of the purchaser of Lilacs. The nurseryman who uses the privet-grafting method of propagating Lilacs does so, in most cases at least, with the conscious belief that such Lilacs will soon become own-rooted and throw off the privet stock. Many observations, however, show that this does not invariably happen. In fact, in the majority of cases privet-grafted lilacs are still dependent on their privet roots years after the most careful propagation on Privet. Graft-blight results, but since the symptoms are seen in the collection of the purchaser and not in the nursery of the propagator there is a tendency for the nurseryman to be unaware of the diseased condition or to attribute it to unfavorable soil or culture. The purchaser of Lilacs is anxious to obtain permanent, long-lived, healthy plants. The additional cost of own-rooted Lilacs is but a small fraction of the original cost of the plants and a still smaller fraction of their value as ornamentals. Moreover there are nurserymen in every section of the United States who can provide the finer named varieties of Lilacs propagated by own-root methods. The nurseryman will produce what the purchaser demands. Hence the connoisseur of Lilacs will tolerate within his ornamental planting only own-rooted Lilacs, thereby escaping at once the winter-killing of privet-grafted Lilacs, the danger of predominance of privet suckers, and the penalty of graft-blight. K. S. Chester."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Forsythias","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23938","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14e856d.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 6, 1931 NO. 3 Forsythias. Probably no hardy shrubs which have been introduced from the Old World into our gardens can equal or surpass the Forsythias in cheerful beauty, which is developed at a season when there are comparatively few other competitors so attractive. The beautiful golden glow of their early bloom attracts and pleases almost everyone who is acquainted with them, and they are destined to have wide popularity because of their attractive flowers, generally clean foliage, and comparative freedom from insect or fungous diseases. More important still as a circumstance in favor of popularity and wide distribution is the fact that the Forsythias may be propagated by division with greater ease or facility than most other trees or shrubs cultivated in our gardens. Least trouble will be found by propagating from cuttings of the ripe wood taken in fall or winter or very early spring and planted in the open ground. Of course where the ground freezes in winter and cuttings are taken at that season they may be kept fresh by heeling in or burying in moist earth in a cellar or pit until seasonable time to plant out. Good sturdy well rooted plants should develop before the following autumn. Propagation may also be effected by taking green cuttings in summer and growing them in a frame, a method entailing more trouble or labor than when cuttings of ripe wood are used. As in nature's methods propagation may be easily brought about by the process of layering, and it will be found that a slender arching species, like Forsythia suspensa, commonly forms roots on the stems or tips, where they touch the ground, in this way forming new plants on the periphery of the original stem. Thus a single plant of an arching or trailing species may in time cover a large area if no competing plants interfere. The facility with which this genus of plants may be propagated makes their dissemination or distribution almost independent of the commercial nurseryman, excepting in the case of newly introduced species or improved forms which are new or little known. Forsythias require little pruning except to cut away weak or old stems. It should be remembered that flower buds are formed during the preceding summer, so that cutting back of the stems should be done immediately after flowering in spring. Pruning in autumn or winter involves the destruction of some of the best flowering branches for the next spring. If it is desired to raise plants from seed it must be borne in mind that the resulting plants are not always just like the parent and some may be inferior. The seeds of Forsythias are large, flat and somewhat winged and are probably only disseminated by wind agency, or by being carried by water or moving soil during freshets. All of the known species of Forsythia have yellow flowers, varying somewhat in size, form, and shade of color of blossoms in different species and varieties. To the botanist and close observer of Nature the flowers have peculiar interest in the fact that where grown from seed some plants have short styles (microstyle) while in others the styles are longer and more prominent (macrostyle). This is a provision of Nature to insure cross pollination of the species. The general habit of growth of the various types is one of the most important features to be considered by the planter. The Forsythias have been described as hardy but there is a limit to their endurance of such cold as we often have in northern New England. While the plants may endure lower temperatures, in some cases the flower buds are very likely to he destroyed if subjected to a temperature of 15 or 20 degrees below zero (Fahrenheit). In a climate like that of the interior of northern New England, or that which prevails at Montreal or Ottawa, Canada, the Forsythias may be classed as only half hardy, being killed to snow line, at least, in winter. Occasionally the flower buds have been killed in the Arboretum while the plants have shown little injury. What we call hardiness may in some measure be affected by location, drainage, maturity of wood, length of season and other factors. The earliest species to flower this season was Forsythia orata which has been described as the hardiest of the genus. It is not yet well known in cultivation and whether the plants and flower buds will withstand 15 or 20 degrees below zero or lower remains to be proved by thorough test. As growing at the Arboretum it is a rather compact upright or arching bush, 6 to 8 feet high. Its habit is much like that of F. intermedia already well known and superior to F. ovata by reason of its larger, deeper yellow and more profusely produced flowers which, however, may be a week or ten days later. Forsythia intermedia itself is not considered as a true species but is a hybrid of the rigid upright growing F. viridissima and the more free growing, slender, long-stemmed F. suspensa. Of this hybrid there are several cultivated forms, one of the best and most floriferous being that known as Forsythia intermedia spectabilis. It usually bears an abundance of rich golden yellow flowers Another form, known as F. intermedia primulina, bears flowers of a pale yellow or primrose color. It is generally considered less desirable than spectabilis except by those who prefer the lighter shade of yellow color. Those desiring a slender branched or trailing form of Forsythia should select F. suspensa Sieboldii which is stated to have been introduced into Europe from Japanese gardens nearly one hundred years ago (1833). There are several forms or varieties of this species in cultivation, a good and common one being known as F. suspensa Fortunei (F. Fortunei of some catalogues). But, although more floriferous, it lacks the peculiar slender vine-like effect of F. suspensa Sieboldii which may be used as a covering for arbors, trellises or as an effective pendulous covering over rocks, walls, etc. In such situations it may grow many yards in length. forming a graceful network or screen. Early Flowering Apricots and Cherries. Altogether these early flowering trees and shrubs passed through the winter with very little injury from winter cold, although there were exceptions. In the Arboretum the Manchurian Apricot, Prunus mandshurica, flowered well this year, an event which is by no means annual as the flower buds are so often destroyed by winter freezes which kill the blossoms in Peach and some of the other species of Prunus. The flower buds are pink, the blossoms pale pinkish or white, the fruit yellow and about an inch in diameter. While attractive in flower this species also appears to be one with great possibilities for improvement in its fruit which may become a valuable addition to those we have already domesticated. Its habit of flowering decidedly earlier than the Peach is a factor against it in northern climates, although the tree itself appears larger and much more rugged than the average Peach. It was in full bloom in the Arboretum on April 18th this season. Some of the flower buds were destroyed during the past winter but not enough to affect the general beauty of bloom. Such injury may be ascribed to the fact that our tree under observation is located upon low ground where it may have been subjected to several degrees below zero (Fahrenheit). It is about 25 feet high with a diameter spread of branches of about 35 feet. This season the Sargent Cherry, Prunus serrulata sachalinensis, might have been registered as in fullest bloom about April 22nd, the same date as recorded for full inflorescence of the same tree in 1927. The pink flowers of this species are rather fugacious and their beauty is past within three or four days if the weather is warm. It is a mistake to plant this tree in a small garden, with only eight or ten feet allowed for spread, because if given favorable conditions it may become a tree at least 40 or 50 feet high with an equal spread of branches which may be produced near the ground if allowed to do so or if the tree is not crowded by other competing plants. While the flowers have usually been described as pink there appears to be a good deal of variation in individuals raised from seed, some having flowers almost white, while in others the blossoms may have a rather unattractive light pinkish color. Reproduction for assurance of any particular shade of flowers would appear to require grafting or budding, though such plants may never attain the symmetry or proportions of those raised from seed. A good plan is to secure several seedlings where one is wanted and to select the most desirable one when they flower, disposing of the others. J. G. J."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Flowering Cherries","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23937","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14e816c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 9, 1931 NO. 4 Flowering Cherries. Prunus subhirtella, which probably attracts more attention in early spring than any other Cherry in the Arboretum collection has often been referred to in these Bulletins. It was at its best on April 27th. Although really in attractive flower several days earlier it was kept in check by the cool weather. P. subhirtella is a tree for which enthusiasts often allow a space of perhaps ten feet in their gardens, whereas a much greater area should be allowed for its full ultimate development. The largest plant near the Forest Hills Gate is now 25 or 30 feet high and has a spread of branches of 50 feet in diameter near the ground. This is another plant which does not always come ideally true from seed. Seedlings may produce plants of erect, spreading, or more or less pendulous habit and may bear flowers of poor form and substance compared with the parent, so that if such plants are used it is wise to have several of them from which to select the most desirable individual. The plants usually flower early so that selection may be made while they are small. Otherwise the best forms must be propagated by division, as by grafting and budding. This species may also be grown from cuttings but plants are not easily propagated in this way. In making selections of forms or varieties of this species there are, besides the type, two of outstanding interest or attractiveness. The more common one, Prunus subhirtella pendula, is a favorite and best known in gardens, while Prunus subhirtella autumnalis is less known but is equally worthy of cultivation. Its pink flowers appear at about the same time and are inclined to be semi-double instead of single. It bears beautiful and abundant bloom in spring, but also has the habit of bearing a good many flowers in autumn, hence the varietal name which has been given to it. Its flower buds appear to be more easily damaged by winter cold than those of the typical P. subhirtella. Our notes taken in 1923 showed about 75% of the buds destroyed in winter while those of the type, growing by its side, appeared to be uninjured. It is an interesting fact that practically all of the double-flowered forms of Cherries are appreciably later in flowering than the single flowered progenitors, so that no common date can be given which would cover the flowering period of all the forms related to a single species. Prunus yedoensis, Yoshino Cherry, has had a very full load of its white blossoms this season and, on account of several days of cold weather, it has remained in good attractive flower longer than usual, notwithstanding winds and rainstorms, eight or ten days intervening between the opening of the first flowers about April 25th and the first dropping of petals. Hot days, such as sometimes occur at this season, would cause a preliminary dropping of petals within two or three days of flower opening. This species has been described as the dominant shade and flowering Cherry planted in and about Tokyo, Japan, for the celebrated cherry blossom festivals which are annual events there. It is a sturdy species, forming a broad, horizontal branched, rounded top which may easily spread 50 feet or more across although it takes many years to reach such proportions. The origin of this tree is unknown, but by some specialists it has been called a possible hybrid between two Japanese species, a supposition which is hard to prove. It is a curious fact that while descriptions and illustrations of Cherries in and about Tokyo usually state or show the blossoms as pink, experience with the species, if it is a species, in America is that the color is white or has a very light pinkish trace in the petals when expanded, the buds being decidedly pink as seen from the backs of the petals. The famous Cherry plantation about the Potomac Basin in Washington, which is usually in good bloom about the second week in April, is apparently mainly the Yoshino Cherry. Its flowers are white or with but a faint trace of pink, as are those at the Arboretum. Our foremost authority (Rehder) in America, in his \"Manual\", describes the flowers as \"white to pink\", coinciding with the description of other students and writers in this country. The description of the Yoshino Cherry as given in one of the best known Japanese nursery catalogues is \"single light pink of medium sized flower, best kinds for avenue planting and park for its quick growth and beautiful blossom and no park without this tree seems perfect, grows most freely in any soil\". This question of the differences in color as portrayed in most Japanese pictures and as actually developed on plants in this country is one which is puzzling and disconcerting to the average planter and it remains one which requires careful study and investigation. The blossoms of the single flowered Cherries are fast fading away and as they lose their attractiveness the double-flowered forms, or hybrids, come into their most showy condition. This year that period appears to be during the second week of May. There are many named forms of these beautiful plants, some derived from species, others originating from hybrids, all grafted or budded and all probably much slower growing and never attaining the size of their naturally single flowered progenitors. They should generally be considered as short lived as compared with the types, but this is not always the case. Besides local conditions much depends upon the stocks upon which they are budded or grafted, a subject which may be referred to in later issues of these Bulletins. A beautiful double flowered species is the well known and often planted Prunus avium plena, which is often listed as Prunus (Cerasus) avium multiplex. Originally derived from the Sweet or Mazzard Cherry, of Europe and Western Asia, this form has developed flowers which have the aspect of very small fully double white roses borne in umbels of several clusters. For those who wish for a suggestion of a selection of several of the best and hardiest of the Japanese double forms the following may be mentioned as very satisfactory They are regarded as forms of the fairly hardy Prunus serrulata. Some forms of Prunus Lannesiana may perhaps be regarded as more beautiful but they are not so hardy as P. serrulata. Of this species there are now a good many forms offered in American nurseries, six of the best may be found under the following names: Albo-rosea, pink in bud changing to white; Fugenzo, rose pink; Hisakura, pale pink; Horinji, pale pink, clustered; Kirin, rose colored, large flowered, late; Shogetsu ( = P. serrulata sachalinensis superba) pale pink, large, late. The Japanese name of the last is said to signify \"moonlight through Pine branches\". There are many others which may be grown in our climate, though with less confidence in their immunity from winter injury, particularly those belonging to the Prunus Lannesiana group, of which the double or semi-double form known as P. Lannesiana sirotae, sold by some Japanese nurseries as a \"Mount Fuji\", with large, fragrant, pure white blossoms, is probably the finest known of all double Cherries. Recently we received an inquiry from a correspondent who wishes to know the species and varieties of choice Japanese Cherries which will grow at an altitude of 1500 or 2000 feet in northern New York State. The answer to such a question is that probably none of them would live and thrive and blossom in that latitude and that altitude, where the temperature frequently falls to from 10 to 20 below zero (Fahrenheit). If the trees were not killed or badly injured, their flower buds would almost always certainly be destroyed every winter unless the season happened to be exceptionally mild for the region. Possibly the more northerly forms of such a species of variety as the Sargent Cherry, Prunus serrulata sachalinensis, which some botanists think should be regarded as a distinct species (Prunus Sargentii), might be able to withstand the rigors of our cold north country but such particularly hardy plants remain to be introduced and proved. While a few of the double flowered Cherries are to be seen near the Forest Hills Gate the best specimens are to be found in a group on top of Bussey Hill. The Japanese or Flowering Quince. Chaenomeles lagenaria and various forms, often known as Pyrus japonicum in nurseries and persistently called Cydonia japonica in \"Standardized Plant Names\" are in flower now in the shrub collection. J. G. J."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Plant Hybrids","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23945","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15eb36b.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Sax, Karl","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 15, 1931 NO. 5 Plant Hybrids. Many of our most valuable ornamental shrubs have been produced by natural or artificial hybridization. Among the best examples are the hybrid Lilacs and Rhododendrons. Most of the numerous varieties of Lilacs have been produced by hybridization and selection by Lemoine in France. These hybrids are for the most part confined to crosses within the species Syringa vulgaris. Hybrids cannot be made between the Villosae and Vulgares Lilacs and neither of these groups will cross with the Tree Lilacs. Within the Vulgares group hybrids are known between S. vulgaris and S. oblata and between S. persica and S. vulgaris. The latter hybrid, S. chinensis, first originated spontaneously but was subsequently produced by crossing the parental species. Rhododendron hybrids were produced for the most part by English plant breeders, although many crosses between species have occurred spontaneously in cultivation. The best known varieties of Rhododendron have been produced by crossing the American R. catawbiense with European or Asiatic species. Most of the species of Rhododendrons are interfertile and in some cases hybrids have been made between the true Rhododendrons and the Azaleas. In the genus Philadelphus we have numerous examples of hybrids between species and it seems probable that all species in this genus are interfertile. Several hybrids are known between American and Asiatic species. These parental species must have been separated long before the Glacial Period, yet when they are brought together and crossed they produce perfectly fertile hybrids. Similar cases are known in the Rhododendrons and Apples. The Arnold Arboretum offers unusual opportunities for the plant breeder because of the extensive collection of both American and Oriental species. Many of these have never before been brought together in the same collection so that they have never had an opportunity to cross naturally or to be combined by the plant breeder. In many cases it is impossible to cross distinct species but in certain genera or subfamilies crosses between species are easily obtained and in certain cases even generic hybrids are possible. In the Pomoideae a number of generic hybrids are known to occur. Near the Forest Hills Gate is a large tree of Sorbopyrus which is a hybrid between Sorbus and Pyrus. Along the Willow path there is a small specimen of Amelasorbus, a natural hybrid between Amelanchier and Sorbus, which was discovered in Idaho by J. G. Jack. Another generic hybrid in this group of plants is Sorbaronia, a hybrid between Sorbus and Aronia. This hybrid is in the Shrub Collection. It has been found growing spontaneously in several regions in North America. Hybrids have also originated spontaneously between Crataegus and Mespilus and between Pyrus and Cydonia. In this subfamily there are many ornamental trees and shrubs, as Apples, Pears, Flowering Quince, Sorbus, Amelanchier, Cotoneaster, and Crataegus. It is possible that additional hybrids can be made between some of these genera. This spring a number of crosses have been made between Amelanchier and Pyrus, the Japanese Quince and the Pear, between Cotoneaster and Crataegus. It is to be expected that many of these crosses will be unsuccessful, but if a few hybrids are obtained they should be of considerable interest and probably of some ornamental value. The Lilacs offer some interesting opportunities for the plant breeder. Most of the earlier breeding work has been confined to the species S. vulgaris. There are, however, two other species which are very valuable, especially if they can be combined with the flowering habit of the common Lilac. Syringa pubescens is the most fragrant of all Lilacs but the flowers are not showy and the shrub is not graceful in its habit of growth. If this species could be combined with S. vulgaris it should give us an entirely new type of Lilac. Syringa pinnatifolia is one of the most attractive Lilacs in its habit of growth but the flowers are borne in small clusters. This species combined with either S. pubescens or S. vulgaris should produce some interesting hybrids. The Persian Lilac is also a valuable species for the plant breeder although when crossed with S. vulgaris it produces a sterile hybrid so that the cross cannot be carried beyond the first generation. Many of these sterile hybrids are valuable, however, because they flower freely and although they set no seed they can be propagated by grafting or by cuttings. The Technique of Crossing. The methods used in making crosses between species or varieties are dependent on the natural method of pollination. Plants are chiefly insect pollinated, wind pollinated, or self pollinated. Most plants with conspicuous flowers are insect pollinated while those with inconspicuous flowers are usually wind pollinated. Among the former are the Apples and related genera, while the wind pollinated plants include the Conifers, the Oaks, and most of the grasses. All grasses are not wind pollinated, contrary to the statement in botanical textbooks, and among the economic genera Wheat, Oats and Barley are all normally self pollinated. Sorbopyrus auricularis var. bulbiformis In order to cross two species or varieties it is first necessary to prevent the normal pollination. With insect pollinated plants this is easily done by removing the anthers and petals just before the flower opens. The insects will not usually visit a flower which has the petals removed so that there is only a slight chance for pollination to occur. Apple flowers for instance are emasculated by removing the calyx together with the petals and anthers just before the flower opens leaving the stigmas exposed. Pollen from the male parent is then applied to the stigmas and the cross is made. It is advisable to leave a check branch on which the flowers have been emasculated and not pollinated to see if seeds set, due to insect or wind pollination. If the check branches do set fruit there is no assurance that the pollinated flowers will produce hybrids. This method of emasculation is known to be satisfactory with Apples and related genera, but it may not be applicable in all cases. If the stigmas are large and moist there is a chance that smaller insects will visit them and thus effect pollination. For such cases the flowers should be covered with a paper bag after emasculation and kept covered until the petals would normally drop. In the case of wind pollinated flowers, it is necessary to cover the female flower before the stigma is receptive. For instance, in corn the ear is covered with a bag before the silks appear. When the silk is developed the bag is removed just long enough to dust on the pollen which has been collected and then covered again until all chance of wind pollination has passed. In the Pine the small cones are covered in the same way and when they are receptive the pollen from another species is applied and the cone again covered. Lilacs are easily crossed by pulling off the corolla to which the anthers are attached and brushing the exposed stigma with a freshly opened anther from a mature flower of the other parental species or variety. Lilies are also easy to cross although many species seem to be intersterile. The anthers and petals are removed from the female parent just before the flower opens and the stigma covered with pollen from the male parent. In the case of the Lily it is probably best to cover the flower with a bag since small insects may carry the pollen to the stigma even when the petals are removed. A number of crosses have been made at the Arboretum using E. H. Wilson's Regal Lily as one of the parents, but since it takes from 3 to 6 years for a Lily to flower from seed it is too early to know the results of this work. At best the breeding of new varieties of shrubs and trees is a long process. The hybrids cannot be expected to flower for several years at least and in some cases one must wait ten years or more to determine the flowering characters of the hybrid. Often a second generation is necessary in order to obtain the desired combination of characters and another five or ten years must elapse before the results are known. Nevertheless, it is a fascinating occupation and full of interesting surprises. One great advantage of working with trees and shrubs is that any hybrid obtained can be propagated by cuttings or by grafting even if it does not breed true from seeds or is sterile. Karl Sax. This Bulletin to replace No. 5 previously issued"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Various Shrubs","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23950","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15e8926.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 20, 1931 NO. 6 Various Shrubs. With the distribution of this Bulletin special attention should be called to various shrubs now passing or still in good flowering condition. Our native Hobble-bush, Viburnum alnifolium, has been in blossom for two weeks and has been conspicuous with its white, bract-like, sterile flowers. This shy, northern, shade-loving, woodland shrub may be induced to grow under cultivation if given a cool and somewhat shaded location such as it has near the Birch group in the Arboretum. Near it, in the Viburnum group, the visitor will find the much and deservedly advertised Viburnum Carlesii in passing bloom with its clusters of pinkish white, fragrant flowers. V. bitchiuense, close by, has similar flowers but they are borne in more open cymes, the petals being wider spreading. The plant is less compact and less attractive than V. Carlesii. The flowers of these two Viburnums, especially those of V. Carlesii, suggest Daphne Cneorum by their delightful odor and appearance, except that the flowers of the Daphne are of a deeper color. A fine group of this pretty, evergreen, little shrub is in full inflorescence along the roadside near the Hickory and Chestnut group, between the Centre Street gate and Hemlock Hill. Farther along this same road may be seen the purple bloom of Rhododendron canadense, more familiarly known as Rhodora. In the same family, Ericaceae, belongs an interesting little Heather, Erica darleyensis, with rosy-red flowers and dark red anthers. It is passing but has been flowering for several weeks past and, indeed, some blooms may be found in sheltered places almost every month in the winter. It is said to be of hybrid origin between the common Erica carnea and E. mediterranea and is reported to be as hardy as the first named parent. A good patch of it is to be seen on Bussey Hill. There, also, the beautiful pink-flowered Rhododendron Schlippenbachii is dropping its flowers. This native of Korea and Japan is nearly matched, in a horticultural sense, by the now well-known, and deservedly popular R. Vasey. Although resembling each other, these two species are placed in different sectional groups of the genus Rhododendron by systematic botanists. R. Vaseyi has somewhat smaller flowers varying in color from deep rosy-pink to pale pink or white, a varietal name, R. Vaseyi album, having been given to the latter. Seedlings vary considerably so that it is well to grow a number and select the best. if it is not practicable to propagate a specially desirable form by division. The variability shown in this species offers a good illustration of the possibilities of obtaining improved forms by simple selection of seedlings without artificial interference by the hand of man. The genus Rhododendron is divided or subdivided into various groups according to the views of different botanists. In the Arboretum under the name Rhododendron are included groups which some authors would classify under Azalea, Rhodora, and other genera. These segregations under separate generic headings may appear simple and satisfactory when considering local species or those of a special region, like Eastern North America. But when all the species of Asia are considered, the separating features which were satisfactory for a local flora become tangled with connecting links so that it may become difficult to divide the whole group into separate genera that are distinct. This broad grouping into one generic botanical heading under Rhododendron, the oldest Linnean botanical name, would seem all the more justifiable when we consider that Rhododendrons have been crossed with Azaleas, and Azaleas with Rhodora. As classified in the popular mind, the true Rhododendrons are evergreen shrubs or small trees bearing terminal clusters of showy flowers. They can never become universally popular or so widely distributed as Lilacs, for example, because of greater difficulty of propagation, expense, slow growth, and particularly on account of requiring so-called acid soils of a certain character found only in a relatively small part of our whole country. The best flowering of evergreen, broad-leaved Rhododendrons usually occurs in the latter part of May or early June. There are few really hardy species adapted to this climate, but hybridization has produced a great many named kinds that are more or less amenable to our conditions. On May 8th, a plant known as Rhododendron venustum was in full bloom in the Rhododendron collection at the foot of Hemlock Hill. A broad-spreading but low plant 3 or 4 feet high, it was covered with large trusses of deep pink or rose-colored flowers and was very conspicuous among its neighbors which are not yet in blossom. It has been growing in the Arboretum, and has proved hardy, for more than twenty years. It is rather interesting that this plant should be so hardy here for it is a hybrid between Rhododendron caucasicum and the Himalayan R. arboreum, neither of which is really satisfactory in our climate, although they may live and produce flowers, and occasionally do very well. R. caucasicum, with yellowish-white to pink flowers, is the hardier, while R. arboreum is too tender for cultivation in our northern climate. R. venustum originated in England over 40 years ago. It appears to be rarely listed or grown in this country, but it is frequently advertised in English and other European catalogues, commonly under the name R. Jacksoni, which is a synonym of R. venustum. Growing beside this plant in the Arboretum is another in blossom but with white or faintly pinkish white flowers. It was imported from Germany in 1908 under the name of Rhododendron \"Diana\" and is apparently of the same hybrid origin as R. venustum, but much less satisfactory because the plant seems weaker and the flower buds are too often destroyed in winter. It is very pretty at this time but is hardly worth cultivating except for earliness of bloom, and then in regions with a climate less severe than that of Boston. It does not now appear to be listed in nursery catalogues. Probably no group of trees and shrubs offers greater opportunities than the Rhododendrons, evergreen and deciduous, for development by hybridizing, though such work may be understood by comparatively few people. Those wishing to see Kaempfer's Azalea, Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi in good flowering condition should visit the Arboretum at this time as the species is now in full blossom (May 18). With cool weather, such as we have been having this spring, these plants should keep in showy and attractive condition for about two weeks, but hot, sunny days cause rapid fading. Individuals when planted together show variation of several days in the time of opening of the first flowers, but local environment will be found much more of a factor in hurrying or delaying inflorescence, a cool north slope or shade continuing the season of bloom for days after the passing of blossoms of plants in a warm location. The Korean Poukhan Azalea, Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense, is at this date (May 18) still in full bloom on Bussey Hill, its mass of rosy purple, or pale lilac purple, flowers forming the most conspicuous feature among the surrounding shrubbery. Other Azaleas will follow, so that several visits must be made to this location in order to appreciate all of them. The visitor to Bussey Hill will find the later flowering Japanese Cherries still in attractive bloom. Other small plants belonging to the broadly inclusive genus Prunus are blossoming along the main road leading to the top of Bussey Hill. On the hill are several species of Cytisus, often called Genista, mostly bearing golden yellow flowers. Among the best of these may be mentioned C. ratisbonensis, which, under favorable conditions, may attain 3 or 4 feet in height; C. purgans, erect and somewhat smaller than the last; C. elongatus, the flowers duller yellow than the others and marked with reddish brown, and C. Beanii, a hybrid between C. purgans and C. Ardoini, the latter rarely cultivated in this country. C. Beanii is a low, broad-spreading little shrub, very attractive when covered with its bright golden yellow blossoms. C purpureus, a small shrub with purple flowers, is in 5trong contrast to the yellow flowered species. It has been used in hybridizing with those with yellow flowers and one or two interesting intermediate forms have been produced. Before this Bulletin is issued many of the Crabapples will have passed their best flowering condition and the Lilacs will be the centre of attraction in the Arboretum. J. G. J."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Davidia involucrata","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23935","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14ebb28.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Ames, Oakes","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V MAY 28, 1931 NO. 7 Davidia involucrata. Near the top of Bussey Hill, close to the Azalea Path, Davidia involucrata, the Dove Tree, is flowering (May 11-23). This is the first time that it has borne at all profusely in the Arnold Arboretum and even now it is floriferous on only one side. D. involucrata is a native of China, having been discovered some sixty years ago by Abbe Armand David in Szechuan on the borderland of Tibet. Subsequently the range was extended to Hupeh and Yunnan. The first botanical description was published by Dr. Henri Ernest Baillon in 1871 when the genus Davidia was launched and dedicated to its discoverer. In 1897 it was introduced to European horticulture by Pere Farges, who sent seeds to Maurice L. de Vilmorin. In 1906 the first flowers were produced in France. At this time, in \"Revue Horticole\", the flowers and habit of the Vilmorin plant were figured. Davidia is classed with the Tupelo, Nyssa sylvatica, in the family Nyssaceae. Originally it was thought to be a close ally of the Flowering Dogwood, Cornus florida, and was given the status of a distinct sub-family in the family Cornaceae. The inflorescence is remarkable, because the solitary female flower, protruding laterally from a bisexual inflorescence, is surrounded by the closely massed male flowers and appears to be lost in a wilderness of dehiscing anthers. One wonders what the course of evolution has been which resulted in a solitary pistillate flower being encompassed by numerous staminate flowers. Surely the prodigality of pollen under such circumstances indicates self-sterility and an assurance that there shall be sufficient pollen produced to reach, unfailingly, the stigmas of the solitary pistillate flower in a near-by or distant inflorescence. But with regard to this we have not yet succeeded in finding any information. For technical details regarding the genus, one may turn with profit to Rehder's article on Davidia in Bailey's \"Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture\", or to W. J. Bean's \"Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles\", where a thoroughly satisfactory treatment is given, together with historical notes. The specimen m the Arnold Arboretum is a small, shrubby tree about twenty feet high with a spread of fifteen feet near the base. It has the aspect of having suffered severely from winter killing in the early years of its development, as it consists of several obliquely erect stems rising from and near the ground. As the flowers mature the stamens elongate, and the filaments become whitish. When the flowers are young, the anthers are deep purple, forming a dense pompon-like cluster subtended by large showy bracts. It is these bracts, usually two, although sometimes three in number, which constitute the chief attraction of the plant. These bracts are thin and flaccid with irregularly toothed margins and, when the anthers dehisce, are whitish with hardly a tinge of green. The accompanying illustration was drawn from the plant now flowering in the Arboretum and represents the var. Vilmoriniana. The variety differs from the species in having smooth, rather than felted, leaves. Our plant is a descendant of the only one raised by Vilmorin at Les Barres from the thirty-seven seeds sent by Pere Farges in 1897 from China. In 1901, before Vilmorin's solitary plant flowered, four cuttings and one layer were made from it and in 1902 the layer was sent to Professor Sargent. This record authenticates our plant as true var. Vilmoriniana. There is some question, however, regarding the validity of the variety. Indeed the transitional stages that may be traced between hairy and smooth leaves are of a nature to cast suspicion on the value of the characters that have been used to separate the variety from the species. E. H. Wilson believed that trees with smooth leaves were different from trees with hairy or lanate leaves, although he found both kinds commingled when he collected seeds for Veitch, 1899-1902. It has been stated that the variety is horticulturally inferior to the hairy leaved D. involucrata, but there is hardly enough evidence to substantiate this statement. We are told that in its native land, when laden from top to bottom with enormous white floral bracts, some of them attaining a length of eight inches or more, D involucrata presents a wonderful aspect But from an aesthetic point of view it has little to recommend it. Its claim to a place in the garden rests on the bizarre form rather than on the beauty of the inflorescence. As an ornamental it is surpassed by Flowering Dogwood Cornus florida Botanically, however, it ~s among the most interesting of the introduced species which depend for their beauty on the development of showy bracts subtending the flowers and is a curiosity deserving to be included in every collection of woody plants. As yet Davidia is rare in American gardens and it is impossible to give reliable information regarding its hardiness and amenability. Our experience indicates that Boston is about the northern limit for its cultivation In Rhode Island Davidia has proved more tractable than in Massachusetts and it is our opinion that success will attend efforts to introduce it in regions where the winter climate approximates that of southern New England. It is highly probable that some plants will prove to be constitutionally more hardy than others and that skillful selection may be rewarded by the discovery of resistant strains. As seeds are now being offered by seedsmen, an opportunity for comparative observation is at hand. The origin of the seeds, however, should be ascertained, as in its native country plants of D. involucrata from the southern part of the geographical range may prove less hardy than those that grow near the northern boundary of distribution. Propagation is by seeds, cuttings in summer of half ripened wood grown under glass, and by layers. It is said that propagation by seedlings is more satisfactory than by cuttings as the plants resulting from cuttings show reduced vigor. Germination of the seeds is rather slow. Indeed some of the records indicate that from one to two years may pass before the seedlings appear after sowing of seed. Seeds should be frozen before being placed in the ground as freezing seems to shorten the period of dormancy. Frozen seeds will usually germinate in from twelve to fifteen months. Oakes Ames EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Davidia involucrata Vilmoriniana. A drawing from the plant sent to Professor Charles Sprague Sargent in 1902 by M. L. de Vilmorin. The inflorescence at the left shows a supernumerary bract. (Drawn May 22, 1931, by Blanche Ames Ames.)"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"American Crabapples","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23931","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14eab6f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V JUNE 2, 1931 NO. 8 American Crabapples. In the Arboretum, following the Cherries, the Flowering Crabapples are the plants of dominant popular interest, overlapping and connecting late cherry blossom and lilac times. They passed through the winter in good condition and during the last two weeks have been conspicuous by their abundance of beautiful flowers. The first trees to blossom opened their flowers about May 3rd. These earliest flowering apples belong to several species and named forms or hybrids that originated in the Old World. They have a season of inflorescence coincident with that of most of the varieties of our cultivated common Apple, the Malus pumila of our orchards, a species now found naturalized in pastures and woods although a native of Europe and western Asia. The many kinds of common Apple show a marked variation in time of flowering. As a rule those with early ripening fruits, like \"Early Harvest\", \"Astrachan\", etc., open their flowers with the earliest of the ornamental Japanese and Chinese Crabapples, while some varieties that mature their fruit late in the season correspond in flowering time with the later, showy flowering species from the Orient. Noticeably later flowering than the Crabapples of the Old World are those species which are indigenous to eastern and central North America. This is a group which cannot be separated by any tangible differences in aspect or foliage recognizable by the casual observer, and yet is so distinct botanically that at a glance the botanist is usually able to pick out trees of American origin, even without seeing the fruit whose structure, the core being free at the apex, is quite distinct from that of all other species. By following the proper procedure, as outlined by Professor Sax in the last Bulletin, the Old World and the New World species may be, and have been, hybridized with some very interesting results. But the act of bringing these species together or in close proximity has allowed Nature to develop an intermixture without help or interference by man. While some are already known, we are yet on the threshold of these foreign and native mixtures and a century hence there is certain to have been developed races of trees of horticultural interest very different from those we know at the present day. The name \"Crabapple\" has come to be associated, in the average mind, with trees bearing small fruit, but some of our American species produce fruits three inches in diameter. These fruits have sometimes been used in making preserves, jellies, or cider, but many are astringent and are considered rather unpalatable and of poor quality when judged with regard to their eating or culinary purposes. Undoubtedly they will be greatly improved in future years when they will have become mixed with the best fruiting types of the Old World species now in cultivation. At the present time they are chiefly valued and cultivated for their usually pink or rosy-colored, deliciously fragrant flowers. There are a number of species in cultivation, all characterized by having pink, fragrant flowers, and fruits which often have a sticky or waxy covering and give off a strong, sweet, aromatic fragrance when fully mature in the Autumn. Not one of these species of eastern North American Crabapples is found native within the limits of the New England States, but they may be found from western New York southward to Florida and westward to Nebraska, Iowa, Kansas and eastern Texas. All of the wild apple trees found in our New England woods and pastures and along our waysides are escapes from long cultivated orchards of varieties of Malus pumila, which has also been known as Malus Malus. Linnaeus placed Apples and Pears in the genus Pyrus but in the Arboretum that generic name is now restricted to the Pears, while his Pyrus Malus (the Apple) became Malus Malus in some botanical lists. By the action of man in introducing foreigners or outsiders into our flora, the future holds a prospect of a wonderful tangle of curious Apples and Crabapples whose parentage it will not be easy to trace. Already we have in cultivation interesting hybrids of the Iowa Crabapple, Malus ioensis, and the common cultivated Apple. One of the best known of these is the Soulard Crabapple, Malus Soulardi, which shows considerable variation but is usually characterized by having dense clusters of short pedicelled flowers, pink and white in color, which give off a pleasant, sweet, violet-like fragrance. It has been found in various states in the Mississippi Valley, from Minnesota to Texas, and is usually regarded as of the hybrid origin already suggested. The fruits are sweet-scented and often two inches in diameter. While Malus ioensis is interesting in itself and through the supposed hybrids which have been developed from it, its great fame rests on the fact that it is the mother of the beautiful semi-double or double flowered variation known as the Bechtel Crab, Malus ioensis plena, which has also been described in horticultural literature and listed in catalogues as Malus (or Pyrus) angustifolia flore pleno. In the English \"Gardeners' Chronicle\" it was called a Pear, under the synonym Pyrus coronaria flore pleno. Pyrus coronaria formerly was made to include a number of what are now considered distinct species of American Crabapples. This double-flowered form of Malus ioensis is said to have been found nearly 100 years ago, or before 1840, but it is not known to have been formally introduced into general cultivation until 1888, and was not brought into the Arnold Arboretum collection until 1897. It did not originate with Bechtel but derives that name from the fact that it was first extensively introduced to the nursery trade and general cultivation by E. A. Bechtel's Sons, Staunton, Illinois. Questions regarding this plant are so often asked that the following note written by W. C. Egan, of Illinois, for the \"Garden Magazine\", June, 1913 should he of interest:- \"In 1898 I wrote to Mr. Theo. Bechtel, of Staunton, Ill., for particulars regarding its history and he kindly replied as follows: 'Sometime in the' seventies, when my father, the late E. A. Bechtel, was conducting a little nursery four miles west of Staunton, Ill., we used to hear the most wonderful tales of a flowering tree, or clump of trees, situated some six or eight miles northeast of us in what was known as 'Upper West Prairie', but as the wild tales were too much to be believed, coming from a class of old settlers whom we knew to be given to exaggeration, we paid no attention to the matter until about ten years ago, when we made a trip during the blooming season and saw what a valuable thing had stood there, as near as we could find out from old settlers, about forty years. We at once made arrangements with Mr. Woodbridge, in whose pasture the original clump of trees were standing, to propagate and introduce them to the trade. As the trees were identical with the single-flowered wild crab growing around and in the same clump, we had to mark these during blossoming time, so as not to make any mistake in procuring buds or cions. The indications all go to show that it is an accidental sport from the single flowering crab.'\" Thus this product of Nature, uninfluenced by human agency, producing beautiful little double rose-like, pink-colored, violet-scented, flowers, developed from the single normal five-petaled type, and was preserved from possible destruction by fire, animals or the axe. The doubling of the flowers is at the expense of the numerous stamens which become lessened by becoming petaloid. The doubling is not so complete as to replace all the stamens and, occasionally, on this tree with semi-double flowers, small fruits may be found. As has already been stated, a few years ago several of our Eastern American Crabapples were indiscriminately listed under the single name of Malus (Pyrus) coronaria. Comparatively recent studies have recognized a number of distinct species in this group and these have been named and must eventually become more or less familiar in our nurseries and gardens. Malus coronaria still remains, in a restricted sense, as a species, but it is probable that for some time purchasers may get some other plants under this name. This species has a strong resemblance to Malus ioensis, differing chiefly in having smoother leaves and somewhat oblate or depressed globose fruit, whereas the fruit of the Iowa Crabapple is oval or broadly ellipsoid. It is an interesting fact that in about 1900 a semi-double flowered form of this species was found near Waukegan, Illinois. It has been named Malus coronaria Charlottae. Its blossoms are not so double and therefore not so miniature rose-like as Bechtel's Crabapple. The flowers are paler, expand slightly wider, and are very pale pink or almost white when fully opened, although the unopened buds are of an attractive pink color. Most persons who have compared them agree that it does not equal Bechtel's Crabapple in beauty or desirability. J. G. J."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Bush Honeysuckles","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23934","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14eb727.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V JUNE 18, 1931 NO. 9 Bush Honeysuckles. The name Honeysuckle is a term popularly applied to various plants of different genera, not only in this part of the globe but also in other countries where the English language prevails. Locally, in New England, it is often given to the flowers of indigenous Azaleas, and the Trumpet Creeper, (Tecoma radicans) imported into our gardens from further south, is not infrequently known as a Honeysuckle or Trumpet Honeysuckle. Generally, however, in this part of America, the term Honeysuckle is understood to refer to the various species of the genus Lonicera, a group of such wide dissimilarity in aspect that it has been proposed by some botanists to divide it into several genera. But certain aspects of foliage and structure of flowers and fruits, common to all, serve to bind them together into a recognized typical group. Originally named by Linnaeus for Adam Lonicer or Lonitzer, a German botanist and physician who died in 1586, the genus is now recognized as containing between 175 and 200 species, all natives of the northern hemisphere and, as yet, unknown from south of the equator. Of the many species that have been recognized and described only a small proportion are regarded as hardy or adapted to cold northern conditions. Some of the more common of these hardy species have, when brought together, produced some interesting hybrids, developed through natural processes or aided by the hand of man. Altogether the Honeysuckles may be ranked as of the first order of usefulness in the work of the horticulturist or landscape gardener. There are two Chinese Bush Honeysuckles which have been long introduced into our parks and gardens and are among the earliest in spring to produce flowers. These are Lonicera fragraretissin2a and L. Standishii, half-evergreen or late deciduous shrubs which attain six to eight feet in height and a greater spread of branches. To the casual observer they may appear to be uninteresting plants as they do not offer any conspicuous features either in flower or fruit. But a close acquaintance with them, at their best season, will show small white or yellowish-white flowers which give off a very strong, sweet fragrance, like Epigaea or Mayflower, which is discernible some distance away when the flowers are plentiful. Sometimes flowers are produced in the late autumn and they may reappear occasionally during very mild times in winter. In this climate the normal flowering period is April, blossoms continuing to appear through May or until or after, the red fruits are ripe, about the first of June. They may, however, continue to ripen for several weeks. At the present time, June 5, in the Arboretum, scattered flowers may still be found, together with ripe fruit. This fruit is red, thin skinned, pulpy, sweetish, several seeded, oblong or oval in shape and sometimes about half an inch long. The flower buds are sometimes destroyed in very severe winters and even the plants may lose some of the upper parts of their branches. Without protection they might be considered too uncertain in hardiness for regions north of the Peach zone. In habit the plants are somewhat similar, becoming broad-spreading bushes 7 to 8 feet high and with an equal or greater diameter. Lonicera Standishii is considered somewhat hardier than L. fragrantissima, although both may appear to thrive equally well under good drainage conditions. These species have long been in cultivation in this country, especially in some of our parks They might not profitably be accorded a place in very small gardens, where the limited space is wanted for more showy things, but they certainly would give an added interest to larger plantations. Most of the Honeysuckles have what may be called unpalatable fruits, but there is an exception in Lonicera villosa, a low growing shrub, native of the cold northern parts of northeastern North America, and found southward, in cold environments, to Pennsylvania. This species bears fruits covered with a dense blue bloom, ripening in the Boston region at the end of May or in June and bearing a strong resemblance to medium sized fruits of some of our native Blueberries (Vaccinium). This fruit is classed as edible, has a rather pleasant flavor, and has been known to be gathered and sold as Blueberries. The flowers are greenish-white, much hidden by the leaves. Although an interesting native the species is of no particular interest for the average garden, where showiness is the prevailing desire. The old established Tatarian Honeysuckle, (Lonicera tatarica), is a close competitor of the common Lilac for public recognition in old gardens. The latter has the advantage of having had a longer introduction to cultivation, being recognized as having been domesticated as early as 1597, while the Tatarian Honeysuckle is recorded as having been brought into gardens in 1752, or over 150 years later, from its native home in Turkestan and southern Russia. It is a plant which shows a greater variation than the common Lilac, when raised from seed, and at the Arnold Arboretum there are probably as many inquiries about this variable and cosmopolitan species as about any in common cultivation. The small globose berries are normally bright red, occasionally translucent yellow, and are freely eaten by some of the birds, which eject the hard, horny seeds after the pulp has been absorbed or digested. In this way the Tatarian Honeysuckle has become naturalized and may be found along roadsides and fences, in abandoned fields as are Apple, Barberry, Buckthorn, Privet and Sweetbriar Rose, all disseminated by birds and other animal agencies. When in flower these escaped Tatarian Honeysuckles may show marked variation from the cultivated forms in adjacent gardens. While the color of the flowers is normally pink, pure white flowered forms have long been in gardens and even these show so much variation in size and substance that they have been given several varietal names. Thus we have variety grandiflora, with very large pure white flowers, alba with medium sized white flowers, and parvifolia with small white flowers. If attempts are made to raise the typical pink flowered plant from seed, one is liable to get forms not desired as well as forms which vary sufficiently from the mother plant to merit a distinct designation for horticultural purposes. Such deviations from the type when found naturalized are a common cause for perplexity to the finder until he is assured that the plant under observation is simply a variant from the mother type already well known in gardens. No attempt should be made to produce any especially desirable plant from its seed, as there would be a probability of not getting just what was wanted. Exact duplication could be secured only by division from the selected individual, as by cuttings of green or of mature wood, or by layering. In the last analysis few introductions of its class in recent years can compete with the Tatarian Honeysuckle in general usefulness for park or garden planting. It is very hardy, enduring 20 or 30 degrees below zero, Fahrenheit, and is adapted to a wide range of soils, in sharp contrast to the restricted areas and conditions required by such a group of plants as Rhododendrons. Where planted with other allied species, which flower at the same time, hybridization by insect agency may easily occur. A number of such hybrids are known in cultivation; others have been passed by as unworthy of attention or preservation. Careful selection and pollination by man should produce surer and more desirable results than haphazard processes of nature. Among the best of the known hybrids of Lonicera tatarica is a cross with L. Korolkowii, a native of Turkestan. This hybrid has been given the name of Lonicera amoena and several worth while variants have been recognized and named. One of these is Lonicera amoena arrnld2- ana which originated in the Arnold Arboretum over thirty years ago. It is a slender shrub 6 to 8 feet high, with graceful branches, rather small oblong bluish-green leaves, white flowers flushed with pink, and is annually very floriferous. It is well worthy of a place in the larger garden but must be propagated by division, rather than by seeds, in order to secure exact duplicates. This hybridization among our Honeysuckles has hardly been more than touched as yet, but it suggests the great field of hidden novelties and improvements in future work, aside from the introduction of possible new species. J. G. Jack."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Botanical Drawings by John Singer Sargent","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23933","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14eb326.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Ames, Oakes","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V JUNE 24, 1931 NO. 10 Botanical Drawings by John Singer Sargent. Through the kindness of his sisters, Miss Emily Sargent and Mrs. Francis Ormond, the Arnold Arboretum has received six original drawings by John Singer Sargent. The collection is interesting from a botanical point of view because it shows how accurately Sargent interpreted plant structures that attracted his attention, and it is important from an artistic point of view because it contains examples of his early efforts as well as some of his later sketches from the series made in Florida within comparatively recent years. With the exception of two drawings which may be referred to an early period, and one carefully elaborated drawing of the later period, the collection consists of rough sketches that represent attempts to catch, on the spur of the moment, some pleasing or interesting peculiarity of a vine or fruit. Even the hasty sketches are of exceptional importance as they demonstrate precise observation and exhibit a more faithful interpretation of vegetative characters than is usually attempted by artists who lack biological training. It has seemed worth while to devote a number of the Bulletin to these drawings as they constitute an important addition to the Arboretum Library, and include one subject that deserves to be reproduced and explained. This subject, which is the most interesting of the Sargent drawings in the Arboretum collection, is a carefully worked up study of the roots of Ficus aurea, a strangling fig, that had become entangled with a discarded wagon wheel. The extraordinary association of fig roots and wheel must have made a strong appeal to Sargent, because the sketch was executed with meticulous fidelity to the original and constitutes a record that would not be out of place in a textbook of botany. The subject is botanically unusual and hardly one that we should expect to find attracting the attention of a great portrait painter A brief account of the life history of a strangling fig may help toward an understanding and a better appreciation of the drawing. Ficus aurea usually begins life as an epiphyte, that is, it springs from a seed that has been dropped, by a bird or some other agency, on the limb of a tree or in the leaf axil of a palm. In the beginning the plant is a true epiphyte, having no connection with the ground. After the seed germinates, the roots, being geotropic, begin to grow downward. At first they are slender, but as they develop there takes place an increase in diameter. After the roots enter the ground in their downward passage, the fig ceases to be an epiphyte in a strict sense and becomes a true terrestrial plant, the support for the leafy crown being largely composed of an interlacing and anastomosing system of tough roots. In time, if the fig prospers, the roots completely enclose the trunk of the host tree or palm and a so-called strangling action begins. In the later stages of this strange association, the tree on which the fig began its development appears to emerge from a rigid gray sheath. Finally the host tree dies leaving the fig perfectly independent. During the formation of the root system, rocks or other objects that are in the way, are often enmeshed and securely held. Sargent's drawing shows a wheel that had become firmly held by encircling roots. In a tropical forest the independent fig tree appears to have grown from a seed that had lodged in the ground. Unless its peculiar nature were understood, one would find difficulty in explaining its structure. As is true of the Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) the roots of F. aurea descend from the lengthening branches and form a series of prop-like supports. By this means the growth of the tree results in a wide-spreading crown. When this peculiarity of growth is allowed to continue a large area of ground may be covered by a single plant. In \"The Silva of North America\", vol. VII, an interesting note regarding Ficus aurea is given by Charles Sprague Sargent, and is in part as follows: \"What is probably the largest specimen of Ficus aurea in the United States grows on a wooded hummock, locally known as 'The Hunting-ground', about ten miles west of the mouth of the Miami River and close to the shores of Bay Biscayne. This remarkable tree covers about a quarter of an acre of ground with its numerous distinct stems formed from roots developed from the branches of the original trunk, and its dense wide crown of foliage\". When a large specimen of this species is encountered, it is difficult to believe that the source was a small epiphytic plant that began its development, perhaps many feet above the ground, on the branch of another tree. The strange behavior of Ficus aurea is in the closest relation to the requirements for light. Experiments have conclusively proved that light is essential for successful development. If seeds fall on the forest floor and lie in dense shade they remain dormant. This explains the epiphytic habit of the species in tropical jungles where only those seeds which fall in well lighted situations on the branches of trees are able to germinate. Occasionally, however, in clearings and open places it has been found that F. aurea is quite capable of growing independently, and along rocky bluffs and on canal banks young plants may be found that are not epiphytic. Although Ficus is a large genus comprising more than six hundred species with representatives in both hemispheres, only two species are natives of the United States. Some of the best known species of the genus are: F. carica, the edible fig, probably a native of the Mediterranean region, cultivated from prehistoric times; F. religiosa, the Buddhist's sacred Peepul tree, found near temples and shrines in India and Siam and now a much planted shade tree in tropical countries; and F. bengalensis, the famous Banyan tree of India. Both F. bengalensis and F. religiosa sometimes become troublesome when they germinate from seeds that have lodged in the crevices of the walls of buildings. F. religioso has been known to break down the strongest type of masonry in countries where the tree is so sacred that nobody will destroy it. During the preparation of the fourth number of the Bulletin, a search was being made in the Library of the Arboretum for colored plates of the Yoshino cherry of Japan. The search led to the \"National Geographic Magazine\" where on page 191 of the forty-second volume, attention was drawn to the reproduction of a photograph showing the roots of a strangling fig holding an old wagon wheel. It was not only a photograph of the same wheel which had engaged Sargent's attention, but a view of it taken from almost the same location from which Sargent had made his drawing. Through the kindness of the \"National Geographic Magazine\". the Bulletin is permitted to reproduce the photograph and thus make possible a comparison between it and our reproduction of Sargent's drawing. Fortunately the photograph which was made at Cutler, Florida, localizes Sargent's work and indicates those details which the artist suppressed in his interpretation of the scene. OAKES AMES. EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE Ficus aurea. Photograph from John C. Gifford. Reproduced by special permission from the \"National Geographic Magazine\", vol. 42, p. 191. (1922). SUPPLEMENT PLATE Ficus aurea. Reproduced from an original drawing by John Singer Sargent. (Original drawing 9x X inches.)"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Persimmons","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23944","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15eaf6a.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V JULY 1, 1931 NO. 11 Persimmons. One of the trees that is occasionally sent to the Arboretum for identification is the common American Persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). This interesting tree seems to be little known in the North and is often passed unnoticed among many other trees, of different families, but with somewhat similar foliage. The Persimmon, when allowed opportunity for full development, becomes a handsome, tall, medium sized tree with regular branching habit and dark green, somewhat lustrous, alternate, simple, entire-edged leaves which keep in good condition throughout the summer and into the autumn without much change in color, although they occasionally become orange or scarlet. The bark of the trunk is dark gray, or brown tinged with red, and is deeply divided into thick, square plates. It is not generally known that the Persimmon is a native of New England, having been found apparently wild in Rhode Island and Connecticut. It is a tree which is better known and is more plentiful farther south, extending to Florida and Texas. At the Arboretum the trees are now (June 24) in full flower but the flowers are so hidden by the leaves that the average observer would hardly notice them. The flower buds are four-angled and about one-third to one-half of an inch long. The bell-shaped corolla is composed of four white, fleshy petals, united at the base for one-half to two-thirds of their length, forming a broad barrel-shaped tube, constricted toward the apex and topped by the four free ends of the strongly reflexed lobes of the corolla. At its base each flower rests on four leafy calyx lobes. These usually persist with the fruit. Male and female flowers are usually produced on separate trees in the axils of the leaves and suspended below them. The male flowers, which are smaller than the pistillate, are usually borne in small cymose clusters of two to five or six on slender pedicels; the female flowers, larger than the male, are solitary, on much stouter pedicels and are subtended by much larger calyx lobes. The male flowers fall to the ground soon after opening and shedding of pollen. While the flowers commonly occur as male (or staminate) and female (or pistillate) on separate trees, rarely both male and female may be found on the same tree, and the imperfect stamens found in pistillate flowers may sometimes produce a little pollen or, occasionally, flowers may be perfect. This feature in the flowering is an important consideration in attempts to grow trees for the fruit, because it is essential to have pollen-producing blossoms where we have possibly fruiting trees, in order to bring about cross-pollination and fertilization of the fruit blossoms. Otherwise they would appear sterile. On this account it is usually a wise plan to have several Persimmon trees growing together, at least one being known as staminate, in order to secure abundance of pollen for fertilization. If, in cultivation, a number of trees are propagated from one mother stem by buds or grafts, it may become necessary to introduce another so-called variety or a pollen bearing seedling into the plantation in order to secure satisfactory pollination. A bud or graft from a known pollen bearing tree inserted upon a pistillate tree may produce satisfactory results. A pollen bearing, flowering branch hung among the flowers of a pistillate tree may help in the problem of fertilization. The blossoms secrete much nectar and this is greedily sought by honey bees and other insects at flowering time. The American Persimmon is perfectly hardy in the latitude of Boston, and in old gardens in and about Boston occasionally good, large trees are found, sometimes 40 or 50 feet high, although they are often unrecognized. For many years the American Persimmon has been grown or selected with the object of gaining improved fruit. This native fruit has been recognized as edible since the visits of very early voyagers to America. De Soto, as early as 1539, learned from the Indians in Florida the value of the fruit and it was appreciated by his men as a welcome addition to their scanty fare. The earliest published record of the fruit appears to have been made by him in 1557. The tree was introduced into England before 1629. The Persimmon in the northern part of this country often produces fruit of a strong, astringent quality, especially in the early autumn and before the fruit has been frozen several times. By careful selection and propagation and the elimination of the individuals which produce the poorer quality of fruits, the American Persimmon has been brought to a fair state of perfection for fruit, although it is still lacking very much the improvement which has been brought about by the Japanese and Chinese in the species which grow in the Orient. The best of these is known as Diospyros kaki, the fruit of which has many shapes, in many varieties, and strongly suggests the fruit of some of our best tomatoes. Unfortunately, so far as tried, D. kaki has not proved hardy enough in the district about Boston to produce fruit, although it has become a practical orchard tree farther south, at least as far north as Virginia. Orchards of Chinese or Kaki Persimmons are common near Peiping (Peking), China, which is in the latitude of Philadelphia. As in the case of the Oriental species, the fruits of the American Persimmon vary considerably in color and form, usually they are pale orange or red, with a light gray bloom, becoming yellowish brown. They are sometimes oblate or flattened and in other cases slightly oblong. While usually containing I to 8 large, flattened seeds, some trees are found on which the fruits are seedless or which rarely produce seeds, a desideratum sought by the plant breeder and in which Japanese and Chinese have been eminently successful with their species. In the natural state they vary very greatly in size, from that of a small cherry to that of a large plum, or about an inch and a half in diameter, or, in cultivation, up to two inches in diameter. On some trees they become so soft when fully ripe that in falling to the ground they are crushed by their own weight, while on other trees, growing under identical conditions, they remain very hard even after severe freezing. Some trees in the South produce fruit which is sweet and luscious without the action of frost, and on adjoining trees it preserves its acidity when ripe, never becoming really edible. So, by merely selecting the best which we find in nature, very important advances may be made in starting a campaign for the improvement of these fruits. This has been recognized by some enterprising growers and nurserymen and such perfectly natural selected forms are now offered by them. The American Persimmon is one of the most promising of our native trees as a subject for experimentation and improvement. Such work is certain to lead to very interesting and valuable results. Of the already named selections most of them seem to have come from Indiana and Missouri. Freezing is popularly regarded, in the North, as essential to eliminate the astringent quality in the berries, for the fruit of Diospyros is botanically known as a berry. The astringent quality may be in time totally eliminated so that we may get fruits in the future which are edible in a green state, as is sometimes the case in the Chinese Persimmon. This astringent quality in the fruit is recognized as tannin and in some cases is used in certain industries. An indelible ink has been made from the fruit and the dried, roasted and ground seeds have been used as a substitute for coffee. In central China oil obtained from the unripe fruit of the Chinese Persimmon is used to make hats and umbrellas waterproof; the fruits are dried and preserved as figs are preserved. Seeds of Diospyros are reported to lose their power of germination soon after they have been taken from the fruit and exposed to the drying influence of the air. On this account it has been recommended to keep the seeds within fresh or dried fruits until near the time for planting. The American Persimmon tree develops a distinct tap root and on this account and the general lack of fibrous roots it is reported as not easy to transplant. However, ordinary care is all that is necessary to success, provided the plants have good roots. As particularly desirable forms cannot reliably be reproduced from seed, grafting or budding must be practiced in propagating them. Some trees in nature develop sprouts from adventitious buds on roots, thus forming colonies of stems with all the same features as the original. The wood of the American Persimmon is hard and close-grained, and the so-called heartwood, which is so slow in forming that a hundred years may pass before it is definitely developed, becomes almost black in old individuals. It is from trees of this genus, which is known to include from 175 to 200 named species, that the ebony of commerce is derived, particularly from Diospyros E6enum; which is found in India and Ceylon and in the Dutch East Indies. J. G. JACK."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Late Summer Flowering Trees","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23943","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15eaf28.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V JULY 31, 1931 NO. 12 Late Summer Flowering Trees. As the summer advances and June passes into July, the trees and shrubs which blossom late become scarcer and those which develop conspicuous bloom at this season are well worth studying by those desiring good late flowering species. In former years our native Common Chestnut (Castanea dentata) was one of the most conspicuous objects in the landscape in middle and southern New England during the early part of July. But the masses of flowers of this fine tree are now only memories to the older generation of our people and they are unknown to the young people of today. The last of the old native trees in the Arboretum have gone because of the attacks of the Chestnut Blight (Endothia parasitica) and there may never again be chestnut trees in the Arboretum which would equal them in size and proportion. The Chinquapin or Dwarf Chestnut (Castanea pumila) in the Arboretum was planted as a small group of a dozen or more plants twenty- five or thirty years ago and these little trees have successfully withstood the attacks of the blight, though they are not immune to it. Beginning its flowering in the last half of June, it becomes most conspicuous towards the end of the month and continues to produce a diminishing inflorescence until about the middle of July. It is classed as a shrub or small tree in its native habitat, which extends from Pennsylvania to Florida and Texas. While it becomes larger in parts of the Southwest, in the Arboretum the stems are usually not more than ten or twelve feet high. Occasionally the blight causes the death of a stem which is usually replaced by others which arise from the base or stump. The flowers are followed by small burs concealing small brown nuts, (about half an inch in length) which contain sweet, fine flavored kernels. This interesting species offers attractive material for the plant hybridizer. Indeed the late Dr. Van Fleet developed a hybrid between this species and our Common Chestnut which produced distinctly larger fruit than that which grows naturally on the Chinquapin. The European Chestnut is not hardy enough to be considered as suitable in plantations for Massachusetts, but there is at least one Chinese species which produces superior fruit and which has shown probable adaptability to our climatic conditions. This is Castanea mollissima which has been grown in China for untold centuries and has been so selected or improved by the Chinese that there are now forms which produce nuts equal in size to any others known. Frank H. Meyer, indefatigable collector for the U. S. Department of Agriculture, found the Chestnut Blight upon this species in China so that that country is considered the home of the disease. But, although not immune, the trees are able to survive in spite of infection. In the Arboretum the trees blossom at about the same time as our native species, perhaps a little later. They are now 15 or 20 feet high, with a broader spread of branches, the stems branching at or near the ground, so that the plants have the effect of very large, strong, full-branched shrubs. The species is to be valued for its fruit rather than for its flowers or wood. There are other species in eastern Asia, at least one of which becomes a large tree which furnishes excellent lumber. At a little distance the Sorrel-tree or Sour-wood (Oxydendrum arboreum) native from Pennsylvania to Florida and west to Indiana and Louisiana, and the only known species in the genus, has something of the aspect of a chestnut tree when in flower and covered with its numerous panicles of whitish flowers. These Andromeda-like blossoms, however, are more conspicuous and much more attractive than those of the Chestnut. The comparatively short-branched tree has a more narrow and erect aspect than the average Chestnut The Sorrel-tree is a good subject to plant with Rhododendrons, Kalmias and other ericaceous plants, to which family it belongs. The large, bright green leaves form a handsome foliage effect during the summer, turning scarlet in the autumn. In our New England gardens the trees appear to be generally free from disfigurement by insect attacks or diseases caused by fungi. Under best natural conditions the tree may become 60 feet in height. In cultivation it may begin flowering when only 5 or Fi feet high. No species of tree is so decidedly showy in this climate in July as Koelreuteria paniculata which, in some catalogues, has been given the name of Varnish-tree, China-tree and Pride of India. All of these common names, and especially the last two, have been applied to other trees belonging to different genera, so that the use of any of them without the accompanying name of \"Koelreuteria\" might easily prove misleading. \"Varnish-tree\" is perhaps the name most common of the colloquial names in use, but this name also is misleading inasmuch as it is more properly applied to the Lacquer-tree (Rhus verniciflua) of Japan and China, which yields a resinous juice that is poisonous to the skin when handled and which is the source of the famous lacquer or varnish used on Japanese furniture. This Koelreuteria is a tree which may attain 30 or more feet in height. The leaves are alternate, pinnate or somewhat bipinnate, with 7 to 15 leaflets, the compound leaf often being from a foot to a foot and a half long. The large, broad, loose panicles of small flowers are terminal on the branches and are carried well above the foliage. They are of a brilliant golden yellow color and are very effective against a background of green foliage. The flowers open gradually so that the tree when in bloom is showy throughout July. The blossoms are followed by large, somewhat angled, inflated capsules which become conspicuous after the passing of the inflorescence. So far, in the Arboretum, the foliage has shown little disfigurement from attacks by insects or fungi. Of the few late flowering trees which are adapted to the climate of eastern Massachusetts, the Sorrel-tree and the Koelreuteria are decidedly among the best and most showy. The Koelreuteria appears cosmopolitan and adapted to a variety of soil conditions, while the Sorrel-tree range is more restricted because of its preference for acid soils, in common with most other plants of the heath family. A somewhat conspicuous tree at the present time is Maackia amurensis, a leguminous species, introduced from Mandshuria and Japan. It is a small or medium-sized tree, probably attaining 40 to 50 feet in height with rather dull green pinnate foliage. The flowers are borne in terminal, erect, compact racemes, usually several together forming a panicle. The small papilionaceous blossoms are of a dullish white color, the standard being mostly greenish yellow. The flowers are apparently very nectariferous for they are visited by large numbers of bees which tear the petals more or less in their eagerness to get at the secreted sweets. There is a so-called variety of this species known as M. amurensis Buergeri, which has been brought from Japan and which appears to be more floriferous than the type. Whether this is a distinct varietal feature or one which may show variations under domestication, remains to be proved. In any case the species, while a conspicuous feature in plantations when in flower, does not produce blooms for intimate or near acquaintance comparable with many other plants of the same family. It may well be considered as much less desirable than the so-called Pagoda-tree (Sophora japonica) frequently found in American gardens. Commonly considered as Japanese and much planted in Japan, this tree is now believed to be a native of China and Korea. It is a favorite street and shade tree in many parts of China. A fine avenue may be seen on the grounds of the Temple of Heaven in Peiping (Peking) Under favorable conditions this Sophora may become a tree 75 feet high. This species does not blossom in the latitude of Boston until August and good flowering often continues into September. In fact, the flowers are sometimes so late that the pods do not ripen well before hard frost overtakes them and the seeds are often not sufficiently ripened to be viable. The flowers, which are produced in large terminal, loose panicles, are usually yellowish or creamy white, although sometimes slightly pinkish. The Pagoda-tree, so called because often planted in China in the vicinity of pagodas, is, in the Arboretum, the last of the larger trees to produce conspicuous flowers before they are checked by autumnal frosts. It is a hardy tree which should be more often planted in large plantations and parks and squares. A grotesque dwarf, twisted-limbed and pendulous-branched form (S. japonica pendula) of the Pagoda-tree is often grafted on a tall stem and trained into umbrella shape. J. G. JACK."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Art of Budding","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23947","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15ebb6d.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Judd, W. H.; Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V AUGUST 21, 1931 NO. 13 The Art of Budding. Although the name may suggest springtime, budding, as a horticultural practice, is carried on during the late summer. At that time of year the bark of young branches is fairly loose and can be made to slip away from the wood. This makes it possible, for instance, to take buds from a rare hybrid lilac and tuck them under the bark of an ordinary lilac bush, where, if properly cared for, they mli grow out the next spring. A few years later the bud will have developed into a branch bearing flowers of the same type as the bush from which it came. Budding is the easiest method by which many of our woody plants can be propagated and is used in nearly all large nurseries. Every July and August millions of peach and apple buds are removed from their parent twigs with deft strokes of the knife and set onto seedling stocks. Workmen in the big fruit nurseries become so skilled that they can transfer over a thousand buds in one working day. Though budding is such a common and simple operation, few amateurs ever master it, for it is an art, and like any other art is best learned under the personal direction of a master craftsman. There are, however, a number of precautions which can be set down in black and white. They will not by themselves make anyone an experienced \"budder\" but they should enable the interested amateur to eliminate a large percentage of failures and, with a little practice, to become competent. The necessary equipment is very simple; 1, a sharp knife for removing the buds and cutting the bark; 2, a dull wedged-shaped instrument for forcing open the bark; 3, raffia or tape for rapping around the bud. Almost any sharp knife will answer the first requirement, though nurserymen use special budding knives. These vary in design but all have a dull blade or edge for prying out the bark, in addition to a cutting blade. The one in the illustration has its ivory handle tapered at the end to a broad flat edge, which is used as shown in figure 2. As has been said, the work is done almost entirely at this time of year, from the last of July through most of August. A few trial cuts in the bark of a young twig will show whether it is ready for budding. If the bark comes away from the wood easily when the wedge is inserted, the twig is in the right condition. If possible, do the work on a cloudy day, for then there will be less chance of drying out the exposed tissues. In choosing buds one should select healthy twigs of the current year's growth, avoiding those long whip-like growths which spring out far down on the branches and trunks of old trees and grow with great vigor. They are as a rule too full of sap for the best results. The length of bud stem cut will depend upon the kind of tree which is being budded, but as a rule it will be one or two feet long. As the bud stems are cut stand them in a pail of water until ready for the actual operation itself. The bud stem is prepared for use by cutting off the leaves, allowing a piece of each leaf stalk to remain for use as a handle. The actual buds are in the joint between the base of the leaf stalk and the main stem. The buds are cut off from the bud stem as shown in figure 5, pulling the knife toward one, guiding it a little deeper under the bud, and sloping it upward quickly at the end of the stroke to provide a clean triangular edge below. An expert removes the buds in a series of quick flashes of the knife and then places them between his lips where they can be kept moist until the cut is ready on the stock. Some of the wood of the twig will come away with the bud; a small oval pad of wood can be seen adhering to the under side of the bud in figure 3. Nurserymen sometimes remove this wood before using the bud and directions for cutting it off will be found in old treatises on the art of budding. Modern horticultural experiment has shown that this is not at all necessary and that the chances of success may even be greater if nothing is done to it. The cut made to receive the bud is a simple T, done with two strokes of the knife. The up and down cut is made first and then the cross stroke at its upper end. The cut should be deep and well through the bark. It will do no harm if the cut goes down into the wood itself. It is necessary to make the cut in the inter node, as shown in figures 1, 2, well out of the way of neighboring buds and on the north side of the stock if possible. It should also be made as far down on the stock as working conditions will permit, to lessen the chances of sprouts coming out from below the bud. With the end of the budding knife (or any other similar wedge) peel back the gray outer bark and the green inner bark, they will probably come off in one sheet. Force the bark gently away from the white wood beneath until there is room for the bud, then take the bud from between your lips, where it has been carefully kept moist all this time, and gently but firmly push it into the cut, in exactly the same way that you would push your foot into a tight shoe. Lengthen the cut if it is too small for the bud, if it is much too large make another cut. The bud is now ready to be wrapped and tied in place. Raffia in lengths of a foot or so is commonly used for this purpose, and since it works better when wet is often carried in the water pail with the bud stems. Take a strand of raffia and holding the loose end down on the twig, where it will eventually be covered over, make two or three quick twists around the twig above the bud. Be careful not to cover the bud itself. Then wind the raffia several times about the twig immediately below the bud and secure it by putting the raffia through the next to last loop (left loose for the purpose) and pulling it tight. Cut off the dangling end of raffia and the bud is ready for the winter. Nothing more needs to be done until spring time, neither wax or any other covering is necessary. It will be well not to water the stock too heavily, for if the bud should be stimulated into growth it would be winter killed when the cold weather came. In the early spring cut off the stock just above the bud. When growth starts, the rising sap will stimulate the bud and with a whole root system to draw on for food it will grow out amazingly. After cutting off the old raffia the operation will be complete. Care should be taken to prevent the stock from sprouting out from below the bud. Should such sprouts gain headway they would eventually choke out the branch which had developed from the implanted bud and the whole effect of the operation would be lost. The bush should therefore be examined occasionally and any branches which have started out lower down on the stock should be removed. If the operation has been made low enough on the stock, it will be possible, by hilling earth around the bush, for the budded branch to send out roots of its own. Some plants, like lilacs, grow much better on their own roots, others do not. But all this is another story and will have to be dealt with separately in a later Bulletin. W. H. JUDD EDGAR ANDERSON Plants of Current Interest. By far the most interesting plant in the Arboretum this month is the hardy dwarf variety of Albizzia (A. julibrissin rosea) which is in flower on the south slope of Bussey Hill. The true Albizzia julibrissin is a tropical Asiatic tree, it is not hardy in the north, but since its introduction into the United States by Michaux, has become one of the commonest features of parks and gardens along the Gulf Coast. Its much hardier variety, A. julibrissin rosea, is a large bush or small tree with flowers of an even brighter pink than the species itself. It has been in flower since mid-July and promises to continue until the first of September. August finds most of the conspicuous flowers in the shrub collection concentrated in the northwest corner. There will be found the large collection of flowering heathers, and three unusual shrubs belonging to the Verbena family, Clerodendron, Vitex, and Callicarpa. Vitex Negundo var. incisa is a particularly lovely sight this month with its long sprays of finely cut foliage and its panicles of gray blue flowers. It is a hardy species closely related to the Chaste-Tree (Vitex agnus-castus) which is often found in old southern gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Arboreta and Botanic Gardens in the United States","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23932","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14eaf25.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Bennett, Elizabeth D.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V SEPTEMBER 21, 1931 NO. 14 & 15 Arboreta and Botanic Gardens in the United States. The location of individual arboreta and botanic gardens in the United States has so often been a problem for research in the Arnold Arboretum Library that it has seemed quite probable the general reader might value the collection of scattered material into a general list to guide him to the specialized plant communities in his locality. For this study a botanic garden has been defined as an establishment where plants are grown for the purpose of furthering botanical ends, either economic, scientific or aesthetic. The following list includes the arboreta and botanic gardens established through private enterprise for public benefit, those connected with universities, schools, churches and commercial concerns, some of the larger agricultural experiment stations that have or plan to have generous plantings of species of woody or herbaceous plants, the plant collections in public parks where there has been some attempt to classify the indigenous flora or established various genera, as well as those arboreta which are privately owned, some of which are accessible to the public through the generosity of the owners. Space prohibits the citation of our national parks but their value is already so well known they need no recommendation here. This list has been compiled from a more or less limited examination of the literature in this one institution and is therefore by no means exhaustive, it may also include a few plantings unworthy of inclusion, but it will serve as a nucleus for a more complete list in the future. Cooperation is solicited from all who can supplement this list with further data. ARIZONA LOCATION DIRECTOR Boyce Thompson Superior Franklin J. Crider Southwestern Arboretum Desert Laboratory Tucson D. T. MacDougal ARKANSAS Arkansas Agricultural Experiment Fayetteville J. R. Cooper Station, University of Arkansas CALIFORNIA Albert White Park Balboa Park Bard Botanical Gardens Blaksley Botanic Garden Golden Gate Park Huntington Botanic Gardens Mission Cliff Gardens Montarioso Botanic Garden Pacific Botanic Garden, Stanford University Rancho Santa Ana Botanic Garden Sierra Madre Arboretum Succulent Garden United States Experiment Station University of California Botanic Garden COLORADO Myron Stratton Estate (Proposed) CONNECTICUT Elizabeth Park Marsh Botanic Garden Osborn Botanical Laboratory Garden DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA National Arboretum (Proposed) Rock Creek Park Arboretum United States Botanic Garden Washington Cathedral Gardens FLORIDA Chapman Field Arboretum Mountain Lake Sanctuary and Gardens United States Experiment Station University of Florida Agricultural Experiment Stations GEORGIA Wormsloe Gardens (Private ownership, open) IDAHO University of Idaho ILLINOIS Joliet Park System (including Pilcher Arboretum) Marquette Park Morton Arboretum LOCATION Riverside San Diego Hueneme Santa Barbara San Francisco San Marino San Diego Santa Barbara Palo Alto Anaheim Sierra Madre Santa Maria Chico Berkeley Colorado Springs Hartford New Haven New Haven Washington Washington Washington Washington Miami Iron Mt., Lake Wales Coconut Grove Gainesville Savannah Moscow Joliet Chicago Lisle DIRECTOR Elmer J. Bissell John McLaren, Supt. William Hertrich John Davidson, Supt. Susanna B. Bryant, Owner F. J. McCoy, Owner T. H. Goodspeed H. S. Graves G. E. Nichols F. V. Coville G. W. Hess David Fairchild E. W. Bok Memorial David Fairchild Wilmon Newell W. G. MacLean Supt. Joy Morton, Owner Pilcher Arboretum See Joliet Park System INDIANA Butler University Arboretum (Proposed) Dunes State Park IOWA Grinnell College Botanic Garden Iowa State College Botanic Garden State Park System (Exceed 38 in number) KENTUCKY Transylvania University Botanic Garden MAINE Knox Arboretum MARYLAND Bell Station, U. S. D. A. See United States Experiment Station Homewood Botanic Garden, Johns Hopkins United States Experiment Station University of Maryland Experiment Farms MASSACHUSETTS Arnold Arboretum Boston Park System (including Franklin Park, Boston Common, Public Gardens etc.) Franklin Park See Boston Park System Harvard Botanic Garden Lexington Botanic Garden Lowthorpe School of Landscape Architecture Pinetum of Walter Hunnewell (Private ownership, open) Proctor Arboretum (Private) Riverside Park Smith College Botanic Garden Wellesley College, Alexandra Botanic Garden MICHIGAN Beal Botanic Garden, State College Leila Arboretum Nichols Arboretum and Botanical Garden, University of Michigan ~OCATION ] Joliet Indianapolis Porter County Grinnell Ames Lexington Warren Baltimore Bell College Park Jamaica Plain Boston Cambridge Lexington Groton Wellesley Topsfield Springfield Northampton Wellesley East Lansing Battle Creek Ann Arbor DIRECTOR B. S. Pickett N. W. Lermond D. S. Johnson B. Y. Morrison H. J. Patterson Oakes Ames, Supervisor William P. Long, Park Commissioner R. H. Woodworth S. F. Hamblin R. S. Sturtevant T. E. Proctor, Owner Wm. G. Ganong Helen Davis H. T. Darlington T. C. Shepherd H. H. Bartlett Palmer Park Arboretum, Belle Isle Park W. K. Kellogg Bird Sanctuary and Arboretum (Proposed) MINNESOTA Minneapolis Wild Botanic Garden Minneapolis Park System MISSOURI Mark Twain Memorial Park Association Missouri Botanical Garden NEBRASKA Arbor Lodge State Park NEW JERSEY New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station NEW YORK Albany Park System Brooklyn Botanic Garden Buffalo Botanic Garden, South Park Central Park Country Life Press Gardens Durand-Eastman Park See Rochester Park System Glen Cove Arboretum (Private) Highland Park See Rochester Park System Hodenpyl Arboretum (Private) Inwood Park Letchworth Park Arboretum New York Agricultural Experiment Station New York Botanical Garden New York State College of Forestry Palisades Interstate Park Bear Mountain (1000 acres) Blauvelt (800 acres) Harriman (42,500 acres) Hook Mansion (1000 acres) Storm King (700 acres) Rochester Park System (including Durand-Eastman Park and Highland Park) \"Roslyn\" (Private) \"Skylands\" (Private) Vassar College Arboretum LOCATION Detroit Augusta Minneapolis Minneapolis Florida St. Louis Nebraska City New Brunswick Albany Brooklyn Buffalo New York Garden City Glen Cove Locust Valley Manhattan Portageville Geneva Bronx Park Syracuse New York Rochester Roslyn Sterlington Poughkeepsie DIRECTOR G. H. Corsan, Sr., Manager E. M. Lamson G. T. Moore Frank Williams, Supt. J. G. Lipman C. S. Gager A. G. Hodenpyl, Owner U. P. Hedrick E. D. Merrill C. C. Laney, Commissioner Childs Frick, Owner Clarence Lewis, Owner H. E. Downer, Supt. NORTH CAROLINA Chapel Hill Arboretum, University of N. C. NORTH DAKOTA North Dakota Agricultural Experiment Station OHIO Bryan Park (Proposed) Dawes' Arboretum Fine Arts Garden Holden Arboretum, Cleveland Museum of Natural History (New) John Davey Memorial Arboretum Mill Creek Park Mt. Airy Forest Arboretum (Proposed) Ohio State University Botanic Garden Wade Park Garden Center Zoar Gardens OREGON Oregon State Agricultural College School of Forestry Arboretum PENNSYLVANIA Aldie Arboretum (Private) Awbury Park Bartram Garden Boxley Arboretum Breeze Hill (Private ownership, open) Bryn Mawr College Botanic Garden Compton Arboretum Fairmount Park Humphrey Marshall Arboretum John Evans Arboretum Lehigh University Arboretum Longwood Gardens and Pierce Arboretum (Private ownership, open) Mont Alto Arboretum Narbrook Park Painter Arboretum (Private) Presque Isle Peninsula State Park Schenley Park Swarthmore College Arboretum University of Pennsylvania Botanic Garden Westtown School Arboretum Woodlands (Famous for Michaux's trees) LOCATION Chapel Hill Fargo Yellow Springs Newark Cleveland Kirtland Kent Youngstown Cincinnati Columbus Cleveland Zoar Corvallis Philadelphia ? Germantown Philadelphia Chestnut Hill Harrisburg Bryn Mawr Chestnut Hill Philadelphia Marshallton Ithan Creek Bethlehem Longwood Mont Alto State Forest Narberth Lima Presque Isle Pittsburg Swarthmore Philadelphia Chester County Philadelphia DIRECTOR W. C. Coker P. F. Trowbridge Henry Dawes, Owner A. E. Waller, Curator Community ownership G. W. Peavey, Dean Wm. R. Mercer, Owner J. H. McFarland, Owner Miss L. T. Morris, Owner Pierre S. Dupont, Owner J. C. Wister R. H. True Woodlands Cemetary Co. RHODE ISLAND Goddard Park Roger Williams Park SOUTH CAROLINA Cypress Gardens Goshen Plantation (Private) Magnolia Gardens (Private ownership, open) Middletown Place Gardens (Private ownership, open) SOUTH DAKOTA South Dakota Agricultural TENNESSEE Experiment Station A. F. Sanford Arboretum (Private) Memphis Park System Arboretum TEXAS Helge-Ness Arboretum Texas Botanic Garden, UTAH Texas State University Smith Arboretum (Private VIRGINIA ownership, open) Blandy Experimental Farm Maymount Park (Dooley Estate) Mount Vernon WEST VIRGINIA Waddington Farm Arboretum WISCONSIN Wychwood LOCATION Potowomut Providence Charleston Augusta Charleston Charleston Brookings Knoxville Memphis Austin Beaumont Logan Boyce Richmond Mount Vernon Wheeling Lake Geneva DIRECTOR E. K. Thomas, Supt. Mrs. Joseph Spear, Owner C. N. Hastie, Owner Mrs. Pringle Smith, Owner N. E. Hansen A. F. Sanford, Owner H. P. Traub, State Horticulturist Orland E. White Colonel H. H. Dodge, Supt. R. S. George Mrs. Charles L. Hutchinson -ELIZABETH D. BENNETT Plants of Current Interest. During September the center of interest shifts to the western border of the Arboretum. Just inside the Walter Street gate the Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis) ripens its beautiful cones. With their large green scales, set wide apart, they look more like great green flowers than like seed cones of a conifer. Inside the Center Street gate the Chinese Burning Bushes (Evonymus) are unusually conspicuous this year, E. planipes in particular has never been finer and is covered with brilliant drooping fruits of crimson and orange. Farther up the same road, nearly at the top of the Overlook on Bussey Hill the Bluebeard Bush (Caryopteris tangutica Maxim.) is just coming into flower. Like many other members of the Verbena family its flowers are a beautiful soft blue and do not appear until late in the summer."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Transplanting Spruces and Yews","article_sequence":15,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23949","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15e8525.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Ames, Oakes","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V NOVEMBER 4, 1931 NO. 16 Transplanting Spruces and Yews. Those visitors or students in the Arboretum who have faithfully followed development through the season may have noticed the recent transplanting of some Spruces and Yews to new locations, the object being to give an exposure more favorable to the known or probable requirements of the group, or to give more ground area for development. In the cases of some exotic Spruces, four to six feet high, it was sought to place them on a cool and not too dry north slope, in the Peters Hill section of the Arboretum, instead of upon the sunny southern exposure where they have made rather slow growth. Those interested in Spruces in their native habitats, particularly where the trees extend their range on hills, in temperate or south temperate zones, as in the southern Rocky Mountains, must have noticed the healthy, dense spruce and fir stands on slopes facing the north, usually in marked contrast to the irregular and often depauperate growth on warmer slopes facing the south, this growth often being composed of other kinds of trees more adapted to hot, dry situations where Firs and Spruces would make poor development. While these conditions may be considered as the rule in nature, there are species which appear cosmopolitan and adapted to a wide range of soil and climatic conditions, a good example being the Norway Spruce (Picea Abies = P. excelsa) which has a natural range in Europe extending from the Pyrenees, in Northern Spain, and the Alps and Balkans, north to Norway, Sweden and western Russia. Transplanting large Spruces in September and October, or later in mild weather, may be accomplished with every chance of success if proper care is taken in digging and handling. Lifting with a mass of soil about the roots of course is most advantageous. The plants in the Arboretum were lifted and transferred with about a square yard of soil or a ball three feet in diameter, and one and a half to two feet in depth. This secured a good mass of roots although many slender roots and rootlets were cut off and remained in the ground. Trees so planted should continue growth next spring with very little interruption. If the ground is very dry it is a good plan to wet it before digging and again to wet it after replanting. This treatment before digging will make the soil adhere better about the roots, and any exposed rootlets remain covered with minute particles of earth which give a protective advantage. By wetting down the ground after planting the soil becomes better compacted about the rootlets. They are then better able to withstand winter conditions by functioning to take up water to replace that lost by transpiration through the foliage. The Yews transplanted were a form of the well known Japanese Yew, Taxus cuspidata. This form has been given the name of Taxus cuspidata Thayerae, or Thayer Yew. It is a plant very recently added to the horticultural trade, although originating some years ago on the Bayard Thayer estate in Lancaster, Massachusetts. The original was a plant selected from many other seedlings raised from seed collected from several trees of the typical arborescent form of Taxus cuspidata, with central trunk and broadly conical form. From these seedlings a single peculiar form was selected which gave indications of being sufficiently distinct to have a value for horticultural purposes. This form does not develop a typical central trunk but has a low, wide-spreading habit, sending up many ascending branches which may become depressed or horizontal as they elongate with age; many of the branches forming supplementary roots where they rest upon the ground. Taxus cuspidata Thayerae appears likely to develop stems six to eight feet or more in height and to spread indefinitely, so that if individual specimens are wanted plenty of space must be allotted to them. Many plants were sent to the Arboretum from the Thayer estate in October, 1924, and these were reported to have all been raised from seed, not cuttings, collected from the original peculiar selected plant. The fact that these seedlings do not in any case seem to revert to the arborescent form but remain low and spreading like the selected mother plant, is very interesting. The plants show a vigorous growth and give promise of being a decided acquisition to the forms of Taxus cuspidata already in cultivation. Plants received October 1, 1924, were two or three feet high and measured about three feet in diameter through the branches. They are now from three to five feet in height and from tip to tip some of the plants spread across fifteen feet of ground. Specimens recently transplanted have been spaced about twenty-five feet apart, with the understanding that if the space allotted is found to be insufficient as the plants develop, intervening plants may be removed. If the central part of the plants continues to maintain a green state as the branches grow outward, it is easily conceivable that they will cover a surprisingly large area if unobstructed by other vegetation, and if they are not affected by unforeseen diseases. Looking forward for fifty or a hundred years growth, so as to show possible development, is the reason for the recent transplanting of some of the plants in the Arboretum. J. G. JACK. Juniperus virginiana Growing on a Rock. About twelve years ago, children at play in a New England pasture carried to the summit of a large granite rock a small plant of Juniperus virginiana and without giving attention to a single one of the rules that are usually observed in transplanting Conifers, crowded its roots into a crevice. A little earth was laboriously supplied. The Juniper grew on year after year. It withstood the severe drought of 1930 and in the summer of 1931 was apparently in perfect health. It is now about ten feet high. In July and August 1930 there were very few days when rain fell in sufficient quantity to penetrate the soil. The summit of the rock, seventeen feet above the ground, fully exposed to the scorching heat of the sun, would seem to have presented conditions of extraordinary aridity, yet the Juniper was able to obtain the moisture necessary for its need. It is well known that plants transpire, that is, they give off water taken in by the roots, the process of transpiration taking place at the surface of the leaves. It is a relentless process in the life of a plant and the means of modifying it are severely circumscribed. The quantity of moisture giving off varies, of course, some species of plants giving off more or less than others. The higher the temperature the greater is the rate of transpiration. It has been ascertained that a plant of Indian corn, if kept moist at the roots, will transpire during the season of growth fully forty gallons of water, and a Birch tree with two hundred and fifty thousand leaves is said to have given off ninety gallons of water in a day. Perhaps a very clear conception of what transpiration signifies may be had if it is borne in mind that in the summer season an average leaf gives off an amount of water equal to its area and two-fifths of an inch (1 cm.) deep. But how, we may ask, did the Juniper, seventeen feet above the ground on the top of a rock, exposed to the full heat of the sun in a time of excessive and abnormal drought, obtain the moisture needed for its survival? Henry Correvon in \"Rock Garden and Alpine Plants\" refers to rocks as being comparable to saturated sponges which soaked with water are reservoirs of coolness and moisture that Nature uses with due circumspection for watering and irrigation. A rock mass absorbs moisture and gives it off to the atmosphere and to the roots of plants. It would seem that this is the simplest explanation to satisfy curiosity regarding the capacity of a Juniper to survive on the summit of a rock under conditions of exceptional dryness. OAKES AMES. Plants of Current Interest. Because of the late frosts and fine weather, fall coloring has Leen at its best this year in the Arboretum. The early flame of Red Maple and Cercidiphyllum around the north meadow has come and gone and the finest coloring is now to be found in the neighborhood of Hemlock Hill. The color in that part of the Arboretum, heightened by the dark green background of the Hemlocks, is just approaching its best and should remain fine for another two weeks. The American Beeches are a brilliant yellow brown. Their English cousins, slower to color, are just turning from green to yellow. The small groups of Sorrel-trees or Sour-woods (Oxydendrum arboreum) are making a fine showing with their bright reds, yellows, and browns. The current number of the English \"Gardeners' Chronicle\" (October 17) carries as a supplement a picture of Fothergilla monticola from a photograph taken in the Arboretum. It is interesting that just at the moment when their picture is being featured in a London journal, these same shrubs should be showing the very height of their fall color."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Hybrid Trees","article_sequence":16,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23940","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15ea36f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Anderson, Edgar","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V NOVEMBER 16, 1931 NO. 17 Hybrid Trees. There died last year in Ireland an old friend of Professor Sargent's and of the Arboretum, Augustine Henry, a man of whom it could well be said that he lived two lives. Going out to China as a young medical officer in 1880, he turned his spare moments to the study of plants and became foremost among those plant collectors who have made available the botanical and horticultural treasures of western China. Returning to Europe, he took up the study of forestry and at the age of fifty boldly pioneered into an entirely new field and became the world's first tree breeder. At the University of Cambridge and later at Dublin he carried on the first comprehensive series of experiments in creating and studying hybrid trees. He travelled back and forth across England studying the peculiar Elms which had from time to time appeared in English gardens and which had puzzled botanists. He grew over five thousand seedlings from these quick-growing garden varieties of Elm and succeeded in showing that they were actually species hybrids and that their progeny behaved as the progeny of such hybrids are known to do. Having demonstrated that trees could hybridize and that the hybrids were vigorous and quick-growing, he was at once interested in the possibility of producing hybrid forest trees. He made crosses between different species of Larches, Poplars, Oaks, Beeches, Walnuts, Ashes, and Alders, and created many new hybrids. The actual technique of crossing trees is far from simple. A cross cannot be made unless the tree is of flowering age, and even then many species do not flower at all regularly in cultivation. The female flower must be protected from contamination until it is ready to be fertilized. Then pollen collected from the male parent must be applied. Often the two species it is desired to cross do not flower at the same time and so for many of his crosses Henry had to send to more southern gardens for pollen of the later-flowering species. Henry solved all these technical difficulties. Working from gigantic step ladders he (or his assistants) covered the female flowers of one species with paper bags to protect them from natural pollination. When they were mature, pollen was brought from other species and carefully applied to the stigmas of the female flowers. Then began long watchful care, first of the developing fruit, then of the seed, then of the helpless young seedlings, until they were well under way and could be set out in nurseries. He not only made many such experiments himself but interested others in collaborating with him in the work. His previous experience as a plant collector and as junior author of the monumental Trees of Great Britain\" had put him m touch with tree experts all over the world. He used these contacts to help him in his new work. So we find him writing to Professor Sargent for pollen of the American Beech and sending to Portugal and to the gardens of the Trianon for pollen of species of American Ash which he wished to cross with the earlier-flowering English ones. Whenever a fruiting specimen of an exotic tree grew in close proximity to an allied native species he was quick to realize the opportunity for natural crossing between them and was instrumental in having seedlings raised in large numbers and carefully inspected for possible hybrids. The importance of his work lies not so much in the actual hybrid trees which he created as that he made a good beginning in an unknown and difficult field. If the world was ever to learn to what extent trees might be hybridized and how profitable such hybrids were likely to be, it was important that a start should be made. Even the quickest trees are slow-growing and tree breeding experiments must extend over centuries. With his vast knowledge of the trees of the world and his detailed information as to what trees of fruiting age were available in public and private parks for actual experiment he was able to accomplish much during the last twenty-five years of his life. It is even yet too early to appraise the actual hybrids for which he was responsible. One of them, the \"Dunkeld\" Larch (Larix eurolepis = L. Kaempferi X L. decidua) has already interested foresters in a number of countries and is the subject of extensive experimentation. It is not one of the hybrids which he actually made himself but is rather the result of his ability to enlist the interest and cooperation of others. On the estates of the Duke of Atholl at Dunkeld, Perthshire, Scotland, was a large fruiting specimen of the Japanese Larch (Larix Kaempferi) with many European Larches (L. decidua) also of fruiting age, growing nearby. At Henry's suggestion, seedlings of the \"mother Larch\" as it has since been called, were planted in large numbers. Many of the seedlings fulfilled his expectations and were unlike the mother tree but were hybrids, the result of natural cross-pollination between these two species of Larch. As is usual in such cases they proved to be intermediate in appearance between the parental species from which they came but were much more vigorous and quicker growing than either. In other words they had that curious quality known technically as \"hybrid vigor\", which makes the mule. for instance, a valuable hybrid, even though it is perfectly sterile and cannot be used for breeding purposes. The hybrid Larches would have interested foresters if only for their extra vigor and speed of growth but in this particular hybrid there was even a more useful combination of characteristics than there is in either of the pure species from which it came. Ostenfeld and Larsen, in their recent monograph of the Larches, describe the hybrid as follows : \"It -is an easily recognizable form, intermediate between the two widely different parent trees. The cone is more cylindrical than that of L. Kaempferi, the cone scales being at the same time less recurved. The one-year shoots are something between the reddish-brown stout shoots of the Japanese Larch, and the light-colored slender shoots of the European species. In the seed bed, one-year plants of L. Kaempferi are distinguishable by being considerably smaller than those of L. decidua and in this particular too the one-year hybrid plants occupy an intermediate position. From the forestry point of view, the European Larch has a better shape, but it is on the other hand, extremely susceptible to the attacks of canker (Dasycypha Wilkommii), which the Japanese Larch in not. The hybrid combines the good shape of the one and powers of resistance against canker of the other, and is therefore now the subject for larger experiments in forests. The second and third hybrid generation has also been raised, and is now being experimented with\". The Arboretum has a fine specimen of this hybrid, L. eurolepis, which came as a small plant from the Duke of Atholl (then the Marquess of Tullibardine) in 1910. In the 20 years since that time it has made a remarkable growth and is now a sizable young tree. It has fruited heavily for several years. The accompanying plate shows a typical cone, compared with the cones of the two parental species. As can be seen from the illustration it is almost exactly intermediate between the cones of the two parents. The scales are neither strongly reflexed as in the Japanese Larch, nor straight as are those of the European species. Like many other hybrids, L. eurolepis matures its fruit earlier in the year than does either parent. When the cones for the illustration were gathered in early October neither those of the Japanese Larch nor of the European Larch were fully ripe, while the slightest touch of a branch on the hybrid tree brought down showers of larch seeds. It will be seen from the illustration that the scales on the hybrid cone have opened out a little more fully than have those on the other two cones. Most of the hybrids created by Augustine Henry did not fruit during his life time. And so it must inevitably be if one is to hybridize organisms which are slower to mature than is man himself. Such work must become the aim of institutions rather than of a single individual, and so the Arboretum is very properly interesting itself in hybridizing hardy woody plants. Experiments with forest trees and flowering shrubs are already under way here. It is by no means the only center in the country where such work is being done. Here and there a number of people (many of them unaware of what is being done elsewhere) have undertaken to hybridize trees. Unfortunately for those who are studying the subject, there is little published information in regard to what crosses were made and what measure of success attended them. Publication was usually deferred until the hybrid trees should have reached maturity and by that time their originator had usually gone elsewhere. Sometimes the information does exist but in unsuspected places. Dr. A. F. Blakeslee, for instance, did some very interesting pioneer work in hybridizing Pines when he was at the, Storrs Experiment Station. Apparently, however, the only printed account of the experiment is in the report of a speech made many years later when he returned to dedicate a new laboratory. Here and there throughout the country there must be a number of hybrid trees which were brought into being some time ago and were then more or less forgotten. Some of them would be very useful in experimental work and might make possible the study of second generation hybrids. Most of them would yield valuable data. The Arboretum will be grateful for any information about such artificial hybrids and will be glad to keep in touch with gardeners, scientists, and amateurs who have made (or are making) experiments in hybridizing trees. EDGAR ANDERSON. SUPPLEMENT PLATE. Cones of the Dunkeld Hybrid Larch and of its parent species seen in side view, natural size. (Drawing by Blanche Ames Ames.)"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"The Cambridge Washington Elm","article_sequence":17,"start_page":69,"end_page":73,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23948","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15e816e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Jack, J. G.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. V DECEMBER 10, 1931 NO. 18 The Cambridge Washington Elm. During the past year the mail and telephone have brought to the Arboretum many inquiries regarding the so-called \"Washington Elm\", a specimen of the American or White Elm (Ulmus americana), which grew in Cambridge, Massachusetts, and has been regarded as having close historic association with the movements of General Washington when he visited Cambridge in July, 1775. The last appearance of life in the tree does not appear to be definitely recorded, but we know that it finally fell to the ground October 26, 1923, after being for a long time a menace to the public because of its decaying condition. Its demise must be attributed simply to old age and disease hastened, no doubt, by modern street construction. Most of the inquiries, referred to above, have been with regard to the plants now offered by several nurserymen who have used the word \"patriotism\" freely in their seductive advertisements. These dealers insist that the plants they offer have been propagated directly from the original tree which stood on Garden Street, bordering Cambridge Common, or were propagated from trees a generation once removed, in all cases the propagation having been effected by division and not by seeds. The inquiries have mainly taken the form of questions regarding the genuineness of the plants offered as progeny of the tree which has been popularly associated with General Washington. Unfortunately there is no absolute proof that Washington either \"assumed command\" of the \"American Army\" under the shade of this tree, or that he noticed it or cared for it; and there is certainly very much doubt with regard to the authenticity of the origin of some of the offerings made by professional nurserymen. These men work on the credulity or ignorance of their clients whose patriotic feelings they capitalize by charges of high prices for plants which practically cost little, if any, more than ordinary propagated material. That the stories regarding the tree are largely founded on sentiment and tradition, rather than on facts, appears to be borne out by historical data. These accounts are widely scattered and, of course, are often apparently contradictory. It would be too much of an undertaking to attempt to reproduce the most important of these records in this Bulletin. Anyone interested in the facts or traditions will find a very good resume of the evidence in a letter compiled by Samuel F. Batchelder, printed in the Cambridge (Mass.) Tribune, in December, 1923, and afterwards reprinted as a pamphlet, in 1925, under the title \"The Washington Elm Tradition-Is It True?\" The available records are here well analyzed and give us a partial picture of how history is made. In the latter case a quotation from the pamphlet is especially interesting in its connection with the Elm. \"A typical account of the fully developed (traditionists') vision is in the 'Diary of Dorothy Dudley' under date of July 3, 1775:- 'Today he (Washington) formally took command under one of the grand old elms on the Common. It was a magnificent sight. The majestic figure of the General mounted upon his horse, beneath the wide spreading branches of the patriarch tree; the multitude thronging the plain around, and the houses filled with interested spectators of the scene, while the air rang with shouts of enthusiastic welcome as he drew his sword and thus declared himself the Commander-in-Chief of the Continental Army ......... ' As for 'Dorothy Dudley's Diary' almost everyone knows by this time that it is a literary forgery-and not a very clever one at that-written for the centennial anniversary volume entitled 'The Cambridge of 1776'. Its whole phraseology is obviously modern, and it is full of small inaccuracies. In this passage, for example, the only house nearby was the Moore house, built about 1750, where the Shepard Church now stands: as Cambridge had been virtually deserted by its inhabitants there could have been no thronging multitude of spectators: and the army was not then the Continental Army but the Army of the United Colonies. All the same the passage is worth repeating to show the traditionists' state of mind. It is just the sort of thing which our school-children have been fed up with for generations........Moreover, to clinch the effect of the printed word, the most outrageous pictures have been published in the history books, especially the school histories issued during the middle of the last century. In these pictures the artists have allowed their historical imaginations to run amuck. Prancing steeds, dipping colors, dear little drummer boys, long rows of troops aligned to a hair's breadth, gorgeously uniformed, and presenting glittering arms with fixed bayonets, thrill every youthful heart, while smack in the middle of the front rank stands the Elm, with just room for Washington, flourishing his sword, to ride between it and his immaculate warriors ........ What child after devouring such a scene could doubt the tradition for the rest of his life?\" Much more might be quoted but enough is given to show that there is a serious element of doubt about the connection of the tree with this stirring event on July 3, 1775. It will be noted that the discredited \"Diary of Dorothy Dudley\", quoted above, states that Washington \"formally took command under one of the grand old elms on the Common\" and describes the tree as a \"patriarch\" with wide spreading branches. No specific tree is here mentioned among a number of good sized elm trees which then existed on the area known as the Cambridge Common. While the sentimentalists and traditionists have referred to the Washington Elm as a venerable or patriarchal tree, and would have us think of it as a hoary wide branched monarch of its kind, it is worth while to consider the actual facts as to its age. After the tree fell, on October 26th, 1923, Irving W. Bailey, Professor of Plant Anatomy in Harvard University, an expert in plant growth and wood structure, carefully examined the trunk and sections of the wood and arrived at the conclusion that when it fell it was between 204 and 210 years old. (See Cambridge Park Department Report for the year ending in March, 1924.) Granting that the age was the higher figure it would appear that this tree was about 62 years old when Washington assumed command of the Colonial troops, or, if we accept the lower figure we have a tree 56 years old. This certainly is no great age for a White Elm (Ulmus americana). Professor Bailey found that in 1775 the trunk of the tree was at least 24 inches in diameter at 30 inches above the ground. Two inches more may be allowed for thickness of bark, so that the total circumference at that time was less than 8 feet. As already stated the sentiment and tradition built up about this tree have recently been capitalized in a commercial way by a number of nurserymen or dealers in plants. One of the most glaring cases, which deserves to be classed as extremely misleading, or meriting a stronger term of condemnation, is exhibited by a circular of four pages, issued by an enterprising dealer in Chicago. In this illustrated advertisement we are told again \"Here, under that old Elm, on July 3, 1775, Washington assumed command of the 'rebels and farmers' that made up the American Army. Under that old Elm nine thousand militiamen renewed their allegiance to the Colonies and to the new Commander-in-Chief\". It is further described as a \"stately Elm\" for \"close to two centuries\", as though it never had had a vigorous juvenile period of growth. In this circular we are told that the propagator and salesman, who describes himself as an \"Elm tree specialist\", \"secured cuttings from the famous and historical Washington Elm\", and that from these he \"was able to propagate a limited number of trees that are now from 6 to 8 feet high. The fact that they are direct descendants of America's most famous tree removes entirely the thought that they are mere Elm trees.\" The term \"direct descendant\" as used here, and by another nurseryman referred to below, is misleading, as the implication conveyed to the average mind is that the propagated material came directly from the Washington Elm, whereas, in both enterprises, the living buds used by the propagators were not taken fi om the historic tree itself but were from a generation once or twice removed, with no proof that these generations were authentic or true relatives of the original. In the case of the Chicago dealer the actual or admitted facts are that the young trees offered were grown from scions or twigs sent to him early in October, 1927, four years after the fall of the original tree, through the friendly offices of a Boston journalist who secured them from a plant in Wellesley reputed to have been propagated from the original tree before it died. The method of propagation was by budding according to a statement by the nurseryman offering these trees. The price asked is twenty-five dollars per tree, including a small bronze tablet or marker. It is adroitly suggested by the vendor that the trees are suitable for planting on school and public grounds, parks and similar places, as well as by patriotic societies. In an advertisement in one of our horticultural magazines he also makes a \"special offer\" to D. A. R. Chapters, and we are told also how to make the planting of such trees a \"civic event\" with appropriate \"planting ceremonies\" and how to \"finance the project\". Another nursery concern, with headquarters in Massachusetts, is offering Washington Elms, grown by grafts from trees which are said to have been propagated from a tree which we are told was started as a scion from the old tree and was grafted at the Arnold Arboretum, and later sent to Wellesley, Massachusetts, where it was planted with other White Elms. It was not permanently labeled at the time of planting and it was some years later that a resident, now dead, of the town hesitatingly pointed it out as the particular tree. It was then given a fixed, distinctive label. There is no proof, however, of the correctness of the identification of the tree at Wellesley or of the validity of the origin of the second or the third generation. The scion from the old tree was undoubtedly grafted upon White Elm stock. If the scion died or was broken off, which all plant propagators know is something which occasionally happens, it would probably be supplanted by a healthy sprout from the stock which might easily be more vigorous than a soon from the decadent old tree. In this Massachusetts nurseryman's circular we are told that the famous elm \"was a large tree when Cambridge was first settled\", and that it is described in the \"Harvard Book\" as having a trunk \"over 18 feet in circumference\". If the famous Elm was \"a large tree when Cambridge was first settled\" (in 1630) and when measured, presumably in its best condition, was \"over 18 feet in circumference\", is it not a curious circumstance that its own record shows that it was less than 8 feet in circumference in 1775, over 140 years later? And if the Washington Elm was 210 years old when it died and fell on October 26, 1923, there would appear to be a remarkable discrepancy between the human accounts and the natural records kept by the tree, which would seem to show that, as a matter of fact, the seed of the Washington Elm had not been produced or the seedling started into life for nearly a hundred years after Cambridge was first settled! The plant said to have been propagated from it and growing in Wellesley is described in this Massachusetts nurseryman's circular as \"now a beautiful, large tree growing on the grounds of the Public Library\". As a matter of fact, if anyone should go to see the labeled tree at Wellesley he would find a rather unkempt specimen between 30 and 35 feet in height and 26 inches in circumference (between 8 and 9 inches in diameter), breast high, apparently about 28 to 30 years old. Other White Elms of about the same age, in the same vicinity, are twice as large, but they all appear as if of the same parentage. Grafted plants of the next generation of this Wellesley tree, one foot high, are offered to the patriotic public at five dollars each! And with each is given a label and a numbered certificate signed by the President of the company, which assures the purchaser and his or her heirs that the tree is a direct descendant of the Washington Elm\", although earlier in the advertisement we are told it came indirectly, or two generations removed. There is no known record of seedlings ever having been grown from this tree. If a Washington Elm is budded or grafted upon the stock and root of another Elm, upon which it depends for its life, should it not be classed as a dual organism rather than a fundamentally pure successor of the original organism? The anniversary of the 200th birthday of George Washington, in 1932, could be much more fittingly, permanently and usefully marked by the establishment of community forests rather than by high priced trees of doubtful history. J. G. JACK. Plants of Current Interest. Among the trees or shrubs noted in the Arboretum as showing flowers on November 26th (Thanksgiving Day), after an autumn remarkable for very light and very few frosts, the following may be mentioned: Prunus subhirtella autumnalis had many of its small, pretty, semi-double, pink flowers scattered among the nearly leafless twigs. It has been producing such flowers for several weeks. Unless the winter is very severe it will continue to bloom in the spring, for there are innumerable firmly closed flower buds which will withstand ordinary winter conditions. Some Forsythias, such as F. suspensa and F. intermedia have many of their bright yellow flowers scattered over the branches. Some forms of Japanese Quince (Chaenomeles lagenaria), were bearing many blooms. Lonicera fragrantissima and L. Standishii bore occasional samples of their sweetly scented whitish flowers, as they usually do every mild time in late autumn. Some plants of the common native Witch-hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) in the woods still carry some of their golden yellow flowers; two open flowers were found on the winter or spring flowering Chinese Witch-hazel (H. mollis), and some plants of H. vernalis from Missouri and adjoining southwestern regions showed many of their delicately fragrant honey yellow blossoms while other plants of the same species appeared closely dormant."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 3 Volume V","article_sequence":21,"start_page":74,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23942","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15eab26.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME V Synonyms are in italics; illustrations in black face type Acer rubrum, 4 Albizzia julibrissin, 52 -- rosea, 52 Alders,1 -Crosses, 65 Amelanchier X Pyrus, 18 - X Sorbus, 18 Amelasorbus, 18 Apple, 29, 36 - \"Astrachan\", 29 - \"Early Harvest\", 29 Apples, 18, 20, 30 Apricot, Manchurian, 12 Apricots, Early Flowering, 12 Arboreta and Botanic Gardens in the United States, 53 Aronia X Sorbus, 18 Ash, 6 Ashes, Crosses, 65 Azalea, 22 - Kaempfer's, 24 - Poukhan, 23, 24 Azaleas, 17, 24, 33 Bailey, Irving W., 71 Banyan, 39, 40 Barberry, 36 Beeches, American, 64 - Crosses, 65 Bluebeard Bush, 60 Blueberries, 34 Botanic Gardens in the United States, 53 Botanical Drawings by John Singer Sargent, 37 Buckthorn, 36 Budding, Art of, 49 - a Lilac, 51 Buds, Effect of Cold on, 1 Burning Bushes, Chinese, 60 Callicarpa, 52 Cambridge, Washington Elm, 69 Caryopteris, tangutica, 60 Castanea dentata, 45 - mollissima, 46 - pumila, 45 Cercidiphyllum, 64 Chaenomeles lagenaria, 16, 73 Chaste-tree, 52 Cherries, Double-flowered, 14, 16 - Early Flowering, 12 - Flowering, 13 - Japanese, 2, 16, 24, 57 - Single-flowered, 14 Cherry, Mazzard, 16 - Mount Fuji, 16 - Sargent, 12, 16 - Sour, 2 - Sweet, 2, 16 - Yoshino, 14, 40 Chestnut, Common, 45 - Dwarf, 45 - European, 46 - blight, 45 China-tree, 46 Chinquapin, 45 Chionanthus, 6 Clerodendron, 52 Cold, Effect of, on Flower Buds of Trees and Shrubs, 1 Conifers, 18 Cornaceae, 25 Cornus florida, 1, 25, 26 Cotoneaster X Crataegus, 18 Crabapple, 30 - Bechtel, 30, 32 - Iowa, 30, 32 - Soulard, 30 Crabapples, 24 - American, 29, 30, 32 - Chinese, 29 - Japanese, 29 Crataegus X Cotoneaster, 18 - X Mespilus, 18 Crossing, Technique of, 18, 65 Cydonia X Pyrus, 18 - japonica, 16 Cytisus, 24 - Ardoini, 24 - Beanii, 24 - elongatus, 24 - purgans, 24 - purpureus, 24 - ratisbonensis, 24 Daphne Cneorum, 21 Dasycypha Wilkommii, 67 Davidia involucrata, 25, 26, 28 -- Vilmoriniana, 26, 27, 28 - Propagation of, 28 Diospyros Ebenum, 44 - kaki, 42 - virginiana, 41, 43 Dirca palustris, 4 Dogwood, Flowering, 1, 25, 26 Dove Tree, 25 Elm, 65, 73 - American, 4, 69 - Washington, 69, 71, 72, 73 - White, 69 Endothia parasitica, 45 Epigaea, 34 Erica carnea, 21, 73, 74 - darleyensis, 21, 73 - mediterranea, 21, 73 Ericaceae, 21 Evonymus, 60 -- planipes, 60 Ficus, 39 - aurea, 37, 38, 39, 40 plate facing p. 38 - bengalensis, 39, 40 - carica, 40 - religiosa, 40 Fig, Edible, 40 - Strangling, 37, 40 plate facing p. 38 Forsythia, 6 - intermedia, 10, 73 -- primulina, 10 -- spectabilis, 10 - ovata, 10 - suspensa, 9, 10, 73 -- Fortunei, 12 -- Sieboldii, 12 - viridissima, 10 Forsythias, 9, 10, 73 Fothergilla monticola, 64 Genista, 24 Graft-blight of Lilac, 5, 6, 7 Hamamelis mollis, 4, 73 - vernalis, 4, 73 - virginiana, 73 Hazels, 1 Heathers, Flowering, 21 Hemlocks, 64 Henry, Augustine, 65, 66, 67 Highland Park Pinetum, Rochester, N. Y., 55 Hobble-bush, 21 Honeysuckle, 33 - Tatarian, 24, 36 - Trumpet, 33 Honeysuckles, Bush, 33 Hybrid Trees, 65 Hybrids, Plant, 17 Japanese Blossoms and Pond in the Arnold Arboretum, 57 Juniperus virginiana, 62, 63 Kalmias, 46 Koelreuteria paniculata, 46, 47, 48 Lacquer-tree, 46 Larch, Dunkeld, 66 -- cones of, plate facing p. 66 - Golden, 60 - Japanese, 66, 67 Larches, 65 - Crosses, 65 - European, 66 - Hybrid, 66, 67 Larix decidua, 66; plate facing p. 66 --- X Kaempferi, 66 - eurolepis, 66, 67; plate facing p. 66 - Kaempferi, 66, 67; plate facing p. 66 Leatherwood, 4 Ligustrum amurense, 6 - ovalifolium, 6 Lilac, 5, 6, 34 - Andenken an Ludwig Spath, 6 - Graft-blight of, 5, 6, 7 - Persian, 18 Lilacs, 5, 6, 8, 17, 18, 20, 24 - Hybrid, 17 - Tree, 17 - Villosae, 17 - Vulgares, 17 Lilies, 20 Lily, Regal, 20 Lonicera, 33 - amoena, 36 -- arnoldiana, 35, 36 - fragrantissima, 33, 34, 73 - Korolkovii, 36 - Standishii, 33, 34, 73 - tatarica, 34, 36 -- alba, 36 --grandiflora, 36 -- parvifolia, 36 - villosa, 34 Maackia amurensis, 48 -- Buergeri, 48 Malus angustifolia flore pleno, 30 - coronaria, 32 -- Charlottae, 32 - ioensis, 30, 32 -- plena, 30, 31 - Malus, 30 - pumila, 29, 30 - Soulardi, 30 Maple, Red, 4, 64 - Silver, 2 - White, 2 Mayflower, 34 Mespilus X Crataegus, 18 Nyssa sylvatica, 25 Nyssaceae, 25 Oaks, 18 - Crosses, 65 Oxydendrum arboreum, 46, 64 Pagoda-tree, 48 Peach, 2, 12 Pears, 18, 30 Peepul Tree, 40 Persimmon, American, 41, 42, 44 Persimmons, 41 - Chinese, 42, 44 - Kaki, 42 Philadelphus, 17 Picea Abies, 61 - excelsa, 61 Pine, 20 Pines, Hybrid, 68 Pinetum, Highland Park, Rochester, N. Y., 55 Plants of current interest, 52, 60, 64, 73 Pomoideae, Generic Hybrids in, 18 Poplars, 4 - Crosses, 65 Pride of India, 46 Privet, 5, 6, 8, 36 - Amur, 6, 8, - California, 6, 8 Prunus, 24 - avium, 2 -- multiplex, 16 -- plena, 16 - Cerasus,2 - Lannesiana, 16 -- sirotae, 16 - mandshurica, 11, 12 - Sargentii, l6 - serrulata, 16 -- albo-rosea, 16 -- fugenzo, 15, 16 -- hisakura, 16 -- horinji, 16 -- kirin, 16 -- sachalinensis, 12, 16 -- shogetsu, 16 -- superba, 16 , - subhirtella, 13 -- autumnalis, 13, 73 -- pendula, 13 - yedoensis, 14 Pseudolarix amabilis, 60 Pyrus X Amelanchier, 18 - X Cydonia, 18 - X Sorbus,18 - coronaria flore pleno, 30 - japonica, 16 - Malus, 30 Quince, Flowering, 16, 18 - Japanese, 16, 18, 73 Rhododendron, 21, 22 - arboreum, 22 - canadense, 21 - catawbiense, 17 - caucasicum. 22 - \"Diana\", 22 - Jacksoni, 22 - obtusum Kaempferi, 24 - Schlippenbachii, 21 - Vaseyi, 21 -- album, 21 - venustum, 22 - yedoense poukhanense, 23, 24 Rhododendrons, 17, 22, 24, 46 - Hybrid, 17 Rhodora, 21, 22 Rhus verniciflua, 46 Rock, Juniperus virginiana Growing on, 62, 63 Rose, Sweetbriar, 36 Sargent, John Singer, Botanical Drawings by, 37 Shrubs, Various, 21 Sophora japonica, 48 -- pendula, 48 Sorbaronia, 18 Sorbopyrus, 18 - auricularis bulbiformis, 19 Sorbus X Amelanchier, 18 - X Aronia, 18 - X Pyrus, 18 Sorrel-tree, 46, 48 Sorrel-trees, 64 Sour-wood, 46 Sour-woods, 64 Spruce, Norway, 61 Spruces, Transplanting, 61 Syringa chinensis, 17 - oblata, 17 - persica, 17 - pinnatifolia, 18 - pubescens, 18 - vulgaris, 17, 18 Taxus cuspidata, 62 -- Thayerae, 62 Tecoma radicans, 33 Transplanting Spruces, and Yews, 61 Trees, Hybrid, 65 - Late Summer Flowering, 45 Trumpet Creeper, 33 Tupelo, 25 Ulmus americana, 69, 71 Vaccinium, 34 Varnish-tree, 46 Verbena family, 52 Viburnum alnifolium, 21 - bitchiuense 21 - Carlesii, 21 - fragrans, 3, 4 - Winter-flowering, 4 Vitex, 52 - agnus-castus, 52 - Negundo incisa, 52 Walnuts, Crosses, 65 Washington Elm, 69, 71. 72, 73 Witch-hazel, Common, 73 Witch-hazels, 4 Yew, Japanese, 62 - Thayer, 62 Yews, Transplanting, 61, 62"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Publications for Sale at the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University","article_sequence":22,"start_page":79,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23946","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed15eb76c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"PUBLICATIONS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. THE BRADLEY BIBLIOGRAPHY. A guide to the literature of woody plants, including books and articles in the proceedings of learned societies and in scientific and popular journals, published in all languages to the end of the nineteenth century. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by Alfred Rehder. 4. 5 vols. Cambridge, 1911-1918. Bound Price $40.00 Unbound Price $30.00 THE GENUS PINUS. By George Russell Shaw. f. 96 pp. 39 pl. Cambridge, 1914. Price $10.00 CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by Ethelyn Maria Tucker. f. 2 vols. Cambridge, 1914-1917. Volume I. Authors and titles. Unbound Price $7.50 Volume II. Subject Catalogue. Unbound Price $7.50 THE CHERRIES OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. 8. 68 pp. 8 pl. Cambridge, 1916. With supplement of 3 pp. Price $3.50 THE CONIFERS AND TAXADS OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. 4. 91 pp. 50 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $5.00 BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION, illustrated. About 18 numbers issued per year, together with index and title-page. Subscription $1.00 per year JOURNAL OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. A quarterly journal published by the Arnold Arboretum. Subscription $3.00 per year. Price of single copies $1.00 Back numbers on hand of Vols. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. XI. XII. GUIDE TO THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. 8. 33 pp. 7 pl. 2 maps. Price $0.50 PLANTAE WILSONIANAE. An enumeration of the woody plants collected in western China for the Arnold Arboretum during the years 1907, 1908, and 1910, by E. H. Wilson. Edited by C. S. Sargent. 3 vols. (9 parts). Cambridge, 1911-1917. Parts 1-4 are out of print; the remaining parts each $1.50 THE SILYA OF NORTH AMERICA. A description of the trees which grow naturally in North America exclusive of Mexico. By C. S. Sargent. Illustrated by C. E. Faxon. 14 vol. Boston, etc. 1891-1902. 740 plates. Some of the pages in vols. IV and XIV are supplied by photostat copies. Price $300.00 j The same. Broken sets. Number of volumes and prices on request. DECEMBER, 1931"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23483","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eb76e.jpg","title":"1931-5","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1931,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23912","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160af6d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Abies concolor, 71 Hydrangea petiolaris, 3;i Lonicera bella, 55 Magnolia stellata rosea, 3 Malus Sargentii, 19 Prunus incisa, 7 Prunus serrulata albo-rosea, 15 Quercus alba, 67 Rhododendron \"Album elegans,\" 39 Rhododendron arborescens, 51 Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, 11 Rosa Hugonis, 27 Rosa virginiana, 477 Sorbaria arborea, 59 Syringa chinensis, 23 Tsuga canadensis pendula, 31 Viburnum dilatatum, 43 Viburnum prunifolium, 63"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 9","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23910","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160a725.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV APRIL 9, 1930 NO. 1 As winter grudgingly gives way to spring, beauty of bark and bud is much in evidence in the Arboretum. Indeed, the twigs of many shrubs and trees have been aglow with color throughout the winter, some like the Seashore Rose (Rosa virginiana) being now much less brilliant than they were in January. Of all the shrubs with ruddy twigs none surpasses the crimson-stemmed Red Osier Dogwood (Cornus stolonifera), a common plant widespread through the northern regions of this continent; throughout the winter, even as at the present moment, the group planted on the bank of the small pond on the left of Meadow Road has been a brilliant splash of color. To get the best from this shrub in ornamental planting the oldest wood should be cut completely away each spring, leaving only the one and two year old stems. By this treatment the plant is not only kept within proper bounds but induced to display its most fiery tints. Its yellow-stemmed variety (flaviramea) makes an excellent companion. The Siberian relative, C. alba, though similar in habit is much less brilliantly tinted and, therefore, not so ornamental a shrub. The European C. sanguinea is also inferior in the color of its twigs but makes amends in the autumn by its dark, vinous purple foliage. Yet another useful member of this Red Dogwood tribe is the green-stemmed C. sanguinea viridissima. Among green-stemmed plants none is better than the Oriental Kerria japonica, long a favorite in gardens. In marked contrast to these smooth-stemmed shrubs are some of the Honeysuckles, noticeably Lonicera Ferdinandii and L. gynochlamydea, and such relatives as Kolkwitzia amabilis and Dipelta floribunda, whose bark is shaggy and hangs in gray, papery strips. The bark of the majority of trees is more or less gray, on some dark and even sombre. There are, however, many exceptions. The steel gray of the Beeches is only slightly less conspicuous than the white bark of the Silver Birches and almost rivalling that of the Beech is the bark of the Red Maple. On many of the Cherries the bark on the stems and branches is the color of polished mahogany. Even more remarkable is the cinnamon-brown, papery bark of Acer griseum, a recent introduction from central China, of which a fine specimen may be seen on Bussey Hill. On the Plane or Button trees (Platanus) and on Parrotia persica the trunks and main branches are mottled gray and white. The twigs of the Golden Willows (Salix alba vitellina) are conspicuously yellow and orange. Many of the Poplar tribe have the upper parts of their trunk and branches quite smooth, gray, greenish or sometimes yellowish, in marked contrast to the bole, which is almost black, much fissured and rough. And so as one strolls about the Arboretum wherever one may look quiet beauty in variety may be seen. The White Elm (Ulmus americana) is in full bloom and the crowns of many trees are ruddy brown. The flowers of the Silver Maple passed a month ago but those of the Red Maple are now in full beauty. The Poplars are in flower and a myriad catkins hang from the branches. Really it is astounding the wealth of bloom these trees put forth. The Hazel-nut tribe and some of the Alders are also in blossom. The Lilac buds are swelling rapidly and on more precocious shrubs like Ribes cereum, R. orientale and Prinsepia sinensis the young, green leaves are peering forth. On the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) a few blossoms are beginning to show and so, too, are they on a number of bush Honeysuckles and in a few days a number of species will be in full bloom. First of the Honeysuckles to blossom in the Arboretum is Lonicera praeflorens. a native of Korea, which was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum in 1917. This is a sturdy, twiggy bush growing from 5 to 6 feet tall with gray twigs clad with loose bark and small axillary flowers, the chief attraction of which is the relatively large, rose-pink anthers. Except that it is first to bloom, this species has little to recommend it. On the heels of this Korean Honeysuckle follows L. Standishii, a Chinese species with gaping, white flowers and yellowish anthers. Although native of the Yangstze Valley of central China, this plant is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts. Much more widely known and more ornamental is L. fragrantissima, a broad shrub with stout, rigid branches, growing from 6 to 10 feet tall and as much in diameter. This has oval to broadly ovate, leathery leaves, smooth and dark green above and glaucous on the underside, which remain on the plant far into the winter. In the old gardens of Virginia, Georgia, Tennessee and other southern states this Honeysuckle has for three-quarters of a century been a favorite shrub. It is in blossom about Christmas and continues until March. In the north we do not know the full beauty of this plant, so well and truly appreciated by southern gardeners. It is another gift of China, having been introduced into cultivation by that grand old plant collector, Robert Fortune, so long ago as 1845. In the Shrub Garden the delightful little Erica carnea is now a mass of rose-pink. The hybrid, E. darleyensis, a cross between the above and E. mediterranea, which in some Massachusetts gardens is known as E. mediterranea nana, was in bloom at Christmastime; in spite of the southern origin of one parent this hybrid appears to be perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. As groundcovers, and more especially as rockery plants, these two Heaths are not yet so fully appreciated as their beauty merits. On Bussey Hill beneath the old White Pine trees, Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum is beginning to push when its blossoms and by the time this Bulletin reaches its Boston will be in partial bloom, unless Jack Frost gives a rough deal. In the collection of Goldenbells, near the Lilacs, the Korean Forsythia ovata is in bloom. Since the introduction of this plant in 1917 there has not been experienced a winter sufficiently severe to test out its real bud-hardiness but from the region where it grows naturally there is every reason to believe that it will be capable of withstanding New England's severest seasons. If this proves true, this species should be of immense value to the hybridist. Sturdy of habit and with relatively stiff branches and small flowers, it has not the grace and charm of other species but the supreme quality of bud-hardiness should give it unique value. Before the introduction of the Forsythia in the early part of the nineteenth century the Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas) was the popular yellow-flowered spring shrub. It has now been superseded by the larger blossomed Goldenbells, nevertheless, on account of its hardiness and earliness of blossom it ought not to be utterly neglected. At the moment of writing the rank and file of the Goldenbells are stark and bare, but the Cornelian Cherry is a cheerful mass of bright yellow. A native of southeastern Europe and western Asia, it has been cultivated since ancient times. A close relative is C. officinalis, native of Korea and eastern China. The flowers are very similar but those of the Oriental plant have longer foot-stalks and more prominent stamens. The bark, however, on the two plants is quite different, that of C. mas being almost black and only slightly scaling, whereas that of C. officinalis is gray and flakes off in sheets showing pale brown beneath. On the right hand side of Meadow Road near the Asiatic Cork trees plants of both species are in bloom and bark and floral characters may be compared. The Arnold Arboretum is a department of Harvard University devoted to the acclimatization, cultivation and study of trees and shrubs, for which purpose it was expressly founded in 1872. It occupies about 260 acres of hill, valley and meadow some five miles south from the State House of Massachusetts and within the limits of the City of Boston. The natural features are varied but its proudest possession is a grove of virgin Hemlock growing on an outcrop of conglomerate rock. The Arboretum is open free to the public from sunrise to sunset every day in the year, and is easily reached by automobile along the main parkway and by the Elevated Railway alighting at Forest Hills Station. In the summer buses stop at the Forest Hills and Jamaica Plain entrances. The Administration Building, which contains a complete collection oi American woods, a large herbarium of woody plants and a very extensive library, is just within the Jamaica Plain Gate. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 24","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23909","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160a327.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV APRIL 24, 1930 NO. 2 The Cherry blossom season now opens in the Arboretum. Just within the Forest Hills Gate, on Bussey Hill, and on Peters Hill the single-flowered Asiatic Cherries are fast opening their pink passing to white flowers. The first to bloom is the Sargent Cherry (Prunus serrulata sachalinensis), a native of the forests of central and northern Japan where it is often a tree from 60 to 80 feet tall with a thick trunk and a magnificent crown. It has clustered pink or white blossoms, each from 1 to 1 1\/2 inches in diameter, which open immediately before the bronze-tinted foliage unfolds. This Cherry is the hardiest of its tribe and since its introduction to the Arboretum in 1890 has never suffered winter injury nor have the flower-buds been killed. Fine as a specimen, it makes a splendid avenue tree and with a little attention when young maintains a shapely pyramidal crown. It is readily raised from seed, grows rapidly and is well suited for roadside planting in suburban areas. Apart from its beauty it is the best understock on which to work double-flowered Japanese Cherries of which it is one of the principal parents. Too much cannot be written in favor of this splendid tree. The Tokyo or Yoshino Cherry (P. yedoensis) is the particular Cherry whose flowering at Tokyo is made the occasion of a national holiday. The planting round the Potomac basin at Washington, D. C , now familiar to millions of Americans, is of this species. Although abundantly planted in Tokyo, Yokohama and Nagasaki, it is less so in other parts of Japan. Strange to say although a common tree in the districts mentioned it was not until quite recently recognized as a species and it has not yet been found in a wild state. The original trees on which the species is based may be seen in the old botanic garden in Tokyo. First introduced into the Arboretum in 1902 by seeds sent from Tokyo, this Cherry has proved less hardy than other Japanese species. As a matter of fact, Boston is a little too far north for its well-being and it is only occasionally that the flower-buds escape winter injury. From Cape Cod, where the genial influence of the gulf stream prevails, and south as far as Savannah, Georgia, this tree is perfectly at home. Moreover, it does not resent city conditions and ought to be planted in tens of thousands in places like Central Park, New York City, and elsewhere. Where it grows freely it makes a stately tree 50 feet tall with a trunk from 8 to 10 feet in girth; the branches are thick, wide-spreading and form a broad, oval or flattened head some 50 to 60 feet through. It is, however, apparently short-lived but this should not be against its planting since it is easily raised from seeds and this is the way in which the tree should be propagated. In many respects it is intermediate in character between P. subhirtella ascendens and P. Lannesiana and possibly is a hybrid between the two, but against this must be stated the fact that it breeds true from seed. The original specimen at the Arboretum is just within Forest Hills Gate, where, however, its flower-buds usually suffer winter injury. On Bussey Hill and on Peters Hill are younger trees which as a rule come through the winter fairly well. However, it should be emphasized that this Cherry though perfect for New York City, for Washington, D. C., Augusta, Georgia, and elsewhere, is not properly adapted to the climate of Boston and northward. The Spring Cherry of Japan, known as Higan-zakura and of which there are several varieties distinguished by a prefix to the general name, is descended from P. subhirtella ascendens, a Cherry found wild on the mountains of central and southern Japan, southern Korea, Formosa and central China. It is a tree from 60 to 75 feet tall with a short, massive trunk, often 12 feet in girth, and thick, wide-spreading branches. By the Japanese it has been long cultivated and in some of the temple grounds and parks, notably that of Ueno in Tokyo, there are magnificent specimens. The crown varies a good deal in shape but it is usually sparse and though the branchlets are thickly strung with blossoms it does not make the show some of the other species do, but it has given rise to several varieties which are very floriferous and useful. Most notable of these is that known as P. subhirtella, a low, broad-topped tree, of which the two oldest specimens in this country may be seen on the right just within Forest Hills Gate. This tree is grown on the west coast of Japan, a region remote from the ordinary routes of travel and from such centers of Japan culture as Tokyo and Kyoto. This probably explains why it was unknown to the Occident until almost the dawn of the present century. This Cherry, the true Higan-zakura, is a singularly lovely tree; as the buds swell the whole crown is rose-colored and as the flowers open the petals change from pink to nearly white, the whole tree being a billowy mass of bloom. Seen on a lawn and against a blue sky no picture is more beautiful. Unfortunately, being a garden form this Cherry does not breed true from seed, although a limited percentage reproduce the type. It may be budded and grafted on its own seedlings or propagated by cuttings but these should be grown along in pots since the plant does not bear root interference with impunity. Of this group of Cherries best known is the Weeping Rosebud Cherry (P. subhirtella pendula) introduced into this country so long ago as 1861. Its cultivation has not been properly understood and this accounts for the fact that good specimens are very rare in this country. The finest known to the Arboretum are those at \"Reynoldia\" just outside Winston-Salem, North Carolina. There is no need to attempt a description of this well-known Cherry but the fact that it should be grafted or budded on its own seedlings needs to be emphasized and emphasized repeatedly. A certain percentage will, it is true, come true from seed but its affinity is remote from the European Cherries and from its Japanese neighbors, none of which is suitable as an understock. Another garden variety is P. subhirtella autumnalis, the so-called October-flowering Cherry, which as a matter of fact some seasons flowers in the autumn and at others in the spring. It has semi-double flowers and in habit of growth resembles P. subhirtella. This year the plant inside the Forest Hills Gate is now blooming freely. Prunus apetala is the first of the Cherries to open its blossoms. The flowers, which are small, are borne singly or in fascicles of two or three; the calyx is long-tubed and after the petals have fallen with the stamens becomes intensely red. The petals are white, fading to reddish, rather fugitive which accounts for the specific name. This Cherry is a bush or small tree not uncommon on the mountain slopes about Nikko and elsewhere in Japan. The flowers are small and the plant really possesses little horticultural value, however, it merits attention as being the first of the tribe to open its blossoms. Many species of Cherry have in recent years been reported from central and western China but few only are happy in the climate of Massachusetts. One of the best is P. pilosiuscula, a low, broad-topped tree with clustered, small, pinkish blossoms each with prominent yellow-anthered stems. The habit is excellent and in abundance of blossom is not surpassed by any species. Native of the mountains of central China, it was raised in the Arboretum from seeds collected in 1907 by E. H. Wilson. A fine specimen may be seen in the collection on Bussey Hill. The cultivation of Oriental Cherries presents no difficulties, always supposing they be either on their own roots or worked on a proper understock. They demand a light, sandy loam where good drainage obtains, and a situation where they can enjoy full sun but sheltered from north winds. A warm bank is an ideal spot. What pruning is necessary should be done after they have flowered. Transplanting needs to be undertaken with care since when established they do not like root interference. Many of them are well suited to city conditions and they ought to be extensively used for this purpose. With the exception of P. Lannesiana and P. yedoensis all the Japanese species introduced are perfectly happy in the Arboretum. The Forsythia bank is now a glorious sight. Beneath the old White Pines on Bussey Hill Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum is at the height of its beauty. A few of the early flowering Pears are in blossom and so, too, are a number of Almonds, Peaches and related plants. Magnolias are in full bloom in front of the Administration Building. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 1","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23921","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170ab6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV MAY 1, 1930 NO. 3 The extremely cold weather of last week did considerable damage to the open blossoms; the Asiatic Magnolias in particular suffered severely and in many gardens the flowers were utterly ruined. It is unfortunate that these handsome plants put forth their blooms so early for rarely a year passes but what they are damaged in and around Boston. Last year and this those of the Star Magnolia, the White Yulan and Magnolia Soulangeana were utterly spoiled. To protect them from the late spring frosts the only hope is to plant them beneath the shade of trees or in some position where they are sheltered from the morning sun. The same remark applies to Rhododend7 on dauricum mucronulatum, which has likewise suffered greatly. In the spring we are so hungry for flowers that there is an irresistible temptation to grow plants which open their blossoms as early as possible. The result is that almost every year we are saddened by the effects of late frosts. Fortunately, the Cherry blossoms at Forest Hills Gate, which were not sufficiently advanced, came through unscathed and are now a delightful picture in pink and white. The floriferousness of these Cherries is, to say the least, remarkable; year after year they put forth a myriad of blooms. The cool spring and the consequent slow opening of blossoms has been favorable to the development of anthocyanin with the result that the flowers on some plants are more pink than is usual. The Sargent Cherry and some of the Asiatic Pears are noteworthy examples of this phenomenon. Some years the Sargent Cherry tree by the pond at the junction of Meadow and Forest Hills Roads has white flowers but this year they are a deep pink. Prunus tomentosa, the Nanking Cherry, is an old and well-known favorite. Widespread in northeastern Asia, it is a plant of remarkable hardiness, doing well in some of the coldest parts of the United States. A broad, twiggy shrub with ascending branches it makes a rounded mass with the twigs throughout their whole length strung with white blossoms. The bark is dark and by contrast adds to the beauty of the flowering bush; its fruits are bright red, of a subacid flavor, and quite palatable. Hybridists are at work with this plant and it may prove the forerunner of a new group of bush Cherries. In the experience of the Arboretum it is not a long-lived plant but being readily raised from seed or rooted from cuttings this should not militate against its planting The Forsythias withstood the cold blasts of last week in a remarkable fashion and remain a glorious mass of brilliant yellow. This is one of the bravest of all shrubs and few will deny that it is also one of the most joyous. Wherever it is seen in blossom it inspires cheerfulness and the manner in which it withstands all manner of abuse calls forth the greatest admiration. It is an excellent subject for cities, thriving equally well in the small town garden, park or square as it does in the pure air of the country. It is, indeed, an indispensable spring flowering shrub. In a state of nature the species grow in fully exposed rocky land and perhaps through aeons of time this has inured them to harsh treatment. Be this as it may, they will grow almost anywhere and in almost any kind of soil although they, no more than any shrub, do not object to rich food. Good drainage is the essential thing, therefore, a bank or slope makes an ideal situation. After they have flowered the bushes may be severely pruned, but alas! no shrub suffers so much from the mania for spring cleaning in the garden as do these good-natured plants. No matter where one goes one sees them badly mutilated either in the fall or early spring instead of waiting until the blossom season is over. Forsythia suspensa was the first known, being introduced into Holland from Japan in 1833. It is, however, a Chinese plant probably taken to the \"Land of The Rising Sun\" by flower-loving Buddhist priests. The type is a rambling plant with long, whip-like branches which emit roots freely wherever they touch the ground. It is an excellent subject for draping a bank or making a screen over a wall and for such purposes should be more freely used than it is at present. Robert Fortune in 1861 introduced from near Peking, China, a bush form which bears his name and which soon became a popular plant. He also introduced from China in 1844 another species which was named F. viridissima, a relatively small shrub with erect branches and rich yellow hanging blossom's. Unfortunately, it is less hardy than F. suspensa and its varieties. About 1880 a hybrid between F. suspensa and F. viridissima was raised in Europe and named F. intermedia. This hybrid is more beautiful than either of its parents and, moreover, has given rise to a number of forms which take rank as the best of the tribe. The finest of all is the variety spectabilis, which has large, very deep yellow blossoms borne in the utmost profusion. The habit of the plant is fountain-like and those who want one Forsythia and the best need look no further than spectabilis. There is a pale yellow form named pallida, but this is scarcely so fine as the variety primulina, a chance sport which originated in the Arboretum some years ago. As its name suggests, this has primrose-yellow blossoms. For many years the whole Forsythia family was considered to be purely Oriental but in 1897 a species was discovered in Albania and named F. europaea. Its interest is more botanical than horticultural, although it is by no means an ill-favored shrub. Of stiff, upright habit, it has pale grayish twigs and large, light yellow blossoms. It is, perhaps, the tallest of the Forsythias but with age becomes gaunt in habit. In recent years Korea has added to the list of Forsythia species and since the climate of that country is severe the plants native there have great value for New England. Frequent mention of F. ovata has been made in these Bulletins. This year the plants in the Arboretum have flowered very profusely and the fear that it was a shy bloomer has now been definitely laid to rest. The hybridists would be well advised to start using this most hardy of all the Forsythias. This year F. saxatilis, another Korean species, has blossomed in the Arboretum for the first time. This has ascending branches, canary-yellow blossoms with wide spreading lobes more star-shaped than the usual Forsythia flower. It is too early to appraise the garden value of this newcomer but it appears promising. This species differs from the rank and file of Forsythias in having leaves slightly hairy on the under surface. Hairiness is a character which appears in many genera of the family Oleaceae to which the Forsythias, like the Lilacs, belong and would appear to be a family rather than a generic, much less specific, peculiarity. Acer saccharum, the Sugar, Mountain, or Rock Maple, is now flaunting its tasseled primrose-yellow blossoms. On the first trees to blossom the flowers appear here and there but the plant never makes the brave show of blossoms that do certain of its relatives. It is, however, of all Maples, most dear to the people of New England and other parts of this country. As a source of Maple Sugar it needs no comment, for this toothsome subject is known and appreciated far and wide. The Indians were well acquainted with the sugar producing character of this tree and taught the French settlers how to convert the sap into sugar. It is one of the largest growing of its tribe, trees, 120 feet tall with massive, ascending branches being common. Its brilliant tinted foliage is one of the features of autumn landscape, the hues varying from shades of orange and scarlet to richest crimson. Indeed, no one tree contributes more to the autumn color of New England and lower Canada than does the Sugar Maple. Its economic value appealed to the early settlers and so, too, did its ornamental features. With the exception of the American Elm no tree was more commonly planted by them both in town squares and along roadsides. Today for country districts these two remain the best of native trees but in manufacturing towns they should not be planted for the gas and smoke laden atmosphere of such cities are poisonous to them. Widespread m this country and producing seedlings possibly more freely than any other species, strange to say, the Sugar Maple is almost impossible to cultivate in the British Isles, where only one or two indifferent specimens exist. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 8","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23925","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170bb6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV MAY 8, 1930 NO. 4 Winter Effects. The vicinity of Boston has enjoyed a mild winter, being more fortunate in this respect than many districts in New England, not to mention more distant ~arts of the country. The frost at no time penetrated deeply into the ground which is fortunate since the snowfall on the whole was light. In general, the plants in the Arboretum suffered little winter injury, evergreens in particular coming through unscathed. Rhododendrons and other broad-leaved plants never looked better at this season than they do at the moment. In January and February some freak weather was experienced, the temperature rising to an abnormal height which was not without its ill effects. On January 8th the thermometer rose to 64F. and from February the 20th to the 25th inclusive a daily average of 65F. was maintained. This excited the flower buds on a number of plants, especially members of the Prunus tribe, and subsequent cold weather killed them. The flower buds on the trees of Prunus yedoensis near Forest Hills Gate and on P. mandshurica on the right hand side of Meadow Road were all blasted; so, too, were the majority on the Siberian Apricot (P. sibirica) and related species growing in the Shrub Garden. The Peach trees in many parts of Massachusetts have suffered badly; these early flowering northern trees are readily excited by warm weather in February and the result, as a rule, is disastrous. The advantage of planting them on high ground is well exemplified by trees of P. yedoensis on Bussey Hill and on Peters Hill, where the display of blossom was never finer, so the lesson is not to choose low land or supposedly warm corners in which to plant these northern spring-flowering trees. April has been a cool, indeed a cold, month, affording a good planting season but at the moment rain is badly needed; however, the weather is seldom normal and it is remarkable how plants withstand its vagaries. The unprecedented drought of last summer at one time threatened disaster but the net result in the Arboretum is that trees and shrubs of all sorts were never laden with a greater crop of flower buds. Spring is late this year but a goodly number of plants are beginning to put forth their blossoms. Alongside the driveways the Yellow-root (Zanthorrhiza apiifola) is a cloud of lurid purple and the low-growing, fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis) is laden with greenish yellow blossoms. These are two most useful plants for roadside and border planting, making excellent groundcovers and requiring very little attention. The single-flowered Japanese Cherries, the Chinese Almond, the Pears and the early Crabapples are making a show in different parts of the Arboretum and already the flower buds are visible on the Lilacs and many other plants. Viburnum alnifolium, the Moosewood or Hobblebush, is a lovely native species. Unfortunately, it does not take readily to cultivation and it is doubtful if nursery grown plants can be obtained in the country. In flower, foliage and in fruit it is splendid and well-worth the extra patience required to get it established. Found naturally in cool, even wet, places in rich woods, it will when established do equally well on dry banks. It is the first of its tribe to blossom and one of the very best. Prinsepia sinensis. This curious member of the Rose family is now in full blossom in the Shrub Garden. This plant is about 10 feet tall and 15 feet through; the arching spreading branches touch the ground and form a rounded, fountain-like mass. The leaves, narrow and suggestive of those of the Peach, partially hide the pale yellow blossoms, which are borne in fascicles in the leaf axils. The flowers have a pleasant odor reminiscent of Almonds and bees appear to find them extremely attractive. A native of Manchuria, it is an extremely hardy plant and it has never suffered winter injury in the Arboretum, though occasionally the young foliage gets nipped by spring frosts. Prinsepia bears a small plum-like fruit which contains a flattened pitted stone but, unfortunately, it fruits sparingly. No other means of propagation of the plant has been found so for a long time it must remain a scarce plant. Of less value as an ornamental is the white-flowered P. uniflora native of northwestern China, which opens its blossoms after those of P. sinensis have fallen. Both plants grow naturally in gravelly soil and have long, whip-like roots and in consequence do not transplant readily. The Asiatic Crabapples, both in the collection at the foot of Peters Hill and on the left side entering by Forest Hills Gate, promise to be unusually fine this year. The Manchurian Crabapple (Malus baccata mandshurica) is first to blossom, a large tree at the foot of the Crataegus collection on Peters Hill being now sheeted in white. The expanding buds of this Crabapple appear brownish when seen from the near distance but the flowers when open are the purest white; they are relatively large and delightfully fragrant. This native of Korea, Manchuria and other cold parts of northeastern Asia grows to a large size, approaching the dimensions of the common Apple. Its fruits are scarlet to crimson and a little larger than that of a garden pea. It is one of the most beautiful of the larger Crabapple trees and particularly worthy of growing on account of its early flowering qualities. Malus micromalus opens its blossoms rapidly on the heels of those of the Manchurian Crabapple. This is a tree growing 20 to 30 feet tall with a narrow, vase-shaped crown and a relatively slender trunk. The flowers are deep rose-pink in the bud and change to pink as they open. Known to the Japanese as the Kaido, it is cultivated sparingly here and there in that land but has not been found in a wild state. Its blossoms are richly colored and are borne with the profusion for which Crabapples are remarkable. Its fruits, however, are dull, brownish green and of little ornamental value. Pyrus serotina. Apart from being the principal parent of the Chinese Sand Pears, this tree is well worth growing for its ornamental qualities. It has larger flowers of a purer white than any other species of Pear. Native of the woodlands of Central China, it is a rapid growing tree, often 60 feet tall, with a pyramidal crown and a trunk 6 to 8 feet in girth. The best tree in the Arboretum was raised from seeds collected by E. H. Wilson in the autumn of 1907 and is now full 35 feet tall. The young foliage is bronze-green and appears after the petals have fallen. The fruit, flattened-round and russet, varies from 1\/2 to 1 inch in diameter and is hard and gritty but full of sugary juice. For how long this type of Pear has been grown in the Orient we know not but the wild prototype was only discovered in 1900. Of all the species of Pyrus proper this is the most ornamental. Why are the Shadblows or Juneberries so rarely planted and so hard to come by in this country? Is it because they are native and suffered from the contempt born of familiarity? But whatever the reason it is a gross injustice and gardens are denied the beauty of some lovely spring-flowering bushes and trees. There are a goodly number of species, varying from bushes 2 to 3 feet in height to trees 40 feet tall. In the Arboretum these plants have been freely planted alongside the driveways and margins of woodlands. Two species (Amelanchier oblongifolia and A. laevis) are native. Just now these and other species are laden with their white, star-like blooms. The branches are slender and graceful and the plants from a distance look like clouds of mist. The earliest to blossom is A. canadensis, which is a tree sometimes 30 feet tall with a trunk 5 feet in girth and pure white blossoms borne in advance of the leaves. For many years this plant was confused with other species and more particularly with A. laevis, which is distinguished by its ruddy unfolding foliage. A. oblongifolia, which is the more common of the two species indigenous in the Arboretum, is a large bush sending up from the base a great number of stout, erect stems which branch and form a broad, oval mass. As this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers these Shadblows will be at their best. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 17","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23922","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170af6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV MAY 17, 1930 NO. 5 Spring is always an explosive season but rarely has its progress been so rapid as this year. Ten days ago the growth of vegetation was tardy; now it is far ahead of normal seasons. The advance has been altogether too rapid for the full and proper appreciation of spring blossoms. Owing to the excessive heat many lasted but a day and on some plants, Malus spectabilis for example, the flowers were actually scorched on the branches. The results at the moment are anomalous. Lilacs, Crabapples, Honeysuckles, Dogwoods, Hawthorns, Viburnums, Japanese Quinces, American Magnolias, Azaleas and certain broadleaved Rhododendrons are all in blossom as this Bulletin goes to the press. The Horsechestnut with its upstanding candelabra of white blossoms is now at the height of its glory and yellow and pink blossomed Buckeyes are in full bloom in the collection on the right of Meadow Road. On May 1 vegetation was two weeks behind normal; on May 15 it was fully two weeks in advance. Such are the vagaries of New England's climate. Blossoms are everywhere abundant in the Arboretum and the unfolding leaves in their different green, gray and ruddy tints are exquisitely beautiful. There is no better time for a visit than now. Without venturing from the roadsides a rich variety of blossoms may be seen. The Dogwood is flowering well and having been freely planted in the Arboretum is very conspicuous. The Shadbushes past rapidly but the Silverbell (Halesia carolina) is now laden with flowers. Viburnums in variety are opening their blossoms, particularly noticeable being the American V. prunifolium. The groups of Rhododendron Vaseyi along side Meadow Road are masses of the purest pink. At the foot of the Hemlock Grove R. carolinianum is in full bloom and so, too, is the hybrid Mont Blanc and an unnamed cross of R. Smirnowii. On Peters Hill scores of species of Hawthorn are in blossom. The season is not favorable to the flowers on these somewhat evanescent petalled subjects, however, while they last they are a lovely picture in white. The Conifers and Yews are commencing to make their new growth and the contrast between the pale green of the young foliage and the black green of the old is vivid. The Lilacs are blossoming well this season and are now at the height of their beauty. The rejuvenation induced by severe pruning three years ago is now complete and the bushes are shapely in habit and even in size. The flower trusses are much larger than before the pruning but the individual flowers show no increase in size. To those who have Lilacs more or less decrepit with age the Arboretum's experiment is of importance. It is astounding how well such Lilacs respond to drastic pruning, however, to those contemplating such work it cannot be too strongly emphasized that the pruning be done as early as possible in the spring, the ground about the roots broken up and the plants well fed. Also it is well to avoid half measures since Lilacs push forth young growth immediately below the cut and unless they are pruned low the after effects of strong winds is disastrous. The popularity of the Lilac is steadily on the increase, and rightly so, for where winters are cold and summers hot no shrub gives greater returns. For a greater length of time than any other exotic shrub it has been associated with the American home and of all hardy flowering shrubs it is the one which people irresistibly bury their noses among the flowers to inhale the fragrance. Of the 290 varieties of the Common Lilac growing in the Arboretum nearly all are now in full blossom and those interested would do well to visit the collection and appraise them at their own worth. The Persian Lilac (Syringa persica) and the hybrid between this and the Common Lilac (S. chinensis) are also in flower and so, too, is S. p2vbescens, the most fragrant of all Lilacs. The Asiatic Crabapples almost invariably give a good three week's succession of blossom but this year they were over within ten days. The American species and forms are now beautiful both in the collection at the foot of Peters Hill and on the left of Forest Hills Road near its junction with Meadow Road. The favorite Bechtel Crabapple (Malus ioensis plena) is garlanded with rose-like, fragrant blossoms. This is essentially a tree for the lawn or for proximity to the house, but its wild parent, M. ioensis, and other American species are well adapted for planting in the wild garden and on the margin of woods; their fragrance is suggestive of that of Violets and their floriferousness is scarcely inferior to that of their Asiatic relatives. In the Shrub Garden a general miscellany of bushes are in bloom and for the next six weeks this part of the Arboretum will well repay a visit. It may be taken for granted that all the plants flourishing in this garden will thrive in almost any part of New England. The Japanese Quinces in variety are laden with their brightly colored blossoms, varying through different shades of red to pink; in some cases the flowers are white. The low growing tufted Iberis sempervirens suggests a sheet of snow and nearby the yellow blossomed Cytisus and Genistas afford striking contrast. Bussey Hill is the heart of the Arboretum and the mecca of those interested in Azaleas and newer Asiatic plants. Of Azaleas the flaming Rhododendron Kaempferi, the American R. roseum and R. nudiflorum are a wealth of bloom and viewed from a vantage point on the right of Bussey Hill Road present a charming picture beneath the unfolding foliage of Oak trees. The double-flowered Japanese Cherries due to the warm weather in February are not flowering so freely as usual, although certain trees of Alba-rosea and Sekiyama, better known as Kanzan, are as abundantly strung with white and pink blossoms as ever before. In the case of the rank and file, however, many blossoms were blasted. Some of the early flowering Brooms are in full bloom and so, too, are many Barberries, Cotoneasters, and Honeysuckles. The Enkianthus also are fast opening their blossoms. Daphne cneorum, the Garland Flower, is a general favorite but it is one of those plants that has strong likes and dislikes, thriving marvelously in some gardens and in others an abject failure and in both cases no reasons are apparent. For many years the Arboretum has had difficulty with this plant but at the moment it seems to have made itself at home in a planting at the foot of an outcropping of rock on the right of Valley Road, entering from Centre Street Gate. The situation is well-drained and to the natural soil a liberal admixture of crushed stone has been added. The latter has also been used as a winter mulch to the great enjoyment of the plants. This low-growing Daphne with its terminal, hemispherical heads of deep pink, fragrant blossoms is excellent for rockeries and also where it is happy as a groundcover. From the experience of the Arboretum it is essentially a sun loving subject. Besides the type there is a variety (major) with large, deeper pink blossoms, and another (Verlotii) which has narrower leaves. Rhododendron reticulatum, better known as R. rhombicum, is now in flower on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. This is a Japanese species common throughout the greater part of Japan, although it is rare in Hokkaido, the northern island. In the Nikko region and on the lower slopes of sacred Mt. Fuji and surrounding mountains it is extraordinarily abundant both in the open, in thickets, on the margin of woods and an undergrowth in thin forests. It varies in height from a low, broad bush 3 to 4 feet tall to a bushy tree fully 25 feet high and has erect and spreading rigid branches, more or less rhombic leaves, membranous but firm, prominently reticulate and each from about 1 to 2 1\/2 inches in length and from 1 to 2 inches broad. The flowers are borne in pairs or in clusters of three or four at the end of the naked shoots. The corolla is rosy purple, varying from lighter to darker shades, about 11\/2 to 2 inches across, usually unspotted with a short tube and spreading lobes which are often divergent giving the corolla a lipped appearance. In the autumn the leaves change to vinous or blackish purple or occasionally to yellow with splashes of red purple and are strikingly handsome. This Azalea is somewhat difficult when young but with age it is perfectly amenable and like all Azaleas does best when massed. The oldest plant in the Arboretum was raised from seed collected in Japan by the late Professor Sargent in 1892. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 21","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23923","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170b36c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV MAY 21, 1930 NO. 6 Barberries, of which the Arboretum possesses a very complete collection of species, hybrids and varieties, are now in full blossom and will repay the study of those interested in this useful group of plants. They are to be found in the Shrub Garden, on the right of Bussey Hill Road, and on Bussey Hill, where the newer Chinese sorts may be seen. Varying in height from low shrubs 2 feet high to bushes 12 and more feet tall, they afford most useful material for ornamental plantings. Many of the species might well be used as flowering shrubs but nearly all of them are valued for their brightly colored fruits and brilliantly tinted autumn foliage. Several species are invaluable for hedge making; indeed, for this purpose no plant is better suited than the well known Berberis Thunbergii, one of the most widely planted shrubs. Few people are aware of the fact that it first saw light of day in this country in the Arboretum, having been raised from seed sent from the Botanic Garden, St. Petersburg, in 1875. From the Arboretum it passed into nurserymen's hands and has been sold and planted by the tens of millions. For the northern parts of this country it is certainly one of the most useful of exotic shrubs, carrying its scarlet berries through the winter and well into the spring. Berberis Vernae is one of the most outstanding of Chinese Barberries. The habit is fountain-like for the branches are slender, very dense and arch over and sweep the ground. The leaves are narrow, more or less oblong-lance-shaped and dark green. The flowers are a clear deep yellow, densely crowded on pendent, short-stalked, grapelike racemes, each about 2 inches long. They are borne in the utmost profusion, terminating short branches throughout the entire length of the shoot. In the autumn the branches are ropes of small, round, salmon-red fruits as beautiful as those of any shrub. The species is native of extreme northwest China, where it was discovered in the autumn of 1903 by E. H. Wilson, and the plant on Bussey Hill, now 10 feet tall and 18 feet in diameter, was raised from seed collected then. Berberis circumserrata is a newcomer from China, where it was discovered and introduced by William Purdom in 1910 when collecting for the Arboretum. This is a bush from 5 to 8 feet tall and more in diameter, compact and rounded in habit with arching branches. The leaves are lustrous green, obovate, from 1 to 2 inches long, 3\/4 to 1 inch broad, and serrate along the margins. The flowers are relatively large, light yellow and borne several together in stalked fascicles terminating the short shoots. In the autumn its foliage changes to intense shades of scarlet and crimson, indeed, its autumn tints equal those of the lovely B. diaphana, to which it is closely related. Syringa Potaninii is flowering freely for the first time in the Arboretum, where it was raised from seed received from the Botanic Garden, Edinburgh, in 1924. A bush 5 to 8 feet tall, it is of upright habit, sparsely branched, twiggy and graceful; the leaves are ovate, each from 1 1\/2 to 2 inches long and about 1 inch broad, pointed and covered with a soft, pale gray pubescence. The flowers are almost pure pink, the eye being rose colored; they are borne many together in narrow, terminal panicles, each from 5 to 8 inches long. While the odor is not particularly pleasant, the appearance of the plant is decidedly pleasing. Native of extreme western China, it was discovered by the Russian traveler, G. N. Potanin in 1893. Other species of Lilac now beautifully in bloom are Syringa Meyeri, S. microphylla, S. velutina, S. pubescens and S. persica. Syringa persica, the so-called Persian Lilac, is one of the oldest and one of the most beautiful of the whole Lilac tribe. Introduced into European gardens from Persia long, long ago it was formerly much more widely grown than at the present time, the popularity of the multitudinous forms of the Common Lilac having ousted it somewhat from public esteem. Connoisseurs, however, still consider it one of the loveliest of all Lilacs. Its history is a romantic one. For centuries it was considered native of Persia although it has never been collected wild in that country, yet as an escape from gardens it is common on the scrub-clad mountain slopes. According to the latest information, its real home is the province of Kansu in extreme northwest China from whence it was introduced into cultivation by F. N. Meyer in 1915 when collecting for the United States Department of Agriculture. In 1917 the Arboretum received a plant from the Bureau of Plant Industry, Washington, D. C., which may now be seen in full bloom on the Lilac bank. This wilding has both simple and laciniate leaves on the same branch; the flowers are relatively large, deep lilac-purple and borne in great profusion along the branches, in fact transforming them into narrow plumes 1 to 2 feet long. Dr. Karl Sax of the Arboretum Laboratory, investigating the chromosomes of the Persian Lilac, is of the opinion that this wilding is the only true species and that the old-fashioned type appears to be of hybrid origin. In appearance the two forms are widely distinct. The old garden Persian Lilac together with the Common Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) are the parents of the hybrid S. chinensis, sometimes known as S. rotho7rcagensis, the Rouen Lilac. This is a long-lived plant, forming bushes 10 to 15 feet tall and more in diameter, every branch of which terminates in a long, dense cluster of blossoms. There are several color forms, all of them well worth growing. Some authorities are of the opinion that if they could only have one Lilac it would be the Rouen Lilac. It originated as a chance hybrid in the Botanic Garden at Rouen so long ago as 1777. Malus glaucescens, now in bloom in the Crabapple Collection at the foot of Peters Hill, is one of the most recently recognized American species. A low, much branched tree with spiny branchlets, it will grow 15 to 20 feet tall with a crown fully 25 feet tall; the leaves are ovate, each from 2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and 1 to 2 inches broad, lobed and deeply toothed, shining green on the upper and gray-green and almost smooth on the under surface. The flowers are rose-pink in the bud, pink when fully expanded, and are borne several together in terminal clusters each on slender, rosy pink stalks; the stamens are salmon colored and add not a little to the beauty of the flower. It is found wild from North Carolina to Alabama and was brought into cultivation by the Arboretum in 1902. Cotoneaster multiflora, sometimes known as C. reflexa, is now in full flower on Bussey Hill. A wide spreading shrub with arching spreading branches, it grows from 6 to 10 feet tall and half as much in diameter. The flowers are white, conspicuous, and are borne in small clusters at the ends of short lateral shoots, transforming the whole branch into a spray of blossom. The fruit is crimson and relatively large. This Cotoneaster is native of northern and western China, extending west into Turkestan and has been in cultivation since 1837. It is perfectly hardy and is beautiful when in flower and in fruit. Other important members of the particular group to which this species belongs are C. hupehensis with very large, globose, crimson fruits and C. racemiflora soongorica with grayish foliage and coral-pink fruit. Azaleas are, indeed, joyous shrubs and it may be said of them that one and all are worthy of the widest cultivation where acid soils prevail. On Bussey Hill there is a brilliant display of thousands of bushes. Very attractive at the moment is the native Rhododendron nudiflorum,, the Pinxter-bloom, widespread in eastern North America from Massachusetts to North Carolina west to Ohio. A twiggy plant of compact habit, it is sometimes 10 feet tall and flowers when it is quite small. The delightfully fragrant blossoms borne in rounded clusters at the end of every shoot vary in color from the palest pink, almost white, to rose-pink; the out-thrust stamens are light crimson. A close relative is R. roseum, distinguished by its more hairy leaves and larger, deep rose-pink flowers. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year. Back numbers available."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 28","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23924","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170b76d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV MAY 28, 1930 NO. 7 Welcome rains have fallen since the last Bulletin appeared and the Arboretum has benefited greatly. At the moment the foliage, half to three parts grown on most of the trees and bushes, is looking its best and blossoms are abundant. The Dogwoods here and there are still in good condition and so, too, are the Hawthorns and Buckeyes. Many species of Viburnum are rapidly opening their blossoms; Azaleas continue to make a brilliant display and one of the most charming pictures in the Arboretum is the bed of Rhododendron canescens on the right of Meadow Road. This native species for beauty of blossom and fragrance is, indeed, one of the best of its tribe. In the Shrub Garden many different species of shrubs are in full bloom and Bussey Hill as usual is rich in color. Enkianthus campanulatus and its relatives are blossoming as freely as ever. Frequent mention of this group of shrubs has been made in these Bulletins during the past years but where acid soil prevails their value as ornamentals cannot be overrated. Among the Erica family, for sheer beauty, these Enkianthus are among Japan's greatest gifts to the gardens of eastern North America. Planted where they can enjoy good air and root drainage, they are immune to the terrors of winter, moreover, they transplant readily even when of large size, always supposing the work be carefully done and the plants not allowed to suffer lack of water. In the experience of the Arboretum the early part of October is the best season for transplanting these splendid shrubs. Rhododendron carolinianum is now in full bloom on the left just within South Street Gate and also in the Rhododendron group. This native of the mountains of North Carolina is one of the hardiest of all Rhododendrons and one that ought to be widely cultivated. It is a twiggy shrub growing from 5 to 8 feet tall and making a broad, rather loose bush. The flowers, clustered at the ends of the shoots and borne well above the leaves, are of varying shades of rose-purple to almost pink and are exceedingly attractive. There is also a white form (album), but this is less valuable as an ornamental plant. The Rhododendrons in general are this year well budded and promise to be unusually fine. Some of the earlier hybrids, such as Mont Blanc, Boule de Neige, Viola and Glennyanum, are passing out of blossom, while Old Port, Daisy and Charles Dickens are rapidly opening their more or less red blossoms. So, too, is the Caucasian species (R. Smirnowii) with large trusses of handsome pink flowers and leaves felted gray on the under side. The Rose Acacias in the group on the right of Meadow Road below the steps leading to the Lilac border are now beautifully in blossom. This purely North American genus is represented by about 25 species and hybrids, several of which are critical and not easy to distinguish. Some 18 of these are in cultivation in the Arboretum. One and all flower freely but, unfortunately, they have brittle stems which are easily broken by winds, and in the case of the best known member of the family, the Black Locust (Robinia pseudoacacia) suffer badly from attacks of boring insects. Indeed, it is virtually impossible for this tree to attain anything approaching its maximum size or maturity in New England. Of the bush sorts the oldest known is R. hispida, a low growing plant well suited for clothing dry banks. It is later to blossom than some of its relatives. One of the very best is R. Kelseyi, a spreading bush or small tree sometimes 12 feet tall. This has narrow-oblong leaflets, ruddy tinted as they unfold. The flowers, which open in advance or at the same time as the leaves, are deep pink and strung in pendent racemes on the current season's shoots. A well grown plant of this Acacia is a striking ornament in any garden. A chance hybrid between the above and R. pseudo acacia is R. Slavinii, which originated in the Durand-Eastman Park, Rochester, N. Y., being raised from seed of R. Kelseyi collected in 1914. This partakes of the bushy habit of R. Kelseyi but has slightly larger flowers, paler pink with the wings suffused with white and a yellow mark in the center of the standard. It is as free flowering as either of its parents and from its behavior in the Arboretum gives promise of being a highly desirable plant. R. viscosa, one of the most familiar members of the group, has pale pink blossoms; the young shoots, the peduncle, pedicels and calyx are covered with reddish, glandular-viscid hairs. Bush Honeysuckles. Many species and hybrids are now in full blossom and the collections bordering Meadow Road and in the Shrub Garden will well repay the inspection of those interested. The group is a very large one and furnishes not only plenteous blossom but an abundance of fruits, which ripening in mid-June on some species provide a succession until November when the last of the tribe (Lonicera Maackii podocarpa) is at its best. Particularly attractive is the gray leaved Persian Honeysuckle (L. Korolkowii) and its variety (floribunda). Lovely also is L. amoena, a hybrid between L. Korolkowii and L. tatarica, of which a fine plant of the best form, known as arnoldiana, may be seen in the collection at the right of Meadow Road. In this shrub the main branches are stout and ascending-spreading; the branchlets are slender, whip-like and form a round-topped, pendulous mass clothed with bluish green, narrow-oblong, pointed leaves. The flowers are pale pink, gaping, with very large and prominent yellow anthers which add much to the beauty of the blossoms. Like all the tribe it is free flowering and deserves to be better known. Lonicera spinosa Alberti, a native of Turkestan, is now in bloom in the Shrub Garden. This is a low growing bush with slender, arching branches, blue-green, narrow-oblong leaves and axillary, pink flowers, usually in pairs, star-shaped with straight stamens tipped by straw-colored anthers. While this plant is perfectly hardy, it, like many other natives of central Asia, does not grow well in the Arboretum. It is happiest where the climate is less changeable and where spring frosts are not known. Somewhat similar in general appearance, but more vigorous of habit, is L. syringantha and its variety Wolfii, both with heliotrope-scented blossoms. This species is native of extreme northwestern China, where it is common in sub-alpine regions, forming a tangled mass, either prostrate or up to 5 or 6 feet tall. A related species, distinguished by having the under side of the leaves covered with a felt of pale gray hairs, is L. thibetica, a native of the upland thickets of the Chino-Thibetan borderland. This is a hardy shrub of compact habit with arching branches, forming a dense rounded mass seldom more than 5 feet tall and producing in abundance axillary fascicle3 of pink blossoms. Lonicera Maximowiczii sachalinensis is a newcomer from northeastern Asia, having been raised in the Arboretum from seeds sent in 1917 by E. H. Wilson from Korea. A rounded bush 5 to 8 feet tall and more in diameter, this species has perfectly smooth, oblong-ovate leaves, each about 1 1\/2 inches long and 1\/2 to 3\/4 of an inch broad, dark green on the upper and gray-green on the lower surface. The flowers are carmine, produced in pairs at the end of a long, slender peduncle. The corolla is gaping, with prominent white filaments and straw-colored anthers. In the great family of Bush Honeysuckles the color is almost unique and no species flowers more freely. The fruits are scarlet and ripen in July. Shapely of habit and free growing, this new species promises to be of much value in ornamental planting. Syringa Julianae, a mid-season flowering species of Lilac, may now be seen in full blossom at the top of the Lilac bank. This is a native of central China, where it grows in rocky places between elevations of from 6000 to 9000 feet above sea level. It has ovate, pointed leaves, each 1 1\/2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and 1 inch and 1 1\/4 inches broad, more or less covered with soft hairs. The flowers, borne in terminal panicles, are deep lilac-purple in the bud becoming paler as they open. It has relatively slender, ascending-spreading shoots and forms a broad, rounded mass. Like other Lilac species it is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and each and every year puts forth a wealth of blossom. S. Wolfii, a native of Korea and adjacent regions of Manchuria, where it grows in forest glades, on the margins of woodlands and in thickets, is also in bloom. Related to the well known S. villosa, this has spreading, often nodding panicles of dark lilac-purple blossoms. The corolla tube gradually increases in width from the base upwards and terminates in four hooked lobes. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 4","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23919","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170a36c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JUNE 4, 1930 NO. 8 Hybrid Rhododendrons at the foot of Hemlock Hill are now rapidly opening their blossoms. A few sorts are past, some are in full bloom, but the majority are just beginning to expand their flower trusses. Given decent weather during the next two weeks this collection will be a feature in the Arboretum. None will deny that where an acid soil prevails these Rhododendrons are the handsomest of broad-leaved evergreens. They have in abundance dark green, more or less oblong leaves larger than those of any other tree or shrub with persistent foliage that can be grown out-of-doors in the climate of Massachusetts. Moreover, they are remarkably free-flowering, every shoot terminating in a large, globose cluster of flowers, white or in varying shades of pink and red to deep purple. No wonder that it is the ambition of most people with gardens to grow these plants and where they are happy their cultivation is relatively simple. To the natural soil of New England additional Oak leaf mold is about all that is necessary except a cool position sheltered from the winds and from the east and southeast on account of the hot sun in February and March; indeed, they are best planted under partial shade, that of the White Oak being exceptionally favorable. Where the climate is favorable these simple conditions are all that Rhododendrons really need. Alas! the great drawback in Massachusetts is climate; in a latitude virtually that of Rome and the sun heat of that city from March to September we have the winters almost of Labrador, conditions which few broad-leaved evergreens much less Rhododendrons can tolerate. The Arboretum collection represents fairly completely the survival of the fittest. Many scores of varieties have been tested and found wanting but a small percentage have come through in a manner more or less satisfactory. In the eighties of last century the late Anthony Waterer, the Father of Hybrid Rhododendrons, used to send what he thought to be his hardiest varieties to the Arboretum for testing and this is how it came into possession of the collection it possesses. American nurserymen have scarcely attempted the breeding of hybrid Rhododendrons, being content to import plants direct from Europe. The advent of Quarantine No. 37 made such importation virtually impossible and the result is a great scarcity and very high prices for such Rhododendrons as are available. These Bulletins have continuously urged upon American nurserymen the necessity of breeding a race of Rhododendrons suitable to the climate and will continue to do so until the happy event is consummated. The hybrid Rhododendron of today is very largely an English product, having been raised especially for the moist, cloudy climate of the British Isles. For that land the race or races are eminently suitable but New England is climatically not merely another country but almost another world. It calls for plants capable of withstanding extreme heat in summer, great cold in winter, combined with a comparatively low rainfall, conditions inimical to broadleaved evergreens in general and Rhododendrons in particular. The almost complete absence of this class of vegetation from the native flora clearly indicates that the climate is unsuited to their growth. In the British Isles the hybrid Rhododendrons of today are of exceedingly mixed parentage, many species being employed especially those of the Himalayas and central and western China, the latter unknown to gardens until the dawn of this century. In the Arboretum hybrid Rhododendrons belong to two groups only. Catawbiense Hybrids, so-called, represent overwhelmingly the largest and best known group. These are the product of intercrossing two American species (Rhododendron catawbiense and R. maximum) with the Eurasian R. ponticum and the red flowered Himalayan R. arboreum and recrossing and selecting from the hybrid progeny. The flowers of the American and the Eurasian species lack color and so the value of the rich red flowered Himalayan species is obvious. Unfortunately, so far as New England is concerned R. ponticum and still more so R. arboreum are tender in this climate and it is only where the blood of the two American species prevails that the types are hardy. In the Arboretum collection some seventy named varieties of Catawbiense Hybrids are grown and with the exception of a small group of German origin, which came in 1908, nearly all were raised before 1885. In spite of the fact that in recent years European hybridists have turned their attention to intercrossing less hardy but more beautifully colored Chinese species, Catawbiense Hybrids have not been altogether forgotten. This being the case it is reasonable to suppose that at least a few sorts as hardy as some of the earlier varieties have been evolved. The recently formed Rhododendron Association with headquarters in London published in 1930 a \"Year Book\" in which is given a fairly complete list of the hybrid Rhododendrons in gardens. The hybrids are marked with different letters indicating their comparative hardiness and garden merits. A careful scrutiny of this list shows that nearly all the varieties in the Arboretum collection are recorded but one only is indicated as being worth growing! The one so honored is Album elegans. This is, of course, a British viewpoint but absolutely unbiased and indicates clearly how much below their standard are the hybrid Rhododendrons cultivated here. It is probable that a few of the toughest sorts give better returns here than in the British Isles but when every allowance possible is made the result is disappointing. To argue that no varieties suitable for this climate have been produced since 1885 is foolish; there may not have been many but some there must be and it is greatly to be regretted that they are not represented in gardens here. In Album elegans with pale mauve fading to white blossoms, the very similar Album grandiflorum and the white flowered Catawbiense album we have three excellent varieties of their class. Of the reds passing to crimson Charles Dickens, James Macintosh, Kettledrum, S. B. Parsons, Atrosanguineum and H. W. Sargent are good but it must be confessed that the rest have dull, unattractive colored blossoms. We have really no good pinks among these hybrids and the purples are one and all muddy. Lady Armstrong, Ignatius Sargent, F. L. Ames and Daisy are passing fair but what is needed are varieties with purer and better colors and especially more fiery scarlets of the type of Prometheus, alas! scarcely hardy in the Arboretum. Caucasicum Hybrids. The product of intercrossing R. caucasicum with certain Catawbiense Hybrids and other species form a small but extremely useful group. They possess no wide range of color, all having blossoms white or nearly so, but they are very hardy and free flowering. They are said to root from cuttings and, moreover, to be slightly tolerant of limestone. The typical species, whose flowers appear to vary in color from white through pale straw-yellow to pink, is probably not in cultivation in this country. Perhaps the nearest approach to it is Coriaceum, which has flowers pale pink in the opening bud and milky white when fully open. Two of the best of this group are Mont Blanc and Glennyanum, both pinkish in the bud and pure white when the blossoms are fully opened. Another excellent sort is Boule de Neige which has pure white blossoms. Fortunei Hybrids. In recent years a great many varieties of this origin have been originated in the British Isles, where, indeed, they have out-classed in beauty of blossom and popularity the older Catawbiense Hybrids. Of this group only one has so far proved perfectly at home in the Arboretum; this is Duke of York which was received from Mr. G. Paul of Cheshunt, England, in 1915. This has soft pink, 5- to 7-lobed blossoms, each about 3 inches broad, borne ten or twelve together in a loose cluster. It is growing in a well protected spot and so far has not suffered unduly from winter cold. At Sandwich, Massachusetts, Mr. Charles O. Dexter, experimenting with this group and R. decorum, another Chinese species, has succeeded in growing and blossoming a number of very lovely forms. Given adequate protection it seems probable that many of these hybrids would prove as amenable as the Catawbiense Hybrids. E. H. R'."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 7","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23920","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170a76c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JUNE 7, 1930 NO. 9 The Arboretum is still gay with blossom. The hybrid Rhododendrons at the foot of Hemlock Hill are in their prime; Azaleas of several sorts make fine splashes of color there and there, especially through the Oak collection where Rhododendron calendulaceum, the Flame Azalea, in yellow, orange and scarlet, is particularly arresting. Viburnums are in full bloom and so, too, are many other shrubs. In the Pinetum the bright greens of the young growth on Hemlock, Spruce and Fir are in marked contrast with the dark black-green foliage of last season, and the Yews with their brownish green young foliage are particularly lovely; it is trite to say that narrow-leaved evergreens are lovely at all seasons but it is now in their young growth that they display their maximum beauty. Cornus controversa. This Cornel is one of the loveliest of all flowering trees that can be grown in the climate of New England. On Peters Hill there are two or three fine specimens now in full bloom. The largest of these was raised from seeds collected in central China by E. H. Wilson in 1907 and is 20 feet tall with a trunk about 1 foot in diameter, the branches spreading fully 50 feet. The branches are whorled but in this particular tree they are more crowded than is usual, the normal habit of branching being tier above tier. The leaves are slender petioled, prominently veined, lustrous green on the upper and glaucous on the lower surface. The flowers, small, white with prominent erect, pale yellow-anthered stamens, are borne in erect, flattened-round corymbs, each from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. The inflorescences terminate every shoot and the whole tree is a mass of white, tier above tier and conspicuous from afar. The fruit, globose, the size of a garden pea, is blue-black. To get the full effect of beauty of this tree it should be planted where it can be looked upon from above when its full wealth of blossom is apparent. This Cornel is widespread in northeastern Asia, extending from the Chino-Thibetan borderland eastward on the mountains of China and southern Korea to those of Japan. In a wild state it is frequently a tree from 60 to 75 feet tall with a smooth trunk as much as 3 feet in diameter. It grows in moist woods and especially among humus-clad rocks in ravines. The Cornel family is an extremely large one, yet Cornus controversa and the native C. alternifolia are the only ones which have alternate leaves. The native species is an ornamental bush or small tree and is more remarkable for its purple-stained autumn foliage than for its blossoms. Its Asiatic relative is far superior and, moreover, grows to a much larger size. Neither of the species transplant easily nor do other related species, such as C. macrophylla with opposite leaves. To give of its best C. controversa requires a cool woodland soil and when properly placed is an ornament of which any garden may be proud. Malus florentina or M. crataegifolia as it is often called, is a delightful species of Crabapple which blossoms later than other species. It is a bush or small tree with thin, flaking bark and slender ascending branches. The leaves, more or less ovate, are cordate at the base, lobed and incised, each about 2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and 1% to 2 inches broad, prominently veined and covered with gray, silky hairs on the under surface. The flowers, borne several together in loose, terminal corymbs after the leaves are fully grown, are pure white, each about 3\/4 of an inch across with prominent yellow-anthered stamens. The fruit is roundish, oval, about 1\/2 an inch long, yellowish changing to red. This species is native of northern Italy and is rare both in a wild state and in cultivation. A nice specimen received from the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England, in 1906 is now in flower in the mixed plantation on top of Peters Hill. Laburnum Watereri is in full blossom on Center Street path. This is a hybrid between L. alpinum and L. anagyroides, better known as L. vulgare. The hybrid is fairly intermediate in character, having leaves more or less clothed with hairs and pendent racemes of clear yellow blossoms, each 8 to 10 inches long. L. alpinum, the so-called Scotch Laburnum, a native of central and southern Europe, of which there is a fine specimen on the right just within Forest Hills Gate, has lustrous green foliage and racemes even longer than those of the hybrid. Both are perfectly hardy in Massachusetts but having very thin bark are best accommodated in a position where the trunk and branches are sheltered from the east and southeast. The Common Laburnum (L, vulgare) is not properly hardy in the Arboretum, except a curious crinkled leaved form known as var. bullatum, which may be seen on the right of Meadow Road near the Rose Acacia group. Laburnums variously known as Goldenchain and Goldenrain are, with the exception of Koelreuteria paniculata, the only trees with yellow blossoms that are hardy in the climate of Massachusetts. They are among the most familiar of lesser trees in the gardens of the British Isles and are always great favorites with American visitors. It is curious that a group so ornamental as this should be so difficult to obtain from American nurserymen. Planted in a sheltered position, they demand no special care but as they never form new bark care should be taken not to bruise the trunk or main branches. Kolkwitzia amabilis is now blooming profusely and proves worthy of its name Beautybush. The old original specimen on Bussey Hill was never richer in blossom; its daughter on the left side of Bussey Hill Road is more shapely and beautiful of habit. This plant, now six years old, is a perfectly symmetrical bush, fountain-like in habit some 7 feet tall and 9 feet in diameter, every branch being a plume of blossoms. The blossoms, due to the curious weather we have had this spring, are perhaps slightly smaller than last year. The flowers strongly suggest those of Abelia to which it is most closely related. They are pink without, mottled with orange on the lower lip and tube. The straight, pale gray hairs which cover the ovary and pedicel, add not a little to the beauty of the plant. There is a foolish rumor abroad that this plant when raised from seed does not blossom. The story is ridiculous since the original plants were raised from seed and the particular plant on Bussey Hill Road is also a seedling. Age is necessary; the plants must develop vigor and be about four or five years old before the first blossoms appear. Every year afterwards they flower more abundantly and at maturity no shrub produces more blossoms than does the Beautybush. Another canard in circulation is that it is an acid-loving plant. As a matter of fact, it will do equally well on a moderately acid soil or on limestone. What it needs is good strong loam and a fully exposed situation where it can enjoy plenty of sun and wind. It requires no more attention than do its near relatives, the Diervillas and Abelias, to which, however, it is superior in habit of growth and in beauty of blossom. Among the deciduous-leaved shrubs that central and western China has given to American gardens Kolkwitzia stands in the front rank. Syringa reflexa. In the Lilac collection above the Forsythia group this very remarkable species of Lilac is now in flower. Its pendulous or nodding panicles of blossom give the plant a very different appearance to Lilacs in general. In bud the flowers are almost red, becoming rosy pink as they open. The leaves are short petioled, oblong, each from 4 to 6 inches long and 2 to 2 1\/2 inches in width, dark green on the upper surface. It is native of the margins of woods and thickets of central China, where it was discovered and introduced into cultivation by E. H. Wilson in 1901. This species is as free-flowering as Lilacs in general are and while a good plant in itself it will in the hands of the hybridist doubtless prove the forerunner of new races. Nearby in the Lilac collection such species as S. tomentella, sometimes called S. Wilsonii, and S. Sweginzowii are also laden with blossoms. A visit to the collection at the moment will show the value of species in prolonging the Lilac season. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 12","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23916","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160816b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JUNE 12, 1930 NO. 10 On the Administration Building the Climbing Hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris) is now at the height of its beauty. The Beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis) is still in good condition. On Bussey Hill the new Buddleia alternifolia is in blossom, but the most beautiful plant at the moment on Bussey Hill is the Chinese Flowering Dogwood (Cornus kousa chinensis) which is worth coming a long distance to see. Many species and hybrids of Mockorange (Philadelphus) are in flower in the Shrub Garden and in the collection at the foot of the Lilac bank. Among the hybrids are many produced by the great French hybridist Lemoine, including the popular \"Conquete,\" \"Argentine,\" \"Banniere\" and \"Virginal.\" The Rhododendrons in the opinion of many competent to judge have never blossomed more profusely or made a finer showing than this season. The rains, which followed the hot weather of last week, have been much to their advantage and the whole collection is a blaze of color. Brilliant also is the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum), the massed group on the west slope of Bussey Hill being a cataract of orange, yellow and scarlet; individual bushes planted here and there by the roadside are particularly striking and none more so than the variety croceum with its rich, chrome yellow flowers. A fine bush of this may be seen on the left side of Meadow Road near the group of Cercidiphyllum japonicum. Rose species in great variety are in blossom in the Shrub Garden and are well worth a visit by all who are not irrevocably committed to the modern Hybrid Teas. The delicacy of coloring, the wealth of blossom and charm of the simple flowers of many Rose species are freely admitted; unfortunately, the petals are fugacious and the blooming season is a short one. However, a great many have ornamental fruits and quite a few have well-colored stems in winter. Rosa Roxburghii hirtula. This is a Japanese variety of an old-fashioned double-flowered Rose which has been in cultivation since 1824 under the more widely known name of R. microphylla many Rose lovers are familiar with it under the French name of Rose Chataigne. The variety hirtula grows wild on the slopes of Mt. Fuji and other places in Japan; it has simple, clear pink blossoms, each from 2 to 3 inches in diameter with a central mass of clear yellow-anthered stamens. A shrub from 4 to 5 feet tall and more in diameter, it has stout stems clothed with a loose, peeling bark quite unlike that of Roses in general. The secondary branches are somewhat divaricate and are armed with stout, hooked, reddish prickles arranged in pairs. The leaves are small, with from 5 to 6 pairs of leaflets, each oblong-lance- shaped, 1\/2 to 3\/4 of an inch long by 1\/4 to 3\/8 of an inch wide and finely serrate. The flowers, solitary at the end of the branchlets, have a divided foliaceous calyx and a large, hemispherical ovary clad with stiff, bristly hairs. The fruit is depressed-globose, about li\/z inches in diameter, bristly but without any marked color, looking more like a mossy Rose gall than a fruit proper. This variety makes a really charming shrub with its loose bark, divaricate habit, small, fern-like foliage and pleasing pink blossoms. Rosa bella is one of the newer introductions from China, having been introduced by the Arboretum through its discoverer, William Purdom, in 1910. It is a bush 5 to 6 feet tall and about the same in diameter with ascending-spreading stems clad with relatively few straight prickles. The leaves are small, usually with 5 to 6 pairs of small, oval, finely-toothed leaflets. The flowers, each about 2 inches across, are a deep rose pink and borne singly or two or three together at the ends of short shoots; the color is good and the habit of the plant singularly attractive. Rosa rugosa. This old-fashioned Rose long cultivated in western gardens is particularly well adapted for planting near the sea. The seacoasts of northeastern Asia are its home and on account of its large red, depressed-globose fruit it is known to the Japanese as a Sea-tomato. The type to which the name was applied has ugly, reddish magenta flowers and it is scarcely worth growing when compared with some of its descendants. Lovely is the variety rosea with 3 to 4 inch-broad pink blossoms produced in clusters at the ends of the shoots. The expanded flower is very conspicuous, but more beautiful is the bud, which is oblong, about 1i\/~ inches long and deep pink peering out from the relatively large green sepals. Similar in every way but with flowers of the purest white is the variety alba. These two ought to be grown by everyone who has a seashore garden since they are immune to the effects of salt spray and will grow in sand always supposing it be properly fertilized. In recent years the Rose hybridists, especially those of France, have given some attention to R. rugosa and the result is a group of hybrids of great ornamental value. They are free flowering and have large blossoms of white, pink and varying shades of red rather suggesting the old-fashioned Damask Roses in appearance. In the Arboretum each year their value becomes more apparent. For northern gardens the hybridist would be well advised to raise more of these most excellent hybrids. Rosa Moyesii. Largely on account of the extraordinarily intense color of its blossoms few if any wild species of Rose have created so much interest as this native of the Chino-Thibetan borderland. At its best the color may be described as a rich, velvety crimson but it must be confessed that few authorities agree as to the actual color tone. Unfortunately, in this climate the flowers bleach rapidly and New England gardens will never know the real beauty of this Rose. On Bussey Hill two bushes may be seen in bloom at the moment. They have strong canes studded with stout spines and bear in profusion their richly colored 2-inch broad blossoms, singly or several together at the end of short shoots. Pollen is particularly abundant, and seems to have an overwhelming attraction to bees. This Rose produces in the autumn large scarlet hips which in this country are more attractive than its flowers. Wistarias are the most popular and perhaps the most gorgeous flowering climbing plants that can be grown out of doors in New England. When Wistarias are spoken of the Chinese W. sinensis and the Japanese W. floribunda with their several varieties are usually understood; indeed, many people are unaware that there are two other species including several forms native of eastern North America. These were known to botanists before the Asiatic species were discovered and to them the name Wistaria was first applied. These American species flower on the current season's growth, have shorter racemes and rarely blossom so abundantly as do the Asiatic species. Of the two American species W. macrostachya has lovely pale bluish blossoms borne thickly together in pointed 6 to 12 inch long racemes which are often much hidden by the foliage. This is a rampant grower and needs to be kept in bounds by severe pruning each spring. There is a variety albo-lilacina with pale lilac tinted blossoms. The other American species is W. frutescens, a rambling plant of moderate dimensions bearing short racemes of lilac-purple flowers densely crowded at the ends of the branchlets. There is a variety nivea with pure white blossoms. It cannot be said that these American species are as ornamental as the Asiatic sorts but they are hardier and will grow and flower freely in cold parts of the middle west and northern New England. Spiraea nipponica is now in full bloom in the Shrub Garden. Better known as S. bracteata this Japanese species is entitled to rank among the first half dozen varieties of this popular tribe. It is a vigorous shrub growing 6 to 8 feet tall with ascending-spreading branches, making a shapely dome-like mass. The leaves are more or less broadly oval, each about 3\/4 of an inch long, rounded and slightly toothed near the apex, grayish green, paler on the under surface. The flowers are densely crowded in hemispherical, umbel-like racemes at the end of short erect shoots, transforming from 2 to 3 feet of each shoot into a plume of blossoms. Other Spiraeas now in bloom are the Korean S. trichocarpa and the Chinese S. Henryi which rank among the best for ornamental purposes. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 18","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23917","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160856b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JUNE 18, 1930 NO. 11 On Bussey Hill among the Barberries the Sun Roses (Helianthemum) make a fine display; several species of Cytisus and Genista laden with blossoms and late flowering Barberries, Rosa multiflora cathayensis with a number of miscellaneous plants add to the show of bloom. Nor must the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum) be overlooked for its flowers are still the most conspicuous in the Arboretum. The Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is fast opening its blossoms and so, too, is the Seashore Rose (Rosa virginiana). The new Buddleia alternifolia is in full bloom; this Chinese plant, remarkable in having alternate leaves and in producing its flowers on the old wood, promises to be a valuable addition to the gardens of eastern North America. A native of northwestern China, it would appear to be the hardiest of all the Buddleias. Cornus kousa chinensis, the Chinese Flowering Dogwood, is now in perfect bloom in the border devoted to the newer Chinese plants on Bussey Hill. The specimen is a vase-shaped bush about 18 feet tall with a spread of 15 feet; the branches are numerous, ascending-spreading with relatively slender secondary branches which give off innumerable short, lateral branchlets each of which terminates in a solitary flower head. The flowers proper are an insignificant crowded mass subtended by four, creamy white bracts, ovate and pointed and overlapping at the base, forming a cross some 3 to 4 inches in diameter. The leaves are fully grown when the flowers are open and are opposite, lustrous green, lanceolate-ovate, each from 3 to 5 inches long, somewhat leathery in texture, dark green above and pale on the under surface. The new shoots are purplish. The fruit is a conglomerate mass singularly resembling a strawberry. The bracts as they open are greenish and from the time they begin to change to white until they fall is a period of about a month, so for at least three weeks this plant is a mass of white. It blooms just as freely as the native C. florida and has the advantage of a foil of green leaves below the inflorescences, moreover, its blossoms open when those of the native species are past. Native of the margins of woods and thickets of central China between elevations of from 4000 to 8000 feet, the Chinese Flowering Dogwood was introduced into cultivation by E. IJ. Wilson in 1901; it has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum, where it has been growing since 1907. The late Professor C. S. Sargent considered that of lesser trees this Dogwood was one of the greatest gifts of the Orient to the gardens of eastern North America. At the moment it presents a lovely picture worth coming a long way to see. Hydrangea xanthoneura is a large bush or small tree with dark, prominently lenticellate bark and opposite oblong or oblong-lance-shaped leaves, each from 4 to 6 inches long and 2 to 2 1\/2 inches wide, sharply serrate, dark green above and prominently veined and sparsely hairy on the under surface. The flowers are borne in flattened, cymose clusters each from 8 to 12 inches across, the inflorescences being liberally interspersed with prominent four-partite neutral flowers. It is very free flowering and one of the most ornamental of its tribe. There are varieties, Wilsonii, which is distinguished by its two year old branchlets being grayish or pale brown and its more lustrous leaves, and setchuenensis, which has light brown branchlets, leaves as much as 8 inches long and villous on the under side. A related species with much more hairy leaves is H. Rosthornii. These Hydrangeas are natives of moist woodlands on the mountains of central and western China, where they are common plants between elevations of from 5000 to 9000 feet. Introduced into the Arboretum in 1908, they have proved perfectly hardy and amenable and for many years past have flowered freely. Their cultural demands are similar to those of the well known H. paniculata to which they are in every way superior. A number of specimens may be seen in the border on Bussey Hill. Styrax americana. the American Storax, is in flower on Centre Street Path. Although this plant has been in cultivation in the Arboretum since 1883, it is really not properly hardy in the climate of Massachusetts and in severe winters it suffers considerably. This year it came through well and has never blossomed so freely. It is a bush growing from 6 to 10 feet tall with numerous ascending stems, forming a broad, twiggy mass of no particular shape. The leaves, each from 3\/4 to 2 1\/2 inches long, are dull green, perfectly smooth on both surfaces and vary in shape from oval to obovate-lanceolate and may be either entire or coarsely and remotely toothed. The flowers are both axillary and terminal on short, leafy shoots of the current season. The corolla is pure White, about 1 inch broad and cleft almost to the base into five narrow, spreading and recurved lobes. The filaments are white and the anthers pale yellow, adding much to the attractiveness of the plant. When flowering freely it is a very pleasing shrub and one wishes that it suffered less from winter frosts. This species is widely distributed from Virginia south to Florida and west to Missouri, Arkansas and Louisiana. There is also a variety pulverulenta which has leaves stellate-pubescent on both surfaces. The genus Styrax is a large one, being represented by many species in the temperate regions of Europe, Asia and North America. In Mexico some ten species are known but in this country there is in eastern North America only one other species, S. grandiflora, and one, S. californica, in western North America, neither of which are in cultivation in the Arboretum, where they would not be hardy in any case. The best known members of the genus are those of Japan and China. The handsome large-leaved Japanese species, S. obassia, of which there is a fine specimen on Bussey Hill, is out of blossom, but the lovely S. japonica is now in full bloom among the Hickories on Centre Street Path. This is a deciduous-leaved tree, growing from 20 to 30 feet tall with a wide spreading crown made up of a mass of moderately stout branches and slender branchlets which are spread more or less horizontally. The leaves, usually oval and pointed at both ends, are from 1 to 3 1\/2 inches long by 1\/2 to 1 1\/2 inches wide; they are dark glossy green and more or less toothed on the margin. The flowers are produced in great profusion, hanging solitary or several together from the leaf axils and ends of the short shoots; the corolla is about 1 inch in diameter, of the purest white and with five spreading lobes and prominent yellow-anthered stamens. Although tender when young, this tree is perfectly hardy when properly established. Like other members of its tribe it does not bear transplanting readily. The fine plant in the Arboretum was raised from seed collected in Japan by C. S. Sargent in 1892 and flowers and fruits freely each year, having done so for twenty years past. It is one of the most floriferous and beautiful of the lesser trees that can be grown in this climate. Unfortunately, the several new species discovered in China and introduced into European gardens have not proved hardy in the Arboretum. Ligustrum acutissimum. The Privets are a useful if ordinary group of garden shrubs and in general are better employed as hedge plants than as individual specimens. Some of them, however, when in blossom are quite attractive and none more so than L. acutissimum which is in full bloom in the Shrub Garden and on Bussey Hill. This species is less dense in habit than many of its relatives, forming a loose, broad spreading mass from 6 to 10 feet tall and more in diameter. The shoots are hairy and each terminates in a panicled mass of pure white blossoms which are virtually inodorous. Viburnum dentatum has been largely planted in the Arboretum and is now in full blossom in the collection and along the roadsides. It is a broad, round-topped shrub often as much as 15 feet tall and every branch terminates in a flattened round corymb of pure white flowers. The leaves are ovate, each from 2 to 4 inches long and 2 to 3 inches broad, coarsely toothed, lustrous dark green on the upper surface and gray below. The fruit is small, more or less ovoid and blue-black. Among native shrubs which flower in early summer none is a greater ornament to the landscape than this Viburnum. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 28","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23918","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160896b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JUNE 28, 1930 NO. 12 The spring and early summer seasons this year have been erratic and provoking; many shrubs and trees blossomed out of season, some of the early ones were late, and the late ones early, the net result being that in no other year have so many blossoms been displayed at one time in the Arboretum. But the season of bloom has been shorter than usual and now at the end of June comparatively few flowers are to be seen. A lush and vigorous growth on tree, shrub and vine and ample and luxuriant foliage are the chief features of the Arboretum at the moment. The copious rains have favored growth and it is a pleasure to walk around and revel in the health and good appearance of virtually everything. The luxuriance of the vines on the trellis in the Shrub Garden and on the walls is really tropical in its richness. Quite apart from its wealth in species of woody plants, the undergrowth in woodland and thicket of New England and the abundance of strong growing vines are the features which always surprise oversea visitors since they are novel and quite absent from the European flora. Indeed, the vigorous and tangled growth of climbing plants suggests the tropics rather than temperate regions. The rich green of a thousand and one trees and shrubs may be the dominant feature of the Arboretum at the moment but blossoms are by no means absent. Around the ponds, in the meadow and along Bussey Brook the native Sambucus canadensis is covered with its broad corymbs of white, fragrant blossoms. On Bussey Hill several of the Broom family, including the erect growing Genista nigricans, are laden with yellow blossoms. Late flowering Barberries, like Berberis polyantha, B. aggregata, its variety Prattii, and B. thibetica, are in full bloom. The Swamp Honeysuckle (Rhododendron viscosum) and its crimson-stamened relative (R. arborescens) are at the height of their beauty and in the morning and evening especially fill the circumambient air with rich fragrance exceedingly pleasant to the nostrils. The late flowering Spiraea Veitchii is a perfect vase of almond-scented blossoms. This Spiraea, the last of its tribe to open its flowers, has been mentioned many times in these Bulletins and deservedly so, for it is undoubtedly one of the very best of the tribe. In the Shrub Garden and on Bussey Hill pink blossomed Indigofera Kirilowii and its white flowered relative (1. decora alba) are now in full blossom, their upright racemes and relatively large flowers being conspicuous among the soft green foliage. These are two excellent low growing plants suitable for the rock garden or as groundcovers in sunny, well drained situations. In warmer climates they make bushes 3 or 4 feet tall but are possibly less beautiful in that condition. Rose-pink flowered I. amblyantha and its variety Purdomii are in full bloom. The flowers on both these plants are small but abundantly produced and, moreover, the racemes continue to elongate and put forth blossoms over a long season. The group of Bay Laurel (Rhododendron maximum) under the lee of Hemlock Hill is in blossom. This native species is, of the true Rhododendrons hardy in the Arboretum, the last to open its blossoms. They are small and much hidden among the foliage, nevertheless, this plant is worth growing for its foliage alone and where properly placed in cool, shady spots its handsome leaves are attractive at all seasons. When planted in sunny situations or where it is exposed to dry winds this species suffers from the ravages of Lace-wing Fly more than any other Rhododendron. This pest does much damage to the leaves of Kalmia latifolia and to those of hybrid Rhododendrons in general if they happen to be planted in exposed situations. In the shade and cool atmosphere of woodlands the Lace-wing Fly scarcely puts in appearance, a point of much importance to all interested in the welfare of our finest broad leaved evergreens. On the left side of Meadow Road the broad group of the Smoke-tree (Cotinus coggygria, better known as Rhus cotinus) is laden with its feathery wigs. This old-fashioned shrub has long been a favorite in gardens but the typical form is much inferior to the variety purpureus which well describes the color of the fuzzy panicled masses of hairs. Many Bush Honeysuckles are fast ripening their yellow and red berries and from now until December there will be in succession species of this tribe bearing ornamental fruits in the Arboretum. Many of the Rose species are past blooming but the Chinese Rosa multiflora cathayensis both on Bussey Hill and in the Shrub Garden is covered with panicled masses of clear pink blossoms in which bright yellow anthers are prominent. This wild parent of Rambler Roses is in itself a highly ornamental climber perfectly hardy and good natured. It is much more showy than its white blossomed relative, the typical R. multiflora. The gray leaved R. multibracteata with its clustered masses of pink blossoms is also in bloom on Bussey Hill. Here and there by the roadsides throughout the Arboretum, and more especially alongside Meadow Road near its junction with Forest Hills Road, the Seashore Rose (R. virginiana) is still in plenteous bloom. For border planting and, indeed, for many other purposes this native Rose is well worth attention. Its blossoms, pink and of good size, are fragrant and though fugitive are borne in great profusion. The foliage is good and in the autumn scarlet hips adorn the plants; added to this during the winter season are the naked crimson stems. Its requirements are simple, nothing more being needed than cutting away each year the three year old stems. This with a little extra food results in a border of healthy, floriferous plants. Viburnum pubescens Canbyi is the last of the Viburnums to blossom. This native species is found throughout Delaware and Pennsylvania and is a large, rounded shrub often 15 feet tall and much more in diameter, dense in growth with leafy branches from the ground upward. The leaves are broadly ovate to rotundate, each from 2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and wide, rounded and coarsely toothed, lustrous on the upper and gray-green on the under surface. The flowers borne in erect, flattened, cymose corymbs, each from 2 to 4 inches across are creamy white with prominent anthers. They are followed in the autumn by small, ovoid, blue-black fruits. Platyosprion platycarpum is flowering in the Arboretum and this is probably the first record of its blossoming under cultivation. A rare Japanese tree, it is found scattered on the mountains from the latitude of Tokyo south and is occasionally met with as a planted tree about temples. Under the various generic names of Sophora, Cladrastis, Styphnolobium and Platyosprion this tree has several times been reported as growing in western gardens but on flowering has always turned out to be Sophora japonica. The plant in the Arboretum is one brought from Japan in 1919 by E. H. Wilson, who secured it from a partially abandoned nursery in Yokohama. Platyosprion is a monotype related to Cladrastis from which it differs in having stipellate leaflets and a pod prominently winged on both margins; the leaflets are also more remotely alternate and the same color on both surfaces. Our plant is only a tall bush but in a state of nature Platyosprion is a tree up to 65 feet tall with a trunk 10 feet in girth, clothed with smooth, pale gray bark; the branches are stout, spreading, forming a more or less flattened crown sometimes 50 feet through. The leaves are stalked, deciduous, many foliolate, each from 6 to 10 inches long, 4 to 6 inches wide; the leaflets are alternate, petiolulate, stipellate, elliptic-lanceolate or ovate, each from l 1\/2 to 4 inches long, 1\/2 to 1 1\/2 inches wide, oblique, rounded or cuneate at the base, bright green on both surfaces; the petiole is from 1\/2 to 1 1\/2 inches long and sheathing at the base. The pea-shaped flowers are white, very numerous, borne in erect, terminal, much branched, pyramidate panicles, each 10 to 15 inches high and broad, at the end of the current season's growth; the calyx is clothed with appressed, lustrous yellow-brown hairs; the corolla is about 3\/4 of an inch long with a reflexed, emarginate standard shortly clawed at the base; the wings are oblong, as long as the keel, and the stamens are very slightly united at the base, of unequal length and up-turned at the apex. The fruit is pendulous, flattened, 1 to 3 seeded, oblong, 1 1\/2 to 3 inches long, narrowed at both ends with prominent marginal wing on either side. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 10","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23914","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160b76b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JULY 10, 1930 NO. 13 Rhododendron viscosum and R. arboreum, the last of the Azaleas, are now virtually over for the season but their few remaining flowers still scent the air. Summer flowering Spiraeas like S. japonica, S. bumalda and its brilliantly colored variety Anthony Waterer with flat corymbs of flowers and S. Menziesii, S. Douglasii, S. latifolia and S. salicifolia with their upright panicled masses of flowers are in bloom. So, too, are late flowering Barberries like Berberis aggregata and its variety Prattii and the Prairie Rose (Rosa setigera), last of the Rose species to blossom. Unusually early is the Heather (Calluna vulgaris), of which the forms alba, rubra and tomentosa are in bloom in the Shrub Garden and on the bank on the left of Valley Road. On Bussey Hill different species of Acanthopanax and late flowering Brooms are in flower while Stewartia pseudo camellia and S. koreana are covered with their cupped Camellia-like blossoms. The last of the Dogwoods, the Chinese Cornus paucinervis, is also in full bloom; in warmer climates this species is evergreen or sub-evergreen and owing to the lateness of its blossoming it is well worth growing. On the Administration Building the climbing Schizophragma hydrangeoides is at the height of its beauty. On the right of Meadow Road the honey-scented Lindens fill the air with fragrance, the wealth of blossoms on Tilia japonica and its European relative T. cordata being especially noticeable. Stewartia koreana, mention of which was made in these Bulletins last year, is flowering much more freely this season: the plants have grown well and increased in size. The behavior this year of this new Stewartia supports the favorable opinion first formed that for the climate of Massachusetts it is the best of its family. The flowers are pure white, saucer-shaped and each 3 1\/2 to 4 inches across, the center being aglow with a mass of yellow stamens. When fully opened the petals spread almost at right angles and each is slightly fringed. The larger, much less cupped blossoms are more conspicuous than those of its Japanese relative S. pseudocamellia. The American S. pentagyna with white filaments and golden-brown anthers and its larger flowered variety (grandiflora) with purple stamens are the only other species of the genus which have proved hardy in the Arboretum. Yucca flaccida and its varieties patens, glaucescens and variegata together with Y. filamentosa are now blooming freely in the Shrub Garden. These commonplace but handsome evergreens are well worth a place in the garden; they thrive in almost any position except bog land and, moreover, will stand a considerable amount of abuse. Their creamy white blossoms are borne in erect panicled racemes each from 2 1\/2 to 6 feet tall and present a very striking picture. They are best seen in bright moonlight when the flowers are fully open welcoming night flying moths by whom pollination is effected. These two species, both native of southeastern United States, are with Y. glauca and its varieties from the Central Plains the only members of the genus that have proved hardy in the Arboretum. Adam's Needle, the popular name for these plants, is derived from the spiny apex of the leaf which is characteristic of most of the species. Sumacs in several species are features of the countryside of eastern North America. In the summertime their gross growth may attract but it is in the fall when clothed in intensely colored autumn foliage that they arrest attention on every hand. Possibly on account of their rank growth they do not receive the attention in gardens that their ornamental qualities warrant. Sumacs are members of the genus Rhus, a tribe widespread throughout both hemispheres and one containing such valuable economic trees as the Chinese Varnish Tree (R. verniciflua) and the Japan Wax Tree or Red Lac Sumac (R. succedanea). Unfortunately, a number of the species possess poisonous properties, of which the most familiar example is the Poison Ivy (R. toxicodendron). The Sumacs in general, however, are innocuous members of the tribe. Three species common in New England and widespread through other parts of the United States are R. typhina, R. glabra and R. copallina, respectively the Staghorn, Smooth and Shining Sumacs. The two first-named are similar m general appearance but well distinguished by their shoots and inflorescences which are hairy in the case of R. typhina and perfectly smooth in that of R. glabra. These produce in early July terminal panicled masses of greenish flowers which are followed by reddish crimson fruits. For the edge of woodlands, the wild garden and for clothing gravelly places both species are useful. The best way to treat them is to cut the old stems to the ground each spring; by this means a vigorous young growth, dense and attractive will be formed. Though usually bushes, both species will under favorable circumstances grow into small trees. In rocky places and especially in old pastures R. copallina forms a thick growth of stems each from 2 to 5 feet tall clothed with lustrous green, pinnate leaves, the rachis of which is winged. The inconspicuous flowers are greenish yellow and it is in the autumn when the fitness of the specific name is clearly demonstrated. At this season the leaves look as if they were varnished with the richest tones of orange, scarlet and crimson. Of all the lesser shrubs of the countryside none has more brilliantly tinted autumn foliage than this Sumac. Rhus javanica, better known as R. Osbeckii and R. semialata, is an Oriental species long cultivated in western gardens. In a wild state it is frequently a tree 25 feet tall with a trunk 2 feet in girth and a wide spreading flat-topped crown. The leaves, pinnate with a winged rachis, are each a foot or more long but fall in the autumn without attaining any marked brilliancy. In late July each shoot terminates in a broad pyramidate mass of pure white blossoms and the garden value of this Rhus is evident. Flowering when there is a scarcity of blossoms in the garden, this tree has unusual value. This species is widespread throughout China, Korea and Japan and other parts of eastern Asia and is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts. Rhus verniciflua, better known as R. vernicifera, is perhaps the most important member of the genus, furnishing as it does the varnish which as Chinese lacquer is famous the world over. Unfortunately, this varnish possesses poisonous properties and its method of application is not well understood outside of China, Korea and Japan. Its use is, therefore, confined almost entirely to those lands. This species of Rhus is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum, where it has been growing since 1887. In a native state it is a tree from 25 to 60 feet tall with rather sparse, whorled branches, clustered handsome pinnate leaves, each from 1 to 2 1\/2 feet long and large, drooping axillary panicles of greenish flowers which are followed by yellowish white fruits rich in fatty oil. It is wild on the mountains and abundantly cultivated along the margins of fields particularly throughout central China. When the tree has attained a diameter of about 6 inches, tapping for varnish commences, and this operation is continued at intervals until the tree is 50 or 60 years of age. If the tapping is too severe, or the tree too young, injury or death ensues. The operation is begun in late June or early July at a time corresponding with the opening of the flowers, and is continued throughout the summer. Oblique incisions from 4 to 12 inches in length, and about 1 inch in width, are made in the bark of the tree down to the wood, and the sap which exudes is collected in shells, bamboo tubes, and similar receptacles. Wooden pegs are driven into the trunk to facilitate climbing, in order to reach the main branches. The tapping is done early in the morning and the sap gathered from the receptacles into which it has flowed from the incisions each evening. In showery weather it dries rapidly, and often has to be scraped away. The sap continues to exude from the wound for about seven days and then a fresh, thin slice of bark is removed, which causes another exudation. This is repeated seven times with an interval of about seven days between each operation. After being tapped, the tree is allowed a period of from five to seven years to recover; the old wounds are then reopened and fresh ones made. A large tree will yield from five to seven pounds of varnish which as it exudes is pure white but quickly oxidizes to grayish white, changing to black. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 23","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23915","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160bb6b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV JULY 23, 1930 NO. 14 In the fourth week of July lush growth rather than blossom is the feature of the Arboretum. The splendid rains we have enjoyed during the month have done untold good to the collections in general, indeed, a more favorable season for the Arboretum is scarcely on record. It is a pleasure to walk about the grounds and note the splendid growth that tree, shrub and vine have made, and granted favorable weather the autumn coloring should be unusually good. On the right of Meadow Road handsome Koelreuteria paniculata with erect, broad, terminal panicles of clear yellow blossoms is conspicuous from afar. Under the lee of the wood behind the Buckeye group the late flowering Aesculus parviflora is covered with a myriad upthrust candles; in the Shrub Garden the different species of Hypericum are in bloom and so, too, are one or two sorts of late flowering Barberries. Different species of summer blooming Spiraeas are in blossom and also Hydrangeas in variety. On the trellis and on the boundary walls the vines have put on a growth almost tropical in vigor and luxuriance. Heather is in blossom in many places, and among the Kalmias at the foot of Hemlock Hill, the Sorrel-tree (Oxydendrum arboreum) is laden with terminal panicles of white, urn-shaped flowers. On Bussey Hill the pink-stamened Albizzia julibrissin rosea is flowering more freely than before. Last season we called particular attention to this unusual plant; this year it is even more beautiful and at the moment is worth coming a long distance to see. Its fine fern-like leaves are perhaps more lovely than those of any other shrub or tree that can be grown out-of-doors in this climate. The discovery and introduction of this hardy type of Silk-tree was indeed fortunate. Among the group of Kaempfer's Azalea on Bussey Hill the American Stewartia pentagyna and its purple-stamened variety grandiflora are in bloom; also the Japanese S. pseudo camellia and the Korean S. koreana, the latter being the finest of the group. The genus Vitis, to which all the true Grapevines belong, is widespread in both hemispheres, being well represented in the United States. On the trellis in the Shrub Garden all the species that are hardy in this climate are growing and at the moment are remarkable for their vigorous, rampant growth and abundant foliage. Many species are noteworthy ornamental plants which not only in their luxuriance of growth give a tropical aspect to wall, fence and pergola wherever they are planted, but late in the year a wealth of vivid autumn coloring. The handsomest of all is the Japanese Vitis Kaempferi, more widely known as V. Coignetiae. This has broad, roundish cordate, netted leaves, dark green on the upper and clothed with a russet-gray tomentum on the lower surface. In its native habitat it scales to the tops of the tallest trees, forming dense mantles of green in summer and vivid splashes of red to crimson in the autumn. The fruit is perfectly round, jet black, of good size but very harsh in flavor, nevertheless, on account of its hardiness one would suppose that this species has value to the grapevine breeder. Ampelopsis aconitifolia and A. brevipedunculata are two graceful vines remarkable for the elegance of their finely divided foliage and for the lovely color of their fruits; both are natives of northeastern Asia and perfectly hardy even in the coldest parts of Massachusetts. They are well suited for draping trellis or pergola where from late spring until the fall they are most attractive subjects. In A. aconitifolia the fruit at maturity is orange-yellow but before attaining this stage it passes through shades of blue. In A. brevipedunculata, better known as A. heterophylla, the leaves vary from ovate-cordate and three-lobed to deeply laciniate but are not so finely divided as those of A. aconitifolia. The fruit of A. brevipedunculata at maturity is porcelain- blue and as it ripens changes from green to white and pale lavender. Another related species native of northern China is A. humulifolia which has reddish stems, leaves dull green on the upper and glaucous on the lower surface, and pale yellow or pale blue fruits. These plants may be seen on the trellis in the Shrub Garden. Actinidia arguta is an old-fashioned climber of great value in gardens where it may be used for all the purposes that a strong growing vine is useful; also it may be clipped to form dense good-looking hedges. Such hedges are a feature of many an estate at Bar Harbor, Maine, and one wonders why its use for this purpose is not more general. It is a strong growing plant with scaling bark and prominently lenticellate branches; the leaves on long, reddish petioles, are more or less ovate, long pointed and sharply serrate, each from 2 to 5 inches long and 1 1\/2 to 3 inches broad, dark shining green on the upper and paler on the under surface. The flowers, white or nearly so, have a prominent mass of stamens in the center. As in all species of Actinidia they are of two kinds, one purely male and the other perfect. The latter produces fruit in great quantity; the fruit, each about an inch long, is ellipsoid, greenish yellow or tinged with purple when perfectly ripe and palatable to the taste. For the making of jellies it is to be recommended. This Actinidia is found wild in many parts of Japan and Korea and the genus itself is purely east Asiatic. Polygonum Aubertii, the Fleece Vine, is opening its panicled masses of white blossoms on the fence near Walter Street Gate. A comparative newcomer having been introduced into cultivation in 1899, its beauty has quickly brought it into popularity. Flowering in late July and through August when there is little in blossom it is doubly welcome and being perfectly hardy and easily grown is destined to become one of the most widely planted vines. A slender stemmed plant which grows from 5 to 8 feet a year, it produces foot long masses of blossoms at the end of every shoot. Each flower is triangular in shape, white with a greenish center, changing to pink as the fruit commences to ripen. A native of extreme western China, it is by no means a common plant in a wild state. A near relative (P. baldschuanicum), native of central Asia has been known in cultivation since 1883, but for some unknown reason does not flourish so well in eastern North America as does P. Aubertii. The Polygonum family is widespread throughout the world but nearly all are herbs, many rank of growth and others mere weeds. These two climbing suffruticose species, however, are among the choicest and most graceful vines growing in the Arboretum. Hydrangea quercifolia is a native of eastern North America, being found wild from Georgia to Florida west to Mississippi. It has been known in gardens for more than a century, but for some unknown reason has not attained the popularity it merits. A shrub of spreading habit, growing from 5 to 8 feet tall and broad, it is from late spring to autumn densely clothed with long stalked leaves, each from 6 inches to 1 foot long by 5 to 10 inches broad, netted, dark green on the upper and gray on the lower surface. The margins are coarsely toothed and incised like those of a Red Oak leaf, hence its specific name. The flowers are borne in large panicles at the end of the current season's growth, each inflorescence being from 6 to 15 inches long and well sprinkled with four-partite, showy, neuter flowers. However, did it not bear blossoms, this Hydrangea would be worth growing for its handsome foliage. Other native species of Hydrangea now in blossom are H. cinerea, H. radiata, and H. arborescens and its many forms, all of which may be seen in the Shrub Garden. Lonicera tatarica lutea in the Shrub Garden and in the collection near the Philadelphus is now weighed down with its translucent orange-colored berries. Like its relatives, this is a large growing bush sometimes 10 to 12 feet tall and more in diameter with ascending-spreading branches bearing in the axils of every leaf a stalked cluster of brightly colored fruits. All the forms of this old-fashioned bush Honeysuckle are worth growing for their fruit alone, but none is more conspicuous at the particular moment than the variety lutea. Two other noteworthy varieties, each with deep, shining red fruits, are angustifolia with lance-shaped leaves and sibirica with elliptic-ovate leaves. The bush Honeysuckles are fruiting abundantly this year, but, unfortunately, starlings, whose gluttony is surely unmatched in the whole bird family, are fast devouring the berries; not content with what they can eat they squander all they possibly can on the ground beneath. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 7","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23911","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160ab6f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV AUGUST 7, 1930 NO. 15 The first week of August finds the Arboretum badly in need of rain and many plants suffering from the effects of heat and drought. While both spring and summer have brought a moderately good rainfall this has not been sufficient to offset the lack of snow during the winter months. A much longer period of drought last year saw plants less distressed than they are at the present time. In the Arboretum fruits are ripening on tree and bush and vine but flowers are scarce. The Silk-tree (Albizzia julibrissin rosea) is still in bloom on Bussey Hill and Heather (Calluna) continues to make a fine display, especially in the Shrub Garden and among the Azaleas on Bussey Hill. Different species of Hypericum are covered with yellow blossoms, the Pepperbushes (Clethra) fill the air with fragrance, the gaudy Trumpet-vine (Campsis radicans) is flowering profusely on the trellis in the Shrub Garden, where the Pea-bush (Lespedeza spp.) and Hydrangea paniculata in its different forms are opening their blossoms. The Pagoda-tree so-called (Sophora japonica) is in full bloom, and flower buds are showing on handsome leaved Acanthopanax ricinifolius and on Hercules' Club (Aralia chinensis). The tree foliage is in splendid condition and the vines on trellis and walls could not be more luxuriant; shrubs, however, are feeling the drought and this is particularly noticeable where they are growing in close proximity to trees. Clethra alnifolia, the common Pepperbush, is one of the most abundant and one of the most fragrant shrubs native of eastern North America, being found from Maine to Florida and at this season of the year the countryside is fragrant from its myriad blossoms. While it is usually found in woodlands and often in moist places it is a very accommodating plant, doing well in almost any situation where the soil is acid. It is a shrub from 6 to 12 feet tall and more in diameter, with very many upright stems forming a rounded mass; the leaves, more or less oblanceolate, each from 3 to 5 inches in length, and serrated along the margin, are lustrous, shining green on the upper surface. The flowers are white with prominent yellow-brown anthers and are borne many together in erect terminal racemes which may be simple or panicled. Usually this plant suffers from the attacks of red spider but this year for no apparent reason it is remarkably free of this pest. Clethra acuminata, a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains, while less conspicuous in blossom than other species that are hardy in the Arboretum, is worth growing for its polished smooth, cinnamon-brown stems. In this respect it is not a bad substitute for the Madrona of California. It is a bush or small tree of rather open habit sometimes 20 feet tall. The leaves are long-pointed, dull green, prominently nerved, serrate and vary in shape from lanceolate to lanceolate-ovate. The racemes spread horizontally and the flowers are so arranged as to point downward; the calyx, pedicel and peduncle are covered with a grayish woolly tomentum. Clethra barbinervis, the first of the Pepperbushes to open its blossoms is past blooming. This, the handsomest of the species hardy in the Arboretum, is a native of Japan, where it is found widespread on the mountains and more especially on the margins of woods and in thickets as a large bush or slender tree sometimes 40 feet tall with a trunk 5 feet in girth clothed with smooth, gray-brown bark. The leaves are long-pointed, more or less oblong-obovate in shape, each from 3 to 5 inches long, sharply serrate and pubescent on both surfaces. The flower clusters are panicled and spread horizontally and the individual blossom is larger and the panicle more showy than those of other species. Buddleia Davidii in its several forms is an extremely useful August and September flowering shrub. In the Arboretum where it has not proved perfectly hardy the stems winter-kill each year, nevertheless, with a little protection the plant throws up stout shoots each spring. In a way winter killing is not a bad fault since it obviates the necessity for hard pruning absolutely essential in this plant for otherwise it becomes weedy in appearance. Planted in rich soil in a situation where it can enjoy abundance of water this plant will produce shoots 5 to 8 feet in length each terminating in a tail-like panicle of blossom from 18 to 30 inches in length; every lateral shoot also ends in a panicle of lesser size. Of the several forms magnifica with dark purple flowers and crinkled petals is perhaps the best; another excellent form is superba, characterized by its thick and very dense inflorescence. A native of central and western China where it is common in the stony beds of mountain torrents and in thickets, this plant was introduced into cultivation by E. H. Wilson in 1900. It quickly attained popularity and owing to the ease with which it can be propagated it is now found in gardens the world over. Butterflies are exceedingly partial to this plant and the fact has given rise to its being called the Butterfly-bush. Vitex Negundo incisa, the Chaste-tree, may now be seen in full blossom in the Shrub Garden. This member of the Verbena family would be well worth cultivating for its leaves alone. These are long petioled, palmately five-lobed, each lobe being deeply dissected. The flowers are borne in erect, much branched panicled masses, each from 6 to 10 inches long, at the end of the current season's shoot; they are pale blue in color, prominently lipped and decidedly verbena-like in appearance. This Chaste-tree is native of northern China, Mongolia and Korea and is also found naturalized in the temperate regions of both hemispheres. In severe winters it suffers but although it has been cultivated in the Arboretum since 1890 it has not been killed outright. Each year it puts forth a great number of shoots forming a broad, rounded shrub 12 feet high and as much in diameter. It will grow in almost any soil but prefers a sunny, well drained situation. The typical V. Negundo has not proved hardy in the Arboretum. Campsis radicans, otherwise known as Tecoma radicans and Bignonia radicans, the Trumpet-vine, is one of the most familiar of native climbing plants, having been cultivated since 1640. It is a handsome strong growing vine but its flowers are of a rather harsh shade of red. Much more pleasing in color are those of C. hybrida Mada7n,e Galen, which is a hybrid between the American species and the Chinese C. chinensis, alas! not hardy in New England. In the hybrid the flowers are a pleasing orange-red. This year owing perhaps to excessive heat these plants are flowering uncommonly well on the trellis in the Shrub Garden. Lespedeza bicolor is in flower in the Shrub Garden and is well worth growing for the multitude of rose-purple blossoms it produces. Like the other Pea-bushes it is a plant of twiggy growth with three-foliolate leaves and pea-shaped flowers in abundance at the end of the current season's shoot. These August blooming plants are useful and may be well associated with herbaceous plants in a border. Of the several sorts in gardens L. bicolor and the late blooming L. formosa, better known under the erroneous name of Desmodium penduliflorum, are the best. Like other members of the tribe they are not particular as to soil and are valuable for clothing gravelly banks. Hibiscus moscheutus, the Swamp Rosemallow, is a handsome suffruticose plant well suited for planting by the side of ponds and streams. The leaves are dull green, more or less ovate with three long-pointed lobes, dull green on the upper and hoary on the under surface. The flowers are handsome pale pink and borne singly in the axils of the upper leaves. A native of eastern United States, being found in swampy places from Massachusetts to Florida, it was in years past more popular in gardens than at the present time. On the margin of the small ponds several plants may be seen in bloom. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"September 15","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23929","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed14ea36f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV SEPTEMBER 15, 1930 NO. 16 Mid-September finds the Arboretum sadly in need of rain and although no serious damage has been done by the long continued drought its effects are very apparent. A few late blossoms may be found on bushes here and there in the Shrub Garden and elsewhere; on the trellis and walls the fragrant Clematis paniculata is a wreath of white; Buddleia Davidii in its different varieties continues in blossom; Lespedeza formosa is weighed down with masses of reddish purple, pea-shaped flowers and a few blooms still decorate the Pink Siris (Albizzia julibrissin rosea) on Bussey Hill. The vines on the trellises and on the walls are a most luxuriant drapery of green and a lovely picture at the moment is afforded by Polygonum Aubertii, the Fleece Vine, on the fence near Walter Street Gate. This plant has been in abundant blossom since July 20 and bids fair to remain in bloom until frost. No climber could be more floriferous and for a sunny situation either on trellis, pergola or fence none could be more useful than-this newcomer from western China. Fruits of many hues are more conspicuous than blossoms. The Hawthorns on Peters Hill are particularly fine. All interested in this group would do well to pay the collection a visit. Whatever may be said of the multiplicity of species due to the critical study of the genus by botanists during the last thirty years none will deny that among the Hawthorns are some of the most useful as well as the most hardy of ornamental plants. Bits of autumn color are putting in appearance here and there. The leaves of the Woodbine (Parthenocissus quinquefolia) are a brilliant red and some of the Sumacs are displaying their orange, gold and crimson tints. The foliage of the Flowering Dogwood also is assuming its autumn color and bright scarlet clustered fruits nestle among it. Crabapples at this season show their double value as ornamental plants. The collection at the base of Peters Hill, the plants on Bussey Hill and those on the left just within Forest Hills Gate are now laden with brightly colored fruits and are well worth a visit. Not only are the fruits beautiful but after frosts they afford welcome food to birds, especially pheasants and their relatives. In all the Asiatic species, varieties and hybrids the color of the fruit is yellow or orange-yellow or some shade of red. Almost without exception each and every sort is worth planting where space permits. Among so much beauty it is invidious to make selection and individual tastes differ considerably. Possibly in fruit the loveliest of all is Malus toringoides, a comparatively newcomer from the Chino-Thibetan borderland. In habit this Crabapple is distinctly Hawthorn-like with interlacing arching branches forming a rounded fountain-like crown. The similarity is heightened by the foliage which is more deeply incised and more thornlike than in any other species. The fruit is pear-shaped, each about 1\/2 an inch long, bright red on the side exposed to the sun, orange-yellow in the shade and covered with a glaucous, waxy bloom, the combination being singularly beautiful. The fruit, each suspended on a slender stalk, hangs in clusters from base to tip of every branch, the whole set off by the abundant bluish green foliage. The flowers are pure white, open late and are less pleasing than those of some other species, but when in fruit there is no more beautiful Crabapple. Malus robusta persicifolia, the Peach-leaved Crabapple, from northern China is now in full fruit on Bussey Hill. This is a broad, erect-spreading bush some 10 feet high and 15 feet in diameter with long-stalked, lance-shaped leaves, each about 3 inches long, long-pointed and finely serrate along the margin. The fruit is ovoid, about 1 inch in diameter, crimson with a glaucous bloom and produced in great quantity, as in other members of the tribe. A hybrid of unknown origin, probably between the Chinese Apple (M. prunifolia rinki) and the Siberian Crabapple (M. baccata), this Crabapple was discovered by William Purdom in 1909 when collecting in China for the Arboretum. Purdom sent seeds from which the plants were raised. The distinct peach-like shape of the leaves, the loose habit of growth and its wealth of large fruit make this a very distinct and desirable Crabapple. The Cotoneaster collection on Bussey Hill is now at the height of its beauty, many of the species being laden with red or black fruits. One of the most beautiful is Cotoneaster racemiflora soongorica with gray foliage and ropes of coral-pink fruits. This particular species is also handsome when in blossom. The low-growing C. horizontalis with frond-like branches is ripening its red fruits; its relative, C. apiculata, of hummock-like habit is liberally sprinkled with large, bright red berries. C. Dielsiana and C. divaricata, taller of growth, are also worthy of note. Perhaps the most attractive of all the Cotoneasters at the moment is C. Zabelii miniata with small clustered brilliant orange-red fruit. It is a graceful plant of twiggy habit with gray-green, oval foliage. This year the Cotoneasters have suffered much from fire-blight, more so than in any previous season. No means of controlling this deadly pest is known, the only thing possible is to ruthlessly cut away all infected parts and burn them. The Viburnum tribe is one of the most all-round useful groups of shrubs. Many are among the most familiar of flowering bushes in late spring and early summer and others give a great show of fruit at this season of the year. Among the most conspicuous in the Viburnum collection just within Centre Street Gate is the native V. cassinoides, a common shrub distributed over a wide area in eastern North America and worthy of more attention at the hands of landscape architects. It varies quite a little in habit; some of the plants have stiff and rigid stems, but in others the branches are slender and drooping. The fruit as it ripens changes from almost white to pink and finally deep blue, all the colors being present in a single cluster. A close relative is the familiar Nannyberry (V. Lentago) which has larger leaves, looser clusters of ovoid fruits which as they ripen change to a bright red, blue and finally jet black. Viburnum lobophyllum is a strong growing shrub, ultimately 10 feet tall and some 8 feet in diameter with stout and sturdy, erect-spreading branches. The leaves are broadly ovate, each from 3 to 5 inches long and 3 1\/2 to 4 1\/2 inches broad, coarsely toothed with the veins prominent on both surfaces. The fruit is globose, bright red, produced many together in loose, flattened clusters which when ripe weigh down the branches. It is a native of central and western China where it was discovered and introduced into cultivation in 1901 by E. H. Wilson. Related species with smaller fruits and less ornamental in character are V. hupehense, V. betulifolium and V. ichangense. It is a curious fact that in this country and in Europe there are no red fruited species of Viburnum other than those of the Opulus group. In eastern Asia, and especially in China where since 1900 a host of new species has been discovered, many have red fruits. Oldest and best known of the red fruited Asiatic species is V. dilatatum, which is also now in full fruit. Very remarkable is V. dilatatum xanthocarpum with fruit the color of old ivory and unique in the Viburnum tribe. V. Wrightii is Japanese and has broad, rounded ovate, deeply veined leaves and large, loose clusters of scarlet fruit. The red fruited Highbush Cranberry, typified by the old-fashioned V. Opulus, is a familiar subject but its relative, V. Sargentii flavum, with yellow translucent fruit is little known. All these Viburnums and many others may be seen in the group just within Centre Street Gate. Evonymus planipes. Frequent reference to this lovely Evonymus has been made in these Bulletins and rightly so for of all its tribe none is more beautiful. The fruit is scarlet and hangs in clusters suspended on thread-like stalks from the axils of the current season's leaves. Several plants of this Evonymus as well as those of other species are now in fruit in the group facing the Viburnum collection and also on the left side of Meadow Road near the Asiatic Cork trees. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 27","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23927","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170856d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV OCTOBER 27, 1930 NO. 17 Planting Trees in Autumn. It is a very common and widespread idea that most planting should be deferred until spring, that autumn is a rather unsafe time to plant or transplant trees or shrubs and many other plants, and that spring is much to be preferred. In some exposures and with some kinds of plants, this is to an extent true, but much more depends upon the care taken in digging and handling the plants before resetting and the care taken in preparation of the soil and in the manipulation of the roots when making the final planting. The transplanting or removal of plants from one nearby location to another is naturally a much simpler and safer operation than when they are transported for some distance and the actual conditions of previous handling are unknown. For, if roots are exposed to the sun or drying wind for even a few minutes when dug or during transportation, they are very likely to have the important slender, threadlike rootlets destroyed so that a new crop of these must be developed before the plant is able to become stabilized in its new environment. Conifers are especially sensitive to any exposure of roots to sun or drying winds. It must be remembered that these finer roots are the organs which take up water, etc., to carry on the functions of growth and the more and better preserved these are the more readily adapted will the new plant become when transplanted. Besides actual care in digging and transplanting there are several other factors to be considered. If it can be avoided, most trees and shrubs should not be dug or planted in a really dry time unless facilities for thorough watering before and after planting are available. Wet soil causes minute earth particles to cling to the rootlets and so protects them when dug and when transplanted they should have good moist earth about them so that the rootlets may continue growth uninterruptedly. For these roots and rootlets must be able to function and supply a certain amount of moisture to the leaves, buds, branches and bark if the tree or shrub is to pass through the winter with little injury and be promptly responsive in the spring with development of satisfactory growth. If autumn planting or transplanting is begun early in the season, before the season's growth has well matured and leaves still persist and are green, it is well to pull off a large proportion of the latter so as to prevent excessive transpiration which must be drawn from the crippled roots. As a rule the larger the root area lifted with a plant and the corresponding allowance for root spread in the new location, not crowding or bunching the roots in an inadequate hole, the more satisfactory the results will be. It should be remembered that many trees have a spread of roots exceeding the spread of branches. Thorough tamping or tramping of the soil above and about the roots is essential, allowing no holes or air pockets, but leaving some loose soil on the top. Planting loosely, that is without making the soil really firm or packed about the roots, is often a cause of poor response in the transplanted tree. In autumn planting much depends upon the earliness or lateness of the season when the work is done in any region having generally such severe winters as our New England and northeastern states. Of course, in milder regions transplanting may be carried on all through the winter. Where frost goes deep into the soil it is always best to plant fairly early in the autumn so that plants may adjust themselves before freezing. Heaping of some soil about the stems, bringing it well up above ground level for the winter is generally a good practice and, of course, there is advantage in mulching with leaves, strawy manure, etc. Not only hardy but some half-hardy or rather tender trees and shrubs may be planted in the autumn if the soil is removed somewhat On one side of the plant and it is bent over, pegged prostrate on the ground and given a good protecting mulch of leaves or straw. Very large trees should be preferably moved with large balls of earth which may be frozen to insure adherence of the soil to the root system. In spring planting it is not so important that the soil be removed with the trees, if that the roots are not allowed to become exposed and the soil is repacked firmly about them, as it was about the roots before removal. These suggestions refer to ordinary fruit and ornamental trees and shrubs. Apple trees may be as well planted now as in spring. Cherry, peach and plum trees, commonly known as stone fruits, have the reputation of being less adapted to autumn planting but these also may be planted with comparative safety if the planting is done early rather than late. In planting at this time, especially with small plants on exposed ground, the greatest danger arises from freezings and thawings of the ground, with the consequent expansions and contractions, thus heaving or throwing the plants out of the ground. This may be obviated by proper mulching after the first real freezing of the surface soil. On the whole it is doubtful whether there is any more loss of plants in careful planting in autumn than there is in the average spring work of the same kind. Much spring work is carried on so late that the plants to be set out have become weakened by premature sprouting which is checked or dies, necessitating a new development of buds when weather has already become unfavorably hot, causing delayed growth and general retardation of development throughout the season. While autumn planting appeals or should appeal to the orchardist, gardener and landscape architect, it may also be economically and profitably practiced by the forester. In tests made at the Harvard Forest at Petersham, when the University maintained a Forest School, students planted some thousands of White Pine, in October, on unused grassy pastures, using mattocks in making the holes or slits in the turf. The next season showed a loss of less than one per cent. Labor is also usually more available at this season than in the spring when help is in much demand to compete with the on-rushing growth of vegetation which is characteristic of our northern clime. It is always well to keep in mind the fact that in proportion as the root system is reduced in the process of digging and handling, it is less able to care for the multitude of twigs and buds which had developed under normal conditions. If all of these twigs and buds are allowed to remain they may become more or less dry and devitalized because the few remaining abbreviated roots cannot take up and supply enough moisture or sap to keep the plant tissues and buds from drying. This danger may be guarded against or counteracted by the careful elimination of some of the branches and twigs, and the cutting back of others to a bud or crotch. The plants are then in far better condition to throw all energy into the remaining parts. This practice applies to broad leaved or deciduous trees and scarcely applies to hardy coniferous evergreens. In these pruning is hardly practicable and more careful attention must be given to having and preserving good roots in the transplanting process. In our cold northern country autumn planting is usually better done early, as soon as the wood is fully mature. But it may be carried on until the latter part of November or the ground begins to freeze. In exceptional seasons it has been possible to plant until well into December. To move with a frozen ball of earth about the roots is good practice, but plants should never be handled when branches are frozen unless handled with great care. Whether or not planting is done in the autumn it is an excellent plan to prepare the ground in the autumn for planting which can only be done in the spring. The turning of the soil, exposing it to the action of frost causes it to become finely broken up and in better condition for planting in the spring. This is especially true in heavy or clay soils. Where dynamiting holes for tree planting is practiced it certainly should be done in the autumn so that frost may complete the breaking up or disintegration of the soil. Our illustration represents a Limber Pine (Pinus flexilis) being moved in the Arnold Arboretum on September 27, 1929. The root system had been cut the year before by a narrow trench, which induced a mass of fresh rootlets at the severed ends in preparation for removal of the tree the next season. The root area was rather smaller than generally advisable but the illustration shows how carefully they were folded up and protected by burlap from injury by exposure to sun and wind. J. G. J."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 26","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23926","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170816c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. IV NOVEMBER 26, 1930 NO. 18 Late Persisting Leaves on Deciduous Trees. Every autumn and winter we have such questions to answer as, \"What species of New England Oak is it that holds its foliage into the late autumn or winter?\" Other queries are propounded along similar lines. In regard to persisting dead leaves on deciduous Oaks it may be said that the phenomenon is not peculiar to any one species in this part of the country. It is a very variable feature in trees of the same species, depending on ecological conditions or environment, and in the cases of some introduced species upon inherited peculiarities acquired or developed in their native habitat. This question of leaf persistence among deciduous trees is often considered by the planter or landscape architect in the selection of species for certain types of effective plantations. Of all the trees which call forth inquiries concerning these peculiarities of the leaves the Oaks are probably most often referred to. This is especially so of the White Oak (Quercus alba) but is applicable also to other species. On such trees the leaves persist in a dry and withered state far into the winter but it may be noticed that the leaves on the upper parts of the trees have dropped while those on the middle or lower branches may still persist. The shedding of leaves is naturally affected by their maturation and by the formation of the little cork cells which separate twigs from leaves as the latter ripen. On some trees it would appear that the leaves on the uppermost branches, having most light and air, attain more perfect maturity before being finally killed by freezing weather. They are, therefore, in good condition for their normal shedding. On those trees where growth has been prolonged because of some unusual local factor the leaves may not have completed their preparation for shedding before they are frozen and in such cases the withered foliage may persist long beyond the normal time for falling. Light frosts hasten the final process where leaves are practically matured, so that after such frosts we witness an unusual heavy fall of foliage, but where the leaves on lower branches persist beyond the normal falling of those ripened and sun-matured on the upper limbs it may be due to the fact that these shaded leaves were still green and unprepared for winter when overtaken by decidedly freezing temperatures. They may then persist through the winter months, the petioles being broken by wind action, leaving a ragged remnant on the twig instead of the smooth scars left in the process of normal ripening. In general it may be said that young trees, developing vigorous growth, show a tendency to hold leaves longer than older trees of the same species. Very often it will be noted that trees of any particular kind when brought north from milder or southern climates, where the growing season is longer, show a tendency to prolong their growth, without ripening, into freezing weather. Trees from the mild, moist regions of Europe, where the growing season is long, may show a tendency to longer leaf persistence than northern North American species of the same genus. The English Elm (Ulmus procera, sometimes called U. ccampestris) and the so-called English Hawthorn (Crataegus oxyacantha) and its forms may be cited as examples. Sometimes the persistence of leaves is an indication of trouble or disease. A single branch with persisting dried leaves among branches normally healthy and early deciduous may indicate death or disease caused by some boring insect or other agency, causing the leaves to die before properly maturing and, therefore, to persist out of season. A broken or partly broken branch may show the same effect. Protection of Tender Shrubs and Smal1 Trees. There are many shrubs or small trees grown for ornament farther south which may also be grown as far north as Massachusetts, or even farther north, provided they receive special consideration and care. This has long been popularly recognized in the case of Roses grown in our gardens, some of which are decidedly tender and receive special attention when the garden is prepared for winter. The lack of hardiness in shrubs and trees brought from warm temperate regions is commonly due to their long-season growing habits, the wood not having a chance to ripen fully before being subjected to freezing weather. There are some so-called half hardy species of trees which may be grown in this climate if they are developed for two or three years before ultimately being planted out. When very young they appear to be more tender than when older. In treating such plants they should have first consideration as to location. This is quite as important as any protective covering in later years. The shelter of a wall is often decidedly advantageous, but this should be supplemented by a warm, well drained soil and a spot generally elevated rather than depressed. Low ground, where there is not only poor soil drainage but also poor air drainage, should not be chosen in selecting locations for tender or half hardy plants. In severe weather in winter the cold settles in the low pockets or depressions of the land so that it is really much more severe than on slopes and ridges which are only a few feet or a few yards more elevated. In the Arnold Arboretum the somewhat enclosed valley which includes the main systematic collection of shrubs and vines undoubtedly suffers much, in some winters, from the severe cold which settles over the area because of the poor air flow. After what is called a hard winter, perhaps ten or twelve below zero (Fahrenheit), the effect may be seen and appreciated by observing a horizontal plane in the upper end of the valley where Forsythias and the larger Japanese Cherries are located. Below a certain level the flower buds may be all or nearly all dead while above it, in a sharply defined horizontal zone, a beautiful crop of flowers develops. Such an object lesson plainly tells the story. Certain susceptible Japan Cherries, Peaches, Apricots, Forsythias and numerous other exotic plants, hardy enough in wood and leaf, would be failures if planted below a frost zone, as described, while above that they might be expected to be satisfactory as to flower and fruit. A half hardy or doubtfully hardy shrub or small tree may receive good individual protection by bending the stems to the ground, pegging them down and covering them with a combination of leaves and soil. All doubtfully hardy shrubs or small trees should always have the soil well banked up about the stems in winter. Water should never be allowed to stand about such plants as it would on flat or depressed surfaces when the ground is frozen. A covering of leaves alone may be equally satisfactory but care should be taken not to have the covering too deep and heavy as there might result injurious heating and moulding. A mixture of soil and leaves has a tendency to obviate this danger. The bending over of such plants may be facilitated by removing some of the soil from one side and bending the plant over in that direction. As an example the Franklinia or Gordonia alatamaha, a native of Georgia, may be mentioned. While fairly hardy in some locations it is often doubtful whether it will endure where planters in the region about Boston would like to have it, but treated as suggested above it may be made to live and produce its interesting flowers every autumn. It is not generally known that we may even grow a small Sour Orange (Poncirus trifoliata) in this climate if a suitable location is chosen or if we take the trouble to give it special protection. This native of China commonly fruits well in the latitude of Washington, D. C. Hybridized with some of the hardier Oranges in cultivation there have been produced several forms or races producing fruit which may be used for some purposes and which may be grown much farther north than the usually recognized Orange belt. In preparing half hardy shrubs for their winter rest they may be pruned by removing dead or unnecessary wood, a process which often simplifies any covering operations. This applies particularly to vines, such as Grapes, which are laid down and protected. It is better for the plants, and is a decided advantage to the grower, to prune at this season rather than in spring. J. G. J. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until April of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 3 Volume IV","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23913","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed160b36b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME IV Synonyms are in italics; illustrations in black face type. Acanthopanax ricinifolius, 57 Acer griseum, bark of, 2 - saccharum, 12 Actinidia arguta, 54 Adam's Needle, 50 Administration Building, The, 3 Aesculus parviflora, 53 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 53, 57, 61 Alders, 2 Almond, Chinese, 14 Almonds, 8, 14 Amelanchier canadensis, 16 - laevis, 16 - oblongifolia, 16 Ampelopsis aconitifolia, 54 - brevipedunculata, 54 - heterophylla, 54 -humulifolia, 54 Apple, Chinese, 62 Apricots, 72 Aralia chinensis, 57 Azalea, Flame, 33, 37 Azaleas, 18, 24, 49 Barberries, 21, 49 Beautybush, 37 Beeches, bark of, 1 Berberis aggregata, 45, 49 -- Prattii, 45, 49 - circumserrata, 22 - diaphana, 22 - polyantha, 45 - thibetica, 45 - Thunbergii, 21 - Vernae, 21, 23 Bignonia radicans, 60 Birches, Silver, bark of, 1 Buckeyes, 17 Buddleia alternifolia, 37, 41 - Davidii, 58, 61 -- magnifica, 58 -- superba, 58 Button Trees, bark of, 2 Calluna, 57 - vulgaris, 49 -- alba, 49 -- rubra, 49 - tomentosa, 49 Campsis chinensis, 60 - hybrida Madame Galen 60 - radicans, 57, 60 Cercidiphyllum japonicum 37 Chaste-tree, 60 Cherries, Asiatic, 5 - bark of, 1 - Japanese, 14, 20 - Oriental, cultivation of, 8 Cherry, Cornelian, 4 - Higan-zakura, 6 - Nanking, 9, 11 - October-flowering, 8 - Sargent,5 - Spring, 6 - Tokyo, 5, 7 - Weeping Rosebud, 6 - Yoshino, 5, 7 Clematis paniculata, 61 Clethra acuminata, 58 - alnifolia, 57 - barbinervis, 58, 59 Conifers, 17 Cornel, 33 Cornus alba, 1 - alternifolia. 34 - controversa, 33, 35 - florida, 41 - kousa chinensis, 37, 41, 43 - macrophylla, 34 - mas, 4 - officinalis, 4 - paucinervis, 49 - sanguinea, 1 -- viridissima, 1 - stolonifera, 1 -- flaviramea, 1 Cotinus coggygria, 46 -- purpureus, 46 Cotoneaster apiculata, 62 - Dielsiana, 62 - divaricata. 62 - horizontalis, 62 - hupehensis, 24 - multiflora, 24 - racemiflora soongorica, 24, 62, 63 - reflexa, 24 - Zabelii miniata, 62 Crabapple, Bechtel, 18 - Manchurian, 14 - Peach-leaved, 62 - Siberian, 62 Crabapples, 61 - Asiatic, 14, 18 Crataegus oxyacantha, 70 - nigricans 45 Cytisus, 18 Daphne cneorum, 20 -- major, 20 -- Verlotii, 20 Desmodium penduliflorum, 60 Dirca palustris, 2 Dipelta, floribunda, 1 Dogwood, Chinese Flowering, 37, 41, 43, 61 - Red Osier, 1 Elm, English, 70 - White, 2 Enkianthus campanulatus, 25 Erica carnea, 2 - darleyensis, 2 - mediterranea, 2 -- nana 2 Evonymus planipes, 64 Fleece Vine, 55, 56, 61 Forsythia europaea, 12 - intermedia, 10 -- pallida, 10 -- primulina, 10 -- spectabilis, 10 ovata, 4, 12 _ - saxatilis, 12 - suspensa, 10 viridissima, 10 Forsythias, 10, 72 Franklinia, 72 Garland Flower, 20 Genista nigricans, 45 Genistas, 18 Goldenbells, 4 Goldenchain, 34 Goldenrain, 34 Gordonia alatamaha, 70 Halesia carolina, 17 Hawthorn, English, 70 - species, 17 Hawthorns, 61 Hazel-nut tribe, 2 Heather, 49, 57 Heaths, 2 Hercules' Club, 57 Hibiscus moscheutus, 60 Hobblebush, 14 Honeysuckle, Persian, 26 - Swamp, 45 Honeysuckles, 1, 2 - Bush, 26, 46 Horsechestnut, 17 Hydrangea arborescens, 56 - cinerea, 56 - Climbing, 37 - paniculata, 42, 57 - petiolaris, 37 - quercifolia, 56 - radiata, 56 - Rosthornii, 42 - xanthoneura, 42 -- setchuenensis, 42 -- Wilsonii, 42 Iberis sempervirens, 18 Indigofera amblyantha, 46 -- Purdomii, 46 - decora alba, 46 - Kirilowii, 46 Ivy, Poison, 50 Japanese Cherry, Alba-rosea, 20 -- Kanzan, 20 -- Sekiyama, 20 Juneberries, 16 Kalmia latifolia, 41, 46 Kerria japonica, 1 Koelreuteria paniculata, 34, 53 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 1, 36, 37 Laburnum alpinum, 34 - anagyroides, 34 - Common, 34 - vulgare, 34 -- bullatum, 34 Watereri, 34 Laurel, Bay, 46 - Mountain, 41 Leatherwood, 2 Lespedeza bicolor, 60 - formosa, 60, 61 Ligustrum acutissimum, 44 Lilac, Common, 18 - Persian, 18, 22 - Rouen, 24 Lilacs, 18 Locust, Black, 26 Lonicera amoena, 26 -- arnoldiana, 26 - Ferdinandi, 1 - fragrantissima, 2 - gynochlamydea, 1 - Korolkowii, 26 --floribunda, 26 - Maackii podocarpa, 26 - Maximowiczii sachalinensis, 28 - praeflorens, 2 - Standishii, 2 - spinosa Alberti, 28 - syringantha, 28 -- Wolfii, 28 tatarica, 26 -- angustifolia, 56 -- lutea, 56 -- sibirica, 56 - thibetica, 28 Magnolia Soulangeana, 9 - Star, 9 - White Yulan, 9 Magnolias, Asiatic, 8, 9 Malus baccata, 62 -- mandshurica, 14, 15 - crataegifolia, 34 - florentina, 34 - glaucescens, 24 - ioensis, 18 -- plena, 18 - micromalus, 16 - prunifolia rinki, 62 - robusta persicifolia, 62 - spectabilis, 17 - toringoides, 62 Maple, Mountain, 12 - Red, bark of, 1 -- flowers of, 2 - Rock, 12 - Silver, flowers of, 2 - Sugar, 12 Mockorange, 37 Moosewood, 14 Nannyberry, 64 Oak, White, 69 Orange, Sour, 72 Oxydendrum arboreum, 53 Pagoda-tree, 57 Parrotia persica, 2 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 61 Pea-bush, 57 Peaches, 8, 72 Pears, 8, 14 - Chinese Sand, 16 Pepperbush, 57, 59 Philadelphus Argentine, 37 - Banniere, 37 -- Conquete, 37 - Virginal, 37, 39 Pine, Limber, 68 Pinus flexilis, 68 Pinxter-bloom, 24 Plane, bark of, 2 Platyosprion platycarpum, 48 Polygonum Aubertii, 55, 56, 61 - baldschuanicum, 56 Poncirus trifoliata, 72 Poplar tribe, bark of, 2 Poplars, flowers of, 2 Prinsepia sinensis, 2, 14 - uniflora, 14 Privets, 44 Prunus apetala, 8 - Lannesiana, 6, 8 - pilosiuscula, 8 - serrulata sachalinensis, 5 - subhirtella, 6, 8 -- ascendens, 6 -- autumnalis, 8 -- pendula, 6 tomentosa, 9, 11 yedoensis, 5, 7, 8 Pyrus serotina, 16 Quercus alba. 69 Quinces, Japanese, 18 Rhododendron Album elegans, 32 -- grandiflorum, 32 - arborescens, 45, 49, 78 - arboreum, 30, 78 Atrosanguineum, 32 Boule de Neige, 26 - calendulaceum, 33, 37 - canescens, 25 carolinianum, 17, 25, 27 --album, 25 - catawbiense, 30 -- album, 32 - caucasicum, 32 Charles Dickens, 26, 32 -- Coriaceum, 32 - Daisy, 26, 32 - dauricum mucronulatum, 4, 8, 9 - decorum, 32 - Duke of York, 32 - F. L. Ames, 32 Fortunei Hybrids, 32 - Glennyanum, 26, 32 - H. W. Sargent, 32 - Ignatius Sargent, 32 - James Macintosh, 32 - Kaempferi, 20 - Kettledrum, 32 - Lady Armstrong, 32 - maximum, 30, 46 - Mont Blanc, 17, 26, 32 - nudiflorum, 20, 24 - Old Port, 26 -ponticum, 30 - reticulatum, 19, 20 - rhombicum, 20 - roseum, 20, 24 - S. B. Parsons, 32 - Smirnowii, 17, 26 - Vaseyi, 17 - Viola, 26 - viscosum, 45, 49 51 Rhododendrons, Catawbiense Hybrids, 30 - Caucasicum Hybrids, 32 - Hybrid, 29, 31 Rhus canadensis, 14 - copallina, 50 - cotinus, 46 - glabra, 50 - javanica, 52 - Osbeckii, 52 - semialata, 52 - succedanea, 50 - toxicodendron, 50 - typhina, 50 - vernicifera, 52 - verniciflua, 50, 52 Ribes cereum, 2 - orientale, 2 Robinia hispida, 26 - Kelseyi, 26 -pseudoacacia, 26 - Slavinii, 26 - viscosa, 26 . Rosa bella, 38 - macrophylla, 38 - Moyesii, 40 - multibracteata, 46 multiflora, 41, 46 - cathayensis, 46 - Roxburghii hirtula, 37 - rugosa, 38 -- alba, 38 -- rosea, 38 - setigera, 49 - virginiana, 1, 41, 46 Rose, Prairie, 49 - Seashore, 1, 41, 46 - species, 37 Rose Acacias, 26 Rosemallow, Swamp, 60 Roses, Sun, 41 Salix alba vitellina, 2 Sambucus canadensis, 45 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 49 Shadblows, 16 Silk-tree, 57 Silverbell, 17 Siris, Pink, 61 Smoke-tree, 46 Sophora japonica, 48, 57 Sorrel-tree, 53 Spiraea bracteata, 40 - bumalda 49 -- Anthony Waterer, 49 - Douglasii, 49 - Henryi, 40 - japonica, 49 - latifolia, 49 - Menziesii, 49 - nipponica, 40 - salicifolia, 49 - trichocarpa, 40 - Veitchii, 45 Spiraeas, 49 Stewartia koreana, 49, 53 - pentagyna, 49, 53 - grandiflora, 50, 53 - pseudocamellia, 49, 53 Storax, American, 42 Styrax americana, 42 - - pulverulenta, 42 - californica, 44 - grandiflora, 44 - japonica, 44 - obassia, 44 Sumac, 14 - Red Lac, 50 - Shining, 50 - Smooth 50 - Staghorn, 50 Sumacs, 50, 61 Sun Roses, 41 Syringa chinensis, 18, 22 - Julianae, 28 - Meyeri, 22 - microphylla, 22 - persica, 18 22 - Potaninii, 22 - pubescens, 18, 22 - reflexa, 36 - ~rothomagensis, 24 - Sweginzowii, 36 - tomentella, 36 - velutina, 22 - villosa, 28 - vulgaris, 22 - Wilsonii, 36 - Wolfii, 28 Tecoma radicans, 60 Tilia cordata, 49 - japonica, 49 Trumpet-vine, 57 Ulmus americana, 2 - campestris, 70 - procera, 70 Varnish tree, Chinese, 50 Viburnum alnifolium, 14 -betulifolium, 64 - cassinoides, 64 - dentatum, 44 - dilatatum, 64 -- xanthocarpum, 64 - hupehense, 64 - ichangense, 64 - Lentago, 64 - lobophyllum, 64 Opulus, 64 - prunifolium, 17 pubescens Canbyi, 47, 48 - Sargentii flavum, 64 - Wrightii, 64 Viburnums, 17 Vitex Negundo, 60 -- incisa, 60 Vitis, 53 - Coignetiae, 54 - Kaempferi, 54 Wax Tree, Japan, 50 Willows, Golden, 2 Wistaria floribunda, 40 - frutescens, 40 -- nivea, 40 - macrostachya, 40 -- albo-lilacina, 40 - sinensis, 40 Wistarias, 40 Woodbine, 61 Yellow-root, 14 Yews, 17 Yucca filamentosa, 50 - flaccida, 50 -- glaucescens, 50 -- patens, 50 -- variegata, 50 Zanthorrhiza apiifolia, 14 ERRATA Page 45, line 8 from bottom, for Genista read Cytisus. Page 49, line 1, for R. arboreum read R. arborescens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Publications of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University","article_sequence":20,"start_page":79,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23928","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed170896e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"PUBLICATIONS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. THE BRADLEY BIBLIOGRAPHY. A guide to the literature of woody plants, including books and articles in the proceedings of learned societies and in scientific and popular journals, published in all languages to the end of the nineteenth century. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by Alfred Rehder. 4. 5 vols. Cambridge, 1911-1918. Price $40.00 THE GENUS PINUS. By George Russell Shaw. f. 96 pp. 39 pl. Cambridge, 1914. Price $10.00 CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. Compiled under the direct on of Charles Sprague Sargent by Ethelyn Maria Tucker. f. 2 vols. Cambridge, 1914-1917. Volume I. Authors and titles. Unbound. Price $7.50 Volume II. Subject Catalogue. Unbound. Price $7.50 THE CHERRIES OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. 8. 68 pp. 8 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $3.50 THE CONIFERS AND TAXADS OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. d.. 91 pp. 50 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $5.00 BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION, illustrated. Issued during Spring and Autumn, about 18 numbers per year, together with index and title-page. Contains topical notes on trees and shrubs in the Arboretum. Subscription $1.00 per year JOURNAL OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. A quarterly journal published by the Arnold Arboretum. Subscription $3.00 per year. Price of single copies $1.00. Back numbers on hand of Vols. VI. VII. VIII. IX. X. GUIDE TO THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. 8. 33 pp. 7 pl. 2 maps. Price $ .50 PLANTAE WILSONIANAE. An enumeration of the woody plants collected in Western China for the Arnold Arboretum during the years 1907, 1908, and 1910, by _ E. H. Wilson. Edited by C. S. Sargent. 3 vols. (9 parts) Cambridge. 1911-1917. Parts 1-4 are out of print; the remaining parts each $1.50. THE SILVA OF NORTH AMERICA. A description of the trees which grow naturally in North America exclusive of Mexico. Illustrated by C. E. Faxon. 14 vol. Boston, etc. 1891-1902. 740 plates. 5 vols. bound, vol. 14 lacks several plates (Original price $375.00) Price $250.00 - The same. Broken sets. Number of volumes and prices on request."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23474","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ea728.jpg","title":"1930-4","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1930,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23886","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270816d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Abies concolor, 71 Hydrangea petiolaris, 35 Lonicera bella, 55 Magnolia stellata rosea, 3 Malus Sargentii, 19 Prunus incisa, 7 Prunus serrulata albo-rosea, 15 Quercus alba, 67 Rhododendron \"Album elegans,\" 39 Rhododendron arborescens, 51 Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, 11 Rosa Hugonis, 27 Rosa virginiana, 47 Sorbaria arborea, 59 Syringa chinensis, 23 Tsuga canadensis pendula, 31 Viburnum dilatatum, 43 Viburnum prunifolium, 63"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 13","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23888","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270896b.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III APRIL 13, 1929 NO.1 On April 7 and 8 the thermometer registered the abnormal temperature of 84 F. and the result was an explosive development of vegetation. On the 10th snow fell ! On Saturday, April 6, the plants of Magnolia stellata in front of the Administration Building showed here and there in the shaggy caps which cover the flower buds slits through which white appeared. On Sunday afternoon hundreds of flowers were fully open. On Sunday the myriad buds on the Forsythia bushes showed greenish yellow. On Monday the whole mass was aglow with clear yellow. A few early blossoms on the bushes of Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum on Bussey Hill were expanded on Saturday; on Monday afternoon the whole group was a billowy mass of rosy purple. The Larches in the Pinetum are pushing forth their bright green leaves and many of the branches are weighted down with male flowers, while others are strung with ruby colored female flowers. David's Peach (Prunus Davidiana) and its white form (alba) were in full blossom all last week and for almost the first time on record the flowers escaped injury by frost. At the moment the Manchurian Apricot (Prunus mandshurica), a broad, round-topped tree, is crowned with soft pink yellow-anthered blossoms. In the Cornus collection alongside Meadow Road the Cornelian Cherry (Co7nus mas) and its Asiatic sister, C. officinalis, are in full bloom. Facing the Lilacs, the Benzoin (Benzoin aestivale) is opening its yellow blossoms and Dirca palustris is in full flower. In the Shrub Garden the earliest of the Honeysuckles (Lonicera praeflorens) is past blooming, but nearby L. Standishii with white, faintly tinged purple, gaping blossoms is laden with flowers. Alongside Meadow Road and in the Maple collection the Red Maple (Acer rubrum) is aglow with scarlet and orange-red, honey-scented blossoms. Willows are in full flower and on some species the leaves are pushing forth. Color in expanding bud and opening blossom is apparent on every hand and wherever one may stroll signs of spring are evident. It is fortunate that the heat wave was of short duration, otherwise the spring season would be short-lived. As it is the forcing effect of the high temperature of the 7th and 8th will cause many flowers to open and pass much more quickly than they ordinarily would. After waiting through the long and dreary months of winter we are hungry for color, for fragrance, and for blossom and we feel a natural impatience when these delights are too long delayed or too quickly snatched away. Winter Effects. From the point of view of the Arboretum, the winter has been almost ideal. There have been no long periods of low temperatures and the abundant snowfall in February came at the right time. So far as one can see the few broadleaf evergreens that can withstand this climate have wintered well. Evergreen Rhododendrons show no sign of burning and even the Oregon Grape (Mahonia aquifolium), which usually suffers more or less, is this year unscathed. Such ground covering plants as Heather, which last year fared badly, are this year in perfect condition. Conifers wintered well and even the Canadian Yew, which browns badly in the Arboretum, is this year much less discolored than usual. The Japanese Yew is, of course, its usual healthy black-green. Spruce, Fir, and Pine show no ill effects and the pleasure of walking through the Pinetum this April is much greater than is sometimes the case. In a general way the last three winters have been favorable to vegetation here and have given newly arrived exotic plants a chance to get acclimatized. A number of Lilacs, both French hybrids and such species as Syringa microphylla, were unfavorably affected by the rather warm weather experienced in late autumn. The buds swelled and in many instances the incipient flowers were killed by frost. However, this is not unusual and the loss will scarcely be noticed. On the whole the deciduous shrubs and trees are well laden with flower buds and there is promise of abundant blossom. Viburnum fragrans is a Chinese species that in recent years has been much lauded in the horticultural press of Europe. Apparently it is well-suited to the milder climate across the Atlantic and, putting forth clusters of sweetly fragrant blossoms earlier than any other species, has naturally won for itself many friends. This year for the first time it is flowering freely in the Arboretum. In the Viburnum collection near Centre Street Gate there are two plants; one is about 5 feet tall, narrow in habit with ascending branches and now covered with short, paniculate masses of rose-pink, flushed white, exceedingly fragrant blossoms. Favored by the mild weather, it is giving us a taste of what it is really capable of. For a very sheltered position or for growing against a wall, this plant is worthwhile in New England, but except in such favorable seasons as the present it is not hardy enough to stand fully exposed out-of-doors. It has been long a favorite with the Chinese, who force it into flower for their New Year season. Known since 1831, it was introduced into cultivation by William Purdom, who sent seeds to the Arboretum and to Messrs. Veitch of England in the autumn of 1910. Later the same collector accompanied Reginald Farrer through northern China to Kansu and on this expedition V. fragrans was also sent back to England. Where hardy, it is undoubtedly a first-class plant, but for Massachusetts it can never rival its Korean relative, V. Carlesii. Prunus apetala is first of the Cherries to open its flowers, the plant on Bussey Hill being now in full bloom. Its white petals are very fugacious and to this peculiarity the plant owes its specific name. After the petals have fallen the calyx becomes vinous red and persists for quite a long time. The species is fairly abundant in thickets and margins of woods throughout central Japan up to an altitude of 3,000 feet above sea-level. It is a twiggy plant with hairy leaves, twice or thrice serrate along the margins. It is not particularly ornamental but if the clustered green bracts which subtend the flowers be examined through a pocket lens they will be seen to be so densely clothed with gland-tipped hairs as to resemble leaves of the Sundew. It has been known since about 1843 but was not introduced into cultivation until 1914 when E. H. Wilson sent small plants and scions from Nikko. Corylopsis Gotoana on Centre Street Path is now strung with pendent racemes of greenish yellow, delightfully fragrant blossoms. For several years past in these bulletins mention has been made of this shrub, and the more we know of it the more its first-class qualities become evident; it bids fair to rank among the indispensables. Corylopsis are spring flowering shrubs, but this species has the advantage of being the hardiest and most free growing. Introduced into the Arboretum through seeds sent from Japan in 1905 by J. G. Jack, this plant has never known winter injury. At first it blossomed sparingly but with age and size it is now as free flowering as any member of its tribe. Our largest plant is about 10 feet tall and 12 feet through and well-worth a visit to behold. The Corylopsis belongs to the Witch- Hazel family, whose members rank among the most useful and interesting of hardy shrubs for they are the first flowers of spring and the last flowers of autumn to be put forth by any woody plant in the climate of Massachusetts. Euptelea polyandra is a large bush or bushy tree native of Japan and rarely seen in cultivation. It is not a plant to recommend for the ordinary garden and yet it is not without peculiar charm. On Bussey Hill, near Kaempfer's Azalea, are two large bushes of this plant whose branches are now decked with pendent clusters of reddish brown stamens at the base of which nestle a small greenish, wedge-shaped pistil. After the pollen is shed the pistil will elongate. Before the flowers open the buds are shining black and no plant in the Arboretum collections has more beautiful winter buds than this Euptelea. It is a curious aberrant type of which three species only are known, all confined to the Far East. At one time botanists placed it among the Magnolias as an anomalous member of the family. Magnolia stellata rosea is a pink-flowered form of the well-known Star Magnolia and is all too rarely seen in gardens. In bud the flowers are a deep pink but as they open they bleach and become almost white. In habit and hardiness it is similar to the type to which it is a worthy companion. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 27","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23889","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24ea36a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III APRIL 27, 1929 NO. 2 The atrocious weather of the last two weeks had a disastrous effect on plants that happened to be in full blossom. Plants may be very hardy but it is not to be expected that their tender blossoms can withstand snow, sleet, hail, several degrees of frost, and high winds. Often as not the first flowers of spring suffer for their daring but this year they have been punished most severely. When the first Bulletin went to press two weeks ago the group of Rhododendron dauricum 7r~ucronulatum on Bussey Hill was a wealth of rosy purple, thousands of blossoms being fully open; the Star Magnolias in front of the Administration Building were sheeted in white and the Manchurian Apricot was in full bloom. Before the Bulletin appeared in type every expanded blossom had been destroyed. Not before have the flowers on R. dauricum mucronulatum suffered so severely as this year; every open or partially open flower was absolutely ruined. The Magnolia blossoms were browned and resembled sodden, brown tissue paper, and the flowers on the Manchurian Apricot were killed. The Forsythias, whose blossoms are accustomed to a good deal of buffeting each spring, have suffered far more than is usual and their luster and beauty has gone from them, although late unexpanded buds are now doing their best to enliven the branches. Fortunately, only a few subjects had burst into bloom, otherwise the tale of woe would have been even sadder. The return to cold, boisterous, and stormy weather has had a retarding influence on all vegetation. It has also greatly hindered spring work; much of the land in the Arboretum lies low and this has been flooded, making it impossible to do any transplanting or even to cultivate the ground. The probability is that this stormy spell will be followed by hot weather which means that the spring season will be unusually short. The unseemly weather has had the curious effect of advancing the blossoming period of some plants while retarding that of the majority. For example, on Bussey Hill a Pear-tree (Pyrus ussuriensis) is in full blossom preceding instead of its usual practice of succeeding the earliest flowering Cherry. In the Arboretum the first blossoms are just opening on the Sargent Cherry; at North Easton, which in spring is usually a week behind us, this Cherry is in full bloom and, so too, is it across the Parkway from the Arboretum. While the Cherry blossoms have remained virtually at a standstill during the past two weeks the buds on the Lilac bushes have grown considerably and there is great promise ofa fine crop of flowers. After a careful survey it is comforting to note that although the first flowers of spring have had a rude awakening and suffered heavily for their haste no material damage has been done to those which had not progressed beyond the bud stage. If from now on normally decent weather prevails, there will yet be a rich harvest of spring flowers. In the Orient flowering Cherries in variety are a feature of wayside thickets and woodlands, and are among the most pleasing features of early spring. Not only in Japan are flowering Cherries a conspicuous feature of the forest flora, but in Korea and the temperate parts of China also. Japan has so largely supplied us with Cherry trees that we are apt to forget that they also grow in the neighboring countries. As a matter of fact, the first Oriental Cherry to be grown in western gardens was introduced from Canton, China. This was in 1819 and it was named Prunus pseudocerasus. In 1882 a second species, afterwards named P. serrulata, was also sent to England from Canton. The first-named has single flowers and is the common, edible Cherry of China. Unfortunately, it grows in warm or moderately warm districts and has not proved hardy except in very favored locations. The early importations quickly disappeared from gardens and subsequent introductions, except a notable example in the Botanic Gardens, Cambridge, England, have succumbed to the western climate. The cultivation of this species in Massachusetts is out of the question but it is now growing at Chico and elsewhere in California. The second plant (P. serrulata) has double white flowers and this has persisted in cultivation down to the present time, although it never appears to have become common. Soon after 1850 flowering Cherries from Japan began to reach Europe and, in the early sixties, this country and they quickly superseded the Chinese sorts. It must be confessed, however, that this was due to frequent importations rather than to the successful cultivation of these trees. Today, most of the Oriental flowering Cherries in cultivation in this country are of Japanese origin. One or two of the species, however, are widespread in the Far East and these together with species recently discovered in central China are now gradually becoming known to western gardens. On the whole, few, if any, of the Chinese species promise to rival in beauty their Japanese brethren. Chinese Cherries. Prunus cyclamina is a tree from 20 to 35 feet tall with a moderately thick trunk and a spreading crown of slender branches, common in thickets and in thin Oak woods on the mountains of Hupeh, central China. The deep pink flowers, each about an inch in diameter, are produced in great abundance in clusters on the naked shoots. The sepals are strongly reflexed, while the yellow-anthered stamens are prominently thrust forward. The unfolding leaves are bronze-green and appear after or at the same time as the blossoms open. Another woodland species common in central China is P. pilosiuse2tla. This is a low, bushy tree with slender branches, abundant white flushed pink blossoms, prominent stamens, reflexed sepals and bronze-green, unfolding foliage. It is one of the hardiest species and for many years past has flowered freely in the Arboretum. A lovely plant is P. concinna with relatively large, pure white faintly stained with pink, blossoms. The flowers, each from 1 inch to 11\/4 inches in diameter, are crowded in fascicles along the naked shoots. The bronze-colored calyx has ascending-spreading sepals and each petal is deeply emarginate. This Cherry is native of the thickets and the margins of the woods on the mountains of western Hupeh, where it is usually a bush seldom exceeding 10 feet in height; occasionally it forms a small and slender tree. These three species of Chinese flowering Cherries were discovered and introduced into cultivation by E. H. Wilson and are now in blossom on Bussey Hill. Japanese Cherries. Just within Forest Hills Gate and on Bussey Hill the Japanese Cherries are bearing their usual abundant crop of blossoms. Unless unpropitious weather prevails the single flowered forms will be at their best when this Bulletin reaches its readers. Owing probably to the cool weather the blossoms of the Sargent Cherry (P. serrulata sachalinensis) are this year unusually deep pink in color. The Spring Cherry (P. subhirtella) is as lovely as usual and, so too, is the less hardy Tokyo Cherry (P. yedoensis). The so-called October-flowering Cherry (P, subhirtella autumnalis), which last autumn flowered sparingly, is this spring bearing an unusually large quantity of its pleasing semi-double pink passing to white blossoms. This is really a first-class plant and one which ought to be widely known; although the flowers are semi-double, it frequently produces fruit. The Mt. Fuji Cherry (P. incisa) has been often mentioned in these Bulletins and each year its merits become more and more apparent. It is absolutely hardy and no Cherry is more floriferous. The flowers are pure white and after the petals fall the calyx becomes reddish and continues to be attractive for many days. This is a bush or small tree particularly abundant on the lower slopes of sacred Mt. Fuji. It was discovered so long ago as 1776 by Carl P. Thunberg but was not introduced into western gardens until after the dawn of the twentieth century. It was first received at the Arboretum from H. A. Hesse, Weener, Germany, in April 1912, under the erroneous name of P. pseudocerasus. The single flowered Cherries mentioned here with the exception of P. subhirtella are easily raised from seeds, which is the simplest and the most satisfactory method of increase. With the exercise of a little patience there is no difficulty in raising them from seeds and in a few years a good stock of healthy, vigorous plants is available. On their own roots these Cherries grow readily and live long. They are good species, with their characters fixed, and there is nothing to gain but much to lose in attempting to propagate them other than by the natural method of seeds. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 4","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23904","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25eb726.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 4, 1929 NO. 3 Flowers are opening rapidly; the Chinese Almond (Prunus triloba) in its several forms and the Nanking Cherry (P. tome7itosa) are in full blossom just within the Forest Hills Gate, and so, too, are other bushes of the same plants on Bussey Hill. Several Asiatic species of Pear trees are in full bloom and Cherry blossoms in variety are opening and making a brave display at Forest Hills entrance and on Bussey Hill. In the Shrub Garden, Lonicera tenuipes is covered with its small deep pink blossoms and the Canadian Plum (Prunus nigra) is in flower. Magnolias in front of the Administration Building are still in bloom and alongside the roads and the margins of woods the Shadblows are fast being muslined in white and Yellowroot (Zanthorrhiza apiifolia) is a dull cloud of lurid purple. The Leather-wood (Dirca palustris) is past flowering but the naked shoots of the Spicebush (Benzoin aestivale) are studded with clustered blossoms. In early spring the young unfolding foliage of many plants is of a reddish hue. Particularly noticeable in this respect is the young foliage of Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Amelanchier laevis, the Sargent Cherry, Highbush Blueberry, several Viburnums and of many herbs. No one can fail to notice this phenomenon though probably most accept it as a matter of course. This ruddy tinted foliage is due to the presence in the cell sap of a coloring substance, known technically as anthocyanin, which in the presence of free acids assumes a reddish tone. Its function at this particular season ~s to mask and thus protect the green coloring bodies of the young leaves from the damaging effects of strong sunlight. The observant will have noticed that this ruddy hued spring foliage is evanescent in character. So soon as the leaves enlarge and become moderately firm in texture they assume their wonted green color and the red mask completely disappears. The appearance and disappearances of anthocyanin is an expression of the chemical changes that are constantly proceeding in the leaves, and to its presence in bark and young unfolding leaf spring owes much of its color warmth. The shortening of the spring planting season, due to unfavorable weather, again draws attention to the importance of more planting work being done during the autumn months. Last September some hundreds of Conifers were transplanted in the Arboretum. These were given a surface mulch of farmyard manure and one and all have passed through the winter unscathed. During the latter half of October and throughout November the Spiraea and Deutzia collections were remodeled and in addition a large number of miscellaneous trees and shrubs were moved. These, too, were mulched and like their evergreen brethren have suffered no ill effects. For full three months of the autumn the moving of plants was steadily pursued in the Arboretum and the results are wholly satisfactory. Indeed, had the work not been done at that time it would have been quite impossible to carry it out. It is evident that if proper care be exercised, fall planting can be successfully conducted in the climate of Massachusetts, opinions to the contrary notwithstanding. In a normal season April is really the only spring month in which deciduous-leaved trees and shrubs can be transplanted in Massachusetts, and the period is all too short for work on a large scale to be carried out, so the more done in autumn the better. The Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) at the moment is very conspicuous on account of its wealth of bright, greenish yellow blossoms which are borne in upright, more or less bell-shaped cymose corymbs at the end of every branchlet. So floriferous is this tree and so showy its blossoms that it might be recommended as a flowering tree were its uses not greater in other directions. The Norway Maple is a handsome tree, growing from 75 to 90 feet tall with a stout trunk, thick branches and a broad rounded or dome-shaped crown. It has large, palmately, 5-lobed leaves, rich green throughout the summer and in the autumn changing to clear yellow. It thrives in eastern North America, where it has been abundantly planted. Too much so in fact, for many miles of country highways are planted with this tree for no other reason than that it was easily obtainable from the nurserymen. For suburban districts it is to be recommended but not for cities and certainly not for country highways. An abomination in the sight of all tree lovers is to be seen between Greenfield and Northampton, Mass., where miles of the highway are lined by round-topped, mutilated specimens of this Norway Maple. For the formal garden, trees which will stand clipping and molding into vegetable solids have a use and for this purpose the Norway Maple can be used but to treat it thus and plant it along the wayside is an offence against good taste. Another European Maple of large size is A. pseudoplatanus, the Sycamore Maple. As a rule this has a short trunk clothed with scaling gray bark, showing pale brown on the underside, and a broad flattened round crown made up of massive branches. The leaves are palmately 5-lobed, about 6 inches across, deep dark green on the upper surface and gray on the underside. The flowers are borne in pendent, tail-like clusters and are much less showy than those of the Norway Maple. The value of this tree to American gardens is largely because it thrives well in exposed situations near the seashore. Indeed, it is one of the very best of all trees to plant as a windbreak for shore gardens along the New England coast. Of both the Sycamore Maple and Norway Maple there are many garden forms-some with upright branches, some with purple, others with variegated and differently incised leaves. To those fond of the curious some of the varieties are worthwhile but for practical purposes the typical trees are best. The Oshima Cherry (Prunus Lannesiana albida) is now in blossom on Bussey Hill. This is one of the principal parents of the double-flowered Japanese Cherries, but unfortunately is less hardy than some of the others. It has pure white blossoms, each about 11\/z inches in diameter, borne several together in fascicles crowded toward the ends of the branches. The flowers are pleasingly fragrant, being reminiscent of almonds. This Cherry is native of the warmer parts of Japan, being common on Oshima or De Vries Island, which is little more than an active volcano. Southward on the volcanic Seven Isles of Idzu it is also very plentiful. It is not a tall tree, seldom exceeding 45 feet in height, but has a wide-spreading crown and on Oshima Island there are specimens with trunks more than 20 feet in girth. As usually seen in Japan, however, it is a tree of medium size recognized by its pale comparatively smooth bark. Not before has it blossomed so freely in the Arboretum as this year, due probably to the mildness of the winter. Prunus serrulata spontanea is the common Cherry on the mountains of central and southern Japan, southern Korea and the temperate parts of central China. It is a tree smaller in all its parts than its northern form, the Sargent Cherry, but not one whit less beautiful. Its branches are twiggy, very numerous and form a vase-shaped or rounded crown sometimes 20 feet through. The flowers are smaller than those of the Sargent Cherry but are produced in the greatest profusion. On Bussey Hill this Cherry is just opening its blossoms; there is also a specimen just within the Forest Hills Gate and others up on Peters Hill. The particular specimens blossoming were raised from seeds collected in central China by E. H. Wilson in 1907. For many years past they have flowered abundantly each season after those of its northern relative, the Sargent Cherry are past. Southern types require more heat to bring them into leaf and blossom than do boreal forms; this is why the more northern trees are earliest in pushing forth flower and leaf. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii on Bussey Hill is now opening its first flowers. This is a sturdy Azalea with relatively stout, ascending stems, and clusters of large, funnel-form, pure pink blossoms. It is a native of the mountains of Korea, being very abundant in certain districts and it also occurs on two isolated mountains in Japan. Discovered in 1854 by Baron Alexander von Schlippenbach, after whom it was named, it was not introduced into cultivation until 1893. In the Arboretum it has beer. growing since 1905. Of slow growth, it has proved perfectly hardy but experience has taught us that early autumn is the best season of the year in which to transplant this Azalea. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 10","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23899","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25ea326.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 10, 1929 NO. 4 Bussey Hill is the heart of the Arboretum. From its summit, looking in any direction, extensive views of the Arboretum may be had-with the City of Boston clearly seen in the distance and the Blue Hills in the opposite direction. Around the crown of the hill a rich collection of the newer Chinese plants is accommodated and this is augmented by mass plantings of Azaleas in which every hardy species and variety is well represented. A collection of Japanese Cherries, both single and double-flowered, with Asiatic Pears and Crabapples stud the grassy knoll and help to complete the picture. From the dawn of spring to late autumn there is something of unusual interest to be seen on Bussey Hill. At the moment the Japanese Cherries are the center of attraction. The single forms are at the height of their beauty and will be followed in a few days by the double-flowered sorts, whose tasseled masses of rose-like flowers possess an irresistible charm not always present in double blossoms. The plants are grafted on understocks of the Sargent Cherry and are proof of the value of this Cherry for the purpose. The trees make a good growth every year and unlike their relatives, the Crabapples, do not appear to have off seasons for flowering. This is probably due to the fact that they are not handicapped by the exhausting effect of bearing a display of fruits. So far as memory serves, these Cherries are about as full of blossom this year as they were last, indeed, it would be difficult to place more blossoms on the branches. The site is windswept and for this reason and also in order not to obstruct the general view the aim of the Arboretum is to keep the plants low with spreading crowns, this is accomplished by shortening the more vigorous shoots so soon as the flowers are past. The single forms with white blossoms are chiefly sports and selections from the Oshima Cherry (P. Lan7zesiana). A few of the double-flowered forms such as Sirotae and Gioiko are also products of the Oshima Cherry, but most of the double sorts planted here are sports of the well-known Sargent Cherry (P. serrulata sachalinensis). The number of these forms is limited but they readily rank as the finest of the whole group of Japanese double-flowering Cherries. One of the very best is Fugenzo, better known as James H. Veitch, a free flowering double pink form. Somewhat later and of a richer color is Sekiyama or Kanzan, the finest of all the colored forms. Unusually lovely is Albo-rosea, whose blossoms, pink in the bud, are almost pure white when fully open, and hang in clusters along the whole length of the branches. This, like all the double forms of the Sargent Cherry, is very hardy and it has never suffered winter injury in the Arboretum. In the single-flowered Cherries the blossoms are very fugitive and when strong winds prevail, as have been the case this spring, they seldom last more than four or five days. In the double-flowered forms the petals are more tenacious and last in good condition from ten days to a fortnight. Moreover, as they blossom after the single forms are past they lengthen the Cherry blossom season, which in normal years lasts in the Arboretum for about three weeks. Forest Hills Entrance continues gay with blossom. The Pear trees are particularly full and so, too, are several of the Crabapple trees, while near the small pond the European Cherries (P. Cerasus and P. avium) and their forms are laden with pure white blossoms. The October-flowering Cherry, mentioned in the Bulletin of April 27th, still boasts many blossoms. The lasting qualities of the flowers on this particular Cherry is amazing, especially when one considers the gales that they have endured since they opened during the last week in April. The large tree of Malus spectabilis, which last year carried few blossoms, is this year abundantly laden, and so, too, are the trees of the Cherry Crabapple (M. robusta) nearby. Perhaps the most striking Crabapple, however, is M. theifera with its outthrust branches few in number clad with flowers from base to summit. The habit of this particular tree is decidedly picturesque and in beauty of blossom it is not exceeded by any of its relatives. It is a good species and unlike the rank and file of Crabapples comes true from seed. It has been frequently mentioned in these Bulletins and every year its ornamental qualities become more and more impressive. Unfortunately, its fruits have little color though they are eagerly eaten by birds after they have been frosted. Asiatic Crabapples will be at the height of their beauty when this Bulletin reaches its readers. The main collection, which is accommodated at the foot of Peters Hill, a couple of hundred yards within the Bussey Street Gate, is not flowering so abundantly this year as last, not more than half the trees are blooming. Last year a larger number of trees blossomed but seldom if ever does it happen that all the trees flower freely in any one season. Their free fruiting qualities exercise an exhausting effect and the trees really have to take a year off to recuperate. An exception to this general rule appears to be the Manchurian Crabapple (Malus baccata mandshurica) which is the first of the tribe to burst into bloom bearing large pure white fragrant flowers freely each and every season. It is as full this year as it was last and has been equally floriferous for the last five or six seasons. All the forms of M. floribunda are flowering and so, too, is the single pink blossomed M. micromalus and the Parkman Crabapple (M. Halliana) with semi-double rose-pink flowers. The forms of the Siberian Crabapple with few exceptions are not flowering this year. Strange to say, the Crabapples in the supplementary collection near the Forest Hills Gate and those growing here and there in the Arboretum are abundantly laden with flowers, the seedling forms of M. floribunda near the Administration Building being particularly fine. Last year was their off season. Malus purpurea is a comparatively new Crabapple of hybrid origin, which first appeared in France about 1900, and whose parents are supposed to be the Carmine Crabapple (M. atrosanguinea) and the purple leaved variety of the Common Apple (M. yu7nila Niedzwetzkyana). It is more free growing than either parent and produces in quantity bright reddish purple blossoms. The leaves have a purplish hue and the wood itself is stained with red-purple, characters which it inherits from its part-parent, the purple form of the Common Apple. It is really a first-class plant and one which ought to be widely planted. It is better colored and its flowers are more perfect in form than those of its parents. This would appear to be the oldest of the hybrids of this race but newer forms such as (M. purpurea Eleyi and M. purpurea aldenhamensis) are popular in Europe. A similar race of hybrids has been developed by Professor Carl A. Hansen, Brookings, S. D., and his Hopa Crabapple is a really delightful plant, bearing flowers of a pleasing shade of reddish purple. All Crabapples are worthwhile plants, most of them being remarkable for their hardiness and all for their free blossoming qualities. They may be grown wherever the Common Apple flourishes and they love sunshine and free exp~~sure to the wind. Viburnum alnifolium is a lovely native shrub much neglected in gardens and difficult to obtain from nurserymen. It is native of mountain woodlands and copses from New Brunswick west to Michigan and south to North Carolina and is first of native shrubs with conspicuous white flowers to blossom. It is a sparsely branched shrub growing from 6 to 9 feet tall with stout shoots and handsome, ovate-cordate leaves, dark green and deeply wrinkled on the upper surface with many prominent nerves on the under surface. The flowers are borne in terminal flattened clusters, each from 2 to 4 inches in diameter, bearing on the outer edge an interrupted ring of large pure white neuter flowers. The central flowers are small, tubular, with prominent greenish yellow anthers. Its clustered flowers are conspicuous from a distance and appearing as they do when most vegetation is bare of foliage they light up the woodland landscape. Like many another waif of the woods it does not transplant readily neither is it easy to establish in gardens. A moist situation suits it best although the oldest plant in the Arboretum is that on a dry bank. There is many an exotic treasured in gardens and offered for sale by nurserymen which is far less beautiful and desirable than the native Hobble-bush or American Way-faring tree, to give its common names. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23900","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25ea725.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 16, 1929 NO. 5 The Arboretum is perhaps as beautiful at the present moment as at any time of the year. Nearly all the trees are just pushing into growth and among the young unfolding leaves every shade of green is present and in contrast there are the grays, pinks, and ruddy browns of the Oaks' expanding buds. The tracery of the branches is not yet hidden and the crowns of all the deciduous trees look light and airy. There is also a good deal of blossom to be seen no matter where one may walk. The collections of the Arboretum represent in epitome the woody flora of northern lands and the beauty of the arborescent wealth of the boreal regions of Europe, Asia, and North America invites the visitor. Not least at the moment is the Flowering Dogwood, one of the most delightful of the smaller trees of North America. Rarely is it that Massachusetts enjoys for two seasons in succession the Flowering Dogwood in all its beauty. Thanks to the mild winters, the Dogwood was splendid last season and it promises to be equally good this year. People who live on Long Island and southward are accustomed to an annual display of white saucers on their Dogwood trees, but here the free blossoming is only occasional and when it happens it is an event worth noting. In the Arboretum this Dogwood has been freely planted alongside the drives and on the margins of woodlands, where at the moment it is conspicuous. A worthy companion is the Redbud (Cercis canadensis), whose clustered rose-purple, pea-like blossoms stud the naked branches. For associating with the Flowering Dogwood in thicket and margin of woodland there is no better flowering tree. The color is not all that could be desired but from a distance and when neighbored by white it is very effective. Its specific name notwithstanding, the plant never knew Canada as a wild tree, for it is not indigenous north of the state of New Jersey. Bussey Hill remains the center of attraction. Many of the double flowered Japanese Cherries are still at the height of beauty. Several Hawthorns are in blossom and Wilson's Pearl bush (Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii) is a sheaf of the purest white; Rhododendron Schlippenbachii is still beautifully in flower. Some of the early Cytisus and Barberries are expanding their blossoms, and the flower buds are swelling on scores of other shrubs. The most conspicuous plant at the moment is perhaps the Korean Azalea (Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense), bearing thousands of fully expanded rosy purple, exquisitely fragrant blooms. Many people object to the color but when massed together they are certainly a compelling sight and the odor is as sweet as that of any hardy flower. This Azalea is a very hardy shrub of excellent habit, low-growing, twiggy and well-suited for massing. It was introduced into cultivation by seeds collected in Korea in 1895 by Mr. J. G. Jack and has never known winter injury in the Arboretum. The largest plants are now about 5 feet high and much more in diameter and each year completely hide themselves in flowers. Beneath the old White Pines, whose picturesque appearance adds so much to the landscape, the Torch Azalea (R. obtusum Kaempferi) is opening a myriad dazzling flowers. This is really an astonishing plant; year after year it puts forth such a profusion of blossoms that one marvels that it does not die from sheer exhaustion, and musing on this Azalea one wonders how so much beauty can withstand the fierceness of the New England climate. Introduced into cultivation in 1892 by seeds collected in Japan by Professor C. S. Sargent, this plant ranks among flowering shrubs as one of the very best gifts that has come to the shores of Massachusetts Bay. For some years after its arrival fears as to its hardiness were freely expressed but these have long since vanished and the plant is one of the hardiest of all Azaleas. The flowers vary a good deal in shade of color, ranging from salmon to a brick red but they blend well one with another. For the best effect this plant should be thickly massed. In youth it is of spindly habit but it quickly improves and becomes an intricately branched flattened bush, usually from 4 to 5 feet tall and as broad. Under the shade of trees it grows taller and is in habit less compact but the flowers keep their color under those conditions better than when fully exposed to the sun. Good air and root drainage are essential and granted these the plant is perfectly happy in this part of Massachusetts and in similar regions where an acid soil prevails. Just beyond the thicket of Torch Azaleas the Pontic Azalea (R. luteum) is opening its yellow fragrant flowers. Less hardy than the species mentioned before, this plant has benefited from the last two mild winters and the several bushes are now a wealth of blossom. This Azalea is native of the mountains bordering the Black Sea and it also occurs in one or two isolated parts of central Europe. It has been much used by the hybridist for crossing with different American species and has given rise to the Ghent Azaleas, a race of beautiful multicolored plants, unfortunately, scarcely hardy and not long-lived in this part of Massachusetts. The above Azaleas may all be seen in blossom on the slopes of Bussey Hill, but mention must be made of two groups of Rhododendron Vaseyi on either side of Meadow Road. This, the most winsome of all Azaleas, is just opening its pure pink blossoms. Berberis Dielsiana is one of the best of the Chinese Barberries and one of the earliest to blossom. It is a dense, much-branched bush, 8 feet or more tall and much more in diameter, with ascending arching shoots forming a fountain-like mass. The leaves are dark green, narrow, oblanceolate in shape and each about 2 inches long. The flowers hang in slender racemose clusters from every joint along the shoot and in the autumn the stems are strung with ovoid scarlet berries. This Barberry is native of the province of Shensi, China, where it was discovered by Padre G. Giraldi about 1892; it was introduced into cultivation by seeds sent by William Purdom in 1911 to the Arboretum. Berberis verruculosa is one of the very few evergreen Barberries that can be grown in the Arboretum. Strictly speaking, the climate in the neighborhood of Boston is a little too cold for this plant's wellbeing but on Cape Cod and south, where the influence of the Gulf Stream is manifest, it is perfectly happy. It is a low-growing, much branched twiggy shrub, with branches overlapping one another to form a dense mound, clothed with lance-shaped leaves, each about 1 inch long, glossy green on the upper surface and glaucous on the underside. The clear yellow flowers hang singly from the axils of the leaves and are followed in the autumn by bloomy blue-black fruits. The branches are covered by tiny warts, hence its specific name. It is native of Hupeh in central China, where it was discovered on humus-clad rocks in open woods and introduced into cultivation in 1900 by E. H. Wilson. For a shady spot, particularly in the rockery, this Barberry is a most delightful subject. Malus Sargentii. Of the low-growing Crabapples this is easily the best with its rigid spreading branches sometimes 6 or 8 feet long and flowers, tinged with pink in the bud, pure white and saucer-shaped when open and borne several together in umbels. Like all the tribe, it is exceedingly free-flowering and this year it is particularly good, both at Forest Hills entrance and in the Crabapple collection at the foot of Peters Hill. When raised from seeds only a percentage of the plants are dwarf in habit, the tendency being to revert to an upright bushy type, a form by no means so useful or pleasing in gardens. The desired low-growing spreading habit of this plant may be induced by severe pruning when young. It was discovered in 1892 and introduced into cultivation from northern Japan by the late Director of the Arboretum, whose name it worthily commemorates. Prunus glandulosa, the Flowering Almond, one of the earliest of Oriental plants to reach western gardens, is a native of China and Japan, where it has been cultivated from immemorial time. The typical form has simple white flowers strung along the whole length of its upright twiggy shoots but under cultivation forms with pink blossoms and others with double flowers have appeared. In old gardens here and there in New England the double white and double pink form of this plant are often seen in abundant blossom. It is of twiggy habit, seldom exceeding 3 or 4 feet in height, and if left alone perpetuates itself by suckering freely. E. H. W"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 18","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23901","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25eab26.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 18, 1929 NO. 6 Now is Lilac time in the Arboretum. On a sloping bank on the left hand side of Bussey Hill Road, entering from the Forest Hills Gate, several hundreds of Lilac bushes are putting forth their blossoms. Of the twenty-eight recognized species of Lilac twenty may be seen growing there and with them about 150' named varieties that have originated in gardens. There also may be seen the parents of the Common Lilac with the improved varieties which have resulted from the skill of plant breeders in France, in Germany, and in this country. The Lilac is the favorite flowering shrub of the people of this part of America and every year they flock in thousands to the feast of blossom the Arboretum affords. Perfect hardiness, suitability to the climate, abundant blossoms, and pleasing fragrance are the attributes of this most excellent plant. The flowers may be single or double, pure white or varying in color from pale lilac-purple and almost pink to rich shades of purplish crimson; in some they are nearly blue. The shades grade imperceptibly into one another and the English language is not rich enough to define the color tones exactly. Neither do the different color charts help much since without having one in hand to match the blossoms the terms employed are meaningless. The flowers, hundreds together, are borne in more or less upright thyrsoid panicles each often a foot or more tall, and in a well-flowered bush every shoot terminates in a cluster. Forms of the Common Lilac are exceedingly numerous and every year sees them added to, although it is doubtful if many are real improvements on existing sorts. In no flower does personal taste play a more important part and the only way to make a satisfactory selection is for those interested to visit the collection and jot down the names of the sorts that most appeal to them. Lilacs are of simple culture but they demand a rich. well-drained soil. The so-called French hybrids, which are selections and seminal variants of the Common Lilac, in particular will not flourish in a situation where the roots are waterlogged during the winter months. Good air and root drainage are essential; they love a rich loamy soil and enjoy lime. If the latter be naturally absent, it can be added in the form of bonemeal. This and well-rotted cow dung are the best fertilizers. So soon as the flowers are past they should be cut away so as not to hinder the growth; at the same time any pruning necessary to keep the bushes shapely should be done. If, however, the plants through neglect become thin and scrawny, they should be cut to the ground in the early spring so that they may enjoy the advantage of a full season in which to grow. Such treatment is drastic and should not be undertaken except when necessity demands and it must be remembered that for the bushes to recuperate, a couple of years at least will be necessary. With such severely pruned Lilacs, cultivation and feeding will hasten their rehabilitation. The Common Lilac has been a favorite flower with western people for several centuries. It was first found in cultivation in Constantinople so long ago as 1554 and about 1563 was carried to Vienna from whence it spread throughout Europe. How or by whom it was taken to Constantinople is a mystery and it was not until 1828 that it was discovered in a wild state. This was in Banat in western Rumania; in 1841 it was found on the mountains of Bulgaria. It was one of the earliest flowering shrub$ brought to this country but, here again, when and by whom it has been impossible to discover. Evidently its beauty and fragrance impressed itself on early observers who exerted themselves to cultivate it for their own delectation. Syringa oblata, of which there are three varieties (affinis, Giraldii, dilatata), is the first Lilac to open its blossoms. The plant to which the name S. oblata belongs was first found in gardens of northern China and was introduced into cultivation by Robert Fortune in 1856. This Lilac is characterized by its compact dome-shaped truss of lilac-purple blossoms which usually get injured by late frosts. The variety affinis has white flowers and is also commonly cultivated in Chinese gardens. The variety Giraldii is a wilding with lilac-colored blossoms borne in loose open cluster~. The variety dilatata is native of Korea and is perhaps the most pleasing form of the species. It is of graceful habit with slender branchlets and bears in abundance lax panicles of lilac-pink, long-tubed blossoms. S. oblata in all its forms is remarkable for the large size of its broad leathery leaves, which in the autumn assume rich tints of vinous-purple. Crossed with the Common Lilac (S. vulgaris) it has given rise to a race known as S. hyacinthiflora, of which there are a number of named forms. They are all of vigorous growth, tall in stature and open their fragrant blossoms before those of the Common Lilac. The typical S. h7~ocinthiflox-a may be seen in the middle of the Lilac group and half a dozen or so named varieties of this hybrid race are growing above the Forsythias. Syringa pubescens has the most pleasantly fragrant blossoms of any Lilac and the large bush on the left of the walk near the center of the collection fills the air for some distance. This is also a native of northern China and was first raised in the Arboretum from seeds received from Peking in 1882. It is a free-growing, free-flowering shrub with erect, rather slender stems, small leaves and large clusters of pale lilac, long-tubed but rather small flowers. No Lilac is more floriferous and none more deserving of a place in gardens. Syringa pinnatifolia is an oddity. It has small Ash-like leaves and lateral pyramidate clusters of tiny white flowers. It blossoms about the same time as S. oblata and on account of its un-lilac-like appearance attracts much attention. In itself it has no special garden value but to the hybridist on account of its distinct pinnate foliage it may be of value. It is native of the high mountains of the principality of Mupin, in western China, where it was discovered in 1904 by E. H. Wilson, who introduced it into cultivation. Syringa Meyeri is a slender stemmed shrub of compact habit, and one of the first of the Lilacs to bloom. The flowers are more or less reddish lilac-colored and are borne in upright lateral and terminal clusters, forming large panicles. It is known only as a cultivated plant in gardens of northern China. A peculiarity of this Lilac is that in early autumn it bears a more or less abundant second crop of blossoms. Syringa persica, the so-called Persian Lilac, is an old favorite now not so often seen in gardens as its merit warrants. It blossoms after the rank and file of the Common Lilacs are past when its slender shoots are transformed into flowering plumes of pale rosy purple or white. It is a spreading floriferous bush of medium height with small leaves. The type has entire leaves, but there is a form in which the leaves are incised (laciniata) and another with white blossoms. The specific name of this Lilac is misleading, since its native home is the province of Kansu in northwestern China. When or how it reached Persia, where it has been cultivated from very early times, is quite unknown though probably it was carried by early travelers across Asia by the old trade routes which linked China with Persia and the valley of the Euphrates. Syringa chinensis or S. rothomagensis as it is often called, the Rouen Lilac, is the oldest of all hybrid Lilacs and in the opinion of many good judges the most outstanding member of the tribe. It is a cross between S. vulgaris and S. persica, which appeared as a natural hybrid about 1777 in the Botanic Garden at Rouen. Its sudden and mysterious origin gave rise to all sorts of false stories, not least being that it came from China, which egregious error gave rise to its specific misnomer. It is a long-lived bush and attains a large size, specimens 20 feet tall and 30 feet through being known. No Lilac flowers more abundantly, and old specimens in bloom resemble a tumbling mass of blossom. As in other Lilacs, so in this, the flowers vary from nearly white to reddish purple. Its constitution is as sound as that of the Common Lilac itself and much greater than that of a number of species and a host of the so-called French hybrids. The influence of the Common Lilac is shown by the vigorous habit but the narrower leaves, slender branches and abundant flower clusters are inherited from S. persica. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23902","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25eaf26.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 24, 1929 NO. 7 The American Crabapples at the foot of Peters Hill are now in full blossom, filling the air with the pleasant fragrance of violets. The favorite Bechtel's Crabapple will be at the height of its beauty when this Bulletin reaches its readers. The Common Lilac and its hundred and one forms are still in good condition, and a number of species are also in bloom. Facing the Lilacs, the Bush Honeysuckles are covered with their pink, white and cream-colored flowers and in the Shrub Garden many others may be seen. On the left, entering from South Street Gate, a large bed of Rhododendron carolinianum is in full flower. On Bussey Hill Azaleas in variety are a mass of color and many of the Brooms, such as Cytisus purgans, C. Beanii, C. purpureus and C. elongatus, are tumbling masses of bloom. The Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes on the right of Meadow Road, beyond the Linden group, are in blossom, and near the Administration Building the first of the American Magnolias are in flower. Indeed, there is blossom aplenty wherever one walks in the Arboretum. Magnolia cordata is now beautifully in bloom on the right entering by the Jamaica Plain Gate. The trees, which were planted in 1890, are from 25 to 30 feet tall with broad, more or less bell-shaped crowns made up of a great many moderately sized branches. The flowers, which appear with the unfolding leaves, are a rich clear yellow, a color not found in any other species of Magnolia. They are cup-shaped, about 2 1\/2 to 3 inches high and about as much broad and are abundantly produced, while in wet seasons the trees usually bear a second crop of blossoms in July. The leaves when fully grown are broadly ovate, 3 to 5 inches long, 2 1\/2 to 3 1\/2 inches broad, abruptly short-pointed, but the base is very rarely heart-shaped, so its name is really a misnomer. The history of this Magnolia is unusually interesting. It was discovered by the elder Michaux in the neighborhood of Augusta, Georgia, sometime between 1787 and 1796 and by him or his son introduced into France. In 1801 it is said to have been introduced into England by John Fraser. All the trees now in cultivation are derived from these original introductions. For more than a century all attempts to rediscover this Magnolia in a wild state failed, when in April, 1910, Mr. Louis A. Berckmans accidentally found it in a dry wood some eighteen miles south of Augusta. These were bushes some 4 to 6 feet tall but since then trees of considerable size have been discovered bearing out Michaux's original description of it as a tree from 40 to 50 feet tall. This Magnolia is still rare in cultivation and appears to be one of those American trees which flourish less favorably in Europe than on its native heath. Some British writers complain of its exceptionally slow growth. From its behavior in the Arboretum this Magnolia seems well adapted to the climate of Massachusetts, where it should be more extensively grown. It is free flowering and its vivid yellow blossoms are very conspicuous. The best means of propagation is by grafting on understocks of the closely related M. acuminata. Early Flowering Roses. Each year the first Rose to open its blossoms in the Arboretum is R. omeiensis, which is quickly followed by R. Ecae, on the heels of which comes R. Hugonis. Often the last two open at one and the same time but the Omei Rose is always a little in the van. This is a stout-stemmed bush, growing from 6 to 15 feet tall, and under favorable conditions as much in diameter. Its stems are clad with large prickles, which on the young canes are translucent and a brilliant crimson. In the variety pteracantha the prickles are from 1 to 2 inches long, crowd the stems, and on account of their rich color are singularly beautiful. The leaves are narrow, many-foliolate, and rather suggestive of a Fern. The flowers are pure white and each has four petals arranged in the form of a Maltese cross, a peculiarity known in the Rose tribe only in this and one other related species, the Himalayan R. sericea. The blossoms of R. omeiensis are fugitive but freely produced and while they last transform the shoots into sprays of the purest white. The fruit, which ripens early in July, is rich scarlet and peculiar in that the fruit stalk becomes fleshy, orange and scarlet in color, and falls with the fruit immediately it is ripe. This Rose is a very common species on the mountains of central and western China, being partial to moorland thickets and margins of woods. It was introduced into cultivation by E. H. Wilson in 1904 and in the Arboretum has proved perfectly hardy and ornamental, not merely in flower and fruit but in foliage and in the character of its prickles. Rosa Ecae forms a shapely bush some 6 to 7 feet tall and 8 to 10 feet through with sturdy erect stems abundantly clad with narrow dark green, many-foliolate leaves which are gland-dotted on the under surface and give off the odor of Sweetbriar. The flowers, pale yellow fading to cream color, are each about 1 inch in diameter, solitary, but crowd the upright arching stems. As a flowering bush, this Rose is less attractive than others but its early blooming qualities, its fine foliage and good habit make it a well worthwhile plant. The third species, R. Hugonis, is now so well known that it hardly needs description. Its habit for a wild Rose is perfect, the stems being ascending and arching over to form a fountain-like mass 5 to 8 feet tall and more through. Its pale yellow flowers, each about 2 inches across, hide the whole plant for a brief period in late May or early June. The fruit is dark scarlet, a character which helps to distinguish it from the black fruited R. spinosissima to which it is closely related. R. Hugonis is native of western China, where it was discovered by Fr. Hugh Scallan (Padre Hugo), a Welshman attached to the Roman Catholic Mission. Padre Hugo sent a collection of herbarium specimens to the British Museum and among them were some Rose hips. These were forwarded to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, where they germinated in 1899 and plants flowered for the first time in 1905. When it blossomed this Rose was found to be an undescribed species. Objections were taken to the surname of its discoverer, so his clerical name was used instead. This Rose was received in the Arboretum from Kew in 1908, and we still have the original plant growing, although on several occasions large branches have died but so far the plant has always rehabilitated itself by sending up strong new growths. No Rose has been more abundantly disseminated in this country during the last ten or fifteen years and not one has attained, and justifiably so, greater popularity. The only pruning these three Roses require is to cut away the oldest canes after flowering. This and fertilizer to encourage vigorous new shoots is all that is necessary. They love the sunshine and should not be coddled in a warm corner. These three harbingers of the Rose tribe may be seen in bloom in the Shrub Garden on the right entering from Forest Hills Gate. Diervilla florida venusta. The Diervillas, or Weigelas as they are commonly called, are a familiar group of flowering shrubs many of which are, unfortunately, not properly hardy in the Arboretum. There are species native of this country but the most showy members of the tribe are natives of China, Korea and Japan. They have been in cultivation for a long time and many new varieties and forms have originated both as sports and as the result of the plant breeders' skill. The whole Asiatic group is remarkably floriferous and the range of color is great, but, except in mild winters, they suffer badly. The hardiest, the best, and the earliest to blossom of the Diervillas native of eastern Asia is D. florida venusta. This is a Korean plant, everywhere abundant on rocky mountain slopes and open country in the central and northern parts of that land. It forms a broad rounded bush, from 5 to 6 feet tall and from 6 to 10 feet through, with upright and spreading stems which in season are clad for two-thirds of their length with clustered tubular, rosy pink blossoms, each about 1 1\/2 inches long. The color, if not as pure as one could wish, is effective in the mass and the abundant blossom and perfect hardiness of this plant gives it a unique place among the Weigelas so far as Massachusetts gardens are concerned. We owe its discovery and introduction to Mr. J. G. Jack, who visiting Korea in 1905 collected seeds and sent them to the Arboretum. The seeds germinated freely and the plants have never known injury. It flowered under cultivation for the first time in 1908 and each season since its sterling ornamental qualities have become more and more evident. It comes true from seed, though the plants exhibit a certain amount of color variation. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 31","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23903","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25eb326.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III MAY 31, 1929 NO. 8 Blossoms aplenty are now to be seen in the Arboretum. The Buckeyes and Horsechestnuts beyond the Lindens on the right hand side of Meadow Road, entering by Jamaica Plain Gate, are now at the height of their beauty. The flowers vary from pale lemon-yellow and shades of salmon to deep rose-red, and there are, of course, the white towers of the Common Horsechestnut. Of all the Horsechestnuts none is more handsome than the rose-red blossomed A. carnea Briotii. Few people realize that there are Horsechestnuts other than the common sort and are surprised to learn of the range in color that the American species and their hybrids afford. The Tatarian Honeysuckles in white and pink, the flat-crowned spreading Japanese Lonicera Morrowii with its white, passing to yellow, blossoms are in full bloom and so, too, are some of the earliest of the Viburnums, of which the American V. prunifolium and V. lentago are outstanding members. Under the old White Pines the Enkianthus are blossoming as freely as usual and as the bushes have grown to a large size it is possible to stand beneath them and appreciate the full extent of their beauty. The colors vary from creamy white through various shades of salmon to almost crimson and in the majority they are alternately veined with lighter and darker colors. The habit of growth, especially when young, is tabuliform and the result is umbrella-like masses of blossom. Of the several species E. campanulatus is the best. Lovers of acid soil, good air and root drainage, they are very accommodating plants and do not mind transplanting any more than do Rhododendrons. Conifers. The value of these indispensable trees is most highly appreciated during the winter season when their dark evergreen foliage forms such welcome relief in the landscape. They are beautiful at all seasons of the year but perhaps mostly so at this particular time when the young growth so brightly illumines them. In the young leaves of Conifers every shade of green is present. The Hemlocks, some of the Spruces, and Firs are particularly bright green; on others gray- to blue-green obtains. The Pines start into growth later than Spruce, Hemlock, and Fir, but these present much beauty in the elongated shoots from which the leaves will soon burst forth. The Junipers and Arborvitaes have rid themselves of the yellowish brown mask but have not yet assumed the cheerful greens of their taller. growing comrades. A walk through the Pinetum, on the left entering from Walter Street Gate, is one of the most delightful strolls that can be taken at the present time in the Arboretum. In the distance the gray-tinted unfolding leaves of the Oaks are beautiful and here and there unexpected splashes of color afforded by the Azaleas loom up like names of fire; below and around green grass waves in the breeze completing the setting. Sargent's Weeping Hemlock. Among dwarf Conifers none is more beautiful than the low-growing weeping form of the Common Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis pendula), a fine specimen of which may be seen on the right of Hemlock Hill Road, entering from Walter Street Gate and facing the Pinetum. This, like all that are seen in gardens generally, is a grafted plant and is looser and more tufted in habit than the original seedlings. Like many other dwarf Conifers, this was a chance discovery, being found on the mountains back of Fishkill Landing on the Hudson River by the late General Howland of Mattapan, New York, and named by him Sargent's Hemlock for his friend and neighbor, Henry Winthrop Sargent. General Howland found four or five of these Hemlocks, and one of his original discoveries (pictured here) is still living at Holm Lea, Brookline, Mass. Malus angustifolia is the last of the Crabapples to open its blossoms. This is an American species native of southeastern Virginia and southward to western Florida and westward to Louisiana. Coming from warm districts, it is rather remarkable that it should be perfectly hardy in the climate of Massachusetts. It is a tree possessed of much character, resembling in habit of growth the Thorns more than the Crabapples in general. The best specimen in the Arboretum is a broad tree about 20 feet tall and 25 feet in diameter of crown. The branches are very numerous, spreading horizontally, and are armed with stout spines. The leaves are quite smooth at maturity, more or less oblong and coarsely toothed especially in the upper part. They are ruddy-tinted when young and develop as the flowers open. The rose-pink blossoms have the odor of violets, peculiar to all the American species, and are borne not so much at the ends as along the whole length of the branches so the tree forms a bouquet of blossoms garnished with young foliage. The individual flowers are open, somewhat cupped and have pink anthers. Like all the American species it is easily raised from seeds and comes true to type. Two trees in full bloom may be seen in the Crabapple collection at the foot of Peters Hill, near the famed Bechtel's Crabapple, which is still in rich blossom and thronged with myriad bees making soft music. Rhododendron nudiflorum. Not for many years has this Azalea been so laden with plenteous blossom as at the moment and the group on Bussey Hill bank is worth coming a long distance to see. The colors vary from almost white through different shades of pink to rose-pink, and one and all are delightfully fragrant. This Azalea has long, tubular flowers with spreading lobes, the tube being a richer color than the lobes from which the stamens are long outthrust. Every twig terminates in a cluster each of from ten to twenty or more blossoms. Native of copses, woodlands, and swamps of eastern North America from Massachusetts to North Carolina and west to Tennessee, it is known as the Pinxter=bloom and though an old favorite is really not appreciated in gardens as its merits deserve. Anyone who sees the group in flower in the Arboretum will want to possess a similar treasure. The Ghent and Mollis Azaleas, so-called, are now laden with their fragrant polychromatic blossoms. Indeed, the lower bank beyond the old White Pines on Bussey Hill is a pastel of yellow, orange, salmon and flame-color. It is much to be regretted that these gorgeous flowering shrubs are not better suited to the climate of Massachusetts. The Ghent Azaleas are of hybrid origin, being largely mixtures of the Flame Azalea of the Appalachians (R. calendulaceum) and other American species with the Pontic Azalea (R. luteum) of Europe and western Asia. The Mollis Azaleas are hybrids between the flame-colored Japanese R. japonicum and the yellow-flowered Chinese R. molle. In the Ghent Azaleas where the American blood is in the ascendency the types are more robust and better fitted to withstand New England climate; in the Mollis Azaleas where the Japanese element is dominant the same obtains. Alongside of these Ghent and Mollis Azaleas many hundreds of small plants of the Japanese species are now coming into bloom. This is a first-class plant, although unfortunately somewhat addicted to borers. Like all Azaleas, these do best and are seen to greater advantage when massed thickly together. The colors blend well and close planting helps them to shade their roots, which is important since they are all surface-rooting. Cotoneaster multiflora or C. reflexa, as it is often called, is one of the best as it is also one of the oldest in cultivation of the Cotoneasters with showy blossoms. Native of northern China, it extends westward into high Asia and growing naturally in bleak regions possesses a robust constitution sufficient to withstand the New England climate. It is a twiggy plant of dense habit, wide spreading, usually from 6 to 7 feet tall and twice that in diameter, but under favorable circumstances it may be ten or twelve feet high. It has thin, roundish ovate, nearly smooth, leaves which are fully grown when the flowers open. The flowers, white with the odor of Hawthorns, are borne in clusters at the ends of short lateral shoots transforming the whole branch into sprays of blossom. In the autumn relatively large crimson berries in clusters weigh down the branches. It is deciduous and its leaves turn from yellow and orange to red before they fall. At one time this Cotoneaster was more common in gardens than now, having been introduced into cultivation in 1837; it has been growing in the Arboretum since 1879. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 7","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23898","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24e8926.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JUNE 7, 1929 NO. 9 The phenomenal heat of the closing days of May was very trying on open blossoms; those on Bechtel's Crab, Kaempfer's Azalea, Vanhoutte's Spiraea, and some of the Viburnums were scorched on the bushes and are brown and unsightly. Styrax obassia and some other plants were forced into bloom and the flowers were over in a few hours. The Hybrid Rhododendrons at the foot of Hemlock Hill are in blossom a week earlier than is usual. On the whole these are flowering fairly well but one could wish that varieties with more pleasing colors than the rank and file of those hardy in the Arboretum could be grown. On Bussey Hill Enkianthus subsessilis is hung with beadlike clusters of greenish white blossoms; the typical E. campanulatus is past flowering but its variety albiflorus is laden with its ivory white flowers. The Sun Roses (Helianthemum) deck the ground with white, yellow and pinkish blossoms, and many kinds of Cytisus and Genista are aglow with yellow pea-like flowers. Many Viburnums in the collection on the left of Bussey Hill Road, entering by Center Street Gate, are in full bloom, and so, too, are some of the early kinds of Philadelphus and many Honeysuckles. In the Shrub Garden Spiraea nipponica and several other species are in blossom and so, too, are the Scotch Roses, Diervillas, Honeysuckles, Shrubby Cinquefoils (Potentilla) and many other shrubs. The Rose Acacias in the collection on the right of Meadow Road, where it curves toward Forest Hills Road, are now at the height of their beauty and well worth inspection. Chionanthus virginica, the Fringe-tree, is a most delightful bush or small tree native of Pennsylvania and southward. It is a relative of the Lilacs and blossoms immediately after those of the Common Lilac are past. As usually seen, it is a rounded bush 16 feet tall and more in diameter but under favorable conditions it will make a small tree 30 feet high. The flowers are white, fragrant, and borne in hanging 6- to 10-inch long cymose clusters which develop singly from clustered lateral buds, the terminal bud producing a leafy shoot. The flower-stalks are slender and the inflorescence sways to and fro in the gentlest breeze. Two fine specimens hung with flowers may be seen on the upper end of the Lilac bank. Kolkwitzia amabilis, the Beautybush, is well-named and if anyone doubts this let him view the fine specimen on the left of Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs. The bush, six years old from seed, is planted in a position where it has room to develop and the result is a fountain- like mass about 7 feet tall and 9 feet through. The stouter branches bend gracefully over and for 1 1\/2 to 2 1\/2 feet of their length are laden with cymose clusters of Weigelia-like flowers. The corolla is tubular, pink suffused with white with the throat mottled with orange, and the pedicels and ovary are clad with straight white hairs which give them a cobwebby appearance. Closely related to the Weigelias and Abelia, Kolkwitzia amabilis is for this climate hardier, much more satisfactory and more beautiful than either. Native of the higher mountains of central China, where it is exceedingly rare, it was discovered sometime between 1890 and 1895 by Padre Giraldi and introduced into cultivation by seeds collected by E. H. Wilson in the late autumn of 1901. Wilson only met with it once in his travels in China and the flowers were unknown until it blossomed under cultivation in 1910. A canard is abroad that plants of seedling origin do not blossom. The falseness of this will be evident to anyone who sees the specimen now in bloom in the Arboretum. Moreover, all the older plants in cultivation are of seedling origin. Of course, when raised from seed one must wait three or four years until the plant produces shoots sufficiently strong to blossom, whereas when raised from cuttings one starts with flowering wood but even then has to wait several years for a shapely plant. Among the newer introductions from China there is no lovelier flowering shrub of its class than Kolkwitzia amabilis. Rhododendron calendulaceum, the Flame Azalea of the Appalachian Mountains, is now in full bloom. One of the most brilliant members of the Azalea family, the fragrant flowers vary from a rich yellow in var. croceum through various shades of orange to deep scarlet in var. aurantium. The color tones grade one into another in a pleasing manner. The flowers, borne in umbellate clusters at the end of every branchlet, have a long narrow tube and five spreading lobes from which the stamens and pistil are long outthrust. It is a rather loose-habited shrub from 12 to 15 feet tall and much broader and may be grown successfully either as a specimen bush or in masses. The Flame Azalea has been much planted in many parts of the Arboretum and at the moment its flowers are seen as splashes of color here, there, and everywhere from the driveways; on the westerly slope of Bussey Hill near the old White Pine trees a large area is covered with it. Lonicera Maackii podocarpa is one of the largest of all the Bush Honeysuckles, being a tree-like shrub 15 to 20 feet tall, flat-topped and broad in proportion. Its white, faintly tinged with pink and passing to yellow, blossoms are borne erect in clusters from the axil of every leaf on the current season's shoot. The leaves, more or less ovate-lanceolate, long-pointed, somewhat hairy, and each about lli2 to 2i\/a inches long and 1 to 1 3\/4 inches wide, making a delightful foil to the wealth of blossoms. The fruit ripens late and is at its best during the month of November while the foliage is retained in excellent condition until the first frosts of December put in appearance. This Honeysuckle is a common inhabitant of the thickets and margins of woods in central and western China from whence it was introduced into cultivation in 1900 by E. H. Wilson. It demands plenty of space and where this can be given ranks as one of the most all-round beautiful members of an indispensable family. It is perfectly hardy, very floriferous and free fruiting and its scarlet berries nestling among green leaves are a thing of beauty when nearly all other deciduous leaved plants have shed their foliage. Syringa Sweginzowii, one of the latest of the true Lilacs to blossom, is now in flower. This is a vigorous shrub from 10 to 12 or more feet tall, with ascending-spreading branches, reddish purple branchlets, and comparatively small ovate leaves. The flowers are pleasantly fragrant, pinkish in the bud, almost white when fully expanded and are produced in broad, loose, erect panicles at the end of every branch and twig. The stems are moderate in size and though nearly upright the habit of the plant is not stiff; indeed, when in full blossom it is graceful and pleasing. Two large plants may be seen in full bloom on the top of the Lilac bank near the Catalpas. Along with them other Lilacs in blossom are S. yunnanensis, S. tomentella, S. reflexa and S. villosa, showing the value of these Lilac species in long extending the season after the Common Lilac and its innumerable varieties have past out of bloom. Hydrangea petiolaris, the Climbing Hydrangea, is the most vigorous root-climbing vine hardy in the climate of Massachusetts. Its stout stems, clothed with loose shaggy papery bark, put out a multitude of fine roots that hold the vine firmly against wall or tree-trunk. From the climbing stems lateral branches are thrust forth at right angles, each of which terminates in a flattened 6- to 10-inch broad cluster of small flowers among which large white 4-partite blooms are conspicuous. The leaves are plentiful, roundish, bright green and more or less finely toothed. This plant is native of Japan, where it is common on the tops of the highest trees. Under the erroneous name of Schizophragma hydrangeoides, the Climbing Hydrangea has been in cultivation since 1875, but it is only within the last twenty years that its merits have begun to be properly appreciated. It is at home on tree trunks and for a southwesterly, westerly or northerly wall of a brick or stone building it is well adapted but it does not relish concrete. Also it may be grown effectively as a bush if allowed to sprawl over rocks or tree stumps. Pot-grown plants should be purchased since this Hydrangea does not transplant readily from open ground. A fine specimen may be seen on the northern wall of the Administration Building; in the Shrub Garden there is a plant growing in bush form. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year. Back numbers available."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23895","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24ebb6e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JUNE 14, 1929 NO. 10 The South Street Gate is now the center of attraction in the Arboretum. Just within on the left the Hybrid Rhododendrons make a bold show and beyond them the Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is a wealth of pink, passing to nearly white; above on the slopes of Bussey Hill to the right the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum) forms a great splash of yellow and orange, and round about the different greens of Hemlock, Beech, Oak and Yew afford welcome relief from the sun. Along the driveways Viburnum cassinoides and V. dentatum are in bloom and the Oriental V. dilatatum is just commencing to blossom. Of Lilacs such late-flowering species as Syringa villosa, S. tomentella and S. Sweginzowii are laden with flowers, and different species of Honeysuckles, Philadelphus and Robinias are making a gay display. The Mountain Laurel, although not so full as some seasons, is flowering moderately well this year. Of all the broadleaved evergreens this is the best for New England and where it can be grown no one has cause to complain. The foliage is good at all seasons of the year and when in blossom its rounded heads of saucer-shaped flowers beautifully crimped in the bud are as pleasing as any flower can be. Like other members of its family it is a lime hater but where this is absent the Mountain Laurel is one of the most good-natured shrubs. It should be raised from seeds in the same manner as Azaleas and when properly looked ,after grows as rapidly as any other shrub of its class. There is a good deal of variability in the shade of color and particularly good forms are best increased by layering. In the shade of trees the flowers are more apt to be pale colored, even white, than when fully exposed to the sun but it is one of those happy-go-lucky plants that makes itself very much at home under all sorts of conditions, but as with every plant a little extra attention in the matter of position and soil pays. As a fertilizer well-rotted cow dung and oak leaves are best and this, by the way, is a good all round food for ericaceous plants in general. Six Good Hybrid Rhododendrons which flower late are Album elegans, Catawbiense album, H. W. Sargent, Henrietta Sargent, F. L. Ames and Purpureum elegans. All have a vigorous constitution and have proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum since they were planted some twenty-five to forty years ago. The first-named is tall-growing with erect-spreading branches, rather open in habit with moderately large dark green foliage. The flowers are white faintly flushed with lavender with greenish yellow spots on the upper lobe and are borne twelve to eighteen together in a shapely dome-shaped cluster which stands well above the foliage. It is one of the oldest and most widely planted of Hybrid Rhododendrons in this part of the world and well does it deserve its popularity. Catawbiense album is more compact in habit than Album elegans and has pure white blossoms with yellowish brown dots on the upper lobe. The trusses are dome-shaped and while they are not so large as in some other sorts they are borne very freely . and stand well above the foliage, making the plant as conspicuous as any other Rhododendron. H. W. Sargent has rosy red bell-shaped flowers with dark brownish black spots on the inside of the upper part of the corolla and conspicuous pale yellow anthers borne in compact rounded trusses of moderate size. Dense in habit, this forms a flattened-round bush and has dark green leathery leaves of good size. Henrietta Sargent is similar in habit of growth to H. W. Sargent but has rose-pink flowers with greenish orange markings on the upper lobe, and the flowers are somewhat smaller, more open and slightly undulate on the margin. F. L. Ames is a rather tall-growing sort with large handsome dark green foliage and a compact dome-shaped cluster of singularly pleasing flowers. They are rose-pink, flamed with white on the inside of the corolla, with greenish yellow dots on the upper lobe and the individual flower is open and spreading and overlaps one another in the truss. The color of the flower is very pure and distinct from those of any other sort growing in the Arboretum. In Purpureum elegans the flowers are royal-purple with greenish yellow and brown mottlings on the upper lobe. This is a dense habited bush of large size and though a very old sort is still the best of its class in so far as this climate is concerned. These six Hybrids were all raised by Anthony Waterer-Album elegans, H. W. Sargent and Purpureum elegans before 1870, the other three before 1890. On account of their extreme hardiness he classed them among his so-called iron-clads and their behavior in the Arboretum entitles them so to rank. Taxus cuspidata, the Japanese Yew, for ornamental purposes is the most useful narrow-leaved evergreen for the climate of New England. In its different forms it is well-suited for growing as a specimen on the lawn, as a low mound or mass near the house, and as a hedge plant; moreover, of all evergreens it best withstands city conditions. Apparently it grows equally well where the soil is acid as where lime prevails, although, as a matter of fact, it is lime-loving. The typical form starts life as a wide-spreading shrub with one or more, usually several, leaders and with a little care may be trained into a tree. As a matter of fact, in a wild state in Japan and Korea it is a tree up to 50 feet and more in height and massive in trunk and limb after the manner of its European sister T. baccata. This type propagated from cuttings produces a vase-shaped or rounded mass but as a rule sooner or later a leading shoot develops. For the purpose of making hedges seedlings with a leading shoot should be selected and by proper clipping a hedge anywhere from 5 to 15 feet may be had in the course of time. More serviceable for small gardens and for the vicinity of the house is the variety nana, which varies somewhat in habit of growth but in its best form is a broad rather zigzag branching bush possessed of much individuality. How high this will grow is not known but the best plant in the Arboretum is about 7 feet tall with a spread of 20 feet. Very compact in habit is the form densa, which left to itself forms a low, broad flattened-round shrub 4 to 5 feet tall and treble that in diameter. It can, however, by pruning, be kept a low carpet-like mass. Similar but with the young shoots golden-yellow is the variety aurescens, a recent introduction from Japan, where, however, it has been long cultivated. As with Conifers, so with Yews, we admire them most during the winter months when so many of the trees and shrubs are leafless. However, one and all are most beautiful in the late spring of the year when growth commences. In the Yew the young green leaves are often tinged with yellowish bronze in a delightful contrast with the black-green of the older foliage. No matter what season of the year the Japanese Yew be examined it will be found a thing of beauty. For suburban gardens as for country estates and even for town gardens and parks it is of all evergreen shrubs the most useful and satisfactory. For many years the value of the Japanese Yew was not appreciated but nurserymen have awakened to its serviceability and it is not difficult to obtain plants although large specimens are both scarce and expensive. In time as it is more freely raised from seeds doubtless many other varieties will develop. Indeed, there is no reason why in the course of time it should not be as prolific in this respect as its European sister. Already it is part-parent of a hybrid race (Taxus media), of which there are a number of named forms all apparently taking after the Japanese parent in vigor and constitution. Indigofera amblyantha Purdomii is a delightful little shrub of twiggy habit, growing 4 or 5 feet tall with ascending-spreading branches bearing in the utmost profusion erect racemose clusters of rose-pink blossoms. It is very free-flowering and the first of its tribe to bloom. This plant was discovered by William Purdom in 1910 when collecting in northern China for the Arboretum. There is a good specimen among the Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill which has been in blossom some ten days and promises to continue for two weeks more. It is the type of shrub that can be grown among herbaceous plants and like all its tribe is fond of a sandy or gravelly soil. Near this Indigofera is a fine plant of Sophora vicifolia with Vetch-like leaves, racemose flowers each with a pure white corolla and slaty blue calyx. This is a spiney shrub none too hardy in the Arboretum but well-suited for Long Island and South. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 21","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23896","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24e816f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JUNE 21, 1929 NO. 11 The virtual absence of rain for a month and the heat of the past ten days has caused the flowers on bush and vine to pass rapidly; indeed, on many they have been browned on the bushes. The Mountain Laurel at the base of Hemlock Hill still makes a good display and the Silky Cornel (Cornus Amomum) with its relative C. racemosa. better known as C. paniculata, are in full blo3m. Here and there along the driveways spears of yellow Woadwax (Genista tinctoria) obtrude themselves; a few early blossoms are opening on crimson-stamened Rhododendron arborescens and bright splashes of color are afforded by late-flowering bushes of the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum), particularly the brilliant orange-scarlet blossomed variety aurantiacum. The Seashore Rose (Rosa virginiana) is gay with pink blossoms, nowhere more so than in the border near the junction of Meadow and Forest Hills roads. The Washington Thorn (Crataegus phaenopyrum, better known as C. cordata) is in flower, and on Bussey Hill varied-colored Sun Roses are still abloom and several mats of Thyme are aglow with purple blossoms. Certain Chinese Hydrangeas and Spiraeas are in flower and Indigofera amblyantha bears a thousand rosy-purple spires. The flowers on the last of the bush Lilacs are fading, whereas those of the tree Lilacs (Syringa japonica and S. pekinensis) are at the height of their beauty. The summer-flowering Philadelphus are bouquets of fragrant white and in the Shrub Garden a miscellany of shrubs are in bloom. So far the drought has not seriously affected the Arboretum but refreshing rains are badly needed. Ilex glabra, the Ink-berry, is one of the few broad-leaved evergreens perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. It is native of eastern North America, being found from Nova Scotia to Florida, where it grows in sandy soil mostly near the coast. The Ink-berry is a broad dense-habited shrub with twiggy branches and lustrous short-stalked oblanceolate leaves, each about 11\/z to 2 inches long and 1\/z inch broad, slightly toothed toward the apex. The leaves are leathery, lustrous green on the upper surface and pale on the lower. The plants are of two sexes; in the male the flowers are clustered in the leaf axil, whereas in the female they are usually solitary. The ripe fruit is jet black. This shrub makes a broad billowy mass 6 to 8 feet tall and by clipping and training could be used for hedges. A clump of the Ink-berry may be seen facing the Mountain Laurel on Hemlock Hill Road. Kalmia angustifolia, the Sheep Laurel, is a poor and maligned sister of the handsome Mountain Laurel (K. latifolia), found widely distributed from Newfoundland and Hudson Bay south to Georgia. It is an inhabitant of swamps and pastures and is said to be fatal to sheep if they eat the leaves. The legend is deep seated but actual proof never has been forthcoming. The Sheep Laurel is a twiggy shrub 2 to 5 feet tall and broad with oblong grayish green foliage. The leaves are arranged in threes and from the axils of each stalked fascicles of rose-purple, saucer-shaped flowers arise. The arrangement is such that the whole of the previous season's growth forms an elongated panicled mass of flowers surmounted by the young growth of the current season. Though not showy it is a useful shrub especially for the wild garden or for rough places and being evergreen it has winter value. The individual flowers though much smaller than those of the Mountain Laurel are of exactly the same form and in each crimson anthers are prominent. If the Sheep Laurel was an exotic it would be much more appreciated than it now is. Berberis polyantha is a first-class Barberry and a shapely shrub of dome-shaped habit from 6 to 9 feet high with ascending spreading branches. The pale green leaves are obovate, each about 1 inch long, toothed on the margin and glaucous on the underside. The flowers are clear yellow and are borne in erect-spreading or nodding panicles each from 3 to 6 inches long; the fruit is oblong-ovoid and salmon-red. This Barberry is very floriferous, and with its clear yellow flowers and the manner in which they are borne, highly ornamental as a specimen on Bussey Hill proves. It is native of the Chino-Thibetan borderland and was introduced into cultivation by seeds sent to the Arboretum in 1908 by E. H. Wilson. Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa is the only tall-growing evergreen Cotoneaster hardy in the Arboretum. It is a singularly attractive species with ascending-spreading, arching whip-like branches clothed with purple-brown bark. The leaves are very short-stalked, narrow-oblong- lanceolate, each from 2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and 1\/3 of an inch wide; they are wrinkled and lustrous green on the upper surface and clothed with a gray felt of floccose hairs on the lower. Each lateral shoot terminates in a 2- to 3-inch-broad, flattened cluster of Hawthorn-like flowers in which rose-purple anthers are prominent; the fruit is small, scarlet, and produced in quantity. Where growing freely the habit of the shrub is fountain-like and in foliage, flower, and fruit it is highly ornamental. A nice plant now in blossom may be seen in the Cotoneaster collection on Bussey Hill. Liriodendron Tulipifera, the Tulip-tree, is one of the noblest and tallest of American deciduous-leaved trees. In the rich bottom lands of Ohio and on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, it grows to a height of 180 feet with a trunk as much as 30 feet in girth, straight and often free of branches for from 30 to 60 feet above the ground and clothed with gray deeply ridged bark. The branches spread more or less horizontally, and the branchlets are somewhat decurved, the whole forming a shapely, somewhat bell-shaped, crown. The leaves are long-stalked, bright green, more or less saddle-shaped with four prolonged lobes and truncate at the apex. The flowers, which so many people pass unnoticed, are really very beautiful, being singularly like a Tulip in shape, hence the common name. They are terminal with three greenish deflexed outer and six greenish yellow inner segments each with a heavy blotch of rich orange toward the base. The apex of the segments is recurved and the prominent stamens stand erect in a circle around the cone-shaped pistil. The flowers are each about 11\/2 to 2 inches long and the same in width, and though they stand above the foliage they are somewhat hidden. In leaf and flower the Tulip-tree is entirely different from other American trees. The wood is white, close-grained, light and soft and is known in the trade as Whitewood or Yellow Poplar. For ornamental purposes the Tulip-tree is too much neglected. It seeds freely and these germinate readily and with a little care the plants are not difficult to transplant. Boston is a little north of its natural range but some fine planted specimens may be seen here and there. It should be used more abundantly on private estates; for forming a grove in cemeteries or in village squares there is no finer tree. Not only is the Tulip-tree one of the noblest of North American trees but one of the most interesting of existing types. It belongs to an old geological period and has but one other representative in the world. This is a Chinese species (L. chinense), smaller in all its parts than the American tree and confined to the east-central provinces. Although introduced into cultivation in 1900 by E. H. Wilson, this tree has not proved hardy in the Arboretum but visitors to Kew and other large gardens in the British Isles can see the Chinese Tulip-tree flourishing. Those who garden on Long Island and south could grow it also. Viburnum dilatatum is a wide-spread Oriental species being common in many parts of China, Korea and Japan. It is a hardy, shapely bush, growing from 6 to 8 feet tall and is broader than high. The leaves are of good size, dull green and coarsely toothed, roughly hairy and more or less obovate in shape. The flowers are small, white, borne many together in flattened 5- to 6-inch broad clusters which terminate every shoot. The odor is not pleasant but the flowers appear to be much sought after by bees. The fruit is small, ovoid, brilliant red and remains in good condition on the bushes far into the winter. Possessed of all round good qualities, this Oriental Viburnum deserves to be widely planted especially in the colder parts of this country. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1888 and has never known winter injury. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 28","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23897","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24e8525.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"4ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JUNE 28, 1929 NO. 12 The drought, which threatened to become serious, was broken by a heavy thunderstorm on the morning of Saturday, June 22, but more rain is needed. On the whole, this has been a rather erratic season; flowers have opened out of order and have not lasted so long as usual. The Mountain Laurel is passing, the Catalpas are in full bloom and so, too, are Viburnum pubescens and the Canadian Elder (Sambucus canadensis), sure signs that high summer is here. The fruit is ripe on the Tatarian and other early Honeysuckles, on the Mulberries, and on the Shadblows, and the bushes are alive with starlings and other fruit-eating birds, gorging themselves on luscious berries. In the Shrub Garden a variety of shrubs are in bloom, noticeable among them being different members of the Pea family, such as Indigofera, Colutea, Amorpha, and Cytisus, many Rose species and a number of Rugosa Hybrids, together with Hydrangeas, Philadelphus, Spiraeas and Privets. The border planting of Rosa virginiana alongside Meadow Road is a pleasing spectacle, especially in the early morning and evening when thousands of large rose-pink blossoms are expanded. This common Rose of New England, abundant in pastures, rocky places and along the seashore, is really one of the most delightful of native plants and for border planting one of the finest we possess. It gives but little trouble, the only pruning necessary being the cutting away of the oldest canes each spring. The foliage is good, the flowers large, the fruit bright scarlet, and in the winter the crimson stems give welcome color to gray landscapes. The Rose spreads itself readily by underground stems and is, all in all, most accommodating and useful. In a border on Bussey Hill the Cytisus and their relatives have made a gay display since about the middle of May and in the last week of June a number are still in blossom, while some of the later sorts have yet to expand their flowers. At the moment Dorycnium hirsutum is crowded with umbellate heads of blooms, the white corolla being neatly set off by a purple-brown calyx. This is a suffruticose plant with hairy stems and gray foliage, which forms a low mound from 8 to 12 inches high and a yard in diameter. Similar in habit and with clustered heads of creamy white flowers is Cytisus albus, while C. supinus is taller growing with terminal clusters of rich yellow blossoms. All three are native of southern and southeastern Europe and are well adapted for rockeries and for growing in sandy, gravelly places. The handsomest of its tribe just now is C. nigricans with erect, foot-tall spires of clear yellow blossoms. This is a plant of shapely habit, forming rounded masses a yard high and twice that in diameter, with dull green foliage and twiggy stems, every one of which terminates in a long raceme of flowers. It is one of the hardiest and has been cultivated since 1906 in the Arboretum, where it has never failed each summer season to put forth a wealth of blossoms. The Woadwax (Genista tinctoria) is a naturalized roadside weed in many parts of Massachusetts and one held in abhorrence by dairymen since much good pasturage has been partially ruined by its presence. On this account one would hesitate to plant it in gardens but there is a low growing double-flowered form (plena) which certainly ought to be recognized as a useful rock plant. The racemes are more compact than in the type, a richer yellow, if anything, and the habit is spreading with ascending stems. Since its flowers are double the plant produces no seeds, so there is no danger of it spreading and becoming a nuisance. Another charming low-growing plant is G. sagittalis, with terminal compact racemose heads of deep yellow blossoms. The stems are jointed and flattened and carry out the common functions of leaves but often from the joint a gray-green ovate-lanceolate leaf appears. Not least of the blessings which garden lovers owe to that great French family of hybridists, the Lemoinei, are the hybrid Philadelphus of which they have created scores of remarkable fine plants. In one group, of which the well-known P. Le7noinei is typical, the branches are twiggy and arching and form when in blossom a dense fountain of fragrant white. In another, of which Virginal is an example, the habit is more upright, the stems stout and the flowers very large and somewhat double. In yet another type, exemplified by Belle Etoile, the base of the flower is flushed with rose-purple. Part-parent of this group is P. G'ouLte7i, native of northern Mexico, a tender plant, an unfortunate weakness which it has conveyed to its progeny. Any and all of the Lemoine Philadelphus are worthy of a place in gardens. They are not particular as to soil, but thrive best in good loam and a well-drained situation where they can enjoy plenty of sunshine. So soon as they have blossomed the older stems should be cut away so that air and light may penetrate into the center of the bushes and induce a vigorous growth for the next season's blossoms. Itea virginiana is an old-fashioned summer-flowering shrub not so well-known in gardens as it deserves to be. It is native of the eastern United States, being found from New Jersey to Florida and blooms at the end of June when the majority of shrubs are past. It forms a bush from 5 to 8 feet tall with slender, erect stems, oblong-lanceolate, pointed leaves, each about 3 to 5 inches long and 1 inch in diameter, with fragrant, white, star-like flowers crowded together in terminal cylindrical, tail-like racemes, every lateral shoot ending in a cluster of blossoms. The plant spreads by underground stems and is easily increased by division. Itea is an interesting genus represented by one species in eastern North America and several in eastern Asia. The only really hardy member of the genus is the Virginian plant. Hypericum Buckleyi of the southern Appalachian Mountains is a low-spreading plant with slender stems only a few inches high, each of which terminate in a cluster of about 3 golden-anthered, rich yellow flowers about 1 inch broad. It is a charming little rock plant which has proved hardy in the Arboretum since 1889. Clematis recta is a good plant for growing on a trellis, among boulders, or in the herbaceous border. Of suffruticose habit, it is killed to the ground each winter in the Arboretum, but in the spring thrusts up stems after the manner of herbaceous perennials and by the end of June forms a tangled mass 6 feet tall. The foliage is dull green and the flowers pure white, star-shaped, each about 1 inch in diameter, and borne hundreds together in panicled masses. It lacks the pleasant fragrance of the well-known September-flowering C. paniculata, which otherwise it much resembles. This plant is widespread throughout northern Asia and is represented in Manchuria and Korea by a slightly different form known as var. mandschurica. Tilia tomentosa, the Silver Linden, is one of the finest trees for park or lawn and unlike many other European trees it is perfectly happy in the climate of New England. In youth and middle age it has ascending spreading branches forming a broad pyramidal crown, but at maturity the branches spread more horizontally and form a bell-shaped head. The leaves are broad, roundish ovate, pointed, oblique and deeply cordate at the base, coarsely toothed, dark green on the upper side and silvery gray on the underside. With the faintest breeze stirring the leaves the gray undersides form a delightful contrast. Similar in foliage but of weeping habit is the Pendent Silver Linden (T. petiolaris), of which there is no finer lawn tree. Where it is happy, this grows from 75 to 80 feet tall with a trunk 12 feet in girth and a handsome dome-shaped crown, the branches sweeping the ground. Both these Lindens are considered to be native of southern Europe and western Asia and have long been cultivated for their ornamental qualities. Fine specimens may be seen here and there in the older settled parts of this country, the Silver Linden being one of the first trees brought over by early settlers. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year. Back numbers available."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 5","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23894","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24eb76b.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JULY 5, 1929 NO. 13 Copious rains have fallen since the last Bulletin was written and vegetation has revived. Where last week flagging foliage presented ominous signs of distress, freshness and vigor prevail today. There is not much bloom to be seen at the moment in the Arboretum but in the healthy growth on tree and shrub and varying greens of the foliage much beauty is present. Beneath the Hemlock Grove the Rosebay (Rhododendron maximum) is in full flower and in many places the Swamp Honeysuckle (Rhododendron viscosum), last of the Azaleas to blossom, is covered with pure white pleasantly fragrant flowers. This inhabitant of swamps from Maine to South Carolina brings to a close the Azalea season, which this year commenced the first week in April. The Swamp Honeysuckle and its relative, R. arborescens, which has larger flowers with crimson style and stamens, will be in blossom for the next two weeks, so by planting a variety of Azaleas a succession of bloom lasting three and a half months may be had. The two Azaleas named are freely placed along the driveways and are massed together on the westerly slope of Bussey Hill. The late-flowering Berberis aggregata with erect clusters of crowded, clear yellow flowers is coming into blossom and so, too, is its variety Prattii, characterized by a much larger inflorescence. This Barberry is about the latest to bloom and being very hardy is worthy of the attention of those who live in their summer homes from June until September. Several fine bushes of this Barberry laden with blossoms may be seen among the Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill. Nearby a number of the Brooms are still in blossom, including the lovely Cytisus nigricans, which is a balloon-shaped mass decked with a thousand clear yellow spires, each from 6 to 10 inches long. A few of the later flowering Philadelphus are still in blossom, including the handsome Virginal. On the Lilac bank Elaeagnus multiflora is laden with ovoid orange-red fruits, each suspended on an inch long stalk. This is a shrub of good habit which is particularly ornamental at this season. Near Forest Hills Gate the Prairie Rose (Rosa setigera) is opening its blossoms, marking the close of the Rose species' season. In the Shrub Garden several kinds of Hydrangea are commencing to flower, Indigofera Kirilowii bears a multitude of pink blossoms in erect axillary racemes, and close by it the white-flowered I. decora alba is in full bloom. The Bladder-sennas (Colutea cilicica and C. arborescens) carry in quantity yellow pea-shaped blossoms toward the ends of the current season's shoots and below them purplish brown bladder-like pods, which are even more ornamental than the flowers. At the Jamaica Plain Gate, the white cup-shaped flowers of the Sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana, more widely known as M. glauca) fill the air with a pleasant spicy odor and beyond in the collection of Lindens on the right of Meadow Road, entering by the Jamaica Plain Gate, Tilia vulgaris and its several varieties are in full bloom. This shapely tree is the earliest of the Lindens to blossom and at the moment its honey-scented flowers are the delight of a myriad bees. Thymus Serpyllum coccineus is a charming little ground-cover and rock plant, growing only a couple of inches high and bearing a multitude of crimson-purple blossoms in terminal clusters. The leaves are deep green and when crushed give off the pleasing and familiar odor of Mother-of-Thyme. The plant is apparently a special favorite of bees who are busy from morn till night sucking nectar from the flowers. This Thyme, like all its relatives, is fond of a sunny situation, a sloping bank for preference, where it can enjoy good root drainage throughout the winter. While it is an excellent groundcover it is seen to greater advantage when capping a boulder in the rockery. Similar in habit to this Thyme but distinguished by its gray, woolly leaves, is the variety lanuginosus, which, however, has less brilliant colored flowers. There are quite a number of varieties of T. Serpyllum, all of which have a place where rock gardens are in favor and where ground-covering plants are desired. Ceanothus pallidus roseus of hybrid origin is a very useful midsummer flowering shrub. It forms a low, round-topped mass about 3 feet high and 6 to 10 feet broad, being made up of a wealth of slender purple-brown stems all well furnished with dark green, oblong-lanceolate leaves, each about 2 inches long and 3\/4 of an inch broad and crenate along the margin. Every stem terminates in a globose mass of small pinkish blossoms and as similar clusters arise from the axils of the uppermost leaves the whole inflorescence is a panicled mass. Since this shrub flowers on the current season's shoot it should be pruned severely in the early spring. Its part-parent, C. ovatus, is long since out of blossom but another eastern American species, C. americanus, is just beginning to show signs of bloom. These Tea-bushes, as they are locally known, are quite useful plants but they cannot boast the beauty of their Californian sisters, which, w.th their rich blue and other colored blossoms and the hybrids that have been derived from them, rank among the loveliest of shrubs. Alas! not one is hardy in New England. The Vines on the walls and on the trellises in the Shrub Garden are now in luxuriant growth and well worth the attention of those requiring strong growing climbers for similar purposes or for clothing pergolas. When planted, as they are in the Arboretum, at the foot of boundary walls topped by a wire fence vines have ample room to grow and display to best advantage their luxuriance. In the genus Vitis and its relatives, Ampelopsis and Parthenocissus, there is great variety in form, shape and size of leaf; they vary also a good deal in shades of green and in the autumn the majority assume brilliant tints. The strong and tall growing vines, chiefly Vitis and Smilax, give quite a tropical aspect to the thickets and margins of woods in New England and are admired by all visitors from Europe. This rampant, luxuriant, scandent vegetation is the outstanding feature of New England's countryside as opposed to that of Europe. Liquidambar styraciflua, the Sweet Gum, is an exceedingly handsome American tree, native of rich bottom lands and borders of swamps from southern Connecticut south to Florida and westward through Arkansas to the valley of the Trinity River in Texas and reappearing on the mountains of central Mexico and south to the highlands of Guatemala. It attains under favorable conditions a height of from 100 to 140 feet and has a trunk 12 to 15 feet in girth. The dark gray bark is deeply ridged and corrugated and the ascending-spreading and spreading branches form an umbrageous crown which is pyramidal in young trees. The lustrous green leaves, hanging on long relatively slender petioles, are Maple-like, being palmately 5-lobed with each lobe long-pointed. In the autumn they assume brilliant tones of scarlet and crimson. The insignificant flowers are borne in a globose head after the manner of those of the Button-tree and the fruit hangs suspended from a long stalk. In the autumn the fruits open and forcibly eject jet black seeds, as do those of the Witch- Hazel to which the Sweet Gum is closely related. One does not see in New England this tree so frequently planted as its merits deserve. Boston is a little north of the natural range of this tree and in consequence when young it is often somewhat tender but after a few years it gets acclimatized and then grows vigorously. In Llewelyn Park, New Jersey, there is a very interesting grove of Sweet Gum, the result of spontaneous seeding from a number of handsome old parent trees. In the late autumn the colored foliage of this grove is worth quite a journey to see. Liquidambar is an interesting genus and represents an old type of vegetation. Three species only are known: the American, already mentioned, one in southwestern Asia Minor, known as L. orientalis, unfortunately not hardy here, and L. formosana, the third species, found widespread in China, Formosa, and the Philippines. The last-named species is one of the handsomest of Asiatic trees but is not hardy here. There is, however, a mountain variety of it (monticola) which has survived for some twenty years in the Arboretum and now promises to make a bushy tree. The wood of the American Liquidambar is bright brown tinged with red with a narrow almost white sap wood and is hard, heavy, straight, and close-grained but not very strong. It is much used in western states in house furnishing, cabinet-work and box-making. That of the Chinese species is similar in color and texture and being quite odorless is used for making packing cases for the higher grade teas. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 15","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23892","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24eb328.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JULY 15, 1929 NO. 14 Rhododendron maximum, the Rosebay, with compact pyramidate clusters of white, flushed with pink, blossoms makes a pleasing display at the foot of Hemlock Hill. Though much less showy than the majority of evergreen Rhododendrons, this native species is valuable for the lateness of its blooming period. On the slopes of Bussey Hill and elsewhere the Swamp Honeysuckle (R. viscosum) is still in blossom ; on Center Street Path the rare suffruticose Sphaeralcea remota is bearing in profusion its pale rose-purple blossoms suggestive of a miniature Hollyhock. Above the Lilacs Catalpa bignonioides, the latest to flower of the two American Catalpas, is in bloom, and across the road Maackia amurensis is putting forth its upright spikes of whitish flowers. Alongside Meadow Road Koelreuteria paniculata, showiest of summer-flowering trees, is opening its brilliant yellow blossoms. This good-natured Oriental tree deserves wider recognition for it seems happy not only in the pure air of the country but in the soot and grime of the city. With the exception of Laburnum it is the only yellow blossoming tree hardy in this part of America; apart from its wealth of blooms it is worth growing for its large pinnate foliage. In the Shrub Garden summer-flowering Spiraeas in white, pink, and crimson-pink are in bloom. So, too, are several Yuccas and shrubby Potentillas, while a number of Bush Honeysuckles are burdened with ripe fruit. On the Administration Building the climbing Schizophragma hydrangeoides is in full flower. Lonicera tatarica and its several forms and hybrids are now laden with ripe fruits. These old-fashioned Bush Honeysuckles are still among the most useful of the larger shrubs for parks and gardens in the colder parts of this country and Canada. Natives of northern Asia, they are accustomed to a rigorous climate and given plenty of room they will make bushes from 15 to 18 feet tall and from 25 to 30 feet in diameter with ascending and spreading branches, forming a round-topped mass. The flowers, white, yellowish, or pink, are freely produced in the early spring and now at high summer the branches are weighted down with ripe berries. In the typical L. tatarica the fruit is red; in the variety lutea, it is orange and translucent. There are several hybrids of which L. tatarica is part-parent, all of them excellent shrubs but none is better than L. bella, which bears enormous quantities of rich crimson berries. These Bush Honeysuckles are good-natured plants but like other shrubs they respond to liberal treatment. Given a good loamy soil, a position where their roots can be plentifully supplied with water and abundant space in which to develop they will be objects of beauty decade upon decade. The only pruning necessary is from time to time to remove old and worn-out stems. They enjoy wind and sun, and winter cold never injures them. Acanthopanax leucorrhizus is a member of a small tribe of summer-flowering trees and shrubs related to the Ivy. They are natives of the Orient and comprise about a score of species, A. leucorrhizus is a round-topped bush from 8 to 10 feet tall with sturdy erect stems, gray-green when young, later olive-green and furnished with deflexed prickles. The leaves, on long petioles with a sheathing base, are digitately 5-foliolate, coarsely serrated and dark green on the upper surface. The flowers, each borne on a long slender but rigid stalk, are small, greenish, with prominent white anthers. The inflorescence is terminal, consisting of a number of long-stalked globose heads, the whole forming a spreading cymose cluster. The fruit is a jet black berry which remains on the branches far into the winter and it is for the fruit rather than its flowers that this shrub and most of its relatives are worth a place in gardens. A smaller growing species is A. Giraldii, remarkable for the wealth of bristle-like hairs that clothe the stems. In China the stems of this plant are pulverized and the powder is employed as a vermifuge, a drastic remedy which is possibly more dangerous than the disease. These with other species may be seen in blossom on Bussey Hill near the Cedars of Lebanon. Philadelphus incanus is a Chinese species of Mockorange and the latest of its tribe to bloom. It is a vigorous shrub with ascending-spreading branches growing 10 to 12 feet tall with relatively large ovate to ovate-lanceolate leaves furnished with gray pubescence on the under surface. The sweetly scented flowers, each about li\/4 inches in diameter, are produced in terminal, spreading, 6-inch long racemes. The flowers face downward and the calyx is clothed with a gray pubescence. This species is a common shrub in thickets and margins of woods throughout central and western China, where it was discovered and introduced into cultivation about 1895. Like all its tribe, it is free-flowering and since it produces its blossoms when those of its relatives are faded it is of value in prolonging the Mockorange season; in the hands of the hybridist it may prove parent of a late-flowering race. Amorpha canescens, the Lead-plant, is in blossom in the Shrub Garden. This native of the middle west is an attractive shrub with narrow, pinnate leaves which like the stems are hoary. The flowers are borne in clustered spike-like racemes produced both terminally and from the axils of the upper leaves, the whole forming a paniculate mass. The individual flower is small, hooded, violet-purple with prominent yellow anthers. It blooms on the current season's shoot, so should be pruned in the early spring. It is sun-loving, very floriferous and unusual in appearance owing to the hoary character of stem and leaf. Ulmus pumila. Under such names as Siberian Elm, Asiatic Elm, and Peking Elm the Arboretum has this year received for identification specimens from many parts of the country. In every instance the material was referable to U. pumila. This Elm is a common tree in Korea, parts of Manchuria and in northeastern China, where it grows usually on the open plains and by the sides of rivers and stony mountain torrents. Although it was named U. pumila by Linnaeus it is anything but a dwarf tree. In its native land it is at maturity often 80 feet tall with a trunk 11 feet in girth clothed with dark gray, deeply corrugated bark, and a crown made up of a few wide-spreading massive branches. In youth and middle age it is an entirely different looking tree, being pyramidal in outline with a compact head of twiggy branches. The leaves on both young and old trees are ovate-lance-shaped, long-pointed, smooth on both surfaces, each from 1\/2 to 2 1\/2 inches long and from 16 to 11\/4 inches broad, and coarsely toothed along the margin. It flowers in early spring and the fruit is ripe early in May. This Elm has been in cultivation since about 1860 in Europe, where it does not appear to have impressed tree lovers in outstanding manner. Its first appearance in this country seems to have been as small plants sent from Peking to the Arboretum in 1905 by J. G. Jack. These have disappeared from the collection but growing there, on the left of Bussey Hill Road beyond the Lilacs, is a tree fully 35 feet tall raised from seeds collected in Peking on May 4, 1910, by E. H. Wilson. The general introduction of this Elm we owe to F. N. Meyer, collecting for the Bureau of Plant Industry Department of Agriculture, Washington, D. C., who sent in 1913 abundant seeds which germinated freely and the plants were subsequently widely distributed. They proved to be rapid growing and of much value in the prairie states and on the Pacific coast. In the Arboretum this Elm has grown faster than any other tree and so far appears free from disease and does not harbor insect pests. It gives every promise of being exceedingly useful for cities, since apparently it does not mind smoke-laden atmosphere so much as many other trees. Except that it does not grow old gracefully, no fault concerning this tree is known. In Manchuria and Korea it is commonly used as a hedge plant about the railway stations, being clipped in the usual manner. There is no reason why it should not serve a similar purpose in the prairie states of this country. Another species of Elm is by some confused with this tree, namely U. parvifolia, also native of the Far East. No two Elms could be more distinct. U. parvifolia is a small tree with thin scaling bark, a round-topped twiggy crown. small, more or less oval, thick and leathery leaves and it blossoms in the autumn. This is a neat little tree for the lawn ~but is slow-growing and worthless as a street tree. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 26","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23893","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24eb36a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARN OLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III JULY 26, 1929 NO. 15 The scarcity of rain is affecting vegetation generally; the foliage on some of the shrubs is wilting, the trees however, show little or no ill effects, but copious rains are badly needed. The season has been very erratic; flowers have opened out of order and under the hot sun have lasted for a shorter period than usual. Most of the shrubs and trees have made a good growth and the Conifers and Yews in particular are looking remarkably well. Some of the Silver Firs, such as Abies concolor and A. homolepis, are bearing a heavy crop of cones, all perched erect on the uppermost parts of the trees. Among the Kalmias under the lee of Hemlock Hill the Sorrel-tree (Oxydendron arboreum) is rapidly expanding its spreading panicled masses of white flowers. The foliage of this floriferous tree is light green and in the autumn assumes rich crimson tints. Trees and shrubs that bloom at this season of the year have unusual value and the Sorrel-tree ought to be much more freely planted, it is perfectly hardy and thrives where an acid or neutral soil prevails. The Fleece Vine (Polygonum Aubertii) is opening its white blossoms and displaying its value for pergola and trellis. This and its relative, P. baldschuanicze7n, are quite hardy in the Arboretum but P. Aubertii appears to be the more satisfactory plant. When these vines are past blooming fragrant Clematis paniculata ~bursts into flower and the two make a good combination, providing a succession of blossoms from early August to late September. On Bussey Hill Evodia Daniellii, whose flowers are much beloved by bees, will soon be laden with broad clusters of blossoms; there, too, the Japanese Clethra barbinervis, first of the Pepperbushes to bloom, is already shedding its flowers. Fruits on the Rowan or Mountain Ash (Sorbus Aucuparia) and on the European Cranberry-bush (Viburnum Opulus) are showing color and the keys on Acer ginnala are becoming reddish. In the Shrub Garden different Hypericums, Spiraeas and Trumpet-vines are in blossom, and late-flowering Hydrangeas are opening flat or ball-like heads of white. Alongside Meadow Road Koelreuteria paniculata continues a mass of rich yellow and a thousand candles of blossoms still illumine the last of the Buckeyes (Aesculus parviflora). Albizzia julibrissin rosea. A low, broad specimen of this wide-spread Asiatic tree, the Pink Siris or Silk-tree, is in blossom on Bussey Hill. The foliage in form, texture and appearance is like that which the popular mind associates with Mimosa, being pinnate with hundreds of small pinnae. The flowers are borne in stalked heads which are produced many together in the topmost leaf-axils of the current season's growth. The sepals and petals are inconspicuous and are dominated by the tasseled crimson-pink passing to pink stamens which are long out-thrust, tipped with tiny yellow anthers, and beautiful. The flowers stand above the foliage and being so different from those of any other plant attract great attention. The native country of this tree is doubtful. It is found widespread in Asia from Persia through China to southern Korea, has been widely planted in the warm-temperate and subtropical parts of the world and in this country is found naturalized from Virginia to Florida and Louisiana. In the type the stamens are white and the flower less showy than that of the variety rosea which is also the hardier tree. The origin of the plant in the Arboretum affords a good illustration of the importance of obtaining for northern gardens types which grow in the coolest regions they can withstand. The particular tree was raised from seeds collected in the garden of the Chosen Hotel at Seoul, Korea, by E. H. Wilson in 1918. It grows wild in the southern parts of the Korean peninsula but appears quite at home in the more severe climate of the central region. A few seeds only were collected and seedling plants were set out in the Arboretum when about four years old; several were killed the first winter but one came through with but slight injury and since that time has not suffered in the least. From its behavior during the last seven or eight years there seems reason to believe that this Korean type will prove a useful and valuable addition to gardens. It has a long flowering season, continuing in blossom throughout August. Albizzia is a member of a tropical tribe of the great family Leguminosae and it is astonishing that this tree should be able to withstand New England winters. Apparently it is happy in fully exposed situations, where good drainage and a sandy loam prevail. Stewartia koreana is again in blossom near the old White Pine trees on Bussey Hill. It is flowering much more freely than last year and its distinctive characters are more obvious. The flower is fringed, pure white, from 31\/z to 4 inches in diameter, flat and saucer-like with the ovary and stamens rich yellow. The leaves are ovate-elliptic, shining bright green with impressed veins and rounded base. It is a more cheery looking plant than its close relative, the Japanese Stewartia pseudocamellia, which has dull green leaves, longer and narrow at the base, less prominently impressed veins and flowers more cupped. The Korean Stewartia is showing remarkable vigor; it has suffered no winter injury and as the tree matures will doubtless bloom as freely as any of its tribe. Heather or Ling (Calluna vulgaris) in its various forms is blossoming in the Shrub Garden and elsewhere. Among low-growing ground covering evergreens none is more beautiful than this plant so dear to the heart of every Scotchman. There are a great many forms, distinguished by their habit of growth and color of blossoms but one and all are equally lovely. The erect, leafy shoots bear in abundance axillary flowers which vary in color from pure white and pink to crimson-purple. Heather is a sun-loving plant but in these latitudes unless favored by good snowfalls it, like all low-growing evergreen ground-covers, needs protection from the latter half of January until April. Boughs with salt hay or coarse herbage sprinkled over make a light and efficient protection. Heather is an acid-soil plant which does not transplant any too well from open ground and should, therefore, be grown for the purpose in pots. It is easily propagated by cuttings taken from August to mid-September and inserted in sand under glass. If allowed to grow naturally, it becomes straggling and hummocky and is apt to die in patches; the same obtains when growing in the shade. To avoid this the Arboretum practice is to shear it each spring thereby keeping it low and mat-like. In the British Isles, particularly in the northern part, in Scandinavia and elsewhere the Heather covers enormous areas of moorland and mountainside and in August presents one of the floral spectacles of northern regions. Although the plant covers vast areas in Europe and extends far into northern latitudes, Heather unlike many other boreal types is not known to grow on this continent. About the middle of last century it was reported from Nantucket and later from several other isolated places in New England. Close investigation, however, has shown that in each instance there is every reason to believe it had been introduced. In fact, today, authorities have no hesitation in saying that so far as the discoveries in New England are concerned one and all are simply escapes from cultivation. Sorbaria arborea is the tallest growing and the most handsome member of a small group of summer-flowering shrubs closely related to and by some authorities included under Spiraea. They differ in having large pinnate leaves somewhat similar to those of Sorbus, hence the generic name. S. arborea is an almost tree-like shrub, growing fully 15 feet tall and forming a broad, fountain-like mass well furnished with large dark green leaves. The flowers are pure white borne hundreds together in terminal much-branched plumose panicles, each 12 to 18 inches long and correspondingly ~broad. The panicles are nodding and when in blossom the whole shrub is a cascade of pure white. This is a good plant for a large garden and is best accommodated in a moist place, being particularly happy at the side of a pond or stream where it can obtain an abundance of water and its beauty be seen to advantage. A native of western China, this Sorbaria was introduced into cultivation in 1913 by E. H. Wilson. A fine specimen may be seen among the Hickories on Center Street Path and nearby are growing several related species, including S. sorbifolia, widespread in northeastern Asia and naturalized in many parts of New England. E. H. W. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until October."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 16","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23906","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25e8125.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III OCTOBER 16, 1929 NO. 16 The phenomenal drought which Massachusetts in common with other states has endured will long be remembered for it caused grave anxiety among all who garden. In late June the Arboretum enjoyed one good rainfall but not another worth mentioning until October 2nd. For fully two months supplying water to suffering trees and shrubs was the principal work engaged upon. Fortunately, there was no great heat but at the height of the drought it looked as if a great many plants must die. Thanks to the water stored from the heavy rains of spring the trees suffered but little and as autumn arrived a general freshening among all woody plants was noticeable. Today it is difficult to realize that extreme drought has been experienced. The power of resuscitation enjoyed by plants is, indeed, marvelous. The pageant of autumn coloring in New England is almost commonplace, yet nowhere in the world is it more brilliant or more abundant. On every side the gaiety of coloring is redundant as if Nature happy in a season's work well done was celebrating in joyous mood. Trees, being the dominant feature of the landscape, stand forth most conspicuously and with a little study it is easy to recognize the majority of native forest trees by the color of their autumn robes. As with the color of fruits, so with autumn tints in general, they are fixed in character, the same individual producing each successive season the same colors. The Poplars, Birches, Elms (with one Oriental exception), Hickories and Tulip-tree change unfailingly to yellow tones, varying from rich yellow to orange-yellow. Beech and some other trees pass from yellow-orange to golden bronze and russet. In the Oaks, the Swamp White, the English, and the Chestnut Oak, the foliage changes to more or less leather-brown tints; the White Oak in a majority of trees gives a splendid splash of scarlet, passing to crimson. In the Red and Black Oaks red to crimson tones prevail. As the autumn colors persist long on Oaks they are the most glorious feature of New England's countryside. In Maples every conceivable color obtains. In the Striped-bark Maple the autumn foliage is pale to clear yellow; the Scarlet Maple may be yellow, orange, deep red, or crimson-purple, but the greatest variation is seen in the Sugar Maple where every color from pale yellow through orange to pink and crimson may be seen on half a dozen individuals often growing side by side. Of exotic species no Maple has more beautiful autumn foliage than Acer gi7znala, a small tree of more or less shapeless habit with abundant coarsely toothed leaves which change from salmon to the richest tones of red. The White Ash of all trees gives the greatest show of vinous purple. No other large native tree presents this color and it can be picked out in the autumn so far off as one can distinguish color. Occasionally one notes a White Ash tree that is all yellow, a color that is invariable in its close relatives, the Red and Green Ash. Glorious are the colors of the Sassafras, varying from yellow and orange to salmon-red. The Pepperidge or Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) of all native trees gives the greatest show of pure crimson in the fall. The true Larches change to yellow but are far outshone in autumn beauty by the Chinese Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis), which early assumes tones of old gold to golden-bronze almost unique among trees. Its remote relative, the Ginkgo, changes to the richest yellow and where these trees are associated with Pine, Hemlock, Spruce and Fir the effect is heightened since the latter stand out as black-green and gray-green foils. Of the lesser trees none is more lovely in autumn garb than the Flowering Dogwood for every color is present in its foliage among which nestle clustered scarlet fruits. Of all native flowering trees none has greater ornamental value than the Flowering Dogwood. In the Arboretum, where all the hardy native trees are assembled and where, too, may be found a large percentage of the trees of boreal regions that can be grown in the climate of Massachusetts, the autumn coloring is unusually rich and varied and no more delightful stroll can be taken than through its grounds in October. Autumn coloring is by no means confined to trees; indeed, it is general among the native shrubs of eastern North America. Comparatively few native trees bear ornamental fruits, whereas, such are common among shrubs. Viburnums as a tribe are rich in all the qualities that make an ornamental shrub for they are of good habit, free-flowering and fruiting, and deserve far greater attention than is now accorded them. Among autumn foliage that of Viburnum prunifolium with its rich vinous purple shades is not exceeded by any shrub. On its heels comes the Nannyberry (V. lentago) but, perhaps, less brilliant in color. Similar, too, is the autumn foliage of V. cassinoides. In this species and also in V. prunifolium the fruit as it ripens passes from white through shades of pink to blue-purple. The Arrowwood (V. acerifolium) so common in woodlands has pale pinkish to claret-colored foliage distinctly translucent in autumn days. In sheer autumn brilliancy the Sumacs perhaps exceed other groups of native shrubs and in none is a brighter ruddy crimson seen than in Rhus copallina. Evonymus and Honeysuckles give an abundance of fruit but little autumn color; the Barberry tribe, however, excel in both qualities. In a group so large it is hard to single out the most desirable but in the Arboretum at the moment none are more beautiful than Berberis diaphana on Centre Street Path and B. circumserrata on Bussey Hill. These two Chinese species are both low and compact m habit, forming rounded masses much broader than tall with moderately large coarsely toothed leaves of various shades of orange to purplish crimson among which hang ovoid scarlet fruits. The fruit on the different Blueberries and Huckleberries has long since disappeared but their autumn tints and especially those of the Highbush Blueberry are richly developed. Azaleas are free-flowering and beautiful giving in variety a ten weeks' succession of blossom in spring and early summer, and most of them have warm tinted autumn foliage. Handsomest of all are the blackish purple tints of Rhododendron roseum and the crimson to purple hues of R. Vaseyi. In the Flame Azalea (R. calendulaceum) the autumn colors are almost as varied as those of the flowers in spring while the leaves of the Swamp Honeysuckle (R. viscosum) vary from luminous orange to lustrous bronze. The Korean R. poukhanense effects bronzy purple tones, whereas orange, salmon-red to crimson prevail on Kaempfer's Azalea. The Enkianthus boast no beauty in their fruits but in their autumn foliage they rank among the loveliest of all shrubs. In E. campanulatus all shades from orange through salmon-red to purplish crimson may be seen and that favorite of the Japanese, E. perulatus, better known as E. japonicus, with its glowing orange through red to crimson tones may be acclaimed super brilliant. On Bussey Hill the Azaleas and Enkianthus may be seen in their autumn dress and nearby Cotoneasters in rich variety are strung with brightly colored fruits. Especially ornamental are C. Dielsiana, C. divaricata, C. horizontalis and C. apiculata. The Callicarpas possess little beauty of flower and no particular merit in foliage but their lustrous, pale lavender fruits clustered in the leaf axils are as lovely as they are unique in color. Spiraeas, Deutzias, Philadelphus and their ilk are in a measure like herbs inasmuch that while they give an abundance of blossom they possess no ornamental qualities in fruit or autumn foliage. In the ordinary garden there is little place for trees but always a place for good shrubs and in selecting these attention should be paid not only to their flowering qualities but to their habit of growth, to the character of their fruits, and their autumn tints. Were this more commonly practiced the shrubs about homes would be of a more varied and much more highly ornamental character. The Hawthorns on the easterly and southerly slopes of Peters Hill are laden with fruit and well worth coming a long distance to see. Hawthorns possess a strong family likeness but they are, nevertheless, strongly characteristic. The habit of growth, the long horizontal zig-zag branches far outthrust and laden with pendent masses of fruits of varying shades of red to purplish crimson are most impressive. The season of ripening and period of retaining their fruits varies enormously. Crataegus arnoldiana, the first of its tribe to ripen fruit is in full glory in late August and the fruits are shed by the end of September; others ripen in succession and some carry their fruits far into the winter. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 30","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23907","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25e8526.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III OCTOBER 30, 1929 NO. 17 Oaks best loved of trees by the Anglo-Saxon race are the glory of northern forests. They have been associated with our history from immemorial time and the veriest tyro among tree lovers recognizes an Oak at a glance. They form the genus Quercus and the members are widely distributed through northern regions dipping into the tropics of both hemispheres. A majority of the species are evergreen, quite a few of which are natives of North America but not a single evergreen Oak has proved hardy in the Arboretum. This is a great pity since one and all are beautiful umbrageous trees, none more so than the Holm Oak of Europe (Quercus Ilex) of which Kew Gardens boasts magnificent specimens. In North America and Canada some 85 species, of which 28 are shrubs, and about 60 natural hybrids are recognized. In the Arboretum 60 species and hybrids are successfully grown, the collection being perhaps the finest of the tree groups. New England is well represented in Oak species; in the Arboretum itself 6 are native and Oaks are the principal feature of the mixed woods which clothe its low rocky hills. When the Arboretum was founded in 1872 the Oak trees through poverty of soil and excessive pasturage showed marked signs of deterioration, many of them were stag-headed and dying at the top. Professor C. S. Sargent submitted them to the Des Cars' system of pruning, which consists of thinning out the lesser and pollarding the main branches. The beneficial result of this treatment is remarkable, especially among the White Oaks; indeed, it is difficult to tell without close inspection that they have been submitted to drastic pruning. In addition to the native species all that will withstand the climate are flourishing and there are trees now 60 feet and more tall raised from seeds planted about fifty years ago. The idea is current that Oaks grow slowly, but the experience of the Arboretum is that they grow faster than the majority of hardwood trees. The erroneous notion of slow growth is probably responsible for their being much neglected by nurserymen. Their beauty as specimen trees for lawn and meadow is obvious to all and their value as roadside trees is well demonstrated by the magnificent avenues of Red Oak which line the Parkway in the vicinity of Jamaica Pond. The best way of raising Oaks is by planting the acorns in flats so soon as they are ripe and transplanting the seedlings when a few inches high. As Oaks form a stout taproot it is necessary to transplant them frequently in order to develop a fibrous root system. If properly grown from their youth, most of the Oaks transplant with ease but some, the common White Oak in particular, are notoriously difficult to move. Oaks with their stout boles, rugged bark, massive branches and wide spreading crowns are beautiful at all seasons of the year. In the brilliancy of their autumn tints they are not excelled by any trees and the soft greens, grays and pinks of their unfolding foliage and flowers is one of spring's greatest delights. Red and Black Oaks are peculiar to North America and are not found elsewhere in the world. They are characterized by the fruit taking two years to mature, and many of them are distinguished by a hair-like process which protrudes from the margins of the leaf. Of these 20 species and hybrids are growing in the Arboretum, prominent among them are the northern Red Oak (Q. borealis), the Pin Oak (Q. palustris), the Scarlet Oak (Q. coccinea), the Black Oak (Q. velutina) and the Shingle Oak (Q. imbricaria). The northern Red Oak is best known as Q. rubra and extends north to the foothills of the Laurentians in Quebec, being the most northerly species in those latitudes. To this same group belongs the scrubby Bear Oak (Q. ilicifolia) abundant in rocky places on the Blue Hills and elsewhere. These Oaks assume orange-brown or scarlet to crimson-purple tones and where they grow on sandy soil or in rocky places the color is especially brilliant. Several of this group, especially Q. coccinea and Q. borealis, do well in the British Isles but the pernicious European practice of grafting them on the native White Oak has led to their being less common than they otherwise would be. The Shingle or Laurel Oak (Q. imbricaria), which is readily distinguished by its descending, over-lapping branches and oblong, smooth margined leaves, is exceedingly well-suited for making tall hedges and since it holds its brown dead foliage until spring gives a sense of warmth throughout the winter months. Its value as a hedge plant has been well demonstrated at the Experimental Farm, Ottawa, and nurserymen would do well to raise this Oak in quantity for this purpose. White Oaks are found not only in North America but in Europe and Asia also. They are distinguished by the acorn maturing in one season and by the absence of any hair-like outgrowths from the margin of the leaves. Of the American species and hybrids some 25 are growing in the Arboretum, the best known of which are the common White Oak (Q. alba), the Swamp White Oak (Q. bicolor) and the Burr Oak (Q. macrocarpa). The White Oak with its relatively short but very thick trunk and its wide spreading flattened-round crown of massive branches and rich scarlet autumn tints is one of the noblest of northern trees. Where the soil is rich and it has ample room in which to grow this is one of the outstanding trees of the countryside. Curiously enough it has been found virtually impossible to grow this Oak in the British Isles where only one or two small trees are known. The Swamp White Oak with taller trunk but less wide-spreading crown is found as far north as the St. Lawrence Valley in southern Quebec, being the most northerly of White Oaks in these latitudes. The Burr Oak with its handsome, mossy capule is widespread and grows taller than any other White Oak. In the rich bottomlands of southern Indiana and Illinois it sometimes reaches the great height of 170 feet with a trunk 20 feet in girth clear of limbs for 75 feet. It has a wide distribution, being found as far north as Nova Scotia and New Brunswick; it is the common Oak in Wisconsin and ranges farther to the northwest than the other Oaks of eastern North America. Two very interesting White Oaks growing well in the Arboretum are the Overcup Oak (Q. lyrata) and the Post Oak (Q. stellata). Asiatic Oaks. Of the 9 species of deciduous leaved Oaks native of China, Japan and northeastern Asia in general, 7 are growing in the Arboretum, where one and all do well. The most valuable of these Asiatic Oaks is Q. mongolica, the Oriental relative of the European Q. robur. The typical species is abundant in Manchuria and Korea but has only recently been established in the Arboretum where it was raised from seeds collected in 1917 by E. H. Wilson. Its Japanese form Q. mongolica grosse-serrata, more generally known as Q. crispula, the Nara of the Japanese, is famous for its timber which approaches in quality that of the American Q. alba. The species, widely known as Q. glandulifera, but correctly as Q. serrata, is peculiar in that it is the only Asiatic Oak which assumes red to crimson autumn tints; it grows freely in the Arboretum. The corky-barked Q. variabilis and its close relative Q. acutissima, peculiar as being the only deciduous leaved Oaks outside of the Red and Black Oak section which take two years to mature their acorns, are doing well. The Japanese Tan-bark Oak (Q. dentata) often called the Daimyo Oak, remarkable for its very large leaves, grows less freely than other Asiatic species. These with Q. aliena, common to China, Japan and Korea, may be seen on the eastern slopes of Bussey Hill. The largest trees were all raised from acorns collected in 1892 by Professor Sargent on his most fruitful expedition to Japan. European Oaks with the exception of the Hungarian Oak (Q. conferta), one of the handsomest White Oaks, do badly in eastern North America. The English Oak (Q. robur) grows rapidly for the first twenty years of its life but afterwards becomes stunted. It has been abundantly planted about the old villages on Cape Cod, where here and there a passable specimen may be seen. The Turkey Oak (Q. cerris) exists in the Arboretum but in the town of Brookline one or two good specimens may be seen. A supposed hybrid between Q. robur and the American Chestnut Oak (Q. montana) and known as Q. Sargentiana, grows well and is represented in the Arboretum by a number of fine trees. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 30","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23905","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed25ebb25.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. III NOVEMBER 30, 1929 NO. 18 The Firs and Spruces are among the most important timber trees of the northern hemisphere and the most important of ornamental narrow-leaved evergreen trees. In boreal regions they cover vast. areas often forming pure forests enormous in extent. In both hemispheres the Firs find their southern limits just within the Tropic of Cancer, but the Spruces keep within the temperate regions. Both Firs and Spruces in northern regions grow at sea level but in temperate, and more especially warm-temperate regions, they are restricted to the higher mountains, the Firs being more alpine in character than the Spruces. The Firs form the genus Abies and the Spruces that of Picea. They bear a close resemblance one to another, indeed, there is much confusion in the lay mind as to their distinctive characters. In the Firs the cone is always erect and falls to pieces when ripe; in the Spruces the cone is pendulous and does not disintegrate at maturity. Another distinction is that in dried specimens the leaves of Spruce always fall from the branches, whereas those of the Abies remain attached. As timber producing trees the Spruces are more important than the Firs but for ornamental purposes the opposite obtains. All are tall trees, in some species approaching 200 feet in height and ranking among the loftiest and most impressive of Conifers, but in the boreal regions they are reduced to scrub. Lovers of regions where the air is pure and where they enjoy abundant moisture at the root, neither Firs nor Spruces are suitable for planting in cities or manufacturing towns. There are species suitable for almost any climate where at least a moderate rainfall prevails but none are desert plants, although a number withstand extremes of both heat and cold. Obviously those native of the mountains bordering the tropics are not suitable to the gardens of New England, neither do the more alpine species thrive at sea level. Moreover, the natives of different regions of the world behave quite differently under cultivation in eastern North America. Speaking in general, the more than fifty years experience of the Arboretum is that the Firs and Spruces of Europe and western Asia, those of Japan and Korea, and those of Colorado grow well in Massachusetts. In western North America grow some of the noblest, tallest, and most beautiful of all the Firs but none of these is at home in the Arboretum. The two species of Fir (Abies balsamea and A. Fraseri) native of eastern North America are not happy in the Arboretum though Fraser's Fir does splendidly a few miles to the north. Of the three native species of Spruce (Picea glauca, P. mariana and P. rubra) the first-named only does moderately well in the Arboretum, the summers are a little too hot and dry for its well-being. The other two merely exist and are not worth their board and room. The Arboretum's work in the acclimatization of Conifers during more than fifty years ranks among its most important contribution to dendrology and landscape gardening. A visit to the Pinetum at any season of the year is interesting and instructive to all lovers of these trees since they may see for themselves how particular species behave in the climate of Massachusetts and judge which are of greatest value. Of Firs or Silver Firs, as they are usually called, there are growing in the Arboretum twenty-five species and sixteen varieties. Of these, four species and three varieties are native of Europe and western Asia, five are Chinese, eight with four varieties are indigenous to Japan and Korea, six species and four varieties have their home in mid-western and western North America, while two species and five varieties are native of the Atlantic seaboard. Of the twenty-five species, eleven appear to be first-class ornamental trees but of these Abies chensiensis, A. Fargesii and A. recurvata are comparatively new introductions from China, and A. holophylla and A. koreana from Korea which have not been with us sufficiently long for a definite opinion to be expressed. The remaining six species of Fir have proved their value over half a century. One only of these is American, two are Japanese, and three hail from southwestern Europe and western Asia. First of these six Firs must be placed A. concolor, the Colorado White Fir, of which there are specimens in the Pinetum more than 65 feet tall, symmetrical in outline with branches sweeping the ground and well clothed with long spreading glaucous gray leaves. A worthy partner of this White Fir is the Nikko Fir (A. homolepis, more widely known as A. brachyphylla), a Japanese species with wide spreading branches densely furnished with black-green leaves silvery on the under surface. The three Eurasian Firs (A. Nordmanniana, A. cilicica and A. cephalonica) are of about equal value, each and several being of distinguished appearance and highly ornamental. The sixth Fir is A. Veitchii of Japan, a tree less tall than either of the above with a smooth, pale gray bark and short, horizontally spreading branches clothed with dark green leaves silvery on the lower surface. Of the Chinese Firs A. Fargesii with its mahogany-purple shoots and long black-green leaves silvery on the under surface is of much promise. So, too, is A. koreana, which in habit of growth somewhat resembles its relative A. Veitchii. The Spruces are richer in species than the Firs but from the point of view of ornamental horticulture less valuable since they do not grow old so gracefully. One and all have weak points, not least of which is their habit of sooner or later losing their lower branches. From the point of view of producing timber this is a great advantage but for ornamental purposes it is a bad defect. In the Arboretum some twenty-six species and sixty-one varieties of Spruces are growing but of the varieties no fewer than forty-one are referable to the Norway Spruce (Picea Abies). Of the twenty-six species, eleven give promise of being first-class ornamentals but of these the Chinese P. asperata, P. Balfouriana and P. Wilsonii have not been in cultivation long enough for a definite statement to be made and the same is true of the Japanese P. Koyamai. However, in reference to these four species it may be said that they promise well; they grow freely and have withstood with impunity the severest of New England winters experienced since their introduction some twenty years ago. Of the seven remaining Spruces, each of which has been tested for half a century in the Arboretum, the Caucasian P. orientalis ranks first in ornamental qualities. This tree has short, shining dark green leaves, densely arranged on the plumose branches which spread outward and downward and are upturned at their extremities. The whole tree is a symmetrical pyramid of lustrous dark green at all seasons of the year. Next in merit ranks the flat-leaved Serbian Spruce (P. omorika), a narrow tree with horizontally and down-spreading branches tilting upward at the tips and clothed with black-green leaves silvery on the under surface. This is a rather narrow tree but of arresting character. Its weak point is that the leading shoots, especially of young trees, suffer from boring insects. The Norway Spruce does not grow old gracefully, becoming scrawny and where it is exposed to the strong winds its leading shoots are killed and the tree dies from the top downward. However, under favorable circumstances for fifty to ~seventy-five years its ornamental qualities can be depended upon and if planted on a lawn where it will have plenty of room its lower branches will remain sweeping the ground for a longer period than those of any other Spruce. This well-known tree is, when in good health, strikingly beautiful with wide spreading horizontal branches from which long branchlets hang suspended. Probably of all Spruces none has been more widely planted than the Colorado Blue Spruce (P. pungens), especially its form Koster's Blue (coerulea). Undoubtedly, this Spruce has been greatly overplanted and, moreover, has been placed in positions totally unfitted for it, but these are faults of the landscape gardener rather than of the tree itself. Rightly placed, a Blue Spruce is a thing of beauty and for northern gardens and parks is well entitled to rank in the first half dozen Conifers. Its neighbor, P. Engelmannii, is also a first-class ornamental. At one time it was hoped that this species would hold its lower branches permanently when placed in open situations but experience has shown that it is no more constant in this than the Blue Spruce. In the neighborhood of Boston the summers are a little too hot for the well-being of the Canadian Spruce (P. glauca) but the Japanese Tiger-tail Spruce (P. polita) is quite at home. With its stout, pungent, dark green leaves this tree has a rather sombre appearance but is undeniably handsome. E. H. W. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until April of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 3 Volume III","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23891","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed24eaf27.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME III Synonyms are in italics; illustrations in black face type Abelia, 34 Abies balsamea, 70 - brachyphylla, 70 - cephalonica, 70 - chensiensis, 70 - cilicica, 70 - concolor, 57, 70, 71 - Fargesii, 70 - Fraseri, 70 - holophylla, 70 - homolepis, 57, 70 - koreana, 70 - Nordmanniana, 70 - recurvata, 70 - Veitchii, 70 Acacias, Rose, 33 Acanthopanax Giraldii, 54 - leucorrhizus, 54 Acer ginnala, 57, 62 -platanoides, 10 - pseudoplatanus, 10 - rubrum, 1 Aesculus carnea Briotii, 29 - parviflora, 57 Albizzia julibrissin rosea, 58 Almond, Chinese, 9 - Flowering, 20 Amelanchier laevis, 9 American Way-faring tree, 16 Amorpha canescens, 54 Ampelopsis, 52 Apple, Common, 16 Apricot, Manchurian, 1, 5 Arborvitaes, 30 Arrowwood, 62 Ash, Green, 62 - Mountain, 57 - Red, 62 - White, 62 Azalea, Flame, 34, 37, 41, 64 - Kaempfer's, 4, 33, 64 - Korean, 18 - Pontic, 18, 32 Torch, 18 Azaleas, 13, 25, 64 - Ghent, 18, 32 - Mollis, 32 Barberries, 18 Beautybush, 34 Benzoin aestivale, 1, 9 Berberis aggregata, 49 - circumserrata, 64 - diaphana, 64 - Dielsiana, 18 - polyantha, 42 - verruculosa, 20 Birches, 61 Bladder-sennas, 50 Blueberries, 64 Blueberry, Highbush, 9 Brooms, 25, 49 Buckeyes, 25, 29, 57 Bussey Hill, 13, 17 Callicarpas, 64 Calluna vulgaris, 58 Catalpa bignonioides, 53 Catalpas, American, 53 Ceanothus americanus, 50 - ovatus, 50 - pallidus roseus, 50 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 9 Cercis canadensis, 17 Cherries, 6 - Chinese, 6 - European, 14 - Japanese, 8, 12, 13, 17 Cherry, Cornelian, 1 - Nanking, 9 - October-flowering, 8, 14 - Oriental, 6 - Sargent, 5, 8, 12, 14 - Spring, 8 - Tokyo, 8 Chionanthus virginica, 35 Cinquefoils, Shrubby, 33 Clematis paniculata, 48, 57 - recta, 48 - - mandshurica, 48 Clethra barbinervis, 57 Colutea arborescens, 50 - cilicica, 50 Conifers, 2, 10, 29, 57, 70 Cornel, Silky, 41 Cornus Amomum, 41 - mas, 1 - officinalis, 1 - paniculata, 41 - racemosa, 41 Corylopsis Gotoana, 4 Cotoneaster apiculata, 64 - Dielsiana, 64 - divaricata, 64 - horizontalis, 64 - multiflora, 32 - reflexa, 32 - salicifolia floccosa, 42 Cotoneasters, 64 Crabapple, Bechtel's, 25, 33 - Carmine, 16 - Cherry, 14 - Hopa, 16 - Manchurian, 14 - Parkman, 16 - Sargent, 19, 20 - Siberian, 16 Crabapples, 13 - American, 25 - Asiatic, 14 Cranberry-bush, 57 Crataegus arnoldiana, 64 -- cordata, 41 - phaenopyrum, 41 Cytisus, 18, 33, 45 - albus, 46 - Beanii, 233 - elongatus, 25 - nigricans, 46, 49 - purgans, 25 - purpureus, 25 - supinus, 46 Deutzias, 64 Diervilla florida venusta, 28 Diervillas, 28, 33 Dirca palustris, 1, 9 Dogwood, Flowering, 17, 62 Dorycnium hirsutum, 45 Elaeagnus multiflora, 49 Elder, Canadian, 45 Elm, Asiatic, 56 - Peking, 56 - Siberian, 56 Elms, 61 Enkianthus, 29, 64 - campanulatus, 29, 33, 64 - japonicus, 64 - perulatus, 64 - subsessilis, 33 Euptelea polyandra, 4 Evodia Daniellii, 57 Evonymus, 62 Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii, 17 Fir, 2, 62, 69 - Colorado White, 71 - Nikko, 71 Firs, 29, 69, 70 - Silver, 57 Fleece Vine, 57 Forsythias, 1, 5 Fringe tree, 33 Genista, 33 - sagittalis, 46 - tinctoria, 41, 46 -- plena, 46 Ginkgo, 62 Grape, Oregon, 2 Hawthorns, 64 Heather, 2, 58 Helianthemum, 33 Hemlock, 62 - Sargent's Weeping, 30, 31 Hemlocks, 29 Hickories, 61 Hobble-bush, 16 Honeysuckle, Swamp, 49, 53, 64 Honeysuckles, 1, 33, 37, 62 - Bush, 25, 34, 53, 54 - Tatarian, 29, 45 Horsechestnuts, 25, 29 Huckleberries, 64 Hydrangea, Climbing, 35, 36 - petiolaris, 35, 36 Hydrangeas, Chinese, 41 Hypericum Bucklevi, 48 Hypericums, 57 Ilex glabra, 41 Indigofera amblyantha, 41 -- Purdomii, 40 - decora alba, 50 - Kirilowii, 50 Ink-berry, 41 Itea virginiana, 46 Japanese Cherry, Albo-rosea, 14 -- Fugenzo, 14 Gioiko, 13 -- Kanzan, 14 -- Mt. Fuji, 7, 8 Oshima, 12, 13 -- Sekiyama, 14 - - Sirotae, 13 Junipers, 30 Kalmia angustifolia, 42 -latifolia, 37, 42 Kalmias, 57 Koelreuteria paniculata, 53, 57 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 34 Larch, Chinese Golden, 62 Larches, 1, 62 Laurel, Mountain, 37, 41, 45 - Sheep, 42 Lead-plant, 54 Leather-wood, 9 Lilac, Common, 21, 22, 25 - Persian, 24 - Rouen, 23, 24 Lilacs, 2, 21 - French Hybrid, 21 - Tree, 41 Linden, Silver, 48 Ling, 58 Liquidambar formosana, 52 - - monticola, 52 - orientalis, 52 - styraciflua, 52 Liriodendron chinense, 44 -Tulipifera, 44 Lonicera bella, 54, 55 - Maackii podocarpa, 34 - Morrowii, 29 - praeflorens, 1 - Standishii, 1 - tatarica, 53 - - lutea, 54 - tenuipes, 9 Maackia amurensis, 53 Magnolia acuminata, 26 - glauca, 50 - cordata, 25 - Star, 4, 5 - stellata, 1 -- rosea, 3, 4 - virginiana, 50 Magnolias, 4, 9 - American, 25 Mahonia aquifolium, 2 Malus angustifolia, 30 - atrosanguinea, 16 - baccata mandshurica, 14 - floribunda, 14, 16 - Halliana, 16 - micromalus, 16 - pumila Niedzwetzkyana, 16 - purpurea, 16 -- aldenhamensis, 16 - Eleyi, 16 - robusta, 14 - Sargentiana, 19 - spectabilis, 14 - theifera, 14 Maple, Norway, 10, 12 - Red, 1 - Scarlet, 62 - Striped-bark, 62 - Sugar, 62 - Sycamore, 10, 12 Maples, 61 Mockorange, 54 Mulberries, 45 Nannyberry, 62 Nyssa sylvatica, 62 Oak, Bear, 66 - Black, 66 - Burr, 66, 68 - Chestnut, 68 - Daimyo, 68 - English, 68 - Holm, 65 - Hungarian, 68 - Laurel, 66 - Overcup, 68 - Pin, 66 - Post, 68 - Red, 66 - Scarlet, 66 - Shingle, 66 - Swamp White, 66, 68 - Tan-bark, 68 - Turkey, 68 - White, 66 Oaks, 65 - Asiatic, 68 - European, 68 - Red, 66 - White, 65, 66, 68 Oxydendrum arboreum, 57 Parthenocissus, 52 Peach, David's, 1 Pears, Asiatic, 9, 13 Pepperbushes, 57 Pepperidge, 62 Philadelphus, 33, 37, 41, 64 - Belle Etoile, 46 - Coulteri, 46 - incanus, 54 - Lemoinei, 46 - Virginal, 46 Picea Abies, 72 - asperata, 72 - Balfouriana, 72 - Engelmannii, 72 - glauca, 70, 72 - Koyamai, 72 - mariana, 70 - omorika, 72 - orientalis, 72 - polita, 72 - pungens, 70 - - coerulea, 72 - rubra, 70 - Wilsonii, 72 Pine, 2, 29, 62 Pink Siris, 58 Pinxter-bloom, 32 Plum, Canadian, 9 Polygonum Aubertii, 57 - baldschuanicum, 57 Poplars, 61 Potentillas, Shrubby, 53 Prunus apetala, 4 - avium, 14 - Cerasus, 14 - concinna, 8 - cyclamina, 6 - Davidiana, 1 -- alba, 1 - glandulosa, 20 - incisa, 7, 8 - Lannesiana, 13 -- albida, 12 - mandshurica, 1 - nigra, 9 - pilosiuscula,8 - pseudocerasus, 6, 8 - serrulata, 6 - - albo-rosea, 15 -- sachalinensis, 8, 13 - - spontanea, 12 - subhirtella, 8 - - autumnal is, 8 - tomentosa, 9 - triloba, 9 - yedoensis, 8 Pseudolarix amabilis, 62 Pyrus ussuriensis, 5 Quercus acutissima, 68 - alba, 66, 68 - aliena, 68 - bicolor, 66 - borealis, 66 - cerris, 68 - coccinea, 66 - conferta, 68 - crispula, 68 - dentata, 68 - glandulifera, 68 Ilex, 65 - ilicifolia, 66 - imbricaria, 66 - lyrata, 68 - macrocarpa, 66 - mongolica, 68 - - grosse-serrata, 68 - montana, 68 - palustris, 66 - robur, 68 - rubra, 66 - Sargentiana, 68 - serrata, 68 - stellata, 68 - variabilis, 68 - velutina, 66 Redbud, 17 Rhododendron arborescens, 41, 49, 51 - calendulaceum, 32, 34, 37, 41, 64 -- auranticum, 34, 41 -- croceum, 34 - carolinianum, 25 - dauricum mucronulatum, 1, 5 - japonicum, 32 - luteum, 18, 32 - maximum, 49, 53 - molle, 32 - nudiflorum, 30 - obtusum Kaempferi, 18 - poukhanense, 64 - roseum, 64 - Schlippenbachii, 11, 12, 17 - Vaseyi, 18, 64 - viscosum, 49, 53, 64 - yedoense poukhanense, 18 Rhododendrons, Hybrid, 33, 37 -- Album elegans, 37, 39 -- Catawbiense album, 37 -- F. L. Ames, 37 - Henrietta Sargent, 37 -- H. W. Sargent, 37 - Purpureum elegans, 38 Rhus copallina, 62 Robinias, 37 Rosa Ecae, 26 - Hugonis, 26, 27, 28 - omeiensis, 26 - - pteracantha, 26 - sericea, 26 --setigera, 49 - spinosissima, 28 - virginiana, 41, 45, 47 - virginiana, 41, 45, 47 Rose, Omei, 26 - Padre Hugo's, 27 - Prairie, 49 - Seashore, 41, 47 Rosebay, 49, 53 Roses, Early Flowering, 26 - Scotch, 33 - Sun, 33, 41 Rowan, 57 Sambucus canadensis, 45 Sassafras, 62 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 36, 53 Shadblows, 9, 45 Silk-tree, 58 Smilax, 52 Sophora vicifolia, 40 Sorbaria arborea, 59, 60 - sorbifolia, 60 Sorbus Aucuparia, 57 Sorrel-tree, 57 Sphaeralcea remota, 53 Spicebush, 9 Spiraea nipponica, 33 - Vanhoutte's, 33 Spiraeas, 41, 57, 64 Spruce, 2, 29, 62 - Canadian, 72 - Colorado Blue, 72 - Japanese Tiger-tail, 72 - Koster's Blue, 72 - Norway, 72 - Serbian, 72 Spruces, 69, 70 Stewartia koreana, 58 - pseudocamellia, 58 Styrax obassia, 33 Sumacs, 62 Sweetbay, 50 Sweetbriar, 26 Sweet Gum, 52 Syringa chinensis, 23, 24 - hyacinthiflora, 22 - japonica, 41 - Meyeri, 24 - microphylla, 2 - oblata, 22, 24 -- affinis, 22 -- dilatata, 22 -- Giraldii, 222 - pekinensis, 41 - persica, 24 - - laciniata, 24 - pinnatifolia, 24 - pubescens, 22 - reflexa, 36 - rothomagensis, 24 - Sweginzowii, 36 - tomentella, 36 - villosa, 36 - vulgaris, 22, 24 - yunnanensis, 36 Taxus baccata, 38 - cuspidata, 38 - - aurescens, 40 - - densa, 40 - - nana, 40 - media, 40 Tea-bushes, 50 Thorn, Washington, 41 Thyme, 41 Thymus Serpyllum, 50 - - coccineus, 50 - - lanuginosus, 50 Tilia petiolaris, 48 - tomentosa, 48 - vulgaris, 50 Trumpet-vines, 57 Tsuga canadensis pendula, 30, 31 Tulip-tree, 44, 61 Tupelo, 62 Ulmus parvifolia, 56 - pumila, 56 Viburnum acerifolium, 62 - alnifolium, 16 - Carlesii, 2 - cassinoides, 37, 62 - dentatum, 37 - dilatatum, 37, 43, 44 - fragrans, 2 - lentago, 29, 62 - Opulus, 57 - prunifolium, 29, 62, 63 - pubescens, 45 Viburnums, 9, 29, 33, 62 Vines, 50 Vitis, 52 Weigelas, 28, 34 Willows, 1 Wilson's Pearl-bush, 17 Winter Effects, 2 Woadwax, 41, 46 Xanthorrhiza apiifolia, 9 Yellow-root, 9 Yew, Canadian, 2 - Japanese, 2, 38 Yews, 56 Yuccas, 53"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23498","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060af28.jpg","title":"1923-3","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1929,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23869","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260a36e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Azalea Vaseyi, 35 Cornus florida, 27 Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, 3 Lilac Vestale, 31 Malus baccata, 23 Malus ioensis plena, Bechtel's Crab, 39 Malus toringoides, 67 Philadelphus Albatre, 51 Pieris floribunda, 11 Pinus strobus fastigiata, 71 Prunus triloba, 15 Pyrus Calleryana, 19 Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum, 7 Rhododendron Caucasicum Hybrid, Glennyanum, 43 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 59 Sciadopitys verticillata, 63 Spiraea Veitchii, 55 Viburnum cassinoides, 47"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 14","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23866","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070816f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II APRIL 14, 1928 NO. 1 Forsythias or Goldenbells make the season's first brave display of yellow blossoms and without these handsome shrubs spring gardens would lose much of their beauty. The genus is an Old World one and its distribution is quite interesting. For many years two species only were known, both native of eastern China and cultivated in Japan. In 1897 a species was discovered on the mountains of Albania in southeastern Europe. Since then another species has been discovered in China, one in west Japan and one on the Diamond Mountains of Korea. It is really an Oriental genus with one outlying species in the Balkan Peninsula and geographically far removed. Among shrubs we know of no other identical case but a close parallel is found in the related Lilacs and Privets, which, in addition to Oriental and European species, have representatives on the Himalayas. In very severe winters the flower buds are apt to suffer more or less severely, but on the whole all Forsythias may be classed as hardy so far north as Boston. Formerly the Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas) the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) and the Spicebush (Benzoin aestivale) were the season's first favorites among yellow flowering woody plants, but for ornamental purposes Forsythias have now entirely superseded them. The Forsythias are admirable subjects for planting either on banks, against walls or fences, for hedges, or as specimens, but one of the tragedies of spring is the brutal way in which these good-natured shrubs are clipped and sheared at the annual tidying up of the garden. As one travels through the suburbs and countryside decapitated bushes of Forsythias are to be seen on either hand despite the obvious fact that every branch cut from them in early April means a loss of flowers. If people would only wait and enjoy the crop of blossoms and then cut the Forsythia bushes back as severely as circumstances or fancy dictates, no harm would be done. Like other spring flowering shrubs and trees Forsythias produce their blossoms on the past season's growth and the pruning of all these plants should be done immediately after the blossoms have fallen. It is surprisingly difficult to get people to appreciate or at least to practice this simple fact. In the Arboretum the collection is established on a steep bank on Bussey Hill Road near Forest Hills Gate and immediately before the Lilacs are reached. Individual bushes of the species and varieties are at the lower end and beyond is a tangle some 75 yards long and 25 yards deep, which is one of the most spectacular sights of early spring in the Arboretum. In the Shrub Garden certain of the older species, hybrids and varieties are grown. The curious may be interested to note that in the flowers of the Forsythia the style of the pistil is of two lengths. On some bushes the flowers all have a style longer than the stamens and reaching to the mouth of the corolla-tube. On other plants the style is short reaching about half the length of the corolla-tube and the stamens protrude above it. Some of the varieties of the hybrid F. intermedia are distinguished by having either a long or short style to the pistil. Of the six species known all except F. Giraldiana from Shensi province in China are cultivated in the Arboretum. This species is described as having hairs on the leaves, a condition found in F. suspensa var. pubescens, which is growing in the Arboretum. It is rather interesting to note that in the allied genera Syringa, Fraxinus and Chionanthus hairiness may occur in any species. It would appear that pubescence in these genera is a family peculiarity and of little or no taxonomic significance. Forsythia ovata, a newcomer from the Diamond Mountains in Korea, whence it was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum through seeds sent by E. H. Wilson in 1917, is first of the Forsythias to open its blossoms. In a wild state this is a straggling, often sprawling shrub of no great size, remarkable chiefly for its relatively large, dark green, very leathery leaves. In cultivation it is a sparsely branching, vigorous shrub with ascending, arching stems forming a broad, rounded shrub some 5 to 7 feet tall. The shoots are pale gray and this with its habit of growth readily distinguish it from other species. The leaves are thick and leathery, broadly ovate, from 2 to 3 inches long and from 1 1\/2 to 2 inches wide, coarsely-toothed, and lustrous dark green on the upper surface. The flowers, borne singly or in pairs, are each about 1 inch across and have a purple-brown calyx and a pale, rather greenish, yellow corolla. Though the flowers are smaller than those of other species and the color somewhat pale this new species, on account of its great hardiness, is likely to be of great value to northern gardens. It will probably prove hardy as far north as Ottawa and the hybridist should find it of much service. Forsythia suspensa, native of China but for centuries grown in Japanese gardens and from there introduced into Holland in 1833, was the first Forsythia to be known. The typical form has long, whip-like branchlets, pendent or sprawling on the ground, where they root freely. It will grow from 15 to 30 feet tall and on account of its lax habit this is the best Forsythia for planting against walls or fences or for training over pergolas. The variety Fortunei is an upright growing bush of vigorous habit with erect and arching branches and abundant golden yellow blossoms. Another variety (atrocaulis) introduced from central China in 1907 is remarkable for its blackish purple shoots and extremely large flowers; unfortunately this does not blossom so freely as the type. Forsythia viridissima was the second species introduced, being sent to England from China by Robert Furtune in 1844. This is a bush with ascending-spreading stems some 5 to 6 feet tall and bright yellow flowers. It is not so hardy as F. suspensa and blossoms a little later. More handsome than the type and likely to be of greater hardiness is the variety koreana, a common plant in the neighborhood of Seoul, the capital of Korea. This has spreading, arching branches and deeper yellow, more abundant blossoms than the Chinese type. It was introduced by the Arboretum in 1919 through seeds received from the Department of Forestry in Korea. These two Chinese species are much confused in gardens but may be readily distinguished one from the other by splitting a shoot down the middle. In F. vi7~idissi7na the pith will be seen to be arranged in plates one above another, whereas in F. suspensa there is no pith and the center of the stem is hollow. Interestingly enough the hybrid between these two species, F. intermedia, partakes of both characters. In some shoots or parts of the same shoot lamellate pith will be seen, whereas in others no pith is present. Forsythia intermedia, a hybrid between the two Chinese species, which originated in Europe some time before 1880, is superior to either of its parents. The variety spectabilis with rich, pure yellow flowers, each 1 1\/2 inches across, is probably the most handsome of all the Goldenbells. It is extremely floriferous and stems 6 to 8 feet long are crowded throughout the whole length with large clusters of blossoms. If only one Forsythia can be grown it should be this. Another variety of this hybrid with deep yellow flowers is vitellina. The variety densiflora has spreading and pendulous branches, much crowded, pale yellow, rather flat flowers with slightly recurved corolla lobes. The best of the pale yellow Forsythias is var. ~rim2clina, which originated in the Arboretum about 1910 as a chance seedling. Forsythia europaea was discovered on the mountains of Albania by Dr. A. Baldacci in 1897, and was introduced into cultivation by means of seeds which he sent to Kew in 1899. It is of upright habit with pale gray shoots and yellow blossoms each about 11\/4 inches in diameter. Of somewhat ungainly habit, growing 10 feet tall, it has proved more bud-hardy in the Arboretum than the Chinese species. Forsythia japonica in its typical form is not represented in the Arboretum. This species is said to be abundant in the province of Bitchu in western Japan and to be related to F. suspensa. In central Korea grows a variety (saxatilis), a rather slender stemmed plant and this is now growing in the Arboretum collection. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 21","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23867","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd0708525.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II APRIL 21, 1928 NO. 2 Early Flowers. In front of the Administration Building Magnolia stellata is rapidly opening its pure white flowers and we hope that Jack Frost will this year spare the blossoms. The Red Maple (Acer rubrum) is still aglow, and the Katsura (Ce7cidi~hyllum japonicum) is on some trees pushing forth its crimson-anthered stamens, on others its scarlet pistils. The Yellow root (Xanthorrhiza apiifolia) alongside the roads is opening its lurid purple, panicled flowers, which are outwardly as much unlike a Buttercup or Clematis, to which family it belongs, as those of any plant seemingly could be. The petals have fallen from David's Peach (Prunus Davidiana); the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) and the Mezereon (Daphne Mezereum) are passing out of blossom but the Spicebush (Benzoin aestivale) is rapidly opening its yellow clustered flowers. In the Shrub Garden the first of the Honeysuckles to bloom (Lonicera pz~aeflo7e~2s) has shed its pinkish flowers but the bare stems of another, the white-flowered L. Standishii, are studded with gaping flowers. Rhododendron dauricum and its variety mucro~22~latum are in full blossom on Bussey Hill-the variety in a bold clump beneath the old White Pines and the species itself a little distance beyond. Each year these are the first of the Rhododendron clan to open their blossoms in the Arboretum. The typical R. daacric2cm is the more precocious of the two. Often it makes a goodly showing in late autumn and again in very early spring, but, unfortunately, its flowers are apt to be cut by frost. It is a boreal plant, widespread from the Altai Mountains in central Siberia eastward to the Japan Sea, and it is also found in Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan. Introduced into cultivation in England so long ago as 1780, it is a better garden plant in New England than on the other side of the Atlantic. It is a much-branched shrub, growing from 5 to 6 feet tall, with twiggy branches and more or less oval leaves, each from l 1\/2 to 2 inches long and very fragrant when bruised. They vary greatly in degree of persistence. On some bushes the leaves change to yellow and blackish bronze and fall in late autumn; on others they persist through the winter and remain dark green. The flowers, each developed from a separate bud, are clustered at the end of the shoot. The corolla is flattened, bright red-purple and about 1% inches across. There is a variety sempervirens with persistent, smaller leaves and smaller flowers but it has little value as an ornamental plant. The variety mucronulatum is a better garden plant than the type and its flowers are more pleasing in color, being a cheerful rosy purple and devoid of any suspicion of magenta. The corolla is more bell-shaped with pointed lobes and the plant is exceedingly floriferous. It is entirely deciduous, blossoming a little later than the species, and in consequence suffers less from late frosts in spring. In its typical form the variety looks quite distinct from the species but every connecting link exists. This plant is very common in Korea, where in open forests of Larch it is an erect twiggy bush often 10 feet tall. It is also found in the Chinese province of Chihli and in general may be regarded as a southeastern form of the species. It was discovered on the mountains west of Pekin about 1835 by Dr. P. Y. Kirilow, but was not introduced into cultivation in this country until 1882, when Dr. E. Bretschneider sent seeds to the Arboretum. It flowered for the first time in the spring of 1888 and each season since has never failed to produce abundant blossom in the spring and a mass of pleasingly tinted foliage in the autumn. Along with it on Bussey Hill may be seen a newly recognized variety, (ciliatum) which, however, is indistinguishable except for the presence of a few hairs on the margins of the leaves and petioles. There is said to be a white variety (album), but we have not seen it in cultivation. In Europe, the British Isles in particular, a favorite and very early-flowering Rhododendron is R. praecox, a hybrid between R. dauricum and the Himalayan R. ciliatum, This has persistent foliage and broad, funnel-form, rose-purple to lilac-colored flowers, each about 11\/2 inches in diameter. Unfortunately, in the Arboretum this plant merely exists and each year the foliage and flowers are ruined by frosts, indeed, so far as New England is concerned R. praecox is worthless as a hardy shrub, but those who have greenhouses will be well advised to grow this plant in tubs since it is really one of the most delightful of early-flowering Rhododendrons. Cornus officinalis has not before blossomed so abundantly in the Arboretum. The bushes on the right of Meadow Road just beyond the Phellodendron trees are now a most pleasing sight with their clustered, star-shaped, clear yellow blossoms with prominent stamens. This is the Oriental relative of the familiar Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas) and is native of central and southern Korea; also it is said to grow wild in the Chinese province of Chekiang. In Japan it has long been cultivated for its fruits, considered by the peoples of the Orient to possess valuable medicinal properties. In Korea C. officinalis as a wild tree grows about 35 feet tall with a trunk 4 feet in girth and an erect-spreading, rather irregular crown. The fruits are bright red, thinner and more oblong than those of the better known Cornus mas. In New England this Cornel ought to be generally grown. At present it is little known and quite rare in gardens, although named and figured in 1839 by Siebold and Zuccarini in their \"Flora Japonica,\" vol. I, page 100, t. 50. The barks of trees often afford good and obvious distinguishing characters when those of flower and foliage are lacking or obscure. C. officinalis is a very good case in point. In flower and leaf this and the Cornelian Cherry (C. mas) are well-nigh indistinguishable- at any rate, they are so much alike that only a skilled observer notes the difference. The bracts enclosing the flowers are less concave and more sharply pointed, the pedicels are longer, the sepals a little larger and more acute, the petals narrower and more pointed and less recurved in C. officinalis; but these differences are all relative and inconstant. When grown side by side the flowers of C. officinalis are seen to be of a brighter yellow and the inflorescence rather more lax. The barks, however, are totally different. That of C. mas is close in texture, dark grey, blackish in appearance, and is firmly adherent on the branches for many years, becoming rough and flaking off in small patches and showing a grey undersurface on the trunk and old branches. In C. officinalis the bark is red-brown, splitting and peeling the second or third year into translucent papery shreds which cling to the branches and with the light showing through, present a pleasing appearance; on the trunk it is grey, soft and spongy in texture, and, peeling off, exposes a pale brown undersurface. Cornus mas. Before the advent of the Oriental Witch-Hazels this ~ as greatly appreciated in gardens as the first of spring-flowering shrubs to open its blossoms. In New England it has been very generally planted and in the early spring, when its naked twigs are starred with yellow and in the autumn, when laden with its scarlet fruits, the tree is pleasant to lock upon. In southeastern Europe the inspissated juice of this fruit is made into sherbet. The Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University is situated in Jamaica Plain, Boston, some five miles from the State House on the main parkway and near the Forest Hills terminus of the Elevated Railway. It is easily reached by automobile or by trolley car and is open from sunrise to sunset every day in the year. It was established in 1872 for the cultivation and study of all the woody plants that can withstand the climate of Massachusetts. Its present area is about 260 acres and the collections comprise some 6,500 species and varieties of tree, shrub and vine. There are nine entrance gates, of which Forest Hills Gate may be considered the principal one. The Administration Building containing offices, library and herbarium is situated just within the Jamaica Plain Gate. At this building an illustrated guide book, price 50 cents, and picture postcards, price 50 cents per set of twelve, are on sale; a sketch map of the Arboretum may be obtained free. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 28","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23868","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd0708926.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II APRIL 28, 1928 NO. 3 Winter Effects. The usual practice has been to treat of this subject in the first Bulletin but the past winter has been of such a unusual character that it was thought wise to defer comments until later. The winter, so far as this part of Massachusetts is concerned, will go down in history as an extremely mild one. There has been very little zero weather, a marked absence of snow, and frost did not penetrate to any great distance into the ground. A good deal of freezing and thawing caused many small surface-rooting plants to suffer from heaving and it will be a week or two yet before the full effects of this are known. Deciduous trees, shrubs and vines in the Arboretum have passed through the winter without any noticeable damage. Conifers, Yews, Rhododendrons and other tall-growing evergreens have also wintered remarkably well. On the other hand, dwarf broad-leaf evergreens, such as are known generally as ground-covers, suffered more than for many winters past. The marked absence of snow, especially in February and March, is to blame for this. A moment's reflection will show that the more low-growing the plant the more accustomed it is to a winter blanket of snow and to the benefit of the slightest precipitation. The taller evergreens can get along without a heavy snowfall always supposing that the frost does not penetrate so deeply into the ground that their roots cannot function during late February and March. Heather, both in exposed places and in partial shade, has suffered more in the Arboretum than for long past and we learn that similarly evil results obtain elsewhere. This damage to the Heather was accelerated by some dishonest person surreptitiously taking a lot of wood for cuttings in December. Experience has shown that any cutting of Heather late in the year is attended with disastrous results. The Spring Heath (Erica carnea) in the Shrub Garden has been badly damaged but the hybrid (E. darleyensis) has wintered well on Bussey Hill. The shrubby Candytufts (Iberis sempervirens and I. Tenoreana), the common Periwinkle (Vinca minor) and Pachystima Canbyi, all of which usually suffer no winter damage, are badly browned. The low-growing Mahonia repens, usually considered quite hardy, has its foliage much scorched, whereas, side by side with it in the Shrub Garden the taller Mahonia Aquifolium, which normally suffers each winter, has come through unscathed. The lesson of the winter so far as evergreens are concerned would appear to be that the more dwarf the plant the more dependent its well-being is upon a covering of snow. In the absence of snow a protective covering of some sort should be laid over groundcovers during February and March. The Oriental Witch-Hazels, Cornelian Cherry and Forsythias have never given a finer display of blossom. The Japanese Cherries are rich with promise of abundant blossom, and, so too, are the Crabapples and Azaleas. The Lilacs made a wonderful growth last year and unless something untoward happens will produce a goodly show of blossoms, making amends for what they lack in quantity by size of flowering truss. So far as one can judge in these last days of April there is every reason to expect an unusually good season of flowers. Autumn Transplanting. The Arboretum has always favored spring planting and transplanting but owing to the shortness of the season it is not possible to accomplish all of this work that is necessary in a garden of 260 acres. Some of the collections had become crowded and a general transplanting of relatively large shrubs and trees was urgent so the experiment of autumn transplanting was tried last fall. The weather during the season was particularly suitable for such work and the mild winter has doubtless contributed to the favorable results of the experiment. Three large Magnolias moved early in September have not suffered at all. In the same month a collection of Chinese Spruces and Silver Firs was moved to a site near the Administration Building and these too came through unscathed. Two goodly sized trees of the Japanese Spring Cherry (Prunus subhirtella) were moved to the Forest Hills Gate, apparently without suffering the slightest reverse. Regrouping and arranging of miscellaneous Azaleas on Bussey Hill was carried through. Among others, Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, always a difficult subject to move, seems to have experienced no ill effects. Indeed, a critical examination of all the plants moved last fall reveals most gratifying results. It would appear from this experiment that if the autumn be favorable and the work started early and finished by mid-November a good deal of heavy transplanting can be done without fear of loss. After good rains have fallen the latter half of August and September is an excellent time for moving Conifers and Yews, and, indeed, evergreens of all sorts: October is the month for transplanting deciduous shrubs and trees. The endeavor should be to finish the work while the ground still retains a good deal of the heat absorbed during summer. Pieris floribunda is a good-natured, hardy, broad-leaf evergreen not so much used in gardens as its merits warrant. The first of the broad-leaf evergreen shrubs to blossom, it is at the end of April and in early May decidedly attractive. It is a native of the southern Appalachians from Virginia to Georgia, being known in cultivation since 1811 and is perfectly hardy in New England. A dense, more or less rounded, hummock-like bush, it is sometimes as much as 12 feet high and twice that in diameter. The best plant in the Arboretum is less than half these dimensions and may be seen facing the Kalmias on the right of Hemlock Hill Road. Although this plant is scarcely flowering so freely this year as it usually does another in the Shrub Garden is abundantly covered with short, erect panicles of milk-white flowers. Each flower is urn-shape, nodding and a hundred or more are collected together in each terminal cluster. The leaves are dull green, oblong to lance-shaped, each 1% to 2 inches long and are retained on the bush for three or four seasons. More widely known as Andromeda floribunda, this plant, which should be propagated by seeds, though slow-growing, is long lived. Less hardy but more beautiful is the Japanese species, Pieris japonica, which has longer, lustrous dark green leaves, of a ruddy hue when young, and spreading, hanging panicles of larger flowers. In the Arboretum this plant does moderately well in the shade of the Hemlock Grove but there are other gardens in the vicinity of Boston where handsome bushes may be seen. It is taller and more tree-like in habit than the American species and at its best forms a dome-shaped mass as much as 20 feet tall. It is a special feature of the relatively dry Pine woods of the southern half of Japan and nowhere are finer specimens to be seen than in the park at Nara, the old capital of Japan. Two other species, neither of them hardy in New England, are in cultivation in this country and for those who garden in the South and in California they are extremely valuable plants. The better known of the two is P. formosa, native of the Himalayas from Nepal eastward and also common on the mountains of western and central China. The other, P. taiwanensis, is indigenous on the high mountains of Formosa and was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum in 1917. In habit these shrubs resemble the Japanese species but have even larger flowers borne in arching, sometimes erect, spreading panicles. They are good shrubs for the cool greenhouse but otherwise cannot be thought of for the gardens of New England. Corylopsis is a genus of Oriental shrubs closely related to the Witch-Hazels but unlike the latter not very hardy in New England. All the species agree in having yellow, slightly fragrant flowers borne in short racemes on naked twigs, and, as their name suggests, in habit of growth they singularly resemble the Common Hazel. The flower buds are formed in the autumn and the flowers are among the first of spring blossoms to appear. The mild winter has been favorable to these shrubs and it is many years since the plants on Centre Street Path were so full of blossoms as they now are. The oldest species in cultivation are C. spicata and C. pauciflora from Japan, but the hardiest of the group is C. Gotoana, seeds of which were first sent to the Arboretum by Mr. J. G. Jack in 1905 from Shinano province, central Japan. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 3","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23883","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270b36f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II MAY 3, 1928 NO. 4 The Forest Hills Gate, the most popular of the entrances to the Arboretum, is just now the mecca of all interested in early flowering shrubs and trees. On the right just within the gates a collection of Japanese Cherries is in full blossom and in the distance, on the left, the Forsythias still form a cascade of rich yellow. At almost every season of the year there is something of particular interest immediately within this gate and the Japanese Cherries assembled there are a never failing feast of spring beauty. The sunny situation suits them and the well-drained sandy and gravelly loam is to their liking. Each year they make a good growth and clothe themselves with a crop of blossoms. An occasional dressing of bone-meal or cow-dung is amply repaid by the increased quantity of flowers. They are among the simplest plants to cultivate if a proper beginning is made. We have stated that their successful culture is dependent upon starting right and this means that the plants must either be of seedling origin or be grafted or budded on a congenial stock. The need of budding or grafting applies mainly to the double-flowered Cherries with which at the moment we are not concerned. The single-flowered types with a few exceptions may be raised from seeds, a fact that should delight that ever increasing class of tree-lovers who enjoy raising their own plants. These Cherries fruit more or less freely each year and if one can outwit that voracious immigrant, the European Starling, there is no difficulty in collecting a sufficient quantity. The pulp should be washed away, the seeds dried, stored in a cool place and sown in beds or boxes the following autumn and allowed to get frozen in the winter. A few, sometimes many, will germinate the following spring but the majority will lie in the ground until the second season. The seedlings grow rapidly and by transplanting several times and pruning to a single stem a supply of young trees ready to set out in permanent situations may be had in three or four years from the time of germination. The Cherry-blossom season in Japan is, as lovers of flowers well know, the great spring festival of that land and the occasion of a national holiday decreed by the Emperor. Like all festivals, dependent upon the weather, it is of a somewhat movable nature but usually it takes place early in April when thousands of Cherry-trees in Tokyo burst into bloom. At what period in the history of Japan the Cherry became established as the favorite flower is unknown, but its roots are in the dim and distant past. According to Japanese folklore the Cherry-tree itself is a lovely princess named Konohana Sakuya-Hime, reincarnate, the color of the petals being that of the blushes which suffused the cheeks of this bewitching damsel. From this pretty legend is derived the name Sakura now universally applied to the Cherry-tree in Japan. According to one Japanese authority the double-flowered varieties have been known for fully a thousand years and the single-flowered types were favorites before them. Today throughout the length and breadth of Japan Cherries are planted in temple grounds, in the parks and courtyards surrounding the old castles, in the cottager's little garden along the roadsides, and as street trees in the greater cities. That Japanese Cherries can be cultivated as successfully in this country as in Japan, is now being demonstrated. The largest collection and one that is fast becoming famous is that in Potomac Park, Washington, D. C., which owes its origin to the generosity of the city of Tokyo, which, in 1912 presented some 2,000 trees. Among them were nearly 1,000 trees of the Yoshino or Tokyo Cherry (Prunus yedoensis) which, planted around the tidal basin, in March and early April now draw thousands of visitors to the capital. In New York City this same Tokyo Cherry does well, flowering profusely each spring and the city fathers would be well advised to plant ten thousand of this tree in Central Park. They would probably prove short-lived on the shallow soil and under the conditions which obtain in New York City, but with a little forethought a continual supply of new trees could be maintained, for they are exceedingly rapid growing. In Boston the winters are a little too severe for the Tokyo Cherry to give of its best, and to insure a Cherry-blossom season here the Spring and Sargent Cherries have to be relied upon. In California all the Japanese Cherries can be successfully grown, including, around Pasadena and Los Angeles, the wonderful P. campaanulata with its multitude of bell-shaped, red flowers. Prunus subhirtella, the Spring Cherry of Japan, is one of the most beautiful of all the lesser flowering trees. It is exceedingly floriferous year after year, and its blossoms last longer than those of other single-flowered types. The first trees to blossom in western gardens are the two which now form a broad, rounded mass on the right within the Forest Hills Gate. These were sent to the Arboretum from the Botanic Garden, Tokyo, in 1894. Visitors to Tokyo, Yokohama, Kyoto and other well-known cities will not see this particular Cherry, the explanation being that it is known only from the western and more out-of-the-way parts of Japan which accounts for its late appearance in western gardens. The when or how of its origin is unknown but it is undoubtedly a dwarf form of a Cherry widely distributed throughout Japan, southern Korea and China, which is known by the name of Prunus subhirtella ascendens. This is a large tree, sometimes 75 feet tall with a trunk 12 feet in girth with a wide crown made up of stout branches. In some of the Tokyo parks, notable that of Ueno, groves and avenues of this Cherry-tree may be seen, but the display of blossoms is never very abundant. The Rosebud Cherry (Prunus subhirtella pendula) is another sport and this, on account of its pleasing habit of growth, was one of the first trees brought to this country from Japan. Another Cherry belonging to this group is Prunus subhirtella autumnalis, a small tree with many twiggy branches and more or less vase-shaped when young. It is a precocious plant with semi-double pink blossoms, which sometimes appear in the autumn but in other years sparsely in autumn and abundantly the next spring as is the case this year. Owing to this peculiarity, it is known when it flowers in the autumn as the Jugatsu-zakura or October-flowering Cherry and in the spring as the Yaye-higan or Double-flowered Spring Cherry. P. subhirtella and its varieties when raised from seeds mostly revert to the wild type (var. ascendens) but a certain percentage come true. The type suckers and all the varieties may be rooted from softwood cuttings taken with a heel in June but they are difficult to establish afterwards. Of this Cherry, to obtain long-lived examples they should be budded or grafted on their own seedlings. They form a little group by themselves and are apparently not happy when worked on any related stock. Prunus incisa is absolutely hardy in the Arboretum and rivals P. subhirtella in abundance of blossom. This Cherry is a feature of the region in and around Mt. Fuji and is of particular interest in that it blossoms freely when quite young. As the petals fall the calyx becomes bright colored and adds fully a week to the spring beauty of this tree. Prunus triloba. Among the spring- flowering shrubs are several different species of Prunus closely akin to the Cherries. Of these P. tomentosa, P. japonica and P. glandulosa, the two latter with double-flowered forms, are well known and highly appreciated. The most popular of this group, however, is P. triloba, the so-called Chinese Almond. When well grown this makes a broad bush 12 feet high and 20 feet in diameter. Its slender rigid stems are densely packed with double pink blossoms, which look like small Roses. It is a very satisfactory shrub and one that can be used in many ways in gardens. In England a favorite custom is to grow this plant against a wall espalier fashion, pruning it severely each year after flowering. Grown in this manner it is a curtain of pink in the early spring. More beautiful perhaps is the semi-double variety (multiplex) which was sent to the Arboretum by William Purdom in 1909. The wild type (var. simplex) is a charming shrub with small pure pink blossoms, yellowish red fruit the size of an ordinary Cherry, hairy but not palatable. This was first raised in this country from seeds which Dr. E. Bretschneider sent to the Arboretum in 1883. Prunus triloba is much cultivated in gardens of Pekin, where it is known as the Elm Leaf Prunus (Yu-ye-mei). E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 12","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23879","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270a325.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II MAY 12, 1928 NO. 5 Forest Hills Gate is still the most attractive entrance to the Arboretum. The Japanese Cherries are rapidly passing out of bloom but their white-flowered European relatives, Prunus avium and P. Cerasus, of both of which there are varieties with double flowers, are just coming into blossom. A tree of P. serrulata spontanea is in bloom on the right and a little further down a bed of the low, twiggy P. japonica Nakaii from Korea. The different forms of the Chinese Almond are still in good condition. On the left a fine tree of the North China Pear (Pyrus ussuriensis ovoidea) is laden with a multitude of flowers and nearby other species are pushing forth their blossoms from among gray-tinted foliage. Pink Mal2~s micromalus, first of the Asiatic Crabapples with colored blossoms to open, will soon be in full bloom. Across the little pond and beyond the Cherries some of the American Plums are sheeted in white. The Canadian Plum, earliest of the species to bloom, is passing but many others are at their best. On the left the Forsythias still make a goodly display of yellow and beyond, the Lilacs are showing their flower buds. In the Shrub Garden many of the bushes are bursting into leaf. The earliest of the Spiraeas (S. arguta) is wreathed in white and of the Flowering Currants Ribes aureum is in bloom. The Asiatic Quinces are beginning to open their brilliantly colored flowers and in a week or so the whole garden will be full of leaf and blossom. In one bed a broad, round-topped bush of the Oriental Prinsepia sinensis is laden with rich yellow flowers nestling among the half-grown green leaves, and the air around is filled with the fragrance of almonds from the multitude of blossoms. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1903, has never suffered winter injury and is a greater favorite with us each succeeding year. The Shrub Garden is a never failing source of interest to all visitors, filled as it is with a general miscellany of shrubs. It is not by any means an ideal situation for such a collection for it is low lying, suffers from the first frosts in the autumn and the last frosts in spring, and in zero weather the aeration is particularly bad. It is, however, the only flat piece of land of any size that the Arboretum possesses, moreover, on account of its situation it serves a splendid purpose as a test garden. Visitors may be assured of the hardiness anywhere in New England of the plants they see growing in the Shrub Garden. Bussey Hill is at all seasons one of the most interesting places in the Arboretum. Gathered together there are collections of the newer Chinese shrubs, Japanese Cherries, Oriental Pears, Azaleas and other ornamental plants. Some of the earlier Cherries have shed their petals but the Japanese double-flowered forms and some with single flowers are just beginning to make their display which will continue for about ten days. A few blossoms remain on Rhododendron dauricum mucronulatum and the buds on R. Schlippenbachii and R. yedoensis poukhanense are showing color. Soon there will be broad drifts of these plants in full bloom. From the summit of the hill looking in many directions fine views of the Arboretum can be had. Pleasing to the eye are the young unfolding leaves of the Birches, and scattered fleecy drifts of Shadblows arrest attention. In a few more days bush and tree will be clothed in spring verdure. The collection of Oriental Pears on Bussey Hill is fairly complete. The first to blossom is Pyrus ussuriensis, whose flowers in bud are often tinged with pink. In northeastern Asia this Pear grows to a large size and varieties of it are cultivated throughout Korea, Manchuria and North China. The wild type of the Chinese Sand Pear (Pyrus serotina) and the related P. serrulata may be seen side by side. With them are vigorous trees of P. Calleryana, also a Chinese species. This last-named species of Pear on account of its almost complete immunity to the dreaded fire-blight disease is likely to be of great value as an understock on which to graft varieties of the Common Pear. From an economic point of view it is possible that P. Calleryana may prove to be the most valuable tree the Arboretum has introduced into America. The Oriental Pear trees are rapid-growing and free-flowering, yet it is doubtful if they ever will become popular as ornamental trees, although the leaves assume rich tones of crimson and bronze in the late fall. The flowers are usually dead white and the only touch of color to be found is the anthers. The fruits are small, russet-colored and unattractive when compared with the bright hues of Crabapple fruits. Peters Hill is noted for its collection of Hawthorns but on the top is to be found a rich and varied collection of miscellaneous trees. There on the highest land air and root drainage are both good and a greater number of trees thrive there than elsewhere in the Arboretum. For example, it is the only place where the Chinese Cedar (Cedrela sinensis) will live. Among the miscellaneous trees at the moment several Asiatic Cherries are in full bloom. On the broad slope the Hawthorns are rapidly pushing forth their green leaves among which nestle the flower clusters. The green leaves and fragrance of the Balsam and other Poplars by the railway are refreshing to both eye and nostril. At the foot of the hill, flanking Bussey Street, the collection of Asiatic Crabapples promises soon to be a mass of bloom, A Valuable Introduction Pyrus Calleryana. indeed, their vanguard, Malus baccata and its variety mandschurica, are in open flower. In this Crabapple the flowers are fragrant and may be either pure white or tinged with pink. Centre Street Path, which is entered from the right of the Centre Street Gate, is bordered with a general miscellany of shrubs and trees. This section is protected somewhat from the north winds and a number of plants elsewhere tender in the Arboretum are grown here. At the moment Corylopsis pauciflora, C. spicata and C. Gotoana may be seen in good blossom, the original plant of Prinsepia sinensis, less shapely than its daughter in the Shrub Garden, is burdened with almond-scented flowers and nearby the Chinese Redbud may be seen, its naked stems studded with brightly colored flowers. The Path makes a pleasant walk now and later. It leads beneath the shade of Hickories, past the mixed border of rare shrubs to the collection of Deutzias and Spiraeas and beyond to the Conifers. Cercis chinensis. It is to be regretted that the Chinese Redbud is not just a little more hardy. It does splendidly on Long Island and further south but in the Arboretum it only survives in a sheltered site along Centre Street Path. This tree is widely dispersed in eastern and central China, where it is often 45 feet tall with a trunk 5 feet in girth. The foliage in the autumn assumes fine tints. Such trees when laden with blossoms in the spring are conspicuous from afar. In the Arboretum, however, it is only a bush but it blooms freely and the flowers are larger and better colored than that of the native Redbud (C. canadensis). Staphylea holocarpa is now for the first time blossoming freely in the Arboretum. There are two plants on Centre Street Path and the larger of the two is nicely furnished with white, hanging, clustered blossoms. Among the lesser trees of China this Staphylea is one of the most noteworthy. It is common on the margins of woods and thickets in central China, where it was discovered by Augustine Henry in 1888 but was not introduced until 1908 when Wilson sent seeds to the Arboretum. Usually a large bush, it sometimes forms a shapely tree from 25 to 30 feet tall with a slender trunk clothed with smooth, grayish bark. The flowers in pendulous, cymose clusters, each from 2 to 4 inches long, are borne on the naked shoots and are usually open before the 3-foliolate leaves, which subtend them, are expanded. The flowers are often suffused with pink but usually the sepals are pink and the petals white. The flowers are rich in honey and are much sought after by sunbirds, tiny brilliantly plumaged birds, which in Asia take the place of the humming birds of America. It is particularly gratifying that this ornamental tree should prove hardy in Massachusetts. Docent Service. Commencing Sunday, May 13th, free public walks through the Arboretum under the guidance of Mr. G. M. Merrill will start from the Forest Hills Gate at 3 pm. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 19","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23880","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270a725.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II MAY 19, 1928 NO. 6 Bussey Hill now holds the main attractions of the Arboretum. Interesting at all seasons of the year, it is particularly beautiful now with the wealth of blossoms on the Japanese Cherries, Crabapples and Azaleas and the varied tinted young unfolding foliage. To the south and southeast the black-green of Hemlock Hill, the Cedars of Lebanon and the White Pine create a fine background. On the horizon the Blue Hills are bathed in blue or violet mists; to the west the gray and red-brown tones in flower and unfolding leaf of the Oaks, add not a little to the beauty of the scene and in a dell below, the Junipers and Arborvitae form restful groups. The charm of spring rules, birds are giving forth their music, peace and quietude reign and it is difficult to realize that this, all this, is within five miles of the State House in Boston. The Japanese Cherries that stud the grassy knoll of Bussey Hill are this year particularly full of blossom. Most of the single flowering varieties have shed their petals and the double-flowered forms now hold the field. The blossoms vary in color from purest white td the deepest of rose-pink, while one or two sorts are greenish yellow, a color unique among the great Cherry family. They vary a great deal in time of blossoming; some of the earliest kinds are now at their zenith, while on others the buds have scarcely begun to unfold. Six of the best are:- Horinji with pure pink blossoms. Homogena with rose-pink, Masuyama with pink, Shogetsu with almost white delicately edged with pale pink, Albo-rosea with pink passing to pure white as the flowers age and Sekiyama red in the bud and finally deep rose-pink. The two latter are the last to open their blossoms. In many of the forms the peduncle is long and the flowers hang downward ; in others the peduncle is short and the flowers are densely clustered around the whole branch. The best of the pure white double-flowered sorts is Sirotae, but, unfortunately, this has very large flower-buds and frequently suffers during the winter. Among the semi-double or nearly single-flowered sorts now in blossom Kirigaya with pale blushing flowers, the fragrant pure white Affinis and the extremely fragrant Gozanomanioi are particularly attractive, owing to the purity of their blossoms and the delightful fragrance which the flowers emit. Visitors are always attracted by the unusual, so Grandiflora and Gioiko with greenish yellow flowers, finer than ever before in the Arboretum, are sure of many admirers. The beauty of these Japanese Cherries is accentuated by bronze-colored young unfolding leaves which top the blossoms. During the past ten years many references to Japanese Cherries have appeared in these Bulletins, and the Arboretum has exerted considerable effort toward putting them properly before flower lovers of this country. Unfortunately, these double and semi-double forms cannot be raised from seed, nor can they be rooted from cuttings hence recourse has to be made to budding and grafting. The process, simple enough in itself, is one in which the right kind of understock is of paramount importance if we are to have healthy, long-lived specimens in our gardens. The practice among nurserymen has been, and I regret to say still is, to graft them on understocks of the European species. For reasons which we do not understand, these understocks are unsuited to the purpose. For a year or two all appears to be well but after a short period of time the incompatibility becomes evident, the plant lingers awhile and finally dies. In this country double-flowered Japanese Cherries have been known for more than sixty years, yet today there is scarcely a good ten-year-old specimen in the country. The proper understock for Japanese Cherries in their own parent species and until these be used there will be no long-lived, healthy specimens to be found in gardens. The Arboretum has distributed great quantities of seeds of the native species for the avowed purpose of having double-flowered sorts budded or grafted thereon, but so far with little or no success. One fears that until the public arouses itself and demands that it be supplied with properly grown material, the nurserymen will continue to pursue the rough and ready methods that bring quickest returns without thought of the plants' permanence in gardens. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii is now beautifully in blossom on Bussey Hill. Last autumn the whole collection was moved and grouped together and seems to have enjoyed the experience. This is a northern plant which starts into growth very early in the spring and, like many other such plants, is difficult to move at that season, the young growth being prone to wilt under the heat of strong sun. In early autumn, however, it can be moved as readily as any other Azalea. It is a rather slow-growing species but sturdy of habit and with its large pure pink, funnel-shaped blossoms is among the most lovely of all Azaleas. It is abundant in open woods and on exposed mountainsides in central and northern Korea; it also occurs on one or two mountains in Japan, and, though first brought into cultivation in 1893, did not reach us in quantity until 1917. It is among the hardiest of all Azaleas, should be raised from seeds and planted widely. Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense is another Korean Azalea, being particularly abundant in the neighborhood of Seoul, the capital of Korea, and southward. In open country it often forms broad carpets, but in habit of growth it varies from a dense groundcover a few inches high to a bush from 5 to 6 feet tall. It has relatively large lavender-purple flowers, a color which some people do not find attractive, but when massed and alone it is by no means displeasing. It is abundantly floriferous, the flowers very fragrant, and the habit of the plant is compact and good. Its hardiness is beyond question and, all in all, it really is a worthy member of a beautiful clan, as those who will visit the group now in full bloom on Bussey Hill must agree. Crabapples. The Asiatic Crabapples are now at their best. A majority of the sorts are blooming with great freedom but here and there a tree which overdid itself last year is taking a holiday. Among a group so beautiful it is hard to pick out the most attractive kind. Certainly, one of the very finest is :Malus theifera, which was pictured in this Bulletin last year. The several plants now laden with blossoms are worth coming a long way to see. The habit of the plant is very distinct and the characteristic, stiff, erect-spreading branches are clothed from base to summit with blossoms which, quite red in bud, change to rose-pink and finally to almost white. The species is native of China and is one of the few Crabapples that breeds true from seed. The best specimens are to be seen in the general Crabapple collection at the foot of Peters Hill, which is most easily reached either from the Bussey Street Gate or from the Walter Street Gate. Another specimen may be seen on the left a short distance within the Forest Hills Gate and another on Bussey Hill. Malus spectabilis was the first of the Asiatic Crabapples introduced into western gardens, being sent from China to England before 1780. This well-known Crabapple is a tree of moderate size, sometimes 30 feet tall with a vase-shaped crown of ascending-spreading branches and arching branchlets. The flowers vary from semidouble to quite double and are of a delicate shade of pink. It has been cultivated in China from immemorial time and its wild parent is unknown. In books statements that the flowers are single or double are frequently to be found and so long ago as 1825 a single flowered form was figured in Watson's \"Dendrologia,\" yet this form appears never to have become common in gardens nor to have been endowed with a name. ln 1917 the Arboretum received from the Department of Agriculture at Washington, D. C., scions of an unknown Crabapple which were taken from a tree growing in the grounds of a temple west of Peking, China. These were grafted and one has grown into a handsome tree which is now in full blossom. It proves to be the single flowered form of Malus spectabilis and a plant of much garden merit. The flowers are fully an inch across, pink in color, and abundantly produced amid a wealth of bright green, young leaves. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23881","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270ab25.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II MAY 24, 1928 NO. 7 Cornus florida. Rarely has there been such a display of Flowering Dogwood in the Arboretum and the vicinity of Boston as at the present moment. On Long Island and southward the abundant blossoms of this tree are an annual spectacle but hereabouts it is only when favored by a mild winter that it flowers freely. Entitled to rank among the most beautiful of the lesser trees of northern forests, Cornus florida has an immense range of distribution, being found from eastern Massachusetts to southern Ontario and southwestern Missouri, southward to central Florida and the valley of the Brazos River in Texas, and reappearing on the mountain ranges of eastern and southern Mexico. Comparatively rare in northern Massachusetts, the Flowering Dogwood is one of the commonest and most generally distributed inhabitants of the deciduous forests of the middle and southern states, forming an under story under the shade of taller trees in rich, well drained soil from the coast well up toward the summits of the Alleghany Mountains. It is a slender tree from 15 to 40 feet tall and has a light, airy, flattened crown with the branches often in tiers. If examined in the autumn or winter the branches will be found to be dotted with gray rounded studs. As spring advances these swell and expand each into a cross, from 4 to 6 inches across at maturity, composed of four snow-white bracts which become stained with pink as they age and fall. So freely are the white crosses produced that the woodlands when viewed from vantage points are filled with seemingly floating drifts of purest white. The leaves, which develop as the showy bracts fall, are in opposite pairs and in the autumn they become brilliantly tinted, red or crimson passing to pink, with the under surface pale gray-white. The fruit is erect, scarlet and teat-like, and clustered several together add much to the beauty of the tree in the fall. The real flowers are small and inconspicuous and are crowded together in the centre of the cross. The Flowering Dogwood is at once the envy and despair of our cousins across the Atlantic. Although introduced into the British Isles so long ago as 1730 all efforts to grow it successfully prove unavailing. Here and there a flowering specimen is known but insufficient summer heat more than the changeful spring weather is the cause of its failure under English skies. Cornus florida rubra with rosy red bracts is a great favorite and this year its bracts seem to be more highly colored than usual. Rightly placed, say on a slope above a pond where it can be viewed across the water in which the flowers are reflected, it is particularly striking. It is often stated that all the Red Dogwood plants in cultivation originated by vegetative propagation from one individual tree discovered in the seventies of last century. As a matter of fact it is beautifully figured on plate 27 of Catesby's \"Natural History of Carolina\" published in 1754. There is a variety (pendula) with stiff pendulous branches, discovered about 1890 in the forests of Maryland, and another (pluribracteata) in which the number of bracts is increased to six or eight and a few small bractlets in the center replace the flowers which are nearly all aborted. This form was discovered in Orange County, North Carolina and propagated by Mr. J. D. Van Lindley, Greensboro, who in 1914 sent a plant to the Arboretum which, however, has not yet flowered. There is also a variety (xanthocarpa) with yellow fruits but none of these are likely to equal in popularity the type and the variety rubra Cornus kousa. The wonderful C. Nuttallii of western North America, the Chino-Himalayan C. capitata, and C. kousa, which is distributed from central China eastward through southern Korea into Japan, are three other tree species of Flowering Dogwood. The first two are not hardy in the Arboretum but C. kousa and its Chinese variety, fortunately, are. Unlike the native C. florida, these three species flower after the leaves expand and their buds being enfolded within the leaves enjoy a greater measure of protection. In the Arboretum the flowers of C. kousa and its variety chinensis are of greater bud hardiness than the native C. florida, and in consequence are even more valuable garden plants. C. kousa does not flower until mid-June or later, and its upstanding heads of rigid slender stalks have a foil of rich green leaves below. The floral heads, each from 5 to 6 inches across, are abundantly produced and last for fully a month finally becoming pink before they fall. The form from Japan to which the specific name belongs has been sparingly in cultivation in the Occident since about 1830. The form from China (var. chinensis) was introduced for the Arboretum by Wilson in 1907. The bracts are larger and broader than is usual in the Japanese type and often overlap to form a closed, flattened involucre around the button-like mass of real flowers. Some experts acclaim this the finest gift of China to western gardens; certainly it ranks high in the realm of beauty among hardy flowering trees. The fruit of Cornus kousa is red and strawberry-like, from 1\/2 to 3\/4 of an inch in diameter, and is very attractive in the autumn suspended amid the vari-tinted often vinous purple foliage. It is edible and the orange-colored sweetish pulp is quite palatable though in it are imbedded several large, hard, stony seeds. The native Flowering Dogwood has been freely planted about the Arboretum but the Japanese species is confined to Centre Street Path and its Chinese variety to Bussey Hill. Not before mid-June will the Oriental Dogwoods be in blossom. Bunchberries. It would seem a far cry from trees 30 to 80 feet tall to lowly herbs a few inches high. But a glance at the flowers shows that the relationship is very close between the Flowering Dogwoods and the Bunchberries of North America (Cornus canadensis) and of Europe and northern Asia (C. suecica). For shaded rockeries, woodlands and sheltered nooks there are no prettier little plants than these, howbeit they are rather coy unless they find soil and situation exactly to their liking. Fothergillas. Why are the Fothergillas so little known in gardens? So long ago as 1765 one species (F. Gardenii) was in cultivation and in 1780 a second species, now known as F. major, was growing in England. These are figured in the Botanical Magazine for 1810 (tt. 1341, 1342). The genus itself commemorates an old time worthy, one Dr. John Fothergill, who in the 18th century had a garden at Stratford-le-Bow famous for its collection of American plants. Fothergillas are purely American shrubs, being native of the Alleghany Mountains and adjacent parts of the southeastern states. Three species are now recognized though the difference between two of them (F. major and F. monticola) are admittedly sight. F. Gardenii, the first known, is really the poor relation of the group. All three are very hardy shrubs, freely sending up erect shoots from the base which branching plenteously form dense bushes. They are relatives of the Witch-Hazels and resemble them closely in foliage. The flowers, however, are very different in appearance consisting of long, erect white stamens tipped with yellow anthers crowded together in ovoid, rounded, 2-inch high clusters at the ends of the innumerable naked branchlets. The whole inflorescence Is fragrant and very conspicuous, resembling a bottle-brush and quite different from that of any other hardy northern shrub. The shrubs are very free-flowering and in the autumn the leaves assume a brilliant crimson in the case of F. Gardenii and red, orange and yellow in the other two species. In habit F. major is a sturdy compact shrub, oval in general outline and 10 feet and more tall. F. monticola is looser, more spreading and less tall though equally vigorous. The other species (F. Gardenii) is a more slender plant, seldom more than a yard high, with weak, often lolling stems, and smaller flower-clusters. In the Arboretum these Fothergillas flourish, F. major and F. monticola especially, in any soil and situation though a sandy peat soil and a cool situation best meet their needs. They fruit freely but violently eject their seeds, so careful watching is necessary if these be needed. They may also be increased by cuttings of ripened wood under glass, by layering and by suckers. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 26","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23882","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270af6f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II MAY 26, 1928 NO. 8 Syringa vulgaris, the Common Lilac, is the most popular hardy flowering shrub and the plant most strongly entrenched in the affections of New England people. In all probability it was one of the first exotic plants introduced into this country but just when and where this took place is unknown. This must have been soon after the first settlers came to New England for it is a feature around old houses on Cape Cod, around Newburyport, and other long established towns and villages. Having withstood the vicissitudes of time, the Lilac is in many places the only sign that marks the sites of old homesteads. It appears to have been first cultivated in Constantinople and from there to have reached Vienna about 1563. Later its cultivation spread through western Europe. Its native habitat is the mountains of Bulgaria and other parts of the Balkan Peninsula, but this fact was not known until some three centuries after it had been brought into general cultivation. Plants of the wild type may be seen growing in the Arboretum collection. They have narrow clusters of dull purplish and by no means attractive flowers. It is evident that the Common Lilac of gardens was a form selected we know not when. Luxuriant in growth, abundant of blossom and rich in fragrance, the long cultivated form is not surpassed in these virtues by any of its numerous offspring. Cultivation. The Common Lilac is one of the most accommodating shrubs, thrives in all sorts of queer places and often under adverse conditions. However, it appreciates proper attention to site and soil and its modern progeny demand it. A slope where the roots can enjoy good drainage and the branches be fully exposed to sun and air is the proper place to plant Lilacs. The soil should be a good strong loam and if lime be present so much the better. Indeed, if this be lacking, it must be supplied from time to time either in the form of field lime or, better still, in that of bone-meal. The Lilac is a gross feeder and to give of its best demands a liberal supply of food, farmyard manure, especially cow-dung, being the best all-round fertilizer. In such soil and under such conditions the Common Lilac and its very numerous progeny will flourish in the colder parts of this country and in lower Canada. It is essentially a plant for cold climates. In districts where the seasons are warmer than those of New England the Lilac is apt to suffer from mildew during the summer months and in the warmer states, like Florida and California, it is of little value. Its requirements are comparatively few. No pruning other than that required to keep the bushes shapely is necessary, but it should be remembered that no matter when pruning be done it means loss of flower for one season. If the bushes, through some cause or another, have become decrepit and unsightly, they may be rejuvenated by cutting down to the ground. It is surprising how good-natured Lilacs really are. They have this peculiarity, however, that they start into growth from the tops of the cut branches and the young shoots are very easily broken off by the wind. It is therefore advisable to cut them as near to the ground as is practicable. The work should be done in late March or early April in order that the plants may have the benefit of a full season in which to make new growth. When such drastic treatment is necessary the plants should be cultivated around and given a supply of fertilizer including lime or bone-meal. In June when the new growth is at its height nitrate of soda, sparingly applied to the outermost feeding roots, which are some 2 to 3 feet from the center of the plant, will be found beneficial. It is well to apply this nitrate on rainy days, about three dressings at intervals of ten days being ample. The collection of Lilacs in the Arboretum is a good illustration of the result of severe pruning followed by liberal cultivation and feeding. In the early spring of 1927 it was decided to prune the bushes severely. After this was done they were given the treatment mentioned above and during the season made new growths of from 2 to 7 feet, which this year are carrying a goodly number of extra large flower clusters. Following such pruning the weaker shoots should be removed the succeeding winter. Propagation. Authorities agree that Lilacs should be on their own roots but the means of propagation best suited to attain this are disputed. The Common Lilac suckers very freely and on this account, except for standards, is worthless as an understock on which to graft or bud the modern sorts. By nurserymen different species of Privet are now generally used as understocks. The claim is that the Lilac is most easily propagated by this manner, that it grows rapidly and in the course of time develops its own root-system from the point where the scion is inserted. All emphasize that in time Lilacs budded or grafted on the Privet and planted deep develop their own root-system, but none say when, and in fairness to their customers they should not sell such plants until this happy state of affairs has become accomplished. That Lilacs budded or grafted low on Privet make bushy, saleable plants in one or two years, is fact, but that they make satisfactory garden plants is open to grave question. The Lilac grows faster than the Privet understock as anyone who examines a plant so grafted will see. If the thumb be taken as the size of the Lilac stem, the little finger will denote the relative thickness of the Privet understock. The root-system of the Privet understock is insufficient to supply the Lilac plant with the amount of water and food-salts necessary for its well-being and the result is, that the foliage on such grafted bushes is usually small and malformed until they develop their own root-system. From the point of view of those who want healthy plants that will grow freely from the date of planting there are only two ways of propagating Lilacs. One is by layering and the other by cuttings. Layering is a simple method of increasing not only Lilacs but nearly every other kind of shrub and small tree and a method much too infrequently practiced. It consists of nothing more than notching or by other means rupturing the shoot, bending it down and covering the fracture with earth. Cuttings of moderately firm wood taken in mid-summer or soon afterwards according to locality root easily. In the Arboretum such cuttings are taken during the last days of June and the first of July. The leafy shoots are cut each from 3 to 4 inches long, with a piece of old wood, known technically as a heel, and are inserted in sand in a closed frame where they enjoy the benefit of bottom heat. Under such conditions they root in about a month. Afterwards they are moved into flats and the following spring planted out in the nursery grounds. From the start such plants are provided with their own root-system which is always sufficient to nourish the foliage and in three to four years they become nice bushy plants. Hardwood cuttings inserted in the ordinary sandpit of the propagating house in winter will root but much more slowly, often taking six months. It is admitted that Lilacs propagated from cuttings take longer to develop into saleable plants but in four or five years they overtake and soon outdistance those that have been budded or grafted on Privet. French Lilacs, so-called because most of them have been raised in France, are the result of intercrossing and selection among the different forms of the Common Lilac. In size of inflorescence and of individual flower they far excel the parent stock but only a few retain the rich fragrance. The variety is very great and in the Arboretum collection nearly two hundred sorts may be seen. One of the most frequent inquiries is for a list of the best Lilacs. The compilation of any such list must be largely a matter of individual tastes, but the following twenty-five are entitled to high rank: SINGLE VARIETIES: WHITE, Madame Florent Stepman, Princess Alexandria, Vestale, Mont Blanc; PALE, Lucie Baltet, Macrostachya ; MEDIUM, Christophe Colomb, Madame F. Morel; DARK, Congo, Marceau, Edmond Boissier, Monge, Reaumur, Turenne. DOUBLE VARIETIES: WHITE, Edith Cavell, Madame Casimir Perier, Princesse Clementine; PALE, Leon Gambetta; MEDIUM, Duc de Massa, Olivier de Serres, Rene Jarry-Desloges, Thunberg; DARK, Paul Thirion, Violetta Georges Bellair. The Lilac collection is easily reached from Forest Hills Gate or the Centre Street Gate. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 1","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23875","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260bb6f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JUNE 1, 1928 NO. 9 Conifers and Yews. In the northern parts of the world where broad-leaf evergreens are few and the trees and shrubs are bare of leaves for half the year, narrow-leaf evergreens are of special value. In such parts of America they have been favorites since gardens were first planted and they are assured of lasting popularity. In lands where broad-leaf evergreens in great variety can be grown, Conifers and Yews may be subject to the whim of fashion, but it is quite different here when the real need is for greater variety of strictly hardy sorts. Restful and beautiful at all seasons of the year, Conifers and Yews are particularly so just now when their young shoots are pushing off the winter bud-scales and unfolding a mass of light green leaves. On many the male flowers in red-purple or yellow catkins are very conspicuous and as these catkins ripen, if a branch be shaken, pollen is liberated in clouds. The Spruces and Firs push out their frond-like, young growth in advance of the upright tassels of the Pines. Earliest of all, and at the moment the most beautiful, are the Hemlocks whose young branches with their bright green leaves light up the dark mass of old foliage. As the buds expand the effect is as if the trees had been peppered with pale green; later a curtain of cheerful green is spread over the whole tree. For many years past the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) has received favorable comment in these Bulletins. It is as hardy as the Common Hemlock and if anyone doubts its superiority in beauty they have but to visit the Pinetum and inspect the specimens growing there Its outline is broadly pyramidal and tapering with the main branches outthrust at right angles and the branchlets drooping and clustered to form tufted masses. The whole crown is an undulating, billowy mass of dark green illuminated at this season of the year by the young growth. No tree could be more lovely than the Carolina Hemlock at the present time. We are apt to think of Conifers in the autumn and winter seasons only but their beauty at this moment is greater than at any other time of the year. Conifers strongly object to smoke and deleterious gases and for this reason are unsuited for planting in cities or in the vicinity of factories. The majority are mountain plants and as such demand pure air. A number of species of Pine grow in the poorest of sandy soils and they, together with certain Junipers, withstand a certain amount of drought, but, on the whole, Conifers demand a constant supply of moisture at the roots. A good loam overlying clay and a sloping hillside is the ideal place for them. What has been written applies equally to the Yews, of which the Japanese species (Taxus cuspidata) and its varieties are among the most valuable plants northern gardens possess. The Yews are more tolerant of city conditions than are Conifers, so, if evergreens are needed in cities, Yews only are worth planting. Pseudolarix amabilis. Attention is called to the group of this Conifer, the Chinese Golden Larch, immediately on the left entering from the Walter Street Gate. Like the Larch it is deciduous in character, its leaves changing to a rich golden yellow in the late autumn. The branches are wide-spreading, somewhat ascending and richly clothed in summer with emerald green leaves which are borne in whorls, each terminating a short, spur-like shoot. At the moment many spur-like shoots are crowned with lax clusters of male flowers arranged in erect catkins. Several of the lower branches are weighted down with these curious flowers which emit clouds of yellow pollen and are well-worth the inspection of students interested in botany. On Bussey Hill, Albo-rosea with white flushed pink and Sekiyama with rose-pink blossoms, latest of the Japanese Cherries to flower, still make a brave display, their branches being thickly hung with rose-like blooms. The Dogwood remains in blossom, the earliest of the Brooms are pushing forth their gay-colored flowers, but the Torch Azalea (Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi) now dominates the scene. This floriferous shrubs with its dazzling blossoms is at the height of its glory. It is perhaps the most spectacular of the whole race of Azaleas and the marvel is that a plant of such exotic appearance should be able to withstand the winters of Massachusetts. It prefers high land or at least a sloping bank and its flowers are seen to best advantage against a dark background of Hemlocks or other Conifers or under the shade of trees. It is a twiggy shrub, growing from 5 to 8 feet tall and as much in diameter, with the familiar characteristics of the so-called Indian Azalea. It does best when grouped thickly so that its branches shade the roots. On account of its color, which varies from salmon and crushed strawberry to flaming red, it needs careful placing for its full effect to be enjoyed. Although known in books since 1712 and a common plant on mountains from the extreme south to the northernmost island of Japan, it was utterly neglected by the early plant explorers in that land. Not until 1892, when the late Professor Sargent sent seeds to the Arboretum, was this Azalea introduced into cultivation. Had he done naught else but introduce this plant garden lovers would have just cause to bless his name. Of all the shrubs that Japan has contributed to the gardens of North America none is more strikingly handsome than this flaming Torch Azalea. Azalea Vaseyi is a winsome plant and among the whole Azalea tribe there is no purer or more pleasing bit of pink than the gaping blossoms of this delightful shrub. The branches are slender and upright and there is an airiness and grace about the plant not common among the Azaleas. It is of easy culture but prefers a moist situation and if planted where its blossoms can be reflected in water its beauty is seen to two-fold advantage. Native of the higher mountains of western North Carolina, this Azalea was discovered in 1878 by George Vasey. It was introduced in 1880 into the Arboretum, where it has never known winter injury, and each year, toward the close of May, the groups of plants on the right and left of the Meadow Road are aglow with pink blossoms. Diervilla Maximowiczii is now flowering freely on Centre Street Path and is very distinct from other species of Diervilla. A shrub some 3 to 5 feet tall, it has slender, arching branches and thin, bright green leaves. In color the flower is greenish yellow with a prominent orange-brown stripe on the lower corolla-lobe and throat. In other Diervillas the stamens are alternate with the corolla-lobes, but in this species they are collected under the upper part of the corolla and the anthers are united laterally. The flower is in appearance very much like that of a Pentstemon. Native of the margins of woodland and thickets from central Japan northward, D. Maximowiczii was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum through seeds sent in 1914 from the Nikko region by Wilson. It is a very distinct and pleasing shrub and has proved quite hardy. Kerria japonica and its double-flowered form pleniflora are old-fashioned plants which well deserve a place in gardens. They are twiggy shrubs sending up each year from the base a mass of shoots which remain bright green throughout the year. No other shrub, not even the green-stemmed Dogwood, has such cheerful shoots in the winter time. The flowers, borne along the whole length of the smooth, slender, arching stems, are a deep buttercup yellow and the double-flowered form strongly suggests a Rambler Rose. This plant does well against walls, on banks or high land, where it can enjoy good air and root drainage. Both forms are easily propagated from suckers and suffer from no disease or pest. After flowering the older canes should be cut clean away; no other pruning is necessary. Kerria is native of China and southern Japan, where it is also a favorite garden plant. The double-flowered form was introduced into cultivation from Canton so long ago as 1805. Our grandparents knew and appreciated it well and while it has been somewhat crowded out in later times Kerria is still one of the most beautiful of late spring-flowering shrubs. Visitors to rural parts of England may see the double-flowered form frequently trained as a curtain against the stone walls of thatched cottages. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 8","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23878","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed2608925.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JUNE 8, 1928 NO. 10 Early June is a season of plenteous blossom in the Arboretum. The numerous forms of the Common Lilac are passing out of flower but the Persian and Rouen Lilacs and a number of the species are in full bloom. Early-flowering Roses in white, yellow and pink, together with Honeysuckles, Diervillas, Wistarias, Azaleas and the early Rhododendrons, are in blossom. All the leaves are not yet fully unfolded on tree and bush and there is still a rich range of color in the young foliage. In any and every part of the Arboretum beauty may be seen. Enkianthus is an Oriental genus of shrubs belonging to the Rhododendron family which is distributed from the eastern Himalayas through the mountains of China to Japan but is not found in Korea. The Himalayan and Chinese species have not proved hardy in ~he Arboretum but the several species from .Japan thrive on a windswept slope beneath the group of old White Pines on Bussey Hill. The first species to open its blossoms is E. perulatus, better known under the name of E. japonicus, a dense, rounded bush of perfect habit which is grown in every Japanese garden. Its native home, the mountains of the island of Shikoku, has only recently become known. It has small clusters of pure white, urn-shaped flowers which push out with or before the young foliage and are now past. The most vigorous, floriferous and all-round valuable species of the genus is E. campanulatus. This is a large shrub or bushy tree, sometimes 25 feet tall, irregular in outline with cymose clusters of suspended bell-shaped flowers thrust from the tip of every branch. The corolla varies in color from shades of salmon-pink to reddish crimson and is often beautifully penciled with lighter and deeper tones. It also varies a good deal in size and somewhat in shape and this together with the variation in color has caused some botanists to recognize a number of different species. However, where a large group is cultivated it is obvious that they merge one into the other. One variety (albiflorus) has handsome greenish white and another (Palibinii) dark red flowers, but shades of salmon-color prevail and all are equally lovely. Another species, E. subsessilis, is of dense, twiggy habit, forming a neat compact bush up to 10 feet tall, bearing in quantity creamy white flowers in pendent racemes. A rare plant is E. cernuus which has cream-colored flowers and is not growing in the Arboretum, where the more common variety (rubens) distinguished by the dark red color of its flowers, represents the species. In this Enkianthus the corolla lobes are notched and in consequence the flowers are different in appearance from those of other members of the group. These Japanese species of Enkianthus are perfectly hardy in Massachusetts and well worth a place in gardens. Where lime is absent from the soil their cultivation is as simple as that of Azaleas. They demand, however, good air and root drainage. The foliage of no other shrub assumes more brilliant autumn tints, the colors ranging from yellow and orange to the deepest tones of crimson. They are not subject to any disease or pest and rank among the most satisfactory and beautiful members of the large Erica family to which they belong. Rhododendron japonicum. On Bussey Hill this handsome Azalea is now at the height of its beauty. The large, funnel-form flowers are borne in clusters at the end of every shoot and vary in color from orange to salmon-red and flame color. It is a shrub, seldom exceeding 6 feet in height, with stiff, erect branches and is especially well-adapted for massing. It is widely distributed on the mountains of Japan and has been in cultivation since 1861. Crossed with its Chinese relative, R. molle, it has given rise to the so-called Mollis Azaleas, but, unfortunately, the Chinese species is tender and this weakness is evident in many of the hybrid race. Where the blood of the Japanese species is predominant the plants are quite hardy; contrariwise, where that of the Chinese plant is in the ascendancy the plants are unsatisfactory, dying in part or wholly during severe winters. Louisa Hunnewell, one form of these Hybrid Azaleas, which was raised by T. H. Hatfield, Superintendent of the Hunnewell Estate at Wellesley, Massachusetts, who hybridized plants raised from seed collected in one case in Central China and in the other in the Nikko region of Japan, has proved perfectly bud-hardy in the Arboretum. This is a lovely plant with flaming orange-yellow flowers borne in large clusters and, like those of its parents, sweetly fragrant. This type of Azalea requires full exposure to the sun and flourishes best where good root drainage is assured but it appreciates protection from strong winds. Viburnum tomentosum is one of the most handsome of all the Oriental Viburnums, although less well-known in gardens than its snowball form (sterile) to which the name V. plicatum is generally applied. The type is a large shrub, sometimes 15 feet tall, with stiff, wide-spreading branches arranged more or less in tiers. The flat, flower-clusters, each from 3 to 5 inches across, terminate short lateral branchlets and are produced along the entire length of the shoots. They are borne erect on stout peduncles and each has a conspicuous outer whorl of large, white, neuter flowers. It is to the abundance of these neuter flowers that the shrub owes its ornamental character, for its autumn tints are poor and its fruit black and unattractive. Strictly speaking it is a woodland plant and thrives best in a cool, partially shaded position. Under full exposure to the sun large branches are apt to die from no apparent reason. In the familiar snowball form the central mass of small, fertile flowers is changed into a globose group of showy neuter blossoms. Native of the Far East, this Viburnum is a particular feature of -~he woodlands and thickets of Japan whence it was introduced so long ago as 1865. Malus ioensis plena, Bechtel's Crab. Of all the Crabapples this seems to hold first place in public affection and with its profusion of large, pale pink, rose-like, semi-double flowers and its delightful odor of violets, it is a singularly handsome and attractive tree. Unfortunately, the practice is to graft it on understocks of the Common Apple, a stock quite unsuited to its needs. This results in short-lived trees, a disappointment only too well known to lovers of this fragrant Crabapple. It should be grafted or budded on its wild parent (M. ioensis) or on the related M. coronaria, under which conditions it is healthy, long-lived and free-growing. On the left, opposite the junction of the Forest Hills and Meadow roads may be seen a Bechtel's Crab on the Common Apple understock-a sparsely branched, unhealthy looking tree. In the Crabapple collection at the foot of Peters Hill on the right entering from Bussey Street Gate grow two specimens grafted on the wild parent and the contrast sufficiently tells the story. The way to check the malpractice of grafting this Crabapple on the wrong understock is to refuse to buy plants unless guaranteed to be on understocks of an American species. It is only by the amateur taking decisive steps that the necessary change can be brought about. Wistaria floribunda rosea. There are many so-called pink forms of the Japanese Wistaria but the one strictly entitled to the name may be seen blossoming at the end of the trellis bordering the Shrub Garden. The parent of this particular plant was found many years ago growing in a garden owned by a Japanese in California. It came to the attention of the late Mr. Henry S. Huntington, San Marino Ranch, San Gabriel, California, who purchased the whole place for the purpose of acquiring this handsome vine. The Arboretum obtained scions from Mr. Huntington in 1917 and a resultant plant is now flowering for the first time. The racemes are about a foot long, the standard and wings of the corolla are flushed with pink and the keel is pure pink. It is just as hardy as the ordinary lavender and white forms of the Japanese Wistaria. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23876","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed2608125.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JUNE 15, 1928 NO. 11 Hybrid Rhododendrons are by common consent among the noblest broad-leaf evergreens that can be grown in northern gardens. They are largely the product of crossing and intercrossing the two American species, R. catawbiense and R. maximum, with the Himalayan R. arboreum, and the Eurasian R. ponticum, and R. caucasicum from the Caucasus. They owe their red and crimson colors chiefly to the Himalayan and their hardiness to the blood of the American and Caucasian species. Most of the standard hardy sorts growing in the Arboretum were raised in England, mainly by the firm of Anthony Waterer & Sons, more than three-quarters of a century ago. Mr. E. S. Rand, Jr., wrote his book on Rhododendrons in 1871 and those who turn to its pages will note that with few exceptions the hardy and reliable varieties we know today are mentioned there. Since the Bulletins were first issued reference has been made each year to these Rhododendrons. Their behavior in the Arboretum has been set down together with the experiences of half a century in cultivating these plants. It cannot be said that success has crowned the persistent efforts of the Arboretum. Indeed, fewer varieties are growing there today than a quarter of a century ago. The site, under the lee of Hemlock Hill, facing more or less north and to some extent protected from the sun in March, would appear to be perfect but the Rhododendrons do not flourish as they should. The toughest and hardiest varieties make a good showing each succeeding year but dead branches and brown leaves are too much in evidence on many of them every spring. In England, where Rhododendrons are special favorites, great progress in their culture has been made during the past twenty-five years. It has been found that wind is the curse of these plants and that greater success is attained when they are planted through thin woods, especially Oak woods, where the ground is moist and cool throughout the year and where the branches of the trees break the direct rays of the sun. Too much shade is detrimental to the setting of a crop of flower-buds but not enough induces browning of the foliage. Also, it has been found that the best way of mulching Rhododendrons is by laying rather stout branches about the roots and sprinkling over them a modicum of oak leaves. Under this treatment the known hardy hybrids give better results; many formerly thought to be tender prove quite hardy and hundreds of new species recently discovered and introduced from western China grow happily. It is evident that we have something to learn from the recent successes of Rhododendron enthusiasts in the British Isles. In fact we might try their experiments with every probability of success greater than we now enjoy with these favored plants. Rand in his book enumerates, with the exception of Mrs. Charles Sargent, Henrietta Sargent, Mrs. Harry Ingersoll, Catawbiense album and Boule de Neige, all the really hardy sorts of first-class quality grown in the Arboretum. All of these are of foreign origin, indeed, so far as the Arboretum is aware, no first-class variety of perfect hardiness in Massachusetts has been raised in this country. This is little to the credit of our nurserymen. Prior to quarantine No. 37 going into effect the supply of Rhododendrons for this country was annually imported from Europe. When importation ceased stocks were speedily sold out. Today it is exceedingly difficult to buy sizeable hybrid Rhododendrons of any sort in America. Anthony Waterer used to propagate his plants mainly by layering, but nowadays R. ponticum, unfortunately tender in New England, is largely used as an understock. No other understock has yet been found equal to this Eurasian species, yet for us its use is unwise, and, if none other is available, layering should be resorted to. With the exception of a collection of indifferent quality which came from Germany in 1908, the Arboretum has received no really hardy sorts that have originated later than 1885. No one will assume that the possibilities of raising new and worthwhile varieties have been exhausted. It is simply that the subject has been neglected and it is high time that it was taken up seriously in this country. Indeed, if New England is ever to enjoy really hardy hybrid Rhododendrons in variety they will have to be raised there. A splendid field for the hybridist and for the younger generation of nurserymen is open. By crossing and intercrossing the hardiest and toughest of the hybrids we now enjoy with some of the known hardy species like R. Smirnowii, R. Metternichii, R. brachycarpum and R. carolinianum, there is every probability of largely increasing the list of hardy hybrid Rhododendrons well-suited to the climate of Massachusetts and southward. Until some enterprise is shown in this direction Rhododendron lovers will be left to deplore the paucity of good sorts available for their gardens. Today, so far as the Arboretum's experiences go, the following rank among the best of the hybrid Rhododendrons: with red flowers-Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens, H. W. Sargent; with reddish flowers-Caractacus; with rose-colored flowers-Roseum elegans, Lady Armstrong; with pink flowers-Mrs. Charles Sargent, Henrietta Sargent; with dark purple flowers-Purpureum grandiflorum, Purpureum Elegans; with light purple flowers-Everestianum; with white or nearly white flowers-Album Elegans, Album Grandiflorum, Catawbiense Album. Earlier than these to blossom are the so-called Caucasicum Hybrids of which Mont Blanc, Boule de Neige, Coriaceum, Glennyanum and Cassiope, all with white or nearly white flowers. These and other varieties of less value are now in blossom in the collection at the foot of Hemlock Hill, which is easily reached from South Street Gate. Styrax obassia. A shapely specimen some 18 feet tall of this Japanese tree is now in bloom on Bussey Hill. It has shortly stalked, broadly ovate leaves, each 4 to 7 inches long and as many broad, dark green above and silvery gray below. The flowers are bell-shaped, arranged in erect or sub-erect racemes 4 to 6 inches long. The corolla is of the purest white, so too, are the filaments, but the anthers are clear yellow. The flower racemes, although produced in great quantity are somewhat hidden by the bold foliage. Styrax japonica is a bushy tree of moderate size, seldom exceeding 30 feet in height and as much in diameter, which is common on the mountains of Japan. It is also found in southern Korea and in central China. It has leaves light green on both surfaces, more or less ovate, lance-shaped and each from 2 to 3 inches in length. The bell-shaped flowers are borne in cymose clusters at the ends of every branchlet and the corolla is of pure, waxy white. No other tree is more abundant of blossoms and viewed from below when in full flower its myriads of pure white bells present a charming picture as anyone who examines the large specimen on Centre Street Path will agree. The tree fruits freely each autumn and thousands of seedlings spring up spontaneously beneath its shade. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1892 and except in early youth has not suffered winter injury. Like many other plants these Styrax are apt to winterkill when young. Moreover, they do not transplant readily from open ground, so it is best to grow them along in pots. These two species of Styrax are among the most lovely of the lesser trees that can be grown in the climate of Massachusetts and are well worth a little extra trouble to establish. The genus is widely distributed, several species being native of eastern North America and many in central and western China but the above only are properly hardy in the Arboretum. Syringa Wolfii. This handsome species, native of the woodlands of central and northern Korea and adjacent Manchuria, is now in flower above the Forsythia group. It has large oblong to ovate-lance-shaped leaves, dark green above and pale on the underside, and much branched panicles of dark lilac-purple flowers. The lateral branches of the panicles droop somewhat and the individual flower is tubular, dilated at the mouth with incurved, somewhat hooked, corolla lobes. This plant was discovered by V. L. Komarov and by him introduced into the Botanic Garden at St. Petersburg sometime before 1910. A plant was sent to the Arboretum but whether it was the true species or not is uncertain for the plant has been lost. That now in flower was raised from seeds collected in Korea by Wilson in 1917. Besides the type there is a form distinguished by the presence of a few hairs along the mid-rib on the underside of the leaf. S. Wolfii is a handsome and very hardy shrub but is only one of numerous species of Lilac that are well worth a place in gardens. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 25","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23877","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed2608525.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JUNE 25, 1928 NO. 12 The Shrub Garden, which occupies about three acres of land immediately on the right, entering from Forest Hills Gate, is now full of interest. Here may be seen a varied collection of shrubs arranged in parallel beds, separated by grass paths, so that the individual plants can be easily examined. Spring-flowering shrubs, many Barberries and the earliest of the Spiraeas are past flowering, but Spiraea Henryi, a dome-shaped bush more than 6 feet tall with arching branches laden with Hawthorn-scented flowers, is at the height of its beauty. This native of central China is one of the best of its clan. The Korean S. trichocarpa of perfect hardiness and graceful habit has been very full of blossom but is now past its best. Closely related to the Spiraeas is Physocarpus, of which several species are now in bloom. These shrubs, which are commonly called Ninebarks, are vigorous plants needing plenty of space to be seen to advantage. One of the handsomest is P. bracteatus, native of Colorado, a rounded bush 6 feet and more tall and broader than high, which produces in great abundance dome-shaped clusters of Hawthorn-like blossoms in which pink-anthered stamens are prominent. With the exception of P. amurensis, which hails from northeastern Asia, the genus is entirely North American. The shrubby, yellow Cinquefoil (Potentilla fruticosa) is covered with pleasing blossoms and, so too, are its white-flowered varieties, Veitchii and dahurica. All are very hardy plants not particular as to soil and thrive in stony ground. Among that useful group, the Bush Honeysuckles, several late-flowering species such as graceful, gray-leaved, pink-blossomed Lonicera Korolkowii, white-flowered L. Maackii podocarpa, pale yellow L. deflexicalyx and lilac-colored L. thibetica are in blossom, while the early-flowering L. Altmannii and L. fragrantissima are laden with ripe, bright red fruits and L. coerulea and its varieties with dark blue fruits. The Diervillas are shedding their blossoms but many of the Philadelphus are opening their flowers as are different species of Hydrangea. The mild winter was favorable to the Diervillas, which this year have been marked by less dead wood and more blossoms than usual. This group of shrubs like the Deutzias just miss being properly hardy in the Arboretum. Summer-blooming shrubs, such as the pink Indigofera Kirilowii and the yellow Colutea arborescens are opening their blossoms and soon will be followed by those of a variety of kindred shrubs. The feature of the Shrub Garden just now, however, is the different Wild Roses decked in white, pink, red and yellow. Those interested in Rose species may spend a profitable time in inspecting this collection and also the named varieties of Rugosa Hybrids of recent origin and great value in northern gardens. Of these Rugosa Hybrids the fragrant, dark red Roserie de L'Hay, rose-pink Belle Poitevine, snow white Blanche Double de Coubert, white Sir Thomas Lipton, bright red, fringed-petaled F. J. Grootendorst, and Max Graf with pink flowers and lustrous foliage, are most worthy. Among the species are R. Serafinii with gray leaves and dainty white flowers, R. rubrifolia with rose-colored blossoms, rose-red R. bella, white-blossomed R. Fedtschenkoana, fragrant Sweetbriar (R. eglanteria), R. rugosa rosea with pink and variety alba with white flowers; such old-fashioned Roses as R. damascena, R. centifolia, R, alba, the Apple Rose (R. villosa duplex), the Boursault Rose (R. Lheritierana), many forms of the Scotch Roses and that most satisfactory hardy yellow Rose, R. Harisonii, are in full blossom. Such early species as R. Ecae, R. Hugonis and R. omeiensis are past but R. multiflora and its pink-flowered variety, cathayensis, the Seashore Rose of New England (R. virginiana) and other species will open their flowers in a few days and for two or three weeks will continue the Wild Rose season. Centre Street Path, which is entered through the Hickory group immediately on the right of Centre Street Gate, makes a pleasant walk at any season. The situation is more sheltered than other parts of the Arboretum and in the borders flanking this path a number of rare shrubs and trees of doubtful hardiness may be seen. Among others the rare Pterostyrax hispida, a tree of moderate size, native of the Orient and closely related to Halesia, or Silverbell tree, is opening its blossoms. The flowers are produced in loose, hanging clusters terminating lateral branchlets on the previous season's growth. The corolla and the filaments are pure white and the anthers are of the palest cream-color. It is an interesting tree which one wishes had a more vigorous constitution. The Japanese Styrax japonica is still in blossom, so too, is the rare Viburnum bracteatum, native of Georgia and Alabama, the Japanese Magnolia Watsonii with cup-shaped flowers emitting a heavy odor of spices, and the Dogwood (Cornus kousa) of the same land is wreathed in white. But the greatest display of blossoms along Centre Street Path is that of the supplementary collection of Spiraeas and of the group of Deutzias. A protected spot and cool soil suit the latter better than any other place in the Arboretum and there may be seen many of the finest hybrids of Lemoine and such handsome species as D. Vilmorinae and D. Wilsonii, comparatively recent acquisitions from western China. Among the Spiraeas, large specimens of S. trichocarpa, S. Henryi and the small-leaved, twiggy S. gemmata are particularly noteworthy. Bussey Hill with its rare shrubs and lesser trees from the Orient and elsewhere is a place to visit at all seasons of the year and, at the moment, its western slopes are ablaze with brilliant blossoms of the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum). Several species of Cytisus, a number of new and rare Deutzias and Spiraeas are in full blossom in the borders and, so too, is Rosa Moyesii from western China. The wet and cloudy season has suited this Rose and its flowers are of a better color than is usual. No Rose has been more written about than this species and its rich, dark velvety blossoms are among the most exquisitely colored of all Roses. The original plant of the Beautybush (Kolkwitzia amabilis), which has been growing on Bussey Hill for nearly twenty years, is again laden with its pleasing pink Diervilla-like blossoms. This lovely shrub is absolutely hardy and should be widely grown in the colder parts of this country. The spiny Sophora viciifolia has racemose, pea-like blossoms with a white corolla and a slaty blue calyx which make a pleasing combination. Close by this shrub on Bussey Hill are two forms of Indigofera amblyantha whose branches are densely crowded with erect, spike-like racemes of rose-colored blossoms. Not before has the Chinese Dogwood (Cornus kousa chinensis) borne blossoms so abundantly as this year. At this time it is easily the most conspicuous plant in the Arboretum and worth a long journey to see. The tree on Bussey Hill is vase-shaped, bushy and about 18 feet tall and every branch and branchlet is crowded with flowers. At the moment the bracts are cream-colored but later they will become pure white and finally pinkish. The four bracts which subtend the button-like cluster of the flowers proper are arranged in the form of a cross and overlap at the base. They are ovate, sharp-pointed and larger than those of the American C. florida. The Chinese Dogwood was raised from seeds sent to the Arboretum by Wilson in 1907 and has been acclaimed by experts as the most valuable of the lesser trees China has contributed to the gardens of the Occident. Viburnum cassinoides is one of the most common shrubs of New England and a worthy member of a very ornamental tribe. Under cultivation it grows from 6 to 10 feet tall, has erect, spreading stems and forms a compact bush. Its short-petioled leaves are dark green, somewhat leathery in texture, more or less oblong-lance-shaped and each from 2 to 3 inches in length. The flowers, white with conspicuous, much protruded yellow-anthered stamens, are borne in flattened, rounded clusters, each from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. These are followed by fruit which, varying in color as it ripens from white through pink to deep blue, is the crowning glory of this handsome native shrub. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year. Back numbers available."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 2","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23872","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260af6f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JULY 2, 1928 NO. 13 Silver Firs as ornamental trees rank among the handsomest of all Conifers. Their lofty stature, symmetry of growth, density of branches and abundance of foliage are arresting features. They are essentially mountain trees which demand pure atmosphere and are therefore quite unsuited for city conditions. A good loamy soil and a sloping situation, where the drainage is good and yet where they never suffer from drought, are the ideal conditions for growing these trees. They are widespread on the mountains of the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere, where they often form pure forests. In North America they are found as far south as the mountains of Guatemala, and in the Old World they reach northern Africa, the Himalayas and the mountains of Formosa. Of the thirty-five species recognized, twenty-three are growing in the Arboretum, but only a few of them really thrive. It is much to be regretted that the climate of northeastern America is such that the magnificent species clothing the mountains of the Pacific Slope cannot flourish. Of the eleven species native of North America only the Colorado White Fir (Abies concolor) is really satisfactory in the Arboretum. Fortunately, this handsome species ranks as one of the finest of the family and if one Silver Fir only can be grown it should be this. Its foliage is soft to the touch and varies from gray-green to glaucous blue in color and is singularly handsome. The tree is very symmetrical in outline, forming an even, pyramidal mass, and the very numerous branches overlap one another in a manner neat and pleasing. The trees in the Arboretum, planted in lbi4, are now 60 feet tall and among the most beautiful specimens in the pinetum. The variety, Lowiana, distinguished by its much longer leaves, is, unfortunately, not a satisfactory tree in the Arboretum. It is native of the Pacific coast from Oregon to California, where it is often 250 feet tall. Abies homolepis, more generally known as A brachyphylla, the Nikko Fir, is a tree sometimes 120 feet tall with wide-spreading branches, dark green leaves, silvery on the underside, and one of the handsomest of all Silver Firs. Its branches are long and sweep the ground, and the tree is broader in outline than most Silver Firs. The leaves spread outward and upward and are unequal in length and soft to the touch. The grooved shoot is a ready means of distinguishing the species. There is a variety umbellata with green cones, many specimens of which are growing in the Arboretum, all of them less compact in habit than the type. The Greek Fir (Abies cephalonica) has dark green, ascending and spreading leaves harsh to the touch. As a wild tree it grows 100 feet tall and is somewhat variable in appearance. The branches are smooth, shining red-brown, and its pungent leaves are spread radially and slightly directed forward. The Cilician Fir (Ables cilicica) with soft, dark green foliage is looser in habit than its relative, the Nordmann Fir, and its foliage is duller in appearance. The branchlets are gray and covered with hairs and the leaves spread upwards and forward except on the weak shoots, where they are radially arranged. On the mountains of Syria and Asia Minor it is a tree 100 feet tall with smooth, ashy gray bark, which becomes scaly on old trees. The Nordmann or Caucasian Fir (Abies Nordmanniana) with lustrous, dark green foliage, silvery on the under side, is one of the most beautiful of all Silver Firs. Fortunately, it does well in Massachusetts and is hardy as far north as southern Ontario. In cultivation it is dense in habit, its branches are not wide-spreading and it forms a narrow, pyramidal tree easily recognized by its shining foliage. This Silver Fir is found on the Caucasus, on the mountains of Asia Minor and also in Greece. Abies Fargesii is one of the new species from western China and bids fair to rank among the most useful of the Silver Firs. It is easily recognized by its remarkable, shining, brown-purple shoots, its dark green leaves, spreading and of unequal length, and white on the underside. In China it is a tree 100 feet tall with massive, tabuliform branches. Introduced by the Arboretum in 1910, it has grown slowly but has not suffered winter injury. The rate of growth is now more rapid and promises to equal that of other species. Two other Chinese Silver Firs (A. recurvata and A. chinensis) have also proved hardy and are growing well. Hybrid Philadelphus Lemoinei and its various forms are now in full blossom in the group facing the Lilac collection. While the varieties differ in the size, shape and character of the flower, they agree generally in being twiggy shrubs of compact, rounded habit and remarkably floriferous, and the fragrance of their single or semi-double blossoms is delightful. Among the best of this particular group may be mentioned Mont Blanc, Candelabre, Monteau d'hermine, Erectus, Boule d'argent and Avalanche. This most pleasing group of Philadelphus resulted from crossing P. microphyllus, which is native of Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, with the Eurasian P. coronarius and worthily commemorates the hybridist to whom gardens owe so many beautiful shrubs. P. Lemoinei has been crossed with other species and one result of this is the handsome Albratre with double flowers. Viburnum dilatatum is a first-class shrub of good habit, perfectly hardy and abundantly floriferous. It covers itself in the fall with dark scarlet fruit and is possessed of a whole catalogue of qualities not excelled by any other species. Native of the Orient, it is found in China, Korea and Japan, and is a bush sometimes 8 feet tall and more in diameter, with stout, ascending, pubescent branches and hairy obovate to oblong-obovate, coarsely toothed leaves. The very numerous flowers are borne in broad, flattened clusters, each from 2 to 5 inches in diameter. The flowers are all fertile, almost every blossom sets fruit, and the result in autumn is a mass of scarlet berries. The individual fruit is small and more or less oval, but so abundantly produced as to weigh down the bush. There is a variety (xanthocarpum) with pale yellow fruits, and remarkable as the only Viburnum outside the Opulus group in which fruit of this color is found. Elaeagnus angustifolia, the so-called Russian Olive, is a useful tree especially for gardens near the sea. It grows some 20 to 25 feet tall and has one or several trunks which are studded with burr-like growths and clad with brown, fibrous bark which splits and shreds off. The leaves are lance-shaped, silvery gray and the tree is conspicuous from a distance. The flowers, produced several together from the axils of the current season's growth, are pale yellow, tubular, with reflexed lobes. These are followed in due season by ovoid, yellowish fruits, each about inch long. The tree flowers freely but it is the silvery gray foliage and rugged trunks that are most attractive. It is native of southern Europe and western Asia and has been in cultivation since the sixteenth century. Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa would appear to be the most satisfactory of the evergreen Cotoneasters that can be grown in Massachusetts. In the Arboretum it is a bush some 4 feet tall with many slender, ascending-spreading branches. The dark green, lance-shaped, leathery leaves, each from H to 21 inches in length, are wrinkled above and covered on the under side with grayish white hairs. The flowers are pure white, borne in flattened clusters, each about 2 inches across, and when in blossom this shrub is as handsome as any Spiraea. The fruits, small and bright red, ripen late and are long retained on the bush. A native of western China, it was introduced by the Arboretum in 1908. It is a matter of some surprise that this handsome species should withstand the rigors of New England's climate. On Rhode Island and other places south it grows with greater freedom and rapidity, and in California it is now a favorite garden shrub. Cornus kousa chinensis. Attention is again called to this magnificent plant, now at the height of its beauty on Bussey Hill. The bracts are pure white and when seen from a distance completely hide the foliage. Nearby the Chinese Dogwood some handsome plants of Hydrangea xanthoneura and its varieties, Wilsonii and setchuenensis, together with the closely related H. Rosthornii are in full bloom, each shoot and branch terminating in a loose, broad, flattened-round cluster of white blossoms. These are hardy shrubs, native of western China, introduced by the Arboretum in 1908. E. H. W. The Arboretum is served by the new Gray Line Motor Bus Service. Busses leave Park Square, corner of Boylston and Charles Streets, every half hour."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 9","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23874","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260b76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JULY 9, 1928 NO. 14 Stewartia pseudocamellia is one of three species of these handsome trees common in Japan. They all agree in having polished, cinnamon-brown trunks and on this account are conspicuous among other trees of the forests. They have white Camellia-like flowers, each from 2 to 3 inches in diameter and a prominent mass of yellow stamens. As they flower in July, they have special value in gardens. Around Nikko and other mountainous parts of Japan, S. pseudocamellia is a common tree but it is scarce in gardens and difficult to purchase. When young the branches are ascending, forming a vase-shaped crown, but with age the tree becomes more or less round-topped. The leaves are oblong-lanceolate to obovate in shape and from 2 to 3 1\/2 inches long. The flowers are borne singly in the axils of the current season's growth. The bud is globular and looks like a small snowball among the leaves but as it expands its cupped, Camellia-like appearance is very noticeable. In the autumn the leaves turn to a blackish purple and are distinct in color from those of any other tree in the Arboretum. The two other Japanese species (S. monadelpha and S. serrata) are found in the more southern districts. The first-named is characterized by having its styles united into one column and is a feature of the forests of Yakushima, where trees 80 feet tall and 12 feet in girth of trunk occur. The polished stems of this tree stand out in marked contrast to the rich dark green of Cryptomeria, Hemlock and Fir. Neither is hardy in the Arboretum. S. sinensis is a comparatively new species, native of central China but, unfortunately, not hardy in the Arboretum. This is a bush or small tree with flowers similar to those of S. pseudocamellia and remarkable for its very large, hairy fruit. It does very well in England and could be grown in parts of this country enjoying a climate milder than that of Massachusetts. Stewartia koreana is a new and rare species found on Chiri-san and other mountains in south Korea. It is a smaller tree than S. pseudocamellia with broader, elliptic-ovate leaves and larger, flatter flower~. It was raised in the Arboretum from seeds collected by Wilson in 1917 and blossomed for the first time last year. It is perfectly hardy and promises to be a valuable flowering tree. Stewartia pentagyna is an American species found from North Carolina to Florida. It is a shrub or tree-like bush with ovate to oblong-ovate leaves, each from 2 to 5 inches in length. The flowers are cup-shaped, 3 to 4 1\/2 inches across with concave petals and orange-colored anthers. More beautiful is its variety (grandiflora), which has purple stamens. The bright green leaves change in the autumn to orange and crimson. A second American species (S. malacodendron), also known as S. virginica, is, unfortunately, not hardy in the Arboretum. This species differs from S. pentagyna by having the styles united and by its smaller, differently shaped leaves. The species of Stewartia hardy in the Arboretum may be seen on Bussey Hill. Ehretia thyrsiflora is the only tree of the Borage family that is hardy in the Arboretum. It is native of southern Japan and eastern China and is a very interesting addition to the list of hardy trees. The specimens growing here were raised from seeds sent by Wilson in 1907 and may be seen on Bussey Hill and along the Centre Street Path. They are about 12 to 15 feet tall with spreading branches, polished, yellowish green shoots and petioles, and handsome, dark green, oblong-obovate leaves, each from 3 to 5 inches long and sharply serrated along the margins. The flowers superficially resemble those of the Privet (Ligustrum) and are borne in thyrsoid panicles, each from 4 to 6 inches long, at the end of the current season's shoots. In a wild state the panicled masses of flowers are often a foot in length. The flowers are small, white and give off an unpleasant odor. The fruit is small, shot-like and has no ornamental value. In China and Japan this is a tree 75 feet tall with gray, fissured, fibrous bark. It suckers somewhat and may be propagated by this means and also by root-cuttings. Catalpa speciosa is now in blossom. This is a magnificent flowering tree native of the Mississippi Valley, where it is often more than 100 feet tall with a trunk 12 feet in girth. It has broad, heart-shaped, long-pointed leaves and terminal clusters of large blossoms. The Pentstemon-like corolla has fringed lobes and is more or less striped and dotted with brown-purple on the lower half and marked within the tube with yellow. For park and large garden this is an excellent tree but it has no place in the suburban lot and much less should it be used as a street tree, its disadvantages being that the leaves unfold late and fall early without any change of color, and for much of the year the tree is gaunt in appearance. This is the handsomest of a group of summer flowering trees, of which five species are growing in the Arboretum. Magnolia virginiana, better known as M. glauca, the Sweetbay, is now in full bloom on the right just within the Jamaica Plain Gate. This is one of the most delightful of native trees with pure white, cupped blossoms, which emit a delightful odor and fill the air around with pleasant fragrance. It reaches its northern limits around the town of Magnolia in Massachusetts, where it is a deciduous shrub 10 to 12 feet tall. It extends near the coast southward to Florida and to Texas, where it is often a tree 60 and more feet tall and retains its leaves throughout the winter. It has been in cultivation for more than a century but it is even now much too rarely seen in our gardens. The shoots are smooth, bright green and if bruised emit a spicy odor. The leaves are more or less elliptic to oblong-lanceolate, each from 3 to 5 inches in length, dark lustrous green on the upper surface, glaucous and clothed with soft, appressed silky hairs on the under side. The individual flowers are each from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, pure white and borne erect at the ends of the shoots. Often a second crop appears in late August and September. The fruit is small and ellipsoid and when ripe opens and exposes seeds clad in red jackets. Its flowers and foliage in summer, its fruit in autumn and cheerful apple-green shoots in winter, make this Magnolia ornamental the year round. It is readily raised from seeds and while not especially particular as to situation does best in a moist soil rich in vegetable humus. Spiraea Veitchii is the last of its group to open its blossoms, and is the tallest and one of the handsomest of Spiraeas. It is a shapely, round-topped bush from 8 to 12 feet tall, with ascending-spreading stems. The individual flowers are small, but are crowded together in broad, rounded clusters, each from 3 to 5 inches in diameter, which terminate short, lateral shoots and often form arching sprays, each from 2 to 4 feet in length. The light green leaves vary from elliptic to elliptic-lanceolate and are smooth and quite entire. Native of the higher mountains of central China and introduced into cultivation by seeds collected by Wilson in 1901, it is perfectly hardy, and its late flowering qualities give it additional value. The odor of its flowers is reminiscent of Hawthorn blossoms. Fine plants may be seen in the Shrub Garden, on Bussey Hill and on Centre Street Path. Rhododendron arborescens. Here and there about the Arboretum bushes of the Flame Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum) are still in bloom, but the species that is now beginning to make display is R. arborescens. This is another southern Appalachian Azalea found chiefly on the banks of mountain streams, ascending to an altitude of 5200 feet on the mountains of North Carolina. It is a plant of compact growth, forming a dense bush from 5 to 10 feet tall and about as much in diameter. The more or less oblong-lanceolate leaves, each from 2 to 4 inches in length, are dark, somewhat glossy green on the upper surface and glaucous beneath. The flower clusters, each of three to a dozen or more fragrant flowers, nestle among the leaves and terminate every shoot. The corolla, often pinkish in the bud, has a long, slender tube and five wide-spreading slightly reflexed lobes, pure white, often with a yellow blotch on the face of the upper corolla lobe. The long outthrust stamens and pistil are crimson-pink and a pleasing feature. This is a very hardy species, valuable on account of its fragrance and of its late flowering qualities. On the western slopes of Bussey Hill there is a large planting and here and there by the roadside throughout the Arboretum isolated bushes of this Azalea at the moment make their presence known by their fragrance. E. H. W. A sketch map of the Arnold Arboretum free on application."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 17","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23871","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260ab6f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JULY 17, 1928 NO. 15 Rhododendron maximum, the Great Laurel or Rose Bay, is the last of the true Rhododendrons to blossom in the Arboretum. This plant is found wild from Nova Scotia and the northern shores of Lake Erie, southward through New England and New York and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia, and is especially abundant on the mountains of western Pennsylvania and southward, covering the steep banks of streams to the elevation of 3000 feet. It grows to its largest size on the mountains of Tennessee and the Carolinas, there forming thickets hundreds of acres in extent and often impenetrable. It is a bushy, tree-like shrub, sometimes more than 30 feet tall, with stout stems and contorted branches, forming a rounded head. The short-petioled, more or less oblanceolate-oblong leaves are lustrous green on the upper surface, pale or grayish, sometimes rusty, on the lower surface, and each from 5 to 10 inches in length. The flowers are relatively small but are borne many together in a compact, pyramidate truss which is often much hidden among the leaves. They are pinkish in the bud and in the typical species the expanded corolla is more or less stained with pink. There is a variety (album) with pure white flowers. The honeyguide on the upper corolla lobe is greenish yellow, the stamens are markedly unequal in length and the anthers are often tinged with purple. The pedicels and peduncles are very glandular, a character which it has transmitted to its hybrid progeny. As a matter of fact, many of the so-called Catawbiense Hybrids are really hybrids of R. maximum and these may be distinguished by this glandular character. On account of the intense hardiness, handsome, evergreen foliage and late-flowering qualities, this Rhododendron is for northern gardens a very valuable plant. It is seen to best advantage when planted in open mixed woods, especially those clothing sloping, rocky ground. Rhododendron maximum purpureum is more showy than the type. It came to the Arboretum in 1912 from the Cross Highways Nursery, Westport, Connecticut, under the name of R. maximum superbum. This variety has bright, rose-pink blossoms and brownish yellow honeyguides. The outside of the corolla is deep rose-color but within it is flushed with white. The botanist, Frederick Pursh, first recognized this variety in 1814, giving its specific rank, stating that \"It is found on the highest mountains of Virginia and Carolina near lakes.\" It is strange that a late flowering Rhododendron of so good a color should remain so rare in gardens. Buddleia alternifolia has the distinction of being the only species of this very large genus that has leaves alternately arranged on the shoots. The leaves are narrow, oblong-lance-shaped, very short-stalked, dull green above and gray on the underside. The flowers are lavender-purple with a reddish crimson eye and are borne many together in compact rounded clusters from the axils of the leaves of the previous year's shoot, and, later in the year, in those of the current season. The flower clusters are freely produced and often shoots 3 to 4 feet in length are knotted, as it were, with bunches of blossoms. Native of northwestern China, it was introduced into cultivation through seeds collected in southeastern Kansu by Messrs. Farrer and Purdom in 1914. The plants in the Arboretum were raised in 1923 from seeds received partly from the Royal Horticultural Society's Gardens at Wisley and from the Edinburg Botanic Gardens. It is the hardiest member of the family and by blooming at high summer and continuing into the fall it is a valuable mid-season plant. Like its relative, B. Davidii, it is easily propagated from cuttings of half ripe wood. When properly known it is destined to be a favorite garden shrub. A handsome bush may be seen in full blossom on Bussey Hill. Schizophragma hydrangeoides. This uncouth name has been known to nurserymen and gardeners for at least three quarters of a century but the plant to which the name actually belongs is still scarcely known outside a few botanic gardens. Under this name, two root-climbing Japanese plants were confused in gardens. For a long time the name was used for the plant which we now know as Hydrangea petiolaris. Indeed, it was not until early in the twentieth century, when the true Schizophragma hydrangeoides blossomed for the first time under cultivation, that the confusion existing began to be straightened out. Although in a general way similar, the two plants are really very distinct and when seen growing side by side even in leaf, much more in flower, the distinctions are obvious. In the Hydrangea the leaves are relatively thin, bright green with finely serrated margins; the flower cluster on its outer circumference bears 4-partite conspicuous blossoms; the fruit opens at the top and the seed is minute and not winged. In the Schizophragma the leaves are relatively thick, dull green, pale on the under surface and coarsely toothed; the flower cluster is furnished with numerous white, ovate bracts, the fruit opens down the sides and the seeds are winged. The Hydrangea is the earlier to open its blossoms. Both are valuable root-climbing plants but the Schizophragma is the more beautiful of the two. Its flowers open later and the numerous white bracts retain their color for a long period, changing finally to pink and brown. This Schizophragma is not so common a plant as the Climbing Hydrangea, neither does it grow so vigorously, nor is it quite so hardy. However, on the northerly wall of the Administration Building a magnificent plant may now be seen in full flower. In China there is a species (S. integrifolium) with larger flower trusses but, unfortunately, this has not proved hardy in the Arboretum. It does well in France, notably around Paris, and in certain parts of the British Isles. Elaeagnus longipes on the bank at the upper end of the Lilac Collection is now beautifully in fruit. This is a broad shrub with spreading branches laden with ovoid, cherry-like fruits, each suspended on a long, slender stalk. They are orange to bright red in color and close inspection shows them to be covered with wart-like dots. The leaves are short-stalked, more or less elliptic-ovate, with a blunt point and silvery on the under surface. This is the earliest to fruit of a useful group of shrubs, chiefly oriental, of which some half dozen species are growing in the Arboretum. Cornus dubia is a supposed hybrid raised in the Arboretum from seeds of C. paucinervis. It is a densely branched shrub of good habit some 5 feet tall and more in diameter, clothed with dark to lustrous green, lanceolate leaves with the veins strongly impressed on the upper surface and prominent on the lower. It bears flat clusters each from 2 to 3 inches in diameter, of small white blossoms with prominent stamens. The flowers are sweetly fragrant and are followed by deep blue, changing to black, fruits. This and its presumed parents, C. paucinervis and C. amomum, are the last of the Cornels to blossom. The first to bloom is, of course, the Cornelian Cherry (C. mas), which opens its blossoms early in April, and from then on the whole group has a flowering period covering three and a half months. In flower and fruit the Dogwoods form one of the most useful groups of shrubs or lesser trees that the gardens of northeastern North America enjoy. Leptodermus oblonga is again flowering on Centre Street Path. A low, twiggy plant, almost a subshrub, it is never more than 2 feet high, and has small, dark green, oblong leaves and bears a profusion of blossoms clustered at the end of branch and branchlet. The flowers are of a pleasing wine-purple color, tubular, with five spreading lobes. It is an exceedingly floriferous plant, which is well adapted for growing in rockeries. It is native of northern China, from whence it was introduced by the Arnold Arboretum through seeds collected by Mr. J. G. Jack in 1905. This subshrub with the Buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) and the Partridge-berry (Mitchella repens) are the only members of the great family of Rubiaceae which are hardy in the Arboretum. Berberis aggregata. Among the wealth of Barberries that are hardy in Massachusetts this and its relatives form an interesting group, for they flower after midsummer. They all agree in having rich green, more or less blunt, oblong-lanceolate leaves and terminal masses of deep yellow flowers, which are followed by clusters of small, round, salmon-red fruits. In B. aggregata the flower cluster is dense, in the variety (Prattii) it is looser and more paniculate. In B. polyantha, which is the handsomest of the group, the flowers are in loose, more or less spreading or hanging, panicled clusters. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 28","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23873","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260b36f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II JULY 28, 1928 NO. 16 The wet season has been favorable to tree and bush and the foliage was never richer in appearance than at the moment. Weeds are hard to control but the lush growth on tree and shrub and vine is good to behold. The Arboretum's flowering season is nearing its close. Some of the mid-season trees are at the height of their beauty and the late-flowering Spiraeas and Sorbarias are in blossom. So, too, is the fragrant Azalea viscosa, last of its tribe to flower. The earliest of the Pepperbushes (Clethra barbinervis) is in bloom on the Overlook, and in the Shrub Garden the Hypericums are opening their handsome yellow blossoms. There are flowers on a variety of other shrubs, but the display for the year is over. On the Honeysuckles blue-black, red or yellow berries according to variety may be seen and some of the Dogwoods are also ripening their fruits. Maackia amurensis is flowering very abundantly this season. In the Arboretum the best tree is about 30 feet high with a trunk 1 foot in diameter, but in a wild state it is often 60 feet tall. It has dark green, pinnate leaves which fall in the autumn without much change of color. The flowers are borne in erect, cylindric racemes, which, branching at the base, form candelabra-like masses. The individual flowers are cream colored, pea-shaped with a much swollen calyx; the standard is strongly recurved and greenish, while the keel opens to display orange red anthers The fruit is a dry, thin pod and possesses no ornamental qualities. Unusually handsome this year is the variety Buergeri, which differs in having the leaflets hairy on the underside. Specimen trees of these and of the Chinese species may be seen in blossom on the right of Bussey Hill Road, facing the Lilacs. Maackia chinensis is a comparatively new species native of central China from whence it was introduced into cultivation by seeds collected by Wilson in 1907. In size, habit of growth and general appearance it closely resembles the better-known M. amurensis, but it has narrower and more numerous leaflets and a larger, more branched paniculate head of flowers. The individual flower is also whiter and more conspicuous. The only other species growing in the Arboretum is M. Fauriei, which is native of southern Korea. Maackia is an oriental genus, consisting of six known species which occur in Japan, Korea, Liukiu Islands and China, and is closely related to Cladrastis of which the Yellow-wood (C. tinctoria) is the best known member. In Maackia the buds are prominent in axils of each leaf, whereas in Cladrastis the bud is hidden within the sheathing base of the petiole. There are other differences but this is a rough and ready means of distinguishing the two genera. The different species are strikingly handsome when the leaves begin to unfold on account of the dense, silvery gray pubescence clothing them. The bark is smooth and the heart-wood of the tree is ebony-like and in the Orient is used for making small ornaments. Sophora japonica was one of the first trees of the Orient to be introduced into cultivation, having been sent to France so long ago as 1747. It is much cultivated in the Far East, being usually associated with Buddhist temples and other religious sanctuaries, but its real home is northern China. It is well known in gardens and valuable on account of its late-flowering qualities. Moreover, it seems to withstand city conditions better than the average tree as specimens in the Public Garden, Boston, Massachusetts, well demonstrate. The leaves are pinnate, dark green above, gray on the underside, and the bark is deeply fissured and corrugated. Old trees have much the appearance of the White Ash. The flowers, which appear in early August, are cream-colored and borne in large, erect, much-branched panicles at the end of every shoot and are followed by slender, jointed pods which, if crushed, are soapy to the touch. In the Orient trees 80 feet tall, with a trunk 12 feet in girth and an abundance of gnarled, wide-spreading roots are frequently to be seen. There are several horticultural varieties, the most distinct being that with pendent, crowded branches (pendula). Grafted high as a standard this makes a picturesque tree. Koelreuteria paniculata is one of the handsomest flowering trees hardy in New England and, except the Laburnum, the only tree with yellow blossoms that can be grown in the Arboretum. It is a flat-topped tree, seldom 40 feet high but with a crown more than this in diameter, and dark green, pinnate leaves with incised leaflets. The flowers are borne in enormous compound, paniculate masses at the end of every shoot. They are similar in shape to those of the Horsechestnut, but are clear yellow in color with prominent orange-red markings at the base of the petals. The fruit is top-shaped and bladder-like; at first white it ultimately changes to pink and brown. Native of northern China, this tree was brought into cultivation more than a century and a half ago but is by no means as widely grown as its merits deserve. Like Sophora japonica it thrives in town gardens and parks better than a majority of trees and on this account is doubly valuable. It is easily raised from seed and there is no reason why it should not be readily obtainable The trees on the right of Meadow Road are now laden with conspicuous, rich yellow blossoms. Oxydendrum arboreum, the Sorrel-tree or Sourwood, is one of the few tree members of the great family to which belong the Rhododendrons, Kalmias, Ericas, Vacciniums and other familiar plants. Native of the southeastern United States, it is a tree from 30 to 50 feet tall with a straight trunk clothed with dark gray, furrowed bark. The pointed leaves are oblong-lance-shaped, finely serrated along the margins, bright green on both surfaces and have a pleasant acidulous taste, from which character the tree derives its generic name. The urn-shaped flowers, borne in loose, spreading panicles at the end of every shoot, commence to open towards the end of July. As the corollas wither, dry, white fruits simulating the flowers in appearance speedily form and remain attractive late into the fall. Among native trees none assume more brilliant autumn tints of orange and crimson, and from the time the flower buds appear in mid-July until the leaves fall in late October the Sourwood is decidedly ornamental. A group of these trees just bursting into blossom may be seen among the Kalmias, bordering Hemlock Hill Road. Sciadopitys verticillata, the Japanese Umbrella Pine, is among the most notable Conifers that can be grown in the climate of Massachusetts. It is of dense, pyramidal habit with ascending-spreading branches. The leaves are borne in clusters around the stem, one tier above another, suggesting a parasol, hence its common name. They unfold bright green but soon change to black-green and remain so throughout the winter. The strap-shaped leaves, each from 3 to 4 inches long, are thick and leathery in texture with a white line on the under side. It likes a cool situation and good soil and would appear to thrive better in New England than in the British Isles. There are several fine specimens in the Juniper Dell but larger ones may be seen here and there in Massachusetts, notably in Newburyport. By the old regime in Japan, this was one of the seven famous trees, the illegitimate felling of which was a capital offence. The wood is white, fragrant, very durable in water, and is much used in Japan for making bathtubs and small boats. Like certain other trees it does not grow old gracefully, and in the adult tree with its narrow, often spear-shaped, crown it is hard to recognize the stately ornamental plant we know in gardens. A monotype, it is confined mainly to the mountains of central Japan, being very abundant on Koyasan, a mountain not far distant from the ancient capital of Nara. The Umbrella Pine is easily raised from seeds but grows slowly. No other form of propagation is known, but on account of its great hardiness and distinct appearance nurserymen ought to raise it in quantity. It was one of the plants introduced into America by Dr. G. R. Hall in 1862. Sphaeralcea remota is a relative of the Hollyhock and Hibiscus and a very rare American plant, being known only from Altorf Island in the Kankakee River, Illinois. It is suffruticose in habit and the stems die down to the ground each year. The leaves are similar to those of a Hollyhock in shape but thinner in texture with more pointed lobes. The flowers are short-stalked and freely produced from the axils of every leaf. They are lavender-pink in color, somewhat saucer-shaped, with four or five petals. This plant is now in blossom on Centre Street Path and on account of its mid-season flowering qualities has a decided use in gardens. E. H. W. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until October."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 15","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23885","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270bb6e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II OCTOBER 15, 1928 NO. 17 Now is a good time to visit the Arboretum; the foliage on tree and bush and vine is assuming brilliant autumn tints and fruits of all colors hang from the branches. The Viburnums, Spindle-trees and Crabapples in particular, are laden with a wealth of brightly colored fruits. Everywhere at this season of the year tinted autumn foliage is the feature of the landscape but in the Arboretum, where every northern land has been laid under contribution, the range of color is greater than that of America's woodlands. The Viburnum tribe is widely distributed throughout the northern hemisphere. More than 120 species are recognized, of which 15 are native of eastern North America. As a group Viburnums are of great horticultural value, some of the members ranking among the most useful of garden shrubs. A great many are ornamental not only in flower but also in fruit which varies in color from yellow through varying shades of red and crimson to rich blue and black. No species native of this country other than V. trilobum, better known as V. americanum, and V. pauciflorum, which belong to the Opulus section, has red fruit. Indeed, all the red-fruited species outside of the Opulus group are native of the Orient. Two or three valuable species are confined to Japan and Korea but central and western China, since the dawn of this century, has given us a dozen Viburnums with red-colored fruits. These have peculiar interest to all who value shrubs for their brightly colored autumn fruits and, moreover, almost without exception they have handsome autumn tinted foliage. Altogether this group deserves far greater attention from nurserymen, landscape architects and garden lovers than at present it enjoys. Viburnum theiferum is not only a very distinct shrub but in fruit it is probably the handsomest of all the Chinese species. It is a plant of tall growth with stout, erect stems and horizontally disposed branches. The leaves are rather thick and fleshy, smooth on both surfaces, ovate-lanceolate to oblong-ovate, shortly stalked and slightly hanging. The fruit is ovoid, remarkably large, and is produced in quantities in hanging, flattened clusters. In the typical form the fruit is scarlet, in another it is orange-red, a color unique in the whole family. On Mt. Omei, a sacred mountain in western China, the Buddhist monks collect the leaves and make an infusion known as Sweet Tea which they sell to pilgrims at much profit. The plant owes its specific name to this use but in gardens it will be valued for its brilliantly colored fruits produced in royal profusion and lasting from mid-September until the end of October. A fine specimen may be seen on Bussey Hill. Viburnum lobophyllum is a bush some 6 to 8 feet tall with stout, ascending stems and broad ovate to roundish, pointed leaves, almost, if not quite, glabrous at maturity, coarsely toothed along the margin and with veins deeply impressed. The ripe fruit is bright scarlet, borne many together in flattened round, 3 to 4 inch broad clusters. The young shoots are clothed with a waxy bloom and the winter buds are hairy and stout. The fruit is larger than that of any other globose-fruited Viburnum and hang in clusters which weigh down the branches. Although the leaves fall with little or no change in color the plant throughout the latter half of September until mid-October is a striking object. It is a native of central China from whence it was introduced by Wilson in 1907 through seeds sent to the Arboretum. Very similar is V. betulifolium, also from central China, which, however, has smaller leaves and fruits and glabrous winter buds. A third related species is V. hupehense, a rounded shrub with ascending-spreading stems 5 to 8 feet tall. The oblong-ovate to ovate or obovate leaves are hairy on both surfaces and in the autumn assume a dull blackish purple color. The fruit is globose, about the size of a small pea, vivid scarlet, borne abundantly in short-stalked, flattened clusters each from 2 to 3 inches in diameter. A Japanese species also found in Korea is V. erosum, a twiggy bush of compact habit which seldom exceeds 5 feet in height. The leaves, ovate-lanceolate and shortly stalked, are rough to the touch and the fruit is small, globose and bright red. Neither this nor the closely related V. ichangense is of particular garden merit. Viburnum Wrightii. Since quite early in September this has been one of the most strikingly beautiful fruiting shrubs in the Arboretum and will remain so until severe frosts set in. It is a native of Japan and although introduced into cultivation more than a quarter of a century ago is rarely seen in gardens. Its moderately stout stems are ascending and spreading forming a loose, roundish bush some 5 feet tall and from 6 to 8 feet through. The leaves are shortly stalked, broadly ovate, often roundish, and assume dark wine-purple tints before they fall. The fruit is globose, lustrous scarlet, densely crowded in short-stalked flattened corymbs each from 3 to 5 inches in diameter. So heavy is the fruit and so abundantly produced that it weighs the branches down to the ground. This Japanese species is also remarkable for the length of time it retains its fruit and foliage in good condition. Viburnum dilatatum is a sturdy shrub with ascending-spreading branches forming a compact, more or less flat-topped bush from 6 to 9 feet tall and more in width. The branchlets are stout and each and every one terminates in a 4 to 5 inch broad, flattened cluster of ovoid brilliant red fruits, lustrous and sparkling in the sunshine. The fruits are small, abundantly produced and crown the whole bush in vivid color. The leaves are hairy, coarsely toothed more or less ovate, and assume vinous purple tints before they fall in late October; on some bushes the foliage is a rich bronze. There is a variety (xanthocarpum) with fruits exactly the color of old ivory and, if not so striking a subject as the type, is interesting as being the only yellow-fruited variety of Viburnum known outside the Opulus group. This and the others mentioned may be seen in fruit in the Viburnum collection just on the left entering from Centre Street Gate, almost facing the junction of Bussey Hill and Valley roads. Malus toringoides. All the Crabapples are ornamental; some of them are especially valued for their flowers, some for their fruit and some for both qualities. For fruit alone Malus toringoides is probably the handsomest of the whole tribe, even as it is one of the most distinct. The fruits are waxen in appearance, rosy red for the most part but yellowish on the side away from the light. They are pear-shaped, each about five-eighths of an inch long and half an inch broad and produced in nearly sessile clusters, each fruit pendent on a slender stalk. It is a tree possessed of much character, being Thorn-like in habit with intricately placed branches which when laden with fruit hang downward, the whole forming a broad, irregular, more or less ovoid mass. The leaves are sharp-pointed, deeply incised and not at all unlike those of the European Hawthorn. The flowers are pure white and less attractive than those of many other species but from mid-September until late October when laden with myriad fruits no other Crabapple is more attractive. It is a native of the Chino-Thibetan borderland from whence it was introduced by seeds collected by Wilson in 1904. Some admirers have dubbed it Wilson's Crabapple and the discoverer is well pleased with the compliment. In a wild state this is a small tree of irregular habit, seldom exceeding 15 feet in height and breadth, but under cultivation it promises to exceed these dimensions. A fine specimen may be seen on Bussey Hill and another in the Crabapple collection at the foot of Peters Hill. To those fond of a beautiful fruiting tree the sight of either one of these plants is well worth a journey to the Arboretum. It is a good species and unlike most of the family comes true from seed. Berberis amurensis. The Barberries in general are bearing little fruit this season, due probably to heavy rains when they were in blossom. The Amur Barberry, however, is as full as ever. Indeed, this most handsome species appears to be a never failing cropper. Related to the common Barberry (B. vulgaris), this plant is abundant in the colder parts of northeastern Asia, and it is represented in Japan by its variety japonica, often called B. Regeliana, which differs chiefly in its broader, more densely serrulate leaves and smaller flower clusters. The Amur Barberry is an upstanding bush 8 to 12 feet tall and more in diameter, dome-shaped and dense. The fruits are racemose, ellipsoid, bright red covered with a slight glaucous bloom. It is one of the hardiest and handsomest of the whole Barberry clan. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 15","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23884","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270b76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. II NOVEMBER 15, 1928 NO. 18 Pinus is the largest genus of coniferous trees and the one with which people of the northern hemisphere are most familiar. The long, slender, needle-like, gray or dark green leaves arranged in bundles of two or more, according to species, and the woody, usually long persistent cones are characters which distinguish them from all other trees. Their appearance is so distinct that the least observant has no difficulty in recognizing a Pine tree. The genus is essentially northern. In this country it is distributed from the Arctic Circle south to the West Indies and Guatemala. In the Old World species of Pine are known from the Arctic Circle south to the Canary Islands, northern Africa, Himalayas, Burmah, and the Philippine Islands and one species crosses the Equator to Sumatra. In all some 80 species are known, the greatest number being native of western North America including Mexico. Pine trees grow from sea-level to high up on the mountains. They are social trees and form more or less pure woods or forests of vast extent. Often, however, they are associated with other Conifers and broad-leaved trees. The genus contains some of the most important timber trees of the world and in the temperate regions wherever trees are planted either for ornamental or for forestry purposes members of the Pine tribe are in request. In South Africa, in Australia, and in New Zealand, where no species of Pine is indigenous, millions have been planted. Of the species employed the Californian P. radiata is the most useful; indeed, it promises to be the greatest tree gift the north has contributed to the southern hemisphere. In the Arboretum some 30 species and 38 varieties of Pinus are growing and about half this number of species may be said to thrive. They are all to be found in the Pinetum, which is well worth a visit at any season of the year but especially during the autumn and winter months. Of the 30 species 7 are natives of northeastern North America, 9 of western North America, 8 of the Far East, 1 of the Himalayas, and 5 of Europe. The varieties are mostly sports which exhibit different types of growth. Some of these have been found in a wild state but the majority have appeared in gardens where Pine trees have been raised from seeds over a long period. These curious forms must be perpetuated by grafting, but for the species the best and, indeed, the only practical way of raising Pine trees is from seeds. Eastern North American Species. Of these the best and most beautiful is the White Pine (P. strobus), one of the commonest and most valuable of native trees. No lengthy description is necessary since it is known to all who love American trees. Its leaves are gray with silvery lines, slender, and arranged in bundles of five. The branches spread more or less horizontally to form a pyramidal crown, the leaves hanging somewhat give the tree a graceful outline. For planting as specimens, as forest trees or as shelter belts the White Pine is for eastern North America the most valuable Pine tree, the threat of blister rust notwithstanding. It is the most valuable timber tree of northeastern North America and has played a conspicuous part in the material development of the country. The vast forests which formerly existed have been felled and the great trees, once the pride of the northern forests, no longer exist. However, it is still plentiful, regenerates readily in open country, and the sylvan landscapes of New England owe much of their peculiar charm to the wide spreading, gray-green crowns of this tree. There are several varieties of the White Pine in cultivation, the most useful being nana and fastigiata. The dwarf form (nana) makes a broad, more or less round-topped bush of dense habit, seldom more than 6 feet tall but twice that in diameter. Distinct and decidedly ornamental is the variety fastigiata, which has ascending stems forming a columnar crown, the loose arrangement of its foliage taking away the stiffness so usual in upright-growing trees. Another excellent species is P. resinosa, the Red or Norway Pine, so named for a small village in Maine where once this tree was abundant. This is a handsome tree sometimes 80 feet tall with a straight trunk clothed with light, reddish brown, rather thick bark. The leaves, two in a sheath, are long but the branching of the tree is light and open. For ornamental purposes in eastern North America it is comparable with, but superior to the Austrian Pine. The Jack Pine (P. Banksiana) and the Jersey Pine (P. virginiana) can be recommended for planting on rocky waste lands. They are similar in habit of growth but the cones are quite distinct. In the Jack Pine it is oblong, points toward the apex of the branch and remains closed for many years. In the Jersey Pine the cone scales open at maturity. In the Arboretum this species has naturalized itself. The Pitch Pine (P. rigida) is an unlovely tree, readily recognized by the presence of green sprouts on the trunk. Except that it will grow where lashed by the sea, it has little garden value. The other two species, P. pungens, the Hickory Pine of the Appalachian Mountains, and P. echinata, the Short-leaved Pine, barely exist in the Arboretum. Western North American Species. The best of these is P. monticola, the White Pine of the Rocky Mountains. In many respects this resembles P. strobus but has thicker leaves which give the crown a heavier appearance. It grows more slowly than its eastern relative, which is the more ornamental species. P. ponderosa, the Yellow or Bull Pine, grows quite well in the Arboretum, its long, dark green, thick foliage giving it, as its specific name indicates, a ponderous appearance. There is a form with hanging branches known as pendula, which has a distinct place in the garden. The variety Jeffreyi is one of the few Pacific coast Pines that thrive here. The Sugar Pine (P. Lambertiana) grows very slowly and gives no promise of ever becoming a useful ornamental tree. The Limber Pine (P. flexilis), although of slow growth, is perfectly hardy and happy in the Arboretum. Its relatively long, plume-like branches give it a characteristic appearance. The related P. aristata and P. Balfouriana, the Foxtail Pines, do poorly. Far Eastern Species. The Japanese White Pine (P. parviflora) and the Korean Nut Pine (P. koraiensis) do well in the Arboretum. In Japan the first named is often grafted on P. Thunbergii, the result being a stunted, short-needled plant of value only for Japanese gardens. Raised from seeds, it is a free growing tree with wide-spreading, rather rigid and stiff branches. The Korean Nut Pine for eastern North America is better than the Swiss Pine (P. cembra) which it strongly resembles. It grows faster and its dark and thick needles give it a very handsome appearance. This is the best of the Oriental Pines from the point of view of its timber. The Red Pine of Japan (P. densiflora) is also quite at home in eastern North America. It has short grey-green needles and reddish brown bark. The Black Pine (P. Thunbergii) with thick black-green leaves and large pure white winter buds is excellent for planting by the sea. Its branches are apt to grow crookedly and the tree assumes the appearance one is familiar with in Japanese paintings and embroideries. The White Pine of China (P. Armandi) and the Bhotan Pine (P. excelsa) suffer from boring insects and neither promise to make trees in the Arboretum. European Species. Of these, three with numerous varieties do very well in Massachusetts. The Austrian Pine (P. nigra) and its several varieties grow rapidly and with their dense, rather heavy, black-green foliage are decidedly ornamental. They withstand spray and strong gales well and for seashore gardens and windbreaks this species and its forms have great value. The Mountain Pine of central Europe (P. mugo) is one of the most useful dwarf Pines for garden purposes that can be grown in eastern North America. Its dark foliage and compact habit make it most adaptable for small gardens and for foundation plantings. Of the several varieties, compacta, mughus and pumilio are the best known. All are well worthwhile. The Macedonian Pine (P. peuce) grows slowly and does not promise to be of much ornamental value. The Scots Pine (P. sylvestris), perhaps the most useful of all the European species, is not a success in eastern North America; it grows rapidly when young but after about twenty years becomes stunted and subject to insect attacks and fungous diseases. No one Pine has been more abundantly planted in this part of the world, and it is more than probable that many will rue the day they set it out in expectation of its value as a timber producing tree. E. H. W. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until April of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 3 Volume II","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":78,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23870","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed260a76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME II Synonyms are in italics; illustrations in black face type Abies brachyphylla, 49 - cephalonica, 50 - cilicica, 50 - concolor, 49 - - Lowiana, 49 - Fargesii, 50 - homolepis, 49 - - umbellata, 50 - Nordmanniana, 50 recurvata, 50 Acer rubrum, 5 American Plums, 17 Amur Barberry, 68 Andromeda ,floribunda, 12 Apple Rose, 46 Arborvitae, 21 Asiatic Cherries, 18 - Crabapples, 17, 18 - Quinces, 17 Autumn Transplanting, 10 Azalea Louisa Hunnewell, 38 - Vaseyi, 35, 36 - viscosa, 61 Azaleas, 10, 18, 21, 22, 34, 36, 37, 38 Balsam Poplar, 18 Barberries, 45, 60, 68 Beautybush, 48 Bechtel's Crab, 39, 40 Benzoin aestivale, 1, 5 Berberis aggregata, 60 - - Prattii, 60 - amurensis, 68 - polyantha, 60 - Regeliana, 68 - vulgaris, 68 -- japonica, 68 Boursault Rose, 46 Brooms, 34 Buddleia alternifolia, 58 - Davidii, 58 Bunchberries, 28 Bush Honeysuckles, 45 Bussey Hill, 18, 34, 48 Buttonbush, 60 Carolina Hemlock, 33 Catalpa speciosa, 54 Caucasian Fir, 50 Cedars of Lebanon, 21 Cedrela sinensis, 18 Centre Street Path, 46 Cephalanthus occidentalis, 60 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 5 Cercis canadensis, 20 - chinensis, 20 Cherries, 17 Canadian Plum, 17 Candytufts, 9 Chinese Almond, 15, 16, 17 - Cedar, 18 - Dogwood, 48, 52 - Golden Larch, 34 - Redbud, 20 - Silver Firs, 50 Cicilian Fir, 50 Cinquefoil, 45 Cladrastris, 62 - tinctoria, 62 Clematis, 5 Clethra barbinervis, 61 Climbing Hydrangea, 58 Colutea arborescens, 46 Colorado White Fir, 49 Common Apple, 40 - Hemlock, 33 - Lilac, 29, 30, 32, 37 Conifers, 9, 10, 20, 33, 34, 49 Cornelian Cherry, 1, 6, 8, 10, 60 Cornels, 60 Cornus amomum, 60 - canadensis, 28 - capitata, 26 - dubia, 60 - florida, 25, 27, 48 - - pendula, 26 - - pluribracteata, 26 - - rubra, 26 - - xanthocarpa, 26 - kousa, 26 46 - - chinensis, 26, 48, 52 - mas, 1, 6, 8, 60 - Nuttallii, 26 - officinalis, 6, 8 - paucinervis, 60 - suecica, 28 Corylopsis, 12 - Gotoana, 12, 20 - pauciflora, 12, 20 - spicata, 12, 20 Cotoneaster salicifolia floccosa, 52 Cotoneasters, 52 Crabapples, 21, 24, 40, 65, 68 Cytisus, 48 Daphne Mezereum, 5 David's Peach, 5 Deutzia Vilmorinae, 46 - Wilsonii, 46 Deutzias, 20, 45, 46, 48 Diervilla Maximowiczii, 36 Diervillas, 36, 37, 45 Dirca palustris, 1, 5 Dogwood, 34, 36, 46 Double-flowered Spring Cherry, 16 Ehretia thyrsiflora, 54 Elaeagnus angustifolia, 52 - longipes, 60 Elm Leaf Prunus, 16 Enkianthus, 37, 38 - campanulatus, 37 - - albiflorus, 37 - - Palibinii, 37 - cernuus, 38 -- - rubens, 38 - japonicus, 37 - perulatus, 37 - subsessilis, 38 Erica carnea, 9 - darleyensis, 9 European Hawthorn, 68 Fir, Caucasian, 50 - Cicilian, 50 - Colorado White, 49 - Greek, 50 - Nikko, 49 - Nordmann, 50 Flame Azalea, 48, 56 Flowering Currants, 17 - Dogwood, 25, 26, 27, 28 Forest Hills Gate, The, 13, 17 Forsythia europaea, 4 - Giraldiana, 2 - intermedia, 2, 4 - - densiflora, 4 2014 2014 primulina, 4 - - spectabilis, 3, 4 - - vitellina, 4 - japonica, 4 - - saxatilis, 4 - ovata, 2 - suspensa, 2, 4 -- atrocaulis, 4 - - Fortunei, 2 2014 2014 koreana, 4 2014 2014 pubescens, 2 - viridissima, 4 Forsythias, 1, 2, 10, 13, 17 Fothergilla Gardenii, 28 - major, 28 - monticola, 28 Fothergillas, 28 Goldenbells, 1, 4 Great Laurel, 57 Greek Fir, 50 Hawthorn, European, 68 Hawthorns, 18 Heather, 9 Hemlock, Carolina, 33 Hemlocks, 33 Honeysuckles, 5, 37, 61 Hydrangea petiolaris, 58 - Rosthornii, 52 - xanthoneura, 52 - - setchuenensis, 52 -- Wilsonii, 52 Iberis sempervirens, 9 - Tenoreana, 9 Indigofera amblyantha, 48 - Kirilowii, 46 Japanese Cherry Albo-rosea, 21, 34 - - Gioiko, 22 -- Gozanomanioi, 22 Grandiflora, 22 -- Homogena, 21 -- Horinji, 21 - - Jugatsu-zakura, 16 - - Kirigaya, 21 - - Masuyama, 21 - - Sekiyama, 21, 34 - - Shogetsu, 21 - - Sirotae, 21 - - Yaye-higan, 16 - Cherries, 10, 13, 14, 17, 18, 21, 22, 34 - Spring Cherry, 10 - Wistaria, 40 Junipers, 21, 34 Kerria japonica, 36 - - pleniflora, 36 Kalmias, 12, 62, 64 Katsura, 5 Koelreuteria paniculata, 62 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 48 Laburnum, 62 Leatherwood, 1, 5 Leptodermus oblonga, 60 Lilacs, 1, 10, 17, 29, 30, 32 - French, 32 -- Christophe Colomb, 32 -- Congo, 32 - - Duc de Massa, 32 - - Edith Cavell, 32 - - Edmond Boissier, 32 - - Georges Bellair, 32 -- Leon Gambetta, 32 -- Lucie Baltet, 32 -- Macrostachya, 32 -- Madame Casimir Perier, 32 -- Madame Florent Stepman, 32 - - Madame F. Morel, 32 - - Marceau, 32 - - Monge, 32 -- Mont Blanc, 32 - - Olivier de Serres, 32 -- Paul Thirion, 32 -- Princess Alexandria, 32 -- Princess Clementine, 32 -- Reaumur, 32 - - Rene Jarry-Desloges, 32 - - Thunberg, 32 - - Turenne, 32 - - Vestale, 31, 32 - - Violetta, 32 Lonicera Altmannii, 45 - de8exicalyx, 45 - fragrantissima, 45 - Korolkowii, 45 - Maackii podocarpa, 45 - praeflorens, 5 - Standishii, 5 - thibetica, 45 Maackia amurensis, 61 - - Buergeri, 61 - chinensis, 61 - Fauriei, 61 Magnolia glauca, 54 - stellata, 5 - virginiana, 54 - Watsonii, 46 Magnolias, 10 Mahonia Aquifolum, 10 - repens, 9 Malus baccata, 20, 23 - - mandshurica, 20 - coronaria, 40 - ioensis, 40 - - plena, 39, 40 - micromalus, 17 - spectabilis, 24 - theifera, 24 - toringoides, 67, 68 Maple, Red, 5 Mezereon, 5 Mitchella repens, 60 Mollis Azaleas, 38 Nikko Fir, 49 Ninebarks, 45 Nordmann Fir, 50 Oaks, 21 October-flowering Cherry, 16 Oriental Dogwoods, 28 - Pears, 18 - Viburnums, 38 - Witch-Hazels, 8, 10 Oxydendrum arboreum, 62 Pachistima Canbyi, 9 Partridge-berry, 60 Pentstemon, 36 Pepper-bushes, 61 Periwinkle, 9 Persian Lilacs, 37 Peters Hill, 18 Phellodendron, 6 Philadelphus Albatre, 51 - Avalanche, 50 - Boule d'argent, 50 - Candelabre, 50 - coronarius, 50 - Erectus, 50 - Lemoinei, 50 - microphyllus, 50 - Mont Blanc, 50 - Monteau d'hermine, 50 Physocarpus amurensis, 45 - bracteatus, 45 Pieris floribunda, 10, 11 - formosa, 12 - japonica, 12 - taiwanensis, 12 Pine, Austrian, 72 - Bhotan, 72 - Black, 72 - Bull, 70 - Chinese White, 70 - Fox-tail, 72 - Hickory, 70 - Jack, 70 - Japanese Red, 72 -- White, 72 - Jersey, 70 - Korean Nut, 72 - Limber, 72 - Macedonian, 72 - Mountain, 72 - Norway, 70 - Pitch, 70 - Red, 70 - Scots, 72 - Short-leaved, 70 - Sugar, 72 - Swiss, 72 - White, 70 - Yellow, 70 Pinus, 69 - aristata, 72 - Armandi, 72 - Balfouriana, 72 - Banksiana, 70 - cembra, 72 - densiflora, 72 - echinata, 70 - excelsa, 72 - flexilis, 72 - koraiensis, 72 - Lambertiana, 72 - monticola, 70 - mugo, 72 2014 2014 compacta, 72 2014 2014 mughus, 72 - - pumilio, 72 - nigra, 72 - parviflora, 72 - peuce, 72 - ponderosa, 70 --Jeffreyi, 72 --pendula, 72 - pungens, 70 - radiata, 69 - resinosa, 70 - rigida, 70 - strobus, 70 - - fastigiata, 71 --nana, 70 - sylvestris, 72 - Thunbergii, 72 - virginiana, 70 Potentilla fruticosa, 45 --dahurica, 45 - - Veitchii, 45 Prinsepia sinensis, 17, 20 Privet, 30, 32, 54 Prunus avium, 17 - campanulata, 14 - Cerasus, 17 - Davidiana, 5 - glandulosa, 16 - incisa, 16 - japonica, 16 2014 2014 Nakaii, 17 - serrulata spontanea, 17 - subhirtella, 10, 14, 16 - - ascendens, 16 - - autumnalis, 16 - - pendula, 16 - tomentosa, 16 - triloba, 15, 16 - -multiplex, 16 - - simplex, 16 - yedoensis, 14 Pseudolarix amabilis, 34 Pterostyrax hispida, 46 Pyrus Calleryana, 18, 19 - serotina, 18 - serrulata, 18 - ussuriensis, 18 - - ovoidea, 17 Rambler Rose, 36 Red Dogwood, 26 - Maple, 5 Rhododendron arborescens, 56 - arboreum, 41 - brachycarpum, 42 - calendulaceum, 48, 56 - carolinianum, 42 - catawbiense, 41 - caucasicum, 41 - ciliatum, 6 - dauricum, 5, 6 album, 6 - - ciliatum, 6 - - mucronulatum, 5, 6, 7, 18 - - sempervirens, 6 - japonicum, 38 - maximum, 41, 57 - - album, 57 - - purpureum, 57 - - superbum, 57 - Metternichii, 42 - molle, 38 - obtusum Kaempferi, 34 - ponticum, 41, 42 - praecox, 6 Schlippenbachii, 10, 18, 22 - yedoense poukhanense, 18, 22 Rhododendrons, 9, 37, 57, 62 - Hybrid Album Elegans, 42 - - Album Grandiflorum, 42 2014 2014 Atrosanguineum, 42 - - Boule de Neige, 42 - - Caractacus, 42 -- Cassiope, 42 - - Catawbiense Album, 42 --Charles Dickens, 42 - - Coriaceum, 42 - - Everestianum, 42 2014 2014 Glennyanum, 42, 43 - - Henrietta Sargent, 42 --H. W. Sargent, 42 -- Lady Armstrong, 42 -- Mrs. Charles Sargent, 42 - - Mrs. Harry Ingersoll, 42 - - Mont Blanc, 42 -- Purpureum grandiflorum, 42 - - Roseum elegans, 42 Ribes aureum, 17 Rosa alba, 46 - bella, 46 - centifolia, 46 - damascena, 46 - Ecae, 46 - eglanteria, 46 - Fedtschenkoana, 46 - Harisonii, 46 - Hugonis, 46 - Lheritierana, 46 - Moyesii, 48 - multiflora, 46 -- cathayensis, 46 - omeiensis, 46 - rubrifolia, 46 - rugosa alba, 46 - - rosea, 46 - Serafinii, 46 - villosa duplex, 46 - virginiana, 46 Rose Bay, 57 Rose Rugosa Hybrid, 46 - - - Belle Poitevine, 46 --- Blanche Double de Coubert, 46 - - - F. J. Grootendorst, 46 - - - Max Graf, 46 - - - Roserie de L'Hay, 46 - -- Sir Thomas Lipton, 46 Rosebud Cherry, 16 Rouen Lilac, 37 Russian Olive, 52 Sargent Cherries, 14 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 58, 59 - integrifolium, 60 Sciadopitys verticillata, 63 Scotch Roses, 46 Seashore Rose, 46 Shrub Garden, 17, 45 Silver Firs, 10, 49, 50 Sophora japonica, 62 - - pendula, 62 - viciifolia, 48 Sorrel-tree, 62 Sourwood, 62, 64 Sphaeralcea remota, 64 Spicebush, 1, 5 Spiraea arguta, 17 - gemmata, 46 - Henryi, 45, 46 - trichocarpa, 45, 46 - Veitchii, 55, 56 Spiraeas, 17, 20, 45, 46, 48, 56, 61 Spring Cherry, 14 - Heath, 9 Spruces, 10, 33 Staphylea holocarpa, 20 Stewartia koreana, 53 - malacodendron, 54 - monadelpha, 53 - pentagyna, 54 2014 2014 grandiflora, 54 - pseudocamellia, 53 - serrata, 53 - sinensis, 53 - virginica, 54 Styrax japonica, 44, 46 - obassia, 44 Sweetbay, 54 Sweetbriar, 46 Syringa vulgaris, 29 - Wolfii, 44 Tsuga caroliniana, 33 Taxus cuspidata, 34 Tokyo Cherry, 14 Torch Azalea, 34 Umbrella Pine, 63, 64 Viburnum americanum, 65 - betulifolium, 66 - bracteatum, 46 - cassinoides, 47, 48 - dilatatum, 50, 66 - - xanthocarpum, 52, 68 - erosum, 66 - hupehense, 66 - ichangense, 66 - lobophyllum, 66 - pauciflorum, 65 - plicatum, 38 - theiferum, 65 - tomentosum, 38 - - sterile, 38 - trilobum, 65 - Wrightii, 66 Vinca minor, 9 White Pines, 5, 37 Wild Roses, 46 Wilson's Crabapple, 68 Winter Effects, 9 Wistaria floribunda rosea, 40 Wistarias, 37 Witch-Hazels, 12, 28 Xanthorrhiza apiifolia, 5 Yellow-root, 5 Yellow-wood, 62 Yews, 9, 10, 33, 34 Yoshino Cherry, 14"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Publications of the Arnold Arboretum of Harvard University","article_sequence":20,"start_page":79,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23886","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9d8eed270816d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"PUBLICATIONS OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM OF HARVARD UNIVERSITY JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. THE BRADLEY BIBLIOGRAPHY. A guide to the literature of woody plants, including books and articles in the proceedings of learned societies and in scientific and popular journals, published in all languages to the end of the nineteenth century. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by Alfred Rehder. 4. 5 vols. Cambridge, 1911-1918. Unbound, Price $35.00 THE GENUS PINUS. By George Russell Shaw. f. 96 pp. 39 pl. Cambridge, 1914. Price $10.00 CATALOGUE OF THE LIBRARY OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. Compiled under the direction of Charles Sprague Sargent by Ethelyn Maria Tucker. f. 2 vols. Cambridge, 1914-1917. Volume I. Serial publications. - Authors and titles. Price $5.00 Volume II. Subject Catalogue. Unbound. Price $5.00 THE CHERRIES OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. 8. 68 pp. 8 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $5.00 THE CONIFERS AND TAXADS OF JAPAN. By Ernest Henry Wilson. 4. 91 pp. 50 pl. Cambridge, 1916. Price $7.50 A MONOGRAPH OF AZALEAS. Rhododendron subgenus Anthodendron. By Ernest Henry Wilson and Alfred Rehder. 8. 219 pp. Cambridge, 1921. Price $5.00 BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION, illustrated. Issued during Spring and Autumn, about 18 numbers per year, together with index and title-page. Contains topical notes on trees and shrubs in the Arboretum. Subscription $1.00 per year JOURNAL OF THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. A quarterly journal published by the Arnold Arboretum. Subscription $3.00 per year. Price of single copies $1.00. Back numbers on hand of Vols. VI. VII. VIII. GUIDE TO THE ARNOLD ARBORETUM. 8. 33 pp. 7 pl. 2 maps. Price 50 cents POSTCARD VIEWS OF THE ARBORETUM. 5 cents each; 50 cents for set of 12 views. NOVEMBER, 1928"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23492","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060a328.jpg","title":"1928-2","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1928,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Illustrations","article_sequence":0,"start_page":0,"end_page":0,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23848","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060a36a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"ILLUSTRATIONS Aesculus parviflora, 63 Amelanchier grandiflora, 11 Cotoneaster bullata floribunda, 67 Hydrangea paniculata praecox, 55 Kalmia latifolia, 47 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 43 Magnolia Soulangeana, 7 Malus theifera, 19 Philadelphus splendens, 51 Prunus serrulata Shogetsu, 23 Prunus subhirtella, 3 Rhododendron roseum, 27 Rhododendron Smirnowii, 39 Rosa spinosissima altaica, 35 Tripterygium Regelii, 59 Tsuga caroliniana, 71 Viburnum Carlesii, 15 Wistaria floribunda alba, 31"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 23","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23845","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15e8526.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I APRIL 23, 1927 NO. 1 Spring, which made a furtive effort in mid-March, is now here in a hurry. In fact, the temperature today (April 20) is more that of summer than of Spring. On March 8 the Chinese Witch-hazel (Hamamelis mollis) and the Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) were in flower; on the tenth the Japanese Witch-hazel (Hamamelis japonica) opened its blossoms; on the twelfth pretty Erica carnea was crowded with pink bells; on the fifteenth Ribes cereum was in open leaf and blossoms on the north China Peach (Prunus Davidiana) were showing color. There was every prospect of a very early season but the weather changed and Spring was deferred another month. Winter effects. The winter has seemed unusually long, snow fell the first week in December and lay on the ground until March. During December there were several heavy falls of snow but the other winter months were marked by only moderate snowfalls. No extremely low temperatures were recorded in the Arboretum and frost did not penetrate any great depth into the ground. So far as the soil itself fared it is many years since the ground was workable so early. Although long, the winter has been decidedly mild and the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum have suffered little or no damage. A few Carolina Hemlocks and the Japanese Black Pine (Pinus Thunbergii) got scorched. The Cedars of Lebanon on Bussey Hill, the Rhododendrons, Kalmias and other broad-leaved evergreens came through in splendid condition. The Azaleas, Crabapples, Cherries and other deciduous trees and shrubs give promise of plenteous blossom. There will, however, be no Lilac display this year. Owing to impoverished conditions it has been necessary to prune the Lilac bushes severely and liberally fertilize the soil. By this treatment and allowing them a year in which to recuperate there should be a fine display in 1928. For the public's sake it is a pity that the Lilacs had to be given a year's grace but there is a limit to the endurance of even the good natured Lilac. Prunus Davidiana. The forcing effects of the warm weather in early March threatened danger to early flowering plants but apparently no real harm was done. Both the white and pink forms of Prunus Davidiana opened their blossoms early in April only to be destroyed by frost. This tree is too precocious for these latitudes. It rarely happens that a Spring passes without its flowers being partially or wholly destroyed. Where the climate is less changeable it should be a valuable early flowering tree. In the Middle West as a stock on which to graft Peaches it is well appreciated but it ought to be grown widely as an ornamental. Apricots. For the climate of Massachusetts the Manchurian Apricot (Prunus mandshurica) is likely to prove a first-class Spring flowering tree. During the last week-end a tree on the right hand side of Meadow Road, on the edge of Robina group, has been a beautiful picture. About 20 feet tall, with a flattened, irregular crown spreading full 25 feet, every branch of the tree was studded with deep pink flower buds which as they opened became pale colored. We noticed that bees were particularly busy and on Sunday last the tree was alive with them. This Apricot is native of Korea and Manchuria, where it grows some 30 feet tall and has a short massive trunk covered with thick corky bark which shows red beneath the surface. It has been growing in the Arnold Arboretum since 1906 but this year has flowered much more profusely than ever before. At the moment the Siberian Apricot (Prunus sibirica) is a mass of white and, so too, is a Japanese form of the Common Apricot (P. armeniaca) known as mikado. These three Apricots are well worth the attention of tree-lovers and nurserymen. They are suited for planting on lawns and near houses; also they would be valuable for town gardens and small parks in the heart of cities. Forsythias. The bank of Forsythias by the Lilac collection is now strung with yellow bells and in a day or two will be a blaze of rich yellow. These Oriental shrubs are everywhere great favorites but it is regrettable that their care, especially the matter of pruning, is so little understood. As one sees them in gardens generally they are shorn of beauty through ignorant pruning. If people would only cut them immediately after their flowering is passed they would have graceful bushes hugging the ground instead of the broom-like masses one so frequently sees. It cannot be too often stated that all shrubs which flower on the past season's growth should be pruned immediately after flowering and thus be given a long season for making and ripening new flowering wood. All the Forsythias are good. The best is, undoubtedly, F. intermedia spectabilis, which has larger and richer yellow blossoms than the others. Massachusetts is about the northern limit of the Chinese Forsythias and their hybrids. The Korean species (F. ovata) with small pale yellow flowers is much the hardiest and although the flowers are smaller and the color not so deep it promises to be a valuable shrub for northern New England and even the valley of the St. Lawrence. It is native of the Diamond Mountains in north-central Korea and was introduced into the Arnold Arboretum by Wilson in 1917. As a screen for draping walls and large boulders the old F. suspensa with its long, whip-like branches is still the best. Japanese Cherries. By the time this bulletin reaches its readers the Japanese single-flowered Cherries will be at the height of their glory. The two round-topped shrub-like trees of the Spring Cherry (Prunus subhirtella) on the right within the Forest Hills Gate are bearing their usual luxuriant crop of blossoms which are deep pink in the bud becoming paler as they open and almost white when full blown. This splendid tree is not surpassed in beauty by any Spring flowering tree. Unfortunately, being a garden type of a larger much less free-blooming tree known as Prunus subhirtella ascendens, the Spring Cherry does not come true from seeds. It must be propagated by budding or grafting on seedlings of the parent stock. It can be rooted from cuttings but these seem difficult to establish and especially to transplant. The Rosebud Cherry (Prunus subhirtella pendula) is well-known although one rarely sees a real good specimen. This also should be grafted or budded on its wild parent (Prunus subhirtella ascendens). A small percentage will come true from seeds, so by sowing a large quantity of seeds, selecting and training, it should be possible to get large specimens of the Rosebud Cherry on its own roots. A small tree of the semi-double so-called Autumn-flowering Cherry (Prunus subhirtella autumnalis) is carrying a fine crop of blossoms on the right within the Forest Hills Gate. This is a precocious tree of small size perhaps best described as a bush with ascending, spreading, twiggy branches and semi-double pink blossoms produced either in October or in the Spring. Like all its family it is worth a place in every garden. The Mount Fuji Cherry (Prunus incisa) is again covered with pure white, yellow-anthered blossoms. As the petals fall the calyx becomes reddish and finally crimson adding beauty to the plant for several days. The Sargent Cherry (Prunus serrulata sachalinensis) is opening its rich pink fading to white blossoms and promises as fine a display as usual. This, the largest and hardiest of all the Japanese Cherries, ought to be planted as an avenue tree and as a specimen on lawns and in parks. Being surface-rooting Cherries are good for shallow soils and blossoming early they are splendid for city parks. The Tokyo Cherry (Prunus yedoensis) is also in bloom. Although less hardy than the Sargent Cherry this is a very rapid growing tree with a wide-spreading dome-shaped crown. It is this Tokyo Cherry that makes the display on the banks of the Potomac in Washington, D. C. We are almost on its northern limits here but from Long Island south it ought to be planted as an avenue tree or as a single specimen in great quantities. Its white flushed with pink flowers are borne in the utmost profusion although, as a matter of fact, this applies to all the Cherries of the Orient. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 27","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23846","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15e8927.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I APRIL 27, 1927 NO. 2 Asiatic Magnolias. With their large flowers opening before the leaves appear these are the most magnificent of early flowering shrubs and trees. The first of the group to expand its blossoms is the Star Magnolia (Magnolia stellata), a plant which came to America from Japan in 1862 but whose origin in a wild state is still undetermined. It is a much-branched bush or small tree producing in great quantity snow-white star-shape flowers the petals of which are loose and reflexed. The blossoms are delightfully fragrant filling the air with pleasant aromatic odor. With the exception of the Kobushi (M. kobus) it is the hardiest of the Magnolias but its blossoms opening early are apt to suffer from frost. This year the erratic weather in early April scorched a few blossoms but on the whole the plants outside the Administration Building have never been finer. Nearby three shapely bushes of the pink form (rosea) are now in full bloom. These are quite a good pink in the bud but when expanded the flowers are almost white. The most northern of the Asiatic Magnolias and the hardiest is M. kobus native of Japan and southern Korea. This is a large tree growing from 60 to 70 ft. tall with a broad pyramidal crown. The flowers are pure white, loose petalled, fragrant and abundantly produced. The white and purple Yulans have been favorites in Chinese gardens from the 7th century of the Christian Era and were among the earliest plants brought from the Orient into western gardens. The White Yulan (M. denudata more widely known as M. conspicua), is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. It is a tree of moderate size with large milk-white chalices aplenty. The Purple Yulan (M. liliflora or M. purpurea as it is commonly called) is much less hardy and so far we have failed to establish it in the Arboretum. More popular in American gardens than either of the Yulans is Magnolia Soulangeana, a hybrid between the two which originated in France in 1820. There are now many forms of the handsome Magnolia varying in color from nearly white through varying shades of pink to rich wine-red or crimson-purple. In front of the Administration Building several named varieties of this Magnolia are now opening abundant blossom. The White Yulan and the Soulange Magnolia do extraordinarily well in town gardens and city parks, where they are extremely valuable on account of the earliness of their flowering. In cities, like Hartford, Connecticut, and Rochester, New York, many magnificent specimens of these Magnolias may be seen. When one considers that the natural home of Magnolias is moist woods it is strange that they can withstand the vitiated atmosphere and arid conditions of cities. The wondrous beauty of these Asiatic Magnolias has caused them to be widely planted in America. The stock was drawn from Europe, principally Belgium and Holland, but since plant quarantine has come into effect this source of supply has been cut off and these Magnolias are scarcely obtainable at any price. It is to be hoped that American nurserymen will seriously set about the task of raising them in quantity. They may be propagated readily by layering and also by grafting. The strong growing Magnolia kobus, which ripens its seeds freely in this climate, would make an excellent stock; another that can be used is the Cucumber-tree (Magnolia acuminata) native of eastern North America. The Chinese Almond. One of the most delightful of Spring flowering shrubs is the Chinese Almond (Prunus triloba) of which three forms are growing just within the Forest Hills Gate. The oldest and best known has very double, pink, rose-like flowers, each about an inch across, borne freely along the whole length of the past season's shoot. More beautiful with deep pink, semi-double flowers with conspicuous yellow-anthered stamens is the form 7nultiplex, which was introduced into the Arboretum from near Pekin by Purdom in 1909. The plants were raised from seed and one of the originals may be seen a picture of loveliness at this moment among the Chinese shrubs on top of Bussey Hill. The simple-flowered form (simplex) has been growing here since 1883 when it was raised from seeds sent from Pekin by Dr. E. Bretschneider. The third and fourth generation of the original plants may be seen clothed with pure pink blossoms on the edge of the Shrub Garden by a small pond. The Chinese Almond is, as a rule, a short-lived plant but by the Parkman monument on the edge of Jamaica Pond there is growing a magnificent specimen in perfect health and 60 feet round. The double flowered forms benefit from hard pruning after the flowers have fallen. We have seen them grown to advantage espalier fashion against walls. After flowering the shoots are cut hard back to the old wood, new growth is quickly formed and this flowers abundantly the following year. This system may be recommended to those who garden in the colder parts of New England and in the St. Lawrence Valley. Prunus tomentosa. This broad, rounded Oriental shrub with multitude of thin, whip-like stems is now opening its white tinged with pink blossoms just within the Forest Hills Gate. It is a very hardy plant and has recently come into favor in the middle and western states for its fruit, which is scarlet, cherry-like and of pleasant subacid flavor. Like its relative it is not a long-lived plant but may be easily propagated by seeds. Wide-spread in the Orient it is found in quantity throughout southern Korea, Manchuria, northern and western China. A number of forms have been distinguished by botanists but the differences are technical and have no garden significance. Chinese Pears. The Chinese Pears on top of Bussey Hill and those on the left of Forest Hills Gate and in the collection at the foot of Peter's Hill are opening their blossoms. The first to bloom is Pyrus ussuriensis, native of northeastern continental Asia, where it grows to a very large size. In Korea trees 60 ft. tall with rounded crowns spreading 75 ft. and trunks 10 ft. in girth are not uncommon. In northeastern Asia it has been long cultivated as a fruit tree and some of the selected varieties produce quite good fruit. This is green, round to ovoid in shape, with firm gritty white flesh rich in sugary juice. On some trees the flowers are pink in the bud and suggest the familiar apple-blossom. The Chinese Sand Pear (Pyrus serotina) has a similarly hard juicy fruit but is russet-brown without and varies enormously in size. This tree is wild in the woods of central China and has been long cultivated in China from whence it passed to Korea and Japan. It grows from 50 to 60 ft. tall, has a more or less pyramidal though sometimes a flattened round crown and produces large pure white blossoms. It is really very ornamental when in flower. The wild type has russet-brown flattened round fruits each about an inch in diameter. A relative with smaller flowers found wild in the same part of China is Pyrus serrulata. A species which promises to be of great value to fruit growers in this country on account of its virtual immunity to Pear blight is P. Calleryana. This is a tree of variable size exhibiting diversity in shape of foliage, found in a wild state from southern Japan and Korea throughout a great part of China. The flowers, borne together in rounded clusters, are small with white petals and prominent pink-anthered stamens. The fruit is brown and about the size of a garden pea. Introduced into this country by the Arboretum through seeds sent by Wilson in 1907, it has grown rapidly and for several years past has flowered and fruited each season. Seeds in great quantity have been disseminated far and wide in this country for the purpose of raising plants for use as understock on which to graft garden Pears. If its immunity to Pear blight be maintained this tree will prove to be one of the most valuable introductions to orchards this country has enjoyed. Shadblows. The earliest Shadblow to blossom (Amelanchier canadensis) is now in full bloom. It is native of western Massachusetts and western New York south to the Gulf states. Described by Linnaeus in 1753 other sorts have usurped the name and the true plant has long been rare in gardens. It is a tree, at its maximum full 60 ft. tall with a trunk 5 ft. in girth, with a dense round-topped crown of thin branches; the flowers as they open are often tinged with pink and are produced in ascending and nodding racemes. The flowers expand at the same time as the leaves which are clothed with a floss and the whole tree is wreathed in snowy whiteness. E. H. W. The subscription to this Bulletin is $1.00 per year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 30","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23847","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060a328.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I APRIL 30, 1927 NO. 3 Shadblows. To the Rose family gardens are indebted for many of their finest plants in herb and bush and tree and among these must be counted the Shadbushes, Shadblows, Juneberries or Service-trees as they are variously called. The tribal name is Amelanchier and the trivial name Shadblow or Shadbush is in allusion to the fact that they blossom in the time when the Shadfish ascends the streams from the ocean. Juneberry denotes that the berries ripen in the month of June and Service-tree that the fruit is edible. In Europe the native species is known as the Snowy Mespilus. These plants are essentially American being found wild from Labrador south to the Gulf and from Newfoundland west to the Yukon. One outlying member is native of Europe, another of China and Japan but in America the species are many and the plants themselves multitudinous. Most of the species are many-stemmed bushes but about five of them are trees of moderate size. They constitute a very important floral feature of our spring landscapes and their tinted foliage in autumn adds much to the brilliant autumn pageant. They abound in thickets, on the margins of woodlands, in swamps and open moorlands. With few exceptions the flowers are star-shape, white, with relatively long, narrow spreading petals and borne in short, slender, spreading and ascending racemes. The leaves, which unfold at the same time or immediately after the blossoms, are usually clothed with a white floss of hairs and the whole plant appears sheeted in snow-white. In a few species the flowers as they open are tinted pink and in one common tree-type the young leaves in pleasing contrast with the rest of the family are red-purple. All have slender branchlets of delicate tracery. In the spring landscapes they suggest waves of spindrift of snowy whiteness, floating or suspended through wood and thicket. A strong family likeness pervades the group. All have smooth steel-gray bark, hard and heavy wood, slender branches and oval to roundish leaves variously toothed on the margin. The fruit is edible and in some sorts quite palatable. Their cultivation is easy for they thrive in any ordinary soil provided it is not too alkaline or permanently waterlogged. They rather like limestone and love good loam and leaf-soil. The bushy types send up suckers freely from the roots and soon make thickets. These are splendid for boundary planting or for the wild garden. The tree sorts are fine as specimens a little removed from the dwelling house, where their beauty may be glimpsed from the windows. All are easily propagated by seed and the bush forms may be increased by lifting the sucker-growth and by layering. Although they fill a niche and add welcome beauty to any garden, Shadblows are difficult to procure. Their loveliness notwithstanding, nurserymen have treated them with contumely for are they not common native plants? A few of the more enlightened and progressive, however, are beginning to catalogue them, which is an encouraging sign of the awakening that is taking place. In the Arboretum these plants have been extensively planted along the drives, and on the edge of woods two species (A. laevis and A. oblongifolia) are native. Tree Shadblows. In the last Bulletin we told that the earliest Shadblow to blossom is Amelanchier canadensis and as its petals fall and the white fluff of its foliage is flung off the flowers of A. laevis, a second tree species, expand. This has red-brown young leaves almost destitute of hairs and in fine contrast erect or nodding racemes of white flowers. Widespread from Newfoundland south this is a tree up to 50 ft. tall with a trunk 5 ft. in girth and a rather open narrow crown. The ruddy tinted young foliage gives to it distinction and character and associated with other deciduous trees it is most effective in springtime. One of the loveliest of all is A. grandiflora, a natural hybrid between these two species. Like its parents this is a tree but the flowers are much larger than those of any other American Shadblow. The blooms also last long in unsullied whiteness and the plant stands forth an aristocrat. This hybrid grows wild in the woods round Rochester, New York, where a lovely form of it (rubescens) with rose-tinted blossoms also occurs. The third American tree species is A. alnifolia known to the Indians as the Saskatoon. It is a slender tree, rarely exceeding 25 ft. in height, with a loose crown or irregular shape and white flowers in erect racemes opening at the same time as the leaves which are densely clad with an evanescent white floss. Its fruits are sweet and juicy, nearly globose in shape, dark blue-black, often three-quarters of an inch in diameter, larger and more valuable than those of any other Shadblow. Found over an immense area of country from the southwestern shores of Lake Superior west and northwest to the Valley of the Yukon River it is a most important tree to the Indians who gather and dry the fruit which serves them as an article of food. Bush Shadblows. The largest of the bush Shadblows is A. oblongifolia, a very common species through eastern North America. This shrub grows 18 ft. tall and forms dense ovoid clumps of many erect stems sometimes 12 ft. through. Its flowers and leaves with white cottony covering unfold at the same time. Throughout New England this species is a conspicuous feature of the landscape in spring with its blossoms, in June with its wealth of fruit and in autumn with its vari-colored foliage. Another shrubby Shadblow is A. spicata which grows from 6 to 10 ft. tall and is distinguished by its erect dense-flowered racemes. A. humilis is dwarf and twiggy and A, stolonifera spreading from underground stems forms low thickets. Both are well suited to the wild garden. So, too, is A. florida, native of the Northwest, which produces a mass of erect stems from 8 to 10 ft. tall and has rich yellow autumn foliage. Handsome also are A. sanguinea and A. amabilis, both shrubs of good size with relatively large' blossoms. Quite distinct is A. Bartramiana an inhabitant of bog lands from Labrador southward with large milk-white, saucer-shaped flowers solitary or rarely in few-flowered clusters. Growing from a few inches to a full yard tall it is a floriferous little plant of twiggy habit. The European Shadblow. The European Shadblow is known by several names, most widely perhaps as A. vulga7is but correctly as A. ovalis. It is the oldest known Amelanchier and has been in cultivation for upwards of two hundred years. A native of central and southern Europe it is usually a shrub but under favorable conditions forms a good-shaped tree from 18 to 25 ft. in height. It has stouter branchlets, fatter and more ovoid winter buds than its American kindred. Also it produces the largest flowers of any species, each blossom being often 1% inches across and clustered in erect racemes. The leaves with their coat of woolly hairs unfold at the same time and the whole plant appears mantled in white, hence in Europe it is called Snowy Mespilus. About four other species are natives of southeastern Europe and western Asia but are not in cultivation. The Oriental Shadblow. The Oriental Shadblow is A. asiatica, a small tree from 15 to 25 ft. tall, with a flattened crown of irregular outline. It is rare in Japan and Korea but in central China a variety, named sinica, is one of the most common and most beautiful of the lesser trees. An inhabitant of thickets and thin woods it is abundantly floriferous and in spring the trees are conspicuous from afar. The flowers are large, white as driven snow, and produced in nodding racemes. Unlike all other Shadblows the fruits do not ripen until late September or October and unless eaten by birds hang on the trees throughout the winter. Prinsepia sinensis. In the Shrub Garden a large, dome-shaped bush of this fine shrub is in full blossom; there is another less shapely specimen on Centre Street Path. The arching, spreading branches are densely clothed with clusters of yellow plum-like blossoms which emit a strong odor of almonds. The fruit is plum-like, enclosing a flattened prettily sculptured stone. This plant has been growing in the Arboretum since 1903 and has never known winter injury. Its name, notwithstanding, it never knew China, its home being the adjacent country of Manchuria where a harsh climate prevails. Among the Chinese plants on Bussey Hill a white-flowered species (P. uniflora), introduced through Purdom in 1911, is loaded with flower-buds which will open later. Though not so fine as its yellow-flowered sister this is a good plant especially for rocky places. To those interested in the curious it may be worth noting that among the great Rose family this small genus Prinsepia is the only one that has a lamellate pith. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 7","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23862","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070af6b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I MAY 7, 1927 NO. 4 The Prunus Tribe are the first trees to blossom in spring and so numerous are the members that different sorts are in bloom over a period of at least five weeks. Our first Bulletin told of certain single-flowered Japanese Cherries. Their double-flowering brethren will open their flowers in another week when they shall receive due recognition. The Sargent Cherry near the Forest Hills Gate is aglow with ruddy-tinted young leaves and nearby is a shapely tree of Prunus avium (the Gean or Mazzard) laden with pure white blossoms. This is a handsome tree of more or less pyramidal habit, growing 60 feet tall, with a trunk, occasionally 6 feet in girth, clothed with polished, chestnut-brown bark. It is a native of Europe and the Sweet Cherries of our orchards are descended from it. There is a double-flowered form (plena) which opens its blossoms a week later than the type. In bud the flowers are flushed delicate pink but when fully expanded they are pure white, an inch to an inch and a half across, with about thirty to forty petals lasting long in beauty. It has been known for two centuries, but like many other good trees is all too rarely seen in American gardens. Prunus Cerasus. Later to blossom is P. Cerasus, the Sour Cherry, also native of Europe but as an ornamental much inferior to the Gean. There are, however, two double-flowered forms of this Cherry of great value. One known as plena has semi-double flowers, white, each one and a half inches across. This is a round-topped tree, seldom more than 25 feet tall, with a thick trunk clothed with rugged, dark gray bark. More double are the flowers on the variety Rhexii, often known as multiplex or ranunculiflora, which is characterized by very double flowers in which two green leafy pistils stand prominently forth. The flowers are of the purest white, an inch and one half across, drooping from long stalks The tree is a worthy rival of the double-flowered Gean which blossoms two weeks earlier. Prunus Cerasus is the parent of the Morello Cherries of our orchards. There are several other forms of the Gean and Sour Cherry but those mentioned are the best and most worthy. Prunus japonica Nakaii. An old denizen of gardens is P. japonica, a twiggy shrub, growing from three to five feet tall, native of the Orient and found here and there in New England as a naturalized plant. Just within the Forest Hills Gate, on the right, is a bed of P. japonica Nakaii, which is the Korean representative of the species. This is flowering freely for the first time and is a pretty little shrub. The branches are twiggy, erect, and clad from bottom to top with fascicles of flowers, tinted pale pink m the bud, pure white when expanded. It differs from the type in the leaves being pubescent on the under side and glabrous, or nearly so, above. The fruit is round, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, dark scarlet and quite attractive. A common plant by the wayside and on bare mountain slopes in Korea, it was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum through seeds collected by Wilson in 1917. Our experience is that it transplants badly from the open ground and should be grown in pots. American Plums. The flowers have fallen from the Canadian Plum, P. nigra, the first of the American Plums to open blossoms but those of P. americana are just expanding. This ~s a variable plant, widespread from Massachusetts west to Manitoba and south to Georgia, and cultivated since 1768. It is a round-topped tree, seldom exceeding twenty feet in height, with dense intricately placed branches and a wealth of small, white, Hawthorn-like scented blossoms. Quite a number of pomological varieties are in cultivation. This and other tree-species of American Plums are valuable for planting in groups on the edge of woods, in glades or at vantage points some distance removed from the house. More valuable for garden purposes is Prunus maritima, the Sand or Beach Plum, a very common plant on Cape Cod and elsewhere along the eastern coast of the United States. This is anything from a bush hugging the ground to a broad-topped shrub ten feet tall. Its abundant pure white blossoms form a pleasing picture in the spring; later fruits, red or purple, round or oblong in shape and from one half to an inch in diameter, crowd the branches. There is also a form (flava) with yellow fruits. The Beach Plum is another native plant which has been too much neglected. For planting in sandy places there is of its class nothing better; also it does well in rocky ground. For shore gardens it should be planted in masses and in quantity. Oriental Quinces. In the Shrub Garden one of the long beds is filled with different varieties of Oriental Quinces which are descended from two distinct species. These are bushes of sprawling habit whose irregularly placed shoots give much character to the plants The flowers vary from pure white (nivalis) to dark fiery crimson (Simonii) ; some are flesh-colored, others shades of pink, red and scarlet. The more robust growing of the two species has long been known as Cydonia japonica, abbreviated by the gardening fraternity to plain japonica, but its correct name is Chaenomeles lagenaria. It is one of the plants long cultivated in the Orient and by Buddhists carried far and wide. Its name notwithstanding, it never knew Japan except as a cultivated plant, its home being central China where Wilson found it wild in 1900. Visitors to Cape Cod and other places in Massachusetts at this season of the year will note here, there, and everywhere, fine bushes or even hedges of the C. lagenaria. In Japan, especially in grassy open areas, another Quince is wild in great abundance. This is widely known in gardens as C. Ma2tlei but its correct name is C. japonica. This is less robust than its Chinese sister with twiggy branches hugging the ground and orange-red passing to scarlet flowers. Both species bear ovoid fragrant fruits of no comestible value. Their charm is in the beauty of flower and habit of growth. Old favorites are they, yet it is difficult to procure these plants from nurserymen today. There is no reason why this should be so since they can be raised from seeds and may be easily increased by division, by layering, and by root-cuttings. Pieris floribunda. This evergreen bush with panicled masses or urn-shaped flowers, and valuable on account of its hardiness, is not flowering so freely this year. More handsome with lustrous foliage and larger flowers is the Japanese P. japonica, which unfortunately can be only just kept alive in the Arboretum. The different Vacciniums are opening their multitudinous blossoms and with their young tinted foliage are conspicuous, none more so than the Highbush Blueberry (V. corymbosum), a feature of swamps and open places everywhere in this part of the world. On drier places it has a rival in the low-growing V. pennsylvanicum, an excellent native ground-cover. The Leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata) is also in blossom, each twiggy shoot terminating in a raceme of white urn-shaped flowers. This is a circumpolar plant that might be more freely used in gardens. It can be seen in bloom with other of its relatives in the Shrub Garden. Nearby is twiggy stemmed, pink-blossomed Andromeda glaucophylla, with evergreen, ascending, rosemary-like leaves, dark green above and white below. This is a boreal plant found from Newfoundland and Labrador west to Manitoba. Another species, A. polifolia, extends from Idaho westward to the Pacific coast and throughout northern Asia into north and central Europe. Viburnum Carlesii. The first of the Viburnums to open its blossoms is the rare V. fragrans from China, and this is followed by V. alnifolium, the native Moosewood or Hobblebush. This familiar plant is wide-spread in woodlands throughout New England and elsewhere in eastern North America, but is exceedingly difficult to cultivate. In nature it favors moist places but the best plant in the Arboretum is on a dry bank beneath the Birches. The Hobblebush forms its flower clusters in the autumn and cut branches brought into a warm house in late February and March will open their flowers in water. There is a variety (praecox) which blossoms about three weeks earlier than the type. Next in order of blooming is the Korean V. Carlesii, whose blossoms distil a fragrant scent of cloves which fills the air around. This shrub is now getting properly known in gardens and appreciated on account of its sterling qualities. Unfortunately, plants on their own roots are difficult to come by and those grafted after a few years cease to grow freely and remain stunted in habit and ultimately die. In the Viburnum Collection near Centre Street Gate may be seen two fine specimens of Carles' Viburnum, which are on their own roots and at the moment covered with conspicuous rounded clusters of flowers, waxy in texture, each pink-tinted in the bud and pure white when fully expanded. Among early-flowering shrubs this is Korea's great gift to our gardens. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 12","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23858","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070a328.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I MAY 12, 1927 NO. 5 Asiatic Crabapples are not exceeded in beauty and hardiness by any tribe of plants and yet they are comparatively rare in American gardens. A few species like Malus Halliana, M. floribunda and M. spectabilis are fairly well-known, while here and there in city parks, such as those of Rochester, New York, several others may be seen in all their beauty. But really there should be no garden, even a suburban garden, without its Crabapple-tree. Lovers of breeze and sunshine and rugged of constitution, Crabapples are well suited to the rigorous climate of northeastern America. Wherever the Common Apple can be grown its sisters and brothers will flourish and many of them are able to withstand greater cold than our favorite fruit-tree. A good loam, rather on the stiff side, is ideal for Crabapples and they do not by any means object to lime. As to site, provided it is open and exposed, they are not particular, though a hillside or slope is preferable. Their common pests are scale-insects and a white woolly aphis known as American blight. The former may easily be kept down by spraying in late winter with Lime-sulphur or Imperial Soap (one gallon to eight gallons of water). The blight is destroyed by spraying in summer with Imperial Soap (one gallon to thirty gallons of water). The flowers of many Asiatic Crabapples are bright rose-pink in the bud changing to white as they expand. Such are those of M. floribunda and M. theifera. Those of M. Sargentii, M. toringoides, M. baccata and its forms are pure white. In M. spectabilis the flowers are pink fading to nearly white, and in M. Halliana they are bright rose-pink becoming slightly paler as they age. The flowers are followed by an abundant crop of small fruits, in most species scarcely larger than a good-sized, marrow-fat pea, either crimson, wine-red, yellow, or red and yellow, but in a few dull greenish red. The flowers last about a week ; the fruits for several months, indeed in several species they remain fresh in appearance throughout the winter. In spring the branches from tip to base are plumes of blossoms, in autumn they are brilliantly jeweled with fruits. Of the Asiatic Crabapples, M. Halliana, M. floribunda and M. spectabilis are not particularly difficult to obtain. The Japanese and many people in eastern North America con18 sider M. Hall2ana the finest of all Asiatic Crabapples. Certainly it is the most handsome of all with colored flowers. It is a tree-like shrub, sometimes 15 feet tall, with a broad bushy crown of ascending-spreading branches and twiggy branchlets and rather sparse, comparatively thick, dark green leaves deeply tinged with bronze-color when they unfold. The flowers, each on a long slender stalk, are borne in clusters and are bright rose-color but the pea-like fruit, which ripens late, is greenish red and unattractive. The flowers vary from nearly single to semi-double and the central one of each cluster is usually male. Food for Birds. Did we ask our feathered friends the season of the Crabapples they would certainly answer the fall. To those who love birds, Crabapples have treble values, since to the aesthetic qualities of flowers and attractive autumn fruits they add that of providing winter food in quantity. And beautiful are these plants at that season laden with myriads of small, brightly colored fruits. Indeed Crabapples claim and must be granted two seasons: late spring for their blossoms, autumn for their fruits. Where to Plant. The abundance of flowers and fruits produced by these plants is truly astounding and no tribe gives greater returns. Near the house no small tree could be more attractive than the shapely Malus Halliana with clustered rose-pink, pendent, more or less double flowers; on a bank, with its bottom branches hugging the ground, the low, broad white-flowered M. Sargentii is splendid. For the flower garden many sorts are good, none more so than the old favorite M. spectabilis, with pink, semi-double blossoms and the new M. theifera, with white flowers, rose-pink in the bud. As a flowering tree in the open landscape, M. baccata mandshurica, with an oval crown full fifty feet tall, the lower branches sweeping the ground and pure white, fragrant flowers, cannot be excelled. This and other tall kinds may also be planted with advantage on the edges of woods, especially where Oak trees predominate. An occasional Pine, Fir, or Spruce well to the rear adds greatly to the landscape effect. Malus floribunda. Perhaps the best known and by some considered the finest Crabapple of the Orient is M. floribunda. This is a broad, round topped tree, sometimes thirty feet tall and more in diameter of crown, with a tangle of branches and masses of slender, arching and pendent branchlets. The clustered flowers are white when fully expanded, bright rose-pink in bud, and as they open in succession the contrast is singularly beautiful. A cascade of myriad flowers symbolizes this Crabapple when in full bloom. In 1883 there appeared in the Arnold Arboretum among some presumed seedlings of M. floribunda a very distinct plant which has since been named M. arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of M. floribunda but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large. Now these four Crabapples are admittedly princes of a very large family but there are many other members whose merits are deserving of the widest recognition. Space does not permit of an exhaustive list but the following ought to be widely known and planted freely: Malus baccata mandshurica- First of the Crabapples to burst into bloom is the fragrant Malus baccata mandshurica, native of northeastern Asia. This tree is one of the largest of its tribe and produces an abundance of pure white flowers, each rather more than one inch across and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. In a wild state it is often more than fifty feet tall, with short, thick trunk and a broad, bell-shaped crown. Its fruits, each no larger than a good-sized pea, are yellow or shining red. Malus Sargentii. The pigmy of the Crabapple family is M. Sargentii, with umbellate clusters of saucer-shape flowers of the purest white, in which nestle a tiny group of stamens tipped with clear yellow anthers. It is a low, densely branched shrub which hugs the ground, and is preeminently suited for planting on banks. The fruit is wine-red, covered with a slight bloom, and long persistent. From the salt marshes of Hokkaido, the northernmost island of Japan, came this gem, discovered and introduced and fittingly named for the man who brought the Arnold Arboretum into being some fifty-four years ago. Malus theifera. Rigid of branch, with wands of blossoms often fifteen feet long, the Chinese M. theifera is the very quintessence of Crabapple loveliness. It is a small tree, seldom exceeding twenty feet in height, with sparse upright and spreading rather zigzag branches, which are densely studded from base to tip with short flower-bearing spurs. When in blossom the whole branch is transformed into a floral plume into which it is impossible to thrust a finger without touching a flower. The petals are reddish pink in the folded bud, white or delicately stained with pale pink when fully expanded. The fruit is tiny, dull greenish red and not showy. Its specific name is derived from the fact that in central China, where it is a feature of the thickets and margins of woods on the mountains, the peasants collect and dry the leaves and from them prepare a palatable beverage which they call red tea Malus toringoides. Like a Hawthorn in foliage, the leaves being deeply incised and lobed, though some of them are quite entire, and with fruit like a white heart cherry is M. toringoides, a newcomer from the mountain fastnesses of the Chino-Thibetan borderland. With its clusters of white flowers, produced with the unfolding leaves, the small, rather thorny tree is less attractive in blossom than many others but in fruit it is considered by some people the most beautiful of all the lesser Crabapples. It and the somewhat similar but smaller M. transitoria are the last of the Asiatic species to bloom. In the Arboretum the Asiatic Crabapples are just opening their blossoms near the Administration Building, on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road, and on the top of Bussey Hill. The main collection, however, is at the foot of Peter's Hill. and is best reached from South Street by way of the Bussey Street Gate. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23859","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070a728.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I MAY 16, 1927 NO. 6 The Arboretum is singularly lovely at the present time, a condition, it is true, shared by the countryside at large but peculiarly enhanced here by the presence of exotic trees and shrubs in rich variety. Enter its approaches where you will, beauty reigns on all sides. By the Jamaica Plain Gate the Asiatic Magnolias are squandering their petals around the Administration Building and large trees of Malus floribunda, are wreathed in pink-tinted blossoms. Along Meadow Road the ruddy brown young foliage of Cercidiphyllum japonicum, the Katsura of the Japanese, is conspicuous and here and there the last of the Shadblows, Amelanchier asiatica, A. sanguinea and A. amabilis, enliven the scene. Within the Forest Hills Gate, Pears and Crabapples on the left are in full blossom and facing them are various double-flowered Japanese Cherries aglow with pink clusters. Beyond, the Forsythias still make a goodly show and so do the American Plums. In the Shrub Garden many plants are putting forth their blossoms, but the Oriental Quinces still dominate the scene. If entry be made through the Centre Street Gate the rapidly swelling buds on the Hickories attract attention on the right, and beyond the Oaks are pushing forth gray, yellow-green and pink-tinted leaves. The native Crataegus arnoldiana and other early-flowering Hawthorns are draped in white. Just around the corner on the left the blossoms of Viburnum Carlesii fill the air with the fragrant odor of cloves. Close by, its less dense habited sister, V. bitchiuense, is laden with pinkish flowers. Bussey Hill, where the new and rarer plants from the Orient are quartered, is perhaps the most interesting place in the Arboretum at the moment. The double-flowered Japanese Cherries are opening their blossoms and the Azalea bushes are ready to explode into sheets of pink, yellow, salmon and flaming red. On Berberis Dielsiana hang tassels of yellow flowers, and Wilson's Pearl Bush, with its upright racemes of large white flowers, compels attention. From the Overlook itself looking toward the south, the Hemlock Grove looms majestic; westward across the Oaks, over and beyond the steely gray, misty, cloudlike clump of American Beech, Spruce, Fir, and Pine stand conspicuous. Everywhere wholesome scented air, opening bud, blossom, and green grass-everything fresh and clean-the Arboretum in spring is rich in charm and beauty. Double-flowered Cherries. On the grassy knoll of Bussey Hill the collection of double-flowered Japanese Cherries is opening its blossoms. Probably no group of small trees attract the public more than these Cherries with their rose-like flowers. With no group in the past have garden-lovers been less successful. In Bulletins of previous years it has been frequently pointed out that the seat of the trouble is the understock that has been used in grafting or budding these plants. It has been stated that the proper understock to use is the common Mountain Cherry of the Orient, particularly the Japanese form of this tree known as the Sargent Cherry (Prunus serrulata sachalinensis). This is the northern type and grows to a greater size than any other and, moreover, is the hardiest. Itself the parent of the best pink-flowered double Japanese Cherries, if used as a stock our gardens would enjoy a hardy, long-lived race which lovers of these plants crave. Unfortunately the Mazzard, Morello, Mahaleb and even the Common Plum are used by nurserymen as understocks for these Japanese Cherries. The result is that although sixty-five years have elapsed since the first double-flowered Japanese Cherries came to this country, even moderately good specimens are rarely to be seen. In past years the Arboretum has offered limited quantities of seeds of the Sargent Cherry to those who will apply them for the express purpose of raising understocks on which to work Japanese double-flowered Cherries. The offer is still open and these Bulletins will continue to urge this work for the benefit of American gardens. Origin. The double-flowered Japanese Cherries are derived principally from two species. Prunus serrulata and its varieties, widespread in the Orient, is one; the other is Prunus Lannesiana, which is native of the warmer parts of Japan and whose derivatives are not quite hardy in the Arboretum The greenish yellow Ukon and its quaint, green-striped sister, Grandiflora, both more curious than beautiful, are descended from this tender species. There are many others, some with large single or double white, others pale pink or white tinted pink, blossoms, all of which are fragrant. From Long Island south the descendants of this species are worth-while plants. For New England, the northern parts especially, it is the double-flowered forms of P. serrulata sachalinensis that are most suitable. The Japanese recognize a great many forms of this Cherry but for all practical purposes they may be reduced to a half dozen. The flushed pink changing to white Albo-rosea and its pink sister Fugenzo are two of the very best. Similar to Fugenzo is Kirin and the late-flowering handsome Kanzan. The pale pink Shogetsu and the pure pink Horinji complete our list. These and others may be seen laden with opening blossoms on Bussey Hill. Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii. In the Shrub Garden and on Bussey Hill large plants of this vigorous growing Pearl Bush are now rapidly opening their flowers. These are pure white, each one and a half inches across, and borne on erect six- to eight-inch long racemes. It is native of central China and has been growing in the Arboretum since 1907, when seeds were received from Wilson. So far the plant has never suffered winter injury and it blooms more abundantly each succeeding year. It is a shrub of almost tree-like dimensions and easily the finest of the tribe. Exochorda is an Oriental genus, related to Spiraea, of which four species are known. The first discovered was E. grandiflora, which was sent from eastern China to Europe, in 1849, by Robert Fortune and is a very familiar shrub in gardens. North central China is the home of the pink tinted E. Giraldii. A third species, E. Korolkowii, widely known as E. Alberti, is native of Turkestan. Less floriferous than other species, it is one of the first shrubs to burst into leaf in the spring. All three may be seen in the Shrub Garden. A fourth species, E. serratifolia, native of Korea, is not in cultivation. A hybrid between E. grandiflora and E. Korolkow2i has been named E. macrantha. It differs from its parents chiefly in its more upright habit and in having somewhat larger flowers, each with about twenty stamens. This may be seen in the border alongside Centre Street Path. Caragana arborescens. Caragana is a genus of shrubs wide-spread from southern Russia eastward through northern Asia, and southward on the mountains of the Chino-Thibetan borderland to the Himalayas. A number of the species are among the hardiest exotic plants introduced into this country. As a hedge plant in the northwestern states and northward into Saskatchewan, C. arborescens is indispensable for hedge and shelter planting. The flowers are pea-shaped, bright yellow in a majority of the species, pink in others. In the Shrub Garden a collection of about a dozen species and many varieties of this useful genus may be seen. The typical C. arborescens is a tall, tree-like shrub of upright habit and clear, yellow flowers. There is a variety (Lorbergii) with elegant narrow grass-green leaves; another (pendula) is well described by its name, while the variety nana is a dwarf, stunted shrub with contorted branches. None are so useful as the type. Another species long known in gardens is C. frutex, which is an upright shrub some ten feet tall, with rich yellow flowers and glabrous, dull green leaves. A handsome variety of this species, also native of the Altai Mountains, is xerophytica, with slender branches forming a broad bush some five feet tall. A species from western China of dense, twiggy habit, and exceedingly floriferous, is C. Maximowicziana. Another Chinese species, named C. chamlagu, has comparatively large solitary flowers, yellow flushed with red. The Siberian C. microphylla is a shrub growing some ten feet tall, with long, spreading branches, while C. pygmaea is usually more or less prostrate; its slender stems forming a hummock-like mass a yard high. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii. The blossoms on this lovely Korean Azalea are now open on the Bussey Hill. A sturdy bush of upright habit, bearing on naked twigs terminal clusters of large pale to pure pink blossoms. This is a very hardy and satisfactory Azalea. The Arboretum's experience is that it transplants from the open ground with less difficulty in the autumn than in the spring. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 20","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23860","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070a76a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I MAY 20, 1927 NO. 7 Azaleas are fast opening their blossoms in the Arboretum, forming drifts of brilliant colors here, there and everywhere; the finest display being on the western slope of Bussey Hill. Strictly speaking, Azaleas are referable to the genus Rhododendron and cannot be separated therefrom by any fixed characters of botanical value. For garden purposes, however, they are easily separable by their general appearance, their small, thin, and in case of the hardy sorts, deciduous foliage. The flowers of no other group of hardy shrubs present such a range of brilliant colors-white, pink, yellow, orange, salmon to flaming red and scarlet in tones of great purity and vividness. Many species are delightfully fragrant and all are abundantly floriferous. The first Azalea to flower in the Arboretum is R. dauricum mucronulatum, which opens its blossoms in April at the flush of early spring, the last is R. viscosum, blooming in July. In height of bush they average from 5 to 8 feet but with age may grow 10 or 15 feet tall; all are of shapely habit, branching freely and are usually broader than they are high. Some like R. Vaseyi are partial to moist places, others like R. calendulaceum flourish on dry banks. But they are all good-natured and easily adapt themselves to a variety of situations. They may be planted in full exposure or under the shade of trees. Most of them are ideal when associated with deciduous trees, especially Oaks, either on the fringe of woodlands or in glades. The flowers of Kaempfer's Azalea (R obtusum Kaempferi) are apt to bleach in full sun and this Azalea is seen to best advantage under the overhanging branches of Fir or Pine. So far as is known none of the really hardy species are subject to disease of any kind, nor are they attacked by insect pests. They demand, however, a lime-free soil. In the Arboretum Azaleas have been very extensively planted and from the end of April until mid-July produce a rich display of color. The collection proper occupies the western slope of Bussey Hill, but there are groups among the Oaks, and clumps by the roadside and by the edge of ponds. As arranged these Azaleas give arresting bits of color in all sorts of unexpected places. Here and there a flame of orange or red, a patch of yellow, a drift of pink or a sheet of the purest white stands forth. In some places, hidden among other bushes, the exhaled fragrance leads a visitor to their discovery. Rhododendron yedoense poukhanense. The first Azalea to blossom (R. dauricum mucronulatum) is now past flowering and so, too, is the Japanese R. reticulatum, with rich magenta-colored flowers. The lovely pink-blossomed R. Schtippeubach2i, spoken about in the last Bulletin, is still in full blossom, and so is R. yedoense poukhanense on Bussey Hill. The latter is the common Azalea of Korea from the central parts southward and was first introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum as late as 1905. In gardens it is a densely-branched, round or flat-topped shrub from 1 to 4 feet tall and more through, with terminal heads of rosy purple flowers rich in delightful fragrance. It is partly or wholly deciduous and in the autumn the leaves are tinted orange to crimson. The double-flowered Yodogawa Azalea (A. yedoense), now frequent in gardens, is a monstrous form of this Korean Azalea. Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi. Kaempfer's Azalea is now aglow with blossoms. This is the common mountain Azalea of Japan, where it is abundant, from the extreme south far into the northern parts of the country, from sea level up to 4000 feet altitude. It is a twiggy, much-branched shrub from 3 to 10 feet high, with unscented flowers varying in color from salmon to rich red. The flowers last longer and are seen to best advantage when growing in the partial shade of Conifers and other evergreen plants. In full sun their brilliance pales, the colors bleach and the blossoms fade more quickly. In Massachusetts this plant is wholly deciduous but further south the leaves are retained through the winter. Though discovered late in the 17th century this Azalea was not brought into cultivation until 1892, when Professor Sargent sent seeds to the Arboretum. Rhododendron Vaseyi. Of singular elegance and charm is R. Vaseyi, whose star-shaped pure pink flowers are now expanding. Rather sparse in habit it loves a moist situation and is happiest near a pond or stream, where tall Willows or other deciduous-leafed trees break the sun's rays and the waters reflect its beauty. Though restricted in a wild state to the high mountains of western North Carolina it is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts. The typical form has pink flowers but there is also one with white blossoms. Rhododendron nudiflorum. Familiar to many is the Pinxter Flower (R nudiflorum), widespread in eastern North America from Massachusetts southward. This is an excellent garden shrub growing from 2 to 6 feet tall and densely set with thin branches bearing in profusion clusters of fragrant flowers, pale to crimson-pink in color, with lobes spreading from a slender hairy tube, the stamens and pistils outthrust. It thrives in any situation and never fails to put forth a wealth of blossoms. Two other species with pink and rose-colored flowers are the closely related R. roseum and R. canescens. The first-named is the most northern of American Azaleas, being found from Quebec south, while R. canescens is found from North Carolina south. Both are broad, irregularly branching shrubs from 4 to 15 feet tall, with fragrant tubular flowers opening before the leaves unfold. Rhododendron japonicum. Sturdy of habit, with rigid ascending stems is R japonicum, widespread on the mountains of Japan. This has broad, funnel-shaped flowers, each about two inches across, sweetly fragrant, and aggregated six to twelve together at the end of every shoot. The color varies from orange-red to flame red or almost red, and there is a form (aureum) with soft yellow blossoms. At its maximum this is a shrub ten feet tall and five feet through, but more usually it is from four to five feet high and as much in diameter. Vigorous of habit, free-flowering and perfectly hardy, this handsome Azalea deserves the widest possible recognition. Very closely related is R. molle from China, with rich, yellow flowers but less hardy. By crossing these two species the hybrid race of \"Mollis Azaleas,\" of which \"Anthony Koster\" is a typical example, has been brought into being. Some of these are perfectly hardy and none more so than the handsome orange-yellow \"Louisa Hunnewell.\" Rhododendron calendulaceum is the Flame-Azalea of the Appalachian Mountains, and right well does it merit the name, for it is one of the most gorgeous of all American shrubs. All who have seen it growing wild extol its beauty, and we who know it in gardens are captive to its brilliance. The colors range from yellow through orange to scarlet, and the flowers, which have little or no fragrance, open with or immediately after the unfolding of the leaves. This Azalea grows naturally in open woods and by the side of water-courses, and may be any height from 4 to 15 feet, and as much through. In gardens it is not particular in the matter of site, but massed on a bank or in thin Oak woods it is most effective. Rhododendron luteum is the Pontic Azalea, an old favorite in gardens under the name of Azalea pontica. Of Eurasian origin, this is a floriferous species of vigorous growth, from 6 to 12 feet tall, wide-spreading, with rigid branches and hairy oblong leaves. The flowers are exquisitely scented, clear yellow with outthrust stamens and pistil and are crowded together in clusters at the end of the shoots. This Azalea has been much used by the hybridist, and crosses between it and various American species have originated the polychromatic \"Ghent Azaleas,\" without which our gardens would lack much early summer fragrance and color. Rhododendron arborescens. Before the last flowers of the Flame Azalea have fallen those of R. arborescens, another Appalachian species, commence to open. This is one of the loveliest of all the American Azaleas with its large fragrant flowers, pale rose-color in the bud and the purest white when fully expanded. The stamens and pistil are exserted far beyond the spreading lobes of the tubular flowers, and being of a bright red-crimson color add much to the beauty of the blossoms. It is a much-branched shrub, from 8 to 15 feet high, with dark green leaves, lustrous above and pale below, and with the odor of new mown hay. Unlike the preceding species the leaves of this Azalea and the related R. viscosum are fully grown before the flowers appear. E H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 26","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23861","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070ab6b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I MAY 26, 1927 NO. 8 American Crab apples. As the blossoms of the last of the Asiatic Crabapples fall those of the American species begin to expand and fill the air with fragrance. There are some eight species and many varieties found from the neighborhood of the Atlantic seaboard west to Texas, Missouri and Minnesota. From Alaska to California a ninth species (M. fusca) is indigenous but this differs greatly in character and appearance from its eastern relatives. The American Crabapples are small trees with intricately placed branches and often spiny branchlets. They have lax corymbs of deep pink, fading to almost white, flowers, which appear after the leaves unfold, and emit an odor of violets. The fruit is flattened- round, greenish and usually clammy viscid. They are admirable trees for planting on the edge of woods, in glades or dells, and deserve to be more widely appreciated. Malus ioensis. First of the American Crabapples to open its blossoms is the Iowa Crabapple (M. ioensis), the most western member of its group, found widely dispersed from Minnesota southward to Texas. It is a much-branched, round-topped tree, often 30 feet tall, with oblong-ovate leaves, woolly on the underside when young. The double-flowered form (plena), known as Bechtel's Crab, bears in great abundance pink, fragrant, rose-like blossoms, and is a firm favorite in gardens. Many people have been greatly disappointed by the sudden decease of this tree. In some instances Pear-blight has been the cause but generally it is due to the unsuitable understock used. It is the common practice to graft or bud Bechtel's Crab on the Common Apple, an understock manifestly unsuited to the purpose. To obtain healthy, free-growing, long-lived trees, Bechtel's Crab should be worked on seedlings of its parent species or on those of M. coronaria. Since these species fruit freely and are widespread there is no difficulty in obtaining seeds for the purpose. The reason that this has not been done in the past is probably due to the fact that custom has decreed the Common Apple understock for all sorts and conditions of the Crabapple family. So far as the American members are concerned when grafting or budding is necessary a native stock is demanded. Malus coronaria. In size, habit of growth and general appearance, this species is very similar to the Iowa Crabapple, but differs in having the young leaves smooth on the underside. It is found from New York south to Alabama, and westward to Missouri, and has been known in cultivation since 1724. About 1900, a form (Charlottae) with large, semi-double flowers, was discovered near Waukegan, Illinois, which promises to rival Bechtel's Crab as an ornamental tree for garden use. Both M. ioensis and M. coronaria with other American Crabapples may be seen in the collection at the foot of Peter's Hill and on the left of the Forest Hills Road at its junction with Meadow Road. Enkianthus campanulatus. Among the Azaleas on the top of Bussey Hill this shrub is opening its racemose clustered blossoms which hang beneath tufts of deep green leaves. On some bushes the flowers are flesh-color, on others salmon to reddish crimson; in one they are cream-colored. No two bushes appear to have exactly the same color flowers, but all are remarkably floriferous and the leaves assume brilliant colors in the autumn. This Enkianthus is a shrub of upright habit, widespread on the mountains of Japan where occasionally it forms a tree-like bush. In 1892 it was introduced into the Arboretum where it has proved perfectly hardy in exposed and wind-swept places; even in the Shrub Garden it has scarcely suffered winter injury. Like other members of the Erica family it demands a lime-free soil. Enkianthus perulatus, better known under the name of E. japonicus, is a round habited shrub and a familiar object in almost every garden in Japan. Its natural habit is neat and compact, and no shrub takes on more brilliant hues of scarlet, orange and crimson in the fall. The flowers are pendent, urn-shaped, pure white and produced in umbels. Enkianthus cernuus rubens. This species differs from others in having the corolla irregularly notched. The type has yellowish flowers striped with crimson and is not in cultivation in the Arboretum but rubens~, with deep red blossoms, thrives. Another less ornamental species is E. subsessilis, which hails from the Nikko region of Japan. Though less handsome in blossom than other species its foliage is not one whit less brilliant in the autumn. Enkianthus is a small genus of shrubs, related to Andromeda, all natives of the Far East, where they are found on the Sikkim Himalayas and eastward through China to the mountains of Japan. So far only the Japanese species have proved hardy in this Arboretum. These are worthwhile shrubs, deserving of a place in every garden. The collection may be seen beneath the old White Pines on the top of Bussey Hill. Iberis Tenoreana. A broad patch of this low-growing shrubby Candytuft is now in full blossom in the Shrub Garden. It is useful as a ground cover in sunny places but its greatest value is for the Rock Garden. The blossoms, produced in racemose clusters, are of the purest white. A related species (1. sempervirens) is also well established in the Shrub Garden and flowers later. Rosa Ecae. A large bush of this Rose is now in full blossom in the Shrub Garden. The pale, creamy yellow, five-petalled flowers in which glow masses of yellow stamens, are subtended by small, neat-looking leaves. This is a very hardy Rose, found wild from the wind-swept regions of central Asia westward to north-central China. Upright in habit, with abundant, red-barked, prickly stems, it makes a shapely shrub. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1911 and has not suffered winter injury; neither has any of its branches died. Less showy in blossom than other yellow-flowered Roses, it is easily the hardiest and in some ways the best. From the middle of May, when the leaves first unfold, until the autumn when they change color and fall, the bush emits a delightful fragrance of Sweetbriar. It is just the Rose for a wind-swept corner near the windows of a living room or beneath those of a bedroom, where its wafted fragrance can be appreciated. Wistarias. Unquestionably the most beautiful of all climbers hardy in cool, temperate regions is Wistaria, everywhere so deservedly popular and widely cultivated. The name Wistaria was given in 1818 by Nuttall, to an American plant (W. frutescens) in honor of Dr. Caspar Wistar, Professor of Anatomy in the University of Pennsylvania. The same year John Reeves, an officer of the English East India Company stationed at Canton, China, sent to England a climber which received the name of Glycine sinensis. In 1825, De Candolle correctly referred this plant to Nuttall's genus Wistaria. Today, and for many decades past, Wistaria and Wistaria sinensis in the popular mind have been synonymous. The Chinese Wistaria is native of eastern China and is not completely hardy so far north as Boston, Massachusetts. It requires some protection and this is usually afforded by planting it against houses, but even then in severe winters the flower buds are often killed. In Japan's gardens, paintings and embroideries, a Wistaria bearing very long racemes of flowers is a familiar subject. This plant, widely known as Wistaria multijuga, is a garden form of the wild Wistaria of Japan (W. floribunda), and correctly should be called W. floribunda var. macrobotrys. The species is abundant on the margins of moist woods and especially in thickets alongside streams, ponds and ditches virtually all over Japan, and has racemes from one to one and a half feet long of pale purple flowers. In Japanese gardens forms with white and pinkish flowers are cultivated; also a purple-flowered form with racemes measuring as much as 60 inches. These plants are grown by the side of ponds, and enjoy an unlimited water supply during the time of flowering. Seeds of the Japanese Wistaria were received in this country by Samuel Parsons of Flushing, in 1862, from Dr. George R. Hall. It is hardier than its Chinese relative, has slightly smaller flowers, which, opening later, are fragrant and equally beautiful. The white, purple and pinkish forms are all hardy, and may be grown against buildings, on trellises, or allowed to ramble at will over trees and bushes. There is also a form with ugly double purple flowers. Wistarias are erratic in the matter of flowering, and if raised from seeds decades may pass before any flowers appear. They should be increased by grafts, layers or cuttings from flowering plants, since from such source plants three or four feet tall will blossom freely. Good soil and restricted root room are additional aids to success. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 1","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23853","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060b76f.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JUNE 1, 1927 NO. 9 Bussey Hill. The Arboretum is rich in pleasant and alluring scenes, but at the moment Bussey Hill has pride of place. Masses of vivid blossomed Azaleas compel attention, indeed, the dazzling blaze of , Kaempfer's Azalea (Rhododendron obtusum Kaempferi) almost hurts the eyes. Broad belts of Pinxter Flower (R. nudiflorum) and its fragrant, deeper colored relative, R. roseum, draw the visitor; beyond are sheets of yellow Pontic Azalea (R. luteum), and orange to fiery red R. japonicum. The Enkianthus are a wealth of nodding bells, white, salmon and reddish crimson. Cotoneasters, prostrate or broad bushes, 10 feet tall and more in diameter, are just opening their blossoms and very pleasing are C. apiculata, C. nitens, C. divaricata and others, their branches peppered with globular flowers which have rose-pink in-folded petals. Other species, like C. hupehensis and C. multiflora, have conspicuous white blossoms in small flattened clusters. Many Barberries there are strung with yellow blossoms; some in hanging tassels, some in erect spike-like racemes, others with relatively large blooms, solitary or in few-flowered clusters. Prominent is B. Vernae, with rich yellow, grape-like panicles of small blossoms. Facing the Cotoneasters is a dense, rounded bush of gray-leaved Lonicera syringantha, whose lilac-purple clustered flowers emit the fragrance of Heliotrope. Other Honeysuckles and scores of other plants are coming into bloom in the Chinese Border, which rings the top of Bussey Hill, and the air is saturated with fragrant odors in which that of the Common Lilac plays an important part. Brooms. Not least of the attractions on Bussey Hill is the collection of Brooms with pea-shaped blossoms of varying shades of yellow. The Brooms belong mostly to the genera Cytisus and Genista, and are a very useful class of free-flowering plants little known in American gardens. When rock gardens come into their own these plants will be in great request. The group is essentially European although a few members creep westward into Asia Minor and southward into North Africa. The species, widespread in Europe, are most abundant in the southern and southwestern parts. The family resemblance in habit of growth and in general appearance is very strong. They are twiggy plants with a multitude of slender branches bearing in profusion yellow, white, pink or red-purple, but mostly yellow, blossoms. These are shaped like those of the Sweet Pea with a more boat-shaped keel, gay wings and flaunting standard. The leafage is small, often scant or quite wanting when the green shoots function in its stead. Their Propagation. Several are prostrate in habit forming neat, hummock-like masses sprawling over the ground. These are ideal for planting on boulders or in the rockery. Others are compact bushes from 2 to 4 feet high, neat in appearance throughout the year. They are in abundant bloom from May until August, and most of them set seed freely. Seed is an excellent means of increasing these plants, but some are very susceptible to foreign pollen and several of the finest varieties have originated as chance hybrids. The hybrids must be propagated from cuttings, and this is a good method to practice with all of them. Firm, nearly ripe wood inserted in early August is best. Brooms do not transplant readily so this should be done when the plants are small. Nurserymen should maintain a stock of these in pots for such can then be planted with success at any season when the ground is not frozen. Soil and Situation. Brooms and their kindred are sun-loving plants and perfect air and root drainage are essential to their well-being. A sandy loam from which the water can seep freely away is ideal. They do not object to the best of loam provided the subsoil is gravelly but are happy in quite poor garden soil. Their roots are furnished with nodules rich in nitrifying Bacteria and so they do not exhaust but, on the contrary, tend to enrich the soil in which they grow. They are excellent groundcovers, but are impatient of overhead shade except of a light character. Drought they really enjoy but a water-logged condition spells death. On account of their floriferous character many of them are short-lived. The taller sorts are apt to become straggly and untidy in appearance if not severely pruned. They bear the knife well and as soon as flowering is over can be cut back to maintain the desired shape and size. Provided they are given full exposure to sun and wind and good root drainage all of them can be grown somewhere on the Atlantic seaboard from Massachusetts to Georgia. Dwarfs. For planting on sunny banks or on top of exposed rocks Cytisus purgans, C. Ardoinii, C. Beanii and C, decumbens are admirably suited. All four are prostrate with very numerous, slender radiating branches which form yard- to fathom-wide masses hugging the ground. The best is C. Beanii, a chance hybrid between C. Ardoinii and C. purgans, with large deep golden yellow flowers, borne single or in pairs from each joint of the previous year's growth. So freely does this plant blossom that scarcely anything but flowers is visible. It is quite hardy in the Arboretum but not so its part parent (C. Ardoinii), which has similar flowers C. decumbens has bright yellow flowers clustered in sprays along the shoots. It is perhaps the most thoroughly prostrate of all the Brooms and in June is gay with blossom. Genista pilosa is splendid for bank and rockery. It grows only a few inches high and forms dense tufts several feet through. In June and July each shoot is crowded with clustered yellow flowers. A prostrate plant, with flattened winged stems and racemes of yellow blossoms in June, is G. sagittalis, which is both hardy and accommodating. Cytisus purpureus. Forming tufted masses of stems from 10 to 24 inches tall there are several species of Cytisus and half a dozen of Genista. All are neat in appearance and in season abundant of blossom. A splendid member of the group is the Purple Broom (C. purpureus), which in late May is aglow with rose-purple blossoms. Its stems are a foot and a half tall, spreading into irregular-shaped mats a fathom wide. This is one of the most useful as well as most hardy of all Brooms. Cytisus elongatus is a taller plant with shoots close packed with pale yellow flowers. One of the hardiest of the Brooms it is at its best in late May and June. Two other hardy species are C. glabrescens and C. leucanthus. In the last-named the flowers are cream color, borne in dense terminal heads; in C. glabrescens they are yellow, axillary and clustered. Early Roses. The first Rose to open its blossoms is Rosa omeiensis, native of central and western China. This is a vigorous growing plant, with small fern-like leaves and 4-petalled blossoms shaped like a Maltese Cross, which are followed in late June by scarlet hips, each with a succulent stalk, orange-colored at the base. The stems of this Rose are covered with bristles and flattened, bright crimson, translucent prickles. Rosa Hugonis. This most popular Rose is now opening its saucer-shaped flowers, and soon the stems will be arching sprays of blossoms and the bush a fountain of soft yellow. When thrifty and happy this is one of the most beautiful of hardy shrubs. It should be remembered, however, that the individual shoots of this Rose do not live forever. They die to the ground, and this has caused much disappointment to lovers of this Rose. Courage, however, may be taken in knowledge that if the plant be on its own roots, as it always should be, it will continue over a long period to send up each year stout shoots from the ground and maintain the Rose a long lived, neat shaped bush. The pruning of this and other Rose species consists in the removal of old and worn out canes. Rosa spinosissima altaica. The Altai Rose is expanding its large pure white blossoms. This is one of the most beautiful of all hardy Roses and a fitting companion to R. Hugonis. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1887, and beyond the cutting away of old canes has never required attention. Perfectly hardy and abundantly floriferous, it ought to be grown throughout the colder parts of this country. This, with R. Hugonis and many varieties of R. spinosissima, including the pale yellow flowered var. luteola, may be seen in the Shrub Garden. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 8","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23857","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd0608928.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARN OLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JUNE 8, 1927 NO. 10 Rhododendrons. In the Arboretum June is Rhododendron time and by \"Rhododendron\" is meant the familiar group with large evergreen foliage. A few early sorts blossom in late May but from the beginning until mid-June is their real season in this part of the world. With their bold evergreen foliage and large clusters of handsome flowers Rhododendrons rank among the noblest plants found in the north temperate regions. In Bulletins of previous years much space has been given to discussing them. Unfortunately only a few species and a limited number of garden hybrids can be successfully grown in the Arboretum. In this connection it should be remembered that the latitude of Boston is about the same as that of Rome, Italy. The climate of the two places, however, is very, very different, yet it must be remembered that at the spring solstice the sun is equally high in the heavens in both places and its direct warmth equally great. Usually the ground hereabouts is firmly frozen until April and in consequence the roots of plants are unable to function. The sun's rays cause excessive loss of water from the leaves by transpiration and, since the roots are unable to draw moisture from the earth, the inner tissues of the leaf collapse and death ensues. The fact that New England has virtually no native broad-leafed evergreens indicates clearly that the climate is unsuited to the growth of such plants. Its unsuitability is further emphasized by the fact that, although the northern parts of the world have been ransacked in quest of plant material, very few broad-leafed evergreens have been found that are able to withstand the severe climatic conditions. Situation. Bearing in mind the latitude and the strength of the sun's rays in March it should be obvious to thoughtful people that if they are to have any success with broad-leafed evergreens, and with Rhododendrons in particular, they must be planted in a situation protected from the morning sun; in other words a northerly or westerly slope should be chosen. In the Arboretum they are planted under the lee of Hemlock Hill, but even in this favorable position they suffer more or less every season. A cool acid or neutral soil rich in humus is demanded, and a mulch of Oak leaves is necessary throughout the winter. But the practice of heaping mulch upon mulch over a period of many years is to be condemned, since rain-soaked leaves form a dense mat through which no air can penetrate and the soil in consequence becomes sour. Rhododendrons are surface rooting plants and their root system is a multitudinous network of fibres. Always near the surface roots should be fed and nurtured if healthy plants are to be maintained. From the fact that they have a fibrous root system Rhododendrons can be moved with safety up to almost any size always provided they be not allowed to suffer lack of water afterwards. The Lacewing Fly in recent years has become a bad pest on evergreen Rhododendrons as well as on Laurel (Kalmia latifolia). This insect infests the under surface of the leaves and can be controlled by spraying with Sunoco Oil in the proportion of one gallon to seventy gallons of water applied after the Flies hatch out, which is usually about the end of May or beginning of June. The solution should be applied through a fine nozzle under strong pressure taking care that the spraying be done from below upwards. If the infestation is bad a second spraying should take place within ten days of the first. In August another spraying may be given to take care of stragglers hatching out a second brood. The third spray should be stronger (one to fifty). Hybrids. Most of the evergreen Rhododendrons with bright colored flowers are hybrids of mixed parentage, but those which are hardy here have either the native R. catawbiense or R. maximum as the dominant part parent. A baker's dozen of the best of these hybrids is: with red flowers-Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens, H. W. Sargent; with reddish flowers-Caractacus; with rose-colored flowers-Roseum elegans, Lady Armstrong; with pink flowers - Mrs. Charles Sargent, Henrietta Sargent; with dark purple flowers - Purpureum grandiflorum, Purpureum Elegans; with light purple flowers - Everestianum; with white or nearly white flowers-Album Elegans, Album Grandiflorum, Catawbiense Album. Earlier than these to blossom are the so-called Caucasicum Hybrids of which Mont Blanc, Boule de Neige, Coriaceum, Glennyanum and Cassiope, all with white or nearly white flowers, are growing in the Arboretum. More attention ought to be paid to the Caucasicum Hybrids since they are of good habit and very hardy. Species. North America is poor in species of evergreen Rhododendrons. In western North America there is one, R. californicum, found from British Columbia to California but not hardy in the Arboretum. In eastern North America R. maximum, R. catawbiense, R. minus, R. carnli7aianxcm, R. Chapmanii and R. lapponicum complete the list. The last-named is a circumpolar plant which it has not been found possible to cultivate in the Arboretum; R. Chapmanii is not hardy. R. maximum, the Rose Bay, has handsome foliage, relatively small pinkish blossoms and is an excellent woodland plant. R. cataw6zense is equally good in foliage and has larger flowers but the color is not so pleasing. R. minus has small pink blossoms rather hidden among the young growth. R. carolinianum, the seventh, is a first-class garden plant, hardy, free-flowering and easily accommodated. Of twiggy habit it forms a loose more or less rounded shrub with compact clusters of medium sized flowers varying from white through shades of pink to rosy purple. Planted thickly and allowed to form masses it is most effective, flowering profusely in late May and early June. Like others of the group having gland-dotted leaves, R. carolinianum can be rooted from cuttings ; also it is easily raised from seeds. R. Smirnowii, native of the Caucasus, is the only exotic species of broad-leafed Rhododendron thoroughly happy in the Arboretum. This is a singularly handsome plant with stout branches and 6 inch-long leaves, dark green above and densely clothed on the under surface with a white felt of hairs. The flowers, large and produced in broad pyramidate clusters, vary in color from rose-pink in the bud to pale pink when fully expanded. The presence of a felt of hairs on the underside of the leaves renders this plant immune from the attacks of the Lacewing Fly. Laburnum Watereri. On Centre Street Path a tree of this handsome Laburnum is now laden with golden-yellow blossoms in pendant racemes 6 to 8 inches long. This Laburnum is a hybrid between the so-called Scotch Laburnum (L. alpinum) and the common Laburnum (L. anagyroides better known as L. vulgare). The Scotch Laburnum is characterized by smooth, bright green leaves and long racemes of yellow blossoms, and is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. A large plant may be seen on the right just within the Forest Hills Gate. The Common Laburnum, which has smaller leaves, grayish on the underside, and shorter racemes of blossoms, has not proved so satisfactory. The hybrid L. Watereri is intermediate in character between its parents, and, fortunately, partakes strongly of the hardiness of its Scotch parent. Laburnums are small trees, which bear in profusion pendant racemes of yellow flowers. The genus is interesting not only on account of its beauty, but as the only endemic genus of trees Europe boasts. Neillia sinensis. Among the Chinese shrubs on top of Bussey Hill and also on Centre Street Path this pleasing plant is blossoming freely. Of twiggy growth, with arching, ascending-spreading branches, it makes a rounded bush from 4 to 6 feet tall. It has ovate, long pointed, coarsely toothed leaves with prominent stipules and terminal racemes of pink blossoms. Introduced from the mountains of central China in 1907, it has proved floriferous in the Arboretum. Asimina triloba. Slender trees of this interesting American plant are in full blossom on Centre Street Path. Of fetid odor the nodding lurid purple flowers, each about 1 1\/2 inches across, are produced on the naked stems, usually singly from the axils of the previous year's leaves. The fruit is oblong-cylindric, from 2 to 6 inches long, with a thin glaucous, yellowish skin, and edible pulp. The plant suckers freely and the tendency is to form small groves. The Pawpaw, to use its Indian name, is widespread from New York to Florida and west to Nebraska and Texas. It is interesting as the only member of the large family Annonaceae (Custard Apples) that can be grown in north temperate regions. Most of the members are tropical and yield highly appreciated fruits. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23854","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060bb25.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JUNE 14, 1927 NO. 11 Mid-June is a season of blossom in great plenty on shrub, tree and vine. In the Shrub Garden, on Bussey Hill and along Centre Street Path, shrubs in rich variety are in full flower. At the base of Hemlock Hill the evergreen Rhododendrons are at their best, and just beyond the Kalmias are bursting into bloom. Here, there and everywhere blossoms shine forth and visitors may be assured of a feast of color no matter at which gate they enter the Arboretum. Rhododendron calendulaceum. On the western slopes of Bussey Hill and amid the Oaks and Hickories broad masses or isolated groups of the Flame Azalea are now ablaze. This, the most gorgeous American Azalea, though not found wild north of Pennsylvania, is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts. It is a shrub, from 6 to 10 feet (sometimes as much as 15 feet) in height and breadth, which is easily accommodated in ordinary lime-free garden soil and in June produces clusters of flowers, rich yellow through shades of orange and red to orange-scarlet. The pleasantly fragrant flower has a slender tube, wide-spreading lobes and outthrust stamens, all uniform in color. The Flame Azalea has been extensively planted in the Arboretum, where at this season it forms arresting patches or broad thickets of blossoms. Being a good species it comes true from seeds, which is the best means of propagating it. Spiraea trichocarpa. In the Shrub Garden and on Centre Street Path this Spiraea is blossoming freely. A shrub of dome-shaped habit some 4 to 6 feet tall and more in diameter, it has arching, angular stems furnished with prominent buds and elliptic-lanceolate leaves, dark green above, paler below, smooth and toothed at the apex only. The flowers are borne in 3- to 4-inch broad, compound clusters at the ends of short, leafy branchlets transforming the shoot into arching plumes and the whole bush into a fountain of white. Native of Korea, it is one of the Arboretum's introductions. Seeds were received in 1917 and the plants raised have proved perfectly hardy. It is a valuable addition to a useful group of shrubs. Spiraea nipponica, better known as S. bracteata, is a shapely bush with the usual fountain-like habit of its tribe. The flowers, produced in neat rounded clusters at the ends of short, leafy, erect branchlets, crowd the stems for several feet of their length. The umbels are dense and simple and rather prim in appearance. Native of Japan, this is the best Spiraea of its class from that country. Spiraea Henryi. As the two Spiraeas mentioned above pass out of blossom the flowers of S. Henryi commence to open. This is a vigorous growing species, native of the mountains of Central China from whence Wilson introduced it some twenty-five years ago. It makes a bush some 8 to 12 feet tall and has ascending-spreading stems, the outer ones arching over, clad with blossoms for 3 to 6 feet of their length. The leaves are gray and hoary on the under surface, deep green above with prominently impressed veins and are coarsely toothed in the apical part. The flowers are white, produced in compound clusters each from 3 to 5 inches broad. It is a perfectly hardy, vigorous growing shrub and like the two mentioned above must be included among the best half-dozen species of Spiraea in cultivation. Scotch Roses. In the Shrub Garden several varieties of Scotch or Burnet Roses are now in full bloom. These are much-branched plants which sucker freely from the roots and form rounded billowy masses from 2 to 3 feet tall and 6 or more feet through. They have the old fashioned Rose fragrance, are exceedingly floriferous, and are very pleasing and accommodating shrubs. Of the semi-double named sorts flowering in the Shrub Garden attention may be drawn to Dominie Sampson with pink, King of the Scots with rose-pink, and Iris with cream-white flowers. These old-fashioned Scotch Roses are forms or hybrids of Rosa spinosissima. At one time a great many sorts were grown in gardens but the Hybrid Perpetual, Hybrid Tea and Rambler Roses have driven them out to the loss of those who love the simple and beautiful among Roses. The typical R. spinosissima is taller and more lax in habit and has single pink or white blossoms, each about an inch and a half across, which are followed by black fruits. There are many natural varieties of this Rose, the best of which is that of the Altai Mountains illustrated in Bulletin No. 9 of this year. Rosa Harisonii. So far as the experience of the Arboretum goes this is the best of the hardy, double-flowered yellow Roses. Originated about 1830 by crossing the Austrian Briar (R. foetida, better known as R. lutea), with the Scotch Rose (R. spinosissima), it soon became a great favorite and was carried far and wide in this country. It is a feature of many New England gardens as well as of those in the St. Lawrence Valley and west around Niagara and Lake Michigan. Perfectly hardy, each season it covers itself with a wealth of rich yellow blossoms. In the Arboretum it is an eminently satisfactory Rose whereas the Persian Yellow Rose (R. foetida persiana) and the double yellow Chinese R. xanthina do very poorly. Magnolia Watsonii is now in full blossom on the Centre Street Path and attracts attention unto itself by the heavy, spicy odor emitted by its blossoms. The flower is more or less saucer-shape, from 5 to 6 inches across, with sepals, pinkish on the outside, and cream-colored petals, in the centre of which is seated a prominent mass of reddish pink anthers, each on a blood-red filament. It produces flowers after its leaves are fully grown. The origin of this Magnolia is not known. It was sent to Paris from Japan in 1889. Some authorities consider it a hybrid between M. obovata, better known as M. hypoleuca, and M. parviflora. In Japan it forms a small tree, sometimes 20 feet tall, with a broad crown. In the Arboretum it is a straggling bush, of no particular shape, but free-flowering and quite hardy. Kolkwitzia amabilis is now in blossom on Bussey Hill, in the Shrub Garden and on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, where a young and vigorous plant is flowering for the first time. Every succeeding year emphasizes the garden value of this plant for which the descriptive title of Beauty-bush has been aptly coined. It is a twiggy shrub, growing from 6 to 8 feet tall, with the inner stems erect or ascending and the outer ones arching to the ground, the whole plant forming a dome-shaped mass. The flowers are produced along the whole length of the branches in clusters at the ends of short, leafy shoots. They are tubular with a gaping mouth, deep pink without, stained with yellow- brown on the lower throat and lip. The pedicels and ovary are clad with spreading, white, bristle-like hairs which add to the attractiveness of the inflorescence. The graceful habit of the plant, its free-flowering qualities and pleasing color, combined with perfect hardiness, make this one of the most beautiful, as well as most useful, shrubs that China has given to the gardens of this country. It was introduced into cultivation by Wilson in 1902 and has been growing in the Arboretum since 1907. The parent plant on Bussey Hill has been much mutilated for propagating purposes, and from it, either by seeds or cuttings, has originated the whole stock of this plant in America. Related to the Weigelias or Diervillas, it is far more beautiful than any of them and is destined to become one of the most familiar plants in our gardens. Lonicera Korolkowii floribunda. In the Shrub Garden this floriferous variety of the Persian Honeysuckle is now a thing of great beauty. Of twiggy habit, with a mass of gray foliage, and pink, gaping flowers, it looks from a distance like a cloud of mist shot with pink. A number of other Honeysuckles, including L. Maackii and its variety podocarpa, are in bloom. With pure white, gaping blossoms standing erect along the branchlets, L. Maackii is an attractive shrub. The type has the larger flowers but the variety is most handsome in fruit, which ripens late and remains in good condition until early December. Both are vigorous growing, tree-like, scarlet-fruited shrubs, perfectly hardy and reliable. On the trellis in the Shrub Garden the hybrid L. prolifera is opening its clustered heads of orange-yellow flowers. Like all its group it suffers from the attacks of aphids, and must be frequently sprayed with some nicotine solution. These Climbing Honeysuckles, of which L. prolifera is a type, are free growing, useful vines which not only produce flowers in quantity but also heads of scarlet or orange-scarlet translucent berries. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23855","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd0608126.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JUNE 15, 1927 NO. 12 Kalmia latifolia, the Mountain Laurel, is the broad-leafed evergreen par excellence for northern gardens. Native though it be, and strangely this is always a disadvantage, it has won the respect of garden lovers for the exquisite compelling beauty of its blossoms can neither be disputed nor ignored. A mass of restful green for eleven months of the year, in June an unmatched wealth of loveliness-a myriad flowers each artfully fashioned, burst into clouds of white and delicate pink. Beyond the collection of evergreen Rhododendrons and continuing around the foot of Hemlock Hill, the broad belt of Mountain Laurel is fast opening its blossoms. The border is several hundreds of yards long and there are groups on the opposite side of the road. In all more than a thousand large plants are laden with broad, rounded clusters of white or pink blooms, each a fluted chalice with stamens bent backward, tense and ready to spring forward and dust with pollen every honey-seeking bee. No flower on close inspection reveals more beauty of construction, and none in mass or individual cluster are more lovely. Varieties. Man has done nothing toward adding to the beauty or variety of the Mountain Laurel, and the few different forms known are natural ones. On the right of the path which leads through the Kalmias to the top of Hemlock Hill and just where it begins there are several forms of interest to the curious. One (fuscata) has a chocolate band conspicuous within the cup, another (polypetala) has the corolla deeply cleft into narrow lobes, another (myrt2folaa) is a dwarf with short leaves and small flower clusters, and another (obtusata) has broad, handsome blunt leaves. On the opposite side of the main roadway is a group of Sheep Laurel (K. angustifolia), low-growing, with dull, rosy-red flowers, and another of the Pale Laurel (K. glauca), slender of habit with purplish rose-colored, saucer-shaped blossoms. Sun-Roses. Among the Barberries and Cotoneasters on Bussey Hill broad patches of Sun-Roses are a feature, and in the forenoon, star the ground with many-hued blossoms. For sunny positions these make excellent ground covers and in light, well-drained soil are much hardier than is generally supposed. The plants themselves are only a few inches high but each shoot terminates in a 6-inch long raceme of blossom, white, yellow in many shades, orange, pink, rose-color, and varying shades of red to crimson. The Arboretum has been acquiring seeds of these plants under various names from different botanic gardens in Europe. Most of them are color forms of the common Helianthemum nummularium, better known as H. vulgare. A visit to Bussey Hill will speedily convince the garden-lover that for the rockery and as ground covers in sunny positions Rock Roses are a race of desirable plants. Potentilla tridentata is another excellent ground cover. A suffruticose plant, it has a slightly wooded rootstalk, ascending 6 to 10 inches high stems, terminating in loose clusters of white flowers. The leaves are lustrous, dark green, 3-foliolate and usually toothed at the apex, from which its specific name is derived. Planted in open, sunny situations, it spreads into a broad carpet. Potentilla fruticosa Veitchii. This shrubby Cinquefoil with pure white blossoms is singularly like a wild Rose in general appearance. In the Shrub Garden it has been in full blossom for a couple of weeks and will continue to bloom intermittently until late autumn. Native of the higher mountains of central and western China, it is extremely hardy. The yellow-flowered Potentilla fruticosa is just opening its brightly colored blossoms. This is an excessively variable plant, widespread m pastures and rocky places throughout the boreal regions of the globe. Ceanothus ovatus and its variety pubescens are now opening their white flowers in the Shrub Garden. These are much-branched shrubs of upright and spreading habit found wild from New England west to Nebraska, Colorado and Texas. The flowers are borne in small clusters at the ends of leafy shoots. Sophora vicifolia is a loose, thorny shrub, varying in size from 2 feet to straggling bushes 8 or 10 feet tall and broad, with white, tinged with blue, pea-shaped blossoms. Widespread in China, especially in warm dry valleys and in the more arid regions generally, it is a free-flowering bush, but one that does not transplant readily. Nurserymen handling it should grow the plant in pots. Enkianthus subsessilis is the least showy member of the family but is in bloom when the flowers of its relatives are past and on this account is valuable. It has terminal, hanging racemes of tiny yellowish-white, urn-shaped flowers. In the fall, like other members of the family, its leaves assume brilliant autumn tints; in this species yellow being the dominant note. Styrax japonica. The large bushy tree on Centre Street Path of the Japanese Styrax is now fast opening a multitude of pure white, hanging bells. Though a very common tree on the edge of woods and thickets throughout Japan and introduced into this country as long ago as 1862 it is still rare in gardens. This is possibly due to the fact that it transplants badly and, like many other things, ought to be raised in pots. When properly established in a situation to its liking, it is one of the most beautiful of the lesser trees. It flowers in great abundance, sets seeds readily, and each year thousands of seedlings spring up from beneath the tree. On Bussey Hill there is a healthy specimen of the large-leafed S. obassia. This is a tree, or tree-like shrub, from 20 to 30 feet tall, with Witch-hazel-like leaves and pendent, bell-shaped flowers arranged on erect racemes. The flowers, which are fragrant, open during the first ten days of June. It is more vigorous and more hardy than S. japonica, but unfortunately its blossoms are much hidden among the foliage. Both are trees of quality, which ought to be more widely known and more generally planted. Deutzias are a group of June-flowering Oriental shrubs, deciduous, accommodating, abundantly floriferous, but alas! a little on the tender side in the Arboretum. However, several of the species and many of the hybrids do moderately well and a fair collection may be seen along the Centre Street Path; others in the Shrub Garden and on Bussey Hill. On the mountains of southwestern China, Abbe Delavay discovered a Deutzia (D. purpurascens) with white flowers, suffused with rosy purple on the outside. He sent seeds to Monsieur M. de Vilmorin in 1888, and some of the resultant plants passed to Lemoine, of Nancy. Apart from pink-tinted forms of D. scabra, all the Deutzias known at that date had white flowers and Lemoine proceeded quickly to make good use of his newly acquired treasure. He crossed it with all the species he could obtain and the results were remarkable. The hybrids secured gave to gardens a new race of Deutzias and completely altered our conception of the genus. Crossed with D. Sieboldiana Delavay's find yielded D. elegantissima, with flowers suffused with rose-color, its very similar form, fasciculata, and the white-flowered arctuata. More beautiful are the hybrids with D. gracilis to which the name D. rosea has been given. The type of the race has open, bell-shaped flowers, pinkish without and each nearly an inch across. Of the many forms of D. rosea mention may be made of carminea with flowers rosy purple on the outside, eximia, floribunda and grandiflora with pinkish flowers; the forms campanulata, venusta and multiflora have white flowers in abundance. The hybrid D. rosea crossed with D. Vilmorinae produced the upright panicled D. carnea, which has flowers pink without. Another race (D. maliflora), with flowers rosy purple outside, resulted from crossing D. purpurascens with the hybrid D Lemoinei. The raiser gave the name Fleur de pommier to this cross and called one colored form Boule rose, and a white one Avalanche, all very descriptive titles. The handsomest of all the D. purpurascens hybrids, however, is D. kalmiaeflora, obtained by mating with D. parviflora. This is a graceful habited shrub with a multitude of flowers, pale rose-color on the inside, deeper without. All the hybrids of D. purpurascens are remarkable for their abundant star-like blossoms which are exceedingly pleasing both in the opening bud and expanded flower. On the whole they are hardier than their parent species, and all garden lovers owe a debt of gratitude to the illustrious Frenchman for these, not the least of his manifold gifts to gardens. E. H. W. Subscription to this Bulletin $1 per year. Back numbers available."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 25","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23856","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd0608527.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JUNE 25, 1927 NO. 13 Philadelphus is a group of flowering shrubs that deck gardens in June with a cloud of white blossoms. The genus is found in the temperate regions of North America, Europe and Asia, and with the exception of one species all have white or yellowish white blossoms. The exception is the Mexican P. Coulteri and its hybrids, none of which is hardy in the Arboretum. What we may call the original member of the genus (P. coronarius) has been cultivated in European gardens from very early times. Native of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, its strong fragrance probably made it a favorite among the Greeks and Romans. Later, when the Lilac was brought into cultivation, the two plants were confused under the name of Syringa. This confusion, which began many centuries ago, still exists in the popular mind. In Lobel's \"Stirpium Historia,\" published in 1576, on page 540, Philadelphus coronarius is figured under the name of Syringa italica and the Lilac under the name of Syringa caerulea lusitanica. It is of the over-powering fragrance of Philadelphus coronarius that Gerard in 1597 complains and not of that of the Lilac. This fragrance is strongly reminiscent of orange blossoms, hence the common name of Mockorange. Tournefort in his \"Institutiones Rei Herbariae,\" published in 1700, proposed the generic name of Lilac for the plant we now know by that name and that of Syr7nga for the plant we call Philadelphus or Mockorange. He figured them (t. 372 and t. 389) under these names so there can be no mistake as to his meaning. It is a great pity that Tournefort's names were not adopted since the confusion would thus have been ended forever. Unfortunately, in 1735, Linnaeus, on whose system modern classification is based, gave the generic name of Syringa to the Lilac and Philadelphus to that of the Mockorange. The European species remains today the most strongly fragrant of all the Philadelphus, although in beauty it is surpassed by a great many of its relatives. It is to be found here, there and everywhere in old gardens of New England, especially on Cape Cod, and it was probably one of the first plants brought to this country. It flowers during the first half of June and has cream-colored blossoms in erect, cymose clusters. A species very similar in habit, flower and fragrance is P. pekinensis, native of northern China. The first American species of Philadelphus to be cultivated in Europe was P. inodorus, a tall, much-branched shrub, often 15 feet high, with arching branches and large pure white flowers without any odor. It was cultivated by Philip Miller in the Apothecaries Gardens at Chelsea in 1738. Catesby in 1743 figured it (t. 84) in his \"Natural History of Carolina,\" and states that the only tree of the kind he saw was growing on the bank of the Savannah River near its cataracts. Since those early days a large number of species have been discovered in this country and in Asia and introduced into gardens. Moreover, the hybridist has been busy with the result that a very great number of hybrids are in cultivation. The Philadelphus season extends over six weeks, from the last week in May to the first of July. In the collection facing the Lilacs and in the Shrub Garden some 112 species, varieties and hybrids may be seen growing. New Asiatic Species. Philadelphus sericanthus, which was introduced from China about 1896, is remarkable for the odor of its blossoms which suggests that of Vernal Gr ass (Anthoxanthum odoratum) or even new mown hay. This is a large shrub, some 12 feet high, with ascending-spreading branches and short, racemose clusters of flowers, each not more than an inch across and facing downward. A related species with longer racemes and slightly larger flowers is P. subcanus, also from China. In this the flowers have the odor of Lemon-scented Verbena. Perhaps the most pleasing of the newer Chinese species is P. purpurascens. This is a spreading bush, some 6 to 8 feet in height, with arching stems crowded with ascending racemose clusters of flowers. The flowers suggest those of a Deutzia and are cupped, rather small, with purplish calyx and lemon-colored anthers and have the fragrance of Sweet Peas. The contrast between the calyx and the snow-white petals adds distinction to this plant. Philadelphus microphyllus. From the garden point of view the most useful of all American species, as well as one of the most distinct, is P. microphyllus, native of Colorado, New Mexico and Arizona, but, unfortunately, scarcely hardy in the Arboretum. This is a shrub of graceful habit with upright and spreading branches, small, lustrous leaves and abundant white blossoms emitting the fragrance of Quince fruit. This species has been of immense value to the hybridist. Lemoine crossed it with P. corottari2cs and originated P. Lemoinei, of which a great many forms are now cultivated in our gardens. They are hardier than the American species, blossom in great profusion and rank among the most worthy shrubs. Many of them are fountain-like in habit and in season whole branches are transformed into plumes of blossom. Among the best known sorts are Avalanche, Mont Blanc, Candelabre, Erectus with single, and Boule d'argent with double-white flowers. The hybrid P. Lemoinei crossed probably with P. tnStgn2S gave rise to P. polyanthus, another very free-flowering hybrid of which Gerbe de neige, Pavillon blanc and Favorite are the best known examples. By intercrossing P. Lemoinei with some double-flowered variety Lemoine obtained P. virginalis, some forms of which are among the most popular of all Mockoranges. All have more or less semi-double blossoms, borne several together and varying in size from 1 to 2 inches. Next to the type itself the best known sorts are Bouquet blanc, Glacier and Argentine. Crossed with P. grandiflorus or some related species, P. Lemoinei has given rise to P. cymosus with its many varieties of which we may mention Conquete, Mer de glace, Rosace and Voie lactee with single, Banniere with semi-double flowers, and the handsome Norma with single or double, cupped blossoms with wax-like petals. Some of the species of Philadelphus hybridize freely among themselves and several of the handsomest plants in cultivation have originated as chance hybrids. One of the first of these to attract attention was P. insignis, often called Souvenir de Billiard in memory of the man in whose garden it was found, which originated in France about 1870. Another handsome hybrid of unknown origin is P. monstrosus. One of the most vigorous growing of all Mockoranges, this forms a bush of tree-like habit, 15 to 20 feet tall, with ascending, somewhat spreading, branches and racemose-cymose flowers, each blossom 1 1\/2 inches across. Of the large-growing Philadelphus perhaps the handsomest of all is P. splendens, which originated as a chance hybrid in the Arboretum. It is possibly a cross between P. grandiflorus and P. Gordonianus. Whatever its parentage it is a magnificent garden plant, with stout, ascending-spreading stems, dark green leaves and bold ascending clusters of pure white flowers each 1 1\/2 to 3 inches in diameter, with prominent yellow anthers and a slight but pleasant odor. Rugosa Hybrid Roses have a great future before them in the colder parts of New England since they combine great hardiness with handsome blossoms. The hardiness they get from the parent R. rugosa, a very old inhabitant of gardens, native of the northeast Asia littoral and abundant in Japan, where it is known as a Sea-tomato from the size and color of its fruits. Being a maritime plant it has special use for seashore gardens, and this combined with its hardiness give it a field of wide usefulness. Two Hybrid Rugosa Roses were raised in the Arboretum by the late Jackson Dawson. One, named Lady Duncan, obtained by crossing R. rugosa with R. Wichuraiana, is of trailing habit with glowing rose-pink blossoms Another is R. arnoldiana, whose parents were R. rugosa and the Rose General Jacqueminot. The Arnold Rose is a bush with erect stems, good foliage, and large, rich red, single flowers. The parentage of the other Rugosa Hybrids is obscure. One of the first and best is Madame Georges Bruant, which has white, semi-double flowers appearing on the plant intermittently from summer until autumn. Handsome and distinct is Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, with large, clustered, semi-double pink flowers. A sport with white flowers is Nova Zembla. Blanc double de Coubert has clustered, semi-double, pure white blossoms. New Century has double, rose-pink flowers, and Roseraie de L'Hay dark red, fading to maroon, richly fragrant flowers, each 3 inches across. A trailing Rose with pure white blossoms is R. Paulii, better known as R. rugosa repens alba, and one of the handsomest and most distinct of these hybrids. Max Graff is of similar habit with pure pink blossoms and lustrous foliage. Lastly, mention may be made of F. G. Grootendorst, familiarly known as the Carnation Rose, with bright red, fringed petaled blossoms. This is a splendid subject for hedges round gardens by the sea. The roses named and many others may be seen in the Shrub Garden. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 9","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23852","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060b36e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JULY 9, 1927 NO. 14 July has seldom found the foliage in the Arboretum looking more luxuriant than at the present time. Favored by a generous rainfall the shrubs and trees have made excellent growth. The Oaks and the Conifers in particular are looking their best. Catalpa and Linden trees, together with a miscellaneous variety of shrubs, are in bloom, and suffruticose Woadwax (Genista tinctoria) spears the grass with abundant yellow beneath Pine, Oak and Hickory. Alongside Bussey Brook, round the ponds and in the meadow in front of the Administration Building, bushes of the American Elder (Sambucus canadensis) are sheets of white. This Elder may be termed a coarse shrub, more fit for the edge of lake and woodland and wild places in general than for the garden proper, but none will deny that it is a striking subject. Each and every shoot terminates in a broad flat cluster of pure white flowers, and these are speedily followed by heavy masses of jet black fruits which hang in bunches from colored stalks. It has a place in large gardens and the countryside in July would be shorn of much beauty did it disappear. Another conspicuous native shrub just passing out of blossom is Viburnum pubescens, so abundant in Massachusetts and elsewhere. Its southern variety (Canbyi), which closes the Viburnum season of blossom, is now at the height of beauty. When given proper room to develop this is a broad, round-topped shrub, 18 feet high and more in diameter, each shoot terminating in a 4-inch broad, convex corymb of white flowers. It has larger flower-clusters and broader, thinner leaves than the type. Both have clustered, small, globose, blue-black fruits. Rhododendron arborescens is flowering freely this season. On Bussey Hill are drifts of this Azalea; clumps are planted by the roadside just within the Centre Street Gate and elsewhere in the Arboretum. Truly this delightful shrub ought to be more abundantly grown. It is of shapely habit with twiggy branches forming a dense, rounded mass. The leaves are green on the upper side and gray beneath with conspicuous reddish petioles. The flowers, each 2 inches across, are tubular with spreading lobes, pure white or flushed with pink and borne several together in terminal clusters. The far outthrust crimson-pink stamens and pistil, with jet black stigma, are prominent features. Its fragrance of Honeysuckle is perhaps not so strong as in the related Swamp Honeysuckle (R. viscosum) but it is a very superior garden plant. The Swamp Honeysuckle is also in blossom, scenting the air for some distance around. These two species bring to a close the Azalea season which opened in the Arboretum early in April with Rhododendron danricum mucronulatum. Spiraea Veitchii is the last of its group to blossom and one of the best of the whole Spiraea tribe. It is a tall growing bush with stems some 10 to 12 feet high, ascending and spreading, the outer arching downward and outward, forming a dome-shaped mass. The leaves are oval from 3, to 1 inch long, quite entire, dark green above and grayish on the underside The flowers are produced at the ends of short lateral shoots in flattened cymose clusters, each from 1~ to 4 inches across, which are developed along the shoots for half their length. The individual flowers are small, of a deep cream color and have the odor of English Hawthorn. Bees find it a very attractive plant, judging by the number that visit the specimen on Bussey Hill and others along Centre Street Path. This Spiraea is one of Wilson's introductions from western China where it is a common plant above an altitude of 6,000 feet. Holodiscus discolor is another summer flowering shrub noticeable at this time of the year. Closely related to the Spiraeas, this is a bush with arching branches and broad ovate coarsely toothed leaves densely clothed with gray tomentose hairs on the lower surface. The flowers are borne in large spreading, often hanging, paniculate masses which terminate lateral shoots. Native of western North America it was introduced into gardens in 1827 by David Douglas. The type now-a-days is less frequently seen than the variety ariaefolius which is distinguished by having leaves light green and merely pubescent on the under side. The plants flower in the utmost profusion and are exceedingly graceful in habit. They sometimes make bushes 12 feet high and as much as 40 feet through, thriving equally well in full sunshine or in the shade of thin woods. In books, Holodiscus is more frequently spoken of under the name of Spiraea from which genus, however, it differs in that the fruit capsule does not open to liberate the seeds. Specimens may be seen in flower on Centre Street Path and in the Shrub Garden. Deutzia longifolia is in blossom among the Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill. This appears to be one of the hardiest of the Chinese Deutzias and is certainly one of the best. The flowers vary in color from pale rose-purple to almost rose pink, and the broad, flattened stamen filaments are of the same color as the petals. This Deutzia is a shrub from 3 to 5 feet tall and as much in diameter, with oblong, lance-shaped pointed leaves, dark green, much wrinkled above and gray on the underside. The flowers, in clusters at the ends of short leafy shoots, are each from to of an inch across and the erect, much-flattened stamen filaments form a prominent corona in the center of the flower. Bulletin 12 told something of the Hybrid Deutzias raised by Lemoine. Bearing in mind the wonderful improvement he wrought with less noteworthy species, it is evident that hybridists of the future have in D. longifolia a plant rich in possibilities. Hydrangea paniculata praecox. The familiar Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora with huge heads of white flowers has been planted in overwhelming quantities throughout the length and breadth of this country. This is a monstrous form of a variable shrub, common on the margins of woods and thickets throughout Japan- monstrous in that all its flowers are neuter and have conspicuous petals, a condition also found in the Snowball Bush. Although in no sense related, it is interesting to note that it is only in Hydrangea and Viburnum that heads of neuter flowers are known amongst hardy plants. The typical H. paniculata has pyramidal heads of flowers in which conspicuous 4-partite neuter flowers are thinly scattered. It is a much more handsome plant than the mop-like form so ardently cultivated in this country. An early flowering form, known as praecox, is just opening its blossoms in the Shrub Garden, and is a shrub well worth the attention of all interested in hardy plants. It blooms ahead of the type and is of vigorous habit with ascending stems each terminating in a graceful pyramid of blossom often more than a foot long. Leptodermis oblonga. In the border along the Centre Street Path may be seen commencing to flower two small plants of this interesting ornamental shrub. It belongs to the family which includes the Button Bush (Cephalanthus occidentalis) and the Partridge Berry (Mitchella repens) but most of its woody members are tropical and very few can be grown out-of-doors in Massachusetts. This Leptodermis, the only species of the genus hardy in the Arboretum, is a twiggy shrub seldom exceeding 3 feet in height, with small, oblong leaves and dense clusters of flowers terminating in short shoots. The flowers are rich purple, tubular, each inch long with short spreading lobes, and continue to open from now until early autumn. The plant is well suited for sheltered but sunny positions in the rockery. Lonicera Henryi with pinkish purple, gaping flowers and black fruits would have little claim to be considered an ornamental plant were it not for the evergreen character of its foliage. On this account it is a most useful addition to the limited number of evergreen vines hardy in New England. Henry's Honeysuckle has oblong, lance-shaped leaves, each from 2 to 3 inches long, dull green above and lustrous on the underside. It is splendid for clothing walls or trellises or for rambling over rocks. The foliage is abundant and the plant is not weedy in habit or so luxuriant in growth that it cannot easily be kept within bounds. It may be seen on the trellis in the Shrub Garden and among the Chinese shrubs on the Bussey Hill. Cytisus supinus, with capitate clusters of yellow flowers terminating each foot long shoot, is in blossom. In Bulletin 9 attention was drawn to the garden value of the various Brooms and those who visit Bussey Hill and the Shrub Garden at the present time will have ample proof of this. Conspicuous in both places are rounded masses of C. nigricans bearing a multitude of rich yellow blossoms. Of neat compact habit and absolute hardiness, this is one of the best of the subshrubs which blossom after mid-summer has passed. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 16","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23850","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060ab6c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JULY 16, 1927 NO. 15 Vines. Two outstanding features of the New England countryside which impress visitors from Europe are the low abundant undergrowth of Vaccinium and related shrubs, and the rampant, jungle-like growth of vines. The latter give quite a tropical appearance to our thickets and woodland margins during the summer and early autumn months. Such a luxuriant tangle of climbing growth is unknown in Europe. Foremost among the strong-growing wayside climbers are different kinds of Vitis, such as the Fox Grape (Vitis labrusca), the Summer Grape (V. aestivalis), and the Frost Grape (V. vulpina). In the Arboretum vines of different sorts are freely used to cover walls and fences, and in the Shrub Garden a collection is maintained on a wire trellis supported by concrete posts. In these positions vigorous growing vines are seen to great advantage, but only those perfectly hardy can withstand such rigorous conditions. The Wine Grape of the Old World (V. vinifera) is too tender, but several oriental and a goodly number of American species thrive. Oriental Grapevines. One of the noblest of all the Grapevines is the Japanese Vitis Kaempferi, better known as V. Coignetiae. This has broad, heart-shaped leaves, often more than a foot across, dark lustrous green and netted above, clothed on the underside with a felt of russet hairs. In the autumn the leaves change to brilliant scarlet and crimson and no vine is more striking in this respect. It is a very vigorous grower which in the moist forests of Japan climbs to the tops of trees 60 feet and more tall, and in thickets, glades, and the margins of woods and swamps makes an impenetrable jungle. The fruit is jet black, globose and edible, although harsh in flavor. It is widespread in Japan, especially in the colder parts. An equally hardy species, less vigorous in growth and with smaller leaves, is V amurensis, widespread in eastern Siberia and throughout Korea. Another handsome species is the Japanese V. pulchra, similar in appearance to the Amur Grape but with red-veined and petioled foliage. Very distinct is V. Davidii with shoots densely clothed with prickles and large, metallic-green, heart-shaped, pointed leaves, each a foot long, pale on the underside and changing in the autumn to scarlet and crimson. Unfortunately it is less hardy than other Oriental Grapevines mentioned. American Grapevines. On the trellis in the Shrub Garden no fewer than fourteen American species of Vitis have proved perfectly hardy. Among the handsomest are V. cinerea, V. Lecontiana and V. Doaniana. The first-named grows abundantly on the riverbanks of the Mississippi Valley from Illinois to Texas. A vigorous plant, it has leaves dark green above, ashy gray below and, like the young shoots, clothed when they unfold with a felt of gray hairs. V. Lecontiana or V. bicolor, with thick, trilobed leaves, each from 8 to 10 inches across, dark, lustrous above and glaucous below, is found from New Hampshire westward to the Mississippi Valley. A comparatively new species, native of the Texas Panhandle, is V. Doaniana. This is quite hardy in the Arboretum and is a first-class plant with large, pale bluish green leaves very firm in texture. Less vigorous, but very pleasing in habit, is the Sugar Grape (V. Champinii), with small, shining, metallic-green leaves and reddish shoots. For covering trellises, arbors and walls the native Grapevines are invaluable and their merits deserve wider recognition. Parthenocissus quinquefolia. The Arboretum is often asked to name the hardiest of self-clinging vines suitable for growing against buildings. When the foliage alone is considered the answer is Parthenocissus quinquefolia, which is hardy as far north as Ottawa and clings to walls and buildings by means of discs at the ends of the tendrils. There are several varieties, the best being murorum and Saint-Paulii, with rather broad leaves, and Engelmannii, which differs from the type only in smaller leaflets. In the trade this climber is sold usually under the name of Ampelopsis Engelmannii. Ampelopsis aconitifolia. This luxuriant, slender-stemmed vine with finely divided foliage is a favorite plant in gardens and this favoritism is well deserved for among climbers there is no more elegant plant. Its finely divided leaves are lovely throughout the summer months, although they drop in the autumn without marked change of color. The fruit, produced in slender hanging bunches, is at first somewhat bluish changing to orange or yellow when ripe. More beautiful is A. brevipedunculata and its variety Maximowiczii, with fruits changing from a pale lilac and coppery green to bright porcelain blue. Sometimes they are whitish, and on any one plant in autumn these different colored fruits may be seen. A handsome variety is citrulloides, whose finely divided foliage simulates that of A. aconitifolia. In gardens these plants are known generally as A. heterophylla. One is often asked how to distinguish between Vitis, Ampelopsis and Parthenocissus. Now all true Vitis have fibrous, shredding bark, whereas the other two have a firm compact bark that does not shred. The Ampelopsis climb by means of tendrils which have no discs at the tip, whereas in Parthenocissus the tendrils are furnished with adhesive discs. For adhering to walls or buildings it is always Parthenocissus that should be planted. Tripterygium Regelii is a twining vine native of Korea and Japan, where it often scales to the top of the tallest trees. Of more than ordinary interest and beauty, this plant is deciduous and has spotted brown stems, the bark on the old stems exfoliating in layers. The leaves are large, broadly ovate, serrate and shortly accuminate, with reddish petals, bright green and somewhat wrinkled on the upper surface. The flowers are borne in terminal, thyrsoid panicles, each from 8 to 18 inches in length. The individual blossoms are small, multitudinous in number, emit the fragrance of new mown hay, and are speedily followed by white, bladder-like fruits. For its foliage, its flowers or its decorative fruits, this climber is well worthwhile. Planted against a trellis, wall, post or tree, it makes rampant growth and flowers profusely in mid-July. By pruning it can be grown as a bush in the same manner as the Climbing Hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris) can be fashioned. In bush form both these plants are distinctly pleasing, and the fact that they can be so grown gives them a double value in gardens. T. Regelii was introduced into cultivation in 1905, by the Arnold Arboretum, from seeds collected by J. G. Jack, near Seoul, the capital of Korea. The plant has never suffered winter injury nor from attacks of fungus or insect pests. Readily propagated by seeds, cuttings or from suckers, which are freely produced from its roots, there is no reason why this plant should remain rare in American gardens, where for those in the colder parts it can be thoroughly recommended. Spiraea virginiana, native of Virginia, North Carolina and Tennessee, is a comparatively newly discovered species, introduced into cultivation in 1907. It is a slender stemmed shrub, growing about 4 feet high, with arching branches furnished with oblong leaves, entire or with a few teeth near the apex, dull dark green above, pale below, and broad, rounded, cymose clusters of white flowers. Flowering in July it is a useful addition to gardens. In may be seen in bloom in the Shrub Garden. Late Spiraeas. Among the showy shrubs at this season of the year are various Spiraeas with pink to crimson colored flowers, many of which are of hybrid origin. An old favorite is S. bumalda \"Anthony Waterer,\" a low growing shrub with abundant, yard high, erect stems, each terminating in a broad flattened cluster of bright crimson flowers. Another hybrid, with pleasing pink blossoms, is S. Margaretae, To obtain the best results from these and their kindred the plants should be cut to the ground each spring. A group with spicate panicled masses of pink or white blossoms terminating the shoots is represented by S. tomentosa, the Hardhack, so abundant in moorlands of New England, the St. Lawrence Valley and elsewhere. Distinguished by the gray or yellowish gray under the surface of its leaves, this plant has little garden value. More beautiful are the western species S. Menziesii and S. Douglasii, both with flowers of pleasing shades of pink. The white or pinkish blossomed S. latifolia, S. alba, and the Old World S. salicifolia also bloom at this season of the year and may be seen in the Shrub Garden. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 30","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23851","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060af6d.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I JULY 30, 1927 NO. 16 Mahonia Aquifolium. The season of flowers on tree and shrub is now fast approaching its end, and brightly colored fruits are beginning to display themselves. The Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) and its many varieties and hybrids are now laden with scarlet fruits, and here and there an orange-colored form is conspicuous. Particularly handsome in the Shrub Garden is the Oregon Grape, as Mahonia Aquifolium is commonly called. Unfortunately, this plant is none too hardy in the Arboretum, but last winter it suffered little damage and in the spring bore in great profusion panicled masses of rich yellow flowers. It is now laden with bloomy blue-black clustered berries suggesting bunches of small grapes, showing how appropriate is its common name. Native of western North America, where it is found from British Columbia to Oregon, this Mahonia has long been a favorite garden shrub. Its polished, pinnate foliage, dark green above and gray on the under surface, is handsome at all seasons of the year and during the winter months it is richly tinted crimson and purple. Where it can be grown there is no more handsome evergreen shrub of moderate height so suitable for making low masses under trees. More hardy is the dwarf M. repens, but its gray-green foliage is less attractive. Hypericums are now in blossom in the Shrub Garden and in the border to the right of the Lindens entering from the path near the Administration Building. The half-dozen species that can be successfully grown in this climate are all shrubs of very moderate size, and by pruning can be kept as dense, rounded masses from 2 to 5 feet high. The stems and branches are clothed with thin, scaly red-brown bark and the flowers, freely produced at the ends of the shoot, are rich yellow in color with a brush-like mass of stamens the dominant feature. One of the most handsome is H. prolificum, found wild from New Jersey to Georgia and west to Iowa. Perhaps the most vigorous of the hardy species, it is characterized by its short-petioled, narrow-oblong leaves, each from to 3 inches long, dark green and shining above. H. aureum is similar but smaller with larger flowers and bluish green leaves. Another species is H. Lobocarpum with narrower leaves and smaller flowers in dense cymes forming terminal panicled clusters. These are less handsome than the large flowered Eurasian H. calycinum and the hybrid H. Moserianum, so much planted in European gardens, but, unfortunately, not hardy in Massachusetts. This is much to be regretted, for no plants are better suited for forming ground-covers under trees than these St. Johns-worts. The Japanese H. patulum has not proved a success in the Arboretum, neither has its Chinese variety Henryi fulfilled expectations. Less hardy than at first supposed, it merely exists, which is unfortunate, for with its rich, butter-yellow blossoms, each 2 inches across, it is one of the handsomest of the whole tribe. Calluna vulgaris. Heather is now opening its flowers and the different varieties will give a continuity of bloom until the end of August. There are white, pink, and crimson-purple forms, and many different habit types of Heather but all belong to one species. In many parts of the British Isles, and various districts of continental Europe, on open moor and hillside, Heather covers mile upon mile and in August forms one of the great floral displays of the year. The Scotchman's love of Heather is well known but he is not alone in his admiration of this lovely little plant. Heather is much more hardy than is generally supposed and may be grown successfully over the greater part of New England and other regions enjoying a similar climate, always supposing that lime be absent from the soil. It loves full exposure to sun and winds and must not be coddled. Clipping low in the spring results in a wealth of cheery, bright green, erect shoots which as August approaches are transformed into spikes of white, pink and red-purple blossoms. It is an excellent ground-cover but like other plants of this type does not transplant readily from the open ground. Propagated by cuttings or by seeds and carried along in small pots, it may be planted with success from spring until high summer. The secret of its successful culture is full exposure and an annual spring clipping. In districts where a decent snowfall prevails no winter protection is necessary, but where the snowfall is sparse a few Pine boughs should be thrown across the plants to break the direct rays of the sun in late February and March. Heather should be planted much more abundantly in New England, not only for its beauty, but as a ground-cover and mulch among Azaleas and other choice surface-rooting shrubs. Buddleia Davidii, more widely known as B. variabilis, is one of the best late-flowering shrubs China has given to our gardens. It is not perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and the precaution is taken of rooting cuttings each autumn and placing out fresh plants in the spring. Severe pruning, a rich loamy soil, full sunshine and abundant water are the essentials for the success of this plant. The flowers are produced in tail-like masses which terminate each shoot, and when well grown, these may be anywhere from 18 to 30 inches in length. The color varies from pale to rich violet-purple. Of the varieties, magnifica with crinkled, slightly recurved petals and dark purple blossoms, and superba with a very dense inflorescence, are perhaps the best. A popular and very good form is that known as Veitchiana. Aesculus parviflora is the last of the Buckeyes to blossom. Usually this happens about mid-July but this year it will be the first week of August before the flowers are fully expanded. Native of the southeastern states, this is a broad, round-topped, much branched shrub some 6 to 10 feet high. Every branch terminates in a long, narrow, erect spike of small, white flowers in which the out-thrust stamens with pink anthers are conspicuous. This is an old plant worthy of greater attention than is now bestowed upon it. It requires a good soil and a moist situation, and is splendidly suited for massing on the edge of woods. It suckers freely and established clumps generally blossom in two tiers. A good example of this American plant may be seen on the edge of the Oak woods flanking the Buckeye collection on the right of Meadow Road. Clethra alnifolia, the Pepperbush, is one of the most common as well as the most sweetly scented of native shrubs. Abundant in swamps, woodlands, and moist places from Maine to Florida, its blossoms fill the air with fragrance in late July and August. Unfortunately the leaves are too often disfigured by attacks of red spider, but this year the bushes in the Arboretum are clean and healthy. A second species, known as C. tomentosa, blooms later. Hailing from North Carolina and Florida this is quite hardy in the Arboretum and may be distinguished from the common Pepperbush by a covering of white hairs on the lower surface of the leaves. Another American species is C. acuminata, native of the southern Appalachian Mountains. This is not so attractive in blossom as the species already mentioned, but its polished cinnamon-brown stems make it singularly attractive in the winter season. The only other species grown in the Arboretum is the Japanese C. barbinervis. This has spreading inflorescences of pure white nodding flowers and is the first of the Pepperbushes to blossom. Widespread in Japan, in the Nikko region and elsewhere, it is often a bushy tree 30 feet tall. It is the handsomest of the Clethras hardy in New England. Acanthopanax ricinifolius is one of the noblest trees of the cool, temperate regions. It occurs wild, scattered through moist forests from the extreme south to the limits of northern Japan, but is most abundant in Hokkaido, where it grows to a large size and specimens 80 feet tall with a trunk from 15 to 20 feet in girth are not rare. It Korea and central and western China it is also a valuable timber tree. In old trees the bark is gray and deeply furrowed, the branches thick and spreading to form a flattened or rounded crown. In young trees the branches are erect-spreading and both they and the trunk are armed with short, scattered, stout spines. The dark green leaves on long stalks are very like those of the Castor-oil plant (Ricinus), hence the specific name. Each branchlet terminates in a broad, flat compound cluster of white flowers which are rapidly followed by small, jet-black fruits. The large and handsome palmate leaves give this tree a tropical appearance, yet it is perfectly hardy and quick-growing and thrives in ordinary garden soil but prefers a moist situation. So far as is known it is not attacked by any insect or disease. A fine specimen about to burst into blossom may be seen by the pond near the Forsythias. E. H. W. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until October."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 15","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23864","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070b76c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I OCTOBER 15, 1927 NO. 17 The wet season has suited the Arboretum splendidly; the trees and shrubs have made good growth and this is ripening well, thanks to a dry September. For the second week of October the foliage is everywhere remarkably green. There is color among the Maples and Hickories, the Asiatic Cork trees and the Flowering Dogwood, but trees and shrubs in general are late in assuming their usual autumn tints. Whether it will be a favorable season in this respect, it is difficult to say, but the Oaks ought to be exceptionally fine. Ornamental fruits are much fewer than usual and daily grow less through the gluttony of that voracious feathered alien, the starling. In flocks these birds descend on bush and tree and greedily devour every fruit. The Hawthorns are well laden with fruit but the Viburnums, Honeysuckles, and even Barberries are less freely dowered than is customary. Of flowers in the Shrub Garden there remain blossoms on Buddleia Davidii and its varieties, on Elsholtzia Stauntonii, and on the suffruticose Chrysanthemum sibiricum growing on Bussey Hill. Cotoneasters. At the present moment Cotoneasters are the most attractive shrubs in the Arboretum. Many are fruiting very abundantly and the garden value of these shrubs becomes more evident year by year. A great many of the best are recent introductions from central and western China, and it would appear that, as a group, Cotoneaster is the best of the Wilson introductions into this country. Cotoneasters are Old World shrubs not represented in the flora of this continent. They are closely related to the Hawthorns, differing in having entire leaves and no thorns. The flowers are white or pinkish and have either small, upright or larger and spreading petals. They are borne few or many together in clusters along the branches; occasionally they are solitary. The plants are in blossom from May until the end of June. In fall they are heavily burdened with red or black, rarely brown-purple, fruits either globose, oval or egg-shape, which in many species remain on the bushes with little loss of brilliancy far into the winter. Several boast fine autumn coloring. In habit of growth they present great diversity. Some like C. Dammeri are prostrate groundcovers, rooting as they trail over the soil; others are bushes of medium or large size. C. microphylla, C. adpressa, and C. horezontal2s are especially well suited for the rockery or for planting on or against walls and stone work. A majority, however, are best as specimens on lawn and border where they have room to display to advantage their graceful habit of growth, their beauty of blossom and fruit. For cold parts of the country such as C. lucida and C. acutifolia are fine for making hedges. The red-fruited varieties especially are most decorative garden plants. Anyone interested in these shrubs should pay a visit to Bussey Hill, where a complete collection of the species and varieties hardy in this part of the world may be seen. Cotoneasters are lovers of sun and wind and demand full exposure to the elements; a well-drained situation, a loamy soil are other essentials, and if lime be present so much the better. A weak point about the family in general is that they do not transplant readily from open ground, especially the low-growing varieties, but, if pot-grown, dwarf Cotoneasters can be transplanted with assured success at almost any season of the year. The larger growing species are less particular. Cotoneasters for Flower and Fruit. The great decorative value of Cotoneasters in general lies in their fruit but there are several whose beauty of blossom rival that of Spiraeas. Three of the best of these are C. racemiflora var, soongorica, C. hupehensis, and C. multiflora, all of which have flattened clusters of white, Hawthorn-like flowers borne freely all along the stems. The first-named has rigid branches arranged to form a broad, rounded bush from 6 to 10 feet high and more in diameter, gray-green foliage owing to the presence of a covering of hairs and large, coral-pink fruits. If the gray-green leaves do not afford sufficient contrast to show off the flowers to advantage, ample amends are made in September when the whole plant is necklaced in coral pink. The fruit is relatively large and so abundantly produced that the stems appear as ropes of beads. The fruit ripens early and falls before the winter sets in but throughout September the bush is conspicuous from afar. The others (C. hupehenesis and C. multiflora) have dark green leaves and whip-like, arching and spreading branches which form fountain-like masses of white in early summer; in the autumn they are strewn with crimson fruits. Both are very hardy, free-growing shrubs from 8 to 10 feet high and from 10 to 15 feet through. Combining the qualities of abundant blossom and wealth of brilliant fruits, C. racemiflora var. soongorica and C. hupehensis may be accounted two of the most valuable shrubs that the Arboretum has introduced into gardens. Red-fruited Cotoneasters. Deservedly the most popular of red-fruited Cotoneasters is the Chinese C. horizontalis, characterized by its flat, sail-like or frondose branching habit. In climates rather milder than that of New England it is sub-evergreen, but it is quite hardy although fully deciduous north of Massachusetts. In the open border it makes broad, hummock-like, irregular masses a yard high possessed of much character in habit. Planted against a wall- stone for preference- it can with little difficulty be trained to form a close screen. Placed on top of low walls it grows into an irregular thicket of singular charm. The flowers are abundant, pinkish but not conspicuous; its fruits are about the size of a pea, bright red to scarlet and brilliantly jewel the branches in the dullest of winter days. Beside the type there is var. perpusilla with smaller leaves, and var. Wilsonii of more even, although loose, habit of growth. Topping a boulder in the rockery or planted in a crevice and allowed to spread itself at will C. horizontalis and its forms rank among the most useful, pleasing and decorative shrubs gardens possess. Cotoneaster apiculata with intricately placed, closely overlapping branches forms mounds a yard high and is now studded with lustrous bright scarlet berries. It has rather thin, roundish, dark green leaves and is well-suited for planting among rocks. A closely related and equally delightful species is C. adpressa of tufted habit with larger leaves and fruits. Cotoneaster divaricata is of the medium-sized species, one of the best. It forms a wide-branched, densely twiggy bush from 5 to 6 feet tall and much more in diameter, and is now profusely laden with dark scarlet fruits. It has small, oval, dark green leaves which before they fall assume brilliant shades of crimson. A handsome shrub with arching, spreading branches and clustered scarlet fruit in abundance is C. Dielsiana, or C. applanata as it is also called. This will grow full 10 feet tall and as much through with branches arching over to the ground. There is a variety (major) with larger leaves and another (elegans) with coral-red fruits and sub-evergreen foliage. Another fine species is C. Zabelii which has slender branches, dull green leaves and bright red hanging fruits. This is a broad shrub growing some 6 feet high and its foliage turns bright yellow in the autumn. More pleasing than the type is var. miniata with orange-red fruit. The tallest of the red-fruited Cotoneasters is C. bullata and its varieties, macrophylla and flor2bunda, which grow into broad, round-topped bushes from 8 to 10 feet high. The branches are gracefully arching, the leaves deeply wrinkled, especially in var. floribunda, which ripens its fruit rather later than var. macrophylla. Both have lustrous, bright scarlet fruits in clusters along the branches. Black-fruited Cotoneasters. The black-fruited Cotoneasters have less garden merit than their brethren with red fruit, but C. moupinensis and C. foveolata are worthy of a place on account of their orange to scarlet autumn-tinted foliage. These are hardy, vigorous shrubs growing from 10 to 12 feet tall and as much in diameter, with abundant clusters of black fruits. Slender arching stems, lustrous leaves and jet black fruits characterize C. nitens and C. tenuipes, recent acquisitions from western China. For the middle states and colder parts of the country in general C. melanocarpa, C. acutifolia and C. lucida with clustered black fruits are to be recommended. Also they have much merit as hedge plants, being of shapely growth withstand clipping well and are of iron constitution. E. H. W."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 10","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23863","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd070b36b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":"Wilson, E. H.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION SERIES 3. VOL. I NOVEMBER 10, 1927 NO. 18 Autumn Foliage. At the autumn season of the year brilliantly colored foliage attracts the eye on all sides. The Maples, Hickories and other trees, whose leaves color early, have shed their foliage but the Oaks, the noblest group of trees in eastern North America, are now at their height of glory, being later this year than is usual. The Scarlet, Red and White Oaks take on ruddy tints varying from reddish purple and crimson to red. The Black, and Swamp Oaks develop imperfect shades of orange to leather-brown tints. All the Oaks hold their autumn-colored leaves longer than other trees and often we enjoy their color from mid-October to mid-November. Where deciduous-leafed trees are associated with Conifers, the landscape effect in the autumn is immensely heightened. The contrast between the brilliant tinted foliage on the one hand and the dark green of the Conifers on the other is very impressive. One is often asked the why and wherefore of autumnal tints-a simple question not easy to answer, but briefly the metamorphosis is effected as follows: At the approach of winter leaves, which cannot withstand frost, cease to function as food factories and the residue food substances are conveyed from the leaf-blade into the woody branches and there stored, chiefly in the form of starch, until the season of growth recommences the following spring. The leaves from which everything useful has been transported form nothing more than a framework of cell-chambers containing waste products, such as crystals of calcium-oxalate, which are thrown off with the leaves and help to enrich the soil. But while the process of food evacuation is going on. other changes take place. In many plants a chemical substance, known technically an anthocyanin, is produced in the leaves and often to technically as anthocyanin. is produced m the leaves and often to such an extent as to become plainly visible on the exterior. In the presence of free acids in the cell-sap it appears red, blue when no acids are present, and violet when the quantity of acids is small. In a great many leaves the chlorophyll bodies, which contain the green coloring matter, become changed to yellow granules. Sometimes these yellow granules are few and anthocyanin is absent, then the leaf except losing its freshness exhibits little outward change before it falls. In others the yellow granules are abundantly developed, and if anthocyanin is absent or nearly so the whole leaf assumes a clear yellow hue. If there is an abundance of yellow granules together with free acids and anthocyanin the leaf assumes an orange color. Thus the leaf at the period of autumnal change by the presence of these substances in a greater or lesser degree loses its green hue and becomes brown or yellow, crimson or orange, purple or red. Tsuga caroliniana. In these Bulletins attention has been frequently called to this magnificent Conifer. Each year its merits become more and more apparent. The dark green of its foliage is restful at any season of the year and the hummock-like arrangement of its branches give it much character. It is certainly, as a specimen, among the most beautiful Conifers that are hardy in New England. Witch-Hazels have the distinction of being the last shrubs to blossom in the autumn and the first to put forth their flowers in the spring. Indeed, it is sometimes possible to find flowers on the common Witch-Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) at Christmas and opening buds on another American species (Hamamelis vernalis) early in the new year. The flower-buds in all the species are formed early in autumn and are strung along the stems in clusters, each of which singularly resembles the pad of a pussy's foot. They are good shrubs for planting in close proximity to the house and are excellent subjects for town gardens. They do not object to smoke, dust and draught of streets and give a display of blossoms long before other shrubs. The genus is confined to eastern North America, Japan and China. In all half a dozen species with several varieties are recognized and of these four species and six varieties are growing on Centre Street Path and by the pond near the junction of Meadow and Forest Hills Roads. At this season of the year the common Witch-Hazel (H. virginiana) is everywhere a feature in the open woods and thickets, where its clear yellow foliage is conspicuous. As the leaves fall the star-shaped blossoms become apparent. A strong growing bush, it is very much like a Hazelnut in habit and often 15 to 20 feet tall and as much through. On account of its robust growth it is the least desirable for the garden, the town garden especially, being better accommodated on the margins of woodlands. As a rule the flowers are not so abundantly produced as in other species although on occasions the common Witch-Hazel produces its blossoms in the utmost freedom. Different bushes open their flowers at different times and it is possible in stretches of woodland to find it in bloom from mid-October to mid-December. This species has a very wide distribution, being found from Canada south to Georgia, west to Nebraska and Arkansas. There is a variety in which the petals are stained with reddish brown and, curiously enough, a similar color variation appears in another American species and in the Japanese H. japonica. Hamamelis vernalis. A better specific name for this would have been \"Hiemalii\" since it flowers in the winter rather than in the spring. This is a shrub with upright branches growing from 5 to 8 feet tall and suckering freely from the base forms a broad clump or thicket. It is native of the gravelly river banks and beds of Missouri, Louisiana and Oklahoma and was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum so recently as 1908. The Vernal Witch-Hazel has smaller flowers than the other species but is the most floriferous of all. The curiously jointed strap-shaped petals are contractile. It has blossomed in the Arboretum as early as January 6th and at any time during that month a warm spell of weather will cause the blossoms to open. If the temperature falls suddenly the petals contract and become in-folded. On the appearance of mild weather they open and with falling temperature fold up again. It is rather interesting to watch the game of hide and seek the petals of this Witch-Hazel play with Jack Frost. The typical plant has light yellow petals, reddish towards the base. There is another form, not yet named, of which the petals are deeply suffused with reddish brown. Another variety, tomentella, has leaves more densely hairy and glaucescent on the under surface. For its abundance of blossom and its early flowering qualities this Witch-Hazel ought to be freely planted in the town gardens of New England. The flowers emit a delightful spicy odor of almonds. Hamamelis japonica. This Japanese species is similar in habit to H. virginiana and grows to an even larger size, being sometimes 25 feet tall and as much in width. The flowers are larger and more abundantly produced than is usually the case in the common Witch- Hazel. They appear early in March. In the type the petals are clear yellow and the cupped sepals are usually purple on the inside. A variety named arborea is of tree-like habit with golden yellow petals, calyx deep purple on the inside and purple anthered stamens. Another variety, Zuccariniana, also of tree-like habit with the branches more ascending than in the type, has lemon-yellow petals and the calyx greenish yellow within. A third variety recently introduced from Japan and named flavo-purpurascens has more or less reddish brown petals but this is not of much garden value. Hamamelis mollis is a Chinese species and the best of the family. It has larger flowers with -broad petals, golden yellow except at the base which is reddish. The leaves are strongly veined and densely clothed with soft woolly hairs on the underside. It is native of the Yangtzse Valley region of east-central China, being common in open woods and thickets from the Hupeh province eastward. All the Witch- Hazels are hardy and may easily be propagated by grafting on H. virginiana. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until April of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Series 3 Volume I","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23849","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd060a76b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO SERIES 3 VOLUME I Synonyms are in italics illustrations in black face type Acanthopanax ricinifolius, 64 Acer saccharinum, 1 Aesculus parviflora, 63 - parviflora, 62 Altai Rose, 35, 36 Amelanchier alnifolia, 10 - amabilis, 12, 21 - asiatica, 12, 21 -- sinica, 12 - Bartramiana, 12 - canadensis, 8, 10 - florida, 12 - grandiflora, 11 - grandiflora, 100 2014 2014 rubescens, 10 - humilis, 10 - laevis, 10 - oblongifolia, 10 - ovalis, 12 - sanguinea, 12, 21 - spicata, 10 - stolonifera, 10 --vulgaris, 12 American Azaleas, 26 - Beech, 21 - Crabapples, 29, 30 - Elder, 53 - Grapevines, 58 - Plums, 14 Ampelopsis aconitifolia, 58 - brevipedunculata, 58 -- citrulloides, 58 -- Maximowiczii, 58 - Engelmannii, 58 - heterophylla, 58 Andromeda glaucophylla, 16 - polifolia, 16 Annonaceae, 40 Anthoxanthum odoratum, 50 Apricots, 2 Arboretum, The, 21 Arnold Rose, 52 Asiatic Cork-tree, 65 - Crabapples, 17, 18, 20, 29 - Magnolias 5, 21 Asimina triloba, 40 Azalea, 21, 53 - Anthony Koster, 28 - Louisa Hunnewell, 28 - pontica, 28 -yedoensis, 26 Azaleas, 1, 25, 30, 33 Austrian Briar, 42 Autumn-flowering Cherry, 4 Autumn Foliage, 69 Barberries, 33, 45, 65 Beach Plum, 14 Beauty-bush, 43 Bechtel's Crab, 29, 30 Berberis Dielsiana, 21 -Vernae, 33 Black-fruited Cotoneasters, 68 Black Oak, 69 Brooms, 33, 34, 36, 56 Buckeyes, 62, 63 Buddleia Davidii, 62, 65 -- magnifica, 62 - - superba, 62 -- Veitchiana, 62 -variabilis, 62 Burnet Roses, 42 Bussey Hill, 21, 33 Button Bush, 56 Calluna vulgaris, 62 Canadian Plum, 14 Candytuft, 30 Caragana arborescens, 24 -- Lorbergii, 24 -- pendula, 24 --nana, 24 - chamlagu, 24 - frutex, 24 --xerophytica, 24 - Maximowicziana, 24 - microphylla, 24 - pygmaea, 24 Carles' Viburnum, 16 Carnation Rose, 52 Carolina Hemlock, 1 Castor-oil plant, 64 Catalpa Trees, 53 Ceanothus ,ovatus, 46 - - pubescens, 46 Cedars of Lebanon, 1 Cephalanthus occidentalis, 56 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 21 Chaenomeles japonica, 16 - lagenaria, 14 -- nivalis, 14 - - Simonii, 14 - Maulei, 16 Chamaedaphne calyculata, 16 Cherries, 1 - double-flowered, 22 China Peach, 1 Chinese Almond, 6 - Deutzias, 54 - Forsythias, 2 - Pears, 8 Sand Pear, 8 - Wistaria, 32 - Witch-hazel, 1 Chrysanthemum sibiricum, 65 Cinquefoil, 46 Clethra acuminata, 64 - alnifolia, 64 - barbinervis, 64 -tomentosa, 64 Climbing Honeysuckles, 44 - Hydrangea, 60 Common Apple, 17, 29 - Apricot, 2 - Laburnum, 40 - Lilac, 33 - Plum, 22 Conifers, 26, 53, 69 Cotoneaster acutifolia, 66, 68 - adpressa, 66, 68 - apiculata, 33, 68 - applanata, 68 - bullata, 68 -- floribunda, 67 -- macrophylla, 68 - Dielsiana, 68 -- elegans, 68 -- major, 68 - divaricata, 33, 68 - foveolata, 68 - - horizontalis, 66, 68 --perpusilla, 68 -- Wilsonii, 68 j - hupehensis, 33, 66 - lucida, 66, 68 - melanocarpa, 68 - microphylla, 66 - Dammeri, 66 - moupinensis, 68 - multiflora, 33, 66 - nitens, 33, 68 - racemiflora soongorica, 66 - tenuipes, 68 - Zabelii, 68 -- miniata, 68 Crabapples, 1, 18 Crataegus arnoldiana, 21 Cucumber-tree, 6 Custard Apples, 40 Cydun2c~ japonica, 14 Cytisus, 33, 36 - Ardoinii, 34 - Beanii, 34 - decumbens, 34 - elongatus, 36 - glabrescens, 36 - leucanthus, 36 - nigricans, 56 - purgans, 34 - purpureus, 36 - supinus, 56 Deutzia elegantissima, 48 - - arcuata, 48 - - fasciculata, 48 - gracilis, 48 - kalmiaeflora, 48 - Lemoinei, 48 - longifolia, 54 - maliflora, 48 -- Avalanche, 48 2014 2014 Boule rose, 48 - - Fleur de pommier, 48 - parviflora, 48 - purpurascens, 48 - rosea, 48 --campanulata, 48 -- carminea, 48 - - eximia, 48 -- floribunda, 48 -- grandiflora, 48 --multiflora, 48 --venusta, 48 - scabra, 48 - Sieboldiana, 48 - Vilmorinae, 48 Early Roses, 36 Elsholtzia Stauntonii, 65 English Hawthorn, 54 Enkianthus, 33 - campanulatus, 30 - cernuus rubens, 30 - japonicus, 30 -perulatus, 30 - subsessilis, 30, 46 Erica carnea, 1 _ European Shadblow, 12 Exochorda Alberti, 24 - Giraldii, 24 -- Wilsonii, 22 - grandiflora, 24 - Korolkowii, 24 - macrantha, 24 - serratifolia, 24 Fir, 18, 21, 25 Flame-Azalea, 28, 41 Flowering Dogwood, 65 Food for Birds, 18 Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, 2 - ovata, 2 - suspensa, 2 Fox Grape, 57 Frost Grape, 57 Gean, 13 Genista pilosa, 34 - sagittalis, 36 - tinctoria, 53 Ghent Azalea. 28 Glycine sinensis, 32 Hamamelis japonica, 1, 70, 72 - - arborea, 72 - - flavo-purpurascens, 72 - - Zuccariniana, 72 - mollis, 1, 72 - vernalis, 70, 72 - - tomentella, 72 - virginiana, 70, 72 Hardhack, 60 Hawthorns, 65 Hazelnut, 70 Heather, 62 Helianthemum nummularium, 46 - vulgare, 46 Henry's Honeysuckle, 56 Hickories, 21, 65, 69 Highbush Blueberry, 16 Hobblebush, 16 Holodiscus discolor, 54 - - ariaefolius, 54 Honeysuckles, 33, 44, 53, 65 Hybrid Deutzias, 54 - Rugosa Roses, 52 Hydrangea paniculata, 56 - - praecox, 55 - - praecox, 56 -- grandiflora, 56 - petiolaris, 60 Hypericum aureum, 61 - calycinum, 61 - lobocarpum, 61 - Moserianum, 62 - patulum, 62 -- Henryi, 62 - prolificum, 61 Iberis sempervirens, 30 - Tenoreana, 30 Iowa Crabapple, 29, 30 Japanese Black Pine,1 --Cherry Shogetsu, 23 -Cherries, 4, 21, 22 - Spring Cherry, 3 - Styrax, 46 - Wistaria, 32 - Witch-hazel, 1 Juneberries, 9 Kaempfer's Azalea, 25, 26, 33 Kalmia angustifolia, 45 - glauca, 45 - latifolia, 47 -latifolia, 38, 45 - - fuscata, 45 --myrtifolia, 45 - - obtusata, 45 --polypetala, 45 Katsura, 21 Kobushi, 5 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 43 -amabilis, 44 Korean Azalea, 24 76 Laburnum alpinum, 40 - anagyroides, 40 -vulgare, 40 - Watereri, 40 Late Spiraeas, 60 Laurel, 38 Leather-leaf. 16 Lemon-scented Verbena, 50 Leptodermis oblonga, 56 Lilac, 1, 49 Linden Trees, 53 Lonicera Henryi, 56 - Korolkowii floribunda, 44 - Maackii, 44 - - podocarpa, 44 -prolifera, 44 - syringantha, 33 - tatarica, 61 Magnolia acuminata, 6 - conspicua, 5 - denudata, 5 - hypoleuca, 44 - kobus, 5, 6 - liliflora, 5 - obovata, 44 - parviflora, 44 - purpurea, 5 - Soulangeana, 7 - Soulangeana, 5 - stellata, 5 - - rosea, 5 - Watsonii, 42 Mahaleb, 22 Mahonia Aquifolium, 61 - repens, 61 Maples, 65, 69 Malus arnoldiana, 18 - baccata, 17 - - mandshurica, 18, 20 coronaria., 29, 30 --Charlottae, 30 floribunda, 17, 18, 21 - fusca, 29 Halliana, 17, 18 - ioensis, 29, 30 -- plena, 29 Sargentii, 17, 18, 20 - spectabilis, 17 - theifera, 19 - theifera, 17, 20 - toringoides, 17, 20 - transitoria, 20 Manchurian Apricot, 2 Mazzard, 13, 22 Moosewood, 16 Mockoranges, 49, 52 Mollis Azaleas, 28 Morello Cherries, 13 Mitchella repens, 56 Mount Fuji Cherry, 4 Mountain. Laurel, 47 Mountain Laurel, 45 Neillia sinensis, 40 Oaks, 21, 2b, 53, 65, 69 Oregon Grape, 61 Oriental Grapevines, 57 Quinces. 21 Pale Laurel, 45 Parthenocissus quinquefolia, 58 -- Engelmannii, 58 -- murorum, 58 -- Saint-Paulii, 58 Partridge Berry, 56 Pawpaw, 40 Peaches, 2 Pearl Bush, 22 Pepperbush, 64 Persian Yellow Rose, 42 Philadelphus, 49 - Avalanche, 50 - Banniere, 52 - Boule d'argent, 50 - Candelabre, 50 - coronarius, 49, 50 --, history of, 49 - Coulteri, 49 - cymosus, 52 - - Conquete, 52 - - Mer de glace, 52 -- Rosace, 52 -- - Voie lactee, 52 Erectus, 50 - Favorite, 50 - Gerbe de neige, 50 - Gordonianus, 52 - grandiflorus, 50, 52 - inodorus, 49 --, history of, 50 - insignis, 50, 52 - Lemoinei, 50 -microphyllus, 50 - monstrosus, 52 - Mont Blanc, 50 - Norma, 52 - Pavillon blanc, 50 - pekinensis, 49 - polyanthus, 50 - purpurascens, 50 - sericanthus, 50 - Souvenir de Billiard, 52 - splendens, 51, 52 - subcanus, 50 - virginalis, 50 Pieris floribunda, 16 - japonica, 16 Pine, 18, 21, 25, 53 Pinus Thunbergii, 1 Pinxter Flower, 26, 33 Pontic Azalea, 33 Potentilla fruticosa, 46 -- Veitchii, 46 - tridentata, 46 Prinsepia sinensis, 12 - uniflora, 12 Prunus, 13 - americana, 14 - armeniaca, 2 --mikado, 2 - avium, 13 --plena, 13 Cerasus, 13 --multiplex, 13 -- plena, 13 -- ranunculiflora, 13 -- Rhexii, 13 Davidiana, 1, 2 - incisa, 4 - japonica, 13 -- Nakaii, 13, 14 - Lannesiana, 22 - - grandiflora, 22 -- Ukon, 13 -mandshurica, 2 - maritima, 14 -- flava, 14 - nigra, 14 serrulata, 22 -- sachalinensis, 4, 22 2014 2014 2014 albo-rosea, 22 -- - Fugenzo, 22 ---- Horinji, 22 --- Kanzan, 22 --- Kirin, 22 - - - Shogetsu, 22, 23 - sibirica,2 _ - subhirtella, 3, 4 - - ascendens, 4 - - autumnalis, 4 - - pendula, 4 - tomentosa, 6 -triloba,6 --multiplex, 6 -- simplex, 6 - yedoensis, 4 Purple Yulan, 5 Pyrus Calleryana, 8 - serotina, 8 - serrulata, 8 - ussuriensis, 8 Red Oak, 69 Rhododendron arborescens, 28, 53 - calendulaceum, 25, 28, 41 -californicum, 38 - canescens, 26 - carolinianum, 38, 40 - catawbiense, 38 - Caucasicum Hybrids, 38 --- Boule de Neige, 38 ---Cassiope, 38 --- Coriaceum, 38 ---Glennyanum, 38 --- Mont Blanc, 38 - Chapmanii, 38 - dauricum mucronulatum, 25, 26, 54 - japonicum, 26, 33 - - aureum, 28 luteum, 28, 33 - maximum, 38 - minus, 38 - molle, 28 - nudiflorum, 26, 33 - obtusum Kaempferi, 25, 26, 33 - reticulatum, 26 - roseum, 27 - roseum, 26, 33 - Schlippenbachii, 24, 26 - Smirnowii, 39, 40 -Vaseyi, 25, 26 - viscosum, 25, 28, 54 - yedoense poukhanense, 26 Rhododendrons, 1, 37, 45 - Hybrid, 38 - - Album Elegans, 38 - - - Grandiflorum, 38 -- Atrosanguineum, 38 - - Caractacus, 38 -- Catawbiense Album, 38 -- Charles Dickens, 38 -- Everestianum, 38 - - Henrietta Sargent, 38 - - H. W. Sargent, 38 --Lady Armstrong, 38 -- Mrs. Charles Sargent, 38 Purpureum Elegans, 38 - - - grandiflorum, 38 - - Roseum elegans, 38 Ribes cereum, 1 Ricinus, 64 Robinia, 2 Rosa arnoldiana, 52 - Ecae, 30 -foetida, 42 --persiana, 42 - Harisonii, 42 - Hugonis, 36 - lutea, 42 - omeiensis, 36 - Paulii, 52 - rugosa, 52 -- Hybrid Blanc double de Coubert, 52 - - - Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, 52 ---F. G. Grootendorst, 52 - - - Lady Duncan, 52 - - - Madame Georges Bruant, 52 ---Max Graf, 52 --- New Century, 52 --- Nova Zembla, 52 ---Roseraie de I'Hay, 52 --repens alba, 52 - spinosissima, 36, 42 -- altaica, 35, 36 -- Dominie Sampson, 42 --Iris, 42 -- King of the Scots, 42 --luteola, 36 - Wichuraiana, 52 - xanthina, 42 Rose Bay, 38 Rosebud Cherry, 4 Rugosa Hybrid Roses, 52 Sambucus canadensis, 53 Sand Plum, 14 Sargent Cherry, 4, 13, 22 Saskatoon, 10 Scarlet Oak, 69 Scotch Laburnum, 40 Scotch Roses, 42 Sea-tomato, 52 Service-trees, 9 Shadblows, 8, 9, 10, 21 Shadbushes, 9 Sheep Laurel, 45 Siberian Apricot, 2 Silver Maple, 1 Snowball Bush, 56 Snowy Mespilus, 9, 12 Sophora viciifolia, 46 Sour Cherry, 13 Spiraea alba, 60 - bracteata, 41 - bumalda Anthony Waterer, 60 - Douglasii, 60 - Henryi, 42 -latifolia, 60 - Margaritae, 60 - Menziesii, 60 -nipponica, 41 - salicifolia, 60 - tomentosa, 60 - trichocarpa, 41 - Veitchii, 54 -virginiana, 60 Spring, 1 - Cherry, 4 Spruce, 18, 21 Star Magnolia, 5 St. John's Worts, 62 Styrax japonica, 46, 48 - obassia, 48 Sugar Grape, 58 Summer Grape, 57 Sun-Roses, 45 Syringa caerulea lusitanica, 49 -italica, 49 Swamp Honeysuckle, 54 - Oak, 69 Sweetbriar, 32 Sweet Cherries, 13 Tatarian Honeysuckle, 61 Tokyo Cherry, 4 Tripterygium Regelii, 59 - Regelii, 58, 60 Tsuga caroliniana, 70 Vaccinium corymbosum, 16 - pennsylvanicum, 16 Vernal Grass, 50 -Witch-Hazel, 72 Viburnum, 56 - alnifolium, 16 - - praecox, 16 - bitchiuense, 21 - Carlesii, 15 Carlesii, 16, 21 - fragrans, 16 - pubescens, 53 -- Canbyi, 53 Vitis aestivalis, 57 - amurensis, 57 - bicolor, 58 - Champinii, 58 - cinerea, 58 - Coignetiae, 57 - Davidii, 57 - Doaniana, 58 - Kaempferi, 57 - labrusca, 57 - Lecontiana, 58 - pulchra, 57 - vinifera, 57 - vulpina, 577 White Oak, 69 -Yulan, 5 Willows, 26 Wilson's Pearl Bush, 21 Wine Grape, 57 Winter effects,1 Wistaria floribunda, 32 --alba, 31 - - macrobotrys, 32 - frutescens, 32 - multijuga, 32 sinensis, 32 Witch-Hazels, 70, 71 Woadwax, 53 Yodogawa Azalea, 26"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23320","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d0608125.jpg","title":"1927-1","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1927,"series":3,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 4","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23841","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15eb36e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL XII NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 4, 1926 Effects of the winter in the Arboretum. In no previous winter probably has so little damage been done to plants in the Arboretum. The few broad-leaved evergreens which can be successfully grown in this climate, like the species and hybrids of Rhododendrons which often have their foliage browned and flower-buds killed, are in perfect condition, and even the one plant of English Ivy in the Arboretum looks now as fresh and green as it did in November. It is fortunately a late spring or the exceptionally cold weather of mid-April would have destroyed the flower-buds of early flowering plants which this year are generally in good condition. The common American Elm (Ulmus americana), the Red Maple, a few Willows, both arborescent and shrubbery, and the Cercidiphyllum, one of the most interesting of the large Japanese trees introduced by the Arboretum into this country, have been in flower during the past week. Conifers. In the latest study of the conifers by the German botanist Pilger published during the present year forty-six genera with about four hundred species are admitted. Of these representatives of only nineteen genera can be grown in the Arboretum; these are Taxus, Torreya, Cephalotaxus, Abies, Pseudotsuga, Tsuga, Pinus, Picea, Pseudolarix (monotypic), Larix, Cedrus, Sciadopitys (monotypic), Taxodium (monotypic), Cryptomeria (monotypic), Thujopsis (monotypic), Thuja, Libocedrus, Chamaecyparis and Juniperus. The noblest of all conifers, the two Wellingtonias of our western coast region, cannot be grown here, and many of the largest and most interesting species of the genera represented here have not proved hardy in the Arboretum. Some of the monotypic genera like Cryptomeria and Thujopsis are kept alive with difficulty and will probably never grow to a large size. There is certainly no larger collection of living conifers in northeastern North America, and if students of these trees in a living condition find much to disappoint them here they can see in the herbarium, which is one of the richest in this family in the world, representatives often with many species of all the genera enumerated by Pilger. Early-flowering native shrubs. Two yellow-flowered native shrubs are in flower and are well worth the attention of the makers of American gardens by whom they have been generally neglected. These are the Leatherwood, Dirca palustris, and the aromatic Spice Bush, Benzoin aestivale. Their leafless branches are now covered with small yellow flowers, and those of the Spice Bush will be followed in the autumn by scarlet lustrous fruits. Groups of these plants can be seen on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac collection. The Cornelian Cherry. This Dogwood (Cornus mas), is one of the earliest trees or tree-like shrubs with conspicuous flowers to bloom in eastern Massachusetts. The flowers are light yellow and are borne in clusters in the axils of the unfolding leaves and, although individually small, are produced in such profusion that the branches are covered with them. The flowers are followed by bright red, lustrous, oblong fruits the size of small olives. The flower-buds and the flowers of this tree are not injured by cold. The habit of the plant is good; the foliage is dark green and abundant, and the fruit, although somewhat hidden by the leaves, is handsome. The Cornelian Cherry, which is a native of Europe and western Siberia, has been an inhabitant of gardens for more than three hundred years. In the United States it was probably more often planted in the first half of the last century than it is at present, although there are not many early-flowering trees hardy in this climate which are better worth a place in the garden. In the Arboretum it may be seen with the other Dogwoods at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Prunus Davidiana. First raised in the Arboretum from seeds collected by Dr. Bretschneider on the mountains near Peking in the autumn of 1881 and received here in January of the following year, Prunus Davidiana is the earliest of the Plum, Cherry, Peach and Apricot groups to flower. It is a small tree with lustrous red-brown bark, slender erect branches which form a narrow head, small flowers, narrow pointed leaves and small fruit of no edible value. The flowers are of the color of those of the common Peach-tree, and there is a form with pure white flowers. The two forms have been covered with flowers during the past week in the Peach and Apricot group on the right hand side of the Meadow Road before its junction with the Forest Hills and Bussey Hill Roads. As a flowering tree in this climate this Peach has little to recommend it for the flower-buds or the flowers are killed almost every year by late frosts, but pomologists in this country are interested in it as a possible stock on which to work the common Peach-tree, as it is hardy north of the region where the Peach thrives. Magnolias. The earliest of the Magnolias, Magnolia stellata. has been in flower for several days in front of the Administration Building. This is a perfectly hardy, vigorous, wide-spreading shrub and an inhabitant of the mountain slopes of southern Japan, and, like the other early flowering Magnolias, belongs to that section of the genus in which flowers appear before the leaves. There is a variety of this plant with pale pink flowers which is also in bloom. This Magnolia is badly planted in the Arboretum, for its position on the southern side of the Administration Building induces it to flower earlier than it might in a more protected situation like the northern side of a group of conifers. In its present position the flowers are usually injured by late frosts. This year they began to open on the 24th of April and have only been slightly injured by frost. This would be a beautiful plant to grow in city yards for which its size and habit are well suited, but in the city the flowers will open even earlier and will certainly be destroyed by frost every year. Another early flowering Japanese species, M. salicifolia, a native of the mountain slopes of northern Hondo, is a small slender tree with narrow pointed leaves and smaller flowers than those of M. stellata. This little known plant is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and is now in flower on the Centre Street Path behind the Hickories; it was introduced into American and European gardens by Professor Sargent who brought seeds from Japan in 1892. Pieris or Andromeda floribunda. The beauty and value of this plant cannot be too often referred to in these Bulletins, for judging by an experience of over fifty years it is the only broad-leafed evergreen to which nothing ever happens in this climate. It is not attacked by borers, the leaves never become discolored, and the flower-buds formed in autumn are almost as conspicuous during the winter as the flowers, and are not injured by the lowest temperature which has been recorded in southern New England. It is a round-topped shrub of compact habit sometimes eight or ten feet across and five or six feet high, with small, pointed, dark green leaves and short terminal clusters of pure white flowers. A native of high altitudes on the southern Appalachian Mountains, this shrub is rare and local in its distribution as a wild plant, but for more than a century has been valued in England and largely propagated by English nurserymen. Erica carnea. This is the only true Erica which is hardy here, and with its white-flowered variety has never flowered more profusely in the Arboretum. It is a common European plant which grows not more than five or six inches high but spreads into broad mats. It is an excellent plant for the edging of beds and for the spring rock garden, and should be better known and much more generally planted than it has been in this country. It has now been in bloom in the Shrub Collection for at least two weeks and is still in excellent condition. Forsythia ovata. This native of the slopes of the Diamond Mountains of Korea was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected by Wilson in Korea in 1918, and in its range is the most northern of the species of Forsythia, has been in bloom for more than a week. It is a large shrub distinct in its light yellow branches with broad, long-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves from four to five inches long and from three to four inches wide, and clear primrose-colored flowers rather smaller than those of F. Fortunei or any of the forms of F. intermedia. They open, too, about a week earlier than those of the other Forsythias, and this year were fully open on the 23rd of April. This Korean species promises to be a useful addition to early spring-flowering shrubs and to be hardy in parts of this country where the other Forsythias cannot be successfully cultivated. It should also prove exceedingly valuable to cross with the other species and hybrids in order to produce hardier hybrids of this useful genus. April-flowering Rhododendrons. The earliest of these, the Siberian R. dahuricum, which can be seen on Azalea Path is now well covered with its small rose purple flowers. The flowers of the north China R. mucronulatum, which open usually two or three days later than those of the Siberian plant, are less delicate and are rarely injured by frost. On the lower side of Azalea Path there is a mass of this beautiful plant which is well worth a place in the spring garden. The plants of the hybrid Rhododendron (R, ciliatum x dahuricum.) known in gardens as R. praecox \"Early Gem\" in the general Rhododendron collection are covered with expanding flower-buds. This is an interesting and handsome plant, but the flowers are very delicate and five years out of six are ruined by frost. Docent service. Beginning on May 9th a docent will meet visitors who may desire his services at the Forest Hills gate at 3 P. M. on Tuesdays, Saturdays and Sundays; and garden clubs and groups of not less than twelve persons at any other hour if the Director is notified not less than two days in advance. Mr. J. G. Jack of the Arboretum staff will conduct a field class on Saturdays during the spring and early summer, to assist those who wish to gain a more intimate knowledge of the native and foreign trees and shrubs which grow in New England. Instruction will be given in informal outdoor talks and in the examination of the plants. Different botanical groups will be visited at each meeting, although any trees or shrubs found may form subjects for study. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required in order to join the class as the instruction is intended to be simple in character, affording opportunities for questions and answers relating to the specimens under observation. Unless otherwise notified the class will meet promptly at ten o'clock in the morning, on Saturdays, in the Arboretum at the Forest Hills entrance, beginning May 8th. The class will close on the 25th of June. The fee for the course is $5.00, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 6","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23842","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15eb76e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 6, 1926 Prunus. In the Arboretum are now found and placed in this genus the Peaches, Apricots, Cherries, Pears and Plums. As now understood this genus contains some of the important fruit trees of temperate regions, a few valuable timber trees, and a large number of plants cultivated for the beauty of their flowers and fruits. To few genera do northern gardens owe so great and varied beauty, and in the Arboretum many of its species are now well established. Apricots have already begun to flower and are still covered with white blooms. The earliest is a form of Prunus Armenaica which for several years has been growing in the Arboretum where it is called the Mikado. Judging by the name it is possible that this plant came originally from Japan where the Apricot, a native of northern China, has long been cultivated in many varieties. It is a strong-growing, hardy tree with a comparatively narrow head and erect branches. Near it in the Plum collection, also in bloom, is the Apricot from eastern Siberia and Manchuria, Prunus sibirica, another hardy and handsome tree. In its native country this is a low tree with a trunk sometimes three feet in diameter and wide-spreading branches. As it grows in the Arboretum it is the handsomest of the Apricots in habit and foliage. The earliest of the Cherries, Prunus tomentosa, an introduction from northern China, has proved to be one of the handsomest of the spring flowering plants in the neighborhood of Boston. It is a vigorous plant five or six feet high and when well grown often broader than tall. The flowers open from pink buds as the leaves unfold and their bright red stalks and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals often marked with rose. The small, lustrous, scarlet, juicy fruit which ripens in June has a good flavor and is attracting the attention of pomologists living in regions of extreme winter cold like the Dakotas and Manitoba where this native of Peking has proved perfectly hardy. The Spring Cherry of the Japanese, Prunus subhirtella, the most delightful and floriferous, travelers say, of all the Japanese Cherries, is again thickly covered with flowers and has not before been more beautiful. Here in the Arboretum it is a large shrub which is not known as a wild plant in Japan. Although somewhat cultivated in the gardens of western Japan, it is uncommon in those of Tokyo and often escapes the attention of visitors in the Flowery Kingdom. The rather small drooping flowers are pink when they open but gradually turn white, and those of no other Cherry-tree in the collection remain in good condition so long. Seeds, which the Arboretum plants produce in great quantities, do not reproduce the parent plant, however, and the seedlings grow usually into the tall slender trees which botanists know as Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens. This tree has generally been overlooked or neglected as a garden plant but is now flowering in the Arboretum. Much better known is the form of Prunus subhirtella (var. pendula) which has been long a favorite garden plant in Japan and was sent many years ago to Europe and then to the United States. This beautiful plant, which is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, has often grown badly here and died before its time because a European Cherry has been used as stock on which this variety has been grafted. The proper stocks for the Weeping Cherry are the seedling plants of Prunus subhirtella and its varieties. To show how easy it is to propagate the early Spring Cherry nurserymen are invited to examine the two plants at the entrance to the Superintendent's house at the corner of Centre Street. These were grafted on seedlings of the type in January, 1917; they were planted in the spring of the same year and placed in their present position in 1919. They show that there is no difficulty in raising good specimens of this plant if nurserymen are willing to give a little attention to disseminating one of the most beautiful flowering plants it is possible to grow in this climate. Prunus serrulata sachalinensis. It is well to call attention again to this tree as when in flower it is the handsomest of the large trees yet introduced into the United States and Europe by the Arboretum. It was first raised here from seeds sent from Japan in 1890 by Dr. J. Sturgis Bigelow of Boston, and again in 1892 from seeds gathered in Japan by Professor Sargent. The trees raised from these seeds have flowered now for several years. As they produce fruit abundantly which ripens in June there is no reason why this splendid tree should not become common in the northern states. Some American city or town can well make itself famous by planting a long avenue of these trees which when they have become forty feet high or more and are in bloom will attract visitors from remote parts of this country. Prunus yedoensis. This blooms a little later than the Sargent Cherry, and there is a plant of this species on the right hand side of the road from the Forest Hills entrance. This is the Cherry so generally planted in the parks, cemeteries and streets of Tokyo, and its flowering heralds an annual national holiday decreed by the Emperor. It is believed that over two hundred and fifty thousand trees were growing in the precincts of Tokyo before the destruction of a large part of the city a few years ago by fire and earthquake. This Cherry is a quick growing and short-lived tree, with wide-spreading, slightly drooping branches forming a wide flattened head. The bark is pale gray and smooth, becoming darker and somewhat rough on old trunks. The slightly fragrant flowers are produced in clusters of two or several usually before the leaves but occasionally at the same time, and vary in color from white to pale pink. It is this tree which was presented by the Government of Japan to our Government, and is the principal Japanese Cherry which has been planted in Washington. It produces seeds abundantly in the Arboretum and in Washington, and it ought to be more generally planted further south than Massachusetts where the flower-buds are often injured by severe winters. Prunus nigra. Among American Plums in the Arboretum, Prunus nigra, the so-called Canada Plum, is the earliest to bloom. It is a native of the northern border of the United States from New Brunswick westward, and is distinguished from the more southern P. americana by its larger and earlier flowers, the blunt teeth of the leaves and by the darker and closer bark; the flowers, too, turn pink as they fade. The Canada Plum has produced some excellent seedling forms which are esteemed and grown by pomologists. Prunus salicina, better known as P. triflora, blooms only a little later than the Canada Plum, and the flower-buds which completely cover the wide-spreading branches are already opening. This tree is interesting because it is the only native Plum in eastern Asia, and the tree from which the so-called Japanese Plums of gardens have been developed. Prunus triloba. Among the flowers of early spring few are more lovely than those of this small Almond from northern China which, in spite of the fact that it has flowered in the Arboretum every spring during the last twenty years, is still very little known, although a form with double flowers (var. plena) is a common garden plant in this country and is often successfully forced under glass for winter bloom. The single-flowered plant should be better known; it is a tall shrub of rather open irregular habit of growth. The pure clear pink flowers are produced in profusion, and among the shrubs introduced into the Arboretum in the last thirty years none exceed in beauty the single-flowered form of this plant. It can be seen on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road not far below the entrance. Prinsepia sinensis is again covered with clusters of bright yellow flowers which spring from the axils of half grown leaves. It is a tall broad shrub with long, gracefully ascending and spreading branches and stems armed with numerous spines. This member of the Rose Family is perfectly hardy and the handsomest shrub which Manchuria has contributed to western gardens. The two specimens in the Arboretum were sent here from St. Petersburg in 1903 and 1906 and have been found difficult to propagate. In recent years fortunately one of the plants has produced a few seeds, and as these have germinated there is reason to hope that this shrub may become a common ornament in northern gardens. It has much to recommend it as a hedge plant. The species from northern China can be seen to advantage in the Shrub Collection. Corylopsis Gotoana has been in bloom for more than a week and has never been so full of flowers. This is an Asiatic genus of the Witch Hazel Family, with fragrant yellow flowers in long drooping clusters and leaves which have a general resemblance to those of the Witch Hazel. C. Gotoana was introduced into the Arboretum from central Japan and is the largest and handsomest species, growing from five to eight feet tall in this climate, and may be considered one of the handsomest of the early spring flowering shrubs. In the Arboretum it can best be seen on the Centre Street Path in the rear of the Hickories. Daphne Mezereum and its white-flowered variety were in bloom two or three weeks ago. These are dwarf European shrubs with erect branches, and have become naturalized in several places in the northern states. A more beautiful plant, D. Cneorum, is coming into flower in the Shrub Collection and on the lower side of Azalea Path. This is one of the most beautiful and satisfactory, hardy, early flowering shrubs and is not common enough in American gardens. In the Arboretum it can be seen in the Shrub Collection and on the lower side of Azalea Path. It forms a broad mat of wiry semiprostrate stems covered with dark green leaves and terminating in dense heads of rose-colored fragrant flowers. This is one of the plants which with the same treatment and in the same soil succeeds in some gardens and fails utterly in others. Fortunately it does well in the Arboretum and when in bloom is one of the most admired plants in the collection, and in Rochester, New York, where there are now many plants raised from seeds obtained from plants in Victoria Park at Niagara Falls, it is considered the very best of the early blooming shrubs. Viburnum fragrans is now blooming more freely than in previous years. It is a deciduous shrub from northern China only recently introduced and still little known, and has obovate-oblong, sharply dentate leaves glabrous beneath, and flowers which open with or before the leaves, very fragrant, and white with very pinkish buds. Judging from the Arboretum plants this year this promises to be one of the handsomest of all Viburnums. It can be seen growing on the left hand side of the road in the bed at the turn up Bussey Hill. Docent service. Beginning on May 9th a docent will meet visitors who may desire his services at the Forest Hills gate at 3 P. M. on Tuesdays, Saturdays and Sundays; and garden clubs and groups of not less than twelve persons at any other hour if the Director is notified not less than two days in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 11","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23838","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15ea76b.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 11. 1926 Double-flowered Japanese Cherries. That there is a fast growing demand for these trees in this country is shown by the number of letters received at the Arboretum asking information about them. It must be acknowledged that generally these double-flowered Cherries have not proved a success in this country. This is not the fault of the plants or the climate, as can be seen in the Arboretum, but of the methods adopted by nurserymen for their propagation. There are now growing in the Arboretum thirty-two double-flowered forms of Prunus Lannesiana and eighteen forms of Prunus serrulata sachalinensis. These are the only two species, the double-flowering forms of which are worth cultivation in this country. Of them the handsomest here are the following forms-Prunus serrulata sachalinensis: Albo-rosea, Fugenzo, Sekiyama, Kirin, Horinji, and Hisakura, and of all double-flowered Japanese Cherries the two forms of Prunus serrulata, sachalinensis called Albo-rosea with white flowers and Fugenzo, often known as James H. Veitch, with deep pink flowers, have given the greatest satisfaction in the Arboretum. The best six double-flowered forms of Prunus Lannesiana are, Jonioi, Miyako, Sirotae, Amanogawa, Ojochin, and Ochichima. To most American nurserymen the proper production of these Cherries will appear a slow and expensive operation but unless they adopt this plan these plants will never succeed, and the demand for them will soon disappear. Seedlings of Prunus serrulata sachalinensis are essential as stock on which to bud or graft the double-flowered varieties. The seeds of this tree cannot be imported from Japan with any confidence, as this is a northern form and Japanese seed dealers would hardly send north to gather seeds when other species or varieties are easily obtained in the neighborhood of Tokyo. Although the Arboretum has been distributing the seeds of this noble tree, which can be successfully grown from Canada to the Potomac and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, this country can only depend on the five large trees growing here, the two trees in the Boston Park System, a tree at North Easton, Massachusetts, and the trees in the parks at Rochester, New York, for the seed. It will require ten or twelve years for the seeds planted now to produce plants large enough to flower and produce a little fruit, and if this is planted, it will require at least six years to grow the stock large enough to bud or graft with the double-flowered varieties. This means that the American nurserymen who really want to make a success in growing these double-flowered plants must be prepared to devote eighteen or twenty years to getting his plants of a suitable size to sell. Another essential thing is that they allow at least two of their original seedlings planted in good soil and with abundant space for development to grow permanently, so that the nurseries may be assured of abundant seeds for all future needs. A collection of twenty-five trees of these double-flowered Cherries which were grafted in 1915 on Prunus serrulata sachalinensis have been planted on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and have never before given such a promise of flowers which will probably be opened soon after this Bulletin reaches its readers. Asiatic Crabapples. Among the popular plants in flower the end of this week are some of the early flowering Chinese and Japanese Crabapples. The flowers of these trees make one of the principal spectacular displays of the year, and only the flowers of the Lilacs attract a larger number of visitors. Among these Crabapples are several small trees and shrubs which should find a place in every northern garden, for they are conspicuous when covered in April or northward in May with their white or rose-colored flowers, or in autumn when their branches are loaded with brilliant red, scarlet or yellow fruits. These Crabapples grow best in cool, rich, deep, well-drained soil and lime does not interfere with their successful development. Some of the wide-branching species lose their beauty of habit unless sufficient space is allowed for their free growth, and nearly all these Crabapples look better as isolated specimens than when crowded together in too compact groups. Crabapples, like many other plants of the Rose Family, are liable to be attacked by the San Jose scale which unless kept in check can seriously injure them. For many years much attention has been paid at the Arboretum to these plants, and a large and now almost complete collection of the species and recognized hybrids has been assembled. In the future it can be undoubtedly increased by the introduction of new hybrids for these plants hybridize freely, and from seeds gathered from species in a collection like the one in the Arboretum distinct new forms are certain to appear. The Asiatic Crabapples are arranged in two groups. The oldest of them is on the left hand side of Forest Hills Road and the other, which is larger and more complete, at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Malus baccata mandshurica is the earliest of these Crabapples to open its flowerbuds in the Arboretum. A native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, it is an eastern form of the better known Malus baccata, the Siberian Crabapple, which reached Europe more than a century ago and for a long time was one of only two Asiatic Crabapples known in western gardens. The Manchurian plant as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree twelve or fifteen feet tall and broad; the flowers, which are produced in profusion, are pure white, rather more than an inch across, and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. Another form of Malus baccata (var. Jackii) is also growing in the Peter's Hill Group. This plant was brought from Korea by Professor Jack in 1905 and is distinguished by its much larger, dark scarlet fruit. Malus robusta is one of the earliest of these plants to flower. This is believed to be a hybrid of M. baccata with M. spectabilis. In some of the earlier issues of these Bulletins it has been called M. cerasifera, a name now found to have been incorrectly applied to it. In good soil and with sufficient room for free development it will grow into a large shapely tree with a broad, round-topped, irregular head of spreading and often drooping branches. The flowers are fragrant and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabapples with pure white or occasionally greenish petals. The globose dull red fruit varies greatly in size on different individuals but is rarely more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter. To this hybrid belong many of the trees cultivated for their fruit in cold countries under the general name of \"Siberian Crabs;\" of these trees the well known \"Red Siberian\" is a typical representative. A new form of M. robusta, (f. persicifolia) raised from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, distinct in its narrow peach-like leaves, is now established in the Arboretum and may when better known prove to be worth general cultivation. Malus micromalus, which is also an early-flowering plant, is one of the least known of the Crabapples. The habit of this plant is more pyramidal than that of other Crabapples and this habit makes the plants conspicuous in the collection. The small, pale pink, delicate flowers which will be followed by light yellow fruit, often rose color on one cheek. A plant of Malus micromalus first came to the Arboretum from the Paris Museum in 1888 and the plants now growing here are descendants of that plant. It is still one of the rarest of the Asiatic Crabapples in western gardens. Malus Halliana is a semidouble form, of uncertain origin. The double-flowered form has long been a favorite in Japanese gardens, where it is frequently cultivated under the name of \"Kaido,\" and is believed to be a native of Japan. The Parkman Crab, as the semidouble-flowered form is generally known in this country, was one of the first Japanese plants to reach the United States direct from Japan as it was sent to Boston in 1862 where it was first planted by Francis Parkman, the historian, in his garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. From this tree has been produced most of the plants of this Crabapple now growing in America and probably in Europe. The Parkman Crab is a small vase-shaped tree with erect and spreading branches and dark bark. It flowers profusely every year and the flowers, which droop on slender stems, are rose-red and unlike in color the flowers of other Crabapples. The fruit, which is borne on long erect stems, is dull in color and hardly more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The Parkman Crab when in flower is one of the handsomest and most distinct of Crabapples, and its small size makes it one of the best of them all to plant in small gardens. Malus floribunda. This beautiful tree has long been considered a hybrid of uncertain Chinese origin, and the plant cultivated in American and European gardens is certainly the parent of several hybrids. The handsomest of these probably is Malus arnoldiana which appeared many years ago in this Arboretum among seedlings of M. floribunda. The other parent is probably the hybrid M. robusta. It is a low tree with wide-spreading, slightly pendulous branches with the abundant flowers of M. floribunda, but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large as those of that tree. There is not perhaps a more beautiful Crabapple in cultivation. Like other hybrids, it can only be increased by grafts or cuttings, and is still rare in gardens. A better known hybrid of M. floribunda, M. Scheideckeri appeared in Germany several years ago. The broad pyramidal habit of this tree suggest M. spectabilis which is probably the other parent. This hybrid flowers here earlier than M. floribunda. The bright rose pink flowers which are often semidouble are produced in great profusion and are followed by bright yellow fruit sometimes three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Malus Sieboldii was introduced from the gardens of Japan into Europe by Von Siebold in 1853. It is a low, dense shrub of spreading habit with the leaves on vigorous branchlets three-lobed, small flowers tinged with rose in color, and small yellow fruits. Von Siebold's Crab is really a dwarf form of a tree common on the Korean Island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central Japan and Hokkaido, to which the name var. arborescens has been given. This is a tree often thirty feet or more tall, with ascending wide-spreading branches, twiggy branchlets and minute fruit yellow on some and red on other individuals. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. Malus Sargentii from salt marshes in the neighborhood of Mororan in northern Japan, where it was discovered by Professor Sargent in 1892, has qualities which give it a field of usefulness peculiarly its own. This species is a dwarf with rigid and spreading branches, the lower branches flat on the ground. The flowers are in umbel-like clusters, saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruit which is covered by a slight bloom and unless eaten by birds remains on the plants well into the spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 19","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23839","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15eab6c.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL XII NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 19, 1926 Lilacs. When this Bulletin reaches its readers many of the earliest Lilacs will probably be in bloom and there is every promise that Lilacs this year will be unusually full of flowers. A large part of the Arboretum collection consists of seedling varieties of the plant which has been a favorite in gardens for centuries and to most persons the only Lilac, the Syringa vz4lgaris of botanists. It is now known that it came originally from the mountains of Bulgaria and that it reached western Europe from Constantinople about 1560. The date of its introduction into the United States is not known, but it was probably in the seventeenth century. There are now in the Arboretum collection twenty-seven species of Syringa, three hybrids and about one hundred and ninety forms of S. vulgaris; and Lilacs will be in bloom from the receipt of this Bulletin until the end of June. There are specimens in the collection raised some twenty years ago from seeds of the wild Bulgarian plant. These are interesting because it is possible by comparing them with modern Lilacs to see the change that selection and cultivation has made in these plants. Hardly a week passes that the Arboretum does not receive a letter for the names of the best six, or the best twenty-five Lilacs. Most of the varieties of the common Lilac are handsome plants, and no two persons ever agree as to their value, some preferring flowers of one color and others another. To study the Lilacs in flower in the Arboretum will prove the most satisfactory method of making a choice suited to individual taste. Most of the common Lilac forms have much the same habit and foliage and all have inconspicuous fruit; they all bloom freely every year. Breeding and selection, however, have somewhat affected the perfume of their flowers as it has that of many plants, such as some of the modern Roses. There is considerable variation in the size of the flowers; the double flowers generally open a little later than the single flowers and last longer, but there is really little difference in the time of flowering of all these plants. The size of the flower-cluster varies somewhat on different forms and is larger on young plants than on old ones, and it can be enlarged by severe pruning which increases the vigor of the flowering branches. The plants are labeled and many of the kinds growing in the Arboretum can be found in American nurseries. Syringa persica is a beautiful plant with slender, drooping, wide-spreading branches, narrower leaves than those of the common Lilac, and small, fragrant, lavender-colored flowers in short compact clusters. It was for many years universally believed to be native to Persia or some adjacent country. It is now known to be native to northwestern China and to have been brought originally from the east to western Asia and Europe just as the Peach and other Chinese plants found their way westward. There is a variety with white flowers and another with laciniate leaves. The first hybrid Lilac appeared in the Botanic Garden in Rouen in 1777 where it was raised from seed of S. persica var. laciniata, no artificial cross having been made. This is one of the most delightful of all Lilacs and grows into a bush twelve feet high and broad, and of rather open habit. It is very hardy, blooms freely every year, and should be in all gardens where the Lilac is cultivated. Its flowers resemble those of the Persian Lilac, but are produced in small clusters from numerous pairs of lateral buds on the same branchlet and appear as one large inflorescence sometimes two feet long, and so heavy that the slender branches bend under the weight. There are forms with dark red flowers and with nearly white flowers. Through a misunderstanding as to its origin this plant must be called S. chinensis. The white-flowered S. affinis is usually the first Lilac to bloom in the Arboretum. The earliness and delightful fragrance of the flowers give value to this plant for the spring garden. The variety with mauve-colored fragrant flowers (var. Giraldii) is blooming as usual; it is a tall shrub, and except when in flower of no decorative value. The north China S. oblata is one of the handsomest of the species, with thick lustrous leaves which in the autumn assume brilliant shades of orange and red. The flower-buds, however, are too often injured in this climate, although the plant is otherwise hardy. By crossing this plant with a double-flowered form of S. vulgaris the hybrid known as S. hyacinthiflora was obtained many years ago. It is a large shapely bush with good foliage and small clusters of double flowers as fragrant as those of S. oblata. A Chinese Lilac discovered by Wilson, S. pinnatifolia, is also in bloom. The pinnate leaves of this plant make it interesting among Lilacs, but the small white flowers in short clusters are without ornamental value. The flowers of another rare species, S. Meyeri, will soon open and this year the species and garden forms are all well covered with flower-buds. Late Flowering Lilacs. Among these are plants which can add much to the beauty of northern gardens in the last weeks of June and early July. They are eastern Asiatic with the exception of the Hungarian S. Josikaea, which is the only one of these plants which has not been introduced into gardens since the Arboretum was established. The first of the late-flowering true Lilacs from eastern Asia which reached the Arboretum was Syringa villosa which was raised here in 1882 from seed sent by Dr. Bretschneider, at that time attached to the Russian Embassy at Peking. This has proved the most valuable of these plants; it is perfectly hardy, grows rapidly into a large, round-headed, compact bush often fifteen feet high and broad, and flowers every year. The flowers, which are arranged in long narrow clusters, are pale rose-pink, flesh color or occasionally nearly white. This is the only one of the late-flowering Lilacs which has been used successfully by the plant breeder. Crossed in the nurseries of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris with S. Josikaea it produced a race of Lilacs of vigorous growth with the habit of the Chinese plant, and in some of its forms with flowers more deeply tinged with the violet color of the Hungarian parent. To the handsomest of these hybrids the name Lutece has been given. No shrub of recent introduction better deserves a place in our gardens. Another plant of this race known as Eximea differs in its much more compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which on opening become light pink. Another late-flowering Lilac which promises to be valuable as a garden decoration in this climate is S. Wolfii which reached the Arboretum in 1906 from Petrograd where it had been sent from northern Korea or Manchuria by the Russian traveler Komarov. Syringa Sweginzowii, a northwestern China plant, came to the Arboretum from Petrograd in 1910; it is a tall narrow shrub with slender erect stems, dull green painted leaves, and long narrow flower-clusters. Not very unlike this species in habit, S. yunnanensis from southwestern China differs in its more fragrant flowers which are white tinged with rose color. Another related species, S. microphylla, is interesting because unlike other Lilacs it flowers in the Arboretum twice during the year, once in the middle of June and again in October. The nearly white flowers are pleasantly fragrant. S. tomentella, an older name for the plant later called S. Wilsonii, is a tall, vigorous, fast-growing shrub with erect stems, dull green leaves, and open, long-branched panicles of pale rose-colored flowers. S. Julianae, like the last, a recent discovery in western China, is a late-flowering plant closely related to the north China S. pubescens. Two recently described species, S. reflexa and S. Komarowii from western China, with leaves very similar to those of S. villosa, promise to be useful garden plants. The first is conspicuous at this season of the year, for unlike those of all other Lilacs the flowers are gracefully arching and pendent on long stems. In habit S. Komarowii resembles S. reflexa but differs from that species in the denser flower-clusters which are spreading or nodding. Tree Lilacs. The Lilac season closes with the flowering of the eastern Asiatic species popularly known as \"Tree Lilacs.\" They all have handsome dark green leaves which fall in the autumn without change of color, and large usually unsymmetrical clusters of white flowers with the disagreeable odor of the Privet. They are handsome hardy plants and when in bloom the most conspicuous of the trees or large arborescent shrubs of their season. The first of them to flower, S. amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia and a shrub twelve or fifteen feet high, with dark-colored bark, leaves pale on the lower surface, and short unsymmetrical flower-clusters usually produced only in alternate years. S. pekinensis blooms a little later; it is a native of northern China and a shrub sometimes thirty feet tall and broad, with stout spreading stems covered with yellow-brown bark separating into thin plate-like scales like that of some Birch trees. This species retains its leaves later in the autumn than the other \"Tree Lilacs\" and flowers profusely every year. The last of the \"Tree Lilacs\" to bloom, S. japonica, is a tree sometimes forty feet high with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark like that of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of erect branches, broad thick leaves, and mostly symmetrical flower-clusters often eighteen inches in length. Early Flowering Asiatic Azaleas. The earliest of these to bloom, Rhododendron mucronulatum, a native of northern China and Korea, is already out of flower. This beautiful plant has flowered every spring in the Arboretum for nearly twenty years. It is a tail, deciduous- leafed shrub inclined as it grows old to a straggling habit. It is one of the handsomest April flowering shrubs which can be successfully grown in this climate. There is a large clump of it on the lower side of Azalea Path on Bussey Hill. Already in bloom on this path are the Korean Azaleas, R. Schlippenbachii and R. poukhanense. R. Schlippenbachii is one of the commonest shrubs of Korea, and is often the dominant undergrowth in open woods. From Korea it crosses into northeastern Manchuria, and it is known in a few localities in northern Japan. In Korea this Azalea on the windswept, grass-covered cliffs of the coast grows less than a foot high and is covered with flowers. In the forest of the interior it often grows to a height of fifteen feet and forms a tall and shapely bush. It grows naturally further north than any other Azalea with the exception of the North American Rhodora. R. Schlippenbachii has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum, and planted in an exposed sunny position it has never suffered from cold. Its hardiness and the beauty of its flowers make it one of the most valuable shrubs, if not the most valuable, which northeastern North America has obtained from northeastern Asia. The flowers are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea. Although probably unknown as a garden plant beyond the limits of the Arboretum, R. po2ckhanense deserves a place in all New England collections. Another Japanese species, R. retic7clatum, more generally known as R. rhombicum, now well established in the Arboretum, has opened its flowers. This plant is common over a large part of Japan, growing on open wind-swept hillsides, on the borders of forests and in the shade of thick woods. The flowers are deep magenta color, red-purple or rose color, and do not harmonize with those of several other Azaleas, but when this species is isolated or planted with the white-flowered form (var. album) it is when in bloom one of the most beautiful and distinct of all hardy Azaleas."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23840","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15eaf6d.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII N0. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 24, 1926 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes. Horsechestnut as generally applied is the name of the Old World species of Aesculus, and Buckeye is used for the American species of this genus. The Old World species which are found in southeastern Europe, on the Himalayas, in central and northern China and in Japan have white flowers often marked or tinged with yellow, but the flowers of the American species are yellow, red, scarlet, red and yellow, and white. The Old World species are best distinguished from those of the New World by the resinous exudations which thickly cover their winter-buds and are not found on those of the American species with the exception of the one which grows in California. The original Horsechestnut, Aesculus Hippocastanum, long cultivated in western Europe but only recently known to be native to the mountains of Greece, is the handsomest of the genus and one of the most splendid trees of the world. The date of its introduction into the United States is not accurately known but it was received by John Bartram from England in 1746, and it first flowered in the New World in his garden. On Wednesday, April 13, 1785, Washington received small plants of this Horsechestnut from Colonel Henry Lee of Westmoreland, Virginia, and planted them at Mount Vernon. All these plants disappeared long ago. The finest plant in the neighborhood of Boston known to the Arboretum is in a garden in Salem, Massachusetts, believed to have been planted one hundred and ten years ago and now seventy feet high with a trunk ten feet in girth, and a perfectly shaped head eighty feet across. It was a favorite tree with Benjamin Bussey who bought his place in Jamaica Plain in 1806 and probably planted Horsechestnut trees there a little later. A few of them are on the walk which led from his house to Bussey Hill, and these are no doubt the oldest planted trees in the Arboretum. The European Horsechestnut only flourishes in deep cool soil, and although it has been largely used to shade city streets in this country and in Europe, it is not suited for such a purpose for the heat and drought of cities often cause it to lose its leaves in midsummer. Its place is in parks and gardens and by country roadsides. There are several hybrids of the Grecian Horsechestnut and the red-flowered American Buckeye which are handsome trees. The best known of these hybrids, A, carnea, is the \"red-flowered\" Horsechestnut which is a common tree in the suburbs of Boston. More conspicuous when in flower is var. Briotii. The Himalayan Horsechestnut and the species of central China have not proved hardy here, and it has not yet been possible to establish satisfactorily the north China Horsechestnut in the Arboretum. The Japanese species, A. turbinata, is hardier and grows fairly well here, although it is less satisfactory in cultivation in this country and generally a less beautiful tree than the Chinese species. Buckeyes. The earliest of these trees to flower here are the Ohio Buckeye A. glabra and its varieties. They are small trees with small yellow or yellow-green flowers and fruit covered like that of the Old World Horsechestnut with prickles. Perhaps the most interesting form is the one on which the flowers are tinged more or less deeply with pink, rose color and red; if for no other reason, it is interesting because it is the only tree which is known to have been discovered by Washington. He gathered the seeds near the mouth of Cheat River in what is now West Virginia in 1784, and planted them in April of the following year. In 1914 there were seven of these trees growing at Mount Vernon and the largest was seventy-five feet tall with a trunk two feet four inches in diameter. Some of them were destroyed by the storm of 1924, and most of them lost parts of their heads. It is now known that this variety grows as far south as White Sulphur Springs and crosses from West Virginia into Tennessee and Ohio. Unfortunately it has been named var. virginica for the name of Washington should certainly have been connected with it. Plants raised from grafts collected by Mr. John S. Ames at White Sulphur Springs in 1921 are now growing in the Arboretum. A. georgiana, a comparatively recent discovery in central Georgia and now established in the Arboretum, is a first-rate garden plant here with short compact clusters of large yellow and red flowers. A beautiful plant is the red-flowered variety of A. discolor (var. mollis) which will soon be covered with its scarlet flowers. Generally distributed from the coast of North Carolina to southern Arkansas and western Texas, and when in bloom one of the most brilliant plants of the south, it has been found that it can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. A single tree of an interesting hybrid Buckeye, A. Bushii, was found a few years ago in the woods near Fulton on the Red River in Arkansas, and evidently was produced by the crossing of a form of A. glabra with the red-flowered A. discolor var. mollis. The original tree has disappeared but the hybrid is fortunately preserved in a tree growing on Peter's Hill in the Arboretum where it has flowered for several years. Perhaps this is the rarest tree in the Arboretum. Several other Horsechestnuts with red and yellow flowers are handsome flowering trees; they are natural hybrids which originated in Europe more than a century ago between the yellow-flowered A. octandra and one of the red-flowered southern Buckeyes. The name of this hybrid is A. versicolor. It appears to have been better known in gardens before the middle of the last century than it is now. Aesculus parviflora will not be in bloom before July when it occupies an important place among summer-flowering shrubs. Fortunately this native of the southern states is hardy in the north, and with abundant space and in good soil will spread into great thickets with stems seven or eight feet high which are covered with tall, narrow, erect spikes of small white flowers which stand well above the foliage. Another summer-flowering Buckeye, A. Harbisonii, unfolds its leaves later than any other in the Arboretum with the exception of A. parviflora, and is the last of the group to bloom. Two individuals of this peculiar plant appeared here in 1905 among a number of seedlings of A. georgiana and are believed to be hybrids of that species and the red-flowered variety of A. discolor, the two species growing together where the seed was gathered near Stone Mountain in Georgia. The leaves of this hybrid are lighter green than those of either of its supposed parents; the flowers are borne on stout red stems in broad panicles and are about three-quarters of an inch in length, with a rose-colored calyx and canary yellow petals tinged with red toward the margins. The hybrid origin of these plants is shown by the mixture of glands and hairs on the margins of the petals, hairs only having been found on the plants of the group of Aesculus to which A. georgiana belongs and only glands on those of the plants of the group to which A. discolor belongs, so that when both hairs and glands are found on the margins of the petals it is good evidence that the plant is of hybrid origin. Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi from the southern Appalachian Mountains is flowering again profusely. Its pure pink flowers appear oz the leafless branchlets and in delicacy and purity of color are not surpassed by those of any other plant. It is only in recent years that this Azalea has been known to botanists and has found its way into gardens. It is perfectly hardy, its flower-buds are not injured by severe cold, and in time it grows into a tall usually rather narrow shrub. This Azalea has been planted on both sides of the Meadow Road, the largest group being at the end of the first pond. Great masses of it can be seen now in bloom on the Riverway in Boston between Brookline Village and Beacon Street. The Japanese R. Kaempferi is the only red-flowered Azalea which has proved hardy in this climate. It has been largely used in the Arboretum, and its flowers, which are now opening, furnish the most surprising and spectacular display of the year; they are delicate, however, and when fully exposed to the sun lose their value. This Azalea gives more satisfaction when planted in the shade of trees or on the northern border of a wood of conifers. There are masses of it at the lower end of Azalea Path and in a large group under the shade of the Hemlocks on Hemlock Hill and on the northern edge of Hemlock Hill in a long narrow band between the Hemlocks and the Laurels. Rhododendron (Azalea) luteum, a native of the Caucasus, has bloomed before several times in the Arboretum and although the buds are often injured it is in good condition this year. It is growing on the right hand side of Azalea Path below the plant of R. reticulatum. If the flower-buds of this Caucasian plant were hardier this would be one of the most charming of all Azaleas for the flowers are more fragrant than those of any other Azalea. Fothergilla. The three species of Fothergilla, members of the Witch Hazel family and natives of the southeastern United States, with heads of pure white flowers and handsome Witch Hazel-like leaves, are now in bloom in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path in the Arboretum, and are among the most interesting and beautiful of the spring-flowering shrubs. First cultivated in England more than a century ago, Fothergilla seems to have disappeared from gardens until it was reintroduced by the Arboretum a few years ago. All the species are plants of much interest and great beauty, but it is doubtful if any of them can now be found in any commercial nursery. Early Flowering Viburnums. Although they are already passing out of bloom, these Viburnums are such beautiful and interesting plants that it is well to call attention to them again. The first to bloom, V. alnifolium, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood of cold northern woods, is one of the handsomest of the American species, with small, globose clusters of white flowers surrounded by a ring of neutral flowers, dark green leaves with prominent veins which turn orange and scarlet in the autumn, and fruit in drooping clusters which at first red turns when fully grown to dark blue or nearly black. It is growing among the Birches on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Viburnums. Another beautiful species, the Korean V. Carlesii, is rightly considered one of the handsomest plants recently introduced into American gardens. Its value is in the white extremely fragrant flowers which are produced in rather small compact clusters and open from bright pink buds. As the flowers in a cluster do not all open at the same time the mixture of white flowers and pink buds adds greatly to the attractiveness of the inflorescence. It is a dwarf shrub with pale green leaves and has only rarely produced fruit in the Arboretum. Next to this species in the Viburnum collection is a plant of V. bitchuiense which somewhat resembles V. Carlesii, but the flowers are smaller and not so fragrant and the habit of the plant is less compact. Mistaken by Japanese botanists for V. Carlesii, this plant has been sold in the United States and Europe as the true V. Carlesii. V. Carlesii should find a place in every northern garden. Crataegus arnoldiana. This is the earliest of the Hawthorns to bloom in the Arboretum and is a tree of considerable size first discovered growing wild here. It grows also near Medford in this state and near Lyme, Connecticut. There are five or six large plants on the borders of the Meadow Road which will be covered with flowers before this Bulletin reaches its readers. The large scarlet fruit is as beautiful and conspicuous as the large flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23837","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15ea36a.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 5. 1926 American Magnolias. Several of these trees are in bloom in the group on the right hand side of the Jamaica Plain gate. Unlike most of the Asiatic species, the American Magnolias flower after the appearance of the leaves, and are hardy and handsome trees. There are seven of these Magnolias, but one of them, M. pyramidata, grows only in the extreme southeastern corner of Alabama and adjacent Florida, and would not be hardy here. Of the other species, the so-called Mountain Magnolia, M. Fraseri, is the first to open its flowers in the Arboretum. It is a small tree, rarely more than forty feet high, with an open head of long branches, leaves often a foot in length and deeply divided at the base, and creamy white, sweet-scented flowers eight or ten inches in diameter and very conspicuous as they stand well above the crowded leaves at the ends of the branches. This Magnolia is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountain region, and, although it has not been found growing north of southeastern Virginia, is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts. The next to flower is M. cordata, which for several days has been covered with its cup-shaped, bright canary yellow flowers unlike in color those of any other Magnolia. Discovered by Michaux on one of his journeys from Charleston, South Carolina, up the valley of the Savannah River to the high Carolina Mountains, it was introduced by him into French gardens where it flourished. For more than a century every attempt to rediscover this tree failed, and it is only within the last few years that it was found by the Berckman Brothers growing in the woods not many miles distant from Augusta, Georgia, where plants only a few feet high flower profusely. Grafts from Michaux's trees, however, preserved this tree in cultivation, and the plants in the Arboretum were raised from grafts taken from old trees in the Harvard Botanic Garden for which they were imported from Europe probably when the Garden was laid out, that is more than a century ago. A little later the flowers of the Cucumber Tree, M. acuminata, the Umbrella Tree, M, tripetala, M. virginiana and M. macrophylla will open. M. acuminata, which is the tallest of the American Magnolias, sometimes attaining a height of ninety feet, has green or greenish yellow flowers covered with a glaucous bloom. This tree is a native of mountain slopes and rocky banks of streams from southern Ontario and western New York to Ohio and Illinois, and southward along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia, central Kentucky, Mississippi and Louisiana. M. tripetala is a bushy tree from thirty to forty feet in height with large pure white flowers, and is widely distributed through the Appalachian Mountain region, although nowhere very abundant, from the valley of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania to southern Alabama, middle Kentucky and Tennessee, growing westward to southwestern Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma. M. virginiana, as botanists now call the Sweet Bay, often a large tree at the south, northward is never more than a small tree or often a large shrub. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white on the lower surface, and the flowers which continue to open in succession from the middle of June until August are small, cup-shaped, creamy white and delightfully fragrant. In all North America there is not a more delightful shrub or small tree to plant in a garden or one that will give larger returns in beauty and fragrance. It is, however, difficult to find in American nurseries and it is still practically unknown to American garden makers of this generation. M. major, often called M. Thompsoniana, a hybrid between M. virginiana and M. tripetala, has the general appearance of the former but has larger leaves, and larger, equally fragrant flowers. M. macrophylla is the last of the Magnolias to bloom in the Arboretum. A native of the southern states, it is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts where it grows to a height of thirty feet and forms a wide, round-topped head of branches spreading at nearly right angles to the trunk. This Magnolia has the largest leaves and largest flowers of any Magnolia growing in any part of the world beyond the tropics: the former are silvery white on the lower surface and from twenty to thirty inches long and from eight to nine inches wide. The expanded flowers are often a foot in diameter. Although perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, this tree is best planted in a position sheltered from the wind which often tears the large and delicate leaves. American Crabapples. Nine species of the American plants are recognized, with several varieties and two hybrids. They have white or pink fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly or entirely grown, and green or pale yellow, fragrant fruit which, with the exception of that of the species of the northwestern part of the country, is depressed globose, usually broader than high, from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, and covered with a waxy exudation. These are excellent plants for the decoration of wood borders and glades. M. glaucescenes, which is named from the pale glaucous color of the under surface of the leaves, is the first of the American species to bloom here. This is a common plant in western New York, western Pennsylvania, southern Ontario and Ohio, and ranges southward on the mountains to northern Alabama. The flowers of M. ioensis open several days later. This is the common Crabapple of the northern and middle western states, and in a number of varieties ranges southward through Missouri to western Louisiana and Texas. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with a trunk often eighteen inches in diameter and a wide open head of spreading branches. A form of this tree with double flowers (var. plena), the Bechtel Crab, named for the man who found it several years ago growing in the woods in one of the western states, has opened its pale rose-colored flowers which look like small roses. When in bloom this is one of the popular trees in the Arboretum. M. coronaria, sometimes called the Garland Tree, is the common eastern species, although it does not approach the coast north of Pennsylvania and Delaware, and ranges west to Missouri. It is a beautiful tree sometimes twenty-five feet high, with a short trunk, pink flowers rather more than an inch in diameter, and depressed globose fruit. One of the most beautiful plants when in bloom in the Arboretum is the double-flowered form of M. coronaria (var. Charlottae) which was found a few years ago in the woods near Waukegan, Illinois, and was named the Charlotte Apple in honor of the wife of the discoverer. The Arboretum plants are still small, but the flowers which are now open are fragrant, about two inches in diameter with two rows of pale pink petals, and handsomer even than those of the Bechtel Crab, the double-flowered form of M. ioensis. M. platycarpa has fruit broader than high and often two and a half inches in diameter, with a deep cavity at base and apex. The flowers are about an inch and a half in diameter with a glabrous pedicel and calyx, but in the variety Hoopesii with a pubescent calyx. There is a large tree of this variety in the old Malus collection opposite the end of the Meadow Road. M. fusca, the only native Apple-tree of the Pacific States where it ranges from Alaska to central California, is an interesting tree. It differs from the other American Crabapples in its short-oblong, yellow-green flushed with red or almost entirely red fruit from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch long, and without the waxy exudation which is peculiar to the eastern American species. The calyx of the flower, unlike that of the eastern species but like that of many of those from Asia, falls from the partly grown fruit. M. angustifolia is the last Crabapple in the Arboretum to flower. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet tall with a trunk eight or ten inches in diameter, wide-spreading branches, and bright pink, exceptionally fragrant flowers. This plant does not grow naturally north of southeastern Virginia and southern Illinois, ranging from Florida to western Louisiana. It has proved perfectly hardy, however, in the Arboretum where the plants bloom every year and are handsome and valuable additions to the collection. The other American species, M. glabrata, of the high mountains of North Carolina, M. lancifolia, widely distributed from Pennsylvania to Missouri and western North Carolina, M. bracteata, a common species from Missouri to Florida, and many of the varieties of M. ioensis are now established in the Arboretum. M. Soulardii, which is believed to be a natural hybrid between M. ioensis and some form of the orchard Apple (M. pumila), is a widely distributed and not rare tree in the middle west and one of the attractive plants in the Crabapple collection at the base of Peter's Hill. M. Dawsoniana is a hybrid of the western M. fusca and the common Apple which appeared in the Arboretum many years ago from seed collected in Oregon. It has grown here to more than double the size of M. fusca with which it shows its relationship in the oblong fruit of the shape and color of the Oregon plant but about twice the size. Bush Honeysuckles. For northern gardens there are few more beautiful shrubs than some of the Bush Honeysuckles, for in early spring they are covered with myriads of yellow, white, rose-colored or red flowers, and in summer or autumn with lustrous, usually scarlet fruits. Many of these shrubs are able to show their greatest beauty in this climate, but this can be obtained only by planting them in rich soil and with sufficient space for growth in all directions. In poor soil and when crowded by other plants they are miserable objects. The large-growing kinds, like Lonicera tatarica, L. bella and L. notha, should be planted as isolated specimens at least twenty feet from any other plant. L. Morrowii, a plant of the Amur region, requires even more space for its lowest branches which cling close to the ground and naturally spread over a great area. This shrub has gray-green foliage, comparatively large white flowers and bright red fruits. Among vigorous growing plants in this group attention is called to two hybrids of L. Korolkowii in the Shrub Collection, L. amoena and L. arnoldiana. These have gray-green foliage and small, bright pink, very attractive flowers. L. chrysantha from eastern Siberia, with large yellow flowers, is also a conspicuous object at this time. There is a large collection of these Bush Honeysuckles in the general Shrub Collection, and plants of a few of the larger-growing kinds have been planted in the grass border on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the Lilacs, to show how these plants can develop when sufficient room for free growth is given to them. Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii. This shrub was discovered by Wilson in western China and is now well established in the Arboretum where there are several plants. In cultivation here the Wilson Pearl Bush grows with a single straight stem and comparatively short branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. The flowers are much larger than those of the old-fashioned Pearl Bush, and it gives every promise of being the best garden plant of the genus. Some persons consider it when in flower the handsomest, as it is certainly the most showy of the hardy deciduous-leafed shrubs introduced in recent years from western China, and the large plants in the Shrub Collection are attracting much attention this year. Just now the trees in the Horsechestnut and Buckeye Collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road are unusually full of flowers and deserve careful study by lovers of hardy trees and shrubs."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 10","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23832","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14ebb6e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO.7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 10, 1926 Crataegus. There are now growing in the Arboretum more forms of Crataegus than of any other genus of plants; the collection now contains six hundred and fifty-four named species in addition to many unnamed plants and varieties, bringing the whole number probably up to seven hundred forms. Most of these are natives of eastern North America, where the genus is more generally represented than in any other part of the world. A few species are found in the Rocky Mountain region and in the Pacific States; there is a single species in Japan, and less than twenty in continental Asia; there are several species in southwestern, southern and central Europe, and two species in western Europe. The two species of western Europe, C. oxyacantha and C. monogyna, and many of their varieties, are established in the Arboretum and are the only foreign species which have ever been naturalized in North America where they are now abundant in some parts of Nova Scotia. One hundred and fifty years ago or more the so-called English Hawthorn was more often planted here than any of the native species, and it was with this plant that Washington struggled to make a hedge at Mount Vernon. An excellent gardener, he probably did not realize that the seeds of Crataegus do not germinate until they have been allowed to remain for two years in the ground, and as the seedlings did not appear when he expected them he dug up the seed-bed and something else was tried. Forms of this species with scarlet and with pink flowers are conspicuous, and are the only Hawthorns with colored flowers. The most beautiful, however, of all the foreign Thorns known in the Arboretum is C. pinnatifida from eastern Siberia and northern China. The large deeply divided leaves make this the handsomest of the whole genus. The flowers are large and produced in profusion. A form of this species (var. major) with larger leaves and much larger fruit is cultivated in orchards as a fruit tree in the neighborhood of Peking. In 1892 when the fourth volume of Sargent's Silva of North America was issued fourteen species of Crataegus were recognized. No other group of small trees and shrubs with deciduous leaves adds so much beauty for long periods of the year to our parks and gardens, and the study, description and distribution of the American species is probably the most important scientific work accomplished by the Arboretum during the first half century of its existence. Twenty of the twenty-two natural groups in which the North American species can be arranged are now largely represented in the Arboretum collection. The Aestivales and Brachyacanthae Groups, which contain some of the most distinct and interesting species of the genus, are not in the collection. The Aestivales, to which only four species are now referred, inhabit the coast region of the south Atlantic and Gulf states with another station in North Carolina. They grow where the ground is wet, usually in deep depressions often filled with water a large part of the year, and are slender trees or small, round-headed shrubs, with flowers which are as large or larger than those of any other Hawthorn. The plants are almost universally called May Haws in the regions where they grow because their scarlet fruit ripens in the spring. No species of this group has been planted in the Arboretum as there is little chance that any of them would prove hardy here. Of the two species of the Brachyacanthae Group, the \"Pomette Bleue\" of the Arcadians of western Louisiana, a large tree with lustrous foliage, small flowers and bright blue fruit about half an inch in diameter, is one of the handsomest of American Hawthorns, differing from all other species in the color of the fruit. A native of southern Arkansas, eastern and western Louisiana and eastern Texas, there is no chance of it ever succeeding in New England where it has been raised several times in the Arboretum. The other species of the group, C. saligna, is common on the banks of streams at high altitudes on both slopes of the Continental Divide in Colorado, where it is conspicuous in early autumn from the brilliant orange and scarlet colors of the leaves. Although it has been raised several times in the Arboretum, it has not been able to establish itself here. The distribution of the different groups of the American species is interesting. The most widely and generally distributed is the Crusgalli to which the Cockspur Thorns belong. Individuals of this group do not form as large colonies as some of those of other groups, but are generally distributed from the valley of the Saint Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in western Florida and westward to Iowa, eastern Kansas and Oklahoma, and to western Texas. In the Punctatae the type of which is C. punctata, one of the largest of the American species, the group is northeastern but ranges southward on the high Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia, and to Missouri and Arkansas where it has a number of representatives. Species of the Virides Group grow on the coastal plain of the south Atlantic states and in the coast region of the Gulf States to eastern Texas, western Louisiana, southern Arkansas and in the valley of the Mississippi River as far north as Illinois. East of the Mississippi River individuals of this group are not numerous, but westward, especially in eastern Texas, they cover great tracts of low ground, and the type of the species, C. viridis, is under favorable conditions the most gregarious of all the American Hawthorns. In the Arboretum this group is well represented by C. nitida, a large tree of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River in Illinois and one of the handsomest of all Hawthorns. The Pruinosae is a northern group but ranges southward on the Appalachian Mountains, and reaches Missouri where it is abundant with numerous species in the southern part of the state and northern Arkansas. The Tenuifoliae is a distinctly northeastern group but is largely represented on the Appalachian Mountains as far south as North Carolina, with a single species in southern Arkansas. The Coccineae Group is composed of large trees with large leaves and flowers, and large and showy scarlet fruit; it is most abundant in western New York, southern Ontario and northeastern Illinois. The Dilatatae is another group with large leaves, flowers and fruits, and is confined to the northeastern states, and to Missouri and eastern Kansas. It is well represented in the Arboretum by C. cocciniodes, now one of the handsomest trees in the collection. The Rotundifoliae are entirely northeastern and one of the species, C. rotundifolia, is the most northern in its range of American Hawthorns. The Intricatae with many species are interesting because most of the representatives are small shrubs which until recent years have been entirely overlooked by botanists. The group is widely distributed from Canada to Texas, and is best represented in Pennsylvania and Michigan. This group is _ planted beyond the Malus collection on the lower side of the road at the base of Peter's Hill. The Uniflorae, only small shrubs with white flowers and nowhere very common, are distributed from eastern New York to Alabama and Texas. The two shrubs which compose the Triflorae, and which grow in the hill regions of northwestern Georgia and northern Alabama, are handsome plants. The Pulcherrimae, Bracteatae and Silvicolae are small groups confined to the southeastern states, with one species of the Silvicolae in eastern Louisiana. The Microcarpae with three species are distinguished by their small fruits and by the principal veins of the leaves which extend to the points of the lobes, as in no other species, and also to the bottom of the sinuses between the lobes. Two of these species, C. apiifolia and C. spathulata, are well scattered through the southern states; and the third, C. cordata, the so-called Washington Thorn, is a rare and local tree in the region from western North Carolina to southern Illinois and southern Missouri; in the Arboretum it is the last species to flower. The great Flavae Group is distinctly southeastern, with many species which vary in habit from large trees to shrubs, and are well distinguished from the species in other groups by the conspicuous glands on their leaves, petioles and corymbs, and by the hard, dry flesh of the green, orange or red fruit. Plants of this group are very common in southern Georgia, western Florida and southern Alabama, with a single species in eastern Louisiana, and in the southern Appalachian region up to an altitude of about two thousand feet. This distinct group is well represented in the Arboretum by old trees of C. aprica from western North Carolina. The Macracanthae, better known as the Tomentosae, is one of the most important of the eastern groups, common with many species in Canada and the northern states; it does not occur in the southeastern states, the coast region of the east Gulf States and Louisiana, and is extremely rare in eastern Texas and Arkansas. The fruit of some of the northern trees of this group is perhaps more beautiful than that of the plants of any other group. The Douglasianae are black-fruited trees and shrubs of the northwestern and interior parts of the continent, with one species in the Lake Superior region of northern Michigan. All the species are growing well in the Arboretum, as are those of the Anomalae, a northeastern group related to the Macracanthae and Douglasianae by the presence of longitudinal cavities on the inner faces of the nutlets of the fruit. Some species of the Molles Group are the first of the American Hawthorns to flower. The distribution of this group is peculiar. It is represented in the valley of the St. Lawrence River, in Maine, eastern Massachusetts and northern Delaware; from western Vermont and Massachusetts and from western Pennsylvania it is common westward to eastern Nebraska and Kansas; it occurs in middle Tennessee, northeastern Mississippi and in northern Alabama. It is well represented in Missouri and in Arkansas, and in eastern Texas several species are widely distributed, abounding in the valley of the lower Brazos River and extending westward to that of the San Antonio. The largest trees among American Hawthorns are found in this group; they have large leaves more or less covered with hairs, especially early in the season, large flowers in many-flowered clusters, and large, scarlet, rarely yellow, usually dry and mealy, often edible fruit. American Hawthorns will be opening their flower-buds here during the next five or six weeks. For those parts of the country in which the soil is impregnated with lime, and in which the climate is severe, no other genus can furnish such handsome small trees and shrubs with such conspicuous flowers and fruit. Azaleas. Several of these plants are blooming on Azalea Path, the most conspicuous being the Japanese Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum with flame-colored and occasionally bright yellow flowers (var. aureum). Long confounded with the hybrid Rhododendron (Azalea) mollis of gardens, little attention has been paid to it, and it is only lately that its specific character has been understood. R. (Azalea) roseum is also in bloom, with deep rose-colored flowers, the fragrance of which is only equaled among Azaleas by that of the summer-blooming R. viscosum of northern swamps, and by many persons this southern shrub is considered the handsomest of American Azaleas with the exception of R. calendulaceum with its yellow and flame-colored flowers. R. nudiflorum, a northern shrub, with rosy pink flowers which open before the unfolding of the leaves, is also now in full bloom. R. calendulaceum is beginning to flower, and a few plants are already in bloom. It is an inhabitant of the mountain regions from southern New York to Georgia, and is extremely abundant on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee, and is a shrub with erect stems, sometimes from six to eight feet tall, and probably the handsomest of all American Azaleas."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23833","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14e816f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 15, 1926 The Arboretum in early summer. The Arboretum is never more interesting and more full of beauty than it is in the early days of June. The leaves of most of the deciduous-leafed trees have attained their full size, and this year, thanks to the abundant rains of the spring, are unusually large and not greatly disfigured by insects. The Arboretum is still full of flowers for this is the time when several American Viburnums begin to bloom, and some of them have been largely used in border and roadside plantations. The Rhododendrons have been little injured during the past winter, and some of the early forms are now in bloom. Early Cornels, Roses and Mock Oranges are already in flower. A large number of American and Old World Hawthorns, especially those on Peter's Hill, are covered with flowers and most of the plants in the Horsechestnut Group are exceptionally fine this year. Many of the American Magnolias are still in full bloom, and in the Shrub Collection can be seen the flowers of many Barberries, Roses, Spiraeas and other shrubs. In the whole Arboretum perhaps there is not a handsomer plant than the double-flowered American Crabapple known in nurseries as the Bechtel Crab. Viburnums. There are no small trees better suited for the decoration of American parks and roadsides than the three arborescent Viburnums of the eastern United States. The first to flower, V. prunifolium, the Black Haw of the middle states, is a common arborescent shrub or small tree on rocky hillsides and in fence-rows, sometimes growing thirty feet high. It may be distinguished from the other arborescent species by its narrower leaves and by the absence from the leaf-stalks of the wing-like margins found on those of the others. The clusters of pure white flowers are rather smaller than those of the other species and the fruit is dark blue covered with a glaucous bloom and remains on the branches until the beginning of winter. This is the common Viburnum of the middle states, only reaching New England in southwestern Connecticut. It is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum, however, and is the earliest of the arborescent species to flower here. The common northern arborescent species, V. Lentago, the Sheepberry or Nannyberry, has broad lustrous leaves and large clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by sweet and rather juicy, nearly black or dark blue fruits. It is a common northern tree or treelike shrub often twenty or thirty feet tall, and just now is conspicuous in many parts of the Arboretum. The third arborescent species, V. rufidulum, is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Viburnums. This is a southern tree which does not grow naturally further north than southern Virginia and southern Illinois, and in the south is a tree often forty feet high with a tall trunk and wide-spreading branches forming a symmetrical, round-topped head. The leaves are thick, dark green and more lustrous than those of other deciduous-leafed Viburnums. The flowers are pure white and are borne in broad, flat-topped clusters, and the fruit is bright blue and covered with a glaucous bloom. It can be distinguished from the other species by the rust brown covering of hairs on the margins of the leaf-stalks, branches of the flower-clusters and winter-buds. Long an inhabitant of the Arboretum, where even in most sheltered positions it is only a shrub, it probably will never become arborescent in habit here. The best specimen can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Of the shrubby American species now in bloom mention may be made of V. pubescens, a plant with small pointed leaves and small, compact clusters of white flowers which are followed by shining black fruits. There is a large compact group of this plant on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilac Group which is now covered with flowers. No other Viburnum blooms more profusely. In the same border are three Viburnums of the popular section of the genus in which the cluster of fertile flowers is surrounded by a ring of white sterile flowers. The handsomest of these plants is probably the European V. Opulus, the Guelder Rose. The flower-clusters are perhaps smaller than those of the other species, but the plant grows to a larger size and is more compact in habit, and the fruit is larger and of a deeper color. The Snowball of old-fashioned gardens is a form of this species in which all the flowers are sterile (var. sterile). There is a form with yellow fruit (var. xanthocarpum) and a dwarf form (var. nanum), which is a small compact bush which rarely flowers. V. americanum is a plant of looser habit, with translucent orange-red fruit which hangs on the branches until early spring. The species of northeastern Asia, V. Sargentii, has larger sterile flowers than the other species and is decidedly a handsome plant. These Viburnums are all flowering in the Viburnum Collection on the Bussey Hill Road where many of the Asiatic species are also now in bloom. Viburnums of Western Asia. It is now possible to judge of the value of most of the deciduous-leafed species of China and Japan as garden plants for the northern states as nearly all of them are well established in the Arboretum. Generally they are less valuable here than the species of eastern North America. This statement is of course a general one, for among the Asiatic species are several plants of ornamental value. The species of the Opulus Group, the sterile flowers of which form a ring of inflorescence, are larger on V. Sargentii, the Asiatic representative, than on the American and European species and as a flowering plant is the handsomest of the three. The Korean V. Carlesii, which has been described in an earlier issue of these Bulletins, is a small shrub with no particular beauty of habit or foliage, but has few rivals in the beauty of its fragrant flowers. The handsomest, however, of all the Asiatic Viburnums is V. tomentosum, a native of both Japan and western China. In Japan it grows to the size of a small tree, but in this country it is a large shrub with wide-spreading horizontal branches on the upper side of which the flat flower-clusters are thickly placed and are surrounded by a ring of pure white ray flowers. The fruit when fully grown is bright scarlet but becomes black at maturity. This is certainly one of the handsomest of the shrubs which has been brought from eastern Asia into this country. There is a Japanese form in the collection with narrower leaves (var. lanceolatum), and two Snowball forms. The more common of these is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub which is covered every year with small compact heads of white sterile flowers. In nursery catalogues it usually appears as V. plicatum but the correct name is V. tomentosum var. dilatatum. The other Japanese Snowball is a dwarf plant and blooms here about two weeks earlier than V. plicatum, and the correct name for it is V. tomentosum var. dilatatum, forma rotundifolium. The Chinese Snowball, V. macrocephalum, forma sterile, has pure white sterile flowers in larger heads than those of the other Snowballs. V. Sieboldii, a native of Japan, is a treelike shrub or small tree which sometimes grows to a height of thirty feet. It has light green, lustrous leaves round and broadest at the apex, with prominent veins, and when pressed a disagreeable odor. The flowers are produced in large clusters and the fruit, like that of V. tomentosum, turns from bright red to black after it is fully grown. V. Sieboldii is a fast-growing and perfectly hardy plant, and is one of the best of the Asiatic Viburnums in this climate. A handsomer plant, however, is V. dilatatum which is widely distributed in Japan and grows also in Korea and western China. It is a large and shapely shrub with broad flat clusters of perfect flowers which are followed by large clusters of small bright red fruits which make it a desirable plant for the decoration of autumn gardens. This is one of the last of the Asiatic species to flower in the Arboretum and will soon be covered with its handsome flower clusters. V. burejaeticum from eastern Siberia and V. erosum, a native of Japan and Korea, are also well established here but have little to recommend them as garden plants; and this is true of the six or seven species from western China discovered by Wilson which are hardy here. The best of them, perhaps, is V. theiferum, a stout and vigorous narrow shrub with erect stems, small flower clusters and red fruits. From an infusion of the leaves the \"sweet tea\" used by the monks in the monasteries on Mt. Omei, one of the five sacred mountains of China, is prepared. Of the western Chinese species V. Veitchii has perhaps the handsomest foliage which resembles that of the Traveler's Tree, V. Lantana, and retains its bright green color and does not fall until after that of all other Viburnums. V. furcatum from Japan and Korea is closely related and resembles the North American Hobblebush or Moosewood, V. alnifolium, often called V. lantanoides. Cornus kousa is a small tree which enlivens the forests of eastern Asia as C. florida enlivens those of eastern North America and C. Nuttallii those of western North America. These three species have the large white or creamy white bracts under the flower clusters which make the inflorescence so conspicuous, but the Asiatic tree differs from the American trees by the union of the fruit into a globose fleshy head while the fruits of the American trees are not united. This Asiatic species rarely exceeds twenty feet in height and the floral bracts are narrower, more pointed and not as pure white as those of the American trees. This native of central Japan is valuable, however, because it flowers three or four weeks later than C. florida. The best specimen in the Arboretum is flowering on the right hand side of the Centre Street Path and was raised from seeds produced in H. S. Hunnewell's garden at Wellesley. A handsomer tree is the Chinese form discovered by Wilson on the mountains of Hupeh in western China. The bracts under the flower clusters are broader than those of the Japanese form and overlap below the middle so that they form, like those of the American species, a cup on the end of a branch. This form is rare in cultivation, and the specimen among the Chinese plants at the base of Bussey Hill is probably the only large one in this country. It ripens a few seeds so that in time it may become valuable for general cultivation. It is interesting that in Massachusetts the Chinese and Japanese Flowering Dogwoods are hardier than the native species as the western American species cannot be grown here at all and the eastern species, C. florida, loses many of its flower-bracts in severe winters, and is often killed or injured here by extreme cold. Dipelta floribunda, a shrub of the Honeysuckle Family, in habit not unlike some of the Diervillas, planted on Bussey Hill has not before flowered so well in the Arboretum. Seeds of this plant were first sent by Wilson to the Veitch Nursery in London in 1905 and a plant was presented to the Arboretum. This plant did not live here and the one now in bloom is one of those raised from the seed sent direct to the Arboretum by Wilson from China in 1910. This was killed to the ground during the winter of 1917; it produced shoots during the following summer and is now flowering profusely. Under favorable conditions plants sometimes grow from ten to sixteen feet high, with long, rather slender, at first puberulous branches with internodes generally shorter than the leaves. The leaves are opposite, without stipules, short-stemmed, thin, deciduous, lanceolate, ovate-lanceolate or oval, from two to four inches in length, acute or acuminate, rounded or cuneate at base, at first puberulous but soon glabrescent and rather paler below than above. The flowers, which are arranged in axillary tufts on short peduncles two-leaved and from three to six-flowered, are borne on slender, short, puberulous pedicels. The corolla, which is two-lipped and about an inch and a quarter in length, is pale rose color, tubular-inflated, the tube narrowed below the middle and cylindric; the lobes are nearly equal, round-oblong and spreading, the lower lip marked with orange lines."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 19","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23834","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14e8526.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 19, 1926 Rhododendrons. More money has been wasted probably in this country during the last fifty or sixty years in attempting to cultivate broad-leaved evergreen Rhododendrons, for which with few exceptions the climate is not really suited, than on any other plants. Among hundreds of species which have been discovered chiefly in southeastern Asia only nine are hardy here in New England; these are the eastern American R. maximum, R. catawbiense, R. carolinianum, and R. minus, the Caucasian R. Smirnowii and R. caucasicum, at least in some of its forms. R. hirsutum and R. ferrugineum from the mountains of central Europe sometimes grow here for several years but are usually short-lived in this climate. The Japanese R. brachycarpum has lived in Massachusetts gardens but is no longer in the Arboretum. The plants which have been chiefly planted in New England gardens are English-made hybrids, hundreds of thousands of which having been imported. They are hybrids of R. catawbiense, most of which are made tender by the blood of Indian species with high-colored flowers. Even the few varieties of these hybrids which have proved hardy in Massachusetts are short-lived and not very satisfactory probably from the fact that they are grafted almost universally on R. ponticum which is not hardy in this climate. Even the two hybrids raised in England between R. catawbiense and R. maximum, called R. delicatissimum and R. wellesleyanum, are not always satisfactory or long-lived owing probably to the stock on which they are grafted in England. In November, 1908, the Arboretum received from T. J. Seidel, in whose nursery near Dresden was one of the greatest collections of hardy Rhododendrons, a number of his catawbiense hybrids. Seidel uses as stock for his hybrids one of the hybrids of R. caucasicum called Cunningham's White which was raised about 1830 by James Cunningham in his nursery near Edinburgh by crossing R. caucasicum with R. ponticum. This evidently makes a hardier stock than R. ponticum and is easily and cheaply cultivated from cuttings. The plants on this stock are dwarfer than those raised in England, and appear to be generally hardier. In the Seidel Collection in the Arboretum are the following named varieties: Adalbert, Adam, Alarich, Albert, Annedore, Anton, Arno, Attila, August, Bella, Bismarck, Calliope, Daisy, Desiderius, Diana, Donar, Echse, Eli, Eva, Fee and Viola. Of these Daisy with bright red flowers is the showiest and inclined to grow taller than the others. There is certainly no more beautiful Rhododendron in the Arboretum collection. In the future perhaps some American nurseryman will take up the propagation of these hybrids on stock of Cunningham's White or another of the Caucasian hybrids, but until this is done the cultivation of plants established in this country or of new collections of these plants is not promising, especially as the leaves of the evergreen Rhododendrons are seriously and now nearly universally attacked by the so-called lace-wing fly and it is necessary to spray the plants with some mineral oil at least two or three times every year. Rhododendron Smirnowii. The fact that the leaves of this plant are covered below with pale felt, which protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly, makes the species particularly valuable, and much can be expected from it in this country. It has been growing in the Arboretum for several years and has not suffered from cold or drought, although when fully exposed to the sun the leaves often droop and their edges infold, and it is better in partial shade than in full sunlight. The flowers are of good size and of pleasant shades of pink or rose color, and are borne in large clusters. Several hybrids of R. Smirnowii with hybrids of R. catawbiense have been raised in Europe and there are a few of these in the Arboretum collection; they have proved to be good garden plants here, flowering earlier than R. Smirnowii and producing large pink flowers. They have never been injured in the Arboretum, but as there is only a trace of the felt left on their leaves they will probably suffer from the lace-wing fly. R. Smirnowii is now in full bloom. Rhododendron carolinianum and R. minus are southern Appalachian species; the former is a dwarf compact shrub with leaves covered below more or less thickly with rusty brown scales, and compact clusters of small pure pink flowers which open in May; it grows equally well in full exposure to the sun and in the shade of Pines and other trees. There is a white-flowered form with thinner, rusty brown leaves which is still rare in gardens and appears to be less hardy than the pink-flowered type. R. minus grows at low elevations, as at the locks on the Savannah River above Augusta, Georgia, up to altitudes of thirty-five hundred feet on the Blue Ridge in North Carolina. It is a shrub sometimes ten or twelve feet tall, with leaves covered below with glandular scales and pink flowers which in Massachusetts open after the middle of June. Some of the Rhododendrons which have proved hardy in the Arboretum appear to be hybrids of the pale yellow-flowered R. caucasicum, a shrub which grows at high altitudes on the mountains of the Caucasus in Asia Minor. These hybrids, which have been grown successfully in the Arboretum, have compact clusters of flowers which open sometimes two or three weeks earlier than the catawbiense hybrids. There is much confusion in regard to the history of these plants and their breeding. The most satisfactory of them here is Boule de Neige. Judging by the name it was raised in France or Belgium. Only the name appears in the most elaborate work on Rhododendrons which has been published, and nothing now appears to be known about its breeding. It has white flowers faintly tinged with pink when they first open, and is one of the best Rhododendrons which can be planted in New England. Other good plants here of the Caucasian race are Mont Blanc, with deep rose-colored flower-buds and expanding flowers which soon become pure white; it is a taller and wider spreading plant than Boule de Neige; Sultana and Cassiope are dwarf, white-flowered plants of less vigorous growth and dwarfer habit than Mont Blanc. A plant of R. coriaceum, not rare in English nurseries, has been in the Arboretum for many years, and although it flowers a week or two earlier than the plants already mentioned it appears to be of Caucasian blood. Three dwarf hardy Rhododendrons were obtained many years ago in England by crossing the European species with a dwarf species of the southern Appalachian Mountains. The handsomest of them is perhaps R. myrtifolium, a hybrid between R. minus and R. hirsutum, which is covered every year in June with small clusters of pale rose-colored flowers. A hybrid between R. ferrugineum and R. minus has recently been distinguished as R, laetevirens, the name Wilsonii under which it has been growing in English nurseries properly belonging to another plant. The third of these hybrids, R. arbutifolium, is believed to be the result of crossing R. carolinianum with R. ferrugineum. The American parents are handsomer plants and better worth a place in the garden than these hybrids which have suffered from the influence of the European species. In the Arboretum are several plants of the hybrid between R. Metternichii and a hybrid catawbiense raised by Anthony Waterer at Knap Hill. These plants have large, dark green leaves which are larger than those of R. catawbiense and of many of its hybrids, and flowers which vary on different individuals from pink to rose color. They are hardy and vigorous but the flowers are not superior to those of some of the hardy forms of the catawbiense hybrids. The Japanese R. brachycarpum is a handsome shrub with leaves which resemble those of R. catawbiense, and compact clusters of large pale pink or pale straw-colored flowers. This species did not reach England, it is said, until 1888, although it was sent to the United States in 1862 by Dr. R. H. Hall, and flowered in Mr. Francis Parkman's garden a few years later. The original plant was presented by Mr. Parkman to the Arboretum where it bloomed for several years; it was finally lost in transplanting. This hardy Rhododendron, it is believed, will soon become common in gardens as Wilson sent large supplies of seeds from Japan. Cornus controversa. This is a widely distributed tree in Japan, Korea and western China, and one of Wilson's photographs made in China shows a specimen sixty feet high with a trunk seven feet in girth. This tree is now blooming in the Arboretum and the largest specimen is in the Peters' Hill Nursery. This plant came here in 1913 from the Park Department of the City of Rochester, New York, and is now about twenty-five feet high with a short trunk and a head twenty-six feet in diameter. The branches are long, crowded and spread at right angles with the stem, drooping slightly at the ends, the lowest sweeping the ground. The upper sides of the branchlets are thickly covered with flat flower clusters six or seven inches in diameter, and raised on erect stems. The flowers, which are white or white faintly tinged with yellow, are followed by black shining fruits which are eaten by the birds as fast as they ripen. As it grows on Peters' Hill it is a magnificent plant and the handsomest of the genus in the Arboretum with the exception of the species with white floral bracts. To the student of botanical geography C. controversa is interesting as another living witness of the relationship between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America, for in the genus Cornus with many species there are but two with alternate leaves, C. controversa in eastern Asia and C. alternifolia in eastern North America. Although this Asiatic species was growing in the Veitch Nursery near London as early as 1880, it has remained little known or understood in gardens owing to the confusion of this species with C. macrophylla, an eastern Asiatic tree with opposite leaves. Kolkwitzia amabilis, the only representative of a genus of western China related to Diervilla and Abelia, is blooming well on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The flowers are in pairs on long stems at the ends of short lateral branchlets, and rose color in the bud become paler after opening and are blotched with yellow at the base of the inner surface of the divisions of the lower lobe of the corolla. Kolkwitzia has not yet produced seeds in the Arboretum, but it can be propagated by cuttings and is now becoming more common in Long Island gardens than it is in the neighborhood of Boston. It is interesting that, judging from a photograph just received from Dr. Ridgway, it is growing and flowering better in his garden at Olney, Illinois, than it has in the east. Hydrangea petiolaris. The specimen of this vine, the Japanese climbing Hydrangea, on the southeastern corner of the Administration Building is one of the great sights of the Arboretum at this season of the year when it is covered with flower clusters from the ground to the eaves of the building. The leaves of few plants unfold here as early in the spring, and there is only one other climbing plant with conspicuous flowers hardy here, Schizophragma hydrangeoides, able to attach itself to a brick or stone wall, and this blooms later. The flower clusters of the Climbing Hydrangea are surrounded by a circle of white sterile flowers from eight to ten inches in diameter; they are terminal on short lateral branches which stand out from the main stem of the plant and give it an irregular surface which adds to its beauty and interest. This plant was first raised at the Arboretum in 1878 and is now occasionally cultivated in this country. It might be better known and more generally used for there is no other plant so well suited to cover brick or stone walls of buildings in the northern United States."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 24","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23835","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14e8927.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 24, 1926 Philadelphus. Few plants give greater beauty to northern gardens than the Syringas or Mock Oranges. These are the unfortunate popular names of the different species of Philadelphus, for Syringa is the botanical name of the Lilac, and Mock Orange is the popular name of Prunus caroliniana, a southern evergreen Cherry which is much planted in the southern states as an ornamental tree and in making hedges. The species of Philadelphus grow naturally in southeastern Europe and the Caucasus, in the United States on the southern Appalachian Mountains, in western Texas, on the southern Rocky Mountains and in the northwestern states, in Japan, Korea, northern and western China, and on the Himalayas. In the last twenty years much attention has been paid to the introduction of new species; artificial and natural hybrids, too, have increased the number of these plants, and there are now growing in the Arboretum some thirty species and a number of varieties and hybrids. The flowering period of the Syringas extends through six or seven weeks and, with few exceptions, none of them begin to bloom until that of most Lilacs and of the Bush Honeysuckles has passed. With its development in recent years Philadelphus has become one of the important groups of garden shrubs to be ranked with the Lilacs, Bush Honeysuckles, Viburnums and Azaleas. The species and hybrids of Philadelphus are nearly all hardy in Massachusetts, but the white and usually fragrant flowers are their only attraction. They are not particularly interesting in habit; the foliage is dull; the leaves fall without change of color, and the fruit, which is a dry capsule, is smaller and not more attractive than that of the Lilac. All the Syringas flower freely nearly every year; they need rich, well-drained soil, and the presence of lime in it has no bad effects on them. Better than most shrubs they can support shade and their ability to grow and flower under trees make them valuable as undergrowth in border plantations. The Mock Orange of all old gardens is Philadelphus coronarius, the eastern European species. This plant was first cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century and was probably one of the first garden shrubs brought to America by the English settlers. It is a medium-sized shrub often as broad as high. The flowers, too, are of medium size and faintly tinged with yellow. This shrub has been somewhat neglected since so many species and hybrids with larger and showier flowers have found their way into gardens. This is unfortunate, for no other Syringa equals the old-fashioned Mock Orange in the delicate perfume of its flowers. Varieties of this plant with yellow flowers, with double flowers, and with narrow willow-like leaves can be seen in the Arboretum collection, but none of them have any particular decorative value. Among the American species which should find a place in all gardens are P. inodorus, P. pubescens, and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain region and grows to the height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful of all Syringas. P. pubescens, often called P. grandiflorus or P. latifolius, is also a plant of the southern Appalachian region. It often grows to the height of twenty feet; the branches are stout and erect; the leaves are broad, and the slightly fragrant flowers are arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than the last and when it is in bloom it makes a great show. P. microphyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems, and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, is made up in fragrance which is stronger than that of any other Syringa and perfumes the air for a long distance. The most distinct and the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a large shrub with long arching stems from which , rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at right angles; on these branchlets the flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long, with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus Magdalenae is another Chinese species well worth cultivation. It is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, small dark green leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered clusters from six to ten inches in length. P. pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow. Another interesting garden plant, P. Falconeri, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and in its long narrow petals. The origin and history of this plant is not known. Hybrid Philadelphus. The first hybrid Philadelphus which attracted attention was raised in France before 1870 by a Monsieur Billard, and is sometimes called in gardens Souvenir de Billard, although the correct name for it is Philadelphus insignis. This hybrid is one of the handsomest of all the tall-growing Syringas, and its value is increased by the fact that it is one of the latest of them all to flower. In a few old gardens in the neighborhood of Boston great Syringa bushes occasionally thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found. These plants are believed to be hybrids between P. coronarius and some unrecognized species. It is called Philadelphus maximus. Another hybrid, P. splendens, sprang up in the Arboretum several years ago and is supposed to be a hybrid between two American species, P. inodorus and P. pubescens. It is a large and shapely shrub with pure white only slightly fragrant flowers an inch and three-quarters in diameter and borne in erect clusters. P. splendens flowers very freely and when the flowers are open it is the showiest plant in the Syringa Group. Yellow-flowered Roses. Of Roses with yellow flowers there are only five species growing from the Caucasus to the Himalayas, in central Asia and in western and northern China. One of these, R. simplicifolia, from Persia is not hardy in New England. The first of the four species to bloom here, R. Hugonis from western China, perhaps the handsomest Rose which is hardy in this climate, has been described in earlier Bulletins and is already out of bloom. The next of these four species to bloom here, R. Ecae, is a spiny shrub with small leaves and pale yellow flowers not more than an inch in diameter. It is a native of Afghanistan where it is common on mountain ridges and at Samarkand, and although of some botanical interest it has little to recommend it as a garden plant in this region. It is very hardy, however, grows into a large plant and flowers freely. In 1820 an English botanist found in a collection of Chinese drawings in London the picture of a double yellow Rose to which he gave the name of R. xanthina, and many years later the single-flowered form of this Rose was found growing wild in Mongolia by the French missionary David. Often confused, especially in Europe, with R. Ecae it apparently was not cultivated in the United States until 1908 when the Arboretum received from the Department of Agriculture seeds of this Rose gathered in China by its collector, Mr. F. N. Meyer. Both forms are in bloom in the Arboretum and are much cultivated in the gardens of Peking. The last of the hardy yellow-flowered Roses, the so-called Austrian Briar, has suffered from too many names, the oldest of which must be adopted for it, R. foetida, is unfortunate as the flowers have a slight odor which some persons do not find pleasant. Although long known in gardens as the Austrian Briar, it is probably nowhere a native of western Europe but an inhabitant of the Crimea, the Caucasus, Persia, and probably central Asia. It has handsome bright yellow flowers and when it grows well is one of the most beautiful of all single-flowered Roses, but in this climate the plants are usually short-lived. The Copper Austrian Briar, which has petals yellow on the outer surface and dark copper color on the inner surface, is believed to be a variety of R. foetida (var. bicolor). There is a double-flowered variety of R. foetida in the collection (var. persiana), known as the Persian Yellow Rose. This plant was sent from Persia in 1838 and is sometimes cultivated in American gardens. Scotch Roses. The Burnet or Scotch Rose, Rosa spinosissima, with its prickly stems, small leaves, bright flowers and globular black fruits can be found in most old-fashioned northern gardens. It is a very hardy plant, resistant to abuse, and handsome when its spreading branches are covered with flowers which unfortunately last for a short time. A variety of this plant from Siberia (var. altaica or grandiflora) is a larger plant and one of the handsomest of all single-flowered Roses which can be grown in this climate where it sometimes makes a dense bush six or seven feet high and broad; it produces great numbers of suckers by which it can be easily increased. The variety hispida is a taller growing plant with erect stems and yellow flowers from two and a half to three inches in diameter. Var. fulgens has pale pink flowers and the variety luteola pale yellow flowers. From the garden of the Duke of Buccleuch at Dalkeith, near Edinburgh, the Arboretum received a few years ago a collection of Scotch Roses for which this garden was once famous. One of the plants in this collection called Jupiter has pale pink single flowers, and another called Lady Baillie has small pale yellow flowers; they are both attractive plants and worth attention. Harison's Yellow Rose, which was raised by Mr. George Harison of New York about 1830, believed to be a hybrid between the Scotch Rose and the Austrian Briar, is a very hardy, free-growing and vigorous plant, and never fails to produce large crops of yellow semidouble flowers. At one time it was a very popular plant in northern gardens, and is still found in most old-fashioned gardens. Deutzia hypoglauca. This is a tall, hardy vigorous shrub with erect, much-branched stems, lanceolate, long-pointed leaves dark yellow-green on the upper surface and pale below, and light orange-brown branchlets. The pure white flowers are seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and are borne on slender drooping pedicels in many-flowered compound, round-topped clusters from three to four inches across. The broad, petal-like filaments, which are rather shorter than the spreading petals and are notched at the apex, form a tube rising from the center of the flower from which the bright yellow anthers emerge. The plants in the Arboretum were raised here from seeds collected in 1910 by Purdom on the mountains of Shensi at altitudes between eight and ten thousand feet above the sea-level. This may prove a valuable plant to cross with some of the Chinese Deutzias with rose-colored flowers which are not really hardy in this climate. It is a handsomer plant than D. parviflora, another Chinese species, and an old inhabitant of the Arboretum where it has proved to be one of the hardiest of all Deutzias. Sent by the Arboretum to Lemoine at Nancy, France, it was successfully crossed by him with D. gracilis. The result of this cross was Deutzia Lemoinei, one of the handsomest and hardiest garden shrubs of recent creation."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 30","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23836","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15ea328.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 30, 1926 The Arboretum early in July. The Arboretum at this time is not devoid of many conspicuous flowers, but for many persons its greatest beauty and interest is now found in the early summer foliage of its trees and other plants, its variety and various combinations. Thanks to the cool spring and often abundant rains, the foliage in the Arboretum has never been more luxurious, and the leaves on must of the Arboretum plants have rarely been so free of disease and disfiguring insects. There is certainly no other place where the maker of parks in the northeastern United States and in eastern British America can see such a variety of plants or learn how to use them to the best advantage in his work. Cornus amomum. Attention is called again to the Silky Cornel because it is one of the best of all shrubs to plant in this climate near the banks of streams and ponds where a large mass of foliage to spread out over the surface of water is desired. Examples of this use of this shrub can now be seen at two of the small ponds near the end of the Meadow Road where this Cornel is now covered with flowers. These will be followed in autumn by bright blue fruit; in the winter the purple stems are attractive. The Silky Cornel is a good plant, too, to place in front of groups of trees and shrubs, but it must have room for the free growth of its wide-spreading branches, for when crowded by other plants the branches become erect, and all the character and beauty of the plant is lost. A space of not less than twenty feet in diameter is necessary for the development of a handsome plant of the Silky Cornel. Rosa rugosa. This is a native of the coast sand-dunes of northeastern Asia from northern Japan to Kamtchatka, and is an old inhabitant of gardens. The thick dark green leaves seem able to resist the attacks of insects and the diseases which often discolor the leaves of many Roses. The flowers of the typical wild plant from Japan are red, but there are varieties with pure white and with clear pink flowers. The Kamtchakta plant, which is less ornamental than the Japanese plant, with smaller and thinner leaflets and smaller flowers is treated by many botanists as a species distinct from the Japanese plant and called by them Rosa kamtschatica. There is a double-flowered form of this continental plant in the Arboretum collection which produces flowers which are as ugly as it is possible that a Rose flower can become. No other Rose is hardier than Rosa rugosa, and left to itself it spreads into great thickets. No shrub is better suited to grow in exposed positions on the New England coast; it grows equally well in the rich soil of the garden, and no other Rose is so valuable in this climate for making low hedges. Valuable as the Japanese Rosa rugosa has proved itself as a garden plant its greatest value is in its ability to transmit its hardiness, handsome foliage and large flowers to its hybrid offspring. Among these are already several beautiful garden plants which suggest that the plant breeder who wishes to produce new races of Roses able to grow and flower successfully in the northern states must combine Rosa rugosa and its hybrids with other hardy Roses. Rose breeders are singularly reticent about the plants they have used in their work, and there appear to be no printed records of the parentage of any of the Rugosa hybrids with the exception of the two which have been created in this Arboretum. One of the earliest of the Rugosa hybrids, Madame Georges Bruant, has pure white, semidouble flowers which continue to open until the coming of frost. More distinct is the plant named Conrad Ferdinand Meyer which was raised in Germany. This is a large shrub, with large, nearly double, clustered pink flowers. The foliage and flowers show little Rugosa influence, but its vigor and hardiness are probably derived from the Japanese parent. Blanc de Coubert is a handsome, double-flowered form. At least twenty other European hybrids of Rosa rugosa have received names. Roserie de la Hay is one of the handsomest of the hybrid dark red Roses. Another of the handsomest and most distinct of these hybrids was, raised several years ago by Paul & Sons of Cheshunt, England, by whom it was named Rosa rugosa repens alba. This plant has the foliage of Rosa rugosa, large flowers with petals between which there is more space than in the typical flowers of Rosa rugosa, and long, stout, prostrate stems. In England standards with weeping branches have been successfully grown by budding this Rose on the tall stems of other Roses, and it would probably prove one of the hardiest standard Roses which could be grown here. It can be trained over a fence or arbor, but can be best used to cover banks and the ground under other shrubs or small trees. The Japanese Rosa Wichuraiana was at one time largely used as a ground cover in the Boston Parks, but it has not always proved hardy, and Rosa rugosa repens alba is a better ground cover in this climate. This Rose has been growing in the Arboretum for several years and has now been planted on the fence close to the entrance to the Arboretum nursery on Prince Street. The two Rugosa hybrids raised by Dawson at the Arboretum have proved to be good garden plants. In habit Lady Duncan resembles R. rugosa repens alba but the stems are not as stout; it can be used as ground cover or trained on an arbor or trellis. The flowers are rather smaller than those of R. rugosa and pure pink, and the leaflets are smaller and very lustrous. This Rose was obtained by crossing R. rugosa and R. Wichuraiana. The Arnold Rose, R. arnoldiana, was made by Dawson who crossed R. rugosa with the hybrid Tea Rose, General Jacqueminot. It is a stout bush with good foliage and large, bright red, single flowers, and when in bloom perhaps the showiest of the Roses in the Shrub Collection. Rosa multiflora cathayensis. In 1804 a Rose reached England from China and when it flowered was found to have small, clustered, double pink flowers. It soon found its way to France and in 1821 received the name of R. multiflora carnea. Redoute made it the subject of one of his graceful Rose portraits in Les Roses, the most beautiful of the many books devoted to Roses. In 1817 another of the double red or pink-flowered multiflora Roses was sent from China to England and then to France. This plant received there the name of Rosa multiflora platyphylla and its portrait was also painted by Redoute. It was called in England the \"Seven Sisters Rose\" and soon became a popular garden plant in Europe and the United States. Now it has almost disappeared from gardens, having been replaced by the Rambler Roses of more recent introduction. The Crimson Rambler Rose, which is now one of the most popular Roses in the northern United States, is evidently a selected form of R. multiflora platyphylla and has been widely cultivated in China probably for centuries. From China it reached Japan, and in 1878 came from Japan to England. Rosa multiflora itself, which is a Japanese species with large clusters of small white single flowers, has been known to botanists since 1784 but did not reach England until about 1875. Seeds of this Rose were sent, however, from Germany a year earlier to the Arboretum where it has been largely used in the production of hybrid Rambler Roses. Nothing was known of the origin of the double pink and red-flowered Chinese multiflora Roses until 1897 when a French missionary, the Abbe Farges, sent from western China to Monsieur Maurice L. de Vilmorin seeds of a Rose which turned out to be a single pink-flowered R. multiflora, and certainly the plant from which they had been derived. A portrait of this plant in flower appeared in 1904 in the catalogue of the Fruticetum Vilmorinianum, but it was not named and seems to have been lost sight of. Wilson found it in western China, where it is very common, and collected seeds. William Purdom, also collecting for the Arboretum in Shensi in 1909, sent seeds here of this single-flowered Rose and the plants raised from these seeds are now flowering in the Arboretum for the third year. This Rose is now to be called R. multiflora var. cathayensis; it is a hardy, vigorous, and handsome plant with the habit of the Japanese R. multiflora. The flowers are from two to two and a half inches in diameter, and are produced in large, many-flowered clusters, and the large, conspicuous, bright yellow anthers add to the beauty of the clear pink petals. This Rose may well become a popular garden plant. It offers possibilities which the hybridist will undoubtedly take advantage of; and it is of considerable historical interest as the wild original of garden plants cultivated probably for centuries by the Chinese and known in Europe and America for more than a hundred years. Plants covered with flowers and flower-buds can be seen with the other Chinese Roses in the Chinese Shrub Collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The Boursault Rose (Rosa Lheritieranea) is now covered with flowers. This Rose, which was raised in France early in the last century, is believed to be a hybrid of R. chinensis and the European R. pendulina. It owes its popular name to Monsieur Boursault who one hundred years ago had a garden in the Rue Blanche, now the Chausee d'Antin, famous for its collection of Roses. There have been several forms of the Boursault Rose but the one in the Arboretum collection, which has pale rose red, partly double flowers, was not formerly an uncommon plant in old New England gardens. It is a tall, vigorous and perfectly hardy shrub with gracefully spreading stems, and is well worth more common cultivation. Rosa caudata was discovered by Wilson in western China and is one of the Cinnamomae section of the genus; it is a tall vigorous shrub with stout arching stems covered not very thickly with stout spines, dark green foliage, and flowers about two inches in diameter, in wide, sometimes twenty-five-flowered clusters. The beauty of the flowers is increased by the white markings at the base of the pure pink petals. The fruit is orange-red, an inch long, gradually contracted above into a narrow neck crowned by the much enlarged calyx-lobes. This handsome Rose is perfectly hardy and an excellent addition to the Roses of its class. Rosa bella was introduced into the Arboretum from northern China and is a tall stout shrub which produces every year at the end of June great numbers of large rose-red flowers followed by showy fruits. A good garden plant for cold countries, R. bella might in the hands of a skillful plant breeder have a useful influence in a new race of hardy Roses. Potentilla tridentata is a native of eastern North America, where, especially on the coast, it is common in rocky and exposed situations. The leaves are composed of three leaflets which are dark green and very lustrous, and the small white flowers are produced in several clusters standing well up above the plant on long stems. It is well established in the Shrub Collection, and there is a larger mass of it on Azalea Path on Bussey Hill which is now covered with flowers. The handsomest plant now in bloom in the Arboretum is the Chinese form of Cornus kousa on the eastern slope of Bussey Hill. It has been mentioned in a recent number of these Bulletins but not half enough has been said about it, and it is doubtful if a more beautiful plant has ever come from eastern Asia to the eastern United States. It will repay a visit just now by all plant lovers. Laurel (Kalmia latifolia). Visitors to the Arboretum this year will lose its greatest flower show which for the last quarter of a century has been made every year by the long bank of Kalmias along the road at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. The plants are in good health and are beginning to make a vigorous growth, but on a very few of them are only occasional flowers. This failure to bloom has not happened here before and can only be accounted for by the fact that last year they were unusually full of flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 10","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23828","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14eab6a.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 10, 1926 Tsuga caroliniana. The Carolina Hemlock as it grows in the Arboretum is generally considered the most graceful and beautiful cone-bearing tree in the collection. It is a native of the Blue Ridge, the eastern range of the Appalachian Mountains on which it grows from southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia usually in scattered groves on the rocky banks of streams generally at elevations between two thousand five hundred and three thousand feet. It escaped the attention of the numerous botanists who explored the southern Appalachian Mountains during the last half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century, and its distinct character was first noticed in 1850 by Dr. L. B. Gibbes, of Charleston, South Carolina, although it was not until thirty-one years later that it was described by Dr. Engelmann. This Hemlock was first raised at the Arboretum in 1880 and the tallest tree here is now nearly forty feet high. On the Blue Ridge the Carolina Hemlock is usually not more than forty or fifty feet high, although occasionally trees up to seventy feet in height occur, and the trunk has rarely a greater diameter than two feet. It is a much smaller tree therefore than the northern Hemlock. The branches are more pendulous and the leaves are darker green and more lustrous than those of this tree. The leaves, too, are usually notched at the apex and slightly toothed, while those of the northern tree are usually rounded at the apex and not toothed. The two trees are, however, best distinguished by their cones; those of the southern tree are not stalked and their scales are much longer than broad with obtusely pointed bracts; and those of the northern tree are stalked, and the scales are about as long as wide with bracts broad and truncate at the apex. Many persons see and admire the Carolina Hemlock in the Arboretum every year, but it is still rare in cultivation, and probably ten thousand Colorado Blue Spruces (Picea pungens) are planted in this country every year for one Carolina Hemlock. Among a large number of seedlings of the Carolina Hemlock raised at the Arboretum in 1881 two individuals are dwarf in habit. They show no tendency to form a leader and look as if they would continue to grow more rapidly in breadth than in height. In their gracefully drooping branches they are more beautiful even than the dwarf Tsuga canadensis which has usually been considered the handsomest of dwarf conifers. Cladrastis. For more than a century the American Yellow Wood (Cladrastis lutea), one of the most beautiful trees when in flower of the North American forest, was supposed to be the only representative of this genus of the Pea Family, but in 1890 another species (C. sinensis) was found in the forests of western Szechuan and in 1901 Wilson discovered it in western Hupeh while collecting for the Veitches of London, by whom a plant was sent to the Arboretum in 1910. This plant has proved perfectly hardy and began to flower a few years ago, but it has never bloomed so abundantly as it has this season. Not as beautiful as the American species, it is of extreme interest as another important connection between the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia. Cladrastis sinensis in its native forests is sometimes a tree eighty feet high, with leaves composed of from nine to thirteen oblong to oblong-lanceolate leaflets usually rounded at the base, yellowish green, pubescent on the lower surface along the midrib, and from two to four inches in length, with a pubescent rachis and petiole. The flowers are produced in loose, upright, much-branched, nearly erect panicles from five to twelve inches long and from four to eight inches in diameter, and are white or white slightly tinged with pink and about half an inch long. This appears to have remained an extremely rare tree in cultivation, especially in the United States. Later another species was discovered in Hupeh (C. Wilsonii) which probably is not in cultivation. Lemoine Hybrid Philadelphus. Several years ago the French plant breeder Lemoine crossed Philadelphus coronarius with the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus and obtained an entirely new race to which the general name of Philadelphus Lemoinei was given. The original bush is intermediate between the parents in size and in the size of the flowers. The flowers are pure white, very fragrant and produced in profusion. From this plant Lemoine raised many seedlings and secondary hybrids, and these vary from the original P. Lemoinei in size and in the size and shape of the flowers. Taken as a whole the Lemoine hybrid Philadelphus form one of the most beautiful groups of garden plants that has been created by man. There are a number of these plants in the Arboretum collection and they have been considered perfectly hardy here, but they are sometimes injured in severe winters. P. Lemoinei itself and many of its varieties are uninjured, but a few of the second hybrids have been killed to the ground but are now growing again from the roots. The last of the Azaleas. As the yellow or flame-colored flowers of Rhododendron calendulaceum fade those of another Appalachian species, R. arborescens, begin to open. The deliciously fragrant flowers are white with bright red stamens and style, and do not open until after the leaves have grown nearly to their full size. The home of this plant is on the Appalachian Mountains on which it is found from western Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, in the neighborhood of streams in the rich soil of sheltered valleys growing to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. On the Carolina Mountains it is often not more than three or four feet tall, forming at altitudes of about five thousand feet above the sea great thickets often acres in extent. Its value as a garden plant is not generally understood or appreciated. The flowers vary greatly in size and in the length and diameter of the corolla-tube, and although the corolla is generally pure white a form is now known in which it is suffused with rose (var. Richardsonii), in another it is more or less striped with rose, in another tinged more or less deeply with yellow, and in another it is marked with a yellow blotch. All these forms are well worth a place in a collection of Azaleas, and it is possible that if seedlings were raised perhaps more varied and distinct forms might occur among them. There is a group of this Azalea on the Valley Road in front of the Linden Group and another on the opposite side of this road. A mass of the plant, too, has been planted on the western slope of Azalea Path. The last of the Azaleas, R. viscosum, begins to open its flowers a few days later than those of R. arborescens ; they are white and more fragrant than those of R. arborescens with a long slender corolla-tube. There is also a form on which the flowers are tinged with rose-purple. The clammy Azalea, or Honeysuckle, as it is called in this country, is an inhabitant of swamps and is common in the Cape region of Massachusetts and southward. In cultivation it grows as freely and flowers as abundantly on dry hillsides as it does in its native swamps, and masses of it on the lower side of Azalea Path are now covered with opening flower-buds. Viburnum Canbyi. This is the last of the Viburnums to blossom in the Arboretum where its flowers are just opening. It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and of Delaware, and has recently been found in Indiana; it is the largest and handsomest of the blue-fruited American species of which V. dentatum is the best known. It is a plant which is improved by cultivation, and there are great round-topped specimens in the Arboretum twelve or fifteen feet high and broad, and splendid objects at all seasons. Such plants can be seen on the right hand side of the entrance to the Administration Building and on the Meadow Road. The earliest Viburnum, V. alnifolium, flowered here the first of May, and from that day to this Viburnums have been flowering in the Arboretum. Sambucus canadensis. This is the last of the native shrubs to make a conspicuous show of flowers in the Arboretum, and as the corollas of the late Viburnums begin to fall the wide, flower-like clusters of S. canadensis begin to whiten. Few native shrubs make a greater showing of flowers and fruits, and the numerous Elders sown by birds on the banks of Bussey Brook in the valley north of Hemlock Hill, and by the little ponds near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads add much to the beauty of the Arboretum in July. Growing with S. canadensis in the Shrub Collection is a form with leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutiloba) and more curious than beautiful. There are here also a form with yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa) and var. maxima which originated a few years ago in a European nursery and which has flower-clusters three times as large as those of the wild plant and such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches can hardly support them. A variety with yellow leaves (var. aurea) is also in the collection. More objectionable than many yellow-leaved shrubs because it is hardier and grows more rapidly to a larger size than some of them, this plant now disfigures many European gardens and is too often seen in those of this country. Schizophragma hydrangeoides, now that it has at last, after more than forty years of failure, found a place that suits it on the east side of the Administration Building, is growing rapidly and promises to cover as much space as the great plant of the Japanese Climbing Hydrangea which is its neighbor. It is already half way to the top of the building, and its value as a flowering plant in July is now shown by its conspicuous flower clusters. The leaves are smaller than those of the Climbing Hydrangea, more circular in shape, more coarsely toothed and darker and duller in color. The inflorescence, which is terminal on short, lateral branchlets, which stand out from the stems, is interesting but not perhaps as showy as that of the Hydrangea, for instead of the surrounding ring of neutral flowers there are only two neutral flowers to each of the divisions to the large compound cluster of perfect flowers; these neutral flowers are snow white, ovate, often an inch or more long, and hang on long slender stems an inch in length. S. hydrangeoides seems to be a rare plant in American and European gardens, and in this country Hydrangea petiolaris is often sold for it. Roadside Plants. Much attention has been paid here for several years in experimenting to secure the best plants to occupy the narrow beds between the driveways and the gravel paths which follow them, and thus far the most satisfactory plant found for this purpose has been Rosa virginiana, often called R. lucida, the seashore Rose of New England, an upright shrub from two to three feet in height which is covered with leaves, lustrous in the spring and turning yellow late in October. A plant which came here many years ago from Mt. Desert Island on the coast of Maine, and now distinguished as var. lamprophylla, is a handsomer plant than the typical form, of denser habit and with darker green lustrous leaves. The large pink flowers and the showy red hips are similar to those of the common form. Another plant which has been most successfully used for this purpose is the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis). This is a widely distributed North American shrub which rarely grows more than five feet tall, and when planted in good soil is often broader than high with lower branches spreading flat on the ground and upper branches erect, spreading or drooping. In early spring before the leaves appear the branches are covered with clusters of small bright yellow flowers which in June are followed by dull red fruits which are much hidden by the small compound leaves."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 16","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23829","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14eaf6b.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 16, 1926 Magnolia virginiana. This tree, better known perhaps as Magnolia glauca, is now in full bloom in the Magnolia Group on the right hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance to the Arboretum, and has already been mentioned this year in a previous Bulletin. Its value as a garden plant in this climate, however, cannot be too often insisted on or its rarity in American gardens too often vigorously deplored. No one certainly can deny that it is the most beautiful shrub or small tree which is native to New England, and yet there is hardly an American nursery now from which it can be obtained. In this climate it is sometimes a slender tree thirty feet high with a trunk rarely more than twenty inches in diameter, with small, erect, ultimately spreading branches and slender bright green branchlets always pubescent when they first appear, soon becoming glabrous and marked by narrow, horizontal, pale lenticles gradually turning bright red brown in their second summer; often, however, growing as a shrub not more than ten or twelve feet high. The winter-buds are covered with fine silky pubescence, the terminal being from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch in length. At the north M. virginiana is found in deep swamps, its most northern station being near Magnolia in Essex County, Massachusetts. It grows also on Long Island, New York, and southward from New Jersey generally in the neighborhood of the coast to southeastern Virginia and rarely North and South Carolina. In Pennsylvania it ranges as far west as the neighborhood of Chambersburg in Franklin County. In the southern states it is usually replaced by the variety australis which differs in the thick silky pubescence on the pedicels and branchlets, and in the leaves which are persistent without change of color until spring. This is a tree sometimes ninety feet in height with a tall straight trunk occasionally three feet in diameter and short branches forming a narrow round-topped head, and branchlets usually becoming glabrous in their second year. This beautiful tree, which of course is not hardy in New England, is found on the borders of pine barren ponds, in shallow swamps and on rich hummocks usually in the neighborhood of the coast from the lower Cape Fear River near Wilmington, Delaware, to southern Florida. It is common in the interior of the Florida peninsula and ranges westward to the valley of the Nueces River, Tennessee, and to Alabama, northern Mississippi and Louisiana. Magnolia major or Thompsoniana, which is a probable hybrid between M. virginiana and another North American species, M. tripetala, was raised in an English nursery more than a century ago and is still sometimes found in gardens and is intermediate in character between its parents. Catalpas are trees of the Bignonia Family and grow naturally only in eastern North America, the West Indies and northern and central China. They all have large simple leaves and large terminal clusters of two-lipped flowers followed by long slender pods containing many thin seeds furnished at the ends with long tufts of pale hairs. All the Catalpas and one or two of their hybrids are growing in the Arboretum with the exception of the species from the West Indies. The first Catalpa, C. bignonioides, which attracted the attention of botanists and gardeners was sent from South Carolina to England early in the eighteenth century. This for a long time was the only American species cultivated in Europe or the United States, but forty or fifty years ago it became known that another species grew in the valley of the Ohio River and southward along the Mississippi River as far south as western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas. To this Catalpa the name speciosa has been well given as it is now known to be the largest, the hardiest and the handsomest of all Catalpa trees. It is the earliest of all the species, too, to bloom, and it is now covered with flowers which are larger than those of the other species. On the rich alluvial bottom lands of the Mississippi River this tree has often grown to the height of one hundred and twenty feet and formed a trunk four and a half feet in diameter. In New England it will never grow to that size, but although it was introduced into the eastern states less than fifty years ago trees in eastern Massachusetts are already forty feet high and have been flowering and ripening their seeds for many years. Catalpas produce soft wood which is remarkably durable when it comes in contact with the soil, and in some of the middle western states large plantings of Catalpa speciosa have been made to supply fence-posts, for which the word is admirably suited, and railway ties for which it has proved too soft. The other American species, Catalpa bignonioides, probably originated somewhere in the southeastern part of the country, but it has been so spread by escapes from planted trees that it is no longer possible to determine the location of its first home. It was for many years one of the common planted trees in the middle and southern states, and specimens are still occasionally seen in southern New England. Now, however, when one wants to plant a Catalpa tree in this country he finds in nurseries only C. speciosa. The more southern species is a smaller tree with shorter-pointed leaves; it grows less rapidly and blooms two or three weeks later than the eastern species. The flowers are smaller, in shorter and more compact clusters, and the pods are smaller with thicker walls. There is a dwarf form of C. bignonioides (var. nana) which grafted on the stem of one of the tree Catalpas has in recent years been largely planted in this country for the supposed decoration of gardens which are more or less formal in character. It is not known where the dwarf form originated, and if it has ever flowered the fact is not known at the Arboretum. The fact that it is universally sold in American nurseries under the name of Catalpa Bungei causes confusion for that name properly belongs to a tree from northern China. This Chinese tree has narrow, long-pointed, dark green leaves, small yellowish flowers and small pods. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1904, and was perfectly hardy until the winter of 1916-17 when one of the trees was killed to the ground and others were more or less injured. They have now recovered, but this Catalpa has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Compared with the American species it has no value as an ornamental tree. Another Chinese species, Catalpa ovata, was sent many years ago to this country from Japan where it has long been cultivated. It is a small tree with comparatively small, dark green leaves, many-flowered clusters of small, yellowish spotted flowers, and slender pods. This tree, which will grow in regions too cold for the American species, has been somewhat planted in the United States, although as an ornamental tree it does not have much to recommend it. In this country it has proved most valuable as one of the parents of the natural hybrid, Catalpa hybrida, which appeared several years ago in the Teas Nursery at Baysville, Indiana, and is often called C. Teasii and Teas Hybrid Catalpa. This is a fast growing and hardy tree with flowers like those of C. bignonioides, the American parent, although smaller but in larger clusters, and leaves in shape resembling those of C. ovata. One of two species introduced by Wilson from central China, C. Fargesii, is still living but gives little promise of ever becoming a valuable addition to the number of summer flowering trees which can be successfully used for the decoration of New England gardens. Oxydendrum arboreum, the Sorrel-tree or Sour Wood, is a native of the southern Appalachian mountain forests and the only tree of the Heath Family which can be grown in this climate, with the exception of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and the Rose Bay (Rhododendron maximum) which are shrubs at the north and only exceptionally trees in a few favored valleys of the southern mountains. The Sorrel-tree in its native forests grows fifty or sixty feet high, but at the north as it begins to flower abundantly when only a few feet tall it is not probable that in this climate it will ever attain a considerable size. It is well worth growing, however, for its bright green shining leaves which have a pleasant acidulous flavor and in autumn turn bright scarlet, for its white Andromeda-like flowers erect on the branches of spreading or slightly drooping terminal clusters, and for its pale fruit which in the autumn are conspicuous among the brilliant leaves. There is a group of these plants among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill which will flower at the end of July or early in August. Evonymus radicans is the only evergreen climbing plant really hardy in this climate which can attach itself firmly to stone, brick or concrete walls. There are a number of varieties of this variable plant in cultivation, and the handsomest of them is the broad-leafed form from northern Japan, known as var. vegetus. This plant can grow in Massachusetts to the eaves of x tall house and completely clothe its walls with a cover which grows thicker by an annual shortening of the branches, or if a wall is not provided for it to cling to it will grow as a low, round-topped, dense shrub. Like the other forms of the species it can also be used to cover the ground under trees and shrubs, but as a ground cover it is improved by occasional clipping. The variety vegetus is now covered with its small yellow green flowers which will be followed by abundant pink fruits, which add greatly to the decorative value of this variety which is the only form of E. radicans which has flowered in the Arboretum. Extreme cold in occasional winters has injured the leaves on many plants of the variety vegetus in eastern Massachusetts, but the buds were not hurt and the branches were soon covered with a new crop of leaves. Genista tinctoria. Of the small, yellow-flowered shrubs of the Pea Family, which are such a feature of the flora of southern and southeastern Europe and are so highly valued in the gardens of western Europe, the best known in Massachusetts is the Woad Wax, Genista tinctoria. Brought early from England as a garden plant it long ago escaped from a Salem garden and has spread over and ruined hundreds of acres in Essex County. Planted in the Arboretum it has spread among the native plants like dwarf Roses and Goldenrods which form a considerable part of the ground cover among the Hickories and Oaks, and now enlivens the valley through which the Valley Road extends from Centre to South Street. There is a taller variety with larger flowers (var. elatior). Much more beautiful and the handsomest of these plants which have been tried here is Cytisus nigricans, a native of Italy, Austria and Hungary, and now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. No small plant now in the Arboretum is more distinct and beautiful. As it grows here it is a compact, round-topped bush from two to three feet tall and broad, differing from most of the related plants in the arrangement of the flowers which are borne in long erect racemes terminal on branches of the year; they are bright yellow and produced in great profusion. Helianthemum. A collection of the varieties of Helianthemum nummularium, better known perhaps as H. chamaecistus or H. vulgare, has been established in one of the borders on the western slope of Bussey Hill and is flowering well this year. These are half evergreen or evergreen, low, prostrate shrubs with leaves green on both surfaces, hairy or nearly glabrous, and from half an inch to an inch and a half in length, and flowers normally yellow but varying from rose pink, orange or white, and about an inch in diameter in many-flowered loose racemes. This species is a native of Europe, western Asia and northern Africa, and perhaps not as often cultivated as it should be in this country where low plants are needed to cover the ground among shrubs. The curious fact about it is that the flowers are only open before noon and close entirely in the afternoon."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 23","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23830","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14eb36d.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 23, 1926 The Lindens. On the whole the group of Lindens on the right hand side of the Meadow Road is the best arranged and most satisfactory group of trees in the Arboretum, and so far as flowers are concerned these are the most interesting trees in this climate in July. Linden trees are found in eastern North America, eastern Asia, the Caucasus and in Europe, and the species are usually widely distributed and common forest trees. They are all quite similar in the character of their flowers and fruit, and chiefly differ in the shape of their leaves, in the presence or absence of the hairs on the leaves and branchlets, and in the nature of this hairy covering when it exists. A curious fact about Linden trees is that in the flowers of the American species there are five petal-like scales opposite the petals and connected with the clusters of stamens, and that in the flowers of the Old World Linden trees these petal-like scales do not occur. Another interesting fact which has been learned here about Linden trees is that in the Arboretum the European species and their hybrids are more vigorous and handsomer trees than the Asiatic species, although with few other exceptions eastern Asiatic trees give more satisfaction in eastern North America than the trees of western Europe. The European Lindens, too, grow more rapidly than the American species which have never been very generally planted in this part of the country with the exception perhaps of the northern Tilia glabra which often suffers here in dry summers from the attacks of the red spider which disfigures and often causes the leaves to fall in August, especially when planted as a street tree. This tree usually appears in books under the incorrect name of Tilia americana. It is a splendid tree in the forests of northern New England and eastern Canada, where it is found from northern New Brunswick to the shores of Lake Winnipeg, but is less common and smaller southward. The leaves are destitute of hairs with the exception of the large conspicuous tufts in the axils of the veins on their lower surface which is light green and lustrous. Three other American species are established in the Arboretum, Tilia neglecta, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii and T. monticola. The first of these differs from T. glabra in the short, gray, finely attached pubescence which covers the lower surface of the leaves during the season and in the small inconspicuous tufts of axillary hairs. This is also a common northern tree which often grows with T. glabra and has been confused with it in books on American trees. It has a wide range from the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec through the northern states, and ranges southward along the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina, and westward to southwestern Missouri. This tree, which has not been many years in the Arboretum, has so far escaped the attacks of the red spider, has grown rapidly and proved to be a good tree. T. heterophylla var. Michauxii is a northern variety of a species widely distributed in the southeastern states. It differs from T. glabra and T. neglecta in the thick white down which covers the lower surface of the leaves early in the season and on the leaves of upper branches is often brown. It is a handsome tree with slender, reddish or yellowish branchlets and small, slightly flattened winter-buds. It occurs in western New York and is widely distributed southward from the valley of the Susquehanna and lower Ohio rivers, in the southern states being usually confined to the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and their foothills. It is hardy in the Arboretum but has grown more slowly than T. neglecta and T. monticola. This last is the most conspicuous of the American Lindens which has been satisfactorily grown in the Arboretum. It is the tree which has been incorrectly called Tilia heterophylla in many books in which American trees have been discussed. It is found only on the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains from Virginia to North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, growing with T. heterophylla var. Michauxii. From that tree it differs in its much stouter branchlets, much larger compressed winter-buds, larger leaves very oblique at the base, often seven or eight inches long, thickly covered below with white tomentum and hanging on long slender stalks. The flowers are larger than those of any of the American Lindens. This Linden has grown more rapidly in the Arboretum than T. heterophylla var. Michauxii and promises to be a valuable tree in northern parks. There are three Linden trees in western Europe, Tilia platyphyllos, T. cordata and T. vulgaris. The first has yellowish green leaves covered on the lower surface with short hairs found also on the young branchlets. This is the first of the European species to bloom in the Arboretum where it is growing with several of its abnormal forms, including one with deeply divided leaves (var. asplenifolra) one with slightly lobed leaves (var. vitifolia) and one of pyramidal habit (var. pyramidalis). These varieties are curious rather than beautiful and have little to recommend them as ornamental trees. T. platyphyllos appears to be the common Linden sold by American nurserymen as \"European Linden.\" It is perfectly hardy but as an ornamental plant is less desirable than the other European species. Much handsomer is the small-leaved T. cordata which is the last of the Lindens in the collection to open its flower-buds. The leaves are often broader than long, with a heart-shaped base, very dark green above and pale below, and rarely more than two and a half inches in length. This tree has grown slowly here and is still a broad, densely branched pyramid. Not common in American plantations, the Arboretum has not heard of large specimens in the United States. In central and northern Europe trees one hundred feet tall are not uncommon. The third of the Lindens of western Europe, T. vulgaris, is believed to be a natural hybrid between T. platyphyllos and T. cordata. It is a large tree with leaves dull green on the upper surface, lighter on the lower surface, and destitute of hairs except in the axils of the veins below. There are fine old specimens of this tree in the neighborhood of Boston, and it is the best Linden in this climate to shade city streets. It is this tree which has been so successfully used in Boston on Louis Pasteur Avenue which connects the Harvard Medical School with Audubon Road. The Two Silver Lindens of eastern Europe, T. tomentosa, sometimes called T. argentea, and T. petiolaris, are handsome trees of unusual appearance which may often be seen in American parks. Tilia tomentosa, which is a common tree in the forests of Hungary, is a large tree with erect branches which in this country form a broad, compact, round-topped head and large leaves dark green above and snow-white below. This tree has been a good deal planted in the parks of New York City where large and handsome specimens can now be seen. It appears to be less well known in New England. T. petiolaris is a handsomer tree and one of the most beautiful of the exotic trees which can be grown in this climate, as can be seen in Newport, Rhode Island, where there are many noble specimens. It is a tall tree with drooping branches which form a narrow head, and leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface, and drooping on long slender stalks flutter gracefully in the slightest breeze. This tree is not known in a wild state and its origin is uncertain. T. spectabilis, which is believed to be a hybrid of T. petiolaris or T. tomentosa with T. glabra, is a handsome fast growing tree with the large leaves of the American species and silvery white below. This is one of the handsomest Lindens in the Arboretum collection. The var. Moltkei of this hybrid is a tree of denser habit and greener leaves, and in this climate a handsomer and more desirable tree than T. glabra. It originated many years ago in the Spaeth Nursery near Berlin. The Crimean Linden (T. euchlora, sometimes called T. dasystyla), is distinct in its dark green lustrous leaves, and is believed to be a hybrid between T. caucasica and T. cordata. This beautiful tree is hardy in the Arboretum, but does not grow as well here as the European species, certainly not as well as it does in some of the countries of western Europe where it has been used and is recommended as a street tree. T. caucasica, one of its supposed parents, is not in the Arboretum collection. Asiatic Lindens have not yet given much promise of growing here into large or handsome trees. Nearly every species from eastern Asia which has been described has been planted in the Arboretum more than once, and most of them are still growing here. They are all quite small with the exception of T. japonica which were raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892. It is a small tree here with leaves very similar to those of T. cordata, of which it has been considered a variety. The Japanese tree is chiefly interesting as it is the first of all the Linden trees here to unfold its leaves in the spring. When Lindens bloom is a happy time for bees, for the flowers of all contain large quantities of nectar. Unfortunately those of T. tomentosum and T. petiolaris are poisonous. Hypericum Buckleyi, the first of the genus to bloom here, has already opened its flowers in the Shrub Collection. This is a rare plant found only on a few of the high mountains of North Carolina, but has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for many years. It forms a dense mass of slender branches less than a foot high, covered with small yellow leaves, and early in July with small bright yellow flowers. This is an excellent plant for the rock garden and for a ground cover or the border of a shrubbery. Rhododendron maximum superbum. A plant under this name came to the Arboretum a few years ago from a Connecticut nursery. It has leaves shaped like those of R. maximum but only six inches long, and blossoms two inches across the expanded corolla; this is deep rose color on the margins of the lobes shading to white toward their base and marked on the upper lobe by many orange-colored spots. It is probably a hybrid of R. maximum with one of the hybrids of R. catawbiense. Plants raised from this cross by Charles Sander at Holm Lea in Brookline have the general appearance of R. maximum superbum, but they have longer and more lustrous leaves pale on the lower surface, and on some of the plants much larger clusters of handsomer flowers. There is an old plant, evidently the same hybrid, in what was the garden of Mr. Francis Parkman on the western shore of Jamaica Pond in Jamaica Plain. This plant has even longer leaves than the Sander plant and rather paler-colored flowers. This and one or two of the Sander plants are as handsome as any Rhododendron with pink or rose-colored flowers which can be grown in this climate. They bloom at the same time as the white-flowered hybrid, probably a hybrid of R. maximum and R. catawbiense raised many years ago by Anthony Waterer at Knaphill and named by him R. Wellesleyanum, from Mr. Hunnewell's estate at Wellesley. This plant is now flowering in the Arboretum. These maximum-catawbiense hybrids seem destined to play an important part in the decoration of parks and gardens in the northeastern United States where few Rhododendrons and other broad-leaved evergreen plants can be grown. They are as hardy as the hardiest of the catawbiense hybrids and bloom two or three weeks later than these, prolonging the flowering period for hybrid Rhododendrons to the middle of July, that is when the conspicuous flowers of trees and shrubs are not abundant."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 30","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23831","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14eb76e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 30, 1926 Hydrangeas. These plants bloom in the Arboretum during nearly three months and are important flowering shrubs in the northern states. The first species to flower here is the so-called Climbing Hydrangea, H. petiolaris, which has already been mentioned in these Bulletins this year and which when in flower on the Administration Building is one of the great sights of the Arboretum. A few days later the plants in the group of shrubby Chinese species opened their flowers which are arranged in broad flat-topped clusters surrounded by a ring of large pure white ray flowers. The best known of these, H. Bretschneideri, a native of the mountains near Peking, was first raised in the Arboretum forty years ago and is a large, vigorous, hardy plant with dark green leaves and one of the best of the exotic shrubs which flower here in the middle of June. Closely related to it are H. xanthoneura and its varieties Wilsonii and setchuenensis, and H. Rosthornii raised here from seeds collected by Wilson in western China. These plants are hardy and flowered well this year on the eastern slope of Bussey Hill and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Geographically interesting as garden plants, they do not appear to be in any way superior to H. Bretschneideri. Of the species which bloom here in July and perhaps the handsomest of all the shrubby species is H. quercifolia, a native of the southeastern states. This is a shrub with branches densely covered with rusty tomentum, deeply lobed leaves up to eight inches in length and flowers in elongated pyramidal clusters. It lives in the Arboretum but is not really hardy here, and the stems are often killed to the ground. In Mr. Richardson's garden in Brookline there is a magnificent specimen which this year is covered with innumerable flower clusters. H. arborescens and H, cinerea with flat flower clusters are common woodland shrubs southward, and have no great value as garden plants. There are monstrous forms of the two plants on which all the flowers are sterile, forming nearly globose white heads. A form of H. arborescens (var. grandiflora) has become in recent years a popular garden plant with American nurserymen, by whom it is sold in great numbers. The handsomest of the entirely hardy American species, H. radiata, is a native of the elevated regions of North and South Carolina. It is distinguished by its broad leaves which are dark green above and snow white below, and by its broad clusters of flowers surrounded by a ring of large white sterile flowers. In gardens this Hydrangea is a broad and shapely shrub, and one of the handsomest of the midsummer flowering shrubs in the Arboretum. It was once fairly common in cultivation but now nurserymen do not cultivate it, and how many gardeners of the present day have ever seen it? Hydrangea paniculata. Three forms of this Japanese shrub or small tree are in the Arboretum collection. The flowers of the three forms are borne in large, terminal, oblong, pointed clusters and the long, acuminate, dark green leaves make the plants attractive before the flowers open and after they fade, although like those of other Hydrangeas they fall in the autumn without change of color. The clusters of fertile flowers on what is considered the typical form are surrounded by the ring of white sterile flowers to which Hydrangeas owe the beauty of their inflorescence. This form, which is a handsome and valuable garden plant, will not be in bloom for another month. There is, however, an early flowering form (var. praecox) which is now just opening its flowers, and which is very similar, except in its time of flowering, to the type. This form has, however, rather larger and whiter ray flowers, and is a more ornamental plant. Indeed, when in flower in early July it is one of the handsomest shrubs in the Arboretum. This early flowering form appears to be exceedingly rare in American gardens. This unfortunately cannot be said of the third form of H. paniculata (var. grandiflora) on which the entire inflorescence is composed of sterile flowers which form a great cone-like white mass of abortions which as they fade turn to a dirty red. This plant has been propagated and sold by American nurserymen during the last fifty years by hundreds of thousands, possibly by millions, so that it is now perhaps more generally cultivated throughout the country than any other garden shrub, and certainly no other shrub has done so much to disfigure the surroundings of the homes of the people of the northern United States. A few years ago the only plant within the fence which surrounds Jefferson's Grove at Monticello was Hydrangea praniculata grandiflora. And Thomas Jefferson published in 1784 in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia\" the first comprehensive list of the plants of his native state, among which are some of the most beautiful trees and shrubs in the world. Aralia spinosa. This is a common tree growing usually in the neighborhood of streams in the region from western Pennsylvania to Missouri, and southward to northern Florida, Louisiana and eastern Texas. It is a slender tree thirty or thirty-five feet high with a stem rarely more than eight inches in diameter and wide-spreading branches furnished, like the young trunk, with stout scattered prickles. The leaves, which are clustered near the end of the branches, are from three to four feet long and about two and a half feet wide, on stems from eighteen to twenty inches in length which clasp the branches with their enlarged base, and are usually armed with slender prickles. The small, greenish white flowers appear in August in many-flowered umbels arranged in broad compact panicles three or four feet long which rise above the leaves singly or two or three together from the end of the branches. The small black fruit ripens in early autumn. This Aralia is now thoroughly established at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the plantation of Laurels (Kalmia) and is spreading to a considerable distance from the original plant by means of underground stems from which new plants rise. Aralia chinensis is so closely related to the American species that it has sometimes been considered a geographical variety of that tree. Aralia chinensis appears in the Arboretum collection in several varieties. The best known of these varieties, a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandschurica), is a hardier plant at the north than the American species and has been much more generally planted. In commercial nurseries it is often sold under the name of Dimorphanthus mandschuricus. Japanese and Chinese varieties of this Aralia, although less hardy than its Siberian representative, can be seen in the group of these plants near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Ceanothus. Of this important North American genus, which is best represented in California, only two species of the eastern part of the country and one Rocky Mountain species, C. Fendleri, are hardy in the Arboretum where the beautiful Pacific Coast species cannot live. The two northeastern species, often called New Jersey Tea, C. americanus and C. ovatus, are shrubs two or three feet high and broad, with small white flowers in dense, oblong, terminal and axillary clusters produced on branches of the year. These two species vary chiefly in the shape of the leaves, but C. ovatus bloomed nearly a month ago, while C. americanus is just now covered with flowers. These plants are valuable for naturalizing on wood borders, and few shrubs make better returns in midsummer flowers than the New Jersey Tea which appears to be rarely cultivated. A large number of hybrids between C. americanus and some of the California species have been raised in Europe and one of these hybrids, known as Gloire de Versailles, with its large clusters of deep blue flowers, is a popular plant there. Unfortunately these ' hybrids, with a single exception, are not hardy in this climate. The exception is a beautiful plant with pale rose-colored flowers which came many years ago to the Arboretum from the Lemoine Nursery at Nancy, France. It has not been possible to find the name or trace the origin of this plant. It is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection and on the lower side of Azalea Path. Calluna. Few Americans appear to realize that the Calluna, or Scotch Heather as it is called, can be successfully grown in all parts of the eastern states and northern Canada where the soil is not impregnated with lime. Heather should be planted in well drained sandy soil in situations fully exposed to the sun, and the plants flower better if the stems are cut down to the ground in early spring. This prevents a straggling growth and insures a better bloom. The following varieties of Calluna vulgaris are established in the Arboretum: alba, alba pumila, alba rigida, Alportii, argentea, aurea, cuprea, elata, erecta, Hammondii, humilis, hypnoides, minima, minor, monstrosa, multiplex, nana, pilosa, pyranaica, rigida, rubra, Serlei, spicata, tenuis, tomentosa and variegata. The earliest to bloom, var. rubra, a dwarf compact variety with crimson flowers, is already covered with flowers. Sophora japonica is, in spite of its name, a Chinese tree which has been cultivated in Japan for more than a thousand years, and as it first reached Europe from that country was long considered a native of Japan. It is a round-headed tree which in Peking, where it has been much planted, has grown to a large size and looks from a distance like an Oak tree. The leaves and branchlets are dark green, and the small, creamy white, pea-shaped flowers, which open here in August, are produced in great numbers in narrow, erect, terminal clusters. There are also in the collection the form with long, pendant branches, (var. pendula) which rarely flowers, and a young plant of the form with erect branches (var. pyramidalis). The form of this tree with flowers tinged with rose color (var. rosea) is not in the Arboretum. The Sophoras are on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. Near them the Maackias are growing. They also belong to the Pea Family, and the better known Maackia amurensis is a native of eastern Siberia; it is a small tree with handsome smooth, reddish brown, shining bark, dull, deep green, pinnate leaves and short, narrow, erect spikes of small white flowers which open here soon after the middle of July. There is a form of this tree (var. Buergeri) in northern Japan which differs from the Siberian tree in the presence of soft down on the lower surface of the leaflets. The species discovered by Wilson in central China, M. hupehensis, is growing well in the Arboretum but has not yet flowered. Late Flowering Barberries. Three species of Berberis from western China flower late in July, B. aggregata, B. Prattii, and B. subcaulialata. These plants will probably become popular for they are the latest of the Barberries to flower. They are all erect growing, tall shrubs with small yellow flowers in drooping clusters which are followed by red fruits. There are plants in the Shrub Collection and with the Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Amorpha canescens. This member of the Pea Family, the Lead Plant of the early settlers on the western plains, will soon open its small violet-colored flowers which are crowded on clustered terminal spikes and are set off by the hoary down which thickly covers the leaves and branches. This handsome and conspicuous plant grows three or four feet tall and is a native of the Mississippi valley where it is found on low hills and prairies from Indiana and Minnesota to Texas."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 5","article_sequence":16,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23825","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14ea325.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. AUGUST 5. 1926 Ash-trees. Judging by the number of inquiries sent to the Arboretum about these trees there is so much interest in them that we reprint the following article on the subject which appeared in one of these Bulletins several years ago: Fraxinus is the name of the genus to which all Ash-trees belong, although it may be well to say that the trees called Mountain Ashes are not Ashes but belong to the genus Sorbus, a member of the Rose Family and closely related to the Pears, Apples and Chokeberries. Ash-trees occur in nearly every temperate part of the Northern Hemisphere, but are more abundant in species in eastern North America than in other parts of the world. Ash-trees fall naturally into two groups; the flowers of those of the first group are furnished with narrow white petals (Ornus) and the flowers of those in the second group are destitute of petals. The best known tree of the first group is the little tree called Manna Ash or Flowering Ash (Fraxinus Ornus), a native of southeastern Europe which has long been an inhabitant of the gardens of western Europe. It grows well in the middle Atlantic states, but has never been a success in the Arboretum where a tree which had flowered in 1917 was killed to the ground by the extreme cold of the following winter. Three of the flowering Ashes are natives of the United States, Fraxinus cuspidata, F. Greggii of the Mexican boundary region and F. dipetala of the mountain valleys of California. These three plants are not in the Arboretum collection where they would not be hardy, but Ornus is well represented here by two eastern Asiatic species, F. Bungeana, a small shrub from northern China which was first raised here in 1882, and by the Japanese Fraxinus longicuspis which grows in the Arboretum both as a shrub with several spreading stems and as a small tree. Of the Ash-trees without petals and therefore with inconspicuous flowers there are seventeen species with a number of more or less distinct varieties which are natives of the United States. Six of these trees grow in the northeastern part of the country and three of them are common New England trees. To these trees color names have for no obvious reason been given, at least in books, for it is doubtful if these names have any general application among persons whose knowledge of trees has come from an intimacy of association with them in the forest or by the roadside, and not from the study of other persons' ideas about them recorded in printed pages. To persons who know trees from books White Ash, Black Ash, Green Ash, Red Ash and Blue Ash are familiar names. The most valuable of the American Ashes as a timber tree and one of the handsomest of the whole genus, the so-called White Ash, F. americana, grows naturally from Nova Scotia to Florida and eastern Texas, and westward to Nebraska and Oklahoma. It is a splendid tree, and when conditions of soil and rainfall favor it, grows often more than one hundred feet high with a tall massive trunk five or six feet in diameter. If anyone in northeastern North America wants an Ash-tree for shade or to produce timber, Fraxinus americana is the tree to plant It grows, too, better in western Europe than most eastern American trees, although it will probably not become as good a tree there as the native Ash. A variety of Fraxinus americana (var. crassifolia) differs from the common form in its thicker, entire or only slightly toothed leaflets which are silvery white on the lower surface. This tree was raised at the Arboretum in 1874 from seeds collected at Mt. Victory in central Ohio. It is therefore now one of the oldest trees raised here. This Ohio tree has grown more rapidly and is handsomer than any other Ash-tree which has been planted in the Arboretum. Seeds of this tree usually reproduce the variety, and it is this variety which should be planted when the best possible Ash-tree is wanted in this part of the country. The Black Ash, Fraxinus nigra, grows as far north as Newfoundland and the shores of Lake Winnipeg, that is further north than the other American Ash-trees, and is a common New England tree. It grows naturally in deep cold swamps and on the low banks of lakes and streams, and long resisted every effort made to establish it in the Arboretum until Mr. Dawson tried the experiment of grafting it on roots of the White Ash. These grafted plants although still small are growing well in peat soil on the left hand side of the Meadow Road near the Rhamnus Collection. Fraxinus pennsylvanica, the so-called Red Ash, is another tree widely distributed over the eastern part of the continent from New Brunswick and southern Dakota southward. It is a smaller tree than the White Ash, rarely growing more than fifty or sixty feet tall, with a trunk less than two feet in diameter, a narrow head of thin foliage, and branchlets covered with pubescence. The inner surface of the bark of this tree is sometimes red when first cut; the wood is about as valuable as that of the White Ash, but for shade and ornament F. pennsylvanica is not worth planting. The Green Ash is now usually considered a variety of F. pennsylvanica (var. lanceolata), and is most abundant in the valley of the Mississippi River and westward. It is easily distinguished by the bright green color of the two surfaces of the usually narrow leaflets. Seeds of the Green Ash germinate easily and quantities of seedling plants are found on the sand-bars and banks of many western rivers. It is a popular tree, therefore, in western nurseries, and, although not suited for the purpose, has been largely planted in the west as a street and shade tree, and occasionally also in the east for American nurseries have often substituted it for the White Ash. Another Ash of the Mississippi Valley, the Blue Ash of popular tree bocks, Fraxinus quadrangulata, owes its scientific name to its four-angled branchlets. This is one of the noble trees of the American forest, almost rivalling the White Ash in size. It grows naturally in limestone soil, but it has grown well in the Arboretum where it is helped by occasional applications of lime. Two southern trees related to the White Ash, Fraxinus biltmoriana, with densely pubescent branchlets, of the southern Appalachian region and westward, and F, texensis with rounded leaflets and a native of central and western Texas, are established in the Arboretum. Three species of the southeastern states and the five species of New Mexico and Arizona will probably never live long in Massachusetts, although the curious little Fraxinus anomala with square branchlets and leaves usually reduced to a single leaflet at one time flourished in the Arboretum during several years. Fraxinus oregana, the Pacific coast Ash-tree, is a large and handsome tree and one of the few valuable deciduous- leaved timber trees of the northwest. It has proved hardy in the Arboretum where it grows well but where it will probably never become a large tree. Of the Old World Ash-trees the best known is Fraxinus excelsior, one of the important timber trees of the world, and as it grows in western and central Europe often a magnificent tree sometimes nearly one hundred and fifty feet high with a tall massive trunk three or four feet in diameter. A number of abnormal forms of this tree have appeared in European nurseries and plantations, but F. excelsior and its varieties are miserable trees in New England and should not be planted here. Fraxinus rotundifolia and its variety with pendulous branches are established in the Arboretum. They are small trees, natives of southern Europe and southwestern Asia, and although interesting from the botanists' point of view add little to the beauty of a collection of trees. An Ash-tree from Turkestan and Soongaria (F. potamophylla) was raised in the Arboretum in 1878 and has grown rapidly into a handsome, shapely and hardy tree. As an ornamental tree this is the most promising of the exotic Ashes which have been planted in the Arboretum. The great Ash-tree of northeastern Asia, Fraxinus mandshurica, inhabits eastern Siberia, Manchuria, Korea, and northern Japan. It is a really splendid tree and produces wood of exceptional quality. This tree was first raised in the Arboretum in 1878. It is hardy and grows well for a few years but soon begins to fail and becomes unsightly, and no place has yet been found in the Arboretum which suits it. ' In 1882 the Arboretum received seeds from Peking of Fraxinus chinensis var. rhyncophylla; it has grown well and has now flowered and produced fertile seeds for several years. It is a small and not particularly shapely tree, and is most interesting in winter, for the buds are unlike those of other Ash-trees and are globose, half an inch in diameter with broad scales covered with a thick coat of rufous tomentosum. The outer scales, which are smaller than the others, do not as in most Ash-trees cover the bud which is enclosed by the second pair of scales; and on the terminal bud these outer scales are reduced to thickened reflex tips which stand out like ears. Several Ash-trees discovered by Wilson in western China have been raised in the Arboretum and are now growing in its nurseries. Of these Franxinus platypoda has grown the most rapidly, but it is too soon to form an idea of the value of these trees in American plantations. Ash-trees require deep, moist soil and as they usually unfold their leaves late and lose them early in the autumn they are not good trees to plant to shade streets and sidewalks. They are often injured while young by borers, and they are all liable to suffer from the attacks of the oyster-shell scale. Acanthopanax ricinifolius. This inhabitant of Japan and Korea sometimes grows to the height of seventy or eighty feet and forms a massive trunk with great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with numerous stout prickles. To the shape of the leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the plant which produces the fruit from which castor oil is obtained, this Acanthopanax owes its specific name. The leaves, which are nearly circular and more or less deeply five- or seven-lobed, and fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter, hang on long slender stalks. The small white flowers are arranged in compact long-stemmed clusters which form a compound flat terminal panicle which varies from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter and is well raised above the leaves. In the early autumn the flowers are followed by small black and shining fruits. Of the trees growing in the Arboretum this Acanthopanax most departs in appearance from the trees of New England; and no other tree here is regarded with more curiosity. The largest specimen is growing by the side of the pond on the right hand side of the Meadow Road near its junction with the Bussey Hill Road; there is another large specimen in the mixed border plantation in the rear of the group of Viburnums near the junction of the Bussey Hill and Valley Roads. Rhus javanica, an eastern Asiatic Sumach which is perhaps better known as Rhus Osbeckii or R. semialata, is a good August flowering tree in New England. In this country it is rarely twenty feet high, with spreading branches which form a broad round-topped head of handsome, light green, pinnate leaves with a broad-winged petiole and rachis. The flowers are white in erect, long-branched, pyramidal clusters, ten or twelve inches long and standing well above the leaves. The fruit is globose, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, red, and in compact clusters. The leaves of few trees or shrubs turn in the autumn to a more brilliant scarlet. For its showy August inflorescence and the splendor of its autumn foliage this Sumach should find a place in the planting lists for northern gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 12","article_sequence":17,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23823","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170856e.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. AUGUST 12. 1926 The Ailanthus. The Tree of Heaven of the Chinese, which botanists now call Ailanthus altissima, although it is still better known as Ailanthus glandulosa, is one of the remarkable trees of the northern hemisphere. Raised in Europe in 1751 from seeds sent from Peking, the Ailanthus was one of the first Chinese trees known in western countries. The first Ailanthus was planted in the United States by William Hamilton in 1784 in his famous garden near Philadelphia; and in 1804 it was first planted in New England, near Portsmouth, Rhode Island, where it is still abundant. For many years little attention was paid to the Ailanthus in Europe until it was found that one of the silk worms could be successfully fed on its leaves. This discovery led to the establishment of great Ailanthus plantations in France where they have succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectations, the best results having been obtained in calcareous soil and on the sandy seacoast. The date of the first planting in Europe of the Ailanthus as a street tree is not known, but when the streets of Paris were generally bordered by trees in the early years of the second Empire it was largely and successfully used for this purpose. As early as 1820 its remarkably rapid growth, the tropical appearance of its long gracefully drooping leaves, and its freedom from the attacks of insects attracted general attention to the Ailanthus in the United States. It was found to flourish equally well in the country and in the streets of New York and Philadelphia where it grows more rapidly than any tree which had been planted in those cities; and it was believed that a tree had been found which would take the place of all others for city planting. So Bulletin No. 16 was paged incorrectly. Pages 61-6k will not appear in this volume. great did the popularity of the Ailanthus become in a few years that the number of the trees planted was only limited by the ability of nurserymen to supply the demand. The popularity of the Ailanthus in the United States, however, was short-lived, for when the trees began to flower it was found that some of the flowers emitted a strong and to most persons an offensive odor, that the clouds of pollen shed from the flowers and the flowers themselves dropping on neighboring roofs so affected the water caught on them that it was unfit for use, and that the flowers which dropped on the ground made the city sidewalk and the country yard unbearably disagreeable. This peculiarity of the flowers discovered, the Ailanthus sank rapidly in popular esteem, and its general destruction in this country was advocated and put into execution. Unpopular as the Ailanthus has become, it is one of the handsomest and most valuable trees in the world. Planted in cities it can resist better than any other tree heat, drought, dirt and gas escaping from defective pipes which menace the life of city trees. It grows rapidly even in the most unpromising situations; it is never seriously injured by insects; and few trees can be more easily propagated, for small pieces of the root covered with soil will soon grow into plants large enough to transplant. The suckers which the Ailanthus produces in great numbers from the roots are the real drawback to this tree, but when it is planted in city streets they are unable to force their way through brick sidewalks and concrete is impervious to them. The male and female flowers of the Ailanthus are chiefly produced on different trees; only the male flowers have a disagreeable odor and drop to the ground; the female flowers are scentless. In the clusters of female flowers occasional male flowers are found, but there are so few of these that their odor is not perceptible. It is perfectly easy to propagate only the female tree which is the one which should be planted, and apart from the absence of the disagreeable smell of the flowers it is more ornamental than the male, for the winged fruit of the Ailanthus, produced in great terminal clusters, is handsome and conspicuous in the late summer and autumn. The fruit is usually yellow, but in one variety it is bright red (var. erythrocarpa) and more brilliant and conspicuous than the fruit of any tree of large size which can be grown in the northern states. The leaves of the red-fruited variety are darker on the upper surface and paler below than those of the yellow-fruited form; and the handsomer leaves and more brilliant fruit make this the desirable form to cultivate. 'I here is certainly no better tree than the Ailanthus to shade the streets of American cities provided they afford sufficient room for its development, for the Ailanthus even when it is planted in cities may become a tall, wide-branched tree, demanding space in which to display all its beauties. Although the attempt has not been made on a large scale in this country to fix shifting sand dunes by planting the Ailanthus, it has been successfully used for this purpose in Europe, especially in the neighborhood of Odessa on the Black Sea where large plantations of Ailanthus have been successful on sterile soil so shifting that other trees have not been able to secure a foothold on it. The Tree of Heaven produces valuable hard, heavy and close-grained wood of a pleasant clear yellow color, resembling that of satinwood; it is easily seasoned, and shows as little tendency to shrink or warp as the best mahogany. Beautiful furniture has been made from Ailanthus wood raised in New England, and if the tree is ever grown on a large scale on the sandy now unused lands of our seacoast it will supply the cabinet-maker with wood which in quality and beauty equals that of the White Oak, the Black Walnut and the Wild Cherry. From experiments in the laboratories of the University of Wisconsin it appears that the wood of this tree can be profitably used in the manufacture of paper. It is an interesting fact that although the Ailanthus is now known in all the countries of the world which enjoy a temperate climate its true home in China, that is the region where it is a really wild tree, is still unknown to European and American botanists who have now travelled in nearly all parts of the Celestial Empire. Two other specimens of Ailanthus, A. Giraldii and A. Vilmoriniana, are known, however, as wild trees in western China. The former, which differs in the presence of prickles on the branches, has not proved hardy in the Arboretum; the other, which chiefly differs from the common Ailanthus in the downy covering of the young branchlets, is now established here but has not yet produced flowers or fruits. Small plants of Ailanthus altissima setchuenensis, A. glandulosa pendulifolia and A. Duclouxii are now in the Arboretum nurseries, but in view of the importance of this genus sufficient attention has never been paid to it in the Arboretum. Plants of A. altissima were first raised here in 1882 from seeds collected in Roxbury by Jackson Dawson and one of these plants which stood on the right hand side of the Meadow Road grew to a considerable size but died suddenly a few years ago without apparent cause. Inquiries are often made at the Arboretum about the best trees to plant in northern cities where trees suffer badly or are killed from smoke and dirt. Persons interested in this subject are referred to an article published in the last July number of The Atlantic Monthly entitled \"Are some Trees civilized?\" by Don Knowlton, in which they are intelligently discussed, and it contains much useful information. His survey of the healthy trees in the smoke-covered region of Cleveland shows that the following trees can be relied on in such situations: the Ailanthus, the tree which he calls the European Sycamore, which is not that tree but a hybrid between the European and American species known as Platanus acerifolium, Catalpa, which is probably C. speciosa, the Carolina Poplar, Weeping Willow, Crack Willow and White Poplar. Cedrela sinensis. The Arboretum saw last week for the first time fresh flowers of this Chinese tree of the Meliaceae Family produced on a tree in Mr. William L. McGee's garden in Bristol, Rhode Island, which is believed to have been planted more than thirty years ago. There is no record here that it has flowered before in the eastern states, and the only evidence of other American flowers in the Arboretum herbarium are those taken from a tree growing in the state of Washington. Plants raised from seed in the Arboretum in 1892 have grown well here on Peters' Hill and are perfectly hardy. This Cedrela appears to be rare in Europe, and we have been unable to find any record of its having flowered there. There are several species, of which Cedrela sinensis is the most northern in its distribution, while the others are confined to Mexico, Brazil, Australia and India. C. sinensis is a tree from fifty to eighty feet in height, with large, long-stalked leaves, with ten to twenty-two oblong or oblong-lanceolate leaflets four to eight inches long, acuminate, slightly and remotely serrate and light green on the lower surface. The white flowers are produced in long, pendulous panicles with five subulate staminodes alternating with the stamens, and oblong or obovate fruit about an inch in length. The tree has the general appearance of Ailanthus and at one time was called Ailanthus flavescens. From Ailanthus this Cedrella can be easily distinguished by the few coarse teeth near the base of the leaflets, each bearing a large gland on the lower side. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree, which has been in bloom several days, is when in flower the most conspicuous of all the summer flowering trees which are hardy in this climate. It is a round-headed tree rarely more than thirty feet high, with large, compound, dark green leaves and large erect clusters of golden yellow flowers which are followed by great clusters of bladder-like pale fruits. This tree, which is hardy in Massachusetts, has been much planted in this country, especially in the gardens of the middle states. The Koelreuteria often appears in American nursery catalogues under the name of \"Japanese Lacquer-tree,\" although it is not a native of Japan and has not lacquer-producing sap. Aesculus parviflora, the summer-flowering Buckeye, is still flowering, and is covered with its tall narrow spikes of small, slender, white flowers with long exserted stamens. This is perhaps the most conspicuous of the summer flowering shrubs, with the exception of Hydrangeas, which are hardy in the Arboretum. It is a native of the southeastern states from South Carolina to Florida and Alabama, and nowhere abundant it appears to be most common in northern Alabama. It has long been a favorite in gardens in which it produces stems seven or eight feet high, and in good soil and with sufficient room spreads into great thickets often twenty or thirty feet across. Cotinus. In the Sumach Group, on the left hand side of the Valley Road and opposite the Evonymus Group, the Smoke-tree (Cotinus coggygria), is in bloom. The flowers are very small, in loosely arranged clusters and are not at all conspicuous, and it is their much lengthened hairy colored stems which are interesting and showy, and make this plant such a feature of the summer garden. The fruit is small and of no particular beauty, but in the autumn the dark green leaves sometimes assume dull shades of red and orange. The Smoke-tree is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, the Himalayas and western China, and is perfectly hardy in New England where it was probably brought early from Old England where it was cultivated soon after the middle of the seventeenth century. In the same group there is a large specimen of the American species C. americanus. This as it grows in the south is sometimes a tree thirty feet tall with a stout trunk a foot in diameter, but here in the Arboretum it is always bush-like in habit."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 19","article_sequence":18,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23824","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170896f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 18 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. AUGUST 19, 1926 Ulmus procera. A European Elm, formerly united by Linnaeus with other European species under the name of Ulmus campestris, a name which must be abandoned, is now generally known as Ulmus procera. It is a common tree in southern and western Europe, and possibly a native of southern England where it is common, but if not it must have been early introduced into that country. This is an interesting and valuable tree in eastern Massachusetts where it was first planted in Milton by Mr. John Smith who brought some of these trees from England about 1734 and planted them on his farm on Brush Hill. A few of them are probably still standing and have produced a grove of suckers several of which transplanted from Milton have grown into large trees. The largest of the trees on the original Smith farm are from seventy-five to eighty feet tall with trunks eight to ten feet in circumference three feet above the surface of the ground; but by the roadside on Milton Hill, on the estate of Mr. E. James, seven of these trees are standing. The three largest have trunk circumferences of thirteen feet four inches, twelve feet five inches and nine feet five inches. Although possibly younger, there are now larger specimens of this tree on the Rice Estate on Pond Street, Jamaica Plain, which are believed to have been planted by Francis Bernard, colonial Governor of Massachusetts from 1760-1769, who built the original house and planted the trees which he probably imported from England during his term as Governor here. The largest of the four Elms has a trunk girth of eighteen feet six inches and is the largest I have found in Massachusetts. Unfortunately they must soon disappear as the estate is being divided into small house lots. The so-called Paddock Elms on Tremont Street in front of the Granary Burying Ground were planted by or for Mr. Gilbert Deblois, a well known citizen of Boston who lived on Tremont Street at the north corner of Bromfield Street, opposite the Burying Ground. He was a friend of Mr. John Smith of Milton who gave him the trees. In return for these Deblois agreed to name his new-born baby for Smith. The records of King's Chapel show that James Smith Deblois was baptized by Reverend Henry Carver on May 16, 1769, which fixes the time when the trees were planted. Mr. Deblois, an active business man, employed Adino Paddock, coach maker, the windows of whose shop overlooked the trees, to look out for their protection. That this guardian of the trees attended faithfully to his duties is shown by the fact that he twice offered a reward for the discovery of those who injured them. About 1870 the question of removing these trees began to be discussed by the city government. In February, 1874, Alderman Powers said :- \"Never has a petition come from a citizen of Boston for their removal but thousands of petitions have come against it, many from some of the heaviest taxpayers of Boston.\" At a meeting later in the month it was voted nevertheless to destroy these trees, and on the 27th of that month Mayor Cobb signed an order for removing the Paddock Elms. In the Boston Herald of Sunday, March 1, 1874, it was said: \"The Paddock Elms are in the hands of the destroyer. The well known forms of the ancient Elms that for a hundred years have kept watch and ward on the old Granary Burying Ground on Tremont Street have at last fallen a victim to the onward march of modern improvement, and beneath the sturdy blows of the woodman's axe have been laid low. At twenty-one minutes past eleven on Saturday morning the most northern tree fell to the ground, and in ten minutes the next, until six had fallen, and the boughless forms of five stood.\" On Beacon Street, between Joy and Park Streets, there are now standing nine of these trees. To them Mr. Joseph Henry Curtis has devoted a volume, published in 1910, entitled \"Life of Campestris Ulm, the oldest inhabitant of Boston Common,\" containing excellent pictures of some of these trees. Several of them were planted as early as 1780. The largest, often called the Hancock Elm because it was planted by John Hancock directly opposite his mansion, has a trunk circumference of fifteen feet. Mr. Curtis does not say where these trees were obtained but, like the Paddock Elms, they were probably some of Mr. Smith's Brush Hill suckers. The row of these Elms which once stood on the Tremont and Boylston Street Malls of the Common was probably planted at the same time and the trees were perhaps obtained from Brush Hill. There are now only two of these trees left, one on Tremont Street and one on Boylston Street, the others having been destroyed in making the Subway between 1895 and 1898. On Main Street, Dedham, in front of the house now occupied by the Dedham Community Association, there are three specimens of this Elm which are said to have been planted in 1789 by Judge Haven who was the first Judge of Probate of Norfolk County. The largest of these trees has a trunk sixteen feet in circumference three feet above the ground; the others have trunks thirteen feet three inches and thirteen feet six inches in diameter. No one knows where they were obtained, but it is not impossible that they also came from Milton. On the Slocum Estate, Jamaica Plain, there is, close to Pond Street, a fine row of ten tall trees of this Elm with a trunk circumference averaging ten feet six inches at four feet above the ground. The origin of these trees is not known, and this is true of three trees of about the same size on Boylston Street opposite the Brookline Reservoir. One of these is on the old Lee Estate and two are close to the road on the Galen L. Stone Estate. On the north side of Warren Street near Boylston Street stand two fine specimens of this tree, one with a trunk circumference of ten feet four inches and the other of twelve feet four inches. Of the younger of these trees near Boston the best are those which were planted on the grounds of the Chestnut Hill Reservoir in Newton and the western edge of Brookline in 1876 by Mr. Desmond FitzGerald which, if they continue to grow in the future as they have in the past will make before this century is over one of the glories of Massachusetts and an appropriate monument for the public-spirited and intelligent man who planted them. There is a long row of these trees bordering the road on the south side of the highway on that side of the Reservoir, and a number of individual trees on the eastern or Brookline end of the Reservoir grounds. Many of the Reservoir trees are already from fifty to sixty feet in height with trunks varying from eight to eleven feet in circumference. It was proposed to plant the green on Commonwealth Avenue west of Dartmouth Street with two rows of this Elm. This was done but a resident of the Avenue, more public-spirited than intelligent, made such a loud-mouthed protest against only two rows of trees in the Avenue that he succeeded in getting four rows planted in a space hardly wide enough for two rows, and these trees are doomed to inevitable failure and will soon have to be replaced. The best of the young Elms of this species in Boston border the two sides of the short street directly east of the Art Museum. There are twenty of these trees, all in excellent condition, with an average circumference of trunk of four feet six inches. One tree between Pond Street and Jamaica Pond, which is supposed to have been planted about 1865, is a shapely and healthy specimen with a trunk circumference of nine and a half feet. I have seen photographs of two trees planted about 1843 near the house on Highland Ave., Rochester, N. Y., occupied by Mr. George Ellwanger. These trees have a trunk circumference four feet above the surface of the ground of eleven feet ten inches and ten feet ten and a half inches. Ulmus procera is a tree sometimes in Europe one hundred and fifty feet tall, producing many suckers, but at the north never bearing seeds, with dark, deeply furrowed bark, ascending branches forming a narrow head, slender branchlets pubescent when young, and sometimes developing corky wings, and ovoid, minutely pubescent buds. The leaves vary from ovate to broad-elliptic, and are shortly acuminate, very oblique at the base, deeply serrate with about twelve pairs of veins, dark green and scabrous above, soft-pubescent below with axillary tufts and short pubescent petioles. In the Arboretum herbarium are fruit-bearing specimens of planted trees of this Elm collected at Cordova and Aranjuez, Spain. Attention is called to the fact that among these Elms are the largest planted trees in Massachusetts, and the oldest with the exception of the still living wreck of the Endicott Pear tree at Danvers. Indigofera. Five species of this genus of the Pea Family are now blooming in the Arboretum. They are small plants with handsome flowers in terminal racemes, well suited to decorate a garden border. The three species with pink flowers, I. Kirilowii, a native of northern China, Manchuria and Korea, 1. Potaninii and 1. amblyantha are perfectly hardy and the last will continue to open its small flowers on the lengthening racemes until October. The other species, L Gerardiana and 1. decora, are killed to the ground every winter, but like herbaceous plants produce new stems in the spring which never fail to flower during the summer. 1. decora is a native of southern China, and in the Arboretum the flowers are pure white. L Gerardiana, which is a native of the northwestern Himalayas, has gray-green foliage and rose-purple flowers. This is the least beautiful of the five species now growing in the Arboretum. The collection still needs 1. hebepetala, another Himalayan plant which is rarely seen in English gardens. It has red flowers, in elongated racemes, and, judging by the picture of it which has been published, is a handsome plant. This and another red-flowered Himalayan species, 1. atropurpurea, are desired by the Arboretum. Japanese Grape Vines. To Japan the Arboretum is indebted for Vitis Coignetiae, the handsomest Grape Vine which can be grown in the northern states. No other species is more hardy, grows so vigorously, or produces such large leaves which are thick, prominently veined and pale on the lower surface; they turn bright red in the autumn, and as this is a northern species their fading colors are more brilliant in northern New England than they are in Massachusetts. The small black fruit, which is eaten in Hokkaido, has little to recommend it to the American palate. Vitis amurensis from eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Korea is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum. It is a handsome and perfectly hardy plant, but not superior as a garden plant to several of the American species. The Japanese Vitis pulchra is distinct in the dark red color of the leaves and shoots in the spring, and is a handsome and interesting plant. This Vine is known only from cultivated plants, and only the male plant is in the Arboretum collection. The ripening of fruits has already begun and the varied and beautiful fruit of many trees and shrubs will make the Arboretum an interesting place to visit for several months, and one of the best places in America to supply birds with food. Although not yet ripe the bright red \"keys\" of the Tartarian Maple are now the showiest fruits in the Arboretum. They are the chief ornament of this hardy little tree of southeastern Europe and western Asia (Acer tataricum), many years ago much more often seen in American gardens than it is now. The fruit on several Bush Honeysuckles is ripe or nearly ripe. A few of the most conspicuous of these plants now are those of the hybrids of the Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), called L. bella, L. muendeniensis, and L. notha. There are varieties, too, of L. tatarica with red and with yellow fruit which are attractive at this season of the year and the bright yellow flowers of Lonicera Ruprechtiana var. xanthocarpa make a great show in early July. The red fruits covered with hairs of Rhus canadensis, often called R. aromatica, are also ripe. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 1","article_sequence":19,"start_page":77,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23843","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd15ebb6f.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 19 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 1. 1926 Autumn in the Arboretum. It is not probable that the Arboretum has been more beautiful during the months of September and October than it has this year. The trees have not before been fuller of leaves and the grass as green at this season of the year. Many leaves, especially those of the Oaks, are still green; those of several trees have turned gradually and brilliantly, and the beauty and interest of the Arboretum has been increased by abundant crops of beautiful and brilliant fruits. This is particularly true of the fruits of many Crabapples in the great collection near the base of Peter's Hill, and by that of many Hawthorns, Honeysuckles, Viburnums and Cornels. The leaves of many plants have already changed their color and fallen, and this is true of those of the two trees of Phellodendron amurense on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. This is an exceedingly rare species in cultivation, and it is almost as beautiful after the autumn coloring of the bright yellow leaves has disappeared and left the gray trunks and branches bare, making this tree one of the conspicuous winter features of the Arboretum. Nearly all the forms of the American Horsechestnuts, or Buckeyes as they are called, turn brilliantly in the early autumn and have already fallen. The Sugar Maples are now brilliant objects and while the leaves have fallen from many Red Maples others retain their bright colors. The tree directly opposite the Administration Building in the Arboretum is a good example of this, and landscape gardeners who may wish to use trees and shrubs for autumn effects can find useful suggestions in this tree, for it has been raised from a graft taken from a tree with leaves of exceptionally brilliant autumn color. This exceptional color has been preserved, and indicates that it is possible to graft plants with leaves of unusually brilliant autumn color just as it is possible to propagate trees with leaves abnormally marked with yellow or otherwise abnormal, or with double or other unusual flowers, or with improved fruits. Little has yet been done anywhere to propagate trees for their autumn colors, but the field is an interesting and important one for the makers of autumn gardens. That the making of such gardens will sooner or later receive attention in this country there can be little doubt, for the pleasantest months of the year are the autumn months, and in no other part of the world is the autumn foliage so brilliant and nowhere else are the fruits of trees and shrubs more abundant, varied and interesting. Flowering Dogwoods. Among the smaller trees with scarlet or crimson autumn foliage none is more beautiful now than the so-called Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida), which is unusually brilliant this year with its leaves of scarlet and green. Its autumn beauty is increased by the contrast in the color on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves for only the upper surface changes color, the lower surface retaining the pale sometimes nearly white color of the summer. For regions with a winter climate as severe as that of eastern Massachusetts its eastern Asiatic relative (Cornus kousa) and especially the variety chinensis are more reliable plants. They are smaller trees than the eastern American plant but the leaves turn as brilliantly in the autumn; the flower-buds are not killed or injured by the severest cold of our winters and open from two to three weeks later, and the floral bracts which surround the clusters of small flowers and are the conspicuous feature of the inflorescence are narrower, further apart and pointed, not broad and rounded, at the apex. The fruit is even handsomer than that of the American plant for the individual fruits are united into a globose scarlet head which is raised on a long slender erect stem and are not, like those of the American plant, in clusters of separate fruits. The form discovered and introduced by Wilson from western China promises to be a better plant in this climate than the Japanese form, for it is equally hardy and the floral bracts are larger and overlap below the middle, forming a cup like those of the American species. This plant is still rare, but as it produces good crops of seeds in the Arboretum it is hoped that it will soon be within the reach of lovers of handsome hardy trees. The Sassafras (Sassafras variifolium). This is one of the most beautiful and apparently one of the least known trees of eastern North America. It is interesting as the only member of the trees of the Laurel Family which is native to this part of the country, and is an aromatic tree with deeply furrowed red-brown bark, scaly buds, slender bright green lustrous branchlets, brittle branches containing a thick mucilaginous pith and marked by small semi-orbicular elevated leaf-scars displaying single horizontal rows of fibrovascular bundle-scars, and stout stoloniferous roots covered by thick yellow bark. The flower-buds are terminal, ovate, acute, protected by nine or ten imbricated scales increasing in size from without inward, the three outer scales being ovate, rounded and often apiculate at the apex, keeled and thickened on the back, pale yellow-green below, dull yellow-brown above the middle and deciduous at the opening of the bud. The leaves are ovate or obovate, entire or sometimes three-lobed at the apex, the lobes being broadly ovate, acute, divided by deep broad sinuses, and gradually narrowed at the base into elongated slender petioles, as they unfold light green and somewhat pilose on the upper surface with scattered white hairs, ciliate on the margins, and clothed on the lower surface with a loose pubescence of long white lustrous hairs, at maturity becoming thin, dark dull green above, pale and glabrous or pubescent below. The small yellow flowers open in early spring with the first unfolding of the leaves, the males and females usually on different individuals, in lax drooping few-flowered racemes developed from the axils of the large ovate bud-scales, the upper flowers of the lowest raceme opening first. The calyx is pale yellow, divided nearly to the base into six narrow obovate lobes, rounded or incurved at the apex, spreading or reflexed after anthesis, those of the inner series a little longer than the others; the nine stamens are inserted in three series on the somewhat thickened margin of the shallow concave calyx-tube, those of the outer series opposite its outer lobes; filaments flattened, elongated, slightly enlarged toward the apex, incurved, light yellow, those of the inner series furnished near the base with two conspicuous orange-colored stipitate glands; the anthers are introrse, four-celled, the cells superposed in pairs, the lower longer than the upper, opening from below by persistent lids, in the female flower reduced to flattened, ovate, dark orange-colored, stipitate staminodia, or occasionally fertile and similar to or only slightly smaller than those of the staminate flower; the ovary is ovate, one-celled, light green, glabrous, nearly sessile in the short tube of the calyx, contracted into a slender, elongated, simple style gradually enlarged above into a capitate, oblique, obtusely lobed stigma. The fruit is an oblong, dark blue, lustrous berry surrounded at the base by the enlarged and thickened obscurely six-lobed or truncate, scarlet limb of the calyx, raised on a much elongated, scarlet stalk thickened above the middle. The wood is soft, weak, brittle and coarse-grained, although very durable when placed in contact with the soil, and is aromatic and dull orange-brown with thin light yellow sapwood composed of seven or eight layers of annual growth; it is largely used for fence-posts and rails, in the construction of light boats and in cooperage. The roots of Sassafras, and especially their bark, are a mild aromatic stimulant, and oil of sassafras used to perfume soap and other articles is distilled from them. Gumbo filet, a powder prepared from the leaves by the Choctaw Indians of Louisiana, gives consistency to gumbo soup. In the middle of the sixteenth century the French in Florida learned from the Indians the medicinal value of Sassafras, and in 1569 the first account of this tree was published by the Spanish physician Monardes. Exaggerated ideas of the curative properties of Sassafras soon spread through Europe and efforts were made to secure large supplies of the wood and roots. The tree is little injured by insects or by serious fungal diseases. In the south it occasionally grows to the height of eighty or ninety feet with a trunk sometimes six feet in diameter and short stout more or less contorted branches which spread almost at right angles from the trunk; at the north it is much smaller and often a shrub. The leaves vary from four to six inches in length and from two to four inches in width, and in the autumn turn to delicate shades of yellow and orange more or less tinged with red. The flowers are produced in racemes about two inches in length and a third of an inch in diameter when fully expanded. The fruits, which ripen in September or October and are a third of an inch long, are raised on stalks an inch and a half to two inches in length. Exceedingly abundant in some years, the fruit of the Sassafras is usually produced rather sparingly, and is devoured by birds as soon as it begins to assume its brilliant colors. This beautiful and interesting tree is distributed from eastern Massachusetts through southern Vermont to southern Ontario and central Michigan, eastern Iowa, eastern Kansas and the Indian Territory, and southward to central Florida and the valley of the Brazos River in Texas. The Sassafras was probably one of the first North American trees used in European gardens, as the figure of the plant published in 1633 in Gerard's Herbal was made from a specimen which had grown in a garden near London. The Sassafras can be propagated by seeds which should be sown as soon as ripe when they will germinate early the following spring, or by root suckers which are often produced in great profusion. The large thick fleshy roots which penetrate deep into the ground make the Sassafras difficult to transplant and only small plants should be selected for the purpose. The genus is also represented by two species which occur in eastern Asia and which have not yet proved hardy in the Arboretum. No other American tree of its beauty and interest has been so rarely planted in this country as the American Sassafras, owing perhaps to the idea that it is difficult to transplant. Certainly it cannot be found in any American nursery, and it is doubtful if it occurs now often in Europe. There are two or three natural groups in the Arboretum and the largest and handsomest is perhaps on the border of the woods directly behind the collection of Crabapple at the base of Peter's Hill. There is another group nearly as large above the Hawthorns on Peter's Hill, and there are a male and a female plant on the right hand side of the road opposite the Lilacs which were collected in West Roxbury and planted there in 1878 but are not conspicuous or handsome plants. Deciduous-leafed trees of pyramidal habit. Although much less numerous than pyramidal conifers, all pyramidal trees with leaves which fall in the autumn are worth the attention of tree lovers. The best known of these is the variety italica of the European Black Poplar (Populus nigra) from which it differs in its tall, narrow growth, glabrous young shoots and its confirmed habit of suckering from the roots. This tree, the so-called Lombardy Poplar, has been universally planted in Europe and was early introduced into the United States."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"December 10","article_sequence":20,"start_page":81,"end_page":85,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23826","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14ea727.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XII NO. 20 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. DECEMBER 10, 1926 Conifers. There are few regions less suited to the successful cultivation of Conifers than eastern New England and the Arboretum has reason to be satisfied perhaps with its success in increasing the knowledge of these plants and of their cultivation. Of the conifers of western North America only a few of those which grow west of the Rocky Mountains can be successfully cultivated in New England. None of those confined to the southern states, southern Europe, southern Asia, or northern Africa, or any part of the southern hemisphere, are hardy here, so of the thirty genera of these plants now recognized only fourteen can be found in the Arboretum. This means that some of the great conifers of the world like the two Sequoias, several of the Pines and most beautiful Firs, and the Araucarias are not in the collection. The Arboretum collection has been increased in three ways,-by the discovery of new species, the study of the range of others in the hope that the widely distributed species may be found in some parts of their range which will prove hardy here, and by the appearance of new forms here among the seedlings of well known species. Of the new species of conifers introduced by the Arboretum the most important are those raised from seed which Mr. E. H. Wilson brought from western Szechuan near the borders of Tibet in 1910. In this collection is a Cephalotaxus, two forms of Pinus sinensis, two Larches, thirteen Piceas, six Abies and one Juniper. No other seeds of these trees have been collected, and all now in cultivation were raised and distributed from the Arboretum or from seeds distributed in Europe from this collection. The trees are all growing well in the Arboretum with the exception of Picea Sargentiana which does not appear to be perfectly hardy here, but there are numerous plants in Europe raised from Mr. Wilson's seeds. These trees cannot be purchased in any American or European nursery, and it would be an exceedingly difficult and expensive undertaking to make another collection of the seeds for many years, at least, for central China is now in an extremely disturbed condition and unsafe for European travelers. Other Asiatic conifers introduced by the Arboretum are Abies holophylla, Abies koreana and Thuja koraiensis from Korea, Picea Koyamai, Juniperus communis var. nipponica, J. conferta and J. rigida from Japan. Of other introductions of the Arboretum Tsuga caroliniana, the Carolina Hemlock, as it grows here is generally considered the most graceful and beautiful cone-bearing tree in the collection. It is a native of the Blue Ridge, the eastern range of the Appalachian Mountains on which it grows from southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia usually in scattered groves on the rocky banks of streams at elevations between two thousand five hundred and three thousand feet. For some reason not easy to explain it escaped the attention of botanists who explored the southern Appalachian Mountains during the last half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century, and its distinct character was first noticed by Dr. L. B. Gibbes of Charleston, South Carolina, although it was not described by Dr. Engelmann until thirty-one years later. First raised at the Arboretum in 1880 the tallest tree here is now about forty feet high, that is nearly as high as it usually grows in its native habitat, although trees occasionally seventy feet high are said to occur. It is therefore a much smaller tree than the northern Hemlock. The branches are more pendulous and the leaves are darker green and more lustrous than those of the latter; the leaves, too, are usually notched at the apex and slightly toothed, while those of the northern tree are usually rounded at the apex and are not toothed. The two trees, however, are best distinguished by their cones; those of the southern tree are not stalked and their scales are much longer than broad with obtusely pointed bracts, while those of the northern tree are stalked and the scales are about as long as wide and broad and truncate at the apex. Picea Engelmannii, which is the common and most widely distributed Spruce of the Rocky Mountains, was discovered in Colorado in 1862 by Dr. C. C. Parry. It is probably one of the most important introductions of the Arboretum. Seeds are said to have been sent by Dr. Parry in that year to the Harvard Botanic Garden, but there is no record that plants were raised there, and it is believed that the tree was first cultivated in 1879 when seeds were planted in the Arboretum. On the Colorado mountains Engelmann's Spruce is sometimes one hundred and fifty feet high with trunks up to five feet in diameter, although further north and south the trees are smaller, growing in great forests which fifty years ago covered the slopes of these mountains up to altitudes of ten thousand feet, and with its light cinnamon red bark and narrow pyramidal crown of soft light gray green leaves it was one of the handsomest of all Spruce trees. The tallest trees in the Arboretum are now nearly forty feet high and the trunks of the largest trees are naked for a distance of seven or eight feet from the ground. It is a good ornamental tree to plant in New England for its hardiness, the rapidity of its growth and the value of its timber may make it a valuable tree for planting in the northeastern states. From all points of view Picea Engelmannii is certainly the best Spruce which has been planted in the Arboretum. Picea omorika from southeastern Europe was first raised in the Arboretum in 1880 from seeds presented by the late Dr. Bolle of Berlin, and is one of its best introductions. The tallest trees here now are more than forty feet tall with trunks clothed to the ground with short branches which form a narrow pyramid covered with leaves dark green and lustrous on the dorsal surface and pale on the other. This tree, which is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum, is one of the handsomest conifers in the collection where there are several individuals. Among the hardy trees obtained by the Arboretum by studying the extended range of several species the most important and certainly the most interesting is the Cedar of Lebanon which has been found to grow in Asia Minor on the Anti-Taurus far north of the Lebanon Range in Palestine and in a much colder climate. As the Palestine Cedar is not hardy in New England the Arboretum had seeds of this tree collected on the Anti-Taurus with the view of introducing a hardy race of Cedars into New England. The seeds were sown here in the spring of 1902 and a large number of plants were raised. They all proved perfectly hardy, not one having suffered from cold, although once or twice in severe winters they lost most of their leaves, the buds being uninjured. Some of the trees have been lost in attempts at transplanting for no other tree has proved so difficult to move. The rapidity of their growth is shown by some of the Arboretum trees which have reached the height of twenty-one feet in thirteen years, and several of them are now more than thirty feet high. Another important tree obtained by the study of its range is the Douglas Spruce, Pseudotsuga taxifolia, raised from seed collected in Colorado, which is perfectly hardy and has grown rapidly, although this tree from the northwest coast is not hardy in New England. In the coast region of the northwestern states and British Columbia, Thuja plicata, the western Arborvitae, grows to a great size and is one of the handsomest and best timber trees of North America. Fortunately it ranges eastward to Idaho and northern Montana, and from this cold region it was brought to the Arboretum in 1879. It is the largest and handsomest of the Arborvitaes, and is believed to be one of the handsomest and most satisfactory conifers which has been planted in the Arboretum. Pacific Coast Conifers. Of the conifers of the Pacific coast of North America which can be grown in the Arboretum the White Pine, Pinus monticola, is the most successful here. It is hardy, grows rapidly, and although not more beautiful or as valuable as the native White Pine, Pinus Strobus, it is a tree well worth attention in New England. The Sugar Pine, Pinus Lambertiana, which on the California Sierra Nevada becomes the largest of all Pine trees, is perfectly hardy here and is in good condition although it grows slowly. The White Fir of the California Sierras, Abies concolor, lives here in good condition for many years but is a less valuable tree in this climate than the form of the same species derived from Colorado. Abies nobilis can live here in sheltered positions but does not become a tree, although the beautiful Abies amabilis which grows with it on the mountains of Oregon and Washington does better but grows slowly, and has now been in good condition in the Arboretum for several years. Another tree which is rarely seen in northern collections, Libocedrus decurrens, the Incense Cedar of California, is in good condition in the small collection of conifers near the top of Hemlock Hill in an exceedingly sheltered position. The Incense Cedar is a tree of narrow columnar habit with bright green foliage, and in California sometimes grows to the height of one hundred and fifty feet and forms a massive trunk. The two beautiful White Cedars of the northwest coast, Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana and C. nootkatensis, can just be kept alive in the Arboretum where they drag out a miserable existence. Jeffrey's Pine, Pinus ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, lives here but that is all which can be said about it. It is possible, too, to grow here the White Fir of the northwest coast, Abies grandis, and the coast Hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, raised from seeds gathered on the Rocky Mountains of Idaho as these two trees also range far inland. Torreya nucifera. Of the genus Torreya, which is related to the Yews, there are six species found in Florida, California, Japan and China. The Japanese species, T. nucifera, is well established in the Arboretum, and one of the trees has produced a few green olive-like fruits. In Japan this Torreya is a magnificent tree sometimes ninety feet high with a massive trunk and a dense crown of dark green shining leaves. It should be better known in this climate where it is apparently one of the rarest of exotic trees. The best specimen is in the Hunnewell Pinetum at Wellesley, Massachusetts. The peculiarity of this Torreya is that it does not begin to grow until July. In spite, however, of its short growing season it makes long annual shoots and increases rapidly in height. There is a group of this tree among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill, and there is a plant of Torreya californica among the exotic conifers near the top of Hemlock Hill where it has been kept alive for several years by careful winter protection. As an ornamental tree it has nothing to recommend it in this climate. Most of the genera of conifers with a single species are successfully grown in the Arboretum. Of these, Taxodium, the deciduous Cypress, is confined to the southern United States and is one of the remarkable trees of eastern North America; Pseudolarix, Sciadopitys and Cryptomeria are Asiatic. Cryptomeria can just be kept alive in the Arboretum; on Long Island, and southward it does better. Sciadopitys, the Japanese Umbrella Pine, is hardy in Massachusetts. It is an interesting and handsome tree, forming a dense pyramid while young. It grows so slowly, however, that it will not be popular with planters with whom rapidity of growth is the chief merit of trees. For the northern states and for general cultivation the most valuable of the monotypic Asiatic conifers is certainly the Chinese Golden Larch, Pseudolarix amabilis, a tree with deciduous leaves and large cones erect on the branches with scales which fall when mature from the axis of the cone like those of Fir trees and the Cedar of Lebanon. Robert Fortune, who was sent to China by the London Horticultural Society in 1843 as a botanical collector, first made this tree known to Europeans. He found it in temple gardens growing in pots and much stunted, and it was not until 1854 that he found it growing in open ground at the monastery of Tsan-tsin. The stems of these trees, growing at an elevation of from one thousand to fifteen hundred feet above the level of the sea, measured fully five feet in circumference two feet from the ground and carried this size, with a slight diminution, to a height of fifty feet, this being the height of the lower branches. The total height of the trees varied from one hundred and twenty to one hundred and thirty feet. In spite of all the efforts which have been made to introduce this tree into Europe it has not become common there. The largest specimen in Europe is in the Rovelli nursery at Pallanza in Italy. In 1907 this tree was sixty-four feet high with a trunk ten inches in girth. There are a few of the original trees in France, Germany and Belgium, the largest being the tree in the nursery of the Horticultural Society at Calmpthout near Antwerp. If the Arboretum collection of living conifers is not a large or particularly successful one owing to the climate, its herbarium contains representatives of every known genus and is probably the best in the world. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Volume XII","article_sequence":21,"start_page":87,"end_page":94,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23827","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd14eab28.jpg","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOL. XII Synonyms are in italics Abies amabilis, 84 concolor, 84 grandis, 84 holophylla, 82 koreana, 82 nobilis, 84 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 68 Acer tataricum, 76 Aesculus Bushii, 18 carnea, 18 var. Briottii, 18 discolor, 18, 19 var. mollis, 18 georgiana, 18, 19 glabra, 18 var. virginica, 18 Harbisonii, 19 Hippocastanum, 17 parviflora, 19, 72 turbinata, 18 versicolor, 19 Aestivales Thorns, 26 Ailanthus, the, 69, 70, 71 altissima, 69, 71 var. erythrocarpa, 70 var. setchuenensis, 71 Duclouxii, 71 flavescens, 72 Giraldii, 71 glandulosa, 69 glandulosa pendulifolia, 71 Vilmoriniana, 71 Almond, Chinese, 7 American Crabapples, 22 Magnolias, 21 Yellow Wood, 46 Amorpha canescens, 60 Andromeda floribunda, 3 Anomalae Thorns, 28 Apple, Charlotte, 23 Apricots, 5 April-flowering Rhododendrons, 4 Aralia chinensis, 59 var. mandshurica, 59 Aralia spinosa, 58 Arboretum early in July, the, 41 in early summer, the, 29 Arborvitae, western, 83 Ash, Black, 66 Blue, 66, 67 Flowering, 65 Green, 66 Manna, 65 Red, 66 White, 66 Ash-trees, 65, 66, 67, 68 Asiatic Crabapples, 10 Lindens, 55 Sumach, 68 Austrian Briar Rose, 39 Autumn in the Arboretum, 77 Azalea, Clammy, 47 Azaleas, 28 early flowering Asiatic, 16 the last of the, 47 Barberries, late-flowering, 60 Bay, Rose, 51 Sweet, 22 Bechtel Crab, 23, 29 Benzoin aestivale, 2 Berberis aggregata, 60 Prattii, 60 subcaulialata, 60 Black Ash, 66 Black Haw, 29 Blue Ash, 66, 67 Boursault Rose, 44 Brachyacanthae Thorns, 26 Pomette Bleue, 26 Bracteatae Thorns, 27 Buckeye, Ohio, 18 Buckeyes, 18 Buckeyes, Horsechestnuts and, 17 Burnet Rose, 40 Bush Honeysuckles, 24, 76 Calluna, 59 vulgaris, 60 var. alba, 60 Calluna vulgaris, 60 var. alba pumila, 60 var. alba rigida, 60 var. Alportii, 60 var. argentea, 60 var. aurea, 60 var. cuprea, 60 var. elata, 60 var. erecta, 60 var. Hammondii, 60 var. humilis, 60 var. hypnoides, 60 var. minima, 60 var. minor, 60 var. monstrosa, 60 var. multiplex, 60 var. nana, 60 var. pilosa, 60 var. pyranaica, 60 var. rigida, 60 var. rubra, 60 var. Serlei, 60 var. spicata, 60 var. tenuiis, 60 var. tomentosa, 60 var. variegata, 60 Canada Plum, 7 Carolina Hemlock, 45, 82 Poplar, 71 Catalpa bignonioides, 50 var. nana, 51 Bungei, 51 Fargesii, 51 hybrida, 51 ovata, 51 speciosa, 50, 71 Teasii, 51 Catalpas, 50 Ceanothus, 59 americanus, 59 Fendleri, 59 hybrid, 59 ovatus, 59 Cedar, Incense, 84 Cedar of Lebanon, 83 Cedars, White, 84 Cedrela sinensis, 71, 72 Cercidiphyllum, 1 Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, 84 nootkatensis, 84 Charlotte Apple, 23 Cherries, double-flowered Japanese, 9 Cherry, Cornelian, 2 Japanese Spring, 6 Sargent, 6 Weeping, 6 Chinese Almond, 7 Golden Larch, 84 Pearl Bush, 24 Snowball, 31 Cladrastis, 46 lutea, 46 sinensis, 46 Wilsonii, 46 Clammy Azalea, 47 Climbing Hydrangea, 57 Coccineae Thorns, 27 Cockspur Thorns, 26 Colorado Blue Spruce, 46 Conifers, 1, 81, 82, 83 Pacific coast, 83 Copper Austrian Briar Rose, 39 Cornel, Siky, 41 Cornelian Cherry, the, 2 Cornus alternifolia, 36 amomum, 41 controversa, 35, 36 florida, 32, 78 kousa, 32, 44, 78 var. chinensis, 32, 44, 78 mas, 2 Nuttallii, 32 Corylopsis Gotoana, 8 Cotinus, 72 americanus, 72 coggygria, 72 Crab, Bechtel, 23, 29 Parkman, 11 Siberian, 11 Von Siebold's, 12 Crabapple, Siberian, 11 Crabapples, American, 22 Asiatic, 10 Crack Willow, 71 Crataegus, 25, 26, 27, 28 apiifolia, 27 aprica, 27 arnoldiana, 20 coccinioides, 27 cordata, 27 monogyna, 25 nitida, 27 oxyacantha, 25 pinnatifida, 25 Crataegus nitida, 27 var. major, 26 punctata, 26 rotundifolia, 27 saligna, 26 spathulata, 27 viridis, 27 Crimean Linden, 55 Crimson Rambler Rose, 43 Crus-galli Thorns, 26 Cryptomeria, 84 Cucumber Tree, 22 Cytisus nigricans, 52 Daphne Cneorum, 8 Mezereum, 8 Deciduous-leaved trees of pyramidal habit, 80 Deutzia hypoglauca. 40 Lemoinei, 40 parviflora, 40 Dilatatae Thorns, 27 Dimorphanthus mandshuricus, 59 Dipelta floribunda, 32 Dirca palustris, 2 Docent service, 4, 8 Dogwood, 2 Dogwoods, Flowering, 78 Double-flowered Japanese Cherries, 9 Douglas Spruce, 83 Douglasianae Thorns, 28 Early-flowering Asiatic Azaleas, 16 native shrubs, 2 Viburnums, 20 Effects of the winter in the Arboretum, 1 Elm, Hancock, 74 Elms, Paddock, 74 English Hawthorn, 25 Erica carnea, 3 European Black Poplar, 80 Linden, 54 European Sycamore, 71 Evonymus radicans, 52 var. vegetus, 52 Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii, 24 Fir, White, 83, 84 Flavae Thorns, 27 Flowering Ash, 65 Flowering Dogwoods, 78 Forsythia ovata, 4 Fothergilla, 20 Fragrant Sumach, 48 Fraxinus americana, 66 var. crassifolia, 66 anomala, 67 biltmoriana, 67 Bungeana, 65 chinensis var. rhyncophylla, 67 cuspidata, 65 dipetala, 65 excelsior, 67 Greggii, 65 longicuspis, 66 mandschurica, 67 nigra, 66 oregana, 67 Ornus, 65 pennsylvanica, 66 var. lanceolata, 66 platypoda, 68 potamophylla, 67 quadrangulata, 67 rotundifolia, 67 texensis, 67 Fruits, ripening of, 76 Garland Tree, 23 Genista tinctoria, 52 var. elatior, 52 Grape vines, Japanese, 76 Green Ash, 66 Guelder Rose, 30 Hancock Elm, 74 Harison's Yellow Rose, 40 Haw, Black, 29 Haws, May, 26 Hawthorn, English, 25 Hawthorns, 25, 26, 27, 28 Heather, Scotch, 59 Helianthemum, 52 chamaecistus, 52 nummularium, 52 vulgare, 52 Hemlock, Carolina, 45, 82 Hobble Bush, 20 Honeysuckle, 47 Honeysuckle, Tartarian, 76 Honeysuckles, Bush, 24, 76 Horsechestnut, Grecian, 18 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes, 17 Hybrid Philadelphus, 39 Hydrangea arborescens, 58 var. grandiflora, 58 Bretschneideri, 57 cinerea, 58 Japanese Climbing, 36, 57 paniculata, 58 var. grandiflora, 58 var. praecox, 58 petiolaris, 36, 57 quercifolia, 57 radiata, 58 Rosthornii, 57 xanthoneura, 57 var. setchuenensis, 57 var. Wilsonii, 57 Hydrangeas, 57 Hypericum Buckleyi, 56 Incense Cedar, 84 Indigofera, 76 amblyantha, 76 atropurpurea, 76 decora, 76 Gerardiana, 76 hebepetala, 76 Kirilowii, 76 Potaninii, 76 Intricatae Thorns, 27 Japanese Climbing Hydrangea, 36, 57 Grape Vines, 76 Lacquer-tree, 72 Snowball, 31 Spring Cherry, 6 Umbrella Pine, 84 Juniperus communis, var. nipponica, 82 conferta, 82 rigida, 82 Kaido, 11 Kalmia latifolia, 44, 51 Koelreuteria paniculata, 72 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 36 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 72 Larch, Chinese Golden, 84 Late-flowering Barberries, 60 Lilacs, 14 Laurel, 44 Lead Plant, 60 Leatherwood, 2 Lemoine hybrid Philadelphus, 46 Libocedrus decurrens, 84 Lilacs, 13, 14 hybrid, 15 Eximia, 15 Lutece, 15 late-flowering, 14 Tree, 15 Linden, Crimean, 55 European, 54 Lindens, 53, 54, 55 Asiatic, 55 two Silver, 55 Lombardy Poplar, 80 Lonicera amoena, 24 arnoldiana, 24 bella, 24, 76 chrysantha, 24 Morrowii, 24 muendeniensis, 76 notha, 24, 76 Ruprechtiana var. xanthocarpa, 76 tatarica, 24, 76 Maackia amurensis, 60 var. Buergeri, 60 hupehensis, 60 Macracanthae Thorns, 27 Magnolia acuminata, 22 cordata, 21 Fraseri, 21 glauca, 49 macrophylla, 22 major, 22, 50 Mountain, 21 pyramidata, 21 salicifolia, 3 stellata,3 Thompsoniana, 22, 50 tripetala, 22 virginiana, 22, 49 var. australis, 49 Magnolias, 3 American, 21 Malus angustifolia, 23 arnoldiana, 12 baccata, 11 var. Jackii, 11 var. mandshurica, 11 Malus bracteata. 23 cerasifera, 11 coronaria, 23 Malus coronaria, 23 var. Charlottae, 23 Dawsoniana, 24 floribunda, 12 fusca, 23 glabrata, 23 glaucescens, 22 Halliana, 11 ioensis, 23 var. plena, 23 lancifolia, 23 micromalus, 11 platycarpa, 23 var. Hoopesii, 23 pumila, 23 robusta, 11, 12 f. persicifolia, 11, Sargentii, 12 Scheideckeri, 12 Sieboldii, 12 var. arborescens, 12 Soulardii, 23 Manna Ash, 65 Maple, Tartarian, 76 May Haws, 26 Microcarpae Thorns, 27 Mock Orange, 37, 38 Molles Thorns, 28 Moosewood, 20 Mountain Magnolia, 21 Nannyberry, 30 New Jersey Tea, 59 Ohio Buckeye, 18 Oxydendrum arboreum, 51 Pacific coast Conifers, 83 Paddock Elms, 74 Parkman Crab, 11 Pearl Bush, Chinese, 24 Persian Yellow Rose, 40 Phellodendron amurense, 77 Philadelphus, 37, 38 coronarius, 38 Falconeri, 38 grandiflorus, 38 hybrid, 39 inodorus, 38 insignis, 39 latifolius, 38 Lemoine Hybrid, 46 Lemoinei, 46 Magdalenae, 38 Philadelphus maximus, 39 microphyllus, 38 pekinensis, 38 pubescens, 38 Souvenir de Billard, 39 purpurascens, 38 splendens, 39 Picea Engelmannii, 82, 83 Koyamai, 82 omorika, 83 pungens, 46 Sargentiana, 81 Pieris floribunda, 3 Pine, Japanese Umbrella, 84 Sugar, 83 White, 83 Pinus Lambertiana, 83 monticola, 83 ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, 84 sinensis, 81 Strobus, 83 Platanus acerifolium, 71 Plum, Canada, 7 Poplar, Carolina, 71 European Black, 80 Lombardy, 80 White, 71 Populus nigra, 80 var. italica, 80 Potentilla tridentata, 44 Prinsepia sinensis, 7 Pruinosae Thorns, 27 Prunus, 5 americana, 7 Armenaica, the Mikado, 5 caroliniana, 7 Davidiana, 2 Lannesiana, 9 Amanogawa, 9 Jonioi, 9 Miyako, 9 Ochichima, 9 Ojochin, 9 Sirotae, 9 nigra, 7 salicina,7 serrulata sachalinensis, 6, 9 albo-rosea, 9 Fugenzo, 9 Hisakura, 9 Horinji, 9 Kirin, 9 Sekiyama, 9 James H. Veitch, 9 Prunus sibirica, 6 subhirtella,6 var. ascendens, 6 var. pendula, 6 tomentosa, 5 triflora, 7 triflora, triloba, 7 var. plena, 7 yedoensis, 6 Pseudolarix amabilis, 84 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 83 Pulcherrimae Thorns, 27 Punctatae Thorns, 26 Red Ash, 66 Siberian Crab, 11 Rhododendron arborescens, 47 var. Richardsonii, 47 arbutifolium, 35 brachycarpum, 33, 35 calendulaceum, 28, 47 carolinianum, 33, 34 catawbiense, 33 hybrids of, 33, 34 Adalbert, 34 Adam, 34 Alarich, 34 Albert, 34 Annedore, 34 Anton, 34 Arno, 34 Attila, 34 August, 34 Bella, 34 Bismarck, 34 Calliope, 34 Daisy, 34 Desiderius, 34 Diana, 34 Donar, 34 Echse, 34 Eli, 34 Eva, 34 Fee, 34 Viola, 34 caucasicum, 33, 34 hybrids of, 34, 35 Boule de Neige, 35 Cassiope, 35 Cunningham's White, 34 Mont Blanc, 35 Sultana, 35 ciliatum X dahuricum, 4 Rhododendron coriaceum, 35 dahuricum, 4 delicatissimum, 33 ferrugineum, 33 hirsutum, 33 japonicum, 28 var. aureum, 28 Kaempferi, 19 laetevirens, 35 luteum, 20 maximum, 33, 51 maximum superbum, 56 Metternichii, hybrids of, 35 minus, 33, 34 mollis, 28 mucronulatum, 4, 16 myrtifolium, 35 nudiflorum, 28 ponticum, 33 poukhanense, 16 praecox, 4 Early Gem, 4 reticulatum, 16 rhombicum, 16 var. album, 16 roseum, 28 Schlippenbachii, 16 Smirnowii, 33, 34 Vaseyi, 19 viscosum, 28, 47 Wellesleyanum, 33, 56 Wilsonianum, 35 Rhododendrons, 33, 34, 35 April-flowering, 4 hybrid, 56 Rhus aromatica, 76 canadensis, 48, 76 javanica, 68 Osbeckii, 68 semialata, 68 Ripening of fruits, 76 Roadside plants, 48 Rosa arnoldiana, 43 bella, 44 caudata, 44 Ecae, 39 foetida, 39 var. bicolor, 40 var. persiana, 40 Hugonis, 39 kamtschatica, 42 Lheritieranea, 44 lucida, 48 Rosa multiflora, 43 var. carnea, 43 var. cathayensis, 43 var. platyphylla, 43 rugosa, 42 hybrids of, 42 Arnold Rose, 43 Blanc de Coubert, 42 Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, 42 Lady Duncan, 43 Madame Georges Bruant, 42 repens alba, 42 Roserie de la Hay, 42 repens alba, 42 simplicifolia, 39 spinosissima, 40 var. altaica, 40 var. fulgens, 40 var. grandiflora, 40 var. hispida, 40 var. luteola, 40 virginiana, 48 var. lamprophylla, 48 Wichuraiana, 42 xanthina, 39 Rose, Austrian Briar, 39 Boursault, 44 Burnet, 40 Copper Austrian Briar, 39 Crimson Rambler, 43 Guelder, 30 Harison's Yellow, 40 Persian Yellow, 40 Seven Sisters, 43 Rose Bay, 51 Roses, Scotch, 40 yellow-flowered, 39 . Rotundifoliae Thorns, 27 Sambucus canadensis, 47 var. acutiloba, 48 var. aurea, 48 var. chlorocarpa, 48 var. maxima, 48 Sargent Cherry, 6 Sassafras, the, 78 variifolium, 78, 79, 80 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 36, 48 Sciadopitys, 84 Scotch Heather, 59 Roses, 40 Service, docent, 4, 8 Seven Sisters Rose, 43 Sheepberry, 30 Shrubs, early-flowering native, 2 Siberian Crabapple, 11 Siberian Crabs, 11 Silky Cornel, 41 Silvicolae Thorns, 27 Smoke-tree, 72 Snowball, 30 Chinese, 31 Japanese, 31 Sophora japonica, 60 var. pyramidalis, 60 var. rosea, 60 Sorrel-tree, 51 Sour Wood, 51 Spice Bush, 2 Spruce, Colorado Blue, 46 Douglas, 83 Sugar Pine, 83 Sumach, Asiatic, 68 Fragrant, 48 Sweet Bay, 22 Sycamore, European, 71 Syringa affinis, 14 var. Giraldii, 14 amurensis, 16 chinensis, 14 hyacinthiflora, 14 japonica, 16 Josikaea, 15 Julianae, 15 Komarowii, 15 Meyeri, 14 microphylla, 15 oblata, 14 pekinensis, 16 persica, 14 var. laciniata, 14 pinnatifolia, 14 reflexa, 15 Sweginzowii, 15 tomentella, 15 villosa, 15 Syringa vulgaris, 13 Wilsonii, 15 Wolfii, 15 yunnanensis, 15 Syringas, 37, 38 Tartarian Honeysuckle, 76 Maple, 76 Taxodium, 84 Tea, New Jersey, 59 Teas' Hybrid Catalpa, 51 Tenuifoliae Thorns, 27 Thorn, Washington, 27 Thorns, Cockspur, 26 Thuja koraiensis, 82 plicata, 83 Tilia americana, 53 argentea, 55 caucasica, 55 cordata, 54, 55 dasystyla, 55 euchlora, 55 glabra, 53, 54 heterophylla, 54 heterophylla var. Michauxii, 54 japonica, 56 monticola, 54 neglecta, 54 petiolaris, 55, 56 platyphyllos, 54 var. asplenifolia, 54 var. pyramidalis, 54 var. vitifolia, 54 spectabilis, 55 var, Moltkei, 55 tomentosa, 55, 56 vulgaris, 54, 55 Tomentosae Thorns, 27 Torreya californica, 84 nucifera, 84 Traveler's Tree, 31 Tree Lilacs, 15 Tree of Heaven, 69, 70, 71 Triflorae Thorns, 27 Tsuga canadensis, 46 caroliniana, 45, 82 heterophylla, 84 Two Silver Lindens, the, 55 . Ulmus americana, 1 Ulmus campestris, 73, 74, 75 Ulmus procera, 73, 74, 75 Umbrella Tree, 22 Uniflorae Thorns, 27 Viburnum alnifolium, 20, 32, 47 americanum, 30 bitchuiense, 20 burejaeticum, 31 Canbyi, 47 Carlesii, 20, 31 Viburnum dilatatum, 31 erosum, 31 fragrans, 8 furcatum, 31 Lantana, 31 lantanoides, 32 Lentago, 30 macrocephalum, 31 forma sterile, 31 Opulus, 30 var. nanum, 30 var. sterile, 30 var. xanthocarpum, 30 plicatum, 31 prunifolium, 29 pubescens, 30 rufidulum, 30 Sargentii, 30, 31 Sieboldii, 31 theiferum, 31 tomentosum, 31 var. dilatatum, 31 forma rotundifolium, 31 var. lanceolatum, 31 Veitchii, 31 Viburnums, 29 early-flowering, 20 of western Asia, 30 Virides Thorns, 26 Vitis amurensis, 76 Coignetiae, 76 pulchra, 76 Von Siebold's Crab, 12 Washington Thorn, 27 Wax, Woad, 52 Weeping Cherry, 6 Weeping Willow, 71 White Ash, 66 Cedars, 84 White Fir, 83, 84 Pine, 83 Poplar, 71 Willow, Crack, 71 Weeping, 71 Woad Wax, 52 Yellow-flowered Roses, 39 Yellow Wood, American, 46"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23511","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060896e.jpg","title":"1926-12","volume":12,"issue_number":null,"year":1926,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 25","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23802","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25e8926.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 25, 1925 In spite of the dry autumn, the absence of snow during the winter, and the occasional extremely cold days plants have suffered less in the Arboretum probably than in any previous winter. The Conifers and Taxads are entirely uninjured; even the beautiful prostrate coast Juniper of Japan (Juniperus conferta) where it is common as far north as Hokkaido is uninjured, although in previous years it has always been half killed in the Arboretum. The broad-leaved Rhododendrons, except for an occasional yellow leaf, are in perfect condition with the exception of the flowers of the hybrid Rhododendron praecox (R. ciliatum x dahuricum) which were killed by the frost of the 19th of April, as happens five years out of six. It has been an extraordinarily early spring. The Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) began to flower in February. On the lst of March Erica carnea, which is still in bloom, began to flower; on the 20th of March a newly introduced Honeysuckle from Korea, Lonicera praeflorens, was in bloom as was the European Cornus mas, the so-called Cornelian Cherry, and its eastern Asiatic representative, Cornus officinalis. Cornus mas, which has grown in European gardens for at least three centuries, is still rarely seen in those of the United States, although it was first brought to America more than a hundred years ago. The Cornelian Cherry is especially valuable in this climate for the small bright yellow flowers which are arranged in many-flowered clusters and remain in good condition for three or four weeks, are never injured by frost. It is a broad, shapely shrub or sometimes a small tree with bright green leaves, and scarlet or rarely yellow fruit which ripens late in summer and is cherry-like in appearance. The Red Maple (Acer rubrum) and its form with yellow flowers (var. pallidiflorum) were also open this year as early as the 20th of March when many species of Alder, Willow, Poplar and Hazel were blooming. The Chinese Cherry, Prunus Davidiana, and its white-flowered variety were in full bloom before the end of March. Forsythias, which have never bloomed more profusely in the Arboretum and generally in the neighborhood of Boston, are still in good condition and are most effective when planted in a large crowded mass on a sloping hillside, as they have been in the Arboretum just where the Meadow Road joins the Bussey Hill Road. The recently introduced Forsythia ovata discovered in 1918 by Wilson on the Diamond Mountains in northern Korea was in flower as early as March 26th or nearly two weeks earlier than the other Forsythias. It is a large shrub with light yellow branches, broad, long-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves from four to five inches in length and from three to four inches in width, and clear primrose colored flowers rather smaller than those of F. Fortunei or of any of the forms of F. intermedia. This Korean Forsythia promises to be an extremely valuable introduction as it will be possible to grow it much further north than the other species of the genus, and in this climate the flower-buds will probably never be injured as they often are on other species, especially on the hybrids of F. intermedia of which several forms are in the collection. They were obtained by crossing the flowers of F. suspensa var. Fortunei with those of F. viridissima which is the most tender and southern species. As a flowering plant one of these hybrids called spectabilis, which originated in Germany, is the handsomest of all the Forsythias, but in severe winters many of the flower-buds are killed.. Other handsome hybrids are var. primulina with primrose colored flowers and var. pallida with straw-colored flowers; the former appeared spontaneously in the Arboretum a few years ago. In the crowded mass of Forsythias which makes the great show in the Arboretum it is hard to distinguish the species and hybrids, but all of them with the exception of F. ovata can be studied in the Shrub Collection as individual plants. Pyrus ussuriensis has been in bloom since April 17th. This tree is a native of Korea, north China and northern Japan, growing further north probably than any other Pear-tree, and sometimes forming forests of considerable extent. It is, too, the largest of all Pear-trees for Wilson photographed in 1918 a tree growing near Shinan in the province of Nogen, Korea, sixty feet tall with a girth of trunk of fourteen feet and a head of branches seventy-five feet across. The small fruit varies in size and shape, and, judging by American standards, has little value. It is believed that the hardiness of this tree may make it valuable as a stock on which to grow some of the European garden pears, and experiments with it as stock are being made in Dakota. There are several plants now in bloom in the Arboretum but the most easily seen are those on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where they are growing in the collection of Chinese pear-trees. Prinsepia sinensis is again covered with clusters of bright yellow flowers which spring from the axils of the half grown leaves. This Prinsepia is a tall broad shrub with long gracefully ascending and spreading branches and stems armed with many spines. This member of the Rose Family is perfectly hardy and the handsomest shrub Manchuria has yet contributed to western gardens. The two specimens in the Arboretum were sent here from St. Petersburg in 1903 and 1906, and have been found difficult to propagate. In recent years fortunately one of the plants has produced a few seeds, and as these have germinated there is reason to hope that if the Arboretum plants become more fruitful this shrub may become a common ornament in northern gardens. It has much to recommend it as a hedge plant. The species from northern China can be seen to most advantage in the Shrub Collection. Prinsepia uniflora from western China is a spiny shrub with small white flowers, and though it has little beauty its value for forming impenetrable hedges may prove considerable. Corylopsis Gotoana bloomed this year on the 3rd of April and has never before been so full of flowers which, however, are now beginning to fall. Corylopsis is an Asiatic genus of the Witch Hazel Family with fragrant yellow flowers in long drooping clusters and leaves which have a general resemblance to those of the Witch Hazel. C. Gotoana was introduced into the Arboretum from central Japan and is the largest and handsomest species, growing from five to six feet tall in this climate, and can be considered one of the handsomest of the early spring flowering shrubs. In the Arboretum it can best be seen on the Centre Street Path. The other Japanese species, C. pauciflora and C. spicata, are also hardy but in very severe winters the flower-buds are often injured, and they are neither of them as desirable garden plants in this climate as C. Gotoana. There are several Chinese species in the Arboretum but their flower-buds are usually killed here. Rhododendron mucronulatum, a native of northern China, which has been growing in the Arboretum for more than forty years, has been covered with fragrant rose-colored flowers this year since the 1st of April and as usual has proved one of the most beautiful and satisfactory of the early flowering shrubs introduced by the Arboretum. It is not easy to explain why this plant, which has so much to recommend it and is so easily propagated, has remained so uncommon in American gardens. The variety ciliata discovered by Wilson in Korea is flowering for the first time and promises to be as hardy as the type and even a handsomer plant as the flowers are darker colored. The plants, however, are too young to form any proper estimate of their garden value. They are planted with the type on the lower side of Azalea Path. Asiatic Cherries. When this copy of the Bulletin reaches its readers in eastern Massachusetts the most interesting display of flowers will be made by some of the Cherry-trees of eastern Asia and by early flowering Apricots and Plum-trees. As in previous years, the earliest of these trees to flower is Prunus concinna, a native of the mountains of China where it was discovered by Wilson. It is a small tree less than three feet high; the flowers, which are white with a bright red calyx, are less beautiful than those of several of the other Asiatic Cherry-trees, but they are produced in the greatest profusion and are not injured by spring frosts, and as small plants flower so freely it well deserves a place in a collection of spring flowering trees and shrubs. It is best seen in the Arboretum in the border of Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The Japanese Prunus incisa is now in bloom on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road. It is a shrub or small tree with white or rarely pale rose-colored flowers which appear before the deeply lobed leaves unfold; the petals fall at the end of a few days after the buds open, but the calyx which gradually turns red remains on the fruit for two or three weeks and is decidedly showy. Although P. incisa is a common plant in Japan on the Hakone Mountains and on Fuji-san, it is extremely rare in American gardens. The Spring Cherry of the Japanese (Prunus subhirtella), the most delightful and floriferous, travelers say, of all Japanese Cherries, is again thickly covered with flowers and has not before been more beautiful. This is a large shrub which is not known as a wild plant in Japan. Although somewhat cultivated in the gardens of western Japan, it is uncommon in those of Tokyo, and has failed to attract generally the attention of visitors to the Flowery Kingdom. The rather small drooping flowers are pink when they first open but gradually turn white, and those of no other Cherry-tree in the collection remain in good condition for so many days. This plant is extremely rare in American and European gardens. It can, however, be increased by grafting, and soft wood cuttings in the hands of a skillful propagator can be made to grow. Seeds, which the Arboretum plants produce in great quantities, do not reproduce the parent plant, however, and the seedlings usually grow into the tall slender trees which botanists know as Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens, which is a common tree in the forests of central Hondo and is really the type of the species. This tree has generally been overlooked or neglected as a garden plant, but is now flowering in the Arboretum. Much better known is the form of P. subhirtella (var. pendula), which was long a favorite garden plant in Japan and was sent many years ago to Europe and then to the United States. This beautiful plant, which is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, has often grown badly here and died long before its time because European Cherries have been used as stock for multiplying. The proper stocks for the Weeping Cherry are the seedling plants of Prunus subhirtella or its varieties. Seeds of the pendulous form sometimes produce plants with pendulous branches and such plants are occasionally found among the seedlings of Prunus subhirtella. The subscription price to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance. Picture post cards of the Arboretum, 18 views, 5 cents each, or complete set 75 cents, can be obtained at the Administration Building."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 30","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23803","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160a327.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 30, 1925 Prunus serrulata sachalinensis. Although the flowers of this tree, often called the Sargent Cherry, will have faded when this number of the Bulletin reaches its readers; it is well to call attention to it as when in flower it is the handsomest of the large trees yet introduced into the United States and Europe by the Arboretum. It was first raised here from seeds sent from Japan in 1890 by Dr. J. Sturgis Bigelow of Boston, and again in 1892 from seeds gathered in Japan by Professor Sargent. The trees raised from these seeds have flowered now for several years but never so beautifully as this year. As they produce fruit abundantly which ripens in June there is no reason why this splendid tree should not become common in the northern states. Why will not some American city or town make itself famous by planting a long avenue of these trees which, when they have become, like the largest trees in the Arboretum, forty feet high or more and are in bloom will make the town which has planted them famous and attract visitors from the remotest parts of the country. This the Mountain Cherry of northern Japan (Yama Jakura) is the parent of many of the finest Japanese double-flowered Cherry-trees which when well grown are the most beautiful of all flowering trees. They are rarely seen, however, in good condition of any size either in the United States or Europe because the attempt has been made to graft them on European Cherries which now it has been clearly shown are not suited for the purpose. The double-flowered Cherries imported from Japan are grafted on the white-flowered form of Prunus Lannesiana which although not very hardy has flowered better this year than ever before in the Arboretum. It is also the parent of several of the finest double-flowered Cherry-trees. The double-flowered forms of this and of Prunus serrulata do not succeed as they come from Japan as they are all grafted on Prunus Lannesiana and the bark of that species is thin and is apt to split. Double-flowered trees imported from Japan which have been grafted or budded at the ground level often get on to their own roots and are hardy and permanent but they are shrubs rather than trees. It is evident, in spite of the protest of American and European nurserymen, that all the double-flowered Japanese Cherries must be grafted on the variety sachalinensis of P. serrulata if large and healthy trees are wanted, and the best plants will be obtained by inserting the grafts at the top of stems six or eight feet high that they may have a vigorous, rough-barked trunk. This means a slow and expensive operation before the trees are ready for sale, and it is probably safe to say that large and healthy double-flowered Japanese Cherry-trees will not soon be common in this country. Two other varieties of Prunus serrulata, var. pubescens and var. spontanea, are well established in the Arboretum and although still small have flowered well this spring. To see how the lovely Spring Cherry of Japan (P. subhirtella) can be propagated nurserymen are invited to examine the two plants by the Prince Street entrance to the Superintendent's house at the corner of Centre Street. These were grafted on seedlings of the type plant on January 19, 1907; they were planted in the nursery in the spring of the same year and placed in their present position in the spring of 1919. They show that there is no difficulty in raising good specimens of this plant if nurserymen are willing to give a little attention to them. Prunus yedoensis has not before flowered as well in the Arboretum as this spring. There is a plant of this species on the right hand side of the Forest Hills entrance, another on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, and a third in the nursery on the top of Peter's Hill. This is the Cherry so generally planted in the parks, cemeteries and streets of Tokyo, and its flowering heralds an annual national holiday decreed by the Emperor. It was believed that over two hundred and fifty thousand trees were growing in the precincts of Tokyo before the destruction of a large part of the city a few years ago by fire and earthquake. The oldest authentically known trees were in the Imperial Botanic Garden at Koishikawa and were planted less than fifty years ago. This Cherry is a quick-growing and apparently short-lived tree with wide-spreading and slightly drooping branches forming a wide flattened head. The bark is pale gray and smooth, becoming darker and somewhat rough on old trunks. The slightly fragrant flowers are produced in clusters of two or several, usually before the leaves but occasionally at the same time, and vary in color from white to pale pink. It is this tree which was presented by the Government of Japan to our Government and is the principal Japanese tree which has been planted in the streets of Washington. This Cherry produces seeds abundantly now in the Arboretum and in Washington, and it ought to be much more generally planted a little further south than Massachusetts where the flower-buds are too often injured by severe winters. It grows perfectly well in New York, and thousands of trees might well find a place in Central Park, where so many of the original plants have disappeared, and in all the regions south of Washington. Prunus nigra. Among American Plums in the Arboretum Prunus nigra, the so-called Canada Plum, is the earliest to bloom, and, although it opened its flowers at the end of last week, is still in fair condition. It is a native of the northern border of the United States from New Brunswick westward, and is distinguished from the more southern Prunus americana by its larger and earlier flowers, the blunt teeth of its leaves and by darker and closer bark; the flowers turn pink as they fade. The Canada Plum has produced some excellent seedling forms of garden Plums which are esteemed and largely grown by pomologists. A form of the Canada Plum found growing in Seneca Park, Rochester, New York, near the gorge of the Genesee River, and believed to be a native plant in that region, is when in bloom one of the most beautiful Plum trees in the Arboretum Collection and well worth propagating as a garden plant. Prunus salicina, better known perhaps as P. triflora, flowers only a little later than the Canada Plum, and the flower-buds which completely cover the wide-spreading branches are already opening. This tree is interesting because it is the only native Plum in eastern Asia and the tree from which the so-called Japanese Plums of gardens have been developed. Prunus dasycarpa. This plant, which is a native of eastern Siberia or Manchuria, is known as the Purple or Black Apricot on account of the dull purple color of the fruit. It has never flowered more abundantly than it has this spring but the flowers are now beginning to fade. Prunus triloba. Among the flowers of early spring few are more lovely than those of this small Almond from northern China which, in spite of the fact that it has flowered in the Arboretum every spring for the last twenty years, is still very little known, although the form with double flowers (var. plena) is a common garden plant in this country and is often successfully forced under glass for winter bloom. The single-flowered plant should be better known. It is a tall shrub of rather open irregular habit of growth. The flowers, which are pure clear pink in color, are produced every year in profusion, and among the shrubs introduced into the Arboretum in the last thirty years none excel the single-flowered form of P. triloba in the beauty of their flowers. It can be seen on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road not far below the entrance, and there is a fine plant on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Amelanchiers. The Shad Bushes, as Amelanchiers are often called because they are supposed to bloom when shad begin to ascend the rivers from the sea, add much in early spring to the beauty of the Arboretum. This genus in North America contains nearly all the species as only one small shrubby species grows on the mountains of central Europe and another in China and Japan. In North America it grows in many forms from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Newfoundland to the Gulf States. Two of the species are trees and the others large or small shrubs, the flowers usually appearing before the leaves or when they are partly grown. They all have handsome flowers, with usually long white petals and small, dark blue or nearly black, rarely yellow, pome-like fruit open at the top, the flesh of which in most of the species is sweet and edible. The earliest species to bloom, A. canadensis, has been for more than a week in flower. This is the largest species of the genus and a tree occasionally growing to the height of sixty feet with a tall trunk eighteen inches in diameter. The leaves begin to unfold as the flowers open and are then covered with silky white hairs, making the whole plant look white at this time of the year. This beautiful tree does not grow naturally nearer Boston than western Massachusetts. It is common in western New York, and the common and often the only species in the southern states in which it grows to the Gulf coast. Owing to an old confusion in determination and names, this fine tree, which was originally described by Linnaeus, has long been rare in gardens, a different plant having usually appeared in them under this name. This is a second tree species, differing from A. canadensis in the red color of the young leaves which are destitute or nearly destitute of any hairy covering, and should be called Amelanchier laevis; it is a native of the Arboretum and is now in flower. A natural hybrid of the two arborescent species, A. grandiflora, is not rare in the woods in the neighborhood of Rochester, New York. It promises to become a tree here and has the largest flowers of any of the Shad Bushes. The flowers of a form of this hybrid (var. rubescens) are more or less deeply tinged with rose color and are more beautiful than the flowers of the other species or varieties. Amelanchier oblongifolia, which is the largest of the shrubby species, is a common wild plant in the Arboretum and has been planted in considerable numbers along the roads, especially along the Valley Road. It is a vigorous and handsome shrub often ten or fifteen feet high and broad through the branches. It is an inhabitant of moist woods and rocky uplands from New Brunswick to Pennsylvania, Missouri and Minnesota. There are supposed to be a dozen more American small shrubby species or hybrids growing in the Arboretum, but there is still doubt about the identity of several of them. Some of these are in flower in the Meadow Road Group, and others will be in bloom later. The species of central and southern Europe, A. ovalis, is well established in the Arboretum, as are the Japanese A. asiatica and its Chinese variety sinica. These foreign species bloom later."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 5","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23818","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170b328.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 5, 1925 Crabapples. The Crabapples when in flower make one of the chief spectacular displays of the year in the Arboretum and only the flowers of the Lilacs attract a larger number of visitors. Many of these plants are covered with buds, a few will flower sparingly or not at all this year, but the general display will be an average one but not as good as that of last year when all the plants were covered with flowers. The collection is arranged on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road and at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, a short distance from the gate at the corner of South and Bussey Streets. The oldest and largest plants are near the Forest Hills gate but there are a larger number of species and varieties on Peter's Hill. The genus Malus extends around the northern hemisphere and is best represented in eastern Asia. The North American species are found from the Atlantic to the Pacific and bloom much later than the Asiatic species, and will be discussed in a later Bulletin. The two European or eastern Asiatic species, Malus pumila and M. sylvestris, are not in the collection although the former is perhaps the most valuable tree in the world as it is the parent of the edible apple. A few of the early Asiatic Crabapples are- Malus baccata mandshurica, which began to open its flower-buds more than a week ago, is the earliest of the Asiatic plants to flower. It is a native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, and is an eastern form of the better known M. baccata, the Siberian Crabapple, which reached Europe more than a century ago and for a long time was one of only two of the Asiatic Crabapples known in European gardens. M. baccata mandshurica as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree twelve or fifteen feet tall and broad; the flowers are pure white, rather more than an inch in diameter and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. The Manchurian Crabapple for the fragrance of the flowers alone should find a place in all collections of these plants. The best Arboretum plant is in the Peter's Hill Group where another form of M. baccata (var. Jackii) is also growing. This plant was brought from Korea by Professor Jack in 1905 and is distinguished by its larger dark scarlet fruit. Another form of M. baccata (var. gracilis) raised from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, promises to be a handsome tree, differing from the ordinary form of M. baccata in its gracefully pendent branches, narrower leaves hanging on slender petioles and in the smaller flowers and fruit. Malus robusta is one of the earliest of the Asiatic Crabapples to flower. It is believed to be a hybrid of M. baccata with M. prunifolia. In good soil and with sufficient space for free development it will grow into a large shapely tree with a broad, round-topped, irregular head of spreading and often drooping branches. The flowers ate fragrant and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabapples with pure white or occasionally greenish petals. The globose dull red fruit varies greatly in size on different individuals and is rarely more than threequarters of an inch in diameter. To this hybrid belong many of the trees cultivated for their fruit in cold winters under the general name of the \"Siberian Crabs;\" of these trees the well known \"Red Siberian\" is a typical representative. A form of M. robusta (var. persicifolia) raised from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, distinct in its narrower peach-like leaves, is now established in the Arboretum and may when better known prove to be worth general cultivation. Malus micromalus, which is also an early flowering plant, is one of the least known of the Crabapples. It was first sent to Europe from Japan by von Siebold in 1853 under the name of \"Kaido,\" a name which in Japan was given to M. Halliana. In Japan M. micromalus is known only in gardens, and by Japanese botanists is believed to have been introduced from China and to be a hybrid of M. baccata with M. spectabilis. The habit of this plant is more pyramidal than ' that of other Crabapples, and this habit makes it conspicuous in the collection. It first came to the Arboretum from the Paris Museum in 1888 and the plants now growing here are descendants of that plant. It is still one of the rarest of the Asiatic Crabapples in western gardens. Malus Halliana var. Parkmanii is the semidouble form of a Crabapple which Wilson found growing wild in western China on the Tibetan border. As the double-flowered form had long been a favorite in Japanese gardens, where it is frequently cultivated under the name of \"Kaido,\" this tree before Wilson's discovery was believed to be a native of Japan. The Parkman Crab, as the semidouble-flowered form is generally known in this country, was one of the first to reach the United States direct from Japan as it was sent to Boston in 1862 where it was first planted by Francis Parkman, the historian, in his garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. From this tree has been produced most of the plants of this Crabapple now growing in America and probably in Europe. The Parkman Crab is a small, vase-shaped tree with erect and spreading branches and dark bark. It flowers profusely every year and the flowers, which droop on slender stems, are rose red and unlike in color those of other Crabapples. The fruit, which is borne on long red stems is dull in color and hardly more than an eighth of an inch in diameter. When in bloom the Parkman Crab is one of the handsomest and most distinct of all Crabapples, and its small size makes it one of the best for small gardens. Malus theifera, discovered by Wilson in central and western China, gives every promise of being a decorative plant of the first class in this country. It is a tree with long, upright, irregularly spreading, zigzag branches thickly studded with short spurs which bear numerous clusters of flowers which are rose red in the bud and become pale or almost white when the petals are fully expanded. In central China the peasants prepare from them their \"red tea.\" The largest plants in the Arboretum flower profusely every year. There is a variety (var. rosea) with deeper-colored petals also in the collection. Malus prunifolia rinki is an interesting tree, for this is the Apple cultivated by the Chinese and from China taken to Japan where it was the only Apple cultivated as a fruit tree before the advent of American apples. The wild type of this tree discovered by Wilson in western China is also growing in the Arboretum. Malus floribunda. By many persons this is considered when in bloom the most beautiful of Crabapples. It was introduced into Europe by von Siebold in 1853 from Nagasaki, Japan. The place where this tree grows wild still remains unknown, although possibly it is one of the high mountains of Kyushu. Japanese botanists and nurserymen have confused it with the Parkman Crab, and Wilson did not find it in Japanese gardens. It is a broad, round-topped, treelike shrub sometimes twenty-five feet tall with stout branches and slender, arching, pendant branchlets. The clusters of flowers are white when fully expanded and are rose red in the bud, and as they open in succession the two colors make a handsome contrast. The fruit is about the size of a pea, yellowish or yellowish brown; from some plants it falls in the early autumn and on others it remains on the branches during the winter or until devoured by birds who find it one of the most palatable winter foods. M. floribunda rarely fails to produce abundant crops of flowers and in this climate has proved to be one of the most satisfactory of all ornamental shrubs or small trees which have been planted in eastern Massachusetts. A hybrid between M. floribunda and probably M. robusta appeared in the Arboretum with a lot of seedlings of M. floribunda in 1883 and has been named M. arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of that species but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large as those of M. floribunda. It is a handsomer plant distinguished by its long arching branches and one of the handsomest Crabapples in the Arboretum. Malus spectabilis is said to have been cultivated by the Chinese from time immemorial. Like several of the other Asiatic Crabapples it is not known in a wild state, but is probably of hybrid origin. It is a tree from twenty-five to thirty feet tall with a wide vase-shaped crown and short branchlets. The flowers are pale pink, more or less semidouble and fragrant. The fruit is pale yellow, subglobose and about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. M. spectabilis is a perfectly hardy and free-flowering plant, and well worth a place in gardens where space can be allowed for its development. What is probably a hybrid of M, spectabilis and some unknown species, possibly M. micromalus, is M. Scheideckeri and is also worth a place in a collection of these trees. Early Flowering Viburnums. Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood of cold northern woods, one of the handsomest of the American species, is now in bloom, as is Viburnum Carlesii, one of the hardiest and most beautiful shrubs which the gardens of America have obtained from eastern Asia. It is a dwarf, compact shrub with white flowers in small globose clusters which open from rose-colored buds and are delightfully fragrant. Fortunately it has at last been taken up by American nurserymen and can now be obtained by lovers of beautiful plants. Double-flowered Japanese Cherries. There are now growing in the Arboretum thirty-two double-flowered forms of Prunus Lannesiana and eighteen forms of Prunus serrulata sachalinensis. These are arranged on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and the handsomest of them are the following forms of Prunus serrulata sachalinensis: Alborosea, Fugenzo, Sekiyama, Kirin, Horinji, and Hisakura. The best six double-flowered forms of Prunus Lannesiana are, Jonioi, Miyako, Sirotae, Amanogawa, Ojochin, and Ochichima. Early Azaleas. Two or three of the early Azaleas are beginning to open their flowers and during the next week Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii will have opened its pale pink flowers which are about three inches in diameter and are marked with red-brown spots, and are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea which has proved hardy in the Arboretum. It is one of the commonest shrubs in Korea and often forms the dominant undergrowth in open woods. This plant grows further north than any other Azalea with the exception of the North American Rhodora, and there is no reason why it should not flourish in the colder parts of New England. Two flowering plants can be seen on Bussey Hill on the upper side of Azalea Path. Still rare in gardens it seems safe to predict that the time is not far distant when this inhabitant of the Diamond Mountains will be one of the chief ornaments of American gardens during the early days of May."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 8","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23819","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170b36a.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 8, 1925 Early-flowering Broad-leaved Evergreens. The most interesting of these plants in the Arboretum now is probably the Japanese Rhododendron Metternichii which, although it has been growing here in a shady position close to the Bussey Brook for five years, is flowering this spring for the first time. The rose pink flowers on one form have six or seven petals and on another only five petals (var. pentamerum). This last is the form growing in the Arboretum and probably the common form generally planted. This Rhododendron forms great masses from five to ten feet high on the borders of Lake Yumoto among the Nikko Mountains at an elevation of five thousand feet above the sea. Rhododendron venustum, which has been more generally cultivated under the name of R. Jacksonii, has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum since 1908. It is perfectly hardy here always and it is now covered with its expanding pink flowers. It is considered a hybrid of the of the Himalayan R. arboreum and R. caucasicum, and was raised in England by William Smith at Kingston in 1889. By English writers on Rhododendrons it is considered one of the most valuable early spring-flowering Rhododendrons for all gardens. It is perfectly hardy and will grow in an exposed position in the poorest soil. It is easily and cheaply raised from layers and probably when better known will be largely used in this country for the edging of beds of broad-leaved evergreen plants. The white-flowered form which is occasionally cultivated in Europe is not yet in the Arboretum. Pieris (Andromeda) floribunda, judging by an experience of over fifty years, is the only broad-leaved evergreen to which nothing happens in this climate. It is not attacked by borers, the leaves are never discolored, and the flower-buds formed in autumn and almost as conspicuous in the winter as the flowers are not injured by the lowest temperature which has been recorded in southern New England. It is a round-topped shrub of compact habit sometimes eight or ten feet across and five or six feet high, with small, pointed, dark green leaves and short terminal clusters of pure white flowers. A native of the high altitudes on the southern Appalachian Mountains, it is rare as a wild plant, but for more than a century it has been valued in England and largely propagated by English nurserymen. It is certainly one of the most valuable early flowering spring plants which can be successfully grown in this climate, and although it flourishes in exposed positions the flower-clusters, when the plant is grown in comparatively dense shade, are sometimes twice as long and much handsomer than when the plant grows in the open. The Japanese Pieris japonica is less hardy and rarely flowers well in this climate. This year, however, a plant in the shade of Hemlock Hill is covered with flowers, showing like many other evergreen plants that shade is essential to its well being. Unlike the American species, the flowers are borne in a terminal cluster of slender pendulous racemes each from three to six inches in length. It is easily distinguished from the American species by the narrower leaves tapering at the base, by the pendulous inflorescence, and by the absence of hairs on the young wood and flower-stalks. Even in England it is often injured by frost. The American Mahonias in the Shrub Collection have not before been so full of flowers or in such good condition, thanks to a light covering of Hemlock branches, as they are this spring. The handsomest, although not the hardiest, is Mahonia Aquifolium, the Oregon Grape, an evergreen shrub sometimes reaching the height of six feet but usually not more than two or three feet high. The spineless stems are little branched, and spread by underground suckers. The leaves are six to twelve inches long, pinnate, consisting of five to nine leaflets which are sessile or nearly so, vary greatly in shape except the terminal one, an inch and a half to three inches and a half long, glossy dark green, turning purplish in the winter, and furnished with slender marginal spiny teeth. The racemes of flowers are erect, produced in a crowded group from just beneath the terminal bud, each two to three inches long, thickly set with golden yellow, slender-stalked flowers. The fruit is abundant, black, ornamental and covered with a fine violet-colored bloom. This handsome plant is a native of western North America from Vancouver Island southward. It is a common and very popular plant now in Great Britain, but to flourish in the eastern states like so many evergreens it should be grown in the shade. The other North American species, Mahonia repens, from the Rocky Mountain region is a hardier plant usually less than a foot high but spreading freely by underground stems. The pinnate leaves consist of three, five or seven leaflets which are ovate, pointed, one to two and a half inches long furnished with spiny teeth, and are of dull bluish green. The flowers are produced in racemes an inch and a half to three inches long in clusters at the ends of the branches The deep yellow flowers are now opening, and the black fruit is covered with a dense bloom. An unnamed hybrid is growing with these two species in the Shrub Collection but has little to recommend it as an ornamental plant in comparison with its supposed parents. Rhododendron (Azalea) reticulatum. This Japanese plant was introduced into the Arboretum by Professor Sargent who sent seeds from the Nikko region in the autumn of 1892. The plants have grown slowly but have proved hardy and each spring have flowered profusely. This handsome species does not appear to be very common in cultivation but is certainly worth a place in New England gardens. It is sometimes known as Rhododendron dilatatum or as R. rhombicum. In the Nikko region of Japan, on the lower slopes of Mount Fuji and on the Hakone Mountains it is extremely abundant in thickets, on margins of woods and in forests. The plants form a much-branched bush or bushy tree from three to twenty-five feet tall with numerous erect or spreading, slender but rigid branches, and the leaves do not unfold until the corymbs fall. Rhododendron (Azalea) yedoense poukhanense. This Korean Azalea is usually a compact, densely branched shrub up to three feet in height. The leaves are quite or partially deciduous according to climate, and in the autumn are tinged from orange to crimson. The flowers are in clusters from two to several and remarkably fragrant, with a corolla rose to rosy purple. This is the common Azalea of Korea from about the latitude of Seoul, the capital city, southward. It is partial to open country and on grassy mountain slopes and in thin Pine-woods it forms dense mat-like masses from a few inches to a yard high. It grows from the sea-level up to nearly five thousand feet altitude. This Azalea was introduced into the Arnold Arboretum by Professor Jack who sent seeds from Poukhan-san in the autumn of 1905. Some additional Asiatic Crabapples. Malus Sargentii from salt marshes in the neighborhood of Mororan in northern Japan, where it was discovered by Professor Sargent in 1892, has qualities which give it a field of usefulness peculiarly its own. It differs in habit from all other Crabapples. It is a dwarf with rigid and spreading branches, the lower flat on the ground, and the whole plant hardly more than two feet high. The flowers are in umbel-like clusters, saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruit which is covered by a slight bloom, and unless eaten by birds it remains on the plants until spring. It is possible that only the plants raised from the seeds collected in Japan represent the species as the plants raised from the seeds collected in the Arboretum and sold by nurserymen as Malus Sargentii are tall broad shrubs often ten or twelve feet high but bear flowers and fruit similar to the type. Malus Sieboldii was introduced from the gardens of Japan into Europe by von Siebold in 1853. It is a low dense shrub of spreading habit with the leaves on vigorous branches three-lobed, small flowers tinged with rose and small yellow fruit. Von Siebold's Crab is really a dwarf form of a tree common on the Korean island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central Japan in Hokkiado, to which the name M. Sieboldii var. arborescens has been given. This is a tree often thirty feet or more tall with ascending wide-spreading branches, minute fruit yellow on some and red on other individuals. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. M. atrosanguinea is believed to be a hybrid of M. Sieboldii and the Parkman Crab. It is a low broad-branched tree with dull red showy flowers, and is now often seen in American gardens. Malus sublobata, which is believed to be a hybrid between M. prunifolia rinki and M. Sieboldii, is also in flower. The plants in the Arboretum are already thirty feet high and, unlike other Crabapples, form a tall trunk covered with pale bark and a narrow head. The large white flowers are chiefly produced on upper branches and are followed by bright clear yellow fruits about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. American Plum-trees. North America is the real home of Plumtrees as it is of Hawthorns. They range across the continent from the valley of the St. Lawrence nearly to the Rio Grande. They are most abundant in eastern and southern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, southern Arkansas, and Texas from the valley of the Red River to the Edwards Plateau. In this region Plum-trees are represented by more species than are found in all the world outside of North America. Some of the trees are of considerable size and others are large or small shrubs which frequently spread in sandy soil by means of shoots. From the fruit of nearly all the American Plums good jellies and preserves can be made, and selected seedling forms of several of the species have received the attention of Pomologists and are now cultivated as fruit trees in parts of the world where the varieties of the old world Prunus domestica cannot be successfully grown. The handsomest of the American Plums, Prunus hortulana, the most beautiful of all Plum-trees, is common from southeastern Illinois to eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. It is a tree from twenty to thirty feet high with a clean trunk and wide-spreading branches, which form a round-topped shapely head. The leaves are unusually large for a Plum-tree, and smooth and lustrous on the upper surface. The fruit is scarlet, lustrous, and from threequarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. A well-fruited tree of Prunus hortulana is more beautiful in October than any other small tree which can be grown in the northern states. Early Flowering Currants. The two yellow-flowered American Currants are perhaps the most attractive of these plants. The better known of them, the so-called Missouri Currant (Rabes odoratum) is found in many old gardens and grows naturally from South Dakota to Texas. Ribes aureum, a smaller plant from the northwest and the Rocky Mountain region, with slender branches, smaller flowers and black or orange-colored fruit, appears to be extremely rare in cultivation. These two plants are growing in the Shrub Collection with another of the Rocky Mountain Currants (R. cereum) with small white flowers, and as usual is an attractive plant at this season. Early Flowering Lilacs. Several hybrids of Syringa affinis var. Giraldii and the common Lilac are already in bloom. It is believed that Sunday, May 17, will be the best day for the Lilacs."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 12","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23814","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170a325.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 12, 1925 Prunus Avium plena, the double-flowered form of the European Gean Cherry, although it has probably been cultivated in Massachusetts for nearly a century, is now rarely seen here, more attention being paid in recent years to the Japanese double-flowered Cherry-trees which have so far proved short-lived and unsatisfactory here and in Europe owing largely to the use of unsuitable stock on which these plants have been grafted and ignorance of the best methods for their cultivation. Unlike the Japanese Cherries, the flowers of this European tree are pure white, and an English writer describes it as \"one of the most beautiful of all flowering trees.\" It is perfectly hardy here, grows to a large size and never fails to flower profusely, every branch and twig being wreathed with drooping clusters of flowers which last a long time in good condition. There are only two young trees in the Arboretum, one on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road and the other and larger one in the Peter's Hill nursery. Prunus lanata, an American Plum-tree which blooms at about the same time as P. americana, from which it differs in the thick pubescence on the lower surface of the leaves, is exceptionally beautiful this year. It is a small tree rarely thirty feet tall, of dense habit, with slightly drooping branches, and of wide distribution from southern Indiana to Kentucky, Oklahoma, eastern Texas, and through Louisiana to Dallas County, Alabama. The Arboretum plant was raised from seed collected by Reverchon near Dallas, Texas. Sorbopyrus auricularis bulbiformis. This interesting bi-generic hybrid is flowering remarkably well this year on the left-hand side and close to the Forest Hills Gate. Sorbopyrus auricularis, called in Europe the Bollwyller Pear, is a deciduous-leaved tree from twenty to sixty feet high, forming a round bushy head, with ovate or oval leaves rounded or heart-shaped at base, covered above with loose, early deciduous down, and flowers from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. The fruit is pear-shaped, an inch to an inch and a quarter long and wide, red, each on a stalk from an inch to an inch and a half long, with sweet yellowish flesh. It is said to have originated at Bollwyller in Alsace, and was first mentioned by Bauhin as early as 1619. For three hundred years it has been propagated by grafts, for it produces few fertile seeds. The variety in the Arboretum, sometimes called Pyrus malifolia, differs chiefly from the type in its broadly top-shaped fruit two inches long and wide and deep yellow when ripe. Spach named and described this tree in 1834 and said that the original specimen at that time grew in the garden of the King of France in Paris, and was thirty feet or more high. This and the Bollwyller Pear are certainly little known in this country and deserve a place in all collections of flowering trees. Berberis Dielsiana, which was raised from seeds collected by Purdom in the province of Shensi, in China, is one of the handsomest and most vigorous of the Barberries of recent introduction. The largest plant in the Arboretum is growing among the new Chinese Barberries on Bussey Hill where it is already eight or nine feet tall and broad. It is one of the species with flowers in drooping racemes like those of the common Barberry. It is not only a vigorous and handsome plant but is valuable for its early flowers which have opened in the Arboretum as early as the middle of April. It first flowered here in 1916 and is now in bloom. Enkianthus perulatus. The fine plant of this Japanese shrub on the southern side of Azalea Path, which is the earliest specimen of the genus to bloom here, has not before been so thickly covered with its white flowers. It is a compact, round-headed bush, and in the autumn the leaves turn bright scarlet. This is a popular plant in Japan and may be often seen in Japanese gardens cut into a round ball. The Arboretum plant has never produced seeds, and this species has remained extremely rare in this country. Acer griseum, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China, is in bloom on Bussey Hill for the first time in the Arboretum. It is a small tree distinct in the orange color of the trunk and branches, the three-foliate leaves and large yellow flowers in drooping few-flowered clusters. The male and female flowers are produced on different plants, and the tree on Bussey Hill is a male. This handsome tree is not common and the Arboretum will be glad to obtain fertile seeds of it. American Crabapples. Following the last of the eastern Asiatic Crabapples the American species begin to flower. Nine species are now recognized, with several varieties and two hybrids. They have white or pink fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly or nearly grown, and green or pale yellow fragrant fruit which hangs on the slender stems and, with the exception of that of the species of the northwestern part of we country and its hybrid, is depressed-globose, usually broader than high, from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter and covered with a waxy exudation. All the species spread into thickets and are excellent plants for the decoration of wood borders and glades. Malus glaucescens, which is named from the pale glaucous color of the under surface of the leaves, is the first of the American species to bloom here. This is a shrub usually rather than a tree, not more than fifteen feet high, with stems four or five inches in diameter. The pale yellow fruit is often an inch and a half in diameter. This is a common plant in western New York, western Pennsylvania, southern Ontario and in Ohio, and occurs southward on the mountains to northern Alabama. Malus ioensis opens its flowers several days later than M. glaucescens. It is the common Crabapple of the northern middle western states and in a number of varieties has a wide range south through Missouri to western Louisiana and Texas. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with a trunk often eighteen inches in diameter, a wide open head of spreading branches and usually incised leaves tomentose on the lower surface. A form of this tree with double flowers (var. plena), the Bechtel Crab, named for the man who found it growing in the woods in one of the western states, has pale rose-colored flowers which look like small Roses. When in flower this is one of the popular trees in the Arboretum. This double-flowered Crab can now be found in many American nurseries, but these nursery trees are usually short-lived because the common orchard Apple on which they are generally grafted does not suit them as stock. Persons buying the Bechtel Crab should insist that it be grafted on one of the American Crabapples, the best for the purpose being the single-flowered type of M. ioensis. Malus coronaria, sometimes called the Garland Tree, is the common eastern species, although it does not approach the coast north of Pennsylvania and Delaware and ranges west to Missouri. It is a beautiful tree sometimes twenty-five feet high, with a short trunk, pink flowers rather more than an inch in diameter, and depressed globose fruit. A form with long acuminate leaves (var. elongata) which sometimes forms dense thickets, grows in western New York to Ohio and on the southern Appalachian Mountains. A double-flowered form of M. coronaria has been found growing in the woods near Waukegan, Illinois, and is called var. Charlottae or the Charlotte Crab. The flowers are larger and whiter than those of the Bechtel Crab, and there is no reason why this should not become as great or a greater garden favorite than the Bechtel Crab. M. platycarpa has fruit broader than high and often two and a half inches in diameter with a deep cavity at base and apex. The flowers are about an inch and a half in diameter with a glabrous pedicel and calyx, but in the variety Hoopesii with a pubescent calyx. There is a large tree of this variety in the Malus Collection opposite the end of the Meadow Road. M. platycarpa is a handsome tree well worth a place in collections for its beautiful fruit valuable for cooking and jellies. M. fusca, the only native Apple-tree of the Pacific states, where it ranges from Alaska to central California, is an interesting tree. This differs from the other American Crabapples in its short-oblong, yellow-green flushed with red or nearly entirely red fruit from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch long and without the waxy exudation which is peculiar to the eastern American species. The calyx of the flower, unlike that of the eastern species but like that of many Asiatic species, falls from the partly grown fruit. M. angustifolia is the last Crabapple in the Arboretum to flower. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet tall with a trunk eight inches in diameter, wide-spreading branches and bright pink exceedingly fragrant flowers. From the other species it differs in the slightly lobed or serrate leaves on the ends of vigorous shoots, and in the rounded apex of the leaves on the flower-bearing branchlets. It is a southern species which naturally does not grow north of southeastern Virginia and southern Illinois, ranging to northern Florida and western Louisiana. Plants raised here many years ago from seeds gathered in northern Florida are perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where they bloom every year and have proved to be handsome and valuable additions to the collection. The other American species, M. glabrata of the high mountains of North Carolina, M. lancifolia, widely distributed from Pennsylvania to Missouri and western North Carolina, and M. bracteata, a common species from Missouri to Florida, with many of the varieties of M. ioensis, are now established in the Arboretum. M. Soulardii, which is believed to be a natural hybrid between M. ioensis and some form of the orchard Apple (M. pumila) is a widely distributed and not rare tree in the middle west, and is one of the attractive plants in the Crabapple Collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. It is a curious fact that this hybrid flowers in the Arboretum fully two weeks earlier than either of its supposed parents. Several varieties of Soulard's Crabs are distinguished by western pomologists. Malus Dawsoniana is a hybrid of the western M. fusca and the common Apple which appeared in the Arboretum many years ago from seeds collected in Oregon. It has grown here to more than double the size of M. fusca with which it shows its relationship in the oblong fruit of the shape and color of that of its Oregon parent but of about twice the size. The leaves are less pubescent and the flowers are rather larger. This hybrid blooms at about the same time as M. ioensis and a few days earlier than M. fusca. The Chinese Redbud, Cercis chinensis, a native of western China and growing on the Centre Street Path, has never before been so beautiful. Although it is only a shrub, the flowers are larger and of a better color than those of the American species, and this little Redbud is certainly one of the most beautiful of early-flowering shrubs. Unfortunately the flower-buds are sometimes killed here in cold winters. Also in bloom are Cytisus Beanii, C. elongata and C. glabrescens, Vaccinium corymbosum, Viburnum bitchiuense, Diervilla, florida venusta, Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii, and the first of the Hawthorns, Crataegus arnoldiana."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 14","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23815","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170a726.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 14, 1925 Lilacs. Judging by the number of persons who visit the Arboretum when the Lilacs are in bloom, these are still more popular than any other group of shrubs here. The Lilac for the general public means the varieties of Syringa vulgaris which reached England from Constantinople in 1597. When it was first brought to the United States is unfortunately not known, and the earliest mention of it in American literature is the fact that it was sent by the Quaker Peter Collinson to John Bartram in Philadelphia in 1735. Washington, who probably obtained his plants from Bartram, planted it at Mount Vernon as early as 1785 and the descendants from these plants are still growing there, although Virginia is too far south for this shrub to really succeed there. There are plants on Bussey Hill in the Arboretum planted along one of the garden walks probably more than one hundred years ago. These plants flower well and are interesting as they represent the Lilac of old gardens as our ancestors enjoyed them before they were changed and sometimes improved by selection and hybridization by skillful gardeners in Europe and the United States. Until a few years ago it was believed that Syringa vulgaris was a native of western Asia but it has now been discovered growing apparently as a wild plant on the high mountains of Bulgaria. Plants raised from seeds collected in Bulgaria from these wild plants are growing in the Arboretum collection. The common Lilac is a cold country plant, and judging by the growth here the climate of Massachusetts even is not cold enough for them. Better plants can be seen in old gardens near Portsmouth, New Hampshire, than can be found near Boston, and the largest plants known to the Arboretum were growing a few years ago on an island in Lake Superior where there were tree-like specimens thirty to forty feet high and nearly as much through their round-topped heads. Of the important varieties there are now two hundred named sorts in the Arboretum, a few of which have not flowered here yet. There are probably a larger number of these named varieties in the municipal parks of Rochester, New York, where a great deal of attention has been paid to the Lilac Collection. Many of these named varieties can hardly be distinguished from each other as they resemble each other too closely, and a selection of twenty or twenty-five varieties is all that is needed in any private collection to include everything that is best among these plants, both those with single and double, purple, red and white flowers. The Arboretum used to publish a list of the varieties which were considered here the most beautiful, but this plan is now given up for the selection of these plants depends on individual taste. They are all hardy, all have practically the same habit and foliage, and only differ in their flowers. In planting Lilacs it must be remembered that plants on their own roots are superior to those which have been grafted on other varieties of the common Lilac, for Lilacs produce many root-suckers. These often grow vigorously, so that a person who buys a fine named variety may in a few years find that the suckers from the root on which it was grafted have overpowered and killed his named variety, or that he has a bush producing on different branches flowers of his original purchase and of the stock. Nurserymen also use the Privet as a stock on which to graft Lilacs. This is a good stock for the Lilac for if it produces suckers they are easily recognized and can be removed, and if the grafted plants are set deep Lilac roots are soon produced. Privet stock is strongly recommended by many good growers of Lilacs but others still believe that the best plants are raised from cuttings which can be made from hard wood but better from the soft wood taken in late June or early July. No one should ever buy a Lilac plant grafted on the root of another Lilac. Syringa persica. This is a beautiful hardy plant with slender, drooping, wide-spreading branches, narrower leaves than those of the common Lilac, and small fragrant, lavender-colored flowers in short compact clusters. There is a variety with white flowers and another with laciniately lobed leaves. For many years it was universally believed that because Linnaeus had named it Syringa persica this plant was a native of Persia or of some country adjacent to Persia. Meyer, collecting in China for the Department of Agriculture of the United States, found in 1915 quantities of a Lilac covering hillsides in Kansu. Plants raised from seeds of this Lilac have flowered and proved identical with the lobed-leaf form of Syringa persica and as the plants have grown stronger they produce branches with the entire leaves of the type of the species. Since 1915 the Arboretum has also received dried specimens of this Lilac collected in Kansu. As a specimen of a wild plant from Persia is not to be found in the large European herbaria, there is every reason to believe that the Persian Lilac is a Chinese plant, brought from China to western Asia and Europe just as the Peach and other Chinese plants found their way westward. Syringa Josikaea, the second of the European Lilacs to reach American gardens is this Hun23 garian species which often does not bloom here until after the middle of June. Syringa oblata was the first Lilac from eastern China to reach England where it was sent some sixty years ago by Robert Fortune who had found it in a Shanghai garden. It reached the United State certainly as early as 1869 and perhaps earlier. It is a round-topped shrub with heart-shaped leaves which, unlike those of other Lilacs, are thick and coriaceous and in the autumn turn scarlet. It is one of the first Lilacs to bloom in the spring here. This plant has not been found growing wild and there is no record that it has been seen by anyone in China since Fortune's time. It is probably a garden form of S. affinis, a white-flowered form commonly planted and probably the only Lilac in the gardens of Peking. Another form probably of S. oblata is the purple-flowered plant from northern China usually called the variety Giraldii of S. affinis. The Korean S. dilatata is probably also only a wild form of S. oblata. The two best known of the Lilacs of eastern Asia, S. pubescens and S. villosa, were raised here from seeds sent in 1883 by Dr. Bretschneider of the Russian Legation in Peking. S. pubescens is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and broad clusters of small pale mauve flowers with a long slender corolla tube. For the fragrance of the flowers, which is more pungent and delightful than that of any other Lilac, S. pubescens should find a place in every northern garden. The plants in the United States have failed to produce seeds, and as this species is unusually difficult to increase by cuttings it has remained one of the rarest Lilacs in American gardens. S. villosa is a large, round-topped bush, from ten to twelve feet tall and wide, with large, broad, elliptic to oblong leaves bright green and dull on the upper surface and pale below, and broad or narrow clusters of flesh-colored or nearly white flowers which have a rather disagreeable odor like those of the Privet. In spite of this drawback S. villosa is a valuable plant; its habit is excellent, it flowers freely every year, and the flowers do not open until most of those of the other Lilacs have faded. Of the new Lilacs from western China and Korea raised from seeds collected by Wilson and other travelers the most promising are S. Meyeri, S. microphylla, S. Julianae, S. tomentella, S. reflexa, S. Komarowii, S. Sweginzowii and S. dilatata. Hybrid Lilacs. The first hybrid Lilac appeared in the Botanic Garden in Rouen in 1810 and was the result of crossing S. vulgaris and S. persica. It is one of the most delightful of all Lilacs and grows into a bush ten or twelve feet high and broad and of rather open habit. It is very hardy and blooms freely every year, and should be in every garden where Lilacs are grown. Its flowers resemble those of the Persian Lilac and are produced in massive clusters sometimes two feet in length, and are so heavy that the slender branches can hardly support them. There are forms with darker red flowers and with nearly white flowers. Through a misunderstanding of its origin this plant unfortunately must be called S. chinensis. The next hybrid Lilac to appear was S. hyacinthiflora which is the result of crossing S. oblata with S. vulgaris coerulea plena. It is a large, round-topped shrub of excellent habit, with leaves resembling in shape those of S. oblata, and small clusters of semi-double, extremely fragrant flowers. It blooms earlier than any of the forms of S. vulgaris but has little to recommend it as a garden plant. The general name of Syringa Henryi has been given to a group of hybrid Lilacs between S. Josikaea and S. villosa which was obtained in Paris. The handsomest of this breed, S. Lutece, is a valuable addition to the late-flowing Lilacs. Another interesting hybrid was obtained by Lemoine by crossing S. vulgaris with the variety of S. affinis with fragrant violet-colored flowers (var. Giraldii). The plants grow rapidly and are tall narrow shrubs. Like their Chinese parent they bloom early and the flowers are fragrant. Forms of this hybrid, Berryer, Claude Bernard, Lamartine, Mirabeau, Pascale and Vauban are in the Arboretum Collection. A lover of Lilacs living in Manitoba has recently obtained a hybrid of S. pubescens and S. villosa which promises to be interesting, and there is still much work to be done in raising new hybrids between the species of western China. Rhododendron (Azalea) obtusum var. Kaempferi is the only red-flowered Azalea which is hardy in this climate. It has been largely used in the Arboretum and is now flowering at least two weeks earlier than usual. Its flowers furnish the most surprising and spectacular display of the year. They are delicate, however, and when fully exposed to the sun lose their color; and this Azalea gives most satisfaction when it is planted in the shade of trees or on the northern border of a wood of conifers. It is planted in masses at the lower end of Azalea Path and in a large group under the shade of the Hemlocks on Hemlock Hill and on the northern edge of Hemlock Hill in a long narrow band between the Hemlocks and the Laurels. The tallest plants in the Arboretum are now more than ten feet high and rarely fail to flower profusely even when growing in complete shade. This is one of the best shrubs which has been introduced by the Arboretum. Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi from the southern Appalachian Mountains is flowering profusely this year. The pure pink flowers appear on the leafless branchlets and in delicacy and purity of color are not surpassed by the flowers of any other plant. It is only in comparatively recent years that this Azalea has been known to botanists or has found its way into gardens. It is perfectly hardy, the flower-buds are not injured by severe cold, and in time it will grow into a tall, usually rather narrow shrub. This beautiful Azalea has been planted on both sides of the Meadow Road, the largest group being at the northern end of the first pond. Rhododendron (Azalea) luteum, a native of the Caucasus, has bloomed in the Arboretum several times and, although the buds are often injured, is in good condition this year. It is growing on the right hand side of Azalea Path below the plant of Rhododendron (Azalea) reticulatum. If the flower-buds of this Caucasian plant were hardier this would be one of the most delightful of all Azaleas as the flowers are charming in color and more fragrant than those of any other Azalea."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 21","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23816","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170ab27.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 21, 1925 Hawthorns. The genus Crataegus is widely distributed through the northern hemisphere, being found in the three northern continents. In Europe it extends with a few species from the Atlantic coast into western Asia; it is rare but widely distributed with not more than six species in eastern Asia, with two in Japan, and in North America is found its greatest number of forms and widest distribution. American Hawthorns. In 1894, when the fourth volume of Sargent's \"Silva of North America\" was published, fourteen species of Crataegus were recognized, one of these being a small shrub. Five years later a more systematic study of the genus in this country was undertaken, and more than a thousand species with several varieties have now been described. In North America Hawthorns are distributed from Newfoundland and northern Quebec to northern Florida and northern Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. The genus is much more abundant in species east of the eastern borders of the great plains than in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific regions where they range northward into British Columbia and southward into northern California. So far as is now known the species are most abundant in the valleys of the streams which flow from the north and south into Lake Erie, and in the region which extends from southern Missouri to the valley of the Red River in Arkansas. New York and Pennsylvania are rich in species, and southward along the Appalachian Mountains, and in the southeastern states the species are not rare. They have now been arranged in twenty-two groups distinguished by the shape and character of the leaves, the size of the flowers and the size and shape of the fruit. It is interesting that while some species of these groups are widely and generally distributed those of others are chiefly confined to particular sections of the country, as the Flavae to the southeastern states, the Douglasianae to the northwest, and the Tenuifoliae to the middle and northeastern states. The Macracanthae, which is one of the common northern groups with many large trees, is extremely rare in the southern states and in Arkansas and eastern Texas is represented by only a few small shrubs. The Intricatae, composed mostly of small shrubs, has its greatest number of species in Pennsylvania and adjacent states but is extremely rare in the Mississippi valley and westward is unknown. The characters and history of this Group are interesting. It is distinguished by leaves usually cuneate at the base, large flowers in few-flowered clusters with ten or twenty stamens, and yellow, rose-colored or red anthers with conspicuously glandular bracts and bractlets and subglobose, short-oblong or pear-shaped, red, orange, greenish or bright yellow fruit. A few Appalachian trees are now placed in this Group but the rest are small shrubs. This is one of the largest groups with no less than eighty-two species; thirty-two of these have been recognized in Pennsylvania and seven in New York. The Group is represented in western New England and in Michigan by several species, and only a few species have been found in the Missouri- Arkansas region. Birmingham, Alabama, is the most southern station where a member of this Group has been found. In spite of their abundance and well-marked characters these plants were entirely overlooked by the older American botanists who did not preserve specimens of any of the species in their herbaria, and it was not until 1894 that a Dane described the first species, C. intricata, from a plant cultivated in the Copenhagen Botanic Garden. The small size of the plants, their large and handsome flowers and conspicuous fruits make these little Thorns valuable garden plants. The C. Macracanthae, of which C. tomentosa of Linnaeus is the type is an interesting group because it differs from all the other forms of Crataegus in the deep pit on each side of the inner surface of the seeds. They are all large and handsome trees. The species in the different groups are chiefly distinguished by the number of stamens, which varies from twenty to twenty-five, and the color of the anthers which is red in some species and yellow or nearly white in others, in the shape of the leaves, the time of flowering, the size, color and shape of the fruit which is usually red but occasionally yellow or orange color. In a well known species, C. punctata, the anthers and the fruit are red, but in one form the anthers and the fruit are yellow. This is the only species in which such variation has been noticed. There are now probably about five hundred American species growing in the Arboretum and it is of course impossible to call attention to all of them in one of these Bulletins. They can all be seen on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill as well as in other parts of the Arboretum, and species will be blooming here for at least two months more. Crataegus arnoldiana is the first species to flower in the spring and the flowers are already fading. This tree was discovered growing naturally in the Arboretum; it grows also on the banks of the Mystic River in Medford, Massachusetts, and near New London, Connecticut. It belongs to the Molles Group which are trees of which a number of species have been distinguished by their large size, large early flowers which usually open before the unfolding of the leaves, and by the large, often edible, red or rarely yellow fruits. The species are found from the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec to Texas but are most numerous in the region west of the Mississippi River, and are almost entirely wanting in the southeastern states. They all have large handsome fruit and that of C. arnoldiana ripens in August while that of some of the other species remains on the branches until late in the autumn. The two species of western Europe, Crataegus oxycantha and C. monogyna, and many of their varieties, are established in the Arboretum. These are the only foreign species ever naturalized in North America where they are now abundant in some parts of Nova Scotia. Forms of these species occur with red and with pink flowers and with double flowers. Early Roses. Four species of Asiatic Roses have been the first to flower in the Arboretum this year, Rosa Ecae, R. Hugonis, R. omeiensis and R. koreana. R. Ecae, still rare in gardens, a native of Afghanistan and Turkestan, is a tall, perfectly hardy, fast-growing shrub with pale yellow flowers about an inch in diameter; they are paler in color and slightly smaller than those of R. Hugonis, but it is a more vigorous and satisfactory plant and the fragrance of the leaves adds to its value. It has never before been as full of flowers as it is this year, and this week it is one of the handsomest plants in the Arboretum. R. omeiensis, which is common on the mountains of western China and is named for Mt. Omei, one of the sacred mountains of the Empire, is a hardy, fast-growing shrub with erect stems covered with prickles. In its native country this Rose sometimes grows to the height of twenty-five feet and a good hedge might be made with it for New England gardens. R. koreana is flowering this year only for the second time in cultivation and it is a perfectly hardy little plant with white flowers not more than the size of a ten-cent piece. The handsomest of the so-called Scotch Roses (Rosa spinosissima), the variety altaiaca, with petals fringed with yellow toward the base, is just beginning to open its flower-buds. Like the other forms of S. spinosissima it has stems covered with prickles, rather small leaves and comparatively large black shining fruits. Early Flowering Rhododendrons. One of the best Rhododendrons for New England is Rhododendron carolinianum, a native of high altitudes among the Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina. It is a low, compact shrub with pale rosy purple flowers. First described as a species in 1912 by Rehder (Rhodora xiv. 97), it has only recently become common in American gardens through the agency of the Kelsey nursery. It was introduced, however, into England more than a century ago, as a figure of it was published in 1915 in the Botanical Register as a variety of R. punctatum. There are small plants of a white-flowered variety of R. carolinianum in the Arboretum collection. R. caucasicum is unfortunately not in the Arboretum except in the form of small seedlings, but some of its varieties are hardy and beautiful plants of dense habit with dark green leaves and handsome and usually abundant white flowers slightly tinged with pink or rose color. There is much confusion in regard to the history of these plants and their breeding. The best of them here are called Boule de Neige, Mont Blanc, and Coriaceum. Boule de Neige has white flowers faintly tinged with pink when they first open and is one of the best Rhododendrons that can be planted in New England. The Arboretum will be glad of information about its history. Mont Blanc has deep rose colored flower-buds and flowers which soon become pure white; this is a taller and not as wide-spreading a plant as Boule de Neige. R. coriaceum has been in the Arboretum for many years and, although it flowers a week or two later than the plants already mentioned, it appears to be of Caucasian blood. Very beautiful this spring is a plant with large pink flowers which came to the Arboretum in November, 1898, as Rhododendron Smirnowii, No. 16. As it is flowering this year it is one of the handsomest Rhododendrons which has ever been planted in the Arboretum, but unfortunately the flower-buds have been often injured in other winters. Bush Honeysuckles. Many of the Bush Honeysuckles are again covered with their fragrant flowers. No shrubs, not even the Lilacs, are more valuable garden plants in regions of extreme cold. They are very hardy; they flower freely every year, and many of the species and hybrids are covered with scarlet, yellow or blue fruit. To obtain the greatest beauty they must be planted in good soil with sufficient space between them for their free growth. An example of well grown Bush Honeysuckle can be seen on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs where there are several large plants. There is a collection of smaller plants in the Shrub Collection, and a supplementary collection along the grass path in the rear of the Linden Collection on the Meadow Road, and another on the slope between the Meadow Road and Bussey Hill Road, nearly opposite the entrance of the Shrub Collection. Attention is called again to Lonicera Morrowii because the plant usually sold in American nurseries under that name is a hybrid of that species with the Tartarian Honeysuckle, and of little value for those who want a plant of the peculiar habit of L. Morrow2i. This species is a native of northern Japan and eastern Siberia, and one of the handsomest of the Bush Honeysuckles. It is a comparatively low round-headed shrub with lower branches which cling close to the ground and spread over an area much broader than the height of the plant. The leaves are gray-green, and the flowers are large, pale yellow or white. The fruit, which remains a long time on the branches, is red and lustrous. It was introduced into the United States by the Arboretum many years ago, and at one time was largely planted in the Boston parks where can still be seen some large specimens. Attention is also called to the forms of the Tatarian Honeysuckle with white, pink, and rose-colored flowers, and to L. minutiflora, L. muscaviensis, L. Xylosteum, L. orientalis, L. chrysantha, one of the earliest to bloom, L. bella, L. notha, and L. microphylla. The last is an attractive little shrub from central Asia. The pale canary yellow flowers are longer than the small pale blue leaves and stand up well above them. The bright red long-stalked fruit of this shrub is also attractive."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23817","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170af28.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 29, 1925 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes. These are the English names of the species of the genus Aesculus which are widely distributed in the northern hemisphere, with one species in southeastern Europe, two in northern India, two in China, one in Japan, one in southern California, and seven with numerous varieties and hybrids in the southeastern United States. The Arboretum Collection is a good one but the Indian, one of the Chinese, the Californian, and one of the eastern North American species have not proved hardy here. It is arranged on the valley road beyond the Lindens, and many of the plants are now in flower. Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes differ in the presence of a resinous covering on the winter buds of the Old World and Californian species (Horsechestnuts) and in its absence from those of the other American species (Buckeyes). The European species (Aesculus Hippocastanum), a native of the mountains of Greece, is when in flower one of the most splendid trees which can be grown in the northern states when it can be planted in deep, rich, damp but well drained soil remote from the dust and dirt of large cities. This tree was first cultivated in England in 1633, having probably been sent there from Constantinople. The first knowledge we have of it in the United States was on April 18, 1746, when seeds were received by John Bartram of Philadelphia. There is now no evidence that it was planted at Mt. Vernon by Washington, who was a constant visitor at Bartram's garden, and the Arboretum does not know of any very large or old trees in the neighborhood of Philadelphia or New York. The handsomest Grecian Horsechestnut seen in the United States by officers of the Arboretum is in a garden in Salem, Massachusetts. This tree was planted one hundred and ten years ago and is now seventy feet high with a trunk ten feet in girth and a perfectly shaped head eighty feet across. There are several varieties of the Grecian Horsechestnut in cultivation but none of them grow to such a large size or are as handsome in habit or in their flowers as the original tree. The double flowers of one of these abnormal varieties, however, have the advantage of lasting longer on the tree before fading. Among the red- and pink-flowered Horsechestnut trees, hybrids of A. Hippocastanum and a red-flowered American Buckeye, probably A. Pavia, are often handsome trees. The best known of these hybrids, A. carnea, which originated a good many years ago in Europe, is now a common tree in the suburbs of Boston. More conspicuous is a form of that tree with deep red flowers known in nurseries as Aesculus Briottii which was first raised in France. The trees in the Arboretum of this variety are now full of flowers. Aesculus turbinata, the Japanese Horsechestnut, first introduced into the Arboretum in 1881, is in Japan a magnificent tree, often growing to the height of eighty or ninety feet and forming a tall trunk occasionally seven feet in diameter. Like the European Horsechestnut, the leaves are composed of seven leaflets but these are thinner and more lustrous and the leaf-stalks are longer. The Japanese tree in summer therefore appears less dark and massive than the Grecian species. The flower-clusters are narrower and the flowers, which are white with scarlet marking at the base of the petals, are handsomer. Aesculus turbinata, which grows to its largest size in central and northern Japan, is hardy in New England. Eastern American Horsechestnuts and their hybrids are interesting trees but have none of the splendor when in flower which gives so great value to the European species and some of its hybrids. The largest American specimens in the Arboretum are two trees of the Ohio Buckeye (A. glabra) close to the left hand side of the South Street entrance. These are among the oldest trees planted in the Arboretum as they were raised from seeds gathered in Ohio in 1873. Several of the self-sown seedlings of these trees are now flowering in the general collection on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. The var. Buckleyi of A. glabra is the first of the Buckeyes to bloom in the Arboretum. This is a rare tree most abundant in Jackson County, Missouri, and is distinguished by the seven instead of the five leaflets. A little later to flower than the typical plant is the variety leucodermis, distinguished by its smooth pale bark and glabrous leaves pale green or glaucescent below. This is the common form in southern Missouri, Arkansas and probably Oklahoma. A related species, A. arguta, is now covered with its yellow flowers; this is a small narrow shrub treelike in habit but only a few feet tall which has been found in west central Oklahoma and in a few places in northern and central Texas. This should prove an excellent May and June flowering shrub for small gardens. Aesculus georgiana is covered again with its compact clusters of large red and yellow flowers, and is certainly one of the best of the plants which have been brought into our gardens in recent years by the Arboretum. When first discovered it was believed to be confined to the neighborhood of Stone Mountain in central Georgia and always to be shrubby in habit. It is now known to range northward in the Piedmont region of North Carolina and to grow into a small tree, and the oldest plants in the Arboretum are beginning to assume a treelike habit. Aesculus discolor var. mollis is also well covered with flowers. The type of this species has red and yellow flowers, but in the variety mollis, which is the only form in the Arboretum, the whole flower is bright scarlet. It is a common plant from northern Georgia to central Alabama, and westward to the valley of the Guadaloupe River in Texas, ranging west of the Mississippi River northward to southeastern Missouri, and appearing in southwestern Tennessee. In the southern states no other plant is more brilliantly conspicuous, and its unexpected hardiness in New England is an important discovery. A. Harbisonii, which is a hybrid of A. discolor var. mollis and A. georgiana, is the last of the Buckeyes, with the exception of A. parviflora, to bloom in the Arboretum and probably will not open its flowers for a couple of weeks. It is a shrub with broad clusters of large flowers each with a rose-colored calyx and canary yellow petals tinged with rose toward the margin. Still extremely rare, it deserves to be better known. Aesculus woerlitzensis is a plant of doubtful origin with red and yellow flowers, of which there are a number of handsome young specimens in the collection. It came originally from Europe and it is not certain whether it is a hybrid or a species. Where it grows naturally, if it is a species, is still unknown. Perhaps the handsomest of the hybrid Buckeyes raised in Europe is one to which the name of A. mutabilis penduliflora has been given. This is a shapely young tree with narrow leaflets and drooping red and yellow flowers which was presented in 1902 to the Arboretum by the Spath Nursery in Berlin. It is considered to be a hybrid of A. discolor mollis and A. neglecta, another hybrid. American deciduous-leaved Magnolias. Several of these trees are in bloom in the group on the right hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance. Unlike most of the Asiatic species, American Magnolias flower after the appearance of the leaves; they are hardy and handsome trees. One hundred and fifty years ago letters of English plant lovers written to their American correspondents contained many appeals for Magnolia plants and seeds, and one hundred years ago these trees were to be found in the principal collections of plants in the middle states. They are scarcely known to the present generation, and it is only in a few American nurseries that an occasional plant of one of the species can be found. There are six of these Magnolias but one of them, M. pyramidata, grows only in the extreme southeastern corner of Alabama and adjacent Florida and would not be hardy here. Of the other species the so-called Mountain Magnolia, M. Fraseri, is the first to open its flowers in the Arboretum. It is a small tree rarely more than forty feet high, with an open head of long branches, leaves often a foot in length and deeply divided at the base, and creamy white, sweet-scented flowers eight or ten inches in diameter and very conspicuous as they stand well above the crowded leaves at the end of the branches. This tree is a native of the southern Appalachian region, and is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts. The next to flower is M. cor32 data which for several days has been covered with cup-shaped, bright canary yellow flowers unlike in color those of any other Magnolia. This tree was discovered by the French botanist and traveler Michaux on one of his journeys from Charleston, South Carolina, up the valley of the Savannah River and was introduced in French gardens by him. For more than a century every attempt to rediscover this tree failed, and it is only within the last ten years that it was found by the Berckmans brothers growing in the woods not many miles distant from Augusta, Georgia, where plants only a few feet high flower profusely. Grafts from Michaux's trees preserved this species in cultivation, and the large plants in the Arboretum were raised from grafts taken from old trees in the Harvard Botanic Garden for which they were imported from Europe when the Garden was laid out, that is more than a century ago. With these species bloom the Umbrella-tree, M. tripetala, a bushy tree thirty to forty feet high with large pure white flowers, widely distributed in the Appalachian Mountain region, but nowhere very abundant, from the valley of the Susquehanna River in Pennsylvania to southern Alabama, middle Kentucky and Tennessee, growing westward to southwestern Arkansas and southeastern Oklahoma; and the Cucumber-tree, M. acuminata, the tallest of the American Magnolias, sometimes ninety feet high, with green or greenish yellow flowers covered with a glaucous bloom. This fine tree is a native of mountain slopes and rocky banks of streams from southern Ontario and western New York, to Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois and along the Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia and to central Kentucky and Tennessee, northern Alabama, Mississippi and Louisiana. It is the largest and most widely distributed of the American Magnolias, and grows to its largest size at the base of the high mountains of the Carolinas and Tennessee. Later Magnolia macrophylla and M. virginiana will bloom. The first has the largest leaves and the largest flowers of any North American tree, and the latter, which is perhaps the most attractive of the group, has the smallest flowers. The size, however, is made up by their delightful fragrance and by the beautiful leaves lustrous above and silvery white below which remain late on the branches. As they flower attention will be called later to these two species. The Way to grow Wisterias. Wisterias which do not climb naturally are usually supported on trellises or grown on rods or frames attached to buildings. This means that they have to be more or less pruned every year and in this way lose much of their flowering wood and often have a stiff and unnatural appearance. How to grow them naturally can be seen from a plant of the white Japanese Wisteria growing close to the Centre Street gate of the Arboretum. This was planted many years ago in what was then a nursery and has been allowed to grow naturally over some tall bushes close to the drive into the Arboretum; it now extends over a large area and this year, as in many past seasons, the whole plant is loaded down with its long racemes of flowers. It is now one of the most beautiful and interesting objects in the Arboretum, and well worth the attention of all persons who like to see plants growing naturally and as they grow in their native countries as wild plants."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23813","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd1608925.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL XI NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 5, 1925 Evergreen Rhododendrons. Only a comparatively few of these plants can be cultivated in New England. Three species of eastern North America are hardy here, as are Rhododendron Smirnowii of the Caucasus, and hybrids of still uncertain origin of R. caucasicum of the same region. In southwestern China is found the greatest number of these plants, and hundreds of new species have been discovered there in recent years and introduced into England where many of them have already flowered in Cornwall, a region particularly well suited to the growth of these evergreens. Unfortunately only one Chinese species, R. micranthum, from northern and western China, which has little to recommend it as a garden plant, is hardy in the Arboretum. Most persons in this part of the country who think and talk about Rhododendrons have in mind the hybrids raised in England in great variety between the eastern American R. catawbiense and primarily one of the Himalayan species, R. arborescens. There are hundreds of these Rhododendrons with beautiful foliage and flowers varying from deep red to pink, rose-color, dark purple and white. They are usually grafted on R. ponticum, a tender plant which appears to affect the hardiness of these hybrids. The first Anthony Waterer of the Knaphill Nursery at Woking in Surrey, from whom most of the large collections of these hybrids have been obtained in this country, used to propagate his best varieties by layers. Such plants have proved hardier and longer lived than the plants grafted on R. ponticum stock. Among the handsomest and hardiest of the Waterer Rhododendrons may be mentioned Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens, Mrs. C. S. Sargent, Henrietta Sargent, Catawbiense album, Album elegans, Roseum elegans, H. W. Sargent, Discolor, Melton, Album grandiflorum, Purpureum elegans and Lady Armstrong. In November, 1908, the Arboretum received from T. J. Seidel, in whose nursery near Dresden is one of the greatest collections of hardy Rhododendrons, a number of his catawbiense hybrids. Seidel uses as stock for his hybrids one of the hybrids of R. caucasicum called Cunningham's White, which was raised about 1830 by James Cunningham in his nursery near Edinburgh by crossing R. caucasicum with R. ponticum it is said. This makes a hardier stock than R. ponticum and is easily and cheaply propagated from cuttings. The plants on this stock are dwarfer than those which have been raised in England and appear to be generally hardier. In the Seidel collection in the Arboretum are the following named varieties: Adalbert, Adam, Alarich, Albert, Annedore, Anton, Arno, Attila, August, Bella, Bismarck, Calliope, Daisy, Desiderius, Diana, Donar, Echse, Eli, Eva, Fee and Viola. There is much difficulty in this country with the cultivation of both the English and German hybrid Rhododendrons. The leaves suffer seriously from the attacks of the lace-wing fly and to destroy this it is necessary to spray the plants two or three times during the year. The plants require a deep mulch in winter, and some of the varieties planted in exposed situations are better for a winter covering of evergreen branches. It is no longer possible under the Federal laws to import these plants with soil at their roots and American nurserymen who may still have a few plants ask such exorbitant prices for them that it is foolish to buy them. In the future perhaps some American nurserymen will take up the propagation of these hybrids on stock of Cunningham's White or some other of the Caucasian hybrids, but until this is done the cultivation of plants established in this country or of new collections of these plants is not promising. Rhododendron Smirnowii. This is a plant from which a great deal can be expected here. It has been growing in the Arboretum for several years and has not suffered from cold or drought. When the plant is fully exposed to the sun the leaves often droop and their edges in-fold, and it does better in partial shade. The leaves are pale grayish green above and below are thickly covered with pale felt which successfully protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly. The flowers are of good size and of pleasant shades of pink or rosy pink, and are borne in large clusters. As compared with the dark green leaves of R. catawbiense and its hybrids those of this plant are less attractive, but the flowers are beautiful in color and are equally large. Several hybrids of R. Smirnowii and hybrids of R. catawbiense have been raised in Europe and there are a few of these in the Arboretum collection. They have proved to be good garden plants here, flowering earlier than R. Smirnowii and producing larger pink flowers. They have never been injured in the Arboretum, but as there is only a trace of the felt left on their leaves they will probably suffer from the lacewing fly. R. Smirnowii is now at its best. The flowers of R. catawbiense and many of its hybrids are opening, but the flowers of R. carolinianum have already faded and those of R. maximum will not be out for another fortnight. The Rhododendron Collection is planted at the eastern base of Hemlock Hill and extends along the Bussey Brook to the corner of Bussey Street. The southern end of the collection is close to the South Street entrance to the Arboretum and is within a short walk of the Forest Hills Station. Azaleas, which all botanists call Rhododendrons now, are still conspicuous features in the Arboretum. As the flowers of R. roseum and R. nudiflorum begin to fade those of R. calendulacea have already opened their orange, yellow or reddish flowers. This shrub is an inhabitant of the mountain regions from southern New York to Georgia, and is often extremely abundant in North Carolina and Tennessee. In flower it is the most showy of the American Azaleas in the Arboretum and one of the most beautiful of all flowering shrubs. This plant has already been largely planted on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, and it is proposed to make it a special feature of the Arboretum. The conspicuous flowers of different shades of red of the Japanese R. Kaempferi, which has never bloomed more profusely in the Arboretum than it has this year, are beginning to fade and are followed by those of another Japanese species, R. japonicum. Although the flowers of this species are less brilliant than those of the better known R. Kaempferi, it is probably the handsomest of the Japanese Azaleas. The flowers are flame color and are more than three inches in diameter. As it grows here this Azalea is a round-topped, rather compact hardy shrub blooming freely every year. There is a bright yellow variety (var. aureum) which is also in the collection. R. japonicum was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892 and has been growing here as long as R. Kaempferi. Long confused with the hybrid Azalea mollis of gardens, less attention has been paid to it, and it is only lately that its specific characters and value have been understood. One of the parents of the hybrid A. mollis, it is a handsomer, longer-lived and more satisfactory plant than that popular and well known Azalea which lives here only a short time. In gardens R. japonicum is still one of the rarest of all the hardy Azaleas. Many of the so-called Ghent Azaleas with yellow and different shades of red flowers are also in bloom. These are excellent plants raised by crossing in Europe many years ago various North American species with one of the yellow-flowered species, possibly R. luteum or japonicum. The origin of these plants, however, is very uncertain. They are among the best of the hardy garden Azaleas and are still occasionally met with in this country. Arborescent Viburnums. Four Viburnums assume the habit of small trees in the Arboretum; three of these are eastern American, V. prunifolium, V. Lentago, V. rufidulum, and one is Japanese, V. Sieboldii. V. prunifolium, which is the first to bloom, is a tree often thirty feet high, with a short trunk usually less than a foot in diameter, rigid spreading branches beset with slender spine-like branchlets, thick, dark green, lustrous leaves which, handsome in summer, are splendid in the autumn with their dark red or scarlet colors. In the autumn the plants are conspicuous, too, from the red stemmed drooping clusters of dark blue fruit covered with a glaucous bloom and from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch long. This plant takes kindly to cultivation and is quite hardy north of the region of its natural distribution which is in southern Connecticut. It has generally escaped the attention of American nurserymen who in recent years have made better known our northern arborescent V. Lentago, the Sheepberry or Nannyberry a usually larger and for some persons a handsomer plant than the Black Haw. The flowers, which are arranged in larger and rather flatter clusters, are pale cream color and not white, and the fruit, which is as handsome as that of the Black Haw, is rather larger. The leaves, too, are larger and equally lustrous, and also assume brilliant autumn colors. At the end of May and early in June the Arboretum owes much of its beauty to the flowers of the Sheepberry which has been planted in large numbers along the drives and in the border plantations, and is now covered with flowers. Viburnum Jackii, which is evidently a hybrid between V. Lentago and V. prunifolium, with characters intermediate between those of its parents, was detected a few years ago by Professor Jack in one of the Arboretum plantations. An interesting plant, it is not more valuable for the decoration of gardens than either of its parents. More beautiful than the Black Haw or the Nannyberry, the common tree Viburnum of the southern states, V. rufidulum is perhaps the handsomest of all the Viburnums with deciduous leaves. When grown under the most favorable conditions it is a tree often forty feet high with a tall stout trunk and branches which spread nearly at right angles from it. The leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, with winged stalks covered, as are the winter-buds, with a thick felt of rusty brown hairs. The flowers are creamy white and the fruit is dark blue with a glaucous bloom. This Viburnum has been growing in sheltered positions in the Arboretum for several years and has flowered here several times. The Japanese V. Sieboldii under favorable conditions will grow to the height of twenty-five feet, although it is often a shrub in habit. For the decoration of American gardens this Japanese plant is inferior to either of the three American arborescent species. Symplocos paniculata is the only representative of a family of plants which can be successfully grown in the Arboretum. It is a native of Japan and western China, and grows also on the Himalayas. The Arboretum plants are Japanese, and this form was introduced into the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, at least fifty years ago. Although a distinct and beautiful plant, it appears to be still little known in gardens, and in England where it flowers freely it does not produce fruit. In this country it will not grow in soil impregnated with lime. In the Arboretum this Symplocos is a shrub from twelve to fifteen feet tall and broad, branched to the ground, with dark green leaves, axillary clusters of small white flowers which are followed in the autumn by beautiful blue fruit about a third of an inch in diameter. The unusual color of the fruit is probably its chief attraction. There is a plant in the Shrub Collection, but the three largest specimens are on the left hand side of the Bussey drive, just above the Lilacs, and in the grass border between the drive and the walk, and one of these plants is now more fully covered with flowers than any of them have ever been covered before."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 11","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23810","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160bb6d.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 11, 1925 Laurels. The flowering of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is the last of the great flower shows of the year in the Arboretum, and none of those which precede it are more beautiful, for the Mountain Laurel, or Calico Bush, as it is often called, is for many persons the most beautiful of all North American shrubs or small trees. It is certainly the most satisfactory of the broad-leaved evergreen plants which can be grown in this climate, for it is perfectly hardy, flowers freely every year, and the leaves are not injured by the lace-wing fly which is so destructive to those of most Rhododendrons. It is not perhaps strange that so little attention has been paid to this plant by American gardeners for those of earlier generations at least derived their inspiration almost entirely from England and usually despised American plants as too common for their attention. For some reason which is not easy to explain K. latifolia has not been a popular plant in England where it is still not often seen and where it certainly grows less freely than many species and hybrids of Rhododendrons. For this reason, perhaps, no distinct forms of the Laurel and no hybrids have been developed by cultivators, and the few recognized variations in the flowers and leaves have all been found on wild plants. Of these there are forms with pure white flowers, and a form with deep pink, nearly red flowers and rather darker leaves; and between these extremes there are others with flowers of all shades of pink, and one form with flowers distinctly marked by a chocolate band. There is a dwarf form with small leaves and small clusters of minute flowers, and there is one in which the corolla is deeply divided into narrow lobes. A form with broad handsome Rhododendron-like leaves, which rarely flowers, was found a few years ago near Pomfret, Connecticut. These forms are all established in the general Kalmia Collection which is planted on both sides of Hemlock Hill Road at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. On the right hand side of this road are groups of the dwarf Kalmia angustifolia, the well-known Sheep Laurel of northern pastures with bright red flowers, and of K. carolina from southern swamps and woods from Virginia to South Carolina, with flowers very similar to those of the Sheep Laurel but with leaves pale pubescent on the lower surface. K. polifolia, a straggling shrub with leaves white glaucous beneath and rose-purple flowers, is also growing in the Arboretum but it is not a particularly satisfactory plant in cultivation. Cornus kousa is a small tree which enlivens the forests of eastern Asia as C. florida enlivens those of eastern North America and C. Nuttallii those of western North America. The three species have the large white or creamy white bracts under the flower clusters which make the inflorescence so conspicuous but the Asiatic tree differs from the American trees by the union of the fruit into a globose fleshy head, while the fruits of the American trees are not united together. C. kousa is a small tree rarely exceeding twenty feet in height, and the floral bracts are narrower, more pointed and not as pure white as those of the American trees. It is valuable, however, because it flowers three or four weeks later than C. florida. C. kousa is a native of central Japan. It is now in flower on the right hand side of the Centre Street Path where the tree, raised from seeds produced in Mr. H. S. Hunnewell's garden in Wellesley, is now the best specimen in the Arboretum. A handsomer tree is the form var. chinensis, discovered by Wilson on the mountains of Hupeh in western China. The bracts under the flower clusters are broader than those of the Japanese form and overlap below the middle so that they form, like those of the American species, a cup at the end of a branch. The Chinese Flowering Dogwood is rare in cultivation, and the specimen among the Chinese plants on the southern base of Bussey Hill is probably the only large one in this country. For several years it has ripened a few seeds and it is not improbable that this year the seeds may be more numerous. It is an interesting fact that here in Massachusetts the Chinese and Japanese Flowering Dogwoods are hardier than the native species as C. florida loses many of its flower-bracts in severe winters and is often killed or severely injured here by the extreme cold. Late-flowering Magnolias. The Sweet Bay, Magnolia virginiana, or as it is more often called M. glauca, opened its fragrant cup-shaped flowers several days ago and will continue to open them until midsummer. A plant for every garden, great or small, how often is the Sweet Bay found in those of modern construction? M. macrophylla flowers a few days later than M. virginiana and is the last of the American species to open its flowers here. It is a handsome tree with leaves silvery white on the lower surface and often thirty inches long and ten inches wide, and flowers a foot in diameter. A southern tree with its northern stations in the Piedmont region of North Carolina and in Kentucky, it is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts, although here as elsewhere the leaves are often torn by the wind unless a sheltered position is selected for it. It is interesting as the leaves and flowers are larger than those of any other tree which grows in extra tropical regions. M. Watsonii, a shrub which was first found in a Japanese nursery, and is unknown as a wild plant, is also in flower. Its relationship is with M. parviflora, a small Japanese tree which grows as far north as Korea; it has usually not been hardy in the Arboretum, but two years ago and this year the plant on the upper side of the Centre Street Path has been covered with flowers which are extremely fragrant, differing in this from those of M. parviflora. Indigofera amblyantha is in flower as usual on the left hand side of the Centre Street Path. It is a slender shrub with small leaves and axillary clusters of small rose-colored flowers which appear continuously for two or three months. This is one of the most beautiful of the small shrubs introduced by Wilson from western China where he found it growing on river cliffs in Hupeh at altitudes up to six thousand feet above the sea-level. Sophora viciifolia. There are not many shrubs with blue flowers which are perfectly hardy in this climate, and none of them are as satisfactory as this Sophora which is a native of central and western China where it is a common undershrub in dry hot valleys. In the Arboretum it is a shapely, perfectly hardy plant four or five feet high, and produces small blue and white pea-shaped flowers in great profusion blooming here every year. In the Arboretum it has proved one of the most attractive of the small shrubs of recent introduction. It can be seen now in flower on the right hand side of the Centre Street Path and in the Bussey Hill Collection. Cornus controversa is a widely distributed plant in Korea and west. ern China where it sometimes grows to a height of sixty feet with a trunk seven feet in girth. The largest of these trees in the Arboretum is in the Peter's Hill Nursery and is now about twenty-five feet high with a short trunk and a head from twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter. The branches are long, crowded, and spread at right angles with the stem, drooping slightly at the ends, the lowest sweeping the ground. The upper side of the branches is thickly covered with flat flower-clusters six or seven inches in diameter. The flowers are white or white faintly tinged with yellow and are followed by black shining fruits which are eaten by birds as fast as they ripen. As it grows on Peter's Hill this Cornel is a magnificent plant, and the handsomest of the species of Cornus in the Arboretum with the exception of the species with white floral bracts. To the student of botanical geography C. controversa is interesting as a living witness of the relationship between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America, for in the genus Cornus with many species widely distributed over the world there are but two with alternate leaves, C. controversa, common in eastern Asia, and C. alternifolia, common in eastern North America, also in flower at this time. Laburnum alpinum is still covered with its long racemes of clear yellow flowers and has shown, as it has now for many years, its value in our northern gardens. L. alpinum is a native of the elevated regions of southern Europe, and is usually spoken of as the \"Scotch Laburnum\" probably because it is a favorite in the gardens of northern Britain. In those of New England it is extremely rare, although it is the handsomest large shrub with yellow flowers which is perfectly hardy here. It is hardier than L. vulgare, or, as it is often called, L. anagyroides, the small tree with shorter racemes of flowers which has been a good deal planted in the eastern states and which at the north is not always hardy, although occasionally good specimens are to be seen in the neighborhood of Boston. There are several garden forms of this Laburnum. A better plant for New England than L. vulgare is its hybrid with L. alpinum, known as L. Watereri or L. Parksii, already out of bloom. This is a hardy small tree and when in flower the handsomest tree with yellow flowers which can be grown in this climate. Some Asiatic Spiraeas. One of the handsomest of all Spiraeas is S. trichocarpa, a common and widely distributed shrub in northern Korea where Wilson found it on the Diamond Mountains in the autumn of 1917, and sent seeds to the Arboretum. He describes it as a dense bush about three feet high with spreading rigid, and slightly drooping branches. It promises, however, to grow to a larger size in cultivation in this country. The flowers are white, and arranged in rounded or dense, conical, many-flowered clusters an inch and a half in diameter, at the end of short lateral leafy branches. This Spiraea has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and promises to be an important addition to American gardens. A copy of a photograph of the wild plant made by Wilson in Korea appeared in the Gardeners' Chronicle, of London, August 11, 1923. S. Henryi is a taller shrub, growing to a height of eight or ten feet with spreading branches, and branchlets sparingly pilose or nearly glabrous, obovate or oblong to oblanceolate leaves cuneate at the base and acute or rounded at the usually coarsely dentate apex. The flower-clusters are about two inches across and the flowers are a quarter of an inch in diameter. This is one of Wilson's introductions from western China, and has proved an excellent garden plant in this country. These two plants can best be seen on the lower side of the Centre Street Path. S. Sargentiana, another of Wilson's discoveries in western China, now growing with other Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, has not always proved perfectly hardy in this climate but this year for the first time is flowering profusely. It is a graceful shrub, very similar to S. canescens, growing to the height of about six feet with slender spreading branches, terete branchlets first puberulous but soon becoming glabrous, with oblong-elliptic leaves narrowed into the petiole, slightly toothed at the apex, puberulous above and villose below. The flowers are produced in dense flat corymbs an inch to an inch and three-quarters across, and the white flowers are a quarter of an inch in diameter with a villose calyx."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 19","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23811","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160816e.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 19, 1925 Philadelphus. Many new plants in this genus have been found in recent years by travelers in eastern Asia or have been made by plant breeders, and it now constitutes one of the largest groups of garden shrubs hardy in the northern states and to be ranked with the Lilacs, Bush Honeysuckles, Viburnums, Azaleas and Cornels. The popular names of these plants, Syringa and Mock Orange, are unfortunate for Syringa is the Latin name of the Lilac, and Mock Orange, given to them no doubt on account of the fragrance of the flowers of Philadelphus coronarius of southeastern Europe, which for many years was the only one of these plants to be found in gardens, does not describe the flowers of all species as many of them are destitute of odor. Species of Philadelphus are native in the United States in the southern Appalachian Mountain region, western Alabama, western Texas, on the southern Rocky Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, and in the northwestern states. Many species have been found in Japan, Korea, Manchuria and western China, and the genus is represented on the Himalayas, the Caucasus, and in the Balkan peninsula. Plants of this genus are not particularly interesting in habit; the leaves are dull and fall without change of color, and the fruit, which is a dry capsule, does not add to their attraction which is to be found in their abundant, white, often fragrant flowers. The flowering period of the thirty odd species, with numerous hybrids and varieties in the Arboretum, extends through five or six weeks, and most of the plants flower every year. They require rich, well drained soil, and the presence of lime has no bad effect on them. Better than most plants, they can support shade, and their ability to grow and flower under trees gives them a special value for the undergrowth of border plantations. The type of the genus and the only species in the gardens of the eighteenth century, P. coronarius, is now rarely found except in old-fashioned gardens in New England, but it is a delightful plant and the flowers of no other species are more pleasantly fragrant. In the Arboretum collection there are varieties of this plant with double flowers of which the variety deutziaeflorus with narrow petals is the handsomest; a variety with narrow leaves (var. salicifolia) is more curious than beautiful, and there is a dwarf compact form which never flowers and one with yellow leaves. Among the American species which should find a place in all collections of hardy shrubs are P. inodorus and P. pubescens. The first is a medium-sized plant with arching branches which are studded from end to end with large, cup-shaped, scentless flowers, and by some persons considered the most beautiful of the whole genus. P. pubescens, sometimes called P. latifolius and P. grandiflorus, is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountain region, with stout erect stems and branches, broad dark green leaves and slightly fragrant flowers arranged in erect from five- to ten-flowered racemes. P. pubescens and some of its hybrids are common garden plants in this country. The most important and distinct of these has been called P. splendens which appeared in the Arboretum several years ago, and its other parent is believed to be P. Gordonianus. It is a tall, broad, shapely shrub with pure white, slightly fragrant flowers borne in clusters and an inch and three-quarters in diameter. This plant when in bloom makes a more conspicuous display than any Philadelphus in the collection. The Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus has the smallest leaves and flowers of any plant in this genus; it is a shrub with slender stems, rarely growing more than three feet tall, with delightfully fragrant flowers. The earliest Philadelphus in the collection to bloom is the Korean variety Jackii of the Manchurian P. Schrenkii. which Mr. Jack discovered a few years ago and which often blooms here during the last week in May. It is a tall, rather narrow pyramidal plant and an excellent addition to the plants of this group. The most distinct and probably the handsomest of the Asiatic species which flowers here is P. purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branches from four to six inches long which spread at right angles, and on these the fragrant flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are very fragrant. This is probably one of the handsomest shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. P. Magdalenae from central China is another handsome plant well worth general cultivation. It is a tall shrub with arching stems, small, dark green, finely toothed leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered panicles from six to ten inches long. P. pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a compact bush three or four feet high which every year produces flowers tinged with yellow, and is well worth a place in every garden. Another eastern Asiatic plant, P. Falconeri, which is probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in few-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and long narrow petals. This plant was sent to the Arboretum from the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, but nothing more is known of its origin or history. Few genera of garden shrubs have given better results from natural cross fertilization or to the art of the plant-breeder than Philadelphus. The first of these hybrids to attract attention was raised in France sometime before 1870 by Monsieur Billard and is sometimes called \"Souvenir de Billard.\" This hybrid is one of the handsomest of the tall growing Syringas; it has large, snow-white flowers in long clusters, and its value is increased by the fact that it is the last of the whole group to flower. The largest Philadelphus in northern gardens, where plants thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found, appears to be a hybrid between P. coronarius and an unrecognized species. To this plant, whose history is unknown, the name P. maximus has been given. These early hybrids were the result of natural cross-fertilization, and the systematic breeding in this genus dates from the time when Lemoine in France first crossed the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus with P. coronarius and produced the plant to which he gave the name of P. Lemoinei. Lemoine then crossed his hybrid with a hybrid of P. insignis and produced a race of beautiful plants to which the general name of P. polyanthus is now given. Well known forms of thi8 hybrid are \"Gerbe de Neige\" and \"Parvillon Blanc.\" To another race of the Lemoine hybrids the name of P. cymosus has been given. This was obtained by crossing P. Lemoinei with P. grandiflorus or some related species. \"Conquete\" is considered the handsomest of this group and is one of the largest-flowered of all Philadelphus. Other well known plants which are believed to belong here are \"Mer de Glace,\" \"Norma,\" \"Nuee Blanche,\" \"Rosace,\" \"Voie Lacte,\" and \"Perle Blanche.\" To another race of hybrids with double racemose flowers raised by Lemoine and of doubtful origin the name of P. virginalis has been given. The type of this group is his \"Virginal.\" Other plants referred to it are \"Argentine,\" \"Glacier,\" and \"Bouquet Blanc.\" The introduction of P. microphyllus into France, where it was sent by the Arboretum in 1877 or 1878, made possible in the hands of Lemoine the production of these races of beautiful plants which are among some of the important contributions to northern gardens during the last thirty years. The Philadelphus Collection is planted in the Shrub Collection and in a larger special group on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs. Zenobia pulverulenta is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection, and during the past week has been the most beautiful shrub probably in the Arboretum. Zenobia is related to the Andromedas and is chiefly distinguished by its open campanulate flowers and four-awned anthers. The leaves are thickly covered with a glaucous bloom, and the ivory white flowers, about half an inch long and broad, are borne on slender stems in axillary clusters forming long terminal racemes on the upper parts of the branches of the previous year. There is a form of this shrub (var. nitida) with leaves green on both surfaces. Zenobia is a southern genus with a single species. The green-leaved variety grows in countless thousands along the borders of the great swamp across the river from New Berne on the coast of North Carolina; the white-leaved form, which was found by William Bartram on the lower Cape Fear River in North Carolina, appears to be less common and apparently has not been collected in recent years. It is interesting that the two forms of this plant, which grow in a region which could not be expected to produce plants hardy in Massachusetts, are well established and flower every summer in the Arboretum. Helianthemum. A collection of the varieties of Helianthemum nummularium, better known perhaps as H. chamaecistus or H. vulgare, has been established in one of the borders on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and is flowering well this year. These are half evergreen or evergreen, low prostrate shrubs with leaves green on both surfaces, hairy or nearly glabrous, and from half an inch to an inch and a half in length, and flowers normally yellow but varying from rose pink, orange or white, and about an inch in diameter in many-flowered loose racemes. This species is a native of Europe, western Asia and northern Africa, and perhaps not as often cultivated as it should be in this country where low plants are needed to cover the ground among shrubs. The curious fact about it is that the flowers are only open before noon and close entirely in the afternoon. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum, with its orange yellow or reddish flowers which are not fragrant, has been perhaps the most brilliant plant in the Arboretum during the past two weeks. It is an inhabitant of mountain regions from southern New York to Georgia, and is extremely abundant on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. A large mass of this shrub has been planted on the lower slope of Bussey Hill on Azalea Path, and occasional specimens can be seen in border plantations along the roads. Rhododendron (Azalea) ameliense is a hybrid between R. calendulaceum and R. arborescens which appeared originally in the Arboretum probably in 1896 and is intermediate between its two parents, and promises to be a good garden plant with large, fragrant, pinkish or white flowers marked with a yellow blotch. It was mentioned without a name by Zabel in 1903 and later has been produced by artificial crossing of its parents at the Hunnewell estate in Wellesley. Rhododendron delicatissimum is a plant probably raised by Anthony Waterer at the Knaphill Nursery in England and has been known in this country since 1870. It is a hybrid undoubtedly with R. maximum as one of its parents, and possibly one of Waterer's Catawbiense hybrids as the other parent. It is perfectly hardy, blooms every year, and is now in full flower about two weeks later than Waterer's other Catawbiense Hybrids and earlier than his hybrid R. Wellesleyanum between R. maximum and R. catawbiense. The flowers of R. delicatissimum are slightly tinged with pink in the bud but become white or nearly white when fully expanded. This is perhaps one of the most beautiful and hardiest of all hybrid Rhododendrons which can be grown in this climate."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 26","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23812","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160856f.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 26, 1925 The Value of Native Shrubs for the decoration of American parks and gardens has we believe been demonstrated by the Arboretum and has never been more clearly shown than during the past month. The flowers of the late-flowering Viburnums have been conspicuous during the whole month of June. There are four of these species which deserve the attention of garden makers. The flowers of the earliest, Viburnum dentatum, have already passed. This shrub has handsome dark green leaves conspicuously toothed on the margins, and broad flat clusters of white flowers which are followed in early autumn by bright blue fruits on erect stems. This is a common roadside shrub in the northeastern part of the country. The second of these plants, V. cassinoides, has also flowered. It is a native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows nearly twenty feet high with slender, straggling stems; in cultivation it forms a broad, low, round-topped bush and has proved one of the handsomest of the Viburnums in the Arboretum. The leaves are thick and lustrous, varying greatly in size and shape; the flowers, which are slightly tinged with yellow and open in slightly convex clusters, vary greatly in size; the fruit is larger than that of some of the early-flowering American species, and at first yellow-green later becomes pink and finally black covered with a pale bloom, fruit of the three colors occurring in the early autumn in the same cluster. The third of these late Viburnums, V. pubescens, resembles in general appearance V. dentatum but flowers two weeks later and the young branchlets and lower surface of the leaves are thickly covered with a coat of stellate hairs. This Viburnum is found growing naturally only in the neighborhood of the coast from Cape Cod and Nantucket to New Jersey. A larger and handsomer plant, with showier flowers and larger later-ripening fruit, V. Canbyi is the fourth of these species. It is the last of all the Viburnums in the Arboretum to flower. There are specimens of this plant on the right hand side of the entrance to the Administration Building which are now ten or twelve feet high and as much in diameter and covered with flowers. This is the largest and handsomest of American Viburnums and by some botanists is considered a variety of V. pubsecens which it somewhat resembles, but the leaves and flower-clusters are larger and it blooms ten or twelve days later, and the flowers and fruits are larger. Its home, too, is not on the seacoast but in northern Delaware and the adjacent parts of Pennsylvania, and in central Indiana. This Viburnum reproduces itself from seeds and there is therefore no reason why it should remain so rare in gardens. Two other native plants, Cornus racemosa and Rosa virginiana, are in bloom and the pure pink flowers of the Rose harmonize so well with the cream white flowers of Cornus racemosa that these two plants can well be used together in natural planting. R. virginiana is confined to the northeastern seaboard region of the continent and in its best form is a tall shrub with lustrous leaves and pure pink flowers which now perfume the borders of the roads in some parts of the Arboretum. This Rose has been used successfully on the left hand side of the Valley Road in the border between the road and the gravel path and it is, with the exception perhaps of the Prairie Rose, the handsomest of the North American species, beautiful when in flower, in the autumn with its yellow leaves and handsome fruit, and in winter with its shining bright red fruit. Cornus rugosa, or C. circinata, the name by which it is best known, is a shrub sometimes ten feet high which with plenty of space spreads into a broad bush. The young branches are green blotched with purple, becoming purple as they grow older; the leaves are broad, sometimes nearly circular and dark bluish green; the flowers are ivory white, in compact clusters, and are followed in the early autumn by bright blue or nearly white fruits. It can be seen in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads, and there are masses of it among the Hickories in the groups of these trees which well show the value of this shrub in park planting where broad compact masses of foliage are needed. Cornus amomum, the Silky Cornel, which has been largely used in the Arboretum, is now covered with flowers. In cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless there is sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches, for when crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty. To be seen at its best this Cornel should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. There is no better shrub to plant by the margins of ponds and streams where its graceful branches can hang over the water. The purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruit which ripens in the autumn adds to the value of this native shrub. Its value for planting near water can be seen on the borders of the small ponds on the Meadow Road. Sambucus canadensis. As the flowers of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) fade those of the native Elder (Sambucus canadensis) open. This is the last of the native shrubs to make here a conspicuous show of flowers. There are great masses of it now in full bloom in the north meadow, and there are many individual plants along Bussey Brook which have grown from seeds sown by birds. Few native shrubs make a greater show than this Elder with its broad heads of white flowers and lustrous black fruits. There is in the Arboretum a form with leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutiloba), one with dull yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa) and a plant which originated a few years ago in a European nursery (var. maxima) with flower-clusters three times as large as those of the wild plant and such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches are hardly able to support them. The last of the Azaleas. As the yellow or flame-colored flowers of Rhododendron calendulaceum fade those of another Appalachian species, R. arborescens, begin to open. The deliciously fragrant flowers are white with bright red stamens and style and do not open until after the leaves have grown nearly to their full size. The home of this plant is on the Appalachian Mountains on which it is found from western Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, in the neighborhood of streams in the rich soil of sheltered valleys growing to the height of fifteen or twenty feet. On the Carolina Mountains it is often not more than three or four feet tall, forming at altitudes of about five thousand feet above the sea great thickets often acres in extent. Its value as a garden plant is not generally understood or appreciated. The flowers vary greatly in size and in the length and diameter of the corolla-tube, and although the corolla is pure white a form is now known in which the corolla is suffused with rose (var. Richardsonii), in another it is more or less striped with rose, in another tinged more or less deeply with yellow, and in another it is marked with a yellow blotch. All these forms are well worth a place in a collection of Azaleas, and it is possible that if seedlings were raised perhaps more varied and distinct forms might occur among them. There is a group of this Azalea on the Valley Road in front of the Hickory Group and another on the opposite side of this Road. A mass of the plant, too, has been planted on the western slope of Azalea Path. The last of the Azaleas, Rhododendron viscosum, begins to open its flowers a few days later than those of R. arborescens; they are white and more fragrant than those of other Azaleas, but smaller than those of R. arborescens with a long slender corolla-tube. There is also a form on which the flowers are tinged with rose-purple. The Clammy Azalea, or Honeysuckle, as it is called in the country, is an inhabitant of swamps and is common in the Cape region of Massachusetts and southward. In cultivation it grows as freely and flowers as abundantly on dry hillsides as it does in its native swamps, and masses of it on the lower side of Azalea Path are now covered with opening flower-buds. Crataegus phaenopyrum. The so-called Washington Thorn, a native of western North Carolina to southern Missouri, which is now in flower is the last of the Hawthorns to bloom in the Arboretum. It is a slen48 der tree growing under favorable conditions to a height of twenty-five or thirty feet. The leaves are nearly triangular in shape, not more than two inches long and an inch and a half wide, and are dull green, turning to bright scarlet in the autumn. The flowers are creamy white, smaller than those of most Hawthorns and arranged in small compact clusters. Few if any of the American species have less attractive flowers. The fruit, too, is small, barely more than half an inch in diameter, and the Washington Thorn owes its value as a garden plant to the brilliancy of the autumn foliage and to the abundance of the fruits long persistent on the branches. Hawthorns began to flower in the Arboretum before the first of May and they have been flowering here almost continuously ever since. In less than a month some of the species will begin to ripen their fruit and the fruit of others will still be on the branches in April. There are not therefore many weeks in the year when Hawthorns in this climate cannot furnish either flowers or fruit, and in cold countries like New England no other group of plants has such a long season of flowers except the Viburnums, and none of these retain their fruit into the winter. When in bloom some of the American Hawthorns are objects of great beauty, and only the fruit of some Crabapples is more conspicuous than that of the large-fruited species. As they grow naturally over a large part of eastern North America, although more sparingly in the west, there are few parts of this country or Canada where some of the species cannot be successfully grown. They all thrive in cultivation and respond to generous treatment with larger size, more treelike habit and handsomer foliage and fruit. Pentactina rupicola. This plant, the only representative of a genus of the Rose Family closely related to Spiraea, is now in flower again in the rockery connected with the propagating department of the Arboretum on Prince Street. Discovered in 1916 by a Japanese botanist among the Diamond Mountains in northern Korea, Wilson collected seeds which he sent to the Arboretum the following year. In speaking of the region where this plant grows Wilson says,- \"In all the East I know of no place more lovely and interesting than the Diamond Mountains. In the glens and ravines, on the cliffs and peaks, there are a great variety of plants, and several like Pentactina are not known to grow elsewhere.\" This monotypic genus grows on the steep slopes near the Makaean Monastery. It is a tufted plant with slender arching stems and alternate tufted leaves. The flowers are borne in terminal pyramidal panicles each from three to four inches in length. The individual flowers are small with a pale-colored calyx with reflexed lobes and narrow, spreading, strap-shaped petals; and the fruit is dry and surrounded by the persistent stamens which are reflexed. From Spiraea this genus may be distinguished by the shape of the petals and by the two-ovuled fruit opening along both sutures. This little shrub is a hardy and useful subject for a shady rockery but probably will not stand full exposure to the sun as its natural home is on the cliffs of well shaded ravines."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 2","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23807","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160af6b.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 2, 1925 Beech-trees. The deciduous-leaved Beech-trees, to which the name of Fagus is given, are confined to eastern North America, northern and central Europe, southwestern Asia, western China and Japan. Ten species are recognized. Several evergreen Beech-trees, now placed in the genus Nothofagus, grow on the high Andes of Chile and southward to the straits of Magellan, and in Australasia. Some of these southern species are established in English parks and gardens, but none of them will grow in the eastern United States, and it is doubtful if they have been tried in southern California where some at least may be expected to grow. Eight of the ten species of Fagus and several varieties are established in the Arboretum. Two species, F. multinervis, found only on Dagelet Island in the Japanese sea fifty miles from the coast of central Korea, and F. Hayatae, known only to grow on a mountain in the Head Hunters' country of Formosa, have never been cultivated. Wilson visited Dagelet in 1907 and collected small plants of F. multinervis which unfortunately died before they reached the Arboretum. One species, F. grandifolia, is confined to eastern North America where it is a common tree from eastern Canada to Florida and eastern Texas, and to Minnesota and Oklahoma. At the north it grows on uplands and mountain slopes, often forms pure forests of considerable extent, and is rarely more than seventy or eighty feet tall; at the south it is taller, and in the Mississippi valley in northern Louisiana and western Mississippi it is often a magnificent tree one hundred and twenty feet high with a tall trunk from three to four feet in diameter. At the north it differs from other species of Fagus in the habit of often producing stems from the roots. These often grow into small trees which form dense thickets round the parent trunk. The bark of all Beech-trees is smooth and pale, but that of the American tree is paler than that of the other species, and the pale blue bark of the stem and large branches make this one of the most beautiful of the inhabitants of the forests of eastern North America. It is a native tree in the Arboretum and there is a fine group planted on the western slope of Bussey Hill near the Valley Road. The oldest trees in this group were planted fifty years ago, and in it there is a specimen of the variety caroliniana, a southern form, which differs from the type in its thicker, more closely toothed leaves which remain on the branches nearly through the winter, and in the less crowded prickles on the fruit. This is a common tree on the bottom lands of southern streams and on the borders of swamps. Fagus sylvatica, the European species, is a large tree common except in the extreme north, and grows to its greatest perfection in England, Denmark, parts of Germany, and on the mountains of the Balkan peninsula, often forming pure forests and growing to the height of a hundred feet. It is a hardy and handsome tree in New England where it is perfectly at home, and grows faster and is handsomer than the American species. Unfortunately there is no record of the date of the introduction of this tree into the United States, but it was certainly more than one hundred years ago. The earliest American mention of F. sylvatica which the Arboretum has been able to find was in the nursery catalogue of William Prince of Flushing, New York, in 1820, in which this tree was offered. It is a remarkable and unaccountable fact that the green-leafed typical form of F. sylvatica has been so rarely planted in this country. It was not sent to John Bartram with other European trees from England, and there is no reason to believe that it was known to George Washington, a great lover and planter of trees; and the Arboretum has been unable to hear of any large or old specimens in the neighborhood of Philadelphia or New York. The finest specimens of this tree in New England are undoubtedly those planted by the late David Sears in one of the four squares in Longwood which he presented to the Town of Brookline. There are now fourteen of these trees growing on what is called Longwood Mall near the Sears' Church, which vary in girth of trunk from seven feet two inches to ten feet ten inches, with heads of wide-spreading branches sweeping the ground. Unfortunately no record has been found when these trees were planted; it was certainly before 1832, at the time of one of Mr. Sears' visits in Europe. Three or four of these trees are the purple-leafed variety and the rest are magnificent specimens of the typical green-leafed tree. These are the finest exotic trees which have been planted in Greater Boston, and probably form the finest grove of European Beeches in the United States. There was until a year ago a magnificent specimen of the green-leafed typical tree standing near the house of the late Marshall P. Wilder on Columbia Road in Dorchester. He moved into the house in 1832 and the tree was planted by Mr. Wilder or its previous owner, the Honorable Increase Sumner, at one time Governor of Massachusetts. This tree has now been cut down to make room for an apartment house which is to replace the Wilder mansion. There are four good trees of the green51 leaved form on the Sargent Estate in Brookline, one planted by the late Augustus P. Perkins when a boy on Warren Street, near the corner of Cottage Street, and three on Warren Street on what is generally known as the Head Place. The house on this land was purchased by Stephen H. Perkins in 1840 who probably planted the trees shortly afterwards, although his house was not taxed until 1844. The European Beech was first planted in the Arboretum in 1875, but the proper pruning of this tree was too long neglected. As it did not promise to become a fine specimen it has been removed during the past year and replaced by a small tree. There are a number of varieties of Fagus sylvatica established in the Arboretum. The best known of these is the so-called Purple Beech (var. purpurea) with dark reddish purple leaves. This tree was originally found growing naturally in the forest in three or four places in central Europe, and the first account of it was published as long ago as 1680. Seedlings of this form often have purple leaves, and such seedlings often differ in shades of color, and to some of these seedlings names have been given. The Purple Beech is better known and more generally planted in this country than the typical green-leafed form, and for many years has been a favorite with tree planters in the northeastern states. The Copper Beech (var. cuprea), which is probably a seedling of the Purple Beech, has paler red leaves than those of that tree. An interesting form of F. sylvatica (var. pendula) is a comparatively low tree with slightly pendulous branches from which hang almost vertically the secondary branches, the whole forming a tent-like head almost as broad as high. This interesting form of the European Beech has been occasionally planted in the United States. The largest specimen in this country known to the Arboretum is growing in Flushing, New York, on what was formerly a part of the Parsons Nursery. A picture of this tree can be found in Wilson's \"Romance of our Trees.\" Near it grows the finest specimen in America of the rare Chinese Golden Larch (Pseudolarix). These two trees have been in danger of destruction to make room for an apartment house, and it is good news that the city of Flushing has recently secured the land on which they are growing in order to preserve them. The Fern-leaf Beech (var. heterophylla) is distinguished by its variously shaped leaves, which on the same branch are long and narrow and more or less deeply lobed, pinnate or laciniate. Various names have been given to forms of this variety, but the variation is often so slight that it hardly seems worth while to distinguish them. The largest specimen of this tree in the United States grows on Bellevue Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island, on the grounds of the Redwood Library and Reading Room. Unfortunately it is not known when this tree was planted. Trees of this variety have been growing in the Arboretum since 1886. A form of the European Beech (var. cristata) with curled and twisted leaves, also obtained in England in 1886, is a slow-growing tree, only interesting as a curiosity and of no ornamental value. It is well established in the Arboretum, as is a dwarf form, a bush five or six feet high and ten or twelve feet in diameter, obtained as grafts from Kew in 1885 and doubtfully known in the Arboretum as var. remilliensis. More interesting is the variety fastigiata, on which all the branches grow erect and form a narrow pyramidal head, which promises to become a handsome and useful addition to the trees of this habit, like the fastigiate Red and Sugar Maples, the fastigiate European Oak, the fastigiate Tulip-tree, European Hornbeam, etc. The original fastigiate Beech is growing at Dawyck in Peeblesshire, Scotland, and is a recent addition to the Arboretum collection where it was first planted in 1913. A form of the European Beech of uncertain origin with small leaves and slightly drooping branches, for which the Arboretum has not found a name, grows on the Wilder Estate on Columbia Road, but unfortunately has been mutilated to make room for building purposes. A similar tree, rather smaller in size, is growing on the estate in North Easton of the late Oliver Ames, Governor of Massachusetts from 1886-1888, a great lover and planter of trees. Small grafted plants from the Wilder tree are growing in the Arboretum, and grafts have been sent to Europe. This tree seems to deserve further attention. Fagus orientalis, which is distributed from Asia Minor to northern Persia, differs chiefly from the European Beech in the lower prickles of the fruit which are changed into oblong linear lobes. Plants received from Europe have been growing in the Arboretum now for twelve years, and have proved perfectly hardy, growing rapidly, and promise to become handsome trees in this climate. It is too soon, however, to speak with entire confidence of their future. Chinese Beech-trees, so far as now known, do not occur north of the central provinces where three species have been found, Fagus longipetiolata, Fagus Engleriana and Fagus lucida. The first of these Wilson found to be the common Beech of central and western China where it grows with Oaks, Maples and other deciduous leafed trees. It is usually a small tree not more than fifty or sixty feet tall, but in western Szech'uan it is a stately and handsome tree with a single trunk rarely divided near the base, and covered with very pale gray bark. Fagus Engleriana is common on the high mountains of northwestern Hupeh and eastern Szech'uan where it often forms pure forests. Wilson noticed that the trunk of this tree always divides at the base into several divergent stems which do not attain much thickness or any great height, the tallest of which there is a record being not over seventy feet high. Fagus lucida is distinguished from the other Chinese species by the duller gray bark of the trunk which does not separate at the base, and by its thick and spreading branches which form a broad, flattened and somewhat rounded head. It is a tree sometimes seventy-five feet in height with a trunk three feet in diameter. This tree is common in some parts of Hupeh and Szech'uan in mixed woods. Young plants of these three Chinese Beeches, which were brought to the Arboretum in 1911, ha, been growing in the open ground since their arrival, and there is no reason to suppose they will not become permanent and handsome trees here. Japanese Beech-trees are better known in the Arboretum as Fagus Sieboldii, which was first raised here in 1893 from seed brought from Japan by Professor Sargent, and Fagus japonica which was raised here a few years later. The former is one of the great trees of Japan, often growing to the height of ninety feet and forming a trunk three feet in diameter."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 9","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23809","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160b76c.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 9. 1925 Linden Trees. Tilia, the name of the Linden, is one of the widely and generally distributed arborescent genera of the northern hemisphere. It is absent from western North America, and no Linden has yet been found in the forests of the Himalayas. Eastern North America with fifteen species is richer in Lindens than all the rest of the world, and in North America Lindens are found from New Brunswick westward to Lake Winnipeg, and southward to northern Florida and northeastern Mexico. To the two species which grow in Canada another is added in New York and Pennsylvania, and southward in the forests which cover the high slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and in those of the coast region of the Carolinas and Georgia the number increases. Lindens are common in all the Gulf States, and abound in eastern and southern Texas where five species and several varieties occur, and where Linden trees grow by the scanty streams and under the bluffs of the Edwards Plateau, a region in which they could hardly be expected to flourish. The ability of the southern species to grow permanently in New England is still to be demonstrated in the Arboretum, and only three northern and one southern Appalachian Lindens are established. These are Tilia glabra, often called T. americana, T. neglecta, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, and T. monticola. Tilia glabra is a splendid great tree in the forests of the north where it was once abundant, with individuals more than a hundred feet high with trunks from three to four feet in diameter. Such trees are no longer common for the wood of the northern Linden, usually known in commerce as white wood, has been in popular use for many years and a large number of trees have been cut. This Linden has been a good deal planted as a shade tree in New England but the leaves are too often disfigured, especially in dry summers, by the attacks of the red spider. T. neglecta, which finds its northern station in the neighborhood of Montreal, is not rare in the northern states and along the Appalachian Mountains. It is easily distinguished from T. glabra by the short persistent gray down on the lower surface of the leaves, that of the leaves of T. glabra being green and lustrous and destitute of hairs with the exception of those which form the large tufts in the axils of the principal veins. In the Arboretum it is growing rapidly and now gives every promise of success. The other northern Linden, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, is one of the several species with leaves covered below with a permanent coat of white tomentum. It is a common tree from Pennsylvania and western New York to southern Indiana and Illinois, Missouri and southward along the Appalachian Mountains. This handsome tree is growing well in the Arboretum and is well worth a place in collections of ornamental trees. It grows less rapidly, however, and is not as handsome as the other hardy American Linden, T. monticola. The flowers are larger than those of other Lindens and the leaves hanging on long slender stems, and swept by the slightest breeze as they turn their lower surface to the eye, make in contrast with the dark Hemlocks with which this Linden often grows one of the beautiful features of the splendid forests which still cover the slopes of the southern mountains. The studies of Linden-trees at the Arboretum have shown that the European species grow more rapidly and give every promise of being better trees in this climate than the American species. This is unusual, for of other trees of western Europe only the Beech and white Willow grow better here than their American relatives, and, with the exception of the Linden, all Asiatic trees are more at home in eastern North America than the trees of Europe. The five European species and several of their varieties are growing here in a satisfactory manner. Tilia platyphyllos, easily distinguished by the hairs which cover the lower surface of the yellow-green leaves and the young branches, is the first of the European species to bloom. It has long been cultivated in the eastern states and appears to be the common European Linden sold by American nurserymen, although as an ornamental tree it is the less desirable of the European species. T. cordata, distinguished by its small cordate leaves glaucous on the lower surface, is the last of the Lindens to flower. It is a beautiful tree which in Europe grows to a large size but is not often seen in this country. A better tree here than either Tilia platyphyllos or T. cordata, Tilia vulgaris is generally believed to be a natural hybrid of these species. The leaves are dull green on the upper surface and destitute of hairs with the exception of those in the axils of the veins below. This tree, which is not rare in the northern and middle states, is one of the best trees to shade the streets of northern cities. The largest and handsomest Linden-trees in the neighborhood of Boston are of this hybrid. The two Lindens of eastern Europe, Tilia tomentosa and T. petiolaris, are distinct and handsome trees with leaves silvery white on the lower surface, and can be easily and successfully grown in southern New England; the former, which is common in the forests of Hungary in this country forms a broad compact round-topped head with erect branches and large leaves erect on short stalks. Tilia petiolaris is a more beautiful tree with pendulous branches which form a narrow head, and leaves drooping on long slender stems. It has proved to be one of the handsomest exotic trees which can be planted in the eastern states. It is too soon to speak with much knowledge of the value of the Asiatic species as ornamental trees in this climate; most of them have been introduced here in recent years, the oldest Asiatic Linden now in the Arboretum, Tilia japonica, having been raised here from seeds only planted in 1893. A comparatively large tree in Japan, the Arboretum specimens are now from twenty to twenty-five feet high with gracefully drooping branches and open habit. The leaves unfold earlier in the spring than those of any other Linden in the collection, and are small, cordate at the base and pale on the lower surface like those of the small-leafed European Linden (T. cordata) to which the Japanese tree bears some resemblance. This Japanese tree has flowered for a number of years in the Arboretum and the flowers are large, bright yellow, and, like those of other Lindens, very fragrant. For its flowers, which appear when few trees bloom in this climate and are beautiful and conspicuous, it deserves to be more generally planted. An Asiatic Linden which reached the Arboretum in 1882 was the north China Tilia mongolica. This is a small tree, at least in this country, with small, nearly triangular, lustrous leaves. It begins to flower and produce fertile seeds at the end of a few years. It has proved short-lived here and the original tree soon disappeared. All the other Asiatic species are or have been in the collection at different times; they are all hardy enough, but at best grow slowly and appear to lack vigor of constitution. Of the species lately introduced Tilia Oliveri now appears the most promising. One of the handsomest Linden-trees in the Arboretum collection, Tilia spectabilis is believed to be a hybrid of T. glabra and T. petiolaris. It is a fast-growing tree with leaves as large or larger than those of its American parent but silvery white on the lower surface like those of T. petiolaris. What is believed to be a variety of this hybrid (var. Moltkei) originated many years ago at the Spaeth Nursery in Berlin. It is a tree of denser habit and greener leaves than T. spectabilis, and in the Arboretum it is a handsomer and faster growing tree than the original species. Maackia. Two species of this genus of the Pea Family have been in flower during the last days of June. The better known of these species, Maackia amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia; it is a small tree with a slender trunk, with smooth, lustrous, red-brown bark, small erect and spreading branches which form a rather flat-topped obconic head, and long, erect, narrow terminal spikes of small white flowers. Botanically and geographically interesting, the chief value of this Maackia from a garden point of view is found in the fact that its flowers open at a time when flowers can only be seen here on a few trees. A second species, M. chinensis, discovered by Wilson in central China, is covered with pale yellow flowers in rather shorter spikes than those of the Siberian tree. In early spring the silver gray hairs which thickly cover the unfolding leaves make this little tree conspicuous and interesting. The bark of M. chinensis is dull grayish green and less beautiful than that of the Siberian tree. Rosa setigera, the so-called Prairie Rose, is the last of the American species to flower with the exception of R. stellata which will continue to open its flowers through the summer. No Rose is more beautiful than this inhabitant of the western states where it grows from Michigan to Texas; it is a free-flowering and perfectly hardy plant with tall arching stems, ample, bright-colored foliage and broad clusters of pink flowers. It can be trained over an arbor or against a building, but looks best when it is allowed to grow without any training whatever. The typical form is quite glabrous and appears to be less common than the variety tomentosa. Of the latter there is a mass on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road in front of the Cherries in which the plants are now covered with expanding flowers. Rosa multibracteata, the last of the Roses discovered by Wilson in western China, is now covered on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with its clusters of small flowers, the clear pale pink petals being deeply notched at the apex. Vigorous shoots of this Rose are thickly covered with bright red prickles and greatly add to its beauty at this season of the year and in winter. It does not always bloom as freely as it is blooming this summer, and during the severe winter of 1917-18 with several other of the Chinese Roses the Arboretum plants were killed to the ground. Rhododendron maximum. There are three hybrids of this species which are good garden plants. The type of these hybrids must be considered Rhododendron delicatissimum, raised many years ago in England, the other parent being probably one of the white-flowered hybrids of R. catawbiense. A handsomer plant which was raised by Anthony Waterer at Knaphill several years ago and called by him R. Wellesleyanum, is apparently a rare plant and not in the Arboretum collection. There is a fine plant at Wellesley on the Hunnewell estate and four plants at Holm Lea. The flowers, which appear about a week earlier than those of R. maximum, are pure white with a large yellow blotch at the base of the corolla. Another hybrid which was raised several years ago by Charles Sander at Holm Lea in Brookline is not yet in the Arboretum and is still unnamed. It is a handsome, hardy plant with pure pink flowers, and was obtained by crossing R. maximum with one of the hybrids of R. catawbiense the name of which unfortunately is not known. The form of R. maximum with rose-colored flowers is a rare and beautiful addition to New England Rhododendron collections where unfortunately it is still rare. There is a large plant in the Hunnewell collection and it is also in the Boston park which was formerly the garden of Francis Parkman where it was planted by him. It blooms about the same time as R. maximum, and has the same habit of sending out its new shoots with or before the opening of the flowers. It has been received at the Arboretum from Connecticut as var. superbum. There is no indication in this herbarium that it is anywhere a wild plant."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 15","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23806","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160ab6a.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 15, 1925 Plants of wide distribution. An herbarium which will show the distribution and forms of woody plants is an essential and perhaps the most important part of an establishment in which it is the purpose and duty to grow every specimen of tree or shrub which can be grown in the climate of eastern Massachusetts. It has already been found that several plants raised from seeds collected from one part of their range have proved hardy here and that those from other parts cannot support the Massachusetts climate. For example, the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga) from the Pacific states is not hardy, but the same tree from the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, where it was discovered in 1862, has proved one of the most valuable conifers which can be grown in the eastern states. One of the handsomest of the Fir-trees, Abies concolor, grows on the Sierra Nevada of California and on the Rocky Mountains of southern Colorado. Both forms are in the Arboretum but the Colorado tree is much more vigorous and beautiful than the California form, and is now the handsomest Fir-tree in the Arboretum. The greatest of all Hemlock-trees (Tsuga heterophylla), often growing near the coast in Washington and Oregon to the height of two hundred feet, ranges inland through northern Idaho to Montana. Unfortunately plants from Montana have not yet been tested in the Arboretum, but two seedling plants gathered by Professor Jack at Glacier in eastern British Columbia have been growing here since 1904. Cupressus is an important genus of Conifers confined to western North America, Mexico, southeastern Europe, southwestern Asia, the Himalayas and China; one species, Cupressus Macnabiana, finds its northern home on the mountains of southern Oregon on which it ascends to altitudes of nearly fifty-three hundred feet. Seeds gathered here in 1907 have produced plants which have grown well here up to this time and make an important addition to the Arboretum collection. One of the most important discoveries of the Arboretum is the fact that the Cedar of Lebanon can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. For centuries it was believed that this tree grew naturally only on Mt. Lebanon in Palestine and all the trees in cultivation were raised from seeds gathered on the Lebanon or from the trees grown from these seeds in England or France that grew in those countries to great size and beauty. The trees from Palestine were never hardy in New England, or really healthy in any part of the eastern states. A comparatively few years ago it was discovered that the Cedar of Lebanon formed forests on the Anti-taurus Mountains in Asia Minor about five hundred miles north and in a much colder region than the Lebanon. In 1901 the Arboretum sent a collector from Smyrna to the Anti-taurus to collect seeds of this tree. He succeeded in making a large collection which was distributed in the United States and in Europe. The seeds planted in the Arboretum grew well but the trees have grown irregularly in size; the tallest are now more than thirty feet high and among them are beautiful specimens. These trees can probably be considered perfectly hardy. During one exceptionally severe winter the leaves of a few of them were all killed but they were soon replaced by a new crop of leaves. It is probable that the Arboretum can be greatly improved by the study and introduction of the geographical forms of many of the trees of the Old World, particularly of Europe and central China. The deciduous- leaved Oaks and the common Ash of western Europe grow here but never make fine trees, and are usually unsatisfactory and short-lived. Trees of these species have usually come to the United States from English nurseries and undoubtedly were raised from English-grown seeds. This is also true of the so-called Norway Spruce (Picea Abies) and the Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris). These trees are widely distributed, and it is necessary to know more here of the limits of their distribution by the aid of a larger herbarium than the Arboretum now possesses of northern and western Europe, Siberia and the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains. Many of the trees of the valley of the Yangtse River in central China, which are growing well in Europe, have not proved hardy in the Arboretum, and it is desirable to follow their range north in order to obtain if possible hardier forms of these trees. This it is hoped may be in part accomplished at least by the Arboretum's present expedition into northern Tibet and extreme northwestern China under the experienced leadership of Mr. J. F. Rock who is exploring a region into which no botanist has before penetrated. In some of the remote valleys of Persia and the eastern Himalayas plants should be looked for which will flourish in the Arboretum, and the exploration of such regions under intelligent botanical leadership is bound to be useful to this country, just as the exploration of the flora of every part of Japan and of central western China has enriched the forests, parks and gardens of the world. The making of an herbarium covering the trees of the world and showing their distribution is the work which should now occupy the chief attention of the Arboretum. It should not be long delayed for many species of trees are bound to disappear as the earth's surface is cleared for the cultivation of food-crops for the human race, and especially the production of rubber to meet the demands which are made on it by the increased and rapidly increasing number of automobiles now in use. Such a world-wide exploration will require many years to accomplish, possibly a century, and will cost a great deal of money. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree is just beginning to open its yellow flowers which are perhaps the most conspicuous of those of any of the summer-flowering trees which are hardy in this climate. It is a round-headed tree rarely more than thirty feet high, with large, compound, dark green leaves and large erect clusters of golden yellow flowers which are followed by great clusters of bladder-like fruits. This tree, which is hardy in Massachusetts, has been a good deal planted in this country, especially in the gardens of the middle states. In American nursery catalogues it often appears under the name of \"Japanese Lacquer-tree,\" although it is not a native of Japan and has not lacquer-producing sap. The Sorrel-tree (Oxydendrum arboreum). This tree is the only representative of a genus of the Heath Family and one of the few genera of eastern American trees which is not represented in eastern Asia. The Sorrel-tree is a common tree of the forests of the Appalachian Mountains from southwestern Pennsylvania southward. It grows also but less abundantly from southern Ohio and Indiana to northern Florida, southern Alabama and Mississippi, and in eastern Louisiana. Growing under the most favorable conditions the Oxydendrum is a tree from fifty to sixty feet in height with a tall straight trunk sometimes twenty inches in diameter. The leaves are dark green, very lustrous and seven or eight inches long, and their bright color in the autumn is not surpassed by any other American tree; they are pleasantly acidulous, a character to which the tree owes its vernacular name. The flowers, which are shaped like those of an Andromeda, are erect on the branches of spreading or drooping clusters, and these are followed by pale capsular fruits which are conspicuous in contrast with the brilliant autumn foliage. Here at the north the Sorrel-tree begins to flower when only five or six feet high, and it is not probable that it will ever grow here to the size this tree attains on the lower slopes of the high southern mountains where many of the trees of eastern North America grow to their greatest size. There is a group of these trees among the Laurels (Kalmia) at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. Cornus asperifolia. This Cornel flowers a week or ten days later than the Silky Cornel and is still covered with its small cream-colored flowers in loose, broad or narrow, often panicled pubescent cymes, the peduncles an inch in length; these are followed by red-stemmed clusters of subglobose white fruit tipped with the remnants of the style and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. This is a widely distributed plant from southwestern Ontario southward to Ohio, Kentucky, Tennessee and Mississippi to western Florida, and westward to southeastern South Dakota, southeastern Nebraska, central Kansas, northwestern Oklahoma and western Texas. It is the tallest here of the American Cornels, with the exception of Cornus florida, often growing to the height of twenty feet and forming a broad shrub with erect and slightly spreading branches. Southward, especially on the rich bottom-lands of southern Arkansas and eastern Texas, it becomes a tree sometimes fifty feet high with a short trunk eight to ten inches in diameter. There are large specimens in the Arboretum among the other Cornels near the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads and near the South Street Gate to Peter's Hill. Tripterygium Regelii. Climbing plants with handsome foliage and conspicuous inflorescence which are hardy in New England are not numerous, and Mr. Jack's introduction several years ago from Korea of this vine made an important addition to the number. It is a near relative of the Bitter Sweet (Celastrus) and a native of Japan and Korea where it rambles over rocks and bushes, and often climbs with stems fifty and sixty feet long into the tops of trees. It has long-pointed dark green leaves often six inches in length, and small white flowers in terminal open clusters ten or twelve inches long which are followed by showy three-lobed and three-winged fruits from half an inch to an inch in length. By pinching the young shoots this vine can be grown as a shrub. As a vine it is growing on the trellis at the eastern end of the Shrub Collection, and there is a fine plant grown as a shrub and covered with flowers on the Centre Street Walk. Periploca sepium. This is another handsome twining plant which Mr. Jack brought to the Arboretum from Korea. It is growing on a trellis near the Tripterygium, and is a plant with slender stems, pointed, dark green, very lustrous leaves about three and a half inches in length and not much more than half an inch in width, and small flowers in few-flowered clusters which are not showy but are pleasantly fragrant. Unfortunately the Arboretum plant has not yet produced its slender pod-like fruits, but as the plant sends up numerous root-suckers it might easily be propagated and become common in gardens. Much better known is Periploca graeca from southern Europe and western Asia which has not yet proved hardy in the Arboretum. Fruits in the Arboretum. The Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica) has been covered during the past week or ten days with its showy red or yellow fruits, and open the season of ripe fruits of many hardy trees and shrubs which are often more beautiful than when in flower. The climate of this part of the world is suited for the abundant production and the high color of the fruits of the trees and shrubs of northeastern Asia; and European plant lovers who come to the Arboretum in summer and autumn are always astonished and delighted with the abundance and beauty of the fruits they find here. On the Red and White Maples the fruit ripens in May, and until the first of November there will be a succession here of ripening fruits. The fruits of a few trees and shrubs will remain on the branches and keep much of their brilliancy until April, and there is therefore only a few weeks during the year when one cannot find showy fruits in the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 22","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23808","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160b36c.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 22, 1925 Summer-flowering Trees. A few trees flower in summer here and add to the interest of the Arboretum at a season of the year when there are comparatively few flowers or ripe fruits to be seen. Among these are: Sophora japonica, which is growing on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, and is now covered with flower-buds which will open in the course of the next two weeks. This is a Chinese tree, in spite of its name, which has been cultivated in Japan for more than a thousand years but which as it first reached Europe from Japan was supposed to be a native of that country. The bark of the young branches and the leaves are dark green, and the small, white, pea-shaped flowers are produced in narrow, erect terminal clusters. This tree has a trunk covered with a rough pale bark and the old trees in the squares of Peking, where it has been largely planted, look in the distance like great Oak-trees. There are in the Arboretum collection in addition to the type the form with long pendulous branches (var. pendula), a favorite with those who fancy trees of abnormal growth although it rarely ever flowers, the form with erect branches (var. pyramidalis), and the form (var. rosea) on which the flowers are slightly tinged with rose color. Evodias are small summer-flowering trees of the Rue Family widely distributed in eastern Asia, and found also in Madagascar and Australia. The species have pinnate leaves, white or pinkish flowers in small clusters terminal on the shoots of the year, and dry, capsular fruit. Like the Phellodendron, to which Evodia is related, they are protected from the attacks of insects by the pungent aromatic oil with which the leaves abound. The genus has been growing in the Arboretum since 1905 when Professor Jack brought from Korea the seeds of Evodia Daniellii. This handsome tree has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum. Evodia hupehensis and E. Henryi, common inhabitants of the forests of western China, are also growing in the Arboretum; the former is a larger tree than the other Chinese species and flowers here abundantly. Rhus javanica is an eastern Asiatic Sumach which is perhaps better known as R. Osbeckii or B. semialata. It is one of the handsomest ' trees which flower in New England in August. Here, however, it is rarely twenty feet high with spreading branches which form a broad round-topped head of handsome light green pinnate leaves with a broad-winged petiole and rachis. The flowers are white in erect, long-branched, terminal clusters ten or twelve inches in length and stand well above the leaves. The fruit is globose, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, red and arranged in compact clusters. The leaves of few trees or shrubs turn in the autumn to a more brilliant scarlet. For its conspicuous inflorescence and the splendor of its autumn foliage this Sumach should more often find a place in our northern gardens. To the Aralia Family the Arboretum is indebted for three handsome trees which flower in early summer or in autumn; these are Acanthopanax ricinifolium, Aralia spinosa and A. chinensis. Acanthopanax ricinifolium is a tree which is common in the forests of northern Japan and Korea where it is often seventy or eighty feet high with a massive trunk and great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with many stout prickles. The leaves hang on long stalks and are nearly circular, five- or seven-lobed and often fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter. The flowers are small, white and produced in compact, long-stalked clusters which form a flat, compound, terminal panicle from twelve to eighteen inches across and are followed in late autumn by shining black fruits which remain on the branches until after the beginning of winter. This tree is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing now for more than thirty years and flowers and ripens its seeds here every year. This tree can be seen on the right hand side of the Meadow Road close to the banks of the little pond near the junction with the Bussey Hill Road. Aralia spinosa, the so-called Hercules Club of the southern United States, where it is a common inhabitant of the borders of woods and the banks of streams, is a tree often thirty feet in height with a tall trunk and wide-spreading branches covered with stout orange-colored prickles. The leaves are borne at the ends of the branches and are long-stalked, twice pinnate and from three to four feet in length and two and a half feet in width. The small white flowers are arranged in compound clusters which rise singly or two or three together above the leaves and are three or four feet in length. The fruit is black, rather less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, and ripens in early autumn. This Aralia is now well established on the slope at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurel plantation, and is spreading rapidly there over a considerable area by shoots and underground stems. Aralia chinensis resembles in habit and general appearance the American Hercules' Club but is distinguished from that tree in the absence of stalks to the leaflets. There are a number of geographical forms of this tree; the one which is most commonly cultivated in this country is a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandshurica~, often found under the name of Dimorphanthus mandshuricus. The Japanese form (var. glabrescens) is chiefly distinguished from it by the pale color of the under surface of the leaflets; it is less hardy than the Manchurian form and is not often seen in this country. These trees are growing near the Acanthopanax. Summer-flowering Shrubs. Many shrubs with conspicuous flowers bloom in the Arboretum during the summer months. The list includes the Heathers (Calluna vulgaris) and several species of Genista and Cytisus. Of this European group the handsomest which can be grown here is the bright yellow-flowered Cytisus nigricans, the yellow-flowered C. capitatus, the white-flowered C. leucanthus and the yellow-flowered Woad Wax (Genista tinctoria) and its varieties, too well known in Essex County, Massachusetts, where escaped from cultivation it has ruined many hundred acres of hillside pastures. The Lespedezas with their abundant, purple, pea-shaped flowers, and the handsomest of the Chinese Buddleias are still in bloom, as is the hardy Acanthopanax sessiliflorum, a vigorous shrub of eastern Siberia, most conspicuous in winter when the compact round clusters of the shining black fruits are on the ends of the branches. The Japanese Hydrangea paniculata and its varieties, and the Hydrangeas of North America produce here the showiest July and August flowers. The early-flowered form of H. paniculata (var. praecox), a large and vigorous shrub and the handsomest of the group, was conspicuous in middle of July. The most popular of these shrubs is the form of H. arborescens (var. grandiflora) with snowball-like heads of sterile flowers which will bloom later. There is a similar abnormal form of the American species, H. cinerea, which is an attractive plant. More beautiful and one of the handsomest of the genus, H. quercifolia, a native of the southern states, has been blooming more freely this year than ever before. An important and valued garden ornament in the middle and southern states, it is sometimes killed to the ground here in cold winters. Aesculus parviflora. The only truly shrubby species and the last of the Buckeyes to flower is covered with its tall narrow spikes of small, slender white flowers and is perhaps the most conspicuous of the summer- flowering shrubs hardy in the Arboretum, with the exception of some of the Hydrangeas. A native of the southern states from South Carolina to Alabama and nowhere abundant, it appears to be most common in Alabama. It is perfectly hardy, however, in Massachusetts and has long been a favorite in gardens in which it produces stems seven or eight feet high, and in good soil and with sufficient room spreads into great thickets often twenty or thirty feet across. Indigoferas. Five species of this genus of the Pea Family are now flowering in the Arboretum. They are small plants with handsome flowers in terminal racemes, well suited to decorate a garden border. The species with pink flowers, L Kirilowii, a native of northern China, Manchuria and Korea, I. Potaninii and 1. amblyantha are perfectly hardy, and the last will continue to open its small flowers on the lengthening racemes until October. The other species, L Gerardiana and L decora, are killed to the ground here every winter, but like herbaceous plants produce new stems in the spring which never fail to flower during the summer. 1. decora is a native of southern China, and in the Arboretum the flowers are pure white and very beautiful. 1. Gerardiana is a native of the northwestern Himalayas and has gray-green foliage and rose-purple flowers. This is the least beautiful of the five species now growing in the Arboretum. The Japanese Clethra (C. barbinervis) flowers about two weeks earlier than the native C. alnifolia. The Japanese species is the larger plant of the two and in Massachusetts has grown ten or fifteen feet high and is nearly as much through. The foliage is of a lighter green than that of the American plant; the flowers are less crowded in the racemes, and lack the perfume which makes C. alnifolia one of the most delightful of summer-flowering shrubs. In the Arboretum the Japanese Clethra has escaped the attacks of the red spiders which often disfigure those of C. alnifolia. Calluna. Few Americans appear to realize that the Calluna, or Scotch Heather as it is usually called, can be successfully grown in nearly all parts of the northern states and eastern Canada where the soil is not impregnated with lime. In one or two places in northern Massachusetts and in Nova Scotia it has become completely naturalized, and on one New England estate where it was planted only a few years ago it is spreading rapidly over large areas. Heather should be planted in well drained sandy soil in situations fully exposed to the sun, and the plants look better and flower better if the stems are cut down close to the ground in early spring. This prevents a straggling growth and insures a better bloom. There are a number of handsome and interesting varieties in the Arboretum collection. Some of the best of them are var. alba with white flowers, var. alba minor, a plant of dwarfer habit than the last, var. rubra, a dwarf compact variety with crimson flowers and the earliest to bloom, var. tomentosa, a compact plant with gray-green foliage and red flowers, the white-flowered varieties alba tenella and alba rigida, and var. Alportii, a tall-growing form with crimson flowers. These plants can be seen in the Shrub Collection and are not exceeded in interest by any of the summer-flowering shrubs in the Arboretum. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 29","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23821","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170bb6d.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 29, 1925 Autumn Foliage. Although the leaves of several trees which assume brilliant autumn colors have been injured by severe winds, rain, and even by an unseasonable snow storm, and have fallen prematurely this autumn, like those of the Red Maple (Acer rubrum), the Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum), the Kentucky Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus), many of the Cherry and Plum-trees, the Sassafras, most of the Poplars, Phellodendron amurense, Cercidiphyllum japonicum, the Walnuts and some of the Hickories, there is now probably more brilliant color in the Arboretum than there has been earlier or than there will be later, for the leaves on many of the Oaks, of which the forests and many plantations in eastern Massachusetts are largely composed, the American Beech-trees, the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron), a few Maples, the Hornbeams (Carpinus), Hop Hornbeam (Ostrya), and of the Sorrel-tree (Oxydendrum), are still brilliant in color. The autumn leaves of the Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea), the White Oak (Quercus alba), of a dwarf Oak (Quercus ilicifolia), and of the Red Oak (Quercus borealis maxima) make the greatest show in the Arboretum. Those of the Scarlet Oak are the deepest red or scarlet of any of the American Oak-trees. This tree is not a native of the Arboretum and is not common in the neighborhood of Boston, but a little further south and generally in the Cape region it is a common tree. There are not, unfortunately, many specimens in the Arboretum, and the best of them are among the trees on the lower side of the road near the top of Peter's Hill. The Scarlet Oak deserves to be better known to the planters of trees and to be more generally used by them. Nurserymen too often sell the Pin Oak (Quercus palustris), an inferior tree in the color of its autumn foliage, when the Scarlet Oak is ordered. The leaves of the White Oak turn late to various shades of red, and are brilliant in favorable seasons during at least two or three weeks. The great beauty at this season of the year of Quercus ilicifolia, which is usually a tall shrub rather than a tree, is that with its bright lustrous leaves it often thickly covers sandy barrens and rocky hillsides near the coast from southern Maine southward, and is especially abundant on Cape Cod and its islands in situations where few other trees can grow. It grows well in the Arboretum and can be seen to advantage on the left hand side of the Valley Road beyond the group of native Swamp White Oaks (Quercus bicolor). The lustrous leaves of the Red Oak (Quercus borealis maxima) turn late to various shades of brown or red and retain their beauty for a long time. This large and fast-growing tree is the Oak which has been chiefly planted along the Boston and Brookline parkways and in the Boston parks, and has generally grown better in western and northern Europe than other American Oaks. On Peter's Hill, among the trees on the lower side of the road below the summit is an Oak tree which is not surpassed in the brilliant red color of its autumn foliage. Nothing is known of the origin or history of this tree which for years has been considered a Quercus bicolor with abnormally colored leaves. This year for the first time this tree has produced a few acorns, and these suggest that this handsome tree may be Quercus Prinus of Linnaeus, the so-called Basket or Cow Oak, a white Oak of the middle and middle western states. Nothing is known here of the autumn coloring of this tree, but if this guess as to the identity of the tree is correct it is curiously enough the only living representative in the Arboretum of one of the largest and handsomest of the Oak trees of eastern North America. Cornus florida, the Flowering Dogwood of the eastern United States, more abundant southward than in Massachusetts where its flowers are sometimes injured by the cold of severe winters, has few equals among small trees for the autumn decoration of our parks and gardens. Its autumn beauty is increased by the contrast of the crimson, scarlet and green colors of the upper surface of the leaves with that of the lower surface which retains until the leaves fall the pale nearly white color of the summer. It is one of the plants on which the leaves turn early and retain their brilliant color during October, or for a longer period perhaps than any plant in the Arboretum with such early turning leaves. In regions with a winter climate as severe as that of eastern Massachusetts the eastern Asiatic relative (Cornus kousa) of our Flowering Dogwood is a more reliable plant. It is a smaller tree but the leaves turn brilliantly in the autumn, and the flower-buds are not killed or injured by the severe cold of our winters, and open from two to three weeks later; the floral bracts are narrower, further apart and pointed, not broad and rounded, at the apex like those of the American tree. The fruit is even handsomer for the individual fruits are united into a globose scarlet head which is raised on a long, slender erect stem and are not, like those of the American plant, in clusters of separate fruits. The form discovered and introduced by Wilson from western China (Cornus kousa var. chinensis) promises to be even a better plant in this climate than the Japanese form and appears to be equally hardy, and the floral bracts are larger and overlap below the middle, forming a cup like those of the American species. Zelkova serrata, the Japanese Keaki. The leaves of this tree, which are brown more or less tinged with yellow, make it conspicuous at this season of the year and remind us how little this valuable tree is known in the United States. The oldest tree in this country known to the Arboretum is growing on the estate of Mr. Henry Everett in Barnstable, Massachusetts. The seeds which produced it were brought from Japan in 1862 by John Wilson who gave them to Captain Hinckley. Only one plant was raised from these seeds. Fifteen years ago it was a broad-headed tree with a short stout trunk divided into several large spreading stems. A little later- seeds of the Keaki were sent to the Parsons Nursery at Flushing either by Dr. Hall or by Mr. Thomas Hogg, and the best trees known to the Arboretum are in Dr. Hall's plantation at Bristol, Rhode Island. The largest of these trees are now fully seventy feet high with tall stems from two to two and a half feet in diameter. For years they have produced large crops of seeds, and quantities of seedlings spring up under the trees and at long distances from them, the seeds being widely scattered by wind. A specimen with a clean trunk and shapely head which had been planted by the roadside in Warren, near Bristol, fifteen years ago indicated that the Japanese Zelkova might be successfully used as a street or roadside tree. It is as a timber tree, however, that this tree deserves the attention of Americans. It is the most important hardwood tree of Japan and Korea. The wood is tough, elastic and durable in the ground, and when exposed to the air it is considered the best wood for building in the Empire, and furnishes the great round columns which support the roofs of Japanese temples. It is universally used in Japan for making jinrikishas, and quantities of the wood are sent from Korea into China for this purpose. It is the Keaki alone which has made the jinrikisha possible, just as the Hickory tree has made possible in this country the light wagon and the trotting horse. Great specimens of this tree can be seen in Japanese temple gardens and by the village roadsides. It is doubtful if this really noble tree, which is hardy and has grown rapidly in the Arboretum, can be found in any American nursery. The Arboretum at this season of the year owes much to the highly colored leaves of the fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis), or as it was formerly called R. aromatica. This widely distributed North American shrub seldom grows more than five feet tall, and when planted in good soil is often broader than tall with lower branches spreading flat on the ground and upper branches erect, spreading or drooping. In early spring before the leaves appear the branches are covered with clusters of small bright yellow flowers which in June are followed by dull red fruits which are mostly hidden by the small compound leaves. Among the small shrubs in the Arboretum few are more brilliant at this season of the year for the leaves turn gradually to bright scarlet and orange. It has been largely planted along some of the drives as a border for larger plants, and no plant which has been tried in the Arboretum for this purpose has proved so successful. It is a remarkable fact that this beautiful and useful shrub is not found in American Nurseries. No shrubs are more brilliant in their red or crimson coloring at this season of the year than the Blueberries and Huckleberries of eastern North America. None certainly are more beautiful than the Highbush Blueberry so called (Vaccinium corymbosum) and its variety pallidum. These plants, too, are handsome in early spring when their white bell-shaped flowers open, and in August and September when the blue-black fruit covers the branches. A native of swamps, the Highbush Blueberry grows equally well in gravelly ground, and the best plants in the Arboretum are on Bussey Hill near the entrance to Azalea Path and opposite the overlook. The autumn color of the other Blueberries and Huckleberries is as brilliant as that of the Highbush Blueberry, and some of them, especially Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, are invaluable for covering the ground under Oaks and other hardwood trees. The white flowers are attractive; the bluish black berries, which are the earliest Blueberries to ripen, have a fair flavor, and during the autumn the plants make a broad mass of scarlet when only a few inches high and are more brilliant in color than those of the Heather on the Highlands of Scotland. The Japanese Vaccinium ciliatum, an upright growing shrub, is also covered now with bright red leaves. There is a group of these plants in the Shrub Collection, but they are seen to their best advantage on both sides of Azalea Path where nearly all the species are growing. Many of the Viburnums are still brilliant, the most beautiful perhaps is the American V. prunifolium and V. Lentago which often grow to the size of small trees, V. dentatum and V. scabrellum, the Korean V. Carlesii and the two red-fruited Japanese species V. Wrightii and V. dilatatum. It is interesting that the leaves of V. Canbyi, sometimes considered a variety of V. venosum, are still perfectly green. This native of eastern Pennsylvania, Delaware and central Indiana, is the last of the American species to flower and the leaves are still perfectly green. Specimens from twelve to fourteen feet high and broad can be seen in the Arboretum near the Administration Building and by the border of the Meadow Road. Of leaves which turn yellow in the autumn and are still brilliant and conspicuous are those of the winter-flowering Witch Hazel (Hamamelis vernalis), a native of southern Missouri and adjacent regions. This shrub deserves a place in gardens for its flowers which open in January and February, and for the beauty of its late persistent leaves. The leaves of the Elm trees when they turn at all m the autumn usually turn to shades of dull yellow. There is a remarkable exception in Ulmus parvifolia, a native of the Yangtse valley in China with an outlying station in southern Japan. Plants of this tree were sent in 1909 by Wilson from China to the Arboretum. They have grown well here and are perfectly hardy, and the autumn leaves of most of the trees are bright clear yellow, but on two of the trees the leaves are bright red. This tree is certainly an exception in its autumn leaves to all the Elm trees known to the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 9","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23820","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd170b76c.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 18 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 9, 1925 Plants green in the late autumn. The beauty of the autumn foliage is increased by the fact that the leaves of few plants remain green late in the season without change of color and make a beautiful contrast with highly colored plants like the Oaks and Maples, the leaves of which turn so brilliantly to shades of yellow and red before falling. The most conspicuous of these trees is the European Salix vitellina, often erroneously called Salix alba, and the well known weeping Salix babylonica, called Napoleon's Willow because cuttings are supposed to have been brought from Napoleon's tomb at St. Helena. A fast growing Willow of eastern Asia, Salix Matsudana, which is a large and common tree in the streets of Peking, has grown rapidly in the Arboretum where it promises to become a large tree and where it holds its leaves as late as the European species. More beautiful is our Sweet Bay or Swamp Bay, Magnolia virginiana (glauca) which is one of the most beautiful trees of eastern North America, but unfortunately at the north is sometimes only a shrub and rarely more than twenty to thirty feet high. The leaves, which are covered when they unfold with long white silky hairs, are bright green, lustrous and glabrous above and nearly white below, and without change of color do not fall in Massachusetts until late in November or in early winter, and few American trees have more fragrant creamy white flowers opening during several weeks in the spring and early summer. The northern station of this tree was in Essex County, Massachusetts, in swamps of -what is now the town of Magnolia, and it ranges southward usually in the neighborhood of the coast to the southeastern states where it often grows ninety feet high, differing from the northern tree in the thick silky white pubescence on the pedicels and branchlets. The common Oak of western Europe, Quercus robur, and its variety pedunculata, also retain their leaves until late in the autumn without change of color. There are many varieties of these trees, including fastigiate and pendulous forms, but they are all short-lived in the eastern states and do not promise to become as large and important trees as they are in Europe. A few shrubs also retain their leaves until the beginning of winter without change of color. The best known of these is the European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, which retains its dark green leaves well into the winter and is perhaps the handsomest of all black-fruited shrubs in the Arboretum. During the first half of the nineteenth century it was a common garden plant in the northern United States where it was much used for hedges, and is now sparingly naturalized. Equally handsome but much less known is Rhamnus Purshiana, a taller shrub or occasionally a tree attaining the height of forty feet. A native of the Pacific coast from British Columbia to Mexico, this handsome shrub ranges eastward to Montana and Texas, and promises to be a useful plant in this part of the country. Another plant conspicuous by its green leaves at this season of the year is a form of the western Chinese Evonymus Bungeana (var. semipersistens), a large, round-topped shrub with leaves remaining on the branches until the middle of winter. The so-called Wayfaring-Tree, Viburnum Lantana, from Europe also holds its green leaves late in the autumn. It is a shrub, or occasionally in Europe a small tree with handsome dark green leaves which fall usually late in November. This beautiful plant bears rather small clusters of pure white flowers which are followed by bright red fruits changing to almost black. A few vines also retain their leaves without change of color until late in the autumn or in early winter. The best known and most generally planted of these is Lonicera japonica which sometimes climbs to a height of twelve or fifteen feet with fragrant yellow flowers. There is a variety of this handsome plant with leaves marked with yellow (var. aureo-reticulata). The variety Halliana, introduced into this country by Dr. Hall and probably first cultivated in the Parsons Nursery, differs in flowering in the autumn. Another climbing Honeysuckle which retains its green leaves until late in the autumn is Lonicera Henryi from western China, probably little known yet in this country is to be seen among the vines in the Shrub Collection and on Bussey Hill among other Chinese plants. Smilax hispida is another vine widely distributed in North America from Ontario and Minnesota to Louisiana and Texas, with deciduous leaves which usually remain green without any change of color until late in November. Two Japanese vines, Akebia quinata and A. lobata, still retain the bright color of their summer foliage; the former, with leaves composed of five leaflets and with small dark purple flowers, is well known in American gardens. A. lobata is less well known in this country and differs from A. quinata in the three, not five rather larger leaflets which turn late in the autumn just before falling to a handsome bronze color. These vines rarely produce fruit here, which resembles in shape a short thick banana, is pale violet in color and contains many small seeds imbedded in sweet juicy pulp. Of A. lobata the Japanese are fond as the fruit is found in great quantities in the markets of northern Japan. This species has never produced fruit in the Arboretum and occasionally has been killed nearly to the ground in severe winters. Beech Trees. Of the northern genus Fagus the Arboretum now contains eight of the ten species which have been recognized by botanists. They inhabit eastern North America, eastern Europe, the Caucasus, western China and Japan. The leaves of most of the Beeches turn yellow in the autumn, exceptions being forms of F. sylvatica and its varieties. The great Beech tree of the world is the European Fagus sylvatica which is distributed over a large part of Europe except in the extreme north growing to great perfection in England, Denmark, parts of Germany, and on the mountains of the Balkan peninsula, often forming pure forests and growing to the height of one hundred feet. It is a hardy and handsome tree in New England, where perfectly at home, growing faster and making a handsomer tree than the American species, it is probably the best European tree to grow in this climate. There is no record, unfortunately, of the date of the introduction of this tree into the United States, but, judging by the size of some of the trees here, it must have been at least one hundred years ago. The finest European Beeches in the neighborhood of Boston, and probably the finest collection of these trees in the United States, are on Longwood Mall, a strip of turf extending east from Kent Street and between Chatham and Beech Streets in Brookline. This Mall was laid out by David Sears at the time he was engaged in developing his Longwood property between eighty and ninety years ago, and it is probable that these Beech trees were planted at about that time. They are all short-stemmed specimens from sixty to seventy feet tall, with wide-spreading branches which on some of the trees sweep the ground. Several varieties of the European Beech have been found growing naturally in the woods in Europe and are propagated and sold by nurserymen. The best known of these varieties is the so-called Purple Beech with leaves which are pale red in early spring and deep red at maturity, falling in the autumn without change of color. This tree was found originally growing in the forests in three or four places in central Europe, and the first account of it was published in 1680. Seedlings raised from the Purple Beech sometimes have purple leaves and often different shades of color, and to some of these forms names have been given. The Purple Beech unfortunately is more generally planted than the typical green leafed form, and with many tree-planters has been a favorite in the northeastern states. An interesting form of the European Beech (var. pendula) is a comparatively low tree with horizontal and slightly pendulous branchlets from which hang almost vertically secondary branches, all forming a tent-like head almost as broad as high. This tree was at one time somewhat planted in this country, and the largest specimen known to the Arboretum is growing on what was once a part of the Parsons Nursery in Flushing, Long Island, which has recently been obtained for a park by the city of Flushing. The variety remillyensis is usually classed among the weeping Beeches but is really a shrub as broad or broader than it is high. The Fern-leaf Beech (var. heterophylla) distinguished by its variously shaped leaves which on the same branch are long and narrow and usually more or less deeply lobed, pinnate or lacinate, is growing well in the Arboretum where it promises to become a handsome tree. The Arboretum knows two fine specimens of this variety in the United States. One of these grows on Bellevue Avenue, in Newport, Rhode Island, on the grounds of the Redwood Library and Reading Room. This tree was planted in 1834 and has a trunk nearly four feet in diameter, and a spread of branches about seventy feet across. The second is growing on Mr. Hendon Chubb's estate, in Llewellyn Park, near Orange, New Jersey, and is supposed to be seventy-five years old. This tree, which has branches drooping to the ground, is forty feet high with a head forty-five feet in diameter. A form of the European Beech (var. fastigiata) on which all the branches grow erect and form a narrow pyramidal head, promises to be a useful addition to trees of this habit, like the fastigiate Red and Sugar Maples, the fastigiate European Oak, and the fastigiate Tulip-tree. There is a great difference here in the time the different forms of the European Beech assumes its autumn colors. On some trees the leaves are still entirely green and on others the green is slightly tinged with yellow or a general brownish color. The leaves of the purple-leaved forms retain their color until they fall. Climbing Plants. The Ivy, which is perfectly hardy forty miles south of Boston in the City of Providence, has been kept alive with difficulty in a sheltered place in the Arboretum; raised from seeds gathered at Riga in Russia, probably as cold a place as it grows in naturally. Its only substitute in this climate is Evonymus radicans var. vegeta, the handsomest form of this Japanese species which readily clings to the walls of a brick building and can be grown as a shrub by a little cutting or made into a low hedge, and when not too closely cut is thickly covered in the autumn with abundant and beautiful fruit. Further south, as on Long Island, this useful plant is badly injured by a scale insect."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"December 18","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":77,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23804","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160a36a.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. XI NO. 19 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. DECEMBER 18. 19255 Of the forty-eight genera now recognized of the Pine Family (Pinaceae, now considered with Taxaceae to constitute the class Coniferae) sixteen are more or less successfully established in the Arboretum collections. These are Pinus, Picea, Abies, Tsuga, Pseudotsuga, Cedrus, Sciadopitys, Cryptomeria, Taxodium, Libocedrus, Thuja, Cupressus, Chamaecyparis, Juniperus, Larix and Pseudolarix. In these sixteen genera are represented all the genera of Pinaceae in North America with the exception of Sequoia from California, Mexico, Europe, northern Africa, with the exception of Tetraclinis, Siberia, the Caucasus, Asia Minor, Japan, with the exception of Thujopsis, and northern China. None of the Pinaceae from south of the Tropic of Cancer are hardy in New England. The best perhaps of the species of these sixteen genera for general cultivation in the northeastern United States among the Pines are Pinus Strobus and P. resinosa of northeastern North America. Pinus Strobus, if it can be protected from the White Pine blister rust by isolating it from species of Currants and Gooseberries (Ribes), is the handsomest and most reliable Pine with leaves in clusters of five for this climate. There are handsome and interesting dwarf forms of this tree in the collection. Pinus resinosa is the hardiest and handsomest of the so-called Pitch Pines with leaves in two- or three-leaved clusters for cultivation either as an ornament or as a timber tree which can be grown in this part of the country. A dwarf form of the Red Pine (P. resinosa var. globosa Rehder) which was discovered in New Hampshire a few years ago and is still rare and little known in cultivation, is established in the Arboretum. The best Spruces in the collection which have been sufficiently tested are the Rocky Mountain Picea Engelmannii and the Serbian Picea omorika. P. Engelmannii is one of the important introductions of the Arboretum. It is the handsomest of the North American Spruce trees and the most valuable as a timber tree of them all. At its best it is sometimes one hundred and twenty feet tall with a trunk often nine feet in diameter, frequently forming great forests up to altitudes of ten or twelve thousand feet and is widely scattered about five thousand feet through the whole Rocky Mountain system from Alaska and British Columbia to southern New Mexico and northern Arizona. This tree has been grown in the Arboretum since 1879 when seeds collected by Dr. C. C. Parry were sent here from Pike's Peak in Colorado. It has grown rapidly here where it has always been perfectly hardy and has formed narrow pyramidal heads of pale gray-green leaves. Its only drawback as an ornamental tree is the tendency of the trees to lose their lower branches, an advantage rather than a defect in a tree which will be grown more for the production of timber than for ornament. The loss of the lower branches, too, discloses the exceptionally beautiful pale gray bark tinged with red. Picea omorika is another of the great conifers introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum where seeds sent by the late Dr. Carl Bolle of Berlin were planted in 1881 and have now grown into handsome compact pyramids of yellow-green leaves pale below. This is the important Spruce-tree of southeastern Europe where it forms or has formed great forests. The only drawback to this tree which has been seen in the Arboretum is the occasional destruction of the leading shoot by the insect which sometimes kills the leader of the White Pine. Unfortunately the two Spruce trees which for years have been and are still generally planted in the northeastern part of the country, the so-called Norway Spruce of Europe (Picea Abies or P. excelsa) and the Rocky Mountain Blue Spruce (Picea pungens) from Colorado and eastern Utah to northern New Mexico and Wyoming, have not proved successful in the eastern states. Fifty or sixty years ago the Norway Spruce was very generally planted in southern New England where, however, it commences to fail at the top when about thirty years old and soon becomes ragged and unsightly, the leading shoot dying or failing to make a satisfactory growth and all the upper part of the tree gradually becoming thin, with the result that there is hardly a park or country place in New England where the sad spectacle of such half-dead trees cannot be seen. Easily raised from seed which is readily obtained, young plants grow rapidly, and they are therefore profitable plants for nurserymen to handle; and the public, in spite of the American experience with this tree, continues to buy it. In some of the states it is raised by state agencies and given away or sold at a nominal price, or is planted by the state in reforesting operations. Perhaps no other species of Pinaceae has produced so many dwarf forms and some of these are handsome and interesting plants. The Colorado Blue Spruce is still one of the most popular conifers in the northern United States where it is propagated and planted in immense numbers in spite of the fact that it early loses its value as an ornamental tree. It is very hardy, is easily raised and grows rapidly. The young plants are of good shape and dense habit, their lower branches resting on the ground. For the nurseryman the Blue Spruce has everything to recommend it; the easy germination of the seeds, quick growth and unusual beauty of the young plants lead to the certainty of a quick sale. To a planter looking for something more important than a plant for a city garden or a small suburban yard this tree has certainly proved a failure. This is not surprising for Picea pungens growing in small groves near streams in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains long before it attains its full size is a thin, scraggy, miserable looking tree with a few short branches near the top of the stem. This tree was discovered in 1862 and was planted the following year in the Harvard Botanic Garden, and one of the plants raised at that time is still alive in the Arboretum on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where it is kept as a warning for planters who are deceived by the beauty of young plants. There is a dwarf variety of the Blue Spruce (var. compacta Rehder) which appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago. Like the typical form, it early becomes unsightly by the loss of many of its branches. Of the numerous Fir trees which are growing in the Arboretum collection the two most valuable are the Japanese Abies homolepis, more often called perhaps Abies brachyphylla, and the Colorado form of Abies concolor. A. homolepis is a large tree on the mountains of central Japan with dark green leaves silvery white on the lower surface and violet purple cones. The largest specimen in the Hunnewell Pinetum at Wellesley is now nearly sixty-five feet tall with branches sweeping the ground. The Arboretum trees are smaller but already produce their handsome cones. A variety of this tree (var. umbellata) with green cones and rather lighter-colored leaves is also established in the Arboretum where it has grown rapidly, the largest specimen raised from seeds planted in 1881 being now nearly forty feet high. With Abies brachyphylla the Rocky Mountain form of the western American A. concolor must be placed as a satisfactory and beautiful tree. The oldest specimens in the Arboretum were raised here from seed planted in 1872 and are now from sixty-five to seventy feet high with lower branches resting on the ground and are solid masses of gray green foliage. Among the Tsugas which have been sufficiently tried in the Arboretum the most satisfactory are the common Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis) of the northeastern part of the country, which is seen to advantage in the natural grove of this tree which covers the eastern and part of the northern slope of Hemlock Hill, and the Carolina Hemlock (T. caroliniana), the third of the great Pinaceae first cultivated in the Arboretum, which by many persons is considered the most beautiful tree among all the Pinaceae in the Arboretum collection. It is a native of the Blue Ridge, the eastern range of the Appalachian Mountains, on which it grows from southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia usually in scattered groves on the rocky banks of streams at elevations between two thousand five hundred and four thousand feet. This beautiful tree escaped the attention of the numerous botanists who first explored the southern Appalachian Mountains, and its distinct character was first noticed in 1850 by Dr. L. B. Gibbes of Charleston, South Carolina, although it was not until thirty-one years later that it was first described by Engelmann. This tree was first raised at the Arboretum in 1880 and the tallest specimen now is fully forty feet high. On the Blue Ridge it is usually not more than forty or fifty feet high, although occasionally trees up to seventy feet high occur, and the trunk has rarely a greater diameter than two feet. It is a smaller tree therefore than the northern Hemlock; the branches are more pendulous and the leaves are darker green and more lustrous than those of the northern tree. The leaves, too, are usually notched at the apex and slightly toothed, while those of the northern tree are rounded at the apex and are not notched. The two trees are best distinguished, however, by their cones; those of the southern tree are not stalked and their scales are much longer than broad with obviously pointed bracts, while those of the northern tree are stalked and the scales are about as long as wide with bracts broad and truncate at the apex. Many persons now see and admire the Carolina Hemlock in the Arboretum every year. It is still rare in cultivation, and probably ten thousand Colorado Blue Spruces are planted in this country every year for one Carolina Hemlock. The interior region of North America has made it possible to cultivate in the eastern states a number of Pacific trees which are not hardy here when obtained from the coast. The most useful of these is the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) and its dwarf varieties, and the Pacific coast Arbor Vitae (Thuja plicata) which collected in Idaho in 1880 has been growing here successfully ever since and is one of the beautiful Pinaceae of the Arboretum. Equally successful is the Japanese Thuja Standishii which gives every promise of becoming here a large tree with a handsome tall trunk. The hardy form of the Cedar of Lebanon may perhaps best show the importance of the selection of trees from which to raise others for any particular climate, and the form of this tree from Asia Minor is the most important introduction of exotic trees made by the Arboretum. A comparatively short time ago it was found that this tree grows in Asia Minor on the Anti-Taurus far north of the Lebanon range in Palestine and in a much colder climate. As the Palestine Cedar had not proved hardy in New England the Arboretum had seeds of this tree collected on the Anti-Taurus with the view of introducing a hardy race of this beautiful tree into New England. The seeds were sown here in the spring of 1902 and a large number of plants were raised. They have all proved perfectly hardy and have not suffered from drought or cold. A few of them, however, have been lost in transplanting for no other tree has proved so difficult to move. The average height of these Cedars in the Arboretum is now over twenty feet, the tallest being more than thirty feet high. Of the large collection of Junipers in the Arboretum those best worth raising here are probably Juniperus virginiana and its numerous varieties, the Japanese J. rigida, a small tree with gracefully pendulous branches, and the prostrate J. horizontalis, widely distributed from the coast of Maine to British Columbia, ranging south to Massachusetts, western New York, Illinois and Montana, and one of the handsomest of all prostrate Junipers, with branches hugging the ground and often extending over broad areas. The beauty and value of this plant is well shown in the Juniper collection. The most valuable probably of the Larch trees in this climate is the common European Larix decidua, a better tree than the eastern American species, but it does not grow as large as the western Larix occidentalis which, however, has not been sufficiently tried in this climate to show its true value. A hybrid (L. eurolepis) between the European and the Japanese Larch (Larix Kaempferi) grows more rapidly than any of the species, but it is still too soon to speak of its permanent value in New England. Pseudolarix amabilis, the so-called Golden Larch of China, is one of the handsomest and hardiest of exotic trees which can be grown in the eastern United States into which it was introduced more than sixty years ago. As long ago as 1853 it was first made known by Robert Fortune who found it grown in pots, and it was not until eleven years later that he found it growing in the open ground of a monastery in Chekiang where it had grown to a height of a hundred and twenty feet with trunks two feet in circumference up to fifty feet above the ground. This tree has never become common in Europe apparently, and it is surprising how few specimens there are in the United States large enough to bear cones. It must be placed with the Carolina Hemlock as one of the most beautiful of all the Pinacae in the Arboretum collection. The largest tree in the United States was imported by S. B. Parsons in 1859 and planted in his Nursery at Flushing, Long Island. The ground on which this tree is growing has recently been purchased by the City of Flushing and the tree, still in perfect health, is fully eighty feet high with a broad symmetrical pyramidal head. The Golden Larch has been growing in the Arboretum since 1871 and has been producing for several years abundant crops of seeds. Of other trees in this country large enough to produce seeds the Arboretum only knows two plants in Wellesley, Massachusetts, the trees planted by C. A. Dana, at Dosoris, Long Island, the trees in the parks at Rochester, New York, and a tree which is probably still living in the neighborhood of Cincinnati, where it was planted by the late Mr. Probasco. The common name of this tree, Golden Larch, is due to the beautiful color of the autumn foliage. The Arboretum will be glad of information of other trees in this country large enough to produce seeds. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Volume XI","article_sequence":20,"start_page":79,"end_page":86,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23805","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd160a76b.jpg","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOL. XI Synonyms are in italics Abies brachyphylla, 75 concolor, 57, 75 homolepis, 75 var. umbellata, 75 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 62 sessiliflorum, 63 Acer griseum, 18 rubrum, 1, 65 var. pallidiflorum, 2 saccharinum, 1 saccharum, 65 Aesculus arguta, 30 Briottii, 30 carnea, 30 discolor var. mollis, 31 georgiana, 30 glabra, 30 var. Buckleyi, 30 var. leucodermis, 30 Harbisonii, 31 Hippocastanum, 29 mutabilis penduliflora, 31 parviflora, 31, 63 turbinata, 30 woerlitzensis, 31 Akebia lobata, 70 quinata, 70 Almond, Chinese, 7 Amelanchier asiatica, 8 var. sinica,8 canadensis, 8 grandiflora, 8 var. rubescens, 8 laevis,8 oblongifolia, 8 ovalis, 8 Amelanchiers, 7, 8 American Beech, 49 Crabapples, 18 deciduous-leaved Magnolias, 31 Flowering Dogwood, 66 Hawthorns, 25, 26 Plum-trees, 16 Apricot, Black, 7 Purple, 7 Aralia chinensis, 62, 63 var. glabrescens, 63 var. mandshurica, 63 spinosa, 62 Arborescent Viburnums, 35 Asiatic Cherries, 3 Autumn foliage, 65 Azalea, Clammy, 47 mollis, 35 Azaleas, 35 early, 12 Ghent, 35 the last of the, 47 Basket Oak, 66 Bay, Swamp, 69 Sweet, 38, 69 Bechtel Crab, 19 Beech, American, 49 Copper, 51 European, 50, 51, 72 Fern-leaf, 51, 72 Purple, 51, 71 Beech-trees, 49, 71 Chinese, 52 Japanese, 52 Berberis Dielsiana, 18 Bitter Sweet, 60 Black Apricot, 7 Black Haw, 36 Bollwyller Pear, 18 Buckeye, Ohio, 30 Buckeyes, Horsechestnuts and, 29 Buddleias, Chinese, 63 Bush Honeysuckles, 28 Calico Bush, 37 Calluna, 64 vulgaris, 63, 64 var. alba, 64 var. alba minor, 64 var. alba rigida, 64 var. alba tenella, 64 var. Alportii, 64 var. rubra, 64 var. tomentosa, 64 Canada Plum, 7 Carpinus, 65 Cedar of Lebanon, 58, 76 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 65 Cercis chinensis, 20 Charlotte Crab, 19 Cherry, Chinese, 2 Cornelian, 1 Gean, 17 Mountain, 5 Sargent, 5 Spring, 4, 6 Weeping, 4 Chinese Almond, 7 Beech-trees, 52 Buddleias, 63 Cherry, 2 Flowering Dogwood, 38 Golden Larch, 51, 77 Clammy Azalea, 47 Clethra alnifolia, 64 barbinervis, 64 the Japanese, 64 Climbing plants, 72 Coffee-tree, Kentucky, 65 Colorado Blue Spruce, 74, 75 Copper Beech, 51 Cornel, Silky, 46 Cornelian Cherry, 1 Cornus alternifolia, 39 amomum, 46 asperifolia, 59 circinata, 46 controversa, 39 florida, 38, 59, 66 kousa, 38, 66 var. chinensis, 38, 66 mas, 1 Nuttallii, 38 officinalis, I racemosa, 46 rugosa, 46 Corylopsis Gotoana, 3 pauciflora, 3 spicata, 3 Cow Oak, 66 Crab, Bechtel, 19 Charlotte, 19 Parkman, 10, 11 Red Siberian, 10 Soulard, 20 Von Siebold's, 15 Crabs, Siberian, 10 Crabapple, Manchurian, 9, 10 Siberian, 9 Crabapples, 9, 10, 11 American, 18, 19, 20 some additional Asiatic, 15 Crataegus, 25 arnoldiana, 20, 26, 27 intricata, 26 monogyna, 27 oxyacantha, 27 phaenopyrum, 47 punctata, 26 tomentosa, 26 Cucumber-tree, 32 Cupressus Macnabiana, 57 Currant, Missouri, 16 Cytisus Beanii, 20 capitatus, 63 elongata, 20 glabrescens, 20 leucanthus, 63 nigricans, 63 Diervilla florida venusta, 20 Dimorphanthus mandshuricus, 66 Dogwood, American Flowering, 66 Chinese Flowering, 38 Japanese Flowering, 38 Double-flowered Japanese Cherries, 12 Douglas Spruce, 57 Early Azaleas, 12 Roses, 27 Early-flowering Currants, 16 Lilacs, 16 Rhododendrons, 27 Viburnums, 12 broad-leaved Evergreens, 13 Eastern American Horsechestnuts, 30 Elder, 47 Enkianthus perulatus, 18 Erica carnea, 1 European Beech, 50, 51, 72 Linden, 55 Privet, 70 Evergreen Rhododendrons, 33 Evodia Daniellii, 62 Henryi, 62 hupehensis, 62 Evodias, 61 Evonymus Bungeana var. semipersistens, 70 radicans var. vegeta, 72 Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii, 20 Fagus Engleriana, 52 grandiflora, 49 var. caroliniana, 50 Hayatae, 49 japonica, 52 longipetiolata, 52 lucida, 52 multinervis, 49 orientalis, 52 Sieboldii, 52 sylvatica, 50, 71 . var. cristata, 51 var. cuprea, 51 var. fastigiata, 51, 72 var. heterophylla, 61, 72 var. pendula, 51, 71 var. purpurea, 51 var. remillyensis, 51, 71 Fern-leaf Beech, 51, 72 Forsythia Fortunei, 2 intermedia, 2 var. pallida, 2 var. primulina, 2 var. spectabilis, 2 ovata, 2 Forsythias, 2 Fruits in the Arboretum, 60 Garland Tree, 19 Gean Cherry, 17 Genista tinctoria, 63 Ghent Azaleas, 35 Golden Larch, 51, 77 Grape, Oregon, 14 Grecian Horsechestnut, 29 Gymnocladus, 65 Hamamelis vernalis, 68 Haw, Black, 36 Hawthorns, 25, 48 American, 25, 26 Douglasianae, 26 Flavae, 26 Intricatae, 26 Macracanthae, 26 Tenuifoliae, 26 Hazel, Witch, 68 Heather, Scotch, 64 Helianthemum, 44 Helianthemum chamaecistus, 44 Helianthemum nummularium, 44 Helianthemum vulgare, 44 Hercules, Club, 62 Highbush Blueberry, 68 Hobble Bush, 12 Honeysuckle, 47 Honeysuckle, Tartarian, 60 Bush, 28 Hop Hornbeam, 65 Hornbeams, 65 Horsechestnut, Grecian, 29 Japanese, 30 Horsechestnuts Eastern American, 30 and Buckeyes, 29 Hybrid Lilacs, 23 Hydrangea arborescens var. grandiflora, 63 cinerea, 63 paniculata, 63 var. praecox, 63 quercifolia, 63 Indigofera amblyantha, 39, 64 decora, 64 Gerardiana, 64 Kirilowii, 64 Potaninii, 64 Indigoferas, 64 Ivy, 72 Japanese Beech-trees, 52 Clethra, the, 64 Flowering Dogwood, 38 Horsechestnut, 30 Keaki, 67 Lacquer-tree, 59 Wisteria, 32 Juniperus conferta, 1 horizontalis, 76 rigida, 76 virginiana, 76 Kaido, 10 Kalmia augustifolia, 38 latifolia, 37, 47 polifolia, 38 Keaki, Japanese, 67 Kentucky Coffee-tree, 65 Koelreuteria paniculata, 59 Laburnum alpinum, 39 anagyroides, 40 Parksii, 40 Scotch, 40 vulgare, 40 Watereri, 40 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 59 Larch, Golden, 61, 77 Larix decidua, 77 eurolepis, 77 Kaempferi, 77 occidentalis, 77 Larch, Golden, 51 Late-flowering Magnolias, 38 Laurel, 47 Mountain, 37 Sheep, 38 Laurels, 37 Lespedezas, 63 Ligustrum vulgare, 70 Lilac, Persian, 22 Lilacs, 21, 22, 23 hybrid, 23 Linden, European, 55 Linden Trees, 53 Liriodendron, 65 Lonicera bella, 28 chrysantha, 28 Henryi, 70 japonica, 70 var. aureo-reticulata, 70 var. Halliana, 70 microphylla, 28 minutiflora, 28 Morrowii, 28 muscaviensis, 28 notha, 28 orientalis, 28 praeflorens, 1 tatarica, 60 Xylosteum, 28 Maackia amurensis, 55 chinensis, 55 Magnolia acuminata, 32 cordata, 31 Fraseri, 31 Magnolia glauca, 88, 69 macrophylla, 32, 38 parviflora, 39 pyramidata, 31 - tripetala, 32 virginiana, 32, 38, 69 Watsonii, 39 Magnolia, Mountain, 31 Magnolias, American deciduous-leaved, 31 late-flowering, 38 Mahonia Aquifolium, 14 repens, 14 Malus angustifolia, 20 arnoldiana, 11 atrosanguinea, 16 baccata, 9, 10 var. gracilis, 10 var. Jackii, 10 baccata mandshurica, 9 bracteata, 20 coronaria, 19 var. Charlottae, 19 var. elongata, 19 Dawsoniana, 20 floribunda, 11 fusca, 19 glabrata, 20 glaucescens, 19 Halliana var. Parkmanii, 10 ioensis, 19 var. plena, 19 lancifolia, 20 micromalus, 10 platycarpa, 19 var. Hoopesii, 19 prunifolia rinki, 11 pumila, 9, 20 robusta, 10 var. persicifolia, 10 Sargentii, 15 Scheideckeri, 12 Sieboldii, 15 var. arborescens, 15 Soulardii, 20 spectabilis, 12 sublobata, 16 sylvestris, 9 theifera, 11 var. rosea, 11 Manchurian Crabapple, 9, 10 Maple, Red, 1, 65 Silver,1 Sugar, 65 Maples, Red, 60 White, 60 Missouri Currant, 16 Mock Orange, 41 Moosewood, 12 Mountain Cherry, 5 Laurel, 37 Magnolia, 31 Nannyberry, 36 Napoleon's Willow, 69 Norway Spruce, 68, 74 Oak, Basket, 66 Cow, 66 Pin, 66 Red, 65, 66 Scarlet, 65 White, 65, 66 Ohio Buckeye, 30 Orange, Mock, 41 Oregon Grape, 14 Ostrya, 65 Oxydendrum arboreum, 59 Parkman Crab, 10, 11 Pear, Bollwyller, 18 Pentactina rupicola, 48 Periploca graeca, 60 sepium, 60 Persian Lilac, 22 Phellodendron amurense, 65 Philadelphus, 41, 42, 43 coronarius, 41, 42 var. deutziaeflorus, 42 var. salicifolia, 42 cymosus, 43 Conquete, 43 Norma, 43 Mer de Glace, 48 Nuee Blanche, 43 Perle Blanche, 43 Rosace, 43 Voie Lactee, 48 Falconeri, 42 grandiflorus, 42 inodorus, 42 Philadelphus latifolius, 42 Lemoinei, 43 Magdalenae, 42 maximus, 43 microphyllus, 42, 43 pekinensis, 42 polyanthus, 43 Gerbe de Neige, 43 Pavillon Blanc, 43 pubescens, 42 purpurascens, 42 Schrenkii, 42 var. Jackii, 42 Souvenir de Billard, 4 splendens, 42 virginalis, 43 Argentine, 43 > Bouquet Blanc, 43 Glacier, 43 Virginal, 43 Picea Abies, 58, 74 Engelmannii, 74 excelsa, 74 omorika, 74 pungens, 74, 75 var. compacta, 75 Pieris floribunda, 13, 14 japonica, 14 Pin Oak, 65 Pine, Scotch, 58 Pinus resinosa, 73 var. globosa, 73 Strobus,73 sylvestris, 58 Plants, climbing, 72 green in the late autumn, 69 of wide distribution, 57 Plum, Canada, 7 Plum-trees, American, 16 Prairie Rose, 56 Prinsepia sinensis, 2 uniflora, 3 Privet, European, 70 Prunus americana, 7, 17 avium plena, 17 concinna, 3 dasycarpa, 7 Davidiana, 2 domestica, 16 hortulana, 16 incisa, 4 Prunus lanata, 17 Lannesiana, 56, 12 Amanogawa, 12 Jonioi, 12 Miyako, 12 Ochichima, 12 Ojochin, 12 Sirotae, 12 nigra, 7 salicina, 7 serrulata, 6 var. pubescens, 6 var. sachalinensis, 5, 6, 12 albo-rosea, 12 Fugenzo, 12 Hisakura, 12 Horinji, 12 Kirin, 12 Sekiyama, 12 var. spontanea, 6 subhirtella, 4,6 var. ascendens, 4 var. pendula, 4 triflora, 7 triloba, 7 var.. plena, 7 yedoensis,6 . Pseudolarix amabilis, 77 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 76 Purple Apricot, 7 Beech, 51, 71 Pyrus malifolia, 18 ussuriensis, 2 Quercus alba, 65 bicolor, 66 borealis maxima, 65, 66 coccinea, 65 ilicifolia, 65, 66 palustris, 65 Prinus, 66 robur, 70 var. pedunculata, 70 Redbud, 20 Red Maple, 1, 65 Maples, 60 Oak, 65, 66 Siberian Crab, 10 Rhamnus Purshiana, 70 Rhododendron arborescens, 33, 47 var. Richardsonii, 47 Rhododendron calendulaceum, 35, 44, 47 carolinianum, 27, 34 catawbiense, 33, 34 hybrids of, 33 Adalbert, 34 Adam, 34 Alarich, 34 Albert, 34 album, 33 album elegans, 33 album grandiflorum, 34 Annedore, 34 Anton, 34 Arno, 34 atrosanguineum, 33 Attila, 34 August, 34 Bella, 34 Bismarck, 34 Calliope, 34 Charles Dickens, 33 Daisy, 34 Desiderius, 34 Diana, 34 discolor, 34 Donar, 34 Echese, 34 Eli, 34 Eva, 34 Fee, 34 H. W. Sargent, 33 Henrietta Sargent, 33 Lady Armstrong, 34 Melton, 34 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 33 purpureum elegans, 34 roseum elegans, 33 Viola, 34 caucasicum, 34 hybrids of, 34 Boule de Neige, 28 coriaceum, 28 Cunningham's White, 34 Mont Blanc, 28 delicatissimum, 44, 56 dilatatum, 15 Jacksonii, 13 japonicum, 35 var. aureum, 35 luteum, 24 Rhododendron maximum, 34, 56 var. superbum, 56 Metternichii, 13 var. pentamerum, 13 micranthum, 33 mucronulatum, 3 var. ciliatum, 3 nudiflorum, 35 obtusum, var. Kaempferi, 24, 35 ponticum, 33 praecox, 1 reticulatum, 14 rhombic2c7rc, 15 roseum, 35 Schlippenbachii, 12 Smirnowii, 28, 33, 34 Vaseyi, 24 venustum, 13 viscosum, 47 wellesleyanum, 44, 56 yedoense poukhanense, 15 Rhododendrons, 35 early-flowering, 27 evergreen, 33 Rhus aromatica, 67 canadensis, 67 javanica, 62 Osbeckii, 62 semialata, 62 Ribes aureum, 16 cereum, 16 odoratum, 16 Rosa Ecae, 27 Hugonis, 27 koreana, 27 multibracteata, 56 omeiensis, 27 setigera, 56 var. tomentosa, 56 spinosissima, 27 var. altaica, 27 stellata, 56 virginiana, 46 Rose, Prairie, 56 Scotch, 277 Roses, early, 27 Salix alba, 69 babylonica, 69 Matsudana, 69 vitellina, 69 Sambucus canadensis, 47 var. acutiloba, 47 var. chlorocarpa, 47 var. maxima, 47 Sargent Cherry, 5 Scarlet Oak, 65 Scotch Heather, 64 Laburnum, 40 Pine, 58 Rose, 27 Shad Bushes, 7, 8 Sheepberry, 36 Sheep Laurel, 38 Shrubs, the value of native, 45 Siberian Crabapple, 9 Crabs, 10 Silky Cornel, 46 Silver Maple,1 Smilax hispida, 70 Some additional Asiatic Crabapples, 15 Some Asiatic Spiraeas, 40 Sophora japonica, 61 var. pendula, 61 var. pyramidalis, 61 var.rosea,61 viciifolia, 39 Sorbopyrus auricularis, 18 bulbiformis, 17 Sorrel-tree, 59, 65 Soulard Crab, 20 Spiraea canescens, 40 Henryi, 40 Sargentiana, 40 trichocarpa, 40 Spiraeas, some Asiatic, 40 Spring Cherry, 4, 6 Spruce, Colorado Blue, 74, 75 Douglas, 57 Norway, 58, 74 Sugar Maple, 65 Summer-flowering shrubs, 62 trees, 61 Swamp Bay, 69 Sweet Bay, 38, 69 Symplocos paniculata, 36 Syringa, 41 Syringa affinis, 23 var. Giraldii, 16, 23, 24 Berryer, 24 Syringa affinis, 23 Claude Bernard, 24 Lamartine, 24 Mirabeau, 24 Pascale, 24 Vauban, 24 dilatata, 23 Henryi, 24 var. Lutece, 24 hyacinthiflora, 23 Josikaea, 22 Julianae, 23 Komarowii, 23 Meyeri, 23 microphylla, 23 oblata, 23 persica, 22 pubescens, 23 reflexa, 23 Sweginzowii, 23 tomentella, 23 villosa, 23 vulgaris, 21 Tartarian Honeysuckle, 60 Thorn, Washington, 47 Thuja plicata, 76 Standishii, 76 Tilia americana, 53 cordata, 54, 55 glabra, 53, 54 heterophylla var. Michauxii, 53, 54 japonica, 55 mongolica, 55 monticola, 63, 54 neglecta, 53, 54 Oliveri, 55 petiolaris, 54, 55 platyphyllos, 54 spectabilis, 55 var. Moltkei, 55 tomentosa, 54 vulgaris, 54 Tripterygium Regelii, 60 Tsuga canadensis, 75 caroliniana, 75 heterophylla, 57 Tulip-tree, 65 Ulmus parvifolia, 68 Umbrella-tree, 32 Vaccinium ciliatum, 68 corymbosum, 20, 68 var. pallidum, 68 pennsylvanicum, 68 Value of native shrubs, 45 Viburnum alnifolium, 12 bitchuiense, 20 Canbyi, 46, 68 Carlesii, 12, 68 cassinoides, 45 dilatatum, 68 dentatum, 45, 68 Jackii, 36 Lantana, 70 Lentago, 35, 36, 68 prunifolium, 35, 68 pubescens, 45 rufidulum, 35, 36 scabrellum, 68 Sieboldii, 35, 36 venosum, 68 Wrightii, 68 Viburnums, arborescent, 35 Von Siebold's Crab, 15 Washington Thorn, 47 Wax, Woad, 63 Wayfaring-tree, 70 Weeping Cherry, 4 White Maples, 60 Oaks, 65, 66 Willow, Napoleon's, 69 Wisteria, Japanese, 32 Wisterias, the way to grow, 32 Witch Hazel, 68 Woad Wax, 63 Yama sakura, 5 Zenobia pulverulenta, 43 var. nitida, 43 Zelkova serrata, 67"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23459","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14eaf6e.jpg","title":"1925-11","volume":11,"issue_number":null,"year":1925,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 30","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23783","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24eab6d.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 30, 1924 The Pinetum. The plants in the Pinetum have not before passed through the winter in better condition than they have this year. Even most of the species about which we are always more or less concerned are now in good condition. The most injured species is the short-leaved Pine of the southern states, Pinus echinata. This is a widely distributed and extremely valuable timber tree, ranging from Long Island and Staten Island, New York, to Florida and westward to Texas, Oklahoma, Arkansas and Missouri, being the principal timber Pine west of the Mississippi River. The largest plants in the Arboretum have been growing here since 1879 and were raised from seeds gathered in Missouri. The leaves have always suffered and are sometimes entirely killed, the trees producing a new crop, or the ends are killed as they have been during the past winter. The trees are poor and thin, and probably will never be of much value in New England for ornament or timber. The other conifer which has suffered during the winter is Tsuga heterophylla, one of the largest and most beautiful conifers of our northwest coast where it ranges from Alaska to Washington and California, and eastward to the western base of the Rocky Mountains of Idaho. The coast tree has often been planted in Europe with great success but it has not proved hardy in New England. We have grown, however, in a sheltered position on Hemlock Hill since 1898 plants gathered in Idaho which have generally grown well but during the past winter the leaves have been badly browned. Among other conifers of doubtful hardiness are the Japanese Cryptomeria japonica, Picea Breweriana, and Libocedrus decurrens. The Cryptomeria is one of the great trees of the world and the largest trees planted by man several centuries ago are some of this species in the avenue of this tree leading to the Tombs at Nikko in Japan. Outside of Japan, even in the most favored parts of Europe, it does not grow particularly well, and in New England it will never be more than a curiosity. Picea Breweriana is a large tree of northwestern California and southeastern Oregon. This is the last of the large conifers discovered in California and is still little known in gardens. The Arboretum plant is in a sheltered position on Hemlock Hill where it has been growing slowly for ten years and is perfectly healthy, all the earlier attempts to cultivate this tree here having failed. The leaves of the Libocedrus are often browned but are quite green this spring. This tree has been grown here since 1898 and was raised from seeds collected at East Applegate, Oregon. It is not probable that it will ever make in New England a large or valuable tree. It is interesting that one species of the large and important genus Cupressus has lived uninjured on Hemlock Hill during the past winter. This is Cupressus Macnabiana, a well known California tree long cultivated in Europe and recently discovered in Oregon. Seeds from an Oregon tree were obtained in 1917 and these seedlings have so far proved perfectly hardy. Of the few California conifers like the Sugar Pine and the mountain White Pine which are established in the Arboretum few of the trees are confined to the state, the others ranging out of the state north, and often east to the Rocky Mountains. The one exception is one of the two Foxtail Pines, Pinus Balfouriana. This is a dwarf, slow-growing tree first discovered on Scott Mountain west of Mt. Shasta in the northwestern part of the state and later on the Whitney Plateau of the southern Sierra Nevada where it forms extensive open forests up to altitudes of 11,500 feet. The Arboretum plant was obtained in 1908 from the Biltmore Nursery in North Carolina. It has grown very slowly but appears perfectly hardy but will never be more in this climate than a curiosity. This is true too of the other Foxtail Pine, Pinus aristata, of northern Arizona and New Mexico, and southern Colorado. This tree has been growing in the Arboretum since 1910 when it was obtained from the Hesse Nursery in Germany. Pinus Balfouriana is interesting as the only conifer confined exclusively to California which has proved hardy in the Arboretum. In addition to those which grow north and east of the state Pinus ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, which grows fairly well here, extends from the southern and western Sierra Nevada into Lower California. The most beautiful conifer introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum is probably Tsuga caroliniana. The seeds of this tree were first planted at the Arboretum in 1881 and the trees raised from these seeds are to most people the handsomest conifers in the collection, almost as broad as tall, thickly covered to the ground with gracefully drooping branches, and clothed with leaves dark green above and pale below. It has taken a long time for the beauty of this tree to be really appreciated, and there are few if any cultivated large trees outside of the Arboretum. It is becoming better known, however, every year, and one Massachusetts nursery company can now supply plants of various sizes in great numbers and at reasonable prices. The Colorado Picea Engelmannii of the Rocky Mountains is another good introduction of the Arboretum. This is the handsomest of the North American Spruce-trees and the most valuable as a timber tree of them all. At its best it is sometimes one hundred and twenty feet high with a tall trunk often nine feet in diameter, frequently forming great forests up to altitudes of 10,000 to 12,000 feet, and is widely scattered above 5000 feet through the whole Rocky Mountain system from Alaska and British Columbia to southern New Mexico and northern Arizona. This tree has been grown in the Arboretum since 1879 when seeds collected by the late Dr. C. C. Parry were sent here from the Pike's Peak region of Colorado. It has grown rapidly in the Arboretum where it has always been perfectly hardy and has formed a narrow columnar head of pale gray-green leaves. Its only defect as an ornamental tree here is the tendency of the older plants to lose their lower branches-an advantage rather than a defect in a tree which will be grown more for the production of timber than for ornament. The loss of the lower branches discloses, too, the exceptionally beautiful gray scaly bark tinged with red. Picea omorika, the Spruce-tree of southeastern Europe, is the third of the really great conifers introduced by the Arboretum. This is the important Spruce-tree of southeastern Europe where it forms or has formed great forests. Seeds of this tree sent by the late Dr. Carl Bolle of Berlin were planted in the Arboretum in 1881 and have grown into handsome compact pyramids of yellow green leaves pale below. The only drawback to this tree is that the leading shoot is sometimes killed by the insect which destroys the leader of the White Pine (Pinus Strobus). That this Pinetum has done useful work is shown in the case of conifers of wide distribution in demonstrating that the plants raised from seeds gathered in some parts of their range are hardier than in others. The best results of this sort have been obtained perhaps with the handsome and useful Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia). This tree is widely distributed and grows to its largest size on the Pacific coast from southern British Columbia to California. The trees from the coast states have never proved really hardy in the east, but in 1873 and 1874 Dr. Parry sent to the Arboretum from Colorado seeds from which a perfectly hardy race of this tree was raised; and the trees which in late years have been so largely planted in the eastern states have been raised from seeds collected in Colorado. Almost equally interesting is the so-called Red Cedar, Thuya. plicata, of the northwest coast region from Alaska to Mendocino County, California, ranging eastward to the western base of the Rocky Mountains in Montana, and in the coast region often growing to the height of two hundred feet and forming a gradually buttressed base often fifteen feet in diameter at the ground level. From these trees the Indians of the coast made their great war canoes, and more recently it has furnished the best material for shingles and the other covering of houses. The coast tree never proved hardy here, but in 1880 one of the Arboretum collectors sent to the Arboretum a small bundle of its seedlings gathered on the mountains of Idaho. These plants have never been injured and have grown well and fairly rapidly, are now all handsome trees and among the most interesting conifers in the collection. Probably all of the plants of this tree growing in the eastern states have been propagated by cuttings from the Arboretum trees where there are now four or five good specimens. The beautiful Silver Fir of the coast, Abies grandis, which ranges from northern Vancouver Island to northern California, also extends inland along the mountains of northern Idaho, and some of the Idaho plants have done well here for forty-four years and are in a healthy condition. Probably, however, the most generally interesting experiment of the sort made by the Arboretum is the one with the Cedar of Lebanon. For centuries it was believed in western Europe that this tree grew naturally only on Mt. Lebanon in Palestine, and all the trees in cultivation were raised from seeds gathered on the Lebanon or from the trees grown from these seeds in England or France, and succeeded in growing to a great size and beauty in these countries. The trees from Palestine were never hardy in New England or really healthy in any part of the eastern states. A comparatively few years ago it was discovered that the Cedar of Lebanon formed forests on the Antitaurus Mountains in Asia Minor about five hundred miles north and in a much colder region than the Lebanon. In 1901 the Arboretum sent a collector from Smyrna to the Antitaurus to collect seeds of the Cedar of Lebanon. He was very successful and sent to the Arboretum a quantity of seeds and a large amount of herbarium material. Much of the seed was distributed at once in the United States and in Europe, but no report from it has ever been received at the Arboretum. The seeds planted here, however, grew well but the trees have grown irregularly in size. The tallest of them are already at least thirty feet high and have grown more rapidly than any seedlings of conifers planted here in the Arboretum. These trees are perfectly hardy, although during one exceptionally severe winter the leaves of a few of them were all killed. A new crop of leaves soon appeared and the growth for that year even does not appear to be at all checked. It is believed that what is certainly the largest collection of cone-bearing trees and shrubs in the United States is growing in the Arboretum, although it is certain that most of them will never be able to grow here to the size which these trees attain in better soil and a more temperate climate. The Arboretum offers exceptional opportunities for the student of conifers in its herbarium which is believed to be the best in the world; only the few species already known which occur on the mountains of New Guinea are unrepresented in it."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 6","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23797","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25eb36d.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 6, 1924 On the 1st of April spring in the Arboretum was probably ten days or two weeks earlier than usual, but owing to much cold and rainy weather flowers now look as if they might be as late when fully open as they were early a month ago. The Missouri and eastern Asiatic Witch Hazels blooming in January and February are the earliest plants to flower in the Arboretum; these are shrubs or shrub-like trees, and the earliest of the large trees which shows its flowers in this climate is the Silver or Soft Maple, Acer saccharinum, which blooms here by the first or middle of March and has nearly ripened its seeds before the leaves are half grown. It is interesting that the seeds of this tree fall as soon as ripe and germinating at once produce plants with several pairs of leaves before the end of summer. This is a large, fast-growing tree, widely distributed from New Brunswick to Louisiana, and to Nebraska and Missouri, reaching often the height of one hundred and twenty feet, with a trunk three feet in diameter and a drooping head of wide-spreading branches. Very common on the sandy banks of streams and less common in deeply submerged swamps, it is less abundant near the Atlantic coast and at high altitudes on the Appalachian Mountains. This tree is so easily transplanted and grows so rapidly that it has been largely used in the United States as a street and roadside tree, but the brittle branches which break easily detract from its value for such purposes; and the wood is less valuable than that of the Sugar or Red Maple. Several forms differing slightly in the shape of the leaves, and one a small shapely shrub, are occasionally cultivated. Few trees have flowered during April in the Arboretum. The principal ones have been the Red Maple, Acer rubrum, both with scarlet and with yellow flowers and fruit; pallidiflorum, and the common American Elm, Ulmus americana. The three Silver Poplars, Populus alba and P. canescens of Europe and P. tomentosa from northern China, one of the handsome and valuable trees introduced by the Arboretum, and the common eastern Cottonwood, Populus balsamifera, variety virginiana, more generally known perhaps Populus deltoidea, have been covered with flowers, as have many species of Willows, including a few rare species like Salix irrorata, S. Laescadiana, S. stipularis, S. ferruginea and S. Siegertii. More shrubs than trees have flowered in April. The one with the most conspicuous flowers has been Magnolia stellata, of which there are a number of large and small plants in front of the Administration Building. This is an extremely large, round-headed shrub with large dark green leaves which, like those of all the Magnolias which flower before the leaves appear, fall without change of color. This plant rarely ever has produced fruit here, but every autumn it is covered with flower-buds. These are never injured during the winter but the flowers, which are about four inches in diameter, open so early that the numerous loosely arranged petals are usually ruined nine years out of ten by a late frost which turns them brown. This year even when there have only been the slightest frosts in April the petals have suffered somewhat. Very little is known about this plant. By a mistaken determination it was at first called Burgerea stellata, and it has also been called by S. B. Parsons Magnolia Halleana, the name under which it is still often cultivated in this country where it is not rare. Although this Magnolia was cultivated in Japanese gardens before the days of Von Siebold it has not yet been found as a wild plant in Japan, although Veitch speaks of it in the \"Hortus Veitchiana\" as a native of Fujiyama. It was introduced into Europe by Veitch in 1862 from a garden in Nagasaki, and the same year it was brought to the United States by Dr. George R. Hall and sold by him to the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, where it was largely propagated. Dr. Hall, who before 1862 had never traveled much in Japan, no doubt found the plant in a garden near one of the ports. Nothing is known of it except what has been gathered from these cultivated plants. It is possibly a native of Korea and was early introduced into Japan as a garden plant from that country. It is entirely hardy in Massachusetts and the early opening flower-buds suggest a northern origin. No Magnolia has been found in northern China yet but much of Korea has been only recently explored. It is probable that Magnolia stellata will prove hardy further north than any species with flowers opening before the leaves, and that it may be more successful as far north as Montreal or Toronto than it has been in Massachusetts. The Arboretum would be glad to hear of the hardiness of this plant in any part of Canada. The pink. flowered form of Magnolia stellata, which probably originated in a Japanese garden, is flowering well in the Arboretum this year. Forsythia ovata, a native of the Diamond Mountains of Korea, and in its range the most northern of all the species of this genus, was introduced by the Arboretum from seeds collected by Wilson in 1918. A plant of this species flowered slightly last year, but by the middle of April this year was thickly covered with flowers which opened about two weeks earlier than those of Forsythia Fortunei or its hybrids. This promises to be an extremely valuable introduction as it will be possible to grow it much further north than any of the other species of the genus, and in this climate the flower-buds will probably never be injured as they often are on the other species, especially those of the hybrid F. intermedia of which several forms are in cultivation. These are the result of crossing Forsythia suspensa var. Fortunei with F. viridissima which is the most southern and tender species. As a flowering plant one of these hybrids called spectabilis, which originated in Germany, is the handsomest of all Forsythias, but in winter too many of the flower-buds are killed. In the Arboretum Forsythia Fortunei can be successfully cultivated but in the north it should be replaced by the Korean species. F. ovata is a large shrub with light yellow branches, broad, long-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves from four to five inches in length and from three to four inches in width, and clear primrose colored flowers smaller than those of F. Fortunei or any of the forms of its hybrid. This species may prove useful to cross with F. Fortunei or the hybrid intermedia for the production of a new hardy form for the north. The most beautiful plants in flower in the Arboretum this week are four single-flowered Cherry-trees on the right hand side of the Forest Hills road a little way below the Forest Hills gate. Two of these are the Spring Cherry of the Japanese, Prunus subhirtella, which as it grows in the Arboretum is a large tree-like shrub rather than a tree, and certainly when in flower the most beautiful of all the Cherry-trees or shrubs which have been growing in the Arboretum. It is not known as a wild plant but is not uncommon in the gardens of western Japan, although rarely seen in those of Tokyo. The fact, too, that it does not produce itself from seed is another reason why the Spring Cherry is so rarely seen in the United States and Europe, where it was first introduced by the Arboretum in which it has been growing for thirty years, two small plants having been received in 1894 in pots from the Botanic Garden in Tokyo. As it grows in the Arboretum P. subhirtella is a shrub eighteen or twenty feet tall and nearly as broad with pink petals which become white before they fall and which are followed by small black fruit. This fruit when planted produces two varieties of this plant, principally the variety ascendens, which is a tall rather slender tree not uncommon in the woods of central Japan, and it is these seedlings which furnish the best stock on which to graft Prunus subhirtella itself. Still extremely rare in gardens, P. subhirtella ascendens is a good garden plant. Much better known is its variety pendula. This is the Japanese Weeping Cherry, which has been largely cultivated now for fifty years in this country, and is common in the neighborhood of Boston and New York. The trees are beautiful when covered with their small pink flowers, but these last only for two or three days. Another variety of Prunus subhirtella (var. autumnalis) appears to be a plant of considerable promise, especially as it flowers in both spring and autumn. This is a shrub, or in Japan occasionally a small tree, with semi-double pink and white flowers which open in the spring a day or two later than those of the variety pendula. The autumn flowers are rather smaller than those of the spring crop, but opening in October never fail to create interest and curiosity. The Sargent Cherry so-called, a northern form of Prunus serrulata (var. sachalinensis) is the handsomest of all Cherry-trees of large size, as Prunus subhirtella is the handsomest of the species which are shrubs rather than trees. The large single rose-colored or pink flowers which are opening this week are short lived but very abundant; and the hardiness of the trees, which have not been attacked here yet by disease, the beauty of the large green leaves brilliantly colored in the autumn, and the lustrous bark make this the handsomest of Cherry-trees. In northern Japan the Sargent Cherry was once a common inhabitant of the forest, growing sometimes to a height of eighty feet with a tall massive trunk. Such trees have been sought for the value of the timber they produce and are fast disappearing. This tree was first raised in 1891 in the Arboretum from seeds presented by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, of Boston, and his tree, the largest specimen standing in the United States, and probably in Europe, is growing just below those of Prunus subhirtella. A taller and narrower tree raised from seeds collected by Prof. Sargent in Japan in 1892, is standing by the Forest Hills Road near its junction with the Meadow Road. Some of the handsomest and hardiest of the double flowered Cherry-trees cultivated by the Japanese, like albo-rosea and fugenzo, better known in nurseries as \"James H. Vietch,\" seedlings of this species, supply the best stock on which to work most of the double flowered Japanese Cherries, and the reason they have failed here and in Europe is because they have been worked usually on Prunus avium which has not proved a successful stock for it. Fortunately several of the Japanese trees in the Arboretum are large enough to produce abundant crops of seeds, and there are a few other plants in eastern Massachusetts which usually ripen their seed every year. Nurserymen who wish to supply the demand for double flowered Japanese Cherry-trees can obtain the seed from these trees, and stock of all the best varieties can be obtained from the trees which were sent several years ago from the Arboretum to the Park Department of Rochester, to be grown for this purpose. There is no reason therefore why thousands of the best forms of these double-flowered Cherry-trees, hardy, on permanent stock, should not be procurable in a few years in this country. As the seeds from the Arboretum have now been distributed in this country for several years to a number of nurserymen and others, there are probably already a number of plants here large enough for stock. Prunus incisa, the fourth of the early flowering Japanese Cherries, is again in flowers. It is still a small treelike shrub, differing from Prunus subhirtella and P. serrulata in its deeply lobed leaves and pure white petals. These last only a few days, but the calyx, which gradually turns red remains on the fruit two or three weeks and is distinctly conspicuous. Although a common plant in Japan on the Hakone Mountains and the slopes of Fuji-san, this tree is still rare in American and European gardens where it has been usually incorrectly named. The oldest plant in the Arboretum, which is growing near P. subhirtella, was obtained in 1912 from a German nursery."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 12","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23793","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25ea725.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 12, 1924 Pieris or Andromeda floribunda, judging by an experience of over fifty years, is the only broad-leaved evergreen to which nothing ever happens in this climate. It is not attacked by borers, the leaves never become discolored, and the flower-buds formed in autumn and almost as conspicuous during the winter as the flowers are not injured by the lowest temperature which has been recorded in southern New England. It is a round-topped shrub of compact habit, sometimes eight or ten feet across and five or six feet high, with small pointed, dark green leaves and short terminal clusters of pure white flowers. A native of high altitudes on the southern Appalachian Mountains, this shrub is rare and local in its distribution as a wild plant, but for more than a century has been valued in England and largely propagated by English nurserymen It can be found in several American nurseries and is now covered in the Arboretum with its pure white flowers. A comparatively small compact shrub, it is more valuable for general planting than any of the dwarf Rhododendrons. Amelanchiers. The Shad Bushes, as Amelanchiers are often called because they are supposed to bloom when shad begin to ascend the rivers from the sea, add much in early May to the beauty of the Arboretum. It is a genus in which North America has almost a monopoly as only one small shrubby species grows on the mountains of central Europe, and another in China and Japan. In North America it grows in many forms from the Atlantic to the Pacific and from Newfoundland to the Gulf States. Some of the species are trees and others large or small shrubs; they flower in the spring before the leaves appear or when they are partly grown, or in the case of a few species when the leaves are fully grown, the flowering time of the whole group extending through several weeks. They all have handsome flowers, with long delicate white petals and small, dark blue or nearly black pome-like fruit open at the top, the flesh of which in most of the species is sweet and edible. Amelanchier canadensis, which is the first species to bloom in the Arboretum, has now been in flower for several days. It is a tree which occasionally grows to the height of sixty feet with a tall trunk eighteen inches in diameter. The leaves begin to unfold as the flowers open and are then covered with silky white hairs, making the whole plant look white at this time of the year. This beautiful tree does not grow naturally nearer Boston than western Massachusetts; it is common in western New York, and it is the common and often the only species in the southern states in which it grows to the Gulf coast. Owing to an old confusion in determination and names this fine tree, which was originally named by Linnaeus, has been rare in gardens, an entirely different plant having appeared in them under this name. This is also a fine tree, differing conspicuously from A. canadensis in the red color of the young leaves which are destitute or nearly destitute of any hairy covering. By botanists this tree is now called Amelanchier Laevis. It is a native tree in the Arboretum and there are a number of specimens growing naturally on the bank above the Crabapples on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road where it blooms a few days later than Amelanchier canadensis. Another species which is a native plant in the Arboretum, A. obovalis, is a large shrub rather than a tree with young leaves like those of A. canadensis covered with white silky hairs. This shrub has been largely planted in the Arboretum along the drive of the Valley Road near the base of Hemlock Hill. Several other species of the eastern states are established in the Arboretum; these are all shrubs, often spreading into wide clumps. There are other species in the west still to introduce into cultivation, and on the whole the genus is not well understood either in the field or in gardens. Corylopsis is an Asiatic genus of the Witch Hazel Family, with fragrant yellow flowers in long drooping clusters appearing before the leaves which have a general resemblance to those of the Witch Hazel. Nearly all the species are represented in the Arboretum but they are not all hardy, and the flower-buds of the Chinese species are usually killed. Three Japanese species, however, are flowering well this year, C. Gotoana, C. pauciflora, and C. spicata. The first was introduced into the Arboretum from central Japan; it is the hardiest and largest specimen, growing five or six feet tall and broad in this climate. It can be considered one of the handsomest of the early spring-flowering shrubs. The other two species are flowering much better than usual this year but cannot be depended on every spring. Prinsepia sinensis. The value of this handsome shrub becomes more evident every year. It is the first plant in the Arboretum to unfold its leaves; these are already fully grown and the bright yellow flowers are beginning to open. It is a perfectly hardy, fast-growing shrub; the young leaves and the flowers have never been injured by spring frosts, and it can be said that it is the best contribution Mongolia has ever made to our gardens. Prinsepia sinensis has proved difficult to propagate but occasionally produces a few seeds which have germinated. It can be increased, too, by cuttings but it is doubtful if this shrub becomes popular in this country until the Arboretum plants begin to fruit more freely. The second species, Prinsepia uniflora, from western China, with narrower leaves and smaller white flowers, is perfectly hardy but in every way a less desirable ornamental plant. Either species would make an excellent hedge. There is a good collection of wild Pear-trees growing in the Arboretum, especially those from western China, and some of them are among the most beautiful of all flowering trees. To pomologists, too, they are of special interest as the wild types from which the cultivated pears have been derived, and as possible factors in the production of new and perhaps hardier races of fruit trees. There is no native Peartree in Japan or any part of America, but they are common and widely distributed in China, on the Himalayas, in southwestern Asia and in southeastern and southern Europe. The most important Pear-tree but not the most beautiful in flower is Pyrus communis, one of the European species from which the common garden pears have been derived. Some of the species, like Pyrus elaeagrifolia, of southeastern Europe are conspicuous in early spring before the flowers open from the silver color of the leaves, but as ornamental trees some of the Chinese species are better worth cultivating than those from Europe or western Asia. All the Chinese species are now growing in the Arboretum and many of them have large, handsome, lustrous leaves and fruit which is conspicuous. Among the species longest in the Arboretum the handsomest is perhaps P. ovidea, a native of the northern provinces and one of the first in the collection to open its flowers. These are followed by yellow juicy fruit of good flavor which, unlike those of all other Pear-trees, are largest at the base and gradually taper to the apex. Another remarkable thing about this tree is that in the autumn the leaves turn as bright scarlet as those of any Red Maple. As an ornamental tree this Pear-tree deserves the attention of gardeners and its hardiness and the quality of its fruit suggest its possible value in the production of a new race of fruit trees. Another Chinese species, Pyrus Bretschree2deri, is also well worth the attention of pomologists. It is a tree with large lustrous leaves, large flowers and yellow, nearly globose well flavored fruit. This is probably, in part at least, the wild origin of the excellent pears which are sold in Peking during September and October. The brown-fruited Pyrus serotina, one of the species discovered by Wilson in western China, is of particular interest as from this species are derived the round russet pears which in many forms have been so generally cultivated in Japan and are occasionally seen in America. This tree has been growing in the Arboretum since 1887. The Leconte and Keiffer Pears are two hybrids well known in this country where they were raised by crossing the garden Pear with cultivated forms of P. serotina. These hybrids have not proved very hardy in the north, but have been planted in immense numbers in some of the southern states where they produced large crops of fruit until the trees were attacked by the pear blight which has ruined many of these orchards. Pear blight has never attacked Pyrus ovidea, which has been growing for twenty years in the Arboretum, or P. Bretschneideri. Plum-trees. North America is the real home of Plum-trees as it is of Hawthorns. The different species range across the continent from the valley of the St. Lawrence River to the Rio Grande. The species and individuals are most abundant in eastern and southern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, southern Arkansas and Texas from the valley of the Red River to the Edwards Plateau, and the genus is represented in this region by more species than are found in all the world outside of North America. Some of the species are of considerable size and others are large or small shrubs which frequently spread in sandy soil into thickets covering acres. The first of the American Plums to flower in the Arboretum, the so-called Canada Plum, Prunus nigra, has already opened its flowers. This is a northern tree ranging in Canada from New Brunswick through the valley of the St. Lawrence River and along the northern shore of Lake Superior to Winnipeg. It occurs rather sparingly in northern New England, western New York and westward to Montana. It is a handsome little tree with dark close bark, a round-topped head of spreading branches, wide, coarsely-toothed glandular leaves, and large flowers, which unlike those of other American Plumtrees turn pink as they begin to fade. Several forms grown for the excellence of their fruit are cultivated by pomologists. The flowers of Prunus nigra are followed in a few days by those of P. americana, the blue-fruited P. alleghaniensis, a native of southern Connecticut and western Pennsylvania, an interesting species of considerable ornamental value, P. Watsonii, the little Sand Plum of Kansas and Oklahoma, and P. Munsoniana of the Kansas to Texas region, the origin of Wild Goose and many other varieties cultivated for their fruit, and by P. hortulana, a native of the region from southern Illinois to southern Missouri and Oklahoma. This is perhaps the handsomest of the American Plumtrees and one of the last to flower. In cultivation it is a round-topped tree with wide-spreading branches. The flowers are not more than half an inch in diameter and open before the leaves which are narrow, long-pointed and lustrous. The fruit is scarlet, very lustrous, and looks like a large cherry. Forms of this tree, like Golden Beauty, Kanawha, Wayland and Cumberland, are grown and distributed by nurseries as fruit trees, but quite apart from the value of the fruit. The only Asiatic Wild Plum, P. salicina, blooms as early as P. nigra and is now in flower. As an ornamental tree this has no special value but it is esteemed by pomologists and is now widely planted in this country in many forms for its edible red or yellow fruit. The Sugar Maple. The Sugar Maple is again exceptionally fully covered with its long clusters of expanded flowers, and just now is an object of great beauty and interest. A true lover of the country, life in cities and their suburbs has little attraction for the Sugar Maple, one of the most splendid of the whole genus. It needs the free and pure air of the forests and country roadsides, and finds its greatest happiness on the low hills of New England and Michigan, and in the rich protected valleys of the Appalachian Mountains. In such positions few trees surpass it in size or in the splendor of its autumn foliage."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 21","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23794","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25eab27.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 21, 1924 Crabapples. With the exception of Prunus, including the Cherries and Plums, Malus, the generic term of the Apples, is the most widely distributed of the arborescent genera of the Rose Family which extends across the northern hemisphere. Many of these trees will be in bloom this week. The Arboretum collection is a large one and much attention has been paid to it during the last forty years. The flowers of these trees make one of the principal spectacular displays of the year in the Arboretum, and only that made by the Lilacs attracts a larger number of visitors. The only drawback to these plants is their tendency to hybridize. Most of the plants are generally supposed to be species, and none of the species raised from seeds gathered from plants in a large collection like that in the Arboretum resemble their parents, although it is impossible to determine whether the change in the seedlings is due to an earlier cross in the Arboretum plant or to the influence of one of its Arboretum neighbors. The collection here is one of the largest in cultivation, but only five plants have been seen growing with every evidence of species as seeds collected from these wild plants do not differ from those of their parents. These five wild plants in the collection are Malus baccata from eastern Siberia, its variety mandshurica from Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, M. Sargentii and M. Sieboldii var. arborescens from Japan, and M. prunifolia var. rinki, and M. theifera from western China. Malus baccata, which is one of the earliest Crabapples to flower, is a common large wide-spreading tree with white flowers and small green or reddish fruit, and although perfectly hardy is one of the least desirable of the Asiatic Crabapples as a garden plant. It reached western Europe in 1776 and was cultivated as early as 1811 in the Elgin Botanic Garden established by Dr. David Hosack near New York in 1801. A more valuable garden plant is the eastern variety mandshurica which is the earliest Crabapple to flower in this region and which has been covered for several days with its pure white or greenish flowers more fragrant than those of any other Crabapple. It is growing in the group at the base of Bussey Hill where it is a dense bushy tree about sixteen feet tall and nearly as broad. The abundant fruit is round, yellowish, and not much larger than a pea. Malus Sargentii, which was discovered by Professor Sargent on the borders of a salt marsh in the neighborhood of Muroran in northern Japan, is a prostrate shrub with wide-spreading rigid branches which lie flat on the ground. The flowers are borne in umbel-like clusters, are saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruits which remain on the plant until spring unless eaten by the birds. The plants usually sold in this country as M. Sargentii are tree-like in habit with a well-formed stem, short spreading branches and small flowers tinged with pink, and are probably hybrids; and it is possible that the original plants in the Arboretum are the only ones in the United States. Malus Sieboldii was introduced from the gardens of Japan into Europe by Von Siebold in 1853. It is a low dense shrub of spreading habit, with leaves on vigorous branchlets, three-lobed, small flowers tinged with rose in color and small yellow fruits. It is really a dwarf form of a tree which is common on the Korean Island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central and northern Japan and is known as the variety arborescens. The bushy form was sent in 1876 to the Arboretum from France and the tree form was raised from seed collected in Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892. It is a tree often thirty feet or more tall with ascending, wide-spreading branches, white flowers and minute fruit which on some individuals is red and on others yellow. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. Malus prunifolia var. rinki. The wild type of this apple was discovered by Wilson in central China in 1907 and from seeds sent to the Arboretum plants were raised and have been flowering during the last five years. The fruit of this wild apple is longer than broad, yellow with a reddish cheek or entirely red; it is not depressed at the stem as in the common apple. This is the wild parent of the apples long cultivated in the Orient, and as it thrives in the hot moist valleys of central China as well as in the cold region in the neighborhood of Peking and in northern Korea it may prove valuable to pomologists in breeding a new race of apples. It was this apple which has been cultivated in northern China and it was early introduced into Japan where it furnished the apple of commerce until it was replaced in the late 70s by the introduction of American apples. Malus theifera when in flower is the handsomest of the wild Asiatic Crabapples. It is remarkable in habit, with upright, spreading, rather zigzag branches which are densely studded with short spurs which bear numerous clusters of flowers white in the bud, becoming pale and almost white when fully expanded. The specific name is due to the fact that the peasants of central China collect the leaves from which they prepare a palatable beverage called \"red tea.\" This is a distinct addition to the Crabapples of recent introduction and should be better known. Lack of space in this Bulletin prevents a discussion of what little is known of the large number of Asiatic Crabapples which are supposed to be hybrids, and this subject will be taken up in a later Bulletin. The handsomest and best known of these are Malus spectabilis, M. floribunda, M. arnoldiana, and M. micromalus, which are already in flower. Practically nothing is known about these plants beyond the fact that they are among the most beautiful of all additions to our northern gardens. Rhododendron venustum, which is more generally cultivated under the name of R. Jacksonii, has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum since 1908. It has proved perfectly hardy and is now covered with its pink flowers. It is a hybrid of R. arboreum and R. caucasicum, and was raised in England by William Smith at Kingston in 1829, where it blooms from March to May. By English writers on Rhododendrons it is considered one of the most valuable early spring-flowering Rhododendrons for all gardens. It is perfectly hardy and will grow in an exposed position in the poorest soil; it is easily and cheaply raised from layers and probably when better known will be largely used in this country for the edging of beds of broad-leaved evergreen plants. There is in cultivation in England a white-flowered form which originated in Holland, but it is still rare in British gardens and is not yet in the Arboretum. Early Azaleas. Two plants of Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii have been in bloom during the last two or three days on the upper side of Azalea Path. This Azalea grows on exposed grass-covered cliffs on the east coast of Korea with branches clinging to the ground, but far northward in Korea it is sometimes a shrub twelve or fifteen feet high growing under trees or in open dense forests. It grows further northward than any other Asiatic Azalea and only the Rhodora grows further north. The flowers of this Korean Azalea are pale pink marked at the upper base of the corolla with dark spots, and are about three inches in diameter. There can be little doubt of the hardiness of this plant, for in Korea it grows to its largest size where the winter temperature often falls to 30 below zero Fahrenheit, and in the Arboretum it has not been injured by a low temperature. The two largest plants in the Arboretum were raised from seeds collected by Professor Jack in Korea in 1893, but the Arboretum was not the first institution to introduce this plant into European and American gardens, a single plant having been obtained by J. H. Veitch in a Japanese garden in 1892 and sent to England. From this plant were propagated two or three large plants now in this country, one in New Jersey being said to be already fifteen feet in diameter, and occasionally plants have come to the United States at different times from the Yokohama Nursery Company. Mr. Wilson during his journey in Korea in 1917 secured a large quantity of seeds which have been widely distributed by the Arboretum in the United States and Europe, and have produced several thousand plants; and there is every reason to hope therefore that this, the loveliest of the hardy Asiatic Azaleas, will become a common inhabitant of northern gardens. It is rather difficult, however, to transplant when young and it has been found at the Arboretum that the best way to manage it is to pot one-year-old seedlings and grow them in pots for a year before transplanting them to the open ground. Another Korean Azalea is also in flower, or just opening its flowers. This is Rhododendron (Azalea) poukhanense, which was also introduced into the Arboretum from seed collected by Mr. Jack in Korea in 1892. This is a common plant on the bare mountain slopes in the neighborhood of Seoul. As it grows here this Azalea is a low, wide, compact bush which until this year has never failed to cover itself with large, rose-pink flowers which have a strong and pleasant fragrance. It is much liked in the Arboretum but some persons object to the tint of its rose-pink flowers. During the past winter for the first time a good many of the flower-buds have been killed, probably by the extremely cold night in January which did damage to the flower-buds of several plants. There is a large bed of the original plants of this Azalea on the upper side of Azalea Path which has recently been increased by seedlings, which are not difficult to raise. The plants ripen good crops of seed and there is no reason why it should not become more common in gardens than it is at present. Double-flowered Cherry-trees. A few of these Japanese trees are flowering well; the largest and handsomest of them is the specimen of Prunus Lannes2ana form ochichima now growing in the Peter's Hill Nursery, which was received from the Spath Nursery at Berlin in 1911. This tree is now very beautiful with its large pale pink flowers. There are smaller plants of this form among the Cherries on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road, where too are blooming three double-flowered forms of the Japanese Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis which are among the most beautiful and satisfactory of all these trees which can be grown in Massachusetts. The form fugenso, now often cultivated under the name of James H. Veitch, is one of the most beautiful of all double-flowered Cherry-trees. The flowers are rose-pink and are distinguished by two leaf-life carpels. Another form, alba-rosea, also with two leaf like carpels, has flowers pink in the bud, becoming white as they open. The third is the form sekiyama; this blooms later than many of the other forms and has large double, rich rose-colored flowers. Mr. Wilson, who has had the best possible opportunity to see the double-flowered Cherry-trees growing in Japan, considers this the handsomest of them all. A large collection of these double-flowered Cherry-trees was planted two years ago on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, but the plants are still small and only a few of them are showing occasional flowers this year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23795","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25eab6a.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 24, 1924 Lilacs are late in blooming this year but are now fast opening their flowers, and it is possible that Sunday, the 25th, will bring the largest number of visitors of the year to the Arboretum. The earliest species to flower, Syringa pinnatifolia, was in bloom on the 12th of May; this is a small compact shrub with small clusters of white flowers valuable only for their fragrance. Syringa hyacinthiflora was in flower at about the same time; this is an interesting hybrid between the Chinese S. oblata and some form of S. vulgaris. It is a large, well-shaped bush with good foliage and small clusters of double bluish-purple flowers which are extremely fragrant. This plant is worth more general cultivation as an interesting hybrid and for its early fragrant flowers. Although many species, chiefly from China, and several hybrids have found a place in a few gardens, when Lilacs are spoken of it is Syringa vulgaris and its numerous varieties which are usually referred to. This shrub was planted on land now occupied by the Arboretum as early probably as 1815 when Mr. Benjamin Bussey built his house and planted his garden along the summit of Bussey Hill. He planted a row of purple and white Lilacs along his garden walk and either the original plants or suckers from them have now grown into dense tall hedges on each side of the path and still bloom profusely. It is now known that Syringa vulgaris came originally from the mountains of Bulgaria, and that it reached western Europe by the way of Constantinople in 1597. The date of its introduction into the United States is not known, but it was a common garden plant here before the end of the eighteenth century as Washington planted it at Mt. Vernon in 1785. The plants raised from seed collected from the wild plant in Bulgaria are in the Arboretum collection which contains now one hundred and eighty-six named varieties. Hardly a week passes without a letter addressed to the Arboretum asks for the names of the best six or twenty-five Lilacs. All the varieties are handsome plants, and persons rarely agree about their individual value. Some persons prefer flowers of one color and other persons prefer flowers of another color; some persons like the Lilacs with double flowers and others dislike them. All the forms of the garden Lilac have practically the same habit and foliage, and the same inconspicuous fruit; they all bloom freely every year, and breeding and selection have not influenced their perfume. There is considerable variation in the size of the individual flowers; the double flowers open generally a little later than the single flowers and last longer. There is little difference in the time of flowering of all these varieties. The size of the flower-cluster varies somewhat on the different forms; it is larger on young plants than on old ones, and it can always be enlarged by severe pruning which increases the vigor of the flower-bearing branches. Many persons who visit the Arboretum find that Bussey's old Lilacs are more beautiful than the more recent Lemoine creations because they are the ones which have long been common in gardens and beloved by generations of New Englanders. A choice of these Lilacs is largely a matter of taste and color, and the Arboretum, in the hope of helping some of its correspondents, offers the following fifty as a good selection of these plants. They are all growing in the Arboretum collection where they bloom usually every year and most of them can now be found in American nurseries: SINGLE VARIETIES: WHITE, Madame Florent Stepman, Madame Moser, Princess Alexandra, Vestale; PALE, speciosa, spectabilis, Clara Cochet, Lucie Baltet, macrostachya; MEDIUM, Amethyst, Charles X., Furst Lichtenstein, Gloire de Moulins, Marlyensis pallida, Pyramidal, Ronsard, Saturnale, Triomphe d'Orleans, Ville de Troyes; DARK, Congo, Diderot, Laplace, Marceau, Montgolfier, Negro, Philemon, Professor Sargent, Reaumur, Turenne, Volcan, Edmond Boissier. DOUBLE VARIETIES: WHITE, Edith Cavell, Madame Abel Chatenay, Madame Casimir Perier, Princess Clementine; PALE, Leon Gambetta; MEDIUM, Dr. Masters, Due de Massa, Jules Ferry, Julien Gerardin, Marechal de Bassompierre, Marechal Lannes, Maurice de Vilmorin, Olivier de Serres, Rene Jarry-Desloges, Desfontaines, Gaudichaud, President Fallieres, President Loubet, Thunbergi; DARK, Paul Thirion, Violetta, Georges Bellair. In the next issue of this Bulletin a few notes will appear on some of the other species and hybrids of Syringa. Azalea (Rhododendron) lutea. This Azalea produced its fragrant yellow flowers here for the first time in 1909 from seed collected by Dr. Schneider on the Caucasus and is only again covered with flowers this year which have been open for several days. It is remarkable that they are uninjured, although those of Azalea poukhanense have suffered for the first time, as have the flowers of Rhododendron mucronulatum which have been nearly all killed although this northern China deciduous-leaved plant has been growing in the Arboretum since 1885; it was raised from seed collected near Peking and has never before lost a flower-bud. If the flower-buds of Azalea lutea were hardier this would be one of the most delightful of all Azaleas as the flowers are charming in color and more fragrant perhaps than those of any other Azalea. The plants of this Azalea are growing on the lower side of Azalea Path below the group of Enkianthus. Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi is the earliest of American Azaleas to bloom with the exception of the Rhodora, and one of the best introductions of recent years. It is a tall shrub with slender stems and open irregular habit. It grows naturally only in a few isolated mountain valleys in South Carolina where it sometimes reaches a height of fifteen feet. The flowers appear before the leaves in small compact clusters and are pure pink in color, white flowers occasionally appearing. There are large clumps of this Azalea near the end of the Meadow Road which are just now opening their petals. The Rhodora (Rhododendron canadense), which is also in flower, is probably the least ornamental of all the North American Azaleas. The small flowers are rose-purple in color but when this shrub covers, as it sometimes does, hundreds of acres of swampy ground in extreme northern New England and eastern Canada it makes an attractive show. Chaenomeles. This is the generic name now given to the red-flowered Quince which was formerly known as Pyrus japonica. It has been in American gardens for many years and at one time was one of the most popular plants here, especially in the middle and southern states where it is still common. It is not rare in New England, although perhaps less common here than southward. Occasionally the flower-buds suffer here in severe winters and the plants need constant attention to protect them from the San Jose scale which commonly infests this Quince. Although first introduced into Europe from Japanese gardens it is not a Japanese but a Chinese plant, and the correct name for it is Chaenomeles lagenaria. There is a collection of garden varieties of this Quince, chiefly raised in Germany, in the Shrub Collection, and it is several years since the plants have been so full of flowers. The varieties differ in the color of the flowers and in the size and shape of the plants. The most conspicuous when it is in bloom is the var. Simonii, of dwarf habit and with intensely scarlet flowers. The white flowers of var. nivalis attract attention, as do the red flowers of the var. cardinalis. These varieties are little known in the United States and plants are difficult to obtain. Another species of the so-called red-flowered Quince, which is a native of Japan and a smaller and hardier shrub than the Chinese species, with smaller flowers and fruits and often semiprostrate stems, often called in gardens Pyrus Maulei, is rightly named Chaenomeles japonica. There is a dwarf variety of this plant with smaller flowers and fruits which is an excellent subject for the rock garden. Chaenomeles japonica has been growing in the Arboretum since 1893 when it was raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent on the mountains of Hondo. A hybrid of the Chinese and Japanese species raised in Switzerland several years ago has received the name of Chaenomeles superba. There are several named varieties of this hybrid in the Arboretum differing in the color of the flowers. Of these those named rosea, perfecta and alba are perhaps the most interesting. Berberis Dielsiana, which was raised from seeds collected by Purdom in the province of Shensi, in China, is one of the handsomest and most vigorous of the Barberries of recent introduction. The largest plant in the Arboretum is growing among the new Chinese Barberries on Bussey Hill where it is already eight or nine feet tall and broad. It is one of the species with flowers in drooping racemes like those of the common Barberry. It is not only a vigorous and handsome plant but is valuable for its early flowers which have opened in the Arboretum as early as the middle of April. It first flowered here in 1916 and is now in bloom. This Barberry deserves the attention of persons interested in early flowering shrubs. Sorbus auricularis var. bulbiformis. This interesting bi-generic hybrid is flowering remarkably well this year on the left hand side and close to the Forest Hills Gate. Sorbus auricularis, formerly called in Europe the Bollwyller Pear, is a deciduous-leaved tree from twenty to sixty feet high, forming a round bushy head, with ovate or oval leaves rounded or heart-shaped at base, covered above with loose early deciduous down, and flowers from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. The fruit is pear-shaped, an inch to an inch and a quarter long and wide, red, each on a stalk from an inch to an inch and a half long, with sweet yellowish flesh. It is said to have originated at Bollwyller in Alsace, and was first mentioned by Bauhin as early as 1619. For three hundred years it has been propagated by grafts, for it produces few fertile seeds. The variety in the Arboretum, sometimes called Pyrus malifolia and Sorbopyrus malifolia, differs chiefly from the type in its broadly top-shaped fruit two inches long and wide and deep yellow when ripe. Spach named and described this tree as Pyrus malifolia in 1834 and said that the original specimen at that time grew in the garden of the King of France in Paris, and was thirty feet or more high. This and the Bollwyller Pear are certainly little known in this country and deserve a place in all collections of flowering trees."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23796","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25eaf6c.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 29. 1924 Crabapples form one of the largest and most beautiful of the Arboretum groups of trees and during the last forty years a great deal of attention has been paid to it here; but the Arboretum contains many handsome but still very imperfectly known plants. It has failed to obtain a plant of the type of Malus pumila, a native of eastern Europe and western Asia, although it has a collection of numerous forms or hybrids of this plant. The species is the most valuable tree in the world as it is the origin of the orchard apples now cultivated in all the temperate parts of the world and produces high class fruit over a larger area than any other tree, and the wild type of such a tree, the origin of innumerable varieties of the apples of commerce, should certainly find a place in every Arboretum worthy of the name. This type does not appear to be in any European garden and no one seems to know exactly where it grows. To find it an expedition will have to be made especially for the purpose to some remote region of eastern Turkestan. It has not been possible, too, to obtain yet a plant of the wild form of Malus sylvestris, the species of western Europe which has also been more or less used in the development of the orchard apple and is greatly needed here. Hybrid Crabapples. The handsomest Crabapples in the collection are hybrids, at least they are nowhere known as wild plants and do not reproduce themselves from seeds, and can only be propagated by buds or grafts. The first of these supposed hybrids to reach Europe was Malus spectabilis which was sent from Canton to England in 1780. It appears to have been widely cultivated in Chinese gardens and flourishes in those of Peking. It was growing in the Elgin Botanic Garden near the city of New York in 1811 and has been in this Arboretum since 1889. Early in the last century when it was the only Asiatic Crabapple cultivated in this country it was often found here, but fifty or sixty years ago was largely replaced by more recent introductions. Malus spectabilis is one of the largest of the Asiatic Crabapples in the collection, growing here to the height of from twenty-five to thirty feet and forming a wide vase-shaped crown of numerous spreading and ascending branchlets. The flowers are pale pink, single or semi-double, and very fragrant. The abundant fruit is pale yellow, nearly globose, and an inch in diameter. One of its parents is undoubtedly Malus rinki, the edible Chinese apple. It is hard to form even a guess at its other parent. Malus micromalus, which is distinct in its pyramidal habit and early flowers, is possibly a hybrid of M. spectabilis. This plant is cultivated in Japan under the name of \"Kaido\" under which it has been growing in the Arboretum since 1888 when plants were first obtained from the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. In habit it is one of the most distinct of all Crabapples and well worthy of a place in every collection of these plants. It is growing both along the Forest Hills Road and in the group at the base of Peter's Hill, but the petals fell nearly a week ago. Malus Scheideckeri is also probably a hybrid of M. spectabilis, and possibly of M. micromalus. It originated in Germany several years ago, and has been in this Arboretum since 1889. It is a small pyramidal tree with small flowers produced in great abundance. Malus floribunda is now perhaps the most popular in this country of these supposed hybrids. It has generally been supposed to be a Japanese plant but it is not yet known there as a wild tree. It was found by Von Siebold in 1853 in a garden in Nagasaki and sent by him to Europe. Trees of this Crabapple imported from England in 1874 were planted in exceptionally deep and rich soil in the garden at Holm Lea, Brookline, and have become the largest and handsomest Crabapples in the United States, never failing to flower and produce great crops of fruit every year. The oldest plants in this Arboretum were raised from buds taken in 1876 from the plant in Francis Parkman's garden in Jamaica Plain. Japanese botanists confounded Malus floribunda with the Parkman Crab, Malus Halleana, probably another hybrid of a pyramidal growth and red flowers, which Wilson did not find in Japanese gardens. M. floribunda is a broad, round-topped, tree-like shrub sometimes twenty-five feet tall, with stout branches and slender, arching and pendant branchlets. The clusters of flowers are white when fully expanded and rose-red in the bud, and as they open in succession the two colors make a handsome contrast. The fruit is about the size of a pea, yellowish or yellowish brown on some plants and falls in early autumn, but on several seedlings raised at the Arboretum growing near the Administration Building the fruit remains on the branches until spring and supplies the birds with an abundant supply of food. These trees are evidently hybrids. Another hybrid possibly with M. robusta appeared here with a lot of seedlings of M. floribunda in 1883 and has been named M. arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of M. floribunda but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large. It is a handsomer plant than M. ftorz6unda, distinguished by its long arching branches, and is perhaps the most beautiful Crabapple in the Arboretum. The tendency of M. floribunda to produce hybrids is well shown in one of the parks of the city of Rochester, N. Y., in which there are growing several trees raised from seeds gathered several years ago from one plant. These Rochester seedlings now produce abundant crops of fruit; this varies on different trees from the size of a small pea to an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter. On some of the trees it is bright yellow, on others bright red and on others red and yellow. There is less difference in the flowers, but the leaves vary on the different plants in shape and in the absence of the covering of hairs. Most of these trees are worth descriptive names which have not yet been given to them, and show what endless work is before nurserymen who endeavor to raise Crabapples from the seeds of plants growing in large collections. Malus atrosangu2nea, judging by its habit, is another hybrid of M. floribunda, from which it differs in the bright red color of the flowers. Very little is known about the origin of this plant. It is said to have originated in the Spath Nursery in Berlin, and has been growing since 1889 in the Arboretum when it was obtained from the Knaphill Nursery at Woking, England. There are two trees in the Peter's Hill group and they have never before been so beautiful, and no other Crabapple has such brilliant red flowers. Lilacs. When the Arboretum was founded, in addition to Syringa vulgaris and its varieties, there were only in this country the Himalayan S. emodi, the Hungarian S. Josikaea, and the better known S. persica. There are now growing in the Arboretum twenty-five species of Lilacs and four hybrids and their forms. Three or four species found in remote parts of China and described by botanists have not yet been introduced into gardens, and by the use of some of the recently introduced species plant breeders may be able to produce new races which may add new and valuable varieties for the makers of gardens. Syringa persica was known in England as early as 1658 and has been for a long time an inhabitant of American gardens. It is a beautiful hardy plant with slender, drooping, wide-spreading branches, narrower leaves than those of the common Lilacs and small, fragrant, lavender-colored flowers in short compact clusters. There is a variety with white flowers and another with lacinately lobed leaves. For years it was universally believed that because Linnaeus had named it Syringa persica that it was a native of Persia or of some country adjacent to Persia. Meyer collecting in China in 1915 found quantities of a Lilac covering hillsides in Kansu, and plants raised from seeds of this Lilac have flowered and proved identical with the lobed-leaf form of S. persica. As there is no wild specimen of the Persian Lilac in any of the great herbaria collected in Persia or other parts of western Asia it is probable that the Persian Lilac is really a Chinese plant which was early carried into the western part of the continent. The first hybrid Lilac appeared in the Botanic Garden at Rouen in 1810, and was the result of crossing Syringa vulgaris and S. persica. It is one of the most valuable of all Lilacs and grows into a bush ten feet high and broad and of rather open habit. It is very hardy and blooms freely every year, and deserves a place in every garden where Lilacs are grown. The flowers resemble those of the Persian Lilacs, but are longer and produced in massive clusters sometimes two feet in length and so heavy that the slender branches can hardly support them; they are reddish purple, and there are forms with darker red flowers and with nearly white flowers. This Lilac, which has often been called Syringa rothomagensis, unfortunately through a misunderstanding of its origin, must be called S. chinensis if the oldest name is used for it. Among the twenty-three species of Syringa introduced by the Arboretum the most beautiful to many persons is S. pubescens, which was first raised in the Arboretum in 1883 from seeds sent by Dr. Bret schneider from Peking. It is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and broad clusters of small, pale mauve flowers with a long slender corolla-tube. For its fragrance, which is more pungent and delightful than that of any other Lilac, Syringa pubescens should find a place in every northern garden. Plants in the United States have failed to produce seeds and as this species has proved unusually difficult to increase by cuttings it has remained one of the rarest Lilacs in American gardens It can be increased by grafting, and sooner or later fertile seeds will be found on some of the large plants growing in the Arboretum. Dr. Bretschneider sent to the Arboretum at the same time seeds of Syringa villosa, another excellent garden plant. It is a large round-topped bush from ten to twelve feet tall and wide, with large, broad, elliptic to oblong leaves, bright green and dull on the upper surface and pale below, and broad or narrow clusters of flesh-colored or nearly white flowers which have the rather disagreeable odor of those of the Privet. It blooms freely every year, and the flowers do not open until those of most of the other Lilacs have faded. The hybrid Syringa Henryi was obtained by the French gardener Henry by crossing the Hungarian S. Josikaea with S. villosa. These are both late flowering species as is the hybrid between them. Plants of this hybrid are large, vigorous, perfectly hardy and grow rapidly. The leaves resemble those of S villosa, but the flowers are violet-purple or reddish purple and arranged in clusters from twelve to fifteen inches long and broad. The handsomest perhaps of this race, which has been named \"Lutece,\" has deep violet-purple flowers and is one of the most beautiful of all Lilacs. \"Eximia,\" another of these hybrids, has not grown here to as large a size as \"Lutece\" but is one of the handsomest late flowering plants in the collection with reddish flowers which later become pink. The greatest show of Lilacs will be at the end of the present week, but some of the species, especially the group of Tree Lilacs from China and Japan, will not be in bloom for two or three weeks. The earliest of the Magnolias which flower after the leaves open, the American Magnolia Fraseri, is already in bloom, as are several of the Horse-chestnuts, including the American Ohio Buckeye, Aesculus glabra, and many American Hawthorns. Flowers still make some of the Amelanchiers and Plum-trees attractive, and probably the last two days of May and the first Sunday in June will see more flowers in the Arboretum than on any other days during the year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 10","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23790","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24e856b.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 10, 1924 Hawthorns. A large number of these trees and shrubs are now in bloom; a few have shed their petals and others will not be in flower for nearly a month. This genus is chiefly confined to eastern North America where it abounds from Nova Scotia to eastern Texas; it is rare in the western part of the continent, and only a few species have been found in Asia and Europe. In 1892, when the second volume of Sargent's Silva of North America was published, fourteen species, including one shrub, were described, and in the second edition of Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North America published in 1921 there are figures and descriptions of one hundred and fifty-three arborescent species. A few of the larger specimens are growing along the parkway wall between the Jamaica Plain and the Forest Hills entrances, but the greatest part of the collection occupies the eastern slope of Peter's Hill where several hundred species are now established. This collection was begun in 1899, and the discovery and description of most of the species, the raising from seeds here of at least fifty thousand of these plants, and the distribution of most of them to other scientific establishments and gardens in all parts of this country and Europe can perhaps be considered the greatest achievement of the Arboretum in the first half century of its existence. Many of the American species are good garden plants; most of them are hardy in New England, and they grow rapidly into usually round-topped, small trees or shrubs. They flower freely nearly every year; the fruit of many of the species is ornamental, and on a few of them it remains in good condition well into the winter or until spring. Unlike most of the genera of the Rose Family, Crataegus shows little or no tendency to hybridize, and among all the plants which have been raised in the Arboretum during the last twenty-five years no individual which suggests hybrid origin has been noticed. Until the beginning of this century little attention had been paid to these plants by American botanists or gardeners. Some of the species were first named and described from plants cultivated in Europe, and one very distinct and interesting group of small shrubs, the Intricatae, named for a plant growing in the Botanic Garden in Copenhagen; of this group ninety species are now recognized and most of them will flower in the Arboretum during the next few days. The species of this group are most abundant in western Massachusetts and in New York, Pennsylvania and Michigan, that is in that part of the country which eighty or one hundred years ago was familiar to the most keen-eyed, industrious and systematic botanists and plant collectors which this country has produced. One hundred and fifty years ago or more, the so-called English Hawthorn, or May, was more often planted here than any of the native species, and it was with this plant that Washington struggled to make a hedge at Mt. Vernon; an excellent gardener, he probably did not realize that the seeds of Crataegus do not germinate until they have been allowed to remain for two years in the ground, and as the seedlings did not appear when he expected them he dug up the seed-bed and planted something else. The two species of western Europe, Crataegus oxyacantha and C. monogyna, and many of their varieties, are established in the Arboretum. These are the only foreign species which have ever been naturalized in North America where they are now abundant in some parts of Nova Scotia. Forms of this species with scarlet and pink flowers are conspicuous and are the only Hawthorns with colored flowers. The most beautiful, however, of all the foreign Thorns known in the Arboretum is C. pinnatifida from eastern Siberia and northern China. The large, deeply divided leaves make this one of the handsomest of the whole genus; the flowers are large and produced in profusion. A form of this species with larger leaves and much larger fruit (var. major) is cultivated in orchards as a fruit tree in the neighborhood of Peking. It flowers and produces its fruit here abundantly every year. One of the earliest, if not the earliest American species to flower, Crataegus arnoldiana, was discovered growing wild in the Arboretum on the wooded bank in the rear of the Bussey Institution. It grows also on the banks of the Mystic River in West Medford, Massachusetts, and near New London, Connecticut. This is one of the handsomest of the American Hawthorns and belongs to the Molles Group, which consists of trees distinguished by their large size, large early flowers which usually open with the unfolding of the leaves, and by the large, often edible, scarlet or rarely yellow fruits. That of C. arnoldiana ripens late in August or early in September and fruit can be found on other species of the group a little later in the year. There are several species of this tree growing from the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec to Texas. They now are, however, more numerous in the region west of the Mississippi River and are almost entirely wanting in the southeastern states. In winter this tree is easily recognized by its upright growth, and distinctly zigzag branches which are more thickly covered with spines than those of many of the related species. At the South Street entrance there are large plants of three other species of this group, C. mollis from the Ohio-Illinois region, C. arkansana from central Arkansas, and C. submollis, a New England and Canada tree. The flowering of all these has passed. Of other species which have already grown to a large size in the Arboretum and proved desirable garden plants in the old collection near the parkway wall are now a number which are large enough to show their value. Among them are C. coccinioides, which is a round-headed tree from the neighborhood of St. Louis, with large flowers in very compact, nearly globose clusters, and large, round, red fruit ripening in the early autumn. In this collection, too, is the Cockspur Thorn, Crataegus Crus-galli, which has been more generally cultivated than any other American species, and is now the type of one of the most distinct groups in which the genus has been divided: C. nitida, a flat-topped tree with wide-spreading branches and lustrous leaves, comparatively small flowers and abundant fruit; the lustre of the leaves which turn brilliantly in the autumn and the habit of the tree make it one of the handsomest of the Thorns which can be cultivated in this climate. C. pruinosa, C. aprica and C. succulenta are also well represented here, and are good examples of three large and distinct groups. C. pruinosa is a small tree with smooth bluish green leaves, large flowers made conspicuous by the large, rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens and globose fruit, bright green and covered with a glaucous bloom when fully grown and turning scarlet late in the autumn. In all eastern North America there are few Thorns handsomer than this. C. aprica is interesting as one of the few hardy representatives of the Flavae Group which is entirely confined to the southeastern states with a few representatives ascending into the valleys of the southern Appalachian Mountains. It is not one of the handsomest species of the group for the flowers are not so large as those of many others, and the anthers of the ten stamens are yellow. C. succulenta is a showy representative of the Tomentosae Group which is one of the handsomest of the northern groups and is especially beautiful in autumn when the branches are covered with large clusters of drooping scarlet fruit. Two black-fruited species here are the C. Douglasii from Washington and Oregon, and C. rivularis from the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Many of the species in the collection on Peter's Hill are already large enough to show their character and value, especially those of the Intricatae Group. Early Roses. Three interesting Roses are already in bloom. The first, Rosa Ecae, less beautiful when in flower than Rosa Hugonis, is a native of Afghanistan, where it is common on dry mountain ridges, and of Samarkand, is well worth a place in a collection of Roses for the species with yellow flowers which are hardy in this climate are few in number. Rosa Ecae is a spiny shrub with small leaves which are delightfully fragrant throughout the season, and pale yellow flowers not more than an inch and a quarter in diameter. Rosa Hugonis. Few plants sent from China to our northern gardens equal this rose in grace and beauty. The long arching branchlets are so equally covered with flowers from end to end that the petals touch and make a continuous band of pale yellow. Individual flowers are about two and a half inches in diameter and have a delicate perfume. The leaves are small and pale green. Perhaps no other single-flowered rose is so beautiful, although the Cherokee Rose (R. laevigata) another Chinese Rose naturalized in the southern states, has handsomer foliage and larger flowers, but the flowers of the Cherokee Rose are white and not produced in such profusion. Rosa Hugonis has become popular in this country in a surprisingly short time and can now be found in quantity in many nurseries. Rosa omeiensis is also in flower. It is a vigorous shrub with stems covered with prickles and pure white fragrant flowers hardly more than an inch in diameter, borne at the ends of short lateral spikes, and bright red ellipsoidal fruit on stout, elongated, yellow, fleshy stalks and very showy. This Rose is common on the mountains of western China at altitudes of six thousand to eleven thousand feet above the sea, and sometimes grows twenty feet tall and forms great thickets. The name is derived from that of one of the sacred mountains of China, Mt. Omei, where it is common. The largest plant in the Arboretum is in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with other Roses raised from seed collected by Wilson in western China. Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes. This is a good time to visit the collection of these trees which are grouped on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. The collection is nearly a complete one and contains all the American species and hybrids but the red-flowered Aesculus Pavia from the southeastern states and the Californian species which are not hardy, the two Chinese species and the species from the Himalayas. The original Horsechestnut, Aesculus Hippocastanum, is the handsomest of the whole genus and one of the most beautiful trees in the world. It was brought to America at least one hundred years ago and there are many noble specimens in cities and towns of the eastern states. The Himalayan Horsechestnut and the species of central China are not hardy here, and the Arboretum has not succeeded in obtaining seeds of the north China species, Aesculus chinensis, which will probably flourish in this latitude. A new Crabapple. One of the most beautiful when in flower of all the trees which have ever bloomed in the Arboretum is now flowering in the Peter's Hill Group where several species of the American Malus are found. It is a double or semi-double form of the American Malus coronaria which was found a few years ago in the woods near Waukegan, Illinois, and was named the Charlotte Apple in honor of the wife of the discoverer. The Arboretum plant is still very small but would have been larger if it had not been broken down by boys two years ago. The flowers are fragrant, about two inches in diameter, with two rows of pale pink petals and far handsomer than those of the now well known Bechtel Crab, the double-flowered variety of another American species now in full bloom."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 18","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23791","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24e896c.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 18, 1924 Evergreen Rhododendrons. The plants called Rhododendrons which have been chiefly cultivated in Massachusetts during the past fifty or sixty years have been imported from England, where they have been immensely popular, and are usually called \"Catawbiense Hybrids.\" They are hybrids of the Appalachian R. catawbiense which is perfectly hardy in New England, with handsome foliage and rather unattractive pale purple flowers, and primarily with the scarlet-flowered Himalayan R. arborescens. Hundreds at least of these hybrids and varieties have been raised in Europe and many can be grown in this region. They require, however, specially prepared soil, frequent and copious watering, mulching with leaves, and spraying to protect them from the attacks of the lace-leaf fly which left to itself turns the leaves brown and finally kills them. The plants are all grafted, and the only Rhododendron which has yet been successfully tried for this purpose is R. ponticum of the Black Sea region which is not hardy in New England. The wood of the two large-growing eastern American species which should be the natural stock for these hybrids is not available for this purpose as it is too hard. Some of these hybrids if well taken care of here live for many years, but die sooner or later owing, it is now believed, to the tenderness of the stock on which they have been grafted. It looks now as if plants obtained by layering branches of the plants grafted on R. pont1cum would be the only way to secure permanent plants of the Catawbiense Hybrids. As it is there are no shrubs on which so much money has been spent in New England with such meagre and unsatisfactory results. The handsomest species of Rhododendron flowering in the Arboretum is the Caucasian R. Smirnowii, which is now covered with large clusters of pink flowers. It is a large vigorous shrub which has been growing here for several years and has never suffered from cold nor failed to bloom. When the plant is fully exposed to the sun, however, the leaves often drop and their edges in-fold, and it does better in partial shade. The leaves are pale grayish green above, and below are thickly covered with pale felt which successfully protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly. The flowers are of good size and of pleasant shades of pink, and are borne in large clusters. As compared with the dark green leaves of R. catawbiense those of this species are less attractive. Several hybrids of R. Smirnowii with varieties of R. catawbiense have been raised in Europe, and there are a few of these in the Arboretum collection. They have proved to be good garden plants here, flowering rather earlier than R. Smirnowii itself and producing larger pink flowers; they have never been injured in the Arboretum, but as there is only a trace of the felt left on their leaves they will probably suffer from the attacks of the lace-wing fly. The four species of eastern North America, R. minus, R. punctatum, R. catawbiense and R. maximum are perfectly hardy. The first is a dwarf plant from the high Appalachian Mountains with rose-pink flowers, and one of the handsomest of the dwarf Rhododendrons which can be grown in this climate. It has only been recognized in recent years but is becoming popular and can now be found in large quantities in several North American nurseries. There is a white variety which is a much less attractive plant. R. punctatum blooms later than the so-called Catawbiense Hybrids, and although a larger plant than R. carolinianum with slightly larger pink flowers is not as good a garden plant for the flowers, like those of R. maximum, are hidden by the shoots of the year which rise above them. Comparatively few seedlings of R. carolinianum have ever been raised and apparently not much attention has been paid to selecting from the plants growing on the high Appalachian peaks individuals with flowers of unusual colors. It is perhaps the hardiest of all Rhododendrons; the habit is excellent, and the leaves are handsomer than those of the other hardy species. Improvement in the color of the flower is all that is needed to make it a first-rate plant for this climate. Experiments with seedling plants of this species are certainly worth making. Rhododendron maximum is the most northern of the eastern North American Rhododendrons and is not rare in some parts of New England. In the valleys of the southern mountains it is sometimes a bushy tree up to forty feet in height, but in the north it is much smaller, and is distributed in isolated stations from Nova Scotia through New England and eastern New York to Pennsylvania; from Pennsylvania southward along the Appalachian Mountains it is very abundant at low altitudes, often covering the slopes of narrow valleys with impenetrable thickets. The flowers are white or pale rose color and produced in rather compact clusters which as the flowers do not open until late in June or early in July are a good deal hidden by the branches of the year which rise above them. The long comparative narrow leaves sometimes a foot in length make this Rhododendron valuable in a climate in which few broad-leaved evergreen plants can be successfully grown. Rhododendron caucasicum is a dwarf, white-flowered species which is still little known in this country. The variety called Boule de Neige is much used in Europe as a stock plant for its varieties and hybrids, and is growing in the Arboretum. Another variety or hybrid about which we practically know nothing beyond the fact that it is hardy and one of the most beautiful of all dwarf Rhododendrons is called Mont Blanc. The flowers of this are pink when they open but soon turn pure white. In 1908 the Arboretum imported from T. J. Seidel, the well known nurseryman at Schwepnitz, near Dresden, a set of Rhododendrons which are the most promising hybrids which have ever been in the Arboretum where practically nothing is known about their origin except that they show evidences of the blood of R. caucasicum. They are dwarf compact plants which bloom every year a week or ten days earlier than the Catawbiense Hybrids and are perfectly hardy. No indication of their parentage is given in the names which are: Adalbert, Adam, Alarich, Albert, Annedore, Arno, Attila, August, Anton, Bella, Bismarck, Boule de Neige, Calliope, Daisy, Desiderius, Diana, Donar, Echse, Eli, Eva, Fee and Viola. We do not know of any plants under these names except those in the Arboretum, and an effort will be made to find out from the raiser their parentage. Although much smaller both in the size of the flower-clusters and that of the plant, they are much more satisfactory in this climate than any of the Catawbiense Hybrids. Unfortunately they can no longer be imported from Europe, but it may be possible to obtain stock on which they can be propagated, and of course good varieties may be obtained from seeds. On the whole this race is the most promising for New England and best worth the attention of growers. Many of the varieties are still in flower and others are fading. Lonicera Maximowiczii var. sachalinensis. Although this shrub has been known to science for a number of years, it was introduced into cultivation by Wilson who collected seeds at the base of the Diamond Mountains in northern Korea in August, 1917, where it grows as a shrub four or five feet high with erect branches. It is distinguished from the better known Lonicera Maximowiczii, which is widely distributed through northeastern Asia and has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for many years, by its leaves which are bright red as they unfold and glaucous and glabrous on the lower surface. Last year it had a few flowers but this year the plant in the Shrub Collection is covered with its scarlet, long-stalked flowers which will be followed by red fruit. This as it is growing this year is one of the handsomest of the new introductions and a plant which should be known to the lovers of beautiful shrubs. Lonicera Maackii, which is a native of northern China, is covered just now with its large white flowers, and in bloom is a handsomer plant than the variety podocarpa discovered by Wilson in western China. This is almost a tree with small white flowers but brilliant red fruit which ripens while the leaves are still green in the autumn, the green leaves making a beautiful contrast with the fruit, and for autumn decoration make it one of the most desirable of all fruit-bearing small trees or shrubs. The largest plant in the collection is among the Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Another Asiatic Honeysuckle, Lonicera Morrowii of the Amour region in eastern Siberia, is a plant of great decorative value if sufficient space for its development can be provided for it. It has gray-green foliage, comparatively large yellowish flowers and bright red fruits. It is largely planted in the Boston Parks and in Franklin Park there are specimens which are twenty feet across and probably ten or twelve feet high. Like other Bush Honeysuckles, L. Morrowii hybridizes easily with other species, and most of the plants raised from seeds now sold by American nurserymen under this name are hybrids of this species with L. tatarica and are erect-growing plants of little value for those who want plants with the peculiar habit of L. Morrowii. Two trees which add beauty and interest to the Arboretum at this time are two Viburnums, the eastern American Viburnums, V. prunifolium, which is already dropping its flowers, and V. Lentago, a bush-like tree sometimes thirty feet high. Not many small trees are more useful than these American Viburnums for the decoration of American parks and gardens, and nurserymen fortunately recognize this fact and now grow them in large quantities, especially V. Lentago which is the more northern species of the two. The flowers of V. prunifolium are whiter than those of V. Lentago which are faintly tinged with yellow, but the flower-clusters and leaves of the latter are larger. V. prunifolium is more apt to grow with a single trunk than V. Lentago which is often a large arborescent shrub and is a more southern species. Magnolia Watsonii is a shrub first found in a Japanese nursery and is unknown as a wild plant. Its relationship is with M. parviflora, a small Japanese tree which grows as far north as Korea. The Arboretum has plants raised from seeds gathered in Korea by Wilson which have not yet flowered but which ought to be hardier than the Japanese plant which is not very satisfactory here. M. Watsonia has usually not been hardy in the Arboretum but this year there is a plant on Hickory Path near Centre Street covered with blossoms which are extremely fragrant, differing in this from M. parviflora, and in its larger flowers and shorter flower-stalks. When better known it may prove to be only a variety of M. parviflora. Daphne genkwa is one of the beautiful shrubs discovered by Wilson in western China. It is not a success in eastern Massachusetts but this year there is a plant in the Arboretum with a few flowers. On Cape Cod and Long Island it grows into a fine shapely round-topped bush with bluish fragrant flowers which are followed by yellow fruit. It is still very rare in gardens. If the fruit on the few plants known in the United States is distributed in good hands it should in the course of a few years be common on Cape Cod and southward."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 24","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23792","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25ea36e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 24, 1924 Catawbiense Hybrid Rhododendrons. The first of the so-called Catawbiense Hybrids was raised in England in 1826, between Rhododendron catawbiense and R. arboreum, and was named R. alta-clerense. It is doubtful if this plant is still in existence. There are forty-eight varieties of the Catawbiense Hybrids growing in the Arboretum raised at Knaphill Nursery, Woking, Surrey, England, by Anthony Waterer who by his exhibit at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia did more to make these plants known in this country than anyone else. At this Exhibition fifteen hundred plants in eighty varieties were arranged under the general charge of Mr. Anthony Waterer himself who came to America for that purpose. Most of these plants were presented to Professor Sargent, and a large part of his visit was passed in Boston where he learned that it is as easy to acquire a serious attack of gout in New England as it is in England. As a rule persons like to make collections in this country of many kinds of these Rhododendrons, but much better results are obtained by confining collections to not over a dozen varieties and by planting several individuals of each of these varieties together. Twelve varieties recommended by the Arboretum, where they have been growing uninjured for about thirty years, are: H. W. Sargent (crimson), Album elegans, Album grandiflorum, Catawbiense album (white), James Mackintosh (red), Mrs. C. S. Sargent (rose), Purpureum grandiflorum (dark purple), Roseum elegans (rose pink), Henrietta Sargent (rose), Charles Dickens (bright red), Everestianum (rosy lilac), and atrosanguineum (dark red). Rhododendron delicatissimum is a hybrid between R. catawbiense and R. maximum which was raised by Anthony Waterer and has been in this country since 1871; it has proved to be one of the best of the large-growing Rhododendrons ever cultivated here. It is a large, round-topped shrub with narrow pointed leaves and flowers the color of apple blossoms; it blooms about a week later than the Catawbiense Hybrids and the flowers have just opened. Rhododendron Watereri is an interesting hybrid raised by Anthony Waterer and was sent to the Arboretum in 1908 without a name and has been named here for him. It was obtained by crossing R. Metternichii with one of his Catawbiense Hybrids and has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where there are four fine plants. The young shoots of this plant are clothed with gray to gray-brown floccose tomentum, early becoming glabrous; the leaves when young are covered with short, curled hairs and on the under side with a short, dun-colored felt, later becoming glabrescent. It has pale to deep rose-pink flowers. The habit of the plant and the character of the young shoots and leaves strongly suggest R. Metternichii, while the broader leaf-base and glabrescent foliage recall R. catawbiense. The flower-truss is compact and rounded, and the flowers although not large are numerous and of pleasing shades of pink. It has proved perfectly hardy and of vigorous habit, and promises to be a useful plant for New England. The presence of a felt of hairs on the under side of the leaves is a decided advantage to any Rhododendron in New England since it protects it from the lace-wing fly which attacks most of these plants. Rhododendron Metternichii is a shrub from three to twelve feet high with numerous stout branches, oblong-lanceolate to oblanceolate leaves, wide, rounded, obtuse or short-cuspidate, narrowed or rarely rounded at the base and dark, lustrous, green and glabrous on the upper surface and densely clothed with floccose to crustaceous gray to rufous-colored tomentum below. The flowers are pink, in loose umbellate corymbs, on slender pedicels with a seven-lobed corolla, from ten to fourteen stamens shorter than the corolla and puberulous to pubescent filaments below the middle and shorter than the pistil. This is the common evergreen Rhododendron of Japan and is not known to grow wild outside of that country, and does not extend into the northern island of Hokkaido or into northern Hondo. In the Nikko region, on Mt. Fuji and the mountains of Shinano, it is particularly abundant at altitudes of between 3000 and 7000 feet, and from the middle of May to the end of June, according to altitude, is one of the floral features of the forest. It is hardy in the Arboretum but grows slowly. Kalmia latifolia, the Mountain Laurel, at the northern base of Hemlock Hill, will be in bloom shortly after this number of the Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers. All the plants are not as full of flower-buds as they were last year, but the flowering of the Laurel is the last of the great flower shows of the year in the Arboretum; none of those which precede it is more beautiful. The Mountain Laurel, or Calico Bush as it is often called, is one of the most beautiful of all North American shrubs or small trees. Many of the Rhododendrons have larger leaves and larger and more brilliantly colored flowers, but of all the broad-leaved evergreen plants which can be grown success35 fully in this climate the Laurel is perhaps the most satisfactory. It is not perhaps strange that so little attention has been paid to it by American gardeners, for those of the earlier generations at least derived their inspiration almost entirely from England and usually despised American plants as too common for their attention. Now that it is impossible under Federal regulations to import plants with soil at their roots the Laurel will probably become much more generally used in this country than it has ever been before. No hybrids have yet been raised and the only distinct forms are natural ones. Of these there are plants with pure white flowers (var. alba), and one with deep pink-red flowers and dark leaves (var. rubra). Between these extremes there are others with all shades of pink, and there is one with flowers conspicuously marked by a chocolate band (var. fuscata). There is a dwarf form (var. myrtifolia) with small leaves and small clusters of minute flowers; and there is one in which the corolla is deeply divided into narrow lobes (var. polypetala). A form with broad, handsome Rhododendron- like leaves (var. obtusata) rarely flowers, and another with a six-lobed corolla has recently been found on the Blue Ridge in North Carolina. The Laurel Collection is easily reached from the Walter Street and South Street entrances of the Arboretum, and persons interested in a beautiful floral display should not fail to see it. A few interesting plants are growing among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill, including the only plant in the Arboretum of the American Ilex opaca, the largest specimen of Abies grandis from the northwestern part of the country, the best plant in the Arboretum of the Japanese Tsuga diversifolia, as well as a group of the Sour Wood (Oxydendron arboreum). Here, too, can be seen the best plant of the Japanese Torreya in the Arboretum. Across the road from the great bank of Hemlocks are many interesting plants, including among others the largest plants of the Japanese Yew in the Arboretum, and of the native Inkberry, the evergreen Ilex glabra. The Inkberry is a common shrub in the coast region from New Hampshire to Texas. It has been established in the Arboretum for many years but occasionally in severe winters loses here the ends of some of the branches and many of the upper leaves. It soon recovers and must be considered one of the best evergreen shrubs which can be grown in New England. The best plants of the prostrate form of Juniperus chinensis Sargentii are growing also in this border, as well as the best specimen of Leucothoe floribunda. Here, too, is the Sheep Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia), a red-flowered dwarf species common in northern pastures. Rosa spinosissima, Scotch Roses, are now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. The handsomest perhaps is the variety altaica with petals faintly tinged with yellow toward their base, the varieties hispida and lutea with yellow flowers, and the variety fulgens with pale pink flowers; these are all single. Other varieties in the Arboretum are cestiflora and pusilla. From the gardens of the Duke of Dalkeith, near Edinburgh, the Arboretum received a few years ago a collection of Scotch Roses for which this garden was once famous; these are Jupiter with pale pink single flowers, Lady Baillie with small yellow flowers, Dominie Samson, King of the Scots, Plato, Pythagoras and Iris. Laburnum alpinum. The large plant of this Laburnum on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road just below the Forest Hills entrance is covered again with its long racemes of clear yellow flowers which has shown here for many years its value for northern gardens. L. alpinum, which is a native of the elevated regions of southern Europe, is usually spoken of as the \"Scotch Laburnum\" probably because it is a favorite in the gardens of north Britain. In those of northern New England it is extremely rare. It is hardier than L. vulgare, or as it is now called L. anagyroides, a small tree with shorter racemes of flowers. This has been a good deal planted in the eastern states, and at the north is not always hardy. Occasionally a good specimen can be seen in the neighborhood of Boston. There are several varieties of this Laburnum which have not, however, grown well in the Arboretum. A better plant for New England than L. vulgare is its hybrid with L. alpinum, known as L. Watereri or L. Parksii. This is a small tree, and when in flower the handsomest tree with yellow flowers which can be grown in this climate. It blooms about two weeks earlier than L. alpinum. Cornus alternifolia. This is the handsomest native Dogwood with the exception of Cornus florida, and it has for some reason or other proved very difficult to grow, but fortunately is represented by several good native specimens growing in the Arboretum. It differs from all the other American Dogwoods as it has alternate leaves and branches. Fortunately the Chinese species, Cornus controversa, has proved easier to grow and is a plant of first-rate merit. Cornus controversa is a widely distributed tree in Japan, Korea and western China. Wilson photographed in Szech'uan a specimen sixty feet high with a trunk seven feet in girth. In the Cornus Collection on the right hand side of the Meadow Road are plants raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China in 1907 and these are now in bloom. The largest of these trees is in the Peter's Hill Nursery. This plant was sent here in 1913 by the Park Department of the City of Rochester, New York. It is now about twenty-five feet high with a short trunk and a head twenty-six feet in diameter. The branches are long, crowded and spread at right angles with the stem, drooping slightly at the ends, the lowest sweeping the ground. The upper side of the branches is thickly covered with flat flower-clusters six or seven inches in diameter and raised on erect stems. The flowers are white or white faintly tinged with yellow and are followed by black, shining fruits which are eaten by the birds as fast as they ripen. As it grows on Peter's Hill this Cornel is a magnificent plant and the handsomest of the species in the Arboretum, with the exception of the species with white floral bracts represented here by C. florida and C. kousa. To the student of botanical geography C. controversa is interesting as a living witness of the relationship between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America, for in the genus Cornus with many species there are but two with alternate leaves, C. controversa common in eastern Asia, and C. alternifolia in eastern North America."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 2","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23787","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24ebb27.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 2, 1924 Deutzias. If all the species and hybrids of Deutzias are considered this genus is not a great success in this region where many of the plants are not hardy and others only flourish in exceptionally sheltered and favored positions. Much attention has been paid to hybridizing species of this genus, and probably the most useful Deutzia for this part of the world is a hybrid between the Japanese D. gracilis and the Chinese D. parviflora. Deutzia gracilis is a dwarf shrub with pure white flowers in erect or spreading racemes. This is an old and popular garden plant better worth growing in the southern and middle states, however, than it is in Massachusetts where the ends of the branches are often more or less killed. D. parviflora is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with flowers in compact, many-flowered corymbs. It is a native of northern China and Mongolia. A hybrid between these two species was made by the French hybridizer Lemoine many years ago and has been called D. Lemoinei. It is a large shrub sometimes five or six feet high and broad which covers itself with large clusters of pure white flowers. Handsome and more compact varieties of this hybrid are the varieties compacta, Boule de Neige, Avalanche and Candelabre. Varieties of another of the Lemoine hybrids called Deutzia rosea sometimes flower well and promise to be good garden plants in sheltered positions. This hybrid was obtained by crossing D. gracilis and D. purpurascens; the latter has petals which are purple on the outer surface and is usually not hardy here. D. rosea and its varieties have flowers more or less tinged with purple. Another hybrid obtained by the same cross by Lemoine called D. myriantha has white flowers, and its varieties called Boule Rose and Fleur de Pommier are handsome and apparently hardy plants with flowers tinged with red. Deutzia scabra, a native of Japan and China, is one of the hardiest and most generally cultivated of all Deutzias. It is a tall shrub with reddish branches, rough leaves and erect clusters of white flowers sometimes flushed with rose. This is the Deutzia of old gardens north and south. The variety crenata has brown branches and smoother leaves, and although less common in gardens appears to be equally hardy. The variety Watereri has flowers tinged with red on the outer surface of the petals. There is a variety plena with double flowers with petals tinged with rose color. The variety \"Pride of Rochester\" has flowers tinged with rose and is one of the handsomest of the group. Deutzia grandiflora is the first of the genus to flower here. Although known known to botanists since 1832 it has only recently found its way into gardens through the agency of the Arboretum. Philadelphus. Gardens owe much to this genus. In those of New England of more than a century ago it was one of the chief ornaments, and a few old-fashioned Roses, with the Syringa or Mock Orange (Philadelphus coronarius) were loved and carefully tended; in modern gardens there are few shrubs which produce more beautiful flowers than some of the Syringas. There are now established in the Arboretum some thirty species of Philadelphus and a large number of varieties and hybrids. All these plants, popularly called Syringas, are easy to propagate, demand no special care and suffer less from the attacks of insects than most trees and shrubs. They bloom freely every year, their flowers are often very fragrant, and in rich, well-drained soil the plants live for a long time. Some of the species can grow under the shade of overhanging trees, and flower in such situations more freely than almost any other shrub. The beauty of all these plants is found in their white flowers; the fruit, which is a dried capsule, has as little beauty as that of the Lilac, and there is nothing particularly distinct or interesting in the habit of the plants of any of the species; the leaves fall in the autumn without coloring. As flowering shrubs, however, not many surpass them in beauty, and their beauty is increased by the length of their flowering season which lasts in the Arboretum six weeks. The first Philadelphus to bloom here opened its flowers several week ago. It is a native of Korea and is named P. Schrenkii var. Jac7sii as it was discovered by Professor Jack during his travels in Korea. It is a tall narrow shrub with erect stems and flowers of medium size, and is of no exceptional value as an ornamental plant. Almost as early to flower is P. hirsutus from the southern Appalachian Mountain region of North America. This is one of the smallest flowered species, and in the Arboretum is a large loose-growing shrub of unattractive habit and of comparatively little value as a garden plant. It is to be regretted that the Syringa of old gardens (P. coronarius) has been pushed aside by newer introductions and has become comparatively rare in the gardens of this part of the country, for the flowers of no other Syringa have a more delicate and delightful fragrance. This plant, which is a native of southeastern Europe, reached England before the end of the sixteenth century, and was probably one of the first shrubs which emigrants brought with them to this country. Among the American species which should find a place in all gardens are P. inodorus, P. pubescens and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain region and grows to a height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, pure white, cup-shaped, solitary, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful when in bloom of the whole genus. P. pubescens, often called P. grandiflorus or P. latifolius, is also a plant of the southern Appalachian region. This sometimes grows to the height of twenty feet, with stout, erect branches, broad leaves and slightly fragrant flowers in erect five- to ten-flowered racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than the last, and when it is in bloom it makes a great show. P. microphyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems, and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, is made up in fragrance which is stronger than that of any other Syringa. The most distinct and handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is P. purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. This is a large shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at right angles; on these branches the flowers are borne on drooping stems; they are an inch and a half long, with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are extremely fragrant. This certainly must be numbered among the handsomest shrubs brought from western China by Wilson to the Arboretum. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout shrub rather broader than high which every year produces large quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow. Another interesting garden plant is P. Falconeri which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese; it has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes. The origin and history of this plant are not known. Some of the species hybridize freely, and several of the handsomest of the Syringas are hybrids. One of the first of these hybrids to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by Monsieur A. Billard and is known as P. insignis and is sometimes called \"Souvenir de Billard.\" It is one of the handsomest of the large growing Syringas, and the last or nearly the last to bloom in the Arboretum. The flowers will not be open for nearly another month. A hybrid probably between P. grandiflorus of the Appalachian Mountain Region with a species from our northwest coast appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago and has been called P. splendens. It is a large and vigorous shrub with unusually large flowers, and one of the handsomest of the Syringas in the collection. P. maximus, a supposed hybrid of P. latifolius from the southeastern United States and P. tomentosus from the Himalayas, grows to a larger size than any other of these plants. It is not rare in Massachusetts gardens in which plants from twenty to thirty feet high can occasionally be seen. The crossing about thirty years ago by Lemoine of P. coronarius with P. microphyllus has produced an entirely new race of Syringas which has proved to be one of the best additions to garden plants which has ever been made. The first plant obtained by this cross was called P. Lemoinei; it is a perfectly hardy shrub from four to six feet high and broad, with slender stems which bend under the weight of the countless flowers which are intermediate in size between those of the parents and retain the fragrance of those of P. microphyllus. There are at least a dozen distinct forms of this hybrid made by Lemoine, varying considerably in the size of the flowers and in the time of flowering. One of the handsomest of these plants, perhaps, is called Candelabre, which is a dwarf with flowers larger than those of either of its parents, an inch and a half wide, with petals notched on the margins and without the fragrance of its parents. Other distinct forms equally hardy and handsome are Avalanche, Boule d'Argent, Bouquet Blanc, Erectus, Fantasie, Gerbe de Neige and Mont Blanc. Neillia sinensis. This is the only member of a genus of the Rose Family related to Spiraea which has flowered in the Arboretum. It is a native of western China where it was collected by Wilson and introduced into cultivation through the Arboretum. It is a tall hardy shrub with gracefully spreading and drooping branches, light green, incisely cut, pointed leaves from an inch and a half to two inches long, and clear pink flowers about half an inch in length, in short terminal racemes. It is one of the handsomest and most interesting of the hardy shrubs introduced by Wilson from western China. Rosa Marretii is blooming remarkably this year. It is a tall, broad shrub with arching stems, pale green leaves and large pink flowers. It is a native of northern Hokkaido and of Saghalin where it was discovered by the late Abbe Faurie who sent seeds to the Arboretum in 1908. This plant, which is still rare in cultivation, promises to be a good addition to the single-flowered Roses which can be successfully grown in this climate. One of the hardiest and best growing of the new Roses, Rosa bella, was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, and is a plant which when better known will be popular. It is a large shrub with bright red flowers an inch and a half in diameter, and bright red fruit. It is with the other Chinese plants on Bussey Hill. Rosa multiflora cathayensis is again covered with its great clusters of pink flowers and expanding flower-buds. The Chinese representive of the white-flowered R. multiflora of Japan, it is one of the most beautiful Roses and interesting as the wild type from which the Chinese derived the now well known Crimson Rambler Rose and another old-fashioned garden Rose, the Seven Sisters Rose (R. multiflora platyphylla)."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 7","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23789","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24e816a.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 7. 1924 Cornus kousa. This is the Asiatic representative of the Flowering Dogwood of the eastern states (Cornus florida) and of the Flowering Dogwood of the Northwest (Cornus Nuttallii). C. kousa was one of the Japanese plants which reached the United States in the early years of Japanese plant introduction into this country, and although it has never become common in American gardens it is occasionally seen in those of Boston and New York. The white bracts which surround the head of flowers and are a conspicuous feature of all the Cornels of this group are narrowed and placed further apart on C. kousa than on the eastern Flowering Dogwood, and are long-pointed and not, as in the American plant, rounded or emarginate at the apex. On the American plant the end of the bract is often discolored, while in the Asiatic plant the bracts are pure white to the tips. The flower-buds of C. florida are often killed in Massachusetts in severe winters but the extreme cold of recent years has not injured those of C. kousa. The Japanese plants bloom several weeks later than C. florida and when the leaves are nearly fully grown. In Japan it sometimes becomes a small tree with a single trunk; in this country, so far as we have observed, it grows always as a shrub with several erect stems. In central China Cornus kousa was found by Wilson, and a plant from his Chinese seed is well established among the Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where it is now a shrub about twelve feet high with numerous erect stems. It is handsomer than any of the Japanese forms with longer and broader floral bracts often overlapping below the middle. In the Arboretum the head of bracts is sometimes four and a half inches broad and in China Wilson measured them five inches across. On a Japanese plant the heads of bracts here are rarely three and one half inches in diameter. The Chinese plant flowered first in the Arboretum in 1917 and the flower-buds have never been injured by cold. It is blooming more freely than ever before and is an object of great beauty. In China it grows as a small tree with a trunk sometimes a foot in diameter and there is no reason probably why it cannot be trained as a tree in this climate. The fact that it blooms when the leaves are nearly fully grown adds to the value of this Asiatic Cornel, and it is certainly when in flower one of the most ornamental small trees or shrubs found by Wilson in China. On the American plants the scarlet fruits are gathered in an erect head and are not united as in the Asiatic plants. This habit of the fruit adds to the beauty of the plant in the autumn when the leaves assume the brilliant colors of those of the eastern American plant. The Chinese form of C. kousa fruits freely in the Arboretum, and there is no reason why it should not become common in American gardens where it certainly should be one of the handsomest of the plants recently introduced into this country by the Arboretum. Cornus rugosa. Attention is called again to the value of this common native shrub for the decoration of parks and gardens where, like many other eastern American shrubs, it is rarely seen. C. rugosa or C. circinnati, the name by which it is best known, is a shrub sometimes ten feet high which with plenty of space spreads into broad thickets. The young branches are green blotched with purple, becoming purple as they grow older. The leaves are broad, sometimes nearly circular and dark bluish green; the flowers are ivory white, in compact clusters, and are followed in the early autumn by bright blue or nearly white fruits. This Cornel has been much planted in the Arboretum and has been greatly improved by cultivation. Hydrangea petiolaris. The specimen of this vine, the Japanese Climbing Hydrangea, on the southeastern corner of the Administration Building, is one of the great sights of the Arboretum at this season of the year when it is covered with flower-clusters from the ground to the eaves of the building. The leaves of few plants unfold here as early in the spring, and there is but one other climbing plant with conspicuous flowers really hardy in this climate, Schizophragma hydrangeoides, able to attach itself to a brick or stone wall or to the trunk of a tree. The flower-clusters of the Climbing Hydrangea are surrounded by a circle of white sterile flowers from eight to ten inches in diameter; they are terminal on short lateral branches which stand out from the main stem of the plant and give it an irregular surface which adds to its beauty and interest. This Hydrangea was first raised at the Arboretum in 1878 and can now be occasionally seen in American gardens. It might be better known and more generally used for there is no other plant so well suited to cover the brick or stone walls of buildings in the northern United States. Schizophragma hydrangeoides, which is also a native of Japan, can be seen on the wall of the Administration Building next to the Climbing Hydrangea where it blooms later. Several Chinese shrubby species of Hydrangea open at this time their flowers which are arranged in broad flat-topped clusters surrounded by a ring of large pure white ray flowers. The best known of these, H. Bretschneideri, is a native of the mountains near Peking and was first raised in the Arboretum twenty-five years ago; it is a vigorous hardy plant with dark green leaves, and one of the best shrubs which flower here after the middle of June. Closely related to it are Hydrangea xanthoneura and its varieties Wilsonii and setchuenensis, and H. Rosthornii raised here from seed collected by Wilson in western China. These plants are hardy and can now be seen covered with flowers in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. As garden plants they do not appear to be superior to H. Bretschneideri. Sophora viciifolia. There are not many shrubs with blue flowers which are hardy in this climate and none of them are as satisfactory as this Sophora. It is a native of central and western China where it is a common shrub in dry hot valleys. In the Arboretum it is a shapely plant about four feet high and perfectly hardy, producing freely its small blue and white pea-shaped flowers. It is one of the most attractive of the small shrubs introduced by Wilson from China, and it can now be seen in bloom on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Syringa Sweginzowii is considered by many persons the most beautiful of the new species of Lilac introduced into gardens from China in recent years. It is a tall narrow shrub with dull green leaves and narrow clusters of fragrant flowers half an inch long, flesh-colored in the bud, and becoming nearly white when the flowers open. This species blooms freely as a small plant, and is perhaps the most attractive of the new Lilacs, although the flowers are not as fragrant as those of S. pubescens which has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for nearly a quarter of a century. It has the merit of being almost the last of the Lilacs in the Arboretum to bloom and it should be much better known than it is now. Syringa reflexa, which is perhaps the most distinct and certainly one of the most beautiful of the Lilacs recently discovered, has been blooming more freely than usual this year. The flower-cluster is compact, cylindric, unbranched, from an inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter, long-stalked, arching and reflexed. The flowers are deep rose color in bud becoming nearly white, with a long slender corolla-tube, and have a more disagreeable odor than those of S. villosa, to which this species and S. Komarowii are closely related, as shown in its ample leaves dark green on the upper surface and somewhat pale and slightly hairy on the lower surface. S. Komarowii differs from S. reflexa in the large, long-branched flower-clusters which are erect, spreading or nodding, and sometimes eighteen inches long and twelve inches across. Syringa villosa. Of the comparatively late flowering Lilacs none perhaps is more valuable than S. villosa which was raised at the Arboretum nearly forty years ago and has now been carried into many American gardens. It is a tall round-topped shrub with large leaves and compact, broad or narrow clusters of pale rose-colored or nearly white flowers which unfortunately have the disagreeable odor of Privet flowers. In spite of this disagreeable odor of the flowers this Lilac is a first-rate garden plant, and particularly valuable because it does not begin to bloom until most of the varieties of the common Lilac have faded. It also promises to be a successful parent in producing new forms by crossing it with varieties of the common Lilac. It has already produced in France by crossing it with the Hungarian S. Josikaea a race of beautiful hybrids to which the name of S. Henryi has been given. One of the handsomest of these hybrids, S. Lutece, covers itself every year with large open clusters of red-violet flowers and is perhaps one of the handsomest of all Lilacs. Spiraea Veitchii is the last of the white-flowered Spiraeas to bloom here. It is a shrub as it grows in the Arboretum from eight to ten feet high with numerous slender stems and gracefully arching branches which by the middle of July are covered from end to end with broad flower-clusters raised on erect stems. It is one of the best plants introduced by Wilson from western China, and by many persons it is considered the handsomest of the genus as it appears in the Arboretum. Brooms. By moving them from the low ground of the Shrub Collection to the comparatively dry warm border on the southern slope of Bussey Hill it has been shown that a much larger number of species can be successfully grown in this country than was formerly supposed when only a few of these plants were cultivated in the Arboretum. There are now at least a dozen species and varieties of these plants well established on Bussey Hill and many of them have flowered profusely this year. Tree Lilacs. As the flowers of the late flowering group of Lilacs fade the earliest flowers of the so-called Tree Lilacs begin to open. There are three of these Lilacs which bear large clusters of white or yellowish white flowers which have the disagreeable odor of the flowers of the Privet, and, like those of the Privets, the leaves fall in the autumn without change of color. The first of these plants to bloom, Syringa amurensis, a native of eastern Siberia, is a shrub twelve or fifteen feet high, with dark close bark, broad thick leaves dark green above and pale below, and short, broad, unsymmetrical flower-clusters. S. pekinensis flowers next; this is also shrubby in habit, sometimes twenty feet tall and broad, with stout spreading stems covered with yellow-brown bark separating readily into thin flakes like that of some of the Birch-trees, dark green narrow pointed leaves, and short unsymmetrical flower-clusters usually in pairs at the ends of the branches. This species holds its leaves later in the autumn than the others and produces great clusters of flowers every year; the other species usually flower abundantly only every other year. The last of the Tree Lilacs to flower, S. japonica, is a native of northern Japan. and is generally a tree sometimes forty feet high, with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark, like the bark of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of upright branches, broad, thick, dark green leaves, and erect mostly symmetrical flower-clusters from twelve to eighteen inches in length. It is one of the handsomest of the small trees which bloom here at the end of June or early in July, and appears to be more common in cultivation now than the other species of this group. These three plants can be seen growing on the bank in the rear of the path which leads through the Syringa Collection."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 11","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23785","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24eb36e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 11, 1924 Cornus racemosa. This northern Cornel has been largely used in the Arboretum in roadside plantations and is now conspicuous as the plants are covered with their small clusters of creamy white flowers. These later in the season will be followed by white translucent fruits borne on bright red stalks. Often called Cornus paniculata, it is a large-branched shrub six or seven feet high, with gray smooth branches, pointed leaves acute at the base, whitish below and glabrous. It is widely distributed from Maine to Ontario, Minnesota and southward. This Cornel is perhaps the handsomest of the American species with the exception of Cornus florida. It has lately been the most conspicuous plant in the Arboretum. It blooms here with some of the native Roses, especially with Rosa virginiana, the pink flowers of which compose perfectly with the white flowers of the Cornel. When these plants are used together, as along some of the Arboretum roads, delightful effects are obtained. Cornus arnoldiana is evidently a natural hybrid between two American species, C. racemosa and C. obliqua, which appeared several years ago in the Arboretum and is now a large shrub with erect stems and characters intermediate between those of its supposed parents. Flowering a little later than C. racemosa it is now covered with flowers. The fruit, which is usually less abundant than the flowers, is white or bluish white. Interesting to students of plants, as are all natural hybrids, C. arnoldiana is not superior as a garden plant to C. racemosa except perhaps in its greater size. Cornus amomum. It is useful perhaps to call attention again to the Silky Cornel, Cornus amomum, for it is one of the best of all shrubs to plant in this climate near the banks of streams and ponds where large masses of foliage are desired to spread out over the surface of the water. Examples of this use of this Cornel can now be seen at two of the small ponds near the end of the Meadow Road where this Cornel is now covered with flowers which will be followed in autumn by bright blue fruits; during the winter the purple stems are attractive. The Silky Cornel is a good plant also to place in front of groups of trees and shrubs but it must have room for the free growth of its wide-spreading branches, for when crowded by other plants the branches become erect and all the character and beauty of the plant is lost. A space of not less than twenty feet in diameter is necessary for the development of a handsome specimen. Zenobia pulverulenta is just opening its flowers. This shrub of the Heath Family is a native of the coast of North Carolina where it grows along the borders of swamps and, one of the most beautiful shrubs of the American flora, is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts where it has flourished in the Arboretum for many years. Zenobia is related to the Andromedas and is chiefly distinguished by its open, campanulate and four-awned anthers. The leaves are deciduous, thickly covered with a glaucous bloom, and the ivory white flowers about half an inch long and broad are borne on slender arching stems and are arranged in axillary clusters forming terminal racemes from twelve to eighteen inches in length and arching from the upper part of the branches of the previous year. The form of Zenobia (var. nitida) with green leaves which are destitute of a glaucous bloom is a more common plant in North Carolina and is equally hardy here in Massachusetts. Zenobia is not common in cultivation in this country but is occasionally seen in English gardens. Tripterygium Regelii. Climbing plants with handsome foliage and a conspicuous inflorescence hardy and easy to grow in New England are not very numerous, and Mr. Jack's introduction several years ago of this Tripterygium made an important addition to their number. It is a near relative of the Bitter Sweets (Celastrus) and a native of Korea and Japan where it climbs over rocks and bushes, and often climbs with stems fifty or sixty feet long into the tops of trees. The leaves are long-pointed, dark green, and often six inches in length. The small white flowers are produced in narrow open clusters ten or twelve inches long, and they are followed by showy, three-lobed and three-winged fruits from half an inch to an inch in length. By pinching the young shoots the vines can be grown as a shrub, and in this way it produces larger flower-clusters and is more ornamental. There is such a specimen just coming into bloom in the Shrub Collection, where it is also growing naturally on the trellis next to the different species of Celastris. Periploca sepium. This is another handsome plant which the Arboretum owes to the labors of Mr. Jack in Korea. It is growing on the trellis near the Tripterygium. It is a plant with slender stems, pointed, dark green and very lustrous leaves about three and a half inches in length and not much more than half an inch in width, and small flowers in few-flowered clusters. The flowers do not make much show when seen from a distance, but on close examination show that they are green on the outside, dark purple, with a five-lobed crown at the base on the inside, and that they are pleasantly fragrant. The plants in the Arboretum occasionally produce their slender pod-like fruits, but the plant can be easily propagated by root suckers and it might become common if better known. Genista tinctoria. Of the small, yellow-flowered shrubs of the Pea Family, which are such a feature of the flora of southern and southeastern Europe and are so highly valued in the gardens of western Europe, the best known in Massachusetts is the Woad Wax Genista tinctoria. Brought early from England as a garden plant it long ago escaped from a Salem garden and has spread over and ruined hundreds of acres in Essex County. Planted in the Arboretum it has spread among the native plants like dwarf Roses and Goldenrods which form a considerable part of the ground cover among the Hickories and Oaks, and now enlivens the valley through which the Valley Road extends from Centre to South Street. There is a taller variety with larger flowers (var. elatior). Much more beautiful and the handsomest of these plants which have been tried here is Cytisus nigricans, a native of northern Italy, Austria and Hungary, and now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. No small plant now in the Arboretum is more distinct and beautiful. As it grows here it is a compact, round-topped bush from two to three feet tall and broad, differing from most of the related plants in the arrangement of the flowers which are borne in long erect racemes terminal on branches of the year; they are bright yellow and produced in great profusion. Rosa Helenae, by some persons considered the handsomest of the Roses discovered in China by Wilson, has never flowered as well here as it is flowering now. It is a large shrub with slender arching stems furnished sparingly with small red spines and many-flowered clusters of pure white delicately fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter. It can be seen to advantage now in the Shrub Collection and well deserves a place in every collection of single-flowered Roses however small. Growing near it is a white-flowered form of a native Rose, Rosa suffulata alba, which came to the Arboretum several years ago from Minneapolis near which place it was discovered. The pink-flowered type is a common western plant widely distributed over the prairies from Minnesota to Montana and southward to Missouri and Texas. It is a comparatively recent discovery and was first called Rosa pratincola. Little cultivated it is well worth the attention of Rose lovers. Magnolia virginiana, or as it is more often called M. glauca, opened its fragrant cup-shaped flowers a few weeks ago and will continue to open them until midsummer. The dark green leaves, silvery white below, are more beautiful than those of any other plant which is hardy in this climate, and remain on the branches without change of color until the beginning of winter. The flowers of no other native tree or shrub have a more penetrating or delightful odor. A plant for every garden great or small, how often is the Sweet Bay found in those of modern construction? The town of Magnolia in Essex County, Massachusetts, which is the northern station for this plant was named for it. At the north and in the middle states it is a shrub or small tree rarely more than twenty or thirty feet high, but southward it is replaced by the variety australis, differing in the silky white pubescence on the pedicels and branchlets, and becoming a tree sometimes ninety feet high with a trunk occasionally three feet in diameter and the common form from North Carolina to southern Florida and westward to the valley of the Nueces River, Texas. Magnolia major or Thompsoniana, a probable hybrid between M. virginiana and M. tripetala, which was raised in an English nursery a century ago and is still a favorite plant, is in the Arboretum and is intermediate in character between these two American species; it has the general appearance of M. virginiana but has larger leaves and larger and equally fragrant flowers. Magnolia macrophylla flowers a few days later than M. virginiana and is now in bloom. It is a wonderful southern tree with leaves silvery white on the lower surface and often thirty inches long and ten inches wide, with flowers a foot in diameter; it is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts, although here as elsewhere the great leaves are often torn by the wind unless a sheltered position is selected for it. It is an interesting fact that its leaves and flowers are larger than those of any other tree which grows in an extra tropical region. The latest Azaleas are now in bloom. There are two North American white-flowered species, Rhododendron (Azalea) arborescens and R. (Azalea) viscosum. R. arborescens is a handsome plant and the beauty of its pure white fragrant flowers is increased by the bright red color of the long filaments and style. It is an Appalachian plant, and sometimes at an elevation of five thousand feet covers with dense thickets only a few feet high and sometimes acres in extent the treeless summits of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and in their sheltered valleys sometimes grows into arborescent bushes twenty feet tall. A variety is known in which the white flowers are faintly tinged with rose color. Rhododendron (Azalea) viscosum blooms a little later and is now also in flower in the Arboretum. It is a common plant in the swamps of southern New England where it is known as the Swamp Honeysuckle. The pure white clammy flowers which continue to open during several weeks are hidden by the new shoots of the year which are often fully grown before the first flowers open, and the great value of this Azalea is found in the fragrance of the flowers which makes the neighborhood of an Azalea swamp delightful. Although it grows naturally in swamps, this Azalea grows equally well transferred to a garden border or to a hillside, as on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where many of these plants are now covered with flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 17","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23786","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24eb726.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL X NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 17, 1924 Native and Foreign Trees. The number of foreign trees here which are superior to those which grow naturally in New England is not a large one. The handsomest Poplar probably which is perfectly hardy here and grows successfully is Populus Maximowiczii, a native of eastern Siberia, eastern Saghalin and northern Japan. It is the largest tree of eastern Siberia where it sometimes grows eighty feet high with a trunk six feet in diameter, and has a broad head of massive spreading branches. On young trees the bark of the trunk is smooth and pale brown but on old trees it becomes thick and furrowed. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1878. The oldest trees in the Arboretum are on the southern slope of Peter's Hill and are now twenty-six years old and from forty to forty-five feet in height. They have never been attacked by borers which make the cultivation of the Balsam Poplars and some of the Cottonwoods so difficult and unsatisfactory, and their leaves apparently have no attraction for leaf-eating caterpillars; they are green and lustrous on the upper surface, silvery white below, three or four inches long and two and a half inches wide. Populus Maximowiczii is the handsomest and most satisfactory tree in the Poplar Collection and is one of the few large exotic trees with deciduous leaves which can be recommended for general planting in the northern states. The list of such trees is a short one. The two Silver Poplars of Europe, P. alba and P. canescens, flourish in the United States where they have grown to a large size and are as much at home as they are in their native countries. The pale color of the foliage of these trees is unlike that of any of the American species, and their hardiness and vitality make them useful for planting in an exposed position. The Silver Poplar of northern China (P. tomentosa) is one of the handsomest of all Poplar-trees. It has grown fairly well in the Arboretum but it is too soon to form an opinion of its value in this country. Two European tree Willows, Salix alba and S. fragilis, and some of their hybrids have become naturalized in the northeastern states where they grow as large or even larger than in Europe and are important additions to the North American silva. The so-called Wisconsin Willow, a natural hybrid between S. babylonica and S. alba, and other hybrids of the same parentage, are useful ornamental trees in the northern states. Cercidiphyllum is the largest deciduous-leaved tree of Japan, and although it was introduced into the United States only forty years ago it promises to become a permanent addition to the trees of large size which can be successfully grown here. The Chinese White Mulberry (Morus alba) is a larger and hardier tree in New England than the Mulberry-tree of the eastern states, and is perfectly at home here. Probably the most generally useful, however, of the large deciduous-leaved trees which have been brought into the northern states is the Ailanthus of northern China. It is perfectly hardy and grows rapidly and it can resist the heat, drought and dryness which trees have suffered in our cities better than any other tree with the exception perhaps of some of the Poplars. The Ailanthus, too, produces wood which is valuable in cabinet-making. Of all the Elm-trees of the world not one equals in grace and beauty the White Elm of eastern North America, Ulmus americana. It is a true lover of the country, however, and only shows its greatest beauty in the deep moist soil of a New England intervale; moved to the city it soon languishes, for it resents city conditions of overdrained soil, smoke and bad weather. One of the so-called English Elms, known usually as U. campestris, is better able to thrive in cities where the American Elm fails, and in Boston and its suburbs this tree has been growing for more than a century and has proved itself valuable. It is now known that this name must be abandoned as there are four British Elms and a species of northern and eastern Europe which were included in Linnaeus' description of the European Elm. The tree which has usually been called the English Elm in Boston under the name of Ulmus campestris has been growing certainly for more than a century in Massachusetts where it has attained a large size. More than a century ago Major Paddock had a nursery at Milton for the propagation and sale of this tree. Probably no tree, native or foreign, which has been planted in the neighborhood of Boston has grown to such a size. The Paddock Elms which stood on Tremont Street in front of the Granary Burying Ground were of this species, as were the great Elms on the Tremont Street Mall of the Common which were killed by the Subway. The Elm-trees on each side of the Shaw Monument opposite the State House are of this species, and there are still large specimens in the suburbs of the city. None of the exotic Ash-trees are really valuable in New England. For general planting in the eastern United States no Ash is as good as the American White Ash (Fraxinus americana) for the decoration of parks and roadsides and the production of timber. The European Ash (F. excelsior), which is a magnificent tree in some parts of Europe, is a miserable failure here, and the great Ash-tree of northeastern continental Asia and northern Japan (F. mandshurica) can barely be kept alive in New England. European Birch-trees grow well in the northern states until they are attacked by a borer which destroys them by thousands. The slender drooping branches of Betula pendula make it an interesting and attractive object, but it is not as handsome a tree as the Canoe Birch (Betula papyrifera) which is the handsomest of the white-barked Birches, and in one of its forms exceeds all other Birch-trees in size. Betula 141aximowiczii, with pinkish bark and a native of northern Japan, is a handsomer tree than the Canoe Birch. It has been growing in this country for a quarter of a century, and although it is perfectly hardy it is too soon to speak of its permanent value. The pale gray bark of the trunk and branches of the American Beech make it in winter the most beautiful of all Beech-trees, but as a planted tree it does not behave as well or grow as rapidly as the European Beech which, in spite of its darker-colored bark is a better tree for the decoration of our parks. The northern Linden (Tilia glabra or americana) is a noble tree in northern forests where in deep moist soil it sometimes grows to the height of one hundred and thirty feet and forms a trunk four or five feet in diameter. It does not, however, take kindly to cultivation in a climate as warm as that of Massachusetts. Planted trees grow slowly here. The leaves are usually disfigured by red spiders and turn brown and fall during the summer. Little is known yet in cultivation of the Linden trees of the middle and southern states and a planter who wants Linden trees had best use some of the European species. There are five of these, and the three species of western Europe have been so thoroughly tested in the United States that it is possible to say they are among the most valuable trees which have been brought here from foreign countries. The most satisfactory of them here is Tilia vulgaris, a widely distributed but rather rare tree in Europe; it is believed to be a natural hybrid between the other species of western Europe, T. platyhyllos and T. cordata. There are large specimens of T. vulgaris in the suburbs of Boston. No American Horsechestnut or Buckeye can compare in size or in the beauty of its flowers with the species of southwestern Europe (Aesculus Hippocastanum), which is well known to many Americans who have never heard there were Horsechestnut-trees growing naturally in the United States. The European Horsechestnut is another of the great trees of the world. It is as much at home here and grows to as large a size as it does in western Europe. Few trees have more conspicuous flowers or foliage of deeper green. It thrives, however, only in deep rich soil and usually resents city conditions. In some old gardens in Salem there are, however, as noble Horsechestnuts as can be found in the United States or Great Britain. It is a miserable street tree, as can be seen in Paris, where the leaves turn brown and fall by mid-summer, and in New York and Boston where fortunately it has not been generally planted. Among the foreign Maples of large size which have been planted in the eastern states only the so-called Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) has shown real power to flourish here. It is a smaller and less beautiful tree than the Sugar Maple, but the Sugar Maple, too, resents city conditions and objects to living at the seashore; and as the Norway Maple has proved a valuable tree for city and seashore planting it must be considered one of the really valuable foreign trees introduced into this country. The Old World Walnut-tree (Juglans regia), sometimes called English or Persian Walnut, although it is a native of China, is a handsomer and more valuable tree than any of the American Walnut-trees, but unfortunately it is doubtfully hardy in the northeastern states and it will probably never grow to such a large size here or produce the great crops of nuts and the timber which make this such a useful tree in many parts of the world. Another of the great trees of the world, the Gingko, flourishes in New England as well as it does in eastern Asia or Europe. It is the only survivor of a race which was once widely spread over the northern hemisphere. It is long-lived and able to support extremes of heat and cold, and grows equally well in Massachusetts, Georgia and California. The Gingko has been largely planted in the city of Washington, but in other parts of the United States the beauty of the tree when it gets beyond the juvenile state is not sufficiently understood. Pseudolarix is another Chinese tree which is alone in its class, and although discovered only seventy years ago it has been long enough in this country to show that it is perfectly able to adapt itself to the Massachusetts climate. This is surprising for the home of Pseudolarix is on low mountain slopes not far from the coast and south of the Yangtse River. The European Larch, although less picturesque than the Larch of northeastern North America, is a larger and more valuable tree, and experience with it in New England shows that it is a tree which can be depended on and grows here to a large size. It appears, therefore, from the experience gained in Massachusetts during a long period that only the following deciduous-leaved trees of large size have proved themselves valuable for general planting, for ornament and timber, in the northeastern states: the Gingko, the Pseudolarix, the European Larch, three species of Poplar, two of Willows and their hybrids, the Cercidiphyllum, the White Mulberry, the Ailanthus, the European Beech, one European Elm, one Birch, three Lindens, the European Horsechestnut, and the Norway Maple, nineteen in all."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 24","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23788","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24e8128.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 24, 1924 The Library, which was begun in 1873, now contains 35,471 complete volumes, and 8000 pamphlets. In the large eastern hall of the second floor are arranged the books of reference and the Floras of all countries which contain accounts of woody as well as of herbaceous plants, the general library Catalogue, and the collection of photographs. In the small room over the front door books of travel containing information about trees are arranged, among which perhaps the rarest is the Dutch copy of Michaux's Travels. In the large room which occupies the western end of this floor of the building, divided by shelves into six compartments used by students, the current periodicals numbering between 300 and 400, and representing nearly every country are grouped, together with the no longer issued periodicals, by countries, arranged alphabetically as far as the shelving will permit. Among these periodicals are complete sets of the Gardeners' chronicle, the Botanical magazine, the Botanical register, Loudon's Gardener's magazine, Loddiges' Botanical cabinet and his trade catalogues, a set of the Revue horticole, lacking three early volumes, the oldest garden magazine still published, a set of the rare L'Horticulteur belge in five volumes from 1833-1838, and a nearly complete set of the Tokyo Botanical magazine. Here also is Dietrich's Oekonomisch-botanisches garten-journal in six volumes 17~5-1806, almost unknown in America, a complete set of the Verhandlungen des Vereins zur beforderung des gartenbaues in Berlin, the Annales de l'Institut horticole de Fromont, 1829-34, and Landreth's Floral magazine and botanical repository, 1832-34, a rare American journal. The upper floor of the new wing contains the books of the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, books on dendrology, monographs of genera, forestry, landscape gardening, medical and economic botany, pathology, natural history, biography and autobiography. Since 1904 Miss Ethelyn Maria Tucker has catalogued and arranged the books and prepared the manuscript of the printed Catalogue of the library published in two volumes, 1914-1917. Since the publication of the second volume 6000 titles have been added to the collection. In the main hall, besides the standard works of reference, the Floras, large folios on sliding shelves, and the collection of photographs, can be found a nearly complete set of the botanical works of Linnaeus in all editions, including the rare \"Viridarium Cliffortianum,\" believed to be the only copy in the United States since the one in San Francisco was destroyed in the earthquake in 1906. For twenty-five years the Arboretum sought to obtain this small book. The Arboretum is one of nine libraries in the United States known to contain original Linnean dissertations. The publications of Asa Gray and of three generations of De Candolles are in this room, in which will be found all the folios of Redoute, one of the greatest of all botanical artists who lived about one hundred years ago in Paris, including Les roses and Les liliacees, and all the works relating to woody plants illustrated by him. In the main hall attention is also called to the folios of Jacquin, an Austrian botanist, the most valuable of which is the Selectarum stirpium americanum historia, cir. 1780, of which there were only eighteen copies issued, and at the time the Arboretum copy was obtained it was the only one in this country; there are now two other copies, one in the library of the New York Botanical Garden and one in the Congressional Library in Washington. The two folios of Dioscorides' Codex in heavy board covers which lie on nearby shelves reproduce in facsimile the pages and plates of the famous Codex prepared in 512 A.D. for Anicia Juliana, daughter of the Emperor of the Eastern Empire, which is now preserved in the Hofbibliothek at Vienna. The original is the oldest known manuscript of a botanical work, written in Greek on Materia medica in the first century after Christ and describes or names more than five hundred plants. For sixteen centuries this book was' considered the highest authority, and became the basis of modern treatises on botany, and from it this science derives nearly all its nomenclature. Attention is called to the Bradley Bibliography in five volumes, comprising 3895 pages, prepared by Mr. Alfred Rehder and to the other books written by members of the staff. In the main hall are also a large octavo edition of Audubon's Birds of America in seven volumes, 1840-44; Captain Thomas Brown's Illustrations of the American ornithology of Alexander Wilson and C. L. Bonaparte, folio edition, published in London in 1835, of which only thirteen copies are known to exist, eight being in the United States; complete collections of the works of Rafinesque, and of Engelmann; Engler and Prantl's Die naturlichen pflanzenfamilien to date; Engler's Pflanzenreich to date; Bonpland and Humboldt's Voyage, 6e partie, Botanique in seven folio volumes, 1815-25; Annals of the Calcutta botanic garden, vol. i-xii, 1887- 1914, folio; Martius' Historia naturalis palmarum in three folio volumes, 1823-50; Reichenbach's Icones florae germanicae et helveticae; three editions of Sowerby's English botany; Curtis's Flora londinensis, folio, in two volumes, 1777-1798, and the new edition in five volumes, 1817-1828; Oeder's Flora danica in seventeen folio volumes, 1761-1783, with supplement, 1887. The photographs, occupying eleven steel cases, have been mounted, catalogued, and arranged alphabetically in groups under Miss Tucker's direction and the collection now contains 11,073 pictures. A large number of these photographs were taken by Mr. Wilson during his many journeys for the Arboretum in eastern Asia, Australasia, India, and Africa, and many were obtained in the botanic gardens visited by him during his recent journey; to the Rochester Park Department the Arboretum is also indebted for a large number of useful and interesting photographs. While the number of photographs taken in the Arboretum is already a large one, Mr. Wilson is now filling in gaps, so that in time every plant cultivated here will be represented. Photographs of famous trees in New England are also being made by him for the collection as fast as possible. The collection of Pre-Linnean books (before 1737) on the upper floor is a good one and contains the greatest bibliographical treasures in the Arboretum, including twenty-five books published in the fifteenth century, namely, Apuleius Platonicus, Herbarium 1481?; Barbaro, Castigationes, 1492-93; Bartholomaeus Anglicus, De proprietatibus rerum, 1480-1491; Libri de re rustica, n.d.; Crescentius, Opus ruralium commodorum, cir. 1471; Herbolarium seu de virtutibus herbarum, 1491; Ortus sanitatis 1490 or 1497, 1496 or 1487, and 1491; Gart der gesuntheit, 1485; Macer Floridus, De viribus herbarum, date unknown; Opera agricolationum, 1482 and 1496; Matthaeus Sylvaticus, Liber pandectarum medicine, cir. 1470 and 1480; Conrad von Megenberg, Buch der natur, 1478; Plinius Secundus, Historia naturalis, 1483 and 1496; Theophrastus Eresios, De historia plantarum 1480?; Vincentius Bellovacensis, Speculum naturale, 2 vol. 1479?, and 3 vol. 1486?); Columella, Cultu hortorum, Hain 5498; Columella, Ortuli commentarium, Hain 5495, and Lucretius, De rerum natura, 1486.* Many editions of these fifteenth century books were published in the sixteenth, seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, and of these the library contains eight editions of Macer Floridus, 1506-1588, with one of 1832; three of the Ortus sanitatis, 1511-1536; three of Columella's Husbandry, 1551-1745, with one of 1824; seven of Pliny's Historia naturalis, 1507-1685, with one of 1855-57; sixteen of Theophrastus, 1529- 1644, and later, and nine of Crescentius' Opus, 1534-1745, with one 18-? Of Prospero Alpino there are ten titles and editions, 1592-1745; five editions of Francis Bacon's Sylva sylvarum, 1627-1670; seven of Bauhin's Pinax theatri botanici, Greek and Latin, 1596-1671; nine of Bonnefon's Jardinier francois, 1653-1684; seven of Van Oosten's Nederlandse bloemhof, 1700-1749; twenty-one titles and editions of Richard Bradley on husbandry and gardening, 1716-1757; Brunfel's Herbarum of 1530 and 1532, and editions of a second volume; numerous titles and editions by Charles Estienne, 1537-1622; fourteen works and editions by Olfert Dapper, I668-1703; full collections of the works of Dioscorides, Mattioli, Ray, Evelyn's Sylva, Miller's Gardener's dictionary and other gardening books; twenty-one editions of Dodoen's Cruijdeboeck and other works, 1521-1644; twenty-five works and editions by Leonhard Fuchs, 1531-1572; nine of Herrera's Obra de agricultura, 1513-1608, and 1819; eleven of Huerto, 1567-1616; sixteen of La Quintinye's Instruction pour les jardins fruitiers, 1690-1756; eleven of Liger's Jardinier fleuriste, 1706-1792; six of Tabernaemontanus' Eicones plantarum, 1588-1731; Ptolemy's Geographia, 1562; four editions of Manwood's Treatise and discourse of the lawes of the forest, 1598, 1616, 1665, 1717, and Aristoteles' Problemata quae ad stirpium genus & oleracea pertinent, 1539. Other books in this group of more than usual interest are Boym's Flora sinensis, 1556, the first book on Chinese botany published in Europe; Blake's Compleat gardener's practice, 1664; Gerard's Herbal, 1597, containing a manuscript note dating from the time of Shakespeare; Le grant herbier, cir. 1520; The greate herball, 1561, and many others. Many of these books are curiously or beautifully bound, and very rare. On this floor besides the Pre-Linnaean books are other books of special interest, Wangenheim's Beschreibung einiger nordamerikanischen holzund buscharten, 1781, the first book on American trees by a German; Belon's De arboribus coniferis, 1553, the first book on Conifers; a copy of Humphrey Marshall's Arbustrum americanum, 1785, the first book on American trees written by an American; Faxon's original drawings for Sargent's Salva; and works on tea, coffee, cocoa, silk, cinchona, rubber and roses, many of them extremely rare. The rose collection is a large one and includes, besides the editions of Redoute, Rossig's Die rosen, bought at the Castlecraig sale in England. The collection of publications on conifers contains all the books which are known to have been published about these plants; and it may be added here that the collection of conifers in the herbarium, many of the species being represented in long series valuable for study, is probably the best in the world, only five or six species which grow on the mountains of New Guinea and on the Fiji Islands being now unrepresented in it. The library contains many books which are not necessary for practical work with the living plants of the Arboretum, but it has been made with the idea that while only a few plants can be cultivated here and that it would be a slow and practically impossible undertaking to make a complete herbarium of the trees of the world, books about them are interesting and that the library could be made one of the important departments of the Arboretum. It is believed to be the largest and best arranged dendrological library in the world, and there are few libraries anywhere devoted exclusively to a comparatively small subject which are as large and as nearly complete. With the exception of twenty-five volumes written by members of the staff and published by the Arboretum this library, now valued at about $1,000,000, has been presented by a few friends to the University. With this issue the publication of the Bulletin will cease until the autumn. *A fuller description of the incunabula in the library is given in the Arboretum Journal, vol. iv., No. 1."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 24","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23799","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25ebb6f.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 24, 1924 Autumn Colors. This is one of the most interesting times of the year to visit the Arboretum which is gay now with the autumn colors of many leaves. Those of a few plants have already turned and begun to fall, and others are practically as green as they were in summer. The most brilliant color made in the early autumn is by the native Red Maple, the Ampelopsis or Virginia Creeper, and Phellodendron amurense. This last is a small tree from the Amoor region of eastern Siberia and is chiefly interesting as the type of a small genus with a few species of trees of eastern Asia of the Rue Family, and for its peculiar thick, ridged, pale, cork-like bark. Early in October the leaves turn to a bright clear yellow which is hardly equaled in beauty by the yellow autumn leaves of any other tree. This beauty is short-lived and the branches are already bare. This is perhaps one of the rarest trees in the Arboretum and certainly the rarest of the five species which are now well established here. Phellodendron japonicum appears to have been raised first in the United States in the Botanic Garden at Cambridge, and the male and female plants were moved from there to the Bussey Institution in its very early days and are still flourishing and producing their fruit annually. Two plants of Phellodendron amurense came a little later direct to the Arboretum from the Imperial Botanic Garden at St. Petersburg in small pots and unfortunately are both of one sex and have never produced flowers. The Sassafras is just now, too, one of the most beautiful trees in New England woods and by roadsides as the leaves have turned or are turning orange or yellow more or less tinged with red. The autumn colors of several trees are perhaps more brilliant but none of them equal the Sassafras in the warmth and delicacy of their autumn foliage. The Sassafras is also a handsome tree at other seasons of the year. In the winter it is conspicuous for its dark cinnamon gray bark and slender light green branchlets; in early spring before the leaves appear it is covered with innumerable clusters of small light yellow flowers which make it at that time a conspicuous and beautiful object. The leaves are thick and green, lustrous above, paler below, and very remarkable in shape as they are sometimes deeply lobed at the apex and sometimes entire without a trace of lobes. The fruit is bright blue surrounded at the base by the much enlarged and thickened small calyx of the flower, and is raised on a bright long red stalk. No other North American tree produces such brilliantly colored fruits. Unfortunately there is little time to enjoy it for the birds greedily seek it as soon as it ripens. The wood of the Sassafras is not attacked by borers, and the leaves are not destroyed or rarely disfigured by insects. The thick spongy roots of this tree produce suckers freely and these with a little care should be safely transplanted. How many persons now plant the Sassafras, and in how many American nurseries can it be found? It was, however, one of the first North American trees carried to Europe, as it was established in England sometime before the middle of the seventeenth century. Until 1879, when another species was discovered in central China, the American tree was believed to be the only Sassafras. The Chinese tree has unfortunately not yet proved hardy in New England. The American species does not always prove as easy to transplant as it might, and in the Arboretum it has proved extremely difficult to multiply as much as has been desired. The color of the leaves of a group of dwarf Hawthorns is not surpassed in beauty from the middle to the end of October. These plants are referred to the Intricatae Group and are arranged together on the lower side of the road at the eastern base of Peter's Hill next to the Crabapple Collection. These shrubs are confined to the northern United States and Canada, and are perhaps more numerous in Pennsylvania, western New York and Michigan than in any other part of the country. Their flowers are large and conspicuous with yellow, rose-colored or pink anthers, and the fruit ripens late and is scarlet, red, orange-yellow or russet, and its beauty is increased by the brilliantly colored leaves at the time it ripens. A large number of these plants are now in the collection, and one of the handsomest this year is Crataegus cuprea with scarlet foliage and russet or copper-colored fruit. This little shrub was first detected in a small lot in the city of Wilmington, Delaware, and is not known to grow, naturally beyond the limits of that city. Crataegus Delosii, found growing several years ago by the side of a road near Toronto, is unusually full of its orange and red fruits this autumn. This species differs from the others of the group in the large number of fruits (ten to fifteen) compactly arranged in dense clusters. The autumn leaves are green and yellow. Other species of this group deserving of attention are C. infera from the neighborhood of Sellarsville, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with orange-red fruit and brilliant orange and red autumn leaves; C, fruticosa, shrub five or six feet tall, which has only been found on the Serpentine Ridge near West Chester, Pennsylvania, with deep, orange-red fruit in small erect clusters, and dark red-purple autumn leaves; and C. modesta, a shrub not often more than twelve or eighteen inches high, first noticed on a hill near Rutland, Vermont, but now known to grow in many places in southern New England and to range into eastern Pennsylvania, and conspicuous in the autumn with its bright scarlet leaves and green, yellow or orange and red fruits. Two of the southern Appalachian species, C. Buckleyi and C. Boyntonii, are small trees rather than shrubs and in the Arboretum have grown into pyramids now ten or twelve feet tall and are still covered with dark green leaves which later turn to shades of orange and scarlet. As a general rule the bright colors appear earlier in the autumn on eastern American than on allied Asiatic species, but there are a few conspicuous exceptions to this rule; and in addition to the Phellodendron during the last week or ten days Acer ginnala, Evonymus alatus and Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum have perhaps been the most brilliant plants in the Arboretum. The Maple is a small shrubby tree sometimes thirty or forty feet high, with pointed deeply divided leaves, and compact clusters of fragrant flowers. A native of eastern Siberia, where it is common in the neighborhood of Vladivostok, it was one of the first plants introduced into the Arboretum whence it came from St. Petersburg. No American tree assumes more brilliant tones, but the brilliancy lasts only for a few days and the leaves fall early. Evonymus alatus from Japan is without a rival in the brilliancy of the deep rose color passing to scarlet of its autumn leaves. The habit of this shrub is excellent when it has an opportunity to spread out in the sun but the flowers and fruit are inconspicuous. The value of the Burning Bush as a decorative plant is now appreciated and it is found in many American nurseries, but it must not be forgotten that it requires a large space in which to develop its greatest beauty. A form of this shrub raised from seeds collected in Korea by Mr. Jack with its larger fruit and even more brilliant autumn foliage is handsomer even than the Japanese form. In their autumn color of old gold the leaves of Rhododendron japonicum are more beautiful than those of any others in the collection, and its autumn color greatly adds to the ornamental value of this shrub which when in flower is the handsomest of the Asiatic Azaleas which are hardy in this climate, with the exception of the Korean Rhododendron Schlippenbachii. Sorbus alnifolia of the section Micromeles of the genus is perhaps the most satisfactory of the Mountain Ashes with entire leaves which can be grown here. It is a common Japanese tree and occurs also in Korea, in northern and central China, and sometimes in its native country grows to a height of sixty feet. Several specimens have been growing in the Arboretum since 1893 and are now from twenty to thirty feet tall. These trees are pyramidal in habit with pale smooth stems, upright branches which form a broad, compact, symmetrical head, and dark green leaves three or four inches long, small white flowers in from six- to twelve-flowered clusters, and abundant lustrous scarlet or orange-colored fruit which remains on the branches after the leaves and until eaten by birds which are fond of the fruit of all the species of Sorbus. The leaves turn bright clear yellow about the middle of October and soon fall. Mountain Ashes thrive only in well-drained rich soil and suffer from drought and insufficient nourishment. They are particularly liable to attacks of the San Jose scale, and in order to secure healthy plants it is important to spray them late in March or early in April with lime-sulphur. Viburnum prunifolium, often called Black Haw, is perhaps one of the handsomest of the small trees or large shrubs in the Arboretum with scarlet or purple leaves which are just turning. A common plant on hillsides in the middle Atlantic states the Black Haw, although not a native of Massachusetts, is hardy here and well deserves cultivation for it is an object of interest from early spring until the beginning of winter. The leaves are thick, coriaceous, dark green and lustrous above and pale below. The flowers are white, in slightly convex clusters, and these are followed by fruit pink at first when fully grown, becoming dark blue and covered with a glaucous bloom when ripe and persistent on the branches until winter. A southern representative of this plant with which it was long confounded is now called Viburnum rufidulum and is a larger and handsomer tree with thicker and more lustrous leaves which turn deep purple in the autumn. This tree, which under favorable circumstances becomes the largest and is perhaps the handsomest of all American Viburnums, is easily recognized by the large russet brown felt which covers the winter-buds. V. rufidulum grows in the Arboretum where it flowers and ripens its fruit, but it is doubtful if it ever becomes more than a medium-sized shrub here. The leaves in autumn of some of the American Azaleas are almost as brilliant as those of Rhododendron japonicum. Perhaps the most brilliant of these is the late-blooming, yellow or flame-colored Rhododendron calendulaceum which equals some of the other shrubs of the family which are unsurpassed in beauty during several months. None is more beautiful in the autumn than the crimson or purple of the leaves of the Highbush Blueberry so-called, Vacciniu1n corymbosum. This plant is handsome, too, in early spring when its white bell-shaped flowers open, and in August or September when the blue-black fruit covers the branches. A native of swamps, the Highbush Blueberry grows equally well in dry gravelly ground, and the best plants in the Arboretum are on Bussey Hill near the entrance to Azalea Path and opposite the overlook. The autumn color of the other northern Blueberries and Huckleberries is as brilliant as that of the Highbush Blueberry and some of them, especially Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, are invaluable for covering dry ground under Oaks and other hardwood trees. The white flowers are attractive; the bluish black berries, which are the earliest Blueberries to ripen, have a fair flavor and during a month or more in autumn the plants form broad masses of scarlet only a few inches high and more brilliant in color than the flowers of the Heather on the Highlands of Scotland. Every encouragement with good results has been given in the Arboretum to the spreading of these Blueberries."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 29","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23800","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25e8125.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 29, 1924 The genus Quercus, to which Oak-trees belong, is widely distributed through the northern hemisphere and some of the species are unsurpassed in beauty and magnificence among the trees contained in this hemisphere. Comparatively little attention has been paid to them as ornamental trees in this country; one is reminded of this fact at this season of the year when the splendor of the autumn color of several of the species in this climate is shown, and regrets that so few Oaks are found in our plantations. A walk at this time in the Arboretum through Oak Path from a point on the Meadow Road nearly opposite the Centre Street Gate to its junction with Azalea Path on the southern slope of Bussey Hill will be found interesting and instructive. This walk passes by the first Oaks which were planted in the Arboretum. Beautiful views toward the west, including the Juniper Collection and Hemlock Hill, can be obtained from it, and before it joins Azalea Path it will pass by some of the handsomest Azaleas in the Arboretum. Oaks have the reputation of growing slowly, and owing to this reputation have been neglected by planters. Fifty odd years ago when the Arboretum was started few persons in the United States planted Oak-trees, and it was practically impossible to obtain in American nurseries even the commonest native species. Some of the species raised from seeds were first planted in the Arboretum nearly fifty years ago when only a few inches tall. The largest of them now are taller with thicker trunks than other hardwood trees planted about the same time here, like Hickories, Walnuts, Maples, Elms, etc. The tallest of the Oaks planted in the Arboretum are Pin Oaks (Quercus palustris), and the tree with the thickest trunk is a hybrid between the White and the Burr Oaks called Quercus Bebbiana. This is a poor region, however, in which to judge the value of many Oaks as ornamental trees. It is too cold here and only a few species have proved hardy in New England, and of the fifty-five species which become trees in the United States it has been found possible to keep alive in the Arboretum only seventeen species. Of the shrubby species there are in the Arboretum only the Chinquapin Oak (Quercus prinoides) and three or four of the Rocky Mountain species which grow very slowly here and give little promise of value as ornamental plants. Some of the handsomest of the American Oaks, including all the species confined to the southern states, to the Pacific coast region, and to Arizona and New Mexico, cannot be seen growing in the Arboretum. No evergreen Oak can support this climate, and the Oaks of western Europe are usually short-lived in eastern America. The deciduous-leaved Oaks of western Europe and those of northern Japan, Korea, northern and western China, grow well in the Arboretum and a few of these already produce good crops of fruit. The largest Asiatic Oaks in the Arboretum are plants of Quercus variabilis and Q. dentata on the Oak Path near its southern end. The principal collection of Asiatic Oaks, however, is on the southern slope of Bussey Hill between Azalea Path and the Bussey mansion. In the mixed plantation of trees near the summit of Peter's Hill are many Oak-trees, including large plants of the Japanese species raised from seed brought from Japan in 1892. Scattered through the Oak plantations are several hybrids of the American species, and no opportunity is lost to increase the number of these hybrids which are now known to occur between various species growing in different parts of the country. The oldest of these hybrids now known in the neighborhood of Boston is on the Sargent estate in Brookline ; it is of uncertain origin, but no doubt was planted by Mr. Thomas Lee as early as 1820. This tree is now known as Q. Sargentii and reproduces itself quite accurately, and as a young plant grows very rapidly. There are already good-sized trees in some of the Arboretum borders. All of these hybrid Oaks are interesting, and some of them are handsome trees, like Q. Comptonae in Natchez, Mississippi, for example, a hybrid of Q. lyrata and the southern Live Oak, Q. virginiana, one of the most splendid Oak trees in the world but unfortunately of too tender blood to bear the severity of a New England winter. The early spring is one of the seasons when our northern Oaks can be studied to good advantage, for the color of the very young leaves and the amount and character of their hairy covering is different on every species. These characters are constant from year to year, and it is easier to distinguish, for example, a Black Oak (Quercus velutina) from a Scarlet Oak (Q. coccinea) by the unfolding leaves than it is by the mature leaves which on some individuals of these species are difficult to distinguish. In the autumn the leaves of Oak trees turn later than most of our deciduous trees; the color, however, is assumed irregularly on different individuals of the same species, and on some of them they are green while on others they are scarlet or yellow. Oak trees form the brilliant feature certainly of the North American forest in late autumn, and if for no other reason should be planted for the autumn color of their foliage; it is surprising that they are not more generally planted, especially as the autumn colors of many of them, like some individuals of the White Oak and the Scarlet Oak, are not surpassed by those of any trees in the northern forests. It is true that nearly all Oak trees, with the exception perhaps of the common Red Oak, are difficult to transplant unless this is done when the plants are very young seedlings, but when finally transplanted when only one or two years old they grow, as has been seen in the Arboretum, as rapidly or more rapidly than any other deciduous trees hardy here, with the exception perhaps of Willows and Poplars. For the decoration of parks, parkways and roadsides they are superior to other trees, especially Elms and Ashes, for they grow as rapidly or more rapidly when once established and are rarely ruined by wind which every year in northern city parks destroys hundreds or even thousands of Elms, which are perhaps the most popular trees to use in this country for this purpose because they can be transplanted when of large size. Lightning, of course, injures an Oak as often and as seriously as it does any other tree, but apart from lightning Oak trees are rarely injured by accidents, and the insects which attack them are no less easy to handle than the insects which have been so destructive to Elms. The new parkways in the neighborhood of Boston have in the last twenty years been generally planted with Red Oaks and fifty years hence these should make magnificent spectacles, and long survive the American and European Elms which have been so often used for this purpose. There is not a single Oak-tree certainly of any age on Boston Common; and the comparatively few Oak-trees growing at Mt. Vernon either before Washington's time or which have sprung up since bear no evidence that he ever planted an Oak of any species, although Mt. Vernon is well suited to produce Oaks of ornamental value. In the extreme southern states, especially in Natchez, Mississippi, and Louisiana, planters a hundred years ago fortunately planted Live Oaks and these are probably now the finest Oak-trees which have been planted in the United States. It is interesting that one of the handsomest Oak-trees in the United States is the hybrid Quercus Comptonae which appeared many years ago on Dr. Duncan's plantation near Natchez. This tree, which was destroyed a year or two ago by a storm, has produced a few seedlings which are growing near Natchez, and occasionally in Louisiana, and which are now great trees unsurpassed in beauty. Some one should take up the hybridization of Oaks seriously, especially the Chinese and Japanese species, for judging by our small experience with hybrid Oaks efforts to increase the forms in this manner promises to add valuable material to our plantations in the northern hemisphere. Occasionally hybrids will be found growing naturally, but it is not probable that unknown hardy species are likely to be discovered except possibly m the great unexplored region in northern Tibet and on the high mountains of northern Kansu in northwestern China. Enkianthus. The Japanese species of this Asiatic genus of the Heath Family all grow well in the Arboretum and the group of these plants on the lower side of Azalea Path furnish pleasure to many persons in spring when they are covered with bell-shaped flowers, and in late October when the leaves are bright scarlet. The handsomest of these plants in the autumn, Enkianthus perulatus, is a compact round-headed shrub with white flowers. This is a popular plant in Japan and can be seen in many Japanese gardens cut into a round ball. It has never produced seeds in the Arboretum, and has remained exceedingly rare in this country. More common is E. campanulatus, which is sometimes in Japan a tree twenty-five or thirty feet tall and which in the Arboretum has grown from seed in thirty years into a narrow shrub eight or ten feet tall. The yellow flowers tinged with red, or in one variety pure white, hanging gracefully in long racemes, are attractive. This plant produces quantities of seeds every year, and there is no reason why it should not become a common garden plant in those parts of America where the soil is free of lime. Ligustrum vulgare. Attention has been often called in these Bulletins to the value of the common European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare. In recent years much attention has been paid by botanists and gardeners to the Privets of eastern Asia, where many species have been discovered. None of these, however, are as valuable in this climate as the European species which is perhaps the handsomest of all the hardy black-fruited shrubs. The bright shining fruit is borne in compact clusters which stand up well on the ends of the branches above the dark green lustrous leaves and remain on the plants during the early winter months and after the dark green leaves have fallen. Formerly this was a common garden plant in the northern states and is now sparingly naturalized in some parts of the country. There is a form with yellow fruit which is much less beautiful than the type, and there is a variety foliolosa in the Arboretum collection which has rather narrower leaves and larger fruit. This shrub, although apparently little known in our gardens, is one of the handsomest of all the shrubs here at this season of the year. Crataegus phaenopyrum, formerly called C. cordata, the Washington Thorn, is not as well known as it was perhaps one hundred years ago when less attention was given to American Hawthorns, and it appears to have been frequently used then in the middle states as a hedge plant. Near the group of Crataegus punctata on the Bussey Hill Overlook are two large plants. It is a narrow tree sometimes thirty feet tall, with erect branches and small, nearly triangular lustrous leaves which are now beginning to turn bright scarlet. The small globose fruits are also turning scarlet and will remain on the branches until spring with little loss of beauty. This is the latest of all the species of Hawthorn in the Arboretum to flower. The only drawback to this handsome little tree is found in the brittleness of the branches which are often broken by high winds."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 14","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23798","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd25eb76e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. X NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 14. 1924 The Arboretum has not as yet greatly suffered from the severe drought which has prevailed in New England, only thirty minutes of rain having fallen here since the lst of October. The autumn color of the leaves of many plants has never been finer than it has this year, but the leaves have already fallen from most of the trees, even from the Oaks which are the last to make a great show. The leaves of the Blueberries and Huckleberries which turn scarlet late in the autumn still make a display, and as a ground cover in native woods there are no more beautiful plants than the three dwarf Blueberries of the eastern states, Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, V. canadense and V. vacillans. Many other shrubs which make a showing with their crimson leaves in the late autumn, especially when covered with the scarlet fruit, are conspicuous. Of the species closely related to the common Barberry, Berberis vulgaris, the handsomest perhaps in the collection is the Japanese B. Regeliana, a large shrub with large pale flowers, large fruit and leaves which turn orange and scarlet. Although still rare here, this plant was brought to the United States more than fifty years ago and was long cultivated in the Parsons Nursery on Long Island as Berberis Hakodate. The Chinese B. diaphana is now perhaps the handsomest of the species known here with dark autumn foliage. This is a low round-topped shrub, broader than high, with large solitary flowers, which rarely produces fruit. The only objection to this shrub is that the leaves unfold so late that the plants appear dead when other Barberries are covered with fully grown leaves. Among the Chinese species a most beautiful Barberry is Berberis circumserrata, a small round-topped shrub with large solitary flowers and leaves which in early November turn to as brilliant shades of scarlet as those of any other plant in the Arboretum. Other species which are particularly attractive in the autumn are Berberis koreana, B. lucida, B. amurensis, B. dictyophylla and B. Vernae. A few shrubs still retain the summer color of their foliage. In addition to Ligustum vulgare mentioned in a recent Bulletin are the two Japanese vines of Akebia, quinata and A. lobata. A. quinata, with leaves composed of five leaflets, and with small dark purple flowers, is well known in American gardens, A. lobata is less well known in this country; it differs from A. quinata in the three, not five, rather larger leaflets which turn late in the autumn just before falling to a handsome dark bronze color. In this country the Akebias rarely produce fruit, which resembles in shape a short thick banana and is pale violet in color and contains many small seeds embedded in sweet juicy pulp. Of that of A. lobata the Japanese are fond as the fruit is found in great quantities in the markets of northern Japan. This species has never produced fruit here in the Arboretum, and occasionally has been killed nearly to the ground in severe winters. Lonicera Maackii var. podocarpa. Of the plants conspicuous in late October and early November for the beauty of their bright green leaves and scarlet fruit none perhaps is more beautiful than this Honeysuckle which was introduced by Wilson from central China. It is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with wide-spreading branches and open habit. The flowers are larger than those of most Honeysuckles, are white, and in one form are slightly tinged with rose color. It is still covered with bright green leaves, and the large scarlet lustrous fruits are only just ripe. The best specimen of this Honeysuckle in the Arboretum can be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The type of this species, Lonicera 141aackii, is a native of eastern Siberia and is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum where it is growing in the Shrub Collection. It is a narrow shrub with stems more erect than those of the form from central China. The flowers are pure white and more beautiful than those of the Chinese plant, but the fruit just now ripe is smaller and the leaves have already fallen. Ribes fasciculatum var. Chinese. The Chinese Currant is interesting because it is the only species here with fruit which does not ripen until late in the autumn. The beauty of the scarlet fruit is increased, too, at this time by the color of the leaves which have now turned to shades of orange and scarlet. There is a plant of this Currant in the Shrub Collection and also in the supplementary Ribes Collection opposite the Administration Building. Evonymus semipersistens. This is a rare Chinese shrub which is little known in this country and of which there is a large specimen still standing in the old Evonymus Group on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. The fruit of this species has no ornamental value for it is small and hidden by the foliage, and its value is found in the persistence of the leaves which remain perfectly green and do not fall until December. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs in the Arboretum which retain their foliage without change of color until the beginning of winter. Such plants are valuable in the autumn garden to contrast with plants of brilliant autumn coloring. Another valuable plant for this purpose is Magnolia glauca, the Sweet Bay of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions from Massachusetts to Texas. This Magnolia is still covered with its bright green shining leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface and these will not fall for at least another month. Attention has often been called in these Bulletins to the value of this tree in New England gardens. Few deciduous-leaved trees have more beautiful and more persistent foliage; the cup-shaped, creamy white flowers continue to open during at least two months in early summer and fill the air with their fragrance, and the fruit, like that of all the Magnolias, is interesting and handsome when the bright red seeds hang from it on slender threads. Roadside Plants. Much attention has been paid here for several years in experimenting to secure the best plants to occupy the narrow beds between the driveways and the gravel paths which follow them, and thus far the most satisfactory plant found for this purpose has been Rosa virginiana, often called R. lucida, the seashore Rose of New England, an upright shrub from two to three feet in height which is still covered with its leaves lustrous in the early season and turning yellow late in October. A plant which came here many years ago from the island of Mt. Desert on the coast of Maine, and now distinguished as var. lamprophylla, is a handsomer plant than the typical form, of denser habit and with darker green lustrous leaves. The large pink flowers and the showy red hips are similar to those of the common form. The other plants which have been most successfully used for this purpose are the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis) and Xanthorhiza apiifolia. The Fragrant Sumach is a widely distributed North American shrub which rarely grows more than five feet tall, and when planted in good soil is often broader than high with lower branches spreading flat on the ground and upper branches erect, spreading or drooping. In early spring before the leaves appear the branches are covered with clusters of small bright yellow flowers which in June are followed by dull red fruits which are much hidden by the small compound leaves. Among the small shrubs in the Arboretum few are more brilliant at this season of the year for the leaves turn gradually to bright scarlet and orange. The Xanthorhiza has also been largely and successfully used here; it makes a neat border plant and is also well suited to grow under shrubs or trees. This low shrub spreads rapidly by underground stems which do not grow more than twelve to eighteen inches high. The small purple flowers, which are arranged in drooping clusters, appear as the leaves unfold; these are pinnate, of a cheerful green color, and turn late in the autumn pale yellow, orange or occasionally scarlet. Some dwarf broad-leaved evergreens. The color which the leaves of a few of these assume in the autumn add greatly to the interest of these plants in November. The most conspicuous change of color on any of those in the Arboretum is on the Rocky Mountain Mahonia or Berberis repens. From light bluish green the leaves turn to pale violet color in the autumn. This is one of the handsomest and hardiest evergreen plants which can be used here to cover the ground under larger plants. It grows only a few inches high, spreads rapidly by underground stems, and the bright yellow flowers are large and conspicuous. The small dark green leaves of the Box Huckleberry, Gaylussacia brachycera, become in the autumn deeply tinged with red when the leaves are exposed to the sun, and the leaves of Pachystima Canbyi are more or less tinged with violet. These are two of the rarest plants in the United States. The leaves of Leucothoe Catesbaei turn bronze color in the autumn. This plant has always been considered hardy in eastern Massachusetts but has occasionally suffered seriously here during the winter. The Rhododendrons which are hardy here and the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) have not before given a better promise of abundant bloom in the spring. Pieris floribunda, often called Andromeda floribunda, is already covered with its flower-buds which, conspicuous and ornamental during the winter, open here usually late in April. This native of the southern Appalachian Mountains is an old inhabitant of gardens and is much propagated by nurserymen; it certainly is one of the handsomest of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which are hardy in this climate, and with the exception of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and a few Rhododendrons, is the most valuable broad-leaved evergreen which can be grown in the northern states. Its Japanese relative, Pieris japonica, with larger and more beautiful flowers which open earlier, is less often injured by spring frosts. The Inkberry (Ilex glabra) which is a common sea shore inhabitant from New Hampshire to Texas, is a beautiful garden plant, although occasionally in the Arboretum it loses its branches and upper leaves. There is a fine clump of this beautiful shrub on the right hand side of the Bussey Road opposite the bed of Laurel. Autumn flowers are not abundant in the Arboretum in October and November, although a few may still be found here. The northern Witch Hazel, Hamamelis virginiana, is still covered with flowers which are conspicuous for their clear yellow strap-shaped petals. The autumn color of the leaves of this plant is also yellow but of a darker shade than the flowers, and the leaves usually do not fall until the flowers begin to open; these remain for a long time in good condition on the naked branches, making this shrub one of the most attractive features of forest borders in the eastern United States. It has been largely planted in the Arboretum. Pyrus ovoidea. The late autumn coloring of the leaves of this Chinese tree is hardly surpassed by that of any other plant in the Arboretum, and it is well worth a place in any garden for this alone. It is interesting, too, because the leaves of no other Pear-tree turn to such brilliant colors, and because the yellow juicy fruit, unlike that of other Pears, is smaller at the apex than at the base. There is a good specimen of this tree in the Pear Collection on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road near the Forest Hills entrance. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Volume X","article_sequence":17,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23784","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24eaf6e.jpg","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOL. X Synonyms are in italics Abies grandis, 4, 35 Acer ginnala, 59 platanoides, 52 rubrum, 6 var. pallidiflorum, 6 saccharinum, 5 Aesculus chinensis, 28 glabra, 24 Hippocastanum, 28, 51 Pavia, 28 Ailanthus, 50, 52 Akebia lobata, 66 quinata, 66 Amelanchier canadensis, 10 laevis, 10 obovalis, 10 Amelanchiers, 9 American Beech, 51 Dogwoods, 36 Elm, 6 Horsechestnut, 51 White Ash, 51 Ampelopsis, 57 Andromeda floribunda, 9, 63 Apple, Charlotte, 28 Ash, American White, 51 European, 51 Ashes, Mountain, 59 Ash-trees, 50 Asiatic Crabapples, 15 Oaks, 62 Autumn colors, 57 flowers, 68 Azalea lutea, 18 poukhanense, 16, 18 Azaleas, early, 15 the latest, 48 Bay, Sweet, 48, 67 Bechtel, Crab, 28 Beech, American, 51 European, 51, 52 Berberis amurensis, 66 circumserrata, 65 diaphana, 65 dictyophylla, 66 Dielsiana, 20 Hakodate, 65 koreana, 66 lucida, 66 Regeliana, 65 repens, 68 Vernae, 66 vulgaris, 65 Betula Maximowiczii, 51 papyrifera, 51 pendula, 51 Birch, Canoe, 51 Birch-trees, European, 51 Black Haw, 60 Oak, 62 Blueberries, 60, 65 Blueberry, Highbush, 60 Bollwyller Pear, 20 Box Huckleberry, 68 Brooms, 44 Buckeye, 51 Ohio, 24 Buckeyes and Horsechestnuts, 28 Buergeria stellata, 6 Burning Bush, 59 Calico Bush, 34 Canada Plum, 12 Canoe Birch, 51 Catawbiense Hybrid Rhododendrons, 33 Cedar of Lebanon,4 Red, 3 Cercidiphyllum, 50, 52 Chaenomeles, 19 japonica, 19 lagenaria, 19 var. cardinalis, 19 var. nivalis, 19 Chaenomeles lagenaria, 19 var. Simonii, 19 superba, 19 var. alba, 19 var. perfecta, 19 var. rosea, 19 Charlotte Apple, 28 Cherokee Rose, 28 Cherry, Japanese Weeping, 7 Sargent, 8 Spring, 7 Cherry-trees, double-flowered, 16 Chinese Currant, 66 White Mulberry, 50 Chinquapin Oak, 62 Cockspur Thorn, 27 Cornel, Silky, 46 Cornels, 41, 42 Cornus alternifolia, 36 Cornus amomum, 46 arnoldiana, 45 circinnata, 42 controversa, 36 florida, 36, 41, 45 kousa, 36, 41, 42 chinensis, 41, 42 Nuttallii, 41 paniculata, 45 racemosa, 45 rugosa, 42 Corylopsis, 10 Gotoana, 10 pauciflora, 10 spicata, 10 Cottonwood, 6 Crab, Bechtel, 28 Parkman, 22 Crabapple, a new, 28 Crabapples, 13, 14, 15, 21 Asiatic, 15 hybrid, 21 Crataegus aprica, 27 arkansana, 27 arnoldiana, 26 Boyntonii, 59 Buckleyi, 59 coccinioides, 27 Crataegus cordata, 64 Crus-galli, 27 cuprea, 58 Delosii, 58 Douglasii, 27 fruticosa, 58 infera, 58 modesta, 59 mollis, 27 monogyna, 26 nitida, 27 oxyacantha, 26 pinnatifida, 26 var. major, 26 pruinosa, 27 rivularis, 27 submollis, 27 succulenta, 27 Crimson Rambler Rose, 40 Cryptomeria japonica, 1 Cumberland Plum, 12 Cupressus Macnabiana, 2 Currant, Chinese, 66 Cytisus nigricans, 47 Daphne genkwa, 32 Deutzia gracilis, 37 grandiflora, 38 Lemoinei, 37 ' Avalanche, 37 Boule de Neige, 37 Candelabre, 37 compacta, 37 myriantha, 37 1 Boule Rose, 37 Fleur de Pommier, 37 parviflora, 37 purpurascens, 37 rosea, 37 scabra, 38 var. crenata, 38 var. plena, 38 var. \"Pride of Rochester,\" 38 var. Watereri, 38 Deutzias, 37 Dogwood, Flowering, 41 Dogwoods, American, 36 Double-flowered Cherry-trees, 16 Douglas Spruce, 3 Early Azaleas, 15 Roses, 27 Elm, American, 6 English, 50 European, 52 White, 50 Elms, Paddock, 50 Elm-trees, 50 English Elm, 50 Hawthorn, 26 Walnut, 52 Enkianthus, 63 campanulatus, 64 perulatus, 64 European Ash, 51 Beech, 51, 52 Birch-trees, 51 Elm, 52 Horsechestnut, 51, 52 Larch, 52 Privet, 64 Evergreen Rhododendrons, 29, 30 Evergreens, some dwarf broadleaved, 67 Evonymus alata, 59 semipersistens, 66 Fir, Silver, 4 Flowering Dogwood, 41 Forsythia intermedia, 7 ovata, 6, 7 spectabilis, 7 suspensa var. Fortunei, 7 viridissima, 7 Foxtail Pine, 2 Fragrant Sumach, 67 Fraxinus americana, 51 excelsior, 51 mandshurica, 51 Gaylussacia brachycera, 68 Genista tinctoria, 47 var. elatior, 47 Ginkgo, 52 Golden Beauty Plum, 12 Hamamelis virginiana, 68 Haw, Black, 60 Hawthorn, English, 26 Hawthorns, 25, 26, 27, 58 Hazel, Witch, 5, 68 Highbush Blueberry, 60 Honeysuckle, Swamp, 48 Horsechestnut, American, 51 European, 51, 52 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes, 28 Huckleberry, Box, 68 Hybrid Crabapples, 21 Hydrangea Bretschneideri, 43 Japanese Climbing, 42 petiolaris, 42 Rosthornii, 43 xanthoneura, 43 var. setchuenensis, 43 var. Wilsonii, 43 Ilex glabra, 35 opaca, 35 Inkberry, 35 Japanese Climbing Hydrangea, 42 Torreya, 35 Weeping Cherry, 7 Yew, 35 Juglans regia, 52 Juniperus chinensis Sargentii, 35 Kalmia angustifolia, 35 latifolia, 34, 68 var. alba, 35 var. fuscata, 35 var. myrtifolia, 35 var. obtusata, 35 var. polypetala, 35 Kanawha Plum, 12 Keiffer Pear, 11 Laburnum alpinum, 36 anagyroides, 36 Parksii, 36 Scotch, 36 vulgare, 36 Watereri, 36 Larch, European, 52 Laurel, 68 Mountain, 34 Sheep, 35 Leconte Pear, 11 Leucothoe Catesbaei, 68 floribunda, 35 Libocedrus decurrens, 1 Library, the, 53 Ligustrum vulgare 64, 66 var. foliosa, 64 Lilac, Persian, 23 Lilacs, 17, 18, 23, 24 Selection of double varieties, 18 Desfontaines, 18 Dr. Masters, 18 Due de Massa, 18 Edith Cavell, 18 Gaudichaud, 18 Georges Bellair, 18 Jules Ferry, 18 Julien Gerardin, 18 Leon Gambetta, 18 Madame Abel Chatenay, 18 Madame Casimir Perier, 18 Marechal de Bassompierre, 18 Marechal Lannes, 18 Maurice de Vilmorin, 18 Olivier de Serres, 18 . Paul Thirion, 18 President Fallieres, 18 President Loubet, 18 Princess Clementine, 18 Rene Jarry-Desloges, 18 Thunbergi, 18 Violetta, 18 Selection of single varieties, 18 Amethyst, 18 Charles X., 18 Clara Cochet, 18 Congo, 18 Diderot, 18 Edmond Boissier, 18 Furst Lichtenstein, 18 Gloire de Moulins, 18 Laplace, 18 Lucie Baltet, 18 Macrostachya, 18 Selection of single varieties, 18 Madame Florent Stepman, 18 Madame Moser, 18 Marceau, 18 Marlyensis pallida, 18 Montgolfier, 18 Negro, 18 Philemon, 18 Princess Alexandra, 18 Professor Sargent, 18 Pyramidal, 18 Reaumur, 18 Rousard, 18 Saturnale, 18 speciosa, 18 spectabilis, 18 Triomphe d'Orleans, 18 Turenne, 18 Vestale, 18 Ville de Troyes, 18 Volcan, 18 Lilacs, Tree, 44 Lindens, 51 Lonicera Maackii, 31, 66 var. podocarpa, 31, 66 Maximowiczii, 31 var. sachalinensis, 31 Morrowii, 32 tatarica, 32 Magnolia Fraseri, 24 glauca, 47, 67 Halleana, 6 macrophylla, 48 major, 48 parviflora, 32 stellata, 6 Thompsoniana, 48 virginiana, 47, 48 var. australis, 48 Watsonii, 32 Mahonia repens, 67 Malus arnoldiana, 15, 22 atrosanguinea, 23 baccata, 13 var. mandshurica, 13, 14 coronaria, 28 var. Charlottae, 28 Malus floribunda, 15, 22 Halliana, 22 Kaido, 22 micromalus, 15, 22 prunifolia, var. rinki, 13, 14 pumila, 21 robusta, 22 Sargentii, 13, 14 Scheideckeri, 22 Sieboldii, 14 var. arborescens, 13, 14 spectabilis, 15, 21, 22 sylvestris, 21 theifera, 13, 15 Maple, Norway, 52 Red, 6, 57 Silver, 5 Soft, 5 Sugar, 12, 52 Mock Orange, 38 Morus alba, 50 Mountain Ashes, 59 Laurel, 34 Mulberry, Chinese White, 50 Native and foreign trees, 49 Neillia sinensis, 40 Norway Maple, 52 Oak, Black 62 Chinquapin, 62 Pin, 61 Scarlet, 62 Oaks, Asiatic, 62 Ohio Buckeye, 24 Orange, Mock, 38 Oxydendrum arboreum, 35 Pachystima Canbyi, 68 Paddock Elms, 50 Parkman Crab, 22 Pear, Bollwyller, 20 Keiffer, 11 Leconte, 11 Periploca sepium, 46 Persian Lilac, 23 Walnut, 52 Phellodendron amurense, 57 Phellodendron japonicum, 57 Philadelphus coronarius, 38 Falconeri, 39 grandiflorus, 39 hirsutus, 38 inodorus, 39 insignis, 39 latifolius, 39 Lemoinei, 40 Avalanche, 40 Boule L'Argent, 40 Bouquet Blanc, 40 Candelabre, 40 Erectus, 40 Fantasie, 40 Gerbe de Neige, 40 Mont Blanc, 40 maximus, 39 microphyllus, 39 pekinensis, 39 pubescens, 39 purpurascens, 39 Schrenkii var. Jackii, 38 Souvenir de Billard, 39 splendens, 39 Picea Breweriana, 1, 2 Engelmannii, 2 omorika, 3 Pieris floribunda, 9, 68 japonica, 68 Pin Oak, 61 Pine, Foxtail, 2 White, 3 Pinetum, the, 1 Pinus aristata, 2 Balfouriana, 2 echinata, 1 ponderosa, var. Jeffreyi, 2 Strobus, 3 Plum, Canada, 12 Cumberland, 12 Golden Beauty, 12 Kanawha, 12 Sand, 12 Wayland, 12 Wild Goose, 12 Plum-trees, 12 Poplars, Silver, 6, 49, 50 Populus alba, 6, 49 balsamifera var. virginiana, 6 canescens, 6, 49 deltoidea, 6 Maximowiczii, 49 tomentosa, 6, 50 Prinsepia sinensis, 10 uniflora, 11 Privet, European, 64 Prunus alleghaniensis, 12 americana, 12 avium, 8 hortulana, 12 incisa,8 Lannesiana var. ochichima, 16 Munsoniana, 12 nigra, 12 salicina, 12 serrulata, 8 var. albo-rosea, 8, 16 var. fugenzo, 8, 16 var. James H. Veitch, 8, 16 var. sachalinensis, 8, 16 var. sekiyama, 16 subhirtella, 7, 8 var. ascendens, 7 var. autumnalis, 7 var. pendula, 7 Watsonii, 12 Pseudolarix, 52 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 3 Pyrus Bretschneideri, 11, 12 communis, 11 elaeagrifolia, 11 japonica, 19 malifolia, 20 Maulei, 19 ovoidea, 11, 12, 68 serotina, 11 Quercus, 61 Bebbiana, 62 coccinea, 62 Comptonae, 62, 63 dentata, 62 palustris, 61 prinoides, 62 Quercus Sargentii, 62 variabilis, 62 velutina, 62 virginiana, 62 Quince, 19 Red Cedar,3 Maple, 6, 57 Rhododendron alta-clerense, 33 arborescens, 29, 48 calendulaceum, 60 canadense, 19 carolinianum, 30 catawbiense, 29, 30, 33, 34 hybrids of, 29, 30, 33 album elegans, 33 album grandiflorum, 33 atrosanguineum, 33 catawbiense album, 33 Charles Dickens, 33 Everestianum, 33 H. W. Sargent, 33 Henrietta Sargent, 33 James Mackintosh, 33 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 33 purpureum grandiflorum, 33 roseum elegans, 33 caucasicum, 31 hybrids of, 31 Adalbert, 31 Adam, 31 Alarich, 31 Albert, 31 Annedore, 31 Anton, 31 Arno, 31 Attila, 31 August, 31 Bella, 31 Bismarck, 31 Boule de Neige, 31 Calliope, 31 Daisy, 31 Desiderius, 31 Diana, 31 Donar, 31 Echse, 31 Eli, 31 Rhododendron caucasicum, 31 hybrids of, 31 Eva, 31 Fee, 31 Mont Blanc, 31 Viola, 31 delicatissimum, 33 Jacksonii, 15 japonicum, 59 maximum, 30 Metternichii, 34 minus, 30 mucronulatum, 18 ponticum, 29 poukhanense, 16 punctatum, 30 Schlippenbachii, 15, 59 Smirnowii, 29, 30 Vaseyi, 19 venustum, 15 viscosum, 48 Watereri, 34 Rhododendrons, evergreen, 29, 30 Rhodora, 19 Rhus canadensis, 67 Ribes fasciculatum var. Chinense, 61 Roadside Plants, 67 Rosa bella, 40 Ecae, 27 Helenae, 47 Hugonis, 27, 28 laevigata, 28 lucida, 67 Marretii, 40 multiflora, 40 multiflora cathayensis, 40 multiflora platyphylla, 40 omeiensis, 28 pratincola, 47 spinosissima 35 var. altaica 35 var. cestiflora, 35 var. fulgens, 35 var. hispida, 35 var. lutea, 35 var. pusilla, 35 suffulata alba, 47 Rosa virginiana, 45, 67 var. lamprophylla, 67 Rose, Cherokee, 28 Crimson Rambler, 40 Seven Sisters, 40 Roses, early 27 Scotch, 35 Salix alba, 50 ferruginea, 6 fragilis, 50 irrorata, 6 Laescadiana, 6 Siegertii, 6 stipularis, 6 Sand Plum, 12 Sargent Cherry, 8 Sassafras, 57 Scarlet Oak, 62 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 42 Scotch Laburnum, 36 Roses, 35 Dominie Samson, 35 Iris, 35 Jupiter, 35 6 King of the Scots, 35 Lady Baillie, 35 Plato, 35 Pythagoras, 35 Seven Sisters Rose, 40 Shad Bushes, 9 Sheep Laurel, 35 Silky Cornel, 46 Silver Fir, 4 Maple, 5 Poplars, 6, 49, 50 Soft Maple, 5 Some dwarf broad-leaved evergreens, 67 Sophora viciifolia, 43 Sorbopyrus malifolia, 20 Sorbus alnifolia, 59 auricularis, 20 var. bulbiformis, 20 Sour Wood, 35 Spiraea Veitchii, 44 Spring Cherry, 7 Spruce, Douglas, 3"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23413","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd160a36e.jpg","title":"1924-10","volume":10,"issue_number":null,"year":1924,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 1","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23773","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270af6d.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 1. 1923 Compared with those of recent years it is a \"late spring\" in the Arboretum after a winter remarkable in the large amount of snow which has fallen and which has covered the ground continuously from the middle of December to the middle of March. The deep cover of snow has successfully protected low growing plants; it has protected, too, field mice which have injured some valuable shrubs by stripping the bark from their stems and branches. The cold was not unusually severe. Covered by the deep snow the ground was free or nearly so of frost during the winter, and in March there was promise of an exceptionally early spring, but on the morning of March 29th the thermometer registered two degrees below zero and the prospect of an early spring was ended. Fortunately this extreme cold at the end of March had not been preceded by days of high temperature, and comparatively little damage to plants in the Arboretum was caused by it. Rhododendrons with persistent leaves have suffered here more than any other plants by the low temperature at the end of March. There are dead branches on many plants of the Catawbiense Hybrids which have grown uninjured here for years; and some of the large plants of the native Rhododendron maximum have suffered even more than the Catawbiense Hybrids. The hybrid Rhododendron myrtifolium (R. hirsutum x minus) which has been growing in the Arboretum since 1885 and has never before lost a leaf or a flower-bud, is now badly injured. It is interesting that a related hybrid, R. arbutifolium, the R. Wilsonii of many gardens (R. ferrugineum x minus) is uninjured, as is R. minus it. self. Uninjured, too, are R. catawbiense, the Caucasian R. Smirnozii, the Japanese R. Metternichii, and R. Wateri, the hybrid of one of his Catawbiense hybrids with R. Metternichii raised several years ago by the late Anthony Waterer. The varieties and hybrids, too, of Rhododendron caucasicum are uninjured in leaf and bud. Of other broadleaved evergreens Pteris or Andromeda floribunda from the southern Appalachian mountain region is as usual uninjured and covered with flower-buds soon to open. This is certainly the handsomest and one of the hardiest broad-leaved evergreen plants which has yet been thoroughly tested in the northeastern states. The more common Leucothoe Catesbyi of the same region often loses all its leaves during severe winters when the plants are fully exposed to the sun, and last spring the native Inkberry (Ilex glabra) lost its leaves which now are as bright as they were in October. Even such a hardy broad-leaved evergreen as Evonymus radicans vegeta loses many of its leaves in severe winters which, however, never appear to injure the leaf-buds. This fact is important for this Evonymus is the only substitute for the Ivy which can be successfully grown in eastern Massachusetts. The leaves of the Ivy which has been growing here on the Administration Building for a number of years has suffered more this winter than it ever has before but probably will recover. This is one of the plants obtained from Riga on the Baltic which is probably as cold or colder than any other region where the Ivy grows naturally. It was hoped that plants which had grown in such a cold country would prove hardy here, but it now appears that there is little hope that an Ivy can be found which will prove really hardy east of Cape Cod. The Arboretum collection of conifers is in unusually good condition this year and there are no losses to report. The leaves of the southern Short-leaved Pine (Pinus echinata) are as usual badly burned, and although this valuable timber tree grows naturally on Staten and Long Island it is now evident that although it can exist in the Arboretum it will never make a fine tree here. The Chinese Pines (Pinus sinensis and its varieties) which lost nearly all their leaves a year ago are now in good condition; and the leaves of the Japanese Black Pine (Pinus Thunbergii) have been less injured by the winter than they have been for several years. It is still possible to say that the most beautiful conifer in the Arboretum is the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana). Winter Flowering Witch Hazels. These plants have behaved in an unusual manner during the past winter. The species from southern Missouri and Oklahoma (Hamamelis vernal is) which usually blooms here at the end of December or early in January did not open its flowers until the middle of March. The flower-buds of this species, of the Chinese H. mollis and of H. japonica on the plants growing in low ground near the pond at the junction of the Meadow and the Valley Roads were killed. The plants of Hamamelis japonica have been growing in this position for the last twenty-five or thirty years and have never before failed to cover themselves in late January and in February with flowers. On high ground and in better drained soil H. mollis this year did not bloom until March 23, or at least two months after its normal time for flowering, and the flowers of the Japanese species were equally late. On the 21st of April the new red-flowered Japanese H. incarnata was still in full flower in the temperature of a hot July day. The flowers of this plant are small with dull red-brown petals of little beauty, and it is only as a curiosity that it is worth a place in the garden. The middle of April the season appeared to be ten or twelve days earlier than last year but on April 20th and 21st the temperature in the neighborhood of Boston rose in the afternoon to 87 and the buds of many plants began to open, and now a week later there is not more than a week's difference in the opening of flowers between this year and last. The Soft Maple (Acer saccarinum) which has been known to flower here in February was in full bloom this year on March 24th, nine days later than last year; and a tree of the Red Maple (Acer rubrum) was in flower this year on April 20th or ten days later than last year. In spite of the lateness of the season there are interesting flowers to be seen in the Arboretum, although it is still not too late for a destructive frost like that of April 21, 1922, which did so much damage to flowers here. Early Magnolias. Three Japanese species are conspicuous in early spring; all of them, however, bloom at least ten days too early for their delicate white petals rarely escape injury by cold nights. The handsomest and the best known of these plants, Magnolia stellata, is a large round-topped shrub with star-like flowers which appear before the dark green leaves. Although a native of southern Japan, this Magnolia is entirely hardy in Massachusetts, and if it flowered later would be one of the most desirable plants which could be grown in northern gardens. The other early-flowering Japanese species are Magnolia salicifolia and M. kobus var. borealis. The former is a small slender tree with narrow pointed leaves and smaller flowers than those of M. stellata. It is a native of the mountain slopes of northern Hondo. It is hardy but has never grown as well in the Arboretum as it has in Highland Park, Rochester, New York. The third of these plants, the northern large-flowered form of M. kobus (var. borealis) is the most northern in its range of the Magnolias which flower before the leaves appear, and grows naturally only in Asia. This northern tree was introduced into gardens by the Arboretum as long ago as 1878, but in cultivation has never been a particularly successful plant. The small white flowers are pendent and are not often produced freely until the tree is thirty or forty years old. Growing in the open the trees are apt to produce heavy lower branches which interfere with the growth of the stem which is stunted and often killed by them. This Magnolia grows naturally in dense forests in which it becomes a tall tree with a long straight trunk, and it is probable that it will do better than it has in the Arboretum if it could be planted with other trees in woods. The old trees have all disappeared from the Arboretum, but one of the original seedlings growing in a garden in Brookline, is now more covered with flowers than it has ever been before. Forsythias are now covered with nearly fully expanded flowers and are the most conspicuous plants in the Arboretum. When planted in low ground they have lost some of their flower-buds from cold, especially those at the end of the branches, but even in low situations they are fuller of flowers than usual. A species which is flowering this spring for the first time in the United States is Forsythia ovata, a native of the slopes of the Diamond Mountains of Korea, and in its range the most northern of the species of Forsythia. It is a large shrub with light yellow branches, broad, long-pointed, coarsely toothed leaves from 4-5 inches long, and from 3-4 inches wide, and clear primrose colored flowers rather smaller than those of Forsythia Fortunei or any of the forms of F. intermedia; they open about a week earlier than those of the other Forsythias. This Korean Forsythia promises to be a useful addition to early spring flowering shrubs and to be hardy in parts of this country where the other Forsythias cannot be successfully cultivated. The Arboretum plants were raised from seeds collected by Wilson in Korea in 1918. Other plants also in bloom are many Poplars and Willows. Erica carnea, the only species of the true Heaths which is entirely hardy in this climate has been covered during the last two weeks with its bright rose-red flowers. The bright yellow flowers of the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) and the Spicebush (Benzoin aestivale) make these two widely distributed native shrubs attractive features of the Arboretum at the end of April. They are plants still too little known to gardeners. April Flowering Rhododendrons. The earliest of these, the Siberian R. dahuricum, which can be seen on Azalea Path is now well covered with its small rose purple flowers. Last year they were fully open on April 12 and were ruined by frost on the 21st. They may be ruined again this year for it is not too late for killing frosts. The flowers of the north China Rhododendron mucronulatum which open usually two or three days later than those of the Siberian plant are less delicate and are rarely injured by frost. On the lower side of Azalea Path there is a mass of this beautiful plant which is well worth a place in the spring garden. The plants of the hybrid Rhododendron (R. cil7atum x dahuricum) known in gardens as R. praecox \"Early Gem\" in the general Rhododendron collection are covered with expanding flower-buds. This is an interesting and handsome plant but the flowers are very delicate and five years out of six are ruined by frost. Mr. J. G. Jack of the Arboretum staff will conduct a Field Class on Saturdays during the spring and early summer, to assist those who wish to gain a more intimate knowledge of the native and foreign trees and shrubs which grow in New England. Instruction will be given in informal outdoor talks and in the examination of the plants. Different botanical groups will be visited at each meeting, although any trees or shrubs found may form subjects for study. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required in order to join the class as the instruction is intended to be simple in character, affording opportunities for questions and answers relating to the specimens under observation. Unless otherwise notified the class will meet promptly at ten o'clock in the morning, on Saturdays, in the Arboretum at the Forest Hills entrance, beginning April 28th. The class will close on the 23rd of June. The fee for the course is $5.00, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 4","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23779","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2708928.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 4, 1923 Prunus. In the Arboretum are now placed in this genus the Peaches, Apricots, Almonds, Cherries and Plums. As now constituted this genus contains some of the important fruit trees of temperate regions, a few valuable timber trees, and a large number of plants cultivated for the beauty of their flowers or fruits, or for the evergreen leaves of some of the species. To few genera do northern gardens owe so great and varied beauty and in this Arboretum many of its species are established. The earliest of them to bloom in the Arboretum is a Peach, Prunus Davidiana, which opened its flowers on the 19th of April and shed its petals ten days later. This is the wild Peach-tree of northern China and a narrow tree with a tall slender stem and upright branches. The flowers are pink, and there is also in the Arboretum a white-flowered form. The small hard, green fruit is not seen here every year as the flowers are usually destroyed by spring frosts. This tree has little to recommend it as a garden plant, especially in regions where spring frosts are common, but for students of the geography of plants it is of much interest. It has been used with much success by pomologists as stock for varieties of the garden Peach. Apricots began to flower this year as early as the 25th of April and are still covered with white flowers. The earliest this year is a form of Prunus Armenaica which for several years has been growing in the Arboretum where it has been called \"The Mikado.\" Judging by the name it is possible that this plant came originally from Japan, where the Apricot, originally a native of northern China, has long been cultivated in a number of varieties. \"The Mikado\" is a strong growing, hardy tree with a comparatively narrow head of erect branches. Near it in the Plum collection is also blooming the Apricot from eastern Siberia and Manchuria, Prunus sibirica, another hardy and handsome tree which appears to be little known in this country. Another species, Prunus mandshurica, has fewer flowers this spring. In its native country this is a low tree with a trunk sometimes three feet in diameter and wide-spreading branches. As it grows in the Arboretum this is the handsomest of the Apricots in habit and foliage. Another of these trees, Prunus dasycarpa, the so-called \"Black Apricot\" from the dark color of its slightly downy fruit blooms a little later and is now only opening its flowers. This tree, which has been cultivated for a long time in European gardens, is now believed to be a hybrid between the Apricot and the European Garden Plum. Little known in the United States, when in good flower it is one of the most beautiful objects in the Arboretum. The small hard fruit has been rarely seen here. Cherries are placed by many authors in the genera Cerasus, Laurocerasus and Padus, here considered sections of the genus Prunus. This is the most numerous in species and the most widely distributed of all the groups of the genus Prunus, and among the Cherries are some of the most beautiful when in flower of the trees and shrubs which can be grown in northern gardens. The earliest to bloom this year has been Prunus tomentosa, an early introduction by the Arboretum from northern China, has proved to be one of the handsomest of the early spring flowering shrubs in the neighborhood of Boston. It is a vigorous plant five or six feet high and when well grown often broader than tall. The flowers open from pink buds as the leaves unfold and their bright red stalk and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals often marked with rose. The small lustrous scarlet juicy fruit which ripens in June has an excellent flavor and is attracting the attention of pomologists living in regions of extreme winter cold like the Dakotas and Manitoba where this inhabitant of the mountain slopes in the neighborhood of Peking has proven perfectly hardy. A variety (var. endotricha) brought from western China by Wilson flowers a few days later. This variety is chiefly distinguished from the north China plant by the absence of the hairs on the fruit. Prunus subhirtella. This, the Spring Cherry of the Japanese, is the most delightful, travelers say, of the Japanese Cherries and as usual has been covered with flowers which opened on the 28th of April before the leaves began to unfold. Pink when they open the petals become nearly white before they fall. Prunus subhirtella is not known as a wild plant, and not uncommon in the gardens of western Japan is not often seen in those of Tokyo. This is perhaps the reason why it has been less often sent to this country. The fact, too, that it does not reproduce itself from seeds is another reason why the \"Spring Cherry\" is still so rarely seen in the United States and Europe. The two large plants on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road have been growing in the Arboretum for twenty-nine years, and when they are in flower no other plant in the collection, Cherry, Plum, Crabapple, Lilac, Azalea or Rhododendron, equals them in beauty. The flowers, too, last longer in good condition than those of the other Japanese Cherry-trees. Three varieties of Prunus subhirtella are cultivated in the Arboretum where they begin to flower a few days later than the type. One of these, the var. ascendens, is a tall tree not uncommon in the woods of central Japan. It is this tree which is usually produced from the seeds of Prunus subhirtella, and the seedlings furnish the best stock on which to graft that plant. Still extremely rare in gardens, this variety ascendens shows little promise of becoming a valuable garden plant. Much better known is the variety pendula. This is the Japanese Weeping Cherry which has been cultivated for fifty years in this country and is now common in the neighborhood of Boston and New York. The trees are very beautiful when they are covered with their small pure pink flowers, but these last only for two or three days. Seeds of the tree with pendulous branches occasionally produce seedlings of similar habit, but most of these seedlings are the var. ascendens which is the best stock for the var. pendula. Another variety of Prunus subhirtella (var. autumnalis) has been growing in the Arboretum for only a few years but is a plant of considerable promise especially as it flowers in both spring and autumn. This is a shrub or in Japan occasionally a small tree, with semi-double pink and white flowers which open in spring a day or two later than those of the variety pendula. The autumn flowers are rather smaller and less abundant than those of the spring crop, but opening in October never fail to create interest and curiosity. Prunus incisa is again covered with flowers which open at the same time as that of Prunus subhirtella. The pure white petals only last for a few days but the calyx which gradually turns red remains on the fruit for two or three weeks and is distinctly conspicuous. The name incisa of this Cherry is descriptive of the deep lobes of the large handsome leaves. Although a common plant in Japan on the Hakone Mountains and the slopes of Fuji-san this Cherry still remains extremely rare in American and European gardens. The oldest plant in the Arboretum now established near Prunus subhirtella on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road was obtained in 1912 from a German nursery. The Sargent Cherry, as the northern form of Prunus serrulata (var. sachalinensis) is often called, is the handsomest of all Cherry-trees of large size, as Prunus subhirtella is the handsomest of the species which are shrubs rather than trees. The rose colored or pink flowers which began to open this year on the 27th of April are short lived but their abundance, the hardiness of the tree which has not yet been attacked here by disease, the beauty of the large dark green leaves, brilliantly colored in the autumn, and the lustrous bark make this the handsomest of all Cherry-trees of large size. In northern Japan it was once a common inhabitant of the forest growing sometimes to a height of eighty feet with a tall massive trunk. Such trees are sought for the valuable lumber they produce and are fast disappearing. It 'was first raised in the Arboretum in 1891 from seeds presented by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, of Boston, and this tree, the largest specimen standing in the United States, is growing on the right of the Forest Hills Road below the plants of Prunus subhirtella A taller and narrower plant, raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Japan in 1892, is standing by the Forest Hills Road, near its junction with the Meadow Road. Some of the handsomest and hardiest of the double-flowered Cherry-trees cultivated by the Japanese like albo-rosea, and fugenzo, better known in nurseries as \"James H. Veitch,\" are forms of the Sargent Cherry which supplies the best stock on which the double-flowered forms can be worked. Prunus yedoensis is the Cherry-tree which has been planted in great numbers in Tokyo where it makes a city holiday when it is in flower. It is a wide-branched tree sometimes fifty feet high with pure white flowers. It is hardy in the Arboretum but the flower-buds are often killed by cold and it has usually flowered more abundantly in the Peter's Hill nursery than near the Forest Hills gate where the oldest specimen in the collection has been growing for many years. Chinese Cherry-trees. Some of the species discovered by Wilson in western China and raised from seeds collected by him have been in flower during the past week. Of interest chiefly to botanists none of these trees are of much promise for the decoration of parks and gardens. The most interesting perhaps is the variety media of Prunus pilosiuscula which is distinct in the drooping habit of the small white or pink long-stamened flowers. Plums. In the United States are found more species of the Plum group of the genus Prunus than in all the rest of the world. They grow as trees and as small and large shrubs, and are found from Canada to Texas and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, but are most abundant in species and individually in the Arkansas, Oklahoma and Texas region. In all eastern Asia there is but one species and in Europe two or three. The earliest species to bloom and now in full flower, Prunus nigra, the so-called Canada Plum, is a native of the northern border of the United States from New Brunswick westward to North Dakota. From Prunus americana with which it is sometimes compared it is well distinguished by the short incurved, not straight, pointed teeth, by the glands on the leaf stalks, and the larger flowers with petals which turn rose color in fading. The Chinese Prunus salicifolia is also in flower. It is from this tree that the so-called Japanese Plums now largely grown in this country have been developed. Almonds. It has been possible to grow in the Arboretum only the species from north China, Prunus triloba. It is a tall shrub of open, irregular habit and its only beauty is in its flowers which in color are of the purest pink; no other plant in the Arboretum produces flowers more delicately beautiful in color. This plant has been growing here since 1883 when it was raised from seeds sent by Dr. Bretschneider from Peking. The double-flowered form (var. plena) which was found by Fortune in a Chinese garden many years ago is a better known and often a popular garden plant."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 10","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23774","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270b36e.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 10, 1923 Pear-trees. The Arboretum contains one of the largest collections in the world of the wild types of Pear-trees, especially those from northern and western China. As ornamental trees none of the species from southeastern Europe compare in size or in beauty of foliage and flowers with several of the Chinese species, among which are some of the handsomest of the hardy trees of recent introduction. The earliest of the Pear-trees in the collection, Pyrus ussuriensis, opened its first flowers this year on April 30th. This tree, which is common in northern China, Korea and Manchuria and the only species which has a foot-hold in Japan where it has recently been discovered, inhabits more northern and colder regions than any other Pear-tree. If any Pear-tree proves hardy therefore in the northern interior part of this continent it should be this species; and if it proves resistant to blight it should yield the hardiest of all Pear-stocks. No other species attains such a large size as is shown by the photograph made in 1919 by Wilson in Korea of a tree which was sixty feet high, with a tall trunk fourteen feet round and a head of spreading branches seventy-five feet across. The flowers are not as large as those of some of the other species, but as a flowering tree P. ussuriensis is one of the most beautiful of all Pear-trees for the flower-buds and the opening flowers are deeply tinged with rose-color. The fruit is subglobose, green, hard, and from one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter and, like that of most wild Pear-trees, is of no comestible value. Among other Pear-trees this northern species, as a young tree at least can be easily recognized by its smooth pale bark. A tree of northern China now considered a variety of Pyrus ussuriensis (var. ovidea) is an older inhabitant of the Arboretum. It blooms two weeks later than the more northern tree; the flowers are larger and pure white; the fruit, too, is larger with a yellow skin and succulent flesh and unlike that of other Pear-trees is broad at base and narrow at apex. The leaves turn brilliant scarlet; and in the autumn the large tree standing on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road, near the Arboretum entrance, is a conspicuous object. Pyrus Calleryana, a handsome and shapely tree raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China has grown rapidly in the Arboretum where it has flowered and produced fruits for several years. This tree promises to be one of the most valuable plants introduced by the Arboretum into the United States for the inoculation of its seedlings has shown, as far as such tests prove anything, that they are immune to attacks of the blight which has been the destruction in the United States of many varieties of garden Pear-trees. Pomologists, therefore, now believe that they have found in this tree the stock which will make the cultivation of pears in this country a more certain and profitable industry than it has been since the Pear-tree blight became prevalent. Many thousand seedlings of Pyrus Calleryana have been raised by the Department of Agriculture of the United States and by different experimental stations from the seeds produced by the Arboretum trees, and if these seedlings prove as valuable as American pomologists now believe them to be they will show the country the value of museums like the Arnold Arboretum, and more than justify the labor and money it has expended in its explorations in eastern Asia. Unfortunately the only specimens of this tree outside of China which produce large crops of fruit are in this Arboretum, and the supply of seeds will for some time longer be insufficient to meet the demands for it. The large white flowers and ample, dark green leaves make Pyrus Calleryana a valuable garden plant; the small glabrous fruit is hardly more than a third of an inch in diameter. Pyrus serotina, another of Wilson's introductions from western China, is of special interest to the students of cultivated fruits as it is the wild type from which have been derived the hard, round, gritty pears which have been cultivated for centuries by the Chinese and Japanese. These cultivated oriental pears are often handsome trees with beautiful flowers and greenish yellow fruits which are often extremely ornamental, but western palates and digestions cannot cope with the hard fruits with cells filled with grit. These Japanese Sand Pear-trees crossed with European Garden Pear-trees several years ago produced in the United States the Keiffer and Lecomte Pears. These, although rather hard, are handsome and suited to long shipment. Much was expected of them especially in the southern states where large orchards of these trees were planted. The trees proved so susceptible to blight that their cultivation has been practically abandoned. Pyrus serotina has grown with remarkable rapidity in the Arboretum and in spring is covered with large flowers more or less deeply tinged with rose and unfolding deep bronze-colored leaves. Pyrus Bretschneideri is the only Chinese Pear-tree which some day may be developed into a valuable fruit tree for the northern United States. It is one of the three species of Pear-trees raised at the Arboretum in 1883 from seeds sent here from Peking by the late Dr. Bretschneider. This tree has not been attacked by blight here and produces globose yellow juicy fruits of good flavor, and up to an inch and a half in diameter. Nothing is known to us here of this species as a wild tree but from it have evidently been developed in China the tree which produces the large round or pyriform juicy fruits of excellent flavor conspicuous in the Peking markets in September and October. The other North China Pear-trees raised from Dr. Bretschneider's seeds are Pyrus betulaefolia and P. phaeocarpa. The former is a large tree with small flowers and leaves and small globose brown fruit. It has grown rapidly, and is very hardy and at one time it was thought that it would prove a good stock on which to work orchard Pear-trees. Later it has often suffered from blight and so can now only be considered valuable as a garden ornament. Dr. Bretschneider's third species proved, when it flowered and fruited a few years ago, to be an undescribed species and it has been named Pyrus phaeocarpa. The small russet-brown fruit is globose on some trees and pyriform on others. The European Pears, which are of smaller size, flower later than the Chinese species. The original Pear collection is on the left hand side of Forest Hills Road and a larger and more complete collection has recently been planted in the hollow at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. The best specimens of the species introduced by Wilson from western China will be found on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Shad Bushes, as the American species of Amelanchier are often called, are beautiful and interesting trees or shrubs which bloom in early spring and several of them are now conspicuous in the Arboretum. Amelanchier like Crataegus and Prunophora, the name of the Plum group in Prunus, is a genus almost entirely confined to North America. One small, shrubby species grows on the mountains of central Europe and another shrubby species in China and Japan. The other species are American and grow from the shores of the Atlantic to those of the Pacific and from Canada to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico. The first of the Shad bushes to flower here, Amelanchier canadensis, opened its flower-buds on the 30th of April. This is a tree occasionally 70 feet high with a trunk 18 inches in diameter. Rare and of comparatively small size in Canada and New England, it grows to almost its largest size in western New York, and in the Gulf States, where it is found as far west as western Louisiana, it is the only species. Long confused with the common tree species of the northern states, A. laevis, it is still rarely cultivated and a comparatively new introduction into the Arboretum. Here it is perfectly hardy and promises to become a large tree. As it flowers at the same time as the early flowered Japanese Cherry-trees it should prove a good subject to plant with them. A dwarf northern Shad Bush Amelanchier Bartramiana, flowered this year as early as A. canadensis. This is an inhabitant of cold, northern swamps, but is now well established in the Arboretum. It is a slender shrub with small flowers arranged, not in racemes, like those of the other species, but in one or two-flowered clusters. In early spring it is distinct in the yellow bronze color of the unfolding leaves. Amelanchier laevis and A. oblongifolia form part of the native flora of the Arboretum and flower a few days later than A. canadensis. The former is a tree which grows naturally on dry upland wooded slopes and under favorable conditions becomes 40 feet high and forms a trunk from 12 to 18 inches in diameter. This tree is easily recognized, when it is in flower by the dark red-brown color of the leaves. There are native trees of this Amelanchier on the wooded slope on the left hand side of Forest Hills Road back of the Crabapple collection. Amelanch2er oblongifolia is a large shrub, rather than a tree, and is an inhabitant of the borders of swamps where it grows usually in moist, only partly drained soil. This plant is conspicuous as the leaves unfold as they are thickly covered with silvery white hairs. The many large specimens of this shrub which can be seen from the drives make the early days of May an attractive time to visit the Arboretum. Prinsepia sinensis is again covered with clusters of bright yellow flowers which spring from the axils of the half-grown leaves. This Prinsepia is a tall broad shrub with long spreading and arching branches and stems armed with many spines. It is perfectly hardy and the handsomest shrub Manchuria has yet contributed to western gardens. There are only two specimens in the Arboretum and these came here from Petrograd in 1903 and 1906, and it has been found difficult to propagate them by cuttings. Fortunately last year one of the plants produced for the first time a few seeds and these have germinated, so there is reason to hope if the Arboretum plants become more fruitful that this species will be a common ornament in northern gardens. It has much to recommend it as a hedge plant. The species from northern China, P. un1flora, is a spiny shrub with small white flowers, and although it has little beauty, its value for forming impenetrable hedges may prove considerable. Some Japanese Cherries. In the last issue of this Bulletin a few of the Japanese Cherry-trees growing in the Arboretum including Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis were described. Two varieties of this tree which blossom later are now in flower - the vars. spontanea and pubescens. The former is a widely distributed tree in central and southern Japan, Korea and western China. The flowers are rather smaller and of a paler pink in color than those of the var. sachalinensis; the var. pubescens differs from it in the pale under surface of the leaves which are more or less thickly covered with hairs. Although the flowers are smaller than those of var. sachalinensis these trees are valuable because they prolong the season of bloom of the pink flowered tree Cherries. They can be seen on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and in the Peter's Hill Nursery. For the next few weeks a guide will meet visitors to the Arboretum on Sunday afternoons at three o'clock, starting from the Forest Hills gate."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 15","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23775","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270b76f.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 15. 1923 Asiatic Crabapples. Some of the early flowering species and varieties of these trees are perhaps the most conspicuous objects in the Arboretum this week. For many years much attention has been devoted here to these trees and the collection, which is as nearly complete as it has been possible to make it, is certainly one of the best in the world. The species are all represented here and it is not probable that there are more to discover although there is always a possibility that an undescribed species is still hidden in some unvisited valley in southern Kansu or in some of the other remote provinces of western China. New hybrids are much more probable. Indeed, there is danger that there may be too many of them, for these plants are so susceptible to pollen from their neighbors that it is useless to plant the seeds of any of the Arboretum trees with the expectation of obtaining seedlings similar to the parent; and as nurserymen and amateurs are now everywhere planting Crabapple-seeds, there will in a few years be as many hybrids of unknown origin as there are now new Irises and other garden plants. This will mean troublesome and usually unsatisfactory work for the conscientious dendrologist anxious to throw light on the origin of cultivated trees. The flowering of the Crabapples makes one of the chief spectacular displays of the year here and of these displays only that of the Lilacs attracts a larger number of visitors. Many of the plants are well covered with buds; a few will flower sparingly or not at all this year but the general display, will be an average one, although not as good certainly as last year when all the trees were covered with flowers. The collection is arranged on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road and at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, a short distance from the entrance at the corner of South and Bussey Streets. The oldest and largest plants are by the Forests Hills Road but there is a larger number of species and varieties on Peter's Hill which should be visited by everyone interested in these plants. There is in one of these Bulletins only space to call attention to a few of the most interesting of these plants. The earliest of them to flower, Malus baccata mandshurica, is a native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, and the eastern form of the better known Malus baccata, the Siberian Crabapple, which reached Europe more than a century ago and for a long time was one of the two Asiatic Crabapples known in western gardens. The Manchurian form as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree fifteen or eighteen feet tall and broad: the flowers, which are produced in profusion, are pure white, rather more than an inch across, and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. The Manchurian Crabapple, which is still rare in this country, should for the fragrance of the flowers alone find a place in all collections. Malus robusta. This is another of the early flowering Crabapples and is believed to be a hybrid between M. baccata and M. prunifolia. Planted in good soil and allowed sufficient room for development it will grow into a large shapely tree with a broad, round-topped, irregular head of spreading often drooping branches. The flowers are fragrant and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabapples with pure white or occasionally greenish petals; and the fruit, which varies in size on different plants, is globose and dull red. Malus Halliana, with its form Parkmanii which has double flowers, is perhaps the most distinct of all Crabapples in the color of its rose-red flowers. It is a shapely small tree, with erect and spreading stems forming a narrow vase-like head, and dark green leaves. The globose reddish fruit is not larger than a small pea. The Parkman Crab was among the first Japanese trees to reach this country direct, having been sent by Dr. George R. Hall in 1861 to Boston where it was first planted in Mr. Francis Parkman's garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. This Crabapple is a favorite in Japanese gardens where it is known as \"Kaido,\" but has not been found in a wild state. Whatever its origin the Parkman Crab is one of the most distinct and beautiful of the small trees which flower here during the early days of May. Malus theifera, from central and western China, is closely related to Hall's Crab. It is one of Wilson's introductions through seeds sent to Veitch in 1900 and in 1907 to the Arboretum where it is now from twelve to fourteen feet high. It has upright, spreading, rather zigzag branches which are densely studded with short spurs which bear numerous clusters of flowers rose-red in the bud, becoming pale and almost white when fully expanded. In central China the peasants collect the leaves and from them prepare a palatable beverage which they call red tea. From this fact the specific name is derived. Malus floribunda, by many persons considered the most beautiful of Crabapples, was introduced into Holland by Von Siebold 'in 1853 from Nagasaki, Japan. The place where it grows wild still remains unknown, although possibly it is one of the high mountains of Kyushu. Japanese botanists and nurserymen confuse it with the Parkman Crab, and Wilson has not seen it in Japanese gardens. It is a broad, round-topped, treelike shrub sometimes twenty-five feet tall with stout branches and slender arching and pendent branchlets. The clustered flowers are white when fully expanded, rose-red in the bud, and as they open in succession the two colors make a beautiful contrast. The fruit is about the size of a pea, yellowish or yellowish brown; from some plants it falls in the early autumn, on others it remains on the branches during the winter or until devoured by birds who are particularly fond of it. Several plants with persistent fruit are growing close to the Administration Building in the Arboretum, and during the winter are filled with numerous species of birds, including pheasants who are fond of these Crabapples. A hybrid between M. floribunda and perhaps M. robusta appeared in the Arboretum in 1883 among a lot of seedlings of M. floribunda and has been named M. Arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of M. floribunda, but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large. It is a handsomer plant than M. floribunda and one of the most beautiful of the Crabapples in the Arboretum. Malus Sieboldii is another of the species introduced in 1853 from the gardens of Japan into Europe by Von Siebold. It is a low, dense shrub of spreading habit with the leaves on vigorous branchlets three-lobed, small flowers white tinged with rose in color, and small yellow fruits. Von Siebold's Crab is really a dwarf form of a species common on the Korean Island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central Japan and Hokkaido, to which the name var. arborescens has been given. This is a tree often thirty feet or more tall, with ascending, wide-spreading branches, twiggy branchlets and minute fruit yellow on some and red on other individuals. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. Malus Sargentii from salt marshes in the neighborhood of Muroran in northern Japan, where it was discovered by Professor Sargent in 1892, has qualities which give it a field of usefulness peculiarly its own. This species is a dwarf with rigid and spreading branches, the lower branches flat on the ground; it is well suited for covering slopes and banks. The flowers are in umbel-like clusters, saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruit which is covered by a slight bloom and unless eaten by birds remains on the plants well into the spring. Malus prunifolia var. rinki is the wild parent discovered by Wilson in western China of the race of apples long cultivated in the Orient, and since it fruits freely in the hot moist valleys of central China as well as in the cold regions of northern Korea it may prove of value to pomologists in breeding new races of hardy Apple-trees. Other species and hybrids well worth the attention of plant lovers who find pleasure in surrounding themselves with hardy trees and shrubs are the Japanese Malus micromalus, the Chinese M. toringoides and M. transitoria, and Malus sublobata, a hybrid of uncertain origin, which is now the tallest of the Crabapples in the collection, and promises to become a large tree. This hybrid is particularly attractive in the autumn when it is covered with bright yellow fruits. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii opened its first flowers this year on Azalea Path May 5th and earlier than those of any other Azalea in the collection. It is one of the commonest shrubs of Korea and is often the dominant undergrowth in open woods. From Korea it crosses into northeastern Manchuria where it grows on the shores of Possiet Bay; it occurs, too, in two localities in northern Japan. Wilson found it extremely abundant in Korea on the lower slopes of Chirisan and on the Diamond Mountains, which were when he visited this region early in Jul9 \"a wonderful sight with literally miles and miles of the purest pink from the millions of flowers of this Azalea.\" In Korea this Azalea on the wind-swept, grass-covered cliffs of the coast grows less than a foot high and is covered with flowers. In the forests of the interior it often grows to a height of fifteen feet and forms a tall and slender or a broad and shapely shrub. The leaves are large for those of an Azalea, being from three and a half inches to four inches long and sometimes nearly three inches wide, and are arranged in whorls of five at the end of the branches. This plant grows further north than any other Azalea with the exception of the North American Rhodora. The thermometer in the region of Diamond Mountains usually registers every winter a temperature of 35 to 40 below zero Fahrenheit. There is therefore no reason why this Azalea should not flourish in the coldest parts of New England. It has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum, and planted in an exposed sunny position has never suffered. Its hardiness and the beauty of its flowers make it one of the most valuable shrubs if not the most valuable, which northeastern North America has obtained from northeastern Asia. The flowers are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea. The plant and the flower-buds are hardy but young plants grown in frames start to grow so early that if they are transferred to the open ground in the spring the young growth is often killed by frost. It is therefore wise to move them from the nursery to the open ground in the autumn; slightly protected the young plants come safely through the winter and do not start to grow in the open ground until the danger of frost has passed. Even better results are obtained by potting young plants in the autumn, keeping them in a deep frame or pit during the winter and allowing them to finish their year's growth in the pots before they are planted out. The young plants make only one growth during the season and are certainly more difficult to manage than most Azaleas, but this Korean plant is worth a great deal more trouble than it takes to get it started. Viburnum Carlesii is already in bloom in the collection on the Bussey Hill Road. This hardy Korean shrub with white, delightfully fragrant flowers in small, compact clusters, opening from rose-pink buds, always attracts attention and is fast becoming known in American gardens. With the exception of the American Hobble Bush, it is the earliest of the Viburnums to flower."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 18","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23776","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270bb26.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 18, 1923 Lilacs. The word Lilac as most persons understand it means the plant with purple or with white flowers of old-fashioned gardens, and this Lilac, the Syringa vulgaris of botanists, and its numerous varieties are the most popular shrubs which can be grown in northern gardens, and the flowers of no other plant bring so many visitors to the Arboretum. This Lilac reached western Europe at the end of the sixteenth century by way of Constantinople and Vienna; and until a few years ago Persia was believed to be its native country, now, however, it is known to be a native of the mountain valleys of Bulgaria. It is not known when this plant first reached America, for there is no authentic record of it in this country before 1785 when Washington planted it at Mt. Vernon. It probably came much earlier for the colonists often brought favorite plants with them from their English homes. The wild form of Syringa vulgaris was raised from seeds sent to the Arboretum from Bulgaria in 1896. The flowers are purple and resemble those of the purple Lilac of old gardens but the flower-clusters are narrower with less crowded flowers. There is no record of the date of the first appearance of the white-flowered form which was first described in 1623. In the Arboretum can be seen good examples of the Lilacs of old New England gardens on the eastern slope and near the summit of Bussey Hill where two long rows of them were planted more than a century ago on each side of one of Mr. Benjamin Bussey's garden walks. The improvement of the garden Lilac dates only from 1843 when a nurseryman at Liege in Belgium raised a plant with small double flowers. Nothing is now known of the origin of this plant but as it was called Syringa vulgaris azurea plena it was probably a seedling of the common Lilac and not a hybrid. By fertilizing the flowers of Syringa vulgaris azurea plena with the pollen of varieties of the common Lilac, Lemoine produced the first important double-flowered Lilac, S. Lemoinei and others, and by again crossing these with forms of the common Lilac the double-flowered Lilacs of recent years have been made. By the crossing of varieties and by careful selection the flowers of the common Lilac have been gradually changed in size and in color in the last thirty years, but unfortunately the flowers of many modern Lilacs have lost a good deal of the fragrance of the old-fashioned Lilac, which, once enjoyed, is never forgotten. There are too many varieties of the common Lilac now cultivated. Some of them with different names given to seedlings in different nurseries and often in different countries are identical, and others are so much alike that they can only be distinguished by close comparison. It is important to cultivate them all in the Arboretum for study and comparison, but in a private garden everything that is best in the forms of Syringa vulgaris can be found in not over a dozen of the single-flowered and a dozen of the double-flowered forms. The Arboretum does not undertake to name the twenty-four best varieties. The selection must be left to the person who is going to plant them for no two persons agree about Lilac-flowers. There are already between one hundred and sixty and one hundred and seventy named varieties of this Lilac in the Arboretum collection. The flowers are fast opening, and the best way for persons living in the neighborhood of Boston to make their selection is to study the Arboretum collection, and make notes on the color and size of the flowers and the size and shape of the flower-clusters. In planting Lilacs it must be remembered that plants on their own roots are superior to those which have been grafted on other varieties of the common Lilac, for Lilacs produce many root-suckers. These often grow vigorously, so that a person who buys a fine named variety may in a few years find that the suckers from the root on which it was grafted have overpowered and killed his named variety, or that he has a bush producing on different branches flowers of his original purchase and of the stock. Nurserymen also use the Privet as a stock on which to graft Lilacs. This is a better stock than the Lilac for if it produces suckers they are easily recognized and can be removed, and if the grafted plants are set deep Lilac roots are soon produced. Privet-stock is strongly advocated by many good growers of Lilacs but others still believe that the best plants are raised from cuttings which can be made in winter from hard wood, but best from the soft wood taken in late June or early July. No one should ever buy a Lilac plant grafted on the root of another Lilac. The Persian Lilac, the Syringa persica of botanists, was known in England as early as 1658. This is a beautiful, hardy plant with slender, drooping, wide-spreading branches, narrower leaves than those of the common Lilac, and small fragrant, lavender-colored flowers in short compact clusters. There is a variety with white flowers and another with laciniately lobed leaves. For many years it was universally believed that because Linnaeus had named it Syringa persica this plant was a native of Persia or of some country adjacent to Persia. Meyer, collecting in China for the Department of Agriculture of the United States, found in 1915 quantities of a Lilac covering hillsides in Kansu. Plants raised from seeds of this Lilac have flowered and proved identical with the lobed leaf form of Syringa persica and as the plants have grown stronger they produce branches with the entire leaves of the type of the species. Since 1915 the Arboretum has also received dried specimens of this Lilac collected in Kansu. As a specimen of a wild plant from Persia is not to be found in the large European herbaria, there is every reason to believe that the Persian Lilac is a Chinese plant, brought from China to western Asia and Europe just as the Peach and other Chinese plants found their way westward. Fifty years ago the species of Syringa known in this country were Syringa vulgaris, S. persica, the Hungarian S. Josikaea, the Himalayan S. Emodii, and the Chinese S oblata and S. amurensis, and two hybrids. Now there are twenty-seven species growing here with a few varieties and nearly all the known hybrids. In addition to these are a few species or perhaps forms which have been described by botanists but not yet introduced into cultivation. Of the twenty-seven species now in this country, twenty-two have been introduced by the Arboretum. Among these Arboretum introductions there are several beautiful and important garden plants. Among them for many persons the best is Syringa pubescens. This is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and broad clusters of small, pale mauve flowers with a long slender corolla-tube. For their fragrance which is more pungent and delightful than that of the flower of any other Lilac, Syringa pubescens should find a place in every northern garden. Plants in the United States have failed to produce seeds and as this species has proved unusually difficult to increase by cuttings, it has remained one of the rarest Lilacs in American gardens. It can, of course, be increased by grafting and sooner or later fertile seeds will be found on some of the large plants growing in the Arboretum. Syringa pubescens has been growing in the Arboretum since 1883 where it was raised from seeds sent here by Dr. Bretschneider from Peking. Syringa villosa is another first rate garden plant for which the United States is also indebted to Dr. Bretschneider. It is a large, round-topped bush from ten to twelve feet tall and wide, with large, broad, elliptic to oblong leaves, bright green and dull on the upper surface and pale below, a broad or narrow cluster of flesh colored or nearly white flowers which have the rather disagreeable odor of those of the Privet. In spite of this drawback S. villosa is a good garden plant; the habit is excellent; it flowers freely every year and the flowers do not open until those of most other Lilacs have faded. Syringa Sweginzowii is a native of northwestern China and came to the Arboretum by the way of St. Petersburg. It is a narrow shrub with slender erect branches, narrow leaves and long narrow clusters of slightly fragrant flowers, flesh-colored in the bud and becoming white after opening, with a long slender corolla tube. The relationship of this Lilac which flowers profusely every year, is with S. pubescens but it is a smaller plant blooming ten or twelve days later and the flowers are much less fragrant. As it grows in the Arboretum, S. Sweginzowii is one of the handsomest of the Lilacs of recent introduction. Syringa Julianae, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China, is another plant which deserves a permanent place in American gardens. It is also of the same group as S. pubescens with the same shaped flowers with the long corolla tube, but they are arranged in a short broad cluster and are much less fragrant. Their beauty is increased by the contrast between the violet-purple of the outer surface of the corolla and the white inner surface of its lobes. Syringa tomentella, or as it has sometimes been called S. Wilsonii, another of Wilson's Chinese discoveries, is a tall fast growing, hardy shrub with slender arching stems forming an open broad head. The leaves resemble those of S. villosa and the flowers which are produced in large open clusters are of the palest rose-color with a long slender corolla-tube. Syringa microphylla, although by no means one of the handsomest of the new Lilacs, is interesting because it blooms every year in October as well as in June. It is a native of north-central China and is a narrow shrub with slender erect stems and small leaves and small pale rose-colored flowers in small narrow clusters. Syringa reflexa which resembles S. villosa in habit and foliage differs from all other Lilacs in its narrow, cylindric, pendent clusters of dark rose-colored flowers. It is a native of western China where it was discovered by Wilson. It is a hardy, vigorous fast growing shrub which promises to grow here to a large size. As a garden plant it is chiefly valuable for the unusual shape of its drooping flower-clusters. It is too soon to speak of the value of the recently introduced Korean species, S. velutina, S. dilitata and S. formosissima, formosissima perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and have already flowered sparingly in the Arboretum. A Hybrid Lilac. The first hybrid Lilac appeared in the Botanic Garden at Rouen in 1810, and was the result of the crossing of Syringa vulgaris and S. persica. It is one of the most valuable of Lilacs. It grows quickly into a bush ten or twelve feet high and broad of rather open habit, and is very hardy and blooms freely every year. In shape the leaves resemble those of the Persian Lilac but are broader. The flowers, too, resemble those of the Persian Lilac, but are longer and produced in massive clusters sometimes two feet in length and so heavy that the slender branches can barely support them. The flowers are reddish purple and there are forms with darker red flowers and with nearly white flowers. This Lilac has often been called Syringa rothomagensis, but unfortunately through a misunderstanding of its origin the oldest and correct name for it is Syringa chinensis. Early Azaleas. The pink flowered Rhododendron Vaseyi from the Carolina Blue Ridge is now blooming near the Meadow Road, and the Japanese R. Kaempheri now makes a blaze of color on the southern slope of Bussey Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23777","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2708127.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 24, 1923 Hybrid Lilacs. In the last issue of these Bulletins an account was given of Syringa chinensis, the first hybrid Lilac of which there is a record. The next hybrid of which there is a history, Syringa hyacinthiflora, was made by Lemoine of Nancy in 1859 by crossing S. oblata with S. vulgaris coerulea plena the first of the double-flowering forms of the common Syringa vulgaris. S. oblata, the first of the Chinese Lilacs with the exception of Syringa persica to reach Europe from China was found probably in a Shanghai garden by Fortune and sent by him to England in 1852; from England it reached the United States as early as 1869 and perhaps earlier. It is a large, round-topped shrub, with broad, heart-shaped leaves which unlike those of other Lilacs are thick and coriaceous and in the autumn turn scarlet. It is one of the first Lilacs to bloom in the spring here and the large violet-colored flowers in comparatively small clusters are extremely fragrant. In severe winters the flower-buds are sometimes injured. It is interesting that this handsome plant has not yet been found growing wild; and there is no record here that it has been seen by anyone in China since Fortune's time. The first flowers of the hybrid Syringa hyacinthiflora opened this year on May 2 and were still in good condition on May 20th. It is a large, round-topped shrub of excellent habit, with leaves resembling in shape those of S. oblata but not thicker than those of the common Lilac, and small clusters of small semi-double, extremely fragrant flowers. Interesting from its origin S. hyacinthiflora is the least valuable of the hybrid Lilacs as a garden plant. The fact, however, is interesting that it is usually the first Lilac to flower in the Arboretum collection. Syringa Henryi, the general name which has been given to the third of the hybrid Lilacs, was obtained by the skillful French gardener L. Henry by crossing the Hungarian S. Josikaea with narrow leaves and small bluish-purple flowers in long narrow clusters with S. villosa with its large leaves and ample clusters of flesh-colored flowers. These are both late-flowering species as is the hybrid made from them. Plants of this hybrid are large, vigorous, perfectly hardy and grow rapidly. The leaves resemble those of S. villosa but the flowers are violet-purple or reddish purple and arranged in clusters from twelve to fifteen inches long and broad. The handsomest perhaps of this race, which has been named \"Lutece,\" has deep violet-purple flowers and is one of the most beautiful of all Lilacs. \"Eximia,\" another of the hybrids, has not grown here to such a large size as \"Lutece\" but it is one of the handsome late-flowering plants in the collection, with compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which become pink after opening. Lemoine has obtained another interesting hybrid Lilac by crossing forms of Syringa vulgaris with the violet-flowered form (var. Giraldii) of the north China S. affinis. The plants of this parentage grow rapidly and are tall, narrow shrubs. Like their Chinese parent they bloom early and the flowers are fragrant. The best known of these hybrids have been called by Lemoine \"Berryer,\" \"Claude Bernard,\" \"Lamartine,\" \"Mirabeau,\" \"Pascale,\" and \"Vauban.\" Several of these have been flowering in the Arboretum during the past ten days and promise to be important additions to the collection. Lemoine's latest hybrid Lilac has been obtained by crossing the hybrid \"Lutece\" with the Chinese S. tomentella. Lemoine speaks highly of this plant which has not yet reached the Arboretum. Late Shad Bushes. The last of these plants to flower in the Arboretum are the American Amelanchier sanguinea and A. amabilis and the two old world species A. vulgaris and A. asiatica, which were all in good bloom on the 20th of May. A. sangu2nea is a slender shrub sometimes 6 or 7 feet high and does not spread by stoloniferous stems or from colonies. The leaves, which appear before the flowers open, are oval to oblong-oval, pale green and often somewhat glaucous, the upper ones nearly erect. The large and showy flowers are produced in many-flowered, flexuous or drooping racemes sometimes nearly five inches in length. The fruit, which ripens in August or September, is almost black, covered with a glaucous bloom, sweet, juicy and of a pleasant flavor. This beautiful shrub grows in dry, rocky or gravelly soil and is widely distributed from eastern, northern and central Maine, through Vermont and western Massachusetts to Quebec, Ontario and Michigan and south, through New York and along the Appalachian Mountains to Alabama. Amelanchier amabilis, which was once considered a variety of A. sanguinea, differs chiefly from that species in its larger and even more beautiful flowers. It is less widely distributed than A. sanguinea, having been found only from the neighborhood of Cooperstown in Otsego County, New York, in central and eastern New York and in Ontario. A handsome plant, it is less beautiful when in flower than the hybrid between the two arborescent species, A. canadensis and A. laevis, now known as A. grandiflora, which when in flower is the most beautiful of the Shad Bushes which grow in the Arboretum. The two old world species are geographically interesting but have less value as garden plants than most of the American Shad Bushes. Hawthorns. There have not before been as many species of Hawthorns in bloom in the Arboretum as there are this week as many of the plants which have been raised here from seed since 1900 and planted on the eastern slopes of Peters Hill are flowering this year for the first time. Many of these trees are covered with flowers and the older and larger plants are all flowering while many of the Crabapples and Lilacs this year have flowered sparingly or not at all. Judging by the appearance of the Hawthorns this year it looks as if at the end of four or five years more the flowering of these plants would be the great flower event of the Arboretum year. That many of these plants can be improved at least in habit by good cultivation and skillful pruning appears this year in some of the Tenuifoliae species which grow naturally as small shrubs with numerous stems but have become here small, symmetrical, single-stemmed trees. Two good examples of this change of habit can be seen in Crataegus Forbesae and C. pastorum, two species from Worcester County, Massachusetts, now in flower on Peters Hill. Judging by these two plants it is possible that nearly all the shrubby species can be grown, with the exception of some of the species of the Intricatae Group, in good soil into small trees. As usual Crataegus nigra was the first Hawthorn in the collection to open its flowers. This native of western Europe is a shapely tree with pale bark and large deeply lobed leaves. The flowers, which are arranged in compact clusters, have twenty stamens with anthers faintly tinged with pink, and are followed by handsome black lustrous fruits, which ripen in summer and give greater value to this tree than the flowers which are less beautiful than those of many of the American Hawthorns. The flowers of Crataegus nigra have soon been followed by those of several trees of the Molles Group like C. arnoldiana, C. mollis, C. submollis, C. Ellwangeriana, C. champlainensis, and C. Treleasii; these have been soon followed by C. pedicellata, C. Pringlei, C. lobulata, C. dilatata, C. pruinosa, and C. sertata. During the next two weeks lovers of Hawthorns will be able to see the flowers of more than two hundred species, and there will be Hawthorns flowering in the Arboretum now continually until July; by the middle or end of August the fruit of a few of the species will be ripe. Daphne genkwa is a shrub with slender stems sometimes three or four feet high, and in its native country sometimes spreading by root-suckers; the leaves are pointed, from one to two inches long, and covered below with pale, silky hairs; the lilac-blue flowers are produced in April and May in stalked clusters from the joints of the naked wood of previous years. The long, slender wands of bloom and the unusual color of the flowers among early flowering shrubs make this Daphne an exceptionally attractive garden plant. A native of central China it appears to have been early carried to Japan where it was first found by Von Siebold. It was introduced into England in 1842 by Fortune, probably from a Shanghai garden. Twenty years later plants were sent from Japan by Thomas Hogg to the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island. One of these Japanese plants flowered in the Arboretum in 1880, but generally they have never grown well in this country and it is doubtful if any of them are now in existence. In 1900 Wilson found this Daphne growing wild near Ichang in Hupeh and plants from his seeds were grown at the Arboretum. Some of these were killed by the severe winter of three or four years ago but the remnant of one of them has been flowering this year on Hickory Path near Centre Street. It is, however, probable that this beautiful shrub will never be a permanent success in eastern Massachusetts. A few plants have been sent by the Arboretum to more southern gardens where they are growing well and have given great satisfaction. Daphne genkwa is now extremely rare in the United States and every one with a plant should save all the seeds it produces, for Daphnes can only be successfully obtained from seeds, as it is practically impossible to increase them from cuttings. Berberis Dielsiana is now in flower with the new Chinese Barberries on Bussey Hill. It is a magnificent plant already nearly ten feet high and from eight to ten feet in diameter with wide spreading slightly pendulous branches. The flowers are in drooping racemes like those of the common Barberry and are equally fragrant. Berberis Dielsiana is one of Purdom's discoveries, who found it in Shensi and among the new Barberries is only surpassed here as an ornamental plant by B. Vernae another of Purdom's discoveries which will not be in bloom yet for two or three weeks. Two years ago Berberis Dielsiana opened its flowers as early as the middle of April, but the middle of May seems to be the normal time for it to flower here, and that is before any of the other species of this group are in bloom."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 28","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23778","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2708528.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX N0. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 28, 1923 American Crab Apples. Among the small North American trees still imperfectly known to botanists and wood-lovers and scarcely known at all to gardeners are the different species, varieties and hybrids of the Wild Apple. Nine species of these trees are now recognized, with several varieties, and two hybrids and their varieties. They have white or pink fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly or entirely grown, and green or pale yellow fragrant fruit which hangs on slender stems and, with the exception of that of the species from the northwestern part of the country is depressed-globose, usually from an inch to two and a half inches in diameter and covered with a waxy secretion. All the species spread into thickets and are excellent plants for the decoration of wood-borders and glades. Some of the species have only been distinguished in recent years, and although the species and many of the varieties a~e now growing in the Arboretum several of these have not yet flowered; only two or three of these Crab Apples can be found in commercial nurseries. Malus glaucescens, which is named from the pale glaucous color of the under surface of the leaves, is the first of the American species to flower here and has been blooming for more than a week. It is a shrub usually rather than a tree, not more than fifteen feet high, with stems four or five inches in diameter. The flowers are white or rose color, up to an inch and a half across, and the pale yellow fruit is often from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. It is common in several western New York counties and ranges to western Pennsylvania, southern Ontario and Ohio, and occurs on the southern Appalachian Mountains to northern Alabama. Malus ioensis begins to open its flowers several days later than M. glaucescens. This is the common Crab Apple of the northern middle western states, and in a number of varieties has a wide range southward through Missouri to western Louisiana and Texas. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with a trunk often eighteen inches in diameter, a wide open head of spreading branches and usually incised leaves tomentose on the lower surface, flowers often two inches wide with white or rose-colored petals, and fruit hanging on stout hairy stems, and up to an inch and a half in diameter The common form of this tree in southern Missouri, Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma (var. Palmeri), a small tree with spiney branches and smaller leaves, is flowering in the Arboretum for the first time this year. A form of this tree with double flowers (var. plena), the Bechtel Crab, named for the man who found it several years ago growing in the woods in one of the western states, has opened its pale rose-colored flowers which look like small Roses. When in flower this is one of the popular trees of the Arboretum, judging by the number of persons who want to get close to it. This double-flowered Crab can now be found in many of the large American nurseries, but these nursery trees are often short-lived, probably because the common orchard Apple on which they are usually grafted does not suit them as stock. Persons buying the Bechtel Crab should insist that it be grafted on one of the American Crab Apples, the best for the purpose being the single-flowered type of M. ioensis. Malus coronaria, sometimes called the Garland Tree, is the common eastern species, although it does not approach the coast north of Pennsylvania and Delaware and ranges west to Missouri. It is a beautiful tree sometimes twenty-five feet high with a short trunk, pink flowers rather more than an inch in diameter and depressed globose fruit. From M. glaucescens it is distinguished by the green under surface of the leaves, and from M. ioensis by the absence of pubescence on the leaves, fruit stalks and young shoots. The calyx on one variety (var. dasycalyx) not rare in Ohio and Indiana is thickly covered with white matted hairs. A form with long acuminate leaves (var. elongata) which sometimes forms dense impenetrable thickets grows in western New York to Ohio, and on the southern Appalachian Mountains from West Virginia to North Carolina. Recently a double-flowered form of M. coronaria has been found growing in the woods near Waukegan, Illinois (var. Charlottae or the Charlotte Crab). The flowers are larger and whiter than those of the Bechtel Crab, and there is no reason why the Charlotte Crab should not become as great or a greater garden favorite. It is now growing in the Arboretum but the plants are too young to flower. Malus platycarpa has fruit much broader than high, often two and a half inches in diameter with a deep cavity at base and apex. The flowers are about an inch and a half wide with a glabrous pedicel and calyx, but in the var. Hoopesii with a pubescent calyx. There is a large tree of this variety in the old Malus collection opposite the end of the Meadow Road. M. platycarpa is a handsome tree well worth a place in collections for its beautiful fruit valuable for cooking and jellies. The so-called Mammoth Crab is probably a hybrid of this species and the orchard Apple-tree. Malus fusca, the only native Apple-tree of the Pacific States, where it ranges from Alaska to southern California, is in flower. This differs from the other American Crab Apples in its short-oblong, yellow-green flushed with red or nearly entirely red fruit from half an inch to threequarters of an inch long, without the waxy exudation which is peculiar to the eastern American species, and with thin dry flesh. The calyx of the flower, unlike that of the eastern species, but like that of many Asiatic species, falls from the partly grown fruit. Malus angustifolia is the last Crab Apple in the Arboretum to flower. This is a tree sometimes thirty feet tall with a trunk eight or ten inches in diameter, wide-spreading branches, bright pink exceedingly fragrant flowers an inch in diameter, and depressed-globose fruit. From the other species it differs in the only slightly lobed or serrate leaves on the ends of vigorous shoots and in the rounded apex of the leaves on flower-bearing branchlets. Malus angustifolia is a southern species which naturally does not grow north of southeastern Virginia and southern Illinois, ranging to northern Florida and western Louisiana. Plants raised here many years ago from seed gathered in northern Florida are perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where they bloom every year late in May and have proved to be handsome and valuable plants here. The other American species, 161. glabrata of the high valleys of the mountains of North Carolina, M. lancifolia, widely distributed from Pennsylvania to Missouri and western North Carolina, and Malus bractata, a common species from Missouri to Florida, with many of the varieties of Malus ioensis are now established in the Arboretum but the plants are still too young to flower. Malus Soulardii, which is believed to be a natural hybrid between M. ioensis and some form of the orchard Apple (M. pumila) which, not rare and widely distributed in the middle west, is a tree as it grows in the Arboretum, nearly as broad as it is high with spreading, slightly drooping branches. Last year it was thickly covered with its pale pink fragrant flowers, which, for ten days at least, made it one of the most attractive objects in the Crabapple Collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. This year it has bloomed only sparingly. It is a curious fact that M. Soulardii flowers in the Arboretum fully two weeks earlier than either of its supposed parents. Several varieties of Soulard's Crab are distinguished by western pomologists. Some of them are in the Arboretum collection, but the \"Fluke Apple\" is the only one which has flowered here yet. This resembles Soulard's Crab in size and shape, and in the color of its equally abundant flowers, and as an ornamental plant is of equal value. Malus Dawsonii is a hybrid of the western M. fusca and the common Apple which appeared in the Arboretum many years ago from seed collected in Oregon. It has grown to more than double the size of M. fusca, to which it shows its relationship in the oblong fruit of the shape and color of that of its Oregon parent but of about twice the size. The leaves are less pubescent than those of the common Apple, and the flowers are rather larger. The hybrid blooms at about the same time as M. ioensis and a few days earlier than M. fusca. Early American Azaleas. Four species, now called Rhododendrons, are in flower, R. canadense, the Rhodora, of which there are only a few small plants in the Arboretum, R. Vaseyi, R. nudiflorum and R. roseum. Of these R. Vaseyi is the first to open its clear pink or occasionally nearly white flowers. The Arboretum plants in large masses along the Meadow Road are still small but have been covered with flowers during the past week. On the lower side of Azalea Path R. nudiflorum and R. roseum growing side by side with numerous individuals can be compared. On different plants of R. nudiflorum the flowers vary considerably in color, and on a few plants are nearly white. For most persons R. roseum with the deep rose-colored flowers is a handsomer plant and perhaps the handsomest of the American Azaleas with the exception of R. calendulaceum with its yellow or flame-colored flowers. The fragrance of the flowers of R. roseum is only equaled among Azaleas by that of the summer blooming R. viscosum of northern swamps. The first Roses. Three Asiatic species of Rose are the first to flower in the Arboretum, Rosa Ecae which opened its first flowers on May 21 one day before those of R. Hugonis and R. omeiensis. Rosa Ecae is still rare in gardens. A native of Afghanistan and Turkestan it is a large fast-growing shrub, with small lustrous leaves, strongly and pleasantly fragrant throughout the season, and pale yellow flowers about an inch in diameter. The flowers are paler in color, slightly smaller, and less crowded on the branches than those of R. Hugonis but it is a more vigorous and satisfactory plant and the persistent and unusual fragrance of the foliage greatly adds to its value. Rosa omeiensis which is common on the mountains of western China, gets its name from Mt. Omei one of the sacred mountains of the Empire. It is a hardy, fast-growing shrub with erect stems covered with bright red prickles and white fragrant flowers hardly an inch in diameter which are followed by handsome red fruits on elongated yellow fleshy stalks. In its native country this Rose sometimes grows to a height of twenty-five feet. A good hedge for New England gardens might be made with it. Wisterias. There are no flowers this year on the Chinese and Japanese Wisterias on the trellis on the south side of the Shrub Collection, but an old plant of the white flowering Japanese W. floribunda which has been allowed to ramble at will on the trees and shrubs on the left hand side of the Valley Road close to the Centre Street Gate is covered with flowers and is one of the most beautiful objects in the Arboretum during the last days of May."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 7","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23772","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270ab6c.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 7, 1923 Laburnums, small European trees or large shrubs, sometimes called \"Golden Rain,\" can furnish our gardens in June and early July with the handsomest yellow flowered trees which can be grown in this climate. The best known Laburnum in this country is Laburnum anagyroides, or as it is more often called Laburnum vulgare. This is a native of central and southern Europe and a shapely tree from twenty to thirty feet in height. It is one of the most generally planted and popular exotic plants in England and probably was brought early to the United States where it has been more generally planted than the other Laburnums. Although not always perfectly hardy in Massachusetts large plants are occasionally found in the neighborhood of Boston and these are now covered with their drooping racemes of golden colored flowers. A number of varieties of Laburnum anagyroides are propagated in European nurseries but these are curiosities and certainly not better as garden plants than the type of the species. One of the most distinct of the abnormal forms, var. bullatum, with its curiously twisted and contorted leaflets is now in bloom in the Arboretum. The Scotch Laburnum (L. alpinum), probably so called because it is a most cultivated and favorite garden plant in Scotland, flowers later than L. anagyroides and is a hardier plant in this part of the country with longer racemes of flowers. When the plants growing in the Arboretum are covered with their long drooping flower clusters they are objects of great beauty and it is surprising how little this plant is known to American garden makers. Another Laburnum, L. Watereri, a natural hybrid between L. alpinum and L. anagyroides, which is intermediate between its parents in botanical characters and in the time of flowering, and is a beautiful small tree better suited to the New England climate than L. angyroides, and a good plant for the decoration of a June garden. L. Watereri appears to be little known in this country. The third species of Laburnum, L. caramanicum, a native of Greece and Asia Minor, has been planted in the Arboretum but has not proved hardy here. Arborescent Viburnums. Four Viburnums assume the habit of small trees in the Arboretum. Three of these are eastern American, V. prunifolium, V. Lentago and V. rufid1ilum, and one is Japanese, V. Sieboldii. Viburnum prunifolium, which is known popularly as the Black Haw, is a common shrub in the middle Atlantic states where in early spring, on rocky hillsides and along roadsides and the borders of woods, it rivals in the beauty of its flowers the flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) which naturally grows in open woods and not in such exposed positions as the Black Haw. Viburnum nudiflorum is a large arborescent shrub or a small tree rarely thirty feet high, with a short trunk usually less than a foot in diameter, rigid spreading branches beset with slender spine-like branchlets, ovate to suborbicular, thick, dark green and lustrous leaves which, handsome through the summer, are splendid in the autumn with their dark vinous red or scarlet colors. The white flowers in slightly convex clusters have been produced here this spring in the greatest profusion; in the autumn they will be followed by red-stemmed drooping clusters of dark blue fruit covered with a glaucous bloom, and from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch long. The Black Haw, which is one of the handsomest of the small trees of the eastern United States, takes kindly to cultivation' and is quite hardy north of the region of its natural distribution which is in southern Connecticut. It has generally escaped the attention of American nurserymen who in recent years have made better known our northern arborescent Viburnum Lentago, the Sheepberry or Nannyberry, a usually larger and for some persons a handsomer plant. The flowers, which are arranged in larger and rather flatter clusters, are pale cream color and not white, but the fruit is as handsome as that of the Black Haw and rather larger. The leaves, too, are larger, equally lustrous, and also assume brilliant autumn colors. This Viburnum can grow in the shade of larger trees or in open situations which it prefers. In both May and early June the Arboretum owes much beauty to the flowers of these tree Viburnums, especially to those of V. Lentago which has been planted in large numbers along the drives and in the border plantations and is now covered with flowers. Viburnum Jackii, evidently a hybrid between V. Lentago and V. prunifolium with characters intermediate between those of its parents, was detected ' a few years ago by Professor Jack in one of the Arboretum plantations. An interesting plant it is not more valuable for the decoration of gardens than either of its parents. More beautiful than the Black Haw or the Nannyberry, the common tree Viburnum of the southern states, V. rufidulum is perhaps the handsomest of all the Viburnums with deciduous leaves. When it has grown under the most favorable conditions this Viburnum is a tree often forty feet high, with a tall stout trunk and branches which spread nearly at right angles from it; the leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, with winged stalks covered, as are the winter-buds, with a thick felt of rusty brown hair; the flowers are creamy white and the fruit is dark blue covered with a glaucous bloom. This Viburnum has been growing in sheltered positions in the Arboretum for several years, and a plant on the upper side of Hickory Path near Centre Street has not before been more thickly covered with flower-buds. The Japanese Viburni4m Sueboldii under favorable conditions can grow to a height of twenty-five feet although it is often a shrub in habit. It has long, bright green oblong, coarsely toothed leaves, and flowers in flat clusters from two and a half to four inches in diameter and handsome oblong fruit pink at first when fully grown becoming black and lustrous at maturity and then soon falling from the branches. The leaves when crushed emit a most disagreeable odor. For the decoration of American gardens this Japanese plant is inferior to either of the three American arborescent species. The Mountain Halesia or Silver Bell Tree. (Halesia monticola). Until the beginning of the present century the botanists who visited the high Appalachian Mountains took it for granted that the Halesia which grows at altitudes above 2500 feet was the same as the bushy tree of the foothills and upland valleys of the Piedmont region and southward. This idea having been generally accepted, and as the lowland plant had for more than a century been common in gardens, no attempt was made to cultivate the mountain tree, and the gardens of the United States and Europe have been deprived of one of the handsomest trees of the North American forests. The tree of the high mountains is not rarely eighty or ninety feet high with a straight trunk sometimes from three to three and a half feet in diameter, often free of branches for fifty or sixty feet from the ground, and covered with bark separating into great platelike scales like those of a scaly-barked Hickory or a Swamp Cottonwood. The flowers are somewhat larger and the fruit is twice as large as the flowers and fruit of the lowland tree. The habit of the plant and the size of the flowers and fruits are reproduced in the seedlings which begin to grow as trees with a single stem. The seedlings show no variation in habit, and the young trees grow with a single straight stem with short branches which form a narrow symmetrical pyramidal head. The young trees often begin to flower and to produce fertile seeds before they are ten feet tall. This mountain tree has proved to be perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it is growing rapidly and where it has now flowered and produced fruit since 1913. It is a tree which seems destined to play an important part in the decoration of American parks and which may prove useful for street and roadside planting. Neillia sinensis is now in great beauty on the upper side of Hickory Path growing in the shade of a Japanese Walnut-tree. It is a shrub from western China introduced by Wilson and the best representative of a genus of the Rose Family which has been grown in the Arboretum. It is a large wide-spreading shrub with slender stems and dark green, long-pointed coarsely serrate leaves with prominent veins deeply impressed on the upper side of the leaf. The flowers are cylindric, clear pale pink in color and nearly half an inch long; they are borne in slender, nodding racemes from three to four inches in length, terminal on short lateral branchlets of the year, and do not open until the leaves are nearly fully grown. It has been found in the Arboretum that the plant grows best in partial shade in moist but well drained soil. There are several other species of Neillia in the Arboretum collection. None of them, however, have any value as garden plants in this climate. Some of them are killed to the ground nearly every year and the flowers of others are inconspicuous. Neillia sinensis, however, is a garden plant of so much value that it seems destined to become popular as soon as it is better known. Crataegus Canbyi is now well established in the Peter's Hill collection of American Hawthorns and is now covered with flowers. It is a native of Newcastle County, Delaware, and has been found on the shores of Chesapeake Bay, near Perrysville, Cecil County, Maryland, and occasionally in eastern Pennsylvania. It is a tree sometimes twenty feet high with a trunk up to eighteen inches in diameter, and long, spreading branches which form an open head which is occasionally from thirty to thirty-five feet in diameter. The leaves are pointed, dark green, lustrous, and nearly fully grown when the flowers open; these have usually ten stamens and small rose-colored anthers. The fruit, which ripens in October, and does not fall from the branches until after the beginning of winter is short-oblong, dark crimson in color and very lustrous. Crataegus Canbyi is one of the handsome species of the great Crus-galli group which is distributed in many forms from the valley of the St Lawrence River to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico, in western Florida, and westward to the borders of the Great Plains in Kansas, Oklahoma and Texas. This tree is named for the late William M. Canby, of Wilmington, Delaware, one of the most industrious and intelligent of the collectors and students of the North American flora, by whom it was first distinguished in his careful investigations of the Hawthorns of his native state. Malus transitoria which is still covered with flowers is the last of the Asiatic Crabapples to bloom in the Arboretum. It was discovered by William Purdom in the Chinese Province of Shensi, and as it grows here is a large round topped shrub as broad as high, and not a tree. The flowers are more or less deeply tinged with rose color as the buds open but the petals become pure white. The fruit is ellipsoidal in shape, rose-pink, darker on one side than on the other, very lustrous, and about three quarters of an inch long. Malus transitoria which when covered with flowers as it is this year is a handsome plant; it has, too, a special value in prolonging the flowering period of the Asiatic Crabapples, among which are found some of the most beautiful flowering trees which can be successfully grown in New England. Aesculus carnea. Two forms of this tree, the so-called red-flowered Horsechestnut, now attract much attention in the Arboretum; they are the var. Briotii, with scarlet flowers, and the var. plantierensis, with large clusters of pale pink flowers marked with red at the base of the petals. This was raised several years ago in a French nursery and is sometimes believed to be a hybrid of the European A. Hippocastanum and A. carnea. Whatever its parentage it is when in flower one of the most distinct and beautiful of all the Horsechestnuts."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23768","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2608928.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 15, 1923 The Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) at the northern base of Hemlock Hill is well covered with flower-buds which will have opened when this Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers. The flowering of the Laurels is the last of the great Arboretum flower shows of the year, and none of those which precede it are more beautiful, for the Mountain Laurel or the Calico Bush as it is often called, is in the judgment of many flower-lovers the most beautiful of all North American shrubs or small trees. Many Rhododendrons have larger leaves and larger and more brilliantly colored flowers, but of all the broad-leaved evergreen plants which can be grown successfully in this climate the Laurel is the handsomest and most satisfactory. It is not perhaps strange that so little attention has been paid to it by American gardeners, for the American gardeners, of the earlier generations at least, derived their inspiration almost entirely from England, and usually despised American plants as too common for their attention. For some reason which is not easy to explain Kalmia latifolia has never been a popular plant in England where it is still not often seen and where it certainly grows less freely than many species and hybrids of Rhododendron. For this reason, perhaps, no distinct forms of the Laurel and no hybrids have been developed by cultivators and the few recognized variations in the flowers and leaves have all been found on wild plants. Of these there are forms with pure white flowers (var. alba), and there is a form with deep pink, nearly red flowers and rather dark leaves (var. rubra). Between these extremes there are others with flowers of all shades of pink, and there is one with flowers conspicuously marked by a chocolate band (var. fuscata). There is a dwarf form (var. myrtifolia) with small leaves and small clusters of minute flowers; and there is one in which the corolla is deeply divided into narrow lobes (var. polypetala). A form with broad, handsome, Rhododendron-like leaves (var. obtusata), rarely flowers, and another with a six-lobed corolla has recently been found growing on the Blue Ridge in North Carolina. The Laurel collection is easily and quickly reached from the Walter Street and South Street entrances of the Arboretum. Rhododendrons. Although the hot weather of last week ruined the flowers of the early Rhododendrons and although the late flowering species and hybrids have not yet opened, a large number of the varieties of the Catawbiense hybrids are now in bloom. Persons who may desire to cultivate Rhododendrons must remember that they, including nearly all Azaleas, cannot live in soil impregnated with lime and that with the exception of the native R. maximum they are not hardy north of Massachusetts, and that south of Maryland, except at high altitudes on the Appalachian Mountains, the summers are too hot for them. The range therefore in eastern North America where these plants can be successfully cultivated is comparatively small, but probably the northwest coast of North America from southern British Columbia to northern California is as well suited for these plants as any part of the world, and in this region there can be grown in addition to all the varieties common in European gardens the Himalayan and Chinese species which here in the east can only be kept alive in glass houses, and in Europe thrive only in a few exceptionally favorable places like Cornwall or in the neighborhood of the Italian Lakes. Rhododendrons, although they are moisture-loving plants, do not thrive in undrained positions; they do best in soil in which loam, peat and sand have been equally mixed, although peat is not always essential to the successful cultivation of these plants. They should be planted where the roots of trees cannot take away moisture from them, and the best position for these plants is on the north side but not too near coniferous trees as they have been planted in the Arboretum. In such positions they are protected from the direct rays of the sun in March and April, for in this climate where the roots are in frozen ground in winter and therefore cannot take up moisture, it is important to reduce as much as possible winter and early spring evaporation from the leaves. It is this evaporation from the leaves of evergreens growing in frozen soil which makes it impossible to keep alive many of them in this part of the country; and this is the reason why it is desirable here to water thoroughly Rhododendrons just before the ground freezes in the autumn. Of the species of evergreen Rhododendrons only the eastern American R. maximum, R. catawbiense, R. carolinianum and its variety with white flowers (var. album), R. minus and its mountain form, the Caucasian R. Smirnovii and R. caucasicum at least in some of its forms, are truly hardy in Massachusetts. The two species of the European Alps, R. hirsutum and R. ferrugineum can live here sometimes for a number of years, but they are usually short-lived and unsatisfactory plants in this climate. The Japanese R. brachycarpum formerly lived in Massachusetts gardens for many years and longer trials will probably show that it can be successfully cultivated in this climate. Including this still doubtful Japanese species and the two little European species, there are only nine species of this great genus of several hundred species, hardy in this climate, and there is little hope that another species able to support this climate will be found. The poverty of our gardens in this plant appears when the Arboretum collection is compared with that in a garden in Cornwall in England, in which some three hundred and sixty species are growing and in which on a day in May sixty-five species have been in flower. Such a collection, and perhaps even a better one, can be made in a garden in the neighborhood of Portland, Oregon, or in some favorable place on the shores of Puget Sound, but the sooner it is realized that northeastern North America is not a good Rhododendron country in any broad sense the better it will be for the gardens in this part of the United States. For the last seventy years a large amount of thought, labor and money have been expended in attempts to cultivate these plants in the New England and Middle States; during this time many hundreds of thousands of these plants, principally hybrids of the American R. catabwiense, have been imported from Europe but the collections of Rhododendrons in the eastern states at all satisfactory or comprehensive can be counted on the fingers of one hand. In this climate unfortunately only a few of the Catawbiense hybrids, which are the popular Rhododendrons here, can be grown. The American parent of these hybrids is perfectly hardy, but the influence of the tender Himalayan species with which it has been crossed has made most of the varieties of this hybrid unsuited to this climate. The influence of the tender R. ponticum, the stock on which these plants have been almost universally grafted in European nurseries, may account in part for the fact that plants of these hybrids which have lived here for thirty or forty years have then died without any other apparent cause. If evergreen Rhododendrons are ever to become hardy and permanent features of eastern gardens we must give up trying to make European-grown plants successful here, and confine our efforts to the few species which are hardy here and to crossing these among themselves in the hope of obtaining hybrids which will be able to grow here permanently. Some- ' thing can be accomplished by the selection of seedlings For example, the flowers of R. catawbiense are of a peculiar shade of magenta which does not harmonize with any other color but white. Comparatively few seedlings, however, of R. catawbiense have ever been raised and probably not much attention has ever been paid to selecting from among the plants growing on the high Appalachian peaks individuals with flowers of unusual colors. R. catawbiense is perhaps the hardiest here of all Rhododendrons; the habit is excellent and the leaves are handsomer than those of the other hardy species. Improvement in the color of the flower is all that is needed to make it a first rate plant for this climate. It is doubtful if this can be accomplished by crossing it with other species, but through patient selection it may be improved and possibly a white-flowered form discovered. Hybrid Rhododendrons are hardier or less hardy than their parents. The few hybrids which have been made between R. catawbiense and R. maximum, the hardiest of all Rhododendrons here, are less hardy than their parents. On the other hand by crossing some of the Catawbiense hybrids with R. Metternichii, a delicate Japanese shrub, a race of hybrids has been produced in England which is quite hardy in the Arboretum; and the hybrids of the two species of the European Alps crossed with one of the forms of the American R. minus are excellent dwarf garden plants here. In this country the breeding of Rhododendrons for American gardens has never been systematically undertaken with full knowledge of the species available for the purpose. The field is an inviting one, for these plants and other hardy broad-leaved evergreens are greatly needed in American gardens. Of the early-flowering Rhododendrons those which have proved most satisfactory in the Arboretum are varieties of hybrids of R. caucasicum, and the Appalachian R. carolinianum. The best of the Caucasicums are the varieties called \"Boule de Neige,\" \"Mont Blanc\" and \"Coriaceum.\" The first is a round-topped plant rarely three feet high and occasionally six feet in diameter with handsome foliage and snow-white flowers faintly tinged with pink in the bud, in compact clusters. \"Mont Blanc\" is a taller and narrower plant with flowers rose-color when the buds open but soon becoming white. \"Coriaceum\" is also a more upright growing plant than \"Boule de Neige\" and in the rusty brown under surface of the leaves and in the flowers deeply tinged with yellow it resembles the wild plants of R. caucasicum which grow on the mountain slopes of the Caucasus. Two specimens of \"Coriaceum\" have been growing in the Arboretum for many years and are among the most satisfactory plants in the collection. Rhododendron Smirnowii flowers only a little later than R. carolinianum and the Caucasian hybrids. It is a plant with which Americans interested in the cultivation of Rhododendrons would do well to become acquainted, for it is not only a beautiful plant but may prove exceedingly valuable in the production of a new race of hybrid Rhododendrons better suited for this climate than any which we now have. It is a large shrub with pale gray-green leaves coated below with a thick mat of pale felt, and large pink or rose-pink flowers in medium-sized clusters. The leaves are not as handsome as those of R. catawbiense and its hybrids, and when the plants are fully exposed to the sun the leaves sometimes curl up in very hot weather. The felt on their lower surface protects them from the attacks of the lace-leaf fly from which other Rhododendrons suffer so seriously here. Hybrids of this plant with R. catawbiense hybrids which have been raised in England show no trace of the covering of felt on the lower surface of the leaves and are less hardy and less desirable plants here than their Caucasicum parent. In the Arboretum collection of Catawbiense hybrids are plants raised in England, the United States and Germany. English nurserymen have been longer engaged than those of other countries in raising hybrid Rhododendrons and have had a larger variety of material to work with and as a rule the English Catawbiense hybrids are more desirable plants for this country than at least those in the Arboretum collection which have been raised in the United States and Germany. Nearly all the colors which have been obtained in the flowers of these hybrids will be found among the English plants which are hardy in the Arboretum. A list of such plants should include those called \"Album elegans,\" \"Catawbiense Album,\" \"Charles Dickens,\" \"Atrosanguineum,\" \"Caractacus,\" \"Lady Armstrong,\" \"H. W. Sargent,\" \"Roseum elegans,\" \"Mrs. C. S. Sargent,\" \"Henrietta Sargent,\" \"Everestianum,\" \"Purpureum grandiflorum,\" and \"Purpureum elegans.\" With these if proper soil and a good position for the plants is selected a fine display of foliage and flowers can be obtained."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 22","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23769","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270a328.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 22, 1923 The Yellow Wood or Virgilia, common names of Cladrastris lutea, has been covered during the past week with long drooping clusters of pure white pea-shaped flowers which make it one of the most beautiful trees in the forests of eastern North America. It is a round-topped tree sometimes sixty or seventy feet in height, with pale smooth bark which resembles that of the American Beech-tree, and large light green compound leaves which turn clear yellow in the autumn before falling. In the forest this is a rare and local tree, and is found growing, usually on river cliffs, from western North Carolina to Tennessee, Kentucky and northern Alabama, and in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas. It is most abundant probably in the neighborhood of Nashville, Tennessee. Sent to France by its discoverer, the elder Michaux, it has been in cultivation for more than a century. One of the first, and perhaps the first specimen planted in the United States was standing a few years ago in the grounds of the Philadelphia Cricket Club near that city. The Yellow Wood was planted in Massachusetts, where it is perfectly hardy, at least eighty years ago. This tree flowers well in France and Germany, but rarely produces flowers in Great Britain where the sun is not hot enough to ripen sufficiently the flowering wood. Here the trees flower only once in two years and, with few exceptions, all individuals planted in the northern states flower the same year. Although one of the handsomest trees that can be used for the decoration of parks and gardens in the eastern states, the Virgilia seems to be less commonly used here than it was seventy-five years ago. Fortunately it can still be obtained in a few American gardens. Styrax japonica. The large plant of this Japanese shrub on Hickory Path near Center Street is now opening its abundant flowers. These are bell-shaped, white, and arranged in two- or three-flowered racemes which hang down from the branches on long stems and make this shrub during a week or ten days a beautiful and interesting object. The glabrous, drupe-like dry fruit is not particularly ornamental and the leaves fall late in the autumn without change of color. That Styrax japonica is perfectly at home in its present position in the Arboretum is shown by the numerous seedlings which every year spring up under the plant. There appears therefore to be no good reason why this handsome shrub should be so rare in American gardens. Although at least one hundred species of Styrax are now recognized by botanists, with four species in the southern United States and one in California, only two species, S. japonica and another Japanese species, S. obassia, have been successfully established in the Arboretum. The latter is a small tree thickly covered with nearly round leaves from eight to ten inches in diameter. These entirely hide the flowers which are nearly three-quarters of an inch long, fragrant and arranged in drooping racemes from six to eight inches in length. The healthy specimen of this plant on the upper side of Azalea Path bloomed earlier in the season. Styrax americana, a native of the southeastern United States from Virginia to Florida, lives in the Arboretum in sheltered positions and has occasionally produced its small fragrant flowers here, but it is not hardy enough ever to become valuable in northern gardens. Summer-flowering American Viburnums. For many flowers the Arboretum is indebted in early summer to four American species of Viburnums which have been used in large numbers in its borders and roadside plantations. The earliest of these, V. dentatum, is already in bloom; it has handsome dark green leaves conspicuously toothed on the margins, and broad flat clusters of white flowers which are followed in early autumn by bright blue fruit on erect stems. This is a common roadside and meadow shrub in the northeastern part of the country. The second of these four Viburnums, V. cassinoides, is also in bloom. It is n native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows twenty feet high with slender straggling stems. In cultivation it forms a broad, low round-topped bush, and has proved one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums introduced into the Arboretum. The leaves are thick and lustrous and vary greatly in size on different individuals. The fruit is larger than that of the other summer- flowering American species, and at first yellow-green later becomes pink, and finally blue-black and covered with a pale bloom, fruit of the three colors occurring in early autumn in the same cluster. The third of these summer-flowering Viburnums, V. venosum, resembles in its general appearance V. dentatum, but it flowers two weeks later, and the young branchlets and the lower surface of the leaves are thickly covered with a coat of stellate hairs. This Viburnum is found growing naturally only in the neighborhood of the coast from Cape Cod and Nantucket to New Jersey. A larger and a handsomer plant with larger leaves, showier flowers and larger, later-ripening fruit, V. Canbyi is the fourth of these species, It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware where it is not common, and of central Indiana; and it is the last of all the Viburnums in the Arboretum to flower. There are large specimens of this plant in front of the Administration Building and at other points on the Meadow Road. All these Viburnums can be improved by cultivation and with generous treatment grow into larger and handsomer bushes than the wild plants, and bear larger leaves and better flowers and fruit. Few shrubs better deserve a place in American parks and gardens where they are still less often seen than they should be. Two rare American Viburnums can now be seen in flower in the Arboretum, V. molle, a native of southern Kentucky and southern Missouri, with which V. venosum was once confused, and V. bracteatum which is known to grow naturally only on the cliffs of the Coosa River near Rome, Georgia. One of the few plants in cultivation is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. V. molle is in flower near it. Red-fruited Viburnums. With the exception of the two species which belong to the Opulus Group no American Viburnum has red fruit, but in eastern Asia there are several red-fruited species. The handsomest of these in the Arboretum is V. dilatatum, which is a native of Japan, Korea and western China. It is a large, shapely and vigorous shrub with broad, abruptly pointed leaves and wide flat clusters of flowers which are followed by small bright red fruits. This is a good shrub for the decoration of summer and autumn gardens. It is in the general Viburnum collection, and there are good plants on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. There is a form with yellow fruit (var. xanthocarpum) which is an attractive and interesting plant. The fruit of V. dentatum is smaller and less showy than that of another red-fruited Japanese species, V. Wrightii. This is a smaller shrub and flowered some time ago. The flower-clusters are smaller than those of V. dilatatum and the plants are not always perfectly hardy in exposed situations, but the fruit is larger and handsomer than that of the other red-fruited Viburnums of eastern Asia. Another of these plants, V. theiferum, from western China is not yet in flower. It is a tall narrow shrub with erect stems, small leaves and small flower-clusters. It has little to recommend it as a flowering plant but the fruit is large, abundant and of good color, and the plant has an economic interest as an infusion of the leaves is the \"sweet tea\" used by the monks of the monasteries on Mt. Omei, one of the five sacred mountains of China. Hydrangea petiolaris. The specimens of this vine, the Japanese Climbing Hydrangea, on the southeast corner of the Administration Building is now one of the great sights of the Arboretum as it is covered with flower-clusters from the ground to the eaves of the building. The leaves of few plants unfolded here as early in the spring and there is but one other climbing plant with conspicuous flowers really hardy in this climate, Schizophragma, able to attach itself firmly to a brick or stone wall or to the trunk of a tree. The flower-clusters of the Climbing Hydrangea are surrounded by a circle of white sterile flowers and are from eight to ten inches in diameter; they are terminal on short lateral branches which stand out from the main stem of the plant and give it an irregular surface which adds to its beauty and interest. This Hydrangea was first raised at the Arboretum in 1878 and can now be occasionally seen in American gardens. It might well be better known and more generally used for there is no other plant so well suited to cover the brick or stone walls of tall buildings in the northern United States. Schizophragma hydrangeoides, also a native of Japan, can be seen on the wall of the Administration Building next to the Hydrangeas. It blooms later. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum. The plants of this Appalachian Azalea now in flower on Azalea Path and the Laurels and Rhododendrons at the northern base of Hemlock Hill have been during the past ten days the brilliant features of the Arboretum. The flowers of this Azalea vary from clear yellow to flame color, and unlike the Azaleas which bloom in early spring like the Appalachian R. Vaseyi and the Korean R. Schlippenbachii the leaves are fully grown before the flowers open. This adds to the beauty of this Azalea when it is flowering and makes it for many persons the most beautiful as it is the showiest of the American Azaleas. The flame-colored Azalea has been largely used in Europe in the making of the Ghent Hybrid Azaleas, and these are hardy, long-lived and valuable in this climate in proportion to the preponderance of this American plant in their parentage. Cornus kousa. The attention of northern gardeners is again called to this tree which is the Japanese representative of the \"Flowering Dogwoods\" of North America. Here in Massachusetts the western species Cornus Nuttallii, which has never been a particularly successful plant in cultivation, is not hardy; and the flower-buds of the eastern species (Cornus florida) and its varieties are often killed in severe winters unless the trees are in exceptionally protected and sheltered positions. During the past winter the flower-buds on nearly all the trees in eastern Massachusetts were killed, with the exception of those on the branches which had been covered by snow. It is interesting therefore to find that the Japanese tree has not before been more thickly covered with open and uninjured flowers than it is this week. The flower-bracts, which are the conspicuous part of the inflorescence, are narrower than those of Cornus florida and are pointed, not rounded at apex. The individual inflorescence of the American tree is larger and perhaps more beautiful than that of the Japanese tree, but as this does not open until the leaves are nearly full grown Cornus kousa at this season of the year is an object of exquisite beauty. The form of this . tree discovered by Wilson in western China and now growing with other Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill is also now covered with uninjured flowers and their bracts. The bracts are wider and closer together than those of the Japanese plant making the Chinese form even a handsomer garden plant. In the American plants the scarlet drupes are gathered in an erect head but are not united, but in the Asiatic plants they are firmly joined together in a compact globose head which is suspended from the branch on a slender stem. This habit of the fruit adds to the beauty of the plants in autumn when the leaves assume as brilliant a color as those of the American plant. The Chinese form of Cornus kousa produces quantities of fruit in the Arboretum and there is no reason why it should not become common in American gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 26","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23770","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270a36a.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 26, 1923 Philadelphus. Among the shrubs which give beauty to northern gardens in early summer Philadelphus, or as it is popularly called Syringa or Mock Orange, is perhaps only surpassed in interest and value by the Rose and the Laurel (Kalmia). It is only the abundant and often delightfully fragrant white flowers of the plants of this genus which are beautiful; for the fruit is a dry capsule; the habit of the plants is not different from that of many other shrubs, and their leaves fall in early autumn without having changed their color. The plants are natives of eastern and western North America, Japan, China, the Himalayas and southeastern Europe. In the Arboretum collection there are some thirty species, several distinct varieties of some of the species, and a large number of hybrids for in few genera of plants has the hybridizer been more successful in producing new and valuable forms. Plants in this group are in bloom in the Arboretum during fully six weeks, the earliest being a form of Philadelphus Schneckii, named variety Jackii, for Mr. J. G. Jack who discovered it in Korea, which in ordinary season opens its flower-buds during the last week of May, and the latest, or almost the latest, the hybrid P. insignis, which does not flower before the middle of July. Among the species which seem best worth a place in the garden is the European species P. coronarius, the Mock Orange of old gardens, which was cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century and was probably one of the first shrubs brought to America by the English. It is a large and hardy shrub and is chiefly valuable for the fragrance of its flowers which are faintly tinged with yellow. A number of seminal forms of this plant are cultivated, including one with yellow leaves, one with double flowers, and one with narrow, willow-like leaves, but none of them have any particular value or interest for the decoration of gardens. Among the American species which should find a place in all collections of hardy shrubs are P. inodorus, P. pubescens and P, microphyllus. The first is a medium-sized plant with arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers and by many persons considered the most beautiful of the whole genus. P. pubescens, sometimes called P. latifolius, and P. grandiflorus, and known in gardens under various names, is a native of the southern Appalachian region and a shrub sometimes twenty feet high with stout erect stems and branches, broad leaves, and large, slightly fragrant flowers arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. P. microphyllus is a Rocky Mountain species with leaves less than an inch long, and small, intensely fragrant flowers. This is a compact shrub, about three feet high and broad, but unfortunately not always hardy here. The most distinct and the handsomest of the Asiatic species which flowers here is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at wide angles. On these branchlets the flowers are borne from base to apex on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla, and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus Magdalenae from central China is another handsome plant well worth general cultivation. It is a broad tall shrub with arching stems, small, dark green finely toothed leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered panicles from six to ten inches in length. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow and is well worth a place in the garden. Another interesting plant, P. Falconerii, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow, lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and in its long narrow petals. This plant was sent to the Arboretum many years ago by the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, but nothing more is known of its origin or history. In few genera of garden shrubs have natural cross fertilization and the art of the plant-breeder produced greater results than in Philadelphus. The first of these hybrids to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by a Monsieur Billard and is sometimes called \"Souvenir de Billard,\" although the correct name for it is Philadelphus insignis. This hybrid is one of the handsomest of the tall-growing Syringas; it has large, snow-white flowers in long clusters, and its value is increased by the fact that it is the last of the whole group to flower. The largest Syringa in our northern gardens, where plants thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found, appears to be a hybrid between P. coronarius and some unrecognized species. To this plant, whose history is unknown, the name of Philadelphus maximus has been given. Another hybrid called Philadelphus splendens appeared in the Arboretum several years ago and is supposed to be a hybrid between two American species, P. inodorus and P. pubescens. It is a large and shapely shrub with pure white, only slightly fragrant flowers an inch and three-quarters in diameter and borne in erect clusters. This hybrid is a free-flowering plant and when the flowers are open it is the showiest plant in the Syringa Group. These early hybrids are the result of natural cross fertilization, and the systematic breeding in the genus dates from the time when Lemoine first crossed the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus with P. coronarius and produced a plant to which he gave the name of P. Lemoinei. Lemoine then crossed his P. Lemoinei with P. insignis and produced a race to which the general name of P. polyanthus has now been given. Well known forms of this plant are \"Gerbe de Neige\" and \"Parvillon Blanc.\" To another race of the Lemoine hybrids the name of Philadelphus cymosus has been given. This race was obtained by crossing P. Lemoinei and P. pubescens or some related species. \"Conquete\" is considered the type of this group. Other well known plants which are thought to belong here are \"Mer de Glace,\" \"Norma,\" \"Nuee Blanche,\" \"Rosace,\" \"Voie Lactee,\" and \"Perle Blanche.\" Another race of hybrids with double racemose flowers raised by Lemoine and of doubtful origin is called P. virginalis. The type of this group is Lemoine's \"Virginal.\" Other plants referred to it are \"Argentia,\" \"Glacier,\" and \"Bouquet Blanc.\" Tree Lilacs. As the flowers of the late-flowering group of the true Lilacs fade the earliest flowers of the so-called Tree Lilacs begin to open. There are three of these Lilacs which all bear large clusters of white or yellowish white flowers with a corolla shorter than the stamens, while in other Lilacs the corolla is longer than the stamens which are hidden in its throat. The flowers of the Tree Lilacs are white and all have the disagreeable odor of the flowers of the Privet; the leaves fall in the autumn without change of color. The first of these plants to flower, Syringa amurensis, a native of eastern Siberia as its name implies, is a shrub in habit, twelve or fifteen feet high with dark close bark, broad thick leaves dark green above and pale below, and short, broad unsymmetrical flower-clusters. S. pekinensis from northern China flowers next. This is also shrubby in habit, sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall and broad, with stout, spreading stems covered with yellow-brown bark separating readily into thin plates like some of the Birch-trees, dark green, narrow, pointed leaves and short and unsymmetrical flower-clusters usually in pairs at the ends of the branches. This species holds its leaves later in the autumn than the others, and produces great quantities of flowers every year, the other species usually flowering abundantly only every other year. The last of the Tree Lilacs to flower, S. japonica, is a native of northern Japan, and is really a tree sometimes forty feet high with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark like the bark of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of upright branches, broad, thick, dark green leaves, and erect, mostly symmetrical flower-clusters from twelve to eighteen inches long. This is one of the handsomest of the small trees which bloom here at the end of June or early in July. The first flowers of S. japonica are now opening; they promise to be in good condition until after the first of July. The first Lilac flower, that of Syringa hyacinthiflora, opened here this year on the second of May. The season of Lilac flowers therefore extends here during fully two months. Fifty years ago when the Arboretum was begun the people of Massachusetts were able to enjoy the bloom of Lilacs only during a week or ten days. Late Flowering Hawthorns. Different species of Hawthorn have been flowering continuously in the Arboretum since the early days of May and the last of these are now in flower. One of the last, C. tomentosa, the type of the Macracanthae or as it has often been called the Tomentosae group and one of the species known to Linnaeus, is a small tree widely distributed from the valley of the Hudson River westward and southward, with large pointed leaves, small flowers in compact clusters, and small oblong red fruit, translucent when fully ripe. As an ornamental plant this species is much less attractive than many of the other plants in this group. The Washington Thorn, so-called, Crataegus Phaenopyrum, probably still better known as C. cordata, is now in flower. It is a slender tree growing under favorable conditions to a height of from twenty-five to thirty feet. The dull green leaves are nearly triangular in shape, not more than two inches long and an inch and a half wide and in the autumn turn bright scarlet. The flowers are creamy white, smaller than those of most Hawthorns, and are arranged in small compact clusters. Few if any of the American species have less attractive flowers. The fruit, too, is small, barely more than a quarter of an inch in diameter; and the Washington Thorn owes its value as a garden plant to the brilliancy of its autumn foliage and to the beauty of its abundant fruits long persistent on the branches. A century ago Crataegus Phaenopyrum was much used as a hedge plant in the middle states, although there are many other American Hawthorns which are better suited to form handsome and impassable hedges. It has generally been supposed at the Arboretum that C. Phaenopyrum was the last Hawthorn to flower here, but this year C. Chapmanii has flowered a few days later. This is a native of river banks in the southern Appalachian Mountain region and in southern Missouri and is another member of the Macracanthae group. It is a larger and handsomer tree than C. tomentosa with shorter obtuse obovate leaves, flowers with only from five to ten stamens, and globose fruit."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 29","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23771","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270a76b.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 29, 1923 Catalpas are trees of the Bignonia Family and grow naturally only in eastern North America, the West Indies and northern and central China. They all have large simple leaves, and large terminal clusters of two-lipped flowers followed by long slender pods containing many thin seeds furnished at the ends with long tufts of pale hairs. All the Catalpas and one or two of their hybrids are growing in the Arboretum with the exception of the species from the West Indies. The first Catalpa, C. bignonioides, which attracted the attention of botanists and gardeners was sent from South Carolina to England early in the eighteenth century. This for a long time was the only American species cultivated in Europe or the United States, but forty or fifty years ago it became known that another species grew in the valley of the Ohio River and along the Mississippi River as far south as western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas. To this Catalpa the name speciosa has been well given as it is now known to be the largest, the fastest growing, the hardiest and the handsomest of all Catalpa-trees. It is the earliest of all the species, too, to bloom, and it is now covered with flowers which are larger than those of the other species. On the rich alluvial bottom lands of the Mississippi River this tree has often grown to the height of one hundred and twenty feet and formed a trunk four and a half feet in diameter. In New England it will never grow to that size, but although it was introduced into the eastern states less than fifty years ago trees in eastern Massachusetts are already fully forty feet high and have been flowering and ripening their seeds for many years. Catalpas produce soft wood which is remarkably durable when placed in contact with the soil, and in some of the middle western states large plantings of Catalpa speciosa were made forty or fifty years ago to furnish fence posts and railway ties. Unfortunately the friends of Catalpa speciosa put too high a value on the wood of this tree and less is heard of it now than formerly as a timber tree. Of the remarkable durability of the wood when placed in contact with the soil there can be no question; and no tree with perhaps the exception of the Locust (Robinia) which is hardy in the northern states can produce as good fence posts in as short a time, and unlike the Locust it is not attacked by borers which too often ruin that tree, but the wood has proved too soft for railway ties and it is no longer planted to supply them. The other American species, Catalpa bignonioides, probably originated somewhere in the southeastern part of the country, but it has been so spread by escapes from planted trees that it is no longer possible to determine the location of its first home. It was for many years one of the common planted trees in the middle and southern states, and specimens are still occasionally seen in southern New England. Now, however, when one wants to plant a Catalpa-tree in this country he finds in nurseries only C, speciosa. The more southern species is a smaller tree with shorter-pointed leaves; it grows less rapidly and blooms two or three weeks later than the northern species. The flowers are smaller, in shorter and more compact clusters, and the pods are smaller with thicker walls. There is a dwarf form of Catalpa bignonioides (var. nana) which grafted on the stem of one of the tree Catalpas has in recent years been largely planted in this country for the supposed decoration of gardens which are more or less formal in character. It is not known where the dwarf plant originated, and if it has ever flowered the fact is not known at the Arboretum. The fact that it is universally sold in American nurseries under the name of Catalpa Bungei causes confusion for that name properly belongs to a tree from northern China. This Chinese tree has narrow, long-pointed dark green leaves, small yellowish flowers and small pods. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1904, and was perfectly hardy until the winter of 1916-17 when one of the trees was killed to the ground and others were more or less injured. They have now recovered, but this Catalpa has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Compared with the American species it has no value as an ornamental tree. Another Chinese species, Catalpa ovata, was sent many years ago to this country from Japan where it has long been cultivated. It is a small tree with comparatively small, dark green leaves, many-flowered clusters of small, yellowish spotted flowers, and slender pods. This tree, which will grow in regions too cold for the American species, has been somewhat planted in the United States, although as an ornamental tree it does not have much to recommend it. In this country it has proved most valuable as one of the parents of the natural hybrid, Catalpa hybrida, which appeared several years ago in the Teas Nursery at Baysville, Indiana, and is often called C. Teasii and \"Teas' Hybrid Catalpa.\" This is a fast-growing and hardy tree with flowers like those of C. bignonioides, the American parent, although smaller but in larger clusters, and leaves in shape resembling those of C. ovata. The two species introduced by Wilson from central China, Catalpa Duclouxii and C. Fargesii, are still living but give little promise of ever becoming valuable additions to the number of summer-flowering trees which can be successfully used for the decoration of New England gardens. Late Magnolias. All the North American species of Magnolias are hardy and can be easily grown in Massachusetts with the exception of Magnolia pyramidata, a rare and local shrub or small tree of southern Georgia, western Florida and southeastern Alabama, and the evergreen M. grandiflora. The first of the hardy Magnolias, M. Fraseri, opened its large pale yellow flowers as the leaves were unfolding. This was followed by M. acuminata and M. cordata which also flower as the leaves open; the Umbrella Tree, M. tripetala, was in flower early in June. The last of these trees to flower are Magnolia virginiana, better known as M. glauca, and M. macrophylla. Magnolia virginiana. In all North America there is not a more satisfactory shrub or small tree to plant in a garden or one that will give a larger return in beauty and fragrance. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white on the lower surface. The flowers, which are smaller than those of the other American Magnolias, and continue to open here from the middle of June until August, are cup-shaped, creamy white and emit a pungent fragrance which in the evening fills the air for a long distance from the plant. At the north M. virginiana, which has bright green glabrous branchlets, rarely grows thirty feet in height but in the Gulf States the variety australis is a large tree occasionally nearly a hundred feet high with branchlets thickly covered with matted white hairs and leaves which remain bright and green during the winter and fall in spring. In spite of its beauty and value as a garden plant Magnolia virginiana appears to be little known or appreciated by American gardeners of the present generation due perhaps to the fact that it is difficult to find it at least in any quantity in American nurseries. A hybrid of this tree and the Umbrella Tree (M. tripetala), known as M. major or Thompsoniana, has the general appearance of M. virginiana but the leaves are larger and the flowers are larger and whiter but equally fragrant. Magnolia macrophylla is the last of the Magnolias to flower in the Arboretum. A native of the southern States it is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, where it has sometimes grown to a height of from twenty to thirty feet and formed a wide round-topped head of branches spreading at nearly right angles to the trunk. This Magnolia is distinguished by the fact that it has the largest leaves and the largest flowers of any tree growing in any part of the world beyond the tropics. The leaves are silvery white on the lower surface and are from twenty to thirty inches in length and eight or nine inches in width. The expanded flowers are often a foot in diameter. Although perfectly hardy here Magnolia macrophylla is best planted in a position sheltered from the wind which often badly tears the large and delicate leaves. Robinia Hartwigii, one of the shrubby Locusts from the high Appalachian Mountains of North Carolina is now in flower in the collection of these plants on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. It is a tall vigorous shrub with leaves composed usually of nineteen short stalked, oblong-ovate, acute, slightly hairy leaflets, gradually narrowed and rounded at base, bright green above and pale below. The branchlets of this shrub, the leaf stalks, the stem of the flower-clusters and the calyx of the flowers are thickly covered with gland bearing hairs. The flowers are arranged in erect axillary racemes shorter than the leaves, and are interesting from the contrast between the pure white petals and the dull red calyx. This tall shrub differs chiefly from the arborescent R. viscosa in habit and in the less viscid secretions from the glands which are common to the two plants; and it is not improbable that when better known, they may prove to be varieties of one species. Whatever its specific rank, R. Hartwigii is an attractive and useful addition to the hardy shrubs which flower here at the end of June. Cornus Amomum, the Silky Cornel, is just beginning to open its flower-buds. In cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend freely and spread over the ground. When crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty and value. To be seen at its best this Cornel should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. It is well suited for the front of groups of trees and shrubs, and there is no better shrub to plant by the margins of ponds and streams where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. Its purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the value of this native shrub. In the Cornel Group, at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, there is a good specimen of this plant, and its value for planting near water can be seen on the borders of the small pond in the rear of the Cornel Group. Cornus alternifolia is also in flower. It is a tree growing sometimes to the height of thirty feet with long branches spreading at right angles from the stem, from which rise lateral branchlets bearing the terminal flower clusters. The distinctive character of this Cornus is found in the alternate leaves, the leaves of the other American species being opposite. The handsome blue or rarely yellow fruit ripens in October. Cornus alternifolia has always proved difficult to transplant and for a long time was not well represented in the Arboretum, but there are now several healthy plants growing on the slope at the right hand side of the Roslindale entrance. There is also a plant which has grown spontaneously at the eastern base of the hill on which the Juniper collection is established. The Cornus from eastern Asia, Cornus controversa, is another species with alternate leaves and with spreading branches. It is a larger and handsomer tree than its American relative with larger flower-clusters. In western China it sometimes grows to the height of sixty feet and now promises to grow to a large size here and to become one of the important trees introduced by the Arboretum into the United States. This Cornel flowers here at the end of May or early in June."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 6","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23767","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2608527.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 6. 1923 Linden-trees. The earliest of these trees are already blooming, and now for several weeks their fragrant flowers, frequented by swarms of bees, will perfume the air. The studies of Linden-trees at the Arboretum have shown that the European species grow more rapidly and give every promise of being better trees in this climate than the American and Asiatic species. This is unusual, for of other European trees only the Beech and White Willow grow better here than their American relatives, and except Lindens all eastern Asiatic trees are more at home in eastern North America than the trees of Europe. The five European species, Tilia platyphyllos, T. cordata, T. vulgaris, T. tomentosa, and T. petiolaris, and several varieties of the first are growing here in a satisfactory manner. The first of these trees is easily distinguished by the hairs which cover the lower surface of the yellow-green leaves and the young branches. This tree is the first of the European species to flower. It has long been cultivated in the eastern states; indeed it appears to be the common European Linden sold by American nurserymen, although as an ornamental tree it is the least desirable of the European Lindens. Tilia cordata, distinguished by its small cordate leaves pale and glaucous on the lower surface, is the last of the Lindens to flower. It is a beautiful tree which in Europe grows to a large size, but is not very often seen in this country, and if there are large specimens here they have escaped the attention of the Arboretum. It is an interesting fact that the Linden-tree which has been growing in eastern Massachusetts long enough to show its value in this climate is generally believed to be a hybrid between Tilia platyphyllos and T. cordata, which is variously known as T. vulgaris, T. europaea and T. intermedia. The leaves, which are intermediate in size between those of its supposed parents, are dull green on the upper surface, pale on the lower surface and destitute of hairs with the exception of those which form the clusters in the axils of the veins. The largest and handsomest Linden-trees in the neighborhood of Boston are this hybrid and larger and handsomer specimens can sometimes be seen in the Middle States. The shapely and healthy young trees which have been planted to shade the Louis Pasteur Avenue in Boston are good specimens of this tree and show what city street-trees should be. The two Lindens of eastern Europe, T. tomentosa and T. petiolaris, are distinct and handsome trees with leaves silver white on the lower surface, which can be easily and successfully grown in southern New England. T. tomentosa, which is common in the forests of Hungary, in this country forms a broad, compact, round-topped head with erect branches and large leaves erect on short stalks. T. petiolaris is a more beautiful tree with pendulous branches which form a narrow head, and with leaves drooping on long slender stems. It has proved to be one of the handsomest exotic trees which can be planted in the eastern states. It is too soon to speak with authority on the value of the Asiatic Lindens. Only T. japonica has been long enough in this country to give any real indication of its value. It is a graceful and handsome little tree which is the first of the Lindens in the Arboretum collection to flower, but as yet shows no indication of growing to the great size this tree attains in Japan. Some of the most valuable of the Lindens are hybrids. Attention has already been called in this Bulletin to Tilia vulgaris. The Crimean Tilia euchlora is believed to be the natural hybrid between T. caucasica and T. cordata. One of the handsomest Linden-trees in the Arboretum, T. spectabilis, is supposed to be a hybrid of T. glabra and T. petiolaris. It is a fast-growing tree with leaves as large or larger than those of T. glabra but silvery white below like those of its other parent. A variety of this hybrid called \"Moltke\" originated many years ago in a German nursery. It is a tree of denser habit and darker leaves than T. spectabilis and grows well in the Arboretum. In North America fifteen species and a few varieties of Linden-trees are now recognized; that is more than in all the rest of the world. One of the northern species, Tilia glabra or americana as it is still often called, is the American species which has been most often cultivated; it is a splendid tree at the north and although usually much smaller reaches occasionally the height of 120 feet with a trunk from three to four feet in diameter. This tree is easily distinguished by the lustrous under surface of the leaves which are destitute of hairs with the exception of those which form on the lower surface the conspicuous rusty brown axillary tufts. This tree has been much planted in Canada and the northern states as a park and street tree; it is more satisfactory northward for in southern New England and the Middle States the leaves especially on street trees are often disfigured by red spiders which however can be kept in check by dry sulphur spray. The second northern species, Tilia neglecta, although it was described many years ago in Europe from cultivated trees was not recognized by American botanists and tree lovers until a comparatively short time ago. This tree is readily distinguished from Tilia glabra by the short, firmly attached grey hairs which cover the under surface of the leaves during the season. This is a smaller tree than Tilia glabra rarely growing to the height of 75 feet. In Canada it has been found as yet only in the neighborhood of Montreal; it ranges to the coast of southern New England and New York, through the Middle States and along the Appalachian Mountains to those of North Carolina and Tennessee and from western New York to northern Wisconsin. This tree is now well established in the Arboretum where it has grown rapidly and is now well covered with flowers which open a week or ten days before those of T. glabra. The leaves of this tree have not been attacked here by red spiders. Two other American Lindens are established in the Arboretum, Tilia heterophylla var. Michauxii and T. monticola. The lower surface of the leaves of these trees is covered during the season with silvery white felt. The handsomer of these trees, Tilia monticola, grows naturally only on the Appalachian Mountains at altitudes between 2000 and 3000 feet and from southwestern Virginia to eastern Tennessee and western North Carolina. This Linden is always a conspicuous object for the leaves which are very oblique at the base droop on long slender stalks and are oblong and larger than those of the other American Lindens. This promises to be an excellent tree for more general cultivation in northern parks and gardens. The other hardy species, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, has grown more slowly in the Arboretum than T. monticola and is less distinct and beautiful. These two species and T. neglecta are growing side by side and close to the grass path in the rear of the Linden collection and can be easily compared. The Linden collection now contains some thirty species and hybrids and forms one of the most satisfactory and interesting groups of trees in the Arboretum. It is arranged in the meadow on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. The last Azaleas. As the yellow or flame colored flowers of Rhododendron (Azalea) calendalaceum wither those of another Appalachian species R. (Azalea) arborescens begin to open. The flowers are white with bright red stamens and style and deliciously fragrant and do not open until after the leaves have grown nearly to their full size. The home of this plant is on the Appalachian Mountains on which it is found from western Pennsylvania to northern Georgia, in the neighborhood of streams in the rich soil of sheltered valleys growing to the height of from fifteen to twenty feet; and on the Carolina Mountains is often not more than three or four feet tall forming at altitudes of about 5,000 feet above the sea, great thickets often many acres in extent. Recent studies of this plant show that its value as a garden plant is not generally understood and appreciated. The flowers vary to an unusual degree in size and in the length and diameter of the corolla-tube and although the corolla is usually pure white a form is now known in which the corolla is suffused with rose; in another it is more or less striped with rose; in another form the corolla is tinged more or less deeply with yellow, and in another it is marked by a yellow blotch. These forms are all worth places in a collection of Azaleas, and it is possible that if seedlings were raised from them other and perhaps more distinct forms might occur among them. The last of the Azaleas, Rhododendron viscosum, begins to open its flowers a few days later than those of R. arborescens. They are white in color and more fragrant than those of other Azaleas and smaller than those of R. arborescens with a long slender corolla-tube. There is also a form on which the flowers are deeply tinged with rose-color. The Clammy Azalea or Honeysuckle as this Rhododendron is called in the country is an inhabitant of swamps and is common in the Cape Cod region and southeast. In cultivation this shrub grows as freely and flowers as abundantly on dry hillsides as it does in its native swamps and masses of it on the low side of Azalea Path are now covered with flowers. The Fernleaved Beech-Tree. At the meeting last month in Newport, Rhode Island, of delegates and members of the Garden Clubs of America, the fine specimen of the Fernleaved Beech-tree which stands in the grounds attached to the Redwood Library attracted interest and curiosity among the members judging by the questions which have come to the Arboretum about it in the last few days. The Redwood Library tree is not a Red-wood tree (Sequoia sempervirens) as many persons living in Newport once believed it to be, but a form of the European Beech-tree, to which the names heterophylla, asplenifolia, incisa, lac2niata, and salicifolia have been given. The leaves of this variety assume different shapes even on the same tree, and are sometimes long, narrow and nearly entire, and sometimes divided nearly to the midrib with narrow lobes. The origin of this tree which has been cultivated in Europe certainly since the beginning of the 18th century is not known. It was probably first found growing naturally in the woods as the original Purple Beech was found, but where it was first seen and the names of the men who found and propagated it are not recorded. Neither is it known at the Arboretum who planted the tree in front of the Redwood Library. Judging by its size this tree must be at least a hundred years old, and so far as is known here it is the largest specimen in the United States. There are three shapely specimens of the Fernleaved Beech-tree in this Arboretum which were planted in 1885 and 1886 and are growing rapidly. Ehretia accuminata a member of the Burrage Family is flowering on Hickory Path near Centre Street for the first time in the Arboretum. This interesting tree is a native of southern Japan, southern and central China and southward, and sometimes grows to a height of sixty feet. The leaves are alternate, light yellow green, pointed at the ends, from 6-8 inches long and from 2-2~ inches wide and are somewhat pendant and incurved on their long petioles. The minute white flowers are borne in axillary panicles shorter than the leaves, and form a compound terminal inflorescence from 12-18 inches in length. The flowers which have a strong rather disagreeable odor are followed by drupelike fruits at first orange but becoming black at maturity. The plants of Ehretia accuminata growing in the Arboretum were raised from seed collected by Wilson in western Hupeh and sown here in 1908. The tree now in flower is about 12 feet high. Ehretia accuminata has not always proved entirely hardy in the Arboretum and it is not probable that it will ever grow to a large size here."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 19","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23766","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd2608127.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 19, 1923 Summer Flowering Trees. After the flowers of the Linden trees have mostly passed those of a few other trees add to the interest of the Arboretum in the last weeks of July and in August. Koelreuteria paniculata is the first of these summer-flowering trees to bloom. It is a round-topped tree from 30 to 40 feet high with long compound dark green leaves and great erect clusters of golden yellow flowers which are followed by bladder-like pale fruits. This tree, which . is a native of northern China and an old inhabitant of American gardens, is quite hardy in eastern Massachusetts, but has been more often planted in the Middle States than in New England. In American trade catalogues it usually appears as \"the Japanese Lacquer tree\" although it is not a Japanese tree and does not yield lacquer or anything else but beauty. The trees in the Arboretum are on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. There is a handsome specimen near the northwest corner of the Public Garden in Boston. Maackias are small summer flowering trees of the Pea-family with short erect spikes of small white flowers. The flowers of the best known of these trees, M. amurensis, from eastern Siberia have already faded but the variety Buergeri from northern Japan differing in the presence of a coat of soft down on the lower surface of the leaves, flowers a week or ten days later than the Siberian tree and is now in bloom. What promises to be a handsomer tree here than either of these is the still little known species from western China, M. chinensis, which first flowered in the Arboretum five years ago when it was called M. hupehensis; this year it will be covered with flowers toward the end of the month. A Maackia from Korea, M. Faurei, is in the collection but has not flowered here. Sophora japonica, which is growing near the Maackias on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, is covered with flower-buds which will open in the course of the next few weeks. This is a Chinese tree in spite of its name which has been cultivated in Japan for more than a thousand years, but which as it first reached Europe from Japan was supposed to be a native of that country and so received a misleading name. The bark of the young branches and the leaves are dark green and the small white pea-shaped flowers which open here in August are produced in great numbers in narrow, erect terminal clusters. This Sophora has a trunk covered with rough pale bark and the old trees in the streets and squares of Peking where it has been much planted look from a distance like great Oak-trees. There are in the Arboretum collection in addition to the type the form with long pendant branches (var. pendula) a favorite, although it rarely if ever flowers, with those who fancy trees of abnormal growth. There are also in the collection young specimens of the tree with erect branches (var. pyramidalis) and of the form (var. rosea) on which the flowers are slightly tinged with rose color. There is a handsome tree of Sophora japonica near the northwest corner of the Boston Public Garden, and a much larger one in Roslyn, Long Island. The Aralia Family furnishes the Arboretum with three summer flowering trees, Acanthopanax ricinifolium, Aralia spinosa, and Aralia chinensis. The Acanthopanax is a tree which is common in the forests of northern Japan and Korea where it is often seventy or eighty feet high with a massive trunk and great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with many stout prickles. The leaves hang down on long stalks and are nearly circular, five- or seven-lobed and often fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter. The small white flowers are produced in compact, long-stalked clusters which form a flat compound terminal panicle from twelve to eighteen inches across and are followed late in autumn by shining black fruits which do not fall until after the beginning of winter. This tree is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for thirty years and where it has flowered and ripened its seeds now for several seasons. It is one of the most interesting trees in the collection and, because it is so unlike other trees of the northern hemisphere, it is often said to resemble a tree of the tropics. Aralia spinosa, the so-called Hercules' Club of the southern states where it is a common inhabitant of the borders of woods and the banks of streams, is a tree often thirty feet high with a tall trunk and wide-spreading branches covered with stout orange-colored prickles. The leaves, which are borne at the ends of the branches, are long-stalked, twice pinnate, and from three to four feet long and two and one-half feet wide. The small white flowers are arranged in compound clusters which rise singly or two or three together above the leaves and are three or four feet long. The fruit is black, rather less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, and ripens in early autumn. It is now well established on the slope at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurel plantation and is spreading rapidly there over a considerable area by shoots from underground stems. The Asiatic tree Aralia resembles in general appearance the American Hercules' Club, but is distinct from that tree in the absence of stalks to the leaflets. There are a number of geographical forms of this tree; the one which is most commonly cultivated in this country is a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandshurica) which is sometimes found in commercial nurseries under the name of Dimorphanthus mandshuricus. The Japanese form (var. glabrescens) is chiefly distinguished from it by the pale color of the under surface of the leaflets; it is less hardy than the Manchurian form and is not often seen in this country. Oxydendrum arboreum, or as it is often called the Sorrel-tree or the Sour Wood, is with the exception of the Hercules' Club the only North American tree hardy in the Arboretum which does not begin to flower before the middle of July. It is a native of the southern Appalachian mountain forests and the only tree of the Heath Family which can be grown in this climate, with the exception of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and the Rose Bay (Rhododendron maximum) which are shrubs at the north and only exceptionally trees in a few favored valleys of the southern mountains. The Sorrel-tree in its native forests grows fifty or sixty feet high, but at the north as it begins to flower abundantly when only a few feet tall, it is not probable that in this climate it will ever attain a considerable size. It is well worth growing, for its bright green shining leaves which have a pleasant acidulous flavor and in autumn turn bright scarlet, for its white Andromeda-like flowers erect on the branches of spreading or slightly drooping terminal clusters, and for its pale fruits which in the autumn are conspicuous among the brilliant leaves. There is a group of these plants among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill which will flower at the end of July or early in August. Stewartia pseudo-camellia is another summer flowering tree. It was one of the early plants which come direct to the United States from Japan, and before 1870 was distributed from the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island. It produces in August its pure white, cup-shaped flowers, which resemble those of a single Camellia; the autumn color of the leaves is dark bronze purple, distinct from that of any other plant in the Arboretum and handsome and interesting; the smooth pale gray bark which separates in large pale plates adds, too, to the interest of this tree. There are two specimens on the upper side of Azalea Path. Evodias are handsome little trees which also flower here after midsummer. They belong to the Rue family, and are widely distributed in eastern Asia and occur also in Australia and Madagascar. The species have pinnate leaves, white or pinkish unisexual flowers in small clusters terminal on the shoots of the year, and dry, capsular fruit. Like the Phellodendrons, to which Evodia is related, they are protected from the attacks of insects by the pungent aromatic oil with which the leaves abound. Evodia has been growing in the Arboretum since 1905 when Professor Jack brought the seeds of E. Daniellii from Korea. This handsome tree has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum. E. Henryi, a common inhabitant of western Hupeh where Wilson found it growing to a larger size than the other Chinese species of this genus, is also established and flowers in the Arboretum. Summer Flowering Shrubs. Many handsome shrubs which can be grown successfully in this climate do not bloom till after midsummer. There are few Americans who have travelled in Scotland in summer who have not been impressed by the beauty of the Heather (Calluna vulgaris) or have not felt the desire to introduce it to their homes. The Heather, however, has remained a comparatively rare plant here although it is hardy and easy to grow in nearly all parts of the northern states and eastern Canada where the soil is not impregnated with lime. In one or two places in northern Massachusetts and in Nova Scotia it has become completely naturalized, and on one New England estate where it was planted only a few years ago it is spreading rapidly over large areas. Heather should be planted in well drained sandy soil in situations exposed to the sun, and the plants look better and flower better if the stems are cut down close to the ground in early spring. This prevents a straggling growth and insures a better bloom. There are a number of handsome and interesting varieties of the Heather in the Arboretum collection. Some of the best of these are the variety alba with white flowers; the variety alba minor, a plant of dwarfer habit than the last; var. rubra, a dwarf compact variety with crimson flowers, and one of the earliest to flower and one of the handsomest of the set; var. tomentosa, a compact plant with gray-green foliage and red flowers; var. alba Serlei, a tall growing form with white flowers; vars. alba tenella and alba rigida with white flowers; var. Alportii, a tall growing form with crimson flowers; and var. hypnoides, a very compact, small-leaved plant producing only sparingly its small purple flowers. These plants can be seen in the Shrub Collection; quantities of Heather have also been planted on the side of the Valley Road. Among other shrubs still to flower in the Arboretum are Aesculus parviflora, from the southeastern United States, and the North American and Japanese Clethras or Spice-bushes. North American and Japanese Hydrangeas, many Spiraeas, Hypericums, Callicarpas, Lespedezas with their abundant purple flowers, and the Chinese Buddleias will later give interest to the Shrub Collection, in which the silver leaved Lead plant (Amorpha canescens) of the western plains and prairies has not yet opened its showy blue-purple flowers. Perhaps the most generally planted shrub in the United States among those which bloom in summer is the form of the Japanese Hydrangea paniculata (var. grandiflora), in which the whole inflorescence is composed of sterile white ray flowers which surround the inflorescence of the normal form of many other Hydrangeas. This abnormal inflorescence is oblong, bluntly-pointed, and often a foot or more in length and so heavy that the slender stems are often not able to support it. The flowers, which are white when they open, turn to a rather dirty red color; and it is not easy to find an uglier garden shrub. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 11","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23780","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd270896a.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 11, 1923 The Arboretum is suffering from the severe drought of the last two months. September is reported to have been the driest in the last fifty-one years, and, in spite of the exceptionally heavy snowfall of the winter, the precipitation for the year is now some eight inches below the average. The result of this has been that the leaves which take on their autumn colors usually in early October have dried up and are already falling from many plants. The Autumn Color of Leaves. It does not appear to be generally understood that the leaves on different individuals of the same species do not assume the same shades of color, and that there is considerable variation on different individuals in the time of change. This is well illustrated by the collection of Red Maples (Acer rubrum) in the Arboretum. From many of the plants the leaves have changed color and have already fallen; from others probably one-third of the leaves have fallen and on others the leaves are as fresh and green as they were in July, all the plants growing practically under the same conditions. The Red Maple tree across the drive and opposite the entrance to the Administration Building has been during the past week the most brilliant object in the Arboretum. Landscape gardeners who may wish to use trees and shrubs for autumn effects can find useful suggestions in this tree, for it has been raised from a graft taken from a tree with leaves of exceptionally brilliant autumn color. This exceptional color has been preserved, and indicates that it is possible to multiply by grafting plants with leaves of unusually brilliant autumn color just as it is possible to propagate trees with leaves abnormally marked with yellow or otherwise abnormal, or with double or other unusual flowers, or with improved fruits. Little has yet been done anywhere to propagate trees with exceptionally brilliant autumn foliage, but the field is an interesting and an important one for the makers of autumn gardens. That the making of such gardens will sooner or later receive attention in this country there can be little doubt, for the pleasantest months of the year in eastern North America are the autumn months, and in no other part of the world is the autumn foliage so brilliant and varied, and nowhere else are the fruits of trees and shrubs more abundant, varied and interesting. The \"Flowering\" Dogwoods. Among the smaller trees with scarlet or crimson autumn foliage none is more beautiful now than the so-called Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) which is unusually brilliant this year in its shades of crimson, scarlet and green. Its autumn beauty is increased by the contrast of the color on the upper and lower surfaces of the leaves for only the upper surface changes color, the lower surface retaining the pale sometimes nearly white color of the summer. For regions with a winter climate as severe as that of eastern Massachusetts the eastern Asiatic relative (Cornus kousa) of the native Flowering Dogwood is a more reliable plant. It is a smaller tree than the eastern American plant; the leaves turn as brilliantly in the autumn; the flower-buds are not killed or injured by the severest cold of our winters, and open from two to three weeks later, and the floral bracts which surround the clusters of small flowers and are the conspicuous feature of the inflorescence are narrower, further apart and pointed, not broad and rounded, at the apex. The fruit is even handsomer than that of the American plant for the individual fruits are united into a globose scarlet head which is raised on a long slender erect stem and are not, like those of the American plant, in clusters of separate fruits. The form discovered and introduced by Wilson from western China promises to be even a better plant in this climate than the Japanese form, for it appears to be equally hardy, and the floral bracts are larger and overlap below the middle, forming a cup like those of the American species. This plant is still rare, but as it produces good crops of seeds in the Arboretum it is to be hoped that it will soon be within the reach of lovers of handsome hardy trees. The Sassafras. There is now no more beautiful tree on the margins of New England woods and by New England roadsides than the Sassafras, as the leaves have turned or are turning orange or yellow more or less tinged with red. The autumn colors of several trees are more brilliant but none of them equal the Sassafras in the warmth and delicacy of their autumn dress. The Sassafras is a handsome tree at other seasons of the year. In winter it is conspicuous by its deeply furrowed, dark cinnamon-gray bark and slender light green branchlets; in early spring before the leaves appear it is covered with innumerable clusters of small bright yellow flowers which make it at that season a conspicuous and delightful object. The leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous above, paler below, and vary remarkably in shape as they are sometimes deeply three-lobed at the apex and sometimes entire without a trace of lobes. The fruit is a bright blue berry surrounded at the base by the much enlarged and thickened scarlet calyx of the flower and is raised on a long bright red stalk. No other northern tree produces such brilliantly colored fruits. Unfortunately there is little time to enjoy it for the birds eagerly seek it as it ripens. The living wood of the Sassafras is not attacked by borers and the leaves are not destroyed and are rarely disfigured by insects. The thick spongy roots of the Sassafras produce suckers freely and these with a little care can be safely transplanted. How many persons now plant the Sassafras and in what American nursery can it be found? It was, however, one of the first North American trees carried to Europe as it was established in England some time before the middle of the seventeenth century. Until 1879 when another species, S. tzumu, was discovered in central China, the American tree was believed to be the only Sassafras. The Chinese tree has been introduced into the Arboretum but unfortunately it has not proved hardy here. Buckeyes, as the American Horsechestnuts (Aesculus) and their numerous hybrids are usually called, are beautiful flowering trees and shrubs with yellow, scarlet or red and yellow flowers, but it is not perhaps generally realized that the color of their foliage in autumn often makes them as beautiful at this season of the year as they are when in flower. The autumn foliage is usually orange color but often orange and red, and rarely scarlet. the leaves of some of these plants in the Arboretum have already turned color and fallen; those of others are just beginning to turn from green to yellow, and others are still green. The first of these plants to assume autumn colors this year was the form of the Ohio Buckeye with leaves usually composed of seven leaflets (Aesculus glabra var. Buckleyi). From the group of trees of this variety the leaves had nearly all fallen two weeks ago. This variety grows chiefly in northern Missouri. On the variety of this tree from southern Missouri and Arkansas, distinguished chiefly by its pale smooth bark (Aesculus glabra var. leucodermis), only a few of the leaves are beginning to change from green to yellow. The most remarkable Buckeye, however, in the Arboretum this year has been one of the two plants of Aesculus glabra growing on the left hand side of the South Street entrance. These are the oldest Buckeyes in the Arboretum and were raised here from seeds collected in 1873 at Mt. Victory, Ohio. Of these two trees every leaf on the one nearest the wall was about the middle of September bright clear scarlet; and it is doubtful if any plant in the Arboretum has ever made a more brilliant autumn display. The leaves on the companion plant turned a few days later green and red. The leaves of self sown seedlings of these trees were on the first of October green or green beginning to change to yellow. The leaves of another Buckeye, Aesculus arguta, the little shrub from Oklahoma and Texas, turn early bright orange color and have already nearly all fallen. This handsome plant is related to the Ohio Buckeye in its prickly fruit but differs from it in its leaves with nine narrower longer-pointed leaflets, more elongated flower-clusters and dwarf habit. The leaves of the yellow-flowered tree Buckeye of the Appalachian Mountain slopes, Aesculus octandra and its variety vestita, turn yellow as do those of the summer flowering shrub Aesculus parviflora, the best known of all the Buckeyes in American gardens. Fruits. On the whole it is not a good year for fruits in the Arboretum. Many Asiatic Crabapples are without fruit, and when there is fruit on these plants the crop is a small one. Many Viburnums, too, are without fruit. Many of the Barberries and Cotoneasters, however, are now covered with ripe or ripening fruits, and on the Hawthorns (Crataegus), more plants are covered with fruit than in any year since the collection of several hundred species was established. Ilex geniculata. This rare Japanese Holly is as usual an object of beauty and interest in the Arboretum at this season of the year. It is a rather narrow shrub from three to four feet high, with small dark green leaves, and the small unisexual yellowish green flowers peculiar to most Hollies, and its beauty is found only in the small bright scarlet lustrous fruits which hang gracefully on their slender stems from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in length. This plant, which seems to be still almost entirely unknown in American and European gardens, was sent in 1904 from the Botanic Garden in Tokyo, and the following year Mr. J. G. Jack brought seeds home from Japan: seeds, too, were later collected by Mr. Wilson in Japan. It has been producing fruit here during the last seventeen years. It is a shrub well worth a place in any garden, and as the fruit continues to hang on the branches late into the winter without much change of color this will prove more valuable in winter bouquets and the winter decoration of homes than the better known Japanese Ilex serrata, quantities of the fruit-covered branches of which are sold in the streets of Japanese cities every autumn. This is a taller and much more common shrub than Ilex geniculata, and has been established for many years in the Arboretum where the male and female plants are on the upper side of Hickory Path near Centre Street. These red-fruited shrubby Hollies are commonly represented in the flora of eastern North America by two species, Ilex verticillata, the so-called Black Alder, and the less common but handsomer Ilex laevigata. These are large and shapely, fast-growing, hardy shrubs with larger but rather less lustrous fruit than the Japanese species. Of the two American species Ilex laevigata flowers and ripens its fruit the earlier; the flowers of the male plant are raised on long stalks; the fruit is rather larger and the leaves are of a darker green. Ilex Laev2gata is not a common plant in cultivation. The fruit-covered branches of the two species are well suited for the winter decoration of rooms, and those of Ilex verticillata are now occasionally seen in the shops of city florists. Evonymus planipes is one of the shrubs which should be mentioned at least once every year in these Bulletins until it becomes common in American gardens. It is a native of northern Japan, with large dark green leaves, and large crimson fruits hanging gracefully on long slender stems and more showy and beautiful than those of any other Burning Bush which has ever produced fruit in this Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 23","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23781","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd24ea36c.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 23, 1923 Autumn Colors in the Arboretum. In spite of the dry summer and autumn it is doubtful if the leaves of the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum have ever assumed more brilliant colors than they have during the past two weeks; and it is doubtful, too, if there are anywhere two hundred and fifty acres which can show such a variety of autumn colors or on which the season of such colors is so long, for in the Arboretum are growing the trees and shrubs of the northern hemisphere, and the leaves of those from northeastern Asia usually change color sometime later than those of related North American plants. No pen can describe the beauty of the Arboretum in these October days, but in this number of the Bulletin a few of the plants which help to make this picture will be mentioned. Quercus conferta, sometimes called Q. pannonica and the Hungarian Oak, is unusual among Oaks in the clear canary yellow color of its ripening leaves. This is the handsomest of the European Oaks which has been tried in the Arboretum in which it has grown rapidly and promises to become a large and valuable tree, distinct in its large, thick, lustrous, deeply lobed leaves. It is a common forest tree on low mountain slopes and hills in southeastern Europe where it is widely distributed and grows sometimes to a height of a hundred feet and forms a trunk from three to four feet in diameter. The Hungarian Oak is unfortunately still a rare tree in the United States, and the best specimen known to the Arboretum in the country is in the Morris Collection at Chestnut Hill, Pennsylvania. This tree has produced acorns for several years and plants have been raised from them here. Asiatic Oaks. The autumn colors of the leaves of some of the Asiatic Oaks in the Arboretum are interesting. Those of the Japanese Quercus serrata are now yellow but less clear in shade than those of Q. conferta, and many of them are still partly green. Nearly all the leaves of the related Quercus variabilis which grows in Japan and northern China are still green and later will turn yellow. Yellow and green are now the colors of the leaves of Quercus dentata, another tree which grows in Japan and China and remarkable in its large leaves and winter- buds. The leaves of Quercus glandulifera, raised from acorns gathered in northern Japan, are now deep bronze color, while those on the trees of this species from western China are still green. Green, too, are the leaves of Quercus mongolica, its Japanese variety grosseserrata, and the Corean Q. aliena. The leaves of American Oaks are beginning to change color and before the end of another week should be the principal feature in the autumn picture. Liquidambar styraciflua, or the Sweet Gum, is one of the brilliant objects of the autumn when its star-shaped fragrant leaves turn to brilliant shades of scarlet. The Sweet Gum is a southern tree, finding the northern limits of its range in southern Connecticut, but it grows fairly well in Massachusetts, although it will probably never attain the size here it does under more favorable conditions. Very abundant in the maritime region of the south Atlantic and Gulf States, and in the valley of the lower Mississippi River, it has become in recent years important for its wood used in the interior finish of houses and for furniture. Oxydendron arboreum, the so-called Sorrel-tree or Sour Wood, is another southern tree conspicuous in the autumn from the bright scarlet color its leaves take on at this season of the year, making a handsome setting for the clusters of pale capsular fruits following the white Heath-like flowers which open in August. Viburnum prunifolium, or as it is often called the Black Haw, is perhaps the handsomest of the small trees or large shrubs in the Arboretum with scarlet leaves. A common plant on hillsides in the middle states, the Black Haw, although not a native to Massachusetts, is perfectly hardy here and well deserves general cultivation, for it is an object of beauty and interest from early spring until the beginning of winter; the leaves are thick to coriaceous, dark green and lustrous above, pale below; the flowers are white in flat clusters up to four inches in diameter, and these are followed by oval or obovoid fruit from one-half to two-thirds of an inch long, pink at first, when fully grown becoming dark blue, and covered with a glaucous bloom when ripe, and persistent on the branches until winter. The southern relative of this plant with which it has been long confused, Viburnum rufidulum, is a larger and a handsomer tree with thicker and more lustrous leaves which turn deep purple in the autumn. This tree, which is the largest and perhaps the handsomest of the American Viburnums, is easily recognized by the dark rusty brown felt which covers the winter-buds, and is found on the stalks of the leaves, especially on those which appear early in the season. This Viburnum grows in the Arboretum where it flowers and ripens its fruit, but it is doubtful if it ever becomes more than a medium-sized shrub here. Cotinus americanus is a relative of the European and Asiatic Smoke-tree (Cotinus coggygria), an old inhabitant of American gardens where it is much better known than the American plant. The \"smoke\" of the Old World plant, which is its chief beauty, is composed of the large clusters of the hairy stems of abortive flowers, differing in color from yellow-green to red. The \"smoke\" of the American plant is much less conspicuous, and its value as a garden plant consists in the brilliant scarlet and orange tones of its leaves in autumn. The American Cotinus is quite hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing since 1882. For many years this tree or shrub was known only in what is now eastern Oklahoma; later it was found always in comparatively small isolated stations in southern Missouri, western Arkansas, northern Alabama, and on the banks of the Ohio River in Davies County, Ohio. Its real home, however, is in western Texas where it spreads over thousands of acres of mountain canons and high hillsides, growing there usually as a low shrub. Some Shrubs of the Heath Family. Of all the shrubs in the Arboretum not one surpasses or perhaps equals the High Bush Blueberry ( Vaccinium corymbosum) in the splendor of the crimson of its leaves in autumn. It is handsome, too, in early spring, when its white, bell-shaped flowers open, and in August and September when the blue-black fruit covers the branches. A native of swamps, the High Bush Blueberry grows equally well here in dry gravelly soil, and the best plants in the Arboretum are on Bussey Hill near the entrance to Azalea Path from opposite the Overlook. The autumn color of the leaves of the other northern Blueberries and Huckleberries (Gaylussacia) is as brilliant as that of the High Bush Blueberry and some of these smaller plants, especially Vaccinium pennsylvanicum, the dwarfest of them, are invaluable for covering dry ground under Oaks and other hardwood trees. The white flowers are attractive; the bluish black berries, which are the earliest blueberries to ripen, have a fair flavor, and during a month or more in autumn the plants form broad masses of scarlet only a few inches high and more brilliant in color than that of the flowers of the Heather on the highlands of Scotland. Every encouragement, with excellent results, has been given in the Arboretum to the spread of these dwarf Blueberries. Rhododendrons in autumn. The leaves of some of the American species with deciduous leaves (Azalea) are nearly as brilliant in autumn as those of the Blueberries, and their autumn colors greatly add to the value of these plants for the decoration of parks and gardens. For autumn beauty the yellow or flame-colored R. calendulaceum is the most conspicuous this year. But R. dahuricum from Siberia, one of the true Rhododendrons with deciduous leaves, growing by Azalea Path, is now in its autumn dress one of the conspicuous plants of the Arboretum and far more attractive than it was in early spring when its small rose-colored flowers were open. Enkianthus. The Japanese species of this Asiatic genus of the Heath Family all grow well in the Arboretum and the group of these plants on the lower side of Azalea Path furnish pleasure to many persons in spring when they are covered with bell-shaped flowers, and in late October when the leaves are of the brightest scarlet. The handsomest of these plants in the autumn, Enkianthus perulatus, is a compact round-headed shrub with white flowers. This is a popular plant in Japan and can be seen in many Japanese gardens cut into a round ball. It has never produced seeds in the Arboretum and has remained exceedingly rare in this country. More common is E. campanulatus which is sometimes in Japan a tree twenty-five or thirty feet high and which in the Arboretum has grown from seed in thirty years into a narrow shrub eight or ten feet tall. The yellow flowers tinged with red, or in one variety pure white, hanging gracefully in long racemes, are attractive. The plants produce quantities of seeds every year, and there is no reason why this beautiful shrub should not become a common garden plant in those parts of America where the soil is free of lime. Dwarf Hawthorns. Many of these plants which were entirely overlooked by botanists until toward the end of the last century prove to be worth more general attention than gardeners have learned to give them. Some eighty species of these dwarfs have been distinguished. They are most abundant in Pennsylvania, New York, Ohio and Michigan, occurring as far north as Massachusetts and southward to Alabama. In the great Crataegus region west of the Mississippi River, in southern Missouri, Arkansas and eastern Oklahoma they are comparatively rare. Nearly all the species have large and conspicuous flowers in few-flowered clusters and handsome red or yellow fruit. Many of the dwarf plants are now well established in the Arboretum, and flowers and fruits are produced freely by several of them. Some of these plants are worth cultivating for the beauty of their autumn foliage which is not surpassed by that of any of the larger growing American Hawthorns. The Arboretum group of these dwarf plants at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, on the lower side of the road, is just now worth a visit. Many of the plants are covered with fruit and distinct and variously colored foliage. Yellow leaves. The autumn picture owes much to the different shades of yellow to which the leaves of many plants turn in the autumn. Yellow leaves, especially those of many Maples, Birches, several Elms, Hickories and Poplars, however, ripen and often fall before the foliage of Oaks and many other trees and shrubs assume the red color of their autumn foliage. The yellow leaves of the Tulip-tree, the Japanese Cercidiphyllum, the Virgilia (Cladastris lutea), the Kentucky Coffee-tree (Gymnocladus dioicus) are conspicuous at this time. Conspicuous, too, now with their yellow leaves are the American Witch Hazels, Hammamelis virginiana, already in flower, and the winter-blooming H. vernalis with autumn leaves probably more beautiful in the delicate yellow tints of its fading leaves than any other plant in the Arboretum with yellow autumn foliage."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"December 1","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23764","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd260b726.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"COMPLIMENTARY NEW SERIES VOL. IX NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. DECEMBER 1, 1923 Conifers. The Arboretum collection of these plants has the reputation of being the largest and most complete in the United States, and no effort has been spared during the last fifty years to make it so. It shows perhaps fairly, well which of these plants can be grown with more or less success in New England, but compared with what such a collection might be made in a climate really suited to these plants the Arboretum conifers have little to boast of. Of the twenty-eight genera of these plants which are now recognized fifteen only are represented in the Arboretum collection, with about one hundred and eight species and a large number of varieties. In the genera which cannot be grown in New England are some of the noblest and most interesting trees in the world, like the Sequoias, the Araucarias, the Taiwania, the Fitzroya, the most valuable of the cone-bearing trees of South America, the different species of Agathis, sometimes called Dammara or Damma Pines, and the Chinese Keteleerias. The Arboretum collection contains all the species of northeastern North America, a few European, Caucasian and central Asiatic species, the species of northeastern Asia, many of those of western China and of Japan, and of the northern Rocky Mountain region of North America. No conifer which grows south of the equator can be grown in New England. Mexico, the home of many conifers, especially of the genus Pinus, has contributed only one Pine-tree to the Arboretum collection. None of the important Pine-trees of the coast region of the southern United States are hardy at the north; and of the conifers of the Pacific States which do not range eastward into the Rocky Mountain region only Pinus ponderosa var. Jeffreyi is really successful here. The Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens) has, however, grown fairly well in an exceptionally well sheltered position. Abies amabilis is not injured by cold, but has not grown better in the Arboretum than it usually grows in cultivation; and the California form of the White Fir (Abies concolor), lives, but does not equal here in beauty the Rocky Mountain form of this tree. Other species of the region, Pinus Balfouriana, Picea Breweriana and Cupressus Macnabiana, are alive but still too young to give any adequate idea of their value, and plants of the two west coast species of Chamaecyparis only just keep alive. The regions therefore from which conifers can be drawn for New England plantations are restricted, and it is not now probable that another species suited to this climate will be discovered, except possibly on the northwestern borders of China or on the southern slopes of the Altai Mountains. The number of species in the collection does not of course represent its richness for many conifers, especially in the genera Picea, Thuya, Tsuga and Juniperus, produce many abnormal forms and there are more of these forms in the collection than there are species. Taxaceae. What is true of conifers in New England is true also of the related Taxus Family, which with five genera is represented here by Taxus, Torreya and Cephalotaxus, and of its sixteen species eight, with several varieties, are more or less flourishing here. If the plants growing in the Arboretum give but a poor idea of the conifers of the world it offers in its herbarium exceptional opportunity for the study of these plants, for in the Arboretum herbarium are representatives often in long suites of specimens of all the species with the exception of a few little known trees from the interior of New Guinea and New Caledonia. The Arboretum is well provided, too, with photographs of cone-bearing plants, and in its library are found all the important books and papers which have been published on these plants. Native Conifers. The species of northeastern North America are the White Pine (Pinus Strobus), the Red Pine (Pinus resinosa), the Pitch Pine (P. rigida), and the Jack Pine (P. Banksiana), the White Spruce (Picea glauca), the Red Spruce (P. rubra), the Black Spruce (P. mariana), the Balsam Fir (Abies balsamifera), the Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), the Arborvitae (Thuja occidentalis), the White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides), the Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana), the common Juniper (Juniperus communis) and its dwarf variety depressa, and the prostrate Juniperus horizontalis. Of these plants the White Pine, the Red Pine, the Hemlock, the Red Cedar and the Arborvitae are trees of great value and beauty, but in speaking of them it must not be forgotten that the White Pine is threatened by a serious disease which makes its planting on a large scale undesirable. Among the hard Pines Pinus resinosa is better worth growing than any of the exotic species which have been tried here. The other native Pines have little to recommend them as ornamental or timber trees. The White Spruce, which just reaches from the north the extreme northern part of the United States, is a handsome, fast-growing tree, but in Massachusetts, where the climate is too warm for it, it is apt to grow thin and unsightly before it is fifty years old. The Red Spruce, which is the timber spruce of the northeastern states and the Appalachian Mountains, grows naturally more slowly than the other trees of New England and in the Arboretum it has never proved a success. The Black Spruce is a small tree which grows naturally in deep swamps and has little to recommend it either as an ornamental or a timber tree. The Fir-tree, in its native swamps in the northeastern part of the country, is with its narrow pyramidal head of dark green leaves silvery white below a beautiful object, but like many other Fir-trees it does not take kindly to cultivation and in the Arboretum has never lived more than a few years. The White Cedar, too, is a hard tree to establish, and although a common native tree in the swamps of eastern Massachusetts it has not always proved hardy in the Arboretum where it has grown best on dry gravelly slopes. Few trees have shown so great seminal variation as the eastern Arborvitae, and the collection of the forms of this useful tree is one of the most interesting in the Arboretum only excelled in variety by that of the forms of the Red Cedar. No other low-growing Juniper clings so close to the ground as Juniperus horizontalis, and few plants make a denser mat or a better ground cover. European Conifers in New England. Seventy-five years ago three European conifers were much planted in the northeastern United States because native trees at that time were not often found in American nurseries, and because the idea prevailed and still prevails that exotic plants were more valuable than native ones. These three conifers were the Norway Spruce so-called (Picea Abies or excelsa), the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the Austrian Pine (P. nigra). These are hardy, fast-growing, and for several years here handsome trees The introduction of the Norway Spruce must be considered a misfortune, however, for New England where it was planted and is still planted as an ornamental tree in great numbers. It grows rapidly while young and often remains in good condition until it is from thirty-five to forty years old; then it begins to fail, the leading shoot dying or failing to make a satisfactory growth and all the upper part of the tree gradually becoming thin and unsightly, with the result that there is now hardly a park or a country place in New England where the sad spectacle of such half dead trees cannot be seen. Farther south the Norway Spruce often promises to become a longer-lived tree; and the best specimens known to the Arboretum are in the military cemetery at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania. The Scotch Pine, which in Europe is a magnificent tree and one of the most picturesque of all Pines, is hardy and grows rapidly here, often reproducing itself from self-sown seed. When about thirty years old it has the unfortunate habit of dying suddenly without obvious cause, and it is doubtful if many Scotch Pines more than fifty years old can be found in this country. Although inferior as an ornamental tree and probably as a timber producing tree to the native Red Pine, the Austrian Pine is hardy and grows rapidly here, but like the Scotch Pine often dies suddenly when only thirty or forty years old. These three conifers are easily raised and the seed is readily obtained. The young plants grow rapidly and they are therefore profitable plants for nurserymen to handle, and the public, in spite of the American experience with them continues to buy them. In some of the states they are raised by state agencies and given away or sold at a nominal price, or planted by the states in reforesting operations. Two conifers from southeastern Europe, although still insufficiently tested in this climate, promise to be valuable here. These are a White Pine, Pinus peuke, and a Spruce, Picea omorika. The former has been growing in the Arboretum since 1883; it is quite hardy, but as an ornamental tree it has no advantage over the native White Pine or the western Pinus monticola. Picea omorika was first raised from seed at the Arboretum in 1881; it has proved hardy and has grown rapidly, but suffers somewhat from the weevil which does so much damage to the leader of the native White Pine. Picea omorika is the only Spruce-tree with flat leaves which is really hardy in this climate; and at the end of forty-two years it is by far the handsomest and most satisfactory Spruce-tree in the Arboretum. Conifers from Eastern Asia. China, especially the western part of the empire, is the home of a large number of conifers. It has given us from the south the Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis), the handsomest of all the conifers with deciduous leaves and one of the most beautiful trees which can be grown in eastern North America, and from the north the interesting Lace-bark Pine (Pinus Bungeana) with thin papery bark as white on the trunks of old trees as that of a Canoe Birch, various forms of the common and widely distributed hard Pine (P. sinensis), and Juniperus chinensis in numerous forms. Of the value of the numerous Firs and Spruces discovered by Wilson on the slopes of the mountains of western China and now growing in the Arboretum it is still too early to say anything beyond the fact that at this time Picea Balfouriana promises to be the most distinct and valuable. To Japan the Arboretum is indebted for several Spruces, Pines and Firs, including Abies homolepis, often sold in nurseries as A. brachyphylla, the best probably of all the Firs for this climate, one of the handsomest of Junipers (J. rigida), the Retinosporas (Chamaecyparis), the handsome Thuja Standishii, and the curious Umbrella Pine (Sciadopitys). The Rocky Mountain Region of North America has done much for the New England lovers of conifers. Four trees which grow to their largest size in the forests of the Pacific states range inland to the continental divide and are hardy here. These trees in the north are Abies grandis, Thuya plicata, one of America's noblest trees, Pinus monticola, the western White Pine, and Tsuga heterophylla; the southern Rocky Mountain states have given us hardy forms of the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga) and of the White Fir of California (Abies concolor), and the Engelmann Spruce (Picea Engelmannii), one of the world's handsomest Spruce-trees. This tree has been growing since 1873 in the Arboretum where it is perfectly hardy. It has grown rapidly and until four or five years ago formed a perfect pyramid with lower branches sweeping the ground. Then the lower branches began to die and the trunks are now bare of branches for a distance of four or five feet above the ground. The tops of the trees, however, are still in perfect health and are growing rapidly. The want of space in these Bulletins forbids a detailed description of these and of many of the other conifers in the collection, but the following list of seven species which up to this time show here the greatest promise as ornamental trees may be useful. The Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) is placed first on the list as the most beautiful conifer now growing in the Arboretum; the others are the native White Pine (P. Strobus), the Japanese Abies homolepis, the Colorado A. concolor, the European Picea omorika, the Rocky Mountain Thuya plicata, and the Chinese Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis). These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring of 1924."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Volume IX","article_sequence":17,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23765","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd260bb27.jpg","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOL. IX Synonyms are in italics Abies amabilis, 66 balsamifera, 66 brachyphylla, 68 concolor, 66, 68 grandis, 68 homolepis, 68 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 5~ Acer rubrum, 3, 57 saccharinum, 3 Aesculus arguta, 59 carnea, 32 var. Briottii, 32 var. plantierensis, 32 glabra, 59 var. Buckleyi, 59 var. leucodermis, 69 octandra, 59 var. vestita, 59 parviflora, 56, 59 Agathis, 65 Alder, Black, 60 Almonds, 8 Amelanchier amabilis, 22 asiatica, 22 Bartramiana, 11 canadensis, 11, 12 grandiflora, 22 laevis, 11, 12 oblongifolia, 12 sanguinea, 22 vulgaris, 22 American Crab Apples, 25, 26, 27 Horsechestnuts, 59 Witch Hazels, 64 Viburnums, summer-flowering, 38 Amorpha canescens, 56 Andromeda floribunda, 2 Apple, Fluke, 27 Apricot, Black, 6 Apricots, 6, 6 April Flowering Rhododendrons, 4 Aralia chinensis, 54 var. glabrescens, 55 Aralia var. mandshurica, 55 Aralia Family, the, 54 spinosa, 54 Araucarias, 65 Arborescent Viburnums, 30 Arborvitae, 66, 67 Asiatic Crabapples, 13, 14, 60 Oaks, 62 Austrian Pine, 67 Autumn color of leaves, 57, 58 colors in the Arboretum, 61 Azalea arborescens, 51 Clammy, 52 Azaleas, early, 20 early American, 28 Ghent Hybrid, 40 the last, 51 Balsam Fir, 66, 67 Barberries, 60 Bay, Rose, 55 Bechtel Crab, 26 Beech-tree, the fern-leaved, 52 Benzoin aestivale, 4 Berberis Dielsiana, 24 Vernae, 24 Black Alder, 60 Apricot, 6 Haw, 30, 62 Spruce, 66, 67 Blueberry, High Bush, 63 Buckeyes, 59 Burning Bush, 60 Calico Bush, 33 Calluna vulgaris, 56 var. alba, 56 var. alba minor, 56 var. alba rigida, 56 var. alba Serlei, 56 var. alba tenella, 56 var. Alportii, 56 var. hypnoides, 56 var. rubra, 56 Calluna vulgaris var. tomentosa, 56 Canada Plum, 8 Carolina Hemlock, 2, 68 Catalpa bignonioides, 45, 46 var. nana, 46 Bungei, 46 Bungei, 46 Duclouxii, 46 Fargesii, 46 hybrida, 46 ovata, 46 speciosa, 45, 46 Teasii, 46 Teas' Hybrid, 46 Catalpas, 45, 46 Cedar, Incense, 65 Red, 66 White, 66, 67 Cephalotaxus, 66 Cercidiphyllum, 64 Chamaecyparis, 66, 68 thyoides, 66 Charlotte Crab, 26 Cherries, 6 some Japanese, 12 Cherry, Japanese Weeping, 7 Sargent, 7 Spring, 6 Chinese Cherry-trees, 8 Keteleerias, 65 Peach, 5 Pear-trees, 10 Pines, 2 Cladrastis lutea, 37, 64 Clammy Azalea, 52 Conifers, 65, 66 from eastern Asia, 68 European, 67 in New England, European, 67 native, 66 Cornel, Silky, 48 Cornus alternifolia, 48 Amomum, 48 controversa, 48 florida, 30, 40, 58 Cornus kousa, 40, 58 Nuttallii, 40 Cotinus americanus, 63 coggygria, 63 Cotoneasters, 60 Crab, Bechtel, 26 Charlotte, 26 Mammoth, 26 Parkman, 14 Soulard's 27 Von Siebold's, 15 Crabapple, Siberian, 14 Crabapples, American, 25, 26, 27 Asiatic, 13, 14, 60 Crataegus, 60 arnoldiana, 23 Canbyi, 32 champlainensis, 23 Chapmanii, 44 cordata, 44 dilatata, 23 Ellwangeriana, 23 Forbesae, 23 lobulata, 23 mollis, 23 nigra, 23 pastorum, 23 pedicellata, 23 Phaenopyrum, 44 Pringlei, 23 pruinosa, 23 sertata, 23 submollis, 23 tomentosa, 44 Treleasii, 23 Cupressus Macnabiana, 66 Damma Pines, 65 Dammara, b5 Daphne genkwa, 23 Dimorphanthus mandshuricus, 55 Dirca palustris,4 Dogwoods, the \"Flowering,\" 68 Douglas Spruce, 68 Dwarf Hawthorns, 64 Early American Azaleas, 28 Early Azaleas, 20 Magnolias, 3 Ehretia acuminata, 62 Engelmann Spruce, 68 Enkianthus, 63 campanulatus, 64 Enkianthus perulatus, 61 Erica carnea, 4 European Conifers in New England, 67 Evodia Daniellii, 55 Henryi, 56 Evodias, 55 Evonymus planipes, 60 radicans vegeta, 2 Fagus sylvatica var. asplenifolia, 52 var. heterophylla, 52 var. incisa, 52 var. laciniata, 52 var. salicifolia, 52 Fern-leaved Beech-tree, the, 52 Fir, Balsam, 66, 67 White, 66, 68 First Roses, the, 28 Fitzroya, 65 Flowering Dogwood, 30 Japanese, 40, 58 Fluke Apple, 27 Forsythia Fortunei, 4 intermedia, 4 ovata, 4 Forsythias, 3 Fruits, 60 Garland Tree, 26 Gaylussacia, 63 Ghent Hybrid Azaleas, 40 Golden Larch, 68 Rain, 29 Gum, Sweet, 62 Gymnocladus dioicus, 64 Halesia monticola, 31 Hamamelis incarnata, 2 japonica, 2 mollis, 2 vernalis, 2, 64 virginiana, 64 Haw, Black, 30, 62 Hawthorns, 23, 60 Hawthorns, dwarf, 64 late flowering, 44 Heath Family, some shrubs of the, Heather, 56 Hemlock, 66 Carolina, 2, 68 Hercules' Club, 54 High Bush Blueberry, 63 Holly, Japanese, 60 Honeysuckle, 52 Horsechestnuts, American, 69 Huckleberries, 63 Hungarian Oak, 61 Hybrid Lilac, a, 20 Hybrid Lilacs, 21 Philadelphus, 42, 43 Hydrangea paniculata, 56 var. grandiflora, 56 petiolaris, 39 Japanese Climbing, 39 Ilex geniculata, 60 glabra, 2 laevigata, 60 serrata, 60 verticillata, 60 Incense Cedar, 65 Inkberry, 2 Ivy, 2 Jack Pine, 66 Japanese Black Pine, 2 Cherries, some, 12 Climbing Hydrangea, 39 Holly, 60 Sand Pear-trees, 10 Weeping Cherry, 7 Juniper, 66 Juniperus chinensis, 68 communis, 66 var. depressa, 66 horizontalis, 67 rigida, 68 virginiana, 66 Kalmia latifolia, 33, 55 var. alba, 33 var. fuscata, 33 var. myrtifolia, 33 var. obtusata, 34 var. polypetala, 34 Kalmia latifolia var. rubra, 33 Keiffer Pears, 10 Kentucky Coffee-tree, 64 Keteleerias, Chinese, 65 Koelreuteria paniculata, 53 Laburnum alpinum, 29 anagyroides, 29 var. bullatum, 29 caramanicum, 30 Scotch, 29 vulgare, 29 Watereri, 29 Laburnums, 29 Lace-bark Pine, 68 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 53 Larch, Golden, 68 Last Azaleas, the, 51 Late Flowering Hawthorns, 44 Late Magnolias, 47 Late Shad Bushes, 22 Laurel, Mountain, 33 Lead Plant, 56 Leatherwood, 4 Leaves, autumn color of, 57, 58 Lecomte Pears, 10 Leucothoe Catesbyi, 2 Libocedrus decurrens, 65 Lilac, a hybrid, 20, 22 the Persian, 18 Lilacs, 17, 18, 19, 20 Lilacs, hybrid, 21, 22 tree, 43 Linden-trees, 49, 50, 51 Liquidambar styraciflua, 62 Maackia amurensis, 53 var. Buergeri, 53 chinensis, 53 Faurei, 54 hupehensis, 53 Maackias, 53 Magnolia acuminata, 47 cordata, 47 Fraseri, 47 glauca, 47 grandiflora, 47 kobus, var. borealis, 3 macrophylla, 47 Magnolia major, 47 pyramidata, 47 salicifolia,3 stellata,3 Thompsoniana, 47 tripetala, 47 virginiana, 47 var. australis, 47 Magnolias, early, 3 late, 47 Malus angustifolia, 27 arnoldiana, 15 baccata, 14, 27 baccata mandshurica, 14 bracteata, 27 coronaria, 26 var. Charlottae, 26 var. dasycalyx, 26 var. elongata, 26 Dawsoniana, 27 floribunda, 15 fusca, 27 glabrata, 27 glaucescens, 25 Halliana, \"Kaido,\" 14 var. Parkmanii, 14 ioensis, 26 var. Palmeri, 26 var. plena, 26 lancifolia, 27 micromalus, 16 platycarpa, 26 var. Hoopesii, 26 prunifolia var. rinki, 15 pumila, 27 robusta, 14 Sargentii, 15 Sieboldii, 15 var. arborescens, 15 Soulardii, 27 sublobata, 16 theifera, 14 toringoides, 16 transitoria, 16, 32 Mammoth Crab, 26 Maple, Red, 3 Soft, 3 Maples, Red, 57 Mock Orange, 41 Mountain Halesia, 31 Laurel, 33 Nannyberry, 30 Native Conifers, 66 Neillia sinensis, 31 North American Clethras, 56 Hydrangeas, 56 Norway Spruce, 67 Oak, Hungarian, 61 Oaks, Asiatic, 62 Oxydendrum arboreum, 65, 62 Parkman Crab, 14 Peach, Chinese, 5 Pears, Keiffer, 10 Lecomte, 10 Pear-trees, 10 Japanese Sand, 10 Persian Lilacs, the, 18 Philadelphus, 41, 42, 43 coronarius, 41 cymosus, 43 Conquete, 43 Mer de Glace, 43 Norma, 43 Nuee Blanche, 43 Perle Blanche, 43 Rosace, 43 Voie Lactee, 43 Falconeri, 42 grandiflorus, 42 inodorus, 42 insignis, 41, 42 latifolius, 42 Lemoinei, 43 Magdalenae, 42 maximus, 42 microphyllus, 42 pekinensis, 42 polyanthus, 43 Gerbe de Neige, 43 Pavillon Blanc, 43 pubescens, 42 purpurascens, 42 Schrenkii var. Jackii, 41 Souvenir de Billard, 42 splendens, 42 Philadelphus virginalis, 43 Argentine, 43 Bouquet Blanc, 43 Glacier, 43 Virginal, 43 Picea Abies, 67 Balfouriana, 68 Breweriana, 66 Engelmannii, 68 excelsa, 67 glauca, 66 mariana, 66 omorika, 67, 68 rubra, 66 Pieris floribunda, 2 Pine, Austrian, 67 Jack, 66 Japanese Black, 2 Lace-bark, 68 Pitch, 66 Red, 66 Scotch, 67 Short-leaved, 2 Umbrella, 68 White, 66 Pines, Chinese, 2 Dammara or Damma, 65 Pinus Balfouriana, 66 Banksiana, 66 Bungeana, 68 echinata, 2 monticola, 68 nigra, 67 peuke, 67 ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, 65 resinosa, 66 rigida, 66 sinensis, 2, 68 Strobus, 66, 68 sylvestris, 67 Thunbergii, 2 Pitch Pine, 66 Plum, Canada, 8 Plums, 8 Prinsepia sinensis, 12 uniflora, 12 Prunus, 5 americana, 8 Armenaica, The Mikado, 5 Prunus dasycarpa, 6 Davidiana, 5 incisa, 7 mandshurica, 6 nigra, 8 pilosiuscula var. media, 8 salicifolia, 8 serrulata, 12 var. albo-rosea, 8 var. fugenzo, James H. Veitch, 8 var. pubescens, 12 var. sachalinensis, 7, 12 var. spontanea, 12 sibirica, 6 subhirtella, 6, 7 var. ascendens, 7 var. autumnalis, 7 var. pendula, 7 tomentosa, 6 var. endotricha, 6 triloba, 8 var. plena, 8 yedoensis, 8 Pseudolarix amabilis, 68 Pseudotsuga, 68 Pyrus betulaefolia, 11 Bretschneideri, 10 Calleryana, 10 phaeocarpa, 11 serotina, 10 ussuriensis, 9 var. ovoidea, 10 Quercus aliena, 62 conferta, 61, 62 dentata, 62 glandulifera, 62 mongolica, 62 var. grosseserrata, 62 pannonica, 61 serrata, 62 variabilis, 62 Red-flowered Horse-chestnut, 32 Red-fruited Viburnums, 39 Red Cedar, 66 Maple, 3, 57 Pine, 66 Spruce, 66 Redwood-tree, 52 Retinosporas, 68 Rhododendron arborescens, 51 arbutifolium, 1 brachycarpum, 34 calendulaceum, 28, 40, 51, 63 canadense, 28 carolinianum, 34 var. album, 34 catawbiense, 1, 34, 35 hybrids of, 35, 36 album elegans, 36 atrosanguineum, 36 Caractacus, 36 catawbiense album, 36 Charles Dickens, 36 Everestianum, 36 Henrietta Sargent, 36 H. W. Sargent, 36 Lady Armstrong, 36 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 36 purpureum elegans, 36 purpureum grandiflorum, 36 roseum elegans, 36 caucasicum, 2, 34 hybrids of, 2, 36 Boule de Neige, 36 coriaceum, 36 Mont Blanc, 36 ciliatum X dauricum, 4 dauricum, 4, 63 ferrugineum, 34 ferrugineum X minus, 1 hirsutum, 34 hirsutum X minus, 1 Kaempferi, 20 maximum, 1, 34, 55 Metternichii, 1, 2, 35 minus, 1, 34 mucronulatum, 4 myrtifolium, 1 nudiflorum, 28 ponticum, 35 praecox, Early Gem, 4 roseum, 28 Schlippenbachii, 16, 40 Smirnowii, 1, 34, 36 Vaseyi, 20, 28, 40 viscosum, 28, 52 Rhododendron Watereri, 1 Wilsonii, 1 Rhododendrons, 34, 35, 36 April Flowering, 4 in autumn, 63 Rhodora, 28 Robinia Hartwigii, 47, 48 viscosa, 48 Rosa Ecae, 28 Hugonis, 28 omeiensis, 28 Roses, the first, 28 Sargent Cherry, the, 7 Sassafras, the, 58 tzumu, 59 Schizophragma, 39 hydrangeoides, 40 Sciadopitys, 68 Scotch Laburnum, 29 Pine, 67 Sequoia sempervirens, 52 Sequoias, 65 Shad Bushes, 11 late, 22 Sheepberry, 30 Short-leaved Pine, 2 Shrubs, summer flowering, 56 Siberian Crabapple, 14 Silky Cornel, 48 Silver Bell Tree, 31 Smoke-tree, 63 Soft Maple, 3 Some shrubs of the Heath Family, 63 Sophora japonica, 54 var. pendula, 54 var. pyramidalis, 54 var. rosea, 54 Sorrel-tree, 55, 62 Soulard's Crab, 27 Sour Wood, 55, 62 Spicebush, 4 Spring Cherry,6 Spruce, Black, 66, 67 Douglas, 68 Engelmann, 68 Spruce, Norway, 67 Red, 66 Spruce, White, 66 Stewartia pseudo-camellia, 55 Styrax americana, 38 japonica, 38 obassia, 38 Summer-flowering American Viburnums, 38 Shrubs, 56 Trees, 53 Sweet Gum, 62 Syringa, 41 Syringa affinis, var. Giraldii, 22 Berryer, 22 Claude Bernard, 22 Lamartine, 22 Mirabeau, 22 Pascale, 22 Vauban, 22 amurensis, 19, 43 chinensis, 20, 21 dilatata, 20 emodi, 19 formosissima, 20 Henryi, 22 var. eximia, 22 var. Lutece, 22 hyacinthiflora, 21, 44 japonica, 43 Josikaea, 19, 22 Julianae, 20 Lemoinei, 18 microphylla, 20 oblata, 19, 21 pekinensis, 43 persica, 18, 19, 21 pubescens, 19 reflexa, 20 rothomagensis, 20 Sweginzowii, 19 tomentella, 20 velutina, 20 villosa, 19, 22 vulgaris, 17, 18, 19 azurea plena, 17, 18 coerulea plena, 21 Wilsonii, 20 Taiwania, 65 Taxaceae, 66 Taxus, 66 Teas' Hybrid Catalpa, 46 Thorn, Washington, 44 Thuja occidentalis, 66 plicata, 68 Standishii, 68 Tilia americana, 50 cordata, 49 euchlora, 50 europaea, 50 glabra, 50, 51 heterophylla var. Michauxii, 51 intermedia, 50 japonica, 50 monticola, 51 neglecta, 50, 51 petiolaris, 49, 50 platyphyllos, 49 spectabilis, 50 var. Moltke, 50 tomentosa, 49, 50 vulgaris, 49, 60 Torreya, 66 Tree Lilacs, 43 Trees, summer-flowering, 53 Tsuga canadensis, 66 caroliniana, 2, 68 heterophylla, 68 Tulip-tree, 64 Umbrella Pine, 68 Tree, 47 Vaccinium corymbosum, 63 pennsylvanicum, 63 Viburnum bracteatum, 39 Canbyi, 38 Viburnum Carlesii, 16 cassinoides, 38 dentatum, 38, 39 dilatatum, 39 var. xanthocarpum, 39 Jackii, 30 Lentago, 30 molle, 39 nudiflorum, 30 prunifolium, 30, 62 rufidulum, 30, 62 Sieboldii, 30, 31 theiferum, 39 venosum, 38 Wrightii, 39 Viburnums, 60 arborescent, 30 red-fruited, 39 summer-flowering American, 38 Virgilia, 37, 64 Von Siebold's Crab, 15 Washington Thorn, 44 White Cedar, 66, 67 White Fir, 66, 68 Pine, 66 western, 68 Spruce, 66 Winter Flowering Witch Hazels, 2 Wisteria floribunda, 28 Wisterias, 28 Witch Hazels, American, 64 winter-flowering, 2 Yellow leaves, 64 Yellow Wood, 37"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23472","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ea328.jpg","title":"1923-9","volume":9,"issue_number":null,"year":1923,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 21","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23745","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0608125.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V111 N0. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 21. 1922 On the morning of November 26th eastern Massachusetts was visited by a storm of frozen rain which was more serious in its injury to trees than any previous storm of this character in the state of which there is an authentic record. Branches of trees were covered with a coat of ice often in the case of terminal branchlets several times thicker than their diameter, making a load which taxed the strength of the strongest trees. The amount of the rainfall varied in different parts of the region affected and the damage to trees was often local. Fortunately the rain was not accompanied by a high wind. For some reason not easy to explain the damage was largely confined to trees with deciduous leaves, and conifers were generally uninjured. Even the White Pine (Pinus Strobus) suffered rarely, although no tree which grows naturally.in Massachusetts has more brittle branches which are usually broken by storms of this character. Fortunately the Arboretum was on the edge of the region of greatest damage, and in Franklin Park and Forest Hills Cemetery only half a mile to the southward trees were not injured. In the Arboretum the injury was confined to the region east and south of the summit of Bussey Hill, to the neighborhood of the Centre Street Gate, and in a less degree to the southern slope and to the summit of Peter's Hill. The trees which were most injured were the Willows in the belt along the northern margin of the north meadow which makes the boundary between the Arboretum and the Boston Parkway. These Willows lost many large and small branches but will soon recover. The damage to Birch-trees was more serious and no other group of trees here has suffered so severely. Nearly every plant in the collection was injured and the damage to the River Birches (Betula nigra) was serious. It has been necessary to remove entirely two large specimens and the others were badly mutilated. The trees in the group of Green Ashes (Fraxinus pennsylvanica) suffered almost as much as the River Birches although other Ash-trees growing in the same general region on the northeastern slope of Bussey Hill escaped injury. Although the Elm-trees of eastern Massachusetts were more mutilated by this storm than other trees, the Elms in the Arboretum escaped serious injury with the exception of the plants of the Asiatic Ulmus pumila on Bussey Hill Road above the Lilac Collection. These were badly broken, including the fine form of this tree from Turkestan. This was one of the rarest and most interesting trees in the Arboretum. It is not dead and new trees can be propagated from it, but twenty or thirty years must pass before the Arboretum can show its visitors such a handsome specimen of this tree as the one which was injured by the November storm. Hickory-trees, in spite of their strong tough branches have been generally much injured in the storm area, and in the Arboretum a few trees of the species with slender branchlets, like the Bitternut (Carya cordiformis) and the others with small fruit (C. glabra and C. ovalis and its varieties) have lost a great deal of wood. Fortunately the Arboretum's large specimen of the Pecan-tree was uninjured. In the Poplar Collection on the southern slope of Peter's Hill the trees of the Siberian Populus laur7folia were badly broken, as were the two largest specimens of the Chinese Populus Simonii. The trees of Populus Maximowiczii from northeastern Asia growing with these species did not lose a twig. This is a matter of congratulation for this is one of the handsomest of all Poplar-trees, and of the trees with deciduous leaves brought from Asia to North America in recent years it is the one which promises the greatest usefulness here. Although the storm brought to the ground many hundred loads of branches and left few deciduous-leaved trees entirely free of injury, the Arboretum as compared with other parts of the state has been fortunate; its important collections are generally still in good condition and the injuries will soon disappear. On the morning of February 17th the thermometer in the Arboretum registered 12 below zero. This and the following were the only really cold days of the winter and were followed by several weeks of unusually mild weather. It is not possible yet to determine the damage caused by the low temperature of February. It has evidently injured the flower-buds of a number of plants. In Massachusetts orchards the buds of Peach-trees appear to have been generally killed. On April 12 the pink and white-flowered forms of the wild Peach of northern China (Prunus Davidiana) were in bloom, although not more than ten per cent. of the buds were able to open. The flowering of Forsythias will on many plants be again irregular and poor as many flower-buds are killed. The north China Rhododendron mucronulatum was first raised in the Arboretum in 1882. It is the earliest of the Rhododendrons and Azaleas to flower, and only occasionally in past years have the flower-buds been injured. A few of the plants under the shade of Pine-trees on the lower side of Azalea Path were covered last week with their rose-colored flowers, but on other plants growing near them but beyond the shade of the Pines every flower-bud had been killed. The buds of the Japanese Corylopsis Gotoana have for the first time been injured, and those of C. pauciflora, which has never been very hardy in the Arboretum, are destroyed. As compared with last year the season is a late one. The Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) was in flower, however, on the 15th of March, only six days later than last year. Other flowers which were to be seen in the Arboretum this year in March were those of half a dozen species of Hazel (Corylus), Salix acutifolia, S. gracilistyla, the native Alnus incana, and those of several exotic Alders. On March 29th the native Arbor Vitae (Thuya occidentalis) and the native White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) were in bloom. Magnolia stellata. On March 26th last year the flowers of Magnolia stellata were opening; this year the plants in front of the Administration Building were nearly in full bloom on April 15th and have not yet been injured by the late frost which often destroys their flowers after they have opened. This Magnolia is a perfectly hardy shrub of excellent habit and good foliage; it never fails to cover itself with flower-buds, and if it could be persuaded to bloom two weeks later it would be one of the best plants for the decoration of small New England gardens which has been brought from Japan. The Siberian Rhododendron dahuricum blooms as early or a little later than R. mucronulatum, but the flowers are more sensitive to cold than those of that plant and are usually disfigured or destroyed by frost after they have opened. Although some of the flower-buds had been killed on the plants on Azalea Path, they were well covered with expanded flowers by the 12th of April and have not yet been injured. The variety with persistent leaves (var. sempervirens) has lost more of its flower-buds than the typical deciduous-leaved plant. Like Magnolia stellata this little Rhododendron would be a better garden plant in New England if it would flower two or three weeks later. Erica carnea began to flower in the Shrub Collection during the first week in April. This is a common European plant often covering in the northern countries considerable areas of sandy or gravelly soil. It is an evergreen plant only a few inches high, with dark green leaves and small rose-red flowers. There is also a variety with white flowers. This is an excellent plant for the rock garden or to form the edging for walks. When it finds the soil and position which suit it it will soon spread into a broad mat. There are no Heaths native to the New World, and the neighborhood of Cape Town in South Africa, where there are some four hundred species, is the place where they are most abundant. They flourish, too, in the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean and in central Europe but of them all only Erica carnea is really hardy in New England, although one or two other species, especially E. Tetralix, can with care be kept alive here for a few years. Prinsepia sinensis is covered with its bright yellow flowers. It is a hardy shrub with long gracefully ascending and spreading branches furnished with stout spines, and covered with bright green leaves which are almost the first to appear on any plant in the Arboretum and are about half grown when the flowers open in clusters from their axils. The fruit is red with the general appearance of a small oblong plum. There are large specimens of this shrub, which has been growing in the Arboretum since 1903, on the walk near Centre Street and in the Shrub Collection. On the whole it is the most valuable shrub for our gardens the Arboretum has obtained from Mongolia. Unfortunately it is still rare, for only a few fruits have ever been produced in the Arboretum, and the plant has proved difficult to increase by cuttings. If the Arboretum plants become more fruitful it will be possible to increase this Prinsepia as the few seeds which have ripened germinated readily. Mr. J. G. Jack of the Arboretum staff will conduct a Field Class on Saturdays during the spring and early summer, to assist those who wish to gain a more intimate knowledge of the native and foreign trees and shrubs which grow in New England. Instruction will be given in informal outdoor talks and in the examination of the plants. Different botanical groups will be examined at each meeting, although any trees or shrubs found may form subjects for study. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required in order to join the class as the instruction is intended to be simple in character, affording opportunities for questions and answers relating to the specimens under observation. Unless otherwise notified the class will meet promptly at ten o'clock in the morning, on Saturdays, in the Arboretum, at the Forest Hills entrance, beginning April 29th. The class will close on the 24th of June. The fee for the course is $5.00 payable in advance. An illustrated Guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants can be obtained at the Administration Building, and will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. It can also be obtained from the Old Corner Book Store, Bromfield Street, Boston, and from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston. The price is 50 cents. Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Jamaica Plain or Forest Hills entrances can obtain them by telephoning to P. F. Keane, Jamaica 344. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 28","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23746","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0608526.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 28, 1922 Some effects of the Winter. Although evidences of a severe winter are seen in dead or badly browned plants of the Red Cedar (Juniperus Virginiana), the native Arbor Vitae (Thuya occidentalis), and in many Rhododendrons in some of the Boston suburbs, evergreen plants in the Arboretum have suffered less than in several of the severe winters of recent years. The collection of conifers as a whole is in good condition. Even such trees of doubtful hardiness as the California Picea Breweriana and the Japanese Abies Mariesii, two trees which have proved difficult to establish here, are as green and fresh as they were in the autumn. The Cedars of Lebanon are uninjured, although twice in recent winters severe cold has destroyed their leaves. Plants of the native White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) in low wet ground are injured or killed, although within twenty miles of the Arboretum there are hundreds of acres of undrained swamp land covered with this tree. It is interesting that plants of the White Cedar on a comparatively dry hillside in the Arboretum have never suffered from severe cold. The Arboretum Junipers, the Japanese Umbrella Pine (Sciadopitys), the different forms of the Japanese Yew (Taxus cuspidata), and the variety repandens of the European Taxus baccata are uninjured. Other forms of the European Yew have suffered in the loss of leaves or in the ends of branches, and only the variety repandens can be depended on in New England. Our native Yew (Taxus canadensis), the Ground Hemlock of northern woods, is more badly browned than usual but will recover with the loss perhaps of a few branches. The buds of the Chinese Pinus sinensis and of some of its varieties do not appear injured, but these Pines will lose most or all of their old leaves. This is remarkable in the case of the typical species which is a northern tree common and of large size on the plains and mountain sides in the neighborhood of Peking, where conditions for successful tree growth are as unfavorable as they can well be. The fact that this tree of northeastern Asia is not perfectly hardy here shows that the ability of a tree to flourish in any region in which it does not grow naturally cannot be determined by the knowledge of the climate and soil conditions where it grows naturally, and that only experiments carried on through long periods can show the value of an exotic tree in any foreign country. The variety densata of Pinus sinensis has suffered even more than the type, although the plants of most of them will probably recover. This variety reaches higher altitudes than the other Chinese Pines, growing up to 12,000 feet in western Szech'uan, where it is common, and southward forms great forests. This tree as Wilson saw it resembles the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) in habit and general appearance, with a tall clean trunk, massive branches forming a rounded or flattened head, and pale red bark on the upper stem and branches. The variety yunnanensis of Pinus sinensis has suffered less than the var. densata, although it is a tree of river valleys and lower levels in southwestern Szech'uan and ranges much farther south. This tree differs from other forms of Pinus sinensis in its longer, more slender, darker green, drooping leaves, in its longer cones, in the brighter red bark on the upper stems and large branches, and in its usually more pyramidal habit. If this Pine, which was raised at the Arboretum in 1909, really succeeds in this climate it should make a valuable addition to the comparatively small list of ornamental conifers which can be grown successfully in New England. In the Arboretum Pinus Thunbergii, the great Black Pine of Japan which lines many of the highways of southern Hondo, has again lost many leaves, and although this tree was uninjured here for nearly a quarter of a century it has suffered so much in some of the severe winters of recent years that it now seems doubtful if it can adapt itself permanently to this climate. It is unfortunate, for no Pine-tree is more picturesque in habit or more distinct in its beautiful white buds. It is a matter of interest that the new Chinese Spruces have been uninjured by the winter. The introduction of these plants into cultivation is one of the important results of the botanical exploration of China undertaken by the Arboretum, and of these Spruces only Picea Sargentii has shown itself unable to grow in this climate Broad-leaved Evergreens have suffered from the extreme and unusual heat of several March days followed by days and nights of low temperature. The damage in the Arboretum is less, however, than in several other gardens in eastern Massachusetts. The Arboretum Rhododendrons, thanks to the exceptionally good position where they are planted, look unusually well. Of the small number of species which can be grown in this climate none have suffered, and of the Catawbiense Hybrids only a few have been slightly injured in the loss of an occasional branch or a few leaves. Laurels (Kalmia latifolia), which are rarely hurt by extreme cold or March changes of temperature, are now disfigured by brown and dried leaves at the ends of the branches of several plants; and leaves on the large plants of the native Inkberrry (Ilex glabra) on Bussey Hill Road have not in any previous spring been as discolored as they are now. Many of the leaves are killed but the plants will recover, and the temporary injury should not be counted against this beautiful plant which is one of the best of the broadleaved Evergreens which can be grown in this climate. It is a handsomer plant than the black-fruited Evergreen Ilex crenata from Japan. This Holly in both its broad and narrow-leaved forms grew well in the Arboretum during many years but has gradually been killed by cold, and the last survivor growing on Azalea Path now looks as if it could not survive. This Japanese Holly grows well and is a handsome plant in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, but the New England climate is too severe for it. Pieris (Andromeda) floribunda, judged by an experience of fifty years, is the only broad-leaved Evergreen to which nothing ever happens here. Borers do not weaken the stems, the leaves are never discolored, and the flower-buds formed in autumn and conspicuous during the winter are never injured by the lowest temperature which has been recorded in southern New England. It is a round-topped shrub of compact habit, occasionally eight or ten feet across and four or five feet high, with small pointed, dark green leaves and short terminal clusters of white flowers. A native of high altitudes on the southern Appalachian Mountains, this Pieris is rare and local in distribution as a wild plant, but for more than a century it has been esteemed in England and largely propagated by English nurserymen. Plants can now be found in several American nurseries. Prunus subhirtella will be in bloom when this bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers, and when it is covered with its drooping pink flowers this, the Spring Cherry of the Japanese, is the most charming plant which can be seen in the Arboretum at any time during the entire year. It has been described as the most floriferous and delightful of all the Japanese Cherries; and it is certainly the most satisfactory of them all in this country, for it is hardy, the flower-buds are rarely injured, and the flowers last in good condition longer than those of any other Cherry-tree. This tree or large bush is not known as a wild plant, and although it has been much planted in the gardens of western Japan it is rarely seen in those of Tokyo and Yokohama. For this reason perhaps it has not often been imported from Japan into the United States and Europe. Another reason for its rarity is the fact that although it bears every year abundant fruit, the seeds do not produce plants similar to the parent but always trees of its varieties, principally the var. ascendens which is a narrow tree fifty or sixty feet high with a tall trunk. This tree has the rather small drooping flowers of the better known Weeping Japanese Cherry (P. subhirtella pendula) which is not now uncommon in American gardens. For these reasons the typical Prunus subhirtella, a plant of the first class for the decoration of northern gardens, is still extremely rare in this country. It can be increased from cuttings without much trouble but a better way to propagate it is by grafts on its own seedlings. If anyone wants to raise stock for this purpose seeds can be obtained from the Arboretum. Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis, sometimes called the Sargent Cherry, should also be in flower at the end of this week. It is believed to be the handsomest of the large Cherry-trees of eastern Asia. First raised at the Arboretum in 1890 from seeds brought from Japan by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow of Boston, this tree has grown well here. Prunus concinna. As usual this Chinese Cherry is the first of its genus to open its flowers in the Arboretum. It is a tree-like shrub three or four feet high, with a single stem. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are produced in the greatest profusion in few-flowered clusters, and their bright red calyx makes a handsome contrast with the white petals. The loose lustrous red bark of this plant is perhaps its most attractive character, and for this beautiful bark it is well worth a place in our gardens, although several of the Asiatic Cherries are superior to it as flowering plants. Prunus concinna can be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Plum-trees are often beautiful objects when in flower, and the value of several of the American Plums for the decoration of parks and gardens has not yet been generally recognized in this country. One must travel in early spring through southern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma and eastern Texas, where Plum-trees and Plum-bushes are more numerous and of more different kinds than in any other part of the world, to realize how wonderful these plants are when covered with flowers. Prunus nigra, the so-called Canada Plum, is the earliest of these trees to flower here. It is a native of the northern border of the United States from New Brunswick westward, and is distinguished from the more southern Prunus americana by its larger and earlier flowers, by the blunt teeth of the leaves, and by the darker and closer bark. The flowers turn pink as they fade. The next Plum-tree in the collection to flower is Prunus salicina which is the most important Plum-tree of eastern Asia, and is best known perhaps as the origin of the so-called Japanese Plum now largely cultivated in the United States. The Arboretum plants were raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China and their flowers will be opening during the next week. The flowers of Prunus nigra and Prunus salicina will soon be followed by those of Prunus americana, of the eastern United States, of the blue-fruited P. alleghaniensis, a native of southern Connecticut and western Pennsylvania, and a species of considerable ornamental value, of P. Watsonii, the Sand Plum of Kansas and Oklahoma, of P. Munsoniana of the Kansas and Texas region, and of P. hortulana, a native of the region from southern Illinois to southern Missouri and Oklahoma. This is perhaps the handsomest of the American Plum-trees, and with the exception of P. maritima of the New England coast, the last to flower. In cultivation it is a round-topped tree with wide-spreading branches. The flowers are small, only half an inch in diameter, and open before the leaves which are long-pointed and lustrous. The globose fruit is scarlet, very lustrous and perhaps is more beautiful than that of any of the American species. The Plum-trees will be found at the entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road, and there is a supplementary collection with many American species and varieties near the top of Peter's Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 5","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23759","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070896a.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 5, 1922 The Norway Maple. Following the native White and Red Maples and the Box Elder (Acer Negundo), the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) is now covered with its clusters of yellow flowers; and of the trees of large size which grow in New England only the Red Maple and some of the Willows are more conspicuous in early spring. The Norway Maple, which in spite of its common name in this country is not exclusively a Scandinavian tree but is widely distributed over Europe and reaches the Caucasus, is one of the few European trees which grows well and attains old age in our northeastern states. There are, however, a few other European trees which have grown to a large size here, and the Horsechestnut, the White and the Fragile Willows, some of the Poplars, three or four of the Lindens, the Elms, the Beech and the Birches often are as much at home as they are in western Europe, but no other European tree has been more generally planted in the eastern states during the last fifty years than the Norway Maple which flourishes from southern New England to the Potomac. It is a round-topped tree with wide-spreading branches, sometimes a hundred feet high, with a trunk three or four feet in diameter, although trees of such size have not yet been produced in America; it has comparatively smooth light brown bark, smooth pale branches and dark green lustrous leaves with pointed lobes, which turn yellow in the autumn. The flowers, which open before the leaves appear, are arranged in compact round clusters. The fruit is clustered and smooth with large spreading wings. The Norway Maple is able to bear without injury the conditions of American city life, but its branches naturally spread so wide that it cannot wisely be used except to shade exceptionally wide side walks. Few of our native trees grow so well in the immediate neighborhood of the seacoast. The seedlings of few trees have shown a greater tendency to variation, and many of the varieties of the Norway Maple have been largely propagated by European nurserymen. There are a dozen or more of the most distinct of these varieties in the Arboretum collection, and among them are some handsome plants. The variety columnare is one of the best of the trees with fastigiate branches although it is broader and less columnar than the form of the Sugar Maple with erect growing branches (Acer saccharum var. monumentale), or the fastigiate Red Maple (var. columnare). One of the handsomest of dwarf trees is the variety globosum, a round-topped bush branching from the ground. The large and symmetrical specimen of this plant which had been growing since 1888 in the Arboretum was badly injured by the heavy snow and high winds of the severe winter of 1919-20. It has now made new branches and will soon be as handsome as ever. Forms of this tree with deeply divided leaves are var. dissectum and var. cucullatum, the Eagle Claw Maple. These are small trees which are more curious than beautiful. The most popular of the varieties of the Norway Maple is the var. Schwedleri. Early in the season this tree has bright red leaves which before summer turn dark dull green. The color of the spring leaves attracts nurserymen, and this tree has been planted largely in the neighborhood of eastern cities. The dull unnatural color of the mature leaves makes this, however, an undesirable tree for general planting. More attractive is the variety Stollii with large three-lobed leaves, purple as they unfold but later dark green. This is one of the most distinct of all the forms of the Norway Maple in the Arboretum collection. Acer saccharum, the Sugar Maple and one of the great trees of eastern North America, will also soon be in bloom. The flowers are paler in color than those of the Norway Maple, and arranged in gracefully drooping clusters do not make the tree as conspicuous in the spring. The individual flowers are more delicate, however, and better worth close inspection by the lovers of beautiful flowers. Amelanchiers. Shad Bushes, as Amelanchiers are often called because they are supposed to bloom when the shad begin to ascend the rivers from the sea, add much to the beauty of the Arboretum in the month of May. Amelanchier is a genus in which North America has almost a monopoly; one small shrubby species grows on the mountains of central Europe, and there is another shrubby species in China and Japan. All the other species are natives of North America where Amelanchiers grow with many species from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Newfoundland to the Gulf States. Some of the species are trees and others large or small shrubs; they flower in the spring before the leaves appear or when they are partly grown, or, in the case of a few species, when the leaves are nearly fully grown, the period of flowering of the different species extending through several weeks. The species all have handsome flowers, with long delicate white petals, and small, dark blue, or nearly black pome-like fruit open at the top, with flesh which in most of the species is sweet and edible. It is these edible fruits which probably have earned for these plants one of their popular names, Service Berry. Amelanchier canadensis, ' which is the first species to bloom in the Arboretum, has been in flower for several days. It is a tree which occasionally grows to the height of sixty feet with a tall trunk eighteen inches in diameter. The leaves begin to unfold as the flowers open and are then covered with pale gray silky hairs, making the whole plant look white at this time of the year. This beautiful tree does not grow naturally nearer Boston than the western part of Massachusetts; it is common in western New York, and it is the common and often the only species in the southern states in which it grows to the Gulf coast. Owing to an old confusion in determination and names this fine tree, which was originally named by Linnaeus, has been rare in gardens, an entirely different plant having long appeared in books and gardens under the name of Amelanchier canadensis. This is also a fine tree, differing conspicuously from A. canadensis in the red color of the young leaves which are destitute or nearly destitute of any hairy covering. This tree is now called by botanists A. laevis. It is one of the native trees of the Arboretum, and there are a number of specimens growing naturally on the bank above the Crabapples on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road which begin to flower a few days later than A. canadensis, and are easily recognized by the color of the young leaves. Another species which is a native plant in the Arboretum, A. obovalis, is a large shrub rather than a tree with young leaves like those of A. canadensis covered with white silky hairs. Large numbers of this shrub which has been planted along the drives and in other Arboretum shrubberies will still be in bloom when this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers making this week one of the pleasantest of the year to visit the Arboretum. Five or six other species of the eastern states are now well established in the Arboretum collection on the grass path which follows the left-hand side of the Meadow Road; they are small shrubs rarely more than five or six feet high, in some species spreading from the roots into clumps of considerable size. They are all delightful plants well suited for the decoration of small gardens or the margins of shrubberies. Generally, however, they are unknown to garden lovers. Early flowering Pear-trees. The first Pear-tree to flower in the Arboretum this year, Pyrus usuriensis, was in bloom by the 25th of April. This tree is a native of Korea, north China and northern Japan, growing further north probably than any other Pear-tree, and sometimes forming forests of some extent. It is probably, too, the largest of all Pear-trees for Wilson photographed in 1918 a tree growing near Shinan in the Province of Nogen, Korea, which was sixty feet tall with a trunk fourteen feet in girth and a head seventy-five feet across. The fruit varies in size and shape, and, judged by American standards, has little or no value. It is believed, however, that the hardiness of this tree may make it valuable as stock on which to grow some of the European garden pears, and experiments with it as stock are being planned in Dakota. A Chinese form of this Pear-tree, var. ovoidea, is probably better worth growing for the decoration of parks and gardens. The flowers are larger and open in the Arboretum about ten days later; the fruit, which differs in shape from that of other Pear-trees, is broad at base and gradually narrowed at apex, and although not large is juicy and of such good flavor that it has to be picked in the Arboretum when only half grown to prevent the breaking down of the branches by marauding visitors. Unlike those of other Pear-trees the leaves turn bright scarlet before falling. This is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum, and the large tree on the left of the Forest Hills Road near the entrance is still covered with flowers. Pyrus Calleryana and its varieties raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China have now for a week been covered with flowers. They are growing with other Chinese Pear-trees on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, and are narrow, shapely, pyramidal trees now about twenty feet high. The flowers are smaller than those of the other Chinese species, and the globose brown fruit is not much more than a third of an inch in diameter. To American pomologists Pyrus Calleryana is now of more interest than the other Pear-trees raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected by Wilson in China, for they believe that they have found in it a stock on which to graft garden pears more resistant to blight than any which has yet been found, and the seed produced in the Arboretum is in great demand by the Department of Agriculture of the United States and by nurserymen. Pyrus serotina, another Chinese Pear-tree introduced by Wilson from western China, is also in flower. To students of cultivated plants this is a tree of particular interest for this native of the mountain forests of western China is now believed to be the origin of the brown or yellowish, round, hard and gritty Sand Pears which in many varieties the Japanese have cultivated from time immemorial and which must have been introduced into Japan probably by way of Korea. In the early days of western intercourse with Japan many varieties of the Sand Pear were brought to the United States and Europe, but except for the beauty of their flowers and fruits they have proved to be of little value, for the fruit is so hard and so full of grit that it is not even worth cooking. It was probably forms of the Sand Pear which produced the Leconte and Kieffer Pears from which much was at one time expected in this country, especially in the southern states, but which have proved so susceptible to blight that the cultivation of these trees has now been generally abandoned. The flowers of Pyrus serotina are larger and more beautiful than those of other Pear-trees, but there is little beauty in the small brown fruit; and the habit of the tree with its long spreading branches forming an open irregular head is not particularly attractive. Prunus incisa has been as full of flowers as it has been every spring for the last six years, although many flower-buds have been killed on other Japanese Cherry-trees by the cold of the past winter. This Cherry is a native of Japan and is abundant on the eastern and southern slopes of Fuji-san and on the Hakone Mountains. It is a large shrub or under favorable conditions a small tree twenty-five or thirty feet high; the flowers appear before the deeply cut leaves in drooping clusters; their calyx is bright red; the petals are white or occasionally tinged with rose color, and the anthers are bright yellow. The petals fall early, but the calyx, which gradually grows brighter in color, remains for some time on the young fruit and is showy."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23760","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd260a36a.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 9. 1922 Asiatic Crabapples. The conspicuous plants in flower this week are some of the early flowering Chinese and Japanese Crabapples. The flowers of these trees make one of the principal spectacular displays of the year, and only the flowers of the Lilacs attract a larger number of visitors. Among these Crabapples are several small trees and shrubs which should find a place in every northern garden, for few plants which can be easily and successfully grown from Canada to the Potomac and from the Atlantic to the Pacific are more beautiful when covered in April or northward in May with their white or rose-colored flowers, or in autumn when their branches are loaded with brilliant red, scarlet or yellow fruits. These Crabapples grow best in cool, rich, deep, well-drained soil, and lime does not interfere with their successful development. Some of the wide-branching species lose their beauty of habit unless sufficient space is allowed for their free growth, and nearly all these Crabapples look better as isolated specimens than when crowded together in too compact groups. Crabapples, like many other plants of the Rose Family, are liable to be attacked by the San Jose scale which unless kept in check can seriously injure them. For many years much attention has been paid at the Arboretum to these plants, and a large and now almost complete collection of the species and recognized hybrids has been assembled. In the future it can be undoubtedly increased by the introduction of new hybrids for these plants hybridize freely, and from seeds gathered from species in a collection like the one in the Arboretum distinct new forms are certain to appear. The Asiatic Crabapples are arranged in two groups. The oldest of them is on the left hand side of Forest Hills Road and the other, which is larger and more complete, at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. A few only of the more interesting can be mentioned in this Bulletin. Malus baccata mandshurica is the earliest of these Crabapples to open its flower-buds in the Arboretum. A native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, it is an eastern form of the better known Malus baccata, the Siberian Crabapple, which reached Europe more than a century ago and for a long time was one of only two Asiatic Crabapples known in western gardens. The Manchurian plant as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree twelve or fifteen feet tall and broad; the flowers, which are produced in profusion, are pure white, rather more than an inch across, and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. The Manchurian Crabapple, which is still rare in this country, should, for the fragrance of the flowers alone, find a place in all collections. This plant is in the Peter's Hill Group. Another form of Malus baccata (var. Jackii) is also growing in the Peter's Hill Group. This plant was brought from Korea by Professor Jack in 1905 and is distinguished by its much larger, dark scarlet fruit. The Arboretum plants of this Group are still small but flower and produce fruit freely and promise to be valuable additions to the collection. Another form of M. baccata (f. gracilis) raised from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China promises to be a handsome tree. It differs from the ordinary form of M. baccata in its gracefully pendent branches, in the narrower leaves hanging on slender petioles, and in the smaller flowers and fruits. Malus robusta is one of the earliest of these plants to flower. This is believed to be a hybrid of M. baccata with M. spectabilis. In some of the earlier issues of these Bulletins it has been called M. cerasifera, a name now found to have been incorrectly applied to it. In good soil and with sufficient room for free development it will grow into a large shapely tree with a broad, round-topped, irregular head of spreading and often drooping branches. The flowers are fragrant and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabapples with pure white or occasionally greenish petals. The globose dull red fruit varies greatly in size on different individuals but is rarely more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter. To this hybrid belong many of the trees cultivated for their fruit in cold countries under the general name of \"Siberian Crabs;\" of these trees the well known \"Red Siberian\" is a typical representative. A new form of M. robusta (f. persicifolia) raised from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, distinct in its narrow peach-like leaves, is now established in the Arboretum and may when better known prove to be worth general cultivation. Malus micromalus, which is also an early-flowering plant, is one of the least known of the Crabapples. It was first sent to Europe from Japan by Von Siebold in 1853 under the name of \"Kaido,\" a name which in Japan belongs to Malus Halliana. In Japan this tree is rare and known only in gardens, and by Japanese botanists is believed to have been introduced into their country from China and to be a hybrid possibly of M. baccata with M. spectabilis. The habit of this plant is more pyramidal than that of other Crabapples and this habit makes the plants conspicuous in the collection. The largest plants are covered this year with their small, pale pink, delicate flowers which will be followed by light yellow fruit, often rose color on one cheek. A plant of Malus micromalus first came to the Arboretum from the Paris Museum in 1888 and the plants now growing here are descendants of that plant. It is still one of the rarest of the Asiatic Crabapples in western gardens. Malus Halliana var. Parkmanii is the semidouble form of a Crabapple which Wilson found growing wild at high altitudes in western China on the Tibetan border. As the double-flowered form had long been a favorite in Japanese gardens, where it is frequently cultivated under the name of \"Kaido,\" this tree before Wilson's time was believed to be a native of Japan. The Parkman Crab, as the semidouble-flowered form is generally known in this country, was one of the first Japanese plants to reach the United States direct from Japan as it was sent to Boston in 1862 where it was first planted by Francis Parkman, the historian, in his garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. From this tree has been produced most of the plants of this Crabapple now growing in America and probably in Europe. The Parkman Crab is a small vase-shaped tree with erect and spreading branches and dark bark. It flowers profusely every year and the flowers, which droop on slender stems, are rose-red and unlike in color the flowers of other Crabapples. The fruit, which is borne on long erect stems, is dull in color and hardly more than one-eighth of an inch in diameter. The Parkman Crab when in flower is one of the handsomest and most distinct of Crabapples, and its small size makes it one of the best of them all to plant in small gardens. The Chinese single-flowered form, M. Halliana, is not in the Arboretum collection. Malus theifera is one of Wilson's early discoveries in central and western China, and gives every promise of being a decorative plant in this country of the first class. It is a tree with long, upright and irregularly spreading, zigzag branches thickly studded with short spurs which bear numerous clusters of flowers which are rose-red in the bud, but become pale or almost white when the petals are fully expanded. In central China the peasants collect the leaves and prepare from them their \"red tea.\" From this fact the specific name of the tree has been formed. The largest plant in the Arboretum is now fourteen feet high and flowers profusely every year. There is a var. rosea with deeper-colored petals which is also in the collection. By European botanists the now well known Malus floribunda has usually been considered a hybrid of uncertain Chinese origin, and the plant cultivated in American and European gardens is certainly the parent of several hybrids. The handsomest of these probably is Malus arnoldiana which appeared many years ago in this Arboretum among seedlings of M. floribunda. The other parent is probably the hybrid M, robusta. It is a low tree with wide-spreading, slightly pendulous branches with the abundant flowers of M. floribunda, but the flowers and fruits are nearly twice as large as those of that tree. There is not perhaps a more beautiful Crabapple in cultivation. Like other hybrids, it can only be increased by grafts or cuttings, and is still rare in gardens. A better known hybrid of M. floribunda, M. Scheideckeri appeared in Germany several years ago. The broad pyramidal habit of this tree suggest M. spectabilis which is probably the other parent. This hybrid flowers here earlier than M. floribunda. The bright rose pink flowers which are often semidouble are produced in great profusion and are followed by bright yellow fruit sometimes three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The excellent habit and early flowers of this hybrid make it a valuable addition to the group. Malus Sieboldii was introduced from the gardens of Japan into Europe by Von Siebold in 1853. It is a low, dense shrub of spreading habit with the leaves on vigorous branchlets three-lobed, small flowers tinged with rose in color, and small yellow fruits. Von Siebold's Crab is really a dwarf form of a tree common on the Korean Island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central Japan and Hokkaido, to which the name var. arborescens has been given. This is a tree often thirty feet or more tall, with ascending wide-spreading branches, twiggy branchlets and minute fruit yellow on some and red on other individuals. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. Malus atrosanguinea is believed to be a hybrid of M. Sieboldii and the Parkman Crab. It is a broad-branched low tree with rather dull red showy flowers and is now often seen in American gardens. Malus Sargentii from salt marshes in the neighborhood of Muroran in northern Japan, where it was discovered by Professor Sargent in 1892, has qualities which give it a field of usefulness peculiarly its own. This species is a dwarf with rigid and spreading branches, the lower branches flat on the ground. The flowers are in umbel-like clusters, saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruit which is covered by a slight bloom and unless eaten by birds remains on the plants well into the spring. The plant usually sold by American nurserymen as M. Sargentii is probably a hybrid of this species. It is dwarf although treelike in habit with a well formed stem, short spreading branches and small flowers tinged with pink. Malus prunifolia rinki is an interesting tree, for this is the Apple cultivated by the Chinese and from China taken to Japan where it was the only Apple cultivated as a fruit tree before the advent of foreigners. The wild type of this tree discovered by Wilson in western China is also growing in the Arboretum. Malus sublobata is the name which has recently been given to a Crabapple of unknown origin believed to be a hybrid of Malus prunifolia rinki and M. Sieboldii. The plants of this hybrid are, with a single exception, narrow, pyramidal, fast-growing trees taller than any other Crabapple in the collection, and looking now as if they might grow into big trees. This hybrid does not flower in the Arboretum very freely every year and the flowers are mostly confined to the upper branches."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 12","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23755","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070bb26.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 12, 1922 American Hawthorns. Some of these plants are now in bloom and the flowers of others will be conspicuous in this Arboretum during the next six weeks, and from the middle of August until midwinter Hawthorns will be brilliant here with fruit. No other group of plants is represented in the Arboretum by so many species; and no other group of small trees and shrubs with deciduous leaves can add so much beauty during such long periods of the year to our parks and gardens. The discovery, determination and cultivation of the large majority of these plants has been accomplished during the last twenty-three years. For until the end of the last century no one had formed any conception of the number, variety and distribution of these plants in North America. To the botanists of forty years ago fifteen or sixteen species with two or three varieties were known, and American gardeners were able to plant only two or three of these. There are now some five hundred species or forms established in the Arboretum, and an increasing number of these trees are flowering and producing their fruits here every year. Hawthorns are distributed in North America from Newfoundland and northern Quebec to northern Florida and northern Mexico, and from the Atlantic to the Pacific. They are much more abundant in species east of the eastern borders of the great plains than in the Rocky Mountain and Pacific regions, where they range northward into British Columbia and southward only into northern California. So far as is now known they are most abundant in species in the valleys of the streams which flow from north and south into Lake Erie, and in the region which extends from southern Missouri to the valley of the Red River in Arkansas. New York and Pennsylvania are rich in species, and southward along the Appalachian Mountains and in the southeastern states species of Crataegus are not rare. The species have now been arranged in twenty-three groups distinguished by the shape and character of the leaves, the size of the flowers and the size and shape of the fruit, and it is interesting that while species of some of these groups are widely and generally distributed those of others are chiefly confined to particular sections of the country, as the Flavae to the southeastern states, the Douglasianae to the northwest, and the Tenuifoliae to the northeastern and middle states. The Macracanthae, which is one of the common northern groups, with many large trees, is extremely rare in the southern states and in Arkansas and eastern Texas is represented by only a few small shrubs. The Intricatae, composed mostly of small shrubs, has its greatest number of species in Pennsylvania and adjacent states, but is extremely rare in the Mississippi valley and unknown westward. The Molles Group, which contains the largest number of species which become trees of considerable size, is common in the northeast, almost unknown in the southeastern part of the country, and most abundant in Missouri, Arkansas and Texas to the valley of the San Antonio River and the Edwards Plateau. Descriptions and figures of twenty-five species of this Group are included in the new edition of Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North America, and there are already indications that the number can be enlarged. Trees of this Group are the earliest of the American Hawthorns to bloom in the Arboretum, and three of them are now covered with open flowers. These three species are Crataegus arnoldiana, C. arkansana and C. mollis. They are all large and handsome trees, and have some historical interest for students of American Hawthorns, for it was these plants which first attracted attention at the Arboretum to differences in their flowers in the number of stamens and in the color of anthers, which first led to the critical study of Crataegus which has been going on here ever since and which among other things has led to the sowing of 4269 different lots of Crataegus seeds. Crataegus arnoldiana was found growing as a large rather misshapen shrub in the dense shade of large trees on the bank opposite the southern end of the Meadow Road. It has only been found outside of the Arboretum in the valley of the Mystic River at West Medford, Massachusetts, where a number of years ago there were several trees, and near Lyme, Connecticut. C. arnoldiana has taken kindly to cultivation and there are now a number of large and shapely specimens growing in the Arboretum. The largest of them are the two trees on the left hand side of the Valley Road close to the Centre Street entrance, and there are other good specimens on the left hand side of the Valley Road in front of the White Oak Collection and in the old Crataegus Collection between the Shrub Collection and the Arborway boundary. The flowers of C. arnoldiana are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and are arranged in broad, many-flowered clusters. Like those of most of the eastern species of this group, they have ten stamens and yellow anthers. The fruit is bright crimson, subglobose, slightly hairy at the ends and about three-quarters of an inch in length. It begins to ripen the middle of August and falls early in September. The early ripening fruit of no other Hawthorn is so conspicuous. Crataegus arkansana, which is a native of the bottom lands of White River, near Newport, Arkansas, was first raised at the Arboretum in 1880. It is a tree some twenty feet high with a tall straight stem, a wide, rather irregular head and flowers an inch in diameter in broad clusters; like those of most of the western species they have twenty stamens and rose-colored anthers. The fruit is short-oblong to slightly obovoid, bright crimson, very lustrous, three-quarters of an inch in diameter and ripening late in October falls gradually during several weeks. This is perhaps the handsomest of the species with large, late-ripening fruit. There are plants in the Arboretum in the old Crataegus Group and on the left hand side of the South Street entrance to the Arboretum. Crataegus mollis is the common and best known species of this Group and grows on the bottom-land of streams in the region from northern Ohio and southwestern Ontario to northern Missouri and eastern South Dakota, Nebraska and Kansas. It is a round-topped tree often forty feet high, with a tall well formed trunk and spreading branches. The flowers, which are arranged in broad many-flowered clusters, have twenty stamens and yellow anthers. The fruit is nearly globose, scarlet, often an inch in diameter, and ripens late in August or in September, and falls gradually. The largest plant in the Arboretum is by the right hand side of the South Street entrance. Further notes on American Hawthorns as they flower will appear in later issues of these Bulletins. Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii is in flower on the upper side of Azalea Path where two plants are now established. The pale pink fragrant flowers, which are about three inches in diameter and marked on one of the lobes of the corolla with red-brown spots, are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea, certainly of any Azalea which has proved hardy in the Arboretum. R. Schlippenbachii is one of the commonest shrubs of Korea and often forms the dominant undergrowth in open woods. From Korea it crosses into northeastern Manchuria where it grows on the shores of Possiet Bay; it occurs, too, in two localities in northern Japan. In Korea this Azalea on the windswept grass-covered cliffs of the coast grows less than a foot high but flowers abundantly. In the forests of the interior it often grows to a height of fifteen feet and forms a tall and slender or a broad and shapely shrub. The leaves are large for an Azalea, being from three and a half to four inches long and sometimes nearly three inches wide, and are arranged in whorls of five at the end of the branches. This plant grows further north than any other Azalea, with the exception of the North American Rhodora. The thermometer in the region of the Diamond Mountains usually registers every winter a temperature of 35 to 40 below zero Fahrenheit. There is therefore no reason why this Azalea should not flourish in the coldest parts of New England. Its hardiness and the beauty of its flowers make it one of the most valuable shrubs, if not the most valuable, which northeastern North America has obtained from northeastern Asia. This Azalea, however, is still rare in gardens. The seeds germinate freely, but the seedlings have proved difficult to manage, and many have been lost here in at tempts to transplant them. The seedlings, too, make only one growth in the season and so increase slowly. It is therefore doubtful if the spread of this plant will be as rapid in American gardens as was hoped a few years ago when it was first brought to this country. Rhododendron (Azalea) yedoense var. poukhanense, which is the first Azalea in the Arboretum to open its flower-buds, has been in full bloom for several days on Azalea Path where there is a large mass of these plants. This is a very hardy shrub widely distributed in Korea from the neighborhood of Seoul southward, and grows generally in open Pine-woods and on grass-covered slopes where it forms dense mats rarely more than three feet high, although in more sheltered shaded positions it is occasionally as much as six feet tall. Here in the Arboretum in full exposure to the sun it forms dense mat-like bushes from two to two and a half feet tall and three feet or more in diameter. This Azalea is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it first flowered in 1914. The flowers are clustered, with a rose or rosy purple corolla, and are more fragrant than those of any other Azalea in the Arboretum collection. On Azalea Path these Korean Azaleas are growing close to plants of Fothergilla major and F. monticola which are now also in bloom, and the snow white flowers of the Fothergillas contrasting delightfully with the rose-colored flowers of the Azaleas suggest a good color scheme for the spring garden. Early-flowering Viburnums. The first Viburnum to bloom in the Arboretum this year is Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobblebush or Moosewood of cold, wet northern woods. It is a large shrub spreading by shoots from the roots, with broad flat clusters of small flowers surrounded by a ring of large pure white neutral flowers, dark green leaves with prominent veins, which turn orange and scarlet in the autumn, and fruit in drooping clusters, bright red at first when fully grown and dark blue or nearly black at maturity. This is one of the handsomest of the American Viburnums but it has proved a difficult plant to establish here, although in other Massachusetts gardens it has grown better than it has in the Arboretum, where, however, it at last appears to have become accustomed to its surroundings. Another Viburnum is in flower in the group of these plants near the upper end of the Bussey Hill Road and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. This is the Korean Viburnum Carlesii and one of the hardiest and most beautiful shrubs which the gardens of America have obtained from eastern Asia. Its greatest value is found in the white waxy flowers which are arranged in small, very compact, nearly globose clusters and open from rose-colored buds. As the flowers do not all open at once the buds among the white flowers add to the beauty and interest of the flower-clusters in early spring. The flowers of no other Viburnum and of few other hardy plants are as fragrant as those of Viburnum Carlesii. It is a plant which should be in every northern garden. Unfortunately seeds are produced rarely in this country. It has suffered, too, from the fact that Japanese nurserymen have for several years sent to this country as this species a Japanese plant called Viburnum bitchuense which is in every way inferior as a garden plant. This Viburnum is also in flower near V. Carlesii in the Viburnum group."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 17","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23756","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0708127.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 17, 1922 Lilacs. A brief summary of the Lilacs now in cultivation will serve to show how large has been the addition to the material available for the making of gardens in cold countries in comparatively recent years. And what is true of Lilacs is true also of Malus, Pyrus, Crataegus, Philadelphus, Diervilla, Viburnum and many other genera of trees and shrubs. Before the middle of the last century gardeners in Europe and America had at their disposition the common Lilac (Syringa vulgaris), and a few of its varieties including the forms with lilac and white flowers, the forms of the so-called Persian Lilac (Syringa persica), with rose-colored and white flowers and one with deeply divided leaves (var. laciniata), the Himalayan Lilac (S. Emodi) and the Hungarian Lilac (S. Josikaea). In the Botanic Garden at Rouen in France a hybrid between Syringa vulgaris and S. persica appeared or was artificially produced in 1810 for which the correct name is unfortunately Syringa chinensis, a name first given to it by mistake. This hybrid, which has slender stems, leaves intermediate in size between those of its parents and immense clusters of narrow-tubed, red-purple fragrant flowers, is still one of the best of Lilacs. There is a form with nearly white flowers (var. alba). As early as 1843 a Belgian nurseryman had raised a double-flowered form of the common Lilac which was called S. vulgaris azurea plena and which was later used by Lemoine in his plant breeding attempts to improve the flowers of the common Lilac. In 1850, therefore, it was possible to plant four species of Lilac with a few varieties of two of these species and one hybrid Lilac. In 1857 one of the so-called Tree Lilacs which had been found in the valley of the Amour River in eastern Siberia by Russian botanists was described in St. Petersburg under the name of S. amurensis. This handsome plant was growing in the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge ten years later. The first of the Chinese Lilacs to reach Europe, Syringa oblata, was described in London in 1859 and was imported from England into the United States as early as 1869 and perhaps earlier. This is one of the first Lilacs to bloom in the spring and produces large, very fragrant, lilac-colored flowers in comparatively small-flowered clusters. From all other Lilacs it differs in its thick lustrous leaves which turn scarlet in the autumn. It is a large round-topped, handsome shrub, but the flower-buds are often injured by extreme winter cold or spring frost. A hybrid between the double-flowered Syringa vulgaris azurea plena and S. oblata made by Lemoine in 1859 produced the second hybrid Lilac, S. hyacinthiflora, a large, round-topped shrub with small clusters of semidouble, lilac-colored, remarkably fragrant flowers. In 1878 this Arboretum first raised the great Japanese Tree Lilac (Syringa japonica) from seed received from Sapporo in Hokkaido. For the introduction of new Lilacs into the United States 1882 is an important date, for in that year the Arboretum received from Dr. Bretschneider the physician of the Russian Embassy in Peking, seeds of Syringa villosa, S. pubescens and S. pekinensis. S. villosa, which has proved a valuable plant in this country where it is a round-topped, handsome bush ten or twelve feet high and wide, with large, broadly elliptic to oblong leaves bright green and dull on the upper surface, and compact, broad or rarely narrow clusters of flesh-colored or nearly white flowers. As a garden plant this is one of the handsomest of the Lilacs for its habit is excellent, and it flowers freely every year, the flowers remaining in good condition for several days. Unfortunately they have a rather disagreeable odor like those of the Privet. S. villosa does not open its flowers until after those of all the forms of S. vulgaris have disappeared. In the hands of the skillful French gardener L. Henry Syringa villosa crossed with S. Josikaea has produced the third race of hybrid Lilacs to which the general name of S. Henryi has been given. Plants of this breed are large, very vigorous, perfectly hardy and grow rapidly. The foliage resembles in a general way that of S. villosa, but the flowers are violet purple or reddish purple, and are produced in great clusters twelve or fifteen inches long and broad. One of the handsomest of this race has violet purple flowers and has been named Lutece. The var. eximia has more compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which after opening become light pink. S. pubescens by some persons is considered the most attractive of all Lilacs. Certainly the flowers of no other Lilac are so delightfully fragrant, and for this fragrance this shrub might well find a place in every northern garden. Unfortunately plants .n the United States have not yet produced fertile seeds, and as this species has proved unusually difficult to increase by cuttings it is still one of the rarest Lilacs in American gardens. It can of course be increased by grafting it on other Lilacs or on Privet, and sooner or later no doubt fertile seeds will be produced on some of the plants established in Massachusetts. S. Pubescens, which has been in bloom for several days, is one of the earliest Lilacs to flower. It is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves, and broad clusters of pale lilac-colored flowers with a long slender corolla-tube, and unusually fragrant. The third Lilac, raised here in 1882 from Dr. Bretschneider's seeds, Syringa pekinensis, had been discovered and described as early as 1859, and was growing in Paris before it was raised in the Arboretum. It is a large tree-like shrub with wide-spreading and drooping branches, and short unsymmetrical clusters of white flowers. No additional species of Syringa was added to the Arboretum collection until 1902 when the introduction of eastern Asiatic species recommenced and during the next fifteen years the following Chinese and Korean species were obtained: S. Koehneana, 1902, S. affinis, 1904, S. affinis Geraldiana, 1906, S. Wolfii, 1906, S. tomentella, 1907, S. Julianae, 1907, S. 1lleyera, 1908; S. Sweginzowii, 1910, S. pinnatifolia, 1911, S. reflexa, 1911, S. Sargentiana, 1911, S. microphylla, 1913, S. yunnanensis, 1915, S. velutina 1917, S. dilatata, 1917, S. formosissima, 1917, S. Palibiniana, 1917. Varieties of the common Lilac crossed by Lemoine with the north China S. affinis var. Geraldiana have founded the fourth race of hybrid Lilacs. Varieties of this hybrid are tall, fast growing plants with large clusters of unusually fragrant flowers. Of the new species of Lilac introduced by the Arboretum during the last twenty years the most promising as garden plants are Syringa Sweginzowii, S. Julianae, S. reflexa and S. Wolfii. S. Sweginzowii is a narrow shrub with slender erect branches and long narrow clusters of slightly fragrant flowers, with a slender corolla-tube, flesh-colored in the bud and becoming nearly white after the flowers open. This plant blooms freely every year and the flowers are produced in great profusion. Its relationship is with S. pubescens but it is a smaller shrub; the flowers are less fragrant, and usually ten or twelve days later. S. Julianae is also related to S. pubescens and has the same shaped flowers with long narrow corolla tubes, but although fragrant the flowers are less fragrant than those of that species and are produced in shorter clusters. The beauty of the flowers is increased by the contrast between the violet-purple color of the outer surface of the corolla and the white inner surface of its lobes. S. reflexa resembles S. villosa in size, habit and foliage, and differs from other Lilacs in its narrow pendent flower-clusters. S. Wolfii is a native of Mongolia or northern Korea and is still little known either as a wild plant or in gardens. It reached the Arboretum in 1906 from St. Petersburg where it had been sent by the Russian traveler and botanist Komarov. The foliage resembles that of S. villosa but the flowers are produced in much larger clusters and are smaller and violet-purple; in color they resemble that of the flowers of the hybrid Lilac Lutece but they are smaller and in denser clusters than those of that plant. When Syringa Wolfii is better known it will probably be considered one of the handsomest of this group of late-flowering Lilacs. Lovers of Lilacs can now see growing in the Arboretum twenty-five species of Lilacs, the four hybrids and their forms, and some two hundred varieties, raised chiefly in France and Germany, of the common Lilac. Three or four species found in remote parts of China, and described by botanists, have not yet been introduced into gardens, and by the use of some of the recently introduced species plant breeders may be able to produce new races which may add new and valuable varieties for garden makers. Crataegus coccinioides. The large plant of this handsome Thorn is now covered with flowers in the old Crataegus Collection on the bank between the Shrub Collection and the Boston Parkway. It belongs to the Dilatatae Group of the genus, so named on account of the broad leaves. The five species have flowers from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter, with twenty stamens and rose-colored anthers, and dull or bright, subglobose red fruit, often blotched with green, crowned by the much enlarged calyx of the flower and nearly an inch in diameter. Five species of this Group are recognized; of these four are trees and the fifth, C. speciosa from southwestern Missouri, and one of the handsomest of the American Hawthorns, although sometimes arborescent, has usually been considered a shrub. Of the other species one is distributed from the coast of Rhode Island and eastern Massachusetts to the neighborhood of Montreal, one grows in southern Quebec and Ontario, and another is now known to grow only on the hills in the neighborhood of Albany, New York. C. coccinioides has been found only in dry woods in the neighborhood of St. Louis and in eastern Kansas. It differs from the other species in its very compact, nearly globose few flowered flower-clusters and its dark crimson fruit flattened at the ends, with flesh deeply tinged with red. C. coccinioides as it grows in the Arboretum is a shapely tree with a broad, dense, round-topped head from twenty-five to thirty feet across and a well-formed trunk. This tree was raised in the Arboretum from seeds planted in 1880, and shows that in the New England climate and on New England soil forty years are needed to produce a large and shapely Hawthorn tree. Cytisus elongatus. Plants of a European Broom growing on the upper side of Azalea Path have been covered with bright yellow flowers during the last two or three weeks. Earlier plantings of this beautiful plant have not succeeded in the Arboretum, but the plants on Azalea Path raised here from seed have been growing in their present position for two years and appear perfectly hardy. Cytisus elongatus is a common plant in Hungary and Bulgaria, and by some botanists is considered a vigorous form of C. ratisbonensis. The Arboretum plants are nearly three feet high and covered from end to end of the stems with bright yellow flowers an inch in length. Cytisus Beanii is also in flower on Azalea Path. This is a semiprostrate little shrub which appeared at Kew in 1900 and is supposed to be a chance hybrid of C. Ardoinii and C. pungens. It is a beautiful yellow-flowered little plant but, judging by its parentage, not likely to be very hardy or long-lived in this climate."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 23","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23757","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0708527.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 23, 1922 American Crabapples. Following the last of the eastern Asiatic Crabapples, Malus Sargentii and M. Sieboldii, which were covered with flowers the end of last week, some of the American species are in bloom. Nine species of these trees are now recognized, with several varieties and two hybrids. They have white or pink fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly or nearly entirely grown, and green or pale yellow fragrant fruit which hangs on slender stems and, with the exception of that of the species from the northwestern part of the country is depressed globose, usually broader than high, and usually from an inch to two and a half inches in diameter and covered with a waxy secretion. All the species spread into thickets and are excellent plants for the decoration of wood-borders and glades. Some of the species have only been distinguished in recent years, and although the species and many of the varieties are now growing in the Arboretum several of these have not yet flowered, and most of these Crabapples cannot be found in commercial nurseries. Malus glaucescens, which is named from the pale glaucous color of the under surface of the leaves, is the first of the American species to flower here and has been blooming for more than a week. It is a shrub usually rather than a tree, not more than fifteen feet high, with stems four or five inches in diameter. The flowers are white or rose color, up to an inch and a half in diameter, and the pale yellow fruit is often an inch and a half in diameter. This plant was first distinguished several years ago in the neighborhood of Rochester, New York; it is now known to be common in several western New York counties and to range to western Pennsylvania, southern Ontario, and Ohio, and to occur on the southern Appalachian Mountains to northern Alabama. The discovery and introduction of this interesting plant into gardens is due to the officers of the Park Department of the city of Rochester. Malus ioensis begins to open its flowers several days later than M. glaucescens. This is the common Crabapple of the northern middle western states, and in a number of varieties has a wide range southward through Missouri to western Louisiana and Texas. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with a trunk often eighteen inches in diameter, a wide open head of spreading branches ana usually incised leaves tomentose on the lower surface, flowers often two inches in diameter with white or rose-colored petals, and fruit hanging on stout hairy stems, and up to an inch and a half in diameter. A form of this tree with double flowers (var. plena), the Bechtel Crab, named for the man who found it several years ago growing in the woods in one of the western states, has opened its pale rose-colored flowers which look like small Roses. When in flower this is one of the popular trees of the Arboretum, judging by the number of persons who want to get close to it. This double-flowered Crab can now be found in many of the large American nurseries, but these nursery trees are often short-lived, probably because the common orchard Apple on which they are usually grafted does not suit them as stock. Persons buying the Bechtel Crab should insist that it is grafted on one of the American Crabapples, the best for the purpose being the single-flowered type of M. ioensis. Malus coronaria, sometimes called the Garland Tree, is the common eastern species, although it does not approach the coast north of Pennsylvania and Delaware, and ranges west to Missouri. It is a beautiful tree sometimes twenty-five feet high with a short trunk, pink flowers rather more than an inch in diameter and depressed globose fruit. From M. glaucescens it is distinguished by the green under surface of the leaves, and from M. ioensis by the absence of pubescence on leaves, fruit-stalks and young shoots. The calyx on one variety (var. dasycalyx) not rare in Ohio and Indiana is thickly covered with white matted hairs. A form with long acuminate leaves (var. elongata) which sometimes forms dense impenetrable thickets grows in western New York to Ohio, and on the southern Appalachian Mountains from West Virginia to North Carolina. Recently a double-flowered form of M. coronaria has been found growing in the woods near Waukegan, Illinois (var. Charlottae or the Charlotte Crab). The flowers are larger and whiter than those of the Bechtel Crab, and there is no reason why the Charlotte Crab should not become as great or greater garden favorite. It is now growing in the Arboretum but the plants are too young to flower. Malus platycarpa has fruit much broader than high, often two and a half inches in diameter with a deep cavity at base and apex. The flowers are about an inch and a half in diameter with a glabrous pedicel and calyx, but in the var. Hoopesii with a pubescent calyx. There is a large tree of this variety in the old Malus Collection opposite the end of the Meadow Road. M. platycarpa is a handsome tree well worth a place in collections for its beautiful fruit valuable for cooking and jellies. The so-called Mammoth Crab is probably only a selected form of this species. Malus fusca, the only native Apple-tree of the Pacific States, where it ranges from Alaska to central California, is in flower. This differs from the other American Crabapples in its short-oblong, yellow-green flushed with red or nearly entirely red fruit from half an inch to threequarters of an inch long, without the waxy exudation which is peculiar to the eastern American species, and with thin dry flesh. The calyx of the flower, unlike that of the eastern species but like that of many Asiatic species, falls from the partly grown fruit. Malus angustifolia is the last Crabapple in the Arboretum to flower. This is a tree sometimes thirty feet tall with a trunk eight or ten inches in diameter, and wide-spreading branches, bright pink exceedingly fragrant flowers an inch in diameter, and depressed globose fruit. From the other species it differs in the only slightly lobed or serrate leaves on the ends of vigorous shoots and in the rounded apex of the leaves on flower-bearing branchlets. Malus angustifolia is a southern species which naturally does not grow north of southeastern Virginia and southern Illinois, ranging to northern Florida and western Louisiana. Plants raised here many years ago from seed gathered in northern Florida are perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where they bloom every year late in May and have proved to be handsome and valuable plants here. The other American species, M. glabrata of the high valleys of the mountains of North Carolina, M. lancifolia, widely distributed from Pennsylvania to Missouri and western North Carolina, and Malus bracteata, a common species from Missouri to Florida, with many of the varieties of Malus ioensis, are now established in the Arboretum but the plants are still too young to flower. Malus Soulardii, which is believed to be a natural hybrid between M. ioensis and some form of the orchard Apple (M. pumila), not rare and widely distributed in the middle west, is a tree as it grows in the Arboretum, nearly as broad as it is high with spreading slightly drooping branches. It has not before this year been as thickly covered with its pale pink fragrant flowers which for ten days at least made it one of the most attractive objects in the Crabapple collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. It is a curious fact that M. Soulardii flowers in the Arboretum fully two weeks earlier than either of its supposed parents. Several varieties of Soulard's Crab are distinguished by western pomologists. Some of them are in the Arboretum collection, but the \"Fluke Apple\" is the only one which has flowered here yet. This resembles Soulard's Crab in size and shape, and in the color of its equally abundant flowers, and as an ornamental plant is of equal value. Malus Dawsonii is a hybrid of the western M. fusca and the common Apple which appeared in the Arboretum many years ago from seed collected in Oregon. It has grown here to more than double the size of M. fusca, to which it shows its relationship in the oblong fruit of the shape and color of that of its Oregon parent but of about twice the size. The leaves are less pubescent than those of the common Apple, and the flowers are rather larger. This hybrid blooms at about the same time as M. ioensis and a few days earlier than M. fusca. Crataegus pruinosa has been covered with flowers during the past week. This is the type of the Pruinosae Group of American Hawthorns, distinguished by its large flowers with ten or twenty stamens and rose-colored or yellow anthers and five styles, and hard and often angled pruinose fruit which is red or remains green until it falls, the prominent and enlarged calyx of the flower being raised on a distinct tube. The Group is northern with southern representatives in northwestern Georgia and southern Missouri, and the species are usually shrubs only four being admitted as trees in Sargent's New Manual of the Trees of North America. The type of the Group, P. pruinosa, which was first distinguished in Europe from cultivated plants, is in spring and late autumn one of the handsome species of the genus. It is a small tree from fifteen to twenty feet high, with a slender stem, spreading horizontal branches forming an irregular head and broad-lobed leaves. The flowers are an inch in diameter, in few-flowered clusters, with twenty stamens and deep rose colored anthers. The fruit is strongly angled, apple-green, and covered with a glaucous bloom until nearly ripe late in October when it is subglobose, barely angled, nearly an inch in diameter, dark purple-red and very lustrous. There is a good specimen of this Thorn in the old Crataegus Collection, and in the Peter's Hill Collection this Group is well represented by a large number of species. Early American Azaleas. Three of the seven American Azaleas which are hardy and successfully grown in this Arboretum are in bloom. They are Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi, R. (Azalea) nudiflorum and R. (Azalea) roseum. The first is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains, with delicate pink or rarely white flowers which open before the leaves. The flowers of few Azaleas are more delicate in color, and few shrubs of comparatively recent introduction are better worth the attention of garden lovers. There is now a large mass of this Azalea at the end of the first of the small ponds on the left hand side of the Meadow Road. The other species now in flower are native to and widely distributed in the eastern states. They have pink or rose-colored flowers. Of the two species R. roseum, which opens its flowers a few days later than R. nudiflorum, is a more beautiful plant with darker-colored and very fragrant flowers and, with the exception of the Appalachian flame-colored Azalea (R. calendulaceum), the handsomest of the American Azaleas which are hardy in Massachusetts. Although this plant was cultivated in England more than a hundred years ago, it . has through wrong determination and confusion in names been little understood by American botanists and gardeners, and is still rare in cultivation. The fragrance of the rose-colored flowers is not surpassed by that of any other Azalea. Rhododendron nudiflorum and R. roseum are now growing on the lower side of Azalea Path, and there is a mass of larger plants of the latter on the right hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Lindens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 27","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23758","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0708928.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 27. 1922 Crataegus nitida belongs to the Virides Group of the genus. This is one of the most distinct of the natural groups into which the genus is divided, well marked by its small flowers in many-flowered corymbs with twenty or rarely ten stamens and yellow or occasionally rose-colored anthers, small usually red fruit and leaves with rare exceptions pointed at the ends. The species are trees with the exception of two or three which grow only in western Texas, and descriptions and figures of thirteen of them are found in the new edition of Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North America. The plants of this Group are distributed from the extreme southeastern part of Virginia, southward in the region east and south of the Appalachian Mountains to northern Florida, through the Gulf States to Texas and up the valley of the Mississippi River to Iowa and southern and western Illinois. Of the type of the Group, C. viridis, there are probably more individuals now growing than of any other Hawthorn in the world, for it is pretty generally distributed over the whole region in which species of this Group grow, and although rare in the Atlantic and east Gulf States it covers with dense thickets great areas of swampy ground in western Louisiana, the coast region of eastern Texas, southern Arkansas, and all the region adjacent to the Mississippi to the northern limits of its range. Its pale gray bark nearly as close as that of a Hornbeam and scarlet or orange fruit mostly persistent on the branches during the winter, and from an eighth to a quarter of an inch in diameter, make it an easy species to recognize. The large plants of Crataegus nitida, raised from seed gathered in 1880 on the bottom lands of the Mississippi in the neighborhood of East St. Louis, and growing in the old Crataegus collection near the Forest Hills gate, are as handsome as any Thorns in the collection. They are trees some twenty feet high with horizontally spreading branches forming a rather flat-topped head broader than the height of the tree. The leaves are thick and coriaceous, very dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, from two to three inches long and from an inch to an inch and a half wide, and in the autumn turn bright scarlet and orange. The flowers are produced in broad, many-flowered clusters which cover the branches from end to end, and are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter with from fifteen to twenty stamens and yellow anthers. The fruit, which does not ripen until the end of October, hangs in drooping clusters, and is dull red, thickly covered with a glaucous bloom, and occasionally nearly half an inch in length. Crataegus nitida must find a place among the six most beautiful Hawthorns which can be grown in Massachusetts. Crataegus punctata is the type of the Group which takes its name from this tree, and is represented by at least a dozen species. Of these five species are found in the region east of the Mississippi River and the others in the territory extending from Missouri to eastern Texas. The species are distinguished by short-stalked leaves wedge-shaped at the base, with prominent veins, flowers of medium size in wide, many-flowered clusters, with twenty or in the case of two species ten stamens, and yellow or rose-colored anthers, and by short-oblong to subglobose often punctate fruit. The type of the Group, C. punctata, is a tree often thirty feet high with a trunk occasionally a foot in diameter, and stout horizontally spreading branches forming usually a round-topped or flat head occasionally fifty feet across The flowers are about three-quarters of an inch in diameter and are arranged in many-flowered hairy clusters; there are twenty stamens, and on some trees the anthers are rose-colored, and on others they are yellow. The fruit, which ripens and falls in October, is short-oblong to subglobose, flattened at the ends, marked by numerous white dots, up to an inch in length and dull red on some trees and bright yellow on others, the trees with yellow anthers producing the yellow fruit. Crataegus punctata is one of the most distinct and generally distributed Thorns of the northeastern states, although it has not been found in eastern Massachusetts. In Canada it is common from the valley of the Chateaugay River in Quebec to that of the Detroit River in Ontario, and westward in the United States to central Iowa, the only place where it has been found west of the Mississippi River; it is very common in the middle states, ranging southward along the Appalachian Mountains, and ascending in North Carolina and Tennessee to altitudes of nearly six thousand feet. Although one of the most distinct and perhaps more easily recognized at a glance than any other American Hawthorn, it escaped the attention of early American botanists or was entirely misunderstood by them, and was first distinguished by an Austrian botanist from plants cultivated in Europe. There are a number of plants on the southern slope of the Bussey Hill overlook. Crataegus succulenta. This is a native of a large and widely distributed group now called the Macracanthae, although until recently known as the Tomentosae, so-called from one of its best known species, C. tomentosa. This Group is well distinguished from the others by the deep longitudinal pits on the inner faces of the nutlets of the fruit, which are found also but in a much less developed form in two other North American groups. Ten species of the Macracanthae are treated as trees in the new edition of Sargent's Manual of the Trees of North America, and there are many species which are shrubs. The Group is chiefly northern, perhaps the greatest number of its representatives being in Quebec, Ontario and Michigan. Plants of this Group, however, are common in all the northern states east of the Mississippi River and range southward among the mountains to northern Georgia and central Alabama. West of the Mississippi, where they are found from central Iowa to Kansas and eastern Texas, they are much less abundant, growing usually as small shrubs. Crataegus succulenta is a tree occasionally twenty feet high with a slender stem and stout ascending branches forming a broad irregular head. The flowers, which are about two-thirds of an inch in diameter, hang on long stalks in broad, lax, many-flowered, villose clusters; the stamens are usually twenty, occasionally fifteen, and the anthers are deep rose color. The fruit, which is arranged in broad, loose, many-fruited, drooping clusters, is globose, about two-thirds of an inch in diameter, bright scarlet, very lustrous, and soft and pulpy when fully ripe toward the end of October when the plants are objects of such great beauty that Crataegus succulenta must also be included among the six handsomest American Hawthorns for Massachusetts. This is another of the trees which was entirely overlooked by American botanists and was first distinguished in Europe from cultivated plants. Another instance of the slight attention formerly paid to American Hawthorns is found in another species of the Macranthae Group named C. prunifolia, which has been cultivated in Europe for at least one hundred and twenty-five years and which until recently has been considered a form of the Cockspur Thorn belonging to an entirely different group without the pits in the inner faces of the nutlets which are prominent in those of C. prunifolia. Although certainly American and not rare in European gardens, this handsome plant has not been found in recent years growing wild in this country. There are two good specimens in the old Crataegus collection near the Forest Hills Gate, and one of these is covered with flowers. Rosa Ecae. This native of Afghanistan and Turkestan was again this spring the first Rose in the Arboretum to bloom. Among the yellow-flowered Roses which are hardy in this climate only the flowers of R. Hugonis are more beautiful. It is a hardier and more vigorous plant, however, than R. Hugonis, of better habit and with handsomer dark green, very lustrous and fragrant leaves. The flowers are of the same size as those of R. Hugonis, but a little paler in color and less thickly set on the branches but more fragrant. The plant of R. Ecae in the Shrub Collection is now about eight feet high and five or six feet through, and has not before this year been so covered with flowers. Rosa Ecae as it grows in the Arboretum is one of the most beautiful of all the species of Roses, but it is doubtful if it can be found in any American nursery. Early Locusts. Robinia Kelseyi and R. Michauxii are already in flower in the collection of these plants on the Meadow Road. R. Kelseyi, discovered a few years ago on the southern Appalachian Mountains, is a slender-stemmed shrub from six to eleven feet high with lighter-colored and smaller flowers than those of the better known Rose Acacia (Robinia hispida). From that plant it differs, too, in the absence of glandular hairs on the branches and of the abundant root shoots which often make that plant such a troublesome weed. Robinia Slavinii which is believed to be a hybrid of R. Kelseyi and R. pseudo-acacia, appeared a few years ago in the nursery of the Rochester, New York, Park Department and promises to be a handsome flowering tree. It is growing in the Arboretum but has not yet flowered here. R. Michauxii has the glandular hairs and the rose-colored flowers of R. hispida, but the flowers are rather smaller and the stems are three or four feet tall. Unlike R. hispida, which is not known to have ever produced fruit, R. Michauxii bears abundant crops of glandular pods. Although discovered by the French botanist Michaux in the foothill region of the southern mountains one hundred and twenty five years ago and known for many years in a few old northern gardens, the true character of this handsome plant has only recently been recognized. Xanthoceras sorbifolia. This Chinese shrub or small tree has flowered unusually well in the Shrub Collection this year. It has dark green leaves and erect and spreading racemes of white flowers marked with red at the base of the petals, and fruit somewhat like that of a Buckeye. This interesting plant is related to the so-called Texas Buckeye, Ungnadia, and to Koelreuteria, the yellow-flowered Chinese tree which blooms here at midsummer. It is very hardy but has a way of dying without any apparent cause, and for this reason it is not as often cultivated as it might be for when it flowers as it has here this year few shrubs are more beautiful. Symplocos paniculata, or as it is often called, S. crataegoides, is a native of Japan, China and the Himalayas. The form which is cultivated here is Japanese, and is a tall broad shrub, with large, obovate, dark green deciduous leaves, small white flowers in abundant, compact panicles which open after the leaves are nearly full grown and are followed in the autumn by bright blue fruits about one-third of an inch in diameter. The plants are attractive when in flower; the fruit of a color unusual among that of hardy shrubs is the most interesting thing about it. Although introduced into the United States by the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, New York, nearly sixty years ago this beautiful shrub is still rare and difficult to obtain. Two native Viburnums. The Arboretum owes much of its late spring and early summer beauty to the two tree Viburnums of the northern states, V. Lentago and V. prunifolium, which have been generally planted, especially the former, by many of the drives and in many of the border shrubberies. These plants are now covered with flowers, and are in splendid condition this year, showing what care and cultivation can do for our commonest native plants. They show, too, that the Viburnums of eastern North America surpass in beauty and usefulness as American garden plants the Viburnums of all other parts of the world."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 2","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23751","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070ab6c.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 2, 1922 Rhododendrons. Although the flowers of a few of the plants will have faded and those of others will not have opened, the largest number of evergreen Rhododendrons in the Arboretum will be in flower when this Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers. Flower-buds are abundant and the brilliant display made by these plants promises to be an exceptionally good one. The Rhododendron collection is at the base of Hemlock Hill and adjoins the South Street gate. Comparatively little success in the cultivation of these plants has been obtained in the eastern United States in spite of all the time, thought and money which have been expended on them in the last seventy- five years. This climate is hostile to all broad-leaved evergreens, and of the hundreds of species of evergreen Rhododendrons now known only the species of eastern North America, five exotic species and a few hybrids can be grown in the open ground in Massachusetts; and among them are none of the really beautiful trees and shrubs which are the glory of a few gardens in more favored regions. A few more hybrids may be added to the Arboretum collection, but it is not probable that there are now anywhere species to discover which will prove hardy in this climate. In the neighborhood of Portland, Oregon, or near the shores of Puget Sound and not in the east collections of evergreen Rhododendrons may be established which may well rival or surpass those in the gardens on the shores of the Italian Lakes or in Cornwall, although in one Cornwall garden some four hundred species are growing and nearly seventy species have been in flower on the same day. Plants of the native Rhododendron maximum collected in the middle and southern states nave been planted in recent years in considerable numbers in this part of the country, but the Rhododendrons chiefly used in the gardens of eastern North America are hybrids of R. catawbiense of the high slopes and summits of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Names have been given to a large number of plants made originally by crossing this species with the Himalayan R. arboreum and other Indian species, with the Caucasian R. ponticum and with R. maximum, and by raising seedlings from these hybrids. Most of these hybrids and their offspring have been raised in England; several good varieties have originated in Germany and Belgium, and a few have been produced in the United States many years ago chiefly in the Parsons Nursery in Flushing, Long Island. The best of these hybrids for this country have been made in England but only a comparatively small number of them are hardy, the hardiest being those in which the catawbiense and maximum blood predominate. Rhododendron ponticum, a tender species, has been used almost exclusively for the stock on which these hybrids have been grafted, and the tenderness of the stock has evidently affected the constitution of the graft; and it is this stock which may cause the death without other apparent causes of plants which have flourished in this country for thirty or forty years. R. ponticum is favored by nurserymen because the plants are quickly and cheaply raised and easily worked, but for really hardy and reliable Rhododendron hybrids for this country R. catawbiense, although more difficult to work, should be used for stock. Even better than any grafted plants are those obtained from layers, a slower and more expensive process, formerly much practiced in the Kanphill Nurseries by Anthony Waterer who raised the best Catawbiense Hybrids which have been planted in New England. A few of the hardiest and handsomest of these plants which can be grown in this climate are Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens, Mrs. C. S. Sargent, Henrietta Sargent, Catawbiense album, Album elegans, Roseum elegans, Hannibal, H. W. Sargent, Discolor, Melton, Album grandiflorum, Purpureum grandiflorum, Purpureum elegans and Lady Armstrong. The hardiest Rhododendrons in this climate are R. maximum and R. catawbiense; the former, which in the valleys of the southern mountains is sometimes a bushy tree up to forty feet in height, but at the north is much smaller, is distributed in isolated stations from Nova Scotia through New England and eastern New York to Pennsylvania; from Pennsylvania southward along the Appalachian Mountains it is very abundant at low altitudes, often covering the slopes of narrow valleys with almost impenetrable thickets. The flowers are white or pale rose color, and are produced in rather compact clusters, which as the flowers do not open until late in June or early in July are a good deal hidden by the branches of the year which rise well above them. The long comparatively narrow leaves up to a foot in length make this Rhododendron valuable in a climate in which few broadleaved evergreen plants can be successfully grown. R. catawbiense is a round-topped, rather compact shrub with broad, dark green and lustrous leaves. It is very hardy but grows slower than many of its hybrids, and is handsomest before the flowers open or after they have faded, for they are of a disagreeable rose-purple color which has spoiled the flowers of many of its hybrids or of their varieties like the hardy and popular Everestianum. The flowers of R. carolinianum, one of the first species to flower here, are fast fading. This little shrub of the southern Appalachian Mountains, although distinguished only a few years ago, is becoming popular in northern gardens where it grows well under the shade of trees and in full exposure to the sun. It is a plant rarely three feet high, with small, dark green and compact clusters of pink flowers. There is a form with white flowers. The other Appalachian species, R. minus, blooms after the catawbiense hybrids. This shrub has been in cultivation for more than one hundred years, usually under the name of R. punctatum. Although a larger plant than R. carolinianum, with slightly larger pink flowers, it is not as good a garden plant for the flowers, like those of R. maximum, are hidden by the shoots of the year which rise above them. R. coriaceum, which came to the Arboretum thirty years ago from the Kanphill Nursery in England, resembles R. caucasicum of the mountain slopes of the Caucasus- The shape of the leaves, the covering of brown felt on their lower surface, and the white flowers on long pedicels in few-flowered clusters do not greatly differ from those of the wild plant in shape and size. In the Arboretum R. coriaceum is now between three and four feet high and broad with erect stems; it flowers abundantly every year and the leaves and flower-buds are not injured by the cold of eastern Massachusetts. It flowers, however, nearly two weeks later than the plants which are usually considered hybrids of R. caucasicum, although nothing very definite appears to be known of their origin. The best of these plants which have been grown in the Arboretum is called Boule de Neige and is believed to have been raised in France. It is a low, broad round-topped bush which is perfectly hardy and every spring is covered with flowers which are as white as it is possible for flowers to be. This is the earliest evergreen Rhododendron to flower in the Arboretum with the exception of the plant called Christmas Cheer, which is said to be a hybrid of R. caucasicum and the Indian R. arboreum, and every year loses its flowers by spring frosts. Boule de Neige is considered the handsomest and most satisfactory of the early-flowering Rhododendrons which can be grown in this climate. Almost as good is the plant called Mont Blanc with flowers which are pale rose color when the buds first appear but soon become pure white. The handsome red-flowered Jacksoni too often loses the flower-buds in severe winters. The Caucasian R. Smirnowii is as usual in good condition this spring and none of the Rhododendrons which can be grown here have more beautiful pink flowers The thick coat of pale yellow felt which covers the lower surface of the leaves protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly which has in recent years done so much damage in this country and Europe to the leaves of Rhododendrons and Kalmias. A few hybrids of R. Smirnowii crossed with hybrid Catawbiense varieties have been raised and among them are plants of considerable promise, although none of them retain the covering of felt on the lower surface of the leaves of their Caucasian parent. Still rare in American gardens, R. Smirnowii deserves the attention of planters of Rhododendrons. It will probably prove valuable in breeding a race of Rhododendrons suited to the climate of the northeastern United States. Crataegus aprica is a representative of the large and still imperfectly known Flavae Group, distinguished by its few-flowered corymbs, conspicuously glandular like the cuneate leaves; usually twenty stamens, rose-colored or yellow anthers, and usually zigzag often pendulous branches. The species are usually trees but occasionally shrubs, fifteen being admitted into Sargent's New Manual of the Trees of North America. The plants of this Group are confined almost exclusively to the southeastern states from southwestern Virginia to central Florida and southern Alabama. They occur in eastern Mississippi, and one species grows near the banks of the Mississippi River near Bayou Sarah, Louisiana, the most western station known for any species of the Group. The species are most abundant in the lower parts of the states of South Carolina and Georgia and in northern Florida, but a few species occur on the Appalachian Mountains up to altitudes of about three thousand five hundred feet. Most of the high country species are established in the Peter's Hill Group and six or seven of them have flowered sparingly during the past week. The best known in the Arboretum, C. aprica, was first raised here in 1876 from seed presented by Asa Gray as C. coccinea, the name usually applied in those days to most American Hawthorns. This is the most northern species of the Group and appears to ascend to higher altitudes than any of the others. The branches are less zigzag than in most of the species, and the flowers have only ten stamens with yellow anthers. The fruit is subglobose, often slightly hairy at the ends and dark orange-red. C. aprica is a tree occasionally twenty feet tall with a trunk from six to eight inches in diameter, covered with deeply furrowed and scaly bark, and spreading branches forming an open head. C. aprica is not one of the handsomest or a typical species of the Group but its hardiness makes it a good representative of the Flavae in northern collections in which most of the other species grow badly even if they grow at all. The old plant of C. aprica on the bank near the Forest Hills Gate is not flowering this year but there are flowers on the younger plants in the Peter's Hill Group. Lonicera Morrowii has been growing in the Arboretum since 1884 and is now only mentioned here in order to call attention to the remarkable groups of the plants of this species near the crossing in Franklin Park, Boston, of the park drive and the traffic road which divides the park from north to south. In these groups the plants now covered with flowers are from twenty-five to thirty feet in diameter and eight or ten feet high and are round-topped and perfect in shape with lower branches spread out over the ground. Lovers of handsome hardy shrubs will be well repaid by a visit to these remarkable shrubs. Lonicera Morrowii is offered for sale by several American nurseries, but these nursery plants raised from seeds usually prove to be hybrids of L. Morrowii and L. tartarica with upright branches, greener leaves and smaller flowers, and as compared with the Siberian and Japanese plant now to be seen in Franklin Park of little value. Loniceras, or many of them, hybridize freely and only plants raised from cuttings can be depended on."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 8","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23754","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070b76f.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 8, 1922 Crataegus pedicellata belongs to the Coccinae Group in which are arranged a number of trees and tree-like shrubs with large, thin leaves usually broader than long, flowers from half an inch to an inch in diameter with from five to twenty stamens and rose-colored or very rarely yellow anthers. The plants of this Group are confined to the northeastern part of the country; they are common in Quebec, New England and New York; westward they are found in Ohio, southern Michigan, northern Illinois and southern Wisconsin; a few species occur in eastern and in western Pennsylvania, and so far as is now known the southern limit of the Group is reached in Delaware with one species. No representative of this Group has yet been found in the territory west of the Mississippi River. These plants are shapely small trees and among them are some of the handsomest Thorns which can be grown in northern gardens. Crataegus pedicillata is a good representative of the Group. It is a tree sometimes twenty feet high with a tall trunk up to a foot in diameter, and slender spreading and ascending branches which form a symmetrical head; the leaves are broad-ovate to rhombic with a wide, rounded or abruptly narrowed base, and are nearly fully grown when the flowers open. These are arranged in wide, many-flowered, slightly hairy corymbs, and are about half an inch in diameter with usually ten stamens and rose-colored anthers. The fruit, which ripens and falls in September, is pear-shaped until fully grown, becoming short-oblong when fully ripe when it is lustrous, bright scarlet and about three-quarters of an inch in length. This Thorn is common in central and western New York and occurs in western Pennsylvania and in southern Ontario in the neighborhood of Toronto and London. In the neighborhood of Rochester, New York, a variety has been found (var. gloriosa) which differs in its rather larger flowers with pink anthers, larger and more lustrous fruit often mammillate at base and ripening a few days earlier than that of the typical and more common form. The species of this Group are well established among the Thorns on Peter's Hill and several of them have flowered and produced fruit for several years. A few of the other interesting plants of this Group are C. Holmsiana with usually five but occasionally from six to eight stamens and large, dark reddish purple anthers, and crimson pear-shaped fruit. This is a tree often thirty feet high with a tall trunk, or is often a large tree-like shrub with a range from the coast of Maine to Quebec, western New York, southern Ontario and eastern Pennsylvania. This tree is very common on the hills of Worcester County, Massachusetts. Handsomer is C. Hillii from northeastern Illinois with flowers three-quarters of an inch in diameter arranged in wide clusters, twenty stamens and pink anthers, and crimson pear-shaped fruit. C. Pringlei, which is easily distinguished by its yellow-green, drooping, conspicuously revolute leaves, is a tree sometimes twenty-five feet high and one of the widely distributed species of this Group, as it occurs in southern New Hampshire and ranges through southern Vermont to western Massachusetts and eastern New York, and occurs in western New York, Ontario, Ohio, and southern Michigan, finding its western home in northeastern Illinois. Crataegus Crus-galli gives its name to the Crus-galli Group in which are found a larger number of species than in any of the other groups. Twenty-five species are admitted as trees in Sargent's new edition of the Manual of Trees of North America, but these are certainly not all the arborescent species and there are many shrubs among the Cockspur Thorns, for nearly fifty species have been distinguished in Missouri which appears to be the headquarters of the group, and species are found in every part of eastern North America from the valley of the St. Lawrence River to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in western Florida, and to Ontario, eastern Kansas and Oklahoma, eastern Texas and the Davis Mountains in southwestern Texas. Cockspur Thorns are very common in Pennsylvania and in all the southern Appalachian Mountain region, and in Georgia, Florida, Alabama, western Louisiana, Arkansas and eastern Texas. Most of the species have leaves broadest and rounded at apex, serrate except on vigorous shoots only above the middle, dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, usually thick and subcoriaceous, with veins often imbedded in the tissue of the leaf, rarely thin, with prominent veins. They have moderate sized flowers with ten or twenty stamens and rose-colored or yellow anthers, in many-flowered, naked or hairy clusters, and subglobose or short-oblong, usually dull red, hard fruit with dry mealy flesh. The branches of nearly all the species are armed with numerous long sharp spines. What is now considered the type of the genus, Crataegus Crus-galli, the familiar Cockspur Thorn, is a tree sometimes twenty-five feet high with a tall trunk a foot in diameter, and stout, ridged, spreading branches forming a broad, round-topped, handsome head. The leaves are thick and very lustrous with a thin midrib and veins enclosed in the leaf tissues. The flowers open late in May or early in June after the leaves are nearly fully grown, and the stamens are ten with rose-colored anthers. The dull red fruit, which is covered with a glaucous bloom, is about half an inch in diameter and remains on the branches during the winter. Crataegus Crus-galli was cultivated in England as early as 1691; it has always been a favorite garden plant in Europe and the United States, and for many years could be found in American commercial nurseries. Many years ago the Cockspur Thorn was much used in the northern and middle states to form hedges, a purpose for which it is suited. Crataegus Crus-galli, as it is understood in the Arboretum, is distributed from the valley of the St. Lawrence River, where it grows on the slopes of low hills in the neighborhood of Montreal, southward to Delaware and on the Appalachian foothills to North Carolina, and westward through western New York to Pennsylvania and southern Michigan. One of several forms of the Cockspur Thorn (var. pyracanthifolia) with narrow pointed leaves, smaller flowers and small bright red fruit, is not rare in eastern Pennsylvania and in Delaware, and is occasionally found in gardens. A number of the species of the Cockspur Thorn are now established in the Arboretum, and several of them have flowered this year. One of the most interesting of these which was covered with flowers last week was one of the few thin-leaved species, C. erecta, which is from the region on both sides of the Mississippi River in the neighborhood of St. Louis. This tree has pointed leaves with prominent veins, flowers with ten stamens and yellow anthers, and subglobose dark dull crimson fruit. Crataegus peoriensis, a species from central Illinois, has also been covered with flowers. This tree chiefly differs from C. Crus-galli in its short-pointed leaves with veins prominent on their lower surface, and in its bright scarlet fruit and more slender spines. Crataegus modesta is a good representative of the large and interesting Intricatae Group, distinguished by leaves usually cuneate at base, large flowers in few-flowered clusters, with ten or twenty stamens, and yellow, rose-colored or red anthers, with conspicuously glandular bracts and bractlets and subglobose, short-oblong or pear-shaped, red, orange, greenish yellow or bright yellow fruit. Four southern trees are now placed in this Group but the others are small shrubs. This is one of the largest groups; no less than thirty-two species have been recognized in Pennsylvania and seven in New York. The Group is represented in western New England and in Michigan by several species, but only a few species have been found in the Missouri-Arkansas region. Birmingham, Alabama, is the most southern station where a species of this Group has been found. In spite of their abundance and well marked characters these plants were entirely overlooked by the older American botanists who did not preserve specimens of any of the species in their herbaria; and it was not until 1894 that a Dane described the first species, Crataegus intricata, from a plant cultivated in Copenhagen. The small size of these plants, their large and handsome flowers and conspicuous fruits make these little Thorns valuable garden plants. There is now a large collection of them growing at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. G. modesta, one of the characteristic species lately in flower rarely grows six or seven feet tall, and is a narrow shrub with slender, much-branched stems, and oblong-ovate, usually lobed leaves which at the end of vigorous branches are often broad at base. The flowers with ten stamens and large yellow anthers, are nearly an inch in diameter, and are arranged in hairy, from three- to six-flowered clusters. The fruit is borne on erect stems, and is subglobose with flattened ends, or short-oblong or pear-shaped, and is bright yellow or orange with a red cheek, hairy at the ends and about half an inch in diameter. C. modesta was discovered near Rutland, Vermont; it grows also in eastern New York, Connecticut, and Berks County, Pennsylvania. The Chinese Flowering Dogwood. This form of the Japanese Cornus from western China which was discovered and introduced by Wilson is showing this week more clearly than ever before its value as a garden plant in this part of the country, for the specimen among the Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill has not before been so wreathed in flowers. The bracts under the flower-clusters, which are the conspicuous features of the inflorescence in all the so-called Flowering Dogwoods, are broader than those of the Japanese form and overlap below the middle, so that they form, like those of the American species, a cup at the end of the branch. The seeds of the Asiatic Flowering Dogwoods are united into a solid globose mass, but in the American species do not become united. The Chinese Flowering Dogwood is rare in cultivation, and the specimen in the Arboretum is probably the only large one in this country. For several years the Arboretum plant has ripened a few seeds and it is not impossible that this year the seeds may be more numerous. It is an interesting fact that here in Massachusetts the Chinese and Japanese Flowering Dogwoods are hardier than the native species, for Cornus florida loses many of its floral bracts in severe winters, and is often killed or severely injured here in winters like the last which greatly injured the bracts of most of these trees in this part of the country. Rosa Moyesii, which was introduced by Wilson from western China and which has received a great deal of attention in England and in the middle United States where it is greatly valued as a garden plant, and as a parent in breeding new races of Roses, has proved until this year a failure in the Arboretum. The plants have not usually been entirely hardy here, and the flowers have been few and of poor quality. The plants, however, on the southern slope of Bussey Hill were not injured last winter and is now covered with flowers. Rosa Moyesii is a large shrub up to ten feet in height, with stout branches sparingly armed with short straight prickles and blood red flowers from an inch and a half to two inches and a half in diameter. The deep orange-red fruit is two and one half inches long, contracted below the apex, and as beautiful as the flowers. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum, the flame Azalea of the southern Appalachian forests, which has been planted in numbers on Azalea Path and is scattered through the Arboretum shrubberies, is now the most conspicuous plant in the Arboretum. The most brilliant of the Azaleas which can be grown in the north, its only rival as the most beautiful flowering shrub in North America is the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia)."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23750","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070a76a.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 14, 1922 Philadelphus, unfortunately called Syringa in popular language for Syringa is the scientific name of the Lilacs, is flowering rather earlier than usual this year. There is a good collection of these plants in the Arboretum, and the group is the largest here of the shrubs which flower in June. Philadelphus is a widely distributed genus with representatives in North America in the southern states, the southern Rocky Mountain region and the Pacific States, in Japan, Korea, China, on the Himalayas and in eastern Europe. The white and usually fragrant flowers are the only attraction of these plants; they are not interesting in habit; the leaves fall in the autumn without change of color, and the fruit, which is a dry capsule, is smaller than that of the Lilac. During the last twenty years several new species of this genus have been introduced into gardens from eastern Asia, and plant-breeders have made more valuable contributions to few groups of garden plants than to Philadelphus. Most Syringas bloom freely every year; they require rich well drained soil, and the presence of lime in it has no bad effects on them. Better than most shrubs they can grow and flower in shade, and are therefore valuable for undergrowth in border plantations of trees. There are now in the collection some thirty species with a few varieties and several hybrids. The Mock Orange of all old gardens is Syringa coronarius, the eastern European species. The plant was first cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century and was probably one of the first garden shrubs brought to America by the English settlers. It is a medium-sized species often as broad as high. The flowers, too, are of medium size and faintly tinged with yellow. This shrub has been somewhat neglected since species and hybrids with larger and showier flowers have found their way into gardens. This is unfortunate, for no other Syringa equals the old-fashioned Mock Orange in the delicate perfume of its flowers. Varieties of this plant with yellow leaves, with double flowers, and with narrow willow-like leaves can be seen in the Arboretum collection, but none of them have any particular decorative value. Among the American species which should find a place in all gardens are P. inodorus, P. pubescens, and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain region and grows to the height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful of all Syringas. P. pubescens, often called P. grandiflorus or P. latifolius, is also a plant of the southern Appalachian region. It often grows to the height of twenty feet; the branches are stout and erect; the leaves are broad, and the slightly fragrant flowers are arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than the last and when it is in bloom it makes a great show. P. microphyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems, and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, is made up in fragrance which is stronger than that of any other Syringa and perfumes the air for a long distance. Unfortunately this shrub, which is one of the most attractive plants of the genus, is not always entirely hardy and was killed to the ground last winter in the Arboretum. The most distinct and perhaps the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a large shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at right angles; on these branchlets the flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long, with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus Magdalenae is another Chinese species well worth cultivation. It is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, small dark green leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered clusters from six to ten inches in length. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow. Another interesting garden plant, P. Falconeri, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and in its long narrow petals. The origin and history of this plant is not known. Hybrid Philadelphus. The first hybrid Philadelphus which attracted attention was raised in France before 1870 by a Monsieur Billard, and is sometimes called in gardens Souvenir de Billard, although the correct name for it is Philadelphus insignis. This hybrid is one of the handsomest of all the tall-growing Syringas, and its value is increased by the fact that it is one of the latest of them all to flower. In a few old gardens in the neighborhood of Boston great Syringa-bushes occasionally thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found. These plants are believed to be hybrids between P. coronarius and some unrecognized species. They are called Philadelphus maximus. Another hybrid, P. splendens, sprang up in the Arboretum several years ago and is supposed to be a hybrid between two American species, P. inodorus and P. pubescens. It is a large and shapely shrub with pure white only slightly fragrant flowers an inch and three-quarters in diameter and borne in erect clusters. Philadelphus splendens usually flowers very freely and when the flowers are open it is the showiest plant in the Syringa Group. It is not, however, as thickly covered with flowers this year as usual. Lemoine Hybrid Philadelphus. These are among the most beautiful and interesting additions to summer-flowering shrubs, due to the intelligence and skill of the great French plant-breeder. The first of these hybrids, Philadelphus Lemoinei, was obtained by crossing the European P. coronarius and the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus. This plant is intermediate between its parents in size and in the size of the flowers. The flowers are pure white, very fragrant and produced in the greatest profusion. Lemoine then crossed his P. Lemoinei with other species and obtained remarkable results. By using P. pubescens or some related species as the other parent he obtained a race to which the name P. cymosus has been given. The plant named \"Conquete\" may be considered the type of this race. It is a vigorous, hardy plant with flowers from two to two and a half inches in diameter, and only surpassed in size by those of \"Rosace\" of this race, and a beautiful and desirable garden ornament. There is a good specimen in the Shrub Collection. Other plants of this race are \"Mer de Glace,\" \"Norma,\" \"Nuee Blanche,\" \"Rosace,\" \"Voie Lacte\" and \"Perle Blanche.\" By crossing P. Lemoinei with the hybrid P. insignis Lemoine obtained the race to which the general name of P. polyanthus has been given. Well known forms of this race are \"Gerbe de Neige\" and \"Pavillon Blanc.\" Another of these hybrid races created by Lemoine is called \"P. virginalis;\" of doubtful origin it is distinguished by double racemose flowers. The type of this group is \"Virginal,\" and other varieties referred to it are \"Argentina,\" \"Glacier,\" and \"Bouquet Blanc.\" Crataegus Phaenopyrum, the Washington Thorn, better known perhaps as C. cordata, is a member of the small group of Macrocarpae, distinguished by the principal veins extending to the sinuses of the leaves as well as to the points of the lobes, flowers with twenty stamens, rose-colored or yellow anthers and red fruit not more than a quarter of an inch long. To this group belong in addition to the three species of the southern United States the two common species of western Europe, C. oxycantha and C. monogyna, now often cultivated in this country in many forms. Crataegus Phaenopyrum is a tree up to thirty feet in height with a trunk a foot in diameter, and erect branches forming a comparatively narrow or round-topped head. The leaves are broad-ovate to nearly triangular, long-pointed, more or less incisely or three-lobed, dark green and very lustrous above, and pale below up to two inches in length, turning late in the autumn bright scarlet and orange. The flowers open here early in June after the leaves are fully grown and are about half an inch in diameter, creamy white with rose-colored anthers, and are arranged in compact, many-flowered corymbs. The fruit is scarlet and lustrous, and ripening late in September or in October retains its color and remains on the branches until the spring of the following year. The Washington Thorn is the last of the American species to flower in the Arboretum. The flowers are less beautiful than those of most Hawthorns, but the plant is valuable for the remarkable coloring of the leaves in autumn and for the brilliant and persistent fruit. Nowhere very common, this tree grows naturally in a few isolated stations from western North Carolina, through Tennessee and Kentucky to southern Illinois and southern Missouri, and is now often naturalized in the middle and Ohio valley states. Late Flowering Magnolias. The Sweet Bay, Magnolia virginiana, or as it is more often called, M. glauca, opened its fragrant cup-shaped flowers ten days ago and will continue to open them until midsummer. The leaves, which are dark green above and silvery white below, and more beautiful than those of almost any other plant which is hardy in this climate, remain on the branches without change of color until the beginning of winter; and the perfume of the flowers is more penetrating and delightful than that of any of our native trees and shrubs. A plant for every garden, great or small, how often is the Sweet Bay found in those of modern construction? Magnolia macrophylla flowers a few days later than M. virg2niana, and is the last of the genus to open its flowers here. It is a wonderful tree with leaves silvery white on the lower surface and often thirty inches long and ten inches wide, and flowers a foot in diameter. A southern tree with its northern stations in the Piedmont region of North Carolina and in Kentucky, it is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts, although here as elsewhere the great leaves are often torn by wind unless a sheltered position is selected for it. Magnolia macrophylla is a distinct and beautiful tree, and is interesting in the fact that its leaves and flowers are larger than those of any other which grows in extra tropical regions. Eleagnus angustifolius. A tree with silvery white foliage can sometimes be mixed with advantage with dark-leaved trees to produce contrast in the landscape, and for this purpose no tree which is hardy here at the north is so well suited as the Oleaster, as Eleagnus angustifolia is sometimes called. A native of southern Europe and western Asia, it is a tree sometimes thirty feet high, or a large arborescent shrub, with erect and spreading, sometimes spiny branches, and narrow lanceolate leaves up to three or four inches in length. The fragrant flowers are produced in few-flowered clusters in the axils of the young shoots and are nearly half an inch in length with a bell-shaped tube and four spreading lobes. The fruit is oval, half an inch long, yellowish and covered with silvery scales; the flesh is sweet and mealy. The large plants of the Oleaster on the left hand side of the Bussey Hill Road are now covered with flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 23","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23752","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070af6d.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL VIII NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 23. 1922 Summer Flowering Shrubs. After the middle of June the number of trees and shrubs that bloom in the Arboretum rapidly decreases, but there are still the Lindens to flower, and the flowers of several shrubs make the Arboretum interesting in the last days of this month. The following are a few of the conspicuous plants at this season of the year: Rhododendron maximum, the only evergreen Rhododendron which grows in the northeastern states, with an extensive Appalachian range southward to Georgia, is one of the handsomest of the broad-leaved evergreen plants which can be grown in this climate. The flowers are pink and white or nearly white and, like those of some other late-flowering Rhododendrons, are more or less hidden by the branches of the year which usually make a considerable part of their growth before the flowers open. R. maximum grows well in any soil not impregnated with lime and flourishes in shade and when fully exposed to the sun, but when growing in open positions it is often seriously injured by the lace-wing fly which was first brought to New England on plants of this Rhododendron collected in the south. Hybrids of R. maximum and R. catawbiense hybrids have been raised. One of the earliest and best known of these hybrids, R. delicatissimum, has lustrous foliage and white flowers tinged with pink which open two or three weeks before those of R. maximum and are not hidden by young branches. This hybrid is one of the hardiest, handsomest and most desirable of the large growing Rhododendron which can be planted in Massachusetts. Rhododendron minus, better known perhaps as R. punctatum, is still little known in American gardens. It is a plant of the southern Appalachian Piedmont region, and ascends on the Blue Ridge of the Carolinas to an altitude of at least three thousand feet. The small, pale rose-colored flowers are produced in small clusters which, like those of R. maximum, are overtopped by the shoots of the year which begin to grow before the flower-buds open. This Rhododendron varies greatly in size, the largest plants growing at nearly the highest altitudes where individuals seven or eight feet high, and often forming thickets, are not uncommon. Less attractive perhaps than R. carolinianum, with which it grows on the southern mountains, R. minus is well worth a place in the gardens of a region in which so few species of Rhododendron can be successfully grown as in Massachusetts. In northern Georgia there is a form of this plant (var. Harbisonii) with larger leaves and larger flowers in larger clusters which may be expected to make a handsome garden plant. It is not yet in cultivation. Two good dwarf garden plants are believed to have been obtained from Rhododendron minus. The first, R. arbutifolium, is a dense shrub spreading into broad masses, with branches occasionally four feet high, small, acute leaves, and small rose-purple flowers in small compact clusters. Its other parent is believed to be R. ferrugineum of the European Alps. R. arbutifolium is better known in gardens as R. Wilsonii, a name which belongs to a hybrid between two Himalayan Rhododendrons. It is sometimes also cultivated under the names of R. daphno2des, R. Hammondii, and R. oleaefolium. The second of these plants, R. myrtifolium, is believed to be a hybrid between the other European alpine species, R. hirsutum and R. minus. It is a smaller and more upright growing plant than R. arbutifolium and has smaller and broader leaves and much handsomer rose-pink flowers also in compact clusters. Rhododendron (Azalea) arborescens. As the flowers of the yellow-flowered Appalachian Azalea (R. calendulaceum) begin to fade the first of those of Rhododendron arborescens open. This is a handsome plant, and the beauty of the pure white fragrant flowers is increased by the bright red color of the long filaments and style. This is also an Appalachian plant, and sometimes at an altitude of about five thousand feet covers with dense thickets only a few feet high and sometimes an acre in extent the treeless summits of the Blue Ridge Mountains, and in their sheltered valleys sometimes grows into great arborescent bushes twenty feet tall and so justifies its name. There are growing in Mr. H. H. Richardson's garden in Brookline plants of this Azalea obtained from the highlands of North Carolina with pale rose-colored flowers of extraordinary beauty. Probably this variety will not reproduce itself from seeds and must therefore remain rare in gardens, for the propagation of Azaleas on a large scale by grafting is in this country a slow and expensive operation. Sambueus canadensis, the black-fruited Elderberry of northeastern North America, is the last of the Massachusetts shrubs to make a conspicuous display of flowers. Few native shrubs make a greater show of flowers and fruits, and the numerous Elders sown by birds on the banks of the Bussey Brook in the valley north of Hemlock Hill, and by the little ponds near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads add much to the beauty of the Arboretum in July. Growing with Sambucus canadensis in the Shrub Collection is a form with leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutiloba) and more curious than beautiful. There are in the collection also a form with yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa), and var. maxima, which originated a few years ago in a European nursery and which has flower-clusters three times as large as those of the wild plant and such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches can hardly support them. A variety with yellow leaves (var. aurea) is also in the collection. More objectionable than many yellow-leaved shrubs because it is hardier and grows more rapidly to a larger size than many of them, this plant now disfigures many European gardens and is too often seen in those of this country. Cytisus nigricans. Of the small yellow-flowered shrubs of the Pea Family, which are such a feature of the flora of southern and southeastern Europe, and are so important and highly valued in the gardens of western Europe, the best known in Massachusetts is the Woad Wax, Genista tinctoria. Brought early from England as a garden plant, it long ago escaped from a Salem garden and has spread over and ruined for agriculture hundreds of acres in Essex County. Planted in the Arboretum it has spread among the native plants like dwarf Roses and Goldenrods which form a considerable part of the ground cover among the groups of Hickories and Oaks, and now enlivens the valley through which the Valley Road extends from Centre to South Street. There is a taller variety of the Woad Wax (var. elatior) with larger flowers growing in the Arboretum. More beautiful and the handsomest of these plants which an experience of many years has shown to be suited to New England gardens is Cytisus nigricans. This native of northern Italy, Austria and Hungary is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection, and no plant now flowering there is more distinct and beautiful. As it grows in the Arboretum it is a compact, round-topped bush from two to three feet tall and broad. It differs from most of the related plants in the arrangement of the flowers which are borne in long erect racemes terminal on branches of the year. They are bright yellow and produced in great profusion. Early flowering Summer Hydrangeas. The handsomest and most valuable of these eastern Asiatic plants here is the so-called Climbing Hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris) of Japan. This plant was first raised at the Arboretum in 1878 and is now seen in a few American gardens. A plant now growing here on the Administration Building is one of the great sights of the Arboretum, for it has grown with unusual vigor and is clothed with leaves and covered with its broad heads of flowers from the ground to the eaves of the building. The leaves of few plants unfold here so early in the spring, and there is but one other vine, Schizophragma, with deciduous leaves and showy flowers able in this climate to attach itself firmly to a brick or stone wall, or to the trunk of a tree. The flower-clusters, surrounded by a circle of sterile flowers, are from eight to ten inches in diameter and terminal on short lateral branches which stand out from the body of the plant and give it an irregular surface which adds to its interest and beauty. The best known of the shrubby Hydrangeas and the first to flower is H. Bretschneideri, a native of northern China and first raised at the Arboretum in 1883. It is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with dark green leaves and every year is covered with its flat heads of flowers surrounded as in the other species with sterile white ray flowers. Several of the Hydrangeas discovered by Wilson in western China also flower in June and can be seen on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. H. Rosthornii is now the tallest and probably the most vigorous here of these plants. H. xanthoneurea and its varieties Wilsonii and setchuenensis, although closely resembling in their general appearance H. Bretschneideri, are interesting additions to the June flowering shrubs. Rosa Virginiana (often called R. lucida), the seashore rose of New England, has been largely planted by the roadsides here and adds much to the beauty of the Arboretum in June. A plant which came here years ago from the island of Mt. Desert on the coast of Maine and now distinguished as var. lamprophylla is a handsomer plant than the typical form of R. virginiana, of denser habit and with darker green lustrous leaves. The large pink flowers and the showy red hips are similar to those of the common form. Late Roses. Some of the Roses still to flower are the Japanese Rosa Wichuriana, which in this climate blooms best when the long trailing stems are allowed to lay flat on the ground, the Korean Rosa Jackii, a plant with semiprostrate stems much like Rosa multifiora in general appearance but with larger and later flowers, the Chinese R. caudata, a large, strong growing shrub with broad clusters of flowers two inches in diameter, their pink petals marked with white near the base; and the American Prairie Rose (R. setigera) which is the last of the American Roses to open its flowers with the exception of the New Mexican Rosa stellata which, already in bloom, will continue to open its large rose-colored flowers through the summer. There is also a Rose here brought recently from Sand Point, Idaho, probably R. pyrifera, which flowers in June and again in September. Viburnum Canbyi is now in flower. This is the largest, handsomest and latest of the blue-fruited Viburnums of eastern North America, and has grown to a large size in the Arboretum. Compact, round-topped specimens ten to fifteen feet high and broad can be seen near the Administration Building and by the Meadow and other Roads. This shrub is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware, and has been found in central Indiana. It is often considered a variety of V. venosum, now called V. pubescens, but it is a much larger plant than that species with larger flower-clusters and fruit. It blooms, too, two or three weeks later. As it grows in the Arboretum this Viburnum is one of the splendid shrubs of eastern North America. Tripterygium Regelii. Climbing plants with handsome foliage and a conspicuous inflorescence easy to grow and hardy in New England are not too numerous, and Professor Jack's introduction several years ago from Korea of Tripterygium Regelii made an important addition to the number. It is in bloom in the Shrub Collection."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 30","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23753","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070b36e.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 30, 1922 English Elms. There is still apparently much confusion in popular understanding in this country in regard to the trees known here as \"English Elms,\" and it does not seem to be generally understood that there are four distinct species of Elm-trees now growing naturally in England, and that among the trees sometimes cultivated are hybrids of these species which also in the popular mind pass as English Elm-trees. Ulmus procera. This is the name now adopted for the tree which is generally known as English Elm in Boston where it has proved one of the best foreign trees ever planted in Massachusetts. It has been growing here for more than a century, and nearly one hundred years ago Major Paddock had a nursery at Milton for the propagation and sale of this tree. Probably no tree, native or foreign, which has been planted in the neighborhood of Boston has grown to such a large size. The Paddock Elms, which stood on Tremont Street in front of the Granary Burying Ground, were of this species, as were the great Elms on the Tremont Street Mall of the Common which were killed by the Subway. The Elm-trees on each side of the Shaw Monument opposite the State House are of this species, and there are still large specimens in the suburbs of the city. This is the common Elm-tree of southern England where it grows usually in hedge-rows, although it has been largely planted in parks. It often grows one hundred feet tall with a massive stem covered with dark deeply furrowed bark, spreading or ascending branches which form a comparatively narrow oval head, and slender branchlets thickly covered during their first year with down. The leaves are broadly oval or ovate, oblique at base, dark green and rough on the upper surface and covered below with soft down; they are from two to three inches long with about twelve pairs of veins, and their stalks are only about one-fifth of an inch in length. This tree very rarely ripens fertile seeds in England or in this country, but it produces suckers in great numbers and is propagated entirely by means of these. As this tree so rarely produces seeds few varieties are known, but a small-leaved Elm (var. viminalis) is believed to be a seedling of it. Of this little Elm there are forms on which the leaves are blotched with white and with yellow. Ulmus foliacea, or nitens. This is another English Elm which differs from the last in its paler bark, in its smooth or nearly smooth branchlets, that is without a covering of down and in its leaves which are smooth and shining on the upper surface, only slightly downy below early in the season and from two to three and a half inches long. This tree produces fertile seeds in abundance and seedlings are raised in European nurseries. It is widely distributed over central and southern Europe and grows also in northern Africa and eastern Asia. Several geographical forms are recognized; the most distinct of these are the Cornish and the Guernsey Elms which are trees of medium size with erect growing branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. Plants of these two forms are not always hardy in Massachusetts. Another form, common in Hertfordshire, is a large tree with wide-spreading and pendulous branches and at its best, although not so tall is almost as handsome as our American White Elm (U. americana). Another form (var. umbraculifera) from Persia and Armenia is interesting from its compact globose head. This tree might perhaps be made useful in formal gardens. On many trees of Ulmus foliacea the branches are furnished with corky wings (var. suberosa), and the so-called English Elms with such branchlets occasionally seen in this country are usually of this variety. The seedling trees of this Elm which have been imported from European nurseries vary in habit, in the size of their leaves and in their hardiness; and the unhealthy and generally unsatisfactory Elm-trees which have been planted in considerable numbers in eastern Massachusetts during the last twenty years are in nine cases out of ten seedling forms of U. foliacea. Ulmus glabra. This is another widely distributed European Elm which is often called Scotch Elm or Wych Elm by English-speaking people. This is a tree with a trunk and branches which remain smooth for many years. It can always be recognized, too, by the large obtuse buds covered by pale brown hairs and by its dark dull green leaves abruptly pointed or three-lobed at the apex, oblique and unsymmetrical at the base, rough above, downy below, and from four to six inches long with stalks shorter than those of other Elm-trees. This tree does not sucker but produces fertile seeds in great quantities, and more abnormal seedling forms of this tree have been raised than of any other Elm. The well-known Camperdown Elm is a form of this tree with regularly pendulous branches which is often planted in suburban gardens to make natural arbors; another form (var. pendula) has horizontally spreading pendulous branches which form an unsymmetrical, flat-topped head. There is a form with erect branches forming a narrow pyramidal head and others with leaves more coarsely toothed than those of the ordinary form, and with purple and other abnormal leaves. This is perhaps the least beautiful of all the species of Elms. The abundant seeds are blown great distances and germinate so readily that seedlings are often troublesome weeds which if neglected for a few years become difficult to eradicate. For several years the leaves of this tree in the neighborhood of Boston have been turned brown and often killed by a leaf-mining insect which attacks this species but no other Elm-tree. Ulmus minor, sometimes called U. sativa, is a small-leaved Elm-tree of large size which is rather closely related to U. foliacea. Although common in the eastern counties of England, it is possible that this tree cannot be seen in the United States outside of the Arboretum. Ulmus hollandica. This general name has been given to a race of natural hybrids between U. foliacea and U. glabra, among which are some of the handsomest and most valuable of the European Elms. To the best known in this country of these hybrids the name Ulmus hollandica vegeta has been given. This tree was raised in a nursery at Huntingdon about the middle of the eighteenth century and is usually called the Huntingdon Elm. This tree often grows one hundred feet high with a massive trunk and spreading and ascending branches which make a vase-shaped head which readily distinguishes this tree from other Elms. It can be seen to good advantage in Cambridgeshire, England, especially in Cambridge, where there is a noble avenue of the Huntingdon Elm. A tree of this hybrid which grew in the grounds of Magdalen College at Oxford was believed to be the largest tree in Great Britain. In this country this tree grows more rapidly than other Elm-trees, and as it produces suckers it can be easily multiplied. It is not common here, however, although in the neighborhood of Boston specimens not more than sixty years old have already grown to a large size. The var. belgica of this hybrid is the Elm which has been most often planted as a street and roadside tree in Belgium and Holland. It is a tall tree with a straight, rough-barked trunk, a broad head of rather erect branches, and dark green leaves slightly roughened above and covered below with soft down. As this tree grows in Holland it is one of the handsomest and most desirable trees for shading city streets. This Elm appears to be little known in the United States; it is growing well in the Arboretum, but it has not been here long enough yet to show if it will be of permanent value in New England. The so-called Dutch Elm, Ulmus major of many English dendrologists and a common tree in English parks, is probably another hybrid of the same parentage (U. hollandica var. major). This is a large tree with a short trunk covered with rough bark, wide-spreading branches furnished with corky wings, and dark green leaves lustrous and nearly smooth on the upper surface and slightly downy below. As this tree produces many suckers it can be easily multiplied. The Arboretum collection now contains sixty-six different Elms and includes all the known species with the exception of the four Himalayan Elms and the Mexican Elm which are not in cultivation, and two species from the southern United States which are not hardy here. With few exceptions the important and interesting varieties and hybrids are represented in the collection. Many of the plants are still too small to produce fruit or to show the habit of mature trees, but as a whole the collection offers a good opportunity for the study of the leaves and branchlets of Elm-trees. Hydrangea paniculata. Three forms of this Japanese shrub or small tree are in the Arboretum collection. The flowers of the three forms are borne in large terminal oblong pointed clusters and the long acuminate dark green leaves make the plants attractive before the flowers open and after they fade, although like those of other Hydrangeas they fall in the autumn without change of color. The clusters of fertile. flowers on what is considered the typical form are surrounded by the ring of white sterile flowers to which Hydrangeas owe the beauty of their inflorescence. This form, which is a handsome and valuable garden plant, will not be in bloom for another month. There is, however, an early-flowering form (var. praecox) which is now just opening its flowers, and which is very similar, except in its time of flowering, to the type. This form has, however, rather larger and whiter ray flowers, and is a more ornamental plant. Indeed when in flower in early July it is one of the handsomest shrubs in the Arboretum. This early flowering form appears to be exceedingly rare in American gardens. This unfortunately cannot be said of the third form of Hydrangea paniculata (var. grandiflora) on which the entire inflorescence is composed of sterile flowers which form a great cone-like white mass of abortins which as they fade turn to a dirty red. This plant has been propagated and sold by American nurserymen during the last fifty years by hundreds of thousands, possibly by millions, so that it is now perhaps more generally cultivated throughout the country than any other garden shrub, and certainly no other shrub has done so much to disfigure the surroundings of the homes of the people of the northern United States. A few years ago the only plant within the fence which surrounds Jefferson's Grove at Monticello was Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora. And Thomas Jefferson published in 1784 in his \"Notes on the State of Virginia,\" the first comprehensive list of the plants of his native State, among which are some of the most beautiful trees and shrubs in the world. Hydrangea radiata. With the exception of Hydrangea quercifolia of the southern states, which is not really hardy in New England, H. radiata is the handsomest of the four American species and their varieties. It is a broad round-topped shrub of excellent habit, with leaves of ample size dark green above and silvery white below, and broad heads of fertile flowers surrounded by a ring of white neutral flowers. This shrub is a native of mountain slopes in North and South Carolina, and many years ago a favorite garden plant is now rarely cultivated, being replaced by H. paniculata grandiflora and the forms with all sterile flowers of the American H. arborescens and H. cinera."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 7","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23749","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070a728.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 7, 1922 Rhododendron maximum superbum. A plant under this name came to the Arboretum a few years ago from a Connecticut nursery. It has leaves shaped like those of R. maximum but only six inches long and flowers two inches across the expanded corolla; this is deep rose color on the margin of the lobes shading to white toward their base and marked on the upper lobe by many orange colored spots. This plant blooms a few days earlier than R. maximum, and beginning to grow usually after the flowers open they are not partly hidden by the young branches of the year as are those of R. maximum. It is probably a hybrid of R. maximum with one of the hybrids of R. catawbiense. The plants raised from this cross by Charles Sander at Holm Lea in Brookline are of the general appearance of R. maximum superbum, but they have longer and more lustrous leaves pale on the lower surface, and on some of the plants much larger clusters of handsomer flowers. There is an old plant, evidently the same hybrid, in what was the garden of Mr. Francis Parkman on the western shore of Jamaica Pond and now included in Olmsted Park. This plant has even longer leaves than the Sander plant and rather paler-colored flowers. This and one or two of the Sander plants are as handsome as any Rhododendron with pink or rose-colored flowers which can be grown in this climate. They bloom at the same time as the white-flowered hybrid of the same parentage which was raised many years ago by Anthony Waterer at Knaphill and named by him Wellesleyanum for Mr. Hunnewell's estate at Wellesley. This plant has not always proved entirely hardy in Massachusetts but has now flowered well for several years at Holm Lea. These maximum-catawbiense hybrids seem destined to play an important part in the decoration of parks and gardens in the northeastern United States where few Rhododendrons or other broad-leaved evergreen plants can be grown. They are as hardy as the hardiest of the catawbiense hybrids, and flowering two or three weeks later than these prolong the flowering time of hybrid Rhododendrons into July, that is to the time when the conspicuous flowering of trees and shrubs is not abundant. Schizophragma hydrangeoides, now that it has at last, after forty years of failure, found a place that suits it on the east side of the Administration Building, is growing rapidly and promises to cover as much space as the great plant of the Japanese Climbing Hydrangea which is its neighbor. It is already half way to the top of the building, and its value as a flowering plant in July is now shown by its conspicuous flower-clusters. The Japanese Schizophragma now grows as rapidly as the Climbing Hydrangea and clings as firmly to a brick wall. The leaves are smaller, more circular in shape, more coarsely toothed and darker and duller in color. The inflorescence, which is terminal on short lateral branchlets, which stand out from the stems, is interesting but not perhaps as showy as that of the Hydrangea, for instead of the surrounding ring of neutral flowers there are only two neutral flowers to each of the divisions to the large compound cluster of perfect flowers; these neutral flowers are snow white, ovate, often an inch or more long, and hang on long slender stems an inch in length. Schizophragma hydrangeoides seems to be a rare plant in American and European gardens, and in this country Hydrangea petiolaris is often sold for it. The Chinese species, S. integrifolia introduced by Wilson, has not yet found a place in the Arboretum which suits it, and has not proved hardy here. It is a handsomer plant than the Japanese species with much larger sterile flowers. Decumaria barbara is another climbing plant of the Saxifrage Family which is now flowering in the Arboretum Nursery. It grows naturally by the banks of streams and in swamps from southeastern Virginia to central and western Florida, western Louisiana, and western Tennessee, often climbing up the trunks of trees by its aerial roots to the height of thirty feet. This handsome and interesting plant has dark green and lustrous leaves, small, white, fragrant flowers in large, terminal, compound clusters, and capsular, urn-shaped fruit with a persistent style and stigma. It is rare in gardens, certainly in those of the northeastern United States, but there is an old and well established plant in that of Mr. N. T. Kidder in Milton, Massachusetts, which flowers every year. It is now growing well and promises to become established in the Arboretum. The Chinese species introduced by Wilson is growing well in a cold pit here but has not yet flowered. Itea virginica, another plant of the Saxifrage Family, was in flower last week in the Shrub Collection. It is a shrub two or three feet high, with simple, alternate, minutely serrate, deciduous leaves and small white flowers in terminal erect racemes. This interesting little plant is widely distributed from New Jersey to Florida and Louisiana, and northward to Missouri and southern Illinois, ascending on the Carolina Mountains to altitudes of from two thousand to two thousand five hundred feet. It grows usually in swamps. The beautiful species introduced by Wilson from central China with persistent leaves, 1. ilicifolia, is not hardy here. Ceanothus pallidus plenus is the only one of the hybrid Ceanothus tried in the Arboretum which has proved hardy. It has been growing here since 1889 and is an attractive shrub of dwarf compact habit which every year late in June covers itself with clusters of pale pink double flowers. It is believed to be a hybrid of C. ovatus and C. Delilianus which is a hybrid of C. americanus and C. coeruleus, a Mexican species often called azureus. Hybrid Ceanothus are popular plants in Europe, especially in France and Germany, but are not often seen in this country although south of New England many of them would probably flourish. Ceanothus is an American genus with three species in the eastern United States; it is represented by a few species in the Rocky Mountain region and is most abundant in California where several beautiful plants of this genus occur, and in Mexico. The two species of the northeastern states, C. americanus and C. ovatus with its variety pubescens, and the Colorado C. FendLer2, are the only species which are hardy in the Arboretum. The northeastern species are attractive small shrubs with white flowers and are good plants to naturalize on the borders of woods and by the side of roads. Ceanothus Gloire de Versailles, a form of C. coeruleus with bright blue flowers is one of the popular garden plants in temperate Europe and might well be grown in the gardens of the middle states. Two Japanese Hollies with deciduous leaves and red fruit, Ilex serrata and 1. geniculata, are in flower on Hickory Path near Centre Street. The berries of the former are smaller than those of our native Black Alder, 1. verticellata, but they are of a brighter color and remain on the branches although changed in color by severe cold until the leaves of the following year are fully grown, and in the autumn the leafless branches covered with fruit are sold in great quantities in the streets of Tokyo and other Japanese cities. Ilex gemculata is a delightful little plant with small bright scarlet fruit gracefully hanging on long slender stems. Little known, it is a plant for any garden. The ripening of fruits has already begun and the varied and beautiful fruit of many trees and shrubs will make the Arboretum an interesting place to visit for several months, and one of the best places in America to supply birds with food. Although not yet ripe, the bright red \"keys\" of the Tartarian Maple are now the showiest fruits in the Arboretum. They are the chief ornament of this hardy little tree of southeastern Europe and western Asia (Acer tataricum), many years ago much more often seen in American gardens than it is now. The fruit on several Bush Honeysuckles is ripe or nearly ripe. A few of the most conspicuous of these plants now are those of the hybrids of the Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), called L. bella, L. muendeniensis, and L. notha. There are varieties, too, of L. tatarica with red and with yellow fruit which are attractive at this season of the year and the bright yellow flowers of Lonicera Ruprechtiana var. canthocarpa make a great show in early July. These and many of the other Bush Honeysuckles which can be seen in the Arboretum, where there is a large collection of these plants, are excellent shrubs for cold countries like the extreme northern states and Canada. They are very hardy and grow rapidly; their flowers are abundant and handsome and no other shurbs have such brilliant fruit in early summer. These plants like rich well drained soil, and the fact can not be too often repeated that the large growing kinds like L. tatarica and most of its hybrids, L. Morrowii and L. Maackii, must have room in which to grow. A plot of ground twenty to twenty-five feet across is needed for one of these plants if it is to show all its beauty. There are a few good specimens of the large growing hybrids by the Bussey Hill Drive opposite the Lilacs where they have had room to grow, but it has been found necessary to move all the large growing Honeysuckles from the Shrub Collection and make a new planting of them on the slope between the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads where most of them will have room enough to grow to a large size. This has been necessary because when these plants are crowded together or their branches are trimmed they are ugly objects and give no idea of their real beauty and value. The red fruit covered with hairs of Rhus canadensis, often called R. aromatica, are also ripe. This is a shrub two or three feet high as it grows in the Arboretum with spreading and ascending branches, clusters of small yellow flowers which cover the naked branches in early spring, and leaves composed of three leaflets. The leaves of only a few plants turn here in the autumn to a more brilliant scarlet color. This Rhus has been largely used in the Arboretum for planting in front of taller shrubs along the borders of the roads. Stewartia pseudo-camellia is beginning to flower this year two or three weeks earlier than usual. The pure white cup-shaped flowers of this small Japanese tree resemble those of a single-flowered Camellia. In the autumn the leaves turn dark bronze purple an autumn color not seen on the leaves of any other plant in the Arboretum. The smooth pale gray bark not unlike that of a Hornbeam adds to the interest of this tree. The flowers are, however, smaller than those of the two species of eastern North America, Stewartia pentagyna and S. Malachodendron, and less beautiful than those of the variety grandiflora of the former in which the stamens are not yellow but purple. Two specimens of the Japanese tree have been growing for many years on the upper side of Azalea Path. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree which will be in full bloom in a few days, is when in flower the most conspicuous of all the summer flowering trees which are hardy in this climate. It is a round-headed tree rarely more than thirty feet high, with large, compound, dark green leaves and great erect clusters of golden yellow flowers which are followed by large bladder-like pale fruits. This tree, which is hardy in Massachusetts, has been a good deal planted in this country, especially in the gardens of the Middle States. The Koelreuteria often appears in American nursery catalogs under the name of \"Japanese Lacquer Tree,\" although it is not a native of Japan and has not lacquer- producing sap."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 14","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23748","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd070a327.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 14, 1922 Linden Trees. At midsummer the Lindens scent the air with their fragrant flowers from which bees gather their richest harvest. Tilia, the name of the Linden, is one of the widely and generally distributed genera of the trees of the northern hemisphere; it is absent, however, from western North America, and no Linden has yet been found in the forests which cover the Himalayas. Eastern North America with fifteen species is richer in Lindens than all the rest of the world, and in eastern North America Lindens are found from New Brunswick westward to Lake Winnipeg and southward to northern Florida and northeastern Mexico. To the two species which grow in Canada another is added in New York and Pennsylvania; southward in the forests which cover the high slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and in those of the coast region of the Carolinas and Georgia the number increases. Lindens are common in all the Gulf states, and abound in eastern and southern Texas where five species and several varieties occur and where Lindens grow by the scanty streams, and under the bluffs of the Edwards Plateau, a region in which Lindens could hardly be expected to flourish. The ability of the southern species to grow in New England has still to be demonstrated in the Arboretum, and only three northern and one southern Appalachian species are established here. These are Tilia glabra, more often called Tilia americana, T. neglecta, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, and T. monticola. Of these Tilia glabra, which was once abundant in northern woods where it grew to a great size, is the only American species which has been often planted as a shade tree in New England. Generally, however, it has not proved a good tree beyond the limits of the cool damp woods which are its home, for in less favorable situations the leaves are disfigured by the red spider which often kills them. The other American species are still little known in parks and gardens. The studies of Linden-trees at the Arboretum have shown that the European species grow more rapidly and give every promise of being better trees in this climate than the American or Asiatic species. This is unusual, for of other European trees only the Beech and White Willow grow better here than their American relatives, and except Lindens all eastern Asiatic trees are more at home in eastern North America than the trees of Europe. The five European species, Tilia platyphyllos, T. cordata, T. vulgaris, T. tomentosa and T. petiolaris, and several varieties of the first, are growing here in a satisfactory manner. The first of these trees is easily distinguished by the hairs which cover the lower surface of the yellow-green leaves and the young branches. This tree is the first of the European species to flower. It has long been cultivated in the eastern states; indeed it appears to be the common European Linden sold by American nurserymen, although as an ornamental tree it is the less desirable of the European Lindens. Tilia cordata, distinguished by its small cordate leaves pale and glaucous on the lower surface, is the last of the Lindens to flower. It is a beautiful tree which also in Europe grows to a large size, but is not very often seen in this country. A better tree here than either T. platyphyllos or T. cordata, T. vulgaris is now generally believed to be a natural hybrid of these species. The leaves are dull green on the upper surface, paler on the lower surface, and without hairs with the exception of those in the tufts in the axils of the veins below. This tree, which has been often planted in the northern and middle states, is one of the best trees to shade the streets of northern cities. The largest and handsomest Linden-trees in the neighborhood of Boston are of this hybrid. The two Lindens of eastern Europe, T. tomentosa and T. petiolaris, are distinct and handsome trees with leaves silvery white on the lower surface, which can be easily and successfully grown in southern New England. T. tomentosa, which is common in the forests of Hungary, in this country forms a broad, compact, round-topped head with erect branches and large leaves erect on short stalks. T. petiolaris is a more beautiful tree with pendulous branches which form a narrow head and leaves drooping on long slender stems. It has proved to be one of the handsomest exotic trees which can be planted in the eastern states. It is occasionally seen in the neighborhood of Boston, but it is more common southward, especially in Newport, Rhode Island, where there are a number of noble specimens. It is too soon to speak with authority on the value of the Asiatic species. Only T. japonica has been long enough in this country to give any real indication of its value. It is a graceful and handsome little tree which is the first of the Lindens in the Arboretum collection to flower, but as yet shows no indication of growing to the great size this tree attains in Japan. Some of the most valuable of the Lindens are hybrids. Attention has already been called in this Bulletin to Talia vulgaris. The Crimean Tilia euchlora is believed to be a natural hybrid between T. caucasica and T. caudata. One of the handsomest of the Linden-trees in the Arboretum, T. spectabilis, is supposed to be a hybrid of T. glabra and T. petiolaris. It is a fast growing tree with leaves as large or larger than those of T. glabra but silvery white like those of its other parent. A variety of this hybrid called \"Moltkei\" originated many years ago in a German nursery. It is a tree of denser habit and darker leaves than T. spectabilis and grows well in the Arboretum. The Arboretum collection of Lindens has been arranged in the meadow on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. It now contains forty-five species, hybrids and varieties, and offers a good opportunity for the study of these trees, although they are of course too young to show their habit at maturity. Many of them, however, have produced flowers and ripened fruit for several years, and every year information of their permanent value in this region is accumulating. The Sorrel Tree, Oxydendrum arboreum, is already covered with flowers which will open before the end of the month. This tree is a native of the southern Appalachian forests. It has deciduous bright green, shining leaves which have a pleasant acidulous flavor and in the autumn turn bright scarlet, Andromeda-like flowers erect on the branches of spreading or slightly drooping terminal clusters, and pale capsular fruits which in the autumn are conspicuous among the brilliant leaves. In its native forests the Sorrel-tree sometimes grows to a height of sixty feet, but as it grows slowly and begins to flower at the north when only a few feet high it will probably never attain a great size here. It is one of the handsomest, nevertheless, of summer-flowering trees which can be grown in New England. There is a group of these plants among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. The summer-flowering Buckeye, Aesculus parviflora, is already covered with its tall narrow spikes of small, slender, white flowers with long exserted stamens, and is perhaps the most conspicuous of the summer-flowering shrubs, with the exception of Hydrangeas, which are hardy in the Arboretum. It is a native of the southeastern states from South Carolina to Florida and Alabama, and nowhere abundant it appears to be most common in northern Alabama. It has long, however, been a favorite in gardens in which it produces stems seven or eight feet high and in good soil and with sufficient room spreads into great thickets often twenty or thirty feet across. Cornus amomum, the Silky Cornel, is the last of the American Dogwoods to bloom and flowers can still be found on many of the plants in the Arboretum where they have been largely used. In cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend freely over the ground. When crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty and value. To be seen at its best this Cornel should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. It is well suited for the front of groups of trees and shrubs, and there is no better shrub to plant by the margins of ponds and streams where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. Its purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the value of this native shrub. Its value and beauty as a water-side plant can be seen at two of the small ponds near the end of the Meadow Road. Cornus paucinervis, introduced by Wilson from China, is the last of the Dogwoods to flower in the Arboretum, It is a shrub now six or seven feet tall with erect stems and short spreading branches, small, narrow pointed leaves with only two or three pairs of prominent veins, small clusters of white flowers and black fruit. This shrub grew and flowered well for several years in the Arboretum but was badly injured by the exceptional cold of the winter of 1917-18; it has partly recovered and the plant in the Chinese collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill is now covered with flowers. A native of low level lands in central China where the Orange flourishes and rarely ascending to altitudes of three thousand feet, it is not surprising that the New England climate is too severe for it. Further south Cornus paucinervis should be a valuable summer-flowering shrub. Calluna. There is a good collection of the varieties of the Scotch Heather (Calluna vulgaris) in the Arboretum and the bright crimson flowers of the first of them to bloom here (var. rubra) are already open. The flowers of some of the white-flowered varieties are beginning to open and for several weeks now the different Heathers will be an interesting feature of the Shrub Collection. It does not appear to be very generally known in this country that the European Calluna is hardy in northeastern North America, where it has become naturalized near the northern border of Massachusetts and in Nova Scotia. On one Massachusetts estate where it was planted only a few years ago it has spread over several acres, and in late July or early August makes a great show. Calluna should be planted in not too rich, thoroughly drained soil and in full exposure to the sun. The ends of branches are sometimes killed in winter but this does not do the plants permanent harm; and the advantage of the severe pruning of the old wood the plants receive in early spring before they begin to grow is seen in the compact habit and abundant bloom of the plants in the Arboretum collection. Unless they are so pruned the plants become thin and bare of leaves, and are often short-lived. Philadelphus argyrocalyx. This handsome plant has flowered this year for the first time in the Arboretum where it is established in the Shrub Collection. A native of the southwest, the Arboretum plants were gathered in 1916 by Mr. Alfred Rehder on the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico, at altitudes of eight thousand five hundred feet. It is a small shrub with small elliptic leaves. The flowers are solitary, an inch across, and the calyx, like the lower surface of the leaves, is covered with a thick mat of snow white hairs. It flowers late, at the same time or only a little earlier than the hybrid Philadelphus insignis which blooms later than any other Philadelphus in the Arboretum collection. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the Autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 23","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23761","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd260a76a.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 23, 1922 Memorial Trees. The use of trees as memorials for soldiers who lost their lives in the Great War is now popular in this country, judging by the number of letters which come to the Arboretum on the subject. The planting, too, of trees to commemorate the visit of an Association or of a distinguished individual to a spot of historical interest has long been practiced in the United States and has often interfered, with disfiguring results, with well considered planting plans. Even the plans of George Washington, a master planter of trees, have suffered by the zeal of his admirers who have too often in efforts for self-aggrandizement sacrificed the simple beauty of Mount Vernon by insisting on planting among Washington's native trees Japanese Maples, European Oaks, Chinese Mulberries and other trees which fortunately have usually proved short-lived in the valley of the Potomac. Clearly the essential thing in a memorial tree is its ability to live long. The tree selected therefore should be the native tree which _ grows to the greatest age in the particular locality and in the kind of soil in which it is proposed to establish the memorial. A native tree should be used for the trees native to any locality have become, through thousands of years of cross-breeding and natural selection, better able to live long and flourish in that locality than any foreign tree or any tree brought from a distant part of this country. All sorts of trees are being used as soldiers' memorials. In a western city a long memorial avenue of Japanese Cherry-trees has been planted. The kind selected is a handsome tree, but its seeds first reached the United States in 1892. Japanese trees are well known to be short-lived in this country, and who can foresee the future of this tree in North America? In another city an avenue of the Chinese Pagoda-tree (Sophora) is suggested as a memorial. This is a handsome tree interesting in the fact that its abundant pea-like white flowers do not open until midsummer. In some of the open places in Peking are specimens of this tree which from a distance look like great Oak-trees. They may be two or three hundred years old. In this country this tree has probably not been growing for more than seventy or eighty years and its growth here has not been rapid. There seems to be no good reason why the Chinese Sophora should be used as a memorial for an American soldier. But the most unfortunate selection for a soldier's memorial is that made by a patriotic Connecticut community which has planted a group of Colorado Blue Spruces for this purpose. This Spruce by its unusual color probably has taken the popular fancy; it is easily raised; it grows rapidly, and is hardy even in the extreme north. More of these Blue Spruces are sold every year in the northeastern states perhaps than of all other conifers combined. Millions of dollars have been expended on it, and in fifty years from now it is pretty safe to predict that not one per cent. of the trees planted this year will be alive. The Blue Spruce was discovered in 1862, and it was first raised in that year in the Harvard Botanic Garden by Dr. Asa Gray. In Colorado, where it grows near the banks of streams in colonies of scattered plants it loses many of its branches and becomes unsightly by the time it is fifty years old. In cultivation it gradually loses branches long before it has reached that age, and it usually becomes unsightly and only fit for the brush pile. There are objections to using even the longest lived trees as memorials. Even Elms and White Oaks in New England, Laurel Oaks in Florida and Live Oaks in South Carolina and Louisiana, Black Walnuts in Illinois and Burr Oaks in Wisconsin may suffer from bad treatment. Unexpected calamities are liable to happen to trees; they are often injured by fire or killed by lightning, and neglect is often the fate of trees in this country. Twenty years ago no nobler tree for a Pennsylvania memorial could have been found than the Chestnut and now every Chestnut-tree in the state has been killed by a disease for which no remedy can be found. In the northern part of the eastern states there is not a more appropriate tree than the White Pine to mark the grave of a soldier, but the White Pine is menaced by a deadly disease and no one should now plant it for any purpose with the expectation that it will live through its natural life of one or two centuries. Trees as memorials appeal to the imagination of many persons. Theoretically they have much to recommend them for this purpose. There are few men who would not be happy in thinking that their memory was to be kept green by one of the great New England Elm-trees, or by such a Live Oak as grows in Audubon Park, New Orleans, but in recent years the best Elm-tree in Massachusetts was first mutilated and then destroyed by storms long before it reached maturity, and the large New Orleans Live Oaks may at any time succumb to one of the West Indian hurricanes which every year destroy buildings and trees on the Gulf Coast. There are at least, however, two splendid memorials made by trees. The best known of them are rows of Cryptomerias which shade the road which leads to the Temples in Nikko, Japan. These trees were planted between 1631 and 1651 and extend for a distance of twenty-four miles along the road. A few of the trees have been killed by fire but by the latest reports 18,308 trees are still standing and in good health. The story of their planting is interesting. When the Temple at Nikko, which is the burial place of Ieyasu, the founder of the Tokugawa Dynasty, was built, his successor in the Shogunate called upon the Daimyos of the Empire to send each a stone or a bronze lantern to decorate the ground about the mortuary Temple. All complied with the order but one man, Matsudaira Masatsuma, who, too poor to send a lantern, offered instead to plant trees by the roadside that visitors to the Temple might be shaded from the heat of the sun. He did his work so well that these trees promise to live for centuries longer, and this memorial to Ieyasu is one of the important sights of Japan. The second of the great tree memorials is in California where a block of Redwood-forest on Eel River has recently been dedicated to the memory of Colonel Royal Cawthorn Bolling of the American Aviator Service who was killed in France on March 26, 1918. If trees are selected as a memorial there can be nothing more splendid and more enduring than a part of the Redwood-forest, the most beautiful of all the forests of the world. The Redwood is the tallest of all trees and one of the largest in girth of stem. It grows in a region of humid atmosphere where forest fires rarely occur, and if the trees are cut, or killed by lightning they reproduce themselves by shoots which grow from the stump. The man who has secured this Redwood memorial for his friend has done patriotic service, too, for his country. For the Redwood-forest, which occupies only a narrow strip of territory along the coast of northern California contains the greatest stand of valuable timber per acre in the world, and in the hands of lumber-men must soon disappear if the movement now on foot to preserve at least parts of it is not successful. If memorials are to be erected for soldiers and other men in the form of trees the Redwood-forest offers the best opportunity in beauty and permanency which can be found anywhere in the world. Fruits. The fruit of many shrubs and of several trees has been unusually abundant this year. That of many Crabapples, Cotoneasters and Hawthorns has been exceptionally fine. In the early autumn that of Cornus obliqua and Evonymus planiples were especially noticeable. This Cornus which has generally been confused with C. Amomun, the Silky Cornel, was first distinguished many years ago by Rafinesque and later was named in Germany Cornus Purpusii. C. obliqua and C. A7rcomum both grow in Massachusetts, but the latter is an Appalachian species while C. obliqua is most abundant in the Mississippi valley. C. obliqua is a more upright shrub, very distinct in its narrower leaves silvery white on their lower surface and rather larger sometimes paler blue fruit which ripens at least a month earlier than that of C. Amomum. In the Arboretum this year C. obl2qua has been the handsomest of the Cornels in late summer and early autumn Euonymus planipes is a native of northern Japan where it grows into a large shrub. It has not been many years in the Arboretum and its fruit becomes more abundant every year. It has the large broad leaves of the European E. latifolia, the inconspicuous flowers of the genus, and crimson lustrous fruit which hangs gracefully on long slender stalks, and is larger and more beautiful than that of any other Burning Bush in the collection. Still rare and little known in gardens, it is an ornamental shrub of the first class in this climate. Cotoneasters. The fruit of some of the species, like that of C. racemosa soongarica, was ripe in August This is one of the handsomest of the new Chinese species when the long gracefully arching branches are covered with its erect clusters of white flowers, and when these are followed by the abundant showy orange-red fruit. All the forms of C. horizontalis are still covered with their small lustrous leaves and small bright red fruit. Of this group the var. purpusilla is proving the best garden plant here. Other red-flowered species which are now at their best are C. adpressa and C. apiculata, low growing species with spreading stems. Handsome, too, now are the large growing C. davurica, C. Dielsiana, and C. Franchettii, for they are also covered with green leaves and red fruit. C. nitens, a species with red flowers and small black fruit, is also a handsome autumn plant for none of the Chinese Cotoneasters have more lustrous leaves and more gracefully spreading and drooping branches. Lonicera Maackii var. podocarpa. Of the plants in the Arboretum conspicuous at this time for the beauty of their fruit none perhaps is more beautiful than this Honeysuckle which was introduced by Wilson from central China. It is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with wide-spreading branches and open habit. The flowers are larger than those of most Honeysuckles and are white, and in one form white slightly tinged with rose color. The period of the greatest beauty of this plant, however, is late October, for now it is still covered with bright green leaves and the large scarlet, lustrous fruits are only just ripe. The best specimens of this Honeysuckle in the Arboretum can be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Some American Plum-trees. For the beauty of their fruit some of the Plum-trees from the region which extends from southern Illinois to Oklahoma and northern Texas are among the most important additions which in recent years have been made to gardens. The bright scarlet fruit of some of the species ripens in October when the leaves are still fresh, green and lustrous: and in October there is not a Crabapple or a Hawthorn which equals them in beauty. Many of the Plumtrees are growing in the Arboretum which is responsible for their introduction into northern gardens, but to see them in their beauty it is necessary to visit the parks of Rochester, New York, for in the Arboretum it is now necessary to pick the fruit before it ripens, that the plants may not be broken down by boys who appear to be less lawless in Rochester than they are in Boston. The best of these plants for autumn decoration are Prunus hortulana, the handsomest and one of the largest of all Plum-trees (the largest Arboretum specimen was entirely ruined by boys a few years ago); P. Reverchonii, which grows on the prairies of northern Texas as a low shrub but in cultivation becomes a small tree, and some of the large Oklahoma forms of P. angustifolia. Lovers of plants will be repaid by an autumn journey to Rochester to see the Plum-collections."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 31","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23762","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcacd260ab6a.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VIII NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 31, 1922 Conifers. The value of institutions like the Arboretum appears in the fact that several cone-bearing plants which were first cultivated in this country at this Arboretum are now generally recognized as the best plants in their different classes which can be grown in the northeastern United States. The most important of the conifers introduced by the Arboretum are Tsuga caroliniana, Picea Engelmannii, Picea Omorika, Picea Glehnii, the Colorado form of Abies concolor, the interior form of Thuya plicata, Juniperus chinensis var. Sargentii and Picea glauca var. albertiana conica. Tsuga caroliniana, the Carolina Hemlock, as it grows in the Arboretum is generally considered the most graceful and beautiful cone-bearing tree in the collection. It is a native of the Blue Ridge, the eastern range of the Appalachian Mountains on which it grows from southwestern Virginia to northern Georgia usually in scattered groves on the rocky banks of streams usually at elevations between two thousand five hundred and three thousand feet. It escaped the attention of the numerous botanists who explored the southern Appalachian Mountains during the last half of the eighteenth and the first half of the nineteenth century, and its distinct character was first noticed in 1850 by Dr. L. B. Gibbes of Charleston, S. C., although it was not until thirty-one years later that it was described by Dr. Engelman. This Hemlock was first raised at the Arboretum in 1880 and the tallest tree here is now nearly forty feet high. On the Blue Ridge the Carolina Hemlock is usually not more than forty or fifty feet high, although occasionally trees up to seventy feet in height occur, and the trunk has rarely a greater diameter than two feet. It is a much smaller tree therefore than the northern Hemlock. The branches are more pendulous and the leaves are darker green and more lustrous than those of this tree. The leaves, too, are usually notched at the apex and slightly toothed, while those of the northern tree are usually rounded at the apex and are not toothed. The two trees are, however, best distinguished by their cones; those of the southern tree are not stalked and their scales are much longer than broad with obtusely pointed bracts; and those of the northern trees are stalked and the scales are about as long as wide with bracts broad and truncate at the apex. Many persons see and admire the Carolina Hemlock in the Arboretum every year, but it is still rare in cultivation, and probably ten thousand Colorado Blue Spruces (Picea pungens) are planted in this country every year for one Carolina Hemlock. It is not found in many American nurseries, and the price at which it is offered is excessive. Picea Engelmannii, which is the common and most widely distributed Spruce of the Rocky Mountains, was discovered in Colorado in 1862 by D. C. C. Parry. Seeds are said to have been sent by him in that year to the Harvard Botanic Garden, but there is no record that plants were raised there; and it is believed that this tree was first cultivated in 1879 when seeds were planted in this Arboretum. The Engelmann Spruce grows to its largest size on the mountains of Colorado where trees one hundred and fifty feet high with trunks up to five feet in diameter have been seen; further north and south the trees are smaller. As it grew in great forests which fifty years ago covered the slopes of the Colorado mountains up to altitudes of ten thousand feet it was with its light cinnamon red bark and narrow pyramidal crown of soft light gray-green leaves one of the handsomest, perhaps the handsomest of all Spruce-trees. The Engelmann Spruce has grown well in the Arboretum, and the tallest trees here are nearly forty feet high. For many years the stems were clothed with branches to the ground, but four or five years ago the lower branches began to die and the trunks of the largest trees arc now naked for a distance of seven or eight feet from the ground. The narrow crowns are still perfectly healthy and the trees are growing rapidly. Engelmann's Spruce is a good ornamental tree to plant in New England, and its hardiness, the rapidity of its growth, and the value of the timber it produces may make it a valuable tree for forest planting in the northeastern states. In western Europe, where Engelmann's Spruce suffers from spring frosts, it is little known, which is perhaps the reason that it has been so little planted in the eastern states for Americans have been often too much governed in the selection of trees by what is known of them in England. From all points of view Picea Engelmannii is now the best Spruce which has been planted in the Arboretum. Picea Omorika, the Servian Spruce which was not distinguished until 1875, was first raised at the Arboretum in 1880 from seeds presented to it by the late Dr. Bolle of Berlin. The Arboretum trees are now from thirty to forty feet high, with trunks clothed to the ground with short branches which form a narrow pyramid clothed with leaves dark green and lustrous on the ventral surface and pale on the other. This Spruce has proved perfectly hardy here and is one of the handsomest conifers in the whole collection in which there are fortunately several individuals. The only objection to this tree is that it often loses its leader by the attacks of the borer which so often destroys that of the native White Pine. In southeastern Europe, where the Servian Spruce is widely distributed and forms great forests, it is an important timber tree, growing up to a height of one hundred and thirty feet, with a girth of trunk of not more than four feet. Picea Glehnii is a native of northern Japan and Saghalin where it was discovered by a Russian botanist in 1861. Seeds of this tree are said to have reached Europe in 1871; those of the Japanese tree were planted in the Arboretum in 1892. It is of course too soon to speak with much authority about the value of this tree in eastern America. The Arboretum trees have grown rapidly, are perfectly hardy, and are certainly the most satisfactory here of the Japanese Spruces. Judging by the latitude of its native home, this Spruce should prove hardy far north in eastern America. Abies concolor, the Rocky Mountain form of the White Fir of western America, was first raised in the Arboretum in 1874 from seeds collected by Dr. Engelmann on the Spanish Peaks of southern Colorado. It is said that a few seeds of this tree reached Europe from New Mexico two years earlier, but the statement needs confirmation. There are good specimens in the Arboretum raised from Dr. Engelmann's seeds nearly sixty feet high and with trunks still clothed with branches to the ground, and this Colorado tree must with our present knowledge be considered the best Fir-tree which can be grown in the northeastern states. Its only rival here is the Japanese Abies homolepis which was introduced into the United States in the early sixties through the Parsons Nursery, but has only recently been appreciated and is still rare in American collections. Abies concolor is now one of the most generally planted conifers in the eastern states. Thuya plicata, the Red Cedar of the northwest, is one of the great trees of the world, often growing in western Oregon and Washington to a height of two hundred feet with a trunk fifteen feet in diameter. Plants raised from seeds gathered in the coast region have never proved hardy in the eastern states, but fortunately this tree - of less gigantic sizes ranges eastward to the eastern slope of the continental divide in Montana, and in 1880 seeds collected near Fort Coeur d'Alene in Idaho by Dr. Sereno Watson were planted at the Arboretum. The plants raised from these seeds have grown rapidly and have proved perfectly hardy, and are now the handsomest trees of their class in the collection. Like other Arbor Vitaes this tree is easily propagated by cuttings and a few American nurserymen are beginning to appreciate its beauty and value. One of the valuable timber trees of North America, this tree now promises to play its part in the decoration of eastern parks and gardens. Juniperus chinensis var. Sargentii is generally considered the handsomest of the numerous Junipers with prostrate stems which are now known in gardens. It was first raised at the Arboretum in 1893 from seeds collected the previous year by Professor Sargent in Japan. The original plants here are now dense mats of bright green foliage ten feet across and only a few inches high. Picea glauca var. albertiana conica. The original plant of this little Spruce was found in 1904 near Banff in Alberta by Professor Jack and the largest plants now in cultivation are only about three feet tall. No other dwarf Spruce is so pyramidal in habit and so dense in foliage, and Professor Jack's introduction proves to be one of the most interesting and distinct of all the dwarf conifers. Much attention has been paid to it in England during the last two or three years and it is now found in a few American nurseries. Callicarpa japonica. The so-called French Mulberry, Callicarpa americana, in late autumn and early winter when it is covered with its violet colored fruit is one of the handsomest shrubs of the southern states where it is common and attracts the attention and curiosity of northern travelers. The French Mulberry unfortunately is not hardy in New England, but it can be well replaced here by a Japanese and Korean member of the genus, Callicarpa japonica. This shrub was first cultivated in the Parsons' Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, sixty years ago. It soon disappeared from American gardens but was raised at the Arboretum in 1887 and has now been well established here for many years. It is a smaller shrub than the American species with smaller leaves and smaller, rather lighter-colored, lustrous violet fruit. The Korean form of this plant, which has been growing in the Arboretum since 1904, is a more vigorous plant with rather larger fruit. This autumn the fruit has been unusually abundant and the Korean Callicarpa has been one of the most beautiful objects in the Arboretum. The attention of lovers of hardy shrubs is again called to the beauty and value of this plant. Other Asiatic species in the collection are the Japanese and Korean Callicarpa dichotoma and the west China C. Giraldii. The latter is not very hardy and has not produced fruit here yet, and C. dichotoma, which is hardy, ripens its fruit very late and as an ornamental plant is inferior to C. japonica. These Callicarpas are arranged in a group on the upper side of Azalea Path close to its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road. Ilex serrata. The two so-called Black Alders of the United States, Ilex verticillata and Ilex laevigata, have not before in the Arboretum been more thickly covered with their bright red fruit which remains on the branches long after the leaves have fallen and makes them conspicuous objects during the last two months of the year. Although smaller than that of the American species, the fruit of the Japanese Ilex serrata is more lustrous and even more beautiful. This is a narrow and more slender shrub than the American Black Alders which in Japan is common and widely distributed, and grows to the height of twelve or fifteen feet. It is hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for many years by Hickory Path near Centre Street, and where the plants are now covered with fruit which will remain on the branches until the leaves unfold in the spring. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index to Volume VIII","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23747","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd0608927.jpg","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX TO VOL. VIII Synonyms are in italics Abies concolor, 65, 67 homolepis, 67 Mariesii,5 Acacia, Rose, 32 Acer Negundo,9 platanoides,9 var. columnare, 10 var. cucullatum, 10 var. dissectum, 10 var. globosum, 10 var. Schwedleri, 10 var. Stollii, 10 rubrum var. columnare, 10 saccharinum, 3 saccharum, 10 var. monumentale, 10 tataricum, 55 Aesculus parviflora, 59 Alder, Japanese Black, 68 Alders, Black, 68 Alnus incana, 3 Amelanchier canadensis, 11 laevis, 11 obovalis, 11 Amelanchiers, 10, 11 American Crabapples, 25, 26 Hawthorns, 17, 18 Plums,8 Plum-trees, some, 64 Prairie Rose, 48 White Elm, 50 Yew, 5 Apple, Fluke, 27 Arbor Vitae, 3, 5, 67 Ashes, Green, 2 Asiatic Crabapples, 13, 14 Flowering Dogwoods, 40 Azalea nudiflora, 28 rosea, 28 Schlippenbachii, 19, 20 Vaseyi, 28 yedoense var. poukhanense, 20 Azaleas, early American, 28 Korean, 20 Bay, Sweet, 44 Bechtel Crab, 26 Betula nigra,2 Birches, River, 1,2 Birch-trees,1 Bitternut,2 Black Alders, 68 Walnuts, 62 Box Elder, 9 Broad-leaved Evergreens, 6, 7 Broom, European, 24 Buckeye, the summer-flowering, 59 Burning Bush, 64 Burr Oaks, 62 Bush Honeysuckles, 55 Callicarpa americana, 68 dichotoma, 68 Giraldii, 68 japonica, 68 Calluna, 60 vulgaris, 60 var. rubra, 60 Camperdown Elm, 50 Canada Plum, 8 Carolina Hemlock, 65, 66 Carya cordiformis, 2 glabra,2 ovalis, 2 Ceanothus americanus, 55 coeruleus, 55 Gloire de Versailles, 55 Fendleri, 55 ovatus, 55 var. pubescens, 55 pallidus plenus, 55 hybrid, 55 Cedar, Red, 67 White, 3, 5 Cedars of Lebanon, 5 Chamaecyparis thyoides, 3, 5 Charlotte Crab, 26 Cherry, Chinese, 8 Japanese Spring, 7 Cherry, Sargent, 8 Weeping Japanese, 7 Cherry-trees, Japanese, 61 Chestnut-tree, 62 Chinese Cherry, 8 Cotoneasters, 64 Flowering Dogwood, 40 Lilacs, 22 Pagoda-tree, 62 Peach, 2 Pear-trees, 12 Philadelphus, 42 Spruces, 6 Climbing Hydrangea, 47 Cockspur Thorns, 38, 39 Colorado Blue Spruces, 62 Conifers, 65 Cornel, Silky, 59, 60, 63 Cornish Elm, 50 Cornus Amomum, 59, 63 florida, 40 obliqua, 63 paucinervis, 60 Cornus Purpusii, 63 Corylopsis Gotoana, 3 pauciflora, 3 Corylus, 3 Cotoneaster adpressa, 64 apiculata, 64 davuricata, 64 Dielsiana, 64 Franchetii, 64 horizontalis, 64 var. perpusilla, 64 nitens, 64 racemiflora soongarica, 64 Cotoneasters, 64 Chinese, 64 Crab, Bechtel, 26 Charlotte, 26 Mammoth, 27 Parkman, 15 Red Siberian, 14 Soulard's, 27 Von Siebold's, 16 Crabs, Siberian, 14 Crabapple, Manchurian, 14 Siberian, 14 Crabapples, American, 25, 26 Crabapples, Asiatic, 13, 14 Crataegus aprica, 36 arkansana, 18, 19 arnoldiana, 18 coccinea, 36 coccinioides, 24 cordata, 43 Crus-galli, 38, 39 var. pyracanthifolia, 39 erecta, 39 Hillii, 38 Holmesiana, 38 intricata, 39 modesta, 39, 40 mollis, 18, 19 monogyna, 43 nitida, 29, 30 Oxyacantha, 43 pedicellata, 37, 38 var. gloriosa, 38 peoriensis, 39 Phaenopyrum, 43, 44 Pringlei, 38 pruinosa, 28 prunifolia, 31 punctata, 30 speciosa, 24 succulenta, 30, 31 tomentosa, 31 viridis, 29 Cryptomerias, 62, 63 Cytisus Beanii, 24 elongatus, 24 nigricans, 47 ratisbonensis, 24 Decumaria barbara, 54 Dogwood, Chinese Flowering, 40 Dogwoods, Asiatic Flowering, 40 Japanese Flowering, 40 Douglasianae 1 horns, 18 Dutch Elms, 51 Eagle Claw Maple, 10 Early American Azaleas, 28 Early-flowering Pear-trees, 11, 12 Summer Hydrangeas, 47, 48 Viburnums, 20 Early Locusts, 32 Effects of the Winter, some, 5 Elder, Box, 9 Elderberry, 46, 47 Eleagnus angustifolia, 44 Elm, American White, 50 Camperdown, 50 Cornish, 50 Dutch, 51 Guernsey, 50 Hertfordshire, 50 Huntingdon, 51 Scotch, 50 Wych, 50 Elms, 62 English, 49, 50 Paddock, 49 Elm-trees, 2 Engelmann Spruce, 66 English Elms, 49, 50 Erica carnea, 3 tetralix, 3 European Broom, 24 Yew, 5 Evergreens, broad-leaved, 6, 7 Evonymus latifolia, 63 planipes, 63 Fir, White, 67 Flavae Thorns, 18 Fluke Apple, 27 Fothergilla major, 20 monticola, 20 Fraxinus pennsylvanica, 2 French Mulberry, 68 Garland Tree, 26 Genista tinctoria, 47 var. elatior, 47 Green Ashes, 2 Ground Hemlock, 5 Guernsey Elm, 50 Hawthorns, American, 17, 18 Hazel, 3 Heather, Scotch, 60 Heathers, 60 Hemlock, Carolina, 65, 66 Ground, 5 Hertfordshire Elm, 50 Hickory-trees, 2 Himalayan Lilac, 21 Hobblebush, 20 Hollies, Two Japanese, 55 Holly, Japanese, 7 Honeysuckle, Tartarian, 55 Honeysuckles, Bush, 55 Hungarian Lilac, 21 Huntingdon Elm, 51 Hybrid Ceanothus, 55 Philadelphus, 42, 43 Hydrangea arborescens, 52 Bretschneideri, 48 cinerea, 52 paniculata, 52 var. grandiflora, 52 var. praecox, 52 petiolaris, 47, b4 quercifolia, 52 radiata, 52 Rosthornii, 48 xanthoneura, 48 var. setchuenensis, 48 var. Wilsonii, 48 Climbing, 47 Japanese Climbing, 54 Hydrangeas, Chinese, 48 Early-flowering summer, 47, 48 Ilex crenata,7 geniculata, 55 glabra, 7 laevigata, 68 serrata, 55, 68 verticillata, 55, 68 Inkberry, 6 Intricatae Thorns, 18 Itea ilicifolia, 55 virginica, 54 Japanese Black Alder, 68 Black Pine, 6 Cherry-trees, 61 Climbing Hydrangeas, 54 Flowering Dogwoods, 40 Holly, 7 Lacquer-tree, 56 Spring Cherry, 7 Tree Lilac, 22 Umbrella Pine, 5 Yew, 5 Junipers, 5 Juniperus chinensis, var. Sargentii, 65, 67, 68 virginiana, 5 Kaido, 14, 15 Kalmia latifolia, 6, 40 Kieffer Pears, 12 Koelreuteria, 32 paniculata, 56 Korean Azaleas, 20 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 56 Late-flowering Magnolias, 44 Late Roses, 48 Laurel Oaks, 62 Laurels, 6 Leconte Pears, 12 Lemoine Hybrid Philadelphus, 43 Lilac, Himalayan, 21 Hungarian, 21 Japanese Tree, 22 Persian, 21 Lilacs, 21, 22, 23 Chinese, 22 Linden-trees, 57, 58, 59 Live Oaks, 62 Locusts, early, 32 Lonicera bella, 55 Maackii, 56 var. podocarpa, 64 Morrowii, 36, 56 muendeniensis, 55 notha, 55 Ruprechtiana var. xanthocarpa, 55 tatarica, 55, 56 Macracanthae Thorns, 18, 30, 31 Magnolia glauca, 44 macrophylla, 44 stellata, 3 virginiana, 44 Magnolias, late-flowering, 44 Malus angustifolia, 27 arnoldiana, 15 atrosanguinea, 16 baccata, 14 f. gracilis, 14 var. Jackii, 14 baccata mandshurica, 14 bracteata, 27 Malus cerasifera, 14 coronaria, 26 var. Charlottae, 26 var. dasycalyx, 26 var. elongata, 26 Dawsonii, 27, 28 floribunda, 15 fusca, 27 glabrata, 27 glaucescens, 25, 26 Halliana, 14 var. Parkmanii, 15 ioensis, 26 var. plena, 26 lancifolia, 27 micromalus, 14, 15 platycarpa, 26, 27 var. Hoopesii, 26 prunifolia rinki, 16 pumila, 27 robusta, 14, 15, 16 f. persicifolia, 14 Sargentii, 16 Scheideckeri, 16 Sieboldii, 16 var. arborescens, 16 Soulardii, 27 sublobata, 16 theifera, 15 var. rosea, 15 Mammoth Crab, 27 Manchurian Crabapple, 14 Maple, Eagle Claw, 10 Norway, 9, 10 Silver,3 Sugar, 10 Tartarian, 55 Memorial Trees, 61 Mock Orange, 41, 42 Molles Thorns, 18 Moosewood, 20 Mulberry, French, 68 Norway Maple, 9, 10 Oaks, Burr, 62 Laurel, 62 Live, 62 White, 62 Oleaster, 44 Orange, Mock, 41, 42 Oxydendrum arboreum, 59 Paddock Elms, 49 Pagoda-tree, Chinese, 62 Parkman Crab, 15 Peach, Chinese, 2 Peach-trees, 2 Pears, Kieffer, 12 Leconte, 12 Sand, 12 Pear-trees, Chinese, 12 early-flowering, 11, 12 Pecan-tree, 2 Persian Lilac, 21 Philadelphus, 41, 42, 43 Chinese, 42 Hybrid, 42, 43 Lemoine Hybrid, 43 Souvenir de Billard, 42, 43 argyrocalyx, 60 coronarius, 41, 42 cymosus, 43 Conquete, 43 Mer de Glace, 43 Norma, 43 Nuee Blanche, 43 Perle Blanche, 43 Rosace, 43 Voie Lacte, 43 Falconeri, 42 grandiflorus, 42 inodorus, 42 insignis, 43, 60 latifolius, 42 Lemoinei, 43 Magdalenae, 42 maximus, 43 microphyllus, 42 pekinensis, 42 polyanthus, 43 Gerbe de Neige, 43 Pavillon Blanc, 43 pubescens, 42 purpurascens, 42 splendens, 43 virginalis, 43 Argentina, 43 Bouquet Blanc, 43 Glacier, 43 Philadelphus Virginal, 43 Picea Breweriana, 5 Engelmannii, 65, 66 glauca, var. albertiana conica, 65, 68 Glehnii, 65, 67 omorika, 65, 66 Picea pungens, 66 Sargentii, 6 Pieris floribunda, 7 Pine, Japanese Black, 6 Japanese Umbrella, 5 Scotch, 6 White, 1, 62 Pinus sinensis, 5, 6 var. densata, 6 var. yunnanensis, 6 Strobus, 1 sylvestris, 6 Thunbergii, 6 Plum, Canada, 8 Sand, 8 Plums, American, 8 Plum-trees, 8 some American, 64 Poplar-trees, 2 Populus laurifolia, 2 Maximowiczii, 2 Simonii, 2 Prinsepia sinensis, 3, 4 Pruinrosae Thorns, 28 Prunus alleghaniensis, 8 americana, 8 angustifolia, 64 concinna, 8 Davidiana, 2 hortulana, 8, 64 incisa, 12 maritima, 8 Munsoniana, 8 nigra, 8 Reverchonii, 62 salicina, 8 serrulata var. sachalinensis, 8 subhirtella, 7 var. ascendens, 7 subhirtella pendula, 7 Watsonsii, 8 Pyrus Calleryana, 12 serotina, 12 Pyrus ussuriensis, 11 var. ovoidea, 11 Red Cedar, 67 Red Siberian Crab, 14 Redwood, 63 Rhododendron arborescens, 46 arbutifolium, 46 calendulaceum, 28, 40, 46 carolinianum, 35, 46 catawbiense, 34, 35 hybrids of, 34 Album elegans, 34 Album grandiflorum, 34 Atrosanguineum, 34 Catawbiense album, 35 Charles Dickens, 34 Discolor, 34 Everestianum, 35 Hannibal, 34 Henrietta Sargent 34 H. W. Sargent, 34 Lady Armstrong, 34 Melton, 34 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 34 Purpureum elegans, 34 Purpureum grandiflorum, 34 Roseum elegans, 34 caucasicum, 35 hybrids of, 35 Boule de Neige, 35 Christmas Cheer, 35 Jacksonii, 35 Mont Blanc, 35 coriaceum, 35 dahuricum, 3 var. sempervirens, 3 daphnoides, 46 delicatissimum, 45 ferrugineum, 46 Hammondii, 46 hirsutum, 46 maximum, 34, 45 superbum, 53 minus, 35, 46 var. Harbisonii, 46 mucronulatum, 2, 3 myrtifolium, 46 nudiflorum, 28 oleaefolium, 46 Rhododendron ponticum, 34 punctatum, 35, 46 roseum, 28 Schlippenbachii, 19 Smirnowii, 35 Vaseyi, 28 Wellesleyanum, 53 Wilsonii, 46 yedoense var. poukhanense, 20 Rhododendrons, 33, 34, 35 Catawbiense Hybrids, 6 Rhus aromatica, 56 canadensis, 56 Ripening of fruits, the, 55 River Birches, 1, 2 Robinia hispida, 32 Kelseyi, 32 Michauxii, 32 Slavinii, 32 Rosa caudata, 48 Ecae, 31 Hugonis, 31 Jackii, 48 lucida, 48 Moyesii, 40 pyrifera, 48 setigera, 48 stellata, 48 virginiana, 48 var. lamprophylla, 48 Wichuraiana, 48 Rose Acacia, 32 American Prairie, 48 Roses, late, 48 Salix acutifolia, 3 gracilistyla, 3 Sambucus canadensis, 46, 47 var. acutiloba, 47 var. aurea, 47 var. chlorocarpa, 47 var. maxima, 47 Sand Pears, 12 Plum, 8 Sargent Cherry, 8 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 54 integrifolia, 54 Sciadopitys, 5 Scotch Elm, 60 Heather, 60 Scotch Pine, 6 Servian Spruce, 66, 67 Service Berry, 11 Shad Bushes, 10, 11 Shrubs, summer-flowering, 45 Siberian Crabapple, 14 Crabs, 14 Silky Cornel, 59, 60, 63 Silver Maple, 3 . Sorrel-tree, the, 59 Soulard's Crab, 27 Spruce, Engelmann, 66 Servian, 66, 67 Spruces, Chinese, 6 Spruces, Colorado Blue, 62 Stewartia Malachodendron, 56 pentagyna, 56 var. grandiflora, 56 pseudo-camellia, 56 Sugar Maple, 10 Summer-flowering Buckeye, the, 59 Shrubs, 45 Sweet Bay, 44 Symplocos crataegoides, 32 paniculata, 32 Syringa, 41 affinis, 23 var. Giraldiana, 23 amurensis, 22 chinensis, 21 var. alba, 21 coronarius, 41, 42 dilatata, 23 Emodi, 21 formossissima, 23 Henryi, 22 var. eximia, 22 var. Lutece, 22 hyacinthiflora, 22 japonica, 22 Josikaea, 21 Julianae, 23 Koehneana, 23 Meyeri, 23 microphylla, 23 oblata, 22 Palabiniana, 23 pekinensis, 22, 23 persica, 21 var. laciniata, 21 Syringa pinnatifolia, 23 pubescens, 22, 23 reflexa, 23 Sargentiana, 23 Sweginzowii, 23 tomentella, 23 velutina, 23 villosa, 22 vulgaris, 21 azurea plena, 21 Wolfii, 23 yunnanensis, 23 Syringas, 41, 42, 43 Tartarian Honeysuckle, 55 Maple, 55 Taxus baccata, 5 var. repandens, 5 canadensis, 5 cuspidata, 5 Tenuifoliae Thorns, 18 Thorn, Washington, 43, 44 Thorns, Cockspur, 38, 39 Thuya occidentalis, 3, 5 plicata, 65, 67 Talia americana, 57 cordata, 58 euchlora, 59 glabra, 57, 58 heterophylla var. Michauxii, 57 japonica, 58 monticola, 57 neglecta, 57 petiolaris, 58 platyphyllos, 58 spectabilis, 59 var. Moltkei, 59 tomentosa, 58 vulgaris, 58, 59 Tree, Garland, 26 Trees, Linden, 57, 58, 59 Memorial, 61 Tripterygium Regelii, 48 Tsuga caroliniana, 65 Two Japanese Hollies, 55 Two native Viburnums, 32 Ulmus americana, 50 foliacea, 50 var. suberosa, 50 Ulmus foliacea var. umbraculifera, 50 glabra, 50, 51 var. pendula, 50 hollandica, 51 var. belgica, 51 var. major, 51 hollandica vegeta, 51 major, 51 minor, 51 nitens, 50 procera, 49, 50 var. viminalis, 50 pumila,2 sativa, 51 Ungnadia, 32 Viburnum alnifolium, 20 bitchiuense, 20 Canbyi, 48 Carlesii, 20 Lentago, 32 prunifolium, 32 pubescens, 48 venosum, 48 Viburnums, early-flowering, 20 two native, 32 Virides Thorns, 29 Von Siebold's Crab, 16 Walnuts, Black, 62 Washington Thorn, 43, 44 Weeping Japanese Cherry, 7 White Cedar, 3, 5 Fir, 67 Oaks, 62 Pine, 1, 62 Willows, 1 Winter, some effects of the, 5 Woad Wax, 47 Wych Elm, 50 Xanthoceras sorbifolia, 32 Yew, American, 5 European, 5 Japanese, 5"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23479","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eaf6e.jpg","title":"1922-2","volume":8,"issue_number":null,"year":1922,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 11","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23727","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15ea727.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII N0. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 11, 1921 An early spring. An unusually mild winter during which a temperature of zero was recorded only twice at the Arboretum, followed by a March with a temperature of 80 on two days, and an unprecedented high average for the month, has caused many plants to flower earlier than they have flowered here before. On March 21 Cornus mas, Dirca palustris, Prunus Davidiana and Acer rubrum were in full flower. Rhododendron dahuricum and R. mucronulatum were opening their first buds, and on March 26 the first flowers on several of the Forsythias and on Magnolia stellata had opened, several Currants and Gooseberries were in bloom, and Corylopsis Gotoana was opening its innumerable flower-buds. The Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) had flowered on the 9th of March, only eight days earlier than in 1920, although in the severe winter of 1918-19 it was in bloom in the Arboretum on the 28th of February. In earlier years Cornus mas has flowered usually as early as April 3 and as late as April 25. In the six years from 1914-1920 Dirca palustris which, with the exception of two or three Willows, is the first North American shrub to bloom in the Arboretum, began to flower as early as April 3 and as late as April 15. The fact that the winter flowering Witch Hazels bloom later in mild winters than they do in exceptionally cold winters is not easy to explain. In the cold winter of 1915-16, and 1918-19, Hamamelis mollis was in full flower on January 26 and February 9. In 1916 Hamamelis japonica was in flower on January 26 and in 1919 the flowers were fully open during the first week in February. This year the flowers on these two plants did not open until the first week of March. On March 28 the thermometer fell from 78 at noon to 18 during the following night, and many flowers were injured or destroyed. This unusual spring has made it possible to obtain some useful conclusions on the value in this climate of some of the early-flowering trees and shrubs. It has again shown that the flowers most easily injured by spring frosts are those of the Magnolias, and especially of Magnolaa stellata, and of the earliest flowering Rhododendrons. This year only a few of the Magnolia buds had opened and the plants on the 6th of April are well covered with flowers which, although perhaps rather smaller than usual, are not discolored. Every flower and flower-bud on every plant of Rhododendron dahuricum has been killed, and the first flowers of R. mucronulatum are ruined. The flowers of Dirca palustris have been injured and those of Corylopsis Gotoana have been killed. Not more than one per cent. of the flowers of the Asiatic Forsythias and their hybrids have been injured, and the damage is so small that the general appearance of the plants is not affected by it. On the European species a larger percentage of buds has been injured. The flowers of Correzis mas, the Cornelian Cherry, were not injured by the sudden change of temperature and the trees in the Arboretum have not before been more thickly covered with their clusters of bright yellow flowers. The fact that severe spring frosts do not injure the flowers of this Cornel greatly adds to its value for the decoration of parks and gardens in regions with an uncertain spring climate. The Cornelian Cherry is a native of southern Europe, and western Asia and Siberia, and is a large, shapely shrub ten or twelve feet high and broad, or if pruned when young to a single stem a tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading branches. The flowers are pale yellow, and are borne in compact clusters in the axils of the unfolding leaves, and although individually small are produced in such profusion that they cover the branches. The leaves, which are large and dark green, are handsome but fall in the autumn, like those of many other European trees and shrubs, without change of color. The fruit is of the shape and size of a small olive, and is bright scarlet and lustrous. Plants said to be of a yellow-fruited form have been planted several times in the Arboretum but the fruit has always been scarlet. The flesh of the fruit is sweet, of a rather agreeable flavor, and in Europe is sometimes made into a preserve. For regions too cold for the successful cultivation of the Forsythias the Cornelian Cherry is the handsomest of early flowering shrubs with yellow flowers. In its native countries it often grows in calcareous soil and should, therefore, prove valuable in the middle western states. A hundred years ago when the number of handsome plants available for American gardens was not as large as it is today the Cornelian Cherry was more often planted here than it is now, and it is doubtful if it can now be found in many American nurseries. Few exotic shrubs, nevertheless, are better worth the attention of northern nurserymen. Forsythias. In spite of the loss of a few of their expanding flowerbuds the Asiatic Forsythias have not often been in better bloom in the Arboretum, for the cold of severe winters like those of 1915 and 1916 too often kills the flower-buds. None of the newly discovered Asiatic species are as handsome garden plants as some of the hybrids between the Chinese F. suspensa Fortunei and F. viridissima, to which the general name of Forsythia intermedia has been given. The best of these, the var. spectabilis, is the handsomest Forsythia which has yet been seen in the Arboretum. The flowers are larger and more abundant than those of either of its parents, and of a deeper color. Other distinct and handsome forms are var. primulina and var. pallida. The former, which appeared as a seedling in the Arboretum a few years ago, has primrose colored flowers; the flowers of the latter are pale straw color and paler than those of other Forsythias. Forsythias are often badly planted; they require space in which to spread their long gracefully arching branches and are not suitable for small gardens. To be most effective they should be planted as in the Arboretum, in a great mass on a bank or hillside. A Forsythia should never be planted nearer than ten or twelve feet to a road or path, for if there is not enough room between path and plunt for its natural growth the side branches must be cut away and an ugly, awkward, bare-stemmed specimen will be left. In suburban gardens in which the care of plants is usually left to the mercy of the jobbing gardener, the branches of Forsythias and of many other shrubs are often cut back in winter or early spring. This destroys the beauty of the plants, and as Forsythias produce their flowers on the branches of the previous year most of the flowers are sacrificed. If a Forsythia must be pruned it should be done just after the plant has flowered, and the oldest stems and branches should be entirely removed that younger ones may grow naturally. Asiatic Cherries. Like other plants these Cherries are flowering this year from three to four weeks before their normal time. The flowers of the earliest Cherry, Prunus tomentosa, were fully open on the 6th of this month. It is a native of northern China and a shrub only five or six feet high, and when it has not been crowded sometimes ten or fifteen feet in diameter. The flowers open from pink buds as the leaves unfold and the bright red stalk and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals. The small fruit ripens in June and is scarlet, covered with short hairs and of a pleasant flavor. This Cherry was first raised by the Arboretum nearly forty years ago and there are a few large plants in the Boston parks, but in spite of its beauty and handsome flowers it has not yet caught the popular fancy. As a fruit plant it has received attention in Manitoba and the Dakotas where it has proved hardy and promises to be valuable. The variety from western China (var. endotricha) flowers a few days later. Prunus subhirtella opened its first flowers on April 7, and unless the buds are injured by cold it will be in full bloom when this Bulletin reaches its eastern Massachusetts readers. This is the \"Japanese Spring Cherry\" which has been described by a traveller in Japan who has made an exhaustive study of its Cherry-trees as \"the most floriferous and perhaps the most delightful of all Japanese Cherries.\" When its branches are covered with its pink drooping flowers no other large shrub or small tree which can be grown in northern gardens is more beautiful; and the flowering of the \"Japanese Spring Cherry\" is one of the great events of the Arboretum year; and this spring the trees promise to be more beautiful than ever before. Unfortunately Prunus subhirtella is still rare in gardens. It is not known as a wild plant, and its seeds produce plants of the type of which it is a form, a tall tree of the Japanese forests known as Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens, a much less desirable garden plant. Prunus subhirtella therefore can be increased only by cuttings or by grafting it on its own seedlings. The Sargent Cherry (Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis), for the first time since the trees in the Arboretum were old enough to flower, has not many flowers this spring except on the upper branches, but the Yoshino (Prunus yeddoensis), which often loses its flower-buds from extreme cold, promises an unusual bloom this year, as does the whiteflowered Prunus incisa, one of the best of the recent additions to the Arboretum Cherry Collection. Several Apricots were in full bloom on April 6. The most conspicuous were a Japanese form of Prunus Armenaica, known as \"Mikado,\" and the Siberian Prunus mandshurica. The flowers oi the so-called \"Black Apricot\" (Prunus dasycarpa) are a few days later and promise to be unusually abundant. The flowers of the Canada Plum (Prunus nigra) and of the Chinese Plum (Prunus salicina), and of an Almond of northern China (Prunus triloba) are also opening their flowers-forerunners in a season which now promises an unusual flowering of all plants of the Rose Family - Cherries, Plums, Pears, Apples, Hawthorns, Quinces and Roses. Andromeda floribunda, often called Pieris floribunda, was covered with its pure white, fully expanded flowers on the 3rd of April. This is one of the handsomest of the broad-leafed evergreen shrubs which are perfectly hardy in this climate. It is a round-topped plant occasionally eight or ten feet across and four or five feet high, with small, pointed, dark green leaves and terminal clusters of bell-shaped flowers. The flower-buds, which are fully grown in the autumn, are conspicuous and ornamental during the winter. This southern Appalachian shrub is an old mhabitant of gardens, and is still much propagated by nurserymen. After the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and a few Rhododendrons it is the most valuable broad-leafed ever green which can be grown in the northeastern states. Mr. J. G. Jack of the Arboretum staff will conduct a Field Class on Saturdays during the spring and early summer, to assist those who wish to gain a more intimate knowledge of the native and foreign trees and shrubs which grow in New England. Instruction will be given in informal outdoor talks and in the examination of the plants. Different botanical groups will be examined at each meeting, although any trees or shrubs found may form subjects for study. No technical knowledge or special preparation is required in order to join the class as the instruction is intended to be simple in character, affording opportunities for questions and answers relating to the specimens under observation, Unless otherwise notified the class will meet promptly at 10 o'clock in the morning, on Saturdays, in the Arboretum, at the Forest Hills entrance. A low temperature, with a heavy snowfall, on April 11, will probably destroy the flowers and flower-buds of many plants."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 29","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23728","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15ea76a.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII N0. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 29, 1921 Asiatic Crab apples. Some of the earliest of these trees are already in flower, twenty-five days earlier than last year, and when this Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts' readers it is probable that a large number of them will be at their best and as full of flowers as they have ever been here before, for this year all plants of the Rose Family are unusually full of flowers and flower-buds. To northern parks and gardens no genus of small trees and shrubs has given greater beauty than Malus, the name which is now correctly given to all Apple-trees, especially the wild types and their first hybrids generally known as Crabapples in distinction from the Apple-trees of orchards which are hybrids or selected and improved forms of European and western Asiatic Crabapples. All the species of Malus hybridize so freely among themselves that it is not possible to raise from seeds gathered on trees in a large collection of species like that of the Arboretum plants similar to those from which the seeds were taken. Among such seedlings there may be plants handsomer than their seed-bearing parent, although quite different from it, and among a hundred seedlings raised from the seeds of one tree it is not usual to find two exactly alike. The possible variation in seedling plants produced by a single Crabapple-tree is well shown in one of the parks of the city of Rochester, New York, in which there are growing some twenty-five trees raised several years ago from seeds gathered from one plant of Malus floribunda, a tree introduced many years ago into our gardens from Japan and by many students believed to be a hybrid of doubtful parentage. These Rochester seedlings now produce abundant crops of fruit. This varies on different trees from the size of a small pea to an inch or an inch and a quarter in diameter. On some of the trees it is bright yellow, on others bright red and on others red and yellow. There is less difference in the flowers, but the leaves vary on the different plants in shape and in the absence or presence of a covering of hairs. Whenever the seeds of Crabapples are gathered from trees in collections great or small there will be new hybrids; some of these will be distinct and beautiful like the hybrids of the central Asiatic Malus Niedzwetzkyana which have appeared in European gardens and are now cultivated under the name of Malus purpurea, and the persons who raise such new hybrids will naturally want to have them distinguished by name. The number of varieties of such hybrids has no limit, and as the same hybrid may appear in different countries at about the same time and receive different names students of these trees have the promise of even greater trouble in the future than they have had in the past when they had the offspring of only a few species to deal with. As has been often stated in these Bulletins there is but one way to propagate Crabapples if types of the species, varieties and hybrids are wanted and that is by grafting. It is cheaper to raise seedlings, and seedlings are often sold in American nurseries as species. They are often ornamental but rarely are true to the name under which they are sold. The first Crabapple to open its flowers this year is again the Manchurian, north China and Korean form of Malus baccata (var. mandshurica) which is the eastern form of the better known Siberian Crabapple (Malus baccata) which has been cultivated in Europe for more than a century and has been the parent of many hybrids. The Manchurian form as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree some fifteen feet tall and broad. The flowers, which are produced in profusion, are pure white, more than an inch across and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. A form of this tree, var. Jackii, brought from Korea by Professor Jack in 1905, is distinguished by its larger dark scarlet fruit. The Manchurian Crabapple, which is still rare in this country, should, for the fragrance of its flowers alone find a place in all collections. Almost as early is lVlalus robusta, which is believed to be a hybrid between Malus baccata and M. prunifolia, a north China plant. This tree was raised here in the early days of the Arboretum from the seeds of Malus baccata sent from the Botanic Garden at Petrograd. It is covered every spring with large, pure white, or rarely greenish, fragrant flowers which are rather more than an inch in diameter and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabs. The fruit differs somewhat in size on different trees and is subglobose and dull red. In good soil and with sufficient space for development this Crab will grow into a large tree, with a broad, round-topped head of spreading, often slightly pendulous branches. This is the handsomest of the whiteflowered Crabs and one of the most beautiful of early spring-flowering trees which can be safely planted in this part of the country. The largest specimens in the Arboretum are in the old Apple Collection on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road. Malus micromalus, another early-flowering Crab, is one of the least known of these trees. It was first sent to Europe by Von Siebold in 1856 under the name of \"Kaido,\" a name which in Japan belongs to M. Halliana. In Japan M. micromalus is rare and known only in gardens, and by Japanese botanists it is believed to have been introduced into their country from China and to be a hybrid possibly of 161. baccata and M. spectabilis. In habit this Crab is more pyramidal than that of the other species and hybrids, and this habit makes the plants conspicuous in the collection. They are covered this year with their small pale pink, delicate flowers which will be followed by light yellow fruit often rose color on one cheek. The largest Arboretum specimen is in the collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Malus theifera, which is one of Wilson's discoveries in western China, promises to be a good addition to the list of early flowering Crabs. Its long, upright, and spreading, rather zigzag branches make it easy to distinguish at any season of the year; they are continuously studded with short spur-like laterals which bear numerous clusters of flowers rose-red in the bud and pale or almost white when fully expanded. In central China the peasants collect the leaves and prepare from them the palatable beverage which they call \"red tea.\" Malus theifera has now flowered for several years in the Arboretum, the largest plant being in the Peter's Hill collection where it is now a conspicuous object. In the color of its rose-red flowers drooping on slender stalks Malus Halliana with its variety Parkmanii, which has double flowers, is perhaps the most distinct of all Crabapples. It is a small tree with erect and spreading branches which form a narrow, vase-like head, and dark green leaves; the globose reddish fruit is not larger than a small pea. It is well known in Massachusetts gardens, having been sent by George R. Hall, in 1862, to Boston, where it was first planted in Mr. Francis Parkman's garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. The Parkman Crab is a favorite in Japanese gardens where it is known as \"Kaido\" and was no doubt imported into Japan from China where the single-flowered form was found by Wilson. Whatever its origin the Parkman Crab is one of the most distinct and beautiful of the small trees which are now flowering here in the Arboretum, although normally the flowers do not open before the 10th of May. Malus floribunda, by many persons considered the most beautiful of Crabapples, was introduced into Europe by Von Siebold in 1853 from Nagasaki in southern Japan. The place where this little tree grows wild still remains unknown, and by some persons it has been considered a hybrid of Chinese origin; more probably, however, it originated on one of the high mountains of Kyushu. Japanese botanists and nurserymen confuse it with the Parkman Crab, and Wilson did not find it in Japanese gardens. It is a broad, round-topped tree-like shrub sometimes twenty-five feet tall, with stout branches and slender, arching and pendant branchlets. The clusters of flowers are white when fully expanded and are rose-red in the bud, and as they open in succession the two colors make a handsome contrast. The fruit is about the size of a pea, yellowish or yellowish-brown. On some plants it falls in early autumn and on others it remains on the branches during the winter or until devoured by birds who find it one of their most palatable winter foods. Malus floribunda rarely fails to produce abundant crops of flowers and in this climate has proved tc be one of the most satisfactory and reliable of all the arborescent shrubs or small trees which have been planted in eastern Massachusetts. A hybrid between M. floribunda and probably M. robusta appeared here among a lot of seedlings of M. floribunda in 1883 and has been named M. arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of M. floribunda, but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large as those of that plant. It is a handsomer plant than M. floribunda, distinguished by its long arching branches, and one of the most beautiful Crabapples in the Arboretum. The first of the Asiatic Crabapples introduced into Europe, Malus spectabilis, has been cultivated by the Chinese from time immemorial. Like several other of these plants, it is not yet known in a wild state but is probably of hybrid origin. It is a tree from twenty-five to thirty feet high, with a wide vase-shaped crown made of numerous spreading and ascending branches and short branchlets. The flowers are pale pink, more or less semidouble and fragrant. The fruits are pale yellow subglobose and about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. Malus spectabilis is a perfectly hardy, free-flowering plant and well worth a place in gardens where sufFcient space can be allowed it for free development. What is probably a hybrid of Malus spectabilis, M. Scheideckeri, and some unknown species, possibly M. micromalus, is a small pyramidal tree with small flowers produced in great abundance and well worth a place in a collection of these trees. The Crabs mentioned in this Bulletin are the most important of those now in flower in the Arboretum. In a later issue some account will be given of the later-flowering species. On April 23rd the first Azalea flowers in the Arboretum opened on the Korean Rhododendron yedoense var. poukhanense, better known as R. poukhanense, which last year was in bloom on the 10th of May. It is a very hardy shrub widely distributed in Korea from the neighborhood of Seoul southward, and grows generally in open Pine-woods and on grass-covered slopes where it forms dense mats rarely more than three feet high, although in more shaded positions it is occasionally as much as six feet tall. Here in the Arboretum in full exposure to the sun it forms dense mat-like bushes from two to two and a half feet tall and three feet or more in diameter. This Azalea is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it first flowered in 1914. The flowers are clustered, with a rose or rosy purple corolla, and are more fragrant than those of any other Azalea in the Arboretum collection. The color of the flowers does not harmonize with that of other Azaleas which bloom at the same time, and the plants are therefore best kept away from other Azaleas. Azalea yodogava (Rhododendron yedoense) which in recent years has been sent in large numbers from Japanese nurseries to the United States and Europe, is a double-flowered form of the Korean Azalea."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 5","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23741","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060af6b.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 5, 1921 Asiatic Azaleas. Of the thirty-four species of Azalea (Rhododendron subgenus Anthrodendron) of eastern Asia five species are thoroughly established in the Arboretum. These are in the order of their flowering, R. yedoense, R. Schlippenbachii, R. reticulatum, R. obtusum var. Kaempferi, and R. japonicum. The yellow-flowered Chinese R. molle (R. sinense of some authors and not to be confounded with the plant known in gardens as Azalea mollis which is a hybrid), is in the Arboretum and occasionally flowers here, although it cannot be considered hardy in this climate. The Japanese R. Tschonoskii, with flowers more minute than those of other Azaleas, is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum. It has, however, no value as a garden plant and is only interesting as a botanical curiosity. There are several other Asiatic species of Azalea in the Arboretum nurseries and a few of them, judging by regions where they grow naturally, will perhaps prove able to adapt themselves to New England conditions. None of them, however, will be as valuable garden plants as the five species mentioned in the first paragraph of this Bulletin. Some of the species, however, which the Arboretum has introduced from southern Japan and Formosa may be expected to be valuable additions to the garden flora of the southern states. Mention of R. yedoense and its variety poukhanense was made in a recent issue of these Bulletins. It is of interest that the great rainfall and low temperature of April 30 and May 1 did not injure the flowers of this Korean plant which are in as good condition as they were a week ago. Rhododendron Schlippenbachii. The pale pink fragrant flowers, which are about three inches in diameter and marked on one of the lobes of the corolla with red-brown spots, are perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Azalea, certainly of any Azalea which has proved hardy in the Arboretum. R. Schlippenbachii is one of the commonest shrubs of Korea and often forms the dominant undergrowth in open woods. From Korea it crosses into northeastern Manchuria where it grows on the shores of Possiet Bay; it occurs, too, in two localities in northern Japan. Wilson found it extraordinarily abundant in Korea on the lower slopes of Chiri-san and on the Diamond Mountains, which were where he visited this region in June \"a wonderful sight with literally miles and miles of the purest pink from the millions of flowers of this Azalea.\" In Korea this Azalea on the wind-swept grass-covered cliffs of the coast grow less than a foot high but flowers abundantly. In the forests of the interior it often grows to a height of fifteen feet and forms a tall and slender or a broad and shapely shrub. The leaves are large for an Azalea, being from three and a half inches to four inches long and sometimes nearly three inches wide, and are arranged in whorls of five at the end of the branches. This plant grows further north than any other Azalea, with the exception of the North American Rhodora. The thermometer in the region of the Diamond Mountains usually registers every winter a temperature of 35 to 40 below zero Fahrenheit. There is therefore no reason why this Azalea should not flourish in the coldest parts of New England. It has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum, and planted in an exposed sunny position has never suffered. Its hardiness and the beauty of its flowers make it one of the most valuable shrubs, if not the most valuable, which northeastern North America has obtained from Northeastern Asia. This Azalea is still rare in gardens, but large quantities of seeds collected by Wilson in Korea in 1917 and 1918 were distributed in this country and in England. The seedlings, however, only make one growth during the season and the young plants increase slowly in size. The time, however, is not far distant when this inhabitant of the Diamond Mountains will, during the early days of the month of May, be one of the chief ornaments of the gardens of New England. Rhododendron reticulatum is the name now adopted for the Japanese Azalea better known as R. rhombicum. This is a common and widely distributed Japanese plant which sometimes forms a bushy tree from twenty to twenty-five feet in height, but is more often a shrub three or four feet tall. The flowers appear before the leaves and vary from rose-color to red-purple or magenta. They are handsome but of a color which makes it desirable to so place the plants that the flowers will not be contrasted with any but white flowers. This Azalea now on the lower end of Azalea Path has been growing in the Arboretum since 1893; it is perfectly hardy, but has not before been as full of flowers as it is this spring. Rhododendron obtusum var. Kaempferi, or as it has usually been called in this country Rhododendron or Azalea Kaempferi, introduced by the Arboretum into gardens in 1892, is now gradually becoming known and appreciated in the north Atlantic states where it has proved hardy and where it flowers abundantly every year. It is the only bright red-flowered Azalea which is hardy in the Arboretum, and although the flowers are less beautiful than those of R. Schlippenbachii and R. japonicum the plants when in bloom make a more brilliant and sensational display than any others which can be grown in this climate. The flowers are soon injured by a hot sun and the best results have been obtained with this Azalea with plants grown under the shade of trees or on the north side of Conifers, as at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurels (Kalmia latifolia). The plants are covered with opening flower-buds and before the end of this week will make on Azalea Path and Bussey Hill Road one of the great flower festivals of the Arboretum year. Rhododendron japonicum is common and widely distributed over a large part of the main island of Japan where it grows on grass-covered slopes and among other shrubs. It was first raised here in 1893 from seeds collected by Professor Sargent on the hills above Nikko. It was, however, long mistaken here for another plant and has suffered from the confusion of names which at different times have been given to it. In recent years its value as a garden plant, however, has been recognized at the Arboretum; and it is now realized that it is the handsomest of the yellow or orange-flowered Azaleas, with the exception of its hybrids and of the Appalachian R. calendulaceum, and, with the exception of R. Schlippenbachii, the handsomest of the Asiatic Azaleas which can be grown in the northern states. There is a form of this plant with deep yellow flowers (var. superba) in the collection which promises to be a good garden plant here. The hybrid raised in Mr. Hunnewell's garden at Wellesley, Massachusetts, between R. japonicum and the Chinese R. molle (R. sinense) and called \"Louisa Hunnewell\" is the most beautiful of all yellow-flowered Azaleas, and the most beautiful hardy hybrid Azalea which has been raised in the United States. It is of the same parentage as that of the Azaleas which have been propagated in large numbers in Dutch and Belgian nurseries during the last thirty or forty years and sold under the name of Azalea mollis. The correct name for this hybrid is Rhododendron Kostertanum and it must not be confused with the true Rhododendron or Azalea mollis which is a yellow-flowered plant from the hills of eastern China, and, as we have already said, one of the parents of R. Kosterianum. Chaenomeles. This is the generic name now given to the red-flowered Quince which was formerly called Pyrus japonica. This plant has been in American gardens for many years and at one time was one of the most popular garden and hedge plants in the country, especially in the middle and southern states where it is still common. It is not rare in New England, although perhaps less common here than southward. The flower-buds sometimes suffer here in severe winters, and the plants need constant attention to save them from the San Jose scale which commonly infests this Quince. Although first introduced into Europe from Japanese gardens, it is not a Japanese but a Chinese plant and is properly called Chaenomeles lagenaria. There is a collection of garden varieties of this Quince chiefly raised in Germany in the Shrub Col1ection, and this spring the plants have been unusually full of flowers. The varieties differ in the color of the flowers and in the size and shape of the plants. The most conspicuous of these plants when it is in bloom is the var. Simonii, of dwarf habit and with intensely scarlet flowers. The white flowers of the var. nevalis attract attention, as do the cardinal red flowers of the var. cardinalis. The varieties of this Quince do not seem to be known to American nurserymen, and plants probably are difficult to obtain. Another species of the red-flowered Quinces is a native of Japan and a smaller and hardier shrub than the Chinese species, with smaller flowers and fruits, and often semiprostrate stems. Often called in gardens Pyrus Mauler, the correct name for this plant is Chaenomeles japonica. There is a dwarf variety of this plant (var. alpina) with smaller flowers and fruit which is an excellent subject for the rock-garden. Chaenomeles japonica has been growing in the Arboretum since 1893 when it was raised from seeds collected by Professor uargent on the mountains of Hondo. A hybrid of the Chinese and Japanese species raised in Switzerland several yeais ago has received the name of Chaenomeles superba. There are several named varieties of this hybrid in the Arboretum collection differing in the color ot the flowers. The varieties rosea, perfecta and alba are perhaps the most distinct and interesting. Berberis Dielsiana, raised from seeds collected by Purdom in Shensi, is one of the new Barberries in the Chinese collection on Bussey Hill where it has already grown eight feet tall and comparatively broad. It is one of the species with flowers in drooping racemes, like those of the common Barberry. It is a handsome plant, and valuable for its early flowers which this year were opening the middle of April, and only a day or two later than those of another Chinese species, Berberis dictyophylla which has always been the earliest Barberry to flower in the Arboretum. Berberis Dielsiana first flowered in the Arboretum in 1916, and in that year the flowers opened the middle cf May. This Barberry deserves the attention of persons interested in hardy earlyflowering shrubs. Daphne genkwa. A small plant of this Daphne by Hickory Path, near Centre Street, is now covered with its violet-colored flowers which open before the leaves unfold. Although first sent to this country from Japanese gardens nearly sixty years ago, this plant is still little known here. It is not very hardy and suffers here in cold winters; it flourishes, however, on the shores of Buzzards Bay in southern Massachusetts and it will probably grow well in the southern states. At the north, grown in a pot, it should make a good subject for conservatory decoration as it could easily be brought into flower at midwinter, and the unusual color of the fragrant flowers would make it popular. Hawthorns are already in bloom, and Hawthorn-flowers will open in the Arboretum continuously during the next six or seven weeks. The first species to flower this year is as usual the European Crataegus nigra; it is closely followed by several American species of the largegrowing, large-flowered species of the Molles Group, notably C. mollis, C. Arnoldiana and C. submollis."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23742","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060b36d.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 9, 1921 Some late-flowered Crabapples. The cool weather of late April and early May has favored the flowers of Crabapples, and although the petals have already fallen from the trees of Malus robusta, M. sylvestris and some of the forms of M. baccata, many of the earlier species are still in good condition and others are fast opening their flowers. A few of the late-flowering species and hybrids which deserve the attention of garden-makers and the lovers of handsome plants are: Malus spectabilis, a tree which has been long cultivated in Chinese gardens, although it is still unknown as a wild plant. This tree, which is possibly a hybrid, was first sent to England from Canton in 1780 and probably was brought to the United States early in the nineteenth century. It is one of the largest of the Asiatic Crabs here, growing to the height of from twenty-five to thirty feet and forming a wide, vase-shaped crown of numerous spreading and ascending branches and short branchlets. The flowers are pale pink, semidouble and very fragrant. The abundant fruits are pale yellow, nearly globose and an inch in diameter. This is a hardy and long-lived tree, as in the neighborhood of Boston are plants which are probably seventy-five or eighty years old. Malus Sargentii is a Japanese shrub only a few feet high, and much broader than it is tall, with wide-spreading prostrate branches. The flowers are in crowded clusters, saucer-shaped and pure white, and are followed by abundant wine-colored fruits which are covered with a slight bloom, and, unless eaten by birds, do not disappear until the leaves begin to appear the following spring. The unusual habit of this plant makes it useful for covering slopes and banks, or to form an edging to beds of taller shrubs. With abundant space it may be expected to form a bush eighteen or twenty feet in diameter. Malus Sieboldii is a Japanese species with the leaves at the end of vigorous branches deeply three-lobed. It grows in two forms; as a shrub only three or four feet high with wide-spreading and arching stems, and as a small tree (var. arborescens) with a well-formed trunk and horizontal branches which form a rather flat-topped head. This is the last of the Asiatic Crabapples in the collection to flower and only a few of the bright red flower-buds are open. The flowers are small, white, and produced in profusion every year. The fruit is not larger than a small pea, and is bright red on some plants and yellow on others. What has been considered a variety of Malus Sieboldii (var. calocarpa) is a larger growing plant with larger flowers which open ten or twelve days earlier and are rose pink, finally becoming white; the fruit is much larger, bright red, lustrous and persistent. This plant produces large crops of flowers and fruits every year and in both sprirg and autumn it is one of the handsomest of the Asiatic Crabapples. It is not known as a wild plant in Japan and is probably exceedingly rare in cultivation in western countries. For this beautiful plant the Arboretum is indebted to Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow of Boston who brought the seeds from Japan in 1889. Malus sublobata. This is believed to be a hybrid and it has been suggested that it is the result of a cross between Malus prunifolia rinki and M. Sieboldii. The plants in the Arboretum are of very uncertain origin but it is probable that they were raised from seeds sent from Japan, although for several years and until the plant flowered they were supposed to be Malus sikkimensis. The Arboretum trees are already thirty feet high and, unlike other Crabapples, form a tall trunk covered with pale bark and a narrow head, and in shape are not unlike a young Ash or Tulip-tree. The large white flowers are chiefly produced on upper branches and are followed by bright clear yellow fruits about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. No other Crabapple in the collection produces such beautiful yellow fruit. For the beauty of its fruit, its unusual habit, vigor and rapid growth, Malus sublobata is well worth the attention of planters. Malus Soulardii is believed to be a hybrid of the Apple-tree of eastern Europe (M. pitmila) and of the wild Crab of the Mississippi valley, Malus toensis, and trees of this hybrid are not rare in the woods in the region from Indiana to Iowa. In the Arboretum Malus Sou,lardix is a round-headed tree in shape like its eastern parent; the flowers are pink, and smaller than those of either parent; the fruit is green, depressed- globose, from an inch to two and a half inches in diameter, and without the waxy exudation which is found on the fruit of the Crabapples of eastern North America. The trees are covered with flowers this year. As a natural hybrid of much interest and as a flowering plant Malus Soulardii is well worth a place in collections of these trees. As fruit trees this hybrid and its American parent are worth growing, for jelly made from the fruit of the Iowa Crabapple is superior in flavor, clearness and beauty to that which has been made from other Apples. A single plant will furnish a family with a year's supply of jelly, and will prove a good investment on any farm or in any garden. If the writer in a recent issue of a Boston newspaper who, in discussing Crabapple trees, was unable to find a good word for the fruit of Malus ioensis will visit the Arboretum in October he shall be supplied, in the interest of public education, with enough of these apples to test their value when made into jelly. Double-flowered Cherry-trees. Small plants of a few of the Japanese double-flowered Cherry-trees are blooming this year and show what may be expected of these trees in this climate. The handsomest of them and probably the ones which can be most successfully grown in this climate are forms of Prunus serrulata, which in Japan is a large timber tree, and has been growing for many years in the Arboretum (the Sargent Cherry). The handsomest of the double-flowering Cherries this year is the var. aLbo-rosea, the Shirofugen of the Japanese. This is a perfectly hardy plant with semidouble flowers and petals pink in the bud, but becoming white when the flowers open. This is the doubleflowered Cherry which has been sent in considerable numbers to the United States by Japanese nurseries, and is not rare in American gardens where in colder parts of the country than eastern Massachusetts it is perfectly hardy. Other varieties of these Cherries which are blooming well this year are the var. sekiyama, the Kanzan or Kwanzan of the Japanese found by Wilson in gardens at Arakawa, near Tokyo, in the Province of Musashi; it has large, double, rich rose-colored flowers. By Wilson, who has seen them all, the Sekiyam is considered the handsomest of all the double-flowered Japanese Cherry-trees; and the var. jugenzo, better known in European gardens as \"James H. Veitch\" with rose pink flowers and young leaves of a deep bronze color, like those of Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis of which it is also a form. These Cherry-trees are on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road. The flowers are heavy and hang on long, slender stalks, and are easily broken off by heavy winds which have already done a great deal of damage to them this spring. They should be planted in a more sheltered place than the north side of the Forest Hills Road, and the duration of the flowers would be lengthened if the trees could be surrounded by a belt of conifers. Diervilla florida. This Korean plant is one of the species which has played an important part in the evolution of the Diervillas or Weigelias of gardens, and many of its hybrids and varieties have been propagated by nurserymen. The wild type of the species, if it is still cultivated in Europe, is a rare plant, and the Arboretum is fortunate in having raised plants from the seeds collected by Wilson during his recent journey in Korea. These are now flowering for the first time and their pure pink flowers promise to make it one of the most attractive of all the Diervillas. It has bloomed three or four days earlier than its variety venusta, another Korean plant, which until this spring has been the first Diervilla in the collection to flower. This variety has generally been considered here the handsomest of all Diervillas, but the flowers are not as pure pink as those of the type. Diervilla Middendorfiana var. Maximowiczii is flowering this year on Hickory Path near Centre Street. This is the Japanese variety of the yellow-flowered Diervilla of eastern Siberia and northern Japan, and a common shrub on the mountain slcpes of central Hondo where it grows from five to fifteen feet tall. The large pale yellow or yellowish green flowers are attractive but not as showy as those of the species with more highly colored fiowers. The Siberian form just lives here, and has resisted the efforts of more than twenty years to induce it to bloom in the Arboretum. American Azaleas. These begin to bloom about two weeks later than the earliest Asiatic species, and of the sixteen species only seven with several varieties are hardy in New England. These in the order of their flowering are Rhododendron canadense, the Rhodora, R. Vaseyi, R. roseum, R. nudiflorum, R. arborescens, R. calendulaceum, and R. viscosum. The other species are confined to the extreme southern states; with one species endemic in Florida, another in Alabama, one in the Arkansas-Texas region, and one in California. It is interesting that eight species, one-half of all the species which have been found in America, grow in the state of Georgia which contains a larger number of species of these plants than any other region of equal extent. Plants of all the American species are in the Arboretum nurseries or have been raised here with the exception of Rhododendron alabamense of which seeds have not yet been collected; and some of the southern species, although not for northern gardens, like R. prunifolium with crimson flowers, the scarlet flowered R. speciosum and the yellow flowered R. austrinum, may be expected to become popular garden plants wherever they find a suitable climate. The handsomest of the species hardy at the north, and when in flower one of the most beautiful shrubs of the North American flora, is the Appalachian R. calendulaceum with its yellow or flame-colored flowers which do not open until the leaves are nearly fully grown. Another species of the southern Appalachian Mountains, R. Vaseyi, with pure pink flowers which have already opened has proved a good garden plant at the north. Of the species, however, with rose-colored or pink flowers R. roseum is even a handsomer plant than R. Vaseyi. Although first distinguished and named in France as early as 1812, it has always been confused in this country with other species until quite recent years, and has mver received the attention which it deserves. It is a shrub from three to fifteen feet tall with rose-colored flowers which open after the leaves begin to unfold, and are more fragrant even than those of R. viscosum. This Azalea is common in southern New England and southward to Virginia; it grows in western New York, northeastern Ohio, southeastern Illinois and the adjacent part of Missouri, that is in regions of limestone soil, and the fact that it can grow in lime makes it possible to cultivate it in parts of the country where other Rhododendrons cannot grow. There is a group of these plants on the right hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Lindens. Lilacs are fast opening their flower-buds. There will not be as many flowers as usual this year on many varieties of the common Lilac, but the plants of the New Chinese species are well covered with buds."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 18","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23738","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060a727.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 18, 1921 Among the Oaks. A walk at this time through Oak Path from a point on the Meadow Road nearly opposite the Centre Street Gate to its junction with Azalea Path on the southern slope of Bussey Hill will be found interesting and instructive. This walk passes by the first Oaks which were planted in the Arboretum. Beautiful views toward the west, including the Juniper Collection and Hemlock Hill, can be obtained from it, and before it joins Azalea Path it will pass by some of the handsomest Azaleas in the Arboretum. Oaks have the reputation of growing slowly, and owing to this reputation are often neglected by planters. The Oaks which can be seen from Oak Path were planted in their present position from thirty to forty years ago when they were seedlings only a few inches high. The largest of them are taller with thicker trunks than other hardwood trees like Hickories, Walnuts, Elms, Maples, etc., planted at about the same time. The tallest of the Oaks planted in the Arboretum are Pin Oaks (Quercus palustris), and the tree with the thickest trunk is a hybrid between the White and the Burr Oaks called Quercus Bebbiana. The Arboretum is too far north to make possible here a very large collection of Oaks, and of the fifty-five species which are trees in the United States it has been found possible to grow here successfully only the following: Quercus borealis and its variety maxima, Q. Shumardii var. Schneckii, Q. ellipsoidalis, Q. palustris, Q. georgiana, Q. velutina, Q. ilicifolia, Q. rubra, Q. marilandica, Q. Phellos, Q. macrocarpa, Q. lyrata, Q. stellata, Q. alba, Q. bicolor, Q. montana, and Q. Muehlenbergii, only seventeen species. Among the species which are shrubs and not trees there are in the Arboretum only Q. prinoides and a few of the Rocky Mountain species which grow very slowly and give little promise of success. Some of the handsomest of the American Oaks, including all the species confined to the southern states, to the Pacific coast region, and to Arizona and New Mexico, cannot be seen growing in the Arboretum. No evergreen Oak can support this climate, and the Oaks of western Europe are usually short-lived in eastern America. The deciduous leaved Oaks of Japan, Korea, and northern and western China grow well in the Arboretum, and some of the species produce good crops of fruit. The largest Asiatic Oaks in the Arboretum are plants of Quercus variabilis and Q. dentata on Oak Path near its southern end. The principal collection of Asiatic Oaks, however, is on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, between Azalea Path and the Bussey Mansion. In the mixed plantation near the summit of Peter's Hill are many Oak-trees, including large plants of the Japanese species. Scattered through the Oak-plantations are several hybrids of American species, and no opportunity is lost to increase the number of these hybrids which are now known to occur between various species growing in different parts of the country. All of these hybrids are interesting, and some of them are handsome treea, like Quercus Comptonae, for example, a hybrid of Quercus lyraia and the southern Live Oak, (Quercus virginiana), one of the most splendid Oak trees of America but unfortunately of too tender blood to bear the rigor of a northern winter. The early spring is one of the seasons when our northern Oaks can be studied to good advantage, for the color of the very young leaves and the amount and character of their hairy covering is different on each species. These characters are constant from year to year, and it is easier to distinguish, for example, a Black Oak (Quercus velutina) from a Scarlet Oak (Q. coccinea) by the unfolding leaves than it is by the mature leaves, which on some individuals of these species are hardly distinguishable. The young leaves of Oak-trees, apart from their scientific interest, appeal to persons interested in the beauties of nature, for some of them are exquisite in color, and more beautiiul even than in the late autumn when the leaves of several of our Oaks are brilliant features of the American forest. Cornus florida, which adds so much to the woodland beauty of eastern North America from southern New England to Texas, was covered here last autumn with inflorescence-buds which appear during the summer on short stems at the end of the branchlets between the upper pair of leaves, and consist of a cluster of minute flower-buds enclosed in four scales which are brown and more or less hairy during the winter ; in spring the stalk of inflorescence lengthens from a quarter of an inch to an inch and a half, and the scales which have protected the flower-buds open and expand, turn pure whice and form a flat corolla-like cup from three to four inches in diameter. The enlarged pure white scales which surround the flower-clusters are the conspicuous part of the inflorescense, for the flowers themselves are minute and yellow-green. On many of the trees this spring in the neighborhood of Boston the white scales are discolored by dirty red-brown streaks which make the trees seen from a short distance appear pink. The cause of this discoloration is not evident, although it may have been caused by the cold of Easter Monday following several days of unseasonably hot weather. At that time, however, the inflorescence-buds of Cornus florida had scarcely begun to swell. Whatever the cause of the injury its occurrence this year, when there is an unusual bloom, is doubly unfortunate, for the Flowering Dogwood often loses its flowerbuds entirely in New England as we are close to the northern limit of the range of distribution of this tree, which further south flowers more profusely and develops larger bud-scales. Forms of this tree with the scales which surround the flower-clusters varying in color from light to dark red (var. rubra) occasionally occur in southern woods, and some of these forms have been propagated by nurserymen and are popular garden plants, especially in the neighborhood of Philadelphia, where there are many specimens of the \"Red-flowered Dogwood.\" Several plants of this variety are now blooming by the shores of Jamaica Pond in Boston where they are flowering more abundantly than usual, for the flower-buds of this variety appear to be less hardy than those of the typical form. This is unfortunate, for when the red and whiteflowered trees are planted together in masses they produce when in flower a brilliant effect. There is a form of Cornus florida with pendulous branches, and another on which the flowers are called double from the presence of an inner row of white inflorescence-scales. These abnormal forms, however, have little to recommend them to the lovers of handsome trees. Cornus fforida is as handsome in the autumn as it is in the spring, for the upper surface of the leaves turns bright red, the lower surface retaining its pale summer tint, and the abundant clusters of scarlet lustrous fruits are conspicuous and beautiful. Not less beautiful in autumn are two trees with bright yellow fruit which have recently been found, one near Oyster Bay, Long Island, and the other in North Carolina. Comus Nuttallii. This inhabitant of the coniferous forests of the coast region of the Pacific states is a near relative of Cornus florida and a much larger and handsomer tree, and the largest probably of all the Dogwoods, as specimens one hundred feet high occur in the Redwood forests of northwestern California. The cup under the flowerclusters formed by the scales is sometimes six inches across and therefore larger than that of any of the other Flowering Dogwoods. These scales do not, like those of Cornus florida, enclose during the winter the whole inflorescence but surround only its base. The unprotected flower-buds are therefore more liable to injury from cold than those of the eastern tree, and it would hardly be possible to obtain flowers anywhere in the eastern states, even if the tree could be kept alive. In England it has proved difficult to grow, although small trees have occasionally flowered there and in France. Cornus kousa is the \"Flowering Dogwood\" of Japan and China, differing from the American tree in the coalition of the fruits into a solid mass, and in the inflorescence-scales which do not enclose the bud even in part, but stand out below it at right angles to the stem. They enlarge and turn creamy white before the flower-buds open, and are sharp pointed with edges which do not overlap and are smaller than those of the eastern American tree. Cornus kousa blooms three or four weeks later than Cornus florida, and the flower-buds have not been injured here in the coldest wmters. The leaves turn scarlet in the autumn when the plants are conspicuous from the red clusters of fruit hanging on long stalks. This small Japanese tree is still too seldom seen in our gardens. The best specimen in the neighborhood of Boston is in Mt. Auburn Cemetery in Cambridge; on a Long Island estate there is a grove of perhaps a hundred trees which in the autumn when covered with fruit make a wonderful display of color. The form of Cornus kousa discovered by Wilson in western China has now ilowered in the Chinese Collection on Bussey Hill for three or four years and promises to be even a handsomer plant than the Japanese type, for the scales of the inflorescence are broader and closer together, and so form a more complete involucral cup. The Arboretum plant has already produced fertile seeds and this beautiful tree will probably in a few years be more common in American gardens. Azaleas. The large orange red flowers of Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum, are fast opening, and although the plants on the lower side of Azalea Path are not as full of tlowers this spring as usual there are flowers enough to show their beauty. Rhododendron japonacum is a common shrub on grass-covered foothills of the mountains of central Japan where it is a vigorous shrub from three to six feet high with stout erect stems and clustered flowers from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter which open as the leaves unfold. More beautiful is the hybrid Azalea Louisa Hunnewell (Rhododendron Kosterianum var. Louisa Hunnewell) which was raised at Wellesley by crossing R. japonicum with R. molle (the R. sinense of many authors), and is the handsomest of the hybrid Azaleas. A number of plants of this hybrid are now in flower on the lower side of Oak Path near its junction with Azalea Path, and opposite a group of plants of Rhododendron japonicum. On the lower side of Oak Path, near the junction with Azalea Path, plants of a hybrid between Rhododendron obtusum amoenum (the well known Azalea amoena of gardens) and R. obtusum Kaempferi (Azalea Kaempferi) are now in bloom. This hybrid was raised at the Arboretum several years ago by Jackson Dawson and has been named Rhododendron Arnoldianum. The plants are dwarf in habit and the flowers on the different plants vary in color between that of the flowers of the two parents. A few of the plants in this group are worth propagating for the edges of beds and for the rock garden. Two American Azaleas. Plants of Rhododendron nudiflorum and R. roseum are in bloom on the lower side of Azalea Path, and the groups of these plants which are now side by side afford opportunity for the study of these two New England Azaleas. The flowers of R. nudiflorum, which are pale pink and open a few days earlier than those of R. roseum, have not the fragrance which adds so much to the value of the rose-colored flowers of R. rosezcrn. The fact that this plant can grow in soil strongly impregnated with lime will make its cultivation possible, it is hoped, in parts of the country where, on account of lime in the soil, no other Rhododendron can be kept alive."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 23","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23739","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060ab28.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 23, 1921 Cotoneasters. The Cotoneasters with deciduous leaves discovered by Wilson in western China now form one of the interesting groups in the Arboretum, and among them are some of the handsomest shrubs of recent introduction, suitable for the decoration of northern gardens. Several of them are plants of exceptionally good habit with gracefully arching branches; the leaves on the different species vary in size, color, and texture, and on several of the species assume brilliant autumn colors; the flowers are small in small clusters, but are produced in the greatest profusion; and in autumn the branches are covered with red or with black fruits. The flowering time of these plants extends through several weeks; and Cotoneaster-fruits enliven the collection from September to December. For the information of persons who may want to make a selection of these Cotoneasters for their gardens they may be grouped as follows: 1. Prostrate or semiprostrate shrubs with wide-spreading branches, small red flowers and fruit, and small, thick, dark green leaves persistent in this climate until the beginning of winter and further south until early spring. The best known plant of this group, Cotoneaster horizontalis, was sent by a French missionary to France many years ago from western China. It sometimes grows from two to three feet high and possibly ten feet in diameter, and is well suited for covering banks; it is sometimes used in rock gardens and as a cover for low walls. Two varieties of this plant, var. Wilsonii and var. perpusilla, discovered by Wilson are handsome plants; the former is inclined to grow taller than the type, but the var. perpusilla is a much dwarfer and more compact plant. C. adpressa of this group is one of the handsomest of the Cotoneasters for the rock garden or for the edges of beds of taller shrubs. 2. Large shrubs with white flowers and red or orange-red fruits. In this group are Cotoneaster multiflora eaLocarpa, C. racemiflora and its variety soongorica, C. gracilis and C. hupehensis. These are perhaps the handsomest Cotoneasters which can be grown in this climate. The first is the earliest of the Cotoneasters to bloom, and its flowers in compact clusters have covered for more than two weeks now its gracefully arching branches on which the blue-green leaves are fast expanding. The orange-red fruit arrarged in compact clusters ripens in September. Of the two forms of C. racemiflora the var. soongorica is the handsomer and perhaps the handsomest of the Arboretum Cotoneasters, and one of the handsomest shrubs of recent introduction. In habit and in the color of the leaves it resembles C. multiflora calocarpa, but the flowers are larger and the fruit is more brilliantly colored. C. hupehensis is a tall, broad, fast-growing shrub with dark green leaves, with larger flowers than those of the other species arranged in many-flowered compact clusters which cover the branches. The fruit is scarlet and lustrous, but in the Arboretum is only sparingly produced and is covered by the leaves. Seen from a distance when in flower this Cotoneaster looks like a large well-flowered Spiraea. 3. In this group may be placed the species with red flowers and red fruit, C. bullata, C. bullata var. macrophylla and var. floribunda, C. Dielsiana and its variety elegans, C. Zabellii and its variety miniata, C. Franchetti and C. obscura. C. divaricata and C. Dielsiana are perhaps the best garden plants in this group. They are large shrubs with wide-spreading, slightly drooping branches, small dark green lustrous leaves, and small inconspicuous flowers and fruit. C. Fra,nchetta has not proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. 4. In this group are placed the species with red flowers and fruits such as C. nitens, C. acutifolia and its variety villosula, C. ambigua, C. foveolata and C. moupinensis. C. nitens, though its flowers and fruits are small, is perhaps the handsomest of the group for none of the Chinese Cotoneasters have more gracefully spreading branches and more lustrous leaves. By some persons it is considered one of four or five of the handsomest of the Chinese Cotoneasters which can be successfully grown in this climate. C. moupinensis and C. foveolata are the tallest of the Chinese Cotoneasters with larger leaves than the others. They are coarse and not very attractive shrubs, but the brilliant colors of the leaves of C. foveolata in autumn make it worth growing in large shrubberies. Several species of Cotoneaster which do not come from China are established in the Arboretum. The best of these for this climate are perhaps the red-fruited European C. tomentosa, C. integerrima, a black-fruited Siberian shrub and one of the handsomest species, and the Himalayan red-fruited C. macrophylla with stems only a few inches high and gray-green leaves. The last and the Chinese C. adpressa are the best of the hardy species for the rock garden for which they are well suited. Viburnum prunifolium, which is known popularly as the Black Haw, is a common shrub in the middle Atlantic states where in early spring, on rocky hillsides and along roadsides and the borders of woods, it rivals in the beauty of its flowers the Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) which naturally grows in open woods and not in such exposed situations as the Black Haw. Viburnum nudiflorum is a large arborescent shrub or a small tree rarely thirty feet high, with a short trunk usually less than a foot in diameter, rigid spreading branches beset with slender spine-like branchlets, ovate to suborbicular, thick, dark green and lustrous leaves which, handsome through the summer, are splendid in the autumn with their dark vinous red or scarlet colors. The white flowers in slightly convex clusters have been produced here this spring in the greatest profusion; in the autumn they will be followed by red-stemmed drooping clusters of dark blue fruits covered with a glaucous bloom, and from half an inch to three-quarters of an inch long. The Black Haw, which is one of the handsomest of the small trees of the eastern United States, takes kindly to cultivation and is quite hardy north of the region of its natural distribution which is in southern Connecticut. It has generally escaped the attention of American nurserymen who in recent years have made better known our northern arborescent Viburnum Lentago, the Sheepberry or Nannyberry, a usually larger and for some persons a handsomer plant. The flowers, which are arranged in larger and rather flatter clusters, are pale cream color and not white, but the fruit is as handsome as that of the Black Haw and rather larger. The leaves, too, are large, equally lustrous, and also assume brilliant autumn colors. This Viburnum can grow in the shade of larger trees or in open situations which it prefers, and has proved to be one of the handsomest and most useful of the plants which have been largely used in the Arboretum in border and other mixed plantations. The plants here are now covered with flower-buds which will open in a few days. More beautiful than the Black Haw or the Nannyberry, the common tree Viburnum of the southern states, V. rufidulum is perhaps the handsomest of all the Viburnums with deciduous leaves. When it has grown under the most favorable conditions this Viburnum is a tree often forty feet high, with a tall stout trunk and branches which spread nearly at right angles from it; the leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous on the upper surface, with winged stalks covered, as are the winter-buds, with a thick felt of rusty brown hair; the flowers are creamy white and the fruit is dark blue covered with a glaucous bloom. This Viburnum has been growing in sheltered positions in the Arboretum for many years, but it is only a shrub and does not flower here every year. The plants on Hickory Path near Centre Street are now well covered with flower-buds. Viburnum rhytidophyllum. This evergreen species discovered by Wilson in western China has attracted a great deal of attention in Europe; there are fine specimens of it in Raleigh, North Carolina, and it flourishes in the neighborhood of Philadelphia. It has lived for several years in the Arboretum, but the cold of ordinary winters destroys most of the leaves and kills the flower-buds. Favored by an exceptionally mild winter, the plants on the upper side of Azalea Path are now covered with the uninjured leaves of last year and flat clusters of white flowers. These are less interesting than the leaves which are six or seven inches long, pointed, dark green, deeply wrinkled above and covered below with a thick coat of pale brown or nearly white felt. The fruit, which is red, has not yet been produced in the Arboretum. Viburnum ichangense, which first flowered in the Arboretum in 1916, has not before been as full of flowers as it is this spring. It is a native of central China where it is a shrub sometimes ten feet high with small, narrow, pointed leaves and small clusters of slightly fragrant flowers followed by black fruits. As it grows in the collection of Chinese plants on Bussey Hill it is a narrow, almost pyramidal shrub six fr et tall, with slender, erect stems, clothed to the ground with lateral branchlets which are covered with leaves and Hower-clusters. In habit unlike other Viburnums in the collection, the Ichang species is an attractive plant which promises to be useful for northern gardens. The last of the Asiatic Crabapples are two still little known and related species from western China, Malus toringoides and Malus transitoria, which are now in flower on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, the latter for the first time in the Arboretum. Malus toringoides is a small tree with gracefully drooping branches which form a broad head, deeply lobed, pointed, dark green leaves, white flowers and small, pearshaped, red fruits. It was discovered by Wilson in western Szechuen near the Thibetan border, and is a perfectly hardy, handsome tree which in its native country sometimes attains the height of thirty feet. Malus transitoria, found by Purdom in Shensi, is, as it has grown in the Arboretum, a densely branched shrub rather than a tree, with smaller leaves and flowers than those of M. toringoides. A few American Crabapples. All the species of eastern North America have large pale pink or rose-colored, fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly grown, and green, fragrant fruits covered with a waxy exudation peculiar to them. Several species have been distinguished in recent years; they are all now in the collection but several of them are still too small to flower. Malus glaucescens, noticed first in the vicinity of Rochester, New York, best distinguished by the pale under surface of the leaves is the first of these trees to flower. Malus platycarpa from the southern Appalachian Mountains, with larger fruit than that of the other species, is in bloom opposite the upper end of the Meadow Road, in the old Crabapple Collection, and near it are large specimens of Malus ioensis, the common Crabapple of the middle west. With it is growing the Bechtel Crab, (var. plena), its variety with double rose-colored flowers which look like small Roses. There are large plants of the Bechtel Crab also in the Peter's Hill Group. The trees are now in bloom, and, judging by the number of persons who stop to examine and admire them, they are the most popular plants in the Arboretum. The Bechtel Crab is now found in many American nurseries."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 27","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23740","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060af28.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII N0. 77 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 27, 1921 Rhododendrons with evergreen leaves are widely scattered over temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and extend into the tropics in southern and southeastern Asia. Several hundred species are now recognized, the largest number on the eastern Himalayas and on the mountains of southwestern and western China where botanical explorers have recently found innumerable new and often handsome species. One or two species grow in northern China, two in central Japan, one in the Pacific states, and five in the Atlantic states of North America; two species grow on the mountains of central Europe and four in the Caucasus. The number of species which can be successfully grown in the Arboretum is only nine; four from eastern North America, one from Japan, one from China, one from the Caucasus and two from Europe. Of these several are rare in American gardens, in which hybrids are generally cultivated. Eastern North America is not a Rhododendron country. A few of them grow better on Long Island than they do in New England; they might grow more successfully in Pennsylvania and Delaware where they have not been very largely planted, or in some favored valley of the Piedmont region of Virginia or North Carolina; further south the summer sun is too hot for many of the species. On the northwest coast of this continent in western Oregon, Washington and southern British Columbia the soil, moisture and temperate climate are favorable to broad-leaved Evergreens, and it is in that region that it seems possible to establish a collection of Rhododendrons which might equal and perhaps surpass the great collections of southwestern England, in the best of which several hundred species now flower every year. In the United States Rhododendrons have been more largely planted and better cared for in the neighborhood of Boston than in other parts of the country; and judging by the best collection in America, at least, of the so-called Catawbiense hybrids on which incessant care, intelligence and money have been expended continously for seventy years the results which can be obtained from the cultivation of these plants in New England are not great in comparison with the results obtained in regions better suited to their requirements. Rhododendrons usually grow on mountain slopes where, although the atmosphere is saturated with moisture, their roots are in well drained soil, and where they are often protected in winter by snow. Here in New England they grow best when planted on the north side of evergreen trees, protected from the stimulating effect of the hot sun of March which excites growth and increases the danger from late frosts. Planted in such a position at the base of Hemlock Hill in the Arboretum there are good plants of Catawbiense hybrids. Rhododendrons are not particular about soil provided it is well drained and is free of lime. A few of the new Chinese species grow naturally in limestone soil, but none of them are hardy in the eastern states. For the Rhododendrons which can be grown here lime is fatal, and persons who go on year after year trying to overcome this peculiarity of nearly all plants of the Heath Family are throwing away their labor and money. Rhododendrons suffer from insufficient moisture at the roots and cannot be safely planted within reach of the roots of vigorous trees which deprive them of it. In recent years Rhododendrons in the neighborhdod of Boston have been injured by the lace wing fly, an insect brought from the south on collected plants of Rhododendron maximum, which discolors and kills the leaves and finally, if unchecked, the plants. This insect can be killed by any contact spray, but as they remain on the lower side of the leaves it is not always easy to reach them on large plants. Shade is unfavorable for their increase and they are more numercus on the southern than on the northern side of plants, and on plants growing in the open. Three or four broods are hatched in one season, and this means that the plants must be constantly watched and sprayed several times during the summer. The species of Rhododendrons which have proved hardy here are the eastern American R. maximum, R. catawbiense, R. minus and R, carolimanum, the European R. ferrugineum and R. hirsutum, the Caucasian R. Smirnowii, the Chinese R. micranthum and the Japanese R. brachycarpum. The four American species are perfectly hardy and can be grown without difficulty. R. maxamum is the largest of these, becoming sometimes a small tree in the sheltered valleys of the southern Appalachian mountains. It has beautiful, dark green, lustrous leaves pale on the lower surface, and clusters of pink and white flowers which do not open here until July and are a good deal hidden by the branches of the year which have nearly finished their growth before the flowers appear. R. catawbiense is a round-topped shrub with beautiful foliage and lilac purple flowers of a distinctly disagreeable color. It grows on the southern Appalachian Mountains, sometimes covering near the summits of the highest peaks, at altitudes of between five or six thousand feet, thousands of acres with impenetrable thickets; it occurs, too, sparingly in the Piedmont region of North Carolina, and on the mountains of northern Alabama. R. rarolinianum and R. minus are southern Appalachian species; the former is a dwarf compact shrub with leaves covered below more or less thickly with rusty brown scales, and compact clusters of small pure pink flowers which open in early spring. It grows apparently equally well in full exposure to the sun and in the shade of Pines and other trees. There is a whiteflowered form with thinner, less rusty brown leaves, which is still rare in gardens and appears rather less hardy than the pink-flowered type. R. minus grows from low altitudes, as at the locks on the Savannah River above Augusta, Georgia, up to altitudes of thirty-five hundred feet on the Blue Ridge of North Carolina. It is a shrub sometimes ten or twelve feet tall, with leaves covered below with glandular scales and pink flowers, which in northern gardens do not open until the end of June, and after the shoots of the year have nearly attained their full growth. A fine variety of this species (var. Harbisonii) from northern Georgia with larger flowers is not yet in cultivation. The two European species R. hirsutum and R. ferrugineum are dwarf shrubs with small pink or carmine flowers, the former with branches covered with hairs and leaves glandular hispid on the lower surface, the latter with glabrous branchlets and leaves covered below with rusty brown scales. Of the two R. hirsutum has taken more kindly to cultivation, at least in the Arboretum. It can grow in soil impregnated with lime. R. Smirnowii, a native of the Caucasus, is said to become a tree sometimes twenty-five feet high; in the Arboretum, where it is hardy, it is a shrub four or five feet high, with oblong, acute leaves dark green above and covered below with a thick, yellowish or tawny felt which also covers the branchlets, and protects the leaves from the attacks of the lace wing fly. The flowers are bright pink and beautiful. Of the hundreds of species of Rhododendron which grow in China only the northern R. micranthum has up to this time showed itself able to support the New England climate. It is a straggling shrub with small leaves and small compact clusters of small white flowers which give to the plant the appearance of a Ledum. The Japanese R. brachycarpum is a handsome shrub with leaves which resemble those of R. catawbiense, and rather compact clusters of large pale pink or pale strawcolored flowers. This species, it is said, did not reach England until 1888; it was sent to the United States in 1862 by Dr. R. H. Hall, and flowered in Mr. Francis Parkman's garden in Boston a few years later. The original plant was rresented by Mr. Parkman to the Arboretum where it bloomed for several years but was finally lost in transplanting. This hardy Rhododendron will, it is hoped, soon become common in gardens as Wilson has sent large supplies of seeds from Japan. Of these hardy species of Rhododendron the handsomest are R. maximum, R. Smirnowii and R. carolinianum, and for general cultivation here the two American species are the most desirable and the most easily obtained. In the next issue of these Bulletins some of the hardy hybrid Rhododendrons will be discussed. Horsechestnuts. Many Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes are now in bloom in the collection of these trees and shrubs on the right hand side of the Meadow Road. Of the European Horsechestnuts (Aesculus hippocastanum) it is not necessary to speak, for one of the most splen28 did trees in the world it is known to all American tree lovers, at least in the northern and eastern states, where it has been growing for more than a hundred years, and noble specimens can be seen in Salem, Massachusetts, and other seaboard towns. The red-flowered Horsechestnuttree (Aesculus carnea), with flowers which vary on different trees from flesh color to red, is supposed to be a hybrid between A. hlppocastan, nm and one of the American red-flowered species, probably A. Pavia, which originated in Belgium many years ago. The handsomest of these hybrids, that is the one with the darkest red flowers, was raised in France and is known in nurseries as A. Briottii (A. carnea var. Briott~i). There are small but well flowered specimens of this variety in the collection. Of the American species the first to bloom is the form of the Ohio Buckeye on which the leaves are composed of seven instead of five leaflets (A. glabra var. Buckleyi), a rare tree most abundant in Jackson County, Missouri. The flowers on the typical A. glabra open a little later and are followed by those of the variety from southern Missouri and Arkansas (var. leucodermis) distinguished by its smooth pale bark. The largest trees in the Arboretum of the Ohio Buckeye are on the left hand side of the South Street Gate and are still covered with flowers. The yellow-flowered A. octandra of the southern Appalachian forests is now in bloom. This is the largest of the American species. Hybrids of this tree and A. Pavia first raised in Europe more than a hundred years ago, to which the general name of A. hybrida should be given, are conspicuous from their red and yellow flowers. A number of these hybrids are now fiowering in the collection and show much variation in the size and habit of the plants, and in the size and color of their leaves and flowers. Many of these hybrids are good garden plants. A. georgiana, the common Buckeye of the southern Piedmont region, which is sometimes a shrub and sometimes a slender tree up to thirty feet in height, with flowers in crowded clusters, red and yellow on some plants, bright red on others and yellow on others, shows again its value as a garden plant here at the north. Even more beautiful are the scarlet flowers of another southern plant, A. discolor var. mollis, one of the handsomest of the American plants introduced into gardens by the Arboretum. A. arguta, a little Texas shrub of the Ohio Buckeye Group is covered this year with long narrow clusters of bright yellow flowers marked with rose color at the base of the petals. Symplocos paniculata is interesting as the only representative of a Family of plants which can be successfully grown in the Arboretum. It is a native of Japan and western China, and grows also on the Himalayas. The Arboretum plants are of the Japanese form which was introduced into the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, at least fifty years ago. Although a distinct and beautiful plant, it appears to be still very little known in gardens, and in England where it flowers freely it does not, it is said, produce fruit. In this country it is believed that it will not grow in soil impregnated with lime. In the Arboretum Symplocos paniculata is a shrub twelve or fifteen feet tall and broad, branched to the ground, with dark green leaves, axillary clusters of small white flowers which are followed in the autumn by beautiful blue fruits about a third of an inch in diameter. The unusual color of the fruit is the chief attraction of this shrub. The Arboretum plants are now covered with flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 2","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23734","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15e816e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 2. 1921 Hybrid Rhododendrons. It is to the hybrids and not to the species of Rhododendrons that our gardens are most indebted. The history of many of these hybrids is obscure, and the records of their breeding have been so badly kept that it seems practically impossible to obtain the information about them needed to continue intelligently the breeding of Rhododendrons with the view of obtaining hardier races for New England gardens. The plants which have been imported from Europe in the last seventy years in numbers running up into the hundreds of thousands are practically all the so-called Catawbiense Hybrids. These hybrids were obtained in the first place apparently by crossing Rhododendron catawbiense with R. ponticum, a Caucasian species not hardy here, and with R. maximum. Later the red-flowered Himalayan R. arboreum was crossed either with R. catawbiense directly or with its hybrids. Probably other Indian species were used in these crosses, which appear further to have been more or less crossed among themselves. Several hundreds of these hybrids have received names, but only a comparatively small number have proved hardy in this country, those in which R. catawbiense and R. maximum preponderate being naturally the hardiest, although a few of the hybrids with red flowers showing the influence of R. arboreum are hardy here. Some of the Rhododendrons which have proved hardy here are evidently hybrids of the pale yellow-flowered Rhododendron caucasicum, a shrub which grows at high altitudes on the mountains of the Caucasus and of Asia Minor. These hybrids, or those of them which have been successfully grown in the Arboretum, are low shrubs with compact clusters of pink, white or red flowers which open from two to three weeks earlier than those of the Catawbiense Hybrids. There is much confusion in regard to the history of many of these plants and their breeding. The most satisfactory of them here is called Boule de Neige. Judging by the name, it was raised in France or Belgium. Only the name appears in the most elaborate work on Rhododendrons which has been published, and nothing now appears to be known about its breeding. Boule de Neige has white flowers faintly tinged with pink when they first open and is one of the best Rhododendrons which can be planted in New England. The Arboretum will be glad of information about its history. Other good plants here of the Caucasian race are Mont Blanc, with deep rose-colored flower-buds and expanding flowers which soon become pure white. This is a taller and not as wide-spreading a plant as Boule de Neige. Sultana and Cassiope are dwarf white-flowered plants of less vigorous growth and dwarfer habit than Mont Blanc. A plant of R. coriaceum, not rare in English nurseries, has been in the Arboretum for many years, and although it flowers a week or two later than the plants already mentioned it appears to be of Caucasian blood. R. venosum with bright rose-colored flowers, usually found in nurseries under the erroneous name of R. Jacksonii, is a hybrid of R. caucasicum and R. arboreum raised in England in 1829. It is highly thought of in England, where it has been much planted, but in the Arboretum is less hardy than the other Caucasian hybrids. A plant which has been growing in Mr. Hunnewell's garden at Wellesley for at least fifty years is evidently a hybrid of R. caucasicum. The original specimens were imported from England and are now round-topped bushes about six feet high. For at least thirty years they have never suffered from heat or cold, and have never failed to flower freely. The leaves show the influence of R. catawbiense, but the size of the flower-clusters point to R. caucasicnm. The early flowers, for this is one of the earliest of the hardy Rhododendrons to bloom in this climate, show also the caucasicum influence. Whatever its name or parentage this is a valuable plant, for it is certainly one of the hardiest hybrid Rhododendrons which have been planted in this country. In the Arboretum collection there are only small specimens. In England several hybrids of Rhododendron Smirnowii have been raised. Some of these which originated at Kew have been tried in the Arboretum but without much success. Of more promise are a number of plants raised at Holm Lea by Charles Sander by crossing R. Smirnowii with a Catawbiense Hybrid. They have now flowered in the open ground for several years and appear perfectly hardy. The flowers are large, in large compact clusters and vary from clear pink to deep rose color. The leaves are longer than those of either parent, but are without a trace of the felt which covers the lower side of the leaves of R. Smirnowii. We have here perhaps an early-flowering race which may add greatly to the possibilities of Rhododendron cultivation in this country. By crossing Rhododendron Fortunei from southern China with some of the Indian species some of the handsomest of all Rhododendrons have been obtained in English gardens. These are not hardy in this climate, but hybrids of R. Fortunei, crossed probably with hybrid Catawbiense forms imported several years ago from Edinburgh and later from Paul of Cheshunt, England, have proved hardy and should receive more attention than they have in this country. In their slightly fragrant flowers with an often six- or seven-lobed corolla they show the Fortunei influence and in the size and color of the flowers resemble the well known R. Pink Pearl which is not hardy here. A hybrid to which the name R. Holmleanum will be given raised by Charles Sander at Holm Lea by crossing the Chinese R. discolor, which is closely related to R. Fortunei, with a Catawbiense Hybrid has flowered under glass for two years and will flower this year in the open ground in the Arboretum where it has not been injured by the past mild winter. This hybrid has pale pink flowers in large compact trusses, and if it does not prove permanently hardy here it will be a useful plant for the conservatory. At least three hardy dwarf Rhododendrons were obtained many years ago in England by crossing the European species with the dwarf species of the southern Appalachian Mountains. The handsomest of them is perhaps Rhododendron myrtifolium, the hybrid between R. minus and R. hireutum, a dwarf compact plant which is covered every year in June with small clusters of pale rosecolored flowers. The hybrid between R. ferrugineum and R. minus has recently been distinguished as R. laetevirens, the name Wilsonii under which it has been grown in English nurseries properly belonging to another plant. The third of these hybrids, R. arbutifolium, is believed to be the result of crossing R. carolinianum with R. ferrugineum. The American parents are handsomer plants and better worth a place in the garden than these hybrids which have suffered from the influence of the European species. There are in the Arboretum collection several plants of a hybrid between R. Metternichii and a hybrid Catawbiense raised by Anthony Waterer at Knap Hill. These plants have large, dark green leaves which are larger than those of R. catawbiense and of many of its hybrids, and flowers which vary on different individuals from pink to rose color. The plants are hardy and vigorous, but the flowers are not superior to those of some of the hardy forms of the Catawbiense Hybrids. R. Metternichii, which is a native of mountain slopes in central Japan, has flowered in one Massachusetts garden but has proved difficult to grow in the Arboretum. Sorbus Folgneri. Plants of the group of Sorbus with simple leaves have not been particularly successful in the Arboretum, especially the European species. There is not a specimen of the European White Beam (Sorbus Aria) in the collection and of the many varieties there is only the variety Decaisneana with larger leaves which has been growing here since 1883, the original plant having been replaced several times by plants propagated from it. There is a large and healthy specimen of the English Service tree (Sorbus domestica) near the Forest Hills entrance but it has never flowered. Of Sorbus intermedia of central Europe there is a large specimen in the mixed plantation near the summit of Peter's Hill. The section of the genus Sorbus differing from the White Beam in its smaller flowers and fruits, to which the name Micromeles has been given, is represented in the Arboretum by Sorbus alnifolia, a widely distributed tree in eastern Asia which was raised here in 1893, and seems perfectly at home in the Arboretum where it has grown to be thirty feet high and forms a shapely pyramidal head densely clothed in dark green leaves which turn orange and red in the autumn; the white flowers are produced in many-flowered clusters and are followed by small red or red and yellow fruits. This is one of the most successful of the deciduous-leafed trees introduced into the Arboretum from Japan. There is a specimen close to the Wisteria trellis on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road, and a larger one in the mixed plantation near the summit of Peter's Hill. Handsomer is Sorbus Folgneri, one of Wilson's introductions from western China which is now in flower in the collection of Chinese trees on the southern slope of Bussey Bill. It is a tree which Wilscn saw in China sixty feet high with a trunk girth of twelve feet. The leaves, vhich taper to the ends, are green and lustrous above and covered below with white tomentum which is also found on the young branches. The flowers in lax clusters are white and from a quarter to a half of an inch across, and are followed by egg-shaped, bright red fruit about half an inch long. In the Arboretum Sorbus Folgneri is now only about twelve feet high, with gracefully spreading and arching branches and a clean stem only a few inches in diameter. Although Sorbus Aria is not in the Arboretum, the interesting hybrid of that tree and the North American Aronia arbutifolia is established in the Shrub Collection where it is named Sorbaronia altina; it is also known as Sorbus alpina and is a plant of more interest to botanists than to gardeners. Deutzia hypoglauca. Many of the Deutzias recently introduced from western China give little promise of value in this climate, and some of the handsomest of these plants, like D. longifolia, D. Vilmorinae and D. discolor, are usually killed to the ground every year in the Arboretum. The specimen, however, found by Purdom in northern China to which the name hypoglauca has been given has been growing and flowering here for several years and is a good addition to the short list of the entirely hardy species and hybrids of Deutzia which are suitable for New England gardens. Another north China species D. grandiflora, is also hardy here. It is a dwarf shrub with larger flowers than those of other Deutzias. Unlike those of other species they are solitary or in two- or three-flowered clusters, and open as the leaves unfold and before the flowers of other Deutzias appear. More satisfactory, however, for New England gardens than any of the species of Deutzia are plants of the Lemoinei hybrids raised by Lemoine at Nancy by crossing D. graciLzs and D. parviflora, another north China plant. The original hybrid is a vigorous shrub often four or five feet tall and broad. It never fails to cover itself every May with pure white flowers, and, like all the Lemoinei hybrid Deutzias, is easily increased by cuttings. There are several compact forms of this hybrid in the collection. Of these the most beautiful perhaps is called Boule e Neige. Not quite as hardy is Lemoine's hybrid called D. rosea, obtained by crossing D. gracilis with the Chinese D. purpurea. There are several named varieties of this hybrid; they are small compact plants with white flowers more or less tinged with rose."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 7","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23737","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060a326.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 7, 1921 Hickory-trees. No trees give more character to the flora of eastern North America than the Hickories; the trees of no other genus of plants of the United States produce food so valuable to man, and among them are individuals which are not surpassed in majestic beauty by any deciduous-leaved tree of the northern hemisrhere. It was long believed that eastern North America was the sole possessor of Hickory- trees, but recently a species has been found in southern China, with Sassafras, Tulip-tree and Kentucky Coffee-tree another interesting link between the floras of eastern North America and eastern continental Asia. The American Hickory-trees fall naturally into two groups. In the first group the trees, with one exception, have close bark, winter-buds covered with scales which do not overlap and fruit furnished with wings at the junction of the divisions of the thin husk. The shell of the nut of the species of this group, with one exception, is thin and brittle, and the kernel is bitter in some of the species and sweet in others. In the second group some species have scaly and others close bark, winter-buds covered with overlapping scales, and fruit without wings or with only slightly developed wings. The shell of the nut of the different species is thick or thin but is not brittle, and the kernel is always sweet. To the first group belongs the Pecan (Carya pecan), a tree of the lower Mississippi valley, eastern Texas and northeastern Mexico which on deep rich bottom land sometimes reaches the height of one hundred and eighty feet and forms a tall massive trunk six feet in diameter, and a broad crown of slightly pendulous branches. In beauty few trees surpass the Pecan, and no tree which grows beyond the tropics equals it in the abundance and value of its nuts, which now raised in southern orchards of selected varieties have become an important article of food and have given rise to a large and rapidly increasing industry. Only one species of this group, the Bitternut or Pignut (Carya cordiformis) grows at the north. This is a fast growing tree often a hundred feet high, with a tall trunk, spreading branches which form a broad head, slender branchlets and bright yellow winter-buds. The fruit is globose or slightly longer than broad, and more or less covered with yellow scurfy scales, and the small thin-shelled nut contains a seed covered with a bitter skin which protects it even from the nut-hunting boy. One of the interesting trees of this group, the Nutmeg Hickory (Carya myristicaeformis), is a rare and local tree in South Carolina, Alabama, Mississippi, Louisiana, southern Arkansas and eastern Texas. It owes its r-ame to the oblong red-brown nuts marked by longitudinal bands of small gray spots. From the other species of this group it differs in the thick hard shell of the nut, which makes the species intermediate between the trees with bud-scales which do not and which do overlap. In the first group only the southern Water Hickory (Carya aquatica) has scaly bark. An inhabitant of deep river swamps often inundated during a considerable part of the year from southern Virginia and southern Illinois southward, the Water Hickory is a slender tree often a hundred feet tall, with much compressed, broad-winged, clustered fruits broadest above the middle and flat, four-angled, dark red-brown, longitudinally wrinkled nuts with intensely bitter seeds. The other species of the first grcup, Carya texana, is a rare and local tree of eastern Texas, southern Arkansas, and western Mississippi. Popularly called the Bitter Pecan, it differs chiefly from the real Pecan in its much flattened fruit and nut, and intensely bitter seed. The trees of the second group differ in the thickness of the branchlets, in their scaly or close bark, in the thickness of the husk of the fruit and of the shell of the nut. The most valuable trees of this group are the species with bark which separates on old trunks into long, broad, loosely attached scales, popularly known as Shellbarks or Shagbarks. As a nut tree the most valuable of these, and after the Pecan the most valuable nut tree in America, is Carya ovata, a common and widely distributed species, ranging with Carya cordiformis further north than the other species. This tree is distinguished by its leaves with unusually five leaflets, its large globose fruit with a thick husk splitting freely to the base, and by its small, white, compressed, angled, thin-shelled nut with a comparatively large seed of excellent flavor. The Big or Bottom Shellbark (Carya laciniosa) is a taller tree often a hundred and twenty feet tall, and an inhabitant of deep, often inundated bottom-lands. Rare east of the Appalachian Mountains, it is very abundant in the valley of the lower Ohio River and in central Missouri. From other Hickories it can be distinguished by the orange color of the year-old branchlets and by its large winter-buds often an inch long and two-thirds of an inch thick. The leaves are composed of from four to nine, usually seven, leaflets, and the fruit, which is the largest produced by any Hickory-tree, is usually oblong with a thick freely splitting husk and more or less compressed, prominently angled, reddish brown nut up to two inches in length and an inch and a quarter in width, with a thick, hard shell and a comparatively small sweet seed. Of the species with close bark the best known, perhaps, is the tree always called \"Hickory\" by persons living in the region where this tree is common, but in books generally called Mockernut or Bid Bud Hickory (Carya alba). Less common at the north, this is the most generally distributed Hickory-tree of the south where it grows usually on dry ridges and less commonly on alluvial land. The fruit is oblong and often broadest above the middle, or subglobose with a thin husk splitting finally to the middle or to the base and a globose or oblong, often long-pointed, reddish brown nut with a thick hard shell and a small sweet seed. Common northern Hickory-trees are Carya ovalis and C. glabra, both with several distinct kinds of nuts. The former has slightly scaly bark, ellipsoid, globose or pear-shaped fruit with a generally thin husk which splits freely to the base or nearly to the base, and a thin-shelled nut too small to be of much value. The bark of Carya glabra, usually incorrectly called Pignut, is close and smooth; the branchlets are very slender, and the fruit is pear-shaped, much compressed and often gradually narrowed below into a stalk-like base; the husk is very thin and remains closed until after the fruits have fallen, or opens tardily for about a third of its length; the nut is small, globose or short-oblong, compressed, and very thin-shelled, with a sweet seed. Southward a form of this tree (var. megacarpa) has stouter branches, larger buds and larger fruit, with a thicker husk. Of the other species, which are all southern, the most widely distributed is the variety of C. Buckleyi with pear-shaped fruit (var. arkansana). This is the common Hickory of the Ozark region of Missouri and Arkansas, and of Texas where it is the common and often the only Hickory from the coast to the foot of the Edwards Plateau. Hybrid Hickories. A few hybrid Hickory-trees are now known, mostly between species of the two groups, Carya cordiformis and C. pecan, being usually one of the parents of these hybrids, the exception being C. Dunbarii, a hybrid of C. laciniosa, and C. ovata from the valley of the Genessee River in New York. In the Arboretum collection are now growing Carya pecan, C. texana, C. cordiformis, C. myristicaeformis, C. ovata, C. ovata fraxinifolia, C. ovata Nuttallii, C. carolinae-septentrionalis, C. laciniosa, C. alba, C. pallida, C. glabra, C. glabra megacarpa, C. ovalis, C. ovalis obcordata, C. ovalis odorata, C. ovalis obovalis, C. Buckleyi var. arkansana, and the hybrid C. Brownii, and its variety varians, C. Laneyi, and its variety chateaugayensis, C. Schneckii, C. Nussbaumerii and C. Dunbarii. There are also in the collection small plants of a number of named forms of C. ovata selected for the size and good quality of their nuts to which nut-growers in the northern states are now paying much attention. The fact that such southern species as C. texana, which grows where sugar is one of the principal crops, and C. myristicaeformis, which grows only where cotton is successfully cultivated, have proved hardy here indicates that it may be possible to establish the other southern Hickories in the Arboretum. 36 Laburnum alpinum. The large plant of this Laburnum near the upper entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills Road has this year been covered with its long racemes of clear yellow flowers and has shown, as it has for many years, the value of this shrub for northern gardens. Laburnum alpinum, which is a native of the elevated regions of southern Europe, is usually spoken of as the \"Scotch Laburnum\" probably because it is a favorite in the gardens of north Britain. In those of New England it is still extremely rare, although it is the handsomest large shrub with yellow flowers which is perfectly hardy here. It is hardier than Laburnum vulgare, or, as it is now called, Laburnum anagyroides, the small tree with shorter racemes of flowers which has been a good deal planted in the eastern states and which at the north is not always hardy, although occasionally good specimens are to be seen in the neighborhood of Boston. There are several garden forms of this Laburnum which have not, however, ever grown well in the Arboretum. A better plant for New England than Laburnum vulgare is its hybrid with L. alpinum, known as L. Watereri or L. Parksii. This is a hardy small tree and when in flower the handaomest tree with yellow flowers which can be grown in this climate. It flowered well this year in the Arboretum two weeks ago but the flowers have now faded. A new Azalea. Several plants have been flowering during the past week of a handsome Azalea which is believed to be a hybrid between two American species, Rhododendron arborescens and R. calendulaceum, to which the name R. Anneliesae (see A Monograph of AzaLeas) has been given. These plants were raised accidentally at the Arboretum from seeds probably of R. ralendulaceu7rc sown in 1896. They have been growing with that species and are now plants from four to six feet tall, and are valuable because they flower later than most forms of R. calendulaceum. From that species they chiefly differ in the more glabrous under surface of the leaves, in their sparsely hairy branchlets, and in the long corolla-tube of the more fragrant flowers which in the type plant are pale pink marked with a large yellow blotch, but in other individuals are orange-red and clear yellow. In shape and color the leaves resemble those of R. arborescens, but differ from those of that species in the presence of hairs on the underside of the midrib; from R. arborescens, too, it differs in the color of the flowers and in the hair near the base of the style. Late Lilacs. Syringa Sweginzowii, one of the last to bloom and for some persons the most attractive of the species of Lilac recently introduced from China, has been covered as usual with its narrow clusters of long-tubed fragrant flowers, which flesh color in the bud become nearly white after opening. This species flowers freely as a small plant. Belonging to the group of species of which Syringa villosa is the best known and the most valuable, S. reflexa and S. Surgentiana are blooming sparingly this year. The two species are large, vigorous and hardy shrubs, with the large, dark green leaves of S. villosa. The Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) at the northern base of Hemlock Hill are now in bloom, and the last and greatest flower show of the Arboretum year is at its height."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23733","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15ebb6e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 14, 1921 Philadelphus. The importance of this genus of shrubs for the decoration of northern gardens during the last weeks of June and the early days of July has been greatly increased by the discoveries of travelers in eastern Asia and by the successful work of plant-breeders. There is a large number of these plants in the Arboretum where they are arranged in the Shrub Collection and in a large group on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and opposite the Lilacs. Known as Syringas or Mock Oranges in popular language, these names are unfortunate and confusing, for Syringa is the botanical name of the Lilac and Mock Orange is the popular name of Prunus caroliniana, a southern Cherry which is much planted in the southern states as an ornamental tree and in making hedges. The species of Philadelphus grow naturally in southeastern Europe and the Caucasus, in the United States on the southern Appalachian Mountains, in Arkansas, western Texas, on the southern Rocky Mountains, and in the northwestern states, in Japan, Korea, northern and western China, and on the Himalayas. The species and hybrids are, with few exceptions, hardy in Massachusetts. They need rich, well-drained soil, and the presence of lime in it has no bad effects on them. Better than most shrubs they can support shade, and their ability to grow and flower under trees makes them valuable as undergrowth in border plantations. The first of the Syringas to find its way into gardens, the Mock Orange of all old gardens, Syringa coronarius from eastern Europe, was first cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century. and was probably one of the first garden shrubs brought to America by the early settlers. It is a medium sized shrub often as broad as high, with exceedingly fragrant flowers faintly tinged with yellow. This plant has been somewhat neglected in recent years for species and hybrids with larger and showier flowers. This is unfortunate, for no other Syringa equals the old-fashioned Mock Orange in the delicate perfume of its flowers. Varieties with yellow leaves, with double flowers and with narrow willow-like leaves are in the Arboretum collection but none of them have any particular value as garden plants. Among the American species best worth the attention of gardeners are Philadelphus inodorus, P. pubescens, perhaps better known as P. latifolius, and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain Region and grows to the height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, solitary, pure white cup-shaped, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful of all the species of Syringa. P. pubescens is also a plant of the southern Appalachian Mountain Region. It sometimes grows to the height of twenty feet; the branches are stout and erect, the leaves are broad, and the slightly fragrant flowers are arranged in leafy, erect racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than P. inodorus, and although it makes a great show when in bloom it is less beautiful. Philadelphus microphyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any other Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, they make up in fragrance which is stronger than that of the flowers of any other Syringa, and perfumes the air for a long distance. The most distinct and perhaps the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is Philadelphus purpurascens, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China. It is a large shrub with long, gracefully arching stems from which rise numerous short branchlets spreading at right angles; on these branchlets the flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long with a bright purple calyx and white petals which do not spread as they do in most species but form a bell-shaped corolla. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus pekinensis is another Chinese species well worth a place in the garden. It is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, small dark green leaves and fragrant flowers slightly tinged with yellow. P. pekinensis has been growing in the Arboretum for many years and has proved a reliable and free flowering plant. Another old inhabitant of the Arboretum, P. Falconeri, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of the leaves and in the long narrow petals of the flower. The origin and history of this plant is not known. Hybrid Philadelphus. More beautiful than the species are some of the hybrid Syringas. The first of these to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by a Monsieur Billard and is sometimes called \"Souvenir de Billard,\" although the correct name for it is Philadelphus insignis. This hybrid is one of the handsomest of the tall growing Syringas; it has large, snow-white flowers in long clusters, and its value is increased by the fact that it is the last of the whole group to flower. The largest Syringa in our northern gardens, where plants thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found, appears to be a hybrid between P. coronarius and some unrecognized species. To this plant, whose history is unknown, the name of Philadelphus maximus has been given. Another hybrid called Philadelphus splendens appeared in the Arboretum several years ago and is supposed to be a hybrid between two American species, P. inodorus and P. pubescens. It is a large and shapely shrub with pure white, only slightly fragrant flowers an inch and three-quarters in diameter and borne in erect clusters. This hybrid is a free-flowering plant and when the flowers are open it is the showiest plant in the Syringa Group. These early hybrids are the result of natural cross fertilization, and the systematic breeding in the genus dates from the time that Lemoine first crossed the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus with P. coronarius and produced a plant to which he gave the name of P. Lemoinei. Lemoine then crossed his P. Lemoinei with P. insignis and produced a race to which the general name of P. polyanthus has now been given. Well known forms of this plant are \"Gerbe de Neige\" and \"Parvillon Blanc.\" To another race of the Lemoine hybrids the name of Philadelphus cymosus has been given. This race was obtained by crossing P. Lemoinei and P. pubescens or some related species. \"Conquete\" is considered the type of this group. Other well known plants which are said to belong here are \"Mer de Glace,\" \"Norma,\" \"Nuee Blanche,\" \"Rosace,\" \"Voie Lactee\" and \"Perle Blanche.\" Another race of hybrids with double racemose flowers raised by Lemoine and of doubtful origin is called P. virginal is. The type of this group is Lemoine's \"Virginal.\" Other plants referred to it are \"Argentina,\" \"Glacier,\" and \"Bouquet Blanc.\" Late Viburnums. The Arboretum in late June owes much beauty to several species of Viburnum which have been planted generally in roadside and border plantations. The handsomest of these plants is Viburnum cassinoides, an American species which, although it grows naturally in cold northern swamps, is improved by cultivation and in ordinary garden soil is a handsomer and more shapely plant than in its natural form where it often makes straggling stems from fifteen to twenty feet tall. The beauty of this Viburnum is in its ample, thick and lustrous leaves which vary greatly in size and shape on different plants, in its broad convex clusters of pale cream-colored flowers, and in its large and showy fruit which when fully grown is yellow, then pink and finally blue-black, the three colors often appearing at the same time in the same cluster. Not often before has this Viburnum been as thickly covered with flowers as it is this year. The fruit is larger than the bright blue fruit of the other summer-flowering American species, Viburnum dentatum, V. venosum and V. Canbyi which bloom in the order in which they are mentioned here; and few plants respond more to generous treatment with vigorous growth, improved habit and handsomer foliage. The largest as well as the latest flowering of these plants, V. Canbyi, will not be in bloom for two or three weeks. Viburnum dentatum, a Japanese red-fruited plant, also flowers a little later than Viburnum cassinoides. It is a large, broad, and perfectly hardy shrub with wide flat clusters of flowers which are followed by bright red lustrous fruits more brilliantly colored and handsomer than those of any other hardy red-fruited Viburnum with the exception of the European Viburnum Opulus and the American V. americanum, the so-called Highbush Cranberry, which were in bloom several weeks ago. A Dwarf Spruce. In the May 7th issue of The Gardeners' Chronicle of London there is a figure and description of a little conifer which is called Picea albertiana, although some doubt is thrown on the accuracy of the name. Picea albertiana is a form of the White Spruce found only in the Gaspe Peninsula of eastern Canada and in the valleys of the Black Hills of South Dakota and of the Rocky Mountains of northern Wyoming, Montana and northward, and chiefly distinguished from the common White Spruce of the east by its shorter and broader cones. As this tree grows or grew a few years ago on the borders of streams and lakes or in groves surrounding mountain meadows in northern Montana, it is one of the splendid trees of the continent, rising to the height of one hundred and fifty feet with a trunk from three to four feet in diameter and a narrow pyramidal head of slightly pendulous branches. A plant of a dwarf variety of this Spruce a few inches high was found by Professor Jack near Laggan, in Alberta, in 1904, and from this plant has been raised all the specimens in cultivation. They are all conic in shape and very compact, and the largest of them, in Massachusetts at least, are not much more than two feet high. Picea glauca is now the recognized name of the White Spruce and this dwarf, the plant figured in The Gardeners' Chronicle, has been named Picea glauca var. albertina conica. It is certainly one of the most distinct of dwarf Spruces, and as it can be easily and quickly propagated from cuttings there is no reason why it should not be within the reach of every one interested in rock gardens for which it is well suited. A handsome climbing plant. Mr. H. H. Richardson exhibited on June 4th, before the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, a flower-covered branch of the Southern Cross Vine which has been growing for several years in the open in his garden in Brookline. It is claimed that the Cross Vine has flowered in a Rhode Island garden but its beautiful red and yellow, tubular, two-lipped flowers have not been seen in Massachusetts outside of Mr. Richardson's Brookline garden where several plants are clinging to the trunks of trees and are now fully twenty feet high. This vine climbs by the aid of tendrils by which it attaches itself to the rough bark of trees, but as the tendrils are not furnished with such adhesive disks as occur on some forms of the Virginia Creeper the vine is unable to attach itself to a wall. The adopted name for this plant is now Anisostichus capreolata; it has been more often called Bignonia capreolata. It grows in rich soil and is common southward from southern Virginia and southern Illinois to Florida and Louisiana, often climbing into the tops of the tallest trees which it enlivens in very early spring with its abundant and showy flowers. The common name of this plant is due to the cross which can be seen in a transverse section of the stem. The Cross Vine, although it may not flower for every one, is one of the interesting additions which have been made recently to the garden flora of Massachusetts."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 22","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23735","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15e856f.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 22, 1921 Beech Trees. The Arboretum is fortunate in having in its collection eight of the ten species of Beech-trees which have been discovered up to the present time and are recognized by botanists. They are Fagus grandifolia of eastern North America, F. ferruginea of Europe, F. orientalis of southwestern Asia, F. Longipetiolata, F. Engleriana and F. lucida of western China, and F. Sieboldii and F. japonica of Japan. Fagus grandifolia differs from the other species so far as they are known here in the habit of sometimes producing stems from the roots; these often grow into small trees which form dense thickets round the parent trunk. The bark of all the species is smooth and pale, but that of the American tree is paler, a least, than that of the European tree, and the pale blue-gray bark of the stems and large branches make this tree in winter one of the most beautiful inhabitants of the forests of eastern North America. The American Beech is a common tree from eastern Canada to Florida and eastern Texas, and to Minnesota and Oklahoma. At the north it grows on uplands and mountain slopes, and often forms pure forests of considerable extent; southward the Beech varies from the northern tree in its thicker, less coarsely toothed leaves, and in the shorter and less crowded prickles on the fruit (var. carolinia7za), and often grows on the bottom lands of streams or the borders of swamps. At the north the Beech is rarely more than seventy or eighty feet tall, but at the south it is taller and in the Mississippi valley on the rich loess of northern Louisiana and western Mississippi it is often a magnificent tree a hundred and twenty feet high with a tall trunk from three to four feet in diameter, and a fit associate of the great evergreen Magnolia (M. grandiflora) which also grows in this soil to its greatest size. Planted by itself in the open ground the American Beech does not grow well, and rarely makes a handsome specimen, but does best when many trees are planted so close together that the lower branches are killed and tall trunks formed. Fagus sylvatica, the European species, is distributed over a large part of Europe except in the extreme north, growing to great perfection in England, Denmark, parts of Germany, and on the mountains of the Balkan Peninsula, often forming pure forests and growing to a height of more than a hundred feet. It is a hardy and handsome tree in New England, where it seems to be perfectly at home, and grows faster and makes a handsomer specimen tree than the American species. There is no record, unfortunately, of the date of the introduction of this tree into the United States, but judging by the size of some of the trees here it must have been at least a hundred years ago. The finest European Beeches in the neighborhood of Boston are on Longwood Mall, a strip of turf extending east from Kent Street and between Chatham and Beech Streets in Brookline. This Mall was laid out by David Sears at the time he was engaged in developing his Longwood property seventy-five or eighty years ago, and it is probable that these Beech-trees were planted at about that time. There are sixteen of these trees, thirteen with green leaves and three of the purple-leaved variety. They are all in good health and are short-stemmed specimens from sixty to seventy feet tall with wide-spreading branches which on some of the trees sweep the ground. These trees now belong to the Town of Brookline, to which Longwood Mall and three other squares in the Longwood district were left by Mr. Sears. Several varieties of the European Beech have been found in Europe and are propagated and sold by nurserymen. The best known of these varieties is the so-called Purple Beech with leaves which are pale red in spring and deep red-purple at maturity. The Purple Beech was found growing naturally in the forest in three or four places in central Europe, and the first account of it was published as long ago as 1680. Seedlings of the Purple Beech sometimes have purple leaves; such seedlings often differ in shades of color, and to some of these trees names have been given. The Purple Beech is better known and more generally planted in this country than the typical green-leafed form, and for many years now has been a favorite with tree-planters in the northeastern states. The Copper Beech (var. cuprea) which is probably a seedling of the Purple Beech, has paler copper red leaves than those of that tree. An interesting form (var. pendula) of the European Beech is a comparatively low tree with horizontal or slightly pendulous branches from which hang almost vertically the secondary branches, the whole forming a tent-like head almost as broad as high. This tree was at one time somewhat planted in this country, and the largest specimen known here is the tree growing on what was once part of the Parsons Nursery in Flushing, Long Island. This tree is said to be one of the finest specimens in existence. A picture of it can be found in Wilson's Romance of Our Trees. There are other forms of the European Beech with pendulous branches differing somewhat in habit from the var. pendula to which names have been given (vars. bornyensis, remillyensis, pagnyensis, miltonensis, etc.) The Fern-leaf Beech (var. heterophylla) is distinguished by its variously shaped leaves, which on the same branch are long and narrow, and usually more or less deeply lobed, pinnate or laciniate. Various names (vars. asplenifolia, incisa, laciniata, salicifolia and comptoniaefolia) have been given to forms of this variety, but the variation is often so slight that it seems wise to call all the forms of the European Beech with cut or laciniate leaves var. heterophylla. The largest specimen of this tree in the United States grows on Bellevue Avenue in Newport, Rhode Island, on the grounds of the Redwood Library and Reading Room. A form of the European Beech (var. fastigiata) on which all the branches grow erect and form a narrow pyramidal head promises to be a handsome and useful addition to the trees with this habit, like the fastigiate Red and Sugar Maples, the fastigiate European Oak and the fastigiate Tulip-tree, European Hornbeam, etc. The original fastigiate Beech is growing at Dawyck in Peeblesshire, Scotland, and is a comparatively recent addition to the Arboretum collection. In the variety rotundifolia of the European Beech we have a handsome tree, probably always of small size, with nearly round leaves closely set on the branches and usually not more than an inch in diameter, a good tree to plant where there is not room for the large-growing Beech-trees. The least attractive of all the forms of the European Beech, the var. cristata, is a tall narrow tree with short-stemmed leaves, deeply lobed and more or less contorted, interesting as a monstrous form but of no value among ornamental trees. Fagus orientalis is a native of southwestern Asia where it is distributed from Asia Minor to northern Persia. From the European Beech it differs chiefly in the lower prickles of the fruit which are changed into oblong linear lobes. The plants which have been grown in the Arboretum for eight years have not suffered from cold or heat, but are still too young to give an idea of the value of this tree in the United States. Chinese Beech-trees. These do not occur north of the central provinces where three species have now been found, Fagus longipetiolata, F. Engleriana, and F. lucida. The first Wilson found to be the common Beech of central and western China, where it grows with Oaks, Maples and other deciduous leafed trees. This Beech is usually a small tree fifty or sixty feet tall, but in western Szech'uan, where Wilson saw the largest specimens, it is a stately and handsome tree with a single trunk rarely divided near the base and covered with very pale gray bark. Fagus Engleriana is common on the high mountains of northwestern Hupeh and eastern Szech'uan where it often forms pure forests. Wilson found that the trunk of this tree almost invariably divides at the base into several diverging stems which do not attain much thickness or any great height, the tallest of which there is a record being not over seventy feet high, trees of half that height or less being more common. Fagus lucida is distinguished from the other Chinese species by the duller gray bark of the trunk which does not separate at the base and by its thick and spreading branches which form a broad flattened or somewhat rounded head. It is a tree sometimes seventy-five feet tall, with a trunk up to three feet in diameter. This tree is common in some parts of Hupeh and Schez'uan in mixed woods, and with F. Engleriana sometimes makes pure forests. The young plants of these three Chinese Beeches brought by Wilson to the Arboretum in March, 1911, have been growing in the open ground since their arrival. As they have in these ten years experienced the two severest winters of which there is a Massachusetts record, it is fair to suppose that they are hardy, although only time can show if they are capable of growing here into large and healthy trees. The Japanese Beeeh-trees are better known in the Arboretum, as Fagus Sieboldii was first raised here in 1893 from seed brought from Japan by Professor Sargent, and F. japonica was raised here only a few years later. The former is one of the great trees of Japan, often growing to the height of ninety feet and forming a trunk three feet in diameter. It is perhaps the commonest deciduous-leafed tree on the mountains of Hondo, where at altitudes between three and four thousand feet toward the upper limits of deciduous-leafed trees it forms nearly pure forests, or is mixed with Oaks and Chestnuts, and occasionally with Firs and Spruces. Northward, as on the shores of Volcano Bay in Hokkaido, it grows at sea-level, but southward it is found only on mountain slopes. Fagus Sieboldii has proved to be perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it makes a handsome tree with pale bark; it has not yet produced fruit here. Fagus japonica, which grows on the mountains of central Hondo up to altitudes of five thousand feet, is much less abundant and less widely distributed than F. Sieboldii. It is a small tree with a trunk dividing near the ground into two or three large stems. This tree is growing well in the Arboretum. The plants, however, are still small with stems which do not yet show a tendency to divide. In the Arboretum collection are now established Fagus grandifolia and its southern variety caroliniana, F. sylvatica and its varieties macrophylla (latifolia), purpurea, purpurea f. pendula, heterophylla, pendula, remillyensis, fastigiata (dawyckii), rotundifolia, grandidentata, zlatia and cristata, F. orientalis F. Longipetiolata, F. Engleriana and F. lucida, F. Sieboldii and F. japonica. The two Beech-trees not in the Arboretum and not yet introduced into cultivation are Fagus Hyatae, which is known to grow only on a single mountain in the Head Hunters country of Formosa which Wilson could not visit when he explored that island, and F. multinervis confined to Dagelet Island, a small isolated island in the Japan Sea fifty miles from the east coast of central Korea. The seedling plants collected by Wilson during his visit to Dagelet in June, 1917, died before they reached the Arboretum. Several interesting forms of the European Beech have not been planted in the Arboretum because there is no room for them in the space which can be devoted to the Beech Collection, and unless more room can be obtained for them the trees in this collection will never appeal to the imagination or create the enthusiasm which the Beech-trees on Longwond Mall in Brookline create-trees in which that town may well take pride."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 30","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23736","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15e8925.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 30, 1921 A few late-flowering shrubs. As the summer advances the number of trees and shrubs in flower in the Arboretum rapidly diminishes and in the last week of June their number is not large. Some of the most interesting of them are Rhododendron maximum, with its pink and white flowers an inch long, in dense sixteen- to fourteen-flowered umbels four or five inches in diameter and overtopped by the fully grown branches of the year developed from buds in the axils of leaves just below the inflorescence bud. This growth of the branches before the opening of the flower-buds occurs in most late flowering Rhododendrons and hiding, in part at least, the flowers obscures their beauty. Rhododendron maximum, nevertheless, is a handsome and useful plant, with leaves larger and handsomer than those of any other Rhododendron which is hardy in this climate. Rare at the north where it grows in cold deep swamps in a few isolated stations in Nova Scotia, Ontario and New England, it is very abundant on the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia, making great impenetrable thickets along all the mountain streams and occasionally growing to a height of thirty or forty feet and forming a trunk a foot in diameter. When cultivated this Rhododendron grows well in any soil which is not impregnated with lime; it will grow, too, in comparatively dense shade and when fully exposed to the sun. When exposed to the sun, however, it is often badly injured by the lacewing fly. Several hybrids between R. maximum and R. catawbiense hybrids have been raised. One of the earliest and the best known of these hybrids, R. delicatissimum, is a handsome plant with pink and white flowers which open two or three weeks before those of R. maximum and are not hidden by young branches. Rhododendron Wellsianum, another hybrid of the same parentage or perhaps a seedling with nearly white flowers opening from pale rose-colored buds, and marked by a conspicuous yellow blotch on the upper lobe of the corolla, is a handsome plant which was raised by Anthony Waterer at the Knaphill Nurseries; it has not always proved perfectly hardy, although this year it has bloomed well and rather later than R. delicatissimum. Hybrids of R. maximum with hybrids of R. catawbiense raised at Holm Lea by Charles Sander have handsome rose or rose pink flowers, but have often lost their flower-buds in severe winters. Rhododendron minus, better known perhaps as R. punctatum, which has flowered unusually well this year, is still little known in American gardens. It is a plant of the southern Appalachian Piedmont region, and ascends on the Blue Ridge of the Carolinas to an altitude of at least three thousand feet. The small, pale, rose-colored flowers are produced in small clusters which, like those of R. maximum, are overtopped by the shoots of the year which begin to grow before the flower- buds open. This Rhododendron varies greatly in size, the largest plants growing at nearly the highest altitudes where individuals seven or eight feet high, and often forming in thickets, are not uncommon. Less attractive perhaps than R. carolinianum, with which it grows on the southern mountains, R. minus is well worth a place in the gardens of a region in which so few species of Rhododendron can be successfully grown as in Massachusetts. In northern Georgia there is a form of this plant (var. Harbisonii) with larger leaves and larger flowers in larger clusters which may be expected to make a handsome garden plant. It is not yet in cultivation. Zenobia pulverulenta is flowering unusually early this year. A native of the coast of North Carolina, where it grows along the borders of swamps, this plant, which is one of the most beautiful shrubs of the American flora, is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts where it has flowered in the Arboretum for many years. Zenobia is related to the Andromedas and is chiefly distinguished by its open campanulate flowers and four-awned anthers. The leaves are deciduous, thickly covered with a glaucous bloom, and the ivory white flowers, which are about half an inch long and broad, are borne on slender arching stems and are arranged in axillary clusters forming terminal racemes from twelve to eighteen inches in length and arching from the upper part of the branches of the previous year. The form of Zenobia (var. nitida) with green leaves, that is destitute of the glaucous bloom, is a more common plant in North Carolina and is equally hardy in the Arboretum. Zenobia is occasionally seen in English gardens. Is there an' American nursery in which this beautiful plant can be found? Pieris (Lyonia) mariana is another late flowering Andromeda-like plant of the coast region of the eastern states from Rhode Island southward to Florida and Texas. Not as handsome as Zenobia, with green leaves and smaller white flowers in shorter erect clusters, this Pieris is well worth a place in the garden where it is not particular about soil and grows nearly as well in dry gravelly sand as in rich loam. It is one of the common plants on the sandy plains of Long Island. Sambucus canadensis. As the flowers of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) begin to fade those of the Elder of the eastern states (Sambucus canadensis) begin to open. This, Cornus amomum, and Rosa virginiana (or lucida) are the last of the native shrubs to make a conspicuous display of flowers in the Arboretum. Plants of the Elder which have sprung up naturally along Bussey Brook are now in bloom, and flowering plants are conspicuous by the small ponds near the junction of the Meadow and Forest Hills Roads. Few native shrubs make a greater show than this Elder with its broad heads of white flowers and lustrous black fruits. In low half swampy ground close to the shore of Massachusetts the Elder and the wild Rose (R. virginiana; often grow and flower together, and it is hard to believe that a more beautiful arrangement of summer flowers can be made in New England. In the Shrub Collection there is a form with dull yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa), one with the leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutifolia), and one with the flower-clusters four or five times larger than those of the wild plant and such large, heavy clusters of fruit that the branches barely support them (var. maxima). Spiraea Veitchii. This Chinese species, introduced by Wilson from western China, is the last of the white-flowered Spiraeas in the Arboretum collection to bloom and one of the handsomest plants of the genus. It is a shrub seven or eight feet high with numerous erect stems, remarkably slender for the stems of such a large plant, and gracefully arching branches which are covered from end to end with broad flower- clusters raised on erect stems. For this climate this Spiraea ranks with the very best plants introduced from China in recent years. Cornus amomum. Attention is called again to the Silky Cornel because it is one of the best of all shrubs to plant in this climate near the banks of streams and ponds where a large mass of foliage to spread out over the surface of water is desired. Examples of this use of this shrub can now be seen at two of the small ponds near the end of the Meadow Road where this Cornel is now covered with flowers. These will be followed in autumn by bright blue fruit; in the winter the purple stems are attractive. The Silky Cornel is a good plant, too, to place in front of groups of trees and shrubs, but it must have room for the free growth of its wide-spreading branches, for when crowded by other plants the branches become erect, and all the character and beauty of the plant is lost. A space of not less than twenty feet in diameter is necessary for the development of a handsome plant of the Silky Cornel. Cornus arnoldiana. This plant, evidently a natural hybrid between two American species, Cornus obliqua and C. racemosa, which appeared several years ago in the Arboretum, is a large shrub with erect stems and characters intermediate between those of its parents; flowering a little later than C. racemosa, it has been covered with flowers this year. The fruit, which is usually less abundant than the flowers, is white or bluish white. Interesting to students of plants, as are all natural hybrids, Cornus arnoldiana is not superior as a garden plant to C. racemosa except perhaps in its greater size. Rosa mundi, or more properly Rosa gallica var. versicolor, is the semidouble Rose with petals irregularly striped with white and dark rose color which is occasionally found in old New England gardens where it is generally called the York and Lancaster Rose, as it is also usually called in England. It is a handsome and interesting plant which should find a place in collections of old-fashioned Roses, but it is not the real York and Lancaster Rose which is a variety of Rosa damascena (var. versicolor). The petals of this Rose are in the same flower entirely white, entirely red and sometimes half red or rose color and half white. Flowers with petals of the two colors are well shown in the pictures of this Rose published early in the last century. The York and Lancaster Rose appears to have become extremely rare in gardens even in English gardens, but it has flowered abundantly this year in the Arboretum. The confusion in regard to these two Roses is likely to be increased by the fact that although one of them is a variety of R. damascena and the other of R. gallica they both have the same varietal name versicolor. The Apothecary Rose is one of the names which was formerly given to a form of Rosa gallica, variously known as var. officinalis and var. provincialis. It is a dwarf plant growing from twelve to eighteen inches tall and spreading freely by underground shoots, and as it is able to maintain itself in sod it is gradually spreading from gardens and becoming naturalized. The foliage is dark green and the large, partly double, red flowers are extremely fragrant. This Rose occurs in a few of the old gardens of Massachusetts and New Hampshire, but is little known to rosarians of the present century. How long it has been in this country no one knows, although tradition makes the Huguenots responsible for its introduction. Formerly this Rose and other forms of Rosa gallica were cultivated in Europe on a large scale commercially to supply the petals which are slightly tonic and astringent, but were employed in medicine chiefly on account of their color and as a vehicle for the exhibition of more active medicines. The last Viburnum of the season, V. Canbyi, is now in flower. It is the largest and handsomest of the blue-fruited species of eastern North America, with larger leaves and flower-clusters and larger fruit than those of the related species. In the Arboretum Viburnum Canbyi has grown into densely branched round-topped bushes from ten to twelve feet high and broad, and is one of the handsomest of the summer-flowering shrubs in the collection. Large specimens can be seen in front of the Administration Building and at different points along the drives. The first Hypericum, H. Buckleyi, has already opened its flowers in the Shrub Collection. It is a rare plant found only on a few of the high mountains of North Carolina, but is perfectly at home in the Arboretum where it has been growing for many years. It forms a dense mat of slender branches less than a foot high, covered with small leaves and, usually early in July, with small bright yellow flowers. This Hypericum is an excellent plant for the rock garden and for a ground cover or the borders of shrubberies."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 11","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23731","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15eb36c.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 11, 1921 Corylus. American nut-growers are beginning to turn their attention to the cultivation of Hazel-nuts (Corylus) and inquiries about these plants are now often sent to the Arboretum. Corylus is one of the widely distributed genera of the Northern Hemisphere with species in eastern and western North America, Japan, Korea, Manchuria, and northern and western China, on the Himalayas and the Caucasus, and in western Asia and Europe. Most of the species are shrubs, but a few of them are trees of considerable size. The following species and varieties are established in the Arboretum: Corylus americana, C. Avellana and its varieties contorta, pendula and quercifolia, C. californica, C. chinensis, C. Colurna, C. heterophylla and its variety sutchuenensis, C. maxima and its var. atropurpurea, C. rostrata, C. Sieboldiana and its var. mandschurica, and C. tibetica. Three of these species are trees, C. Colurna, C. chinensis and C. tibetica. Corylus Colurna, the Turkish Hazel or Constantinople Nut, is a native of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, and is a tree sometimes seventy or eighty feet high with a tall straight trunk from two to three feet in diameter. This handsome tree was cultivated in western Europe as early as the middle of the seventeenth century, but it is not known when it was first brought to America where it is not common and where so far as the Arboretum knows there are no large specimens. The nuts are thick-shelled, not often more than half an inch in diameter and enclosed in a husk an inch and a half across, open at the end, terminating in numerous, narrow, pointed lobes, and covered with down mixed with gland-tipped bristles. Three or four of the fruits are borne together in close clusters. Corylus chinensis is a native of central and western China where Wilson saw trees of this Hazel up to one hundred and twenty feet in height with trunks from two to five feet in diameter. The nuts are small and thick-shelled and are contained in husks less deeply lobed at the apex than those of C. Colurna and arranged in compact clusters. The third arborescent species in the collection, C. tibetica, is a small tree from twenty to twenty-five feet high, or a large bush common in woods in central and western China. From the other species, with the exception of the related C. ferox of the Himalayas, it differs in the fruit which is covered with slender spines and arranged in compact, globose, spiny clusters which resemble a Chestnut burr. The other species in the collection are large or small shrubs. The two eastern American species, Corylus americana and C. rostrata, are common and widely distributed woodland plants often spreading over a considerable area. The former is a shrub from three to eight feet high with glandular bristly branches and an egg-shaped, thick-shelled nut enclosed in a husk nearly twice its length and irregularly toothed at the apex. C. rostrata is a smaller shrub rarely more than six feet high, with branches which are not furnished with bristles and an egg-shaped, thick-shelled nut about half an inch long and enclosed in a husk contracted into a long narrow beak extending an inch or more above the nut. C. californica is common in the coast region of the Pacific states from Washington to California where it sometimes grows to a height of twenty feet, and, while it differs in the leaves, resembles the eastern C. rostrata in the beaked husk of the fruit which is, however, stouter than that of the eastern plant, and often open at the mouth. Only the two European species, C. Avellana and C. maxima, and possibly some of their hybrids, produce nuts of commercial value as human food. The hazel or hazel-nut is produced by Corylus Avellana. This is widely distributed in Europe and extends into northern Africa and western Asia, and sometimes grows to a height of twenty feet and usually forms large thickets by shoots produced from the root. The nut is thin-shelled, about three-quarters of an inch in length, and about as long as its husk which has divided, often toothed lobes. As the stems are very pliable and easily trained this shrub was used to form pleached or shaded walks more commonly found in European gardens a century ago than they are today. The large dark leaves cast a dense shade and no plant with a little training is better suited to protect a walk from the sun. There are several forms of this plant selected and cultivated for their nuts which vary in size and in the thickness of the shell; and a number of varieties differing in habit or in the color and size of the leaves from the type are sometimes found in collections of ornamental plants. In the Arboretum collection are now found only the var. pendula with distinctly drooping branches, the var. contorta with curled and twisted branches, and the var. quercifolia with lobed leaves. These plants are curiosities, without real value as garden plants. Other varieties not in the collection are var. aurea with yellow leaves, var. atropurpurea with purple leaves, and var. laciniata with deeply lobed leaves. From a Hazel of southwestern Asia which is sometimes considered a variety of C. Avellana (var. pontica) and sometimes a species (C. pontica) the Cobnuts of commerce are at least partly obtained. This plant has not yet proved hardy in the Arboretum. A larger and more robust plant than C. Avellana is the Hazel of southern Europe, C. maxima. This is a vigorous and hardy shrub with large leaves and a large oblong nut enclosed in a husk produced in a long narrow tube and nearly twice the length of the nut. It is this plant and its selected forms which produce the filberts of commerce, which are also probably obtained from hybrids of C. maxima and C. Avellana. A variety of C. maxima with very dark red-purple leaves is the largest and most vigorous of all purple-leaved shrubs. Of the shrubby Asiatic species in the collection C. heterophylla of Japan or eastern China is an oriental representative of C. Avellana, from which it may be distinguished by the more regular dentation of the husk. The still little known var. sutchuenensis of this species from western China is growing well in the Arboretum but has not yet produced fruit. C. Sieboldiana with the long beak to the fruit is related to the American C. rostrata ; it is a shrub which often grows to the height of fifteen feet and differs from the Korean and Mandshurian Hazel (var. mandshurica), often considered a species (C. mandshurica) in its much shorter tube of the husk. In the collection there is also a plant for which the Arboretum is indebted to Dr. R. T. Morris of New York and which is believed to be a hybrid of C. americana and C. Avellana var. pontica. This hybrid, which was raised artificially by Dr. Morris, has not flowered in the Arboretum. The Arboretum still needs the following species : Corylus ferox and C. Jacquemontii of the Himalayas, C. hallaisensis of southern Korea, and C. colchica of the Caucasus. It lacks, too, many varieties of C. Avellana and several of its supposed hybrids. Coluteas, or Bladder Sennas as they are popularly called, are shrubs of the Pea Family with deciduous pinnate leaves, small leaflets, long-stemmed racemes of yellow or dark orange-red flowers and large inflated reddish brown pods. The flowers open in succession from June until August, and the pods from the early flowers are fully grown when the late flowers are still opening, the flowers and fruits together making an attractive appearance, as can be seen in the Shrub Collection where three species are now covered with flowers and fruits. They are C. arboresce3is, a native of the Mediterranean region and southeastern Europe, with dull green leaves and bright yellow flowers; C. cilicica, a native of Asia Minor, with blue-green leaves and yellow flowers; and C. orientalis, a native of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor, with glaucous leaves and reddish brown flowers. There is a dwarf compact form of C. arborescens (var. bullata) in the Arboretum, but the other species and a supposed hybrid (C. media) between C. arborescens and C. orientalis have not succeeded here. Shrub. This is the old and usually accepted popular name for the plants of the North American genus Calycanthus, famous for the fragrance of the flowers of at least one of its species. One of the three or four species, C. occidentalis, a native of California, although it has often been planted in the Arboretum has not proved hardy here. Two of the eastern species are now covered with flowers in the Shrub Collection where, helped by the mild winter, they are in unusually good condition. The best known species, at least in gardens, Calycanthus floridus, to which the name Shrub properly belongs on account of the delightful fragrance of the red-brown flowers, is better worth a place in the garden than the other species of the genus, although in Massachusetts the branches sometimes are severely injured by the cold of severe winters. Housewives of earlier generations carefully gathered the flowers to place among their linen which was pleasantly perfumed in this way; and the plants which produced these flowers were cherished for this purpose. From the other species C. floridus is distinguished by the thick coat of pale down on the lower surface of the leaves. The flowers differ somewhat in color: on a plant once cultivated by the Berckmans in their nursery at Augusta, Georgia, the flowers were yellow, and in the Arboretum collection are plants which have sometimes been referred to the rather obscure C. Mohrii on which the flowers are paler brown than those of the common form. These Arboretum plants were raised from seeds collected in the neighborhood of Stone Mountain, Georgia. C. Mohrii is said to grow in southern Tennessee and northern Alabama, and is a plant which needs investigation. The other Calycanthus now in the collection, C. fertilis, is distinguished by the absence of down on the lower surface of the leaves and by less fragrant or nearly scentless flowers. C. fertilis is a variable plant: on what is considered the type the lower surface of the leaves is pale and glaucous; on another form (var. ferux or laevigatus) the leaves are green on the lower surface; another form (var. minus) only differs from the last in its smaller size and smaller flowers and fruits. This dwarf form is the most northern of these plants as it has been found on the mountains of Pennsylvania; and on the Blue Ridge of North Carolina it is common up to altitudes of from three thousand to three thousand five hundred feet. The other species and varieties are plants of lower altitudes, and the most northern station for C. floridus known to the Arboretum is on the cliffs of the Coosa River near Rome in northwestern Georgia. The other genus of this Family, Chimonanthus, from southern China, is found in most tropical and semi-tropical gardens where it is valued for its very fragrant early flowers. American Hydrangeas. Of the four Hydrangeas of eastern North America the handsomest is H. quercifolia, with branches densely covered with rusty tomentum, deeply lobed leaves up to eight inches in length, and flowers in elongated pyramidal clusters. This shrub is a native of the extreme southern states and the stems are often killed nearly to the ground here in severe winters; this summer the plant in the Shrub Collection is in better condition than usual and is now carrying one cluster of flowers. H. arborescens and H. cinerea with flat flower-clusters are common woodland shrubs southward, and are of no great value as garden plants. There are monstrous forms of the two plants on which all the flowers are sterile, forming nearly globose white heads. This form of H. arburescens (var. grandiflora) has become in recent years a popular plant with American nurserymen, by whom it is sold in great numbers. The handsomest of the entirely hardy American species, H. radiata, is a native of the elevated regions of North and South Carolina. It is distinguished by its broad leaves which are dark green above and snow white below, and by its broad flat clusters of flowers surrounded by a ring of large, white, sterile flowers. In cultivation this Hydrangea is a broad and shapely shrub and one of the handsomest of midsummer flowering plants in the Arboretum. Once it was fairly common in cultivation, but from what nurserymen can it now be obtained and how many gardeners of the present day have ever seen it?"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 15","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23732","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15eb76e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 15. 1921 Linden Trees. Midsummer is the time when the fragrant flowers of Linden-trees open and scent the air with their fragrance. Tilia, the name of the Linden, is one of the widely and generally distributed genera of the trees of the northern hemisphere; it is absent, however, from western North America, and no Linden has yet been found in the forests which cover the Himalayas. Eastern North America with fifteen species is richer in Lindens than all the rest of the world, and in eastern North America Lindens are found from New Brunswick westward to Lake Winnipeg and southward to northern Florida and northeastern Mexico. To the two species which grow in Canada another is added in New York and Pennsylvania; southward in the forests which cover the high slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and in those of the coast region of the Carolinas and Georgia the number increases. Lindens are common in all the Gulf states, and abound in eastern and southern Texas where five species and several varieties occur and where Lindens grow by the scanty streams, and under the bluffs of the Edwards Plateau, a region in which Lindens would hardly be expected to flourish. The ability of the southern species to grow in New England has still to be demonstrated in the Arboretum, and only three northern and one southern Appalachian species are established here. These are Tilia glabra, more often called Tilia americana, T. neglecta, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, and T. monticola. Tilia glabra is a splendid great tree in the forests of the north where it was once abundant, with individuals more than a hundred feet high with trunks from three to four feet in diameter. Such trees are no longer common, for the wood of the northern Linden, usually known in commerce as white wood, has been in popular use for many years and a large part of the trees of merchantable size have been cut. This Linden has been a good deal planted as a shade tree in New England, but the leaves are too often disfigured, especially in dry summers, by the attacks of the red spider. Tilia neglecta, which finds its northern station in the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the neighborhood of Montreal and is not rare in the northern states and along the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina, is easily distinguished from Tilia glabra by the short persistent gray down on the lower surface of the leaves, the lower surface of the leaves of T. glabra being green and lustrous and destitute of hairs with the exception of those forming the large tufts in the axils of the principal veins. Although for many years confounded with T. glabra, T. neglecta does not appear to have been often planted as a shade tree in this country. In the Arboretum it is growing rapidly and now gives every promise of success. The other northern Linden, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii, is one of several species with leaves covered below by a permanent coat of white tomentum. This is a common tree from Pennsylvania and western New York to southern Indiana and Illinois, Missouri and southward along the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina and northeastern Mississippi. This handsome tree is growing well in the Arboretum and is well worth a place in collections of ornamental trees. It grows less rapidly, however, and is not as handsome as the other hardy American Linden, T. monticola, a tree with leaves often seven or eight inches long and, like the last, covered below with white tomentum. The flowers, too, are larger than those of other Lindens. The leaves, hanging on long slender stems and swayed by the slightest breeze as they turn their snow-white lower surface to the eye, make in contrast with the dark Hemlocks among which this Linden often grows one of the beautiful features of the splendid forests which still cover the slopes of the southern mountains. The studies of Linden-trees at the Arboretum have shown that the European species grow more rapidly and give every promise of being better trees in this climate than the American or Asiatic species. This is unusual, for of other European trees only the Beech and the white Willow grow better here than their American relatives, and except Lindens all eastern Asiatic trees are more at home in eastern North America than the trees of Europe. The five European species, Tilia platyphyllos, T. cordata, T. vulgaris, T. tomentosa and T. petiolaris, and several varieties of the first, are growing here in a satisfactory manner. The first of these trees is easily distinguished by the hairs which cover the lower surface of the yellow-green leaves and the young branches. This tree is the first of the European species to flower. It has long been cultivated in the eastern states; indeed it appears to be the common European Linden sold by American nurserymen, although as an ornamental tree it is the less desirable of the European Lindens. Tilia cordata, distinguished by its small cordate leaves pale and glaucous on the lower surface, is the last of the Lindens to flower. It is a beautiful tree which also in Europe grows to a large size; it is not very often seen in this country. A better tree here than either T. platyphyllos or T. cordata, T. vulgaris is now generally believed to be a natural hybrid of these species. The leaves are dull green on the upper surface, paler on the lower surface, and without hairs with the exception of those in the tufts in the axils of the veins below. This tree, which is not rare in the northern and middle states, is one of the best trees to shade the streets of northern cities. The largest and handsomest Linden-trees in the neighborhood of Boston are of this hybrid. The two Lindens of eastern Europe, T. tomentosa and T. petiolaris, are distinct and handsome trees with leaves silvery white on the lower surface, and can be easily and successfully grown in southern New England. T. tomentosa, which is common in the forests of Hungary, in this country forms a broad, compact, round-topped head with erect branches and large leaves erect on short stalks. T. petiolaris is a more beautiful tree with pendulous branches which form a narrow head and leaves drooping on long slender stems. It has proved to be one of the handsomest exotic trees which can be planted in the eastern states. It is occasionally seen in the neighborhood of Boston, but it is more common southward, especially in Newport, Rhode Island, where there are a number of noble specimens. It is too soon to speak with much knowledge of the value of the Asiatic species as ornamental trees in this climate. Most of them have been introduced in recent years, and the oldest Asiatic Linden now in the Arboretum, Tilia japonica, was raised here from seed only planted in 1893. A comparatively large tree in Japan, the Arboretum species are now from twenty to twenty-five feet high, and are attractive trees with gracefully drooping branches and open habit. The leaves unfold earlier in the spring than those of any other Linden in the collection, and are small, cordate at base and pale on the lower surface, like those of the small-leaved European Linden (T. cordata) to which the Japanese tree bears some resemblance. The Arboretum trees have now flowered every season for several years, and the flowers are large, bright yellow, and like those of other Lindens, very fragrant. For its flowers, which appear when few trees bloom in this climate and are beautiful and conspicuous, this Linden should be better known. An earlier Asiatic Linden to reach the Arboretum, where it was first raised in 1883, was the north China T. mongolica. This was a small tree, at least in this country, with small, nearly triangular, lustrous leaves. When only a few years old it began to flower and produce fertile seeds. It proved, however, to be short-lived here and soon disappeared, to be replaced by what are still young plants of a later generation or of different introduction. All the other Asiatic species are or have been in the collection at different times. They are all hardy enough, but at best grow slowly, and appear to lack vigor of constitution. Of the species lately introduced T. Oliveri now appears the most promising. Hybrid Lindens. As in many other genera of plants, the union of two species has produced Lindens superior to the parents. As has already been stated, Tilia vulgaris, which is believed to be a natural hybrid, is a better tree, at least in this country, than either of the parents. The Crimean Tilia euchora, with dark green, lustrous leaves, is believed to be a natural hybrid between T. caucasica and T. cordata. This handsome tree is hardy in the Arboretum but does not grow as well here as in western Europe where it is often recommended as a street tree. One of the handsomest Linden-trees in the Arboretum collection, T. spectabilis, is believed to be a hybrid of T. glabra and T. petiolaris. It is a fast growing tree with leaves as large or larger than those of its American parent but silvery white on the lower surface like those of T petiolaris. What is believed to be a variety of this hybrid(var. Moltkei) originated many years ago at the Spaeth Nursery near Berlin. It is a tree of denser habit and greener leaves than T. spectabilis, and in the Arboretum it is a handsomer and faster-growing tree than the native species. Heather. Of the true Heaths only the red and white-flowered forms of Erica carnea are perfectly hardy here. This is a native of the mountains of central Europe, and an evergreen plant only a few inches high which spreads gradually into a broad mat. It is one of the first plants to flower in the Arboretum, and this year was in full bloom on the 15th of March. This is one of the best small evergreen shrubs for a sunny Massachusetts rockery. Erica tetralix and E. vagans, two handsome European species, have sometimes lived for two or three years at a time in the Arboretum, but have not proved very hardy in any of the positions where they have been planted. The Arboretum two years ago established in its propagating department at the corner of Centre and Prince Streets a collection of dwarf shrubs planted in frames and protected from the heat of the summer sun by lath shades raised high enough to permit a person to walk under them and to insure a free circulation of air. In these frames it has been found possible to grow successfully a number of shrubs which require partial shade and daily summer watering, and are too small and often too delicate to be properly protected in the open ground in a public garden of the size and character of the Arboretum. In this collection are now established such difficult plants as Salix herbacea and S. uva-ursi, Linnaea borealis, Epigaea repens, Cassiope hypnoides, Loiseleuria procumbens, Kalmia microphylla, Rhododendron indicum, Vaccinium praestans, and some three hundred other interesting dwarf shrubs which have never before been successfully cultivated in the Arboretum. In this collection it is now believed possible to maintain Erica tetralix, E. vagaris and possibly other dwarf species, and here will probably grow the so-called Irish Heath (Daboecia) which has not yet proved hardy here. The Heather (Calluna) is fortunately hardy in nearly all its forms, and an important plant for the New England summer garden or to naturalize in open New England woods. There is a good collection of these varieties of Calluna in the Shrub Collection. The first of them to flower this year (var. rubra) with gray leaves and crimson flowers is already in full bloom. The flowers of some of the white-flowered forms, of which there are several, are beginning to open, and now for several weeks the Calluna-collection will be an interesting feature of the Shrub-Collection. These plants in their compact habit and abundant bloom show the advantage of a severe pruning of the old wood in early spring before the plants start to grow. Unless this is done they become thin and bare, and are often short-lived. Calluna should be planted in not too rich, thoroughly drained soil and in full exposure to the sun. The next of these Bulletins will appear during the month of August."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"August 2","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23729","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15eab6a.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. AUGUST 2, 1921 Summer Flowering Trees. Here in the north not many trees except Lindens can be grown which flower in summer. These are all valuable, however, for they add interest and variety to parks and gardens at the season when the flowers of trees and shrubs are not abundant. All the summer flowering trees here are interesting, and the flowers of some of them are conspicuous. After the Lindens the first of these trees to open its flowers is the Sorrel-tree (Oxydendrum arboreum). This tree is the only representative of a genus of the Heath Family and one of the few genera of eastern America trees which is not represented in eastern Asia. The Sorrel-tree is a common tree of the forests of the Appalachian Mountains from southwestern Pennsylvania southward; it grows also but less abundantly from southern Ohio and Indiana to northern Florida, southern Alabama and Mississippi and in eastern Louisiana. Growing under the most favorable conditions the Oxydendrum is a tree from fifty to sixty feet high, with a tall straight trunk sometimes twenty inches in diameter. The leaves are dark green, very lustrous and seven or eight inches long, and the bright scarlet of their autumn color is not surpassed by that of any other American tree. The leaves are pleasantly acidulous, a character to which the tree owes its vernacular name. The white flowers, which are shaped like those of an Andromeda, are erect on the branches of spreading or drooping clusters, and these are followed by pale capsular fruits which are conspicuous in contrast with the brilliant colors of the autumn foliage. Here in the north the Sorrel-tree begins to flower when only five or six feet high, and it is not probable that it will ever grow here to the size this tree attains in the rich \"coves\" found on the lower slopes of the high southern mountains in which several of the trees of eastern North America grow to their greatest size. The Arboretum Sorrel-trees are planted among the Laurels (Kalmia) at the northern base of Hemlock Hill, and during the last two weeks have been covered with flowers. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree, which has been in bloom during the last ten days, is when in flower the most conspicuous of all the summer flowering trees which are hardy in this climate. It is a round-headed tree rarely more than thirty feet high, with large, compound, dark green leaves and large erect clusters of golden yellow flowers which are followed by great clusters of bladder-like pale fruits. This tree, which is hardy in Massachusetts, has been a good deal planted in this country, especially in the gardens of the Middle States. The Koelreuteria often appears in American nursery catalogues under the name of \"Japanese Lacquer-tree,\" although it is not a native of Japan and has not lacquer-producing sap. Maackia. Two species of this genus of the Pea Family were in flower during the last days of July. The better known of these trees, M. amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia. It is a small tree with a slender trunk with smooth, lustrous, red-brown bark, small erect and spreading branches which form a rather flat-topped obconic head, and long, erect, narrow, terminal spikes of small white flowers. Botanically and geographically interesting, the chief value of this Maackia from the garden point of view is found in the fact that its flowers open at a time when flowers can only be seen here on a few trees. A second species, Maackia hupehensis, discovered by Wilson in central China, has been covered with flowers which are pale yellow and borne in rather shorter spikes. In early spring the silver gray hairs which thickly cover the unfolding leaves make this little tree conspicuous and interesting. The bark of M. hupehensis is dull grayish green and less beautiful than the bark of the Siberian tree. Another eastern Asiatic tree of the Pea Family will bloom during the present month. This is the Sophora which, first sent to Europe from Japan where it had been cultivated perhaps for a thousand years, is called japonica, although it is not a Japanese tree but a native of northern China and Korea. Growing in Peking where this Sophora has been much planted, it is a large tree with a massive trunk often three feet in diameter covered with gray, deeply furrowed bark, and a round-topped head of large spreading branches, which seen from a little distance looks like that of a great Oak. Such trees have not grown in Europe where the Sophora was brought from Japan some hundred and fifty years ago, or in the United States where it has never been much planted and where no remarkable specimens exist. The leaves and young branches are green, and the small, pea-shaped, creamy white flowers are produced in great numbers in narrow terminal clusters erect on the branches, and are followed by nearly round pods much constricted between the seeds, as are the fruits of the other species of the genus Sophora. What is probably the largest and handsomest specimen of this tree in eastern Massachusetts is growing in the Public Garden of Boston. The Arboretum collection contains a specimen of the form of this tree with long drooping branches (var. pendula) which rarely if ever flowers, the form with erect branches (var. pyramidalis), and the form with flowers tinged with pink (var. rosea). The Maackias and Sophoras are growing on the slope on the right hand side of Bussey Hill Road above the path which connects that road with the Meadow Road. The Aralia Family supplies northern plantations with three handsome trees which flower in August. The most interesting of these three trees, possibly because it is still the least known in this country, is Acanthopanax ricinifolium, an inhabitant of the forests of Japan and Korea where it sometimes grows to the height of seventy or eighty feet and forms a massive trunk and great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with numerous stout prickles. To the shape of the leaves, which somewhat resemble those of the plant which produces the fruit from which castor oil is obtained, this Acanthopanax owes its specific name. The leaves, which are nearly circular and more or less deeply five- or seven-lobed, and fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter, hang on long slender stalks. The small white flowers are arranged in compact, long-stemmed clusters which form a compound flat terminal panicle which varies from twelve to eighteen inches in diameter and is well raised above the leaves. In the early autumn the flowers are followed by small black and shining fruits. Of the trees growing in the Arboretum this Acanthopanax most departs in appearance from the trees of New England; and no other tree here is regarded with more curiosity. The largest specimen is growing by the side of the pond on the right hand side of the Meadow Road near its junction with the Bussey Hill Road; there is another large specimen in the mixed border plantation in the rear of the group of Viburnums near the junction of the Bussey Hill and Valley Roads. These trees have not before been more thickly covered with clusters of flower-buds. Aralia spinosa is a common tree, growing usually in the neighborhood of streams in the region from western Pennsylvania to Missouri, and southward to northern Florida, Louisiana and eastern Texas. It is a slender tree thirty or thirty-five feet high with a stem rarely more than eight inches in diameter and wide-spreading branches furnished, like the young trunk, with stout scattered prickles. The leaves, which are clustered near the end of the branches, are from three to four feet long and about two and a half feet wide, on stems from eighteen to twenty inches in length which clasp the branches with their enlarged base, and are usually armed with slender prickles. The small, greenish white flowers appear in August in many-flowered umbels arranged in broad compound panicles three or four feet long which rise above the leaves singly or two or three together from the end of the branches. The small black fruit ripens in early autumn. This Aralia is now thoroughly established at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the plantation of Laurels (Kalmia) and is spreading to a considerable distance from the original plant by means of underground stems from which new plants rise. Aralia chinensis, so closely related to the American Aralia that it has sometimes been considered a geographical variety of that tree, appears in the Arboretum collection in several varieties. The best known of these varieties, a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandschurica), is a hardier plant at the north than the American species and has been much more generally planted. In commercial nurseries it is often sold under the name of Dimorpanthus mandschuricus. Japanese and Chinese varieties of this Aralia, although less hardy than its Siberian representative, can be seen in the group of these plants near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Rhus javanica, an eastern Asiatic Sumach which is perhaps better known as Rhus Osbeckii or R. semialata, is a good August flowering tree in New England. In this country it is rarely twenty feet high, with spreading branches which form a broad round-topped head of handsome, light green, pinnate leaves with a broad-winged petiole and rachis. The flowers are white in erect, long-branched, pyramidal clusters, ten or twelve inches long and standing well above the leaves. The fruit is globose, about a quarter of an inch in diameter, red, and in compact clusters. The leaves of few trees or shrubs turn in the autumn to a more brilliant scarlet. For its showy August inflorescence and the splendor of its autumn foliage this Sumach should find a place in the planting lists for northern gardens. Evodias are small summer-flowering Asiatic trees of the Rue family, widely distributed in eastern Asia and found also in Madagascar and Australia. The species have pinnate leaves, white or pinkish unisexual flowers in small clusters terminal on the shoots of the year, and dry capsular fruit. Like the Phellodendrons to which Evodia is related, they are protected from the attacks of insects by the pungent aromatic oil with which the leaves abound. Evodia has been growing in the Arboretum since 1905 when Professor Jack brought the seeds of E. Daniellii from Korea. This handsome tree has flowered now for several years in the Arboretum. E. hupehensis, a common inhabitant of the forests of western Hupeh where Wilson found it growing to a larger size than the other Chinese species of this genus, is also established and flowers in the Arboretum. Stewartia pseudo-camellia, another summer-flowering tree, was among the first plants to reach the United States direct from Japan, and before 1870 was distributed from the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island. It produces its pure white, cup-shaped flowers, which resemble those of a single Camellia, in August; the autumn color of the leaves is dark bronze purple, distinct from that of any other plant in the Arboretum and handsome and interesting; the smooth pale gray bark which separates in large pale plates adds, too, to the interest of this tree. There are two specimens on the upper side of Azalea Path. A handsome dwarf Conifer. Among a large number of seedlings of the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) raised at the Arboretum from seeds planted in 1881 two individuals are dwarf in habit. The smaller of these plants is now only ten feet high with a spread of branches of twelve feet, and the other is thirteen feet high with a spread of fifteen feet. They show no tendency to form a leader, and look as if they would continue to grow more rapidly in breadth than in height. In their wide-spreading and gracefully drooping branches they are more beautiful even than the well-known weeping form of Tsuga canadensis which has usually been considered the handsomest of dwarf conifers. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 1","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23743","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd060b76e.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VII NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 1, 1921 Conifers, especially Junipers of abnormal form, and dwarf and other small growing plants, have not before been planted in such numbers in the eastern states, where they are usually crowded together in beds without much regard to harmony of arrangement. Such beds of Conifers are found on each side of the entrance to many suburban and other estates, and against the base of houses small and large. The plants in these little plantations are attacked by numerous disfiguring insects and must often be changed, and, as is always the case in mixed plantations, some of the plants grow more rapidly than others and eventually destroy their weaker neighbors. The statement that the climate of eastern North America is not adapted to the successful growth of Conifers is shown by the collection of these plants in the Arboretum which is believed to be the richest in the United States. There are now recognized twenty-eight genera of Conifers. Representatives of only fourteen or one-half are in the Arboretum collection and several of these are kept alive with difficulty. These genera are all of the Northern Hemisphere. No tree of the six genera which are found south of the equator is hardy at the north in our eastern states. The Japanese Thujopsis has never grown in the Arboretum, in which four genera of southern China, Glyptostrobus, Keteleeria, Taiwania and Fokienia will always be unrepresented. More serious is our inability to grow here successfully some of the most important Conifers of western America, for the Sequoias, and no species of Cupressus are hardy here; the western Tsugas and Chamaecyparis are kept alive here with difficulty; the beautiful Abies venusta cannot survive a single New England winter, and the noblest Fir-trees in the world, Abies nobilis and A. magnifica, occasionally exist here for a year or two but will never become a conspicuous feature in our northern plantations. There are from one hundred and sixty to one hundred and seventy species in the genera of Conifers which can be grown here, and in addition to the species a large number of varieties and forms, especially in Juniperus, Chamaecyparis and Picea. Of the genera which are more or less hardy here one hundred species can be kept alive in the Arboretum often for many years, but many of them present a sorry appearance after a severe winter and are of more interest to students of trees than to lovers of beautiful plants. This short review of the Conifers shows that a comparatively small number of these plants can be depended on to become permanent ornaments to northern gardens and that the best of them here, with the exception of native species, are inferior in size and beauty to these plants in regions suited to their best growth, like the west coast of Scotland, the Italian lakes, and northwestern North America. In northeastern North America many shrubs with deciduous leaves grow better and produce more abundant crops of flowers and fruit than anywhere in the world, and such plants can well and economically replace the dwarf and other Conifers which of late have been so largely used in the northern and middle states. If Evergreens are essential there are several dwarf hardy Rhododendrons which form a more compact setting for a building than the mixed plantation of little Conifers, and among other broad-leaved Evergreens suitable for the purpose there is the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia), the handsomest broad-leafed Evergreen plant which can be grown in the eastern states, the Inkberry of our coast region, and the Andromeda floribunda of the southern Appalachian Mountain forests. The exceptionally mild winter of 1920-21 and the unusually heavy rainfall of the past summer have improved the appearance of the Arboretum Conifers which are now looking unusually well, but as at least from seventy-five to one hundred years are needed to properly test the value of any tree of large size transferred to a region where it does not grow naturally we can only feel sure that such native Conifers as the White Pine (Pinus Strobus), the northern Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), the so-called Red Cedar (Juniperus virginiana), the Arborvitae (Thuya occidentalis), and the White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides), are really the trees for permanent New England plantations. Of the White Pine and the Hemlock nothing need be said here; their place is among the noble Conifers of the world and they are familiar to all the tree lovers of northeastern America. As a timber-tree only the long-leaved Pine of the south (Pinus palustris) is more valuable than the White Pine. The Red Cedar is a widely distributed tree ranging from Nova Scotia to eastern Texas. In this great region it varies in size and habit, and at the north is rarely more than thirty or forty feet high and usually of narrow pyramidal habit, while in the south its head is more often broad and round-topped; it grows, too, to a large size in the south sometimes, and specimens once existed in the valley of the Red River one hundred feet high. Largely used now, especially in the middle states, for the decoration of gardens this Juniper is more valuable as a timber than as an ornamental tree for in gardens it too often suffers badly from the red spider and other disfiguring insects. But as a timber tree the Red Cedar among American trees is in a class by itself. The bright red, fragrant wood in contact with the soil resists decay for many years; its fragrance makes it the best American wood for chests and the lining of closets used for the summer storage of woolens as the odor of the wood is repellant to moths. There are a number of forms of the Red Cedar in the Arboretum collection and several of them are now found in commercial nurseries. The handsomest of these are forms with silvery gray foliage, with gracefully pendulous branches, and some of the forms of dwarf habit, especially the plant now sold in nurseries as Juniperus Kosteriana. The Arborvitae produces durable fence posts but is not large enough to be profitably sawed into lumber. No tree, with the exception perhaps of the Japanese species of Chamaecyparis (Retinospora), produces so many distinct seedling forms. There are at least fifty of these in the Arboretum collection, varying from large or small, dense ball-shaped plants to tall narrow pyramids; there are forms with yellow leaves and with pendulous, and with slender, whiplike branches. As a garden plant the most valuable of them all is perhaps the tall slender pyramid raised many years ago by Robert Douglas of Waukegan, Illinois, and generally known as \"Douglas's Pyramidal Arborvitae.\" This appears to be the best substitute in northern gardens for the pyramidal Italian Cypress. There are two good specimens of this pyramidal Arborvitae in the Arboretum collection. The eastern America Chamaecyparis is a handsome slender tree with gray-green foliage and durable wood often used for fence posts, but in beauty and importance as a timber tree is far below in value the western American and Japanese species. It is established in the Arboretum but has grown slowly here and has sometimes suffered during severe winters, although it is common in swamps within twenty miles of Boston and formerly grew naturally within three or four miles of the Arboretum. Although it has not been cultivated as long as the White Pine, the Hemlock and the Arborvitae, the Red or Norway Pine (Pinus resinosa) may be expected to become a permanent tree in northeastern plantations. In youth it is a beautiful tree with long dark green leaves, and the handsomest of the hard wood Pines which can be grown in this climate. This Pine once grew naturally in the neighborhood of Boston, and its adaptability to the soil of the Arboretum is shown by the numerous seedlings which spring up here naturally and grow rapidly. The other New England Conifer, the Pitch Pine (Pinus rigida), becomes sometimes a picturesque tree, but probably will never be much planted except on the sands of Cape Cod where it grows better than most trees under such difficult conditions and produces quickly good crops of valuable fuel. There are four other eastern Pines in the Arboretum, the northern Pinus Banksiana, the short-leaved southern Yellow Pine (Pinus echinata), one of the valuable timber trees of the country, the Appalachian Pinus pungens and the Virginia Jack Pine (Pinus virginiana). The last and Pinus Banksiana will probably be permanent trees here but they have no particular value beyond the fact that they can grow rapidly in the poorest soil. Pinus pungens, too, grows on sterile hillsides from Pennsylvania to Georgia and is the least valuable of these American conifers. The short-leaved Yellow Pine has been growing in the Arboretum for more than thirty years. It has grown very slowly, and even the trees raised from seeds collected on Staten Island, New York, lose their leaves in severe winters. Seventy-five years have not been required to show that some commonly cultivated Conifers have no real permanent value in northeastern North America. The Colorado Blue Spruce, for example, was first raised from seeds in the Harvard Botanic Garden during the winter of 1863, the year after its discovery by Dr. Parry. One of the original seedling plants now fifty-eight years old is growing here on the south slope of Bussey Hill in good soil and has had good care; it has lost most of its lower branches, others are half dead, and it is hard to imagine a more miserable looking object. For several years it has been allowed to live as a warning to planters of this tree which is perhaps the most popular Conifer in eastern America where it is planted every year by tens perhaps hundreds of thousands. Millions of dollars have been spent for this tree which has always sold at a high price, but it is not probable that in fifty years one per cent. of all the planted trees will be alive. The unusual blue color of the leaves and the juvenile habit of this Colorado tree attract planters who rarely look many years ahead or avail themselves of information to which they might have access if they cared for it. Three European Conifers which have been largely planted in the northeastern states in the last sixty or seventy years have not proved permanently valuable here. These are the so-called Norway Spruce (Picea Abies or excelsa), the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the Austrian Pine (Pinus nigra). They are all hardy here and valuable timber trees in their native countries. The Norway Spruce is a handsome tree here in youth but at the end of forty or fifty years begins to die at the top and soon becomes unsightly. This tree is not planted as generally here now as it was but its introduction into this country must be considered a misfortune. The two Pines have not been so often planted although some American foresters are raising and planting the Scotch Pine in large numbers. The seedlings grow rapidly and are easily transplanted. From thirty to forty years, however, appear to be the length of life of this tree in most parts of the eastern states. It is possible, of course, that planted as forest trees it may last longer, but this fact should be known before large forest plantations are made of it, that is in eighty or one hundred years from this time. The Austrian Pine has been less commonly planted. It grows well while young, but too often dies without apparent cause at the end of thirty or forty years. As an ornamental tree it is in every way inferior to the native Red or Norway Pine. Of the Conifers of other regions that have not yet been thoroughly tested here, that is which have been growing in New England for less than fifty or sixty years, those which give the greatest promise of permanent usefulness in this climate are the Hemlock of the Carolina Mountains which has been growing in the Arboretum for forty years and is now perhaps the most beautiful of all the Conifers in the collection, the Chinese Pseudolarix, the Japanese Abies homolepis, the White Fir of the southern Rocky Mountains (Abies concolor), the Colorado form of the Douglas Spruce discovered in 1862, two Japanese Spruces, Picea bicolor and P. Glehnii, the western White Pine (Pinus monticola), the Idaho form of the western Arborvitae (Thuya plicata), and the Balkan Spruce (Picea omorika). Time, however, only can tell, what the value of these trees may be when they have reached maturity. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23730","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd15eaf6b.jpg","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics Abies concolor, 64 homolepis, 64 magnifica, 62 nobilis, 62 venusta, 61 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 59 Acer rubrum, 1 saccharinum, 1 Aesculus arguta, 28 Briottii, 28 carnea, 28 var. Briottii, 28 discolor var. mollis, 28 georgiana, 28 glabra, 28 var. Buckleyi, 28 var. leucodermis, 28 hippocastanum, 27, 28 hybrida, 28 octandra, 28 Pavia, 28 Almond, 4 American Azaleas, 16 Beech, 41, 42 Crabapples, a few, 24 Hydrangeas, 52 Lindens, 53, 54 Oaks, 18 Among the Oaks, 17, 18 Andromeda floribunda, 4, 62 Anisostichus capreolata, 40 Anthrodendron, 9 Apothecary Rose, 48 Apricot, Black, 4 Apricots, 4 Aralia chinensis, 59 var. mandschurica, 59, 60 Family, 59 spinosa, 59 Arborvitae, 62, 63 Douglas's Pyramidal, 63 Aronia arbutifolia, 32 Asiatic Azaleas, 9 Cherries, 3 Crabapples, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14 the last of the, 24 Asiatic Forsythias, 2, 3 Lindens, 55 Oaks, 18 Austrian Pine, 64 Azalea, a new, 36 amoena, 20 Azalea Kaempferi, 10, 20 Louisa Hunnewell, 20 mollis, 9, 11 yodogara, 8 Azaleas, 17, 20 American, 16 Asiatic, 9 two American, 20 Balkan Spruce, 64 Bechtel Crab, 24 Beech, American, 41, 42 Copper, 42 Fern-leaf, 43 Japanese, 44 Purple, 42 Trees, 41, 42 Chinese, 43, 44 Berberis dictyophylla, 12 Dielsiana, 12 Big Bud Hickory, 35 Bignonia capreolata, 40 Big Shellbark, 34 Bitternut, 34 Bitter Pecan, 34 Black Apricot, 4 Black Haw, 23 Black Oak, 18 Bladder Sennas, 51 Blue Spruce, Colorado, 64 Bottom Shellbark, 34 Buckeye, Ohio, 28 Calluna vulgaris var. rubra, 56 Calycanthus, 51 fertilis, 52 var. ferax, 52 var. laevigatus, 52 var. minus, 52 floridus, 51, 52 Calycanthus Mohrii, 52 occidentalis, 57 Canada Plum, 4 Carolina Hemlock, 60, 64 Carya alba, 35 aquatica, 34 Brownii, 35 var. varians, 35 Buckleyi var. arkansana, 35 carolinae-septentrionalis, 35 cordiformis, 34, 35 Dunbarii, 35 glabra, 35 var. megacarpa, 35 laciniosa, 34, 35 Laneyi, 35 var. chateaugayensis, 35 myristicaeformis, 34, 35 Nussbaumerii, 35 ovalis, 35 obcordata, 35 obovalis, 35 odorata, 35 ovata, 34, 35 fraxinifolia, 35 Nuttallii, 35 pallida, 35 pecan, 33, 35 Schneckii, 35 texana, 34, 35 Cassiope hypnoides, 56 Cedar, Red, 62, 63 White, 62 Chaenomeles, 11 japonica, 12 var. alpina, 12 lagenaria, 11 var. cardinalis, 12 var. nivalis, 12 var. Simonii, 12 superba, 12 var. alba, 12 var. perfecta, 12 var. rosea, 12 Chamaecyparis, 61, 62 thyoides, 62 Cherries, Asiatic, 3 Cherry, Cornelian, 2 James H. Veitch, 15 Japanese Spring, 3 Kanzan or Kwanzan, 15 Sargent, 4, 15 Cherry, Sekiyam, 15 Shirofugen, 15 Yoshino,4 Cherry-trees, Japanese double-flowered, 15 Chinese Beech-trees, 43, 44 Cotoneasters, 22 Deutzias, 32 Plum, 4 Chimonanthus, 52 Cobnuts, 50 Colorado Blue Spruce, 64 Colutea arborescens, 51 var. bullata, 51 cilicica, 51 media, 51 occidentalis, 51 orientalis, 51 Coluteas, 51 Conifer, a handsome dwarf, 60 Conifers, 61, 62, 63, 64 European, 64 Constantinople Nut, 49 Copper Beech, 42 Cornel, Silky, 47 Cornelian Cherry, 2 Cornus amomum, 47 arnoldiana, 47 florida, 18, 19, 20, 23 var. rubra, 19 kousa, 19, 20 mas, 1, 2 Nuttallii, 19 obliqua, 47 racemosa, 47 Corylopsis Gotoana, 1, 2 Corylus, 49, 50, 51 americana, 49, 50 Avellana, 49, 50 var. atropupurea, 50 var. aurea, 50 var. contorta, 49, 50 var. laciniata, 50 Corylus Avellana var. pendula, 49, 50 var. pontica, 50 var. quercifolia, 49, 50 californica, 49, 50 chinensis, 49, 50 colchica, 51 Colurna, 49, 50 ferox, 50, 51 Corylus hallaisensis, 51 heterophylla, 49, 51 var. sutchuenensis, 49, 51 Jacquemontii, 51 mandshurica, 51 maxima, 49, 50, 51 var. atropurpurea, 49 pontica, 50 rostrata, 49, 50, 51 Sieboldiana, 49, 51 var. mandshurica, 49, 51 tibetica, 49, 50 Cotoneaster acutifolia, 22 var. villosula, 22 adpressa, 22 ambigua, 22 bullata, 22 var. floribunda, 22 var. macrophylla, 22 Dielsiana, 22 var. elegans, 22 divaricata, 22 foveolata, 22 Franchetii, 22 gracilis, 22 horizontalis, 21 var. perpusilla, 21, 22 var. Wilsonii, 21 hupehensis, 22 integerrima, 22 macrophylla, 22 mandshurica, 51 moupinensis, 22 multiflora calocarpa, 22 nitens, 22 obscura, 22 racemiflora, 22 var. soongorica, 22 tomentosa, 22 Zabelii, 22 var. miniata, 22 Cotoneasters, 21, 22 Chinese, 22 Crab, Bechtel, 24 Parkman, 7 Crabapples, a few American, 24 Asiatic, 5, 6, 7, 8, 13, 14 some late-flowered, 13 the last of the Asiatic, 24 Cranberry, Highbush, 40 Crataegus arnoldiana, 12 mollis, 12 Crataegus nigra, 12 submollis, 12 Creeper, Virginia, 40 Cross Vine, southern, 40 Cupressus, 61 Daboecia, 56 Daphne genkwa, 12 Deutzia discolor, 32 gracilis, 32 grandiflora, 32 hypoglauca, 32 longifolia, 32 purpurea, 32 rosea, 32 Vilmorinae, 32 Deutzias, Chinese, 32 Lemoinei hybrids, 32 Boule de Neige, 32 Diervilla florida, 15 var. venusta, 15 Middendorfiana var. Maximowiczii, 16 Dimorpanthus mandschuricus, 60 Dirca palustris, 1, 2 Dogwood, Flowering, 19, red-flowered, 19 Double-flowered Cherry-trees, 15 Douglas Spruce, 64 Dwarf Spruce, a, 40 Early Rhododendrons, 1, 2 Early spring, an, 1, 2 Elder, 47 English Service-tree, 31 Epigaea repens, 56 Erica carnea, 56 tetralix, 56 vagans, 56 European White Beam, 31 Evodia Daniellii, 60 hupehensis, 60 Evodias, 60 Fagus Engleriana, 41, 43, 44 grandifolia, 41, 44 var. caroliniana, 41, 44 Hyatae, 44 japonica, 41, 44 longipetiolata, 41, 43, 44 lucida, 41, 43, 44 multinervis, 44 Fagus orientalis, 41, 43, 44 Sieboldii, 41, 44 sylvatica, 41, 42, 44 var. asplenifolia, 43 var. bornyensis, 42 var. comptoniaefolia, 43 var. cristata, 43, 44 var. cuprea, 42 var. dawyckii, 44 var. fastigiata, 43, 44 var. grandidentata, 44 var. heterophylla, 43, 44 var. incisa, 43 var. lacaniata, 43 var. latifolia, 44 var. macrophylla, 44 var. miltonensis, 43 var. pagnyensis, 43 var. pendula, 42, 44 var. purpurea, 44 f. pendula, 44 var. remillyensis, 42, 44 var. rotundifolia, 43, 44 var. salicifolia, 43 var. zlatia, 44 Fern-leaf Beech, 43 Filberts, 51 Fir, White, 64 Flowering Dogwood, 18, 19 of Japan, 19 Fokienca, 61 Forsythia intermedia, 3 var. pallida, 3 var. primulina, 3 var. spectabilis, 3 suspensa Fortunei, 3 viridissima, 3 Forsythias, 2, 3 Asiatic, 2, 3 Glyptostrobus, 61 Hamamelis japonica, 1 mollis, 1 Haw, Black, 23 Hawthorns, 12 Hazel, Korean, 51 Manchurian, 51 Hazel-nuts, 49 Hazel, Turkish, 49 Heather, 56 Heath, Irish, 56 Hemlock, 62 Carolina, 60, 64 eastern, 62 northern, 62 Hickories, hybrid, 35 \"Hickory,\" 35 Hickory, Big Bud, 35 Nutmeg, 34 Water, 34 Hickory-trees, 33, 34, 35 Highbush Cranberry, 40 Horsechestnuts, 27, 28 Horsechestnut-tree, red-flowered, 28 Hybrid Hickories, 35 Lindens, 55, 56 Philadelphus, 38 Rhododendrons, 26, 29, 30, 31 Hydrangea arborescens, 52 var. grandiflora, 52 cinerea, 52 quercifolia, 52 radiata, 52 Hydrangeas, American, 52 Hypericum Buckleyi, 48 Inkberry, 62 Irish Heath, 56 Jack Pine, 63 Japanese Beech-trees, 44 double-flowered Cherry-trees, 15 Spring Cherry, 3, 4 Junipers, 61, 62 Juniperus Kosteriana, 63 virginiana, 62 Kalmia latifolia, 4, 36, 47, 62 microphylla, 56 Kanjan or Kwanjan Cherry, 15 Keteleeria, 61 Koelreuteria paniculata, 58 Korean Hazel, 51 Laburnum alpinum, 36 anagyroides, 36 Parksii, 36 Scotch, 36 vulgare, 36 Watereri, 36 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 58 Late-flowered Crabapples, some, 13 Late Lilacs, 36 Late Viburnums, 39, 40 Laurel, 62 Laurels, the, 36 Lilacs, 16 late, 36 Lindens, hybrid, 55, 56 Linden Trees, 53, 54, 55 Linnaea borealis, 56 Loiseleuria procumbens, 56 Lyonia mariana, 46 Maackia, 58, 59 amurensis, 58 hupehensis, 58 Magnolia grandiflora, 41 stellata, 1, 2 Magnolias, 2 Malus arnoldiana, 8 baccata, 6, 7, 13 var. Jackii, 6 var. mandshurica, 6 floribunda, 5, 6, 7, 8 glaucescens, 24 Halliana, \"Kaido,\" 7 var. Parkmanii, 7 ioensis, 14, 15, 24 var. plena, 24 micromalus, 6, 7, 8 Niedzwetzkyana, 6 platycarpa, 24 purpurea, 6 robusta, 6, 8, 13 Sargentii, 13 Scheideckeri, 8 Sieboldii, 14 var. arborescens, 14 var. calocarpa, 14 Soulardii, 14 spectabilis, 8, 13 sublobata, 14 sylvestris, 13 theifera, 7 toringoides, 24 transitoria, 24 Maple, Silver, 1 Mockernut, 35 Mock Oranges, 37, 38 Nannyberry, 23 Norway Pine, 63, 64 Spruce, 64 Nutmeg Hickory, 34 Oaks, American, 18 Oaks, among the, 17, 18 Asiatic, 18 Ohio Buckeye, 28 Oxydendrum arboreum, 57 Parkman Crab, 7 Pecan, 33, 34 Bitter, 34 Philadelphus, 37, 38 Chinese, 38 coronarius, 39 cymosus, 39 Conquete, 39 Mer de Glace, 39 Norma, 39 Nuee Blanche, 39 Perle Blanche, 39 Rosace, 39 Voie Lactee, 39 Falconeri, 38 Hybrid, 38, 39 inodorus, 38, 39 insignis, 38, 39 latifolius, 38 Lemoinei, 39 maximus, 39 microphyllus, 38, 39 pekinensis, 38 polyanthus, 39 Gerbe de Neige, 39 Pavillon Blanc, 39 pubescens, 38, 39 purpurascens, 38 Souvenir de Billard, 38 splendens, 39 virginalis, 39 Argentina, 39 Bouquet Blanc, 39 Glacier, 39 Virginal, 39 Picea, 62 Abies, 64 albertiana, 40 bicolor, 64 Picea excelsa, 64 Picea glauca, 40 var. albertiana conica, 40 Glehnii, 64 omorika, 64 Pieris floribunda, 4 Pieris mariana, 46 Pignut, 34, 35 Pine, Austrian, 64 Jack, 63 long-leaved, 62 Norway, 63, Pitch, 63 Red, 63, Scotch, 64 White, 62 western, 64 Yellow, 63 Pinus Banksiana, 63 echinata, 63 monticola, 64 nigra, 64 palustris, 62 pungens, 63 resinosa, 63 rigida, 63 Strobus, 62 sylvestris, 64 virginiana, 63 Pitch Pine, 63 Plum, Canada, 4 Chinese,4 Prunus Armenaica \"Mikado,\" 4 caroliniana, 37 dasycarpa, 4 Davidiana, 1 incisa,4 mandshurica, 4 nigra,4 salicina,4 serrulata, 15 var. albo-rosea, 15 var. fugenzo, 15 var. sachalinensis, 4, 15 var. sekiyama, 15 subhirtella, 3, 4 var. ascendens, 4 tomentosa, 3 var. endotricha, 3 triloba, 4 yedoensis, 4 Pseudolarix, Chinese, 64 Purple Beech, 42 Pyrus japonica, 11, 12 Maulei, 12 Quercus alba, 17 Quercus Bebbiana, 17 bicolor, 17 borealis, 17 var. maxima, 17 coceinea, 18 Comptonae, 18 dentata, 18 ellipsoidalis, 17 georgiana, 17 ilicifolia, 17 lyrata, 17, 18 macrocarpa, 17 marilandica, 17 montana, 17 Muehlenbergii, 17 palustris, 17 Phellos, 17 prinoides, 18 rubra, 17 Shumardii var. Schneckii, 17 stellata, 17 variabilis, 18 velutina, 17, 18 Quince, 11 Red Cedar, 62, 63 Red-flowered Dogwood, 19 Red Pine, 63, 64 Retinospora, 63 Rhododendron, 9 alabamense, 16 Anneliesae, 36 arborescens, 16, 36 arboreum, 29, 30 arbutifolium, 31 arnoldianum, 20 austrinum, 16 brachycarpum, 26, 27 calendulaceum, 16, 36 canadense, 16 carolinianum, 26, 27, 31, 46 catawbiense, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31, 45, 46 hybrids of, 26, 29, 30, 31 Pink Pearl, 31 caucasicum, 29, 30 hybrids of, 30 Boule de Neige, 30 Cassiope, 30 coriaceum, 30 Mont Blanc, 30 Sultana, 30 Rhododendron dahuricum, 1, 2 delicatissimum, 45, 46 ferrugineum, 26, 27 Fortunei, 30, 31 hydrids of, 30 hirsutum, 26, 27, 31 Holmleanum, 31 indicum, 56 Jacksonii, 30 japonicum, 9, 11, 20 var. superba, 11 Kaempferi, 10 Kosterianum, 11 var. Louisa Hunnewell, 11, 20 laetevirens, 31 maximum, 26, 27, 29, 45, 46 Metternichii, 31 hybrids of, 31 micranthum, 26, 27 minus, 26, 27, 46 var. Harbisonii, 27, 46 molle, 9, 11 mollis, 11 mucronulatum, 1, 2 myrtifolium, 31 nudiflorum, 16, 20 obtusum amoenum, 20 var. Kaempferi, 9, 10, 20 ponticum, 29 poukhanense, 8 prunifolium, 16 punctatum, 46 reticulatum, 9, 10 rhombicum, 10 roseum, 16, 20 Schlippenbachii, 9, 10 sinense, 9, 11 Smirnowii, 26, 27, 30 hybrids of, 30 speciosum, 16 Tschonoskii, 9 Vaseyi, 16 venosum, 30 viscosum, 16 Wellsianum, 46 Wilsonii, 31 yedoense, 8, 9 var. poukhanense, 8, 9 Rhododendrons, 25, 26, 27, 62 Catawbiense hybrids, 26, 29, 30, 3 early, 1, 2 Rhodora, 10, 16 Rhus javanica, 60 Rhus Osbeckii, 60 semialata, 60 Rosa damascena, 48 var. versicolor, 48 gallica, 48 var. officinalis, 48 var. provincialis, 48 var. versicolor, 48 lucida, 47 mundi, 48 virginiana, 47 Rose, Apothecary, 48 York and Lancaster, 48 Salix herbacea, 56 uva-ursi, 56 Sambucus canadensis, 47 var. acutiloba, 47 var. chlorocarpa, 47 var. maxima, 47 Sargent Cherry, 4, 15 Scotch Laburnum, 36 Pine, 64 Sekiyam Cherry, 15 Sequoias, 61 Service-tree, English, 31 Shagbarks, 34 Sheepberry, 23 Shellbark, Big, 34 Bottom, 34 Shellbarks, 34 Shirofugen Cherry, 15 Shrub, 51 Shrubs, a few late-flowering, 45 Silky Cornel, 47 Silver Maple, 1 Sophora japonica, 58 var. pendula, 58 var. pyramidalis, 58 var. rosea, 59 Sorbaronia alpina, 32 Sorbus alnifolia, 31, 32 alpina, 32 Aria, 31, 32 var. Decaisneana, 31 domestica, 31 Folgneri, 31, 32 intermedia, 31 Sorrel-tree, 57, 58 Southern Cross Vine, 40 Spiraea Veitchii, 47 Spring, an early, 1, 2 Spruce, Balkan, 64 Colorado Blue, 64 Douglas, 64 Dwarf, a, 40 Norway, 64 White, 40 Stewartia pseudo-camellia, 60 Summer-flowering Trees, 57, 58 Symplocos paniculata, 28 Syringa coronarius, 37 reflexa, 36 Sargentiana, 36 Sweginzowii, 36 villosa, 36 Syringas, 37, 38, 39 Taiwania, 61 Thuya occidentalis, 62 plicata, 64 Thujopsis, 61 Japanese, 61 Tilia, 53 americana, 53 cordata, 54, 55 euchlora, 55 glabra, 53, 54, 55 heterophylla var. Michauxii, 53, 54 japonica, 55 mongolica, 55 monticola, 53, 54 neglecta, 53, 54 Oliveri, 55 petiolaris, 54, 55, 56 platyphyllos, 54 spectabilis, 55, 56 var. Moltkei, 56 tomentosa, 54, 55 vulgaris, 54, 55 Trees, Beech, 41, 42 Linden, 53, 54, 55 summer-flowering, 57, 58 Tsuga canadensis, 60, 62 caroliniana, dwarf, 60 Turkish Hazel, 49 Two American Azaleas, 20 Vaccinium praestans, 56 Viburnum americanum, 40 Canbyi, 39, 48 cassinoides, 39 dentatum, 39 ichangense, 24 Lentago, 23 Opulus, 40 prunifolium, 22 rhytidophyllum, 23, 24 rufidulum, 23 venosum, 39 Viburnums, late, 39, 40 Virginia Creeper, 40 Walnuts, 17 Water Hickory, 34 Western White Pine, 64 White Beam, European, 31 White Cedar, 62 Fir, 64 Pine, 62 western, 64 Spruce, 40 Witch Hazels, winter-flowering, l Yellow Pine, 63 York and Lancaster Rose, 48 Yoshino Cherry, 4 Zenobia pulverulenta, 46 var. nitida, 46"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23486","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15e8128.jpg","title":"1921-7","volume":7,"issue_number":null,"year":1921,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 6","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23722","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14ebb6e.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 6, 1920 Effects of the Severe Winter. The winter of 1919-20, although less destructive to plants in the neighborhood of Boston than that of 1917--18, has been exceptionally severe. Once in December, before the ground was protected by snow, the thermometer at the Arboretum fell to 12 below zero; later heavy and numerous falls of snow buried and protected plants less than three or four feet high. Unfortunately the snow rested on a layer of ice which did not thaw until the disappearance of the snow at the end of March. This ice layer injured small plants, and this, or the cold nights in December, killed in the Nursery the seedling plants of Juniperus Pinchotii. This native of the Panhandle region of northwestern Texas is a handsome tree with bright red fruit. Recently introduced into gardens by the Arboretum, it was hoped that a tree which grows naturally in a region of excessive winter cold would thrive in New England. The heavy snow and high winds have broken the branches of several trees and shrubs, and the destruction of the fine species of the dwarf form of the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides var. globosum) by the weight of the snow on the branches is a serious loss. This plant was imported from Germany in 1888 and for several years has been an object of interest and curiosity to visitors to the Arboretum, especially those who like to study plants of abnormal growth; and its portrait has been thrown on the screen at many popular lectures on the Arboretum and its plants. Field mice, which have destroyed during the winter by girdling thousands of young trees in New England orchards and nurseries, have done comparatively little damage in the Arboretum. A number of shrubs have lost branches; a ring of bark has been entirely removcd from the stem of one of the three plants of a Chinese Box Elder, Acer griseum, and this plant will probably not recover. Other interesting young trees which have been badly injured by mice are Acer mandshuricum, the great Box Elder of northern Korea and Manchuria and Acer Davidii from western China. Rhododendrons, Kalmias and broad-leaved Evergreens are generally in good condition, although the Kalmias which last year produced an unusually large crop of flowers this year are carrying few flower-buds. A few conifers have suffered, but the damage to these plants is less serious than it was two years ago, and, judging by reports from Long Island and the middle states, the Arboretum conifers have suffered less than those in some of the collections further south. The young Cedars of Lebanon raised from seeds gathered in Asia Minor, and for many years believed to be proof against the rigors of the New England winter, have lost or will lose many leaves as they did for the first time two years ago. The buds appear to be uninjured and the trees will undoubedly put out new leaves. Their spring beauty, however, is spoiled, and such losses of foliage will check their growth which up to two years ago had been more rapid than that of any other conifer in the collection. Two years ago the numerous specimens in the Arboretum of the Black Pine of Japan (Pinus Thunbergiz) lost much of their foliage and the trees look even worse now than they did two years ago. The buds are generally alive, but it will be a long time before these trees regain their former vigor. This Black Pine is a southern sea-level tree and in this country is more picturesque than beautiful. In Tokyo, however, and by the sides of the great southern Japanese shore highway there are magnificent specimens. Raised at the Arboretum from seeds planted in 1893, Pineus Thunbergii was never injured here until the cold of the winter of 1917-18 ruined its foliage. The shortleaved southern Pine (Pinus echmata) has lost many leaves again as it did two years ago; and although this valuable tree finds its northern home on Staten Island and Long Island, New York, it will probably never grow to a large size here or prove itself important for the decoration of northern parks. The oldest specimen in the collection was raised here in 1879 from seeds collected at the Peaks of Otter in Virginia and has suffered less than the younger trees raised from Staten Island seeds. Young plants of the Mexican White Pine (Pznus ayacahuite) which have been growing in the Arboretum for several years and have not before been injured by cold look as if they had been browned by fire and will probably die. Small plants of Abies magnifica, the great Red Fir of the California Sierra Nevada, and A. cephalonica var Apollinis, from southeastern Europe, both trees of doubtful hardiness, are killed; and of the three trees of the California form of Abies concolor the A. Lowiana of English nurserymen and the A. Paz-sonsii of some American gardens, the leaves of two are for the first time badly browned, while those of the third are uninjured. Here and there a branch with brown leaves appears in the Pinetum, but on the whole the collection of conifers is in better condition than might have been expected. Among the trees which do not grow naturally in New England three are now conspicuous by the freshness and beauty of their foliage; these three trees are the Hemlock from the high mountains of the Carolinas (Tsuga caroliniarca), the Spruce-tree of the Balkan Peninsula (Picea omorika), and a Japanese Fir-tree, Abies homolepis (or brachyphylla). The last is a tree of dense habit, dark green leaves and purple cones; it must not be confused with another Japanese Fir-tree which botanists consider a variety of it and now call A. homolepas var. umbellata. This is a faster growing tree of open habit, with light green leaves and gray cones. It is less hardy than the typical form, and leaves on most of the specimens in the Arboretum have been browned during the past winter as they were two years ago. Except in general collections and as a curiosity this variety of Abies homolnpzs is not worth planting in this part of the world. A late spring. By the first of April the frost was out of the ground here and there was every prospect of an early spring, but April has been a cold and rainy month with little sunshine and most spring flowers are opening nearly two weeks later than in normal seasons. They have so far, however, escaped the late frosts which too often in this climate ruin April flowers, like those of lVlagnoLaa stellata, M. kobus and early flowering Rhododendrons. Winter-flowering Witch Hazels. The southern Missouri and Asiatic Witch Hazels have all flowered during the winter, but for some reason which it is not easy to explain their flowers opened five or six weeks later than in other years. Hamamelis mollis from central China is the handsomest of these plants and well deserves a place in winter gardens for its flowers with their large bright yellow petals and handsome leaves which in late autumn assume before falling brilliant shades of yellow. A Japanese species (H. incarnata), differing from all the other Witch Hazels in the dark red petals of its small flowers drooping on long stems, is a recent addition to the Arboretum collection and has flowered here this winter for the first time. As a botanical curiosity it is interesting, but judged by the first flowers it has produced in America it has little to recommend it as a garden plant. Cornus mas. The Cornelian Cherry of old-fashioned gardens opened its first flowers on April 18th, and the leafless branches are still covered with its compact, many-flowered clusters of small bright yellow flowers which are unusually abundant this spring. This Cornel is a native of eastern Europe and western Asia, and for three centuries at least has been a favorite garden plant in western Europe. It is a large and shapely shrub and with a little care can be made to grow with a single stem in the form of a small tree. It is handsome from early spring until late in the autumn, for the leaves are large dark green and lustrous but fall without having changed their color, and the short oblong, scarlet, lustrous or rarely yellow fruit which hangs on stout stems is cherry-like in appearance and ornamental. The fact that the flowers are never injured by April frosts greatly adds to the value of this plant for the spring decoration of parks and gardens in the northern states. Corylopsis is an Asiatic genus of the Witch Hazel Family with light yellow flowers in long drooping clusters appearing before the leaves which have a general resemblance to those of the Witch Hazels. Nearly all the species are represented in the collection but only C. Gotoana, a native of the elevated regions of central Japan, is worthy of general cultivation in eastern Massachusetts, for it is perfectly hardy here even the flower-buds having been uninjured by the exceptionally low temperature of the winter of 1917-18. This is one of the handsomest of the early spring flowering shrubs which can be grown in this part of the country and one of the important Arboretum introductions. The largest plant in the collection is on Hickory Path near Centre Street and is now covered with flowers. A small plant of another Japanese species, C. pauciflora, growing on Hickory Path near C. Gotoana, is also now covered with flowers. This is unusual, for although the plant is hardy the flower-buds are often killed by cold, as are those of another Japanese species, C. spicata. The stems and branches of the Chinese species, C. Veitchiana and C. Wxllmottae are uninjured but the flower-buds are killed. These plants have flowered in the Arboretum, but two years ago they were killed to the ground and there is little hope that these handsome shrubs will prove useful for New England gardens. Prinsepia sinensis. The value of this handsome shrub becomes more and more apparant with the passing years. The first plant in the Arboretum to unfold its leaves, these are already nearly full grown and by the time this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers the plants will be covered with bright yellow flowers. This Prinsepia is a perfectly hardy vigorous and fast-growing shrub; the young leaves and the flowers have never been injured by spring frosts, and it can be said of it that it is the best contribution Mongolia has made to our gardens. Prinsepia sinensis has proved difficult to propagate, but two years ago it produced for the first time a little fruit and this seed has germinated. It is possible, too, with skill and patience to increase this plant by cuttings, but until the Arboretum plants produce good crops of fruit Prinsepa, a sinensis will not be common in this country. If it could be obtained in sufficient quantities it would make a beautiful and impenetrable hedge as the stems and branches are armed with sharp spines. Early Flowering Rhododendrons. Only three or four of the Rhododendrons which bloom before the first of May can be grown in this climate. The handsomest of these, Rhododendron mucronulatum, which has flowered every spring in the Arboretum for nearly twenty years, has perhaps not before been as thickly covered with flowers as it has been during the past ten days. A native of northern China and Korea it is a tall deciduous-leafed shrub inclined as it grows old to a straggling habit, with long slender branches and pale rose-colored flowers which open before the leaves appear and have never been injured here by April frosts. This is one of the handsome April flowering shrubs which can be successfully grown in this climate. The flowers are still in good condition on the plants in the large group on the lower side of Azalea Path. Rhododendron dauricum, which begins to bloom a few days earlier than R. mucronulatum, has been unusually handsome this spring as the flowers which are generally destroyed by frost have not been injured. It is a native of eastern Siberia and Manchuria, with bright rose-colored flowers and dark green leaves which in this climate remain on the branches until midwinter. There is an evergreen variety, (var. sempervirens), which has also flowered well this spring with the species on the upper side of Azalea Path. The flowers of the hybrid between Rhododendron dauricum and the Himalayan R. hirsutum, known in gardens as R. praecox, \"Early Gem,\" are also in good condition this year; usually they are ruined by frost."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 10","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23717","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14eab27.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 10, 1920 Asiatic Cherry-trees. When this copy of the Bulletin reaches its readers in eastern Massachusetts the principal display of flowers in the Arboretum will be made by some of the Cherry-trees of eastern Asia and by early-flowering Plum-trees. As in previous years, the earliest of these trees to flower this spring is Prunus concmna, a native of the mountains of central China where it was discovered by Wilson. Prunus co~acircna is a small tree which first flowered in the Arboretum when less than three feet high. The flowers, which are white with a red calyx, are less beautiful than those of several of the other Asiatic Cherry-trees, but they are produced in the greatest profusion and are not injured by spring frosts; and as small plants flower as freely as larger ones this Cherry well deserves a place in collections of springflowering trees and shrubs. The Japanese Prunus incisa has opened its flowers this spring only two or three days later than Prunus concin; 2a. It is a shrub or small tree with white or rarely pale rose-colored flowers which appear before the deeply lobed leaves unfold. The petals fall in a few days after the buds open but the calyx, which gradually grows red, remains on the fruit for two or three weeks and is decidedly showy. A form of this Cherry (var. Yanakei) with pure white petals and a bright green calyx is flowering for the first time in the Arboretum this spring. Although Prunus incisa is a common plant in Japan on the Hakkone Mountains and on Fuji-san, it has remained extremely rare in American and European gardens. It is in flower this year a few days earlier than the Chinese Prunus tomentosa, an early introduction of the Arboretum which has proved to be one of the handsomest of the early spring flowering shrubs in the neighborhood of Boston. It is a vigorous plant five or six feet high, and when fully grown often broader than tall. The flowers open from pink buds as the leaves unfold and their bright red stalk and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals often blotched with rose color. The small scarlet lustrous fruit which ripens in June and is covered with short hairs is attracting the attention of pomologists in regions of intense cold in the interior of this continent where Prunus tomentosa has proved to be hardy. Crossed with Prunus Cerasus, if such a cross can be made, it might produce a race of garden Cherries which would probably be hardy further north than it is possible to cultivate successfully any of the varieties of that species. A form of Prunus tomentosa (var. eudotricha) discovered by Wilson in western China flowers a few days later than the species from which it chiefly differs in the absence of hairs from the fruit. An Almond from northern China, Prunus triloba, blooms with or a little later than Prunus tomentosa. It is a tall shrub of open irregular habit, and its only beauty is in its flowers which are purest pink in color. No other plant in the Arboretum produces flowers more delicately beautiful in color, but although it has been flowering here now for nearly thirty years it is still rare in American gardens. The less beautiful double-flowered form (var. plena) is, however, a better known and more popular garden plant in this country. A single plant (Prunus Arnoldiana) of what is evidently a natural hybrid between Prunus triloba and P. tomentosa appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago among seedlings of the former. It is a vigorous upright growing shrub with a single stem, handsome white flowers which appear as the leaves unfold, cherry-like fruit which rarely develops, and leaves intermediate between those of its supposed parents. The large trees of the Sargent Cherry, Prunus serrulata var. sacha- Lineus2s, have lost this year some of their flower-buds especially from lower branches but are nevertheless well covered with their pink and rose-colored flowers. The flowers are short-lived, but their abundance and beauty, the hardiness of the tree which has not yet been attacked by any disease, the beauty of its ample dark green leaves brilliantly colored in the autumn and its bright and lustrous bark make this the handsomest Cherry-tree of large size which can be successfully grown in this climate. In recent years it has been difficult to obtain from Japan seeds of this northern variety of Prunus serrulata for the large trees have been generally cut in Hokkaido for lumber; and the plants now in the United States have been raised from the seeds produced by the Arboretum trees. A number of these seedling trees are beginning to flower in different parts of the country and will in the course of a few years be producing crops of fruit. This ripens in the Arboretum in June; and everyone with fruit-bearing trees of this Cherry should protect the fruit from birds and see that the stones are planted, for the Sargent Cherry is one of the handsomest trees which can be used successfully for the decoration of northern gardens and supplies the best stock on which to graft or bud many of the double-flowered Japanese Cherries, the handsomest and hardiest of which are forms of Prunus serrulata and its varieties. The Spring Cherry of the Japanese (Prunus subhirte la), the most delightful and floriferous, travellers say, of all Japanese Cherries, is thickly covered with fast opening flowerbuds and has not before given greater promise of beauty. It is a large shrub which is not known in Japan as a wild plant. Although cultivated somewhat in the gardens of western Japan it is uncommon in those of Tokyo and therefore has failed to attract the general attention of the visitors to the Flowery Kingdom who stick to beaten tracks. The rather small drooping flowers are pink when they first open but gradually turn white, and those of no other Cherry-tree in the collection remain in good condition for so many days. This plant is still rare in American and European gardens; it can be increased by grafting, and softwood cuttings in the hands of a skilful propagator can be made to grow. Seeds, which the Arboretum plants produce in great quantities, do not reproduce the parent plant, however, and the seedlings generally grow into the tall slender trees which botanists know as Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens, and which are common in the forests of central Hondo. This tree has generally been overlooked or neglected as a garden plant, but is now flowering in the Arboretum. Much better known is the form of P. subhirtella (var. pendula) with pendulous branches which, long a favorite garden plant in Japan, was sent many years ago to Europe and then to the United States. This beautiful plant, which is perfectly hardy in Massachusetts has often grown badly here and died long before its time because European Cherry stocks have been used for multiplying it. The proper stocks for the Weeping Cherry are the seedling plants of Prunus subhirteLla (var. ascendens) or seedlings raised from the seeds of that variety which probably have not yet been produced in this country. Seeds of the pendulous form sometimes produce plants with pendulous branches, and such plants are occasionally found among the seedlings of Prunus subhirtella. There are few flower-buds this spring on the weeping Japanese Cherry-trees in the Arboretum and these will open much later. The flower-buds of Peaches, including those of the wild Peach-tree of northern China (Prunus Davidiana), and of several Apricots have been killed in the Arboretum by the severe winter but Plums large and small are generally well covered with buds. The Canada Plum so-called (Prunus nigra) is the first species to flower and the buds are already opening. This is a northern tree ranging in Canada from New Brunswick westward through the valley of the St. Lawrence River and along the northern shore of Lake Superior to Winnipeg; it occurs rather sparingly in northern New England, western New York and westward to Minnesota. It is a handsome little tree with dark close bark, a round-topped head of spreading branches, wide coarsely toothed glandular leaves, and large flowers, which unlike those of other American Plums turn pink as they begin to fade. Several forms selected for the excellence of their fruit are cultivated and valued by pomologists. A form of the Canada Plum found growing in Seneca Park, Rochester, New York, near the gorge of the Genesee River and believed to be a native plant in that region is when in flower one of the most beautiful Plum-trees in the Arboretum collection and well worth propagating as a garden ornament. Prunus salicina, better known perhaps as P. triflora, flowers only a little later than the Canada Plum, and the flower-buds which completely cover the wide-spreading branches are already opening. This tree is interesting because it is the only native Plum in eastern Asia and the tree from which the socalled Japanese Plums of gardens have been evolved. Corylus chinensis. The fact that this tree has again escaped injury by a severe winter and is flowering in the Arboretum for the second time will interest the large number of persons in this country who are now associated together for the study and improvement of nut-bearing trees. Corylus chinensis is a splendid tree widely distributed but nowhere abundant on the mountains of Hupeh and Szech'uan. It is a tree with spreading branches usually from fifty to seventy feet tall, with a trunk two or three feet in diameter, although Wilson measured one tree growing near Fang Hsien in Hupeh which was 120 feet high with a trunk nearly seven feet in diameter. No other Hazel of this size has been reported before or since. The Arboretum plants ripened a few nuts in the autumn of 1919; the nuts vary in size but are thick-shelled, and are enclosed in an involucre which also varies in shape and thickness. Compared with cultivated Hazel-nuts they have no comestible value. Corylus chinensis, however, may prove valuable as a parent of a race of large-growing Hazels with good fruit, or as a vigorous stock on which to graft some of the forms of C. Avellana with improved fruit. But whether it proves valuable or not in improving Hazelnuts Corylus chinensis, if it grows here as it does on its native mountains, should prove an interesting and valuable addition to the exotic trees which can be cultivated in this country. The Nutmeg Hickory. It is a matter of congratulation that this Hickory-tree (Carya myristicaeformis) has been growing for several years in the Arboretum and has not been injured by the severe winters of recent years. This is one of the rare and handsome trees of southeastern North America, and one of the most interesting of Hickory-trees because it unites two distinct groups of species of these trees - the group with valvate bud-scales and thin-shelled nuts in thin husks, of which the Bitternut and the Pecan are representatives, and the group with imbricated bud-scales and thick-shelled nuts in more or less thickened husks, of which the Shagbark Hickory and the Pignut are representatives. The Nutmeg Hickory is a magnificent tree often a hundred feet high, with a tall stem and leaves silvery white on the lower side of the leaflets. The nuts somewhat resemble in shape those of the Pecan but are marked by longitudinal bands of small gray spots. The Nutmeg Hickory grows only in a few isolated stations from eastern South Carolina to eastern Texas. It is most abundant in southern Arkansas where the seeds were gathered from which the Arboretum plants have been raised."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 14","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23718","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14eab6a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 14, 1920 Amelanchiers. The forests of eastern North America surpass those of other regions of the northern hemisphere in the number of small trees and shrubs which enliven them with beautiful and often conspicuous flowers. Eastern North America is the home of the Hawthorns which grow here in an almost unbelievable number of species with innumerable individuals; in the Missouri-Texas region are more species and varieties of Plums, great and small, than in all the other countries of the world; in early spring swamps and their borders and low woods are gay with the bright yellow flowers on the leafless branches of the Spice Bush (Benzoin aestivale), the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) and the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis). No other part of the world can boast a forest undergrowth more beautiful than that made by the socalled Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida), one of the commonest of the small trees in all the region from southern New England to eastern Texas. Even Japan cannot make a braver and more varied show of Azaleas than our south Atlantic and Gulf States; poor in Rhododendrons and these of comparative insignificance, in its Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) eastern America possesses a broad-leaved evergreen shrub or small tree which grows naturally from New Brunswick to Louisiana and is not surpassed by many plants in the beauty of its flowers. Amelanchier is another plant in which North America has almost a monopoly; one small shrubby species grows on the mountains of central Europe, and there is another shrubby species in China and Japan. All the other species are natives of North America where Amelanchiers grow with many species from the Atlantic to the Pacific, and from Newfoundland to the Gulf States. Some of the species are trees and others large or small shrubs they flower in the spring before the leaves appear or when they are partly grown, or, as in the case of a few species, when the trees are nearly fully grown, the period of flowering of the different species extending through several weeks. The species all have handsome flowers, with long delicate white petals, and small, dark blue, or nearly black pome-like fruit open at the top, with flesh which in most of the species is sweet and edible. It is these edible fruits which probably have earned for these plants one of their popular names, Service Berry. Shad Bush, another of their popular names, came from the fact that they were in flower when the shad began to ascend the rivers flowing into the Atlantic Ocean. Amelanchier canadensis, the first species to bloom in the Arboretum, has been in flower for several days. It is a tree which occasionally grows to the height of sixty feet with a tall trunk eighteen inches in diameter. The leaves begin to unfold as the flowers open and are then covered with pale gray silky hairs, making the whole plant look white at this time of the year. This beautiful tree does not grow naturally nearer Boston than the western part of the state; it is common in western Tdew York, and it is the common and often the only species in the southern states in which it grows to the Gulf coast. Owing to an old confusion in determination and names this fine tree, which was originally named by Linnaeus, has been rare in gardens, an entirely different plant having long appeared in books and gardens under the name of Amelanchier canadensis. This is also a fine tree, differing conspicuously from A. canadensis in the red color of the young leaves which are destitute or nearly destitute of any hairy covering. This tree is now called by botanists A. laevis. It is one of the native trees of the Arboretum, and there are a number of specimens growing naturally on the bank above the Crabapples on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road which begin to flower a few days later than A. canadensis, and are easily recognized by the color of the young leaves. Another species which is a native plant in the Arboretum, A. obovalis, is a large shrub rather than a tree with young leaves like those of A. canadensis covered with white silky hairs. Large numbers of this shrub have been planted along the drives and in the other Arboretum shrubberies; they will still be in bloom when this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers and will make this week one of the pleasantest of the year to visit the Arboretum. Five or six other species of the eastern states are now well established in the Arboretum collection on the grass path which follows the left-hand side of the Meadow Road; they are small shrubs rarely more than five or six feet high, in some species spreading from the roots into clumps of considerable size. They are all delightful plants well suited for the decoration of small gardens or the margins of shrubberies. Generally, however, they are unknown to garden lovers. Some Early-flowering Viburnums. The first Viburnum to bloom in the Arboretum this year is Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood of cold, wet northern woods. It is a large shrub spreading by shoots from the roots, with broad flat clusters of small flowers surrounded by a ring of large pure white neutral flowers, dark green leaves with prominent veins, which turn orange and scarlet in the autumn, and fruit in drooping clusters, bright red at first when fully grown and dark blue or nearly black at maturity. This is one of the handsomest of the American Viburnums but it has proved a difficult plant to establish here, although in other Massachusetts gardens it has grown better than it has in the Arboretum where, however, it at last appears to have become accustomed to its surroundings. In Japan there is a Viburnum (V. furcatum) closely related to and very much like the Hobble Bush, from which it chiefly differs in the shorter stamens which are hardly more than half the length of the corolla, and in the deep groove on the ventral side of the stone of the fruit. Viburnum furcatum in Japan, where it grows from the mountains of central Hondo to Saghalin, is a shrub sometimes ten or twelve feet high with smooth, red-brown branches and branchlets. Like its American relative, this Japanese Viburnum has proved difficult to establish, but a plant is now opening its flowers here, two or three days later than those of V. alnifolium, and for the first time in the Arboretum. In a few days the flowers of another early-flowering species, V. Carles~i, will open. This shrub has been found only among seashore rocks in two localities in Korea and has already become a popular garden plant in this country and Europe. Its real value is found in the white, extremely fragrant flowers which are arranged in small compact clusters and open from rose-colored buds. As the buds in the cluster do not all open at once the pink buds among the white flowers add to the beauty of this shrub in early spring. Late in the autumn the small dull olive green leaves turn dark rich wine color. Early Azaleas. The first Azalea to open its flowers this spring is the Korean Rhododendron (all Azaleas are now called Rhododendrons) po~khawense. This Azalea, which is a common plant on the bare mountain slopes in the neighborhood of Seoul, was first raised at the Arboretum in 1905 from seeds collected in Korea by Mr. J. G. Jack. As it grows here this Azalea is a low, wide, compact bush which never fails to cover itself with its large, rose-pink flowers. Some persons do not find this color pleasing, but the flowers of no other Azalea in the collection have such a strong and pleasant fragrance. There is a considerable number of these plants in the bed on the upper side of Azalea Path. The plants ripen good crops of seeds; the seedlings are not difficult to raise and there is no reason why this plant should not be more common in gardens than it is at present. The flower-buds of Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii will open a few days later than those of R. poukhanense. This Azalea grows on the exposed grasscovered cliffs of the east coast of Korea as a low bush with branches clinging to the ground and far northward as a tall shrub sometimes twelve or fifteen feet high under trees in open or dense forests. It grows further north than other Asiatic Azaleas, and only the North American Rhodora reaches a higher latitude. The flowers of this Azalea appear before the leaves and are pale pink marked at the base of the upper lobes of the corolla with dark spots and are about three inches in diameter. There can be little doubt of the hardiness of this plant, for in Korea it grows to its largest size where the winter temperature often falls to 30 below zero Fahrenheit; and in the Arboretum the flower12 buds have not been injured by the low temperature of recent winters. There is every reason to believe therefore that it will be possible to cultivate R. Schlippenbachii anywhere in the northern states where the soil is not impregnated with lime. If this prediction proves true New England will be able to add to its gardens one of the most beautiful of all the Azaleas. This plant, unfortunately, is still rare in gardens. Although known to Russian botanists as early as 1872, it did not reach England until twenty years later when the late J. H. Veitch sent to London a plant which he had found in a nursery garden near Tokyo. The plants in the Arboretum were raised here from seeds brought by Mr. Jack from Korea, and at different times a few plants have reached this country from the Yokohama Nursery Company. Fortunately Mr. Wilson during his journey in Korea in 1917 secured a large quantity of the seeds of this Azalea; this has been widely distributed by the Arboretum in the United States and Europe and has produced several thousand plants. There is reason to hope, therefore, that this loveliest of the hardy Asiatic Azaleas will become a common inhabitant of northern gardens. Broad-leaved Evergreens. In addition to the two Rhododendrons with evergreen leaves mentioned in the first Bulletin of the present year there are only two broad-leaved evergreen plants which flower here in April and are perfectly hardy. They are Andromeda ftorzbunda and the Leather Leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). The former is a native of the high southern Appalachian region and has been known in gardens for at least a century; it is not, however, often seen in those of New England in which, with the exception of the Laurel (Kalmia) and a few Rhododendrons, it is the handsomest evergreen shrub which can be successfully grown. It is beautiful, too, throughout the year for the dark green leaves, although not large, are always lustrous; the flowerbuds, which are formed in the autumn, are large, nearly white, and conspicuous during the winter, and open into bell-shaped white flowers arranged in short terminal clusters which cover the plants during several weeks and are not injured by spring frost. This Andromeda under favorable conditions sometimes grows five or six feet high, with a diameter often greater than its height. It is a good subject to use as a single specimen or on the margin of beds of taller growing evergreens, like Rhododendrons or Kalmias, and no broad-leaved evergreen is better suited for the decoration of large rock gardens. The related species from Japan, Andromeda japonica, is a larger plant, sometimes treelike in growth in its native country, with larger and more beautiful flowers which unfortunately in this climate are generally ruined by spring frosts. The Leather Leaf is an inhabitant of cold, wet northern bogs which it sometimes covers almost to the exclusion of other plants. It is a dwarf shrub with small obtuse scurfy leaves and small, white, axillary flowers. The Leather Leaf is a less beautiful plant than Andromeda florzbunda but it is a hardy, broad-leaved evergreen and therefore valuable in a region where so few such plants can be successfully grown. Although naturally a bog plant, the Leather Leaf flourishes when planted in drier soil and the plant in the Shrub Collection and its dwarf form (var. minor) are unusually full of flowers this spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 19","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23719","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14eaf6b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 19, 1920 Pear Trees. The Arboretum collection of the wild types of Pear-trees, especially those of eastern Asia, is probably now the largest to be found in any arboretum, and as many of the species now flower and produce large crops of fruit this collection is of particular interest to pomologists who hope to find among these trees a stock resistant to blight on which to graft their orchard Pear-trees with edible fruit. The earliest of the Asiatic Pear-trees this year, Pyrus uss~ecriensis, began to flower two weeks ago. This tree, which is common in northern China, Korea and Manchuria and the only species which has a foothold in Japan where it has recently been discovered, inhabits more northern and colder regions than any other Pear-tree. If any Peartree proves hardy therefore in the northern interior part of this continent it should be this species; and if it proves resistant to blight it should yield the hardiest of all Pear-stocks. No other species attains such a large size as is shown by the photograph made in 1919 by Wilson in Korea of a tree which was sixty feet high, with a tall trunk seven feet round and a head of spreading branches seventy-five feet across. The flowers are not as large as those of some of the other species, but as a flowering tree P. ussuriensis is one of the most beautiful of all Pear-trees for the flower-buds and the opening flowers are deeply tinged with rose-color. The fruit is subglobose, green, hard and one-half to three-quarters of an inch in diameter and, like that of most wild Pear-trees, is of no comestible value. Among other Pear-trees this northern species, as a young tree at least, can be easily recognized by its smooth pale bark. Pyrus ovoidea, which was introduced into western gardens from northern China, and is an old inhabitant at the Arboretum, is now considered by botanists a variety of the Korean Peartree (var. ovoidea). It blooms two weeks later than the more northern tree; the flowers are larger and pure white; the fruit is larger, with succulent flesh, and, unlike that of most Pear-trees, is broad at base and narrow at apex and pale yellow. The leaves of no other Pear-tree in the collection assume such brilliant autumn colors. The large specimen of this tree near the Forest Hills gate has been covered with flowers this spring. For the beauty alone of its autumn foliage this tree should find a place in collections of ornamental trees. Innoculation of seedling plants of another Chinese Pear-tree, P Callri yana, shows, as much as such tests prove anything, that they are immune to attacks of the Pear blight; and pomologists now believe that in this tree they have found the stock which will make the production of pears in this country a more certain and profitable industry than it has been before. Many thousand seedlings have been raised by the Department of Agriculture of the United States and by different experimental stations from the seeds produced by the Arboretum trees; if these prove as valuable as American pomologists now believe them to be they will demonstrate the value of museums of science like the Arnold Arboretum and more than justify the labor and money it has expended in its explorations in eastern Asia. Unfortunately the only specimens of this Pear-tree outside of China which produce seeds are in this Arboretum, and although the trees produce good crops of fruit the supply of seeds from the Arboretum will remain far short of the demand. Another Pear-tree introduced from western China by Wilson, Pyrus serotina, is of interest to the students of cultivated fruits as the wild type from which have been derived the round, gritty Sand Pears which in many varieties have been cultivated for centuries by the Japanese who obtained them originally from China. Many forms of these Sand Pears, in the early days of Japanese intercourse with the outside world, were sent to the United States and Europe. The trees are handsome, with beautiful flowers and brown or greenish yellow fruits which in some forms are extremely ornamental, but western palates and digestions cannot cope with the hard fruit full of grit which is not even worth the trouble of cooking, although in Japan even little children appear to enjoy these pears emerging from the struggle without loss of teeth or internal revolution. The cultivated Japanese Sand Pears crossed with cultivated garden Pears produced several years ago in the United States the Keiffer and Lecomte Pears. These, although rather hard, were large and well suited to ship long distances. Much was expected of them, especially in the southern states where large orchards were planted. The trees, however, proved so susceptible to the blight that their cultivation has now been practically abandoned. As an ornament of gardens Pyrus serotma is worth growing for its large white flowers more or less deeply tinged with rose-color, and the deep bronze color of its unfolding leaves. As a fruit tree for western countries none of the Asiatic Pear-trees, except the north China Pyrus Bretschneideri, give any promise of value. In the Arboretum this tree, where it was raised many years ago from seeds sent from Peking, produces yellow, globose, juicy fruits from one to two inches in diameter and of excellent flavor. Nothing is known of this Pear as a wild tree, but it is evidently the origin of the large juicy pears which are conspicuous in the Peking market in September and are said to keep well into the winter. This Pear-tree has been in the Arboretum since 1882 and has never been attacked by blight, although trees of species like P. betu16' laefolia growing with it have suffered seriously from this disease. It therefore seems possible that good results in hardiness, freedom from disease and improvement of fruit might possibly be obtained in seedling forms of this Chinese tree or by crossing it with some of our garden varieties. The European and western Asiatic Pear-trees bloom rather later than the Chinese species but their flowers will soon open. The original collection of Pear-trees is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road; a larger and more complete collection has recently been planted in the hollow at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, and there are good specimens of the species introduced by Wilson from western China on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with other Chinese trees and shrubs. Asiatic Crabapples. The flowers of these trees are unusually late this spring, but unless the weather continues exceptionally wet and cold there will be open flowers on at least a few species by the 17th, and many others will be in full bloom by the 22nd or 23rd of the month. The flowers of these trees make one of the principal spectacular displays of the year in the Arboretum, and only that made by the Lilacs attracts a larger number of visitors. Most of the trees are well covered by buds, but there will be no flowers on a few individuals, including the plant of Malus fLoribicnda at the foot of the bank on the left hand side of the Forest Hills drive. This is unusual for Malus floribunda rarely fails in May to excite admiration by its countless thousands of deep rose-colored flower-buds and white petals. Other trees of this Crabapple in the Arboretum will flower this year as usual, and the tree of Malus arnoldiana, a hybrid of Malus ,floribunda and an even more beautiful plant, in the group on the Forest Hills Road which did not flower last yeor, is now covered with flower-buds. For forty years the Arboretum has been engaged in forming this collection of Crabapples in which are now found all the American and Asiatic species, many distinct varieties of the species and a number of hybrids. It still lacks, however, the wild type of the species of western Europe (Malus sylvestris) which it has not been possible to flnd. This is unfortunate for this Crabapple has played a more or less important part in the development of the cultivated Apple-trees of orchards. The Crabapples in the Arboretum hybridize freely among themselves and it is useless to plant seeds gathered from these trees with the expectation that they will reproduce the plants from which they were gathered. The seedling trees may prove worthless or they may be superior to any of the Crabapples now cultivated. The characters of any species, variety or hybrid can be preserved in its descendants only by means of grafting or budding; and it is for this reason that many of the handsome plants in the Arboretum collection are still rare in other collections. For those fortunate persons to whom the beauty of a plant means more than its identity and correct name Crabapples raised from seeds gathered in collections like that of the Arboretum might be recommended, but such seedlings will require names to make them salable and gardeners' names for plants of doubtful parentage will only add to the perplexities of the students of cultivated plants. Stock plants raised by grafts from correctly named individuals would in the hands of a few competent nurserymen supply in time the country with correctly named Crabapples and save planters much loss of time and many disappointments. The eastern form of Malus baccata (var. mandshurica), a native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, is again the first plant in the collection to open its flowers. This as it grows in the Arboretum is a bush-like tree about fifteen feet tall and broad; the flowers are white, an inch in diameter, and more fragrant than those of any other Apple-tree in the collection. The fruit is yellow or red and not much larger than a pea. The delightful fragrance of its flowers is the chief attraction of this variety and makes it well worth a place in gardens. Almost as early to flower is MaLus micromalus. It was first sent to Europe from Japan in 1856 under the name of \"Kaido,\" a name which in Japan has been given to another plant, and owing perhaps to this confusion of names very little has ever been heard of it in Europe or the United States. In Japan it has been seen only in gardens, and Japanese botanists have considered it a hybrid brought to their country from China. From other Crabapples it differs in its upright growing branches which make the tree conspicuous by its pyramidal habit. The flowers open from deep rose-colored buds and are pale pink and hardly more than half an inch in diameter, and are followed by small yellow fruits. The large specimens in the Peter's Hill Group are not flowering this year, but a small specimen recently planted on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road is covered with flowers. Another early flowering species, the Parkman Crab (Malus Halliana var. Parkmanai) is, as usual, blooming well this year. It is a small, vase-shaped tree with dark bark, dark green leaves tinged with purple as they unfold and rose-red semi-dcuble flowers unlike in color those of any other Crabapple. This little tree is considered by some persons the most beautiful of the Crabapples, but although it reached Boston in 1862, in the first consignment of plants which came to the United States direct from Japan it is not often seen in gardens, even in those of Japan to which it was originally brought from China. During the next two or three weeks Crabapples, first the Asiatic and then the American species, will be in bloom in the Arboretum. As their flower-buds enlarge attention will be called to some of the other species in later issues of these Bulletins. Unfolding Leaves. A careful examination of unfolding leaves is recommended to students and lovers of trees. They are often beautiful and always interesting; in some of the large difficult genera like Quercus they afford characters by which many of the species can be readily recognized in early spring. On the Japanese Cercidiphyllum and on the native tree Shad-bush the young leaves are deep red bronze color; on many trees the young leaves are more or less thickly covered with silvery white hairs and on others entirely destitute of a hairy covering. Among Beech-trees the winter-buds of the European species are still closed when the young leaves of our native Beech are unfolding, and those of one of the Japanese species are nearly fully grown. In the Arboretum there are now Maples with fully grown leaves close to species whose bud-scales are only just beginning to open. These few examples of variation serve to show that there is something of interest to learn about every tree and shrub from its leaf-buds and unfolding leaves during the month of May."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23720","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14eb36c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 24, 1920 Lilacs. The cold wet spring has delayed the opening of the flowers of Lilacs as it has those of other plants, but buds on many Lilacs are now swelling rapidly and there is every reason to believe that many of the plants will be in full bloom by Saturday, the 29th; and that unless unseasonable weather is experienced during the next few days the last days of May and the early days of June will see the general Lilac collection at its best. The large part of the Arboretum collection consists of seedling varieties of the plant which has been a favorite in gardens for centuries, and to most persons the only Lilac- the Syringa vulgaris of botanists. It is now known that this shrub came originally from the mountains of Bulgaria and that it reached western Europe by the way of Constantinople in 1597. The date of its introduction into the United States is not known, but it was a common garden plant here before the end of the eighteenth century and may have been here much earlier. There are specimens in the collection raised a few years ago from seeds of the wild Bulgarian plants. These are interesting because it is possible by comparing them with modern Lilacs to see the changes three centuries of selection and cultivation have made in these plants. Hardly a week passes without a letter addressed to the Arboretum asks for the names of the best, or of the best six or of best twenty-five Lilacs. There are now one hundred and fifty named forms of the common Lilac in the collection. They are all or nearly all handsome plants, and no two persons ever agree about their individual value. Some persons prefer flowers of one color and other persons prefer flowers of another color; some persons like the Lilacs with double flowers and others detest them. All the fcrms of the garden Lilac have practically the same habit and foliage, and the same inconspicuous fruit; they all bloom freely nearly every year, and breeding and selection have not affected their perfume as it has that of so many much \"improved\" plants, like many of the modern Roses. There is considerable variation in the size of the individual flowers; the double flowers open generally a little later than the single flowers and last lcnger, but there is really little difference in the time of flowering of all these plants. The size of the flower-cluster varies somewhat on the different forms; it is larger on young plants than on old ones, and it can always be enlarged by severe pruning which increases the vigor of the flower-bearing branches. Choice therefore depends on color, and really none of these Lilacs are \"best\" for everybody; one color or one shade is \"best\" for one person and another color or another shade is \"best\" for another person. Many persons who come to the Arboretum find the old Lilacs which have been growing on Bussey Hill for nearly a hundred years more beautiful than any of Lemoine's recent creations hecause they are the Lilacs which have long been common in old New England gardens and beloved by generations of New Englanders. A choice of Lilacs being largely a matter of taste in color or of association, it is useless to ask the Arboretum to make selections for its correspondents. If persons want Lilacs their only way to go about getting them in an intelligent way is to come to the Arboretum when the Lilacs are in flower and personally make their selection. The plants are all legibly labelled, and many of the kinds growing in the Arboretum can now be found in several American nurseries. Early Lilacs. The white-flowered Syringa a~nis, which is usually the first Lilac to bloom in the Arboretum, has no flowers this year. This is unusual for this plant rarely fails to produce an abundant crop of flowers. The earliness and the delightful fragrance of the flowers give this plant value for the spring garden. The variety with mauvecolored fragrant flowers (var. Gzraldii) is blooming as usual; it is a tall, unsightly shrub, and except when in flower of no decorative value. The flower-buds of the Arboretum plant of Syringa oblata, another north China early flowering species, have been killed, but in other gardens near Boston they are uninjured. This is one of the handsomest of the species and no other Lilac has such thick and lustrous leaves which in the autumn assume brilliant shades of orange and red. The flower-buds. however, are too often injured in this climate, although the plant itself is perfectly hardy. By crossing this plant with a double-flowered form of Syr'rcgu vzcigarzs the plant known as S. hyacinthifloria was obtained in Europe many years ago. It is a large, shapely bush, with good foliage and small clusters of double bluish lilac flowers as fragrant as those of S. oblata. This hybrid is now in bloom. A Chinese Lilac discovered by Wilson, S. pznnat~fotza, is also in flower. The pinnate leaves of this plant make it interesting among Lilacs, but the small white flowers in short clusters are without ornamental value. The flowers of another rare Chinese species, S. Meyeri, will soon open; and generally all the hybrid Lilacs, and all the species are well covered with flower-buds. A Hybrid Shad Bush. In 1892 the Arboretum received from Heinrich Zabel, Superintendent of the Botanic Garden at Zurich, seeds of an Amelanchier which he had obtained from the Simon Louis Nursery near Metz, and called Amelanchier canadensis grondiflora. He considered, perhaps correctly, that his plant was a hybrid between A. canadensis and A. laevis. The leaves are certainly intermediate between those of these species; the flowers, however, are only just now open, nearly three weeks later than those of A. canadensis and ten days after the petals of A. laevis have fallen. The flowers, too, of this plant are larger than those of either of its supposed parents, and larger and more beautiful than those of any Amelanchier which has ever grown in the Arboretum. The Arboretum plants are large shrubs rather than trees, but they look as if they would have formed a single trunk if they had been pruned. Whatever may have been the origin of this plant, or whatever habit it may assume, it is, when in flower, the most beautiful of all the Amelanchiers, and this week one of the conspicuous plants in the Arboretum. Several other handsome and interesting Amelanchiers are also in bloom in the collection on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road. Among them is the species of China and Japan, A. asiatica, and A. vulgaris of Europe, the only Amelanchiers which grow naturally outside of North America. The curious northern A. Bartramiana with small flowers in one or few-flowered clusters, and four or five other species from the northeastern part of the country, are still in flower or are beginning to shed their petals. The Amelanchier collection, however, is by no means complete for several of the western species have not yet proved amenable to cultivation in the east. The Buckeye Collection on the right hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the Lindens is in good condition, and the southern species recently introduced by the Arboretum into gardens will all flower well this year. Buckeye, it must be remembered, is the name by which American Horsechestnuts (Aesculus) are popularly known in the regions where these plants grow naturally. From the Horsechestnuts of the Old World they differ, except the California species, in the absence of a gummy exudation on their winter-buds. As in previous years the earliest of these American plants to bloom is the form with leaves of seven leaflets of the so-called Ohio Buckeye from western Missouri (Aesculus glabra var. Buckleyi). The flowers of another yellow-flowered species, Aesculus arguta, a small shrub from central Oklahoma and northern and central Texas, will soon follow. This interesting little plant is related to the Ohio Buckeye, from which it differs chiefly in the nine narrow leaflets of the leaves and in its small flowers. Beautiful interesting flowers will open on Buckeyes and Horsechestnuts during and several weeks. Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi. This species of the southern Appalachian Mountains, which after the Rhodora is the first of the American Azaleas to open its flowers in the Arboretum, is in bloom. The pure pink flowers appear on the leafless branches, and in delicacy and purity of color are not surpassed by the flowers of any other plant. It is only within comparatively recent years that this Azalea has been known to botanists or has found its way into gardens. It is perfectly hardy; the flower-buds are not injured by severe cold, and in time it will grow into a tall usually rather narrow shrub. There are no large plants yet in the Arboretum, but many small ones have been planted during the last two or three years on the sides of the Meadow Road and by the pond at its junction with the Forest Hills Road. Malus theifera, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China, with its long spreading and irregularly ascending branches has such an unusual and picturesque habit for a Crabapple that it is easy to recognize at any season of the year. When covered with its innumerable clusters of rose-red buds and pale rose-colored or nearly white flowers it is one of the handsomest of the Asiatic Crabapples. Judging by the behavior of several plants in the Arboretum, they flower only on alternate years. Last spring the largest specimen in the Peters' Hill group was covered with flowers; this year it has not produced a single flower-bud. The plant on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and a younger one in the group on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road are now covered with flowers and are objects of interest and beauty. A New Crabapple. Flowering branches of a remarkable new Crabapple have been sent to the Arboretum from a garden in Brookline. It is evidently a hybrid, and there can be little doubt that one of the parents is the curious variety of Malus pumila from Turkestan and southwestern Siberia known in gardens as Malus Niedzwetzkyana; the other might well be Malus,floribunda. Of this species it has the slender branchlets and the pubescence on the young leaves which soon become nearly glabrous and green. The bark and wood are tinged with red and thus show the influence of M. Niedzwetzkyana as does the red juicy flesh of the fruit which ripens in October and is about an inch in diameter. As a garden plant the value of this new hybrid is in the color of the flowers which is dark rose-red, and much more beautiful than that of the flowers of Malus atrosanguinea, which is the common red-flowered Crabapple of gardens. The flowers are fully an inch and a quarter in diameter and are produced in as great profusion as those of Malus floribunda. In habit the three plants of this hybrid which are known resemble M. jloribunda and are as hardy. The handsomest of all the red-flowered Apples which have yet been seen, this hybrid promises to be an important addition to garden plants. Unfortunately nothing is known of its history beyond the fact that the Massachusetts Nurseryman who sold them to their present owner bought them as Malus Niedzwetzkyana from some one whom he has forgotten."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 27","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23721","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14eb76c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 27, 1920 American Hawthorns. Twenty of the twenty-two natural groups in which the North American species of Crataegus can be arranged are now largely represented in the Arboretum collection. Species of the Aestivales and the Brachyacanthae which contain some of the most distinct and interesting species of the genus are not in the collection. To the Aestivales only four species are now referred, inhabitants of the coast region of the south Atlantic and Gulf states with an outlaying station in North Carolina. They grow where the ground is wet, usually in deep depressions often filled with water throughout a large part of the year and are slender trees or small or large round-headed shrubs. The flowers which are as large or larger than those of any other Hawthorn, with usually twenty stamens and deep rose-colored or pink anthers, are arranged in usually three-flowered clusters and open before the leaves unfold. These plants are almost universally called \"May Haws\" in the region where they grow because the scarlet, juicy, subacid fruit ripens in spring; it makes excellent jelly, and great quantities of it are used for this purpose. No species of this group has been planted in the Arboretum; they are perhaps worth trying here for Crataegus is generally a hardy genus, and it is impossible to predict that any of its species will fail in any locality. The Arboretum will be glad to hear if Crataegus aestivalis or its related species have been cultivated successfully in any part of the world. Crataegus brachyacantha, the \"Pomette Bleue\" of the Arcadians of western Louisiana, is a large and handsome tree with lustrous foliage, small flowers in many-flowered crowded clusters, and bright blue fruit about half an inch in diameter. One of the handsomest of the American Hawthorns, it differs from all the species of the genus in the color of the fruit. The extreme southern part of Arkansas, eastern and western Louisiana and eastern Texas is the home of this tree, which often covers large, often submerged areas, and is sufficiently common, when the trees are covered with flowers, to be a conspicuous feature in the landscape. Seedlings of this tree have been raised several times at the Arboretum but have not proved hardy. The other species of the group Brachiacanthae, Crataegus saligna, is ccmmon on the banks of streams at high altitudes on both slopes of the Continental Divide in Colorado where it is particularly conspicuous in early autumn from the brilliant orange and scarlet colors of the leaves. This plant has been raised several times at the Arboretum but has not yet established itself here. Such failures are probably due to accident for there seems to be no reason why Crataegus sahgncc should not grow as well in the Arboretum as the other Colorado species. The distribution of the different groups of the American species is interesting. The most widely and generally distributed is the Crusgalli, to which the so-called Cockspur Thorns belong. Individuals of this group do not form as large colonies as those of some of the other groups, but they are generally distributed from the valley of the Saint Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec to the shores of the Gulf of Mexico in western Florida and westward to Iowa, eastern Kansas and Oklahoma, and to western Texas. The species are most abundant in southern Missouri, Arkansas and western Louisiana. The Punctatae, of which the type is Crataegus punctata, one of the largest of the American species, is northeastern but ranges southward on the high Appalachian Mountains to northern Georgia, and to Missouri and Arkansas where it has a number of representatives. Species of the Virides grow on the coastal plain of the south Atlantic states and in the coast region of the Gulf States to western Texas; they are most abundant in Texas, western Louisiana, southern Arkansas and in the valley of the Mississippi River as far north as Illinois. East of the Mississippi River individuals of this group are not numerous, but westward, especially in eastern Texas, they cover great tracts of low ground; and the type of the group, Crataegus viridis, is under favorable conditions the most gregarious of all the American Hawthorns. This group is well represented in the Arboretum by C. nitida, a large tree of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River in Illinois and one of the handsomest of all Hawthorns. The Pruinosae is a northern group but ranges southward on the Appalachian Mountains, and reaches Missouri where it is abundant with numerous species in the southern part of the state and northern Arkansas. The Tenuifoliae is a distinctly northeastern group but is largely represented on the Appalachian Mountains as far south as North Carolina, with a single species in southern Arkansas. The Cocczneae is composed of large trees with large leaves and flowers, and large and showy scarlet fruit; it is entirely northeastern and most abundant in western New York, southern Ontario and northeastern Illinois. The Dilatatae is another group with large leaves, flowers and fruits and is confined to the northeastern states, and to Missouri and eastern Kansas. It is well represented in the Arboretum by Crataegus coccinioides, now one of the handsomest trees of the collection. The Rotundifoliae are entirely northeastern, and one of the species, C. rotundifolia, is the most northern in its range of the American Hawthorns. Species of this group are not found south of Pennsylvania or west in the United States of Indiana. The Intricatae with many species is interesting because most of the representatives are small shrubs which until recent years have been entirely overlooked by botanists. This Group is widely distributed from Canada to Texas and is best represented in Pennsylvania and Michigan; it apparently does not occur in the coast region of the south Atlantic and east Gulf States; it has not been noticed in Louisiana and is rare, except in northwestern Arkansas, in the states west of the Mississippi River. Belonging to this Group are many attractive garden plants now growing in the Arboretum. In the Uniflorae are only small shrubs with small flowers; nowhere very common they are distributed from eastern New York to Alabama and Texas. Handsome plants are the two shrubs which compose the Triflorae and which grow in the hill regions of northwestern Georgia and northern Alabama. The Pulcherrimae, Bracteatae and Silv2colae are small groups confined to the southeastern states, with one species of the Szwicnlae in eastern Louisiana; these three groups still imperfectly known The Microcarpae with three species are distinguished by their small fruits and by the principal veins fo the leaves which extend to the point of the lobes as in other species of Crataegus and also to the bottom of the sinuses between the lobes. Two of these species, C. apiifolia and C. spathulata, are well scattered over the southern states; and the third, C. cordata, the so-called Washington Thorn, is a rare and local tree in the region from western North Carolina to southern Missouri and southern Illinois. It is hardy in the Arboretum where it is the last species to flower. An old inhabitant of gardens, it is not surpassed in the beauty of its foliage in autumn or the brilliancy of its fruit which remains on the branches until spring. The great Flavae Group is distinctly southeastern with many species which vary in habit from large trees to shrubs, and are well distinguished from the species of other groups by the conspicuous glands on their mostly obovate-cuneate leaves, petioles and corymbs, by their zigzag branches and by the hard dry flesh of their green, orange or red fruit. The plants of this Group are very common in southern Georgia, western Florida, and southern Alabama, with a single species in eastern Louisiana, near the banks of the Mississippi River in West Feliciana Parish, and with several species in the southern Appalachian region up to altitudes of about two thousand feet. This distinct and interesting Group is well represented in the Arboretum by old trees of Crataegus apraca from western North Carolina. The Macracanthae, better known as the Tomentosae, is one of the most important eastern groups, common with many species in Canada and the northern states, but absent from the southeastern states, the coast region of the east Gulf States and Louisiana, and very rare in eastern Texas and Arkansas, but represented in the southern Rocky Mountain region. The fruit of some of the northern trees of this group is perhaps more beautiful than that of the plants of the other groups. Several species of the Macracanthae flower and produce fruit in the Arboretum. The Douglasianae are black-fruited trees and shrubs of the northwestern and interior parts of the continent, with one species in the Lake Superior region of northern Michigan. All the species of this Group are growing well in the Arboretum, as are those of the Anomalae a northeastern Group related to the Macracanthae and Douglasianae by the pres24 ence of longitudinal cavities on the inner faces of the nutlets of the fruit. The Molles, which is most closely related to the Coccineae, is mentioned last that attention may be drawn to some of the species which are already in flower. The distribution of this Group is peculiar. It is represented in the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec, in Maine, eastern Massachusetts and northern Delaware; from western Vermont and Massachusetts and from western Pennsylvania it is common westward to eastern Nebraska and Kansas; it occurs in middle Tennessee, northeastern and eastern Mississippi and in northern Alabama where there is a single species. It is largely represented in Missouri; there are several species in Arkansas where they are most abundant in the valley of the Red River; in eastern Texas several species are widely distributed, abounding in the valley of the lower Brazos River and extending westward to that of the San Antonio. The Group has no representative in Louisiana, only two in Mississippi and one in Alabama; in the rest of the country, so far as is now known, the Group is not represented. The largest trees are found in this group; they have large leaves more or less covered with hairs, especially early in the season, large flowers in many-flowered clusters, and large, scarlet or rarely yellow, usually dry and mealy, often edible fruit. The Group is North American with the exception of Crataegus peregrina, a plant raised many years ago at the Arboretum from seeds received from the Botanic Garden at Petrograd. This handsome tree has large, dark purple fruit unlike in color that of any American species. Its native country is still unknown, but it has been suggested that it might have come originally from Persia or central Asia. Several trees of C. peregrina are now in full bloom in the Arboretum. Several other species of this Group are now covered with flowers. Large trees of C. arnoldiana, C. arkansana and C. submollis deserve attention. The first was discovered many years ago growing wild in the Arboretum, and although now commonly cultivated is known as a wild plant only in a few isolated stations. The large scarlet fruit, which ripens at the end of August or early in September, makes this the handsomest of the Thorns in late summer. C. submollis is another species which was first noticed growing in the neighborhood of the Arboretum but is now known to grow in Maine and the Province of Quebec. The pear-shaped fruit ripens four or five weeks later than that of C. arnoldiana. The scarlet fruit of C. arkansana is still brilliant on the branches in November. There are many other species of the Mollis Group now in flower, and different Hawthorns will be opening their flower-buds here during the next five or six weeks. The Arboretum is a good place in which to study Hawthorns. Most of the Old World species and varieties are established, and some three hundred and fifty American species now flower and ripen their fruit here every year. For those parts of the country in which the soil is impregnated with lime and the winter climate severe, no other genus can furnish such a variety of trees and shrubs with handsome and conspicuous flowers and fruit."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 4","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23716","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14ea727.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 4, 1920 Japanese Azaleas. The flora of Japan contains many species of Azaleas, and in early spring their brilliant flowers enliven innumerable hillsides. Many species and varieties are favorite garden plants in Japan, and Japanese gardens owe much to these plants. In distribution the Azaleas of Japan are generally southern, and only a few species are found in the northern part of the empire. All of the species will probably flourish in the southern United States; and many of them will succeed as far north as Long Island and possibly in Newport, Rhode Island. Of the sixteen Japanese species three are well established and hardy in the Arboretum; a northern species, Rhododendron (all Azaleas are now called Rhododendrons by botanists) Albrechtii- related to our Rhodora but with red flowers, judging by the climate of the region in which it grows, should also be hardy here. This handsome plant, however, which was first raised at the Arboretum twentyfive years ago, has not been a success here. Another northern species, Rhododendron Tschonoskii, with the smallest flowers of any Azalea, is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum but is without value as an ornament of gardens. Two beautiful Azaleas from the mountain forests of central Hondo, Rhododendron Rehderianum and R. pentaphyllum, have not yet been sufficiently tested in the gardens of this country; they may be expected to be able to bear the cold of Massachusetts winters, but appear difficult to establish. Another Japanese Azalea, R. mucronatum, generally known as \"Azalea ledifolia\" or as \"Azalea indica alba,\" has been seen in American gardens for the last eighty years. It is very often found in the old gardens of the southern states; it is hardy and often cultivated on Long Island, and occasionally lives for many years in sheltered positions in eastern Massachusetts. The three Japanese species, which have proved themselves, after a trial of twenty-five years, to be perfectly hardy and first-class garden plants in eastern Massachusetts are R. Kaempferi, now considered a variety of R. obtusum, R. japonicum and R. reticulatum, better known as R. rhombicum. The first of these plants is the only red flowered Azalea which is hardy in this climate. Thousands of seedlings have been raised in this country in recent years and it will soon become common in eastern gardens. It has been largely used in the Arboretum, and late in May and in the early days of June its flowers furnish the most surprising and spectacular display of the year. The flowers are delicate, however, and when fully exposed to the sun lose their color; and this Azalea gives most satisfaction when it is planted in the shade of trees or on the northern border of a wood of conifers. In the Arboretum the most successful group of this Azalea is behind the Laurels (Kalmia) and in front of the Hemlocks at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. The plants bloom a week later than those in more exposed situations and their flowers last much longer in good condition. The tallest plants in the Arboretum are now eight or nine feet high and although growing in complete shade never fail to flower. Rhododendron japonicum has been growing in the Arboretum as long as Kaemfer's Azalea, and by many persons it is considered a handsomer plant. It is a round-topped rather compact shrub usually not more than three or four feet tall, with flame-colored flowers three inches across. It is only in recent years that the value of this plant in American gardens has been recognized, for it was long supposed, in the Arboretum at least, to be one of the numerous forms of the shortlived and usually unsatisfactory hybrids sent to this country chiefly from Holland and known commercially as \"Azalea mollis.\" A beautiful yellow-flowered variety of R. japonicum (var. aureum) has been found in Japan, and a few plants have reached the United States, where two years ago it flowered for the first time in a Massachusetts garden. This plant promises to be an important addition to the number of hardy Azaleas which can be grown in this climate. A handsome race of hybrid Azaleas was obtained several years ago in Europe probably by crossing Rhododendron japonicum with the yellow-flowered Azalea of eastern China, usually known as R. Stnense. To this race of hybrids the general name of R. Kosterianum has been given. The best known plant of this hybrid origin is probably the one called \"Antony Koster.\" It is a handsome plant, but not always entirely hardy in this climate where it is usually short-lived. About eight years ago T. D. Hatfield, gardener of the Hunnewell Estate at Wellesley, Massachusetts, crossed R. japonicum raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Japan with R. sinense raised from seeds collected by Mr. Wilson in eastern China. There can be no doubt about the parentage of this plant. This new Azalea, which has been named R. Kosterianum, \"Miss Louisa Hunnewell\" bears large clusters of orange-colored flowers which open as the leaves unfold; the plant is perfectly hardy, and the flower-buds were not injured by the exceptionally severe winters of 1917-18 and 1919-20. If anyone in the United States has raised a handsomer shrub it is unknown to the Arboretum. During the last seventy-five years several hundred different hybrid Azaleas have been made in Europe and the United States; accurate and reliable records of 27 the parentage of these hybrids, however, have not been kept, and published statements of their parentage are often mere guesswork. Certainly many of these hybrids have been obtained by crossing not only species but hybrids. This mingling of plants, themselves often of unknown or uncertain origin, has produced difficulties of determination which no amount of study will probably ever overcome; and of all hybrid Azaleas the parentage only of this Wellesley plant is really known, a fact which certainly adds to its value and interest. The third Japanese species which is now well established in the Arboretum is Rhododendron reticulatum, the oldest name for the plant more generally known as R. rhombicum. This plant is common over a large part of Japan, growing cn open wind-swept hillsides, on the borders of the forest and in the shade of thick woods. The flowers are deep magenta color, red-purple or rose-color, and do not harmonize with those of several other Azaleas, but when R. rhombicum is isolated or planted with white-i3owered plants it is when in flower one of the most beautiful and distinct of all hardy Azaleas. A white-flowered form (var. albiflorum) is known to Japanese botanists but this plant, which is said to be rare, is not in gardens. Early-flowered American Azaleas. Before the flowers of Rhododendron Vaseyi have entirely faded those of the two most widely distributed species of eastern North America, R. nudiflorum and R. canescens, begin to open. These plants are common from New England to Texas; they have pink, very fragrant flowers which open before and as the leaves emerge from the bud, and very similar in general character, will perhaps sometime be considered varieties of one species. They have been planted in considerable numbers in the Arboretum and grow equally well in open borders or in the partial shade of woods. Before their flowers fade those of the flame or yellow-flowered Azalea (R. calendulaceum) of the Appalachian Mountains, the most splendid of American Azaleas, will begin to open. The Rowan Tree, as the European Mountain Ash (Sorbus Aucuparia) is often called, has certainly not before in the Arboretum been more thickly covered with its wide clusters of white flowers or appeared to be in a most satisfactory condition. The largest and best of the Arboretum trees were sown by birds; there are several of these trees in different parts of the Arboretum and others are constantly springing up. Handsome at this season of the year, they are more beautiful in the autumn when the branches bend under the weight of the clusters of scarlet fruit which birds eagerly seek. Several plants of a Chinese Mountain Ash, Sorbus discolor (sometimes called S. pekinensis) in the group of these plants on the left hand side of the Valley Road near the Swamp White Oaks, now covered with flowers, show the oramental character of this tree at this season of the year. This Mountain Ash is a tall, slender, hardy tree with leaves composed of narrow, long-pointed leaflets pale on the lower surface, broad open clusters of snow-white flowers, which are followed by small yellowish white ~fruits in drooping clusters. Sorbua alnifolia is also very full of flowers; it is a common Japanese tree, one of the species of an Old World section of the genus with simple leaves, that is leaves not divided like those of the Rowan Tree into numerous leaflets, which in Japan sometimes grows to the height of sixty feet. In the Arboretum, where this tree has been growing for twenty-five years, there are shapely pyramidal specimens from twenty to thirty feet tall. The leaves are dark green, three or four inches long, and nearly full grown when the flowers open; these are small and arranged in compact six- to twelve-flowered clusters, and are followed by small, scarlet and orange fruits which remain on the branches after the leaves fall and until eaten by birds. There is a specimen of this Sorbus near the Cherries on the right hand side of the Forest Hills Road. The species and varieties of Sorbus were first planted in a group in the Arboretum on the bank above the Shrub Collection near the Forest Hills entrance. Several of these trees, including the eastern American species, are still growing here; but as this bank was too hot and dry, and not large enough for more than a few plants, another plantation of Sorbus has been made in the cooler ground by the Meadow Road. The plants grow better here but the group, like most of the large groups of trees in the Arboretum, requires more room foru proper display of all the interesting species and varieties. Mountain Ashes (Sorbus) suffer severely from the attack of scale insects and can only be kept in good condition by the annual use of the sprayer. Rosa omeiensis has opened its flowers this year several days before R. Hugonis and R. cinnamomea which are usually the first Roses to flower in the Arboretum. This Chinese Rose, which is common on the mountains of western China, gets its name from Mt. Omei, one of the sacred mountains of the Empire, where it is common. It is a hardy, fast-growing shrub with erect stems covered with bright red prickles, white fragrant flowers hardly more than an inch in diameter, and bright red fruit on elongated fleshy, yellow stalks. On its native mountains it sometimes grows to the height of twenty feet. Judged by the way it has grown in the Arboretum, this Rose should make an excellent hedge for New England gardens. Aesculus georgiana is covered again with its compact clusters of large red and yellow flowers. This southern Buckeye has not been injured by the severe winters of 1917-18 and 1919-20, and is certainly one of the best new plants which have been brought into our gardens in recent years. When first discovered it was believed to be confined to the neighborhood of Stone Mountain in central Georgia, and to be always a shrub in habit, but is now known to range northward in the Piedmont region to North Carolina, and often to grow into a small tree. The oldest plants in the Arboretum are beginning to assume a treelike habit, and in the parks at Rochester, New York, Aesculus georgiana is a shapely small tree with a straight well developed trunk. Many other Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes are now in flower: and the large group of these trees and shrubs on the right hand side of the Meadow Road is just now one of the most interesting and attractive in the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 10","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23713","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170856f.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 10, 1920 Some of the Trees now in flower. The Horsechestnut of southeastern Europe, Aesculus Hippocastanum, when it is covered from top to bottom, as it is this year in the neighborhood of Boston, with its great erect clusters of white flowers is the most splendid object among the trees hardy in the northern states. There are several varieties of this tree in the Arboretum collection but none of them grow to such a large size or are as handsome in habit or in their flowers as the original tree. The double flowers of one of these abnormal varieties, however, have the advantage of lasting longer on the trees before fading. The European Horsechestnut only really flourishes in deep cool soil, and although it has been largely used to shade city streets in this country and in Europe it is not suited for such a purpose for the heat and drought of cities often cause it to lose its leaves at midsummer. Its place is in parks and gardens and by country roadsides. This tree appears to have been more generally planted in western New York than in other parts of the United States, probably because Rochester has long been an important center of the nursery business. No finer individual trees, however, can be found in this country than some of the specimens now more than a hundred years old which are growing in gardens in Salem, Massachusetts. They show what can be expected of this tree in New England where the Horsechestnut ought to be a hundred times more common than it is at present. Among the red and pink-flowered Horsechestnut trees, hybrids of Aesculus Hippacastan, um and a red-flowered American Buckeye, are a number of handsome trees. The best known of these hybrids, Aesculus carnea, is the \"red-flowered Horsechestnut\" which is now a common tree in the suburbs of Boston. More conspicuous when in flower is a red-flowered variety known in nurseries as Aesculus Briotti~ The tree in the Ar30 boretum of this variety is unusually full of flowers this year. Several of the Horsechestnut-trees with red and yellow flowers are handsome when in flower. They are natural hybrids which originated in Europe, some of them more than a century ago, between the yellow-flowered American Aesculus octandra and one of the red-flowered southern Buckeyes. The name of this hybrid is Aesculus versicolor. It appears to have been better known in gardens before the middle of the last century than it is now. There is a large tree of this hybrid in a garden near the corner of Pond and Eliot Streets, Jamaica Plain. Three Magnolias of the southern Appalachian Mountains, Magnolia Fraseri, M. tripetala and M. cordata, are also unusually full of flowers this year. With the exception of these and the Horsechestnuts the tree in the Arboretum now most conspicuous for its abundant and beautiful flowers. Cornus controversa. This is a widely distributed tree in Japan, Korea and western China. In western Szech'uan Wilson photographed a specimen sixty feet high with a trunk seven feet in girth. In the Cornus collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road plants raised from seeds collected in western China by Wilson in 1907 are now in bloom, but the largest of these Cornels in the Arboretum is in the Peters' Hill Nursery. This plant was sent here in 1913 by the Park Department of the City of Rochester, New York; it is now about twenty-five feet high with a short trunk and a head twenty-six feet in diameter; the branches are long, crowded, and spread at right angles with the stem, drooping slightly at the ends, the lowest sweeping the ground. The upper side of the branches is thickly covered with the flat flower-clusters six or seven inches in diameter, and raised on erect stems. The flowers are white or white faintly tinged with yellow, and are followed by black shining fruits which are eaten by the birds as fast as they ripen. As it grows on Peters' Hill this Cornel is a magnificent plant and the handsomest of the genus in the Arboretum with the exception of the species with white floral bracts represented here by Cornus florida and C. kousa. To the student of botanical geography Cornus controversa is interesting as another living witness of the relationship between the floras of eastern Asia and eastern North America. For in the genus Cornus with many species there are but two with alternate leaves, Cornus controversa in eastern Asia and C. alternifolia in eastern North America. Cornus controversa was growing in the Veitchs' Nursery near London in 1880, but it has remained little known or understood in gardens owing to a confusion of this species with Cornus macrophylla, a Himalayan and eastern Asiatic tree with opposite leaves. Other trees which add beauty and interest to the Arboretum at this time are three Viburnums, the eastern American V. prunifolium, which has already dropped its flowers, and V. Lentago, and the Japanese V. Sieboldii. Not many small trees are more useful than these American Viburnums for the decoration of American parks and gardens, and fortunately nurserymen realize this fact and now grow them in large quantities, especially V. Lentago. The flowers of V. prunifolium are whiter than those of V. Lentago which are faintly tinged with yellow, but the flower-clusters and the leaves of the latter are larger. V. prunifolium is more inclined to grow with a single trunk than V. Lentago which is often a large arborescent shrub. Arnold Arboretum Hybrids. Except with Roses, no attempt has been made at the Arboretum to produce hybrid trees or shrubs. Several hybrids, however, have appeared here from time to time, and the following, of which descriptions have been published, or will be published, are now well established here. Such hybrids are always interesting, and among those which have appeared in the Arboretum are a few which are more valuable than their parents, and in two instances at least the handsomest garden plants in the genera to which their parents belong. The Arboretum hybrids are Pterocarya Rehderiana, Sorbus arnoldiana, Forsythia intermedia primulina, Malus arnoldiana, Malus rubrvflora, Malus Dawsoniana, Prunus arnoldiana, Pyrus congesta, Cornus arnoldiana, Betula Jackii, Viburnum Jackii, Berberis notabilis, Lonicera amoena arnoldiana, and Aesculus Harbisonii. Another Barberry, Berberis ottawensis, believed to be a hybrid of Berberis Thunbergzi and B. vulgaris, which was first described from a plant in the Arboretum connected with the Dominion Experimental Farm at Ottawa, has appeared several times among seedlings in this Arboretum where it has proved to be a handsome and distinct plant. There is a large specimen of this hybrid on the right-hand side of the entrance to Azalea Path from the Bussey Hill Road. The most valuable of the Arboretum hybrids for general cultivation in this part of the world are Pterocarya Rehderiana, Malus arnoldiana and Sorbus arnoldtana. The Pterocarya, which is evidently a hybrid of the Caucasian P. fraxinifolia and the Chinese P. stenoptera, is much hardier than its parents and has grown more rapidly in the Arboretum than any of the species of this interesting genus of the Walnut Family. Several of these hybrid plants appeared here in 1879 from seeds sent from the Arboretum Segrezianum in France as seeds of P. stenoptera, so that although the plants were raised here the crossing of the two species occurred in France. The grove of these trees which shades a stretch of Hickory Path near Centre Street is one of the most interesting and attractive groups in the Arboretum. The trees send up many suckers from the roots and for several years have flowered freely and produced fruit. This hybrid is an important addition to the number of interesting and handsome trees which can be successfully grown in this climate. Sorbus arnoldiana, which appeared here in 1907 among seedlings of Chinese Sorbus discolor, is a fast-growing, vigorous tree already nearly twenty feet tall, with smooth, lustrous, yellow-gray bark, erect branches forming a broad compact symmetrical head, leaves with the narrow leaflets of Sorbus discolor, and the compact, slightly convex flower-clusters of Sorbus Aucuparia, as broad as those of S. discolor. The fruit is pink and in color unlike that of any of the species of Sorbus. This hybrid is the handsomest Mountain Ash in the collection where it has grown more rapidly than most of the species of the genus; and there now seems to be every reason to hope that it has enabled the Arboretum to add to the list of ornamental plants hardy in New England another tree as valuable as Malus arnoldiana. This tree, which appeared in the Arboretum many years ago, has been so often noticed in these Bulletins that it is not necessary now to do more than to repeat the fact that it is probably a hybrid of Malus floribunda and some other Asiatic Crabapple, probably one of the hybrids of Malus baccata; and that, in the judgment of many persons, it is the handsomest Crabapple now cultivated. Malus rzebrifolia is the name which will be given to the hybrid Crabapple recently mentioned in Bulletin No. 5 of this volume. It finds a place in the list of Arboretum hybrids because it is now known that it was either raised from seeds gathered in the Arboretum or that it was a seedling pulled up from the neighborhood of the Arboretum plants of Malus Niedzwetzkyana. These Arboretum hybrids show that new plants may appear spontaneously in any large collection of cultivated plants, that such spontaneous hybrids are sometimes valuable and that others, although interesting, can add little or nothing to the beauty of gardens. They show, too, that if the fertilization of the flowers of one plant by the pollen from the flowers of a different species or hybrid can produce such results as Sorbus arnoldiana and Malus arnoldiana, systematic and intelligently directed hybridization might with the abundant material here produce plants more beautiful than any now known in our gardens. Rhododendrons. The severe winter has not killed any of the plants in the Arboretum collection, but many Rhododendron branches have been broken by the weight of snow and ice, and the flower-buds of a few of the hybrids have been injured. The southern Appalachian R. carolinianum was the first species to open its buds this year and for the last ten days the plants have been covered with their small, rosecolored flowers. Almost as early were some of the forms or hybrids of R. caucasicum. The most satisfactory of these for general cultivation in this climate is probably \"Boule de Neige,\" which is a dwarf round-headed plant with good foliage and dark green leaves. It is perfectly hardy and rarely fails to flower. \"Mont Blanc\" is another of these plants which can be depended on to give satisfaction. As it grows in the Arboretum it is a dwarfer plant than \"Boule de Neige,\" but the clusters of fiowers and the flowers are larger; the flowers when the buds first open are rose-color but soon become white. There are other named hybrids of R. caucasicum in the collection, but there is still much for us in this country to learn about the origin, correct names and hardiness of this race of Rhododendrons. The flower-buds of the Caucasian R. Smirnown were uninjured by the winter and the plants are covered with the handsome pink flowers which make this one of the desirable Rhododendrons for Massachusetts gardens. Hybrids of this plant raised in England which are hardy in the Arboretum have lost their flowerbuds, but those of a hybrid of the Japanese R. Metternichii, a species which grows badly here, with one of the hybrids of R. catawbiense, also raised in England a few years ago, are uninjured. The flower-buds of the two dwarf hybrids, R. myrtifolxum and R. arbutifolaumc, useful plants to border beds of larger growing broad-leaved evergreen shrubs, are covered with uninjured flower-buds. The Rhododendrons most commonly found in American gardens are hybrids of R. catawbaense of the southern United States, and the first of them to flower here, R. catawbiense album has been in bloom for several days. One of this race called \"Bismarck,\" which came to the Arboretum from Dresden, also flowers early and is unusually handsome this year. The largest number of Rhododendrons will probably be in bloom on Saturday and Sunday, the 12th and 13th of June. The collection is at the base of Hemlock Hill close to the entrance to the Arboretum from South Street. This entrance is most easily reached from Forest Hills by following South Street past the Bussey Institution."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 18","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23714","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd1708925.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 18, 1920 Late Flowering Lilacs. Among these are plants which can add much to the beauty of northern gardens in the last weeks of June and in early July. They are eastern Asiatic with the exception of the Hungarian Syringa Josikaea, which is the only one of these plants which has not been introduced into gardens since this Arboretum was established, and belong to the group of true Lilacs in distinction to the \"Tree Lilacs\" which bloom later and differ in their stamens which are longer than the corolla, while in all other Lilacs the stamens are shorter than the corolla and are hidden in its tube. The first of the late flowering true Lilacs from eastern Asia which reached the Arboretum was Syriraga villosa which was raised here in 1882 from seed sent by the late Dr. Bretschneider, at that time physician attached to the Russian Embassy at Peking. This has proved the most valuable of these plants. It is perfectly hardy; it grows rapidly into a large, round-headed, compact bush which is often fifteen feet high and broad; it flowers every year, and few shrubs are more floriferous. The flowers are arranged in long, narrow clusters and are pale rose-pink, flesh color, or occasionally nearly white. The leaves, which are long, comparatively narrow, long-pointed, and dull green, are not attacked by the fungus which often disfigures in summer the leaves of the common garden Lilacs. Unfortunately the odor of the flowers, which is not very strong, however, is distinctly disagreeable. This is the only one of the late-flowering Lilacs which has been used successfully by the plant breeder. Crossed in the nurseries of the Museum d'Histoire Naturelle in Paris with Syringa Josikaea, it has produced a race of Lilacs of vigorous growth with the habit of the Chinese plant, and in some of its forms with flowers more or less deeply tinged with the violet color of the Hungarian parent. To the handsomest of these hybrids with violet-colored flowers the name \"Lutece\" has been given. This has not before in the Arboretum been more covered with flowers than it has been this year, and certainly no shrub of recent introduction into our gardens better deserves a place in them. Another plant of this race known as \"Eximea\" is also flowering well this year. It differs in its more compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which on opening become light pink. Although still little known as a wild or as a garden plant, another northern species, Syringa Wolfii, promises to be valuable in early summer gardens. It reached the Arboretum in 1906 from Petrograd where it had probably been sent from northern Korea or Manchuria by the Russian traveler Komarov. The foliage resembles that of S. villosa, but the flowers are arranged in much larger clusters and are smaller and violet purple; their color is not unlike that of the hybrid \"Lutece\" but they are smaller and in denser clusters. Syringa Sweginzowii, an other north Chinese plant, came to the Arboretum from Petrograd in 1910. With each succeeding year the estimate here of the beauty and value of this plant is increased. It is a tall narrow shrub with slender erect stems, dark dull green pointed leaves, and long narrow flowerclusters; the flowers are delicately fragrant and half an inch long, with a slender corolla-tube and flesh-colored in the bud are nearly white after the buds open. Even very small plants of this Lilac flower freely. Not very unlike this species in habit, Syrzuga yunnanensis from south- i western China differs in its more fragrant flowers which are white, faintly tinged with rose color. Another related species, Syringa microphylla, is interesting because, unlike other Lilacs, it flowers in the Arboretum twice during the year, once the middle of June and a second time in October. The flowers are nearly white and pleasantly fragrant. Syringa tomentella, an older name for the plant later called Syringa W2lsouzi, is a tall, vigorous, fast-growing shrub with erect stems, dull green leaves, and open, long-branched panicles of pale rose-colored flowers. Syringa Julianae, like the last a recent discovery in western China, is a late flowering plant closely related to the north China S. pubescens. It has the same shaped flowers with the long narrow corollatube, but they are arranged in a shorter cluster, and are less fragrant than those of the northern plant. The beauty of the flower-clusters of S. Julianae is increased by the contrast between the violet purple color of the outer surface of the corolla and the white inner surface of its lobes. Two new species, Syringa reflexa and S. Sargentiana, discovered by Wilson in western China, with leaves very similar to those of Syringa villosa, are blooming rather more freely this year than before, although the Arboretum plants may be expected to be more prolific as they grow older. Syringa reflexa is a conspicuous plant at this season of the year, for unlike those of all other Lilacs the flower-clusters are gracefully arching and pendent on long stems; they are cylindric, very compact, unbranched, and rarely more than an inch and a quarter in diameter. The flowers are deep rose color with a long slender tube and the odor of those of S. villosa. In habit Syringa Sargentiana resembles S. reflexa, but differs from that species in the large, long-branched flower-clusters which are erect, spreading or nodding, and sometimes eighteen inches long and twelve inches across. The flowers are rather paler in color than those of S. reflexa and white on the inner surface of the corolla lobes. Syringa Koehneana is as usual flowering very sparingly, and it is doubtful if this Korean shrub will have much value as a garden plant in this climate. It is a vigorous, irregularly growing plant with large leaves and short, broad, compact clusters of rose-colored flowers white on the inner surface of the corolla lobes. Tree Lilacs. The Lilac season closes with the flowering of these eastern Asiatic species which are popularly known as \"Tree Lilacs.\" They all have handsome dark green leaves which fall in the autumn without change of color, and large usually unsymmetrical clusters of white flowers with the disagreeable odor of the flowers of the Privet. They are handsome and hardy plants and when in bloom the most conspicuous of the trees or large arborescent shrubs of their season. This year, the three species promise an unusually abundant bloom. The first of these plants to flower, Syringa amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia, and a shrub twelve or fifteen feet high, with dark-colored bark, leaves pale on the lower surface, and short unsymmetrical flowerclusters which usually are produced only on alternate years. Syrznga pekinensis blooms soon after S. amurenszs. It is a native of northern China and a shrub sometimes thirty feet tall and broad, with stout spreading stems covered with yellow-brown bark separating into thin plate-like scales like that of some Birch-trees, narrow, long-pointed leaves, and short, unsymmetrical flower-clusters, usually in pairs. This species retains its leaves later in the autumn than the other \"Tree Lilacs,\" and it flowers profusely every year. The last of these plants to flower, Syringa japonica, is a native of northern Japan and a tree sometimes forty feet high, with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark like that of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of erect branches, broad thick leaves and mostly symmetrical flower-clusters often eighteen inches in length. This tree rarely flowers except in alternate years. Berberis Vernae. Gardeners often complain that there are now too many Barberries, and it is certainly true that only an expert who has devoted years of special study to the genus can readily distinguish all the species, varieties and hybrids in the groups of which Berberis vulgaris, the common Barberry of western Europe, and now naturalized in the northeastern United States, is a typical plant. There are now probably at least one hundred different Barberries in the Arboretum Collection and the number is likely to increase rather than to decrease, for Barberries hybridize easily in collections like the one in the Arboretum, and it is more than probable that China, the headquarters of the genus, may still contain undescribed species. There may be too many Barberries but no one who has once seen Berberis Vernae as it is now growing in the Arboretum will regret that Wilson, who discovered this plant in China, sent seeds to the Arboretum in 1910 from the neighborhood of Sungtan in the upper Min Valley where he found it at an altitude of about nine thousand feet above sea-level, growing with the other Chinese Barberries. B. Vernae is here now about six feet tall and nearly as much in diameter. The long, slender, bright red branches covered with small, nearly entire leaves arch and droop gracefully, and from them hang on long stems innumerable slender clusters of small, pale yellow, slightly fragrant flowers which in the autumn are followed by small red fruits. A green fountain best describes this shrub. There are Barberries with larger and handsomer leaves, larger flowers and more brilliant fruit, but there is not one in this collection, at least, of such graceful habit; and Berberis Vernae as it grows here is not only one of the most beautiful of the deciduous-leaved species of the genus but one of the handsomest of the shrubs discovered in China during the present century which can be successfully grown in this climate. Plants of Berberis Vernae raised from seed collected by William Purdom in Min-chou in western Kansu, received at the Arboretum in 1912, are also well established here. Neillia sinensis, uninjured by the severe winter, has been as beautiful as usual this month. The flowers are cylindric, clear pale pink, nearly half an inch long and are pendent on slender stems in long onesided racemes terminal on short lateral branchlets, and do not open until the dark green leaves have grown to nearly their full size. This is one of the Chinese shrubs which seems destined to become popular in northern gardens. Several other species of Neillia are growing in the Arboretum; they are either not hardy enough to flower or their flowers are insignificant. Kolkwitzia amabilis on the southern slope of Bussey Hill has not before flowered so profusely as it has during the past week. It is the only representative of a genus of western China related to Diervilla and Abelia. The flowers are in pairs on long stems at the end of short lateral branchlets, and rose color in the bud become paler after opening and are blotched with yellow at the base of the inner surface of the divisions of the lower lobe of the corolla. Kolkwitzia has not yet produced seeds in the Arboretum, and this interesting and beautiful shrub is still rare in American gardens. Aesculus discolor var. mollis. This shrub or small tree has not before flowered so freely in the Arboretum. The type of the species has red and yellow flowers, but in the var. mollis, which is the only form in the Arboretum, the whole flower is bright scarlet. It is a common plant from northern Georgia to central Alabama and westward to the valley of the Guadalupe River in Texas, ranging west of the Mississippi River northward to southeastern Missouri, and appearing in southwestern Tennessee. In early spring no other plant in the southern states is more brilliantly conspicuous, and its unexpected hardiness in New England is one of the important discoveries made by the Arboretum in recent years. There is a form of Aesculus discolor (var. flavescens) with yellow flowers which is confined to the Edwards Plateau in western Texas. It is possible that this plant may also prove hardy here. Aesculus Harbisonii, which is believed to be a hybrid of A. d2scolor var. mollis and A. georgiana, is the last of the Buckeyes, with the exception of A. parviflora, to bloom in the Arboretum. It is a shrub with broad clusters of large flowers with a rose-colored calyx and canary yellow petals tinged with rose toward the margin. Still extremely rare, this hybrid which is perfectly hardy deserves to be better known."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 24","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23715","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14ea326.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 24, 1920 Philadelphus. Many additions have been made in recent years to this genus by travellers in eastern Asia and by the labors of the plantbreeder, and it now constitutes one of the largest and most important groups of garden shrubs hardy in the northern states, and to be ranked with the Lilacs, Bush Honeysuckles, Viburnums, Azaleas and Cornels. The popular names of these plants, Syringa and Mock Orange, are unfortunate for Syringa is the Latin name of the Lilacs and Mock Orange, given to them no doubt on account of the perfume of the flowers of Philadelphus coronarius of southeastern Europe which for many years was the only one of these plants to be found in gardens, does not describe the flowers of all the species for many of them are entirely destitute of odor; and Mock Orange, too, is the common name of Prunus carolinaana, the Evergreen Cherry-tree of the southern states which is much planted there and largely used as a hedge plant. Species of Philadelphus are native in the United States in the southern Appalachian Mountain region, in western Arkansas, western Texas, in the southern Rocky Mountains of New Mexico and Colorado, and in the northwestern states; many species have been found in Japan, Korea and western China; and the genus is represented on the Himalayas, the Caucasus, and in the Balkan Peninsula. The plants of this genus are not particularly interesting in habit; the leaves are dull and fall without change of color, and the fruit, which is a dry capsule, does not add to the attractiveness of these plants, which is to be found only in their abundant white, often fragrant flowers. The flowering period of the thirty odd species, with many hybrids and varieties in the Arboretum collection extends through five or six weeks and most of the plants flower freely every year. They need rich, well-drained soil, and the presence of lime in it has no bad effect on these plants. Better than most shrubs they can support shade, and their ability to grow and flower under trees gives them a special value for the undergrowth of border plantations. It is unfortunate that the type of the genus and the only species in the gardens of the eighteenth century, Philadelphus coronarius, is now so rarely found in any but the really old-fashioned gardens of New England, for it is a delightful plant and the flowers of no other Philadelphus are more pleasantly fragrant. There are in the Arboretum collection varieties of this plant with double flowers of which the var. deutziaeflorus, with narrow petals, is the handsomest; a variety with narrow leaves (var. salicifolia) is more curious than beautiful, and a dwarf compact form which never flowers, and one with yellow leaves, are more interesting to those who like monstrosities than to the lovers of beautiful plants. Among American species the handsomest are Philadelphus inodorus, P. pubescens and P. microphyllus. The first of these is by some persons considered the handsomest of the Syringas in the Arboretum collection. It is a species of the southern Appalachian region and a shrub six or seven feet tall, with gracefully arching branches which are studded from end to end with large, cup-shaped, snow white, scentless flowers. Although this shrub was sent to England more than a hundred years ago, it appears to be still rare in American and European gardens. Philadelphus pubescens, perhaps better known in gardens as P. latifolius and P. grandiflorus, grows in the same region as P. inodorus; they are larger plants sometimes twenty feet tall with stout erect stems and branches, and broad dark green leaves. Philadelphus pubescens, P. grandiflorus and some of their hybrids are common garden plants in this country. The most important and distinct of these hybrids is Philadelphus splendens which appeared in the Arboretum several years ago, and its parents are believed to be P. grandaflorus and P. Gordonianus. It is a tall, broad, shapely shrub with pure white, slightly fragrant flowers borne in clusters and an inch and three-quarters in diameter. This plant when in bloom makes a more conspicuous display than any Philadelphus in the collection. The Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus is far removed in general aspect from the Appalachian species for it has the smallest leaves and flowers of any plant in this group. It is a shrub with slender stems, and here in the Arboretum has not grown more than three feet tall; perfectly hardy for many years, it has suffered considerably in the two cold winters of recent years. The Arboretum plants are, however, recovering. For a long distance the air is filled with the perfume of the flowers of this little shrub, which is stronger and more aromatic than that of any other Philadelphus. Perhaps the handsomest and certainly the most distinct of the Asiatic species is Philadelphus purpurascens, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China. It is a vigorous shrub, with long arching branches from which spring numerous laterals from four to six inches in length; these branchlets spread at right angles to the stem and on these the fragrant flowers are pendent on drooping stalks. The bright purple calyx of the flowers makes a handsome contrast with the pure white petals which do not spread as in most species but form a bell-shaped corolla. One of the handsomest of the shrubs recently introduced from China Philadelphus purpurascens deserves more general propagation in this country. Another Chinese Syringa, Philadelphus Magdalence, well deserves a place in American gardens. It is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, small dark green leaves, and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered clusters from six to ten inches in length. Philadelphus pekinensis, a native of-northern China and Mongolia, which has been growing in the Arboretum since 1883, has proved an excellent garden plant. The flowers are not as large as those of many of the other species and are slightly tinged with cream color, but they are produced in immense numbers. This is a compact shrub with slender erect stems three or four feet tall, and usually broader than high. Hybrid Philadelphus. The importance of Philadelphus splendens as a garden plant has already been mentioned. Another hybrid of rather uncertain parentage, known now as Philadelphus speczosus and formerly as \"Monsieur Billard,\" originated many years ago in France is a handsome plant which, blooming later than other Syringas, prolongs the flowering period of this group until the middle of July. These early hybrids were the result of natural cross fertilization, and the systematic breeding in this genus dates from the time when Lemoine of Nancy in France first crossed the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus with P. coronartus and produced the plant to which he gave the name of P. Lemoinei. Lemoine then crossed his P. Lemoinei with the hybrid P. msiguis and produced a race of beautiful plants to which the general name Philadelphus polyanthus has now been given. Well known forms of this hybrid are \"Gerbe de Neige\" and \"Parvillon Blanc.\" To another race of the Lemoine hybrids the name of Philadelphus cymosus has been given. This was obtained by crossing P. Lemoinei with P. grandiflorus or some related species. \"Conquete\" is considered the type of this group; other well known plants which are believed to belong here are \"Mer de Glace,\" \"Norma,\" \"Nuee Blanche,\" \"Rosace,\" \"Voie Lactee,\" and \"Perle Blanche.\" To another race of hybrids with double racemose flowers, raised by Lemoine and of doubtful origin, the name Philadelphus virginalis has been given. The type of this group is his \"Virginal;\" other plants referred to it are \"Argentine,\" \"Glacier,\" and \"Bouquet Blanc.\" The introduction of Philadelphus microphyllus into France, where it was sent by the Arboretum in 1877 or 1878, made possible in the hands of Lemoine the production of these races of beautiful plants which are some of the important contributions made to northern gardens in the last thirty years. Late-flowering Viburnums. The Arboretum late in June owes much of its beauty to the late-flowering Viburnums of the northeastern states which have been planted here in considerable numbers. The first of these plants to bloom and the handsomest of them, Viburnum casstrcozdes, although it grows naturally in cold northern swamps, takes kindly to cultivation, and in ordinary garden soil is a handsomer and more shapely plant than it is in its natural home where it often makes slender straggling stems fifteen or twenty feet tall. The beauty of this Viburnum is in its ample, thick and lustrous leaves which vary in shape and size on different plants, in its broad convex clusters of pale cream-colored flowers and in its large showy fruit which when fully grown is yellow, then pink, and finally blue-black, the three colors often appearing at the same time in the same cluster. The fruit of Viburnum cassinoxdes is larger than the bright blue fruit of the other summerflowering species, V. dentatum, V. venosum and V. Canbyt which bloom in the order in which they are mentioned here. They are large roundtopped bushes with coarsely toothed leaves and large clusters of white flowers; they are all good garden plants and respond to generous treatment with more vigorous growth, a better habit and handsomer foliage. There is a large collection of deciduous-leaved Viburnums in the Arboretum and there is now a good opportunity here to judge the comparative values of the plants from different countries, and this comparison shows that the flora of eastern North America contains more handsome garden plants in this genus than all the rest of the world. In Japan there are species like Viburnum tomentosum, V. Sieboldii and V. dilatatum which are beautiful garden plants, and the European Traveller's Tree, V. lantana, is one of the handsomest and most distinct of the early-flowering Viburnums which can be successfully grown here. In claiming the superiority of the American species for American gardens it must be remembered that none of these species have red fruit, which is produced by several of the eastern Asiatic species. The most successful of the red-fruited species in the Arboretum have been V. dilatatum and V. Wnghtii. These should find a place in American collections, especially the former which is here a hardy, free-flowering plant of compact habit, which has few rivals in the beauty of its brilliant and abundant bright red fruit. Cornus kousa. The flower-buds of the native Cornus florida were practically all killed by the cold of the past winter except those on lower branches which had been buried in snow. It is interesting to find, therefore, that the flower-buds of the related species from eastern Asia, Cornus kousa, were not injured and that the Arboretum plants have not before been more fully covered with flowers. The form from western China discovered by Wilson, which has before bloomed only sparsely in the Arboretum, is this year white with the bracts of the flower-clusters. The flower-bracts of the Chinese plant are broader and closer together than those of the Japanese plant and it promises to be more valuable here for garden and park decoration. The flowerbracts, however, of both forms of the Asiatic plant are pointed, making a star-like inflorescence, and are much narrower than those of Cornus florida which is still the handsomest of the \"Flowering Dogwoods\" which can be grown in Massachusetts. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum. The plants of the flame-colored Appalachian Azalea on Azalea Path furnish this week the most brilliant display in the Arboretnm. No other Azalea which can grow in the open ground in this climate equals this in beauty with the exception, perhaps, of the pink-flowered R. Vaseyi which blooms before its leaves appear. On R. calendulaceum and the other late-blooming American species a beauty of the flowers due to their contrast with the well grown leaves is not found on R. Vaseyi or on any of the Asiatic Azaleas which can be grown in the northern states. Philadelphus splendens was inadvertently omitted from the list of Arboretum hybrids printed on page 31 of these Bulletins for the current year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 1","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23709","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170b36b.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 1, 1920 Lindens. So far as flowers are concerned the interesting trees in the Arboretum in July are the Lindens of which there is a large and well established collection in the meadow on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. Linden-trees are found in eastern North America, eastern Asia, the Caucasus, and in Europe, and the species are usually widely distributed and common forest trees. All the species are quite similar in the character of their flowers and fruit, and chiefly differ in the shape of their leaves, in the presence or absence of hairs on the leaves and branchlets and in the nature of this hairy covering when it exists. A curious fact about Linden-trees is that in the flowers of the American species there are five petal-like scales opposite the petals and connected with the clusters of stamens, and that in the flowers of the Old World Linden-trees these petal-like scales do not occur. Another interesting fact which has been learned here about Linden-trees is that in the Arboretum the European species and their hybrids are more vigorous and handsomer trees than the Asiatic species, although with few other exceptions eastern Asiatic trees give more satisfaction in eastern North America than the trees of western Europe. The European Lindens, too, grow more rapidly than the American species which have never been very generally planted in this part of the country, with the exception perhaps of the northern Talia glabra which oftens suffers here in dry summers from the attacks of the red spider which disfigures and often causes the leaves to fall in August, especially when it is planted as a street tree. This tree usually appears in books under the incorrect name of Tilia americana. It is a splendid tree in the forests of northern New England and eastern Canada, where it is found from northern New Brunswick to the shores of Lake Winnipeg, and is less common and of smaller size southward. The leaves are destitute of hairs with the exception of the large conspicuous tufts in the axils of the veins on their lower surface which is light green and lustrous. Three other American species are established in the Arboretum, Tilia neglecta, T. heterophylla var. Michauxii and T. monticola. The first of these trees differs from Tilia glabra in the short, gray, finely attached pubescence which covers the lower surface of the leaves during the season and in the small inconspicuous tufts of axillary hairs. This is also a common northern tree which often grows with Tilia glabra and has usually been confused with it in books on American trees. It has a wide range from the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec through the northern states, ranging southward along the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina and westward to southwestern Missouri. This tree, which has not been many years in the Arboretum, has so far escaped the attacks of the red spider, and has grown rapidly and proved to be a good tree here. Tilia heterophylla var. Michauxii is a northern variety of a species widely distributed in the southeastern states. It differs from Talia glabra and T. neglecta in the thick white down or tomentum which covers the lower surface of the leaves during the season and on the leaves of upper branches is often brown. This is a handsome tree with slender, reddish or yellowish brown branchlets and small, slightly flattened winter-buds. It occurs in western New York and is widely distributed southward from the valley of the Susquehanna and the lower Ohio Rivers, in the southern states being usually confined to the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains and their foothills. This tree is hardy in the Arboretum where it has grown more slowly than Tilia neglecta and T. montteola. This last is the most conspicuous of the American Lindens which have been satisfactorily tested in the Arboretum. It is the tree which has been incorrectly called Tilia heterophylla in most books in which American trees have been discussed. It is found only on the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains from Virginia to North Carolina and eastern Tennessee, growing with Tilia heterophylla var. Michauxii. From that species it differs in its much stouter branchlets, much larger compressed winter-buds, larger leaves very oblique at the base, often seven or eight inches long, thickly covered below with white tomentum and hanging on long slender stalks. The flowers are larger than those of any other American Linden. This Linden has grown more rapidly in the Arboretum than Txlia heterophylla var. Michauxii and promises to be a valuable tree in northern parks. There are three Linden-trees in eastern Europe, Tilia platyphyllos, T. cordata and T. vulgaris. The first has yellowish green leaves covered on the lower surface with soft hairs which also cover the young branchlets. This is the first of the European Linden-trees to bloom in the Arboretum where it is growing with several of its abnormal varieties, including one with deeply divided leaves (var. asplercifolia), one with slightly lobed leaves (var. vitifolia), and another of pyramidal habit (var. pyramidalis). These varieties are curious rather than beautiful, and have little to recommend them as ornamental trees. Tilia platyphyllos appears to be the common Linden sold by American nurserymen as \"European Linden.\" It is perfectly hardy but as an ornamental plant it is the least desirable here of the European Lindens. Much handsomer is the small-leaved Linden, Tilia cordata, which is the last of the Lindens in the collection to open its flower-buds. The leaves are often broader than long, with a heart-shaped base, very dark green above and pale below, and rarely more than two and a half inches in length. This tree has grown slowly here and is still a broad-based, densely branched pyramid. It is not common in American plantations, and the Arboretum has not heard of any large trees in the United States. In central and northern Europe trees a hundred feet tall, however, are not uncommon. The third of the Lindens of western Europe, Tilia vulgaris, is believed to be a natural hybrid between Tilia platyphyllos and T. cordata. It is a large tree with leaves dull green on the upper surface, lighter on the lower surface and destitute of hairs except in the axils of the veins below; in the Arboretum it flowers a week or ten days later than Tilia platyphyllos. There are fine old specimens of this tree in the neighborhood of Boston, and it is the best of all Lindens in this climate to shade city streets. It is this tree which has been successfully used in Boston on Louis Pasteur Avenue which connects the Harvard Medical School with Audubon Road. The two silver-leaved Lindens of eastern Europe, Tilia tomentosa (sometimes called T. argentea) and T. petiolaris, are handsome trees of unusual appearance which might well be more often seen in American plantations. Tilia tomentosa, which is a common tree in the forests of Hungary, is a large tree with erect branches which in this country form a broad, compact, round-topped head, and large, erect leaves, dark green above and snowy white below. This tree has been a good deal planted in the parks of New York City where large and handsome specimens can now be seen. It appears to be less well known in New England. Tilia petiolaris is a handsomer tree and one of the most beautiful of the exotic trees which can be successfully grown in this climate, as can be seen in Newport, Rhode Island, where there are many noble specimens. It is a tall tree with drooping branches which form a narrow head, and leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface and, drooping on long slender stalks, flutter gracefully in the slightest breeze. This tree is not known in a wild state and its origin is uncertain. Tilia spectabilis, which is believed to be a hybrid of T. petiolaris or T. tomentosa with T. glabra, is a handsome fast-growing tree with the large leaves of the American species and silvery white on the lower surface. This is one of the handsomest Lindens in the Arboretum collection. The var. Moltkei of this hybrid is a tree of denser habit and greener leaves, and in this climate a handsomer and more desirable tree than T. glabra. It originated many years ago in the Spaeth Nursery near Berlin. The Crimean Linden (Tilia euchlora, sometimes called T. dasystila) is distinct in its dark green lustrous leaves, and is believed to be a hybrid between Tilia caucasica and T. cordata. This beautiful tree is hardy in the Arboretum, but it does not grow as well here as the European species and certainly not as well as it does in some of the countries of western Europe where it has been used and is recommended as a street tree. Tilia caucasica, one of its supposed parents, is not in the Arboretum collection. Asiatic Lindens have not yet given much promise of growing here into large or handsome trees. Nearly every species from eastern Asia which has been described has been planted in the Arboretum more than once and most of them are still growing here. They are all quite small with the exception of Tilta japonica which was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892. It is a small tree here with leaves very similar to those of Tilia cordata, of which it has sometimes been considered a variety. The Japanese tree is chiefly interesting as the first of all the Lindens here to unfold its leaves in the spring. When Lindens bloom is a happy time for bees, for the flowers of all Linden-trees contain large quantities of nectar. Unfortunately that of Tiha tomentosa and T. petiolaris is poisonous. Tripterygium Regelii. Climbing plants with handsome foliage and a conspicuous inflorescence easy to grow and hardy in New England are not too numerous, and Mr. Jack's introduction several years ago from Korea of Tripterygium Regelii made an important addition to the number. It is a near relative of the Bitter Sweets (Celastrus) and a native of Korea and northern Japan, where it rambles over rocks and bushes, and often climbs with stems fifty or sixty feet long into the tops of trees. The leaves are long-pointed, dark green, and often six inches in length. The small white flowers are produced in narrow open clusters ten or twelve inches long, and they are followed by showy, three-lobed, and three-winged fruits from half an inch to an inch long. By pinching the young shoots this vine can be grown as a shrub. Such a plant is now growing and flowering in the Shrub Collection, where it is also growing naturally on the trellis next to the different species of Celastrus. Periploca sepium. This is another handsome twining plant which the Arboretum owes to the labors of Mr. Jack in Korea. It is growing on the trellis near the Tripterygium and is unusually full of flowers this year. It is a plant with slender stems, pointed dark green and very lustrous leaves about three and a half inches in length and not much more than half an inch in width, and small flowers in few-flowered clusters. The flowers do not make much show when seen from a distance, but on close examination show that they are green on the outside, dark purple with a five-lobed crown at the base on the inside, and that they are pleasantly fragrant. The plants in the Arboretum have not yet produced their slender pod-like fruits, but as they send up numerous root suckers this vine can be easily propagated and might soon become common in northern gardens. Much better known is Periploca graeca from southern Europe and western Asia which has not yet proved hardy in the Arboretum. Lonicera prostrata. The attention of persons looking for plants suitable for ground cover is directed to this Honeysuckle discovered by Wilson near Sungpan in Szech'uan, western China, at an altitude of about twelve thousand feet above sea-level. It has long slender branches which lie flat on the ground, so that the plant is only a few inches high, small bluish green leaves, small inconspicuous yellow flowers and small red fruit. As a garden plant this Honeysuckle has nothing to commend it but its habit which should make it useful to cover the ground among large shrubs and on the borders of shrubberies. Lonicera prostrata is growing on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with the other new Chinese shrubs."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 9","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23712","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170816f.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 9, 1920 Pterocarya is a genus of trees of the Walnut Family, differing from the Walnuts and Hickories in its small winged nut arranged on a long pendulous raceme and smooth bark. It has the long pinnate leaves of the other members of its Family and pith like that of the Walnuts, in thin plates, not solid like the pith in branches of Hickory-trees. The genus is a small one and grows naturally only in the Caucasus, central and southern China and in Japan. The Caucasian species, Pterocarya fraxinifolia, was the first of these trees planted in western Europe and the United States, it having been brought to Europe from Persia in 1782 by the French traveller Michaux whose name is a household word with students of the American flora. This tree appears to have been first planted in the United States at the beginning of the nineteenth century at the Woodlands in West Philadelphia, the famous Hamilton garden where it is believed that the Lombardy Poplar was first planted in the United States. Three of these trees were growing at Woodlands, at that time a cemetery, thirty years ago. They had not grown to a large size but were in good health; it is reported that these trees have now disappeared. There in an old specimen of this tree in the Harvard Botanic Garden at Cambridge which possibly was planted when this garden was laid out more than a century ago. This tree is hardy and is perhaps the oldest and largest specimen in the United States, but it is not a handsome tree and has never looked as if its surroundings agreed with it. The Caucasian Pterocarya has been a difficult tree to establish in the Arboretum, and there is only a young specimen here which does not give much promise of becoming a tree. The climate of England, France and Italy suits this tree much better than that of the northeastern United States; and several specimens eighty or ninety feet high with tall massive trunks can be seen in those countries. The best known of the Chinese species, Pterocarya stenoptera, is a common tree in the central and southern provinces of China, ranging southward into Tonking. It inhabits plains and low hills in the neighborhood of streams and is said to be always a small tree. This tree was first planted in Europe in 1860 in the Arboretum Segrezianum; it lived there for several years but was killed by the severe winter of 1879-80. In the Arboretum the roots live but the stems are killed back to the ground or nearly to the ground every winter. This tree would probably grow well in California or in some of the southern states, but its only interest in the north is in the fact that crossed with the Caucasian species it has produced a natural hybrid to which the name Pterocarya Rehderiana has been given. This is a beautiful, fast-growing tree with characters intermediate between those of its parents, which it surpasses in hardiness and vigor. The small grove of these trees under which at one place Hickory Path passes is one of the interesting groups in the Arboretum. These trees flower and produce fruit every year and send up also many suckers from the roots by which they can be easily mul~iplied. The two or three other Chinese species of Pterocarya have not yet been cultivated long enough to make it possible to form any opinion of their value in this climate. Judging by our present knowledge, it is to Japan that we must look for the best Pterocarya for general planting. The Japanese species P. rhoifolia has been growing in the Arboretum since 1893 when it was raised here from seed collected by Professor Sargent in Japan. He first met with it on the lower margin of the Hemlock-forest (Tsuga diversifolia) which covers the slopes about Lake Umoto among the Nikko Mountains. Here the Pterocarya was a small tree; on the slopes of Mount Hakkoda in the extreme northern part of Hondo he found the Pterocarya extremely common at altitudes between 2500 and 4000 feet above the sea level and next to the Beech the largest tree of the region. Trees eighty feet high with a tall straight trunk two and a half feet in diameter and stout branches spreading at nearly right angles and forming a massive crown of dark green foliage were common. The leaves are eight or ten inches long and from four to six inches wide, with stout hairy petioles and six or seven pairs of lateral leaflets which are acute, unequally rounded at base, long-pointed, and finely toothed on the margins; in October they turn clear yellow before falling. The terminal winter-buds well distinguish this species; they are conical with a curved beak and when first formed are covered with a thin sheath composed of two external and usually two internal glabrous glandular scales; these fall off late in the autumn, leaving scars at the base of the bud which is thickly covered with pale pubescence. In the Arboretum Pterocarya rhoifolia has proved to be one of the handsomest and hardiest of the trees of eastern Asia which have been planted here; it has grown up with a clear straight trunk and its lustrous dark green leaves have not yet been injured by insects or disease. It will certainly be a good subject for park plantations; and it is not improbable that it will prove useful for shading city streets. It should certainly be tried for this purpose. Pterocarya rhoifolia is a rare tree in the United States and Europe. During the last two years, however, the Arboretum has succeeded in obtaining a supply of the seeds from Japan, and as these have been widely distributed it will now perhaps soon become better known. Crataegus Phaenopyrum or cordata is in flower this week. Hawthorns begin to flower in the Arboretum before the first of May and they have been flowering here almost continuously ever since. In a month some of the species will begin to ripen their fruit, and on others fruit little shrivelled or discolored by the winter will still be on the branches in April. There are not therefore many weeks in the year in which Hawthorns in this climate cannot furnish either flowers or fruit. In the tropics some trees produce flowers almost continuously during the year, but in cold countries like New England no other group of plants has such a long season of flowers except the Viburnums, and none of the Viburnums retain their fruit into the winter. When in bloom some of the American Hawthorns are objects of great beauty, and only the fruit of some Crabapples is more conspicuous than that of the large-fruited Hawthorns. As they grow naturally over a large part of eastern North America and more sparingly in the west there are few parts of this country or Canada where some of the species cannot be successfully grown. All the Thorns thrive in cultivation and respond to a generous treatment with larger size, more tree-like habit and handsomer foliage and fruit. Crataegus Phaenopyrum, which appears at the head of this paragraph, the Washington Thorn, cultivated perhaps more frequently seventy-five years ago than at present, is a slender tree growing under favorable conditions to a height of twentyfive or thirty feet; the leaves are nearly triangular in shape, not more than two inches long and an inch and a half wide, and are dull green; in the autumn they turn bright scarlet. The flowers are creamy white, smaller than those of most Hawthorns, and are arranged in small compact clusters. Few if any of the American species have less attractive flowers. The fruit, too, is small, barely more than a quarter of an inch in diameter; and the Washington Thorn owes its value as a garden plant to the brilliancy of its autumn foliage and to the beauty of its abundant fruits long persistent on the branches. In earlier days of American gardens Crataegus Phaenopyrum was much used as a hedge plant in the middle states, although there are many other American Hawthorns which seem much better suited to form handsome and impassable hedges. The last Viburnums. The first Viburnum, V. alnifolium, was in bloom the first of May, and this week the last Viburnum, another American species, V. Canbyi, has just opened its flowers, and during more than two months therehas not been a day when a Viburnum has not flowered in the Arboretum. V. Canbyi is the largest and the handsomest of the blue-fruited species of eastern North America, of which the best known now in gardens is V. dentatum. There are three species in this group; they all have broad, coarsely toothed, dark green shining leaves, wide, flat clusters of white flowers and small blue fruits. The first to flower, Viburnum dentatum, is followed by V. venosum which differs from it chiefly in the hairs which cover the young branchlets and the lower surface of the leaves. This is a sea coast plant and grows only from the southern side of Cape Cod to New Jersey. Its flowers are followed by those of V. Canbyi which is the largest and handsomest of this group of Viburnums, and one of the handsomest of the summer-flowering shrubs in the Arboretum, where it is represented by round-topped plants some twelve feet high and broad. By some botanists this shrub is considered a variety of V. venosum which it resembles, but the leaves and flower-clusters are larger; it blooms ten or twelve days later, and the flowers and fruits are larger. Its home, too, is not on the seashore but in northern Delaware and the adjacent parts of Pennsylvania, and in central Indiana. This Viburnum reproduces itself from seeds and there is therefore no reason why it should have remained so rare in gardens. Zenobia pulverulenta has not before been so thickly covered with flowers and this week has been the most beautiful shrub in the Arboretum. Zenobia is related to the Andromedas and is chiefly distinguished by its open campanulate flowers and four-awned anthers. The leaves are thickly covered with a glaucous bloom, and the ivory white flowers, which are about half an inch long and broad, are borne on slender arching stems in axillary clusters forming long terminal racemes on the upper part of the branches of the previous year. There is a form of this shrub (var. nztida) with leaves green on the two surfaces. Zenobia is a southern genus with one species, and the fact that it is hardy in New England shows that only experiment will show whether a plant is hardy in any given locality remote from its natural habitat. The greenleafed variety grows in countless thousands along the borders of the great swamp across the river from New Berne on the coast of North Carolina. The white-leaved form, which was found by William Bartram on the lower Cape Fear River in North Carolina, appears to be less common and apparently has not been collected in recent years; that is the two forms of this plant grow in a region which could not be expected to produce plants hardy in Massachusetts. Evonymus radicans is the only evergreen climbing plant really hardy in this climate which can attach itself firmly to stone, brick or concrete walls. There are a number of varieties of this variable plant in cultivation, and the handsomest of them is the broad-leafed form from northern Japan, known as var. vegetus. This plant can grow in Massachusetts to the eaves of a tall house and completely clothe its walls with a cover which grows thicker by an annual shortening of the branches, or if a wall is not provided for it to cling to it will grow as a low roundtopped dense shrub. Like the other forms of the species it can also be used to cover the ground under trees and shrubs, but as a ground cover it is improved by occasional clipping. This variety vegetus is now covered with its small yellow-green flowers which will be followed by abundant pink fruit, which adds greatly to the decorative value of this variety which is the only form of E. radicans which has flowered in the Arboretum. The extreme cold of two recent winters injured the leaves on many plants of this var. vegetus in eastern Massachusetts, but the wood was not hurt and the branches were soon covered with a new crop of leaves."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 15","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23710","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170b76c.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 15. 1920 Catalpas are trees of the Bignonia Family and grow naturally only in eastern North America, the West Indies and northern and central China. They all have large simple leaves, and large terminal clusters of two-lipped flowers followed by long slender pods containing many thin seeds furnished at the ends with long tufts of pale hairs. All the Catalpas and one or two of their hybrids are growing in the Arboretum with the exception of the species from the West Indies. The first Catalpa, C. bignonioides, which attracted the attention of botanists and gardeners was sent from South Carolina to England early in the eighteenth century. This for a long time was the only American species cultivated in Europe or the United States, but forty or fifty years ago it became known that another species grew in the valley of the Ohio River and southward along the Mississippi River as far south as western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas. To this Catalpa the name speciosa has been well given as it is now known to be the largest, the fastest growing, the hardiest and the handsomest of all Catalpa-trees. It is the earliest of all the species, too, to bloom, and it is now covered with flowers which are larger than those of the other species. On the rich alluvial bottom lands of the Mississippi River this tree has often grown to the height of one hundred and twenty feet and formed a trunk four and a half feet in diameter. In New England it will never grow to that size, but although it was introduced into the eastern states less than fifty years ago trees in eastern Massachusetts are already fully forty feet high and have been flowering and ripening their seeds for many years. Catalpas produce soft wood which is remarkably durable when it comes in contact with the soil, and in some of the middle western states large plantings of Catalpa speciosa have been made to supply fence-posts, for which the wood is admirably suited, and for railway ties for which it has proved too soft. The other American species, Catalpa bignonioides, probably originated somewhere in the southeastern part of the country, but it has been so spread by escapes from planted trees that it is no longer possible to determine the location of its first home. It was for many years one of the common planted trees in the middle and southern states, and specimens are still occasionally seen in southern New England. Now, however, when one wants to plant a Catalpa-tree in this country he finds in nurseries only C. speciosa. The more southern species is a smaller tree with shorter-pointed leaves; it grows less rapidly and blooms two or three weeks later than the eastern species. The flowers are smaller, in shorter and more compact clusters, and the pods are smaller with thicker walls. There is a dwarf form of Catalpa bignonioides (var. nana) which grafted on the stem of one of the tree Catalpas has in recent years been largely planted in this country for the supposed decoration of gardens which are more or less formal in character. It is not known where the dwarf plant originated, and if it has ever flowered the fact is not known at the Arboretum. The fact that it is universally sold in American nurseries under the name of Catalpa Bungei causes confusion for that name properly belongs to a tree from northern China. This Chinese tree has narrow, long-pointed dark green leaves, small yellowish flowers and small pods. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1904, and was perfectly hardy until the winter of 1916-17 when one of the trees was killed to the ground and others were more or less injured. They have now recovered, but this Catalpa has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Compared with the American species it has no value as an ornamental tree. Another Chinese species, Catalpa ovata, was sent many years ago to this country from Japan where it has long been cultivated. It is a small tree with comparatively small, dark green leaves, many-flowered clusters of small, yellowish spotted flowers, and slender pods. This tree, which will grow in regions too cold for the American species, has been somewhat planted in the United States, although as an ornamental tree it does not have much to recommend it. In this country it has proved most valuable as one of the parents of the natural hybrid, Catalpa hybrida, which appeared several years ago in the Teas Nursery at Baysville, Indiana, and is often called C. Teasii and \"Teas' Hybrid Catalpa.\" This is a fast-growing and hardy tree with flowers like those of C. bignonioides, the American parent, although smaller but in larger clusters, and leaves in shape resembling those of C. ovata. The two species introduced by Wilson from central China, Catalpa Duclouxii and C. Fargesii, are still living but give little promise of ever becoming valuable additions to the number of summer-flowering trees which can be successfully used for the decoration of New England gardens. Some good shrubs. Although notes are published year after year in these Bulletins about new or little known shrubs as they flower, the Arboretum is constantly asked for lists of the best new shrubs for northern gardens; and in response to this request it now submits another list of comparatively new plants. The plants in this list are hardy in southern New England and the xniddle states. The two Rhododendrons, however, cannot be grown in soil impregnated with lime. Several of these plants cannot, unfortunately, be found in American nurseries; they are, however, easily propagated and a demand for them will in time produce a supply. The list contains the names of eighteen of \"the best\" new shrubs; it might easily be increased to a hundred for there is a large number of new or little known shrubs now growing in the Arboretum which American garden-makers unfortunately neglect. The plants selected today are:- Hammamelis mollis, Prinsepia sinensis, Corylopsis Gotoano, Amelanchier grandiflora, Forsythia intermedia spectabilis, Cotoneaster hupehensis, C. racemiflora soongorica, C. nitens, C. multiflora calocarpa, Rosa Hugonis, Neillia sinensis, Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, R. japonieum, Berberis Vernae, Syringa Sweginzowii, Spiraea Veitchii, Philadeiphus purpurascens, and Evonymus planipes. Like the other Witch Hazels of eastern Asia, Hammamelis mollis blooms in the winter and the flowers are not injured by the severe cold to which they are subjected in the Arboretum. This plant has handsome foliage and larger and more brightly colored flowers than the other Witch Hazels, and is invaluable for the decoration of winter gardens. Prinsepia sinensis is considered here the best shrub the Arboretum has obtained from Manchuria. It is valuable for its perfect hardinesss, the fact that its dark green leaves unfold befcre those of any other shrub in the Arboretum, with the exception of those of a few Willows, and for its innumerable clear yellow flowers which open before the leaves are fully grown. The stems of this shrub are armed with stout spines and it should make a good hedge plant. Corylopsis, which is an Asiatic genus related to the Witch Hazels, has handsome yellow, early spring flowers in drooping clusters which appear before the leaves. There are several Japanese and Chinese species in the Arboretum but only the Japanese C. Go;oana has been uninjured here by the cold of recent years, and it is the only species which can be depended on to flower every year in a Massachusetts garden. The Forsythia of the list is still the handsomest of the varieties of F. intermedia which is the general name of the hybrids betweeen F. suspensa Fortunei and F. viridis. This variety was raised in a German nursery and is the handsomest of all the Forsythias now known in gardens. Amelanchier grandiflora is believed to be a hybrid between the two arborescent species of the eastern United States, A. canadensis and A. laevis, and is by far the handsomest of the Amelanchiers in the large Arboretum collection of these plants. It came here from Europe but what is believed to be the same hybrid has been found in several places in the eastern states. The four Cotoneasters in the list are perhaps the handsomest of the twenty odd species introduced by Wilson from western China. They are all large shrubs of graceful habit, and have white flowers and red fruits with the exception of C. nitens which has red flowers and black fruit. In recent years the Arboretum has made few more important introductions for American gardens than the Chinese Cotoneasters. Although no longer a \"new plant\" Rosa Hugon~s is included in this list because it is not only the handsomest of the Roses discovered in China during the last quarter of a century, but in the judgment of many persons it is the most beautiful of all Roses with single flowers. Fortunately for American garden-makers the value of this Rose is appreciated by a few American nurserymen from whom it can now be obtained. The introduction of Neillia sinensis made it possible to add to the Arboretum collection a representative of a genus of the Rose Family which had not before been cultivated in the Arboretum. There are now other species of Neillia grown here but some of them are not entirely hardy, and others have no particular value as garden plants. Neillia sinensis, however, has never been injured by cold, and with its drooping clusters of pink flowers is a handsome plant well worth a place in any garden. Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii is one of the most important introductions of recent years. A native of northern Korea, it grows further north and in a colder country than any other Azalea, with the exception of the Rhodora, and there can be little doubt that it can be grown successfully in the open ground much further north in the eastern United States than any of the other Asiatic Azaleas. It may be expected, too, to prove hardy further north than the American species with the exception of Rhodora. The large pale pink flowers of this Azalea, although less showy than those of a few of the other species, are more delicately beautiful than those of any of the Azaleas which have proved hardy in the Arboretum. There are a few plants of this Azalea large enough to flower in the United States, and many seedlings have been raised here and in Europe during the last two years. Until these are large enough to flower it will probably remain extremely rare. Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum cannot be called a new plant for it has been growing in the Arboretum since 1893, but it is such a valuable plant and is still so little known or understood that it can perhaps properly find a place in a list like this. The large, orange or flame-colored flowers make it when in bloom one of the showiest of all the hardy Azaleas. Berberis Vernae has been mentioned in a recent number of these Bulletins; and it is only necessary to repeat what has already been said about it, that it is a hardy plant of exceptionally graceful habit among Barberries, with arching and drooping branches from which hang innumerable slender clusters of small yellow flowers followed by small red fruits. Berberis Vernae has proved the handsomest of the large number of Barberries with deciduous leaves found by Wilson in western China. Among the numerous species of Lilacs introduced into gardens from China during recent years Syringa Sweginzowii is considered the most beautiful by many persons. It is a tall shrub with slender erect stems which produce every year great quantities of pale rose-colored, fragrant flowers in long rather narrow clusters. It has the merit of being almost the last of the Lilacs in the Arboretum collection to bloom. Spiraea Veitchii has the merit, too, of being the last of the white-flowered Spiraeas to flower. It is a shrub already 6 or 8 feet tall in the Arboretum, with numerous slender stems and gracefully arching branches which about the first of July are covered from end to end with broad flower-clusters raised on slender erect stems. This Spiraea is one of the best of the hardy shrubs discovered by Wilson in western China, and by many persons it is considered the handsomest of the genus as it is now represented in the Arboretum. Evonymus planipes is a native of northern Japan and a large shrub with large dark green leaves and the inconspicuous flowers of the genus; and it is only on account of the beauty of its fruit that this plant is included in this list, for the fruit which hangs gracefully on long slender stems is large, crimson, very lustrous and more showy than that of any of the other Burning Bushes in the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 21","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23711","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170bb6d.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 21, 1920 Grape Vines. Summer is the time to study Grape Vines as ornamental plants for they do not unfold their leaves until late in spring and the first severe frost blackens them in early autumn. For the summer covering of walls or fences, to spread over hillsides and among rocks, or to train over arbors, no other vines compare with them in vigor and rapidity of growth, or in beauty of foliage. The fragrance of the flowers, too, of several of the species should find a place for them in gardens. The Arboretum collection of Grape Vines is a large one and contains all the North American species, with the exception of two or three species which grow only in the extreme southern states and the California species which does not take kindly to the conditions which it finds in the eastern states. The collection contains, too, several Asiatic species. The plants have been trained on a long trellis on the upper side of the Shrub Collection in order to make it easy for students to compare the different species growing under the same conditions and note the variation in the shape, size and color of the leaves. Grape Vines, too, have been largely used for covering the boundary walls of the Arboretum, and their value for this purpose can be well seen near the Jamaica Plain and Forest Hills entrances, and on Centre Street above the gate of that name. An example of the way in which Grape Vines can be used for covering bare ground can be seen at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Here the plants are cut back severely every spring. Although the Arboretum has made it possible for garden lovers to become acquainted with the beauties of these plants, they are apparently little appreciated or planted and it is impossible to find several of the handsomest of the American Grape Vines in American nurseries. Among the species unknown in most gardens, although well worth a place in any park or garden where handsome plants are valued, are Vitis Doaniana and V. cinerea. The first is a native of the Texas Panhandle and in the Arboretum has proved to be a fast-growing and hardy plant. The leaves are large and thick, and their pale bluish green color gives to this plant a distinct appearance. The fruit, which is covered with a glaucous bloom, is arranged in small clusters. Vitis cinerea, which is sometimes called the Sweet Winter Grape, has large, nearly entire or slightly three-lobed leaves which are dark green on the upper surface and gray on the lower surface which, like the young shoots, is covered in spring with thick gray tomentum. The berries are small and black and destitute of bloom. When Jacques Cartier sailed up the Saguenay in 1535 Grape Vines covered with fruit fired his imagination. The plant he saw was the Frost Grape, Vitis vulpina, with its shiny and usually three-lobed leaves and small, juicy, acid blue fruits. A better acquaintance probably cooled the Frenchman's enthusiasm for the wonderful fruits of the New World. Vitis vulpina grows further north than the other American species and is a common river-bank plant in the northern states as far west as the Dakotas and Kansas. Excellent jelly is made from the fruit. A species of the middle states, the Frost or Chicken Grape, Vitis cordifolia, can also be seen in the Arboretum. From Vitis vulpina it differs in its unlobed or only slightly lobed leaves and in their much smaller stipules. The small bluish black berries in large clusters do not ripen until after severe frost when they become sweet and edible. The Frost Grape is one of the largest and most vigorous of the American species, often growing to the tops of the tallest trees and forming stems from one to two feet in diameter. A more slender and smaller plant, Vitis palmata, with leaves deeply divided into long-pointed lobes and sweet black fruit is one of the most distinct of all the American Grape Vines. Its small size makes it more suitable for small gardens than the larger and stronger growing species. The small, distinctly gray-green leaves make the species of the southwestern states, Vttis arizonica, one of the interesting plants of the collection, although for the purpose for which Grape Vines can be best used in ornamental planting it is one of the the least valuable of the American species. It is not very hardy and requires winter protection to insure its best growth. Another interesting Grape Vine, Vitis rupestns, has little to recommend it as a garden plant. It grows only a few feet tall and the small shining leaves are abruptly pointed and coarsely toothed. The small sweet fruit in small compact bunches ripens in summer. This little Grape Vine is said to grow from southern Pennsylvania to Missouri and southward, but it is most abundant on the low limestone hills of western Texas. For pomologists the northern Fox Grape, Vitis labrusca, the common wild Grape Vine of eastern Massachusetts, is the most important for by selection and hybridization it has produced most of the table grapes which can be successfully grown in the open ground in eastern North America. The berries of the wild plant are thick-skinned with tough musky pulp. This peculiar flavor is retained in a greater or less degree in the cultivated varieties, and distinguishes them from the varieties of the European grapes which cannot be successfully grown in the open in eastern North America. Apart from its fruit the northern Frost Grape is one of the handsomest of the northern species, for the leaves, which vary in size and lobing on different individuals, are thick, dark green and lustrous above and covered on the lower surface with tawny white, tan-colored or red-brown felt which is also found on the young stems and branches. Several forms of this vine are in the Arboretum collection. The summer Grape of the northern and central states, Vitis bicolor, is an even handsomer plant, and perhaps the handsomest of our northern Grape Vines. The large leaves are usually deeply lobed, and dark green above are pale blue-green below. These are only a few of the American Grape Vines in the collection. The large-fruited Muscadine or Southern Fox Grape, Vitis rotundifolia of the southern states, has not yet proved hardy in the Arboretum. From this species, after V. labrusca the most important pomologically of the American Grape Vines, has been produced the Scuppernong grapes, favorites in the southern states. To Japan we are indebted for Vitis Coignetiae, the handsomest Grape Vine which can be grown in the northern states. No other species is more hardy, grows so vigorously, or produces such large leaves which are thick, prominently veined and pale on the lower surface; they turn bright red in the autumn, and as this is a northern species their fading colors are more brilliant in northern New England than they are in Massachusetts. The small blue fruit which is eaten in Hokkaido has little to recommend it to the American palate. Vitls amurensis from eastern Siberia, Mongolia and Korea is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum. It is a handsome and perfectly hardy plant, but not superior as a garden plant to several of the American species. The Japanese Vitis pulchra is distinct in the dark red color of the leaves and shoots in spring, and is a handsome and interesting plant. This Vine is known only from cultivated plants, and only the male plant is in the Arboretum collection. The Chinese Vitis Davidii is interesting to the students of these plants for, unlike those of other Grape Vines, the stems are covered with sharp spines. The leaves turn bright red in the autumn. Unfortunately the stems are killed down to the ground by the cold of our severest winters, and this remarkable plant rarely produces fruit in this climate. Equally interesting, perhaps, is another Chinese species, Vitis Pagnuceii, with some leaves which are scarcely or not at all lobed and with others on the same branch which are deeply and variously lobed much like those of the Virginia Creeper. Wilson discovered a number of handsome Grape Vines in western China and most of them have been raised in the Arboretum. Not many of these new species have been really hardy here, and it does not now appear probable that any of them will prove good garden plants in this climate. Excellent white and purple grapes, varieties of the European Vitis vinifera, are grown in northern China for the Peking market on the descendants of plants brought centuries ago by the overland route probably from Persia or Asia Minor. In Peking the plants are laid down and covered with earth during the winter, and produce large crops of fruit which the Chinese are able to keep until spring in cool cellars. This Grape has been growing in the Arboretum for sixteen years with only slight winter protection, and the green-fruited variety has produced fruit here several times. This is the only form of Vitis vinifera which it has been possible to grow here, and it would seem to be a good subject for plant breeders anxious to produce better grapes for northern markets. Chinese Roses. The severe winter like that of 1917-18 has injured several of the Roses of western China, although apparently none of them have been killed. Rusa Helenae, the handsomest perhaps of the Roses discovered by Wilson, has lost much of its wood and will not flower this year; and Rosa multibracteata, which has not been injured before, has been killed to the ground. The Chinese form of Rosa Roxburgii (var. normalis), which flowered last year for the first time in the Arboretum, has had no flowers this season, although the wood has not been much injured. Rosa Moyesiz has been little injured, but has flowered very sparingly and in the Arboretum has never lived up to the reputation it has gained in England. Rosa Hugonis was not injured by the winter, but it did not produce quite such a large crop of flowers as in previous years, and one exceptionally hot day nearly ruined these just as they were opening. No new development among Roses shows that the beauty of the flowers of Father Hugo's Rose is equalled by that of any other Chinese species. Uninjured by the cold of the past winter, the form of Rosa multiflora from western China (var. cathayensis) has not before been more thickly covered with its pale pink clustered flowers. This Rose can be grown as a bush with long arching stems as it appears in the Arboretum, or it can be used successfully to cover a large arbor, as it has in another Massachusetts garden. The flowers are as beautiful as those of most of the popular Rambler Roses of garden origin, and the plant is hardier than many of these Roses. To the students of Roses this form of Rosa multiflora is of interest as the wild type from which the Chinese obtained the popular \"Crimson Rambler\" Rose which for centuries before it was brought to this country had been a popular garden plant in China. Rosa bella, introduced by the Arboretum from northern China into western gardens, has never been injured here by cold. It is a tall stout shrub which produces every year in June great numbers of large rose-red flowers followed by showy fruits. A good garden plant for cold countries, Rosa bella might in the hands of a skilful plant-breeder have a useful influence in a new race of hardy Roses. The winter has not injured Rosa caudata which promises to be one of the most useful of the western China Roses. It is a Cinnamon Rose and a vigorous growing shrub now more than six feet high, with stout arching stems covered with stout spines, handsome foliage and flowers two inches in diameter with pure pink petals marked with white at the base. The broad flower-clusters sometimes contain as many as twenty-five flowers, and as these open gradually the plant remains in bloom during at least a couple of weeks. The value of this Rose as a garden plant is increased by the fact that it is one of the few Roses in the collection which flower in July, and that its large orange red fruit is exceptionally handsome. Rosa omeiensis was not hurt during the past winter, but the form of this Rose (var. pterocantha) with the stems furnished with large bright red translucent spines lost considerable wood in the Shrub Collection. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 18","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23724","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14e8525.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 18, 1920 The Ailanthus. The Tree of Heaven of the Chinese, which botanists now call Ailanthus altissima, although it is still better known as Ailanthus glandulosa, is one of the remarkable trees of the northern hemisphere. Raised in Europe in 1751 from seeds sent from Peking, the Ailanthus was one of the first Chinese trees known in western countries. The first Ailanthus was planted in the United States by William Hamilton in 1784 in his famous garden near Philadelphia; and in 1804 it was first planted in New England near Portsmouth, Rhode Island, where it is still abundant. For many years little attention was paid to the Ailanthus in Europe until it was found that one of the silk worms could be successfully fed on its leaves. This discovery led to the establishment of great Ailanthus-plantations in France where they have succeeded beyond the most sanguine expectations, the best results having been obtained in calcareous soil and on the sandy seacoast. The date of the first planting in Europe of the Ailanthus as a street tree is not known, but when the streets of Paris were generally bordered by trees in the early years of the second Empire it was largely and successfully used for this purpose. As early as 1820 its remarkably rapid growth, the tropical appearance of its long gracefully drooping leaves and its freedom from the attacks of insects attracted general attention to the Ailanthus in the United States. It was found to flourish equally well in the country and in the streets of New York and Philadelphia where it grew more rapidly than any tree which had been planted in those cities; and it was believed that a tree had been found which would take the place of all others for city planting. So great did the popularity of the Ailanthus become in a few years that the number of the trees planted was only limited by the ability of nurserymen to supply the demand. The popularity of the Ailanthus in the United States, however, was short-lived, for when the trees began to flower it was found that some of the flowers emitted a strong and to most persons an offensive odor, that the clouds of pollen shed from the flowers and the flowers themselves dropping on neighboring roofs so affected the water caught on them that it was unfit for use, and that the flowers which dropped on the ground made the city sidewalk and the country yard unbearably disagreeable. This peculiarity of the flowers discovered, the Ailanthus sank rapidly in popular esteem, and its general destruction in this country was advocated and put into execution. Unpopular as the Ailanthus has become, it is one of the handsomest and most valuable trees in the world. Planted in cities it can resist better than any other tree heat, drought, dirt, and gas escaping frcm defective pipes which menace the life of city trees. It grows rapidly even in the most unpromising situations; it is never seriously injured by insects; and few trees can be more easily propagated, for small pieces of the root covered with soil will soon grow into plants large enough to transplant. The suckers which the Ailanthus produces in great numbers from the roots are the real drawback to this tree, but when it is planted in city streets they are unable to force their way through brick sidewalks and concrete is impervious to them. The male and female flowers of the Ailanthus are chiefly produced on different trees; only the male flowers have a disagreeable odor and drop to the ground. The female flowers are scentless. In the clusters of female flowers occasional male flowers are found, but there are so few of these that their odor is not perceptible. It is perfectly easy to propagate only the female tree which is the one which should be planted, and apart from the absence of the disagreeable smell of the flowers it is more ornamental than the male for the winged fruit of the Ailanthus produced in great terminal clusters is handsome and conspicuous in the late summer and autumn. The fruit is usually yellow, but in one variety it is bright red (var. erythrocarpa) and more brilliant and conspicuous than the fruit of any tree of large size which can be grown in the northern states. The leaves of the red-fruited variety are darker on the upper surface and paler below than those of the yellow-fruited form; and the handsomer leaves and more brilliant fruit make this the desirable form to cultivate. There is certainly no better tree than the Ailanthus to shade the streets of American cities provided they afford sufficient room for its development, for the Ailanthus even when it is planted in cities may become a tall, wide-branched tree, demanding space in which to display all its beauties. Although the attempt has not been made on a large scale in this country to fix shifting sand dunes by planting the Ailanthus, it has been successfully used for this purpose in Europe especially in the neighborhood of Odessa on the Black Sea where large plantations of Ailanthus have been successful on sterile soil so shifting that other trees have not been able to secure a foothold on it. The Tree of Heaven produces valuable hard, heavy and close-grained wood of a pleasant clear yellow color, resembling that of satinwood; it is easily seasoned, and shows as little tendency to shrink or warp as the best mahogany. Beautiful furniture has been made from Ailanthus-wood raised in New England, and if the tree is ever grown on a large scale on the sandy now unused lands of our seacoast it will suprly the cabinet-maker with wood which in quality and beauty equals that of the White Oak, the Black Walnut and the Wild Cherry. It is an interesting fact that although the Ailanthus is now known in all the countries of the world which enjoy a temperate climate its true home in China, that is the region where it is a really wild tree, is still unknown to European and American botanists who have now travelled in nearly all parts of the Celestial Empire. Two other species of Ailanthus, A. Giraldii and A. Vilmoriniana, are known, however, as wild trees in western China. The former which differs in the presence of prickles on the branches has not proved hardy in the Arboretum; the other, which chiefly differs from the common Ailanthus in the downy covering of the young branchlets, is now established here but has not yet produced flowers or fruits. Mountain Ashes. The abundant flowers on these trees and shrubs last spring have been followed by an unusally heavy crop of fruit on most of the species, and Mountain Ashes have probably never been more beautiful in this part of the country than they are this autumn. Their fruit is now the most conspicuous in the Arboretum and deserves the attention of persons interested in plants which produce handsome and conspicuous fruits. There are two principal groups of Mountain Ashes in the Arboretum, one on the bank above the Shrub Collection and near the Forest Hills gate and the other on the left hand side of the Valley Road near and under the group of Swamp White Oaks. None of these plants have more abundant or brilliant fruits in larger clusters than the two Mountain Ashes of northeastern North America, Sorbus americana and its variety decora with broader leaflets and larger fruits. The value of these two trees is increased by the brilliant colors which their leaves will take on now in a few days. The various forms of the European species, Sorbus Aucuparia, in the collection are all fruiting well this autumn, the handsomest perhaps being a tree from northern Austria known as var. moravica or dulcis. This is a tall, slender, fastgrowing tree with smooth bark, leaves with narrower leaflets than those of the common form, and larger and sweeter fruit which in its native country is used as food. The leaflets of the European Mountain Ash vary greatly in width, and in the group near the Forest Hills gate there is a handsome specimen of this tree with exceptionally narrow leaflets. The branches of the large plant of the Japanese Sorbus commixta in this group have never before been so weighed down by its clusters of small fruit although it has been growing in the Arboretum for more than thirty years. The bright orange and red autumn colors of the leaves add to the value of this tree. Near it a small plant of Sorbus amurensis from eastern Siberia is fruiting well for the first time in the Arboretum. The plants of Sorbus pekinensis which are in the Valley Road-Group have been covered with their large, open, drooping clusters of yellow fruit which is now beginning to fall. Both in spring and autumn this slender tree with narrow leaflets is handsome and conspicuous. It well deserves a place in collections of such plants. In this group, too, Sorbus pohuashanensis, so named from the mountain range in northern China, the Pohua-shan, where it was discovered, is covered with its erect clusters of large orange-red fruits. It is a handsome plant with leaflets broader than those of the common form of the European Mountain Ash but no better for gardens in this country than that tree which is gradually becoming naturalized in this country. In the Arboretum, at least, the handsomest trees have sprung from seeds scattered by birds. One of the handsomest and certainly the most interesting Mountain Ash in the Arboretum is growing in the nursery near the top of Peter's Hill. It is a fast-growing tree of perfect shape, with a straight stem covered with smooth pale bark, leaves with unusually narrow leaflets, and wide, convex, compact clusters of pink fruit. No other Mountain Ash which is now known has fruit of this color. This tree which was grown in the Arboretum from seed was first thought to be a form of S. pekinezzsis; it is now believed to be a hybrid of S. Aucuparia and S. pekinensis to which the name of S. Arnoldiana has been given. In the convex, crowded clusters of flowers and fruits it shows the influence of the European plant; in the narrow leaflets and in the size of the small fruit it resembles S. pekinensis, while in color the fruit is intermediate between those of its supposed parents. Autumn Colors. There is not yet any great show of brilliant colors in the Arboretum and the leaves of many trees, especially the Oaks, are as green as they were at midsummer, but as in northern New England the leaves of the Sugar Maples, the Birches and other northern trees are reported to be more brilliant than usual a good coloring of many trees may be expected before the end of the month. A few spots of bright color, however, are to be seen here, and these are mostly made by Asiatic trees and shrubs. Already the bright clear yellow leaves of the Siberian Cork-tree (Phellodendron amurense) have disappeared from this small tree which is most interesting in the thick, pale, deeply furrowed bark which covers the trunk and larger branches. Last week Acer mandshuricum, a Box Elder of northeastern Asia, with clear pure pink fading leaves was from the rarity of this autumn color the most interesting object in the Arboretum. This Maple is one of the largest and handsomest trees in Manchuria, but although other trees of the same region flourish here it has not yet found a place in the Arboretum which suits it, and as yet gives little promise of large size or old age. This is to be regretted for it is as beautiful in the spring as in the autumn, as the unfolding leaves are deep red. The leaves of a Japanese Burning Bush, Evonymus alatus, are just turning to the deep rose color which is unlike that of any other plant in the Arboretum at this season of the year and which makes it one of the most desirable of the perfectly hardy shrubs which can be used for the decoration cf New England gardens. Very beautiful this autumn is a Chinese Sumach, Rhus javanica, which rivals our native species in the scarlet color of its leaves. This Sumach is a small round-headed tree which produces its large terminal clusters of white flowers at the end of July or in early August. The showy summer flowers and the brilliant October foliage should make this tree better known. In October the leaves of no North American tree are more brilliant than those of Acer ginnala, a Maple of eastern Siberia with deeply divided leaves and compact clusters of fragrant flowers. Unfortunately the leaves of this handsome tree fall soon after changing color."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 28","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23725","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14e8926.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 28, 1920 Some American Plum-trees. North America is the real home of Plum-trees as it is of Hawthorns. They range across the continent and from the valley of the St. Lawrence nearly to the Rio Grande. Plum-trees are most abundant in eastern and southern Kansas, eastern Oklahoma, southern Arkansas, and Texas from the valley of the Red River to the Edwards Plateau. In this region Plums are represented by more species than are found in all the world outside of North America. Some are trees of considerable size and others are large or small shrubs which frequently spread in sandy soil by means of shoots from the roots into often impenetrable thickets covering many acres. It has proved difficult to obtain the material needed for a proper study of these plants. They flower early when there is little else in bloom to occupy the collector, who is obliged to make long and expensive journeys to collect the flowers of one genus. In four years out of five the young fruit is destroyed by frost which in that region usually comes after the flowering of Plum-trees; and when the fruit is not destroyed it is often difficult to obtain, for it usually ripens at the season when heat and insects make plant collecting difficult and disagreeable. The different species are often widely separated and this makes impossible the careful comparative study of the living plants needed to understand properly their similarities and differences. There is little hope, therefore, that American Plums can be thoroughly understood before all or most of the species can be grown together in one garden until they flower and ripen their fruit. Such a collection will be difficult to establish and maintain, for some of the interesting species are not hardy in the north, and it is not probable that such a collection will be undertaken except in some of the northern states. Fortunately several years ago the Park Department of Rochester, New York, with an intelligence and foresight not always shown by municipal officials, sent one of its assistant superintendents to Oklahoma and Texas to study the wild Plums and to collect living plants and other material needed for their better understanding. The result of several expeditions is a remarkable collection of hundreds of living plants which makes Rochester the best place to see and study the Plum-trees of the Arkansas-Oklahoma-Texas region, that is the region where there are more of these plants than anywhere else in the world. A preliminary study of the collection reveals numerous interesting new forms, some of them hybrids and others possibly new species. It shows, too, that among these Plums are plants of exceptional beauty when their fruit ripens. All Plums are handsome whan in early spring their white flowers cover the leafless branches; on some species the flowers are rather larger than on others, but as flowering plants there is no great choice between them. They greatly vary, however, in their leaves and in the size and shape of their fruit. From the fruit of nearly all American Plums good jellies and preserves can be made, and selected seedling forms of several of the species have received the attention of pomologists and are now cultivated as fruit trees in parts of this country where the varieties of the European Prunus domestica cannot be successfully grown. As ornamental plants merely the value of some of the American Plums is not yet understood. The handsomest of them, Prunus hortulana, the most beautiful of all Plum-trees, is common from southeastern Illinois to eastern Kansas and Oklahoma. It is a tree from twenty to thirty feet high with a clean trunk and wide-spreading branches which form a round-topped shapely head. The leaves are unusually large for a Plum-tree, and smooth and very lustrous on the upper surface. The fruit ripens late in September and in October, and is globose or slightly longer than broad, scarlet, lustrous, and from three-quarters of an inch to an inch in diameter. It is produced in great quantities and ripens before the leaves change color or fall; and a well-fruited tree of Prunus hortulana is more beautiful in early October than any Crabapple or Hawthorn, or indeed than any other small tree which can be grown in the northern states. In the Rochester collection are plants of Prunus hortulana which are not trees but wide-spreading shrubs which should prove useful in gardens too small for the proper display of the tree form. Prunus Reverchonii has also proved a success at Rochester. On the prairies of eastern Texas it is a low shrub often spreading into great thickets, but in cultivation at the north it is inclined to become a small tree. The leaves are smaller and less lustrous than those of P. hortulana, and the fruit is smaller but equally brilliant and abundant. Prunus venulosa, another of the prairie species of eastern Texas, and the different forms of the Chickasaw Plum (P. angustifolia), especially the broad-leaved, large-fruited var. varians, and the different forms of Prunus Munsoniana of which the Wild Goose Plum is the best known, can now all be seen to advantage in Rochester. The \"Big-tree Plum\" so-called of Texas (Prunus mexicana), the largest, most abundant and most conspicuous Plum-tree of Texas, has also proved hardy in Rochester. This tree is interesting as a conspicuous feature of the Texas flora, but less ornamental and less valuable as a fruit tree than most of the tree plums of the United States. Among the hybrids which have appeared from time to time in the Rochester parks is one between the Beach Plum (P. maritima) common on the northeast coast and the Wild Plum of the eastern states (P. americana). This hybrid is a bush five or six feet tall and eight or ten feet through the branches; it bears large crops of purplish fruit intermediate in size between that of its parents, and of better quality than that of either of them. Judging by the fruitfulness of this hybrid at Rochester it should prove a valuable plant for small gardens. All the Plums which have been brought to Rochester from the southwest are growing in the Arboretum, but Boston is not sufficiently civilized to see and enjoy these plants at the season when they are most interesting, and in the case of several species most beautiful. In Rochester Plum trees loaded with ripe and tempting fruit standing close to the sidewalks of streets near the parks and without the protection of a fence are not interfered with or injured. The fruit is there for the public to look at and enjoy, and spring and autumn throngs of visitors enjoy these wonderful plants. In the Arboretum it has been found necessary, in order to save the trees from injury, to pick every plum and cherry as they begin to color. Boys, and they are not always boys, break down the branches in their efforts to secure the half ripe fruit. Two years ago the best plant of Prunus hortulana in cultivation which had been growing in the Arboretum for twenty-eight years was so broken down that it was necessary to destroy it. It is the business of the Arboretum to furnish information about trees, and it is the public which suffers when the Arboretum is not protected from the public by the police and the courts. Street Trees. There is at present a widespread interest in the United States in Nut-trees and their cultivation, and the general planting of Walnut and Hickory-trees on country roadsides in some of the northern states has been advocated. There are objections, however, to the use of these trees for such a purpose. Walnut and Hickory-trees are difficult to transplant, and the best success is obtained by planting one or two-year-old seedlings, that is plants only a few inches high. Such small plants must be kept clear of weeds and encroaching shrubs by which they might be easily destroyed, and with the best of care they would not be large enough to give much shade or produce many nuts in less than twenty-five or thirty years. The difficulty of growing the young trees can of course be overcome if cost is not considered; more difficult will be the protection of the trees when they bear nuts. Nuts are assiduously sought by men and boys who do not hesitate to break down nut-trees wherever they are left unprotected, and as the number of motor cars increase on country roads the facilities for robbing the trees will also increase. The selection of trees for street and roadside planting presents many difficulties. In the interior of large cities, especially in those where bituminous coal is principally used, the Ailanthus is best able of all trees to support the drought and dirt to which trees in cities are subjected. The Ailanthus, however, cannot be successfully used in narrow streets. The streets which are usually planted in this country are not in the business and most densely populated sections of cities but in their residential quarters and in their suburbs; and it is difficult to find the proper trees to plant along the usually narrow streets of their outlying districts. There are objections to most of the trees which generally have been used for this purpose. At the north the tree which has been most generally planted along streets is the American Elm-tree. It is one of the finest trees in the world, and as it may sometimes be seen shading the broad central street of an old New England village no street tree can equal it. The American Elm, however, will not flourish in sterile soil, and it cannot bear drought or atmosphere continually filled with dust and smoke. It needs room in which to grow, and its wide-spreading branches unfit it for the narrow streets usually found in the suburbs of large cities. Some of the Old World Elms are narrower trees, and the Hedge-row Elm of southern England, usually known in this country as Ulmus campestrts, has grown well in Boston and its neighborhood for more than a hundred years and proved a better city tree than the American Elm. It is, however, too large a tree for the ordinary suburban street. The Sugar Maple is one of the best trees to plant by country roadsides, but the Sugar Maple cannot bear the hardships of city life, and even in suburbs usually languishes. The so-called Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) is much better able to adapt itself to the conditions trees have to put up with in cities and in their neighborhood. It has been largely used as a street tree, but the trunk is too short and the branches are too low and form too broad a head for a good street tree. What is needed for street planting are tall, fast-growing trees with erect or semi-erect branches forming a head narrow enough to find room between the curb and the property line but wide enough to shade the street. An American Elm which may be expected to be a valuable tree for street-planting has recently been discovered in the neighborhood of Rochester, New York. This tree is now from seventy to eighty feet high, with a short trunk from which spring several long erect main branches which form a head not more than eighteen feet in diameter. It will be largely propagated for street-planting in Rochester. In Rochester, too, have recently been found two Norway Maples with erect growing branches. The head of one of these trees is too narrow for street-planting, but the other with an oval head equal in width to a quarter the height of the tree promises to be useful for this purpose. In the cities of the Southern States the streets are usually wider than in the north and the Water Oak (Quercus nigra) finds room in which to develop; and there is not in any country a handsomer, and more easily managed street tree than the Water Oak, which unfortunately is not hardy anywhere in the north."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 9","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23723","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd14e816f.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. VI NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 9, 1920 Conifers. The Conifers in the Arboretum on the whole look fairly well considering the exceptional severity of the winters of 1917-18 and 1919-20. None of them have been killed this year; and the Black Pines of Japan (Pinus Thunbergii), which lost most of their leaves and sufered from the winter perhaps more than any conifer in the collection, are now thinly covered with young leaves, and if the coming winter is not too cold these trees, which had been growing in the Arboretum for twenty-seven years in perfect health, may entirely recover. Young plants of the Mexican White Pine (P. ayacahuite) and the California form of Abies concolor which lost most of their leaves are now covered with a new crop. Several plants of the variety of Abies homolepis with gray cones (var. umbellata) have been injured by cold, and this variety has generally proved to be a less desirable ornamental tree in the Arboretum than the blue-coned A. homolepis : the leaves are lightercolored, and in habit the trees of the variety are more open and irregular, and are not worth general cultivation in this country. The Chinese Hemlock, Tsuga chinensis, was again badly injured by the winter and there now seems to be little hope that this interesting tree will be able to adapt itself to the New England climate. Trees of doubtful hardiness here, like Abies grandis, Picea Breweriana, Tsuga heterophylla, Libocedrus decurrens, Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, and Cryptomeria japonica have in exceptionally protected positions been uninjured. The new Spruce-trees from the Chinese Tibetan border-land appear to be all hardy with the exception of Picea Sargentiana which has grown badly and is less hardy than the others. It is not probable that this tree will ever grow to a large size in this climate. The new Firs from western China have not grown as well as the Spruces, and, judging by the present appearance of the plants in the Arboretum, give little 66 promise of usefulness in this climate. All the new Chinese Pines are uninjured and are growing rapidly, but unfortunately the borer which disfigures the native White Pine (Pinus Strobus) and the Himalayan White Pine (P. excelsa) kills nearly every year the leader of the Chinese White Pine (P. Armandi). One of the Korean Firs (Abies holophylla) was first raised in the Arboretum sixteen years ago. It has proved perfectly hardy here and has grown rapidly, but the leaves are too yellow to make it a really ornamental plant. Possibly, however, the yellow leaves are due to improper or insufficient nourishment. Wilson from his journey in Korea brought back a large quantity of the seeds of this fine tree which he found making great forests in the northern part of the country, and for the plants raised here from these seeds it may be possible to find the soil and situation Abies holophylla requires. Now that they have passed uninjured through such severe winters the statement often made in these Bulletins may be made again, that the best conifers which have been brought into Massachusetts from other parts of the United States and from foreign countries are the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), the White Fir of Colorado (Abies concolor), the Abies horrcolepis of Japan, the so-called Red Cedar (Thuya plicata) of the northwestern part of this country, the Serbian Spruce (Picea omorika), the western White Pine (Pinus monticola) the Japanese White Pine (Pinus parviflora), the Golden Larch (Pseudolarix amabilis), and the Rocky Mountain form of the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxxfolia); and to this list must be added, although they are not true conifers, the Chinese Ginkgo biloba and the forms of the Japanese Taxus cuspidata which many persons believe is the most valuable plant Japan has sent to the United States. Tsuga caroliniana was first raised at the Arboretum in 1884. The plants have grown more rapidly than those of the northern Hemlock (T. canadensis) and are now handsome trees with their lower branches resting on the ground. Even in the most exposed positions they have not suffered from cold; and in the Arboretum the Carolina Hemlock has proved to be one of the handsomest of the conifers which can be grown in Massachusetts. Seeds of the Colorado form of Abies concolor were first planted in the Arboretum in 1874 and the tallest plant in the collection is nearly sixty feet high and a perfect cone from the ground up. Like all Firs in this climate, this tree will sooner or later lose its lower branches, but for forty years at least the Colorado White Fir as an ornamental tree can be depended on here. The value of the Japanese Abies homolepis in the eastern states is less well known as this handsome tree is still rare in American collections, but with our present knowledge it is safe to speak of it as one of the best of the exotic conifers hardy in New England. It was not planted in the Arboretum until 1882, but the three largest specimens in the country, the one planted by Mr. Dana at Dosoris, Long Island, and those in the Hunnewell Pinetum and at Holm Lea, Brookline, Massachusetts, are now from fifty to seventy feet tall and furnished to the ground with branches. In the coast region of the northwestern states and of British Columbia Thuya plicata grows to a great size and is one of the handsomest and most valuable timber trees of North America. It ranges eastward to the mountains of Idaho and northern Montana; and from this cold interior region it was brought to the Arboretum in 1879. It is the largest and handsomest of the Arborvitaas and has proved to be one of the most satisfactory conifers which have been planted in the Arboretum. There are several specimens of the Serbian Spruce in the collection planted in 1886. It is perfectly hardy and one of the handsomest Spruce-trees which can be grown here. Unfortunately the leader is too otten destroyed by the borer which disfigures Pinus Strobus and other White Pines. What is probably one of the best specimens in the United States of that form of Panus parviflora with widespreading branches so common in Japanese gardens has been growing in the Arboretum since 1881. There is also a specimen here of the wild form of this tree from the forests of northern Hondo which was once called Pinus pentaphylla. Fortunately Pinus parviflora is not injured by the borer which destroys the leaders of many White Pines, but it is somewhat disfigured by the cones which are very numerous, and, persistent for a long time on the branches, turn nearly black before falling. Pseudolarix, the so-called Golden Larch of Japan, is one of the handsomest and hardiest exotic trees which can be grown in the eastern United States into which it was introduced more than sixty years ago. It was not planted in the Arboretum until 1891, but the trees here are large enough to show their beauty and are already producing seeds. Pinus monticola, the western White Pine, is not as handsome as our native Pinus Strobus and will probably never be much planted in the eastern states. It is interesting, however, as the only Pine-tree of western North America, one of the chief homes of the genus, which is really hardy in the east. It has not yet been injured here by borers. The Rocky Mountain form of the Douglas Spruce is now too well known in eastern plantations to require comment. Junipers. The Arboretum collection of Junipers has improved in the last three or four years and now contains many interesting and healthy plants. It must be remembered, however, that the northeastern part of the United States has not the climate needed for the large number of the species which grow naturally either in warmer countries or in regions of small summer rainfall or of high altitude. The range of variation of the so-called Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana, although a much handsomer plant south of New England than it is here, is now well shown in the Arboretum collection which contains eighteen named varieties of this tree. Nearly all of these varieties are distinct, but in some cases the same or nearly the same plant has come to the Arboretum under more than one name. In color the most distinct of the varieties of the Red Cedar is the var. glauca with steel gray leaves, represented in the collection by a number of plants varying somewhat in habit but little in color. This form has not been attacked here by the red spider or by the other insects and the diseases which often disfigure and sometimes kill the common green-leaved form of this tree in Massachusetts. With the exception of Abies concolor this Juniper is the handsomest of the gray-leaved conifers which can be grown in this climate. Juniperus virginiana globosa, a plant with a cylindric, roundtopped little head which came from a Dutch Nursery, is interesting to the students of the now popular dwarf conifers. More beautiful is another Dutch form (var. Kosteriana), a flat-topped shrub from two to three feet high, with long, wide-spreading branches and open habit. This is a useful plant when it can be given sufficient space in which to spread, but is of course more open in habit than that form of the Red Cedar which sometimes grows on the exposed sea-cliffs of the Maine coast, and in such positions forming a wide mat only a few inches hign, is perhaps more beautiful than any other prostrate Juniper. Seedlings and grafted plants of this form are growing in the Arboretum but are too young to show if they can retain in more favorable surroundings the extreme prostrate habit due no doubt, in part at least, to the exposed position of the wind-swept sea-cliffs where these plants have grown. Among conifers with more or less pendulous branches few are more beautiful than the pendulous form of the Red Cedar (var. pendula). There are several of these trees in the collection, sent here from European nurseries or found in the country. They vary slightly among themselves but are all worth a place in the garden. Among the other varieties of the Red Cedar are several of compact habit and bright green leaves. The most distinct of these are perhaps the varieties elegantissima, pyramidalis, Schottii and Chamberlaynii. They probably originated in European nurseries from which they came to the Arboretum. The Juniper of northeastern continental Asia, J. chinensis, is a valuable tree and many of the varieties, especially those of dwarf habit, are popular. Some of these varieties are good garden plants, but others are usually so disfigured by the red spider that unless they are frequently and carefully sprayed they are not worth growing. The best of these dwarf plants, the var. Pfitzerzana, is a shrub with irregularly placed rather pendulous branches, which can be trained into a low broad pyramid a few feet high. The branches are sometimes broken by a heavy weight of snow, but nothing else seems to trouble this plant. There are other dwarf upright forms of the Chinese Juniper with green or with bright yellow leaves which are growing well here; and the form with prostrate branches forming a dense low mat found by Professor Sargent in Japan and named for him is the best of the Asiatic prostrate Junipers in the collection. An even more prostrate plant, in this climate, at least, the most reliable and the fastest growing of prostrate Junipers is the North American Juniperus horizontalis. This is widely distributed from the sea-cliffs of the coast of Maine to the northern Rocky Mountains. The behavior here of Juniperus conferta is disappointing. It is the Japanese sand-dune prostrate Juniper, ranging from Saghalin in the north to the tropical Lu-chu Islands in the south. It was first noticed by Europeans on the shore of Hakkodate Bay in the extremely cold climate of southern Hokkaido. A plant from this region might be expected to be hardy here and it is believed that this Juniper would prove useful to plant on the sand-dunes of Cape Cod and other parts of the north Atlantic coast. In the Arboretum, however, it exists only in sheltered positions and loses many branches every winter. This tenderness is due perhaps to the fact that it grows so late in the season that young wood does not become thoroughly ripened. When the right place is found for it Juniperus conferta with its pale green leaves will be one of the handsomest and most distinct prostrate Junipers. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23708","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170af6a.jpg","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics Abies brachyphylla, 2 cephalonica var. Apollinis, 2 concolor, 2, 65, 66, 67 grandis, 65 holophylla, 66 homolepis, 2, 65, 66 var. umbellata, 3, 65 Lowiana, 2 magnifica, 2 Parsonsii, 2 Acer Davidii, 2 ginnala, 60 griseum, 1 mandshuricum, 2, 60 platanoides, 64 var. globosum, 1 Aesculus, 19 arguta, 19 Briottii, 29 carnea, 29 discolor, var. flavescens, 36 var. mollis, 36 georgiana, 28, 36 glabra, var. Buckleyi, 19 Harbisonii, 31, 36 Hippocastanum, 29 hybrids of, 29, 30 octandra, 30 parviflora, 36 versicolor, 30 Aestivales Thorns, 21 Ailanthus, 57, 58, 59, 63, 64 altissima, 57, 58 var. erythrocarpa, 58 Giraldii, 59 glandulosa, 57 Vilmoriniana, 59 Almond, 6 Amelanchier asiatica, 19 Bartramiana, 19 canadensis, 10, 19, 51 grandiflora, 19, 51 laevis, 10, 19, 51 obovalis, 10 vulgaris, 19 Amelanchiers, 9, 10 American Elm, 64 Grape Vines, 53, 54, 55 Hawthorns, 21, 22, 23, 24, 47 Horsechestnuts, 19 Plum-trees, Some, 61, 62, 63 Andromeda floribunda, 12 japonica, 12 Anomalae Thorns, 23 Appalachian Azalea, 40 Apricots, 7 Arnold Arboretum Hybrids, 31, 32 Ashes, Mountain, 28, 59, 60 Asiatic Cherry-trees, 5 Crabapples, 15, 16 Lindens, 43, 44 Pear-trees, 13, 14 Autumn colors, 60 Azalea, Appalachian, 40 indica alba, 25 japonica, 52 ledifolia 25 mollis, 26 Schlippenbachii, 11, 12, 52 Azaleas, 9, 37 American, 19 early, 11 early-flowered American, 27 hybrid, 26, 27 Japanese, 25 Balkan Spruce, 2 Barberries, 35 Beach Plum, 63 Beech-trees, 16 Benzoin aestivale, 9 Berberis notabilis, 31 ottawensis, 31 Thunbergii, 31 Vernae, 35, 36, 51, 52 vulgaris, 31, 35 Betula Jackii, 31 Bignonia Family, 49 Big-tree Plum, 62 Birches, 60 Bitternut, 8 Bitter Sweets, 44 Black Pine of Japan, 2, 65 Black Pines, 65 Box Elder, 2, 60 Chinese, 1, 2 Brachyacanthae Thorns, 21, 22 Bracteatae Thorns, 23 Broad-leaved Evergreens, 2, 12 Buckeye Collection, The, 19 Buckeye, Ohio, 19 Buckeyes, 19, 28, 36 Burning Bush, Japanese, 60 Burning Bushes, 52 Bush Honeysuckles, 37 Canada Plum, 7 Carolina Hemlock, 66 Carya myristicaeformis, 8 Catalpa bignonioides, 49, 50 var. nana, 50 Bungei, 50 Bungei, 50 Duclouxii, 50 Fargesii, 50 hybrida, 50 ovata, 50 speciosa, 49, 50 Teasii, 50 Teas' Hybrid, 50 Catalpas, 49, 50 Cedar, Red, 66, 67, 68 Cedars of Lebanon, 2 Celastrus, 44 Cercidiphyllum, 16 Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, 65 Chamaedaphne calyculata, 12 var. minor, 12 Cherry, Cornelian, 3 Sargent, 6 Spring, 6 Weeping, 7 Cherry-tree, evergreen, 37 Cherry-trees, Asiatic, 5 Weeping Japanese, 7 Chickasaw Plum, 62 Chicken Grape, 54 Chinese Box Elder, 1 Cotoneasters, 51 Chinese Hemlock, 65 Juniper, 68 Rose, 28 Roses, 56 Sumach, 60 Syringa, 39 Cinnamon Rose, 56 Coccineae Thorns, 22 Cockspur Thorns, 22 Colorado White Fir, 66 Conifers, 65, 66, 67 Cork-tree, Siberian, 60 Cornelian Cherry, 3 Cornels, 30, 37 Cornus alternifolia, 30 arnoldiana, 31 controversa, 30 florida, 9, 30, 40 kousa, 30, 40 Chinese, 40 macrophylla, 30 mas, 3 Corylopsis,3 Gotoana, 3, 51 pauciflora, 4 spicata, 4 Veitchiana, 4 Willmottae, 4 Corylus Avellana, 8 chinensis, 8 Cotoneaster hupehensis, 51 multiflora calocarpa, 51 nitens, 51 racemiflora soongorica, 51 Crab, Parkman, 16 Crabapple, A new, 20 Crabapples, Asiatic, 15, 16 Crataegus aestivalis, 21 apiifolia, 23 aprica, 23 arkansana, 24 arnoldiana, 24 brachyacantha, 21 coccinioides, 22 cordata, 23, 47 nitida, 22 peregrina, 24 phaenopyrum, 47 punctata, 22 Crataegus rotundifolia, 22 saligna, 22 spathulata, 23 submollis, 24 viridis, 22 North American, 21, 22, 23, 24 Crimean Linden, 43 Crimson Rambler Rose, 56 Crus-galli Thorns, 22 Cryptomeria japonica, 65 Dilatatae Thorns, 22 Dirca palustris, 9 Dogwood, Flowering, 9 Douglas Spruce, 66, 67 Douglasianae Thorns, 23 Early Azaleas, 11 Early Lilacs, 18 Early-flowering Rhododendrons, 4 Early-flowering Viburnums, some 10 Effects of the Severe Winter, 1 Elder, Box, 60 Elm, American, 64 Hedge-row, 64 Elms, Old World, 64 European Linden, 42 Mountain Ash, 59, 60 Evergreen Cherry-tree, 37 Evergreens, broad-leaved, 2, 12 Evonymus alatus, 60 planipes, 51, 52 radicans, 48 var. vegetus, 48 Father Hugo's Rose, 56 Fir, Japanese, 2 Red, 2 White, 66 Firs, new Chinese, 65 Korean, 66 Flavae Thorns, 23 Flowering Dogwood, 9 Flowering Dogwoods, 40 Forsythia intermedia, 51 primulina, 31 spectabilis, 51 suspensa Fortunei, 51 viridis, 51 Fox Grape, 54 Fox Grape, Southern, 55 Fragrant Sumach, 9 Frost Grape, 54, 55 Ginkgo biloba, 66 Golden Larch, 66, 67 Grape, Chicken, 54 Fox, 54 Frost, 54, 55 Muscadine, 55 Summer, 55 Sweet Winter, 54 Grape Vines, 53, 54, 55, 56 American, 53, 54, 55 Chinese, 55 Japanese, 55 Grapes, Scuppernong, 55 Hamamelis incarnata, 3 mollis, 3, 51 Hawthorns, American, 21, 22, 23, 24, 47 Old World, 24 Hemlock, Carolina, 2, 66 Chinese, 65 Hickory, Nutmeg, 8 Shagbark, 8 Hickory-trees, 63 Hobble Bush, 10 Horsechestnut, European, 29 red-flowered, 29 Horsechestnuts, 19, 28 American, 19 Old World, 19 Hybrid Philadelphus, 39 Shad Bush, A, 19 Hybrids, Arnold Arboretum, 31 Intricatae Thorns, 23 Japanese Azaleas, 25 Burning Bush, 60 Cherry-trees, Weeping, 7 Fir, 2 Plm, 88 Japanese Sand Pears, 14 Spring Cherry, 6, 7 Juniper, Chinese, 68 Junipers, 67, 68 Juniperus chinensis, 68 var. Pfitzeriana, 68 conferta, 68 horizontalis, 68 Pinchotii, 1 virginiana, 67 var. Chamberlaynii, 68 var. elegantissima, 68 var. glauca, 68 var. globosa, 67 var. Kosteriana, 67 var. pendula, 68 var. pyramidalis, 68 var. Schottii, 68 Kaempfer's Azalea, 26 Kaido Crabapple, 16 Kalmia latifolia, 9 Kalmias,2 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 36 Larch, Golden, 66, 67 Late Flowering Lilacs, 33 Late-flowering Viburnums, 39 Laurel, 9 Leather Leaf, 12 Leatherwood, 9 Leaves, Unfolding, 16 Libocedrus decurrens, 65 Lilacs, 17, 18, 37 Early, 18 Late-fiowering, 33 Tree, 35 Linden, Crimean, 43 Lindens, 41, 42, 43, 44 American, 41, 42 Asiatic, 43, 44 European, 41, 42 Lombardy Poplar, 45 Lonicera amoena arnoldiana, 31 prostrata, 44 Macracanthae Thorns, 23 Magnolia cordata, 30 Fraseri, 30 kobus,3 stellata,3 Magnolia tripetala, 30 Malus arnoldiana, 15, 31, 32 Malus atrosanguinea, 20 baccata, 31 var. mandshurica, 16 Dawsoniana, 31 floribunda, 15, 20, 31 Halliana var. Parkmanii, 16 micromalus, 16 Niedzwetzkyana, 20, 32 pumila, 20 rubriflora, 31 rubrifolia, 32 sylvestris, 15 theifera, 20 Maple, Norway, 64 Sugar, 64 Maples, 16 Sugar, 60 May Haws, 21 Mexican White Pine, 2, 65 Microcarpae Thorns, 23 Mock Orange, 37 Molles Thorns, 24 Moosewood, 10 Mountain Ash, 60 Chinese, 27 European, 27, 59, 60 Mountain Ashes, 28, 59, 60 Muscadine Grape, 55 Neillia sinensis, 36, 51, 52 Norway Maple, 64 Dwarf form of, 1 Nutmeg Hickory, 8 Nut-trees, 63 Oak, Water, 64 Oaks, 60 Ohio Buckeye, 19 Old World Elms, 64 Parkman Crab, 16 Peach-tree, Wild, 7 Pears, Keiffer, 14 Lecomte, 14 Pear Trees, 13, 14 Asiatic, 13, 14 Pecan, 8 Periploca graeca, 44 sepium, 44 Phellodendron amurense, 60 Philadelphus, 37, 38, 39 Hybrid, 39 coronarius, 37, 38, 39 var. deutziaeflorus, 38 var. salicifolius, 38 cymosus, 39 Conquete, 39 Mer de Glace, 39 Norma, 39 Nuee Blanche, 39 Perle Blanche, 39 Rosace, 39 Voie Lactee, 39 Gordonianus, 38 hybrids of, 38 grandiflorus, 38, 39 inodorus, 38 insignis, 39 latafolius, 38 Lemoinei, 39 Magdalenae, 39 microphyllus, 38, 39 Monsieur Billard, 39 pekinensis, 39 polyanthus, 39 Gerbe de Neige, 39 Pavillon Blanc, 39 pubescens, 38 hybrids of, 38 purpurascens, 38, 39, 51 speciosus, 39 splendens, 38, 39, 40 virginalis, 39 Argentine, 39 Bouquet Blanc, 39 Glacier, 39 Virginal, 39 Picea Breweriana, 65 omorika, 2, 66 Sargentiana, 65 Pignut, 8 Pine, White, 66 Pines, Black, 65 new Chinese, 66 Pinus Armandi, 66 ayacahuite, 2, 65 echinata, 2 Pinus excelsa, 66 monticola, 66, 67 parviflora, 66, 67 pentaphylla, 67 Strobus, 66, 67 Thunbergii, 2, 65 Plum, Beach, 63 Big-tree, 62 Canada, 7 Chickasaw, 62 Wild, 63 Wild Goose, 62 Plums,7 Japanese, 8 Plum-trees, early-flowering, 5 Some American, 61, 62, 63 Pomette Bleue, 21 Poplar, Lombardy, 45 Prinsepia sinensis, 4, 51 Pruinosae Thorns, 22 Prunus americana, 63 angustifolia, 62 var. varians, 62 arnoldiana, 6, 31 caroliniana, 37 Cerasus, 6 concinna, 5 Davidiana, 7 domestica, 62 hortulana, 62, 63 incisa,5 var. Yanakei, 5 maritima, 63 mexicana, 62 Munsoniana, 62 nigra, 7 Reverchonii, 62 salicina,7 serrulata, 6 var. sachalinensis, 6 subhirtella, 6,7 var. ascendens, 7 var. pendula, 7 tomentosa, 5,6 var. endotricha, 6 triflora, 8 triloba, 6 var. plena, 6 Prunus venulosa, 62 Pseudolarix amabilis, 66, 67 Pseudotsuga taxifolia, 66 Pterocarya, 45 fraxinifolia, 31, 45 Rehderiana, 31, 46 rhoifolia, 46 stenoptera, 31, 46 Pulcherrimae Thorns, 23 Punctatae Thorns, 22 Pprus betulaefolia, 14 Bretschneideri, 14 Calleryana, 14 congesta, 31 ovoidea, 13 serotina, 14 ussuriensis, 13 var. ovoidea, 13 Quercus, 16 nigra, 64 Red Cedar, 66, 67, 68 Fir, 2 Rhododendron Albrechtii, 25 arbutifolium, 32 calendulaceum, 27, 40 canescens, 27 carolinianum, 32 catawbiense, 32 hybrids of, 32 Bismarck, 32 catawbiense album, 32 caucasicum, 32 hybrids of, 32 Boule de Neige, 32 Mont Blanc, 32 dauricum, 4 var. sempervirens, 4 hirsutum, 4 japonicum, 26, 51, 52 var. aureum, 26 Kaempferi, 26 Kosterianum, 26 Antony Koster, 26 Miss Louisa Hunnewell, 26 Metternichii, 32 mucronatum, 25 Rhododendron mucronulatum, 4 myrtifolium, 32 nudiflorum, 27 obtusum, 26 pentaphyllum, 25 poukhanense, 11 praecox, Early Gem, 4 Rehderianum, 25 reticulatum, 26, 27 var. albiflorum, 27 rhombicum, 26, 27 Schlippenbachii, 11, 51, 52 sinense, 26 Smirnowii, 32 Tschonoskii, 25 Vaseyi, 19, 27, 40 Rhododendrons, 2, 32, 50 Early Flowering, 4 Rhus canadensis, 9 javanica, 60 Rosa bella, 56 caudata, 56 cinnamonea, 28 Helenae, 56 Hugonis, 28, 51, 56 Moyesii, 56 multibracteata, 56 multiflora, 56 var. cathayensis, 56 omeiensis, 28, 56 var. pterocantha, 56 Roxburgii, var. normalis, 56 Rose, Chinese, 28 Cinnamon, 56 Crimson Rambler, 66 Father Hugo's, 56 Rotundifoliae Thorns, 22 Rowan Tree, 27 Sand Pears, Japanese, 14 Sargent Cherry, 6 Scuppernong Grapes, 55 Serbian Spruce, 66, 67 Service Berry, 10 Shad Bush, 10, 16 a hybrid, 19 Shagbark Hickory, 8 Shrubs, some good, 50 Siberian Cork-tree, 60 Silvicolae Thorns, 23 Sorbus alnifolia, 27 americana, 59 ' var. decora, 59 amurensis, 59 arnoldiana, 31, 32, 60 Aucuparia, 27, 31, 59, 60 var. dulcis, 59 var. moravica, 59 commixta, 59 discolor, 27, 31 pekinensis, 27, 59, 60 pohuashanensis, 59 Southern Fox Grape, 55 Spice Bush, 9 Spiraea Veitchii, 51, 52 Spring, a late, 3 Spring Cherry, 6 Spruce, Balkan, 2 Douglas, 66, 67 Serbian, 66 Spruce-trees, new Chinese, 65 Street Trees, 63, 64 Sugar Maple, 64 Sugar Maples, 60 Sumach, Chinese, 60 Fragrant, 9 Sweet Winter Grape, 54 Syringa, 37 Chinese, 39 affinis, 18 var. Giraldii, 18 amurensis, 35 Henryi var. eximia, 34 var. Lutece, 33, 34 hyacinthiflora, 18 ' japonica, 35 Josikaea, 33 Julianae, 34 Koehneana, 35 Meyeri, 18 microphylla, 34 oblata, 18 pekinensis, 35 pinnatifolia, 18 pubescens, 34 reflexa, 34 Syringa Sargentiana, 34 Sweginzowii, 34, 51, 52 tomentella, 34 1 villosa, 33, 34 vulgaris, 17, 18 Wilsonii, 34 Wolfii, 34 yunnanensis, 34 Taxus cuspidata, 66 Teas' Hybrid Catalpa, 50 Tenuifoliae Thorns, 22 Thorn, Washington, 23, 47 Thorns, Cockspur, 22 Thuya plicata, 66 Tilia americana, 41 argentea, 43 canadensis, 66 caucasica, 43 cordata, 42, 43, 44 dasystila, 43 euchlora, 43 glabra, 41, 42, 43 heterophylla, 42 var. Michauxii, 42 japonica, 44 monticola, 42 neglecta, 42 petiolaris, 43, 44 platyphyllos, 42, 43 var. asplenifolia, 42 var. pyramidalis, 42 var. vitifolia, 42 spectabilis, 43 var. Moltkei, 43 tomentosa, 43, 44 vulgaris, 42, 43 Tomentosae Thorns, 23 Traveller's Tree, European, 40 Tree of Heaven, 57, 58, 59 Tree Lilacs, 33, 35 Trees now in flower, some of the, 29 Trees, Street, 63, 64 Triflorae Thorns, 23 Tripterygium Regelii, 44 Tsuga caroliniana, 2, 66 chinensis, 65 diversifolia, 46 Tsuga heterophylla, 65 Ulmus campestris, 64 Uniflorae Thorns, 23 Viburnum alnifolium, 10, 47 Canbyi, 40, 47, 48 Carlesii, 11 cassinoides, 39, 40 dentatum, 40, 47 dilatatum, 40 furcatum, 11 Jackii, 31 lantana, 40 Lentago, 30 prunifolium, 30 Sieboldii, 30, 40 tomentosum, 40 venosum, 40, 47, 48 Wrightii, 40 Viburnums, 37 late-flowering, 39 some early-flowering, 10 the last, 47 Virides Thorns, 22 Vitis amurensis, 55 arizonica, 54 bicolor, 65 cinerea, 54 Coignetiae, 55 Vitis cordifolia, 54 Davidii, 55 Doaniana, 54 labrusca, 54, 55 Pagnuccii, 55 palmata, 54 pulchra, 55 rotundifolia, 55 rupestris, 54 vinifera, 55, 56 vulpina, 54 Walnut-trees, 63 Washington Thorn, 23, 47 Water Oak, 64 Weeping Cherry, 7 White Fir of Colorado, 66 White Pine, western, 66 Chinese, 66 Himalayan, 66 Japanese, 66 Mexican, 2, 65 western, 66 Wild Goose Plum, 62 Wild Plum, 63 Winter-flowering Witch Hazels, 3 Witch Hazels, 51 Zenobia pulverulenta, 48 var. nitida, 48"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23533","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260a36e.jpg","title":"1920-6","volume":6,"issue_number":null,"year":1920,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 1","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23697","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160b327.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 1, 1919 The winter of 1918-19 was as exceptional in its mildness as the previous winter was exceptional in its severity. The thermometer only once registered zero at the Arboretum, and although little snow fell the ground was at no time frozen to any great depth. No injury has apparently been done by the winter to any plant in the Arboretum, but it is interesting to note that the leaves of the eastern American Yew (Taxus canadensis) growing in a position fully exposed to the sun are browner this spring than they were a year ago. The mild winter had, too, a curious effect on the winter flowering Witch Hazels. The American species (Hamamelis vernalis) flowered as usual at the end of December and in early January, but the Japanese and Chinese species did not open their flower buds until the end of February or a month or six weeks later than in previous years. The Chinese Witch Hazel (H. mollis) has not before been so covered with flowers; and as the plants grow larger the value of this beautiful shrub for the decoration of the winter garden is more clearly shown. The flowers of no other Witch Hazel are so large and beautiful, and the handsome leaves turn to brilhant shades of yellow and orange before falling in November. This plant is still rare in American gardens and probably is not to be found in American nurseries. Seeds have not yet been produced in the Arboretum, and it is only by grafting it on the American species that the Chinese plant can be now increased. In spite of the mild weather in February and March vegetation in the Arboretum was not unusually advanced on the first of April. The Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) opened its flowers on the 6th of April, or only a day earlier than last year, and other April flowering shrubs have blossomed at their normal time. On April 2nd the temperature fell to 23 Fahrenheit. This ruined the flowers of the north China Peach (Prunus Davidiana) which were just opening and those of the earliest of the Azaleas (Rhododendron dahuricum) whose rose-colored corollas were just emerging from the buds. On the nights of the 24th and the 25th the thermometer registered as low as 24. This ruined the flowers of the early blooming Magnolias, but the flowers of the Forsythias, Cherries, Plums and Apricots show no signs of injury. Freezing weather in April is not unusual in New England and its effect on the flowers of different plants can well be studied by persons who have in mind the planting of spring gardens. The flowers of Magnolia stellata, M. denudata (better known as M. conspacua), M. kobus and its variety borealis, which open in April, are too often ruined by frost. To prevent this it is desirable to plant these trees and shrubs on the north side of other trees, and especially of evergreen trees, where the flowers may be expected to open seven or eight days later than on plants fully exposed to the sun. The hybrid Chinese Magnolias with pink or rose-colored flowers all bloom later than the whiteflowered species and their flowers are rarely injured by cold although the unfolding petals of some of these hybrids were badly discolored by the cold of the past week. These hybrids therefore, although their flowers are less beautiful than those of the species, are better garden plants in this climate. The best known of these hybrids is called M. Soulangeana, of which there are several varieties differing in the greater or less amount of pink or rose color in the petals. The flowers of Rhododendron dahuricum, as has already been stated, were spoiled this spring but last year were uninjured. Its variety with persistent leaves (var. sempervirens) bloomed a few days later and escaped injury. A few days later the flowers of the north China and Korean Rhododendron mucronulatum opened, and although now beginning to fade were in good condition during fully two weeks. A more southern plant and therefore inclined to bloom later than R. dahuricum, it is a better garden plant in this climate and one of the handsomest mid- April flowering shrubs in the Arboretum. The Cornelian Cherry (Cornus Mas) is another plant for which the frosts of April have no terrors. The small, bright yellow flowers arranged in many-flowered clusters open late in March or in early April and remain in good condition for three or four weeks. There is no record here of their injury by frost. This is a shapely shrub or small tree of excellent habit; the leaves are bright green and the scarlet or rarely yellow fruit, which ripens late in summer, is cherry-like in appearance. The Cornelian Cherry is a native of eastern Europe and western Asia, and has been grown in Old World gardens for three centuries. There is no better early flowering shrub for our northern gardens in which, although it was brought to America certainly more than a hundred years ago, it is still too little seen. Forsythias, after having lost a part of their flower-buds in three of the past five winters, are again covered with flowers which have not been injured by the cold of the past week. The Arboretum collection contains specimens of all the species and varieties, and of many hybrids, and is interesting as indicating possibilities in plant breeding, when hybridizers enter a broader field than the one to which they have generally confined their efforts. The natural crossing of species of Forsythias has produced plants with handsomer flowers than those of their parents. This is true of some Lilacs and Crabapples, and of many Spiraeas, Deutzias and Rhododendrons, and it is not improbable that from the new material which has come into gardens in recent years handsomer garden shrubs and more valuable trees than those we now possess will reward the patient labors of the plant breeder. To the hybrid Forsythias the general name of intermedia has been given. The parentage of these plants is not perfectly clear, although one of their parents is certainly the Chinrse F. suspensa var. Fortunei, the plant which is most often cultivated in American gardens. The handsomest of these hybrids and the handsomest Forsythia in the Arboretum collection, F. intermedia spectabilis, came here several years ago from a German nursery. The flowers of this form are bright yellow. Other handsome hybrids are var. primulina, with primrose-colored flowers, and var. pallida, with pale straw-colored flowers. The former appeared spontaneously in the Arboretum a few years ago. The flowerbuds of all Forsythias are often killed in severe winters, but those of these hybrids were for a long time believed to be hardier than those of the species, although in the winter of 1917-18 they suffered even more than those of their parents. Prunus persicoides. This is a hybrid between the Peach and the Almond, which also produces handsomer flowers than its parents. The plants of this hybrid were in full bloom during the excessive cold of last week which did not injure them. The flowers are an inch and a half in diameter, with a bright red calyx, pale pink or nearly white petals blotched with deep rose at the base, and bright red filaments. This hybrid as a flowering plant is, perhaps, the handsomest of all the Peach-Apricot-Almond group. It originated in Europe more than a hundred years ago, but if it has never been common in American gardens it is no longer so; and it is doubtful if it is known to any American nurseryman. The earliest Pear to flower, Pyrus ussuriensis, has been in bloom for more than a week and the flowers are untouched by frost. This is probably the largest of all Pear-trees as specimens occasionally occur in Korea sixty feet or more tall, with trunks 14 feet in circumference. The flowers are not as large as those of some of the other Chinese Pear-trees, and the fruit rs small and of no value. This tree, however, is exciting much interest among American pomologists who believe they have found in it a blight resisting stock on which to graft garden pears. The Cherries of Eastern Asia have never been more thickly covered with flowers than they have during the past week, and several of them are still worth a visit. The delicate petals of the flowers of these trees and shrubs seem able to bear without injury the coldest April weather Massachusetts has known for many years. The earliest Cherry to bloom in the Arboretum this spring was Prunus concinna, a small tree discovered by Wilson on the mountains of central China. In the Arboretum it first flowered when less than three feet high; it is perfectly hardy, and although the flowers, which are white with a wine-colored calyx, are less beautiful than those of several other Asiatic Cherries it does not seem possible for any plant of its size to produce a more abundant crop. There has always been misunderstanding about this plant in gardens as it was distributed by a London firm of nurserymen as Prunus subhirtella. Prunus tomentosa, a native of northern and western China begins to open its flowers only a day or two later than P. concinna. It is a shrub only five or six feet high, and when fully grown in abundant space for the spread of its branches often broader than tall. The flowers chen from pink buds as the leaves begin to unfold, and the bright red stalks and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals which are often blotched toward the base with rose color. The small fruit ripens in June and is scarlet covered with short hairs, and is sweet and of good flavor. This shrub is attracting the attention of pomologists, living in the dry cold interior region of the continent where it is hardy and where it produces fruit of considerable comestible value. A form discovered in western China by Wilson (var. endotracha) is now established in the Arboretum where it blooms rather later than the northern plant. The fruit of this variety is destitute or nearly destitute of hairs. Prunus incisa. This is another early flowering Cherry and a native of Japan where it is abundant on the eastern and southern slopes of Fuji-san and on the Hakkone Mountains. It is a large shrub or small tree with white or rarely pale rose-colored flowers which appear in drooping clusters before the deeply~~obed leaves. The petals fall early, but the calyx, which gradually grows brighter in color, remains for some time on the young fruit and is showy. P. incisa is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has now flowered for several seasons. For some reason this beautiful plant, however, is rare in American and European gardens. Prunus triloba. Among the flowers of early spring few are more lovely than those of this little Almond from northern China which, in spite of the fact that it has flowered in the Arboretum every spring for thirty years, is still little known, although the form with double flowers (var. plena) is a common garden plant in this country and is often forced under glass for winter decoration. The single-flowered plant should be better known. It is a tall shrub with a rather irregular habit of growth. The flowers, which are pink, are produced in profusion."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 6","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23702","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd1608525.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 6, 1919 Japanese Cherry-trees. Of the numerous Asiatic Cherry-trees now established in the Arboretum the handsomest with single flowers are Prua~ua serrulata var. sachalinensis, the Sargent Cherry, P. aubhirtella, and P. yedoensis. These three trees have flowered and produced their fruit for many years in the Arboretum, and have shown the ability to adapt themselves perfectly to the peculiar and difficult conditions of the New England climate. P. serrulata var. sachalinensis is the northern form of a Cherry-tree which occurs in three varieties in Japan, Korea, and central China. It was once an important tree in the forests of northern Japan and Saghalien but has now been largely cut for the wood which has been used for printing blocks. This Cherry was first raised here from seeds sown in 1890, and when in flower is the handsomest tree introduced by the Arboretum into western gardens. The delicate pink or rose-colored flowers are short-lived, but the handsome foliage which is distinctly tinged with red as the leaves unfold turns to brilliant shades of orange and red in the autumn. Prunus serrulata and its varieties have produced a number of forms with double flowers, and these are the hardiest and most valuable of the doubleflowered Japanese Cherries which can be grown successfully in this climate. There are fourteen double-flowered named varieties of the Sargent Cherry in the Arboretum Collection, but only two or three of them are large enough to have flowered here. These double-flowered Cherries bloom two or three weeks later than the single-flowered trees, and from these may be expected some of the handsomest flowering trees which are hardy in the north. Although double-flowered Japanese Cherry-trees have been cultivated in the United States and Europe for fully sixty years, they have never grown to a large size or given much satisfaction in western gardens. The trouble has been in the stock on which these double-flowered plants have been grafted. The proper stock for them is naturally the single-flowered species of which they are varieties, and if such stock is used there can be little doubt that larger and healthier trees will be secured than have been obtained when other species have been used as stock in Japanese and in American and European nurseries. It is fortunate that the plants of the Sargent Cherry produce every year good crops of seeds in the Arboretum ; these seeds are carefully gathered and widely distributed so that there is reason to hope that in a few years this tree will adorn many American parks and gardens and supply stock on which the handsomest of the double-flowered Cherries can be successfully grafted. Prunus subhirtella. This is the Spring Cherry of the Japanese, which one traveller has described as the most delightful and floriferous of all Japanese Cherries. It is a large shrub rather than a tree, and few plants can produce more flowers than the two large specimens in the Arboretum where they have been growing for twenty-five years. The flowers are drooping, pale pink becoming nearly white as they begin to fade. Those of no other single-flowered Cherry which has been grown in the Arboretum last so long in good condition. This Cherry is not known as a wild plant, but it is a good deal cultivated in the gardens of western Japan although rare in those of Tokyo. Unfortunately it does not reproduce itself from seed, for the seedlings are those of a tall slender tree common in the forests of central Japan to which the name of Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens has been given. This is still a rare tree in cultivation and its value in this climate is not yet established. A form of the variety ascendens of Prunus subhirtella has pendulous branches and is the well known Japanese Weeping Cherry-tree (var. pendula) now common in American gardens. Prunus subhirtella can be slowly propagated by soft wood cuttings, but the best way to increase it is by grafting or budding it on its own seedlings. Seeds are produced in quantity on the Arboretum plants and will be distributed to nurserymen anxious to obtain stock on which to work the true P. subhirtella. When the stocks are ready the Arboretum will supply a moderate number of grafts, and the nurseryman who will make it his business to produce a supply of this beautiful Cherry for American gardens will do a good thing for this country and incidentally for himself. Prunus yedoensis. This is the Cherry-tree which has been planted in great numbers in the squares, parks and temple grounds of Tokyo. It is a fast-growing short-lived tree rarely fifty feet high, with a short trunk not more than a foot in diameter and wide-spreading or erect branches. The flowers are white and slightly fragrant, and are followed by abundant small black fruit. This Cherry reproduces itself from seed and there is therefore no reason why it should not be common in American gardens. Amelanchiers. Shad Bushes, as Amelanchiers are often called because they are supposed to flower when shad begin to ascend the rivers from the sea, add much to the beauty in early May of the Arboretum where they have been planted in considerable numbers. Amelanchier is almost entirely confined to North America where many species are found from Saskatchewan to Louisiana and from the Atlantic to the Pacific, one extra American species occurring in central Europe and another in central China. All Amelanchiers produce abundant pure white flowers in short drooping racemes, and blue-black sweet and edible berry-like fruits. The American species vary from shrubs hardly more than a foot or two high up to trees exceptionally sixty or seventy feet tall. The first species to flower, A. canadensis, is the larger of the two tree species, and although it grows in western New York to a large size it is more common in the south where it is often the only species. The more common northern tree, A. laevis, is a native of the Arboretum and is readily distinguished in early spring by the purple color of its young leaves. A. oblongifolia, which is a large arborescent shrub, is also a native of the Arboretum. It is this species which is gray in early spring from the thick felt of pale hairs on the young leaves and flower-clusters, and which has been largely planted along the Arboretum drives and is in bloom this week. A large collection of the shrubby species, American and foreign, is in the border on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road and on some of these plants flowers will open until nearly the end of May. For the lovers of flowers the season of Shad Bushes is one of the interesting periods in the Arboretum. Unfolding leaves. The leaves of many trees are highly colored when they first unfold and such trees, like many of the American Oaks, are as distinct and attractive in the spring as they are in their autumn colors. In Massachusetts Oak leaves are still closely infolded in their buds, but young leaves now give beauty and distinction to at least two Asiatic trees, Cercidiphyllum japonicum and Acer griseum. The former is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum, having been raised here first in 1878. It is the largest Japanese tree with deciduous leaves, growing from the ground with numerous great stems. The flowers and fruits are inconspicuous, but the pyramidal habit of the tree is handsome and interesting. It owes its name to the shape of the leaves which resemble those of the Redbud (Cercis); these as they unfold are of a delicate rose pink color, and although they turn clear bright yellow in the autumn it is during the last week of April and in the first days of May that the Cercidiphyllum is more beautiful than at any other season of the year. Acer griseu~n is a Chinese Box Elder or Negundo discovered by Wilson in central China, and just now very distinct in the red color of the young leaves. This Maple as it grows on the mountains of China is a tree sometimes seventy feet high, with a short trunk and a rather narrow head of ascending branches. Among Maples it is distinct in the beautiful lustrous bright reddish brown bark which separates freely in thin plates like that of some Birch-trees. This is the most distinct and the handsomest of the Maples introduced from China in recent years which have proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum, but unfortunately it is still extremely rare in western gardens. Prinsepia sinensis is again covered with clusters of bright yellow flowers which spring from the axils of the half-grown leaves. This Prinsepia is a tall broad shrub with long spreading and arching branches, and stems armed with many spines. It is perfectly hardy and the handsomest shrub Manchuria has contributed to western gardens. There are only two specimens in the Arboretum and these came here from Petrograd in 1903 and 1906, and it has been found difficult to propagate them by cuttings. Fortunately last year one of the plants produced for the first time a few seeds and these have germinated, so there is reason to hope if the Arboretum plants become more fruitful that this species will be a common ornament in northern gardens. It has much to recommend it as a hedge plant. The species from northern China, P. uniflora, is a spiny shrub with small white flowers, and although it has little beauty its value for forming impenetrable hedges may prove considerable. Prunus dasycarpa, which is sometimes called the Black Apricot from the dark color of its slightly downy fruit, is the first of May one of the handsome flowering trees in the Arboretum. It growa here both as a great round-headed shrub with several stems or as a tree with a single trunk, and every year is completely covered with its flowers composed of pure white petals and a bright red calyx. This tree, although it has been known in European gardens for at least a century, is apparently extremely rare in the United States. Its origin is doubtful; it has been considered a native of Siberia, but it is now generally acknowledged that it is a hybrid between a Plum and an Apricot. Although this tree has been growing in the Arboretum for twenty years, there is no record that it has produced fruit here on more than two occasions. Two Useful Shrubs. Two plants useful for covering the margins of drives and the borders of shrubberies, Rhus canadensis (aronzatzca) and the Yellow Root (Xcznthorrhiza apiifolia) are covered with flowers. Those of the former are small, pale yellow, arranged in compact heads, and appear before or with the unfolding of the leaves composed of three leaflets; those of the Yellow Root are purple in long drooping, terminal racemes. The flowers of these two eastern American plants are attractive, but their great horticultural value is in their habit of growth. The height of the Rhus is from two to four feet, with spreading branches, the lowest flat on the ground, and with an irregular top. In the autumn the leaves turn bright scarlet. For road borders and to plant when it is desirable to make a connection between larger shrubs and the ground no other plant which has been tried here has proved so successful. The Yellow Root is a dwarf shrub which soon spreads over a wide border and forms with its erect stems and divided leaves an excellent ground cover. Unfortunately it has failed to grow well in those parts of the country where the soil is strongly impregnated with lime."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 10","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23698","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160b36c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V N0. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 10, 1919 New Chinese Cherry-trees. Among the numerous Cherries raised at the Arboretum from the seeds collected by Wilson in western China there are six which are good additions to the early spring flowering trees which can be successfully grown in this climate. The handsomest probably is Prunus serrulata pubescens. This tree is of the same species as the Sargent Cherry (P. serrulata sachaLircercsis), but is smaller, rarely growing in the forests which are its home to a greater height than fifty feet; the flowers open nearly a week later and are white faintly tinged with rose, and somewhat smaller. The leaves, too, are less deeply tinged with bronze color as they unfold. As it grows in the Arboretum the branches of this Cherry are ascending and slightly spreading, and form a narrow, open, graceful head. Plants raised from seeds which were gathered on the mountains of China only twelve years ago are seventeen or eighteen feet high, and have been covered this spring with flowers. This is the most widely distributed of these Cherries as it is spread over central and northern China to Korea and through Japan to Saghalien. Prunus serrulata spontanea differs from the last only in the absence of hairs on the young leaves and flower-clusters which are peculiar to that species, although the flowers, at least in some individuals, are slightly more tinged with rose, and the unfolding leaves are of a deeper color. This tree is almost as widely distributed as the last but does not range as far north in Japan. Prunus canescens is a smaller tree. Its greatest beauty, perhaps, is found in the bark of the trunk which is dark orange-brown, very lustrous, and separates freely into large persistent papery scales much curled on the margins. The flowers, which are small and purple10 rose color, cover the leafless branches from end to end and are more fragrant than those of any other Cherry in the collection. Another Cherry which should find a place in collections for the beauty of its dark lustrous birchlike bark is Prunus serrula thxbetiea, an inhabitant of the forests which cover the high mountains of the Chinese Thibetan border. It has a low, broad, round-topped head with a trunk unusually large for the height of the tree. This tree has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Prunus Dielsiana, in habit and color of its bark, resembles the European Prunus avium, but the flowers are slightly larger and sometimes faintly tinged with pink. Pa-unu,s pilosiuscula is a tree of medium size and is chiefly valuable for the earliness of its flowers which open with those of P. concinna and P. tomentosa; they appear before the leaves and are pink, and solitary or in small two- or three-flowered short-stalked clusters. New Chinese Pear-trees. Among the Pear-trees raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China Pyrus Calleryana has created the most interest among American pomologists who now believe that they have in it a stock on which to graft the garden Pears more resistant to blight than any that has yet been tried; and the seeds now produced in large quantities by the trees in the Arboretum are sought by the Department of Agriculture of the United States and by nurserymen who are anxious to provide the country with a possible remedy for the disease which has destroyed many American Pear-orchards. The new Chinese Pears have grown even more rapidly than the Chinese Cherries, and among them are beautiful clean-stemmed specimens from seventeen to twenty feet high, only twelve years old from the seed, and now giving every promise of reaching the height of fifty feet which these trees often attain on their native mountain sides. P. Calleryana is a shapely pyramidal tree more compact in habit than the other Chinese species. The flowers are smaller, and the globose brownn fruit is hardly more than a third of an inch in diameter. To students of cultivated fruits Pyrus serotina, another of Wilson's introductions, is of particular interest, for this tree of the mountain forests of western China is now believed to be the origin of the brown or yellowish, round, hard and gritty Sand Pears which in many varieties the Japanese have cultivated from time immemorial and which must have been introduced into Japan probably by the way of Korea. In the early days of western intercourse with Japan many varieties of the Sand Pear were brought to the United States and Europe, but except for the beauty of their flowers and fruits they have proved to be of little value, for the fruit is so hard and so full of grit that it is not even worth cooking. It was probably forms of the Sand Pear crossed with one of the cultivated garden Pears which produced the Leconte and Keiffer Pears from which much was at one time expected in this country, especially in the southern states, but which have proved so susceptible to blight that the cultivation of these trees has been now largely abandoned. The flowers of Pyrus serotina are larger than those of P. Calleryana, but there is little beauty in their small brown fruit; and the habit of the tree with its long spreading branches forming an open irregular head is not particularly attractive. Of better habit is Pyrus serrulata, a fast-growing tree with large flowers which have been only sparingly produced in the Arboretum. The Chinese form of Pyrus pashia raised from Wilson's seeds is also established in the Arboretum where it is now flowering. The Himalayan form of this tree was first sent to Europe in 1825, but has not been tried in the Arboretum where it would probably not be hardy. In addition to the four Pear-trees from western China there are five other Chinese species established here, P. ussuriercsis, the wild Pear-tree of Korea and Manchuria, and extending into northern China and into Japan; P. Bretschneideri, a northern tree with juicy yellow fruit of good flavor; P. ovoidea, another northern species with yellow fruit tapering from a broad base to a narrow apex, and P. betulaefolia and P. phaeocarpa, species with smally brown fruit, that of the latter globose on some individuals and pyriform on others. Taken as a whole the Chinese Peartrees make one of the interesting groups in the Arboretum, and as early spring flowering trees they take rank with the Crabapples, although the open flowers, which are often tinged with pink while in the bud, are white and so lack the variety of colors which add so much beauty to the flower-buds and flowers of the Asiatic Crabapples. Two Korean Azaleas. Two of its most beautiful plants have come to the Arboretum from Korea, Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii and R. (Azalea) poukhanense. The former is a shrub which on the wind-swept, grass-covered cliffs of the Korean coast rises only a few inches above the surface of the ground, but in the forests of the north is a shrub twelve or fifteen feet high with a tall, stout stem. The leaves of this Azalea are clustered at the ends of the branches, and are broadest at the apex; they are larger than those of most Azaleas, becoming sometimes three inches long and an inch or an inch and a half wide. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are in clusters, pale pink with dark spots at the base of the upper three lobes of the corolla, and three inches in diameter. There can be little doubt of the hardiness of this Azalea, for in northern Korea it grows to its largest size where the thermometer falls to 30 below zero Fahrenheit and a freezing temperature is not uncommon in August. In the Arboretum the flower-buds were not injured by the cold winter of 1917-18 on plants growing in an exposed position. Although known to Russian botanists as long ago as 1870 this plant does not appear to have attracted the attention of western gardeners until 1892 when the late J. H. Veitch found a plant growing in a nursery in Tokyo and sent it to England. In the edition of the Catalogue of the Yokohama Nursery Company, of 1901, Azalea Schlippenbachii appeared, and at about this time it was imported by Mr. Thomas E. Proctor and planted in his garden in Topsfield, Massachusetts, where the plants are still growing. These are the oldest and largest in the United States, for the Arboretum plants were raised here from seeds brought home by Mr. J. G. Jack from Korea. R. Schlippenbachii, although it has remained exceedingly rare in western gardens, will probably be much better known in a few years, for in the autumn of 1917 Mr. Wilson sent from Korea a large quantity of the seeds to the Arboretum. These were distributed among the best gardeners in the United States and in Europe, and as several thousand seedlings have been raised in the Arboretum nurseries, there seems now to be no reason why this beautiful plant should not become one of the chief beauties of spring gardens in regions too cold for the successful cultivation of any other Azalea with such large and beautiful flowers. The other Korean Azalea now in flower, R. poukhanense, is a smaller plant, rarely growing more than three feet high on the Pinecovered mountain slopes of the central part of the peninsula. It was first raised at the Arboretum from seeds also brought home by Mr. Jack, and its beautiful rose-lilac, fragrant flowers have been freely produced here now every spring for several years. As it grows in the Arboretum this Azalea is a low, broad, round-topped shrub with its lower branches close to the ground. Roots are produced by such branches and would, if cut off and planted, probably soon produce flowering plants. Rhododendron poukhanense, although practically unknown as a garden plant beyond the limits of the Arboretum, deserves a place in all New England collections. These two Azaleas are now in bloom on Azalea Path where R. (Azalea) Kaempferi will soon be covered with its red or salmon-colored flowers, and R. (Azalea) rhombicum has been in bloom during the past week. This is a hardy Japanese species with rose-purple flowers which are beautiful on plants so placed that the color of the flowers does not conflict with that of other Azaleas. Early flowering Viburnums. Two Viburnums have been flowering for several days, one from northeastern North America and the other from the sea cliffs of southern Korea. The American species, Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood of cold wet northern woods, is one of the species with wide flat clusters of small flowers surrounded by a ring of showy white sterile flowers; the fruit is red when fully grown but finally becomes black, and the large leaves turn deep wine color in the autumn. The Korean species, Viburnum Carlesii, is fast becoming a popular plant in American gardens. The chief value of this shrub is in the white extremely fragrant flowers which are produced in compact clusters and open from rose-pink buds. The buds do not all open at the same time and the mixture of pink buds with open flowers adds greatly to the interest and beauty of this shrub. The Asiatic Crabapples are beginning to bloom and Malus baccata var. mandshurica, M. micromalus and M. Halliana have been in flower for several days. The large white flowers of the first of these trees are more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple in the collection which now contains all the species and many varieties and hybrids."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23699","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160b76d.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 16, 1919 Asiatic Crabapples. The flowering of these trees makes one of the principal spectacular displays of the year in the Arboretum; and of these displays only that made by the Lilacs attracts a larger number of visitors. Most of the plants will be in flower when this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers who can see these trees and shrubs on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road entering by the Forest Hills gate, and in a larger and more complete collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Among these Crabapples are a number of small trees which should find a place in every northern garden for few trees which are hardy in New England are more beautiful when covered in May with their white, pink or rose-colored flowers, or in autumn when the branches are loaded with their brilliant red, scarlet or yellow fruits. Malus baccata mandshurica is the earliest of these Crabapples to open its flower-buds in the Arboretum. A native of Manchuria, Korea and northern Japan, it is the eastern form of the better known Malus baccata, the Siberian Crabapple, which reached Europe more than a century ago and for a long time was one of only two Asiatic Crabapples known in western gardens. The Manchurian form as it grows in the Arboretum is a tree twelve or fifteen feet tall and broad; the flowers, which are produced in profusion, are pure white, rather more than an inch across, and more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. The fruit is round, yellow or red, and not larger than a large pea. A form of this tree (var. Jackii) brought from Korea by Mr. Jack in 1905 is distinguished by its large, dark scarlet fruit. The Manchurian Crabapple, which is still rare in this country, for the fragrance of the flowers alone should find a place in all collections. Malus cerasifera. This is another of the early flowering Crabapples and is believed to be a hybrid between M. baccata and M. prunifolia. Planted in good soil and allowed sufficient room for development it will grow into a large shapely tree with a broad, round-topped, irregular head of spreading often drooping branches. The flowers are fragrant and larger than those of the other Asiatic Crabapples, with pure white or occasionally greenish petals; and the fruit, which varies in size on different plants, is globose and dull red. Malus micromalus, which is also an early flowering plant, is one of the least known of the Crabapples. It was first sent to Europe from Japan by Von Siebold in 1856 under the name of \"Kaido,\" a name which in Japan belongs to Malus Halliana. In Japan this tree is rare and known only in gardens, and by Japanese botanists is believed to have been introduced into their country from China and to be a hybrid possibly of M. baccata with M. spectabilis. The habit of this plant is more pyramidal than that of other Crabapples and this habit makes the plants conspicuous in the collection. The largest plants are covered this year with their small, pale pink, delicate flowers which will be followed by light yellow fruit, often rose color on one cheek. A plant of Malus micromalus first came to the Arboretum from the Paris Museum in 1888 and the plants now growing here are descendants of that plant. It is still one of the rarest of the Asiatic Crabapples in western gardens. Malus Halliana, with its form Parkmanii which has double flowers, is perhaps the most distinct of all Crabapples in the color of its rosered flowers. It is a shapely small tree, with erect and spreading stems forming a narrow vase-like head, and dark green leaves. The globose reddish fruit is not larger than a small pea. The Parkman Crab was among the first Japanese trees to reach this country direct, having been sent by Dr. George R. Hall in 1862 to Boston where it was first planted in Mr. Francis Parkman's garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. This Crabapple is a favorite in Japanese gardens where it is known as \"Kaido,\" but has not been found in a wild state. Whatever its origin the Parkman Crab is one of the most distinct and beautiful of the small trees which flower here during the early days of May. Malus theifera from central and western China is closely related to Hall's Crab. It is one of Wilson's introductions through seeds sent to Veitch in 1900 and in 1907 to the Arboretum where it is now twelve feet high. It has upright, spreading, rather zigzag branches which are densely studded with short spurs which bear numerous clusters of flowers rose-red in the bud, becoming pale and almost white when fully expanded. In central China the peasants collect the leaves and from them prepare the palatable beverage which they call red tea. From this fact the specific name is derived. Malus floribunda, by many persons considered the most beautiful of Crabapples, was introduced into Holland by Von Siebold in 1853 from Nagasaki, Japan. The place where it grows wild still remains unknown, although probably it is one of the high mountains of Kyushu. Japanese botanists and nurserymen confuse it with the Parkman Crab, and Wilson has not seen it in Japanese gardens. It is a broad, roundtopped, treelike shrub sometimes twenty-five feet tall with stout branches and slender arching and pendent branchlets. The clustered flowers are white when fully expanded, rose-red in the bud, and as they open in succession the two colors make a beautiful contrast. The fruit is about the size of a pea, yellowish or yellowish brown; from some plants it falls in the early autumn, on others it remains on the branches during the winter or until devoured by birds who are particularly fond of it. Several plants with persistent fruit are growing close to the Administration Building in the Arboretum, and during the winter are filled with numerous species of birds, including pheasants who are fond of these Crabapples. A hybrid between M. floribunda and perhaps M. cerasifera appeared in the Arboretum among a lot of seedlings of M. floribunda in 1883 and has been named M. Arnoldiana. It has the habit and abundant flowers of M. floribunda, but the flowers and fruit are nearly twice as large. It is a handsomer plant than M. floribunda and one of the most beautiful of the Crabapples in the Arboretum. Malus Sieboldii is another of the species introduced from the gardens of Japan into Europe by Von Siebold in 1853. It is a low, dense shrub of spreading habit with the leaves on vigorous branchlets threelobed, small flowers white tinged with rose in color, and small yellow fruits. A good specimen may be seen on the left hand side of the Forest Hills Road. Von Siebold's Crab is really a dwarf form of a species common on the Korean Island of Quelpaert, and on the mountains of central Japan and Hokkaido, to which the name var. arborescens has been given. This is a tree often thirty feet or more tall, with ascending, wide-spreading branches, twiggy branchlets and minute fruit yellow on some and red on other individuals. Although the flowers are small, they are produced in immense quantities, and this species has the advantage of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. Another variety of Von Siebold's Crab (var. calocarpa), raised in the Arboretum from seed sent in 1890 from the Nikko mountains of Japan by Dr. W. Sturgis Bigelow of Boston, has bright red fruits each half an inch in diameter. When in fruit this is the handsomest of the Japanese Crabapples. Malus Sargentii from salt marshes in the neighborhood of Muroran in northern Japan, where it was discovered by Professor Sargent in 1892, has qualities which give it a field of usefulness peculiarly its own. This species is a dwarf with rigid and spreading branches, the lower branches flat on the ground; it is well suited for covering slopes and banks. The flowers are in umbel-like clusters, saucer-shaped, round and of the purest white, and are followed by masses of wine-colored fruit which is covered by a slight bloom and unless eaten by birds remains on the plants well into the spring. Malus spectabilis, cultivated by the Chinese from time immemorial and introduced from Canton in 1780, was the first of the Asiatic Crabapples cultivated in Europe. Like several other species it is not yet known in a wild state but is probably of hybrid origin. It is at from twenty-five to thirty feet high, with a wide vase-shaped crown made of numerous spreading and ascending branches and short branchlets. The flowers are pale pink, more or less semidouble and very fragrant: and the fruits are pale yellow, nearly globose, and about threequarters of an inch in diameter. Malus Scheideckeri is supposed to be a hybrid between M. spectabilis and some unknown species, possibly M. micromalus. It is a small pyramidal tree with small flowers produced in great abundance, and is well worth a place in every collection of these trees. Malus prunifolia var. rinki, the Apple cultivated in Japan for its fruit before the advent of foreigners and of Chinese origin, has been mentioned in former Bulletins, notably that of May 15, 1916. The wild type of this apple was discovered by Wilson in central China in 1907. From seeds sent to the Arboretum plants were raised and one of them is now blooming for the first time; it is on Bussey Hill, in the collection of Chinese Apples, Pears and Cherries. This is now a small tree about ten feet high, with flowers like those of the common Apple and fully an inch and a half across. The fruit of rinki is longer than broad, yellow with a reddish cheek or entirely red, and the persistent calyx is raised, and not depressed as in the common Apple. This is the wild parent of the race of Apples long cultivated in the Orient, and since it fruits freely in the hot moist valleys of central China equally as well as in the cold regions of northern Korea it may prove of value to pomologists in breeding new races of Apples. Space does not permit even a brief mention of all the species and hybrids of all the Asiatic Crabapples in the Arboretum collection. Among them, however, are trees suitable for the avenue, park or garden, shrubs for lawn borders and the slopes of banks, all absolutely hardy in the coldest parts of New England, and all to be depended upon to produce in spring blossoms in profusion. The plants grow quickly in good soil, love to have the breezes blow freely through their branches, and many of them begin to flower and produce fruit when only a few years old. In collections like that of the Arboretum they hybridize freely, and the species can only be propagated by grafting or budding. Asiatic Quinces. In the Shrub Collection many varieties of these plants are growing and are now in full bloom. The flowers vary from white, flesh, pink and salmon to scarlet and fiery crimson, and no group of plants has more vivid blossoms. The numerous forms are derived from the Chinese Chaenomeles lagenaria (better known perhaps as Pyrus japonica), and the true Japanese C. japonica (C. Maulei) and have been cultivated for many centuries in the gardens of China and Japan. The earliest of the Lilacs to bloom, the Chinese Syringa affinis and S. oblata, are in flower and the collection will probably be at its best about May 24th. The red-flowered Japanese Azalea (Rhododendron Kaempferi) is just opening its flowers on Azalea Path, and Fothergillas, many Spiraeas, Pearl Bushes, many Honeysuckles, Barberries and other interesting plants will be in bloom when this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 23","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23700","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160bb6e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 23, 1919 Lilacs. Many additions to the Lilacs which can be cultivated in our gardens have been made during the last fifty years, and there are now in the Arboretum collection some twenty-three species, several hybrids, and one hundred and sixty or seventy forms of the common garden Lilac (Syringa vulgaris). Lilacs to most people mean tall bushes with lilac-colored or with white fragrant flowers, the forms of Syringa vulgaris found in all old gardens and known in the eastern states at least since the middle of the 18th century, the plants loved by Washington and planted by him in his garden at Mt. Vernon. A good example of these old-fashioned Lilacs can be seen in the Arboretum on the east slope of Bussey Hill just below the overlook. These Lilacs were planted at least a hundred years ago by Benjamin Bussey on each side of one of his garden walks which they have now obliterated. These old Lilac bushes bloom every year and their flowers, although small, are more fragrant than those of many of the modern varieties. Although the common Lilac reached England from Constantinople as early as 1593 it is only in comparatively recent years that horticulturists have seriously undertaken the task of improving the flowers by selecting and propagating the most distinct seedling forms and by crossing these among themselves. The largest number of these improved forms of the common Lilac have been made by the French nurseryman Lemoine of Nancy; many of the good varieties were raised in Germany and in recent years Mr. John Dunbar of Rochester, New York, has raised a few seedling Lilacs which seem destined to find a permanent place in gardens. Only a few hybrids between species of Lilacs have yet been raised, but the crossing of some of the new Chinese species might well produce forms unlike any of the Lilacs now in cultivation. At present only four hybrid races of Lilacs are in cultivation. The first of these appeared about 1810 in the Botanic Garden at Rouen in France, and originated probably by a natural cross between the common and the Persian Lilac (S. persica). Through some unfortunate confusion of names the plant is called Syringa chinensis; a much better name for it is S. rothomagensis which it is often called. This is a vigorous shrub often fifteen feet tall and broad, with narrow leaves and great clusters of small red flowers so heavy that the slender branches droop under their weight. Where plenty of room can be given it this is one of the best of all Lilacs. There is a form with pale flesh-colored, nearly white flowers which is not as handsome as the red-flowered form, and there are other varieties which differ in the slightly darker color of the flowers. The next hybrid Lilac to appear, Syringa hyacinthiflora, is the result of crossing S. vulgaris with S. oblata, a large round-topped shrub from northern China with broad, thick, lustrous leaves and small clusters of large, exceedingly fragrant, lilac-purple flowers. This hybrid has the habit and the foliage of S. oblata and small, semidouble, violet, fragrant flowers in small clusters. It blooms earlier than any of the forms of S. vulgaris, but has little to recommend it as a garden plant. The general name of Syringa Henryi has been given to a group of hybrids between the Hungarian S. Josikaea and the Chinese S. villosa, raised several years ago at the Museum in Paris. These plants, like both of their parents, bloom after the flowers of S. vulgaris have faded; they have the dark blue-violet flowers of the Hungarian plant and the large leaves of S. villo~a. The handsomest of this breed is called Lutece and is a valuable addition to the late-flowering Lilacs. The latest of the hybrid Lilacs was raised by Lemoine by crossing S. vulgaris with the variety of the Chinese S. a~anis with fragrant violet-colored flowers (var. Giraldii). The plants of this hybrid grow rapidly and have the tall loose habit of the Chinese plant; like it, too, they bloom early and their flowers are fragrant. Forms of this hybrid appeared in Lemoine's recent catalogue under the names of Berryer, Claude Bernard, Lamartine, Mirabeau, Pascale and Vauban. These have only recently been added to the Arboretum collection and it is too soon to speak of their value here as garden plants. Among the Chinese species which have been introduced in the last forty years those which will certainly retain a permanent place in gardens are S. pubescens, S villosa, S. Sweginzovii, S. tomentella, S. Julianae and S. Komarowii. By crossing the seedling varieties of S. vulgaris the blooming period of the Lilac has been extended, the size of the flowers and of the flower-clusters has been increased. many forms with double flowers have been raised; and new colors ranging from pale pink to dark red and to blue have been produced. As with Roses, some of the new forms have lost much of the fragrance of the flowers which is one of the great qualities of the old-fashioned garden Lilacs. Chinese Cotoneasters. Many of these plants are now in flower in the Shrub Collection and among the Chinese plants on Bussey Hill. There are twenty-four species and varieties of these plants established in the Arboretum, raised from seeds collected by Wilson in central and western China, and taken as a whole this is the group of shrubs introduced by the Arboretum from China which promises to be of the greatest value for the decoration of New England gardens. For garden purposes they can be arranged according to their habit of growth, the color of their flowers and the color of their fruit as follows: 1. Prostrate shrubs with wide-spreading branches, small red flowers and fruits, and small thick dark green leaves persistent in this climate until the beginning of winter, C. adpressa, C. apiculata, C. horizontalis and its varieties perpusilla and Wilsonii; of these varieties perpusilla is much dwarfer than the common form of C. horizontalis, and Wilsonii is taller than the others. 2. Large shrubs with white flowers and red fruits, C. hupehensis, C. multiflora calocarpa, C. racemiflora and C. racemiflora soongorica. In this group are perhaps the handsomest of these plants. C. hupehensis is a tall, broad, fast-growing plant with dark green leaves, larger flowers than those of the other species, and large, scarlet fruits. The flowers are in compact clusters which entirely cover the branches, but the fruit has been only sparingly produced in the Arboretum. The other plants in this group have blue-green leaves and gracefully arching stems. The flowers are rather smaller than those of C. hupehensis but the conspicuous fruit, although rather duller in color than the fruit of that species, covers the branches for many weeks in the early autumn. Judged by its gracefully arching branches, its abundant flowers and the size, color, and quality of its fruit, C. racemi~ora soongorica is the handsomest of the Chinese Cotoneasters which can be grown in this climate and one of the handsomest shrubs of recent introduction. 3. Shrubs with red flowers and fruits, C. divaricata, C. bullatrc var. macrophylla, and C. bullata, var. floribunda, C. Dielsiana, C. Dielsiana var. elegans, C. Zabellii, C. Zabellii, var. miniata, C. Franchetii, C. obscura. In this group C. divaricata and C. Dielsiana and its variety are perhaps the most desirable garden plants. They have widespreading, slightly drooping branches, small, dark-green lustrous leaves, and small rather inconspicuous flowers and fruit. C. Franchetii appears less hardy in the Arboretum than the others. 4. Shrubs with red flowers and black fruit, C. nitens, C. acutifolia, C. acutifolia var. villosula, C. ambigua, C. fovelata and C. moupinensis. Of this group C. nitens, although the flowers and fruit are small, is perhaps the most attractive, for none of the Chinese Cotoneasters have more gracefully spreading branches and more lustrous leaves; and it may well be placed among the four or five of the handsomest of all the deciduous leaved species of Cotoneaster which can be grown in this climate. C. moupinensis and C. foveolata are the tallest of the Chinese Cotoneasters, with much larger leaves than the others, the former becoming almost treelike in habit. They are coarse and not very attractive shrubs, but the brilliancy of the autumn color of the leaves of C. foveolata entitles it to a place in the collection. The Chinese Cotoneasters produce great quantities of seeds in the Arbore20 tum, and during the last two or three years these have been distributed among American nurserymen. They are easily raised and grow rapidly, so that there seems a chance that these beautiful plants will soon be seen in many American gardens. Azaleas. This is a good year for most of the Azaleas. The earliest of them, Rhododendron dahuricum and R. mucronulatum (all Azaleas are now called Rhododendrons), were full of flower-buds, although those of the former were killed by a late frost. The red-flowered Japanese R. Kaempferi has never before been so splendid, and R.Vassyi, the earliest of the American species to bloom, is as usual covered with its clear pink or rarely white flowers, and these in a few days will be followed by the rose-pink flowers of R. canescens and R. nudiflorum; and for nearly two months more Azalea flowers will add beauty and interest to the Arboretum. Lonicera syringantha. Attention is called to the plant of this Chinese Honeysuckle in the collection of Chinese Shrubs on Bussey Hill, which is now covered with its small violet colored and violet scented flowers which have not before been produced in such profusion. The arching stems, small leaves and fragrant flowers make this one of the most charming plants blooming this spring in the Arboretum. Many other Honeysuckles are flowering now in the Shrub Collection, and on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road. Here is a good opportunity to see how Bush Honeysuckles of the Tartarian type and its hybrids can develop into great shapely bushes when they are allowed sufficient space in which to grow. The earliest Rose to flower in the Arboretum this year is R. Ecae, a native of Afghanistan and Turkestan; it has erect stems, leaves with small, very lustrous leaflets, and pale yellow flowers not more than an inch in diameter. The first flowers of R. Hugonis, R. omeiensis and R. einnamomea are also opening. R. Hugonis has not before in the Arboretum been so full of flower-buds, and next week to any one interested in Roses will well repay a visit. Viburnums of the week are the English Traveller's Tree, Viburnum lantana, and the American Black Haw, V. prunifolium. The former is a tall, broad bush, with wide gray-green leaves and large convex clusters of white flowers which are followed by handsome and abundant lustrous fruits, bright red when fully grown, and then gradually turning black. This is one of the European shrubs which grows as well here as in its native country. Fortunately it can now be found in American nurseries. The Black Haw is an arborescent shrub or a tree occasionally thirty feet high with a round-topped head of spreading branches; the narrow pointed leaves are lustrous and in the autumn turn deep rich wine color; the flowers are white, in rather smaller clusters than those of the other American tree Viburnums, and the large fruit in drooping clusters is dark blue or nearly black and covered with a glaucous bloom. This is a good plant for wood-margins and the borders of roads."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23701","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160816f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 29, 1919 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes. Horsechestnut as generally applied is the name of the Old World species of Aesculus, and Buckeye is commonly used for the American species of this genus. The Old World species which are found in southeastern Europe, on the Himalayas, in central and northern China and in Japan have white flowers often marked or tinged with yellow, but the flowers of the American species are yellow, red, scarlet, red and yellow, and white. The European species, however, are best distinguished from those of the New World by the resinous exudations which thickly cover their winter buds and are not found on those of the American species with the exception of the one which grows in California (A. californica). The original Horsechestnut, Aesculus Hippocastanum, long cultivated in western Europe but only in recent years known to be a native of the mountains of Greece, is the handsomest of the whole genus and one of the most splendid trees in the world. It was brought to America at least one hundred and fifty years ago, and there are noble specimens in many of the seaboard cities and towns of the eastern states. The Himalayan Horsechestnut and the species of central China are not hardy here; it has not yet been possible to establish the north China Horsechestnut in the Arboretum, but the Japanese species (A. turbinata) is hardy and grows fairly well here, although it is less satisfactory in cultivation and a less beautiful tree than the Grecian Horsechestnut. The earliest of these trees to flower here are the Ohio Buckeye and its varieties. They are small trees with small yellow or yellow-green flowers, and fruit covered like that of the Old World Horsechestnuts with prickles. These trees have no great value as ornamental trees, but are inter22 esting in having furnished from their fruit one of the great states of the union with its popular name. A related species, A. arguta, has not before bloomed so well in the Arboretum. It is a small yellowflowered shrub, with leaves composed usually of nine narrow longpointed leaflets, which has been found only in west central Oklahoma and in a few places in northern and central Texas. The yellow-flowered Appalachian species, A. octandra, the largest of the Buckeyes, blooms a little later, but a shrubby species from central Georgia (A. georgiana) is just now covered with its short compact clusters of large yellow and red flowers. Of recent discovery and introduction this Buckeye has proved a first-rate garden plant in this climate. Aesculus Pavia, the best known, in books at least, of the red-flowered southern Buckeyes, is in bloom this year for the first time in the Arboretum. An even more beautiful plant, the red-flowered variety of A. discolor (var. mollis) will be covered in a few days with its scarlet flowers. Generally distributed from the coast of North Carolina to southern Arkansas and western Texas, and when in flower one of the most brilliant plants of the south, it is a matter of congratulation that it can be grown successfully in Massachusetts. Many of the handsomest of the Horsechestnut-trees are natural hybrids. The first of these appeared in France more than a century ago and is evidently a cross of two American species, A. octandra and A. Pavia. There are many forms of this hybrid to which the general name A. versicolor has been given. The flowers are red and yellow in various degrees and some of these forms can be placed among the most beautiful of the Buckeyes. The next hybrid appeared many years ago in a nursery at Ghent in Belgium, evidently a cross between the common Horsechestnut and the American red-flowered A. Pavia. This is the common red-flowered Horsechestnut of gardens the name of which is A. carnea. The flowers vary from flesh color to the deep red of those of the tree known as A. Briotii. Trees of this and other varieties of the red-flowered Horsechestnut are now in bloom in the Horsechestnut Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. A single tree of an interesting hybrid Buckeye, A. Bushii, was found a few years ago in the woods near Fulton on the Red River in Arkansas, evidently produced by the crossing of a form of A. glabra with the red-flowered A. discolor var. mollis. The original tree has disappeared but this hybrid is fortunately preserved in a tree growing on Peter's Hill in the Arboretum where it has flowered regularly for several years. This perhaps is the rarest tree in the Arboretum. American Magnolias. Several of these trees are in bloom in the group on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain Gate. Unlike most of the Asiatic species the American Magnolias flower after the appeart ance of the leaves; they are hardy and handsome trees. A hundred and fifty years ago letters of English plant lovers written to their American correspondents contained many appeals for Magnolia plants and seeds, and in the early years of the nineteenth century these trees were to be found in the principal collections of plants in the middle states. To the present generation they are almost unknown, and it is only in a few American nurseries that an occasional plant of one or two of the species can be found. There are six of these Magnolias, but one of them, M. pyramidata, grows only in the extreme southeastern corner of Alabama and adjacent Florida, and would not be hardy here. Of the other species, the so-called Mountain Magnolia, M. Fraseri, is the first to open its flowers in the Arboretum. It is a small tree rarely more than forty feet high, with an open head of long branches, leaves often a foot in length and deeply divided at the base, and creamy white, sweet-scented flowers eight or ten inches in diameter and very conspicuous as they stand well above the crowded leaves at the ends of the branches. This Magnolia is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountain region and, although it has not been found growing north of southeastern Virginia, is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts. The next to flower is M. cordata which for several days has been covered with its cup-shaped, bright canary yellow flowers unlike in color those of any other Magnolia. There is an interesting story connected with this tree. It was discovered toward the end of the eighteenth century by the French botanist and traveller Michaux on one of his journeys from Charleston, South Carolina, up the valley of the Savannah River to the high Carolina Mountains. By Michaux it was introduced into French gardens where it flourished. For more than a century every attempt to rediscover this tree failed, and it is only within the last five or six years that it was found by the Berckmans Brothers growing in the woods not many miles distant from Augusta, Georgia, where plants only a few feet high flower profusely. Grafts from Michaux's trees, however, preserved this tree in cultivation, and the plants in the Arboretum were raised from grafts taken from old trees in the Harvard Botanic Garden for which they were imported from Europe probably when the Garden was laid out, that is, more than a century ago or not long after Michaux had discovered and introduced this tree. The flowers of M. cordata will be followed in succession by those of M. acuminata, the Cucumber Tree, M. tripetala, the Umbrella Tree, M. glauca and M. macrophylla. As they flower attention will be called to some of these trees in later issues of these Bulletins. Diervilla florida venusta. Attention has been called before to the beauty of this Korean shrub. It is the first of the Diervillas to flower and for more than a week it has been covered with its large rose-pink flowers which open when the leaves are not more than half grown. It is a vigorous, perfectly hardy plant, and none of the hybrid Diervillas to which so much attention has been paid by European gardeners compare in beauty with this wild plant which is one of the commonest shrubs of central and northern Korea. The flora of Korea is not rich in trees and shrubs as compared with those of western China and Japan and not many endemic Korean plants have been established in western gardens. It is interesting, therefore, to find that five of the hardiest and most beautiful shrubs introduced in recent years into gardens are from Korea. They are Viburnum Carlesii, Diervilla florida venusta, Rhododendron Schlippenbachii, R. poukhanense and Rosa Jackii. Korea has given us, too, a Fir in Abies holophylla which, although the seeds were first planted at the Arboretum in 1904, has grown so rapidly here and has proved so hardy that it promises to rival as an ornamental tree the Japanese Abies homolepis (brachyphylla). In Korea A. holophylla grows to a height of one hundred feet, and in the northern part of the peninsula forms pure forests often of considerable extent. In a few years it will be possible to obtain at the Arboretum a better idea than we have now of the value of the plants of Korea in this climate, for there are growing here now seedlings of every known endemic woody plant of the central and northern part of the country. Those from the extreme southern part will not be able to bear the cold of New England winters. In addition to these recent introductions, fruits of Wilson's last journey in the orient, there are growing in the Arboretum all the trees and shrubs which, growing in the colder parts of Korea, occur also in northern Japan, eastern Siberia, Mongolia and northern China. Azaleas. The flowers of two other eastern American Azaleas open their flowers before those of Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi have fadEd. They are R. canescens and R.nudifLorum. These plants have rose-pink, fragrant flowers which open before or just as the leaves begin to unfold. The former is a northern plant common in some parts of southern New Hampshire and northern Massachusetts; the latter is more southern, ranging to Florida and Texas. Both these Azaleas take kindly to cultivation, and this year are covered with flowers in the Arboretum. They can be seen on Azalea Path, and there is a good mass of the northern plant on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Lindens which makes itself known for a long distance by the exquisite fragrance of the flowers. Rhododendron (Azalea) japomcum is just beginning to flower. This is a hardy plant with flamecolored flowers three inches across. Less spectacular than the redflowered R. Kaempferi, for many persons it is a more attractive plant and the handsomest of the Japanese Azaleas. Japanese gardeners have recently found forms of this Azalea with yellow flowers in different shades which promise to be good garden plants. Bush Honeysuckles. For northern gardens there are no more beautiful plants than some of the Bush Honeysuckles, with their myriads of yellow, white, rose color or red flowers which in summer or autumn are followed by lustrous, usually scarlet fruits. Nearly all of these shrubs are able to show their greatest beauty in this climate, but this can be obtained only by planting them in rich soil and with sufficient space for free growth in all directions. In poor soil and when crowded by other plants they are usually miserable objects. The large growing kinds like the different forms of L. tatarica, the hybrids L. bella and its varieties with white and with rose-colored flowers, and L. notha, should be planted as isolated specimens at least twenty feet from any other plant. L. Morrowi, a plant of the Amoor region in eastern Siberia, requires even more space, for its lower branches which cling close to the ground naturally spread over a great area. This shrub has gray-green foliage, comparatively large white flowers and bright red fruits. It is one of the most useful of the early introductions of the Arboretum into the United States and has been largely planted in the Boston Parks. Like many other Bush Honeysuckles, L. Morrowi hybridizes easily with other species, and most of the plants raised from seeds, now sold by American nurserymen as L. Morrowi, are hybrids of this species with L. tatarica and are erect growing plants of little value for those who want plants with the peculiar habit of L. Morrowi. Among the less vigorous growing plants attention is called to two hybrids of L. Korolkowi in the collection, L. amoena and L. Arnoldiana. These have small gray-green foliage and small, bright pink and very attractive flowers, and are, perhaps, not surpassed in grace and beauty by any Honeysuckles in the collection."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23696","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160af6e.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 5, 1919 Rhododendrons. The flowers of some of the early flowering evergreen Rhododendrons have already faded and those of R. maximum wiil not be in bloom for several weeks, but when this Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers a large number of the varieties of the Catawbiense hybrids will be in flower; and these plants are carrying this year an exceptionally large number of flower-buds. Of the species of evergreen Rhododendrons only the eastern American R. maximum, R. catawbiense, R. carolmianum, the mountain form of R. minus, the Caucasian R. Sn2irnovii and R. caucasicum, at least in some of its forms, are truly hardy in Massachusetts. The two species of the European Alps, R. hirsutum and R. ferrugineum can live here sometimes for a number of years but they are usually short-lived and unsatisfactory piants in this climate. The Japanese R. brachyear~urrc formerly lived in Massachusetts gardens for many years and longer trials will probably show that it can be successfully cultivated in this climate. Including this still doubtful Japanese species and the two little European species, there are only nine species of this great genus of several hundred species hardy in this climate, and there is little hope that another species able to support this climate will be found. The poverty of our gardens in these plants appears when the Arboretum collection is compared with that in a garden in Cornwall in England, in which some three hundred and sixty species of these plants are growing and in which on a day in May of this year sixty-five species were in flower. Such a collection, and perhaps even a better one, can be made in a garden in the neighborhood of Portland, Oregon, or in some favorable place on the shores of Puget Sound, but the sooner it is real26 ized that northeastern North America is not a good Rhododendron country in any broad sense the better it will be for the gardens in this part of the United States. For the last seventy years a large amount of thought, labor and money have been expended in attempts to cultivate these plants in the New England and Middle States; during this time many hundreds of thousands of these plants, principally hybrids of the American R. catawbiense, have been imported from Europe but the collections of Rhododendrons in the eastern states at all satisfactory or comprehensive can be counted on the fingers of one hand. In this climate unfortunately only a few of the Catawbiense hybrids, which are the popular Rhododendrons here, can be grown. The American parent of these hybrids is perfectly hardy, but the influence of the tender Himalayan species with which it has been crossed has made most of the varieties of this hybrid unsuited to this climate. The influence of the tender R. ponticum, the stock on which these plants have been almost universally grafted in European nurseries may account in part for the fact that plants of these hybrids which have lived here for thirty or forty years have then died without any other apparent cause. If evergreen Rhododendrons are ever to become hardy and permanent features of eastern gardens we must give up trying to make European-grown plants successful here, and confine our efforts to the few species which are hardy here and to crossing these among themselves in the hope of obtaining hybrids which will be able to grow here permanently. Something can perhaps be accomplished by the selection of seedlings. For example the flowers of R, catawbiense are of a peculiar shade of magenta which does not harmonize with any other color but white. Comparatively few seedlings, however, of R. catawbiense have ever been raised and probably not much attention has ever been paid to selecting from among the plants growing on the high Appalachian peaks individuals with flowers of unusual colors. R. catawbiense is perhaps the hardiest here of all Rhododendrons; the habit is excellent and the leaves are handsomer than those of the other hardy species. Improvement in the color of the flower is all that is needed to make it a first-rate plant for this climate. It is doubtful if this can be accomplished by crossing it with other species, but through patient selection it may be improved and possibly a white-flowered form discovered. Hybrid Rhododendrons are hardier or less hardy than their parents. The few hybrids which have been made between R. catawbiense and R. maximum, the hardiest of all Rhododendrons here, are less hardy than their parents; and only a few of the hybrids of R. catawbiense with R. arboreum and other Himalayan species are hardy. On the other hand by crossing some of the Catawbiense hybrids with R. Metternichii, a delicate Japanese shrub, a race of hybrids has been produced in England which is quite hardy in the Arboretum; and the hybrids of the two species of the European Alps crossed with one of the forms of the American R. minus are excellent dwarf garden plants here. In this country the breeding of Rhododendrons for American gardens has never been systematically undertaken with full knowledge of the species available for the purpose. The field is an inviting one, for these plants and other hardy broad-leaved evergreens are greatly needed in American gardens. Chinese Lilacs. Most of the Chinese Lilacs have the advantage of flowering later than the common Lilac (Syringa vulgaris). Several of the species recently discovered in central and western China are now established in the Arboretum, and, flowering more freely as the plants grow older now begin to show their true value as garden plants in this climate. Perhaps the most distinct and certainly the most unusual of these Lilacs is Syringa reflexa. On this plant the flower-cluster is compact, cylindric, unbranched, from an inch to an inch and a quarter in diameter, long stalked and is gracefully arching and reflexed. The flowers are deep rose-color with a long slender corolla-tube, and have the disagreeable odor, although to a less degree than those of the Chinese Syringa villosa to which this species and the next are closely related, as is shown in their ample leaves dark green on the upper surface and somewhat pale, and slightly hairy on the lower surface. The other species in this group now in flower, Syringa Sargentiana, differs in its rather paler flowers white on the inner surface of the lobes of the corolla, and arranged in large, loose, long-branched, erect or spreading clusters sometimes eighteen inches long and twelve inches across. The leaves of this plant are hardly distinguishable from those of S. reflexa. Five of these new Lilacs belonging to the group of which Syringa pubescens may be taken as the type are flowering freely this year; they all have fragrant flowers, although less fragrant than those of S. pubeseens, and slender corolla-tubes. Syringa Koehneana, which is probably a native of Korea, has broad leaves unusually large for a species in this group, and short, broad, compact clusters of flowers which are pale rose-color on the outside of the corolla-tubes and pure white on the inner surface of the corolla-lobes. On Syringa yunnanensis from southwestern China, which is a narrow shrub with erect stems and branches, the flowers are produced in narrow, branched, erect clusters and are white faintly tinged with rose and very fragrant. Syringa tomentella, of which S. WiLsonii is a synonym, is a larger and more vigorous plant with erect stems, dull green leaves, and open branched panicles of the palest rose-colored flowers with rather thicker corolla-tubes than those of the other species of this group. ; Syringa microphylla, so named for its small dark green leaves, is flowering this year more freely than it has in the Arboretum before; the flowers are small, with narrow corolla-tubes, and are pleasantly fragrant. Unlike other Lilacs, S. microphylla has in previous years flowered again in October. S. Sweginzown is covered with flowers again this spring, as it has been now for several seasons. It is a tall shrub with dull green leaves and narrow clusters of fragrant flowers half an inch long, fleshcolored in the bud, becoming nearly white after the flowers open. This species blooms freely as a small plant, and is perhaps the most attractive of the new Lilacs with slender corrolla-tubes, although it does not equal in beauty and fragrance S. pubescens, which has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for a quarter of a century. Rosa sertata. There is now flowering in the Shrub Collection a plant of the northern form of this Chinese Rose which at this writing is one of the most charming plants in the Arboretum. It is a bush three feet high with slender gracefully spreading and arching stems which form an open head six feet across. The leaves are now only about an inch long with seven minute leaflets. The flowers are solitary or rarely in pairs on the ends of short lateral branchlets crowded from end to end on the branches, and are rather less than three-quarters of an inch in diameter with light pure pink petals, and are slightly fragrant. Scotch Roses. Some of the varieties of the Scotch Rose (R. spinosissima) are distinct and beautiful garden plants. The handsomest, perhaps, are the variety altaica, also sometimes called var. graredzflora, with petals faintly tinged with yellow toward their base, the varieties hispida and lutea with yellow flowers, and the variety fulgens with pale pink flowers. Like most single Rose-flowers, the flowers of these Scotch Roses last only a few days, but during these few days they are delightful additions to the Rose-garden; they all have stems covered with prickles, rather small leaves and comparatively large black shining fruits. Neillia sinensis is blooming again this year. The flowers of this Neillia are cylindric, clear pale pink, nearly half an inch long, and hang down on slender stems in long, one-sided racemes terminal on short lateral branchlets, and do not open until the small dark green leaves have grown nearly to their full size. It is one of the new Chinese plants which seem destined to become popular in American gardens. Kolkwitzia amabilis. The plant of this shrub in the collection of Chinese plants on Bussey Hill is now well worth a visit, for Kolkwitzia has not before flowered so abundantly in the Arboretum. It is the only representative of a genus which is related to Diervilla and Abelia. The flowers are borne in pairs on long stems at the ends of short lateral branchlets and are rose-color in the bud, becoming paler after opening, the inner surface of the three divisions of the lower lobe of the corolla being white blotched with orange color at the base. Kolkwitzia did not begin to flower until it had been several years in the Arboretum, and it has not always, especially in the Shrub Collection, proved perfectly hardy here. A plant, however, like the one now on Bussey Hill, will make up for many disappointments. Spirea Miyabei. This Chinese shrub, although less beautiful than S. Veitchii and S. Henryi, which are the handsomest of the new Chinese plants in this genus, flowers earlier than they do and is distinct in its flat or slightly convex clusters of white flowers which are terminal on erect, leafy, lateral branchlets three or four inches long, and quite cover the plants. Viburnum Lentago. There are probably several hundred Asiatic and other exotic trees and shrubs now blooming in the Arboretum but this week the Arboretum is indebted for its greatest beauty to none of these but to the Nannyberry, Viburnum Lentago, one of the commonest shrubs or small trees which grow naturally by the sides of Massachusetts roads and the borders of Massachusetts woodlands. The Nannyberry has been largely planted in the Arboretum and it has responded to generous treatment and good care, and there are now many large specimens in the mixed plantations, which are now covered with their broad convex clusters of nearly white flowers rising above the bright green leaves. These later will grow thick and become lustrous, and will turn deep wine-color in the autumn when the plants will bear great crops of dark blue-black fruits hangmg gracefully in red-stemmed clusters. In habit, foliage, flowers and fruit no Viburnum is handsomer than this common native plant, and three-quarters or more of the exotic species cannot as ornamental plants be compared with it. Fortunately Vtburnum Lentago can now be found in several American nurseries."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 12","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23693","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160a728.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 12. 1919 Philadelphus. Gardens old and new owe much to this genus. In New England gardens of more than a century ago it was one of the chief ornaments and with the Lilac and a few old-fashioned Roses, the Syringa or Mock Orange (Philadelphus coronarius), was loved and carefully tended; and in our modern gardens there are few plants which produce more delightful flowers than some of the Syringas make in recent years by the art of the plant breeder. There are now established in the Arboretum some thirty species of Philadelphus and a large number of varieties and hy' rids. All these plants, popularly called Syringas, are easy to manage, demand no special care, and suffer less from the attacks of insects than most trees and shrubs. They flower freely year after year, their flowers are often very fragrant, and in rich, well-drained soil the plants live for a long time. Some of the species can grow under the shade of overhanging trees, and flower in such situations more freely than almost any other shrub. The beauty of these plants is found in their white flowers; the fruit, which is a dry capsule, has as little beauty as that of, a Lilac; there is nothing distinct or particularly interesting in the habit of the plants of any of the species, and the leaves fall in autumn without brilliant coloring. As flowering plants not many shrubs, however, surpass them in beauty, and their value is increased by the length of the flowering season which extends in the Arboretum during fully six weeks. The first Philadelphus to flower in the Arboretum opened its flowers several days ago; it is from Korea (P. Schenkii var. Jackii), and is a tall narrow shrub with erect stems and flowers of medium size, and is of no exceptional value as an ornamental plant. Almost as early to flower is P. hirsutus from the southern Appalachian Mountain region. This is one of the smallest flowered species and in the Arboretum is a large loose-growing shrub of unattractive habit, and of comparatively little value as a garden plant. It is to be regretted that the Syringa of old gardens (P. coronarius) has been pushed aside by newer introductions and has become comparatively rare in at least this part of the country, for the flowers of no other Syringa have a more delicate and delightful perfume. This plant, which is a native of western Europe, reached England before the end of the sixteenth century, and was probably one of the first shrubs which the English emigrants brought with them to this country. Among the American species which should find a place in all gardens are P. inodorus, P. pubescens and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain Region and grows to the height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful of all Syringas. P. pubescens, often called P. grandiflorus or P. latifolius, is also a plant of the southern Appalachian region. It often grows to the height of twenty feet; the branches are stout and erect, the leaves are broad, and the slightly fragrant flowers are arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than the last and when it is in bloom it makes a great show. P. nzicrophyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems, and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, is made up in fragrance which is stronger than that of any other Syringa and perfumes the air for a long distance. The most distinct and the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a large shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at right angles; on these branchlets the flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long, with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow. Another interesting garden plant, P. Falconerii, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and in its long narrow petals. The origin and history of this plant is not known. Some of the species hybridize freely and several of the handsomest of these plants are hybrids. One of the first of these hybrids to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by Monsieur A. Billard; it is known as Philadelphus insignis and sometimes is called Souvenir de Billard. It is one of the handsomest of the largegrowing Syringas, and the last or nearly the last to bloom in the Arboretum, for the flowers will not be open for another month. A hybrid probably between P. grandiflorus of the Appalachian Mountain region with a species from our northwest coast appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago and has been named P. splendens; it is a large and vigorous shrub with unusually large flowers, and one of the handsomest Syringas in the collection. Philadelphus maximus, a supposed hybrid between P. latifolius from the southeastern United States, and P. tomentosus from the Himalayas, grows to a larger size than any of the other Syringas. It is not rare in old Massachusetts gardens in which plants from twenty to thirty feet high can occasionally be seen. The crossing about thirty years ago in France by Lemoine of P. coronarius with P. microphyllus has produced an entirely new race of Syringas which has proved to be one of the best additions to garden shrubs that has ever been made. The first plant obtained by this cross is called Philadelphus Lemoinei; it is a perfectly hardy shrub four or five feet high and broad, with slender stems which bend from the weight of countless flowers; these are intermediate in size between those of the two parents and retain the fragrance of P. microphyllacs. There are at least a dozen distinct forms of this hybrid made by Lemoine, varying considerably in the size of the plants and of the flowers, and in the time of flowering. One of the handsomest, perhaps, is called Candelabra; this is a very dwarf plant with flowers larger than those of either of its parents and an inch and a half wide, with petals notched on the margins, and without the perfume of its parents. Other distinct forms equally hardy and beautiful are Avalanche, Boule d'Argent, Bouquet Blanc, Erectus, Fantasie, Gerbe de Neige and Mont Blanc. Some interesting Roses. The Boursault Rose (Rosa Lheritieranea) has not before carried more flowers than it has borne this year. This Rose, which was raised in France early in the last century, is believed to be a hybrid of R. chinensis and the European R. pendulina, and owes its popular name to Monsieur Boursault who a hundred years ago had a garden in the Rue Blanche, now Chausee d'Antin, famous for its collection of Roses. There have been several forms of the Boursault Rose, the one in the Arboretum collection, which has pale rose red, partly double flowers, is not an uncommon plant in old New England gardens. It is a tall, vigorous and perfectly hardy shrub with gracefully spreading stems. Rosa Marretii has not before flowered so freely in the Arboretum; it is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, pale green leaves, and large pink flowers. It is a native of northern Hokkiado and of Saghalien where it was discovered by the late Abbe Faurie who sent seeds to the Arboretum in 1908. This plant, which is probably still rare in cultivation, promises to be a good addition to the single-flowered Roses which can be successfully grown in this climate. The single- flowered Chinese form of R. Roxburgii (var. normalis) is flowering this week for the first time in the Arboretum and proves to have larger flowers than any other Rose in the collection, with the exception of R. rugosa and its varieties, The petals are pale shell pink and conspicuously notched at apex. The fruit of this Rose will probably be almost as ornamental as the flowers, as it is bright red, and thickly beset with long sharp prickles. One of the hardiest and best growing of the new Roses, Rosa bella, raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected by Purdom in northern China, is a plant which when better known will be popular. It is a large shrub with bright red flowers an inch and a half in diameter, and showy red fruit. The only plant in the collection is with the other Chinese Roses on Bussey Hill. Unfor32 tunately the flowers were ruined as they opened by the excessive heat of last week. Rosa mi~ltiflora cathayenszs is again covered with its great clusters of pink flowers and expanding flower-buds. The Chinese representatives of the white-flowered R. multiflora of Japan, it is one of the most beautiful Roses of its class, and interesting as the wild type from which the Chinese derived the now well known Crimson Rambler Rose and another old-fashioned garden plant, the Seven Sisters Rose (Rosa multiflora platyphylla). Rosa Flelenae, which some persons consider the handsomest of the Roses discovered by Wilson in western China, will be in flower again in a few days. It is a large shrub with slender arching stems furnished sparingly with small red spines and many-flowered clusters of pure white delicately fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter. It well deserves a place in any collectlon of single-flowered Roses, however small. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum. A lover of flowers who has had the good fortune to see the yellow-flowered Azalea in June on the wooded slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains can never forget it. North America does not offer a more beautiful flower show. No other North American shrub has such brilliantly colored flowers; and no other Azalea hardy in New England can be compared with it in the variety of color found in its flowers. The flowers of the Korean Azalea Schlippenbachii are larger and more delicate in texture and color, and those of the Japanese A. Kaempferi are more surprising, for it is always a surprise to find the bright red flowers of this Azalea on a bare New England hillside. These plants when they are in flower look exotic here and do not fit our American surroundings as well as our yellow-flowered plant. The flowers, too, of the American plant remain in good condition longer than those of any of the Asiatic Azaleas, and they were not injured by the excessive heat of last week which spoiled the flowers of many other plants. A good many plants of R. calendulaceum have been raised at the Arboretum from seed, and many of the seedlings which are now blooming on Azalea Path show the variation in the color of the flowers from clear yellow to flame, which adds to the interest of a collection of these plants in early June. Single plants of this Azalea have also been planted among other shrubs on the borders of some of the drives, and these show how this Azalea can be used with advantage in New England plantations. The Climbing Hydrangea (Hydranga petiolaris), which made last summer a large growth on the Administration Building, is as thickly covered with its broad flower clusters now as it has been in previous years. It is still the only climbing plant with conspicuous flowers able to attach itself firmly to a stone or brick wall, which can be grown in this climate. The fact that it is one of the first plants here to unfold its leaves adds to its value as a cover for the walls of buildings. Laurels (Kalmia latifolia). When this number of the Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill will be in bloom and never before have these plants been so thickly covered with flowers. They furnish the last and for many persons the most beautiful of the great Arboretum flower displays of the year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 19","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23694","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160a76b.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 19, 1919 Cornus kousa. This is the eastern Asiatic representative of the Flowering Dogwood of the eastern states (Cornus florida) and of the Flowering Dogwood of the northwest (Cornus Nuttallii). Cornus kousa was one of the Japanese plants which reached the United States in the early years of Japanese plant introduction into this country and although it has never become common in American gardens it is occasionally seen in the neighborhood of Boston and New York. The white bracts which surround the head of flowers and are the conspicuous feature of the inflorescence of all the Cornels of this group are narrowed and placed further apart on Cornus kousa than on our eastern Flowering Dogwood, and are long-pointed, and not as in the American plant rounded or emarginate at the apex. On the American plant the end of the bract is often discolored, while in the Asiatic plant the bracts are pure white to the tips. The flower-buds of Cornus florida are often killed here at the north in severe winters, but the extreme cold of the winter of 1917-18 did not injure those of C. kousa. The Japanese plants bloom several weeks later than Cornus florida and when the leaves are nearly fully grown. In Japan Cornus kousa sometimes becomes a small tree with a single trunk, but in this country so far as we have observed it grows always as a shrub with several erect stems. Cornus kousa was found in central China by Wilson and plants raised from his Chinese seeds are established in the Arboretum. They are handsomer than the Japanese form, with longer and broader floral bracts set closer together and often overlapping below the middle. On the largest plant in the Arboretum the head of bracts is four inches and a half across, but in China Wilson measured them five inches across. On the Japanese plants the heads of bracts are rarely three inches and a half in diameter. The Chinese plant flowered in the Arboretum for the first time two years ago, and the flower-buds have never been injured by cold. It is flowering more freely this year than it has before and is now an object of much beauty. Like the Japanese plant the Chinese Cornus kousa has grown here as a shrub, but there seems no reason why it cannot be trained into a tree, as in China it is a small tree with a trunk sometimes a foot in diameter. If it fails to produce seed here the Chinese plant can probably be grafted successfully on Cornus florida. Although the Asiatic flowering Dogwoods do not make such a display of flowers as our American trees, their flower-buds are hardier judging by the effects of the winter of 1917-18, and if the future confirms this they will flower further north than Cornus florida. The fact that they bloom when the leaves are nearly fully grown and when the flowering time of most trees is over makes these Asiatic Cornels valuable, and it now seems probable that in the Chinese form of Cornus kousa the northern states have an important ornamental tree. The Japanese and Chinese plants are now in bloom, the former on Hickory Path near Centre Street and the latter with the other Chinese plants on Bussey Hill. Aesculus turbinata, the Japanese Horsechestnut, first came to the Arboretum from France in 1881; this plant was lost, and in 1893 it was raised from seeds collected in Japan by Professor Sargent. These plants were also lost, but another supply was raised in 1900 from seeds produced by the fine specimen in the nursery of Ellwanger & Barry in Rochester, New York, and one of these plants has flowered this year. In Japan this Horsechestnut is a magnificent tree, often growing to a height of eighty or ninety feet and forming a tall trunk occasionally seven feet in diameter. Like the European Horsechestnut the leaves are composed of seven leaflets, but these are thinner and more lustrous, and the leaf-stalks are longer. The Japanese tree in summer therefore appears less dark and massive than the common Horsechestnut. The flower-clusters are narrower and the flowers, which are white with scarlet markings at the base of the petals, are handsomer. Aesculua turbinata, which grows to its largest size in central and northern Japan, is perfectly hardy in New England. Time only can show if it is able to live as long and grow to as large a size here as in its native country. If it succeeds here as the Horsechestnut of the mountains of Greece has succeeded during the last hundred years it will prove to be one of the handsomest exotic trees which has been planted in eastern North Amexica. Aesculus turbinata is one of the five largest deciduous leaved trees of eastern Asia. The others are Cercidiphyllum japonicum, Populus Maximowiczii, Acanthopanax ricinifolium, and Zelkowa serrata. These five trees are now established in the Arboretum. Early Flowering Hydrangeas. The first Hydrangea to flower in the Arboretum is the so-called climbing Hydrangea, H. petiolaris, which has been covered with flowers during the past ten days. A few days later the plants in a group of shrubby Chinese species opened their flowers which are arranged in broad flat-topped clusters surrounded by a ring of large, pure white ray flowers. The best known of these plants, Hydrangea Bretschneideri, a native of the mountains near Pekin, was first raised in the Arboretum thirty-seven years ago. It is a large, vigorous, hardy plant, with dark green leaves, and one of the best of the exotic shrubs which flower here the middle of June. Closely related to it are Hydrangea xanthoneura and its varieties Wilsonii and setchuensis, and H. Rosthornii raised here from seed collected by Wilson in western China. These plants are hardy and can now be seen covered with flowers in the collection of Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. As garden plants they do not appear to be in any way superior to H. Bretschneideri. Rosa caudata is unfolding its pale pink petals which are nearly white toward the base. It is a large, strong-growing, hardy shrub with stout arching stems, dark green leaves, and flowers two inches in diameter, in wide clusters, each containing from twenty to twenty-five flowers. The fruit is orange red, an inch long, contracted above into a narrow neck crowned by the much enlarged calyx-lobes. It flowers at the same time as Rosa Helenae, and these two species, and R. mziltiflora var. cathayensis, are perhaps the handsomest of the Roses discovered by Wilson in western China. Indigofera Potaninii. This beautiful little shrub from northern China is blooming again in the collection on Bussey Hill. As it grows here it is from three to four feet high, with a single stem and slender erect branches. The flowers are bright rose-color, half an inch long, in longstalked, erect and spreading racemes from two to three inches in length. The flowers are of the same color, but are larger than those of Indigofera amblyantha which Wilson found in western China, and which until L Potaninii bloomed in the Arboretum was considered the handsomest shrubby species which can be grown here. Viburnum cassinoides adds much to the beauty of the Arboretum the middle of June. It is a native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows twenty feet high with slender straggling stems. In cultivation it forms a broad, low, round-topped bush, and has proved one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums introduced into the Arboretum. The leaves are thick and lustrous and vary greatly in size and shape. The flowers are slightly tinged with yellow and are borne in wide slightly convex clusters which also vary greatly in size. The fruit is larger than that of the other summer-flowering American Viburnums, and at first yellow-green later becomes pink, and finally blue-black and covered with a pale bloom, fruit of the three colors occurring in early autumn in the same cluster. Magnolia glauca, or virginiana as botanists now want to call the Sweet Bay in the Magnolia Collection on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance, is again covered with flowers. Often a large tree at the south, at the north this Magnolia is never more than a small tree, or more often a large shrub. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery-white on the lower surface; the flowers are small, cup-shaped, creamy-white and delightfully fragrant, and continue to open in succession from the middle of June until August. In all North America there is not a more delightful shrub to plant in the garden, or one that will give larger returns in beauty and fragrance; yet it is difficult to find it in any quantity in American nurseries, and it is unknown to most American planters of this gen36 eration. A hybrid, M. major, often called M. Thompsoniana, between M. glauca and M. tripetala, another American species, has the general appearance of M. glauca but has larger leaves and larger fragrant flowers. Halimodendron argenteum in the Shrub Collection is now covered with its pale rose-colored, pea-shaped, fragrant flowers which are borne in short clusters; their beauty is heightened by the light color of the leaves which are covered with pale silky hairs. This shrub or small tree remains in bloom during several weeks. Cornus rugosa. Attention is called again to the value of this common native shrub for the decoration of parks and gardens where, like many other eastern American trees and shrubs, it is rarely seen. C. rugosa, or C. circinata, the name by which it is best known, is a shrub sometimes ten feet high which with plenty of space spreads into broad thickets. The young branches are green blotched with purple, becoming purple as they grow older. The leaves are broad, sometimes nearly circular, and dark bluish-green; the flowers are ivory-white, in compact clusters, and are followed in the early autumn by bright blue or nearly white fruits. This Cornel has been much planted in the Arboretum and is greatly improved by good cultivation. It can be seen in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads; and the large individual plants, the great clumps on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road beyond the Lilacs, and the masses among the Hickories in the groups of these trees show the value of this shrub in park planting when broad compact masses of foliage are needed. The Tree Lilacs. As the flowers of the late-flowering group of Lilacs fade the earliest flowers of the so-called Tree Lilacs begin to open. There are three of these Lilacs which all bear large clusters of white or yellowish white flowers which have the disagreeable odor of the flowers of the Privet, and like those of the Privets the leaves fall in the autumn without change of color. The first of these plants to flower, S. amurensis, a native of eastern Siberia as its name implies, is a shrub in habit, twelve or fifteen feet high with dark close bark, broad thick leaves dark green above and pale below, and short, broad, unsymmetrical flower-clusters. S. pekinensis from northern China flowers next. This is also shrubby in habit, sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall and broad, with stout, spreading stems covered with yellow-brown bark separating readily into thin plates like that of some of the Birch-trees, dark green, narrow, pointed leaves and short and unsymmetrical flowerclusters usually in pairs at the ends of the branches. This species holds its leaves later in the autumn than the others, and produces great quantities of flowers every year, the other species usually flowering abundantly only every other year. The last of the Tree Lilacs to flower, S. japonica, is a native of northern Japan, and is really a tree sometimes forty feet high with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark like the bark of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of upright branches, broad, thick, dark green leaves, and erect, mostly symmetrical flower-clusters from twelve to eighteen inches long. This is one of the handsomest of the small trees which bloom here at the end of June or early in July."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 24","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23695","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160ab6c.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 24, 1919 Rosa rugosa, which is an old inhabitant of gardens, is a native of the coast sand-dunes of northeastern Asia from northern Japan to Kamtchatka. The thick dark green leaves seem able to resist the attacks of insects and the diseases which often discolor the leaves of many Roses. The flowers of the typical wild plant from Japan are red, but there are varieties with pure white and with clear pink flowers. The Kamtchatka plant, which is less ornamental than the Japanese plant, with smaller and thinner leaflets and smaller flowers is treated by many botanists as a species distinct from the Japanese plant and called by them Rosa kamtschatica. There is a double-flowered form of this continental plant in the Arboretum collection which prodaces flowers which are as ugly as it is possible that a Rose flower can become. No other Rose is hardier than Rosa rugosa, and left to itself it spreads into great thickets. No shrub is better suited to grow in exposed positions on the New England coast; it grows equally well in the rich soil of the garden, and no other Rose is so valuable in this climate for making low hedges. Valuable as the Japanese Rosa rugosa has proved itself as a garden plant its greatest value is in its ability to transmit its hardiness, handsome foliage and large flowers to its hybrid offspring. Among these are already several beautiful garden plants which suggest that the plant breeder who wishes to produce new races of Roses able to grow and flower successfully in the northern states must combine Rosa rugosa and its hybrids with other hardy Roses. Rose breeders are singularly reticent about the plants they have used in their work, and there appear to be no printed records of the parentage of any of the Rugosa hybrids with the exception of the two which have been created in this Arboretum. One of the earliest of the Rugosa hybrids, Madam George Bruant, has pure white semidouble flowers which continue to open until the coming of frost. More distinct is the plant named Conrad Ferdinand Meyer which was raised in Germany. This is a large shrub, with large, nearly double, clustered pink flowers. The foliage and flowers show little Rugosa influence, but its vigor and hardiness are probably derived from the Japanese parent. Nova Zembla is a white-flowered sport of this Rose. At least twenty other European hybrids of Rosa rugosa have received names. Some of these are not distinct and others have little to recommend them as garden plants. One of the handsomest and most distinct of these hybrids was raised several years ago by Paul & Sons of Cheshunt, England, by whom it was named Rosa rugosa repens alba. This plant has the foliage of Rosa rugosa, large flowers with petals between which there is more space than in the typical flowers of Rosa rugosa, and long, stout, prostrate stems. In England standards with weeping branches have been successfully grown by budding this Rose on the tall stems of other Roses, and it would probably prove one of the hardiest standard Roses which could be grown here. It can be trained over a fence or arbor, but can be best used to cover banks and the ground under other shrubs or small trees. The Japanese Rosa Wichuraiana was at one time largely used as a ground cover in the Boston Parks, but it has not always proved hardy, and Rosa rugosa repens alba is a better ground cover in this climate. This Rose has been growing in the Arboretum for several years and has now been planted on the fence close to the entrance to the Arboretum nursery on Prince Street. The two Rugosa hybrids raised by Dawson at the Arboretum have proved to be good garden plants. In habit Lady Duncan resembles R. rugosa repens alba but the stems are not as stout; it can be used as ground cover or trained on an arbor or trellis. The flowers are rather smaller than those of R, rugosa and pure pink, and the leaflets are smaller and very lustrous. This Rose was obtained by crossing Rosa rugosa with R. Wichuraiana. The Arnold Rose, R. Arnoldiana, was made by Dawson, by crossing R. rugosa with the hybrid Tea Rose, General Jacqueminot. It is a stout bush with good foliage and large, bright red, single flowers, and when in bloom perhaps the showiest of the Roses in the Shrub Collection. Deutzias. The climate of eastern Massachusetts is too severe for the successful cultivation of many of the handsomest of these plants which flower much better in the middle states and in Rochester, New York, than they do in the Arboretum. The mild winter has favored them, however, and several of the Chinese species have been flowering here in a way which shows what valuable garden plants they may be when climatic conditions suit them. The Deutzia which has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum in nearly thirty years of trial, the North China D. parviflora, is not one of the handsomest species, but crossed with the Japanese D. gracilis it has produced D. Lemoinei which has inherited much of the hardiness of its Chinese parent and proved to be an excellent garden plant here. It is a shrub sometimes five or six feet tall and broad which every year about the middle of June covers itself with large clusters of pure white flowers. There are several smaller and more compact forms of this hybrid in the collection and they are all good garden plants. Another Chinese Deutzia, D. hypoglauca, is a handsomer plant than D. parviflora and, judging by its behavior in the Arboretum during the last three years, it is equally hardy. Another Chinese species, D. grandiflora, is the first of the genus to bloom here. It is a dwarf plant with large flowers in from one- to three-flowered clusters. Although known to botanists since 1832 it has only recently found its way into gardens through the agency of the Arboretum. Several Chinese species which have been injured in previous winters have been covered with flowers this summer and, if they could be depended on to flower as well every year, would be important additions to New England gardens. Among these Chinese species which have flowered here abundantly for the first time are D. globosa, D. Wilsonii, D. discolor, D. discolor major and D. longifolia. The last in one of its forms has been covered with large loose clusters of pale pink flowers and proves to be the handsomest of the new Chinese species, although D. globosa with its erect stems thickly covered toward the ends with clusters of pure white flowers has been almost as attractive. Rhododendron (Azalea) arborescens. As the flowers of the yellowflowered Appalachian Azalea (R. calendulaceum) begin to fade the first of those of Azalea arborescens open. This is a handsome plant, and the beauty of the pure white fragrant flowers is increased by the bright red color of the long filaments and style. This is also an Appalachian plant, and sometimes at an elevation of about 5,000 feet covers with dense thickets only a few feet high and sometimes an acre in extent the treeless summits of Blue Ridge Mountains, and in their sheltered valleys sometimes grows into great arborescent bushes twenty feet tall and so justifies its name. A good combination. Two native plants, Cornus racemosa and Rosa virginiana, or, as it is often called, R. lucida, are in flower and the pure pink flowers of the Rose harmonize so well with the creamy white flowers of the Cornel that these two plants can well be used together in natural planting. Rosa virginiana is confined to the northeastern seaboard region of the continent, and in its best form is a tall shrub with lustrous leaves and pure pink flowers which now perfume the borders of the roads in some parts of the Arboretum. A beautiful floral display is also made when this Rose grows with the native Elder (Sambucus canadensis), as it does sometimes in the rear of Massachusetts sea cliffs. Lonicera Giraldii. The attention of persons interested in climbing plants is called to this handsome Chinese Honeysuckle which is now flowering on the trellis in the Shrub Collection. It is remarkable in its narrow, long-pointed, dark green leaves, dark wine-colored, pubescent flowers with protruding pure white filaments and style. The flowers are produced in many-flowered clusters terminal on short leafy, axillary branchlets. Cornus amomun, the Silky Cornel, which has been much used in the Arboretum, is now opening its flowers. In cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its widespreading branches to extend freely over the ground. When crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty and value. To be seen at its best this Cornel should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. It is well suited for the front of groups of trees and shrubs, and there is no better shrub to plant by the margins of ponds and streams where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. Its purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the value of this native shrub. In the Cornel Group, at the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads, there is a good specimen of this plant, and its value for planting near water can be seen on the border of the small pond in the rear of the Cornel Group. Red-fruited Viburnums. With the exception of the species which belong to the Opulus Group no American Viburnums have red fruit, but in eastern Asia there are several red-fruited species. The handsomest of these in the Arboretum is V. dllatatum, which is a native of Japan, Korea, and western China. It is a large, shapely and vigorous shrub with broad, abruptly pointed leaves and wide flat clusters of flowers which are followed by small bright red fruits. This is a good shrub for the decoration of summer and Autumn gardens. The fruit is smaller and less showy than that of another red-fruited Japanese species, V. Wrightii. This is a smaller shrub and flowers earlier than V. dilatatum. The flower-clusters are smaller and the plants are not always perfectly hardy in exposed situations, but the fruit is larger and handsomer than that of the other red-fruited Virburnums of eastern Asia. Another of these plants, V. the~ferum, from western China is not yet in flower. It is a tall narrow shrub with erect stems, small leaves and small flower-clusters. It has little to recommend it as a flowering plant but the fruit is large, abundant and of good color, and the plant has an economic interest as an infusion of the leaves is the \"sweet tea\" used by the monks of the monasteries on Mt. Omei, one of the five sacred mountains of China. Potentilla fruticosa Veitchii. Nearly all the shrubby species of this genus and their hybrids are attractive plants with yellow, white or cream-colored flowers which look like miniature Roses. P. fruticosa is pretty generally distributed in most of the countries of the Northern Hemisphere, and in the western part of Massachusetts has now taken such possession of the ground that it has ruined hundreds of acres of upland pastures. The flowers are bright yellow, but on a variety from western China (var. Veitchii) the flowers are pure white. This is a dwarf shrub which blooms here freely every year, and the plants are covered during several weeks with flowers which begin to open at the the end of May. This plant can be seen in the Shrub Collection and with the other Chinese plants on Bussey Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 3","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23692","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160a327.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V VO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 3, 1919 Ash-trees. Several readers of these Bulletins have asked that something be said in them about Ash-trees. Fraxinus is the name of the genus to which all Ash-trees belong, although it may be well to say that the trees called Mountain Ashes are not Ashes but belong to the genus Sorbus, a member of the Rose Family and closely related to the Pears, Apples and Chokeberries. Ash-trees occur in nearly every temperate part of the Northern Hemisphere, but are more abundant in species in eastern North America than in other parts of the world. Ash-trees fall naturally into two groups; those of the first group are furnished with narrow white petals (Ornus) and the flowers of those in the second group are destitute of petals. The best known tree of the first group is the little tree called Manna Ash or Flowering Ash (Fraxinus Ornus) a native of southeastern Europe which has long been an inhabitant of the gardens of western Europe. It grows well in the middle Atlantic States, but has never been a success in the Arboretum where a tree which had flowered in 1917 was killed to the ground by the extreme cold of the following winter. Three of the flowering Ashes are natives of the United States, Fraxinus cuspidata and F. Greggii of the Mexican boundary region and F. dipetala of the mountain valleys of California. These three plants are not in the Arboretum collection where they would not be hardy, but Ornus is well represented here by two eastern Asiatic species, Fraxinus Bungeana, a small shrub from northern China which was first raised here in 1882, and by the Japanese Fraxinus longicuspis which grows in the Arboretum both as a shrub with several spreading stems and as a small tree. Of the Ash-trees without petals and therefore with inconspicuous flowers there are seventeen species with a number of more or less distinct varieties which are natives of the United States. Six of these trees grow in the northeastern part of the country and thiee of them are common New England trees. To these trees color names have for no very obvious reason been given, at least in books, for it is doubtful if these names have any general application among persons whose knowledge of trees has come from an intimacy of association with them in the forest or by the roadside, and not from the study of other persons' ideas about them recorded in printed pages. To persons who know trees from books White Ash, Black Ash, Green Ash, Red Ash and Blue Ash are familiar names. The most valuable of the American Ashes as a timber tree and one of the handsomest of the whole genus, the so-called White Ash, Fraxinus americana, grows naturally from Nova Scotia to Florida and eastern Texas, and westward to Nebraska and Oklahoma. It is a splendid tree often, when conditions of soil and rainfall favor it more than one hundred feet high with a tall massive trunk five or six feet in diameter. If anyone in northeastern North America wants an Ash-tree for shade or to produce timber, Fraxinus americana is the tree to plant. It grows, too, better in western Europe than most eastern American trees, although it will probably not become as good a tree there as the native Ash. A variety of Fraxinus americana (var. subcoriacea) differs from the common form in its thicker, entire or only slightly toothed leaflets which are silvery white on their lower surface. This tree was raised at the Arboretum in 1874 from seeds collected at Mt. Victory in central Ohio. It is therefore now one of the oldest trees raised here. This Ohio tree has grown more rapidly and is handsomer than any other Ash-tree which has been planted in the Arboretum. Seeds of this tree usually reproduce the variety, and it is this variety which should be planted when the best possible Ash-tree is wanted in this part of the country. The Black Ash, Fraxinus nigra, grows as far north as Newfoundland and the shores of Lake Winnipeg, that is, further north than the other American Ash-trees, and is a common New England tree. It grows naturally in deep cold swamps and on the low banks of lakes and streams, and long resisted every effort made to establish it in the Arboretum until Mr. Dawson tried the experiment of grafting it on roots of the White Ash. These grafted plants although still small are growing well in peat soil on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road near the Rhamnus Collection. Fraxinus pennsylvanica, the so-called Red Ash, is another tree widely distributed over the eastern part of the continent from New Brunswick and southern Dakota southward. It is a smaller tree than the White Ash, rarely growing more than fifty or sixty feet tall, with a trunk less than two feet in diameter a narrow head of thin foliage, and branchlets covered with pubescence. The inner surface of the bark of this tree is sometimes red when first cut; the wood is about as valuable as that of the White Ash, but for shade or ornament Fraxinus pennsylvanica is not worth planting. The Green Ash is now usually considered a variety of Fraxinus pennsylvanica (var. lanceolata), and is most abundant in the valley of the Mississippi River and westward. It is easily distinguished by the bright green color of the two surfaces of the usually narrow leaflets. Seeds of the Green Ash germinate easily and quantities of seedling plants are found on the sand-bars and banks of many western rivers. It is a popular tree, therefore, in western nurseries, and, although not suited for the purpose, has been largely planted in the west as a street and shade tree, and occasionally also in the east for American nurseries have often substituted it for the White Ash. Another Ash of the Mississippi Valley, the Blue Ash of popular tree books, Fraxinus quadrangulata, owes its scientific name to its four-angled branchlets. This is one of the noble trees of the American forest, almost rivalling the White Ash in size. This tree grows naturally in limestone soil, but it has grown well in the Arboretum where it is helped by occasional applications of lime. Two southern trees related to the White Ash, Fraxinus biltmoriana, with densely pubescent branchlets, of the southern Appalachian region and westward, and F. texensis with rounded leaflets and a native of central and western Texas, are established in the Arboretum. Three species of the southeastern states and the five species of New Mexico and Arizona will probably never live very long in Massachusetts, although the curious little Fraxinus anomala with square branchlets and leaves usually reduced to a single leaflet at one time flourished in the Arboretum during several years. Fraxinus oregona, the Pacific coast Ash-tree, is a large and handsome tree and one of the few valuable deciduous-leaved timber trees of the northwest. It has proved hardy in the Arboretum where it grows well but where it will probably never become a large tree. Of the Old-World Ash-trees the best known is Fraxinus excelsior, one of the important timber trees of the world, and as it grows in western and central Europe often a magnificent tree sometimes nearly one hundred and fifty feet high with a tall massive trunk three or four feet in diameter. A number of abnormal forms of this tree have appeared in European nurseries and plantations, but F. excelsior and its varieties are miserable trees in New England and should not be planted here. Fraxinus rotundifolia and its variety with pendulous branches are established in the Arboretum. They are small trees, natives of southern Europe and southwestern Asia, and although interesting from the botanists' point of view add little to the beauty of a collection of trees. An Ash-tree from Turkestan and Songaria (F. potamophylla) was raised at the Arboretum in 1878 and has grown rapidly into a handsome, shapely and hardy tree. As an ornamental tree this is the most promising of the exotic Ashes which have been planted in the Arboretum. The great Ash-tree of northeastern Asia, Fraxinus mandshurica, inhabits eastern Siberia, Manchuria, Korea, and northern Japan. It is a really splendid tree and produces wood of exceptionally good quality. This tree was first raised in the Arboretum in 1878. It is hardy and grows well for a few years but soon begins to fail and become unsightly, and no place has yet been found in the Arboretum which suits it. In 1882 the Arboretum received seeds from Peking of Fraxinus chinensis var. rhyncophylla; it has grown well and has now flowered and produced fertile seeds for several years. It is a small and not particularly shapely tree, and is most interesting in winter, for the buds are unlike those of other Ash-trees and are globose, half an inch in diameter with broad scales covered with a thick coat of rufous tomentum. The outer scales, which are smaller than the others, do not as in most Ash-trees cover the bud which is enclosed by the second pair of scales; and on the terminal bud these outer scales are reduced to thickened reflex tips which stand out like ears. Several Ash-trees discovered by Wilson in western China have been raised at the Arboretum and are now growing in its nurseries. Of these Fraxinus platypoda has grown the most rapidly, but it is too soon to form an idea of the value of these trees in American plantations. Ash-trees require deep, rich, moist soil and as they usually unfold their leaves late and lose them early in the autumn they are not good trees to plant to shade streets and sidewalks. They are often injured while young by borers, and they are all liable to suffer from the attacks of the oyster shell scale. Rosa multibracteata is one of the last of the new Chinese Roses to flower. It is an attractive plant with small leaves and small flowers in clusters, the clear pale pink petals being deeply notched at the apex. Vigorous young shoots of this Rose are thickly covered with bright red prickles and greatly add to its beauty at the time when it is in flower. Rosa gallica var. officinalis is flowering for the first time in the Arboretum. It is one of the Province Roses and is sometimes called Rosa provincialis. The large, handsome, partly double red flowers are more fragrant than those of most modern Roses. This Rose is ccmmon in several old gardens in the town of Medfield in this state. No one now knows when and by whom it was brought there. It has long been known in French gardens, and there is a beautiful picture of it by Redoute in his great work on Roses published in Paris more than a century ago. There is a form of this Rose with paler-colored flowers which is growing in a garden in Weston in this state which was brought from New Hampshire where it is said to be common in old gardens. Tradition credits the Huguenots with having brought this Rose to America. Tripterygium Regelii is flowering well again this year in the Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. It is a near relative of the Bitter Sweet (Celastrus) and a native of Japan and Korea. It is a half climbing shrub with stems sometimes forty or fifty feet long in its native countries, large, long-pointed, dark green leaves, and small white flowers in great terminal clusters which are followed by three-lobed and three-winged fruits. This plant flowered in the Arboretum when not more than three feet high. The small plants have erect, self-supporting stems, but large plants will need the support of trees, shrubs or rocks over which to stray. This hardy shrub is well suited for covering rocky banks or hillsides in our northern states. Rhododendron (Azalea) viscosum, which is the latest of the Azaleas to flower in the Arboretum, is in bloom. It is a common plant in the swamps of southern New England where it is usually known as \"Swamp Honeysuckle.\" The small, pure white, clammy flowers which continue to open during several weeks are hidden by the new shoots of the year which are often fully grown before the first flowers open, and the great value of this Azalea is found in the fragrance of the flowers which make the neighborhood of an Azalea swamp delightful. Although it grows naturally in swamps, this Azalea grows equally well transferred to a garden border or to a hillside, as on Azalea Path in the Arboretum where many of these plants are now covered with flowers."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 17","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23690","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25e8525.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 17, 1919 Summer Flowering Trees. Several trees with handsome or interesting flowers bloom in the Arboretum in July and August. All these and many summer flowering shrubs should find a place in gardens which are chiefly used during July, August and September, that is in many northern seashore gardens. The most important of summer flowering trees here are the Lindens. Some of the species begin to flower about the middle of June, but in the Arboretum collection are Linden trees which are covered until the end of July with their beautiful fragrant flowers beloved of bees. In the meadow on the righthand side of the Meadow Road there is a large collection of these trees with many species, hybrids and varieties. Among them are trees of great beauty of habit, and trees which can be successfully used in New England to shade streets and roads and to decorate parks. A careful study of the Linden collection in the Arboretum during June and July will repay lovers and planters of trees. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree will be in bloom when this number of the Bulletin reaches its readers. It can be seen on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the Evonymus Collection. Koelreuteria is a medium-sized tree with large, dark green compound leaves and large erect clusters of bright yellow flowers which are followed by conspicuous bladder-like fruits. This tree is now often planted in this country, especially in the middle states. In nursery catalogues it often appears as \"The Japanese Lacquer-Tree,\" an absurd name, for it is not a Japanese tree and it does not produce lacquer. The Aralia Family furnishes the Arboretum with three handsome trees which flower in late summer and early autumn. They are Acanthopanax ricinifolium, Aralia spinosa and A. chinensis and its varieties. The Acanthopanax is a tree which is common in the forests of northern Japan, Korea and China where it is often seventy or eighty feet high with a massive trunk and great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with many stout prickles. The leaves hang down on long stalks and are nearly circular, five- or sevenlobed and often fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter. The small white flowers are produced in compact, long-stalked clusters which form a flat compound, terminal panicle from twelve to eighteen inches across and are followed late in the autumn by shining black fruits which do not fall until after the beginning of winter. This tree is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for twenty-four years and where it has flowered and ripened its seeds now for several seasons. It is one of the most interesting trees in the collection and, because it is so unlike other trees of the northern hemisphere, it is often said to resemble a tree of the tropics. Aralia spinosa, the socalled Hercules' Club of the southern states where it is a common inhabitant of the borders of woods and the banks of streams, is a tree often thirty feet high with a tall trunk and wide-spreading branches covered with stout orange-colored prickles. The leaves, which are borne at the ends of the branches, are long-stalked, twice pinnate, and from three to four feet long and two and one-half feet wide. The small white flowers are arranged in compound clusters which rise singly or two or three together above the leaves and are three or four feet long. The fruit is black, rather less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, and ripens in early autumn. It is now well established on the slope at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurel plantation and is now spreading rapidly there over a considerable area by shoots from underground stems. The Asiatic tree Aralia resembles in habit and general appearance the American Hercules' Club, but is distinct from that tree in the absence of stalks to the leaflets. There are a number of geographical forms of this tree; the one which is most commonly cultivated in this country is a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandshurica) which is sometimes found in nurseries under the name of Dimorphanthus mandshuricus. The Japanese form (var. glabrescens) is chiefly distinguished from it by the pale color of the under surface of the leaflets; it is less hardy than the Manchurian form and is not often seen in this country. Sophora japonica, sometimes called the Pagoda-tree, is in spite of its name a Chinese tree which has been cultivated in Japan for more than a thousand years, and as it first reached Europe from that country was long considered a native of Japan. It is a round-headed tree which in Peking, where it has been much planted, has grown to a large size and looks from a distance like an Oak-tree. The leaves and branchlets are dark green, and the small, creamy white, pea-shaped flowers, which open here in August, are produced in great numbers in narrow, erect, terminal clusters. There are also in the collection the form with long pendent branches (var. pendula) which rarely flowers, and a young plant of the form with erect branches (var. pyramidalas). Oxydendrum arboreum, the Sour Wood or Sorrel-tree, so-called from the acrid taste of the leaves, is the only American tree in the Arboretum which flowers in August. It is a native of the Appalachian forests from southwestern Pennsylvania and is most common on mountain slopes, but reaches the coast of Virginia and North Carolina. The Sorrel-tree, which is perfectly hardy in New England, is a beautiful tree with bright green shining leaves which turn bright scarlet in the autumn, white Andromeda-like flowers erect on the branches of spreading or slightly drooping terminal clusters, and pale capsular fruits which in the autumn are conspicuous among the brilliant leaves. There is a group of these trees among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill. Summer Flowering Shrubs. Many shrubs with conspicuous flowers bloom in the Arboretum during the summer months. The list includes the Heathers (Calluna vulgaris), and several species of Genista and Cytisus. Of this European group the handsomest which can be grown here is the bright yellow-flowered Cytisus nigricans, the yellow-flowered C. capitatus, the white-flowered C. leucanthus and the yellowflowered Woad Wax and its varieties (Genista tinctoria), too well known in Essex County, Massachusetts, where escaped from cultivation it has ruined many hundred acres of hillside pastures. The Lespedezas with their abundant purple, pea-shaped flowers, and the handsomest of the Chinese Buddleias are still to bloom, as is the very hardy Acanthopanax sessiliflorum, a vigorous shrub of eastern Siberia, most conspicuous in winter when the compact round clusters of the shining black fruits are on the ends of the branches. The Japanese Hydrangea panicu,lata and its varieties, and the Hydrangeas of North America produce here the showiest July and August flowers. The early-flowered forms of Hydrangea paniculata (var. praecox) which is the handsomest of the group, is already in flower; and all the American species are blooming or just opening their flower-buds. The most popular of these American plants is the form of H. arborescens (var. grandiftora) with snow-ball-like heads of white sterile flowers. There is a similar abnormal form of another of the American species, H. cinerea. More beautiful, and one of the handsomest of the genus, H. quercifolia will flower this month in the Shrub Collection. This is an unusual event for this shrub, which is a native of the southern states, is frequently killed to the ground here. In the middle and southern states it is an important and valued garden ornament. Of the American Hydrangeas which are perfectly hardy in the north the handsomest is H. radwta, a native of mountain slopes in North and South Carolina, once a popular garden plant but now rarely cultivated. It is a broad, roundtopped shrub with leaves of ample size, dark green above and silvery white below, and broad flat heads of flowers surrounded by a tmg of white neutral flowers. Amorpha canescens, the Lead Plant, is beginning to open its small, violet-colored flowers arranged in long, narrow clustered spikes, which are conspicuous by the contrast with the color of the leaves and branches and are thickly covered white gray down. This plant is a native of the Mississippi valley where it grows on low prairies from Indiana and Minnesota to Texas. Aesculus parviflora occupies an important place among summer flowering shrubs. This native of the southeastern states is hardy in the north, and with abundant space and in good soil will spread into great thickets with stems seven or eight feet high. Toward the end of July it will be covered with its tall, narrow, erect spikes of small white flowers which stand up well above the foliage. Cornus paucinervis suffered somewhat in the cold winter of 1917-18, as was to have been expected, as it grows naturally at low levels in central China where the Orange flourishes and rarely ascends to altitudes of three thousand feet. It has recovered, however, and is now in flower. If it were a little hardier it would be one of the best summer flowering shrubs introduced by Wilson from China. It is a shrub five or six feet tall with erect stems, small, narrow, pointed leaves with only two or three pairs of prominent veins, small clusters of white flowers and black fruits. July Roses. July is the month when the hybrid Rambler Roses bloom, especially those which have been largely influenced by the Japanese Rosa Wichuraiana, but in the Arboretum collection there are only four species which do not begin to flower until after the first of July. These in the order of the opening of their flowers this year are R. stellata, R. Jackii, R. setigera and R. Wichuraiana. R. stellata, which is a native of the mountains of southern New Mexico, is a comparatively new inhabitant of gardens, and one of the most interesting and distinct of American Roses. It is a shrub with slender, pale yellow stems armed with long slender spines of the same color, small leaves with thick, round, lustrous leaflets, which generally resemble the leaves of some western Gooseberry, and deep rose-colored, slightly cup-shaped flowers from two inches and a half to three inches in diameter. The fruit is dark red, nearly globose, covered with prickles, half an inch in diameter, and surmounted by the much enlarged calyx-lobes. Rosa Jackii, which is a native of Korea, and one of the Multiflorae Group, has long stems which lie nearly flat on the ground, lustrous leaves and pure white clustered flowers rather more than two inches in diameter. The flowers are larger than those of the Japanese R. multiflora, and open two or three weeks later. The Prairie Rose, R. setigera, is well known to the inhabitants of the middle states for it is a common prairie inhabitant from Michigan to Texas. It produces long slender stems which can be trained over an arbor or against a building, but this Rose looks best when allowed to grow naturally when it forms a wide bush of gracefully arching stems. The flowers are produced in wide, manyflowered clusters and are light rose pink. This is usually the last Rose to open its flowers in the Arboretum, but this year Rosa Wichuraiana is several days late, Its long prostrate stems are well suited to clothe banks which when the flowers open look as if they had been covered with snow. Grown in this natural way it is perfectly hardy, but when the stems are trained over an arbor or trellis they often suffer in New England from cold; and its hybrids, among which are found some of the most beautiful Rambler Roses, are less hardy here than those in which Rosa multiflora has been one of the parents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 26","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23691","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25e8926.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 26, 1919 Fruits in the Arboretum. The ripening and ripe fruits of many hardy trees and shrubs are as beautiful and often more beautiful than their flowers; and such plants have a double value for the decoration of northern gardens, especially the gardens of the northern United States. For the climate of this part of the world is suited for the abundant production and high coloring of the fruits of our native trees and shrubs and of those of northeastern Asia; and European plant lovers who come to the Arboretum in summer and autumn are always astonished and delighted with the abundance and beauty of the fruits they find here. The list of trees and shrubs with handsome fruits which can be grown in New England contains many species of Holly, Ribes, Viburnum, Cotoneaster, Cornus, Malus, Sorbus, Amelanchier, Aronia, Rosa, Prunus, Rhus, Crataegus, Ampelopsis, Berberis, Magnolia, Acer, Acanthopanax and Lonicera. On the Red and White Maples the fruit ripens early in May, and until the first of November there will be a succession here of ripening fruits. The fruits of a few trees and shrubs will remain on the branches and keep much of their brilliancy until early April, and there is therefore only a few weeks during the year when one cannot find showy fruits in the Arboretum. Honeysuckles as fruit plants. It is not perhaps generally realized that the fruit of several Honeysuckles is more beautiful than their flowers, and that among the species which are bushes and not vines are plants perfectly suited to this northern climate which are not surpassed in the abundance and brilliancy of their fruits by any plants which ripen their fruit in summer. The Honeysuckles which produce the earliest and the showiest fruit are Lonicera tatarica and some of its hybrids. The Tartarian Honeysuckle, which is a native of western Siberia and central Asia, is an old inhabitant of gardens and one of the best shrubs for cold countries, for it can support without injury the excessive cold of the long winter and the burning sun of the short summer of the north fatal to all but a few of the plants which decorate the gardens of more temperate regions. It cannot be too often repeated that the Tartarian Honeysuckle and its hybrids are large, fast-growing plants, that they only thrive in rich, well-drained soil, and that they can only show their real beauty when allowed sufficient space for free development of their branches. Twenty-five feet between the plants does not give them too much room. There are many varieties of the Tartarian Honeysuckle in the Arboretum collection varying in the 'coior of their flowers and in the color of their fruits. The varieties of L. tatarica which have this year the handsome fruit are the var. rosea with scarlet fruit and var. lutea with bright yellow fruit. The fruits, however, of some of the hybrids are more beautiful than those of any of the varieties of the species. As fruiting plants the best of these hybrids which are in the Arboretum are Lonicera bella, L. muendeniensis, L. notha, and L, amoena. L. bella was raised in the Botanic Garden at Petrograd and is believed to be the product of a cross between L. tatarica and the Japanese L. Morrowii. There are several varieties of this hybrid differing in the color of their flowers. They are large, free-flowering plants with large, lustrous red fruit. L. muendeniensis, which originated in the Botanic Garden at Muenden, is probably of the same parentage as L. bella altered by the cross with another species. It is a very vigorous plant with large, lustrous, orange-red fruit. L. notha, which is believed to be a hybrid of L. tatarica and L. Ruprechtiana, is another large, vigorous, fastgrowing plant with lustrous orange-red fruit. L. notha and L. muendeniensis as fruit plants are the handsomest of the large-growing Bush Honeysuckles with dark green leaves and orange-red fruits. More beautiful when in flower is the hybrid of L. tatarica with the Persian L. Korolkovii which is called L. amoena. This is a smaller plant than the other hybrids of the Tartarian Honeysuckle with pale gray-green leaves, small pink flowers and small red fruits. When it is in bloom this plant is considered by many persons the most beautiful Lonicera in the collection. The Japanese L. Morrowii is more beautiful now when it is covered with its large orange-red fruits than it was when the yellow and white flowers were open in early spring. This is a round-topped shrub, much broader than high, with gray-green foliage, and long lower branches which cling close to the ground. When it can have sufficient room in which to grow this is one of the handsomest of the Honeysuckles and one of the best shrubs introduced into the United States by the Arboretum. There are two hybrids of this species in the collection, L. minutiflora with small, translucent, yellow fruit, and L. muscaviensis with large bright scarlet fruit. They are large, hardy and fast-growing plants. Very different are the bright blue fruits of the different geographical forms of the widely distributed Lonicera coerulea which are now ripe. These fruits are beautiful but they are a good deal covered by the leaves, and the plants are not as conspicuous at this season of the year as the Tartarian and several of the other Bush Honeysuckles. The bright red fruit of Lonicera trichosantha is conspicuous in the last weeks of July. This is a shrub now three or four feet tall in the Arboretum, with erect stems, large yellow and white flowers, and fruits rather larger than those of the Tartarian Honeysuckle. It is a native of northern and central China and promises to be a useful addition to summer fruiting shrubs. The fruits of two western American Bush Honeysuckles, L. involucrata and its varieties and L. Ledebourii ripen in July and are handsome and peculiar, for the large, lustrous black berries rise from the much enlarged bractlets of the flowers which are now bright red and much reflexed. One of the most interesting of these plants is the variety serotina of Lonicera involucrata. This has bright yellow flowers flushed with scarlet which do not open until July; the enlarged bractlets of this Colorado plant are spreading, not reflexed. The tree with the showiest fruits in the Arboretum in July is the Tartarian Maple (Acer tataricum) which is an early-flowering, very hardy small tree from southeastern Europe and western Asia. The wings of the fruit, which is now fully grown, are bright red and their beauty is heightened by the contrast of the dark green leaves. The female plants of the so-called Mountain Holly (Nemopanthus mucronata) are handsome in July when their rose-red berrylike fruits are ripe. Nemopanthus, which belongs to the Holly Family, consists of a single species which is common in cool moist woods in the northeastern United States and eastern Canada, and is a wide round-topped shrub with erect stems covered with gray bark, thin pale green leaves and inconspicuous flowers. It has taken kindly to cultivation in the Arboretum where there are a number of plants in the Holly Collection in the rear of the Horsechestnut Collection. The snow-white fruits of the red and yellow-flowered forms of the North American Cornus stolonifera are now ripe. Very beautiful in winter from the bright coloring of its stems and branches, this Cornel is equally beautiful in July and August when it is covered with its large and abundant clusters of fruit. A garden form of the Old World Cornus alba (var. Rosenthalii) is fruiting abundantly this year and promises to be a valuable addition to July and August fruiting shrubs. Some July Flowering Trees and Shrubs. Among the Lindens the last to flower are the small-leaved European Tilia cordata and its varieties. The handsomest of these is the var. cordifolia which differs from the type in its larger leaves and rather larger flowers. The Arboretum specimen is a shapely tree which this year when in flower has been more conspicuous than any Linden-tree in the Collection. The Japanese Clethra (C. barbinervis) is in flower about two weeks earlier than the native C. alnifolia. The Japanese species is a larger plant than C. alnifolia and in Massachusetts has grown ten or fifteen feet high and nearly as much through. The foliage is of a lighter green than that of the American plant; the flowers are less crowded in the racemes and lack the odor which makes C. alnifolia one of the most delightful of summer- flowering shrubs. In the Arboretum plants of the Japanese Clethra have so far escaped the attacks of red spiders which often disfigure here those of C. alnifolia. Indigofera. Five species of this genus of the Pea Family are now blooming in the Arboretum. They are small plants with handsome flowers in terminal racemes, well suited to decorate a garden border. The three species with pink flowers, I. Kirilowii, a native of northern China, Manchuria and Korea, I. Potaninii and I. amblyantha are perfectly hardy and the last will continue to open its small flowers on the lengthening racemes until October. The other species, 1. Gerardiana and I. decora, are killed to the ground every winter, but like herbaceous plants produce new stems in the spring which never fail to flower during the summer. I. decora is a native of southern China, and in the Arboretum the flowers are pure white. 1. Gerardiana, which isa native of the northwestern Himalayas, has gray-green foliage and rosepurple flowers. This is the least beautiful of the five species now growing in the Arboretum. The collection still needs I. hebepetala, another Himalayan plant which is rarely seen in English gardens, It has red flowers, in elongated racemes, and, judging by the picture of it which has been published is a handsome plant. This and another red-flowered Himalayan species, I. atropurpurea, are desired by the Arboretum. Rubus lacinatus. This European plant, which produces long red stems and deeply divided leaflets, is one of the handsomest of the Brambles and is well suited to cover banks or to train over fences and arbors. It is now in flower in the Shrub Collection. In England it is valued for its fruit which is described as \"one of the finest blackberries in size and flavor.\" In competition with some of the American blackberries it will not probably find much favor in this country. There are two double-flowered Brambles in the collection which are also in bloom and which are also important ornamental plants, also well suited to cover arbors and fences. They produce in a season stems from ten to twenty feet long and their white or pink flowers in long, manyflowered crowded clusters resemble miniature Roses. These plants are called Rufus ulmifolius var. bellidi,florus and R. thyrsoideus flore pleno, and seem to be little known in the United States. Schizophragma hydrangeoides must be included among the shrubs which flower in July. This beautiful climbing plant has not had a successful career in the Arboretum. Seeds were first sent here in December, 1876, from Sapporo in northern Japan with those of Hydrangea petiolaras, Syringa japonica, Phellodendron sachalinense and other interesting plants. A large number of Schizophragma plants were raised and sent to other American and European gardens. Those planted in the Arboretum never flourished, and soon disappeared, probably because the right place was not found for them. Plants raised later also disappeared; and it is a matter of some satisfaction at the Arboretum that this beautiful plant, after forty-three years of failure, is at last established on the Administration Building where it has flowered this year for the first time. It clings as firmly to the brick wall as Hydrangea petiolaris; the leaves are smaller, more circular in shape, more coarsely toothed and of a darker color. When in flower Schizophragma is more interesting, although not as showy as the Hydrangea, for instead of the surrounding ring of neutral flowers there are only two neutral flowers to each of the divisions of the large compound inflorescence; these neutral flowers are white, ovate, often an inch or more long, and hang on long slender stems an inch in length. Schizophragma appears to be an exceedingly rare plant in American gardens in which Hydrangea petiolaris often passes for it. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 17","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23704","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170a327.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 17, 1919 This is a good time to visit the Arboretum. The unusually mild winter and the abundant summer and autumn rains have been favorable to most plants, and probably the Arboretum has never looked better at this season of the year than it does this week. Conifers, particularly Junipers, have not before been in better condition, and the fresh green of the leaves on many trees and shrubs is unusual here the middle of October and heightens the beauty of the autumn colors of the leaves of those plants which change color early under all conditions. Autumn Colors. There can be few places in the world where colors of ripening leaves are so varied or are continued through so many weeks. For the leaves of the plants of eastern Asia, which are well represented in the Arboretum, usually are beautifully colored after those of our eastern American trees, with the exception of the Oaks, have fallen. A few conspicuous exceptions to this general rule are worth noting :-Nearly three weeks ago and before the leaves of the Red Maple (Acer rubrum) had begun to change color, those of the Cork-barked tree of eastern Siberia (Phellodendron amurense) were bright gold color, making the two trees on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road the most brilliant objects in the Arboretum. These trees have now been bare of leaves for several days. They are still interesting objects, however, for now that the leaves have gone it is possible to see clearly the pale, deeply furrowed soft corky bark of the trunk and large branches to which this tree owes its name. The genus Phellodendron is confined to eastern Asia, and the five species now known are well established in the Arboretum. On account of this bark Phellodendron amurense, the type of the genus, is perhaps the most interesting species. The others, however, are larger and more shapely trees, and the species of northern Japan and Saghalien (P. sachalinense) is well suited for street planting. The pungent oil which abounds in the leaves of these trees protects them from the attacks of leaf-eating insects. Another conspicuous exception to the rule that the leaves of Asiatic plants change color later in the autumn than those of eastern American plants is found in the Burning Bush with winged branches, Evonymus alatus, a native of Japan and Korea. The flowers and fruits of this plant are small and inconspicuous, but few plants surpass it in the beauty of its rose-colored autumn foliage which is unlike that of any other plant in the Arboretum. This plant, if it gets the opportunity, will spread into a shrub from ten to fifteen feet across with lower branches laying close to the ground, and will form a compact round-topped head. It is a plant, however, which unless it can have plenty of room in which to grow is not worth a place in the garden. Acer ginnala is another Asiatic plant which takes on its autumn colors early. This small Maple, which is a native of eastern Siberia, Manchuria, and Korea, is not surpassed in autumn brilliancy by any American Scarlet Maple. One of the early introductions of the Arboretum it has been taken up by some American nurserymen and is now sometimes found in northern gardens. A blue and a brown dye are obtained from the leaves, which are shipped in quantity from Korea into China. As this little Maple is very hardy, and grows rapidly and produces large crops of seeds it might have been advantageously planted commercially in the northern states had not vegetable dyes been so generally superseded by synthetic dyes, a product of coal tar; and it is probable that these Maple leaves may not be much longer used in China, which is already receiving considerable quantities of blue dye manufactured in the United States. Another Korean and Manchurian Maple, Acer mandshuricum, also illustrates the fact that the leaves of some Asiatic trees turn color and fall early in the season. This is one of the group of Maples with leaves composed of three leaflets and one of the largest and handsomest trees of Manchuria and northern Korea. Like those of a few other plants, notably the Japanese Acer nikoense, the leaflets of this Maple retain in autumn the pale color of their lower surface which increases the beauty of the bright red upper surface. Seedlings of this Maple have grown rapidly in the Arboretum and have flowered and produced infertile seeds for the last two or three years. The plants are hardy; some of them, however, have died, and the fact that small individuals only a few years old have flowered indicates that there is something in the climate or soil of Massachusetts which does not suit them. This is unfortunate for Acer mandshuricum, from which much has been expected here, is a tree of great beauty and interest. Little attention has been given by park- and garden-makers to the selection and arrangement of plants to produce brilliant and harmonious autumn effects of autumn colors, with the result that there is less beauty at this season of the year in planted grounds than it is possible to obtain. Trees and shrubs grouped to produce the best autumn color effect would compose well at other seasons of the year. The success of such an arrangement of plants depends on knowledge which can only be obtained by the constant study at all seasons of the year of living plants. Opportunity for such study is found in the Arboretum, in which nearly every tree and shrub which can grow in the northern United States is established. The leaves on some individuals of a species turn more brilliantly than on other individuals of the same species and this individual character is constant from year to year. It is therefore possible to increase the number of trees with exceptionally handsome autumn foliage by grafting or budding, grafts or buds being taken from selected trees worked on stock of the same species, as trees with pyramidal or pendulous branches are propagated. The value of propagating trees for the autumn color of their leaves is shown by the Red Maple-tree which stands on the lefthand side of the Meadow Road directly opposite the entrance to the Administration Building. This tree was obtained by grafting a Red Maple seedling with a branch of~ a tree growing in Brookline with crimson autumn foliage. The leaves of the grafted tree have the same color as those of the Brookline tree, and for more than two weeks this tree has been the brilliant object of the Arboretum. Near it are standing two seedling Red Maples. The leaves of one of these trees turned pale yellow and are fast falling; from the other the nearly green leaves have already fallen. Plants for the Edge of Beds of Large Shrubs. A correspondent of the Arboretum writes: \"Can you recommend several shrubs suitable for edging planting before taller shrubs? I have used Xanthorrhiza considerably, but it is almost the only shrub that I find low enough for that purpose. I want to bring some Cornels down to the edge of a drive and I also want to plant in front of Privets and Thorns.\" There are not many shrubs with deciduous leaves which can be successfully used for this purpose. The best which has been tried in the Arboretum is the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis, or as it was formerly called Rhus aromatica). This widely distributed North American shrub rarely grows more than five feet tall, and when planted in good soil is often broader than tall with lower branches spreading flat on the ground, and upper branches erect spreading or drooping. In early spring before the leaves appear the branches are covered with clusters of small bright yellow flowers which in June are followed by dull red fruits which are pretty much hidden by the small compound leaves. Among the small shrubs in the Arboretum few are more brilliant at this season of the year for the leaves turn gradually to bright scarlet and orange. This Rhus has been largely planted along some of the drives and this week it is a conspicuous feature of the Arboretum. The Xanthorrhiza has also been largely and successfully used here. It makes a neat border plant, and it is also well suited to grow under tall shrubs or trees. The Xanthorrhiza spreads rapidly by underground stems which do not grow more than from twelve to eighteen inches high; the small purple flowers which are arranged in drooping clusters, appear as the leaves unfold; these are pinnate, of a cheerful green color and in the autumn turn pale yellow. Some of the North American Roses might be used to edge beds of larger shrubs although most of them are too upright in habit to be really useful for this purpose. There is a dwarf form of the Choke-berry (Aronia nigra) in the Arboretum collection which might be used to advantage for this purpose. Unfortunately, however, it probably cannot be found in commercial nurseries. This is true, too, of the dwarf Quince of Japan (Chaenomeles japonica, sometimes called Pyrus or Cydonis Maulei in European nurseries). This is a shrub with spreading branches which do not rise more than two feet above the ground. The flowers vary on different plants from crimson to pink and to white, and are followed by small yellow, fragrant quince-like fruit. These handsome little shrubs, like the larger Quinces and many related plants, attract the San Jose scale, which needs careful watching and frequent spraying. All the Snowberries (Syrrephoricarpxcs) including the red-fruited S. vulgaris can be used in front of larger growing shrubs; and the trailing stems of one of the American Burning Bushes (Evonymus obovatus) make a good border when taller plants protect them from the direct rays of the sun. Some of the low-growing Chinese Cotoneasters, like C. horizontalis with its varieties Wilsonii and perpusilla, and C. apiculata are well suited in habit to plant before larger shrubs. If used, however, with Cornels or Privets they might appear too exotic, and their proper place is in front of beds of the large-growing Chinese Cotoneasters. Their value for this purpose can be seen on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where dwarf Cotoneasters have been planted before the large growing species. There are a few broad-leaved Evergreens which can be successfully used here to form an edging to beds of larger Evergreens. The best of them is probably Andromeda ftoribunda from the southern Appalachian Mountains, one of the hardiest and handsomest of the broad-leaved Evergreen plants which can be grown in this climate. It makes a good edging, and with abundant space a wide, symmetrical specimen. Two low hybrid Rhododendrons, R. myrtifolium and R. arbutifolium (R. YVilsonii of many gardens) are useful to plant on the margins of groups of taller growing kinds; and R. carolinianum, although it blooms earlier than most Rhododendrons which are hardy in this climate, might be used for the same purpose. Crataegus in Autumn. A pretty good idea of the value of American Hawthorns as ornamental plants at this season of the year can be had by following the path which leads to the right just inside the gate at the Forest Hills entrance to the Arboretum. On the bank between this path and the boundary wall are a few Hawthorns which are now forty years old, and have grown to a good size in spite of the poor soil in which they were planted. Among them are C. nitida, C. Dawsoniana,~ C. arkansana, C. Douglasii, C. aprica, C. pruinosa, C. succulenta, C. coccinioides, C. prunifolia and C. fecunda. These trees are covered with ripe or ripening fruit; on some of them the leaves are still as green as they were in summer, on others they have assumed brilliant shades of scarlet and orange. American Hawthorns thrive in soil impregnated with lime; they can therefore be successfully grown over a large part of the United States where Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and related plants to which lime is fatal cannot be used. Little is known yet of the beauties of American Hawthorns as cultivated plants but enough has been seen of them at the Arboretum to show that among them are some of the most beautiful trees and shrubs which can be grown in this country especially in the middle western states where lime abounds and there are great extremes of temperature."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 24","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23705","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170a727.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 24, 1919 Pseudolarix amabilis. It is an interesting fact that the monotypic genera of conifers, that is, the genera of a single species, of the northern hemisphere, are confined to eastern Asia. There are seven of these genera: Glyptostrobus, Taiwania, Fokienia, Cryptomeria, Thujopsis, Sciadopitys, and Pseudolarix. Unfortunately several of these trees are not hardy in the northern United States. Glyptostrobus, Taiwania and Fokienia grow in warm regions; they might succeed in some parts of Florida and Louisiana, but California will probably prove our best region for them. Cryptomeria can just be kept alive in the Arboretum, but fairly healthy specimens can occasionally be seen in gardens on Long Island and southward in the eastern states. An abnormal form of this tree (var. elegans) appears to be rather hardier than the type and to be more often cultivated in the eastern states. There is a small tree of Thujopsis in Wareham, on Cape Cod, but this beautiful Japanese tree has not proved to be hardy in the Arboretum. A variety (var. Hondai) from the extreme northern part of Hondo may prove hardier than the type. Seedlings of this northern variety have been growing in the Arboretum since 1915. Sciadopitys, the Japanese \"Umbrella Pine,\" although the leaves are sometimes badly burned in severe winters, is hardy in Massachusetts. It is an interesting and handsome tree, forming while young a dense pyramid. It grows so slowly, however, that it will not be popular with those planters with whom rapidity of growth is the chief merit in a tree. For the northern states and for general cultivation the most valuable of the monotypic Asiatic conifers certainly is the Chinese Golden Larch Pseudo58 larix amabilis, a tree with the deciduous leaves of the Larch and large cones erect on the branches with scales which fall when mature from the axis of the cone like those of Fir-trees and the Cedar of Lebanon. As a wild tree not much is yet known of the distribution, size and economic value of Pseudolarix. Robert Fortune, who was sent to China by the London Horticultural Society in 1843 as a botanical collector, first made known this tree to Europeans. He found it first in temple gardens growing in pots and much stunted; and it was not until 1854 in a journey in the province of Chekiang that Fortune found Pseudolarix growing in the open ground at the monastery of Tsan-tsin. \"They were growing,\" he writes, \"in the vicinity of a Buddhist monastery in the western part of the Province of Chekiang at an elevation of 1000 or 1500 feet above the level of the sea. Their stems which measured fully five feet in circumference two feet from the ground, carried this size, with a slight diminution, to a height of fifty feet, this being the height of the lower branches. The total height I estimated about 120 or 130 feet. The stems were perfectly straight throughout, the branches symmetrical, slightly inclined to a horizontal form, and having the appearance of something between the Cedar and the Larch.\" Fortune found these trees, which had probably been planted, covered with cones and sent seeds home to England. Unfortunately only a small percentage of them germinated. The following autumn, in the hope of securing another supply of seeds, Fortune explored a higher range in the western part of Chekiang on which he had heard that the Pseudolarix was more abundant. Here he found at altitudes just below 4000 feet a larger number of both large and small trees which he thought had also been planted. The largest tree which Fortune saw at this high altitude he estimated to be one hundred and thirty feet high; the trunk was eight feet in circumference, and the lower branches nearly touched the ground. There were no cones on these trees and Fortune was told by the monks that cones were only produced on alternate years. He dug up a few plants which finally reached England, and it is probable that the largest trees now growing in Europe and the United States were of this sending. After Fortune's visit to the Chekiang Mountains in 1855, Pseudolarix was not seen again in China until 1878 when Charles Maries, a botanical traveller for the Veitch's of London, found it at the Temple of Teen Cha on the Lushan Range in Kiangsi and sent seeds to England. The last botanist to see the Pseudolarix in China, E. H. Wilson, met with it in August, 1907, at an altitude of about 4000 feet on the Lushan Range near Kuling which is the most western station where this tree has been seen in China by foreigners. The larger trees near Kuling had been planted but Wilson saw small trees on the mountain side which were evidently wild, and it is probable, therefore, that these small trees are the only self-sown trees of Pseudolarix seen by European botanical travellers unless the \"forests of the Larch-fir\" on the mountains south of Poyang Lake in Kiangsi which were mentioned by Barrow in his \"Travels in China,\" published in 1804, and which as Wilson has pointed out must have been Pseudolarix, were wild trees. In spite of all of Fortune's efforts to introduce this tree into Europe it has not become common. The largest specimen in Europe is in the Rovelli nursery at Pallanza on Lake Magiore in Italy. In 1907 this tree was sixty-four feet high with a trunk six feet ten inches in girth. It has produced seeds at different times for several years, and these germinate freely where they fall under the tree. There are a few of the original trees in France, Germany and Belgium, the largest probably being the tree which is in the nursery of the Horticultural Society at Calmpthout near Antwerp, which in 1910 was said to be forty-six feet tall with a trunk three feet in girth. There are several of these original trees growing in Great Britain, but they are smaller than the large specimen on the continent, for apparently Pseudolarix needs a hot summer and autumn sun for its rapid growth. There are two and perhaps three of the plants sent by Fortune to England in 1854 growing in the United States. The largest of these was imported by S. B. Parsons in 1859, and planted in his nursery at Flushing, Long Island. In 1895 this tree was fifty-five feet high with a trunk two feet in diameter. This tree is still in perfect health, and is now fully eighty feet high (estimated) with a tall straight trunk two feet ten inches in diameter, free of branches for from twenty to twenty-five feet and carrying a broad, symmetrical, pyramidal head. The bark, unlike that of the Larches, is thick, divided into broad rounded ridges and is dark brown. For many years this tree has produced large crops of seeds, usually only in alternate seasons. It is certainly one of the most interesting exotic trees in eastern North America and well worth a visit. Another of Fortune's original trees is growing in Mr. Hunnewell's Pinetum at Wellesley, Massachusetts. The date of the importation of this plant is not known but it was probably before 1865. This is rather a flattopped tree and has retained its wide spreading lower branches. In 1905 this tree was thirty-five feet high with a trunk four feet in circumference and a spread of branches of twenty-seven feet. This tree produced fertile seeds previous to 1896. In that year the late Mr. Probasco stated that the Pseudolarix which he had planted in the neighborhood of Cincinnati was rather larger than the Wellesley tree. It is fair to assume, therefore, that this was also one of the original Fortune plants. The two fine specimens planted by Mr. C. A. Dana at Dosoris, Long Island, were probably raised from the seeds sent to England by Maries in 1878. Pseudolarix is planted in the Arboretum on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road close to the Walter Street entrance. The two larger trees were imported from England in 1871; the smaller trees were raised here from seed produced by the Wellesley tree and sown in January, 1906. Pseudolarix is a tree of extraordinary botanical interest; as a timber tree it may prove valuable; for the decoration of lawns and parks it deserves the attention of all lovers of handsome trees. It is perfectly hardy at least as far north as Massachusetts; the leaves, which are longer and broader than those of the Larches, are light green when they first appear in early spring, dark green during the summer and until they begin to change color early in October when they generally become the color of old gold, some of the leaves remaining green after others have assumed their deepest autumn tints. The leaves of the Pseudolarix have not been attacked yet by the insects which too often destroy in early summer the beauty of Larch trees. Planted as a specimen on a lawn as the Wellesley tree was planted Pseudolarix may be expected to retain its lower branches for many years; planted close together in groves it will grow taller and form a tall Larch-like trunk. As Pseudolarix seeds are produced in quantity by at least two trees in the United States, and probably by several trees in Europe, there is no reason why this tree should not be taken up by American nurserymen and brought within reach of the lovers of handsome and interesting trees. The trees at Flushing and at Wellesley are not producing seeds this year. Zelkova serrata, the Keaki of the Japanese, is another Asiatic tree which is still too little known in the United States. The oldest tree in this country is growing on the estate of Mr. Henry Everett in Barnstable, Massachusetts. The seeds which produced this tree were brought from Japan in 1862 by John Wilson, who gave them to Captain Frank Hinckley. Only one plant was raised from these seeds. It is now a broad-headed tree with a short, stout trunk divided into several large ascending stems. A little later seeds of the Keaki were sent from Japan to the Parsons nursery at Flushing, either by Dr. Hall or by Mr. Thomas Hogg, and the best of the trees, the result of this introduction, known to the Arboretum are in Dr. Hall's plantation in Bristol, Rhode Island. The largest of these trees are now fully seventy feet high with tall stems from two to two and a half feet in diameter. These trees have for years been producing large crops of seeds and quantities of seedlings spring up under the trees, and at long distances from them, the seeds being widely scattered by the wind. A specimen with a tall clean stem and shapely head which has been planted by the roadside in Warren, the next town to Bristol, indicates that the Japanese Zelkova might be successfully used as a street or roadside tree. It is as a timber tree, however, that this Zelkova deserves the attention of Americans. It is the most important hardwood tree of Japan and Korea. The wood is tough, elastic and durable in the ground and when exposed to the air. It is considered the best wood for building in the Empire, and furnishes the great round columns which support the roofs of Japanese temples. It is universally used in Japan in making jinrikishas, and quantities of the wood are sent from Korea into China for this purpose. The Keaki alone has made the jinrikisha possible just as the Hickory-tree has made possible in this country the light wagon and the trotting horse. The demand for the wood has made the Keaki comparatively rare. That it was once a noble tree, however, is shown by the great specimens which have been preserved in temple gardens and by village roadsides. Such trees are often at best one hundred feet high with the trunks eight or ten feet in diameter. Viburnums. The handsomest Viburnums this week in the Arboretum are V. prunifolium, a tree species of the Middle States, with dark purple leaves and fruit which is still pale pink but later will be dark blue, and the Japanese V. dilatatum, a broad round-headed shrub with wide flat clusters of small bright red fruit, and dark red almost purple leaves."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 30","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23706","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd170ab27.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 30, 1919 The Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida). It is perhaps not necessary to call attention again to this tree which in recent years has been planted in considerable numbers in those parts of the northeastern states where it is hardy, but the Flowering Dogwood has been exceptionally beautiful this year, and its value for the decoration of the parks and gardens of eastern North America cannot be too often insisted on. Cornus florida \"composes well,\" as landscape gardeners would say, with the vegetation of eastern America, that is, where it is planted under our native trees or along the borders of natural woods it never looks out of place. In spring it enlivens the forest with sheets of the show white floral bracts which surround the heads of small yellow flowers. In October the leaves of not one of our smaller native trees assumes more beautiful shades of crimson, scarlet, orange or yellow, and as the leaves change color gradually leaves which are still green are often mixed with those which have become brightly colored. The autumn beauty of the leaves is increased, too, by the contrast in the colors of their upper and lower surfaces, for only the upper surface changes color, the lower retaining until the leaves fall the pale or nearly white color of summer. In the autumn, too, the clusters of bright scarlet fruits add another charm to this tree which is often short-lived for birds devour the fruit almost as fast as it ripens. The conspicuous gray flower-buds which open the following spring are formed in the late summer and add to the beauty and interest of the tree during the autumn and winter. A variety of Cornusflorida with red floral bracts was found in Virginia several years ago and has been propagated and sold by American nurserymen. When in flower it is a showy tree but lacks the charm of the normal species. A variety of the normal form with pendulous branches is in the Arboretum collection but has no particular interest or beauty, and a form with flower-heads surrounded by a double row of bracts, which was a good deal advertised a few years ago, has little to recommend it. Beautiful as it is the eastern Flowering Dogwood is surpassed by the species of the northwest coast region, Cornus Nuttallii, which is a tree sometimes seventy or eighty feet high with heads of bracts five or six inches across. Cornus NuttalLia grows in damp woods in the shade of large coniferous trees, and it is difficult to keep it alive beyond the limits of its native forests. It has never succeeded in the Arboretum and has flowered in Europe in only a few gardens. The Japanese Flowering Dogwood, Cornus kousa, and its Chinese variety are hardy and handsome little trees which flower later in the season than our native species, with which they do not compare in beauty of flowers, foliage or fruit. The Sassafras in Autumn. In good years and bad years the Sassafras never fails to become a conspicuous object of beauty in October when its dark green leaves turn yellow and orange color more or less tinged with red. This statement gives little idea of the warmth of color which the Sassafras produces when it grows, as it often does, on the border of a forest of Oak-trees on which the leaves are still green. The Sassafras is a handsome tree at other seasons of the year. In winter it is conspicuous by its deeply furrowed dark cinnamon-gray bark and bright green branchlets which in early spring are covered before the leaves appear with innumerable clusters of small bright yellow flowers. The leaves, which are sometimes deeply three-lobed and sometimes entire on the same branch, are not attacked by insects. The fruit is a bright blue berry surrounded at the base by the much enlarged and thickened calyx of the flower raised on a long bright red stalk. Among northern trees only Magnolias produce such bright-colored fruits. There is little time, however, to enjoy the fruit of the Sassafras for birds eagerly seek it as it ripens. Crataegus. A few of the Old World Hawthorns produce fruit as large and handsome as any of the American species. The largest and handsomest is that of the Manchurian and Chinese Crataegus pinnatifida a which is cultivated in orchards by the Chinese for its dark red fruits. Very beautiful this year is a variety of the European C. oxyacantha (var. Gireoudii) with thick, slightly lobed, dark green leaves and bright red, lustrous, short-oblong fruits half an inch in length. The branches of the small tree in the new collection of exotic Thorns on Peter's Hill are covered from end to end with fruit clusters which make it one of the most brilliant plants in the Arboretum this week. Crataegus hiemalis, a European tree of doubtful origin and by some authors considered a hybrid, is covered this year with its lustrous, dark wine-colored, ellipsoidal fruit half an inch long, drooping on long slender stems. More beautiful is a tree growing near C. hiemalis in the old Crataegus Collection near the Shrub Collection with small deeply divided leaves and depressed-globose, shining, dark red-brown fruit three- quarters of an inch in diameter. It is probably a form of C. orientalis with fruit of an unusual color. Late flowers. Chrysanthemum sibiricum, which has been flowering for several weeks on Azalea Path, will continue to open its white flowers until the buds are killed by a hard frost. This attractive plant is still rare in gardens, although it was introduced into this country fourteen years ago by Professor Jack who found it on Poukan-shan, the mountain close to the city of Seoul. This late-flowering Chrysanthemum is perfectly hardy; it produces seeds freely, and spreads also by underground shoots, so that once established it is likely to be a permanent feature in the garden. It is a shrub eighteen or twenty inches tall, with slender stems, woody at base, deeply divided, pale green, pungently aromatic leaves and white daisy-like flowers an inch and a half in diameter. A form with pale rose-colored flowers has been raised in this country. A handsomer plant now in bloom is Chrysanthemum nipponicum which is commonly cultivated in Japanese gardens and which is believed to grow naturally on the shores of some of the smaller islands of northern Japan. It is a stout-stemmed, compact-round- topped shrub which under conditions favorable to it grows from two to three feet tall and three or four feet through. The leaves are narrowly oblong-obovate, sessile, slightly toothed toward the apex, light green and lustrous above, pale below, and thick and leathery; they stand erect, and pressed close against the stem display only their lower surface. The flowers are produced on long stout stalks, each from the axil of one of the upper leaves; and as the flower-stalks increase in length from the lowest to the one in the axil of the topmost leaf the flowers are arranged in a broad flat cluster in which buds continue to open during many weeks or until they are destroyed by cold. The flowers are daisy-like with broad, pure white ray-flowers, and are from two to two and a half inches across. The flowers of this Japanese Chrysanthemum are sometimes injured in Massachusetts by October frosts. It is better suited, like the Japanese Anemone, to regions which enjoy a longer autumn than that of Massachusetts. It grows well in the neighborhood of Philadelphia and there are good plants on Long Island. With the protection of a pit or a cool greenhouse it would probably continue to open its flower-buds until Christmas. The Mountain Halesia or Silver Bell Tree. Until the beginning of the present century the botanists who visited the high Appalachian Mountains appear to have taken it for granted that the Halesia which grows at altitudes above 2500 feet was the same as the bushy tree of the foothills and upland valleys of the Piedmont region and southward. This idea having been generally accepted and as the lowland plant had for more than a century been common in gardens no attempt was made to cultivate the mountain tree, and the gardens of the United States and Europe have been deprived of one of the handsomest trees of the North American forests. The lowland plant, Halesia carolina, is usually shrubby in habit with numerous stout stems wide-spreading from a short stem, and covered with nearly smooth or slightly scaly bark. The tree of the high mountains is not rarely eighty or ninety feet high with a straight trunk sometimes three feet or three feet and a half in diameter, often free of branches for fifty or sixty feet from the ground and covered with bark separating into great platelike scales like those of a scaly-barked Hickory or a Swamp Cottonwood. The flowers are about one-third larger and the fruit is twice as large as the flowers and fruits of the lowland tree. The habit of the plant and the large flowers and fruits are reproduced in the seedlings, which when the seeds germinate begin to grow as trees with a single stem. The seedlings show no variation in habit, and the young trees grow with a single straight stem with short branches which form a narrow symmetrical, pyramidal head. The trees often begin to flower and to produce fertile seeds before they are ten feet tall. The mountain Halesia has been described as a variety (var. monticola) of H. carolina but it will probably be, when better known, considered a species. This tree was introduced into cultivation by Mr. Harlan P. Kelsey who for many years has maintained in western North Carolina a nursery of Appalachian plants. By him it was sent to the Park Department of Rochester about twenty-five years ago, and in 1907 it came from Rochester to the Arboretum. This mountain tree has proved to be perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it is growing rapidly and where it has now flowered and produced fruit smce 1913. It is a tree which seems destined to play an important part in the decoration of American parks and which may prove useful for street and roadside planting. Photinia villosa. This small tree or arborescent shrub which has been covered with bright red autumn leaves was last week the most conspicuous object in the Shrub Collection. It is a native of Japan and China, and although it was introduced from Japan, probably in 1864, by the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, it does not appear to be well known in this country. Photinia is related to Crataegus ; it has small white flowers in clusters, and small, shining, scarlet fruits which remain on the branches until after the leaves fall. Cotinus americanus. The so-called Smoke-tree (Cotinus coggygria) of eastern Europe is found in many old-fashioned gardens in which it is conspicuous in summer by the great clusters of the much-lengthened, hairy, colored stems of the small flowers. Much less well known is the American species of this genus. The American Smoke-tree grows naturally only in the neighborhood of Huntsville in northern Alabama, in southern Missouri, and in eastern Oklahoma and Texas. First raised in the Arboretum in 1882 from seeds collected on the high limestone ridge a few miles south of Huntsville, Alabama, the American Cotinus has proved perfectly hardy here. It has grown, however, into a broad tall shrub and not as a tree, although on the Huntsville ridge trees thirty feet tall were once abundant. The \"smoke\" of the American species as compared with that of the Old World plant is inconspicuous, and its value is found in the splendid orange and scarlet colonng of the leaves at the end of October when it is one of the conspicuous plants of the Arboretum. A large specimen can be seen on the left hand side of the Meadow Road next to the Sumachs, and there is another by the road near the top of Peter's Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 10","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23703","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd1608926.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. V NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 10, 1919 Conifers. Representatives of only fourteen genera of the twentynine genera into which conifers are now usually divided can be grown in the northeastern states. None of the five genera which are confined to the Southern Hemisphere can be grown here, and of the two genera Callitris and Libocedrus which have representatives north and south of the equator only the North American Libocedrus is growing in the Arboretum. Seven of the genera of eastern Asia consist of a single species, but unfortunately only three of these interesting trees, Pseudolarix, Sciadopitys and Cryptomeria, find places in northern collections. Of the other genera with hardy representatives only Taxodium is confined to North America, the others being widely distributed through the Northern Hemisphere. Important genera of the Northern Hemisphere with more than one species which cannot be grown in the Arboretum are the Chinese Keteleeria and Cunninghamia, Sequoia and Cupressus. Pinus among the conifers contains the largest number of species and, with the exception of Juniperus, is the only northern genus which extends into the tropics. It is not surprising, therefore, that of the some seventy species of Pinus which botanists now generally recognize less than half are in the Arboretum collection where there are now growing twenty-seven species with numerous distinct geographical varieties. The collection contains all the species of the northeastern and middle United States, eastern Canada and the Rocky Mountains, but only four or five of the Pacific Coast species. The Pines of Mexico, which is one of the headquarters of the genus, are represented only by Panus ayacahuite. Europe has contributed to the col66 lection only the species of the northern, central and eastern parts of the continent, for the interesting species of the south and southeast are not hardy in the Eastern States, although they flourish on the Pacific Coast. Of the species of the Himalayas only a White Pme, Pinus excelsa, can be induced to grow here. The Pines of the Chinese Empire, with the exception of the tropical or semitropical Pinvs Massoniana, are established in the Arboretum. They are Pinus sinensis, with three distinct geographical varieties, which when better known may prove distinct species, P. Armandi and P. Bungeana. All the Pines of Siberia, Manchuria, Korea, and of Japan proper, can be seen growing and in fairly good condition in the Arboretum. Larix, although widely distributed through the northern and elevated parts of the Northern Hemisphere, contains only a few species. They are all growing in the Arboretum with the exception of the Himal~yan Larix Gri,~th,ii which is not hardy, and the alpine species of western North America and western China, Larix L~allie and L. Potaninii, which although hardy have not been able to adapt themselves to sealevel conditions. Hybrid Larches are known and are growing in the Arboretum. Picea, which grows in most northern regions, does not range southward, although it occurs on the southern slopes of the Himalayas and on the high mountains which form the border between western China and Thibet. Although many of the Spruces lose their beauty early in this climate they can all be grown in eastern Massachusetts with the exception of the two Himalayan species, the Formosa Picea morrisonicola and the two species of Pacific North America, Picea sitchensis and P. Brezoeriana. The three European Spruces are in the collection one of these the so-called Norway Spruce (Picea Abies) has been more generally planted in the northeastern states than any other Spruce. It is hardy and grows rapidly for forty or fifty years, and then usually begins to fail in the top and soon becomes unsightly. The general planting of this tree in New England during the last sixty or seventy years must be considered a misfortune. The handsome Balkan Spruce (Picea omorika) which has now been growing in the Arboretum for thirty-eight years, is still in good condition and gives every promise of being a valuable tree in this climate. Unfortunately, however, it is attacked by the borer which does so much injury to the native White Pine. The Spruce of the Caucasus (Picea orientalis), which resembles in general appearance the native Red Spruce, has been growing in Massachusetts for more than fifty years; like the Balkan Spruce it too often loses its leader by the attacks of borers. The oldest specimen of the Siberian Spruce (Picea obovata) in the Arboretum collection was raised here from seed forty-three years ago. It has grown slowly but is in good health and retains all its branches. No less than seventeen Spruces discovered in China and Manchuria during the last twenty years are established in the Arboretum, and among them only Picea Sargentiana has not proved to be perfectly hardy in this climate. Most of these Spruces are large, handsome and valuable trees in their native forests and there seems to be no reason why some of them at least should not succeed here permanently. At least fifty years more, however, will be needed to settle this question. One of the Spruces of northern Japan, Picea jezoensis, and its southern form (var. hondoensis) have grown miserably in Massachusetts up to the present time and give little promise of ever being valuable in this climate. The rare Tiger-tail Spruce (Picea polita) grows rapidly and is a perfectly hardy tree, but often begins to lose its lower branches before it is thirty feet tall. The northern Picea Glehnii, introduced by the Arboretum from seeds obtained by Professor Sargent in Hokkaido in 1892, now promises to be a handsome tree in this climate. The handsomest of the Japanese Spruces, judged by the few trees cultivated in Massachusetts, is Picea bicolor, or as it is more commonly called, P. Alcockiana. This tree, which is rare in Japan, was discovered in 1862 during the first ascent of Fuji-san by Europeans. Seeds were collected at this time and sent to Europe and it is probable that the few large trees of this Spruce cultivated in the United States and Europe were raised from these seeds. The trees cultivated in Europe under this name are usually Picea jezoensis var. hondoensis, and the Arboretum knows only five of these trees in the United States, two in the Hunnewell Pinetum, one also planted by Mr. Hunnewell in the grounds of the Town Hall at Wellesley, and two on the Phillips Estate in North Beverly, Massachusetts. In the Arboretum there are only small unsatisfactory grafted plants, and for years the Arboretum has tried without success to obtain a supply of seeds from Japan, for, judging by our present knowledge of the behavior of Spruces in this climate, Picea bicolor promises to be the handsomest which can be grown in this part of the country. Abies. Fir-trees, like the Spruces, are widely distributed with many species through northern and elevated regions of the Northern Hemisphere, growing rather further south than the Spruces, as one Fir-tree grows in Mexico, one in Spain, one in northern Africa and several in southeastern Europe and Asia Minor. Many of the Firs are large and handsome trees, but the genus has not contributed much to the beauty of our northern plantations. Many of the handsomest and most interesting species are not hardy here, and several of the others are not presentable for more than a few years. Judging from the results which have now been obtained with these trees there are only two Firs which can be depended on to retain their beauty here for more than fifty years. These are the western American White Fir (Abies concolor), especially the form which grows on the mountains of southern Colorado, and the Japanese Abies homolepis or brachyphylla, a splendid tree with dark green leaves white on one surface and large purple cones. The variety of this tree with green cones (var. umbellata) has grown more rapidly in the Arboretum than the purple-coned tree, but it is a tree of more open habit and with lighter green leaves, and is less valuable as an ornamental tree. Abies cilicica from Asia Minor and A. cephalonica from southeastern Europe have grown well in Massachusetts for many years; although they have now nearly recovered, these two trees suffered severely in the cold winter of 1917-18. Thuja, the name of the Arbor Vitaes, is a small genus confined to eastern and western North America, Japan, Korea and north China. All the species with many varieties are in the Arboretum, and all do well here with the exception of the north China T. orientalis which probably needs a drier climate, for it is the only conifer which really grows well on the plains of western Kansas. The Red Cedar of the northwest coast (Thuya plicata or gigantea, is one of the great trees of the world, and in the Arboretum has grown to be one of the handsomest conifers in the collection. Chamaecyparis, which differs from Cupressus chiefly in the fruit which matures at the end of the first season, is the name of the White Cedar. The genus is confined to the coast regions of eastern and western North America, to Japan and Formosa. The two Japanese species often called Retinosporas, with many abnormal forms, are common in gardens and old inhabitants of the Arboretum. The eastern American species, Chamaecyparis thyoides, although a common inhabitant of Massachusetts swamps, has grown slowly in the Arboretum and has occasionally been partly killed in severe winters. The handsomest and the largest of the genus, and one of the noblest of North American trees, Ciaam,aecyx~aris Lawsoniana, the Lawson Cypress as it is often called, can only drag out a miserable existence here, and the beautiful Alaska Cedar, Chamaecyparis nootkatensis, is not hardy here. Tsuga, the name of the Hemlock, is another small genus with species in eastern and western North America, Japan, western China and the Himalayas. The western American species exist here, but will probably never become large trees. The mountain Hemlock of Japan (T. diversifolia) is hardy and healthy, but it grows slowly and is not as handsome as our native species. The handsome but less hardy T. Sieboldti, a more southern tree, lives in sheltered positions but does not seem suited for general planting in Massachusetts. The Chinese species (Tsuga chiraensis) has lived for several years in the Arboretum, although it was a good deal injured in the winter of 1917-18. The handsomest of the Hemlocks which can be grown in Massachusetts and now one of the most beautiful trees in the Arboretum is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains, Tsuga caroliniana. Paeudoteuga. Of the three species of this genus only the Rocky Mountain form of Pseudotsuga taxifolia is hardy here. It has been growing in Massachusetts since 1863, and up to this time has proved one of the hardiest, handsomest and most rapid growing conifers which has been brought into this part of the country. Juniperus. This is one of the largest and most widely distributed genera of conifers, for Junipers are found in all temperate and elevated parts of the Northern Hemisphere; they flourish in arid semi-desert regions in the interior of continents, and extend into the tropics. Some species are large and valuable trees and others are prostrate shrubs, the same species being sometimes a tree and sometimes a shrub. Massachusetts is too cold and wet for most Junipers, and only a small number of species with a number of varieties have been successfully grown in the Arboretum. The mild winter and the wet summer and autumn have helped this collection and the Arboretum Junipers have not before been in as good condition as they are now. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring of next year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23689","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25e816f.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics Abies, 67 brachyphylla, 23, 67 cephalonica, 67 cilicica, 67 concolor, 67 holophylla, 23 homolepis, 23, 67 var. umbellata, 67 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 34, 46 sessiliflorum, 47 Acer ginnala, 54 griseum, 7 mandshuricum, 54 nikoense, 54 rubrum, 53 tataricum, 51 Aesculus arguta, 22 Briotii, 22 Bushii, 22 californica, 21 carnea, 22 discolor var. mollis, 22 georgiana, 22 glabra, 22 Hippocastanum, 21 octandra, 22 parviflora, 48 Pavia, 22 turbinata, 21, 34 versicolor, 22 Alaska Cedar, 68 Amelanchier canadensis, 7 laevis,7 oblongifolia, 7 Amelanchiers, 7 American Burning Bushes, 56 American Hawthorns, 56 American Magnolias, 22 American Smoke-tree, 64 American White Fir, 67 Amorpha canescens, 47 Andromeda floribunda, 56 Apricot, Black, 8 Aralia chinensis, 46 var. glabrescens, 46 var. mandshurica, 46 Aralia spinosa, 46 Arbor Vitaes, 67, 68 Aronia nigra, 55 Ash, Black, 42 Blue, 42, 43 Flowering, 41 Green, 42 Manna, 41 Red, 42 White, 42, 43 Ashes, Mountain, 41 Ash-trees, 41, 42 Old World, 43 Asiatic Crabapples, 12, 13 Asiatic Quinces, 16 Autumn colors, 53 Azalea Kaempferi, 32 Schlippenbachii, 11, 32 Azaleas, 20, 24 two Korean, 11, 12 Balkan Spruce, 66 Bay, Sweet, 35 Bitter Sweet, 44 Black Apricot, 8 Black Ash, 42 Black Haw, 20 Blue Ash, 42, 43 Boursault Rose, 31 Box Elder, Chinese, 7 Buckeye, Ohio, 21 Buckeyes, Horsechestnuts and 21, 22 Buddleias, Chinese, 47 Burning Bush, 54 Burning Bushes, American, 56 Bush Honeysuckles, 20, 24, 50, 51 Callitris, 65 Calluna vulgaris, 47 Cedar, Alaska, 68 Red, 68 White, 68 Celastrus, 44 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 7, 34 Chaenomeles japonica, 16, 56 Chaenomeles lagenaria, 16 Maulei, 16 Chamaecyparis, 68 Lawsoniana, 68 nootkatensis, 68 thyoides, 68 Cherry, Cornelian, 2 Sargent, 5, 9 Spring, 6 Cherries of eastern Asia, 4 Cherry-tree, Japanese Weeping, 6 Cherry-trees, new Chinese, 9 Chinese Box Elder, 7 Buddleias, 47 Cotoneasters, 18, 19, 56 Golden Larch, 57 Honeysuckle, 20, 39 Lilacs, 26 Magnolias, hybrid, 2 Rose, 44 Witch Hazel, 1 Chokeberry, 55 Chrysanthemum nipponicum, 63 sibiricum, 63 Clethra alnifolia, 51 barbinervis, 51 Japanese, 51 Climbing Hydrangea, 32 Combination, a good, 39 Conifers, 65 Cornel, 36 Silky, 40 Cornelian Cherry, 2 Cornus alba, 51 var. Rosenthalii, 51 amomum, 40 circinata, 36 florida, 33, 34, 61, 62 kousa, 33, 34, 62 Mas, 2 Nuttallii, 33, 62 paucinervis, 48 racemosa, 39 rugosa, 36 stolonifera, 51 Cotinus americanus, 64 coggygria, 64 Cotoneaster acutifolia, 19 var. villosula, 19 Cotoneaster adpressa, 19 ambigua, 19 apiculata, 19, 56 bullata, 19 var. floribunda, 19 var. macrophylla, 19 Dielsiana, 19 var. elegans, 19 divaricata, 19 foveolata, 19 Franchetii, 19 horizontalis, 19, 56 var. perpusilla, 19, 56 var. Wilsonii, 19, 56 hupehensis, 19 moupinensis, 19 multiflora calocarpa, 19 nitens, 19 obscura, 19 racemiflora, 19 soongorica, 19 Zabellii, 19 var. miniata, 19 Cotoneasters, Chinese, 18, 19, 56 Crab, Parkman, 14 Von Siebold's 15 Crabapple, Siberian, 13 Crabapples, Asiatic, 12, 13 Crataegus, 62 aprica, 56 arkansana, 56 coccinioides, 56 Dawsoniana, 56 Douglasii, 56 fecunda, 56 hiemalis, 62 nitida, 56 orientalis, 63 oxyacantha var. Gireoudii, 62 pinnatifida, 62 pruinosa, 56 prunifolia, 56 succulenta, 56 in Autumn, 56 Cryptomeria, 57, 65 var. elegans, 57 Cucumber Tree, 23 Cunninghamia, 65 Cupressus, 65 Cydonia Maulei, 56 Cypress, Lawson, 68 Cytisus capitatus, 47 leucanthus, 47 nigricana, 47 Deutzia discolor, 39 major, 39 globosa, 39 gracilis, 38 grandiflora, 39 hypoglauca, 39 Lemoinei, 38 longifolia, 39 parviflora, 38, 39 Wilsonii, 39 Deutzias, 38 Diervilla florida venusta, 23 Dimorphanthus mandschuricus, 46 Dirca palustris, 1 Dogwood, Flowering, 33, 61, 62 Dwarf Quince, 56 Early Flowering Hydrangeas, 34 Viburnums, 12 Elder, 39 European Horsechestnut, 34 Evergreens, broad-leaved, 56 Evonymus alatus, 54 obovatus, 56 Fir-trees, 67 Fir, American White, 67 Flowering Ash, 41 Dogwood, 33, 61, 62 Flowers, late, 63 Fokienia, 57 Forsythia intermedia, 3 var. pallida, 3 var. primulina, 3 var. spectabilis, 3 suspensa var. Fortunei, 3 Forsythias, 2, 3 Fragrant Sumach, 55 Fraxinus, 41 americana, 42 var. subcoriacea, 42 anomala, 43 biltmoriana, 43 Fraxinus Bungeana, 41 chinensis var. rhyncophylla, 43 cuspidata, 41 dipetala, 41 excelsior, 43 Greggii, 41 longicuspis, 41 mandshurica, 43 nigra, 42 oregona, 43 Ornus, 41 pennsylvanica, 42 var. lanceolata, 42 platypoda, 44 potamophylla, 43 quadrangulata, 43 rotundifolia, 43 texensis, 43 Fruits in the Arboretum, 49 Genista tinctoria, 47 Glyptostrobus, 57 Green Ash, 42 Halesia carolina, 63, 64 var. monticola, 64 Halimodendron argenteum, 36 Hamamelis mollis, 1 vernalis, 1 Haw, Black, 20 Hawthorns, American, 56 Old World, 62 Heathers, 47 Hemlock, 68 Hercules' Club, 46 Hobble Bush, 12 Holly, Mountain, 51 Honeysuckle, Chinese, 20, 39 Swamp, 44 Tartarian, 49, 50 Honeysuckles, Bush, 20, 24, 50, 51 as fruit plants, 49 Horsechestnut, European, 34 hybrid, 22 Japanese, 34 Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes, 21, 22 Hydrangea arborescens var. grandiflora, 47 Bretschneideri, 34, 35 Hydrangea cinerea, 47 Climbing, 32 paniculata, 47 var. praecox, 47 petiolaris, 32, 34, 52 quercifolia, 47 radiata, 47 Rosthornii, 35 xanthoneura, 35 var. setchuensis, 3b var. Wilsonii, 35 Hydrangeas, Early Flowering, 34 Indigofera, 51 amblyantha, 35, 51 atropurpurea, 52 decora, 52 Gerardiana, 52 hebepetala, 52 Kirilowii, 51 Potaninii, 35, 51 Japanese Cherry-trees, 5, 6 double-flowered, 5 Flowering Dogwood, 62 Horsechestnut, 34 Lacquer-tree, 45 Weeping Cherry-tree, 6 July Roses, 48 Juniperus, 68 \"Kaido,\" 14 Kalmia latifolia, 32 Keaki, 60 Keteleeria, 65 Koelreuteria paniculata, 45 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 28 Lacquer-tree, Japanese, 45 Larch, Chinese Golden, 57 Larix, 66 Griffithii, 66 Lyallii, 66 Potaninii, 66 Late flowers, 63 Laurels, 32 Lawson Cypress, 68 Lead Plant, 47 Leatherwood, 1 Leaves, unfolding, 7 Lespedezas, 47 Libocedrus, 65 Lilacs, 17 Chinese, 26 hybrid, 17 Tree, 36 Lindens, 45 Lonicera amoena, 24, 50 Arnoldiana, 24 bella, 24, 50 coerulea, 50 Giraldii, 39 involucrata, 51 var. serotina, 51 Korolkowii, 24, 50 Ledebourii, 51 minutiflora, 50 Morrowii, 24, 50 muendeniensis, 50 muscaviensis, 50 notha, 24, 50 Ruprechtiana, 50 syringantha, 20 tatarica, 24, 49, 50 var. lutea, 50 var. rosea, 50 trichosantha, 50 Magnolia acuminata, 23 conspicua, 2 cordata, 23 denudata, 2 Fraseri, 23 glauca, 23, 35, 36 kobus, 2 var. borealis, 2 macrophylla, 23 major, 36 pyramidata, 22 Soulangeana, 2 stellata, 2 Thompsoniana, 36 tripetala, 23, 36 virginiana, 35 Magnolias, American, 22 Chinese, hybrid, 2 Malus Arnoldiana, 15 baccata, 13 Malus baccata var. Jackii, 13 var. mandshurica, 12, 13 cerasifera, 14 floribunda, 14 Halliana, 12, 14 Parkmanii, 14 micromalus, 12, 14 prunifolia var. rinki, 16 Sargentii, 15 Scheideckeri, 16 Sieboldii, 15 var. arborescens, 15 var. calocarpa, 15 spectabilis, 15 theifera, 14 Manna Ash, 41 Maple, Red, 53, 55 Tartarian, 51 Mock Orange, 29 Moosewood, 12 Mountain Ashes, 41 Halesia, or Silver Bell Tree, 63, 64 Holly, 51 Magnolia, 23 Nannyberry, 28 Neillia sinensis, 28 Nemopanthus mucronata, 51 New Chinese Cherry-trees, 9 Pear-trees, 10, 11 North American Roses, 55 Norway Spruce, 66 Ohio Buckeye, 21 Oxydendron arboreum, 47 Pagoda-tree, 46 Parkman Crab, 14 Pear, Keiffer, 10 Leconte, 10 Sand, 10 Pear-trees, new Chinese, 10, 11 Phellodendron amurense, 53, 54 sachalinense, 52, 54 Philadelphus, 29, 30, 31 coronarius, 29, 30, 31 Falconeri, 30 grandiflorus, 30 hirsutus, 30 inodorus, 30 Philadelphus insignis, 30 latifohus, 30 Lemoinei, 31 Avalanche, 31 Boule d'Argent, 31 Bouquet Blanc, 31 Candelabre, 31 Erectus, 31 Fantasie, 31 Gerbe de Neige, 31 Mont Blanc, 31 maximus, 31 microphyllus, 30, 31 pekinensis, 30 pubescens, 30 purpurascens, 30 Schrenkii var. Jackii, 29 Souvenir de Billard, 30 splendens, 31 tomentosus, 31 Photinia villosa, 64 Picea, 66 Abies, 66 Alcockiana, 67 bicolor, 67 Breweriana, 66 Glehnii, 67 jezoensis, 67 var. hondoensis, 67 morrisonicola, 66 obovata, 66 omorika, 66 orientalis, 66 polita, 67 Sargentiana, 66 sitchensis, 66 Pine, Umbrella, 57 White, 66 Pinus, 65, 66 Armandi, 66 ayacahuite, 65 Bungeana, 66 excelsa, 66 Massoniana, 66 sinensis, 66 Plants for the edge of beds of large shrubs, 55 Populus Maximowiczii, 34 Potentilla fruticosa, 40 Potentilla Veitchii, 40 Prairie Rose, 48 Prinsepia sinensis, 8 uniflora, 8 Privet, 36 Provence Roses, 44 Prunus avium, 10 canescens,9 concinna, 4, 10 dasycarpa, 8 Davidiana, 2 Dielsiana, 10 incisa, 4 persicoides, 3 pilosiuscula, 10 serrulata thibetica, 10 serrulata pubescens, 9 serrulata, 5 var. sachalinensis, 5, 9 spontanea, 9 subhirtella, 5, 6 var. ascendens, 6 var. pendula, 6 tomentosa, 4, 10 var. endotricha, 4 triloba, 4 var. plena, 4 yedoensis, 5, 6 Pseudolarix, 57, 58, 65 amabilis, 57, 58, 59 Pseudotsuga, 68 taxifolia, 68 Pyrus betulaefolia, 11 Bretschneideri, 11 Calleryana, 10 japonica, 16 Maulei, 56 ovoidea, 11 pashia, 11 phaeocarpa, 11 serotina, 10 serrulata, 11 ussuriensis, 3, 11 Quince, dwarf, 56 Quinces, Asiatic, 16 Rambler Roses, 48 Red Ash, 42 Cedar, 68 Red Maple, 53, 55 Spruce, 66 Red-fruited Viburnums, 40 Retinosporas, 68 Rhododendron arborescens, 39 arboreum, 26 arbutifolium, 56 brachycarpum, 25 calendulaceum, 32, 39 canescens, 20, 24 carolinianum, 25, 56 catawbiense, 25, 26 hybrids, 26 caucasicurn, 25 dahuricum, 2, 20 var. sempervirens, 2 ferrugineum, 25 hirsutum, 25 japonicum, 24 Kaempferi, 12, 16, 20, 24, 32 maximum, 25, 26 Metternichii, 26 minus, 25, 26 mucronulatum, 2, 20 myrtifolium, 56 nudiflorum, 20, 24 ponticum, 26 poukhanense, 11, 12, 23 rhombicum, 12 Schlippenbachii, 11, 23, 32 Smirnowii, 25 Vaseyi, 20, 24 viscosum, 44 Wilsonii, 56 Rhododendrons, 25, 26 hybrid, 26, 56 Rhus aromatica, 8, 55 canadensis, 8, 55 Rosa Arnoldiana, 38 bella, 31 caudata, 35 chinensis, 31 cinnamomea, 20 Ecae, 20 gallica var. officinalis, 44 Helenae, 32, 35 Hugonis, 20 Jackii, 23, 48 kamtschatica, 37 Lheritieranea, 31 Rosa lucida, 39 Marretii, 31 multibracteata, 44 multiflora, 32, 48 cathayensis, 32, 35 platyphylla, 32 omeiensis, 20 pendulina, 31 provincialis, 44 Roxburgii var. normalis, 31 rugosa, 31, 37 hybrids of, 38 Arnold Rose, 38 Conrad Ferdinand Meyer, 38 General Jacqueminot, 38 Lady Duncan, 38 Madame George Bruant, 38 Nova Zembla, 38 repens alba, 38 sertata, 27 setigera, 48 spinosissima, 28 var. altaica, 28 var. fulgens, 28 var. grandiflora, 28 var. hispida, 28 var. lutea, 28 stellata, 48 virginiana, 39 Wichuraiana, 38, 48 Rose, Boursault, 31 Crimson Rambler, 32 Prairie, 48 Seven Sisters, 32 Tea, 38 Roses, July, 48 North American, 55 Rambler, 48 Scotch, 28 some interesting, 31 Rubus laciniatus, 52 thyrsoideus flore pleno, 52 ulmifolius var. bellidiflorus, 52 Sambucus canadensis, 39 Sand Pear, 10 Sargent Cherry, 5, 9 Sassafras in autumn, The, 62 Schizophragma hydrangeoides, 52 Sciadopitys, 57, 65 Scotch Roses, 28 Sequoia, 65 Shad Bushes, 7 Shrubs, two useful, 8 Summer-flowering, 27 Siberian Crabapple, 13 Spruce, 66 Silky Cornel, 40 Silver Bell Tree, or Mountain Halesia, 63, 64 Smoke-tree, American, 64 Old World, 64 Snowberries, 56 Sophora japonica, 46 var. pendula, 46 var. pyramidalis, 46 Sorbus, 41 Sorrel-tree, 47 Sour Wood, 47 Spiraea Henryi, 28 Miyabei, 28 Veitchii, 28 Spring Cherry, 6 Spruce, Balkan, 66 Norway, 66 Siberian, 66 Tiger-tail, 67 Sumach, Fragrant, 55 Summer-flowering shrubs, 47 trees, 45 Swamp Honeysuckle, 44 Sweet Bay, 35 Symphoricarpus, 56 vulgaris, 56 Syringa, 29 afflnis, 16, 18 var. Giraldii, 18 Berryer, 18 Claude Bernard, 18 Lamartine, 18 Mirabeau, 18 Pascale, 18 Vauban, 18 amurensis, 36 Syringa chinensis, 18 Henryi, 18 var. Lutece, 18 hyacinthiflora, 18 Syringa japonica, 36, 52 Josikaea, 18 Julianae, 18 Koehneana, 27 Komarowii, 18 microphylla, 27 oblata, 16, 18 pekinensis, 36 persica, 18 pubescens, 18, 27 reflexa, 27 rothomagensis, 18 Sargentiana, 27 Sweginzowii, 18, 27 tomentella, 18, 27 villosa, 18, 27 vulgaris, 17, 18, 26 Wilsonii, 27 yunnanensis, 27 Syringas, hybrid, 17, 18 Taiwania, 57 Tartarian Honeysuckle, 49, 50 Maple, 51 Taxodium, 65 Taxus canadensis, 1 Tea Rose, 38 Thuja, 67, 68 gigantea, 68 orientalis, 68 plicata, 68 Thujopsis, 57 var. Hondai, 57 Tiger-tail Spruce, 67 Tilia cordata, 51 var. cordifolia, 51 Traveller's Tree, 20 Tree Lilacs, 36 Trees, summer-flowering, 45 Trees and shrubs, some July flowering, 51 Tripterygium Regelii, 44 Tsuga, 68 Tsuga caroliniana, 68 chinensis, 68 diversifolia, 68 Sieboldii, 68 Two Korean Azaleas, 11, 12 Umbrella Pine, 57 Tree, 23 Viburnum alnifolium, 12 Carlesii, 12, 23 cassinoides, 35 dilatatum, 40, 60 lantana, 20 Lentago, 28 prunifolium, 20, 60 theiferum, 40 Wrightii, 40 Viburnums, 20. 60 early-flowering, 12 red-fruited, 40 Von Siebold's Crab, 15 White Ash, 42, 43 Cedar, 68 Fir, American, 67 Pine, 66 Witch Hazel, Chinese, 1 Witch Hazels, winter-flowering, 1 Woad Wax, 47 Xanthorrhiza, 55 apiifolia, 8 Yellow Root, 8 Yew, 1 Zelkova serrata, 34, 60"},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 1","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23697","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd160b327.jpg","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":null},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23342","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd260b728.jpg","title":"1919-5","volume":5,"issue_number":null,"year":1919,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 4","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23679","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24e8526.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 4, 1918 Effects of the Severe Winter. The winter of 1917-18 has been one of the severest in New England of which there is any record. In December when the ground was without a covering ^of snow the thermometer did not rise here from above zero for nearly a week with a minimum of 17 below. There was little snow at any time during the winter, and the ground, which froze to a depth of from five to seven feet, was not clear of frost until after the first of April. Abundant rains late in the summer and in the early autumn, and the fact that the cold has been continuous through the winter, without periods of warm weather, which in this region often excite dangerous vegetative activity, have enabled many plants to survive the extreme cold which under less favorable conditions would probably have destroyed them. Still it seems safe to predict that any tree or shrub which has lived here through the past winter will be able to resist successfully a Massachusetts winter. The condition of the plants in the Arboretum at this time is of general interest therefore as an indication of the trees and shrubs of recent introduction which can be successfully grown in this climate. It must, however, be remembered that local conditions, that is conditions of soil, position, moisture and dryness influence the hardiness of plants, and that a tree which succeeds in the Arboretum might not be hardy in another garden in the same general region. The injuries to the Arboretum collections caused by the winter have not on the whole been as great as we had every reason to fear three months ago. The Conifers which have been killed are the glaucousleaved Mt. Atlas Cedar (Cedrus atlantica glauca) which has been kept alive here for several years in a protected position; young plants of the Spanish Fir (Abies Pinsapo) which has been killed before in the Arboretum; Abies magnifica of the California Sierra Nevada; Abies cephalonica var. appolinis from the mountains of Greece; Picea Sargentiana, one of the new Spruces from western China, and nearly every plant in a large collection of the short-leaved Pine of the eastern United States (Pinus echinata). These Pines were raised at the Arboretum twenty years ago from seeds gathered on Staten Island, New York, the northern limit of the range of this tree, and appeared to be perfectly hardy until this year. On several conifers the buds are uninjured and are beginning to swell, although the leaves have been more or less browned by the cold and will soon fall. Conifers injured in this way will probably recover, although their growth for the year will be necessarily checked. Among the trees with injured leaves and uninjured buds are the Cedars of Lebanon from the Anti-Taurus in Asia Minor which have been growing in the Arboretum for sixteen years without protection, and which it was hoped would be able to support the worst conditions New England winters could offer. Other conifers with injured leaves are the Sugar Pine (Pinus Lambertiana) from the Sierra Nevada of California, the Mexican White Pine (Pinus Ayacahuite), the Chinese Hemlock (Tsuga chinensis) which has lost most of its top, and Abies cephalonica from the islands of Greece. One or two specimens of this tree will probably not recover. The leaves of the California Incense Cedar (Libocedrus decurrens), of Abies grandis, of Abies amabalis and of the Hemlock of the northwest coast (Tsuga heterophylla) are slightly injured. The native White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) is badly hurt and some of the plants will probably die. The Red Spruce (Picea rubra) from northern New England has suffered badly, as have the plants of the upright form of Juniperus communis from central Massachusetts. The leaves of Abies amabilis, too, from the Cascade Mountains of Oregon are slightly browned, as are those of several plants of the Japanese Abies sachalinense. On a few of the plants of the Chinese White Pine (Pinus Armandi), of the Japanese Pinus densiflora and P. Thunbergii, and of the Chinese Pinus sinensis var. yunnanensis and var. denudata the leaves are also brown. There is no reason, however, to doubt that these will all recover. It is interesting that, with the exception of four exotic conifers, three of which have been kept alive in the Arboretum with much difficulty and have now perished, the most serious damage of the winter to conifers has been to four native species, Picea rubra, Pinus echinata, Chamaecyparis thyoides and Juniperus communis. All the new Spruces and Firs from western China, with the exception of Picea Sargentiana, are uninjured, as are practically all the Chinese Pines. Uninjured, too, are the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana) the western Arbor Vitae (Thuya plicata), and the Spanish Pine (Pinus nigra tenuifolia) which, judging by the climate of the regions where these trees grow naturally might well have suffered from the cold of the past winter. Of the new trees with deciduous leaves introduced by the Arboretum from China the following are uninjured: all the Oaks, Elms, Birches, Nettle-trees, Beeches, many of the Cherries, the Pears and Apples, Davidia, Eucommia, and Ehretia aeuminata. As space permits reports on the losses caused by the winter in other groups of plants will appear in later issues of these bulletins. Early-flowering Shrubs. Fortunately frost has not injured this spring the buds of many of the trees and shrubs which open their flowers in April and several of these have been unusually fine this year and have remained in good condition for a longer time than usual. After some of the Willows the earliest shrubs in the Arboretum to bloom this year were the Buffalo Berry (Shepherdia argentea) and the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris). The latter began to bloom on the 7th of April, nearly three weeks earlier than last year, and unfaded flowers are still to be seen on this eastern American shrub. A large group of these plants on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road is one of the interesting early spring features of the Arboretum. The flower-buds of garden Peach-trees have been generally killed in Massachusetts by the cold of the winter, but the wild Peach-tree of northern China (Prunus Damdiana) opened its uninjured flower-buds in the Arboretum on the 15th of April. This is an attractive small tree with erect branches and lustrous red-brown bark. As a flowering tree in this climate, however, it is hardly worth a place in gardens for the flowers open so early that they are ruined by late frosts. The fruit is small and of no value, but pomologists are interested in this tree as a stock on which to work the common Peach-tree for it is hardy north of the region where Peaches flourish. Early-flowering Rhododendrons. The bright rose-colored flowers of the Siberian and Mongolian Rhododendron dahuricum opened this year as early as the 10th of April and remained in good condition until the end of the month. It is a small shrub with dark green leaves which in this climate remain on the branches until late in the winter, and it would be a good garden plant here if the flowers were not so often ruined by late frosts. There is a variety sempervirens with more persistent leaves and darker-colored flowers which has bloomed this year with the species on the upper side of Azalea Path. In the Rhododendron Collection at the base of Hemlock Hill a group of a hybrid of R. dahuricum with the Himalayan R. ciliatum, known as R. praecox, Early Gem, is now covered with flowers. This is a perfectly hardy plant but, unfortunately, blooms too early in this climate and the flowers are generally injured by frost. More valuable here is the north China R. mucronulatum which this year began to flower a little later than R. dahuricum and is still covered with its pale rose-colored flowers. It is a tall, hardy, deciduous-leaved shrub which has flowered freely in the Arboretum every spring for the last twenty years. The flowers open before the leaves appear and are not injured by spring frosts. This year they have been in good condition for nearly three weeks. In this climate this is the most valuable of the Rhododendrons and Azaleas which bloom in April. Early-flowering Magnolias. The flower-buds and the flowers of the Japanese Magnolia steUata, M- Kobus and its variety borealis, and of the Chinese M. denudata, more often called M. conspieua, and its hybrids, have been uninjured by winter cold or April frost and are blooming well this year with the exception of M. Kobus and its variety which, never very free with their flowers, are less prolific than usual this year. The plants of the Japanese M. salicifolia, which has never succeeded in the Arboretum by which it was first introduced into cultivation, appear to have been killed outright this winter. Corylopsis. All the species of this genus of shrubs of the Witch Hazel Family cultivated in the Arboretum have survived the winter with little or no loss of wood, but the flower-buds of the Chinese C. Veitchiana and C. Willrnottae, and of the Japanese C. pauciflora and C. spicata have been killed by the cold, and the only species which has flowered is C. Gotoana of the elevated region of central Japan. This is evidently the hardiest of the plants of this genus, and as it has now flowered in the Arboretum every spring for several years there is good reason to hope that we have here an important shrub for the decoration of northern gardens. The flowers are produced in drooping spikes and open before the leaves appear, as in the other species, and are of a delicate canary-yellow color and pleasantly fragrant. The best specimen in the Arboretum can be seen on the lefthand side of Hickory Path near Centre Street. Prinsepia sinersis is a tall Chinese shrub with stem and branches armed with many spines, bright green leaves which unfold as early as those of any other plant in the Arboretum, and bright yellow flowers about two-thirds of an inch in diameter in few-flowered axillary clusters, The large specimen on the right-hand side of Hickory Path near Centre Street is now covered with flowers and nearly fully grown leaves. There can be no question of the hardiness of this shrub or of its ability to flower under any climatic conditions it may have to meet in Massachusetts. It will perhaps be found that it will prove to be as good a hedge plant as can be used in this part of the country. Unfortunately the Arboretum plants have not yet produced more than an occasional seed, and as Prinsepia is not easy to increase from cuttings it has remained exceedingly rare. Maddenia hypoleuca. This interesting shrub which flowered last year in the Arboretum for the first time in America and was described in the Bulletin of May 8th, came through the winter without injury on the southern slope of Bussey Hill and was in full bloom this year on the 18th of April. It is related to the Rum or Choke Cherries, but the flowers are without petals and are not conspicuous. Cherries and Plums. This is a good season for many of these plants. Among the Cherries Prunus tomentosa and the single-flowered form of P. triloba from northern China are already in bloom. The trees of the Sargent Cherry (Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis) have never been more covered with their pink and rose-colored flowers, and the Japanese Spring Cherry (P. subhirtella) which has been described as the the most floriferous and perhaps the most delightful of the Japanese Cherries, is just opening its countless flower-buds."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23680","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24e8926.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 9, 1918 Effects of the severe winter. Most of the Taxads which have been grown successfully in the Arboretum have suffered from the cold of the winter. All the forms of the Japanese Taxus cuspidata, however, are now as green and fresh as they were in October. As the years pass the confidence in the value of this plant increases and it has never been as great as it is this spring. Among all the plants which Japan has contributed to the gardens of the eastern United States no other is so generally valuable. Fortunately American nurserymen are at last beginning to realize that this Yew has some commercial value, and it will soon be within the reach of everyone who has a garden or wants to plant the best possible evergreen hedge for New England. The form of this Yew (var. chinensis) introduced by Wilson from western China is less hardy than the Japanese plant. In a collection of young plants of the Chinese form, in as protected a position as could be found in the Arboretum, some are slightly injured and others are dead. It is not probable that this fine tree, therefore, will ever become established in Massachusetts. On all the forms of the European Yew (Taxus baccata) there are dead leaves and dead or injured branches. All the plants of T. baccata erecta have been killed, and there are a few dead branches even on T. baccata repandens, the plant with widespreading, semiprostrate stems which has lived in this climate for several years without injury and has been considerered here the hardiest and most desirable of all the forms of the European Yew for New England. Plants of the Canadian Yew (T. canadensis), the so-called Ground Hemlock of northern woods, planted in the shade or in full exposure to the sun, have been badly disfigured as the tips of most of the branches and all the upper leaves have been killed. The leaves on upper branches of the Japanese Torreya mucifera are dry and begin6 ning to turn brown, but the buds appear to be uninjured and the plants may recover. It has not suffered here before and for the last two or three years has been producing fruit in the Arboretum. The California Torreya (T. californtca), which has been nursed along in a sheltered position for years and has suffered more or less every winter, appears to have at last entirely succumbed. Young plants in a sheltered position of the Japanese Cephalotaxus drupacea are little injured but the handsomer C. Fortunei from western China has suffered and it is doubtful if this fine tree will live through many years in this climate. Broad-leaved Evergreens. As it was natural to expect, the plants of this class have been more injured by the winter than any others, for with few exceptions they cannot be successfully grown in this climate under even the most favorable conditions. Ilex opaca, which has grown well in the Arboretum for many years where it has been the only broad-leaved evergreen tree which has lived here, has suffered seriously. Nearly all the leaves have been killed and some of the plants appear to be dead. The large plants of the Japanese Ilex crenata on Azalea Path, which were raised from seed at the Arboretum twenty-five years ago, have been so badly injured that it is doubtful if they can recover. The Inkberry (Ilex glabra), a common shrub in the region of the coast from New Hampshire to Texas, has lost the ends of many branches and most of its upper leaves. For more than twenty years there have been splendid specimens of this beautiful shrub in the Arboretum where it has never been injured before and has been considered one of the best evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. Plants of an evergreen Holly (Ilex pedunculata), introduced by Wilson from western China and planted on Hickory Path near Centre Street, have, however, not been injured by the winter. This is a handsome tree with long-stalked red fruits, and is distributed through Japan and western China. Judging by our experience here with other evergreen Hollies, the chances that it will ever grow to maturity are not very good. For the first time in the Arboretum there are brown leaves and dead branches and flower-buds on some of the Laurels (Kalmia latifolia). The damage is not serious but it is interesting as showing how the hardiest native plants, even when planted in exceptionally good positions, may be injured by a winter like the last which has killed also the ends of the branches of such common New England evergreen shrubs as the little Sheep Laurel (Kalmia angustifolia) and the Leather Leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). The leaves of Leucothoe Catesbaei are badly browned even on plants in moist shady positions which this species prefers. A native of the southern Appalachian forests, it has been considered one of the hardiest and most satisfactory broad-leaved evergreens which could be planted in this climate. Leucothoe axillaris has also lost its leaves but will probably recover. Pieris or Andromeda floribunda is uninjured and is now covered with flowers, and its condition confirms the belief here that this is one of the hardiest, handsomest and most desirable broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this part of the country. Its Japanese relative, Pierus japonica, seems equally hardy, but its larger and more beautiful flowers open earlier and are often injured by spring frosts. Evergreen Barberries. The four Chinese evergreen Barberries, Berbens Julianae, B. Sargentiana, B. verruculosa and B. Gagnepainii, from which so much has been expected, have suffered seriously. B. Julianae and B. Sargentiana will probably not recover, and there is little hope that much garden beauty will ever be obtained in this region from evergreen Barberries, for all the Mahonias which have been grown here are in unusually bad condition this spring, with the exception of the dwarf Mahonia or Berberis repens from the Rocky Mountrins, and even this has lost many of its leaves. All the forms of the European Box, although carefully protected, have suffered badly and some have been killed. Even the Japanese Box (Buxus japonica), which has been growing in an exposed position here for twenty years without protection, will lose for the first time some of its leaves from the ends of the branches. This handsome plant has suffered, however, less than might have been expected, and if Box is to be planted in eastern Massachusetts with the expectation that it will be a permanent garden ornament it is this Japanese species which must be used. The Chinese climbing Honeysuckle (Lonicera Henryi), which had proved perfectly hardy until last winter and from which much was expected, has lost all its leaves, but as its stems are still alive it may recover. Teucrium chamaedrys and Salvia officinalis are nearly killed, and Daphne cneorum, which has usually done well in the Arboretum, has 2022suffered seriously in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path. The two evergreen Chinese Viburnums which have lived in the Arboretum for several years, Viburnum rhytidophyllum and V. buddleifolium, have lost all their leaves but may possibly recover. Thanks probably to the abundant rains of the summer and autumn, the Rhododendrons in the Arboretum have suffered less than they did three years ago, although in some of the gardens near Boston the loss -of these plants has been more serious than ever before, whole plantations which have been growing for thirty or forty years having been destroyed. In the Arboretum the only species which has suffered is R. micranthum, the only evergreen Chinese Rhododendron which has ever lived long enough in the Arboretum to flower and which has now lost many of its upper branches. There are dead branches on some of the Catawbiense hybrids, and among them, in addition to a number of hybrid seedlings sent to the Arboretum for trial by an English nursery, the following have been killed: James Smith, Marshall Brooks, Mrs. 'Thomas Agnew, Marquis of Waterford and Gomer Waterer. One specimen of Mrs. C. S. Sargent, which has always been considered one of the hardiest of all the Catawbiense hybrids, has been so injured that it will have to be removed. Rhododendron azaleoides, or fragrans, one of the hybrids between a Rhododendron and an Azalea, has also been killed. Prunus incisa has bloomed in the Arboretum every spring for three or four years but has never been as full of flowers or as beautiful as it has been during the present week. This Cherry is a native of Japan and is abundant on the eastern and southern slopes of Fuji-san and on the Hakone Mountains. It is a large shrub or under favorable conditions a small tree twenty-five or thirty feet high; the flowers appear before the deeply cut leaves in drooping clusters; their calyx is bright red; the petals are white or occasionally tinged with rose caTor, and the anthers are bright yellow. The petals fall early but the calyx, which gradually grows brighter in color, remains for some time on the young fruit and is showy. Prunus incisa has been perfectly hardy here and none of the flower-buds were injured by the cold of last winter. It has the advantage, too, of flowering while still a small shrub. This Cherry has remained rare in American and European gardens and appears to be still little known, Plums. The flower-buds of few Plum-trees have been injured and these trees promise to bloom unusually well this year. The first to flower have been the Canadian Cherry (Prunus nigra) and the Chinese Prunus salicina, the parent of the so-called Japanese Plums of pomologists. These will soon be followed by Prunus alleghaniana, P. americana, P. Watsonii, P. Munsoniana, P. hortulana, P. domestica, and several others. The Plums are planted with the Apricots, which are also beginning to bloom, next the Cherries, near the junction of the Meadow and Valley Roads. A pink-flowered Pear-tree. Among the Pear-trees raised from the seeds collected by Wilson in western China there are plants in the Peter's Hill Nursery and on the southern slope of Bussey Hill which have bloomed this year for the first time and have been conspicuous for their pale pink flowers which open from rose-colored buds. The flowers of all described species of Pyrus are pure white and this pinkflowered form is an interesting addition to the list of trees with showy flowers. It has been considered a variety of Pyrus Calleryana but differs from that Pear-tree in its smoother red brown bark, in the dense coat of tomentum which covers the branchlets, and in its earlier pink flowers not more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and, it is possible that when the fruit is known, it may prove a new species. The Chinese Pears have handsome foliage and beautiful flowers, and they are all excellent hardy ornamental trees in the Arboretum. They will bloom well this year, and the large specimen of P. ovoidea near the Forest Hills entrance has been covered with flowers during the week. Some Maple Flowers. It is not often that the Sugar Maple (Arer saccharum) in Greater Boston so completely covers itself as it has this spring with its long gracefully drooping clusters of pale yellow flowers which early in May make this tree, although now less conspicuous than in the autumn, a charming feature'of the northern forest. A true lover of the country, life in cities and their suburbs has little attraction for the Sugar Maple. It needs the free and pure air of the forest and of the country roadside, and finds its greatest happiness on the low hills of northern New England and Michigan, or in the rich protected valleys of the Appalachian Mountains. In such positions no Maple tree surpasses it in size and beauty, and few trees equal it in the splendor of the coloring of its autumn foliage. The large, cup-shaped bright red flowers of one of the forms of the Japanese Acer diabolicum (var. pupurascens) have been very beautiful this week, and as a spring-flowering tree this small Maple well deserves more general cultivation. The leaves, too, are large and handsome. There are three plants in the Maple Collection, and a number of others in the mixed plantations near the top of Peter's Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 11","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23675","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24eb36d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 11, 1918 Effects of the severe winter. Injuries to plants with deciduous leaves have fortunately been less serious than to broad-leaved Evergreens. All Azaleas are unhurt in branch and bud, with the exception of some of the flower-buds of Rhododendron (Azalea) Kaempheri, and promise to bloom exceptionally well. The ability of some of the handsomest of the eastern North America and the eastern Asiatic Azaleas to bear uninjured the cold of a winter like the last teaches an important lesson; and it is well to repeat what has been so often said in these Bulletins, that in these Azalea species, but not in their hybrids which are usually short-lived and not always hardy, are found some of the most beautiful of the shrubs which can be grown in this part of the country, and that for the eastern United States they are more satisfactory than any evergreen Rhododendrons. All the new Chinese Cotoneasters have come through the winter without injury with the exception of the variety elegans of C. Dielsiana, the varieties rugosa and floccosa of C. salicifolia some plants of C. horizontalis and its variety perpusilla which have lost the ends of the branches. The fact that most of these Cotoneasters have been able to support without injury the cold of last winter is important, for among them are some of the most beautiful of the Chinese shrubs of recent introduction. The Chinese Poplars are uninjured with the exception of P. lasiocarpa, which has never done well in the Arboretum, and P. yunnanensis, which has lost a good many branches. This tree has suffered here before and will probably not live long in eastern Massachusetts, although it has grown well in the neighborhood of New York. The Chinese Butternut (Juglans cathayensis) is uninjured but some plants of J. regia raised here from nuts gathered by Wilson in western China have lost their buds, while others appear to be uninjured. Maples from western China, on the whole, are not promising. Acer griseum, A. fulvescens and A. pictum parviflorum are still in good condition, but A. longifolia and A. Henryii, which have suffered before, are now killed; and A. Davidii, which once flourished in the Arboretum for several years, is again badly injured. The new Cherry-trees from western China are all in good condition with the exception of Prunus Conradinae. This tree has always been delicate in the Cherry Collection, and the large plants on Peter's Hill have now all been killed. This handsome tree flowered two years ago on the grounds of the United States Agricultural Station at Chico, California. Neillia sinensis is uninjured and there appears no reason why this beautiful shrub should not become a popular ornament in northern gardens. The other Chinese species in the Arboretum, N. longiracemosa and N. affinis, have been killed to the ground but the roots are alive. The Chinese Spiraeas and Hydrangeas are uninjured, but some of the Deutzias like D. longifolia and the varieties of D. discolor have suffered as usual. Plants of all the Chinese Ash-trees are alive, although the winter has been too severe for a plant each of Fraxinus retusa var. Henryi and F. platypoda. Ligustrum Delavayanum has been killed to the ground, as has Daphne genkwa. The injury to this plant has been one of the serious results of the winter. The Chinese Buddleias are usually killed to the ground here; as they flower on the new shoots this is a matter of little importance, but the roots have now been killed. Styrax americana of the southern states has been killed and the Chinese S. dasyantha is so badly injured that it will not recover. Unfortunately the only species probably of this beautiful genus which can be successfully grown here are the Japanese S. japonioa and S. obassia, and in this region these do not always grow as well as they have in selected positions in the Arboretum. Forsythias. For the second time in three years many flower-buds have been killed on all the species and hybrids of this genus. On some plants, especially those in low positions, all the buds were injured but on high ground probably at least half the buds have opened. The hybrid F. intermedia and its varieties have suffered the most, and the Chinese F. suspensa and the Albanian F. europea have lost fewer buds than the others. All the Chinese Barberries with deciduous leaves are practically unhurt with the exception of Berberis Wilsonae, which has always been rather tender here, its variety Stapfiana, which has always been considered a hardier plant, and B. triacanthophora. Few Chinese Honeysuckles have suffered, but Lonicera pileata, which has flowered here for several years, is killed to the ground, and the beautiful climbing L. similis var. Delavayi has been killed. Hamamelis. All the winter-flowering Witch Hazel plants are uninjured. Hamamelis vernalis was covered the middle of December with flower-buds which promised to open earlier :han usual but the extreme cold later in the month destroyed them. The flower-buds of the Japanese H. japonica and its variety were not hurt, but they did not open until late in March or six weeks later than usual. The flower-buds of the Chinese H. mollis were badly injured and only partly opened toward the end of March. Quercus arkansana, from the neighborhood of Fulton in southern Arkansas, has been killed, but the Nutmeg Hickory (Carya myristiciformis) raised from nuts gathered within two miles of the place where Q. arkansana grows is uninjured, as are Sapindus Drummondii from the same general region and Malus angustifolia from Florida. More remarkable is the hardiness of Carya texana, the so-called Bitter Pecan, raised here from nuts gathered on the lower Brazos River in one of the hottest parts of the Texas coast region where sugar is the principal crop. On the other hand, more northern trees like the Liquidamber and the Persimmon (Diospyros virgimana) have lost many buds and will certainly be disfigured. These are not Massachusetts trees but they are natives of southern Connecticut and have been growing for years in the Arboretum; and it might well have been supposed that they would be hardier than trees from southern Arkansas, Florida and the Texas coast. But the hardiness of a plant can only be determined by experiments conducted through many years, as the effects of the last winter have clearly shown. It is the office of the Arboretum to make such long sustained experiments and to report on the results obtained from them, and if nurserymen and other planters will study this work of the Arboretum they will be saved many disappointments and the loss of valuable time and unnecessary expenditures. Asiatic Crabapples. Some of these trees are blooming very early this year and many of them are carrying an unusually large crop of flowers. Much attention has been paid at the Arboretum to this collection because few plants have more beautiful flowers and fruits or are better suited to this northern climate, and as the Apples of pomologists have been obtained by crossing a few of the species of the wild Crabs there is a chance that the future may disclose new and perhaps improved races of Apples obtained by crossing some of the recently introduced species with some of the varieties of orchard Apples. A general interest in this collection is shown by the number of requests for Crabapple grafting wood which are sent to the Arboretum from Agricultural Experiment Stations and nurserymen from all the northern parts of the country. The Arboretum collection is a large one and now contains well established plants of all the wild Crabapples with the exception of the Himalayan Malus sikkimensis which has not always been quite hardy here. It also contains many hybrids both of Asiatic and American species. The Asiatic species and several of the American species, as well as many hybrids, are now large enough to flower and produce fruit, and the collection affords an excellent opportunity for study. The Crabapples are in two groups, the first on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road, and the second at the eastern base of Peter's Hill where will be found the greatest number of species. The Japanese and Chinese species can be considered hardy as they have not been injured by the past winter, with the exception of Malus yunnanensis. Some of the plants of this small tree are dead or badly hurt, but one tree in the nursery at the top of Peter's Hill is uninjured. Malus cerasifera. The earliest of the Asiatic Crabs to bloom is believed to be a hybrid between Malus baccata and M. prunifolia, which has generally been called M. cerasifera. It is one of the largest of these trees, and in good soil and with abundant space it can form a wide-branched, round-topped, shapely tree. The flowers are larger than those of other Asiatic Crabapples, pure white and fragrant, and the fruit is globose, rather dull red, and sometimes an eighth of an inch in diameter. Malus baccata var. mandshurica. Another desirable Crabapple as a flowering tree is the variety mandshunca of M. baccata, a common north China, Korean and Japanese plant. This has pure white flowers only a little smaller than those of M. cerasifera and more fragrant perhaps than those of any other Apple-tree. Last week a good specimen of this Crabapple in the Peter's Hill Collection was covered with flowers which perfumed the air for a long distance. Another still little known species, Malus micromalus, has been unusually attractive with its small pink flowers. This is a tree with erect branches which form a narrow pyramidal head, and smooth pale bark. Its habit will make it valuable in many gardens. Korean Azaleas. On the upper side of Azalea Path two Korean Azaleas, Rhododendron Schlippenbachii and R. poukhanense have been covered with flowers during the past week. The former has large obovate leaves and white flowers more or less tinged with rose, and from three to three and one half inches in diameter; the corolla is thin and delicate in texture, and when fully exposed to the sun soon fades. The flowers will probably last longer in partial shade. The plants appear perfectly hardy in the most exposed position. This is a common shrub on the grassy slopes above the cliffs on the Korean coast and other parts of that country, but has remained little known in gardens, although its flowers are perhaps the loveliest of all Asiatic Azalea flowers. Rhododendron poukhanense has been covered again, as it has been every spring for several years, with its clear rose-colored fragrant flowers. This is one of the best of the Azaleas introduced by the Arboretum into American gardens, and a hardy decorative plant of first-rate importance. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23676","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24eb76e.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 16, 1918 Effects of the Severe Winter. The condition of the new Chinese Roses in the Shrub Collection is not as bad as might have been expected and will perhaps interest persons who are beginning to cultivate these plants. The yellow-flowered species, Rosa Hugonis, the single and double-flowered forms of R. xanthina and R. Ecae from Chinese Turkestan are uninjured. The last has been considered rather a tender plant here. The least beautiful, perhaps, of yellow-flowered Roses it has considerable geographical interest. The following are also uninjured: R. davurica, R. sertata, R. Helenae, R. Sweginzowii, R. banksiopsis, R. saturata, R. seUpoda, R. bella, R. omeiensis, and R. multiflora cathayensis. The stems of the following have been killed to the ground or nearly to the ground, but the roots are probably alive: R. corymbulosa, R. Davidii, R. Prattii, R. filipes, R. Moyesii, R. Moyesit rosea, R. Gentiliana, and R. multibracteata. R. Willmottae, which grows well at Rochester, N. Y., but has always been tender in the Arboretum, appears to be dead. Additions to the number of Chinese Maples mentioned in the last Bulletin which have been killed are Acer sinense and A. tetramerum. The latter flowered in the Arboretum a year ago. Other Chinese plants which have been killed are Stachyurus chinensis, Sophora viciifolia, Viburnum ovatifolium, Staphylea holocarpa, Sorbus pallescens, Poliothyrsis sinensis, Fortunearia sinensis, Sycopsis sinensis, Liquidambar formosana monticola, and the Chinese form of Symplocos paniculata. The Sophora has been growing in the Arboretum since 1906, and as it has for several years flowered and produced great crops of seeds here it was believed to be one of the hardiest as it is one of the most beautiful shrubs of recent introduction. All the plants of Viburnum ovatifolium are killed, but plants of the other Chinese Viburnums with deciduous leaves are alive and in good condition. Staphylea holocarpa, which when in flower Wilson considered one of the most beautiful of the Chinese trees, has always been tender in the Arboretum and it is not probable that it will ever flourish here. Some interesting shrubs have been killed to the ground but will probably recover; among them are the two Chinese Dipeltas, the Chinese Rhus Potaninii, the Chinese Cornus paucinervis, and the Chinese Salix Bockii. Osmaronia or Nuttallia cerasifortnis from the Pacific coast, the Rocky Mountain Ceanothus Wrightii, all the Bladder Sennas (Colutea), and the Japanese Benzoins ericium and B. obtusilobum ; the last, which for twenty-five years has been one of the rare and interesting plants in the Arboretum, will probably not recover. The familiar Exochorda racemosa or grandiflora has suffered badly, but the less known and handsomer species from western China, E. Giraldii and E. Giraldii Watsonii are uninjured and are now in flower. E. macrantha, a hybrid between E. racemosa and E. Korolkowii is uninjured and is also in bloom. Many of the forms of the Japanese Prunus Lannesiana have suffered badly and several are dead. Among these are some of the double-flowered Cherries which are generally cultivated in Japan. There are some serious losses among the Oaks. All the trees of the Willow Oak (Q. Phellos) of the south are dead. The largest of them here had been growing in the Arboretum since 1877 and had not been injured before. The largest plant of Quercus georgiana is dead. This is a rare tree from the Stone Mountain region of central Georgia, and the plant that has now been killed had been uninjured in the Arboretum for twenty-one years. Many large trees of the Shingle Oak (Quercus imbricaria) are seriously injured, and plants of the southern Red Oak (Quercus rubra or falcata) which have been growing here since 1889 are killed. Quercus heterophylla, which has been growing uninjured in the Arboretum since 1879, is also killed. This handsome and interesting tree is the first hybrid Oak noticed in America and has given rise to many discussions among dendrologists. All the plants of the Turkey Oak (Quercus Cerris) are killed, and all the upper branches of a large specimen of the form of the common English Oak with pendulous branches (Q. Robur pendula) planted in 1899 are dead. Two southern Nettle-trees, Celtis mississippiensis and C. georgiana, have also been killed. Early-flowering Lilacs. The earliest flowering Lilac here in other years, Syringa affinis, is not blooming this year and there are not many flowers on its variety Giraldii with pale rose-colored flowers. The flower-buds of these Lilacs are perfectly hardy and the cold winter cannot be charged with the absence of flowers on these north China plants. They are tall shrubs of loose and rather ungainly habit, but the foliage is good and the flowers are extremely fragrant. Another north China Lilac, S. oblata, is blooming well this year although the flower-buds are often injured by the cold of less severe winters. If this Lilac always flowered as well as it has this spring it would be one of the most valuable of the whole group for it blooms early, and the pale lilac-colored flowers in short compact clusters are very fragrant. The large broad leaves which are thick and leathery and are not disfigured by mildew turn in the autumn to handsome shades of orange and red. One of the first hybrid Lilacs was obtained by crossing this Chinese species with the common Lilac (S. vulgaris). The plant obtained by this cross is called S. hyacinthifiora. It is a large, compact, roundtopped shrib with leaves resembling in shape those of its Chinese parent and with small clusters of extremely fragrant, pale lilac-colored double flowers. As a garden plant this Lilac is more interesting than beautiful. Syringa pubescens is covered with clusters of opening flower-buds. Attention cannot be too often called to this native of northern China. It is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and short broad clusters of pale lilac-colored flowers remarkable for the long tube of the corolla and for their pungent and delightful fragrance. For this fragrance, if for no other reason, this Lilac should be found in every northern garden; indeed some persons consider it the most valuable of all Lilacs. Although S. pubescens was first raised at the Arboretum thirty-six years ago, it is still rare in this country, for it never produces seeds here and is not as easily propagated by cuttings as other Lilacs. It is in bloom nearly four weeks earlier than it was last year. Indeed all the Lilacs are early this year, and by the time this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers many of the varieties of the common Lilac will be in full bloom. Early-flowering Hawthorns. The earliest Hawthorn this year to bloom was Crataegus nigra from western Europe. This is a handsome tree with pale bark and deeply lobed leaves. The flowers have twenty stamens with anthers faintly tinged with pink and are arranged in compact clusters; they are followed by handsome black shining fruits which give greater value to this tree than the flowers which are less beautiful than those of many American Hawthorns. There is a large plant of Crataegus nigra in the old Hawthorn Collection at the end of the Willow Collection. Several American Hawthorns of the Mollis Group, distinguished by their large flowers, large leaves and large scarlea fruit, have been in bloom during the past week. The most conspicuous have been C. Arnoldiana, C. mollis, C. arkansana and C. submollis. These trees have never flowered more profusely. C. Arnoldiana, which was first found growing wild in the Arboretum, has been especially handsome. The fruit of this tree begins to ripen late in August or early in September and this makes C. Arnoldiana valuable also for the decoration of the summer garden. The largest plants of this tree in the Arboretum are on the left-hand side of the road near the Centre Street entrance. There are a number of good trees in the old Crataegus Collection and on the Valley Road in front of the White Oaks. Large plants of the other early-flowering Moilis species can be seen at the South Street entrance. In the Crataegus Collection on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill many plants are already in bloom and for the next six weeks it will be possible to see in the Arboretum Hawthorn flowers of many native and foreign species. Early-flowering Cotoneasters. Two of the handsomest Cotoneasters, C. multiflora calocarpa and C. racemiftora soongorica, are in bloom on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. They are tall broad shrubs with white flowers in compact clusters standing up along the whole length of the long, slender, graceful, archmg branches. Handsome as these plants are in May they are even handsomer in the autumn when their large and abundant red fruits are ripe. These two shrubs, which have now been well tested m the Arboretum, give every promise of becoming important garden plants in the northern states. Late-flowering Amelanchiers. The arborescent Shad Bushes, Amelanchier canadensis, A. laevis and A. oblowg-hfolia, dropped their petals nearly two weeks ago, but the flowers of some of the shrubby species are still in good condition and attractive subjects for the spring garden. Among the last of these to flower are the two Old World species, A. vulgaris of Europe and A. asiatica of eastern Asia. Some of the handsomest of the late-flowering American species are A. sanguinea, A. stolonifera, A. florida and A. pumila. The Amelanchier Collection is on the grass path on the left of the Meadow Road not far beyond the Administration Building. Malus Arnoldiana. In the last Bulletin attention was called to the hybrid Crabapple, Malus cerifera. This plant is probably one of the parents of another hybrid which sprang up spontaneously in the Arboretum many years ago and has been called M. Arnoldiana. The other parent is probably M. floribunda, itself believed to be a hybrid which originated in China. If this view of the origin of M. Arnoldiana is correct, it is the offspring of two hybrids of different parentage and a good illustration of what can be obtained by crossing and recrossing the Crabapples. It is a low, broad, bushy tree with long arching upper branches which are raised well above the general head of the plant and are wonderful objects when clothed from end to end with flowers and the blue sky is seen between them. The flower-buds, like those of M. floribunda are deep rose color and the petals after the flowers open gradually turn from rose color to white. The flowers, however, are as large as those of M. cerifera, or nearly twice as large as those of M. flortbunda, and the fruit which is red is intermediate in size between those of the parents. The plant of the Arnold Crab in the Forest Hills Road Group and several plants in the Peter's Hill Group have not before been more full of flowers or more beautiful. Early-flowering Buckeyes. The first of these plants to flower this year is the form of the Ohio Buckeye from northern Missouri with leaves of seven instead of five leaflets (Aesculus glabra Buckleyi). The flowers of this variety are brighter yellow and handsomer than those of the common form of this tree, and the plants in the Arboretum collection which are now covered with flowers aie more beautiful than ever before. The flowers of the typical form with leaves of five leaflets open only a few days later than those of this north Missouri tree. The largest specimen of the Ohio Buckeye in the Arboretum is on the left-hand side of the South Street entrance. Another form of this tree, var. leucodermis, from southern Missouri and northern Arkansas has smoother bark and blooms later. In the Arboretum collection the flower-buds are not more than half grown."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 21","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23677","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24ebb6f.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 21, 1918 Lilacs. Some of the best of the newer varieties of the common Lilac (Syrtnga vulgaris) have been in bloom during the past week and the following are worth the attention of persons who make Lilac collections: Deuil d'Emile Galle, with pale pink double flowers; Waldeck Rousseau, with pink single flowers; L'Oncle Tom, with dark redpurple single flowers; Grand Due Constantin, with light lilac-colored flowers; Toussaint Louverture, with unusually long narrow clusters of red-purple flowers. This is a tall growing plant with erect stems and of not particularly good habit, but the long narrow clusters of flowers are attractive. De Mirabel, with single very dark lilac-colored flowers in long narrow clusters; Edmund Bossier, with dark rose-purple single flowers in large broad clusters; Maurice de Vilmorin, with pale, lilaccolored double flowers; President Loubet, with deep lilac single flowers; Languis, with pale pink single flowers opening from dark rose-colored buds; and Reamur, with large, single, rose-colored flowers in broad clusters. An unusually large number of the varieties of the common Lilac have flowered well this year and among the older varieties the following have been unusually good: Congo, with large, dark red-purple, single flowers; Macrostachya, with pale pink, single flowers in long narrow clusters. Like Toussaint Louverture, this variety has erect stems which do not make a handsome bush, and the flowers, too, begin to open before the leaves appear. The flowers, however, are so delicate in color that some persons consider this one of the handsomest garden Lilacs. Other varieties which have been unusually good are Marliensis pallida, with broad clusters of pale pink flowers; Furst Lichtenstein, with single pink flowers; Condorcet, with double pale blue flowers opening from dark rose-colored buds; Justi, with small pale blue flowers; Ludwig Spath, with dark red-purple single flowers. This last is very similar to Philemon and in these two plants are found probably the handsomest Lilacs with dark red-purple flowers. Marie Legraye, with single white flowers, is good as usual. Some of the white-flowered Lilacs recently produced in France have larger individual flowers, but little is known here yet of their value as garden plants, and Marie Legraye must still be considered the best of the thoroughly tested single white-flowered Lilacs. Syringa chinensis. Unfortunately named for it is not Chinese but a hybrid which appeared more than a century ago in the Botanic Garden at Rouen, Syringa chinensis is also now in bloom. Obtained by crossing the common Lilac with the Persian Lilac (S. persica), it has the slender branches, the small leaves and the small flowers of the latter, but its large size, the large flower clusters and the color of the flowers show the influence of the other parent. Syringa chinensis is one of the most valuable of all Lilacs; it is perfectly hardy, it grows rapidly to a large size, and it never fails to produce its long clusters of reddish lilac flowers which cause the slender branches to droop gracefully. There is a variety with white flowers tinged with pink (var. alba) and other varieties with slightly darker or lighter flowers than those of the common form. This hybrid flowers a few days earlier than the Persian Lilac. This is a broad rather low shrub with narrow pointed leaves and small, fragrant, pale lilac-colored flowers in fewflowered clusters which are crowded at the ends of the branches and appear like one long inflorescence. There is a white-flowered form (var. alba) and one with lobed leaves (var. laciniata). A native of Afghanistan, the Persian Lilac was cultivated in India and Persia from very early times and reached Europe three hundred years ago. A very old inhabitant of American gardens, it is now not often cultivated in this country. The earliest of the new Chinese Lilacs to bloom this year, Syringa microphylla is in bloom. It is a plant with small leaves and small, pale pink, fragrant, long-tubed flowers in small short clusters. The flowers resemble those of S. pubescens, but it is a less valuable garden plant. Bush Honeysuckles. Many of the Bush Honeysuckles are again covered with their fragrant flowers. No shrubs, not even the Lilacs, are more valuable garden plants in regions of extreme cold. They are very hardy; they flower freely every year, and many of the species and hybrids are covered in early summer with scarlet, yellow or blue fruit. To obtain the greatest beauty of these shrubs they must be planted in good soil with sufficient space between them for their free growth. An example of well-grown Bush Honeysuckles can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs where there are several large plants. There is a large collection of smaller plants in the Shrub Collection, and a supplementary collection along the grass path in the rear of the Linden Collection on Meadow Road. Attention is called again to Lonicera Morrowii, because the plant usually sold in American nurseries under that name is not L. Morrowii but a hybrid of that species with the Tartarian Honeysuckle and of little value for those who want a plant with the peculiar habit of L. Morrowii. This species is a native of northern Japan and eastern Siberia, and one of the handsomest of the Bush Honeysuckles. It is a comparatively low round-headed shrub with the lower branches which cling close to the ground and spread over an area much broader than the height of the plant. The leaves are gray-green and the flowers are large, pale yellow and white; the fruit, which remains a long time on the branches, is red and lustrous. The shrub was introduced into the United States by the Arboretum many years ago and at one time was largely planted in the Boston parks where there can still be seen some large specimens. Attention is also called to the different forms of the Tartarian Honeysuckle L. tatarica, with white, pink and rosecolored flowers, L. minutiflora, L. muscaviensis, L. Xylosteum, L. orientalis, L. chrysantha, one of the earliest of the group to bloom, L. bella, L. notha and L. micropkylla. This very attractive little bush, a native of central Asia, is now in flower. The pale canary yellow flowers are longer than the small pale blue leaves and stand well up above them; the bright red, long-stalked fruit of this shrub is also attractive. Mountain Ashes. On the right-hand side of the path leading to the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills Gate are now in flower or will soon be in flower, a number of these plants, including the two of northeastern North America, Sorbus americana, and its variety decora. These are large shrubs or small trees and less showy perhaps when in flower than some of the Old World species; they surpass, however, all other plants of this genus in the brilliancy of their fruit, and in the size of their fruit clusters. The autumn coloring of the leaves of these plants, too, is beautiful. There is another collection of Mountain Ashes, principally Asiatic, on the left-hand side of the Valley Road near the group of Swamp White Oaks (Quercus bicolor) and several of these plants are now in bloom. There is a good specimen of the Japanese Sorbus alnifolia, one of the simple-leaved species, now in flower on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road near the Wistaria trellis. This is a shapely, hardy tree which was raised at the Arboretum from seed twenty-five years ago and is well worth a place in Massachusetts gardens. All the species of Sorbus are liable to injury from the San Jose scale, but this can be easily controlled by spraying the trees late in March or in early April with a solution of lime-sulphur or with scalyside. Aesculus arguta. This little shrub, which is a native of eastern Texas and Oklahoma, is blooming for the first time in the Arboretum and probably for the first time in cultivation. Its relation is with the Ohio Buckeye; it has leaves of seven or nine narrow, long-pointed, pale leaflets, long, many-flowered clusters of pale yellow flowers and fruit covered with prickles. This shrub is common near Dallas and in Cherokee County, Texas, where it was first distinguished, and in Oklahoma, it ranges further west than the other Buckeyes. The plants in the Arboretum collection have been raised from seeds collected in central Oklahoma. Some of the other little known southern Buckeyes have escaped injury and will soon be in bloom. Among them are the handsomest and most widely distributed red-flowered species, Aesculus discolor var. mollis, when in flower one of the handsomest shrubs in the southern states. Aesculus georgiana with large red and yellow flowers in compact clusters, its variety pubescens and two hybrid Buckeyes, Aesculus Bushii and A. Harhisonxi. While these have all escaped injury the summer-flowering Aesculus parviflora, which is an old inhabitant of northern gardens and which has not before been injured in the Arboretum, has lost many stems. The earliest Roses. On May 17th the first flowers of the season on the earliest Roses opened, Rosa Ecae and R. Hugonis. The former is a native of central Asia and is a small, exceedingly spiny shrub with small leaves and pale canary yellow flowers not more than an inch in diameter. R. Hugonis is a large shrub with gracefully arching stems; the flowers are about two and a half inches in diameter, with bright clear yellow petals and are very fragrant. The plant in the Shrub Collection is not quite as full of flowers as it was last year, but for the next few days this Rose will be one of the most interesting and beautiful plants in the Arboretum. Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum is in bloom on the lower side of Azalea Path. This is one of the parents of the hybrid Azalea mollis of gardens, and has the flame-colored flowers of some of the forms of that plant. R. japonicum, however, is a much more desirable plant than any form of Azalea mollis which at best is only short-lived here. Although discovered and first described many years ago, R. japonicum has always been one of the least known in gardens of the hardy Azaleas. The large plants in the Arboretum were raised from seed brought from Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892, but little attention has been paid to them until recently as they were supposed to be Azalea mollis. Now it is believed here that R. japonicum is the handsomest of all the hardy Asiatic Azaleas and a garden plant of exceptional value. Although the Arboretum plants are not blooming as freely as last year, there are flowers enough on them to show their beauty. Deutzia grandiflora flowered in the Arboretum for the first time three years ago and has been again in bloom among the Chinese Shrubs on Bussey Hill. It is a dwarf plant with flowers about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and usually solitary or occasionally in two- or three-flowered clusters. It is a native of northern China and there is reason to hope that it may in the hands of a skilful hybridizer be as valuable as another north China species, Deutzia parviflora, was in producing a race of hardy garden Deutzias. The flower-buds of the Flowering Dogwood (Cornusfiorida) are killed, and visitors to the Arboretum will be deprived this year of the enjoyment of the conspicuous flowers of this tree which is one of the most interesting inhabitants of the forests of eastern North America."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23678","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24e8125.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 29, 1918 The early spring. The cold of last December exceeded the cold of any previous December in Massachusetts of which there is a record, and now in this month there have been the hottest May days eastern Massachusetts has known since a record of temperature has been kept. April, too, was warm and dry, and even the early-flowering shrubs bloomed earlier than usual. Lilac flowers, which last year did not open in time for Decoration Day were fading this year by the 19th of May, and Viburnum Lentago, which usually blooms here about the middle of June was opening its flowers on the 20th of May and for the last ten days has been one of the conspicuous plants in the Arboretum. Many plants, especially Crabapples, Pears, Lilacs, Hawthorns, Honeysuckles and Viburnums have not before flowered more profusely and those which normally bloom a week or two apart have this spring flowered simultaneously, with the result that during one or two weeks more flowers have been open in the Arboretum than in any other weeks in its history. The spring, however, has not been a satisfactory one, so many plants have flowered together that visitors have been unable to enjoy them all; and flowers forced by excessive heat to open before their natural time have been short-lived. Plants crippled by the winter have further suffered by the heat and drought of May which have seriously interfered with the recovery of some plants. Some early-flowering Rhododendrons. During the past week several Rhododendrons have been in flower. One of the handsomest of these plants, Boule de Neige, shows no effects of a hard winter. The leaves are as green as they were in October and the flower-buds have not been injured. It is a dwarf plant rarely growing to the height of three feet but the branches are wide-spreading and form a broad, compact, round-topped head. Little appears to be known of the history of this plant; it is evidently a hybrid and R. caucasicum is no doubt one of the parents. Judging by the leaves, R. catawbiense, or one of its hybrids, may be the other parent. The French name suggests that it was raised in France as does the name of the raiser, Oudieu, given in a recent English work on Rhododendrons. The Arboretum will be glad of information about the origin and parentage of this plant. Whatever these may have been Boule de Neige seems one of the hardiest Rhododendrons which can be grown successfully in this climate. Another dwarf Rhododendron, Mont Blanc, a variety or hybrid of R. caucasicum, flowered a few days earlier than Boule de Neige. It is a dwarfer plant and the flowers are rose color when they first open but soon become pure white. This is a plant which has bloomed in the Arboretum for several years and has never been injured. The history of its parentage and origin are not recorded. A hybrid, R. caucasicum, with rose-colored flowers, sold in nurseries as R. Jacksonii although that name properly belongs to another hybrid, has lost a good many leaves and some of the flower-buds. R. carolinianum is uninjured and has been flowering for the past ten days. The fact that it has been able to come through the past winter without losing a leaf or bud speaks well for the ability of this little southern plant to adapt itself to the New England climate. The form usually cultivated has pale rose-pink flowers, but the form with pure white flowers is the more common in the mountain forests of the Carolinas which is the home of this species. R. Smirnowii, uninjured by the winter, is again in bloom. This inhabitant of the Caucasus is a large shrub with pale gray-green leaves coated below with a thick mat of pale felt and large pink or rose-colored flowers. This plant is so hardy that it is not improbable that a new race of Rhododendrons adapted to this climate can be obtained by crossing it with R. catawbiense, R. maximum and other hardy species. The felt on the lower surface of the leaves protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly which has been so destructive to Rhododendrons here in recent years, but unfortunately the leaves of the hybrids of R. Smirnowii which have been raised have entirely lost this protection. Cotoneaster hupehensis. The plants of this shrub in the Shrub Collection and on the southern slope of Bussey Hill are again covered with flowers. It is a broad tall shrub with wide-spreading, arching branches and small clusters of white flowers which stand up well above the leaves. The fruit is scarlet and lustrous. This species and the two mentioned in the fourth number of these Bulletins, C. multiflora calocarpa and C. racemiflora soongorica are the handsomest of the Cotoneasters discovered by Wilson in western China and perhaps the most valuable shrubs for the northern states which have been introduced by the Arboretum in recent years. Cotoneaster divaricata and C. nitens are both covered with their small pink flowers. The lustrous leaves of these plants are attractive through the season. Midseason Lilacs are in bloom nearly three weeks earlier than usual. The best known of them, Synnga villosa, was raised at the Arboretum nearly thirty-five years ago and from the Arboretum has been carried into many American gardens. It is a large, round-topped shrub with large leaves and compact broad or narrow clusters of pale rose-colored or nearly white flowers which unfortunately have the disagreeable odor of Privet flowers. In spite of the disagreeable odor of the flowers this Lilac is a first-rate garden plant, and particularly valuable because it does not begin to bloom until most of the flowers of the different varieties of the common Lilac have faded. The Hungarian Lilac, S. Josikaea, a tall shrub with violet-colored flowers in narrow clusters, blooms a few days later than S. villosa. It is one of the least attractive of all Lilacs but crossed with S. villosa it has produced in France a race of hybrids of great beauty to which the general name of S. Henryi has been given. One of the handsomest of these hybrids, Lutece, is now covered with its large open clusters of red-violet flowers. This is one of the handsomest Lilacs of recent creation and deserves the attention of the lovers of these plants. Another of this race of hybrids, S. eximia, blooms a few days later and has more compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which after opening become light pink. Another of these midseason Lilacs, S. Wolfii, is also in bloom. This is a little known species from northern China, and has leaves like those of S. villosa, but the flowers are smaller and violetpurple, and the flower-clusters are much larger. This promises to be a valuable shrub in northern gardens. It blooms a few days earlier than S. Koehneana, a native of Korea, a large shrub with slender drooping branches and broad, unsymmetrical clusters of slender rosecolored or pink flowers which have little perfume. Although this plant has been growing in the Arboretum for sixteen years, it did not begin to flower freely until two years ago. Crataegus pinnatifida. In the thirty-five years this plant has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum it has never been more covered with flowers than during the past week. It is a native of eastern Siberia and northern China and is an arborescent shrub or small tree. The leaves are large, deeply lobed, thick, and lustrous on the upper surface; the flowers are large, in many-flowered compact clusters, and are followed by dull red, oblong fruit about three-quarters of an inch in length. The fruit is less valuable for jelly than that of some of the American Crabapples of the Mollis Group. [t is esteemed by the Chinese, however, who plant and carefully cultivate orchards of this Hawthorn in the neighborhood of Peking. If a selection of the six handsomest Hawthorns of the world was to be made many persons would include in the six this Chinese species. Cornus controversa. It is fortunate that the winter has had no bad effect on this tree which promises to be one of the important introductions from eastern Asia. Like our Cornus alternifolia, it has widespreading branches and alternate leaves, but the flower-clusters are larger. It is a larger tree, sometimes growing in western China to the height of sixty feet. It is now in bloom in the supplementary Cornel Collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road and in the Peter's Hill Nursery where the largest specimen in the Arboretum can be seen. Early American Azaleas. The flrst flowers of the earliest of these plants, R. (Azalea) Vaseyi, have already faded. R. nudiftora and R. canescens have been in flower for a week on Azalea Path. Of the latter, which is a native of Massachusetts, there is a good mass on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Lindens which for a long distance round has filled the air with delicate perfume. On Azalea Path the flower-buds of the Appalachian R. (Azalea) calendulaceum are already open. In flower the most beautiful of Azaleas, no other North American shrub equals it in the splendor of its bloom. Berberis Vernae. Many of the new Barberries with deciduous leaves discovered by Wilson in western China bloom much later in the season, but a plant of Berberis Vernae in the collection of Chinese Shrubs on the slope of Bussey Hill is now covered with its short clusters of light yellow flowers. It is an attractive shrub with gracefully drooping branches and small bright green leaves, and promises to be a good addition to the large number of hardy Barberries which can be grown successfully in this climate. Early Diervillas. The first of these plants to bloom, the Korean Diervilla florida venusta, is one of the hardiest and when in flower perhaps the handsomest of all the species and hybrids of Diervilla, better known as Weigela. The New England winter has no terrors for this Korean plant, and it has not before been more thickly covered with its handsome rose-colored flowers. It is growing in the Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Varieties or hybrids of Diervilla praecox, a plant of uncertain origin, raised recently in France, have flowered well this spring in the Shrub Collection and deserve the attention of the public. The following varieties have been conspicuous: Vestale with white flowers, Gracieux with pink and white flowers, Conquerant with rose-colored flowers, and Fleur de Mai with pink flowers. Rosa spinosissima, var. altaica (or grandiflora) has not been hurt by the winter and has been full of flowers as usual. This is one of the largest and perhaps the handsomest of all the varieties of the so-called Scotch Rose. It is a native of southern Siberia and in this climate often grows six or seven feet tall and broad. The flowers are faintly tinged with yellow and are produced in great numbers. It is one of the handsomest and hardiest of all single-flowered Roses which can be grown in northern gardens; and as the plant produces suckers freely, and as these are easily transplanted, there is no reason why this Rose should not be more common than it is in American gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23674","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24eaf6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS.] JUNE 5, 1918 The New Chinese Lilacs. Many of the Lilacs discovered by Wilson and other travellers in the recent explorations of western and northern China are now so well established in the Arboretum and in a few other American gardens that it is possible to form an opinion of their value. Observations of the living plants show that too many species were made when botanists had only the dried specimens sent home from China to work with. Now that most of these plants have flowered in the Arboretum and have been again studied it appears that Syringa Walsonii and S. Dielsiana are the same as S. tomentella; that S. Sargentiana is a variety of S. Komarowii with a pubescent calyx; that S. tetanoloba is S. Swegenzowii, and that S. Rehderiana is probably only a pubescent form of S. tomentella. S. Komarowii Sargentiana is not in the Arboretum collection and probably has not been introduced. S. Rehderiana, S. Potaninii and S. verrucosa are still unknown in gardens. As a garden plant the handsomest of the new Chinese Lilacs is = Springa reflexa which Wilson discovered in western Hupeh. This is a tall broad shrub with leaves resembling in size and shape those of S. villosa. The flowers have long slender corolla-tubes and are borne in long, wide-branched, open, drooping clusters; the flower-buds are red but as the flowers open the corolla becomes dark rose color except the inner surface of the lobes which is white. The wide drooping clusters, and the contrast in the colors of the inner surface of the corolla-lobes and its tube, make S. reflexa one of the handsomest and most interesting of the new Chinese Lilacs. Next in merit probably as an ornamental plant is Syringa Sweginzowii. This, too, is a tall shrub but the branches are not as stout as those of S. reflexa, and the leaves are narrower, pointed at the ends and pale on the lower surface. The flowers are produced in broad erect clusters and are pale rose color and half an inch long. The flower-buds are of a peculiar brownish green color, and as the flowers open gradually from the bottom to the top of the cluster the contrast between the open flowers below and the closed buds above give this plant a peculiar appearance during the week or ten days the flowers are opening. This Lilac was first made known through plants raised in the Arboretum of Max von Sivers at Riga in Russia from seeds sent from some place in Mongolia or northern China, the name of which is not recorded. Later it was found by Wilson in western China, but the plants growing in the Arboretum were obtained from the nursery of Regel & Kesselring in Petrograd. S. Komarowii has leaves which resemble those of S. reflexa but the flowers are produced in short, compact, nearly cylindrical clusters nodding on long stems. The flower-buds are bright red and very conspicuous, and the open flowers are deep rose color. This Lilac sometimes blooms profusely when still a small bush. Syringa tomentella' promises to grow taller than the other new Chinese Lilacs for some of the plants in the Arboretum are now nearly ten feet high. The leaves resemble those of S. villosa, and the flowers are pale rose color or white, and are borne in narrow erect clusters. None of the Arboretum plants have ever produced many flowers and S. tomentella promises to be one of the least desirable of the new Lilacs as a garden plant. Syringa Julianae flowers earlier than most of the new Chinese Lilacs and the flowers are already fading. As it grows here this is a compact low shrub nearly as broad as high, and for several years has covered itself with short clusters of rose-colored and white fragrant flowers. Reated to the Chinese S. pubescens, it blooms much later than that and other related species, and is an excellent addition to the list of Lilacs which can be grown in our gardens. Syringa Wolfii, which has dark violet-purple flowers in short compact clusters, is another good garden plant in this climate. This species, too, was first cultivated by Von Sivers at Riga who obtained it from some place in northern China which is not known. The other new Chinese Lilacs in the Arboretum, S. Meyeri, S. micrdphylla, S. pinnatifolia and S. yunnanensisi have comparatively little decorative value and are curiosities rather than good garden plants. The Yellowwood or Virgilia. This tree, the Cladrastis lutea of botanists, is now covered with long drooping clusters of pure white pea-shaped flowers which make it one of the most beautiful trees in the forests of eastern North America. It is a round-topped tree sometimes sixty or seventy feet in height, with pale smooth bark which resembles that of the American Beech-tree, and large light green compound leaves which turn clear yellow in the autumn before falling. In the forest this is a rare and local tree, and is found growing, usually on river cliffs, from western North Carolina to Tennessee, Kentucky and northern Alabama, and in southern Missouri and northern Arkansas. It is most abundant probably in the neighborhood of Nash27 ville, Tennessee. Sent to France by its discoverer, the elder Michaux, it has been in cultivation for more thau a century. One of the first, and perhaps the first specimen planted in the United States was standing a few years ago in the grounds of the Philadelphia Cricket Club near that city. It was planted in Massachusetts, where it is perfectly hardy, at least eighty years ago. This tree flowers well in France and Germany, but rarely produces flowers in Great Britain where the sun is not hot enough to ripen sufficiently the flowering wood. Here the trees flower only once in two years and, with few exceptions, all individuals planted in the northern states flower the same year. Although one of the handsomest trees that can be used for the decoration of parks and gardens in the eastel states, the Virgilia seems to be less commonly used here than it was seventy-five years ago. Fortunately it can still be obtained in a few American gardens. Deutzia hypoglauca. This plant was not injured by the severe cold of the past winter and has now flowered for three years in the Arboretum. It is a tall vigorous shrub with erect, much branched stems, lanceolate, long-pointed leaves dark yellow-green on the upper surface and pale below, and light orange-brown branchlets. The pure white flowers are seven-eighths of an inch in diameter and are borne on slender drooping pedicels in many-flowered compound, round-topped clusters from three to four inches across. The broad, petal-like filaments, which are rather shorter than the spreading petals and are notched at the apex, form a tube rising from the center of the flower from which the bright yellow anthers emerge. Deutzia hypoglauca was discovered by Wilson in Hupeh but the plants in the Arboretum were raised here from seeds collected in 1910 by Purdom on the mountains of Shensi at altitudes between eight and ten thousand feet above the sea-level. This may prove a valuable plant to cross with some of the Chinese Deutzias with rose-colored flowers which are not really hardy in this climate. It is a handsomer plant than D. parviflora, another Chinese species and an old inhabitant of the Arboretum where it has proved to be one of the hardiest of all Deutzias. Sent by the Arboretum to Lemoine at Nancy, France, it was successfully crossed by him with D. gracilis. The result of this cross was Deutzia Lemoinei, one of the handsomest and hardiest garden shrubs of recent creation. One of the forms of D. Lemoinei, Boule de Neige, has been unusually full of flowers this year. The Persian Yellow Rose. This Rose is just opening its flower-buds. It is the last of the yellow-flowered Roses which are hardy in the Arboretum and a few days later than the Harrison Rose. The Persian yellow Rose is a dwarfer plant of better habit than the Harrison Rose, and the flowers are larger and of better color; and when it succeeds it is the handsomest of the double-flowered yellow Roses. It is a form of Rosa foetida, a beautiful and too little known Rose of southern Russia, the Caucasus and Persia. The so-called Austrian Briar, with petals yellow on the outer surface and dark copper color on the inner surface, is believed to be a variety of R. foetida (var. bicolor). The Harrison Rose, which was raised in New York many years ago, is believed to be a hybrid between the Scotch Rose and the Austrian Briar; it is very hardy, flowers freely every year and grows to a large size. Unless, however, it is cut back occasionally it becomes straggling in habit and unsightly. The yellow-flowered forms of the Scotch Rose, Rspinosissima, var. hispida and var. luteola, have been flowering well this year; they are handsome and hardy plants, and although the flowers soon drop their petals they are well worth a place in collections of single-flowered Roses. R. spinosissima fulgida. with single delicate pink flowers is another variety of the Scotch Rose which has been covered with flowers during the past week. A pink-flowered Locust. One of the most distinct and beautiful forms of the Locust-tree, Robinia Pseudacacia var. Decaisneana, has been unusually full of flowers during the past ten days. This tree, which first flowered in 1862 in the nursery of M. Villeveille at Manosque in southern France, differs from all the other forms of this Locust in its pale pink flowers. Many forms of the Locust have been raised in European nurseries; they are all handsome and hardy, and could they be protected from the borers which riddle the trunks and branches of all forms of the Locust they would be as highly esteemed here as they are in France and Germany. The variety Decaisneana must not be confounded with R. viseosa, an American tree with pink flowers in partly erect clusters, and well distinguished by the glandular viscid hairs on the branchlets and flower-clusters. This tree is also flowering in the Arboretum, as is the little Rose Acacia, Acacia hispida, a hispid shrub with large bright rose-colored handsome flowers, which is not known to produce seeds but spreads widely and rapidly by underground stems and may become a troublesome weed. Viburnum cassinoides is blooming profusely but nearly three weeks before its usual time for flowering. In cultivation this Viburnum is a round-topped shrub from four to six feet high. The leaves are thick and lustrous, and differ greatly in size and shape. The flowers are slightly tinged with yellow and are borne in wide, slightly convex clusters which also vary greatly in size. This plant appears even more beautiful in the autumn than in June; for the fruit is larger than that of the other summer-flowering American Viburnums, and at first when fully grown is yellow-green, becoming pink and finally dark blue or nearly black and covered with a pale bloom, fruits of the three colors occurring together in the same cluster. This Viburnum has been generally planted in the Arboretum, and it is certainly one of the handsomest shrubs of eastern North America. Two other handsome American Viburnums, V. bracteatum and V. molle, are in bloom and are interesting to persons who like to see rare or little known plants. The former grows only on the cliffs of the Coosa River near Rome, Georgia, and the latter in southern Kentucky and very locally in southern Missouri."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 12","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23671","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24ea36a.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 12, 1918 Philadelphus. Few plants give greater beauty to northern gardens than the Syringas or Mock Oranges. These are the unfortunate popular names of the different species of Philadelphus, for Syringa is the botanical name of the Lilac, and Mock Orange is the popular name of Prunus caroliniana, a southern evergreen Cherry which is much planted in the southern states as an ornamental tree and in making hedges. The species of Philadelphus grow naturally in southeastern Europe and the Caucasus, in the United States on the southern Appalachian Mountains, in western Texas, on the southern Rocky Mountains, and in the northwestern states, in Japan, Korea, northern and western China, and on the Himalayas. In the last twenty years much attention has been paid to the introduction of new species; artificial and natural hybrids, too, have increased the number of these plants, and there are now growing in the Arboretum some thirty species and a number of varieties and hybrids. The flowering period of the Syringas extends through six or seven weeks and, with few exceptions, none of them begin to bloom until that of most Lilacs and of the Bush Honeysuckles has passed. With its development in recent years Philadelphus has become one of the important groups of garden shrubs to be ranked with the Lilacs, Bush Honeysuckles, Viburnums and Azaleas. The species and hybrids of Philadelphus are nearly all hardy in Massachusetts but the white and usually fragrant flowers are their only attraction. They are not particularly interesting in habit; the foliage is dull; the leaves fall without change of color, and the fruit, which is a dry capsule, is smaller and not more attractive than that of the Lilac. All the Syringas flower freely nearly every year; they need rich, well-drained soil, and the presence of lime in it has no bad effects on them. Better than most shrubs they can support shade and their ability to grow and flower under trees make them valuable as undergrowth in border plantations. The Mock Orange of all old gardens is Syringa coronarius, the eastern European species. This plant was first cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century and was probably one of the first garden shrubs brought to America by the English settlers. It is a medium-sized shrub often as broad as high. The flowers, too, are of medium size and faintly tinged with yellow. This shrub has been somewhat neglected since so many species and hybrids with larger and showier flowers have found their way into gardens. This is unfortunate, for no other Syringa equals the old-fashioned Mock Orange in the delicate perfume of its flowers. Varieties of this plant with yellow leaves, with double flowers, and with narrow willowlike leaves can be seen in the Arboretum collection, but none of them have any particular decorative value. Among the American species which should find a place in all gardens are P. inodarus, P. pubescens, and P. microphyllus. The first is a native of the Appalachian Mountain region and grows to the height of six feet; it has arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers. By some persons it is considered the most beautiful of all Syringas. P. pubescens, often called P. grandiflorus or P. laUfolia is also a plant of the southern Appalachian region. It often grows to the height of twenty feet; the branches are stout and erect; the leaves are broad, and the slightly fragrant flowers are arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. This plant is more common in gardens than the last and when it is in bloom it makes a great show. P. microphyllus, which rarely grows more than three feet tall, has slender stems, and leaves and flowers smaller than those of any Philadelphus in cultivation. What the flowers lack in size, however, is made up m fragrance which is stronger than that of any other Syringa and perfumes the air for a long distance. The most distinct and the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the Arboretum is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a large shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branchlets from four to six inches long and spreading at right angles; on these branchlets the flowers are borne on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long, with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus Magdalenae is another Chinese species well worth cultivation. It is a tall broad shrub with arching stems, small dark green leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, many-flowered clusters from six to ten inches in length. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow. Another interesting garden plant, P. Falconerii, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and in its long narrow petals. The origin and history of this plant is not known. Hybrid Philadelphus. The first hybrid Philadelphus which attracted attention was raised in France before 1870 by a Monsieur Billard, and is sometimes called in gardens Souvenir de Billard, although the correct name for it is Philadelphus insignis. This hybrid is one of the handsomest of all the tall-growing Syringas, and its value is increased by the fact that it is one of the latest of them all to flower. In a few old gardens in the neighborhood of Boston great Syringa bushes occasionally thirty feet high and correspondingly broad are sometimes found. These plants are believed to be hybrids between P. coronarius and some unrecognized species. It is called Philadelphus maximus. Another hybrid, P. magnificus, sprang up in the Arboretum several years ago and is supposed to be a hybrid between two American species, P. inodorus and P. pubescens. It is a large and shapely shrub with pure white only slightly fragrant flowers an inch and three-quarters in diameter and borne in erect clusters. Philadelphus splendens flowers very freely and when the flowers are open it is the showiest plant in the Syringa Group. Lemoine Hybrid Philadelphus. Several years ago the French plant breeder Lemoine crossed P. coronarius with the Rocky mountain P. microphyllus and obtained an entirely new race to which the general name of P. Lemoinei was given. The original bush is intermediate between the parents in size and in the size of the flowers. The flowers are pure white, very fragrant and produced in profusion. From this plant Lemoine raised many seedlings and secondary hybrids and these vary from the original P. Lemoinei in size and in the size and shape of the flowers. Taken as a whole the Lemoine hybrid Syringas form one of the most beautiful groups of garden plants that has been created by man. There are a number of these plants in the Arboretum collection and they have been considered perfectly hardy here, but last winter was too cold for some of them. P. Lemoinei itself and many of its varieties are uninjured, but a few of the second hybrids were killed to the ground but are now growing again from the roots. Unfortunately among the injured is the little plant called Conquete which is usually considered the handsomest of these Lemoine Syringas. This is the midseason for Philadelphus. The flowers of the Korean P. Schneckii var. Jackii, which are always the first to open, faded nearly two weeks ago, and the buds on some of the other species and hybrids will not open for nearly a month. The Sour Gum or Tupelo (Nyssa sylvatica) is now in flower. The minute yellow-green flowers of this tree are hidden by the leaves and will only be seen by persons who are specially looking for them. In spite of its inconspicuous flowers the Sour Gum is one of the handsome trees of eastern North America where it grows from Maine to Florida and Texas. The greatest beauty of this tree is in its lustrous, dark green leaves which in early autumn turn orange and scarlet, and then are not surpassed in brilliancy by the leaves of any other American tree. The bright blue shining fruits, which are about two-thirds of an inch long, are also ornamental. This tree varies greatly in habit. Near the coast it is low with a broad, flat or rounded had. Such trees are common on Cape Cod and near the northern shore of Long Island Sound. In the interior, and on the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains, where it grows to its largest size, it is often a hundred feet high, with a tall massive trunk four or five feet in diameter and a narrow head of erect branches. Few American trees are better worth cultivating for the ornament of parks, but no one in these days plants a Sour Gum. The long hard roots make it difficult to transplant, and only small seedlings can be successfully moved. Those persons who care only for \"immediate effect,\" the slogan of Americans of the twentieth century who believe that money only is needed to secure fully grown trees, have little use for the Sour Gum which wisely rebels against the modern method of tree-planting which menaces the future of too many American country estates. Cornus kousa. The flower-buds of this eastern Asiatic representative of our Flowering Dogwood were not injured by the winter which ruined those of the American tree, and the Japanese form of Cornus kousa is now in bloom. It is a small tree or large shrub and the white bracts which surround the clusters of flowers are smaller than those of our native tree and are pointed. The form from western China has rather larger flower-bracts than those of the Japanese plant. The fact that the flower-buds of the Asiatic tree have not been injured by the cold of the past winter adds to its value. The Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) is in bloom. Occasionally more plants on the bank at the northern base of Hemlock Hill have flowered than are flowering this year, but the display is much better than it was a year ago, and the Arboretum Laurels are now well worth a visit. The Mountain Laurel is a remarkable plant. It can be seen in full bloom near the shores of Mississippi Sound during the first week of April, and travelling north one can see its flowers every day until early July when the northern limit of its range in New Brunswick and the northern shore of Lake Erie is reached. It grows as well in New England as it does in regions where the climate is less rigorous, but in New England the plants never grow to the size they attain on the Blue Ridge of North and South Carolina about the headwaters of the Savannah and Little Tennessee Rivers. Few plants have more beautiful flowers; and the Mountain Laurel is a broad-leaved evergreen, and broad-leaved evergreens which are hardy in Massachusetts, with the exception of a few low under shrubs, can be almost counted on the fingers of one hand. For of these plants only the Kalmia latifolia, Rhododendron catawbiense, R. maximum and Andromeda flonbunda can be absolutely depended on. A few more Rhododendrons might be added to the list, but after the experience of recent years it is not safe to say that any foreign species or any hybrid Rhododendron will prove hardy under all the weather conditions Massachusetts may experience."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 20","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23672","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24ea76b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 20, 1918 Populus Maximowiczii. This tree is a native of eastern Siberia, eastern Saghalin and northern Japan. It is the largest tree of eastern Siberia where it sometimes grows eighty feet high with a trunk six feet in diameter and a broad head of massive spreading branches. On young trees the bark of the trunk is smooth and pale brown, but on old trees it becomes thick and furrowed. This Poplar was first sent to the Arboretum from Petrograd in 1878 but its distinctive characters were not recognized until some years later. The plants now in the Arboretum were propagated from the Petrograd tree which disappeared when the Poplar Collection was rearranged on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. They are now twenty years old and about thirtyfive feet high. They have never been attacked by borers which make the cultivation of the Balsam Poplars and some of the Cottonwoods so difficult and unsatisfactory, and their leaves apparently have no attraction for leaf-eating caterpillars. The leaves are green and lustrous on the upper surface, silvery white below, three or four inches long, and two or two and a half inches wide. The fruit, which is fully grown in May, unlike that of other Poplars, remains on the trees here until September without opening. Native and Foreign Trees. Populus Maximowiczii is not only the handsomest and most satisfactory tree in the Poplar Collection but it is one of the few large exotic trees with deciduous leaves which can be recommended for general planting in the northern states. For the list of such trees is a short one. It includes the Gingko, which stands alone in its class and is one of the great trees of the world. The only sur34 vivor of a race which was once widely spread over the northern hemisphere, this inhabitant of eastern continental Asia is long-lived and able to support extremes of heat and cold, and to grow equally well in Massachusetts, Georgia and California. The Gingko is appreciated and has been largely planted in the city of Washington, but in other parts of the United States the beauty of this tree when it gets beyond its juvenile habit is not understood. Pseudolarix is another Chinese tree which is alone in its class and, although discovered only seventy years ago, it has been long enough in this country to show that it is perfectly able to adapt itself to the Massachusetts climate. This is surprising for the home of Pseudolarix is on low mountain slopes not far from the coast and south of the Yangtse River. The European Larch, although less picturesque than the Larch of northeastern North America, is a larger and more valuable tree, and the experience with it in New England shows that it is a tree which can be depended on to grow here rapidly to a large size. The two Silver Poplars of Europe (Populus alba and P. canescens) flourish in the United States where they have grown to a large size and are as much at home as they are in their native countries. The pale color of the foliage of these trees is unlike that of any of the American species, and their hardiness and vitality make them useful for planting in exposed positions. The Silver Poplar of northern China (P. tomentosa) is one of the handsomest of all Poplar-trees. It has grown well in the Arboretum but it is too soon to form an opinion of its value in this country. Two European Willows, Salix alba and S. fragilis, and some of their varieties, have become completely naturalized in the northeastern states where they grow as large or even larger than in Europe and are important additions to the North American silva. The Chinese Weeping Willow (S. babylonica) is not always perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, but further south is valued as an ornamental tree. The so-called Wisconsin Willow, a natural hybrid between this Chinese Willow and S. alba, and other hybrids of the same parentage are useful ornamental trees in the northern states. Cercidiphyllum is the largest deciduous-leaved tree of Japan, and although it was introduced into the United States only forty years ago it gives promise of becoming a permanent addition to the trees of the largest size which can be successfully grown here. The Chinese White Mulberry (Morus alba) is a larger and hardier tree than the Mulberrytree of the eastern states, and is perfectly at home here. Probably the most generally useful, however, of the large deciduous-leaved trees which have been brought into the northern states is the Ailanthus of northern China which must have been growing here for nearly a century. It grows rapidly and is perfectly hardy, and it can resist the heat, drought and dryness which trees have to suffer in our cities better than any other tree with the exception, perhaps, of some of the Poplars. The Ailanthus, too, produces handsome wood valuable in cabinet- making. The Japanese White Oaks are handsome trees and produce valuable timber. They grow well in the Arboretum and give every promise of living here for many years. Under the most favorable conditions in Japan they do not become as large as our native White and Bur Oaks, and do not produce more valuable timber than these and several other American White Oaks. All foreign Oaks which can be induced to live here are proper inhabitants of the Arboretum where they are needed for study and public display, but for general planting the Oaks of other countries will never be used in New England in preference to the native species. Of all the Elm-trees of the world not one equals in grace and beauty the White Elm of eastern North America (Ulmus americana). It is a true lover of the country, however, and only shows its greatest beauty in the deep moist soil of a New England intervale. Moved to the city it soon languishes, for it resents city conditions of overdrained soil, smoke and bad air. One of the so-called English Elms is better able to thrive in cities where the American Elm fails, and in Boston and its suburbs the English tree has been growing for more than a century and has proved itself valuable. None of the exotic Ash-trees are really valuable here. For general planting in the eastern United States no Ash is as good as the American White Ash (Fraxinus americana) for the decoration of parks and roadsides and the production of timber. The European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior), which is a magnificent tree in some parts of Europe, is a miserable failure here, and the great Ash-tree of northeastern continental Asia and northern Japan {F. mandshurica) can barely be kept alive in New England. European Birch-trees grew well in the northern states until they were attacked by a borer which destroyed them by thousands. The slender drooping branches of Betula pendula make it an interesting and attractive object but it is not as handsome a tree as the native Canoe Birch (Betula papyrifera) which is the handsomest of the white-barked Birches and in one of its forms exceeds all other Birchtrees in size. Betula Maximowiczii with pinkish bark, and a native of northern Japan, is, however, a handsomer tree than the Canoe Birch. It has been growing in this country for twenty-five years, and although it has grown well and is perfectly hardy here it is too soon to speak of its permanent value. The pale gray bark of the trunk and branches of the American Beech makes it in winter the most beautiful of all Beech-trees, but as a planted tree it does not behave as well or grow as rapidly as the European Beech which, in spite of its darker colored bark, is a better tree for the decoration of our parks. The northern Linden (Tilia glabra or americana) is a noble tree in the northern forests where in deep moist soil it sometimes grows to the height of one hundred and thirty feet and makes a trunk four or five feet in diameter, but it does not take kindly to cultivation in a climate as warm as that of Massachusetts. Planted trees grow slowly here; the leaves are usually disfigured by red spiders and turn brown and fall during the summer. There are a number of Linden-trees in the middle and southern states but little is yet known about them as cultivated trees, and a planter who wants Linden-trees had best use some of the European species. There are five of these, and the three species of western Europe have been so thoroughly tested in the United States that it is possible to say that they are among the most valuable trees which have been brought, here from foreign countries. The most satisfactory of them here is Tilia vulgaris, a widely distributed but rather rare tree in Europe and believed to be a natural hybrid between the other western European species T. platyphyllos and T. cordata. There are large specimens of this Linden in the suburbs of Boston. No American Horsechestnut or Buckeye can compare in size or in the beauty of its flowers with the species of southwestern Europe (Aesculus Hippocastanum), which is well known to many Americans who have never heard that there were Horsechestnut-trees growing naturally in the United States. The European Horsechestnut is another of the great trees of the world. It is as much at home here and grows to as large a size as it does in western Europe. Few trees have more conspicuous flowers or foliage of deeper green. It thrives, however, only in deep rich soil and usually resents city conditions. In some old gardens in Salem, however, there are as noble Horsechestnuts as can be found in the United States or Great Britain. It is a miserable street tree, as can be seen in Paris, where the leaves turn brown and fall by midsummer, and in New York and Boston where fortunately it has not been generally planted. Among the Maples of large size which have been planted in the eastern states only the so-called Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) has shown real power to flourish here. It is a smaller and less beautiful tree than the native Sugar Maple, but the Sugar Maple, too, resents city conditions and objects to living at the seashore, and as the Norway Maple has proved a valuable tree for city and seashore planting it must be considered one of the really valuable foreign trees introduced into this country. The Old World Walnut-tree (Juglans regia) sometimes called English Walnut or Persian Walnut, although it is a native of China, is a handsomer and more valuable tree than any of the American Walnut-trees, but unfortunately it is only doubtfully hardy in the northeastern states and will probably never grow to a large size here or produce the great crops of nuts and the timber which make this such a useful tree in many parts of the world. Chestnut- trees (Castanea) are fast disappearing from the United States as the Chestnut-tree disease spreads, and there is now little interest in drawing a comparison between the American and foreign species. The European Chestnut is not hardy in Massachusetts. The Japanese Chestnut is a small tree of no great value, and the Chinese Castanea mollissima, which it is hoped may prove resistant to the disease, has only been in the country for fifteen years. It has proved hardy in the Arboretum and produces a little fruit here. It appears therefore from the experience gained in Massachusetts during about a century that only the following deciduous-leaved trees of large size have proved themselves to be worth general planting in the northeastern states for ornament or timber:- the Gingko, the Pseudolarix, the European Larch, three species of Poplar, three Willows and their hybrids, the Cercidiphyllum, the White Mulberry, the Ailanthus, the European Beech, the English Elm, one Birch, three Lindens, the European Horsechestnut, and the Norway Maple, twenty in all. At the end of another century the record of the Arboretum will, it is to be hoped, be able to tell a story of greater successes."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 27","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23673","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24eab6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL IV NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 27, 1918 The English Elm. In the discussions of the English Elm which occasionally appear in the Boston papers surprise is expressed that different individuals of this tree differ in general appearance and in the size of the leaves, showing perhaps that it is not generally known that there are four distinct species of Elm-trees now growing naturally in England. This confusion in regard to these trees is of long standing, for Linnaeus one hundred and sixty-five years ago believed that all the Elm-trees of Europe were of one kind to which he gave the name of Ulmus campestris, a name which must be abandoned as the four British trees and an Elm-tree of northern and eastern Europe are included in his description. Ulmus procera. This is the name now adopted for the tree which is generally known as English Elm in Boston where it has proved one of the best foreign trees ever planted in Massachusetts. It has been growing here for more than a century, and nearly one hundred years ago Major Paddock had a nursery at Milton for the propagation and sale of this tree. Probably no tree, native or foreign, which has been planted in the neighborhood of Boston has grown to such a large size. The Paddock Elms, which stood on Tremont Street in front of the Granary Burying Ground, were of this species, as were the great Elms on the Tremont Street Mall of the Common which were killed by the Subway. The Elm-trees on each side of the Shaw Monument opposite the State House are of this species, and there are still large specimens in the suburbs of the city. This is the common Elm-tree of southern England where it grows usually in hedge-rows, although it has been largely planted in parks. It often grows one hundred feet tall with a massive stem covered with dark deeply furrowed bark, spreading or ascending branches which form a comparatively narrow oval head, and slender branchlets thickly covered during their first year with down. The leaves are broadly oval or ovate, oblique at the base, dark green and rough on the upper surface and covered below with soft down; they are from two to three inches long with about twelve pairs of veins, and their stalks are only about one-fifth of an inch in length. This tree very rarely ripens fertile seeds in England or in this country, but it produces suckers in great numbers and is propagated entirely by means of these. As this tree so rarely produces seeds few varieties are known, but a small-leaved Elm (var. viminalts) is believed to be a seedling of it. Of this little Elm there are forms on which the leaves are blotched with white and with yellow. Ulmus foliacea, or nitens. This is another English Elm which differs from the last in its paler bark, in its smooth or nearly smooth branchlets, that is without a covering of down and in its leaves which are smooth and shining on the upper surface, only slightly downy below early in the season and from two to three and a half inches long. This tree produces fertile seeds in abundance and seedlings are raised in European nurseries. It is widely distributed over central and southern Europe and grows also in northern Africa and eastern Asia. Several geographical forms are recognized; the most distinct of these are the Cornish and the Guernsey Elms which are trees of medium size with erect growing branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. Plants of these two forms are not always hardy in Massachusetts. Another form, common in Hertfordshire, is a large tree with widespreading and pendulous branches and at its best, although not so tall, is almost as handsome as our American White Elm (U. americana). Another form (var. umbraculifera) from Persia and Armenia is interesting from its compact globose head. This tree might perhaps be made useful in formal gardens. On many trees of Ulmus foliacea the branches are furnished with corky wings (var. suberosa), and the so-called English Elms with such branchlets occasionally seen in this country are usually of this variety. The seedling trees of this Elm which have been imported from European nurseries vary in habit, in the size of their leaves and in their hardiness; and the unhealthy and generally unsatisfactory Elm-trees which have been planted in considerable numbers in eastern Massachusetts during the last twenty years are in nine cases out of ten seedling forms of U. foliacea. Ulmus glabra. This is another widely distributed European Elm which is often called Scotch Elm or Wych Elm by English-speaking people. This is a tree with a trunk and branches which remain smooth for many years. It can always be recognized, too, by the large obtuse buds covered by pale brown hairs and by its dark dull green leaves abruptly pointed or three-lobed at the apex, oblique and unsymmetrical at the base, rough above, downy below and from four to six inches long with stalks shorter than those of other Elm-trees. This tree does not sucker but produces fertile seeds in great quantities, and more abnormal seedling forms of this tree have been raised than of any other Elm. The well-known Camperdown Elm is a form of this tree with regularly pendulous branches which is often planted in suburban gardens to make natural arbors; another form (var. pendula) has horizontally spreading pendulous branches which form an unsymmetrical, flat-topped head. There is a form with erect branches forming a narrow pyramidal head and others with leaves more coarsely toothed than those of the ordinary form and with purple and other abnormal leaves. This is perhaps the least beautiful of all the species of Elms. The abundant seeds are blown great distances and germinate so readily that seedlings are often troublesome weeds which if neglected for a few years become difficult to eradicate. For several years the leaves of this tree in the neighborhood of Boston have been turned brown and often killed by a leaf-mining insect which attacks this species but no other Elm-tree. Ulmus minor, sometimes called U. sativa, is a small-leaved Elm-tree of large size which is rather closely related to U. foliacea. Although common in the eastern counties of England, it is possible that this tree cannot be seen in the United States outside of the Arboretum. Ulmus hollandica. This general name has been given to a race of natural hybrids between U. ,foliacea and U. glabra, among which are some of the handsomest and most valuable of the European Elms. To the best known in this country of these hybrids the name Ulmus hollandica vegeta has been given. This tree was raised in a nursery at Huntingdon about the middle of the eighteenth century and is usually called the Huntingdon Elm. This tree often grows one hundred feet high with a massive trunk and spreading and ascending branches which make a vase-shaped head which readily distinguishes this tree from other Elms. It can be seen to good advantage in Cambridgeshire, England, especially in Cambridge, where there is a noble avenue of the Huntingdon Elm. A tree of this hybrid which grew in the grounds of Magdalen College at Oxford was believed to be the largest tree in Great Britain. In April, 1911, this tree was blown down and was found to be one hundred and forty-two feet high with a trunk twentyseven feet in circumference at five feet above the ground. In this country this hybrid Elm grows more rapidly than other Elm-trees, and as it produces suckers it can be easily multiplied. It is not common here, however, although in the neighborhood of Boston specimens not more than sixty years old have already grown to a large size. The var. belgica of this hybrid is the Elm which has been most often planted as a street and roadside tree in Belgium and Holland. It is a tall tree with a straight, rough-barked trunk, a broad head of rather erect branches, and dark green leaves slightly roughened above and covered below with soft down. As this tree grows in Holland it is one of the handsomest and most desirable trees for shading city streets. This Elm appears to be little known in the United States; it is growing well in the Arboretum, but it has not been here long enough yet to show if it will be of permanent value in New England. The socalled Dutch Elm, Ulmus major of many English dendrologists and a common tree in English parks, is probably another hybrid of the same parentage (U. hollandica var. major). This is a very large tree with a short trunk covered with rough bark, wide-spreading branches furnished with corky wings, and dark green leaves lustrous and nearly smooth on the upper surface and slightly downy below. As this tree produces many suckers it can be easily multiplied. Ulmus laevis. This is a common Elm in northern Russia and in some parts of Scandanavia, and occurs occasionally in Denmark and the Balkan countries. It has been growing in the Arboretum since 1888, and is now fifty-five feet tall with a short trunk, a broad pyramidal head and dark green foliage. Botanically this Elm is closely related to the American White Eim (Ulmus americana) but differs from it in the thicker coat of down on the lower surface of the leaves and in its larger and sharper-pointed buds. The leaves of this tree unfold here earlier than those of any other Elm. It is probably extremely rare in the United States, but American tree lovers can wisely learn more about it. The Arboretum Collection now contains sixty-two different Elms and includes all the known species with the exception of the four Himalayan Elms and the Mexican Elm which are not in cultivation and two species from the southern United States which are not hardy here. With few exceptions the important and interesting varieties and hybrids are represented in the collection. Many of the plants are still too small to produce fruit or to show the habit of mature trees, but as a whole the collection offers a good opportunity for the study of the leaves and branchlets of Elm-trees. A good Rhododendron. To a Rhododendron which is growing in Mr. Hunnewell's garden at Wellesley the name of Glennyi has been given. This name is probably not correct, at least it is not found in the catalogues of garden Rhododendrons. There was once, however, in England a Mr. Glenny who raised hybrid Rhododendrons, for on the 5th of February, 1838, at a meeting of the Royal Horticultural Society in London, \"Mr. George Glenny exhibited a Rhododendron said to have been raised by himself from seed. It did not appear different from a variety raised some years since by Mr. Waterer, of Knaphill, and called in the gardens R. pulcherrimum. It is said to have been a hybrid between R. arboreum and R. caucasicum, and was raised at Knaphill in 1832; it has pink flowers.\" The plant in Mr. Hunnewell's garden is evidently a hybrid of R. caucasicum, and has been growing there for fully fifty years. The original specimens were certainly imported from England and are now round-topped bushes about six feet high. For at least thirty years they have never suffered from heat or cold and have never failed to bloom freely. The leaves show the influence of R. catawbiense but the size of the flower-clusters and the size of the white flowers, which are a good deal like those of R. Boule de Neige, point to R. caucasicum. The early flowers, for this is one of the earliest of the hardy Rhododendrons to flower in this climate, show too the caucasicum influence. But whatever name it should bear and whatever its parentage this Rhododendron is a valuable plant, for it is certainly one of the hardiest hybrid Rhododendrons which have been planted in this country. There are only small plants in the Arboretum Collection where it has not yet flowered."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 5","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23670","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd24ea328.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 11 1 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 5, 1918 Summer-flowering Trees. Several interesting trees will flower in the Arboretum at different times during the next two months. Among these summer-flowering trees are the Chinese Sophora japonica, the Maackia of eastern Siberia, Acanthopanax ricinifolius from northern Japan, the arborescent Aralias from the southern United States and eastern Asia, the Korean and Chinese Evodias, the Sour Wood or Oxydendrum from our Southern States, the Chinese Koelreuteria and one of the American Catalpas (C. bignonoides). It is interesting that only three of these trees, one of the Aralias, the Sour Wood and the Catalpa are American, and that the others have been brought to this country from eastern Asia. The most important group, however, of summer- flowering trees is The Lindens. The flowers of a few of the early flowering species of these trees, like the European Tilia platyphyllos and its varieties, and T. vulgaris, and the American T. neglecta, are already open; and during the next two or three weeks the flowers of different species of Linden- trees will open in the Arboretum and attract the bees to their richest harvest. Linden-trees are very generally distributed in all the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere with the exception of western North America and, in addition to numerous species, several hybrids are cultivated. All the species are very similar in flower and fruit, and chiefly vary in the size and shape of the leaves, in the presence or absence of hairs on the leaves and branchlets, and in the nature of their hairy covering when it occurs. A fact which is not easy to explain is the presence in the flowers of all the American species of petal-like scales opposite the petals and connected with the clusters of stamens, while in the flowers of all the Old World Lindens such scales do not exist. Another fact about Lindens which is not easy to explain is that the European species grow much better in Massachusetts than the species of eastern Asia, although as a rule European trees do not succeed here as well as the trees of eastern Asia. The five European Lindens and the species from the Caucasus all flourish in the Arboretum and some of these trees have grown in New England to a large size. The Asiatic species, however, although they have not been many years in this country, give little promise of becoming really good trees here. Tiha japonica, which has been growing in the Arboretum for twenty-five years, although still a small tree, is, however, perfectly healthy; it is related to the small-leaved Linden of Europe (T. cordata) and, like that tree, is one of the latest Lindens to flower here. The graceful drooping branches and pale under surface of the leaves make this small tree attractive, and it is the first of the Lindens here to unfold its leaves in the spring. The common Linden of the north (T. glabra or americana) as was recently explained in one of these Bulletins, is not as good a tree here as several of the European species, but there are several other American Lindens which have been overlooked by American planters, and misunderstood or neglected by American botanists, and among them are handsome trees. Some of these are growing in the Arboretum, and it is not improbable that the Arboretum collection will be improved at the end of a few years when it is hoped the American Lindens will be better known. Lindens have always been more valued as ornamental and shade trees in Europe than in the United States. No other trees have been more generally planted in some of the countries of central Europe, and in these countries attention has been paid to the collection and perpetuation of several interesting and valuable varieties and hybrids. The Arboretum collection, which is arranged in the meadow on the righthand side of the Meadow Road, now contains forty-five species, varieties and hybrids. Many of these trees have flowered for several years, and some of them are large enough to show the habit of the different species when thirty or forty years old. Judging by the Arboretum collection, the handsomest of these trees which can be grown in this part of the country are the European T. vulgaris, T. cordata, T. tomentosa, and T. petiolaris and the American T. heterophylla, T. Michauxii and T. neglecta, and the hybrid T. spectabilis. This tree is believed to be a hybrid of T. americana with T. petiolaris or T. tomentosa. It has leaves as large as those of the American tree but silvery white on the lower surface. The variety Moltkei has rather thicker but equally large leaves. These trees are among the handsomest of all Lindens, and no Lindens in the Arboretum collection grow more rapidly. Some good shrubs. A correspondent asks the Bulletin to name the twelve best shrubs of recent introduction. The task is not an easy one for two persons rarely agree in their opinion of the merits of any plant for any particular purpose. The best shrubs in the sense which our correspondent means are those which will be hardy over a large part of New England and the middle and middle western states, that is in those parts of eastern North America where gardening is most practiced. This means that Rhododendrons, Azaleas and other plants of the Heath Family must be excluded from the list, for plants of this family will not grow in soil impregnated with lime. The selection is more difficult now than it would have been a year ago, for the past winter has hurt some of the shrubs which might have been included in such a list but which have not been able to support the excessive cold to be expected occasionally in the northeastern states. As they were uninjured by the cold of last winter the following twelve shrubs may at least be considered hardy whether all our readers approve or not of our selection. In our opinion four of the Cotoneasters of western China must be included in any list of the twelve best shrubs of recent introduction; they are C. hupehensis, C. multiflora var. calocarpa, C. racemiflora var. soongorica, and C. nitens. C. hupehensis is a broad, tall and shapely shrub with bright green leaves and white flowers which make the plant as conspicuous as any Spiraea. The flowers are followed by small scarlet fruits which are a good deal hidden by the leaves. C. multiflora var. calocarpa is a large shrub with slender, gracefully arching stems, and blue-green leaves. The flowers are borne in erect clusters on short lateral branchlets which rise above the arching stems, and few shrubs are more graceful in habit or more charming in the arrangement of their flowers; the fruit is scarlet and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. C. racemiflora var. soongorica is also a large and vigorous shrub with arching stems. The flowers are white and a little larger than those of C. hupehensis; the leaves are dull blue-green in color, and the fruit is large and showy. Many persons consider this the handsomest of the Chinese Cotoneasters. C. nitens is also a large broad shrub; the leaves are dark green and very lustrous; the flowers are red, and the fruit is black. Of these four Cotoneasters the last has the handsomest foliage but the smallest flowers and fruit. Two Roses can properly find a place in this list of twelve shrubs, the Chinese Rosa Hugonis and the Korean R. Jackii. The former has pale yellow flowers and has often been described in these Bulletins; it is one of the handsomest of all single-flowering Roses and one of the most important introductions of recent years. Rosa Jackii bears clusters of white flowers like those of R. multiflora, but the flowers are nearly twice as large and open two or three weeks later. This is one of the last of the Roses to flower here and is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. Two Lilacs recently described in these Bulletins, can be included in the list, Syringa Sweginzowii from northern China and S. reflexa from western China. Diervilla florida var. venusta, introduced a few years ago from Korea, is perfectly hardy and the handsomest of all the species, varieties and hybrids of Diervilla in the large Arboretum collection. It can fairly be considered one of the best shrubs introduced into this country by the Arboretum in recent years. Prinsepia sinensis from northern China properly finds a place in this list. It is perfectly hardy; the leaves unfold earlier in the spring than those of any other shrub in the Arboretum and are soon followed every year by innumerable yellow flowers. The hardiness, rapid growth, sturdiness and the abundant spines on the stems should make this a good hedge plant. Of the numerous species of the genus Corylopsis cultivated in the Arboretum only the Japanese C. Gotoana escaped serious injury last winter. Like all the species of this genus, it bears drooping clusters of yellow flowers which appear before the leaves, which resemble those of the Witch Hazel to which Corylopsis is related. This beautiful shrub has flowered here now for several years and has shown itself worthy of a place among the best plants of recent introduction. The list can be completed with Aesculus georgiana and Spiraea Veitchii. The former is a dwarf Buckeye from central Georgia, with compact clusters of large red and yellow flowers. This shrub was introduced into gardens by the Arboretum and has now flowered here for several years. As it was not injured by the cold of last winter it can probably be considered hardy in Massachusetts. Spiraea Veitchii is one of the plants discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a large shrub sometimes ten or twelve feet high, with gracefully arching stems above which the wide clusters of white flowers stand at the ends of short lateral branchlets. It is one of the latest of the whiteflowered Spiraeas to bloom and is now in flower in the Arboretum where it has proved entirely hardy. The fruits of Acer tataricum are already bright red and make this little tree a conspicuous and attractive object. The bright blue fruits of Lonicera coerulea and its numerous geographical varieties, and the scarlet, red and yellow fruits of the Tartarian Honeysuckle and its varieties and hybrids are now ripe. And from now until March persons interested in the handsome fruits of trees and shrubs can find them in great variety in the Arboretum. With this issue these Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 11","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23684","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25eab6b.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 11, 1918 Crabapples in Autumn. The beauty of the Crabapples of North America and eastern Asia in spring when they are covered with their pink, rose color or white flowers has often been described in these Bulletins. That few trees produce handsomer or more abundant fruit is perhaps not yet generally known or the value of these trees for the decoration of the autumn garden fully appreciated. All the Crabapples, including the species from Florida and Oregon, are hardy in the north. They are all indifferent to the presence of lime in the soil and therefore can be grown successfully in parts of the United States where it is impossible to cultivate many plants like Rhododendrons and Azaleas to whieh the presence of lime is fatal. Of the large groups of shrubs and small trees of general and wide cultivation in this country- Lilacs, Syringas, Crabapples, Viburnums, Hawthorns, and Cornels -none equal the Hawthorns and Crabapples in the size and brilliancy of their fruit. The fruit of the American Crabapple is larger than that of the Asiatic species, depressed-globose except in the Oregon species, light green or pale yellow, covered with a waxy exudation, and very fragrant. The fruit of the Asiatic species is red, yellow with a red cheek or greenish, and varies in size from that of a small pea to a diameter of an inch and a half. On some species the fruit falls as soon as it is ripe and on others it persists until spring. There are many natural hybrids of these Asiatic plants and, as is the case in several other genera, the hybrids are often more valuable as garden plants than their parents; and as all Apples hybridize very freely it is probable that large sowings of the seeds of the plants gathered in a collection like that of the Arboretum, which contains all the species and many varieties and hybrids, will yield forms of greater value as garden plants than those now known. It is hard to say which is the handsomest of the Asiatic Crabapples at this season of the year. The showiest fruit is perhaps that of Malus prunifolia. This tree has been considered a native of Siberia and northern China, but although it has been known in western gardens for more than one hundred and fifty years its home as a wild tree is not yet known. It is evidently one of the rarest Crabapples in American gardens. The fruit is oblong, broader at the base than at the apex, nearly an inch and a half in length, very lustrous, bright red, or yellow with a red cheek. It differs from many of the other Asiatic Crabapples in the large, persistent, erect calyx. In this country at least the fruit is less abundant than that of many other species. The Rinki Crab, which is now believed to be a variety of Malus prunifolia, produces large crops of fruit in the Arboretum; this is smaller than the fruit of M. prunifolia and is often nearly globose, red, yellow or green on different trees. The Rinki is a native of northern and western China, and for many centuries has been cultivated by the Chinese as a fruit tree. From China it was early carried to Japan where it was generally cultivated for its fruit until replaced by the American and European apples of larger size and better quality. The handsome and abundant fruit of the Rinki should secure for it a place in American gardens. Among hybrids of Malus prunifolia with other species, principally with the Siberian M. baccata, are plants which are conspicuous in the abundance and beauty of their fruit which, although somewhat smaller than that of M. prunifolia, is equally brilliant in color. This hybrid, which is still without a name, is well worth attention. Plants of M. floridana are unusually full of fruit this year which on some trees almost hides the leaves, giving the plant the appearance of fountains of old gold. The fruit on different plants varies somewhat in color and in size; from some it drops in the autumn as soon as it is ripe, and on other trees it remains until spring. Such trees furnish birds with great quantities of appreciated winter food. From many points of view this Crabapple is one of the very best large shrubs or small trees which can be grown in the northern United States. It is perfectly hardy and of excellent habit; for forty years it has never failed to cover itself with flowers which, bright rose color in the bud, are white after the buds have opened; and there have not been many autumns when the fruit has not been as abundant as it is this year. Malus Arnoldiana, a natural hybrid of M. floridana with some other species, originated in the Arboretum. It has the habit of M. floridana but the flowers and fruits are nearly twice as large. Some persons consider this hybrid the handsomest of the Crabapples and there are certainly no more beautiful objects in the Arboretum this Autumn. The different forms of the Japanese Malus Sieboldiana are all hand47 some in the autumn. The typical form is a low shrub broader than high with arching stems, and there is an arborescent form of excellent habit. This Crab produces great quantities of fruit which is not larger than a small pea and is bright red on some individuals and yellow on others. It has the merit of flowering later than the other Asiatic Crabapples. The variety calocarpa of M. Sieboldiana has larger flowers and fruit, and is a large arborescent shrub. As a flowering plant and when its bright red lustrous fruit is ripe it is one of the handsomest Crabapples. To Dr. William S. Bigelow of Boston, who sent the seeds to the Arboretum from Japan, western gardens owe this beautiful plant which is not known in a wild state. The small globose fruit of M. baccata, a common tree in northeastern Asia, varies considerably in size and in its shades of red, but all the forms are shapely trees handsome in spring and autumn. A Korean variety, var. Jackii, still rare in gardens, has perhaps the most brilliant fruit of any of the forms of M. baccata. A northern form, var. mandshurica, has larger fruit, and the flowers are more fragrant than those of any other Asiatic Crabapple. Attention may be called again to the value of Malus Sargentii as an autumn and winter plant. This is a shrub from northern Japon which grows only a few feet high but spreads by semiprostrate stems to a wide diameter. The scarlet fruit, which is produced in great quantities, is not apparently appreciated by birds and remains in good condition on the branches till spring. M. transitoria from western China has produced fruit in the Arboretum this year for the second time. It is ellipsoidal in shape, rose pink, darker on one side than on the other, very lustrous and about three-quarters of an inch long. The fruit of few Crabapples is more distinct and beautiful. Only a few plants in the Collection are mentioned in this Bulletin. Many others are equally interesting, and a study of the group will show possibilities for garden decoration which few persons in this country realize. In planting Crabapples it is well to remember that they only really thrive in rich, well-drained soil, that they require plenty of room in which to display their greatest beauty, that they are often attacked by the San Jose Scale which is easily controlled by spraying, and that their leaves are preyed on by the caterpillars which feed on the leaves of the Apple-trees of orchards. Autumn Flowers. A few flowers can still be seen in the Arboretum, although the number of trees and shrubs which bloom in Massachusetts during the first weeks of October is not large. Aralia spinosa, the Hercules' Club of the middle and southern states, is still covered with its great terminal clusters of white flowers. These great flowerclusters and its compound leaves three or four feet in length give this tree an unusual and tropical appearance in northern woods. This Aralia is now well established in the Arboretum at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurels where it is spreading into thickets. Indigofera amblyantha, discovered ,by Wilson in western China, has been often referred to in these Bulletins, but it is interesting to note that it is still covered with its small rose pink flowers which have been opening during the last three months. Laspedeza formosa, also collected by Wilson in western China, is the handsomest of the late Autumn-flowering shrubs in the Arboretum. Its arching stems, light green leaves, and innumerable small pea-shaped rose-colored flowers, make it a beautiful object at this season of the year. Often confounded with other species and burdened with an almost hopeless load of synonyms, Indigofera formosa appears to be little known in gardens. Autumn Foliage. The Autumn change of color in the trees and shrubs is later this year than usual and, owing to the dry summer, will probably be less brilliant than usual. As a general rule the bright colors appear earlier in the autumn on American than on allied Asiatic plants, but there are exceptions, of course, to this 'phenomenon; and the three plants in the Arboretum which have been most brilliant during the last week are Acer ginnala, Evonymus alatus, and Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum. The Maple is a small, shrubby tree, sometimes thirty or forty feet high with pointed, deeply divided leaves, and compact clusters of fragrant flowers. A native of eastern Siberia, where it is common in the neighborhood of Vladivostok, it was one of the first Siberian plants introduced into the Arboretum from whence it came from St. Petersburg. The leaves of no American tree assume more brilliant tones, but this brilliancy lasts only for a few days for the leaves fall early. Evonymus alatus from Japan is without a rival in the brilliancy of the deep rose color passing to scarlet of its autumn foliage. The habit of this shrub is excellent when it has an opportunity to spread out in the sun but the flowers and fruits are inconspicuous. The value of this Burning Bush as a decorative plant is now appreciated and it is found in many American nurseries, but it must not be forgotten that it requires a large space in which to develop its greatest beauty. A form of this shrub raised from seeds collected in Korea by Mr. Jack is handsomer even than the Japanese form with its larger fruit and even more brilliant autumn foliage. In their autumn color of old gold the leaves of Rhododendron japonicum are more beautiful than those of any of the Azaleas in the Collection, and this autumn color greatly adds to the ornamental value of this shrub which when in flower is the handsomest of the Asiatic Azaleas which are hardy in this climate. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 18","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23685","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25eaf6c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 18, 1918 The Red or Scarlet Maple (Acer rubrum). The flowers of the Red Maple are red on some individuals and on others pale yellow, trees with flowers of these two colors growing together over a large part of the region inhabited by this tree. On some trees the autumn leaves are of different shades of red or scarlet and on others clear yellow. If any reader of these Bulletins has noticed if the autumn color of the leaves of trees with red flowers is red and that of trees with yellow flowers is yellow the Arboretum will be glad to hear from him on the subject. On the left-hand side of the Meadow Road not far from the Jamaica Plain entrance and opposite the Administration Building there is a Red Maple with unusually dark crimson autumn leaves. This tree is interesting from the exceptionally beautiful color of the leaves at this season and from the fact that it is a grafted tree raised to show the possibility of propagating trees exceptional in the color of their autumn foliage. This branch of arboriculture has not been much practised, but when it is realized that the leaves on some individual trees or shrubs of a species assume more brilliant colors than those of other individuals of the same species, that this peculiarity is constant from year to year and that it can be preserved and multiplied by grafting, there is no reason why a demand for trees with exceptionally beautiful autumn leaves should not make possible the supply, just as the demand for trees of abnormal habit or with abnormal foliage, like a Mulberry with pendulous branches or a Beech with purple leaves, has created the supply. Mountain Ashes. Many of these trees are now growing well in the Arboretum, and some of them are unusually full of fruit this year and handsome and interesting objects. Mountain Ashes have leaves divided into numerous narrow leaflets, compact clusters of white flowers which are followed by scarlet, yellow, orange-colored, pink or white, usually globose fruit which varies from a quarter to three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The best known and most commonly planted of these trees in the United States is the European Sorbus Aucuparia, the Rowan tree of Scotland. It is a tree from forty to sixty feet tall, of pyramidal habit while young, with erect branches which as the tree grows older spread out into a broad and graceful head. Here the leaves retain their color until the autumn is far advanced, and during September and October the contrast between the bright green leaves and the drooping clusters of brilliant red fruit makes this tree an attractive object until the birds strip it of its fruit. This Mountain Ash is common and widely distributed over the cooler parts of Europe and was probably early introduced into North America where it has been much planted in the extreme northern states and in Canada. Several varieties are recognized. The handsomest of these is the Moravian Mountain Ash (var. moravica or dulcis) of northern Austria. This is a tall tree with a smooth stem, leaves with narrower leaflets than those of the type and larger and sweeter fruit. It is used as food in central Europe. This Mountain Ash has grown in the Arboretum very rapidly and promises to become a large tree. Two specimens in the plantation near the top of Peter's Hill are now covered with fruit and are among the handsomest of the small trees in the Arboretum. There are forms of the Rowan tree with pendulous branches (var. pendula) and with fastigiate branches (var. fastigiata). There is a form with yellow fruit and a variety from eastern Europe (var. lanugmosa) the leaves of which are covered on the upper surface with stiff hairs and are downy on the lower surface. Asiatic Mountain Ashes. In recent years a number of these trees have been brought from eastern Asia to the Arboretum and some of them promise to be valuable trees here. The Japanese Sorbus commixta was the first of them which was planted here and it has now been growing in the Arboretum since 1888. There is a tall specimen of this species on the right-hand side of the path leading to the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills Gate. It has smaller flower-clusters than the European species, the bright red fruit is smaller and its chief value is in the bright orange and red color of the leaves in autumn. A much handsomer plant is Sorbus pekinensis, a native of northern China, which is now well established in the Arboretum. It is a slender tree with narrow leaflets, compact clusters of flowers and lustrous pink or yellowish fruit in drooping clusters. The color of the fruit is unusual among Mountain Ashes. The narrow leaflets give this tree a particularly open and attractive appearance. There are a number of specimens in the Sorbus Collection in the low ground near the group of Swamp White Oaks on the Valley Road, but the largest and handsomest spec51 imen in the Arboretum is in the nursery plantation near the top of Peter's Hill. Sorbus Koehneana has flowered and fruited in the Arboretum this year for the first time. It is a shrub now about three feet high with slender erect stems, small leaves with numerous narrow leaflets, small compact clusters of flowers, and snow-white fruit. It is a beautiful shrub which when better known will become common in gardens. The plants in the Arboretum were raised from seeds collected by William Purdom in northern Shensi. Sorbus pohuashanensis, so named because it was discovered on the Pohua Mountains in northern China, is also well established in the Arboretum. The leaflets are rather broader than those of the Rowan tree, but it has the red fruit and woolly buds of that species and is not superior to it for general cultivation. Although they are not as large and shapely trees as some of the Old World species, the two Mountain Ashes of eastern North America, Sorbus americana and its variety decora, have no rivals in this group in the beauty of the great drooping clusters of orange fruit and in the orange and red tints of their autumn foliage. They are small trees or large shrubs and are often planted in gardens in Canada, northern Michigan and Minnesota, but unfortunately are still little known in those of eastern Massachusetts. Sorbus alnifolia of the section Micromeles of the genus is perhaps the most satisfactory of the Mountain Ashes with entire leaves which can be grown here. It is a common Japanese tree and occurs also in Korea and northern and central China, and sometimes in its native countries grows to the height of sixty feet. Several specimens have been growing in the Arboretum since 1893 and are now from twenty to thirty feet tall. These trees are pyramidal in habit with pale smooth stems, upright branches which form a broad compact symmetrical pyramidal head, and dark green leaves three or four inches long, small white flowers in six- to twelve-flowered clusters, and abundant lustrous scarlet or scarlet and orange fruit which remains on the branches after the leaves and until eaten by birds which are fond of the fruit of all the species of Sorbus. The leaves turn bright clear yellow about the middle of October and soon fall. Mountain Ashes thrive only in well-drained rich soil and suffer from drought and insufficient nourishment. They are particularly liable to the attacks of the San Jose scale, and in order to secure healthy plants it is important to spray them late in March or early in April with limesulphur. The Spindle-tree or Burning Bush. By these names some of the species of Evonymus are popularly known. Evonymus is a genus of shrubs or small trees widely distributed over the temperate regions of the northern hemisphere and more abundant in species in eastern Asia than in North America or Europe. As a garden plant the species with deciduous leaves are chiefly valuable for their showy fruits, although the leaves of some of the Asiatic species become bright colored in the autumn. The flowers of all the species are inconspicuous. The fruit is a scarlet, red or whitish capsule, which when it opens displays the seeds enclosed in a bright orange, scarlet or pink fleshy covering or aril. In the last issue of these Bulletins the autumn beauty of the Japanese E. alatus was referred to. Another species with leaves conspicuous at this season is E. Maackii from the Amoor region of eastern Siberia. This is a large, round-topped shrub, the oldest specimen in the collection being now eight or ten feet tall and twelve or fifteen feet across the head. The leaves are narrow, pointed at the ends, drooping, and early in October are dull red on the upper surface and pale green on the lower surface. The fruit is produced in great quantities and is rose color and half an inch in diameter, and the seeds are bright orange-scarlet and very lustrous. Although the leaves of the Japanese E. yeddoensis do not turn as brilliantly as those of some of the other Asiatic species and fall early, this round-topped shrub is one of the handsomest of the group when it is covered with its large, rosecolored capsules which remain on the branches long after the leaves fall. E. Bungeanus, a small tree from northern China, is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum, and every year it is conspicuous when its pale yellow fruit opens and the rose-colored seeds appear and the narrow drooping leaves turn pale yellow. The European species, although they retain their green leaves until after the scarlet capsules open, are less ornamental plants here than some of the Asiatic species. The best known of the European species, E. europaeus, the English Spindle-tree, is a narrow tree which sometimes grows in this country to the height of twenty feet and is handsome in the autumn when the dark green leaves make a good background for the scarlet fruit. There is a variety with white capsules of no great ornamental value. On a form of this tree raised here from seeds sent from Hungary the leaves at this season become dark purple on the upper surface but remain green on the lower surface. The variety ovata which came to the Arboretum from a German nursery has broader leaves and larger fruit than the common form and promises to be a good ornamental plant here. Evonymus latifolius is another European species rather than a tree. The leaves are broader and the fruit is larger than that of the Spindle-tree. The fruit, unfortunately, is not produced as abundantly as that of most of the other species. E. atropupureus, the Burning Bush of the United States, is a small tree which grows naturally from western New York to Montana and to Florida and Texas. The leaves turn yellow in the autumn some time before the crimson fruit falls. This tree is hardy in Massachusetts but has never taken very kindly to cultivation in the Arboretum. The Strawberry Bush, E. americanus, is a straggling shrub with slender semiprostrate stems and fruit covered with prickles. It is a common plant in the United States from New York southward, but has never found itself really at home in the Arboretum. E. ovatus is another American species with prickly and tuberculate fruit, and is a low shrub with prostrate stems. This species is valuable for covering the ground in the shade of larger plants where it grows vigorously; when exposed to the full sun it suffers here from the exposure."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 25","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23686","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25eb36c.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 25, 1918 Hawthorns handsome in the autumn. Some of the American Hawthorns are more beautiful when their fruits ripen in the autumn than they are when the white flowers cover the branches in the spring and early summer, and there are great horticultural possibilities in these plants which are particularly valuable in those parts of the country where the soil is impregnated with lime. Indeed American Hawthorns, although they do not require lime, are lime-loving plants, and the largest number of species and the handsomest plants are found where lime abounds. In the parks of cities like Chicago, St. Louis and Pittsburg, where the smoke of bituminous coal is fatal to many plants, it has been found that American Hawthorns grow better than most trees and shrubs. It is impossible in one of these Bulletins to do more than mention briefly a few species which are exceptionally beautiful at this season and have shown themselves well suited for general cultivation. Crataegus arkansana. This tree is a native of the valley of the White River in central Arkansas and was first raised in the Arboretum in 1880. It belongs to the Molles Group of the genus which is distinguished by its large usually tomentose leaves, large flowers and large scarlet, or rarely yellow, edible fruit. Like the other species of the group, C. arkansana is a tree which in the deep rich soil of Arkansas bottom-lands sometimes grows to the height of forty feet. The fruit of many of the species of this group, like C. Arnoldiana and C. mollis, ripens in August and September and soon falls; that of C. arkansana does not ripen until the middle of October when the leaves are still green and remains on the branches until the end of November. This late ripening of the fruit after that of the other large-fruited species has disappeared makes C. arkansana one of the interesting and valuable species. The largest plant in the Arboretum is on the left-hand side of the South Street entrance just outside the gate where it is growing with a plant of C. submollis, a species of the same group, which loses its fruit early in September. Nearly all the species of the Tomentosae Group, named for one of the species, C. tomentosa, and distinguished by the longitudinal cavities on the inner faces of the nutlets, have lustrous and showy fruits with the exception of C. tomentosa itself and some of the species closely related to it. Crataegus prunifolia is one of the handsome plants of this group. It is a large, compact, round-topped shrub or small tree with brilliant scarlet fruit and lustrous leaves which turn bright orange and scarlet in the middle of October. Although this plant was cultivated in England more than a hundred years ago and is certainly a native of North America, it is still unknown in this country as a wild plant. For at least a century botanists have considered C. prunifolia a variety of the Cockspur Thorn (C. Crus-galh) because the leaves somewhat resemble in shape the leaves of that tree, no one apparently having taken the trouble to examine the nutlets. Crataegus succulenta is another beautiful member of the Tomentosae Group with drooping clusters of scarlet fruits which remain hard until late in the autumn and then suddenly increase in size and become soft, succulent and translucent. It is a small tree not rare in the region from Massachusetts to Illinois and one of the handsomest species of the group. Crataegus macracantha, another species of this group, is remarkable for the long stout spines which thickly cover the branches and which would make it a good hedge plant. This species is particularly showy when the flowers in large, round-topped compact clusters open in June, but the fruit is less beautiful than that of C. succulenta. Species of this group are abundant in the neighborhood of Toronto and other parts of southern Ontario, and some of these Canadian plants, although they are not old enough yet to produce fruit here, promise to become important additions to the collection. Crataegus nitida from the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River in Illinois near St. Louis, a member of a southern group (Virides), is, as has often been said in these Bulletins, one of the handsomest of the American species cultivated in the Arboretum. It is a wide-branched, flat-topped tree sometimes thirty feet high with narrow, dark green shining leaves which late in October assume the most brilliant shades of orange and scarlet, rather small flowers in numerous crowded clusters, and drooping, oblong, brick-red fruits marked by small white dots. Very different in appearance is another tree from the neighborhood of St. Louis, C. coccinioides. This has broad, deeply-lobed leaves which also become orange and scarlet late in October, but the flowers are an inch in diameter with twenty stamens and deep rose-colored anthers. The flowers are arranged in compact from five- to seven-flowered clusters, and are followed by subglobose, dark crimson, lustrous fruits marked by large pale dots and nearly an inch long, and rather longer than broad. The fruit ripens about the middle of October as the leaves turn color and does not entirely fall before December. Another member of the same group as the last C. durobrivensis (Dilatatae), the Rochester Thorn, is valuable for the winter garden because the dark crimson fruit, which is nearly three-quarters of an inch in diameter, remains on the branches uninjured by frost until midwinter. It is a large shrub with flowers an inch in diameter in many-flowered clusters. Crataegus pruinosa. This is the type of another northern group distinguished by its thick leaves usually broad at the base with long slender stems, large flowers and large fruit often broader than high, frequently angled, green or red covered with a pale bloom, surmounted by a prominent calyx raised on a tube, and hard dry flesh. Many of the species are handsome in spring and autumn and the type of the group, C. pruinosa, especially deserves the attention of planters. It is a small tree which grows naturally from southern Vermont to Missouri and along the foothills of the Appalachian Mountains. It has thick, blue-green leaves; the flowers are sometimes an inch in diameter and conspicuous from the twenty large, deep, rose-colored anthers, and the fruit, which is arranged in broad drooping clusters, is subglobose, rather more than half an inch in diameter, apple green until late in autumn, when it becomes dark purple red and very lustrous. Dwarf Hawthorns. From the middle to the end of October there is not a more interesting group of small shrubs in the Arboretum than that of the species of Crataegus in the Intricatae Group which is arranged on the lower side of the road at the eastern base of Peter's Hill next to the Crabapple Collection. These shrubs are confined to the northern United States and Canada, and are perhaps more numerous in Pennsylvania and Michigan than in other parts of the country. They bloom later than most of the American Hawthorns, the flowers of all of them are large and conspicuous with yellow, rose-colored or pink anthers. The fruit ripens late and is scarlet, red, orange, yellow or russet, and its beauty is increased by the brilliant colors of the leaves at the time it ripens. A large number of these plants are now in the collection. One of the handsomest this year is C. cuprea with scarlet foliage and russet or copper-colored fruit. This little shrub was first detected in a vacant lot in the city of Wilmington, Delaware, and is not known to grow naturally beyond the limits of that city. C. Delossii, found growing several years ago by the side of a road near Toronto, is unusually full of its orange and red fruit this autumn. This species differs from the others of the group in the large number of fruits (ten to fifteen) compactly arranged in dense clusters. The autumn leaves are green and yellow. Other species of this group deserving attention are C. infera from the neighborhood of Sellersville, Bucks County, Pennsylvania, with orange-red fruit and brilliant orange and red autumn leaves; C. fructuosa, a shrub five or six feet tall which has only been found on the Serpentine Ridge near West Chester, Pennsylvania, with deep orange-red fruit in small erect clusters, and dark red-purple autumn leaves; and C. modesta, a little shrub often not more than twelve or eighteen inches high, first noticed on a hill near Rutland, Vermont, but now known to grow in many places in southern New England and to range into eastern Pennsylvania, and conspicuous in the autumn with its bright scarlet leaves and green, yellow or orange and red fruits. Two species of the group in the southern Appalachian Mountain region, C. Buckleyi and C. Boyntonii, are small trees and have grown in the Arboretum into dense pyramids now eight or ten feet tall, and still covered with dark green leaves which later turn to shades of orange and scarlet. The Tulip-tree (Liriodendron) is unfortunately not a native of eastern Massachusetts, although it occurs in the western part of the state and in Rhode Island. It is perfectly hardy here, and has grown to a large size in the neighborhood of Boston. It is therefore surprising that this tree is not more generally planted here for the American Liriodendron is one of the most magnificent trees of the northern hemisphere, growing as it does when all the conditions of soil and climate favor it, as in the rich \"coves\" of the southern Appalachian Mountains, to the height of two hundred feet and forming a trunk eight or ten feet in diameter and free of branches for half its height. The tulip-shaped flowers and the leaves, which are of unusual shape, are beautiful and interesting, but attention is now called to this tree on account of the beautiful color of the autumn foliage. This when the leaves first lose their green color is bright clear yellow but later as they begin to fall becomes darker and the color of old gold. In October in those parts of the country like Delaware County in eastern Pennsylvania, and on the slopes of the southern mountains where the Tulip-tree forms a considerable part of the forest and often raises its head high above its humbler companions, its spire-like bright golden crowns produce a beauty which can be found in no other part of the world. The Chinese Tulip-tree of recent discovery has not proved hardy in the Arboretum. It is a much smaller tree than the American species with smaller flowers but larger and handsomer leaves. Pyrus Calleryana. This Pear-tree, which was raised here from seeds collected by Wilson in western China, has less beautiful flowers than many other Pear-trees, and the russet-colored fruit is not more than half an inch long. It may, however, prove to be one of the most valuable plants introduced into the United States by the Arboretum, for it is now believed by American pomologists that it will prove to be a blight-resisting stock on which to graft the varieties of garden pears. The Arboretum trees appear to be the only ones in the United States large enough to flower and this year they have produced a good crop of fruit which will be sent to the Department of Agriculture for distribution."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 30","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23687","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25eb76d.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 30, 1918 Some late October colors in the Arboretum. Now that the leaves of the Sweet Gum (Nyssa) and the Liquidambar have fallen the most brilliantly colored tree here is the Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea) which has no rival among the northern Oaks in the bright scarlet of its shining deeply divided leaves. We are here near the northern limits of the range of this tree and it is not very common in the neighborhood of Boston. In Plymouth County and in some parts of Cape Cod it is a prevailing tree, and to those who love the woods in autumn that part of the state is well worth a visit this week or next. The leaves of only one other Oak turn in the autumn to more brilliant shades of scarlet and that is the Turkey Oak (Q. Catesbaei) of the southern states, a smaller tree than the Scarlet Oak but with larger and often more lustrous leaves. Persons who like most northerners know the coast region of South Carolina and Georgia and the Florida peninsula only in late winter or in spring have little idea of the splendor of the color which the Turkey Oak gives that part of the country at the end of November. The leaves of some trees of the Pin Oak (Q. palustris) are turning scarlet or scarlet and yellow, and those of other trees are still nearly green, scarlet or nearly green leaves often occurring on the same branch. The Pin Oak is a handsome tree at this time of the year although it is less brilliant and conspicuous than the Scarlet Oak. This is true, too, of the Red Oak, the autumn leaves of which vary on different individuals from yellow to dark red, bright red, red and yellow, and brown. On the trees of the White Oak Group the handsomest autumn foliage is found on the White Oak itself (Q. alba). The leaves of this tree turn later than those of most Oaks and when in perfection are often of a deep rich vinous red color. The other American White Oaks which are hardy here, the Bur Oak (Q. macrocarpa), the Swamp White Oak (Q. bicolor), the southern Overcup Oak (Q. lyrata), the Post Oak (Q. minor) and the three Chestnut Oaks (Q. montana, Q. Muehlenbergii and Q. prinoides) turn yellow in part or entirely in the autumn, and from most of these the leaves fall earlier than those of Q. alba. Among the White Oaks the leaves of which turn yellow in the autumn a single individual of the Swamp White Oak with large, bright scarlet autumn leaves is a remarkable exception to the general autumn color scheme of these trees. This is one of the most remarkable and interesting trees in the Arboretum collection of Oaks. It is growing in the mixed plantation by the road at the summit of Peter's Hill and was probably raised in the Arboretum, although unfortunately no record of its origin has been kept. Among the smaller trees with scarlet or crimson autumn foliage none is more beautiful now than the so-called Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) which is unusually brilliant this year in its shades of crimson, scarlet and green. Its autumn beauty is increased by the contrast of of the color on the upper and lower surface of the leaves for only the upper surface changes color, the lower surface retaining the pale some times nearly white color of the summer. Another tree with leaves red or scarlet on the upper surface and pale on the lower surface, Acer nikkoense, is well worth the attention of persons interested in the autumn color of tree leaves. Acer nikkoense is a native of the mountain forests of central Japan and is one of the species with compound leaves related to the Ash-leaved Maple or Box Elder (Acer Negundo) of the United States. There are several good specimens of this handsome tree in the mixed plantation on the road near the top of Peter's Hill where the leaves of these trees are now beginning to change color. Another small Maple from northern Japan, A. Sieboldtanum, has been conspicuous this year in the intense scarlet of its leaves which are now beginning to fall. The best plants in the Arboretum of this tree are also in the mixed plantation on Peter's Hill. Several plants are interesting now from the dark purple color of their autumn leaves. Among these is a variety of Prunus serrulata (var. pttbesoens), a large pink-flowered Cherry raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China. One of the Japanese species of Stuartia (S. pseudocamellia) has autumn leaves even darker than those of this Cherry. This Stuartia is a hardy little tree with pale smooth bark exfoliating in large thin scales and white flowers which look like those of a single-flowered Camellia, and open in summer. There are good specimens of this tree on the left-hand side of Azalea Path. Akebia quinata, the Japanese species with leaves composed of five leaflets and small dark purple flowers, is well known in American gardens. The leaves fall late in the autumn without having changed color. The other Japanese species, A. lobata, is less well known in this country. From the other species it differs chiefly in the three, not five, rather larger leaflets which turn late in the autumn to a handsome dark bronze color. In this country the Akebias rarely produce fruit, which resembles in shape a short thick banana and is pale violet in color. It contains many small seeds imbedded in sweet juicy insipid pulp of which the Japanese appear fond, as the fruit of A. lobata is found in September in great quantities in the markets of the towns of northern Japan. Vaccinium Carlesii, although discovered in Korea only a few years ago, is fast becoming a popular garden plant in the United States where it is admired for its compact clusters of fragrant white flowers which open from rose-colored buds, closed buds and open flowers occurring together in the same cluster. The value of this handsome little shrub is increased by the autumn color of the leaves which are now dark bronze purple. Little has been known of this plant in its native country but Mr. Wilson, who has passed the last two summers in Korea, writes of it, \"This is a maritime species fond of cliffs and rocky soil; it grows in localities rather remote one from the other and is nowhere common.\" Witch Hazels (Hamamelis). The different species of this genus add to the interest of the Arboretum in the autumn and winter by the colors of their leaves and the opening of their flowers. The first species to change its color is Hamamelis japonica, one of the winterflowering species. The leaves of the other Witch Hazels turn bright clear yellow in the autumn, but the autumn color of the leaves of the Japanese species is scarlet and orange. During a week early in October the leaves were brilliant but they have now fallen. The pale clear yellow autumn leaves of the eastern American species (H. virginiana) have nearly all fallen from the branches which are now covered with pale yellow flowers. The leaves of the other American species (H. vernalis) are still green on some individuals and on others are beginning to turn yellow. Toward the end of December or early in January this shrub, which grows naturally along small streams in southern Missouri, will be covered with flowers. The dull blue-green leaves of the Chinese Hamamelis mollis are still as green as they were in midsummer but later they will turn to a beautiful shade of pale yellow. The flowers of this remarkable plant open usually late in January or early in February and are larger and more conspicuous than those of the American or Japanese species. No winter garden can be complete without these winter-flowering shrubs. Enkianthus. The autumn colors of the leaves of the four Japanese species of this genus of the Heath Family which are established in the Arboretum have been remarkably brilliant during October and it is unfortunate that these handsome plants are not more generally found in gardens in those parts of the United States where the presence of lime does not make the cultivation of plants of the Heath family impossible. All the species have bell-shaped flowers arranged in gracefully drooping clusters, but their greatest beauty is in the color of their autumn leaves. This is scarlet, crimson or deep wine color on the different species. The deep crimson or scarlet colors which the leaves of E. perulatus or japonicus assume make this the showiest of the species at this season and one of the most popular plants in Japan where it is usually cut into dense round balls. In the Arboretum this shrub has not produced seeds and it has remained rarer in this country even than the other species. The large group of these plants on the right-hand side of Azalea Path shows the habit and autumn coloring of the leaves of the different species. Blueberries in autumn. The leaves of all the deciduous -leaved Blueberries asd Huckleberries turn bright scarlet late in the autumn, and as a ground cover in native woods there are no more beautiful plants than the three dwarf Blueberries of the eastern states, Vaccinivm pennsylvanicum, V. canadense, V. vacillans. In the whole northern hemisphere there is hardly a shrub which equals the Highbush Blueberry, V. corymbosum, for the decoration of New England gardens. The white flowers in drooping clusters are beautiful, the blue-black fruits are even more beautiful than the flowers, but it is in the late autumn that this shrub is most valuable as a garden or woodside ornament for the crimson of its autumn leaves is not surpassed in intensity by that of any other shrub. There is considerable variety in the shades of color in the leaves of different individuals, and on some plants crimson and green leaves are found together. There are a number of plants of this Blueberry on the sides of Azalea Path near its entrance from Bussey Hill Road which show the variety of autumn leaf color of this Blueberry. Forsythias. The leaves of all the Forsythias usually fall, like those of the garden Lilacs, without having greatly changed color, but occasional plants of F. suspensa var. Fortunii occur on which the upper surface of the leaves turn bronze purple while the lower surface retains its summer color. Such plants are more valuable than those with green autumn leaves and should be propagated. Barberries in late October. The leaves of many of the Barberries in the Arboretum collection have now turned crimson, scarlet, or scarlet and orange, making these plants which are now covered with scarlet fruit conspicuous. Of the species closely related to the common Barberry (Berberis vulgaris) the handsomest perhaps is the Japanese Berberis Regelii, a large shrub with large pale flowers, large fruit and leaves which turn orange and scarlet. Although still rare here, this plant was brought to the United States more than fifty years ago and was long cultivated in the Parsons' Nursery on Long Island as Berberis Hakkodate. The Chinese B. diaphana is probably now the handsomest of the species with dark crimson autumn foliage. This is a low, roundtopped shrub broader than high, with large solitary flowers which rarely produces fruit here. The only objection to it is that the leaves unfold so late that the plants appear dead when other Barberries are covered with nearly fully grown leaves. Among the new Chinese species the most beautiful Barberry in the autumn is B. circumserrata, a small round-topped shrub with large solitary flowers and leaves which in another week will be of as brilliant shades of scarlet as those of any plant in the Arboretum. Other species which are particularly attractive this week are B. koreana, B. lucida, B. amurensis, and B. dictyophylla."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 7","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23683","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25ea76a.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 7, 1918 In the early numbers of the present volume of the Bulletin the effects of the severe winter on many plants in the Arboretum was discussed. Several plants which were then believed to be dead produced leaves in June and some are now apparently in good health; others which were only killed to the. ground have grown again from the stumps and the damage by the winter has been less severe than it was believed to be in May. Oaks. In the third week of May the Willow Oak (Quercus Phellos), the southern Overcup Oak (Q. lyrata), the Spanish or Red Oak of the south (Q. rubra or falcata), the so-called Turkey Oak of eastern Europe (Q. Cerris), the hybrid Q. heterophylla from the middle states, and a little Oak from Stone Mountain, Georgia (Q. georgiana), appeared to be dead. Six weeks later they were covered with healthy leaves, with the exception of the last which after a hard struggle for life finally died. Fortunately this species is represented in the Arboretum by a healthy young specimen which was not injured by the winter. A fine specimen of the weeping form of one of the European Oaks (Q. Robur var. pendula), which appeared in the spring to have been ruined, escaped with the loss of a single branch. A vigorous species of the native Black Oak (Q. velutina), one of the common trees in Massachusetts, growing with others in the Oak collection, was killed, showing that exceptional cold like that of the past winter may kill even the hardiest native trees. This is shown, too, in the fact that two trees of the Sour Gum (Nyssa sylvatica) were killed in the group by the little pond near the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads. Ashes. The three trees of Fraxinus syriaca, often cultivated as F. sogdiana, which have been uninjured in the Arboretum for thirtyeight years and have frequently flowered and ripened their fruit here, were killed to the ground but have now sent up a few feeble shoots from the roots. The flowering Ash so called, (Fraxinus Ornus) of southeastern Europe, which has suffered before in the Arboretum but flowered here in the spring of 1917, is now represented by a few weak stump shoots which did not appear until September. Fraxinus Paxiana, one of the new introductions from western China, was killed in the Ash collection, but was not injured in the Peter's Hill Nursery. The Liquidambar and other trees. The North American Liquidambar opened its leaf-buds so late that by the middle of May the trees looked as if they were hopelessly injured. Later they entirely recovered, and in October the leaves of this beautiful tree have not before been more brilliantly colored here. A single plant of the Chinese Liquidambar formosana is still living in the Peter's Hill Nursery; it is, however, only a bush for it is more or less injured every winter, and it is probable that this tree will never flourish in the United States except in some of the Gulf and Pacific coast states. Catalpa Bunge1 has not suffered before in the Arboretum but many branches on all the trees were killed by the winter, and one of the two specimens in the Catalpa collection on the hill above the Lilacs was killed to the ground but has now sent up a number of shoots from the roots. The condition of the three Persimmon trees (Diospyros virginiana) in the group on the righthand side near the lower end of the Bussey Hill Road illustrates the fact that some individuals of a species can resist cold better than other individuals of the same species. These three trees were of the same origin and the same age; two are uninjured and the third is now represented by a few weak suckers from the roots. Various shrubs injured by the winter. Although it was believed in May that the Arboretum had lost a number of species by the excessive cold of the winter, the actual loss has not been as serious as it then appeared. All the plants, however, of the Japanese Ilex crenata were killed. These plants have been growing in the Arboretum for twentyfive years and had never suffered in earlier winters more than the loss of a few leaves. This Holly was believed therefore to be one of the few broad-leaved evergreens which could be safely used in northern gardens. Plants of the Inkberry (Ilex glabra), a common Atlantic and Gulf coast shrub from New Hampshire to Texas and one of the handsomest and hardiest of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown here, lost for the first time in the Arboretum a large part of their leaves and a few branches during the winter. The plants soon recovered, however, and are now as thickly clothed with leaves as they were a year ago. The largest plants of flex opaca, another native of the Massachusetts coast region, were killed outright, but smaller plants, although they lost most of their leaves, are still alive. One of the new Chinese species of Magnolia (M. Wilsonii), Daphne genkwa and Lonicera Delavayi appear to be the only species of recent introduction which have been actually killed. All the plants of Sophora viciifolia appeared to be dead until June when the leaves began to unfold. None of the plants flowered but they are all in good condition. All the plants of the new Chinese genus of the Witch Hazel Family (Sinowilsonii) appeared to be uninjured in May but many of the branches died after the leaves were fully grown, and although these plants may recover their present condition is not satisfactory. Evergreen Barberries. It is a satisfaction to be able to report that the four species of evergreen Barberries from western China in the collection, Berberis Julianae, B. Sargentiana, B. Gagnepainii and B. verruculosa, are now in good condition, although the leaves of all but the last species were killed and many of those of B. verruculosa were injured. It may be expected therefore that these beautiful plants may continue to live in eastern Massachusetts if suitable positions can be found for them. Corylopsis. The two species of western China which were covered with flowers in the spring of 1917, C. Willmottiae and C Veitchiana, were killed to the ground by the cold of the winter and are now represented by feeble stump-shoots, and it is doubtful if these plants can be sucessfully and permanently grown in this climate. The Japanese C. paucifiora and C. spicata, which lost their flower-buds and some branches have not looked well through the summer but are recovering. Another Japanese species, C. Gotoana, which was uninjured in bud and leaf, seems destined to become a popular garden plant in the northern states. Several other shrubs which were injured by the winter and in May and June gave little promise of recovery, are now alive and will probably entirely recover. Among them is a plant of the Japanese Lindera obtusiloba which, although it has been growing in the Arboretum for twenty-five years, is still one of the rarest plants in the collection as it has not borne seeds and has proved difficult to propagate. This plant is most beautiful in the autumn when the leaves during the first week in November are the color of gold. Another Japanese Benzoin, B. sericea, which was injured by the winter will probably recover, although this plant has suffered in less severe winters and will probably never be valuable in this climate. The two Dipeltas, a Chinese genus related to Weigela, which were killed to the ground have produced shoots from the roots. These plants, although they have flowered sparingly in the Arboretum, have suffered from cold before and it is doubtful if they can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. Rhus Potaninii, Cornus paucinervis, Salix Bockii, Osmaronia cerasiformis and Ceanothus Wrightii have recovered, as was predicted in the Bulletin issued on the 16th of May. The most important of these for the garden is Cornus paucinervis for it flowers here late in July when comparatively few shrubs are in bloom. It is a narrow shrub with numerous upright stems five or six feet high, small narrow pointed leaves with only two or three pairs of veins, small flat clusters of white flowers and small black shining fruits. If this plant proves as hardy in eastern Massachusetts as it has at Rochester, New York, it will be one of the most valuable of Wilson's introductions from western China. Coluteas bloom on the branches of the year and all the species, although they had been killed to the ground were later as full of flowers and fruits as they were in ordinary seasons. The following plants believed to be dead in the spring are still alive, although it is doubtful if they can be permanantly successful in this climate: Stachyurus chinensis, Staphylea holocarpa, Poliothyrsis sinenais, and Fortunearia sinensis. The Staphylea, which Wilson believed to be one of the handsomest of the small trees which he saw in China, has never done well in the Arboretum, and although there is still life in some of the small plants it is doubtful if it ever flowers here. Viburnum ovatifolium, which was reported in 'May to have been killed, has grown again from the roots, and all the Chinese Viburnums with deciduous leaves are now in good condition. The two evergreen species which live here, V. rhytidophyllum and V. buddleifolium, lost their leaves from the cold but are now covered with a new growth and look as wel6 as they usually look here at this season of the year. They are better suited, however, for a milder climate than that of New England. Lonicera Henryi, a Chinese species with twining stems and evergreen foliage, was killed to the ground but is growing again. This beautiful plant flowered for several years in the Arboretum and was believed to be perfectly hardy and an important addition to the small number of broadleaved evergreens which can be successfully grown in the northern states. Broad-leaved Evergreens. The colors which the leaves of a few of these assume in the autumn add greatly to the beauty of these plants in November. The most conspicuous change of leaf color on any of these plants is on the Rocky Mountain Mahonia (or Berberis) repens. From light bluish green the leaves turn to pale violet color in the autumn. This is one of the handsomest and hardiest evergreen plants which can be used here to cover the ground under larger plants; it grows only a few inches high, spreads rapidly by underground stems, and the bright yellow flowers are large and conspicuous. It is unfortunate that eastern nurserymen have not yet learned the value of this plant. The small dark green leaves of the Box Huckleberry (Gaylussacia brachycera) become in the autumn deeply tinged with red when the plant is fully exposed to the sun, and the leaves of Pachystima Canbyi are more or less tinged with violet. These are two of the rarest plants in the United States, being known now only in two localities, the first in Pennsylvania and the other in West Virginia where the Pachystima has not been seen, however, for nearly fifty years. The leaves of Leucothoe Catesbaei often turn deep bronze color in the autumn. This plant which has always been considered hardy in eastern Massachusetts, suffered seriously during the winter. Most of the plants lost the ends of their branches and their leaves, and many were killed outright in a particularly favorable position for this shrub where it had been established for nearly twenty years. The Rhodoedndrons are in good condition and generally well furnished with flower- buds, and the Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) have not before in the Arboretum given such promise of abundant bloom."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 11","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23681","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25ea327.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 11, 1918 In the Pinetum. The collection of cone-bearing trees and shrubs is of special interest this autumn as during the past twelve months it has had to endure such severe weather conditions that plants which are now in good condition should be able to successfully support any extremes of heat, cold and dryness which they are likely to meet with in Massachusetts. In discussing the possibility of cultivating conifers in the northeastern United States it must be remembered that at its best this is not a favorable climate for these trees. There are only a few indigenous species here in New England, and all the exotic species which can be grown here grow better in other parts of the world. This is the region for trees and shrubs which lose their leaves in autumn and the man who wants to plant successfully and permanently here must use these plants, and not conifers or broad-leaved evergreens, unless he is prepared to suffer many disappointments. It is the business of a scientific establishment like the Arboretum to experiment with all plants which, judged by the region where they grow naturally, have any chance of success and to report failures as well as successes. Enough is now known of the habitat and climatic conditions necessary for the conifers of the world to make it possible to say that none of these trees which grow in any part of the world south of the equator can grow here. It is now known that none of the conifers of the southern United States, Mexico, Central America and the West Indies can be grown in the north. This is true, too, of the species of southern Europe, northern Africa, southern India, southwestern China, Formosa and the southern islands of the Japanese empire. Of the conifers of the Pacific coast of North America only a few can grow at all in the east. The planter of conifers therefore in the New England, middle and middle western states must make his selection from native species, and from the species of northern Japan, Korea, northern China, Siberia, the Caucasus and eastern and northern Europe. That is, the largest and some of the hand.omest and most interesting trees in the world cannot be successfully grown in the United States except in the south, and in western Washington, Oregon and California where the climate is better suited to the successful cultivation of conifers perhaps than that of any other part of the world, with the exception possibly of New Zealand where conifers from all parts of the world have grown with astonishing rapidity and vigor, and in the case of some species to a larger size than individuals of the species attain in their native lands. In spite of the unusual and prolonged cold of the winter which followed a dry summer, the' cold spring and the drought which lasted from April to September the Arboretum conifers are not in bad condition, and it is now possible to discuss with more confidence the value of many exotic species than it has been before. Only one species has been entirely lost from the effects of the severe winter. This is the blue-leaved form of Cedrus atlantica, a native of the mountains of Algeria. There was only one specimen in the Arboretum where it has been growing for many years in a sheltered position m the middle of a Pine grove. This beautiful tree sometimes grows fairly well south of Cape Cod, but there is little hope that it will live for more than a few years at a time in Massachusetts. Some of the species of the northeastern states have suffered more than any of the exotic species, and several plants of the Red Spruce (Picea rubra) were killed or so badly injured that it was necessary to destroy them. If any coniferous tree should be hardy here it is the Red Spruce which grows on some of the high mountains of New England and close to the seashore of Maine and New Hampshire where it is fully exposed to the gales from the Atlantic. The Red Spruce, although there are now a number of healthy individuals in the Arboretum, does not take very kindly to cultivation and always grows slowly. Another eastern American tree, the short-leaved Pine (Pinus echinata) was injured by the winter. This tree finds its northern home on Staten Island, New York, and there have been a number of trees raised from seeds collected at this northern station growing in the Arboretum for twenty years. These all lost their leaves and several were killed; the others produced new leaves in June and now look nearly as well as ever. One specimen of this Pine raised here in 1879 from Missouri seeds also lost all its leaves but is now in comparatively as good health as it was a year ago. Several plants of the White Cedar of the eastern states (Chamaecyparis thyoides) lost their tops and were a good deal injured by the winter although none were killed. This plant has not taken kindly to the conditions the Arboretum affords it, but it is surprising that it is not more hardy here, as within twenty miles of Boston there are hundreds of acres of low ground covered with forests of this tree. Cedar of Lebanon. The Cedars of Lebanon raised here from seeds gathered on the Anti-Taurus, which have been growing in the Arboretum for sixteen years and which have not before been injured by heat or cold, in early spring lost all their leaves which had been killed by the excessive cold of the winter; they soon put out a new growth, however, and although the branches are now less densely covered with foliage than in other years the trees are in good health. Among the Spruces and Firs the Grecian and Roumanian form of Abies cephalonica (var. Apolhnis) suffered the most, and although the plants are still alive they can never grow into good trees. Some small plants of Abies cephalonica were killed, but the large plants of this Fir in the collection are in good condition, although this tree was badly injured in other collections in Massachusetts and New York. Abies ciliceca, which has been for many years considered one of the hardiest and handsomest of the Firs which can be grown in the northeastern states, has suffered seriously in other collections, but in the Arboretum it was little injured by the winter and is now in good condition. Abies amabilis from the Cascade mountains of Oregon, although always a slow-growing, shabby lookmg tree in cultivation, lost a good many leaves in the spring but is now in its usual health. Abies gravdis from the northwest coast, planted in sheltered and exceptionally favorable positions, is uninjured, but for general use in New England this handsome tree should not be depended on. The Sugar Pine of the California Sierras (Pinus Lambertiana) and the Chinese White Pine (P. Armandt) lost a good many leaves but now look as well as usual. The Japanese Black Pine (P. Thunbergii) suffered more in the loss of ats leaves, but the buds were uninjured and the trees, although somewhat disfigured, are recovering. Among the long established trees here which are not native in New England and which show no evidence of having just passed through the most serious experience of their lives, and may therefore be considered suitable for cultivation in the northern states, are all the forms of the Norway Spruce (Ptcea Abies), the Balkan Spruce (P. omorica), the Caucasian Spruce (P. orientalis), the Siberian Picea obovata, Picea Schrenkiana from Chinese Turkestan, all the Japanese species, and the species of the Rocky Mountains P. pungens, P. Engelmannii and the western form of P. canadensis. The Firs not already mentioned which have not been injured are the Rocky Mountain form of Abies concolor, which is the most satisfactory of all Firs in the northeastern states, the Caucasian Abies Nordmaniana, the Japanese A. homolepis, (or brachyphylla) and A. Veitchii. Like the eastern American Balsam Fir (A. balsamea), the Rocky Mountain A. lasiocarpa and the Fir of central Siberia (A. sibirica) are perfectly hardy here, but are shortlived shabby trees in cultivation, and are not worth planting in eastern North America. The Korean A. holophylla was first raised at the Arboretum twelve years ago and it is still one of the rarest of all conifers in cultivation. Fortunately Wilson sent from Korea a year ago a supply of seeds of this tree; these germinated well and there are now many seedlings in this country and Europe. The twelve-year-old plant has grown well in the Arboretum; it has not suffered from cold or heat and promises to be a good tree here. The Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata) raised from seeds gathered in Colorado, has been growing in eastern Massachusetts for nearly fifty years and promises to live long here and grow to a large size. Numerous specimens of the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga carohniana) have been uninjured by the cold and drought of the year. This is one of the handsomest of all cone-bearing trees which can be grown in this part of the country. One plant of the Japanese Tsuga densiflora was killed during the winter, but several others were uninjured. Small plants of the Japanese T. Sieboldiana have lived in an exceptionally sheltered position, but there is little hope that this beautiful tree, which is more southern in its range than the other Japanese Hemlock will ever live long in Massachusetts. A small plant of the Hemlock of the Northwest coast of North America (T. hetsrophylla), the largest and handsomest of all Hemlock trees, was uninjured in a sheltered position. There is not much probability, however, that this tree will live for more than a few years in this part of the country. The Chinese Hemlock (T. chinensis) was injured by the winter and probably will never be very successful here. Pines. The European and Asiatic Pinus sylvestris, the so-called Scotch Pine, tne Austrian and other forms of the European Black Pine (P. nigra), the forms of tne European P. montana, and the Swiss and Siberian forms of the Stone Pine (P. Cembra) have not been injured. The Japanese White Pine (P. parviflora), the Japanese Red Pine (P. densiflora and the Korean form of this tree which the Japanese botanists call Pinus gradhs, seem able to support the New England climate without injury. The Korean Nut Pine (P. koraiensis) which has produced seeds in the Arboretum for several years, and the Lacebark Pine of northern China (P. Bungeana) are uninjured. Of the Pines of western North America only Pinus monticola, P. ponderosa var. scopulorum, and P. Jeffreyi grow successfully in the east, and these are uninjured, as are the eastern American P. pungens and P. virginiana. The northern Pinus Banksiana, which just reaches northern New England, with a doubtful station on Nantucket, grows well in the Arboretum but not as well as it grows much further north. Although killed last winter in some New England collections, the Japanese Umbrella Pine was little injured in the Arboretum. None of the Arbor Vitae in the large collection of these trees here suffered with the exception of the Chinese Thuya orientalis which is never a very hardy or satisfactory tree in this part of the country. It is of particular interest that plants of the western Arbor Vitae, the so-called Red Cedar of the northwest (T. plicata), raised here from seeds gathered in Idaho, have been uninjured, for this is one of the great conifers of the world. In a sheltered position several plants of the California Incense Cedar were little injured by the winter. There has been little injury to the Junipers, and the Larches and the Chinese Pseudolarix have not suffered. New Chinese Conifers. It is too soon to say much about the new conifers introduced by Wilson from northern China. All the forms of Pinus sinensis are growing well and appear to be hardy. All the Spruces have also done well with the exception of Picea Sargentiana which has suffered from cold and will probably not be hardy here. The Chinese Firs grow less well than the Spruces and only Abies Delavayi gives much promise of success."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 18","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23682","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd25ea728.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. IV NO. 18 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 18, 1918 Dwarf Conifers. Of many of the cone-bearing trees there are abnormal dwarf forms, and a few species are naturally dwarf shrubs. The former are of different origin; most of them are seedlings, some have grown from buds on branches of large trees, and others have been produced by exposure to excessive cold and high winds, and these when transferred to more favorable surroundings often lose their dwarf habit. A good example of a dwarf of the last class is the depauperate Larch which grows at the timber line on Mt. Fu~i in Japan. 'v Seedlings of this little plant raised in the Arboretum twenty-five years Os ago are now nearly of the same size as the seedlings of the trees of the Japanese valleys raised at the same time. In the sandy swamps of Prince Edward Island Black Spruces not more than two feet high produce cones and fertile seeds, and near the timber line of the White Mountains it is possible to walk on dwarf mats of the Balsam Fir which lower down on these mountains is a tall tree. Transferred to better soil where the winter climate is less severe these alpine and boreal dwarfs would soon assume the tree habit of the species. Dwarfs of some species, however, which evidently owe their habit to environment, retain the dwarf habit when transferred to more favorable surroundings. Such dwarfs are some of the forms of the European Pinus montana from high altitudes and some dwarf forms of Junipers which reproduce the dwarf form in their seedlings. Seedling dwarfs have been produced by many different species, but they are naturally most numerous in species which have been largely raised in nurseries where seedlings are carefully watched and abnormal forms are preserved. It is not surprising therefore, that trees like the eastern Arbor Vitae and the Norway Spruce have produced many such forms in nurseries as few other conebearing trees have been so largely raised from seed. It is only in recent years that dwarf conifers have attracted much attention, for Loudon in his \"Arboretum et Fruticetum Botanicum\" published in 1838 enumerates only ten. These are two dwarf forms of Pinus montana, two forms of Norway Spruce, a dwarf Cedar of Lebanon, a dwarf Red Cedar (Juniperus vir,giniana), a prostrate form of Juniperus sabina, and two dwarf forms of Juniperus communis. He knew no dwarf Arbor Vitae, Chamaecyparis, Hemlock, or dwarf form of Abies. Beissner in the second edition of his \"Handbuch der Nadelholzkunde,\" published in 1899, enumerates one hundred and four dwarf conifers in thirty-one species; of these twenty-five are forms of the Norway Spruce, eight are forms of Lawson's Cypress (Chamaecyparis Lawsonic, na), and eight are forms of the Arbor Vitae of the eastern United States. In addition to the plants enumerated by Beissner there are a few which originated in this country and which do not appear to have been known to him. There is a good but by no means a complete collection of dwarf conifers in the Arboretum, for it is difficult to keep track of the new forms which appear in the nurseries where large numbers of conifers are raised from seed and are often given names without descriptions, and some dwarfs like those of Lawson's Cypress and the Chinese Arbor Vitae are most hardy here. The Arboretum collection is much visited, however, by nurserymen for there is now a demand for these plants, which have their uses in small gardens and are less happily planted in making low banks of foliage about the base of suburban cottages. Perhaps the handsomest of the dwarf conifers in the Arboretum collection is a form of the Japanese Pinus densiflora (var. umbraculifera). This is a wide, vase-shaped plant which in Japanese gardens is often ten feet high and broader than high. The leaves are of a bright cheerful green and comparatively small plants flower and produce minute cones. Among the fourteen or fifteen dwarf forms of the Norway Spruce none is handsomer than one of the varieties described by Loudon in 1839 (var. Clanbrasiliana). This is a low, very compact, round-topped bush which rarely grows more than three feet high but spreads to a diameter much greater than its height. The plant is said to have originated on the Moira estate near Belfast, Ireland, toward the end of the eighteenth century and to have been carried to England by Lord Clanbrasil for whom it was named. Equally good is the variety nana which has a flatter top and does not grow as tall as the Clanbrasiliana but spreads into a broad bush. The subglobose var. Gregoriana and the variety prostrata are interesting plants. Some of the dwarf Norway Spruces, especially the variety Ellwangeriana, have a tendency at the end of a few years to form a vigorous leading shoot and eventually to become arborescent. Two dwarfs originated in the Arboretum in 1874 among seedlings of Picea pungens, the Colorado Blue Spruce and Abies lasiocarpa. The original plant of the former is now seven feet high and ten or twelve feet in diameter, and has so far escaped the losa of branches which disfigures this Spruce after it is thirty years old. Although well worth the attention of lovers of dwarf conifers, Pinus pungens compacta is little known beyond the limits of the Arboretum. The seedling of Abies lasiocarpa retained its dwarf habit for many years but has now begun to grow more vigorously and to assume the typical habit of the species. The dwarf of the European Silver Fir (Abies Picea compacta) behaves here in the same way and after a few years grows out of its dwarf habit. There is in the collection a small plant of a dwarf of Abies concolor which is very compact, but it is too soon to epeak of its value. The well known dwarf of the Balsam Fir (Abies balsamea var. hudsonica) is a real dwarf only a few inches high. A number of seedling forms of the White Pine (Pinus Strobacs) and of the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) are in the collection, but the best known and most generally planted dwarf Pines are the mountain forms of the European Pinus montana which appear in the catalogues of nurserymen as Pi~aus pumitio and P. Mughus. There are many forms of this hardy dwarf; they are broad shrubs with erect or semiprostrate stems and are rarely more than ten feet high, but often much broader than tall. Seedlings of these plants ehow great variation in size and habit, and new forms are constantly found in nursery seed-beds. The dwarf form of the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga Douglas i var. globosa) has proved one of the slowest growing of these plants in the Arboretum collection. In the common Hemlock of eastern North America the tendency to variation in seedling plants is unusually strong and dwarfs differing in size, shape and vigor are often found in the neighborhood of Hemlock groves. Some of these have been propagated and have received names but as different names have been used for the same or nearly the same forms it is not now possible, even if it were desirable, to distinguish all these dwarf Hemlocks by name. Among the seedlings of the Arbor Vitae of eastern North America are found some of the handsomest of the dwarf conifers. There is a large collection of abnormal forms of this tree in the Arboretum collection and among them none are better than those called \"Little Gem,\" compacta and Hoveyi. Seedlings of the Japanese Retinosporas (Chamaecyparis obtusa and pisifera) show, too, a great tendency to variation. One of the handsomest of these forms is C. obtusa nana, a compact, pyramidal, slow-growing plant. The largest specimen in the collection is now about eight feet tall. Other forms of C. obtusa are compact mats which show little indication of growing more than a few inches high. In the collection there are among others dwarf forms of C. pisifera, plants with yellow-tipped branches and with yellow and with white leaves and plants of the variety filifera with green and with yellow leaves. Among the Junipers are found some of the most useful dwarf conifers. Some of these are forms of arborescent species and others are natural dwarfs which reproduce themselves from seed. Among the former are three varieties of the so-called Red Cedar of the eastern states (Juniperus virginiana). One of these (var. globosa) is a compact, round-topped bush taller than broad, and in the Arboretum collection where it has been growing for fifteen years it is about three feet high. The history of this plant is not known at the Arboretum. It came here from Holland and probably originated in a European nursery. The variety Kosteriana forms a wide open bush with erect and spreading, gracefully arching stems from two to three feet tall. This is an unusually handsome plant which will prove useful for the margins of beds of taller growing conifers. This variety probably also originated in a European nursery. More interesting even than these nursery forms of the Red Cedar is a plant which grows on a few wind-swept cliffs on the coast of Maine. Plants of this form are not more than eighteen inches high, with prostrate stems which spread into dense mats sometimes fifteen feet across. These plants bear fertile seeds and there are seedlings, grafted plants and young collected plants growing in the Arboretum, but it is too soon to judge if they will retain the habit of the wild plants when planted in less exposed situations. If this form of the Red Cedar retains its dwarf habit in cultivation it will be one of the handsomest of the prostrate Junipers. Of Juniperus chinensis there are a number of interesting shrubs in the Arboretum collection. The handsomest of these, var. Pfctzeriaraa, which grows in the form of a low broad pyramid, is the most satisfactory of all Junipers in this climate. Fortunately it can now be found in most American nurseries. There are dwarf round-topped forms of J. chinensis with green and with yellow leaves which are less than a foot high; and a form of this Juniper, var. Sargentti, from northern Japan with prostrate stems makes mats now eight or ten feet across here. This is a form reproducing itself from seed and has proved to be one of the best of the mat-like Junipers in the collection. With the exception of the dwarf form of the European J. sabina (var. minor), the dwarfest Juniper in the collection is J. horizontal is which has long prostrate stems with blue-green or in some forms steel blue leaves. This is a North American plant which is widely distributed from the coast of Massachusetts to British Columbia. There are fine masses of this plant in the collection. Less well known is J. conferta, another species which covers with long prostrate stems the sand dunes on the coast of Japan. Raised first in the Arboretum three years ago from seeds collected by Wilson in northern Japan there is every reason to believe that this will prove a useful plant in this country. Another prostrate Japanese. Juniper, J. Procumbens, is better known. It is distinguished by its sharply pointed leaves marked on the upper surface by two white lines. This Juniper has not produced seeds and is not known except as a cultivated plant; it is planted, however, in nearly every Japanese garden and has been much planted in California and occasionally in the eastern states. A dwarf Juniper, J. contmunis var. depressa, covers thousands of acres of hillsides in the northeastern states where many forms occur differing in the height and in the width of the leaves. These are coarser and less desirable garden plants than J. horizontalis and the different low-growing varieties of J. chinensis and J. virginiana. These Bulletins will now be di3continued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":73,"end_page":82,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23669","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd2708927.jpg","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics Abies amabilis, 2, 67 balsamea, 67 var. hudsonica, 71 brachyphylla, 67 cephalonica, 2, 67 var. appolinis, 2, 67 cilicica, 67 concolor, 67, 71 Delavayi, 68 grandis, 2, 67 holophylla, 67 homolepis, 67 lasiocarpa, 67, 70, 71 dwarf, 70 magnifica, 2 Nordmaniana, 67 Pinsapo, 2 sachalinensis, 2 sibirica, 67 Veitchii, 67 Acanthopanax ricinifolius, 41 Acer Davidii, 10 diabolicum var. purpurascens, 8 fulvescens, 10 ginnala, 48 griseum, 10 Henryii, 10 longifolium, 10 nikoense, 58 pictum parviflorum, 10 platanoides, 36 rubrum, 49 saccharum, 8 Sieboldianum, 58 sinense, 13 tataricum, 44 tetramerum, 13 Aesculus arguta, 19 Bushii, 20 discolor var. mollis, 20 georgiana, 20, 44 var. pubescens, 20 glabra Buckleyi, 16 var. leucodermis, 16 Aesculus Harbisonii, 20 Hippocastanum, 36 parviflora, 20 Ailanthus, 34 Akebia lobata, 58 quinata, 58 Amelanchier asiatica, 16 canadensis, 16 florida, 16 laevis, 16 oblongifolia, 16 pumila, 16 sanguinea, 16 stolonifera, 16 vulgaris, 16 Amelanchiers, late-flowering, 16 American Beech, 35 American Horsechestnut, 36 American White Ash, 35 American White Oaks, 58 Andromeda floribunda, 6, 32 Aralia spinosa, 47 Arbor Vitae, 68, 70 dwarf forms of, 71 compacta, 71 Hoveyi, 71 Little Gem, 71 Arboretum, some late October colors in, 57 Arnold Crab, 16 Ash, European, 35 Ashes, 62 Ash-trees, Chinese, 10 Asiatic Crabapples, 11, 12 Asiatic Mountain Ashes, 50 Austrian Briar Rose, 27 Autumn flowers, 47 Autumn foliage, 48 Azalea Kaempferi, 9 Azalea mollis, 20 Vaseyi, 24 Azaleas, 9 early American, 24 Korean, 12 Balkan Spruce, 67 Balsam Fir, 71 Barberries, Chinese, 10 evergreen, 7, 63 in late October, 60 Beech, American, 35 Benzoin sericium, 14, 63 obtusilobum, 14, 63 Berberis amurensis, 60 circumaerrata, 60 diaphana, 60 dictyophylla, 60 Gagnepainii, 7, 63 Hakkodate, 60 Julianae, 7, 63 koreana, 60 lucida, 60 Regelii, 60 repens, 7 Sargentiana, 7, 63 triacanthophora, 10 Vernae, 24 verruculosa, 7, 63 vulgaris, 60 Wilsonae, 10 var. Stapfiana, 10 Betula Maximowiczii, 35 papyrifera, 35 pendula, 35 Birch, Canoe, 35 trees, European, 35 Bitter Pecan, 11 Black Oak, 61 Black Pine, Japanese, 67 Bladder Sennas, 14 Blueberry, Highbush, 60 Blueberries in autumn, 60 Box, European, 7 Box, Japanese, 7 Huckleberry, 64 Broad-leaved Evergreens, 6, 9, 64 Buckeye, Ohio, 16 Buckeyes, 19 Buckeyes, early-flowering, 16 Buddleias, Chinese, 10 Buffalo Berry, 3 Burning Bush, 48, 51, 52 Bur Oak, 58 Bush Honeysuckles, 18 Butternut, Chinese, 9 Buxus japonica, 7 California Torreya, 6 Camperdown Elm, 39 Canadian Plum, 8 Canadian Yew, 5 Canoe Birch, 35 Carolina Hemlock, 2, 67 Carya myristiciformis, 11 texana, 11 Castanea, 36 mollissima, 36 Catalpa bignonioides, 41 Bungei, 62 Caucasian Spruce, 67 Ceanothus Wrightii, 14, 63 Cedar, Incense, 2, 68 of Lebanon, 2, 66, 70 Red, 70, 71 White, 2, 66 Cedrus atlantica glauca, 1, 66 Celtis georgiana, 14 mississippiensis, 14 Cephalotaxus drupacea, 6 Fortunei,6 Cercidiphyllum, 34 Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, 70 obtusa, 71 obtusa nana, 71 pisifera, 71 var. filifera, 71 thyoides, 2, 66 Chamaedaphne calyculata, 6 Cherries, 4 Cherry, Japanese Spring, 4 Sargent, 4 Chestnut, European, 36 Japanese, 36 Oaks, 58 Chinese Ash-trees, 10 Barberries, 10 Buddleias, 10 Butternut, 9 Conifers, 68 Cotoneasters, 9 Dipeltas, 14 Hemlock, 68 Honeysuckles, 10 Hydrangeas, 10 Maples, 13 Chinese Pears, 8 Poplars, 9 Rhododendrons, 7 Roses, 13 Spiraeas, 10 Viburnums, 7 Weeping Willow, 34 White Mulberry, 34 White Pine, 67 Cladrastis lutea, 26 Coluteas, 63 Conifers, Chinese, 68 dwarf, 69 Cornish Elm, 38 Cornus controversa, 23 florida, 20, 58 kousa, 32 paucmervis, 14, 63 Corylopsis, 4, 63 Gotoana, 4, 44, 63 pauciflora, 4, 63 spicata, 4, 63 Veitchiana, 4, 63 Willmottae, 4, 63 Cotoneaster Dielsiana var. elegans, 9 divaricata, 22 horizontalis, 9 var. perpusilla, 9 hupehensis, 22, 43 multiflora var. calocarpa, 16, 22, 4 nitens, 22, 43 racemiflora var. soongorica, 16, 22, 43 salicifolia var. floccosa, 9 var. rugosa, 9 Chinese, 9 Cotoneasters, early-flowering, 9 Crabapples, Asiatic, 11, 12 Crabapples in autumn, 45 Crab, Arnold, 16 Rinki, 46 Crataegus arkansana, 15, 53 Arnoldiana, 15, 53 Boyntonii, 56 Buckleyi, 56 coccinioides, 54 cuprea, 55 Delosii, 55 Crataegus durobrivensis, 55 fructuosa, 55 infera, 55 macracantha, 54 modesta, 55 mollis, 15, 53 nigra, 15 nitida, 54 pinnatifida, 23 pruinosa, 55 prunifolia, 54 submollis, 15, 54 succulenta, 54 Cypress, Lawson's, 70 Daphne cneorum, 7 genkwa, 10, 62 Davidia, 3 Deutzia discolor, 10 grandiflora, 20 hypoglauca, 27 Lemoinei, 27 var. Boule de Neige, 27 longifolia, 10 parviflora, 27 2022 Diervilla florida venusta, 24, 43 praecox, 24 hybrids, 24 Conquerant, 24 Fleur de Mai, 24 3 Gracieux, 24 Vestale, 24 Diervillas, early, 24 Diospyros virginiana, 11, 62 Dipeltas, 63 Chinese, 14 Dirca palustris, 3 Dogwood, Flowering, 20, 58 Douglas Spruce, 67, 71 Dutch Elm, 39 Dwarf Conifers, 69 Dwarf forms of the Norway Spruce, 70 Dwarf Hawthorns, 55 Dwarf Hemlocks, 71 Earliest Roses, 20 Early American Azaleas, 24 Diervillas, 24 Early-flowering Buckeyes, 16 Early-flowering Cotoneasters, 16 Hawthorns, 15 Lilacs, 14 Magnolias, 3 Rhododendrons, 3, 21 shrubs, 3 Effects of the severe winter, 1, 5, 9, 13 Ehretia acuminata, 3 Elm, Camperdown, 39 Cornish, 38 Dutch, 39 English, 37, 38 Guernsey, 38 Huntingdon, 39 Scotch, 38 White, 35 Wych, 38 Elms, Paddock, 37 English Elm, 37, 38 Oak, 14 Spindle-tree, 52 Walnut, 36 Enkianthus, 59 japonicus, 59 perulatus, 59 Eucommia, 3 European Ash, 35 Birch-trees, 35 Box, 7 Chestnut, 36 Horsechestnut, 36 Larch, 34 Willows, 34 Yew, 5 Evergreen Barberries, 7, 63 broad-leaved, 6, 9, 64 Evodias, Chinese, 41 Evonymus alatus, 48, 52 americanus, 52 atropurpureus, 52 Bungeanus, 52 europaeus, 52 var. ovata, 52 latifolius, 52 Maackii, 52 ovatus, 52 yeddoensis, 52 Exochorda Giraldii, 14 var. Wilsonii, 14 Exochorda grandiflora, 14 Korolkowii, 14 macrantha, 14 racemosa, 14 Fir, Balsam, 71 Silver, 71 Flowering Dogwood, 20, 58 Oaks, 62 Forsythia europaea, 10 intermedia, 10 suspensa, 10 var. Fortunei, 60 Forsythias, 10, 60 Fortunearia sinensis, 13, 64 Fraxinus americana, 35 excelsior, 35 mandshurica, 35 Ornus, 62 Paxiana, 62 platypoda, 10 retusa, var. Henryi, 10 sogdiana, 62 syriaca, 62 Gaylussacia brachycera, 64 Ginkgo, 33 Ground Hemlock, 5 Guernsey Elm, 38 Hamamelis japonica, 11, 59 mollis, 11, 59 vernalis, 10, 59 virginiana, 59 Harrison Rose, 27 Hawthorns, early-flowering, 15 handsome in the autumn, 53 Hemlock, Carolina, 2, 67 Chinese, 2, 68 Ground, 5 Hemlocks, dwarf, 71 Hercules' Club, 47 Hickory, Nutmeg, 11 Highbush Blueberry, 60 Holly, 6 Honeysuckle, Chinese, 7 Tartarian, 19 Honeysuckles, Bush, 18 Horsechestnut, American, 36 Horsechestnut, European, 36 Hungarian Lilac, 23 Huntingdon Elm, 39 Hybrid Philadelphus, 31 Hydrangeas, Chinese, 10 Ilex crenata, 6, 62 glabra, 6, 62 opaca, 6, 62 pedunculosa, 6 Incense Cedar, 68 Indigofera amblyantha, 47 Inkberry, 6, 62 Japanese Black Pine, 67 Box, 7 Chestnut, 36 Plums, 8 Spring Cherry, 4 White Oaks, 34 Juglans cathayensis, 10 regia, 10, 36 Juniperus chinensis, 72 dwarf forms, 72 var. Pfitzeriana, 72 var. Sargentii, 72 communis, 2, 70 var. depressa, 72 conferta, 72 horizontalis, 72 procumbens, 72 sabina, 70 var. minor, 72 virginiana, 70, 72 var. globosa, 72 var. Kosteriana, 72 Kalmia angustifolia, 6 latifolia, 6, 32 Korean Azaleas, 12 Larch, European, 34 Laurel, Mountain, 32 Sheep, 6 Lawson's Cypress, 70 Leaf, Leather, 6 Leather Leaf, 6 Leatherwood, 3 Lemoine Hybrid Philadelphus, 31 Lespedeza formosa, 48 Leucothoe axillaris, 6 Catesbaei, 6, 64 Libocedrus decurrens, 2 Ligustrum Delavayanum, 10 Lilac, Hungarian, 23 Persian, 18 Lilacs, 17, 18 Lindens, 35, 41, 42 Lindera obtusiloba, 63 Liquidambar, 11 formosana, 62 var. monticola, 13 Locust, a pink-flowered, 28 Lonicera bella, 19 chrysantha, 19 coerulea, 44 Henryi, 7, 64 microphylla, 19 minutiflora, 19 Morrowii, 18 muscaviensis, 19 notha, 19 orientalis, 19 pileata, 10 similis var. Delavayi, 10, 62 tatarica, 19 Xylosteum, 19 Maddenia hypoleuca, 4 Magnolia conspicua, 4 denudata, 4 kobus, 3 var. borealis, 3 salicifolia, 4 stellata,3 Wilsonii, 62 Magnolias, early-flowering, 3 Mahonia repens, 7, 64 Mahonias, 7 Malus angustifolia, 11 Arnoldiana, 16, 46 baccata, 47 var. Jackii, 47 var. mandshurica, 12, 47 cerasifera, 12, 16 floribunda, 16, 46 micromalus, 12 prunifolia, 46 Sargentii, 47 Sieboldiana, 46 var. calocarpa, 47 sikkimensis, 11 Malus transitoria, 47 yunnanensis, 11 Maple flowers, 8 Norway, 36 Red, 49 Scarlet, 49 Sugar, 8, 36 Maples, Chinese, 13 Midseason Lilacs, 23 Mock Oranges, 29 Morus alba, 34 Mountain Ashes, 19, 50 Laurel, 32 Mt. Atlas Cedar, 1 Native and foreign trees, 33 Neillia affinis, 10 longiracemosa, 10 sinensis, 10 Nettle-trees, 14 New Chinese Lilacs, 25 Norway Maple, 36 Spruce, 67 dwarf forms of, 70 Nutmeg Hickory, 11 Nuttallia cerasiformis, 14 Nyssa sylvatica, 31, 61 Oak, Bur, 58 Chestnut, 58 English, 14 Overcup, 58 Pin, 57 Post, 58 Red, 14, 57 Scarlet, 57 Shingle, 14 Swamp White, 58 Turkey, 14, 57 White, 57, 58 Willow, 14 Oaks, 61 American White, 58 Chestnut, 58 Ohio Buckeye, 16 Osmaronia cerasiformis, 14, 63 Overcup Oak, 58, 61 Pachystima Canbyi, 64 Paddock Elms, 37 Peach-tree, wild, 3 Pears, Chinese, 8 Pear-tree, a pink-flowered, 8 Pecan, Bitter, 11 Persian Lilac, 18 Walnut, 36 Yellow Rose, 27 Persimmon, 11, 62 Philadelphus, 29 coronarius, 30 Falconerii, 31 grandiflorus, 30 hybrid, 31 inodorus, 30 insignis, 31 latifolius, 30 Lemoinei, 31 Conquete, 31 Madgalenae, 30 maximus, 31 microphyllus, 30 pekinensis, 30 pubescens, 30 purpurascens, 30 Schneckii var. Jackii, 31 Souvenir de Billard, 31 splendens, 31 Picea Abies, 67 var. Clanbrasiliana, 70 var. Ellwangeriana, 70 var. Gregoriana, 70 var. nana, 70 var. prostrata, 70 canadensis, 67 Engelmannii, 67 obovata, 67 omorica, 67 orientalis, 67 pungens, 67 Picea pungens compacta, 71 rubra, 2, 66 Sargentiana, 2, 68 Schrenkiana, 67 Pieris floribunda, 6 japonica, 6 Pine, Chinese White, 2 Mexican White, 2 Scotch, 71 short-leaved, 2 Spanish, 2 Pine, Sugar, 2, 67 Umbrella, 68 White, 71 Pinetum, 65 Pink-flowered Locust, 28 Pink-flowered Pear-tree, 8 Pin Oak, 57 Pinus Armandi, 2, 67 Ayacahuite, 2 Banksiana, 68 Bungeana, 68 Cembra, 68 densiflora, 2 var. umbraculifera, 70 echinata, 2, 66 gracilis, 68 Jeffreyi, 68 koraiensis, 68 Lambertiana, 2, 67 montana, 68, 69, 70 dwarf forms of, 71 monticola, 68 Mughus, 71 nigra, 68 tenuifolia, 2 parviflora, 68 ponderosa var. scopulorum, 68 pumilio, 71 pungens, 68 sinensis var. denudata, 2 var. yunnanensis, 2 Strobus, 71 dwarf, 71 sylvestris, 68, 71 dwarf, 71 Thunbergii, 2, 67 virginiana, 68 Plum, Canadian, 8 Plums, 4, 8 Poliothyrsis sinensis, 13, 64 Poplars, Chinese, 9 Silver, 34 Populus alba, 34 canescens, 34 lasiocarpa, 9 Maximowiczii, 33 tomentosa, 34 yunnanensis, 9 Post Oak, 58 Prinsepia sinensis, 4, 43 Prunus alleghaniensis, 8 americana, 8 caroliniana, 29 Conradinae, 10 Davidiana, 3 domestica,8 hortulana, 8 incisa,7 Lannesiana, 14 Munsoniana, 8 nigra, 8 salicina, 8 serrulata var. pubescens, 58 var. sachalinensis, 4 subhirtella, 4 tomentosa, 4 triloba, 4 Watsonii, 8 Pseudolarix, 34 Pseudotsuga mucronata, 67 var. globosa, 71 Pyrus Calleryana, 8, 56 ovoidea, 8 Quercus alba, 57 arkansana, 11 bicolor, 58 Catesbaei, 57 Cerris, 14, 61 coccinea, 57 falcata, 14, 61 georgiana, 14, 61 heterophylla, 14, 61 imbricaria, 14 lyrata, 58, 61 macrocarpa, 58 minor, 58 montana, 58 Muehlenbergii, 58 palustris, 57 Phellos, 14, 61 prinoides, 58 Robur var. pendula, 14, 61 rubra, 14, 61 velutina, 61 Red Cedar, 70, 71 Red Oak, 14, 57, 61 Red Spruce, 66 Rhododendron, a good, 40 Rhododendron azlaeoides,7 Boule de Neige, 21, 22 calendulaceum, 24 canescens, 24 carolinianum, 22 catawbiense, 32 Chinese,7 ciliatum, 3 dahuricum, 3 var. sempervirens, 3 Early Gem, 3 fragrans, 7 Glennyi, 40 Gomer Waterer,7 Jacksonii, 22 James Smith, 7 japonicum, 20, 48 Kaempferi, 9 Marquis of Waterford, 7 Marshall Brooks, 7 maximum, 32 micranthum, 7 Mont Blanc, 22 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 7 Mrs. Thomas Agnew, 7 mucronulatum, 3 nudiflorum, 24 poukhanense, 12 praecox, 3 Schlippenbachii, 12 Smirnowii, 22 Vaseyi, 24 Rhododendrons, early-flowering, 3, 21 Rhus Potaninii, 14, 63 Rinki Crab, 46 Robinia hispida, 28 var. Decaisneana, 28 var. Pseudoacacia, 28 Robinia viscosa, 28 Rochester Thorn, 55 Rosa banksiopsis, 13 bella, 13 corymbulosa, 13 Davidii, 13 davurica, 13 Ecae, 13, 20 filipes, 13 foetida, 27 var. bicolor, 27 Rosa Gentiliana, 13 Helenae, 13 Hugonis, 13, 20, 43 Jackii, 43 Moyesii, 13 rosea, 13 multibracteata, 13 multiflora cathayensis, 13 omeiensis, 13 Prattii, 13 saturata, 13 sertata, 13 setipoda, 13 spinosissima, 28 var. altaica, 24 var. fulgida, 28 var. grandiflora, 24 var. hispida, 28 var. luteola, 28 Sweginzowii, 13 Willmottae, 13 xanthina, 13 Rose Acacia, 28 Austrian Briar, 27 Harrison, 27 Persian Yellow, 27 Scotch, 28 Roses, Chinese, 13 the earliest, 20 Salix alba, 34 babylonica, 34 Bockii, 14, 63 fragilis, 34 Salvia officinalis, 7 Sapindus Drummondii, 11 Sargent Cherry, 4 Scarlet Oak, 57 Scotch Elm, 38 Pine, 71 Rose, 28 Sennas, Bladder, 14 Shad Bushes, 16 Sheep Laurel, 6 Shepherdia argentea, 3 Shingle Oak, 14 Shrubs, early-flowering, 3 injured by the winter, 62 some good, 42 Silver Fir, 71 Silver Poplars, 34 Sinowilsonia, 63 Sophora japonica, 41 viciifolia, 13, 62 Sorbus alnifolia, 19, 51 americana, 19, 51 var. decora, 19, 51 Aucuparia, var. fastigiata, 50 var. dulcis, 50 var. lanuginosa, 50 var. moravica, 50 var. pendula, 50 commixta, 50 Koehneana, 51 pallescens, 13 pekinensis, 50 pohuashanensis, 51 Sour Gum, 31, 61 Sour Wood, 41 Southern Red Oak, 14 Spanish Fir, 2 Oak, 61 Spindle-tree, 51 Asiatic, 52 European, 52 Spiraea Veitchii, 44 Spiraeas, Chinese, 10 Spring, the early, 21 Spruce, Balkan, 67 Caucasian, 67 Douglas, 67 Norway, 67, 70 Red, 2, 66 Stachyurus chinensis, 13, 64 Staphylea holocarpa, 13, 14, 64 Strawberry Bush, 52 Stuartia pseudocamellia, 58 Styrax americana, 10 dasyantha, 10 Styrax japonica, 10 obassia, 10 Sugar Maple, 8, 36 Pine, 2, 67 Summer-flowering Trees, 41 Swamp White Oak, 58 Sycopsis sinensis, 13 Symplocos paniculata, 13 Syringa affinis, 14 var. Giraldii, 14 chinensis, 18 Syringa chinensis var. alba, 18 Condorcet, 17 Congo, 17 De Mirabel, 17 Deuil d'Emile Galle, 17 Dielsiana, 25 Edmond Boissier, 17 Furst Lichtenstein, 17 Grand Due Constantin, 17 Henryi, 23 var. eximia, 23 var. Lutece, 23 hyacinthiflora, 15 inodorus, 30 Josikaea, 23 Julianae, 26 Justi, 18 Koehneana, 23 Komarowii, 25, 26 Languis, 17 L'Oncle Tom, 17 Ludwig Spath, 18 Macrostachya, 17 Marie Legraye, 18 Marliensis pallida, 17 Maurice de Vilmorin, 17 Meyeri, 26 microphyllus, 18, 26, 30 oblata, 14 persica, 18 var. alba, 18 var. laciniata, 18 Philemon, 18 pinnatifolia, 26 Potaninii, 25 President Loubet, 17 pubescens, 15, 18, 26, 30 Reamur, 17 reflexa, 25, 43 Rehderiana, 25 Sargentiana, 25 Sweginzowii, 25, 26, 43 tetanoloba, 25 tomentella, 25, 26 Toussaint Louverture, 17 verrucosa, 25 villosa, 23 vulgaris, 17 Waldeck Rousseau, 17 Wilsonii, 25 Syringa Wolfii, 23, 26 yunnanensis, 26 Tartarian Honeysuckle, 19 Taxus baccata, 5 erecta, 5 repandens, 5 Taxus canadensis, 5 cuspidata, 5 var. chinensis, 5 Teucrium chamaedrys, 7 Thorn, Rochester, 55 Thuya orientalis, 68 plicata, 2, 68 Tilia americana, 35, 42 cordata, 42 glabra, 35, 42 heterophylla, 42 japonica, 42 Michauxii, 42 neglecta, 41, 42 petiolaris, 42 platyphyllos, 41 spectabilis, 42 var. Moltkei, 42 tomentosa, 42 vulgaris, 36, 41, 42 Torreya californica, 6 nucifera, 5 Trees, native and foreign, 33 summer-flowering, 41 Tsuga caroliniana, 2, 67 chinensis, 2, 68 diversiflora, 68 heterophylla, 2, 68 Tsuga Sieboldiana, 68 Tulip-tree, Chinese, 56 Tupelo, 31 Turkey Oak, 14, 57, 61 Ulmus americana, 35 campestris, 37 foliacea, 38 var. suberosa, 38 var. umbraculifera, 38 glabra, 38 var. pendula, 39 hollandica, 39 var. belgica, 39 Ulmus hollandica var. major, 39 var. vegeta, 39 laevis, 40 major, 39 minor, 39 nitens, 38 procera, 37 var. viminalis, 38 sativa, 39 Umbrella Pine, Japanese, 68 Vaccinium canadense, 60 corymbosum, 60 pennsylvanicum, 60 vacillans, 60 Viburnum bracteatum, 28 buddleifolium, 7. 64 Carlesii, 59 cassinoides, 28 Lentago, 21 molle, 28 ovatifolium, 13, 14, 64 rhytidophyllum, 7, 64 Viburnums, Chinese, 7, 64 Virgilia, 26 Walnut, English, 36 Persian, 36 Weeping Willow, Chinese, 34 White Ash, American, 35 Cedar, 2, 66 Elm, 35 Mulberry, Chinese, 34 Oak, 57, 58 Oaks, Japanese. 34 Pine, 71 White Pine, Chinese, 67 Wild Peach-tree, 3 Willow Oak, 14, 61 Wisconsin, 34 Willows, European, 34 Wisconsin Willow, 34 Witch Hazels, 10, 59 Wych Elm, 38 Yellowwood, 26 Yew, Canadian, 5 European, 5"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23402","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd25eb728.jpg","title":"1918-4","volume":4,"issue_number":null,"year":1918,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 30","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23650","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260a76b.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. I ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 30, 1917 Effects of the Winter in the Arboretum. The effects of the heavy rainfall of the past summer and of the hot dry autumn which thoroughly ripened the wood of trees and shrubs are now shown in the generally good condition of the Arboretum collections which promise abundant crops of flowers and fruit. A few flower-buds have been killed, and there are occasionally brown leaves on Rhododendrons and other broad-leaved evergreens, but not so many as usual at this season of the year. Exotic conifers, including the new Firs, Spruces and Pines from western China, are generally uninjured but the foliage of the native White Cedar (Chamaecyparis thyoides) is badly disfigured. For some reason not easy to explain this tree has never taken kindly to the Arboretum conditions, and suffers here more or less every winter. It is a late spring in eastern Massachusetts, but several plants have already flowered in the Arboretum or are now flowering here. The flowers of the White Maple (Acer saccharinum) have nearly passed, but those of many of the Elms are now open and have rarely been more abundant; and the Scarlet Maple (Acer rubrum) enlivens the landscape with its bright red flowers. Winter-flowering Witch Hazels. The flowers of these interesting plants have never been more beautiful and abundant than this year, although they appeared much later than usual. The flowers of Hamamelis vernalis, the species from southern Missouri, usually open late in December and in January, and those of the Japanese and Chinese species are usually fully open in January and February; but with the exception of a few precocious flowers on a branch of one of the plants of H. vernalis which opened late in December, none of these plants were in flower this year until the middle of March. In the size of the flowers and in the length and brilliancy of the bright yellow petals Hamamelis mollis, a native of western China, is the handsomest of all the Witch Hazels. The pale green foliage of this shapely shrub is also attractive. It is very hardy and grows rapidly, and might well find a place in any garden or city plot in public view during the winter months. This Witch Hazel is one of the most valuable and interesting shrubs brought in recent years to the United States. Prunus Davidiana. This is the earliest of the Plum, Cherry, Peach and Apricot groups to flower this year. It is one of the wild Peaches of northern China, and is a small tree with lustrous red-brown bark, slender erect branches which form a narrow head, small flowers, narrow pointed leaves and small fruit of no edible value. The flowers are usually of the color of those of the common Peach-tree, and there is a form with pure white flowers. The two forms have been covered with flowers during the past week in the Peach and Apricot Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road before its junction with the Forest Hills and Bussey Hill Roads. As a flowering tree in this climate this Peach has little to recommend it for the flower-buds or the flowers are killed almost every year by late frosts, but just now pomologists in this country are interested in it as a possible stock on which to work the common Peach-tree, as it is hardy north of the region where the Peach thrives. Early Rhododendrons. Several plants of the Siberian and north China Rhododendron dahuricum have been in bloom on the upper side of Azalea Path during the past week. This shrub has been in European gardens for more than a century but is stili little known in the United States. It has small dark green leaves which in this climate remain on the branches until late in the winter, and small bright rosecolored flowers. These are often destroyed by spring frosts, and this plant has never been so beautiful before in the Arboretum as it is this spring. There is a variety sempervirens with more persistent leaves and darker-colored flowers. This variety is not blooming this year. Usually Rhododendron mucronulatum is the earliest of the Rhododendrons to bloom in the Arboretum but this year it is a week later than R. dahuricum, and is only now opening its paler rose-colored flowers. This is a tall, perfectly hardy, deciduous-leaved shrub which has flowered freely every spring in the Arboretum for the last twenty years and is chiefly valuable for the earliness of the flowers which appear on the leafless branches and are rarely injured by spring frosts. In the Arboretum the leaves turn bright yellow before falling late in the autumn. There is a large group of these plants on the lower side of Azalea Path. Early Magnolias. The flower-buds of the Japanese Magnolia stellata have been nearly all killed in the Arboretum.. This should not, how3 ever, discredit this beautiful shrub, for the plants here are in low ground and in a particularly trying position, and in other Massachusetts gardens plants of this Magnolia have not been injured and are now in full bloom. The flower-buds of the other early-flowering Japanese species, Magnolia kobus and its variety borealIs, have not been injured and are now just opening. As flowering plants they are the least desirable here of the Magnolias which bloom before the leaves appear, for the flowers are not large and only exceptionally are produced in large numbers. Daphne Mezereum. A plant of the white-flowered form of this small European shrub has been in bloom on Azalea Path for the last two weeks. The purple and the white-flowered forms are useful garden plants because they are almost the first shrubs to open their flowers in this climate and because the flowers are not injured by spring frosts. This Daphne is interestlng to us in this country because it is one of the few shrubs native of Europe which have become widely naturalized in some parts of North America, as in eastern Massachusetts and on the Canadian side of the Niagara River above the Falls. The Cornelian Cherry, which is a Dogwood (Cornus mas), is one of the earliest trees or tree-like shrubs with conspicuous flowers to bloom in eastern Massachusetts. The flowers are light yellow and are borne in clusters in the axils of the unfolding leaves and, although individually small, are produced in such profusion that the branches are covered with them. The flowers are followed by bright red, lustrous, oblong fruits the size of small olives. The flower-buds and the flowers of this tree are not injured by cold. The habit of the plant is good; the foliage is dark green and abundant, and the fruit, although somewhat hidden by the leaves, is handsome. The Cornblian Cherry, which is a native of Europe and western Siberia, has been an inhabitant of gardens for more than three hundred years. In the United States it was probably more often planted in the first half of the last century than it is at present, although there are not many early-flowering trees hardy in this climate which are better worth a place in the garden. The largest specimen we know in eastern Massachusetts is in the Public Garden of Boston, near Boylston Street. In the Arboretum it may be seen with the other Dogwoods at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Early-flowering native shrubs. Two yellow-flowered native shrubs are in flower and are well worth the attention of the makers of American gardens by whom they have been generally neglected. These are the Leatherwood, Dirca palustris, and the aromatic Spice Bush, Benzoin aestivale. Their leafless branches are now covered with small yellow flowers, and those of the Spice Bush will be followed in the autumn by scarlet lustrous fruits. The leaves of these plants turn yellow in the autumn before falling. Masses of these shrubs can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Collection. Erica eara~ea. In the Shrub Collection this Heath and its white-flowered variety are already in bloom. It is a common European plant which grows not more than five or six inches high but spreads into broad mats, and is the only one of the true Heaths which is really hardy in this climate. It is an excellent plant for the edging of beds and for the spring rock garden. Alnus hirsuta. To persons who know Alders only as they grow naturally in New England these plants are small or large shrubs, but the common European Alder, Alnus glutinosa, is at its best a large tree; there are two large tree Alders in the Pacific states and another in Arizona and Mexico, and in Japan and eastern Siberia some of the species are trees. One of these, Alnus hirsuta, should be better known for it is perfectly hardy here and has grown more rapidly than any other Japanese trees raised from the seeds brought from Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892. In the Arboretum it is a shapely tree already more than thirty feet high, with smooth, lustrous pale gray bark and spreading branches, and large dark green leaves. Two plants of this Alder now in bloom can be seen on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Linden Group. In Japan it is often a tree sixty or seventy feet tall with a trunk two feet in diameter, and there appears to be no reason why it should not grow as large in this country. Of all the tree Alders in the collection it has the most promise of long life and large size, and it should prove a good tree in the northern states to ornament the borders of streams and ponds. In Japan this tree furnishes wood used for many purposes. The Japanese Cherry-trees in the Arboretum promise a full bloom and will be in flower in about ten days when there will be an opportunity to see here some of the most beautiful of all spring-flowering trees. Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum, but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning to P. J. Brady, Jamaica 670, or to Malone & Keane, Jamaica 344. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 8","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23664","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270b36e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 8, 1917 The exceptionally cold and sunless weather of the last week of April and of the early days of May has greatly retarded the advance of vegetation, and very few plants are in bloom in the Arboretum; and on the 3d of May leaf-buds were still generally closed. An exception, however, is found in Prinsepia sinensis. The leaves of this Chinese shrub, which are among the first in the Arboretum to unfold, are already nearly fully grown and the flowers are opening; these are bright yellow, about twothirds of an inch in diameter, and appear in few-flowered clusters in the axils of the leaves. This Prinsepia is a tall, vigorous, perfectly hardy shrub, with ascending and spreading spiny branches, and is perfectly at home in eastern Massachusetts. It will probably prove here to be an excellent and very ornamental hedge plant. Unfortunately the red berry-like fruit is rarely produced here, so that this plant can be increased only by cuttings. The largest plant in the Arboretum is on the upper side of Hickory Path near Centre Street; a plant is also in the Shrub Collection. Another species, Prinsepia uniflora, a native also of northern China, is established in the Arboretum; it is a more spiny shrub with small white flowers, and as an ornamental plant has little to recommend it. Corylopsis. A year ago attention was called in one of these Bulletins to the flowering of some of these plants in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The flower-buds are often injured in this climate by spring frosts but last spring they escaped and now these plants are again covered with flowers. Corylopsis is a genus of the Witch Hazel Family and is confined to the Himalayas and to China and Japan. They are shrubs with leaves which generally resemble those of the Witch Hazel and drooping spikes of fragrant clear yellow flowers. Two species discovered by Wilson in western China, Corylopsis Veitchiana and C. Willmottae, are now in bloom on Bussey Hill, and on the lower side of Hickory Path near Centre Street there is a plant of the rare Japanese C. Gotoana also in flower. This plant, which is not rare in central Japan, appears to be little known in gardens. The Arboretum specimen was raised here from seed collected in Japan in 1905 by Mr. Jack, and has now flowered here for several years. The flower-buds seem less liable to injury by spring frosts than those of some of the other species, and it is probable that when this beautiful shrub is better known it will become popular for the decoration of the spring garden. The flowers are of a delicate canary-yellow color and paler than those of the other species. Rhododendron praecox, \"Little Gem.\" This is the first of the evergreen Rhododendrons to bloom; it is a variety of R. praecox which is a hybrid between the Himalayan R. ciliatum and the Siberian R. dahuricum mentioned in the last issue of these Bulletins. R. praecox is a shrub two or three feet high with thick oval leaves bright green on the upper surface and rusty below, and few-flowered clusters of pale purple or lilac flowers which in the variety Little Gem are somewhat larger and paler in color. This variety is a handsome plant and would be a desirable ornament for the spring garden were not the flowers too often destroyed by spring frosts. This spring, as they were last year, the plants are beautifully in flower and can be seen in the Rhododendron Collection at the base of Hemlock Hill. Prunus mandshurica. This is a hardy Apricot tree which grows vigorously in the Arboretum, and can now be seen in flower in the Peach and Apricot Group on the slope above the Meadow Road beyond the piece of natural woods. By some authors this tree is considered a variety of the common Apricot (P. Armeniaca) but it is very distinct from that tree in the pale bark on the stem and branches and in the shape of the leaves. The flowers which have a deep red calyx and petals faintly tinged with rose are nearly an inch across and are just now conspicuous on the leafless branches. The fruit-is nearly globular, not more than an inch in diameter, yellow spotted with red, with sweet succulent flesh; it is inferior to that of cultivated forms of the common Apricot, but as P. mandshurica is very hardy varieties may perhaps be developed with the fruit as good as that of the best cultivated Apricots, and hardy where that tree cannot be cultivated. This Apricot as it now grows in the Arboretum is an important addition to the group of hardy ornamental early-flowering trees. Prunus dehiscens. This little almond is now in flower in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. It is a small, spiny, intricately branched shrub with small pale pink flowers which open before the leaves unfold and small compressed fruit covered with hairs, with thin dry flesh splitting open at maturity. This shrub was discovered by Wilson in western China and is very similar and possibly identical with the more northern Prunus mongolica, which is not in the Arboretum collection. As far as it is possible to judge at this time Prunus dehiscens is inferior to the related Prunus trzLoba from northern China and Korea, and in its single-flowered form one of the most beautiful of all spring-flowering shrubs. Maddenia hypoleuca. To persons who care only for plants with showy flowers Maddenia will have little interest, but in the Arboretum the flowering of one of these plants for the first time in America is considered a matter of some importance. Maddenia is a genus of shrubs or small trees found only on the Himalayas and in western China where Wilson discovered three of the five known species. Maddenia is related to the Choke or Rum Cherries but, unlike them, the flowers are without petals; they are borne in short clusters and consist of a green calyx tinged with red and divided at the apex into two rows of short narrow lobes, numerous stamens with slender filaments and bright yellow anthers and longer than the short style; this in some flowers is rudimentary or entirely wanting, perfect and staminate flowers often appearing in the same cluster. The fruit, like that of the other species, is small, globose, black and cherry-like. Maddenia hypoleuca is in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill near Prunus dehiscens. Forsythias. It is three years since the Forsythias have bloomed as they are blooming this year, for last year and the year before many of the flower-buds of some of the species were killed in the Arboretum by severe winter cold. This year the flower-buds are uninjured and the flowers of many of the plants are now at their best. Those of the Servian F. europaea, however, will not open for a few days. Apart from the value of all the species as garden plants Forsythia is of special interest to gardeners for, like Syringa and Philadelphus, it is a genus whose species hybridize freely and produce new seedling forms which are often superior to the parents. The hybrid Forsythias are probably all natural, that is, they have probably all appeared without man's assistance, and those which are now known appear to have been produced by the crossing of F. viridissima with F. suspensa or its variety, Fortunei. The general name of these plants is Forsythia intermedia and there are several forms. Those in the Arboretum collection are planted at the rear of the large mass of Forsythias on the bank at the base of the Bussey Hill Road, below the Lilac Collection. The handsomest of them is F. intermedia spectabilis, and of all the Forsythias which have been grown in the Arboretum this is the most beautiful. The flowers are larger than those of its parents, and deep bright yellow. This plant was sent to the Arboretum from Germany several years ago. Other distinct and handsome forms of the hybrid are var. primulina and var. pallida ; the former has pale primrose colored flowers and appeared as a seedling in the Arboretum a few years ago. The var. pallida has pale straw-colored flowers which are paler than than those of other Forsythias. The flower-buds of these hybrids appear to suffer less from extreme cold than those of either of their parents, at least in the Arboretum, and the buds of the different forms of F. intermedia have never been injured by cold. Salix blanda. This is the general name for the group of hybrid Willows which has come into existence by the natural hybridization of the yellow-barked Salix viminalis with the Chinese Weeping Willow, Salix babylonica. These hybrids are large, hardy and vigorous trees, with branches as slender and pendulous as those of Salix babylonica. What may be considered the typical form of S. blanda has light olive green branches. On other forms the branches are more or less tinged with yellow. The handsomest of them has bright yellow branches, especially at this season of the year, and is still without a proper name, although it is sold in nurseries as Salix babylonica aurea, S. babylonica ramulis aureis and sometimes as S. vitellina pendula, although there is a weeping form of the true S. vitellina to which this last name belongs. The yellow-barked variety of S. blanda is the handsomest of the Weeping Willows which can be successfully grown in the northern states where S. babylonica is not always hardy. At this time with its pale yellow unfolding leaves and yellow spikes of flower-buds this tree is an object of great beauty and one of the most attractive plants in the Arboretum. Salix blanda is not common in the neighborhood of Boston and probably has not been much planted in any part of the United States. It is much less well known than the hybrid of S. babylonica and the European S. fragilis for which the general name is probably S. sepulcralis- probably, for it is often impossible to decide what is the correct name for hybrid Willows as there is still much confusion about their origin and history. To the S. fragilis babylonica 1!ybrid belong the socalled Wisconsin Weeping Willow which has been largely planted in the northern states, and is a hardy and valuable tree. Its origin is not known at the Arboretum. Thurber's Weeping Willow, named for the Massachusetts nurseryman by whom it has been distributed, is probably of the same parentage. Another hybrid known as Salix Sala~nonii is of the same parentage or is the result of the crossing of the European Salix alba with S. babylonica. This tree is highly esteemed in Europe but in this country is little known. It is a large, vigorous and hardy tree, with ascending branches and gracefully drooping branchlets, the whole forming a broad head of great beauty. This is a good time to examine the Willow Collection for many of the species, hybrids and varieties are flowering or just coming into bloom, and the flowers of Willows are often very beautiful. The Willow Collection is arranged along the northeast border of the north meadow, and is most easily reached from the Jamaica Plain entrance of the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 14","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23661","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270a76b.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 14, 1917 Eastern Asiatic Cherries. During the last few years the Arboretum has been engaged in studying the Cherry-trees of eastern Asia, and has assembled a large collection of these plants, including most of the species and all the forms with double and otherwise abnormal flowers which are popular garden plants in Japan where the flowering of these trees is celebrated by national rejoicings. All the world has heard of the Japanese Cherry-blossoms, and travellers in the East usually so arrange their journeys that they can be in Tokyo when the white flowers of fifty thousand trees of the Yoshino-zakura (Prunus yedoensis) make a day of thanksgiving, and the great trees in the long avenue of Cherry-trees (P. serrulata) at Koganei are covered with their rose-colored flowers. Well known to travellers, too, are the avenues of Cherry-trees at Arashi-yama near Kyoto and at Yoshino near Nara. The Cherry-trees which mean so much to the Japanese and delight all foreigners who visit Japan in early spring are perfectly hardy, and easy to grow here in New England; and it is unfortunate that there is no hillside in the Arboretum which can be covered with these trees or no space where a long avenue of them can be planted, for the flowering of a great number of these trees might become as great a joy to the people of Boston as they are in Japan. Such collections of Cherry-trees might well form a part of the equipment for pleasure and instruction in all the northern cities of the country, but up to this time only Rochester, New York, is arranging to make a plantation of these trees to cover many acres of rolling hills in its great park on the shores of Lake Ontario. In the Arboretum only room for a few isolated individuals has been found, but most of the species are now established here and some of them have bloomed for several years. This year the trees promise to produce an unusually large crop of flowers and a visit to them will be well repaid. Prunus concinna. This little Cherry, which was discovered by Wilson on the mountains of central China at altitudes above the sea of from twelve to fifteen hundred feet, is the first Cherry to bloom in the Arboretum this year. In its native forests it is a shrub five or six feet tall, but here it is treelike in habit, although only three or four feet high, with a straight stem, and is now as thickly covered with flowers as it is possible for a plant to be covered. The flowers, which appear before the leaves, are in few-flowered clusters and are white with a wine-colored calyx. The red, lustrous, loose bark of the stem of this Cherry is attractive but as a flowering plant it is less valuable than the Japanese Prunus subhirtella, under which name it was once distributed by a London nurseryman. Prunus conc2nna can be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Prunus tomentosa. Until this year the earliest of the Cherries to bloom in the Arboretum, Prunus tomentosa is a native of China and a shrub only five or six feet high, and when fully grown in abundant space for the spread of its branches often broader than tall. The flowers open from pink buds as the leaves begin to unfold, and the bright red stalks and calyx make a handsome contrast with the white petals. The small fruit ripens in June and is scarlet, covered with short hairs, and is sweet and of good flavor. This shrub is very hardy and flourishes and produces its fruit in dry cold regions like Alberta and the Dakotas, and in such regions it is possible it may develop into an important fruit-producing plant. Prunus tomentosa is a native of northern China and was raised in the Arboretum twenty-five years ago from seed sent here from Peking. A form discovered in western China by Wilson (var. endotncha) is also established in the Arboretum. This blooms rather later than the northern plant and the fruit is destitute or nearly destitute of hairs. The white-flowered form much cultivated in Tokyo is not in the Arboretum collection. Prunus subhirtella. This is the Japanese Spring Cherry which Mr. Wilson, after a year devoted in Japan to the study of Cherry-trees, calls \"the most floriferous and perhaps the most delightful of all Japanese Cherries.\" It is a large, low-branched shrub rather than a tree and is not known as a wild plant. This Cherry is much planted in western Japan from northern Hondo southward, but it is not much grown in the eastern part of the Empire and is rarely found in Tokyo gardens. For this reason and as it does not reproduce itself from seed Prunus subhirtella is still rare in American and European collections. There are large plants in the Arboretum collection where they have been growing since 1894 and where, covered with their drooping pink flowers, they are objects of wonderful beauty. The value of Prunus subhirtella is increased by the fact that the flowers often remain in good condition for ten or twelve days, and longer than those of the other single-flowered Cherry-trees. This Cherry can be raised from soft wood cuttings and by grafting on its own seedlings. These will grow into tall trees with long straight trunks (Prunus subhirtella, var. ascendens) and in Japanese temple gardens are sometimes fifty feet high with trunks two feet in diameter. This is a common tree in the forests of central Japan, and grows also in southern Korea and central China. Until Wilson's investigations in Japan in 1914 this tree seems to have been entirely unknown in western gardens. Raised from the seeds of Prunus subhirtella, which are produced in large quantities every year, it grows here rapidly and proves to be a handsome tree. It has the drooping flowers of the well-known Prunus pendula of gardens which is only a seedling form of P. subhirtella ascendens and for which the correct name is Prunus subhirtella variety pendula. This tree is not known to grow wild, but has for centuries decorated courtyards and temple grounds in central and northern Japan. The largest tree seen by Wilson was sixty-five feet tall with a head as broad as the height of the tree. There is a form of P. subhirtella (var. autumnalis) with semidouble flowers which blooms in both spring and autumn. This is a shrub often cultivated in Tokyo gardens, and in the Arboretum first flowered in May, 1915. Prunus yedoensis. This is the Cherry-tree which has been most generally planted in Tokyo. It is a small tree with smooth pale gray bark, wide-spreading branches, and large pale pink or white flowers which usually open before the leaves unfold. No old trees are known in Japan, and the origin of this Cherry is uncertain. It has not been found growing wild in Japan, and Wilson after studying it in Tokyo was inclined to believe that it was a hybrid. But, whatever its origin, it is a hardy tree which produces beautiful flowers and should be better known in this country and in Europe. Last year the flower-buds were killed by the winter cold; now the Arboretum tree is covered with them. Prunus serrulata, var. sachalinensis. This tree, which was called Prunus Sargentiz until it was discovered that it had an older name, is believed to be the handsomest of the large Cherry-trees of eastern Asia. In the forests of northern Japan and Saghalin it is a tree often seventy-five feet high, with a trunk four feet in diameter; it has large pale pink or rose-colored single flowers, large dark green leaves which are deep bronze color as they unfold with the opening flowerbuds, and small globose fruits which are bright red at first when fully grown and become black and lustrous when ripe. In western countries this tree was first raised in the Arboretum in 1890 from seeds sent here by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, of Boston, and of the trees introduced by the Arboretum there is none of greater beauty. It has been found that the seedlings of this tree are the best stock on which to graft most of the double-flowered Cherries which are so highly prized by Japanese gardeners, and that the reason why these plants have never been successfully grown in the United States or Europe is due to the fact that Japanese gardeners do not use a suitable stock for them. Some seventy-five named varieties of these Cherries with double or otherwise abnormal flowers, cultivated in Japan, are now in the Arboretum where they are being propagated. Among them are fifteen named varieties of the Sargent Cherry, and among these are some of the most beautiful of all flowering trees hardy in this climate and evidently destined, although still little known, to become important features in American gardens. Two of the handsomest of these double-flowered varieties of the Sargent Cherry are the forms albo-rosea and Fugenzo; the former has large rose-colored flowers changing to white as they open, and the other rose-pink flowers; this is well known in English gardens under the name of James H. Veitch. These two Cherries differ from the other Japanese double-flowered forms in the presence of two leafly carpels in the centre of the flowers. European and North American Cherries bloom a few days later than those from eastern Asia, and can be seen near them on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road from that entrance to beyond its junction with the Meadow Road. Shad Bushes. The Arboretum will be gay with the white flowers of these plants soon after this Bulletin reaches its Boston readers. Shad Bushes have been largely used in the plantations along many of the drives, and the general collection of all species is in the border between the Meadow Road and the parallel walk on the left-hand side entering from the Jamaica Plain gateway. Two of the species are native plants in the Arboretum, Amelanri~,ier laevis and A. oblongifolia. The first is a tree of considerable size, and an inhabitant of rich upland woods and dry banks. A. oblongifolia is a large shrub rather than a tree, although tree-like specimens sometimes occur. It is easily distinguished from A. laevis by the silver color of the young leaves which at this season of the year are thickly covered with silky hairs. The earliest of all these plants to flower, A. canadensis, is a tree sometimes growing to a height of fifty feet and from A. laevis easily distinguished by the covering of pale hairs on the lower surface of the leaves. This handsome tree is distributed from western New York to Louisiana and is the common Amelanchier of the southern states. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifliin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 21","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23662","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270ab6c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 21, 1917 Plums and Apricots. Many Plum-trees are covered this year with flowers and flower-buds. The earliest of them to flower is probably a plant of Prunus salicina, better known as Prunus triflora, which was received a few years ago from a German Nursery under the name of Prunus kurdica, a species from central Asia with small black fruit, first known by a tree cultivated in Vienna. The German plant flowers a few days earlier than the plants of P. salicina raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China, and differs from them in the lighter-colored bark of the stem and branches. It bears large yellow fruit slightly tinged with red, with thick succulent flesh of excellent quality, and seems worth the attention of pomologists in the northern states. Prunus salicina, which is the most important Plum-tree of eastern Asia, is best known as the origin of the so-called Japanese Plums now largely cultivated in the United States. The plants of P. salicina raised from Wilson's seeds are blooming well this year, and although the flowers of these trees are only about three-quarters of an inch in diameter they are so abundant that, apart from the value of their fruit, they are well worth a place in the garden for their flowers. Prunus Simonii. This native of Northern China is blooming more abundantly this year than usual. It is conspicuous among Plum trees for the erect-growing branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. It produces red sweet fruit of fair quality, and under the name of the Apricot Plum it has been much propagated by American pomologists and largely grown in this country, especially in the Pacific States. This tree is hardy but in the Arboretum it has been short-lived, and in this part of the country is only worth growing as a curiosity. Prunus nigra. Among American Plums in the Arboretum collection the so-called Canada Plum, Prunus nigra, is the earliest to bloom. It is a native of the northern border of the United States from New Brunswick westward, and is distinguished from the more southern Prunus a~nericana by its larger and earlier flowers, the blunt teeth of the leaves and by the darker and closer bark. The flowers turn pink as they fade. The Canada Plum has produced some excellent seedling forms of garden Plums like Cheney, Itasca, Aitkin and Oxford which are esteemed and largely grown by pomologists. The flowers of the Canadian Plum will soon be followed by those of Prunus americana, of the blue-fruited P. alleghaniensis, a native of southern Connecticut and western Pennsylvania, an interesting species of considerable ornamental value, of Prunus Watsonii, the little Sand Plum of Kansas and Oklahoma, of Prunus Munsoniana of the Kansas to Texas region, the wild form of the Wild Goose and many other varieties cultivated for their fruit, and of Prunus hortulana, a native of the region from southern Illinois to southern Missouri and Oklahoma. This is perhaps the handsomest of the American Plum trees and one of the last to flower. In cultivation it is a round-topped tree with widespreading branches. The flowers are small, often not more than half of an inch in diameter, and open before the leaves which are narrow, long-pointed and lustrous. The globose fruit is scarlet, very lustrous, and looks like a large cherry. Forms of this tree like Golden Beauty, Kanawha, Wayland and Cumberland, are grown and distributed by nurserymen as fruit trees; but without regard to the edible value of its fruit Prunus hortulana is worth a place in every northern garden for its beauty of habit, foliage and fruit. The Plum trees are planted at the entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road, and there is a supplementary collection of young plants with many American species and varieties near the top of Peter's Hill. Prunus dasycarpa. In the Arboretum this tree has been for many springs covered with its large showy flowers. This is the Purple or Black Apricot, so-called on account of the dull purple color of the fruit. It is a small tree with a short trunk covered with dark bark, and wide-spreading branches. A native of eastern Siberia or Manchuria, this Apricot is very hardy and is well worth cultivating in the northern states as a flowering plant, for the fruit, which has rarely ripened in the Arboretum, has little value in comparison with that of the common Apricot. A Japanese Apricot under the name of \"Mikado,\" a form of the common Apricot (Prunus Armeniaca), has been grown in the Arboretum for several years where it makes a small tree with erect branches and, flowering freely every spring, has proved here one of the handsomest and most satisfactory plants of its class. Prunus triloba. Among the flowers of early spring few are more lovely than those of this small Almond from northern China which, in spite of the fact that it has flowered in the Arboretum every spring for the last twenty years, is still very little known, although the form with double flowers (var. plena) is a common garden plant in this country and is often successfully forced under glass for winter bloom. The single-flowered plant should be better known. It is a tall shrub of rather open irregular habit of growth. The flowers, which are pure clear pink in color, are produced every year in profusion, and among the shrubs introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum in the last thirty years none excel the single-flowered form of P. triloba in the beauty of their flowers. This shrub can be seen on the right-hand side of Forest Hills Road not far below the entrance. It can also be seen with Prunus tomentosa by the path leading from the Meadow Road through the woods into the Shrub Collection. Early Lilacs. The earliest Lilacs to bloom here, the white-flowered Syringa a~nis, and its variety with mauve-colored flowers (var. Giraldii), and S. Meyeri, are rapidly opening their flower-buds. S. affinis and its variety are tall shrubs of open habit and, except in their flowers, have no decorative value. The individual flowers are small but are borne in large loose clusters, and are exceedingly and pleasantly fragrant. S. affinis is not known as a wild plant but is the common and perhaps the only Lilac cultivated in Peking, where it has been largely used in the Imperial and Mandarin gardens. The variety is a wild plant in the region southwest of Peking. S. Meyeri was found in a Chinese garden by the traveller whose name it bears, and is not known as a wild plant. As it grows in the Arboretum it is a shrub beginning to flower when not more than a foot high, and covering itself with small compact clusters of small dark purple very fragrant flowers. This interesting addition to the genus Syringa will probably never become a popular garden plant, although it may prove useful to the hybridizer. The Norway Maple. Only a few of the important trees of western Europe really succeed in eastern North America, although for more than a century they received more attention at the hands of American planters than our native species. There are, of course, some exceptions to this general statement. The forms of the White and of the Fragile Willow, some of the Poplars, the Beech, the Lindens, the Elms, the Birches and the Norway Maple are as much at home in southern New England and the middle states as they are in England, and probably grow here more rapidly than they do in their native countries where there is smaller although more regularly distributed rainfall and less summer heat. None of the European trees have been more generally planted in the eastern states during the last fifty years than one of the Maples (Acer platanoides), the so-called Norway Maple, although it is not an exclusively Scandinavian tree, but is widely spread over the continent and reaches the Caucasus. The Norway Maple has a round-topped head and is sometines one hundred feet high, although specimens of this size have not been produced in America. It has comparatively smooth bark, smooth pale branches, and lustrous leaves with pointed lobes which in the autumn turn clear bright yellow. The flowers, which open before the leaves, are greenish yellow, and are arranged in compact round clusters. The fruit, which is also in clusters, is smooth with horizontally spreading wings. This tree is now in bloom, and among the trees of large size which can grow in this climate only the Red Maple and some of the Willows are more conspicuous in early spring. It is not surprising that this tree has been such a favorite in the United States for it is handsome throughout the year; it bears well the hard conditions of city life, and grows better at the seashore than most of the native trees, The seedlings of few trees have shown a greater tendency to variation, and many of the varieties of the Norway Maple have been largely propagated by European nurserymen. There are a dozen of the most distinct of these varieties in the Arboretum collection, and among them are some handsome plants. The variety columnare is one of the best of the trees with fastigiate branches although it is broader and less columnar than the form of the Sugar Maple with erect growing branches (Acer saccharum, var. monumentale). One of the handsomest of dwarf trees is the variety globosum, a round-topped bush branching from the ground. There is a good specimen in the Arboretum collection planted in 1888, and now about eight feet high, and broader than tall. Forms of this tree with deeply divided leaves are var. dissecta and var. cucullata, the Eagle Claw Maple. These are small trees which are more curious than beautiful. The most popular of the varieties of the Norway Maple is the variety Schwedleri. Early in the season this tree has bright red leaves which before summer are dark dull green. The color of the spring leaves attracts nurserymen, and this tree has been planted largely in the neighborhood of eastern cities. The dull unnatural color of the mature leaves makes this, however, an undesirable tree for general planting. More attractive is the variety Stolli2 with large three-lobed leaves, purple as they unfold but later dark green. This is one of the most distinct of all the forms of the Norway Maple in the Arboretum collection. The Sugar Maple (Acer saccharum) is also in bloom and, although the flowers do not make so much show as those of the Norway Maple, as they are paler in color and arranged in drooping clusters, they are more delicate and better worth close inspection by the lovers of beautiful flowers. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifliin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 28","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23663","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270af6e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 28, 1917 Crab-apples. These plants for the decoration of northern gardens are of first-rate importance, and from its early days much attention has been paid at the Arboretum to the collection and study of the different species, hybrids and varieties. The flowering of the Crabapples is one of the important Arboretum events and, although the season is ten or twelve days late, some of the Asiatic species are already in bloom and during three or four weeks Apple blossoms can be seen here. From the Crab-apple of southeastern Europe and western and central Asia (Malus pumila) most of the Apples of our orchards have been developed, although in some of these the blood of the Crab of northern and central Europe (Malus sylvestris) can be traced. The Paradise Apple is a very dwarf form of Malus pumila used by nurserymen as a stock for dwarf pomological varieties. The first of the Crab-apples of eastern Asia known to Europeans (Malus baccata) was first cultivated in Europe one hundred and thirty years ago. It is a native of eastern Siberia, and is a tall, narrow tree with large white flowers appearing with the leaves, and fruit the size of a large pea. The Siberian Crab, as it is popularly called, is a handsome, very hardy plant; its great value, however, is that, crossed with the cultivated Apple-tree, it has given rise to a race of Apples like the Hyslop and the Transcendent Crabs which can be grown in regions too cold for the successful cultivation of the ordinary Apple. These hybrids are known as Siberian Crabs, and many named varieties can now be found in nurseries in the extreme northern part of the country. They are fast-growing, erect and shapely trees, and well worth a place in northern gardens for the beauty of their flowers and brilliant scarlet or yellow fruits which are usually oblong or ovate in shape and from an inch to an inch and a half in length. The fruit is acid but makes excellent jellies and preserves for which it is largely used. Malus baccata has been used in cold regions as a stock on which to graft the ordinary Apple, but its liability to the blight which attacks Pear-trees reduces its value for this purpose. The largest specimen of Malus baccata in the neighborhood of Boston is standing in front of the gardener's house in the Harvard Botanic Garden in Cambridge. One of the handsomest ofthe Crab-apples in the Arboretum collection is a Korean variety of Malus baccata which has been distinguished as var. Jackii. It was raised here in 1905 from seed collected by Mr. Jack near Seoul. The plants, although still small, are shapely in habit with straight clean stems and regularly spaced spreading branches; the leaves are thick, long-stalked, from four to six inches in length, dark dull green above and pale below; the flowers are pure white and nearly two inches in diameter, and the dark crimson shining fruits, which are often half an inch long, hang gracefully on long drooping stems. A widely distributed form of Malus baccata, the var. mandshurica, differs in its broader, more or less hairy leaves. This tree is distributed from the Amoor region to western China and Japan where it is common northward, and in Hokkaido is often found in Alder woods in the neighborhood of the coast. Malus prunifolia. In one of its forms (var. rinki) this tree has been the most economically valuable of all the Asiatic Apple-trees. Malus prunifolia, although it has been known in western gardens for many years, is still unknown as a wild plant, but Wilson found growing wild its variety rinki in central and western China. This variety differs from Malus prunifolia in the shape of the leaves and the amount of their hairy covering, and in the shape and color of the fruit which varies from greenish yellow to yellow or red. This is the Apple which has been cultivated by the Chinese probably for centuries. The fruit of the cultivated tree seen by Wilson was rarely more than an inch and a quarter in diameter, green or greenish yellow with a rosy cheek, or sometimes almost entirely red and had a pleasant bitter-sweet flavor. He found that the fruit grown in the cold region near the Tibetan border was of better quality than that produced in the warmer regions further east. Until the coming of foreigners into Japan introduced American and European varieties of Apples the var. rinki was a commonly cultivated fruit tree in Hondo, although now it has almost entirely disappeared from Japan. Only the Apples already mentioned, Malus sylvestris of western and northern Europe, M. pumila of southeastern Europe and western and central Asia, M. baccata of eastern Siberia, M. prunifolia, var. rinki of western China, and the species of eastern North America are of economic importance to man. The fruits of the last are sometimes used domestically in making jellies and preserves but are not in very general use. All the other Crab-apples are only valuable for the beauty of their flowers and fruits in the decoration of gardens. The American Crab-apples bloom later than the Old World species, and their flowers do not open until the leaves are well grown. The flowers are more or less deeply tinged with pink or rose color and are exceedingly fragrant. The fruits of the eastern species are depressed-globose, light green, sometimes turning pale yellow when fully ripe, lustrous, covered with a waxy exudation, and more fragrant than the fruit of other Apple-trees. The fruit falls without having become soft, and remains on the ground a long time without losing its shape. The fruit of the northwestern species (M. fusca) is oblong, not more than threequarters of an inch in length, yellow-green or yellow often flushed with red, or occasionally entirely red. The flesh of this little apple is thin and dry. The American Crab-apples are good plants for wood borders and forest glades, and can be used to advantage with the Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida), the different Shad Bushes (Amelanchier), and some of the American Hawthorns to enliven forest parks and country roadsides. American Crab-apples, however, are still little known or appreciated by American gardeners, and only one of them, the so-called Bechtel Crab, a double-flowered form of M. ioensis of the Mississippi Valley, is found in American nurseries. The flowers of this tree resemble small double pink roses and attract more attention than almost any other plant in the Arboretum. Among the handsomest of the species of eastern Asia as flowering plants are :-- Malus floribunda is probably the best known and the most generally cultivated Crab-apple in this part of the country. When grown naturally it is a broad, tall, round-topped bush, rather than a tree, with wide-spreading branches. The flowers as they open are red and, passing through different shades of rose color, become almost white before the petals fall. The fruit is not much larger han a pea. This plant is one of the most satisfactory of all flowering shrubs which can be grown in this climate for it has never yet been injured by~ cold, heat, or drought, and never fails to produce its flowers every spring. On some of these plants the fruit drops in early autumn, and on other seedling plants raised in the Arboretum it remains on the branches until early spring and furnishes birds with great supplies of winter food, and for the benefit of the birds plants of this variety should be selected. There are a number of these plants close to the Administration Building where during the winter they are much frequented by pheasants who find shelter in a neighboring Pine grove. A hybrid of Malus floribunda, and one of the hybrid forms of M. baccata appeared spontaneously in the Arboretum, and has been called Malus Arnoldiana; it has the low-branched habit of M. floribunda but the flowers and fruits are more than a third larger. This is one of the handsomest of all Crab-apples. Other Crab-apples to which special attention is called are:-Malus Halliana, var. Parkmanii, the double-flowered form of a Chinese tree, long cultivated by the Japanese and introduced into this country from Japan more than forty years ago. The bright rose-colored flowers hang on long slender stems and differ in color from those of any other Crabapple ; Malus Sargentii, a shrub from northern Japan with wide-spreading branches, pure white flowers with bright yellow anthers, and scarlet fruit which remains on the branches until spring and appears to be unpalatable to birds; M. Sieboldii, a Japanese plant better known perhaps under the incorrect name of M. toringo, and the last of the Asiatic species in the collection to bloom. There are both shrubby and arborescent forms of this plant which has small nearly white flowers produced in immense quantities and minute fruit which is bright red on some individuals and yellow on others. The variety callicarpa of this species is one of the handsomest of the Crab-apples in the collection both in spring and autumn. It is a broad tree-like shrub or small tree with slightly lobed leaves, pink and white flowers an inch in diameter, and brilliant scarlet, lustrous fruits which are half an inch in diameter and are more beautiful perhaps than those of any other Crab-apple. This beautiful plant is little known in gardens and was raised in the Arboretum from seed presented in 1890 by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow, of Boston. It is impossible in one of these bulletins to more than mention a few of the most important plants in this group, but something will be said of others as they begin to flower. The old Crab-apple Collection is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road next to the group of wild Pear-trees, and a much larger and more complete collection is at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Rhododendron (Azalea) poukhanense. Another year adds to the good opinion we have of this plant at the Arboretum, for New England winters have no bad effects on it and it is blooming on Azalea Path more freely perhaps than ever this spring. This low, compact, roundtopped Korean shrub is well suited for the decoration of the rock garden and to use in small beds or borders. The large rose-pink flowers are unusually fragrant among those of plants of this class. Pyrus Calleryana. This Pear-tree, which is widely distributed in central China, is flowering well for the first time in the Arboretum, and can be seen in the new collection of Chinese trees of the Rose Family on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The flowers are smaller than those of Pyrus Bretschneideri and P. ovoidea, Chinese Pear-trees now in flower in the old Pear Group on the Forest Hills Road, and the small fruit is of no value. This may be a really valuable tree, however, as some American Pomologists are of the opinion that it may prove a blight resisting stock on which to graft garden varieties of the Pear. As the Arboretum plants are the only ones in America large enough to bloom it will require several years to obtain plants enough thoroughly to test its value for this purpose."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 1","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23655","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260bb25.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 1, 1917 Lilacs. The Lilac of old gardens with its purple or white fragrant flowers, hardy, long-lived, easily increased by shoots from the roots, resistant to all sorts of climate, known to every boy and girl brought up in the country, is in New England what \"The May\" (Crataegus) is in Old England, the best loved of all shrubs. It is loved but not respected. No one hesitates to break down a Lilac-bush for the flowers. Without the protection of special policemen the Arboretum Lilacs would be exterminated in a day. It is impossible to protect Lilao flowers in public parks and city squares, and every year city hawkers in search of them extend their depredations further into the suburbs; and in Lilac season automobiles loaded with stolen mutilated Lilac branches covered with wilted flowers are common objects along all the roads leading into Boston. The first Lilac to get a place in European gardens was the plant which only slightly modified is still to be found growing in the neighborhood of many old New England farm-houses. This plant (Syringa vulgaris) reached western Europe in 1597 by the way of Constantinople and Vienna. It was long believed to have come originally from Persia and it is only in comparatively recent years that it has been known that this Lilac was a native of the mountain forests of Bulgaria. Plants raised at the Arboretum from seeds of the wild Bulgarian plants are growing.with the other Lilacs in the collection, and it is interesting to compare the flowers of the wild type with those which cultivators have produced in the last half century. Another Lilac, the so-called Persian Lilac (Syringa persica), a native of the region from the Caucasus to Afghanistan, was known in England as early as 1658. This is a smaller plant than the common Lilac, with slender stems, narrower leaves, and smaller but very fragrant flowers. The flowers are pale lilac color but there is a form with nearly white flowers, and one on which the leaves are deeply divided (var. laciniata). The Per~ sian Lilac blooms usually ten days later than the common Lilac and is a beautiful garden plant, but is probably less often cultivated than it was a century ago. It is of particular interest, however, as one of the parents of the first hybrid Lilac, the other being Syringa vulgaris. This hybrid appeared in the Botanic Garden at Rouen, France, early in the nineteenth century and through a mistaken idea of its origin was named Syranga chinensis. It is sometimes called Syringa rothomagensis. This hybrid is one of the most valuable of all Lilacs. It grows quickly to a large size; it is very hardy and blooms freely every year, In shape the leaves resemble those of the Persian Lilac but are broader; the flowers, too, recall those of the Persian Lilac, but they are larger and are produced in long massive clusters sometimes nearly two feet in length, and so heavy that the slender branches do not well support them. The flowers are reddish purple but there are forms with darker red flowers and with nearly white flowers. In a recent issue of The Garden Magazine, Mr. Theodore A. Havemeyer describes the development of the modern Lilacs, which, according to him, date from 1843, no mention in his paper being made of Syringa chinensis. In 1843 a nurseryman at Liege, in Belgium, produced a Lilac with small double flowers. Nothing is said of its parentage, but as it was called Syringa vulgaris fLore pleno Lzbarti, and later Syringa vulgaris azurea plena, it was probably a seedling of the common Lilac and not a hybrid. This plant is not in the Arboretum collection, and if it is known to any reader of this Bulletin the Arboretum will be glad to hear from him, for although it probably has little to recommend it as an ornamental plant this Lilac has historical interest and for that reason should find a place in the Arboretum collection. It was this plant that Lemoine, the French hybridizer, selected as the seed-bearing parent in his first attempt to improve the garden Lilacs, fertilizing the flowers with pollen of the handsomest varieties of the common Lilac of that day and of a Chinese species, Syrmga oblata,'= which had been found by Fortune in a Shanghai garden and sent by him to England nearly sixty years ago. This Chinese Lilac is distinguished from all other Lilacs by the broad, thick, lustrous leaves which turn deep wine color in the autumn. The flowers are light lilac color, exceptionally fragrant, and are borne in short, compact clusters. This is one of the earliest Lilacs to bloom here, but unfortunately the flower-buds are often injured or destroyed by late frosts. For this reason, although the flowers are not surpassed in color and fragrance by those of many Lilacs, this plant cannot be recommended for general cultivation in this part of the country. The crossing of- Syringa oblata and S. vulgaris azurea plena produced a plant which has been called Syringa hyacinthiflora. This is a vigorous shapely shrub with leaves the shape of those of its Chinese par23 ent, which turns reddish in autumn but without the brilliant colors of the Chinese plant. The flowers are small and double, in~small clusters, bluish lilac and as fragrant as those of S. oblata. This plant is interesting as the secontt( of the four species-hybrids of Lilacs which are now known, and valuable for its very early fragrant flowers. It has probably played, too, an important part in the improvement of the double-flowered forms of the common Lilac which have been produced in recent years by Lemoine and other European nurserymen. Syringa hyacinthiflora is not often found in American gardens, but it is well established~in the Arboretum collection. By fertilizing the flowers of Syringa vulgaris azurea plenct with the varieties of the common Lilac Lemoine produced the first important double-flowered Lilacs, S. Lemoinei and others, and by again crossing these with improved forms of the common Lilac the double-flowered Lilacs of recent years have been made. By the crossing of varieties and by careful selection the flowers of the common Lilac have been gradually changed in size and in color in the last thirty years, but unfortunately the flowers of some modern Lilacs have lost a good deal of the fragrance of the old-fashioned Lilac, which, once enjoyed, is never forgotten. There are too many varieties of the common Lilac now cultivated. Some of them with different names given to seedlings in different nurseries and often in different countries are identical, and others are so much alike that they can only be distinguished by close comparison. There are more than two hundred of these named varieties of Syringa vulgaris now in cultivation. It is important to cultivate them all in the Arboretum for study and comparison, but in a private garden everything that is best in the forms of Syringa vulgaris can be found in not over a dozen of the singleflowered and a dozen of the double-flowered forms. The Arboretum does not undertake to name the twenty-four best varieties. The selection must be left to the person who is going to plant them, for no two persons agree about Lilac flowers. There are between one hundred and sixty and one hundred and seventy named varieties of this Lilac in the Arboretum collection. The flowers are fast-opening, and the best way for persons living in the neighborhood of Boston to make their selection is to study the Arboretum collection, and make notes on the color and size of the flowers and the size and shape of the flower-clusters. In planting Lilacs it must be remembered that plants on their own roots are superior to those which have been grafted on other varieties ofthecommon Lilac, for Lilacs produce many root-suckers. These often grow vigorously, so that a person who buys a fine named variety may in a few years find that the suckers from the root on which it was grafted have overpowered and killed his named variety, or that he has a bush producing on different branches flowers of his original purchase and of the stock. Nurserymen also use the Privet as a stock on which to graft Lilacs. But Lilacs should never be grafted. Although they can be propagated in winter by cuttings of hard wood, the best way is to make soft wood cuttings in late June or early July. American nurserymen rarely adopt this method for it takes a little longer to produce saleable plants than it does by grafting, but the plants on their own roots are so much more valuable than grafted plants that no one should ever buy a grafted Lilac. Syringa pinnatifolia is one of the Lilacs discovered by Wilson in western China which has flowered this year for the first time in the Arboretum. The small nearly white flowers in small short clusters opened ten days ago; they are less beautiful than those of almost any other Lilac, but the plant is of considerable interest, as it is the only Lilac with pinnate leaves. It is with the other Chinese Lilacs on the path at the top of the bank on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road occupied by the Lilac Collection. Rhododendron (Azalea) Kaempferi. Plants of this handsome redflowered Japanese Azalea on Azalea Path where they are fully exposed to the sun have been in flower for a week, although plants in the shade on the northern side of Hemlock Hill will not open their flowers for several days. The flowers are very delicate and are easily injured by the sun, and it is best to plant this shrub among trees in partial shade or on the northern side of conifers. This Azalea has been growing in the Arboretum for more than twenty years and is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts. Late in May or early in June no other shrub makes a more brilliant show of color. Buckeyes. The first of the Horsechestnuts, or Buckeyes as the species of eastern North America are called, to flower this year is the form of the Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra) from northwestern Missouri, the variety Buckleyi with leaves composed of seven instead of five leaflets. It was followed in a few days by the flowers of the normal tree. The Ohio Buckeye is a comparatively small tree which begins to flower when less than ten feet high, and the clusters of small yellow or greenish yellow flowers are not showy. It is interesting as the only American species with prickly fruit like that of the Old World Horsechestnuts. Different Buckeyes and Horsechestnuts will be in bloom for several weeks and among them are some of the handsomest of flowering trees. The Aesculus Collection is a large one and has been arranged next to the Lindens on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 18 Plympton Street, Cambridge. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 9","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23660","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270a36a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 77 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. JUNE 9, 1917 Double-flowered Cherries. Small plants covered with flowers of two of the handsomest of the double-Powered Japanese Cherries can be seen in the Cherry Collection on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road. They are varieties of Prunus serrulata, var. sachalinensis, the so-called Sargent Cherry, and are named fugenzo and albo-rosea. The first has rose-pink flowers and bronze-colored young leaves, and is believed to be one of the most beautiful of all double-flowered Cherries. This plant has become common in English gardens under the name of \"James H. Veitch.\" In Japan it is called \"kofugen\" or \"benifugen.\" The form albo-rosea has pink flower-buds which become white as the flowers open. Like those of the form fugenzo the flowers have two green leafy carpels in the centre and these distinguish these two varieties from all the other Japanese double-flowered Cherries. There are twelve other double-flowered forms of the Sargent Cherry among the seventy-five varieties of different species of Cherries cultivated by the Japanese for the beauty of their flowers and introduced into the Arboretum by Wilson two years ago. In the last fifty years many attempts have been made to cultivate some of these plants in the United States and Europe but with no great success, and they are now imported in considerable numbers every year into the United States from Japanese nurseries. Such plants, however, are short-lived and unsatisfactory, and from studies of these Cherries in Japan Mr. Wilson became convinced that it was the stock on which they were worked in Japan as well as in the United States and Europe that was the cause of their failure, and that the only hardy, long-lived reliable stock for them was the wild type of the Sargent Cherry. If his con26 clusions are correct, there seems no reason why these double-flowered forms should not grow here to be large and long-lived trees. The double-flowered Japanese Cherries bloom later than the trees with single flowers and in normal seasons just before or with the Lilacs; they remain in flower for several days, and if they prove really successful when the proper stock is used on which to graft them the beauty and interest of the spring gardens of the United States will be greatly increased. Rhododendron (Azalea) japonicum. This Azalea, although the flowers are less brilliant than those of the now better known R. (Azalea) Kaempferi, is probably the handsomest of the hardy Azaleas of eastern Asia. The flowers are flame color and rather more than three inches in diameter. As it grows here this Azalea is a round-topped, rather compact, hardy shrub blooming freely every year. It was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892 and has been growing in the Arboretum as long as R. Kaempferi. Long confused here with the Azalea mollis of gardens, less attention has been paid to it, and it is only recently that its specific characters and value have been understood. One of the parents of the hybrid A. mollis of gardens it is a handsomer, longer-lived, and more satisfactory plant than that popular and well-known Azalea. In gardens Rhododendron japonicum is still one of the rarest of all the hardy Azaleas. It is now in bloom on the lower side of Azalea Path where there is a group of large and small plants. An early-flowering Hawthorn. The first Hawthorn to bloom in the Arboretum every year is Crataegus nxgra, a native of southeastern Europe. The Arboretum specimen is a shapely tree from fifteen to eighteen feet high, with a broad compact head and a well-formed trunk covered with pale scaly bark. The leaves are broad, deeplylobed, covered below with soft hairs, and grayish green in color. The flowers are hardly more than half an inch in diameter, with twenty stamens and anthers faintly tinged with rose, and are borne in small compact clusters. As the flowers fade the petals turn rose color. As a flowering tree Crataegus nigra is less beautiful than many of the American Thorns, but the black and lustrous fruit is unusual in color among Thorn trees. The color of the fruit and the earliness of the flowers make this an interesting addition, however, to the list of small trees with showy flowers which can be successfuily cultivated in Massachusetts. A few American Thorns. Several of the early large-flowered American Thorns have been in bloom for several days and are conspicuous and beautiful objects. Among them may be mentioned Crataegus Arnoldiana, C. Ellwangeriana, C. pedxcellata and C. coccxnioxdes. C. Arnoldiana is easily distinguished even in winter by its conspicuously zigzag branchlets armed with long straight thorns; the flowers with their ten stamens and yellow anthers are in broad, many-flowered clusters, and late in August, when the trees are covered with their bright scarlet fruit dotted with white and three-quarters of an inch in diameter, they are more beautiful even than at the end of May. On account of its early ripening and showy fruit this is one of the best of the American Hawthorns for the decoration of summer gardens. C. Ellwangeriana is common in the neighborhood of Rochester, N. Y., and ranges into Pennsylvania, Ontario and Michigan. It is a tree sometimes twenty feet tall with wide-spreading horizontal branches and a tall trunk often a foot in diameter, flowers an inch across with ten stamens and rose-colored anthers, and large oblong scarlet fruit ripening and falling at the end of September or early in October. C. pedacettata is one of the commonest arborescent species in the western New York-Ontario region, and is often twenty feet high with a tall trunk and ascending and spreading branches. The flowers are half an inch in diameter with ten stamens and rose-colored anthers, and the large oblong fruit is bright scarlet. C. coccinioides is distinct in its very compact, few-flowered, nearly globose clusters of large flowers with twenty stamens and large, dark rose-colored anthers. The fruit, which ripens early in October and falls gradually during a month or six weeks, is subglobose, much flattened at the ends, slightly angled, bright scarlet and nearly an inch in diameter. C. coccinioides is a native of the region in the neighborhood of St. Louis, Missouri, and is one of the handsomest and most distinct of American Thorns. Many other young Thorn trees are now in bloom in the new Crataegus plantation on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill, and during the next four or five weeks there will be an opportunity to examine there the flowers of three or four hundred species of these plants. Cotoneaster multiflora, var. calocarpa. This is the first of the new Chinese Cotoneasters to flower this year. It is a shrub with slender gracefully arching stems and narrow blue-green leaves. The arching of the stems brings the flowers, which are borne in erect clusters on short lateral branches, into a conspicuous position and there is now in the Arboretum no shrub in bloom more graceful in habit or more charming in the arrangement of its flowers. The fruit of this species is dull red and about one quarter of an inch in diameter. This plant can be seen in the large collection of Chinese Cotoneasters on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. It is now well worth examination, as are all the species in this group, for among them are some of the most beautiful of all shrubs of recent introduction. Malus theifera. This Crab-apple, which was introduced by Wilson from western China, is flowering this year in the Arboretum for the third time and gives every promise here of increasing the number of trees with beautiful flowers which can be grown successfully in this climate. In habit this Crab-apple differs from all others in its stiff, wide-spreading and slightly ascending branches which make an unusually open head. The flowers are light pink and about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and when they cover the branches the plants look like Cherry-trees rather than Apple-trees. The fruit ripens in October and is yellowish green or red and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. The name theifercc has been given to this plant as the Chinese living on the'mountains in central and western China use the dried leaves as a substitute for tea. The best plant of this beautiful little tree in the Arboretum is in the collection at the base of Peter's Hill. Magnolia Fraseri. This is the first of the American Magnolias to bloom in the Arboretum and has now been in flower for several days. It is a small tree rarely more than forty feet high with an open head of long branches, leaves often a foot in length and deeply divided at the base, and creamy-white, sweet-scented flowers eight or ten inches in diameter and very conspicuous, as they stand well above the ends of the branches. This Magnolia is a native of the southern Appalachian region, and, although it has not been found yet growing naturally north of southwestern Virginia, it is perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts. The flowers of the Cucumber-tree, M. acuminata, and of M. cordata soon follow and are already beginning to open. The American Magnolias were once highly prized, especially in Europe, as ornamental trees, but, with the exception of M. macrophylla and M. ac~minczta, they are now difficult to find in American nurseries, although as a group few trees are better worth a place in northern parks and gardens. The American Magnolias are on the right hand side and close to the Jamaica Plain entrance. Syringa pubescens. Attention is called again to this Lilac from northern China, for it is still too little known, although some persons who know it best consider that it is better worth a place in the garden than any other species or variety of Lilac. It is a native of northern China, and is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves, and bro:~d clusters of pale lilac-colored flowers remarkable for the long tube of the corolla and for their delicate fragrance. For this fragrance, if for no other reason, this Lilac should find a place in every northern garden. The plant in the Arboretum collection is now covered with opening flowers. Prunus Padus, var. commutata. This variety of the Old World Bird Cherry is probably a native of eastern Siberia or Manchuria, and is interesting in the fact that it puts forth its leaves ten or twelve days earlier than any other tree in eastern Massachusetts. It blooms, too, two weeks earlier than the American or the other Old World Bird Cherries. The pure white flowers are borne in long pendant racemes and are exceedingly fragrant. The fruit is not known here. The seed from which this plant was raised was sent from the Botanic Garden at Petrograd in 1878, incorrectly named Prunus Maackii, under which name the young plants were distributed from the Arboretum, and as Prunus Maackii it is still cultivated and much esteemed in some Illinois gardens. Prunus Padus, var. commutata, has also been cultivated in this country under the name of Prunus Grayana which is a Japanese Bird Cherry still rarely found in American gardens. It is one of the handsomest arborescent shrubs or small trees of its class; it grows with remarkable rapidity, is perfectly hardy and never fails to produce great crops of flowers. Although the early leaves have never been injured here, in regions where severe spring frosts prevail they might be destroyed. Prunus Maackii. The true Prunus Maackii is in bloom. It is a tree with a well-formed trunk covered with bright orange-coloredlbark separating readily into thin plates, short erect clusters of small white flowers, and small black fruit. The only interesting things about this tree are its Birch-like bark which differs from that of any other Bird Cherry and its rarity in gardens. It can be seen near the entrance to the Shrub Collection at the Forest Hills Gate. There are other specimens in the mixed plantation near the top of Peter's Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23656","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd2608126.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 15, 1917 Wisterias. All the species and varieties of Wisteria have now been arranged on the trellis near the Forest Hills Road with the exception of the white-flowered form of W. sinensis, W. japonica and the doubleflowered form of W. venusta. The first appears to be an exceedingly rare plant; it was found by Fortune in Chinese gardens and first flowered in England in 1849, and Wilson saw occasional plants on the cliffs near Ichang in central China. This plant has never been in the Arboretum. There was a plant in Francis Parkman's garden in Jamaica Plain which flowered in 1880 but has now disappeared; there is said to be a specimen in a garden in Connecticut, and there are two splendid old plants in gardens in Opelousas, Louisiana. It is wanted for the Arboretum collection. Wisteria japonica is a smaller plant than the other Asiatic species, with slender stems and small clusters of pale yellow flowers. This plant flowered in the Dana collection at Dosoria, ' Long Island, in 1879, and once many years ago produced a few flowers in the Arboretum. It is a native of the warmer parts of Japan, and not really hardy in the northern states. There are two American species native of the middle and southern states; the best known of these, Wisteria frutescens, is the more northern plant and is a slender vine with short compact clusters of comparatively small fragrant flowers. It is a less showy plant than the other species but is interesting as the first of the Wisterias cultivated in the United States and Europe. There is a white-flowered variety (var. alba). A handsomer plant is Wisteria macrostachya from the Missouri-Louisiana-Texas region but fortunately perfectly hardy 30 in Massachusetts. It has much larger flowers in longer racemes than the other American species from which it can be distinguished by its longer calyx-lobes and by the glandular hairs on the calyx and flowerstalks. A fine form of this plant was once common in gardens under the name of Wisteria magnxfcca which has often been incorrectly considered a variety of W. frutescens. Another form with blue and white flowers has been described under the name of var. atbo-lilacma. W. macrostachya, although the flowers are less showy than those of the Asiatic species, is a beautiful plant which is too little known in gardens. The American Wisterias bloom later than the Asiatic species and prolong the Wisteria season for several weeks. ' Wisteria venusta. The earliest of the Wisterias to flower is W. venusta, and although this plant had been sent to the United States and Europe for several years by Japanese nurserymen, nothing was really known about it until Wilson's visit to Japan in 1914 when he found that it was a distinct and undescribed species distinguished by broad clusters, not more than six inches long, of very large flowers on stems an inch and a quarter in length and by the soft hairs which cover the lower surface of the leaves through the season. This plant, although it has long been grown in Japanese gardens where there are very large specimens, is not Japanese, and it is now believed to be an albino form of the blue-flowered Wisteria which is cultivated in Peking and other gardens of northern China but which has not yet been described by botanists or brought to this country. If this opinion of the origin of W. venusta is correct it should prove hardier than any of the other Asiatic Wisterias and perhaps make it possible to extend much further northward the successful cultivation of these plants. The flower-buds of W. venusta are well developed in the autumn and it is the easiest of all Wisterias to bring into bloom m the winter by artificial heat. There is a form with double flowers (var. plena) which is occasionally cultivated by Japanese florists and is known in England. Wisteria sinensis grows naturally in central and southern China, and is the common Wisteria in the gardens of the United States and one of the most vigorous of the hardy climbing plants of the northern hemisphere. In New England country gardens the flower-buds are often killed by cold, and it grows better on city houses where it is more protected than in the country. In the southern states, where it often grows to the tops of trees more than a hundred feet high, and in California it is seen in its greatest magmficence. The white-flowered form is the only variety of this plant which has yet been found. Wisteria floribunda. This is the common Japanese Wisteria and is found growing naturally only in the central and southern parts of that country. It has smaller and more fragrant flowers in narrower and more open clusters than the Chinese plant, and blooms here ten or twelve days later. This Wisteria is one of the most generally cultivated garden plants in Japan, and Wilson found in a garden at Kasukabe a plant which extended over a bamboo arbor one-sixth of an acre in extent and was covered with flower-clusters which measured up to sixty-four inches in length. This garden form with the long clusters has been distinguished as variety macrobotrys. On wild plants the flower-clusters are sometimes not more than ten inches long, and in their length this plant varies greatly. There is a beautiful form with pure white flowers (var. alba) which is becoming common in this country, another with flowers which are pure pink or white more or less tinged with pink (var. rosea), and another with leaves blotched with yellow {var. variegata). There is also a double-flowered form (var. violacea plena) which was first sent to this country in 1862 and first flowered here in the garden of Francis Parkman at Jamaica Plain. Fortunately this form blooms very rarely, for the flowers are ugly, something which cannot be said of any other Wisteria. Although the Japanese Wisteria is usually called W. multijuga in gardens, the oldest and correct name for it is W. floribunda. Early-flowering Diervillas or Weigelas. The earliest of these plants to flower in the Arboretum, and perhaps the handsomest of all the species, varieties and hybrids of Diervilla known in gardens, is the Korean form of D. florida discovered and introduced by Mr. Jack to which the varietal name venusta has been given. It is already a shrub here five feet tall and three or four feet through, and every spring is completely covered with dense clusters of rosy-pink flowers from an inch and a half to two inches in length. It is perfectly hardy, which cannot be said of all the garden Weigelas; it grows rapidly, and no shrub can bear larger crops of flowers. There is a plant now in full bloom on Hickory Path near the Pecan tree, and another in the Shrub Collection at the end of the Diervilla Collection near the Cherry-trees. Diervilla praecox. This name has been given to an early-flowering plant which has been sent from Japan to Europe but is not a native of Japan and is not known in its wild state, although it is probably a form of Dwrvilla florida from northern China. In the hands of Lemoine, the French hybridizer, a number of beautiful hybrids or varieties have been produced and are now in flower in the Shrub Collection. Among the handsomest of these are Seduction with red flowers, Esperance with pink flowers, Avant Garde with pale rose flowers, Vestale with white flowers, Gracieux with pink and white flowers, Floreal with rose-colored flowers, Conquerant with rose-colored flowers, and Fleur de Mai with pink flowers. These are less known but hardier and better garden plants here than many of the hybrid Weigelas more commonly cultivated. Rosa Hugonis. Judging by its appearance this year, no plant sent from China to our northern gardens equals this Rose in grace and beauty. The long gracefully arching branches are so thickly covered with flowers from end to end that the petals touch and make a continuous band of pale yellow. The individual flowers are about two and a half inches in diameter and have a delicate perfume; the leaves are small and pale green. It is a hardy and fast-growing shrub, and has every appearance of becoming a large plant. Perhaps no other single-flowered Rose is so beautiful, although the Cherokee Rose, another Chinese Rose (R. laevigata) naturalized in the southern states, has handsomer foliage and larger flowers, but the flowers of the Cherokee Rose are white and are not produced in such profusion, and in the north the Cherokee Rose can only be grown under glass. Rosa Hugonis and R. omeiensis, a tall-growing, white-flowered species from Western China, are the earliest Roses to flower in the Arboretum this year. 32 Rosa Ecae. This is another yellow-flowered Rose which is blooming well this year in the Shrub Collection and is only a little later than R. Hugonis. It is a spiny shrub with small leaves and pale yellow flowers not much more than an inch and a quarter in diameter. It is a native of Afghanistan where it is common on dry mountain ridges, and of Samarkand. Much less beautiful than R. Hugonis, it is worth a place in a collection of Roses, for species with yellow flowers which are hardy in this climate are few in number. Syringa Koehneana. This Lilac, which flowered for the first time in the Arboretum two years ago, is bearing a much more abundant crop of flowers than it has produced here before. It is a native of northern Korea, and is a very large, vigorous and hardy shrub with slender branches which bend under the broad open clusters of small rose-colored or pink flowers with long, slender corolla-tubes and not much perfume. The leaves are large, pointed and covered below with a coating of pale hairs. While it is not one of the handsomest Lilacs, it is an interesting addition to the number of species of this genus which can be successfully grown here. There are two large specimens, which have been in the Arboretum since 1902, on the bank next to the Forsythias at the lower end of the Lilac Collection. Aesculus Briotii. This is a form of the so-called red-flowered hybrid Horsechestnut (Aesculus carnea) and is now in bloom in the Aesculus Collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the Linden Group. It is the most brilliantly colored of all the forms of Aesculus carnea and few trees hardy in this climate bear such showy flowers. This tree begins to bloom when not more than eight or ten feet high; it is perfectly hardy and should be seen more generally in American gardens. Aesculus georgiana. This shrub, which is a native of central Georgia, is flowering freely again this spring and is now covered with its compact clusters of yellow and rose-colored flowers. This interesting and handsome shrub is able, apparently, to support perfectly the New England climate, and it is one of the handsomest of American shrubs made known and introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum. Aesculus discolor. The scarlet-flowered variety (var. mollis) of this Buckeye is blooming again this spring in the Arboretum, and there now seems little doubt that this southern shrub, or small tree, can adapt itself to New England conditions. On the typical Aesculus discolor the flowers have a red calyx and yellow petals generally more or less flushed with rose. It is a much less common plant than the variety mollis on which both the calyx and the corolla are bright red. The variety is a common plant in Georgia and Alabama, and ranges west to southeastern Missouri and to eastern Texas. Aesculus discolor and its varieties can be distinguished from other American Buckeyes by the soft covering of pale down on the lower surface of the leaflets, and from all species of the genus except Aesculus californica by the pale orangebrown color of the seeds. Aesculus discolor, var. mollis is an important addition to the list of shrubs with brilliant flowers which can be successfully cultivated in northern gardens."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 20","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23657","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd2608527.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 20, 1917 Rhododendrons. The flowering of the principal Rhododendrons in the collection is very late this year but the plants are in an unusually good condition and many varieties will be in bloom this week. Persons who desire to cultivate these plants must remember that Rhododendrons, including all Azaleas, cannot live in soil impregnated with lime. Rhododendrons are not hardy north of Massachusetts, and south of Pennsylvania the summer sun is too hot for them. The range therefore in eastern North America where these plants can be successfull~~-,~ultivated is comparatively small, but probably the northwest ce,ast of North America from southern British Columbia to northern California is as well suited for these plants as any part of the world, and there can be grown in addition to all the varieties common in European gardens the Himalayan and Chinese species which here in the east can only be kept alive in glass houses, and in Europe thrive only in a few exceptionally favorable places like Cornwall or in the neighborhood of the Italian lakes. Rhododendrons, although they are moisture-loving plants, do not thrive in undrained positions; they do best in soil in which loam and peat have been equally mixed, although peat is not always essential to the successful cultivation of these plants. They should be planted where the roots of trees cannot take away moisture from them, and the best position for these plants is on the north side but not too near coniferous trees, as they are planted in the Arboretum. In such positions they are protected from the direct rays of the sun in March and April, for in this climate where the roots are in frozen ground in winter and therefore cannot take up moisture, it is important to reduce as much as possible winter and early spring evaporation from the leaves. It is this evaporation from the leaves of evergreens growing in frozen soil which makes it impossible to keep alive many of them in this country; and this is the reason why it is desirable here to water thoroughly Rhododendrons just before the ground freezes in the autumn. Rhododendrons imported from Europe suffer here from the stock on which they have been grafted. The almost universal custom among European nurserymen is to use Rhododendron pontimcm as the stock for these plants because it is easily and quickly raised and readily grafted. R. ponticum is not at all hardy here, and there is little doubt that our want of success with Rhododendrons imported from Europe is due, in part at least, to the stock on which they have been grafted and that the gradual or sudden death here of large plants which have been uninjured by cold or drought for twenty or thirty years is due to this cause. The familiar Rhododendrons of New England gardens are so-called Catawbiense Hybrids and were raised in Europe many years ago by crossing R. catawbiense, a native of the highest summits of the Appalachian Mountains, with Himalayan species, notably the scarlet-flowered R. arboreum. It might be expected that plants obtained from these crosses would be hardy in proportion to the predominance of the American plant but, judging by the color of the flowers, this is not always true. Varieties like Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens and H. W. Sargent, which have flowers as bright red as those of R. arboreum, are among the hardiest of all garden Rhododendrons; but varieties with white or pale flowers are more tender than those with rose pink or purple flowers which most closely show the influence of the Catawbiense parent; and unfortunately the varieties with lightcolored flowers marked at the base with large brown or chocolate-colored blotches, like Sapho, are not at all hardy here. The hardiness of these hybrid Rhododendrons can only be determined by trial, although in selecting varieties for trial it is safe to assume that plants with broad leaves resembling those of R. catawbiense, like Everestianum, Mrs. C. S. Sargent, Roseum elegans, Henrietta Sargent, Catawbiense album, and all the varieties with light or dark purple flowers are likely to prove hardier than the plants with narrow leaves like Mrs. John Chitton. There are, of course, exceptions to such a rule. For example, Pink Pearl has broad leaves and is very tender; and Gomer Waterer, although it has leaves as broad as those of any of these hybrids, usually suffers in winter and almost invariably loses its flower-buds. Persons who want to plant Catawbiense Hybrid Rhododendrons should take advantage of the knowledge which has been laboriously and expensively obtained about these plants at Wellesley on Mr. Hunnewell's estate, where Rhododendrons have been tested on a large scale for sixty years, and here at the Arboretum where many of the hardiest kinds raised in England, Germany, and the United States will now soon be in flower. There are other evergreen Rhododendrons which are not as often cultivated here in Massachusetts as they might be. R. catawbiense itself is perfectly hardy and none of its hybrids have handsomer foliage. It grows slowly, however, and never to a very large size, and the flowers are of a disagreeable purple rose color. Rhododendron maximum, which grows naturally as far north as southern New Hampshire, is a large plant sometimes treelike in habit, with handsome, long, narrow leaves and small clusters of beautiful pink and white flowers. It is the last of the Rhododendrons to bloom here, and the flower-buds do not open until the new branchlets have nearly finished their growth, so that the flower-clusters are a good deal hidden by them. The varieties and hybrids of the dwarf Rhododendron caucasicum bloom before the Catawbiense Hybrids, and the flowers have already faded. The latest of this race to flower, and perhaps the best of them all here, is a low, broad, compact plant with pure white flowers called Boule de Neige. This is a perfectly hardy, free-flowering plant which might to advantage be more generally planted in Massachusetts. Rhododendron carolinianum. Another year increases our admiration for this native of the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains which is the handsomest of the small Rhododendrons ir. the Arboretum collection. It is perfectly hardy, the habit is excellent, and the leaves are very dark green above and rusty below. It flourishes in the full sun or in deep shade, and never fails to produce abundant crops of its clusters of pale rose-pink flowers. This is one of the best of the broad-leaved evergreens recently introduced into our gardens. Rhododendron Smirnowii is a plant with which Americans interested in the cultivation of Rhododendrons would do well to become acquainted, for it is not only a beautiful plant but may prove exceedingly valuable in the production of a new race of hybrid Rhododendrons better suited for this climate than any which we now have. It is a native of the Caucasus and a large shrub with pale gray-green leaves coated below with a thick mat of pale felt, and large pink or rose-pink flowers in medium-sized clusters. The leaves are not as handsome as those of R. catawbiense and its hybrids, and when the plants are fully exposed to the sun the leaves sometimes curl up in very hot weather. The felt on their lower surface, however, protects them from the attacks of the lace-leaf fly from which other Rhododendrons suffer so seriously here. By crossing this Rhododendron with R. catawbiense or with some of the hardiest of its hybrids it may be possible to obtain plants superior to any now in our gardens. A Japanese species, Rhododendron brachycarpum, may also prove valuable for crossing with R. Smirnowii or R. catawbiense. This is a species of the high mountains of Japan, with large, dark green leaves and large clusters of very pale yellow flowers; it is an exceedingly rare plant in western gardens and does not appear to have been much cultivated by the Japanese. It was one of the plants brought from Japan in 1862 by Mr. Gordon Dexter of Boston and it grew to a large size and flowered for many years in Francis Parkman's garden in Jamaica Plain. This specimen was later transferred to the Arboretum and is no longer alive. There are now seedling plants here, and there is no reason why this handsome species should not become common in American gardens. Chinese Cotoneasters. All the deciduous-leaved species of Chinese Cotoneasters have come through the winter without injury, and many of them are now covered with flowers. As a flowering plant C. hupehensis is perhaps the most beautiful, and of all the shrubs introduced by Wilson from China it is the handsomest or one of the handsomest when in flower. It is a broad, tall shrub with very slender arching branches which are now so covered with flowers that at a distance it looks more like a Spiraea than a Cotoneaster. The flowers are white, in small clusters which stand up well above the leaves. The fruit is bright red and lustrous, but it has not yet been produced here very profusely and as it is a good deal hidden by the leaves this species is not as showy in the autumn as several of the others. C. nitens and C. divaricata are covered with their small bright red flowers which make them attractive at this season of the year. They are large and vigorous shrubs with arching stems and dark green and very lustrous leaves; the former has reddish biack fruit and C. divaricata, which is the larger plant of the two has bright red fruit. All the plants in this group are good garden plants in this climate, and among them are some of the most valuable additions which have been made in recent years to the New England garden flora. The largest specimens of the Chinese Cotoneasters are among the other Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill; many of them are also in the general Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Xanthoceras sorbifolia. This handsome Chinese shrub or small tree has flowered unusually well in the Shrub Collection this year. It has dark green leaves and erect and spreading racemes of white flowers marked with red at the base of the petals, and fruit like that of a Buckeye. This interesting plant is related to the so-called Texas Buckeye, Ungnadia, and to Koelruteria, the yellow-flowered Chinese tree which blooms here at midsummer. Xanthoceras, of which there is but a single species, is not new in gardens. It is very hardy but has a way of dying without any apparent cause, and for this reason it is not as often cultivated as it might be for when it flowers as it has here this year few shrubs are more beautiful. Symplocos paniculata, or as it is often called, S. crataegoides, is a native of Japan, China and the Himalayas. The form which is cultivated here is Japanese, and is a tall, broad ahrub, with large, obovate, dark green deciduous leaves, small white flowers in abundant, compact panicles which open after the leaves are nearly full grown and are followed in the autumn by bright blue fruits about one-third of an inch in diameter. Although the plants are attractive when in bloom, the fruit of a color unusual among that of hardy shrubs is the most interesting thing about it. There are large plants now in flower in the general Shrub Collection and on the side of the Bussey Hill Road just above the Lilacs. Apparently this shrub does not flourish in soil impregnated with lime, at least it has been found impossible to make it live in Rochester, New York. The cold and rainy season has so delayed the blooming of early flowering plants like Lilacs, which were three weeks later than usual, that trees and shrubs whose flowering periods are normally several weeks apart are now in bloom together, and probably there has never been a time when so many different flowers could be seen here at once as are open this week. Azaleas, Rhododendrons, Wisterias, Viburnums, Cornels, Laburnums, American Crabapples, Hawthorns, Roses, Diervillas, Dipeltas, Syringas, Horsechestnuts, Buckeyes, Maples, Barberries, Siberian Pea-trees, Aronias, Robinias, Mountain Ashes, and Cotoneasters are a few of the genera represented by many species which are now covered with flowers in the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 23","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23658","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd2608928.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 23, 1917 Deutzias. If all the species and hybrids of Deutzias are considered this genus is not a gieat success in this region where many of the plants are not hardy and others only flourish in exceptionally sheltered and favorable conditions. As is usually the case, the Deutzias in the Shrub Collection suffered last wirter, and although none of the plants were actually killed, with few exceptions they have been killed back to the ground, or nearly to the ground, and will not flower. In the large supplementary collection in a bed among the Hickories, on a path leading from Hickory Path, the plants are in unusually good condition now, however, and many of them are in bloom or will bloom during the next month. Much attention has been paid to hybridizing species of this genus, and probably the most generally useful Deutzia for this region is a hybrid between the Japanese D. gracilis and the Chinese D. parviflora. D. gracilis is a dwarf shrub with pure white flowers in erect or spreading racemes. This is an old and popular garden plant better worth growing in the southern and middle states, however, than it is in Massachusetts where the ends of the branches are often more or less killed. De2ctzaa parvifora is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with flowers in compact, many-flowered corymbs. It is a native of northern China and Mongolia. The hybrid between these two species was made by the French hybridizer Lemoine many years ago and has been called D. Lemoinei. It is a large shrub sometimes five or six feet high and broad which covers itself with large broad clusters of pure white flowers. Handsome and more compact forms of this hybrid are varieties comprrcta, Boule de Neige, Avalanche, and Candelabre. These are now all in bloom, and in this group Boule de Neige is perhaps the most beautiful. Some of the varieties of another of the Lemoine hybrids called D. rosea are flowering well this year and promise to be good garden plants in sheltered situations. This hybrid was obtained by crossing D. gracilis and D. purpurascens, sometimes called D. discolor, var. purpurascens. This plant has petals which are purple on the outer surface, and is usually not hardy here. D. rosea and its varieties have flowers more or less tinged with purple. Those now in bloom are var. eximia, var. floribunda, and var. campanulata, the latter with nearly white flowers. Deutzia myriantha is another hybrid obtained by crossing D. Lemoinei and D. purpurascens. This has white flowers and is not yet in bloom, but two of its varieties, var. Boule Rose and var. Fleur de Pommier are now flowering and are handsome and apparently hardy plants with flowers tinged with rose. Deutzia scabra. This native of Japan and China is one of the hardiest and most generally cultivated of all the Deutzias. It is a tall shrub with reddish branches, very rough leaves and erect clusters of white flowers sometimes flushed with rose, which will not open for two or three weeks. This is the Deutzia of old gardens north and south. The variety crenata has brown branches and less rough leaves, and although less common in gardens appears to be equally hardy. The variety Watereri has flowers tinged with red on the outer surface of the petals. Variety plena has double flowers with petals tinged winh rose color. The variety Pride of Rochester has large flowers tinged with rose and is one of the handsomest of this group. The var. candidissima (D. Wellsii of some gardens and the D. alba plena of others) has pure white double flowers. Deutzia reflexa and D. globosa are natives of western China and did not suffer last winter. They are now covered with flower-buds, but it is too soon to speak with certainty of their value in this climate. Deutzia longifolia is a tall shrub with erect branches, lance-shaped leaves, and clusters of large flowers. This native of western China is probably one of the handsomest of the Chinese species, but, although it is not killed here by cold, the branches are always badly injured and the flower-buds are also injured. Deutzia grandiflora is one of the most distinct species of the genus and the first to bloom. The flowers open with the unfolding of the leaves, and are in from one- to three-flowered clusters with white petals three-quarters of an inch long. This plant, which is exceedingly rare in cultivation, is a native of northern China and can be seen with the other Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill. Deutzia hypoglauca is a distinct and hardy new species from northern China and is a tall shrub with erect stems and clusters of white flowers, which promises to be a good garden plant in this climate. Deutzia Vilmorinae from central China is hardy in sheltered positions and is also a tall shrub with gracefully spreading stems, loose clusters of white flowers and lance-shaped, pointed leaves covered with stellate clusters of hairs. By crossing this species with D. scabra a hardy and handsome hybrid has been obtained to which the name D. magnifica has been given. Deutzia discolor is another fairly hardy species from central China with hemispherical clusters of white flowers which are three-quarters of an inch in diameter. The variety major of this species has rather larger flowers and is a larger and apparently a more vigorous plant. It can be seen with other Chinese species on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Deutzia kalmiaeflora. Deutzia purpurascens is not hardy but by crossing it with D. parviflora a hardy or nearly hardy plant has been obtained to which the name of D. kalmiaeflora has been given. This hybrid has carmine-colored flowers about three-quarters of an inch in diameter, in small compact clusters. When it does well this is one of the handsomest of the hybrid Deutzias. Deutzia Sieboldiana is a dwarf Japanese species with small white flowers and much less valuable as a garden plant than many of the other species. A hybrid (D. candelabrum) obtained by crossing it with D. gracilis is a handsome plant with gracefully drooping branches which are covered with elongated clusters of white flowers. Cornus controversa. This handsome Cornel, like the native Cornus cclternzfolia, has alternate leaves and wide-spreading branches, but the flower-clusters are broader; it blooms here a week or ten days earlier, and it is a much larger tree, as Wilson saw specimens in western China fully sixty feet high. It is a native of the Himalayan Mountains, western China and of Japan. The plants raised from the seeds collected by Wilson in China have proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where they are growing vigorously and are now in bloom in the supplementary Cornel collection in the rear of the Phellodendron Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. The largest plant in the Arboretum and probably the largest in the United States is also in flower in the nursery near the top of Peter's Hill. This Cornel gives every promise of being a valuable ornamental tree in this climate. Laburnums. These plants in England, at least, are popularly called Golden Chain from their long drooping clusters of bright yellow flowers. In many European countries, especially in Great Britain, the Laburnums are among the most popular and most beloved garden plants, but are less commonly seen in this country. Laburnum anagyroides, better known as L. vulgare, has been more often planted here than the other species and varieties. It is a native of southern Europe and is a small tree usually from twenty to thirty feet high. It is not always perfectly hardy in Massachusetts, but occasionally large specimens can be seen in old gardens in the suburbs of Boston, and just now such trees are completely covered with flowers and are beautiful and impressive objects. There are several varieties of this Laburnum in the Arboretum collection and several of them are in bloom. The var. bullatum, often called var. involutum, has curled and contorted leaves and is the least attractive of all the Laburnums. The var. quercifolium has sinuately lobed leaflets; var. pendulum has pendulous branches, and the var. semperflorum produces a second crop of flowers in the autumn. Laburnum alpinum, a native of the mountainous regions of southern Europe but in England often called the Scotch Laburnum, is a hardier plant than L. anagyroides. It is more often a large shrub than a tree, although it is occasionally treelike in habit. It blooms usually ten days later and the flower-clusters are larger and narrower. A hybrid between these two species of garden origin known as L. Watereri and as L. Pcerksii has the treelike habit of L. anagyroides and the long slender flower-clusters of L. alpinum. This tree is very hardy and the handsomest tree with yellow flowers which is hardy in this climate, as L. alpinxcm is the handsomest large shrub with yellow flowers which can be grown here. Laburnum Adami is a hybrid between L. anagyroides and Cytisus pxcrpureus with the habit and foliage of the former, and dull purple or rarely yellow flowers. It is more curious than beautiful. The otrer species of Laburnum, L. caramamxcum, is a small shrub from Asia Minor with long, slender, erect, terminal clusters of small flowers and is not hardy here. Neillia sinensis. This is the only member of a genus of the Rose Family related to Spiraea which has flowered in the Arbcretum. It is a native of western China, and is a tall, hardy shrub with slender gracefully spreading and drooping branches, light green, incisely cut, pointed leaves from an inch and a half to two inches long, and clear pink flowers about half an inch in length, in short terminal racemes. This is one of the handsomest and most interesting of the hatdy shrubs introduced by Wilson from western China. The largest plants are on the upper side of Hickory Path, near Centre Street, and there are plants also in bloom in the Chinese Collection of Shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Two other pink-flowered species introduced by Wilson, N. longiracemosa and N. affinis, have not flowered yet in the Arboretum and appear to be less hardy than N. stnensis. Scotch Roses. A plant of the Burnet or Scotch Rose (Rosa spinosissima) as it is often called, with its prickly stems, small leaves, white flowers and globular black fruits can be found in most old-fashioned northern gardens for it is a very hardy plant resistant to abuse and handsome when its spreading branches are covered with flowers which unfortunately last but a short time. A variety of this plant from southern Siberia (var. altaxca or grandiflora) is a larger plant with larger flowers faintly tinged with yellow, and one of the handsomest of all single-flowered Roses which can be grown in this climate where it can make a dense bush six or seven feet high and broad. This plant produces great numbers of suckers by which it can be easily increased. The variety hispida is a tall growing plant with erect stems and yellow flowers from two and a half to three inches in diameter. Var. fulgens has pale pink flowers and the variety lutea pale yellow flowers. From the garden of the Duke of Buccleuch at Dalkeith, near Edinburgh, the Arboretum received a few years ago a collection of Scotch Roses for which this garden was once famous. A plant in this collection called Jupiter, with pale pink single flowers, and another called Lady Boilles with small pale yellow flowers are attractive and worth attention. The Scotch Roses are with the other species in the general Shrub Collection."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 29","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23659","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260896a.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. III NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 29, 1917 Late Lilacs. A group of Lilacs which bloom later than any of the forms of the common garden Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) and earlier than the so-called Tree Lilacs makes the period of Lilac flowers here continuous for nearly two months. These late-flowering Lilacs have been in bloom for several days. The first of them known in gardens was a Hungarian species, Syra~aga Josikaea. This is a tall narrow shrub with erect stems, broadly elliptic, dark green, lustrous leaves and narrow open clusters six or seven inches long of small violet-colored, longtubed flowers. Interesting from the point of botanical geography, as its home is further west than that of any other Lilac, it is the least attractive as a flowering plant of all Lilacs with the exception, perhaps, of the Chinese Syringa pinnatifolia. Five years later in 1840 the second of these late-flowering Lilacs, S. Emodii, was cultivated in English gardens. It is a large broad shrub with large leaves pale on the lower surface and broad clusters of light lilac or nearly white flowers, and is a native of the Himalayas. This shrub is hardy in the Arboretum in a sheltered position, and occasionally flowers here. In this climate, however, it has little to recommend it as an ornamental plant. The most valuable in this group has proved to be Syringa villosa, a native of northern China, and sometimes called S. Bretschneideri and S. Emodi, var. villosa. This plant was first raised in the United States at the Arboretum in 1882 from seeds which had been sent from St. Petersburg by Dr. Bretschneider, and is now often seen in our northern gardens. As it grows in this country it is a round-topped, handsome bush ten or twelve feet high and wide, with large, broadly elliptic to oblong leaves bright green and dull on the upper surface, and compact, broad or rarely narrow clusters of flesh-colored or nearly white flowers. As a garden plant this is one of'the handsomest of the Lilacs for its habit is excellent, and it flowers freely every year, the flowers remaining in good condition for several days. Unfortunately they have a rather disagreeable odor like those of the Privet. Two plants now found in some nurseries under the names of S. Josikaea pallida and S. Josikaea rosea are only forms of S. villosa with slightly different colored flowers. Plants under these names were cultivated, however, in Europe several years before the discovery of S. mllosa, and if they or other varieties of S. Josikaea are known to any of the readers of these Bulletins the Arboretum will be glad to hear from them. In the hands of the skilful French gardener L. Henry Syringa villosa crossed with S. Josikaea has produced a remarkable race of hybrids to which the general name of S. Henryi has been given. Plants of this breed are large, very vigorous, perfectly hardy and grow rapidly. The foliage resembles in a general way that of S. villosa, but the flowers are violet-purple or reddish-purple and are produced in great clusters twelve or fifteen inches long and broad. One of the handsomest of this race has violet-purple flowers and has been named Lutece. The var. eximia has more compact clusters of rose-colored or reddish flowers which after opening become light pink. Another of the late-flowering Lilacs, S. Wolfii, is a native of Mongolia or northern Korea and is still little known either as a wild plant or in gardens. It reached the Arboretum in 1906 from St. Petersburg where it had been sent by the Russian traveler and botanist Komarov. The foliage resembles that of S. mllosa, but the flowers are produced in much larger clusters and are smaller and violet-purple; in color they resemble that of the flowers of the hybrid Lilac Lutece but they are smaller and in denser clusters than those of that plant. When Syringa Wolfii is better known it will probably be considered one of the handsomest of this group of late-flowering Lilacs. With the exception of Syringa Meyeri and S. pinnatijolia, all the new Lilacs from western China flower late, and several of them have been in bloom during the past week. The most interesting of these new Lilacs is S. reflexa, a large shrub with ample dark green leaves and long, narrow, compact, drooping clusters of pink flowers which are bright red before opening. This Lilac differs from all others in the drooping flower-clusters and for this reason will probably become a popular garden plant. Syringa Julianae has been covered with flowers again this year and is a valuable plant in this climate. It is related to S. pubescens and has the same shaped flowers with long narrow corolla-tubes, but although fragrant the flowers are less fragrant than those of that species and are produced in shorter clusters. The beauty of the flowercluster is increased by the contrast between the violet-purple color of the outer surface of the corolla and the white inner surface of its lobes. Syringa tomentella, with which, judging by the plants growing in the Arboretum S. Wilsonii is identical, is a tall, fast growing and perfectly hardy shrub with slender arching stems and open habit. The foliage resembles that of S. villosa and the flowers are produced in large loose clusters and are of the palest rose color with long and slender corolla-tubes. Syringa Sweginzowii is flowering well here this year as it has for two or three years. The leaves are dark dull green and sharply pointed, and the flowers are borne in long narrow clusters; they are delicately fragrant, half an inch long, with very slender corolla-tubes, and are flesh-colored in the bud, becoming nearly white after the buds open. This species flowers freely even as a small plant and is well worth a place in a collection of Lilacs. Syringa yunnanensis, although it is a native of southwestern China, is quite hardy in the Arboretum where it is flowering now for the fourth year. It is related, like most of the species of western China. to S. vzllosa and is a tall shrub of open habit with glabrous leaves pale on the lower surface and long narrow clusters of light flesh-colored or pink flowers. Geographically interesting, this plant is probably of less value as a garden plant than S. Sweginzowii. The Tree Lilacs. As the flowers of the late-flowering group of Lilacs fade the earliest flowers of the so-called Tree Lilacs begin to open. There are three of these Lilacs which all bear large clusters of white or yellowish white flowers with a corolla shorter than the stamens, while in other Lilacs the corolla is longer than the stamens which are hidden in its throat. The flowers of the Tree Lilacs all have the disagreeable odor of the flowers of the Privet, and the leaves fall in the autumn without change of color. The first of these plants to flower, S. amurensis, a native of eastern Siberia as its name implies, is a shrub in habit twelve or fifteen feet high with dark close bark, broad thick leaves dark green above and pale below, and short, broad, unsymmetrical flower-clusters. S. pekinensis from northern China flowers next. This is also shrubby in habit, sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall and broad, with stout, spreading stems covered with yellowbrown bark separating readily into thin plates like that of some of the Birch-trees, dark green, narrow, pointed leaves and short and unsymmetrical flower-clusters usually in pairs at the ends of the branches. This species holds its leaves later in the autumn than the others, and produces great quantities of flowers every year, the other species usually flowering abundantly only every other year. The last of the Tree Lilacs to flower, S. japonica, is a native of northern Japan, and is really a tree sometimes forty feet high with a tall straight trunk covered with lustrous brown bark like the bark of a Cherry-tree, a round-topped head of upright branches, broad, thick, dark green leaves, and erect, mostly symmetrical flower-clusters from twelve to eighteen inches long. This is one of the handsomest of the small trees which bloom here at the end of June or early in July. Cornus Kousa is a small tree which in eastern Asia enlivens the forests as Cornus florida enlivens the forests of eastern North America, and Cornus Nuttallii those of our Pacific states. The three species have the large white or creamy white bracts under the flower-clusters which make the inflorescence so conspicuous, but the Asiatic tree differs from the American trees by the union of the fruits into a globular fleshy head, while the fruits of the American trees are not united together. Cornus Kousa is a small tree rarely exceeding twenty feet in height, and the floral bracts are narrower, more pointed and not as pure white as those of the American trees. It is valuable, however, because it flowers three or four weeks later than C. florida. C. Kousa is a native of central Japan and was found in western China by Wilson. The Japanese and Chinese plants are both now in flower, the former on Hickory Path near Centre Street and the latter with the Chinsse shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The floral bracts of the Chinese plant in the Arboretum overlap and are broader and less pointed than those of the Japanese form, and the inflorescence, which is three inches across,, is much handsomer than that of the Japanese plant. The handsomest form of the Japanese tree which has been seen in this neighborhood is growing in Mount Auburn Cemetery where it has become an object of much beauty and interest. Indigofera Potaninii has been raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in the Province of Kansu by William Purdom during his collecting trip in northern China for the Arboretum. It is a beautiful little shrub now in bloom for the second year in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. As it grows here it is three to four feet high, with a single stem and slender erect branches. The flowers are bright rose color, half an inch long, in long-stalked, erect and spreading racemes from two to three inches in length, from the axils of leaves on branches of the current year, and as the branches lengthen new flower-clusters appear and the plant remains in bloom for a long time. The flowers are of the same color but are larger than those of Indigofera amblyantha which Wilson found in western China and which until 1. Potaninii bloomed was considered the handsomest shrubby species which could be grown here. Cornus rugosa. Attention is called to the value of this common native shrub for the decoration of parks and gardens where, like many other eastern American trees and shrubs, it is rarely seen. C. rugosa, or C. circinata as it is still best known, is a shrub sometimes ten feet high which with plenty of space spreads into broad thickets. The young branches are green blotched with purple, becoming purple as they grow older. The leaves are broad, sometimes nearly circular, and dark bluish green; the flowers are ivory white, in compact clusters, and are followed in the early autumn by bright blue or nearly white fruits. This Cornel has been much planted in the Arboretum and is greatly improved by good cultivation. It can be seen in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads; and the large individual plants and the great clumps on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road beyond the Lilacs, and the masses among the Hickories in the group of these trees show the value of this shrub in park planting when great compact masses of foliage are needed. Rosa multiflora, var. cathayensis is in flower on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. This is a climbing Rose with single pink clustered flowers and the Chinese representative of the better known white-flowered Rosa multiflora. This variety cathayensis is one of the most beautiful plants of its class, and is interesting as the wild plant from which have been derived the Crimson Rambler, such old-fashioned garden plants as Rosa multiflora carnea and R. multiflora platyphylla, long popular in England under the name of the Seven Sisters Rose."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 6","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23654","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260b76f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 6, 1917 Philadelphus. Among the shrubs which give beauty to northern gardens in early summer Philadelphus, or as it is popularly called Syringa and Mock Orange, is perhaps only surpassed in interest and value by the Rose and the Laurel (Kalmia). It is only the abundant and often delightfully fragrant white flowers of the plants of this genus which are beautiful; for the fruit is a dry capsule; the habit of the plants is not different from that of many other shrubs, and their leaves fall in early autumn without having changed their color. The plants are natives of eastern and western North America, Japan, China, the Himalayas and southeastern Europe. In the Arboretum collection there are some thirty species, several distinct varieties of some of the species, and a large number of hybrids for in few genera of plants has the hybridizer been more successful in producing new and valuable forms. Plants in this group are in bloom in the Arboretum during fully six weeks, the earliest being a form of Philadelphus Schneckii named variety Jackii for Mr. J. G. Jack, who discovered it in Korea, which in ordinary seasons opens its flower-buds during the last week of May and the latest, or almost the latest, the hybrid P. insignis, which does not flower before the middle of July. Among the species which seem best worth a place in the garden is the European species P. coronarius, the Mock Orange of old gardens, which was cultivated in England before the end of the sixteenth century and was probably one of the first shrubs brought to America by the English. It is a large and hardy shrub and is chiefly valuable for the fragrance of its flowers which are faintly tinged with yellow. A number of seminal forms of this plant are cultivated, including one with yellow leaves, one with double flowers and one with narrow, willow-like leaves, but none of them have any particular value or interest for the decoration of gardens. Among the American species which should find a place in all collections of hardy shrubs are P. inodorus, P. pubescens and P. microphyllus. The first is a medium-sized plant with arching branches and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers and by many persons considered the most beautiful of the whole genus. P. pubescens, sometimes called P. latifolius and P. grandaflorus, and known in gardens under various other names, is a native of the southern Appalachian region and a shrub sometimes twenty feet high with stout erect stems and branches, broad leaves, and large, slightly fragrant flowers arranged in erect, from five- to ten-flowered racemes. P. microphyllus is a Rocky Mountain species with leaves less than an inch long, and small, intensely fragrant flowers. This is a compact and hardy shrub, growing here in the Arboretum about three feet high and broad. The most distinct and the handsomest of the Asiatic species which flowers here is Philadelphus purpurascens, discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a shrub with long arching stems from which rise numerous branch lets from four to six inches long and spreading at wide angles. On these branchlets the flowers are borne from base to apex on drooping stalks; they are an inch and a half long with a bright purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread as they do on most of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla, and are exceedingly fragrant. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs brought from western China to the Arboretum. Philadelphus Magdalenae from central China is another handsome plant well worth general cultivation. It is a broad tall shrub with arching stems, small, dark green, finely toothed leaves and pure white fragrant flowers an inch and a quarter in diameter and arranged in drooping, leafy, manyflowered panicles from six to ten inches in length. Few Syringas this year in the Arboretum have produced a larger number of flowers or have been more conspicuous objects of beauty. Philadelphus pekinensis from northern China and Mongolia is a stout bush rather broader than high which every year produces great quantities of small flowers tinged with yellow and is well worth a place in the garden. Another interesting garden plant, P. Falconerii, which is certainly Asiatic and probably Japanese, has narrow, lanceolate leaves and fragrant flowers in from one- to six-flowered racemes, and is distinct in the shape of its leaves and its long narrow petals. This plant was sent to the Arboretum many years ago by the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, but nothing more is known of its origin or history. By crossing P. coronarius with P. microphyllus the French hybridizer Lemoine obtained many years ago a new race to which the name Philadelphus Lemoinei was given. The type of this race is a perfectly hardy shrub four or five feet high and broad, with slender stems which are now bant down by the weight of innumerable flowers. These are intermediate in size between those of the two parents and retain the strong perfume of the flowers of the Rocky Mountain plant. A number of forms of this hybrid, varying in the size and habit of the plant and in the size and shape of the flowers, were produced by Lemoine, and they are all good plants of great beauty and interest. Indeed this group must be considered one of the great contributions made by man to gardens in the last fifty years. Lemoine produced other hybrids like Conquete, Nuee Blanche, Rosea and Perle Blanche of rather uncertain origin. They are all interesting but perhaps less beautiful than some of the forms of P. Lemoinei. A hybrid probably between Philadelphus grandiflorus from the Appalachian region and one of the western species appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago and has been named P. splendens. It is a large shrub with erect stems and large scentless flowers, and is one of the handsomest Syringas in the Arboretum collection. Another hybrid, supposed to be between P. pubescens (P. latifolius) of the southeastern United States and the Himalayan P. tomentosus, grows to a larger size than other Syringas. Plants from twenty to thirty feet high of this hybrid can sometimes be seen in old Massachusetts gardens. It is impossible to name all the different species, varieties and hybrids of this genus now growing in the collection in one of these Bulletins, and persons interested in flowering shrubs will do well to visit the collection at this time and see the plants themselves. Many of them are in the general Shrub Collection but a larger number is in the special Philadelphus collection on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill opposite the Lilacs. Late Rhododendrons. Two dwarf hybrid Rhododendrons are now in flower and deserve consideration as rock garden plants. The first, R. arbutifolium, is a dense shrub spreading into broad masses of branches occasionally four feet high, small, acute, evergreen leaves, and small rose-purple flowers in small compact clusters. It is considered to be a hybrid between R. ferrugineum of the European Alps and R. minus (R. punctatum) of the southern Appalachian region. R. arbutifolium is better known in gardens as R. Wilsonii, a name which belongs to a hybrid between two Himalayan Rhododendrons. It is sometimes also cultivated under the names of R. daphnoides, R. Hammondii, and R. oleaefolium. The second of these plants, R. myrtifolium, is believed to be a hybrid between the other European alpine species, R. hirsutum and R. minus. It is a smaller and more upright growing plant than R. arbutifolium and has smaller and broader leaves and much handsomer rose-pink flowers also in compact clusters. It is not usually quite so hardy as R. myrtifolium but was uninjured last winter, and the plants are now covered with flowers. Periploca sepium. To most gardeners who live where the climate is less severe than it is in eastern Massachusetts Periploca graeca, a tall, vigorous, climbing plant with dark green leaves and curious green and brown flowers, is familiar. Less known is the species from northern China, P. sepium, which has more slender stems which do not climb so high, lanceolate, green and very lustrous leaves and flowers similar to those of P. graeca but only about three-quarters of an inch in diameter. It is perfectly hardy here and can now be seen covered with flowers on one of the trellises between the Shrub Collection and the parkway. It produces many suckers from the roots and there is therefore no reason why this beautiful plant should remain so little known in gardens. Cytisus scoparius, var. Andreanus compactus. This is a dwarf form of a variety of the Scotch Broom (var. Andreanus) which differs from the ordinary form of the Broom in the dark crimson wing petals of the flowers. In the Arboretum this dwarf plant with nearly prostrate stems rising only a few inches above the surface of the ground is perfectly hardy, which cannot be said of any of the other varieties of Cytisus scoparius which have been tried here, and is now covered with its large and brilliant flowers which make a bright spot in the Shrub Collection and on Hemlock Path near Centre Street. Late-flowering Viburnums. The Arboretum in early summer owes much to some of the late-flowering Viburnums which have been largely planted here. Among these are three of the blue-fruited American species and the red-fruited Japanese V. dilatatum. Of the American species V. cassinoides has been in flower during the last two weeks and on many of the plants the flowers have already faded. A native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country, where it sometimes makes slender straggling stems fifteen or twenty feet high, this Viburnum grows well on drier ground and in cultivation is a round-topped and compact shrub. The leaves are thick, lustrous and finely toothed, and vary greatly in size and shape, and the flowers, which are slightly tinged with yellow, are arranged in concave clusters which vary in size on different plants. The fruit is larger than that of the other American summer-flowering Viburnums, and is even handsomer than the flowers. When fully grown it is first yellow-green, later becoming pink and finally blue-black, fruits of the three colors occurring in early autumn in the same cluster. This is one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums which can be successfully cultivated in this climate. The other American late-flowering species are closely related and have more coarselytoothed leaves, wide flat clusters of white flowers and small blue fruits. The earliest to bloom, V. dentatum, is already dropping its flowers. It is a common roadside and meadow shrub in the eastern parts of the country and, like many of our native shrubs, is greatly improved by good cultivation. As its flowers fade those of V. venosum begin to open. In habit and general appearance this resembles V. dentatum, but the young branches and the lower surface of the leaves are thickly covered with a coat of pale hairs. This Viburnum grows only in the neighborhood of the coast from the southern shores of Cape Cod to New Jersey. Viburnum Canbyi, the last of all the Viburnums to flower in the Arboretum, resembles V. venosum but flowers two or three weeks later, and the flower-clusters and fruits are larger. It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania, northern Delaware and central Indiana. This Viburnum has grown to a large size in the Arboretum and specimens ten or twelve feet high and broad can be seen near the Administration Building and along the Meadow Road. V. dilatatum has been covered with flowers this year and is a broad, shapely and vigorous shrub with very dark green leaves and wide flat clusters of pure white flowers followed late in the autumn by small bright red fruits which often remain on the plants until late in the winter."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 13","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23652","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260af6d.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 13. 1917 The high price obtained in England before the war for willow wood for cricket bats resulted in investigations of the different trees from which wood suitable for this purpose could be obtained. The most valuable tree for this purpose is described by English timber dealers as \"Close Bark\" Willow, and is either a form of Salix alba calva, or var. coerulea, or as some authors believe a species, S. coerulea. This \"Close Bark\" tree from which the best timber for the purpose is obtained is found in England only in a few of the southeastern counties and is a seed-bearing, or pistillate tree, of strict pyramidal habit, sometimes when planted in good soil one hundred feet high, and as it grows rapidly the distance between the lateral branchlets makes the crown of foliage appear thin. That this tree when planted in soil which suits it grows rapidly is shown in the statement published by Elwes in \"The Trees of Great Britain and Ireland,\" that a tree which was planted at Boreham in Essex in 1835 and felled in 1888 when it was one hundred and one feet tall had a trunk five feet nine inches in diameter. From the wood of this tree eleven hundred and seventy-nine cricket bats were made. Elwes reports the purchase of a piece of land for $250 on which in sixteen years Willows of this variety were grown which sold for $10,000, and quotes the statement that a good set (a straight piece of a branch about the thickness of a broom-handle to set in the ground like a cutting) costing from twenty-five to thirty cents, when planted in suitable soil and has grown well is worth from $25 to $40 in fifteen years. There are two other Willows which produce wood used for this purpose, although it is considered less valuable. The better of these is one of the hybrids between Salix alba and S. fragilis for which the oldest general name is S. rubens but which is also called S. viridis, S. Russelliana and S. deeipaens. S. fragilis, known in the English trade as the \"Open Bark\" Willow, also furnishes wood used for bats but is considered even less valuable than that of S. rubens. ' All the so-called Cricket Bat Willows are established in the Arboretum, and it is possible, although hardly probable, that the demand for the wood in England or its Colonies may make the cultivation of the best \"Close Bark\" Willow a profitable agricultural operation in some parts of this country. It is possible, too, that some other use for the wood of this tree may make its cultivation as a timber tree profitable here. As an ornamental tree, however, this Willow deserves the attention of American planters, for no Willow will grow more rapidly, and in habit it differs from the Tree Willows which are usually seen in the eastern states. In the northeastern part of North America there are only two native Willows, Salix nigra and S. amygdaloides, which are trees of any size, and the latter does not grow spontaneously in New England; and the great Tree Willows which make such a feature in the landscape of the northern and middle states are all naturalized European trees. Little critical study, apparently, has been given to these introduced trees and they have usually been considered either the White Willow (S. alba) and its variety coerulea or the Crack Willow (S. fragilis). The Crack Willow is distinguished by its coarsely serrate leaves obliquely long-pointed at the apex, and usually about four inches long and threequarters of an inch wide. The catkins of staminate flowers of this tree are often forked. It is called Crack Willow because the branchlets are easily separated from the branches in spring. This tree is not rare in New England, and sixty or seventy years ago there were many large specimens in the neighborhood of Boston; but it is more common in eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware where it was early introduced by the Duponts to supply charcoal for their powder works. The White Willow (S. alba) can be distinguished from the Crack Willow by its shorter and narrower leaves usually from two to two and a half inches in length and rarely more than half an inch in width, and covered with whitish silky hairs which are most abundant on the lower surface. This, like the Crack Willow, is a large tree with wide-spreading branches. There is a handsome variety of the White Willow on which the young branches and the leaves are thickly covered with silvery white tomentum. This tree is sometimes found in American nurseries where it is usually called S. regalis, although the correct name for it is S. alba, var. argentea. If the real S. alba is among the European Willows naturalized in the United States it is probably rare. The Blue Willow, which is considered by some English botanists to be a variety of the White Willow and by others a species, is a taller and more pyramidal tree with leaves similar in size and shape to those of the White Willow but rather thinner, less covered with down and bluish gray not whitish on the lower surface. It is very doubtful if this tree, which is the best Close Bark Bat Willow, has been naturalized in any part of the United States; and it is probable that the Willowtrees which are scattered along the river-banks of the northern states are hybrids between S. alba and S. fragilis for which the oldest general name is S. rubens, although under this general name are several different trees of the same hybrid parentage to which different names have been given. It is not known here if trees of the two sexes of this hybrid exist in the United States, and nothing is known of the distribution in different parts of the country of the different forms of the hybrid; and if any reader of this Bulletin has paid attention to the Tree Willows naturalized in the United States, the Arboretum will be glad to hear from him. Staphyleas. A reader of these Bulletins has asked us to say something about Staphyleas, or Bladder Nuts as these plants are popularly called. Staphylea is a genus of shrubs with opposite, trifoliate or pinnate, deciduous leaves and terminal clusters of small white or pinkish flowers, and much inflated, membranaceous, pod-like fruits which vary in length on the different species from one to four inches. There are several species and one hydrid, and a. species occurs in each of the chief botanical regions of the northern hemisphere. All these plants, with the exception of the Himalayan S. Emodi, are in the Arboretum, but in the Shrub Collection where the winter conditions are more severe than in any other parts of the Arboretum they are often killed nearly to the ground by cold and give little satisfaction. The plants on Azalea and Hickory Paths do better, and probably all the species would flower and ripen their fruit here if the right place could be found for them. The species of eastern North America, S. trifolia, grows from the Province of Quebec westward to Nebraska and southward to Oklahoma and Georgia. It is occasionally seen in old gardens in this country and in England it has been cultivated for two hundred years. As a garden plant, however, it has little to recommend it. The northern California species, S. Bolanderi, exists on Hickory Path but has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Staphylea holocarpa has pinkish flowers which appear before the leaves, and is a small tree sometimes twenty feet high discovered by Wilson in central China and considered by him one of the handsomest flowering trees which he saw in China. This plant can be seen on the upper side of Azalea Path where the ends of the branches are often killed by cold; it has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. The species already named have leaves with three leaflets: the following usually have leaves with from five to seven leaflets. S. pinnata, which is widely distributed through Europe to western Asia, is a tree-like shrub and sometimes flowers here but has little value as a garden plant in this climate. The Caucasian S. colchica, which differs from S. pinnata in its larger flowers and fruits and in the lustrous lower surface of the leaves, is the handsomest of the Bladder Nuts and well worth cultivation. Small plants flower freely and are often used in England for the winter decoration of conservatories. A variety of this plant, or a hybrid between it and S. pinnata, is S. Coulombieri which appeared many years ago in a French nursery and is distinguished by its larger leaves and by the flowers and fruit which are intermediate in size between those of its supposed parents. The variety Hessei of S. colchica, distinguished by its pinkish flowers, is in the collection but has not yet flowered here. Some Asiatic Maples. Another reader of these Bulletins asks for information about Acer capillapes, A. truncatum, A. mandschuricum and A. Henryi. Acer capillipes is related to the North American Striped Maple or Moosewood (Acer pennsylvanicum) and has the same three-lobed leaves which are bright red as they unfold, smaller fruit on longer stems and even more beautiful green and white striped bark. This Maple appears to be exceedingly rare in Japan. Professor Sargent saw one tree hanging over the bank of the Kisogawa near Agamatsu on the Nagasendo Road in Japan. The plants raised from the seeds gathered by him from this tree appear to be the only ones in cultivation in the United States and Europe. The rarity of this tree is shown by the fact that it was not seen by Wilson in his extensive travels in Japan, and the plants raised from the seed which he secured in Japan of what was called Acer capillipes prove to be the common A. ru,finerve. A. capillipes has not grown well in the Arboretum, and the plants now twenty-five years old are still shrubs and have not flowered. Even if it could be obtained, this tree, judging by its behavior in the Arboretum, could not be recommended for planting in the northern states. Acer truncatum is a native of northern China and was raised at the Arboretum in 1882. It is a small tree with deeply five-lobed leaves usually nearly square at the base, purplish as they unfold and light green and shining during the summer. This tree is perfectly hardy here, although it sometimes suffers from the splitting of the bark in winter. It has not produced seeds in the Arboretum where there are now only comparatively small plants, the plants first raised here having already disappeared. One of the original plants, then about twenty feet high, was standing a few years ago in the Ellwanger & Barry Nursery in Rochester, New York. Acer mandschuricum is one of the Trifoliate Maples with leaves composed of three narrow, long-pointed leaflets which are red as they unfold and long, slender, bright red stalks. This is one of the large trees in the mountain forests of eastern Siberia, forming a massive trunk and a great head of wide-spreading branches. It is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has grown rapidly and is producing fruit this year for the first time. This is one of the most interesting of the Maples here of recent introduction, and promises to become a valuable ornamental tree in this climate. Acer Henryi is a small tree of central and northern China, related to the North American Box Elder or Ash-leaved Maple (Acer Negundo), from which it differs in the smaller number of leaflets which are usually three, while the leaves of the American Negundo are composed of from three to seven leaflets. The flowers of the Chinese tree are provided with petals which are not found on those of its American relative. A. Henryi, which has been tried in various situations in the Arboretum, grows badly in all and is usually seriously injured by cold. It cannot therefore be recommended for general cultivation here or as a substitute for the American Acer Negundo which is a perfectly hardy and fast-growing tree."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 21","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23653","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260b36e.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 21, 1917 Summer-flowering Trees. Several trees flower in summer here and add to the interest of the Arboretum at a season of the year when there are comparatively few flowers or ripe fruits to be seen. The most important of these trees are the Lindens, a genus of many species, the earliest of which begins to bloom about the middle of June and the last five or six weeks later. In the Bulletins published on June 10, 1910, and on July 6th of last year a detailed account of these trees appeared to which persons interested in them are referred; and it is only necessary, perhaps, to say now that Lindens grow best in damp, moist, well-drained soil, and that the European species take more kindly to cultivation in this part of the country than the American or Asiatic species, the handsomest Linden trees planted in the neighborhood of Boston being forms of the natural European hybrid to which the name Tilia vulgaris belongs. There is a large collection of Lindens in the Arboretum arranged in the meadow on the righthand side of the Meadow Road in which can now be seen specimens of most of the species and of several forms and varieties, many of the trees being now large enough to flower. The fact that, with the exception of Tilia japonica which is the first Linden here to unfold its leaves, none of the Asiatic Lindens now promise to be large or useful trees in this climate is surprising for the trees of eastern Asia usually flourish here, and as a rule are better able to adapt themselves to New England conditions than allied European trees. It is always possible, however, that by crossing some of the Asiatic species with the European species new and valuable forms may be obtained, for hybrids between American and European Lindens, like Tilia spectabi54 Zis and its variety Moltkei, are trees of great beauty and remarkable rapidity of growth. Catalpas. Of trees which flower here in summer the Catalpas have the showiest flowers. All the species and one or two hybrids with the exception of the West Indian C. longissima are in the collection, although they are not large enough yet to flower here. Tha first Catalpa to attract attention, C. bignonioades, was cultivated early in the eighteenth century in England where it had been sent from South Carolina. About forty years ago it became known that a second species of Catalpa was growing naturally in the lower Ohio valley and southward along the Mississippi River as far as western Tennessee and northeastern Arkansas. It was found that this second Catalpa had larger flowers in fewer-flowered clusters than the more southern tree, that the inner surface of the corolla of the flowers had fewer and smaller spots than that of the other tree; that the pods containing the seeds were stouter and had thicker walls, and that the leaves were much longer-pointed at the apex. The name of C. speciosa was given to this tree, and as Catalpa wood is extremely durable when placed in the ground it has been largely planted, especially in some of the prairie states, to produce fence-posts for which it is admirably suited, and for railway ties for which it is too soft. Catalpa speciosa is a fast-growing and rather pyramidal tree which on the rich river bottom lands of the Mississippi sometimes rises to the height of one hundred and twenty feet and forms a tall trunk occasionally four and a half feet in diameter. In New England it is a fast-growing, more shapely and much hardier tree than C. bignonioides which blooms two or three weeks later. In the northern states, and probably in all parts of the country, the early-flowering C. speciosa is the Catalpa which is now commonly planted. There is a dwarf form, var. nana, of C. bignonioides which is usually known as C. Bungei in American nurseries where it is grafted as a standard on the stems of one of the tree Catalpas, and is popular at present for the supposed decoration of gardens which are more or less formal in character and pass in this country for \"Italian gardens.\" It is not known at the Arboretum where this dwarf variety originated or that it has ever flowered. The name Catalpa Bungei properly belongs to the tree of northern China with narrow, dark green, long-pointed leaves, small yellowish white flowers and slender pods. This is not so handsome a tree as the American Catalpas but it is geographically interesting, and is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it is growing well. It has not yet flowered. Another Chinese species, C. ovata, sometimes called C. Kaempferi, is much cultivated in Japan whence it was sent to this country many years ago. It is a perfectly hardy little tree with comparatively small dark green leaves, many-flowered clusters of small yellowish spotted flowers and long slender pods. This Catalpa, which will thrive in regions too cold for the American species, has been somewhat planted in the United States, although as an ornamental tree it does not deserve much attention from the lovers of handsome trees. A hybrid (C. hybrida) between C. bignonioides and C. ovata appeared several years ago in the nursery of J. C. Teas at Baysville, Indiana. This is a fastgrowing and hardy tree with flowers like those of its American par55 ent, although rather smaller, and arranged in much longer clusters, while the leaves, although larger, resemble in shape those of C. ovata. This handsome tree has also been called Catalpa Teasii, C. Teasiana and Teas' Hybrid Catalpa. Another hybrid of the same parentage has purple leaves and, although it probably originated in a European nursery, has been called var. japonica. The two Catalpas introduced by Wilson from central and western China, C. Fargesii and C. Duclouxii, live in the Arboretum but do not yet give much promise that they will become valuable additions to the list of summer-flowering trees which can be successfully grown in this climate. The Aralia Family furnishes the Arboretum with three handsome trees which flower in late summer or early autumn. They are Acanthopanax ricinifolium, Aralia spinosa and A. chinensis and its varieties. The Acanthopanax is a tree which is common in the forests of northern Japan where it is often seventy or eighty feet high with a massive trunk and great wide-spreading branches armed, like the stems of young trees, with many stout prickles. The leaves hang down on long stalks and are nearly circular, five- or seven-lobed and often fifteen or sixteen inches in diameter. The small white flowers are produced in compact, long-stalked clusters whieh form a flat, compound, terminal pancle from twelve to eighteen inches across and are followed late in the autumn by shining black fruits which do not fall until after the beginning of winter. This tree is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for twenty-four years and where it has flowered and ripened its seeds now for several seasons. It is one of the most interesting trees in the collection and, because it is so unlike other trees of the northern hemisphere, it is often said to resemble a tree of the tropics. Aralia spinosa, the so-called Hercules' Club of the southern states where it is a common inhabitant of the borders of woods and the banks of streams, is a tree often thirty feet high with a tall trunk and wide-spreading branches covered with stout orange-colored prickles. The leaves, which are borne at the ends of the branchee, are long-stalked, twice pinnate, and from three to four feet long and two and one-half feet wide. The small white flowers are arranged in compound clusters which rise singly or two or three together above the leaves and are three or four feet long. The fruit is black, rather less than a quarter of an inch in diameter, and ripens in early autumn. For several years this tree did not prove hardy in the Arboretum, but it is now well established on the slope at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurel plantation and is now spreading rapidly there over a considerable area by shoots from underground stems. The Asiatic tree Aralia resembles in habit and general appearance the American Hercules' Club, but is distinct from that tree in the absence of stalks to the leaflets. There are a number of geographical forms of this tree; the one which is most commonly cultivated in this country is a native of Manchuria and eastern Siberia (var. mandshurica) which is sometimes found in nurseries under the name of Dimorphanthus mandshuricus. The Japanese form, var. glabrescens, is chiefly distinguished from it by the pale color of the under surface of the leaflets; it is less hardy than the Manchurian form and is not often seen in this country. Sophora japonica is in spite of its name a Chinese tree which has been cultivated in Japan for more than a thousand years, and as it first reached Europe from that counnry was long considered a native of Japan. It is a round-headed tree which in Peking, where it has been much planted, has grown to a large size and looks from a distance like an Oak-tree. The leaves and branchlets are dark green, and the small, creamy white, pea-shaped flowers, which open here in August, are produced in great numbers in narrow, erect, terminal clusters. There are also in the collection the form with long pendent branches (var. pendula) which rarely flowers, and a young plant of the form with erect branches (var. pyramidalis). The form of this tree with flowers tinged with rose color (var. rosea) is not in the Arboretum. The Sophoras are on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. Near them the Maackias are growing. They also belong to the Pea Family, and the better known Maackia amurensis is a native of eastern Siberia; it is a small tree with handsome smooth, reddish brown, shining bark, dull, deep green, pinnate leaves and short, narrow, erect spikes of small white flowers which open here soon after the middle of July. There is a form of this tree (var. Buergeri) in northern Japan which differs from the Siberian tree in the presence of soft down on the lower surface of the leaflets. The species discovered by Wilson in central China, M. hupehensis, is growing well in the Arboretum but has not yet flowered. Oxydendrum arboreum, the Sorrel-tree or Sour Wood, is a native of the southern Appalachian mountain forests and the only tree of the Heath Family which can be grown in this climate, with the exception of the Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) and the Rose Bay (Rhododendron maximum) which are shrubs at the north and only exceptionally trees in a few favored valleys of the southern mountains. The Sorrel-tree in its native forests grows fifty or sixty feet high, but at the north as it begins to flower abundantly when only a few feet tall, it is not probable that in this climate it will ever attain a considerable size. It is well worth growing, however, for its bright green shining leaves which have a pleasant acidulous flavor and in autumn turn bright scarlet, for its white Andromeda-like flowers erect on the branches of spreading or slightly drooping terminal clusters, and for its pale fruits which in the autumn are conspicuous among the brilliant leaves. There is a group of these plants among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill which will flower at the end of July or early in August. Koelreuteria paniculata. This Chinese tree will also flower before the end of July when it will be conspicuous from its large erect clusters of bright yellow flowers which stand well above the large, dark green, compound leaves and which are followed by large, bladder-like fruits. This is a small hardy tree which is now often planted in this country, especially in the middle states. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 23","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23666","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270bb25.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 23, 1917 The brilliant autumn coloring of the leaves and the abundant and handsome fruits of many trees and shrubs are conspicuous features in the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia, and as there are larger collections of these plants in the Arboretum than in other gardens this is the best place to study trees and shrubs with reference to the autumn decoration of parks and gardens in our northeastern states. Bright autumn colors can be seen in the Arboretum from the middle of September until the middle of November, or even later in exceptional years. Handsome fruits begin to ripen here in July and on some plants they retain their brilliancy until late spring. In Japan the great autumn color effects are in November or a month later than in our northern states, for in Japan the Maples, which are perhaps the most brightly colored of the Japanese trees, take on their autumn colors very late, as they do when transplanted to this country. The leaves of several eastern Asiatic trees change color and fall early. Some of these are Phellodendron amurense, Acer ginnala, Acer mandshuricum, and Evonymus alatus. Phellodendron amurense. This is a small tree from the Amoor region of eastern Siberia. It is chiefly interesting as the type of a small genus with a few species of trees of eastern Asia of the Rue Family, and for its peculiar thick, ridged, pale cork-like bark. Early in October the leaves turn to a bright clear yellow which is hardly equalled in beauty by the yellow of the autumn leaves of any other tree. Unfortunately this beauty is short-lived and the branches are already bare. Acer ginnala is another small tree or large shrub of the Amoor region. It bears compact clusters of small, nearly white, fragrant flowers and pointed lobed leaves which in October are even more brilliantly scarlet than those of the best of our native Red Maples. This beauty is also short-lived and is already passing, Acer ginnala is one of the early introductions of the Arboretum into the United States, and it is fortunate that its decorative value has been recognized by American landscape gardeners and nurserymen, and that it is no longer rare in American plantations. Acer mandshuricum. This tree is still little known in the United States and Europe. It is one of the trees with leaves composed of three leaflets, and it is one of the largest and handsomest trees of the mountain valleys of Manchuria and Korea. It has slender bright red branchlets, and the narrow leaflets are three or four inches long, gradually pointed at the ends, and are borne on long, slender scarlet stalks. The pale color of their lower surface is retained after the upper surface has turned bright red early in October, and the contrast of the colors of the two surfaces greatly increase the October beauty of this tree. This Maple flowered in the Arboretum for the first time this year and produced a good crop of fruit, which, however, unfortunately proved to be abortive. If this tree is ever taken up by nurserymen there is every reason to believe that it will become one of the most ornamental trees of recent introduction. Evonymus alatus. To those persons who complain that the Arboretum is not interesting because most of its plants are not known to them or are beyond their immediate reach this Japanese Burning Bush should bring hope and encouragement as well as much joy, for its autumn beauty has long been known and it is now to be found in most American nurseries. The flowers and fruits are small and inconspicuous, and the only real value of this shrub is found in the deep rose color passing to scarlet of its October leaves which are already beginning to fall. That its whole beauty may be seen this shrub should be planted as a single specimen with plenty of space for the free development of its spreading branches, which when it has been well planted will cover a diameter of ten or twelve feet on the ground and form a compact, round-topped bush six or eight feet high. The corky wings on the branchlets to which this plant owes its specific name and which vary in different individuals are interesting. There is a large plant in the Evonymus Collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road and there is another on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilac Collection. Eastern American Mountain Ashes. As fruit trees the two Mountain Ashes of eastern North America, Sorbus americana, and its variety decora have been perhaps the handsomest objects in the Arboretum this autumn. The fruit is already almost entirely eaten by birds, for which every year it furnishes here abundant harvests; but attention is now called to these small trees in the hope that they may become as well known in the gardens of southern New England as they are in those of eastern Canada, northern Michigan, Wisconsin and Minnesota. At its best Sorbus americana is a tree twenty or thirty feet tall, but more often and here in the Arboretum it is a large shrub with spreading stems. The leaves are composed of numerous slender pointed leaflets; the small flowers are creamy white and produced in small crowded clusters which do not appear until the leaves are fully grown; in the autumn these turn dull orange-red some time before falling, but the great beauty of the tree is found in its great clusters of small bright orange-red fruits which by their weight become semi-pendent. The variety decora ia a larger tree with broader leaflets; the flowers are nearly twice as large, and the fruit which is larger and therefore more showy, is of the same color. This variety grows only along the northern border of the eastern and middle states and northward, and is perhaps the handsomest of all Mountain Ashes. Rarely seen in Massachusetts gardens it is often the chief ornament in those of the more northern parts of the country. There is a group of these Mountain Ashes on the right-hand side of the path leading from the Forest Hills entrance into the Shrub Collection. Prunus hortulana. This is the handsomest of the American Plums and one of the handsomest of the small trees of eastern North America where it grows on rich bottom-lands from southern Illinois to southern Missouri. This is a tree sometimes twenty or thirty feet high, with a trunk covered with dark scaly bark, and stout, widespreading branches which form on the trees growing in the Arboretum a dense, round-topped and shapely head. The flowers, which are produced in few-flowered clusters, are sometimes an inch in diameter and open when the leaves are less than half grown. When the trees are in bloom their appearance is not unlike that of several other Plum trees; and the great beauty of this tree is in its habit, in the long pointed, comparatively narrow and very shiny leaves which are now turning a deep bronze-red color. The fruit, too, which looks like a bright red cherry, is an inch in diameter and droops gracefully on slender stalks. It is beautiful although the flesh is hard and austere, and it is not as a fruit tree but as an ornamental tree that this Plum deserves a place in parks and gardens in which small trees are valued. Two specimens can be seen in the Plum Collection on the right-hand side of the grass walk leading into the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road. Magnolias. The leaves of the Asiatic Magnolias fall late in the autumn without much change of color, and those of some of the American species, notably M. acuminata, the so-called Cucumber-tree, M. tripetala, the Umbrella-tree, M. Fraseri, the Mountain Magnolia, and the great-leaved M. macrophylla, all turn to shades of yellow and brown, which make these trees so conspicuous at this season of the year. The leaves of the yellow-flowered M. cordata are still as green as they were at midsummer. Later they also will turn yellow or brown, but the leaves of the Swamp Bay, M. glauca, which are still as beautiful as they have been for the last six months, will fall gradually here late in November or early in December without any change of color. Further south they remain on the branches usually until spring. The group of American Magnolias is between the Jamaica Plain entrance and the Arboretum building. Two American Viburnums. V. Lentago and V. prunifolium are even more beautiful now with their large brightly colored leaves and drooping clusters of large, dark blue fruit than they were late in the spring when they were covered with broad clusters of small, creamy white flowers. These are common eastern American plants and are shrubs or small trees, and there are no better subjects for the decoration of woods or forest glades. V. Lentago is the more round-topped plant of the two, with larger leaves and larger clusters of flowers, while V. prunifolium which naturally does not grow north of southwestern Connecticut, has more spreading branches, smaller clusters of whiter flowers and narrower leaves of a deeper red at this season of the year. These two Viburnums have been largely used in the Arboretum border- plantations which owe much beauty to them. The decorative value of these plants is now recognized and it is possible to find them in several American nurseries. Ligustrum vulgare. Attention has often been called in these Bulletins to the value of the common European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare. In recent years much attention has been paid by botanists and gardeners to the Privets of eastern Asia, where many species have been discovered. None of these, however, are as valuable in this climate as the European species which is perhaps the handsomest of all hardy, black-fruited shrubs. The bright shining fruit is borne in compact clusters which stand up well on the ends of the branches above the dark green lustrous leaves and remain on the plants during the early winter months and after the dark green leaves have fallen. Formerly this was a common garden plant in the northern states and it is now sparingly naturalized in some parts of the country. There is a form with yellow fruit which is much less beautiful than the type. There is a variety foliolosa in the collection which has rather narrower leaves and larger fruit. This shrub, although apparently still little known in our gardens, is one of the handsomest of all shrubs here at this season of the year. The specimen in the Shrub Collection is now covered with its large and brilliant fruits, and is well worth a visit by any one interested in the autumn decoration of gardens. Abelia grandiflora on Hickory Path near Centre Street is still well covered with flowers. These resemble in shape the flowers of some of the Honeysuckles; they are white faintly tinged with rose color, and their delicate beauty is set off by the small dark green and lustrous leaves. Abelia grandiflora is a slender shrub with arching stems from three to four feet high, and is thought to be a hybrid between two Chinese species. Until the introduction by the Arboretum of some of the species of this genus from western China it was believed to be the hardiest of the Abelias. In the Arboretum it suffers in severe winters; but in sheltered positions it flowers well every year and the flowers continue to open during nearly two months. This Abelia has become an exceedingly popular plant in the gardens of the southern states and is cultivated with more or less success as far north as New York."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 30","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23667","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd2708126.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 30, 1917 Some American Hawthorns. Among American Hawthorns are many species which are of exceptional value for the beauty of their abundant flowers, their bright-colored fruits and the brilliancy of their autumn foliage. A number of these plants can now be seen to advantage on the bank between the Shrub Collection and the Boston Parkway, and are best reached by the path leading to the right from just inside the Forest Hills gate. These plants were raised at the Arboretum from seed mostly planted between 1880 and 1885, and are therefore less than forty years old. None of these trees, however, have reached anything like their maximum size but are large enough to show their habit of growth and their character as garden ornaments. Hawthorns are usually long-lived plants, and individuals a hundred years old are not uncommon; and, although it takes several years to produce a good Hawthorn collection, once established the plants will go on improving and last for a long time. Hawthorns are easily raised from seeds which require two years in which to germinate. Large specimens are easily transplanted, and all the species thrive in any well-drained soil. Growing naturally, the species are most abundant in those parts of the country where the soil is impregnated with lime, and they are therefore particularly suited to give beauty to the parks and gardens of a large part of the United States where the presence of lime and the character of the climate prevent the cultivation of several classes of plants on which the gardeners of the coast region of the continent depend. Some of the species growing on the bank near the Shrub Collection which are now worth the attention of visitors are :- Crataegus nitida. This is a native of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River near East St. Louis where it sometimes grows thirty feet high and forms a tall straight trunk. The wide-spreading lower branches and the erect upper branches form a broad, rather open unsymmetrical head. The leaves are long and comparatively narrow, and those near the ends of the branches are often deeply lobed; they are dark green and very lustrous, and turn yellow, orange or red late in October. The flowers are not more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter, and the scarlet oblong fruit rarely exceeds the length of half an inch. The flowers and fruit, however, are produced in great profusion; and, although many species have larger flowers and handsomer fruits, the habit of this tree, its beautiful foliage and its autumn color make C. nitida one of the handsomest Thorn trees. Many persons indeed place it with the six or eight most beautiful species of the genus. Crataegus pruinosa. There is a good plant of this widely distributed eastern species on the bank. It is a small, round-topped tree with wide, dark blue-green, lobed leaves which late in the autumn turn dull orange or orange and red. The flowers are an inch in diameter in fewflowered clusters, and very conspicuous from the large, deep rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens. The fruit, which is often nearly an inch in diameter, is nearly globose, bright blue-green covered with a glaucous bloom, and five-angled at the end of September; later it loses its angles, turns orange color and finally becomes dark purplish red and very lustrous. Both when it is in flower and when the fruit is red this is a very ornamental plant. Crataegus aprica. There are two plants of this species in this collection. They are interesting as representing a peculiar group of the genus (Flavae) which is confined to the southeastern United States. C. aprica is a tree sometimes twenty feet high in the low valleys of the southern Appalachian Mountains which are its home. This plant is attractive just now for the small leaves have turned bright orange and red and the branches are thickly covered with its small clusters of dull orange-red fruits. These plants were raised from seed presented to the Arboretum in 1876 by Asa Gray as Crataegus coccinea, the name by which most red-fruited American Hawthorns were known until the systematic study of the genus was undertaken some twenty years ago. Crataegus coccinioides. There is a good plant of this Thorn in this collection. It is a round-topped densely branched tree with broad, thin, dark green, ovate, lobed leaves from two to three inches long which are now bright orange and scarlet. The large flowers are produced in very compact, nearly globose, from five- to seven-flowered clusters and are conspicuous from the large size of the deep rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens. The fruit which is a good deal covered by the foliage, ripens and falls gradually during the month of October and is subglobose, nearly an inch in diameter, dark crimson, very lustrous and erect on short pedicels in compact clusters. This handsome plant is a native of the region in the neighborhood of St. Louis. The compact flower and fruit clusters readily distinguish it from allied species. Crataegus succulenta. This is a good representative of a peculiar group of Thorns (Tomentosae), distinguished from the other groups by the deep longitudinal cavities on the inner face of the nutlets of the fruit. The leaves of this Thorn are thick, lustrous, dark green, elliptic in outline, lobed only above the middle, and not brilliantly colored in the autumn. The flowers with twenty stamens and small rose-colored anthers hang on long slender stems in many-flowered clusters. The fruit is two-thirds of an inch in diametar, scarlet and very lustrous, and its beauty is increased by the contrast of color with the dark green leaves among which it is suspended. Crataegus fecunda. This is also a native of the St. Louis region and is a good representative of the great Crus-galli Group of which the well-known Cockspur Thorn is the type. C. fecunda is a large, roundtopped tree with lustrous leaves broadest at the apex, small flowers with rose-colored anthers in many-flowered clusters, and abundant orange-red fruits which droop on slender stems. Other plants in this collection to which attention is called are C. prunifolia, C. Douglasii, the black-fruited species of the Puget Sound region, of which there is a large specimen here, C. rivularis from the southern Rocky Mountain region, a smaller tree also with black fruit, C. arkansana, C. Arnoldiana, C. Dawsoniana, and forms of the European C. oxyacantha. Crataegus on Peter's Hill. A large number of Thorns in the Peter's Hill Collection have flowered this year and several of them are now bearing good crops of fruit. Of special interest just now are the plants of the Intricatae and Uniflorae Groups, many of which are covered with fruit. These groups are of particular interest to gardeners for, with a few exceptions, they are small shrubs and begin to bloom when only a few years old. The flowers which usually open later than those of most of the Thorns, are large and showy with either yellow or rosecolored anthers. The fruit, which is large and usually sub-globose, is on different individuals scarlet, crimson, orange-color, green or yellow, and the leaves of most of the species turn late in October to beautiful shades of orange, red or scarlet. This group of shrubs is at the eastern base of Peter's Hill on the lower side of the drive and near a large White Oak. Some of the species which are most attractive at this time are C. fruticosa, C. Bissellii, C. Peckii, C. Smithii, C. foetida, C. modesta, C. nemoralis, C. cuprea, C. intricata, C. Boyntonii and C. Buckleyi. Long overlooked by botanists, these little plants have not yet found the place in gardens which, when better known, they are destined to occupy. Crataegus punctata. There is a group of this Thorn on the southern side of the Overlook on Bussey Hill which well shows the variation in the color of the fruit on different individuals of this species. On some of these plants the fruit is red, and on others yellow, orange color or rose. C. punctata is one of the largest and most widely and generally distributed of the species of the eastern states where it is often a tree thirty feet tall with wide-spreading branches which form a flat or round-topped head of great beauty. This species, which has been known for more than a century and is often cultivated, is peculiar in the fact that some individuals have flowers with rose-colored anthers and others have flowers with yellow anthers, and that the plants with the rose-colored anthers produce red fruit while those with yellow anthers produce yellow fruit. Crataegus cordata. Near the group of C. punctata on the Bussey Hill Overlook are two large plants of C. cordata or the Washington Thorn, as it is sometimes called. This is a narrow tree sometimes thirty feet tall with erect branches and small nearly triangular lustrous leaves which are now beginning to turn bright scarlet. The small globose fruits are also turning scarlet and will remain on the branches until spring with little loss of beauty. This is the latest of all the species of Crataegus in the Arboretum to flower. The only drawback to this handsome little tree is found in the brittleness of the branches which are often broken by high winds. A century ago it appears to have been frequently used in the middle states as a hedge plant. ' An autumn-flowering Lilac. Lilac flowers in October are not common, but Syringa mzero~thylta, which flowered the middle of June, began to bloom again six weeks ago and is still covered with flowers. It is a native of north central China and is a hardy, free-growing shrub with small leaves and small, pale rose-colored, fragrant flowers in small narrow clusters. It is far from being one of the handsomest of the Lilacs, but if it keeps up the habit of flowering for a second time in autumn it will be at least interesting even if other Lilacs are more beautiful. Stuartia pseudocamellia. This small Japanese tree is of interest at this time on account of the dark bronze-purple color of its autumn leaves which is unlike that of any other plant in the Arboretum. It should be grown, too, for its pure white cup-shaped flowers which resemble those of a single-flowered Camellia. This Stuartia is a narrow tree wiLh slender erect branches and pale gray, smooth bark which separates in large thin plates. It grows slowly but is perfectly hardy. Two specimens can be seen on the upper side of Azalea Path. Enkianthus perulatus, or japonicus as it is perhaps better known, is unusually handsome this year, equalling and even surpassing the Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) in the brilliant scarlet of its autumn leaves. Unlike Enkianthus campanulata it is shrubby - in habit and forms a dense broad bush. The white bell-shaped flowers are attractive, but in the Arboretum the plants have not produced seeds, and this Enkianthus is therefore rare in American gardens. It is found, however, in all Japanese gardens where it is grown for its autumn colors and where it is usually cut into dense balls. The best collection of Enkianthus is on the lower side of Azalea Path, where several species are flourishing."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 6","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23665","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd270b76f.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL III NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 6, 1917 Broad-leaved Evergreens. The number of varieties of these plants which can be successfully grown in eastern Massachusetts is very small, and the botanical explorations of the last quarter of a century have made only a few additions to the list. Moreover, it is not probable that further exploration will greatly increase the number of these plants which can be grown in this climate, and probably the only hope of increasing it is in the production of new races of hardy Rhododendrons. A large portion of the broad-leaved evergreens which are hardy in the northern states belong to the Heath Family and cannot grow in soil impregnated with lime, so that the number of these plants available for the gardens of the middle west is confined to species of only three or four genera. Of the plants introduced from China only one or two Rhododendrons, four Barberries, a Viburnum, and possibly a Gaultheria can be kept alive here in the open ground, and the permanent value of some of them is not yet assured. Evergreen Barberries. The four species of evergreen Barberries which are growing in the Arboretum are Berberis Julianae, B. verruculosa, B. Gagnepainii, B. Sargentiana. The last is the least hardy of these four plants and it can be kept alive here only in exceptionally sheltered positions, and, judging by our experience with it in the Arboretum, it will never become a good garden plant in this climate. Of B. Julianae there are a number of plants here in exposed positions where they have been growing for several years and have not suffered from heat or cold. It is a tall shrub with pale branches and spines, thick, dark green leaves, clusters of yellow flowers and blue-black fruit. The Arboretum plants flowered for the first time last spring and have not yet produced fruit. B. Gagnepainii is also a tall shrub, with yellow-gray branchlets, long slender spines and narrow spiny leaves. The small flowers are in from three- to eight-flowered clusters and are followed by pear-shaped, bluish black fruit one-third of an inch long. This Barberry has flowered and fruited in the Arboretum this year for the first time. B. verruculosa is a dwarf spreading plant sometimes three feet high and broad, with slender, semipendent branches covered with many long slender spiues and small, remotely spiny, toothed leaves dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white below. The flowers are pale yellow and solitary or in pairs, and the fruit is about half an inch long and dark violet color or nearly black. This handsome little plant flowers irregularly through the summer and early autumn and has not yet ripened its fruit in the Arboretum. These three Chinese evergreen Barberries are with the other Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where they have been growing for three or four years in an exposed position. Mahonias, as Barberries with pinnate leaves are now generally called, are not very hardy here with the exception of the Rocky Mountain M. repens which is a good plant in this climate and soon spreads by underground stems into broad clusters. The handsomer M. Aquifolium, the Oregon Grape of the northwestern part of the country, lives in sheltered positions, but many of the leaves are usually injured by the cold. M. pinnata and M. japonica generally live here but cannot be recommended for general planting. They can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Viburnum rhytidophyllum. This plant attracted a good deal of attention when it was first raised from seeds collected by Wilson in China, but in eastern Massachusetts it is hardy only in sheltered positions and usually suffers more or less every winter. In the neighborhood of Philadelphia, however, it appears to be perfectly hardy and specimens there are already fully ten feet high. It is a large shrub with stout erect branches and tomentose branchlets, and large dark brown leaves lustrous and deeply wrinkled on the upper surface, and covered below with a thick coat of gray or yellowish felt. The flowers are in compact terminal clusters which are formed in the autumn and are conspicuous during the winter, and the fruit is about a third of an inch long, at first bright red when fully grown and finally black and very lustrous. There is a plant of this Viburnum on Hickory Path near Centre Street, and another on the upper side of Azalea Path on which the flower-buds can now be seen. Kalmias. The most generally satisfactory broad-leaved evergreen which can be grown in this part of the country is the Mountain Laurel (Kalmia latifolia) which is one of the handsomest plants of the North American flora. There are forms of the Mountain Laurel with white, pink and red flowers and there are some monstrous forms which are more curious than beautiful. Two dwarf species, Kalmia angustifolia, the well-known Sheep Laurel of northern pastures, and K. carolina from the southern mountains, although not often cultivated, deserve a place in the garden. K. polifolia, or glauea, is hardy, but not easy to establish in gardens. The Kalmias, like the Rhododendrons and all plants of the Heath Family, cannot grow where there is lime in the soil. Rhododendrons. A large number of the species and hybrids of Rhododendrons are now cultivated in California and in some parts of Europe, but only a few of them can be grown in the open ground in the eastern United States, and the region here wher-e any of these plants thrive is not large, for it is too cold for Rhododendrons north of Massachusetts and too hot for them south of Pennsylvania except on the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains. Only the species of eastern North America, R. xnax2mua3z, R. cc~ta~.,vbieazse, R. r,arolinianum and R. minus, and R. ,S'~nvrnowii of the Caucasus, 1~ brachycarpum of the high mountains of Japan, and R. micranthum from western and north central China are perfectly hardy here. This last is a small plant with small leaves and small compact clusters of white flowers and looks more like a Ledum than a Rhododendron. Of the sixty ~odd species of Chinese Rhododendrons raised at the Arboretum from seed collected by Wilson this is the only one that is perfectly hardy here, although R. discolor can be kept alive in sheltered positions at :east for a few years. Two little European Rhododendrons, R. ferrugineum and R. hirsutum live here but the plants are generally short-lived and not really satisfactory. Most of the Rhododendrons cultivated in this part of the country are hybrids of R. catawbiense, but only a very few of the great number of these hybrids which have been raised in Europe are really hardy here. There are hybrids, too, growing in the Arboretum of R. Metternichii, of R. Smirnowii, of R. maximum, of R. minus and of the European species which are hardy. There is still much to be accomplished in the gardens of eastern America by the breeders of hardy Rhododendrons. Hollies. Rex opaca, the widely distributed, red-fruited species of eastern North America is the only broad-leaved evergreen which is a tree in this climate. ZLex opaca seems able to flourish under the conditions of city life and to be little injured by the smoke from bituminous coal fires which are so injurious to most evergreen plants. That it is a long-lived tree is shown by the specimens planted by Washington about 1785 at Mt. Vernon which are still in perfect health and among the most interesting of the trees planted by him. Ilex glabra is another excellent broad-leaved evergreen for the decoration of New England gardens. It is a broad round-topped shrub with small lustrous leaves and small black fruit a good deal hidden by the foliage, and is a native of the coast region from New Hampshire to Texas. A good mass of these shrubs can be seen on the right hand side of the Hemlock Hill Drive opposite the Laurel plantation. Two Japanese evergreen Hollies can be grown here, Ilex crenata and 1. pedunculosa. The former is a small bushy tree or small shrub with small finely toothed leaves and small black fruit borne on such small stems that it is hidden by the leaves. There are forms of this plant with larger and with smaller leaves, and the small-leaved form (var. microphylla), on which the leaves are not more than half an inch long, is the hardier. Several large plants can be seen on Azalea Path. Of ~Zex pedunculosa there are only small specimens in the Arboretum, where they can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street where they have been growing for several years. In Japan this is a small tree sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall, or more often a shrub. The leaves resemble in shape those of our Wild Cherry, and the handsome red fruit is borne on long stalks and is very ornamental. Andromedas. Andromeda, or as it is often called Pieris floribunda, is one of the handsomest of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which are perfectly hardy in this climate. It is a round-topped shrub occasionally eight or ten feet across and four or five feet high, with small, pointed, dark green leaves, and short terminal clusters of white bell-shaped flowers. The flower-buds, which are fully grown in the autumn, are conspicuous and ornamental during the winter. This southern Appalachian shrub is an old inhabitant of gardens and is still much propagated by nurserymen. The related Japanese species, Andromeda faponica, is sometimes a small tree and has more lustrous leaves and larger flowers in larger clusters. The plant is hardy, but the flowers, which open early, are often injured by spring frosts. The so-called Bog Rosemarys, Andromeda potifolia and A. gtazrcop7cylla, although naturally swamp plants, can be grown in dry soil and are attractive small shrubs with small pale leaves and clustered white or pink flowers. Chamaedaphne calyculata. This, the so-called Leather Leaf, is another native small plant which can be successfully grown in dry ground. The small white flowers are in the axils of the upper leaves and are not very conspicuous, and aa an ornamental plant the Leather Leaf is not as attractive as several of the smaller shrubs of the Heath Family. There is also a plant of the dwarf form in the Shrub Collection (varminor). The Box Huckleberry. Among the easily grown and perfectly hardy evergreen plants of the Heath Family none is perhaps more beautiful than the Box Huckleberry (Gaylussacia bracicycera) with its small, lustrous leaves which become the color of old Spanish leather in the autumn, small white flowers and blue fruits. The prostrate stems spread into broad mats only a few inches high, and although the plant grows naturally in the shade of Oak woods it thrives in full sunshine. This is one of the rarest plants in North America and is now known to grow naturally in only one place in Pennsylvania. Blueberries. A few of the evergreen Vacciniums can be grown in this climate, including the Cowberry (V. Vitis-Idaea) and its variety minus, low plants with tufted creeping stems, small pink or white flowers and dark red berries. The two Cranberries, Vaccinium Oxycoccus and V. macrocarpon, although inhabitants of swamps, will also grow in dry ground and are beautiful plants. The only other broad-leaved evergreens which are perfectly hardy here are the Leucothoes, the Bear Berry, the Gaultherias, the Ledums, Leiophyllums, the Pachystimas, Evonymus radicans aud Vinca minor. The Bulletins for 1917 will now be discontinued."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23651","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcadd260ab6c.jpg","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics Abelia grandiflora, 60 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 55 Acer capillipes, 52 ginnala, 58 Henryi, 52 mandshuricum, 52, 58 Negundo, 52 pennsylvanicum, 52 platanoides, 15 var. columnare, 16 var. cucullatum, 16 var. dissectum, 16 var. globosum, 16 var. Schwedleri, 16 var. Stollii, 16 rubrum, 1 saccharinum, 1 saccharum, var. monumentale, 16 truncatum, 52 Aesculus Briotii, 32 californica, 32 carnea, 32 discolor, 32 var. mollis, 32 georgiana, 32 glabra, 24 var. Buckleyi, 24 Aitkin Plum, 14 Alnus glutinosa, 4 hirsuta, 4 Amelanchier, 19 canadensis, 12 laevis, 12 oblongifolia, 12 American Crab-apples, 19 American Thorns, 26 American Viburnums, 60 Andromeda floribunda, 68 glaucophylla, 68 japonica, 68 polifolia, 68 Andromedas, 68 Apple, Paradise, 17 Apricot, Black, 14 Japanese, 14 Mikado, 14 Apricot Plum, 13 Purple, 14 Apricots, 13 Aralia chinensis, 55 var. glabrescens, 55 var. mandshurica, 55 Aralia Family, 55 Aralia spinosa, 55 Asiatic Maples, 52 Bay, Swamp, 59 Bechtel Crab, 19 Benzoin aestivale, 3 Barberries, evergreen, 65 Bear Berry, 68 Berberis Gagnepainii, 65 Julianm, 65 Sargentiana, 65 verruculosa, 65 Black Apricot, 14 Bladder Nuts, 51 Blue Willow, 50 Blueberries, 68 Box Huckleberry, 68 Broad-leaved Evergreens, 65 Broom, Scotch, 48 Buckeye, Ohio, 24 Buckeyes, 24 Burnet Rose, 40 Canada Plum, 14 Catalpa bignonioides, 54 var. nana, 54 Bungei, 54 Bungei, 54 Duclouxii, 55 Fargesii, 55 hybrida, 54 Kaempferi, 54 longissima, 54 ovata, 54 speciosa, 54 Teas' Hybrid, 55 Teasii, 55 Teasiana, 55 Catalpas, 54 Chamaecyparis thyoides, 1 Chamaedaphne calyculata, 68 var. minor, 68 Cherokee Rose, 31 Cherries, Eastern Asiatic, 9 Double-flowered, 25 Cherry, Cornelian, 3 Sargent, 12 Cherry Plum, 14 Chinese Cotoneasters, 35 Chinese Rhododendrons, 67 Chinese Weeping Willow, 8 Close Bark Willow, 49 Cornelian Cherry, 3 Cornus alternifolia, 39 circinata, 44 controversa, 39 florida, 19, 43 kousa, 43 mas, 3 Nuttallii, 43 rugosa, 44 Corylopsis, 5 Gotoana, 6 Veitchiana, 6 Willmottae, 6 Cotoneaster divaricata, 36 hupehensis, 35 multiflora, var. calocarpa, 27 nitens, 36 Cotoneasters, Chinese, 35 Cowberry, 68 Crab-apples, 17 American, 19 Crab, Bechtel, 19 Hyslop, 17 Siberian, 17 Transcendent, 17 Crack Willow, 50 Cranberries, 68 Crataegus aprica, 62 arkansana, 63 Arnoldiana, 26, 63 Bissellii, 63 Boyntonii, 63 Buckleyi, 63 coccinioides, 26, 62 cordata, 64 cuprea, 63 Dawsoniana, 63 Crataegus Douglasii, 63 Ellwangeriana, 26 fecunda, 63 foetida, 63 fruticosa, 63 intricata, 63 modesta, 63 nemoralis, 63 nigra, 26 nitida, 62 oxyacantha, 63 Peckii, 63 pedicellata, 26 pruinosa, 62 prunifolia, 63 punctata, 63 rivularis, 63 Smithii, 63 succulenta, 63 Crataegus on Peter's Hill, 63 Cricket Bat Willows, 50 Cucumber-tree, 28, 59 Cumberland Plum, 14 Cytisus scoparius, var. Andreanus compactus, 48 Daphne Mezereum, 3 Deutzta alba plena, 38 Deutzia candelabra, 39 discolor, 39 var. major, 39 discolor, var. purpurascens, 38 Deutzia globosa, 38 gracilis, 37 grandiflora, 38 hybrids, 37 hypoglauca, 38 kalmiaeflora, 39 Lemoinei, 37 var. compacta, 37 Boule de Neige, 37 Avalanche, 37 Candelabre, 37 longifolia, 38 magnifica, 38 myriantha, 38 var. Boule Rose, 38 Deutzia myriantha var. Fleur de Pommier, 38 parviflora, 37 Deutzia purpurascens, 38 reflexa, 38 rosea, 38 var. campanulata, 38 var. eximia, 38 var. floribunda, 38 scabra, 38 var. candidissima, 38 var. crenata, 38 var. plena, 38 var. Pride of Rochester, 38 var. Watereri, 38 Sieboldiana, 39 Vilmorinae, 38 Wellsii, 38 Deutzias, 37 Diervilla florida, var. venusta, 31 Diervilla hybrids, 31 Avant Garde, 31 Conquerant, 31 Esperance, 31 Floreal, 31 Fleur de Mai, 31 Gracieux, 31 Seduction, 31 Vestale, 31 praecox, 31 Diervillas, Early-flowering, 31 Dimorphanthus mandshuricus, 55 Dirca palustris, 3 Double-flowered Cherries, 25 Eagle-claw Maple, 16 Early-flowering Hawthorn, 26 Early-flowering native shrubs, 3 Early Lilacs, 15 Early Magnolias, 2 Early Rhododendrons, 2 Eastern Asiatic Cherries, 9 Effects of the winter in the Arboretum, ] Enkianthus campanulatus, 64 japonicus, 64 perulatus, 64 Erica carnea, 4 European Privet, 60 Evergreen Barberries, 65 Evergreens, broad-leaved, 65 Evonymus alatus, 58 Evonymus radicans, 68 Forsythia europaea, 7 intermedia,7 var. pallida,7 var. primulina, 7 var. spectabilis, 7 suspensa, 7 var. Fortunei, 7 viridissima,7 Forsythias, 7 Gaultherias, 68 Gaylussacia brachycera, 68 Golden Beauty Plum, 14 Golden Chain, 39 . Grape, Oregon, 66 Hamamelis mollis, 2 vernalis, 1 Hawthorn, an early-flowering, 26 Hawthorns, some American, 61 Hercules' Club, 55 Hollies, 67 Horsechestnuts, 24 Huckleberry, Box, 68 Hyslop Crab, 17 Ilex crenata, 67 var. microphylla, 68 glabra, 67 opaca, 67 pedunculosa, 67, 68 Indigofera amblyantha, 44 Potaninii, 44 Itasca Plum, 14 Japanese Apricot, 14 Japanese Plums, 13 Kalmia angustifolia, 66 carolina, 66 latifolia, 56, 66 Kalmias, 66 Kanawha Plum, 14 Koelreuteria paniculata, 56 Laburnum Adami, 40 alpinum, 40 Laburnum anagyroides, 39 var. bullatum, 39 var. involutum, 39 var. quercifolium,39 var. semperflorum, 39 caramanicum, 40 Parksii, 40 Scotch, 40 vulgare, 39 Watereri, 40 Laburnums, 39 Late Lilacs, 41 Late Rhododendrons, 47 Late-flowering Viburnums, 48 Laurel, Mountain, 66 Sheep, 7 Leather Leaf, 68 Leatherwood, 3 Ledums, 68 Leiophyllums, 68 Leucothoes, 68 Ligustrum vulgare, 60 var. foliolosa, 60 Lilac, an autumn-flowering, 64 Lilac, Persian, 21, 22 Lilacs, 21 Lilacs, Early, 15 Late, 41 Tree, 43 Lindens, 53 Asiatic, 53 Maackia amurensis, 56 var. Buergeri, 56 hupehensis, 56 Maddenia hypoleuca, 7 Magnolia acuminata, 28, 59 cordata, 28, 59 Fraseri, 27, 59 glauca, 59 kobus,3 var. borealis, 3 macrophylla, 28, 59 Mountain, 59 stellata,2 tripetala, 59 Magnolias, early, 2 Mahonia Aquifolium, 66 japonica, 66 pinnata, 66 Mahonia repens, 66 Mahonias, 66 Malus Arnoldiara, 19 baccata, 17, 18 var. Jackii, 18 var. mandshurica, 18 floribiinda, 19 fusca, 19 Halliana, var. Parkmanii, 20 ioensis, 19 prunifolia, 18 var. rinki, 18 pumila, 17, 18 Sargentii, 20 Sieboldii, 20 var. callicarpa, 20 sylvestris, 17, 18 theifera, 27 toringo, 20 Maple, Eagle-claw, 16 Norway, 15 Scarlet, 1 Sugar, 16 White,1 Maples, Asiatic, 52 Mikado Apricot, 14 Mock Orange, 45 Mountain Ashes, eastern American, 58 Mountain Laurel, 66 Mountain Magnolia, 59 Native shrubs, early-flowering, 3 Neillia affinis, 40 longiracemosa, 40 sinensis, 40 Norway Maple, 15 Ohio Buckeye, 24 Open Bark Willow, 50 Oregon Grape, 66 Oxford Plum, 14 Oxydendrum arboreum, 56 Pachystimas, 68 Paradise Apple, 17 Periploca graeca, 47 Periploca sepium, 47 Persian Lilac, 21, 22 Phellodendron amurense, 57 Philadelphus, 45 Conquete, 47 Nuee Blanche, 47 Perle Blanche, 47 Rosea, 47 coronarius, 45 Falconerii, 46 inodorus, 46 insignis, 45 latifolia, 46 Lemoinei, 46 Magdalenae, 46 microphyllus, 46 pekinensis, 46 pubescens, 46 var. tomentosus, 47 purpurascens, 46 Schneckii var. Jackii, 45 splendens, 47 Pieris floribunda, 68 Plum, Apricot, 13 Canada, 14 Sand, 14 Wild Goose, 14 Plums, 13 Japanese, 13 Plums and Apricots, 13 Prinsepia sinensis, 5 uniflora, 5 Privet, European, 60 Prunus alleghaniensis, 14 americana, 14 armeniaca, 6, 14 concinna, 10 dasycarpa, 14 Davidiana, 2 dehiscens, 6 Grayana, 28 hortulana, 14, 59 kurdica, 13 Maackii, 28 mandshurica, 6 mongolica, 7 Munsoniana, 14 nigra, 14 Padus, var. commutata, 28 pendula, 11 salicina, 13 Sargentii, 11 Prunus serrulata, 9 var. sachalinensis, 11, 25 albo-rosea, 25 f. albo-rosea, 12 f. Fugenzo, 12, 25 f. James H. Vietch, 12 Simonii, 13 subhirtella, 10 var. ascendens, 11 var. autumnalis, 11 var. pendula, 11 tomentosa, 10, 15 var. endotricha, 10 triflora, 13 triloba, 7, 15 var. plena, 15 Watsonii, 14 yedoensis, 9, 11 Purple Apricot, 14 Pyrus Bretschneideri, 20 Calleryana, 20 ovoidea, 20 Rhododendron arboreum, 34 arbutifolium, 47 brachycarpum, 35, 67 carolinianum, 35, 67 catawbiense, 34, 67 hybrids of, 67 Atrosanguineum, 34 Catawbiense album, 34 Charles Dickens, 34 Everestianum, 34 Gomer Waterer, 34 Henrietta Sargent, 34 H. W. Sargent, 34 Mrs. C. S. Sargent, 34 Mrs. John Clutton, 34 Pink Pearl, 34 Roseum elegans, 34 Sappho, 34 caucasicum, 35 ciliatum, 6 dahuricum, 2 var. sempervirens, 2 daphnoides, 47 discolor, 67 ferrugineum, 67 Hammondii, 47 hirsutum, 67 Rhododendron japonicum, 26 Kaempferi, 24, 26 maximum, 34, 56, 67 Metternichii, 67 micranthum, 67 minus, 67 mucronulatum, 2 myrtifolium, 47 oleaefolium, 47 ponticum, 34 poukhanense, 20 praecox, \"Little Gem,\" 6 Smirnowii, 35, 67 Wilsonii, 47 Rhododendrons, 33, 67 Chinese, 67 early, 2 late, 47 Rosa Ecae, 32 Hugonis, 31 laevigata, 31 multiflora, 44 carnea, 44 var. cathayensis, 44 platyphylla, 44 omeiensis, 31 spinosissima, 40 var. altaica, 40 var. fulgens, 40 var. grandiflora, 40 var. hispida, 40 var. Jupiter, 40 var. Lady Baillie, 40 var. lutea, 40 Rose, Burnet, 40 Seven Sisters, 44 Roses, Scotch, 40 Salix alba, 8, 50 var. argentea, 50 alba calva, 49 var. coerulea, 49, 50 amygdaloides, 50 babylonica, 8 aurea, 8 ramulis aureis,8 blanda, 8 coerulea, 49 decipiens, 50 fragilis, 8, 50 Salix nigra, 50 regalis, 50 rubens, 50 Russelliana, 50 Salamonii, 8 sepulchralis, 8 viminalis,8 viridis, 50 vitellina,8 pendula, 8 Sand Plum, 14 Sargent Cherry, 12 Scarlet Maple, 1 Scotch Broom, 48 Scotch Laburnum, 40 Scotch Roses, 40 Seven Sisters Rose, 44 Shad Bushes, 12 Sheep Laurel, 67 Siberian Crab, 17 Sophora japonica, 56 var. pendula, 56 var. pyramidalis, 56 var. rosea, 56 Sorbus americana, 58 var. decora, 58 Sorrel-tree, 56 Spice Bush, 3 Spring Cherry, 10 Staphylea Bolanderi, 51 colchica, 51 var. Hessei, 51 Coulombieri, 51 Emodi, 51 holocarpa, 51 pinnata, 51 trifolia, 51 Staphyleas, 51 Stuartia pseudocamellia, 64 Symplocos crat~goides, 36 paniculata, 36 Syringa, 45 affinis, 15 var. Giraldii, 15 amurensis, 43 Bretschneideri, 41 chinensis, 22 Emodi, 41 var. villosa, 41 Syringa Henryi, 42 var. eximia, 42 hyacinthoiflra, 22 japonica, 43 Josikaea, 41 Josikaea pallida, 42 Josakaea rosea, 42 Julianae, 42 Koehneana, 32 Lemoinei, 23 Lutece, 42 Meyeri, 15, 42 microphylla, 64 oblata, 22 pekinensis, 43 persica, 21 var. laciniata, 22 pinnatifolia, 24, 42 pubescens, 28 reflexa, 42 rothomagensis, 22 Sweginzowii, 43 tomentella, 42 villosa, 41 vulgaris, 21 azurea plena, 22 flore pleno Liberti, 22 Wilsonii, 42 Wolfii, 42 yunnanensis, 43 Sugar Maple, 16 Summer-flowering trees, 53 Swamp Bay, 59 Teas' Hybrid Catalpa, 55 Thorns, American, 26 Thurber's Weeping Willow, 8 Tilia japonica, 53 spectabilis, 53 var. Moltkei, 54 vulgaris, 53 Transcendent Crab, 17 Tree Lilacs, 43 Umbrella-tree, 59 Vaccinium macrocarpa, 68 Vaccinium Oxycoccus, 68 Vitis-Idaea, 68 Viburnum Canbyi, 48 cassinoides, 48 dentatum, 48 dilatatum, 48 Lentago, 60 prunifolium, 60 rhytidophyllum, 66 venosum, 48 Viburnums, American, 60 Late-flowering, 48 Vinca minor, 68 Wayland Plum, 14 Weeping Willow, Chinese, 8 Weeping Willows, 8 Weigelas, Early-flowering, 31 White Maple, 1 White Willow, 50 Wild Goose Plum, 14 Willow, Blue, 50 Close Bark, 49 Crack, 50 Open Bark, 50 White, 50 Willows, Cricket Bat, 50 Weeping, 8 Winter-flowering Witch Hazels, 1 Wisconsin Weeping Willow, 8 Wisteria floribunda, 30 var. alba, 31 var. macrobotrys, 30 var. rosea, 31 var. variegata, 31 var. violacea plena, 31 frutescens, 29 var. alba, 29 japonica, 29 macrostachya, 29 var. albo-lilacina, 30 magnifica, 30 multijuga, 31 sinensis, 29, 30 venusta, 29, 30 var. plena, 30 Wisterias, 29 Witch Hazels, winter-flowering, 1 Xanthoceras sorbifolia, 36"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23469","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd14e856e.jpg","title":"1917-3","volume":3,"issue_number":null,"year":1917,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 5","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23642","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070b36e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. I ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 5, 1916 Effects of the winter in the Arboretum. The high temperature of January started the development of the flower-buds of some plants, for example those of the Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) which was in full flower on the first day of February, or several weeks before the usual time. January was followed by two months of cold weather and frequent snowstorms. The snow protected small plants which without this covering would probably have suffered, and the number of plants that have been killed or seriously injured in the Arboretum is surprisingly small. The flower-buds, however, of many plants have been entirely or partially killed, while other plants which in an ordinary season lose their buds have not suffered and promise to yield unusual crops of flowers. The flower-buds of all Peach trees are killed but those of the Plums and Crabapples appear to be uninjured. The spring is from ten to twelve days later than usual. Rhododendrons have suffered less than they did in the winter of 1914-15. Occasionally a leaf has been browned or a small branch killed, but apparently a good many flower-buds have suffered and the prospect for flowers is not so good as usual. Rhododendron ponticum, which usually suffers in this climate, appears to be killed outright. This plant which is so hardy in England, where it sometimes becomes a troublesome weed, has seriously interfered with the successful cultivation of Rhododendrons in this part of the world, for it has been used in European nurseries as stock on which is grafted the hybrids and varieties of other species, and the hardiness and vigor of many of these plants has been unfavorably influenced by this tender stock. A little hybrid Rhododendron known as R. praecox, \"Little Gem,\" is perfectly hardy here but it blooms so early that in about nine years out of ten the flowers after they open are spoiled by frost. This year not a flower-bud has been injured and the plants are now in flower. Forsythias. Many flower-buds of these plants have been killed as they were two years ago. All the flower-buds in the lower part of the great Forsythia bed on the slope above the Bussey Hill Road are entirely killed, while on the plants in the upper part of this bed, although many buds have suffered, there are open flowers enough to make this part of the bed conspicuous. In the lower ground of the general Shrub Collection the flower-buds of all the species and varieties of Forsythia have been entirely killed with the exception of those of the Albanian F'. europaea which are uninjured. If the flower-buds of this species are better able to support cold than those of the other species, which are all natives of eastern continental Asia, the Eurcpean plant should be better known and more generally cultivated. One of the last plants discovered in Europe, it is a vigorous, fast-growing shrub with more erect stems and branches than are usually found in the other species of this genus. The flowers are not quite so showy as those of F. suspensa and its hybrids and varieties, but they are always abundantly produced and of good color. This plant is still rare in gardens and it is doubtful if it can be found in American nurseries. Magnolias. The Japanese shrubby species, Magnolia stellata, is usually the first of the Magnolias to flower in the Arboretum and the petals are sometimes browned by a late frost. This year many of the flower-buds have been killed and only a few flowers much reduced in size are now open on these beautiful and usually satisfactory plants. Some flowers are now open on the northern form of the Japanese M, kobus (var. borealis). This is a shapely tree, with small drooping flowers which open before the appearance of the leaves, and good foliage, but it never flowers here very freely and this year there are fewer flowers than usual. As a flowering tree for this climate it is inferior to the white-flowered Chinese species, 1V?. conspicua, or as it now to be called, M. denudata, and its hybrids, which also flower before the appearance of the leaves and are not yet in flower. Witch Hazels. The earliest of the Witch Hazels, H. vernalis, a native of southern Missouri and of Arkansas, opened its first flowers during the last week of December and these were followed in January and February by the flowers of the Chinese and Japanese species which were not affected by a temperature of several degrees below zero. In the size and color of its flowers and in foliage the Chinese H, mollis is the handsomest of these winter-flowering shrubs. It is hardy, fastgrowing and free-flowering, and might well find a place in every garden where it can be seen from the windows of country or city houses. Unfortunately this shrub is still difficult to obtain from American nurseries. The Cornelian Cherry (Cornus mas) is one of the earliest trees or arborescent shrubs to flower here. The flowers are light yellow and are borne in clusters in the axils of the unfolding leaves, and although individually small are produced in such numbers that the branches are covered with them. They are followed by bright red, lustrous, oblong fruit the size of a small olive. The flower-buds and the flowers of this little tree are not injured by cold. The habit of this plant is good. The foliage is dark green and abundant and the fruit, although somewhat hidden by the leaves, is handsome. The Cornelian Cherry is a native of most European countries and of western Siberia, and has been an inhabitar.t of gardens for more than three hundred years. In the United States it was probably more generally planted in the first half of the last century than it is at present, although there are not many early flowering trees hardy in this climate which are better worth a place in the garden. In the Arboretum it can be seen in the Cornel Group near the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads. Two Japanese plants. The leafless branches of Euptelea polyandra are now covered with flowers. The conspicuous part of these is the large bright orange-red anthers which hang on short filaments in axillary clusters from one end of the branches to the other. For its peculiar and early flowers this plant is well worth a place in New England gardens, and the large green leaves are handsome and abundant. There are several fire specimens of this large shrub or small tree on the lower side of Azalea Path and this week they are well worth examination. Another species, E. Franchetti, introduced by Wilson from western China, appears to be perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. The plants are still too small, however, to flower. The related Cercidiphylluan~ aponieurn, which is the largest deciduous-leaved tree in Japan and now becoming common in American collections, is also beginning to flower. The flowers are inconspicuous but the red color of the unfolding leaves makes the tree attractive at this season. There is a group of this tree on the two sides of the Meadow Road not far beyond the Administration Building. Corylopsis. This is a genus of the Witch Hazel Family, distributed, with several species, from the western Himalayas through western and central China to Japan. These plants have leaves which in general appearance resemble those of the Witch Hazel, and drooping spikes of fragrant yellow flowers which appear before the leaves, and terminate on what, later in the season, become short leafy branchlets. Several of these plants are hardy in this climate, but the flower-buds are often killed by intense cold, or, if they are not killed, the flowers open so early that they are destroyed by late frosts. This year the flower-buds have not been much injured, and the flowers of three species are now open. One of the best known of these plants is the Japanese C. spicata. It is a shrub with spreading branches four or five feet high, with yellow flowers, about half an inch long, and produced in from six to twelve-flowered spikes. There are plants of this shrub on Hickory Path near Centre Street. In the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill two distinct and beautiful species introduced by Wilson are now in flower, C. Veitchiana and C. WiLlmottiae. If the plants of this genus could be depended upon to flower every year they would deserve a place in all gardens where early spring flowers are desired, but in ordinary seasons they flower too early or the flowerbuds are destroyed, and they cannot be recommended for general cultivation here. In the middle Atlantic states, wherever Jasminum nudi,\/ Lorum succeeds they would probably give good results, and in California they may be expected to flourish and to become midwinter and early spring-flowering shrubs of first-rate value. Lovers of rare and little known plants will do well to see them in the Arboretum this spring for it may be many years before they flower so freely again. Andromeda floribunda. There are so few broad-leaved evergreen trees or shrubs which are really hardy in this climate that it may be useful to call attention again to this Andromeda which is a native of the high slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains and perfectly hardy in New England. It is a low, broad, round-topped bush with small, dark green lustrous leaves and short erect compound clusters of small white heath-like flowers which are now open. The flowerbuds, which are fully grown in the autumn, are also white, and are conspicuous through the winter, adding to the value of this plant for the winter and spring garden. Two eastern American shrubs now in flower show the value of some native plants for American gardens in which they are too seldom found. These flowering shrubs are the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) and the aromatic Spicebush (Benzoin aestivale). They are now covered with small yellow flowers, and those of the Spicebush will be followed in the early autumn by lustrous, scarlet fruits. Masses of these two plants can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper side of the Laurel Collection. Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum, but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning to P. J. Brady, Jamaica 670, or to Malone & Keane, Jamaica 344. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23643","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070b76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 9. 1916 Japanese Cherries. The publication by the Arboretum of an illustrated book on Japanese Cherries by E. H. Wilson greatly increases our knowledge of these plants and will lead, it is believed, to their more general cultivation in this country. Mr. Wilson has recently passed a year in Japan where he was sent by the Arboretum to solve many problems which have long perplexed students of the Japanese flora, and especially to study the character and distribution of the Japanese Cherry-trees and the origin and peculiarities of the numerous forms which are cultivated by the Japanese and which have made Japanese gardens famous. Mr. Wilson succeeded in seeing the ten Japanese species in their native forests and all the principal collections of the garden forms. The introduction into the Arboretum of plants of all the species and of seventy different named garden varieties is one of the results of this journey. Mr. Wilson states in his introduction that, although American and European gardeners have been importing Japanese flowering Cherries for half a century, scarcely one good-sized healthy tree can be found in this country or in Europe. These varieties are double-flowered or otherwise abnormal and therefore can only be propagated by grafting, and a choice of the right stock on which to graft them is important. The plants imported from Japan are all grafted on the variety Mazakura of Prunus Lannesiana which is a poor short-lived tree particularly subject to the attacks of scale and boring insects. It is used as stock by the Japanese because it can be quickly and cheaply raised from cuttings. In Europe and the United States one of the European Cherries has been used as stock for the Japanese varieties and on this they have succeeded no better than on the ordinary Japanese stock; and the conclusion which Wilson has reached after a careful study of the subject is that these garden varieties of the Japanese Cherry can only succeed and make large and permanent plants when they are grafted on seedlings of the largest, hardiest and longest lived of the Japanese species. This is the northern tree which has been called Prunus Sargentii but now is known to be the northern form of Prunus serrulata and is to be called var. sachalinensis. During the last year seedlings of this northern tree raised from seeds ripened in the Arboretum have been used here as stock on which the varieties brought home by Wilson from Japan are being grafted, and there is no reason to doubt that the plants produced in this way will grow here to a large size and become as beautiful features in the parks and gardens of America as they are in those of Japan. Five Japanese species produce double-flowering forms. Those derived from the Sargent Cherry, the Yama-sakura or Mountain Cherry of the Japanese, will probably prove most valuable in this climate where they may be expected to grow to a larger size and last longer than the garden varieties of the other species. In the Arboretum many of the flower-buds of Cherries have been killed during the winter. On Prunus yedoensis the buds have all been killed. This is a whiteand pink-flowered tree and one of the handsomest of the Japanese species. It is this Cherry which has been so largely planted in the streets, parks and cemeteries of Tokyo that when it blooms a general hohday is proclaimed by the Emperor that the public may enjoy its flowers. This Cherry is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has flowered for several years and produced crops of fruit. Prunus subhirtella. This is the Higan-zakura or Spring Cherry of the Japanese. It is a shrubby plant from ten to fifteen feet high and broad, and is not known as a wild plant, although it is much cultivated in western Japan. Mr. Wilson considers it \"the most floriferous and perhaps the most delightful of all Japanese Cherries.\" This plant was raised in the Arboretum many years ago and from the Arboretum it has been widely distributed in the United States and Europe. For years it has flowered here regulaily and has attracted as much attention perhaps as any plant in the Arboretum. The small pink flowers now completely cover the upper branches; those on the lower branches have all been killed no doubt by a lower temperature near the ground than a few feet above it. Prunus subhirtella, var. pendula has lost, too, many of its flowerbuds and the trees in the Arboretum promise to be less beautiful this spring than usual, although in some gardens near Boston this Cherry is now covered with its drooping pink or rose-colored flowers. This weeping Cherry, which has been largely planted in parks, temple grounds and cemeteries in Japan, is nowhere known as a wild tree. It was introduced into Europe and the United States many years ago. and it is now fairly common in the gardens of the northern states. In propagating this tree American and European nurserymen have used as stock one of the European Cherries which are not suitable for the purpose, and such plants are short-lived and generally unsatisfactory. The wild type of this weeping tree and of Prunus subhirtella is Prunus subhirtella var. ascendens, of which there is an excellent picture in Mr. Wilson's book. It is a tall tree with erect spreading branches, and grows in forests in Japan in Shinano Province, and in central China. It has escaped the attention of American and European gardeners, and there are only small seedling plants in the United States. One of these can now be seen with the other forms of Prunus subhirtella on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills entrance. Prunus serrulata var. sachalinensis. The Sargent Cherry for the first time since it began to flower here some years ago has lost some of its flower-buds, especially those on the lower branches. This is the largest and the handsomest of the Cherry trees of eastern Asia, sometimes attaining in northern Japan the height of seventy-five feet and a trunk diameter of four feet. It is one of the trees planted in 1735 in the three mile-long avenue of Cherry-trees at Koganei, near Tokyo, which in early spring is still one of the great sights in Japan. Hybrid Forsythias. By the path in the rear of the group of Forsythias on the slope at the foot of the Bussey Hill Road are several specimens of forms of the hybrid between Forsythia suspensa and F. viridissima. The general name of these hybrids is Forsythia intermedia, and there are several distinct forms. The plants are in a sheltered position and their flower-buds have not been injured. The handsomest of them is F. intermedia spectabilis, and of all the Forsythias which have been grown in the Arboretum this is perhaps the most beautiful. The flowers are larger than those of either of its parents, deep bright yellow, and are produced this year in countless numbers, completely covering the wide-spreading branches. This plant was probably raised in Germany as it was sent to the Arboretum from the Spath Nursery in Berlin. Other distinct and handsome forms of this hybrid are var. primulina and var. pallida; the former has pale primrosecolored flowers and appeared as a seedling in the Arboretum a few years ago. The var. pallida has pale straw-colored flowers which are of a lighter color than those of other Forsythias. This plant also first came to the Arboretum from Germany. These hybrids are beautiful garden plants, handsomer and perhaps hardier than either of their parents, and they are interesting as showing what may be expected from crossing different species of other trees and shrubs. A good deal has already been done in hybridizing Roses and Rhododendrons. New races of Lilacs, Spiraeas and Philadelphus produced by the skill of the hybridizer already beautify our gardens, but this business is only in its infancy and greater results may be expected from it than have ever yet been obtained. Amelanchiers are beginning to flower and in a few days the Arboretum will be gay with the white flowers of these trees and shrubs which have been largely planted here along the margins of woods and by the borders of the drives. The species which has been most largely used in this way here is the shrubby A. oblongzfolia, which grows naturally in the Arboretum where a large native specimen can be seen on the margin of the meadow across the path from the general collection of these plants which occupies the border between the Meadow Road and the parallel grass path on the left-hand side entering from the Jamaica Plain Gate. Another native species, A. laevis, is a tree sometimes forty feet high and easily distinguished from all other species by the red color of the unfolding leaves which are destitute of any covering of down. There are some large-sized native trees of this species on the wooded bank in the rear of the Crabapple Collection on the Forest Hills Road. The earliest species in the collection to flower is another tree and perhaps the largest in the whole genus, A. canadensis, which is widely distributed from western New York to Louisiana, and the only Amelanchier or Shad Bush in the southern states. Ribes tenue. This is one of the Currants introduced by Wilson from central and western China, where it is a common plant on the mountains at high altitudes, and a shrub four or five feet high. There are several specimens in the Arboretum, but the handsomest is in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slopes of Bussey Hill. The plant is now covered with short erect clusters of dull yellow flowers which will be followed by bright red, lustrous, juicy fruits. The fruit is sweeter than that of the common red-flowered garden Currant and this plant may prove to be valuable for its fruit, or to cross with the garden Currants. As an early spring-flowering shrub it deserves a place in northern gardens. The yellow-flowered American Currants are still perhaps the most attractive of the Currants and Gooseberries which can be grown in this climate. The better known of these, the so-called Missouri Currant (Ribes odoratum) is often cultivated in the United States and is found in many old gardens. It owes its popular name to the fact that it was first found on the upper Missouri River, but it is now known to occur on the great plains from South Dakota to Texas. This plant is often called in books Ribes aureum, but this name belongs to a plant with smaller flowers and black or orange-colored fruits. This beautiful plant is rarely cultivated in American gardens. The two plants are growing together in the general Shrub Collection, and the difference in their general appearance and in the structure of the flowers can readily be seen. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 15","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23639","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070a76b.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II N0. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 15. 1916 Flowers in the Arboretum. During the week this Bulletin reaches its readers a large number of trees and shrubs will be flowering in the Arboretum, including several species of Amelanchier, some of the early Honeysuckles, Currants, Gooseberries, Rhododendrons and Viburnums, many Willows, the early-flowering Canadian Plum tree, Prunus nigra, many of the Asiatic Crabapples, several species of Wild Pears, and one or two of the early-flowering species of Lilacs. Unfolding leaves. Much is to be learned of trees by the study of their unfoiding leaves. The color of these and the absence or presence of a covering of down may, for some trees like the Lindens, furnish the best characters for distinguishing related species. This is certamly one of the best times of the year for the study of Oak-trees and Hickories. The unfolding leaves are often brilliant in color, and their hairy covering, when such a covering exists, furnishes a useful character for determining such trees. Very beautiful and interesting, too, are the very young leaves of the Horsechestnuts. Indeed there is not a tree or shrub which, as the leaves unfold, is not capable of affording an observing lover of plants much information and the keenest pleasure, and this is a pleasure which can be found in the Arboretum in a new form every day from the unfolding in early April of the leaves of the California Osmaronia cerasiformis and the Chinese Prinsepia sinensis to the appearance of those of the Fringe-tree (Chionanthus virginica) which remains leafless until after the flowering of many shrubs and trees has passed. The wild Pear-trees. Much attention has been paid to the formation of the Arboretum collection of these trees because several of the species are among the most beautiful of all flowering trees. To pomologists, too, they are of special interest as the wild types from which the cultivated pears have been derived, and as possible factors in the production of new and perhaps hardier races of fruit trees. Wild Pear-trees are found in China, on the Himalayas, in southwestern Asia and in southeastern and southern Europe. There is no native Pear-tree in Japan or in any part of America. About twenty-five species are recognized by botanists, and of these at least twenty with a few hybrids and varieties are now established in the Arboretum. The most important species but not the most beautiful in flower is Pyrus communis, one of the European species from which the common garden pears have been derived. The wild form of this tree is in the Arboretum collection. Some of the species, like P. elaea~rzfolia of southeastern Europe, are conspicuous in early spring before the flowers open from the silvery color of, the unfolding leaves, but as ornamental trees some of the Chinese species are better worth cultivating here than those of Europe or western Asia. All the eastern Asiatic species are now growing in the Arboretum; many of them have large, handsome and lustrous leaves, and on a few the fruit is conspicuous. Among the Chinese species which have been thoroughly tested in the Arboretum the handsomest perhaps is P. ovoidea, a native of the northern provinces and one of the first in the collection to open its flowers. These are followed by yellow juicy fruits of good flavor which, unlike those of all other Pear trees, are largest at the base and gradually taper to the apex. Another remarkable thing about this tree is that in the autumn the leaves turn as bright scarlet as those of any Asiatic Red Maple or Gum tree. As an ornamental tree this Pear deserves the attention of gardeners and its hardiness and the quality of its fruit suggests its possible value in the production of a new race of fruit trees. Another Chinese species, P. Bretschneideri, is also well worth the attention of pomologists; it is a tree with large lustrous leaves, large flowers and yellow, nearly globose fruit of good flavor. This is probably, in part at least, the wild origin of the excellent pears which are sold in Peking during September and October. The brown-fruited Pyrus serrulata, one of the new species discovered by Wilson in western China, is of particular interest, too, as from this species are evidently derived the round russet pears which in many forms have been so generally cultivated in Japan and are occasionally seen in American collections. The largest specimen of P. serrulata in the Arboretum is growing among the Japanese Azaleas on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where it flowered for the first time last year. The Leconte and the Keiffer are two hybrid pears well known in this country where they were raised many years ago by crossing a garden pear with some Chinese species of doubtful identity and uncertain origin. These hybrids have not proved very hardy in the north, but have been planted in immense numbers in some of the southern states where they pro11 duced large crops of fruit until the trees were attacked by the Pear blight which has ruined many of these orchards. P. ovoidea has been growing in the Arboretum for eighteen years and P. Bretschneideri for thirty-four years and have never been attacked by the Pear blight. It is suggested that by crossing these species with some of the garden Pears valuable results in the way of a new and very hardy race of Pear-trees may be secured. Among hybrid plants in this group attention is called to Pyrus malifolia. This is a natural hybrid between the common Pear and the White Beam-tree of Europe, Sorbus Aria, and is very similar and perhaps a seedling of the hybrid Bollwyller Pear which appeared in Alsace more than three hundred years ago as it was first mentioned by the botanist Bauhin in 1619. P. malifol-ta has large pale oval leaves and large flowers in few-flowered clusters. It is perfectly hardy and a remarkably fast-growing tree which promises to attain a large size in this climate. It well deserves a place in New England collections of flowering trees. The Asiatic Crabapples are beginning to flower and as the American species do not bloom until later it will be possible to enjoy in the Arboretum the beautiful flowers of these trees for several weeks. The collection is a large one and now contains plants large or small of all the American and Old World species with the single exception of the little known Malus formosana, a native, as its name implies, of the island of Formosa. The collections made by Mr. Wilson in China and Japan have thrown much light on several of the Asiatic species which are now much better known than they were a few years ago. The discovery that a common Apple-tree of western China, largely cultivated as a fruit tree in the mountainous districts of Hupeh and Szechuan, is a form of Malus prunifolia which, although it has been in European gardens for nearly a century, was not known before as a wildtree, is interesting. This form is now called Malus prunifolia, var. rinki. It is a tree in its wild state with greenish yellow fruit sometimes with a reddish cheek, or rarely entirely red, rather longer than broad and not often more than an inch and a quarter in diameter; it is juicy and has an acid flavor. This tree was early introduced into Japan where it was formerly cultivated in many forms as a fruit tree. The good quality of the fruit of some of these is mentioned in his recently published reminiscenees by Lord Redesdale who, in the early 60's as a member of an English Embassy, found them in a remote part of Japan. The cultivation of the Rinki was given up in Japan after the introduction of American and English Apple-trees and it is now a rare plant there. It is this Apple which is often called Pyrus or Malus Ringo in European publications. Judging by the climate where this tree grows naturally in western China, it should prove as hardy as the Siberian Malus baccata which is one of the parents of the hardy race of Apples now much cultivated in the extreme north as Siberian Crabs, and it is not improbable that by crossing the Rinki with some of these hybrid Crabs, or with the hardiest varieties of the common Apple, a race may be obtained more valuable for the cold parts of North America than any of the Apples which can now be grown in some of the northern states and in the northwestern provinces of Canada. Malus floribunda. Of the fifteen species of eastern Asiatic Crabapples, with their numerous varieties and hybrids, not one is more satisfactory as a garden plant than this tree. It is a low, bushy, round-topped tree not more than eighteen feet high which year after year covers itself with bright rose-colored flower-buds, which are followed by pink and finally by white flowers. Nothing is known of the history of this plant beyond the fact that it was sent to Europe by the Dutch naturalist Von Siebold before 1856 when the name first appeared in his catalogue of Japanese plants. Mr. Wilson, however, did not see it in Japan, and it does not appear to be known to Japanese botanists. It has been suggested by different authors that it might be a hybrid, various species having been named as its possible parents. Its hybrid origin is not improbable for seedlings show considerable variation, especially in the time of the falling of the fruit. On plants propagated by grafting from those originally introduced by Von Siebold the fruit drops early in the autumn, but on some of the seedling plants raised in the Arboretum the fruit remains on the branches until spring. There are several large plants of these seedlings in the neighborhood of the Administration Building which through the winter furnished large quantities of food to many different kinds of birds. A seedling of M. floribunda which appeared spontaneously many years ago in the Arboretum has larger flowers and fruit than that plant, and is evidently a hybrid with some form of Malus baccata. This hybid has been named M. Arnoldaana and is one of the handsomest of all Crabappies. The old Crabapple Collection is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road, but the largest number of these plants will be found in the new collection at the eastern base of Hemlock Hill. In subsequent bulletins attention will be called to the most interesting species as they flower. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 19","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23640","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070ab6c.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 19, 1916 The Ohio Buckeye. This, the Aesculus glabra of botanists, is the first of the Horsechestnut family to open its flowers. It is a small tree rarely more than fifty feet tall and usually much smaller, with bark which on young trees is dark brown and scaly but on old trunks becomes ashy gray and deeply furrowed. It has pale yellow flowers, with petals shorter than the stamens and fruit covered with prickles like that of the European Horsechestnut; unlike those of that tree, the winter-buds are not resinous. It is one of the most widely distributed of the American Buckeyes as it ranges from western Pennsylvania to northern Alabama and to eastern Nebraska and Oklahoma. There is a variety in southern Arkansas with smooth pale bark which has been distinguished as var. leucodermis, and there is another variety in western Missouri with leaves composed of seven instead of five leaflets which is known as var. Buckleyi. The Ohio Buckeye and these two varieties have been in flower for several days in the Arboretum collection. Their flowers are much less showy than those of other Horsechestnuts and of most of their hybrids, but the Ohio Buckeye is interesting botanically as well as historically, for it is to this tree that one of the great and important states of the Union owes its popular name. Rhododendron Kaempferi. This red-flowered Azalea from the mountains of central Japan promises to bloom well this spring for many of the plants are covered with flower-buds which are already showing color. There are masses of this hardy Azalea on both sides of Azalea Path and at the northern base of Hemlock Hill between the Hemlocks and the Laurels. On Azalea Path the plants are fully exposed to the sun and the flowers, which are extremely delicate, soon wither. On Hemlock Hill where the plants are in partial shade they flower a week or ten days later, and the flowers remain longer in good condition and make one of the brilliant flower shows of the Arboretum year. Rhododendron poukhanense. This is the Azalea which Mr. Jack introduced into the Arboretum from Korea. When it first flowered here it was described as R. coreanum before it was known that a French botanist had already named it for Poukhan, a Korean mountain where it had been found by a French missionary. It is a beautiful roundtopped, compact shrub, with large, rosy pink, fragrant flowers. It appears to be~perfectly hardy in the most exposed positions, and has flowered freely now in the Arboretum for several years. A doubleflowered form of this plant, sent to this country from Japanese nurseries under the name of Yodogawa is a form of the Korean plant. A number of plants of R. poukhanense are now flowering on the upper side of Azalea Path. Chinese Poplars in early spring. The beauty and interest of several of the Poplar trees of eastern Asia is increased by the bright redbronze color of the young leaves. The unfolding leaves of Poplar trees from other parts of the world are not colored in this way, and those of P. Maximowiczii, P. suaveolens, P. tomentosa, P. Simonii, and P, yunnanensis of eastern Asia are green as they unfold. The young leaves of the other Chinese species, P. szechuanica, P. Li'xLsonii, P. adenopoda, P. lasiocarpa, P. tremula, var. Davidiana and its form tomentella, and the Japanese P. Sieboldii are all more or less deeply tinged with red. All the eastern Asiatic Poplars are now growing in the Arboretum with the exception of the Chinese form (var. Duclouxiana) of the Himalayan P. rotundifolia which has not been introduced, and they all prove to be hardy and fast-growing trees here with the exception of P. lasiocarpa which is not very hardy and suffers badly from borers here, and perhaps P. yunnanensis which has not been sufficiently tested yet in the Arboretum. Hydrangea petiolaris. This vigorous Japanese climbing plant has usually been planted in this country to grow up the trunks of trees, and it does not appear to be generally known that it is one of the best plants that can be used in this climate for covering brick or stone walls to which it clings tenaciously. In such situations it grows rapidly and flowers more freely than when growing among the branches of trees. Its value as a wall covering is increased, too, by the early appearance of the dark green leaves which are nearly fully grown before there is the sign of a leaf on any of the Virginia Creepers or other deciduous-leaved climbing plants which can be grown here. All Hydrangeas need plenty of water, and probably H. petiolaris will do better on the north or east side of a building than in a southern exposure. A large specimen can be seen on the Administration Building. Berberis (Mahonia) repens. The beautiful Oregon Grape, Berberis (Mahonia Aquifolium) of the northwest coast region is not a satisfactory plant in this climate unless it can be planted in exceptionally sheltered positions or can be carefully protected, for the cold here destroys or disfigures the leaves and often kills the plants. The species from the Rocky Mountains, B. repens, is a hardier plant and one of the most useful of the dwarf, broad-leaved evergreens which can be used here. It grows less than a foot high and spreads rapidly into large mats; the leaves are pale bluish green and are not lustrous like those of the Oregon species, and the flowers are bright yellow and produced in compact terminal clusters. This plant is now in flower in the Shrub Collection next to a plant of Berberis Aquifolium, which is also in flower and in better condition this spring than usual. There is a collection of different forms of the Mahonias on the lower side of Hickory Path near Centre Street, including the Japanese species (B. japonica) which has unexpectedly proved hardy in this sheltered position. Early Lilacs. The white-flowered Syringa affinis and its variety Gi- -raldii, with pale lilac or mauve-colored flowers, S. Meyeri and S. hyacinthiflora, are already in flower and in a few days,many of the varieties of the common Lilac will open their flowers. S. affinis and its variety are tall shrubs of a straggling habit, but are valuable on account of their early and very fragrant flowers. The white-flowered form is the common and apparently the only kind of Lilac cultivated in the gardens of Peking. S. Meyeri is a dwarf shrub of northern China with compact clusters of very fragrant dark purple flowers which are distinct in the exceptionally long slender tube of the corolla. S. hyacinthiflora is a hybrid between the common Lilac and the Chinese S. oblata; the flowers are lilac-colored, small and double, in rather small clusters; it is a vigorous, fast growing plant, however, of good habit and is chiefly valuable in prolonging the Lilac season. Daphnes. Daphne Mezereum and its white-flowered variety bloomed several weeks ago before the snow had entirely disappeared. They are dwarf European shrubs with erect branches, and have now become naturalized in several places in the northern states. A more beautiful plant, D. Cneorum, is now in flower in the Shrub Collection and on the lower side of Azalea Path; it forms a broad mat of wiry semiprostrate stems less than a foot long, covered with dark green leaves and terminating in dense heads of rose-colored delightfully fragrant flowers. It is a plant which with the same treatment and in the same soil succeeds in some gardens and fails utterly in others. Fortunately it does well in the Arboretum where it is one of the most admired plants in the Collection. The pale lilac-flowered D. genkwa is blooming in the special Chinese Collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. This Daphne was sent to the United States many years ago from Japan, but the plants derived from Japanese gardens did not succeed here. It is a Chinese plant introduced into Japan, and the plants now flowering in the Arboretum were raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China. If they prove permanently successful here this Daphne will be a delightful addition to our early-flowering dwarf shrubs. Crataegus Arnoldiana. This Hawthorn was never fuller of flowerbuds than it is this spring and these will soon be open. This tree was discovered growing naturally on a wooded bank in the Arboretum; it grows also on the banks of the Mystic River in West Medford, Massachusetts, and near New London, Connecticut. It belongs to the Molles group of Hawthorns, which are trees distinguished by their large size, by their large early flowers which usually open with the unfolding of the leaves, and by the large, often edible, scarlet or rarely yellow fruits. There are several species found from the valley of the St. Lawrence River in the Province of Quebec to Texas. The species are, however, most numerous in the region west of the Mississippi River, and are almost entirely wanting in the southeastern states. C. Arnoldiana is one of the handsomest of the species of this group which is hardy here. The brilliant red fruit ripens late in August and falls in SEptember earlier than that of the other species. In winter this tree is easily recognized by its upright growing, distinctly zigzag branches which are more thickly covered with spines than those of many of the related species. The largest trees of this Thorn can be seen on the lefthand side of the Valley Road just inside the Centre Street Gate and in front of the Platanus Collection. There are also several of these trees in front of the group of White Oaks, also on the left-hand side of the Valley Road. At the South Street entrance there are large plants of three other species of the Molles Group, C. mollis from the Ohio-Illinois region, C. arkansana from central Arkansas, and C. submollis, a Canadian and New England tree. These will all be in flower in a few days. Malus Sieboldii, var. calocarpa. This Japanese Crabapple is one of the handsomest in the Arboretum both in spring and autumn. It is a broad tree-like shrub or small tree with only slightly lobed leaves, pink and white flowers fully an inch in diameter and brilliant scarlet lustrous fruits which are half an inch in diameter and more beautiful perhaps than those of any other Crabapple. This beautiful plant was raised from seed presented to the Arboretum in 1890 by Dr. William Sturgis Bigelow of Boston. It can be seen in the front row of the Crabapple Collection at the eastern base of Hemlock Hill. It has been found that Sieboldii is the oldest and therefore the proper name for the Chinese and Japanese Crabapple which up to this time has been known in gardens as Malus or Pyrus toringo. It is interesting to note that Wilson found in western China the wild, single-flowered form of the beautiful Crabapple with rose-colored, semi-double flowers, Malus Halliana, or the Parkman Crab, which first came to this country from Japan, and was long believed to be a Japanese species. It is the Kaido of Japanese gardens. To the doubleflowered form, which is the one generally cultivated in eastern gardens, the name Malus Halliana Parkmanii has been given; it is flowering well in the Arboretum this year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 27","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23641","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070af6d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 27, 1916 The Redbud (Cercis canadensis) is blooming well this year, although the flower-buds of this southern tree are sometimes killed in this latitude. The southern Redbud is a common woodland tree from southern New Jersey to Nebraska and to Florida and eastern Texas. Under favorable conditions it is often forty or fifty feet high, but cultivated here at the north it rarely grows to half that size. In some parts of the country, especially in eastern Oklahoma, southern Arkansas and eastern Texas, it makes in early spring one of the most brilliant floral features of the American forest. There is a white-flowered form (var. alba) which was found a few years ago in one of the western states, and a plant of this variety is now in flower on Hickory Path near Centre Street. The Texas Redbud (C. reniformis) lives in the Arboretum on Azalea Path, but the branches are often killed in severe winters and it has not yet flowered here. C. chinensis is also to be seen on the upper side of Azalea Path; it is a shrub from western China which has long been cultivated in Japanese gardens and first reached this country from Japan several years ago. The plants of Japanese origin were never hardy here but those raised from Chinese seeds are more successful and sometimes flower more fully than they are blooming this year. The flowers are larger and are of a better color than those of the American species, and in the neighborhood of New York and further south this little Redbud is one of the most beautiful of early-flowering shrubs. Young plants of C. racemosa from central China have not proved hardy in the Arboretum. This with its long drooping clusters of large flowers is probably the most beautiful member of the genus. The Redbud, or Judas-tree of southern Europe, C. siliquastrum, is not hardy in New England. There is also a whiteflowered form of this tree. Malus Sargentii. Only about half the plants of this Japanese species are blooming in the Arboretum this year. This failure to flower is not a common occurrence, and this wide-spreading, Japanese shrub is an excellent plant for small gardens or to plant in front of a group of the larger growing Crabapples. It blooms later than the Asiatic species. The flowers, although smaller than those of the other species, are attractive because the petals, which are tinged with rose color before the buds open, after opening are pale straw color, the large bright yellow anthers adding to the beauty of the flowers. The bright scarlet, comparatively large fruits of this shrub remain on the branches until spring but do not appear to be relished by birds. Malus Sieboldii. This Chinese and Japanese Crabapple is one of the last of the Asiatic species to flower in the Arboretum. Although the flowers are hardly more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter, the plants when in bloom are attractive, for like those of other Crabapples they do not all open at once, and the dark rose-colored buds make a delightful contrast with the expanded petals which are pure white on the inner surface and faintly tinged with rose color on the outer surface, especially on the margins. The dark gray-green of the young leaves adds to the interest of these plants when they are in bloom. The form of this Crabapple on which this species was founded is a round-topped shrub three or four feet high and eight or ten feet broad with stout, rather drooping branches. There is a tree form (var. arborescens) with tall stems and long branches spreading horizontally. The two forms which were raised from seed sent to the Arboretum many years ago from Pekin are in the old collection on the Forest Hills Road and in the collection at the base of Peter's Hill, and they are both flowering well this year. The fruit of this Crabapple is very small, and on some individuals it is red and on others yellow. Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii. The Chinese Pearl Bush (Exochorda racemosa) has long been a familiar and much admired shrub in many American gardens on account of its showy racemes of large pure white flowers. Old specimens assume an open and not a very attractive habit, and lose much of their early beauty. The variety (E. Giraldii) which was discovered by Wilson in western China and named for him, although in its native country it is a wide-spreading shrub, in cultivation here grows like a tree with a single straight stem and comparatively short branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. The flowers are much larger than those of the old-fashioned Pearl Bush, and this new introduction promises to be a better garden plant. It is now well established in the Arboretum where several plants are now in flower, and in other Massachusetts gardens. The Chinese Exochorda is best known as E. grandiflora, but the older and correct name is E. racemosa. On Hickory Path, near Centre Street, E. macrantha, an interesting hybrid between the Chinese E. racemosa and E. Korolkowii from central Asia, is in flower. The flowers and foliage resemble those of the Chinese plant but the branches, like those of its Turkestan parent, are much more upright in growth. Morus acidosa. This is one of the most interesting and perhaps one of the most economically valuable of the plants introduced by Wilson. It is a perfectly hardy shrub which on the cliffs of western China sometimes grows to the height of twenty feet, although usually it is not more than six or eight feet high. The plants in the Arboretum are now four or five feet tall and from six to eight feet in diameter. The leaves are sometimes deeply lobed and sometimes entire. The flowers, although rather smaller, resemble in general appearance those of other Mulberr!es. The fruit, which is produced in great quantities, ripens in the Arboretum at the end of June. It is about half an inch long, black and lustrous and has a pleasant subacid flavor. It is suggested that this Mulberry may prove exceedingly valuable in supplying hens with food. Its dwarf habit makes it possible to plant it in small yards; plants raised from seeds begin to bear fruit in six or seven years, and the fruit which drops in a small area under the bushes would be easily found by the birds. Morus acidosa is a common and widely distributed plant in eastern Asia, being found from Japan and Korea to the extreme western borders of China, in Formosa and in India. Plants now in flower in the Arboretum can be seen at the end of the bed containing the collection of Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. This is one of the coldest and most exposed positions in the Arboretum. Several of these Mulberries can also be seen in the Peter's Hill Nursery. Rhododendron (Azalea) canescens. The flowers of this northern pinkflowered Azalea soon follow those of Rhododendron (Azalea) Vaseyi, the earliest of the American species to open its flowers. It is a common shrub on the hillsides of central Massachusetts, and ranges far southward in the eastern states. R. canescens has been largely planted on both sides of Azalea Path, and the mass of these plants on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road is covered with opening flowerbuds and will in a few days be one of the most attractive objects in the whole Arboretum. Rhododendron (Azalea) Schlippenbachii. This Azalea, raised from seeds brought from Korea by Mr. Jack, has flowered abundantly this year on the upper side of Azalea Path. It is one of the handsomest of the Asiatic Azaleas, and has large, obovate leaves and white flowers more or less tinged with rose which are three inches or three inches and a half across. It is a very common plant on the low grass-covered hills which rise above the Korean coast and in eastern Manchuria, but it is still little known in gardens. Mr. H. J. Veitch found it in 1892 in a nursery garden in Tokyo and sent plants to England where, although a picture of it was published two years later in the Botanical Magazine, very little has been heard of it. This beautiful plant promises so well in this climate that it should be taken up by American or Dutch nurserymen that it may be possible to plant it in quantity. Fothergillas. The three species of Fothergilla are flowering unusually well this year. This is a genus of shrubs related to the Witch Hazels. The small white flowers are produced in nearly round terminal clusters, and the foliage which has the general appearance of that of the Witch Hazel, turns in the autumn to brilliant shades of red and orange. The largest specimen in the Arboretum is a plant of F. major in the Hamamelis Group near the small pond at the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads; and the three species can be seen in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path where there are a number of plants. First cultivated in England more than a century ago, Fothergilla seems to have disappeared from gardens until it was reintroduced by the Arboretum a few years ago. Few of the shrubs of eastern North America are more interesting and conspicuous when in flower than these inhabitants of the southern states. Bush Honeysuckles. For northern gardens there are no more beautiful shrubs than some of the Bush Honeysuckles, for in early spring they are covered with myriads of yellow, white, rose-colored or red flowers, and in summer or autumn with lustrous, usually scarlet fruits. Many of these shrubs are able to show their greatest beauty in this climate, but this can be obtained only by planting them in rich soil and with sufficient space for growth in all directions. In poor soil and when crowded by other plants they are usually miserable objects. The large-growing kinds, like L. tatarica, L. bella, and L. notha, should be planted as isolated specimens at least twenty feet from any other plant. L. Morrowii, a plant of the Amoor region, requires even more space for its lowest branches which cling close to the ground and naturally spread over a great area. This shrub has gray-green foliage, comparatively large white flowers and bright red fruits. Like many other Bush Honeysuckles, L. Morrowii hybridizes easily with other species, and most of the plants raised from seeds sold by nurserymen are hybrids of that species with L. tatarica and are of little value for those who want plants with the peculiar habit of L. Morrowii. Among vigorous growing plants in this group attention is called to two hybrids of L. Korolkowii in the Sub-Collection, L. amoena and L. Arnoldiana. These have gray-green foliage and small, bright pink, very attractive flowers. L. chrysantha from eastern Siberia, with large yellow flowers, is also a conspicuous object at this time. There is a large collection of these Bush Honeysuckles in the general Shrub Collection, and plants of a few of the larger-growing kinds have been planted in the grass border on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the Lilac Collection to show how these plants can develop when sufficient room for free growth is given to them. The Lilacs this year, on the whole, are more covered with flowers than ever before and are now in their best condition. Many of the plants of the newer varieties which have been added to the collection in recent years are now large enough to show their real qualities, and add greatly this year to the beauty and interest of the display."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 2","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23636","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0608927.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 2, 1916 Chinese Cotoneasters. Cotoneasters are shrubs or rarely small trees of the Rose Family, related to the Apples, Pears and Hawthorns. The genus has long been known in Europe and eastern Siberia, but it is only in recent years that it has been discovered that the largest number of species of these plants grows in China. The first Chinese species was known to botanists as early as 1832; forty-five years passed before another of these Chinese plants was recognized, and it was not until Henry and Wilson began the systematic exploration of the flora of central and western China that any one suspected its richness in these plants. Now forty-eight or fifty Chinese species and well marked varieties are recognized. Of those with deciduous leaves twenty-four are now well established in the Arboretum. Among them are some of the handsomest shrubs in cultivation, and for this climate at least some of the species are perhaps the most valuable shrubs introduced by Wilson. For the embellishment of northern gardens the introduction and successful cultivation of the Chinese Cotoneasters rank in importance with the improvements made in Europe in recent years in the garden Lilacs, with the forms of hybrid Philadelphus made by Lemoine, and with the collection of American Hawthorns discovered and raised in the last sixteen years through the activities of the Arboretum. Some of the Chinese Cotoneasters are low shrubs only a few inches high and admirably suited for the decoration of rock gardens; others are large broad bushes eight or ten feet high; and it is not possible to say which of these plants is the best for some of them are better suited for one purpose and some for another. On some species the leaves are small, thick, dark green and very lustrous; on others they are thin and of different shades of green, and of different sizes. On some of the species with thick and lustrous leaves the foliage does not fall until the beginning or middle of winter; that of the largerleaved species falls late in the autumn, on some species assuming in the fall brilliant shades of orange and scarlet. On some species the flowers are bright red, and white on others, and the lustrous fruit which varies greatly in size is black on some of these plants and red on others. As flowering plants the most beautiful in the Arboretum are C. hupehensis, C. racemiflora, var. soongarica, and C. multiflora, var. calocarpa. These three plants have flowers comparatively large for the genus, about half of an inch in diameter, and bright red shining fruits. The first is a broad, tall and shapely shrub with bright green leaves which will be covered in a few days with flowers which make the plant as conspicuous as any Spiraea. These are followed by small, scarlet fruits which are a good deal hidden by the leaves. C. racemiflora, var. soongarica, is also a large and vigorous shrub; the flowers are a little larger than those of C. hupehen,sas, the leaves are dull blue-green in color, and the fruit is larger and more showy than that of the last species. C. multiflora, var. calocarpa, is flowering for the first time in the Arboretum. It is a shrub with slender, gracefully arching stems and blue-green leaves. The arching of the stems makes the flowers, which are borne in erect clusters on short lateral branches, conspicuous and there is now in the Arboretum no shrub in flower more graceful in habit or more charming in the arrangement of its flowers. The fruit of this species, judging by specimens collected in China, is abundantly produced: it is scarlet and about a quarter of an inch in diameter. Of the large-growing species with thick lustrous leaves attention is called to C. divaricata with red fruit and C. nitens with black fruit. These species have small, globose red flowers which are now open and are large, fast-growing, hardy shrubs valuable through the summer and autumn on account of their beautiful foliage. None of the species are perhaps so attractive in the autumn as C. foveolata; this is one of the most vigorous of all the species with larger leaves which late in the season turn brilliant orange and scarlet. The flowers of this plant are red and the fruit is black. The best of the dwarf species in this climate is C. horizontalis. This is now the most generally known of the Chinese Cotoneasters, as it was first raised in France forty years ago and has been growing in the Arboretum for more than a quarter of a century. When growing naturally it is a plant not more than two feet high, with wide-spreading branches; it has small, dark green, shining leaves, minute red flowers and small bright red fruit. Here the leaves fall in early winter, but in regions of milder climate they remain on the branches until a new crop appears in the spring. This is an excellent plant for a large rock garden, and in Europe it is often trained to cover low walls, for which purpose it is well suited, although the branches do not naturally attach themselves to stone or brick. C. horizontalis, var. perpuailla is a dwarf form with rather smaller leaves and is equally useful for the rock garden. This variety, Mr. Wilson tells us, is the common Cotoneaster of the moorlands of western Hupeh. C. adpressa, which is the dwarfest of these plants, is distinguished from C. horizontalas by its thinner and less lustrous leaves, larger fruit which ripens several weeks earlier, and by its creeping and often rooting stems which form a dense carpet closely appressed to the ground. There are few shrubs better suited for the rock garden. Most of the Chinese Cotoneasters are with the other new Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. On Hickory Path, near Centre Street, can be seen the largest plant of C. horizontalis in the Arboretum, several plants of C. adpressa and some other species. Berberis verruculosa, an evergreen Barberry discovered by Wilson in western Szechuan, is flowering freely for the first time in the Arboretum. It is a small shrub with slender, arching stems, thickly covered with dark brown excrescences, small oval leaves dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and pale below, and small golden yellow flowers which are solitary or produced in few-flowered clusters. The berries are black, oblong or bottle-shaped and covered with a glaucous bloom. On its native mountains this Barberry is said sometimes to grow three feet tall, but the plants in the Arboretum are only a few inches high. These plants have now been growing for several years on the exposed southern slope of Bussey Hill where they have never been injured. Berberis verruculosa appears to be the hardiest and for this climate it is probably the most valuable of the Chinese evergreen species. The small size and compact habit make it a good subject for the rock garden. Aesculus discolor. It is fortunate that the scarlet-flowered variety (var. mollis) of this Buckeye is hardy here, for the flowers are not surpassed in brilliancy by the flowers of any other Horsechestnut. On the typical Aesculus discolor the flowers have a red calyx and yellow. petals generally more or less flushed with rose. This is a much less common plant than the variety mollis on which both the calyx and the corolla are bright red. This is a very common plant in Georgia and Alabama and ranges west to southeastern Missouri and to eastern Texas. It is the only red-flowered Buckeye which has been found west of the Mississippi River, and it sometimes reaches the size and assumes the habit of a small tree. On the Edwards Plateau in western Texas there is a yellow-flowered form (var. flavescens) which, because it has yellow flowers, was long mistaken by botanists for the Appalachian tree Buckeye, Aesculus octandra. Aesculus discolor and its varieties can be distinguished from the other American species by the soft covering of pale down on the lower surface of the leaflets, and from all species of the genus except Aesculus californica by the pale orangebrown color of the seeds. Aesculus discolor, var. mollis is just coming into flower in the large bed in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. Here it is growing with several plants of Aesculus georgiana. This shrub, which is a native of central Georgia, is covered again with its con pact clusters of ellow and rose-colored flowers. Perfectly able apparently to support the New England climate, this Buckeye is one of the handsomest and most interesting southern shrubs which the Arboretum has made known and introduced into gardens. Aesculus Briotii. This French form of the so-called red-flowered hybrid Horsechestnut (Aesculus ca7nea) is in flower in the Collection. It is the most brilliantly colored of all the forms of Aesculus carnea, and few trees hardy in this climate bear such showy flowers. It begins to flower when not more than ten feet high; it is perfectly hardy, and it should be seen more generally in American gardens. Daphnes. Three white-flowered Daphnes are now in flower on Azalea Path, D. alpina from the mountains of central Europe, D. caucasica from the Caucacus, and D. altaaca from the mountains of southern Siberia. They are small, erect-growing shrubs with narrow leaves. D. alpina may be distinguished from the others by the downy covering on the lower surface of the young leaves and on the young branchlets. The others are perhaps only geographical forms of one species, but the flowers of D. altaica are very fragrant, and those of D. caaccasica have a disagreeable odor. American Magnolias. Several of these plants can now be seen in flower in the Magnolia Group on the iight-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance; those already in flower are M. Fraseri, M. cordata, M. acuminata and M. tripetala. DI. macrophylla, M. glauca and the hybrid M. Thompsoniana will not open their flower-buds until later. Diervilla florida, var. venusta. The specimen of this Korean plant on Hickory Path, near Centre Street, is now covered with large deep rose colored flowers and is one of the most strikingly beautiful objects in the Arboretum. As a flowering plant it is doubtful if any other species or any of the numerous hybrids in this genus equals this in beauty. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 9","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23638","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070a36a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO.7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 9, 1916 The Arboretum in early summer. The Arboretum is never more interesting or more full of beauty than it is in the early days of June. The leaves of most of the deciduous-leaved trees have now attained their full size and this year, thanks to the abundant rains of the spring, they are unusually large and are not yet greatly disfigured by insects. The conifers are now coveted with their new leaves and are more beautiful than at any other season of the year. The Arboretum is still full of flowers for this is the time ~hen several American Viburnums begin to bloom and some of them have been largely used in border and roadside plantations. Late-floerirg Lilacs are in bloom and will continue to open their buds during the month. The Rhododendrons, although later than usual this year, already make a brave show; and the yellow-flowered American Azaleas are beginning to bloom before all the flowers of the Japanese Azaleas have disappeared. Early Cornels, Roses and Mock Oranges are already in flower. A large number of American and Old World Hawthorns are covered with flowers, and many plants in the Horsechestnut Group are exceptionally fine this year. Many of the American Magnolias are still in full bloom, and in the Shrub Collection visitors can find the flowers of many shrubs, including those of many Barberries, to interest them. Viburnums. There are no small trees better suited for the decoration of American parks and roadsides than the three arborescent Viburnums of the eastern United States. The first of these to flower is V. prunifolium, the Black Haw of the middle states where it is a common arborescent shrub or small tree on rocky hillsides and in fencerows, sometimes growing 30 feet high. It has rather narrower leaves than the other arborescent species from which it may be distinguished by the absence from the leaf stalks of the wing-like margins which are found on those of the other species. The clusters of pure white flowers are rather smaller than those of the others and the fruit is dark blue covered with a glaucous bloom, and remains on the branches until the beginning of winter. This is the common tree Viburnum of the middle states, only reaching New England in southwestern Connecticut. It is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has been blooming for two or three weeks and is now passing out of flower. The northern species, Viburnum Lentago, the Sheepberry or Nannyberry, has broad and lustrous leaves and large clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by sweet and rather juicy nearly black or dark blue fruits. This is a common northern tree or treelike shrub often twenty or thirty feet tall, and just now is a conspicuous feature in many parts of the Arboretum. The third arborescent species, V. rufidulum, is perhaps the most beautiful of all Viburnums. It is a southern tree which naturally does not grow further north than southern Virginia and southern Illinois; in the rich soil found along the borders of river-bottom lands in Mississippi, Louisiana and Arkansas it is a tree often forty feet high with a tall straight trunk and widespreading branches forming a symmetrical round-topped head. The leaves of this tree are thick, dark green, and more lustrous than those of other deciduous-leaved Viburnums. The flowers are pure white and are borne in broad, flat-topped clusters, and the fruit is bright blue and covered with a glaucous bloom. This Viburnum can be distinguished from the other species by the rusty brown covering of hairs on the margins of the leaf-stalks, branches of the flower-clusters and winter-buds. It has long been an inhabitant of the Arboretum where, although it is hardy in sheltered positions, it is only a shrub and probably will never grow into a tree. The best specimen is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Of the shrubby species now in flower attention is called to Viburnum pubescens, a plant with small pointed leaves and small compact clusters of white flowers which are followed by shining black fruits. There is a large compact group of this shrub on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group now entirely covered with flowers. No other Viburnum blooms more profusely. In the same border are now in flower three Viburnums of the Opulus section of the genus in which the cluster of fertile flowers is surrounded by a ring of large and showy, white, sterile flowers. On the whole, the handsomest of these three plants is the European Vtburnum Opulus or Guelder Rose. The flower-clusters are smaller perhaps than those of the other species, but the plant grows to a larger size and is more compact in habit; the leaves remain on the branches much later in the season, and the fruit is larger and of a deeper color. The Snowball of old-fashioned gardens is a form of this plant in which all the flowers are sterile (var. sterile). There is a form with yellow fruit (var. xanthocarpum) and a dwarf form (var. nanum) which is a low, compact, little bush which rarely flowers. The American species, V. americanum or Cranberry-tree, is a plant of looser habit, with translucent orange-red fruit which hangs on the branches until early spring. The leaves turn in the autumn to bright shades of orange and scarlet. The species of northeastern Asia, V. Sargentii, has larger sterile flowers than the other species and is de27 cidedly a handsomer flowering plant. The long-pointed leaves are interesting and of a good color, but the fruit is small, dull m color and inconspicuous. These Viburnums are all flowering in the Viburnum Collection where many of the Asiatic species are also now in flower. Early Summer Lilacs. The so-called Persian Lilac (Syringa persica) is now in flower. This is a native of Afghanistan and is said to have been cultivated in Persia and India from time immemorial and to have reached eastern Europe nearly three centuries ago. It is a broad, rather low shrub with long-pointed leaves and small fragrant flowers in few-flowered clusters which are crowded at the ends of the slender drooping branches and appear like one long narrow inflorescence. The flowers are pale lilac color. There is a white-flowered form (var. alba) and one with deeply lobed leaves (var. lacintosa). The Persian Lilacs are graceful and delightful plants, and although they were early brought to the United States they are now too rarely found in American gardens. Crossed with the common Lilac (S. vulgaris) the Persian Lilac produced in the Botanic Garden at Rouen a hybrid with broader leaves and immense clusters of reddish flowers intermediate in size between those of its parents. This hybrid is one of the most vigorous, largest and most useful of all Lilacs. Unfortunately it has been called Syringa chinensis; it is also known as S. rothomagensis and as the Rouen Lilac. There is a variety (var. alba) with pale pink, not very attractive flowers, and there are forms with flowers deeper red than those of the type, and with double flowers. Syringa villosa is a large, very vigorous and hardy shrub from northern China which is now just beginning to open its flower-buds. The flowers are pale rose-color or rarely nearly white, and are produced in immense quantities in short broad clusters. In spite of the disagreeable odor of the flowers this is a valuable plant as it is one of the last of the true Lilacs to flower and greatly prolongs the season of Lilac flowers. Crossed with the Hungarian S. Josikaea, which is also now in flower, S. villosa has produced in Paris a hybrid race to which the name of S. Henryi has been given. One of these hybrids known as Lutece is now in flower and is one of the handsomest of garden Lilacs. It is a large and vigorous shrub with large dark green leaves and great clusters of blue-purple flowers. Some of the new Chinese species will flower a little later and these will be followed by the tree Lilacs of northeastern Asia. Robinia Kelseyi. This Rose Acacia, which was discovered only a few years ago on the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains, proves a hardy and valuable garden plant. The flowers are smaller and lighter-colored than those of the well known Rose Acacia (R. hispida) which flowers a little later, and the branches are npt covered with the viscid hairs to which the Rose Acacia owes its name. R. Kelseyi is a shrub sometimes growing from six to eleven feet high, with slender stems and branches, leaves composed of nine or eleven narrow lanceolate leaflets which are bronze color as they unfold, and short racemes appearing with the unfolding leaves and composed of from four to seven flowers produced from the axils of the leaves of short lateral young branchlets which grow from end to end of the branches of the previous year. Sometimes as many as four flower28 clusters are developed on one of the short lateral branchlets, and as the flowers in the upper clusters on the branchlet do not open until later than those of the lower clusters the plants are covered with fresh flowers for a long time. This Robinia will probably prove to be a better garden plant than the Rose Acacia, for although the flowers are not as large or of as deep rose-color it does not spread by underground stems, a habit which makes the Rose Acacia a weed which once established it is almost impossible to control. The Pawpaw (Asimina triloba). A colony of this handsome tree, which is very common in the southern states but at the north occurs in only a few isolated stations, is now established on Hickory Path near Centre Street, and this year the leafless branches have been well covered with the curious, dark-brown, bad-smelling flowers. Under favorable conditions the Pawpaw is sometimes a tree forty feet high with a tall stout trunk; it has handsome drooping, dark green leaves often a foot long and six inches wide, but it is chiefly interesting as the only extra-tropical North American tree, with the exception of some of the wild Plums, which produces edible fruit. This is borne in few-fruited clusters and is from three to five inches long and from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter, greenish yellow, becoming almost black when fully ripe with semitranslucent, sweet, luscious flesh. The ripe fruit does not bear transportation and is rarely sold in markets, and so is little known except to boys who live near Pawpaw thickets. The American Genetic Association, however, has now taken up the possibility of the improvement of this fruit and is offering prizes for information about the largest trees, and about trees, regardless of their size, which bear fruit of unusually good quality. Rhododendron (Azalea) calendulaceum. Of the American Azaleas the pink-flowered R. Vaseyi and the Rhodora are already past blooming. The flowers of two other pink-flowered species, R. canescens and R. nudiflorum, are fast falling, but R. calendulaceum from the Appalachian Mountain slopes, the handsomest of the whole group, is now beginning to open its yellow or orange-colored flowers. This is a perfectly hardy shrub which can be found scattered through the roadside plantations in the Arboretum and in a large mass on the slope below Azalea Path where the variation in the color of the flowers can be studied. As a garden plant this is superior to any of the hybrids which have been in part derived from it. A large number of these hybrids were raised in Europe nearly a century ago by crossing R. calendulaceum with the American R. viscosum and the Caucasian R. luteum. These plants are usually known as Ghent Azaleas, but the correct name for them is Rhododendron (Azalea) Mortierii, for the Ghent baker named Mortier who raised a number of such hybrids. As found in nurseries these plants are all grafted and therefore do not grow so well as seedlings. The hardiness of many of them is reduced by the blood of the Caucasian species which is not hardy in this climate, and they are more or less valuable here as garden plants as the influence of the blood of the American species is greater or less. None of them surpass, however, R. calen,dulaceum in the beauty of their flowers and none of them are so long-lived or so satisfactory garden plants."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 15","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23635","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0608526.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 15. 1916 Laurels. Rarely if ever before have the Arboretum Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) been as full of flower-buds as they are now, and by the time this bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers many of the plants will be covered with flowers. The flowering of the Laurels is the last of the great Arboretum flower shows of the year, and none of those which precede it are more beautiful, for the Mountain Laurel, or the Calico Bush as it is often called, is in the judgment of many flowerlovers the most beautiful of all North American shrubs or small trees. Many Rhododendrons have larger leaves and larger and more brilliantly colored flowers, but of all the broad-leaved evergreen plants which can be grown successfully in this climate the Laurel is the handsomest and most satisfactory. It is not perhaps strange that so little attention has been paid to it by American gardeners for the American gardeners, of earlier generations at least, derived their inspiration almost entirely from England and usually despised American plants as too common for their attention. For some reason which it is not easy to explain Kalmia lattfolia has never been a popular plant in England where it is still not often seen and where it certainly grows less freely than many species and hybrids of the Rhododendrons. For this reason, perhaps, no distinct forms of the Laurel and no hybrids have been developed by cultivators, and the few recognized variations in the flowers and leaves have all been found on wild plants. Of these there are forms with pure white flowers (var. alba) and there is a form with deep pink, nearly red, flowers and rather dark leaves (var. rubra). Between these extremes there are others with flowers of all shades of pink, and there is one with flowers conspicuously marked by a chocolate band (var. fuscata). There is a dwarf form (var. myrtifolia) with small leaves and small clusters of minute flowers; and there is one in which the corolla is deeply divided into narrow lobes (var. polypetala). This plant, which is not at all ornamental, was found near Deerfield, Massachusetts, and has been propagated and distributed from the Arboretum. A form with broad, handsome, Rhododendron-like leaves (var. obtusata) which rarely flowers was found a few years ago near Pomfret, Connecticut. These forms, with the exception of var. fuscata, are all established in the general Kalmia collection which is planted on both sides of Hemlock Hill Road at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. This part of the Arboretum where there are other interesting plants, including the collection of Rhododendrons, is easily and quickly reached from the South Street entrance of the Arboretum. Syringa yunnanensis. This Lliac from southwestern China is now in flower. It has long-pointed, glabrous leaves dull green above and pale below, and large, rather open clusters of small creamy white flowers faintly tinged with rose color, with an unusual and delicate perfume which greatly adds to the attraction of the plant. S. yunnanensis is one of the plants introduced by George Forrest through the Bee Company of Liverpool and has now been growing in the Arboretum for several years. Although it first flowered here in 1913, it has not shown its real character as a flowering plant until this season. S. yunnanensis can be seen on the lower side of the path which follows the top of the bank occupied by the Lilac Collection. Syringa Julianae. This Chinese Lilac has flowered in the Arboretum every year since 1909 but never so abundantly as this year. In the shape of the leaves and in the long slender corolla-tube it has something in common with S. pubescens. This, however, is a native of the northern part of the empire; it blooms fully three weeks earlier here, and the flower-buds are rose color, not purple. The flowers, too, of S. Julianae are without the strong perfume of S. pubescens which, especially in the evening, is stronger than that of the flowers of any other Lilac. S. Julianae is one of the most distinct of the numerous Lilacs discovered by Wilson in western China and promises to be a useful garden plant here, if for no other reason, on account of the lateness of the flowers. It can be seen with all the other Chinese Lilacs discovered by Wilson nearly opposite the plant of S. yunnanensis on the path at the top of the Lilac bank. Caragana Maximowicziana. This is a good addition to the so-called Siberian Pea-trees which can be successfully grown in northern gardens. It is a shrub with slender, wide-spreading and arching, spiny stems, small pinnate leaves and narrow, canary yellow flowers which are produced in great numbers and appear later than those of the other Caraganas in the collection. It is a native of northern China and first flowered in the Arboretum two years ago when not more than two feet high. Plants in flower can be seen in the Shrub Collection and among the Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Photinia villosa. This is a small tree or arborescent shrub of a genus of the Rose Family closely related to Crataegus and Cotoneaster and is widely distributed in eastern Asia. It has thick, dark green leaves and white flowers produced in great profusion in compact, many31 flowered, flat-topped clusters, terminal on short leafy branches of the year, and oval, bright scarlet fruit about a third of an inch long. P. villosa is now in flower in the Shrub Collection and in some of the border plantations, and growing with it in the Shrub Collection is a variety (var. laevis) which is already out of flower. This is a tall shrub with numerous slender, spreading stems and branches, narrower leaves, and handsomer and more abundant fruits. The leaves of these two plants assume in the autumn brilliant shades of orange and scarlet. Kolkwitzia amabilis. The specimen of this Chinese plant suffered during the winter in the low ground occupied by the general Shrub Collection, but on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where it is planted with the other new Chinese shrubs it has proved perfectly hardy and is now in flower. Kolkwitzia is related to Diervilla and Abelia, and the flowers are borne in pairs on long stems at the ends of short, lateral, leafy branchlets and are an inch long with a two-lobed oblique corolla deep rose color in the bud, becoming paler after opening, the inner surface of the three divisions of the lower lobe being white blotched with orange color at the base. As a flowering shrub this is one of the most beautiful and interesting of recent introductions from China. Sophora viciifolia. Shrubs with blue flowers hardy in this climate are rare, and none of them are as satisfactory as this Sophora which is a native of central and western China, where it is a common undershrub in dry hot valleys. It has been growing in the Arboretum for several years; it is now about four feet high, and produces its small blue and white pea-shaped flowers every year in great profusion. It can be seen in flower on Hickory Path near Centre Street, and with the other Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Philadelphus. Some of the plants of the large Arboretum collection of Philadelphus, or Mock Orange, are already in flower. The earliest to bloom is P. Schrenkii, var. Jackir, a plant discovered by Mr. Jack in Corea a few years ago. It is a dwarf shrub with erect stems and rather small flowers, and is chiefly valuable for its earliness. P. harsutus from the southern Appalachian Mountain region is also in flower. This is a small-flowered species, and in cultivation is a large, loosegrowing shrub of unattractive habit, and compared with many of the plants of this group has little value as a garden plant. Neillia sinensis. This member of a genus of the Rose Family, closely related to the North American Ninebark (Physocarpus) and to the Spiraeas, is flowering for the fourth year in the Arboretum and by some enthusiastic visitors is considered the most beautiful of the shrubs brought here from China in recent years. It has very slender, rather pendulous branches, red-brown bark, which, like that of the Ninebark, separates freely into long, narrow shred-like scales, longpointed, more or less deeply lobed leaves, and narrow clear pink, bellshaped flowers nearly half an inch long, in spreading and slightly drooping, many-flowered racemes about three inches in length and terminal on short, slender leafy branchlets of the year. The pointed podlike fruit, which is covered with long glandular hairs, is not more ornamental than that of the Ninebark. There are two other Chinese species now in the Arboretum but they have not yet flowered. The largest plants of N. sinensis are on Hickory Path near Centre Street, and it can also be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Dwarf Hawthorns. Among the dwarf Hawthorns of the United States are a number of plants which promise to be of great value for the decoration of gardens, where, however, they are still almost unknown; indeed until a few years ago they had been almost entirely overlooked or neglected by botanists and gardeners. One dwarf species, however, C. uniflora, was cultivated in England by Bishop Compton as early as 1713 and is still occasionally met with in gardens. It is a shrub a foot or two high with small leaves, and small flowers in one or rarely in two-flowered clusters, and green fruit. This little shrub grows in sandy soil from Pennsylvania to Alabama, usually in the region near the coast. It is now in flower in the Arboretum and has no great value as a garden plant. It is interesting, however, as the type of one of the natural groups, the Uniflorae, in which the species of Hawthorns are arranged. Another species of this group, C. Smithii, is also in flower. This little shrub is a native of western Pennsylvania and is distinguished by the serration of its leaves and by its two- or three-flowered flower-clusters. Only one other dwarf species, C. intricata, was cultivated before 1900 when the Arboretum began the systematic study of American Hawthorns. This shrub was described in Europe in 1894 from a plant cultivated in the Botanic Garden at Copenhagen and has been made the type of the Intricatae Group. The plants of this group are mostly shrubs from one to four feet high, although in the southern Appalachian region a few of the species become small trees. The largest number of species is found in Pennsylvania but these plants are not rare in southern New England, New York and Ontario. Only a few have been found in the region west of the Mississippi River and they do not occur in the coast region of the South Atlantic and Gulf States. These plants mostly flower late and have large and showy flowers usually in few-flowered clusters, and large, red, yellow or green, late-ripening fruit. A number of the Intricatae are flowering in the Arboretum this year where they can be seen on the lower side of the road at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, directly north of the Crabapple Collection. Crataegus triflora, the type of another group, the Triflorae, is also in flower here. This is a shrub with large leaves, flowers probably larger than those of any other dwarf Hawthorn, and often an inch and a quarter in diameter, in from three- to six-, usually only three-flowered clusters, and large dull red fruit. A comparatively rare plant, C. triflora grows on the bluffs of the Coosa River, at Rome, Georgia, in one or two places in northern Alabama, and in northeastern Mississippi. Lonicera pileata. Evergreen shrubs hardy in this climate are so few in number that it is desirable to call attention to this little Chinese Honeysuckle which has now been growing without protection in the Arboretum for several years and has been in flower for several weeks. It has prostrate stems which foim a low compact mat, leaves which resemble those of some form of the Box-tree, and small, pale-yellow, very fragrant flowers. This Honeysuckle should prove an excellent plant for the rock garden. Plants can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street and in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 23","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23637","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070a328.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 23, 1916 Summer-flowering American Viburnums. For many flowers the Arboretum is indebted in early summer to four American species of Viburnum which have been used in large numbers in its borders and roadside plantations. The earliest of these, V. dentatum, is already in bloom; it has handsome dark green leaves conspicuously toothed on the margins, and broad flat clusters of white flowers which are followed in early autumn by bright blue fruits on erect stems. This is a common roadside and meadow shrub in the northeastern part of the country. The second of these four Viburnums, V. cassinoides, is also in bloom. It is a native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows twenty feet high with slender straggling stems. In cultivation it forms a broad, low, round-topped bush, and has proved one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums introduced into the Arboretum. The leaves are thick and lustrous and vary greatly in size and shape. The flowers are slightly tinged with yellow and are borne in wide slightly convex clusters which also vary greatly in size. The fruit is larger than that of the other summer-flowering American species, and at first yellow-green later becomes pink, and finally blue-black and covered with a pale bloom, fruit of the three colors occurring in early autumn in the same cluster. In the Viburnum Collection, near the junction of the Bussey Hill and the Valley Roads, there are a number of plants of this Viburnum selected to show the variation in the shape of the leaves and in the size of the flower-clusters. The third of these summer flowering Viburnums, V. venosum, resembles in its general appearance V. dentatum but it flowers two weeks later, and the young branchlets and the lower surface of the leaves are thickly covered with a coat of stellate hairs. This Viburnum is found growing naturally only in the neighborhood of the coast from Cape Cod and Nantucket to New Jersey. A larger and a handsomer plant with larger leaves, more showy flowers and larger, later-ripening fruit, V. Canbyi is the fourth of these species. It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware where it is not common, and of central Indiana; and it is the last of all the Viburnums in the Arboretum to flower. There are large specimens of this plant in front of the Administration Building and at other points on the Meadow Road. All these Viburnums can be improved by cultivation and with generous treatment grow into larger and handsomer bushes than the wild plants, and bear larger leaves and better flowers and fruit. Few shrubs better deserve a place in American parks and gardens where they are still less often seen than they should be. Two rare American Viburnums can now be seen in flower in the Arbore-. tum, V. molle, a native of southern Kentucky and southern Missouri, with which V. venosum was once confused, and V. bracteatum which is known to grow naturally only on the cliffs of the Coosa River near Rome, Georgia. One of the few plants in cultivation is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. V. mollis is in the general Viburnum Collection. Red-fruited Viburnums. With the exception of the species which belong to the Opulus Group no American Viburnums have red fruit, but in eastern Asia there are several red-fruited species. The handsomest of these in the Arboretum is V. dilatatum, which is a native of Japan, Korea, and western China. It is a large, shapely and vigorous shrub with broad, abruptly pointed leaves and wide flat clusters of flowers which are followed by small bright red fruits. This is a good shrub for the decoration of summer and autumn gardens. It is in the general Virburnum Collection, and there are good plants on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. The fruit is smaller and less showy than that of another red-fruited Japanese species, V. Wrightii. This is a smaller shrub and flowered some time ago. The flower-clusters are smaller than those of V. dilatatum and the plants are not always perfectly hardy in exposed situations, but the fruit is larger and handsomer than that of the other red-fruited Viburnums of eastern Asia. Another of these plants, V. theiferum, from western China is not yet in flower. It is a tall, narrow shrub with erect stems, small leaves and small flowerclusters. It has little to recommend it as a flowering plant but the fruit is large, abundant and of good color, and the plant has an economic interest as an infusion of the leaves is the \"sweet tea\" used by the monks of the monasteries on Mt. Omei, one of the five sacred mountains of China. Magnolia glauca in the Magnolia Collection, on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance, is covered again with flowers. Although it has often been insisted on in these bulletins, the fact that this is one of the handsomest plants which can be grown in our gardens cannot be too often repeated. Often a large tree in the southern states, at the north M. glauca never grows to any great size and is more often a large shrub than a tree. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white on the lower surface. In the south they remain on the branches until spring; here they retain their brilliancy and do not fall until December. The flowers are small, cup-shapes, and during many weeks fill the air, especially in the evening, with a delightful fragrance. There is no plant which will give here at the north a greater return in beauty and fragrance, yet it is impossible to find this Magnolia in any quantity in American nurseries, and it is still unknown to most American planters of this generation. Lonicera pileata. To persons who admire plants which produce beautiful fruits this little Chinese Honeysuckle wiil be a delight. It is a shrub which does not grow more than two or three feet high. The leaves vary from one to two inches in length; on the upper surface they are dark yellowish green and lustrous, and are silvery white on the lower surface. The flowers are pale yellow, about a third of an inch long and are not conspicuous, and the great beauty of this plant is in the fruit. This is half an inch broad, square at the ends, somewhat compressed, wider than high, bright scarlet and translucent. It hangs down from the lateral branchlets on slender stalks two-thirds of an inch in length. The earliest fruit ripened several days ago, but as that which develops from the axils of leaves higher on the branchlet ripens later the plant is conspicuous for its fruit for a long time. L. pileata is a common woodland shrub in central and western China where it was discovered by Dr. Augustine Henry. It was introduced into gardens by Wilson and first flowered in the Arboretum in 1913. It can now be seen on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with the other new Chinese Honeysuckles in the collection of Chinese shrubs. Styrax japonicus. Although at least one hundred species of Styrax are now recognized, with four species in the southern United States and one in California, only two Japanese species up to the present time have proved really hardy in the Arboretum. The more satisfactory of these two species, S. japonicus, is a large shrub which is covered every year at this time with white bell-shaped flowers which hang down from the branches on long slender stems. The globose, drupelike dry fruits are not particularly ornamental. and the leaves fall late in the autumn without change of color. There is a group of large plants of this Styrax on Hickory Path. near Centre Street, and that it is perfectly at home there is shown by the innumerable seedlings which every spring come up under the plants. The other Japanese species, S. Obassi, is a small tree with larger leaves than those of S. japonicus, and flowers in long drooping clusters; it can be seen on the upper side of Azalea Path where it is quite hardy but does not flower. Cotinus. In the Sumach Group, on the left-hand side of the Valley Road and opposite the Euonymus Group, the Smoke-tree (Cotinus Coggygria) is in bloom. The flowers are very small, in loosely arranged clusters and are not at all conspicuous; and it is their much lengthened hairy colored stems which are interesting and showy, and make this plant such a feature of the summer garden. The fruit is small and of no particular beauty, but in the autumn the dark green leaves sometimes assume dull shades of red and orange. The Smoke-tree is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, the Himalaya and western China, and is perfectly hardy in New England where it was probably brought early from Old England where it was cultivated soon after the middle of the seventeenth century. In the same group there is a large specimen of the American species, C. americanus. This as it grows in the south is sometimes a tree thirty feet tall with a stout trunk a foot in diameter, but here in the Arboretum it is always bushlike in habit. The leaves are often six inches long and four inches wide, of a cheerful light and yellow-green color, and in the autumn they turn to most brilliant shades of orange and scarlet. In this autumn color is found the chief ornamental value of this plant, for the lengthening stalks of the flowers makes little show in comparison with those of the European plant. Coti3aus americanus grows only in a few isolated stations in the southern states from northern Alabama to southern Missouri, Oklahoma and eastern Texas, and has been considered a comparatively rare plant, but this year Mr. E. J. Palmer has found it as a small shrub covering thousands of acres in the rocky canons and on the steep hillsides near Spanish Pass in Kendall County, Texas. Philadelphus. Few genera of hardy shrubs give as much beauty to summer gardens as Philadelphus or, as it is popularly called, Mock Orange or Syringa, and to few genera of cultivated plants have so many important additions been made in recent years. As early as 1811 English gardeners cultivated only two species, and twelve years later only eleven species were recognized by botanists. Now there are established in the Arboretum some thirty species and a large number of varieties and hybrids. The beauty of these plants is found in their white flowers; the fruit, which is a dry capsule, has as little beauty as that of a Lilac. There is nothing particularly interesting in the habit of any of the plants, and the leaves fall early in the autumn without change of color. As flowering plants, however, not many shrubs surpass them in beauty, and the importance of the group is increased by the length of the flowering season which in the Arboretum extends through six weeks. Philadelphus has gained most by the art of the hybridizer, although the handsomest, perhaps, of the Old World species, P. purpurascens, is of recent introduction, having been discovered only a few years ago by Wilson in China. The first of the hybrids to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by Monsieur Billard and is sometimes called Souvenir de Billard, although the oldest and correct name for this plant is P. insignis. This is one of the most beautiful of the large-growing Syringas and one of the last of the whole group to flower. A hybrid between two of the American species appeared a few years ago in the Arboretum and has been named P. splendens. This is a large-growing and very vigorous plant with unusually large scentless flowers, and one of the handsomest plants in the collection. Another supposed hybrid is P. maximus ; this grows to a larger size than other Syringas and plants from twenty to thirty feet high can sometimes be found in old Massachusetts gardens where this plant is not rare. One of the greatest gardening triumphs was achieved by Lemoine at Nancy when a few years ago he had the happy inspiration to cross P. coronarius, the Mock Orange of old gardens, with the dwarf Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus, a shrub with small leaves and small very fragrant flowers. The first plant obtained by this cross was named PhaladeLphus Lemoinei; it is a perfectly hardy shrub four or five feet high and broad, with slender stems which are now bending under the weight of fragrant flowers which are intermediate in size between those of the two parents. Many distinct forms of this hybrid are in the collection."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 1","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23631","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060b36e.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 1, 1916 Tree Lilacs. This name is often given to three large-growing Lilacs of northeastern Asia which are now in flower and are conspicuous objects in the Arboretum. These plants all have white flowers in large clusters, and differ from other Lilacs in the shape of their flowers. In all other Lilacs the tube of the corolla is much longer than the calyx and longer than the stamens which are enclosed by it, while in the Tree Lilacs the tube of the corolla is not much longer than the calyx and shorter than the stamens which are therefore seen when the flowers open. On account of this difference in their flowers the Tree Lilacs have been thought by some botanists to belong to a different genus to which the name Ligustrina was given, and this is now the name of the section of the genus Syringa in which they are placed. The three species are much alike and only differ in the shape of the leaves, in the size of the flower-clusters and in the time of flowering. They lose their leaves early in the autumn without any change of color, and in this early shedding of their leaves is found their only drawback as garden plants for they are all hardy, grow rapidly, are good in habit and bloom freely, although the flowers of one of the species, Syringa japonica, are usually produced more abundantly in alternate years. The first of these plants to bloom, S. amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia and northern China, and is a small, bushy, rather flat-topped tree which in cultivation rarely exceeds twenty feet in height. The leaves are thick, dark green, long-pointed, from three to four inches long and from two and a half to three inches wide, and the spreading and slightly drooping flower-clusters are usually from twelve to fourteen inches long and broad. This plant was first raised in this country before 1870 in the Harvard Botanic Garden from seeds received from the Botanic Garden at St. Peters38 burg. It appears to be less commonly cultivated than the other Tree Lilacs. Judging by the climate of the region where it grows naturally, it will probably prove one of the best shrubs or small trees for the northern interior region of Canada and for the northern states of the Mississippi valley. S. pekinensis is usually the next of the three Tree Lilacs to bloom, although this year it is beginning to flower rather later than S. japonica. It is a native of northern China and is a shrub rather than a tree, although it sometimes grows in this country thirty feet high, with numerous stout, spreading stems distinctly drooping at the ends and covered with light yellowish brown bark separating into thin layers like that of some of the Birch-trees. The leaves are narrower than those of the other species, long-pointed, drooping on long stalks, and usually about three inches long and from half an inch to an inch wide. The flower-clusters, which are produced every year in immense numbers, are smaller than those of the other Tree Lilacs and are flat, very unsymmetrical, partly drooping and about five or six inches long and broad. This fine plant has been growing in the Arboretum since 1883 when it was raised from seeds sent here from Peking by the late Dr. Bretschneider. S. pekinensis has been somewhat distributed by American nurserymen and there are now large specimens in several Massachusetts gardens. The last of the three Tree Lilacs, S. japonica, is a native of the forests of northern Japan and a tree sometimes forty feet high with a tall stem sometimes a foot or more in diameter and covered with lustrous reddish brown bark like that of a Cherry-tree, and comparatively small, spreading and ascending branches which form a rather narrow round-topped head. The leaves are dark green, lustrous, four or five inches long and about two and a half inches wide, and the flower-clusters, which are erect and more symmetrical than those of the other Tree Lilacs, are from twelve to eighteen inches long and from twelve to fourteen inches wide. This tree was first cultivated in the Arboretum from seeds sent here from Sapporo in Hokkaido in 1876 by Mr. W. S. Clark, the first president of the Agricultural College at Sapporo. The seedlings grow rapidly and in 1886 were fifteen or sixteen feet high. The Tree Lilacs are growing on the bank on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road in the Lilac Collection, and one of the original seedlings of S. japonica which was planted in what was once a nursery can be seen on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road in front of the Crabapple Collection. This is the year for the abundant bloom of the Japanese species and the plants are covered with flower-clusters. Salvia officinalis. This little aromatic shrub is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. The flowers are bright purple, showy, about threequarters of an inch long, and are arranged in erect, terminal, compound racemes six inches in length. This plant is a native of southern Europe and has been cultivated in Europe for centuries for medicinal and culinary purposes, and formerly was much used in making \"sage tea.\" Although rarely seen outside of the kitchen garden, it is well worth a place as a flowering plant in a collection of dwarf shrubs. Thymus Serphyllum. This is another fragrant plant of the same family as the Salvia, and is growing near it in the Shrub Collection where it forms a broad mat of light green leaves only a few inches high. In a few days this will be covered with innumerable small lilaccolored flowers. The \"Mother of Thyme,\" as this plant is sometimes called, is an old inhabitant of gardens and is a useful rock garden plant. The fragrant leaves are sometimes used like those of the common Thyme in cooking. Philadelphus purpurascens. This Chinese species is now covered with flowers. It is a large, vigorous shrub with long arching branches from which numerous branchlets spread at broad angles and are from four to six inches long; on these are borne on drooping stems the flowers which have a strong pungent and delightful odor, and are about an inch and a half in diameter with a light purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread like those of many of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla. This is one of the most distinct and beautiful of all the Old World species, aud one of Wilson's important introductions from western China. It can best be seen in the Philadelphus Group on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Liiacs. Philadelphus inodorus. This native of the southern Appalachian foothill region, although the flowers are without fragrance, is for many persons the most beautiful plant of the genus. It is one of the medium-sized species with gracefully arching stems and pure white, cup-shaped flowers from an inch and a half to two inches in diameter. It is not often seen in gardens, although it was one of the first species of Philadelphus cultivated in Europe where it was first seen about the middle of the eighteenth century. The plants in the Shrub Collection and in the Bussey Hill Group are now covered with flowers. A double-l9owered Philadelphus. A Philadelphus raised by Lemoine and called by him Argentina is flowering for the first time on Bussey Hill Road. It is still a small shrub with erect, rather rigid stems now covered with large semi-double flowers which look like small white roses. More curious than beautiful, this addition to summer-flowering garden shrubs will perhaps be valued by persons who admire floral monstrosities. Aesculus Harbisonii. This interesting plant which unfolds its leaves later than any other in this group and, with the exception of A. parvifolia, is the last to flower, is now blooming near the other dwarf Buckeyes. Two individuals of this peculiar plant appeared here in 1905 among a number of seedlings of A. georgiana and are believed to be hybrids of that species and the red-flowered variety of A. discolor, the two species growing together where the seed was gathered near Stone Mountain in central Georgia. The leaves of this hybrid are lighter green than those of either of its supposed parents; the flowers are borne on stout red stems in broad red panicles and are about threequarters of an inch in length with a rose-colored calyx and canary yellow petals tinged with red toward the margins. The hybrid origin of these plants is shown by the fact that glands and hairs are mixed together on the margins of the petals, hairs only being found on the margins of the petals of plants of the group of Aesculus to which A. georgiana belongs and only glands on those of the plants of the group to which A. discolor belongs, so that when both hairs and glands are found on the margins of the petals of one of the Buckeyes it is good evidence that the plants are of hybrid origin. Cornus racemosa. This northern Cornel has been largely used in the Arboretum in roadside plantations and is now conspicuous as the plants are covered with their small clusters of creamy white flowers. These later in the season will be followed by white, translucent fruits borne on bright red stalks. This Cornel blooms here with some of the native Roses and their pink flowers compose perfectly with the white flowers of the Cornel; and when these plants are used together, as along some of the Arborertum roads, delightful effects are obtained. June-flowering Hydrangeas. For a quarter of a century Hydrangea Bretschnexderx, a native of northern China, has been a favorite plant in the Arboretum. It is a large and vigorous shrub with dark green leaves and flat heads of fertile flowers surrounded, as in other species of Hydrangea, by a ring of pure white ray flowers. The largest plant of this Hydrangea in the Arboretum is at Mr. Dawson's house on Centre Street. Several of the Hydrangeas introduced by Wilson from western China are now in flower in the collection of Chinese Shrubs on Bussey Hill and for the first time show their real value as garden plants in this climate. The tallest and most vigorous of these plants is Hydrangea Rosthornii, which is already eight feet high, with flowerclusters eight inches across. H. xanthoneura is closely related to H. Bretschnetderi and can only be distinguished from it by a slight variation in the shape of the leaves, and by the almost entire absence of hairs from their lower surface. The plants are now covered with flower- clusters which are about eight inches across. Two forms of this Hydrangea, var. Wilsonii and var. setchuenensis are also in bloom, and as garden plants are as valuable as the species itself. Hydrangea petiolaris. There are now few handsomer plants in the Arboretum than the specimen of this climbing Hydrangea on the Administration Building, although the long-stalked white ray flowers which surround the clusters of fertile flowers are beginning to fall. There are about a hundred of the flower-clusters on the plant and. many of them are' eight or nine inches across and terminal on short lateral branchlets which stand out from the body of the plant and give it an irregular surface which adds to its beauty. This Hydrangea is certainly the best deciduous-leaved climbing plant which can be grown against brick or stone walls in this climate. Potentilla fruticosa Veitchii. This white-flowered form of the widely distributed yellow-flowered Cinquefoil is an excellent garden plant in this climate. It is dwarf in habit, blooms freely every year, and the plants are covered with flowers during several weeks. It can be seen in the general Shrub Collection and with the other Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill. Potentilla tridentata is an excellent little rock garden shrub not often seen in cultivation. It is a native of eastern North America where, especially on the coast, it is common in rocky and exposed situations. The leaves are composed of three leaflets which are dark green and very lustrous, and the small white flowers are produced in several flowered-clusters standing well up above the plant on long stems. This is well established in the general Shrub Collection where it is now flowering. Lonicera saccata. By an unfortunate error \"Lonicera pileata\" was printed on page 35 of the last of these Bulletins instead of Lonicera. saccata, the plant which was there described."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 6","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23634","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0608126.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. H NO. II ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 6, 1916 Lindens are the most important of the summer-flowering trees in this climate, and many of the plants in the Arboretum collection are now large enough to flower and to be interesting; although none of them are old enough to show the form and bark of mature trees. Linden trees are very generally distributed in all the temperate regions of the northern hem~sphere with the exception of western North America, and, in addition to numerous species, several hybrids are cultivated. All the species are very similar in flower and fruit, and chiefly vary in the size and shape of their leaves, in the presence or absence of hairs on the leaves and branchlets, and in the nature of their hairy covering when it occurs. A fact not easy to explain is the presence in the flowers of all the American species of five petalhke scales opposite the petals and connected with the clusters of stamens, while in the flowers of all the Old World Lindens such scales do not exist. It is almost a universal rule that the trees of eastern North America and eastern Asia are more successful here in cultivation than those of Europe, but an exception is found in the Lindens. All the European species and many of their hybrids flourish here and some of them have grown in Massachusetts to a large size. Of the American species cultivated plants of the northern T. americana suffer greatly, especially when used as street trees, from the attacks of the red spider which often badly disfigures the leaves, and the leaves of this tree suffer, too, from various fungal diseases. The silver- leaved T. he~erovFytlec from the South may do better in this part of the country but not much is yet known of it as a cultivated tree. There are other Linden trees, natives of the extreme southern states, but none of them have been cultivated except occasionally in southern towns. Judging by the results obtained in the Arboretum none of the Asiatic Lindens promise to become valuable trees here, although the species recently discovered in western China are still so young that it is not possible to say much about them. Species, however, from Japan, eastern Siberia and Manchuria have been cultivated in the Arboretum for several years, and of these only T. japonica and T. mongolica have ever grown large enough to flower and produce seeds. The former is a small tree here with gracefully drooping branches and is conspicuous in early spring as the small yellow-green leaves appear a week or two earlier than those of any other Linden in the collection. It is one of the latest species to flower. T. mongolica is a small, short-lived tree with small, long-pointed shinirg leaves and is of no value except as a botanical curiosity. The best plants in the country of this Linden are now in Rochester, New York. The four European species and some of the hybrids between these species, and between them and the Arnerican species, all flourish in the northern and middle states; and the largest and handsomest Linden-tree which has been planted in the neighborhood of Boston is a supposed hybrid between the two species of eastern Europe, T. platyphyllos and T. cordata, and known as T. vulgaris, T. europaea, T. intermedia and T. hybrida. Although widely distributed in central Europe, this tree is much less common than either of its supposed parents; this fact and the variation in the size, shape and color of the leaves on different individuals make its hybrid origin possible, but whatever its origin this Linden is an excellent tree to plant here in rich moist soil where abundant space for free development can be allowed to it. The two silver-leaved Lindens of eastern Europe, T. argentea and T. petaolarzs, are distinct and handsome trees which might well be more generally seen in New England plantations. The former, which is common in the forests of Hungary, is a large tree with erect-growing branches forming a compact, roundtopped head, and large, erect-growing leaves dark green above and silvery white below. This tree has been a good deal planted in some of the parks in New York City where large and interesting specimens can now be seen. It does not appear to be well known in Massachusetts. T. petiolaris is better known in New England, and there are large and beautiful specimens of this tree growing in Newport, Rhode Island. Like those of T. argentea, the leaves of this tree are silvery white on the lower surface; they droop, however, on long slender stems and flutter gracefully in the slightest breeze. The branches, too, are drooping and form a narrow open head. T. petiolaris is not known in a wild state and is of very uncertain origin. A supposed hybrid of this tree with T. americana is one of the handsomest of all Linden trees; it has been called T. vestita and T. hybrida spectabilis. The leaves are of the size and shape of those of the American parent but are silvery white on the lower surface. The flowers of the earliest of the Lindens, the European T. platyphyllos, have been open for several days, and for another month Linden-flowers in the Arboretum will fill the air with fragrance and delight the bees with abundant nectar. The Linden Collection occupies the meadow on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the Administration Building. Sambucus canadensis. This is the last of the native shrubs to make a conspicuous show of flowers in the Arboretum, and as the corollas of the Laurels begin to fall the wide, flat flower-clusters of the blackfruited Elder begin to whiten. Few native shrubs make a greater show of flowers and fruits, and the numerous Elders sown by birds on the banks of the Bussey Brook in the valley north of Hemlock Hill, and by the little ponds near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads add much to the beauty of the Arboretum in July. Growing with Sambucus canadensis in the Shrub Collection is a form with leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutiloba) and more curious than beautiful. There are here also a form with yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa, and var. maxzma, which originated a few years ago in a European nursery and which has flower-clusters three times as large as those of the wild plant and such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches can hardly support them. A variety with yellow leaves (var. aurea) is also in the collection. More objectionable than many yellow-leaved shrubs because it is hardier and grows more rapidly to a larger size than some of them, this plant now disfigures many European gardens and is too often seen in those of this country. Zelkova serrata, or, as it is more generally known, Z. keaki, Keaki being the Japanese name for this tree, is one of the important trees of Japan. Although no longer very common or of a large size in the Japanese forests, it is one of the largest of Japanese trees, for specimens one hundred feet high with trunks from eight to ten feet in diameter are not uncommon in temple gardens and by village roadsides. The wood is more valued by the Japanese than that of any other tree; it is tough, elastic and durable both in the ground and when exposed to the air, and is considered the best building material in the empire. Keaki, however, has now become so scarce that it is not used for building except in temples in which the large, round, light brown, polished columns which support the roof are always made of this wood; it is universally used in the manufacture of jinrikishas, and it is still much employed in cabinet-making and turnery. Zelkova is a genus related to Ulmus. The leaves resemble those of some of the small-leaved Elms; the male and female organs, however, are in separate flowers on different parts of the branch; the fruit is a small drupe, and the bark is more like that of a Beech-tree than of an Elm-tree. The Keaki is probably worth general cultivation as a timber tree in some parts of the United States. That it can flourish here at least for many years is shown by the trees planted in Warren, Rhode Island, in 1862, by the late Dr. George R. HaIL Thirty years later these trees were fifty feet high with trunks a foot in diameter, and were producing large crops of seeds from which seedling plants were growing spontaneously in large numbers. Two of these seedlings can be seen in the Arboretum in the Ceitis Group on the slope below the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the group of Sassafras trees. Here may be seen, too, a young plant of the Caucasian species, Z. crenata. This has been a difficult plant to establish in the Arboretum but there is a picturesque old specimen in the Harvard Botanic Garden. Hemiptelea Davidii. Specimens of this interesting tree from northern China, known as the \"Prickly Elm,\" are established in the Celtis Group and larger specimens can be seen in the nursery near the top of Peter's Hill. In foliage this tree also looks like a small-leaved Elm but the branches are furnished with sharp thorns. The flowers are similar to those of the Zelkova, but the fruit is slightly winged and distinctly short stalked. Of no particular value as an ornamental tree, Hemiptelea is of much botanical interest as the representative of one of the monotypic genera of trees which are such a conspicuous feature in the flora of China. Eucommia ulmoides. This, the so-called \"Hardy Rubber-tree,\" which has been of more interest to the energetic newspaper reporter than it can ever be to the manufacturer of rubber goods, is also monotypic. It is a small tree with inconspicuous flowers, and fruits which have some resemblance in shape to those of an Elm-tree. The leaves are thick, dark green, very lustrous, and five or six inches long, and give ornamental value to the tree. Eucommia is a native of central and western China where it is cultivated in the neighborhood of houses for the bark which yields a drug valued by the Chinese. The leaves and bark contain an elastic gum but in such small quantities that it can have no commercial significance. Eucomm~a is perfectly hardy and is now well established in the Arboretum. Plants can be seen on the upper side of Azalea Path. Magnolia macrophylla. This, the last of the Ax boretum Magnolias to bloom, is now opening its flower-buds. It is a handsome small tree of good habit, and panicularly interesting from the fact that of all the trees which grow beyond the tropics it has the largest leaves and the largest flowers. The leaves are from twenty to thirty inches long and from eight to nine inches wide, and are silvery white on the lower surface. The cup-shaped creamy white, fragiant flowers are often a foot in diameter. This southern tree is perfectly hardy in the northern states, but it should be planted in sheltered pusitions that the delicate leaves may be protected from the wind which tears and disfigures them. Tripterygium Regelii. This is a near relative of the Bitter Sweet (Celastrus), a native of northern Japan and Korea, and one of the plants brought to the Arboretum by Mr. Jack from Korea; it is still rare in gardens. It is a half-climbing shrub with stems sometimes thirty feet long on its native hill sides, long-pointed dark green leaves often six inches long, small white flowers in terminal clusters often ten inches in length, and three-lobed and three-winged fruits rather more than half an inch long. This plant is perfectly hardy here in the Arboretum and began to flower when not more than three feet high. On such small plants the stems are nearly erect and almost self-supporting, but larger plants will need the support of rocks or bushes over which to stray. Specimens of Tripterygium can now be seen in flower on Hickory Path near Centre Street and in the Shrub Collection. Lonicera Henryi ia a native of western China and valuable and interesting for, with the exception of Evonymus radicans and Vinca minor, it is the only vine with evergreen leaves which is hardy in this climate. It has long, dark green, pointed leaves and axillary clusters of flowers which are rose color when they first open but soon become orange-red; they are without odor. On the slopes of its native mountains this plant scrambles over rocks and bushes and, like other climbing Honeysuckles, it will do best when allowed to grow naturally in this way, for none of these Honeysuckles are really happy when they are fastened to a trellis. There is a good specimen of this plant now covered with flowers in the bed of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 13","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23632","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060b76f.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 13, 1916 Weeping Trees. A year ago a short account of fastigiate trees, that is trees with abnormally erect branches, appeared in one of these bulletins, and it may be interesting to supplement this with an account of the trees commonly called \"weeping,\" that is trees with abnormally drooping branches. Such abnormal trees have been industriously hunted for and largely propagated by nurserymen because many of their customers are interested in curious plants which are the joy of the owners of many suburban gardens, especially in Europe where happily such plants are in more general use than they are in this country. It can be said that \"weeping\" trees are less useful than some of the pyramidal trees for they cannot be used in mixed plantations or bear crowding, and must stand as isolated specimens in the park or on the lawn or the effect of the peculiar habit for which they are valued will be lost. Weeping trees of many of the large Willows are propagated by cuttings, and those of other trees by grafting a weeping branch on a stem of a normal tree of the same or of a related species, and it can be said generally that the Willows with pendulous branches produced from cuttings are the handsomest of the pendulous trees because they appear less abnormal. Willows. The best known of the trees with pendulous branches is the Weeping Willow from China, a large tree with long slender drooping branchlets which sweep the ground, and narrow, dark green, very lustrous leaves. This is the common tree Willow in the region bordering the Yangtse River fcr two thousand miles from its mouth, and the one frequently planted in villages and cemeteries in other parts of the empire. For centuries this has been a favorite tree with the Chinese, and is a familiar object in many Chinese pictures, and is often repre46 sented on Chinese porcelains and wood-carvings. It is uncertain when this tree first reached Europe but it was probably brought to western Europe from Asia Minor late in the seventeenth or early in the eighteenth century, and as it was supposed to be a native of the valley of the Euphrates it was named Sahz babylonica. It is unknown when this tree was first brought to North America where for many years it has been exceedingly common in the middle and some of the southern states. In Massachusetts it often suffers from cold, and this tree is less common here now than it was fifty years ago. Hybrids of Salix babylonica with the European S. alba and S. fragilis are sometimes cultivated in the northern states where they are very hardy and the most beautiful of the trees with pendulous branches which can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. The best known perhaps of these trees, S. Salamonii, is supposed to be a hybrid between S. babylonicaa and S. alba. It is a large tree with a broad head of drooping branches and leaves which are dark green above and silvery white on the lower surface. Only the female tree is known and it is not known where it originated. This is a tree which should be more generally known and planted in this country. The tree known as the Wisconsin Willow is probably of similar parentage. This tree has been largely planted in the northern states where it is perfectly hardy and a handsome and useful tree; the branches are perhaps rather less pendulous than those of S. Salamonii. S. elegantissima, S. bla~zda and S. pendulina are supposed to be hybrids of S. babylontca and S. fragziis, and are intermediate in habit and foliage between their parents. S. elegantissima is often found under the name of ~S'. babylonica in regions where the latter is not hardy. In the northern states it is sometimes called Thurlow's Willow. S. alba vitellina pendula is usually considered a pendulous form of the Golden-barked Willow, or as a hybrid of the latter and S. babylonica. Whatever its origin may be this is one of the handsomest Willows which can be grown in the northern states. In nurseries in this country it sometimes appears as S. babylonica, var. ramulis aureis, or as the Golden-barked Babylon Willow. The Kilmarnock Willow is a form (var. pendula) of the European S. caprea. It is a plant with thick pendulous branches, and when grown as a standard these form a regular umbrella-like head. This is a popular tree with American nurserymen but the specimens which they produce are more curious than beautiful. Beeches. The European Beech, Fage~s sylvatica, has produced several forms with pendulous branches. The best known of these trees, var. pendula, does not grow very tall, and the principal branches are horizontal and wide-spreading, and from them the branchlets hang down nearly vertically. In habit this is one of the most remarkable of all the trees of abnormal growth, and the great tent-like specimens which can be seen in Europe are remarkable objects. This tree was first planted in the United States many years ago. It is perfectly hardy in the northern states but grows slowly here, and there are no exceptionally large specimens in this country. Other varieties of the European Beech are var. miltonensis and var. bornyensis, with more erect trunks and horizontal and pendulous branches; they are handsome trees still little known in this country. Other forms of the Weeping Beech are known as var. pagnyensis, var. remillyensis and var. tortuosa. Elms. There are two forms of the Wych or Scotch Elm, Ulmus glabra, or, as it is often called, U. montana. The best known of these, the Camperdown Elm (var. camperdownensis) as it appears in gardens is a round-topped tree with stout pendulous branches which droop to the ground from all sides of the stem and form a broad-shaded arbor. Ulmus glabra, var. penduda, often called var. horizontalis, is a more graceful tree. The branches are usually best developed on one side of the stem and are wide-spreading, the principal ones slightly ascending and furnished with numerous pendulous branchlets. This tree is much cultivated in Europe, especially in Germany. A form of U. americana with rather pendulous branches has been propagated in some American nurseries as U. fulva pendula. Trees of the American Elm with more or less drooping branches are not uncommon but none of them are likely to appeal to the lovers of trees of abnormal growth. Birches. One of the European Birches, Betula pendula, is a tree with slender usually pendulous branches and some of its forms are among the best known and most generally planted weeping trees. The var. dalecarlgea, sometimes called Betula alba, var. pendula laciniata or the Cut-leaved Weeping Birch, is a tree with pendulous branchlets and deeply divided leaves. For many years this tree was planted in immense numbers in all the northern states, but insects working under the bark of the trunk and branches have killed most of the trees and large specimens are now rarely seen in this country. The var. Youngui has more pendulous branches and when these are grafted on to a tall stem they form a picturesque head in general outline something like that of the common form of the Weeping Beech. Another Weeping Birch in habit very similar to the last but with deeply divided leaves, is var. gracilis, sometimes called in nurseries B. alba laciniata gracilis pendula or B. elegans laciniata. The Weeping Ash. There are several forms of the European Ash, Fraxinus excelsior, with pendulous branches. The commonest of these trees (var. pendula) forms when grafted on a tall standard a broad umbrella-like head. Under favorable conditions this variety sometimes grows in Europe to a great size. but Fraxinus excelsior and all its varieties do not succeed in eastern North America and are rarely seen here in good condition. In the Arboretum pinetum there is a fairly healthy specimen of this Weeping Ash, the last survivor of an old garden which once occupied the ground. The form of Fraxinus rotundifolia with pendulous branches (var. pendula) is established in the Arboretum and is a small tree with gracefully drooping branches which form a narrow head. F. rotundifolia is a native of southern Europe and southwestern Asia and is sometimes called F. parvifolia or F lentiscifolia. Prunus. There are at least three Cherries which have produced abnormal forms with pendulous branches. The handsomest of these is the Weeping Cherry of Japan, a tall tree with spreading main branches and long slender branchlets which hang nearly perpendicularly from them, and in early spring are covered with drooping pink flowers. The correct name for this tree is Prunus subhirtella, var. pendula. Not known as a wild tree, it has been cultivated in Japan for centuries. This beautiful Cherry-tree was brought to the United States many years ago and is now often seen in northern gardens. Few early spring-flowering trees are more beautiful than this Cherry. The form (var. reflexa) of the European Prunus fruttcosa or P. Chamaecerasus, as it was formerly called, with drooping branches is a handsome and hardy little Cherry worth a place in small gardens. Few North American trees have produced forms with pendulous branches. An exception is Prunus serotana, of which there is a weeping form (var. pendula) which is occasionally cultivated. There are varieties of the Apricot and of the Peach with pendulous branches of no particular beauty or interest. Cornus florida. This is another North American tree which has produced a form with wide-spreading and partly perdclous branches (var. pendula). As an ornamental plant this tree is not particularly valuable. Morus alba. A seedling of a Russian variety of this tree (var. tatarica), known as Teas' Weeping Mulberry, appeared several years ago in the nursery of John C. Teas at Carthage, Missouri, and it is now one of the most generally planted weeping trees in the United States. When the branches are grafted on a tail stem of the common Mulberry they form a narrow, round-topped plant with branches sweeping the ground. Malus. A form of the common Apple-tree (var. pendula), popularly known as \"Elisa Rathke,\" with stout, very pendulous branches, is sometimes found in collections grown as a tall standard. As it appears in the Arboretum this tree is more curious than beautiful. Sophora japonica. The form (var. pendula) of this Chinese tree with stout drooping branches is one of the best known \"weeping\" trees and when grafted on a tall stem of the ordinary form the branches make a broad round-topped tree which can be used as an arbor. The weeping form flowers very rarely or not at all. Crataegus monogyna. This is the common European Hawthorn or May, and the form with pendulous branches (var. pendula) is a tree of graceful habit and well worth a place in a collection of these plants. There is a variety of this weeping tree with leaves blotched with white (var. pendula variegata). Ilex. There are handsome forms of the European Holly (1. Aquifolium) with pendulous branches. Unfortunately this tree, which is one of the handsomest of broad-leaved evergreens, is not hardy in New England, although it flourishes in several of the middle and southern states. The most distinct of the weeping forms are var. pendula with rather rigid, arching and pendulous branches which form a round-topped head, and the variety argentea margtnata pendula, known in England as Perry's Weeping Holly. Carpinus. The European Hornbeam, Carpinus Betulu8, has produced forms with more or less pendulous branches of which the best known (var. pendula) has a rather broad head. As it grows in the Arboretum the branches are not particularly drooping. A handsomer plant is the variety pendula Dervaesia which is not in the collection. Want of space makes it necessary to defer until another occasion an account of the weeping forms of a number of coniferous trees."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 19","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23633","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060bb25.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 19. 1916 Summer-flowering shrubs. The flowers of many shrubs can now be seen in the Arboretum, and others will appear almost constantly until the late autumn or early winter when the Witch Hazels carry the period of blooming into another year. The last of the Azaleas the two white-flowered species of eastern North America. Rhododendron (Azalea) arboreseens and R. (Azalea) viscosum, are now in bloom. A mass of the former can be seen on the right-hand side of the Valley Road in front of the Hickories, and Rhododendron (Azalea) viscosum can be seen in quantity on both sides of the Meadow Road. Azaleas of different species have been flowering continuously in the Arboretum since the middle of May, and the blooming of no other group of plants extends here over such a long period although that of the Viburnums and Cornels is almost as long. Rhododendron maximum. This native species is the last of the Rhododendrons with evergreen leaves to bloom, and it can now be seen on the left-hand side of the road entering by the South Street gate. This is one of the hardiest of all Rhododendrons in this climate and no other species which can be successfully grown here has such large and handsome leaves. The flowers are handsome in their delicate colors but are a good deal hidden by the young branchlets which make their growth before the buds open. Rosa Jackii. This beautiful Rose was introduced into the Arboretum from Korea several years ago by Mr. J. G. Jack for whom it is named. It is one of the Multiflorae Roses and has long stems which lie flat on the ground, lustrous foliage and pure white flowers in wide manyflowered clusters. The flowers have the delicate fragrance of the Musk Rose. The hybridizer should be able to find in it a good subject from which to raise a race of hardy, late-flowering Rambler Roses, It is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection. Rosa setigera. This is the Prairie Rose from the central part of the continent where it is scattered from Michigan to Texas. It is a vigorous plant with tall arching stems, pale handsome leaves and broad clusters of pure pink flowers. No wild Rose is more beautiful, and the hybridizer with all his cunning has not produced a single Rose which can compare with this wild plant in grace of habit or in charm of flowers. There is a mass of these Roses just coming into bloom on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road in front of the Cherry Collection. Coluteas, known as Bladder Sennas, are useful summer flowering shrubs. Three species can now be seen in bloom in the Shrub Collection, C. arborescens, C. cilicica and C. orientalis. The first is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, and is a very old inhabitant of gardens, for it is said to have been cultivated in England for at least three centuries. It is a vigorous and hardy plant with erect muchbranched stems, deciduous pinnate leaves and axillary racemes of yellow pea-shaped flowers; these are produced on the branches of the year and continue to open as the branches grow and new leaves appear. The flowers are followed by inflated bladder-like pods which are more or less tinged with rose color and are very ornamental. Fully grown pods from the first flowers appear on the plants with the late flowers. This plant does not occur to be as well known in this country as it is in England where it is now often naturalized. Colutea cilicica is a native of Asia Minor, and very similar to C. arborescens, and as a garden plant is not superior to that species. C. orzentalzs is distinguished from the other species by its pale grayish foliage and by its sulphur-colored or orange-red flowers. It is a native of Asia Minor and has long been known in gardens. This shrub is worth a place in collections of summer-flowering plants. Cornus paucinervis. The plant of this Cornel in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill is covered with flower-buds which will open in a few days. It is a shrub five or six feet tall with erect stems, small, narrow, pointed leaves with only two or three pairs of prominent veins, small flat clusters of white flowers and black fruits. Although this Cornus was found by Wilson at low altitudes in the valley of the Yangtsze River, it has proved perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and is one of the most distinct and interesting plants introduced by him. Heather. It does not seem to be generally understood that the Heather of northern Europe (Calluna vulgaris) can be successfully grown in this country, although it is now many years since it was discovered that it had become naturalized in Nova Scotia and in Tewksbury and Townsend, Massachusetts. The ends of the branches are sometimes killed here in severe winters, but this is an advantage rather than an injury to the plants, for English gardeners to secure the best results cut back their plants severely after they have finished flowering. In this country the Heather should be planted in welldrained, sandy soil fully exposed to the sun; planted in the shade it usually suffers in cold winters as in the shade it continues to grow late in the autumn and the wood does not ripen properly. There are a number of handsome and interesting varieties in the Arboretum collection. Some of the best of these are the variety alba with white flowers; the variety alba minor, a white-flowered plant of dwarfer habit; var. rubra, a dwarf compact variety with crimson flowers, and one of the earliest to flower and one of the handsomest of the set; var. tomentosa, a compact plant with gray-green foliage and red flowers; var. alba Serlei, a tall growing form with white flowers; vars. alba tenella and alba rigida with white flowers, var. Alportii, a tall growing form with crimson flowers, and var. hypnoides, a very compact, small-leaved plant producing only sparingly its small purple flowers. These plants can be seen in the Shrub Collection, and quantities of Heather have been planted on the sides of the Meadow Road. Cytisus nigricans. No plant now in bloom in the Shrub Collection is more beautiful than this little shrub which is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, and as it grows here is a compact roundtopped bush from two to three feet high and broad. It differs from most of the other plants of this group in the fact that the flowers are borne in long racemes terminal on the branches. The pea-shaped flowers are bright yellow and are produced in the greatest profusion. This is one of the handsomest, and the hardiest here, of the yellowflowered shrubs of the Pea Family, which are such a feature of the flora of southern Europe and which are so much cultivated in the gardens of regions where the climate is less severe than that of New England. Ceanothus. Of this important North American genus, which is best represented in California, only two species of the eastern part of the eountry and one Rocky Mountain species, C. Fendleri, are hardy in the Arboretum where the beautiful Pacific Coast species cannot live. The two northeastern species, often called New Jersey Tea, C. americanus and C. ovatus, are shrubs two or three feet high and broad, with small white flowers in dense, oblong, terminal and axillary clusters produced on branches of the year. These two species vary chiefly in the shape of the leaves, but C. ovatus bloomed nearly a month ago, while C. americanus is just now covered with flowers. These plants are valuable for naturalizing on wood borders, and few shrubs make better returns in midsummer flowers than the New Jersey Tea which, however, appears to be rarely cultivated. A large number of hybrids between C. americanus and some of the California species have been raised in Europe and one of these hybrids, known as Gloire de Versailles, with its large clusters of deep blue flowers is a popular plant there. Unfortunately these hybrids, with a single exception, are not hardy in this climate. The exception is a beautiful plant with pale rosecolored flowers which came many years ago to the Arboretum from the Lemoine Nursery at Nancy, France. It has not been possible to find the name or trace the origin of this plant. It is now in bloom in the Shrub Collection and on the lower side of Azalea Path. Ginkgo biloba. This is the only representative of a Family of trees which in Tertiary times was widely distributed over the northern hemisphere. To the shape of its deciduous leaves which resemble those of a Maidenhair Fern, the Ginkgo owes its popular name, Maidenhair-tree. The fruit, which is of the size and shape of an olive, has a fleshy covering with a rancid and most disagreeable odor, but the kernel of the almond-like stone has a delicate flavor and is much esteemed by Chinese and Japanese. The Ginkgo was carried to Japan some twelve hundred years ago by Buddhist priests of China, and near some Japanese temples there are specimens fully one hundred feet high with stems six or seven feet in diameter. It reached Europe about the middle of the eighteenth century, and is supposed to have been first planted in this country in 1784 by Mr. William Hamilton in his famous garden in what is now West Philadelphia. It is now a common tree in this country. Bostonians of the last generation may remember Dr. Jacob Bigelow's poem on the removal of the Ginkgo tree from Mr. Gardiner Green's garden in Pemberton Square to Boston Common when this garden was given up in 1832 after Mr. Green's death. This tree is said to have been forty feet high with a trunk a foot in diameter when it was moved, and to have been \"of full size\" when Mr. Green bought the Pemberton Square property in 1798. This tree is still standing on the Beacon Street mall nearly opposite the foot of Joy Street. It has not grown well, however, for many years, and it is not a handsome or a large tree for its age, probably never having recovered from the effects of the moving in 1832. One of the remarkable things about the Ginkgo-tree is the fact that although it has been undoubtedly cultivated by the Chinese for many centuries, the region where it grows naturally and spontaneously has remained unknown, travelers having failed to find any trees growing in the forest or anywhere except in the neighborhood of temples or shrines where they had evidently been planted. A year ago, however, Mr. F. N. Meyer, the well-known botanical explorer for the Department of Agriculture, found the Ginkgo growing spontaneously in rich valleys over some ten square miles near Changhua Hsien, about seventy miles west of Hangchou, in the Chekiang province. There were many seedlings and the trees here were so common that they were cut for firewood, something which has never been seen before in China. It is by no means certain that this is the original home of the Ginkgo as these trees may all have descended from a planted tree. It is exceedingly interesting, whatever may be the history of these trees, to find that there is at least one place in China where the Ginkgo grows in the woods and reproduces itself spontaneously. Hangchou and Changhua Hsien are of easy access from Shanghai and it is remarkable that Mr. Meyer was the first botanist to visit this region. His visit was a fortunate one, for besides the Ginkgo he made one of the most interesting discoveries a botanist has ever made in China-a Chinese Hickory-tree which has been described at the Arboretum as Carya cathayensis. Until last year the Hickory was supposed to be exclusively eastern American, as the Sassafras, the Tulip-tree and the Kentucky Coffeetree, were supposed to be exclusively American, but these trees like the Hickory are now known to grow in China. This is an interesting time to visit the Arboretum. The foliage of trees and shrubs has never been finer, and the grass has never been greener at midsummer. Many plants, especially the Bush Honeysuckles and the Tartarian Maple (Acer tatarica), are covered with brilliant fruits, and the great north meadow will soon be loaded with a yellow sheet of Goldenrods as the white flowers of the Meadow Rue, never so abundant as they are just now, begin to fade. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 13","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23646","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0708527.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 13, 1916 Gordonia alatamaha. With the exception of the Witch Hazel, which in this latitude is a shrub rather than a tree, this Gordonia is the last tree of the year to flower in the Arboretum, and its pure white, cupshaped flowers, resembling a single Camellia flower, can now be seen on the plants on Azalea Path and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. This handsome little tree has an interesting history. It was discovered by John Bartram, the famous Pennsylvania traveler and botanist, in 1765 near Fort Barrington on the Altamaha River in Georgia. John Bartram's son William visited the locality in 1778 and collected seeds and roots of this tree, and Dr. Moses Marshall who visited the locality in 1790 was the last botanist who has seen it growing naturally. Many botanists have hunted for it in vain in the neighborhood of Fort Barrington but without success, and this tree has been preserved by the plants and seeds collected by William Bartram and their descendants. Many of these are growing in gardens near Philadelphia and there are large and very old specimens in the neglected arboreta of the Brothers Painter at Medina and of John Evans in Radnor Township, Delaware County. Good plants may be seen in Fairmount Park near the Horticultural Building and in a few private gardens near the czty. This Gordonia has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for many years where it flowers in sheltered positions every autumn. Late in the season the leaves turn orange and scarlet before falling. Summer and autumn fruits. The interesting and often brilliant fruits of many trees and shrubs can be found in the Arboretum every year from July to March, and although this is not a remarkably good season for fruits here some plants are producing unusually large and' brilliantly colored crops. Nowhere else are the fruits of trees and shrubs more attractive and more beautiful than in the northeastern United States, but the value of fruit-bearing plants for the decoration of summer and autumn gardens is hardly appreciated yet by American gardeners who are slow to realize that plants which are interesting for their flowers and fruits and increase in beauty from year to year make a setting for the gardens of eastern America which cannot be found in any other land. Such plants abound in the Arboretum and nowhere else can the fruits of trees and shrubs hardy in New England be seen and studied to such advantage. Crataegus Arnoldiana. This Thorn is a native of eastern Massachusetts and one of the first of the American species raised at the Arboretum where it was found growing wild on a wooded bank. It is a tree with a well developed trunk, erect and spreading branches which are furnished with many long stout thorns, the smaller branches being conspicuously zigzag. The flowers are large in ample clusters and open with the unfolding of the leaves which later grow to a good size, and are dark green in color. The fruit, however, is the handsomest thing about this tree; it is nearly globose, about an inch in diameter and bright red, and beginning to ripen from the middle to the end of August falls gradually the end of September or early in October. Of the Thorns in the Arboretum collection with early-ripening fruits C. Arnoldiana is the handsomest, and as a fruit tree it may well find a place in every American garden in which, an early autumn display is desired. Crataegus pinnatifida. This is a native of northeastern Asia and has long been an inhabitant of the Arboretum. It is a large shrub or small tree with large, deeply divided, dark green very lustrous leaves, large flowers, and bright scarlet fruit which ripens while the leaves are still green. This is one of the handsomest of all Thorns, and it is economically interesting because one of the large-fruited forms is cultivated in orchards as a fruit tree in the neighborhood of Peking and in other parts of northern China. There is a large specimen of this Thorn among the Maples near the parkway boundary of the Arboretum and others can be seen in the Crataegus Collection on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill and on the Bussey Hill Overlook. Viburnum cassinoides. There are only small crops of fruit on several of the American Viburnums this year but that of this inhabitant of northern swamps has never been larger or in better condition. As it grows naturally Viburnum cassinoides is a tall and usually unsymmetrical shrub, but in good soil it develops into a broad, round-topped compact bush. The leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous. The creamy white flowers are produced in large convex clusters, and the fruit when fully grown is at first nearly white, turning as it ripens bright pink and finally dark blue, berries of the three colors often appearing together in the same cluster. This Viburnum is a fastgrowing and perfectly hardy shrub, and there are few plants which combine so much beauty of foliage, flowers and fruits. It has been largely used in the Arboretum and good plants can be seen in many of the roadside plantations, especially by the road at the top of Peter's Hill. The Chinese Viburnums. As compared with most of the American and some of the Japanese species the new Viburnums from western China are of small value as flowering plants, but at least two of them, V. theiferum and V. hupehense, deserve a place in the garden for their handsome fruits. That of V. theiferum is found in broad, longatalked, drooping clusters and is oval and about half an inch long. Early in October this fruit is light orange color and very lustrous but later becomes scarlet. This Viburnum has grown rapidly in the Arboretum where it forms a broad shrub with rather spreading stems. The leaves are thick, long and narrow, dark dull green, conspicuously veined, and hang on long stalks; the flowers are small, and in small, eompact clusters. The leaves are used by the Chinese in the mountain regions of the west as a substitute for those of the Tea plant. As it grows here it proves to be the best of the numerous Viburnums introduced by Wilson. Viburnum hupehense is a vigorous shrub with erect stems, smaller and thinner leaves than those of V. theiferum, and globose scarlet fruits about one-third of an inch in diameter, in broad lax, many-fruited clusters. Of no particular beauty when in flower, just now this plant is one of the most attractive of the red-fruited Viburnums in the collection. These two plants can be seen in the general Viburnum Collection on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and to better advantage in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Malus Sieboldii, var. calocarpa. In the collection of Crabapples at the eastern base of Peter's Hill there is now no more beautiful plant than this large-flowered, large-fruited form of a common Japanese plant. As it grows in the Arboretum this Crabapple is a bush eight or ten feet tall and broad with dark green leaves which are oblong and slightly toothed on the fruiting branches and broad and deeply three-lobed on vigorous shoots. The flowers are rose-colored and white, and from an inch to nearly an inch and a quarter in diameter, and the large, bright red lustrous fruits are sometimes nearly an inch in diameter. This beautiful Crabapple was raised at the Arboretum from seeds sent here from Japan by Dr. W. Sturgis Bigelow and it is doubtful if it is known in many other gardens. In this climate Malus Sieboldii, var. calocarpa is a garden plant of the first class. Malus baccata, var. Jackii. This variety of the common Crabapple of eastern Siberia was raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected by Mr. J. G. Jack at Seoul in 1905 and has proved one of the handsomest and most interesting of the different forms of Malus baccata in the Arboretum where it is established in the Crabapple Collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. The trees, although small, are shapely in habit wlth clean stems and spreading branches. The leaves are thick, almost coriaceous, long-stalked, from four to six inches in length, very dark rather dull green above and pale below. The pure white flowers are nearly two inches in diameter, and the fruit, which is now nearly ripe, hangs gracefully on long red drooping stems. It is about half of an inch long, rather longer than broad, deep crimson and very lustrous. This is a valuable addition to the list of Crabapples which can be successfully cultivated in this climate. Unfortunately the new Crabapples which have been introduced in recent years from eastern Asia can only reach other gardens slowly for the plants in a large collection like that of the Arboretum hybridize so persistently that seedlings raised from seeds produced here are rarely like the seed parents, and the Arboretum Crabapples in their true form can only be obtained by grafting or budding. Chinese Cotoneasters. The handsomest shrub in the Arboretum during nearly the entire month of September was a form from western China of Cotoneaster racemiflora which has been called variety soongorica. It is a tall shrub with spreading and drooping stems, pale leaves, white flowers, and large bright red fruits which completely cover the branches. Some of the Chinese species have more conspicuous flowers and handsomer foliage, but none of them have yet equalled in the Arboretum this inhabitant of the dry arid river valleys of western Szech'uan in the size, brilliancy and abundance of their fruits. Cotoneaster divaricata. Of the large-growing Chinese species this is perhaps the handsomest at this time, for the small bright red fruits which are produced in great abundance make a handsome contrast with the small, dark green, shining leaves. The flowers of this shrub are small and bright rose color. The new Chinese Cotoneasters are best seen on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, and the collection will repay careful study as it contains some of the most valuable shrubs for American gardens of recent introduction. The Sassafras. There is now no more beautiful tree on the margins of New England woods and by New England roadsides than the Sassafras, as the leaves have turned or are turning orange or yellow more or less tinged with red. The autumn colors of several trees are more brilliant but none of them equal the Sassafras in the warmth and delicacy of their autumn dress. The Sassafras is a handsome tree at other seasons of the year. In winter it is conspicuous by its deeply furrowed, dark cinnamon-gray bark and slender light green branches; in early spring before the leaves appear it is covered with innumerable clusters of small bright yellow flowers which make it at that season a conspicuous and delightful object. The leaves are thick, dark green and lustrous above, paler below, and vary remarkably in shape as they are sometimes deeply three-lobed at the apex and sometimes entire without a trace of lobes. The fruit is a bright blue berry surrounded at the base by the much enlarged and thickened scarlet calyx of the flower and raised on a long bright red stalk. No other northern tree produces such brilliantly colored fruit. Unfortunately there is little time to enjoy it for the birds eagerly seek it as it ripens. The living wood of the Sassafras is not attacked by borers and the leaves are not destroyed and are rarely disfigured by insects. The thick spongy roots of the Sassafras produce suckers freely and these with a little care can be easily and safely transplanted. How many persons now plant the Sassafras and in what American nursery can it be found? It was, however, one of the first North American trees carried to Europe as it was established in England some time before the middle of the seventeenth century. The American tree was believed to be the only Sassafras until 1879 when another species, S. tzumu, was discovered in central China. This tree is now in the Arboretum but its ability to grow here has not yet been established."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 19","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23647","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0708928.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. 11 NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 19, 1916 Clematis dioscoreifolia. This Clematis, which first flowered in the Arboretum a year ago, can now be seen again in flower on the trellis on the eastern border of the Shrub Collection. In general appearance it resembles the Japanese and Chinese Clematis paniculata which is now one of the most popular climbing plants in the northern states. The leaves, however, are thicker and the flowers are larger with broader sepals, and are therefore even more showy than those of the Japanese plant. They are borne in long loose panicles and are exceedingly fragrant. The fact that this new Clematis does not begin to flower until after the flowers of Cle~natis panaculata have fallen, and that it remains in flower until after the middle of October, should make it a valuable garden plant. It is a native of the Island of Quelpaert off the southern coast of Corea where it was discovered by the French missionary Tacket in 1908. The Arboretum plant was raised from seeds sent here in 1911 by Monsieur M. L. de Vilmorin. That this Clematis has grown here so rapidly and is so hardy in exposed positions shows that it is a plant with an unusually strong constitution for a Clematis, for very few species or varieties flourish in the Arboretum where the conditions for the successful cultivation of these plants are extremely unfavorable. Rhus javanica. This is the oldest and correct name of a small Chinese tree usually cultivated as Rhus Osbechi or as R. semialata. This is not a rare tree in gardens, and attention is now called to it, for the autumn color of the leaves has been exceptionally beautiful this year in its deep tints of red and orange, and has made this little tree one of the beautiful objects in the Arboretum where it can be seen near the other species of Rhus on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road opposite the Euonymus Collection. Rhus javanica blooms at midsummer and the large terminal clusters of white flowers make it attractive at a season when few trees are in bloom. The bright yellow leaves of the Varnish or Lacquer-tree of China and Japan, Rhus verniciflua, in this group have also been conspicuous this year. In the nursery near the top of Peter's Hill there are larger and better specimens of this tree which is as poisonous as our native so-called Poison Ivy and should be admired from a distance. The autumn change of color in the leaves of the trees and shrubs of eastern Asia usually occurs three or four weeks later than it does in those of the allied eastern American species. These two species of Rhus are exceptions to this general statement, and other conspicuous exceptions are Acer ginnala and Evonymus alatus. The former is a small tree or treelike shrub with deeply divided leaves and small compact clusters of flowers which are exceptionally fragrant for Maple flowers. The leaves of no other plant in the Arboretum turn in the autumn more brilliant scarlet and for this reason, if for no other, this Maple deserves a place in northern gardens. It is among the first of all Maples to show the autumn change of color and the leaves have now nearly all fallen. Acer ginnala is common in eastern Siberia and was one of the first Asiatic plants introduced into the Arboretum; it has proved perfectly hardy in northern New England and as far northward as Ottawa, Ontario. Evonymus alatus, which is a native of Japan and northern and central China, is a vigorous great shrub which, when sufficient space is allowed it, grows as broad or broader than high with its lower branches resting on the ground. The corky wings on the small branches to which it owes its name are interesting, but the flowers and fruit are not conspicuous; the leaves are smaller than those of many of the species, and the real value of the plant is found in their autumn color which is deep rose and unlike that of any other plant in the Arboretum. The autumn change of color comes eariy and the leaves are already falling, but while it lasts it is so beautiful that this Burning Bush deserves a place in northern gardens. It appears to best advantage when planted by itself that the branches may have sufficient room in which to spread widely, for when crowded by other shrubs in mixed plantations it loses its beauty of habit. There is a large specimen in the Evonymus Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road, and there is another in the grass border on the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs. Crataegus arkansana. This Hawthorn is one of the Molles Group of species which all have large flowers which appear with or before the unfolding of the leaves, and large, sometimes edible red or rarely yellow fruit. The fruit of some of the species of this group, like C. mollis and C. Arnoldiana, ripens early and has already disappeared, but that of C. arkansana does not become fully ripe until November, so that in late October this is one of the handsomest species for the leaves are still fresh and green, and add to the brilliancy of the large and abundant fruits. The largest plant in the Arboretum is on the lefthand side of the South Street entrance outside the gate. There is another specimen in the old Hawthorn Collection on the bank by the parkway boundary, near the Forest Hills entrance to the Arboretum. Crataegus succulenta. This is one of the large and handsome Thorns of the thick-leaved section of the Tomentosae Group of these plants, distinguished from all the other groups by the longitudinal cavities in the inner face of the nutlets of the fruit. C. succulenta is a tree sometimes twenty feet high with a short trunk, stout, wide-spreading branches, and thick, dark green and very lustrous leaves. The flowers are only about two-thirds of an inch in diameter but they are arranged in broad, many-flowered, lax clusters and are produced on long slender stalks. The fruit is also comparatively small and not more than three-quarters of an inch in diameter, but it is borne in large clusters on elongated gracefully drooping stems; it is bright scarlet and very lustrous, and the fruit of no other Thorn is more brilliant. A specimen of this plant in the old Hawthorn Collection is now covered with fruit. The leaves, which are still green, will later turn orange and scarlet. Crataegus nitida. This is a tree which under favorable conditions sometimes grows thirty feet high and forms a tall straight trunk eighteen inches in diameter, stout, wide-spreading lower branches and ascending upper branches forming a rather open flat-topped head. The leaves are narrow, pointed, two or three inches long and half as wide, dark green and shining above, paler below, and late in the autumn turn rich orange color through shades of bronze and orange-red. The flowers are rather less than an inch in diameter, and are arranged in broad many-flowered clusters thickly placed along the upper side of the branches. They are followed by oblong fruits about half an inch long and are borne on slender, much elongated stems. The fruit is red, covered with a glaucous bloom, and is now fully grown and colored, although it will not become ripe for two or three weeks. This Thorn is a native of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River near East St. Louis, Illinois, and was first raised in the Arboretum thirty-six years ago. It is one of the handsomest of the whole genus, and if a selection of six species as ornamental plants was to be made it would in the opinion of many persons be one of the six. There are several large specimens in the old Thorn Collection. Crataegus pruinosa. The tree of this species in the old collection is fruiting well again this year and is a good representative of one of the northern group called Pruinosae which contains some beautiful species. Crataegus pruinosa is a tree sometimes from fifteen to twenty feet tall with a small trunk and spreading branches forming a broad rather open head, or it often grows as a tall shrub with numerous intricately branched stems. The leaves are broad, thick, dark blue-green, and often covered with a pale bloom, and are now beginning to turn a dark orange color more or less passing into red. The flowers, which open here toward the end of May, are exceptionally handsome for they are about an inch wide and are conspicuous from the large, deep rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens. The large globose fruit is applegreen, thickly covered with a glaucous bloom until after it is fully grown, becoming about the first of November when it ripens dark pur60 ple-red and very lustrous. This is one of the widely distributed species as it is found from southwestern Vermont to Illinois and Missouri, and southward in the Appalachian region to the foothills of the southern mountains. Like many of the American Thorns, it delights in soil strongly impregnated with lime. Crataegus aprica. The specimen of this species in the old collection is also covered with ripening fruit. It is a small tree with small yellow- green leaves, large flowers in compact from three to six-flowered clusters, and dull' orange-red sub-globose fruit about half an inch in diameter, borne on stout, nearly erect stems. As a garden plant this tree is chiefly interesting as being one of the hardiest of a group of species entirely confined to the southeastern states known as Flavae. C. aprica is a native of dry valleys in the foothills of the southern Appalachian Mountains where it is widely distributed from southwestern Virginia southward at elevations between fifteen hundred and thirtyfive hundred feet above the sea level. Dwarf species of Crataegus. Several of the little Hawthorns belonging to the Intricatae group are now covered with handsome fruit. These shrubs which are natives of the northern states, have been almost entirely neglected by gardeners. They all have large and showy flowers which on most of the species do not open until the leaves are fully grown, and many of them have large and bright colored fruits. Many of these shrubs are only two or three feet high when fully grown, and several of them are well suited for small gardens or for planting in front of groups of the larger species. The plants of this group are arranged on the lower side of the drive at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Evonymns Bungeana, which has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for thirty years, deserves more general cultivation than it has yet received in this country. It is a tree or treelike shrub with slender rather pendulous branches and narrow, pointed, yellow-green leaves which are now turning yellow or yellow and red. The great beauty of this plant is in the rose-colored fruit which is produced in large clusters near the ends of the branches on which it remains for several weeks after the leaves have fallen. This is one of the handsomest of the Asiatic species in the late autumn and a plant which should be better known. Magnolia glauca. This, the Sweet Bay of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions from Massachusetts to Texas, is still covered with its bright green shining leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface and which will not become discolored or fall before December. Attention has often been called in these Bulletins to the value of this tree as an ornament to New England gardens. Few deciduous-leaved trees are more beautiful or have more persistent foliage. The cupshaped, creamy white flowers continue to open during many weeks in early summer and fill the air with their fragrance; and the fruit, like that of all the Magnolias, is interesting and handsome when the scarlet seeds hang from the branches on long slender threads."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 26","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23648","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070896a.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 26, 1916 Prostrate Junipers. This general name is given to a number of lowgrowing Junipers with wide-spreading branches lying close to the ground and forming broad mats. For covering banks, the margins of ponds or beds of larger conifers they are useful and are much used in some parts of the country, although there is still a great deal of confusion in commercial nurseries about the identity and correct names of these Junipers. The prostrate Red Cedar. This is perhaps the handsomest of all these plants. On exposed parts of the wind-swept cliffs near Ogunquit and at Kennebunkport, Maine, this Juniper grows only about two feet high, with branches extending over a diameter of eighteen or twenty feet, their ends lying flat on the ground. At Kennebunkport, in a position not fully exposed to the wind, one of these plants has formed a short stem about two feet high from the summit of which start branches spreading horizontally and forming a broad head. Whether the dwarf habit of these Junipers is due to the exposed position where they grow or not cannot be determined until plants are raised from seeds produced by them, for it is possible such seedlings may assume the ordinary upright habit of this tree. The fact that such prostrate plants sometimes occur at a distance from the coast, as in Lexington, Massachusetts, indicates perhaps that the prostrate form has becoms fixed, as it is in the case of prostrate forms of some other Junipers. Dwarf forms of Juniperus virginiana are described in German books on trees under the name of Juniperus virginiana repens or J. virginiana horizontalis, but the Arboretum has no information about these plants and it is impossible to determine if they are similar to the prostrate plants of the Maine coast which possibly are still without a name. In this country the prostrate Juniperus virginiana is not known in cultivation, and in this Arboretum there are only a few small grafted plants of the tall-stemmed specimen at Kennebunkport. This Juniper well deserves the attention of the lovers of hardy conifers. Juniperus communis, var. depressa. This is a dwarf form of the common Juniper and forms broad masses of stems ascending from a prostrate base and covered with linear, sharp-pointed, dark blue-green leaves marked on the upper surface by broad white bands. This dwarf Juniper is very common in the northeastern states on dry gravelly hills and in old pastures, sometimes almost entirely occupying the ground to the exclusion of other plants. In nurseries this plant is sometimes called Juniperus canadensis or J. nana canadensis. The erect-growing form, which is more common in Europe than in the United States, very rarely occurs in New England and sometimes grows on the lower slopes of the Appalachian Mountains as far south as North Carolina. On the hills in the neighborhood of the Delaware Water Gap in Pennsylvania this upright form seems more abundant than in other parts of the country and to be the prevailing Juniper. Erect forms of J. communis, known in gardens as the Swedish or Irish Junipers, are often planted in the middle states but are not very satisfactory in Massachusetts. There is a form of the variety depressa ' (var. aurea) with yellow-tipped branches which has been a popular garden plant in the United States for several years. The variety montana is the dwarfest of the prostrate forms of J. communis, rarely growing more than two feet high and forming dense mats of prostrate stems. From variety depressa it may also be distinguished by its shorter and broader incurved leaves. This little plant grows on the Atlantic coast from Maine to Newfoundland, on the Rocky Mountains, in Alaska, and through northern Asia and Europe. It is sometimes called Juniperus nana, J. alpina and J. sibirica. On the high mountains of Japan there is a form of J. communis (var. nipponica) with wide-spreading and ascending or often prostrate stems which is similar to the variety montana. Nothing is known of the value of this Japanese variety in gardens here as it does not appear to have been introduced until Wilson sent seeds to the Arboretum two years ago from which only a single plant has yet appeared. Juniperus horizontalis. This is one of the handsomest of the prostrate Junipers and an excellent garden plant. It has procumbent and prostrate stems which often develop roots and sometimes extend over broad areas. The leaves are scale-like, acute, blue-green or steel-blue, and the fruits are bright blue and ripen at the end of the second season. This is a widely distributed plant from the coast of Maine to British Columbia, ranging south to Massachusetts, western New York, Illinois and Montana. It grows on sea cliffs, gravelly slopes, or in western New York in deep, often inundated swamps. For many years, until it was found to be distinct from the European Juniper, this plant was known as Juniperus Sabina var. procumbens. It has also been called J. prostrata and J. repens. There is a form of this Juniper (var. Douglasii) with steel blue foliage, turning purple in the autumn, which grows on the sand dunes of Lake Michigan and is known in gardens as the Waukegan Prostrate Juniper. There are large beds of J. horizontalis in the general Juniper Collection. Juniperus procumbens. This is the best known of the prostrate Junipers which Japan has sent to the gardens of the west. It is a plant with wide-spreading procumbent stems, blue-green, sharply pointed leaves marked on the upper surface by two white lines. The fruit is not known. This Juniper finds a place in nearly every Japanese garden, but it must be a rare and probably local plant in its distribution as a wild plant was not seen by Wilson during his extended travels in Japan. It is said to have been introduced into Great Britain before the middle of the last century but was soon lost from European gardens until it was reintroduced in 1893. This Juniper is largely used as a garden plant in California where it is imported from Japan, and less commonly in the eastern states. It is perfectly hardy and well established in the Arboretum, and can be seen with the other Junipers. This Japanese Juniper is closely related to the prostrate Juniper of western China and the Himalaya J. squamata, a plant with awl-shaped, sharply pointed leaves in clusters of three, and dark purple-black berries. Plants from western China can be seen in the Arboretum. Juniperus chinensis, var. Sargentii. This dwarf form of a wild tree of China and Japan appears to have been first collected by Professor Sargent near Mororan in southern Hokkaido in the autumn of 1892, and the plants raised from the seeds which he collected at that time are probably the only ones in cultivation. This Juniper forms a low dense mat of wide-spreading branches covered with small, dark green, scale-like leaves, mixed with pointed ones. It finds its most southern home on the high mountains of northern Hondo; it is more abundant in Hokkaido where it sometimes descends to the sea-level and ranges northward to Saghalin and the more southern Kurile Islands. In the Arboretum it is now the handsomest of the prostrate Junipers. It can be seen here to advantage on the Hemlock Hill Road opposite the Laurels where several plants form a large mass and show considerable seminal variation. There are also three large plants on the eastern slope of the knoll on which the general Juniper Collection is planted. Juniperus conferta, which has been called J. litoralis, is also a Japanese species ranging northward from the southern island of Tanegashima to Saghalin and to the shores of the Sea of Okhotsk. The sand dunes of Hakodate Bay in southern Hokkaido are covered with the long prostrate stems of this plant which root freely as they grow and extend over broad areas. The leaves are thickly crowded, straight, sharp-pointed, concave, pale above and dark below. The fruit is three-seeded and ripens at the end of the second year. Although this Juniper has been known to botanists for more than fifty years it has never been cultivated until Wilson sent seeds from Japan to the Arboretum two years ago. From this seed a number of plants have been raised; they are doing well and there is reason to hope that this plant will soon be better known in eastern gardens. In northern Japan it grows on the sandy seashore with Rosa rugosa, which is such a good plant in the most exposed places on the New England coast, and it seems reason64 able to expect that this Juniper may prove the most valuable plant which has yet been tried to hold the drifting sands of our eastern coast. Juniperus Sabina. The dwarfest of all the prostrate Junipers in the Arboretum collection is a form of this European species with branchlets ascending only a few inches from prostrate stems and covered with dark blue-green scale-like leaves. The right name for this little plant is probably var. cupressifolia ; another name is var. nana. A better known variety of Juniperus Sabina is the var. tamariscifolia from the mountains of central and southern Europe. This is a dwarf plant with procumbent or rarely ascending branches and needle-shaped, slightly incurved, dark green leaves marked on the upper surface with a white line. Autumn colors in the Arboretum have been at their best this week, although the leaves of many plants have already fallen and those of many others, especially of the trees and shrubs of eastern Asia, are still as green as they were at midsummer. Some of the most brilliant plants during the week have been individuals of the White Oak (Quercus alba), the leaves of other individuals being still entirely green; the Tupelo or Sour Gum (Nyssa sylvatica), of which there are a number of plants by the pond near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads; the American Smoke-tree (Cotinus americanus); the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis or as it has been often called, R. a~omatica), which has been largely used as a border plant along the drives; many species of Crataegus on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill; the curious Japanese Apple (Malus Tschonoskii); the Tulip-tree (Liriodendron Tulipifera) which is always splendid in its golden autumn dress; the Black Haw of the southern woods with its dark red leaves and fruit just turning from white to dark blue; the Sweet Gum (Liquidambar Styraciflua), with its star-shaped leaves turning scarlet and yellow. In early spring the Arboretum owes much to the flowers of one of the native species of Juneberry (Amelanchier oblongifolia) which has been largely planted along the drives where there are now many large specimens. During the past week these plants have been as beautiful and conspicuous as they were in May, for the leaves have turned the color of old gold and have retained this color for several days. All the American species of Amelanchier are beautiful spring-flowering plants, and although they do not remain many days in flower no other shrubs can be more safely used to enliven wood and swamp borders in the northern states. The bright scarlet of the leaves of the Highbush Blueberry (Vaccinium corymbosum) is not now surpassed in brilliancy by that of any other plant in the Arboretum. Attention has often been called in these Bulletins to the value of this native shrub for garden decoration. Fortunately it was early planted in large numbers in the Arboretum shrubbery and many of the plants have now grown to a good size and show their value. As an ornamental plant this Blueberry has everything to recommend it. The habit is excellent; it blooms freely and the flowers are handsome; they are followed by large dark blue fruits of the best quality, and if for no other reason it deserves a place in any garden for the late and splendid colors of its dying leaves. A number of plants at the entrance of Azalea Path opposite the Bussey Hill Overlook show the different shades of color the leaves assume at the end of October."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 3","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23645","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad0708126.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 3, 1916 Evonymus yedoensis. The fruit of few other plants in the Arboretum is now more beautiful than that of this Evonymus. It is a large, vigorous, hardy, tree-like shrub or small tree with a short trunk and wide-spreading branches which form a symmetrical round-topped head. The leaves are unusually large for a plant of this genus and, having turned yellow, have now nearly all disappeared, leaving in full sight , the fruit which covers the branches from end to end. It is rose color, about half of an inch in diameter, that is unusually large for that of an Evonymus, and as it opens shows the bright scarlet shining seeds. This was one of the plants sent direct to the United States from Japan between I860 and 1870, and has been growing in the Arboretum for fully thirty years. It is still, however, little known and rare in American and European gardens. There are several specimens, large and small, in the Evonymus Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road which is better worth a visit late in the autumn than at any other time of the year. Evonymus europaeus. This, the Burning Bush as the English call it, is a widely distributed and variable European shrub or small tree. The fact that the leaves usually remain green or nearly green on the branches until after the fruit has colored and opened adds to its beauty. The fruit is about two-thirds the size of that of E. yedoensis and deep dull red with lustrous bright orange-colored seeds. There are several forms of this small tree in the collection. One of the handsomest of these has been raised here from seeds sent to the Arboretum from Hungary. On this form the leaves are now dark purple on the upper side and green below. With this are plants of the variety ovatus with leaves as fresh and green as they were at midsummer. Evonymus radicans var. vegetus. Visitors to the Evonymus Collection should look also at the plants of this broad-leaved evergreen from the forests of Hokkaido. Although it is capable of climbing high up the trunks of trees and the sides of buildings it has been grown in the collection as a broad, low, rour.d-topped shrub. Of all the forms of E. radicans it is the hardiest and the best for this climate; none of the others bloom here so freely or produce such abundant crops of fruit. This is white, slightly tinged with yellow and the seeds, which can now be seen, are bright orange color. Platanus orientalis. This name now appears in many American nursery catalogues, and a tree under this name has been largely planted in recent years in the middle and less commonly in the New England States. This tree, however, is not Platanus oyientalis, which has leaves deeply divided into long pointed lobes, and is a native of southeastern Europe and of western and southern Asia Minor. Under favorable conditions it grows to an enormous size and attains a great age. Very large specimens can be seen in Greece, in the neighborhood of Constantinople, in Dalmatia, and in other countries of southern Europe. There are a few old trees in Great Britain, some of which are believed to be more than two centuries old. In the Arboretum Platanus orientalis is only a small bush, the branches being killed to the ground nearly every winter, and we have no information of the occurrence of any other specimen in the eastern United States. This noble tree will probably be hardy and grow to a large size in some parts of California. The tree which is grown as Platanus orientalis in the eastern United States is Platanus acerifolia, which is easily distinguished from the Oriental Plane by the much less divided leaves which in shape are very similar to those of the native Plane tree. It is this tree which has been so generally planted in London that it is often called the London Plane. The origin of this tree is unknown. Some students believe it is a hybrid between the Oriental Plane and the Plane-tree of the eastern United States; others that it is a species from the mountains of Asia Minor, Afghanistan or northern Persia. No tree, however, like P. acerifolia is now known to grow wild in any part of that region, and those who support its hybrid origin point out the fact that the leaves resemble those of the American species and that the fruit is usually furnished with the terminal prickle which is found on that of Platanus orientalis, Whatever its origin Platanus acerifolia is a noble tree, and the Planes in the streets and squares of London, in spite of the difficulties of London conditions for trees, are probably the finest trees to be found in any city. Thistree has been cultivated in the United States for more than a century and has proved an excellent tree for street planting in the middle Atlantic states; it is a comparatively new tree to New England where it is generally satisfactory, although it sometimes suffers from severe cold. It is desirable that the name, Platanus orientalis should disappear from American nursery catalogues. The Japanese Yew. The value of this plant for the northern states has been pointed out before in these Bulletins, and as the years pass its hardiness and value are confirmed by longer trial. There are three or four quite distinct forms of this planc. The one probably most often seen here grows as a large, vase-shaped shrub with several spreading stems. Plants of this sort have been raised in the Arboretum from the seeds of tall forest trees collected by Professor Sargent in Hokkaido. Among these plants there are some which are beginning to develop a single leader and promise to grow into trees. There is another form which is grown in some American nurseries under the unpublished name of variety capztata. This is merely a seminal form which begins to grow with a single leader with treelike habit as soon as the seeds germinate. For those who want the Japanese Yew in the form of a tree rather than a bush this form will best produce the desired results. Another bushy form with wide-spreading, nearly horizontal branches, which on plants thirty or forty years old often turn up at the ends and darker green leaves, is often seen in American gardens in which specimens only four or five feet high but sometimes twenty feet in diameter are found- In this country this variety is generally called variety brevifol2a, but the correct name for it is var. nana. A dwarf, round-topped plant (var. compacta) is the smallest and most compact of all the forms of the Japanese Yew in this country. A good plant of this dwarf form can be seen in the Arboretum collection where it has been growing for many years. Plants intermediate between the varieties cornpacta and nana, differing in size and habit, are sometimes found in American gardens. What is probably the largest Japanese Yew in the United States is one of the bushy vase-shaped plants which was planted about 1870 by Dr. George R. Hall in his garden in Warren on Bristol Neck, Rhode Island. In October, 1889, this plant was twelve feet high and covered a space on the ground of forty feet round. In October, 1916, twenty-seven years later, it is twenty-two feet tall and covers a space one hundred and thirtytwo feet round. In 1887 there were only a few fruits on this Yew, but this year it is bearing such a great crop that the berries make the whole plant look red. The foliage unfortunately is not dense, and the plant is evidently failing, probably from insufficient nourishment. The Japanese Yew is now reported to be perfectly hardy in central New Hampshire and in Minneapolis, Minnesota, parts of the country where the winter cold is much greater than it is in eastern Massachusetts, and there is no reason to doubt the statement which has been made that this Yew is the most valuable plant which Japan has furnished our north Atlantic states. Sorbus commixta. This Japanese Mountain Ash was the first of the species from eastern Asia cultivated in the Arboretum where it was first planted in 1888. It is a common plant in Japan, and as it grows here it is a narrow tree with a tall clear stem, leaves composed of narrow leaflets, flower-clusters of moderate size and bright red fruits. It is chiefly interesting on account of the beautiful orange and red colors of the leaves which turn later and more brilliantly than those of the other Mountain Ashes in the collection. This tree is growing with other species of Sorbus on the right-hand side of the path leading into the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills Gate. Berberis diaphana. In the early days of November no Barberry in the Arboretum equals this Chinese species in the brilliancy of its scarlet leaves. It is a low, broad, compact, round-topped shrub with small leaves which appear very late in the spring, usually solitary but large, pale yellow flowers and large oblong red fruits. The beauty, however, of this plant is chiefly found in its habit and in the color of the leaves in late autumn. There is a plant of this Barberry in the Shrub Collection and others in the supplementary Barberry Collection on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Crataegus Boyntonii. This small tree, which is a native of the Appalachian foothills from southwestern Virginia to Alabama, and one of the largest of the Intricatae Group, is well worth a place in collections of these plants for the brilliant orange and red colors of the leaves at this time. It has large flowers in few-flowered clusters, yellow anthers and nearly globose yellow-green fruit flushed with red which is still to be found on the plant in the Arboretum where it can be seen among the other Intricatae on the lower side of the road at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Crataegus Buckleyi. This is another arborescent species of the Intricatae, which inhabits mountain slopes from two thousand to three thousand feet elevation from southwestern Virginia through western North Carolina to eastern Tennessee. It has flowers in more compact clusters than those of C. Boyntonii, rose-colored anthers, and sub-globose, red or russet-red fruit. The leaves of this little tree turn as brilliantly as those of the last named species near which it is growing. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 10","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23644","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad070bb25.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. II NO. 18 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 10, 1916 The Pinetum. After two seasons of abundant rain the conifers are in good condition this autumn, and the Pinetum is now perhaps the most interesting part of the Arboretum to visit. At one time or another every conifer which had any chance of surviving has been tried in the Arboretum, and some useful information on the value of the different exotic and American species, with the exception of the new introduction? from China, as ornan,ental trees in this climate has been obtained from the Arboretum experiments. Considering how generally unfavorable the New England climate is for trees of this class, the large number that succeed here is surprising, although it must be remembered that in this climate many conifers, especially Spruces and Firs, are often at their best when not more than forty or fifty years old and that as they grow older they gradually fail and lose their value as ornamental trees. This is true of the so-called Colorado Blue Spruce (Picea pungens), which is still one of the most popular conifers in the northern United States, where it is propagated and planted in immense numbers, in spite of the fact that it early loses its value as an ornamental tree. The Blue Spruce is very hardy, is easily raised and grows rapidly; young plants are of good shape and dense habit with their lower branches resting on the ground. There are two forms, one with dull green and the other with blue leaves, and the latter especially appeals to persons who are fond of unusual looking and sensational plants. For the nurseryman the Blue Spruce has everything to recommend it, easy germination of the seed, quick growth and unusual beauty in the young plants, and therefore a certainty of a quick sale. For the planter looking for something more impor70 tant than a plant for a city garden or a small suburban yard this tree has proved a failure. It is not surprising for Picea pungens, growing in small groves near streams in the valleys of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado, long befoae it attains its full size is a thin, scrawny, miserable looking tree with a few short branches only near the top of the stem. This tree was discovered in 1862; seed was planted the following year in the Harvard Botanic Garden, and one of the plants raised at that time is still alive in the Arboretum on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where it is kept as a warning for planters who are deceived by the beauty of young plants of the Blue Spruce. Picea Engelmannii. This tree as it grows nearly up to the timber line of the central Rocky Mountains, where it once formed great forests, is one of the handsomest of the Spruces with its narrow spirelike crown, soft gray-green foliage and tall trunk covered with bright red scaly bark. It was also discovered in 1862 and what are probably the largest specimens in cultivation are in the Arboretum Pinetum. Until two or three years ago these were narrow, perfect pyramids with the lower branches resting on the ground; then the lower branches began to die gradually without apparent cause. This has continued, and the stems of some of the trees are now bare of branches for six or eight feet from the ground, and their beauty as specimen trees is ruined. Picea canadensis. This, the White Spruce of British North America, is a very hardy, fast-growing tree here, and is one of the handsomest of the Spruces which can be grown in this region; but the climate of eastern Massachusetts is evidently too warm for it and after it is thirty or forty years old it becomes thin and unsightly. Picea rubra. This is the Appalachian timber Spruce and retains here its beauty longer than the White Spruce, for it is a native of Massachusetts and ranges southward along the mountains to the high Carolina peaks. It is a handsome tree with dark green leaves, but it probably grows more slowly than any other large coniferous tree, and it is not easy to establish. For these reasons it will probably never be a favorite tree with nurservmen. Picea omorika and P. orientalis. These are hand: ome and hardy trees, the former a native of the Balkan peninsula, and the latter of the Caucasus. No weakness has yet been found here in these trees except that they too often lose their leaders from the attacks of the borer which so often destroys the leaders of the White Pine. Picea Glehnii. What the future may have in store for this tree here, which is a native of northern Japan and Saghalien, no one can predict as it has been in cultivation in the Arboretum for only twenty-two years. The trees now grow rapidly, are perfectly hardy and show no signs of failure of any sort. The best specimens here are now about eighteen feet high. Picea jezoensis. This is the most widely distributed of the species of eastern Asia; ranging as it does from the Amoor region to Manchuria, Korea, and to northern and central Japan. This is the only Spruce in all that region with flat leaves like those of P. omorika and P. sitchensis of our northwest coast. It has been sometimes called Picea ajanensis, P. microsperma and P. hondoensis. In Great Britain, where it is usually incorrectly called Picea Alcockiana, it grows remarkably well and has been recommended as a timber tree for forest planting. In a collection of exotic trees made in 1870 by Dr. George R. Hall in Warren, Rhode Island, there is a specimen of this tree from sixty to seventy feet high with a trunk forty-six and a half inches in diameter and branches spreading on the ground. In this Arboretum and in the Hunnewell Pinetum at Wellesley this tree has grown badly, losing many of its branches and soon becomipg unsightly. Picea bicolor. This is one of the rarest of the Japanese conifers, and as it grows in the Hunnewell Pinetum it is now the handsomest of all the Spruce trees which can be grown in this climate. Mr. Hunnewell's trees are now about forty feet high with the lower branches resting on the ground and covering a space from thirty-five to forty feet across and with perfectly straight stems. This beautiful tree is probably better known by its incorrect name of Picea Alcockiana. It is one of the rarest of the Japanese conifers in cultivation and it is to be regretted there are no good specimens now in this Arboretum. Picea Abies. This unfortunately is the correct name for the so-called Norway Spruce of Europe which has generally been known as Picea excelsa. Fifty or sixty years ago this tree was very generally planted in southern New England where it has not proved a success as an ornamental tree as it begins to fail at the top when about thirty years old and then soon becomes rag~,~ed and unsightly. In some parts of Virginia and in the Middle States this is a better tree than it is in Massachusetts. In the National Cemetery at Gettysburg in Pennsylvania there are magnificent specimens of the Norway Spruce in as perfect health and beauty as can be found anywhere. Firs. The number of Fir trees that can be successfully grown in this climate for many years is not large. One of the handsomest here is the White Fir of western North America, Abies concolor. There are fine specimens of this beautiful tree in the Arboretum raised here from seed planted in 1874 and now about sixty feet high, with the lower branches resting on the ground, and solid masses of gray-green foliage. As handsome and as promising in this climate is the Japanese Abies homolepis, or, as it has been more often called, Abies brachyphylla. This is a large tree on the mountains of central Japan with dark green leaves silvery white on the lower surface and violet-purple cones. It has proved perfectly hardy in this climate. The largest specimen in the Hunnewell Pinetum is now fifty-five feet high with branches sweeping the ground The Arboretum trees are smaller but already produce their handsome cones. A variety of this tree, (var. umbellata) with green cones and rather lighter-colored leaves is established in the Arboretnm where it has grown rapidly, the largest specimen raised from seeds planted in 1891 being thirty-five feet high. Abies cilicica from Asia Minor and A. cephalonica from southeastern Europe are hardy trees in the Arboretum and now promise to grow here to a large size. Abies Veitchii from Japan is still a handsome tree in the Arboretum but it is doubtful if it carries its beauty to old age. A. amabilis and A. grandis from northeastern North America are handsome young trees here, and A. nobalis from the same region just keeps alive here as a nearly prostrate shrub, although in Methuen, in the extreme northern part of this state, there are handsome and healthy specimens of this Fir nearly thirty feet high. Pines. Among exotic Pines the three Japanese species, Pinus parviflora, P. Thunbergii and P. rlensiflora., have all grown well here in this climate for nearly thirty years and are still handsome and attractive trees of much promise. The Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) and the Austrian Pine (P. nigra) are perfectly hardy and grow rapidly in this climate, but they are comparatively short-lived trees here and do not promise to be so valuable as the Japanese species. The White Pine of the Balkan peninsula (Pinus peuce) is very hardy here, producing its cones freely, and now promises to be a large and valuable tree. The Swiss Pine (P. cembra) is hardy but grows very slowly but it is possible that the form of this tree from central Siberia may prove more successful in this climate. The Asiatic representative of this Pine, Pinus koraiensis, from eastern Siberia, Korea and Japan, grows well here and produces its cones freely. Of the Pines of western America Pinus flexilis of the Rocky Mountain region grows slowly in the Arboretum but is healthy and perfectly hardy, as are the two White Pines, P. Lambertiana, the great Sugar Pine of California and Oregon, and P. monticola which ranges from Idaho to the coast of British Columbia and to the high Sierras of California. Callicarpa japonica. Attention is again called to the group of these shrubs which are on the left-hand side of Azalea Path close to its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road. The leaves have fallen from the branches which are now covered with small violet-colored fruits which are produced in compact axillary clusters. The small pale pink flowers, which do not appear until after midsummer, are not conspicuous and the real beauty of this shrub is in the late and abundant fruit of a color that is not found on any other tree or shrub hardy in this climate. The largest and best plants in the group have been raised in the Arboretum from seeds sent here from Korea. There are three Chinese species of this genus in the collection, but it is too soon to speak with confidence of their value as garden plants. Cornus sanguinea. This is now one of the conspicuous shrubs in the Arboretum, for the leaves are now the color of old Spanish leather which they will retain for some time longer and until they fall. This Cornel is a native of Siberia, and here in New England often grows ten or twelve feet high and forms a mass of stems which are often broader than the plant is high. The flowers are white in small compact clusters, and these are followed by nearly black fruit. The value, however, of this plant is found in its vigor and excellent habit, and in the color of the foliage in November. A large specimen can be seen in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until next spring."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":73,"end_page":79,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23630","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060af6d.jpg","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonymns are in italics. Abies amabilis, 72 brachyphylla, 71 cephalonica, 71 cilicica, 71 concolor, 71 homolepis, 71 var. umbellata, 71 nobilis, 72 Veitchii, 72 Acer ginnala, 58 saccharinum, 1 tataricum, 52 Aesculus Briotii, 24 californica, 23 carnea, 24 discolor, 23, 39 var. flavescens, 23 var. mollis, 23 georgiana, 24, 39 glabra, 13 var. Buckleyi, 13 var. leucodermis, 13 Harbisonii, 39 octandra, 23 parviflora, 39 Amelanchier canadensis, 8 laevis, 8 oblongifolia, 8, 64 Amelanchiers, 8 American Azaleas, 28 American Magnolias, 24 American Smoke-tree, 64 American Viburnums, 33 Andromeda floribunda, 4 Apple, Weeping, Elisa Rathke, 48 Arboretum in early summer, 25 Ash, Weeping, 47 Asiatic Crabapples, 11 Asimina triloba, 28 Austrian Pine, 72 Autumn colors in the Arboretum, 64 Azaleas, American, 28 Ghent, 28 Beech, Weeping, 46 Beeches, 46 Benzoin aestivale, 4 Berberis diaphana, 68 japonica, 15 (Mahonia) Aquifolium, 15 repens, 15 verruculosa, 23 Betula alba laciniata gracilis pendula, 47 alba, var. pendula l~ciniata, 47 elegans laciniata, 47 pendula, 47 var. dalecarlica, 47 var. gracilis, 47 var. Youngii, 47 Birches, Weeping, 47 Black Haw, 64 Bladder Sennas, 50 Blueberry, Highbush, 64 Blue Spruce, 69 Blue Spruce, Colorado, 69 Burning Bush, 65 Bush Honeysuckles, 20 Callicarpa japonica, 72 Calluna vulgaris, 50 var. alba, 50 var. alba minor, 51 var. alba rigida, 51 var. alba Serlei, 51 var. alba tenella, 51 var. Alportii, 51 var. hypnoides, 51 var. rubra, 51 var. tomentosa, 51 Canadian Plum, 9 Caragana IVIaximowicziana, 30 Carpinus Betulus var. pendula Dervaesii, 48 var. pendula, 48 Carya cathayensis, 52 - Ceanothus, 51 Ceanothus americanus, 51 Fendleri, 51 Gloire de Versailles, 61 ovatus, 51 Cercidiphyllum japonicum, 3 Cercis canadensis, 17 chinensis, 17 racemosa, 17 reniformis, 17 siliquastrum, 18 Cherry, Cornelian, 2 Cherry, Sargent, 7 Cherries, Japanese, 5 Weeping, 47 Chinese Cotoneaster, 21, 56 Chinese Pearl-bush, 18 Chinese Poplars, 14 Chinese Viburnums, 55 Chionanthus virginica, 9 Clematis dioscoreifolia, 57 paniculata, 57 Colorado Blue Spruce, 69 Colutea arboreseens, 50 cilicica, 50 orientalis, 50 Coluteas, 50 Cornelian Cherry, 2 Cornus florida, var. pendula, 48 mas,2 paucinervis, 50 racemosa, 39 sanguinea, 72 Corylopsis, 3 spicata, 3 Veitchiana,4 Willmottiae, 4 Cotinus, 35 americanus, 35, 64 coggygria, 35 Cotoneaster adpressa, 23 divaricata, 22, 56 foveolata, 22 horizontalis, 22 var. perpusilla, 22 hupehensis, 22 multiflora var. calocarpa, 22 nitans, 22 racemiflora var. soongorica, 22, 56 Cotoneasters, 21 Chinese, 21, 56 Crabapples, Asiatic, 11 Crabs, Siberian, 12 Cranberry-tree, 26 Crataegus, dwarf species, 60 aprica, 60 Crataegus arkansana, 16, 58 Arnoldiana, 16, 54, 58 Boyntonii, 67 Buckleyi, 67 intricata, 32 mollis, 16, 58 monogyna var. pendula variegata, 48 var. pendula, 48 nitida, 59 pinnatifida, 54 pruinosa, 59 Smithii, 32 submollis, 16 succulenta, 59 triflora, 32 uniflora, 32 Currant, Missouri, 8 Yellow-flowered American, 8 Cut-leaved Weeping Birch, 47 Cytisus nigricans, 51 Daphne alpina, 24 altaica, 24 caucasica, 24 Cneorum, 15 genkwa, 15 Mezereum, 15 Daphnes, 15, 24 Diervilla florida, var. venusta, 24 Dirca palustris, 4 Dwarf Hawthorns, 32 Early Lilacs, 15 Early summer Lilacs, 27 Elm, Prickly, 43 Elms, Weeping, 47 Eucommia ulmoides, 44 Euptelea Franchetii, 3 polyandra, 3 Evonymus alatus, 58 Bungeanus, 60 europaeus, 65 var. ovatus, 66 yedoensis, 65 Exochorda Giraldii Wilsonii, 18 Exochorda grandiflora, 18 Korolkowii, 18 macrantha, 18 racemosa, 18 Fagus sylvatica var. bornyensis, 46 var. miltonensis, 46 var. pagnyensis, 46 var. pendula, 46 var. remillyensis, 46 var. tortuosa, 46 Fir, White, 71 Firs, 71 Forsythia europaea, 2 intermedia, 7 var. pallida, 7 var. primulina, 7 spectabilis, 7 suspensa, 2, 7 viridissima, 7 Forsythias, 2 hybrid, 7 Fothergilla major, 20 Fothergillas, 20 Fragrant Sumach, 64 Fraxinus excelsior var. pendula, 47 Fraxinus lentiscifolia, 47 parvifolia, 47 Fraxinus rotundifolia var. pendula, 47 Fringe-tree, 9 Ghent Azaleas, 28 Ginkgo biloba, 51 Golden-barked Willow, 46 Gordonia alatamaha, 53 Guelder Rose, 26 Hamamelis mollis, 2 vernalis, 2 Hardy Rubber-tree, 44 Haw, Black, 64 Hawthorns, Dwarf, 32 Heather, 50 Hemiptelea Davidii, 43 Higan-zakura, 6 Highbush Blueberry, 64 Holly, Perry's Weeping, 48 Hydrangea, June-flowering, 40 Bretschneideri, 40 petiolaris, 14, 40 Rosthornii, 40 xanthoneura, 40 var. s?tchuenensis, 40 var. Wilsonii, 40 Ilex Aquifolium var. argentea marginata pendula, 48 var. pendula, 48 Irish Juniper, 62 Japanese Cherries, 5 Japanese Mountain Ash, 67 Japanese Yew, 67 Judas-tree, 17 Juneberry, 64 June-flowering Hydrangeas, 40 Juniper, Irish, 62 Swedish, 62 Juniperus alpina, 62 canadensis, 62 chinensis, var. Sargentii, 63 communis, 62 var. depressa, 62 var. depressa aurea, 62 var. montana, 62 var. nipponica, 62 conferta, 63 horizontalis, 62 var. Douglasii, 62 litoralis, 63 nana, 62 canadensis, 62 procumbens, 63 prostrata, 62 repens, 62 Sabina, 64 var. cupressifolia, 64 Sabina, var. procumbens, 62 var. tamariscifolia, 64 sibirica, 62 squamata, 63 virginiana, 61 horizontalis, 61 virginiana repens, 61 Junipers, prostrate, 61 Kaido, 16 Kalmia latifolia, 29 var. alba, 29 var. fuscata, 29 var. myrtifolia, 29 var. obtusata, 30 var. polypetala, 30 var. rubra, 29 Keaki, 43 Keiffer pear, 10 Kilmarnock Willow, 46 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 31 Lacquer-tree, 58 Laurels, 29 Leatherwood, 4 Leaves, unfolding, 9 Leconte Pear, 10 Lilac, Persian, 27 Lilacs, early, 15 early summer, 27 Tree, 37 Lindens, 41 Liquidambar Styraciflua, 60 Liriodendron Tulipifera, 64 London Plane, 66 Lonicera amoena, 20 Arnoldiana, 20 bella, 20 chrysantha, 20 Henryi, 44 Korolkowii, 20 Morrowii, 20 notha, 20 pileata, 32, 35 saccata, 35, 40 tatarica, 20 Magnolia acuminata, 24 Magnolia conspicua, 2 cordata, 24 denudata, 2 Fraseri, 24 glauca, 24, 34, 60 kobus, var. borealis, 2 macrophylla, 24, 44 stellata,2 Thompsoniana, 24 tripetala, 24 Magnolias, 2 American, 24 Malus, Arnoldiana, 12 baccata, 11 var. Jackii, 55 floribunda, 12 formosana, 11 Haliiana, 16 Parkmanii, 16 prunifolia, 11 var, rinki, 11 Mahts ringo, 11 Sargentii, 18 Sieboldii, 18 var. arborescens, 18 var. calocarpa, 16, 55 toringo, 16 Tschonoskii, 64 Missouri Currant, 8 Mock Orange, 36 Morus acidosa, 19 alba var. tatarica, 48 Mountain Ash, Japanese, 67 Mulberry, Teas' Weeping, 48 Nannyberry, 26 Neillia sinensis, 31 New Jersey Tea, 51 Nyssa sylvatica, 64 Ohio buckeyes, 13 Oregon Grape, 15 Osmaronia cerasiformis, 9 Pawpaw, 28 Pear-trees, wild, 10 Pearl Bush, 18 Perry's Weeping Holly, 48 Persian Lilac, 27 Philadelphus, 36 a double-flowered, 39 coronarius, 36 hirsutus, 31 inodorus, 39 insignis, 36 Lemoinei, 36 maximus, 36 microphyllus, 36 purpurascens, 36, 39 Schrenkii var. Jackii, 31 \"Souvenir de Billard,\" 36 splendens, 36 Photinia villosa, 30 var. laevis, 31 Picea Abies, 71 Picea ajanensis, 71 Alcockiana, 71 bicolor, 71 canadensis, 70 Engelmanni, 70 excelsa, 71 Picea Glehnii, 70 jezoensis, 70 microsperma, 71 omorika, 70 orientalis, 70 pungens, 70 rubra, 70 Pine. Austrian, 72 Scotch, 72 Sugar, 72 Swiss, 72 White, 72 Pines, 72 Pinetum, the 69 Pinus cembra, 72 densiflora, 72 flexilis, 72 koraiensis, 72 Lambertiana, 72 monticola, 72 nigra, 72 parviflora, 72 peuce, 72 sylvestris, 72 Thunbergii, 72 Plane, London, 66 Platanus acerifolia, 66 orientalis, 66 Poplars, Chinese, 14 Populus adenopoda, 14 lasiocarpa, 14 Maximowiczii, 14 rotundifolia var. Duclouxiana, 14 Sieboldii, 14 Simonii, 14 suaveolens, 14 szechuanica, 14 tomentosa, 14 tremula var. Davidiana, 16 Wilsonii, 14 yunnanensis, 14 Potentilla fruticosa Veitchii, 40 tridentata, 40 Prairie Rose, 50 Prickly Elm, 43 Prinsepia sinensis, 9 Prostrate Junipers, 61 Prostrate Red Cedar, 61 Prunus Chamaecerasus var. reflexa, 48 fruticosa var. reflexa, 48 Lannesiana, 5 nigra,9 Sargentii, 6 serotina var. pendula, 48 serrulata var. sachalinensis, 6, 7 subhirtella, 6 var. ascendens, 7 var. pendula, 6 yedoensis, 6 Pyrus Bretschneideri, 10, 11 communis, 10 elaeagrifolia, 10 malifolia, 11 ovoidea, 11, 12 ringo, 11 serrulata, 10 toringo, 16 Quercus alba, 64 Redbud, 17 Red Cedar, prostrate, 61 Red-fruited Viburnums, 34 Rhododendron arborescens, 49 calendulaceum, 28 canescens, 19, 28 coreanum, 14 Kaempferi, 13 luteum, 28 maximum, 49 Mortierii, 28 nudiflorum, 28 ponticum, 1 poukhanense, 14 praecox \"Little Gem,\" 1 Schlippenbachii, 19 Vaseyi, 19 viscosum, 28, 49 Rhododendrons, 1 Rhus canadensis, 64 javanica, 57 Osbeckii, 57 semialata, 57 verniciflua, 58 Ribes aureum, 8 odoratum, 8 Ribes tenue, 8 Robinia hispida, 27 Kelseyi, 27 Rosa Jackii, 49 rugosa, 63 setigera, 50 Rose Acacia, 27 Prairie, 50 Rubber-tree, Hardy, 44 Salix alba vitellina pendula, 46 babylonica, 46 var. ramulis aureis, 46 blanda, 46 caprea var. pendulina, 46 elegantissima, 46 pendulina, 46 Salamonii, 46 Salvia officinalis, 38 Sambucus canadensis, 42 var. acutiloba, 43 var. aurea, 43 var. chlorocarpa, 43 Sargent Cherry, 7 Sassafras, 56 tzumu, 56 Scotch Pine, 72 Sheepberry, 26 Siberian Crabs, 12 Smoke-tree, 35 American, 64 Snowball, 26 Sophora Japonica var. pendula, 48 viciifolia, 31 Sorbus commixta, 67 Sour Gum, 64 Spice Bush, 4 Spruce, Blue, 69 White, 69 Styrax japonicus, 35 obassia, 35 Sugar Pine, 72 Sumach, Fragrant, 64 Summer and autumn fruits, 53 Summer-flowering shrubs, 49 Swedish Juniper, 62 Sweet Bay, 60 Sweet Gum, 64 Swiss Pine, 72 Syringa, 36 affinis, 15 var. Giraldii, 15 chinensis, 27 var. alba, 27 Henryi, 27 hyacinthiflora, 15 japonica, 37 Josikaea, 27 Julianae, 30 Meyeri, 15 oblata, 15 persica, 27 var. alba, 27 var. iaciniosa, 27 pekinenszs, pubescens, 30 rothomagensis, 27 villosa, 27 yunnanensis, 30 Taxus cuspidata, 67 var. brevifolia, 67 var. capitata, 67 var. compacta, 67 var. nana, 67 Teas' Weeping Mulberry, 48 Thurlow's Willow, 46 Thymus Serpyllum, 38 Tilia americana, 41 argentea, 42 cordata, 42 europaea, 42 heterophylla, 41 hybrida, 42 spectabilis, 42 intermedia, 42 japonica, 42 mongolica, 42 petiolaris, 42 platyphyllos, 42 vestita, 42 vulgaris, 42 Tree Lilacs, 37 Tripterygium Regelii, 44 Tulip-tree, 64 Tupelo, 64 Ulmus americana, 47 fulva pendula, 47 Ulmus glabra, 47 var. camperdownensis, 47 var. horzzontalis, 47 var. pendula, 47 Unfolding leaves, 9 Vaccinium corymbosum, 64 Varnish-tree, 58 Viburnum americanum, 26 bracteatum, 34 Canbyi, 34 cassinoides, 33, 54 dentatum, 33 dilatatum, 34 hupehense, 55 Lentago, 26 molle, 34 Opulus, 26 var. nanum, 26 var. sterile, 26 var. xanthocarpum, 26 prunifolium, 25 pubescens, 26 Sargentii, 26 red-fruited, 34 rufidulum, 26 theiferum, 34, 55 venosum, 33 Wrightii, 34 Viburnums, 25 Chinese, 55 summer-flowering American, 33 Weeping Ash, 47 Weeping Beech, 46 Weeping Birches, 47 Weeping Cherries, 47 Weeping Elms, 47 Weeping trees, 45 Weeping Willow, 45 White Fir, 71 White Pine, 72 White Spruce, 69 Wild Pear-trees, 10 Willow, Golden-barked, 46 Kilmarnock, 46 Thurlow's, 46 Weeping, 45 Willows, 45 Winter, effects of in the Arboretum, 1 Witch Hazels,2 Yama-sakura, 6 Yellow-flowered American Currants, 8 Yew, Japanese, 67 Yodogawa, 14 Zelkova crenata, 43 keaki, 43 serrata, 43"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23476","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15eab28.jpg","title":"1916-2","volume":2,"issue_number":null,"year":1916,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 28","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23611","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14ebb26.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 28, 1915 Effects of the winter in the Arboretum. The long and unusual drought of the autumn of 1914 thoroughly ripened the wood of the young branches of deciduous-leaved trees and shrubs, and those plants which produce their flowers on the branches of the previous year promise an unusual crop of flowers. The winter has not been a severe one and there are no losses to report among deciduous-leaved plants, which suffered so severely here during the winter of 1913-14. The dry autumn followed by the unusual drought of March has injured, however, many broad-leaved evergreens, especially Rhododendrons, which have never before suffered so severely in the Arboretum, large plants of the hardiest varieties, which have been growing here for at least twenty-five years, having been killed. The Rhododendron collection is in an exceptionally sheltered and favorable position, and is planted in soil perfectly suited to these plants. They have never suffered from the greater cold of other winters, and the condition of the collection at this time shows that what injures Rhododendrons is want of moisture during the summer and autumn rather than excessive cold, and that only a small number of species and varieties can be successfully cultivated in New England. The list of the varieties which have been killed or seriously injured will appear in a later bulletin. Native and exotic early spring flowering trees and shrubs. It is interesting to note that our gardens depend almost entirely on foreign trees and shrubs for their greatest beauty in early spring. To this general statement, however, there are a few exceptions. The ground under the Red Maples, Acer rubrum, is now red with their fallen flowers, while the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) is just opening its bright yellow flower~\/which will make this tree conspicuous for another week. Two interesting native shrubs, too, the Spice Bush (Benzoin aestivale, sometimes called Lindera Benzoin), and the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris), have been covered for several days with their small bright yellow flowers which appear before or with the unfolding of the leaves. There are large groups of these plants on the righthand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. Not very often cultivated they deserve a place in every spring garden. Among early-flowering American plants is also to be mentioned the Shad Bush of the Southern states, Amelanehier canadensis. This is the largest and earliest flowering of the whole genus, and is often a tree of considerable size. It is now in flower on the left-hand, side of the Meadow Road, entering from the Jamaica Plain Gate, where the general collection of these plants has been arranged. In another week the Arboretum will be gay with the flowers of the Shad Bushes, for these plants have been largely used in the mixed plantation along the drives. With these few exceptions, however, the shrubs which make the greatest show here in the early spring, the Magnolias, Forsythias, Cherries, Peaches, Apples, Pears, Azaleas, Honeysuckles, Lilacs and Berberis are from the Old World. Magnolias. The earliest of the Magnolias, M. stellata, has been in flower for several days in front of the Administration Building. This is a perfectly hardy, vigorous, wide-spreading shrub and an inhabitant of the mountain slopes of southern Japan. Like the other early-flowering Magnolias, it belongs to that section of the genus in which the flowers appear before the leaves. There is a variety of this plant with pale pink flowers which is also in bloom. The flowers of another Japanese species, Magnolia kobus, and its variety borealis, appear soon after those of M. stellata. The species is a large, irregular growing shrub and is inferior in size and habit to its variety which is a talb and shapely tree with larger flowers. These plants rarely flower freely in this climate and now carry fewer flowers than they did a year ago, and as flowering plants are inferior to the Chinese species and their hybrids which are also in flower. The best known of these Chinese Magnolias is the white-flowered M. denudata, better known in gardens as M. conspicua or as M. Yulan. This is one of the handsomest and hardiest of the spring-flowering trees which are hardy in eastern New England, producing freely every year its large tulip-shaped blossoms which usually escape injury from late frosts, by which the flowers of M. stellata are often discolored. There are a number of hybrids between M. denudata and M. liliflora, usually known as M. obovata or as M. purpurea. These hybrids all have flowers more or less deeply tinged or streaked with rose and bloom a little later than M. denudata. M. Soulangeana is the best known of these hybrids, but there are several others which are equally beautiful. These plants are near the Administration Building at the Jamaica Plain entrance. Asiatic Cherries. This is one of the most interesting weeks of the whole year in the Arboretum for several of the Chinese and Japanese Cherries are in flower. The first of these plants to open its flowers, Prunus tomentosa, is a native of northern and western China. It is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum, although at this time larger plants can be seen along the Francis Parkman Road in Jamaica Plain, in the Boston Park System, than are now to be found in the Arboretum. It is a large, wide-spreading and perfectly hardy shrub; the flowers open from pink buds as the leaves begin to unfold, and the bright red flower- stalks and calyx make a charming contrast with the white petals. The small fruit ripens in June and is scarlet, slightly hairy, sweet and of good flavor. The hardiness and the ability of this shrub to flourish in a dry climate makes it valuable in cold regions like the Dakotas, and it is not impossible that it will in time be made valuable for its fruit which is as large and of as good flavor as that of the wild Cherries of Europe, from which the best garden cherries have been developed. Even more beautiful as a flowering plant is another shrub from northern China, Prunus triloba. This has flowers of the purest pink and is hardy and free flowering. Apparently first cultivated in the Arboretum, where seeds were received more than thirty years ago from Dr. Bretschneider, then at Peking, it has never become common in gardens, although the less desirable form with double flowers (var. plena) is to be found in most collections of hardy shrubs. This blooms a little later than the single-flowered plant from which it was derived long ago in China. Three Japanese Cherries are in bloom, Prunus Sargentii, P. pendula, and P. subhirtella. The first is believed by those who have seen the most of these plants to be the handsomest of the Cherry trees. It is a large tree with lustrous reddish bark and broad pink or rose-colored flowers which appear before the leaves; these are of good size, deep green and lustrous, and in the autumn turn to shades of crimson or yellow. The fruit ripens in June and is the size of a pea, bright red when fully grown and black and shining at maturity. This was once a common tree in the forests of northern Hondo and of Hokaido and ranging northward into Saghalin. The large specimens have now nearly all been cut for the valuable wood which this tree produces. Last year, however, Mr. Wilson found at Koganei, near Tokyo, an avenue of this tree three miles long which had been planted in 1735. Some of these trees are from sixty to seventy-five feet tall, with trunks from nine to thirteen feet round and heads thirty or fifty feet through. Several double-flowered varieties of this tree cultivated in Japan have recently been brought to the Arboretum by Mr. Wilson and promise new beauties for the spring gardens of the United States and Europe. Prunus Sargentii has proved in Japan the best stock on which to graft all the Japanese double-flowered Cherries, and in this country it may prove more valuable for the propagation of the European garden Cherries than the stock usually used for this purpose. The flowers, unfortunately, retain their beauty for only a short time and by the end of the week the petals will no doubt be falling. Prunus pendula is a better known plant in American gardens, into which it was introduced from Japan several years ago. Seedlings of this form with pendulous branches often retain this habit, but sometimes seedlings appear with more erect and spreading branches, indicating that it has probably descended from a tree of different habit. The third of these species, Prunus subhi~tella, is rather a large shrub than a tree. The flowers, which are borne in the greatest profusion, are similar to those of P. pendula, but the branches are erect. This when in flower is certainly one of the most beautiful of the whole group. Very generally and widely cultivated in Japanese gardens, Prunus subhirtella is not known anywhere in a wild state. The collection of Cherries is on the right-hand side of the road entering by the Forest Hills Gate. Forsythias. A year ago the flower-buds on many of these plants had been destroyed by the severe cold of the previous winter, now they are all blooming as freely as usual. The handsomest of these plants at this time is a hybrid between two of these species, Forsythia suspensa Fortunei and F. viridissima, known as F. intermedia. There are several forms of this hybrid. The one called F. intermedia primulina, with pale canary yellow flowers, a seedling which sprang up spontaneously in the Arboretum a few years ago, is one of the most beautiful of these hybrid forms. F. europaea, a vigorous hardy plant with erect branches, is perhaps less beautiful in flower than the Chinese spacies but is interesting as an European representative of a genus otherwise confined to China and Korea. There is a collection of Forsythias in the Shrub Collection and a large mass of them at the lower end of the Bussey Hill Road. Azaleas. The first of these plants to flower is Rhododendron mucronulatum (all the Azaleas are now called Rhododendrons). It is a tall, perfectly hardy, erect shrub with erect slender branches. The flowers are rose color and appear before the leaves. It has been in the Arboretum for more than thirty years but has not before flowered so freely as it has this spring. There is a large group of these plants on the lower side of Azalea Path, and although the flowers are beginning to fade it is well worth an early visit. Another Azalea from northeastern Asia, Rhododendron dahuricum, with rather smaller, darker colored flowers than the last to which it is closely related, has never flowered so well before in the Arboretum. There is a group of these plants on the upper side of Azalea Path. Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum, but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning to P. J. Brady, Jamaica 670, or to Malone Keane, Jamaica 344. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 6","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23625","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15e8927.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 6, 1915 The Wild Pear Trees. The old collection of these trees is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills entrance. Pear trees are natives of China and the Himalayas, and range westward through Persia and the Caucasus to southeastern and southern Europe. The genus has no representative in Japan or America. The wild types are rarely cultivated in this country, although as flowering trees some of the species are as beautiful as many of the better known Asiatic Crabapples and their leaves, both when they are unfolding and at maturity, are much handsomer than those of any of the Apples. The flowers of all Pear trees are pure white and their large, bright rose-colored anthers add to their attractiveness. Some of the Chinese species have been growing in the Arboretum since 1882 when Dr. Bretschneider sent here from Peking the seeds of a number of trees and shrubs from northern China. Among these were the seeds of what now prove to be three species of Pear trees. One of these, Pyrus betulaefolia, had been known earlier in France. It is a tall, rather narrow tree with pale foliage, comparatively small flowers and small russet fruits rarely more than half an inch in diameter. This is a fast-growing, shapely tree and has proved hardy in many of the northern dry cold regions of this country and Canada, and has sometimes been successfully used as a stock on which to work some of the varieties of garden Pears. Unfortunately it frequently suffers from the pear blight. More beautiful in flower and leaf is another of the Bretschneider Pears to which the name of Pyrus phaeocarpa has lately been given. This tree has unusually large flowers, large, deep green and very lustrous leaves and small, pearshaped, russet brown fruits. There is a variety with globose fruit (var. globosa) which except in the shape of the fruit is like the species. This is one of the handsomest of the small trees which have been introduced by the Arboretum in cultivation. The third of the Bretschneider Pears has been named for him, Pyrus Bretschneideri. This tree does not appear to grow to so large a size as the last, but it is perfectly hardy and the flowers and foliage are nearly as handsome. The fruit is globose or subglobose, about one inch in diameter, pale yellow, juicy and of good flavor. This is probably the tree from which at least some of the excellent and very juicy pears which are largely cultivated in the neighborhood of Peking have been derived. It is possible that this tree will prove useful to cross with some of the garden Pears in the hope of obtaining varieties which may prove hardier than any now in cultivation. Another Chinese Pear is one of the most distinct and interesting species of the whole genus. The leaves of most Pear trees fall in the autumn without change of color or turn to a dull bronze color, but the leaves of this tree late in the autumn turn as bright a scarlet as those of any American Red Maple or Gum tree. The fruit of a few Pear trees is globose, but its usual form is obovoid, that is the broad end is at the apex and the narrow end at the insertion of the stalk, but the fruit of this tree, unlike that of any other Pear tree, is ovoid, that is, it is broad at the insertion of the stalk and tapers to the apex. The fruit is about an inch and a half long, yellow, and of fairly good flavor. This tree was introduced into Europe nearly fifty years ago probably from northern China and has been known there as Pyrus Simonii. That name, however, had been given to a different species and this tree has now been named Pyrus ovoidea. It is possible that this species has also played some part in the development of the Chinese garden Pears. Pyrus ovoidea is one of the first of the Pear trees to open its flowers which are now fully expanded. The flowers of the other Chinese species and those from Europe will open during the next week. A supplementary collection of these trees has recently been planted at the base of Peter's Hill, and the new species discovered by Wilson in western China have also been planted in a special Chinese collection on Bussey Hill. The Shad Bushes. The Arboretum is now gay with these plants which have been largely used here in the plantations along many of the drives. The general collection is in the border between the Meadow Road and the parallel walk on the left-hand side entering from the Jamaica Plain gateway. The distribution of these plants is peculiar. One species, a small shrub, occurs in the mountain regions of central Europe; another shrubby species is rather a rare plant in Japan, with a variety in western China where it is common and sometimes grows to the size of a small tree. In North America the genus is distributed from Labrador to Florida, and from the Atlantic to the northwest coast region, with several species in the dry interior region of the continent as far south as Arizona. The common name for these plants and their fruit among several of the northern tribes of Indians, Saskatoon, has been adopted for what is now an important city in Saskatchewan on the river of that name. Several species are common in the northeastern states and these in early spring add greatly to the beauty of woods and swamps in this part of the country. Two of these species are native plants in the Arboretum, Amelanchier laevis and A. oblongifolia. The first is a tree of considerable size and an inhabitant of rich upland woods and dry banks. From the other species it may be distinguished by the red color of the young leaves. Until recently considered the A. canadensis of Linnaeus it has appeared under that name in nearly all American publications, but the true A. canadensis is now known to be a tree of the western and southern states where it is the only species and easily distinguished by the covering of soft pale hairs on the under surface of the leaves. Large wild plants of A. laevis are growing on the wooded bank in the rear of the Crabapple Collection on the Forest Hills Road. A. oblongifolia is a large shrub rather than a tree, although tree-like specimens sometimes occur, and is easily distinguished from A. laevis by the silvery color of the young leaves which at this season of the year are thickly covered with silky hairs. There is a large native specimen on the border of the meadow across the path from the Amelanchier Collection, and it is this species which has been most generally planted in the Arboretum and which may be seen along the borders of many New England swamps. There has always been much confusion about the American species of this genus, and it is only in late years that botanists are beginning to understand them. Reliance on the herbarium rather than on the living plants in their study, the inadequate descriptions of the authors who first described them, and the probable tendency of these plants to produce natural hybrids has until recently left them in what once appeared a hopeless state of confusion. The Arboretum has for many years been bringing together these plants in order to afford an opportunity for the critical study of the growing plants, and now in addition to the Asiatic and European species the following American species and some supposed hybrids are in flower in the collection, or will be in flower in a few days: Amelanchier alnifolia from the northwest coast, A. canadensis now nearly out of flower, A. laevis, A. oblongifolia, A. sanguinea, A. humilis, A. stolonifera, A. spicata, A. pumila, A. florida and A. Bartramiana (better known as A. oligocarpa). The last is the most northern of the eastern species and is a small shrub of cold swamps and bogs. Unlike the other species, the flowers are usually solitary or in few-flowered clusters. In cultivation it has been found to succeed better when it has been grafted on one of the strongly growing species than it does on its own roots. Practically unknown in cultivation, all these species are delightful garden plants, and the study of the collection in the Arboretum at this time will be found valuable to any one interested in dwarf, hardy, early flowering shrubs. Early-flowering Viburnums. The two Viburnums which flower here first are among the most beautiful of all the plants in this genus which can be grown in New England. One is American and the other is a native of Korea. The American species, V. alnifolium, the Moosewood of northern woods, is one of the species on which the flower-clusters are surrounded by a ring of large pure white sterile flowers. It has broad, thick, heart-shaped leaves and showy fruit, and in the woods the straggling branches often take root and thus form thickets which make travelling difficult. This plant has never really succeeded well in the Arboretum and is difficult to cultivate, although good plants may occasionally be seen in other Massachusetts gardens. There is now a small plant in flower among the dwarf Birches on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Viburnum Collection. The Korean species, V. Carlesii, is rightly considered one of the handsomest plants recently introduced into American gardens. Its value is in the white, extremely fragrant flowers which are produced in rather small compact clusters and open from bright pink buds. As the flowers in a cluster do not all open at the same time the mixture of white flowers and pink buds adds greatly to the attractiveness of the inflorescence. It is a rather dwarf shrub of compact habit with pale green leaves and has not yet produced fruit in the Arboretum. There is a Japanese species, V. bitchuense, which somewhat resembles V. Carlesii, but the flowers are smaller and the habit of the plant is not so good. Mistaken by Japanese botanists for V. Carlesii, this plant has been propagated in Japanese nurseries and sent to the United States and Europe as V. Carlesii. In buying that plant care should be taken to secure the right species. A Possible New Hedge Plant. At Tachien-lu on the borders of Tibet, at about eight thousand feet above the sea, Mr. Wilson found hedges from 6 to 8 feet high and so thick and spiny that a yak, an animal as strong as an ox, could not break through them. The plant of which these hedges were made, Ribes alpestre, var. comm2cne, is now in flower in the collection of Chinese shrubs on Bussey Hill. This Gooseberry has grown rapidly in the Arboretum and appears to be perfectly hardy. There is little to recommend it as a garden shrub for the flowers are small and inconspicuous, and the acid fruit is covered with prickles and has little beauty, but as a hedge plant it may prove valuable in the cold parts of the country. Prinsepia sinensis. This Chinese shrub, which has been growing in the Arboretum since 1903, has proved itself to be a first-rate garden plant for regions as cold as New England. It is a plant with long and gracefully ascending and spreading branches, the bright green leaves are almost the first to appear in the whole collection, and when they are more than half-grown from their axils the bright yellow flowers, which are about two-thirds of an inch in diameter, appear in few-flowered clusters. The largest plant in the Arboretum is on Hickory Path near Centre Street, and there is a plant also in the general Shrub Collection. Automobiles are not admitted to the Arboretum, but visitors who desire carriages to meet them at the Forest Hills entrance can obtain them by telephoning to P. J. Brady, Jamaica 670, or to Malone Keane, Jamaica 344. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 13","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23621","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15eb76f.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO.3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 13. 1915 Asiatic Crabapples. During the next few days the Crabapples from eastern Asia will be the most conspicuous flowering plants in the Arboretum. The old collection is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road. There is a larger collection containing a larger number of varieties at the eastern base of Peter's Hill, and the species found by Wilson in western China have also been planted on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, just below the Overlook. The best known of the Asiatic Crabapples in gardens is called Malus floribunda. It is shrubby rather than treelike in habit and makes a broad, round-topped bush sometimes twenty-five feet tall and broad. This plant blooms profusely every year and is most beautiful when the flowers begin to open for they open gradually and in succession, and the contrast of the white flowers with the bright rose-colored flower-buds greatly adds to the beauty of both. The fruit is not much larger than a pea, and adds little to the ornamental value of this plant. The origin of Malus floribunda is obscure. Although first sent to Europe from Japan more than sixty years ago, it is not a native of Japan and was probably carried there from China with many other plants found in Japanese gardens and long believed by European travellers to be native to the Island Empire. By some botanists it is thought to be a hybrid, and although its seedlings show some variation this hypothesis has not yet been clearly proved. The whole question of the origin and proper limitation of the species of Asiatic Crabapples is greatly complicated by the fact that all Apples hybridize so freely that plants raised from seed gathered from plants in a large collection like the one in the Arboretum rarely resemble the parent plant. This tendency to natural hybridization among the Apples, while it makes endless trouble for the systematic botanist, has advantages for the gardener, as has already been seen in the Arboretum where one of the most beautiful of all flowering Apples, now called Malus Arnoldiana, appeared a few years ago among seedlings of M. floribunda. This plant is also shrubby in habit, with flowers more than one-half larger than those of M. floribunda and much larger fruits. It is probably a hybrid with some of the large-flowered hybrids of the Siberian Malus baccata. Near the Administration Building are large seedhng plants raised from M. floribunda which are peculiar in their persistent fruit which remains in good condition on the branches until spring and supplies the birds with an abundant supply of winter food. Another supposed hybrid between two species of eastern Siberia, sometimes called Malus cerasifera, is common in the Arboretum in various forms. With plenty of space this grows into a large, wide-spreading tree. The pure white flowers are perhaps larger than those of any of the other Crabapples. The fruit on different plants varies in color and greatly in size and shape, on some trees retaining and on others losing the calyx. Selected forms of this tree can only be obtained by grafts. Malus Halliana, usually known as the Parkman Crab, was found in Japanese gardens by Dr. Hall and sent to the United States in 1861 in the first consignment of plants to reach the United States direct from Japan, and was first cultivated by Francis Parkman, the historian, in his garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond, now in the Boston Park System. This is a treelike shrub with erect and spreading stems and is smaller than Malus floribunda, differing from it in its darker bark, thicker leaves deeply tinged with bronze color when they unfold, and semidouble, bright rose-colored flowers drooping on long slender stems, and in its smaller fruit which is not larger than a small pea. Some persons consider this the most beautiful of the Crabapples, and certainly the color of the flowers is unlike that of any of the others. The origin of this plant was unknown till Wilson found it growing in western China near the borders of Tibet. Another Chinese Crab, Malus spectabilis, is usually found in gardens only in the form with double or semidouble flowers. It is a tree with erect, slightly spreading stems which form a vase-like head, and in some of its forms is an attractive and useful plant. Malus Scheideckeri, which is no doubt a hybrid although of uncertain origin, is a small tree of pyramidal habit which usually produces its comparatively small pink flowers in such profusion that it should find a place in every collection of these plants. Malus (Pyrus) toringo was first used as a name for a Japanese Crabapple, and there are two or three Japanese forms in the collection here under that name. In 1882 the Arboretum received from Dr. Bretschneider, then at Pekin, seeds of a Crabapple which has been growing here ever since and has been considered a form of the Japanese M. toringo from which, however, it differs in its much smaller and later flowers and smaller fruits which on some individuals are red and on others yellow. Although one of the least showy of the Crabapples, this Chinese tree is valuable as it flowers after the others have passed. Two other Japanese species are well represented in the collection from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Japan in 1892, Malus zumi and M. Sargentii; the former is a common tree on the mountains of central Japan and the latter is an inhabitant of the borders of salt marshes in Hokkaido. The dwarf habit of this species makes it a good subject for small gardens. The rather small flowers are produced in great abundance, and the dark red fruits remain on the branches until growth begins the following spring. Malus baccata is a common tree in eastern Siberia, and was one of the first of these plants introduced into Europe. It has no doubt played an important part in the introduction of many hybrid forms, including the so-called Siberian Crabs, like the \"Transcendent\" and many other well known varieties. These are supposed hybrids between the common Apple and Malus baccata; among them are some of the most beautiful flowering plants in the whole Apple Group. The flowers are followed by brilliant fruits valuable in cooking and for preserves. The Siberian Crabs are hardier than any of the domestic Apples and have therefore been found valuable in some of the colder parts of Canada and the United States where other Apples cannot be grown. In cultivation Malus baccata is a tall narrow tree with small nearly white flowers and fruit about the size of a pea. There is a fine specimen of this tree in front of the gardener's house in the Harvard Botanical Garden in Cambridge. It is impossible within the limits of one of these bulletins even to mention the names of all the species, hybrids, forms and varieties of these plants in the collection which has been in process of formation for nearly forty years and must now be one of the most complete in existence. It will well repay a careful study, especially the new collection at the base of Peter's Hill. Few plants are better suited to the New England climate than the Crabapples ; they all produce beautiful flowers and many of them brilliant fruit. It should not be forgotten, however, that all Apple-trees are liable to be attacked and killed by the San Jose scale, and that it is unwise to plant them unless this pest can be kept in check by careful spraying. Early-flowering Honeysuckles. Some of the early Bush Honeysuckles are already in flower; indeed the pale yellow fragrant flowers of two Chinese species, Lonicera Standishii and L. fragrantissima have already fallen. These plants have long been favorites in the gardens of the middle and southern states where they grow to a large size and form round-topped shapely bushes. In New England, however, these plants are not always perfectly hardy and it is not usual for them to flower as well as they have this spring. Other species already in flower in the Shrub Collection are Lonicera tangutica, with small pink flowers, L. syringantha, var. YYolfii, with very fragrant violet-colored flowers, L. canadensis and L. utahensis, with pale yellow flowers, the geographical forms of L. coerulea, with larger yellow flowers, and the beautiful Japanese L. gracilipes, with its drooping pink flowers. For another month, at least, different Honeysuckles will be opening their flowers, and these will be followed on many species by brilliant fruits which often make these plants conspicuous in summer and autumn. Currants and Gooseberries. Many interesting plants now in flower will be found among the Currants and Gooseberries (Ribes) in the Shrub Collection. The two yellow-flowering American Currants are still the most attractive perhaps of all these plants. The better known of these, the so-called Missouri Currant (R2bes odoratum), is still a favorite garden plant in the United States and is found in many old gardens. It owes its popular name to the fact that it was first found on the upper Missouri River; it is now known to occur on the great plains from South Dakota to Texas. In many books this plant appears as Ribes aureum, but this name properly belongs to a smaller plant from the northwest and the northern Rocky Mountain region, with more slender branches, smaller flowers and black or orange-colored fruits; it appears to be extremely rare in cultivation. The two plants are growing together in the general Shrub Collection and the difference in their general appearance and the structure of their flowers can be readily seen. One of the Rocky Mountain Currants, Ribes cereum, with small white flowers, is as usual attractive at this season. Among Gooseberries already in flower the most interesting, perhaps, are Ribes pinetorum, from the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona, with bright orange red flowers, R. niveum from northwestern North America, with pure white flowers, R. Cynosbati from eastern North America, R. stenocarpum from western China, with white flowers, and R. robustum, a , vigorous white flowered plant and probably a hybrid. Early Lilacs. Two Chinese Lilacs Syringa affinis, with white flowers, and the lilac-colored form of this slSecies, var. Giraldii, are already in flower in the Lilac Group. The white-flowered form is largely cultivated in the gardens of Pekin, and the variety comes from the Province of Shensi. The flowers of these two Lilacs are fragrant and beautiful but their open and irregular habit of growth is not attractive. They are certainly valuable, however, for the earliness of their flowers. The Oak Collection. This is one of the best times of the year for the study of Oak-trees. The unfolding leaves are beautiful, and in their color, in the absence or presence of a hairy covering and in the character of this covering when it exists, are found characters by which the different species may often be easily recognized. These vernal characters indeed are less variable than those like the shape of the leaves and the size and shape of the fruit which are usually depended on for the recognition of Oak-trees. Unfortunately only a comparatively few species can be successfully grown in New England. Of the fifty odd species in the United States only twenty-one species and a few natural hybrids are hardy in the Arboretum. The Oaks of western Europe are hardy but are usually short-lived and unsatisfactory here; the few deciduous-leaved species of eastern Asia flourish here but no Oak-tree with evergreen leaves can be grown in the Arboretum where none of the California, Mexican or Himalayan species can be found. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 19","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23622","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15ebb25.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 19, 1915 Lilacs. To most persons the Lilac is the shrub with red-purple or with white flowers to which botanists have given the name of Syringa vulgaris. There are, however, many other kinds of Lilac, and in addition to Syringa vulgaris and some one hundred and fifty seedling forms of it there are twenty species and several hybrids in the Arboretum collection. The common Lilac is said to have reached western Europe from Constantinople; it was cultivated in a garden near London in 1593 and had become known in the United States at least as early as the middle of the eighteenth century. Washington wrote of it in his diary and planted it at Mt. Vernon where his plants or their descendants still flourish. One of the most popular of garden plants in all cold and temperate countries, the original home of this Lilac remained unknown for three centuries after its introduction into England. Some writers believed it to be a native of Persia and others considered central Asia or northern China its home, and it is only a few years ago that it was discovered to be a native of the mountain forests of Bulgaria. Specimens of the wild plant raised at the Arboretum from seeds collected in Bulgaria are growing on the left-hand side of the walk going up the hill through the Lilac Collection and are labeled \"Syringa vulgaris, Bulgaria.\" It is interesting to compare the narrow clusters of small lilac-purple flowers with the large ones of many shades of color which gardeners in the last three centuries have developed from the wild plant. It is evident that no great additional improvement can now be expected from seedlings of the common Lilac. The beauty limit appears to have been reached and many of the seedlings raised in recent years and named and sold by nurserymen show no improvement on the older varieties, and all that is best in these plants can really be found in a dozen varieties or less. The Arboretum is often asked to furnish a list of the best varieties. This is difficult to do for what one person may like in the color of a flower another may not care for. The following, however, are good varieties, and a Lilac garden confined to these varieties would certainly be more beautiful than one in which the attempt was made to plant together all the varieties that have received names: Charles X (rosy lilac), Philemon, Ludwig Spath and Congo (dark red-purple), Macrostachya and Gloire de Moulins~double white), Marie Legraye (single white), Madame Lemoine and Miss Ellen Willmott (pink), Justi (blue). It must be remembered that the Arboretum collection of these plants is intended to show what not to plant as well as to show the most desirable varieties to plant. Next to the common Lilac the Persian Lilac, Syrmga persica, is probably the best known species. It reached England fifty years later and ever since has been a popular garden plant as it flowers after the common Lilac. There are pale rosy purple and white-flowered varieties and one with deeply-divided leaves (var. laciniata). A little more than a hundred years ago a hybrid between the common and the Persian Lilac appeared in the Botanic Garden at Rouen. This proved to be one of the handsomest, hardiest and most vigorous of all Lilacs, recalling its Persian parent in its small flowers produced, however, in enormous clusters, its slender branches and narrow leaves, while the color of the flowers shows the influence of Syringa vulgaris. Unfortunately, under the supposition that this plant had come from China, it was named Syringa chinensis, the name under which it must he known; it is also sometimes called Syra,nga rothomageazsis. There is a variety with pale nearly white flowers (var. alba). A Lilac from northern China, S. pubescens, is still too little known in gardens; it is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and broad clusters of pale lilaccolored flowers remarkable for the long tube of the corolla and for their delicate fragrance. For this fragrance, if for no other reason, this Lilac should find a place in every northern garden. Another Lilac from northern China, S. villosa, is a large vigorous shrub with pale rose-colored or nearly white flowers which have a distinctly disagreeable odor. The flowers, however, are handsome and abundant, and this plant should be cultivated for it is the last to bloom of the true Lilacs. The crossing of this plant in Paris a few years ago with the smallflowered Hungarian Lilac, S. Josikaea, produced a race of hybrids of extraordinary beauty. The general name for these hybrids is Syringa Henryi, so named in honor of the gardener who produced them. One of this hybrid race, called Lutece, is one of the most beautiful of all garden Lilacs, although its Hungarian parent is perhaps the least beautiful of the whole genus and the last species most breeders would have chosen for the production of a new race of garden plants. The beauty of Lutece shows that it is impossible to foretell what hybrids may produce and makes it reasonable to hope that by the use in this way of some of the new species discovered by Wilson in western China new hybrid races may be obtained of distinct value as garden plants. All the new species from western China are growing well and promise to be perfectly hardy. The flowers of none of them, however, are as handsome as some of those of the better known species, although Syringa reflexu4fsl interesting as the only Lilac which bears its flowers in drooping clusters. These new Chinese Lilacs are planted along the southern end of the grass path which follows the top of the bank occupied by the Lilac Collection. Lilacs have been flowering in the Arboretum now for the last two weeks and will continue to flower until the first of July. Most of the varieties of the common Lilac will be in flower when this Bulletin reaches its readers living near Boston. Red-flowered Azaleas. When the red-flowered Japanese Azalea (Rhododendron Kaempferi) blooms it is one of the great periods in the Arboretum. It is planted in masses at the lower end of Azalea Path, in a large group under the shade of the Hemlocks on Hemlock Hill, and on the northern edge of Hemlock Hill in a long narrow band between the Hemlocks and the Laurels (Kalmia). The flowers of this plant are so delicate that they soon fade when fully exposed to the sun, and it is desirable to select a partially shaded position for it similar to the northern base of Hemlock Hill. Here the plants flower a week or ten days later than they do on Azalea Path, where they are now fully open, and so prolong in the Arboretum the flowering period of this brilliant hardy shrub. A new Korean Azalea. Among the plants introduced into the Arboretum by Mr. Jack a few years ago one of the most valuable is an Azalea which has now been named Rhododendron coreanum. In cultivation here it is a low, compact, round-topped shrub with large, rosy mauve or red-violet flowers marked near the base of the corolla with small dark spots; the flowers of few Azaleas have a more delicate and delightful perfume. During the past week a number of these plants on the upper side of Azalea Path have been covered with flowers. They have been growing here in one of the most exposed spots in the Arboretum for three years and have never been at all injured by cold or drought, and it seems safe to predict that this Azalea will be a firstrate plant for New England gardens. An interesting Apple. Little is known in this country of an Apple tree Malus rin,go, which is one of the latest of the Asiatic Apples to flower in the Arboretum. It was introduced from Japan into Europe by Siebold some sixty years ago and was called by him Pyrus ringo, Ringo being the common name for the Apple tree in Japan. It is not a Japanest tree, however, but before the introduction of European Apples appears to have been generally cultivated there. Now it is rare in Japan although occasionally found in the north where it is called Rinke, having been replaced in the more southern parts of the country by varieties of European or American Apples. Wilson in his travels in China discovered this Apple-tree growing wild on the mountains of Hupeh at elevations of from four thousand to five thousand feet above the sea and that it is the cultivated Apple of western China. The interesting thing about this tree is that it flourishes equally well as a fruit tree in the hot climate of Ichang, only a few feet above the sea level, where oranges ripen their fruit, and on the borders of Tibet, at altitudes of over eight thousand feet. This shows that this tree has a remarkable constitution, and suggests the possibility of crossing it with some of our cultivated Apples with the view of obtaining a race capable of producing fruit in warm climates like Florida and southern California. As an ornamental tree it is valuable for the lateness of its abundant and fragrant flowers and handsome fruit which is oval, red or yellow, and from an inch to an inch and a half long. Fothergilla. This is a genus of shrubs related to the Witch Hazels. The small white flowers are produced in nearly round terminal clusters. The foliage has the general appearance of that of the Witch Hazel and in the autumn turns to brilliant shades of red and orange. The largest specimen in the Arboretum is a plant of F. major in the Hamamelis Group near the small pond at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads; and three species can be seen in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path where there are a number of plants. First cultivated in England more than a century ago, Fothergilla seems to have disappeared from gardens until it was reintroduced by the Arboretum a few years ago. All the species are plants of much interest and great beauty but it is doubtful if any of them can now be found in any commercial nursery. Siberian Pea-trees. This is the popular name of the plants of the genus Caragana of the Pea Family. They are very hardy, free-flowering shrubs or small trees from Siberia and northern China, with showy yellow flowers which are often followed by conspicuous pod-like fruits. Several of these plants which are arranged in the Shrub Collection are now in flower. Less commonly cultivated, perhaps, than they were fifty years ago and not often seen in American gardens, the Siberian Pea-trees are well suited for the colder parts of the United States and for Canada. The Flowering Dogwood. This tree (Cornusflorida) is now in flower and of unusual beauty this year. It is not native n the Arboretum but has been largely planted here and is now the most conspicuous plant, perhaps, in the roadside plantations. Comparatively rare in this latitude, the Flowering Dogwood is very abundant southward, and in early spring gives to the forest margins of the middle and southern states one of their greatest charms. The Flowering Dogwood of the east, beautiful as it is, is not so handsome as the species from the Pacific States, Cornus Nuttallii, which is a tree sometimes sixty or seventy feet high with involucres to the flower-clusters nearly twice as wide as those of Cornus florida. Cornus Na~tt,ctllii grows in damp woods under the shade of coniferous trees and is difficult to keep alive outside its native forests. It has never succeeded in the Arboretum and appears to have flowered in Europe in only a few gardens. The Japanese representative of this group, Cornus kousa, is hardy and flowers abundantly in eastern Massachusetts. It is a small tree which flowers later than Cornus florida and differs from it in its smaller pointed floral bracts, and is chiefly valuable for prolonging the flowering time of these beautiful plants. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 26","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23623","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15e8125.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 26, 1915 Hawthorns. Hawthorns (Crataegus) have been in flower in the Arboretum during the last two or three weeks, and others will flower in succession until nearly the first of July; on some of the species the fruit ripens in August and on others as late as November; and in a collection of these trees and shrubs there is much beauty of flower and fruit to be seen during more than half the year. The genus is more largely represented in species and in the number of individuals in eastern North America than in other parts of the world; a few species are found in the Rocky Mountain region and in the Pacific states; there is a single species in Japan, and less than twenty in all continental Asia. There are, however, several species in southwestern, southern and central Europe and two species in western Europe. Before 1900, when the study of American Hawthorns was begun seriously at the Arboretum, little was known about the American species which had been singularly neglected by American botanists and American gardeners. Several species, however, had reached Europe at the time when European plant collectors were sent to America, and a few American species had been described by European botanists from plants cultivated in European gardens. Twenty years ago plants raised from seeds collected principally in Missouri and Arkansas in 1880 began to flower in the Arboretum and could not be referred to any of the species which had been previously described. This led to a systematic study of the wild plants in many parts of the country, and to the bringing together here of a large amount of material. During the last fifteen years many species have been described at the Arboretum by authors working independently, and Mr. Dawson has sown the seeds of 3306 Hawthorns gathered in the United States from wild plants. It cannot be said, however, that this investigation has been more than commenced and there are still great regions in the United States where Hawthorns are known to exist which have not yet been worked critically with reference to this genus. Some of the plants which these seeds sown at the Arboretum have produced have been arranged on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill and others have been widely distributed in this country and Europe. There is a large collection also of Hawthorns mainly obtained at the Arboretum in the parks of Rochester, New York, and there is one large Arboretum collection in England and another in France. In a few years, therefore, there will be a good opportunity for a comparative study of these plants from a botanical and horticultural standpoint, for last year some three hundred and fifty different species flowered on Peter's Hill and probably this year a still larger number will produce flowers and fruits there. Of the species which have grown to a large size in the Arboretum and have proved themselves desirable garden plants may be mentioned Crataegus Arnoldiana, C. mollis, C. arkansana, and C. submollis. These belong to the Molles Group, in which the species are trees with wide heads, large early flowers and large, usually brilliant scarlet fruits. A large plant of C. coccinioides in the old Crataegus Collection, between the Shrub Collection and the Parkway and near the Forest Hills entrance, has itself shown this year the decorative value of an American Hawthorn. It is a round-headed tree from the neighborhood of St. Louis with large flowers in very compact, nearly globose clusters and large round fruit ripening in the early autumn. In this old collection are other plants which are now large enough to show their value for the decoration of parks and gardens; from among them attention is called to C. Crus-~alli, the Cockspur Thorn, which has perhaps been more generally cultivated than any other American species and is the type of one of the most distinct of the groups into which the genus is divided; C. nitida, a flat-topped tree with wide-spreading branches and narrow lustrous leaves. Although the flowers and fruits are comparatively small, their abundance, the lustre of the leaves, and the habit of the tree make it one of the handsomest of the Thorns which can be successfully cultivated in this climate. C. pruinosa, C. aprica and C. succulenta are well represented here and are good examples of three large and distinct groups. C. pruinosa is a small tree with smooth bluish green leaves, large flowers made conspicuous by the large rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens, and globose fruits, bright green and covered with a glaucous bloom when fully grown and turning scarlet late in the season. In all eastern North America there are few handsomer Thorns. C. aprica is interesting as one of the few hardy representatives of the Flavae Group which is entirely confined to the southeastern states with a few representatives ascending into the valleys of the southern Appalachian Mountains. It is not one of the handsomest species of the group for the flowers are not so large as those of many others, and the anthers of the ten stamens are yellow. C. succulenta is a showy representative of the Tomentosae Group which is one of the largest of the northern groups and is specally beautiful in autumn when the branches are covered with large clusters of drooping scarlet translucent fruits. Two black-fruited species are interesting in the old collection, C. Douglasii from Washington and Oregon, and C. rivularis from the region between the Rocky Mountains and the Sierra Nevada. Many species in the new collection on Peter's Hill are already large enough to show their character and value, especially those in the Intricatae Group. Nearly all the species in this group are small shrubs of the northern and middle states with large flowers, yellow or rose-colored anthers, and large, showy, late-ripening fruits. Long entirely overlooked by American botanists, this group contains some of the most beautiful garden plants to be found among North American shrubs. Among foreign species the earliest to flower in the Arboretum is Crataegus nigra, a tree from eastern Europe with large flowers and early-ripening black fruit. There is a large specimen in the old collection near the southern end of the Willow Collection. The two species of western Europe, C. oxycantha and C. monogyna, and many varieties are, of course, established in the Arboretum where C. orientalis from southeastern Europe, with deeply divided silvery leaves, large flowers and orange and red fruit is a plant which deserves the attention of all lovers of hardy trees and shrubs. The most beautiful, however, of all the foreign Thorns here is C. pinnatifida from eastern Siberia and northern China. The large, deeply divided and lustrous leaves make this one of the handsomest plants of the whole genus; the flowers are large and abundant, and the crimson fruits are produced in profusion. A form of this plant (var. major) with larger leaves and much larger fruit, is cultivated in orchards as a fruit tree in the neighborhood of Peking. With the exception of a few varieties of the species of western Europe with red, rose-colored or pink flowers, all Hawthorns have white flowers; they are therefore less showy when in bloom than many of the Crabapples, on most of which the flowers are more or less tinged with pink. The flowering period, however, is much longer and the fruit is far more beautiful than that of any of the Asiatic Crabapples. As flowering plants the Hawthorns are certainly less beautiful than some of the Japanese Cherries, but Cherry blossoms last only a few days and the fruits of the Japanese species have no ornamental value. Like many other trees and shrubs of the Rose family, Crataegus suffers from the attacks of the San Jose scale, and the leaves of some species are badly disfigured by a leaf miner. American Crabapples. Several of the American Crabapples are now in bloom. Those of the eastern states produce large, pink, very fragrant flowers which do not open until the leaves are partly grown, and depressed-globose, fragrant, greenish yellow fruits covered with a sticlcy exudation. The earliest to flower, Malus glaucescens, may be seen in the Peter's Hill group. It is a native of western New York and of Ontario, and is a treelike shrub or small tree distinguished from the other northern species by the pale lower surface of the leaves and the hairy covering on the outer surface of the calyx of the flower. The best known of the northern species, M. coronaria, flowers a little later and can be seen in the old collection on Forest Hills Road opposite the end of the Meadow Road. Here also are M. ioensis from the Mississippi Valley and its double-flowered variety known as the Bechtel Crab. The double pink flowers of this tree look like roses, and when it is in bloom excite the interest and admiration of visitors to the Arboretum. In the old collection, too, are plants of M. fusca, the only wild Apple tree in the Pacific states, and a plant of M. Dawsoniana, a hybrid between M. fusca and the common Apple which appeared many years ago in the Arboretum. The Crabapple to which the southern forests owe so much of their spring beauty, M. angustifolia, fortunately has proved hardy in, the Arboretum, and there are large specimens on Centre Street walk in the rear of the Hickories and in the Peter's Hill Apple Group. It is the latest of the American species to flower, and the flowers are of a rather deeper pink than those of the other American species. In the Peter's Hill Collection may be seen several plants of M. Soulardi, a tree which occurs occasionally over large areas in the Mississippi valley and is believed to be a natural hybrid between M. ioensis and the common cultivated Apple. Two Chinese Roses. For many years the Cinnamon Rose, Rosa cinnamomea, has been the first Rose in the Arboretum to open its flowers but this year two Chinese species are beginning to flower at the same time. These are R. Hugonis and R. omeiensis. The former has pale yellow single flowers about two and a half inches in diameter and is a tall, perfectly hardy free-flowering shrub with slender erect and spreading, pale brown stems and small pale leaves. There are not many yellow flowering Roses that are perfectly hardy and free-flowering in this climate and R. Hugonis is certainly one of the most valuable single Roses which has lately been introduced into gardens. It is a native of western China and was tirst raised in England from seeds sent to the British Museum by the missionary for whom it has been named. There is a plant of this Rose in the Shrub Collection which will be in full bloom when this Bulletin reaches its Massachusetts readers. Rosa omeiensis is flowering in the Arboretum for the first time. It is a vigorous shrub with young stems covered with bright red prickles, and pure white fragrant flowers hardly more than an inch in diameter, borne singly at the ends of short lateral twigs, and bright red ellipsoidal fruits which are borne on stout, elongated, yellow, fleshy stalks, and are very showy. It is common on many of the mountain ranges of western China at elevations of from 6,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, and sometimes grows twenty feet tall and forms great thickkets. Its name is derived from that of one of the sacred mountains of China, Mt. Omei, where it is common. This Rose promises to be a valuable and distinct garden shrub in this climate, and its hardiness, vigor and stout stems armed with numerous straight Hpines suggest its value as a hedge plant. It will be found in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill with the other Roses raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China. By an unfortunate typographical error on page 14 of the last issue of these Bulletins (No. 4) the flowers of the Lilacs Macrostachya and Gloire de Moulins were described as double white instead of pink, and the flowers of Madame Lemoine and Miss Ellen Willmott were described as pink instead of double white. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 31","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23624","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15e8526.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 31, 1915 American Azaleas. No other plants add more to the beauty of mountain slopes and forest glades in eastern North America than Azaleas, which are more abundant and more varied in the color of their flowers in the Appalachian region than in any other part of the world. Of the ten species found in the eastern United States seven are established in the Arboretum, and the others from the extreme south, although in the Arboretum nurseries, are too young to show their ability to withstand the rigors of the New England climate. All Azaleas are now called Rhododendrons. The first species to bloom, R. Vaseyi, begins to flower the beginning of May, and the flowers of the last, R. viscosum, can be found as late as the middle of July. The Azalea season is therefore a long one. R. Vaseyi is a tall shrub with slender stems and of open irregular habit; in its home in a few isolated mountain valleys in South Carolina it sometimes grows to the height of fifteen feet. The flowers are produced before the leaves appear, in small compact clusters, and are pure pink in color, plants with white flowers occasionally appearing. With R. Vaseyi the Rhodora (R. canadense) blooms. This is a well known dwarf shrub often covering in the north large areas of swampy land with a sheet of bloom. The small flowers, however, are of a rather unattractive rose-purple color. Naturally the Rhodora grows from Newfoundland to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The next to bloom are R. canescens and R. nudiflorum, and although the two sometimes grow together the former is a northern and the latter a more southern plant, and is especially common in the Gulf States from eastern Florida to eastern Texas. The rosy pink flowers of these plants open before or with the unfolding of the leaves, and in early spring fill the woods with their beauty and fragrance. These plants can now be seen in flower on Azalea Path and there is a mass of R. canescens on the Meadow Road in front of the Linden Group. R. calendulaceum is the next species to flower, and a few plants have already opened their orange, yellow or reddish flowers which are not fragrant. This shrub is an inhabitant of the mountain regions from southern New York to Georgia, and is extremely abundant on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. In flower it is the most showy of the American Azaleas established in the Arboretum, and one of the most beautiful of all flowering shrubs. A large mass of this Azalea has been planted on the slope below Azalea Path, and occasionally large specimens can be seen on the border plantations alcng some of the roads. The next species to flower, R. arboreseeaxs, is also a native of the mountain region from Pennsylvania to Georgia where in sheltered valleys it sometimes grows from fifteen to eighteen feet tall. The flowers, which appear after the leaves are nearly fully grown, are white or faintly tinged with rose color, and are made conspicuous by the long bright red filaments of the stamens; they are very fragrant, and the young leaves have the odor of new mown grass. Less showy in the color of the flowers, perhaps, than the yellow-flowered Azalea, it is one of the most beautiful of all hardy Azaleas. The last species to flower, the Clammy Azalea or Swamp Honeysuckle, R. viscosum, is a common inhabitant of the swamps of the eastern states, especially of those in the neighborhood of the coast. The small flowers are pure white and covered with clammy hairs,and the leaves are often of a pale bluish color, especially on the lower surface. This plant is valuable for the lateness of its flowers which do not open before the flowers of most hardy shrubs have passed, and for their fragrance. These shrubs are all good garden plants although, like other Rhododendrons, they cannot be made to live in soil impregnated with lime. They are not often cultivated, however, because it is not easy to find them in nurseries, for few nurserymen in the United States care to take the time and trouble to raise such plants from seeds, the only successful way in which they can be propagated. The new Chinese Cotoneasters. Of the shrubs introduced from western China by Wilson the most successful perhaps as garden plants belong to the Old World genus Cotoneaster. At least eighteen of these species are hardy in the Arboretum, and several of the plants have now grown large enough to show their habit, the beauty of their flowers and fruits, the brilliancy of their foliage and their ability to adapt themselves to the peculiarities of the New England climate. The most showy species now in flower are C. macltiflora and its variety calocarpa, and C. hupehensis. C. multiflora is a tall shrub with slender, widespreading, gracefully arching, bright chestnut brown stems and branches, dull pale gray leaves, white flowers half an inch in diameter borne along the whole length of the branches in compact clusters on short lateral twigs, and black fruits. C. multiflora is a widely distributed and common plant in southern Siberia and northern and western China, and has been in cultivation for several years. The variety, which has larger fruits, was discovered by Wilson near Sung-pan Ting in the Minn valley. C. hupehensis is perhaps even more beautiful as a flowering plant than C. multi,~ora, for although the white flowers are smaller they are less covered by the smaller leaves. It is a large, wide-spreading shrub with very slender arching stems and branches which are now so covered with flowers that from a distance it is hard to realize that it is a Cotoneaster and not a Spiraea. The fruit is bright red and very beautiful. C. foveolata is a large vigorous plant with stout arching stems from six to ten feet high, large thin leaves dark green and lustrous above and pale below with prominent veins deeply impressed on the upper surface. The flowers are small, globose and red, in compact clusters, on stalks much shorter than the leaves by which they are a good deal hidden. The fruit is black and lustrous. The greatest beauty, perhaps, of this plant is in the autumn color of the leaves, for after the leaves of most American shrubs have fallen those of this Chinese Cotoneaster change to brilliant shades of orange and red. There are few more beautiful autumn plants in the Arboretum. Something like C. foveolata in the size and color of the flowers and in the shape of the smaller leaves is a variety of the north China C. acutifolia from the borders of Tibet (var. villosula) which is also in flower. This is a dwarfer and more compact shrub than C. foveolata, with black fruits and bright autumn colors. Another set of these plants is distinguished by small dark green leaves, small red flowers and red fruit. The best known of these, C. horizontalis, has been in cultivation now for several years and is not rare in European gardens. It is a low shrub with wide-spreading branehlets which when trained against a wall grow several feet tall, but untrained form a dense mat two or three feet high and sometimes six or eight feet in diameter. In this climate the leaves remain on the branches without change of color until early winter, but in milder climates do not fall until the spring. The best specimen of this handsome plant in the Arboretum is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. C. dzvaricata, which is also in flower, is a larger plant with wide-spreading stems forming a rather open head, and bright red fruit. From this the related C. nitens, which is a smaller shrub, differs chiefly in its more compact habit and reddish black fruit. Distinct with prominent stems forming mats only a few inches high are C. adpressa and C. micno~hylla. These are useful little plants for the rock garden and for the edging of garden walks. Several of the Chinese Cotoneasters are in the general Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path, but the best specimens are in the Chinese Shrub Collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where these plants have been growing for four years in an exceedingly exposed position and without protection. Flowerixaa Ashes. This is the common name for a group of Ash trees (Fraxinus) with elongated white petals which make the flowers conspicuous. They are natives of southern and southeastern Europe, the Himalayas and western and northern China. A shrubby species, F. dipetala, is common in California, and two Mexican species extend into the territory of the United States, one in southern Texas and the other in Arizona where it ranges as far north as the rim of the Grand Canon of the Colorado River. The type of the group, Fraxinus Ornus, is a common tree in southern Europe, and is now in flower at the upper end of the Ash Group near the top of the eastern slope of Bussey Hill. Manna is the hardened sap of this and a related species. Another species of Flowering Aph, F. Bu~ageana, is also in flower near F. Ornus. This is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum and is an irregularly growing shrub ten or twelve feet high from the mountains near Peking. It flowers here regularly every year and produces large crops of seeds. The plant of a third species, Fraxinus Paxiana, will soon be in flower. This is one of Wilson's discoveries in western China and is flowering this year for the first time in America. It is a small tree remarkable for the large size of the nearly globose terminal winter-buds. A new Diervilla. Among the plants brought from Korea a few years ago into the Arboretum by Mr. Jack is a form of Diervilla florida which has been named var. venusta. This is one of the handsomest of all Diervillas and one of the earliest to flower. It is very vigorous and every year completely covers itself before the leaves are half grown with large rosy pink flowers. Few of the shrubs introduced by the Arboretum in recent years give greater promise of usefulness and popularity in northern gardens. It is in the Shrub Collection, but the best plant in the Arboretum now in full bloom is on Hickory Path near the Pecan tree. Bush Honeysuckles. For northern gardens there are no more beautiful shrubs than some of the Bush Honeysuckles, with their myriads of yellow, white, rose color or red flowers which in summer or autumn are followed by lustrous, usually scarlet fruits. Many of these shrubs are able to show their greatest beauty in this climate, but this can be obtained only by planting them in rich soil and with sufficient space for free growth in all directions. In poor soil and when crowded by other plants they are usually miserable objects. The large growing kinds like the different forms of L. tatarica, L. bella and its varieties with white and with rose-colored flowers and L. notha should be planted as isolated specimens at least twenty feet from any other plant. L. Morrowi, a plant of the Amoor region in eastern Siberia requires even more space, for its lower branches which cling close to the ground naturally spread over a great area. This shrub has gray-green foliage, comparatively large white flowers and bright red fruits. It is one of the most useful of the early introductions of the Arboretum into the United States and has been largely planted in the Boston parks. Like many other Bush Honeysuckles L. Ii~lorrowi hybridizes easily with other species, and most of the plants raised from seeds, now sold by American nurserymen as L. Morrowi are hybrids of that species with L. tata.rica and are erect growing plants of little value for those who want plants with the peculiar habit of L. Morrowi. Among less vigorous growing plants attention is called to two hybrids of L. Korolkowi in the collection, L. amoena and L. Arnoldiana. These have small graygreen foliage and small, bright pink and very attractive flowers, and are hardly surpassed in grace and beauty by any honeysuckles in the collection. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 8","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23620","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15eb36e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 8, 1915 Rhododendrons. In the Bulletin issued April 28th attention was called to the damage which the Rhododendrons in the Arboretum had suffered during the winter, and it was suggested that it was caused by the severe drought of the autumn, followed by the unprecedented drought of March and early April, and not by cold which had not been exceptional. The Arboretum Rhododendrons certainly suffered from drought, but dryness alone will hardly account for such a destruction, for in other places near Boston plants in much drier and more exposed positions than those in the Arboretum are reported to have come through the winter uninjured. Some of the plants which were killed here have been twenty-five or thirty years in the country. These plants were grafted on Rhododendron ponticum, a plant which is not hardy here and is therefore not a suitable stock for Catawbiense hybrid Rhododendrons to be grown in this climate. It is well known that these old grafted plants often lose large branches from what gardeners call \"canker,\" and it is not impossible that the old plants killed in the Arboretum have been gradually failing for several years from the influence of the stock on which they had been grafted, and were therefore susceptible to extreme climatic conditions. This view is borne out by the fact that when plants of a particular kind were killed and others of the same kind were not killed it was always the oldest and largest plants of the variety that suffered. It has generally been supposed that it was the cross with R. arboreum and other Indian species which has made so many of the varieties of R. catawbiense tender in this climate, but some of the varieties which show in their bright red flowers this influence, like Atrosanguineum, Charles Dickens, and H. W. Sargent are uninjured, while many of the pale-flowered kinds like Lady Grey Egerton, Mrs. H. S. Hunnewell and Delicatissimum have been killed. The last is a hybrid between R. catawbiense and R. maximum, and for the last thirty years has been considered one of the hardiest and most desirable of the Rhododendrons which have been planted in New England. Plants of the following Catawbiense varieties have been killed in the Arboretum, but of the varieties marked with a star one or more, but not all the individuals in the collection, have been killed. On many plants which have not otherwise suffered the buds have been killed or injured. ~Adolf, Alarich, Albin, Alfred, *Atrorubrum, *Bismarck, Bluebell, ~Butlerianum, Circe, Daniel, ~~Delicatissimum, *Diana, Duchess of Connaught, Earl of Shannon, Egge, Elysium, Fee, *F. L. Ames, *F. B. Hayes, ~Hanna Felix, Herkules, Jay Gould, *King of the Purples, *Lady Grey Egerton, Madame Wagner, *Diarquis of Waterford, Mum, *Mrs. Harry Ingersoll, Mrs. H. S. Hunnewell, Mnemoisyne, *Prometheus, *R. S. Field, Salmonum roseum, Sir H. Haverlock. Rhododendron caucasicum. On the whole the different forms of R. caucasicum have come through the winter in comparatively good condition. The plants of the varieties Cleo and Ochroleucrum have been killed, and the flower-buds of a few others have suffered. The following varieties, however, are uninjured or have suffered only slightly: Boule de Neige, Coriaceum, Jacksonii and Mont Blanc. The Rainfall of Recent Years. Whatever may have been the cause of the death this spring of so many Rhododendrons the small rainfall of the last seven years must account, at least in part, for the generally poor condition of Rhododendrons in eastern Massachusetts, for the death in this part of the country of many old Oaks and other native trees in the woods, and for the great number of dead branches on many native Ash trees, even on young trees which should be healthy and vigorous. It is interesting, therefore, to study in this connection the statistics of the rainfall in recent years on the watershed of the Sudbury River in Massachusetts, about twenty miles from Boston. For the following figures the Arboretum is indebted to Mr. Desmond Fitzgerald of Brookline. During the years 1875-1903, inclusive, the average rainfall on the Sudbury basin was 46.34 inches; from 1904-1914 the annual average rainfall was, however, only 40.79 inches, or an annual deficit of 5.55 inches. During the seven years from 1908-1914 the annual average was only 39.24 inches, or an annual deficiency of 6.76 inches as compared with the period from 1875 to 1907, that is, the loss of rain in the past seven years is rather more than the entire rainfall of one normal year; and, moreover, in these seven years there has not been a single year of normal rainfall. Rhododendrons in the United States. In some years, when conditions are comparatively favorable, Rhododendrons flourish in this climate; in other years when conditions are less favorable they suffer. Compared with these plants as they grow in England and Scotland Rhododendrons are never really successful here. This is not a climate for Rhododendrons, that is for the sort of Rhododendrons European nurserymen usually propagate and send to this country. It is true some of them can be kept alive here for a great many years but they require special care. The soil in which they grow best has to be specially prepared for them; they require shelter from the sun of early spring, and a great deal of moisture. Of late years they have suffered terribly from the attacks of the lace-wing fly which turns the leaves brown and makes them fall prematurely, thus weakening the plant. Rhododendrons, like many other plants of the Heath Family, cannot grow in soil impregnated with lime; they are not hardy very far north . of Boston, and south of Philadelphia, except in the elevated regions of the interior, it is too hot for them in summer, so that the region in the eastern states where these plants can be grown at all is not a large one. Here in eastern Massachusetts there are only four species of broad-leaved evergreen Rhododendrons which are perfectly hardy; these are the native R. maximum, R, catawbiense from the high slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains, R. carolinianum from the same region, and R. Smirnowii from the Caucasus, and if we can hope for a race of hybrid Rhododendrons better suited to the conditions of the New England climate than any we now possess, it will be obtained by mingling the blood of these four species and by excluding entirely the blood of the Himalayan species to which the garden Rhododendrons of Europe owe a large part of the brilliancy of their flowers. Rhododendron Smirnowii. This is a plant from which a good deal may be expected. It has been growing in the Arboretum for several years and has not suffered from cold or drought. When, however, the plant is fully exposed to the sun the leaves often droop and their edges infold, and it does better in partial shade. The leaves are pale grayish green above and below are thickly covered with pale felt which successfully protects them from the attacks of the lace-wing fly. The flowers are of good size and of pleasant shades of pink or rosy pink, and are borne in large clusters. As compared with the dark green leaves of R. catawbiense those of this plant are less attractive, but the flowers are much more beautiful in color and are equally large. Several hybrids of R. Smirnowii with varieties of R. catawbiense have been raised in Europe, and there are a few of these in the Arboretum collection. They have proved to be good garden plants here, flowering earlier than R. Smirnowii and producing larger pink flowers; they have never been injured in the Arboretum, but as there is only a trace of the felt left on their leaves they will probably suffer from the lacewing fly. Rhododendron carolinianum is said to have suffered last winter in a few places near Boston, but it was uninjured in the Arboretum and in several other Massachusetts gardens. It is the most beautiful of the dwarf small-flowered Rhododendrons which can be grown in this climate and may prove valuable to cross with other species. It has now been out of flower for more than two weeks. Rhododendron Smirnowii is now at its best. The flowers on R. catazvbiense are just opening, and those on R. maximum will not be out for another fortnight. The flowers of a few of the Catawbiense hybrids are in bloom but most Rhododendrons are late this year, and many of them are only beginning to show the color of their flowers through the opening bud-scales. Late-flowering Lilacs. Several late-flowering Lilacs are now attractive. The best known of these is probably S. villosa, a large shrub from northern China with rose-colored pink or nearly white, bad-smelling flowers; it was introduced into the Arboretum from Peking in 1882 and has been largely planted in this part of the country. It flowers very freely and is a first-rate garden shrub valuable for its late flowers which prolong the season of Lilac bloom. Forms of the hybrid (S. Henryi) between this species and the Hungarian S. Josikaea are also in flower. The handsomest of these hybrids, called S. Lutece, is a good garden plant with the bluish-purple flowers of its Hungarian parent and the habit of S. villosa. Another iate-blooming lilac, Syringa Julianae, a native of western China where it was discovered by Wilson in promises to be a good addition to garden Lilacs. It is related to S. pubescens and the flowers, like those of that species, are small and fragrant; they differ from those of other Lilacs in the deep purple color of the outer surface of the corolla-tube. This is the color, too, of the stalks of the infloresence and of the individual flowers, while the inner surface of the lobes of the corolla is white, so that as the flowers open the infloresence is purple and white. This Lilac, like every other species of Lilac now in cultivation, is perfectly hardy here and the Arboretum specimen is now covered with flowers. Another Chinese. Lilac, Syringa microphylla, is in flower for the first time in America; it is a plant with small leaves, and small, pale pink, fragrant flowers resembling, except in color, those of S. pubescens. Syringa Wolfli. The handsomest, however, of all the late-flowering i Lilacs is S. Wolfii, a native of Mongolia. This plant reached the Arboretum from St. Petersburg in 1906 and before it had received a name. It is related to S. villosa which it resembles in its foliage, but it appears to be a larger and more vigorous plant. The small, dark bluepurple or rose-purple flowers are borne in clusters which on vigorous plants are sometimes two feet long or more and a foot in diameter, and are produced in the greatest profusion. By many persons it is considered the handsomest of all the species of Lilacs, and certainly no other Lilac is more vigorous or produces such great clusters of flowers. The flowers, however, lack the fragrance of the common Lilac and of several of the Chinese species. Laburnum alpinum. The large plant of the so-called Scotch Laburnum is now in bloom near the entrance to the Arboretum from the Forest Hills Gate. It is a hardier plant in this country than the better known L. vulgare; it flowers about two weeks later than that tree, and its bright yellow flowers are borne in longer clusters. This is the handsomest yellow-flowered large shrub or small tree which can be grown successfully in New England, and it is surprising that a plant of this character which is so generally cultivated in Europe should remain so little known in this country. A hybrid between this species and Laburnum vulgare, called L. Parkii, has been in flower on Hickory Path near Centre Street; it is a small and perfectly hardy tree. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23617","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15ea76d.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 14, 1915 Yellow-flowered Roses. Among wild Roses with yellow flowers are a few hardy plants which are not often seen in American gardens. There are five species of single yellow-flowered Roses which are found only in the region from the Caucasus to the Himalayas, in central Asia and in western and northern China. Among all the Roses of North America, Europe (except the Caucasus), Siberia and Japan, there is not a wild yellow-flowered Rose although some varieties of the Scotch Rose, R. spinosissima, have flowers more or less tinged with yellow, like the variety hispida, which has been covered with pale yellow flowers in the Shrub Collection this year, and Harison's Yellow Rose which was raised by Mr. George Harison of New York about 1830 and is believed to be a hybrid between the Scotch Rose and the Austrian Briar. It is a very hardy, free-growing and vigorous plant, and never fails to produce large crops of pale yellow semi-double flowers. It was a very popular plant at one time in the northern states, and it is still found in most old-fashioned gardens. One of the yellow-flowered Roses, R. simplicifolicc, from Persia is not hardy. Of the four species which are hardy here Rosa Hugonis from western China is the earliest to bloom, and has been described in an earlier issue of these Bulletins. In the Arboretum the flowers are larger than those of the other yellow-flowered species and the plants are more vigorous and flower more freely. Judging by the plants in the Arboretum which have been growing here for several years this will be a valuable garden plant for the northern states. The next species to flower here, R. Ecae, is a very spiny shrub with small leaves and pale yellow flowers not more than an inch in diameter. It is a native of Afghanistan, where it is common on dry mountain ridges, and of Samarkand and although of some botanical interest it has little to recommend it as a garden plant in this region. In 1820 an English botanist found in a collection of Chinese drawings in London the picture of a double yellow Rose to which he gave the name of R. xanthina, and many years later the single-flowered form of this Rose was found growing wild in Mongolia by the French missionary David. English botanists have usually confused this Chinese Rose with R. Ecae and it apparently had not been cultivated in the United States or Europe until 1908 when the Arboretum received from the Department of Agriculture seeds of this Rose gathered in China by its collector, Mr. F. N. Meyer. Both the single and double-flowered forms were raised from this seed and have flowered in the Arboretum this year. The flowers are larger than those of R. Ecae and bright clear yellow. These Roses appear to be perfectly at home in the Arboretum, but it is too soon to speak of their value in North American gardens. The single and the double-flowered varieties are much cultivated in the gardens of Peking. The last of the hardy yellow-flowered Roses, the so-called Austrian Briar, has suffered from too many names. Among others it has been called R. eglanteria and R. lutea, but its oldest name by which it must be known is R. foetida, an unfortunate name given to it because the flowers have a slight odor which some persons do not find pleasant. Although long known in gardens as the Austrian Briar, it is probably nowhere a native of western Europe but an inhabitant of the Crimea, the Caucasus, Persia, and probably central Asia. It has handsome bright yellow flowers and when it grows well is one of the most beautiful of all single-flowered Roses, but in this climate it does not always succeed and the plants are usually short-lived. It has never flowered better, perhaps, in the Arboretum than it has this year. The Copper Austrian Briar, which has the petals yellow on the outer surface and dark copper color on the inner surface, is believed to be a variety of R. foetida (var. bicolor). In this climate this handsome plant is usually short-lived and is not a very satisfactory garden plant. There is a double-flowered variety of R. foetida in the collection (var. persiana), known as the Persian Yellow Rose. This plant was sent to England from Persia in 1838 and is sometimes cultivated in American gardens. The flowers are more beautiful than those of the Harison Rose, but in this climate it does not grow so vigorously. Kolkwitzia amabilis. This native of western China is the only representative of a genus which is related to Diervilla and Abelia, and although it reached the Arboretum in 1908 it is now flowering for the first time. The flowers are borne in pairs on long stems at the ends of short, lateral, leafy branchlets an inch long with a two-lobed oblique corolla deep rose color in the bud, becoming paler after opening, the inner surface of the three divisions of the lower lobe being white blotched with orange color at the base. Kolkwitzia is an erect growing shrub with slender stems and branches and is apparently perfectly hardy. The Arboretum specimen is now nearly six feet high and can be seen covered with flowers in the Shrub Collection between the Honeysuckles and the Diervillas. Abelia Engleriana. Abelia is a genus of small shrubs related to Diervilla and Lonicera with small oblique flowers in pairs. Abelia grandiflora, which is believed to be a hybrid, is much grown in the middle and southern states, and although it usually suffers at the north plants in sheltered positions in the Arboretum often flower. Abelia Engleriana, a native of western China, appears to be much hardier and promises to be a useful small plant for the borders of shrubberies. The flower is three-quarters of an inch long, the corolla light rose color on the outer surface and very pale yellow on the inner surface with conspicuous yellow blotches at the base of the lobes of the lower lip. In size, shape and color the flowers have a strong resemblance to those of Kolkwitzia amabalis. Syringa reflexa. This is perhaps the most distinct of the Lilacs discovered by Wilson in western China. It is a stout and vigorous shrub, with foliage which in general appearance resembles that of S. villosa. It flowers freely and the narrow flower-clusters, which are nine or ten inches long, arch downward from near the base. The plants are perhaps handsomest before the flower-buds open, for these are bright red and more conspicuous than the open flowers which are pale rose color. It appears to be perfectly hardy and gives promise of being a first-rate garden plant. Syringa tomentella, another of the west China species, is also flowering well this year. The flowers, which are produced in large loose clusters, are longer and more slender than those of S. reflexa and are of the palest rose color. The foliage, like that of most of the new Chinese species, resembles that of S. villosa. Styrax japonica. Attention is called to the group of these plants on Hickory Path where they are perfectJy at home, although in other parts of the Arboretum they have not proved entirely hardy. This is one of the handsomest of the species of this handsome genus, and every year at this time these plants are covered with white flowers hanging down from the branches on long slender stalks. That it is perfectly at home in this position is shown by the fact that hundreds of seedlings spring up every year under the old plants. Dwarf Buckeyes. In a bed in the Horsechestnut Group, which is on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road entering from the Jamaica Plain Gate, the new shrubby Aesculus georgiana with its short compact clusters of red and yellow flowers has been in bloom again this year and has proved itself a fine plant in this climate. With it is blooming one of the southern scarlet-flowered Buckeyes, Aesculus discolor, var. mollis, sometimes found in books under the name of Aesculus austrina. This is a common and widely distributed shrub or small tree from Georgia to Texas and southeastern Missouri, and is the only red-flowered Buckeye found in the territory west of the Mississippi River. Long overlooked or confounded with other species by botanists, it has only recently been brought into gardens. It is one of the handsomest flowering plants of the southern states, and it is fortunate that it is able to flourish in the Arboretum where it has now been growing for the last ten years. Aesculus rlFarbisonii is also in this group. This shrub is the last of the Horsechestnuts and Buckeyes in the collection to unfold its leaves, which do not appear until those of most of the other trees and shrubs of this family are nearly full grown and, with the exception of Aesculus parviflora is the last of the group to flower. Two plants sprang up in the Arboretum nursery ten years ago among seedlings of Aesculus georgiana, and the mixture of glands and hairs on the petals of the flowers show that it is a hybrid between species belonging to different sections of the genus, no doubt A. georgiana, and A. discolor var. mollis, which also appeared among these seedlings. Whatever its origin A. Harbisonii is a good garden plant which has proved itself perfectly hardy in the Arboretum where it has flowered now regularly for three years. The stem and branches of the flower-cluster and the calyx of the flower are rose color, and the petals are canary yellow slightly streaked with red toward the margins; the lateness of their appearance adds to the value of these shrubs which are now three or four feet high and covered with flowers. Sophora vicifolia. There are not many shrubs with blue flowers which are hardy in this climate and none of them are as satisfactory as this Sophora, which is a native of central and western China where it is a common undershrub in dry hot valleys. In the Arboretum it is a shapely plant about four feet high and perfectly hardy; it produces its small blue and white pea-shaped flowers in great profusion and blooms every year. It is one of the most attractive of the small shrubs of recent introduction. It can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Some species of Mock Orange (Philadelphus) are already flowering. The earliest to bloom in the collection are P. Schneckii, var. Jackii, a plant discovered by Mr. Jack in Korea a few years ago, and P. hirsutus from the southern Appalachian region. The former is a dwarf shrub with erect stems and rather small flowers, and is chiefly valuable for its earliness. P. hirsutus is also a small-flowered species and in cultivation is a large, loose-growing shrub of unattractive habit. There is a large collection of species, varieties and hybrids of Philadelphus in the Arboretum; they are planted in the Shrub Collection and in a supplementary collection forming a large group on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilac Group. Many useful hardy shrubs with beautiful flowers are found among these plants which will be in bloom now for several weeks and will repay a careful study by persons interested in such plants. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 21","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23618","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15eab6d.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 21, 1915 Viburnums of Western Asia. In discussing these plants it must be remembered that none of the beautiful evergreen species of southern Japan and southern China which are sometimes seen in the gardens of the southern states are hardy in New England. The one exception is Vibzcrrzacm rhytidophyllum from western China. This plant can be kept alive here in sheltered positions, but it always suffers from cold which disfigures and sometimes kills the foliage and prevents it from flowering ; and its only interest from the gardener's point of view is in its ability to exist in New England. It is now possible to judge of the value of most of the deciduous-leaved species of China and Japan as garden plants for the northern states, for nearly all of them are well established in the Arboretum. Speaking generally, they are less valuable here than the species of eastern North America, among which are some of the handsomest shrubs and small trees which can be grown in New England. In speaking of American Viburnums it must be understood that we are talking about them in eastern America, and that in Europe these plants do not flower as they do here, and rarely if ever produce the great crops of fruit which make them wonderful objects in autumn. This statement of the comparative value here of the species of eastern North America and of eastern Asia as garden plants is a general one, for among the Asiatic species are several plants of great ornamental value. In the species of the Opulus Group the sterile flowers which form a ring round the inflorescence are larger on V. Sargentii, the Asiatic representative, than on the American and European species of this group, and as a flowering plant it is the handsomest of the three. The fruits, however, are smaller and of a duller color than those of the other species, which are both much more beautiful in the autumn. The Korean C. Carlesii, which has been described in an earlier issue of these Bulletins (No. 2), has no particular beauty of habit or of foliage, but has few rivals in the beauty of its fragrant flowers. The handsomest, however, of all the Asiatic Viburnums is V. tomentosum, a native of both Japan and western China. In Japan it grows to the size of a small tree, but in this country it is a large shrub with wide-spreading horizontal branches on the upper side of which the flat flower-clusters are thickly placed and are surrounded by a ring of pure white ray flowers. The fruit when fully grown is bright scarlet at first and becomes black at maturity. This is one of the handsomest shrubs which has been brought from eastern Asia into our gardens. There is a Japanese form in the collection with narrower leaves, var. lanceolatum, and two \"Snowball\" forms. The more common of these is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub which is covered every year with small compact heads of white sterile flowers. It usually appears in gardens and garden-catalogues as Viburnum plicatum, but the correct name for this plant is V. tomentosum, var. dilatatum. The other Japanese Snowball is a dwarfer plant and flowers here about two weeks earlier than V. plicatum. The name for it is V. tomentosum, var. dilatatum, forma rotundifolium. The Chinese Snowball, V. macrocephalum, forma sterile, has pure white sterile flowers in larger heads than those of the other Snowballs. It was introduced into England from Chinese gardens many years ago, and although hardy and free-flowering here, it is not a vigorous or long-lived plant. The type of this species is not in the Arboretum. Viburnum Sieboldti, a native of Japan, is a treelike shrub or small tree which sometimes grows to the height of thirty feet. This plant has light green lustrous leaves, round and broadest at the apex, with prominent veins, and when crushed an exceedingly disagreeable odor. The flowers are produced in large clusters and the fruit, like that of V. tomentosum, turns from bright red to black after it is fully grown. Viburnum Sieboldii is a fast-growing and perfectly hardy plant, and one of the best of the Asiatic species in this climate. A handsomer plant is V. dilatatum, which is widely distributed in Japan and grows also in Korea and western China. It is a large and shapely shrub with broad flat clusters of perfect flowers which are followed by large clusters of small bright red fruits, which make it a desirable plant for the decoration of the autumn garden. It is one of the last of the Asiatic species to flower in the Arboretum, and is now covered with its handsome flower-clusters. Viburnum Wrightii, a Japanese species, is only valuable for its bright red fruits which are larger than those of V. dilatatum and make it conspicuous in autumn. Viburnum burejaeticum from eastern Siberia and V. erosum, a native of Japan and Korea, are well established in the Arboretum but have little to recommend them as garden plants, and this is true of the six or seven species from western China discovered by Wilson which are hardy here. The best of them, perhaps, is V. theiferum; this is a stout and vigorous narrow shrub with erect stems, small flower-clusters and red fruits. This plant has some economic interest, too, as an infusion of the leaves furnished the \"sweet tea\" used by the monks in the monasteries on Mt. Omei, one of the five sacred mountains of China. Of the western Chinese species V. Veitchii has the handsomest foliage which resembles that of the Traveler's Tree, V. Lantana, and retains its bright green color and does not fall until after that of other Viburnums has disappeared. This shrub has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. Viburnum furcatum from Japan and Korea is closely related and resembles the North American Hobblebush or Moosewood, V. alnifolium often called V. lantanoides. The Japanese plant is growing in the Arboretum but has not yet flowered here. It is as handsome a plant as the American species, and will probably prove equally difficult to manage. A Handsome Chinese Rose. In 1804 a Rose reached England from China and when it flowered was found to have small, clustered, double pink flowers. It soon found its way to France and in 1821 received the name of R. multiflora carnea. Redoute made it the subject of one of his graceful Rose portraits in Les Roses, the most beautiful of the many books devoted to Roses. In 1817 another of the double red or pink flowered multiflora Roses was sent from China to England and then to France. This plant received there the name of Rosa multiflora platyphylla and its portrait was also painted by Redoute. It was called in England the \"Seven Sisters Rose\" and soon became a popular garden plant in Europe and the United States. Now it has almost disappeared from gardens, having been replaced by the Rambler Roses of more recent introduction. The Crimson Rambler Rose, which is now one of the most popular Roses in the northern United States, is evidently a selected form of R. multiflora platyphylla and has been widely cultivated in China probably for centuries. From China it reached Japan, and in 1878 came from Japan to England. Rosa multiflora itself, which is a Japanese species with large clusters of small white single flowers, has been known to botanists since 1784 but did not reach England until about 1875. Seeds of this Rose were sent, however, from Germany a year earlier to the Arboretum where it has been largely used in the production of hybrid Rambler Roses. Nothing was known of the origin of the double pink and red-flowered Chinese multiflora Roses until 1897 when a French missionary, the Abbe Farges, sent from western China to Monsieur Maurice L. de Vilmorin seeds of a Rose which turned out to be a single pink-flowered R. multiflora, and certainly the plant from which they had been derived. A portrait of this plant in flower appeared in 1904 in the catalogue of the Fruticetum Vilmorinianum, but it was not named and seems to have been lost sight of. Wilson found it in western China where it is very common, and collected seeds. William Purdom, also collecting for the Arboretum in Shensi in 1909, sent seeds here of this single-flowered Rose and the plants raised from these seeds are now flowering in the Arboretum for the third year. This Rose is now to be called R. multiflora, var. cathayensis; it is a hardy, vigorous, and handsome plant with the habit of the Japanese R. multiflora. The flowers are from two to two and a half inches in diameter and are produced in large, many-flowered clusters, and the large, conspicuous, bright yellow anthers add to the beauty of the clear pink petals. This Rose may well become a popular garden plant. It offers possibilities which the hybridist will undoubtedly take advantage of; and it is of considerable historical interest as the wild original of garden plants cultivated probably for centuries by the Chinese and known in Europe and America for more than a hundred years. Plants covered with flowers and flower-buds can be seen with the other Chinese Roses in the Chinese Shrub Collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Syringa Sweginzowii. This year this has been the last of the true Chinese Lilacs to flower. The leaves are dark dull green and sharply pointed, and the flowers are borne in long narrow clusters with dark red slender stems and branches; they are delicately fragrant, half an inch long, with very slender corolla-tubes, and are flesh color in the bud, becoming nearly white after the buds open. Like the other Chinese species, it is perfectly hardy, grows rapidly, flowers freely even as a small plant, and is well worth a place in a collection of Lilacs. The Tree Lilacs. No plants are now more conspicuous in the Arboretum than the Tree Lilacs. There are three species of this group, S. amurensis, S. pekinensis, and S. japonica. The first is a native of eastern Siberia and is a small tree with flat, spreading or slightly drooping clusters of white flowers. S. pekinensis, a native of northern China, is a shrub rather than a tree, although it sometimes reaches the height of thirty feet, with numerous stout stems pendant at the ends and covered with bark peeling off in thin layers like that of some of the Birch trees. The flower-clusters are flat, unsymmetrical, half drooping, and are smaller than those of the other species. S. japonica is a native of the forests of northern Japan, and is the last of the three species to flower; it is a tree often thirty or forty feet high with a tall stout trunk covered with lustrous bark like that of a Cherry tree, and a wide, round-topped head. Like the other species of the group, it loses its leaves in the autumn without change of color. These three plants can be seen on the bank in the rear of the Lilac Group on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road. Halimodendron argenteum. This shrub, a native of Siberia, is now covered with pale rose-colored, pea-shaped, fragrant flowers, which are borne in short clusters, and their delicate beauty is heightened by the light color of the leaves which are clothed with a pale silky down. The plant remains in flower during several weeks, and is or,e of the handsomest of the early-summer flowering shrubs in the Shrub Collection. Evodia Henryi. This tree from western China is flowering here for the first time. It belongs to a genus related to Phellodendron, and is widely spread over eastern Asia, extending to Australia and Madagascar. Like Phellodendron, it has pinnate leaves, and small, unisexual flowers in small clusters terminating the shoots of the year, and, like Phellodendron, Evodia is aromatically scented in all its parts. It differs from that genus, however, in the fruit which is a dry capsule and not a berry, and in its exposed axillary buds, those of Phellodendron being covered by the bases of the leaf stalks. Evodia Henryi is a small tree with dark green, lustrous leaves and small pink flowers, and is an interesting addition to the list of trees which can be successfully cultivated in this climate. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 28","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23619","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15eaf6e.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 28, 1915 Philadelphus. In 1811 English gardeners cultivated only two species of Philadelphus and twelve years later botanists recognized only eleven species. There are now established in the Arboretum some thirty species and a large number of varieties and hybrids. All these plants, popularly called Syringas, are easy to manage, demand no special care, and suffer less from the attacks of insects than most trees and shrubs. They flower freely year after year, their flowers are often very fragrant, and in rich well-drained soil the plants live for many years. Some of the species can grow under the shade of overhanging trees, and flower in such situations more freely than almost any other shrub. The beauty of these plants is found in their white flowers; the fruit, which is a dry capsule, has as little beauty as that of a Lilac. There is nothing distinct or particularly interesting in the habit of the plants of any of the species, and the leaves fall in autumn without brilliant coloring. As flowering plants not many shrubs, however, surpass them in beauty, and their value is increased by the length of the flowering season which extends in the Arboretum during fully six weeks. Some of the species hybridize freely and several of the handsomest of these plants are hybrids. One of the first of these hybrids to attract attention was raised in France before 1870 by Monsieur A. Billard; it is known as Philadelphias insignis and sometimes is called Souvenir de Billard. It is one of the handsomest of the large-growing Syringas, and the last or nearly the last to bloom in the Arboretum, for the flowers will not be open for another fortnight. A hybrid probably between P. grandiflorus of the Appalachian Mountain region with a species from our northwest coast appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago and has been named P. splendens; it is a large and vigorous shrub with unusually large flowers, and during the past week has been one of the handsomest Syringas in the collection; the flowers are without perfume. Philadelph~as maximus, a supposed hybrid between P. latifolius from the southeastern United States, and P. tomentosus from the Himalayas, grows to a larger size than any of the other Syringas. It is not rare in old Massachusetts gardens in which plants from twenty to thirty feet high can occasionally be seen. The crossing about thirty years ago in France by Lemoine of P. coronarius with P. microphyllus produced an entirely new race of Syringas which has proved to be one of the best additions to garden shrubs that has ever been made. The first plant obtained by this cross is called Philadelphus Lemoinei; it is a perfectly hardy shrub four or five feet high and broad, with slender stems which bend from the weight of countless flowers; these are intermediate in size between those of the two parents and retain the fragrance of P. microphyllus. There are at least a dozen distinct forms of this hybrid made by Lemoine, varying considerably in the size of the plants and of the flowers, and in the time of flowering. One of the handsomest, perhaps, is called Candelabre; this is a very dwarf plant with flowers larger than those of either of its parents and an inch and a half wide, with petals notched on the margins, and without the perfume of its parents. Other distinct forms equally hardy and beautiful are Avalanche, Boule d'Argent, Bouquet Blanc, Erectus, Fantasie, Gerbe de Neige and Mont Blanc. The Mock Orange of old gardens, PhiLadelphus coronarius, a native of southeastern Europe and the Caucasus, was cultivated in England in 1596 and was probably one of the first shrubs brought to America by the English settlers. It is a shapely hardy shrub able to bear a good deal of neglect and abuse, and chiefly valuable for the fragrance of the flowers which are smaller than those of many other species and faintly tinged with yellow. Several forms of this plant are in the collection. None of them, however, are of particular beauty or interest, and one of them with double solitary flowers is as ugly as it is possible for a Syringa to be. Among the species none is perhaps more interesting than the Rocky Mountain P. microphyllus, one of the parents of the Lemoine hybrids. It is a compact shrub three or four feet high and broad with leaves not more than half an inch long and smaller flowers than those of any other Philadelphus in cultivation and rather less than three-quarters of an inch in diameter; their fragrance is not surpassed by that of any plant in the collection. The most beautiful of the species of recent introduction, P. purpurascens, is a native of western China, where it was discovered by Wilson. It is a shrub with long arching branches, from which rise numerous branchlets spreading at broad angles and from four to six inches long; these bear the flowers on drooping stalks from near the base to the apex and give to the plant when it flowers a different appearance from that of any of the other species. The flowers have a strong pungent and delightful odor and are an inch and a half in diameter with a purple calyx and pure white petals which do not spread like those of many of the species but form a bell-shaped corolla. It is the handsomest of the Old World species, and an addition to garden plants of first importance. It is interesting that the handsomest of the American species, P. indorus, was one of the first Syringas cultivated in Europe where it arrived about the middle of the eighteenth century. It is a large shrub with arching branches, and large, solitary, pure white, cup-shaped, scentless flowers. This beautiful plant is not now very often seen in gardens. It is impossible in this bulletin even to mention all the species, varieties and hybrids of Philadelphus in the collection which is now one of the most complete in the Arboretum. It will well repay a careful study by persons interested in handsome garden shrubs and in the effects of hybridization, natural or intended, in this genus. A new Chinese Rose. From the seeds of a Rose collected by Wilson in western China a new species of the Moschata Group has been raised. It is now flowering in the Arboretum for the third year and is to be named Rosa Helenae; it is a vigorous and perfectly hardy shrub with slender, arching stems furnished sparingly with short red spines, and five or six feet high, light green cheerful foliage, and terminal and axillary many-flowered clusters of pure white, delicately fragrant flowers an inch and a half in diameter and borne on short erect branchlets. It is a plant which will be prized by persons realizing that among the wild Roses are some of the most beautiful of all flowering plants and who find a place for them in their gardens. Magnolia macrophylla. This is the last of the Magnolias in the collection to flower. It is a medium-sized tree with wide-spreading branches, and is distinguished by the fact that of all trees which grow beyond the tropics it has the largest leaves and the largest flowers. The leaves are silvery white on the lower surface, from twenty to thirty inches long and from eight to nine inches wide, and the cupshaped, creamy-white, fragrant flowers are often a foot in diameter. An inhabitant of the south where it is widely distributed from North Carolina to western Louisiana, this Magnolia is perfectly hardy in New England, but unless it is planted in sheltered positions the trees often become disfigured by the wind which tears the large delicate leaves. Magnolia glauca. Less showy than Magnolia macrophylla, this is a more valuable plant for general cultivation. Often a large tree in the south, at the north Magnolia glauca is never more than a small tree, or more often a large shrub. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white on the lower surface; the flowers are small, cup-shaped, creamy white and delightfully fragrant, and continue to open in succession from the middle of June until August. In all North America there is not a more delightful shrub to plant in the garden, or one that will give larger returns in beauty and fragrance; yet it is difficult to find it in any quantity in American nurseries, and it is unknown to most American planters of this generation. A hybrid, M. major, often called M. Thompsoniana, between M. glauca and M. tripetala, another American species, has the general appearance of M. glauca but has larger leaves and larger fragrant flowers. It is with the American Magnolias on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain Gate and is now in flower. Hydrangea petiolaris. The so-called Climbing Hydrangea was introduced into the United States from Japan in 1876 by the Arboretum and is now often seen in Massachusetts gardens. It is usually allowed to climb up the trunks of trees, and it is perhaps not well known that this Hydrangea is an excellent plant for covering brick and stone walls, to which it is able to attach itself firmly. Short lateral branchlets are developed from the stems; these bear the terminal flower-clusters which are thus brought out from the general surface of the vine and give to the covering of the wall a loose and attractive appearance. Such a plant can now be seen in flower on the Administration Building. Indigoferas. Indigofera Kirilowii is flowering in the Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. It is a low shrub which spreads rapidly into a broad mass, and produces during several weeks racemes of large pure pink flowers. Introduced a few years ago into the Arboretum by Mr. Jack who found it in Korea, it has proved one of the best plants of its class. Near it on Centre Street Indigofera a~rcblyantha is also in flower. It is a plant of entirely different habit, with slender stems, small leaves, and axillary clusters of small rosecolored flowers which continue to appear during two or three months. This is one of the most beautiful of the small shrubs introduced by Wilson from western China where he found it growing on river cliffs in Hupeh at altitudes up to six thousand feet above the sea. Two other species of this genus are established on Azalea Path near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road, I. Gerardiana, a native of the Himalayas, and 1. decora from southern China. These two plants, although they are killed back to the ground every winter, send up new stems and flower profusely every year. L decora, which is just in bloom, is a handsome plant with racemes of large white flowers. Late Bush Honeysuckles. In the Shrub Collection two of the latest of these plants are in flower, and are beautiful now and will be still more beautiful later in the season when more of the fruit is ripe. They are Lonicera Ledebourii from the Pacific coast region and L. involuerata, var. serotina from the mountains of the interior of the continent. The long slender flowers of these plants are bright yellow more or less tinged with red and surrounded by large, leaflike, dark red cups which remain under the large, black, lustrous fruit. These plants remain in bloom for a long period, and flowers and ripe fruit can now be found on them. This group of Honeysuckles, of which there are several forms, contains some of the hardiest and most beautiful garden shrubs which have been brought into the Arboretum from western North America, a region which has produced few plants which are hardy in this climate. Two Andromeda-like Plants. Leucothoe Catesbaei and Lyonia mariana are now in flower. The former is an evergreen with long, spreading and arching stems clothed with handsome long-pointed leaves, and small clusters of axillary white flowers; it is a native of the southern Appalachian region and one of the hardiest and most desirable of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. It requires moist soil and a shady position. It can be seen in large numbers along the brook and in the small ravine at the base of Hemlock Hill. Lyonia mariana is a smaller shrub with deciduous leaves and white, racemose flowers borne on leafless shoots. This plant is common in the eastern states from Rhode Island southward, and when cultivated is not particular about soil or situation. There is a mass of these plants now in full bloom on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Horsechestnut Group."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 2","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23614","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14e856a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 2, 1915 Three Asiatic Poplars. Among the trees which have come from western Asia to the United States are three Poplars which give promise of being valuable in this country. They are hardy, grow rapidly and seem to be less liable to suffer from borers than many other Poplar trees. The first of these trees, Populus Maximowiczii, is a native of eastern Siberia, Saghalin, and northern Japan. It is the largest tree of eastern Siberia, where it sometimes grows eighty feet high with a trunk three or four feet in diameter and a broad head of massive spreading branches, and in Japan it is only exceeded in size by the Cercidiphyllum. The trees in the Arboretum have been growing here several years and are twentyfive or thirty feet high, with smooth, pale brown stems and shapely heads. The leaves are broadest above the middle, very finely toothed, pale green and lustrous above, silvery white below, three or four inches long and two or two and a half inches wide. The fruit which is fully grown in May, unlike that of other Poplars, remains on the trees here until September without opening. Judging from the climate of the region where this Poplar grows naturally, it should be hardy in all the northern states and in a large part of Canada, and a valuable shade tree in regions of extreme cold like northern Minnesota and the Dakotas where it is possible to grow successfully a comparatively few trees of large size. In nurseries P. Maximowiczii is often confused with Populus suaveolens, another Siberian species, and it is sometimes called in the United States the \"Japan Poplar.\" It is one of the handsomest and most satisfactory trees in the Arboretum collection of Poplars. The second of these Asiatic Poplars, Populus tomentosa, is a common tree in temple gardens in Peking, in which it grows to a very large size, and is one of the handsomest, perhaps the handsomest of all Poplar-trees. The peculiarity of this tree is that the leaves of young plants and of vigorous shoots are thickly covered below with a coat of white felt which is not found on the leaves of older trees. When it was first discovered it was believed on this account to be the Silver Poplar of Europe, and it was not until the mature leaves were seen by botanists that it was found to be a distinct species. As it grows in Peking Populus tomentosa is a tree fully eighty feet high with a tall massive trunk covered with dark, deeply furrowed bark, and a head of erect and spreading branches. The leaves are thicker than those of other Poplars, five or six inches long and four or five inches broad, dark and lustrous above and pale below, and are divided on the margins into broad rounded teeth; they hang on long flattened stalks and, fluttering in the slightest breeze, make, as the blades come together, a noise like drops of rain in a heavy shower falling on a tin roof. Mr. S. Wells Williams, the distinguished Chinese scholar, noted on a specimen of a few leaves of this tree in the Gray Herbarium, that for this reason it is sometimes called in China \"the rain tree.\" Populus tomentosa is a hardy tree in the Arboretum where it is growing at the rate of four or five feet a year, and there seems no reason why it should not grow to a large size here. Unfortunately it is one of the few Poplars which cannot be propagated by cuttings and can only be increased by grafting. It is probable, therefore, that it will never become a popular tree in this country unless a cheaper method of increasing it can be found. The third of these Poplars, Populus Simonii, is a smaller tree, with pale bark, small, slightly and gracefully drooping branches and small pale green leaves pointed at the ends and hanging on slender stalks. This appears to be the commonest of the Poplars of northeastern continental Asia; it is found from the valley of the Amoor River to China, where it is common in the north but exceedingly rare in the western provinces. This is a small, perfectly hardy tree which should be popular in the colder parts of the United States and Canada. Young plants are sometimes fastigiate in habit, with erect branches and smaller leaves, but this habit seems to disappear as the trees grow older. Rosa caudata. This is a Rose discovered by Wilson in western China. It is one of the Cinnamomae section of the genus, and is a tall vigorous shrub with stout arching stems covered not very thickly with stout spines, dark green foliage, and flowers about two inches in diameter, in wide, sometimes twenty-five-flowered clusters. The beauty of the flowers is increased by the white marking at the base of the pure pink petals. The fruit is orange-red, an inch long, gradually contracted above into a narrow neck crowned by the much enlarged calyxlobes. This handsome Rose is flowering now for the third year in the Arboretum; it is perfectly hardy and an excellent addition to the Roses of its class. It can be seen in bloom now in the Shrub Collection and with the other Roses in the special Chinese collection on Bussey Hill. Rosa setipoda. This is another member of the Cinnamomae, differing chiefly from R. caudata in the more numerous spines on the stems, in the shape of the fewer-flowered flower-clusters, and in the presence of gland-tipped prickles on the stalks of the flowers and on the fruit. The flowers in size and color resemble those of R. caudata. This Rose was first sent to the Arboretum by Monsieur Maurice de Vilmorin and it has flowered here now for several years. The plants now in bloom were raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China and can be seen in the Shrub Collection and on Bussey Hill. Rosa multibracteata. This is a small plant with slender stems covered with numerous small spines, small leaves and innumerable small, pink, solitary flowers which are followed by comparatively large red fruits covered with glandular prickles. This very hardy little Rose was discovered by Wilson in the extreme western part of China, and is flowering this year for the first time in the Arboretum. It is one of the last of the Chinese Roses to open its flower-buds. Rosa Jackii. This beautiful Rose was introduced into the Arboretum from Korea several years ago by Mr. Jack, and when it flowered was named for him. At about the same time it was named in England Rosa Bakeri and R. Kelleri, names which cannot be used for it, however, as they had previously been given to other Roses. It is one of the Multiflorae Roses with long stems which lie flat on the ground, lustrous foliage, and pure white flowers two inches or more in diameter, in wide, many-flowered clusters. The flowers are larger than those of the Japanese Rosa multiflora and it blooms much later than that species. This Rose is perfectly hardy and a first-rate garden plant. The hybridizer ought to be able to find in it a good subject from which to raise a race of hardy, late-flowering Rambler Roses. It is now in flower in the Shrub Collection where it is labeled R. Kelleri. Sambucus canadensis. As the flowers of the Laurel (Kalmia latifo- Lia) begin to fade those on the native Elder (Sambucus canadensis) open. This is the last of the native shrubs to make a conspicuous show of flowers in the Arboretum. It is particularly beautiful this year along Bussey Brook in the valley at the northern base of Hemlock Hill where many plants have grown from seeds sown by birds. It is conspicuous, too, about the ponds near the junction of the Meadow and the Forest Hills Roads. Few native shrubs make a greater show than this Elder with its broad heads of white flowers and lustrous black fruits. Growing with it in the Shrub Collection is a form with leaflets deeply divided into narrow segments (var. acutiloba). There is also here a form with dull yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpa), and a plant which originated a few years ago in a European nursery (var. maxima) with flower-clusters three times as large as those of the wild plant, and such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches are hardly able to support them. This form flowers ten or twelve days later than the common wild plant. Rhododendron arborescens. Before the last flowers of the Yellow Azalea of the southern Appalachian Mountains (Rhododendron calendulaceum) have fallen those of another Appalachian species (R. arborescens) open. This is one of the most beautiful of all the American Azaleas, with large fragrant flowers which, pale rose color in the bud, are pure white as the corolla expands. The long bright red filaments and styles add to the beauty of the flowers. It is a shrub sometimes twelve or fifteen feet high, with leaves dark green and very lustrous above and pale below, and with an odor when dry of newly mown grass. Sent to Europe more than a century ago it was soon lost from gardens until its reintroduction by the Arboretum in 1880. There is a mass of this Azalea on the right-hand side of the Valley Road in front of the Hickories. Rhododendron viscosum. This is the last of the Azaleas to bloom and is just beginning to open its flowers. It is an inhabitant of swamps in the eastern part of the country and is known as the Clammy Azalea or more generally perhaps as the Swamp Honeysuckle. As a garden plant it is chiefly valuable for the delightful fragrance of the pure white, long-tubed, clammy viscid flowers and for their lateness. Masses of this plant can be seen in front of the native woods on both sides of the Meadow Road. For more than two months Azaleas have now been in flower in the Arboretum, and during this period no other group of plants has given it more of beauty and interest. Rhododendron maximum. This native species is the last of the Rhododendrons with evergreen leaves to flower. It is one of the hardiest of all Rhododendrons in this climate, and no other species which can be successfully grown here has such large and handsome leaves. The flowers are white more or less tinged with pink, and are borne in rather small compact heads. They are handsome in their delicate colors, but are overtopped and a good deal hidden by the young branchlets which, unlike those of R. catawbiense and of most other species, make their annual growth before the flowers open. The plants of this Rhododendron in the group at the base of Hemlock Hill, near the South Street entrance, are now in flower. Crataegus cordata. This is the last of the Hawthorns to bloom and is now in full flower. It is the so-called Washington Thorn and a native of the southern Appalachian foothills and of the region westward to Missouri. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with erect branches, small, nearly triangular, shining leaves which turn bright scarlet in the autumn, small, dull white flowers in small compact clusters, and small fruit which remains on the branches with little loss of color until late spring. The late flowers, the brilliancy of the autumn foliage, and the abundance and brightness of the fruit during the winter months make this one of the most desirable of the American Hawthorns as a garden plant. Viburnum Canbyi. This is the last of the Viburnums to bloom in the Arboretum where its flowers are just opening. It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and of Delaware, and has recently been found in Indiana; it is the largest and handsomest of the blue-fruited American species of which V. dentatum is the best known. It is a plant which is improved by cultivation, and there are great round-topped specimens in the Arboretum twelve or fifteen feet high and broad, and splendid objects at all seasons. Such plants can be seen on the right-hand side of the entrance to the Administration Building and on the Meadow Road. The earliest Viburnum, V. alnifolium, flowered here the first of May, and from that day to this Viburnums have been flowering, in the Arboretum."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 9","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23616","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad15ea36c.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 9, 1915 Pyramidal Trees. Several of the species of trees of the northern hemisphere have produced individuals with erect growing branches which give them an abnormal fastigiate habit. Such trees are interesting in illustrating the variation in habit of trees, and several of them are valuable when used with discretion to produce certain effects in decorative plantmg. The best known of these trees is the Lombardy Poplar, a form of the Black Poplar of Europe (Populus nigra var. italica). Some authors have supposed that this tree originated in one of the countries of western Asia, but it is now more generally believed that it sprang up in northern Italy early in the eighteenth century. The trees are all males and have all been propagated from cuttings ; and it is not improbable that all of these trees now scattered over a large part of the world are descended from a single individual. It is a very hardy, fast-growing tree, and is able to adapt itself to very different climatic conditions. Nowhere perhaps can such fine specimens be seen as are now growing in the central valley of Chile, and it is equally at home in all parts of North America. The Lombardy Poplar is a great favorite with some members of the younger school of American landscape gardeners, but fortunately in this part of the country it often suffers severely from the attacks of a borer so that it is not probable that large trees will ever become too common here. There is also a fastigiate form of the Silver Poplar of Europe and western Asia (Populus alba, var. pyranzidalis, but better known as P. Bolleana). This tree is a native of central Asia but has become common in the United States and Europe in the forty years since it was first sent to Germany. It is as fastigiate in habit as the Lombardy Poplar, and has the advantage over it in the greater variation, shape and color of the leaves. There is a Poplar with pale nearly white bark which resembles the Lombardy Poplar in habit and foliage and which has been called Populus thevestina. It occurs in Servia, the Crimea and Algeria. The young plants in the Arboretum are hardy and are growing well. One of the narrowest and most remarkable of all these trees is the fastigiate form of the Sugar Maple, Acer saccharum, var. mon~umentale, which was found in 1885 in a cemetery in Newton, Massachusetts. There is a good specimen of this interesting tree established in the Maple Collection. It may prove valuable for planting by the sides of narrow roads. There is a form of the Red Maple (Acer rubrum, var. columnare) in the collection. This is rather broader than the fastigiate Sugar Maple but is a good addition to the list of these plants. The graft from which the Arboretum specimen was raised was obtained in 1889 from the Parsons Nursery on Long Island. Beyond this nothing is known of the origin of this tree. There is also a pyramidal form of the Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum var. pyramidale). This originated in a European nursery and there are only small specimens in the Arboretum. The only Old World Maple which has produced one of these sports is the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides, var. columnare). This tree is established in the Arboretum collection and is a broader tree than the American fastigiate Maples. The fastigiate Tulip tree (Liriodendron Tulx~ifera, var. pyramidale) is one of the handsomest of these trees; it originated in the nursery of Simon Louis near Metz in Alsace and has been growing in the Arboretum since 1888. There is a good specimen with the other Tulip-trees on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. The Linden genus appears to have produced but one of these trees, the var. pyramidalis of the European Tilia platyphyllos. This tree tapers from a broad base to a pointed apex and is pyramidal rather than fastigiate in outline. The fastigiate form of one of the Oaks of western Europe (Quercus pedunculata, var. fastigiata) sometimes grows in Europe to a large size; it is hardy in this country and grows rapidly, but, like the other European Oaks, it is short-lived here and rarely lives more than thirty or forty years. One of the most interesting of all the fastigiate trees is a European Beech growing at Dawyck, Mr. F. R. S. Balfour's estate in Peebleshire, Scotland. It is a tall and evidently an old tree to which the name of Fagus sylvatica, var. Dawychi has been given. This tree has recently been propagated by nurserymen and there is a small plant in the Arboretum with the other Beeches near the South Street entrance. There are two fastigiate forms of the European Hornbeam in the Arboretum collection (Carpinus Betulus, var. pyramidalis and var. globosa). The first is pyramidal rather than fastigiate, and the second, in spite of its name, is a dwarf, very compact, fastigiate plant. They are in the Hornbeam Collection on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road opposite the Oaks. There is only one fastigiate Birch, the var. fastigiata of the European Betula pendula or verrucosa. This is distinctly fastigiate in habit, with a narrow head of erect branches. A specimen of this tree may be seen on the Bussey Hill Road with the other Birches. One of the narrowest of all these trees is the fastigiate form of the Scotch Elm (Ulmus glabra, var. fastigiata) which is sometimes called in England the Exeter Elm, as it was raised in a nursery in Exeter about ninety years ago. This tree has little beauty. More beautiful and interesting is a geographical form of the European Ulmus nitens (var. stricta). This is the common Elm in Cornwall and some parts of Devonshire, and is usually called the Cornish Elm. It is a tree sometimes eighty feet tall with a trunk occasionally five feet in diameter, with short ascending upper branches and lower branches curving upward. A tree which is often considered now a form of the Cornish Elm (var. Wheatleyi) has a similar habit and is usually called the Guernsey Elm. It sometimes appears in nursery catalogues under the name of Ulmus campestris monumentalis. The European Crataegus monogyna has produced vars. stricta and monumentalis. The former is a tree with a broad head of erect branches, and can be seen in the old Crataegus Collection next to the parkway wall. The latter, which is a narrower and strictly pyramidal plant, is new in the Arboretum. A fastigiate form of the European Horsechestnut (Aesculus Hvppocastanum, var. pyramidalis) has appeared in a European nursery but is not yet in the Arboretum. Fastigiate Conifers. In the pinetum are young trees of the White Pine (Pinus ~trobus, var. fastigiata) with erect branches which give the trees a peculiar and distinct appearance. They were raised from grafts taken from a tree which was growing a few years ago near Stamford, Connecticut. The Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris), which shows a strong tendency to seminal and geographical variation, has also produced a fastigiate form (var. pyramidalis). The so-called Swedish Juniper is a narrow, dwarf pyramidal form of the common Juniper (Junzperis communis, var. suecica). This little Juniper is not very hardy in this part of the country but is often planted in the middle states. The handsomest pyramidal coniferous plant, however, in the Arboretum is a form of Thuya occidentalis (var. pyramidalis) raised sometime before 1885 by Robert Douglas in his nursery at Waukegan, Illinois. It is a tall narrow plant suited to replace although much smaller of course, the fastigiate Cypress which plays such a part in the decoration of the gardens of southern Europe. This Arbor Vitae is sold in some American nurseries as Thuya occidentalis pyramidalis Douglasii. The common Spruce (Picea Abies) has produced many abnormal seminal forms and among them are at least two with erect branches (var. columnaris and var. pyramidalis). A few individuals of these varieties were found many years ago in European forests and the cultivated plants have probably been propagated from these wild plants. Less important are two dwarf pyramidal forms of the European Fir (Abies Picea, var. columnaris, and var. pyramidalis). The Lawson Cypress from the Pacific Coast (Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana) is another tree which shows great variation in its seedling offspring. Among them is a distinctly pyramidal form which appeared in an English nursery many years ago and is known as Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis. Like all the forms of the Lawson Cypress it is not hardy in the neighborhood of Boston. The so-called Irish Yew, a pyramidal form of the European Yew (Taxus baccata,var. fastigiata), of which there is a yellow-leaved variety, is a popular garden plant in all countries where it is hardy. Unfortunately this interesting tree is not able to support the New England climate. This is true of the erect garden form of the Japanese Cephalotaxus (pedunculata, var. fastigiata). Of these twenty-eight plants with abnormally erect growing branches five in two genera are North American, one only is Asiatic, and twenty- two are European, the Cornish Elm, which is not an abnormal tree but a geographical variety, being omitted. The predominance of abnormal forms among European trees is due, no doubt, to the fact that European trees have been raised artificially from seeds for a longer time and in greater numbers than those from other countries, and that European cultivators of trees have been keener than others to propagate and detect plants of abnormal habit and foliage. It is less easy to explain the absence of fastigiate trees from such largely cultivated genera as Fraxinus, Catalpa, Prunus, Magnolia, Salix and Tsuga. Of our common Hemlock in this last genus there are a number of dwarf forms and forms with abnormal foliage,but among them none has yet appeared with erect growing branches. Tilia vulgaris. As a rule European trees do not grow as well in this part of the country as the native species or those from eastern Asia of the same genus. Many specimens of one of the European Elms have lived in Massachusetts for a number of years, however, and have grown here into large and splendid trees, and the European Beech becomes a better tree than the American Beech when this is transplanted from the forest to the park. One of the European Lindens is another exception to the general rule that native trees are better trees to plant than exotic trees, for the best Lindens that have been planted near Boston are trees of Tilia vulgaris which is now in flower. This tree is sometimes also called T. europaea, T. intermedia and T. hybrida, and is considered by some of the best observers of European trees a natural hybrid between the two species of western Europe, T. platyphyllos and T. cordata. Although widely distributed in Europe, Tilia vulgaris appears to be much less common than either of its supposed parents, and the variation in the size, shape and color of the leaves makes its hybrid origin possible. On some individuals the lower surface of the leaves is quite green and on others it is bluish or even whitish, but leaves on different parts of the same branch differ in this respect, and on shoots produced from the bases of old trees the large leaves are quite green. It is a fine, round-headed tree with rather small, somewhat pendulous branches, and appears to have been more often planted in the neighborhood of Boston than any other Linden. There are a number of large specimens on Centre Street near Orchard Street, Jamaica Plain, and in Olmsted Park, and large individuals can be found in all the suburbs of Boston. The young Lindens which have been recently planted on Huntington Avenue and on Louis Pasteur Avenue in Boston are of this variety. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per Year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 16","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23613","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14e8528.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL.I NO. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 16, 1915 Cornus Amomum, the Silky Cornel, which has been much used in the Arboretum, has been in flower here for several days. In cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend freely and spread over the ground. When crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty and value. To be seen at its best this Cornel should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. It is well suited for the front of groups of trees and shrubs, and there is no better shrub to plant by the margins of ponds and streams where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. Its purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the value of this native shrub. In the Cornel Group, at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, there is a good specimen of this plant, and its value for planting near water can be seen on the borders of the small pond in the rear of the Cornel Group. Cornus asperifolia. This Cornel flowers a week or ten days later than the Silky Cornel. It is a widely distributed plant from western New England to Texas, and under favorable conditions becomes a tree occasionally forty feet high. At the north, however, it is a tall, broad shrub with erect and slightly spreading branches. The flower-clusters are small but are produced in great profusion and are followed by white fruits. There is a large specimen among the other Cornels near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. Cornus paucinervis. It was hardly to have been expected that this Chinese shrub could flourish in New England for it grows naturally not much above the sea-level central China in a climate where the Orange thrives, and rarely ascends to elevations of three thousand feet. It is a shrub five or six feet tall with erect stems, small, narrow pointed leaves with only two or three pairs of prominent veins, small clusters of white flowers and black fruits. There is a good specimen of this plant among the Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill which in a few days will be covered with flowers. Shrubs which flower here late in July are not very common and this Cornel promises to be a useful addition to the list. Late flowering Barberries. Three species of Berberis from western China are now in flower, B. aggregata, B. Prattii, and B. subcauiialata. These plants will probably become popular for they are the latest of the Barberries to flower. They are all erect-growing, tall shrubs with small yellow flowers in drooping clusters which are followed by red fruits. There are plants in the Shrub Collection and with the Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. Hydrangea radiata. A form of Hydrangea arborescens (var. grandiflora), with large globose heads of sterile flowers, has become immensely popular in this country since its discovery a few years ago in one of the western states, and it can now be seen in many suburban gardens. A much more beautiful American species, however, is Hydrangea radiata, which is now in flower in the Shrub Collection. It is a native of mountain slopes in North and South Carolina, and is a round-topped shrub with large leaves very dark green above and silvery mhit~ below, and broad heads of flowers surrounded by a ring of white neutral flowers. It is one of the handsomest of all the Hydrangeas which are perfectly hardy in this climate, and although once a popular garden plant it is now rarely found in collections. Hydrangea paniculata. More conspicuous now in the collection is the early-flowering form of Hydrangea paniculata (var. praecox). The most generally planted form of Hydrangea paniculata is that in which all the flowers are sterile, known as Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora. This plant produces large clusters of white flowers which turn rose color in fading, and will not be in bloom for several weeks. The variety praecox, which is one of the forms of the wild plant, has ray flowers surrounding the clusters of sterile flowers. There are two or three forms of the variety praecox in the collection differing in the size of the flower-clusters and in the size of the ray flowers. The handsomest and earliest of these was raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Hokkaido where it grows into a small tree sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall. Colutea arborescens. This and related species are now among the most beautiful plants in the Shrub Collection as they are still covered with yellow flowers which are mixed with the large, inflated, rose-colored or pink pods to which these plants owe their common name of Bladder Sennas. Aeaculns parviflora. The last of the Horsechestnuts to flower, Aesculus parviflora, will soon be in bloom. It is a tall, round-topped, shapely shrub well suited to plant in large masses or as a single specimen. In good soil and when uncrowded by other plants it soon spreads over a large area. A native of the southeastern states, where it is found from South Carolina to Florida and Alabama, this Horsechestnut is hardy in New England, and in cultivation at the north grows into a larger and finer plant than in its native wilds. The small white flowers are produced in long, narrow, erect spikes which stand up above the plant and make them conspicuous during the last weeks of July. There is a mass of these plants at the northern base of the wooded hill on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road and in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group. Clematis tangutica. Attention is called again this year to this handsome yellow-flowered Clematis which is growing on the trellis at the eastern side of the Shrub Collection. The flowers continue to open during several weeks, and there can now be seen on the plant opening flower-buds and fully grown clusters of fruit conspicuous from the long, silvery-white \"tails.\" Amorpha canescens. This member of the Pea Family, the Lead Plant of the early settlers on the western plains, will soon open its small violet-colored flowers which are crowded on clustered terminal spikes and are set off by the hoary down which thickly covers the leaves and branches. This handsome and conspicuous plant grows three or four feet tall and is a native of the Mississippi valley where it is found on low hills and prairies from Indiana and Minnesota to Texas. Rosa Wichuraiana. The pure white flowers of this Japanese Rose can now be seen on a plant in the Shrub Collection with its long stems flat on the ground. Grown in this way it is perfectly hardy, although in eastern Massachusetts when an attempt is made to train it over a trellis or on a building it suffers from cold. There is no better plant for clothing banks, which, when the flowers open, look as if they had been covered with snow. This Rose is one of the parents of some of the most beautiful Rambler Roses which, very successful further south and in Europe, are not very hardy in this latitude. Rosa setigera. This, the Prairie Rose, is the last of all the Roses in the collection to flower, and no Rose is more beautiful than this inhabitant of the western states where it grows from Michigan to Texas. It is a free-flowering and perfectly hardy plant with tall arching stems, ample bright-colored foliage and broad clusters of pink flowers. It can be trained over an arbor or against a building, but looks best when allowed to grow naturally without any training whatever. There is a mass of this Rose on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road in front of the Cherries, and it is in the Shrub Collection. Brilliant fruits. From this time until April of next year the Arboretum will be interesting for the fruits which are to be seen here. Nothing so surprises and delights European visitors who come to the Arboretum in summer and autumn as the profusion of showy fruits which are produced here by many trees and shrubs. The Bush Honeysuckles are perhaps now the handsomest plants in the Arboretum with ripe fruit. They produce fruit in great quantities and it remains in good condition for several weeks, and as the different species ripen their fruit from July until the beginning of October the second period of their beauty is a long one. On different species and hybrids there are blue, black, orange, yellow, wine-color and scarlet fruits, and these beautiful and abundant fruits following beautiful flowers make some of the Bush Honeysuckles desirable garden plants especially in the northern United States where they are very hardy and where they appear to fruit more freely than in other parts of the world. The orangecolored translucent fruit of Lonicera minuLi,flora is perhaps the most beautiful in the collection. This plant is a hybrid between the Tartarian Honeysuckle from Central Asia and a species from eastern Siberia, L. Morrowii. L. muscaviesis is covered with large and translucent scarlet fruit. The fruits of the Tartarian Honeysuckles are sometimes red and sometimes bright yellow. Two hybrids of this species, L. be,lkt and L. notha, bear crimson fruit. L. Xylosteum produces large, dark crimson, lustrous fruit, and a hybrid of it, L. xylosteoides, large red fruit. All the numerous forms of L. coerulea in the collection, a species which is found in all the colder parts of the northern hemisphere, have bright blue fruit, and that of L. orientalis is black and lustrous. L. Koehneana, a native of western China, is now covered with large, dark, wine-colored, almost black fruits which follow yellow flowers. This is a native of western China and is a hardy and valuable garden plant. There is a large specimen now covered with fruit among the Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. These Bush Honeysuckles form a group of shrubs worthy of the attention of persons who desire to form collections of large, fast-growing, hardy shrubs beautiful when covered in early spring with innumerable flowers or in early summer or in autumn when their showy fruits are ripe. Acer tataricum. The fruits of this Maple are now fully grown and conspicuous from the bright red color of the keys. It is a small tree or treelike shrub and a native of southeastern Europe and western Asia. It is an early-flowering, very hardy Maple well worth cultivating for the brilliancy of its fruit alone. An old inhabitant of the gardens of western Europe and of the United States, it has been rather lost sight of since the introduction of the Japanese Maples. Plants can be seen in the Maple Collection. Tsuga caroliniana. After two of the severest winters of recent years the perfect condition of this southern Hemlock in the Arboretum shows that it can be depended on to flourish in southern New England. A smaller tree and less graceful perhaps than the Hemlock of our northwest coast, T. h2terophylia, the most beautiful of all the Hemlocks, the Carolina tree is the handsomest representative of the genus which can be successfully grown here. The Carolina Hemlock was first raised in the Arboretum more than thirty years ago, and among the seedlings are two or three dwarf plants which are broader than high and beautiful subjects for planting in small gardens. Judging by the experience at the Arboretum with this tree, it may be placed among the six most desirable conifers for planting in southein New England, the others being the White Pine, Pinus Strobus, the Red Pine, Pinus resinosa, the northern Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis, the White Fir of Colorado, Abies concolor, and the Japanese Abies brachyphylla."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 23","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23615","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14e896b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 23, 1915 European Elms. There is probably more confusion in the identification and proper naming of these trees in American parks and gardens than of any other group of trees, and it is only in very recent years that English botanists have been able to reach what appear to be sound conclusions in regard to them. The confusion started with Linnaeus who believed that all the European Elms belonged to one species, and it has been increased by the appearance of natural hybrids of at least two of the species and by the tendency of seedlings to show much variation from the original types. There are five species in Europe; the first of these is Ulmus campestris. It is this tree which is generally spoken of as the English Elm in eastern Massachusetts where it was planted more than a century ago and where it has grown to a larger size than any other tree planted in this region. The Paddock Elms, which were once the glory of Tremont Street, and the great English Elms which stood on Boston Common until a few years ago were of this species, and large specimens can still be found in the suburbs of the city. Ulmus campestris is a tall tree with dark rough bark, massive ascending branches, comparatively small, rough, ovate leaves with hairy petioles not more than one-fifth of an inch long, and young branchlets covered with short soft hairs. In England and the United States it very rarely produces fertile seeds but great quantities of suckers by whichh it is propagated. This tree possibly only grows naturally in the hedge rows and parks of southern England where it may be indigenous. It was largely planted in the Royal Park at Avanguez, near Madrid, toward the end of the sixteenth century, but it has been usually believed that these trees were imported from England. The trees, however, at Avanguez produce fertile seeds in abundance and Henry suggests (Trees of Great Britain, Vn. 1908) \"that this tree may be a true native of Spain, indigenous in the alluvial plains of the great rivers now almost deforested.\" A dwarf Elm tree with small leaves is now usually considered a seedling form of Ulmus campestris (var. viminalis). There are forms in cultivation with leaves variegated with yellow (var. vilminalis aurea) and with white (var. viminalis marginata). Ulmus nitens. This is perhaps the most variable of Elm trees in habit and one of the most widely distributed of the European trees. It may be distinguished from Ulmus campestris by its less deeply furrowed bark, mostly glabrous branchlets, longer, often obovate leaves, lustrous and usually smooth on the upper surface, with petioles from one-quarter to one-half an inch long. The seeds of this tree have been sold for years by European seedsmen under the name of Ulmus campestris, and a great many specimens of this Elm have been planted in the United States in the last fifty years under that name. Ulmus nitens is a common tree in the southern, midland and eastern counties of England, and ranges through central and southern Europe to the Caucasus and probably to northeastern Asia. In England trees of this Elm occur with a broad head of spreading and more or less pendulous branches. This form is often called the Herefordshire Elm, as it is this particular form which is most often found in that part of England, and some of the old Herefordshire Elms are only surpassed in beauty by Ulmus americana as it sometimes grows in New England. The Cornish Elm, a tree with erect branches which form a narrow pyramidal head, is usually considered a variety of Ulmus nitens (var. stricta), although some modern authors treat it as a distinct species. This is the common Elm tree of Cornwall and some parts of Devonshire, and is also found in Brittany. The Guernsey, Jersey or Wheatley Elm (var. Wheatleyi) is another pyramidal tree which is believed to be a variety of the Cornish Elm, from which it differs in its rather broader head, its earlier flowers and wider leaves. It is sometimes called variety sarniensis. On one of the forms of Ulmus nitens (var. suberosa) the branchlets are furnished from the second to the tenth year with corky wings which are most developed on sucker shoots. The Elm of central Europe referred to as Ulmus nitens is of this variety, and young plants in the Arboretum raised from seeds collected in Hungary develop these wings when only a few years old. An interesting form of U. nitens (var. umbraculifera) is a tree with a dense globose head sent from Persia to Germany in 1878. This curious tree is doing well in the Arboretum and promises to grow here to a large size. Other interesting varieties are var. pendula, with very pendulous branches and branchlets, var. Dampieri, a fastigiate tree with a narrow pyramidal crown, and var. variegata with leaves blotched with white. This appears to be the most common of the Silver-leaved Elms and is often seen in American collections where it grows to a large size. Ulmus glabra. This is the so-called Scotch Elm and is also known as U. montana and U. scabra. It is a tree with wide-spreading branches making a broad, open, round or flat-topped head, large leaves broadset above the middle. often three-lobed at the anex. dark green and very rough on the upper surface, and covered below with soft pale down; their petioles are not more than one-eighth of an inch long. This Elm can also be distinguished by the fact that the seeds of the fruit are in the middle of the surrounding wings. This tree does not produce suckers, but great crops of seeds which are blown about and germinate freely, and in this country produce innumerable plants which often become troublesome weeds. In eastern Massachusetts in recent years the leaves of this species and its varieties have been injured in early summer by the larvae of a leaf-mining insect which feed under the epidermis. Ulmus glabra, which owes its name to the smoothness of the pale branches, is a native of northern England and Scotland, and is widely distributed through Europe to the Caucasus, appearing again in eastern Siberia, Manchuria, northern Japan, and in northern and western China (var. heterophylla). Many seedling forms of Ulmus glabra are in cultivation. The best known, perhaps, is the Camperdown Elm (var. pendula Camperdownii). This has pendulous branches and branchlets which when grafted on a tall stem form a natural arbor. A handsomer weeping form is the var. pendula, often found in collections under the name of var. horazontalis. The Exeter Elm (var. fastigiata) is a narrow pyramidal tree with erect growing branches and branchlets. Var. crispa is a small tree with narrow, wrinkled, laciniate leaves and is more curious than beautiful. Var. atropurpurea has dark purple folded leaves and has little to recommend it as an ornamental tree. Ulmus laevis. This is the common Elm in some parts of Scandinavia, northern Russia, and occurs sparingly in Denmark and the Balkan States. This tree is very closely related to Ulmus americana but differs from it in the much thicker coating of down on the lower surface of the leaves and in the longer and sharp-pointed buds. The Arboretum specimen has been growing here since 1888, and although unfortunately a grafted plant is one of the handsomest Elms in the collection, now about fifty feet tall with a short trunk eighteen inches in diameter, a broad pyramidal head, and dark thick foliage. This tree is probably exceedingly rare in American collections. It might well be generally introduced into this country as it would certainly be hardy in any of the northern states and in Canada. It is sometimes called Ulmus pedunculata and U. effusa. Ulmus minor. This is a small-leaved Elm which is common in the eastern counties of England and has been reported from western Europe. It is a tree from forty to ninety feet tall with short ascending branches and pendulous branchlets, and produces suckers freely. It is often called Ulmus sativa. There are only young grafted plants in the Arboretum. Hybrid Elms. A number of natural hybrids between Ulmus glabra and U. nitens have appeared in Europe. The oldest general name for these hybrids is Ulmus hollandica, and under existing rules of nomenclature the different hybrids of the same parentage are considered varieties. The best known of these trees in the United States is the Huntington Elm. Ulmus hollandica, var. vegeta. This tree, which was raised in a nursery at Huntineton about the middle of the eighteenth century, sometimes grows one hundred feet high or more, with a massive trunk and ascending or spreading branches; it suckers freely and also produces, at least in England, large crops of seeds. The Huntington Elm can be seen to great advantage in Cambridgeshire, England, where it has been largely planted, especially in Cambridge itself where there is a noble avenue of these trees. In New England it grows perhaps more rapidly than any other Elm-tree, and it is one of the best Elms to plant here. Ulmus hollandica, var. belgica. This is another hybrid probably of the same parentage. It is a tree with a tall rough-barked stem and wide-spreading branches which form a broad head covered with dense foliage. It was cultivated in Flanders in the eighteenth century and for many years has been the principal Elm-tree planted by roadsides and in parks in Belgium and Holland. It is said that in Belgium it grows more rapidly than any other Elm-tree, and that it succeeds better on poor sandy soil than any other Elm. As it grows in the streets of the Dutch cities there is certainly no better street tree, but it is still too soon to speak of its value or of its rapidity of growth in this country, although the plants in the Arboretum are flourishing. This Elm is often sold in European nurseries as Ulmus hollandica. There is a variety of this tree (var. Dumontii), with more ascending branches which form a narrow head. This has been planted as a street tree in Europe but is believed to grow more slowly than the common form of the Belgian Elm. Ulmus hollandica, var. Klemmer is another supposed hybrid of the same parentage, and in habit is more fastigiate than the Belgian Elm. This has also been a favorite tree with Belgian and Dutch planters. Ulmus hollandica, var. superba. This is probably another hybrid of the same parentage and is described by European dendrologists as a narrow pyramidal tree; it is therefore different from the tree in the Ellwanger & Barry Nursery at Rochester, New York, called Ulmus superba, which is probably only a varietal form of Ulmus glabra or another hybrid of that species. Ulmus hollandica, var. major. This is also probably an English hybrid of the same parentage; it is a large dark-barked tree with widespreading branches and corky branchlets, and suckers freely. This tree is common in England, and it is the Elm with winged branches which is sometimes found in American collections under the name of Ulmus campestris. It is often called Ulmus hollandica and is sold in European nurseries under that name. During the next month several interesting plants will flower in the Arboretum. Among trees may be mentioned the Chinese Koelreuteria paniculata, the American and Asiatic forms of Aralia spinosa, the Japanese Acanthopanax ricinifolaum and Sophora japonica; and among shrubs the Pepper-bush of the eastern United States (Clethra alnifolia), which has been largely used in the roadside plantations, and Panax sessiliflorus from eastern Siberia which is in the Aralia Group near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. These bulletins will now be discontinued until autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 22","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23627","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060a36a.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 22, 1915 The Arboretum in October. This is one of the best months for a visit to the Arboretum, and after the abundant rains of the summer it has never looked better at this season of the year than it does now. The grass is as green as it usually is in early June. Frost has only touched the leaves of a few of the Grapevines which are perhaps more susceptible to frost than those of any other perfectly hardy plants; the leaves of only a few trees have fallen and on others they are as green as they were at midsummer, while in all directions are spots of brilliant autumn color varying with every intermediate shade from the bright clea_r yellow of the Tulip-trees, the Sugar Maples and the Pawpaws to the scarlet of the Gum-trees and Virginia Creepers. Autumn flowers are not abundant in the Arboretum in October, although a few may still be found here. The northern Witch Hazel, Hamamelis virginiana, however, is covered with its flowers which are conspicuous with their clear yellow strap-shaped petals. The autumn color of the leaves of this plant is also yellow but of a darker shade than the flowers, and the leaves usually do not fall until the flowers begin to open; these, however, remain for a long time in good condition on the naked branches, making this shrub one of the most attractive features of forest borders in the eastern states. This Witch Hazel may be seen in the Witch Hazel Group on the Meadow Road near its junction with the Bussey Hill and Forest Hills Road, and it has been largely planted in the general Arboretum plantations where many large specimens may be found. Gordonia alatamaha. Flowers are still opening on this beautiful southern tree. They first appear in September and open in succession for fully six weeks. Gordonia is related to the Camellia, and the pure white flowers which vary from three to three and a half inches in diameter, although more cup-shaped, resemble single Camellia flowers. This small tree was discovered in 1765 near Fort Barrington on the Altamaha River; it has entirely disappeared, however, as a wild plant, and it has only been preserved by the specimens cultivated chiefly in the neighborhood of Philadelphia where it was sent by its discoverers. There are well established plants on Hickory Path near Centre Street and on Azalea Path, and in these sheltered positions the plants are doing well and have not suffered at all in recent severe winters. This Gordonia, however, grows more rapidly and to a larger size in the middle states and there are many good specimens in Pennsylvania gardens. Abelia grandiflora on Hickory Path near Centre Street is still well covered with flowers. These resemble in shape the flowers of some of the Honeysuckles; they are white faintly tinged with rose color, and their delicate beauty is set off by the small, dark green and lustrous leaves. Abelia grandiflora is a slender shrub with arching stems from three to four feet high and is thought to be a hybrid between two Chinese species. Until the introduction by the Arboretum of some of the species of this genus from western China it was believed to be the hardiest of the Abelias. In the Arboretum it suffers in severe winters but in sheltered positions it flowers well every year and the flowers continue to open during nearly two months. This Abelia has become an exceedingly popular plant in the gardens of the southern states and is cultivated with more or less success as far north as New York. The Chinese Buddleias. The flowers are still in good condition on the different forms of Buddleia Davidii or, to use its more common name, B. variabilis. This plant has one-sided, pointed, many-flowered clusters which curve downward from arching stems and are thickly covered with small, blue-purple, fragrant flowers. In some of the forms of this plant are found perhaps the most beautiful of all summer and autumn flowering shrubs, and although only recently brought to the United States and Europe by Wilson they are already largely planted in this country where they have received the name of Summer Lilacs. Here at the north Buddleia Davidii is not perfectly hardy, and the stems are killed to the ground by cold, but new stems spring up and as the flower-clusters are produced at the ends of branches of the year this severe pruning improves the flowers. Few plants in their season are better suited to supply cut flowers, and for this purpose as well as for garden decoration this Buddleia in its various forms has proved one of the most useful shrubs of recent discovery. The period for flowers in the Arboretum. It has been shown by the Arboretum that flowers can be found here in Massachusetts on trees and shrubs growing in the open ground during every month of the year with the exception of December. There will still be flowers on the native Witch Hazel in November and before the end of January the flowers will be open on the Witch Hazel of southern Missouri and Arkansas, Hamamelis vernalis. These will soon be followed by the flowers of the Japanese and Chinese Witch Hazels which last well through February and do not suffer from the severest cold eastern Massachusetts ever has to endure. Then before the end of March the flowers of some of the Willows open and begin the long procession which only ends in November. The introduction of the Asiatic Witch Hazels has added greatly to the interest of northern gardens in winter and they are bright and cheerful winter companions. They might. therefore, well find a place near every country home and in small city yards. The flowers of the Chinese species, Hamamelis mollis, are larger and of a brighter yellow color than the flowers of the other Witch Hazels and this promises to be the best worth cultivation of them all. It is a perfectly hardy vigorous shrub, grows rapidly, and begins to flower when only a few feet high. Specimens of all the species of Hamamelis are planted in the group of these plants on the Meadow Road, and the best specimen of Hamamelis mollis is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Evonymus alatus. The leaves of many of the trees and shrubs of eastern Asia turn to as brilliant colors in the autumn as those of the related species of eastern North America. Usually, however, the leaves of the Asiatic species change color later than those of the American species, and in Japan the best color effects are in November or a month later than here. There are, of course, many exceptions to this general rule. The leaves of Evonymus alatus, for example, were brilliant in the Arboretum ten days ago and are already beginning to fall. This is a shapely shrub six or eight feet tall and ten or twelve feet broad, distinguished by the corky wings of the branches. The flowers, as in all the species of this genus, are not conspicuous and the fruit is smaller and less showy than that of many of these plants. The great value of this hardy Japanese Burning Bush is therefore found in the autumn coloring of the leaves, which assume a deep rose color of exquisite beauty and unlike that produced by any other hardy plant in cultivation. Acer ginnala. The leaves of this Maple also turn and fall by the middle of October, and equal or surpass in their autumn scarlet those of any American plant. Acer ginnala is a small shrubby tree with deeply dentated leaves, sometimes thirty feet high, and very common along forest borders near Vladivostok and in other parts of eastern Siberia. The flowers are produced in rather compact clusters and, unlike those of other Maples, are distinctly fragrant. This Maple is one of the first Siberian trees introduced by the Arboretum and it is now gradually finding its way into general cultivation in this country. Nyssa sylvatica. There is perhaps no more beautiful object this week in the Arboretum than the group of these trees variously known as Sour Gum, Tupelo and Pepperidge. The scarlet and orange colors of the leaves of the Sour Gum in October are probably not surpassed by those of any other American tree and their beauty is increased by the lustre of the leaves which adds to their autumn brilliancy. The Tupelo is a common and widely distributed tree, occurring from Maine to Florida, Missouri and Texas. At the north, especially near the coast, it is usually found near the borders of swamps and ponds, and is a low, flat-topped, shapely tree with wide-spreading branches; in the interior of the country and especially on the slopes of the high southern Appalachian Mountains it grows sometimes a hundred feet high and forms a tall, massive trunk often five feet in diameter and a narrow head of erect branches. The flowers are inconspicuous, and the small, dark blue, plum-like fruit is so hidden by the leaves that it does not make much show. The beauty of this tree is found in its habit and in the thick dark green, shining leaves. The long hard roots make the Sour Gum difficult to transplant and only very small plants can be successfully moved. It is not therefore often found in nurseries and has never received the attention from planters of ornamental trees which it deserves. The group of this tree is at the lower end of the Bussey Hill Road near the small pond, at the junction of this road with the Meadow and Forest Hills Roads. Halesia tetraptera, var. monticola. The Silver Bell tree of the southern states, Halesia tetraptera, has long been cultivated in northern gardens. It is usually shrubby in habit with several stout widespreading stems, and here at the north, rarely grows more than fifteen or twenty feet high. It is an inhabitant of the southern states from West Virginia to southern Illinois, northern Florida and eastern Texas. It grows at low altitudes and does not appear to ascend to the slopes of the high Appalachian Mountains, although the Halesia of those mountain forests was long considered identical with the lowland tree. The Halesia of the high slopes, however, is a tree often eighty or ninety feet high, with a trunk three feet in diameter, sometimes free of branches for a distance of sixty feet from the ground. It is apparently only in recent years that this mountain tree has been introduced into cultivation by the Biltmore Nursery. From Biltmore it was sent to the parks of Rochester, New York, and from Rochester it came to the Arboretum with a description of its peculiar habit, large flowers and fruit. The mountain tree which has lately been distinguished here as var. monticola grows as a tree from the time the seed germinates and the seedlings show no variation of habit. Young trees are clean stemmed with short branches which form a narrow pyramidal head. The leaves are of rather different shape and less hairy than those of the lowland tree; the flowers are fully a third larger and the fruit is nearly twice as large. Trees less than ten feet produce flowers and fruit in abundance. There is now every reason to believe that the mountain Halesia will prove one of the handsomest flowering trees of large size which it is possible to cultivate in this climate. Its tall trunk and narrow head suggest that it may prove a good street and roadside tree. Two young trees now covered with fruit are growing on the upper side of Hickory Path near Centre Street; growing with them is a plant of the lowland form, also covered with fruit, so that it is possible to compare these two forms as they appear at this season of the year. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 29","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23628","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060a76b.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 29, 1915 Some Asiatic Burning Bushes. (Evonymus.) One of these plants, Evonymus Bungeanus, which has been an inhabitant of the Arboretum for thirty years, deserves more general cultivation than it has yet received in this country. It is a small tree or treelike shrub with slender rather pendulous branches and narrow, pointed, pale green leaves; these are now turning yellow or yellow and red, but the great beauty of this plant is in the rose-colored fruit which every year is produced in great quantities and remains on the branches for several weeks after the leaves have fallen, making this native of northern China a _ desirable plant for the autumn garden. Evonymus lanceifolius. This shrub, which is one of Wilson's introductions from western China, promises to become a valuable garden plant in this climate. On the mountains of western China it grows as a large bush or occasionally as a tree, and is sometimes fifty feet high with a tall trunk nearly a foot in diameter. In the Arboretum, where it is growing in the Evonymus Group on the Meadow Road, it is perfectly hardy and is now a bush from three to four feet tall and broad, covered with bright scarlet fruit and leaves which are still partly green and are partly turned to shades of orange and red. In the size and brilliancy of the fruit few of the plants of this group equal this Chinese species. Evonymus yedoensis. The leaves have already fallen from this Japanese plant in the Evonymus Group, but the large rose-colored fruits which now cover the naked branches make it one of the conspicuous plants in the Arboretum. Evonymus semipersistens. There is a large specimen of this little known Chinese plant in the collection. Fruit of this Evonymus has no ornamental value for it is small and hidden by the foliage, and its value is found in the persistence of the leaves which remain perfectly green and do not fall until December. This is one of the handsomest of the shrubs in the Arboretum which retain their foliage, without change of color until the beginning of winter. Such plants are valuable in the autumn garden to contrast with plants of brilliant autumn coloring. Another valuable plant for this purpose is Magnolia glauca, the Sweet Bay of the Atlantic and Gulf Coast regions from Massachusetts to Texas. This Magnolia is still covered with its bright green shining leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface and these will not become discolored or fall for at least another month. Attention has often been called in these Bulletins to the value of this tree in New England gardens. Few deciduous-leaved trees have more beautiful and more persistent foliage; the cup-shaped creamy white flowers continue to open during at least two months of early summer and fill the air with their abundant fragrance, and the fruit, like that of all the Magnolias, is interesting and handsome when the bright red seeds hang from it on slender threads. Ligustrum vulgare. This is the European Privet and another plant which retains its dark green leaves well into the winter. During the last twenty or thirty years much attention has been paid by botanists and gardeners to the Privets of eastern Asia where many species have been discovered. None of these, however, are as valuable in this climate as the European species, which is perhaps the handsomest here of all black-fruited shrubs. The bright shining fruit is borne in compact clusters which are on the ends of the branches and stand up well above the dark green lustrous leaves; they remain on the plants during the early winter months and after the leaves have fallen. During the first half of the nineteenth century this Privet was a common garden plant in the northern United States where it was much used in hedges; and it is now sparingly naturalized in the northern and middle states. There are several forms of this Privet in cultivation, including one with yellow fruit (var. chlorocarpum) which can now be seen covered with fruit in the Shrub Collection. The variety folaolosum is also growing here; this has rather narrower leaves and larger fruits than the common form and at this season of the year is one of the handsomest plants in the Arboretum. Myrica carolinensis. This is the common Wax Myrtle of the northern United States and one of the plants which holds its dark green shining leaves very late in the autumn without change of color. Now the plants are covered with their small gray fruits, unlike in color those of any other plant hardy in this climate. Naturally the Wax Myrtle grows on sterile sandy soil and, spreading into wide masses, makes attractive thousands of acres of barren fields during several months of the year. The Wax Myrtle takes kindly to cultivation; in good soil it grows rapidly and forms a tall round-headed shrub, and it can be used with advantage to cover soil so poor that few plants can be kept alive in it. From the waxy substance which covers the seeds of this shrub and that of the arborescent Myrica cerifera of the southern coast early settlers in America made wax candles which are still occasionally produced in some parts of Cape Cod where Myrica carolinensis grows in immense quantities. Lonicera Maackii, var. podocarpa. Of the plants in the Arboretum conspicuous at this time for the beauty of their fruit none perhaps is more beautiful than this Honeysuckle which was introduced by Wilson from central China. It is a large, vigorous and hardy shrub with wide-spreading branches and open habit. The flowers are larger than those of most Honeysuckles and are white and in one form white slightly tinged with rose color. The period of the greatest beauty of this plant, however, is late October, for now it is still covered with bright green leaves and the large scarlet lustrous fruits are only just ripe. The best specimens of this Honeysuckle in the Arboretum can be seen in the collection of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. The type of this species, Lonicera Maaclcii, is a native of eastern Siberia and is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum where it is growing in the Shrub Collection. It is a narrow shrub with stems more erect than those of the form from central China. The flowers are pure white, and more beautiful than those of the Chinese plant, but the fruit which is now ripe is smaller, and the leaves have already fallen. Ribes fasciculatum, var. chinense. This Chinese Currant is interesting because it is the only species here with fruit which does not ripen until late in the autumn. The beauty of the scarlet fruit is increased, too, at this time by the color of the leaves which have now turned to bright shades of orange and scarlet. There is a plant of this Currant in the Shrub Collection, but the plants in the supplementary Ribes Collection opposite the Administration Building are in better condition. Evonymus radfcane, var. vegetus. Attention is again called to this form of a well known plant from Japan, for the plants in the Evonymus Group on the Meadow Road are now covered with their handsome fruit; this is pale yellow or nearly white, and as it ripens the bright orange color of the seeds is displayed. This northern variety is the best for general cultivation in this climate as it appears to be hardier than more southern forms; the leaves are broader and it flowers and fruits much more freely; indeed it is the only form which produces much fruit in the Arboretum and the fruit adds greatly to the beauty of the plants. Like the other vigorous growing varieties it may be grown against a wall to which it clings firmly or as a broad, roundheaded bush. There is a form of this Evonymus with leaves hardly a quarter of an inch long and known both as var. minimus and as var. keavensis which appears to be still little known in the United States. It is a good plant for the rock garden and for the margins of garden walks. The form from western Chinadiscovered by Wilson, var. acutus, has narrower pointed leaves distinctly veined below. Here in the Arboretum the plants of this form lie flat on the ground and show no tendency to rise and form a bush. They have proved perfectly hardy but have not flowered yet. A mat of these handsome Chinese plants can be seen among the other Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. If this form retains in cultivation the prostrate stems of its present state it may prove an excellent subject for covering the ground under trees and shrubs. Asiatic Crabapples. Many of these small trees and shrubs are well covered with fruit this year. When the whole group is considered few plants are more valuable for garden decoration in this climate if attention is paid to keeping them free from the scale insects which are detructive to all plants of the Apple tribe. All the Asiatic Crabs are perfectly hardy; they grow quickly in good soil, and many of them begin to flower and produce fruit when only a few years old. No plants are more beautiful at the end of May when they are covered with their countless pink and white flowers; and on some of them the fruit is showy and long persistent. The original Arboretum collection of these plants is on the bank rising from the left-hand side of the Forest Hills road, but there is a larger supplementary collection at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. Here will be found nearly every species and many of the varieties and hybrids of these plants. A few of the conspicuous plants just now are lilalus ringo with yellow fruit, interesting as the plant from which the Apple cultivated in China has been derived, and the only Apple cultivated in Japan until recent years. Malus floribunda and the hybrid raised in the Arboretum from that species, Malus Arnoldiana, with yellow fruits are now conspicuous, as are Malus zumi and M. Sargentii from Japan with bright scarlet fruit; the latter is the only Apple which is shrubby in habit. Interesting, too, is the form of the Japanese Malus toringo from northern China with small fruits yellow on some plants and red on others. These are only a few of the plants in this large collection which at this time deserve careful study. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the Arboretum. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The subscription to these Bulletins is $1.00 per year, payable in advance."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 5","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23626","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad060a328.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"NEW SERIES VOL. I NO. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 5, 1915 The Pinetum. The abundant rains of the past season have been a great benefit to the conifers in the Arboretum and many of these plants are now in an unusually good condition in spite of the severity of several recent winters. It is the province of the Arboretum to teach as far as it is possible to do so the value of all trees in this climate and to show those which fail as well as those which succeed, a duty which sometimes interferes with the beauty of the Arboretum as a garden. It has been shown by the Arboretum, for example, that the Balsam Fir, of the northeastern United States (Abies balsamea) and its near relatives, the Fir of the southern Appalachian Mountains (A. Fraseri), the Fir from the northern Rocky Mountain region (A. lasiocarpa), and the species of central Siberia, A. sibirica, can live here but soon become unsightly, and they are not worth growing in this climate for ornament or as timber trees. It has been shown here, too, that eastern Massachusetts is not cold enough for the White Spruce of the north, Picea canadensis. This beautiful tree grows here rapidly until it is about twenty-five years old and then, save in exceptional situations, it begins to become thin and soon loses its beauty. Pacific Coast Conifers. Of the conifers of the Pacific coast region of North America the White Pine, Pinus monticola, is the most successful. It is hardy, grows rapidly and, although not more beautiful or as valuable as the native White Pine, Pinus Strobus, it is a tree well worth attention in New England. The Sugar Pine, Pinus Lambertiana, which on the California Sierra Nevada becomes the largest of all Pine trees, is perfectly hardy here and is in good condition although it grows slowly. The White Fir of the California Sierras, Abies concolor, lives here in good condition for many years but is a less valuable tree in this climate than the plants of the same species derived from Colorado. Abies nobilis can live here in sheltered positions but does not become a tree, although the beautiful Abies amabilis which grows with it on the mountains of Oregon and Washington does better but grows slowly and has now been in good condition in the Arboretum for several years. Another tree which is rarely seen in northern collections, Libocedrus decurrens, the Incense Cedar of California, is in good condition in the small collection of exotic conifers near the top of Hemlock Hill in an exceedingly sheltered position. The Incense Cedar is a tree of narrow columnar habit with bright green foliage, and in California sometimes grows to the height of one hundred and fifty feet and forms a massive trunk. There are good specimens in the District of Columbia and it may well be more generally planted in the middle and southern states. The two beautiful White Cedars of the northwest coast, Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana and C. nootkatensis, can just be kept alive in the Arboretum where they drag out a miserable existence. Jeffrey's Pine, Pinus ponderosa, var. Je,~'reyi, lives but that is all that can be said of it. None of the other coast conifers of western North America are hardy here, but fortunately a few of the northern species range inland to the western slope of the northern Rocky Mountains, and when plants of these species are obtained from the interior cold region they can be successfully grown in Massachusetts. Thus the Arboretum is able to keep in good condition the so-called Red Cedar of the northwest, Thuya plicata, or as it is more often called, T. gigantea. This is one of the noblest trees of which North America can boast and, although it will never grow to its largest size or become an important timber tree here, it it is an ornamental tree in the Arboretum of considerable value and another witness to the importance of raising trees for cold climates from seeds gathered in the coldest parts of the area such trees naturally inhabit. It is possible, too, to grow here in the Arboretum the White Fir of the northwest coast, Abies grandis, and the coast Hemlock, Tsuga heterophylla, raised from seeds gathered on the Rocky Mountains of Idaho as these two trees also range far inland. Colorado Conifers. The Douglas Spruce, Pseudotsuga mucronata, from Colorado is hardy in this climate and promises to be long-lived here although this tree from the northwest coast, where it grows in its greatest perfection, is not hardy in New Ergland. The other conifers from the interior of the continent are hardy but are not of much promise as ornamental or timber trees for the eastern states. Picea pungens, the well known Colorado Blue Spruce, which is still largely propagated and sold by European and American nurserymen, will disappoint many planters of trees for its beauty is comparatively shortlived. This tree growing naturally in small groves by some of the streams of the southern Rocky Mountains becomes at the end of a few years thin and scrawny in habit with a few short branches on the upper part of the trunk, and is as ugly an object as a tree can well be. In cultivation the Blue Spruce for several years is compact in habit with wide-spreading branches in regular layers, but as the trees grow older the branches at some distance from the ground grow more rapidly than those at the base of the trunk, and overshadow and gradually kill them. The oldest of these trees in cultivation were raised from seed collected by Dr. C. C. Parry in 1862 and are thus only fifty-three years old. One of these original trees is growing in the -Arboretum on the southern slope of Bussey Hill where, although it is a pathetic object, it is kept to show the planters of this tree what they may expect of it long before it attains half its natural size. For many years there have been growing in the Arboretum what have been considered the finest specimens in cultivation of the second of the Colorado Spruces, P. Engelmannii; they formed narrow and compact pyramids with slender trunks furnished to the ground with short branches, and it was believed until recently that this tree which is so handsome on the high slopes of the Colorado mountains would prove to be the most desirable of all Spruce-trees for this climate. In the last two or three years, however, the lower branches of these trees have begun to die and, although the trees appear otherwise perfectly healthy and are still growing rapidly, their beauty as specimen trees is much injured. Exotic Conifers. The conifers of western and northern Europe are generally hardy here but often short-lived. The Firs, Spruces and Pines of Japan are nearly all hardy in this climate, and although we have had a much shorter experience with the Chinese conifers than with those from Japan there is every hope that many of them will prove hardy in this climate and that some of them may be valuable ornamental trees. The Cedar of Lebanon. The Cedar of Lebanon (Cedrus Libanz> in the Arboretum shows the importance of careful selection of the seeds from which to raise trees for any particular climate. One of the Fir trees of Asia minor, Abies cilicica, has been growing for many years in New England where it has proved to be one of the best of all conifers of its class to cultivate here as an ornamental tree. With this Fir the Cedar of Lebanon grows in Asia Minor on the Anti-Taurus, far north of the Lebanon Range in Palestine and in a much coldar climate. As the Palestine Cedar is not hardy here in New England the Arboretum had seeds of this tree collected on the Anti-Taurus with the view of attempting to introduce a hardy race of Cedars into New England. The seeds were sown here in the spring of 1902 and a large number of plants were raised. They all proved perfectly hardy, not one having suffered from drought or cold. Some, however, have been lost in attempts at transplanting, for no other tree here has proved so difficult to move. The average height of all these young Cedars in the Arboretum is now about thirteen feet. The tallest is twenty-one feet high and there is another specimen twenty feet high. It is doubtful if any other conifer can be grown in New England from seed to the height of twenty-one feet in thirteen years. Torreya nucifera. Of the genus Torreya, which is related to the Yews, there are four species found in Florida, California, Japan and China. The Japanese species T. nucifera is well established in the Arboretum, and one of the trees produced a few of its green olive-like fruits this year. In Japan this Torreya is a magnificent tree sometimes ninety feet high with a massive trunk and a dense crown of dark green shining leaves. It should be better known in this climate where it is apparently one of the rarest of exotic trees. The best specimen, probably, in the United States is in the Ilunnewell Pinetum at Wellesley in this state. The peculiarity of this tree is that it does not begin to grow until July. In spite, however, of its short growing season it makes long annual shoots and increases rapidly in height. There is a group of this tree among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill; there is a plant of Torreya californica among the exotic conifers near the top of Hemlock Hill where it has been kept alive for several years by careful winter protection. As an ornamental tree it has no value in this climate. Chinese Cotoneasters. Several of the Chinese Cotoneasters in the collection of Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill will be objects of much beauty for several weeks, for many of them retain their fruit until winter and their leaves are only now beginning to take on their brilliant autumn colors. The most beautiful of them perhaps now is the red-fruited Cotoneaster Dielsiana. C. divaracata, another red-fruited species, will be more beautiful in ten days' time when the leaves will be bright scarlet. C. horizontalis and its variety perpusilla with their dark green leaves and small bright red fruits, will not lose their autumn beauty much before Christmas. These two plants with their prostrate stems spreading into broad, compact mats are well suited for the rock garden or to train against low walls. Hawthorns. Many of the American Hawthorns have now dropped their leaves. Two conspicuous exceptions are Crataegus nitida and C. cordata. The leaves of these two trees are turning red and set off to advantage their small, bright red fruits. There are large specimens of the former in the old Crataegus Collection on the bank between the Shrub Collection and the Parkway, and C. cordata can be seen on the Overlook and on Hickory Path near Centre Street. If a selection of twelve of the handsomest American Hawthorns for New England gardens were to be made these two should be among them. Pyrus ovoidea. In a few days the leaves of this Chinese Pear-tree will turn bright scarlet. The late autumn coloring of the leaves of this tree is not surpassed by that of any other plant in the Arboretum, and it is well worth a place in any garden for this alone. It is interesting, too, because the leaves of no other Pear-tree turn to brilliani colors, and because the yellow juicy fruit, unlike that of other pears, is smaller at the apex than at the base. There is a good specimen of this tree in the Pear Collection on the left hand side of Forest Hills Road near the Forest Hills entrance. Stewartia pseudocamellia. This is a small Japanese tree with erect growing branches, which produces in summer small, pure white, cup. shaped flowers and at this season of the year is interesting and attrac tive on account of the dark bronze purple color of the ripening leaves. There is a specimen in the Shrub Collection and another on Azalea Path. The Bulletins of 1915 will he discontinned with this issue."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"Index","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":75,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23612","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14e8127.jpg","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null,"authors":null,"article_content":"INDEX Synonyms are in italics. Abelia Engleriana, 31 grandiflora, 31, 58 Abies amabilis, 66 balsamea, 65 brachyphylla, 52 cilieica, 67 concolor, 52, 66 Fraseri, 65 grandis, 66 lasiocarpa, 65 nobilis, 66 Picea, var. columnaris, 47 var. pyramidalis, 47 sibirica, 65 Acanthopanax ricinifolium, 56 Acer ginnala, 59 platanoides, 1 var. column are, 46 rubrum, 1 var. column are, 46 saccharinum, var. pyramidale, 46 saccharum, var. monumentale, 46 tataricum, 52 Aesculus austrina, 31 discolor, var. mollis, 31 georgiana, 31 Harbisonii, 32 Hippocastanum, var. pyramidalis, 47 parviflora, 32, 50 Amelanchier alnifolia, 7 Bartramiana, 7 canadensis, 2, 7 florida, 7 humilis, 7 laevis,7 oblongifolia, 7 oligocarpa, 7 pumila, 7 sanguinea, 7 spicata, 7 stolonifera, 7 American Azaleas, 21 American Crab apples, 19 Amorpha canescens, 51 Aralia spinosa, 56 Arboretum in October, 57 Ashes, Flowering, 23 Asiatic Cherries, 2 Asiatic Crabapples, 9, 64 Asiatic Poplars, 41 Asiatic Witch Hazels, 59 Autumn flowers, 57 Azalea, Clammy, 22 Japanese, 15 a new Korean, 15 Red-flowered, 15 Azaleas, 4 American, 21 Barberries, late-flowering, 50 Bechtel Crab, ]9 Belgian Elm, 56 Benzoin aestivale, 2 Berberis aggregata, 50 Prattii, 50 subcaulialata, 50 Betula pendula, var. fastigiata, 46 verrucosa, var. fastgiata, 46 Black Poplar, 45 Bladder Sennas, 50 Brilliant fruits, 51 Buckeyes, dwarf, 31 Buddleia Davidii, 58 variabilis, 58 Buddleias, Chinese, 58 Burning Bushes, Asiatic, 61 Bush Honeysuckles, 24, 52 late, 40 Camperdown Elm, 55 Caragana, 16 Carolina Hemlock, 52 Carpinus Betulus, var. globosa, 46 var. pyramidalis, 46 Catawbiense hybrid Rhododendrons, 25 Cedar, Incense, 66 of Lebanon, 67 Cedrus Libani, 67 Cephalotaxus pedunculata, var. fastigiata, 48 Chamaecyparis Lawsoniana, 47, 66 nootkatensis, 66 Cherries, Asiatic, 2 Chinese Buddleias, 58 Lilacs, 14 Snowball, 34 Cinnamon Rose, 20 Clematis tangutica, 51 Clethra alnifolia, 56 Colutea arboreseens, 50 Conifers, Colorado, 66 exotic, 67 fastigiate, 47 Pacific Coast, 65 Copper Austrian Briar, 30 Cornel, Silky, 49 Cornish Elm, 47, 54 Cornus Amomum, 49 asperifolia, 49 florida, 16 kousa, 16 Nuttallii, 16 paucinervis, 49 Cotoneaster acutifolia, var. villosula, 23 adpressa, 23 Dielsiana, 68 divaricata, 23, 68 foveolata, 23 horizontalis, 23 var. perpusilla, 68 hupehensis, 22 microphylla, 23 multiflora, 22 var. calocarpa, 22 nitens, 23 Cotoneasters, Chinese, 68 two new Chinese, 22 Crab, Bechtel, 19 Parkman, 10 Transcendent, 11 Crabapples, American, 19 Asiatic, 9, 64 Crataegus, 17 aprica, 18 arkansana, 18 Arnoldiana, 18 coceinioides, 18 Crataegus eordata, 44 Crus-galli, 18 Douglasii, 19 mollis, 18 monogyna, 19 var. monumentalis, 47 var. stricta, 47 nigra, 19 nitida, 18, 68 orientalis, 19 oxyacantha, 19 pinnatifida, 19 var. major, 19 pruinosa, 18 rivularis, 19 submollis, 18 succulenta, 18 Crimson Rambler Rose, 35 Cupressus Lawsoniana erecta viridis, 47 Currant, Missouri, 12 Currants and Gooseberries, 11 Cypress, Lawson, 47 Diervilla, a new, 24 florida, var. venusta, 24 Dirca palustris, 2 Dogwood, Flowering, 16 Dwarf Buckeyes, 31 Early Lilacs, 12 Early-flowering Honeysuckles, 11 Early-flowering Viburnums, 7 Elm, Belgian, 56 Camperdown, 55 Cornish, 47, 54 European, 53 Exeter, 46, 55 Guernsey, 47, 54 Herefordshire, 54 Huntingdon, 56 hybrid, 55 Jersey, 54 Scotch, 54 Silver-leaved, 54 Wheatley, 54 European Privet, 62 Evodia Henryi, 36 Evonymus alatus, 59 Bungeanus, 61 Evonymus lanceifolius, 61 radicans, var. acutus, 63 var. minimus, 63 var. vegetus, 63 semipersistens, 62 yedoensis, 61 Exeter Elm, 46, 55 Exotic conifers, 67 Fagus sylvatica, var. Dawycki, 46 Fastigiate conifers, 47 Fir, White, 52 Flowering Ashes, 23 Dogwood, 16 Forsythia, 4 europaea, 4 intermedia, 4 primulina, 4 suspensa, var. Fortunei, 4 viridissima,4 Fothergilla, 16 major, 16 Fraxinus, 23 Bungeana, 24 dipetala, 23 Ornus, 24 Paxiana, 24 Fruits, brilliant, 51 Gooseberries and Currants, 11 Gordonia alatamaha, 57 Guernsey Elm, 47, 57 Halesia tetraptera, 60 var. monticola, 60 Halimodendron argenteum, 36 Hamamelis mollis, 59 vernalis, 58 virginiana, 57 Harison's Yellow Rose, 29 Hawthorns, 17, 68 Hedge plant, a possible new, 8 Hemlock, 52 Carolina, 52 Herefordshire Elm, 54 Honeysuckle, Swamp, 22 Tartarian, 52 Honeysuckles, Bush. 24, 52 early-flowering, 11 Hungarian Lilac, 14 Huntingdon Elm, 55 Hybrid Elms, 55 Hydrangea arborescens, var. grandiflora, 50 paniculata, 50 grandiflora, 50 praecox, 50 petiolaris, 39 radiata, 50 Incense Cedar, 66 Indigofera amblyantha, 40 decora, 40 Gerardiana, 40 Kirilowii, 40 Irish Yew, 47 Japan Poplar, 41 Jersey Elm, 54 Juniper, Swedish, 47 Juniperus communis, var. suecica, 47 Koelreuteria paniculata, 56 Kolkwitzia amabilis, 30 Laburnum alpinum, 28 Parksii, 28 vulgare, 28 Late-flowering Barberries, 50 Late-flowering Lilac, 28 Lawson Cypress, 47 Lead Plant, 51 Leucothoe Catesbaei, 40 Libocedrus decurrens, 66 Ligustrum vulgare, 62 Lilac, Charles X, 14 Chinese, 14 Congo, 14 Gloire de Moulins, 14, 20 Hungarian, 14 Justi, 14 Ludwig Spath, 14 Lutece, 14 Macrostachya, 14, 20 Marie Legraye, 14 Miss Ellen Willmott 14, 20 Persian, 14 Philemon, 14 Tree, 36 Lilacs, 13, 28 early, 12 Lilacs, late-flowering, 28 Lindera Benzoin, 2 Liriodendron Tulipifera, var. pyramidale, 46 Lombardy Poplar, 45 Lonicera amoena, 24 Arnoldiana, 24 bella, 24, 52 canadensis, 11 coerulea, 11, 52 fragrantissima, 11 gracilipes, 11 involucrata, var. serotina, 40 Koehneana, 52 Korolkowi, 24 Ledebourii, 40 Maackii, 63 var. podocarpa, 63 minutiflora, 52 Morrowii, 24, 52 muscaviensis, 52 notha, 24, 52 orientalis, 52 Standishii, 11 syringantha, var. Wolfii, 11 tangutica, 11 tatarica, 24 utahensis, 11 xylosteoides, 52 Xylosteum, 52 Lyonia mariana, 40 Magnolia conspicua, 2 denudata, 2 glauca, 39, 62 kobus, 2 var. borealis, 2 liliflora, 2 macrophylla, 39 major, 39 obovata, 2 purpurea, 2 Soulangeana, 2 stellata, 2 Thompsoniana, 39 tripetala, 39 yulan, 2 Magnolias, 2 Malus angustifolia, 20 Arnoldiana, 10, 64 Malus baccata, 10, 11 cerasifera, 10 coronaria, 19 Dawsoniana, 20 floribunda, 9, 64 fusca, 20 glaucescens, 19 Halliana, 10 ioensis, 19 ringo, 15, 64 Sargentii, 11, 64 Scheideckeri, 10 Soulardi, 20 spectabilis, 10 toringo, 10, 64 zumi, 11, 64 Manna, 24 Missouri Currant, 12 Mock Orange, 32, 38 Moosewood, 7 Myrica carolinensis, 62 cerifera, 63 Nyssa sylvatica, 59 Oak Collection, 12 Pacific Coast conifers, 65 Panax sessiliflorum, 56 Parkman Crab, 10 Pea-trees, Siberian, 16 Pear-trees, wild, 5 Pepper-bush, 56 Pepperidge, 59 Period for flowers in the Arboretum, 58 Persian Yellow Rose, 30 Philadelphus, 37 Avalanche, 38 Boule d'Argent, 38 Bouquet Blanc, 38 coronarius, 38 erectus, 38 Gerbe de Neige, 38 grandiflorus, 37 hirsutus, 32 inodorus, 38 insignis, 37 latifolius, 38 Philadelphus Lemoinei, 38 maximus, 38 microphyhus, 38 Mont Blanc, 38 purpuraseens, 38 Schneckii, var. Jackii, 32 Souvenir de Billard, 37 splendens, 37 tomentosus, 38 Picea Abies, var. columnaris, 47 var. pyramidalis, 47 canadensis, 65 Engelmannii, 67 pungens, 66 Pine, Red, 52 White, 52 Pinetum, 65 Pinus Lambertiana, 65 monticola, 65 ponderosa, var. Jeffreyi, 66 resinosa, 52 Strobus, 52 var. fastigiata, 47 sylvestris, var. pyramidalis, 47 Poplars, Asiatic, 41 Black, 45 Japan, 41 Lombardy, 45 Silver, 45 Populus alba, var. pyramidalis, 45 Bolleana, 45 Maximowiezii, 41 nigra, var. italica, 45 Simonii, 42 auaveolens, 41 thevestina, 46 tomentosa, 42 Prairie Rose, 51 Prinsepia sinensis, 8 Privet, European, 62 Prunus pendula, 3 Sargentii, 3 subhirtella, 3 tomentosa, 2 triloba, 3 var. plena, 3 Pseudotsuga mucronata, 66 Pyramidal trees, 45 Pyrus betulaefolia, 5 Bretschneideri, 6 Pyrus ovoidea, 6, 68 phaeocarpa, 5 var. globosa, 6 ringo, 15 Simonii, 6 Quercus pedunculata, var. fastigiata, 46 Rainfall of recent years, 26 Red Pine, 52 Rhododendron, 25 arborescens, 22, 43 arboreum, 25 atrosanguineum, 25 calendulaceum, 22, 23 canadense, 21 caneseens, 21, 22 carolinianum, 27 catawbiense, 25, 27, 44 caucasicum, 26 Charles Dickens, 25 comparative hardiness, 25 coreanum, 15 dahuricum, 4 delicatissimum, 26 H. W. Sargent, 25 Kaempferi, 15 Lady Grey Egerton, 26 maximum, 27, 44 Mrs. H. S. Hunnewell, 26 mucronulatum, 4 nudiflorum, 21 ponticum, 25 Smirnowii, 27 Vaseyi, 21 viscosum, 21, 22, 44 Rhododendrons in the United States, 26 Rhodora, 21 Ribes alpestre, var. commune, 8 aureum, 12 cereum, 12 Cynosbati, 12 fasciculatum, var. chinense, 63 niveum, 12 odoratum, 12 pinetorum, 12 robustum, 12 Rosa Bakeri, 43 caudata, 42 Rosa cinnamomea, 20 Ecae, 29 eglanteria, 30 foetida, 30 var. bicolor, 30 var. persiana, 30 Helenae, 39 Hugonis, 20, 29 Jackii, 43 Kelleri, 43 lutea, 30 multibracteata, 43 multiflora, 35, 43 var. cathayensis, 35 multiflora carnea, 35 multiflora platyphylla, 35 omeiensis, 20 setigera, 51 setipoda, 42 simplicifolia, 29 spinosissima, var. hispida, 29 Wichuraiana, 51 xanthina, 30 Rose, a handsome Chinese, 35 a new Chinese, 39 Cinnamon, 20 Prairie, 51 two Chinese, 20 Roses, yellow-flowered, 29 Sambucus canadensis, 43 var. acutiloba, 43 var. chlorocarpa, 43 var. maxima, 43 Saskatoon, 6 Scotch Elm, 54 Sennas, Bladder, 50 Seven Sisters Rose, 35 Shad Bushes, 6 Siberian Pea-trees, 16 Silky Cornel, 49 Silver Bell Tree, 60 Silver-leaved Elms, 54 Silver Poplar, 45 Snowball, Chinese, 34 Sophora japonica, 56 viciifolia, 32 Sour Gum, 59 Spring-flowering trees and shrubs, Stewartia pseudocaniellia, 68 Styrax japonica, 31, 36 Swamp Honeysuckle, 22 Swedish Juniper, 47 Sweet Bay, 62 Syringa affinis, 12 var. Giraldii, 12 amurensis, 36 chinensis, 14 var. alba, 14 Henryii, 14, 28 Josikaea, 14, 28 Julianae, 28 Lutece, 28~ microphylla, 28 pekinensis, 36 per~ica, 14 var. laciniata, 14 pubescens, 14, 28 reflexa, 15, 81 rothomagensis, 14 Sweginzowii, 36 tomentella, 31 villosa, 14, 28 vulgaris, 13 Wolfii, 28 _ Tartarian Honeysuckle, 52 Taxus baccata, var. fastigiata, 48 Thuya gigantea, 66 occidentalis, var. pyramidalis, 47 occidentalis pyramidalis Douglasii, 47 plicata, 66 Tilia cordata, 48 europaea, 48 hybrida, 48 intermedia, 48 platyphyllos, var. pyramidalis, 46, 48 vulgaris, 48 Torreya californica, 68 nucifera, 67 Transcendent Crab, 11 Tree Lilacs, 36 Tsuga canadensis, 52 caroliniana, 52 heterophylla, 52, 66 Tupelo, 59 Ulmus campestris, 53 var. monumentalis, 47 Ulmus campestris, var. viminalis, 54 var. viminalis aurea, 54 var. viminalis marginata, 54 effusa, 55 glabra, 54 var. atropurpurea, 55 var. crispa, 55 var. fastigiata, 46, 55 var. heterophylla, 55 var. horizontalis, 55 var. pendula, 55 var. pendula Camperdownii, 55 hollandica, 55, 56 var. belgica, 56 var. Dumontii, 56 var. Klemmer, 56 var. major, 56 var. superba, 56 var. vegeta, 55 laevis, 55 minor, 55 montana, 54 nitens, 54 var. Dampieri, 54 var. pendula, 54 var. sarniensis, 54 var. stricta, 47, 54 var. suberosa, 54 var. umbraculifera, 54 var. variegata, 54 var. Wheatleyi, 47, 54 pedunculata, 55 sativa, 55 scabra, 54 Viburnum alnifolium, 7, 35 bitehuense, 8 Viburnum burejaeticum, 34 Canbyi, 44 Carlesii, 8, 33 dentatum, 44 dilatatum, 34 erosum, 34 furcatum, 35 Lantana, 34 lantanoides, 35 macrocephalum forma sterile, 34 plicatum, 34 rhytidophyllum, 33 Sargentii, 33 Sieboldii, 34 theiferum, 34 tomentosum, 34 var. dilatatum forma rotundifolium, 34 var. lanceolatum, 34 Veitchii, 34 Wrightii, 34 Viburnums, early-flowering, 7 of western Asia, 33 Wax Myrtle, 62 Wheatley Elm, 54 White Fir, 52 White Pine, 52 Wild Pear Trees, 5 Winter, effects of in the Arboretum, 1 Witch Hazel, 57 Witch Hazels, Asiatic, 59 Yellow-flowered Roses, 29 Yew, Irish, 47"},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23484","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd15ebb28.jpg","title":"1915-1","volume":1,"issue_number":null,"year":1915,"series":2,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 25","article_sequence":52,"start_page":205,"end_page":208,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23598","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170b36f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 52 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS, APRIL 25, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 52. The winter of 1913-14 will be remembered in all parts of eastern North America as a winter of exceptional severity. The unusually low temperature accompanied by high gales of a day or two in January when there was no snow on the ground, and the severe cold and high winds of late February and early March caused much anxiety to the lovers of plants in eastern Massachusetts. So far as the Arboretum is concerned these fears have not been realized, for the losses from the winter here are few and unimportant. The plants of a small Rhododendron, R. Gowenianum, chiefly interesting as one of the hybrids between an Azalea and a Rhododendron, have been killed; otherwise the Rhododendrons are in remarkably good condition and their flowering promises to be the best that the Arboretum has seen. A few of the small, half hardy conifers, like some of the Torreyas and Cephalotaxus planted near the top of Hemlock Hill, have suffered but will probably recover, and here and there through the Arboretum the dead tips of small branches show how severe the winter has been. Even small plants of Buckeyes from Georgia and Texas, and several species of Plums from Texas planted in the open ground, show no signs of injury. The effects of the cold on the new plants from western China are of special interest for it would seem that any plant that could survive such a winter might be considered hardy. It is gratifying, therefore, to find that very few of the Chinese plants even when planted in the most exposed positions have suffered. The Oaks, Birches, Poplars, Willows, Ashes, Cherries, Plums, Yellowwoods, Davidias, Eucommia, Catalpas, Berberis, Cercidiphyllum, most of the Cornels, Viburnums, Cotoneasters, Honeysuckles, Spiraeas, Lilacs, several of the Evodias and Ehretia and many others are uninjured. Some of the Chinese Roses, as might have been expected, are killed back nearly to the ground, while others are quite unhurt. Two of Wilson's conifers, Picea Watsoniana and Tsuga chinensis, have been growing for three years in the open ground without protection and are now as bright and fresh as any conifer in the collection. This is interesting for these two trees came from the region where Wilson later found the large number of new conifers, the introduction of which into cultivation was one of the important results of his travels, and the hardiness of this Spruce and Hemlock indicate that other species from the same region may perhaps be equally hardy in New England. It is interesting to note that the flowers of the winter-flowering Witch Hazels from southern Missouri, Japan and western China were not affected by the severe cold. The Chinese species, Hamamelis mollis, produced its flowers for the first time in the Arboretum in February. These flowers are larger than those of the other species; the petals are bright yellow and remained for weeks in good condition. This promises to be a valuable plant for persons who can use winterflowering shrubs. The spring is exceptionally late. The bluebirds did not arrive this year until March 25th; they have been known to come as early as the 21st of February, and the average date of their arrival for the last thirty years is March 9th. In the bulletin published last year on April 25th there was announced the flowering of several Cherries, of the Amelanchiers, of some of the Forsythias, and of other plants which are now only just beginning to enlarge their buds. A week later the Japanese Euptelea polyandra was in flower, and the branches of the Chinese Prunus tomentosa were already covered with its handsome flowers. In spite of the lateness of the season several trees and shrubs, how. ever, are already in flower. The branches of the White Elm, Ulmus americana, the earliest of the Elm trees to open its buds here, have been brown for several days with the clusters of its small flowers, and the Scarlet Maple (Acer rubrum) is gay with its crowded flowers which cover its otherwise naked branches and are on some individuals scarlet and on others pale red or yellow. The earliest exotic tree to flower this year is the European Dogwood or Cornel, Cornus mas, often called the Cornelian Cherry. The small bright yellow flowers in dense clusters now cover the leafless branches and make the plants conspicuous in early spring. The leaves, which will unfold as the flowers fade, are abundant, of good size and pleasant color, and the bright scarlet lustrous fruits, which are the size of large cherries but oblong in shape, hang gracefully on slender stems and are very ornamental. This small tree is perfectly hardy and probably was better known and more generally planted fifty years ago than it is now. The plant in the Arboretum in the Cornel Group, at the foot of the Bussey Hill Road, is not flowering particularly well this year, but many specimens can be seen in the shrubberies of the Boston parks now in full flower; and there is an exceptionally large and shapely tree on the Boylston Street side of the Boston Public Garden near the entrance to the Subway. Many of the Alders are in flower and their delicate blossoms will well repay careful examination. The flowers of several Willows in the collection planted along the eastern border of the great meadow are now open, and during the next two weeks others will appear in succession. It is at this period that these trees and shrubs are seen in their greatest beauty and are most interesting to the student. The Spice Bush (Benzoin aestivale) is just opening its flowers and can be seen to advantage in the large group on the right hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the end of the Lilac Group. This is a native of the eastern United States and an inhabitant of the borders of swamps where it sometimes grows to the height of ten or fifteen feet. The flowers are small, bright yellow, and the male and female flowers are produced on different individuals, so that some of the plants only bear the small, scarlet, shining fruits which contrast so well with the bright yellow autumn foliage. The leaves are fragrant like those of its relative, the Sassafras, and are not injured by insects. The Leatherwood Group (Dirca palustris) which can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road just above the Spice Bushes, is now covered with its beautiful small yellow flowers. This is one of the most successful groups in the Arboretum and should be visited by persons interested in early spring flowering shrubs of good habit and entire hardiness. The earliest Magnolias are just opening their flower-buds in the neighborhood of the Administration Building. These are two Japanese species, Magnolia stellata, M. kobus and its northern form var. borealis. These plants, like many other Asiatic species, open their flowers before the leaves appear. The former is a shrub which may in time be expected to grow to the height of ten or twelve feet and to spread to a diameter equal to its height. It is perfectly hardy and one of the most beautiful of all early spring flowering shrubs but, like several of the other early flowering Magnolias, it blooms too early and the flowers are often injured by late frosts. This is true, too, of Magnolia kobus and its variety. The latter is a larger and more vigorous tree than the typical Magnolia kobtts, which in the Arboretum has remained shrubby in habit. These two plants, in their young state at least, do not produce large quantities of flowers and their flowers are less beautiful than those of many Magnolias, but the northern tree grows rapidly, is very shapely and covers itself with dense, dark green, handsome foliage. Other plants now in bloom are the European Daphne Mezereum and Erica carnea. The former is a small shrub sometimes growing to a height of eighteen inches or two feet, and is ornamental when it is covered with its small flowers, and later in the season when its red fruits are ripe. It may now be seen in good condition on the lower side of Azalea Path. Erica carnea is one of the few Heaths which are hardy in this climate and the first of the genus to flower here. The red apd white-flowered varieties may be seen in the Shrub Collection and among the Rhododendrons at the base of Hemlock Hill. The interest in native birds is now so great, and fortunately so rapidly increasing, that it may be interesting to make known some of the resources of winter bird-food which can be found in the Arboretum. In March a representative of the Department of Agriculture at Washington came to the Arboretum to study the plants found here which might furnish birds with winter food. His examination revealed the fact that fleshy fruits of the sort eaten by birds were still hanging on the branches, and in good condition, of one hundred and ten species of trees and shrubs, and that the fruit of fifteen other species, although dry, was still available as bird-food. These one hundred and twentyfive species belong to thirty genera. Of the species only forty-nine are natives of the United States and only thirty of New England. In the course of a few years, moreover, the number of plants producing winter food for birds will probably be largely increased in the Arboretum by recent introductions. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 7","article_sequence":53,"start_page":209,"end_page":212,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23607","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14eab6e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 53 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 7, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 53. The most conspicuous plants in flower this week are some of the Cherries of eastern Asia which can be seen in the general Cherry Group on the right-hand side of the road leading from the Forest Hills Gate. The first of these plants to flower this year is Prunus Sargentii of which there are several specimens in the collection. This is a large tree in the forests of northern Japan where it sometimes grows to the height of eighty feet and where it is valued as a timber tree. The large, single pink flowers open before the leaves appear and are produced in profusion; these are followed by small fruits which at first when fully grown are bright red but become black when ripe. The leaves are large and of good color, and in the autumn turn to shades of orange and red. As may be seen in the Arboretum, the flowers are of a different color on different individuals, those of some trees being deep rose color and of others pale pink. This is one of the most desirable of the large, deciduous-leaved trees that have been brought into New England from Japan, and it seems destined to become a popular ornament in American parks and gardens. Young plants show a tendency to divide near the ground into several stems and to prevent this and to produce trees with tall straight trunks young plants should be planted close together in the nursery and carefully pruned. Two other Japanese Cherry trees are in flower, Prunus subhirtella and P. pendula ; these are smaller plants than P. Sargentii, and their flowers, which are smaller than those of that tree, are much alike in shape and color. The branches of the former, however, are upright while those of Prunus pendula are drooping. On both plants the flowers are produced in the greatest profusion and begin to open before the leaves appear. Prunus pendula was taken up many years ago by American nurserymen and is now a favorite ornament in most American collections of trees, but P. subhirtella, which is perhaps a a more beautiful flowering plant, is still too rarely seen in this country. Two cherries from northern China are also in flower, Prunus tomentosa and the single-flowered form of P. triloba; the former is a large bush which along some of the Boston parkways has grown six or eight feet tall with a wide spread of branches. This Cherry covers itself with white flowers marked with red at the base of the petals, and followed in June by small slightly hairy fruits of good flavor. In the northwest this little Cherry appears to be hardy beyond the region where the European fruit-cherries can be successfully grown, and it is possible by long cultivation and the selection of promising seedlings it may in time be developed into a valuable food plant. This experiment is certainly worth trying on a large scale. Prunus triloba is better known in gardens in its double-flowered form but the singleflowered type is a more beautiful plant, and certainly the flowers on no other tree or shrub are of a purer pink color. First introduced into the Arboretum with Prunus tomentosa thirty years ago, it has never grown to a large size and, although perfectly hardy, it is not robust or long-lived. The Plums, which are next to the Cherries and near the junction of the Forest Hills and Meadow Roads, are fast opening their flowers. Prunus cerasifera, the Myrobalan Plum from the Caucasus, and Prunus triflora, the only true Plum known in China, are already in flower and the buds of the Plum-tree which grows naturally along the Canadian border, the so-called Canada Plum, P. nigra, is expanding its petals which, pure white at first, turn to rose color as the flowers fade. Several of the Chinese Magnolias are in flower in the neighborhood of the Administration Building. The most beautiful of them and of all the Magnolias which flower before the leaves appear and are hardy in this climate is the white-flowered Yulan, Magnolia conspicua. This tree was found by Wilson on the mountains of western China and is probably widely distributed through the western and central provinces, as it was one of the first Chinese trees introduced into Europe. A number of hybrids of this tree and the shrubby Magnolia liliflora (purpurea) were produced in France many years ago and are now well known garden plants. These hybrids differ in the size and color of their flowers, which on some plants are rose color and on others white streaked with rose color or pink. The handsomest, perhaps, of these hybrids and certainly the best known, Magnolia Sovdangeana, is named for the French horticulturist who produced it, Soulange-Bodin. This and the other hybrids flower rather later than Magnolia conspicua and therefore more often escape the late frosts which frequently in this climate discolor the petals of these trees. The northern form of Magnolia kobus (var. borealis) has flowered much more freely this year than ever before. For many years this tree in the neighborhood of Boston has produced only a few flowers here and there on the ends of its branches, and it is evident that, unlike the Chinese Magnolias which flower when only a few feet high, it requires age before it can show its real value as a flowering tree. The flowers are smaller than those of the Chinese Magnolias and their drooping petals make them less beautiful, perhaps, than the cup-shaped flowers of the Chinese plants, but, judging from the climate of the region where the northern Kobus grows, it may be expected to be hardy in the United States considerably further north than any other Asiatic Magnolia. The Shadbushes (Amelanchier) are fast coming into flower, and as these plants are common in the Arboretum this is a time when the lovers of delicate and beautiful flowers find much pleasure here. Two species grow naturally in the Arboretum, Amelanchier laevis and A. oblongifolia ; the former, which is a tree growing generally on rather dry banks, was long confounded by botanists with the true Amelanchier canadensis of Linnaeus. This is also a tree but of more southern and western range than Amelanchier laevis, differing from it in the soft pale down which covers the lower surface of the leaves. It is not a native of eastern Massacnusetts but is now established in the Arboretum. The second species which grows naturally in the great meadow where there is a large specimen, Amelanchier oblongifolia, is shrubby in habit and easily distinguished at this time by the gray color of the unfolding leaves. It is this species which has been largely planted through the Arboretum shrubberies and which in a few days will make a fine show here. Recent investigations have brought to light the existence in the eastern states of a considerable number of species of Amelanchier which were formerly unknown or were unrecognized by botanists, and these interesting plants have now been gathered in the bed on the grass path on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road entering from the Jamaica Plain Gate. Some of these plants are already in flower and the flowers of others will continue to open for two or three weeks. The severity of the winter is shown by its effect on the flower-buds of the Forsythias. On some plants the buds are entirely killed and on others only a few buds have opened. The plant which has suffered the most is the upright growing variety of Forsythia suspensa (var. Fortunei). This is the form which is generally planted in the neighborhood of Boston, and the loss of its flowers deprives many Massachusetts gardens of their greatest spring beauty. The buds of Forsythia suspensa itself and of F. viridis have also suffered, but those of a hybrid between these species (F. intermedia) are uninjured or only occasionally hurt. There are several varieties of this hybrid and among them are perhaps the most beautiful of all the Forsythias, and if it proves to be true thtst their flower buds can resist more cold than those of their parents they will probably soon be better known than they are now. For some reason not easy to explain the Albanian Forsythia europea has not before been so full of flowers and they have not before appeared so beautiful. This is a tall shrub with rather rigid erect stems and branches, and has generally been considered here inferior as a flowering plant to the Chinese species, its chief interest having been that it was a European representative of a genus otherwise exclusively Chinese. Of broad-leaved evergreens which are hardy in this climate three species, all of the Heath Family, are now in flower. The best of them as a garden plant and the handsomest of the small broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which are perfectly hardy in New England, Andromeda fioribunda, is conspicuous all winter from the clusters of white flowerbuds which cover the plant and are now opening. In cultivation it grows to the height of three or four feet and forms a round-topped head sometimes ten feet across. A native of high altitudes in the southern Appalachian Mountains, it is everywhere there a rare and local plant, but long a favorite in English gardens it is now well known in those of the northern states. The largest bpecimen in the Arboretum can be seen in the border on Hemlock Hill Road opposite the Laurels. In this border, too, can be seen in flower plants of another native shrub with evergreen leaves, the Leather-leaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). This is a low, much-branched shrub with small leaves and white flowers in one-sided leafy racemes. An inhabitant of cold wet bogs, this plant takes kindly to cultivation in dry garden soil. The third evergreen shrub in flower, the Bog Rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla), is an inhabitant of cold northern bogs and swamps, and is also a good garden plant. It can now be seen in good condition in the Shrub Collection where it is conspicuous from the pale under surface of its narrow leaves and clusters of small pink flowers. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 14","article_sequence":54,"start_page":213,"end_page":216,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23604","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170896b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 54 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 14, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 54. The earliest Lilacs are already in flower and next week most of the varieties of the common garden Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) will be in bloom. The promise of flowers is excellent, indeed it is several years since the plants have been so full of flower-buds as they are this spring. This year the earliest of the Lilacs is the white-flowering Syringa affinis from northern China and its variety with purple or mauve-colored flowers (var. Giraldii). These are tall plants of loose unattractive habit, but the leaves are broad and handsome and the flowers, which are produced in rather small clusters, are exceedingly fragrant. This fragrance and the fact that the flowers open so early and are not injured by late frosts make these Lilacs desirable garden plants in this part of the country. The white-flowered form is one of the few shrubs generally cultivated in the gardens of Peking. Another north China species, Syringa oblata, is opening its pale purple flowers. This is a plant of much better habit than Syringa affinis, and its broad thick leaves, which turn to a dark wine color in the autumn, are handsomer than those of any other Lilac. The flowerbuds, however, are often injured by spring frosts and it is not often that the flowers are in good condition. In time this Lilac grows into a broad, round-topped shrub eight or ten feet high and is well worth growing for its foliage; in cultivation it does not produce seeds. A hybrid of Syringa oblata and S. vulgaris (S. hyacinthiflora) is now in bloom. This is an old inhabitant of gardens and is a large, vigorous and shapely plant with good foliage. The flowers are small, semi-double, bluish purple, very fragrant, and are produced in small clusters. As compared with some of the recent forms of the garden Lilac they are not remarkable, but this hybrid should find a place in every collection of Lilacs as its very early flowers prolong the Lilac season. This, thanks to the discoveries of recent years, now lasts here in ordinary seasons from the first of May to the first of July. Attention will be called in these bulletins to the different species, hybrids and varieties as they come into flower. The flowers of the Crabapples are late this year and are only just showing in the buds the color of their petals. With a few warm days, however, some of these plants will be in full bloom; and it now seems probable that the Lilacs and many of the Crabapples will be in flower at the same time. The old collection of Crabapples is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road, and there is a large collection at the base of Peter's Hill. The plants in this supplementary collection are smaller than those on Forest Hills Road, but it now contains more species and varieties, and the plants of many of them promise to flower this year more freely than those in the old collection. In the neighborhood of the Administration Building there are some large plants of forms or hybrids of the Chinese Malus floribunda which are now covered with flower-buds. Among them are plants that carry their fruit through the winter and are particularly valuable as sources of winter bird-food. The Crabapples in the Arboretum form one of its important collections of small trees with conspicuous flowers, and as these plants are suited for the decoration of New England gardens they well repay careful study. The so-called Japanese Quince (Pyrus or Chaenomeles japonica) with its bright red flowers appearing before or with the leaves is found in most old-fashioned gardens. In recent years some attention has been paid in Europe to the improvement of this plant, and there are in cultivation forms with flowers of various shades of red and pink, and with white and red and white flowers. There are a large number of these forms in the Shrub Collection but the flower-buds, except those on the lower branches, have been much injured by the winter, and this year it is not possible to get an idea of the beauty of some of these plants. The flower-buds of another of the eastern Asiatic Quinces (Chaenomeles Maulet) have not suffered, however, and the plants, which are also in the Shrub Collection, are now in great beauty; they are low, rather wide-spreading, little shrubs and the flowers on different individuals vary from crimson to nearly white. Well suited for planting in the rock-garden, on the margins of shrubberies and on low banks, they appear to be still little known in this country. The Asiatic Quinces, like many related genera in the Rose Family, suffer seriously from the San Jose scale which, although it can easily be kept in check by spraying, makes them sometimes undesirable garden plants. The yellow-flowered western American Currants, Ribes odoratum and R. aureum, are just now two of the most conspicuous plants in the Arboretum. A generation ago the former was one of the common shrubs in American gardens where it was always called the Missouri Currant; it is even sometimes naturalized in the eastern United States. A native of the region from Dakota to Texas, it is perfectly hardy, grows to a large size and flowers freely every year. The other yellowflowered Currant is a smaller plant with more slender stems and shorter flowers, and is perhaps a more attractive plant than the former. It grows naturally from the headwaters of the Missouri River to the northwest coast and to Arizona, and is~still rare in cultivation. There is a variety in the collection from Montana with yellow fruit (var. chrysococcum). Among other species of Currants which are also in flower one of the most interesting is the Rocky Mountain Ribes cereum with its handsome foliage and small white flowers. There is a good specimen of this little known plant in the Shrub Collection, where Ribes tenue from western China is flowering for the first time in the Arboretum. In the Gooseberry Collection are now in flower several handsome and interesting species well worth examination by persons interested in shrubs still little known in gardens. Some of the most distinct species now in flower in this group are Ribes niveum, with white flowers, from the northwestern United States, R. missouriense, with pale yellow flowers, an inhabitant of the region from Missouri to Arkansas, R. stenocarpum, with white flowers, from Japan, R. Cynosbati, and its variety inerme, with white flowers, from the northeastern United States, and R. pinetorum, with orange-red flowers, from Arizona; in flower this last is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Gooseberries in the Arboretum. The Korean Viburnum Carlesii is uninjured by the winter. This is one of the most beautiful of the exotic Viburnums and is particularly interesting from the fact that the flower-buds are bright orange-red while the inner surface of the corolla is white, and as the flowers open the color of the outer surface gradually fades to pink and then to white. As the buds do not always expand at the same time there are in the flower-cluster pink buds among the white flowers; the flowers are very fragrant. This plant, although it is still comparatively little known, well deserves a place in every collection of shrubs. As usual, the earliest Barberry to flower in the Arboretum is Berberis dictyophylla which, although it comes from the southern part of China, is perfectly hardy here. The flowers are solitary or occasionally in pairs in the axils of the leaves, rather less than half an inch in diameter and pale primrose yellow in color. The peculiar beauty of the plant, however, is in the leaves, which, although not large, are silvery white on the lower surface and in the autumn turn brilliant scarlet on the upper surface while the lower surface retains its spring and summer color. Plants of this Barberry can be seen in the Shrub Collection and in the supplementary collection of Barberries on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Prinsepia sinensis is uninjured by the winter and the plant on Hickory Path near Centre Street has flowered more profusely than ever before. This north China shrub is one of the first plants in the Arboretum to unfold its leaves in the spring, and when these are nearly fully grown the clear yellow axillary flowers appear. This beautiful and interesting shrub does not seed at all freely in the Arboretum and is still rare in American collections. Fothergilla, which is a genus of the Witch Hazel Family, confined to the southeastern United States, has furnished gardens with some beautiful shrubs. All the species bear small white flowers in compact clusters, at the ends of the branches, and handsome leaves resembling those of the Witch Hazels; they are just coming into bloom. Fothergilla major and F. montana are large, vigorous and very hardy shrubs, while Fothergilla Gardeni, which is a small plant and a native of the coast region, is less hardy than the mountain species. These shrubs are in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path, and the largest plant of Fothergilla major in the Arboretum is in the Witch Hazel Group near the pond at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. The form of Rhododendron praecox known in gardens as \"Little Gem\" is usually the first of the evergreen Rhododendrons to flower in the Arboretum. The pale rose-pink flowers are too often injured by late frosts. and this year the flower-buds have been killed by cold, so that this spring the earliest Rhododendron in flower is a dwarf plant received several years ago from Germany under the name of R. Jacksonii, a name which does not appear in catalogues. It is evidently one of the forms or hybrids of R. caucasicum, although it flowers two or three weeks before any of the other forms of this species in the Arboretum. It is a low compact plant with clusters of large pale pink flowers and has not been at all injured by the winter. There are two specimens in the collection at the base of Hemlock Hill and they are well worth the attention of lovers of dwarf early flowering Rhododendrons. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 22","article_sequence":55,"start_page":217,"end_page":220,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23605","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14ea36c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 55 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 22, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 55. The number of trees and shrubs really valuable here which western Europe has contributed to New England plantations and gardens is not large. Of the trees the Beech, two or three of the Elms, the Birches, the Mountain Ash, the Laburnums, the Norway Maple, the Hawthorn, the Hornbeam, the Poplar, several Willows, the Alder, two or three of the Cherries, the Plum, the Apple and the Pear flourish in this climate. Although some of them will drag out a more or less unhappy existence for several years, the Oaks of western Europe, the Ash, the Sycamore Maple, and all the conifers are not desirable trees for our region. From western Europe, too, we have obtained a few shrubs which are important in New England gardens. The Heather gives summer brightness to New England gardens and hillsides, and the little Daphne cneorum, a native of the mountains of central Europe, is now covered with its clusters of fragrant rose-pink flowers. One of the most beautiful of all dwarf shrubs suitable for the decoration of the rock-garden, it is rather capricious as to soil and situation, and does not always flourish in this country as well as it does in the Arboretum. None of the Barberries which have been brought into our gardens in the last thirty years is more useful than the common European Berberis vulgaris which has long been naturalized in eastern Massachusetts and years ago was selected by one of the wise men of Boston as a typical New England plant for the decoration of a monument to be erected to some departed New England worthy. For thirty years, too, much attention has been paid to the introduction and cultivation of the different species of Privet from eastern Asia, but there is not one among them which is as valuable in New England as the common Privet of Europe which must have been cultivated here for two hundred years and is now sparingly naturalized in some of the eastern states. The black and shining berries in large terminal clusters are unsurpassed in beauty by those of any other black-fruited shrub which can be grown here, and as they remain in good condition until into the winter they are valuable on the plants and, when cut, for late autumn and early winter decorations. Among the shrubs of western Europe which are really valuable in New England must be included the Wayfaring-tree, Viburnum Lantana. With the exception of the Korean Viburnum Carlesii mentioned in a recent bulletin, and of our native northern Hobblebush, Viburnum alnifolium, the Wayfaring- tree is the earliest of the Viburnums to flower. It is a tall, compact, round-headed shrub with large, thick, dark green leaves and broad, compact, convex clusters of white flowers. The fruit when fully grown is bright red but finally turns black, fruits of the two colors often appearing at the same time in the same cluster. This shrub is therefore as beautiful in the early autumn as it is in the middle of May; it can be seen in the general Viburnum collection near the junction of the Bussey Hill and Valley Roads, and it has been largely planted in the Boston parks. Near it and just coming into flower are several plants of Viburnum burejaeticum from Manchuria, Korea, and northern China. This is a neat shrub with small leaves and small compact clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by small black fruits. As compared with most of the American Viburnums it has little to recommend it as an ornamental plant; indeed, with a few exceptions, the eastern Asiatic Viburnums are less valuable than the eastern American species, among which are found garden shrubs of the first class. Viburnum dentatum and V. Wrightii from Japan, with bright red fruits, have no American counterparts, however, and should therefore be cultivated for the autumn garden. These two species will soon be in flower in the Viburnum collection where can now be seen nearly every species and variety which can be grown in this climate. The large creamy white flowers of Magnolia Fraseri are already opening and the leaves are half-grown. This is a small pyramidal tree of rather open habit from the slopes of the Appalachian Mountains from southern Virginia southward, sometimes growing on the headwaters of the Savannah River, where it is most abundant, to the height of thirty or forty feet. In cultivation it begins to flower when not more than half that size, and here in the Arboretum it flowers abundantly every year and is perfectly hardy. This beautiful tree is still too rare in American collections. The much smaller, greenish or yellowish green flowers of the Cucumber-tree, Magnolia acuminata, will soon follow those of M. Fraseri. The Cucumber-tree, which under favorable conditions sometimes attains the height of eighty or ninety feet, is the largest Magnolia which can be grown in New England and the most northern in its range of all the American species. The flowers of the Cucumber-tree will soon be followed by those of another American species, Magnolia cordata. This in the Arboretum is a smaller tree with darker green leaves and small, cup-shaped, canary-yellow flowers. This Magnolia was discovered more than a century ago by the French botanist Michaux somewhere on the headwaters of the Savannah River in Georgia or South Carolina. A little later it was found by Michaux and his son, F. A. Michaux, in the neighborhood of Augusta, Georgia. It was introduced into France by Michaux and the descendants of these trees are now cultivated in the United States and Europe. For many years attempts to rediscover this tree in the regions visited by Michaux have been unsuccessful, and it is interesting therefore to report that the Berckmans of Augusta, Georgia, have recently found Magnolia cordata in two stations a few miles south and west of Augusta. The plants are growing in upland Oak and Pine woods, the largest of them being seven or eight feet tall. The plants begin to flower when not more than three feet high, and in April of this year some of these shrubs bore forty or fifty flowers. In cultivation Magnolia cordata is always a grafted tree, but it is not probable that the cultivated trees owe their greater size to a stronger stock, and the small size of the plants discovered near Augusta may be due to dry soil and a hot climate, and Magnolia cordata as a tree may still be found in some of the moist rich valleys of the small streams flowing down the eastern slopes of the Blue Ridge. Several handsome American Hawthorns (Crataegus) are in full bloom, leading a procession which will last for nearly six weeks. The earliest of these plants to flower here belong to the Molles section of the genus in which some twenty species are now recognized. They are all shapely round-topped trees, some of them growing to a comparatively large size. The flowers are large, in broad many-flowered clusters; the leaves are broad, thin and long-stalked, and on most of the species begin to unfold as the flowers open. The fruit of these plants is globose or pear-shaped, crimson, scarlet or rarely yellow, and of excellent flavor. The plants of this group are comparatively rare in the east; they do not extend into the southeastern states, and are most abundant in the region from Illinois and Iowa, through Missouri and Arkansas, to eastern Texas. Of this group there are now in flower at the South Street entrance large plants of C. mollis, C. submollis, and C. arkansana. The last is a particularly valuable plant as it retains its brilliant fruit until late in the season and longer than the other plants of this group. Another interesting plant of this group, C. Arnoldiana, is valuable because the fruit ripens in August when showy fruits are rare here. This tree was first discovered growing wild in the Arboretum and is still known only from a few stations. It is one of the few species of Crataegus which can be easily recognized in winter when its strongly zigzag branches are conspicuous. There are large plants of this tree on the left of the Centre Street entrance, and there are a number of them on the Valley Road in front of the Oak Collection. All of the species of the Mollis Group are American with one exception, Crataegus peregrina, which is probably a native of Persia. From the American species it differs in the color of the fruit which is dark purple, unlike that of any American Hawthorn. This plant is in flower in the old Crataegus Collection on the bank between the Shrub Collection and the Arborway boundary of the Arboretum, in which there are also plants in flower of C. arkansana and C. Arnoldiana. Many plants in the Plum Collection now deserve inspection, notably Prunus hortulana and P. Munsoniana, both natives of the Missouri- Arkansas-Texas region, the latter the Wild Goose Plum of pomologists. Many of the early flowering Crabapples are still in good condition and the flowers of many others are still to open. In the general Rhododendron Collection at the base of Hemlock Hill R. carolinianum is in flower. This is a native of the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains. Although this plant was sent to England more than a century ago, it has been entirely lost sight of until a few years ago, having been confused with R. minus or punctatum, a southern plant of lower altitudes, different habit and foliage and less attractive flowers. R. carolinianum flourishes in the shade and in full exposure to the sun. It is a dwarf plant of compact habit; the leaves are dark green, and the comparatively small pink flowers are borne in compact clusters. It is perhaps as hardy in New England as any Rhododendron, and it is certainly a plant of great promise either ' for the decoration of parks and gardens or a possible element in a new race of hybrids. Several plants of Rhododendron coreanum are in flower on Azalea Path. This species, which was discovered by Mr. Jack in Korea, is also a plant of much promise; it is one of the species with deciduous or nearly deciduous leaves; the habit is good, and the abundant flowers are of a pleasant rose-purple color. Judging by the experience with it in the Arboretum during the last two or three years it is one of the best of the recent introductions of its class. When this bulletin reaches its readers many of the plants in the Lilac Group will be in flower, and persons interested in Lilacs should visit the Arboretum during the next week. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 28","article_sequence":56,"start_page":221,"end_page":224,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23606","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14ea76d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 56 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. MAY 28, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 56. In the collection of Hawthorns (Crataegus) on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill there are now flowering or soon to flower six hundred and thirty groups, including a few duplicates and a few Old World species. This collection of American Hawthorns is the result of work carried on by the Arboretum during the last fourteen years. During this time most of these plants have been discovered, and many of them have been named and described. They have all been raised from seeds at the Arboretum, and thousands of the young plants have been distributed to cultivators in the United States and Europe. This Crataegus investigation has meant many thousand miles of travel by officers of the Arboretum and by its correspondents and friends, and in the last forty years American Crataegus seeds under thirty-two hundred different numbers have been sown, seeds of widely distributed species collected in different parts of the country having been sown in order to show possible geographical variation in the seedlings. This investigation has brought to light a large number of beautiful hardy trees and shrubs well suited for the decoration of the parks and gardens of cold temperate regions; and the collection on Peter's Hill, already interesting, should before many years have passed be one of the spectacular features of the Arboretum in spring and autumn. American Hawthorns are distributed from Newfoundland and the northern parts of the Province of Quebec to Florida and Texas, and to the Pacific Coast in the northwest. The largest number of species grow together probably on the streams which flow into Lake Ontario both from the north and south, in southern Missouri and in southern Arkansas. The genus has few species in the Rocky Mountains, and these are small in size and not numerous in individuals, and in the northwest there are only a few widely distributed species. Some of the American Hawthorns are trees which in the rich bottom-lands of the Mississippi valley attain a height of thirty or forty, or even fifty, feet with tall straight trunks and widespreading branches, many are shrubby in habit, and there is one group (Intricatae) in which nearly all the species are small shrubs rarely more than three or four feet high. These small shrubs bear large and showy flowers followed, in the case of many of the species, by large, bright colored and abundant fruits. They are valuable and interesting plants therefore for small gardens. In spite of all which has been done at the Arboretum to discover and introduce these plants, the investigation must be considered as not more than fairly begun, for there are still thousands of square miles of territory in North America where Hawthorns grow which have not been explored with reference to these plants. Next to the Lilacs the most valuable shrubs, perhaps, for northern gardens now in flower are the Bush Honeysuckles, of which there is a large collection in the Arboretum. Many of the large-growing kinds, especially forms of the old-fashioned Tartarian Honeysuckle, are conspicuous objects when covered with flowers, and they have the advantage over the Lilacs of producing in summer and early autumn abundant crops of brilliant fruits. These Honeysuckles and the Lilacs are the most satisfactory shrubs which can be grown in northern regions of extreme cold. There are many hybrid Honeysuckles. One of the handsomest of the hybrids, Lonicera notha, with pale pink flowers, is believed to be the result of a cross of L. tatarica with L. Ruprechtiana of northeastern Asia. There are two large specimens of this plant on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and opposite the Lilac Group. There is here also a large plant of Lonicera bella, with pale yellow flowers, the result of a cross between L. tatarica and L. Morrowii ; and here, too, are plants of L. chrysantha from northeastern Asia now in full bloom, and of L. orientalis from southeastern Europe which will not open its flowers for several days. Other interesting Bush Honeysuckles now to be seen in the Shrub Collection are Lonicera xylosteoides, with white flowers, a hybrid between the Tartarian Honeysuckle and L. Xylosteum, L. muendeniensis, with pale yellow flowers, a hybrid of the Tartarian Honeysuckle with L. Morrowii from northeastern Asia, L. muscaviensis with pale yellow flowers, a hybrid between L. Morrowii and L. Ruprechtiana, L. segreziensis with white flowers, a hybrid between L. quinquelocularis and L. Xylosteum, L. multiflora with white flowers, a hybrid between L. micrantha and L. Morrowii, and two beautiful plants with pale bluish foliage and small rose-colored flowers, L. Korolkowii floribunda, and a hybrid of L. Korolkowii with L. tatarica which appeared in the Arboretum a few years ago and known as L. amoena Arnoldiana. These are only a very few of the plants now in bloom in this collection, which is one of the most important in the Arboretum. An examination of the plants of the wild Lilac, Syringa vulgaris, is interesting as showing the great improvements which have been made in garden Lilacs since the introduction of this plant into western Europe. The original Lilac, S. vulgaris, was found only a few years ago to be a native of the mountains of Bulgaria, and there is now a group of these plants raised from seeds collected from the wild plants in Bulgaria now flowering at the foot of the bank on the left-hand side of the path which passes up through the Lilac Group. These plants are labeled \"Syringa vulgaris, mountains of Bulgaria.\" The two northern pink-flowered species of Azalea, or Wild Honeysuckle, as these plants are often called, Rhododendron canescens and R. nudiflorum, are now in flower. The former is a northern and the latter a more southern plant, and is especially common in the Gulf States from Florida to eastern Texas. The flowers of these plants open before or with the unfolding leaves and in early spring fill the woods with their fragrance. Both species can now be seen on Azalea Path, and there is a good mass of Azalea canescens on the right hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Linden Group. The flowers of the Highbush Blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, have never been more abundant or lasted longer in good condition in the Arboretum than this year, and it is desirable to call attention again to this wonderful plant which is beautiful in its flowers, its abundant edible fruits, and the splendid scarlet of its autumn leaves. The Highbush Blueberry, which grows naturally along the borders of swamps and other low places, where it occasionally reaches a height of from twelve to eighteen feet, is easily cultivated in good garden soil. On the plants in the Arboretum, where they have been largely planted, the flowers differ in size and in the time of opening. The individuals vary, too, in the size and quality of their fruit, but all the forms seem equally valuable as garden plants. For its fruit, which is the best of all Blueberry fruit, and for the beauty of its flowers and autumn leaves, this shrub cannot be too often planted. There are several plants on each side of Azalea Path near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road; and the Highbush Blueberry can also now be seen in many of the Roadside plantations, especially in the piece of swampy ground on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group. Aronia, a genus of the Rose Family, confined to eastern North America, sometimes considered a section of the genus Pyrus, contains valuable plants for the garden shrubbery. There are three species, all widely distributed in the eastern part of the country, Aronia melanocarpa, A. atropurpurea and A. arbutifolia. They all have small white flowers with rose-colored anthers borne in erect compound clusters, showy fruits and handsome foliage. What is believed to be the type of A. melanocarpa is a shrub twelve or eighteen inches high, with stems spreading into a broad mat. There is a form of this species (var. elata), however, which is much more common and grows into a shrub from six to ten feet tall, and another form (var. grandifolia) with broader leaves; this is also a tall shrub. The fruit of this species is black and lustrous, and drooping on long stems hangs on the plant during the winter. Aronia atropurpurea is also a tall shrub, in general habit and foliage like the var. elata. The fruit, however, is dark, vinous red and ripens and falls earlier. The leaves of these two species turn orange and red in the autumn before falling. Aronia arbutifolia is a tall, slender shrub of irregular habit, with flowers which open later than those of the other species, smaller leaves, covered with white down on the lower surface, and erect clusters of small, bright scarlet fruits which remain on the plants without change of color well into the winter. The brilliant fruit and the bright scarlet of the autumn leaves makes this late in the season one of the most beautiful of all our native shrubs. Less common in the north, perhaps, than the other species, Aronia arbutifolia is a very common plant in all the southern states where it is very generally distributed, often growing in great abundance on the margins of small depressions in the Pine woods which in spring are filled with water. All the forms of Aronia are easily cultivated and are now in flower in the Shrub Collection. They have also been largely planted in the shrubberies along the Arboretum roads. Several of the Viburnums, notably Viburnum prunifolium, a small tree from the middle states, V. Wrightii from Japan, chiefly valuable for its scarlet fruits, V. Sieboldii from Japan, one of the largest of the Asiatic species with handsome foliage, large convex clusters of creamy white flowers, and large lustrous fruits which, at first scarlet, become black when fully grown. A more beautiful plant and the handsomest of the Asiatic species, V. tomentosum is also in flower. It is a large flat-topped shrub with wide-spreading branches, on the upper side of which the flower clusters are set; these are broad and flat, and they are surrounded by a ring of large, pure white sterile flowers which are the conspicuous part of the infloresence. There is an interesting narrowleaved form of this plant, discovered in Japan by Professor Sargent, also in flower in the Collection. There are also two Snowball forms of this species developed in Japanese gardens and much cultivated here and in Europe under the name of Viburnum plicatum. The correct name of the more common of these two plants is Viburnum tomentosum, var. dilatatum. This is the Japanese Snowball cultivated in this country and it will not be in its best condition for another week. The other form, V. tomentosum, var. dilatatum, f. rotundifolium, which is a dwarfer plant, is already in flower. They can be seen in the general Viburnum Collection on the Bussey Hill Road just before it turns into the Valley Road near the Centre Street Gate. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":57,"start_page":225,"end_page":228,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23603","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170856a.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 57 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS JUNE 5, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 57. When this bulletin reaches its readers a large number of Rhododendrons at the base of Hemlock Hill will be in flower. The flowers of a few have faded and those of others will continue to open during several days. The number of species of Rhododendrons with evergreen leaves which can be successfully cultivated in this climate is not large. The four species of eastern North America, Rhododendron maximum, R. Catawbiense, R. carolinianum and R. minus are all perfectly hardy, as are R. Smirnowii and R. caucasicum from the Caucasus, R. brachycarpum from Japan and R. micranthum from China. The flower-buds of the last, however, have been destroyed by the cold of the past winter. The two European species, R. ferrugineum and R. hirsutum, are in the collection but they are not very satisfactory plants for this climate, and unless exceptionally favorable positions can be found for them they are not long-lived here. In recent years R. maximum has been largely planted in this part of the country, but the common Rhododendron of American gardens belongs to a race of hybrids which originated in England many years ago and are known as Catawbiense hybrids because they have been produced by crossing R. Catawbiense of the high summits of the southern Appalachian Mountains with R. ponticum of the Caucasus, and with R. arboreum and other Himalayan species. These hybrids are valuable in this country in proportion to the influence on them of R. Catawbiense, and it is found that varieties with broad leaves like those of the American plant are always hardier than the narrow-leaved varieties which show a greater influence of R. ponticum and the Indian species. The number of these hybrids, however, which are really hardy in this climate is not large; among them Atrosanguineum (very early), Charles Dickens and H. W. Sargent (late) of red-flowered varieties are good plants; among the pink-flowered varieties none have proved so satisfactory as Mrs. Charles Sargent and Henrietta Sargent, similar in general appearance, but the latter with smaller and more compact flower-clusters and flowers of not quite such a perfect pink. Among the varieties with rose-colored flowers, Roseum elegans and Lady Armstrong are hardy and satisfactory; and among the varieties with dark purple flowers Purpureum grandiflorum, Purpureum elegans and King of the Purples are all hardy. Of the varieties with light purple flowers Everestianum is the best and one of the hardiest and most satisfactory of all these hybrids. Among the whiteflowered varieties Catawbiense album (very early), Album elegans and Album grandiflorum can be safely used. Most of the hybrid Rhododendrons in American gardens are of English origin, but a few years ago the Arboretum obtained in Germany a number of these hybrids raised in that country. These have proved very hardy and some of them promise to be valuable additions to the Rhododendrons which can be successfully cultivated here. The most distinct, perhaps, are Viola, with white flowers, Albert, with pale pink flowers, and Bismarck, with white flowers with small brown dots on the inner face of the corolla. The last has flowered profusely now every season for the last three years; the foliage and habit are good, and as it flowers early this variety is particularly valuable, for there are not many early whiteflowered Catawbiense hybrids. Among the hybrid Rhododendrons which have been raised between R. catawbiense and R. maximum the best known is Delicatissimum. This blooms later than the Catawbiense hybrids; it is a large plant, of good habit, with long lustrous leaves and pale pink and white flowers, and one of the best Rhododendrons which can be grown in this climate. The experience of another year confirms the good opinion which the Caucasian Rhododendron Smirnowii has made for itself here. It is a large plant with pale green leaves covered below with a thick mat of nearly white wool and large clusters of bright pink flowers. It grows best in partial shade as the hot sun of our summer causes the leaves to curl. A number of hybrids have been obtained in Europe by crossing this species with some of the Catawbiense hybrids. Some of these hybrids are established in the Arboretum and have flowered for several years, but the cold of the past winter has destroyed their flower-buds. Rhododendron caucasicum and its hybrids or varieties should be more often found in our gardens, in which the form of this species known as Boule de Neige is the only one usually seen. Like the other forms of R. caucasicum it is a small compact plant which covers itself with clusters of large white flowers which open earlier than those of most of the Catawbiense hybrids. This earliness, its good habit, and its handsome pure white flowers make this a desirable garden plant in this climate. Another plant of this race with pale yellow flowers, known as R. coriaceum, is now in flower in the collection and is also a hardy and desirable plant. A smaller plant of this race, Mont Blanc, is interesting as the flowers, which are bright pink when they open, become at the end of a day or two pure white. On some of the dwarf forms of R. caucasicum the flower-buds have been injured this year for the first time, but in spite of this these plants can be recommended for New England gardens. Attention is called to the red-flowered Aesculus Briotii, an improved form of the so-called Red-flowered Horsechestnut, Aesculus carnea, a supposed hybrid between the European Horsechestnut and A. Pavia of the southern United States. Aesculus Briotii is the handsomest of the red-flowered arborescent Horsechestnuts and should find a place in all collections of trees with showy flowers. A beautiful, shrubby, redflowered Horsechestnut, or Buckeye as these plants are called in the United States, is in flower in the Horsechestnut Group on the righthand side of the Meadow Road. This plant is now known to grow naturally from Georgia and Alabama to Texas and Arkansas and to be the only red-flowered species in the region west of the Mississippi River. First discovered in Arkansas many years ago by the botanist Nuttall, it was named by Rafinesque Aesculus mollis; later another botanist called it Aesculus austrina. In the Arboretum it is called A. discolor var. mollis because it is believed to be only a variety of another southern species, A. discolor, with which it grows in Georgia and Alabama. But whatever name may be imposed on it this Buckeye is one of the handsomest flowering shrubs in the United States, and it is fortunate that it has proved perfectly hardy here. Flowering with it is another southern shrubby species with red and yellow flowers, in short, very compact clusters, A. georgiana, which is a garden plant of much promise. Three other dwarf Buckeyes are also in flower, Aesculus humilis, two different plants under the name of A. rosea nana, and A. Michauxii. They are small plants with yellow and red flowers occasionally cultivated in European gardens and probably hybrids of American species, for none of these plants have yet been found growing wild and their parentage is not clear, but whatever their origin may have been they are attractive and useful garden plants. The Arboretum owes much of its early summer beauty to the Viburnums, and none of these plants are more conspicuous just now than the native Nannybery, Viburnum Lentago, which has been largely used here. This large shrub, or small tree, with its large lustrous leaves and broad convex clusters of white flowers tinged with yellow, and its drooping clusters of black fruit, is one of the handsomest of the whole genus, and if it grew on the borders of Tibet instead of along New England roadsides it would be better known and more highly considered in New England gardens than it is at present. The three species of the Opulus Viburnums are now in flower on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and in the Viburnum Collection, and their comparative value as flowering plants can be seen. The European Viburnum Opulus has smaller flower-clusters than the others, but it is a larger plant and holds its leaves later in the autumn without change of color; the beauty of the bright red fruits is thus heightened by contrast with the leaves. The American species, Viburnum americanum, is a plant of more open habit. The leaves turn orange color in the autumn and fall early, leaving the orange-red fruits on the naked branches. The Asiatic species, V. Sargentii, has the handsomest flowers of the three species as the neutral ray-flowers are much larger than those of the other species. The habit of this plant is good, but the fruit is small and inconspicuous. There are forms of the European Viburnum Opulus with yellow fruit (var. xanthocarpum), and there is a dwarf very compact form which rarely flowers; the Snowball of oldfashioned gardens is a form of the European plant in which all the flowers are sterile. Rosa Hugonis has been in flower in the Shrub Collection for the first time in the Arboretum. It is a native of western China, with clear yellow single flowers and neat pale foliage. There are not many yellow- flowered Roses hardy in New England, and R. Hugonis promises to be a valuable addition to the number. Other plants now in flower or soon to flower of special interest are Berberis Poiretii and B. sinensis, Rosa spinosissima altaica and R. spinosissima fulgens, Potentilla fruticosa ochroleuea and P. Vietchii, Lonicera Maacki and its variety podocarpa and several Diervillas, all in the Shrub Collection. Worthy of notice, too, are several of the new Chinese Cotoneasters, to be seen in the Bussey Hill collection of Cainese plants and in the Shrub Collection. In the Lilac Group the Korean Syringa velutina is flowering for the first time in the Arboretum. The small rose pink flowers of this shrub are borne in long, narrow, irregular clusters at the ends of the slender arching branches. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 11","article_sequence":58,"start_page":229,"end_page":232,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23599","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170b725.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 58 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 11, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 58. Six of the species of Rhododendrons with deciduous leaves (Azalea) of eastern North America are well established in the Arboretum, and no group of plants perfectly suited to our climate surpasses them in beauty. The first of these plants to bloom, R. Vaseyi, opens its small pink flowers early in May before the leaves appear. This Azalea is an inhabitant of a few of the high valleys of the Blue Ridge in North and South Carolina and had been entirely overlooked until some thirty years ago. It is a plant of loose irregular habit, sometimes growing to the height of fifteen or eighteen feet, although in cultivation it begins to flower when less than a foot high. It is perfectly hardy, and the pure perfect pink of its flowers is hardly equalled by that of the flowers of any other plant. There is a form of this Azalea with white flowers. It grows best in rather moist soil in the neighborhood of water, and single individuals generally look better than the large masses sometimes seen in public parks. Not much later two other pink-flowered species are in bloom, R. canescens and R. nudiflorum; the former is a more northern and the latter a more southern species, although the two often grow in the same locality. Both produce pale rose or pink flowers of various shades which appear before the leaves or just as they begin to unfold, and their general appearance is very similar. These plants grow singly or in great masses on treeless hillsides or in open woods. R. canescens is very abundant in some parts of Worcester County, Massachusetts, and the bundles of branches covered with pink flowers which excursionists on the northern railroads bring into Boston in May are of this species. These two Azaleas take kindly to cultivation and thrive in good soil in either shady or open situations. The next of these Azaleas to flower, the yellow Azalea of the Appalachian Mountain slopes, R. calendulaceum, is now in bloom. The beauty of the brilliant flowers is heightened by contrast with the dark green leaves which are well grown before the flowers open; these vary from bright yellow to orange or shades of red and are not surpassed in brilliancy by those of any other Azalea now in cultivation. R. calendulaceum is a slow-growing but long-lived plant, and in time will reach a height of eight or ten feet. There is a large mass of these plants showing the variations in the color of the flowers on the lower side of Azalea Path, and a number of individuals are scattered in border- plantations along the different roads. Tbe flowers of the yellow Azalea will soon be followed by those of another inhabitant of the glades of the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania to Georgia, R. arborescens. This is a tall shrub with large, pure white, very fragrant flowers, the beauty of which is increased by the bright scarlet color of the long filaments of the stamens and of the style. The pale leaves of this plant are fully grown before the flowers open. There are many small plants of this species on the lower side of Azalea Path, and there is a mass of it on the Valley Road in front of the Hickories. The last of these Azaleas to bloom (R. viscosum) will not be in flower for several weeks. It is a common inhabitant of low wet ground in the eastern part of the country, and is popularly known as the Swamp Honeysuckle. The small white flowers continue to open during many weeks and their fragrance, which is greater than that of the other Azaleas, makes known their presence especially in the evening, from a long distance. Seedlings of two other American species have been raised at the Arboretum, but it is too soon to judge of their value as garden plants. They are R. austrinum, with slender pale yellow flowers appearing before the leaves, a native of the valley of the Apalachicola River in western Florida, and R. candidum from southern Georgia, with white or pale pink flowers appearing after the leaves. There is another Azalea to introduce into the gardens. This a native of central Georgia where, in some localities, it is very abundant in open woods. Discovered by Michaux, the French botanist, more than a century ago and confounded by him and all later authors with R. calendulaceum, it has been called the variety flammeum of that species. From R. calendulaceum, however, this plant, which should be called R. flammeum, differs in its winter-buds, in the size and shape of the flowers and in the fact that the flowers open before the leaves. The flowers on different plants vary from yellow to deep orange and to scarlet; and the flowers of no other Azalea compare in brilliancy with some of the deepcolored forms of this Georgia plant, which it is reasonable to hope may prove hardy here as several plants from the same general region are well established in the Arboretum. The beautiful, white-flowered Azalea (R. occidentale) from the borders of streams on the western slopes of the Cascade and Sierra Nevada Mountains of the west has not yet proved hardy here probably because just the right place has not been found for it. These native Azaleas are handsomer, hardier, and in every way more satisfactory than the so-called Ghent Azaleas which are hybrids of some of our species with the Caucasian yellow-flowered Azalea (R. flavum or Azalea pontica). This plant is not hardy here, and its influence on the Ghent hybrids has been unfortunate so far as this country is concerned. Many of these hybrids are beautiful flowering plants; some are quite hardy but most of them show evidence of a poor constitution; they grow slowly and suffer in severe winters, and none of them have the vigor of their American parents. These Ghent hybrids are raised by grafting in great quantities in European nurseries and many of them come to this country. It is impossible, however, to obtain the native plants in large quantities. Occasionally plants collected from the woods are offered for sale, but these collected plants are always less desirable than nursery-raised seedlings which are rarely to be found; and the American nurseryman who will take up the raising of seedling American Azaleas on a large scale will confer a benefit on American gardens. Magnolia glauca of the Atlantic coast region from Massachusetts to Florida is in bloom. No small tree is a more delightful inhabitant of the garden, where it is an object of beauty throughout the year with its bright green branches in winter and its beautiful leaves which are dark green and very lustrous above and silvery white below, and which remain on the branches at the north without change of color until the beginning of winter and in the south till early spring. The small, creamy white, cup-shaped flowers continue to open during many weeks, and especially in the evening fill the air with their delicate pungent odor; they are followed by the cone-shaped fruits which are common to all Magnolias and are showy when the scarlet seeds hang from them on slender threads. Every one with a garden who makes the acquaintance of this plant wants to grow it; it is easily raised from seed, and at the end of three or four years seedling plants are of saleable size. In spite of the demand for it, which would increase if plants could be had, it is almost impossible to find this Magnolia in American nurseries. Magnolia Thompsoniana is also in good bloom. This is a hybrid raised in England many years ago between M. glauca and the American Umbrella- tree, M. tripetala. It has leaves like the leaves of M. glauca, which it also resembles in the perfume of the cup-shaped pure white flowers intermediate in size between those of its parents. Unlike many hybrids which are usually hardier and more vigorous than their parents, M. Thompsoniana is less hardy than either M. glauca or M. tripetala, and sometimes has been killed to the ground in severe winters. The latest of the Magnolias, M. macrophylla, now covered with buds, is still to flower. This handsome tree is interesting for it has larger leaves and larger flowers than any other plant of the northern hemisphere beyond the tropics. A native of the south from North Carolina to Louisiana, it is perfectly hardy here; it is best planted, however, in sheltered positions as the leaves are easily torn and disfigured by the wind. These Magnolias are on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance east of the Administration Building. On the Administration Building a plant of the Japanese climbing Hydrangea (H. petiolaris) is now in flower. In the country this plant is usually seen climbing up the trunks and spreading over the branches of trees, but it has been found capable of attaching its stems firmly to brick-work and therefore to be useful in covering walls and buildings. The bright green foliage makes a handsome contrast with the broad heads of flowers which are surrounded by a row of neutral ray flowers of medium size. Two shrubby Hydrangeas will soon be in flower in'the Shrub Collection, H. Bretschneideri from northern China and its variety setchuenensis from western China. The former is an old inhabitant of the Arboretum and is a tall, free-flowering shrub well worth a place in all collections. The variety which is less well known appears to be perfectly hardy and equally free-flowering. Some of the earliest of the large collection of Mock Oranges (Philadelphus) are already in bloom. The earliest this year is Philadelphus hirsutus of the southern Appalachian region, a tall shrub of rather open habit, with small flowers and of no great ornamental value. The Korean form of P. Schrenkii (var. Jackii), a plant of columnar habit and the European P. coronarius, the Mock Orange of all old-fashioned gardens, are also in bloom. Of the latter there are in the collection a dwarf form which does not often bloom, a form with yellow leaves and one with very narrow leaves (var. salicifolia), a distinct and interesting plant. Other interesting plants now in flower in the Shrub Collection are the Chinese Cotoneaster hupehensis, with white flowers which are showier than those of the other species of the genus, and make the plant look like a Spiraea, Indigofera Kirilowii from Korea, with pink flowers, Genista germanica, and Spiraea bracteata from Japan, a large shrub with long arching branches and one of the handsomest of the still little known Spiraeas, Lonicera Ledebourii is still in good condition, and L. Kirilowii amoena is only just now dropping its lovely pink flowers. This bulletin will reach its Massachusetts readers at a time when a visit to the Arboretum will repay all lovers of flowers for the Laurels (Kalmias) will be in bloom at the base of Hemlock Hill. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 18","article_sequence":59,"start_page":233,"end_page":236,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23600","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170bb26.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 59 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 18, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 59. The so-called Tree-Lilacs are beginning to flower and promise to be exceptionally fine this year. There are three of these Lilacs, all natives of northeastern Asia, and they differ from the true Lilacs in the short tube of the corolla of the flower from which the stamens protrude, and for this reason were once placed in a different genus, Ligustrina. The three species produce white, bad-smelling flowers with an odor like those of the Privets, and their leaves fall early in the autumn without change of color, in this differing also from the true Lilacs which hold their leaves until late in the season. The first of the Tree-Lilacs to flower, Syringa amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia; it is a small tree or tree-like shrub with flat, spreading or slightly drooping clusters of ivory white flowers which make a fine contrast with the dark green leaves. The second species to flower is a native of northern China, Syringa pekinensis. This in cultivation is a shrub rather than a tree, although it sometimes reaches in this country the height and spread of branches of thirty feet. The stout stems are more or less pendent at the ends and are covered with lustrous reddish brown bark which readily separates into thin layers, like that of some of the Birch trees. The long, narrow, pointed leaves hang gracefully, and the half-drooping flower-clusters, which are flat and unsymmetrical, are smaller than those of the other plants of this group. Syringa japonica, a native of the forests of northern Japan, is the last of the Tree-Lilacs to flower. This is really a tree, often from thirty to forty feet high, with a tall stout trunk covered with lustrous brown bark, like that of a Cherry-tree, and a round-topped head. The flowers are produced in large, erect, symmetrical clusters which stand up well above the dark foliage and make this Lilac one of the most beautiful of the flowering trees which can be grown in this climate. The Tree-Lilacs are on the bank near the lower end of the Lilac Group, on the left-hand side of the path which passes up through this group. They are best seen, however, from the path which follows the top of the bank on which the Lilacs are planted. There is also a large plant of Syringa japonica among the Crabapples on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road, the site of the first Arboretum nurseries. This is one of the original plants raised from seeds sent from Japan to the Arboretum in 1876 by Colonel William S. Clarke, first President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and of the Agricultural College at Sapporo, by whom this plant through the Arboretum was introduced into gardens. Syringa amurensis still remains comparatively rare in gardens; S. pekinensis has been occasionally planted in those of eastern Massachusetts, but S. japonica is now a common plant in the eastern states. All three species grow poorly in western Europe, and the size of the plants and the masses of flowers which they produce here always surprise European visitors to the Arboretum. On the walk at the top of the Lilac bank one of the newer Lilacs, Syringa Sweginzowii, is in flower. This plant, which is probably a native of northern China or of Korea, is flowering in the Arboretum for the third year and appears to be perfectly hardy. It flowers very freely and the flowers, which are borne in narrow clusters, are slender with a long tube and are white tinged with rose color, and slightly fragrant. It is one of the latest, if not the latest, of the true Lilacs to flower here and promises to be a valuable garden plant in New England. In the group of plants belonging to the Elaeagnus or Oleaster Family, on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs, Elaeagnus angustifolia is a conspicuous object. This small tree is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, Asia Minor, and southwestern Asia. It is now in flower but the small, pale yellow, fragrant, axillary flowers are almost hidden by the leaves, and it is in the leaves that the greatest beauty of this tree is found; these are long and narrow like those of some Willows and they are silvery white, retaining this color during the season. No other tree or shrub which is hardy in New England has foliage of such silvery whiteness, and where it is desirable to produce in this climate in a plantation a striking effect by the use of a tree with white foliage Elaeagnus angustifolia is the best plant for the purpose. It has sometimes been called the Wild Olivetree for the reddish brown fruits which ripen in summer resemble in shape small olives. The native Cornels (Cornus) have been largely used in the Arboretum, and the late-flowering species are beautiful here from the middle to the end of June. One of these plants, Cornus rugosa, sometimes called C. circinata, is a common native shrub and one of the handsomest of the whole genus. It has green branchlets, broad, rounded pale green leaves, paler and hairy on their lower surface, and conspicuous clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by beautiful light blue fruits. Like a few other Dogwoods, it is difficult to transplant, but once established it soon spreads into large masses. There are several individuals in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and large shapely plants can be seen on the bank just above the group of Sassafras trees on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and below the Benzoin Group. Among the Hickories on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road there are also large groups of this plant. A smaller plant and less showy, perhaps, Cornus racemosa, sometimes called C. paniculata or C. candidissima, is just beginning to open its flowers. This is a common inhabitant of roadsides and wood-borders in this part of the country, and is a round-headed shrub with slender erect stems and creamy white flowers produced in compound oblong clusters. The plant is as beautiful in October as it is in June for the flowers are followed by translucent white berries borne on bright red stalks, making this one of the most interesting of the shrubs which ripen their fruit in mid-autumn. The Silky Cornel (C. Amomum) is the last of the native species to flower. This is a large, widespreading shrub and requires abundant space in which to show its beauty of habit. For this reason it should be planted as an isolated specimen or on the borders of ponds or streams, a purpose for which it is admirably adapted. Its purple stems are attractive in winter and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add materially to the attractiveness of this shrub. The Arboretum owes much of its early summer beauty to four shrubby species of native Viburnums which have been planted in large numbers through its border plantations and which can be compared in the Viburnum Group on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road near its junction with the Valley Road. The first of these shrubs to flower, Viburnum dentatum, is already beginning to shed its flowers which during the summer will be followed- by clusters of bright blue fruits. This is a common roadside and meadow shrub in the northeastern part of the country and, like the other American species, improves by cultivation, producing better foliage and handsomer flowers and fruits. The second species of this group, Viburnum cassinoides, is now in flower. This is a native of swamps in the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows twenty feet high. In cultivation it has proved one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums introduced into the Arboretum where it forms a round-headed compact shrub. The leaves, which are thick and lustrous vary greatly in size and shape. The flowers are slightly tinged with yellow and are borne in large slightly convex clusters; the fruit is larger than that of the blue-fruited shrubby species, and at first yellow-green later becomes bright pink and finally blue-black and is covered with a handsome pale bloom; fruits of the three colors are found together in the same cluster. The third of these species, Viburnum venosum, will not be in flower for another week. This resembles V. dentatum in general appearance and in the blue fruit, but the young branches and the under surface of the leaves are covered with a thick coat of stellate hairs. This Viburnum is found growing naturally only in the neighborhood of the coast from Cape Cod and Nantucket to New Jersey. A larger plant with large lustrous leaves and more showy flowers, and larger later-ripening blue fruit, Viburnum Canbyi, will not flower for two or three weeks. This plant appears to be confined to eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware, where it is by no means common; in cultivation it grows to a large size. One of the attractive plants now in flower in the Shrub Collection is Halimodendron argenteum, the so-called Salt-tree because it inhabits the saline steppes near the river Irtish in Siberia. The pale rose-colored fragrant pea-shaped flowers, which are produced in great profusion, are borne in small clusters, and their delicate beauty is heightened by the color of the leaves which are covered with a silky down. This plant remains in flower during several weeks in the Arboretum and produces abundant crops of pods but the seeds apparently are rarely fertile. The large and widely distributed genus Indigofera of the Pea Family has given a few beautiful small shrubs to our gardens. Two of these can now be seen in good condition on Hickory Path near Centre Street. The showier of the two, I. Kirilowii, is a low shrub sprcading by underground stems, with ample leaves and comparatively large bright pink flowers in long racemes. It is a native of Korea. With it is a plant of Indigofera amblyantha, one of Wilson's discoveries in western China and a slender little shrub with erect stems and axillary racemes of small rose-colored flowers which are produced continuously through the summer. Among Wilson's discoveries there is not a more delightful small shrub than this. On the left-hand side of Azalea Path, near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road are two other species of Indigofera, the white-flowered I. decora from China, and the purple-flowered \/. Gerardiana from the Himalayas. The stems of these two plants are killed back to the ground every winter but new stems spring up in the spring, and as the flowers are produced on the new growth the killing of the old stems does not interfere with the flowering of these plants. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 25","article_sequence":60,"start_page":237,"end_page":240,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23601","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad1708127.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 60 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 25, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 60. Most of the conifers still retain the delicate colors of the foliage of their young branchlets, and this is a good time for the lover and planter of these trees to examine the Arboretum pinetum. Eastern North America is not a good region for these trees. Many of them cannot long bear our hot dry summers, cold winters, and the cold nights, the hot sun and the winds of a New England March. For ornamental planting here better and more permanent results are obtained by the use of deciduous leaved trees and shrubs than by the general planting of conifers and broad-leaved evergreens. Two of the handsomest of coniferous trees, however, are native to this part of the country, the White Pine (Pinus strobus) and the Hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), and where these two trees thrive the lover of evergreen trees need not lack material for his plantations. It can be said generally that the conifers of northeastern North America, the Rocky Mountains, northern, central and southeastern Europe, Siberia, northern China and northern Japan, are hardy in this climate, and that those of the southern United States, Mexico, Central America and the countries south of the equator, the Himalayas and southeastern Asia are not hardy; that only a few of the species of western North America can be safely planted in this climate, and that so far as it is possible to judge by our experience here many of the Pines, Spruces, Firs and Larches which cover the mountain slopes of the Chinese-Tibetan frontier promise to be hardy in New England. In the Arboretum there is probably the largest collection of species and varieties of conifers which can be found in eastern North America, although in a few collections like that at Wellesley in this state, and in the Hoopes Pinetum at West Chester, Pennsylvania, there are larger specimens of several species. Many exotic species are hardy and grow rapidly and vigorously here, but only time can tell whether any of these trees will ever reach here a large size and become permanently valuable as ornamental or timbertrees. The most interesting thing, perhaps, which the Arboretum has taught about conifers is the fact that when a species is widely distributed over regions of different climates plants raised from the seeds of the trees growing in the coldest parts of the area of distribution of the species are the hardiest. For example, the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga taxifolia) from the shores of Puget Sound, where this tree grows to its largest size, is not hardy here, but the same tree from the high mountains of Colorado is one of the hardiest and most promising of the exotic conifers which have been planted in New England. Abies grandis from the cold Coeur d'A16ne Mountains of Idaho has been growing for years in the Arboretum, while the same tree from the northwest coast-region cannot be kept alive here. The same is true of the so-called Red Cedar or giant Arbor-vitae (Thuya plicata) of the northwest. Plants from Idaho are perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and now promise to grow to a good size, while those from the coast are tender here. The experience of the Arboretum with the Cedar of Lebanon is interesting, for this is a famous tree which it is desirable to establish wherever it can be induced to grow. The Cedar of Lebanon of European nurseries is raised from seeds produced in Europe by the descendants of the trees brought originally from the Lebanon in Syria. Occasionally one of these trees can be seen in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia, but it is not hardy in New England. The Cedar of Lebanon also grows on the Anti-Taurus in Asia Minor, a much colder and more northern region than the Lebanon, and in 1901 the Arboretum had seeds collected from the trees in this northern station, and these were sown in the spring of 1902. None of the plants raised from this seed, although planted in exposed situations, have ever suffered and some of them are now from fifteen to eighteen feet high. This experiment may have important results, but a century at least will be needed to show its real success or failure. Of exotic conifers usually planted in this country it is found that the life here of the Scotch Pine (Pinus sylvestris) is usually not more than thirty or forty years. The tree grows very rapidly here, it is perfectly hardy, and, beginning to produce seeds when only a few years old, selfsown seedlings often appear in considerable quantities. The so-called Norway Spruce (Picea Abies or excelsa) is another hardy, fast-growing European tree which in this climate generally begins to die at the top when forty or fifty years old and is not a success here. Experiments are being made in the Arboretum with seeds of these trees collected from wild trees in Norway and Sweden in the hope that plants raised from these seeds will be more permanent here than European nursery stock which has usually been planted in this country. The Colorado Blue Spruce, so-called, (Picea pungens) promises to be a disappointment. This tree grows naturally near the banks of streams in Colorado, where it is not very common, and never forms forests or large groves; and at the end of a few years it becomes thin and scrawny, with a few short branches found only near the top of the tree. Plants up to twenty or thirty years of age in Colorado and in cultivation are symmetrical, compact and very handsome. No conifer of recent introduction has been raised in such large quantities by nurserymen here and in Europe, and few ornamental trees have been more generally planted in the last twenty years. This must be considered a misfortune, for judging by old trees in Colorado and by the oldest trees in cultivation, this Spruce cannot be for any length of time a valuable addition to our plantations. It was discovered by Dr. Parry in 1862, and one of the trees raised from seeds which he sent at that time to Asa Gray is growing on the southern slope of Bussey Hill in the Arboretum. This specimen very well shows what this tree looks like at fifty years of age. The other Colorado Spruce, Picea Engelmannii, although it grows more slowly, promises to be a more permanently valuable ornamental tree than Picea pungens; certainly as it grows in Colorado, where it once formed great forests, at high altitudes, it is one of the most beautiful of all Spruces. The trees in the Arboretum were raised here from seeds collected in Colorado in 1879 and are believed to be the finest specimens in cultivation. They are narrow, compact, symmetrical pyramids and until a year or two ago were furnished with branches to the ground; now they are beginning to lose their lower branches and therefore are losing some of their beauty as specimen trees. It is found here that the northern White Spruce (Picea canadensis) grows rapidly and is very handsome for about thirty years, and then begins to become thin and unsightly probably because our climate is too warm for this cold country tree. It is found here, too, that the Red Spruce (Picea rubra), the great timber-producing Spruce-tree of the northeastern United States, is rather difficult to establish and grows more slowly than any other conifer in the collection, and that the two Balsam Firs of the eastern states (Abies balsamea and A. Fraseri) are in cultivation short-lived and are of no value as ornamental trees; and that this is true, too, of one of the Rocky Mountain Firs, Abies lasiocarpa, and of the Siberian Abies sibirica. Of native conifers in the collection, which now after a trial of from twenty to thirty years promise to be most valuable in this climate, the Rocky Mountain form of Abies concolor is the most beautiful at thirty years of age of all the Firs which can be grown here. Abies brachyphylla from Japan, with leaves dark green above and silvery white below, Picea omorika from the Balkans, a narrow pyramidal tree which seems to grow as well in western Europe as it does in New England, are promising trees. Abies cilicaca from Asia Minor, Pinus parviflora from Japan, and P. Koraiensis, from Siberia, Manchuria and Korea, a valuable timber tree in its native country, are also promising. Pinus monticola from western America, the western representative of our eastern White Pine, is perfectly hardy here, but as an ornamental tree is in no way superior to the eastern species. Tsuga caroliniana from the Blue Ridge of North and South Carolina, although smaller is a more graceful and beautiful tree than our northern Hemlock. First raised from seeds in the Arboretum in 1881, it gives every promise of being one of the most desirable ornamental conifers which can be grown in this climate. The collection of the forms of the native Arbor-vitae (Thuya occidentalis) in the Arboretum is a large one and is now in excellent condition, and well worth a visit by any one interested in the seminal varieties some trees are capable of producing. This tendency to variation, appears, too, in the Japanese Retinosporas (Chamaecyparis obtusa and pisifera) which are planted next to the Arbor-vitaes. Although Yews are not technically conifers, it may be said that the Japanese Taxus cuspidata and its variety brevifolia have come through another winter entirely uninjured, and that there is no reason for modifying the statement already made in these bulletins, that these are the most valuable plants which Japan has contributed to New England gardens, in which the Japanese Yew seems destined to become our best hedge plant. A low form of Taxus baccata (var. repandens) has proved very hardy in the Arboretum, and for this climate appears to be the most desirable form of the European Yew. Of trees related to the Yews the hardiest here, with the exception of the well-known Gingko-tree, is the Japanese Torreya, T. nucifera. This in Japan is a large tree with a tall trunk and a dense head of dark green foliage. It should appeal to Americans as it bears the name of a distinguished American botanist, and to the student of trees it is interesting because it is the latest of all the conifers or conifer-like trees to begin its annual growth, the leaf-buds now only just beginning to expand. There is a group of these Torreyas among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill, and near them is growing the largest specimen of the Japanese Yew in the Arboretum. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 30","article_sequence":61,"start_page":241,"end_page":244,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23602","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad1708528.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 61 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 30, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 61. ts The most important summer-flowering trees, the Lindens (Tilia) are beginning to bloom and the fragrant flowers of the different species will perfume the air during a large part of the month of July. In the collection are the three species of the northern United States, Tilia americana, T. Michauxii, and T. heterophylla, an the European species, and several species from eastern Asia. Usually the trees of eastern Asia are more successful in this climate than those of the same genus from Europe, but to this general rule Tilia is an exception. All the European species and their hybrids and varieties flourish m New England, but the Asiatic species are showing themselves bad growers here, and only the Japanese T. japonica and the north China T. mongolica have ever grown large enough in the Arboretum to flower and produce seeds. The latter is a small and apparently short-lived tree of only botanical interest. Tilia japonica is also a small tree here with drooping branches and light green foliage; it is one of the late-flowering species and is conspicuous in early spring as it unfolds its leaves a week or two before those of any of the other Lindens in the collection appear. The flowers of Tilia platyphyllos have been open for several days. This is the most widely distributed of European Lindens especially in the south, and it may be recognized by the yellow tinge of the leaves, by the thick covering of short hairs on their lower surface and on the leaf-stalks, and by the prominent ribs of the fruit. It is not the handsomest of the European Lindens, but it is the tree which is usually sold by American nurserymen as \"the European Linden.\" There are varieties with leaves larger than those of the type (var. grandifolia), with erect branches forming a broad pyramidal head (var. pyramidata) and with variously divided leaves (vars. lanceolata and vitifolia). A handsomer tree, Tilia cordata, is the common Linden of northern Europe where it sometimes grows to a large size, the old historical Linden-trees of the north and central countries usually being of this species. This tree may be recognized by its small, thin, more or less heart-shaped leaves which are pale on the lower surface and furnished with conspicuous tufts of rusty brown hairs in the axils of the principal veins. It has not been often planted in this part of the country, although it is specially valuable, for it is the latest of the Lindens to flower and supplies bees with food after the flowers of the other Lindens have faded. The handsomest, perhaps, of the Lindens of western Europe is by many students considered a natural hybrid between the two species already described, and is variously called Tilia vulgaris, T. europaea, T. intermedia and T. hybrida. Although widely distributed in Europe, this tree appears to be much less common than either of its supposed parents. It is a tall, round-headed tree, and large noble specimens can be found in the neighborhood of Boston where formerly it must have been more often planted than any of the other foreign Lindens. Two Lindens occur in eastern Europe, the Silver Linden, Tilia tomentosa, and T. petiolaris. The former is a tree with erect-growing branches which form a broad, compact, round-topped, rather formal head, and erect leaves dark green above and silvery white below; this distinctlooking tree is not very common in eastern Massachusetts, but it can be often seen in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia Tilia petiolaris is a more beautiful tree; this also has leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface, but drooping on long slender stalks they flutter gracefully, in the slightest breeze. The branches, too, are drooping and form a narrow open head. This tree is not known in a wild state, and all the plants in cultivation have been derived from a single individual found many years ago in a garden in Odessa. A supposed hybrid of this tree with Tilia americana (T. vestita), often sold in nurseries as T. alba spectabilis, is one of the most beautiful Lindens with leaves of the size and shape of those of T. americara but silvery white on the lower surface. In Europe much attention is paid to another supposed hybrid Linden, T. euchlora or, as it is more generally known, T. dasystyla. This is a fast-growing, pyramidal tree with dark green leaves, and is now largely planted as a street-tree in Germany and Holland. It is hardy here and promises to be a useful tree in New England. Tilia americana, which will not be in flower for several days, is a common northern tree, growing probably to its largest size along the northern borders of the United States from Nova Scotia to Minnesota, and easily distinguished by the green and shining lower surface of the large leaves which have no hairy covering with the exception of the conspicuous tufts in the axils of the principal veins. The leaves of this tree cultivated near Boston are often made brown, especially in hot dry summers, by the red spider which, however, can be controlled by spraying with arsenate of lead. Tilia spectabilis is believed to be a hybrid between this American tree and the European T. tomentosa. It is a vigorous, fast-growing tree, and holds its foliage in the autumn much later than its American parent. In some European nurseries it is sold under the name of Tilia Moltlcei. Tilia Michauxii is a common tree in the northern states and is distributed from the valley of the St. Lawrence River to the mountains of North Carolina, and to Missouri and Arkansas. It may be readily distinguished by the thin covering of pale brownish hairs on the lower surface of the leaves. The third of the Linden trees of the northern states grows from western New York to northern Alabama, and through Kentucky to southern Indiana and Illinois, reaching its largest size and greatest beauty in the forests which cover the high slopes of the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. The leaves of this tree are larger than those of the other American Lindens, oblong in shape, very oblique at the base and silvery white on the lower surface, and, hanging on long slender stalks, the slightest breeze makes them turn first one surface and then the other to the eye. This beautiful and perfectly hardy tree appears to be rarely cultivated. , The Lindens, of which there is a large collection in the Arboretum, may be seen in the meadow on the righthand side of the Meadow Road entering from the Jamaica Plain entrance. The collection of Grapevines on the trellises at the eastern end of the Shrub Collection is one of the most complete and important groups in the Arboretum and should be visited by every one interested in hardy vines or in seeing the decorative value of some of our native Grapevines which are still little known to gardeners. All the species of eastern North America, with the exception of two or three from the extreme south, and several exotic species are well represented in the collection and they all have decorative value. In the Shrub Collection Hypericum Buckleyi, the earliest of the St. John's Worts to bloom, is now covered with its small yellow flowers. It is a dwarf plant only a few inches high, but spreads into a broad mat. In the Shrub Collection, too, the two forms of Zenobia are in bloom, and among Andromeda-like plants hardy in this climate none produce such large and beautiful flowers. This inhabitant of the coast region of the southern United States is perfectly hardy in northern gardens. In the Shrub Collection the European Cytisus nigricans, with its erect racemes of bright yellow pea-shaped flowers, is now in bloom, and this little shrub is one of the best plants of its class which can be grown successfully in this climate. The latest flowering Bush Honeysuckles, the European Lonicera iberica, with pale yellow flowers, and L. involucrata, var. serotina from the Rocky Mountains, with its yellow tubular corollas, are still in flower, although the fruits of some of the early-flowering plants in this group are already ripe, like the different forms of the blue-fruited L. coerulea and the red-fruited L. Altmannii from central Asia. From now until December there will be beautiful and often showy fruits on some of the Bush Honeysuckles. Conspicuous plants now in bloom are the Silky Cornel, Cornus Amomum, the last of the genus to flower, and Viburnum Canbyi, the latest species of this interesting genus. In cultivation this shrub grows to a large size, forming a broad, round-topped bush ten or twelve feet high and flowering freely every year. The fruit is larger and ripens later than that of the other blue-fruited species. Several species of Tamarisk are now in flower and can be seen in a bed by the path in the rear of the Linden Collection where this genus has been planted. The pure white fragrant flowers of Rhododendron (Azalea) viscosum are open; those of Magnolia glauca still fill the air with delicate perfume, and the flowers of Rhododendron maximum, the last of the evergreenleaved Rhododendrons to bloom, can be seen at the base of Hemlock Hill. The Sumachs are beginning to open their flowers, and many different kinds of the Burning Bush (Evonymus) are in bloom opposite the group of Sumachs on the Meadow Road, among them the broadleaved form of the evergreen Evonymus (E. radicans var. vegetus) is unusually full of flowers this year and therefore will be exceptionally beautiful in autumn when its fruit ripens. Attention is again called to this plant as the best of the various forms of this Japanese Evonymus, which is the only perfectly hardy evergreen vine which can be grown in this part of the country. There are still several interesting trees and shrubs to flower. Among them are the North American Sorrel-tree, Oxydendrum arboreum, and the North American Hercules' Club, Aralia spinosa. These two trees are among the Lauxels at the base of Hemlock Hill. Other trees to flower are the Chinese Koelreuteria paniculata, with its great clusters of bright yellow flowers, Sophora japonica, Maackia amurensis, Aralia chinensis, and Acanthopanax ric1nifolius, all natives of eastern Asia, and the last one of the rare trees of the Arboretum, where it is conspicuous with its great leaves like those of some tree of the tropics and large clusters of small white flowers. The Yuccas, the lovely Clethra alnifolia of the Atlantic coast, and Panax sessiliflorus from the coast of northeastern Asia, are still to flower. The Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) is already covered with flowers, and these in a few days will be followed by those of the native Chestnut-tree. For many weeks to come, therefore, the lover of flowers can find much of interest in the Arboretum. These bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"September 29","article_sequence":62,"start_page":245,"end_page":248,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23609","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14eb325.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 62 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. SEPTEMBER 29, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 62. The flowers of woody plants are not common in this climate at the end of September, but visitors to the Arboretum will still find a few interesting plants in bloom. The most conspicuous, perhaps, is the Manchurian and north China Aralia chinensis which can be seen in the Aralia Group near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. It is a near relative of the so-called Hercules' Club (Aralia spinosa) of our southern woods and, like the American plant, it has stems covered with prickles, large, compound, dark green leaves, and immense clusters of small white flowers which are followed by small shining black fruits. The American plant is not quite as hardy as its Asiatic relative, but it is now well established on the margin of the woods at the northern base of Hemlock Hill in the rear of the Laurels, where it is spreading by underground shoots. The plants are just past flowering. The Japanese Hydrangea paniculata and its monstrous form, on which all the flowers are sterile (var. grandiflora) are in bloom. The latter is one of the most generally planted shrubs in the United States, although it is a much less interesting and less beautiful plant than the still comparatively little known normal form. The two are growing side by side in the Shrub Collection. In the Shrub Collection, too, the handsome Elsholtzia Stauntonii is in full flower and now at its best. This member of the Mint Family, and a native of northeastern Asia, has long erect spikes of rosy pink flowers and light green foliage. One of the comparatively recent introductions of the Arboretum, it is only beginning to appear in American and European gardens. Near it in the Shrub Collection Vitex incisa from northern China is in flower. Although this plant is a native of a cold region the stems are often killed back to the ground here in severe winters, but as new stems grow several feet tall during the season, and as the flowers are produced on the new growth, this killing back improves rather than injures the flowering of this shrub which at this time of the year is attractive with its finely divided leaves and slender erect clusters of small rosecolored flowers. The flowers of the true Heathers (Calluna) have already passed but flowers may still be seen on the Cornish Heath, Erica vagans, and the Trumpet Creepers from the central and southern states are still producing flowers on the trellis at the eastern side of the Shrub Collection. On the upper side of Hemlock Path, near Centre Street, small plants of Gordonia Altamaha are now in bloom and during several weeks will continue to open their white cup-shaped flowers which resemble those of a single-flowered Camellia. This tree is a native of southern Georgia where it was discovered late in the eighteenth century. Although often hunted for, it has not been seen growing wild for more than a hundred years, and has only been preserved by the cultivated descendants of the plants introduced by its early discoverers. This Gordonia flourishes in the neighborhood of Philadelphia but it is not very hardy in the Arboretum, and it is surprising that it was uninjured by the severity of last winter which destroyed so many hardier plants. On Hickory Path, near Centre Street, Indigofera amblyantha, which has been in flower for nearly three months, still continues to produce its slender erect spikes of rose-colored flowers. This is one of Wilson's discoveries in western China and one of the most beautiful of the small hardy shrubs of recent introduction. The name Ulmus campestris has been selected by recent writers on European trees for the Elm of the hedge rows of southern England, which was largely planted a century ago in eastern Massachusetts chiefly, no doubt, through the agency of a Major Paddock who established a nursery of this tree in Milton. The large English Elms which once flourished on Boston Common were of this species, and large specimens can still be seen in several of the Boston suburbs. The origin of this Elm is unknown. It does not produce seeds propagating itself by suckers, and is known to grow spontaneously only in some of the counties in southern England, and in a few parks near Madrid, in which it is now known to have been introduced from England many years ago. It is a noble tree, able to adapt itself to various climatic conditions, and well suited to those of New England; indeed no other exotic tree, with the exception of the European White Willow, has been here so long or grown to such a large size. Another English Elm, Ulmus vegeta, usually called the Huntington Elm, a supposed natural hybrid between two European species, Ulmus nitens and U. glabra, the so-called Scotch Elm, grows to a larger size than Ulmus campestris and is perhaps the fastest growing of all Elm trees. An Elm of this kind in the deer park of Magdalen College at Oxford, supposed to have been planted at the time of the Restoration, was blown down in April, 1911; it was one hundred and forty-two feet high, with a trunk circumference at four feet from the ground of twenty-seven feet. This was believed to be the largest tree in Great Britain and perhaps in Europe. Ulmus vegeta is a tree with paler bark than that of Ulmus campestris, large main branches spreading at narrow angles, giving the tree a vase-shaped form, rather pendulous branchlets and larger leaves than those of Ulmus campestris, and usually only slightly roughened on the upper surface. This tree is not rare in English parks and has been largely planted in Cambridgeshire where in the neighborhood of Cambridge there are many fine specimens. Brooklands Avenue in that city, planted with this tree in 1830, shows its value for such planting, for in all England there is perhaps not a better example of an avenue of planted trees. The Huntington Elm was certainly introduced into New England much later than Ulmus campestris, and probably the oldest trees here are not more than sixty or seventy years old. This Elm is perfectly hardy here, it grows with surprising rapidity, and if exotic Elms are to be planted in the United States it may well be more generally used here than it has been. Persons interested in the plants best suited for the parks and gardens of eastern North America can find much to learn in the Arboretum from this time until the end of the year, for it is in the autumn that conifers are seen to the best advantage and that the mature leaves of the few broad-leaved evergreens which flourish in this climate best show the beauty and value of these plants for the late autumn and winter garden. Perhaps nowhere else are so many different plants with brilliant autumn foliage and handsome and abundant autumn fruits assembled; and in no other garden can such plants be so easily and conveniently studied. Such plants give a character and beauty to the autumn garden which can be found only in eastern North America, and perhaps in Japan where the leaves of many of the native trees and shrubs assume brilliant colors before they fall. The autumn color of a few plants is already brilliant. The earliest of the American trees to change the color of its leaves is the Red or Scarlet Maple, Acer rubrum. On specimens of this tree growing in swamps the leaves are now often bright scarlet, while on trees growing on higher and drier ground the leaves are still bright green or only slightly tinged with red. The so-called Water Willow, Decodon verticillatus, often known as Nesaea, is a native of all the region from Maine to Florida and Louisiana, and is a shrub with arching stems growing only in the wet, often submerged borders of streams and ponds where it often spreads into broad thickets. By the borders of the ponds in the Arboretum the leaves of this plant are already bright scarlet, and for a few weeks the plants will be conspicuous among the green sedges and swamp grasses with which they are associated. The leaves of some of the forms of the so-called Virginia Creeper of eastern North America are already bright scarlet. The earliest to adopt its autumn dress and now in brilliant color is Parthenocissus vitacea. This plant rarely has adhesive discs at the ends of the tendrils, and therefore cannot attach itself to the trunks of trees or to brick and stone walls, like Parthenocissus quinquefolia which is often sold in nurseries as Ampelopsis Englemannii. There are many forms of the Virginia Creeper which can be seen on the trellis near the entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills Gate. A few of the fruits which ripen in early autumn are already conspicuous. There is perhaps no shrub more beautiful in the autumn than one of the American Cornels, Cornus rugosa, or, as it is sometimes called, C. circinata. It is a tall, broad, round-headed shrub with greenish branches and round, oval, dark green leaves; the flowers are not more showy than those of the other Cornels, but the clusters of light blue fruits on red stalks make them objects of much interest and beauty. There are a number of these plants in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and there are great clumps of it among the Hickories and in other parts of the Arboretum.I Thejxd-jQster.CQrjisi,, Cornus racemosa, often called C. stoJxmdpsra or, C. candidissima, is also beautiful at this season, for the leaves are * beginning to turn dark red and the plants are covered with abundant clusters of white fruits on bright red stalks. This plant has been largely used in the Arboretum; it spreads rapidly into large, dense clusters, and with its good foliage, abundant flowers and beautiful fruits, few shrubs are more desirable for park and roadside plantations. The fruit of some of the new Chinese Cotoneasters is handsome and the autumn coloring of their foliage is often splendid. Most of these plants are perfectly hardy, and among them are certainly some of the most valuable garden shrubs of recent introduction. They can be seen in the special Chinese Collection on Bussey Hill and in the Shrub Collection, and deserve study with reference to the autumn garden. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 5","article_sequence":63,"start_page":249,"end_page":252,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23608","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad14eaf6f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 63 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 5, 1914 BULLETIN NO. 63. In spite of the severity of the past winter and the injury which it caused, and of the drought of September and October which has been of exceptional length, the Arboretum on the whole does not look bad, and for lovers of plants there is much of interest to be seen here this year in the early weeks of November. The conifers, with few exceptions, are in good condition, although the leading shoots of a few species have been destroyed by a borer, the White Pine Weevil (Pissodes strobi). The species which are injured by this pest nearly every year in the Arboretum are the Himalayan White Pine (Pinus excelsa), the White Pine of western China (Pinus Armandi), the Oriental Spruce (Picea orientalis), and the Balkan Spruce (Picea omorika). The Balkan Spruce is the last European tree brought into cultivation; it is a beautiful, fast-growing and perfectly hardy tree which on the mountains of southwestern Europe sometimes grows to a large size and is highly valued as a timber tree. In this country, or at least in the Arboretum, it does not promise to become valuable as an ornamental tree unless the ravages of the White Pine Weevil can be stopped. There is no indication yet that many of the new Chinese conifers, especially the Pines and Spruces, will not flourish in this climate. The Larches are perhaps less promising, and the Firs, although some of them may prove hardy, grow badly in the nursery and do not give promise of much value here. A few of the conifers in the Pinetum which are particularly interesting just now are the Colorado White Fir (Abies concolor), the Japanese Abies brachyphylla and A. homolepis, the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), and three Japanese Pines, Pinus parviflora, P. Thunbergii, and P. densiflora. There are good plants of a dwarf form of the last in the collection of dwarf conifers to which attention is called. This dwarf is a common plant in Japanese gardens and should be better known in this country, for it is one of the handsomest of all dwarf conifers among which are many decorative garden plants. Among other conifers which should be studied at this time are Engelmann's Spruce (Picea Engelmannii), the Colorado form of the Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga mucronata), the Siberian Spruce (Picea obovata), the western White Pine (Pinus monticola), the different forms of the Black Pine of Europe (Pinus nigra, laricio, etc.), and some of the eastern North American Pines, notably Pinus resinosa, P. virgmiana, and P. Banksiana. The few broad-leaved evergreens which can be grown successfully in this climate are in good condition, and Laurels (Kalmia) and all Rhododendrons now promise abundant flowers for next year. The evergreen Hollies are beautiful now. Ilex opaca is covered with its large red berries and is interesting because it is the only broad-leaved evergreen tree which is hardy in the Arboretum. Although less beautiful than the European Holly with its lustrous leaves, it should be more often seen in eastern American collections in which north of Washington the European tree is not hardy. The native Inkberry (Ilex glabra) is one of the most valuable of the evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. It is a round-topped plant, occasionally five or six feet tall, and is very common in the neighborhood of the coast from New England to Texas. As an ornamental plant it is chiefly valuable for its small shining leaves which nearly completely hide the small black fruits which remain on the branches during the winter. A large mass of this Holly can be seen on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. Only one other Holly with evergreen leaves has proved hardy in the Arboretum. This is the Japanese Ilex crenata, which is a taller growing and narrower plant than Eex glabra, with darker green leaves and larger black fruits. There are several of these Hollies on the lower side of Azalea Path. Several shrubs are more beautiful now than at any other season of the year, especially those with showy fruits which retain their leaves late into the autumn with little or no change of color. Among such plants not one perhaps is more beautiful than the common European Privet (Ligustrum vulgare) which has been cultivated for centuries and has become naturalized in the eastern United States. This plant bears at the ends of the branches large clusters of shining black berries which now make a tine contrast with the dark green leaves. The European Privets are in the Shrub Collection where they are planted with a number of Asiatic deciduous-leaved species, to all of which they are superior as decorative plants at this season of the year. There are few more beautiful shrubs in the Arboretum at this time than the variety (var. podocarpa) of the eastern Asiatic Lonicera Maackii which was discovered by Wilson in western China, for its leaves are still green and perfectly fresh, and its branches are covered with bright red fruits. This is a large, vigorous, fast-growing, and perfectly hardy shrub with wide-spreading branches and requires a good deal of space in which to show its real beauty. From the northern Lonicera Maackii, a native of the Amoor region, the leaves have mostly fallen, but the erect growing branches are covered with scarlet fruits. The flowers of the northern plant are pure white and larger than those of any other Bush Honeysuckle. Photinia is a genus of the Rose Family related to the Apples, with a few species of small Asiatic trees. Two of these plants, Photinia villosa and its variety laevis, thrive in the Arboretum and may now be seen in the Shrub Collection covered with their small red fruits. These little trees succeed perfectly in this climate; their small white flowers are freely produced in spring in many-flowered clusters, and their fruit remains a long time on the branches, especially that of the variety, from which it sometimes does not entirely disappear until the end of winter. This plant has been largely planted in the Boston parks, and several good specimens can be seen along the borders of the Francis Parkman Road. The trees and shrubs of Japan usually retain their leaves later than the related American species, and as the leaves of many Japanese plants take on brilliant colors in the autumn they are valuable for prolonging the beauty of the autumn garden. It is interesting to find that this late changing of color i common also among many of the plants of western China. This is particularly noticeable in the new species of Cotoneaster discovered by Wilson. The leaves of nearly all these plants are still perfectly green, and probably by the middle of November they will be bright scarlet, or in some species scarlet and orange. These plants have late ripening, red or black fruits which greatly add to their beauty, and among them are certainly some of the most valuable shrubs of recent introduction. There are now many good specimens of these Cotoneasters on Bussey Hill and they deserve the attention of all lovers of hardy plants, especially Cotoneaster divaricata, C. foveolata and C. Dielsiana, the leaves of which turn brilliant colors, and the different forms of C. horizontalis, low shrubs with wide-spreading nearly prostrate branches. These have small lustrous leaves which in this climate do not fall before Christmas, and small red berries. No shrubs are better suited for the decoration of the rock garden. Among the American Hawthorns which show their greatest beauty in November may be mentioned Crataegus cordata, C. nitida and C. persistens. The first of these plants, the so-called Washington Thorn, is a narrow, slender tree, which sometimes attains the height of twenty or thirty feet. The flowers are small, creamy white, and do not open here until nearly the middle of June, and the small, scarlet, shining fruits, which ripen late in October, remain on the trees without much change of color until the spring. As the fruit begins to show its bright color the small triangular leaves turn to shades of orange and scarlet. Crataegus nitida is a native of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi opposite the city of St. Louis; it is a large tree with slightly spreading pendulous branches forming a large, open, round-topped head. The leaves are narrow, long-pointed and very lustrous; the flowers are pure white, of medium size, and produced in numerous clusters which cover the upper side of the branches. The scarlet drooping fruit, which is also of medium size, ripens late just as the leaves turn orange and scarlet. This is one of the handsomest of the American Hawthorns and has grown to a large size in the Arboretum. Crataegus persistens retains its leaves, which are now as green as they were in midsummer, after those of all other Hawthorns have fallen, and the crimson fruit remains on the branches until spring, making this tree in winter the most conspicuous of the deciduous-leaved plants hardy in New England. It resembles in the shape and in general appearance of the leaves some of the Cockspur Thorns of eastern North America. Raised many years ago at the Arboretum from seeds received from the Paris Museum, its native country is still unknown. The largest plant of this tree in the country, and the type of the species, can be seen among several large Hawthorns at the foot of the bank on the pathway near the Forest Hills entrance to the Arboretum, where it is now the only plant with perfectly green leaves. The only shrub now in flower in the Arboretum is the Witch Hazel of the northern states (Hamamelis virginica) which is covered with its yellow flowers. These bulletins will now be discontinued until spring. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23493","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060a36e.jpg","title":"1914-1","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1914,"series":1,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 18","article_sequence":37,"start_page":145,"end_page":148,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23582","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160a325.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 37 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 18, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 37. The remarkable mildness of the winter of 1912-13 will long be remembered by the lovers of plants in eastern Massachusetts. In the Arboretum the Silver Maple (Acer saccharinum) was in fall bloom on January 23d. The flowers of the Japanese Witch Hazel opened the following day; on January 23d Hamamelis vernalis was also in bloom, and on February 2d expanded flowers were found on the European Daphne Mezereum. The Japanese Witch Hazel is too little known here; it is a large, vigorous, and perfectly hardy shrub and there are two forms, one of them blooming a few days before the other. In ordinary seasons they blossom about the middle of February, and for weeks their slender branchlets are bright with the clear yellow of the petals of their numerous flowers. These are uninjured by the severest cold to which they have ever been subjected here, a temperature of several degrees below zero making no impression on them. The Japanese Witch Hazel would be an excellent subject to plant in city yards and with the protection and warmth the plants would obtain from city buildings they would probably flower in Boston in January every year. Although its flowers are smaller than those of the Japanese species, Hamamelis vernalis is an interesting plant with considerable decorative possibilities. It is a native of southern Missouri and, although the existence of a Witch Hazel in that part of the country has long been known, it has only recently been distinguished from the autumn flowering species of the northern states. This Missouri species flowered this winter in the Arboretum for the first time in cultivation and is still little known in gardens. In spite of the warmth of the early winter, which was followed by a few days of hard frost, the general absence of snow and the three cold nights in the first part of this month, few plants have suffered in the Arboretum and less damage has been done to doubtfully hardy species than usual. Many of the new Chinese plants introduced by the Arboretum and planted in exposed positions have now come through two winters-one exceptionally cold and one abnormally warm-without injury and there is, therefore, good reason to hope that several hundred new species of trees and shrubs raised from seed collected by Wilson can be added permanently to New England plantations. With the exception of some Willows and Alders the earliest exotic tree to bloom in the Arboretum this year is the Japanese Euptelea polyandra, a small tree with erect branches and pyramidal habit. The flowers open before the leaves and their beauty is found in the large, conspicuous, orange-red anthers hanging on long slender filaments. The flowers are unisexual but the pistils do not appear until some time after the anthers. Euptelea is a small genus confined to Japan and western China. A second species, Euptelea Franchetii, raised from Wilson's seeds also promises to succeed in the Arboretum. The plants now in flower of the Japanese species are on the right-hand side of Azalea Path and should be examined by persons interested in rare and curious plants. Cercidiphyllum japonicum, another Japanese tree, is just coming into flower. Unlike Euptelea, the male and female flowers are borne on different individuals and, like those of that genus, the flowers are without sepals and petals. The anthers of the staminate trees are red and rather showy, but the female flowers are inconspicuous. The beauty of the tree is in its foliage. The leaves are rounded and, although smaller, are in shape a good deal like those of the Redbud or Cercis. For this reason the name Cercidiphyllum has been given to the tree. When the leaves unfold they are bronze red, during the summer they are light green and turn in the autumn to clear yellow. This is the largest deciduous-leaved tree of Japan where it grows in the northern part of the empire scattered through forests of Oaks and other northern trees. Cercidiphyllum is a tree of pyramidal habit with a number of stems springing from the ground, and in Japan it often grows to the height of more than one hundred feet. It was introduced into the United States through the Arboretum many years ago and has now become common in collections here. There is a group of these trees on the two sides of the Meadow Road a short distance beyond the Administration Building entering from the Jamaica Plain gate. In western China Wilson found a Cercidiphyllum growing on open hillsides with a tall straight trunk, and therefore quite unlike the Japanese tree in habit. This form, which has been named var. sinense, is growing well in the Arboretum, the young plants showing the single stem habit. The first flowers of the earliest flowering Cherry in the Arboretum, Prunus tomentosa, are already open. This is a native of northern China and in cultivation is a broad, vigorous and perfectly hardy shrub of excellent habit which covers itself every year with large white flowers more or less tinged with red toward the base of the petals. The flowers are followed in early summer by bright red slightly hairy fruits of good flavor. Introduced by the Arboretum from Peking nearly thirty years ago, this has proved one of the most valuable of springflowering shrubs. There is a group of small plants of this Cherry on the right-hand side of the road just below the Forest Hills gate, and very large plants can be seen along the Boston Parkway between Perkina Street in Jamaica Plain and Forest Hills. In the Cherry Group, on the Forest Hills Road, the Japanese and Chinese Prunus subhirtella and the Japanese Prunus pendula will be in full bloom early next week. The flowers of the former are among the most beautiful of the Asiatic Cherries, and the trees have never been more thickly covered with flower-buds. The flowers of some of the Forsythias have appeared rather earlier than usual this year, especially those of the var. Fortunei of F. suspensa which is the form most generally cultivated in the neighborhood of Boston. This genus has given to our northern gardens some of the most beautiful and most satisfactory of all hardy shrubs. The species are all Chinese with the exception of F. europaea which was discovered in Albania a few years ago and is of much less value as a garden plant than the Chinese species. F. viridissima, the first species cultivated in Europe and America and the latest of all species to flower, is of comparatively little ornamental value. It is, however, one of the parents of a race of hybrids, F. Fortunei being the other parent, known as F. intermedia, among which are some exceedingly valuable garden plants. One of these hybrids recently described as F. intermedia var. primulina originated in the Arboretum a few years ago. It has pale primrose-colored flowers which are produced in crowded clusters. This form is not yet much known in cultivation but it promises to be of exceptional value. The Buffalo Berry (Shepherdia argentea) is in flower in the Oleaster Group on the left-hand side of Bussey Hill Road just above the Lilacs. The Buffalo Berry is a shrub or small tree, with handsome silvery leaves, minute clustered axillary flowers and small crimson or yellow subacid fruits which ripen early in the autumn. It is a common inhabitant of the borders of streams from Saskatchewan to the Rocky Mountains as far south as New Mexico. It is a valuable ornamental plant for the dry interior parts of the continent, and in the west much attention has, in recent years, been paid to it as a fruit plant. The Spice Bush (Benzoin aestivale) is in full bloom on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the end of the Lilac Group where there are large masses of this shrub. It is a native of the eastern United States and an inhabitant of the borders of swamps where it sometimes grows to the height of ten or fifteen feet. The flowers are small, bright yellow, and the male and female flowers are produced on different individuals, so that only some of the plants bear the small bright scarlet shining fruits which are so attractive late in the season in contrast with the bright yellow autumnal foliage. The leaves are fragrant like those of its relative the Sassafras, and are uninjured by insects. This is one of the common shrubs which should be better known by gardeners. Next to the Spice Bush Group the Leatherwood (Dirca palustris) is covered with its bright yellow flowers which appear before the leaves. This beautiful and interesting plant owes its common name to the toughness of the bark of the branches. Rarely cultivated, it deserves a conspicuous position in all collections of hardy shrubs. On the right-hand side of Azalea Path the Japanese Box (Buxus japonica) is already in flower. This is a shrub of rather open habit with small yellow-green leaves, and the only really hardy Box which has been tried in the Arboretum. It is therefore of special interest to persons in search of broad-leaved evergreens suitable for New England gardens. It is remarkable, therefore, that this plant, which was raised here from seed brought from Japan by Professor Sargent twenty years ago, has remained practically unknown in this country beyond the borders of the Arboretum. The most conspicuous flowers in the Shrub Collection now are those of a little European Heath, Erica carnea, which is already covered with its rosy red flowers. This is one of the few perfectly hardy Heaths which can be grown successfully in this climate, and an excellent plant for the early spring rock garden. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 25","article_sequence":38,"start_page":149,"end_page":152,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23583","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160a727.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 38 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. APRIL 25, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 38. Next week the Arboretum should be visited by lovers of the flowers1 of early spring for it will then be gay with the white blossoms of the Shad Bushes (Amelanchier) which have been largely planted in the shrubberies and mixed plantations, making the last days of April here one of the most delightful weeks of the early spring. Amelanchier islargely North American, although there is one small shrubby species on the mountains of central Europe and another species is widely distributed in eastern Asia, In the United States the genus is found with many species in both the eastern and western parts of the country. Two species grow naturally in the Arboretum, A. laevis and A. oblongifolia. The former, which has been erroneously called A. canadensis, is a small tree easily distinguished in spring by the red color of the unfolding leaves which make a handsome contrast with the white flowers. This tree grows on uplands and there are several good-sized specimens at the base of the wooded slope on the south side of the Forest Hills Road in the rear of the lower end of the Apple Group. A. oblongifolia grows naturally on the borders of swamps and, although it often grows to a large size, is always shrubby in habit. There is a large wild plant of this species on the border of the north meadow, and it is this species which has been most generally planted in the Arboretum. The other tree Amelanchier, the true A. canadensis, is a larger plant than A. laevis, and it can easily be distinguished by the coat of fine down which covers the lower surface of the leaves which are silvery white, becoming green but never red when they first unfold. This tree is rare in New England, but it is common in western New York where it grows to a very large size, and in the southern states where it is the common species except on the Appalachian Mountains where at high elevations A. laevis occurs. There are a number of small shrubby species in the eastern states which are all beautiful and desirable garden plants, but who ever plants them and in what nursery can they be found? Unfortunately, their decorative value as garden plants, like that of so many other native shrubs, has not spread very far beyond the limits of the Arboretum. A complete collection of the species of eastern North America has now been arranged in the border along the grass path which, starting from a point opposite the Administration Building, turns to the right and follows the direction of the Meadow Road. The Japanese Prunus Sargentii is in flower again. As was stated last year in Bulletin No. 20, this hardy tree is considered by many persons the most beautiful of all flowering Cherries. It is a large and perfectly hardy tree; the pink or rose-colored flowers are large and produced in great abundance, the ample dark green leaves turn orange and red in the autumn and the bark is smooth, red-brown and very lustrous. The trees in the Arboretum produce fruit every year in June and seeds will be distributed in the order of application to persons who wish to experiment with this valuable tree. The seeds should be sown as soon as received. There are six specimens of Prunus Sargentii on the Forest Hills Road near its junction with the Meadow Road. Prunus triloba is in flower just below the entrance to the Shrub Collection at the Forest Hills Gate. This is a shrub with bright clear pink flowers about an inch in diameter which appear before the leaves. The double-flowered form of this shrub (var. multiplex) is a favorite in China, whence forty or fifty years ago it was introduced into Europe and the United States where it is often cultivated. The much more , beautiful single-flowered form grows on the mountains near Peking and appears to have been cultivated for the first time in the Arboretum, to which seeds were sent from China in 1882. Although perfectly hardy, P. triloba is not a particularly vigorous plant. It well deserves a place, however, in every garden for the charming color of the flowers. The Plum trees in the group next to the Cherries and at the principal entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road are beginning to open their flower-buds. This year the Chinese Prunus triflora is the first to flower. It is a common fruit tree in China and Japan, and from it or from some of its varieties the so-called Japanese Plums, now so popular in the United States, have been derived. The flowers of this Asiatic tree will soon be followed by those of the Canada Plum (Prunus nigra) which is the most northern of the American Plum trees, being distributed from Newfoundland to the shores of the Strait of Mackinaw and southward along the northern borders of the United States. It is a small tree with dark, rough bark, and flowers slightly tinged with pink and becoming rose-color in fading. This, perhaps, is not one of the handsomest of the American Plumtrees, but it is valuable on account of its hardiness, the early appearance of the flowers, and the early ripening of the fruit. The Plum Collection is near the principal entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road and next to the Cherries. The Arboretum collection of Willows is planted on both sides of the path which, starting from a point opposite the Administration Building, leads to the Shrub Collection and to the Forest Hills Gate. The collection, which contains a large number of species and hybrids, suffers for want of sufficient space for the proper development of individuals, especially of the species which become large trees, and on the whole is less satisfactory than some of the other groups in the Arboretum. Some of the dwarf shrubby species are now in flower and should be examined by persons in search of beautiful hardy shrubs suited for many decorative purposes. One of the most beautiful of these little Willows is Salix tristis, a spreading shrub not more than two feet high with slender stems and small gray-green leaves. The anthers of the male plant are bright red when they first appear and much more showy than the gray inflorescence of the female plant. This little willow grows naturally on dry barren soil from New England to Minnesota and southward. It takes kindly to cultivation and grows equally well on dry ground and in moist peaty soil, and soon spreads into large masses. It is an excellent plant for covering dry barren slopes. Salix humilis is another native shrub with gray-green leaves but yellow anthers. This species sometimes grows to the height of from six to nine feet, and the slender red stems make a handsome contrast with the silvery gray flower-clusters. This is also a plant of the northern United States and is as easily cultivated as S. tristis in all sorts of soil. In the same group are also flowering two dwarf exotic species, Salix repens var. argentea from northern Europe and Siberia, and S. gracilistyla, a shrub three to four feet high from Japan. These plants can be seen on the left hand side of the walk not far from its entrance to the Meadow Road. One of the first plants in the Arboretum to unfold its leaves in the spring is a shrub of the Rose Family, Prinsepia sinensis. The small but numerous, clear yellow, axillary flowers appear soon after the leaves and can now be seen on a well established plant on the upper side of Hickory Path near the Centre Street wall. This north China shrub is still rare in cultivation, but is well worth a place in any collection for its beauty and for its botanical interest. The Arboretum is often asked about the best shrubs for ground cover, that is to cover the ground under trees or among larger shrubs. The two deciduous-leaved shrubs which have proved the most successful in the Arboretum for this purpose are both natives of the United States. They are the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis or aromatica) and the Yellow Root (Zanthorhiza apiifolia). The former is rather a straggling plant with slender stems sometimes three or four feet high, although in one of its forms this plant grows much more compactly. The flowers are bright yellow, on short axillary branches appearing before the three-lobed leaves, and followed by red fruits which ripen in June. This has been found a useful plant in the Arboretum, although as a ground cover it has not proved as successful as the Yellow Root. This does not grow so tall, and, spreading rapidly by underground shoots, soon covers the ground with its erect stems. The small purple flowers are produced in terminal erect racemes and open before or with the leaves which are clear bright yellow in the autumn. Unfortunately this plant, which is a native of the Appalachian Mountain region, will not thrive in limestone soil. These two shrubs have been largely planted in the Arboretum and are now in flower. Some of the forms of Lonicera coerulea are in flower in the Shrub Collection. This is a bush Honeysuckle which encircles the northern hemisphere and is attractive in habit with its creamy white flowers and bright blue fruits. One of the broad-leaved evergreens, Pieris (Andromeda) japonica, is in bloom among the Rhododendrons at the base of Hemlock Hill. This is a hardy plant with handsome foliage and clusters of large white flowers which, however, are usually spoiled here by spring frosts. A better plant for this climate is Pieris (Andromeda) floribunda, a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains and one of the best broadleaved shrubs which can be grown here. It forms in cultivation a broad, low, rounded head; the leaves, although small, are dark green, and the creamy white flowers are produced in profusion. The flowerbuds are conspicuous through the winter and just now are beginning to open. There is a large specimen of this Andromeda in the bed on the north side of Hemlock Hill Road opposite the Laurels. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 2","article_sequence":39,"start_page":153,"end_page":156,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23590","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad1608125.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 39 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 2. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 39. Many of the Crabapples promise an exceptionally good bloom this year and several of them will be in full flower next week. There is a large collection of these plants in the Arboretum, including several hybrids, for there are few genera in which natural hybrids among cultivated plants are more often found. The common Apple-tree of the orchard is usually believed to be a hybrid between the two European species, although the so-called Paradise Apple, which is largely used in this country as stock in the propagation of dwarf Apple-trees, is probably a form of Malus pumila from eastern Europe, central Asia and the Himalayas. Another important hybrid largely grown commercially and known, at least in this country, as the Siberian Crab is believed to have been obtained by a cross between the common Apple-tree and the small-fruited Siberian Crabapple, M. baccata. Plants of this hybrid are fast-growing, very hardy, usually pyramidal small trees. The flowers are handsome but the trees are most ornamental in the autumn when they are covered with their brilliant scarlet or orange, often translucent fruits which are usually from an inch to an inch and a half in diameter. These hybrids are hardy in northern regions too cold for the common Appletree, and they are often grown as fruit trees. Their fruit is subacid but valuable when cooked and for preserves. The most curious form, perhaps, of Malus pumila in the collection is M. Niedzwetzlcyana from Turkestan. This small tree, which is one of the first Apples in the collection to bloom, has dark purplish red flowers and fruit, even the flesh of the fruit being purple, purple leaves at least early in the season, and dark bark and twigs. That this tree is only an abnormal variety is shown by the fact that the leaves of seedlings raised in the Arboretum are more often green than red. One of the handsomest of all Crabapples, M. fioribunda, is one of the earliest to flower. As it grows in this country it is a broad shrub with a trunk divided at the base into several large stems. The pink flowers, which are deep rose color in the bud, turn white before the petals fall and are produced in the greatest profusion. The dark green foliage is handsome, but the yellow or orange-colored fruits, which are not much larger than peas, make little show. The origin of this plant is uncertain. It was first sent to Europe from Japan, but it is not a native of that country and probably originally came from China, although it is not now known in China in a wild state. By some authors it is considered a hybrid between two of the species of northern China, although it bears but little resemblance to its supposed parents, and seedlings raised from this cultivated plant show comparatively little variation. The largest specimens of this Crabapple will be found in the neighborhood of the Administration Building. A plant which is evidently a hybrid of M. floribunda with one of the hybrids of M. baccata appeared spontaneously in the Arboretum several years ago and has been named M. Arnoldiana. It has much larger pink flowers and larger fruit than M. fioribunda, and in flower it is one of the most beautiful of all Crabapples. Another early-flowering form is known as M. Scheideckeri, a supposed hybrid of M. floribunda, the other parent being probably M. spectabilis or M. prunifolia. This plant appeared in Germany a few years ago and is one of the most ornamental of Crabapples. The branches are erect and slightly spreading, forming a narrow pyramidal head. The pink and white flowers are produced in profusion, and the comparatively large yellow fruit is from three-quarters to an inch in diameter. Another pyramidal Crabapple much better known is M. spectabilis, a native of northern China and an old inhabitant of gardens. The large pink flowers of this tree as it is known in gardens are more or less double; there are several forms, of which the best, perhaps, is Rivers' Crab (M. spectabilis Riversiana), so named for the English nurseryman by whom it was raised or distributed nearly a century ago. The Crabapple of eastern Siberia, M. baccata, is a tall, narrow tree with white flowers on long, drooping stems, and yellow fruits not much larger than peas. This is a hardy and handsome tree, but it is less beautiful than several hybrids which were raised in the Arboretum many years ago from seeds sent from St. Petersburg. The parentage of these plants is uncertain, although M. baccata is no doubt one of the parents. They are wide-branching, vigorous trees with large pure white flowers and fruits two or three times larger than those of M. baccata. By some persons the Parkman Crab (M. Halliana) is considered, when it is in flower, the most beautiful of the group. It is a small and not very vigorous tree, with dark bark, leaves tinged with purple when they first unfold, and bright, clear pink, semidouble flowers drooping on long stalks, and minute fruits. This is probably a Chinese plant which has long been cultivated in Japanese gardens but is not now known in a wild state. It reached America sixty years ago and was first cultivated in this country by the historian Francis Parkman in his garden on the shores of Jamaica Pond. Seedlings of this plant show great variation. Japanese species which deserve the attention of lovers of hardy plants are M. zumi from Japan, with pink and white flowers, and M. Sargentii, a native of the borders of salt marshes in the northern island, and the only shrub Apple which is now known. In the Arboretum it has proved a valuable late-flowering plant; and it appears particularly well suited for northern gardens for on the coast of Maine it grows even better than it does here. The last of the eastern Asiatic species to flower is M. toringo, from northern China and Japan. This is a small tree with spreading branches, numerous, very small flowers, and minute, red or yellow fruits. A low, shrubby seedling form of this species has appeared in the Arboretum. The American Crabapples bloom later than the Asiatic and European species. There is one species (M. fusca) on the northwest coast and several in the Atlantic states from New York, Michigan and Iowa southward. In the group on the Forest Hills Road and nearly opposite the end of the Meadow Road M. fusca is well established. With it there is an interesting hybrid of this and the common Apple-tree named M. Dawsoniana. This is a vigorous tree with the peculiar oblong yellow fruit of its American parent. The fruits, however, are much larger and the leaves resemble those of the common Apple. M. coronaria from the eastern states and M. ioensis from the central west are in this group, and there are plants of M. angustifolia from the extreme southeastern states now well established on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Of M. ioensis there are two plants opposite the end of the Meadow Road, of the form known as the Bechtel Crab. This tree has double pale pink flowers which look like small clustered Roses. This is the last Crabapple in the collection to bloom, and one of the most popular plants in the Arboretum, judging by the fact that when the trees are in flower the ground about them is trodden hard by visitors who want to examine them at close range. There are two groups of Apple-trees in the Arboretum. The first is on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road entering from the Forest Hills Gate and opposite the end of the Meadow Road. This collection contains the largest plants in the Arboretum. The second and supplementary collection is arranged at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. The plants are smaller, but this collection contains a larger number of species and hybrids than the other. For the lovers of spring flowers the blooming of the Crabapples is one of the three or four most interesting periods in the Arboretum year. The earliest of the Viburnums to flower this year is V. Carlesii, from Korea, whence it was sent to Europe a few years ago. It is very hardy and blooms freely when not more than a foot high. It is particularly interesting from the fact that the flower-buds are bright orange-red. The inner surface of the corolla, however, is white and as the flowers open the color of the outer surface gradually fades to pink and then to white. As the buds do not always expand at the same time there are therefore in the cluster pink buds among the white flowers. This plant is still comparatively little known, but it seems destined to become a valuable and popular garden plant. The Mahonia from the northwest coast, Berberis or Mahonia Aquifolium, with its shining Holly-like leaves, yellow flowers and blue fruits, is well known to garden lovers except perhaps in the extreme northern states where this plant is not very hardy and in severe winters is often badly injured. The much dwarfer and perfectly hardy Mahonia from the southern Rocky Mountains (B. repens) is, however, much less known as a garden plant. This plant grows only a few inches high and the leaves lack the lustre of those of the Oregon plant; it spreads rapidly, however, in good soil and soon forms a broad mat. This promises to be one of the best broad-leaved evergreens for ground cover in this climate. It is now in flower in the Shrub Collection. The earliest true Barberry to flower in the Arboretum is Berberis dictyophylla which, although it comes from the southern part of China, is perfectly hardy here. The flowers are solitary or occasionally in pairs in the axils of the leaves, about half an inch in diameter, and pale primrose yellow. The great beauty of the plant, however, is in the leaves which, although not large, are silvery white on the lower surface and in the autumn turn brilliant scarlet on the upper surface while the lower surface retains its spring and summer color. This shrub can be seen with the other Barbexries in the Shrub Collection and in the supplementary collection of Barberries on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Several Honeysuckles (Lonicera) and some of the early-flowering Currants and Gooseberries (Ribes) are now in flower in the Shrub Collection and deserve the attention of visitors. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":40,"start_page":157,"end_page":160,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23593","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170a328.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 40 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS, MAY 9, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 40. The earliest Lilac in the collection was in flower at the end of the last week in April and it will be the first of July before the flowers of the latest have faded. The Lilacs are all Old World plants and the genus is confined to eastern Europe, southwestern Asia, the Himalayas, and to eastern Asia, from eastern Siberia to western China and to Japan, the largest number of species having been found in China. Although a great improvement has been made in the flowers of the common Lilac of gardens (S. vulgaris) by skillful cultivators of this plant in France and Germany, comparatively few important results have yet been obtained by crossing the different species, although one of the most valuable of all Lilacs as a garden plant is a hybrid between S. vulgaris and S. persica. This hybrid appeared in the Botanic Garden at Rouen nearly a century ago and through an error as to its origin it was unfortunately called S. ckinensis. In gardens it is also sometimes known as S. rothomagensis. Another interesting hybrid Lilac is known as S. hyacinthiflora. This was raised in France and is the result of crossing the common Lilac with the Chinese S. oblata. The extremely fragrant flowers are small and double and are borne in small clusters. This plant, however, is chiefly valuable on account of its earliness for, like its Chinese parent, it is one of the first Lilacs to flower. Some of the recently discovered Chinese species will probably be less desirable garden plants than several of the better known species, but it is not impossible that they may prove valuable in the production of new hybrid races. That a great and unexpected prize may be obtained by the breeder of Lilacs is shown in the new race known generally as Syringa Henryi. This hybrid was obtained in Paris a few years ago by crossing the Hungarian S. Josikaea with the Chinese S. villosa. One of the plants obtained from this cross, called Lutece, is one of the most beautiful of all garden Lilacs, although its Hungarian parent is perhaps the least beautiful of the whole genus, and the last species most breeders would have selected for one of the parents of a new race of garden plants. What therefore may be the result of crossing the small-flowered species collected by Wilson in western China with some of the large-flowered species no one can now predict. From the wild Lilac (S. vulgaris) of the mountains of Bulgaria, with its narrow clusters of small lilac-purple flowers, many varieties have been obtained in the three centuries since this plant reached western Europe. The flowers of these varieties vary from dark purplish red through all the shades of lilac, and to pale pink, white and blue. The flower-clusters vary in length and breadth, and there are singleflowered, semi-double and double-flowered forms. The flowers of some forms are more fragrant than those of others and there is a difference of a week or more in their time of flowering. The double-flowered forms usually bloom later than the single-flowered form, and the double flowers last longer. The wild Bulgarian plant is in the collection and will flower this year. It is on the left-hand side of the path going up the hill through the Lilac Group, and the plant is labelled \"Syringa vulgaris. Bulgaria.\" It is interesting to compare the flowers of these wild plants with those of the forms which have been improved by cultivation. There are now one hundred and sixty of these forms in the collection. Several others are in cultivation, but the Arboretum collection shows the variation which cultivators have produced in the Lilac and contains all the most desirable and valuable kinds. New varieties are produced every year but these show no real improvement over many of the forms produced many years ago, and the appearance of new varieties more valuable than those already in cultivation can hardly be expected. The Arboretum is often asked for a list of the best garden Lilacs. No two persons, however, will agree on what are the best Lilacs for this is a matter of individual taste. Some persons prefer the white flowers and others the very dark flowers. Some lovers of Lilacs think that none of the new varieties compare in beauty with the purpleflowered Lilac of old gardens. One of the most satisfactory of the lilac-flowered forms is Charles X. Among the single-flowered white varieties no plant produces larger flowers in greater abundance than Marie Legraye; for those persons who admire double-flowered Lilacs none is better than the late-blooming, white-flowered Madame Lemoine. Philemon, Ludwig Spath and Congo are as good as any of the very darkflowered varieties, and among the pink-flowered varieties Macrostachya is a first-rate garden plant. All the forms are equally hardy and equally vigorous; they all grow with nearly equal rapidity. Many of these forms, however, are so nearly alike that it is not easy to distinguish them, and in a collection of ten or twelve can be obtained all that are best worth growing. In addition to S. vulgaris there are now established in the collection twenty speeies of Syringa and some of them are beautiful and desirable garden plants. The first of the species to flower is S. affinis from northern China; this is one of the most generally cultivated of all shrubs in the gardens of Peking. The pure white flowers are borne in loose, rather narrow, open clusters, and are extremely fragrant. There is a mauve-flowered variety of this species, var. Giraldii, which was discovered a few years ago in western China by a French missionary and which appears to be unknown in Chinese gardens. The two forms are very hardy, grow rapidly, and are blooming well this year. The habit of these plants, however, is loose and not attractive, but they deserve a place in every collection on account of their very early and fragrant flowers. Another Chinese Lilac, S. oblata, flowers nearly as early. This plant has the handsomest leaves produced by any Lilac; they are broad, thick and shining, and in the autumn, unlike those of any other Lilac, they turn a deep dark wine color before falling. This plant grows into a large, broad symmetrical shrub. The flowers are pale lilac color and very fragrant, but unfortunately the flower-buds are often injured by late frosts and the brittle branches are frequently broken by ice. When this Lilac is in good condition it is one of the handsomest of the collection, but it cannot be depended on. This year the flower-buds have been killed. Another north China species, S. pubescens, is one of the best of the genus as a garden plant. It is a tall shrub with erect stems, small leaves and large clusters of pale lilac-colored flowers remarkable for the long tube of the corolla and for their delicate fragrance; indeed the flowers of S. pubescens are more fragrant than those of any other Lilac, and for this fragrance alone this plant should find a conspicuous place in every northern garden. Syringa villosa, another north China species, is valuable for it is the last of the true Lilacs to flower. It is a large, vigorous shrub, of excellent habit, with large leaves. The flowers are produced in clusters which vary in size on different individuals; they vary, too, in color from rose to flesh color and occasionally nearly to white. This plant is therefore best propagated by cuttings taken from the best varieties rather than by seeds. The flowers have a disagreeable odor. Only two of the new Chinese species will flower this year, S. Meyeri and S. Julianae. The former has dark purple flowers, with corolla tubes even longer than those of S. pubescens, and is interesting because it begins to flower freely when not more than a foot or two high; its history, too, is interesting. The plants in the Arboretum were raised from seeds gathered in China by F. N. Meyer, a collector of the United States Department of Agriculture. Meyer made no herbarium specimens and has no recollection of the place where he found the plant. No other plants but those in the Arboretum were raised, and the only knowledge of the species has been obtained from the small plants cultivated here. S. Julianae, discovered in western China by Wilson, is of the same general character as S. pubescens, and is a conspicuous plant in flower as the outside of the corolla is dark purple and the inner surface of the corolla lobes white. The flowers are fragrant but not so fragrant as those of S. pubescens. The plant is very hardy but it is too new in cultivation to make it possible to judge of its real value as a garden plant. Of old-fashioned shrubs now too seldom seen in gardens none are more beautiful than the Persian Lilac (S. persica) and its white-flowered variety. The Persian Lilac is a native of southwestern Europe where it is found from the Caucasus to Afghanistan and was cultivated in England as early as the middle of the seventeenth century. In gardens it forms a wide and shapely bush which, after the common Lilac has finished its bloom, covers itself with long clusters of small, fragrant flowers which weigh down the slender branches. This is one of the parents of the hybrid S. chinensis already mentioned. This hybrid is a shrub as large or larger than the common Lilac, with slender branches, leaves intermediate in shape between those of its two parents, and large, elongated clusters of purple-red flowers intermediate also in size between those of its parents. There is a variety of this hybrid with nearly white flowers. There are three tree-like Lilacs with large unsymmetrical clusters of small white flowers which belong to a section of the genus distinguished by the very short tube of the corolla. The first of these to flower, S. amurensis, comes from eastern Siberia; this is followed by S. pekinensis from northern China, and later by S. japonica, the last and most tree-like of the Lilacs. The Arboretum Lilacs have never given promise of a more abundant crop of flowers, and it is probable that the largest number of plants will be in the best condition during the week beginning on the 14th of May. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 15","article_sequence":41,"start_page":161,"end_page":164,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23589","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160bb6f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 41 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 15. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 41. The Horsechestnut (Aesculus Hippocastanum) growing naturalTy in a restricted area has the power of flourishing and reproducing itself in regions with climates as unlike as those of eastern New England and western Scotland. The home of this tree among the mountains of northern Greece is of such limited extent that, although the Horsechestnut has been cultivated in Europe for more than three centuries, it is only in comparatively recent years that the wild tree has been discovered. The Grecian Horsechestnut is one of the noblest of the exotic trees cultivated in the United States, but for the development of its greatest beauty it requires deep, rich, moist soil and abundant space for the spread of its branches. Few other trees suffer more from smoke, dust, and the other unnatural conditions of city life. There are a number of forms in cultivation but none of them equal the typical tree in beauty. One of the best known of these abnormal forms is the variety with double flowers (var. Baumannii, or flare pleno). This form flowers later than the single-flowered tree and the flowers last a long time in good condition. There are varieties with erect branches (var. pyramidalis) and with erect and spreading branches forming a roundtopped tree (var. umbraculifera); and there are varieties with variously incised leaflets (var. incisa and var. laciniata), and with leaves blotched with yellow (var. variegata), but these are all horticultural curiosities and of no interest to the general planter. The so-called red-flowered Horsechestnut, which appeared in Europe many years ago, although its origin is not entirely clear, is probably a hybrid of the common Horsechestnut with the red-flowered A. Pavia of the southeastern United States. The right name of this tree is A. carnea, although it is often found in nurseries under the name of A. rubicunda. It has the general habit and appearance of the common Horsechestnut, but it is a smaller tree and blooms later, and the flowers on different individuals vary from red to pale rose color. The handsomest form (var. Briotii) has deep red flowers and is one of the most ornamental of the arborescent Horsechestnuts. The Japanese Horsechestnut (A. turbinata) is rather closely related to the Grecian tree and resembles it in general appearance, although the flowers are less showy. In its native country this is a large and handsome tree, and it promises to be a valuable ornamental tree here. The largest specimen in the United States is in Rochester, New York, where the Japanese Horsechestnut has flowered and produced large crops of seeds for several years. The Himalayan Horsechestnut, the species from central China discovered by Wilson, and the California species are not hardy here, and the north China Horsechestnut is not yet established in the Arboretum. Southeastern North America is the real home of the Horsechestnuts, judging by the multiplication of species in that part of the world where a number of interesting and valuable new forms have recently been discovered. The earliest of the American species to flower is the socalled Ohio Buckeye, A. glabra, which has now been in bloom for ten days. This is a small tree with pale yellow flowers, fruit like that of the Grecian tree covered with prickles and dark bark exfoliating in thin flakes. There is a tree of the Ohio Buckeye in the Horsechestnut Group on the Meadow Road, but the largest specimen in the Arboretum is on the left-hand side of the South Street entrance. A form of this tree with usually seven instead of five leaflets (var. Buckleyi) is not otherwise different from the common form and flowers with it in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group. Near this is another form of this tree (var. leucodermis) from southern Missouri and Arkansas, with pale bark which blooms about two weeks later than the type and is just coming into flower. The other yellow-flowered arborescent Horsechestnut of the eastern states (A. octandra) differs from the Ohio Buckeye in the absence of prickles from the fruit. It is a larger tree, growing sometimes on the slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains to the height of eighty feet, and blooms a week or ten days later. This is a valuable ornamental tree which is now rarely found in collections. The other arborescent species of the southern states, the red-flowered A. Pavia, is not yet established in the Arboretum, although some garden forms of this tree (var. atrosanguinea and var. Whittleyi), flower here freely. From a race of hybrids between A. octandra and A. Pavia some valuable garden plants have been obtained. This hybrid appeared in Paris at the beginning of the last century and the correct name for it is A. hybrida, although in recent European publications it is sometimes called A. versicolor. The flowers are of different shades of red, and individuals differ in foliage, in the size and color of the flowers, and in their time of opening. There are two large bushy specimens of this hybrid quite different from each other in appearance in front of the Horsechestnut Group and next to A. glabra on the Meadow Road, and other forms can be found in the rear of this group. ''Of recently described species from the southeastern states only A. georgiana from central Georgia will flower this year. This is a broad, round-topped shrub, growing sometimes to the height of five or six feet, with large red and yellow flowers in long compact clusters, and a plant of much promise as a garden ornament. A large bed of this shrub will be found on the path in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group and opposite the mass of A. parviflora. This well known shrub is the last of the Horsechestnuts to flower and its tall narrow spikes of white flowers will not open before midsummer. Near this bed are beds of young plants of the yellow-flowered A. arguta, a small shrub from eastern Texas, and of the beautiful red-flowered shrub or small tree from the southern and southwestern states usually called A. austrina. Much attention has been paid to the formation of the Arboretum collection of Horsechestnuts and it will well repay the attention of persons interested in a beautiful genus of now too little known trees and shrubs well suited for the decoration of northern parks and gardens. B~ Among the American Magnolias in the group on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance M. Fraseri is already opening its large cream-colored flowers which are conspicuous on the ends of the branches. This small tree is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains and is perfectly hardy in the Arboretum. The small, bright canary yellow flowers of M. cordata open almost at the same time. This Magnolia was sent from the United States to France more than a hundred years ago and is now only known in the descendants of the trees cultivated in France, all attempts to lind the wild trees in recent years having proved unsuccessful. This is a shapely, desirable and perfectly hardy ornamental tree. The leaves are dark rich green; the abundant flowers are of an unusual color for those of a Magnolia, and the second crop of flowers which these trees usually produce in summer adds to its value. The cultivated trees produce no seeds, and as it can only be propagated by grafting Magnolia cordata is rare in collections. Some of the most beautiful and interesting shrubs now in flower will be found among the Bush Honeysuckles. The decorative value of some of these can best be seen in the grass border by the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the Lilac Group, where several of these shrubs have been so planted that they have abundant space for full development and can show all their beauty of foliage, flowers and fruit. In the Shrub Collection there are a large number of these plants, and others can be found in the supplementary collection in the border on Linden Path in the rear of the group of Linden trees. In the Shrub Collection several interesting species are in flower or will soon be in flower. Attention is called to Lonicera syringantha and its variety Wolfii from western China, with purple fragrant flowers, and to L. tibetica. Two charming plants in this collection are L. anzoena and L. amoena Arnoldiana, the latter a product of the Arboretum. They are garden hybrids, with slender pink flowers, of the Tartarian Honeysuckle, with L. Korolkowii, a species of central Asia. Other Honeysuckles now in bloom which should be examined are L. bella, a large and vigorous hybrid of L. Morrowii with the Tartarian Honeysuckle, L. minutifiora, remarkable in the beauty of its brilliantly colored fruits, L. notha, a hybrid of the Tartarian Honeysuckle with L. Ruprechtiana of eastern Siberia, L. minutiflora from central Asia, and the slender and graceful L. coerulea graciliflora with its beautiful drooping flowers. Of the shrubs introduced by the Arboretum into New England gardens none is now more generally cultivated or has proved more valuable than L. Morrowii from northern Japan. This in cultivation here is a broad high bush with wide-spreading branches clinging close to the ground. The pale blue-green leaves are pleasant in tone, and the yellow flowers are produced in the greatest profusion. This remarkable shrub, which has been largely planted in several of the Boston parks, appears to grow here more vigorously than it does in its native country. On Azalea path the red-flowered Rhododendron (Azalea) Kaempferi is in flower. There are masses of this plant on both sides of the lower end of this path and between the Hemlocks and the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. The shade and coolness of this position suit this inhabitant of the high mountains of Japan, and it flowers later here than on Azalea Path and the flowers remain longer in good condition. These flowers, in front of the dark background of Hemlocks, make one of the most brilliant shows of the Arboretum season. The earliest of the American Rhododendrons to flower, R. carolinianum, is opening its flowers in the collection at the base of Hemlock Hill. This is a southern plant with handsome, very dark green leaves and small clusters of bright pink flowers. It grows at a considerable elevation on the Appalachian Mountains and although it was known in England and recognized as a distinct variety as early as 1810, it was afterwards confused with another southern species, R. punctatum and entirely lost sight of; and it is only recently that a comparison of the two plants in cultivation has shown the differences between them. It is perfectly hardy and a valuable garden plant. R. punctatum is a plant of lower altitudes with smaller leaves and flowers; it blooms several weeks later and is a less valuable plant. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 22","article_sequence":42,"start_page":165,"end_page":168,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23591","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad1608526.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 42 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 22. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 42. Hawthorns have been largely planted in the Arboretum and many of these interesting trees and shrubs are now in flower. The principal collections are between the boundary wall of the Arboretum and the Shrub Collection near the Forest Hills Gate, and on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill. The multiplication of the species of Hawthorn (Crataegus) in eastern North America is remarkable, and nowhere else beyond the tropics is there a genus of woody plants represented by so many distinct forms. Much attention has been given at the Arboretum in the last fourteen years to the collection, study and cultivation of these plants, and some three thousand lots of seeds of wild plants from different parts of the country have been planted. Among the seedlings raised are, of course, many duplicates, but between six and seven hundred species raised in the Arboretum are now established on Peter's Hill where plants of between fourteen and fifteen hundred of the seedling numbers have been planted in small square beds. Many of these plants are already flowering, and this collection promises to be in a few years one of the important features of the Arboretum both from an educational and an ornamental point of view. It will now repay examination. The American species of Crataegus fall into some twenty natural groups, and on Peter's Hill the species of the different groups are arranged together. In eastern North America Hawthorns are distributed from Nova Scotia and the valley of the St. Lawrence River to central Florida and western Texas. The number of species is greatest, perhaps, in the territory adjacent to Lake Ontario and the streams flowing into it. They are very numerous in the St. Lawrence Valley, in the lower peninsula of Michigan, in southern Missouri and Arkansas, and in the foothill region of the southern Appalachian Mountains. The genus is poorly represented in the Rocky Mountain region and reaches the northwest coast with a single species. Some species are found over thousands of square miles; others are very local. The American Hawthorns vary greatly in size; some species are trees which on the fertile bottom- lands of streams flowing into the lower Mississippi River are sometimes wide-branched and fifty or sixty feet tall, and others are shrubs often not more than two or three feet high. In the Arboretum some species begin to flower at the end of April or early in May and it is the middle of June before the flowers on some species open. No plants hardy in New England produce such abundant crops of beautiful fruits. The fruit of some species ripens in August and from August until November there is a succession of ripening fruits on some of the plants; and on some species the fruit remains in good condition during the entire winter. The species which flower the earliest belong to what is called the Mollis Group from one of its species. These are shapely and often large trees; they all have large flowers, large leaves and large, brilliantly colored and often edible, usually scarlet fruits. Examples of this group are Crataegus Arnoldiana, first found grow-' ing wild in the Arboretum, and C. arkansana from northern Arkansas; both of these trees can be seen in the group near the Forest Hills Gate, and C. Arnoldiana has been largely planted in different parts of the Arboretum. Of C. arkansana there is a large specimen on the J. left-hand side of the South Street entrance. The fruit of the first ripens in August, that of the latter in October. One of the most interesting of the natural groups for the decoration of gardens and shrubbery borders is the Intricatae. The plants of this group are nearly all small, late-flowering shrubs, although the group contains a few small trees from the southern Appalachian region. These little shrubs produce very large flowers usually in few-flowered clusters; their fruit is often showy and their leaves turn brilliantly in the autumn. The largest number of the species of the Intricatae have been found in Pennsylvania and Michigan; they occur also in western New England, in New York and Ontario, but are extremely rare in all the region west of the Mississippi River. The plants of this group are arranged together on the lower side of the road at the eastern base of Peter's Hill and will soon be in bloom. In the old collection, near the Forest Hills Gate, several other groups are well represented by flowering and fruiting plants; the Crus-galli by C. fecunda, a large wide-spreading tree from the neighborhood of St. Louis; the Dilatatae by C. coceinioides from the same region, well distinguished by its very compact clusters of large flowers; the Virides by C. nitida from the bottom-lands of the Missouri River in Illinois, opposite St. Louis, a handsome, flat-topped tree with wide-spreading branches; the Pruinosae by the type of the group, C. pruinosa, a widely distributed eastern tree and one of the most beautiful of the genus both in its flowers and fruits; the Flavae, a group confined to the southeastern states, by C. aprica from the neighborhood of Ashville, North Carolina; and the Tomentosae by several forms of C. tomentosa, by the beautiful C. succulenta with its drooping clusters of brilliant fruits, and by C. prunifolia, a plant which, although it has been cultivated in England for more than a century, has not yet been found growing wild. On the south slope of the Overlook on Bussey Hill there is a group of several plants of C. punctata. This is a large, wide-branched, flattopped tree and one of the commonest and most widely distributed of American Thorns, growing from the St. Lawrence Valley to North Carolina and to Illinois. This species is interesting because some individuals bear red and others bright yellow fruit. Species of Crataegus are few in western Europe and in all of Asia, but there are a number of handsome species in southeastern Europe, Asia Minor and the Caucasus. Nearly all the Old World species and many of their varieties are now growing more or less well in the Arboretum and can be seen both in the old collection and on Peter's Hill. Among the exotic species none is more beautiful here than Crataegus pinnatifida from northern China and Manchuria. This is a plant with large and very deeply divided lustrous leaves. Growing wild it is a medium-sized shrub with comparatively small fruits, but it has been long cultivated in orchards in northern China as a fruit tree, and by cultivation it has been developed into a tree with large and edible fruits. Many of the North American Hawthorns grow naturally in limestone soil, but in cultivation they thrive in all soils, grow rapidly, and many of the species begin to flower when very small. They suffer, like many other plants of the Rose Family, from the attacks of the San Jose scale, and the leaves are often disfigured or killed by the larvae of a leaf-mining insect which causes them to turn brown in early summer. These, however, are pests which can be controlled, and the American Hawthorns, the existence of many of which was not even suspected a dozen years ago, seem destined to play an important part in the decoration of American and European parks and gardens. Another North American genus of the Rose Family, Aronia, sometimes considered a section of the genus Pyrus, also contains plants valuable for the garden and the shrubbery. There are three species, all widely distributed in the eastern part of the country, A. melanocarpa, A. atropurpurea and A. arbutifolia; they all have small white flowers in erect compound clusters, showy fruits and handsome foliage. The typical A. melanocarpa is a shrub 12 or 18 inches high with stems spreading into a broad mat. There is a form of this species (var. elata), however, which is much more common and grows into a tall, broad shrub from 6 to 10 ft. tall, and another form (var. grandifolia) with broader leaves, also a tall shrub. The fruit of these species is black and lustrous, and drooping on long stems remains on the plant until the beginning of winter. Aronia atropurpurea is also a tall erect shrub, in general habit and foliage like the var. elata of the first species. The fruit, however, is dark vinous red and ripens and*f alls earlier. The leaves of these two species turn orange and red in the autumn before falling. Aronia arbutifolia is a tall, slender and more irregular growing plant with later flowers, smaller leaves and erect clusters of smaller bright scarlet fruits which remain on the plants without change of color well into the winter. The brilliant fruit and the bright scarlet of the autumn leaves make this late in the season one of the most beautiful of the native shrubs. All the forms of Aronia take kindly to cultivation and are now in flower in the Shrub Collection. They have also been largely planted in the shrubberies along the Arboretum roads. The Highbush Blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, has never flowered more abundantly in the Arboretum than this year, and it is desirable to call attention again to this wonderful plant which is beautiful in its flowers, its abundant edible blue fruits, and in the splendid scarlet of its autumn leaves. The Highbush Blueberry, which grows naturally along the moist borders of swamps and other low places where it occasionally reaches the height of twelve or fifteen feet, is easily cultivated and grows freely in good garden soil. On the plants in the Arboretum, where they have been largely planted, the flowers differ considerably in size and in the time of opening. They vary, too, in the size and quality of the fruit, but all the forms are equally valuable as garden ornaments. For its fruit, which is the best of all Blueberry fruits, for the beauty of its flowers and its autumn leaves, this shrub cannot be too often planted. There are several plants on each side of Azalea Path near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road, and the Highbush Blueberry can be seen now in full flower in many of the roadside plantations. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":43,"start_page":169,"end_page":172,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23592","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad1608927.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 43 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. MAY 29, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 43. For the decoration of northern gardens there are no more beautiful or desirable shrubs than the Azaleas of eastern North America. There are seven species of these plants and they are now all called Rhododendrons by botanists, and in the Arboretum all Azaleas are labeled Rhododendrons. The first species to bloom, R. Vaseyi, begins to flower the beginning of May and the flowers of the last, R. viscosum, can be found here as late as the middle of July, so that the Azalea season is a long one. R. Vaseyi is a tall shrub, with slender stems and an open irregular habit. In its home in the sheltered valleys of the Blue Ridge in South Carolina it sometimes grows to the height of from fifteen to eighteen feet. The flowers are produced before the leaves appear in small compact clusters and are pure pink in color, but occasionally plants are found with nearly white flowers. Although this plant was not discovered until comparatively a few years ago, it has been much planted in gardens near Boston and it is fast becoming here one of the most popular of the early-flowering spring shrubs. With R. Vaseyi the Rhodora (R. canadense) flowers. This well known dwarf shrub often covers, especially in the north, large areas of moist or swampy land with a sheet of bloom. The small flowers, however, are of a rather unattractive rose-purple color, and the fame of the Rhodora is perhaps due more to Emerson's poem than to its intrinsic beauty. Naturally the Rhodora grows from Newfoundland to Pennsylvania and New Jersey. The next to bloom are the two pink-flowered species, R. canescens and R. nudiflorum ; the former is a northern and the latter a more southern plant and is especially common in the Gulf States from Florida to eastern Texas. The flowers of these plants open before or with the unfolding of the leaves and in early spring fill the woods with beauty and fragrance. Both species can now be seen in flower on Azalea Path, and there is a large mass of Azalea canescens on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Linden Group. The Flame-colored Azalea, R. calendulaceum, is the next species to flower and is already beginning to open its orange, yellow, or reddish flowers which are not fragrant. This shrub is an inhabitant of the Appalachian Mountain region from southern New York to Georgia, and is extremely abundant on the lower slopes of the high mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. In flower it is the most showy of our Azaleas and one of the most beautiful of all flowering shrubs. A large mass of this Azalea has been planted on the slope below Azalea Path and occasional large specimens can be seen in the border plantations along some of the roads. The next species to flower, R. arborescens, is also a native of the Appalachian Mountains on which it grows from Pennsylvania to Georgia and where in sheltered valleys it sometimes attains the height of fifteen feet or more. The flowers, which appear after the leaves are nearly fully grown, are white or faintly tinged with rose color and are made conspicuous by the long bright red filaments of the stamens. The flowers are very fragrant and the young leaves have the odor of new mown grass. Less showy in flower than the Flame-colored Azalea it is one of the most beautiful of all hardy Azaleas. The last species to flower, the Clammy Azalea or Swamp Honeysuckle, is a common inhabitant of the swamps of the eastern states, especially of those in the neighborhood of the coast. The rather small flowers are pure white and covered with clammy hairs, and the leaves are often of a pale bluish color, especially on their lower surface. This plant is valuable for the lateness of its flowers which do not open until the flowers of most hardy shrubs have passed, and for their fragrance. These shrubs are all perfectly hardy in eastern Massachusetts and flourish in all exposures and in good garden soil, although like all Rhododendrons they cannot be made to live in soil strongly impregnated with lime. They are not often cultivated because it is not easy to find these plants in nurseries, for few nurserymen, especially in the United States, care to take the trouble to raise such plants from seeds, the only satisfactory way in which they can be propagated. In beauty, constitution and hardiness they are superior to the so-called Ghent Azaleas which are hybrids between the species from the Caucasus, which is not hardy here, and some of the American species. The Ghent Azaleas are favorites with European nurserymen who propagate them by grafting and they are imported in large numbers into this country. Here they grow slowly; many of the varieties are not at all hardy and others are liable to lose large branches in severe winters. The American species are better garden plants here, too, than the yellow-flowered Asiatic species, R. japonicum, usually called Azalea mollis in gardens, a common Japanese and Korean plant, and the Chinese R. sinense or the hybrids of these two species. Azalea mollis is hardy and free-flowering but the plants are short-lived in this country. The little known R. sinense with its beautiful yellow flowers is hardy but the flower-buds have usually been killed in each of the two or three winters this plant has been exposed here in the open ground. The Japanese and Chinese Viburnum tomentosum is now in flower. This is a large shrub with wide-spreading horizontal branches along the upper side of which the flat flower-clusters are thickly placed and are surrounded by a ring of pure white sterile or ray flowers which make the conspicuous part of the inflorescence. The flowers are followed in the late autumn by brilliant fruits which, scarlet at first. become black when fully ripe. The leaves turn orange and scarlet in the autumn. There is an interesting narrow-leaved form of this plant (var. lanceolatum), discovered in Japan by Professor Sargent, now flowering in the Arboretum. There are also two \"Snowball\" forms of this plant developed in Japanese gardens and much cultivated here and in Europe under the name of Viburnum plicatum. The correct name of the more common of these two plants is V. tomentosum, var. dilatatum. This is the Japanese Snowball usually cultivated in this country and it will not be in its best condition for another week or ten days. The other form (V. tomentosum, var. dilatatum, f. rotundifolium), which appears to be a dwarfer plant, has been in flower for the last ten days. These forms of Viburnum can be seen growing together in the large collection of Viburnums recently arranged on Bussey Hill Road just before it turns into the Valley Road near the Centre Street Gate. Viburnum tomentosum and the Corean V. Carlesii are ornamental plants of great beauty and value but, with the exception of these two plants, none of the eastern Asiatic species compare in value as decorative plants with the Viburnums of North America. To these much of the late spring and early summer beauty of the Arboretum shrubberies is due, and the successful cultivation here of these plants is at last making their value known and appreciated. Thirty years ago it was practically impossible to buy an American Viburnum in any nursery, but now several of the species are largely propagated in many North American nurseries and have been used in considerable quantities in many American parks. About a dozen of the American Viburnums are thoroughly established in the Arboretum, the different species flowering through period a of two months. The earliest to flower and the most difficult to establish here satisfactorily, V. alnifolium, often called V. lantanoides, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood of northern woods, has been out of flower for several weeks and now the only species in flower is the Black Haw, V. prunifolium. This is a small shapely tree of the Middle States where it is often extremely common. The flowers are in convex clusters and are followed by sweet blue-black fruits. These and the leaves, which late in the season turn deep wine color, make this a particularly attractive plant in the autumn. Several other species will be in flower in a few days and will be mentioned in later issues of these bulletins. Three species of Enkianthus, an Asiatic genus of the Heath Family, are unusually full of flowers and flower-buds this year. The largest of the Japanese species, E. campanulatus, is now in flower and the flowers of the other species will open in a few days. E. campanulatus is a tall shrub with bell-shaped flowers hanging gracefully in long clusters which are partly hidden by the leaves. There are two forms in the collection, one with pale yellow flowers striped with red, and the other with rather smaller red flowers. The leaves of all these plants turn brilliant scarlet in the autumn and for its autumn colors E. campanulatus is much cultivated in Japanese gardens. The three species are in the Shrub Collection, and there is a large group of them on the lower side of Azalea Path where E. campanulatus can now be seen in its greatest spring beauty. Of Chinese plants flowering here for the first time attention is called to Lonicera Koehneana, a large hardy and vigorous shrub with dark red-purple branchlets, thick yellow-green leaves with conspicuous veins and pale yellow flowers slightly tinged with red on the outer surface of the corolla, and to Neillia sinensis, an interesting plant related to the Spiraeas. The former is in the bed of Chinese shrubs on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, in which a number of the new Cotoneasters are also in flower, and the Neillia is on Hickory Path near Centre Street. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":44,"start_page":173,"end_page":176,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23588","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160b76e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 44 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 5, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 44. At no other time in the year is the Arboretum more interesting and attractive than in the early days of June. The leaves of many trees have now grown to their full size; those of others are still in their vernal stages. The conifers are now covered with the tender green of their new shoots and are more beautiful than at any other time of the year. The Rhododendrons are fast opening their flowers and these will soon be followed by those of the Laurel (Kalmia); many Azaleas are blooming, and the flowers of Viburnums, Cornels, and other native shrubs add to the beauty of the plantations. 4 One of these native shrubs or small trees, Viburnum Lentago, sometimes known as the Nannyberry, is now very conspicuous in many parts of the Arboretum. Few more beautiful shrubs than this common inhabitant of the roadside and the wood-border of New England can be found in any part of the world. It is a shrub or small tree sometimes twenty feet high with a broad round head. The leaves are large, thick and lustrous, and in the autumn assume delicate shades of red and orange; the flowers are creamy white and are borne in large and abundant convex clusters, and the large blue-black fruits hang on drooping stems and do not disappear from the branches until the beginning of winter. In the first week of June the Arboretum owes much to this plant. Another arborescent Viburnum, V. rufidulum, from the southern states is a plant of much beauty; it is the largest of the American species and sometimes grows in Louisiana and Arkansas into a shapely tree thirty or forty feet high with a tall stem and spreading branches. The flower-clusters are usually smaller than those of V. Lentago, but the leaves are larger and much more lustrous, and no other Viburnum has such handsome foliage. It is distinguished by the rusty red felt which covers the winter-buds and the edges of the leaf-stalks, and is found on the lower surface of the leaves. The plants of this Viburnum in the Arboretum are still small; the best one is on Hickory Path near Centre Street and is now in flower. One of the handsomest American Viburnums, V. pubescens, is also in flower. This is a tall shrub with small pointed leaves and small nearly flat clusters of white flowers, which are produced in such abundance that they almost entirely cover the plant. This Viburnum grows naturally on limestone soil although limestone is not essential to it and is therefore valuable in a large part of the country where limestone pre= vents the cultivation of many plants like Rhododendrons, Azaleas, and bther members of the Heath Family. There is a large mass of V. pubescens on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. Just above these there is a group of Viburnum acerifolium, another northern shrub sometimes called Arrow-wood, a common inhabitant of the eastern part of the continent. It is a small shrub with leaves which resemble those of some Maples, small clusters of white flowers raised on long stems, and black fruits. This plant is valuable as an undershrub for it grows well in comparatively dense shade. A plant of Viburnum bracteatum, on Hickory Path near Centre Street, will soon be in flower. This is the rarest of American Viburnums, being known to grow naturally only on the cliffs of the Coosa River near Rome, Georgia, where it is a tall shrub with numerous slender stems. With it on Hemlock Path is a plant of the form of Viburnum pubescens from southern Missouri and Arkansas which has sometimes been called V. affine. Another exceedingly rare species, V. molle, from southern Kentucky and southern Missouri, with large, nearly round thick leaves on long stems, will also soon be in flower. It is in the general Viburnum Group on the Bussey Hill Road near its junction with the Valley Road and near the Centre Street entrance. Viburnum americanum is one of the species with palmately lobed leaves, flat flower-clusters surrounded by a ring of showy white ray flowers, and red fruits; it is a tall broad shrub common in northern woods and particularly ornamental late in the autumn when the leaves turn yellow and orange color and the brilliant translucent fruits, which sometimes remain on the plants through the winter, are very conspicuous. There are two other species of this particular group now in flower, V. Opulus and V. Sargentii. The former is a native of northern Europe and Siberia; the flower-clusters are smaller than those of the American species but it is a larger and handsomer shrub with thicker and darker green leaves which fall later in the autumn, and rather larger, darker colored fruit. There is a variety of this plant with yellow fruit (var. xanthocarpum); another variety is a low, dense little bush (var. nanum) which very seldom flowers. The old-fashioned Snowball or Guelder Rose is a variety of V. Opulus with all the flowers sterile. V. Sargentii is a common shrub in northeastern Asia and when it is in flower it is the handsomest of these three species, for the ray flowers are larger than those of the American or the European plant. The dark green leaves with the long, narrow terminal lobes are interesting, but the fruit of this plant is comparatively small, dull-colored, and much less attractive than that of the other species. A little later Viburnum cassinoides will be in flower. To many persons this tall shrub of northern swamps and swamp borders is considered the handsomest of the American Viburnums. In cultivation it is a rather low, broad plant. The leaves, which vary greatly in shape and size on different individuals, are thick and dark green; the flowers are creamy white and are arranged in large or small convex clusters and are followed by drooping fruits which, when fully grown, at first green, gradually turn flesh color or pink and finally dark blue, and are covered with a glaucous bloom, the fruit of the different colors sometimes appearing together in the same cluster. This plant takes kindly to cultivation and has been largely planted in the roadside shrubberies. Among the individuals in the large group of this species In the general Viburnum Group on Bussey Hill Road can be seen its leaf variations. The southern relative of V. cassinoides, V. nudum, has never become established in the Arboretum, although as it grows at high altitudes on the Appalachian Mountains it should prove hardy in New England. Three blue-fruited American Viburnums, V. dentaturn, V. venosum and V. Canbyi, will not be in bloom for some time, the latest of them, V. Canbyi, carrying the flowering of these plants to midsummer, so that the flowers of American Viburnums can be seen in the Arboretum from the middle of May to the middle of July. One of the latest of the Bush Honeysuckles, Lonicera Maackii, is in flower in the Shrub Collection. This is a tall, narrow plant with dark green leaves. The flowers are white and larger than those of any of the Bush Honeysuckles, and are very handsome. The small bright red fruit remains on the branches until the beginning of winter and long after the leaves have fallen. This shrub, which comes from the region of the Amoor river, in eastern Siberia. is perfectly hardy and an exceedingly valuable decorative plant which well deserves a place in all collections of hardy shrubs. The variety of this species, (var. podocarpa) from western China flowers a few days later than the northern plant; the flowers are smaller and less beautiful, but the fruits are larger, and, ripening before the leaves lose their summer green, make the plant attractive in the late autumn. Some species of Mock Orange (Philadelphus) are already flowering. The earliest to bloom in the collection is P. Schrenkii var. Jackii, a plant discovered by Mr. Jack in Korea a few years ago. It is a hardy shrub with erect stems and rather small flowers. P. hirsutus from the southern Appalachian region and P. tenuiflorus from eastern Siberia are also in bloom. There is a large collection of species, varieties and hybrids of Philadelphus in the Arboretum. They are planted in the Shrub Collection and in a supplementary collection forming a large group on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilac Group. Many useful hardy shrubs with beautiful flowers are found among these plants which will be in bloom now for several weeks and will repay careful study by persons interested in such plants. In great beauty now are Aesculus carnea Briotii and A. georgiana in the Horsechestnut Group; Lonicera Korolkovii and its hybrids and varieties in the Shrub Collection; the lovely blue and white flowered Sophora viciifolia on Hickory Path near Centre Street; the two new Chinese Cotoneasters in the Chinese Shrub Collection on the south side of Bussey Hill, C. hupehensis, C. divaricata and Syringa villosa, S. Julianae, and the hybrid S. Lutece in the Lilac Group. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 12","article_sequence":45,"start_page":177,"end_page":180,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23585","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160ab6a.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 45 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 12, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 45. The evergreen Rhododendrons in the Arboretum have never bloomed more fully than they have this year and the clusters of flowers and the individual flowers have never been larger. The flowers of some of the early flowering species and varieties have already passed, but those of many of the most important plants are still in good condition and others are still to open. The hardiest in this climate of all the large-flowered Rhododendrons is R. catawbiense, an inhabitant of the upper slopes of the highest of the Appalachian peaks on which it grows in great quantities at altitudes between five and six thousand feet. It is a wide, low, roundtopped, compact shrub with broad, dark green leaves and rose-purple flowers of a rather disagreeable color. There are a number of plants of this Rhododendron brought from North Carolina now in flower in the collection. This species is one parent of the race of hybrid Rhododendrons which are usually cultivated in northern gardens and practically the only evergreen Rhododendrons found in those of the northeastern United States, with the exception of another species of the eastern states, R. maximum. This race of hybrids has been made by crossing R. catawbiense with some of the species from the Himalayas, chiefly probably with R. arboreum, with R. maximum, and in the early days of Rhododendron cultivation in England with the Caucasian R. ponticum. These catawbiense hybrids, as they are called, are hardy and valuable in this country in proportion to the influence on them of R. catawbiense. Rhododendron maximum, which grows naturally as far north as New England, is of course perfectly hardy; it has long and very handsome leaves, and the pale pink or pink and white flowers are beautiful in color, but they open so late that the flower-clusters are much hidden by the young branches which have grown from buds below the flowerbud before the flowers open, while in R. catawbiense and its hybrids these branches do not begin to grow until after the flowers have faded. Several hybrids between R. maximum and R. catawbiense are in cultivation. One of these, known as R. delicatissimum, is one of the hardiest and most beautiful of all Rhododendrons which can be successfully cultivated in this climate. As a rule hybrids of hardy plants are as hardy as their parents, but this is not always true of R. eatawbiense- maximum hybrids, for some of these, like R. wellesleyanum and several raised in the neighborhood of Boston, are not very hardy, a fact due no doubt to some tender strain in the Catawbiense parent, itself a hybrid. Two other species of the southern Appalachian region are also hardy here, R. carolinianum and R. minus, or, as it has been more generally called, R. punctatum. These are small shrubs with small dotted leaves and small clusters of pink flowers. The differences between these two plants have only recently been understood. R. carolinianum is an inhabitant of high altitudes, with handsome dark green leaves, and flowers which open and fade before the young branches begin to grow, and therefore are not hidden by them. This is perhaps the handsomest of all the dwarf Rhododendrons which can be successfully grown here; it has been out of bloom for several weeks. R. minus is a plant of lower altitudes, with smaller leaves and flowers and more open habit, and the small flower-clusters are much hidden, like those of R. maximum, by the young branches which rise high above them. A few other species are hardy in this climate. The most distinct and the handsomest of these is R. Smirnovii from the Caucasus. This is a large plant with dark green leaves covered below with a thiek mat of nearly white felt, and large clusters of large bright pink flowers. This plant is perfectly hardy but it grows best in partial shade as our hot sun causes the leaves to curl in summer. If the right position can be found for it, however, this is one of the most beautiful of the evergreen Rhododendrons which can be grown successfully in eastern Massachusetts. Hybrids of this plant with some of the Catawbiense hybrids are hardy and interesting plants. R. micranthum is another species which proves to be hardy here. It is a plant widely distributed from northern to western China and in its native country sometimes grows from six to eight feet high. The small leaves and small compact clusters of small white flowers look like those of a Ledum. There are a number of plants of this Rhododendron in flower at the base of Hemlock Hill and there are others on Azalea Path. The two dwarf Rhododendrons from the mountains of central Europe, R. ferrugineum and R. hirsuteim, are in the collection and the latter is now in flower. These plants, however, are not very satisfactory in this climate, and unless exceptionally good positions can be found for them they are not long-lived here. Two hybrids, however, in which these European Rhododendrons have played their part are valuable garden plants in this climate. The first of these, R. myrtifolium, is a hybrid between R. hirsutum and R. minus, and is a very compact, round-topped shrub, sometimes growing to the height of four feet, with small flowers of a good shade of pink. The great value of this plant is in its compact habit and handsome foliage. The second of these hybrids, R. arbutifolium, is the result of a cross between R. ferrugineum and R. minus. This is a plant with a more open habit than R. myrtifolium and soon spreads into a wide low mass of handsome foliage; the flowers are small and of an unattractive rose color, and the value of the plant is found in its ability to cover either sunny or shady banks and for this it is admirably adapted. This plant is usually found in nurseries under the name of R. Wilsonii, a name, however, which properly belongs to another hybrid between two Himalayan species. Persons who study the Arboretum Rhododendrons with a view of establishing collections of these plants must remember that the position of the Arboretum collection on the northern and northeastern sides of a thick wood of conifers is an exceptionally favorable one for these plants, and that many of the Catawbiense hybrids now flowering in the Arboretum cannot be depended on in less favorable positions. The number of these hybrids which are really hardy in all situations in Massachusetts is not large. Some of them which have grown in eastern Massachusetts for many years and have proved perfectly hardy here, even in exposed positions, are among the red-flowered varieties, Atrosanguineum (very early), Charles Dickens and H. W. Sargent (late); among the pink-flowered varieties, Mrs C. S. Sargent and Henrietta Sargent, similar in general appearance but the latter with smaller and more compact flower-clusters and flowers of a less perfect pink; among the rose-colored varieties, Roseum elegans and Lady Armstrong; among the dark purple-flowered varieties, Purpureum grandiflorum, Purpureum elegans, and King of the Purples; among the light purples, Everestianum, one of the hardiest of these hybrids; among the whites, Catawbiense album (early), Album elegans and Album grandiflorum (both slightly tinged with blush); and among the whites tinged with pink Delicatissimum (very late). The Chinese Chionanthus retusa, although by no means a new plant, is flowering now for the first time in the Arboretum. It is related to the eastern American Fringe-tree or Old Man's Beard (C. virginica), when in flower one of the most beautiful of the small trees or shrubs of eastern North America where it grows from New Jersey and Missouri to Florida and Texas. This plant with its long drooping clusters of flowers with their long narrow white petals is a familiar object in most old gardens in this country, where it is always an object of interest. As an ornamental plant the Chinese species is much less attractive than its American relative; the leaves, although darker green, are smaller, and the flowers, which are produced in short, nearly erect clusters, are much smaller with shorter petals. Except as another instance of the close relationship between the floras of eastern North America and eastern Asia the Chinese Chionanthus is of comparatively little interest. The two species are growing on the Bussey Hill Road just above the Lilac Group and there are plants of them both on Azalea Path. Two Andromeda-like plants are now in good condition, Leucothoe Catesbaei and Lyonia mariana. The former is an evergreen with long spreading and arching stems clothed with handsome long-pointed leaves, and small clusters of axillary white flowers; it is a native of the southern Appalachian region and one of the hardiest and most desirable of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. For the development of its greatest beauty, however, it needs rather moist soil and a shady position. It has been planted in large numbers along the brook and in the small ravine at the base of Hemlock Hill and is now flowering freely. Lyonia mariana is a smaller shrub with deciduous leaves and larger, white, racemose flowers borne on leafless shoots. This plant is common in the eastern states from Rhode Island southward, and in cultivation is not particular about soil or situation. There is a large mass of it now in full flower on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Horsecheatnut Group; and these two species are in the Shrub Collection. In the Philadelphus Groups many plants are beginning to flower every week. P. coronaria, the, Mock Orange of old-fashioned gardens, with its small, creamy white fragrant flowers, is already in bloom and near it in the Shrub Collection P. Falconeri is covered with its delicate white blossoms. The origin and the native country of this graceful shrub are still unknown. Of all the gifts which science has made to gardens few are more beautiful and valuable than the race of hybrid Philadelphus known generally as P. Lemoinei. There are a large number of these hybrids in the collection and they will bloom in succession during several weeks. The earliest this year are called Boule d'Argent and Manteau d'Hermine. The value of these wonderful little plants is now recognized in many nurseries, and there is no longer any reason why they should not find their way into every northern garden. The Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) are beginning to expand their flowerbuds and in a few days will be in their best condition. With the fading of these flowers will pass the last of the great floral displays of the Arboretum year. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 20","article_sequence":46,"start_page":181,"end_page":184,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23586","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160af6b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 46 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. JUNE 20. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 46. No other North American tree is so familiar to the people of so many different parts of the world as the False Acacia or Yellow Locust of the Appalachian Mountain forests, Robinia pseudacacia, and it is now naturalized in many regions far removed from its native home. No other exotic tree has been so generally planted in northern and central Europe since its introduction into the garden of the Paris Museum in 1636 by the King's gardener Robin, whose labors it commemorates ; and no other American tree has given rise to such a voluminous literature. The cheerful light green foliage and hanging clusters of fragrant white flowers are known to everyone who has ever looked at trees. The value of the timber which it produces, the rapidity of its growth, its power to adapt itself to different soils and to reproduce itself rapidly by seeds which germinate readily and by stump and root shoots, would make it a most valuable subject for forest and coppice planting in this country if it could be protected from insects, but the value of the Locust is practically destroyed in nearly all parts of the United States beyond the mountain forests which are its home by the borers which riddle the trunk and branches. Owing to the difficulty of keeping the Locust in a presentable condition here no serious effort has ever been made to bring together the interesting varieties or \"sports\" of this tree which have appeared from time to time in European gardens and are largely planted in European collections of trees. At least thirty of these varieties are now known; the one most often seen in Germany, especially in suburban gardens, is the so-called Parasol Acacia (var. umbraculifera). The short branches of this plant form a compact spherical head which is usually grafted on a tall stem of the common Robinis, as in this country a dwarf form of the Catalpa is made into a \"standard\" by grafting it on a tall stem of the tree form. The only abnormal form of the Robinia thoroughly established in the Arboretum is one of the most remarkable of them all; var. monophylla, in which the leaves are reduced to a single broad leaflet. The two pink-flowered arborescent Robinias, R. viscosa and R. neomexicana, are also subject to attacks by the borer. R. viscosa, the Clammy Locust, is not yet in flower but its near relative, the Rocky Mountain species, R. neo-mexicana, is now covered with its short clusters of pale rose-colored flowers. More beautiful perhaps than either of these trees is a hybrid of the Rocky Mountain species with R. pseudaeacia, R. Holdtii, named for the Colorado nurseryman in whose establishment it appeared a few years ago. This tree is very hardy; it appears to suffer less than its parents from borers, it grows rapidly and plants only a few feet high cover themselves with pale pink flowers. This tree, which is not yet often seen in eastern collections, is an interesting and valuable addition to the rather short list of trees which flower here in early summer. The Robinias are planted with the other trees of the Pea Family on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the piece of natural woods. The latest of the American Magnolias are now in flower, M. macrophylla and M. glauca. The former is a medium-sized tree with widespreading branches and is distinguished by the fact that of all trees which grow beyond the tropics it has the largest leaves and the largest flowers. The leaves of this remarkable tree are silvery white on the lower surface, from twenty to thirty inches long and from eight to nine inches wide, and the cup-shaped creamy white fragrant flowers are sometimes a foot in diameter. Although an inhabitant of the south, M. macrophylla is perfectly hardy in New England, but unless it is planted in sheltered positions the trees often become disfigured by the wind which tears the large delicate leaves. Less showy M. glauca is a more valuable plant for general cultivation. Often a large tree in the extreme south, at the north M. glauca is never more than a small tree, or more often a large shrub. The leaves are dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white on the lower burface ; the small, cup-shaped flowers are creamy white and delightfully fragrant, and they continue to open in succession from the middle of June until August. In all North America there is not a more delightful shrub to plant in the garden, or one that will give larger returns in beauty and fragrance; and yet it is difficult to find it in American nurseries, and it is unknown to most American planters of this generation A hybrid, M. Thompsoniana, between M. glauca and M. tripetala, another American species, is a handsome plant with the general appearance of M. glauca but with larger leaves and larger, equally fragrant flowers. This plant is with the American Magnolias on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain Gate and is now in flower. Unfortunately it is much less hardy than either of its parents. On Hickory Path near Centre Street there is a group of large plants of Styrax japonica now covered with their pure white cup-shaped flowers hanging gracefully down from the branches on long slender stems; this is one of the handsome flowering shrubs of Japan, but unless a sheltered position can be provided for it, it is not perfectly hardy in the neighborhood of Boston. That it is perfectly at home, where it is now planted in the Arboretum, is shown by the great crops of seedlings which spring up every year under the old plants. Near this group of Styrax japonica are two species of Indigofera, \/. Kirilowii and \/. amblyantha, now in flower. The former is a native of Korea and is a low leafy plant which spreads into a broad mass and continues to produce its racemes of large pure pink flowers during several weeks. It was introduced a few. years ago into the Arboretum by Mr. Jack, and is an exceedingly valuable garden plant. There is a specimen also of this species in the Shrub Collection. \/. amblyantha is of entirely different habit, with slender erect stems, small leaves, and erect axillary clusters of small rose-colored flowers which continue to appear during two or three months. An inhabitant of river cliffs in Hupeh at altitudes up to six thousand feet, it sometimes grows there to the height of six feet. This plant flowered in the Arboretum last year for the first time. It appears to be perfectly hardy, and it is one of the most beautiful of the small shrubs introduced by Wilson from western China. Two other species of this genus are established on Azalea Path near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road, 1. Gerardiana, a native of the Himalayas, and I. decora from southern China. These two plants, although they are killed back to the ground every winter, send up new stems and flower profusely every year. I. decora with its large white flowers is a beautiful little plant well worth knowing; it is just coming into bloom. In the Shrub Collection one of the Roses discovered by Wilson on the mountains of Hupeh, Rosa setipoda, is now in flower; it is a large vigorous shrub with broad, many-flowered clusters of long-stalked, dark pink flowers. This Rose proves to be very hardy and promises to be a decorative plant of much value. Attention is called to another Chinese plant, Spiraea Henryi, now flowering in the Shrub Collection and perhaps the handsomest of recent additions to the large number of Spiraeas now cultivated in gardens. S. Henryi is a tall, hardy, vigorous shrub with wide-spreading arching branches which on the upper side are covered with large flat clusters of white flowers. Among the Chinese shrubs in the collection of these plants on the south side of Bussey Hill Hydrangea xanthoneura and its varieties are in flower; these with H. Bretschneideri from northern China are the earliest to flower of all the Hydrangeas which are hardy in this climate. In the Shrub Collection two of the latest of the Bush Honeysuckles are in flower and are beautiful now and later in the season when the fruit is ripe. These plants are Lonicera Ledebourii from the Pacific coast region and L. invohicrata, var. serotina from the mountains of the interior of the continent. The long slender flowers of these two plants are bright yellow more or less tinged with red, and they are surrounded by large, leaf-like dark red cups which remain under the large, black, lustrous fruit. This particular group of Honeysuckles contains some of the hardiest and most beautiful garden shrubs which have been brought into the Arboretum from western North America, a region which has produced few plants which are hardy in this climate. One of the decorative objects in the Shrub Collection is the large plant of Halimodendron argenteum, called Salt-tree because it inhabits the saline steppes near the river Irtish in Siberia. The pale rose-colored, pea-shaped, fragrant flowers, which are produced in great abundance, are borne in short clusters, and their delicate beauty is heightened by the color of the leaves which are covered with a pale silky down. The plant remains in flower during several weeks. Among vines of recent introduction Periploca sepium, a native of Korea, is worth consideration. This is a plant with slender stems, small pointed dark green and very lustrous leaves, and axillary clusters of long-stalked flowers in which the strongly reflexed, dark brown sepals are the conspicuous feature. It can now be seen, covered with flowers, on the eastern side of the Shrub Collection. The Himalayan Lilac, Syringa Emodi, or as it is sometimes considered a variety of the Chinese S. villosa, is now covered with flowers. This is not an occurrence of every year for this species is not perfectly hardy and the ends of the branches and the flower-buds are often killed in severe winters. It is a large, broad shrub with large leaves light yellow green above and silvery gray and covered with soft white hairs below, and long narrow clusters of small white fragrant flowers. It is the last of the true Lilacs to bloom and from all other Lilacs it differs in its light yellow foliage. Conspicuous plants now in flower in the roadside plantations are the North American Viburnum dentatum and V. cassinoides and the Japanese V. dilatatum, a species with very large, slightly convex clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed in the autumn by small bright red fruits. Other conspicuous plants are the North American Cornus rugosa and C. racemosa, the European C. alba, and two native Roses Rosa lucida and R. humilis. The flame-colored Rhodendron (Azalea) calendulaceum now makes a brilliant show, and the Laurels (Kalmia) are in full bloom. The Laurels can most easily be reached from the South Street or from the Walter Street entrances, and should be visited within a few days."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 26","article_sequence":47,"start_page":185,"end_page":188,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23587","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160b36d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 47 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN I OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 26, 19133 BULLETIN NO. 47. It is generally believed that the disease which is now destroying the American Chestnut-tree and the European Chestnuts planted in this country will not attack the Asiatic species. If these trees are really immune they will probably be of much economic importance in the United States. The Japanese Chestnut-tree (Castanea crenata) is a common inhabitant of the mountain forests of the central and northern parts of the empire. The Japanese have paid much attention to improving it as a fruit tree and very large chestnuts are sold in the markets of Kobe and Osaka, and are sometimes imported into San Francisco; and nearly as large nuts are raised in great quantities in the neighborhood of the northern city of Awomori. Several of these improved forms of the Japanese Chestnut have long been cultivated in the United States; the tree is hardy in the Arboretum but it does not grow particularly well in eastern Massachusetts, and the climate of the middle states appears better to agree with it. Unless the ravages of the chestnut disease can be checked, it is to China that we must turn for a tree to replace the native Chestnut in New England. Fortunately the common Chestnut of northern and central China (C. mollissima) is a tree of good promise here. Raised in the Arboretum from nuts found in Peking by Professor Sargent in 1903 the plants have grown without any check or injury and are now forming tall straight stems and narrow heads. They flowered and produced a few fruits last year and they are now coming into bloom again and look as if they would soon become productive. The other Chinese Chestnut (C. Vilmoriniana) is a larger tree and an inhabitant of the mountain forests of western Hupeh where it grows at altitudes between two and four thousand feet above the sea-level. Like the American Chinquapin it has only one nut in a burr. Plants of this noble tree have been raised at the Arboretum from seed collected by Wilson and are growing well, but it is too soon to speak of its hardiness and value in this climate. The Chinquapin (Castanea pumila) in the shrubby form common in the South Atlantic states, and in the tree form of the region west of the Mississippi River, from southern Missouri to Texas, is in flower. Although the species is not immune, the plants in the Arboretum have not yet been attacked by the disease. The Chinquapin blooms earlier than the common Chestnut-tree (C. dentata) on which the flowers are usually open during the first week of July. The Chestnut collection is on the right-hand side of the Valley Road just beyond the Hickories, going from the Centre Street entrance. Several Grapevines are in flower and their perfume fills the air. Much time and labor has been expended in forming this collection which is on the trellis at the east side of the Shrub Collection and is one of the most interesting and valuable in the Arboretum. These plants have great decorative value, but their value is still little known to gardeners and it is difficult to obtain many of the species. The value of Grapevines for covering walls can be seen near the Jamaica Plain entrance and on the wall between the Jamaica Plain and Forest Hills entrances, and their value for covering the ground can be seen at the junction of the Meadow and Hemlock Hill Roads, where there are grapevines which are cut back to the ground every spring. All the North American species which are hardy are growing in the Shrub Collection. Among little known species best worth attention are perhaps Vitis Doaniana and V. cinerea ; the first is a native of the Texas Panhandle and is a fast-growing plant, apparently perfectly at home in New England. The leaves are large and thick, and of a rather pale bluish green color. The fruit grows in small clusters and is covered with a pale bloom. V. cinerea grows on river banks in the Mississippi Valley from Illinois to Kansas and Texas. This plant bears very large leaves which are dark green and dull on the upper surface and ashy gray on the lower surface, which, like the young shoots, is clothed when the leaves unfold with a thick, felt-like, gray covering. Some of the other species in the collection which are worth studying from the point of view of the planter of handsome vines are V. vulpina, the Frost Grape, the species which grows the farthest north; V. rotundifolia, the Muscadine or southern Fox Grape; V. monticola, the Sweet Mountain Grape of the limestone hills of southwestern Texas; V. rubra, a graceful plant found from Illinois to Missouri, Louisiana and Texas; V. arizonica, with small, pale gray-green leaves; V. aestivalis, the Summer Grape of the middle states, with large, dark green leaves covered below with rusty brown hairs; V. bicolor, of the northern and middle states, a vigorous growing plant with large. deeply-lobed leaves dark green on the upper surface and pale blue-green on the lower surface ; V. labrusca, the common Fox Grape of New England, with leaves which are covered below with tawny white, tan-colored or redbrown felt, and large berries which vary in color from dark purple to reddish brown or amber color; and V. cordifolia, the Frost Grape, an inhabitant of the middle states, with thin leaves light green on both surfaces, and with large clusters of small blue fruits which become edible after frost; this is one of the largest and most vigorous of the American Grapevines, often growing into the tops of the tallest trees and forming stems from one to two feet in diameter. Among Old World Grapevines the most valuable as ornamental plants here are V. Coignetiae and V. amurensis. The first is an inhabitant of northern Japan, and is a large plant with enormous, thick, prominently veined leaves pale on the lower surface, which in the autumn turn bright scarlet. This for northern countries is one of the most valuable of all Grapevines. V. amurensis is a native of eastern Siberia and, although less vigorous than V. Coignetiae, it is a hardy and valuable plant for covering walls and trellises. The Chinese V. Davidii is interesting because, unlike other Grapevines, the stems are thickly covered with spines. The leaves of this plant turn bright red in the autumn. Unfortunately in severe winters the stems are killed back to the ground, and it rarely produces fruit in this climate. Equally interesting, perhaps, is another Chinese Grapevine, V. Pagnuccii, with leaves which are sometimes shaped like those of an ordinary Grapevine and sometimes are deeply and variously lobed much like those on the Virginia Creeper. There are in the Arboretum a large number of Chinese Grapevines raised from seeds collected by Wilson in western China, but it is still too soon to speak of their value here as ornamental plants. The earliest Hawthorns (Crataegus) are in flower in the Arboretum before the end of April, and the latest of them, the so-called Washington Thorn (C. cordata), is now in flower, so that these plants have a blooming period here of at least two months. Their fruits are beautiful during even a longer period, for the earliest Hawthorn fruit is ripe in August and on some species it remains on the branches and retains its shape and color until spring. The Washington Thorn is a native of the southern Appalachian foothill region and westward to Missouri, and has occasionally become naturalized in the middle Atlantic states from West Chester County, New York, to Delaware. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high, with erect branches, small, nearly triangular, shining leaves which turn bright scarlet in the autumn, small, dull white flowers in small compact clusters, and small scarlet fruit which remains on the branches until late spring. The late flowers, the brilliancy of the autumn foliage, and the abundance and brightness of the fruit during the winter months, make this one of the most desirable of the American Hawthorns as a garden plant. Several large plants of the Washington Thorn can be seen on the slopes of the overlook near the top of Bussey Hill. The Silky Cornel, Cornus Amomum, is now opening its small white flowers. This has been much used in the Arhoretum borders, but in cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend freely and spread over the ground. When crowded by other plants the branches become erect and it loses its real beauty and value. To be seen at its best it should have a clear space with a diameter of not less than twenty feet in which to spread. It is well suited for the front of groups of larger plants; and there is no better shrub to plant by the margins of streams and ponds where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. Its purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the attractions of this native shrub. In the Cornel Group, at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, there is a good specimen of this plant and near it are two southern species which will not be in flower for a few days, C. asperifolia and C. stricta. Attention is called to one of the new Honeysuckles from western China, Lonicera Henryi. This is a plant with long slender stems which, on its native mountains spreads over low bushes and rocks; it has large, dark green pointed leaves, and axillary clusters of flowers which when they first open are rose color but soon turn orange red; they have no perfume. There is a mass of this plant in full flower in the bed of Chinese plants on the southern slopes of Bussey Hill. The white-flowered Chinese and Japanese tree Lilacs (Syringa pekinensis and S. japonica), many species and varieties of Philadelphus, the native Roses, the fragrant Rhododendron arborescens, and the yellowflowered Woad-wax (Genista tinctoria) are now conspicuous in the Arboretum. The last is the plant which covers many hills in Essex . County, Massachusetts, where, an escape from cultivation, it has proved a dangerous weed and destroyed much of the value of thousands of acres of land. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 3","article_sequence":48,"start_page":189,"end_page":192,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23584","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad160ab27.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 48 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 3. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 48. Several of the Oaks of eastern Asia are established in the Arboretum, including all the species of northern Japan, eastern Siberia, northern Korea and northern China. In addition to these there is a large collection of young plants raised from Wilson's seeds collected in western China. These are growing rapidly and appear to be perfectly hardy, but their relationship and names have not yet been determined. There are many evergreen Oaks in southern Japan and southern China, but none of these are hardy in our northern states where only the species with deciduous leaves can be grown. These all belong to the White Oak Group, that is they are species which mature their acorns in one season, all the Black Oaks, which require two seasons for the development of their fruit, being found only in America. There are six Japanese Oaks in the Arboretum; the largest and most valuable of these are Quercus grosseserrata and Q. crispula. These two trees under favorable conditions sometimes grow in Japan to the height of one hundred feet and produce trunks from three to four feet in diameter. In central Hokkaido these trees form a considerable part of the forest growth and their abundance and the value of the timber which they produce has already attracted the attention of American lumbermen, and it is probable that Japanese white oak timber will become a considerable article of import into the United States. The next species, Quercus glandulifera, is perhaps the most widely distributed Oak of Japan and the common species of the high mountains of the central island at elevations over three thousand feet. This is a small tree rarely more than thirty or forty feet tall which sometimes begins to bear acorns when not more than a foot high. The small leaves somewhat resemble those of one of the American Chestnut Oaks. Two Japanese Oaks with narrow leaves, in general outline like those of the Chestnut tree, both hardy here, are interesting on account of their peculiar foliage; the larger of these two trees, Q. variabilis, sometimes reaches in Japan the height of eighty feet with a trunk three or four feet in diameter. The under surface of the leaves is silvery white and the bark is thick and corky. This tree is rare in Japan and possibly has been introduced there from China; it is common in Korea and in northern and central China. The bark is sometimes used as cork and the large, thick cups of the fruit are used in the preparation of a black dye and are sold in Chinese markets in large quantities. Quercus serrata is a smaller tree with darker bark and the leaves are bright green on the two surfaces. The frfth Japanese Oak in the collection, Q. dentata, is remarkable for the great size of the leaves which are often a foot long and eight inches broad, obovate in outline and deeply lobed, and for the long, narrow, chestnut brown scales of the cup which nearly encloses the small acorn. This is a common tree on the mountains of central Japan and ranges far northward and to northern and central China, and, although it grows sometimes to a large size, it is raiely a handsome or picturesque tree. The dark thick bark is used in tanning leather. There is a variety (pinnatifida) in the collection with deeply divided leaves. The plants of Quercus glandulifera, Q. crispula and Q. grosseserrata, although only twenty years old, now produce crops of acorns in the Arboretum. This is important for it is extremely difficult to import acorns from foreign countries in good condition, for they soon lose their vitality unless carefully packed in soil or in sphagnum moss. For this reason the Oaks of eastern Asia are very rare in American and European collections. Q. dentata and Q. variabilis have not yet produced fruit in the Arboretum. Q. serrata and Q. aliena from Korea, and Q. mongolica from eastern Siberia and Mongolia are still too young to be productive. The general collection of eastern Asiatic Oaks is planted on the southern slope of Bussey Hill to the left of the southern end of Azalea Path. Here are plants of the Japanese form of Q. variabilis. On the lower side of Azalea Path there is a good specimen of Q. glandulifera and a specimen of Q. grosseserrata. Near the southern end of Oak Path there is the largest specimen of Q. variabilis in the collection. This tree was raised from seed sent from Peking in 1882. Near this tree are young plants of Q. serrata and two plants of Q. dentata. Several specimens of Q. glandulifera, Q. crispula and Q. grosseserrata can be seen in the mixed plantation along the road at the top of Peter's Hill, and there is a group of these three species on the steep slope rising from the Parkway directly opposite the Forest Hills entrance to the Arboretum. The Oaks of Europe do not often flourish in New England. None of the species of the Mediterranean region are hardy here; and although the two common Oaks of western Europe, Q. pedunculata and Q. sessiliflora are hardy and grow rapidly in this country for a few years, they are short-lived here and not to be depended on. It is possible, however, that the Hungarian Oak, Q. conferta, or as it is often called, Q. pannonica, may prove an exception to this general rule in regard to European Oaks as the climate of eastern Europe with its cold winters and hot dry summers is not as unlike that of eastern North America as the climate of western Europe. Q. conferta is a large and valuable timber tree with large, dark green, deeply lobed and lustrous leaves; it grows rapidly and is very hardy here, but it is too soon to speak of its permanent value or to say more than that it is a tree which deserves a more general trial in this country than it has yet received. The largest specimen in the neighborhood of Boston can be seen in the Arboretum on Oak Path near the Japanese Q. dentata. The black-fruited Sambucus canadensis and its varieties are in bloom in the Shrub Collection and the common form is conspicuous along the Bussey Brook; and, although these Elders are now in full bloom, the brilliant red or orange fruits of the early-flowering species, S. pubens of North America and the Old World S. racemosa are nearly ripe. As a foliage plant the most beautiful of these red-fruited Elders is probably the Japanese S. racemosa, var. Sieboldii, which is well established with the other Elders in the Shrub Collection. The brilliant fruits of some other plants are already conspicuous in the Arboretum, notably of some of the Bush Honeysuckles. These plants produce fruit in great quantities and it remains in good condition for several weeks, and as the different species ripen their fruit from early summer to the beginning of October their second period of beauty is a long one. On different species or hybrids the fruit is blue, black, orange, or scarlet, and these beautiful and abundant fruits following beautiful flowers make them desirable garden plants, especially in the northern United States where they are very hardy and where they appear to bloom more freely than in other parts of the world. No group of shrubs in the Arboretum is more worthy of the careful attention of persons who desire to plant hardy, fast-growing shrubs beautiful when covered in spring with innumerable flowers or in early summer when their showy fruits are ripe. Some other plants in the Shrub Collection are now in their greatest beauty. Among these two yellow-flowered plants of the Pea Family, Cytisus capitatus and C. nigricans, are well worth attention, especially the latter which is a small, slender shrub with erect racemes of large flowers, and perhaps the most beautiful of the genus which can be successfully grown here. Colutea arborescens from southern Europe, and C. cilicica from Asia Minor, also of the Pea Family, are just now in great beauty, for they are still covered with their bright yellow flowers; and these are mixed with the large inflated pods developed from earlier flowers and now more or less deeply tinged with rose color. The first of the Hypericums to flower in the collection and one of the gems of the genus, H. Buckleyi, is now opening its flowers. It is a dwarf plant growing here only a few inches high but spreading into a broad mat which becomes covered with yellow flowers and as these remain in good condition for a long time, it is well suited for a sunny position in the rock garden. Attention is called again this year to the hybrid Lonicera Heckrottii which is now in bloom. The flowers, although not fragrant, are very beautiful, the outer surface of the corolla being deep rose color and the inner surface pale yellow, both buds and open flowers occurring together in the same cluster. This is the only plant in the Arboretum which is really a continuous bloomer. Last year the first flowers opened at the end of June and flowers continued to open until November. The Yucca of the high plains at the eastern base of the southern Rocky Mountains, Y. glauca, is in bloom for the first time in the Arboretum. The Heather (Calluna vulgaris) with its numerous varieties is already opening its purple and white flowers and promises abundant bloom in the Shrub Collection and among the Rhododendrons at the base of Hemlock Hill. The latest of the Viburnums to flower and one of the most conspicuous plants now in bloom in the Arboretum is V. Canbyi. This is a magnificent plant in cultivation if sufficient space is given to it for free development when it will grow rapidly into a round-topped shrub ten or twelve feet high and broad. The last of the Rhododendrons (R. maximum) is now in flower, and the latest of the Azaleas (R. viscosum), the so-called Swamp Honeysuckle of our eastern coast region, is opening its fragrant white flowers. The Spice Bush, Clethra alnifolia, which has been largely planted in the roadside shrubberies, is still to flower. Only the earliest of the Linden trees have opened their fragrant flowers, and during several weeks the other species and hybrids of these handsome trees will be in flower. Other interesting trees will flower still later and will well repay weekly visits ' to the Arboretum. Of these late-blooming trees may be mentioned the North American Sorrel-tree, Oxydendrum arboreum, and the North American Hercules' Club (Aralia spinosa). These two trees are among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill. The arborescent Aralia of eastern Asia (A. chinensis) and Acanthopanax ricinifolius of the same Family, with its large tropical looking leaves and great clusters of small white flowers are in the Aralia Group near the junction of the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads. Another tree still to flower is the Chinese Koelreuteria paniculata with its large erect clusters of bright yellow flowers and to be seen on the Meadow Road. Other Asiatic trees to flower are Sophora japonica and Maackia amurensis which are established with the other trees of the Pea Family on the righthand side and near the Bussey Hill Road. These bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"September 24","article_sequence":49,"start_page":193,"end_page":196,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23596","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170ab6d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 49 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. SEPTEMBER 24. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 49. Persons interested in the plants best suited for the decoration of parks and gardens of eastern North America can find much to learn in the Arboretum from this time until the end of the year, for it is in the autumn that conifers are seen to the best advantage and that the mature leaves of the few broad-leaved evergreens which flourish in this climate best show the beauty and value of these plants for the late autumn and winter garden. Perhaps nowhere else in the world are so many different plants with brilliant autumn foliage and handsome and abundant autumn fruits assembled as in the Arboretum; and in no other garden can such plants be so easily and conveniently studied. Such plants give a character and beauty to the autumn garden which can be found only in eastern North America and perhaps in Japan where the leaves of many of the native trees and shrubs assume brilliant colors before they fall. In the Arboretum the autumn foliage of many Japanese plants is as brilliant as it is in their native country, but it is still to be shown if that of American plants cultivated in Japan is as beautiful there as it is in our eastern states. The earliest of the American trees to change the color of its leaves this year is the Red or Scarlet Maple, Acer rubrum. On trees growing in swamps the leaves are now often bright scarlet, while on trees growing on higher and drier ground the leaves are still bright green or only slightly tinged with red. The so-called Water Willow, Decodon verticillatus, perhaps better known as ,Nesaea, is a native of all the region from Maine to Florida and Louisiana, and is a shrub with arching stems from two to three feet long growing only in the wet often submerged borders of streams and ponds where it often spreads into broad thickets. The flowers and fruits are not conspicuous, but the stems hanging over the water make an interesting and attractive margin to a shallow pond or sluggish stream, and in early autumn the leaves turn bright scarlet, so that for a few weeks the plants are conspicuous among the green sedges and swamp grasses with which they are usually associated. It is not probable that the Water Willow is often cultivated, but it is now well established in the Arboretum along the margins of two of the little ponds near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. The leaves of some of the forms of the so-called Virginia Creeper of eastern North America are already bright scarlet. The earliest to adopt its autumn dress and now in brilliant color is Parthenocissus vitacea. This plant rarely has adhesive discs at the ends of the tendrils, so that it cannot attach itself to the trunks of trees or to brick and stone walls like Parthenocissus quinquefolia, which is often sold in nurseries as Ampelopsis Engelmannii. Of this plant there are several varieties recognized by botanists. On the variety hirsuta the young branches, tendrils and leaves are covered with soft down, and a form of this variety which grows in the neighborhood of Ontario in Canada appears to be the best of all the Virginia Creepers for covering brick walls. Fine plants of this form can be seen on some of the buildings at the Central Experimental Farm of the Dominion of Canada at Ottawa. The variety San Paulii, which is the common form in Illinois and Missouri, also attaches itself to walls and grows rapidly to a great height. Nearly all the forms of the Virginia Creeper can now be seen on the trellis at the eastern side of the Shrub Collection and near the entrance from the Forest Hills Gate. One of the handsomest shrubs in early autumn is the Japanese Evonymus alatus, for the leaves of this plant turn a delicate rose color unlike those of any other plant in the Arboretum. This Evonymus, with abundant room, spreads into a compact round-headed shrub from four to six feet tall and ten or twelve feet in diameter. The fruit is small and less conspicuous than that of many species of Evonymus. The broad or sometimes narrow corky wings of the branches make it conspicuous in winter. There is a good specimen in the Evonymus Group on the Meadow Road, and a large isolated specimen in the grass border of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilac Group. The earliest of the Opulus Group of Viburnums to change the color of its leaves is the eastern Asiatic Viburnum Sargentii, and on some individuals of this species the leaves are already dark red. Of the three species of this group this is the handsomest in flower, for the sterile flowers which surround the clusters of perfect flowers are larger than those of the eastern American or of the European species, but the fruit is small, dull in color and of little value. Another plant from northeastern Asia, Acer ginnala, is beautiful in the autumn when the brilliant scarlet of the fading leaves of this small tree is hardly surpassed by that of any American tree or shrub. Among Maples Acer ginnala is interesting on account of the fragrance of the flowers, fragrant Maple flowers being unusual. It is a native of eastern Siberia, and has proved very hardy in the northern states, and in Quebec and Ontario. Bright scarlet now are the leaves of Rosa nitida. This little Rose, which grows naturally on the margins of swamps from Newfoundland to New England, is perhaps the most beautiful of our native Roses and very distinct in the bright red prickles which thickly cover the stems and branches; it is too rarely cultivated. A few of the fruits which ripen in early autumn are already conspicuous. There is perhaps no shrub more beautiful in the Arboretum at this time than one of the American Cornels, Cornus rugosa, or, as it is sometimes called, C. circinata. This is a tall, broad, round-headed shrub with greenish branches and round-oval, dark green leaves. The flowers are not more showy than those of other Cornels, but the clusters of light blue fruits on red stalks which now cover the plants make them objects of much interest and beauty. There are several plants of this species in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and there are large masses of it among the Hickories on the Valley Road. The finest individual plants, however, are on the slope where the Celtis collection is planted, on the right-hand side of the path which follows the north side of the Bussey Hill Road. The red Osier Cornel or Dogwood, Cornus racemosa, often called C. stolonifera or C. candidissima, is also beautiful at this season, for the leaves are beginning to turn dark red and the plants are covered with abundant clusters of white fruits on bright red stalks. There is a large mass of this plant in the Cornel Group and it has been largely planted in the mixed plantations along the drives. Spreading rapidly into large dense clusters, with good foliage, abundant flowers and beautiful fruits, few shrubs are more desirable for park or roadside plantations. The two eastern American species of Mountain Ash, Sorbus americana and its variety decora, are covered with large clusters of scarlet fruit which remain on the branches in brilliant condition until after the leaves have fallen and until late in the season when they are eaten by the robins. These plants are on the border at the eastern end of the Shrub Collection and near the entrance from the Forest Hills Gate. In the same border several species of American Hawthorns are now bearing large crops of scarlet fruits, notably Crataegus succulenta, C. prunifolia, and C. rotundifolia. On some of the American Hawthorns the fruit ripens soon after the middle of August and has already disappeared; on other species it will continue to ripen during the next two months, and the fruit of a few species will retain its beauty until spring. Many of the young plants in the general collection of Hawthorns on Peter's Hill, are fruiting this year, and among them one of the Colorado species (C. colorado) is conspicuous from the abundance of its bright red fruits which ripen early in September. The decorative value of the American Hawthorns is hardly realized yet, although few small trees or shrubs produce more beautiful flowers or handsomer or more abundant fruits. The collections of Grapevines on the trellisses at the eastern side of the Shrub Collection is now in excellent condition and is one of the most complete and successful groups in the Arboretum. Persons interested in hardy vines or desirous of seeing the decorative value of our native Grapevines should lose no time in visiting this collection for the first severe frost kills the leaves of these plants. All the species of eastern North America, except two or three from the extreme south, are represented in the collection and they all have value as ornamental plants. Of the species which are not often seen in cultivation attention is called to Vitis Doaniana from the Texas Panhandle, V. bicolor from eastern New York and southward, and V. arizonica with its small pale gray-green leaves. The Japanese Vitis Coignetiae is perhaps a more vigorous plant than any of the American species, although probably V. cinerea and V. aestivalis growing on the rich bottom-lands of the Missisippi valley reach a greater height than this Japanese vine, but in the size of its thick dark green leaves which are sometimes a foot in diameter, in its vigor, rapid growth and massive appearance it has no equal among the Grapevines which have been grown in the Arboretum. In northern Japan the leaves turn bright scarlet before falling, but the earlier frosts of the American autumn, which is a month earlier than the autumn of Japan, generally destroy the leaves while they are still green. The season for flowers in the Arboretum is practically ended for the year, although one of the new Chinese shrubs, Indigofera ambliantha is still covered with its erect spikes of small rose-colored flowers. This is a small perfectly hardy shrub with erect stems, which, beginning to flower the middle of July, continues to produce its flower clusters until October. Among summer-flowering shrubs this is certainly one of the most beautiful of recent introduction. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 30","article_sequence":50,"start_page":197,"end_page":200,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23595","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170a76c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 50 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 30, 1913 BULLETIN NO. 50. The exceptionally wet and cloudy weather of October has lessened the beauty of the fading leaves of many trees and shrubs in the Arboretum this autumn. From some American plants the leaves have fallen with little change of color, on others the colors are dull, and on many plants which are usually brilliant the first of November the leaves are still green and will probably be destroyed by the first serious frost before assuming their usual autumn colors. There are, of course, many exceptions to this general statement. The clear yellow tints of the leaves of the Japanese Cercidiphyllum have never been more beautiful than during the past few weeks. From some of the trees the leaves have already fallen or are falling rapidly, on others they are yellow, and on others still green or only slightly turned. As this tree is better known in this country its value is more appreciated. First introduced into the United States by the Arboretum in 1878, Cercidiphyllum has> become thoroughly established in several collections in the neighborhood of Boston and has flowered and produced abundant crops of seeds here for several years. Cercidiphyllum is the largest tree of extratropical Asia, growing often to the height of one hundred feet or more and forming an enormous trunk composed of a number of secondary stems. The trees are fastigiate in habit with erect branches and slender branchlets, and the flowers and fruit are inconspicuous. The leaves somewhat resemble those of the Redbud or Cercis in shape, whence the name Cercidiphyllum. As they expand in very early spring, they are a dark bronze-red in color, and during the summer are rather dull blue-green. There are a number of these trees on both sides of the Meadow Road just beyond the Administration Building. A plant of much beauty at this time owing to the dark wine color of its ripening leaves is the Japanese Stuartia pseudocamellia. This is a small slender tree common on the mountain slopes of central Japan, belonging to the family to which the Tea-plant and the Camellia belong. The white, cup-shaped flowers resemble those of a singleflowered Camellia; they are smaller, however, than those of the two American Stuartias, S. pentagyna of the Appalachian Mountains and S. virginica of the southeastern states. These are both shrubs, and the flowers of the latter are larger and more beautiful than the flowers of the other Stuartias, but this handsome plant is not hardy in New England and is now rarely found in European gardens, although it was introduced into England more than a century ago and appears to be perfectly hardy in the neighborhood of London. Stuartia pentagyna is perfectly hardy here and is one of the most desirable of the summer-flowering shrubs which can be grown in this climate. It is a large, free-flowering shrub and there is a form with bright purple stamens which make the flowers more conspicuous than those of the common form with yellow stamens. There is a good plant of the Japanese species on the upper side of Azalea Path, and there are plants of this and of Stuartia pentagyna in the Shrub Collection. The three species of the eastern American genus Aronia, or Chokeberry, are beautiful plants in the autumn. Some of the forms of Aronia nigra are the largest in this group, sometimes growing to the height of eight or ten feet. The shining black fruit of these plants, hanging in large and abundant clusters, contrasts well with the red and orange tints of the autumn leaves. Aronia intermedia, of the same general appearance, has earlier ripening, dark wine-colored fruit, while A. arbutifolia has erect clusters of smaller fruit and narrower leaves which are bright scarlet before falling. This plant late in the autumn is one of the showiest of all the shrubs of eastern North America. All the Aronias are easily cultivated and excellent garden plants; the flowers are abundant and handsome, and they have great value for the decoration of the autumn garden. The leaves of no other shrub in the Arboretum are now so bright scarlet as those of the common Highbush Blueberry of New England swamps (Vaccinium corymbosum). This plant has much to recommend it for general cultivation; the habit is good, the flowers are beautiful, the large bright blue fruits which cover the branches in early summer are very handsome and of better quality than those of any other Blueberry, and the autumn foliage is unsurpassed in brilliancy. Young plants can be easily transplanted from the swamps and succeed in any good garden soil in which they grow rapidly and flower and produce fruit in abundance. The Highbush Blueberry has been largely planted in the Arboretum shrubberies and there is a group of these plants on both sides of Azalea Path at its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road at the base of the Overlook. Some of the new Cotoneasters discovered by Wilson in western China are shrubs of much beauty at this season of the year, and among them are several of the handsomest and most desirable garden shrubs of recent introduction. Some of the species grow six or eight feet high and some form dense mats of prostrate stems: some have bright red and others shining black fruits, and nearly all of them have dark green and very lustrous leaves which retain this color until the late autumn. One of the handsomest plants of this group is Cotoneaster hupehensis with erect and spreading stems, larger and more conspicuous flowers than those of other species of Cotoneaster, and exceptionally large red fruits which have already fallen. Cotoneaster foveolata is a tall shrub with black fruit and leaves which turn late in the autumn to brilliant shades of orange and scarlet. For its autumn foliage this plant might well find a place in every garden. Although no longer a novelty, Cotoneaster horizontalis is one of the most useful and interesting of the Chinese species of Cotoneaster. It is a low plant with spreading and arching stems which in time form a broad mat not more than a foot high. The small leaves are dark green and very lustrous: the minute flowers are dark red and these are followed by innumerable small red fruits. This is a most desirable plant for the borders of small shrubberies, for the rock garden and for covering low walls. A collection of several species of the new Chinese Cotoneastgrs can be seen in the long bed of new Chinese plants on the southern slope of Bussey Hill, and there is a large specimen of C. horizontalis on the upper side of Hickory Path near Centre Street which is now covered with fruit and well shows the decorative value of this plant. Unfortunately only a few species of the genus Callicarpa are hardy in this climate, and the beautiful C. americana, the so-called French Mulberry, which makes such a brilliant display in the southern woods at this season of the year with its large clusters of rose-purple fruit, cannot be grown here. The decorative value of plants of this genus for the autumn garden can now be seen, however, at the entrance of Azalea Path from the Bussey Hill Road where there is a group of Callicarpa japonica covered with the small, shining, light purple fruit of this hardy little shrub. There are two forms of this plant in the group, the larger, with larger fruit having been raised from seed collected in Corea, and the smaller plants with smaller fruit raised from seeds gathered on the mountains of Japan. Almost as conspicuous as the fruit of this Callicarpa is that of the Japanese Symplocos crataegoides, although it is still somewhat hidden by the ample foliage of the plant. This native of Japan is one of the few shrubs with bright blue fruit which can be grown in this climate. It is a large and perfectly hardy shrub which in late spring is covered with clusters of small white flowers and these are followed by small fruits which in the early autumn become bright blue and remain in good condition on the branches until after the leaves have fallen. Large plants of this Symplocos can be seen on the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilac Group, and it is in the Shrub Collection. The fruit of most of the Bush Honeysuckles ripens and falls in summer, but a conspicuous exception to this general statement is found in Lonicera Maackii and its variety podocarpa. Lonicera Maackii, which is a native of the Amoor River region in northeastern Asia, is a large shrub with erect stems and white flowers which are larger and perhaps more beautiful than those of any other Bush Honeysuckle. The fruit of this plant is bright red, of medium size, and remains on the branches after the leaves have fallen, making it a valuable decorative plant in the late autumn. The flowers of the variety podocarpa which was discovered by Wilson in western China, are smaller, tinged with yellow or rosa color, and less beautiful, but the fruit is larger and the leaves remain much later without change of color on the branches. At this time, therefore, the plant is covered with bright green leaves and bright red or orange fruit, making it one of the most attractive shrubs in the Arboretum at this season. There are large specimens of the Chinese and Siberian plants side by side in the Shrub Collection, and there are plants of the latter also covered with fruit in the Chinese collection on the southern slope of Bussey Hill. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 7","article_sequence":51,"start_page":201,"end_page":204,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23594","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad170a36b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 51 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 7. 1913 BULLETIN NO. 51. Three species, at least, of Hawthorns show their greatest beauty in early November. These species are Crataegus cordata, C. nitida and C. persistens. The first of these plants, the so-called Washington Thorn, is a narrow, rather slender tree which in favorable situations grows to the height of twenty or thirty feet. The leaves are nearly triangular in outline, of medium size and very lustrous. The flowers, which open about the middle of June, are small, creamy white, and are produced in small, compact but very numerous clusters; these are followed by small, scarlet, shining fruits which ripen late in October and remain on the trees without change of color until the spring. As the fruit assumes its bright color the leaves turn gradually to brilliant shades of orange and scarlet. This tree, therefore, which is much less beautiful when it is in flower than many other Hawthorns, is surpassed in the late autumn by few members of the genus. Crataegus cordata is a native of the southern Appalachian region from Virginia to Alabama, and is also abundant in southern Missouri. Formerly much cultivated as a hedge plant in the middle states, it is now sparingly naturalized in eastern Pennsylvania and in Delaware. The largest plants of this Hawthorn in the Arboretum are on the side of the Bussey Hill Overlook, and there is a good plant on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Crataegus nitida is a native of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River in Illinois opposite the city of St. Louis, and is a larger tree of entirely different habit. The branches are wide-spreading and slightly pendulous, and form a large, rather open, round-topped head. The leaves are narrow, long-pointed and very lustrous, and, as is often the case with American Hawthorns, those at the ends of the branches are usually two or three times larger than the leaves on fertile branchlets. The flowers are pure white, of medium size, and produced in very numerous clusters which cover the upper side of the branches. The scarlet drooping fruit, which is also of medium size, ripens late just as the leaves turn orange and scarlet. In habit, in brilliancy of foliage, in its autumn colors, and in its abundant flowers and showy fruit Crataegus nitida is one of the handsomest of the American Hawthorns which has grown to a large size in the Arboretum. There are several good specimens of this tree on the bank on the east side of the Shrub Collection. Crataegus persistens retains its leaves which are now as green as they were at midsummer, after those of all the other Hawthorns have fallen, and the crimson fruit remains without change of color on the branches until late in the winter, making this tree the most conspicuous of all the winter-fruiting plants which have yet proved hardy in New England. This tree in habit and in the shape and general appearance of the leaves resembles some of the Cockspur Thorns of eastern North America. Raised at the Arboretum from seeds sent from the Paris Museum, its native country is still unknown. No plant at all like it has been found in the United States, although it is certainly a species of the New World. The fact that it retains its leaves so late in the autumn indicates a southern origin, and, if it is not a hybrid, it is possible that it may still be found in some of the elevated valleys of central Mexico. But whatever its origin, this is a tree of perfect hardiness and exceptional ornamental value. The largest plant in the country and the type of the species can be seen among several large Hawthorns at the foot of the bank on the parkway near the Forest Hills entrance of the Arboretum, where it can be easily recognized as it is now the only plant in this collection with perfectly green leaves. Here, too, are several good plants of Crataegus nitida. Unfortunately the European Holly, Ilex Aquifolium, and its numerous varieties which are splendid ornaments of parks and gardens in more temperate regions, is not hardy in New England. This is also true of the evergreen Hollies of China and of the broad-leaved evergreen species of southern Japan, and only three species of these plants can be grown here. These are the red-fruited Ilex opaca of the eastern United States, and the black-fruited 1. glabra and 1. crenata. Ilex opaca is interesting as it is the only broad-leaved evergreen tree which is hardy in New England. In general habit and in its fruit it' resembles the European species, but on this American tree the leaves are dull and not lustrous like those of the European species. The bright red berries remain on the branches through the winter, however, and make it an ornamental tree here of the first class. There are several specimens in different parts of the Arboretum, and a large plant now covered with fruit among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. Ilex glabra is a round-topped shrub occasionally five or six feet high and is very common on sandy land in the neighborhood of the coast from New England to Texas. It is very hardy and is chiefly valuable for its small shining leaves which nearly completely hide the small black fruits which remain on the branches during the winter. This is certainly one of the most valuable of the evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. A fine mass of it can be seen on the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. Ilex crenata is a taller growing and narrower plant than 1. glabra, with darker green'leaves and rather larger fruits. The leaves vary greatly in size on different individuals, and the plants with smaller leaves have proved hardier in the Arboretum than the broader-leaved forms. There are several plants of this Japanese Holly on Azalea Path which have grown to their present size from seeds planted here twenty years ago. The number of broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate is small, but the leaves of a few deciduous-leaved species are not injured by early frosts and remain green so late in the season that they are valuable for the autumn garden. One of the most useful of these plants is the European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, a plant formerly much cultivated in this country and now occasionally naturalized in the eastern states. The leaves are now as dark green as they were at midsummer, and their beauty is increased by the larger handsome clusters of shining black berries on the ends of the branches. This is a large, very hardy and fast-growing shrub which in recent years has been somewhat overlooked owing to the introduction of numerous Japanese and Chinese Privets which are all, however, far less valuable ornamental plants. There is a form of the European Privet with yellow fruits which is not particularly handsome, and forms varying from the normal plant in habit. They can all be seen in the Shrub Collection. A Evonymus known as E. Hamiltonianus, var. semipersistens, a shrub of uncertain origin but probably Chinese, is valuable because the leaves are still as green as they were early in the season. The flowers of this plant, like those of all the species of Evonymus, are small, and the fruit is unusually small, inconspicuous and late ripening; and it is only for the green of its leaves in late autumn that this plant is valuable. A good specimen can be seen in the Evonymous Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. All the forms of the common Lilac (Syringa vulgaris) are still as green as they were at midsummer, and the leaves of Magnolia glauca are still nearly as bright and shining as they were two months ago. The mild winter and the abundant rains of the early spring, and of October have been favorable to conifers, and many of the trees in the Pinetum have never looked better than they do today. This, of course, is not a good climate for conifers and some of the most beautiful and interesting of these trees cannot be grown here at all, including nearly all the species from western North America and those from the southern United States and Mexico. The coniferous trees of the countries of the Mediterranean Basin, and of South America, Tasmania and New Zealand, too, are not hardy here. Those of northeastern North America and the Rocky Mountains are the species on which we can best depend, and among these the White Pine, the Red Pine, the Canadian and the Carolinia Hemlocks, the Red Cedar, the Arborvitae, the Colorado White Fir (Abies concolor), the Colorado Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga Douglasii) can be counted among the most beautiful conifers in the world. All the species of central and northern Europe are hardy here but are often short-lived. So far as it is possible to judge by an experience only of from twenty to thirty years all the Siberian and north of China conifers are promising here, as are nearly all the Japanese species, although some of these are more valuable ornamental trees here than others. Of the great number of new conifers recently raised here from seed collected in western China, the most important probably of all the Arboretum introductions it is still too soon to speak, but, judging by the climate where these trees grow, it is not improbable that some of these Firs and Spruces may succeed in New England. These bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23499","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060af6e.jpg","title":"1913-1","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1913,"series":1,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 18","article_sequence":18,"start_page":69,"end_page":72,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23562","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24eab6e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 1,8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. APRIL 18. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 18. It might have been expected that the last year with its exceptionally dry summer and remarkably cold winter would have damaged many plants in the Arboretum, but on the whole the collections are in unusually good condition and as yet show little effect of the severe climatic changes of the winter. The conifers are all uninjured with the exception of one or two small plants of the Hemlock of the northwest coast, Tsuga heterophylla, planted near the top of Hemlock Hill. This is a tree of very doubtful hardiness here and it is satisfactory that the second specimen is untouched. The broad-leaved evergreens are in unusually good condition for this season of the year when they too often look brown and shabby. A few small Rhododendrons on trial for their hardiness have suffered, but generally the Rhododendrons are in good condition and promise abundant bloom. The Laurels (Kalmia latifolia), are uninjured by heat, drought or cold and give promise of such masses of flowers as have not before been seen on these plants in the Arboretum. The influence of the weather on the plants raised from seeds collected in western China has been watched with interest as a number of them were planted last year in exposed positions that their hardiness here might be tested. The winter has shown that a large number of Chinese trees and shrubs new to our plantations can probably be successfully cultivated in Massachusetts, and of course in all the regions south of Massachusetts. The following are some of the most important of these trees: Davidia involucrata should perhaps be mentioned first. It is a medium sized tree related to our Flowering Dogwood, but with one large floral bract in place of the four smaller bracts of the American tree. Davidia is described as one of the most beautiful of all the flowering trees of temperate regions and its introduction a few years ago into cultivation through French missionaries was a matter of great horticultural interest. It has lived for several years in the Arboretum and has flowered twice in Europe. Of especial interest is Cladrastis sinensis, introduced by Wilson, as it adds another to the list of genera represented in the eastern United States and China. The American Cladrastis, better known as Virgilia, is one of the rarest and most beautiful of the trees of the United States. Unfortunately the Chinese species promises to be of less value as an ornamental tree. The flowers, which are sometimes faintly tinged with pink, are smaller than those of its American relative and are borne in erect not drooping clusters. The leaflets are smaller and the bark is of a darker color. The two new Catalpas from western China, C. Fargessii and C. Duclouxii, are both uninjured. In Phellodendron chinense there is an important addition to the eastern Asiatic genus Phellodendron, represented before in the Arboretum by three species. It is good news that Staphylea holocarpa has come through the winter in good condition. This is a tree twenty to twenty-five feet tall, producing in May before the leaves appear pendulous racemes of fragrant flowers varying in color from white to rosy lilac. Mr. Wilson speaks of it as the handsomest of its genus, and one of the most beautiful of the small flowering trees of western China. The different forms of the so-called European Walnut (Juglans regia), introduced by Wilson, and the distinct J. cathayensis, a tree with splendid foliage and nuts resembling those of the American Butternut, are uninjured by the cold. Populus lasiocarpa, which has lived in the Arboretum uninjured during the past two years, adds a very remarkable and handsome species to the large group of these trees which can be cultivated here. A still more beautiful species brought back by Wilson on his last journey and still unnamed has passed the winter without injury. Even the Liquidambar of central China, L. formosana, is uninjured and may prove hardier here than the native species which suffers in eastern Massachusetts except in favorable positions. The greatest of all the Hazels, Corylus chinensis, judging by the plants at this time, gives promise of becoming an important addition to the ornamental trees which can be cultivated here. With an average height of from sixty to eighty feet and a girth of trunk of from eight to ten feet, in favorable situations on the mountains of Hupeh it attains a height of more than a hundred feet with a trunk five feet in diameter. There is much interest in the various forms of Cherry raised from seeds sent home by Mr. Wilson, who found an unexpectedly large number of species in several of the groups of the genus Prunus to which the Cherries belong. They are nearly all quite new to science and of course have not been found before in gardens. Thirty of these new species or varieties have passed through the winter uninjured, and only two species, which will probably not live here, have suffered. Among these species are a number of great beauty and this group perhaps is the most interesting of the deciduous-leaved trees obtained by Mr. Wilson during his first journey. The Hemlock of western China, Tsuga yunnanensis, has now lived for two years in the Arboretum. This is one of the largest and most widely distributed of the conifers of China. The fact that it grows with the Spruces and Firs which cover the mountains of the Tibetan frontier indicates that these trees may also be hardy in this climate. The introduction of these conifers was the object of Mr. Wilson's last journey to China, and they are now growing in the Arboretum and in many public and private collections. It can be said that generally the new Chinese species of Oak, Beech, Birch, Willow, Poplar, Pear, Maple and Ash, besides some of the less well known genera like Idesia, Euptelea, Poliothyrsus and Eucommia, judging by the experience of the past year, are likely to succeed here and it is probably reasonable to hope that not less than seventy-five new species of trees will be added to our plantations by Mr. Wilson's first journey to China. In another issue something will be said of the condition of some of the new Chinese shrubs. There are already many flowers to be seen in the Arboretum. The Elms, and the Red Maple, the Poplars and some of the Hazels are in flower. The flowers of the Silver Maple are already falling. Many of the Alders are now covered with their delicate flowers. One of the most interesting of these is the Japanese Alnus tinctoria. This is a medium sized shapely tree with smooth pale bark and large dark green leaves. Two specimens can be seen on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road close to the walk and in front of the Linden Group. They were raised from seeds brought from Japan by Professor Sargent in 1892 and have grown more rapidly and to a larger size than any of the plants of that collection. This is a good time, too, to examine the Willows as many of the shrubby species are in flower on the walk which starts from a path opposite the Administration Building and follows along the eastern boundary of the North Meadow. The first plant to bloom in the Shrub Collection is Daphne Mezereum where the white flowered form has been flowering for more than a week. This small shrub, of which there are several forms in cultivation, is a native of the mountains of Europe and Western Asia. It is valuable for its very early fragrant flowers, appearing with or before the leaves, and for its showy scarlet fruits. On the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the end of the Lilac Group, are large masses of two native shrubs. The first, the Spice Bush (Benzoin aestivale), is a common inhabitant of northern swamp borders. It is a tall shrub with slender branches on which the small yellow flowers are now opening. The male and female flowers are found on different individuals, so that only some of the plants bear the small, bright scarlet, shining fruits which are so attractive in the autumn. The leaves, which are fragrant like those of its relative the Sassafras, are uninjured by insects and turn bright yellow before falling. This is one of the common shrubs which should be better known by gardeners. Just above the Spice Bushes is a group of the Leatherwood (Dirca Palustris), which in the perfection of its specimens is one of the most successful groups in the Arboretum. The Leatherwood is valuable for its small but very early and abundant yellow flowers which appear before the leaves and will soon be fully open. It owes its common name to the toughness of the bark of the branches. The geographical distribution of the genus is unusual, as of its two species one is widely distributed in the eastern United States and the other is found only in California. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"April 25","article_sequence":19,"start_page":73,"end_page":76,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23563","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24eaf6f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 19 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. APRIL 25. 19122 BULLETIN NO. 19. In the last issue of these bulletins something was said of the effects of the winter on a few of the new Chinese trees in the Arboretum. The number of new Chinese shrubs which promise to be hardy in this climate is naturally much larger than the number of trees. We can speak, however, only of a few of these now. Of Lilacs Wilson found eleven species in China. Nearly all of these were discovered by him and most of them are now growing in the Arboretum where three species have been sufficiently tested to show that they will be hardy here. These are Syringa pinnatifolia, S. Komarowii and S. Wilsonii. The flowers and flowerclusters of the first are small and not conspicuous, but the deeply divided leaves are unusual among Lilacs and form the chief interest in this plant. The others are large shrubs related to S. villosa with handsome foliage and flowers. More interesting, although not yet fully tested for hardiness, are S. reflexa, with long pendulous flower-clusters, thus differing from all the other known Lilacs, and S. Sargentiana with long acuminate leaves and shorter nodding not pendulous flower-clusters. The genus Cotoneaster, which is valued chiefly for its black or red, often long-persistent fruits, has been poorly represented in our gardens as few of the species previously known have proved hardy here. Wilson, however, found an unexpectedly large number of new species of Cotoneaster in western China and at least a dozen of these have passed through the winter without injury and promise to become valuable garden plants here. Among these may be mentioned C. Dielsiana, with weeping whip- - like branches and small red fruits persistent late into the winter, C. divaricata with dark red fruits, C. foveolata with large leaves which turn in the autumn to brilliant shades of orange and crimson and black fruit, C. moupinensis also with black fruit, a plant remarkable in the brilliant colors the leaves assume here in the autumn, and C. hupehensis, a stronggrowing, shrubby black-fruited species with graceful spreading branches, ornamental white flowers and crimson globose fruit. Among the new Spiroeas introduced by Wilson arc three species which are now known to be perfectly hardy and to be among the most ornamental of all the numerous species and hybrids of this genus. These are S. Henryi, S. Wilsonii, and S. Veitchii. The Chinese Witch Hazel, Hamamelis mollis, a common shrub of the central provinces, has now lived unhurt in the Arboretum for two years. It is one of the late winter or early spring-flowering species and its flowers are said to be more beautiful than those of the other Witch Hazels. Several of the Chinese Hydrangeas are uninjured by the winter. Among these may be mentioned H. xanthourea and its several varieties, all handsome shrubs with large corymbs of flowers. In Exochorda Giraldii New England gardens have a new and perfectly hardy plant of first-rate importance. It grows to a height of twelve feet or more and produces larger and handsomer flowers than the well-known Pearl Bush of gardens, Exochorda grandiflora. Of the beautiful genus Abelia we have before been able to cultivate only the hybrid A. grandiflora, so it is particularly gratifying that the large-flowered, strong-growing A. Engleriana proves to be hardy here. It is of interest, too, that the new monotypic genus Kolkwitzia flourishes here. It is a shrub from four to six feet high with large terminal panicles of flowers followed by crimson hairy fruits, and is related to Abelia and Lonicera. Another beautiful plant of this family, Dipelta floribunda, of a genus new to cultivation, with large and showy Weigelia-like flowers, can also be numbered among the hardy Chinese plants. Of Wilson's numerous Honeysuckles which are flourishing in the Arboretum we can only mention now Lonicera prostrata, which promises to be a useful plant for covering rocky slopes and banks. It is very hardy and free-growing, with prostrate stems, small oval bluish-green leaves small white flowers turning yellow when fading, and orange-red fruits; L. Henryi, a vigorous climbing plant which has preserved its large dark green leaves through the winter, and L. tragophylla, which in habit and general appearance resembles the Woodbine of Europe although the flowers are golden yellow. An important addition to very early-flowering shrubs is Corylopsis Veitchiana, with short pendulous racemes of primrose-yellow fragrant flowers produced before the leaves unfold. A majority of the large collection of Chinese Brambles are uninjured, especially those showy species with nearly white stems, like Rubus lasiostylus and R. coreanus. Of the Grape Family at least six new species have come through the winter without injury. Of these perhaps the most interesting is Ampelopsis megalophylla with canes from twenty to thirty feet long and large divided leaves often more than three feet in diameter. The Barberries have probably suffered more from the winter than any of the other deciduous- leaved shrubs planted in exposed situations, but many species and varieties of Roses, Deutzia, Philadelphus, Viburnum and Ligustrum are in excellent condition and promise to make important additions to these groups in northern gardens. Near the Administration Building the Asiatic Magnolias, which flower before the appearance of the leaves, are beginning to open their flowers; indeed the fragrant flowers of the shrubby Magnolia stellata and its pink-flowered form have been in bloom for a week. This is a perfectly hardy, usually free-flowering and very desirable shrub. The small flowers of Magnolia kobus from central Japan and its larger-flowered northern variety (var. borealis) are open. This northern variety is a large, hardy, fast-growing tree of good habit and handsome foliage, but it has never flowered freely here and the petals hang down in an unattractive way soon after the flowers open. It is a much less valuable ornamental plant than the Chinese M. conspicua, often called the Yulan Magnolia, which is one of the most beautiful of all early-flowering trees, although unfortunately the flowers are frequently touched by late frost or injured by storms. That the flowers may be seen to the greatest advantage the tree should be planted in front of evergreens which would also protect the flowers from frost. The hybrids, which have been mostly raised in France by crossing M. conspicua with the shrubby, purple-flowered M. denudata (or purpurea), flower rather later than the species and are therefore less liable to suffer from frost. These hybrids have flowers more or less tinged or striped with purple or rose color and the best known are M. Soulangeana, M. Alexandrina, M. Lennei, M. Norbertiana and At. speciosa. The Forsythias are fast opening their flowers. This genus has given to gardens some of the most beautiful and most generally satisfactory of all hardy shrubs. The species are all Chinese with the exception of F. europea which was discovered in Albania a few years ago. As we are learning every year, hybrids are often more desirable garden plants than the species from which they originate, and certainly the handsomest of the Forsythias in flower is a hybrid between F. suspensa, var. Fortunei and F. viridissima, called F. intermedia. Of this hybrid there are a number of forms differing in habit and in the color of the flowers, showing opportunity for still further variation and improvement. Of the species and varieties var. Fortunei is now the most generally used and the most vigorous and desirable garden plant, although F. suspensa, with its long slender drooping branches is best suited for draping high walls or steep banks. The European species is of much less value as a garden plant, and F. viridissima the first species cultivated in Europe and America and the latest of all to flower, is of comparatively little ornamental value. The Buffalo Berry (Shepherdia argentea) is in flower in the Oleaster Group on the left-hand side of Bussey Hill Road just above the Lilacs. The Buffalo Berry is a shrub or small tree with handsome silvery leaves, minute, clustered, axillary, precocious flowers, and small handsome crimson or yellow subacid fruits. It is a common inhabitant of the borders of streams from Saskatchewan to the Rocky Mountains as far south as New Mexico. In recent years much attention has been paid to it as a fruit plant in the dry cold interior parts of the continent. The earliest of the Peaches, Prunus (Persica) Davidiana, is in flower, although the plants in the Arboretum are blooming sparingly this year. This is a native of the mountains of northern China, and some writers have considered it the wild type of the cultivated Peach. There are pink and white-flowered varieties. This tree flowers, however, so early that the flowers are too often destroyed by fiost and therefore it is not of great importance as a garden plant here. The earliest of the Cherries to flower, Prunus tomentosa, is also from northern China, and will be in bloom within a week. This is a broad vigorous shrub of excellent habit which every spring is covered with large flowers, the white petals more or less tinged with red toward the base. The small, bright red, slightly hairy fruits are of good flavor. This interesting shrub was raised from seeds sent to the Arboretum from Peking in 1882 and is now somewhat cultivated for its fruit in Alberta, Dakota and in other co'd dry interior regions of the continent where other Cherries are not hardy. It should be much better known than it is in northern gardens. Very large specimens can be seen along the Boston Parkway between Perkins Street in Jamaica Plain and Forest Hills, and there are small plants on the right-hand side of Forest Hill* Road, entering from the Forest Hills Gate. A number of interesting forms of this plant discovered by Wilson in northern China have recently been described. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It wiil be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 200 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Minim Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookscore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 1","article_sequence":20,"start_page":77,"end_page":80,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23571","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25ea36d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 20 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. MAY 1. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 20. The most interesting event, perhaps, in the Arboretum this week is the flowering of several Japanese Cherries, which may be seen on the left hand side of Forest Hill Road from its junction with the Meadow Road to the Forest Hill gate. The first of the Japanese Cherries to flower is Prunus Sargentii. This is a tall tree in the native forests of the Northern Island where it is valued as a timber tree. There are six specimens of different sizes on the Forest Hili Road, and they are now covered with clusters of large pink or rose-colored single flowers, for the color of the flowers of this tree vary considerably on different individuals. The small black fruits which ripen in June are almost hidden by the large dark green leaves which in the autumn turn to shades of orange and red; the smooth, shining, reddish bark adds to the beauty of this tree. Travellers who have seen Cherry blossoms in many lands declare that Prunus Sargentii as it now appears in the Arboretum surpasses in beauty all other Cherry-trees. Whether this is an exaggeration or not it is certainly a tree of first rate importance for New England; and its hardiness, rapid growth, large size, the abundance of its flowers even on small plants, and its handsome foliage make it the most valuable deciduous leaved tree we have yet obtained from Japan. The trees in the Arboretum produce large crops of seeds and these germinate readily so that there is no reason why Prunus Sargentii should not become a common tree if nurserymen will recognize its value and make a business of making it known to the public. The better known Prunus pend-tda flowers a few days later. This tree is remarkable for its long, slender, pendulous branches which before the leaves expand are covered with small pink flowers. P. pendula, which does not appear to be common in a wild state in Japan, is often planted in Japanese gardens in which it sometimes grows to a large size. It was brought to the United States many years ago, and specimens from twenty to thirty feet high can be seen in the neighborhood of Boston. By nurserymen it has usually been propagated by grafting on tall stems of the common Cherry, with the result that the trees look unnatural and are rarely long-lived. Plants produced by grafting at the ground level grow to a larger size, live longer, and when in Sower look like fountains of pink mist. It has heen shown at the Arboretum that the drooping habit of the branches is reproduced in seedlings, and as this Che>ry bears seeds freely, seedling plants will, it is to be hoped, become more common. A plant with even more beautiful and more abundant flowers than Prvnus pendula is Prunus subhirtella, or as it is now labelled in the Arboretum, P. pendula ascendens, a small tree, or as it has grown here a large shrub, from central Japan, and now known through Wilson's collections to occur also in western China. It is perfectly hardy and flowers freely every year. Introduced into the Arboretum twenty years ago, and from here sent to Europe, it is surprising that this handsome plant has remained so little known in gardens. Prunus triloba can be seen in flower near P. tomentosa just below the entrance to the Shrub Collection at the Forest Hill gate. It is a shrub with bright clear pink flowers which are about an inch in diameter and appear before the leaves. The double flowered form of this shrub (var. multiplex) is a favorite garden plant in China whence forty or fifty years ago it was introduced into Europe and the United States where it is often cultivated. The much more beautiful single-flowered plant grows on the mountains near Peking and appears to have been cultivated for the first time in the Arboretum to which seeds were sent from China in 1882. Although perfectly hardy P. triloba is not a particularly vigorous plant. It well deserves a place, however, in every garden for the charming color of the flowers. The Plum-trees in the group next to the Cherries and at the principal entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Meadow Road are beginning to open their flower-buds. The earliest is the Canada Plum (Prunus vigra). This is the most northern of the American Plums, being distributed from Newfoundland to the shores of the Strait of Mackinaw and southward to t he northern borders of the United States. It is a small tree with rough dark bark, rather erect, ridged, spiny branches, and flowers slightly tinged with pink and becoming rose-colored in fading. This is not one of the handsomest of the American Plum-trees, but it is valuable on account of its hardiness, the early appearance of the flowers, and the early ripening of the fruit. Several selected forms are grown by pomologists. The flowers of P. nigra will soon be followed by those of the Chinese P. triflora. This is a common fruit tree in China and Japan, and from it or from some of its varieties the so-called Japanese plums, now so popular in the United States, have been derived. The plants in the Arboretum were obtained from seed brought in 1392 by Professor Sargent from Japan. With P. triflora will probably flower one of the Siberian Apricots, P. dasycarpa. In the Arboretum it has grown into a large shrub with widespreading branches. This plant is chiefly interesting on account of the dark purple or black color of the fruits which, however, have little value in comparison with those of the common Apricot. The Shad-bushes (Amelanchier) are just opening their flower-buds and it is a delightful time in the Arboretum when they are in bloom for they have been planted freely in the borders and along the margins of the woods, and some of these plants have grown to a large size. Two species are native in the Arboretum, A. canadensis, which grows in woodlands and often becomes a tree of considerable size; this species can always be recognized in early spring by the purple color of the unfolding leaves; and A. obovalis, which is an inhabitant of low moist soil and more shrubby in habit, with gray unfolding leaves covered v.-ith a thick felt. There are good sized trees of the former at the base of the wooded slope on the right hand aide of the Forest Hill Road and in the rear of the Apple Group, and there is a large plant of A. obovalis on the border of the North Meadow. It is this species which has been generally planted in the Arboretum. Few of the forest trees of Europe really succeed in eastern North America, but in the half dozen exceptions to this rule the Norway Maple (Acer platanoides) must certainly be included. Just row this handsome tree is conspicuous from the clusters of bright yellow flowers which cover the leafless branches. More showy than the flowers of the native Sugar Maple they are less delicate in color, while the flower clusters lack the grace of the slender drooping racemes of the American tree, which make the flowering term of the Sugar Maple a term of peculiar charm. In the last issue of these Bulletins something was said of the value of the hybrid Forsythia intermedia as a garden plant. Another hybrid of the same origin, which was raised in Germany and is called F. intermedia spectabilis, is flowering in the Arboretum for the first time. The flowers are larger and of a deeper color than those of the parents with narrower but longer corolla lobes. This new hybrid promises to be a garden plant of exceptional value. It may be seen among the other species and hybrids in the rear of the bank of Forsythias on the left hand side and at the lower end of the Bussey Hill Road. Many of the species of Ribes (Currants and Gooseberries) in the Shrub Collection are already covered with nearly full grown leaves; and a few of them, including the Rocky Mountain R. cereum, are in flower. In the Rhododendron collection at the base of Hemlock Hill a number of plants of R. praecox, Little Gem, are covered with clusters of pale lilac colored flowers. This plant was raised several years ago in the Vietchian Nursery in England by crossing the Siberian R. dahuricum with R. praecox, R. praecox being a hybrid between R. dahuricum and the Himalayan R. ciliatum. The Little Gem Rhododendron is a dwarf and perfectly hardy plant, and the earliest of the evergreen Rhododendrons in the collection to flower. It blooms, however, so early that unless an exceptionally favorable place can be secured for it the flowers are too often ruined by frost. Two American shrubs which have been used largely in the Arboretum for ground cover are now in flower and may be seen along the borders of several of the drives. They are the Fragrant Sumach (Rhus canadensis or aromatica) and the Yellow Root (Zanthorhiza apiifolia). The former is rather a straggling plant with slender stems sometimes three or four feet high, although in one of its forms this plant grows much more compactly. The flowers are bright yellow in small axillary clusters which appear before the three-lobed leaves. This has been found a useful plant in the Arboretum, although as a ground cover it has not proved as successful as the Yellow Root. This does not grow so tall, and spreading rapidly by underground shoots soon thickly covers the ground with its erect stems. The small purple flowers are produced on terminal erect or spreading racemes and open before or with the unfolding of the pinnate leaves, which become clear bright yellow in the autumn. On the whole this is the most satisfactory shrub, for covering the ground among trees and larger shrubs, which has been tried in the Arboretum. The careful examination of the opening buds and unfolding leaves of trees and shrubs can give much pleasure and greatly help to an accurate knowledge of these plants. Nearly every species differs in the color of the very young leaves and in the nature and amount of the hairs which protect them in the bud. At this time the young leaves of the Horsechestnuts or Buckeyes, of the Shadbushes, of several Maples, and especially of the Moosewood (Acer pennsylvanicum), of the Viburnums, and of many other plants in the Arboretum, are, if carefully examined, objects of great beauty; and in the young leaves are often found important characteristics for distinguishing species. All the American Oaks, for example, differ in their very young leaves, and some of them, like the Black and Scarlet Oaks, which are often difficult to recognize by their fully grown leaves, are easily distinguished by their very young leaves. All the American Oaks which are hardy in New England can be seen in the valley between the upper end of the Bussey Hill Road and the Valley Road, and in a few days their young leaves will be in condition to study. The flowers of the Chinese Magnolias, Forsythias, Asiatic Cherries, ana early Plum-trees and the expanding buds of a large number of trees and shrubs make this agood time far an early spring visit to the Arboretum. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 9","article_sequence":21,"start_page":81,"end_page":84,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23575","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25eb326.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 21 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY - BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 9, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 21. Although seldom cultivated and little known in this country, several of the wild Pear-trees are plants of ornamental value as their large white flowers, which open before or with the leaves, and the silvery foliage of several of the species are handsome in the spring. The genus Pyrus (the Pears), is now considered distinct from Malus (the Apples), and Cydonia (the Quinces); it is distributed with a dozen or fifteen species from southern Europe to the Caucasus, through Persia to the Himalayas, and northward to northern China, the largest number of species being found in southeastern Europe and the Caucasus. The genus is widely distributed and much cultivated in China where more species certainly occur than are now recognized by botanists. There is no native Pear-tree in northern Asia or in Japan, and the genus has no New World representative. This comparatively restricted range of the Pears is remarkable, for wild Apples occur in nearly all the countries of the north temperate zone. The Pears do not show such a tendency to hybridize as the Apples, although some of the wild European forms are sometimes considered on slight evidence natural hybrids; and in the United States undoubted hybrids between some of the cultivated varieties of the common Pear (P. communis), and cultivated plants of one of the Chinese species have appeared, and these hybrids have been largely planted for their fruit in different parts of the United States. The best known of these are the Keifer and the Leconte. The Arboretum collection of wild Pear-trees is planted on the left-hand side of the road entering from the Forest Hill Gate, above the collection of Apples. Some of the species will be in flower during the week and others will be interesting from the beauty of their unfolding leaves. The earliest Pear to flower is from northern China and is now called P. Simonii. It is one of the green-leaved species and, unlike those of all other Pear-trees, the leaves turn bright scarlet in the autumn. The fruit is small, light yellow, juicy, of good flavor, broadest at the base and gradually narrowed toward the apex. The handsome flowers and the brilliancy of the autumn leaves make this a valuable ornamental tree. A number of species with more or less silvery white leaves from southern Europe and the Caucasus will soon be in flower. Among them are P. malifolia, P. amygdaliformis, P. elaeagnifolia, P. Michauxii, P. salicifolia, P. parvifolia, etc. One of the handsomest plants in the collection is P. betulifolia from northern China, with crowded clusters of rather small flowers which are followed by globose fruits not much larger than peas. This is a very hardy, vigorous, tall, fast-growing tree. Among the plants grown in the Arboretum as P. sinensis are two very distinct forms raised from seeds sent here from Peking thirty years ago. They are both tall, shapely trees with large flowers and large, thick, lustrous leaves. One of these Pear-trees produces globose, yellow, juicy fruit, and is perhaps the wild type or one of the forms of the excellent yellow Pear which is brought in different sizes and great quantities to the Peking markets in September and October. The other form produces brown, hard fruits not more than half an inch in diameter; and on some trees the fruit is globose and on others pear-shaped. The Japanese Sand Pear, with its hard, brown, round fruits may perhaps have been derived from this Chinese plant. The White Willow (Salix alba) is now covered with its bright yellow catkins and makes a charming picture in the landscape. This is the largest and the most common Willow tree of New England where it has often grown to a noble size and assumed a picturesque habit. It is a European tree, and it is of interest that it is the only exotic tree that has really become widely naturalized in New England. There are many forms of this Willow and the one which has most often established itself here is the variety coerulea. There is no record of the introduction of this tree into America, but it was probably soon after the settlement of the country, for very old trees can be found here, and it must have taken a long time for it to have spread as generally as it has done. Occasionally plants of the Brittle Willow (S. fragilis) may be seen in this part of the country, but in some of the middle states it is now completely naturalized, having been brought there many years ago to provide charcoal for the powder works in Delaware. The most interesting plants now in flower in the Shrub Collection will be found among the Currants and Gooseberries (Ribes). The two yellowflowered American Currants are already in bloom. The better known of these, the so-called Missouri Currant (Ribes odoratum) was for many years a favorite garden plant in the United States and is still found in many old gardens. It is a large, broad, very hardy, fast-growing shrub with drooping clusters of bright yellow fragrant flowers and lustrous black fruits. It owes its popular name to the fact that it was first found on the upper Missouri River, and it is now known to occur on the great plains from South Dakota to Texas. In many books this plant appears as R. aureum, but this name properly belongs to a smaller plant from the northwest and the northern Rocky Mountains with more slender branches, smaller flowers, and black or orange-colored fruits. This species appears to be extremely rare in cultivation. The two plants are growing together in the Shrub Collection and the differences in their general appearance and in the structure of the flowers can be readily seen. Among the Gooseberries already in flower the most interesting perhaps are R. pinetorum from the mountains of New Mexico and Arizona, with bright, orange-red flowers; R. niveum from northwestern North America with pure white flowers; R. cynosbati from eastern North America, and its spineless variety, R. curvatum from Stone Mountain, Georgia, with white flowers gracefully drooping on long stalks; R. stenocarpum from western China with white flowers, and R. robustum, a vigorous white-flowered plant of unknown origin but supposed to be a hybrid between R. niveum and R. oxyacanthoides. The first of the Honeysuckles to bloom this year is Lonicera coerulea, a plant with small yellow-white flowers and early ripening bright blue fruit. It is one of the most widely distributed of the shrubs of the northern hemisphere, being found in numerous forms and varieties in the northern part of North America, Europe and Asia. There are several distinct forms of this plant now flowering in the Shrub Collection. The pink flowered Lonicera gracilipes from Japan and the Fly Honeysuckle of northeastern North America, (L. canadensis) are also in flower in the collection where Honeysuckles will continue to blossom for several weeks. The earliest Barberry in the Arboretum to flower this year is Berberis dictyophylla which, although it comes from the warm province of Yunan in China, has proved perfectly hardy here. The flowers are solitary or occasionally in pairs in the axils of the leaves, rather less than half an inch in diameter and pale primrose yellow in color. They are produced this year in profusion, but the greatest beauty of this plant is in the leaves which, although not large, are silvery white on the lower surface and in the autumn tarn brilliant scarlet on the upper surface while the lower surface retains its spring and summer color. This Barberry was sent to Europe a dozen years ago and soon reached the Arboretum where it is one of the handsomest shrubs of comparatively recent introduction. It can be seen in the Shrub Collection and among the Barberries on Hickory Path near Centre Street. The Hobble Bush or Moosewood (Viburnum alnifolium or lantanoides) is the first of the genus to flower here and one of the handsomest shrubs of northeastern North America where it grows in cold moist woods. In cultivation it is occasionally seen in good condition, growing to a large size, flowering freely, and spreading by the rooting of its inclining branches, but it has never done well in the Arboretum where the right place for it has probably not yet been found. The Hobble Bush is one of the species with broad flat flower-clusters surrounded by greatly enlarged neutral white flowers, the flowers opening with the unfolding of the leaves. A plantjast coming into flower can be seen among the dwarf Birches on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and just below the point where it turns abruptly to the left in ascending the hill. In Prinsepia sinensis, a member of the Rose Family and a native of northern China, the Arboretum has an interesting addition of recent introduction to its list of hardy shrubs. Prinsepia sinensis has small, axillary, bright yellow flowers, which are produced in profusion, and it is one of the earliest shrubs in the Arboretum to expand its bright green leaves which are nearly fully grown when the flower-buds open. It is now in bloom on the right-hand side of Hickory Path, going from the Valley Road, close to Centre Street. The hybrid Spiraea arguta (multiflora x Thunbergii), which is one of the handsomest of the early flowering Spiraeas, is a more desirable plant here than S. Thunbergii which flowers at the same time, but is never vigorous and is often injured by cold. This hybrid is in the Shrub Collection and large plants in flower can be seen in the supplementary Spiraea Collection on the short path between the two branches of Hickory Path near the middle of the Hickory Group. The Hickories are rapidly expanding their leaf-buds and these as they open are beautiful and interesting because the inner bud-scales rapidly enlarge before falling, and on some trees are bright red and on others yellow or green, appearing like the petals of some great flower. The beauty of these scales lasts for only a few days, but as the buds of the different species open during a period of at least two weeks, an observer who is able to visit the Arboretum several times at this season can see all of the Hickories which are hardy here at an interesting period of their development. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":22,"start_page":85,"end_page":88,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23572","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25ea76e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 22 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 16, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 22. Some of the earliest flowering Apple-trees are already in full bloom and during the next two or three weeks flowers can be seen on some of the species and varieties. Much attention has been paid to these plants at the Arboretum where they are arranged in two groups. The original group is on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road going towards the gate. The situation is not a good one, the space is very limited, and a few years ago a second collection was established at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. The plants here are smaller than those in the original group but the number of individuals and of species and varieties is much greater, and here will be found specimens of all the Crabapples that the Arboretum has been able to obtain. The study and proper comprehension of these plants are full of difficulties, for many of the species hybridize so freely that seedlings raised from seeds of cultivated plants rarely produce the original type, and wild plants or seeds from isolated wild plants of the Old World species are almost impossible to obtain. The common Apple-tree of orchards even is now generally believed to be a hybrid between the two European species; the so-called Siberian Crabs of American pomologists are supposed to be hybrids between the Common Apple and the Siberian Malus baccata, and the number of other varieties supposed to be hybrids is large, including two which have already appeared in: the Arboretum. One of the handsomest of all Crabapples, Malus floribunda, is one cf the earliest to flower. As it grows in this country it is a broad shrub, with a trunk dividing at the base into several large branches. The pink flowers, which are deep rose color in the bud, turn white before the petals fall and are produced in the greatest profusion. The dark green foliage is abundant but the yellow or orange-colored fruits, which are not much larger than peas, make little show. The origin of this plant is uncertain ; it was first sent to Europe from Japan but it is not a native of that country where it was probably introduced from China, although it does not appear to be known in China now in a wild state. By some authors it is considered a hybrid between two of the species of northern China, although it bears but little resemblance to its supposed parents. The largest specimens of this Crabapple will be found in the neighborhood of the Administration Building. A plant which is evidently a hybrid of M. floribunda appeared spontaneously in the Arboretum several years ago and has been named lYlalus Arnoldiana. It has much larger pink flowers and larger fruit than M. floribunda, and in flower is one of the most beautiful of all Crabapples. The Crabapple of eastern Siberia, Malus baccata, is a tall narrow tree with white flowers on long, drooping stems and very small yellow fruits from which the calyx falls before the fruit ripens. There is a fine old specimen of this tree in front of the gardener's house in the Harvard Botanic Garden at Cambridge. In the Arboretum a number of forms of this species have been raised. They are distinguished from the Siberian tree by larger pure white flowers and larger fruits than those of M. baccata. Some of these forms are among the most beautiful of the early flowering Crabapples. Malus spectabilis from northern China is a tall shrub or small tree with erect, slightly spreading stems, large pink flowers which in the cultivated plants are more or less double, and medium-sized yellow fruits. This is an old inhabitant of gardens where several forms have appeared. The handsomest of these is known as the Rivers Crab (M. spectabilis River8ii) from the English nurseryman by whom it was raised or distributed. The Parkman Crab (M. Halliana) owes its name to the fact that it was first cultivated outside of Japan by Francis Parkman, the historian, who received it from there in 1860. It is a small and not very vigorous tree with dark bark and bright, clear pink, semidouble flowers drooping on long, slender stalks. This is a Chinese plant now only known in gardens and long cultivated in those of Japan. It should be in a list of the four or five most beautiful Crabapples. Another handsome plant in this group is Malus Scheideckeri which is supposed to be a hybrid between M. fioritrunda and M. prunifclia. It is vigorous and fast-growing, with erect stems which form a narrow head, pink and white flowers and light yellow fruits. Interesting species now well established at the Arboretum are Malus zumi from Japan, with pink and white flowers, M. toringo from northern China and Japan, and M. Sargentii from Japan. The two last flower late, have small flowers in crowded clusters and are distinguished by the three-lobed leaves on the shoots of the year. Unlike all other Crabapples, M. Sargentii is a low shrub growing naturally on the borders of salt marshes. The so-called Siberian Crabapples of pomologists are trees of much ornamental value and are well worth cultivating for the beauty of their flowers and fruits; they are fast-growing trees with straight stems and pyramidal heads, large white flowers, and brilliant, often translucent, red or yellow, long-hanging fruits. The fruit is used in preserves and jellies, and for their fruits these trees are much grown in regions too cold for the successful cultivation of the common Apple. One of the most curious Apple-trees in the collection, M. Niedzwetzkyana, has deep purplish red flowers and fruit, even the flesh being purple, purple leaves at least early in the season and dark bark. It comes from central Asia and is probably a form of M. pumila, one of the parents of the common Apple-tree, as seedlings raised in the Arboretum have sometimes purple but more often green leaves. The Apple of the northwest coast (M. fusca or rivularis), with its distinct oblong fruits, can be seen in the group on the Forest Hills Road and with it a hybrid of this species and the common Apple, which has been named M. Dawsoniana. The Crabapples of eastern North America bloom later than the Old World species. They all have large, pink, fragrant flowers, and fragrant, green or yellowish fruit characterized by the sticky exudation with which it is covered. There are large plants of M. coronaria and M. ioensis, the two common eastern species, in the Forest Hills group opposite the end of the Meadow Road. There are large plants of the southern M. angustifolia on Hickory Path opposite the large group of Pterocaryas; and in the Peter's Hill group can be seen flowering plants of M. glaucescens, a species recently distinguished in western New York and now known to range along the Appalachian Mountains to North Carolina. The last of the Crabapples to flower is the double-flowered form of M. ioensis, known as the Bechtel Crab. This tree has double pale pink flowers which look like small clustered Roses, and attract so much attention that the ground around the trees is trodden hard every day by visitors who wish to examine them at close range. There are two trees of the Bechtel Crab opposite the end of the Meadow Road. The earliest of the American Hawthorns to flower in the Arboretum this year is Crataegus Arnoldiana. This is one of the largeleaved, large-flowered, and large-fruited species, and even in winter is easily recognized by its numerous thorns and by the zigzag manner in which its erect branches grow. The flowers open as the leaves expand and the brilliant scarlet fruit ripens toward the end of August and then soon falls. The early ripening of the fruit makes this tree valuable because showy fruits are not common here in summer. C. Arnoldiana grows naturally on a wooded bank in the Arboretum and on the Mystic River in West Medford, Massachusetts. When botanists called all American Thorns with red fruits C. coccinea or varieties of that. species C. Arnoldiana was included. There are a number of large plants in the shrubbery on. the right-hand side of the Meadow Road, between its junction with the Bussey Hill Road and the Centre Street Gate. There is a plant, too, in the collection of Crataegus between the Shrub Collection and the Parkway, and there are a number of others on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the group of White Oaks. These trees will be in flower next week. The earliest flowering plants of Rhododendron (Azalea) Kaempferi are beginning to show the color of their flowers. There are two large groups of these plants in the Arboretum, one on the left-hand side of Azalea Path and the other on Hemlock Hill Road where they are planted in a long narrow belt between the Hemlocks and the Laurels. The plants on Azalea Path being exposed to the sun flower earlier and fade quickly as the delicate flowersare unable'long to resist our sun. This handsome plant is a native of the high mountains of Japan and was first cultivated in the Arboretum where it was raised from seeds collected in 1902 by Professor Sargent. On Azalea Path many of the plants will soon be in full flower, but those in the shade of the Hemlocks will not be at their best probably for a couple of weeks, but when their flowers do open here they will furnish one of the great sights of the Arboretum year. Viburnum Carlesii, a native of Korea, is flowering in the Arboretum for the first time. It appears to be very hardy and promises to be a firstrate ornamental plant here. The flowers are produced in compact clusters and are very fragrant. The open flower is pure white but the bud is pink, and as all the flowers do not open at the same time the contrast between the pink buds and the white flowers adds to the beauty of the cluster. There are small plants of this species in the Viburnum group on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road near the nursery. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 22","article_sequence":23,"start_page":89,"end_page":92,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23573","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25eab6f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 23 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 22. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 23. Many of the Lilacs are now in flower and persons interested in these plants should visit the Arboretum during the next few days, although the flowers of several of the species will continue to open until the end of June. The plant with which the popular idea of Lilac is associated, and which for New England and other regions with cold winters and hot summers, is one of the most beautiful and successful of all shrubs is Syringa vulgaris. It is a plant for the north, for in southern New England and southward the leaves in summer are often temporarily disfigured by a white mildew. This plant was sent from Constantinople to Vienna about 1560 and soon reached western Europe, as the purple and white varieties were cultivated by Gerard in England in 1597. The Lilac was long believed to be a native of Persia, and it is only in comparatively recent years that its home has been found to be among the mountains of Bulgaria. A few years ago the Arboretum succeeded in obtaining seeds from wild Bulgarian plants and the seedlings raised from these seeds will bloom here this year for the first time. For more than two centuries only the purple and white varieties were cultivated; then a few selected seedlings appeared in gardens, and in the last thirty or forty years a great deal of attention has been paid in France and Germany to improving the Lilac. In the Arboretum collection there are now one hundred and twenty of these named varieties and there are others for which room cannot be found. Further improvement in these plants by selection can hardly be expected; indeed some of the oldest varieties are still the best, and many of the seedlings of recent years are so much alike that many of them are not worth cultivating. Indeed, in a dozen selected varieties nearly all the good qualities and the greatest beauty of modern garden Lilacs can be found. If there is not much now to be expected from new seedlings of Syringa vulgaris, the making of hybrids between the species promises interesting and valuable garden plants if we can judge by the excellence of a few hybrid Lilacs, which have already been raised. The first of these hybrids, the Rouen Lilac, was raised in 1795 in France and is the result of crossing Syringa vulgaris with the small, late-flowered Syringa persica. The oldest name for this plant is unfortunately Syringa chinensis, given to it through a misunderstanding of its origin; it is also known as S. rothomagensis. It is very vigorous and is intermediate in character between its parents. The flowers are reddish purple, fragrant, and produced in long comparatively narrow clusters which weigh down the slender branches; there is a variety with nearly white flowers. This hybrid is among the best of all garden Lilacs. A hybrid between S. vulgaris and S. oblata with small, semi-double, very fragrant, purple flowers, known as S. hyacinthiflora, is one of the earliest of all Lilacs to flower and is a vigorous, large-growing and very hardy plant. S. oblata, one of the parents of this hybrid, is a native of northern China and has been in flower for several days. The large pale lilac flowers are very fragrant and are produced in more or less irregular clusters. The leaves are thick and leathery in texture, and, unlike those of all other Lilacs, turn in the autumn to a deep bronze red color. In gardens this plant becomes a tall, broad shrub, but the brittleness of the branches, which are often broken down by snow or ice, reduces its value. Two other Chinese Lilacs bloom as early or earlier than S. oblata. These are the white-flowered S. affinis and the lilac-flowered form of this species, called var. Giraldii. S. affinis is the common and perhaps the only Lilac cultivated in the gardens of Peking in which great masses of it are sometimes seen. The variety comes from the province of Shensi. The flowers of these two Lilacs are fragrant and beautiful, but the open irregular habit of growth assumed by these plants in the Arboretum is not attractive. If they become more shapely with greater age, they will be garden plants of real value. S. pubescens is just opening its very fragrant, long-tubed, rather small flowers; this is a native of northern China, and is hardy, free-flowering, and one of the most beautiful of all Lilacs. It is still little known in gardens. The Persian Lilacs (S. persica) bloom rather later than the common Lilacs. This beautiful plant has been known in gardens for two centuries and a half, and there are purple and white-flowered varieties and a form with deeply-divided leaves (var. laciniata) which is less vigorous than the others. One of the least beautiful of Lilacs is the Hungarian S. Josikaea, a tall, slender shrub with narrow elongated clusters of small purple flowers which open later than those of the Persian Lilac. By crossing this plant with the Chinese S. villosa a remarkable race of hybrids was produced in Paris a few years ago. This hybrid race has the vigor, good habit, and large flowers of S. villosa, and the purple flowers of S. Josikaea. The general name for this race of hybrids is S. Henryi, from the horticulturist who produced it, and the best known and most beautiful of these hybrids is called Lutece. This is a plant which should be in general cultivation. S. villosa blooms later than the other Lilacs and is therefore more valuable. It is a large, vigorous, and very hardy shrub with good foliage and numerous clusters of pale pink or rose-colored flowers which, unlike those of the other true Lilacs, have a disagreeable odor. A hybrid between S. affinis, var. Giraldii, and the common Lilac has been produced in France and is highly spoken of. It has not yet flowered in the Arboretum. On the right-hand side of the South Street entrance are large plants of Crataegus mollis and on the left-hand side there is a plant of C. arkan-. sana, and next to it and nearer the gate a plant of C. submollis. These trees, which are now in full flower, belong to the section Molles of the genus which has large leaves, large flowers and large, usually scarlet fruit. C. mollis is one of the common Hawthorns of the middle and western states where on bottom-lands it grows to a large size. Its fruit ripens and falls in September. C. arkansana, a native of central Arkansas, is a handsomer tree distinguished by its long, wide-spreading, more or less horizontal branches; the fruit ripens late and remains on the branches until the end of November. C. submollis is a native of eastern Massachusetts, with pear-shaped fruit which ripens and falls in September. These trees and a number of other Hawthorns were raised at the Arboretum from seeds planted about 1880. When lifteen or twenty years later they began to flower it was seen that many of them were unlike any of the described species. This fact led to the general study of American Hawthorns which has been carried on at the Arboretum during the last twelve years. During these years three thousand lots of seeds collected from wild plants in different parts of the country have been planted and thousands of seedlings have been raised and distributed. A set of these seedlings has been planted on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill where the oldest of them are already beginning to flower. On the left-hand side of the South Street entrance may also be seen the largest plant in the Arboretum of the Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra) now in full flower. The earliest blooming of the American Magnolias, M. Fraseri, is unfolding the pale-yellow petals of its large flowers which open as the leaves begin to expand. This native of the forest of the southern Appalachian Mountains is a comparatively small tree; it does well at the Arboretum where it flowers freely every year. It can be seen in several specimens with the other American Magnolias on the right of the Jamaica Plain entrance and between the gate and the Administration Building. In the Shrub Collection the red-fruited Elders are in full flower and are handsome shrubs, especially in early summer when their brilliant fruit ripens. In the collection can be seen the North American Sambucus pubens, the European and Siberian S. racemosa and their varieties, and the Japanese S. racemosa var. Sieboldiana. This is a very vigorous large shrub, and although the flower and fruit clusters are smaller than those of the other forms of this group, the bronze color of the finely divided leaves makes it particularly attractive at this season. The large plant of Fothergilla major with its attractive heads of white flowers is now in full bloom in the Witch Hazel Group near the pond at the end of the Meadow Road; it is also in the Shrub Collection. Many of the Bush Honeysuckles are beginning to flower. One of the most conspicuous of the early-flowered species of this group is Lonicera chrysantha from eastern Siberia. A large plant of this can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs, and here, too, are several large plants of some of the hybrids of the Tartarian Honeysuckle. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 29","article_sequence":24,"start_page":93,"end_page":96,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23574","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25eaf25.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 24 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. MAY 29, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 24. Next to the Lilacs the most conspicuous shrubs now in the Arboretum will be found in the group of Bush Honeysuckles. Among these are some of the hardiest and generally most successful shrubs for northern gardens. They not only produce countless beautiful and fragrant flowers but their fruits, which usually ripen in summer, are equally beautiful and abundant. The best known of these plants, the Tartarian Honeysuckle (Lonicera tatarica), a native of the region from southern Russia to the Altai and Ural Mountains, is an old inhabitant of gardens where formerly it was more often seen than it is at present. This is a vigorous plant, growing ten feet high or more and equally broad, and there are varieties with white, pale yellow, pink and rose-colored flowers, and with yellow and red fruits. Interesting and valuable hybrids of this plant have appeared in European gardens. One of the handsomest of these, L. notha, with pale pink flowers, is believed to be the result of a cross with L. Ruprechtiana from northeastern Asia. There are two large specimens of this plant on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilac Group. There is here also a large plant of L. bella, with pale yellow flowers, the result of a cross between L. tatarica and L. Morrowii. L. xylosteoides, with white flowers, a hybrid between the Tartarian Honeysuckle and L. Xylosteum, and L. muendeniensis with pale yellow flowers, a hybrid of the Tartarian Honeysuckle with L. Morrowii from northeastern Asia, are also handsome and desirable plants. Other interesting plants now in flower are L. muscaviensis, with pale yellow flowers, a hybrid between two species of northeastern Asia, L. Morrowii and L. Ruprechtiana, L. Segreziensis, with white flowers, a hybrid between L. quinquelocularis and L. Xylosteum, L. multiflorajwith white flowers, a hybrid between L. micrantha and L. Morrowii. The translucent fruit of this plant is perhaps the most beautiful of all the Honeysuckle fruits produced in the Arboretum. Lonicera Korolkowii is a vigorous plant from Turkestan with pale bluish foliage and small rose-colored flowers; equally beautiful are the var. floribunda of this species and a hybrid of the species with L. tatarica which appeared in the Arboretum and is known as L. amoena Arnoldiana. These three plants are of exceptional value from the beauty of their delicate flowers and foliage. Attention is also called to three Honeysuckles from northeastern Asia, L. Ruprechtiana with narrow leaves and large yellow flowers, L. Maackii with pure white flowers, and L. Morrowii with white and yellow flowers. The flowers of L. Maackii are large and make a handsome contrast with the dark green leaves. The form of this species from western China, var. podocarpa, is in every way a less desirable garden plant. L. Morrowii is a large, round-headed shrub with pale, gray-green foliage and wide-spreading branches, the lowest clinging close to the ground. This plant is well suited for the formation of dense thickets or to border drives and walks where abundant space can be given to it, as can be seen at several points in the Boston Park System. A hybrid between L. Morrowii and L. tatarica is often sold in American nurseries as L. Morrowii itself, but it is a very inferior plant to either of its parents. Outside the Boston parks, where a few of the strong-growing Bush Honeysuckles have been planted, they are rarely seen in American collections in spite of their great beauty and value. They need good soil and plenty of space in which to develop naturally or much of their beauty is lost. The habit these plants assume as they attain their full size can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road and along the Arborway between Jamaica Pond and the entrance to the Arboretum. Some of the small-growing Bush Honeysuckles from central and western China now in flower in the Shrub Collection deserve careful examination. Some of the most interesting species are L. syringantha and L. syringantha, var. Wolfii, with purple flowers, from western China, L. tibetica and L. tangutica from the same region, and L. coerulea gracilipes, with pale yellow drooping flowers, from Turkestan. To many people the word Horsechestnut stands only for the great tree from the mountains of Greece with large clusters of white flowers blotched with red which has been planted for at least a hundred years in the United States where it is one of the most satisfactory of all exotic trees. But there are many other Horsechestnuts, both trees and shrubs, as may be seen by the examination of a group of these plants on the right-hand side of ths Meadow Road and just beyond the Linden Group. jH5bme of the hybrids are of much interest and of these the best known now is the so-called red-flowered Horsechestnut, Aesculus carnea, a hybrid probably between the Grecian tree (Ae. Hippocastanum) and the red-flowered Aesculug Pavia from the southeastern United States, although the history of the origin of this tree is unknown. A form or variety of this hybrid, known as Ae. carnea Briotii, appeared about forty years ago in a French nursery and is a tree with handsomer and much darker-colored flowers than the ordinary red-flowered Horsechestnut. The beauty of these flowers can be seen on two small plants now flowering in the collection. Ae. glabra, the Ohio Buckeye, and some of its varieties, Ae. octandra and hybrids between the last and Ae. Pavia, known under the general name of Ae. versicolor, are also in flower. These hybrids and varieties of the American Horsechestnut were popular garden plants in France in the first half of the last century but they have now largely disappeared from cultivation and are difficult to obtain. One of the oldest and largest collections to be found now anywhere is in the Mt. Hope nurseries at Rochester, N. Y. The large and abundant flowers of Magnolia Fraseri, mentioned in the last number of these bulletins, are now iully open. Two other American Magnolias in the same group are also in flower, M. acuminata and M. cordata. M. acuminata, the Cucumber-tree, is a large tree with small, yellow-green, not very conspicuous flowers. This is the most northern in its range of the American Magnolias and is a hardy, fast-growing tree of rather formal pyramidal habit while young; it is a distinct and desirable tree for northern plantations in which in good soil it can grow to a large size. M. cordata is a smaller, round-headed tree with thicker and darker- colored leaves and small, bright canary yellow flowers. This beautiful tree is supposed to have been carried to France from the mountain forests of northern Georgia or of the Carolinas at the beginning of the last century. It has not been rediscovered, however, or a tree exactly like it has not been rediscovered in the south, and it is now only known as a cultivated tree. The plants in the Arboretum were obtained by grafts taken from the old trees in the Harvard Botanic Garden at Cambridge where they were probably planted soon after the establishment of the Garden. This tree usually bears a second crop of flowers during the summer but does not produce fruit, so that it can be propagated only by grafts and therefore remains extremely rare in cultivation. Viburnum prunifolium is in flower and can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs and at several points on the Valley Road. It is one of the three arborescent Viburnums of the United States and is a small tree with spreading branches and compact clusters of pure white flowers which are followed by blue-black fruit. It is one of the handsomest of the American Viburnums and is too rarely found in gardens. On the right-hand side of the Meadow Road there is a fine group of the northern pink-flowered Rhododendron (Azalea) canescens in flower and this plant can be seen on Azalea Path and in some of the other plantations. It is one of the earliest of the eastern American Azaleas to flower and during the next six weeks other species will bloom in the Arboretum where they are much hardier and in every way more satisfactory than the so-called Ghent Azaleas which are hybrids too often weakened by crosses with the tender yellow Azalea of the Caucasus or with the short-lived Japanese A. mollis. For American gardens American Azaleas, though not often cultivated, have proved themselves more satisfactory than any of the hybrids in part raised from them. The pale pink buds of the opening flowers of the hybrid Spiraea nudiflora in the Shrub Collection make this plant conspicuous at this time among the large number of species and hybrids of this genus. Of the immense tropical and subtropical genus Symplocos only one species is hardy in New England. This is the Japanese S. crataegoides, a large shrub with clusters of small white flowers just now opening and bright blue fruits which make this plant particularly attractive in the autumn. It is in the Shrub Collection and there are large specimens in the grass border between the drive and the walk on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs. Vaccinium corymbosum, the High-bush Blueberry of New England swamps, has been largely planted in different parts of the Arboretum and is now covered with its white bell-shaped flowers. This is one of the most beautiful shrubs of eastern North America. The habit is good, the flowers and fruit are beautiful, and no other plant has more splendid autumn color. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 5","article_sequence":25,"start_page":97,"end_page":100,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23570","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24e896c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 25 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 5, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 25. Viburnums have been largely planted in the Arboretum and the abundant and conspicuous flowers now open on several of the species show the value of these plants for the decoration of parks and gardens. Viburnums are found in all the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere, the largest number of species growing in eastern Asia and in the eastern United States. The eastern American species, all things considered, are more valuable garden plants than those from other parts of the world, although there are a few Old World species which must be counted among the best of all hardy shrubs. Among these Old World species which cannot be spared from our collections are the European Wayfaringtree, Viburnum Lantana, the Japanese and Chinese V. tomentosum, and the Japanese V. dilatatum. The first of these plants is a large shrub or small tree with blue-green foliage, large convex clusters of flowers which are followed by fruits, which when fully grown are at first bright red and then become black, fruits of the two colors being found together in the same cluster. This is a very hardy and vigorous plant and flowers here early in May. Viburnum tomentosum is a large flat-topped shrub with wide-spreading horizontal branches, and in Japan sometimes becomes treelike in habit. It is one of the species in which the clusters of small perfect flowers are surrounded by a ring of abortive flowers with much enlarged pure white corollas. The flower clusters of Viburnum, tomentosum are arranged along the upper side of the branches and are produced in great profusion, making it one of the most beautiful of all the shrubs now flowering in the Arboretum. The fruit is small, at first bright red and finally nearly black; the leaves turn orange and red in the autumn. A variety of this plant with very narrow leaves (var. lanceolatum) discovered by Professor Sargent in Japan is flowering in the recently arranged Viburnum Group on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road near its junction with the Valley Road. The Japanese Snowball, known usually in gardens as Viburnum plicatum, is a form of Viburnum tomentosum (var. dilatatum). This must not be confounded, however, with the true Viburnum dilatatum, which will not be in flower probably for a couple of weeks. This is a large shrub with numerous clusters of creamy white flowers but is most interesting in the autumn when it is covered with small, bright red, lustrous fruits which remain in good condition for a long time. Of the three species cultivated in the Arboretum of the Opulus Group of Viburnums, with palmately lobed and veined leaves and showy sterile flowers surrounding the flower clusters, two are from the Old World and are perhaps handsomer garden plants than the American representative of this group. The three species are V. opulus, from central and northern Europe, V. Sargentii, from northeastern Asia, and V. americanum, from northeastern America. The first is the largest plant of the three, with thicker darker green leaves late persistent in the autumn, and dark red fruit. The old-fashioned Snowball of gardens is a form of this species with all the flowers sterile; there is a very dwarf form which rarely flowers, and there is a form with yellow fruit. The flowers of Viburnum Sargentii are more showy than those of the other species, but the fruit is small and inconspicuous. The habit of V. americanum, the socalled High-bush Cranberry, is less compact than that of the other species. The flowers, however, are beautiful, and the fruit, which is translucent and very lustrous, remains on the branches through the winter ; in the autumn the leaves turn bright orange-red before falling. The three species are all very hardy. Viburnum americanum and V. Sargentii have been generally planted in the Arboretum, and very large plants of V. opulus can be seen on the Parkway and in some of the other Boston parks. Among the other American species Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobblebush, and V. prunifolium have been mentioned in recent issues of this bulletin, and their flowers have already gone. The species which is now so conspicuous in many parts of the Arboretum is the Nanny-berry, V. Lentago. This common New England roadside plant is a large shrub or small tree with large, thick, lustrous leaves, large, rounded clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by drooping blue-black fruits. There is no better or hardier plant for large shrubberies or the borders of woods, and much of the early June beauty of the Arboretum is due to its general use here. It is one of the three American arborescent species, the others being V. prunifolium and V. rufidulum. This last is a southern plant distinguished by its thick and shining leaves and by the thick red-brown, felt-like covering of the winter-buds and leaf-stalks. V. rufidulum is still rare in cultivation but fortunately it is hardy in the Arboretum. Young plants are now in flower in the Viburnum Group on the Bussey Hill Road. On the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the Lilacs, a large mass of Viburnum pubescens completely covered with small clusters of white flowers is now one of the most conspicuous objects in the Arboretum. This shrub grows from western New York westward and southward, and, although hardly known in gardens, is a first-rate garden plant. The eastern American species with bright blue fruits, V. dentatum, V. venosum, and V. Canbyi, will flower later in the order in which they are mentioned here. They are common wild plants in the regions they inhabit and are all greatly improved by good cultivation. They have been freely used in different parts of the Arboretum and their value for the decoration of American parks is at last beginning to be appreciated. The Arrowwood, Viburnum acerifolium, will soon be in flower. This inhabitant of northern forests is a small, shade-enduring shrub with neat foliage, small flower-heads and black fruit. It can be seen in large masses on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill Road where in going up the hill it is the last of the small collection of Viburnums planted in the grass border between the drive and walk. Viburnum affine, considered a variety of V. pubescens, a rare plant from southern Missouri, is now flowering in the Viburnum Group where in the next two weeks flowers may be seen of the still rarer V. molle from the southern states. Persons interested in the cultivation of shrubs should study carefully at different seasons of the year the Viburnums which have been assembled in the Arboretum. Enkianthus is an eastern Asiatic and Himalayan genus, with drooping clusters of small, bell-shaped flowers, and dry capsular fruits, and is related to Andromeda. Three Japanese species are well established in the Arboretum and can be seen in the Shrub Collection and in a large group on the right-hand side of Azalea Path. The handsomest of the three species, E. campanulatus, is a tall shrub with slender erect stems and branches, and light yellow or rose-colored flowers. It is found in every Japanese garden where it is valued for the bright scarlet color the leaves assume in autumn, and where it is often cut into balls and other fantastic shapes. This Enkianthus is a garden plant here of real value. The other species, E. japonicus and E. subsessilis, are smaller plants with smaller yellow flowers and are less valuable ornaments of the garden. Some of the most valuable shrubs now found in gardens are natural hybrids of related species or have been produced by skilful hybridizers. One of the most beautiful of Lilacs, Syringa chinensis, described in a recent issue, is a natural hybrid which appeared one hundred years ago in the Botanic Garden at Rouen. Several of the most attractive Honeysuckles are hybrids, and in recent years the crossing of different species in several genera has produced new races of garden plants which have vigor, hardiness and beauty not possessed by their parents. A good example of the value of such hybrids is found in Deutzia Lemoinei, obtained by a French nurseryman by crossing the Japanese D. gracilis with D. parviflora of northern China, and now in flower in the Shiub Collection. Although it resembles D. gracilis in habit, it grows into a taller and broader shrub; the flowers are larger and it is much hardier. It is certainly one of the best garden plants of recent introduction. The systematic crossing of shrubs with the object of creating new forms, except perhaps in the case of Roses, is a comparatively new industry, but it has already produced startling results in such genera as Magnolia, Deutzia, Philadelphus, Ceanothus, Rhododendron, and Diervilla; and with the great number of new shrubs discovered in recent years in eastern Asia and eastern North America at his disposal the hybridizer will now have new and abundant opportunity to show his judgment and skill in producing new races of plants. Hybrid trees are naturally less common than hybrid shrubs and, except in the case of fruit trees, comparatively few attempts to cross different species of trees have been made. Trees which are believed to be natural hybrids, however, are not rare. There are several American Oaks which are probably hybrids and these, so far as they have been tested in the Arboretum, grow more rapidly than their supposed parents. For example Ulmus vegeta, which is believed to be a hybrid between two European species, grows more rapidly than any other Elm-tree, and the so-called Carolina Poplar, which is not an American tree but probably a hybrid between the American Cottonwood and the European Black Poplar, outgrows, at least while young, all other Poplar trees. Several of the Rhododendrons in the collection at the base of Hemlock Hill are in flower and the flower-buds of many others are fast opening. The end of this week and the beginning of next week will probably be the best time to visit this collection which is most easily reached from the South Street entrance where automobiles should be left. This is one of the most interesting times of the year to visit the Pinetum, for many conifers are now in their greatest beauty, as the young shoots, of various shades of green or blue, are now growing rapidly on many of these trees and often afford good characters for distinguishing the Firs, Spruces and Pines. Particularly handsome just now are the Carolina Hemlock (Tsuga caroliniana), the Colorado White Fir (Abies concolor), the two Rocky Mountain Spruces (Picea pungens and P. Engelmannii), now bluer than they will be later in the season, and the Douglas Spruce, (Pseudotsuga mucronata). An entrance to the Pinetum is close to the Walter Street gate. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 12","article_sequence":26,"start_page":101,"end_page":104,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23567","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24e8127.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 26 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 12, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 26. The Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) will be in full bloom at the end of the week. They are planted along the base of Hemlock Hill, and here the plants remain in flower for a long time, for they are protected from the full effects of the sun by the hill behind them and the soil is moist and cool. The beauty of the flowers, too, is heightened by the dark background of Hemlocks, and none of the flower displays in the Arboretum surpass the flowering of the Laurels which this year promise greater beauty than ever as the plants never before have been so covered with flowers-buds. Kalmia is a genus which is found only in North America and, with the exception of one small species, is confined to the eastern part of the country. Kalmia latifolia is the largest and most important species of the genus and in favorable situations on the southern Appalachian Mountains sometimes grows to the size of a small tree. It is one of the most beautiful of hardy flowering shrubs and for the northern states the most valuable of the broad-leaved evergreens which can be successfully grown here in the open ground. It would be astonishing that it has been so neglected in this country as a garden plant were it not for the fact that it has never been greatly appreciated or largely planted in England, and until recent years England has set the fashion in plants for us; and so because Rhododendrons flourish in many parts of England we have tried to grow them in a climate not really suited to them and have neglected our native Laurel which, less showy perhaps than some of the Rhododendrons, has beauties of its own which no Rhododendron can surpass. No hybrids or varieties of Kalmia latifolia have been developed in cultivation probably because little attention has thus far been paid to the cultivation of these plants, and the few varieties which are known have appeared naturally in the woods. There is a form with pure white flowers (var. alba), and there is another with deep pink, nearly red flowers and darker green leaves (var. ruhra). These extreme forms are connected by others with flowers of all shades of pink. There is a distinct form with small leaves and small heads of small flowers (var. myrtifolia). This form is a low compact bush and flowers only sparingly. A form with broad obtuse leaves like those of a Rhododendron (var. obtusata) was discovered near Pomfret, Connecticut, a few years ago; this is alsoa shy bloomer. In another form (var. polypetala), first found near South Deerfield, Massachusetts, the corolla is deeply divided into narrow lobes. These varieties are all well established in the Arboretum. The Laurels can be easily and quickly reached from the South Street and Walter Street entrances. The Sbeepkill, Kalmia angustifolia, is a handsome dwarf shrub with small dark red flowers and, although rarely seen in gardens, well deserves cultivation. Another dwarf species recently discovered on the southern Appalachian Mountains, K. caroliniana, promises to be hardy in the Arboretum, but is still growing in the nursery where seeds of it were planted in 1906. Of the other dwarf species those from the north are difficult to cultivate and require special treatment, and the others are not hardy here. The blooming of the Syringas (Philadelphus) is also an interesting event in the Arboretum where a large collection of these beautiful plants has been assembled. They can be seen in the Shrub Collection and in a large supplementary group on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, opposite the Lilac Group. The first of these plants to flower is a new addition to the collection, P. Schrenkii, var. Jackii, a rather dwarf plant with slender stems and medium-sized flowers discovered in Corea a few years ago by Mr. Jack who brought seeds to the Arboretum. The flowers have already nearly all fallen. The next to open are the flowers of the southern Appalachian P. hirsutus. P. coronarius is also one of the early-flowering species; this is a native of southeastern Europe and the Caucasus, with extremely fragrant creamy white flowers. It is the Mock Orange of all old-fashioned gardens and the only European species of this genus. There are several varieties of this plant in the collection but none of them are as valuable as the common form, which is still one of the best garden plants in the genus, and are of little interest except as curiosities. Many other species will soon open their flower-buds; among some of the most interesting are P. inodorus, with large, solitary, pure white flowers, and one of the most distinct and beautiful plants in the genus although it is little known in gardens; P. Falconerii, of unknown origin but probably a native of Japan or China, and P. maximus, a probable hybrid between two American species, and the largest of all the Mock Oranges. In no other genus of woody plants have more astonishing and unexpected results been obtained by the hybridizer. A few years ago the Rocky Mountain Philadelphus microphyllus was sent by the Arboretum to Lemoine, the famous French hybridizer; this is a small-growing species, with small leaves, and small, very fragrant flowers. Lemoine crossed it with P. coronarius and produced a new race of plants to which the general name of Philadelphus Lemoinei has been given. These hybrids are dwarf and compact shrubs with pure white fragrant flowers, usually not as large as those of P. coronarius, and small foliage. There are now many named varieties of this race in the Arboretum and some of the most distinct and beautiful of them are Avalanche, Boule d'Argent, Bouquet Blanc, Candelabre, Conquete, Fantasie, Gerbe de Neige, Manteau d'Hermine, Mont Blanc, Nuee Blanche, Pavillon Blanc, etc. These and several others are beginning to open their flowers, and no more charming group of dwarf hardy shrubs can be seen. Philadelphus rmcrophyllus itself blooms later; none of the other species surpasses it in the fragrance of its flowers. With the exception of P. coronarius, all the species are found in the southeastern United States, the southern Rocky Mountain region, the northeastern United States, and in eastern Asia. The largest plants are found among the American species which generally produce larger and handsomer flowers, and are better garden plants than the Asiatic species which usually have smaller and less fragrant flowers. Some of the Cornels or Dogwoods are now conspicuous. The principal group of these plants is at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and several species have been freely planted in border shrubberies in different parts of the Arboretum. The most interesting species now in flower are Cornus rugosa or circinata and C. sanguinea. The first, which is a common native shrub, is one of the handsomest of the genus; it has green branchlets, broad, rounded pale green leaves paler and hairy on their lower surface, and conspicuous clusters of creamy white flowers which are followed by beautiful light blue fruits. Like a few other Dogwoods, it is difficult to transplant but once established soon spreads into large masses. There are several individuals in the Cornel collection, and large shapely plants can be seen on the bank just above the group of Sassafras trees on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, and below the Benzoin Group. Among the Hickories on the right-hand side of the Valley Road there are also large groups of this plant. Cornus songuinea is a native of southern Europe and southeastern Asia, and is a large shrub with dark red branches, small flat flower clusters and black fruit; it has wide-spreading lower branches clinging close to the ground, and is well suited to grow as a single specimen or to plant on the margins of woods or of a large shrubbery. The habit of this plant can be seen in the large specimen in the Cornel group. Magnolia glauca, the Sweet Bay of the Atlantic coast swamps, planted on the right-hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance, is beginning to fill the air with the aromatic fragrance of its creamy white flowers. This is a shrub or small tree, with handsome leaves bright green and very lustrous above but silvery white below, which remain on the branches until the beginning of winter, and small cup-shaped flowers; it is the last of the Magnolias to flower, and the flowers open during several weeks. Magnolia glauca is perfectly hardy; it is easily cultivated and it is one of the most beautiful of the small trees which can be successfully grown in this part of the United States. It is astonishing therefore that it is so little known by the present generation and that good plants in quantity cannot be found in any American nursery. Two plants of a rare Apple-tree (Malus florentina or crataegifolia) of the northern Apennines are just passing out of flower in the Apple Group at the eastern base of Peter's Hill where they have flowered more profusely this year than they have before in the Arboretum. It is a small tree with much-lobed leaves like those of the European Hawthorn, small white flowers, and small bright red fruits. Of all the Apples planted in the Arboretum it is the last to flower. The different forms of the climbing Evonymus radicans are flowering very freely this year and can be seen in the Evonymus Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. The hardiest, handsomest and most desirable of all the forms of this useful plant which have been tried in the Arboretum is the broad-leaved variety from northern Japan (var. vegetus) which, although it has been cultivated in the Arboretum for the last twenty-five years, is still little known and difficult to find in nurseries. Opposite the Evonymus Group the Smoke-tree (Cotinus) of old-fashioned gardens is in bloom. The flowers are not conspicuous, and it is the clusters of the lengthening hairy colored stems of the flowers which make the \"smoke\" and the conspicuous feature of this plant which is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, the Himalayas, and western China. Near it is a large plant of the American Cotinus which is also in flower. The clusters of hairy flower-stems are less conspicuous than those of its Old World relative, but the foliage is larger, lighter-colored, and in autumn turns brilliantly to orange and scarlet shades. The American Smoke-tree, although it is a native of northern Alabama and southwestern Missouri, is perfectly hardy in New England in the most exposed positions, and is as much at home in western Europe as it is in New England, although usually the trees and shrubs of the southeastern United States do not flourish in Great Britain where they miss the summer and autumn heat necessary to properly ripen their wood. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 19","article_sequence":27,"start_page":105,"end_page":108,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23568","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24e8528.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 27 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 19, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 27. In Bulletin No. 23 something was said of the Chinese Syringa villosa and of the hybrids of this plant with the Hungarian S. Josikaea, represented by the variety called Lutece. This variety is just passing out of flower and this year has sustained its reputation of being the handsomest of the late-flowering Lilacs. It is interesting that among the plants of S. villosa recently raised at the Arboretum there is one with nearly pure white flowers. There is a group of Lilacs which bloom even later than Lutece and its parents; they are not true Lilacs, however, and belong to the section Ligustrina of the genus which differs from the true Lilacs in the short tube of the corolla from which the stamens protrude. There are three species of this group, all natives of northeastern Asia; they are shrubs or small trees, and they produce white, bad-smelling flowers in large clusters. Two of the species are in bloom in the Lilac Group on the lefthand side of the Bussey Hill Road. The earliest of these plants, S. amurensis, is not flowering this year; it is a native of eastern Siberia, as its name indicates, and is a small tree with flat, spreading or slightly drooping clusters of white flowers. The second species to flower, S. pekinensis, a native of northern China, is a shrub rather than a tree, although it sometimes reaches the height of thirty feet, with numerous stout stems pendant at the ends and covered with bark peeling off in thin layers like that of some of the Birch trees. The long, narrow leaves hang gracefully, and the half-drooping flower-clusters, which are flat and unsymmetrical, are smaller than those of the other species but are produced in great quantities. S. japonica, a native of the forests of Japan, is the last of the Tree Lilacs to flower and is a tree often thirty or forty feet high, with a tall, stout trunk covered with lustrous bark like that of a Cherry tree, and a wide, round-topped head. The leaves are large, thick and dark green, and the flowers are produced in large, erect, symmetrical clusters. Like the other species of this group, S. japonica loses its leaves early in the autumn without change of color. S. amurensis and S. pekinensis have not become common in gardens, but S. japonica has been quite generally planted in those of the eastern states. It is one of the most valuable plants introduced by the Arboretum where it was first raised from seeds sent in 1876 by the late William S. Clark, the first President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College, and later the first President of the Agricultural College at Sapporo in Japan where this tree is common. One of the first seedlings raised at the Arboretum can be seen in the Apple Group on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road going toward the Forest Hills Gate, the site of the first Arboretum Nursery in which this Lilac was planted. It is unfortunate that it is almost impossible to keep the Locust tree (Robinia Pseudoacacia) alive in eastern Massachusetts for any length of time owing to the borer which riddles the trunk and branches of this beautiful and valuable tree. There is now living in the Arboretum only one of the ornamental seedling forms of this tree which are so highly prized and so often planted in Europe, especially in Germany, but it is interesting that this is one of the most abnormal of these forms (var. monophylla) in which the compound leaves are reduced to a single leaflet. This variety is spreading rapidly on the bank on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road beyond the Horsechestnut Group where it is flowering profusely this year and seems able to resist the borer. One of the most interesting Locusts in the collection is a hybrid (Robinia Holdtii) between R. Pseudoacacia and the Rocky Mountain R. neo-mexicana which appeared in a Colorado nursery a few years ago. This is a vigorous tree with pale pink flowers and seems better able to resist the borer than either of its parents. The shrubby Rose Acacia (R. hispida) is less often attacked by borers and when in flower it is a beautiful and conspicuous plant. It is, however, sometimes troublesome as it spreads rapidly by underground shoots and so may occupy too much space. Another shrubby Robinia, R. Kelseyi, from the southern Appalachian Mountain Region where it was discovered a few years ago, flowers well in the Arboretum and is a desirable and handsome plant. The other arborescent species, R. viscosa, the Clammy Locust, and R. neo-mexicana suffer badly from the attacks of the borer. The first of the shrubby Hydrangeas to bloom, Hydrangea Bretschneideri, is now in flower. It is a large and very hardy shrub from Manchuria and northern China, and in this climate is one of the most satisfactory plants in the genus. It can be seen in the Shrub Collection, and with it is now flowering for the first time in the Arboretum a variety of the species (var. setchuenensis) discovered by Wilson in western China. Indigofera Kirilowii, a low shrub from Manchuria and Korea, with racemes of pea-shaped pink flowers, is blooming in the Shrub Collection and on Hickory Path, near Centre Street, and is a hardy and handsome garden plant although little known in the United States. Another charming plant of the Pea Family, Sophora viciifolia, has been flowering also on Hemlock Path. This is a shrub two to four feet high with small pinnate leaves and showy blue and white flowers. It is a native of central and western China and appears to be perfectly at home in the Arboretum. Clematis tangutica, which can be found on one of the trellises on the east side of the Shrub Collection, is beginning to open its flowers and will continue to open them for several weeks; they are vase-shaped and bright clear yellow, and as they fade are succeeded by heads of fruits with long glistening hairy tails. As the flowers open gradually during several weeks flowers and fruits appear on the plant at the same time. This Clematis is a native of the extreme western part of China and is one of the best of the hardy vines of recent introduction. The flame-colored Azalea (Rhododendron calendulaceum) has been largely planted on the long slope below Azalea Path and in many of the Arboretum shrubberies, and, although it usually flowers abundantly, this year it has been exceptionally beautiful. Among the seedlings raised at the Arboretum there are plants with flowers of many shades of yellow and orange. Flowering rather later is another Rhododendron of the same region R. arborescens; the flowers of this shrub are pure white with bright red filaments and, if they are not so showy as those of the flame-colored Azalea, they are equally beautiful and much more fragrant. There are masses of this Azalea on each side of the Valley Road. The flowers of R. arborescens will be followed early in July by those of the Clammy Azalea (R. viscosum), a common plant in New England swamps, especially in those near the coast, which at midsummer are made fragrant by its pure white flowers. For three months the different Azaleas of the eastern United States flower in succession in the Arboretum, and among them are plants as beautiful when in flower as any of the hybrid Azaleas produced in Europe. They are hardier and longer-lived than any of the European hybrids or the species of eastern Asia, and among the many shrubs which eastern North America has contributed to gardens none are more beautiful than these six Azaleas, or Rhododendrons as botanists now call them, which are named in the order of their flowering: Vaseyi, canescens, nudiflorum, calendulaceum, arborescens, and viscosum. Much of the June beauty of the Arboretum is due to the general use in its plantations of several common native shrubs with handsome flowers and fruits. Thirty years ago most of our native shrubs were unknown to gardeners, but the Arboretum has lost no opportunity to teach the lesson that the best trees and shrubs for the permanent decoration of American parks and gardens are to be found in American fields and forests. Now, therefore, it is a satisfaction to know that the appreciation of the beauty and value of many of our native shrubs is gradually spreading from the Arboretum over the country and that it is now possible to find many of the best American trees and shrubs of eastern America in large quantities in several American nurseries. One of the best of the native plants which have proved satisfactory in the Arboretum is Cornus racemosa or, as it is often called, paniculata or candidissima ; this is a common inhabitant of roadsides and wood borders in this part of the country, and in cultivation it is one of the most free-flowering of all the Dogwoods. It is a round-headed shrub with slender erect gray stems which spread into dense broad thickets, and creamy white flowers produced in compound oblong clusters. The plant moreover is as beautiful in October as it is in June for the flowers are followed by translucent white berries borne on bright red stalks, making this one of the most interesting of the shrubs which ripen their fruit in mid-autumn. A hybrid of this species with another native Dogwood, Cornus obliqua, appeared naturally in the Arboretum several years ago and is known as Cornus Arnoldiana. The oldest plants are now ten feet high and nearly as broad, with erect stems, and bear flower-clusters which are larger and handsomer than those of either of its parents. The flowers, however, of this hybrid are its chief beauty for it bears little fruit and therefore in the autumn is less interesting and ornamental than Cornus racemosa. The Silky Cornel, Cornus Amomum, flowers a little later. It has been much used in the Arboretum but in cultivation is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend out freely and spread over the ground or over water; for this reason it should be planted as a specimen or on the borders of ponds and streams, for which it is admirably adapted. The purple stems are interesting in winter and the bright blue fruits, which ripen in the autumn, add materially to the attractions of this vigorous native shrub. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 26","article_sequence":28,"start_page":109,"end_page":112,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23569","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24e856b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 28 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF . POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 26, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 28. Among the other American Magnolias in the group on the right hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance Magnolia macrophylla is now in flower. This is a medium-sized tree of the southern states where it is found in sheltered valleys and, although nowhere common, is widely distributed from western North Carolina to Kentucky, Florida, Alabama and Arkansas. No other tree of the northern hemisphere beyond the tropics bears larger leaves or larger flowers, for the former are from twenty to thirty inches long and from nine to ten inches wide, while the creamy white petals of the flower, which are marked with a dark red spot at the base of the inner surface and become reflexed above the middle when the flower opens, are from six to seven inches long and from three to four inches wide, the expanded flower being often a foot in diameter. The beauty of this tree is increased by the silvery white color of the lower surface of the leaves and by its symmetrical habit, with wide-spreading branches forming a broad, round-topped head. Magnolia macrophylla is perfectly hardy but it is well to plant it in sheltered positions for the leaves are easily torn by the wind. It is one of the most beautiful of all the Magnolias and one of the most remarkable and interesting trees of eastern North America; it is less commonly seen, however, in northern collections than formerly although its value and beauty appear to be more appreciated in some of the middle states than they are here. One of the most attractive objects in the Shrub Collection this year is a large plant of Halimodendron argenteum, called Salt-tree because it inhabits the saline steppes near the river Irtish in Siberia. The pale rose-colored, pea-shaped, fragrant flowers, which are produced in great abundance, are borne in short clusters and their delicate beauty is heightened by the light color of the leaves which are clothed with a pale silky down. The plant remains in flower during several weeks. The Salt-tree was introduced into England as early as 1779, but it does not seem to be much known in the United States, for among the rare plants sent to the Arboretum for determination it has come only once. It produces abundant crops of seeds in the Arboretum and it can be raised from cuttings, so there is no reason that it should remain so rare in American gardens. In the Shrub Collection, near Halimodendron, another plant of the Pea Family is in flower; this is Cytisus nigricans, a low, slender, hardy shrub from central and southern Europe, with long erect racemes of beautiful yellow flowers, and for this climate one of the best plants of its class. With it are blooming Genista elata and the well known Genista tinctoria which has destroyed with its fatal gift of beauty so many of the fields of Essex County in this state. Of the Privets, or Ligustrums, none of the introductions from eastern Asia are more valuable garden plants than the European Ligustrum vulgare which is becoming naturalized in the eastern states; it is a tall, broad, shapely shrub with bluish green leaves and is now covered with its small, erect, terminal clusters of white, bad-smelling flowers. The great value of this plant is not in the flowers but in the lustrous black fruits which decorate it in the late autumn, and in the fact that it retains its leaves in good condition almost until the beginning of winter, making it one of the most desirable of all the shrubs which are hardy here for the decoration of parks and gardens. This Privet has been much used as a hedge plant for which it is well suited. There are varieties with greenish yellow fruit, with yellow leaves, and with erect branches. Of the Asiatic species Ligustrum ibota is perhaps now the best known of the hardy species here; it is a broad shrub sometimes ten feet high, with spreading slightly recurved branches, small, dark green leaves which turn purplish in the autumn, and short, nodding clusters of white flowers which are produced on short lateral branches and which are followed by clusters of small, purplish black fruit covered with a pale bloom and often persistent on the branches until spring. This is a handsome shrub but it has sometimes suffered from the cold of exceptionally severe winters. Equally handsome but of very different habit is its variety Regelianum; this is a much lower and denser shrub, with horizontally spreading branches which form a broad, flat-topped head, and larger leaves. As the two plants grow side by side in the Shrub Collection they appear very distinct, but seedlings of the variety are often identical with L. ibota. Another species, L. amurense from eastern Siberia, has also fruit covered with a bloom like that of L. ibota, but the branches terminate with larger flower-clusters, while the lateral flower-bearing branches are often longer than those of L. ibota. It is best distinguished, however, by its pyramidal habit, for it is a tall shrub with erect stems which form a narrow head. The Japanese L. acuminatum is a broad shrub with the largest flower-clusters near the ends of the stems and lustrous black fruit like that of L. vulgare. These Asiatic species are much confused in American nurseries and a number of plants are sold under the name of L. amurense which, on account of its hardiness, rapid growth, and erect stems, has been recommended as a hedge plant for regions which are too cold for the so-called California Privet; this is L. ovalifolium and is not a Californian but a Chinese plant. It has been much planted for hedges which in severe winters are often killed to the ground even in southern New England. The earliest of the Hawthorns, the European Crataegus nigra, and the New England C. Arnoldiana, were in bloom on the 10th of May, and the flowers of the latest blooming species in the collection, C. cordata, the so-called Washington Thorn, are not yet fully expanded. This native of the southern Appalachian region and of southern Missouri is a slender narrow tree sometimes thirty feet high, with small, shining, nearly triangular leaves, and small, dull white flowers; its greatest beauty is in the autumn when the leaves, which do not fall until late, are bright orange and scarlet, and contrast beautifully with the small, bright scarlet, globose fruits which remain in good condition on the branches until spring. The only objection to this tree is the brittleness of the branches which are often split or broken by storms. Among the fifty species or forms of Viburnum found to be hardy in the Arboretum the first to flower, Viburnum alnifolium, the Hobble Bush or Moosewood, was in bloom during the first week in May, and the flowers- of the latest in the collection to open, Viburnum Canbyi, will not be fully out for several days, so that the flowering time of the Viburnums here extends through two months. V. Canbyi is a broad, tall, round-topped shrub with large lustrous leaves, large flat clusters of flowers and bright blue fruit. It is a native of eastern Pennsylvania and northern Delaware, and is nowhere common. It is one of the native species which is greatly improved by cultivation and splendid large plants can be seen on the right-hand side of the entrance to the Administration Building and on the Meadow Road. Some of the wild roses have been largely planted along several of the drives and their flowers add much to the interest and beauty of the Arboretum at this time. The flowers of the earliest of the five New England species, Rosa blanda, have already gone and the latest to flower, R. caroliniana, is not yet in bloom, but the others R. virginiana or lucida, R. humilis, and R. nitida, are at their best. The most beautiful of these three roses is perhaps R. nitida with its rather darkcolored flowers and short stems covered with bright red prickles. It is always dwarf in habit and is found from Massachusetts to Newfoundland. R. virginiana, which is the common rose of the New England seacoast, is a taller plant with thick very lustrous leaves, and flowers which range in color from dark red to pink. There is also a white-flowered form of this plant found in Maine a few years ago. In the Ar-' boretum there are forms with thinner and duller leaves which may be natural hybrids with R. humilis which is the common Wild Rose of the interior, that is of regions beyond the immediate influence of the sea. This is a low plant with dull leaves, and the least ornamental of the native Roses. This Rose or some of its numerous hybrids are generally sold in nurseries for R. virginiana. The wild roses flower at the same time as Cornus rugosa mentioned in the last issue of these bulletins, and when this Cornus and these Roses are planted together a beautiful combination of color is obtained. The first species to flower in the collection, and one of the gems of the genus, Hypericum Buckleyi, is just opening its bright yellow flowers in the Shrub Collection where it is now well established. It is a dwarf plant growing here only a few inches high, but spreading into a broad mat which becomes covered with flowers, and these remain in good condition for a long time. H. Buckleyi is very rare in cultivation, although it is well suited for a sunny position in the rock garden. Naturally it grows on rocky cliffs in the southern Appalachian region where it is nowhere very abundant. A few of the fruits of early summer are beginning to be conspicuous in the Arboretum. The most beautiful, perhaps, are the bright keys of Acer tataricum, a small Maple tree from southeastern Europe and the adjacent parts of Asia. This is an early flowering, very hardy tree well worth cultivating for the brilliancy of its fruit alone. It is a very old inhabitant of the gardens of western Europe and the United States, but since the introduction of the Japanese Maples it has been rather lost sight of. Plants can be seen in the Maple collection. In the Shrub Collection the bright red fruits of a North American Elder, Sambucus pubens, are now beautiful and conspicuous, as are those of the rare variety of this plant with orange-colored fruits (var. leucocarpa). The fruits of the Old World plants of this group are still green or only just beginning to turn red. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 2","article_sequence":29,"start_page":113,"end_page":116,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23566","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24ebb26.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 29 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 2, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 29. The black-fruited Elder, Sambucus canadensis, which is the last of the New England shrubs making a conspicuous show of flowers, now adds much beauty to the Arboretum where it is common in the neighborhood of the small ponds near the junction of the Meadow and the Forest Hills Roads and in the valley of the Bussey Brook. In the Shrub Collection are some interesting forms of this beautiful plant. The most conspicuous perhaps is the variety with finely divided leaflets, var. acutiloba ; another variety, var. chlorocarpa, with yellow-green fruit, was found recently in southern New Hampshire. The variety maxima, which originated in a European garden, produces flower-clusters at least three times as large as those found on the wild plants, and these are followed by such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches are hardly able to support them. The European Sambucus nigra and its variety with yellow leaves is also in flower. As a foliage plant one of the most beautiful of all the Elders is the Japanese form of the red-fruited Sambucus racemosa (var. Sieboldii) which is well established in the Shrub Collection. The flower and fruit clusters are smaller, however, than those of the European and Siberian forms of this plant and the fruit ripens rather later. The Chinquapin, Castanea pumila, is in flower about a week before the flowers of the northern Chestnut-tree appear. The Chinquapin is a native of the coast region of the Atlantic States from New Jersey to Florida. It is found also in the Gulf States and in the region west of the Mississippi River from southern Missouri to Texas. In the Atlantic States it is usually rather a low shrub spreading into thickets, but west of the Mississippi, especially in southern Arkansas and Texas, it grows into a large, round-headed tree, although it never becomes as large as the northern Chestnut-tree. A tree of this western form, and a large group of the dwarf form originally from Virginia are established in the Arboretum and can be seen with the other Chestnuts on the right-hand side of the Valley Road just beyond the Hickory Group. The nuts of the Chinquapin are produced freely in the Arboretum every year and, unlike those of the northern Chestnut-tree, they are cylindrical, not flattened, as only one nut is produced in a burr, and are bright and shining and of even better flavor than those of the common Chestnut. The silvery under surface of the leaves, which is covered with fine hairs, also distinguishes the Chinquapin from the Chestnut-tree. Attention was called in a recent issue of these bulletins to the value of the eastern Siberian Hydrangea Bretschneideri as a garden plant. It is the first of the genus to flower here. More conspicuous is Hydrangea paniculata of Japan and western China. The most generally planted of the forms of this plant is one in which all the flowers are sterile, known as Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora. This plant produces large clusters of white sterile flowers which turn rose color in fading, and it will not be in bloom for several weeks. There are two other forms in which some of the flowers only are sterile and are called ray flowers because they surround the clusters of fertile flowers. These are the wild plants from which the form grandiflora, with all the flowers sterile, has been developed. There are two forms of this Hydrangea with perfect flowers and one of these (var. praecox) will be in flower in a few days while the other form, the type of the species, will not be in flower for several weeks. In the Shrub Collection are three plants of var. praecox, differing in the size of the flower-clusters and in the size and shape of the ray flowers. The handsomest of these was raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Hokkaido where it grows into a small tree sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall. A variety of the American Hydrangea arborescens, known as grandiflora, is in bloom. This plant was found a few years ago growing wild in one of the western states and has been largely distributed in this country and Europe. It is a hardy, shapely shrub and produces large clusters of sterile white flowers in profusion. It blooms a few days before Hydrangea arborescens itself which is growing with it. Two other American species of Hydrangea, H. cinerea and H. radiata, will soon be in bloom; as a foliage plant the latter is the most beautiful of the American species for the leaves, which are dark blue-green on the upper surface, are silvery white below. Zenobia is a genus of the Heath Family, by some botanists treated as a section of Andromeda, composed of a single species which inhabits pine barrens from North Carolina to Florida, and is a deciduous-leaved shrub from two to four feet in height. The flowers, which are pure white and from one-third to one-half an inch long and broad, are produced in compact clusters arranged along leafless branches of the previous year and are perhaps more beautiful than those of any of the Andromeda-like plants. There are two forms, the type, Zenobia pulverulenta, with chalky white leaves covered with a dense white bloom, and the variety nitida with green leaves. Although natives of a region which produces few plants able to survive the cold of New England, these Zenobias are perfectly hardy in the Arboretum and can now be seen in flower in the Shrub Collection and on the right-hand side of Hemlock Hill Road where there is a large group of them in which the green-leaved form is the most numerous. Another deciduous-leaved plant of the same family, Pieris or Andromeda mariana, also produces its flowers on leafless branches of the previous year, but the flowers are smaller and the plant is less attractive in habit than the Zenobias. It is a native of the coast region from Rhode Island southward, and is very abundant on some parts of Long Island. There is a large group of this shrub now in flower on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road in front of the Horsechestnuts. The common Thyme (Thymus vulgaris), one of the old-fashioned fragrant pot herbs and a native of southern Europe, is now not often seen in American gardens; it is a dwarf shrub growing in the Arboretum only a few inches high but spreading rapidly into broad mats which are now completely covered with short clusters of purplish blue two-lipped flowers. Masses of this plant can be seen in the Shrub Collection and on Azalea Path. Among the climbing Honeysuckles on the north trellis of the Shrub Collection Lonicera Heckrottii is exceptionally beautiful this year. This is believed to be a hybrid, probably of American origin, although its history cannot be traced, between the scarlet-flowered American Lonicera sempervirens and L. italica supposed to be itself a natural hybrid between L. Caprifolium and L. etrusca, which, though growing naturally only near Lyons in France and near Trieste in Austria, is common in cultivation. The flowers of L. Heckrottii, although not fragrant, are very beautiful; the outer surface of the corolla is deep rose color and the inner surface is pale yellow, closed buds and open flowers occurring together in the same cluster and making a beautiful contrast of color. The leaves of many of the climbing Honeysuckles are often disfigured by attacks of an aphis and can only be kept in good condition by careful spraying early in the season and just as the leaves are unfolding. The Bush Honeysuckles are now the handsomest plants in the Arboretum with ripe fruits. They produce fruit in great quantities and it remains in good condition for several weeks, and as the different species ripen their fruit from now until October the second period of their beauty is a long one. On different species and hybrids there are blue, black, orange, yellow, crimson and scarlet fruits, and these beautiful and abundant fruits following beautiful flowers make some of the Bush Honeysuckles extremely desirable garden plants especially in the northern United States where they are very hardy and where they appear to fruit more freely than in other parts of the world. The orangeyellow translucent fruit of Lonicera minutiflora is one of the most beautiful perhaps in the collection. This plant is a hybrid between the Tartarian Honeysuckle from central Asia and a species from eastern Siberia, L. Morrowii. L. muscaviensis, another hybrid, is covered with large and translucent scarlet fruit. The fruit of the Tartarian Honeysuckles on some plants is red and on others bright yellow. Two hybrids of this species, L. bella and L. notha, bear crimson fruit. L. xylosteum bears large, dark crimson, lustrous fruit, and a hybrid of it, L. xylosteoides, large red fruit. All the numerous forms of L. coerulea, a species which is found in all the colder parts of the northern hemisphere, have bright blue fruit, and that of L. orientalis is black and lustrous. No group of shrubs in the Arboretum is more worthy of the careful attention of persons who desire to form collections of large, fast-growing, hardy shrubs beautiful when covered in early spring with innumerable flowers or in early summer when their showy fruits are ripe. The fruit of Eleagnus longipes is now ripe and will continue to remain on the plants for several weeks. This hardy Japanese shrub flowers and fruits here profusely. The fruit hangs gracefully on long slender stems and is oblong, nearly three-quarters of an inch in length, scarlet, lustrous and covered with small white dots. It has a tart and rather agreeable flavor, and is sometimes used in cooking. Specimens of this plant can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs in the Eleagnus Group. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 10","article_sequence":30,"start_page":117,"end_page":120,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23564","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24eb36f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 30 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 10, 19122 BULLETIN NO. 30. The largest genus of summer-flowering trees here is Tilia, the Lindens, which are now at the height of their flowering time although the flowers of a few of the species are already fading and those of some others are just opening. The genus is widely and generally distributed in all the temperate parts of the northern hemisphere with the exception of western North America and the Himalayas. Between forty and fifty species and several hybrids are recognized, for hybrids and supposed hybrids in Tilia are common, and among these hybrids are some of the handsomest and most rapid-growing of all Lindens. Although Lindens are much planted for the embellishment of parks and as street trees there is great confusion, especially in the United States, in regard to the different forms which are cultivated, and this confusion in so far as it relates to the European species was imported from Europe with the trees, for Linnaeus and many botanists after him believed that the Lindens of northern and western Europe were only forms of one tree, and so started the trouble. In eastern North America there are seven species of Linden trees; four of these are from the extreme south and either are not hardy in the Arboretum or have been tried here during such a short time that they need not now be considered. The Linden of the north, T. americana, is a splendid great tree growing to its largest size on rich hillsides and moist bottom-lands, and showing its greatest beauty in the forests of New Brunswick, northern New England, and the valley of the St. Lawrence River. This tree may be easily distinguished from the other Lindens by the green and shining lower surface of the leaves which has no hairy covering with the exception of rather conspicuous tufts in the axils of the principal veins. This tree has been somewhat planted in eastern Massachusetts but less frequently than in the neighborhood of more northern cities. Here, especially in dry summers, the leaves are sometimes made brown by the red spider which, however, is easily controlled by spraying. Tilia spectabilis, which is believed to be a hybrid between this tree and Tilia tomentosa of eastern Europe, is a very vigorous and fast-growing tree of much promise. In some European nurseries it is sold under the name of Tilia Moltki. Tilia flavescens, usually found in nurseries under the name of T. floribunda, is a supposed hybrid between T. americana and the European T. cordata. This tree is remarkable in its rather small, thick and very lustrous leaves, and large flowers. Plants only a few feet high flower profusely. The second North American Linden tree, T. alba, or, as it is often called, T. Michauxii, although it was first distinguished and made known nearly a century ago, was long overlooked or misunderstood by botanists; and it is only in recent years that this handsome tree has been found to be widely distributed from the valley of the St. Lawrence River to Georgia and Arkansas. It may be distinguished from T. americana by the pale lower surface of the leaves, which is more or less covered with star-shaped clusters of white hairs. This tree is now well established in the Arboretum, although the plants are not old enough to flower. The third of our northern Lindens, T. heterophylla, is a species of the Appalachian Mountains and is distributed from western New York to northern Alabama, and through Kentucky to southern Indiana and Illinois, growing to its greatest beauty and to its largest size in the forests which cover the slopes of the mountains of North Carolina and Tennessee. The leaves of this tree are larger than those of the other Lindens, and as they are silvery white on the lower surface and hang on long slender stalks the slightest breeze makes them turn first one surface and then the other to the eye. This hardy and beautiful tree appears to be rarely cultivated. All the European Lindens succeed in the eastern states where they have been more generally planted than the American species and where there are large and old specimens of some of the species in the neighborhood of the seaboard cities. There are five European Lindens and it is among these and their hybrids that exists the greatest confusion in the minds of the cultivators of these trees. Probably the most widely distributed of the European species, especially in the south, is Tilia platyphyllos. This tree may be recognized by the yellow tinge of the leaves and the thick covering of short hairs on their lower surface and on their stalks, and by the prominent ribs of the fruit. This is the earliest of all Linden trees to flower here, the flowers having been fading for the last ten days, and it is this tree which now appears to be most commonly sold in American nurseries as the European Linden. There are varieties with leaves larger than those of the type (var. grandifolia), with erect branches forming a broad pyramidal head (var. pyramidata), and with variously divided leaves (var. lanceolata and vitifolia). A more beautiful tree is Tilia cordata, the common Linden of northern Europe where it sometimes grows to a very large size, the old historic Lindens of the northern and central parts of the continent being usually of this species. This tree is distinguished by its small, thin, more or less heart-shaped leaves which are pale on the lower surface and furnished with conspicuous tufts of rusty brown hairs in the axils of the principal veins. It appears to have been little planted in the United States, and in the neighborhood of Boston it is the rarest of the Lindens of western Europe. It is, however, a hardy and desirable tree especially valuable on account of its late flowers which supply the bees with food after those of all other Lindens have passed. There is a large-leaved form of this tree (var. cordifolia) from western Europe in the collection which is a handsome and vigorous plant of much promise. This is sometimes sold in European nurseries as T. europaea or vulgaris. The third European Linden, called variously T. vulgaris, T. europaea, T. intermedia and T. hybrida, is considered by some of the best observers of European trees a natural hybrid between T. platyphyllos and T. cordata. Although widely distributed in Europe, it appears to be much less common than either of its supposed parents, and the variation in the size, shape and color of the leaves make its hybrid origin possible. On some individuals the lower surface of the leaves is quite green and on others it is bluish or even whitish, but leaves on different parts of the same branch differ in this respect and on shoots produced from the bases of old trees the large leaves are quite green. T. vulgaris is a fine round-headed tree with rather small somewhat pendulous branches, and it appears to have been more often planted in the neighborhood of Boston than any other Linden. There are a number of large specimens in front of an old house on Centre Street near Orchard Street, Jamaica Plain, and in Olmsted Park. The flowers of this tree are now fading, so in its flowering time it is intermediate between its two supposed parents. There is another supposed hybrid of the same parentage and a native of Hungary, known as T. vulgaris var. pallida. This tree has larger leaves pale on the lower surface, and in habit and general apj pearance resembles T. platyphyllos more than the commoner forms oL T. vulgaris. It is propagated in some of the Dutch nurseries where it is sold as T. vulgaris or europaea, and in the Arboretum collection it is the most rapid growing and the most shapely of all the species and hybrids, giving promise of becoming an excellent street tree for this region. Two Linden trees are found only in eastern Europe, the silver Linden, T. tomentosa or argentea, as it is sometimes called, and T. petiolaris. The Silver Linden is a tree with erect branches forming a broad, compact, round-topped formal head, and large erect leaves dark green and lustrous above and white and covered below with short thick felt. This distinct and handsome tree has not been much planted in eastern Massachusetts but it can be often seen in the neighborhood of New York and Philadelphia, and there are a number of good specimens in Central and Prospect Parks. T. petiolaris is a more beautiful tree; this also has leaves which are silvery white on the lower surface but they hang down on long slender stalks and flutter gracefully in the breeze. The branches, which are also pendulous, form a rather narrow but open head. This tree is not known in a wild state and all the plants in cultivation have been derived from a single individual found ninety years ago in a garden in Odessa. This beautiful tree appears to have been more often planted near Boston than the Silver Linden, but is still rare and little known here. A supposed hybrid of this tree with T. americana and sometimes sold in nurseries as T. alba spectabilis is one of the most rapid-growing of the Lindens and a very handsome tree with the leaves of the size and shape of its American parent but silvery white on their lower surface. Plants raised at the Arboretum from the seeds of a tree of T. petiolaris which was growing in the neighborhood of T. Americana, the two flowering at the same time, are identical with trees of this hybrid found in European nurseries. T. vestita is probably the proper name for it. Much attention in late years has been paid in Europe to another supposed hybrid Linden, T. euchlora, or as it is more generally known, T. dasystyla. This is a pyramidal tree, with large dark green leaves lustrous on their upper surface. It grows rapidly; its habit is good, and it is now largely planted as a street tree in Germany and Holland. Its origin is uncertain although usually considered a hybrid of the little known T. rubra of the Caucasus. T. euchlora is perfectly hardy here and promises to be a useful tree in New England. As a rule the trees of eastern Asia grow much better in the eastern United States than the related species of Europe, but this is not true of the Lindens. All the European Lindens flourish here but none of the Asiatic species give much promise yet of being handsome or valuable trees in this climate. Those which have been tried here are hardy but they suffer from various fungal diseases and are short-lived. It is too soon, of course, to form an opinion on the value of the Lindens recently discovered in western China, but of those of eastern Siberia, northern China and Japan only T. japonica has proved really satisfactory here. This is a small tree with pendulous branches, related to T. cordata, of which it has sometimes been considered a variety. It has no special ornamental value, although it is perfectly hardy and healthy and flowers and produces fruit in the Arboretum every year. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 17","article_sequence":31,"start_page":121,"end_page":124,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23565","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24eb725.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 31 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. JULY 17. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 31. A few interesting trees flower in the Arboretum after the middle of summer. The first of these is already in bloom. This is the Chinese Koelreuteria paniculata, a small tree with large, handsome, pinnate leaves and large erect clusters of bright yellow flowers which are followed by conspicuous bladder-like fruits. No other tree has flowers of a more beautiful yellow color, and no other summer-blooming tree here is so conspicuous when it flowers. Koelreuteria is much cultivated in the gardens of Peking, and in western China it is common in hot dry valleys. It is therefore well suited to withstand heat and drought as well as cold. It can be seen on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road between the Evonymus and Horsechestnut groups, its relationship being with the Horsechestnuts and with the Maples. Another Chinese tree will soon be in flower. This is Sophora japonica, a member of the Pea Family, with green branchlets, very dark green pinnate leaves and narrow erect clusters of creamy white flowers. The very large and old individuals of this tree with dark, deeply-furrowed bark which are growing in Peking look at a little distance like Oak trees. First known by Europeans in Japan it was called, like some other Chinese plants, japonica, although it was brought from China to Japan with many other plants cultivated by the Japanese and is not a native of the Island Empire. There is a form of this tree with weeping branches which rarely flowers. These trees can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the head of the Lilac Group. There is also a fine specimen of Sophora japonica in the Public Garden of Boston. Next to the Sophoras there is a group of the eastern Siberian Maackia amurensis, which is now in flower. This is a small tree and the only representative of its genus related to the eastern American and Chinese Cladrastis or Yellowwood. Maackia, however, has reddish bark, much smaller leaves, short erect spikes of creamy white inconspicuous flowers and scaly buds. Of much interest botanically, Maackia is of little ornamental value and probably will never be very often seen in this country outside of botanical collections. Much more conspicuous and an object of great interest always to visitors to the Arboretum is Acanthopanax ricinafolium. This member of the Aralia Family is not an uncommon inhabitant of the forests of the northern island of Japan and grows also in Korea; it is a large tree with dark deeply furrowed bark, stout spreading branches which, however, are nearly erect on young trees and more or less armed like the trunk with short stout spines, and large, palmately lobed dark green leaves drooping on long stalks. In size and shape the leaves resemble those of the Castor-oil plant, Ricinus, a fact to which this tree owes its specific name. The small white flowers are produced in broad, flat, compound clusters and are followed in the autumn by shining black, berry-like fruits. Acanthopanax ricinifolium was raised at the Arboretum from seeds brought from Japan in 1892 by Professor Sargent; it has grown here rapidly and is perfectly hardy. There are two plants in the Aralia Group by the pond at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and there is a plant beyond the Platanus Group at the Centre Street entrance, and another in the mixed plantation on Peter's Hill. Two other trees of the Aralia Family are also still to flower. These are the Hercules' Club, Aralia spinosa of the southern states, and its near relative from eastern Siberia, Aralia mandshurica, still sometimes found in nurseries under the name of Dimorphanthus. The Hercules' Club grows sometimes thirty feet high, with a slender stem armed like the branches with stout prickles. The leaves are twice pinnate, from three to four feet long, and two and a half feet wide, and the small white flowers are borne on long slender stems in many-flowered clusters arranged in broad twice compound panicles three or four feet in length, rising singly or in pairs above the spreading leaves. The flowers are followed by great clusters of small black fruits which ripen in the early autumn. No other tree of temperate North America has such a tropical aspect as this Aralia, which is not always entirely hardy in New England although it is now well established at the northern base of Hemlock Hill, just back of the Laurels, where it has spread by suckers from the roots. Its Manchurian relative, which greatly resembles the American tree, is hardier here and can be seen in the border between the drive and walk next to the Liquidambars and in the Aralia Group. Another North American tree, the sorrel-tree or Sourwood, Oxydendrum arboreum, is now covered with flower-buds. This beautiful and interesting tree belongs to the Heath Family and is the only representative of its genus. On the rich slopes of the southern Appalachian Mountains it sometimes rises to a height of thirty feet or more, although in cultivation at the north it begins to flower when only a few feet high and will probably never become a large tree. The leaves are oblong, bright green and very lustrous, and have a pleasant acidulous flavor to which this tree owes its common names. The white flowers, which are shaped like those of the Andromedas, are erect on the branches of a terminal, spreading or slightly drooping, compound cluster seven or eight inches long; they retain their beauty for a long time and are followed by capsular fruits. The leaves of this tree turn in the autumn bright scarlet. The Sorrel-tree appears to be free from the attacks of all insects; it does not suffer from disease, and it is surprising that such a handsome, hardy and interesting tree should be so little known. There are a number of individuals among the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. With the early flowering Japanese forms of Hydrangea paniculata (var. praecox) mentioned in a recent Bulletin, Aesculus parviflora is now the most conspicuous shrub in flower in the Arboretum. This native of the southeastern United States is the last of the Horsechestnuts to flower. It is a shrub which in cultivation sometimes spreads to a diameter of twenty feet or more but rarely attains a greater height than six or eight feet. It is a good plant to use as a single specimen as it is perfectly symmetrical in habit, or, as has been done in the Arboretum, it can be planted in masses. The plants are now covered with long narrow spikes of small creamy white flowers which stand erect above the dark green foliage. A group of this Horsechestnut can be seen with the other Horsechestnuts on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road at the base of the woody hill which rises at the southwestern extremity of the north meadow. The Pepperbush, Clethra alnifolia, will soon open its fragrant white flowers which are borne in erect, terminal, compound clusters. This is perhaps the most beautiful of the summer flowering shrubs of New England and is a common inhabitant of swamp borders and other wet places in the neighborhood of the coast from Maine to Florida. The Pepperbush can be seen along the Meadow Road where it has been largely planted, and in the Shrub Collection. A form with flowers faintly tinged with rose was found near Fall River, Massachusetts, a few years ago and has been introduced into the Arboretum. Another species, a native of Florida, C. tomentosa, has proved hardy in the Arboretum, and is valuable as it flowers two or three weeks later than the northern Pepperbush from which it chiefly differs in the covering of white hairs on the lower surface of the leaves. The third American species, C. acuminata, an inhabitant of the forests of the southern Appalachian Mountains, has dull green leaves and drooping clusters of yellowish white flowers, and is a much less desirable garden plant. It can be seen with the others in the Shrub Collection and on the righthand side of the Meadow Road near the Phellodendron Group. The Japanese species, C. canescens, lives in the Arboretum but has not proved very hardy here and has not flowered, although it has been more successful in other Massachusetts gardens where it produces freely its beautiful fragrant flowers. Only a few forms of the large genus Yucca, which has its headquarters in the southwestern part of the United States, in Mexico and in Central America, are hardy in the Arboretum where they can be seen in the Shrub Collection. The common Yucca of American gardens is Y. Jlaccida, with thin reflexed leaves gradually narrowed from below the middle to the apex and separating on the margins into straight thin threads. In gardens, however, it generally appears under the name of Y. filamentosa, a species with thicker and more rigid leaves usually broadest above the middle, and separating on the margins into coarser curled threads. Y. fiaccida is a native of the southern Appalachian foothill region and is probably the hardiest of all the Yuccas. It is now in full flower, as well as the form with leaves striped with yellow (var. lineata) which is usually found in gardens under the name of Y. filamentosa variegata. A fine and vigorous form of Y. flaccida from Stone Mountain, Georgia, (var. patens) is also in flower. There are also in the collection the true Y. filamentosa of the coast plains of the southeastern United States and its variety concava, found from the coast of Maryland southward, and Yucca glauca. This last is a plant with narrow leaves and is common and widely distributed over the high plains at the eastern base of the Rocky Mountains from Wyoming southward. This handsome plant is perfectly hardy here but has not flowered in the Arboretum. Indigofera Kirilowii mentioned in a recent Bulletin has continued to grow and to produce its racemes of bright pink flowers in spite of the drought of June and early July which has been one of the most severe the Arboretum has experienced. This Korean shrub remains a long time in bloom. Its habit and foliage are excellent, and it gives every promise of being a valuable addition to the list of summer flowering shrubs. Two other species of this genus are now flowering on Azalea Path, \/. decora from China and Japan, with pure white flowers, and 1. Gerardiana with purple flowers, a native of the Himalayas. The low stems of these plants are killed to the ground every winter but new ones appear in the spring and growing rapidly flower freely at this time. 1. decora is the more beautiful of the two and well worth a place on the margin of any shrubbery or in the herbaceous border. These Bulletins will now be discontinued until the autumn. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 17","article_sequence":32,"start_page":125,"end_page":128,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23579","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25e816c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 32 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 17, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 32. The number of woody plants that produce flowers in New England after the middle of October is not large. The most important of them is, of course, the native Witch Hazel (Hamamelis virginiana) which is a true autumn bloomer, that is, it does not begin to flower until after the first of October. Its small clusters of flowers with their long pale yellow strap-shaped petals are now partly hidden by the leaves which are bright yellow and very conspicuous. As the leaves fall the flowers seem to cover the branches and form one of the most interesting features of the autumn flora of the northern United States. Occasionally a plant can be found in flower with leaves still retaining their summer color. and on such plants the beauty of the flowers is increased by the contrast between the bright green leaves and the yellow flowers. There is another species of Witch Hazel in southern Missouri and Arkansas which blooms in early spring, and the two Japanese species and the species of central and western China are also spring bloomers. The Witch Hazel Group, containing besides Hamamelis, the Sweet Gum, Liquidambar and Fothergilla, is on the south side of Meadow Road at its junction with the Bussey Hill Road. Large specimens of Parrotia persica, a shrub or small tree of this family, can be seen on Hickory Path near Centre Street. This plant grows in the Arboretum into a broad round-headed shrub with erect stems and, as the flowers and fruits are not conspicuous, is chiefly valuable for the orange and scarlet tints assumed in autumn by its ample leaves. A plant still in flower is Lonicera Heckrottii. This is one of the climbing Honeysuckles and is of hybrid origin. It was described in Bulletin No. 29, issued on July 2nd last, when it had already been in flower two or three weeks. From the middle of June until the middle of October it has been covered with flowers. Although not fragrant, they are very beautiful; the outer surface of the corolla is deep rose color and the inner surface is pale yellow, and as closed buds and open flowers appear together in the same cluster beautiful contrasts of color are produced. This vine flowers more constantly and more persistently than any other plant in the Arboretum, and it might well find a place in every New England garden in which beautiful flowers are valued. A few belated flowers are still opening on the climbing semi-evergreen, Hall's Japanese Honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica Halliana), and on the still more beautiful Chinese form of the same species, L. japonica chinensis, distinguished by the red color of the young stems and leaves. Two eastern American species of climbing Honeysuckles, L. hirsuta and L. prolifera, are interesting at this time as they are covered with compact clusters of bright red fruits surrounded by the cups formed by the union of the two upper leaves. These climbing Honeysuckles are on the trellis at the north end of the Shrub Collection. The leaves of many of the climbing Honeysuckles are often disfigured by the attacks of an aphis and can only be kept in good condition by careful spraying early in the season and just as the leaves are unfolding. A few belated flowers are still to be found on the lovely Daphne cneorum of the mountains of central Europe. The prostrate stems of this little shrub are covered with light green leaves which persist during the winter and in early spring bear terminal compact clusters of delightfully fragrant rose-colored flowers. In summer a nearly full second crop of flowers is sometimes produced, and flowers occasionally continue to appear until November. This Daphne is one of the most attractive of the evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. It is usually perfectly hardy but sometimes suffers in winter, and as often in mild as in exceptionally severe winters. It is rather capricious, too, in matters of soil and situation, flourishing for years in some gardens and failing in others. There are flowers, too, on some of the forms of the Heather (Calluna vulgaris) in the Shrub Collection, and the Cornish Heath, Erica vagans, which has been covered with flowers during the last two months, is still flowering abundantly. This is one of the few Heaths which can be grown in New England. Equally hardy is the red-flowered Erica carnea which blooms in early spring and only for a short time. This is a smaller plant than E. vagans and a native of the Alps of central Europe; while the Cornish Heath, of which there are both red and white-flowered forms, is rather widely distributed in western Europe. There are still flowers on the plant of Vitex incisa in the Shrub Collection. This is a member of the Verbena Family and a native of northern China and Mongolia. It is a large shrub of open graceful habit, with compound leaves and erect clusters of small bright blue flowers, and is valuable for its good habit, attractive leaves, and late flowers. It is not so showy, however, in flower as the Chaste Tree, Vitex Agnus-castus, a native of southern Europe and western Asia which, unfortunately, is not hardy in New England. Abelia grandiflora is flowering on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Abelia is a genus related to the Honeysuckles, of some twenty-five species in eastern Asia and a single representative in Mexico. Several species have been recently introduced into the Arboretum by Wilson from western Chma and some of these lived through last winter in the open ground. It is too soon, however, to speak of their value here as garden plants; and the only plant of this interesting genus which can now be depended upon here is A. grandiflora. This is a hybrid between two Chinese species, A. chinensis and A. uniflora, and is found in gardens under a number of names. It seems, however, to be most often cultivated as A. rupestris. This is the Mexican species which is sometimes grown in greenhouses in this country and in the gardens of southern Europe. A. grandiflora is a shrub from two to three feet high with slender arching branches, small pointed leaves dark green and very lustrous on the upper surface and paler on the lower surface, and axillary clusters of small pale pink tubular flowers. The leaves do not fall until the beginning of winter; and their semi-persistent character, the autumnal flowers and excellent habit of this little plant make it a desirable subject for the rock garden or the margins of shrubberies. It is not, however, the occasional flowers which can be found in the Arboretum in the middle of October which chiefly make it interesting at this time, but the Autumn condition of the trees and shrubs which flower in the spring or summer. Valuable lessons in decorative gardening can now be learnt here, for nowhere else are the colors assumed by the fading leaves of hardy trees and shrubs more varied and interesting ; no other part of the world can equal the northeastern United States in the abundance of the fruits produced by these plants, and in New England the most beautiful of all autumn gardens can be made. The difference between eastern North America and western Europe in the autumn coloring of the native plants of these two regions is now well shown in the Arboretum. The leaves of the plants of eastern North America are now for the most part brilliantly colored or have colored and fallen, while the leaves of the trees and shrubs of Europe are still green, and in the case of many of these plants the leaves fall and wither with little change of color. This interesting fact is seen in the American species of the genus Fagus. The American Beech now enlivens the forest with the yellow tints of its leaves, while the leaves of the European Beech are still almost as green as they were at midsummer. The leaves of the American Elm have already fallen except in the case of vigorous trees which still show the yellow tints of autumn, while the leaves of all forms of European and Asiatic Elms are still fresh and green. The leaves of Viburnum Lantana, the Wayfaringtree of Europe, are still dark green or only slightly tinged with red along the margins, while the North American Viburnum Lentago, V. prunifolhim and V. cassinoides are splendid in their autumn dress which is set off by their dark blue fruits. The contrast between old and new world plants in this respect is even more marked in the Viburnums of the Opulus group. Of these the leaves of the European Viburnum Opulus are still dark green and as fresh as in July; those of V. americanum, the native High-bush Cranberry, so-called, have turned to shades of yellow and red and are fast falling, while those of V. Sargentii of northeastern Asia, which were bright orange-red two weeks ago, have almost disappeared. Many of the trees and shrubs of eastern Asia, however, are as brilliant in color in autumn as those of related American species. On a few Asiatic plants the autumn foliage is even more beautiful than that of the American plants in the same genus. The collection of grapes (Vitis) illustrates this fact. This collection, which is now well established on the trelhs at the east end of the Shrub Collection, is one of the most successful groups in the Arboretum, and is particularly valuable in showing the decorative value of many of the grapevines of eastern America which have not before been often cultivated. The autumn leaves of American species turn yellow or remain green until touched by frost, to which they are very sensitive, but on the principal Japanese species, Vitis Coignetiae, a large and vigorous vine with immense semicoriaceous leaves, the leaves in the autumn turn brilliant scarlet. They are not always as brilliant here, however, as they are this season for Vitis Coignetiae is a plant from the far north and it is possible that the climate of eastern Massachusetts is not severe enough to bring out every year all its autumnal beauty. It is, however, one of the handsomest of the grapevines in the Arboretum collection, and for Canada and other cold regions it may be expected to become the most valuable of hardy vines. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 25","article_sequence":33,"start_page":129,"end_page":132,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23580","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25e856e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 33 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 25. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 33. Attention is called in this Bulletin to a number of plants which are beautiful in the autumn from the brilliant color of their leaves and which are not generally cultivated in New England. One of the most brilliant of all trees in autumn here is the Liquidamber or Sweet Gum (Liquidambar Styraciflua). This eastern American tree grows as far north as southern Connecticut and in the south, especially in the maritime region of the southern Atlantic states, and in the lower Mississippi valley it is one of the commonest of the trees of the forests on the bottom-lands of rivers where it sometimes grows to the height of more than one hundred and fifty feet. It is a tree with a tall straight trunk and short branches which form a narrow pyramidal head and are furnished for several years on their upper side with broad corky wings. The flowers and the fruit are not conspicuous, and the great beauty of this tree is found in its habit and in the leaves; these hang on long stalks and are generally rounded in outline with a square or slightly heart-shaped base and are deeply five- to seven-lobed, the lobes being acutely pointed. The leaves are thin and very lustrous on the upper surface and in autumn turn deep crimson. There is a species of Liquidamber in southwestern Asia which produces the Liquidamber of commerce, another in Central America, and two Chinese species. The two Chinese species are both growing in the Arboretum and there is a probability that one of these, L. formosana, will prove hardy here. This is the tree which produces much of the wood used for Chinese tea-boxes. There are several individuals of the American Liquidamber in the Arboretum, the two largest specimens being in the Witch Hazel group near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads. The Sour-wood or Sorrel-tree, Oxydendrum arboreum, is another American tree which is too rarely found in cultivation. It is the only representative of the genus which belongs to the Heath Family, and in favorable surroundings on the Appalachian Mountains sometimes becomes fifty or sixty feet tall. It is, however, much smaller in cultivation at the north and begins to flower when only a few feet high. This tree owes its common name to the acid juices of the leaves which protect them from insects and this adds to its value. It is valuable, too, because the white flowers, erect on the drooping branches of large clusters terminal on axillary branches of the year, do not appear until midsummer when few woody plants are in flower and because the leaves in autumn turn bright scarlet in striking contrast to the clusters of white, dry, pointed, capsular fruits. This southern tree is perfectly hardy in New England where it should be more generally planted. There is a group of the Sour-wood among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill. Better known in this part of the country than the Liquidamber and the Sorrel-tree, the Flowering Dogwood (Cornus florida) might well be planted more generally than it has been, for there is no more beautiful inhabitant of the woods of eastern North America. The inflorescence, with its pure white floral bracts which appear before the leaves unfold, lights up the forests in early spring and in the autumn when the clusters of shining scarlet fruits are ripe and the leaves have turned scarlet no other small tree is more beautiful here. The leaves of the Scarlet Oak (Quercus coccinea) are still green, or are only just beginning to turn, but in a short time this tree will be the mcst brilliant in color of all the Oaks which can be grown in this region. The Scarlet Oak is comparatively rare in the immediate neighborhood of Boston, but in Plymouth County it is, perhaps, the most common Oak tree, and the autumn splendor of the woods in which this tree abounds will well repay a late October visit to the Old Colony. The leaves of no other shrub in the Arboretum are now so bright scarlet as those of the common Highbush Blueberry of New England swamps (Vacdnium corymbosum). This plant has much to recommend it for general cultivation; the habit is good, the flowers are beautiful, the large bright blue fruits which cover the branches in early summer are very handsome and of better quality than those of any other Blueberry, and the autumn foliage is unsurpassed in brilliancy. Young plants can be easily transplanted from the swamps and succeed in any good garden soil in which they grow rapidly and flower and produce fruit in abundance. The Highbush Blueberry has been largely planted in the Arboretum shrubberies and there is a group of these plants on both sides of Azalea Path at its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road at the base of the Overlook. Almost as brilliant here as the Highbueh Blueberry are the Japanese species of Enkianthus which are established on the lower side of Azalea Path. The largest of these, Enkianthus campanulatus, is a tall narrow shrub with slender erect stems and drooping clusters of pale, Heath-like flowers. Like the other species its greatest beauty, however, is in the autumn when the leaves turn bright scarlet. This plant and Enkianthus japonicus, a much dwarfer species, are found in all Japanese gardens where they are grown for the colors of their autumn foliage. Although perfectly hardy and in every way satisfactory plants, the different species of Enkianthus are rarely found in American gardens. One of the most interesting shrubs in the Arboretum in early autumn is the eastern Asiatic Evonymus alatus for, unlike those of any other plant in the collection, the leaves turn a clear rose color. This is a large, wide-screading, rather compact shrub with branches furnished with broad corky ridges and inconspicuous flowers and fruits. Its fine habit and the unusual color of the leaves in autumn are its chief claims for attention. Unfortunately the leaves fall early and their period of beauty is short. There is a large plant in the Evonymus group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road and another on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs. Of the shrubs with leaves which turn orange and scarlet in the autumn the most conspicuous now is Fothergilla major. Fothergilla is a genus related to the Witch Hazels and is found only in the southeastern United States where four species have been distinguished; they bear leaves which generally resemble those of the Witch Hazels and showy terminal heads of small white flowers which appear in spring before the leaves. The largest and the handsomest of the species, Fothergilla major, sometimes grows to be ten or twelve feet high, and it is the tallest of the species which is cultivated here. This and the related Fothergilla monticola are mountain species and very hardy here. The other species are smaller plants from the southern coast region and require especial winter care. Every one in New England interested in gardens knows the brilliant autumn colors of the Japanese Berberis Thunbergii which has been much planted here in recent years and is now an extremely popular garden shrub. Some other Asiatic Barberries, although still little known here, are equally beautiful at this season of the year. The dwarf form of Berberis Thunbergii (var. mierophylla), of dwarfer habit and smaller leaves, which originated in the Arboretum several years ago, is an attractive little plant, and a Japanese variety of the species (var. Maximowiczii) is a larger plant than the type, with arching stems, larger leaves and larger flowers and fruits. In the autumn the color of the leaves is as beautiful as those of Berberis Thunbergii. But probably the handsomest of all the Barberries which are hardy in this climate is the Japanese Berberis Regeliana. This is a large shrub with the habit of the common Barberry, but the leaves are larger and more lustrous, the fragrant flowers are larger and of rather a paler shade of yellow, and the fruit is more brilliant; in the autumn the leaves turn orange and scarlet. This Barberry was among the first of the Japanese shrubs brought into American gardens as it was cultivated at the Parsons' Nursery on Long Island fully fifty years ago and was then known and distributed as Berberis Hakodate. It appears, however, to be still very rare in the United States and Europe. There is a large clump of this species among the Barberries on Hickory Path near Centre Street. Another Japanese Barberry, Berberis Sieboldii, is well worth a place in every collection for the beauty of its deep dull red autumn foliage. This is a smaller shrub with erect stems forming a round-topped head, large flowers in few-flowered clusters, and large shining fruits. There is now a large number of new Chinese species of Barberry in the Arboretum but the value of many of these as garden plants here is not known. Two Chinese species, Berberis diaphana and B. dictyophylla which were discovered a few years ago by French Missionaries who sent them to France whence they reached the Arboretum, are now known to be plants of exceptional value. Berberis diaphana is a low round shrub with solitary pale yellow flowers which are followed by large red fruits. The habit of this plant is unusual among Barberries and make it valuable in small shrubberies. Its greatest beauty, however, is in the autumn color of the leaves which is not surpassed in brilliancy by that of any other Barberry. Berberis dictyophylla is a tall shrub with slender erect stems which form an open irregular head, small spiny leaves which are light green on the upper surface and silvery white below, large pale yellow flowers solitary or in pairs and red fruit. This shrub is attractive throughout the season and is particularly beautiful in the late autumn when the upper side of the leaves turns scarlet and the lower side retains its silver color, a condition which is found in a few other plants and is always attractive. These Barberries are established in the Shrub Collection and can be found in the supplementary Barberry collection on Hickory Path. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 1","article_sequence":34,"start_page":133,"end_page":136,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23576","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25eb727.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 34 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN. MASS. NOVEMBER I. 1912 BULLETIN NO. 34. To the general rule that the leaves of European trees are not brilliantly colored in the autumn in comparison with those of eastern North American and eastern Asiatic trees of the same genera there are a few exceptions. The most conspicuous of these exceptions is perhaps found in the so-called Norway Maple (Acer platanoides), a large tree of northern and central Europe which has been much planted in the northern and middle states where it succeeds better than most European trees. This tree almost equals the native Sugar Maple in the bright clear yellow tints of its fading leaves which do not take on their greatest beauty until after those of the Sugar Maple have mostly fallen. This tree is very beautiful, too, in the early spring when the leafless branches are covered with dense clusters of bright yellow flowers. In cultivation a number of seedling forms of this tree have been developed and many of the most important of these are established in the Maple Group. The best known of these horticultural varieties is the form with purple leaves (var. Schwedleri) which has been often planted in this country. The leaves of this form are deep reddish purple early in spring, but their color is not persistent and nearly disappears before midsummer, leaving the leaves a dull shade of green. The var. globosum is a broad shrub only a few feet high and one of the most valuable of all the dwarf Maples. There is an unusually fine specimen of this form in the collection. The var. columnare is a pyramidal tree with erect branches, and the var. nanum, sometimes known in gardens as Acer platanoides pyramidale nanum, is dwarfer than the last mentioned variety and is an attractive and useful plant for small gardens. There are several forms of this tree with deeply divided or otherwise abnormal leaves. Some of these are var. laciniatum, the Eagle-Claw Maple, var. eucultatum and var. palmatum. The American Horsechestnuts lose their leaves early and without much change of color, although occasionally those of the Ohio Buckeye (Aesculus glabra), when the tree is grown under exceedingly good conditions, turn bright red early in October. The tree from the south of Greece, however, the familiar and common Horsechestnut of parks and gardens and one of the most splendid of all hardy trees holds its leaves later than any of the American species, and on trees grown in damp moist soil they are only now beginning to fall after having turned bright yellow. The American Lindens have now lost their leaves, but those of one species from western Europe, Tilia petiolaris, are only just falling, having first turned bright yellow. This is a handsome tree with rather pendulous branches and leaves which are silvery white on their lower surface and hang on long drooping stalks. This is not a very common tree in the neighborhood of Boston but it was largely planted on many estates in Newport, Rhode Island, from fifty to seventy years ago and some of these Newport trees have grown into beautiful specimens. The three European Oaks which are usually cultivated in the eastern United States, Quercus pedunculata, Q. sessiliflora, and Q. Cerris, the Turkey Oak, hold their leaves late and show no bright autumn colors. These three trees grow very rapidly here while they are young but are short-lived as the stems are usually cracked by the cold and, like the European Ash (Fraxinus excelsior) and the Sycamore Maple (Acer Pseudoplatanus), they are unsatisfactory to plant in New England. One of the Oaks of western Europe, Quercus conferta, or, as it is often called, Q. pannonica, promises to be a much more valuable tree here. This is a large and common forest tree in some parts of Hungary and is easily distinguished by the leaves which are deeply divided into numerous narrow lobes and which turn bright yellow at this season. It is a perfectly hardy, shapely, fast-growing tree which promises to succeed in this region as it has in western Europe, and it is surprising that it is still so little known and so seldom planted in the United States. The largest plant in this country which has been reported to the Arboretum is growing on what was formerly the estate of George W. Carpenter in Germantown, Pennsylvania, and is now about forty feet high. Mr. Carpenter, who was a lover of trees and had a large collection of them, was a friend of Thomas Nuttall, the distinguished botanist, who paid him frequent visits about 1850 and probably procured this then little known tree for him. There is a fine specimen, too, on the estate of Mr. John T. Morris at Chestnut Hill, Philadelphia, which produces acorns freely, but outside the Arboretum it does not appear to be growing in Massachusetts. The Hungarian Oak may be seen near Oak Path among the other exotic Oaks. Five eastern Asiatic Oaks are well established in the Arboretum and nearly all of them produce fruit here; they are Quercus crispula, Q. grosseserrata, and Q. glandulifera from Japan, and Q. dentata and Q. variabilis from China and Japan. They are all interesting and attractive trees, and Q. grosseserrata will probably grow here, as it does in Japan, to a large size and become a valuable timber tree. The leaves of these Asiatic Oaks turn yellow or yellow and red in the autumn; they can be seen on Azalea and Oak Paths and on the left-hand side at the foot of Azalea Path where there is a large plantation of Asiatic Oaks- In this collection are the Oaks discovered by Wilson in western China; these are growing well and appear to be perfectly hardy, but it is too soon to speak of their value in this country. The leaves of nearly all the Sumachs turn scarlet or red in the autumn. The last of them to lose its leaves is the native Rhzts copallina. This plant at the north is a low shrub which spreads into thickets, but at the south, especially in southern Arkansas and in Texas, it sometimes becomes a slender tree thirty or forty feet high. The leaves are rather more lustrous than those of the other Sumachs, and this species can also be distinguished by the wings on the stalks between the leaflets. Few plants present a more brilliant appearance in the autumn when the leaves turn bright scarlet. In the Sumach group, which is on the east side of the Meadow Road, there is a plant which is of exceptional beauty in the autumn; this is the American Smoke-tree (Cotinus americanus). It is a rare tree found only in the south in a few isolated stations from northern Alabama to southwestern Missouri, eastern Oklahoma, and western Texas. In the Arboretum, where it grows in the form of a large shrub rather than a tree, it is perfectly hardy in the most exposed positions. The flowers are small and the hairy stems of the fruit, which form the conspicuous \"smoke\" of the Old- World Smoke-tree, do not make much show; but the leaves are large and of a pleasing shade of green, and in the autumn turn orange and scarlet, making this one of the handsomest October plants in the Arboretum. This plant was introduced into cultivation by the Arboretum many years ago from northern Alabama and it is now often cultivated and much valued in Europe where it appears to be better known than in the United States. The bright orange-colored heartwood is very durable and yields an orange dye used in the south during the Civil War when most of the large trees were destroyed. In the Shrub Collection the leaves of two currants are just turning scarlet. These are Ribes curvatum and the Chinese form of Ribes fasoieulatuvi. Ribes curvatum is a little known plant found a few years ago in the neighborhood of Stone Mountain in central Georgia. It has long white flowers gracefully drooping on long stems and in cultivation has proved to be one of the attractive plants in the large collection of this genus. The beauty of the Chinese Currant at this season is increased by the bright red fruits which are still on the branches. It is the only representative of the genus in the collection with fruit which ripens in the autumn, and is well worth a place in every collection in which handsome autumn fruits are valued. The Japanese and Chinese Wistaria, W. sinensis, is the species which is commonly cultivated in this country. The leaves are usually destroyed by frosts while they are still green, but the leaves of another Chinese species, W. multijuga usually turn a brilliant clear yellow before falling. This species, which is less commonly found in American gardens than W. sinensis, blooms later than that species and has longer flower clusters on which the flowers are set further apart and are more fragrant. It is a form of this species with abnormally long flower clusters which is so highly valued and so often cultivated by the Japanese. There are forms with pale blue, white and rose tinted flowers. This Chinese vine appears to be hardier than W. sinensis. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston, and at the office of the Harvard Alumni Bulletin, 50 State Street, Boston. Price, 30 cents. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 7","article_sequence":35,"start_page":137,"end_page":140,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23578","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25ebb6b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 35 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 7, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 35. At this season one meets in Tokyo many venders with bunches of leafless branches of a native Holly covered with small red berries, but in this country fruit-covered branches of hardy trees and shrubs are as yet little appreciated for the decoration of houses, although the branches of several of our plants are admirably suited to the purpose. The fruits of many of these retain their beauty for a long time and such decorations are much more economical than those made by the short-lived forced flowers of late autumn and early winter. The branches of the evergreen Holly of the southern states, Ilex opaca, however, are much used at Christmas, and occasionally branches of Ilex verticillata can be seen here in the windows of enterprising florists. The Holly sold in the streets of Tokyo is Ilex serrata, and the fruit is smaller and less bright-colored than that of the American representatives of this plant, the so-called Black Alders of New England swamps. There are two of these, Ilex verticillata and 1. laevigata; the former is the more common plant, but the latter is showier as the fruit is larger and brighter-colored. These plants are easily cultivated and grow rapidly in ordinary garden soil into round-headed shrubs sometimes eight or ten feet across. There are forms of them both with yellow fruit, a yellow-fruited form of 1. laevigata (var. Herveyi) having been found a few years ago near New Bedford; it is not yet in cultivation. Two Hollies from the southern states with deciduous leaves and red fruits, Ilex decidua and 1. monticola, are cultivated in the Arboretum; but although their fruit is larger, they are less decorative in this climate than the native species. Ilex opaca ought to be more generally cultivated here as the more beautiful English Holly, 1. Aquifolium, is not hardy in New England. The American species is especially valuable as it is the only broad-leaved evergreen tree which is hardy in this latitude. This Holly grows naturally on the coast near Quincy in this state, and then ranges southward to Texas, in some parts of the country becoming a large and common tree. There is also a form of this tree with yellow fruit. The Ink Berry (Ilex glabra) a black-fruited Holly, is one of the handsomest of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which are hardy in New England. The branches of this plant are valuable for house decoration, for the leaves do not fall and the fruit retains its color and freshness for a long time after the branches are cut. Another good plant for house decoration is the common European Privet, Ligustrum vulgare, which is a perfectly hardy shrub or small tree formerly much used in this country as a hedge plant and now occasionally naturalized in the eastern states; this is one of the European plants which retains its leaves late in the autumn without change of color, and these make a handsome contrast with the terminal clusters of shining black fruits. Many species of Privet have been introduced in recent years into our gardens from eastern Asia but none of them are as desirable garden plants in this climate as this old-fashioned European shrub which might well be grown for the value of its fruitbearing branches in house decoration. Nearly all the Mountain Ashes {Sorbus) produce handsome red or orange fruits which keep their color for a long time after the branches are cut. The species with the showiest fruit in the Arboretum is Sorbus americana, a common northern tree, several specimens of which can be seen on the right-hand side of the entrance to the Shrub Collection from the Forest Hills gate. These plants are now leafless, but the leaves before they dropped a few days ago had turned to bright shades of yellow and scarlet; but the fruits will remain on the branches in good condition until the flocks of northern robins arrive when they will eat every berry in preparation for their long flight southward. With these plants there is a tall specimen covered with fruit of Sorbus Matsumurana, one of the best growing of the numerous eastern Asiatic species in the collection. Several other species, including different forms of the European Mountain Ash (S. Aucuparia), are cultivated in different parts of the Arboretum and are usually short-lived. Many of the Crabapples shed their fruits early in the autumn, but those of some of the forms or hybrids of the Chinese Malus floribunda retain them in good condition during the winter or until they are eaten by birds. There is a group of these trees near the eastern end of the Administration Building which do not lose their fruit until spring; these are now bright orange color and, although individually very small, are so numerous that the branches are weighed down by them, the beauty of the fruit being heightened by the color of the leaves which are just beginning to turn pale yellow. Too much cannot be said of the value of Malus floribunda as a garden plant in this climate, especially those forms with persistent fruit. No other large shrub or small tree is more beautiful in spring when it is covered with flowers which, rose color in the bud, become white as they develop; the habit is good; it is perfectly hardy, and it never fails to produce a full crop of flowers and fruits. Flower-covered and fruit-covered branches are admirable house decorations. Fruit-covered branches of the American and Japanese Bittersweets are well suited for house decoration, the orange-colored pods being now open and displaying the seeds in their scarlet pulpy coats. The leaves, which turn yellow before falling, have now disappeared; the fruit, however, will persist for some weeks longer. The American species, Celastrus scandens, is usually considered the handsomer of the two species, the fruit being borne in raceme-like terminal clusters and therefore not hidden by the leaves, while in the Japanese species, C. articulatus, the smaller fruit is borne in axillary clusters so that until the leaves have fallen it is not very conspicuous. Another species in the collection, C. flagellaris, from northeastern Asia where it is widely distributed, has much smaller axillary fruits and, although perfectly hardy, is comparatively of little value as an ornamental vine. The Snowberries (Symphoricarpos) generally retain their fruit late in the autumn, and on many of the plants the leaves are still green and fresh, increasing the beauty of the snowy white berries. There are several species and forms in the Shrub Collection but the handsomest is the common Snowberry of all old gardens, S. racemosus var. laevigatus, a plant now becoming naturalized in New England. The type of the species is a much smaller plant with small fruits and therefore of less ornamental value. The so-called French Mulberry, Callicarpa americana, with its axillary clusters of violet-colored fruits, is one of the handsome autumn shrubs of southern woodlands. Unfortunately it is not hardy here, and the only really satisfactory species of this genus which has yet been grown in the Arboretum is the Japanese Callicarpa japonica. This is a smaller plant than the American species but the fruit, although smaller, is of the same color and is now conspicuous on the branches from which the leaves have mostly disappeared. There are a number of plants of this small shrub on the left hand side of Azalea Path near its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road. The silvery white tails of the fruit of a Japanese Clematis (C. apiifolia), now make a brilliant show on the right hand side of the Jamaica Plain entrance where this vine has rambled over a number of large shrubs; there is a plant, too, on the trellis at the east side of the Shrub Collection. It is one of the small flowered species, the white flowers appearing after those of the native C. virginiana and before those of the Japanese C. paniculata. It is hardy, fast-growing and blooms freely every year, and as a decorative plant its value is increased by the late persistence of the fruit, which now forms one of the handsome objects in the Arboretum. The branches of many other trees and shrubs in the Arboretum are still covered with showy fruits and many of them have great decorative value in addition to their value as garden plants. The branches of the common Barberry, Berberis vulgaris, with its drooping clusters of red fruits are very ornamental in the house, as are those of its allies, B. canadensis, B. amurensis, and B. Regeliana. Berberis canadensis, which is a native of the southern Appalachian Mountains and southern Missouri, is a smaller plant than the European Barberry with smaller leaves and fruit and is still rare in cultivation. It retains its leaves later in the season than most of the Barberries of this group. Showy fruits still cover the branches of several Hawthorns (Crataegus), especially those of C. nitida, one of the most ornamental species of the entire genus, and of C. aprica, a southern species which is perfectly hardy here. The best Hawthorn. however, for winter decoration is Crataegus cordata, the so-called Washington Thorn, a slender tree of the southern states which is still covered with its leaves now turning orange and scarlet and making a handsome contrast with the small bright red fruits which remain on the branches until spring without change of color. Among the Cornels or Dogwoods the latest to hold its fruits is Cornus racemosa, sometimes called C. paniculata and C. candidissima, a common and widely distributed native shrub. The leaves have now fallen but the bushes are completely covered with clusters of dull white berries borne on bright red stalks. This Dogwood has been largely used in the Arboretum shrubberies where it is now one of the most conspicuous and interesting objects. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 14","article_sequence":36,"start_page":141,"end_page":144,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23577","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad25eb76a.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 36 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 14, 1912 BULLETIN NO. 36. The Arboretum is asked for information about dwarf conifers. In many genera of conifers dwarf individuals, which are seminal or rarely bud-variation forms, have appeared and have been multiplied by nurserymen and others interested in the cultivation of such plants, the largest number of such abnormal forms being found naturally among the seedlings of species which have been the most largely cultivated. The seedlings of no other conifer, perhaps, show so great variation as those of the Arborvitse of the eastern United States, Thuya occidentalis. Some of these forms are very dwarf, forming round compact heads only a foot or two high; others grow into large globular masses; others are narrow pyramids, and some have pendulous branches. They vary, too, in the color of the foliage, that of some forms being of different shades of green, and that of others yellow. Like many other dwarf conifers, several of these forms are well suited for the decoration of the rock garden and for dwarf hedges or small beds. The collection of the forms of Thuya occidentalis in the Arboretum is probably one of the largest in existence and contains many interesting specimens. It is established on Yew Path leading from the Valley Road to the Hemlock Hill Road, and adjoining the Arborvitass is the collection of Chamascyparis or White Cedars. The species of this genus from the Pacific Coast are not hardy in New England, so it is not possible to grow here various dwarf forms of C. Lawsoniana which are common in European collections. Of the Japanese species, often called Retinosporas, there are several dwarf forms, the most beautiful of these perhaps being the variety nana of C. obtusa. For those who admire plants with colored foliage C. pisifera argentea is an attractive small plant. Of the White Cedar of the eastern United States (C. thyoides) there are a few interesting dwarf forms. The most conspicuous of these is probably the variety ericoides, of dwarf, compact, pyramidal habit, with leaves which as well as the branches, turn reddish brown with the first cold weather and retain this color until spring. Another interesting form is the variety leptoclada, also of dwarf habit and bluish green color. One of the most valuable of all the dwarf evergreens is that variety of the Japanese Yew (Taxus cuspidata) which is now cultivated in American gardens as variety brevifolia, but is not to be confounded with Taxus brevifolia, which is a California tree. This variety of the Japanese Yew has very dark green leaves and wide-spreading, rather irregularly growing branches; it attains a height of only four or five feet but sometimes covers a space ten or fifteen feet in diameter. Seedlings raised from this plant often assume the upright growth of the typical species. In the collection of Yews on Yew Path there is also a small very compact plant of a form of Taxus cuspidata which is one of the most distinct and beautiful of all the dwarf evergreens in the Arboretum; this appears to be a unique plant and has not received a name. Nearly all the forms of the European Yew (Taxus baccata) suffer more or less severely here from cold and several of them are unable to survive a New England winter. There is, however, one form which is perfectly hardy; this is a broad, flat-topped, rather compact shrub not more than two feet high, with exceedingly dark green foliage. This variety is sometimes sold in American nurseries as Taxus repandens ; this name has not been published, however, in any of the technical books on conifers and we know nothing here of its origin. It has lived here entirely uninjured for several years on the edge of the group of Yews on Hemlock Hill Road at the entranee of Yew Path, one of the most exposed positions in the Arboretum. This is certainly a plant of great value for this part of the country. Among the Junipers there are several dwarf forms of the arborescent species. Of our common Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana, a form with branches spreading close to the ground grows at several places on the coast of Maine. The plants of this form in the collection are too young to show their habit; it has not yet received a name. The form globosa of the Red Cedar is a small, round, handsome shrub well worth a place in collections of these dwarfs. The var. tripartita, which is not rare in European nurseries, is a low broad shrub with spreading and erect branches forming a wide open head. There are a number of large plants of this form on the left of the entrance to the path which leads from Yew Path to the knoll on which the Juniper collection is established. Of Juniperus chinensis the best known dwarf form is the variety procumbens, with elongated branches spreading into wide mats. Of this species there are also in the collection plants of a dwarf form with erect stems forming small, round-topped shrubs. Of the European Savin {J. Sabina) the var. tamariscifolia is a vigorous prostrate shrub, and the variety humilis, which is the smallest of all the Junipers in the collection, is only a few inches high with small, spreading prostrate stems. Of the conifers of the Pacific coast, with the exception of Lawson's Cypress and the Douglas Spruce (Pseudotsuga mucronata), no dwarfs have yet appeared, or, if they have appeared, they have not been multiplied in nurseries; and this seems to be true of the Firs, Spruces, Pines and Hemlocks of Asia with one exception; this is the dwarf form of the Japanese Pinus densiflora (var. pumila) which is much cultivated in Japanese gardens and is one of the handsomest of all dwarf conifers. This little Pine, which sometimes grows to the height of six or eight feet and forms a head of spreading branches ten or twelve feet through, is perfectly hardy here and is now well established with a number of other dwarf conifers on Conifer Path. Unlike other dwarf conifers, this plant flowers freely and occasionally bears cones. There are dwarf forms of the common White Pine of the eastern states, Pinus Strobus, which are decorative plants, and several dwarf forms of the so-called Scotch Pine (P. silvestris) which are more pyramidal in habit than forms of the White Pine. The most commonly cultivated dwarf Pine, however, is the Mugho Pine (P. mughus or pumilio). This is a shrub of the mountains of central and southern Europe and a form of Pinus montana, growing sometimes with that tree as on the Pyrenees, and sometimes, as on the Dolomites, by itself without other forms of the species. In cultivation it is a broad shrub with numerous erect stems occasionally reaching the height of fifteen feet and covered with dark green foliage. Plants in cultivation produce cones freely and the seedlings probably retain the habit of the parent. There are two quite distinct forms in the Arboretum collection, one with much coarser leaves than the other. This Pine is perfectly hardy and grows rapidly, but long before it reaches its fu!1 size it loses the lower branches and compact form which is the chief beauty of the young plants. No other conifer, with the exception, perhaps of the eastern American Arborvitae, has shown so great seminal variation as the European or Norway Spruce (Picea Abies), and some of these forms are among the most attractive of all the dwarf conifers. Some of the best of these are variety Clanbrasiliana, a low bush seldom more than six feet high, var. Gregoriana, usually not more than one to two feet high, and the varieties pumila and pygmaea both of exceedingly dwarf habit. Of.our native Black Spruce (Picea Mariana) the var. Doumettii is a compact pyramidal plant which does not often grow more than ten or twelve feet tall and is of bluish color. An interesting dwarf form of the Rocky Mountain Blue Spruce. (P. pungens or Parryana, or as it should be called, P. Menzieszi) appeared several years ago in the Arboretum nurseries and promises to be valuable as a decorative plant; it has not yet received a name. There is in cultivation, too, a dwarf of the Spruce tree of the Caucasus (P. oriental is) which, however, is little known in collections, and in the Arboretum collection are two plants of a dwarf Douglas Spruce. The genus Abies, the Firs, have as yet produced few dwarf forms. The best known is probably the dwarf of the Balsam Fir of northeastern North America (A. balsamifera), known in gardens as A. Hudsonica, a very dwarf and not particularly attractive plant. There is a dwarf pyramidal form of the Fir of central Europe (A. Picea) but this after a few years is apt to lose its dwarf habit and grow into a tall tree. A dwarf form of the Rocky Mountain A. lasiocarpa was raised several years ago in the Arboretum and is still a true dwarf in habit, although grafts taken from this plant are beginning to assume the narrow pyramidal habit of the species. The original plant can be seen in the bed of dwarfs on Conifer Path where there are three grafted plants of the dwarf Rocky Mountain Blue Spruce. The common Hemlock of the eastern states (Tsuga canadensis) has a strong tendency to seminal variation, and dwarf and other abnormal forms of this tree often occur in the woods. The most distinct and interesting of these is a compact form with closely appressed pendulous branches forming a broad, low round-topped mass. Many years ago four or five plants of this form were found by the late Joseph Howland of Mattapan, New York, on one of the mountains back of Fishkill Landing on the Hudson River and were named by him Sargent's Hemlock for his friend and neighbor Henry Winthrop Sargent. Only one or perhaps two of these wild plants are now living, although the variety has been much propagated by nurserymen by grafting its branches on the common Hemlock. These grafted plants, as they grow more rapidly and are of more open habit, are less compact and less beautiful than the original seedlings. The plant in the Arboretum among the large collection of dwarf Hemlocks on Hemlock Hill Road is a grafted plant, but at Holm Lea in Brookline there is one of General Howland's original plants. The beautiful Carolina Hemlock (T. caroliniana) has not been very largely cultivated, but among the plants in the Arboretum Pinetum near the corner of Centre and Walter Streets are two plants which look as if they were true dwarfs as they are less than one-quarter of the size of the other trees of the same age growing with them and show no tendency to form an upright stem. The Bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23500","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcabd060b328.jpg","title":"1912-1","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1912,"series":1,"season":null},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 2","article_sequence":1,"start_page":1,"end_page":4,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23553","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270b36f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION MAY 2, 1911 JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. BULLETIN NO. 1. Persons interested in plants often complain that they do not know when the trees and shrubs in the Arboretum bloom and therefore miss flowers which they want to see. To meet this difficulty it is proposed to issue from time to time from the Arboretum bulletins of popular information in which attention will be called to the flowering of important plants and other matters connected with them. During the spring and autumn these bulletins will probably be issued every Saturday and from time to time during the remainder of the year when the necessity for them exists; and in them notice will be given of what will be best worth seeing during the following week. Copies of the Bulletin will be mailed without charge to any one interested in trees and shrubs and their cultivation who desire to receive them. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society on Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. C. S. SARGENT, Director. The hot days of last week have brought out suddenly the flowers of several plants belated by the exceptional cold of the early part of April. Many of the Magnolias of eastern Asia, which produce their flowers before the leaves appear, are now in bloom. The flowers of the earliest of these, Magnolia stellata, are already passing. The delicate pink flowers of one form of this handsome and hardy Japanese shrub deserve special notice. The white-flowered Magnolia conspicua from China, the two forms of Magnolia Kobus from Japan, and the hybrid Magnolia Soulangiana with pink flowers are particularly noticeable. They are in the immediate neighborhood of the Administration Building and near the Jamaica Plain Gate. Several of the Asiatic Cherries are in bloom. The most attractive of these are Prunus pendula and a variety of this Japanese tree with erect branches, Prunus pendula ascendens, often called Prunus subhirtella. This is one of the most beautiful of the early spring flowering trees. Attention is called, too, to Prunus Sargentii. This is a large Cherrytree from the forests of northern Japan with single flowers, pink on some plants and rose-colored on others. Prunvs Sargentii is a valuable timber tree in its native country and one of the most desirable of the hardy trees of recent introduction. These Cherry-trees and many others are on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road. In the Shrub Collection, near the Forest Hills Gate, a number of species of Ribes (Currants and Gooseberries) are already in newer and here the different forms of Forsythia may be seen. The handsomest of them at this time is Forsythia intermedia, a hybrid between F. suspersa and F. viridissima, and a more desirable decorative plant than either of its parents. Less beautiful but of particular interest to students of plant geography is Forsythia europxa, discovered a few years ago in Albania and the only species found beyond the limits of the Chinese Empire. On Azalea Path a number of plants of Rhododendron mucronulatum are now in good condition. This is a native of the mountains of northern China, and is now covered with bright rose-colored flowers which are produced before the leaves. It is the earliest of the Rhododendrons and Azaleas to bloom in the Arboretum. The Service Berry, or Shad Bush tree, will soon be in flower. Two species, Amelanchier canadensis and A. obovalis, grow naturally in the Arboretum, and the latter has been planted in large numbers through the border shrubberies. Large plants of A. canadensis, easily distinguished by the deep red color of the unfolding leaves, are growing at the foot of the wooded slope near the junction of the Forest Hills and Meadow Roads. The Plum-trees near the Shrub Collection will soon be covered with sheets of white flowers. Some of the Apricots here are already in bloom, and the pink petals of Prunus Davidiana are already dropping. This is the Wild Peach of northern China, by some botanists believed to be the plant from which the cultivated Peach has been derived."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 10","article_sequence":2,"start_page":5,"end_page":8,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23551","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270ab6e.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 2 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION MAY 10, 1911 JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. BULLETIN NO. 2. One of the most interesting trees now in flower in the Arboretum is Cercidiphyllum japonicum. This is a native of Japan and of western China. In the forests of the northern island of Japan it grows to a larger size than any of the other deciduous-leaved trees of the Empire, often attaining a height of one hundred feet with a cluster of stems eight or ten feet in diameter. In very early spring the nearly round cordate leaves are a deep bronze color and before they fall in the autumn they turn to clear bright yellow. The flowers are inconspicuous, and the male and female flowers are produced on different individuals. They are furnished with a small calyx but are without petals and are nearly hidden by the half-grown leaves. The male flowers are composed of numerous stamens with long slender filaments and in the female flowers from four to six small carpels are found which later develop into dry pod-like fruits. Cercidiphyllum has proved a very hardy and generally satisfactory tree in eastern Massachusetts where it was introduced by the Arboretum about thirty years ago. A number of plants can be seen on the Meadow Road not far beyond the Administration Building. In the group on the right-hand side of the road there is a male tree now in flower. Another Japanese plant of the same family, Euptelea polyandra, is flowering in the Arboretum for the first time. This is a much smaller, less desirable and less hardy tree than Cercidiphyllum, although it is interesting as another representative of a small natural family of trees found only in eastern Asia. A number of individuals of Euptelea are growing on the right-hand side of Azalea Path. On the other side of this path are several individuals of another plant of the same family, Eucommia ulmoides. This is a hardy tree from central China to which a good deal of space has recently been given in the daily papers as the \"Hardy Rubber-tree,\" and a possible source of rubber in countries with cold climates. Eucommia has not yet flowered in the Arboretum and the leaves are only just unfolding. Some of the Plum-trees are now at their best and will soon be in full bloom. The first of the American species to flower, Prunus nigra, is a native of British America and through cultivation has become sparingly naturalized along the borders of the northeastern United States. This is a desirable ornamental tree as it produces in profusion every year its large flowers which in fading turn pink. The flowers of other American tree Plums will soon open. Among them are Prunus americana from the eastern United States, and Prunus hortulana and Prunus Munsoniana (the Wild Goose Plum) from the Mississippi valley. From these three species and from Prunus nigra most of the cultivated American Plums have been derived. Other American Plums now beginning to show their flowers are Prunus alleghaniensis, a small tree from the mountains of Pennsylvania, and two shrubs from Kansas and Oklahoma, Prunus Watsonii and Prunus orthosepala. These are attractive when in flower, very hardy, and produce handsome fruits. Among foreign Plums now in bloom the most interesting, perhaps, is Prunus triflora. This is a Chinese species not often seen in American gardens from which the so-called Japanese Plums largely grown by pomologists have been in part, at least, derived. The Plum collection will be found near the junction of the Forest Hills and Meadow Roads. The group of Wild Pears (Pyrus) near the Forest Hills entrance and on the left-hand side of the Forest Hills Road is now interesting, for in this group are some of the handsomest of the early spring flowering trees. The Pears, of which there are a number of species, are natives of southern and western Europe, the Himalayas, of China and eastern Siberia. The genus has no American representative. The beauty of the flowers of several of the species from southwestern Europe is heightened by the silver color of the young leaves which generally unfold as the flowers open. The first of the species in the Arboretum to flower is Pyrus Simonii from China. It has large and abundant flowers which now cover the leafless branches. The leaves of this tree, like those of several of the Chinese species, are large, thick and lustrous, and unlike those of any other Pear in the collection, turn in the autumn brilliant scarlet, a character which adds to the value of this species as a garden plant. Other plants just coming into flower are Pyrus elaeagrifolia and Pyrus salicifolia from the Caucasus, and these will soon be followed by a number of European species and by others from China. Among the latter the different forms of Pyrus sinensis are perhaps the most desirable in the whole group as they are very hardy and of rapid growth, and their flowers and leaves are large and abundant. The fruit, too, of some of these Chinese forms is juicy and edible. Another of the Chinese Pears, Pyrus betulaefolia, has smaller flowers than the others but they are very abundant, but the small round fruits are not much larger than peas. The Redbuds (Cercis) are just opening their flowers. The species of the eastern United States, Cercis canadensis, has been generally planted in the Arboretum and large plants can be seen from many of the roads. On the Meadow Road, nearly opposite the Plum group, is a tree of this species which produces white flowers. This variety was found a few years ago in the woods of southwestern Missouri and is still a rare plant in cultivation. Cercis chinensis has more beautiful flowers than the American species. Plants of this small eastern Asiatic shrub are now in flower on the left-hand side of Azalea Path. Of several species of Ribes (Currants) now in flower in the Shrub collection the most interesting are two species from western North America. One of these, Ribes cereum, which is now covered with small white flowers, to be followed by sweet, edible, red fruits, is a native of the southern Rocky Mountain region where it is widely distributed. Unlike many of the plants of that dry region, Ribes cereum has adapted itself to the climate of eastern New England. The other currant now of special interest is the yellow-flowered Ribes aureum from the northwestern part of the country. This is a tall shrub with slender, graceful stems and tubular bright yellow flowers and, although long cultivated in Europe, is still a rare plant in American gardens. It must not be confounded with another yellow-flowered species, Ribes odoratum, the so-called Missouri Currant, which is a native of the region about the headwaters of the Missouri River and a larger plant common in all old-fashioned American gardens. The Shad Bushes (Amelanchier) mentioned in the last Bulletin are now in full flower and are remarkably fine this year."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 16","article_sequence":3,"start_page":9,"end_page":12,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23552","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270af6f.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 3 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION MAY 16, 1911 JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. BULLETIN NO. 3. The Chinese and Japanese Crabapples (Malus) are now in full bloom. There are two collections of these plants in the Arboretum. The oldest is on the left-hand side of Forest Hills Road; the other is at the eastern base of Peter's Hill. The plants in the second, or supplementary, collection are smaller than those in the first collection, but the Peter's Hill collection contains a larger number of species and varieties. The best known of the eastern Asiatic Crabs is Malus floribunda. This is one of the handsomest and most satisfactory of all flowering trees for this climate. It blooms every year without fail, it grows to a large size in good soil and abundant space, and as it reaches maturity it assumes a picturesque habit. The bright pink flower-buds are very beautiful and the masses of small flowers which completely cover the branches are at first pink and then gradually become white. A seedling variety or hybrid of this tree which originated in the Arboretum has been called2022 Malus Arnoldiana. This plant promises to remain a smaller tree than Malus floribunda but its long spreading and arching branches are very graceful and the flowers produced on long stems are more than twice as large as those of its parent. The flowers of this interesting tree are considered by some persons more beautiful than those of any other Crabapple. Two Japanese species deserve attention; they are Malus zumi, a slender tree from the elevated region of central Japan, and Malus Sargentii, a low wide bush discovered a few years ago on the borders of a salt marsh in the northern island. The shrubby habit, unlike that of the other species of Malus, makes this an excellent plant for small gardens. The other Japanese species, Malus toringo, which grows also in northern China, is the last of the Asiatic species to flower and will not be in bloom for several days. Very beautiful now is the so-called Parkman Crab, Malits Halliana, with semi-double bright pink flowers hanging gracefully on long slender stems. This Chinese plant was introduced into the United States from Japan nearly fifty years ago by the late Gordon Dexter of of Boston, and first flowered here in the gardens of Francis Parkman. Very beautiful, too, are Malus spectabilis, with pyramidal habit and semi-double flowers, and the variety or hybrid raised from it in Europe, Malus Scheideckeri. There are in the collection several plants with pure white flowers which are believed to be hybrids between Malus prunifolia, a tree which is unknown except in gardens, and the Manchurian Malus baccata. In brightness of color the red flowers of Malus atrosanguinea are not surpassed. This plant has the habit of Malus floribunda and is believed to be a hybrid from it. Several individuals of this will be found in the Peter's Hill collection. Malus Niedzwetzkyana, from Russian Turkestan, is remarkable in the red color of the flowers, branches, leaves and fruit. This is probably only a variety of the common Apple, for among a number of seedlings raised at the Arboretum more have green than red leaves. The American Crabapples, with the exception of Malus fusca, from the northwest coast, and a hybrid of this species, Malus Dawsoniana, will not be in bloom for another week. The Lilacs should be at their best by the end of the week. The earliest in the collection, the white-flowered Syringa affinis, is already in bloom. This slender shrub with fragrant flowers is a favorite ornament of the gardens of Peking. Nearly as early is another north China Lilac, Syringa oblata, with large pale purple, fragrant flowers. The broad, thick, leathery leaves of this shrub, unlike those of other Lilacs, turn deep bronze red in the autumn. Nearly as early to flower as these two Chinese species is Syringa hyacinthiflora, a hybrid between Syringa oblata and the Common Lilac. This hybrid grows to a large size, and the small, blue-purple double flowers are very fragrant. It is interesting as one of the early hybrids in this genus. More beautiful and in every way a more useful garden plant is another hybrid, Syringa chinensis, raised many years ago in France. The name is unfortunate for its parents are Syringa vulgaris, now known to be a native of the Balkan Peninsula, and Persian Lilac. The flowers of this hybrid are produced in long clusters which are so heavy that they become semi-pendant on the slender branches. There are varieties with rose-colored and with pale nearly white flowers. Another Chinese species, Syringa pubescens, will soon be in bloom. This has small leaves, and small, long-tubed pale purple flowers which are produced profusely in small clusters. The value of this plant is in the delicate perfume of the flowers. The collection of the Common Lilacs has been much enlarged and now contains nearly all the principal varieties, although some of the plants are still too small to flower. Many of the Bush Honeysuckles (Lonicera) are coming into bloom. Large plants of some of the best of these will be found on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs; and in the Shrub Collection there is a large number of species, varieties and hybrids. All the varieties of the Tartarian Honeysuckle and many of the hybrids raised from it are hardy, desirable garden plants, with small, handsome flowers followed by showy fruits which ripen in early summer. One of the most interesting of the rare Honeysuckles now in bloom in the Arboretum is Lonicera syringantha var. Wolfii from western China with small clusters of purple fragrant flowers. Many of the Currants and Gooseberries (Ribes) are now in bloom in the Shrub Collection and in the supplementary collection of these plants in the border opposite the Administration Building. Perhaps the handsomest of these in bloom this week is the white-flowered Ribes niveum from northwestern North America. The Fothergillas are in bloom. These are plants from the southeastern United States of the Witch Hazel Family, and of the four species which are known three are established in the Arboretum. They all produce at the end of the branches as the leaves unfold small clusters of white flowers. A good plant of the largest of the species, Fothergilla major, may be seen in the Witch Hazel Group near the small pond at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads; and on Azalea Path are individuals of the other species. On Azalea Path the red-flowered Rhododendron (Azalea) Kaempferi is opening its flowers. There are masses of this plant on both sides of the lower end of this Path and also between the Hemlocks and the Laurels at the northern base of Hemlock Hill. The shade and coolness of this last position suits this inhabitant of the high mountains of Japan, and it flowers here later than on Azalea Path and the flowers remain longer in good condition. When these flowers open in front of the dark background of Hemlocks, one of the most beautiful floral shows of the Arboretum season may be seen. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 24","article_sequence":4,"start_page":13,"end_page":16,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23554","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270b726.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 4 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION MAY 24, 1911 JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. BULLETIN NO. 4. Of the seven Magnolias of the eastern United States five are established in the Arboretum. The others, Magnolia grandiflora, the great evergreen Magnolia of the south, and Magnolia pyramidata from the extreme southern part of Georgia and Florida, are not hardy at the north. Unlike the early flowering Magnolias of eastern Asia which bloom before the leaves appear, the American trees all flower after the unfolding of the leaves. The earliest in the Arboretum is Magnolia Fraseri, a rather small tree from the southern Appalachian mountains. The large, pale, cream-colored flowers of this hardy tree are now conspicuous at the ends of the slender branches. The next species to flower is Magnolia cordata, a small, round-headed tree with dark green leaves and small, cup-shaped bright canary yellow flowers. These now cover the trees, and during the summer a second crop of flowers is usually produced. The origin of this tree is obscure. It was sent more than a century ago from the United States to France by the French botanist Michaux. It has not been rediscovered, however, in the forests explored by Michaux, and is now known only as a cultivated tree. Several individuals have been growing for many years in the Harvard Botanic Garden and the plants in the Arboretum have been raised by grafts from the Cambridge trees. This tree does not produce seeds and therefore has remained extremely rare in collections. Magnolia acuminata, the Cucumber-tree, with small, yellow-green flowers, the largest of the Magnolias hardy at the north is just opening its flowers. Magnolia tripetala, the so-called umbrella tree, is also in bloom, and this will soon be followed by Magnolia macrophylla. These two trees have large leaves, and large fragrant, white flowers; and the flowers and leaves of the latter are larger than those of any other tree of the North Temperate Zone. Of the Magnolias hardy at the north none surpass in beauty of flowers and foliage Magnolia glauca, an inhabitant of swamps in the neighborhood of the coast from Massachusetts to Texas. This is a beautiful garden shrub or small tree and it should be much more often planted. It is the latest of the Magnolias to flower. The small, cream-white, cup-shaped, aromatic flowers which first open in June, continue to appear during several weeks, and the leaves, which are bright green and lustrous on the upper surface and silvery white below, remain on the branches until early winter at the north and until spring at the south. The American Magnolias are on the right of the Jamaica Plain entrance near the Administration Building. Several of the Crabapples of the eastern United States are still in flower. They all have leaves more or less coated, at least while young, with a pale, felt-like covering of hairs, pink and very fragrant flowers, and fragrant, apple-like fruits hanging on long stems and covered with a sticky exudation. The principal species in the collection are Malus coronaria from the middle and southeastern states, Malus ioensis from the Mississippi valley, and a double-flowered form of this known as the Bechtel Crab. This small tree was found a few years ago in one of the western states. It produces in great quantities double pink flowers which look like small clustered Roses and is certainly one of the most charming of all hardy flowering trees. There are large plants of these Crabapples at the foot of the wooded slope opposite the junction of the Forest Hills and Meadow Roads. The Sheepberry or Nannyberry of northern woods and roadsides, Viburnum Lentago, is now conspicuous in many parts of the Arboretum. This is a large shrub or small round-headed tree with lustrous leaves and large flat clusters of pale cream-colored flowers, which in the autumn are followed by sweet dark blue fruits. Although one of the most beautiful and desirable of the shrubs of the northern United States, the Nannyberry is too seldom found in American parks and gardens. Equally beautiful and of rather more tree-like habit, Viburnum prunifolium of the middle states has now opened its flat clusters of white flowers. Plants of these Viburnums can be found on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road where also the shrubby Viburnum pubescens is coming into flower. This is an American species with slender stems spreading into large clumps and small abundant clusters of white flowers. On the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road, above the Lilacs, are two plants in flower of Symplocos crataegoides, a native of eastern Asia and one of the most beautiful flowering shrubs which Japan has contributed to our gardens. The small white flowers are produced in abundant clusters, but the great beauty of this plant is in the autumn when the branches are covered with small bright blue berries of a color not often seen in northern gardens. Evidently a plant which depends on favorable conditions of soil and climate, for it does not flourish in western Europe or even in western New York. Symplocos crataegoides is entirely at home in the Arboretum where it flowers and produces its fruits every year. Not many of the small yellow-flowered shrubs from southern Europe, of the Pea Family, which are familiar and beautiful objects in European gardens, flourish in New England, but Cytisus purgans is now covered with flowers and seems quite at home in the Shrub Collection. The most interesting plants, however, now in flower in the Shrub Collection will be found among the Honeysuckles (Lonicera). Of all the shrubs introduced by the Arboretum into New England none is now more generally cultivated or has proved more valuable than Lonicera Morrowii, a native of northern Japan. This in cultivation here is a broad high bush with wide-spreading lower branches clinging close to the ground. The pale blue-green foliage is pleasant in tone and the yellow flowers are produced in the greatest profusion. This remarkable shrub, which seems to grow here more vigorously than it does in Japan, has been largely planted in several of the Boston parks. Two charming plants now in bloom are Lonicera amoena and Lonicera amoena Arnoldiana, the latter a product of the Arboretum. They are garden hybrids of the Tartarian Honeysuckle and a species of central Asia, Lonicera Korolkowii, and are graceful shrubs with silvery gray foliage and slender, pink flowers, and are of real value for the decoration of gardens. Other Honeysuckles now in bloom which should be noted are Lonicera bella, a large and vigorous hybrid of Lonicera Morrowii with the Tartarian Honeysuckle; Lonicera minutiflora, another hybrid, remarkable in the beauty of its brilliantly colored fruits; Lonicera notha, a hybrid of the Tartarian Honeysuckle with Lonicera Ruprechtiana of eastern Siberia; Lonicera minutiflora from central Asia; and another central Asia plant, Lonicera coerulea graciliflora, a slender, although vigorous, shrub with beautiful drooping flowers. These are only a few of the large collection of Bush Honeysuckles now in bloom. Among the Diervillas, or, as they are often called, Weigelas, natives of the eastern United States and of eastern Asia, a genus in which many hybrids and varieties have been developed in Japanese and European gardens, the earliest to flower in the Arboretum are two Asiatic species which can be seen in the Shrub Collection. The more beautiful of these two species is Diervilla florida, a small shrub, with pale pink flowers, introduced into the Arnold Arboretum a few years ago by Mr. Jack, from Korea. This plant has probably played a considerable part in the production of some of the hybrid races, but as a garden plant the wild type is more desirable than any of its progeny. The other species, Diervilla praecox, has larger flowers of a rather disagreeable purple tone. It is believed to be a native of Japan. On the curve of the Meadow Road beyond the Administration Building several plants of the pink-flowered Rhododendron (Azalea) caneseens, the Azalea nudiflora, in part, of the old botanists, are coming into bloom. Plants of this beautiful native shrub can also be seen on Azalea Path. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum w-ill be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"May 31","article_sequence":5,"start_page":17,"end_page":20,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23555","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270bb27.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 5 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION MAY 31, 1911 t JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. BULLETIN NO. 5. Three Maples now in bloom are valuable as flowering plants. The first, Acer tataricum, a small tree of eastern Europe and western Asia, although rarely seen in American collections, is an old inhabitant of gardens. The flowers are white and are produced in erect clusters longer than broad. More conspicuous even than the flowers are the scarlet wings of the fruit which are brightly colored in summer and remain a long time on the branches. The second of these Maples, Acer ginnala, is a small shrubby tree of eastern Siberia where it is abundant in the valley of the Amoor and in the neighborhood of Vladivostock. The flowers are pale yellow and, unlike those of most Maples, are very fragrant. The great value of this plant, however, is in the color of its autumn foliage. The leaves drop early but before withering assume tints of scarlet which are not surpassed in brilliancy by the dying foliage of any American tree. These Maples can be found in the Maple Group near the north end of the Shrub Collection. As a flowering plant Acer spicatum deserves attention. This shrub, or small tree, of our northern forests is now covered with its long erect racemes of yellow flowers which do not open until the yellow-green lobed leaves are fully grown. There are several plants of this beautiful Maple near the first of the ponds on the righthand side of the Meadow Road, and in other parts of the Arboretum. Among the Hawthorns which are planted between the Shrub Collection and the Parkway bordering the Arboretum are a few interesting trees still in flower. Of American species the handsomest is now Crataegus 2022 nitida with wide-spreading branches arranged in flat open layers and lustrous foliage. This belongs to a southern group of these trees which bear small flowers in crowded clusters and small red fruit. Another handsome species is Crataegus fecunda. This is a round-topped tree with long lower branches spreading over the ground and large flowers followed by oblong dull red fruit. These two trees, first cultivated in the Arboretum, were raised from seeds gathered thirty years ago in the neighborhood of St. Louis. Crataegus aprica from the foothills of the southern Appalachian Mountains is also in flower. This is a small-leaved tree with large flowers in few-flowered clusters and large, dull, orangered fruits. It is interesting as the only representative of a large natural group confined to the southeastern United States which has flowered in the Arboretum. Beyond the American species, and between them and the Willow plantation, are several foreign species of Crataegus. The handsomest of these now in bloom is Crataegus pinnatifida, with large, lustrous deeply-divided leaves and large flowers in many-flowered clusters. There are large orchards of this tree in the neighborhood of Peking where it is cultivated for its oblong, scarlet and lustrous fruits. In the third of these bulletins attention was called to Lonicera syringantha var. Wolfii from western China. Next to this plant in the Shrub Collection Lonicera syringantha itself is now in bloom. It is a taller shrub than the variety with more gracefully disposed branches and pale pink or nearly white very fragrant nowers, and in this climate is a garden plant of real value. The pure white flowers of Lonicera Maackii from the valley of the Amoor River in eastern Siberia are larger than those of any other Bush Honeysuckle in the Arboretum, and their beauty is increased by the dark green leaves of this hardy plant. The fruit, however, is small and uninteresting. Next to it in the Shrub Collection there is a specimen of the form of this species from western China, the var. podocarpa, which is in every way a less desirable garden plant. In the fourth of these bulletins attention was called to Diervilla praecox, a native of Japan. Some of the hybrids of this plant raised in France are now flowering in the Shrub Collection. Hardier than some of the other garden races of Diervilla, these are valuable for the spring gardens. The handsomest variety in the collection is perhaps the one called Le Printemps; other varieties now in flower are Gracieux and Conquirant. The Deutzias are generally not very satisfactory garden plants in this climate, and several of the species and varieties suffer here from the cold of severe winters. The exception is a hybrid between the Japanese Deutzia gracilis and Deutzia parviflora from northern China, called Deutzia Lemoinei for the great French hybridizer by whom it was produced a few years ago. This plant resembles Deutzia gracilis, but it grows into a taller and broader shrub, and the flowers are larger. It is certainly one of the best garden plants of recent introduction. With the other species, varieties and hybrids which are grown here it can be seen in full flower in the Shrub Collection. The number of Chinese species of Deutzia is now known, largely through the investigations of the Arboretum, to be thirty-two, although twenty-five years ago only five Chinese species had been described. Many of these new species are now growing in the Arboretum nurseries, but it is too soon to speak of their value as garden plants. Spiraea Van Houtii is a hybrid raised in Europe between Spiraea cantoniensis, a rather tender Chinese species, and Spiraea trilobata of Siberia. It is easily propagated and grows rapidly into a tall broad shrub, and has been largely advertised and distributed in recent years. It suffers, however, in cold winters and is less valuable than Spiraea trilobata, which is a dwarfer plant with spreading and pendant branches, and is perfectly hardy and as free flowering as its offspring. Although first brought to this country at least eighty years ago, Spiraea trilobata is now rarely found in American gardens. These two Spiraeas can now be compared in the Shrub Collection where they are in flower side by side, and where there are many other species of this genus. Enkianthus is an eastern Asiatic and Himalayan genus, with drooping clusters of small, bell-shaped flowers, and dry capsular fruits, and is related to Andromeda. Three Japanese species are well established in the Arboretum and can be seen in the Shrub Collection and in a large group on the right-hand side of Azalea Path. The handsomest of the three species, Enkianthus campanulatus, is a tall shrub with slender erect stems and branches, and light yellow or rose-colored flowers. It is found in every Japanese garden where it is valued for the bright scarlet color the leaves assume in autumn, and where it is often cut into balls and other fantastic shapes. This Enkianthus is a garden plant here of real value. The other species, Enkianthus japonicus and Enkianthus subsessilis, are smaller plants with smaller yellow flowers and are less valuable ornaments of the garden. Roses are already beginning to flower. The earliest in the Shrub Collection is Rosa cinnamomea, the old-fashioned Cinnamon Rose. A more beautiful plant now in flower in the Shrub Collection is a Siberian form of the so-called Scotch Rose known as Rosa spinosissima var. altaica. This is a very hardy plant which grows here into a tall wide bush and every spring covers itself with numerous large single white flowers faintly tinged with yellow. Of the single-flowered Roses which are hardy in New England this is one of the most valuable. Of the early flowering Rhododendrons in the collection at the eastern base of Hemlock Hill the most interesting is now Rhododendron Smirnowii, a native of the Caucasus. This is a shrub with pale, gray-green leaves clothed below with a thick, felt-like rusty brown covering and light pink flowers in large clusters. It is very hardy but the leaves suffer from the summer sun, and half-shaded positions are favorable to its greatest beauty. Hybrids of this species with forms of Rhododendron catawbiense promise to be valuable garden plants. Vaccinium corymbosum, the High-bush Blueberry of New England swamps, has been largely planted in different parts of the Arboretum and is now covered with its white bell-shaped flowers. This is one of the most beautiful shrubs of eastern North America. The habit is good; the flowers and fruit are beautiful, and no other plant has a more splendid autumn color. The High-bush Blueberry, however, is rarely cultivated. Attention, however, has been recently called to it by a Bulletin oi tbe Department of Agriculture in which the results of Dr. Coville's experiments in propagating and cultivating this plant are published. Of the Viburnums with palmately lobed and veined leaves, and a ring of showy sterile flowers surrounding the flower-clusters, three species are cultivated in the Arboretum, Viburnum Opulus of northern and central Europe, Viburnum Sargentii of northeastern Asia, and Viburnum americanum of northeastern North America. The first is the largest plant of the three, with larger and thicker leaves late-persistent in the autumn, and dark red fruit. The old-fashioned Snowball of gardens is a form of this species with all the flowers sterile, and there is a very dwarf form which rarely flowers. The flowers of Viburnum Sargentii are more showy than those of the other species, but the fruit is small and inconspicuous. The habit of Viburnum americanum, the so-called High-bush Cranberry, is less compact than that of the other species. The flowers, however, are beautiful, and the fruit, which is translucent and very lustrous, remains on the branches through the winter; in the autumn the leaves turn bright orange-red before falling. The three species are all very hardy. Viburnum americanum and Viburnum Sargentii have been generally planted in the Arboretum, and very large plants of Viburnum Opulus can be seen on the Parkway and in some of the other Boston parks. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 6","article_sequence":6,"start_page":21,"end_page":24,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23550","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270a76d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 6 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 6, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 6. ' Many of the Rhododendrons in the collection at the base of Hemlock Hill are now in flower and can be most easily reached from the South Street entrance. Owing to the heat and drought of May the flowers are smaller than in more favorable seasons and they will probably not last long in good condition. The variety of these plants which can be successfully grown in this climate is not large, and they are mostly derived from a few species. The most important of these species are three Rhododendrons of the eastern United States -Rhododendron catawbiense, Rhododendron punctatum and Rhododendron maximum. The first grows only on the high summits of the southern Alleghany Mountains where it sometimes covers enormous areas, but is rarely found much below an altitude of five thousand feet. This plant is very hardy and in cultivation forms a broad, low bush; it grows slowly, however, and the flowers are of a rather disagreeable purplish rose color. It is most interesting for the part which it has played in the production of the principal race of garden Rhododendrons. Several plants are now in flower along the drive not far from the South Street entrance. The second species, Rhododendron punctatum, is also a native of the southern Appalachian region where it grows at much lower altitudes than Rhododendron catawbiense. It forms a dense low bush with small leaves thickly covered on their lower surface with dark dots, and small, reddish purple flowers in small compact clusters which are a good deal hidden by the young branches which, growing before the flowers open, overtop them. This plant, of which there are good specimens in the collection, will not be in bloom for several days. There are two hybrids of this species known in gardens as Rhododendron Wilsoni or arbutifolium, and Rhododendron myrtifolium. The former is a cross with the alpine Rhododendronferrugineum and the latter with the alpine Rhododendron hirsutum. In habits and foliage they are handsomer plants than their American parent, and are useful for small gardens and for the margins of beds of larger plants; they will not be in bloom for several days. Rhododendron maximum, the third of the American species, is found occasionally in New England swamps and is very common along the borders of streams in mountain valleys south of New York, often growing to the size of a small tree and sometimes forming impenetrable thickets of large extent. This is the latest of the Rhododendrons to flower here and will not be in bloom for several weeks. The flowers and the flower-clusters are much smaller than those of Rhododendron catawbiense and, like those of Rhododendron punctatum, they are hidden by the branchlets of the year which surround and rise above them. A hybrid of Rhododendron maximum and Rhododendron catawbiense, raised in England and known as Rhododendron delicatissimum, is in this climate one of the most beautiful and desirable of garden Rhododendrons. It has white flowers tinged with pink, which appear after those of most of the other catawbiense hybrids have passed. Another English hybrid of the same parentage, Rhododendron Wellesleyanum, is less hardy here than either of its parents; and among a large number of seedling plants of Rhododendron maximum crossed with some of the red-flowered catawbiense hybrids, raised near Boston, only a few have been able to bear the cold of the New England winters. Other species in the collection are the European Rhododendron ferrugineum and Rhododendron hirsutum, the Japanese Rhododendron brachycarpum and Rhododendron Metternichii, the first with yellow and the other with rose-colored flowers. Several plants of a hybrid of this last crossed with garden hybrids of Rhododendron catawbiense have proved hardy in the Arboretum and promise to be valuable additions in the collection. Rhododendron ponticum of southern Europe and Asia Minor is hardy only in sheltered positions and is not a desirable plant for this climate. In England it is the common Rhododendron of parks and game preserves. Rhododendron caucasicum is an early-flowering species from the Caucasus, with compact clusters of yellowish white flowers. There are several hybrids and varieties of this handsome plant in cultivation which have proved hardy in the Arboretum and deserve to be better known here than they are at present. The flowers of many of these have already faded, but a plant called coriaceum at the front of the group, just beyond the turn from the Valley Road into Hemlock Hill Road, gives a good idea of the plants of this parentage. The large plants in the collection are all hybrids of Rhododendron catawbiense and it is these hybrids which are generally planted in American gardens. They are of different parentage and have been obtained by crossing Rhododendron catawbiense with Rhododendron maximum, Rhodedendron ponticum, and with Rhododendron arboreum, and other species with highly colored flowers from the Himalayas. A large number of these hybrids are cultivated in Europe, but only a few of them in which the blood of Rhododendron catawbiense predominates are really hardy in New England. The Arboretum is often asked for a list of the varieties which can be grown here. The following which can be seen in the collection either as large or small plants have been the most successful in the neighborhood of Boston: album elegans, album grandiflorum, atrosanguineum, bicolor, Charles Bagley, Charles Dickens, delicatissimum, Edward S. Rand, Everestianum, F. L. Ames, H. W. Sargent, Hannibal, Kettledrum, King of the Purples, Henrietta Sargent, Lady Armstrong, Mrs. Millner, Mrs. Charles Sargent, Mrs. Harry Ingersoll, purpureum elegans, purpureum grandiflorum, roseum elegans, Sefton. Like most plants of the Heath Family to which the Rhododendrons belong, it is impossible to cultivate them in soil impregnated with lime. The area in the eastern states, therefore, where they can be successfully grown is comparatively small. The Laurels (Kalmia latifolia) will be in bloom before the end of another week. They are planted beyond the Rhododendrons at the northern base of Hemlock Hill and, furnish the last and one of the most beautiful of the yearly flower shows of the Arboretum. The Inkberry (Ilex glabra), which is planted in a large group on the right-hand side of Hemlock Hill Road and opposite the Laurels, will soon be in bloom. The flowers, like those of all Hollies, are small and are arranged in small clusters in the axils of the leaves, and the small, black fruit, which does not fall until spring, makes but little show. The value of this plant is not in its flowers or fruits but in its compact habit and its shining persistent leaves which make it one of the very best of the broad-leaved evergreen shrubs which can be grown in this climate. The Inkberry is common in sandy soil and in the neighborhood of the coast from Massachusetts to Louisiana. It is very hardy and is not planted as often as it should be when hardy evergreens are needed. Another black-fruited evergreen Holly, Ilex crenata, a native of Japan, is * more often found in gardens. This is an upright growing plant sometimes becoming a small tree, and varies considerably in the size of its leaves. It is hardy only in favorable positions, and during the last winter the plants with broad leaves suffered severely while the narrowleaved plants were uninjured. This is interesting because the two forms were raised from seeds collected in one locality in Japan. A number of plants of Ilex crenata can be seen on Azalea Path. Large plants of the Golden Chain, Laburnum vulgare, are occasionally seen in the neighborhood of Boston where this handsome European tree has long been planted. It is not very hardy, however, and succeeds only in sheltered positions. A better plant for this region is the so-called Scotch Laburnum, Laburnum alpinum of the mountain region of central Europe. This is a large shrub or small tree blooming about two weeks later than Laburnum vulgare, and the bright yellow flowers are produced in longer clusters than those of the other species. It grows rapidly and is perfectly hardy. A large plant now in full bloom can be seen close to the Shrub Collection on the Forest Hills Road. This is perhaps the most desirable yellow-flowered shrub or small tree which is hardy in this climate, and it is unfortunate that a plant of this character, which is so generally cultivated in Europe, should be so little known in American collections. The largest, one of the handsomest and hardiest of the Diervillas, Diervilla japonica, a native of the elevated regions of central and northern Japan, is now in flower in the Shrub Collection. It forms a bush ten or twelve feet high and wide, with stout arching stems, and flowers which are rose color, pale yellow, dark red or nearly white on the same branch or on different branches of the same individual, the light-colored flowers often becoming rose color in fading. This is another plant which is too little known in American gardens. Rosa Arnoldiana is in flower in the Shrub collection. This is a hybrid between Rosa rugosa and General Jacqueminot, one of the red-flowered Hybrid Perpetual Roses, and was raised several years ago at the Arboretum by Mr. Dawson. It bears some resemblance to an English Rose known as Carmine Pillar. It is a much hardier plant, however, with handsomer foliage, and the equally large flowers are of even a deeper crimson color. The flowers which are produced in clusters open in succession and when cut last a long time in good condition. This plant is of special interest to the students of Roses who are trying to produce a better race than now exists for our northern gardens, for it furnishes another proof of the value of Rosa rugosa as an element in such a race. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 14","article_sequence":7,"start_page":25,"end_page":28,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23547","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260856a.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 7 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 14, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 7. The flowers of Syringa villosa are just falling. This inhabitant of northern China is in cultivation here a large and shapely shrub with good foliage and pale pink or nearly white flowers in large, compact, erect clusters which are produced in great profusion. The odor of the flowers is disagreeable. The Hungarian Lilac, Syringa Josikaea, is still in flower. This is a tall shrub with loose, unattiractive habit, small leaves, and long, slender, open clusters of small, purple flowers. This is perhaps the least attractive of all the Lilacs. The crossing, however, of these two species has given rise to a race of Lilacs which prolongs the season of flowering of the true Lilacs for nearly two weeks. This new race is called Syringa Henryi in honor of Monsieur L. Henry, at one time gardener at the Jardin des Plantes in Paris, who made these hybrids. The best known of them is Lutece, so-called because it originated in Paris. This is a compact, fast-growing, large shrub with foliage resembling that of Syringa villosa and large clusters of rose-purple flowers, and is one of the handsome and desirable shrubs of recent introduction. There is a group of Lilacs which bloom even later than this hybrid. They are not true Lilacs, however, belonging to the section Ligustrina of the genus which differs from the true 'Lilacs in the short tube of the corolla from which the stamens protrude. There are three species of this group, all natives of northeastern Asia. They are shrubs or sometimes trees, and they all produce white, bad-smelling flowers in large clusters. They are just coming into bloom in the Lilac Group on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road. The first to flower, Syringa amurensis, is a native of eastern Siberia, as its name indicates. It is a small tree, with flat, spreading or slightly drooping clusters of white flowers. The second species to flower, Syringa pekinensis, a native of northern China, is a shrub rather than a tree, although it sometimes reaches the height of thirty feet, with numerous stout stems more or less pendant at the ends and covered with bark peeling off in thin layers like that of some Birch tree. The long, narrow leaves hang gracefully and the half-drooping flower-clusters, which are flat and unsymmetrical, are smaller than those of the other species but are produced in great quantities. Syringa japonica, a native of the forests of northern Japan, is the last of the Tree Lilacs to flower and is really a tree often thirty or forty feet high, with a tall, stout trunk covered with lustrous bark like that of a Cherry tree, and a round-topped head. The leaves are large, thick and dark green, and the flowers are produced in large, erect, symmetrical clusters. Like the other species of this group, Syringa japonica loses its leaves early in the autumn without change of color. Syringa amurensis and Syringa pekinensis have not become common in gardens, but Syringa japonica has been quite generally planted in those of the eastern states. It is of interest that this remarkable tree was first sent to America and thence to Europe by a citizen of Massachusetts, the late William S. Clark, the first President of the Massachusetts Agricultural College and later the first President of the Agricultural College at Sapporo in Japan. In December, 1876, a small collection of seeds gathered in the neighborhood of Sapporo were received at the Arboretum from Colonel Clark and among them were seeds of this Lilac. The seedlings raised from this seed and their descendants are the native plants now cultivated in the United States and Europe. One of the original seedlings can be seen in the Apple Group on the right-hand side of the Forest Hills Road, the site of the first Arboretum Nursery in which this Lilac was planted. The United States and Europe owe to Colonel Clark the introduction of some other good plants. Among the seeds sent by him to the Arboretum were those of Cercidiphyllum (see Bulletin No. 1), the climbing Hydrangea (Hydrangea petiolaris), Phellodendron sachalinense, and the northern broad-leaved form of Evonymus radicans, the variety vegetus. It is too soon to speak of two species of Phellodendron found by Mr. Wilson in China, but of the three species established in the Arboretum Phellodendron sachalinense is the handsomest. All the species are natives of eastern Asia, and are small trees with pinnate leaves, small clusters of inconspicuous yellow flowers, the male and female flowers being produced on different individuals, and black, berry-like fruits; they have bright yellow wood and roots, and all parts of these trees are permeated with a fragrant aromatic oil which anparently makes them immune from the attacks of insects. Phellodendron sachalinense, which is a native of Saghalin and the northern island of Japan, has grown in the Arboretum into a tree about thirty feet high, with a tall, straight trunk, and wide-spreading branches forming a shapely flat-topped head. The seedlings springing up naturally near the old trees indicate that it is likely to hold its own in New England. The hardiness of this tree, its rapid growth, and the fact that it is not injured by insects, suggest that this is a good subject to plant in narrow streets. Seeds will be sent from the Arboretum in the autumn to anyone who may desire to grow this tree. A specimen of the male tree now in flower can be seen on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road, and in the group of these trees on the righthand side of the road there is a female tree with the fruit just forming. In this group male trees of the type of this genus, Phellodendron amurense, from eastern Siberia are in bloom. These show already the thick pale, cork-like bark to which this genus owes its name. ' Just beyond the Phellodendron Group the Evonymus Group can be found. In this group several 'plants of the Evonymus introduced by Colonel Clark, Evonymus radicans vegetus, naturally a vine, are grown as low broad bushes. This is the hardiest of the many forms of this evergreen Evonymus. The leaves are broader and handsomer than those of the other forms, and the fruit is produced on young plants in great abundance. The plants, which are now in flower, can be compared in this group with the forms of this plant which are more usually cultivated in this country. Some of the deciduous-leaved species of Evonymus are also in flower here, and although they are more conspicuous in the autumn when the leaves often turn to bright colors and the brilliant fruits cover the branches, they are always interesting, and worth examination this week. \/ Opposite the Evonymus Group the Smoke-tree (Cotinus) of old-fashioned gardens is in bloom. The flowers are not conspicuous, and it is the clusters of the lengthening hairy colored stems of the flowers which make the \"smoke\" and the conspicuous feature of this plant which is a native of southern and southeastern Europe, the Himalayas and western China. Near it is a large plant of the American Cotinus which is also in flower. The clusters of hairy flower-stems are less conspicuous than those of its Old World relative, but the foliage is larger, lighter-colored, and in autumn turns brilliantly to orange and scarlet shades. This plant serves as an illustration of the fact that it is impossible to predict the hardiness of any plant from the character of the climate where it grows naturally, The American Smoke-tree, a native of the south where it is found only in regions of comparatively mild winters, is perfectly hardy in New England in the most exposed positions, while native plants and others from much colder regions have suffered severely during the past winter. The American Smoke-tree is as much at home in western Europe as it is in New England, although usually the trees and shrubs of the southeastern United States do not flourish in Great Britain where they miss the summer and autumn heat necessary to properly ripen their wood. ' The Mock Oranges (Philadelphus) are fast coming into bloom, and several of them will be in flower during the present week. They can be found in the Shrub Collection and in the large supplementary collection on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill Road opposite the Lilacs. Those which deserve particular attention now are Philadelphus inodorus, a native of the southern Appalachian region, with large solitary pure white flowers, and, although still little known one of the most distinct and beautiful of the genus; Philadelphus Falconeri of unknown origin, but probably a native of China and Japan, as it was sent to the Arboretum many years ago from the Parsons Nursery on Long Island where many eastern Asiatic plants were first cultivated in this country; Philadelphus maximus, a hybrid between two American species and the largest of all the Mock Oranges. In old gardens near Boston this plant has sometimes grown to the height of thirty feet. Philadelphus Lemoinei is also in flower. This is the result of a cross between the common Mock Orange of gardens, the European Philadelphus coronarius, and the small-flowered and small-leaved Philadelphus microphyllus of the Rocky Mountains of Colorado. This cross was made by Lemoine of Nancy, the most successful of hybridizers, who had received the Colorado plant from the Arboretum, and it was the beginning of a race of dwarf garden shrubs produced by Lemoine which have few equals in beauty. Philadelphus microphyllus itself will not expand its fragrant flowers for several days, but many of its progeny are now beginning to flower. Some of the most interesting of these are the varieties known as Avalanche, Boule d'Argent, Boquet Blanc, Candelabre, Conquete, Fantasie, Gerbe de Neige, Manteau d'Hermine, Mont Blanc, Nuee Blanche, Pavilion Blanc, and several others. The last of all the Hawthorns to bloom is just opening its buds. This is the so-called Washington Thorn, Crataegus cordata, a native of the southern Appalachian foothills and the region westward to Missouri. It is a tree sometimes thirty feet high with erect branches, small, nearly triangular, shining leaves which turn bright scarlet in the autumn, small, dull white flowers in small compact clusters, and small scarlet fruit which remains on the branches with little less color until spring. The late flowers, the brilliancy of the autumn foliage and the abundance and brightness of the fruit during the winter months make this one of the most desirable of the American Hawthorns as a garden plant. The leaves are not destroyed by the leaf-mining caterpillars which make the foliage of many American Hawthorns look in early summer as if they had been scorched by fire; its only drawback is the brittleness of the branches which are sometimes broken down by the weight of snow. Several large plants of the Washington Thorn can be seen on the slopes of the overlook near the top of Bussey Hill. The flowers of the Laurel (Kalmia) are at their best and should be seen this week. They can be most easily reached from the South Street and and from the Walter Street entrances. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 20","article_sequence":8,"start_page":29,"end_page":32,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23548","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260896b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 8 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 20, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 8. The Western, or, as it is sometimes called, the Hardy Catalpa, Catalpa speciosa, is in flower this week. The true characters of this tree were overlooked by botanists until about thirty years ago when the remarkable durability of its wood first called much attention to it. -It is a native of the valley of the Mississippi where on the rich, moist and often inundated bottom-lands of streams it sometimes attains the height of one hundred feet. It differs from the other American species, Catalpa bignonioides, which will not be in flower for two or three weeks, by the longer points of the leaves, by the larger flowers only slightly spotted on the inner side of the corolla and borne in short open few-flowered clusters, and by the stouter pods. It is a much hardier tree than the more southern species and has a more erect habit, and it grows more rapidly; indeed it often grows too rapidly and then sometimes suffers in cold winters from splits in the trunk. At one time much was expected of this tree and the agricultural and horticultural journals were filled with descriptions of its many virtues. All the Catalpas have only a thin layer of sapwood, and the whole trunk is therefore almost entirely composed of heartwood; this resists decay for a long time, and there are well authenticated records of Catalpa fence-posts having remained in the ground for half a century without deterioration. For the production of fence-posts, telegraph and other poles, no other tree gives a better yield if it is planted in rich soil. Catalpa wood is very soft, and the claims that this tree would supply the railroads with the best possible ties have not been fulfilled for the wood is too soft to resist the cutting of the rails. If as a timber tree the Western Catalpa is less valuable than was at one time supposed, it is the handsomest of all the Catalpas wbich have flowered in the United States and a fast-growing, desirable, ornamental tree. Catalpa ovata (sometimes called Catalpa Kaempferi), a native of central and western China, although first brought to this country from Japan where it has been cultivated for more than two centuries, is not yet in flower. This is a small tree which in July produces in great profusion its small light yellow flowers which are succeeded by slender pods. It is hardier than either of the American species but very inferior to them as an ornamental tree. A hybrid of this tree and one of the American species, Catalpa Teasii, is a valuable ornamental tree. It appeared several years in the nursery of J. C. Teas in Indiana, and is a perfectly hardy and fast-growing tree with larger leaves than either of its parents and enormous flower-clusters containing from two hundred to three hundred flowers. The corolla is slightly tinged with yellow and is marked by broad purple stripes. This hybrid will not be in flower until next month. Catalpa Bungei is established in the Arboretum where it appears perfectly hardy. This small tree is a native of northern China where it is often planted in temple gardens and was introduced by the Arboretum into the United States and Europe a few years ago. It has very dark green leaves and small yellow flowers in small clusters and, although it has not yet flowered here or in Europe, it will probably be of slight value as an ornamental tree. There is another plant usually called Catalpa Bungei. This is a dwarf, round-headed bush which is often planted in formal gardens where it is frequently seen grafted on the tall naked stems of one of the tree species. This dwarf, which never flowers, is really a form of Catalpa bignonioides and how it got the name of Catalpa Bungei is a mystery which will probably never be cleared up. The right name is Catalpa bignonioides, var. nana, but nurserymen will probably continue to sell it as Catalpa Bungei. Two Chinese Catalpas raised from seeds collected by Mr. Wilson in the eastern part of the empire have passed successfully through the winter but it is too soon to speak of their value. The Catalpas are planted in a large group on the eastern slope of Bussey Yill between the Ashes and the Elms, and above the bank occupied by the Lilac Collection. The flowering time of the Mock Oranges (Philadelphus) is at its height. The flowers of a fevr of the species have already fallen and the buds of others are still to open, but a large number of the species and hybrids are now at their best and the collection should be seen by all who are interested in handsome flowering shrubs. Attention is called to Philadelphus grandiflorus, Philadelphus floridus, and Philadelphus latifolius from the southern Appalachian region. Of the Asiatic species now in flower the most interesting is perhaps Philadelphus pekinensis. This forms a low, broad compact bush which is covered with small flowers faintly tinged with yellow. Of more open habit and later to flower is Philadelphus sericanthus from western China. There are good specimens of this new plant in the collection on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill Road which are just opening their pure white slightly fragrant flowers. The innumerable flower-buds of Philadelphus microphyllus are slowly opening. Less showy than most of the other species, not one surpasses this Rocky Mountain plant in delicacy and in the fragrance of its small flowers, and on the whole the American species and their hybrids of this genus are more beautiful garden plants than the Asiatic species which have up to this time been introduced into the Arboretum. Ligustrum ibota is in flower. This Japanese and Chinese plant was sent to the Arboretum in 1878, and is now often seen in parks and gardens where it has been much planted in recent years. It is a broad shrub sometimes ten feet high, with spreading slightly recurved branches, small dark green leaves which turn purplish in the autumn, and short nodding clusters of white flowers which are produced in great quantities on short lateral branchlets, and which are followed by clusters of small, purplish black fruit often persistent on the branches until spring. This is one of the handsome species of the genus. Equally handsome but of very different habit is its variety Regelianum. This is a much lower and denser shrub with horizontally spreading branches which form a broad, flattopped head and larger leaves. As the two plants grow side by side in the Shrub Collection they appear very distinct, but seedlings of the variety are often identical with Ligustrum ibota. The common Privet of western Europe and several of its varieties are also in flower in the Shrub Collection. Among the Potentillas in the Shrub Collection are two excellent plants for small gardens, as they do not grow to a large size and continue to flower for a long time. The first of these, Potentilla davurica, is a native of eastern Siberia and is covered with white flowers which look like miniature Roses; and the other, Potentilla Friedrichsenii, is a hybrid between Potentilla davurica and the well known Potentilla fruticosa. This hybrid is a handsomer plant than Potentilla fruticosa which it resembles in habit, with rather lighter yellow flowers and is one of the good introductions of recent years. Two, at least, of the Old World Buckthorns (Rhamnus) seem destined to become naturalized in this part of the world. Rhamnus catharticus, the best known species of the genus, already grows spontaneously in some of the eastern states, and seedlings of Rhamnus Frangula spring up so frequently in the Arboretum and grow so rapidly and vigorously that it is evidently entirely at home here. Rhamnus catharticus was probably much oftener planted in the United States a hundred years ago than it is now. New introductions have caused its value to be forgotten. This is unfortunate for this Buckthorn is a valuable shrub for our climate where it sometimes becomes a small tree at least thirty feet high. The flowers, like those of all Buckthorns, are inconspicuous but the leaves are bright and shining and remain on the branches after those of most shrubs have fallen, contrasting beautifully in the autumn with the black, shining fruits which make a fine display until late in the winter. This Buckthorn is one of the best hedge plants in this climate. Rhamnus catharticus is already out of flower and the fruit is formed, but Rhamnus Frangula is flowering and will continue to flower for a long time as the flowers open in succession so that green, red and black fruits appear together on the same branch, these being the colors the fruit assumes as it grows and ripens. Rhamnus Frangula is a tall shrub with slender erect stems and branches and very lustrous leaves which, like those of the other species of the group, fall in the autumn without change of color. The Buckthorn Group is on the left-hand side of the Meadow Road where these species can be seen. Rhamnus Frangula is planted, too, in other parts of the Arboretum, and it can often be seen in the shrubberies of the Boston parks. On the cover of the June 15th issue of Country Life in America a water-color drawing of the Sargent Rose by Mr. George Walter Dawson of the University of Pennsylvania is reproduced. The Sargent Rose was raised at the Arboretum in 1903 and is the result of a cross between the Hybrid Perpetual Rose and a hybrid, Baroness Rothschild, made at the Arboretum by Mr. Dawson between Rosa Wichuraiana and the Crimson Rambler. The flowers are cup-shaped, pale clear pink and semi-double, that is there are two rows of petals, and they are produced in large clusters, each composed of from fifty to sixty flowers. The flowers open gradually and in succession, so that the plant is covered with flowers for several weeks. The Sargent Rose is one of the handsomest Roses that has been raised in the United States. The original plant, which is now about eight feet high and eight or nine feet through, is now in flower and can be seen in the nursery at Mr. Dawson's house on Centre Street near the Centre Street entrance. This nursery can also be reached by a path leading from the right of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"June 27","article_sequence":9,"start_page":33,"end_page":36,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23549","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270a36c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 9 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JUNE 2 7, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 9. The Chinquapin, Castanea pumila, is in flower about a week before the flowers of the northern Chestnut-tree appear. The Chinquapin is a native of the coast region of the Atlantic States from New Jersey to Florida. It is found also in the Gulf States and in the region west of the Mississippi River from southern Missouri to Texas. In the Atlantic States it is usually rather a low shrub spreading into thickets, but west of the Mississippi, especially in southern Arkansas and Texas, it grows into a large, round-headed tree, although it never becomes as large as the northern Chestnut-tree. A tree of this western form and a large group of the dwarf form originally from Virginia are established in the Arboretum and can be seen with the other Chestnuts on the right-hand side of the Valley Road just beyond the Hickory Group. The nuts of the Chinquapin are produced freely in the Arboretum every year and, unlike those of the northern Chestnut-tree, they are cylindrical, not flattened, as only one nut is produced in a bur, and are bright and shining and of even better flavor than those of the common Chestnut. The silvery under surface of the leaves, which is covered with fine hairs, also distinguishes the Chinquapin from the Chestnut-tree. The black-fruited Elder, Sambucus canadensis, is the last of the native shrubs which make a conspicuous show of flowers in the New England landscape. It is just coming into flower in the neighborhood of the small ponds at the end of the Meadow Road and in the Shrub Collection where there are also some interesting varieties of this handsome plant. Among them the most conspicuous now is perhaps the variety with finely divided leaflets, var. acutiloba. This plant was found growing wild a few years ago in one of the western states and has been propagated by Messrs. Ellwanger & Barry, of Rochester, New York. Another variety, var. chlorocarpa, with yellow-green fruit, was found recently in southern New Hampshire. The variety maxima, which originated in a European garden, is a remarkable plant as it produces flower-clusters at least three times as large as those found on the wild plants and these are followed by such large and heavy bunches of fruit that the branches are hardly able to support them. The European Sambucus nigra and its variety with yellow leaves is also in flower, and the fruit of some of the early flowering species is already ripe. The bright red berries of Sambucus pubens from the northern part of this continent now make a fine show. There is in the collection a yellow-fruited form of this plant, var. leueocarpa, which although less beautiful is interesting. Interesting, too, although not so full of fruit this year as usual, is the Japanese form of the redfruited Sambucus racemosa (var. Sieboldii) which is well established in the collection. The Arboretum is indebted for no small part of its early summer beauty to four shrubby species of native Viburnums which have been planted in large numbers through its border plantations. The first of these to flower, Viburnum dentatum, has already shed its flowers which during the summer will be followed by great clusters of bright blue fruits. This is a common roadside and meadow shrub in the northeastern part of the country and, like several of the other American Viburnums, it improves with good cultivation, growing larger and producing better foliage and handsomer flowers and fruit. The second of this group of four species, Viburnum cassinoides, is also out of flower. This is a native of swamps and of the northeastern part of the country where it sometimes grows twenty feet high. In cultivation this has proved one of the handsomest of all the Viburnums introduced into the Arboretum. The leaves, which are thick and lustrous, vary greatly in size and shape. The flowers arq slightly tinged with yellow and are borne in large slightly convex clusters. The fruit is larger than that of the other species mentioned in this bulletin and, at first yellow-green, later becomes bright pink and finally blueblack and covered with a handsome pale bloom, fruits of the three colors at a certain period occurring together in the same cluster. The third of these species, Viburnum venosum, is now in full flower. This resembles Viburnum dentatum but it blooms a couple of weeks later and the young branches and the under surface of the leaves are covered with a thick coat of stellate hairs. This species is found growing naturally only in the neighborhood of the coast from Cape Cod and Nantucket to New Jersey. A larger and handsomer plant, with larger leaves, more showy flowers and larger, later-ripening fruits, is our fourth species, Viburnum Canbyi. This plant appears to be confined to eastern Pennsylvania and to northern Delaware where it is by no means common. This is the last of the Viburnums to open its flowers in the Arboretum where there are large specimens along the Meadow Road and in front of the Administration Building. The Silky Cornel, Cornus Amomum, is now opening its small white flowers. This has been much used in the Arboretum borders but in cultivation it is not a satisfactory plant unless it can be given sufficient room for its wide-spreading branches to extend out freely and spread over the ground. When well planted it forms a handsome and symmetrical single specimen, and it is well suited for the front of groups of larger plants or for the margins of streams and ponds where its long branches can hang gracefully over the water. The purple stems are attractive in winter, and the bright blue fruits which ripen in the autumn add to the attractions of this native shrub. It is in the Cornel Group at the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads where there are two southern species which will not be in flower for a week or two, Cornus asperifolia and Cornus stricta. The flowers of a Cornel useful as a flowering plant and of no little scientific value, Cornus Arnoldiana, are just beginning to fade. This is a hybrid between two native species and sprang up naturally in the Arboretum. The oldest plants are now ten feet high and nearly as broad with erect stems, and this year have been covered with flower-clusters which are handsomer than those of its parents, Cornus racemosa, or as it is still more often called, Cornus paniculata and Cornus obliqua. The flowers, however, are its chief beauty for this hybrid bears little fruit, and in the autumn it is less interesting than Cornus racemosa which is as beautiful in October when it is loaded with its white berries on bright red stalks as it is when the flowers open the middle of June. The flowers of the earliest of the Azaleas, or Rhododendrons as botanists now call these plants, were open two months ago. Those of the last to flower in the long procession of these plants which can be cultivated in the Arboretum are just appearing. This last species is Rhododendron (Azalea) viscosum, the Clammy Azalea or, as it is often called, the Swamp Honeysuckle. This is an inhabitant of swamps in the eastern part of the United States, and is chiefly valuable as a garden plant in the delightful fragrance of the white, long-tubed, clammy, viscid flowers and in the fact that it blooms late in the season. A mass of these plants can be seen on the edge of the native woods on both sides of the Meadow Road; it is also established on Azalea Path, and is scattered through the borders in different parts of the Arboretum. A handsomer plant and one of the most beautiful of all Azaleas is Rhododendron (Azalea) arboreseens. This is an inhabitant of the Appalachian Mountains from Pennsylvania southward and is a tall shrub with leaves dark and shining above and pale below, with clusters of large white flowers the beauty of which is increased by the bright scarlet filaments of the stamens and styles which rise above the corolla. The fragrance of these flowers is like that of newly mown hay. This plant was introduced into English gardens more than a century ago but it appears to have been soon lost from them and from cultivation until 1880 when seeds were first sown in the Arboretum and from the Arboretum sent to Europe. A mass of this Azalea is established on the right-hand side of the Valley Road in front of the group of Hickories. From the Valley Road and in other parts of the Arboretum may be seen the spikes of the yellow flowers of the Woad Wax, Genista tinctoria, as they rise among Wild Roses and other shrubs. This Genista is to admire but not to plant, for as the farmers of Essex County in Massachusetts know to their cost it may become a dangerous weed; as it has ruined many hundreds of acres by plants spread from those brought from England and first planted in Governor Endicott's garden in Salem. The first of the shrubby Hydrangeas to bloom, Hydrangea Bretschneideri, is just opening its flowers. This is a large and hardy shrub from northern China and Manchuria, and in this climate is one of the best plants of the genus. It can be seen in the Shrub Collection and there is a large shrub near Mr. Dawson's house on Centre Street. Attention is called to Clematis tangutica which is planted on one of the trellises on the east side of the Shrub Collection. This very hardy climber from the extreme western part of China has been in bloom for the past three weeks and the flowers will continue to open for sometime longer. They are vase-shaped and bright clear yellow, and as they fade are succeeded by heads of fruits with long, glistening hairy tails. As the flowers open gradually through several weeks flowers and fruits are on the plant at the same time. Among perfectly hardy vines recently introduced this is one of the best. Of the plants now in flower in the Arboretum, however, there is not one more beautiful or more worthy of a place in every garden than Magnolia glauca, which is sometimes called the Sweet Bay. For nearly three weeks its cup-shaped, creamy white flowers have been opening and fading and they will continue to open for several weeks. Their fragrance fills the air, especially at sunset, about the Jamaica Plain entrance. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 5","article_sequence":10,"start_page":37,"end_page":40,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23546","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad2608528.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 10 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 5, 19111 BULLETIN NO. 10. The Persimmon of the eastern United States, Diospyros virginiana, is rarely cultivated. This, however, is a perfectly hardy, fast-growing and shapely tree. The leaves are thick and leathery, dark green and shining above and pale below. The male and female flowers are produced on different individuals and are not conspicuous. They open when the leaves are nearly fully grown and are pale yellow, those of the female tree being about three-quarters of an inch long and nearly three times as long as those of the male tree. The fruit, which ripens late in the autumn and does not become sweet and succulent until after it has been touched by the frost, remains on the branches during the winter; it is globose or oblong, about two inches in diameter, pale orange color often with a bright red cheek and is covered with pale bloom. Occasionally plants with exceptionally large or well-flavored fruits have been propagated by nurserymen, but there is still opportunity to improve this fruit, which is one of the best produced by any North American tree. In New England the Persimmon grows naturally only in a few stations in southern Connecticut, but in the middle and southern states it is very common, often covering by means of its suckers barren fields, and springing up by the sides of roads and fences. As an ornamental tree and for the value of its fruit it should be more often planted. A group of this tree can be seen on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road just beyond the Cornel Group. The tree nearest the road is a male and is now covered with flowers; the largest tree in the group is a female on which the young fruits are just beginning to form. This is a good time to study the Grapevines on the trellis along the eastern side of the Shrub Collection as the leaves are now fully grown and the fruit is formed on some of the species, while on others the flowerbuds have not opened. Many of the early travelers in the northeastern part of North America spoke of the abundance and beauty of the Wild Grapevines and were enthusiastic over the wine that was to be made from the great store of grapes which they found hanging over lakes and streams and along the borders of the forest. These high hopes have not been realized and the fruit of the American Grapevines, with some notable exceptions, unless improved by the blood of the Old World wine grapes, is of little value. American Grapevines, however, have played a great part in restoring the vineyards of Europe ruined by the Phylloxera and among them are some of the most splendid ornamental vines of all temperate regions. No other vines are better suited to cover trellises and arbors, to climb high into old trees, to hang gracefully over walls and fences, to spread over rocks and to clothe barren slopes. The value of Grapevines for covering walls can be seen near the Jamaica Plain entrance, on the wall between the Jamaica Plain and the Forest Hill entrances, and on the Center Street wall, and their value for covering the ground can be seen at the corner of the Meadow and Hemlock Hill Roads opposite the Rhododendrons where there is a bed of Grapevines which are cut back close to the ground every spring. All the North American species which are hardy are growing in the Shrub Collection. Among the little known species best worth cultivation are perhaps Vitis Doaniana and Vitis cinerea. The first is a native of the Texas Panhandle where it was discovered a few years ago. This is a fast-growing plant and appears to be perfectly at home in New England. The leaves are large, thick and firm, and rather pale bluish green in color. The fruit, which grows in small clusters, is blue covered with a pale bloom and of fair quality. Vitis cinerea is an inhabitant of the river banks of the Mississippi Valley from Illinois to Kansas and Texas and sometimes grows to a great size. This species bears very large leaves which are dark green and dull on the upper surface and ashy gray on the lower surface and, like the young shoots, are clothed when they unfold with a thick, felt-like gray covering. Some of the other species in the collection which should be studied by persons interested in handsome vines are Vitis vulpina, the Frost Grape, the species which grows the furthest north; Vitis rotundifolia, the Muscadine or Southern Fox Grape, often cultivated in selected forms in the southern states as the Scuppernong Grape; Vitis monticola, the Sweet Mountain Grape of the limestone hills of southwestern Texas; Vitis rubra or palmata, a slender graceful plant found from Illinois to Missouri, Louisiana and Texas; Vitis arizonica, with small, pale gray-green leaves; Vitis aestivalis, the Summer Grape of the middle states, with large leaves dark green above and covered below through the season with rusty brown hairs, and small blue-black berries; Vitis bicolor of the northern and middle states, a magnificent plant with large deeply-lobed leaves dark green on the upper surface and pale blue-green on the lower surface; Vitis Labrusca, the common Fox Grape of New England, with leaves covered below with tawny white, tan-colored, or red-brown felt and dull green above and large berries which vary in color from dark purple to reddish brown or amber color. The Delaware, Concord, and other well known table grapes are selected varieties of this species, and this is one of the parents of most of the hybrid grapes which are now largely cultivated in the United States. Vitis cordifolia, the Frost Grape, an inhabitant of the middle states, with thin leaves light green on both surfaces and with large clusters of small blue fruit which becomes edible after frost, is one of the largest and most vigorous of the American species, often growing into the tops of the tallest trees and forming stems from one to two feet in diameter. In spite of the beauty and value as ornamental plants of the American Grapevines which can be seen in the Arboretum it is impossible to obtain more than one or two of them in nurseries, as American nurserymen have not yet learned the value of these plants or that a demand for them exists or would exist if plants could be bought. Among Old World Grapes the most interesting as ornamental plants are Vitis Coignetiae and Vitis amurensis; the first, which is an inhabitant of northern Japan, grows to a large size and produces enormous, thick, prominently veined leaves pale on the lower side which turn scarlet in the autumn. This is a very vigorous and hardy plant here, and for northern countries one of the most valuable of all the ornamental Grapevines. Vitis amurensis is a native of eastern Siberia and, although less vigorous than Vitis Coignetiae, it is a hardy and valuable plant for covering walls and trellises. The Chinese Vitis Davidii is interesting because, unlike the New World Grapevines, the stems are thickly covered with spines, a character which at one time caused French botanists to consider it the type of a new genus, Spinovitis. The leaves of this plant turn red in the autumn. In severe winters the stems are k illed back to the ground. Equally curious, perhaps, is another Chinese Grapevine, Vitis Pagnuccii, with leaves which are sometimes shaped like those of an ordinary Grapevine and sometimes deeply and variously lobed much like those of the Virginia Creeper. There are still a number of plants in bloom or still to bloom in the Shrub Collection, and these late-blooming shrubs are valuable and interesting because summer-blooming shrubs are not numerous. These flowering shrubs, the ripening of early fruits and the full development of the leaves on most of the trees make a visit to the Arboretum in July interesting and important. Among the shrubs now in bloom the most showy are perhaps the Hydrangeas, and of the species cultivated in the Arboretum Hydrangea paniculata is now the most conspicuous. The most generally planted of the forms of this plant is the one in which all the flowers are sterile, known as Hydrangea paniculata grandiflora. This plant produces large conical clusters of white flowers which turn rose color in fading; it will not be in bloom for several weeks. There are two other forms in which only a few of the flowers are sterile and are called ray flowers because they surround the clusters of small fertile flowers. These are the wild plants from which the form grandiflora, with all the flowers neutral, has been developed probably by long cultivation and selection in Chinese and Japanese gardens. There are two forms of this Hydrangea with perfect and ray flowers and one of these, variety praecox, is just coming into flower and the other, variety tardiva, will not be in flower for several weeks. There are three plants of the variety praecox in the collection, differing in the size of the flower-clusters and in the size of the ray flowers. The handsomest and the earliest of these was raised from seeds collected by Professor Sargent in Hokkaido where it grows into a small tree sometimes twenty or thirty feet tall. Individuals of two of the American species of Hydrangea have been found with sterile flowers only. The handsomest of these is the variety of Hydrangea arborescens, known as grandiflora. This plant was found a few years ago growing wild in one of the western states and has been largely distributed in this country and in Europe. It is a handsome hardy plant, of good habit, and it produces its large clusters of white flowers in great profusion. It is just coming into flower a few days before Hydrangea arboreseens growing next to it. Of Hydrangea cinerea of the southern states there is also a form with all sterile flowers, the variety sterilis. This is also a good garden plant, blooming rather later than Hydrangea arborescens grandiflora. Several shrubs of the Pea Family with yellow flowers are in bloom. Most interesting, perhaps, are the Coluteas, or Bladder Sennas, inhabitants of southern Europe, the Caucasus and Asia Minor. Colutea arborescens and Colutea cilicica are in full flower now, but Colutea orientalis is already covered with its large thin-walled inflated pods which are now tinged with pink and are more ornamental even than the flowers. Three small yellow-flowered European shrubs are also in flower, Cytisus nigricans, Cytisus capitatus and Genista elata. These are all good garden plants not often seen in American collections. Holodiscus discolor, a near relative of the Spiraeas, is covered with its long drooping clusters of white flowers. This is a common shrub in the region west of the southern Rocky Mountains and one of the few shrubs of that part of the country which is perfectly at home in New England. Of the Sorbarias, which are also of the Spiraea relationship, Sorbaria sorbifolia of eastern Siberia and Japan, and Sorbaria stellipila of Japan are in flower. These, like the other species of this Old World genus, are handsome shrubs with dark divided leaves and large erect clusters of small white flowers which remain for a long time in good condition. Some of the Deutzias are still in flower. The handsomest of them now is perhaps the plant known as the Pride of Rochester, with flowers slightly tinged with pink. This is a form of Deutzia scabra, and other garden forms of this species now in bloom are the varieties Watereri and Wellsii. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 11","article_sequence":11,"start_page":41,"end_page":44,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23544","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad260bb25.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 11 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY II, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 11. The Arboretum is often asked to determine the names of European Elms and for information about these trees, particularly about the socalled English Elms. The subject is complicated for many varieties and several hybrids of these trees have been developed through long cultivation, and it is sometimes difficult to distinguish hybrids or forms due to cultivation from the original wild types of these trees. This difficulty is increased by the nearly complete destruction of the original forests of western Europe where of most species of trees only planted individuals can now be seen, and the wild types of the European trees must be looked for in the Balkan states or in the Caucasus. There are in all Europe four species of Elm trees that can be readily distinguished. The confusion in regard to these trees goes back at least to the time of Linnaeus who considered that all the European Elms belonged to one species to which he gave the name of campestris. This name, however, cannot be used for any one of the four species united by Linnseus as it is impossible to know which of the four he considered best deserving of the name. Ulmus campestris, therefore, as a name must be given up. This is unfortunate for the name is of old usage and is found in all books about trees. Two Elm trees grow naturally and spontaneously in Great Britain, Ulmus glabra and Ulmus nitens, and these names, which are the oldest which have been applied to these trees, further complicate the situation. Ulmus glabra, which is often called the Scotch Elm, is a medium-sized, round-headed tree with stout hairy branchlets and large short-stalked leaves often three-lobed at the apex, and very rough, especially on the upper side, from the short rigid hairs which cover them. This tree can easily be distinguished also by the fruit in which the seed is in the center of the surrounding wing. It is a native of Scotland and northern England, and extends eastward to the Caucasus, eastern Siberia and Japan, where it is represented by a distinct form, the variety heterophylla. To the Scotch Elm several names have been given. The oldest and the one therefore which should be adopted is Ulmus glabra. This is an unfortunate name for the leaves are rougher than those of any other Elm tree, and Ulmus scabra and Ulmus montana which were given to it later are more appropriate names. The name glabra, however, as the author who first used it states, was given to this tree because the branches are smooth, that is because they do not produce the corky wings which are developed on the branches of many varieties of Elm trees. The Scotch Elm has been sometimes planted in the eastern United States but it is not a desirable tree. It does not produce suckers like many other Old World Elms, but it bears great quantities of seeds which are freely blown about and, growing rapidly, produce innumerable plants which may become troublesome weeds. In recent years, in the neighborhood of Boston, the leaves of this tree have been destroyed in early summer by the larvas of a leaf-mining insect which works entirely under the epidermis of the leaf and cannot therefore be reached by an external application of poison. This insect is a good botanist and, selecting always this Elm, never feeds on any of the other species. Several varieties of the Scotch Elm are commonly cultivated. The best known, perhaps, is the Camperdown Elm, the variety Camperdownii. This is the tree with pendulous branches which is often planted in suburban gardens where, as the branches grow regularly round the top of the stem and reach the ground, it makes a natural arbor. The variety horizontalis with irregularly sp reading and more or less drooping branches is a handsomer tree but is less often seen in the United States. The Exeter Elm is a variety of this tree, var. stricta, with erect branches which form a narrow pyramidal head and is more curious than ornamental. The variety macrophylla is a form with exceptionally large leaves, and the variety myrtifolia has purplish leaves. The variety superba, which is perhaps a hybrid, is a large tree with a broad head of pendulous branches, and large, rather lustrous leaves, and is the handsomest of all the forms of the Scotch Elm. The second species which grows in Great Britain, Ulmus nitens, is a taller tree with slender hairless branches sometimes furnished with corky wings, longer-stalked and smaller, smooth, shining leaves without hairs exy cept occasionally on the under surface of the midribs, and fruit in which the seed is near the upper edge of the encircling wing. This tree produces suckers freely. It is a widely distributed tree, extending to the Caucasus and Siberia. It is not often found in American collections and it is hardly recognized by American cultivators of trees. There are several forms of this tree in cultivation. Perhaps the one most often seen is the variety in which the leaves are blotched with white, variety variegata, also called argenteo variegata. The Cornish Elm, with erect growing branches forming a narrow irregular head, is a variety of this tree. There is a variety with purple leaves, var. purpurea, sometimes called var. corylifolia purpurea; and there is an interesting form found a few years ago in Persia, the variety umbraculifera, with short branches farming a compact nearly globose head. The third European species, Ulmus laevis, is found only in the northern part of the continent and is the commonest Elm of Scandinavia and northern Russia. This is a noble tree which sometimes grows to the height of one hundred feet, and is hardly distinguishable in habit and foliage from the American Elm although quite different from our tree in the long stems on which the flowers and fruit hang. Like the American Elm, the trunk and large branches are often clothed with small pendulous branches. This tree is probably extremely rare in American collections, although it might well be more often planted in the northern states. It is often called Ulmus pedunculata and Ulmus effusa. The fourth European species merged by Linnaeus in his Ulmus campestris is a tree from central and northern Europe for which the oldest name is probably Ulmus foliacea. This is a tall tree with slender branches often developing corky wings, small, smooth or rough leaves, and fruit in which the seed is near the middle of the wing or between the middle and the apex. This tree is not generally recognized in American collections, but it is usually Ulmus foliacea which comes to this country when seedling Elms, under the name of Ulmus campestris, are imported from French or German nurseries. The curious, dwarfed, small-leaved Elm called Ulmus viminalis is evidently a seedling variety of this species. The Huntington Elm, Ulmus vegeta, is now believed to be a hybrid between Ulmus glabra and Ulmus montana, the two species which grow naturally in England where the Huntington Elm originated. It is a large tree with a short trunk and numerous large branches spreading at narrow angles, and in this country it grows more rapidly than any other Elm tree. It should be oftener planted here. Ulmus major, which is supposed to be a hybrid of the same parentage as Ulmus vegeta, is another noble tree which a hundred or a hundred and fifty years ago was much planted in the suburbs of London. There is another Elm in Europe which is perhaps a hybrid but its parentage is uncertain, and it appears to be without an authentic name. This is the Elm which is planted in all the Dutch cities and, judging by its appearance in these cities, it is one of the best of all street trees. There are large trees in Holland, in the Champs Elysees in Paris, and at Versailles, so if it is a hybrid it is not of recent date. When in Massachusetts we speak of Ulmus campestris we do not refer to any of the trees already mentioned in this bulletin but to the so-called Elm of the roadsides, avenues and hedge-rows of southern England. The origin of this tree is obscure. Growing spontaneously it is known only in England; it never ripens seeds, and it increases by suckers which are produced in profusion. Some authors have thought that it might be a hybrid; by others it has been suggested that it was brought from Italy to Britain by the Romans. It is a splendid tall longlived tree with a massive trunk and erect or spreading branches. This is the tree which has grown to a larger size in Boston and its suburbs ihan any other planted tree. Major Paddock established a nursery of these trees at Milton in the eighteenth century and the Paddock Elms, once the glory of Tremont Street, and the so-called English Elm trees which once stood on Boston Common are of this form. The oldest name for this tree is Ulmus surculosa. All these Elms, and many other species, hybrids and varieties in small individuals can be seen on the northeastern slope of Bussey Hill. Ulmus surculosa, is common near Boston. Ulmus glabra and some of its varieties are not uncommon in this neighborhood, and occasionally plants of Ulmus nitens and Ulmus foliacea can be found in eastern Massachusetts. As these last are usually raised from seeds in European nurseries the imported seedling plants show great variation in habit, foliage and in the presence and absence of wings on the branchlets. Two of the trees of eastern Asia are now in bloom. Koelreuteria paniculata is a native of northern Japan and is often planted in the gardens of Peking. It is a medium-sized tree with compound leaves and large erect clusters of bright yellow flowers. This is a valuable tree for it is very hardy, the foliage is handsome and the flower-clusters appear after the flowers of nearly all trees have passed. It is to be seen on the righthand side of the Meadow Road between the Evonymous Group and the Horsechestnuts. The second'of the Asiatic trees in flower, Maackia amurensis, belongs to the Pea Family and is a native of eastern Asia. It is a small tree with orange-brown bark, dull green compound leaves, and short erect clusters of small yellowish white flowers. Botanically it is a nearer relative of the North American Yellow-wood or Virgilia, Cladrastis lutea. It has sometimes been supposed to belong to the genus Cladrastris, from which it differs, however, in the winter-buds, in the inflorescence and in the bark and wood. As an ornamental tree it is in every way inferior to its American relative, and it is only of botanical interest. Two trees of Maackia can be seen on the right-hand side of Bussey Hill Road at the top of the Pea Family Group. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"July 18","article_sequence":12,"start_page":45,"end_page":48,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23545","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad2608126.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 12 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. JULY 18, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 12. From this time until April of next year the Arboretum will be interesting from the fruits which are to be seen here. Nothing so surprises and delights European visitors who come to the Arboretum in summer and autumn as the profusion of showy fruits which are produced here by many trees and shrubs. The Arboretum has done a useful service in bringing together all the wild forms of the plants which bear showy fruits, and in making known their value as ornaments of American gardens ; and among the Crabapples, Plums, Cherries, Roses, Currants, Cornels, Privets, Buckthorns, Barberries, Elders, Hawthorns, Elseagnus, Celastrus, Evonymous, Panax, and other plants with fleshy fruits the student and the gardener in search of useful plants will find here now and for several months much to investigate. The Bush Honeysuckles are now the handsomest plants with ripe fruits. They produce fruit in great quantities and it remains in good condition for several weeks. On different species there are blue, black, orange, yellow, crimson and scarlet fruits; and the fruit of some of the hybrids is more beautiful than that of their parents. The orange-yellow translucent fruit of Lonicera minutiflora is perhaps now the most beautiful in the collection. This plant is a hybrid between one of the Tartarian Honeysuckles (Lonicera tartarica) from central Asia and Lonicera Morrowii from eastern Siberia. Another handsome plant now is Lonicera muscaviensis, with large and translucent scarlet fruit. This is a hybrid between two species of eastern Siberia, Lonicera Ruprechtiana and Lonicera Morrowii. Other plants now covered with ripe fruit are the Tartarian Honeysuckle and its yellow-fruited variety; Lonicera bella and Lonicera notha with crimson fruit; Lonicera Morrowii with dull crimson fruit; Lonicera xylosteum with large, dark crimson, lustrous fruit, and Lonicera xylostyoides with large red fruits. On other species the fruit is not yet half grown, so that for a long time there will be much of interest to see in this collection which is one of the most complete in the Arboretum. The fruits of some of the Chokecherries in the group at the entrance of the Shrub Collection close to the Forest Hills Gate are beginning to ripen. The most unusual is the yellow-fruited form (var. leucocarpa) of the eastern Chokecherry, Prunus virginiana. This yellow-fruited Cherry is common in some parts of the Province of Quebec and occasionally reaches the Canadian markets. The fruit is large, light yellow, translucent and of a better flavor than that of the common Chokecherry. The fruit of Elaeagnus longipes still remains on the branches, although it has been ripe for several weeks. This hardy Japanese shrub flowers and fruits here profusely. The fruit hangs gracefully on long slender stems and is oblong, scarlet, lustrous and covered with small, white dots. It has a tart and rather agreeable flavor. This plant can be seen on the left-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road above the Lilacs in the Eleeagnus Group. The white fruits of Cornus stolonifera, the Red Osier Dogwood or iJjornel of eastern North America and its yellow-fruited variety (var. ftavoramea), and Cornus Baileyi are now ripe, while the flowers on the other species of the group have not yet faded. Handsomer even than the fruit of these species are the pale blue fruits of Cornus rugosa or circinata which, although now nearly fully grown, will not ripen for a few weeks. This is one of the most ornamental of the native Dogwoods, with large, round, oval leaves pale on their lower surface and large flat clusters of pale yellow flowers. The abundant fruits of Viburnum americanum, the so-called Highbush Cranberry of the northeastern part of the country, are now more than half grown and light yellow; later they will become scarlet and very lustrous and continue to ornament the plants until spring. There are not many more trees to flower this year. Flowers still continue to open occasionally on Magnolia glauca and rain will probably produce a second crop of flowers on Magnolia cordata. These plants are on the right of the Jamaica Plain entrance. The Sorrel-tree, Oxydendron arboreum, is just opening its flowers which are borne in large terminal panicles. This is one of the interesting North American trees and is the only representative of an Appalachian genus. The long, narrow leaves are dark green and shining, and have a strong acid flavor to which this tree owes its name. Hardy, fast-growing, late-flowering, with handsome flowers, and foliage splendid in the autumn, and saved apparently by its acid juices from the attacks of insects, this tree is too little known. It can be seen at the eastern base of Hemlock Hill on the left-hand side of Hemlock Road where several individuals are growing among the Kalmias. Sophora japonica is now covered with flower-buds, but the small peashaped, white flowers will not open probably for two or three weeks. This tree is a native of China but first reached Europe and the United States from Japan where it was introduced by Buddhist priests more than a thousand years ago. It is a very hardy tree, of good habit, with dark green leaves and branch lets, and the fact that it flowers late in the summer adds to its value. It grows to a larger size than any of the trees which have been planted in Peking, and the old trees there from a distance look like venerable Oaks. There are a few large individuals in Europe where it was first planted more than one hundred and fifty years ago, but it is not very often seen in this country. In the Arboretum it is growing on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road opposite the upper end of the Lilac Group. There is a large specimen in the Public Garden of Boston. Of summer-flowering shrubs the handsomest now in bloom is Stuartia pentagyna. This plant belongs to the same family as the Camellia, and the white cup-shaped flowers are not unlike those of a single Camellia. This is a native of the southern Appalachian region and very hardy in the Arboretum. Stuartia pseudocamellia, a native of the mountains of Japan, is a taller plant, tree-like in habit, with rather smaller flowers. It is not yet in flower. These plants can be seen in the Shrub Collection. Another plant now in flower in the Shrub Collection, Amorpha canescens, or the Lead Plant, deserves attention. This is a member of the Pea Family with leaves and stems whitened with hoary down and small violet-colored flowers crowded in clustered terminal spikes. This striking looking plant grows three or four feet tall and is a native of the middle west where it grows on hills and prairies from Indiana to Minnesota and southward. The last of the Horsechestnuts to flower, Aesculus parviflora, is now covered with its long, narrow, erect spikes of small white flowers. This is a broad, round-topped, shapely shrub well suited for planting in large masses or as a single specimen. In good soil and uncrowded by other plants it soon spreads over a large area. A native of the southeastern states where it is found from South Carolina to Florida and Alabama, this Horsechestnut is perfectly hardy in New England, and in cultivation at the north it grows into a larger and a finer plant than in its native wilds. There is a mass of these plants at the northern base of the wooded hill on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road and in the rear of the Horsechestnut Group. One of the handsome shrubs of eastern North America, the Spice-bush, Clethra alnifolia, will not be in bloom before the end of the month, although its flower-buds are already well developed. The white fragrant flowers are produced in erect terminal spikes and contrast beautifully with the dark green leaves. Masses of this shrub, which lends itself perfectly to cultivation, have been planted in the borders along the Meadow Road. Panax sessiliflorum is just opening its flowers which are small and inconspicuous, and are borne in globose, compact, terminal heads. This is a large, hardy and vigorous shrub from eastern Siberia, with dark green divided leaves and black showy fruits which form large clusters at the ends of the branches and, remaining in good condition until late in the winter, are very conspicuous on the naked branches. A useful plant for public parks and wherever there is space for its wide-spreading branches to extend, this member of the Aralia Family is still little known. With the other members of this family it can be seen close to the pond on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road between the Witch Hazel Group and the Cornel or Dogwood Group. These bulletins will be discontinued through the remainder of the summer. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 17","article_sequence":13,"start_page":49,"end_page":52,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23558","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270856b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 13 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 17. 1911 BULLETIN NO. 13. A visit to the Arboretum at this time should be valuable to persons interested in seeing the plants best suited for the autumnal decoration of American gardens, for now many little known trees and shrubs here show the brilliant tints of their fading leaves and the beauty of their ripening fruit. The contrast in the appearance of the trees and shrubs of eastern North America and eastern Asia with those of Europe at this time of year is interesting. The leaves of the former are now for the most part brilliantly colored or have already colored and fallen, while the leaves of the trees and shrubs of Europe are still green, and in the case of many of these plants the leaves finally wither and fall with little or no change of color. This interesting fact is best seen in the species of the same genus. The American Beech now lightens the woods with the light yellow tints of its leaves, while the leaves of the European Beech are still almost as green as they were at midsummer. The leaves of the American Elm have already shriveled or fallen except in the case of vigorous trees which still show the yellow tints of autumn, while the leaves of all the forms of the European Elms are still fresh and green. This habit of European plants to retain their foliage late into the autumn is well illustrated by the Viburnums. The leaves of Viburnum Lantana, the Wayfaring-tree of Europe, are still either dark green or only slightly tinged with red along the margins, while the North American Viburnum Lentago, Viburnum prunifolium and Viburnum cassinoides are splendid in their autumn dress, which is set of by their abundant dark blue fruits. The contrast is even more marked in the Viburnums of the Opulus group. In this group the leaves of the European Viburnum Opulus are still dark green and as fresh as in July; those of Viburnum americanum, the native High-bush Cranberry, so-called, have turned to shades of yellow and red and are falling fast, while those of Viburnum Sargentii from northeastern Asia, which were bright orange-red two weeks ago, have now almost disappeared. The slender branches of a Japanese Cherry, Prunus Maximowiczii, are already leafless, and the leaves of another Japanese Cherry, Prunus Sargentii, having turned deep orange-red, are now slowly falling, while all the European Cherries are still green. The leaves of all the forms of the Common Lilac derived from a species native to the mountains of Bulgaria drop without change of color, as do those of the large bush Honeysuckles which are mostly European and Siberian. Of the Lilacs, although the leaves of the Chinese Syringa villosa turn dull yellow in the autumn, only the Chinese Syringa oblata has real value for the autumn color of its leaves. These are large, thick, leathery and lustrous, and in the autumn turn to beautiful shades of dark red or old leather color, a habit which adds greatly to the value of this fine plant as an ornament of gardens. Few Old World Roses make much show of autumn color but just now there is hardly a more beautiful plant in the Arboretum than the common Rose of the coast region of the northeastern United States, Rosa virginiana, or lucida as it is sometimes called, which just now makes a brave show with its leaves of orange and bright red. Among the shrubs in the Arboretum which should be carefully studied at this time on account of the beauty of their autumn foliage are a few which deserve special attention. Of these Evonymus alatus from Japan is especially interesting for its leaves are now of a light rose color which is not found in those of any other plant in the collection. This is a broad flat-topped shrub of open habit, peculiar in the broad wings which are developed on its branches and to which it owes its name. As a flowering plant it has little to recommend it and the fruit is less conspicuous than that of most of the other Burning Bushes, as Evonymus is often called, but the color of the autumn foliage entitles it to a place in any garden. A large specimen of this plant can be seen in the Evonymus Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. In this group are several other plants which are attractive at this time. The most conspicuous now, perhaps, is Evonymus Bungeanus, a small tree from northern China, covered with small light pink fruit which is set off by the pale yellow leaves. Evonymus yeddoensis and Evonymus Hamiltonianus, two Japanese shrubs or small trees, are now conspicuous also for their colored leaves and brilliant fruits. Brilliant now are the scarlet fruits of the aromatic Sumac, Rhus aromatica, which has been planted freely in great masses along the drives. Beautiful, too, along many of the drives are plants of Aronia nigra, one of the Chokeberries of the eastern United States with its clusters of large drooping black fruits and dark red foliage. Of the native shrubs, however, none now are as brilliant as the High-bush Blueberry, Vaccinium corymbosum, which is conspicuous in the brilliant scarlet of its leaves in many parts of the Arboretum. This is one of the most ornamental shrubs of eastern North America. It grows into a large bush sometimes eight or ten feet high; the habit is good; the flowers are attractive and produced in profusion; and the fruit, which surpasses that of the other Blueberries and Huckleberries in size and quality, is bright blue, and in the autumn no other shrub is more beautiful. This is a plant to cultivate generally for its fruit and as an ornament of the garden. Like other plants of the Heath Family, it is not easy to raise from seed but small plants from the swamps can be readily established in ordinary garden soil. Flowers are scarce in the Arboretum the middle of October. A few belated flowers may still be found on the clumps of Heather, Calluna vulgaris, in the Shrub Collection and among the Rhododendrons at the base of Hemlock Hill. This evergreen plant, a native of northern Europe, is too little known in American gardens, although it is perfectly hardy in New England. It has become completely naturalized at Townsend, Massachusetts, near the New Hampshire line, where grown from seed scattered some forty years ago, it has spread over an area of nearly forty acres, and it is well established, too, in larger masses, near Halifax, Nova Scotia. The Heather should be planted in well-drained soil and in stations fully exposed to the sun where it will soon spread into large masses and remain in flower for two or three months. There are a number of varieties of this plant, the best known being that with white flowers. The white-flowered form grows wild in Europe, and it is supposed to bring good luck to the person fortunate enough to find it. The native Witch Hazel, however, Hamamelis virginiana, is the only plant which really flowers in the Arboretum in the late autumn. Its small clusters of flowers with their long pale yellow strap-shaped petals are now partly hidden by the large leaves which are bright yellow and very conspicuous. As the leaves fall the flowers are seen to cover the branches and form one of the most interesting features of the autumn flora of the northern United States. Unlike our northern species, the Witch Hazels of Japan and the species lately discovered in southern Missouri produce their flowers in winter or very early spring before the appearance of the leaves. The Witch Hazel Group, containing also Parrotia and Liquidambar of the same family, can be seen on the righthand side of the Meadow Road near its junction with the Bussey Hill Road. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 24","article_sequence":14,"start_page":53,"end_page":56,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23559","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270896c.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 14 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 24, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 14. The Arboretum is often asked for information about a class of plants which in distinction from conifers are popularly called \"broad-leaved evergreens.\" The general absence of these plants from the gardens of the northeastern United States astonishes European visitors to this country, and their prominence in the gardens of Great Britain, Italy, and other temperate parts of Europe often makes American travellers in those countries despondent over the possibility of having really good gardens here; the prominence, too, which has been given in late years here to architecture in garden-making has increased the demand for these broad-leaved evergreens, for they are essential for the decoration of a true architectural garden. This, however, is not a country where many of these plants can be successfully cultivated. The winters are too cold, the leaves give up too much moisture to March winds when the roots are still inactive in frozen soil, and the summers are too hot and dry. The Ilex (Quercus Rex), the chief ornament in the gardens of Italy, the so-called Laurel of English gardens, and the Portuguese Laurel, which are such only in name, being really evergreen Cherry-trees, the Bay and the Laurestinus, unless cramped in pots, will never be seen in American gardens. This is a region for plants which lose their leaves in the autumn and here many of these plants flourish as in no other part of the world. The number of broad-leaved evergreens which can really be depended on in eastern Massachusetts is small. The most important are the Rhododendrons and the Kalmia or Laurel. The most successful here of all the plants of this class is the broad-leaved Laurel, Kalmia latifolia. It is hardier and less particular about soil, and easier to cultivate than even the hardiest Rhododendrons, like Rhododendron maximum and Rhododendron catawbiense; and, moreover, it is one of the most beautiful flowering plants in the world. The little native Sheepkill Laurel, Kalmia angustifolia, and the less well known Kalmias of northern swamps, K. polifolia and K. microphylla are broad-leaved evergreens also, although these plants are seldom cultivated. The Laurels, like the Rhodendrons and other plants of the Heath Family, cannot be grown in soil strongly impregnated with lime, so their use is restricted to a comparatively small part of the country. To the Heath Family we are indebted for a few other plants of this class. The handscmest of these is Pieris or Andromeda floribunda, a broad low bush with small dark green leaves and abundant conspicuous clusters of dull white flowers. This plant grows naturally on a few of the high mountains of the southern Appalachian region and has been long known in gardens. It is very hardy here and, after the Kalmias and Rhododendrons, perhaps the most desirable of the broad-leaved evergreens for this region. A Japanese species, Pieris japonica, which in Japan sometimes attains the size of a small tree, is also hardy, but it blossoms early in the season, and the flowers. which are larger and handsomer than those of the native species, are too often destroyed by frost. As an under shrub in shady places, for it does not bear exposure to the sun, is another plant of the Alleghanies, Leucothoe Catesbyi, which is perfectly hardy. It has slender arching stems, which grow to the height of several feet and are clothed with large, lustrous, pointed leaves, and the white flowers in axillary clusters are abundant and attractive. To this Family, too, belong the Wintergreen, or Checkerberry, Gaultheria procumbens, and the Trailing Arbutus or Mayflower, Epigaea repens, but these are difficult to cultivate and probably will never take much place in the general garden decoration. More generally useful is another plant of the same Family, the Bearberry, Arctostaphylos Uva-ursi, which with its long prostrate stems forms a great mat on sandy and gravelly banks in the northern states and in northern Europe. Although rarely cultivated in this country, this is an excellent plant for covering poor soil and just now its bright red fruits make a handsome contrast with the small light green shining leaves. Interesting, too, among broad-leaved evergreens is Gaylussacia brachycera, the Box-leaved Huckleberry. This is one of the rarest shrubs of the eastern United States, being found in three stations only, for it is known to grow naturally only in southern Pennsylvania, southern Delaware, and in West Virginia. It is found in dry soil in the shade of the forest, spreading over considerable areas by its underground stems. This plant grows only a few inches high, but it is very hardy, adapting itself readily to cultivation, and in the Arboretum grows as well in full exposure to the sun as it does in the shade. The Ledums, or as they are popularly called Labrador Tea, are small evergreen plants of the northern hemisphere related to the Rhododendrons. Two or three of the species are hardy but difficult to cultivate and require especial care in selected positions; and this is true of two other small evergreen shrubs of the Heath Family native to eastern America, Leiophyllum buxifolium of the pine barrens from New Jersey southward, and Loiseleuria , procumbens of the alpine summits of the White Mountains and northward. The Old World Holly-tree, Ilex aquifolium, which in many forms is often one of the chief ornaments of European gardens, is not hardy here and its American relative, Rex opaca, a native of the Massachusetts coast and southward, with dull leaves, is a much less beautiful plant. It is, however, the only broad-leaved evergreen which becomes a tree in New England. The Inkberry, ilex glabra, a common shrub in the coast region from Nova Scotia to Texas, where it is found usually in poor soil, is one of the best of the broad-leaved evergreens hardy here, although its small black fruits are nearly covered by the shining foliage. It is more valuable here than the Japanese black-fruited Holly, llex crenata, although some forms of this plant are fairly hardy here. The Ivy, unless carefully protected, cannot be successfully grown east of Cape Cod although at Providence, only forty miles from Boston, where the influence of the Gulf Stream is more strongly felt than it is here, the Ivy is perfectly hardy; and we have as an evergreen vine only the forms of the climbing Japanese Evonymus, Evonymus radicans. These plants are perfectly hardy when once established; they grow rapidly and although not so beautiful a covering for walls as the Ivy, they are our only substitute for it. The best form is the var. vegetus which was introduced many years ago into the Arboretum from northern Japan. This form has broader leaves than the others, and flowers and produces its fruit more freely. The Mahonias, or evergreen Barberries of our northwestern coast and of Japan and the Himalayas, are not hardy here except in favorable positions, and cannot be recommended for general cultivation; and of these plants we can depend only on the dwarf species of the Rocky Mountains, Berberis or Mahonia repens. This plant grows only a few inches high and the leaves are lighter green and less lustrous than the better known Oregon Grape, Berberis or Mahonia Aquifolium. Two little shrubs of the Celastrus Family must be included in this list. These are Pachystima myrsinites of the Rocky Mountains and Pachystima Canbyi of the mountains of West Virginia. The former is widely distributed and a common plant in its region. It grows to the height of from twelve to eighteen inches and its leaves resemble those of some of the forms of the Box. It is, however, less hardy here than its Virginia relative which in the Arboretum forms a broad mass of small leaves only a few inches high and does not suffer from full exposure to the sun. The different forms of the Box-tree of the Orient, Buxus sempervirens, except in exceptional positions, are not hardy in eastern Massachusetts, although west of Cape Cod many of them can be successfully grown, and only the little known Japanese species Buxus japonica seems really hardy here. This completes the short list of broad-leaved evergreens which can be grown in eastern Massachusetts unless the Heather, one or two species of Heath, the stemless forms of Yucca and the Chamaedaphne, or Leather Leaf, can be called broad-leaved evergreens. This last plant, which is common in northern swamps, holds some of its leaves until spring. Although it grows naturally in wet ground, it does well when transferred to drier situations. Among the evergreens might almost be inserted, however, Magnolia glauca. In the south this tree, which grows much larger there than it does in the north, retains its leaves until late into the spring, but here they do not lose their beauty and do not fall until December. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massachusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"October 31","article_sequence":15,"start_page":57,"end_page":60,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23560","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad24ea36d.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 15 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. OCTOBER 31, 19111 BULLETIN NO. 15. For persons who are interested in the showy fruits of trees and shrubs which remain on the branches until late in the autumn or through the winter this is a good time to study the American species of Hawthorns (Crataegus), although the leaves of many of these plants have already fallen. A large part of the species in the collection on the eastern slope of Peter's Hill were not known ten years ago and many of these plants are still too small to produce fruit, and now the most interesting American Hawthorns in the Arboretum are on the bank just east of the Shrub Collection and easily reached from the Forest Hills Gate. The handsomest American species to be seen here now is Crataegus nitida, one of the best garden plants of the genus as it is represented in North America. It is a native of the bottom-lands of the Mississippi River in Illinois opposite St. Louis where it grows into a tree of considerable size for a Hawthorn. It is flat-topped with wide-spreading branches; the leaves are dark green and very lustrous; the small flowers are produced in innumerable clusters, and the fruit of medium size which now covers the trees is orange-red, long persistent and makes a good contrast to the bright red and yellow leaves which have hardly begun to fall. Crataegus coccinioides and C. fecunda from the neighborhood of St. Louis, like C. nitida, have been growing in the Arboretum for thirty years and are now broad bushy trees covered with fruit, although the leaves are beginning to fall. Crataegus coccinioides has large broad leaves and very compact semiglobose clusters of large flowers which are followed by large dull red globose fruits, which are also in compact clusters and are produced every year in great confusion. Crataegus fecunda is one of the so-called Cock-spur Thorns with large, thick, shining leaves, rather small flowers, and large, oblong, drooping, shining fruits which do not all fall until winter. Crataegus pruinosa can also be seen here covered with fruit although the leaves are gone. This small tree is the type of one of the distinct and most widely distributed groups of the genus, the Pruinosae, which are distinguished by their large showy flowers, thick leaves and fruit which matures late in the autumn without becoming soft, sometimes remaining green and sometimes turning bright red and usually covered with an abundant glaucous bloom. On Crataegus pruinosa the large, depressed, globose fruits turn bright scarlet and remain on the branches in good condition until late in the season; these, as well as the large bluegreen leaves and the large flowers with the bright rose-colored anthers of the twenty stamens, which are produced in wide and abundant clusters, make this a desirable ornamental plant. Equally handsome but quite different in appearance is Crataegus succulenta, one of the Tomentosae Group. This is a late-flowering species with small flowers in broad flat-topped clusters; these are succeeded by globose fruits drooping on long stems, and until October remain small and hard but later, and when fully ripe, enlarge and become deep scarlet with soft, orange-colored, succulent flesh, and in this condition are soon -eaten by birds. On this bank and close to the boundary wall is a plant of Crataegus Carrierei. This small tree is of doubtful origin, all the individuals having been obtained from a single seedling which appeared spontaneously several years ago in the nursery of the Jardin des Plantes in Paris. In some ways it resembles some Mexican species and it might be Mexican did not its hardiness in the Arboretum indicate that its home was in a colder country than Mexico. The fact that seedlings are identical with the parent seems to preclude the idea of hybrid origin; but whatever this may have been Crataegus Carrierei is an ornamental plant of the first class. It is now covered with its thick, pointed, lustrous leaves which are still green or only slightly tinged with yellow and which set off to advantage the large, light orange-red oblong fruits which are produced in great abundance. Very beautiful, too, now is the Washington Thorn, Crataegus cordata, of the foothill region of the southern Appalachian Mountains and of southern Missouri, although it will be more beautiful probably a fortnight later when the leaves will have taken on their bright autumn colors of orange and scarlet; now they are just beginning to turn red and the shining surface contrasts beautifully with the small round scarlet fruits. The Washington Thorn should be more generally planted for it has much to recommend it. It is a slender, narrow tree sometimes thirty feet tall; it is one of the latest of the Hawthorns to flower and the flowers, which are not large and dull white in color, are produced abundantly. The leaves are small and nearly triangular, and the fruit, which ripens in October, remains in good condition on the trees until spring. The only objection to this tree is the brittleness of the branches which are often split or broken by severe storms. On the left-hand side of the Peter's Hill Road, going from the Hemlock Hill Road across Bussey Street and between a large White Oak and the group of Crabapples, is a collection of shrubby Hawthorns. Some of these, like Crataegus Buckleyi, C. foetida, C. apposita, C. nemoralis, etc., are old enough to show their habit, and the beauty of their autumn foliage and of their fruits. The plants of this group, which is called Intricatae from the first species described in it, are all small shrubs, or occasionally small trees in the south, with very large flowers and large, highly colored fruit. Species in this group are found from New England to Georgia, and to Ontario, Michigan and Missouri; they appear to be most abundant in Pennsylvania, but are rare in the West. Until a dozen years ago they had been entirely overlooked by American botanists and were unknown in gardens, with the exception of Crataegus intricata, which had been grown and described in the Botanic Garden at Copenhagen. Nearly all the species which are known are well established in the Arboretum and promise to become an important contribution to American gardens in which their dwarf habit, large flowers and handsome fruits will make them valuable. A few plants in the Arboretum are still conspicuous for the beauty of the autumn color of their leaves. The most conspicuous, perhaps, is Parrotia persica, a member of the Witch Hazel Family and a native of the Trans-Caucasus and Persia. Sometimes a small tree, it here grows in the form of a high broad bush. The flowers and the fruit are not conspicuous but the leaves, which in shape resemble those of the native Witch Hazel, are now splendid with tints of clear yellow, orange and red. A plant can be found in the Witch Hazel Group near the junction of the Meadow and Bussey Hill Roads, and there are three larger plants on Hickory Path near the Centre Street wall. A handsome plant in flower, the value of Fothergilla major of the Appalachian Mountains is increased by the autumn color of the leaves which are now light orange and red. Plants may be seen to advantage on Azalea Path and in the Shrub Collection. The handsomest, perhaps, of the Barberries which have been successfully cultivated in the Arboretum is the Japanese Berberis Regeliana. This plant was introduced into the United States many years ago by the Parsons Nursery at Flushing, Long Island, and was distributed under the name of \"Hakodate.\" It is a medium-sized shrub with large pale yellow flowers in long clusters, and large thick leaves which turn in the autumn to brilliant shades of orange and red, and handsome showy fruits. The leaves are now falling rapidly but the fruit will remain on the branches for several weeks longer. Large plants of this Barberry can be seen in the Barberry Group on Hickory Path. In this Group and in the Shrub Collection are plants of the Japanese Berberis Sieboldii, with dull deep red leaves, and two Chinese species just beginning to take on their autumn colors, Berberis diaphana and B. dictyophylla. The former is a compact, low, round-topped shrub with large solitary flowers and fruits, and leaves which in the late autumn are hardly surpassed in the brightness of their scarlet tints. Berberis dictyophylla is a taller shrub with erect branches and just now the red on the upper surface of the small spiny leaves contrasts finely with the silvery color of their lower surface. These three Asiatic species, which are still rare in gardens, deserve more general cultivation. The autumn colors of the leaves of the Yellowroot, (Xanthorrhiza apiifolia), a pale canary yellow and green, add to the value of this useful little plant which has been largely used as an undershrub along several of the drives in the Arboretum. It is admirably suited for this purpose as it rarely grows more than a couple of feet high and spreads rapidly into dense masses which take entire possession of the ground. The small purple flowers which appear before the leaves and the fruits do not make much show, but the color of the foliage is good throughout the season. Among the large number of Cotoneasters which have recently come to the Arboretum from western China Cotoneaster Dielsiana has become well established and promises to be a valuable decorative plant in this climate. It is a shrub with arching stems and branches which just now are covered with bright red fruits and small leaves which have turned deep bright reddish purple. A plant of this interesting shrub can be seen on Hickory Path in front of the Centre Street wall. The slender leafless branches of Callicarpa japonica are now covered with the small violet-colored fruits of this hardy shrub which is a desirable addition to northern gardens, although the fruits are smaller and less showy than those of the American species, the so-called French Mulberry of the southern states which is not hardy here, and of several of the Asiatic species which are not yet established in the Arboretum. A group of these plants will be found on the left-hand side of Azalea Path close to its entrance from the Bussey Hill Road. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 8","article_sequence":16,"start_page":61,"end_page":64,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23557","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad270816b.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 16 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY . BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 8. 1911 BULLETIN NO. 16. The poverty of the gardens of the northeastern United States in broadleaved evergreens, due to our climatic conditions, was shown in a previous bulletin, and we shall now mention a few plants which retain their foliage unchanged in color until late in the season. By the use of such plants it is possible to make a garden which will appear during October and November almost like a garden of broad-leaved evergreens. Most of these plants have come from Europe, although a few Chinese and North American shrubs retain green foliage through November. One of the best known plants of this class is the European Buckthorn, Rhamnus catharticus. This is a large shrub, or in favorable positions a small, round-headed tree. The leaves are now bright green and the branches are covered with small black berries. This is a very hardy, fast-growing shrub, and when gardeners had less material to choose from than they have now it was often planted in this country. Now it is rarely seen except in plantations made many years ago. This is true of another European shrub, Ligustrum vulgare, the common Privet. This was once much planted in the eastern United States, especially in forming hedges, and it has always been used in Europe for this purpose. In recent years, however, it has been neglected here in favor of some of the Privets introduced from eastern Asia, although none of these are as useful garden plants. The European Privet is a tall, round-topped shrub ; the leaves are still as green as at midsummer and make the best possible background for the large clusters of shining black fruits. There is a form of this plant with yellow-green fruit but this is less desirable than the black-fruited form. The European Privet is one of the hardiest of plants ; it grows quickly into a large, round-topped shrub; it is not particular about soil; it bears the shears well, and so can be used in hedges or cut into fantastic shapes. Europe has made comparatively few valuable contributions from its native flora to the gardens of this country and this Privet is one of the best of them. The handsomest semi-evergreen shrub, perhaps, now in good condition in the Arboretum is an Evonymus which is to be seen in the Evonymus Group on the right-hand side of the Meadow Road. It is a broad shrub, ten or twelve feet high, with bright green leaves which will not fall for several weeks. The fruit is small, sparingly produced, and hardly noticeable. This remarkable plant is called Evonymus Hamiltonianus, var. semipersistens, and nothing is known of its origin although it is not improbable that it is a native of some part of China, and it is possibly a distinct species rather than a variety of another plant. Some of the Honeysuckles might find a place in an autumn garden for the leaves of several species are still perfectly green. The best known of these are two Chinese species which have been cultivated in this country for at least half a century, Lonicera fragrantissima and Lonicera Standishii. These are large hardy shrubs and produce their fragrant flowers in early spring before the leaves appear. The leaves of a few other species are still untouched by autumn. The most conspicuous of these are Lonicera xylosteum from Europe and northern Asia, Lonicera tibetica from western China and Thibet, a low plant with slender spreading branches, and Lonicera Ledebourii from California. Nearly all the plants of the Elaeagnus Family retain their leaves until late in the autumn, but the only one in the collection which is still as green as at midsummer is the Sea Buckthorn, Hippophae rhamnoides, a widely distributed shrub or small tree of Europe and central Asia. The male and female flowers are produced by different individuals and the female plant is attractive when the branches are covered with orangecolored persistent fruits. Tall treelike plants of the Sea Buckthorn can be found with the other plants of this Family on the left-hand side of Bussey Hill Road just above the Lilac Collection. Several European yellow-flowered plants of the Pea Family are now conspicuous from the bright green color of their leaves. Some of the most beautiful autumn plants among them are Genista germanica, Genista pilosa, Genista tinctoria, Genista elata, Cytisus nigricans, and Cytisus capitatus. These are all small low shrubs well suited for small gardens. They can be found in the Shrub Collection. Another yellowflowered plant of this Family, Coronilla Emurus, of southeastern Europe, grows to a larger size but it is equally green in the first week of November. There are good specimens of this rather tender shrub on the righthand side of Azalea Path. The leaves of few American plants retain their summer color until November. An exception, however, is Leucothoe racemosa from the southern Appalachian Mountains which can be seen in the Shrub Collection. A very different plant but one still as green is the Chinese Matrimony Vine, Lycium chinense. This has long, wand-like, arching or prostrate stems which with a little support can be made vine-like and used to cover trellises. It is a useful plant for draping walls and when planted as a shrub in masses it soon makes an impenetrable barrier. The scarlet shining fruits which are abundantly strung along the branches add greatly to the autumn beauty of this hardy plant. It has been freely used to cover the boundary walls of the Arboretum and it can also be seen in the Shrub Collection. In the group of Barberries on Hickory Path and in the Shrub Collection is a plant which is still but little known in American gardens. This is Berberis Neubertii, a hybrid between the common Barberry, Berberis vulgaris, and the evergreen Berberis or Mahonia Aquifolium. It is a moderate-sized, broad-topped shrub with large dark green leaves which remain on the branches with little change of color through November. This plant does not bloom freely and rarely produces fruit, but it is one of the hardiest and handsomest of the shrubs with semi-persistent foliage which have been introduced into the Arboretum. The leaves of a few vines are still almost as green as in summer and promise to remain green for sometime longer. The best known of these, perhaps, is a Japanese Honeysuckle, a form of Lonicerajaponica, which is usually known in gardens as Hall's Honeysuckle. In the middle and southern states this vigorous plant has become perfectly naturalized, often crowding out the native plants, and retains its foliage during the winter. Here the leaves are killed by severe cold. As a flowering plant, too, this is one of the handsomest of the Vine Honeysuckles which are hardy in this climate. The leaves of the two Akebias, Akebia quinquefolia and Akebia lobata, are still fresh and green, and these slender and graceful vines deserve a place in every autumn garden. The small purple flowers do not make much show, and the edible fruit, which is largely consumed in Japan, is rarely produced in this climate. Large plants can be seen on the trellis at the eastern end of the Shrub Collection. Clematis paniculata, one of the handsomest of the late summer-flowering species and now one of the most popular hardy plants in the United States, is still covered with leaves as green as they were in July. Another vine growing on the trellis near the Akebias is now conspicuous with bright green leaves. This is a Japanese Moonseed, Cocculus Thunbergii. A few shrubs are still brilliant in their autumn dress and the leaves of others are only beginning to turn. The most important of these last is Viburnum Canbyi, a native of eastern Pennsylvania and of Delaware. This is the last of the Viburnums to flower; and its bright blue fruits do not ripen until October. Plants of this handsome shrub in the Arboretum are now fully ten feet high and from ten to twelve feet in diameter. The large leaves are only just beginning to turn from dark green to the color of old leather and will be in good condition for two or three weeks longer. There are several large plants of this Viburnum on the righthand side of the entrance to the Administration Building, and there are others on the right-hand side of both the Meadow and the Bussey Hill Roads. The leaves of two Currants in the Shrub Collection are just turning scarlet. These are Ribes curvatum and the Chinese form of Ribes fasciculatum. Ribes curvatum is a little known plant found a few years ago in the neighborhood of Stone Mountain in central Georgia. It has white flowers gracefully drooping on long stems, and in cultivation has proved to be one of the most attractive in the large collection of these plants in the Arboretum. The beauty of the Chinese Currant at this season is increased by the bright red fruits which are still on the branches. This handsome Currant is the only one of its genus in the collection with fruit which ripens in the autumn. A few other shrubs are still worthy of notice for their autumn coloring. The most conspicuous among these now perhaps is Cornus sanguinea, with leaves the color of old Sparish leather. This is a large shrub from Europe which has been able to adapt itself perfectly to our climate where it flowers freely and produces large quantities of dark-colored fruit which, however, has now disappeared. A broad massive specimen will be found on the right-hand side of the Bussey Hill Road just beyond its junction with the Yeadow Road and on the upper margin of the Cornel Group. Other shrubs with still highly colored foliage are the Japanese Viburnum tomenfosvm with leaves of dark reddish brown, and Lyonia or Andromeda ligustrina, with bright scarlet leaves. This handsome native plant has been generally planted among the shrubs along some of the drives in the Arboretum and it can be found in the Shrub Collection. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","title":"November 15","article_sequence":17,"start_page":65,"end_page":68,"url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23556","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dcaad2708128.jpg","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null,"authors":"Sargent, C. S.","article_content":"No. 17 ARNOLD ARBORETUM HARVARD UNIVERSITY BULLETIN OF POPULAR INFORMATION JAMAICA PLAIN, MASS. NOVEMBER 15, 1911 BULLETIN NO. 17. The climate of New England is usually considered unfavorable to the successful cultivation of conifers. As compared with New Zealand, northern Italy, Ireland, and the region adjacent to Puget Sound, New England is certainly a poor country for these trees. There are worse regions for conifers, however, like some of the middle western states and Texas, and two of the handsomest trees of this class in the world grow at their best in New England, the White Pine, Pinus Strobus, and the Hemlock, Tsuga canadensis. No region need be poor in conifers where these two trees flourish. The conifers of Europe do not find congenial conditions here, although those from the northern and central parts of the continent, like the Norway Spruce, and the Scotch, Austrian and Swiss Pines, are hardy although generally short-lived. The Himalayan species, with the exception of Pinus excelsa which is never satisfactory here, are not hardy. None of the conifers of Mexico or South America, Australia or Tasmania, can be grown in the northern states in which the species of southern China and Japan are not hardy. Unfortunately very few of the conifers of western North America succeed in the eastern states, as these are the noblest of the trees of this class. The exceptions are the western White Pine, Pinus monticola, a tree which bears a general resemblance to our eastern White Pine and which is distributed from the sea-level on Vancouver Island up to high altitudes on the California Sierra Nevada and the mountains of Idaho. The Sugar Pine of the California Sierras, Pinus Lambertiana, the greatest of all Pine trees, gives little promise here of ever becoming a large or valuable tree. This is also true of Jeffrey's Pine, Pinus ponderosa var. Jeffreyi, which can be seen in its greatest beauty on the eastern slopes of the Sierra Nevada. The western Mountain Hemlock, Tsuga Mertensiana, or as it is often called Pattoniana, Abies amabilis, the lovely Fir of the Cascade Range, the Incense Cedar of the Sierra Nevada, Libocedrus decurrens, and the Fir of the northwest coast, Abies grandis, and the Red Cedar, Thuya plicata or gigantea, are hardy in sheltered positions in the Arboretum but do not promise to be very long-lived here or to add much permanent beauty to our plantations. All the conifers of the northeastern part of this continent are, of course, hardy here but, with the exception of the White Pine, the Hemlock, the Red or Norway Pine, Pinus resinosa, the White Spruce, Picea canadensis, the Arbor Vitae, Thuya occidentalis, the Red Cedar, Juniperus virginiana, and the Larch, Larix americana, none of these are of much ornamental value. On the slopes of the Blue Ridge in South Carolina, about the headwaters of the Savannah River, there is a conifer which seems destined to play an important part in the decoration of our northern parks and gardens. This is the so-called Carolina Hemlock, Tsuga caroliniana, which although a smaller tree than our northern Hemlock is even more graceful in the droop of its slender branches. This is a tree from which much can -4- be expected. It is very hardy in the Arboretum where it has been growing for thirty years. The largest specimen in the collection will be found in the rear of the Laurels by the side of a walk along the northern base of Hemlock Hill. There are also a number of specimens in the mixed plantation of conifers near the corner of Centre and Walter Streets. All the conifers of the Rocky Mountains are hardy in the Arboretum. The most promising of them are the Douglas Spruce, Pseudotsuga mucronata, and the Engelmann Spruce, Picea Engelmannii. The Douglas Spruce is one of the great trees of the world; it grows to an enormous size; it produces valuable timber, the Oregon Pine of commerce, and it is widely distributed from the shore of the Pacific Ocean over nearly all the mountain ranges of the west as far east as Colorado. A valuable lesson has been learned from this tree. For individuals raised from seeds gathered near the Pacific coast had not been hardy in New England, while plants from Colorado seed are perfectly hardy here, grow rapidly, and promise to become useful ornamental and timber trees. This experience with the Douglas Spruce shows in a striking manner the importance of a careful selection of the seeds of trees, and that in the case of widely distributed trees, like many conifers, the seeds should be gathered from regions most similar in climate to the region where the trees raised from the seeds are to grow. Such careful selection of seeds has been too generally neglected. When, however, its importance is understood it is possible that the area over which many trees can be successfully cultivated will be greatly extended. Engelmann's Spruce in Colorado forms pure forests up to altitudes of 11,000 or 12,000 feet and ranges north into Alberta. It is a narrow pyramidal tree with gray-green foliage and cinnamon-red bark. It is too soon to speak of the value of this tree as a permanent addition to our plantations for it is only fifty years since it was discovered. The trees in the Pinetum of the Arboretum, which are believed to be the best in cultivation, are thirty-two years old. The Colorado White Fir, Abies concolor, is a fast-growing and hardy tree which of all the silver Firs appears to best suited to New England. There are a number of specimens in the Pinetum about thirty years old but, like other silver Firs, they will probably grow less attractive as they grow older. The California form of Abies concolor, the Abies Lowiana of some collections, is hardy here but is a less desirable tree in this climate than the Colorado form. The best known of the Colorado conifers is the so-called Blue Spruce, the Picea pungens of most collections. This has been largely propagated in European and American nurseries and very generally planted. As this tree grows in Colorado, where it is not common, it becomes long before it attains its full size thin, ragged and unsightly. In cultivation the young plants are handsome and symmetrical, but as the cultivated plants grow older they lose their lower branches and much of their beauty, and it is probable that this tree will not much longer retain its popularity. The Rocky Mountain form of the western Yellow Pine, Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum, and the Rocky Mountain White Pine, Pinus flexilis, can be seen in the Pinetum but these are trees which grow slowly and probably will never be large or important trees in this climate. The conifers of central and northern Japan usually do well in New England although only time can tell whether they will ever reach old age here. One of the Silver Firs, Abies brachyphylla, grows particularly well in the Arboretum and, next to Abies concolor, is one of the most promising of the Silver Firs which have been planted in New England. The other Japanese Firs are hardy here but none of them seem likely to attain any great size or age. Several of the Japanese Spruces grow well, and of Picea Alcockiana, Picea bicolor, and Picea Glenhii, better specimens can be seen in New England than in Europe. The Japanese Arbor Vitae, Thuya Standishii, is not a large tree but it is perfectly at home in the Arboretum, as is the curious Umbrella Pine, Sciadopitys verticillata, and the Mountain Hemlock, Tsuga diversifolia. The true Pines of Japan, Pinus Thunbergii, Pinus densiflora, the eastern Asiatic representative of the so-called Scotch Pine of Europe and Siberia, Pinus parviflora and Pinus pentaphylla, are all well established in the Arboretum and produce cones here every year. The different forms of Retinospora, or Cltamaecyparis, can also be seen in the Arboretum where there is a large collection of these plants; they sometimes suffer from our dry summers. Of the continental conifers of eastern Asia the most interesting in the Arboretum are the Korean and Manchurian White Pine, Pinus koraiensis, one of the most valuable timber trees of eastern Asia, and the curious Lacebark Pine of China, Pinus Bungeana. This is a tree often shrubby in habit with thin foliage and chiefly remarkable for the snow-white color of the trunk and branches of old trees, a condition which none of the specimens in this country are yet old enough to show. Two conifers from the Balkan Mountains are hardy in the Arboretum and produce their cones annually. These are a Spruce, Picea omorika, and a White Pine, Pinus peuke. Picea omorika, although it forms great forests on the mountains of southeastern Europe, has been known for a few years only to botanists and some of the oldest plants in cultivation are in the Arboretum where they form narrow, rather compact pyramids and, growing rapidly, promise to be valuable ornamental trees. Its nearest relative is the Spruce of the northwest coast, Picea sitchensis, which is not hardy here. Of the Firs of southeastern Europe and Asia Minor Abies cilicica and Abies cephalonica are perhaps of the most promise in this climate where they are perfectly hardy. The former is a native of the Cilicican Taurus where it grows at a high elevation above the sea-level with the Cedar of Lebanon, here in its most northern and coldest station. A few years ago the Arboretum was fortunate in securing the seeds of the Cedar from this region and the trees raised from these seeds are now well established and promise to be successful here, while plants of this tree derived from Palestine have proved unable to bear the New England climate. The important conifers of the Caucasus, Abies Nordmanniana and Picea orientalis, are hardy here and the latter is a valuable ornamental tree not unlike in general appearance the Red Spruce, Picea rubra, of northeastern North America which grows very slowly and does not take kindly to cultivation. The Spruce, Picea Schrenkiana, which covers with a stunted forest the dry slopes of the mountains of central Asia, is hardy and healthy in the Arboretum, but it will probably never become an important ornamental tree. A more desirable tree here is the Spruce of central Siberia, Picea obovata, which is well established in the Arboretum where it already produces its cones. All the Larches now known, with the exception of the Himalayan species, are growing in the Arboretum, including an interesting hybrid between the European and the Japanese species lately produced in Scotland. As an ornamental tree the eastern North American Larix americana is the most picturesque of all the Larches. The Japanese Larix Kaempferi or leptolepis grows the most rapidly. The largest of the genus is the western American Larix occidentahs, and the least known are Larix chinensis and Larix Potanini. Larix siberica from eastern Siberia and the Altai and Larix dahurica from eastern Siberia are still little known in this country. The Larches are at the western end of the Pinetum just above the Walter Street entrance. Near them is a group of Larch-like trees, Pseudolarix Kaempferi, a Chinese tree with the deciduous leaves of a true Larch and erect cones which fall apart when ripe like those of the Cedars. This interesting, beautiful and hardy tree which for many years was only known in temple gardens, has now been found growing abundantly on the mountains near Ningpo in southern China. It is impossible in the space of one of these bulletins to do more than briefly mention the most important conifers in the Arboretum, where there are now growing all the species with their numerous varieties which it is possible to keep alive here. The world has been pretty thoroughly explored for coniferous plants and the only place left where new trees of this class are likely to occur is western China. On the high mountains which form the Chinese-Tibetan boundary in addition to Firs, Hemlocks and Larches there appear to be more species of Spruce than in all the rest of the world. Seeds of all, or nearly all, of these trees have been obtained by the Arboretum, and the seedlings raised from them are now growing here and, through the agency of the Arboretum, in several American and European gardens. The Taxus Family, Taxaceae, is now usually separated from the Coniferae although the Yews and their allies are generally spoken of as conifers. The most important of this group is, of course, Ginkgo biloba, the last survivor of an ancient race once widespread over the northern hemisphere and now known only from the plants cultivated in Chinese and Japanese gardens and their descendants. This tree is very hardy; it grows rapidly; it lives to a great age; and at maturity it becomes very picturesque with its wide-spreading and drooping branches. It should be planted in this country more generally than it has been for it readily adapts itself to the severe climate of New England. One of the most interesting genera in this Family is Torreya, or as it is sometimes called Tumion, named in honor of a Nestor of North American botanists, and it is fortunate that its Japanese representative, Torreya nucifera, one of the handsomest evergreen trees in Japan, is hardy in this climate. A group of these plants is growing among the Laurels at the base of Hemlock Hill. The type of this genus, Torreya taxifolia, is a native of western Florida and one of the rarest of North American trees. There is a plant of this species near the top of Hemlock Hill where in a very sheltered position it has been growing for a number of years with several other conifers of doubtful hardiness. The European Yew, Taxus baccata, is generally not hardy in New England, although there are a few varieties of this tree growing in the Arboretum. It is fortunate, therefore, that the Japanese and Chinese Yew, Taxus cuspidata, is entirely hardy here. The foliage of this tree is rather lighter in color than that of the European Yew; it grows more rapidly, and there appears no reason why it should not reach a large size and attain a great age in this country. There is a semiprostrate form with darker-colored leaves and long and semierect branches which spread into large masses. This is the variety brevifolia of American gardens. Of all the contributions, and they are many and important, which Japan has made to the gardens of New England these Yews are probably the most valuable. These bulletins will now be discontinued until the spring. An illustrated guide to the Arboretum containing a map showing the position of the different groups of plants has recently been published. It will be found useful to persons unfamiliar with the position of the different groups of plants. Copies of this guide can be obtained at the Administration Building in the Arboretum, from the Secretary of the Massa- chusetts Horticultural Society, 300 Massachusetts Avenue, Boston, from The Houghton, Mifflin Company, 4 Park Street, Boston, and at the Old Corner Bookstore, Bromfield Street, Boston. The Arboretum will be grateful for any publicity given these Bulletins."},{"arnoldia_cover":true,"has_event_date":0,"type":"bulletin","url":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/action\/directLinkImage?assetId=23287","featured_photo":"https:\/\/assetbank.arboretum.harvard.edu\/assetbank-aahu\/servlet\/display?file=b34509f9dca8d1708527.jpg","title":"1911-1","volume":null,"issue_number":null,"year":1911,"series":1,"season":null}]